Full text of "The points of the horse : a familiar treatise on equine conformation"

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THE UNIVERSITY
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MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

THE

POINTS OF THE HORSE.

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THE

POINTS OF THE HORSE

A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON EQUINE
CONFORMATION.

M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S.,

Late Captain The Buffs?

AUTHOR OF "VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE OWNERS,"

"RIDING: ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY,"

"ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING," ETC.

ILLUSTRATED BY

77 REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS, AND 205 DRAWINGS
CHIEFLY BY J. H. OSWALD BROWN.

LONDON:

W. TRACKER AND Co., 87, NEWGATE STREET.

CALCUTTA: TRACKER, SPINK AND CO.

BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO., LIMITED.

I8 93 .

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

lo
GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S.,

AS A MARK OF RESPECT

FOR THE BRILLIANT AND USEFUL WORK HE HAS DONE
IN MANY FIELDS OF HORSE KNOWLEDGE.

PREFACE.

MUCH as Englishmen pride themselves on being good
" judges" of a horse, the fact remains that exact ideas on the
important subject of Conformation are current neither in the
traditions of our " horsey " people, nor in our literature. The
few English authors who have written on it, have done so
in a fragmentary manner, and have contented themselves
for the most part with laying down rule-of-thumb maxims
for the blind acceptance of their readers. The French, on
the contrary, have written on ?cxt6rieur> several elaborate
books upon which they have expended an amount of scientific
knowledge that does them infinite credit. It must be ad-
mitted that although they have proved themselves, in this
respect, much superior in scientific research to our country-
men ; their works seem to show that their experience has
been gained more in the study and dissecting room, than in
the stable and in the field. Both classes of authors, I venture
to submit, have erred in trying to make general rules suitable
to all kinds of horses, instead of pointing out that the standard
of shape should, to a great extent, vary according to the work
demanded. I may mention that illustrations of horses or of
special " points " of these animals drawn without the aid of
photography, having a bias difficult to be repressed, render

viii PREFACE.

the ideas of the artist more accurately than they portray the
realities of nature.

In the attempt to conform to the requirements of truth,
I have, as far as practicable, relied on photography for
illustration. This art not alone gives exact representations
with marvellous minuteness of detail, but has completed the
solution (begun by Professor Marey) of the once vexed
question of the action of the horse's limbs during the various
forms of movement, and has accordingly afforded us, in our
present study, data which are as instructive as they are
reliable. As I have written this book for non-scientific
readers, as well as for those who desire to thoroughly master
the subject ; I have placed in small print the few chapters
which I have devoted to the anatomical and mechanical
details which were necessary to render the work complete.
A perusal of the large print chapters will give a good general
view of the practical side of the subject, and, in most cases,
the reasons for the opinions advanced. The information
contained in the small print ones is, however, indispensable for
the full comprehension of all the principles discussed, and as
it is of a very elementary character, I trust it will not be
neglected. We must here remember that the horse is a
living machine, the capabilities of which cannot be accurately
gauged, without a knowledge of its construction, and of the
principles of its working. Having treated on Soundness and
Age of Horses in another book, I have omitted these subjects
entirely from the present one. I must, however, state that as
they are directly connected with the question of a horse
"standing" work, it is impossible to judge his capabilities
with a near approach to correctness, without a knowledge of
veterinary science.

PREFACE.

Besides the new features in this book to which I have
already drawn notice, I may mention that I have tried to
arrive at a knowledge of the respective " points " of speed and
strength in the horse, by examining the conformation of other
animals that are distinguished by the possession of one or
other of these "gifts " in a high state of perfection. Also, I
have made a more exhaustive inquiry into the nature of the
paces and of the leap of the horse than has previously been
attempted ; my object being to obtain from it exact deduc-
tions as to the best kind of conformation for various forms
of work.

At the suggestion of my friend, Veterinary Colonel Ander-
son, I began, about fifteen years ago, to write a book on
the Points of the Horse, which subject I resolved to treat
according to the time-honoured methods of my literary
predecessors. I worked at it while studying to become
a veterinary surgeon, and after that at Newmarket, where
I went to reside in order to increase my knowledge of English
thoroughbreds. For this, every facility was given me by my
kind friends, Mr. John Hammond, Edwin Martin, Jarvis,
Tom. Jennings, Junr., Alf. Sadler, R. Sherwood, and others,
who were always glad to show me their horses, and discuss
their various points. When the book was completed in 1883,
I despatched the manuscript to my publishers by the hand of
a friend, who, by an extraordinary piece of good luck, lost it
so effectually that I have not seen it since. While suffering
from the shock caused by the loss of the results of seven
years' toil, I happened to read Professor Marey's Machine
Animate (Animal Mechanics), and before I got half through
it, I grasped the fact that I had been working in an entirely
wrong groove, and that my careless friend had, most for-

PREFACE.

tunately, saved me from publishing a book which would not
have satisfied my more matured judgment. In 1884 I gave
in London a short course of private lectures on the conforma-
tion of the horse, to some of the best known English artists.
While endeavouring to convey instruction, I found great help
from the use of a few photographs I had by me as illustrations,
and accordingly determined to learn photography, and to
utilise it in the preparation of the new book on the "shape
and make " of horses which I had already begun, though on
different " lines" to those on which the lost volume had been
completed. On the following year I went abroad on a horse-
breaking tour, and have spent the eight years which have elapsed
since then, in hard practical work (breaking, training for
racing and chasing, and horse dealing) among horses in India,
Burma, Ceylon, China, Japan, Egypt, South Africa, England
and elsewhere. The facilities afforded by such an active and
public life have enabled me to procure for this book a number
of illustrations which it would have been impossible for me to
have obtained under less favourable circumstances. No one
who has not made the attempt oneself, can form an idea of the
difficulty there often is in getting horses which have the
required " points " (bad or good). For instance, I once
examined 600 horses belonging to a dealer, and only obtained
one specimen for my camera. Another time, a search through
the troopers of two cavalry regiments was fruitless of results.
For the photographs in this book, I have " run my eye " over
certainly more than 10,000 horses ! From this statement my
readers will be able to form some idea of the extreme kindness
and forbearance with which I have been treated by my horse-
owning friends. Having obtained an animal with a re-
quired " point," the next thing to do was to photograph

PREFACE.

him, which frequently involved the expenditure of much
time and trouble on account of the special character of
the work.

Among the gentlemen to whom I am indebted for having
granted me permission to have their horses photographed, I
have the honour to number : His Grace the Duke of West-
minster, Colonel Anderson, Captain Woolmer, Captain Mow-
bray of the Black Watch, Mr. W. H. Walker, Mr. A. A.
Apcar, Mr. Tom. Jennings, junr., Mr. Spooner Hart, Messrs.
Milton and Co., Messrs. Ralli and Co. of Sydney and
Calcutta, Messrs. Cook and Co., Mr. Oscar Dignam, Mr
E. Gregory, Mr. Vansittart, Mr. Steve Margarett of Mel
bourne, Mr. John Stevens of New Zealand, and Colonel Simp-
son. I am greatly obliged to Mr. Frank Haes, Major Nott,
and Mr. Dixon, 112 Albany Street, N.W., for the negatives
they have lent me ; to Sir William Flower for allowing me to
take photographs of Figs. 187, 188 and 189, in the South
Kensington Museum ; to Professor C. Stewart for similar
permission with respect to Figs. 185, 190, 197 and 201, in
the Museum of the R.C.S. ; and to the Zoological Society
for the loan of Figs. 181, 182 and 183. The action shown in
the figures of the paces and of the leap has been adopted
from the admirable photographs done by Mr. E. Muybridge,
and published in \ti& Animal Locomotion ; although the artistic
" treatment" of the horses is original. This matchless
American work is solely a collection of photographs, and does
not contain any analysis of the movements of the horse. I
may also mention that the photographs of Anschlitz, on the
same subject, are excellent.

In order to facilitate comparison, I have tried, as far as I
have been able, to get the portraits of the horses, asses and

xii PREFACE.

zebras which are in this book, done to a uniform scale,
namely, i to 20. I have added an index, which I have tried
to make as easy of reference and as exhaustive as possible.

While strictly confining myself to the limits which bound
the subject of Equine Conformation, I have had, while writing
this book, the fortunate opportunity of throwing light on many
points of horse knowledge which I have been, hitherto, unable
to discuss in print. I therefore hope that the appearance of
this work will help to complete what I have already written,
in my books, on veterinary science, riding, breaking, training
and stable management ; and that they and it will now form
a useful horseman's library.

Without the skilful aid and kindly sympathy of the late
Mr. J. H. Oswald Brown, I would not have been able to
have finished this book, even in its present imperfect form.
Since the year 1884 we laboured together on this subject.
The pleasure in knowing that the work, after innumerable
corrections and revisions, is at last done, has lost more than
half its charm, from the fact that I cannot share it with him.
He had finished the most of the illustrations before his sad
and untimely death last autumn. The sketches which he left
were completed by Mr. Frank Hobden, to whom I tender
my best thanks.

JUNIOR ARMY AND NAVY CLUB,

ST. JAMES'S STREET, S.W.

May, 1893.

INTRODUCTION.

THE subject of Conformation has been so little studied from
an exact point of view, that in default of sound reasons based
on a knowledge of anatomy and mechanics, and tested by
practical experience, a number of horsey maxims and ex-
pressions have been adopted by many people, as un-
questionable authority for the soundness of the opinions they
advance. Take, for instance, the descriptive terms, " long
and low," and " good to follow," which we frequently hear
applied in indiscriminate approval to draught animals and
race-horses, and which, if suitable for one class, must
necessarily be incorrect for the other. Some men who have
had experience with horses, but who recognise the fact of
their own ignorance, get out of the difficulty of appearing less
learned than their fellows by boldly declaring, with reference
to racers, that "horses run in all shapes " a remark which
has passed almost into an adage. Throughout the animal
kingdom, we may see that the possession of speed or
strength is associated with certain peculiarities of shape
which can be readily recognised by an instructed observer.
In this respect, the horse is no exception. He, like other
animals that have the power of moving from one place to
another, is a locomotive machine, which is constructed

xiv INTRODUCTION.

according to principles that may be studied with a fair
amount of accuracy and with much profit. The value of our
investigations in this direction is, however, limited by two
restrictions. First : we cannot, except to a small extent,
examine the interior of our machine a fact which is not of
much moment if we be afforded an opportunity of testing its
working powers. Second : we can, from inspection, tell
little or nothing of the agency which directs its movements,
and which is known as its nervous system. Thus, a race-
horse may be of the most fashionable blood, be sound in
wind and limb, "fit as hands can make him," be possessed of
every galloping and staying " point" ; and, yet, if we be rash
enough to predict his success on the turf, he may falsify our
too hastily expressed judgment by ''refusing to try a yard,"
the moment the starter's flag falls. Our carefully selected
hunter may persist in running out at the smallest obstacle,
and our chosen cart-horse may jib on meeting the first incline
which requires him to throw his weight into the collar. I
may, therefore, state that the study of Conformation will not
enable us to predict absolutely that a certain horse will
perform, with credit to himself, the work for which he is
intended. It can only permit us to say that an animal
possessing the necessary "points" will, in the majority of
cases, fulfil the expectation formed of him. It does, how-
ever, provide us with an unerring guide in deciding that
certain horses are not suitable for certain kinds of work.

In the study of Conformation, particular points should
be rarely taken separately ; for a defect in one is frequently
compensated by special excellence in another.

Also, on the principle that the strength of a chain is equal
only to that of its weakest link, we must remember that

INTRODUCTION. xv

uncompensated inability in any one particular respect may
render a horse altogether unfit for the purpose for which he
was intended. We may, therefore, see that to make and
combine the investigations necessary for forming a sound
judgment respecting a horse's capabilities, requires no small
amount of special knowledge and reasoning power. Al-
though we cannot claim that Conformation is an exact science ;
we may be assured that it offers practical advantages which
will well repay the time and trouble necessary for its
acquisition.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION.

I'AGE

Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength Comparative Conformation

Marey's Law ...... 1-5

CHAPTER II.

STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

Bones Cartilage Muscles and Tendons Ligaments Connective

Tissue Nervous System ....... 6-17

CHAPTER III.

NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.-

Head Neck Breast and Chest Shoulders Withers Elbow Fore-
arm Knee Cannon Fetlock Pastern Hoof Back Loins-
Ribs Flank Belly Brisket Croup Thigh Gaskin Hock-
Dock Height of a Horse Length of the Body of a Horse Depth
of Chest at Withers Depth of Body Height at Croup . 18-28

CHAPTER IV.

SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

Definitions Bones Joints and Ligaments Muscles Heart and Lungs

Nervous System of the Horse ..... 29-44

CHAPTER V.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING 45-48

xviii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY.

PAGE

Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs Centre of

Gravity ......... 49-51

CHAPTER VII.

LEVERS.

Definition First Order Second Order Third Order Relations be-
tween the Power and Weight in Levers Comparisons between
Power and Weight in Muscular Levers Directions in which the
Power and Weight respectively Act . .... 52-56

CHAPTER VIII.

MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

Displacement of the Centre of Gravity Manner in which Propulsion is
effected by the Limbs Direction of Propulsion and Distance
through which the Centre of Gravity of the Body is moved Com-
parative Speed in the Action of the Limbs Action of the Muscles
which extend the Vertebrae Width between each respective Pair
of Legs as affecting Speed Effect of Insecurity of Equilibrium on
Speed Fatigue from the various Paces Action of the Head and
Neck in Locomotion Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint Mechanism
of the Hock Joint . ....... 57~7

CHAPTER IX.

MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT . . . . . . 71-74

CHAPTER X.

ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

Standing at Attention Standing Collectedly Standing at Ease

Carriage of the Head and Neck ..... 75-87

CHAPTER XI.

STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE.

Lying Down and Getting Up Rearing Kicking The Piafter . 88-94

CONTENTS. xix

CHAPTER XII.

PACES OF THE HORSE.

PAGE

Definitions The Trot The Amble The Walk The Canter The
Gallop The Passage The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot The
Rein Back Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces . 95-124

CHAPTER XIII.

LEAPING.

Definition of the Leap Varieties of the Leap Manner in which the
Horse Takes-off in the Running Leap Difference between the
Horse's Leap and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or
Gallop Period of Stride at which the Take-off is effected Effect
of Pace and Speed on the Leap Taking-off and Clearing a Fence
Landing over a Jump Influence of Blood in Jumping The
Standing Leap ........ 125141

CHAPTER XIV.
NOTATION OF THE PACES OF HORSES ..... 142-146

CHAPTER XV.

COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

General Remarks Limit of Height Length of Limb Length and
Depth of Body Thickness of Limb Comparative Length of Fore
and Hind Limbs Length of Neck Length of Head Width be-
tween the Legs Comparative Weight of Body Comparative
Length of the Bones of the Limbs Differences of Conformation
between the two Sexes ....... 147-163

CHAPTER XVI.

HEAD AND NECK.

Size of Head Leanness of Head Profile of Face Front View of
Face Size of Brain Top of the Head Ears Eyes Hollows
above the Eyes Nostrils Lips Lower Jaw Setting-on of the
Head Neck Throat 164-185

b 2

xx CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE TRUNK.

PAGE

General View of the Trunk Chest and Ribs Abdomen Withers
Breast Back and Loins Points of the Hips Flank Croup
Anus Tail , . . . . . . 186-205

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE FORE LIMB.

General View of the Fore Limb Chief Duties of the Fore Limb The
Shoulder Humerus Elbow Fore-arm Knee Cannon Fet-
lock Pastern Hoof . . . . . . 206-229

CHAPTER XIX.

THE HIND LIMB.

General View of the Hind Limb The Pelvis Thigh and Stifle Tibia

Hock Cannon and Fetlock Pastern and Hoof . . 230-239

CHAPTER XX.

SKIN, COLOUR, AND HAIR.

Skin Colour Colour in Relation to Heat and Cold Hair Hair on

the Legs of Cart-horses Markings . . . . . 240-248

CHAPTER XXI.

ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS . . . . . 249-254

CHAPTER XXII.
CONDITION AND GOOD LOOKS . . . . .' . 255-261

CHAPTER XXIII.
WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER . . , . 262-264

CHAPTER XXIV.

BLOOD, SYMMETRY, AND COMPENSATIONS .... 265-269

CONTENTS. xxi

CHAPTER XXV.

SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES.

PACK

The Race-horse The Racing Pony The Jumper The Heavy Cart-
horseThe Harness-horse The Hack The Lady's Horse The
Cavalry Trooper The Officer's Charger The Artillery Horse
The Polo Pony ... . . . . . 270-276

CHAPTER XXVI.

REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

English and Irish Horses Australasian Horses South African Horses-
South American Horses Arab Horses East Indian Horses
Burma and Manipuri Ponies Sumatra and Java Ponies Mongolian
Ponies Corean Ponies Japanese Ponies . . . 277290

CHAPTER XXVII.

EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

Ormonde St. Simon Stepaside Chance Pony Mare Magistrate
Heavy-crested Arab The Brat Burma Pony Cob Kathiawar
Romance Underbred Horse Mike Dorothy Pony Hannah
Favonius Thoroughbred Weed Blue Ribbon Diophantus
Caractacus Iceland Pony Shetland Pony Bravo Minden
Cremorne ......... 291300

CHAPTER XXVIII.

WILD HORSES.

Wild Horses in Australia and America Tarpans Prejevalsky's Horse

301-302

CHAPTER XXIX.

ASSES.

Differences between the Ass and Horse Hybrids between the Horse
and Ass Varieties of Asses The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild
Ass The Onager The Kiang The Mountain Zebra Burchell's
Zebra Chapman's Zebra Grevy's Zebra The Quagga Points
of the Ass ......... 303-317

xxii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXX.

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

PAGE

Ancestry of the Horse Immediate Ancestors of the Horse Conditions
which modified the Form of the Horse Points of Speed and
Strength in the Fossil Horse The Horse of the Future. . 318-341

CHAPTER XXXI.
PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES . . . . . . . 342-344

CHAPTER XXXII.

PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE . ; . . . . . 345-348

CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE PAINTER'S HORSE . . . . . . 349-358

INDEX ... 359-378

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . .... . 379

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS.

The Duke of Westminster's Ormonde ..... Frontispiece

Plate i. Black Buck ...... faring PAGE 2

2. Cheetah ....... 2

3. The Indian Buffalo ..... 4

4. Rhinoceros. . . . . . ... ,, 6

,, 5. The Indian Trotting Bullock . . . . .. ,,

6. Heavy-draught Indian Bull .... 10

7. The Duke of Portland's St. Simon . . ... 62

8. An Indian Ecka and Pony . . . ,, 74

9. Well-shaped Legs (Front View) . . ,, 76

10. Turned-out Toes . 76

ii. Turned-in Toes . ' . ,, 76

12. Well-shaped Hind Legs (Rear View) . 76

13. Upright Pasterns. . . . ,, 76

14. Turned-in Hocks (Rear View) . . 76

., 15. Mr. Gregory's Irish Hunter, Stepaside . . ., ,, 78

., 16. Hurdle Racer " Taking-off" 140

,, 17. The Indian Lynx . . . . ,, 140

18. The Duke of Portland's St. Simon . . ,, 152

19. Mr. E. Cole's Champion Shire Mare, Chance . .. 154

20. Pony Mare, very low in Front . . . .. ,, 160

21. Prominent Forehead . . . . . ,, 168

,, 22. Broad Forehead . . . . . ,, 168

27. Under-bred Head 168

xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRA TIONS.

Plate 24. Well-bred Head ...... facing PAGE 170

25. Under-bred Head . . . . . ., 170

26. High Occipital Crest . . . . 170

27. Turned -in Ears . . . . . 170

28. Mr. Dignum's Arab Pony, Magistrate . . 180

29. The Mountain Zebra . . . . 182

30. Heavy-crested Arab 184

31. Colonel Anderson's Arab Pony, The Brat . 186

32. Burma Pony . . . . . .,,,,188

33. English Cob Pony . . 190

34. Kathiawar Mare . . . . . . 192

35. Mr. Vansittart's Australian Horse, Romance . 194

36. Under-bred Horse ..... 200

37. Burchell's Zebra ...... ,, 202

38. Colonel Simpson's English Pony, Mike . 204

39. Mr. W. H. Walker's English Pony, Dorothy . 206

40. Good Fore-legs of Common Horse . . . 218

41. Well-bred Horse . . 218

42. Clean Fore-legs . . . ... 218

43. Sloping Pasterns . . . . 220

44. Tied-in below Knee . . . . . 220

45. Calf Knees. . . 220

46. Over at Knees . . . . . 220

47. Tied-in below Knee . , . . 220

48. Pony with Weak Gaskins and Upright Shoulders 234

49. Sickle Hocks . . 236

50. Tied-in below Hock . . . , . 236

51. Straight and Good Hocks . . . ,, 236

52. Good Hocks . . . . . 236

53- ..... 236

54. Baron Rothschild's Hannah . . . . ,, 256

55. Favonius . ." . ' 260

56. Thoroughbred Weed . ... . 268

57. Mr. Muir's Blue Ribbon . . . . 272

58. Lord Stamford's Diophantus . . . . ,, 274

59. Mr. Snewing's Caractacus . . . . 276

,, 60. Iceland Pony . . . . . ,,278

61. Shetland Pony ......,, 278

62. Mr. A. A. Apear's Bravo . . . 282

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate 63. Captain Woolmer's East Indian Horse, Minden facing PAGE 286

64. Mr. H. Savile's Cremorne . . . 292

65. The Abyssinian Ass . . . . 308

66. The Onager . ... 310

67. The Kiang. . . 312

68. The Quagga 316

69. Wall-jumping at Dublin Horse Show, 1892 . last page

Halftone blocks. Figs. 185, 187, 188, 189, 191, 197, 201, and tail-piece.

LINE DRAWINGS, ETC.

PAGE

Fig. T. External parts of Horse . . . . . . -19

2. Measurements of Horse . . . . . . .27

3. Skeleton of Horse ........ 30

4. Internal organs of Horse ....... 45

5. Position of Centre of Gravity . . . . . -5

6. First Order of Lever . . . . . . .52

7- Second 53

8. Third .53

9. Lever of First Order with directions of Power and Weight

oblique to each other . . . . . . 55

10 to 12. Displacement of Centre of Gravity by Man when Walking 58
131014. Shove-off from Side of Swimming Bath . . -59
15 to 17. Forward Propulsion of Man when Running . . . 59
18 to 21. in Standing Leap . . 59

22 to 26. Running High Leap of Man ..... 60

27. Angle of Projection of Centre of Gravity . . . .61

28. Lateral Displacement of Body ...... 66

29. Mechanism of Fetlock Joint ...... 69

30 to 32 Levers of the Hock ....... 70

33. Mechanism of Draught . . . . . . -72

34. Le Placer . . . . . . . . -76

35. Standing at Attention . . . . . . -77

36. Collectedly 78

xxvi LIST OF ILLUSTRA TIONS.

Fig. 37. Rearing . . 9

38. Kicking .... . 92

391042. Ordinaiy Trot ..... . . 97

43 to 47. Fast or Flying Trot. . . . . 98

481052. Fast or Flying Amble . . . . . . 101

55 53 to 60. Ordinary Walk . . . . 103 and 104

6 1 to 66. Long Striding Walk . . . . ..-.- , 105

55 67 to 73. Short Stepping Walk in Draught . . 106 and 107

74 to 80. Canter of Heavy Horse .... 1 08 and 109

8 1 to 89. Canter or Hand Gallop of Light Horse . no and in

90 to 105. Fast Gallop . . . . . . 113, 114 and 115

106. The Passage . ... . . 117

107. The Spanish Trot . 118

1 08. Foot-prints in Ordinary Walk . . . . . .122

109. Long Striding Walk . . . . .122

no. Short Trot . B : 122

TIT. Slow Trot '..... . . . 122

112. Fast Trot . .... . . . 123

113. Slow Amble . B . . . . 123

114- 55 55 55 Canter . .123

115- Fast Gallop . .123

116 to 1 1 8. "Take-off" of Leap . . 126

ngto 125. Gallop of the Greyhound . . . . 127

12610 131. Cat . . . . . . 128

13210137. Heavy Dog . . 128

13810151. The Horse's Leap . . . . . 129-131

,, 15210153. Landing over a Jump . . . . . . 136

154 and 155. Notation of Run of Man . . . . . 143

156. Notation of Walk of Man . . . . ' . ,, . 143

157. Typical Slow Trot . . . .... 143

158. Ordinary Slow Trot . .. 143

159. Fast Trot. . . . 144

160. ,, Typical Slow Amble . . . . . 144

5, 161. Flying . 144

162. Typical Walk . . . :. . 144

163. ., ,, Ordinary Walk . . . . . > 144

164. Slow Walk in Draught ..... 145

165. ,, ,, Typical Canter . . . . . .145

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxvii

PAGE

Fig.

166.

Notation of Canter of Heavy Horse ...

145

167.

Fast . ....

145

1 68.

The Gallop

145

169.

The Leap

146

170.

Camel

151

171.

Captain Mowbray's Pony Mare, Skittles ...

159

172.

M. Lefevre's Tristan

169

173-

Coffin Shape of Head . . .

171

174 and 175. Curves of different Convexity ....

188

176 to 178. Diagrams Showing Different Degrees of Expansion of

Chest

189

179.

Captain Beddy's Arab Pony, Blitz .....

285

1 80.

The China Pony, Teen Kwang

289

181.

The Grevy or Somali-land Zebra .....

314

182.

Skin of the Somali-land Zebra ......

315

183.

Burchell's Zebra

315

184.

Abnormal Fore Foot of Horse .....

321

185.

Front Foot of Pig ........

322

186.

Hipparion Gracile . . . . . ...

323

187.

Left Fore Foot of Hipparion Gracile ....

324

188.

11 11 55 55 ......

324

189.

Right Hind Leg ......

324

190.

Left Fore Foot of

325

191.

Horse .

325

192.

55 55 55

326

193-

Anchitherium .....

327

194.

Fore Foot of Paloplotherium .

328

195-

Left Front Foot of Orohippus Agilis

328

196.

Hyracotherium ........

330

197.

Fore Foot of Rhinoceros ...

33 1

198.

Left Front Foot of Acerotherium ....

33 1

199.

,, Brontotherium .....

332

200.

Left Hind Foot of ...

332

201.

Phenacodus Primaevus .....

333

202.

Foot of Steinbok ...

337

20 3 .

Cannon-bones of Hipparion .

339

204.

Proportions of Horse

346

205.

Louis XV

349

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Fig. 206. Horse by Alken ........ 350

207. Horse and I Rider in the Parthenon . . . 351

208. Napole'on i er - . . . . . . . .3152

209. "1814" ....... . 353

210. Horses by GeVicault . . . . . .

211. Marengo . .

212. Horse leaping by Alken . . . . .

THE

POINTS OF THE HORSE.

CHAPTER I.

FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION.

Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength Comparative Conformation
Marey's Law.

Animals of Speed and Animals of Strength.-

When we speak of the conformation of a horse, we refer to
the adaptability of his body for general or special work. We
all know, without the aid of science to tell us, that a light-
boned thoroughbred would be as unsuitable to carry a
fifteen-stone man, as a thick-set cob would be to win a five-
furlong race. The "weed" would not fail, necessarily, from
deficiency in weight of bone and muscle ; for there are
many ponies of thirteen hands or under, which would weigh
no more than the slender T. Y. C. performer, and yet could
bear the welter burden through a long day's journey, with
ease to themselves and comfort to their rider. The failure
to carry weight in the one case, and the inability to display
a high degree of speed in the other, would obviously be due

FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORM A TION.

(in the absence of any particular defect) to the fact of the
conformation of the animal not being suitable to the kind of
work to which he was put. In our study of the " make and
shape " of horses, we may profitably begin by taking a
comparative view of animals of great speed and those of
immense strength, so as to arrive at a knowledge of the
principles by which their special characteristics are developed
to a high degree of excellence. As the conformation best
adapted for the one is different from that for the other, we
cannot find both united in the same animal. I need hardly
say that the manner in which the proportions of speed and
strength are varied in each particular horse, is the measure
of the suitability of the animal to the kind of work it is called
upon to perform. Thus, a dray-horse which can trot a mile
in eight minutes with 3,000 Ibs. behind it, may be quite as
useful, in its own way, as a match-trotter which, with a sulky
and driver weighing together 200 Ibs., can do a mile in two
minutes twenty seconds.

Comparative Conformation. In this proposed re-
search, we shall find that the two classes (those of speed
and those of strength) to which I have just alluded, differ
essentially in shape from each other, and that individuals of
each respective class have a similar kind of conformation.
As an example of the gallopers, let us take the Indian black
buck (see PI. i), which, for half a mile, could give five
hands and a beating to the fastest horse that ever looked
through a bridle. Then there is the cheetah (see PL 2),
which can give the antelope 100 yards start and catch him in
a furlong. It is true that the spotted cat effects his purpose
a good deal by surprise but it is equally certain that for a

PLATE 2 CHEETAH.

SPEED AND STRENGTH.

couple of hundred yards he can travel with the velocity of
an express train. Also, there is the greyhound, with whose
speed we are all familiar. In comparison with these fleet
of foot animals, let us note the " make and shape " of the
buffalo (see PL 3) and rhinoceros (see PL 4), both of which
are endowed with vast muscular power. And as the opposite
of the "long-tailed dog," let us take the bulldog or dachs-
hund. On examining these animals we shall observe that
the limbs (especially the hind ones, from which is derived
the greater part of the forward propulsion) of the gallopers
are much longer in proportion to the animal's height than
those of the representatives of strength. We see this fact
best illustrated when we compare individuals of the same
species, like the greyhound and bulldog. We also obtain
good examples among horned cattle, in the Indian trotting
bullock (see PL 5), and the Indian heavy draught bull (see
PL 6), whose sex is indicated by the large size of his hump.
Special length of hind limb is well shown in the hare and in
the lynx (see PL 17), both of which are animals of great
speed. As it is not the custom to breed men with reference
to their physical development, we do not find the difference
in question so well marked in them as in the lower animals.
Yet, for all that, we may note among " sprinters " and
wrestlers the working of this principle. I may explain that
the muscles of the limbs of the horse, ox, buffalo and antelope
do not, practically, extend below the knees and hocks (being
continued by tendons from these joints) ; but in the dog and
cat tribe, they go down to the foot.

From the examples cited of animals of great strength and
those of high speed, we may conclude that the former are
distinguished by a long body and short legs ; and the latter,

B 2

FIRST PRINCIPLES OF CONFORMATION.

by a short trunk and long extremities. I am here assuming
that the length of the body is taken comparatively with
that of the legs, and without reference to the proportions
of the body itself.

We may also observe from the photographs before us,
that the limbs of speedy quadrupeds are proportionately as
slender as they are long, and that those exhibiting strength
are as thick as they are short.

I may explain that muscles are the active and essential
part of the machinery used by animals in locomotion, bones
being merely passive agents. In fact, there are myriads of
the lower animals which move about with considerable
speed by means of their muscles, but which have no bones
of any kind.

Marey's Law. The foregoing observations will prepare
us for the law cited by Professor Marey in La Machine
Animate, which states that muscles of speed are long and
slender, and those of strength are short and thick. This
distinguished Frenchman gives as instances the long breast-
bones of birds such as the snipe and partridge which can
move their wings with great rapidity, and the short ones of
hovering birds -such as the eagle and albatross which can
overcome the immense resistance of the air upon which the
large area of their pinions presses, only with slow, but very
powerful strokes. The expanse of the outspread wings of
birds of quick stroke such as wild pigeon and partridge is
of far less comparative size than is that of those of hovering
birds. The relative speed with which these birds can cleave
the air does not, of course, affect the question of the form
and action of their muscles.

MAREY'S LAW. 5

I may remark that the foregoing principles govern the
information of horses as closely as they do that of other
inimals. I shall, however, defer their application to horses
;ill further on, when we shall have acquired a certain amount
}f exact knowledge of the physical conditions of the horse,
kvhich will greatly aid us in drawing accurate conclusions as
:o his -'shape and make."

STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

CHAPTER II.

STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

Bones Cartilage Muscles and Tendons Ligaments Connective Tissue
The Nervous System.

THE frame-work of the body consists of the skeleton (see
Fig. 3), which is composed of a large number of connected
bones that are moved by muscles. In considering the
general conformation of the horse with respect tp the purpose
for which he may be suitable, we should, generally, regard
difference of length in his various parts, as those of muscles,
rather than of bones ; for the former are the producers of all
movements of progression, the latter aiding only in the
application of the force exerted.

Bones. The chief duties of bones in the act of pro-
gression are (i) to bear weight ; (2) to resist the effects of
concussion ; and (3) to act as levers. Capability for per-
forming (i) and (2) is dependent on conditions of texture
(" quality" ), size (" substance"), and arrangement.

Quality and substance of bone. Whether the animal be
intended to carry heavy burdens, or to gallop over hard
ground, it is always a matter of the greatest importance
that his bones, especially those below his knees and hocks,

BONES.

should be of strong and compact texture. It has been
customary to state, in a vague way, that the bones of Arab
horses and English thoroughbreds are denser than those of
other breeds. It would, however, be more exact to say that
the drier the soil on which a horse has been bred and
brought up, and the "harder" the food upon which he has
been fed, the better will be the quality of his bone ; for we
find that in dry, hot climates in the East, native ponies, which
can have little or no admixture of Arab blood, have legs as
clean and hard as any that are to be met with in the Desert.
We need not test our theories on this subject by the micro-
scope, or by determining the specific gravity of various
sections of bone taken from different animals ; for we can
obtain a far more reliable and practical proof from the fact
that, other things being equal, the more porous are bones,
the more liable are they to bony deposits, such as splints,
spavins, and ringbones. I here purposely omit to add " sore
shins ; " for this disease is almost peculiar to immature
thoroughbreds that are put into training at an age much
earlier than that at which ordinary horses are broken. The
nature of a horse's hoofs, which can alw r ays be determined
by inspection, or by using the "drawing knife," will generally
afford us a safe guide by which to judge of the quality of his
bone. Thus we find that animals which have been reared
amid damp surroundings and on soft food, will, as a rule, be
prone to bony enlargements, and will have flat feet of soft
horn. We cannot fail to notice this if we compare the horses
of the English fen counties with those bred on high, dry land.
In Australia we see the same difference between the horses
of the damp Swan River Settlement, and those of the
comparatively dry climate of New South Wales ; in India,

STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

between the stock raised in the arid plains of the Punjab and
Deccan, and those of swampy Lower Bengal. Hence, if,
when judging an animal about the history of which we know
nothing, and which does not appear to have undergone
enough work to test the soundness of his legs, we find that
he has weak, flat hoofs, we shall not err, in the large
majority of cases, by concluding that his bone is of inferior
quality. I may add, as regards climate, that although dryness
is always a favourable condition for horses, the effect of
excessive heat apparently is to diminish the size of the bone
of the indigenous animals : a circumstance which may, to a
great extent, -account for the fact that horses bred in tropical
climates, however hardy and wiry they may be, are very
rarely of a weight-carrying type, like those met with in
temperate countries.

What is popularly called "want of bone" seriously
detracts from the usefulness of an animal, whatever its work
may be, as it implies deficiency of muscular development ; for
muscles, I may say, cannot act properly unless they have a
sufficient surface of bone on which to attach themselves. It
would, however, be more correct to state that we cannot
have large bones without large muscles ; for the size and
development of a bone is directly dependent on the condition
and state of activity of the muscles connected with it. This
follows from the fact that a bone, like all other parts of the
animal system, in order to be strong, requires a plentiful
supply of blood for its nourishment, the circulation being
quickened by exercise, which can alone be obtained by
muscular action. As pointed out by Professor Marey, in
cases of paralysis of a limb, the bones of the part become
wasted on account of the loss of function of the muscles. In

ST. GATIEN.

making practical observations on horses, we may often be
greatly assisted in our investigations by judging of the
muscles by the bones, and vice versa. Thus, if we see an
animal in poor condition which has been brought on by hard-
ship or want of food, we may, by the appearance of his
" bone," form a good idea of what his muscles will be when he
" fills out." Even when a horse is "fit and well," a display of
large, well-shaped bone (of the body as well as of the limbs)
should dispose us to consider that his muscles are more
powerful than they appear at first glance. I was much struck
with this fact on the first occasion I had an opportunity of
closely inspecting the celebrated St. Gatien, whom Mr. John
Hammond very kindly showed me in his box, some time
before he ran his dead heat with Harvester for the Derby of
1884; for I was greatly "taken" with the sight of the
large, symmetrically formed bones of his legs, his long
back ribs, and his well-developed pelvis, the inner angle of
which was so prominent as to make a distinct " rise " in the
outline of his croup ; not to mention his long, sloping
shoulders, and immense gaskins. On the other hand, if we
observe that an animal which is in " dealer's condition " is
light of bone, we may, as a rule, conclude that there is not
very much muscle in the load of flesh which he carries.
Among sound, good horses, " Mr. Morton's " well-known
handicap winner, Dalmeny, was one of the lightest below the
knee I have ever seen ; but no exception could have been
taken to him on that account, for his shape was particularly
true and level, and his muscles were of the long slender
type which is generally characteristic of the possession of
speed. I need hardly say that the bones and muscles of the
limbs are not always in keeping with those of the body ;

10 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

for we daily see instances of animals that are too heavily
" topped" for their legs, like the one in PI. 30.

Men of experience know that a horse should have plenty
of bone in order to be able to carry weight with ease to
himself for long distances and at comparatively fast paces
as, for example, when hunting. If we take two horses that
can perform about equally well in a long run with a similar
welter weight up, one having the " pull " in speed, the other
in bone and muscle, we shall usually find that the latter will
not feel the effects of the work so much as the former. I
may explain this on the reasonable supposition that the
weight-bearing muscles of the lighter-built horse, not being
so strong as those of the " heavier " animal, will naturally
become more fatigued. The objection sometimes advanced
against thoroughbreds for hunting, that they cannot " come
out again " as quickly as half-bred animals, is valid only when
the former are lighter built than the latter ; for, if blood
horses of equal bone and muscle were obtained, the difference
would be all the other way.

Large muscles, as we have seen, require large bones. It
also goes without saying that the more are bones exposed to
the effects of concussion, the denser and stronger should they
be. Consequently, we may conclude that the lighter an
animal's body is, in comparison to the strength of its com-
ponent parts and the amount of its muscular force, the
greater will be its powers of rapid progression. Hence we
find that the race-horse, like all quadrupeds of which speed is
the chief characteristic, has comparatively slender bones of
extremely dense texture, and that his muscles make up in
strength what they lack in substance. Owing to the law of
compensation, which governs the conditions of animal life, it

MUSCLES AND TENDONS. n

is almost impossible to obtain bone of great volume, and, at
the same time, of the finest quality. On this account, as size
is indispensable with the cart-horse, we endeavour, with him,
to obtain large bone of sufficient strength to meet his
requirements. In the intermediate classes of horses, the
relations between volume and quality should be judged
according to the nature of the work in view.

Arrangement of bones. The relative position which
bones occupy with respect to each other affect their leverage,
weight-carrying, and concussion-resisting powers conditions
which will be treated in detail when we consider the various
points which they affect.

Cartilage. Cartilage or gristle is a strong, flexible,
bluish-white substance which is found in connection with
bone, and of which there are various kinds. Articular
cartilage covers the ends of bones that form moveable joints.
Temporary cartilage is bone in a transition form. The ribs are
connected to the breastbone by cartilages which form elastic
prolongations. Cartilages also are interposed between the
bones of various joints in order to connect or protect them.
The cartilage of prolongation forms an elastic continuation
of the top of the shoulder-blade.

Muscles and Tendons. The animal's moving power
is derived from miiscles, which form the lean of meat, and
which, as a rule, are attached to bones. Muscles act by
virtue of the property they possess of being able to shorten
themselves on being stimulated by the nervous system.
Thus, if we wish to raise, say, our right hand to the shoulder,
our brain telegraphs, so to speak, the order, by means of the

12 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

nerves, to the biceps muscle, which is attached at one end to
the shoulder-blade, close to the shoulder-joint, and, at the
other, to the bones of the fore-arm, a little below the elbow.
Hence this muscle, on contracting, draws the hand up in the
required direction.

As muscles are built up of contractile fibres, their
strength, other things being equal, is proportionate to their
thickness.

In order to economise space, muscles are generally
attached to bones by means of tendons (sinews), which are
hard, fibrous cords of great toughness. The tendon at one
extremity is firmly united to the end of the muscle, and, at
the other, to the bone.

We find from experiment that a muscle can contract to
about two-thirds of its ordinary length, which is, therefore,
proportionate to the extent of movement it is capable of
producing. If the muscles which move the limbs be compara-
tively short, the stride will also be short, and the horse
will be slower than he would otherwise be, no matter how r
thick and powerful are his muscles. We may, therefore,
conclude that speed is associated with length of muscle, as
has been stated on page 4.

As length of muscle is necessarily accompanied by length
of bone, we may judge of the former by the latter, which can
usually be readily estimated.

The "give and take" principle, which applies more or
less to all created things, holds good with muscles. Hence,
in the race-horse, for which the possession of speed is the
chief essential of success, we should seek the greatest
possible length of muscle, with just sufficient strength to meet
his requirements for carrying weight and for sustaining the

MUSCLES. 13

exertion he may be called upon to undergo. In the cart-horse,
on the contrary, thickness of muscle is the great desideratum,
always supposing that he has sufficient activity to walk well
and on occasion to trot at a moderately brisk rate. As a thin
muscle will contract at least as quickly as a thick one of the
same length, it follows that an increase in the thickness of
muscles is useful only in making the work more easy, and
that it does not otherwise add to the speed. Massive
muscles, compared to slight ones, have two disadvantages,
namely they add to the weight to be carried, both in muscle
and bone ; and they necessitate the possession of large
joints, which, from increased friction, are not so easily bent
and extended as smaller ones ; besides this, it has been
proved that they do not respond as quickly to nervous
stimulus. Although it is impossible to lay down any exact
rules on this subject, we may say, speaking generally, that
the thickness of muscle which would be commendable in a
weight-carrying hunter, would be quite out of place in a race-
horse. We may often observe that horses which were very
smart as two-year-olds, lose their ' ' form " after that age with-
out any assignable reason, except that as they "thickened,"
they got slow. I may remark that those speedy animals, the
cheetah, greyhound, and antelope, like the race-horse, are
comparatively narrow behind, and that the hind-quarters of
the cart-horse are very wide. As the great tendency among
English thoroughbreds is to undue lightness of bone and
muscle, we generally find that our best race-horses are com-
paratively strong animals ; although the muscles of their
legs are always long, and they have little or no approach to
coarseness of limb. Ormonde, St. Gatien, Bendigo, Isonomy,
Barcaldine, and Carbine (the New Zealand son of Musket),

i 4 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

for example, were all muscular horses. St. Simon (PI. 7) was
a notable example of a horse of the highest class, being
of remarkably light build. He had, however, marvellously
good shoulders and loins.

We know from experiment that muscles of the same
thickness are stronger in animals of one species than they
are in those of another kind ; and we may reasonably infer
that even among individual horses the same rule holds good.
In fact, we may take for granted that the " quality " of
muscle, tendon and ligament, as well as of bone, is better in
some horses than in others ; the great factors in producing
strong tissue appearing to be : heredity ; residence in a dry,
warm climate ; " hard food " ; exercise ; and Eastern blood.

Ligaments. The ends of the bones that form joints are
held together by white ligaments, which are similar in
structure to tendons ; but, unlike them, they serve to connect
bones with bones, and, in a few cases, bones with tendons.
They have no direct connection with muscles. There are,
also, yellow ligaments, which, being elastic, aid in supporting
weight without fatigue to the animal.

Connective Tissue. The skin, which covers and
protects the body, is largely composed of a strong, fibrous
structure called connective tissue, which, proceeding inwards
from the skin in the form of, more or less, thick layers and
bands, furnishes a supporting network for the component parts
of the other tissues. Thus, if we compare a slice from the
under-cut of a sirloin of beef with one from a round of beef,
we shall see that the relative coarseness of grain of the latter
is due to the thickness of the layers of connective tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE.

which run through it. As connective tissue has only the
passive action of support, I need hardly say, that the coarser
in grain a muscle is, the less powerful will it be ; although it
will be better able to resist the effects of external violence
than one of finer grain. The protective duty of connective
tissue, as regards muscles, may be readily inferred from the
fact that the less exposed muscles are to injury from with-
out, by reason of their position, the less connective tissue do
they contain. This tissue, also, forms ligaments and ten-
dons, and ensheathes bones, cartilages, nerves, etc. There is
always a large amount of it immediately underneath the skin,
in the form of loose fibrous sheets, as we may see in the dead
animal. The presence of a great quantity of it in this
position will, naturally, cause the underlying parts to be ill-
defined, a fact which will be especially noticeable about the
tendons and ligaments below the knees and hocks, owing to the
absence of muscle about these parts. We may, therefore, draw
the following deductions : (i) That, as the thickness of the
skin is a measure of the amount of connective tissue it con-
tains ; the thicker the hide, other things being equal, the more
connective tissue will there be in and about the muscles.
(2) That, as its action is only passive, the more of it a
muscle contains, the slower will be the movements of the
muscle. Hence, we may reasonably conclude that the fact
of a horse having a thick skin, and ill-defined suspensory
ligaments, owing to natural " fleshiness," would warrant us
in supposing that he was deficient in speed. I may remark
that, with age, the amount of connective tissue in the body
greatly increases. As M. Guerin states : "In the old man,
the tendon seems to invade the muscle, so that the portion of
the calf of the leg which remains, is placed very high, and

1 6 STRUCTURES OF THE BODY.

is much reduced in length. The muscles of the loins and
back present the same character. In old age they are poorer
in red fibre, but richer in tendon."

I may here mention that the component parts of the
body which, respectively, have the same structure, are called
tissues. Thus we have bony tissue, consisting of bone ;
muscular tissue, of muscle ; nervous tissue, of nerve sub-
stance ; connective tissue, of white fibrous material ; and
so on.

The Nervous System. While considering the form of
the horse from a mechanical point of view, we must not lose
sight of the marked differences which exist in the nervous
system of various animals, and which greatly heighten, or
may altogether nullify, advantages obtained from good con-
formation. We are aware, speaking within reasonable limits,
that the amount of contraction i.e. force exhibited by a
muscle is proportional to the degree of stimulation given by
its nerves. As the nervous system of some animals acts far
more energetically than that of others, it follows that the
former, other things being equal, will be stronger than the
latter ; although no difference in conformation, or in develop-
ment of muscle, may be perceptible. Not alone does the
amount of nervous force differ much among animals of the
same kind, but, also, some have the faculty of stimulating
their muscles by means of their nerves quicker than their
fellows can do. We see this well exemplified in adepts at
fencing, cricket, boxing, and other kindred sports ; at which,
so-called quickness of eye is all-essential. I may mention
that the brilliant bat, or accomplished mattre d'armes, apart
from the possession of the necessary amount of knowledge,

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 17

judgment, and physique, excels because he has the gift
of moving his muscles, in response to the stimulus received
by the nerves of his eyes, quicker, as well as in more
accurately regulated style, than ordinary men. This asser-
tion is in no way based on mere theory ; for we find that
among men whose duty it is to record (as in observatories)
the exact moment at which they see certain phenomena
occur, it is necessary, in order to avoid error, to allow for the
difference in time these men, respectively, take ; although it
may only be a fraction of a second. To do this, it is
requisite to obtain, for each man, his " personal equation,''
as it is termed. We can, therefore, conclude that speed and
strength are as dependent on the nature and quality of the
nervous system as they are on conformation and muscular
development. It also goes without saying that a horse
may possess every physical excellence, and yet be worthless
on account of having a " soft heart," or bad temper.

1 8 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

CHAPTER III.

NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

Head Neck Breast and Chest Shoulders Withers Elbow Fore-arm
Knee Cannon Fetlock Pastern Hoof Back Loins Ribs
Flank Belly Brisket Croup Thigh Gaskin Hock Dock-
Height of a Horse Length of the Body of a Horse Depth of Chest
at Withers Depth of Body Height at Croup.

As the external parts and regions of the body do not, in
many cases, admit of very accurate definition, I crave the
indulgence of my readers in this attempt to mark out their
positions and boundaries. I have omitted mention of some
parts which, being known to every one, require no expla-
nation. The figures and letters employed in the following
list have reference to those on Fig. i.

Head (i). Looking at the horse in profile, we may
regard the head as being divided from the neck by a line
proceeding from the back of the ear, along the rear edge of
the lower jaw to its angle.

The forehead (a) forms the upper part of the face. It
extends down to a line joining the inner angle (canthus) of
each eye, and reaches as high as the fore-lock and the base of
the ears.

The fore-lock is a tuft of hair which lies between the ears,
and is a continuation of the mane.

EXTERNAL PARTS.

The temples are those portions of the head, on each side
of the forehead, which lie between the ear and eye.

The nose (b] is a continuation of the forehead, and ends
opposite the nostrils at the angle (c) formed by the line of
the face and the line of the muzzle.

The muzzle is the lower end of the head, and includes

FIG. i. EXTERNAL PARTS OF HORSE.

the nostrils, upper (d) and lower lip (e), and the bones and
teeth covered by them.

The bars of the mouth are the bare portions of the gums
of the lower jaw which lie on each side, between the back
teeth and the tushes, or the place usually occupied by the
tushes.

The chin-groove (/) is just under the bars of the mouth.

c 2

20 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

It is the smooth and rounded imder-part of the lower jaw, in
which the curb chain should rest when a curb bit is used.

The angles of the lower jaw (g) are the bony angles
between which the upper end of the wind-pipe lies.

The branches of the lower jaw run from the chin-groove to
the angles of the lower jaw.

The occipital crest is the bony prominence which con-
stitutes the top of the head, and which more or less rises
between the ears. It is particularly high in the head shown
in PL 26.

Neck (2). The neck is separated from the shoulders by
a line which goes from the dip that is just in front of the
withers, to the depression which is made by the union of the
neck and breast.

The poll (v) is the part which is on the top of the neck
and is immediately behind the ears.

The crest (/) is the upper part of the neck, extending from
the withers to the ears.

T\& jugular groove (u) is the groove which is on each side
of the neck, just above the wind-pipe. It is well shown in
Pis. 20 and 35.

Breast and Chest. Among horsemen who are un-
acquainted with anatomy, the latter of these two terms is
frequently used to express the former. At the risk of
employing a word contrary to colloquial custom, I would
suggest that the term " chest " be applied exclusively to the
cavity which occupies nearly the front third of the trunk, and
in which the lungs and heart are situated. It is divided from
the belly (abdomen) by the diaphragm. (See Fig. 4.)

WITHERS. 21

Shoulders (3). The line of union between the
shoulders and the neck is well shown in the majority of
harness and draught horses ; there being, in such cases, a
distinct depression immediately in front of the shoulder. In
well-shaped saddle horses, this dip between shoulder and neck
will be more or less difficult to find. The withers form the
upper boundary of the shoulder. The rear border of the
shoulder may be taken from behind the " swell " of the
muscle which is just below the withers, to the elbow.

The point of the shoulder (h) is the prominent bony angle,
on each side of the chest, a little below the junction of the
neck and shoulder.

The Withers (4) are the bony ridge which is the for-
ward continuation of the back. Its posterior limit is, as a
rule, ill-defined ; for the curve made by the withers usually
runs into that of the back in a gradual manner. Its anterior
termination can generally be easily felt by the fingers ; as this
bony ridge ends abruptly in the crest.

The Elbow, which is a portion of the fore-arm, is the
large bony projection at the upper and posterior part of the
fore-arm. The point of the elbow (i] is the top of this
bony projection.

The Fore-Arm (5) is placed between the shoulder
and knee. Its upper boundary may be taken as a horizontal
line drawn across the fore limb, just below the lump of muscle
which is at the bottom of the shoulder.

The castors, or chesmtts () are the horny growths that
are above the knees, and just below the hocks, on the inside
of the legs.

22 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

Knee (6). The upper boundary of the knee may be
regarded as a line drawn at right angles to the direction of
the leg, above the knee joint, and just clear of the bony pro-
minence that is on the side of the knee. The lower boundary
of the knee may be taken as a line joining the point where
the line of the cannon-bone meets that of the knee, with that
where the line of the back tendons is terminated by the bone
(the trapezium, /) which is at the back of the knee.

The Cannon (7). A suitable designation for the part
of the leg which is situated between the knee and fetlock is
much required. The term " cannon " is apt to give one the
impression that only the cannon-bone is meant : it would be
more convenient if the back teudons and suspensory ligament
were also included. The line dividing the cannon from the
fetlock is one drawn across the leg immediately above the
prominence caused by the fetlock joint.

The back tendons (m) or bick sinews are the fibrous cord
which runs down the back of the leg between the knee and
the fetlock. This cord consists of two tendons which lie
closely together.

The suspensory ligament is a fibrous cord which lies
between the cannon-bone and the back tendons, and which
can be seen in a well-formed leg that is not unduly covered
with hair (vide PL 42).

The cannon-bone (/) is the bone which lies between the
knee and the fetlock. It has two small bones (outside and
inside splint bone] at its back.

Fetlock (8). The fetlock joint is the joint which the
cannon-bone makes with the pastern. The term fetlock

HOOF. 23

signifies the tuft of hair that usually grows behind this joint,
and also the joint itself and the enlargement made by the
bones which form it.

Pastern (9). This is the short column of bones which is
placed between the fetlock and the hoof.

The hollow of the pastern is the hollow at the back and
lower part of the pastern.

The coronet is the comparatively soft lower portion of
the pastern which is immediately above the hoof.

The Hoof(io)is the horny box which encloses the
lower part of the limb. The front part of the hoof, near the
ground surface, is called the toe ; the side portions, the
quarters; and the rear parts, on the ground surface, the
heels. The outer portion of the hoof is termed the wall,
which is divided into a hard, fibrous outer covering called
the crust, and a soft inner layer of non-fibrous horn. The
designations ''wall" and "crust" are often used indis-
criminately.

The frog is the triangular buffer which is in the centre
of the ground surface of the hoof.

The cleft of the frog is the division in the middle line
of the frog. In healthy feet, it consists of only a slight
depression.

The bars of the hoof are the portions of the wall of the
hoof which are turned inwards at the heels, and run more or
less parallel to the sides of the frog. The sole is that portion
of the ground surface of the foot which is included between
the wall, bars, and frog.

Back (n). Anatomically speaking, the back consists of

24 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

that portion of the spinal column to which ribs are attached,
and it consequently includes the withers ; but not the loins.
The term " back " is, in common parlance, an ill-defined region.
Some regard it as consisting of the whole of the upper line of
the body, from the front of the withers to the root of the tail.
Others would exclude from this the croup. Probably, the
majority of horsemen would say the back of a horse is in-
cluded between the highest point of the croup and the
commencement of the withers. For convenience sake I shall
adopt the anatomical definition, with the omission of the
withers, which have separate functions, and which I shall
consider by themselves. I may, therefore, state that the
back is bounded in front by the withers ; behind, by the
loins ; and on each side, by the ribs.

Loins (12). The loins are placed between the back and
croup, at front and rear, with the flanks at each side. We
may regard the loins as that portion of the spinal column
which is devoid of ribs, and which is in front of the highest
point (posterior iliac spine, see Fig. 3) of the pelvis.

Ribs (13). The ribs are bounded by the shoulders in
front, by the flanks behind, by the back above, and by the
belly and brisket (sternum) below.

Flank (14). The flank is that part of the side of the
horse which is free from bone and which thinly covers
the intestines. It is placed between the loins above, the ribs
to the front, the thigh and point of the hip to the rear, and
the belly below.

The hollow of the flank is the upper portion of the flank,
which is bounded above by the loins, and below by a line

THIGH. 25

joining the end of the last rib with the lower edge of the
point of the hip.

Belly (15). The belly or abdomen is the large cavity
(see Fig. 4) which contains the stomach, liver, spleen,
intestines, kidneys, bladder, etc. The term " belly " is
applied, in common phraseology, to the underneath portion of
the body which is not covered by bone.

The Brisket (16) is the lower part of the horse's chest.

The girth place is the rear portion of the sternum (breast-
bone) which is just behind the fore legs, and underneath
which the girths pass when the horse is saddled.

Croup (i/). The croup is that portion of the upper
part of the body which is situated between the loins in front
and the tail behind. Roughly speaking, it may be said to
extend down, on each side, to a line drawn from the lower
edge of the point of the hip, to the point of the buttock.

The point of the hip (s) is the bony surface, more or less
prominent, which is a little to the rear of the last rib. It is
the anterior point of the pelvis.

The point of the buttock (o) is the bony prominence which
is the rearmost point of the pelvis. It is a few inches below
the root of the tail.

Thigh ( 1 8). The thigh is bordered by the stifle, flank,
croup, buttock, and gaskin, from which it is separated by a
horizontal line drawn from the upper end of the straight line
made by the hamstring or tendo A chillis (p}, which proceeds
towards the thigh from the point of the hock (^). I am aware

26 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

that this definition is far from being anatomically correct, but
it is one which fairly represents the acceptation of the term
among horsemen.

The Stifle (n) is the joint of the hind leg which is at
the lower part of the flank.

The Gaskin (19) is situated between the thigh and
the hock, from which it is divided by a line drawn from the
point of the hock, clear of the bony prominences of the
joint.

The Hock (20) is placed between the gaskin and the
hind cannon-bone, from which we may separate it by a line
drawn across this bone at the point at which its head begins
to enlarge in order to form a joint with the lower bones of
the hock.

The point of the hock (q] is the bony projection at the
back and top of the hock.

The parts of the hind leg below the hock are similarly
named to those of the fore leg below the knee.

The Dock (r) is the solid part of the tail.

N.B. The following definitions have reference to
Fig. 2 :

The Height of a Horse (a b) is the vertical distance
of the highest point of his withers from the ground, when
he is standing with his fore legs nearly vertical and
with the points of his hocks in a vertical line with the
points of his buttocks. I have qualified "vertical" with
" nearly " when referring to the fore legs ; for when the

LENGTH OF HORSE.

hind legs are placed as in Fig. 2, the weight of the head
and neck, which are in front of the fore legs, would cause
the animal to stand somewhat "over." I may mention that
this figure was drawn from a photograph of a well-shaped

FIG 2. MEASUREMENTS OF HORSE.

race-horse, Tristan, who was standing, if I may use the
expression, " at attention." When a pony is being measured
for racing, his legs should be placed in the position I have
described.

The -Length of the Body of a Horse (d e) is the

horizontal distance from the front of the chest to a line
dropped vertically from the point of the buttock. I must

28 NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS AND DEFINITIONS.

explain that this measurement is a somewhat arbitrary one ;
but it is, as far as I can see, the best for the purpose.

Colonel Duhousset, in his book, Le Cheval, takes the
length of a horse as the distance from the point of the shoulder
to the point of the buttock. As this is not a horizontal
measurement ; I prefer to it the one I have just given.

The Depth of the Chest at the Withers (a c) is the

vertical distance from the top of the withers to the bottom
of the chest. This measurement, being taken for con-
venience sake, is an arbitrary one ; for the chest is lower
between the fore legs than behind the elbow, which is the
spot I have selected. Besides this, the actual height of the
withers above the roof of the chest has no fixed relation to
the depth of the chest.

Depth of the Body (/. The best and most uniform
point to take this is, I think, the lowest point of the back.

Height at the Croup (k i) is measured from the highest
point of the hind quarters.

CHAPTER IV.

SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

Definitions Bones Joints and Ligaments Muscles Heart and Lungs
Nervous System of the Horse.

Definitions. When one bone unites with another bone, or with a
piece of cartilage, to form a joint, it is said to articulate with it. The
term articulation is used as a synonym for joint.

A ball and socket joint is formed by the head of one bone resting in
a cavity of another bone. The more shallow the cavity, the more ex-
tensive will be the power of movement. The horse's shoulder joint and hip
joint are good examples of this kind of articulation. A hinge joint is one
which works only by extension and flexion, like the horse's knee.

" A limb," as Professor Huxley states, " is flexed when it is bent ; extended,
when it is straightened out." We may adopt this definition, with the ex-
ception that the fetlock joint becomes bent when it is extended, and
straightened out when it is partly flexed.

The word dorsal is used with reference to things of, or belonging to, the
back, which, anatomically, is limited to that portion of the spine which is
connected with the ribs.

If a muscle is attached, by one end, to a bone which it can move, and,
by the other end, to one which is fixed, the former is called the insertion of
the muscle ; the latter, the origin. Thus, the origin of the biceps in man (see
p. 12) is near the shoulder joint; and its insertion is on the bone of the
forearm. When a muscle, on contracting, can move the bones at both its
ends, the points of connection are called attachments ; an expression which is
also applied collectively to the origin and insertion. I may mention that
muscles are not invariably attached to bones, but may, on the contrary, be

SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

connected to cartilages, ligaments, to the fibrous covering of muscles, or even
to the skin.

Bones. The skeleton is composed of the limbs and spinal column,
which consists of the head, vertebrae, ribs, and breast-bone (see Fig. 3). A
vertebra is one of the short bones which, when united, form the column
of bones that extends from the head to the end of the tail. There are seven
vertebrae of the neck, eighteen of the back, six of the loins, five of the croup
(or sacrum} and from thirteen to twenty of the tail. All the vertebrae, except

Ligament of /uvX-
, Vertebrae of' neck

Shoulder blcuf*

S/wtUdcr rcLivt

Cannon bone
Jjmg-pctstem bone^

Slwrt.-pii&terrv bone
Peil<.iL bone ----- ,

FIG. 3. SKELETON OF HORSE,

those of the tail, have a canal in which the spinal cord lies. They are united
one to another with more or less power of movement, except those of the
croup, which, in the grown-up horse, form one solid bony mass. The head
may be said to be composed of vertebrae in a peculiarly altered shape.

The withers are the long spines of the seven or eight dorsal vertebrae
which come after the first. Generally speaking, the better bred a horse is,
the further to the rear do the withers extend. The spine of the fifth
dorsal vertebra forms the summit of the withers.

There are eighteen ribs eight true and ten false attached to the dorsal

BONES. 3 r

vertebrae. Both kinds have pieces of cartilage attached to their lower ends.
The true ribs are connected by their respective cartilages with the breast
bone ; but the false ones are only indirectly connected to it, the cartilage
of the first false rib resting on that of the last true one, that of the second
false rib on the first false one, and so on.

The fore limb consists of the shoulder blade, humerus, bones of the fore-
arm, bones of the knee, cannon-bone, splint bones, long pastern bone,
short pastern bone, pedal (or coffin) bone, two small bones at the back of
the fetlock, and the navicular bone, which lies at the back of the joint formed
by the small pastern bone and the pedal bone.

The shoulder blade (or scapula) is a broad, thin bone, which is flat on its
inside surface and has a narrow ridge of bone (the spine of the scapula) on
its outer surface. This spine serves as a partition to divide the muscles
which extend the shoulder joint from those that flex it.

There are two bones of the forearm, namely, the radius, which makes a
joint with the humerus and with the bones of the knee ; and the ulna, which
is united to the back and upper part of the radius, above which it projects.
The free part of the ulna is called the olecranon, the top of which is termed
the point of the elbow.

There are two rows of bones of the knee, at the back of which a bone (the
trapezium) is placed. It is curved inwards so as to form a groove for the
passage of the back tendons of the fore leg.

The two splint bones are placed at the back of the cannon-bone, one on the
outside, the other on the inside. They form a groove in which lies the
upper portion of the suspensory ligament.

There is a joint between the cannon-bone and the long pastern bone,
between the two pastern bones, and between the sfiort pastern bone and the
pedal (or coffin) bone. The navicular bone articulates with both the short
pastern bone and the pedal bone. It and the two bones behind the fetlock
(the sesamoid bones] serve as pulleys for one of the back tendons.

The pedal bone is surrounded by a membrane, which secretes the horn
of the wall of the hoof, sole and frog, in somewhat the same manner as the
skin which covers the bones of the head, secretes the hair of that part.

The pelvis, which rests on, and is firmly attached to, the sacrum, appears
as a single bone in the adult animal, although it really consists of two halves,
which we may regard as the respective shoulder blades of the hind quarters.
Each half furnishes a socket for the head of its respective thigh bone. The
point of the hip, on either side, is the front and outer corner of the pelvis.
The two inner corners of the pelvis are firmly connected with the sacrum,

32 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

upon which they rest. They form the highest point of the bony framework
of the croup. In the absence of a recognised popular term, we may call the
rearmost points of the pelvis \htpoints of the buttock.

The head of the thigh bone makes a ball and socket joint with the pelvis;
while its lower end articulates with the tibia to form the stifle joint, in front
of which the patella (knee cap) is placed. The patella serves for the attach-
ment of muscles which extend the stifle joint. It is kept in position by
strong ligaments. A portion of the thigh bone projects, from the outside,
above the hip joint. The tibia articulates, at one end, with the thigh bone ;
and, at the other, with the astragalus, which is one of the bones of the hock.
The part of the astragalus which makes a joint with the tibia, is formed
like a pulley, the grooves of which have an outward and forward direction.
The os calcis is placed behind the astragalus, and projects above it; its
summit being called the point of the hock. The small bones of the hock are
interposed between the astragalus and os calcis, and the cannon-bone and the
two splint bones. The fibula is a rudimentary bone, which is attached to the
tibia, and which corresponds to the ulna. According to Chauveau, the
patella has no analogue in the fore extremity. The bones below the hock
are similar to those below the knee.

Analogies between the bones of man and the horse. The horse possesses no
collar bone, consequently there is no bony connection between his fore
extremity and trunk. The humerus, elbow and forearm are the same in
both, except that the ulna is, comparatively, far more developed in man
than in the horse. The knee of the latter corresponds to the wrist of the
former. The five bones between the wrist and the first row of knuckles are
represented by the cannon and splint bones ; two of these bones having dis-
appeared in the evolution of the horse (see Chap. XXX.). The fetlock is
analogous to the first row of knuckles of our hand. The long pastern bone
corresponds to the first row of bones of the fingers ; the short one, to the
second row ; the coffin bone, to the third row ; and the hoof, to our nails.
The navicular bone is a detached bone which has no counterpart in our
frame. In the hind limb, the stifle represents our knee ; the tibia, the
shin ; the hock, the ankle ; the point of the hock, the heel ; and so on. In
man, the fibula is a fully developed bone. We may thus see that the
horse is an animal which moves on the tips of his fingers and toes (unguli-
grade) ; and that he has only one toe (or finger) to each leg.

Joints and Ligaments. Joints may be divided into those which
admit of more or less motion, and those which are immovable. The ends

LIGAMENTS. 33

of the bones which form them are, in both cases, held together by strong
inelastic ligaments, of which there are various kinds. Capsular ligaments,
for instance, loosely encircle their joints in order to protect the apparatus
which lubricates the ends of the bones. Lateral ligaments are placed on
each side of the joint, and, being attached both above and below it, keep
the bones together, while admitting often of considerable play. Annular
ligaments form protecting sheaths for the passage of tendons ; and interosseous
ligaments bind bones closely together. Besides these, we have suspensory
and check ligaments, which, as far as we are at present concerned, are
respectively represented by the structures, bearing these names, which are
found in the legs, below the knees and hocks.

The ligaments to which I have referred are, like tendons, composed of
white fibrous tissue (a variety of connective tissue, see p. 14), which is
hard, strong and inelastic. Yellow ligaments are, without going into minute
differences, to be distinguished by the fact of their yellow colour, and by the
possession of considerable elasticity, which enables them to passively bear
weights which would otherwise fall on the muscles. A familiar instance of
the manner in which elastic ligaments mechanically save the expenditure of
muscular force, is afforded by the arrangement which keeps the claws of a
cat retracted without entailing exertion on the animal ; for each claw is kept
back by a small elastic ligament, which becomes stretched when the digits
of the paw are extended by then: muscles. As soon as these muscles
cease to act, the ligaments, by their power of contraction, regain their
natural length and retract the claws. An enormously powerful elastic liga-
ment is attached to the withers, and goes straight from them, in the form
of accord, to the top of the head (the bony prominence between the ears), to
which it is inserted. At about a third of the distance from the head to the
withers, a broad sheet of elastic tissue is given off from the corded portion,
and is united to all the spines of the neck vertebrae, except the first. This
sheet accordingly acts as a partition between the muscles on the respective
sides of the upper part of the neck. The entire ligament, therefore, by its
strength and elasticity greatly aids the muscles in supporting the weight of
the head and neck. The amount of stretching which it can undergo in
ordinary circumstances may be approximately estimated by comparing the
length of the neck, when the head is held up in its usual position, to that
when it is lowered to allow the animal to feed off the ground. In the first
case, with a horse 15.3 high, it will probably not exceed 28 inches in
length ; but in the latter it must be over a yard long, supposing that
the animal does not unduly bend his knees. Any depression or elevation

34 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

beyond the position occupied by the head when the horse is asleep
standing, has to be obtained by muscular force. This ligament is popularly
called the pack ax. Without being pedantic, we might, I think, more
appropriately term it the suspensory ligament of tJie head and neck. I may add
that it is continuous with the strong, white fibrous ligament which commences
on the spine of the sacrum and runs along the top of the spines of the
vertebrae of the loins and back, binding them together, until it nearly reaches
the summit of the withers, where its fibres assume the character of yellow
elastic tissue. On the top of this large ligament there is a layer of fat, which
in entires (especially if they be coarsely bred) often increases to a great size,
and consequently gives them a high and thick crest (see PI. 30). The
intestines of the horse are supported by the abdominal tunic, which covers the
muscles of the lower part of the belly, and consists of a broad, strong sheet
of yellow elastic tissue. It acts like an elastic abdominal belt.

There is considerable power of movement between the head and the first
vertebra of the neck (the alias), and between the different neck vertebra
themselves ; but there is hardly any play between the dorsad vertebra.
The loin vertebra can be flexed and extended to a limited degree on each
other ; but are capable of only very slight motion from side to side. The
sacrum, as before mentioned, forms a single bone, on which the pelvis rests,
and with which it is connected by powerful ligaments that greatly restrict its
movements on the spine. We have also seen that the thigh bones articulate
with the pelvis. The bones of the tail possess considerable mobility. The
solid connection thus afforded to the hind limbs, with the trunk, enables the
former to transmit to the latter the forward impetus given during progression
with the least possible loss of power. The capability of the loins to be flexed
and'extended is necessary in order to facilitate the action of the loin muscles,
which are important agents in locomotion (see p. 64). The mobility of the
head, neck, and, to a much lesser degree, of the tail, acting as they do
as balancing poles, is extremely useful in enabling the animal to perform
with ease and precision many of the varied and difficult movements
demanded of him. We may see that any power of lateral motion which the
trunk (not counting the head, neck and tail) may possess, however much it
may make the horse quick and " handy " at turning, will militate against his
speed in a forward direction.

The respective ends of the first eight ribs form movable joints with the
spine and breast bone ', the first articulating with the last neck vertebra and
first dorsal vertebra ; the second with the first and second dorsal vertebrae,
and so on. They are rigidly connected to their cartilages, of which those of

THE RIBS. 35

the first eight, or true, ribs form movable joints with the breast bone.
Commencing from the spine, " the ribs pass outwards and backwards, and
then in an arched direction downwards, their cartilages inclining inwards and
forwards " (Strangeways). Owing to the peculiar manner in which the ribs
are curved, and to the fact that the ends of the true ribs can pivot round in
the joints which they form with the spine and breast bone, while the false
ribs also form movable joints with the spine; the capacity of the chest is
capable of becoming much enlarged when the middle portion of the
ribs are pulled forward by muscles that are attached to them. The
mobility of the ribs, which is all but absent in the first one, gradually
increases as they go backwards. They also increase in rotundity in the same
manner, the first one being the flattest. The first rib is the shortest, and
each succeeding one is longer than the one next in front of it, till the eighth
or ninth rib, the ribs behind which gradually decrease in length up to the
last one, which is nearly as short as the first rib. Owing to the direct
connection which the first eight ribs have with the breast bone ; their power
of movement and, consequently, their action in increasing the capacity of the
chest is less than that of the false ribs. Hence, when seeking for signs of
good breathing power in a horse, we should attach far more importance to
rotundity of the rear portion of the chest than of the front part. As a
practical guide I might say that the former region might, in the saddled horse,
be regarded roughly as the portion of the ribs behind the saddle flaps, and the
latter as that covered by them. " It can be proved by observation, that the
middle false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being drawn
forwards and outwards. The ribs behind them successively lose more and
more their power of displacement up to the last one, the lower end of which
can be raised and lowered a little, without appreciably altering its distance
from the point of the hip" {Colin).

The fore limb is connected to the trunk by muscles, to which I shall allude
on page 37.

The shoulder joint is a ball and socket articulation, which possesses
considerable power of motion.

The elbow is a hinge joint, which can be bent and extended.

In the knee we have three hinge joints, of which that between the radius
and first row of bones is capable of a large amount of motion ; that between
the two rows of much less ; while that between the second row and cannon-
bones possesses hardly any power of movement.

The bones at the back of the knee are united together by an extremely
strong ligament, one of the bands of which closes up the gap left between

D 2

3 6 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

the point of the trapezium and the inside of the knee, so as to form a channel
for the " back tendons " to pass through.

The sesamoid bones are fixed immovably to the back of the fetlock
joint.

The fetlock, pastern, and coffin joints are hinge joints, which possess
more or less play.

The hind limb is connected to tJie trunk, as we have already seen, by
the pelvis.

The hip joint, formed by the head of the thigh bone and cavity in the
pelvis, is a ball and socket joint.

In the stifle we find two articulations one with the thigh bone and tibia,
the other with the thigh bone and patella, which is firmly attached to the
tibia by ligaments in order to enable it to resist the action of those muscles
of the thigh which are inserted on it.

The true hock joint is formed by the tibia and astragalus. It is a
hinge joint, which, owing to the oblique manner in which its grooves are
placed, causes the foot to be turned slightly outward when the joint is
either flexed or extended. The other joints of the hock possess hardly
any power of movement.

The astragalus, os calcis, small bones of the hock, hind cannon, and splint
bones are firmly connected together by ligaments.

joints below the hock are similar to those below the knee.

Muscles. I shall now consider, in the briefest possible manner,
the principal muscles which are used in locomotion.

A broad sheet of muscle (\hzpanniculus) lies immediately underneath
the skin that covers the neck, sides of the chest, and abdomen. In thin
horses, its rear border is usually defined by an irregular line (see pp. 256
and 257) which runs along the side downwards and backwards towards the
groin. This muscle is attached, round its borders, to the skin and
superficial muscles by sheets of fibrous tissue. By quickly contracting and
relaxing alternately, it causes the skin to twitch, and thus gets rid of flies, etc.,
that may have alighted on the surface underneath which a portion of this
muscle lies. It is principally found on those parts which the horse has
difficulty in reaching with his lips, tail, or mane. As the process of training
for racing purposes appears to largely develop this muscle, I cannot help
thinking that it aids in forced expiration expelling the air from the lungs
during the quickened breathing entailed by fast work ; although anatomists
do not ascribe such action to it.

CONNECTION OF FORE LIMB WITH BODY. 37

The neck, back, and loins are flexed by muscles which lie immediately
underneath the spine. The head is bent by muscles that proceed one on
each side from the breast bone to the lower jaw, and by others which
connect the neck and head together. The head is extended by muscles that
are attached to the poll and bones of the neck and by others that proceed
from the poll to the withers. The neck is extended by the last mentioned
muscles, and by those which connect the spine of one vertebra with the
body of the one in front of it. The back and loins are extended by muscles
which are similar in action to the ones just alluded to, and by the longissimus
dorsi, which is the most powerful muscle of the body, and is the chief
extensor of the spine. It forms the principal portion of the fleshy mass
which lies over the loins and back. It is attached to the pelvis, sacrum, all
the loin and dorsal vertebrae, the last four bones of the neck, and to the
ribs. As the spines of the vertebrae (including the withers) form a part of its
attachments, it follows that the more they are developed, the more powerful
will be the extension of the loins and back.

Muscles which connect the fore limb to the body. The shoulder blade is
connected to the trunk principally by a very strong, fan-shaped muscle,
which is attached at its middle to the inside of the shoulder blade. Its
front end is connected to the last five bones of the neck ; and its other end
to the first eight ribs. When the front portion contracts, the shoulder blade
is drawn forward ; when the rear portion contracts, this bone is pulled back.
This muscle, from the manner of its attachment, acts as a sling for the fore
limb. The upper part of the shoulder blade is connected to the trunk, from its
inner extremity by a muscle which has one end attached to the suspensory
ligament of the head and neck, and the other to the withers. Hence, on
contracting, it draws the shoulder blade forwards and upwards. The outside
of the sJwulder blade is connected to the trunk, at about its upper third, by a
muscle which has one branch going to the withers, and the other to the
suspensory ligament of the head and neck. It can thus raise the shoulder
blade, or work it backwards or forwards. TJie fore limb is drawn forward
chiefly, however, by the action of a muscle which is attached, at one end, to
the top of the head and first four neck vertebrae, and by the other to the
middle of the humerus. We may see from the foregoing remarks, that
length of neck and height of withers are favourable conditions for the firm
attachment of the shoulder blade to the trunk and for the free action of
the shoulder.

The fore limb is connected to the breast bone by a muscle which is attached
to the breast bone and humerus.

38 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The fore limb is drawn back, principally, by two muscles, one of which is
attached, at one end, to the abdominal tunic (see p. 34) and breast bone ;
and at the other, to the humerus and shoulder blade, close to the shoulder
joint. The other muscle (the latissimus dor si) has its origin on the vertebrae
of the loins and back, and is inserted on the humerus, which it consequently
draws backwards and upwards when it contracts. The first mentioned
muscle tends to draw it backwards and downwards.

Muscles of the fore limb. When the fore leg is advanced, the shoulder
joint is extended and the elbow joint flexed. When it is drawn back, the
opposite to this takes place. Agreeably to these actions, we find a powerful
muscle attached, by one end, to the front part of the shoulder blade, just
above the joint ; and by the other end to the front of the radius immediately
below the elbow joint, so that, when it contracts, it extends the shoulder and
flexes the elbow. Another muscle, being attached to the rearmost corner of
the shoulder blade and to the point of the elbow, flexes the shoulder and
extends the elbow. Besides these muscles, there are various others which
respectively aid in the flexion and extension of these joints. The chief
muscle that extends the knee, has its origin on the front part of the humerus,
just above the elbow joint, and running down the forearm, is joined to its
tendon, which passes over the knee, and which is inserted on the head of the
cannon-bone. The three muscles which bend the knee take their origin on
the back part of the humerus, just above the elbow joint, and are inserted on
the trapezium and splint bones. The two muscles which extend the fetlock,
pastern, and coffin joints, run down the front of the forearm. One of them has
its origin at the head of the radius, and is inserted on the front part of the
long pastern bone. The other commences on the humerus, just above
the elbow joint, and ends on the front and upper part of the coffin bone.
The muscles which flex the fetlock, pastern, and coffin joints (the flexor muscles of
the foot}, and aid in bending the knee, take their origin on the back part of
the humerus, just above the elbow joint, and proceed down the back of the
forearm. A little above the knee they are joined to their tendons (the back
tendons}, which pass through the sheath formed by the trapezium and the
annular ligament at the back of the knee. From thence they run down the
back of the cannon-bone. The front one, which lies next the suspensory
ligament, goes over the sesamoid bones, which form a pulley for it;
down the back of the pastern ; over the navicular bone, which also acts
as a pulley ; and is finally inserted on the base of the coffin-bone. The rear-
most tendon, which lies between the front one and the skin, forms a sheath
for its fellow at the back of the fetlock, and, dividing in two, is inserted on

MUSCLES OF THE HIND LIMB. 39

the short pastern bone. There are two small muscles which assist the front
one of these two muscles, but which I need not further allude to. As the
action of the suspensory and check ligament is closely connected with that
of the flexor muscles of the foot, I may appropriately describe them here.
The suspensory ligament lies at the back of the cannon-bone and between the
two splint bones. It has its origin at the head of the cannon-bone and lower
row of the small bones of the knee. At about two-thirds of the distance
from the knee to the fetlock, it divides into two branches, which are
respectively inserted on the summits of the sesamoid bones. They then
extend downwards and forwards, and unite together, at the front and about
the middle of the pastern, with the tendon of the muscle which extends
the foot. The suspensory ligament is composed of white fibrous tissue, with
a few muscular fibres in it, and acts in supporting the fetlock. It is
generally considered to be inelastic, although MM. Goubaux and Barrier
entertain the opposite opinion. They remark that " its obscurely muscular
structure, and the manner in which its fibres inter-cross, render it a true,
elastic brace, which counteracts the effects of weight, as long as they do not
overcome the resistance and strength of the tissues." In omnivorous
and carnivorous animals this ligament is replaced by a muscle which
has similar functions. The check ligament has nearly the same origin
as the suspensory ligament and joins the front back tendon, at a point
about half-way down the cannon-bone. Its office is to aid in supporting
the fetlock and to relieve the muscles of the tendon, with which it is con-
nected, of weight.

Muscles of the hind limb. The hip is extended by the great croup
muscle, and also by some of the muscles which lie at the back of the
thigh bone. One end of the great croup muscle is attached to the upper
surface of the front portion of the pelvis, and, proceeding along the side of
the sacrum, reaches as far as the last rib. The other end is inserted to the
summit of the portion of the thigh bone which projects above the hip joint.
The muscles at the back of the thigh bone have their origin, chiefly, on the
under surface of the pelvis, from behind the hip joint to the point of the
buttock; and are inserted principally to the lower part of the thigh bone
or to the upper portion of the tibia.

The hip is flexed by muscles that have their origin on the under
surface of the loin vertebrae, and are inserted on the thigh bone ; and also
by muscles which are attached to the under surface of the pelvis in front of
the hip joint, and to the thigh bone, patella, or tibia.

The stifle is extended by one muscle which has its origin on the under

40 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

surface of the pelvis, just in front of the hip joint, and is inserted on the
patella, and by two others which are attached to the upper part of the thigh
bone and to the patella. The first mentioned muscle flexes the hip at the
same time that it extends the stifle.

The stifle is flexed chiefly by a muscle which is attached to the portion
of the pelvis behind the hip joint, and to the tibia.

The hock is extended, for the most part, by muscles which form the rear-
most portion of the gaskin (" second thigh "). They have their origin on the
lower end of the thigh bone, and are inserted to the point of the hock by
their tendons, which lie one over the other, and constitute the tendo Achillis.
The underneath tendon terminates at the point of the hock ; but the
other is continued down the back of the leg as the rearmost one of the
two back tendons, and is inserted on the short pastern bone, as in the
fore limb. Owing to the double insertion of this tendon, the hock can-
not be extended without the fetlock being flexed at the same time ; hence
the success of the expedient, for the prevention of kicking, of securely
fixing in the hollow of the pastern some hard object of suitable shape,
so as to prevent the joint between the two pastern bones from becoming
flexed.

The joints below the hock are extended by muscles which take their
origin near the stifle joint, run down the front of the hind leg, are con-
tinued as tendons down the front of the cannon-bone, and are inserted on
the bones of the pastern, and to the front and highest point of the coffin
bone.

The joints below the hock are flexed by a muscle of the gaskin, which
muscle originates at the back of the upper portion of the tibia, behind which
it runs down to a little above the hock joint, when it is continued as a
tendon that passes over the groove formed on the os calcis. It then proceeds
down the back of the cannon-bone, as the front one of the two back tendons,
and terminates in the same manner as in the fore limb. The muscle of the
rear back tendon, as we have already seen, also aids in flexing the fetlock
and pastern joints.

Heart and Lungs. The heart is a hollow muscle which acts as a
force pump in sending the blood through the arteries to the various parts
of the body. The arteries commence on the left side of the heart, by
one large trunk which splits up, as it goes on, into an innumerable number
of small branches, that, as a rule, terminate in a microscopic network of
minute canals called capillaries. These canals, which probably do not

THE HEART. 41

exceed a fortieth of an inch in length, gradually enlarge on the side away
from the arteries, and open out into small veins, which, uniting with each
other as they approach the heart, enter its right side by two large branches
and a few small ones. The heart now forces this venous blood through
the pulmonary artery to the lungs, which return it by a system of capillaries
and veins to the heart. We must remember that the network of capillaries
runs through every tissue which contains blood. Thus, for instance, the
blood which goes to the foot of the horse, and that which proceeds to the
substance of the heart itself, flow to their respective parts through certain
arteries, pass through a very short network of capillaries, and return to the
heart by the veins j a long circuit being made in the first case ; a short one,
in the second.

The necessary amount of nutritive matter and water is taken up from the
food and drink contained in the stomach and intestines by small vessels
which carry it into the veins, and is thus finally brought into the capillaries,
the walls of which are so thin that it exudes through them, and in this
manner nourishes the various tissues. I may mention that, before food
can be taken up by the system, it is necessary that it should be thoroughly
dissolved. As the tissues are being constantly broken up as well as
repaired, the capillaries also serve to take up the waste matters and carry
them into the veins. When this impure or venous blood is pumped by the
right side of the heart into the lungs, it is acted upon, there, by the oxygen of
the air that is taken into the chest at each breath, and is returned from the
lungs to the left side of the heart in a comparatively high state of purity. When
the blood leaves the lungs, it carries with it a certain amount of oxygen,
which, uniting with the broken-up material in the various tissues, converts it
into products which can be readily removed. I need not dwell longer on
this subject ; for it is fully explained in every elementary book on physiology,
as, for instance, that by Professor Huxley.

In order that a muscle may work i.e., contract on being stimulated by its
nerves it is necessary that it should be supplied with oxygen. Also, the
severer the labour, the more oxygen is used up in the muscles and the larger
is the supply required. As the blood has a shorter distance to travel in order
to make a complete circuit in the blood vessels of a small animal, than in that
of a large one of the same kind ; we might infer that the blood of the former
passes more frequently during a given space of time through the lungs, than
that of the latter. The truth of this supposition is fully borne out in
practice ; for we may observe, on an average, that the pulse of a heavy cart-
horse beats about thirty-five times a minute ; that of a small pony, about forty-

42 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

five times. Hence we find that, speaking generally, small horses can " stay "
better than large ones ; for the power of " staying " is dependent on the
capability, possessed by muscles, of retaining for a long time their contractile
power. Also, they recover quicker than big horses from the effects of severe
work, owing to the fact that repair of worn out tissue and removal of waste
matters from the system is carried on at a faster rate. In fact, they possess
more " vitality." Again, the larger the lungs other things being equal the
greater will be the amount of oxygen taken into the blood, and of impurities
given off from the blood into the air.

Nervous System of the Horse. The nervous system of the horse
is the power which stimulates and directs the action of his muscles in locomo-
tion, and is the source of his mental capacity. We may regard it as divided
into nerve centres and conducting nerves. To employ a well-worn simile, we
may look upon a nerve centre as a telegraph station to which and from which
messages are sent and despatched. The nerves (the sensory nerves) by which
the horse sees, feels, hears, smells, and tastes, conduct the impressions they
receive to some nerve centre, which may do one of three things, (i) It may,
in response to the message received, send, on its own authority, by another
line of nerves (the motor nerves), an order (or stimulus) to certain muscles to
move. Such a movement will be by reflex action that is, the impulse will
be immediately reflected back. (2) Instead of acting on its own account, it
may merely transmit the message on to another and more important nerve
centre to decide what answer will be given. (3) It may use a portion of its
transmitting power in reflex action, and a part of it in reporting the matter
to head-quarters.

Besides the power which nerve centres have of exciting the muscles to
move in response to a stimulus received from the sensory nerves, they can, by
their own initiative, make their motor nerves stimulate to movement the
muscles which are supplied with these particular motor nerves.

The chief nerve centres that are connected with the muscles of loco-
motion, are grouped together in a long column which fills the brain cavity and
spinal canal, and may be divided into the brain and spinal cord.

The spinal cord, though it is formed of a number of nerve centres, is the
chief conducting medium by which impressions received by the senses are
conveyed to the brain, and is the means by which orders from the brain are
transmitted to the muscles of the limbs.

We may divide the brain into the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, and
the cerebrum.

THE BRAIN. 43

The medulla oblongata connects the other two portions of the brain with
the spinal cord. It is the nervous centre of the function of breathing.
Animals, for purposes of experiment, have had their spinal cord, and the
whole of their brain, except the medulla, removed, and yet they have continued
to breathe and live. But were the medulla injured, death from inability to
breathe would at once ensue.

The cerebellum appears to be the organ of muscular sense and of combined
muscular effort. By its muscular sense the animal can tell, from experience,
the amount of muscular force required in performing its various voluntary
movements. We cannot, by an effort of will, move any one particular muscle
of our body; but we can cause our limbs to perform definite movements
which will require the combined action of various muscles, and which are
under the control of the cerebellum.

The cerebrum is the organ of intellect, thought, and will. " Removal of
the cerebrum in the lower animals appears to reduce them to a condition of
a mechanism without spontaneity. A pigeon from which the cerebrum has
been removed will remain motionless and apparently unconscious unless
disturbed. When disturbed in any way, it soon recovers its former position.
When thrown into the air it flies " (Kirke's Physiology). The cerebrum
appears to be the organ in which a conclusion or thought is formed from a
message or number of messages proceeding from the senses. If, for instance,
a man standing near a horse's hind quarters touches him with a stick, and
if the animal kicks the stick, he will perform, more or less, a reflex action.
If, however, the horse recognises who the real offending party is, and kicks
the man ; he will have drawn a conclusion from the message received from
his sense of feeling and of sight, and will have acted on such conclusion,
which would certainly be an effort of reason.

Among the intellectual faculties, of which the cerebrum is the special
organ, we have, prominently, reason and memory. Although the horse is
greatly deficient in the former, which is by far the higher faculty of the two,
he possesses the latter in special excellence.

The cerebrum is placed immediately underneath the forehead, at the
centre of which it is covered by only a thin plate of bone. The cerebellum,
which, in the horse, is a great deal smaller than the cerebrum, lies below the
(occipital crest) top of the head, when the face is held at an angle of about
45 with the ground.

The proportion which the weight of the brain bears to that of the
spinal cord, is regarded by many as a fair guide to the intellectual
capacity of an animal. The following is a list of a few examples of the

44 SKETCH OF THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

average number of times the brain is heavier than the spinal cord in certain
animals :

In man . ' . . . . . 33

dog . . 5-14

cat . 375

ass . 2-40

pig 2 '30

horse . .... 2-27

ox . . . . . . 2*18.

The order of intellectual capacity given in the above table, agrees with
the conclusions I have drawn from my own experience with these animals.

( 45

CHAPTER V.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING.

THE body of the horse (see Fig. 4), viewed apart from his
head, neck, limbs, and tail, may be divided into chest and

Larynx
' Gullet

Kidneys

Ureters

.Rectum,

Posterior cwrta>

Lungs
Stomach

FIG. 4. INTERNAL ORGANS OF HORSE.

abdomen (belly), the former containing the lungs and heart ;
the latter, the stomach, intestines, liver, bladder, and other

46 MECHANISM OF BREA THING.

vital organs. This division is effected by a broad and some-
what bell-shaped muscle, the diaphragm or midriff, which is
attached, round its margin, to the ends of the last twelve ribs,
to the rearmost extremity of the breast-bone, and to the spine
under the loins ; while its apex or centre projects forwards.
When it contracts, it tends to become flat, and thus enlarges
the capacity of the chest by pushing back the contents of the
abdomen. Its action, especially during forced breathing, is
aided by that of another muscle, which is attached by one
end to the last four neck vertebrae, and by the other to the
first rib, which it pulls forward on contracting, and in this
manner helps to increase the size of the chest.

Air is taken into, and expelled from, the lungs by means
of the alternate increase and diminution of the capacity of
the chest. When the former act occurs, the air contained in
the lungs becomes rarefied, and consequently the external air
rushes in through the animal's nostrils to restore the balance
of pressure. When the latter takes place, a portion of the
air which is already in the lungs is forced out. It is evident,
therefore, that the power of taking a large volume of air
into the lungs at each breath, is more dependent on the
difference between the respective capacities of the chest when
expanded, and contracted, than on the actual size of the chest
itself.

The act of breathing is called respiration ; that of ex-
pelling air from the lungs, expiration ; and that of drawing it
in, inspiration.

The chest is enlarged by the diaphragm, as we have seen ;
and also by muscles which pull the middle pieces of the
ribs forward, so as to make the cavity wider from side to side,
and consequently to increase its size. The ribs are drawn

FORCED BREATHING. 47

forward by muscles which cover them, and by others which
are situated between the successive pairs of ribs. The lower
ends of some of the ribs are also drawn up during the act of
inspiration. On page 35, I have remarked on the power the
ribs have of pivotting on their ends. I may point out that
when the air which is within the chest becomes rarefied at the
commencement of the act of inspiration, the lungs themselves
passively dilate, and thus allow the incoming air to gain
ready access to the bronchial tubes and air-cells.

When the animal is at rest, the elastic recoil of the ribs
and lungs is sufficient to expel the tidal air, as the amount
changed at each breath is called. The volume of air which
remains in the lungs after expiration greatly exceeds perhaps
five or six times that of the tidal air.

In forced breathing, as during active movement, several
muscles which are not employed for tranquil respiration, are
called into play, particularly those used in forced expiration,
as we may see by the heaving flanks of an animal which is
" blown." The muscles that cover the ribs and belly, aid in
forced expiration by compressing these parts, and thereby
causing the walls of the chest to " fall in," and the contents of
the abdomen to project forward into that cavity. Quick
work naturally develops the muscles of forced respiration.

I may point out that the muscles of the flank (known
to anatomists as the great and small oblique, and the trans-
verse) aid in respiration. Consequently, when they are well
developed, the flank is not so hollow as it would be if they
were weak.

I may mention that no hard and fast line can be drawn
between tranquil and forced breathing ; although the broad
differences between them are clearly marked.

48 MECHANISM OF BREA THING.

In order that the horse may have his breathing power
fully developed, it is necessary that the capacity of the chest
at the end of an act of expiration, should differ as much as
possible from what it will be at the termination of the act of
inspiration. For this reason the chest should be deep, the
ribs well arched, and, at the same time, they should have a
good inclination to the rear. The back ribs should be long,
so as to augment the size of the chest ; and the muscles which
move the ribs, as well as the muscles of the belly, should be
largely developed. I shall further allude, in Chapter XVII.,
to the shape of the chest and ribs.

( 49 )

CHAPTER VI.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORSE'S BODY.
Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs Centre of Gravity.

Comparative Weight borne by the Fore and Hind Limbs.

General Morris, of the French Army, appears to have been the first to make
experiments as to the distribution of weight between the fore and hind limbs
of the horse. He found that, taking one animal with another, it is as five is
to four ; and that the fact of the neck being long, as in the thoroughbred,
causes more weight to be thrown on the forehand, than when that part is
short and massive, as in the heavy cart-horse. The proportion which he
obtained from an average of eleven horses that had light heads and necks
the latter being presumably long was as four is to three. M. Colin puts the
average at fully three to two. MM. Goubaux and Barrier have proved by a
number of careful trials, that the lower the withers are, as compared to the
croup, the greater is the proportion of weight supported by the fore limbs ;
and vice versa. This is agreeable to what we might have inferred from the
manner in which the horse raises his croup to kick, or his withers to rear.
As the hind half of the trunk is, in all classes, heavier than the fore half, it
follows that the extra weight in front is mainly due to the fact of the head and
neck being in advance of the fore legs. The longer the body, and the heavier
the belly, the more will this distribution of weight be equalised.

Centre of Gravity. The centre of gravity of a body is an imaginary
point in that body, so placed that if the body be supported immediately
underneath the centre of gravity, it will be in equilibrium (or rest). Con-
sequently, if a body be balanced at a point on its surface, a perpendicular
line drawn from that point will pass through the centre of gravity ; and the
intersection of two or more such lines will determine the position of the centre
of gravity. If the body be of uniform density, the position of the centre of

So DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT IN THE HORS&S BODY.

gravity will be the same as that of the centre of the figure ; but if it be
heavier at one side than at the other, the centre of gravity will be nearer
the former than the latter. For instance, in ships, with the view of
obtaining increased security from an upset, the centre of gravity is placed
below the centre of the hull. If, for example, we want to ascertain the
position of the centre of gravity of a loaded club, we may take one line
through its axis, and another across it, at the point where it balances, when
placed horizontally. The lower the centre of gravity of a body, the more

FIG. 5. POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.

stable will be its equilibrium, as we may see by experimenting with a loaded
stick of uniform thickness ; firstly, balanced on its light end, and, secondly,
on its heavy extremity.

In the living animal, the position of the centre of gravity is constantly
changing, on account of the manner in which the respective positions of the
various parts alter, especially during movements of the head and neck.

Professor Colin, the well-known author of Physiologic Comparee des Ani-
maux Domestiques, remarks that " the centre of gravity, the exact position of

POSITION OF CENTRE OF GRA VITY. 51

which has never been determined, nearly corresponds, in the horse, to the
intersection of two lines one, vertical, falling behind the xiphoid appendage
[cartilage at rearmost point of the breast bone] of the sternum ; the other,
horizontal, dividing the middle third from the lower third of the body."
Fig. 5, which I have taken from MM. Goubaux and Barrier's work, is drawn
in conformity with M. Colin's remarks. The point of intersection of the two
dotted lines in this figure, shows the position of the supposed centre of gravity.
We may readily see that the less deep is a horse's body, compared to his
length of leg in other words, the more "daylight" he has under him the
higher and more unstable will be his centre of gravity ; and vice versa. Taking
the foregoing remarks with those on the effect which instability of equilibrium
has on speed (see p. 67), we may conclude that the faster the horse, other
things being equal, the greater will be the proportion of weight on his
forehand.

E 2

52 LEVERS.

CHAPTER VII.

LEVERS.

Definition First Order Second Order Third Order Relations between the
Power and Weight in Levers Comparisons between Power and Weight in
Muscular Levers Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively
Act.

THE movements of the limbs are due to the working of various levers, formed
by the bones and acted upon by the muscles.

Definition. A lever is a rigid bar which has a fulcrum, or fixed point,
so arranged that movement can be communicated to a weight at another
point on it, by a power acting on a third point on the bar. Agreeably to the
relative positions of the fulcrum (F), weight (W), and power (P), we have the
three following orders of levers.

First Order. P.F.W. (see Fig. 6), as when two persons make a
see-saw by sitting on the opposite ends of a plank which rests on some
convenient fulcrum. We have this order of lever in the bones from the

W F P

W P

FIG. 6. FIRST ORDER OF LEVER.

point of the hock to the foot, when a horse kicks out with a hind leg (see
Fig. 30).

Second Order. P.W.F (see Fig. 7). A wheel-barrow, when lifted in
the usual manner, furnishes us with an instance of this lever ; the ground on

THIRD ORDER OF LEVER. 53

which the wheel rests being the fulcrum ; the barrow, the weight ; and the
arms of the person who lifts the handles, the force. We have another example
in an oar employed to row a boat ; the water being the unstable fulcrum,
and the rowlock being the point through which the weight (the boat) is
pushed forward. The bones and muscles which I have taken to illustrate

FIG. 7. SECOND ORDER OF LEVER.

the first order of lever will serve our turn here, if we imagine the power to
be exerted in propelling the body to the front, through the tibia (the bone
that is situated between the hock and stifle), while the toe rests on the
fulcrum formed by the ground (see Fig. 31).

Third Order. W. P. F. (see Fig. 8). This form of lever occurs in a fish-
ing rod, with which a man tries to lift a heavy trout out of the water. The
weight is at the point of the rod ; the fulcrum, at the butt, is formed by one
hand ; and the power is supplied by the other hand, a little above the butt.
We have this lever in the bones below the hock, when the horse bends that

FIG. 8. THIRD ORDER OF LEVER.

joint by lifting his feet off the ground (see Fig. 32). Here, the power is
derived from the muscle which is placed in front of the tibia ; the weight is
that of the limb below the hock ; and the fulcrum is formed by the tibia. I
may remark in passing that the os calcis does not come into this lever, except
in counterbalancing, to some slight extent, the weight of the leg below the
hock.

54 LEVERS.

Relations between the Power and Weight in Levers.

The farther the power is from the fulcrum, the greater will be the mechanical
advantage at which it will act ; and vice versa. Thus, if one arm of a
see-saw is longer than the other, a comparatively light weight at the
end of the former will counterbalance a heavy one at the extremity of the
latter. Also, the longer an oar is " in-board," as in an outrigger, the greater
will be the power which a rower will have. If we apply this principle to the
horse, we shall see that the longer is the os calcis (see Figs. 30 and 31),
the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the muscles of the
gaskin will act in kicking or propelling the body forward. As length of os
calcis gives increased leverage in the hind limb, so does length of trapezium
afford it in the fore leg.

If we wish to express these relations mathematically, we have the
following proportions for the three orders of levers.

Here, w F is the distance of the point of application of the weight from
the fulcrum j and p F, the distance of the power from the fulcrum.

Comparisons between Power and Weight in Muscular
Levers. We may observe that the power always acts at a mechanical
disadvantage in levers of the third order. As the majority of the levers
which are used in animal locomotion, act at a mechanical disadvantage ; I
shall now investigate the cause of this apparent anomaly. I may first remark
that the measure of work done by a force is found by multiplying the
weight by the distance through which it has been moved. Thus, suppose
two men are engaged in raising weights, one having a single block pulley
to lift a weight of 25 Ibs., while the other, to raise 100 Ibs., uses a multiplying
block which increases the power fourfold; the former will raise his 25 Ibs.
4 ft. oft" the ground in the same time and with the same expenditure of force
as the latter will lift his 100 Ibs. to a height of i ft. In fact, what is gained
in power is lost in distance. This law holds equally good with levers, as
we may see from the fact, for instance, that a small amount of contraction of
the muscle which bends the hock, causes the hind foot to move through a
considerable space. Were the hock bent, for example, by a muscle that had
its two points of attachment at the stifle and fetlock (instead, as is actually
the case, at the stifle and a little below the hock), such muscle would act at

POWER AND WEIGHT. 55

far greater mechanical advantage than the present flexor of the hock; but
it could not bend that joint to anything like the same extent, because
muscles cannot contract to more than about two-thirds of their normal length.
Besides, such an arrangement would be extremely inconvenient for every-
day work, and would increase the liability of the limb to injury. Although
there is, therefore, a very large expenditure of muscular force in the action
of the levers of the limbs; there is an equally large gain in flexion and
extension, and consequently in speed. This arrangement, also, enables the
body to be made of a compact form, and to be suited to its surroundings.

Directions in which the Power and Weight respectively
Act. In the theoretical levers which I have given (see Figs. 6, 7, and 8), I
have assumed that the power and weight acted at right angles to the lever, and
that they were consequently parallel to each other. In the actual levers
(those of the hock) which I have taken into consideration, we may see that this
is not the case. I may mention that the nearer a force is to being at right
angles with its lever, the greater is the mechanical advantage at which it will
work. If, in a lever of the first order, for instance, we have the power and
weight, as in Fig. 9, acting in directions which are not parallel to each other,

FIG. 9. LEVER OF FIRST ORDER WITH DIRECTIONS OF POWER AND WEIGHT
OBLIQUE TO EACH OTHER.

such forces (if the lever be in equilibrium) will then be inversely propor-
tionate to the length of the perpendiculars drawn to their respective direc-
tions. Thus in Fig. 9 we have P : W : : F d\ F*. We therefore see that W,
which is nearly at right angles to a b, acts much more advantageously than
P, which is in a much more oblique direction to it. This would be equally
true in the other two kinds of levers. I need not stop to prove the foregoing
well-known mechanical law, as its solution can be found in any book
<:n elementary statics.

56 LEVERS.

Acting on the principle just enunciated, the cart-horse, with the view of
obtaining all the mechanical advantage he can when trying to draw a heavy
load, will naturally endeavour to move the levers of his limbs (when
straightening them out) with the power, as nearly as possible, at right angles
to each respective lever. Hence he will obtain his results by only slight
bending of the joints, and consequently his steps will be short. We may see
this action of the levers of the hind limbs well shown by the manner in which
he will crouch down behind when he makes a strong effort with his hind
legs while exerting the fore legs but little, as may occur when the roadway is
slippery. The galloper, on the contrary, will require the power of straightening
out his limbs to their utmost extent (see p. 63), and will thus obtain speed
at a lavish expenditure of muscular effort. This is especially well shown
in the action of the fetlock joint (see Fig. 29) ; for if the pastern be long
and sloping, the mechanical disadvantage will be great, but the gain in
speed will be equally large. If the pastern be upright, the fetlock will
work advantageously as far as the weight to be moved is concerned ; but
it will contribute little to the attainment of speed.

CHAPTER VIII.

MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

Displacement of the Centre of Gravity Manner in which Propulsion is effected by
the Limbs Direction of Propulsion, and Distance through which the Centre
of Gravity of^the Body is moved Comparative Speed in the Action of the
Limbs Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae Width between
each respective Pair of Legs as affecting Speed Effect of Insecurity of Equili-
brium on Speed Fatigue from the various Paces Action of the Head
and Neck in Locomotion Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint Mechanism of
the Hock Joint.

THE remarks made under this heading should be taken in connection with
those in the following five chapters. Some which are here given are necessary
for the proper comprehension of the movements of the horse in his various
paces ; but others, in order that they may be understood, have been kept
back, until the paces and draught have been discussed.

Displacement of the Centre of Gravity. The actions which
give rise to locomotion in the horse may be summed up as follows :
Advancement of a limb in order to bring a new base of support under
the centre of gravity. Let us suppose that the man represented in Fig. 10
is standing with one foot advanced more than the other. His base of
support (a b) will then be the area bounded by his feet and the lines joining
them at each side. As long as the perpendicular (/) dropped from the
centre of gravity falls within the base of support, the equilibrium of the
body will be maintained. If the man, in this example, brings the centre of
gravity of his body forward by straightening his left ankle joint, so that the
perpendicular from the centre of gravity shall fall beyond the base of support
(see Fig. n); it will be evident that in order to prevent the body from
falling, he will have to bring the rear leg (which in this case is the left one)
beyond the perpendicular dropped from the centre of gravity (see Fig. 12).
Precisely the same actions take place when the horse starts from the halt into
the walk ; for, by the straightening of one or both hind legs, he brings the

MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

centre of gravity of his body beyond the toe of the most advanced fore foot,
with the result that the other fore leg has to be carried forward in order to restore
the equilibrium. In doing this, the first foot to quit the ground will usually
be a fore one. I may remark that a succession of these displacements and

..a

FIG. ii.

FIG. 12.

FIG. 10.
DISPLACEMENT OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MAN WHEN WALKING.

recoveries will constitute the walk, run, or other pace. The same movements
occur in leaping, except when the spring is made vertically upwards from
a state of rest, in which case the centre of gravity is not displaced beyond
the base of support.

Manner in which Propulsion is Effected by the Limbs.

The displacement of the centre of gravity, in the propulsion of the body,
is accomplished by the straightening out of the limb or limbs, as the case
may be. We can readily see how this gives the required impetus, if we
consider the manner in which the shove-off is done by an expert swimmer in
a bath, when he comes to the end of it, and wishes to touch, turn, and strike
off without loss of time. He, as we all know, will, as much as possible, draw
up the leg with which he is going to give the shove-off, and having applied it
to the side of the bath (see Fig. 13), will suddenly straighten it out, with
the result that his body will be shot forward (see Fig. 14). Here, the
drawn-up leg, which acts as a spring, is placed between two objects : one
(the body) movable, the other (the side of the bath) immovable. When
the leg is extended, the movable object is naturally the one to be displaced.
Identically the same action occurs in the various progressive movements of
the horse. We may see it, also, in the run of the pedestrian, which is depicted

FORWARD PROPULSION OF BODY.

FIG. 13. FIG. 14.

SHOVE-OFF FROM SIDE OF SWIMMING-BATH.

FIG. 15. FIG. 16. FIG. 17.

FORWARD PROPULSION OF MAN WHEN RUNNING.

FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21.

FORWARD PROPULSION OF MAN IN STANDING LEAP.

MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

in Figs. 15, 1 6 and 17 ; for the right leg, which is a good deal bent in Fig. 15,
is nearly straight in Fig. 16. The straightening of the limb or limbs, in
effecting the forward propulsion of the body, is even better shown in Figs. 18,
19, 20 and 21, which depict the standing leap.

I may mention that the propulsion of the hind limb of the horse takes
place through the hip joint and pelvis. The impetus from the fore leg at the
various paces may be regarded as through the elbow joint and humerus.

FIG. 23.

FIG. 24.

FIG. 25.
RUNNING HIGH LEAP OF MAN.

DIRECTION OF PROPULSION.

Direction of Propulsion and Distance through which
the Centre of Gravity of the Body is Moved. The direction
of the propulsion given by a limb is necessarily through its column of bones.
If we examine all the illustrations of the progressive movements of the
horse, from Fig. 39 to Fig. 151, we shall see that in every case, just before
a limb leaves the ground, it is directed backward and downward, as, for
instance, the near hind in Fig. 54, and the off fore in Fig. 101. Hence the
direction of propulsion in these cases must be forward and upward. The
speed at which the body is moving will greatly influence the direction of
the propulsion. Thus in Fig. 23, which is one of the series (Fig. 22 to
Fig. 26) that shows the running high leap of a man, the impetus from the
right leg is given vertically ; yet the centre of gravity is projected forward at
about an angle of 45 to the ground. The reason for this is, that in this
case there are two forces of projection, namely, that derived from the

a 6

FIG. 27. ANGLE OF PROJECTION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.

extension of the right leg, and that due to the speed at which the pedestrian
ran up to the jump before he " took off." We have here the operation of
" the parallelogram of forces." Thus, if the line a b in Fig. 27 represents the
horizontal force (derived from the speed) and a c the vertical one (obtained
from the right leg), and if we draw c d parallel to a b, and b d parallel to a c,
we shall have the resultant force -represented by the line a d, and the angle
of elevation, equal to the angle dab.

The upward motion given by the limb to the body is necessary to keep up
the centre of gravity, which, if we wish the labour to be accomplished with a
minimum amount of muscular effort, should be maintained as nearly as
possible at one uniform height from the ground ; for the distance through
which the centre of gravity is moved, will be a measure of the work done.
Let us suppose at each step of a yard long by a horse, that the centre of

62 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

gravity falls 4 inches, and that the animal has to go a distance of 1000 yards
on a horizontal plane. It is evident that, in this case, the muscles of the
horse's limbs would not alone have to carry the weight of the body 1000
yards, but would also have to raise it 333^- feet (1000 x 3-), which would be
approximately equivalent to going over a hill that was 333 J feet high and
whose base was 1000 yards broad. I need hardly say that the less the fall
and rise at each step, the lower this supposititious hill would be, and,
consequently, the easier it would be to walk over.

Although the duty of forward propulsion is chiefly performed by the hind
limbs ; the greater part of the work of adjusting the position of the centre of
gravity during ordinary locomotion, falls on the fore limbs. When a horse,
for instance, performs the high -school feat of cantering to the rear, the
respective roles would obviously be reversed. The question of the adjustment
of the centre of gravity of the body, so that the muscles of locomotion may
act to the best possible advantage, will be considered further on.

Comparative Speed in the Action of the Limbs. The

speed with which the body is projected forward, is directly proportionate to
the speed with which the limb or limbs are straightened out, and has
nothing to do with the strength of the muscles that move the parts. Hence,
any excess of muscular development beyond that required for the due
working of the limbs, will tend to diminish the speed by unnecessarily adding
to the weight to be carried. For this reason, we never see great race-
horses of the weight-carrying hunter build. Some of the best (St. Simon and
Tim Whiffler, for instance) have been slight horses. In fact, the son of
Galopinand St. Angela (see Pis. 7 and 18) had singularly light hind quarters.
Even Ormonde, who was very muscular for a race-horse, was anything but
broad when viewed from behind (see Frontispiece).

The question of the speed of muscular contraction is an abstruse one
which still remains unsettled. We know that if a muscle be stimulated by a
shock of electricity, it will contract throughout its entire length at (practically)
the same moment. Hence, under this condition, a long muscle would
contract very nearly in the same time as a short one. When, however, a
muscle is stimulated by the nerves which act in obedience to the will, the
contraction of its various parts does not take place simultaneously, though
at such a brief interval that we may regard the delay as unappreciable.
Hence, in two limbs which resemble each other in every particular, except
that one is short and the other long, the respective extension of both will be
accomplished in very nearly the same time, and consequently, the speed of

STRAIGHTENING OF THE LIMBS IN LOCOMOTION. 63

the propulsion derived from the long leg will exceed that from the short
one in nearly the proportion which their lengths bear to each other. This
conclusion is in accordance with M. Marey's statement (see p. 4), that
muscles of speed are long muscles. Besides this, physiology teaches us
that the thicker muscles are, the slower, other things being equal, do they
contract on becoming stimulated ? We should content ourselves with taking
a broad view of this subject ; for conditions vary so much in individual cases,
that it is not safe to dogmatise on it.

I need hardly say to those of my readers who have followed me so far,
that the greater the ability to straighten the leg, the higher will be the speed
of propulsion, and vice versd. Hence, if a horse is, for instance, unable from
peculiarity of conformation to straighten his hocks (a condition called " sickle-
hocks," see PL 49), he will not be so fast as he would have been, had he
greater freedom in these joints. We may test the truth of this principle in our
own selves; for if, when swimming in a bath (see p. 58), we wanted to touch
and turn, but were unable to straighten our knee on account of an injury
or from some other cause, we would be capable of giving only a comparatively
poor kick-off. The great beauty of a " straight dropped hind leg " (see PL
51), in the horse, as a conformation favourable to speed, will again be
alluded to on p. 236.

The action of the fore limb in raising the forehand, which is essential for
the regulation of the position of the centre of gravity in locomotion, is also
dependent on its difference of length when bent and when straightened out.
It is manifest that this difference is mainly due to the action of the shoulder
joint and of the fetlock. Hence, oblique shoulders and sloping pasterns are
" points " of speed and of leaping power. If the shoulder-blade and pastern be
already upright, the limb will be capable of but slight extension.

In heavy draught, full straightening out of the limbs is not desirable ; for
the last part of this action is accomplished at a great mechanical disadvan-
tage, to which I have alluded on page 56. At present it is sufficient to
compare the action of the limbs to that of the oars of a boat, in which the
practically useful work is finished after the oars have passed the line at right
angles to the length of the boat ; the remainder of the propulsive effect being
obtained by a wasteful expenditure of force. Consequently, an increase of
speed is procured by an amount of work that is greatly out of proportion to
the result. Thus, to double the speed during a certain period of time, it may
be necessary for the horse to do five or six times the amount of muscular
exertion. For instance, it may be more fatiguing for a horse to go twenty miles
in one hour, than fifty miles in five hours. The cart-horse, when in heavy

64 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

draught, moves his load with his hind limbs in a more or less bent condition
(see Fig. 72), which will give his hind quarters the crouching appearance
which must be familiar to us all. Sloping pasterns from a load-pulling point
of view are objectionable in the cart-horse ; for the more oblique they are, the
greater is the mechanical disadvantage at which they work (see p. 69).
Sloping shoulders, also, from the same point of view, are undesirable.

Action of the Muscles which extend the Vertebrae.

When a horse prepares to kick, he, as a general rule, lowers his head and
arches his loins (" puts his back up " ), by doing which he relieves his hind
quarters of weight and puts it on his forehand. When, on the contrary, he
prepares to rear, he raises his head and neck and more or less hollows his
loins, so as to lighten his forehand and put more weight on his hind quarters.
If we examine Figs. 81 and 82 of the canter, Figs. 90 to 94 of the gallop,
and Figs. 140 to 144 of the leap, we shall see that the muscles which
enable a horse to rear, greatly aid the forward reach of the fore legs in
the canter and gallop. Also, the heavier the forehand, the greater difficulty
will they have to raise it In the leap, they assist the leading fore leg in
raising the forehand. If the horse carries a rider, these muscles will have an
increased amount of work to do on account of extra weight being put in front,
and will tire in a proportionately rapid rate. On examining the drawings
of horses in Chapter XII. at the various paces, we shall see that the faster
the movement, the more will these muscles be taxed, on account of the greater
distance of the centre of gravity from the hind feet, while one or both of which
support and propel forward the weight of the body. Hence we find that to
gallop fast or to jump " big," a horse must have good " rearing muscles," which
consist principally of those which straighten the hock, draw back the thigh,
and extend the vertebrae of the loins. These muscles also help to " lighten "
the forehand in the flying trot and fast " pacing," in both of which there is a
period of suspension, which will vary in length according to the weight that is
on the forehand. From these considerations I may lay down the law that the
faster the speed required, the stronger should the " rearing muscles " be. The
pair of them (one on each side) that is most readily noticed, is the loin
muscles, which in the ox constitute the upper cut of a sirloin, and which, in
the horse, we may see just behind the cantle of the saddle. I need hardly
say that the heavier the shoulder, the sooner will these muscles become tired ;
the shorter will be the stride ; and the slower will be the pace. Consequently,
horses for fast work ought to have light shoulders. Carrying out the same
train of reasoning, we may see that the longer a horse's body, the greater will

WIDTH BETWEEN THE LEGS. 65

be the mechanical disadvantage at which these muscles will work ; hence, a
short body is a desirable point in the race-horse and jumper.

The combined working of oblique shoulders, w r ell-sloped pasterns and
strong rearing muscles, by preventing the forehand going down at each
stride, aids in obtaining the much admired " level " action in the race-horse.
An animal which has a long body, heavy shoulders, upright pasterns, and
weak loins (showing deficiency in the points just advocated), will, if he
be put to a gallop, go in an up-and-down style ; because his rearing muscles
will be over-taxed by the weight of the forehand at the end of the long lever
made by his body, and because his fetlock joints will have deficient " play."

I may remark that, although the loin muscles appear to be almost
quiescent during easy walking and gentle trotting, they may be observed to
act energetically in flexing and extending the loins when the animal is
leaping, galloping, and when his powers are taxed in drawing a heavy load.
Any one who has ridden races or gallops on speedy thoroughbreds, wdll know
from experience the immense power behind the saddle possessed by animals
of this class ; for the rider cannot fail to feel the vigorous " lift " given by
the loins at each stride.

It is a popular fallacy to imagine that the muscles over the loins are
propellers. They have no propelling power at all; for they are not con-
nected either with the thigh bone, or with any of the bones of the limb below
it ; their office in locomotion being merely to regulate the weight on the
forehand. I may mention that the muscles (those which constitute the under-
cut in a saddle of mutton, or in sirloin of beef) under the loins draw the thigh
forward.

"Width, between each respective Pair of Legs as affecting
Speed. Let us suppose that the rectangle abed (see Fig. 28) diagram-
matically represents the body of the horse ; that the fore limbs are placed
at the angles a and b ; that the hind limbs are at d and e; and that
the centre of gravity is at c. Were both fore legs and both hind legs to
act respectively at the same moment, we would have the centre of gravity
moved in a straight line, and in the direction in which the animal's body was
placed. In the amble (see p. 101), the propulsion is given through a and
</, and through b and e alternately, with the result, in the former case,
that the centre of gravity is displaced to the right, and in the latter to the
left. In the trot (see p. 97), the alternate strokes are through a and ^, and
b and d. If these respective propulsions, in the trot, were equal to each
other, and if the centre of gravity were midway between the fore and hind

MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

legs, there would be no displacement of it from side to side. As however the
impetus derived from the hind limb is greater than that from the fore leg,
and as the centre of gravity is nearer the latter than the former, there is a
certain tendency to lateral displacement, which has to be corrected by
muscular effort. This tendency to a rocking movement from side to side is
naturally greater in the amble than it is in the trot. In the gallop there is a
strong tendency to lateral displacement ; for at this pace each leg gives its
own separate stroke (see p. 112). When either of the near ones act, the centre
of gravity is canted to the right ; when the off ones make their respective
effort, it is thrown to the left. The retention of the centre of gravity in a
more or less straight line, entails a certain expenditure of muscular w T ork, and
consequent fatigue.

It is evident that the nearer (see Fig. 28) a is to , and d to tf, the less

FIG. 28. LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF BODY.

will be the lateral displacement of the centre of gravity, and the smaller
the loss of speed from this cause. Hence we find that in animals of great
speed, like the cheetah, antelope, greyhound, and race-horse, both the fore
and hind legs are respectively placed much closer together than in animals of
comparatively greater strength, but of slower movement. The faster the
pace (seep. 124), the more do the footprints of the horse tend to come into
the line of the direction in which movement is taking place. This principle
is well exemplified in man ; for all fast walkers, runners, and skaters try to
place the feet, at each step, as nearly as possible, in one straight line.

FATIGUE FROM THE VARIOUS PACES. 67

As I have already said, this tendency to lateral displacement of weight
is corrected to a certain extent, in his various paces, by the horse, who has,
however, to do it by a muscular effort, which is a lost force as regards
propulsion.

Effect of Instability of Equilibrium on Speed. The more
unstable the equilibrium is, during each step of the horse at any particular
pace, the greater will be the speed which can be developed at that pace,
whatever it may be. This follows from the fact that the more insecure is the
equilibrium, the quicker, when it is displaced, will the new base of support
have to be formed. Thus, in the walk of the horse (see p. 102) there are
never less than two feet on the ground ; three as often as two ; and
sometimes even four. In the canter (see p. 109), we have respectively in
three steps, a support of one foot, of two (or of three) feet, and of one foot.
In the trot and amble, there are two feet on the ground during each step.
From this we may conclude that the canter is a faster pace, naturally, than
the trot or amble. I am aware that this is not the case with many horses
which have been specially trained for match-trotting and match-pacing ; but
that fact does not bear on the subject in question. Of all paces, the gallop
is the one in which the equilibrium is most unstable ; for during each stride
of it, the centre of gravity is carried farther beyond the base of support (see
Fig. 10 1) than at any other pace. Besides, at each step in it, there are
fewer feet together on the ground than at any other pace.

As it is imperative that the body of an animal intended for speed should
be as light as possible, provided he has sufficient bone and muscle to meet
his requirements ; the preponderance of weight on the forehand should be
obtained by conformation, and not by any approach to " heaviness " in that part.

Fatigue from the various Paces. In comparing the fatigue
undergone during certain paces, we must be guided by the consideration of
the respective distances through which the centre of gravity of the body has
to be moved. Let us first of all consider its vertical, and afterwards its
horizontal, displacement out of the straight line of the direction in which it
has to travel. In the walk and at all other paces in which there is no
period of suspension (see p. 96), it is carried nearly parallel to the ground,
with only a slight fall when each fore leg is taken up. At paces in which
there is a period of suspension, the centre of gravity will have to be raised
just as much as it will fall during that time. This fact is best marked in
jumping ; for in making even a long leap, the centre of gravity will have to
be raised a considerable height. Thus, when Howard of Bradford, the

F 2

68 MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

famous jumper and sprinter, leaped over a full-sized billiard-table lengthwise,
he was computed to have cleared a height of five feet four inches. Hence,
animals like the antelope . and cheetah, which adopt, when going at full
speed, a leaping style of gallop (see p. 128), can keep it up only for a short
time. This fact is particularly well marked in the case of the kangaroo. For
the same reason, a horse can go a distance with more ease to himself at
a slow trot (which has no period of suspension), than at the flying trot
(see p. 98) or gallop (see p. 112), in both of which there is a period of
suspension. Not alone does the consideration of the comparative rise and
fall of the centre of gravity give us an idea of the relative fatigue undergone
during the various paces; but it also furnishes us with a guide to judge
of the comparative ease with which different horses move at the same pace.
Consequently, we may conclude that the more " level " a horse goes, whether
at the fast trot, gallop, or other pace, the less will he fatigue himself : a fact
which proves how thoroughly reasonable is the admiration every good judge
has for a " level " style of movement that is, one in which there is the least
possible rise and fall of the forehand at each stride. I have purposely used
the word " forehand " here. When noting whether the action of a horse is
level or not, we are usually guided by the presence or absence of up-and-down
motion in the forehand ; for the special prominence of the head and neck
will more or less rivet the attention of the eyes. Besides this, the centre of
gravity of the horse's body is nearer his fore legs than his hind ones.

I may mention that as soon as fast antelopes, like the Indian Black Buck
and South African Springbok, get tired in their bounding kind of gallop, they
" settle down " to one resembling that of the horse (see Figs. 90 to 105).
When the cheetah who, as far as I can make out, gallops like the cat
(see Figs. 126 to 131), in a succession of leaps becomes tired of that pace,
he drops into a walk or trot.

On page 66 I have alluded to the effects of the lateral displacement
of the centre of gravity in causing fatigue.

The pace which is the speediest, is also the most fatiguing ; for, as in fast
paces, the centre of gravity will be carried further beyond its base of support
than at slow ones, a greater muscular effort will be required in them to form
a new base of support. We may see this if we compare, one with another,
Figs. 42, 45, 55, 79, and 101.

Action of the Head and Neck in Locomotion. During
movement, the head and neck act as a balancing pole in changing the
position of the centre of gravity from one side to the other, and in raising or

MECHANISM OF THE FETLOCK JOINT.

depressing it. Certain muscles of the neck draw the fore limb forward and
upward ; other muscles of the neck straighten out the head and neck, and
a third group bend them.

Mechanism of the Fetlock Joint. As Lecoq explains, " the weight
of the body, transmitted by the cannon-bone upon the upper articulating
surface of the long pastern bone, is the resistance to be overcome. The
fulcrum is the ground at the toe of the foot, and the power acts upon the
sesamoid bones, which are at the back of the pastern ; the shortening of the
flexor muscles being the cause of the straightening of the angle formed by
their tendons." The diagram given in Fig. 2 9 will show how this lever (one of
the second order) acts. In it we see that the distance between the power
and weight remains constant; but that their respective distances from the
fulcrum vary according to the slope of the pastern and hoof, and according
to the length from the fetlock to the toe. Hence (see pp. 52 and 54), the shorter

FIG. 29. MECHANISM OF FETLOCK JOINT.

is this line, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the back
tendons will act ; and vice versa. On the other hand, we .may see that the
more is the mechanical gain, the worse will the fetlock act as a spring, which
function is all-important in saving the limb (especially the fore one) from
the injurious effects of concussion. It is evident that the distance of the
weight (or power) from the fulcrum (F) is influenced by the length and slope
of the pastern ; it being greatest when the pastern is long and oblique,
and least when that part is short and upright. I may point out that
increased growth of hoof, either at the toe or heel, will affect the slope
in question, and that the thickness of horn at the toe will, of course,
influence the length from the fetlock to the toe. As a practical point I may
remark that the toe (except in the treatment of some forms of disease) should

MECHANISM OF EQUINE LOCOMOTION.

always be kept " short," and that shoes should be no thicker at the toes than
what would be sufficient to enable them to stand " wear." I need not allude

further to this subject, as
Horse Owners.

I have considered it in my Veterinary Notes for

Mechanism of the Hock Joint. Figs. 30, 3 1 , and 32, show the three
actions of this joint as a lever.

Besides flexion and extension, this joint has an outward motion, due to
the outward and forward direction of the pulley formed by the astragalus.

FIG. 30. IST ORDER.

FIG. 31. 2ND ORDER.
LEVERS OF THE HOCK.

FIG. 32. 3RD ORDER.

We find, contrary to what we might have expected from an inspection of this
bone, that this oblique play of the hock joint does not affect the direction in
which the hind foot is carried ; its object being, as explained by M. H. Bouley,
to allow the stifle to clear the belly, when the hind limb is brought forward.

CHAPTER IX.

MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT.

DRAUGHT in the collar or breast-harness is, as explained by M. Colin, an act
of pushing, and not one of putting. The only kind of draught I have ever
heard of, which could be put under the latter heading, is that of making a
horse draw by attaching the weight to his tail, like what farmers in some
countries used to do long ago, when they wanted to plough !

Propulsion in draught, like in other forms of locomotion, is effected by
placing a series of levers, bent on one another, between a fixed point and a
movable one. In locomotion of the body itself, the series of levers are those
only of the limbs. The movable point, in the hind limb, is the portion of
the pelvis against which the head of the thigh bone rests ; and in the fore
extremity, the lower end of the humerus. In harness, on the contrary,
the series of levers is that between the spot against which the foot rests and
the centre of pressure on the inner surface of the collar, which, in this case,
is the movable point.

In Fig. 33, the line A B represents the direction of the propelling force
given by the hind leg which is on the ground ; and E B, that by the fore
limb ; B being the assumed centre of pressure. The resultant of these two
forces must pass somewhere between the points A and E, and through the
point B. But it is impossible to fix its exact direction ; as we cannot deter-
mine the respective amounts of these two forces, and as the proportion they
bear to each other continually varies. If two hind feet, as in Fig. 70, were
engaged in pushing against the collar at the same time, the direction of their
resultant would naturally pass between them and between the two points
occupied by the respective centres of pressure on each side of the collar.
From a practical point of view, we may assume that this centre of pressure,
on each side, is on a level with that portion of the harness to which each
respective trace is attached. This would place it somewhere between the
middle and lower third of the bearing surface of the collar.

MECHANISM OF DRA UGHT.

The force applied to the collar by the animal is obtained in two different
ways, first, by the weight of the animal, and second, by the force of propulsion
to which I have just alluded.

The weight of the animal acts on the collar by reason of the centre of
gravity being placed in front of the base of support (see p. 57), the anterior
limit of which is marked by the position of the toe of the fore foot which is
on the ground. It is evident that the further a perpendicular dropped from
the centre of gravity falls in front of the base of support, the more effectively

FIG. 33. MECHANISM OF DRAUGHT. (From Colin's Physiologic

will the weight of the body act in propulsion. This forward translation of
the centre of gravity with reference to the position of the base of support, is
influenced, first, by the degree of slope which the fore leg makes with the
ground immediately before it quits it, and before the other fore leg is brought
down ; and, second, by the lowering of the head and neck. I need hardly
say that horses with toe-pieces to their fore shoes can bring the centre of
gravity farther beyond the base of support, by the slope of the fore leg which
rests on the ground, than they could do with flat shoes ; supposing, of course,

PROPULSION IN DRA UGHT. 73

that the surface of the ground was not abnormally smooth and hard, like wood
or asphalte. From the foregoing considerations we may draw, with respect to
cart-horses that are required to exert their strength to the utmost, the following
deductions, which are fairly self-evident to practical men.

1. Bodily weight, especially in the forehand, is an advantage in draught ;
for the greater it is, the more effective will be the push against the collar
caused by the centre of gravity falling beyond the base of support. Agreeably
to this fact, the experienced driver of a heavily-laden two-wheeled cart will
endeavour to place a fair share of the burden on the animal's back, so that
the horse may pull to the best advantage. The experiment of a man
succeeding in pulling along a stronger man than himself, by trying to do so,
while carrying a heavy weight on his back, is another familiar instance of this
principle. The gain in power from increased weight on the forehand is, also,
well illustrated by the practice, which is not very uncommon among drivers
of one-horse carts, of the driver mounting his animal and getting well forward
on its back, when he finds that it is unable to pull its load up a hill.

2. The cart-horse ought to have a heavy neck as well as massive shoulders.
As a natural corollary to this proposition, which infers the lowering of the
head and neck, we must condemn the use of bearing reins with the class of
horse which we are now considering.

3. The shoes of the horse should have toe-pieces when the ground is
favourable to their employment.

On the other hand, when the horse, on account of the slippery nature of
the ground, is unable to use his fore legs, except to a very slight degree, as
propellers, the forehand should be light and the head carried high. Thus,
the weight has to be kept almost entirely off the shafts of London hansom
cab-horses, which would be rendered very liable to fall down on the greasy
wood pavement and glass-like asphalte, if a fair proportion of the load were
to be put on their backs. Not alone is weight kept off their backs, but as a
rule it is so distributed as to cause the backhand to exert on the " girth-
place " an upward pressure, which, naturally, will more or less aid in " lighten-
ing" the forehand.

The force of propulsion given by the hind limb is dependent on a series of
levers which extends from the toe of the hind foot, along the bones of the
hind leg, pelvis, spinal column, up to the centre of pressure on the inner side
of the collar. It is manifest that the flatter this irregular line of levers is,
with reference to the line of propulsion from the toe of the hind foot to the
collar, the greater will be the mechanical advantage at which the hind limb
will act. Consequently, we may infer that the cart-horse should be long

74 MECHANISM OF DRA UGHT.

in the body, as compared to his height ; that he should be lower over the
croup than he is at the withers ; and that he should not have a horizontal
croup. We should not, however, desire his hind quarters to be so drooping
as to cause him to be actually " goose-rumped " (see p. 233).

The amount of forward propulsion given by the fore limb varies according
to the position of the humerus ; for the more horizontal is this bone, the
more effective will be the push. As its degree of slope with the ground is
directly affected by that of the shoulder blade, it follows that the shoulders of
the cart-horse which has to fully exert the powers of his fore legs in propulsion,
should be more upright than sloping.

It is a well-known mathematical fact that the most advantageous direction
for the pull in draught to be, is one which makes an angle with the ground
equal to the angle of friction. I may explain that if, for instance, 10 was the
greatest slope of ground upon which a body could rest without sliding down,
its angle of friction would be equal to 10. The best direction then of the
traces would be at an angle to the ground equal to the angle of friction. In
many cases the pull of the traces is not at a sufficient angle to the ground, and
the work is consequently performed at a mechanical disadvantage, which might
be remedied by the employment of a taller horse than the one used, by having
smaller wheels, or by a change in the harnessing arrangement. For instance,
in such a case, instead of attaching the traces to the hooks on the shafts of a
dog-cart, they might be connected, as is sometimes done, to the axletree.
In the Indian ecka (see PL 8), the slope of the shafts, which act as traces,
appears to have been made with due regard to the angle of friction of this
cart with the ground.

( 75 )

CHAPTER X.

ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

Standing at Attention Standing Collectedly Standing at Ease Carriage
of the Head and Neck.

Standing at Attention. When a well-shaped and sound
horse stands at attention, if I may use the term, he has his
head and neck raised, ears pricked forward, the profile of the
face at an angle of about 45 to the ground, and at about a
right angle to the upper line of the neck (the crest) ; the
weight proportionately distributed on all four limbs ; and, as a
rule, the fore foot of one side not so far advanced as its
fellow, and its hind foot more to the front than the other hind
foot (see PL 35). If the hind feet be equally advanced, a
perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock will,
on the respective sides, about touch the point of the hock.
If one hind foot be placed in front of the other hind foot,
the vertical line will, more or less, divide the interval
between the points of the two hocks. As the weight of the
horse's head and neck is beyond the base of support formed
on the ground by his feet, he would " stand over " on his fore
legs that is, their direction would be downward and
backward if they were equally advanced, and if each of the
limbs was bearing its due share of weight. Hence, when one

7 6

A TTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

fore leg is advanced more than its fellow, and when it is
vertical, the animal will be somewhat over on the other fore
leg (see PI. 15).

French writers consider that when a horse stands with
the weight properly distributed on all his limbs, a line
dropped from each point of his buttock will coincide with the
posterior edge of his hind leg, from the point of the hock to
the fetlock ; and that the direction of the front legs will be
vertical, as in Fig. 34, which I have taken from MM. Goubaux

FIG. 34. LE PLACER.

and Barrier's UExterieur du Chevai. It may be possible to
make a horse assume this attitude (Fr. le placer] ; but I must
say I have never seen a horse adopt it. Fig. 35 is the near-
est approach in a well-bred horse to this position that I have
been able to get in a photograph, of which this illustration
is an exact copy.

In the front view of the horse when he is standing in an
unconstrained position, with his feet equally advanced and a
little distance apart the forearms will slightly converge, and

PL.9-WELL-SHAPED FORE LEGS. PL. 1O-TURNED-OUT TOES. PL. 11-TURNED-IN TOES.

PHOTO. BY M.H.HAYES

PL. 12-WELL-SHAPED HIND LEGS

PL. 13-UPRIGHT PASTERNS.

TO FACE PAGE 76

PL. 14-TURNED-IN HOCKS.

STANDING AT ATTENTION.

the cannon-bones will be about parallel to each other (see
PL 9). A vertical and longitudinal plane passing through
the centre of the knee and fetlock of each leg will cut the
centre of the toe. In PI. 10 the toes are turned out, and in
PL 1 1 they are turned in.

The rear view of the horse is shown in PL 12, in which
we can see that the hocks are slightly turned in and the toes

FIG. 35. STANDING AT ATTENTION.

a trifle turned out. The hind legs here depicted were
symmetrically shaped. Although I have devoted much care-
ful study to this subject, I can apply no geometrical rules to
determine, as some have done, the correct shape of the legs
from this point of view. It can, in my opinion, be judged
only by the trained eye of the observer I mean in deciding
whether the hocks are correctly placed, turned in, or turned
out. In PL 14 the hocks are, to a marked extent, turned in.

78 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

Standing " Collectedly." This is the position (see
Fig. 36) a horse assumes when he makes ready to move
quickly away from the place in which he is standing. His
hind feet will be well in front of a perpendicular line dropped
from the points of the buttocks, his fore feet will be brought
back more than usual, and he will stand more or less over
on them. His head and neck will be raised, and he will be
looking to his front, with his ears pricked forward, if he be
one of the quick, observant class.

FIG. 36. STANDING COLLECTEDLY.

Many persons who hold decided views on horse con-
formation, maintain that a true shaped horse will, when he
stands, have his hind legs " well under him," as in Fig. 36 ;
such a position being regarded by them as a point of con-
formation, and not as an attitude. To prove the fallacy of this
idea, I may mention that the same mare, photographed on
the same day, is shown in Fig. 36 and PL 15. In the former,
her hind legs are well under her, in the latter they are a little

STANDING A T EASE. 79

behind her ; the difference being merely one of position or atti-
tude. With reference to this subject, I need hardly say that
a horse may assume many attitudes, but he has only one
kind of conformation. On the other hand, however, we must
not ignore the fact that if a horse is unable to bend the joints
(the hocks, fetlocks and pastern joints are the ones which are
usually affected) of his hind limbs properly, he will naturally
refrain from bringing his hind feet forward, when standing or
moving to the front, as freely as he would do were his hind
limbs in good working order. In judging of this, we should
form our opinion more from the action of the animal during
movement, than from the position he takes up when
standing ; although both should of course be considered.

Standing at Ease. The sound horse will, almost
always, when standing at ease, have both fore feet equally
advanced, and with his weight chiefly on them ; for he can
obtain this support in front, without muscular effort on his part
(to which fact I shall presently again refer), and consequently
without fatigue. His head will be lowered, and will be sup-
ported by the suspensory ligament of the neck, the action of
which is also accomplished without fatigue (see p. 33). As the
hind limbs are unprovided with an apparatus by which they
can bear weight without fatigue, their muscles have to obey
the law which requires, for the health of muscular tissue, alter-
nate periods of rest and work. Hence, one hind limb is rested
by its joints being bent and its heel raised, while its fellow
supports the weight of the hind quarters. When the work-
ing limb becomes tired, the other one takes its turn of work ;
and so on.

The fore limbs of the horse are furnished with special

8o A TTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

fibrous bands (ligaments) which, during rest, take the weight
off the muscles that straighten the various joints. I may
here remind my readers that these ligaments are composed of
hard, inelastic, fibrous tissue, and act simply as strong cords
in connecting the parts together. The work they do being
entirely of a passive nature ; they do not get tired, like mus-
cles, the work of which is of an active form, and cannot be
continued without suitable intervals of rest. As an instance
of this "bracing" function of ligaments, I may mention that
the fetlock is passively supported during rest (taken in a
standing position) by an inelastic fibrous cord, which goes
behind the fetlock point, and is attached by one end to the
head of the cannon-bone, and by the other to the base of the
pedal bone. Not alone are the fore legs provided with these
special ligaments, to prevent the limbs from "doubling up" ;
but most of the muscles which straighten these limbs during
work are composed of a large amount of ligamentous fibres.
Such muscles, therefore, during their periods of rest, can
assume to some extent the functions of ligaments. In fact,
one powerful muscle in the fore leg of the dog is represented
in the horse by a ligament. Besides this, the muscles which
straighten the fore limb are not single, but multiple muscles,
one of which can take its turn at work, while its fellows rest.

This mechanism enables the horse to sleep standing
without extraneous support. It is clearly and exhaustively
described in Colin's Physiologic Comparte.

Carriage of the Head and Neck. The attitude
which the head and neck assume is determined by the
following considerations : ( i ) For the horse to be able to see
in the required direction. If we regard a horse that is stand-

CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD. 8t

ing at attention (see p. 75), and is looking straight in front
of him, we shall, as a rule, note that his neck is held in an
easy position, being neither stretched out nor drawn back,
and his head is placed so that the line of his face will make
an angle of about 45 to the ground. We may, therefore,
consider that the axis of each eye is at about that angle
to the line of the face. In man, the angle is about 90,
the difference between the two being chiefly one of brain
capacity. In the horse, the occipital crest, which is the
highest point of the horse's head, may be regarded as a
continuation of his forehead. In man, owing to the bulging-
out condition of the brain, it is placed at the back of the
head. When a horse wishes to take a good view of the
ground in front of him, he will, by the adjustment of his neck,
adopt a lofty carriage of the head, while keeping the line of
the face at an angle of about 45 to the ground. If he re-
quires his line of vision to be at about that angle to the
ground in order to see, for instance, an object six or seven
feet in front of his feet, he will bring the line of his face
perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground. Of course, the
axes of the eyes can be altered, more or less, without the
head being moved ; but the horse possesses such mobility
of head and neck that, when he is free, he will adjust his
line of vision principally by the movement of these parts.

It is therefore evident that if we want a horse, when
riding or driving him, to have a good look at the ground
over which he is about to go, we should allow him, or
endeavour to induce him, to carry his head at an angle of
about 45 to it. A more perpendicular carriage of the head
would be permissible only for school work, or for evolu-
tions in which freedom of movement has, to some extent, to

82 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

be sacrificed for obtaining thorough power of control. If the
angle which the face makes with the ground be much less than
45, the animal will not be able to see where he is going.

(2) To permit of free movement of the fore limbs. My
readers will remember that the shoulder-blade of the horse,
on each side, is connected to the body by muscles which
allow it to work backward and forward on the chest. The
shoulder-blade and humerus (see Fig. 3) being drawn forward
and upward by muscles of the neck ; it follows that the direction
of this pull will be regulated, to a great extent, by the direction
in which the horse carries his head. Hence, if we require
"lofty" shoulder action, we must get him to carry it com-
paratively high. If he carries it low down, only a slight
upward lift can be given to the shoulders. In such a
case, to make up for want of shoulder action, the horse
will probably increase his knee action, which is obtained
by muscles that have no power to move the shoulders.
Thus, we may see a horse who has free shoulder action and
gallops with a straight knee when he carries his head fairly
high, go in a " round " and cramped style, if he be permitted
or induced to carry his head low down. I may here explain
(as we may see by reference to the figures in Chapter XII.)
that in all paces, and especially in fast ones, in order to obtain
good forward reach, it is requisite that the fore limb should be
drawn upwards as well as forwards. The defect, as regards
want of safety, in the fore feet not being lifted sufficiently
off the ground by the play of the shoulder, may be com-
pensated for by increased knee action, which, however,
will have no effect in lengthening the stride ; but will, in
causing loss of time in putting down the fore feet, tend to
diminish the speed. As practical points directly connected

CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD. 83

with this subject, I may mention that the use of the curb bit
has been found to injuriously affect the action of race-horses
by, as a rule, making them carry their heads low down, and
consequently to gallop " round." Trainers of match-trotters
employ an " over-draw check-rein" (bearing rein) with horses
which do not carry their heads high enough, and which, on
that account, have too low action. The bearing rein is also,
in many cases, necessary for the attainment of that "extrava-
gant " action which is greatly sought for among fashionable
carriage horses : a fact which accounts for its retention in the
stables of the rich, despite the adverse criticism that is being
constantly directed against its use. As a rough guide to the
direction of the neck (supposing it to be straight or only
slightly bent) when the line of the face is at an angle of
about 45 to the ground, I may say that, at ordinary paces,
the upper part of the nostril should not be lower, or only
slightly so, than the top of the withers. In the fast gallop,
the horse will carry his head lower down than this, so as to
bring his weight forward, and thus to increase his speed (see
p. 67). This difference in the carriage of the head will be
evident, if we compare Figs. 8 1 to 89 with Figs. 90 to 105.
A fairly high carriage of the head, with the face at the
angle just mentioned, is a most desirable point in the cross-
country horse, who requires to obtain a good view of
the ground or obstacles in front of him, and to have free
shoulder action ; in other words, to be " light in front,"
which implies that his hind legs are well "under him."
If, on the contrary, we want a horse to rein back (see
p. 119), we should make him lower his head and bring
it perpendicular, or nearly so, to the ground, in order to
put weight on his fore legs and lighten his hind ones.

G 2

S4 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

Those of my readers who have studied high school riding,
will remember that, according to the teaching of Baucher, who
introduced many valuable improvements in military equitation,
the normal position of the head of the school horse was
perpendicular to the ground ; and that the head was carried
comparatively low. That admirable exponent of the modern
haute tcole, M. Fillis (see his Principes de Dressage], having
wisely rejected, even in the most elaborate airs de manege, this
artificial style, teaches that the school horse should carry his
head high and the muzzle well advanced out of the perpen-
dicular. If the head be carried too high ; forward reach will be
proportionately sacrificed to upward shoulder action, with con-
sequent loss of speed. Hence, jumpers, animals that require
to be clever over bad ground, such as pig-stickers and Colonial
stock horses, and those in which showy action is sought, such
as chargers, school horses, and park hacks, should carry their
heads higher than animals in which speed is the chief
consideration. The more the lift to the fore legs is obtained
by the play of the shoulders, and not by the mere raising of
the knees ; the safer, more brilliant, less fatiguing, and faster
will the action be in every class of horse.

The chief muscle which draws the fore limb (of each side)
forward and upward, is attached by one end to the humerus
and by the other to the top of the head. Other muscles that
draw the shoulder-blade forward and upward, are attached
to it and to the ligament of the neck, which stretches from
the withers to the top of the head. As muscles act
best when their points of attachment are wide apart ; the
horse, during rapid movement, regulates, under normal
conditions, the amount of the extension of his neck, according
to the speed at which he is going. In this case, the head

REGULATION OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 85

and neck are the fixed point ; the fore limb, the movable one.
As long, therefore, as the speed of any particular pace remains
uniform, the length of the neck (measured roughly from
withers to top of head) should continue unchanged. Con-
sequently, when riding or driving, if we desire the horse to
maintain a uniform rate of speed, we should keep a uniform
tension on the reins (note, for instance, the fixed position of
the hands of a capable lad from a racing stable when he is
riding a steady training gallop), and should not "give and
take" with them. If the speed be increased, the hands,
supposing their hold on the reins remains unaltered, should
be advanced, as may be required ; if it be decreased, they
should be drawn back. Thus, any alteration by the rider, of
tension on the reins which might impede the legitimate
movements of the neck, is avoided. As the joint which the
head makes with the atlas (first vertebra of the neck) is
situated some distance below the top of the head, it follows
that if the muzzle be unduly stretched out, the occipital crest
(top of the head) will be brought back, and the tension of
the ligament of the neck lessened, with consequent decrease
of power to the muscles which are attached to this ligament.
The muscle which is attached to the humerus and top of
the head, also would work to disadvantage if the muzzle were
stretched out to a greater extent than would bring the line
of the face to a right angle with the direction of this muscle,
which forms the upper border of the jugular groove. Even in
the fast gallop (vide Figs. 90 to 105), the horse rarely carries
his head at a less angle than 45 to the ground.

(3) To regulate the position of the Centre of Gravity.
The more the head is advanced to the front, the more
unstable will be the equilibrium, and the greater will be the

86 ATTITUDES OF THE HORSE.

speed during progression (see p. 67). Hence, the race-
horse, when galloping at full speed, will bring his head
forward as much as the other conditions which affect its
carriage will allow him to do. As I have before remarked,
the angle which his face makes with the ground will seldom
be less, even at the highest speed, than 45. The cart-horse,
if he has good foot-hold, will also, when pulling a heavy load,
lower his head and stretch it out, so as to bring the centre
of gravity forward as much as possible. Here I assume
that the ground is soft enough to allow him to "dig his
toes " into it, or, if it be rough, that he is provided with
toe-pieces on his front shoes. If, on the contrary, the
roadway is slippery, like the London streets which are
covered with asphalte or wood, the cart-horse in heavy
draught, being afraid of falling down if he throws his weight
into the collar, will try to keep the centre of gravity back by
holding his head high, while trusting almost entirely to his
hind legs to push the body forward. When a horse rears,
halts suddenly, or reins back in heavy draught (see p. 119),
he will raise his head and neck so as to bring the centre
of gravity back. Any one who has ridden much "over
a country," will know the great use a horse makes of his
head and neck for regulating the position of his centre of
gravity when jumping, and especially when he makes a
" mistake." When a horse turns, or " circles," he ought to
have his head and neck bent in the direction he is going,
in order to see where he is proceeding, and to increase his
stability by shifting the centre of gravity towards the side
to which the turn is being made.

(4) To enable the Mouth-piece of the Snaffle to act effi-
ciently on the "bars" of the Mouth. I may explain that

ACTION OF THE MOUTH-PIECE. 87

the "bars" of the mouth are those parts of the gums of the
lower jaw which are bare of teeth, and which are situated
between the back teeth and the tushes of the horse or
gelding, or the spots which they would occupy, were these
canine teeth developed in the mare. As the "bars" are
much more sensitive to pressure than the corners of the
mouth ; we should, when using the snaffle, endeavour to make
the horse carry his head so that he will not shift the
mouth-piece off the former and on to the latter. The
mouth-piece will, naturally, act best when the head is
carried perpendicularly to the ground ; but it can also
act efficiently if the line of the face is not at a less
angle to the ground than about 40. The apparent anomaly
of the mouth-piece of the snaffle not slipping off the "bars"
and on to the corners of the mouth in this case, may be
explained by the fact that the well-broken horse, when
being ridden or driven, keeps the joints of his lower jaw
in a more or less relaxed condition, so that the "bars," as
a rule, will make a greater angle with the ground than the
line of the face will do. When a horse which is ridden in a
snaffle, is made to carry his head in a more or less perpen-
dicular manner, he may, as a " defence," relax his jaw, with
the object of letting the mouth-piece slip down in his mouth as
much as possible, in order that a certain amount of the pull
of the reins may be transferred from it to his poll, over which
the crown-piece of the bridle passes. Any " defence " which
a horse makes by opening his mouth, may be counteracted
by the use of a properly applied nose-band.

88 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE.

CHAPTER XI.

STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE.
Lying Down and Getting Up Rearing Kicking The Piaffer.

Lying Down and Getting Up. When a horse prepares
to lie down, he will bring all his feet well under his body,
while resting his weight chiefly on his hind feet. After
making a few tentative movements with his fore limbs, he
will gently lower his forehand until his knees lightly touch
the ground. He will then give his body a twist, and will roll
over, and rest, partly on his side and partly on his breast
bone. M. Colin describes as follows the position of the horse
when lying down. If, for instance, he is on his right side, the
right fore leg will be under the chest, with its foot facing
the inside of the left elbow. The other fore, equally bent,
but clear of the body, will have its foot close to its own
elbow, and there will be a space of about twelve inches
between the two knees. The hind limbs will be bent up
under the body, with the feet carried to the front. The near
hind, far removed from the side, will have its hock on a line
with the hip joint, and the hoof with the point of the hock.
The neck will be raised and the head will be inclined to the
left side. Sometimes the animal rests his lower jaw on
the ground. He may even, at certain moments, support

SLEEPING. 89

his head on the flank or hock, which is a favourite position
with cattle, buffalo and deer, when they have stopped
ruminating, and appear to want to go to sleep. They cannot,
however, long maintain this position.

As the suspensory ligament of the neck can support the
weight of the head and neck without giving rise to the sensa-
tion of fatigue ; a horse can sleep comfortably on his side
and breast bone and with his head turned to the opposite
side. When a horse is very tired, or even when he feels
secure from disturbance, he may sleep entirely on his side, with
his cheek resting on the ground. On rare occasions, a horse
will repose lying down on his breast bone, with his knees
advanced and his heels more or less close to the points of his
elbows. This position is considered apt to give rise to
" capped elbow," on account of the pressure of the heel of the
doubled-up fore leg on the point of the elbow. This is not
an easy position for the horse ; for the sharp keel of his breast
bone will be liable to be hurt by contact with the ground. It
is, however, the natural sleeping position of horned cattle,
which can rest at ease in this manner ; as the keel of their
breast bone is flat.

In getting up, the horse straightens his fore legs out to
the front, and with a strong effort places his fore feet on the
ground and raises his forehand, so as to sit up like a dog.
With another effort he raises his hind quarters and stands on
all four feet.

Rearing. When a horse prepares to rear, he will get
his hind feet well under him and will raise his head, so as to
"lighten" his forehand, which he will lift off the ground by
the straightening out of one or both fore legs, and by the

90 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE.

action of his " rearing muscles " (see p. 64). He will then keep
his fore legs bent at the knees and his head high (see Fig. 37).
In guarding against the rear, the rider should, therefore, lean
well forward. If he wishes, by inflicting punishment, to stop
the horse from rearing, he may hit the animal on one of the

FIG. 37. REARING.

hind legs, so as to prevent him from fixing them on the
ground, in order to "get up ; " but he should on no account
strike him on the shoulders ; for doing so would tend to
make him raise his forehand. We may break a horse of
rearing by teaching him to rein back in a " collected " manner

REARING. 91

(see p. 119, et seq.). By doing this, we "lighten" the hind
quarters and accustom him to lift them and move them freely.
In the rear, the horse usually keeps one hind foot advanced
more than the other, and his hind feet more or less apart,
so as to widen the base of support.

The rear is a particularly insecure and fatiguing attitude
for the horse to maintain ; as the column of bones formed by
the body and the hind legs has to be kept in position,
at its joints (or angles), by the exercise of muscular force.
In a biped, like man, this column of bones can be brought
into a nearly vertical position, so that its component parts
can rest on each other, with but little muscular exertion
to maintain them in that position. Owing to the large
amount and continued nature of this muscular effort, there
will be a very appreciable backward and forward sway
(caused by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the
opposing muscles) at the various joints. This, added to
the narrowness of the base of support (formed by the hind
feet and the respective lines which join their toes and
heels), will render the rearing position so insecure that, to
support it, the horse will have to keep frequently changing
it. The danger of falling backwards which the animal incurs,
if he gets too erect, will naturally help to deter him from trying
to assume a comparatively vertical position. Hence, he will
have to keep the joints of his hind limbs more bent than
if he was not exposed to this risk of falling backwards.

The hocks are particularly liable to injury from rearing,
owing to the great strain thrown on them when the animal
assumes an upright position. "Curbs" and other enlarge-
ments are of frequent occurrence among circus horses which
are trained to walk on their hind legs.

92 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE.

Kicking. The term " kick " is usually restricted to a blow
given by one or both hind legs (see Fig. 38). A horse is
said to " strike out" with one or both fore legs. We may
regard both these movements as kicks.

A horse can kick in three ways : ( i ) To the rear with
one or both hind legs ; (2) to the front with a hind leg ; and
(3) to the front with one or both fore legs. Unlike horned

FIG. 38. KICKING.

cattle, a horse is unable, without moving the body, to kick to
one side, except to a slight extent, owing to the presence of a
ligament which connects the thigh bone to the pelvis, and
which greatly restricts the side action of the limb. If a horse,
therefore, wants to kick a man who is standing a little away
from its side, it will have to turn round to do so. For this
reason, if a person wishes to stand in safety by the side of a
horse's hind quarters, as for instance when examining its

KICKING. 93

hocks, he should get an assistant to stand on the same side,
and to draw the head round to it a little, so that the animal
will not be able to turn round to kick if so inclined. If the
horse be a vicious kicker, the advisability of getting the fore
leg of the side at which one is standing, held or tied up, will
be self-suggestive to any one who has had experience with
horses. The forward kick with a hind leg (called a cow kicK)
has a good deal of range ; as a horse can, in this manner, hit
a man who is standing at its shoulder.

When striking out in front, the horse will generally do so
with one foot ; for the blow can be delivered with greater
speed when the other fore foot is on the ground, than if
both were off it. If he strikes out with both fore feet, he will
do so with a quick, short effort, with the object of giving
a blow ; or he will make a greater or less attempt at rearing,
so as to bring his feet or legs on the top of the offending
person or animal with the view of knocking it down. The
governing idea, more or less developed, of thus overthrowing
his enemy is, evidently, to kneel on him and to bite him.
This mode of attack is seldom seen in its complete form,
except in the case of entires, which are more prone to bite
and strike out with both fore feet than are mares and
geldings. Mules usually kick out behind with greater
freedom than horses, but are not so much inclined to bite or
to strike out in front. Mares, from sexual causes, are more
inclined to kick with their hind legs than are the other two.
Horses sometimes kick with a hind foot in a good-tempered
way, not with the purpose of inflicting pain, but merely to
push the object of the attention out of the way, as we may
occasionally see a dam do to her foal. Horses often kick
in play without any vicious intention. I am convinced that

94 STATIONARY MOVEMENTS OF THE HORSE.

many apparently vicious kicks which miss their marks, are
delivered, not with the desire of sending the blow home,
but to warn the intruder against nearer approach.

When a horse kicks out behind, he will put extra weight
on his forehand, and, as a rule, will lower his head. When
he cow-kicks or strikes out in front, he will raise his head and
bring his weight back.

In almost all cases, just before a horse kicks, he will draw
back his ears, and more or less show " the white of his eye."
If the suspicious object be behind him, he will bring his head
slightly round so as to see it, and will prepare for his attack
by bending the fetlock and raising off the ground the
heel of the hind leg of .that side. I may mention that a
horse cannot kick with the hind leg upon which he is resting
his weight ; for he has to transfer the weight to its fellow
before he brings it into play. My readers will observe that I
have used the word " slightly " with reference to the extent
the animal turns his head when he gets ready to "lash out ; "
for if he brought it round a good deal, he would be obliged to
throw more weight on the hind leg of the side to which he is
looking than on its fellow, and would consequently have a
difficulty in using it.

The Piaffer. This is an air de manege, which is simply
a passage (see p. 117) without gaining ground. The most
brilliant kind of piaffer is when the movement is slow, lofty,
in true cadence, and with a well-marked pause when each
leg is raised to its highest point.

( 95 )

CHAPTER XII.

PACES OF THE HORSE.

Definitions The Trot The Amble The Walk The Canter The Gallop
The Passage The;Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot The Rein Back
Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces.

I MAY remark that there is no such thing as absolute
uniformity in the paces of the horse.

Definitions. To simplify explanation, we may, when
speaking of the limbs, call the near (left) fore and near hind,
the left pair ; the off (right) fore and off hind, the right
pair; the off fore and near hind, the right diagonals ; and the
near fore and off hind, the left diagonals. The meaning of
both fore and both hind is evident.

We may use the word support to signify the fact that the
weight of the body is borne by one or more limbs, as, for
instance, left support, when only the left pair are on the
ground ; and right diagonal support, when the right diagonals
alone prevent the horse from falling.

A stride is the distance from the foot-print of any one leg
to the foot-print of the same leg, when it next comes to the
ground ; or it is the action of the limbs while that distance is
being covered.

A step is the forward or backward movement of one foot ;

96 PACES OF THE HORSE.

or it is the distance one foot is removed from its fore or hind
fellow.

The term, period of suspension, will serve to designate
the time during which the animal is completely off the
ground at any particular pace, or when jumping.

Natural paces are those which the horse adopts of his
own accord, without any teaching from man ; artificial paces,
those which he performs only after special training.

Time (as applied to the rhythm of a pace) is the number
of separate steps in each stride of that pace. Thus, the
amble, in which the right pair and left pair move alternately,
is a pace of two time ; and the walk, in which each limb
moves separately, is a pace of four time.

To prevent any chance of confusion, I shall limit, in this
chapter, the meaning of the word pace to particular and
distinct methods of progression, and shall not use it as a
synonym for the word speed.

The Trot. We may select the trot to begin with, as
it is the simplest of all ordinary paces. Although it is
essentially a natural pace, some horses which have been
trained to amble, require a good deal of teaching to give up
the amble and to trot in true style. It consists of the
alternate action, in progression, of the two diagonals, in each
one of which the fore and hind leg move in the same manner.
Thus, in Figs. 39 and 41, we have the left diagonal support
and right diagonal support shown, as the diagonal pairs of
feet come alternately to the ground. Figs. 40 and 42 depict
the position the limbs occupy, just before the feet quit the
ground. I need hardly say that it is a pace of two time.

We may divide the trot into three kinds : (i) The short
or slow trot, in which the prints of each respective hind

THE TROT.

foot do not reach as far forward as those of the fore foot
of the same side; and there is no period of suspension.
(2) The ordinary trot (see Figs. 39, 40, 41, and 42), in which
the hind feet more or less cover the fore feet, or even go
slightly beyond them, in which case there will be a brief
period of suspension. (3) The flying or fast trot, in which

FIG. 39. BEGINNING OF LEFT
DIAGONAL.

FIG. 40. END OF LEFT
DIAGONAL.

FIG. 41. BEGINNING OF RIGHT
DIAGONAL.

FIG. 42. END OF RIGHT
DIAGONAL.

ORDINARY TROT.

there is a well-marked period of suspension between each
stroke of the diagonals (see Figs. 43 to 47) ; the movements
represented being those of alighting, support, quitting, sus-
pension, and alighting on the opposite diagonals.

The trot is the least fatiguing pace to the horse, by which
he can go a long distance continuously at a fair rate of speed ;
because both fore and hind limbs, respectively, have the same

9 8

PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 43. COMMENCEMENT OF RIGHT DIAGONAL.

FIG. 44. RIGHT DIAGONAL.

FIG. 45. RIGHT DIAGONAL.

FIG. 46. SUSPENSION. FIG. 47. LEFT DIAGONAL.

FAST OR FLYING TROT.

THE TROT.

amount of work to do ; the body can be maintained in a state of
equilibrium by a diagonal support, which would not be the
case with a side support, as in the amble ; there is but little loss
of power in keeping the centre of gravity (see p. 49) level ;
and because the pace is a tolerably fast one. It is more suit-
able for draught, than for saddle. First of all, it is very
fatiguing to the rider, especially if he bumps up and down d
la militaire. Consequently, we find that men who are
accustomed to go long distances on horseback, as in the
Colonies, almost always combine the canter and walk instead
of adopting the trot. Although rising in the stirrups will
make this pace much more easy for the rider, it will not
benefit the animal to the extent one might imagine ; for,
strange to say, almost every horseman, when rising at
the trot, invariably comes down on one particular pair of
diagonals. Thus, some will put their weight only on the right
diagonals ; others, only on the left. I may mention that, when
rising in the stirrups, the rider's weight is borne by only
one pair of diagonals. As each pair has to do its own
allotted work, it is nearly as well to have both tired, as
one fresh and the other fatigued. The chief advantage
which rising in the stirrups has to the horse, is that the man
who adopts it, conforms better to the movements of the
animal than one who bumps up and down. Men who ride,
might with advantage learn how to change their time of rising
in the trot, so that, after having made one pair of diagonals
bear their weight for a time, they might be able to change
it on to the other pair. Ladies whose stirrup is on the
near side, and who rise in the trot almost always do
so during the left diagonal support, and come down
during the right diagonal support. As the weight at the

H 2

I00 PACES OF THE HORSE.

trot is distributed between one hind and one fore leg, it (or,
possibly, the amble) should be used, when practicable, for
going over hard ground, in preference to the canter, and still
more so to the gallop.

The Amble. A few horses naturally adopt this pace
in preference to the trot ; but it is an artificial one with
the majority of amblers. MM. Goubaux and Barrier tell us
that some foals begin at the amble, and that they do not
learn to trot until later, when they have acquired age and
strength. These eminent French authorities also point out
that it sometimes happens that horses which were formerly
good trotters, take to ambling at the decline of their life, on
account of their legs becoming worn out.

The amble is a pace of two time, and consists of the
alternate movement, in progression, of the right and left (or
left and right) pair of legs. In Figs. 48 to 52, which depict
what we might call the flying amble, there is a period of
suspension between each stroke. This fast amble is known
in America as "pacing." There is little or no period of
suspension in the ordinary amble. The amble is a very easy
pace for the rider, but is unpopular (why, I cannot tell) in
England. The slow amble (the " tripple ") is the favourite pace
among the Dutch farmers in South Africa. Baron de Curnieu
(Lemons (T Hygiene Hippique Generate) tells us that Napo-
leon I. was accustomed to ride amblers during his campaigns,
when he had to go long distances at a fast pace. If a horse
takes readily to the amble, his rider will find it a comfortable
method of travelling. The remarks I have made on page 97
et seq. with reference to the merits of trotting, apply equally
well to ambling, with the exception that the equilibrium of

FLYING AMBLE.

101

FIG. 48. BEGINNING OF RIGHT SUPPORT.

FIG. 49. MIDDLE OF RIGHT
SUPPORT.

FIG. 50. END OF RIGHT
SUPPORT.

FIG. 51. SUSPENSION. FIG. 52. LEFT SUPPORT.

FAST OR FLYING AMBLE.

102 PACES OF THE HORSE.

the animal's body is not maintained as easily in it as in the
trot, which, consequently, is the less fatiguing pace to the
horse. The amble is a natural pace of the camel.

The amble is, probably, a slightly faster pace than the
trot ; the apparent cause being that the equilibrium is more
insecure (see p. 67) in the former than in the latter.

The Walk. This is a movement of four time, and is a
pace in which all the limbs move, respectively, one after the
other. If, for instance, the off fore leads, the sequence is :
i. off fore (see Fig. 54), 2. near hind (see Fig. 55), 3. near fore
(see Fig. 58), 4. off hind (see Fig. 60). If the near hind begins,
it will be : i. near hind, 2. near fore, 3. off hind, 4. off fore.
Each foot comes after the one which precedes it, at an
interval of about half the time occupied in taking one step.
The result of this is that we have the following order of
supports : i. left pair (see Fig. 53), 2. left diagonals (see Fig.
55), 3. right pair (see Fig. 57), 4. right diagonals (see Fig. 60).
As a rule, a horse begins the walk with a fore leg.

We may divide this pace into : ( i ) The short stepping walk,
in which the prints of the hind feet do not come as far
forward as those of the fore feet of their respective sides.
(2) The ordinary walk, in which they more or less cover
them. (3) The long striding walk, in which they go clear
in front of them. (4) The high stepping walk, which is
generally an artificial pace, and in which the feet are raised
off the ground higher than usual. (5) The walk in heavy
draiight, which is a short stepping walk, and which has
peculiarities that I shall presently consider.

Figs. 53 to 60 give an example of the ordinary walk ; for
the hind feet cover, as nearly as possible, the prints of the

THE WALK.

103

FIG. 53. LEFT SUPPORT.

FIG. 54. END OF LEFT SUPPORT.

FIG. 55. LEFT DIAGONAL. FIG. 56. END OF LEFT DIAGONAL.

FIG. 57. RIGHT SUPPORT. FIG. 58. END OF RIGHT SUPPORT.

ORDINARY WALK.

104 PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 59. FIG. 60. RIGHT DIAGONAL.

ORDINARY WALK (continued).

fore feet of their respective sides, and there is no exaggerated
knee action.

The long striding walk is shown in Figs. 61 to 66. As
an example of the high stepping walk, we may take the
action of Napoleon's horse in Meissonier's great picture
"1814" (see Fig. 209).

In the various forms of the walk except in heavy
draught on the level or up an ascent, or when going up an
incline without having to pull a heavy weight the healthy
horse brings the heel of the foot first on the ground, or the
flat of the foot. When the heel precedes the toe in touching
the ground, the interval is so short that it is all but
imperceptible. In cases suffering from certain diseases,
especially laminitis (fever of the feet), this interval is so well
marked as to be characteristic of the ailment. In heavy
draught which taxes the pulling powers of the horse (we
have in Figs. 67 to 73 a representation of this pace), and
particularly when going up a steep hill, the toe will be first
brought down, as in Fig. 68. In Fig. 67, the right diagonals
bear the weight of the horse. In Fig. 68 the near fore comes
to their aid. There is a brief left support (see Fig. 69). As
the off fore is quitting the ground, the off hind comes down,

THE WALK

105

FIG. 61.

FIG. 62.

FIG. 63.

FIG. 64.

FIG. 65. FlG - 66 -

LONG STRIDING WALK.

io6

PACES OF THE HORSE.

FiG. : 6;.

FIG. 68.

FIG. 69.

FIG. 70.

FlG - 7i. FIG. 72.

SHORT STEPPING WALK IN DRAUGHT.

THE WALK. 107

FIG. 73.
SHORT STEPPING WALK IN DRAUGHT (continued}.

and continues its assistance while the weight becomes shifted
on to the left diagonals (see Fig. 71). After that, the weight
falls on the right pair of limbs (see Fig. 72), and again on
the right diagonals (see Fig. 73). In heavy draught, we may
see that during the side supports there are never less than
three feet on the ground, and sometimes even four. In the
diagonal support, however, the two limbs may be alone on the
ground for a brief period, or only very slightly assisted by the
other legs. From this we may conclude that a fore and a
hind limb work better together when they are diagonals, than
when they are on the same side. This would support the
assumption that the horse would work at the trot, other
things being equal, with more mechanical advantage than at
the amble.

In the representations of the walk, as shown in Figs. 67
to 73, and in Figs. 61 to 66, dotted lines are used to mark
the positions of the toe of one of the fore feet, so as to com-
pare it with that taken up by the toe of the hind foot of
the same side. We see from this, that in the long striding
walk, as depicted, the hind foot oversteps the print of the
fore one, nearly as much as it fails to reach it in the walk
during heavy draught.

io8

PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 74. SUPPORT ON OFF HIND (IST TIME). FIG. 75.

FIG. 76. RIGHT DIAGONAL (2ND TIME). FIG. 77.

FIG. 78. SUPPORT ON NEAR FORE (3RD TIME). FIG. 79.
CANTER OF HEAVY HORSE.

THE CANTER. 109

FIG. 80. SUPPORT ON OFF HIND (IST TIME).
CANTER OF HEAVY HORSE (continued).

The Canter. The typical canter is a pace of three
time, in which the supports are, for instance: (i) off hind
(see Fig. 74), (2) off fore and near hind (see Fig. 76), and (3)
near fore (see Fig. 78), which may or may not be followed
by a period of suspension before the horse again brings
down his off hind (see Fig. 80). In the canter of the cart
horse which is shown in Figs. 74 to 80, there is no period
of suspension.

In the canter, the fore leg which does not belong to the
diagonal support is called the leading fore leg. If the near
fore, as in Figs. 74 to 80, be the leading one, the movement
is said to be a canter to the left ; if the off fore, it is called a
canter to the right ; the reason being that at this pace, or at
the gallop, the horse should lead with the leg of the side to
which he is being turned or circled. If when leading with the
off fore, for instance, he be turned to the left, he will be
liable to cross his legs and fall. I may remark that in the
gallop or canter, a horse can cross his fore legs only with the
leading leg. We may observe that the hind leg which,
in due rotation, alone supports the weight of the body, is
on the side opposite to the leading fore leg. I may point
out that this typical canter is rather an up-and-down move-

PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 81.

FIG. 82.

FIG. 83.

FIG. 84.

. 85. FIG. 86.

CANTER OR " HAND GALLOP " OF LIGHT SADDLE HORSE.

THE CANTER.

FIG. 87.

FIG. 88.

FIG. 89.
CANTER OR " HAND GALLOP " OF LIGHT SADDLE HORSE (continued}.

ment, and is not as easy to the rider as the form of
canter portrayed in Figs. 81 to 89, in which the diagonal
support (off fore and near hind in this case ; see Figs. 82, 83
and 84) does not at any time act unaided (as in the other form
of canter ; see Fig. 76) ; but is assisted by the other hind
leg and the other fore leg in turn. This smooth style of
canter, which approximates somewhat to the gallop, might be
termed (to use a popular expression) a hand gallop. We
may note that when there is a period of suspension in the
canter, and also in the gallop, it is obtained by the forehand

ii2 PACES OF THE HORSE.

being raised by the straightening of the leading fore leg (and
especially by that of its fetlock joint), as it quits the ground
(see Figs. 85 to 87).

The movement shown in Figs. 81 to 89, being a canter, is
one of three time, which, however, is irregular ; for the interval
during which the suspension takes place, between the coming
down of the near fore and off hind, is longer than either of
the other two intervals. Supposing that the speed be the
same, and that there be the same interval of suspension in an
irregular canter of this kind and in a typical canter, the
former would be less distressing to the horse than the latter ;
for the weight is better distributed in it. Thus, the off hind
is on the ground when the right diagonals come down (take
the case shown in Figs. 81 to 89), and they are supporting
the body when the near fore reaches the ground (see
Fig. 83).

We see that, in the canter, the leading fore has more
work to do than the non-leading fore leg. Hence, if this
pace be long continued, the rider should, if possible, make
the horse change the leading fore leg.

The Gallop. This is a pace of four time, in which the
feet follow one another in succession, with an interval of
suspension between the coming down of the leading fore foot
and that of the opposite hind foot (see Figs. 90 to 105). If we
compare that series with Figs. 74 to 80, and with Figs. 81
to 89, we shall see that, in the canter, the fore leg of the
diagonal support comes to the ground at the same moment
(see Fig. 75) as, or slightly before (see Fig. 82), its hind fellow ;
but, in the gallop, at a well-marked interval after it (see Figs.
92 to 94). We may note that this interval, in which

FAST GALLOP.

FIG. 90.

FIG. 91.

FIG. 92.

FIG. 93.

FIG. 94.

FAST GALLOP.

FIG. 95.

PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 96.

FIG. 97.

FIG. 98.

FIG. 99.

FIG. ioo. Fia IOIt

FAST GALLOP (continued}.

FAST GALLOP.

FIG. 103.

FIG. 104.

FAST GALLOP (continued}.

FIG. 105.

consists the difference between the canter and gallop, is
dependent on the extent of the forward reach of the non-
leading fore leg. Hence we see that the canter merges
imperceptibly into the gallop, and that the difference in
these paces, in the same animal, is simply one of forward
reach of fore leg that is, of speed. I may mention that
the intervals of time between each of these positions
represented by Figs. 90 to 105 are all equal. We may
see, starting with Fig. 90, that the near hind, off hind,
near fore, and off fore (the leading -fore leg) remain for
nearly the same time on the ground. The leading fore, how-
ever, has to perform a longer period of support than any of

I 2

ii6 PACES OF THE HORSE.

the other three. It is also more extended when it touches
the ground than is the non-leading fore leg, as we shall note
if we compare Fig. 97 with Fig. 94. Hence it is more
liable than the other limb to suffer from sprains of the
suspensory ligament and check ligament (inferior carpal),
both of which structures aid in supporting the fetlock joint.
As regards the injurious effect of concussion, it would appear
that the non-leading fore leg (see Figs. 93 and 94), by reason
of its coming to the ground at a moment when it is wholly
unsupported by the other fore limb, would suffer more from
concussion than the leading fore. Consequently, I venture to
submit that when the ligaments of the leading fore leg get
sprained during the fast gallop, the cause is over-extension,
rather than the popular one of concussion, or even of sudden
ierk. We may also see from Figs. 100, 101 and 102, how it
happens that the back tendons (especially the flexor
perforans) of the leading fore, during a fast gallop in
" heavy" ground, are far more apt to become sprained than
those of the non-leading fore leg ; for these tendons, imme-
diately before the period of suspension, have (on the con-
traction of their muscles) not only to help in raising the
forehand by the straightening of the fetlock (see Fig. 101),
but have also to overcome the resistance which the soil
offers to the withdrawal of the foot from its surface.

A horse galloping at full speed sometimes brings the
toe of the advanced forefoot in front of the end of the nose, as
we may see in Mr. Muybridge's admirable book Animal
Locomotion, vol. ix. Also, at this pace, the angle which
the face, when viewed in profile, makes with the horizontal
plane more often exceeds than is less than 45. I may say
that, unless in very exceptional cases, it is never less than 40.

PASSAGE.

117

We have on rare occasions, in jumping, extreme extension
of the neck.

Passage. Having no more suitable term to express the
artificial pace under consideration, I am forced to employ the
French word, passage, that signifies a short and very high
trot in which each fore limb, in its turn, when it is raised to
its highest point, is poised in the air for an instant, and is

FIG. 106. THE PASSAGE.

bent at the knee and fetlock. It may be called the prelude
to the piaffer (see p. 94), and is an air de manege (high
school pace). The " passage " of the English military riding
school is a movement (a deux pistes) by which ground can be
taken to the right or left without the rider being obliged to

PACES OF THE HORSE.

turn his horse. In Fig. 106, which shows the passage, the
rider's bridle hand is held high, so as to bring the animal's
neck in a more or less vertical direction. When it is held in
this position, the muscles of the neck will be in the best
position for raising the fore limbs, alternately, high off the
ground (see p. 82).

The Spanish Walk and Spanish Trot. These high
school paces are, respectively, similar to the ordinary walk
and trot, except that when each fore leg is advanced in
its turn, it is poised for a moment, and is kept more or less

FIG. 107. THE SPANISH TROT.

straight out, and about as high as the elbow. Fig. 107 gives
a representation of the Spanish trot. With respect to the
position of the rider's bridle hand, see preceding paragraph.

THE REIN BA CK. \ 1 9

The Rein Back. The movement to the rear called the
rein back may be executed at the walk, trot or canter. The
first and second are natural paces, the third is artificial. The
rein back at the walk is performed in a reversed, though
exactly similar, manner to the walk to the front (see p. 102),
except that it is always a "short stepping walk/' The trot,
which is simply the trot to the front reversed, is also a short
trot.

I wish to draw my readers' particular attention to the two
different methods of backward propulsion adopted by the
horse, when he makes this movement to the rear. ( i ) When
he is at liberty, or when he reins back "collectedly" with a
capable rider in the saddle, he lowers his head so as to put
weight on the forehand, and pushes himself back by the
alternate straightening out of his fore legs ; while the hind
legs, being comparatively free of weight, are raised higher
and with greater freedom than the front ones. It is evident
that this high and light action of the hind limbs is as conducive
to the safety of the rein back, as would be the same style of
movement of the fore legs in paces of forward progression.
(2) When the horse in harness tries to push a heavy weight
to the rear, or when he " plants " his hind legs on the ground
owing to unwillingness to rein back or to unskilful handling
by his rider or driver, he will make his effort or his
"defence," as the case may be, by throwing the weight on
his hind quarters. In the event of the centre of gravity of
the horse (and of the rider) falling to the rear of the base of
support (see p. 57) formed by his four feet, he will, if in
saddle, have to make a hurried and consequently a low step
to the rear with one hind foot, which may be followed by the
other feet in a more or less disorganised and insecure manner.

120 PACES OF THE HORSE.

If the hind feet fail to come quickly enough to the support of
the centre of gravity, a fall will be the inevitable result. Besides
the danger of this rein, or rather run, back, the fact of the
hind limbs (which are far less suited to bearing weight than
the fore ones) being surcharged with weight, will render
them liable to .become injured, and will make this movement
to the rear far more fatiguing to the animal than if it were
executed in the manner first described. It behoves us, there-
fore, if we wish to rein back a horse which we are riding, to
adopt the safer and less tiring method. With this object in
view, when we wish to make a horse which we are riding,
rein back, we should keep our hands " down," so as to allow
him, or, if needed, to induce him, to lower his head and put
weight on his forehand. We should avoid the practice
usually taught in riding schools, of taking an equal pull on
both reins ; for, if we do so, we shall adopt the best means
to induce the animal to throw his centre of gravity to the
rear, and to adopt the second method of the rein back, which
is objectionable in all cases, except in heavy draught.
Instead of this " even feeling " on both reins, we may effect our
purpose by, for instance, taking a stronger pull on the near
rein, so as to bend the horse's head and neck more or less to
the left, draw back the right leg, and touch him with it on the
side. The weight, then, on account of the head being turned
to the left, will be placed more on the near limbs than on the
off ones. Consequently, when the off flank is touched by the
drawn-back right foot, the animal will, as a rule, readily lift up
the off hind foot from the ground, and, feeling the backward
pull of the near rein, his natural impulse will be to take a
step to the rear with his off hind, and, in order to preserve
the previous distribution of weight, he will follow it with his

THE REIN BACK. 121

near fore. When the rider has obtained this diagonal step
(with the near fore and off hind) to the rear, he can get the
other diagonal step (with the off fore and near hind) by
slackening the near rein, taking a pull with the off rein,
drawing back the left foot, and touching the horse's left side
with it ; and so on. I need hardly say that, as each step is
obtained, the drawn-back leg should be brought forward. I
may also remark that a straight direction to the rear is
maintained by the pressure of the drawn-back leg, whichever
it may be at the time. We may see that the tendency of the
well-broken horse, when reined back in this way, will be to
adopt the diagonal movement (or trot) to the rear. Of all
unhorsemanlike proceedings, the practice of "chucking" the
animal in the mouth with the reins, to obtain the rein back,
is one of the worst ; for it will tend to make him, in his
endeavour to escape the painful pressure of the bit (curb or
snaffle), throw his weight to the rear, and run back according
to the dangerous second method. Although the well " col-
lected " rein back may be done at the walk or the trot ; the
rein back by the second method is never executed at the trot ;
for the weight is too unequally distributed to admit of the
simultaneous action of an off fore and a near hind, and of a
near fore and an off hind. I need hardly say that the rein
back in light harness may be similar to the rein back in
saddle. When the object of the rein back is to push a great
weight to the rear, as in heavy draught, the horse will have to
exert his powers in bringing his centre of gravity as far back
as possible. Consequently, he ought to have his head well
raised, and ought to get his hind feet under him as far as he
can without slipping. In this he will be greatly assisted by
having calkins on his hind shoes. Continental tciiyers have

122

PACES OF THE HORSE.

not alone taught their horses, when in the saddle, to rein
back at the canter, but even at the canter on three legs, as
we may see on referring to M. Fillis's Principes de Dressage.

(!)

n
n

FIG. 108.
ORDINARY
WALK.

FIG. 109.

LONG STRIDING

WALK.

dn-

FIG. no.
SHORT TROT.

FIG. in.
SLOW TROT.

FOOTPRINTS OF THE HORSE.

123

n
o

fb-4

FIG. 112.
FAST TROT.

A
O

n
o

I
o

FIG. 113.
SLOW AMBLE.

FIG. 114.
SLOW CANTER.

FIG. 115.
FAST GALLOP.

Foot-prints of the Horse during various Paces.

In the study of the foot-prints of the horse we are struck with

124 PACES OF THE HORSE.

two notable facts : (i) The faster the pace, the greater ten-
dency has the hind foot to be placed beyond the fore foot
of the same side. Here we have the influence of instability
of equilibrium in increasing the speed (see p. 67). (2) The
faster the pace, the nearer do the foot-prints of all four
feet tend to come into the line of direction in which locomo-
tion takes place. As Lenoble du Teil expresses it, the foot-
prints of the race-horse at full speed resemble the marks that
would be made by the spokes of awheel which had no felloes.
This fact proves the undesirability, from a speed point of
view, of any undue width between either the fore or hind
legs (see p. 65). In Figs. 108 to 115, for which I am indebted
to MM. Barrier and Lenoble du Teil, the left hand dotted
line of each diagram represents the direction of the prints of
the near feet; and the right one, those of the off feet. In
Figs. 1 08 and in the prints of both fore feet are covered by
those of the hind feet. In Figs. 114 the prints of the near
fore foot are covered by those of the near hind foot. In
these figures, only the succession of the foot-prints has been
noted. No attempt has been made to mark the lateral
distances between the respective lines of direction of the
near and off feet.

The length of stride in the canter is about 12 feet ; that of
the full speed gallop of the race-horse, about 24 feet.

CHAPTER XIII.

LEAPING.

Definition of the Leap Varieties of the Leap Manner in which the Horse
takes off in the Running Leap Difference between the Horse's Leap
and the Suspension of his Body during the Canter or Gallop Period of
Stride at which the Take Off is effected Effect of Pace and Speed on
the Leap Taking off and clearing a Fence Landing over a Jump In-
fluence of Blood in Jumping The Standing Leap.

Definition of the Leap. The ordinary leap or jump is
the projection of the body off the ground by means of the
hind limbs, after the forehand has been raised.

Varieties of the Leap. We may divide the leap into
the running jump and the standing jump ; and each of them
into the high leap and long leap.

Manner in which the Horse takes off in the
Running Leap. The animal makes his preparation when
he supports his body on his leading fore leg (see Figs.
116 and 139), by straightening which (and especially its
fetlock joint) he raises his forehand. At the same time,
he brings one hind leg down (generally that on the same
side as the leading fore), followed by the other hind (see
Figs. 1 17 and 1 18, and Figs. 140 and 141), and, by straighten-
ing them out, projects the body upward and forward (see Figs.

126

LEAPING.

142, 143 and 144). We may note that there is, practically,
no period of suspension (see Figs. 116 and 117, and 139 and
140) between the removal from the ground of the fore leg

FIG. 1 1 6.

FIG. 117. FIG. 118.

" TAKE OFF " OF LEAP, WITH HIND FEET NOT BROUGHT WELL UNDER

THE HORSE.

that supported the weight, and the putting down of the hind
leg which first comes on the ground.

Difference between the Horse's Leap and the
Suspension of his Body during the Canter or
Gallop. In the leap, the period of suspension takes place
when the hind legs quit the ground ; in the canter or gallop,

GALLOP OF THE GREYHOUND.

127

when the leading fore leg is raised (compare Figs. 143 and 144
with Figs. 85, 86, and 87, and also with Figs. 100, 101, and
102). It is instructive to note that a definition founded on
this difference is not of general application to other animals.
In the gallop of the greyhound, there is a period of suspension
(see Figs. 122 and 123) similar to that of the horse's leap, as

FIG. 119.

FIG. 120.

FIG. 121.

FIG. 122.

FIG. 123. FIG. 124. FIG. 125.

GALLOP OF THE GREYHOUND, SHOWING Two PERIODS OF SUSPENSION.

well as one (see Figs. 119 and 120) like that in the horse's
gallop. It seems that the former is longer than the latter in
the full speed gallop of the greyhound. It appears that if this
dog begins his stride on one fore leg, the right for instance
(see Fig. 119), he will after his two periods of suspension (see
Figs. 1 20 and 123) " take-off " from the opposite fore leg, the

128

LEAPING.

left (see Fig. 125) in this case. If this be true, his stride
(counting it as the interval between the supports of the same
leading fore leg) will include four periods of suspension. In

4*~\*

FIG. 126.

FIG. 127.

FIG. 129.

FIG. 130.
GALLOP OF THE CAT.

FIG. 131.

FIG. 132.

FIG. 133.

FIG. 134.

FIG. 135. FIG. 136.

GALLOP OF THE HEAVY DOG.

FIG. 137.

the gallop of the cat (see Figs. 126 to 131), and also in that of
the tiger, panther, and cheetah, the leaping form of suspension
appears to be the only one present. I may mention that I

THE LEAP.

129

FIG. 138.

FIG. 139.

FIG. 140.

FIG. 141.

FIG. 142. THE HORSE'S LEAP. FIG. 143.

1 3 c

LEAPING.

FIG. 144.

FIG. 145.

FIG. 146.

FIG. 147.

FIG. 148. THE HORSE'S LEAP (continued}. FIG. 149.

THE TAKE OFF}

FIG. 150. THE HORSE'S LEAP (continued]. FIG. 151.

have not had an opportunity of observing the paces of other
large felines. The Indian black buck and the South African
springbok, which are two remarkably fast kinds of antelope,
generally begin their gallop by a series of leaps, when
suddenly startled. The gallop of the mastiff (which is a
comparatively slow dog), depicted by Figs. 132 to 137,
resembles that of the horse. I may remark that the longer
the period of suspension, the faster and more fatiguing, as a
rule, will be the gallop.

Period of Stride at which the Take Off is
Effected. In the running leap from the canter or gallop,
we may regard the putting down of the leading fore leg (see
Fig- 138) as the commencement of the take off; for, at that
period, the character of the pace is changed, and the " take off"
by the hind legs is made close to the foot-print of that leg.
We therefore see that during the stride of, say, from four to
seven yards in length, there is only one moment at which the
" take off " can be executed. Hence, if a horse does not regu-
late the length of his stride when coming up to a fence, he may
easily make a mistake. Let us suppose that, while taking a
stride of five yards, he brings down his leading fore leg three

K 2

132 LEAPING.

yards short of the proper spot at which he ought to take off ;
he will then have to jump three yards " bigger," or chance
an accident by taking off two yards too near. The longer
the stride, the greater will be the tendency to this error.
Consequently, other things being equal, a short striding horse
will be safer over a " cramped " country than a long striding
one. Also, we may say that no horse merits the title of "a
safe conveyance," unless, when coming up to a jump, he is
careful to regulate the length of his stride, so as to take off
correctly.

Effect of Pace and Speed on the Leap. The

running jump is usually executed at the canter or gallop.
A few horses can leap (especially height) cleverly from the
trot, which is a useful accomplishment in the hunter ; for it
may enable him when in a difficult position (as when
jumping out of a lane^ to utilise a "run" which would be
too short for the longer stride of the canter or gallop.
Besides, at these paces there is only one period of the stride
at which the animal can take off (see preceding paragraph) ;
but in the trot there are two such periods, namely, when
the respective diagonals come to the ground. A horse,
however, cannot jump so freely and "big" from the trot as
from the canter or gallop, in each stride of which, the hind legs
are brought nearly together under the horse's body (see Figs.
86 and 100), ready, if need be, to change the pace into the
leap (see Fig. 116). In the trot, each hind limb moves
harmoniously with its diagonal fore leg ; but in the opposite
direction to its hind fellow.

In examining the various kinds of leap of the horse,
we must remember that he has a long distance (that from

SPEED IN LEAPING. 133

his hocks or buttocks to his muzzle) of body to carry over
a fence, independently of raising it to a sufficient height ; hence
his high jump partakes much more of the long jump than the
high jump of a man, whose body is carried more vertically,
than horizontally. For this reason, it is more essential for
a horse than for a man, to "get up" a certain degree of
speed in order to jump height well.

The speed at which a horse goes at a jump (supposing
that it does not prevent him from " collecting" himself
properly), influences the width he can clear ; because (as we
have seen on p. 61) the force by which he is projected for-
ward into the air is equal to the force of propulsion derived
from his limbs, plus the impetus due to the speed at which
he is going. The greater this impetus, the lower will
be the "angle of elevation" at which the centre of gravity
of the body is propelled forward.

We may, with approximate accuracy, define the " angle
of elevation" as the angle which a line passing through
the centre of gravity and a point midway between the
prints of the two hind feet, makes with the horizontal
plane, at the moment when the body leaves the ground.

Looking at the subject from a hasty point of view, those
of us who have not had practical experience, might come to
the conclusion that a horse would jump height as well when
going fast as when going slow, and that the only difference
is that, in the former case, the animal would be obliged to
take off further from the fence than in the latter. This sup-
position, however, does not hold good ; for the faster the pace,
the more weight is thrown on the forehand, and the greater
difficulty will the leading fore leg have in raising the fore-
hand off the ground. Hence, even without the valuable

134 LEAPING.

experience of the hunting field and steeplechase course, we
may accept the truth of the old saying that one should ride
slow at " timber." Also, I am inclined to think that a horse
will not clear as great a width when taking a water jump if he
is sent, at his topmost speed at it, as he would do were his
rate of going slightly moderated, so as to enable him to raise
his forehand sufficiently off the ground in order to obtain
the angle of elevation which will enable him to cover the
maximum distance.

Taking off and clearing a Fence. It is evident
that the more a horse, in the leap, brings his hind feet
forward as compared to the position of the prints of the
fore feet, the greater will be the angle at which he can, at
the speed he is going, project his body upward. Also,
the more he raises his head, the more will he, by bringing
back the centre of gravity, increase its angle of elevation.
Besides, as the forward and upward movements of the fore
limbs depend on the action of the muscles of the neck, the
direction in which the fore legs will be raised, will naturally
depend on that of the neck. A horse, therefore, when
approaching a fence which will tax his powers to clear, should
regulate his speed, so that the impetus obtained from it may
be in due proportion to the propulsion derived from the
limbs ; should bring his hind feet well under his body ;
and should hold his head high. I am here supposing
that the animal takes off at the correct distance from the
obstacle. These actions constitute, as regards the horse,
what is popularly and somewhat vaguely called " collect-
ing " himself.

We may note that although, when preparing to leap, the

CLEARING A FENCE. 135

hind legs are brought down on the ground in a straightened
out position (see the off hind in Figs. 117 and 141), and
leave it in the same attitude (see Fig. 143), they are some-
what bent at the hocks and stifles (see Fig. 142) at a time
intermediate to these two moments. Hence, we see from
these drawings that the propulsion from the hind legs in the
leap is due to their being suddenly straightened out, in
which action, the fetlock joint also plays an important part.

As the ability to clear height depends greatly on the
power of raising the forehand ; the rider should refrain from
leaning forward when the horse is rising at an obstacle. He
should, on the contrary, if anything, lean back at this moment,
so as not tc put any unavoidable weight on the forehand.

In almost all cases of the well executed high jump, the
fore legs are bent up together and the hind ones fully
straightened out at the moment of taking off (see Fig. 143).
The fore legs will be kept more or less in this position till
the fence be cleared. If the obstacle be " stiff" and the
horse hit it with his knee or forearm, he will probably fall ;
but if any part of the leg below the knee strike it, he
will generally get over all right, or with a "peck" at most.
Hence, a clever horse will try to avoid an accident by raising
his knees well out of harm's way. Another danger consists
in the horse catching the fence with his hind legs, which he
will best avoid by bending them as much as possible at the
stifles and hocks (see Fig. 145). Consequently, the clever
jumper, the moment his hind legs quit the ground when taking
off, will tuck them under him as if they were on springs
suddenly let go, after having been drawn out. The slovenly
fencer, on the contrary, will drag his hind legs after him,
at the imminent risk of catching them in the fence and falling.

136

LEAPING.

In the high jump, the animal should keep his hind legs well
bent until he is clear of the obstacle (see PL 69), so that,
if need be, as might occur in the case of an unexpected wide
drain being met with at the landing side, he may strike the
fence with his hind legs, and thus give himself a fresh for-
ward impulse.

When a horse is suspended in the air during a leap, he
may move his limbs or retain them in one position, according
to what he feels to be most conducive to his safety.

Landing over a Jump. The prettiest style, and
probably safest manner, of landing in the leap, is for the two
fore legs to be kept straightened out and comparatively close
together (see Figs. 152 and 153) until they are near the ground,

FIG. 152. LANDING OVER A JUMP. FIG. 153.

when one of them comes down, and is followed by the other,
which is placed a little distance in front of it. This neat
method of landing gives the impression to the observer that
the horse comes down on both fore feet at the same time.
If we compare Fig. 153 and PI. 69 with Fig. 146, we shall
feel convinced that the plan of landing with one fore leg
bent, as in the latter style, is not so safe as in the former ; for
in the event of any falter being made by the supporting fore

LANDING OVER A JUMP. 137

leg, the other fore leg will be better prepared to save the
horse from a fall, if at that moment it be straightened out, and
not bent.

It is evident that, for safety, the knee of the leg upon
which the animal lands, should be as straight as possible ; for
if the knee " gives," the horse will almost certainly fall.
Hence, we may regard the condition of being "over at the
knees" (see p. 217) as a grave defect in the jumper, especially
if he be required to go fast.

As a rule, when landing over a jump, the hind foot which
first conies down, has been made way for by the fore foot
of the same side, somewhat beyond the print of which it is
placed. The other hind foot and the other fore foot act in
a similar manner. We may see from Figs. 147 to 151, that
a horse " gets quickly away from a jump " by the raising
of the forehand, which is accomplished by the straightening
out of the fore limbs. The rider should, therefore, avoid
throwing any undue weight on the forehand at this
moment. It sometimes happens that a horse "over-reaches"
(strikes a fore leg with a hind foot) when landing over a
jump, on account of the rider being jerked on to the animal's
neck ; the injured fore leg having been prevented from getting
out of the way of its hind fellow by the surcharge of the
forehand.

A horse should not land with his head and neck bent,
as might be caused by the action of a severe bit which he is
afraid to "face" ; for when the neck is bent, the muscles*

* The chief of these muscles is the levator htimeri, which is attached to
the top of the head and to the upper third of the humerus. The nearer its
points of attachment are brought together, the less power has it to draw the
limb forward.

138 LEAPING.

which draw the fore legs forward and enable them to reach
well to the front, will be more or less thrown out of action.
Hence, the rider ought to give the horse plenty of rein on
landing, and should try to avoid bringing his weight forward.
As an interesting point in the action of a severe bit in
leaping, I may mention that if we observe a horse that is
being ridden up to a high jump in a bit which he is afraid
to " face," he will land, in the event of his clearing the
obstacle, more or less on all four legs at the same time, in his
endeavour to save his mouth from any sudden "job," by
keeping the weight as much as he can off his forehand. He
may act in the same way, even with a snaffle, if too short a
martingale be used. I may remark that the two " defences"
which a horse generally uses against a severe bit, are to poke
his nose up in the air, and to draw his chin in towards his
chest, and thereby arch his neck. Many persons, against
the evidence of photography, assert that a clever jumper
will generally land first on his hind legs, and will then
(so they say) be in the best position to " get away " quickly.
They quite forget (or perhaps do not know) that the hind
limbs of the horse are altogether unfitted to stand the
violent shock which would be transmitted through them, if
they had to bear the weight of the body on landing.
Such poor weight-bearers are they, that they have great
difficulty, as a rule, in enabling a horse to walk a few
yards on his hind legs. Almost all circus horses which have to
perform this trick, throw out, after a short time, curbs, spavins
and thorough-pins of amazing size. What, I wonder, would be
the state of the hocks of a hunter or chaser, had he always to
land first on his hind legs ! The fore limbs, on the contrary,
being attached to the body only by muscles, are singularly

LANDING OVER A JUMP. 139

well adapted to support shock, like that of landing over a
fence. Besides, if a horse, which, like all other animals, is
obliged to "take off" from his hind legs, were, also, to land
on them, he would lose all the advantage which the forward
reach of his fore legs gives him.

In the well executed leap, the fact of the horse landing on
one fore leg and then on the other, lengthens the base of sup-
port, and thus increases the stability. The hind legs coming
down in the same manner enables the horse to at once
take up the gallop, which is in four periods, without loss of
time (see Fig. 151). The safest way for a man, on the
contrary, to alight is on both feet kept together, with the
knees somewhat flexed (see Fig. 26), in order to break the
shock of concussion ; for his body is placed vertically, and not
horizontally, as is the case with the horse. In drawing any
comparison of this kind, we must remember that our legs
are attached to the trunk by bony union, at our hip joints, and
not, as in the fore legs of the horse, by muscles which act as
springs in nullifying any injurious effect from the force of
impact with the ground. Again, in the horse, although the
knees must be kept straight, on landing, in order to insure
stability ; the fetlock, elbow and shoulder joints act as springs.
As man is a plantigrade animal (one that walks on his hocks ;
see p. 32), he must utilise the " play " of the knee-joints,
with which to break the force of concussion, when he lands
on the ground with any great force. If, in such a case,
the knees be kept straight, the shock w T ill fall in its entirety
on the pelvis, at the hip joints, and may be transmitted with
very serious effect to the spinal cord. Men who practise
hurdle-racing on foot, alight on one foot, and then bound
off on to the other; as their great object is to lose no

I 4 o LEAPING.

time in getting away from their fences, which, being compara-
tively low, do not greatly affect the athlete's stability.

We may see from the foregoing considerations, that for
safety and quickness in "getting away" after a leap, it is
essential for the fore legs to be removed out of the way of the
hind feet, and for the forehand, which was previously
depressed by the weight of the body falling on it (as in Fig.
146), to be raised by the straightening of the fore legs (see Figs.
147 to 151). These two actions, I need hardly say, have to be
performed with speed and precision. Hence, it is necessary for
the horse to see where he is going to place his feet on landing ;
so that he may be prepared for the required movements of
the limbs. If he be prevented from seeing when his feet will
come down on the ground, there will be loss of time in calling
the muscles of the limbs into action, and the probability of an
accident will be greatly increased. A common way some
riders have of making a horse, when jumping, fall or over-
reach in this manner, is to " throw up their hands," and thus
cause the animal to unduly raise and extend his head, which
he does with the object of "saving" his mouth; the result
being that the horse cannot accurately see where he is
going to put his feet. The rider, on the contrary, should
keep his hands low and should give his mount plenty of
rein, so as not to interfere with the animal's movements
when landing.

Influence of Blood in Jumping. Seeing the manner in
which the rate of speed influences the extent of the long jump,
we may reasonably conclude that a fast galloper, other things
being equal, would jump a greater width than a slow horse.
The possession of great galloping speed, however, would not,

PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES

PLATE 16 HURDLE RACER "TAKING OFF.

PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES TO FACE PAGE I4O

PLATE 17 THE INDIAN LYNX.

THE STANDING LEAP. 141

of itself, materially assist the high jumper. I regret to say
that I have no exact data to go on ; but my own experience
leads me to conclude that the majority of big water jumpers
will be found among well-bred horses. As the height or
distance over which the body is propelled by the limbs
depends on the speed at which they are straightened out ;
we shall find that a horse which is quick in his movements,
other things being equal, will jump higher and broader than
another which is slower. For this reason, the thorough-
bred, properly selected and trained, will make the best of
all jumpers, over height as well as over length.

The Standing Leap consists of a rear by which
the fore legs are raised off the ground, and of the forward
projection of the body by the straightening out of the
hind legs, as in the running jump. To make the fact that
this rearing action always takes place in the leap, no matter
how fast is the pace at which the animal is going, still more
graphic, I give in PI. 16 a photograph of a mare " taking
off," at racing speed, in front of the last obstacle of a hurdle-
race of which she was the winner.

142 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

CHAPTER XIV.

NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

THAT distinguished French savant, M. Marey, published in 1878 his re-
searches on the paces of the horse. He prosecuted them by means of a
registering apparatus somewhat similar to the one, the sphygmograph, used by
doctors for recording the movements of the pulse. The machine consisted of
a cylinder which was made to revolve round by clockwork. Attached to it
were four pointed levers that were arranged so as, when pressed upon, to
trace lines on a piece of blackened paper. Each of these levers was
provided with an India-rubber tube, which communicated with a rubber ball
filled with air and fixed on the ground surface of one of the animal's feet.
These levers and their connections were made so that, when the horse
during movement put a foot on the ground, the rubber ball attached to that
particular foot would be compressed, and the air rushing into the tube would
raise the lever and bring its point against the sheet of blackened paper.
When the animal lifted its foot from the ground, the air would go back into
the ball, and allow the point of the lever to be taken off the surface of the
paper. As, while this was being done, the cylinder revolved round at a
uniform rate of speed, it follows that the line traced by each lever point
would be a record of the duration of the contact of the foot with the ground,
and that the intervals between two such contacts would be a measure of the
time the foot was suspended in the air. By this means, M. Marey
investigated the nature of the paces of the horse. He also devised a very
ingenious method of representing them on paper, which I shall now try to
explain to my readers.

If we wish to express on paper the running pace of a man, we may do so
by making a scale with rectangles, which, for convenience sake, we may use
instead of M. Marey' s lines. Thus, if the time of contact be about equal to
that of suspension, Fig. 154 will express the nature of the pace. To render

NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 143

FIG. 154. RUN OF MAN (see Figs. 15, 16 and 17).

FIG. 155. RUN OF MAN (see Figs. 15, 16 and 17).

FIG. 156. WALK OF MAN (see Figs, ic, n and 12).

FIG. 157. TYPICAL SLOW TROT.

FIG. 158. ORDINARY SLOW TROT (see Figs. 39 to 42).

144 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 159. FAST TK.OT (see Figs. 43 to 47).

Fie. 160. TYPICAL SLOW AMBLE.

FIG. 161. FLYING AMBLE (see Figs. 48 to 52).

FIG. 162. TYPICAL WALK.

FIG. 163. ORDINARY WALK (see Figs. 53 to 60).

NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE. 145

FIG. 164. SLOW WALK IN DRAUGHT (see Figs. 67 to 73;.

FIG. 165. TYPICAL CANTER.

FIG. 166. CANTER OF HEAVY HORSE (see Figs. 74 to 80).

FIG. 167. CANTER OF FAST HORSE (see Figs. 81 to 89).

FIG. 168. THE GALLOP (see Figs. 90 to 105).

146 NOTATION OF THE PACES OF THE HORSE.

FIG. 169. THE LEAP (see Figs. 138 to 151).

this figure more graphic, I have used plain rectangles to mark the supports
of the left foot, and shaded ones, those of the right foot. If we desire to
represent the ordinary walk of a man in the same manner, we shall be con-
fronted with the difficulty that, as both feet are on the ground at certain
periods of this pace, the rectangles would naturally have to overlap each
other. We may, however, get over it by placing the diagrammatic prints of,
say, the left foot on a line above those of the right foot. In this manner, in
order to represent the run, we would place these prints as they are shown in
Fig. 155; not as in Fig. 154. We may indicate the walk by Fig. 156, in
which I have assumed that both feet are on the ground for one-sixth of
the period of support of each foot.

We must remember that these scales or notations give us only the order
of succession of the feet, and their respective and proportionate periods of
support and suspension; but they do not furnish us with a clue to the
speed of any particular pace, except, that when there is a period of suspen-
sion ; the longer it is, the greater, as a rule, will be the speed.

To construct the respective notation of the various paces of the horse, we
may employ the rectangles of Fig. 154 for the fore legs, and may use similar
ones, placed underneath them, for the hind legs. Thus, Fig. 158 will give us
the scale of the trot as shown by Figs. 39 to 42.

My readers will notice that the dotted lines on Fig. 159 mark the
respective moments at which the horse assumed the positions depicted in
Figs. 43, 45, 46, and 47. In the remaining notations in this chapter I
have similarly marked the connections between these scales and the corre-
sponding figures in Chapters XII. and XIII.

( 147 )

CHAPTER XV.

COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

General Remarks Limit of Height Length of Limb Length and Depth of
Body Thickness of Limb Comparative Length of Fore and Hind
Limbs Length of Neck Length of Head Width between the Legs
Comparative Weight of Body Comparative Length of the Bones of
the Limbs Differences of Conformation between the two Sexes.

General Remarks. In order to simplify comparison and to
prevent tedious repetition, I shall confine myself in the present
chapter chiefly to the consideration of the principal differ-
ences of proportion between the race-horse and the heavy cart
animal, which are, respectively, the extreme types of horses of
speed and horses of strength.

The method of working from the whole to a part should
be followed as rigorously in judging a horse, as in painting or
land surveying. If we desire to obtain correctness in these
arts, we must, as a rule, first get our general outline, and then
fill in the details. If, in our preliminary examination, we
allow our eyes to be caught by some isolated beauty or defect,
we would be to use an oft-applied simile like a painter who
begins a full-length portrait of a person by drawing the nose,
and then hangs the remainder of the body to it. I cannot too
strongly insist on the fact that the degree of adaptability of
an animal for any special kind of useful work, depends more

L 2

148 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

on his general shape, than on the possession or absence of any
particular " point."

I may mention that, in making comparisons, we should not
be disconcerted by the fact that some of the proportions of
the horse may vary a little according to the position in which
he stands, and the nature of his bodily condition. Some
allowance has to be made for the fact, in my illustrations,
that the majority of the gallopers were taken when they were
in hard training, and some of the heavier horses when they
were in a " lusty" state. It would have been more satis-
factory, had I been able to have had their photographs taken
at a time when they were all in the same condition ; but
that, obviously, was out of my power to do. The method I
shall indicate will, however, give results sufficiently uniform
for our purpose. We must also remember that the respective
proportions of animals of the same class and of equal merit
are not always the same ; for a defect in one point may be
compensated by increased excellence in another point.

Limit of Height. In all species of animals there appears
to be a limit of height which the respective members cannot,
as a rule, exceed, and at the same time retain strength, activity
and symmetry of form. We see this law well exemplified
in dogs, which can rarely surpass, say, thirty-four inches in
height, without becoming weak in the loins and clumsy in their
movements. For cart-horses, I shall put this limit at, say,
seventeen hands two inches ; and for race-horses, at, say, six-
teen hands three inches. Besides this maximum, there is a
certain height which it is no benefit for a horse, from a useful
point of view, to exceed. Although, to employ an old saying,
"a good big one will beat a good little one;" it is no

LIMIT OF HEIGHT. 149

advantage for a racer, chaser, hunter, hack or light trapper to
be more than fifteen hands three inches, or a heavy cart-horse
to be higher than sixteen hands three inches. It is an inter-
esting fact that this standard of useful height varies con-
siderably in different breeds. I would put it approximately
as follows : English, North American, Australian and New
Zealand thoroughbred and half-bred horses, fifteen hands
three inches ; ordinary South African horses, fifteen hands ;
Arabs, fourteen hands two inches ; East Indians (country-
bred without admixture of English blood), and Basuto ponies,
fourteen hands ; Mongolian, Yarkundi, Spiti and Bhootiah
ponies, thirteen hands two inches ; Baluchi, Herati and
Cabuli horses, fourteen hands two inches ; Burma and Deli
ponies, thirteen hands ; Manipuri ponies, twelve hands. On
Indian race-courses, it has been proved, times out of number,
that an Arab of fourteen hands two inches is as good as
any other son of the desert, no matter how much he may
exceed that height. In fact, there have not been many
Arabs which have gone to India, that were better than the
gallant little Chieftain, who was only fourteen hands high,
and who was the best of his time. The records of the
Shanghai and Hongkong races prove that a good Mon-
golian of thirteen hands two inches (like Teen Kwang,
see Fig. 180, who was the Eclipse of the Celestial Empire)
can hold his own with any of his class, even at level
weights. In China an allowance of only three pounds for
an inch in height is given, and yet the best ones are found at
about thirteen hands two inches. In India, on the contrary,
an allowance of twelve pounds an inch is given ; but, with very
rare exceptions, a thirteen hands one inch or a thirteen hands
two inch English, Australian, Arab or " country-bred " has

150 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

no chance with a fourteen-hander of its own class. These
striking differences in the standard of useful heights are
no doubt chiefly due to the effects of climate ; for if foreign
blood be introduced into any country, it will, in a very few
generations, assume the characteristics of the local type of
horse or pony.

Careful selection in breeding, good feeding, and healthy
conditions of life have a great influence in tending to increase
the size, not only of individuals, but also of breeds ; in which
case, the standard of useful height, will, naturally, become
raised. Thus the average English horse is, at the present
day, probably six inches taller than he was 200 years ago.
From my own observation, I am inclined to think that horses
in England have increased about an inch in height during the
last thirty years. We should remember, that when we refer
to certain breeds of ponies, we allude to horses that have,
for generations, been kept small by privation, inclemency of
climate, or other influences which have retarded their growth.
Were they placed under conditions favourable to their de-
velopment, their descendants would soon become full-sized
horses, even in the case of ten-hand Shetland (PL 61) or
Corean ponies. It is impossible, therefore, to maintain a
race of ponies which are well-fed and well-cared for.

Length of Limb. We have seen in Chapter I. that the
fundamental difference between animals of speed and those of
strength, is that the former have comparatively long legs, and
that the latter have comparatively short ones. We have in
the camel a well-marked exception to this rule. The Ship
of the Desert, as we may see in Fig. 1 70, has very long legs
in comparison to his length of body, and yet he is extremely

LENGTH OF LIMB.

slow for his size. The cause of his lack of speed is chiefly
owing to the weakness of his ''rearing muscles" (see p. 64),
and to the straightness of the column of bones of his fore-
limb (see p. 63). Hence, when he tries to go quickly, he is
unable to raise his forehand sufficiently to obtain a well-
regulated period of suspension, like that of the horse (see
Figs. 46, 88 and 102). His gallop, which he attempts

FIG. 170. CAMEL.

only on rare occasions, has so much up and down motion in
it, that he can continue it but for a very short time. His
usual fast pace is a kind of amble which has no period of
suspension. Many " weedy " horses (see p. 267) which have
long legs, are deficient in speed from causes similar to those
that render the camel slow. The law as to length of limb
can be amply verified, other things being equal, in the case of
the horse, by the hard logic of statistics. I accordingly give

152

COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

the following table of measurements in inches, taking Ormonde
(Frontispiece) and St. Simon (Pis. 7 and 18) as examples of
the fleet of foot, and the Shire horse, Cheadle Jumbo, and the
Shire mare, Chance (PI. 19), as illustrations of strength.

Ormonde.

St. Simon.

Cheadle
Jumbo.

Chance.

Height at withers

6 4 1*

6 3 i*

6 7 *

Length of body ....

6il

591

7 6

Depth from withers to brisket.

27i

35i

Distance of "girth place"
from ground ....

35i

36|

3ii

Length of head ....

24!

* Without shoes.

I took the measurements of Ormonde on the 2oth July,
1887, when he was a four-year-old; and those of St. Simon
in September, 1884, when he was a three-year-old, I may
mention that the photographs of Ormonde and St. Simon
are particularly valuable, as these animals were probably the
two best race-horses that have ever lived, and as their
photographs were taken when they were in racing condition.
I may mention that the outlines of PI. 18, have been taken
from a photograph which was too much " fogged" to bear
reproduction. The shadows, however, have been added by
an artist, Mr. Oswald Brown.

We see from the foregoing table, that some three and
four year-old race-horses of the best class are 3 or 4 inches
higher at the withers (and at the croup) than they are long
in the body ; and that the Shire horse, which is the most

LENGTH OF LIMB. 153

powerful of all horses, is about 9 inches longer than he is
high. The difference between the two types with respect to
their length of leg, as compared to their depth of chest, is
equally well marked. The intermediate classes, in this respect,
partake, as a rule, of the characteristics of the respective
types to which they are most nearly allied. Thus, if we take
Ormonde (Frontispiece) as the highest type of the race-horse,
we shall find that the distance from the top of his withers, to
his brisket, if applied down his fore leg, will reach from his
brisket only to the bottom of his fetlock. In the light-weight
hunter (see PL 15) it will come down to the middle of the
pastern ; in the middle-weight hunter, to the coronet ; in the
heavy-weight trooper or light cart-horse, to the ground ; and
in a Cheadle Jumbo, it will be four inches more in length.
Hence we may conclude that the term, "short on the leg,"
is one to denote the possession of strength rather than of
speed. The reckless manner in which it is used with respect
to race-horses is as incorrect as. it is ridiculous. I may add,
that with age, good feeding and want of exercise, a horse
usually lengthens, deepens, and thickens somewhat as re-
gards his height. Mr. W. F. Shaw, F.R.C.V.S., who has
charge of the horses belonging to the London Streets Tram-
way Company, tells me that he has frequently observed that
comparatively light, well-bred horses, when put to tramway
work at about five years of age, thicken and get coarse after
a few months, to a far greater extent than if they had been
used at fast paces. I need hardly say that labour between
the rails is slow ; and the feeding (eighteen pounds of corn
and twelve pounds of hay) ample for these not very large
animals. We may accept the fact that both muscles and bones
accommodate themselves in time to the nature of the work to

154 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

which they are put. The difference here is one of thickness,
and not of length. I have often noticed among thoroughbred
Australian and New Zealand stock, that they became coarse
and lost their appearance of blood if kept under rough con-
ditions and used for ordinary hack work.

I may mention that St. Gatien, the celebrated son of The
Rover and St. Editha, who ran a dead heat with Harvester
for the Derby of 1884, won the gold cup at Ascot and the
Cesarewitch (carrying the unprecedented weight of eight
stone ten pounds for a colt of his age) in the same year, was
a very deep-chested horse, as his depth from his withers to
his brisket (just behind the elbow) was an inch more than
from his brisket to the bottom of his fetlock. He was thus
an inch deeper than Ormonde, who was one and three-quarter
inches deeper than St. Simon. St. Gatien, I need hardly
say, was particularly distinguished by his ability to stay a
distance.

Length and Depth of Body. We may advance a step
further in our search after the true principles of horse confor-
mation ; for if we compare the proportions of the body of the
racer with those of the heavy draught animal, we shall find
that they are essentially the same, and that the only real
difference which exists between these two classes is in the
length of their legs. Were those of Ormonde, as he is in the
Frontispiece, cut down nine or ten inches and proportionately
thickened, and were he swelled out by "bulky" food, he
would pass fairly well as a cart-horse ! The statement which
I have just made concerning the comparative proportions of
the two extreme types of horses, may not appear so out-
rageous as it might do at first glance, if we consider that the

PROPORTIONS OF BODY. 155

difference of work between them is one of limbs and not of
body. The galloper needs the highest possible development
of speed, with a sufficiency of strength ; the cart-horse, a
maximum of strength with a very moderate amount of speed ;
both the strength and speed being derived from the muscles
of the limbs. The two classes, however, are in their work
equally dependent on the organs (those of breathing, circula-
tion, digestion, excretion, etc.) which are contained in the body.
The lungs of the draught animal, when facing a stiff hill with
a heavy load behind him, have to be in as good order as
those of a racer who is finishing in front of the Grand Stand
at Epsom or Newmarket. His stomach, bowels, liver,
spleen, kidneys, etc., will also require to be as healthy as
those of the other. Hence, we need not expect to find, nor
shall we meet with, any material difference in the proportions
of the respective bodies of these two animals. If we take
from the table given on page 152, the depths (from withers to
brisket) of the four representative horses, and divide them
respectively into the lengths of these animals, we shall find
the ratio for Ormonde, St. Simon and Cheadle Jumbo to be
i to 2*1, and for Chance, i to 2*2 ; while the ratio of
their depths at the lowest point of their backs to their
lengths will be, in all four cases, i to 2^ (nearly). This
is sufficient to prove the close identity of proportions
between the depth and length of body both in racers and
heavy cart-horses, and a fortiori with those of the inter-
mediate classes, such as hunters, troopers, and light harness
horses.

It may be objected to the foregoing remarks that, in the
heavy draught animal, the shoulders are thicker, and the
breast, broader in proportion to the length of the body, than

156 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

in the case of the galloper. To this I may reply that the
difference is due, not to the shape of the body, but to the
size of the muscles which attach the limbs to the body, and
which consequently partake of the massive character of the
legs. We must also remember that the pelvis is a portion of
the hind limb (see p. 31).

Thickness of Limb. Continuing the argument begun
in Chapter I., we find that the muscles of the limbs of
gallopers are comparatively long and slender. Hence, the
bones, being dependent on the muscles for their shape, must
partake of the same character. It is advantageous for
another reason that they should be slight ; for, were the bones
of the legs of the galloper massive, there would be entailed
a large amount of friction in the working of their joints,
with consequent loss of speed, which would be of little
importance in the heavy draught animal, in which the
opposite kind of conformation should be sought for.

Comparative Length of Fore and Hind Limbs.

The conditions under which the limbs play their part in
locomotion, are so complex and varied, that I can lay down
rules on this subject only in very general terms. We must
also bear in mind that there is a certain limit of height
(largely influenced by breed) which the horse should not
exceed, and which has been discussed on page 148 et seq.
I may state the present question as follows : at any given
height, is it advantageous for the horse to be higher
at the withers than he is over the top of the croup, or vice
versa, when he is intended for galloping, or for heavy
draught ; and to what extent may such difference, if any,

LENGTH OF LIMB.

157

amount to ? It is evident that the longer the hind leg, the
greater other things being equal will be the speed of
propulsion. Excess of height at the croup will, however,
be accompanied by two serious drawbacks, namely, it will
entail proportionately increased work, during fast paces, on
the fore limb (see p. 63) and on the muscles of the back
and loins (see p. 64) in raising the forehand at each
stride ; and, by surcharging the fore legs (see p. 49), it will
naturally tend to render these limbs more liable to the
injurious effects of work than they would be, were the
weight more equally distributed between the fore and hind
extremities. Under the former, we would have increased
speed purchased by loss of staying power, which is as
dependent on the free action of the fore limbs and loins, as
it is on that of the hind limbs. Under the latter, the
gain in the rate of progression would be obtained at the
risk of impaired soundness. Those speedy animals, the
cheetah, the Indian black buck, and the grey-hound, are a
little longer in the hind limb than they are in front. As
a rule, race-horses of the highest class are about the same
height at withers and croup. This difference between the
racer and the other gallopers may be accounted for by the
fact, that the proportion of weight which the fore limbs of
the race-horse have to carry, is still more increased by the
presence of a jockey on his back. Among the fleet of
foot, I purposely omitted mentioning the hare, which is, for
its size, the fastest animal of the lot. Its speed, however,
can be maintained, as we might have inferred, only for a
short distance on level ground ; though it is particularly
hard to catch up a hill, the difficulty of ascending which is
directly lessened by the fact of the fore limbs being shorter

158 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

than the hind ones. Any disadvantage, in progression,
arising from undue shortness of fore legs is, more or less,
compensated for, in the hare, by great development of the
muscles of the loins (" rearing muscles," see p. 64). The lynx
(PL 17), which is very high behind, has an extraordinary turn
of speed ; but only for a short distance. Its gallop, like that
of other cats, is a series of leaps (see p. 128). From practical
observations, I do not think that it is an advantage for a
race-horse to be higher over the croup than at the withers.
With regard to this point, we may study the Frontispiece
(Ormonde), and PL 55 (Favonius). Could a horse be re-
served for races up-hill, like on the old Cambridgeshire
course, which finished at "the top of the town," increased
height at the withers might be an advantage ; but such a
policy would hardly be practicable. We may conclude from
the foregoing remarks, that if a race-horse be higher over
the croup than at the withers, he will require, all the more, to
have sloping shoulders, oblique pasterns and powerful loins,
and to be "light in front."

We have now to consider the very practical question
which, no doubt, every man who goes in for pony racing has
asked himself is it an advantage for a pony which has to
pass the standard at a certain height, to be considerably
higher over the croup than at the withers ? The results of
my experience make me reply "no" to this query. The
statement, which I have often heard urged, that a pony
which measures, say, 14-3 over the croup, and which can
pass the standard at fourteen hands, must have a "pull"
over others of its own class which are as high at their
withers as over their croup, is not borne out in practice.
The best racing ponies I have seen, had no great difference

PONIES.

159

between these two measurements certainly not more than
two inches. Among this list I may mention : the English
ponies, Lord Clyde, Water-lily, Dorothy (PL 39), Maythorne,
Mike (PL 38), St. Helena, Skittles (Fig. 171), Rex, Selena, and

FIG. 171. CAPTAIN MOWBRAY'S PONY MARE, SKITTLES.
(Drawn from a photograph?)

Sylvia ; the New Zealanders, Little Wonder, and Parekaretu ;
the Australians, Mayflower, Achievement, Chester, Bob, and
Jeannette ; the Arabs, Caliph, Little Hercules, Blitz (Fig. 179),
Sweet William, and Magistrate (PL 28) ; the Barb, Kangaroo ;
the Indian country -breds, Ruby, Bonnie Doo, and Daphne ;

160 COMPARATIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

and the South African, Coachman. As an extreme case of a
pony being high behind, I give the photograph of a pony
mare (see PL 20) who, though she passed the standard at
13-3, measured nearly fifteen hands over the croup. Even
allowing for a certain amount of "fakement," there was
about four inches difference between her height at the withers
and at the croup. As she was also rather heavy in the
shoulders, it is almost needless to say that she did not stand
training. I may remark that instability of equilibrium (see
p. 67), which is increased according as the weight on the
fore legs exceeds that on the hind ones, should be obtained,
in the galloper, more by the body being short and the legs
and neck long, than by the difference of height between the
withers and the croup.

The lower a horse is in front, the rougher will be his
paces ; hence an animal of this kind of conformation will
not, as a rule, make a pleasant hack ; nor would he, in
most cases, do well as a hunter ; for the excess of weight
in front would proportionately militate against his safety
when landing over a fence, and against the soundness of
his fore legs.

The heavy cart-horse, viewed from a purely draught
point of view, ought to be higher in front than behind
(see p. 74).

Length of Neck. As the muscles which draw the
fore leg forward (namely, those of the neck) are muscles of
locomotion, they should be proportionate in length to those
of the fore limb. Hence, if a horse has long fore legs,
like the race-horse, he ought to have a long neck ; and vice
versa.

LENG TH OF HEAD. 1 6 1

Length of Head. As the head is a part of the
spinal column (see p. 30), their respective lengths should
be proportionate to each other ; but the head can bear no
fixed ratio to the length of the limbs, which varies according
to the kind of work to which the particular horse is best
suited. Thus, we find that although the length of the
head has the same proportion (about i to 2^) to the length
of the body in both the racer and cart-horse, the comparison
does not hold good with regard to the height, which is
naturally influenced by the length of the fore legs.

Width between the Legs. In the heavy draught
horse, the fore legs are kept apart by the massive pectoral
muscles (see p. 38) which draw the fore limbs back. The
hip joints have also to be widely asunder to permit of great
width of the pelvis for the attachment of extremely large
muscles. In the galloper it is different. For remarks on
this subject, see p. 65.

Comparative Weight of Body. The body of the
race-horse should be as light as is compatible with the due
performance of his work. The heavy cart-horse, on the
contrary, requires a deep, massive body for the attachment of
his powerful muscles, and, also, to give him the necessary
weight to throw into the collar. This subject has been dis-
cussed in Chapter IX. (see p. 73).

Comparative Length of the Bones of the Limbs.

If we "pick up" in succession the fore feet of a number of
differently shaped horses, and bend the limbs at the knees
as far as they will "go," we shall find that in almost all

1 62 COMPARA TIVE SHAPE OF HORSES.

cases, the heel will touch the elbow at about the same place.
As the proportion between the length of the fore-arm and
cannon bone evidently varies in different horses, a com-
paratively long or short forearm must be accompanied by
a similar condition of the bones below the fetlock. Lecoq
remarks : " The length of the fore-arm varies inversely as
that of the cannon bone." I think I may venture to extend
this principle somewhat further, in stating the following
inverse proportions : Shoulder blade, long ; humerus (from
point of shoulder to elbow), short ; fore-arm, long ; cannon-
bone, short ; pastern, long. In other words, a long shoulder
blade is accompanied by a long fore-arm and long pastern,
and by a short humerus and a short cannon-bone. The
converse of this holds equally good. Taking the shoulder
blade as the base to start from, we may infer that the differ-
ence between these alternate proportions should be best
marked in animals, like the hunter or steeple-chaser, which
specially require to have this bone of considerable length (see
p. 210). It may be objected that the greyhound, which is
possessed of extraordinary speed and marvellous jumping
powers, has, comparatively speaking, a short shoulder blade
and long humerus. Although the length of the latter, which
is detached from the body, gives him great forward " reach ; "
the shortness of the former makes him too bad a weight-
carrier (see p. 207) for him to be accepted as a model for
our purpose. I think we may assume that a similar series of
inverse proportions should exist in the hind limb. Thus :
pelvis, long ; thigh, short ; tibia (from stifle to hock), long ;
cannon-bone, short ; pastern, long. As the muscles which
give length to the tibia are far more concerned in the
extension of the hind limb of the jumper and galloper than

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES. 163

in the cart-horse ; we should look for greater length from
stifle to hock, in the first two, than in the last named. I
would also expect in them a shorter thigh and a shorter
cannon-bone. I may mention that I am confirmed in this
opinion by the practical experience of Mr. Tom Jennings,
junr., the well-known trainer, who once remarked to me that
he always regarded as a good point in a race-horse, the fact
of its stifle being set high up in its flank i.e., its having a
short thigh bone, and consequently being long from its stifle
to its hock.

In the remainder of the body we might, possibly, also
find a series of inverse proportions as follows : Head, short ;
neck, long ; back and loins, short ; croup, long ; bones of the
tail, short.

Although I am well aware that the proportions of the
skeleton do not rigidly follow any strict mathematical rule ;
still I am strongly of opinion, from close study of the horse,
that in the large majority of cases the foregoing deductions
will be found to be correct.

Differences of Conformation between the Two
Sexes. As a rule, the mare, as compared to the horse, has
a lighter neck, a broader pelvis, and is higher behind and
slacker in the loins than he is.

M 2

164 HEAD AND NECK.

CHAPTER XVI.

HEAD AND NECK.

Size of Head Leanness of Head Profile of Face Front view of Face-
Size of Brain Top of the Head Ears Eyes Hollows above the Eyes
Nostrils Lips Lower Jaw Setting-on of the Head Neck Throat.

Size of Head. We have seen on page 161 that as the head
is a portion of the spinal column, it should correspond in size
to the bones of~the back, loins, croup, and ribs, and not to
those of the limbs. Agreeably to the axiom that " the
function makes the organ," we find, in the majority of cases,
that a horse's breathing capacity is proportionate to the size
of his air passages, of which the cavities that lead from the
nostrils towards the windpipe and lungs cannot be large,
unless the bones which form them are of a fair size. We must
remember that a horse breathes, normally, through his nostrils
and not through his mouth. Besides, as the tube (larynx]
through which air enters the lungs from the nasal cavities,
lies between the two branches of the lower jaw ; it follows,
speaking generally, that the broader and more open the
nostrils are, the greater will be the calibre of this tube, and
the more perfect the breathing power. Although it is
impossible to draw any hard and fast rule on this subject ;
we may infer that a comparatively small head is not a desir-

SIZE OF HEAD. 165

able " point " in horses whose success depends on their power
of breathing. I venture to think that men of experience will
agree with me in saying that unusually neat and trim heads
are far more common among " the five furlong division," than
among genuine stayers. Again, the head should be of
sufficient size to afford a broad surface for the attachment of
the muscles of mastication, for those that extend, flex, rotate
and move the head from one side to the other, and for muscles
which draw the limb forward, and which are, consequently,
important agents of movement. The connection between the
size of the head and the amount of intelligence possessed by
an animal is, as with ourselves, too ill-defined to admit of any
practical deductions being made from it. As the usefulness
of a horse is generally limited by the amount of work his
legs will stand, the possession of a large head by an animal
which is " light of bone " in his extremities, is a serious defect ;
for it not alone shows that his frame is wanting in symmetry,
but it also tends to indicate that the bones of his body, and,
probably, the muscles and other tissues, are too heavy for his
legs. If, however, he showed great substance and good
quality of bone, tendon and ligament, we might very well
"put up" with some "plainness" about his head. Any useless
weight of that part, acting at the end of the lever formed by
the neck, will naturally be objectionable. Agreeably to the
facts mentioned on page 161, we may judge the length of the
head by that of the body, the usual proportion being about I
to 2+. Probably, a more practical rule is to compare the
length of the head with the depth of the body at the lowest
point of the back. In a well-shaped horse which is not in
gross condition, these two measurements are very nearly
equal ; although the head, from its isolated position, looks

i66 HEAD AND NECK.

much less long, at first glance, than the body is deep.
Besides this, the fact of the body being round, while the side
of the horse's head, as seen in profile, is flat, will cause the
depth of the former to appear to measure more than the
length of the latter. We may prove the approximate correct-
ness of the ratio of i to 2^, by reference to the table given on
p. 152. From it we see that in Ormonde the proportion
is i to 2*5 ; in St. Simon, i to 2*48 ; in Cheadle Jumbo, i to
2*6, and in Chance i to 2*7. Here, possibly to our surprise,
we perceive that the cart-horses have comparatively smaller
heads than the racers a difference which, no doubt, is due
to their grosser ''condition;" as the fat on their chests
and quarters must add slightly to their length of body.
Bourgelat, followed by all, or nearly all, the French writers
on equine conformation, adopted the length of a horse's head
as a measure of its height, in the proportion of i to 2-J. This
eminent Frenchman based his calculations on a type of horse
(such as the ordinary saddle nag) which was about as high at
the withers as it was long in the body, and did not take into
consideration the great differences between the respective
heights and lengths of animals of various classes, ranging
from the racer to the Shire horse. From my own obser-
vations, I would put the length of a horse at about 2\ to 2|
times the length of his head.

The fact that the size of the head of the horse is propor-
tionate to his length of body, and not to his height at the
withers, accounts for the cart-horse appearing to have a
comparatively larger head than the thoroughbred.

Leanness of Head. In the lighter classes of horses,
the head should present a general appearance of "leanness,"

LEANNESS OF HEAD. 167

that is to say, the skin which covers it should be fine ; its
bony prominences sharply marked ; and the muscles, blood-
vessels, and nerves which are immediately under the skin,
clearly defined.

The absence, thus indicated, of an excess of loose under-
lying tissue will suggest the possession of strength of muscle
and bone (see p. 15). When the head is large and
" fleshy," we may generally assume that the animal is
"soft" and wanting in " blood." The presence on the head
of well-developed muscles, of which those of mastication are
the most powerful, will naturally suggest to the observer that
the horse has a good constitution. As pointed out by MM.
Goubaux and Barrier, we must not mistake for "leanness" an
emaciated or wasted appearance of the muscles, due to old
age or debility.

The Bombay Arab dealers (such as that fine judge, Ali
bin Abdullah, and that prince of Bedouins, the late Shaikh
Esa bin Curtas) regard thinness of the lower jaw at its angles
as a sure sign of pure desert blood.

Profile of Face. The line of the forehead and nose,
when viewed in profile, will, as a rule, be straight, concave or
convex. The first two forms of contour are more or less
characteristic of the thorough-bred and Arab ; although it is
only correct to say that many horses of aristocratic English
blood have Roman noses, especially those bred in the
Colonies. I have never seen a high caste Arab have such a
conformation. For straight profiles we may point to Pis-
35 and 39. PL 31 shows a concave profile. The true
concave face is obtained, not by a prominent forehead, as in
PI. 21 ; but by a dip in the nose between the eyes and

i68 HEAD AND NECK.

nostrils. Ormonde's face (see Frontispiece) tends to con-
cavity. For a convex profile (Roman nose) see Pis. 19
and 23. This shape might be objected to on account of
its liability to render the air passages of the head curved,
instead of straight, in which case there might be some slight
interference with the ready ingress and egress of respired air.
I have, however, never met with a case in which a Roman
nose was the cause of impaired breathing power ; although
I have known a horse become a roarer from alteration in
the shape of the nasal cavities from a disease of the bones
called osteo porosis, or "big head.'* I may mention that
many heavy cart-horses have Roman noses.

Colonel John Anderson, late Inspecting Veterinary
Surgeon, Bombay Army (than whom no better judge of
a horse exists), remarked to me many years ago, that a
prominent forehead (see PI. 21), or a rise between the eyes,
is an indication of a bad, or at least of a wayward, temper in
a horse. I have no theory to advance in support of this idea,
the truth of which, however, I have seen verified in many
instances. The original of PL 21 was a rascal of the
deepest dye. Tristan (see Fig. 172), had this fatal bump
between his eyes, and he was a " thief," as well as a bit
of a "savage." His name will recall to many old race-goers
the memorable struggle for the Cambridgeshire of 1881,
when, ridden by poor George Fordham, he finished third
to Foxhall and Lucy Glitters. It is but just to the chestnut
son of Hermit and Thrift to say that his trainer, Mr. Tom
Jennings, junr., tells me that Tristan's temper had been
spoiled by bad usage when he was a yearling.

Front view of Face. Good width of forehead between

PL. 21 PROMINENT FOREHEAD. PL. 22 BROAD FOREHEAD

PHOTO. BY M. H- HAYES TO FACE PAGE 168

- PL. 23 UNDER BRED HEAD.

TRISTAN. 169

the eyes (see PI. 22) indicates, as a rule, free breathing
power and strong muscles of mastication ; for the bones of that
part (frontal bones] form a portion of the roof of the cavities

FIG. 172. MR. LEFEVRE'S TRISTAN.
(Drawn from a photograph^}

through which air enters on its way to the lungs, and gives
attachment to a powerful muscle which aids in closing the

i/o HEAD AND NECK.

jaws, and which is fixed in the large depression that is just
above the eye. Good width between the eyes is generally
regarded as a sign of intelligence and of a generous dis-
position ; and it may indicate large capacity of brain, by
reason of the frontal bone forming a portion of the covering
of that organ. I shall refer, under the next heading, to the
subject of the desirability, or otherwise, of a large brain in
the horse.

FIG. 173. COFFIN SHAPE OF HEAD.

As seen from the front, the bones at each side of the head,
from the outside corner of the eyes to the hollow above the
eyes, should run nearly parallel to the long axis of the head,
and should then narrow inwards. This desirable shape is
well shown in PL 24. If the reader will compare this
photograph with PL 25 he will see my meaning ; for in the
latter, the line from the outside corner of the eye to the base
of the ear is nearly straight. This peculiarity and a certain
fulness of nose (which is very different to the fine modelling
of the nose in PL 24) gives a coffin shape (see Fig. 173) to

PL. 24 WELL BRED HEAD.

PL. 25 UNDER BRED HEAD.

PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES

PL. 26 HIGH OCCIPITAL CREST.

TO FACE PAGE I7O

PL. 27 TURNED-IN EARS.

THE FOREHEAD. 171

the head in PL 25. I may mention that this head is
slightly foreshortened, and consequently does not appear as
narrow as it ought to be. I need hardly say that I am
aware that the stable term, " coffin-shaped," as applied to a
horse's head, has reference to its appearance in profile, and
not to its front view.

Experience tells us that the forehead should be prominent
immediately below the brow band, and should be marked on
each side by a well-developed lump of muscle which is
shown fairly well in PI. 24. This formation is usually
accompanied by the possession of pluck and " cleverness/'
Its good or poor development is, -I regret to say, as diffi-
cult to clearly explain in words as it is to show in a
photograph ; although its recognition in actual practice is
an easy matter. Prominence of that part may possibly have
some connection with a good development of the cerebellum

(see p.^43)-

It is regarded as a beauty for the eyes to be set high up
in the head. As far as I can see, their position varies but
little in the horse. In the zebra (PL 29) they are set rather
low down.

The bones on the sides of the nose are prominent in
youth, but gradually "fall in" with age, on account of the
fangs of the back teeth, which are lodged in them, descending
lower and lower as the animal grows older.

This change in the form of the nose will serve to indicate,
to some extent, the age of the horse.

Size of Brain. Without entering into any physiological
argument, we may assume that, as a rule, size of brain is an
indication of brain power. According to the classic idea

172 HEAD AND NECK.

entertained by writers on equine conformation, a large
development of brain is a desirable "point" in the horse.
Thus we read in A chat du Cheval, by M. Gayot, that: " The
more voluminous is the brain, the larger is the spinal cord,
proportionate to the size of which are the nerves that issue
from it. It is thus that a large forehead, denoting a high
degree of intelligence, is the index of a good nervous system
that is to say, of high mental and physical qualities." As
regards this, I would suggest a doubt respecting the con-
nection claimed between "high mental and physical qualities."
It did not exist among the ancient gladiators, nor does it
in the case of our modern prize-fighters and pedestrians.
Although the bull-dog is stronger and the greyhound faster
for their size than the poodle and collie, they are certainly not
more intelligent. A long and intimate acquaintance with
horses especially that acquired during my professional horse-
breaking tours convinces me that a comparatively high
degree of mental (i.e. reasoning) power is not desirable in a
horse ; because it is apt to make him impatient of control by
man. A jibber in harness, or a refuser in the hunting field,
when the vice has not been induced by pain or infirmity, such as
galled shoulders or weak hocks, usually "baulks," because " he
knows too much," or at least he knows more than the animal that
will pull at the traces or follow the hounds till he drops. So
far from a horse taking delight, as he is supposed by novelists
to do, in obeying the wishes of man, he very seldom yields to
his would-be master without a struggle. If this takes place
in the hoped-for manner, when the horse is quite young, the
victory on the part of the man is generally easy, and a few
repetitions of it quickly confirm the habit of obedience. If,
however, the attempted subjugation be delayed till the

SIZE OF BRAIN. 173

animal is " aged"- when he will be able to think for himself
without the promptings and influence of man it will be
found that his breaking will be ten, if not a hundred, times
more difficult than if it had been undertaken in his early
youth. This theory of the undesirability of a horse knowing
too much, which I have applied to refractory animals, appears
to hold equally good in greyhounds that run " cunning." In
these remarks on the intelligence of horses, it must be clearly
understood that I refer to reasoning power and not to power
of memory, which is independent of the capacity to draw
a conclusion from given premises. It is evident, without the
necessity of writing a treatise on the subject, that the useful
(to man) intelligence of the horse lies in his power of memory
and to the quickness with which his muscles act in response
to the impressions received by his senses. In other words,
his useful intelligence depends on the high development of
his instinct, and not of his reason. We demand of the horse
ready obedience ; but not obedience matured by reflection,
like what the shepherd would expect his dog to display when
getting his flock home on a stormy night, or when driving
them through a crowded thoroughfare. We do not ask him
to take the initiative from the deep affection which he does
not bestow on us, nor to reason out problems ; we only want
him to remember that if he does certain things, we shall
" make much of him " ; that if he does other things, we shall
punish him.

We know that reflex action, prompted by stimuli from
outside the body, acts best when it has but little connection
with the brain (see p. 42). In fact, the smaller is the
comparative size of the brain, the quicker and more accurately
are instinctive movements performed. Thus we see animals

I 7 4 HEAD AND NECK.

with, comparatively a very small brain, or with none at all,
get out of danger, or seize their prey, with an amount
of speed and precision which it would be hopeless for any
man to attempt to rival ; simply because the action of his
instinct is impeded by the influence of a large brain.
We see this demonstrated in ourselves, in the case of move-
ments, as in fencing, boxing and dancing, for instance,
which could be executed only slowly and clumsily at first,
when they needed the exercise of thought, become capable
of being performed with the speed and correctness of
a machine, as soon as practice had made them almost
automatic.

The prominent forehead (see PI. 21), to which I have
alluded on p. 168, indicates a large size of the intellectual
portion (cerebrum, see p. 43) of the brain, which at that
part of the forehead is covered by only a thin plate of
bone. Without wishing to import any of the jargon of
phrenology into a discussion on this subject, I may hazard
the suggestion that the portion of the brain which is con-
secrated to the functions of memory and perceptive power,
as well as the cerebellum (the organ of " muscular sense," see
p. 43), lies underneath the upper part of the forehead,
where prominence and convexity of the part is a marked
beauty, as I have mentioned on p. 171.

For the foregoing reasons, I do not look upon the
possession of a large brain as a desirable " point " in a horse.
Hence, apart from the practical experience I have had, I do
not like, as I have just said, a bulging-out condition of the
lower part of the forehead, nor a long distance between the
eyes and the top of the head (see p. 171), both of which
peculiarities of conformation point to large brain capacity.

EARS. 175

Top of the Head. The bone (the occipital crest) at
the top of the head should be prominent and well developed
(see PL 26) ; as it affords attachment for the powerful
suspensory ligament of the head and neck (see p. 33), and
for several important muscles. Large development of the
occipital crest is considered by some authorities to indicate
corresponding size of the cerebellum.

Ears. Personally, I cannot say much as regards the
indications afforded by the ears. In common, probably,
with most observers, I have remarked that animals which
move their ears in a quick decisive manner, evidently with
the same intent as they use their eyes to see what kind of
ground they are going over, are, generally, of the " clever "
sort which do not know how " to put a foot wrong." Their
method of employing their ears is quite different to the
restless, "listening" (if I may use the word) style adopted
by horses that have defective sight. The former have their
attention chiefly directed to the ground in front of them ;
the latter distribute it on all sides. It looks well for the
skin and hair which covers the ears, to be fine ; and the
ears themselves, thin and lean. Whether in horse or man,
I dislike to see ears set up high on the head ; and think
that the part of the skull which is between them should be
moderately broad, as in PL 22. At the same time, I must
say that I have seen many clever horses, especially among
those bred in India, that had their ears close together and
set up high on the head, as in PL 27. This photograph
gives us an idea of the peculiar manner in which the
points of the ears of some Indian breeds (Kathiawars and
Wuzeerees, for instance) are directed inwards when the ears

176 HEAD AND NECK.

are pricked forward. To show what diverse opinions exist
as to the ears of the horse, I give from different works on
conformation the two following extracts, which are far
from being in accord with each other. The reader, however,
can decide from his own practical experience as to their respec-
tive correctness. ''There can be no greater ornament than
long, fine, active-looking, upright, tolerably close-set ears, with
the points a little inclined towards each other. I never saw a
soft constitutioned horse with ears of this description " (Dr.
Carson). MM. Goubaux and Barrier state : " It is a fact
worthy of notice that horses which have short ears are
always energetic and plucky. There seems to be a certain
relation between their length and the timidity of their
bearers. At least, this is the conclusion we may draw from
a comparison made among different kinds of animals, of
which the most timid and inoffensive have them greatly
developed. Carnivorous animals, on the contrary, have them
small. Short ears render the head lighter, and the ex-
pression of the face brighter, more expressive and more
pleasing to the eye. In this respect, the Arab horse greatly
excels English and continental animals. It is considered
a beauty for a horse to have his ears well directed to the
front at an angle of about 45 with the axis of the head.
Quick and energetic animals carry their ears in this manner.
To sum up, the ear is beautiful when it is short, directed to
the front, well placed, lean, fine, and covered with thin skin,
which should be adherent, and comparatively free from hair
in the interior of the ear." With respect to the ears being
" well directed to the front at an angle of about 45 with the
axis of the head," I may remark that such a carriage of the
ears, being produced by voluntary muscular effort, can be

EYES. 177

sustained only for a comparatively brief space of time.
Almost all horses which are not prevented therefrom by
disease, malformation or accident, have the ability to direct
their ears forward in the manner mentioned, but do so only
when their attention is attracted to something in front of them.
The same may be said of donkeys, mules and zebras (see
Pis. 29 and 37). It is true that some horses " prick their
ears " more frequently than others ; but, for all that, such
carriage of the ears can be regarded as but a momentary
lighting-up of the face, and not as an intrinsic beauty. I
may add that if a horse habitually carries his ears more or
less directed behind him, we might suspect him to be
wanting in courage and good temper. This is by no means
an invariable rule ; for I have met with some notable
exceptions.

M. Richard remarks that deaf horses carry their ears
steadily pointed in the direction the horse is looking, with-
out side " play." Such animals are generally docile and
attentive to the indications received from the rein and leg.

A horse is said to have lop-ears when they are set on
in a loose and somewhat pendulous manner. I have not
observed that lop-eared horses are less clever than those
whose ears are carried more uprightly.

Eyes. The eye should be clear and free from tears,
the pupil black, and the eyelids thin and comparatively
free from wrinkles. A small eye (see PL 23) in the horse
is called a " pig-eye," and is generally considered to
denote a disposition that is either sulky or wanting in
courage. In this photograph, the straight shoulder, ewe
neck, Roman nose, and pig-eye point to the plebeian origin

1 7 8 HEAD AND NECK.

of the animal whose portrait it is. The prominent " buck-
eye " is generally regarded as an unfailing sign of short sight.
Horses which show a good deal of white in their eyes, as
the term is, are, with much justice, usually suspected of
being vicious ; for kickers, as a rule, uncover a portion of
the white of the eye (on the side to which the head is
turned), when they look back, ready to " let fly." This
justifiable suspicion is naturally heightened, if, at the same
time that the danger signal in the eye is displayed, the
ears are pressed back close on the neck, the front teeth are
exposed by the drawing back of the lips, and a hind foot
is kept raised off the ground. I may mention that, under
ordinary conditions, the human eye always shows a good
deal of white ; but that the horse's eye, as a rule, does not do
so, except when its glance is directed to the rear, or inwards.
Some game, honest horses (like St. Gatien, for instance) show,
without looking in a backward direction, a certain amount of
white of the eye, which, when it is of a constant reddish
tinge, is thought by some to mark hardiness of constitution
and staying power.

Hollows above the Eyes. The existence of deep
hollows above the eyes is objectionable ; for it denotes that
the animal is old and more or less worn out, or that either
its sire or dam was well advanced in years when it was bred,
and, consequently, that it is somewhat wanting in vigour.

Nostrils. The nostrils should be thin, flexible and of
large capacity, so as to suggest the possession of large air
passages. During rest, they should be more or less closed.
If they are kept constantly dilated when the breathing ought

LOWER JAW. 179

to be tranquil, we may infer that the animal has something
wrong with his " wind."

Lips. The lips should be lean and comparatively thin ;
should possess considerable power of movement; and, as a
rule, should be kept closed, for the sake of appearance.
We may generally consider that a pendant condition of the
lower lip indicates want of vigour ; for it is much more
frequently observed among old horses than among young
ones. M. Richard considers that it is often inherited. "We
have," says he, " ridden horses full of energy, which had a
pendant lower lip. Delphine, formerly a brood mare at the
stud at Pin, daughter of Massoud and of a Selim mare, dam
of Eylau, had a drooping lower lip, and all her foals took after
her in this respect. She, however, possessed energy and blood
which have left their mark." Some horses have great length
of upper lip, which undoubtedly looks ugly. Both this con-
formation and the possession of a thick tuft of hair or
moustache on the upper lip, are indicative of coarse blood.

Lower Jaw. The branches of the lower jaw should be
broad, as viewed from the side, and should be wide apart at
their angles, so as to give plenty of room for the tube (the
larynx) which lies between them, and which opens into the
wind-pipe. The space between the jaws should not alone be
broad, but should also be hollowed out, a condition which
will show that the parts are of firm texture and free from
excess of loose connective tissue (see p. 14). The old
practical rule of finding whether a horse is wide enough
between the jaws, is to see if the clenched fist can be placed
within the hollow. I venture to think that few horses could

N 2

i8o HEAD AND NECK.

successfully pass this test, if it were applied with an ordinary
sized man's hand. When this space is broad and well
hollowed out, the horse will naturally be able to bend his
head more freely than when it is narrow, and he will, con-
sequently, be pleasanter to ride and drive.

Setting on of the Head. The part where the head is
set on to the neck should be lean and muscular, and should
show a slight depression behind the ears and lower jaw, and
also above the wind-pipe. This will indicate absence of an
excess of loose connective tissue and ability on the part of the
horse to bend his head freely. The beautiful manner in
which the neck "runs into" the head of some horses, is due
to the arrangement of the bones of the neck and to the lean
and well-developed condition of the muscles. The profile of
this junction will, then, form a curve, which will be a fitting
commencement of the graceful, undulating line that sweeps
over the neck, slightly dips in front of the withers, over which
it curves, and now, rising a little along the back, swells boldly
over the loins and quarters, dips again at the root of the dock,
and, finally, ends in the flowing lines of the tail. The setting
on of the head and the curves alluded to were beautifully
exemplified in St. Simon, whose photograph (PL 7) is
not nearly as good as I could have wished. These points
also come out well in the Arab pony, Magistrate (PI. 28), and
in the Australian gelding, Romance (PI. 35). In the Arab
pony, The Brat (Fig. 31), the curved line is perfect from the
head to the croup, but, on account of the way he is standing,
it descends too abruptly from the top of the croup to the tail.
In Ormonde (Frontispiece) the head is set on to the neck in a
coarse, stiff manner. I may mention that the ideal contour

NECK. 181

which I have described, is an affair of beauty rather than of
usefulness.

Neck. As the length of the neck indicates the length
of the muscles which draw the shoulder forward (see p. 37) ;
the more we seek for speed in an animal, the longer
should be his neck, its thickness being limited by the
amount of strength the muscles have to put forth. The race-
horse, therefore, should have a long and comparatively thin
neck, and the other classes should have their necks pro-
portionately shorter and thicker according as they recede from
the galloping type and approach that of the heavy draught
animal. The operation of this rule should be restricted only
so far as to allow sufficient length of neck for grazing
purposes. Some heavy cart-horses have such short necks
that they cannot feed off level ground with comfort to
themselves. When the art of breeding is pushed to such an
extreme as this, I cannot help thinking that there must be
some defect in its practical working. I may mention that
the combination of a large head and a thin neck is not
alone unpleasing to the eye, but is almost always a sign of
general weakness.

The all-essential power which men possess to guide and
regulate the movements of a horse, largely depends on the
flexibility of the animal's neck. Were we unable to make
him bend it, and to oblige him to turn his head to one side or
the other in obedience to the " feeling " of the hands on the
reins, he would be all but useless to us in saddle and for
ordinary harness work. With reference to this subject, I
may mention that I once undertook to saddle and get ridden
an old entire zebra (equus zebra, see PI. 29), whose feet were

182 HEAD AND NECK.

becoming gradually deformed ; as it would not allow its owner,
a dealer in wild animals, or his assistants to handle it. In
less than an hour after I had turned it into the ring of Frank
Fillis's circus, which was then in Calcutta, I had its feet
rasped down to a proper level, and had it saddled and bridled
for the first time in its life. It was then ridden by Steve
Margarett (a brilliant Australian rough-rider) and by my wife.
Although I was able to quickly teach it to carry its unwonted
burden quietly, I made far less progress in giving it a
" mouth," during the two days I had it in hand, than I would
have done in half an hour with any wild Colonial horse
caught for the first time on a "run ;" the reason being that
the zebra's neck was so stiff and strong, that I was unable
to bend it in any direction. I soon taught it to do what I
wanted in the circus ; but when I rode it outside, it took me
wherever it liked. In fact, I had not the slightest power to
either stop or guide it. PI. 29 will show what a " bull-necked "
specimen it was. Some horses, like this striped ass, though
not to the same extent, are very stiff in the neck, a fact which
may be owing to an obstinate temper, bad breaking-in, or to
a thick and rigid condition of the muscles and joints of the
part. This natural want of flexibility may be overcome to a
great extent by judicious " bending." As it militates against
the ready turning and easy regulation of the paces of an
animal, it should be regarded as a grave defect of con-
formation in the saddle-horse and light trapper. It may r
however, be overlooked in the heavy cart-horse, whose nor-
mal pace being a walk, will not require to be as "supple"
(to use a riding school term) as an animal that has to go
at a faster pace, and whose line of progression, instead
of being along a more or less straight road, may be across

NECK. 183

an intricate country, or in conformance with the word of
command in a riding school or on parade. Besides this, to
have the necessary power in his fore limbs, the heavy draught
animal will need massive neck muscles (see p. 37) to draw
them forward. When " cleverness " is essential to a horse,
he should have a flexible neck, and should be able to bend
and extend it with the utmost facility, so as to use his
head and neck as a balancing pole for preserving the
equilibrium of his body.

Some extra weight in the neck, apart from that required
for the due development of the neck muscles, will probably
be no detriment to the usefulness of a powerful cart-horse ;
for it will aid him in " throwing weight into the collar." In
the saddle-horse, on the contrary, it would be of the greatest
disadvantage. Firstly, it would make him heavy on his fore-
hand ; and, secondly, it would directly tend to wear out his
fore legs and feet. In this connection, I may mention that
entires, who, as a rule, have much heavier necks than geld-
ings, do not, when they are employed at fast paces, stand as
much work, retain their "form" as long, nor get into gallop-
ing condition as quickly as those which have been " added to
the list." We see this rule well proved in steeplechasing and
racing, as witness the long careers of those geldings, Liberator,
Regal, and Reindeer. If I do not greatly mistake, the fact of
the unsexed Knight of Burghley winning the Lincolnshire
Handicap in 1883 was chiefly due to his requiring but little
work to get him fit. I would therefore strongly advise owners
of race-horses to have the operation performed on all their
colts which did not give promise sufficient to warrant their
being kept for stud purposes ; especially if there was any doubt
as to their standing work. Several experienced trainers with

1 84 HEAD AND NECK.

whom I have discussed this subject Mr. Tom Brown and
Mr. Edwin Martin, among others have expressed to me
their belief in the practical utility of this proceeding 1 . The
lesson to be learned, from a conformation point of view, from
the foregoing remarks, is that the faster a horse is required to
go, the lighter should be his neck.

As regards the contour of the neck, I may state that,
according to its shape, it is designated high-crested (or
convex, see Pis. 30 and 31), straight (see Pis. 28 and 35),
or ewe-necked, concave (see PL 23). The contour varies
a good deal according to the manner the animal holds his
head, and should be judged by the form it assumes when
the horse stands in an ordinary manner at attention, with the
line of its face at an angle of about 45 to the ground. PL 30
shows us a horse with, for a saddle nag and for the substance
of his fore legs, a very over-loaded neck. If we compare
that photograph with PL 31, we shall see that the convexity
of the latter is not, as in the former, obtained at the cost
of undue weight in the neck. We may also note the dif-
ference, as regards beauty, in the respective curves of the line
of the neck in these photographs. The height of the crest
in PL 30 is due chiefly to an excessive amount of fat in the
crest above the suspensory ligament of the head and neck.
The only objection I see to a high crest in a galloper, is the
possibility of its putting extra weight on the fore legs.

The fact of a horse being ewe-necked seems to be of no
detriment to his speed. It might, however, affect his handi-
ness, on account of depriving, to some extent, his rider or
driver, as the case maybe, of command over him ; and by
causing his head to be brought into a direction which might
prevent him seeing clearly where he was going. On page 80

THROAT. 185

et seq., I have discussed at some length the subject of the
carriage of a horse's head and neck.

In saddle-horses, the place where the neck comes out of
the chest should be marked, above, by a slight depression in
front of the withers ; below, by another depression at the
point where the jugular groove meets the chest ; and at each
side, it should be nearly flat with neck and shoulder. In cart-
horses, the large muscles of the shoulder stand out in pro-
minent relief from the neck, and the dip in front of the
withers is either absent or but faintly indicated. Owing to
the comparative lightness of neck in mares and geldings, the
union of the neck with the head and trunk is better marked
in them, than in entires. The jugular groove, in which the
jugular vein lies, may be seen on the lower part of the side
of the neck, and is well shown in Pis. 20, 23, and 35.

Throat. The wind-pipe should be large and well
detached from the neck ; as it will then indicate good
breathing power. This shape is seen in the justly admired
"game cock throttle," which is also associated with a good
forward carriage of the head. I have noticed that roaring
often accompanies a wasted appearance of the tissues which
cover the larynx. I am of course aware that the typical form
of roaring is caused by paralysis of one or both of the muscles
which open the larynx ; but their size is too small to account
for the peculiarly emaciated condition to which I have
alluded.

1 86 THE TRUNK.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE TRUNK.

General View of the Trunk Chest and Ribs Abdomen Withers Breast
Back and Loins Points of the Hips Flank Croup Anus Tail.

General View of the Trunk. We have seen on p. 155,
that, as the work which the organs (heart, lungs, liver, spleen,
stomach, intestines, kidneys, etc.) contained in the trunk
have to do, is the same, whatever may be the kind of horse ;
the shape of the trunk will not be affected by class dis-
tinctions. In this particular, the conformation which will, for
instance, be most suitable for a Derby winner, will be that
which is best for a cart-horse. In laying down this general
rule, I must make an exception of the withers, which (see
p. 194) are concerned in locomotion, and not in the per-
formance of any vital function. Although the shape of the
horse's body remains constant without, of course, taking into
consideration individual peculiarities the bones which make
up the entire structure should agree as to thickness with
those of the legs ; for several of the muscles that are
attached to them, are also attached to the limbs. I may
mention that the strength of a muscle regulates the thickness
of the bone to which it is fixed.

In all cases, the body should be as short as possible
compared to its depth ; or, in other words, as deep as pos-

CHEST AND RIBS. 187

sible, compared to its length. The longer it is, the further
removed will the fore and hind limbs be from each other, and
the less able will the animal be to carry weight. On p. 65
we have seen that a short body is a desirable point in the
race-horse and jumper. In draught, also, any undue length
of body is a disadvantage ; for the farther the fore and hind
legs are apart, the less rigid will be the connection between
them, and the less efficiently will they work together. When
speaking of the depth of a horse's body, I refer to its depth
at the lowest point of its back (see Fig. 2). If an animal
shows a good measurement at this part, he is almost certain
to possess fair substance of body. The measurement from
withers to brisket is very fallacious ; for it is not alone
affected by the height of the withers themselves, but it also
affords hardly any indication of the nature of the " centre-
piece " of the body. Many horses, which are very light in
their loins and back ribs, have good depth from withers to
brisket, as in PI. 56. In Pis. 32, 33, and 34, the length of the
body is, respectively, about 2 . 44, 2.5, and 2 . 8 times its depth.

Chest and Ribs. Although the heart, as well as the
lungs, is contained in the chest, I shall not consider it here ;
for I can offer no clue as to its action from the consideration
of the conformation of the chest, which is influenced chiefly
by the shape, size, and setting-on of the ribs. The points
which we should seek for in the ribs of the horse, in order to
obtain the best possible breathing power, are :

1. Convexity or roundness of ribs ( " barrel ") behind the
shoulder.

2. Good length of ribs.

3. Ribs well inclined to the rear.

i88 THE TRUNK.

I may explain that the convexity of a curve may be
measured by the proportion which its height (c d Fig. 174
or Fig. 175) bears to the length of its cord, a b. Thus, if c d

FIG. 174.

is equal to J a b in Fig. 174, and equal to J a b in Fig. 175,
the curve a c b will be three times as convex in the former, as
in the latter.

Among the higher animals, we find that chest capacity
is obtained either by convexity or by length. Hence, those
species which have short chests, have round ones ; and those
that have long ones, have them flat-sided ; the capacity being
increased by roundness of the ribs, and decreased by flatness
of these bones. We have already seen that undue length
of body is detrimental to speed, weight-carrying power,
and strength in draught. Consequently, we should seek for
roundness of chest in order to obtain good breathing power.
Youatt, in his book on The Horse, appears to have originated
a fallacy concerning the conformation of the ribs, which has
been repeated by many English writers. He says that " the
circular chest could not expand, but every change of form
would be a diminution of capacity." This statement seems to
be based on the supposition that the chest expands and con-
tracts, by the ribs opening and closing in a direction at right
angles to the length of the body. Instead of this being the
case, the difference in capacity of the chest is due to the fact
of the ribs, which are inclined to the rear, turning round
towards the front on their upper and lower ends, as on pivots,

CHEST AND RIBS.

189-

when air is drawn into the lungs ; and then revolving back
again, when the air is expelled from them. I may explain that
the (tidal) air is expelled from the lungs by the elastic recoil
of the ribs, which takes place the moment the muscles which
drew the ribs forward, become relaxed. Youatt's statement is
altogether incorrect ; for the rounder the ribs are, other
things being equal, the greater will be the difference of chest
capacity when the lungs are full, to what it would be when
they are comparatively empty.

FIG. 176. FIG. 177. FIG. 178.

DIAGRAMS SHOWING DIFFERENT DEGREES OF EXPANSION OF CHEST.

We may prove the foregoing remarks as follows : Let the shaded oval in
Figs. 176, 177 and 178, diagrammatically represent the space respectively
enclosed between pairs of ribs of different degrees of convexity, but of the
same depth, viewed from behind, at the end of an expiration. Let a b
(= a b l ) be, respectively, the distance of the centre of each rib from its
vertical axis ; b a c the angle at which the ribs in all three figures are inclined

1 9 o THE TRUNK.

to the rear ; and b 1 a b the angle through which they, respectively, turn
during an inspiration. We shall then see that the difference of capacity
shown by the difference of area between the shaded oval and the one which
circumscribes it is greatly in favour of the round barrel. If it were possible
to have a chest perfectly circular (as in Fig. 178) at the end of an expiration;
the transverse axis of the chest, . when the lungs were fully inflated, would
exceed in length the vertical axis.

The second desirable condition namely, good length of
ribs should, as we have seen, be obtained rather by rotundity
than by the distance which the ends of the ribs, respectively,
are from each other. Given ribs sufficiently round, we need
not trouble ourselves much as to their length, except as
regards the farthest back ones, which should be as long and
as much directed outwards as possible, so as to afford a broad
attachment to the diaphragm (see p. 46). It would be easy
to prove that the more inclined the ribs are to the rear, the
greater will be the difference in capacity of the chest when
empty, to what it would be when full of air, and conse-
quently the better the breathing power ; but I do not think
that it is possible to estimate this inclination with sufficient
accuracy to make it a practical guide. My experience leads
me to conclude that all useful purposes, in this respect, will be
served by satisfying ourselves whether or not the horse under
examination is " well-ribbed up." If the last rib be short, flat,
and but little inclined to the rear, the animal will be "slack
in the loins,'* and will most certainly not have as good
breathing power as he would have had, if that rib had been
long, "springing " well out from the side, and inclined so
much to the rear that there would be space only for the ends
of two or three fingers between it and the point of the hip.
Such a desirable shape would give the utmost width of base
to the diaphragm, which is a very important muscle of

CHEST AND RIBS. 191

breathing. Although I mention in this connection only the
last ribs, I take for granted that its neighbouring ribs would
conform, more or less, to its length, shape and inclination to
the rear. From the foregoing considerations, I would regard
roundness of barrel behind the girths ; depth of body (as
compared to length of body) in the centre of the back ; and
being well ribbed up, as the great signs, in conformation,
of a horse having good breathing power. As " the middle
false ribs are those which have the greatest power of being
drawn forwards and outwards " (see p. 35), they, in com-
parison to the length of the body, should be as long, as well
as convex, as possible. On account of their lower ends
being difficult to trace in the living animal, we may con-
veniently judge of their approximate lengths, by the depth of
the body at the centre of the back, making due allowance for
the ''condition" of the animal. If we examine the Frontis-
piece and Pis. 35 and 56, which show three horses in
training for racing, we shall notice that the back ribs of both
Ormonde and Romance were of good length, thus indicating
fine breathing power ; and that those of the " weed " were
unusually short. As might have been expected, this mare,
though fast, was a very poor stayer. I need hardly say that
the shape of the body should be judged by the body itself,
and without reference to the length or substance of the legs.
The fact, as often occurs, of the body being too heavy for
the legs, in no way affects the proportion which its length,
depth and thickness bear to each other. The popular term,
" slack in the loins," which I have used, is applied to the ob-
jectionable condition of the last rib being short and at a con-
siderable distance from the point of the hip. As this kind of
conformation usually accompanies a more or less weak state

I 9 2 THE TRUNK.

of the muscles of the loins, the expression is not altogether
inappropriate. Some persons ignorantly think that it is an
advantage for a horse, as regards speed, to be a bit " slack in
the loins ; " because (so they say) such a shape allows the
animal more freedom in bringing his hind legs forward, than
if he were well ribbed up. I need hardly point out that the
form of a horse's back ribs cannot in any way affect the
action of his hind legs. This absurd notion was, no doubt,
started by some person who supposed that the hip joints were
at the points of the hips ! Owing to sexual causes, mares, as
a rule, are not so well ribbed up as horses. Hence, some
slight slackness in the hollow of the flank is not such a grave
fault in them as in entires and geldings. The fact, however,
remains, that for all purposes of work, a horse or mare cannot
be too well ribbed up.

M. Merche remarks that : " Among common horses, the
last rib is less arched and less carried back than among blood
horses ; and the flank consequently appears longer."

St. Simon, among many other great race-horses, was an
instance of a fine stayer, who possessed singularly little depth
at the withers, but had great roundness of chest behind the
girth, and also fair depth of body at the lowest point of his
back. It is essential for the race-horse to obtain good
breathing power by roundness of ribs, so that his body may
have its powers of breathing fully developed without its
length being unduly increased.

The great advantage of depth in the front portion of the
chest is to allow of good length of shoulder blade, which is
indispensable to the weight-carrier and jumper.

Abdomen. We have seen on p. 45 that the centre

ABDOMEN. 193

piece of the body is divided by the diaphragm into two
portions, the chest and abdomen ; the former containing the
lungs and heart ; the latter, the stomach, liver, intestines,
bladder and other organs. The ribs form the walls of the
chest. The contents of the belly (consisting mostly of the
intestines) are kept in their place chiefly by powerful ligaments,
the principal one of which is the abdominal tunic (see p.
34), and by muscles. These structures are respectively
attached to the margin of the front part of the pelvis, to the
rear part of the breast bone, rearmost edge of the ribs, and to
the sides of the loin vertebrae, thus bridging over the vacant
space. We may, then, fairly assume that the abdomen should
follow the general contour of the chest. As the straight
muscle of the abdomen which covers the lower portion of this
cavity, is the chief muscle that bends the back, the horse can-
not be thoroughly " fit " for work, if this muscle is unduly
pressed down by the intestines. We may also conclude that,
when a horse has a naturally pendulous belly, he will be
wanting in quickness and stamina, which cannot be possessed
without the ability to freely move the spine. This and the
other muscles of the abdomen aid in the process of breathing,
which will be more or less interfered with, if these muscles
have to constantly strive against undue pressure from the
cavity they cover. Besides this, if the intestinal mass is
greater than it ought to be, it will hamper the action of the
lungs by forcing the diaphragm too far into the chest ; it
will add to the weight to be carried ; and will militate against
speed by tending to bring the centre of gravity to the
rear (see p. 51). Although the subject of feeding is not
within the province of this book, it may not be out of place
if I mention that the practice of giving horses large quantities

194 THE TRUNK.

of soft food . (boiled turnips, for instance), which they can
quickly consume, exerts, among other evils, a most injurious
effect on the muscles of the stomach, intestines and abdomen ;
for, being deprived of the rest which is necessary to their
repair and development, by the continued pressure resulting
from the presence of the bulky food, these muscles soon
become ill-fitted to perform their work. On the other hand,
we should guard against a " tucked up" condition of belly,
which will indicate illness, over-work, too excitable a tempera-
ment, or improper management of some kind. If we consider
that these abdominal muscles act by tending to become
straight between their points of attachment, and that when
in a passive state they are longer than when they contract,
we shall see that, when in a condition of rest, they should be
gently rounded, and should be neither drawn straight nor
bulged out. In Chapter XXII., I shall consider the special
development of these muscles.

Withers. The chief object which the withers fulfil, is to
afford attachment for the suspensory ligament of the head
and neck ; for muscles which extend the head and neck ; for
muscles that draw the shoulder blade forward ; for the powerful
muscle that runs along the top of the back and extends the
vertebrae ; and for a muscle which aids inspiration by bringing
the ribs forward. If we look at the skeleton (see Fig. 3),
we shall readily see that the fact of the withers rising, as they
do, above the line of the back, greatly assists the action of the
elastic ligament that supports the head and neck, and of the
muscles which extend these parts. It also increases the
power of the muscle which extends the back and loins.
Besides, it tends to give length to the muscle which is at-

WITHERS. 195

tached to the withers and which helps to draw the shoulder
forward, and by affording increased space for the top of the
shoulder blade, it favours length of this important bone. The
further back the withers extend, the more do they, by giving a
big surface for attachment, indicate large development of the
muscle which extends the back and loins, and the more room
do they afford for the backward slope of the shoulder blade.
Hence, withers which are high and which extend far back, are
generally associated with a good carriage of the head and
neck ; free movement of the shoulder ; long and sloping
shoulder blades ; and strength in the back and loins. Such
a conformation is desirable in every kind of horse, and
especially in the race-horse, hunter, and steeplechaser.
Low withers, on the contrary, are usually accompanied by
heavy, short and upright shoulders. Lecoq observes that
u in the mule, and especially in the ass, the withers are always
low ; a conformation which is in accordance with the small
development of the paces of these animals." Dealers and
others, when "showing off" a horse which has high withers,
not unfrequently endeavour to direct attention to this fact, as
a proof of the length and obliquity of the shoulders. I need
hardly point out, even to the inexperienced horseman, that
any particular part should be judged, if possible, on its own
merits, and not by those of another part, however much
excellence in the latter may indicate its possession by the
former.

The Height of the Withers is, strictly speaking, that
of the spines of the vertebrae of the part and the soft tissues
which cover their summits. Their apparent height is the
distance they project above the top of the shoulder blades ;
although I must confess that it is often difficult to tell how

o 2

196 THE TRUNK.

high they are in horses which have very thick withers. Animals
that are comparatively high over the croup, appear to have
lower withers than those which are high in front, even
when we make allowance for any difference that may exist
in the length of the spines themselves. The reason for this
seems to be that, as elevation of the croup causes the weight
of the body to be shifted forward, such a conformation tends
to depress the body between the shoulder blades, and con-
sequently reduces the distance between them and the top of
the withers.

" Leanness of the Withers " depends on their apparent
height ; the actual thickness of the spines and their cartilages ;
the size of the muscles of the part ; and the amount of loose
tissue about it. Although we cannot expect leanness of
withers in the cart-horse, the presence of whose massive
muscles that lie between the trunk and shoulder blades,
separates the ends of the latter widely asunder ; still it is
a very desirable point in the saddle-horse, as it indicates
absence of an excess of connective tissue (see p. 14), light-
ness of forehand, and height of the withers themselves.
Very thin, high withers are objectionable ; for they are liable
to become hurt by a saddle, especially by a side-saddle. We
are all aware that when the part is of this shape, it is difficult
to keep the ''gullet-plate" of the saddle from touching it,
however high this iron arch may be ; the reason being, as far
as I can see, that such a condition is usually associated, as
might be expected, with emaciation of the neighbouring
muscles ; among the rest, those which give rise to the pro-
minence behind the shoulder blade, and against which the
" points " of the tree of the saddle should rest. When the
part is thus unduly flat, the saddle is naturally liable to slip

BREAST. 197

forward. With horses which have thick withers it is also
difficult to keep the saddle in its place ; for the presence
of large shoulder muscles and abundance of connective tissue
conceals the outline of the shoulder blades and renders the
part, upon which the points of the tree rest, smooth and
round.

" Age and sex have an equal influence on the leanness of
withers, which, badly defined in the colt, come well out only
towards five or six years old, at the time when the bones have
attained their full length, and the body its definite size. The
withers are less high in the mare than in the gelding or
entire. As a set off, the last mentioned, whose forehand
acquires a considerable development, has this part thicker,
especially in the case of a heavy draught animal" (Goubaux
and Barrier].

Breast. Width of breast, or width of chest, as the
distance between the fore legs is usually called, " is generally
looked upon as a measure of the size of the chest, or, rather,
of its rotundity. This is an error which we have cleared
away by more than fifty observations made on the living
animal, and afterwards completed on the dead subject. We
have never been able to ascertain, with respect to this point,
any practical difference among animals of the same height,
whatever might have been their width of breast ; for the
simple reason that it is not in its front part that the chest
varies much, but rather in its middle and back portions. To
what cause, then, other than bulging out of the anterior ribs,,
is width between the fore legs due ? We must attribute it to
the greater or less thickness of the pectoral muscles which
form its base. We may see the truth of this from the fact

I 9 8 THE TRUNK.

that this part may become narrow in animals which have
large chests. It is merely necessary to place them under bad
sanitary conditions as regards work and feeding, to convince
one that their state of emaciation brings on the loss of width
of which we speak" (Goubaux and Barrier]. If we take
the trouble to compare the width between the fore legs of
badly-shaped cart-horses which happen to be " flat-sided" and
wanting in girth, with that of thoroughbreds having large
capacity of chest, we shall note that the width in question
bears no relation to the size of chest. Again, it is no rare
occurrence to see horses that have been once broad-chested,
become narrow in front when they are old and worn out.
The pectoral muscles, to which the eminent French professors
alluded in the foregoing extract, lie between the humerus and
chest. The fact that horses which are broad between the
fore legs are very rarely good stayers at a gallop, has been
used as an argument that roundness of rib is inconsistent with
good breathing power. We may, however, I venture to think,
account for it more correctly by saying that the failure in
"staying" is owing to the undue weight of the forehand
consequent on the large muscular development of the part,
and to the tendency to lateral displacement of the centre of
gravity (see p. 65). I may add that we rarely see a horse
wide in front which is not at the same time thick in the withers,
a condition which is also caused by the largeness of the
muscles that lie between the chest and the fore limb, as well as
by the thickness of the bones themselves. When a horse is
narrow between the fore legs by reason of the emaciated con-
dition of his pectoral muscles, "the keel of his breast bone
becomes prominent, the points of the shoulder are pushed
forward to the front, and allow to be seen, between them and

BACK AND LOINS. 199

the breast, two deep depressions in which the jugular grooves
terminate below " ( Goubaux and Barrier]. These writers point
to the fact that narrowness in front may therefore be either
natural or acquired. In the cart-horse, width of breast is a
desirable point ; for he requires to have massive muscles.
Although the race-horse, cross-country animal, and hack
should be light in front, and should consequently not be
broad between the fore legs ; still undue narrowness of that
part (see PL 10), indicating, as it would do, want of proper
muscular development, would in all cases be a defect. As
" width " and " narrowness " of breast are comparative terms
which are practically impossible to define with accuracy, I
have given in PI. 9 a front view of a well-shaped hack
which was nearly thoroughbred.

Back and Loins. The upper line of these parts should,
it is generally considered, run in a straight line, or with the
slightest possible rise, to the croup (see Pis. 7, 31, 33 and 62).
When the animal has a "roach-back " (see PL 36) that is,
when this line is decidedly convex the muscle which runs
along the top of the back, and which has a powerful action on
all the paces of the horse, will be found wanting in develop-
ment ; and the chest will, as a rule, be flat-sided. This con-
dition of back, from the fact of its assuming, to some extent,
the form of an arch, is generally supposed to be advantageous
for carrying heavy burdens, as in the case of baggage animals.
I am not, however, able to furnish any actual proof that such
is the case. A "hollow-backed" or " saddle-backed" horse,
on the contrary, is one which has this line concave on account
of the arrangement of the vertebrae of the part. It is
frequently the result of relaxation of the ligaments which

200 THE TRUNK.

bind the vertebrae together, owing to the effects of hard work
and debility. Thus, we may often see a horse which in his
youth had a straight back, become hollow-backed in his old
age. From the different position assumed by man when
moving, the opposite to this occurs to ourselves. An
appearance of hollow back may be given by unusually
large development of that part {posterior iliac spine, see
Fig. 3) of the pelvis which forms the highest point of the
croup. I have also observed, especially among Arab ponies,
the same kind of conformation arise from the pelvis being
set up particularly high in animals which were low in front.
No exception can be taken to an apparently hollow back
produced by the putting-on of the pelvis.

Without any exception, the top of the back and loins
should be as flat and broad as possible ; for this condition
indicates the presence of powerful rearing muscles (see p. 64),
and rotundity of the back ribs (seep. 191). In many draught
animals, the upper muscles of the loins and back stand out as
distinct ridges of muscle on each side of the backbone. This
beauty in the coarser breeds is not confined to them, but may
sometimes be seen in well-bred horses, as was the case with
Mr. Kelly Maitland's Kingcraft, which was one of the best
race-horses that has ever been in India. This Australian was
a singularly muscular, short-backed animal, to whom distance
and weight made comparatively but little difference. This
" double-backed " condition may come on or disappear accord-
ing to the amount of "flesh" which the animal carries. A
false appearance of flatness and strength of back and loins
may be temporarily given by excessive fat.

Shortness of Loins and Back. The appearance of com-
parative shortness or length which the back and loins (or

BACK AND LOINS. 201

back, if we include the loins in this term, see p. 24) may pre-
sent, is due, I would submit, chiefly to the following causes :

1 . The manner in which the croup runs into the loins.
For instance, the back and loins will appear short and the
croup (or " quarters") long, if the pelvis be more or less
horizontal ; the contour of the croup free from angularity ;
the muscles over the loins largely developed ; and the flanks
well ribbed up. I regret that I have omitted to give among
the equine portraits in this book, one of a good specimen of
a long-backed horse. My meaning will, however, be under-
stood if my readers will compare the line of the croup and
loins in the Frontispiece and Pis. 19, 33, 35 and 55, with
that in Pis. 15, 34, 39 and 56.

2. The distance to which the withers run back. I may
point out that the extreme lowness of the withers in the
Burchell's zebra (PI. 37), the kiang (PL 67), and the onager
(PL 66), gives the backs of these animals a false appearance
of undue length. The angularity of the contour of Mike's
croup (see PL 38) might lead one to form the wrong opinion
that he was long in the back and loins, if his withers did not
extend so far to the rear as to counteract that impression.
The same may be said of Dorothy (PL 39).

3. The degree of slope of the shoulder and pelvis. It is
evident that the greater the angle formed by the respective
directions of the shoulder blade and pelvis produced (the
more oblique the shoulder and the more horizontal the croup),
the shorter will the back and loins appear to be ; and vice
versa.

4. Length of neck. I need hardly say that a long neck
(or a "long rein," if we include the withers) will give an air
of shortness to the back and loins, and vice versa.

202 THE TRUNK.

5. Depth of back ribs. To see this we need only to con-
trast the Frontispiece, or PI. 32 with PL 56.

Without indulging in any tedious repetition, I think we
may safely assume that, in all cases, a horse's back and loins
should have the appearance of being as short as possible.

Points of the Hips. When these parts are very
prominent, the horse is said to have " ragged hips." Such a
condition gives the animal an angular appearance, and is con-
sequently displeasing to the eye. A horse thus formed is
more likely to hurt his hips by "catching" them against door-
posts, or by lying on a hard surface when he is not supplied
with a sufficiency of bedding, than one of different conforma-
tion. The fact of a horse having flat or ragged hips does not
appear to influence his usefulness in any way. Among
thoroughbreds, certain strains of blood have them prominent.
Although it would be more correct to consider the points of
the hips along with the hind limb ; I have placed them, for
convenience sake, under the present heading.

Flank. The only . thing to remark about this part is
that the "hollow of the flank," which is included between the
loins, point of the hip and end of the last back rib, should be
well filled up and should be as small as possible. If it is
hollowed out, it will indicate that the animal is in bad health,
out of condition, or of weak constitution. If the extent of the
hollow of the flank be small, the animal will be well ribbed up,
a form of conformation which I have discussed on p. iqoetseq.
It is more essential for race-horses to be well ribbed up than
for any other class ; as they can ill afford to make up, by
increased length and depth of chest, for any deficiency in this
point. Increased depth or increased length of chest, besides

CROUP. 203

adding to the weight to be carried, would militate against the
possession of speed, on account of its tending to lower or
bring back the centre of gravity, and thus to increase the
stability of the equilibrium (see p. 67).

Croup. The upper line of the croup, from the loins to
the root of the tail, should remain convex, even when a fairly
heavy weight is carried. This convexity, more or less
regular, is caused by the prominence of the inner angle of the
pelvis ; by the action of the muscles which flex the back ; and
by the strength of the ligaments which preserve the stability
of this arch. We may note how relaxation of these muscles
will affect this state of convexity if we pinch the loins of a
horse, so as to make him crouch, which he does by the con-
traction of the muscles that lie on the top of the loins.
When he crouches in this manner, the upper line of the croup
will tend to become straight. Hence we may accept the con-
clusion, which is fully borne out in practice, that undue
straightness of the upper line of the croup indicates weakness
of the part. Not being able, at present, to get a living animal
from which to obtain a photographic illustration of this bad
point, I may refer my readers to the horse of the statue
which stands in the centre of Holborn Circus. I may also
mention that when a horse is affected by paralysis of the
muscles of the loins, the croup will usually assume an abnor-
mally flat appearance, especially when weight is put on the
back, which, in this disease, can badly support it. The
slope of the croup (whether it is " goose rumped " or hori-
zontal) will be considered on pp. 232 and 233.

Anus. The anus should be prominent, and the tissues
around it should be well filled out. It should be firm in

204 THE TRUNK.

appearance and closed when at rest. A hollow, flabby and
open condition of the part indicates illness or general debility.

Tail. The tail should be muscular at its root, and
naturally short as regards its solid portion (dock). Strength
of tail, as may be tested by endeavouring to lift it up with
the hand under the root, usually shows vigour of body.
A naturally long dock is, to a certain extent, a sign of
inferior breeding.

The tail should, in all cases, be set on " high " (see Frontis-
piece and PL 58) ; as this form points to a more or less hori
zontal position of the sacrum. If this part be bent downwards,
as in Pis. 32 and 36, so as to form a decided angle with the
vertebrae of the loins and back, the backbone will not be as
well adapted to purposes of locomotion as it would be if
it were comparatively horizontal.

The tail should be carried well away from the quarters ;
for this will indicate that its muscles are in good order.
Some horses, especially those of high spirit and good blood,
when going fast, carry the tail " like a flag," having the
dock raised and more or less concave. It looks very bad
if the tail, when carried low down, say, at the walk, has a
concave bend in it, particularly if there be an abrupt turn
or "kink" in the tail near its end. Such a carriage of tail
is usually supposed to be associated with an "ungenerous""
disposition; although this is not always the case. In coming
to a decision on this subject, we should not fail to take
into consideration the indications afforded by the eyes and
ears. Thus, if the horse, although carrying his tail
"meanly," had a " kind," fearless look about the eyes, and
kept his ears well to the front, and worked them in a quick

TAIL. 205

decided manner, we might reasonably conclude that the
defective carriage of the tail was due to faulty conformation,
and not to a sulky disposition, which would be the greater
of the two evils. In making these remarks, I am, of course,
alluding to horses that have not been docked.

Any unnecessary whisking of the tail when the animal
is in motion is objectionable ; as it is often a sign of " jadi-
ness " and bad temper. We may not unfrequently remark
that the fact of an animal being beaten in a race or steeplechase
is often first made manifest by its tail beginning to go round
and round. The swishing of the tail may here, however,
be due rather to the application of the spurs or whip, than
to any " unkind" running on the part of the horse. On the
other hand, we may observe instances of thoroughly game
race-horses, when " finishing," being so engaged in the keen
struggle for victory, that they will keep the tail without move-
ment, even under severe "punishment." Mares, as a rule,
undoubtedly whisk their tails about more than horses and
geldings. Some of them, which are in a state of continual
irritation from sexual causes, do so to an extent that is very
unpleasant to their riders or drivers. Such animals are,
generally, of but little use. Almost all Arab horses, and
certain horses in all countries, keep the tail rigidly fixed to
one particular side, near or off, when walking, unless, indeed,
to use it when occasion demands. English thoroughbreds,
however, at the same pace, generally swing it from side to
side in an easy, free manner, somewhat similar to that in
which a fast and fair walker uses his arms when going along
at, say, the rate of six miles an hour. The difference, here,
seems to be due to the thoroughbred's longer stride and
greater freedom of action.

206 THE FORE LIMB.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE FORE LIMB.

General View of the Fore Limb Chief Duties of the Fore Limb The
Shoulder Humerus Elbow Fore-arm Knee Cannon Fetlock
Pastern Hoof.

General View of the Fore Limb. The term "fore
limb" or " fore leg" is applied to the column of bones from
the shoulder blade to the coffin bone (inclusive), and the
attendant soft parts. As the chief muscles of the neck are
concerned in the movement of the fore limb, we must take
into consideration the conformation of the former part while
studying that of the latter. The shape of the muscles which
lie between the upper portion of the limb (above the elbow
joint) and the chest must not be neglected ; for they,
respectively, connect the limb to the trunk, and draw it
upwards and backwards. As the action of the neck
muscles, as regards the fore limb, has been considered in
Chapters X. and XVI. (see pp. 82 and 181), and that of the
other muscles in Chapter IV. (see pp. 37 and 38), they
need not be specially noticed here. I shall now examine
the nature of the work which the fore limb has got to do,
with the object of drawing conclusions as to the conformation
most suitable to it in particular cases. As its various parts

DUTIES OF THE FORE LIMB. 207

should move in harmony together, it will at first be more
profitable to study them collectively than particularly.

Chief Duties of the Fore Limb are (i) to support
weight ; (2) to resist the injurious effects of " work " on its
own structures ; (3) to preserve the stability of the body ; (4)
to propel the body forward or backward ; and (5) to raise the
forehand.

To support weight, the horse requires bones and muscles
strong in proportion to the nature and amount of work to be
done, a more or less straight condition of the bones, and a
shoulder blade sufficiently large for the muscles which attach
it to the trunk, and whose size is a measure of their
strength. The comparative straightness of the column of
bones will be largely affected by considerations of propulsion
and of the effect of work on the legs. In all cases, the bones
at the knee should be straight.

To resist the injurious effect of "work" on its struc-
tures, the bones of the shoulder and pastern (at each respec-
tive end of the limb) should be placed obliquely, if the
ground be hard, so as to diminish the injurious effects of
concussion, which are seen in, for instance, navicular disease,
laminitis, ringbone, wind-galls, sore shins and splints. The
obliquity, however, will be obtained at the expense of
mechanical advantage. Hence, the softer the ground and
the slower the pace, the less sloping need the shoulder and
pastern be, as regards injury to the parts from work.

To preserve the stability of the body, we require sloping
shoulders and oblique pasterns. With the former, the leg
can be raised readily and freely to the front. With the
latter, the danger of catching the ground with the toe is

208 THE FORE LIMB.

minimised ; for the more oblique the pastern, the easier will
it be for the horse to bring his heel first on the ground at
each step.

To propel the body forward to the best advantage, we
require a humerus not much removed from a horizontal
position ; for the pushing force derived from the fore limb
takes place through that bone. Also, in propulsion, the
muscles which bend the fetlock joint will act best, the more
upright is the pastern (see p. 69). I need not say any-
thing here about backward propulsion, as it has but little
bearing on conformation. I have made some remarks on
reining back in Chapter XII. (see p. 119).

To raise the forehand effectively, we require obliquity of
shoulder blade and pastern, so as to favour the straighten-
ing of the limb (see p. 63).

From the foregoing observations we may see that the
conformation most suitable to one function of the fore limb
may differ essentially from that best adapted to other offices
performed by it. Consequently, the conformation to be
sought for in the fore limb of a horse will be the best
possible combination of somewhat conflicting elements.

The Shoulder. The degree of slope of the shoulder is
difficult for inexperienced persons to determine, especially
when the part is covered by fat or by thick muscles. French
writers give rules for measuring with a kind of clinometer the
obliquity of the shoulder blade, which is an operation, I must
confess, that I have not been able to perform satisfactorily.
I have studied the subject for many years, and find that I can
rely fairly well on the instruction my eyes have received
during that time. The horse with the most oblique shoulders

SLOPE OF SHOULDER. 209

I have ever seen was St. Simon (see PL 7), whose photo-
graph, I regret to say, does not show this point properly,
as it is a little foreshortened. The lines of his shoulder
are correctly shown in PL 18, which is a reproduction
of a painting made from a photograph that was too badly
done to bear reproduction. As this illustration gives his exact
outline taken in strict profile, it is valuable for comparison ;
although much of the detail which would have been given in
a good photograph is, naturally, wanting. The Arab pony,
The Brat (see PL 31), had singularly good, sloping
shoulders. The horses depicted in Pis. 15, 38 and 39 had
also the wished-for obliquity in this part. As instances of
straight shoulders, I may give Pis. 23, 36 and 48. Taking
into consideration everything I have written in the present
book on this point, I think we may accept the conclusion that
obliquity of shoulder is a desirable point in every kind of
horse, except perhaps in heavy draught animals which are
not required to go out of a walk. If they have at times to
exceed this pace, as dray horses have to do in London, they
should undoubtedly have sloping shoulders, so that their legs
may be preserved as much as possible from the injurious
effects of concussion.

The thickness of the muscles about the shoulders should be
proportionate to the amount of strength which the animal
may be called upon to display. We may judge it by the
thickness of the withers, by the width between the fore legs,
by the degree of definition of the muscles which cover the
shoulder-blade, and by the amount of depression there is
immediately in front of the shoulder-blade where it joins the
neck. This dip is well shown in Pis. 23 and 36, and would
have come out in PL 19, had the light fallen on the part so

210 THE FORE LIMB.

as to emphasise the presence of the depression. This differ-
ence of level between the neck and shoulder will be best
observed when the former is thin and the latter thick. I
need hardly say that such a combination is objectionable ;
for the degree of muscularity of the one ought to agree with
that of the other. At the same time, a properly shaped,
heavy draught-horse will always have prominent shoulders,
which in him are desirable, so as to give a broad surface for
pressure against the collar.

Length of shoulder-blade is a valuable "point" in all
classes of horses. In the racer, considerable length of the
muscles which open and close the angle made by the
shoulder-blade and humerus, is conducive to speed. As the
size of a bone is, as a rule, proportionate to the strength of
the muscles which are attached to it ; the length of the
shoulder-blade may generally be taken as a measure of the
strength of the muscles which connect it with the trunk, and
upon which the weight-bearing powers of the animal are
mainly dependent. Hence, a large shoulder-blade is not
alone advantageous to the weight carrier and heavy cart-
horse ; but it is also essential to the jumper, in order to enable
him to bear the shock of landing over a fence with a man on
his back. The dog, which has a short shoulder-blade, as
compared to the horse and ass, is, as we might expect, a very
bad weight carrier. We may prove this practically by testing
the respective strength of back of a mastiff weighing, say,
ten stone, and a very small donkey, who, although he might
not have as great draught power as a dog, would be able
to carry far more weight.

The shoulders of the race-horse, as I have already indicated,
should be long, oblique, and as light as is compatible with

SHO ULDERS OF RA CE-HORSES. 2 1 1

their work. As far as mere speed goes, great obliquity of
shoulder appears to be no advantage. As the weight is
brought more forward by the shoulders being upright, than if
they were sloping, the former condition, by increasing the
instability of the equilibrium (see p. 67), is equally, or
even perhaps more conducive to speed than the latter. It
also, by tending to bring the humerus into a more horizontal
position, places that bone in a more advantageous direction
for forward propulsion than it would have with an oblique
shoulder; because the impetus given to the forehand in
progression to the front, takes place through that bone.
Those particularly speedy animals, antelope and deer, have, I
may mention, comparatively straight shoulders. Many of
our fastest race-horses have been built in this way. It is not,
however, sufficient for a horse to have the great gift of speed
in order to shine on the turf; but he must also be able to
''stand training," which will more or less severely test the
durability of the bones, ligaments and tendons of his legs,
and especially of his fore ones. Both in training and in
racing, the animal has to carry a rider, whose weight will
add materially to the "wear" of the fore legs, the jar on
which will be far less when the shoulders are oblique, than
when they are comparatively upright.

Important as obliquity of the shoulders is in the race-
horse, it is not nearly so much so as lightness of that part ; for
heaviness of the forehand not alone throws increased strain
on the fore legs, but also detracts from speed. A simple and
practical guide by which we may judge of the lightness or
heaviness of the forehand is afforded us by the manner in
which the neck runs into the shoulders. If we observe that
at their point of union there exists a marked depression (see

p 2

212 THE FORE LIMB.

p. 209), we may with reason conclude that Nature, having
furnished the animal with a good surface for the collar,
intended him for draught rather than for speed. Here we
must not be led astray by the appearance of any undue thick-
ness of the neck muscles which might fill up this dip ; for
the fact of their being heavy would be even more pre-
judicial to the galloping pretensions of the horse than if the
shoulders were somewhat " loaded." I may here mention that,
as the neck projects beyond the fore legs, weight in it, by its
increased leverage, will interfere with the action of the fore
limb to a proportionately greater degree than weight in the
shoulders, which will be placed more or less above this bony
and muscular spring, to which I have alluded in Chapter
VIII.

I would wish to draw special attention to the fact that
obliquity and lightness of shoulders, by tending to render the
animal's action perfect, are indispensable requisites for enabling
him to "stay" over a distance of ground. I have seen many
" sprinters " which have had upright and loaded shoulders ; but
I have never known a genuine stayer like what Ormonde,
St. Gatien, or Robert the Devil was who had that kind of
conformation.

In the shoulders of the draught-horse we should have
plenty of power and a broad bearing surface for the collar,
into which the animal should be able to put all his weight.
It is evident that he cannot do this, if his shoulder-blades be
very oblique, which is a form aimed at by the majority of
exhibitors. Any such "show" question does not concern us
at present ; for I am regarding the horse entirely from a useful
point of view. I find that the deductions I have made in this
chapter are, generally, in accordance with the experience of

SLOPE OF SHOULDER IN CART-HORSES. 213

practical men like Mr. G. M. Sexton, Secretary of the
English Cart-horse Society. He admires " the shoulder well
let down into the chest, and with a moderate slope ; it is not
necessary to be too oblique, as with a hunter or a race-horse,
but just sufficient to ensure free action of the fore legs,
encased with plenty of muscle, which will enable him to lean
into the collar . . . . It is essential that he should be a free,
fast walker .... Action means power, time and money."
Mr. F. Street, in The History of the Shire Horse, advocates,
" Shoulders well thrown back." Mr. Thomas Dykes, late
Secretary of the Clydesdale Horse Society, remarks in the
Stud Book of that breed, that " the shoulder should be more
oblique than in the English draught-horse. This, indeed, is
one of the distinctive features of the Clydesdale, as to his
formation of shoulder is largely owing his long, quick step,
for which he is so justly admired. The upright shoulder of
the English cart-horse may certainly give greater power in
the collar, but if shortness and slowness of step be considered,
this cannot be called an advantage. The English horse,
besides, is more accustomed to sheer dragging and to working
in chains, while his Scottish rival is chiefly employed in the
two-wheeled cart, which occasions a considerable amount of
weight being balanced on the animal's back. A medium
slanted shoulder gives a horse, in such circumstances, an
advantage ; and doubtless those who carted the minerals of
Lanarkshire in ante-railroad days, found this formation well
adapted for their purpose. Even yet no one will affirm that
it is unsuited to the traffic of the day, if he will only take the
opportunity offered for forming an opinion by the sight of the
Clydesdale horses yoked to cart or lorry in the streets of
Glasgow." Mr. Reynolds, M.R.C.V.S., in his Essay on

214 THE FORE LIMB.

the Breeding and Management of D rang Jit-horses, while
recommending that the shoulders should be massive and well
thrown outwards to afford ample space for the collar, cautions
his readers, as follows, against extreme views as to oblique
shoulders : " Many good judges insist that a cart-horse
should possess very sloping shoulders. Whilst admitting the
necessity of such a conformation for good saddle and light
harness horses, and appreciating its beauty in heavy animals,
\ am decidedly opposed to the opinion, on the ground that
such a form is almost invariably associated with thin withers
and shoulder blades closely applied to the front ribs, affording
an insufficient and insecure seat for the collar, and,
consequently, one very defective for the purposes of heavy
draught."

Horses like the heavy draught animals of Edinburgh,
Liverpool and Manchester that have toe-pieces on their
shoes, and consequently make full use of their fore legs as
propellers, should, for this object, have fairly upright shoulders,
and should have no bearing-reins, which would impede them
in advancing and lowering their heads. Dray-horses, like
those in London which have flat shoes in front, should have
sloping shoulders. I may, therefore, venture to settle this
question by saying that heavy cart-horses which are not
required to go out of a walk, and which, in order to perform
their work to the best possible advantage, ought to have toe-
pieces, should have upright shoulders ; and that those which
have to trot as well as to walk, should have sloping ones. If
the ground, such as wood pavement or asphalte, be unsuitable
to the use of toe-pieces, the animals, even if they have not to
go out of a walk, should have oblique shoulders, because in
this case the fore legs will be concerned more in maintaining

THE HUMERUS. 21

the stability of the body than in propelling it. We may also
infer that horses which have toe-pieces on their fore-shoes,
will do their work best when their shoulders are upright.

The sJwiilders of the hack and light harness horse ought to
be oblique and light in order to obtain sure-footedness, good
forward reach, and sufficient knee action. Although the
match trotter should be built more or less like a race-horse,
it is even more necessary for his shoulders to be sloping than
for those of the galloper ; because, unless they are so, he can-
not have free knee action. I may mention that the fast
trotter requires to be able to bend his knees a good deal more
than the race-horse.

The shoulder-blades of the jumper, as I have before
noticed, should be long and particularly oblique, so as to
enable him, in the best possible manner, to resist the shock
of landing over a fence. On account of having this special
kind of work to do, his shoulders should be more muscular
than those of the race-horse. The fact of his shoulders being
sloping, will enable him to "take off" more cleverly at any
obstacle than he could do, were they upright.

The Humerus. The position and form of this bone,
which lies between the shoulder joint and elbow, are so hidden
by the muscles about it, that it is difficult to form a correct
opinion as to its conformation. Even if it were exposed to
view as much as is the fore-arm, I cannot see how the fact of
its being so, would greatly help us. We know that forward
propulsion given by the fore limb must take place through
it ; but I cannot say exactly what ^ is its best direction for
purposes of progression. We are aware that the different
paces of the horse require, in varying proportions, the pro-

216 THE FORE LIMB.

pulsion to be partly upward and partly forward ; but we
cannot tell what these proportions should be. It is evident
that the heavy cart-horse which requires the aid of his fore
limbs to propel him forward, should not have an upright
humerus. It appears probable that the angle which the
shoulder-blade makes with the humerus, varies but little in
different horses ; in which case, the more oblique the
shoulder-blade, the more upright the humerus, and vice
versa; and consequently, from observing the slope of the
former, we might estimate that of the latter.

Elbow. The point of the elbow should be capable
of being drawn well away from the side. It will then
have plenty of freedom, and will not be tied down to the
chest.

Fore-arm. This part in all horses should be muscular ;
as its muscles have to do all the work of the limb below
the elbow. On p. 162, I have alluded to its comparative
length. In Pis. 15, 35, 39, 40, 55, and 57, are shown well-
shaped fore-arms ; in Pis. 46 and 48, mean ones. Although
a race-horse might have a somewhat light fore-arm without
much detriment, it is imperative for the jumper to be
strong in this part ; for in leaping, great strain falls on the
muscles at the back of the fore-arm in straightening the
fetlock, by which action the forehand is raised. It goes
almost without saying that the heavy cart-horse should
have a powerful fore-arm.

Castors or chesnuts. On the fore-arm, generally, but not
always, nearer the knee than the elbow, there is a horny
growth, called a castor or chesnut. It is more or less in the
form of an oval, the greater diameter of which is about two

THE KNEE. 217

inches in length. MM. Goubaux and Barrier state, as an
extremely rare occurrence, that absence of castors from the
fore legs has been observed in horses. There are, in almost
all cases, similar, though somewhat smaller, castors on the
inside of the hind limbs, just below the hock and near the
back of the leg. M. Huzard and MM. Goubaux and Barrier
remark that they have seen instances of the hind castors
being absent in the horse. They are larger and of a more
horny texture in coarse-bred horses than in blood animals.
Nothing is known of the origin of castors (see p. 303).

Knee. Looking at the knee in profile, while the horse
bears weight on the leg, we should find that the cannon-bone
and radius are nearly in a straight line. In reality they are
not quite so in perfect specimens ; but are united by a slightly
undulating line of great beauty, the contour of which I am
unable to lay down with mathematical accuracy. Pis.
39, 41 and 55 furnish us with admirable illustrations of well-
set-on knees. Pis. 35 and 40 are also good. Pis. 34 and
45 are examples of the condition known as "calf-knees," to
which there is a slight tendency in Pis. 36 and 47. The
opposite formation (" being over at the knees") is shown in
PL 46, to which there is an inclination in PI. 59. This
condition is generally due to hard work.

The fact of a horse being "calf-kneed" renders the back
tendons and check ligaments (not the suspensory ligaments,
the attachments of which are below the knee) more liable
to sprain by violent descent of the fetlock than if the knee
were straight. It tends, however, to make the animal more
sure-footed, by bringing the weight back from the toe.
In all cases this condition adds to the tension to which the

218 THE FORE LIMB.

back tendons are put when they are flexing the foot. Although
it is in no way an advantage, it is much less a detriment to
the cart-horse which has rarely to go out of a walk or
slow trot, than to the saddle-horse or fast trapper. Many
heavy cart-horses are "back at the knees " (see PL 19), which
is a shape of the fore limbs that is not uncommon among
Arab and East Indian horses.

We know from experience that the more nearly parallel
the back tendons are to the cannon-bone other things being
equal the better able will the limb be to stand work. Why
this should be the case I cannot say with certainty. I may,
however, hazard the conjecture that, as this " tying-in "
below the knee is due to the smallness of the bones which
form the groove through which the back tendons pass, this
condition may point to want of size in these tendons ; for " the
function makes the organ." It appears that the calibre of
this groove (or rather canal), which, to a great extent, is
formed by the trapezium, is, as a rule, ample for the working
of these tendons ; for when such " tied-in " tendons happen to
become damaged by work, the seat of injury is very rarely
behind the knee. Hence I think we may conclude that when
this groove which is dependent for its size on that of the
bones behind the knee is comparatively small, the tendons
are also proportionately wanting in substance, and con-
sequently unduly weak. I have always remarked that, in legs
of about the same size of cannon-bone, when the back
tendons approached a direction parallel to the cannon-bone,
as in Pis. 35, 40, 41 and 43 ; they were naturally larger and
consequently stronger than those which were tied-in, as in
Pis. 44 and 47, We should, I may observe, regard a
large degree of backward projection in the trapezium

PL. 4O GOOD FORE LEGS.

PHOTO BY M. H. HAYES

TO FACE PAGE 218

PL. 41 GOOD FORE LEGS.

PL. 42 CLEAN FORE LEGS.

TYING-IN BELOW THE KNEE. 219

as a desirable "point"; not merely as indicating the size
of the bone itself, but also that of the other bones of the
knee.

The objectionable tying-in of the knee, which we may see
in Pis, 44 and 47, is, I believe, due in almost all cases
to an admixture of more or less cart blood. Although
individuals of other breeds may be light below the knee, I
have never seen in them this fault emphasised by undue
width of pastern (from front to rear), in the same manner as
it is in the draught animal of Western Europe. Experience
tells us that a leg which shows the form of tying-in below the
knee to which I allude, is altogether unfit for fast work,
or for jumping, and is unobjectionable only for labour which
does not require the animal to go quicker than an ordinary
trot. The reason for this is, as far as I can see, that a large
fetlock is characteristic of cart blood, and consequently
indicates that the bones of the part are unfitted for work at
fast paces. As bones are subordinate to muscles, we may
take for granted that, if the former be weak in structure, the
latter, as well as the tendons and ligaments, will also be
wanting in strength. Eastern horses, and those of Oriental
blood, are often very light below the knee ; but they hardly
ever possess undue width of fetlock. A thoroughly sound
rule, which is borne out in practice as well as by theory, is to
judge (as regards this particular point) the wear-resisting
powers of a fore leg by the direction which the back tendons
make with the cannon-bone, and not by its measurement
below the knee, which is absolutely worthless, unless
that round the fetlock is also taken into consideration. It is
important to note the difference between a leg which is light
below the knee, and one which is tied-in below the knee.

220 THE FORE LIMB.

The latter is always objectionable ; the former, only when the
body is too heavy for the legs, as in PI. 30.

The knee should be broad in front for the attachment and
passage of the extensor tendons.

With respect to knees being " well let down," see p. 237.

Cannon. Under this heading I shall include the cannon-
bone, back tendons, and suspensory ligaments.

This bone should be of good substance, as in Frontispiece
and Pis. 35, 40, 43, and 55. It should feel hard to the touch
and free from any excess of soft tissue between it and the
skin, or from enlargement from the effects of work or disease
any one of which conditions would give it an appearance of
undue roundness. The back tendons, as I have just pointed
out, should be as nearly as possible parallel with the cannon-
bone. They should be straight, and hard as if they were
made of catgut ; and in well-bred horses with fine skins, the
division between the two tendons should be visible on close
inspection. Any deviation out of the straight line, or any
fulness or softness, will indicate the presence or previous
existence in them of injury or disease. If the leg be free
from an excess of hair, the suspensory ligament should stand
out in bold relief (see PL 42) between the cannon-bone and
back tendons, and it should feel as tense and hard as a fiddle-
string. If there be any difficulty in tracing its course with
the fingers, or if it feels soft or rounded, we may rest assured
that it has suffered from injury, which fact will probably
prevent it from standing much work. I may mention that
in "clean'* legs (see PL 42), we should be able to trace the
course of the suspensory ligament for some distance on each
side, as it proceeds obliquely down the pastern.

PL. 43 SLOPING PASTERNS. PL. 44 TIED- IN BELOW KNEE,

TO FACE PAGE 220

PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES

PL. 46 OVER AT KNEES.
PL. 45-CALF KNEES. PL. 47-TIED-IN BELOW KNEE.

THE PASTERN. 221

Fetlock. The chief points about this joint are : that it
should be flat from side to side, and that, viewing the leg in
profile, it should not (as I have previously remarked) be
broad as compared to the width of the leg just below the
knee (see PL 47). Any roundness of the fetlock, which will
be caused by undue thickness from side to side of this
part, will betoken the effects of " w^ork," or of injury. The
peculiar roundness of fetlock, caused by sprain of the
suspensory ligament at its attachment to the sesamoid bones,
will be readily noticed by the practised observer.

At the back of the fetlock there is a lock of hair which
gives its name ("feet-lock") to that joint, and which is par-
ticularly abundant in cart-horses. This tuft of hair covers
a fatty mass (the fetlock pad), and has in its centre a
horny growth, called the ergot.

Pastern. By the working of the fetlock and pastern
joints, the injurious effects, on the limbs, of concussion are
more or less obviated, and assistance is given in the straight-
ening of the limb, to raise the forehand. As the horse will
have no difficulty, under ordinary conditions of soundness and
labour, in bringing his pastern into the same straight line as
his cannon-bone; the amount of "play" which the fetlock
will have, will depend on the distance through which the
fetlock can descend, or, in other words, on the acuteness of
the angle which the pastern can make with the ground, when
weight is thrown on the part. Although we cannot, by mere
inspection of the animal, determine the efficient limit of this
angle, we may assume that horses which have, when standing,
what are called sloping pasterns (see PI. 43), will have more
play in these joints than those that have upright pasterns.

222 THE FORE LIMB.

On the other hand, their back tendons and suspensory
ligaments will work at a greater mechanical disadvantage.
As the expressions "oblique (or sloping) pasterns/' and
" upright pasterns," are more comparative than absolute, it is
impossible to define them with precision. Pis. 43 and 13
may be taken as good examples of these respective forms of
conformation. I need hardly say that pasterns which would
be far too upright for fast work, especially on hard ground,
might do admirably for slow draught. We may accept, as an
axiom, the statement that the harder the ground and the
faster the work, the more sloping should the pasterns be,
in order to save the legs from the injurious effects of con-
cussion (see p. 69). Providing that the pastern bones are
strong, they can hardly be too oblique (supposing, of course,
that this condition has not been brought on by injury), if the
horse be required to gallop over hard ground. I may point
to PL 43 as an extreme case of sloping pasterns in an
Arab horse that had remarkably sound legs. I may mention
that such instances are in no way uncommon among
the sons of the Desert ; and that, as a rule, they are animals
which like to "hear their feet rattle." As a case in point, I
may instance Mr. Covey's famous Arab, Marquis, who won
all over India, at all weights and all distances (in his own
class, of course). After doing as much work as would break
down a dozen ordinary horses, his legs were as clean as when
he was foaled ; although, even when only walking, his fet-
locks came nearly down to the ground at each step so oblique
were his pasterns. Their bones, though long and sloping,
were, however, of good substance. My experience among
horses in many lands leads me to the conclusion that the
drier the country in which they are bred and reared, the

UPRIGHT PA S TERNS. 223

more sloping are their pasterns. I advance no theory in
support of this instance of the " survival of the fittest," which
I give merely for what it is worth. Australian horses, I may
mention, have their pasterns more oblique than English
horses (though practically of the same blood), and are
consequently better fitted for work on hard ground. As
the shoulder-blade and pastern are at the opposite ends of
the spring made by the bones of the fore limb, we may
infer that they should be more or less at the same slope.
Hence, if it be desirable that a horse should have oblique
shoulders, he should also have well sloped pasterns. I may
point out that in good, elastic pasterns, the joint (which is
just below the coronet at the front part of the foot) between
the coffin - bone and short pastern bone, should have
particularly free play. I would direct attention to PI. 35 as
the portrait of a horse that had pasterns of a nice slope for
fast saddle work of an average kind. In fact, he is a well-
shaped horse " all round.''

The two curses which remain on English thoroughbreds,
are upright pasterns and roaring. The former condition is
such a common defect that it generally passes without
notice, and is accepted by the ignorant as the proper kind
of conformation. Of the two, I certainly think that undue
straightness of pastern is the cause of the turf career of more
English horses being cut short than is roaring. PI. 13 gives
a good example of this fatal shape in the thoroughbred.

As I have already said, the defect of uprightness of
pastern in the fore limb, not alone militates against the speed
of a horse by causing him to suffer to an undue extent from
the injurious effects of concussion ; but also tends to decrease
his power of raising his forehand by the straightening of the

224 THE FORE LIMB.

fore limb, as we see done in Figs. 97, 98, 99, 100, and 101. It
is evident that with pasterns like those in PL 13, there could
be but slight descent of the fetlock joint, and consequently
their "play " could affect but little the length of the limb. I
may here repeat (see p. 58) that propulsion is accomplished
by the straightening out of the limb, to effectually do which,
the joints in question must possess the ability to be freely
extended. Every experienced trainer will have noticed that
as a race-horse's fore pasterns become more and more upright
from work, the more will he lose his speed and his " level "
style of galloping. This will also occur to a horse whose
pasterns have become abnormally oblique on account of
sprain of the suspensory ligament, in which case the defect
will lie in the inability to straighten the joint freely when
weight is thrown on the limb. It is evident that the longer
the pastern, the greater will be the play of the fetlock joint.
Hence, length, as well as obliquity, of pastern is an indication
of speed.

Lecoq remarks that : " The direction of the pastern is
almost always influenced by its length. The shorter the
pastern, the more upright is it ; and the longer it is, the
more is it sloped." This rule may hold good in horses of the
same class ; but not, at least to the same extent, among
animals of different breeds. This French writer also adds
with justice that : " There are, however, horses and especially
mules and asses in which the pastern, although very short,
is well sloped." As the evil effects of concussion fall much
more severely on the fore limb than on the hind leg, its
pastern is, normally, more sloping.

Referring to Clydesdales, Mr. Dykes writes : " No doubt
the upright pastern suits well the upright shoulder and slow

THE HOOF. 225

action of the English draught-horse, a conformation which
can scarcely be called the best for any purpose ; but it will
not do in the Clydesdale, which requires a pastern to suit
the formation of the shoulder, and to confer the necessary
elasticity to counteract the concussion caused by his quick
firm step. Short upright pasterns always get worse with age
and feeding, and the action in due course of time becomes
impeded. A horse with an upright pastern has little or no
command of his foot, and literally walks as on a crutch ; and
if he has no power of his foot, he cannot have much in his
shoulder. The streets of Glasgow are very trying to horses
which have to scramble for a footing in the furrows between
the hard, smooth paving-stones ; and horses with upright
pasterns are sometimes almost powerless to move, where
those with pasterns moderately sloped, and of medium
length, can walk with comparative ease. Farmers around
Glasgow are alive to this, and will not readily use a stallion
which has this defect, however strong and shapely." I need
hardly say that the comparisons which Mr. Dykes draws
between the Clydesdale and the Shire horse in no way
concern us here.

The Hoof. The hoof serves as a horny boot in which
to enclose the bones and soft structures of the foot. The horn
of the wall, sole, and frog should be thick, hard and tough, so
as to resist in an efficient manner the effects of wear. Moisture
has a well-marked softening and weakening influence on the
horn, and it consequently affects the form of the foot. We
shall find that the drier the climate ; the stronger is the horn
of horses reared in it ; the more upright are the feet ; and the
more concave are the soles. I may explain that when the

226 THE FORE LIMB.

horn of the wall and sole is weak, it will not be able to
efficiently support the weight thrown on the leg, and the foot
will have a tendency to become flat. The feet of, for instance,
horses bred in Australia are far stronger than those produced
in England, owing to the climate being drier ; although both
are practically of the same blood. The fact that water
mechanically softens horn, does not explain why the hoofs of
horses in damp climates should be produced thinner than
those of animals in dry climates. We know from experience,
however, that moisture has a great influence in quickening
the growth of horn, as we may see in horses turned out on
marshy ground. Also, in those parts of India where the
yearly rain-fall, though large in quantity, is practically con-
fined to about four consecutive months, it is found that the
growth of the horses' feet during the "monsoons'" is much
greater than it is in the dry weather. Hence, we may reason-
ably conclude that this stimulation in growth is one of length
of horn, and not one of increased horny material. The case,
I submit, is somewhat analogous to that of plants, which,
under the influence of an excess of moisture, spring up quickly,
with tissues full of water, but with little solid matter. The
great trouble with heavy cart-horses in England is from
the weakness of their hoofs, the horn of which, as a rule, is
neither thicker nor stronger than that of well-bred horses ;
although the strain which falls on it is much greater than that
which tries the tenacity of the horn of the feet of saddle
horses. Considering the greater size of the muscles and
bones of the draught animal, we should expect that the horn
of his hoofs would be proportionately stronger than that of
the half-bred. The fact that it is not stronger, is a proof
that English cart-horses are deficient in one of the most im-

THE HOOF. 227

portant points of usefulness. Veterinary surgeons in practice
in England and Scotland could tell us that the large majority
(I would say about nine-tenths) of cart-horses which come to
them for treatment, are foot cases. The ideal hoof for a cart-
horse should in no way differ from that which is most suitable
to a light trapper, hunter, or race-horse, except that it should
be larger and consequently stronger. Therefore, we should
regard with disfavour the weak feet, with their low, spread-out
heels and flat soles, which, from their frequent occurrence,
have become too generally accepted as characteristic of cart-
horses. Small contracted feet are equally bad.

The inner quarter of the foot is more upright than the
outer quarter, and its ground surface is straighter ; conditions
which provide for the fact of more weight falling on the inner
than on the outer part of the foot. The horn has its
maximum amount of thickness at the toe (at which part there
is the greatest amount of wear from friction with the ground),
and gradually gets thinner as it approaches the heels. As the
fore feet are intended to support more weight than the hind
feet, their ground surface is broader, their frogs are larger,
and their heels are lower.

From many careful measurements of well-formed feet,
both in a natural state and when subjected to the influence of
shoeing, I have come to the conclusion that the slope of the
fore foot, at the toe, should be about 50, with a variation,
one way or the other, of, say, not more than 3. The slope
of the hoof will conform somewhat to that of the pastern.
The outside surface of the hoof should be naturally smooth,
and should be straight from the coronet to the ground ; for
undue roughness, bulging-out, or concavity of surface will
probably indicate the presence or previous existence of disease.

Q 2

228 THE FORE LIMB.

The heels should be strong and the "bars" well developed,
so that the proper slope of the foot may be maintained, and
that the liability to "corns," or to contraction of the heels,
may be lessened. I may point out that one effect of shoeing
in the ordinary manner is to cause the heels to be subjected
to more wear than the toes ; for, at the latter part, the
position of the iron with regard to the wall is fixed ; but at
the former there is a certain amount of " play " between
the shoe and the horn. Consequently, the tendency of
the shod foot will be to acquire a less slope than it ought to
have at the toe. This difficulty in preserving the proper
shape of the hoof is a troublesome one to every careful and
competent shoeing smith. Some horses have such weak heels,
that if they wear ordinary shoes, it is impossible to keep the
feet at a proper slope, or to prevent them getting corns. The
fact of the feet being at a less slope than natural, will cause
an undue amount of strain to be thrown on the back tendons
(see p. 69). I may mention that if the bars be weak in pro-
portion to the wall, or if they be cut away, the heels of the
shod foot will have a tendency to contract. Unusual width
between the heels is generally associated with weakness of
those parts. At the same time they should have no tendency
to contraction, which will not be present if the frog, as it ought
to be, is well developed. I may remark that an abnormal size
of frog, especially if the sole be convex, or even flat, will, as
a rule, point to the effects of laminitis (fever of the feet). If,
however, the frog is in a healthy state, and if the sole, as it
should be, is concave in form, the observer need not fear that
the frog is too big. Horses which have never been shod, have
their frogs much larger, their heels further apart, and the
ground surface of their feet of greater area, than those which

THE HOOF. 229

habitually stand on iron. The cleft of the frog in a healthy
foot is merely a slight depression in the centre of the frog,
and does not communicate with the sensitive structures
immediately above the frog. If the wall be strong and the
sole be concave, we may rest assured that the horn which
covers the sole is of sufficient substance, provided, of course,
that it has not been pared away by the shoeing-smith.
Some horses have an excess of soft tissue at the back of the
foot, which then makes the distance between the coronet
and heels abnormally long. This condition is known as
"boxy" or "fleshy heels," and is objectionable in that it
cramps the action of the foot, and renders it weaker, and
consequently more liable to injury, than if the foot were in a
normal state.

An undesirable kind of conformation which is sometimes
seen, usually in horses that have an admixture of cart and
thoroughbred blood, is that which gives the hoof the appear-
ance of being too big for the bones which it covers, without
being in any way deformed by disease, or by an overgrowth
of horn. This condition is due to the pastern bones being
slight in comparison to the size of the pedal bone, which, in
health, regulates that of the hoof. In such cases, the leg is
not alone abnormally weak, but the fact that its bones are
not symmetrical, points to the probability that there are, in
other parts of the framework, other instances of lack of har-
monious conformation.

230 THE HIND LIMB.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE HIND LIMB.

General View of the Hind Limb The Pelvis Thigh and Stifle Tibia-
Hock Cannon and Fetlock Pastern and Hoof.

As many points of resemblance exist between the fore and
hind limb, I shall assume, in order to avoid needless
repetition, that my readers, before arriving at this chapter,
have studied the preceding one ; and also Chapter VIII., in
which I have tried to explain the action of both pairs of
legs.

General view of the Hind Limb. As the pelvis,
which is analogous to the shoulder-blade of the fore leg, is
essentially a portion of the hind quarters, I have reserved its
consideration for this chapter, instead of the one (Chapter
XVII.) in which I have attempted to treat of the trunk.
Although the chief function of the hind limb is that of
propulsion, it has, like the fore extremity, to bear weight ;
but to a lesser extent, and is also less exposed to the effects
of concussion. Thus we see that while the shoulder-blade is
connected to the body by muscles which work like a
spring, and which admit of extended reach in order to
preserve stability ; the pelvis is firmly united to the spine, so

THE HIND LIMB. 231

that the force of propulsion may be transmitted to the body
with but little mechanical loss. The pastern and hoof of the
hind quarters are naturally more upright than those of the
forehand, and, consequently the muscles which bend them,
act to greater mechanical advantage.

We have seen in Chapter VIII., that for the attainment
of high speed, the horse should possess the fullest ability to
bend and extend the hind limb. Hence the beauty, in the
race-horse, of a " straight dropped" hind leg. As this power
chiefly depends on the action of the hock, I shall defer its
further consideration, until I come to that joint.

On page 162, I have remarked that the desirable pro-
portions for the bones of the limb are : pelvis, long ; thigh,
short ; tibia (from stifle to hock), long ; cannon, short ; and
pastern, long.

The sets of muscles which move the joints of the hind
limb, appear to complete their respective actions, in suc-
cession, from above downwards, namely : the hip-joint
first ; then the stifle ; and, finally, the hock and fetlock ; the
former being extended by the muscle that bends the latter.
We may infer that to be effective in the production of speed,
these actions must increase in rapidity in the same order.
As the muscles that " start " the weight at each step, are
those which extend the hip-joint, we must look for, in the
cart-horse, special muscular development of the croup and
thigh. In the race-horse, however, length and power of the
muscles of the gaskin, which cause acceleration of speed at
the end of the "stroke," should be particularly sought for.
These deductions, I may remark, are in accordance with the
nature of the conformation, respectively exhibited by horses
that are the representative types of the two classes.

232 THE HIND LIMB.

The Pelvis. For speed we require the pelvis to be as
long as possible ; for strength, as broad as it can be.

The consideration of the best slope for the pelvis is a much
more difficult question than that of the most suitable angle for
the shoulder-blade, which, for most purposes, cannot be too
oblique.

If we examine Fig. 72, and refer to Chapter IX., we shall
see that the push, in draught, by the hind leg, is in an irregular
line from the toe, through the bones of the hind limb, the
pelvis, and the body, to the centre of pressure of the collar
on the shoulder. In Fig. 96, the line of propulsion is similar
to that in heavy draught, except that it passes through the
centre of gravity, instead of the centre of pressure on the
shoulder by the collar. It is evident that the straighter, or
less convex this irregular line is, the more effective will be
the propulsion. In draught, therefore, shortness of the hind
limbs, as compared to the forehand, will be an advantage (as
I have also pointed out on p. 74), in that it will tend to
render the line of bones through which propulsion takes
place, straight. As good length of hind limb is a necessity
in the galloper ; any reduction in the convexity of this line
will have to be obtained by the opening out of its angles, and
not by curtailing the length of the hind limb. Thus, the
hind leg will be stretched out as much as possible to the rear
(compare Figs. 72 and 96), and the direction of the pelvis (as
a point of conformation) will be more horizontal than in the
draught animal. The so-called horizontal croup is not alone
a great beauty in the saddle horse, but it is also a decided
mark of speed. If the pelvis or croup (which in this case is
practically the same thing) be too level (see p. 203), we may
suspect that the back is weak.

THE PELVIS. 233

I need hardly point out that the pelvis is more upright
when the animal is standing still, than when he is in move-
ment ; and when he has no burden on his back, than when he
is mounted. Although I am aware that horses with drooping
quarters are not looked upon with disfavour in Irish hunting
fields ; I cannot help regarding this kind of conformation as a
serious defect in every class of horse which is required to go
faster than a slow trot. Its existence implies that the back-
ward sweep of the hind leg is proportionately curtailed, and
consequently the compass of the stride is more or less
cramped. Also, on account of the point of the buttock being
depressed, the muscles (the ischio tibiaL) which are attached
to it and to the head of the tibia, and which aid in the ex-
tension of the hip-joint, will be unduly shortened in length.
This condition, by bringing the hip-joint too far forward, is apt
to throw too much weight on the hocks and will thus be liable
to lead to injury of these joints. PL 36 shows that the hind
legs of the horse represented in it, bear an abnormal amount
of weight, as compared to the forehand. To have the point
of the buttock placed high and projecting well to the rear,
is a great beauty, which may be seen in some thorough-
breds and high-caste Arabs. I may state that this kind of
conformation is found in a high state of perfection in the
hare, in which animal the pelvis is not alone more or less
horizontally placed ; but the portion of it (the isckium) that
is behind the cavity in which the head of the hip-bone works,
is much longer in proportion to the remainder of the pelvis,
than it is in the horse.

A horse with unusually drooping quarters, as in PL 36, is
said to be "goose rumped."

The prominence which some horses show in the middle of

234 THE HIND LIMB.

the croup (see PL 38), is due to the large development of the
inner angle of the pelvis (at each side), and points to the
presence, in the part, of strong muscles. St. Gatien, I may
mention, had this prominence well marked.

Thigh and Stifle. The muscles of the thigh should be
well developed, so that, when viewed from the rear, they
should leave no unsightly cavity between the legs. For
speed, the thigh 5 should be comparatively short (see p. 162),
and will then give the stifle the appearance of being placed
high up on the flank (see p. 163). The stifle should be
directed well outwards, so that it will have no difficulty in
clearing the abdomen, which the peculiar construction of the
hock joint that is explained on p. 70, enables it to do. It
seems probable that the fact of some " cow-hocked " (hocks
turned in, see p. 235) horses being able to show an unexpected
turn of speed, is frequently due to this kind of conformation
conferring on them increased ability to bring their hind feet
well forward.

Tibia. Under this term, I wish to include the muscles
and tendons between the stifle and point of the hock, with
their coverings, as; well as the tibia (see Fig. 3), which, I may
repeat, is the bone that lies between the stifle and hock
joint. For speed, the tibia should have a maximum of length
(see p. 162). This is particularly the case in the hare.

The Gaskin is one of the most important points by which
we may judge of the suitability of a horse for fast work ; for
I venture to assert after a long and careful study of the
subject, that it is impossible for a horse to have a really fine
turn of speed, unless he has broad gaskins. I may point

THE HOCK. 235

out that width of gaskin is conferred by length of os calcis
(see p. 32). We may see from p. 70 that the longer the os calcis,
the greater is the mechanical advantage at which the muscles
that are attached to the point of the hock, work. I may add,
that these muscles agree in length with the tibia, and that the
longer they are, the quicker will be the action of the hock in
propulsion. The gaskin should not alone be broad, for
purposes of speed ; but in all cases its muscles should be well
developed. In PI. 48, the gaskin is poor.

The Hock. On page 77, I have indicated the direction
which the hock should have, as viewed from behind. We
have seen on page 70, that by a special arrangement of the
bones of the hock, the stifle is enabled to clear the abdomen,
without altering the direction of the hind foot, when the hind
leg is brought forward during movement. This action is
facilitated by the fact that, in a normally shaped leg, the
hock is directed slightly outwards as well as forwards (see
PL 12). When the points of the hocks are turned in to
excess (see PL 14), the effect to the eye is bad ; but the
mechanical loss is small, unless, indeed, the defect be much
exaggerated. If, on the contrary, the points of the hocks be
naturally turned outwards, the forward reach of the hind legs
will be impeded by the abdomen. Also, if we observe, from
behind, a horse which has this kind of conformation, and
which is walking, we shall as a rule find that each hock
instead of moving steadily in a straight line, receives a
peculiar twist (which must be accompanied by loss of power)
while it is propelling the body forward. Experience certainly
teaches us that of the two faults, it is better for a horse to
have his hocks turned in, than to have them turned out.

236 THE HIND LIMB.

For purposes of speed, the hock should possess the power
of being fully extended (see p. 63) ; hence, the beauty of a
4 'straight dropped" hind leg (see PI. 51). In all great
gallopers (see Pis. 18 and 55), we may see this kind of
conformation ; although it is true that some fairly speedy
horses (but not of the highest class) have had their hocks
more bent than the types I have given. This ability to
straighten the hock is not required to any great degree, in
animals that are used at slow paces. " Sickle-hocks " (see
PL 49), as those are termed which remain bent to a marked
degree, when the joint is extended as much as possible, are,
however, objectionable in any kind of horse.

While recognising the desirability of straight hocks for
speed, we must not forget that this kind of conformation, to
be effective, must be accompanied by good length of hind
limb from hip-joint to foot, in order to obtain adequate flexion
as well as extension. If the hind leg be comparatively short
and the hock straight, as in PI. 36, it is evident that there
will be but little straightening out of the limb, when .the
" shove-off" is being given.

The width of the leg, immediately below the hock
(looking at the limb in profile), should be as great as possible
compared to the width of the fetlock. This desirable shape
(which has its analogy in the fore limb, see p. 219) is well
shown in Pis. 51, 52 and 53. I may remark that the hock
shown in PI. 52, which is that of a half-bred saddle nag, is
not a particularly straight one, although it is otherwise well
shaped. PI. 50, is a capital illustration of the defect known
as " tied-in " below the hock.

We are all agreed that a horse should have large hocks,
an expression which granting that the other points of the

PL. 49 SICKLE HOCKS. PL. 5Q-TIED-IN BELOW HOCK.

PL. 52 GOOD HOCKS.

PHOTO. BY M. H. HAYES

PL. 51 STRAIGHT AND GOOD HOCKS.

TO FACE PAGE 236

PL.53 GOOD HOCKS.

HOCKS AND KNEES WELL LET DOWN. 237

part are good is synonymous with "strong hocks." If we
find that a horse is not "tied-in" below the hock, and that
his gaskins are broad (i.e. his os calcis long), we may rest
assured that his hocks are of good size.

As the diseases and injuries of the hock belong to the
domain of equine surgery, and as I have investigated them
in Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners, I shall not allude
further to them here. The desirable absence of synovial
enlargements and of an undue amount of cellular tissue will
be indicated by the bones, tendons, and ligaments, and by
the hollows and eminences formed by them, being clearly
defined underneath the skin.

The horse has on the inside of each hind limb, and a little
below the hock joint, a castor or chesnut somewhat similar
to that found in the fore leg (see p. 216).

Hocks and Knees well let down. There is no point
in the conformation of the horse, upon which more stress is
usually laid, than that which may be described in horsey
language as "hocks and knees well let down/' or "hocks
and knees close to the ground." The cheetah (see PL 2) has
this point well marked. The black buck, another speedy
animal, is, on the contrary, much longer from his hocks and
knees. From an examination of the comparative length of
the bones of the limbs (see pp. 161 and 162), we know that
the proportion of the length of the column of bones below the
knee and hock to that of the radius and tibia, respectively,
remains more or less constant. How then comes it, we may
well ask, that the idea of the hocks and knees of some horses
being better "let down," than those of other horses, has
gained currency ? As regards the fore limb, the answer is
easy ; for the knee of a leg which has a comparatively

238 THE HIND LIMB.

short cannon-bone and a sloping pastern, would, naturally,
be somewhat closer to the ground, than it would be, were
the cannon-bone long and the pastern upright. Besides this,
the appearance of a comparatively long cannon may, I ven-
ture to think, give the impression of greater length below
the knee and hock, than would be the case, were the cannon
short in comparison to the pastern. As regards the opinion
that the length from hock to toe, as compared to that from
hock to stifle irrespective of the slope of the pastern being
less in some horses than in others, I must say that I think it
is founded on an optical delusion. If we examine PI. 51,
we shall see a hock which certainly gives us the idea that it
is " well let down " ; but a look at PI. 49 will convey to our
minds the opposite kind of impression. And yet if we take a
pair of dividers and describe a circle, with the point of the
hock as a centre, and its distance from the toe as a radius, we
shall find that in the case of both PI. 51 and PI. 49, the cir-
cumference will cut the curved fold of skin near the groin at
the same point ! For convenience sake, I have taken these
measurements, which are sufficiently accurate for the purpose
in question ; although it would have been more correct to have
made them from the hock joint to the toe, and to the stifle
joint, respectively. From whence arises, then, this difference
of appearance between these two hind limbs, as regards the
height of the hock off the ground ? To this I would reply
that the fact of the hock in PL 51 being "straight" (see
p. 236), gives the impression to the observer that it is better
" let down," than the "bent" hock in PL 49 ; for, as the eye
runs down the limb, it would not be so abruptly arrested by
the former, as by the latter kind of conformation. Also,
the broader the bone is immediately below the hock (contrast

THE HOOF. 239

PL 53 with PL 50), as compared to the width of the hind
fetlock ; the easier will the eye of the observer run down the
hind leg.

Cannon and Fetlock. Concerning these parts, I have
nothing to add to what I have already written in this chapter
and in the preceding one, beyond saying that if the leg is
of good width immediately below the hock, its shape will be
all right down to the fetlock.

Pastern and Hoof. As the hind limb is concerned more
in propulsion than in resisting the evil effects of concussion ;
its pastern should be more upright, than what would be
required in that of the fore leg. The hoof should more
nearly approach the perpendicular, than the fore one ; its
slope, when viewed in profile, being, in unshod horses, about
60. It is, as compared to its length, narrower ; the ground
surfaces of its quarters are straighter ; and their respective
curvatures differ less from each other, than those of the fore
extremity. The horn at the toe is not so thick ; the sole is
more concave ; the frog is narrower and less developed ; and
the heels are higher and closer together.

240 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR.

CHAPTER XX.

SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR.

Skin Colour Colour in relation to Heat and Cold Hair Hair on the
Legs of Cart-horses Markings.

Skin. The chief functions of the horse's skin, as far as
we are at present concerned, are : (i) to regulate the tem-
perature of the system ; (2) to aid in removing waste matters
from the blood ; and (3) to protect the body. As the first
and second duties are intimately connected with each other,
we may consider them conjointly.

The internal temperature being maintained by the
changes which take place in the tissues ; exercise, by
promoting these changes, increases the production of heat.
But as it also determines blood to the surface of the body,
and thereby stimulates the sweat glands ; the surplus heat is
removed by an increased amount of evaporation from the
skin, which performs this work, and also that of radiating
heat, best when it is thin. Although the subject of health is
outside the scope of this book, I may remark in passing, that
a soft and pliable condition of the skin is due to the fact of
the oil glands which are imbedded in it, being in good order.
Granting the employment of clothing when necessary, we
may assume that the skin of hard-worked horses, especially

COLOUR. 241

those which are engaged at fast paces, should, within reason-
able limits, be as thin as possible, consistent with its being
able to stand the friction and pressure of harness and
saddle-gear.

Colour. The colour of a horse's coat, as a rule, does not
seem to be of much importance, as far as his useful qualities
are concerned ; although we cannot help being favourably
impressed with those of rich and decided shades. Personally,
I admire most a dark chestnut, or a dark brown with a tinge
of rich claret-colour through it, as may be met with on rare
occasions. Dark, bright bays are also very pleasing to the
eye. Generally speaking, a horse looks best when his legs
below the knees and hocks, mane and tail are darker than
the rest of his coat. Bright chestnuts, with white stockings
and blaze, like many of the Blair Athol blood, form, perhaps,
an exception to this. I cannot help sharing the general dis-
like to "mealy " chestnuts, and to bays and browns which are
lighter on the insides of the limbs and on the lower part of
the belly than on other portions of the body. The existence
of this partial deficiency of colouring matter in the skin seems
to infer want of nervous power ; for we must remember that
the distribution of pigment is greatly influenced by the
nervous system. The common belief that if one fore leg is
dark and the other white, the latter will be more apt to go
wrong than the former, holds good, I think, only as far as the
skin and hoof are concerned. Many persons consider black a
" soft " colour, except, indeed, in the case of cart-horses, which
are much admired when of that hue. The prejudice to which I
have just alluded is, probably, due to the fact of many animals
of this shade being " foreigners." Grey is, undoubtedly, an

242 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR.

unpopular colour. Apart from any feeling as regards the
colour itself, it is true that it gets fainter as the horse gets
older, and then unmistakably and perhaps unpleasantly
proclaims the fact that the animal has passed his first youth.
Besides this, a grey coat is difficult to keep clean, and is
liable to contract stains which are hard to remove. The
extra trouble thus entailed predisposes grooms to dislike grey
horses, a fact which may account for the small number of
grey horses in England, compared with those met with in
the East, where stable duties are not so onerous as in this
country. I may mention that grey horses appear to be more
liable to melanosis than animals of other colours. Shire
horse fanciers do not like greys ; for the majority of foreign
buyers object to them. Some of their best horses, as
What's Wanted and Rokeby Fuchsia, for instance, were of
this hue. For my own part, I am very fond of dark iron or
dappled grey with dark mane and tail. Among the cleverest
jumpers I have seen, I must say that a comparatively large
proportion of them have been greys, a fact for which I can
offer no explanation. Blue and red roans, and dun with black
points, are supposed to be " hardy " colours. The most showy
colours for harness work, are bright chestnut and red roan with
more chestnut than grey hairs, and free from white patches.
When there is a large admixture of white with the red, the
colour may be called strawberry roan, which is an ugly hue,
particularly if the animal that wears it has a blaze and white
stockings. Both piebald and skewbald are suggestive of the
circus. The colours found among high-caste Arab horses are
practically limited to bay, brown, chestnut, and grey. The
same remark applies to our own thoroughbred stock, except
that we have a few roans, and a very small proportion of greys,

COLOUR. 243

chiefly through Chanticleer. I may mention that chestnuts
are generally thought to be more impetuous than horses of
other colours. I do not think that this idea is worthy of
much weight.

The colour of the skin itself is either black, pink (free
from pigment), or it may be partly black and partly pink in
patches. Although the large majority of grey and white
horses have black skins ; pink skin will have invariably white
hair, and will secrete (at the coronets) white hoofs. Black
skin will form dark-coloured horn, even when the coat is
white. Although, as I have just said, white horses may have
black skins; we shall find that the. skin of white markings
(stars, blazes, reaches, snips, stockings, etc.) on dark-coloured
horses is, as a rule, white. In fact, I venture to say that the
skin of white stockings is always pink, and consequently the
hoofs of these legs will be white ; provided, of course, that
the white hair is continued down to the coronet. In the
East we may not unfrequently see pink-skinned horses,
which, of course, are white, and which, according to my
experience, are much ''softer" in constitution than animals
with dark skins. This fact is, I think, chiefly owing to the
greater effect the rays of the sun have on skins which are free
from pigment, than on dark-coloured skins. Besides, as
human albinos are generally inferior, intellectually and
physically, to their fellows, we may suppose that the same
rule holds good with respect to these equine albinos. Ex-
periments show that dark-coloured hair is capable of sustain-
ing greater tension than blonde hair. Hence we have reason
to assume that the protective cuticle and horn (both of which,
like hair, consist of epithelium), secreted by dark-coloured
skin, are stronger than those formed by pink skin.

R 2

244 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR.

English stable-men who make a practice of washing horses'
feet, rightly consider that the animals under their charge
which have white pasterns, are more liable to get cracked
heels than those which have dark ones. The supposed
idiosyncracy in this case is no doubt chiefly due to the extra
amount of washing which the white pasterns receive, so as
to give them a clean appearance.

Colour in relation to Heat and Cold. Experience in
tropical climates teaches us that the darker a horse's coat is,
the better will he stand the effects of the sun. I may explain
that dark surfaces radiate out heat and also absorb it faster
than those of a lighter hue, as we may prove by the two
following experiments. If we fill with boiling water two
crockery teapots of the same form one being white, the
other black we shall find that, if they are both placed in a
cool spot, the latter will lose its heat quicker than the
former. If, however, they are filled with icy cold water, and
are then exposed under similar conditions to the effect of the
sun on a hot day, the black one will get warm in a shorter
time than its fellow. We are also aware that the skin of
natives of tropical climates is darker than that of in-
habitants of temperate or cold countries ; and that in the
Arctic regions, the coats of various animals turn white on
the approach of winter. The working of this natural law is
most beneficent ; for, as the temperature of the body of the
polar bear, for instance, is much higher than that of the
atmosphere in which he lives, he can lose nothing on account
of his white coat being a bad absorber of heat ; while the
fact of its parting with (radiating) heat slowly, helps the body
to maintain its normal degree of warmth. The skin of the

COLOUR. 245

negro, for example, although it absorbs heat quickly, radiates
it still faster ; for the vapour given off by the skin cools the
surface, and also, by the mechanical protection it affords,
tends to prevent the absorption of heat from the atmosphere.
At first glance, we might, possibly, imagine that if the
surrounding air was warmer than the internal temperature
(about 100*5 Fahrenheit for the horse), no cooling effect
could be produced by radiation. When, however, the skin
is in healthy and untrammelled action, its temperature, on
account of the free evaporation of perspiration, is consider-
ably under that of the deeper structures, even when the
thermometer stands, say, 115 Fahrenheit in the shade. If,
under such circumstances, clothing be worn, the garments will
soon become almost, if not quite, as hot as the surrounding
air, evaporation will be checked, except from the exposed
parts, the temperature of the skin will rise, and the cooling
process of radiation will be more or less stopped. In this
case, any gain which may be obtained in lessening the
absorption of heat, as persons do in hot countries, by wearing
white will be a direct gain. During the summer months in
tropical latitudes, the hair on a horse's body will, usually, be
so short and thin, that its presence will offer no impedi-
ment to the action of the skin. Agreeably to the foregoing
observations, we find that black and brown horses stand heat
best ; and that white especially if they have pink skins and
grey animals sustain it comparatively badly. I have fre-
quently observed on hot days in tropical climates that, other
things being equal, horses of light hues sweated far more
readily and profusely than those of darker shades.

Hair. The possession of a fine glossy coat will .naturally

246 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR.

indicate that the skin is in active working order, and conse-
quently in good condition for removing the surplus heat
generated in the body by hard labour. The Desert Arabs,
who have no objection to a thick mane, consider that unless
a horse has a thin tail, he cannot be of high caste. The
same idea seems to have given rise to the saying that one
never sees a bad rat-tailed horse. As remarked by
" Stonehenge," waviness in the hair of the tail is a sign of
want of breeding.

Hair on the Legs of Cart-horses. It is a common
belief that cart-horses with a good supply of hair on the legs
have better bone than the cleaner limbed animals. Mr.
G. M. Sexton, secretary to the English Cart-horse Society,
in his essay on cart-horses, writes as follows : " One of the
characteristics of the Shire horse is to have hair on the legs.
The hair should be long and thin, finer in quality on the
mare than the stallion ; it should grow from the fetlock above
the knee, and the same behind the hock. By many this is
thought to be a useless appendage, and that this abundance
of hair is a cause of grease ; but it is not so by any means.
Hair is an indication of bone and size." Mr. Frederick
Street, in his History of the Shire Horse, gives " plenty of
long silky hair on the legs " as one of the desirable points in
the Shire horse. Mr. James Howard, M. P., in his Notes on Cart-
horses (Royal Agricultural Journal, 1884), remarks that : u A
grave doubt, however, arises whether the profusion of hair
and ' feather ' insisted upon in show-yards and among the
leading breeders of Shire horses is really so essential to
strength and constitution as is generally asserted and
believed. As a farmer of heavy clay land much of it

HAIR ON THE LEGS OF CART-HORSES. 247

hilly which requires very powerful horses in tillage and in
carting, I have long entertained doubts as to the policy of the
present tendency to such a profusion of hair. Breeders not
only contend for hair on the rear of the legs, but many have
also come to insist upon a mass of hair in front from the knee
downward, doubtless a characteristic of many of the old
Shire horses bred in Derbyshire early in the present century.
Of course, no one contends that all this hairy covering is
desirable in itself; it is advocated as being essential to
hardiness of constitution and size of bone. This contention
merely means that the desired constitution and sufficient bone
have not hitherto been obtained without an abundance of
hair." This gentleman cites cases in which, for railway
work, clean-legged horses are preferred to those with a
plentiful supply of hair, on account of the latter being pre-
disposed to grease and other forms of inflammation of the
skin of these parts. We may readily see that legs which
have a large amount of coarse hair on them would be
pre-disposed to grease and other allied ailments ; for, as both
hair and scurf skin are secreted by the true skin, we imay
infer that if the former is thick and coarse, the latter will
be strong and harsh, and, consequently, the oil which is
secreted to keep the surface soft and supple, will not be able
to perform its duty as efficiently as it would do, were the
scurf skin thin. When the scurf skin gets hard and cracks
from the effects of the climate and from its being insufficiently
supplied by this oil, the highly sensitive true skin becomes
inflamed from irritation due to exposure. The fact of cart-
horses being peculiarly liable to " sallenders," if they are
blistered for "bog spavins," taken in connection with the
coarseness of their hair, as compared to that of lighter

248 SKIN, HAIR, AND COLOUR.

breeds, would seem to support the opinion that the coarser
the hair, the more liable is the animal to suffer from
inflammation of the skin, of which grease is a form that is
very difficult to entirely allay. We may safely conclude that
if hair on the legs be desired, it should be soft and silky in
its nature. I may mention that Prince William, who, as a
two-year-old, was the champion of all classes in the Shire
Horse Society's show for 1885, had the best hair I have ever
seen on a cart-horse. Mr. Thomas Dykes, in his essay on
The Clydesdale Horse, states that " the back part from the
knee down should possess a nice flowing fringe of silken hair,
which should spring from the very edge of the bone. This
hair should be of what a judge of a Skye terrier would style
a ( pily ' nature ; and good judges will not have a horse at
all, the feather of which has a coarse matted appearance.
The high value set upon nice silky hair is on account of its
being an indication of strong, healthy bone, and as hair of a
short coarse matted kind suggests a tendency to grease."

Markings. When a dark-coloured horse has a small
patch of white, more or less in the centre of his forehead, it is
called a " star." If the white spreads over the forehead, it is
termed a " blaze." If it runs down his nose in the form of a
line of no great width, it is known as a " reach." A white
or pink patch on either lip, is called a "snip." White,
reaching down to the coronet, on the leg of a dark-coloured
horse is, as we all know, termed a "white stocking," an
expression that might be reserved for one that comes up as
high as the knee or hock ; while that of a " white sock "
might be used to signify the marking when it is shorter.

249

CHAPTER XXI.

ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS.

Action. General Remarks on Action. The three chief
requisites of action, from a useful point of view, are : sure-
footedness, effectiveness, and lightness, so that the limbs may
not unduly suffer from the effects of concussion. As remarked
many years ago by Dr. Carson, the safety of a horse's action
depends on the way he puts his feet down, rather than on
the manner in which he picks them up. We should, there-
fore, from this point of view, attach no value to high action,
beyond what is sufficient to enable the animal to avoid striking
his toes against any inequalities which may be on the surface
over which he is going. The stability of the fore limb, when
the foot comes on the ground, depends, to a great extent, on
the knee being kept straight, which is mechanically done,
without the expenditure of muscular force, if a line drawn
from the heel to the centre of the elbow joint, falls at that
moment, in front of the centre of the knee joint. The more
upright the pastern, the further will this line be drawn back as
regards the position of the knee. As the shoulder-blade and
pastern are at opposite ends of the column of bones of the
fore limb, and as they both slope in the same direction ;
it follows that the degree of slope of the shoulder will
influence that of the pastern. Hence, for safe action, we

250 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS.

should seek for oblique shoulders, sloping and long pasterns,
knees in which there is no tendency to " stand over," and
lightness of forehand.

For effectiveness, the action should be the happy medium
between a cramped style of going, and one in which
command over the limbs is, to a certain extent, lost by the
stride being too long.

By the term lightness of action, I wish to specify well-
balanced movements of the limbs, by which undue weight is
thrown on none of them, and particularly not on the forehand.
The action from a " level" point of view, is influenced by the
conformation of the body, and by the carriage of the head and
neck. To be perfect at fast paces, we require the animal
to be light in front ; to have oblique shoulders and sloping
pasterns, so as to have full power to raise the forehand ;
and to have good loin muscles. In Chapter X., I have
treated of the carriage of the head and neck. In heavy
draught we do not require lightness of action, which is the
direct opposite of throwing weight into the collar.

The Walk. At this pace, like at all others, the shoulders
should work with the utmost freedom, and the fore foot
should be thrown well to the front and only high enough to
clear and cover the ground. We may see this beautiful play
of the shoulders to perfection in young thoroughbreds. The
hind legs should be swung freely to the front, so that they
will considerably overstride the imprints made by the fore
feet. Viewed from behind, as well as from the front, the near
and off pairs of legs should respectively move in the same
line, so that there may be no " dishing " or crossing of the
legs. The hocks should have no in-and-out movement, as
may be sometimes seen, and had better work rather close

ACTION AT THE TROT. 251

together than wide. Any tendency to stumble or knuckle
over behind, is a serious fault, unless it be solely due to bad
shoeing. If the horse be given a long rein, he should carry
his head rather low and well advanced, and should be able to
walk at the rate of about five miles an hour.

The Trot. At the fast trot, the fore leg should be
brought to the front with a straight knee, the foot appearing
as if suspended for a brief moment before being placed down.
The knee should not be raised higher than what would be
sufficient to make the fore-arm horizontal, or not quite so
much. The hind legs should be carried well forward, and
should work in perfect unison with the fore limbs. Nothing
looks worse than to see a horse trotting high in front, and
dragging his hind legs along the ground. As I have already
remarked, with reference to the walk, there should be no
" dishing " or crossing of the legs, so that, when viewed from
behind, a clear space will be preserved between the near pair
and the off pair of legs. I may explain that a horse " dishes "
with a fore leg when he throws the foot outwards as he raises
it off the ground. In fast trotting, mobility of the shoulder
(which largely depends on the possession of a long neck, see
p. 181) is a point of the utmost consequence. Hence
American breeders employ, as much as circumstances will allow,
thoroughbreds for the production of their matchless trotters.
In the trot, the head should be carried much higher than in
the walk ; as the limb has to be raised to a greater extent.

The Gallop. In order that the animal may utilise to the
utmost his forward reach in the gallop, his knees should be
kept as straight as possible when his fore legs are being
extended to the front. In fact, the straighter they are at that
moment, the more perfect will be the front action on level

252 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS.

ground. A race-horse should, like a ballet dancer, move as
if he had no knees. I may, however, qualify my praise of
low action by remarking that a horse who bends his knees a
little, is better suited for going up a hill, than a " daisy
cutter " ; as his " round " style of going will aid him in climb-
ing the ascent. Heavy shoes on the feet have a marked
influence in making horses go "high" in all their paces, a
fact which has been largely utilised by American trainers in
regulating the action of their trotters. As this tendency is
detrimental to the speed of race-horses, light tips of suffi-
cient substance to stand wear, should, as pointed out to me
by Mr. Tom Jennings, the well known trainer, be much more
extensively employed, than they are at present. In India,
where but very little rain falls during the racing season, I have
trained and run many of the horses I have had in my stable,
without shoes of any kind. I have mentioned on p. 83,
that curb bits are objectionable for use with race-horses, on
account of their tendency to make horses gallop " round," or
to "fight" in their action. In the former case, the animal
will carry his head low and bring his chin into his chest with
the object of transferring the pressure, as much as possible,
to his poll, over which the head-piece of his bridle passes,
and will consequently bend his knees too much. In the latter
case, the animal will keep his head stuck up in the air,
probably, in the vain attempt to get his jaw away from the
painful contact of the curb chain.

If we observe a "true" galloper, we may note that he
holds his head and neck in a more or less uniform position
(see pp. 84 and 85), so as to enable the muscles of the neck to
work in a machine-like manner.

The hind legs, at the gallop, should be brought well for-

ACTION AT THE LEAP. 253

ward under the body, with particularly quick recovery after
having been straightened out. Their action, like that of
the forehand, should be characterised by the machine-like
regularity of their forward and backward sweep. The limbs
should move in such perfect accord one with the other, that
there should be the least possible rise and fall of the fore-
hand ; for if the weight be depressed at one moment, it will
have to be raised during the next, by an expenditure of force
which will be wasted as far as progression is concerned.

Leaping. In Chapter XIII. we have seen that the " take-
off," in the leap consists in the raising of the forehand and
in the propulsion of the body. Hence, at that moment,
the animal should have his head raised and somewhat
drawn back, so as to "lighten" the forehand, for which
object, and in order to be able to fully bend the hind legs, he
should have them well under him. To obtain the maximum
effect of propulsion, the horse should straighten his hind legs
to their utmost extent ; and to clear the object, if it be one
that is likely to tax his powers to " negotiate," he should
raise his knees well and should bend them as much as he can.
The instant the hind feet quit the ground, they should be
drawn up as quick as possible and close to the body, so that,
in high jumping, they may not catch in the fence, but
be ready to save the animal from a fall in the event of an
accident, and to enable him to land in safety. On clearing
the obstacle, the fore feet should be brought well to the
front, and as they respectively come to the ground, their
knees should be quite straight. The head should be some-
what raised and the muzzle drawn in a little, so as to bring the
weight back, and to enable the horse to see where he is going
to place his feet.

254 ACTION, HANDINESS AND CLEVERNESS.

Handiness and Cleverness. The " handiness " or
" cleverness " of a horse depends on his conformation, dis-
position, and training, with which we are not at present con-
cerned. It goes almost without saying, that a placid-
tempered animal would be easier to stop or turn, than an
excitable one, and would be consequently handier ; but I
cannot say that he would be cleverer. I have known several
terribly hard-pulling steeple-chasers that were as " clever as
cats," and always had a " spare leg " for every difficulty,
provided their rider did not interfere with their mouth ; and I
have seen other equally stiff-necked, cross-country horses,
whose sole delight, no matter how lightly they were handled,
seemed to be punching a hole in every fence they met. Some
temperate ones are just as "chancy," apparently, from pure
laziness ; though many quiet animals are incapable of making
a mistake.

The points of conformation which conduce to handiness
and cleverness are :

1. Well set on head and neck, so that the horse may be
able to bend readily to the rein.

2. Light in front (head, neck, and shoulders), and having
well-sloped shoulders and front pasterns, in order that he
may be able to raise his forehand with ease, and bring his
weight back.

3. Strong loins. We must remember that the upper loin
muscles are " rearing muscles " (see page 64), and that the
lower ones assist to bring the hind legs under the horse.

4. Strong hocks and broad gaskins.

255

CHAPTER XXII.

CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS.

Condition. I use this term here to signify the bodily
state in which a horse can, in the best possible manner, do
work that will test the power of his lungs and muscles to the
utmost. I shall make no reference to " dealers' condition,"
which is a subject that does not come within the scope of
either conformation, or of horsemanship.

A horse to be in condition should be healthy and sound ;
should have his breathing apparatus in the best possible
working order ; his muscles developed to the highest degree
of perfection, with regard to the nature of the task they have
got to perform ; and the amount of fat in his system should
be reduced to a minimum consistent with health.

I shall now glance at the chief signs of condition in the
horse.

i. HealtJi and Soundness. The latter, apart from the
former, need not be considered here ; for it belongs to the
domain of veterinary science. The ordinary indications of
health are : coat, bright ; skin, cool (except when heated by
exercise, or by the sun), soft and loose over the muscles ;
eyes, bright and soft in expression ; visible mucous mem-
branes (of the eyes and nostrils), healthy looking ; mouth,

256 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS.

sweet smelling; internal temperature (in health about 100*5
F.), pulse (from about 35 per minute for heavy cart-horses, to
about 45 for small ponies), and rate of breathing (10 to 12 per
minute, when at rest), normal. The dung should be fairly
well formed, free from mucus, and from any offensive smell.
The appetite as a rule should be good ; although horses
may become a bit ''dainty" in their feeding, when they
have been wound up in their training to " full concert
pitch."

2. Development and Leanness of Muscles. The muscles of
the croup (those over the quarters) should present a rounded
surface, and those over the loins and back, at each side of the
backbone, should stand out in bold relief. The line (some-
times known as the "water-mark") down the thigh (see PI.
55) should be clearly apparent. The muscles just above
the fore-arm should form a rounded mass, and those of the
shoulders should be well defined. There should be over the
ribs a thick sheet of muscle, which should show well
above the level of the part of the flank in rear of it. This
muscular covering of the ribs terminates abruptly in an
irregular line which goes downwards and backwards in the
direction of the groin, and which can be seen plainly only
when there is no excess of fat about the part. I may explain
that in forced respiration (see p. 47), the muscles which
cover the ribs are brought into active play, and they
consequently, become largely developed by the process that
brings the galloper, or fast trotter, into condition. Hence, if
there be in a horse a marked difference of level between the
surface in front of the line in question, and that in the rear
of it (see PL 54) ; we may reasonably conclude that he has done
a good deal of that kind of work which brings his lungs into

lifilililili

CONDITION.

257

rapid action, and that his system is not overloaded with fat.
The fact of the " water-mark " being clearly indicated is also
dependent on the absence of fat about the part.

The line which marks the termination of the sheet of muscle to which I
have alluded, corresponds to the posterior border of the fleshy portion of the
panniculus, and indicates the commencement of the aponeurotic portion.
The " water-mark," or " quarter-mark," to which I have also drawn attention,
is the line of separation between the rotator tibialis and the abductor femoris.

The most time-honoured method of ascertaining whether
or not a horse is in condition is to feel his crest with the
hand, so as to find out if it be hard or soft. This plan has
its merits ; for the crest is a part on which many "gross"
horses (like the one represented in PL 30) have a tendency
to deposit fat. I need hardly say that a thick layer of fat
would feel softer to the touch than a mass of ligament,
muscle, and tendon.

The diagonal line on the flank, the appearance of the ribs
through a thick layer of muscle, and the lean though muscular
condition of the shoulders of a race-horse in training, are well
shown in the Frontispiece.

3. Signs of condition afforded by the state of the breathing.
Although a practical trial would give an experienced observer
the best possible idea of the state of an animal's organs of
breathing ; the question depends so much on individual
merits and defects, that it is very difficult to lay down any
fixed rules for guidance in making such a test. Supposing
that the horse had done his work in what we considered a
satisfactory style, we might prove the correctness of our
judgment, by observing the manner in which he would
recover from the effects of his exertion. If after a sharp

258 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS.

" rough-up," his lungs resumed a tranquil form of breathing,
when he had rested or (better still) had been walked about
for a few minutes, and if he did not show any appearance of
being distressed by the severity of the work, we might fairly
conclude that his " pipes " were in good order. Trainers
generally think that the fact of a horse " blowing his nose "
(as a kind of sneeze which these animals sometimes make
after a quick " spin," is called) is a sign of his wind being all
right. I may also point out that if a horse's wind is not
" clear," he will be unable to quickly " come again," if he gets
out of breath during a run, even if he be "eased off" for a
little, with the object of letting him " catch his second wind."
If a strong gallop has the effect of making a horse unusually
thirsty, we may doubt that his lungs are in good order. To
test whether or not a horse is a roarer, we had best, imme-
diately after the animal has done some fast or severe work,
apply the ear close to one of his nostrils.

I may remark that large calibre and thinness of the walls
of the nostrils, which condition -predisposes a horse to "high
blowing " (see Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners), is a sign
that the animal's organs of breathing are naturally good.

4. Signs of condition manifested by the state of the sweat.
The fatter a horse is, the thicker and more greasy will be his
sweat. When a horse is in condition, his sweat will come off
like water, will have lost the saline taste it previously had,
and, unless the animal is in a state of excitement, it will dry
on the skin with extreme quickness, as soon as the work
which had opened the pores, has been stopped. If a horse
which has no excess of fat in his system, shows a tendency to
sweat on very slight provocation of work or " closeness " of
atmosphere, and if the perspiration thus induced, takes a

GOOD LOOKS. 259

long time to dry on the surface of the body, we may
reasonably conclude that general weakness is the cause of this
excessive action of the pores of the skin. I may explain that
when a horse sweats from excitement (as on a race-course),
the surface of the body thus moistened, will not dry quickly ;
for as long as the excitement lasts, the outpouring of the fluid
will more or less continue.

Good Looks. Beauty in the horse is dependent :

1. On the uniformity of type which the various parts of
the body bear to each other. Thus, a Shire horse with his
Roman nose, loaded shoulders, and short legs, may be quite
as handsome as a good-looking English thoroughbred, or
a showy, high-caste Arab.

2. On the artistic arrangement of the lines of his body.
We may see the importance of this from a beauty point of
view, if, for example, we contrast a photograph of a horse
having the ears pricked forward, with another one of the
same animal, taken a moment afterwards, but having the
ears in a normal position. The former may look handsome,
and the latter plain ; although the two may be absolutely
identical in every particular, except in that of the ears. The
" line of beauty " (alternate convexity and concavity, or vice
versa) is well exemplified from the tip of the off ear to the
top of the croup, in PL 31 ; in which there is, however, a
too sudden depression of the quarter. The curves from tip
of ear to end of tail, are also good in PL 35, except that
the line of the crest and that of the croup would be improved
if they were slightly more convex. For very beautiful curves
of the upper line of the body, from tip of nose to tail,
see PL 55. One reason (which possibly might escape

s 2

260 CONDITION, AND GOOD LOOKS.

the notice of a casual observer) why the grey horse in
PL 35 looks so well, is that the curves of the under part
of his body from muzzle, lower lip (assisted by the rein),
along lower jaw, under throat, down neck, in front of
chest, along the belly, under groin, and carried in front of
both hind legs are very graceful. In all cases, oblique
shoulders, sloping pasterns, long and well-arched back ribs,
muscular loins, more or less horizontal pelvis, tail set high up,
straight-dropped hind leg (contrast PL 51 with PL 49), will
be beauties.

As heavy cart-horses are often somewhat "back at the
knees " (see p. 2 1 8), the presence of a good supply of fine
hair behind the back tendons, increasing in amount from the
knee to the fetlock, will balance this concavity. I do not
think that docking, except when it is done to remove an
unsightly "kink," ever improves the appearance of ahorse,
from an artistic point of view. The removal of the forelock,
when hogging the mane, is always an eyesore. Whenever
good looks are sought to be studied, the mane should not be
hogged, if the animal has a light neck. As a horse is looked
at more frequently from the near than from the off-side, his
mane, as a rule, should fall to the off-side.

As regards colour, see Chapter XX. With it we may
include a bright, healthy-looking coat.

Under this heading we must also put good carriage of
the head and tail, and true and showy action. For carriage
of the head and neck, see p. 80, et seq. The tail during
movement should be held well out, with the hairs falling from
it in graceful curves. To look well, the limbs should work in
lines parallel to the direction in which the horse is going ;
for any crossing or dishing of the legs will detract from the

GOOD LOOKS. 261

grace of their movement. Somewhat lofty, " cadenced,"
action in the walk or trot of the hack or charger will be
pleasing to the eye, as it will suggest the possession of force
and speed held well in reserve.

I need hardly say that a bright, intelligent expression of
face, which is greatly assisted by the movements of the ears,
adds greatly to the .beauty of the horse.

262 WEIGHT-CARR Y1NG AND STA YING PO WER.

CHAPTER XXIII.

WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER.

Weight-carrying Power. The special points for
weight-carrying power, are :

1. Length and obliquity of shoulder-blade (see p. 207).
One might be inclined to think that very oblique

shoulders are not an advantage from a weight-carrying
point of view ; for they necessitate the saddle being put
farther back on the horse, than would be the case with
shoulders of only a moderate slope. At the same time,
we must remember that with horses of the same depth of
body at the withers, the more oblique the shoulder-blades,
the longer they will be.

2. Strong loin muscles.

3. Good substance and fine "quality of bone.
Ormonde (Frontispiece), "the horse of the century," and

St. Gatien, the dead-heater for the Derby and winner of the
Cesarewitch, were horses of great bone, and were marvellous
weight carriers.

4. Pasterns not too sloping.

5. Absence of undue weight of body beyond that which
would be necessary for the movements of the limbs, and for
the performance of the various vital functions.

The foregoing rules would apply to all classes of horses.

STA YING PO WER. 263

For absolute weight-carrying power, the animal should have
short legs (a fact which would be incompatible with the
possession of speed), and should have his pelvis somewhat
drooping.

Staying Power. The ability to "stay a distance,"
granting the possession of health and condition, depends
(i) on the breathing power being good; (2) on the muscles
working to advantage, and on the conformation being of the
required kind ; and (3) on the action.

With respect to the first condition, we require the barrel
to be deep and rounded behind the girths (see p. 191), and
the flanks to be well ribbed up.

The second condition will be best fulfilled, from the point
of view of speed, when the muscles over the loins are power-
ful, and when the forehand is light ; that is to say, when the
shoulders and pasterns are oblique, and the head, neck and
shoulders light, in which case the fore legs will not be
wide apart (see p. 197). As thick muscles are unsuited
to bear the strain of continued quick work, we usually find
that genuine stayers at fast paces are not heavily built
horses. Any excess of height over the croup, as compared
to that at the withers, will add to the weight on the fore-
hand (see p. 49). The fact of the neck (see p. 181) bein^
abnormally short in comparison to the limbs, will naturally
detract from the staying power. The same remark applies
to the possession of "sickle-hocks" (see p. 63). In heavy
draught, the mechanical advantage will be on the side of a
heavy forehand.

I may remark that there is an important difference
between staying-power (using the term in its racing sense),

264 WEIGHT-CARRYING AND STAYING POWER.

and ability to endure fatigue. For instance, East Indian
ponies, though often very fast for a short distance, are
notoriously bad stayers ; and yet they are wonderfully good
animals on a long journey. Thus, many of them which are
incapable of " getting" beyond three furlongs in a race, would,
if harnessed to an ecka (see PI. 8) do, comfortably, 70 or
80 miles from sunrise to sunset, with the thermometer at
noon up to 110 F. or more, in the shade. Here the lack of
staying-power would be due to the organs of breathing being
unable to continue work under high pressure. As might be
expected, these " country -bred " ponies (see PI. 34) are,
as a rule, light behind the girth, flat-sided, and badly ribbed
up. With, thin necks and light shoulders, their good legs and
feet have but little weight to carry ; and as the quality of
their tissues is of the best, and their spirit undeniable, they
can go marvellously long distances without getting knocked
up provided always that they are not over-paced or over-
weighted. I need hardly say that a genuine stayer will also
be capable of appearing to advantage in a " go-as-you-please "
task ; for he will possess all the good points of the other,
with better organs of breathing. The small amount of extra
weight (on account of increased length of rib) which he
will have to carry, will be more than compensated by the
larger space allowed for his digestive organs. As a rule, in
proportion to their respective sizes, small horses will stay
better, and will be capable of enduring more fatigue, than big
horses. The reason for this appears to be that the former
have more vitality than the latter, on account of the rate of
the circulation of their blood being quicker.

I need not point out the advantages of good action in the
present connection.

CHAPTER XXIV.

BLOOD, SYMMETRY, AND COMPENSATIONS.

Blood. The relation of " blood" to conformation is its
only one which need be considered here

The term " blood " usually signifies more or less pure descent
from animals mentioned in the English Stud Book, or from
high-caste Arabs. In our Colonies, the initials T. B. have a
more elastic application than in the Mother-country. English
thoroughbred horses having been bred almost entirely with
the object of their utilisation on the Turf; their conformation
more or less resembles that of the galloper. Were I to be
asked to particularise the " point " or " points " most charac-
teristic of the English "blood" horse, I would answer:
11 The legs below the knees and hocks." Their special
peculiarities, in this respect, are : lightness of bone, thin-
ness of skin, fineness and shortness of hair, small amount
of underlying connective tissue, near approach to parallelism
of back tendons to cannon-bones, with consequent smallness
of fetlock joints (see p. 218), good length of pasterns, and
small hoofs with well-arched soles. These hard-looking,
though light-shaped legs, are evidently an inheritance from
the East ; for although we rarely, if ever, see them in pure
Western stock, we may find them in profusion among Arab,
Barb, Persian, East Indian, and South African horses, all of

266 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS.

which have been bred in a hot, dry climate. The speed of
the thoroughbred is the result of careful selection in breeding,
by which, not only has the best form of conformation been
obtained, but also the most suitable kind of nervous organisa-
tion. The effect of heredity is specially shown in the working
of the nerves, which regulate the exhibition of all muscular
force. Although they can in no way increase the actual
strength of a muscle, its failure or success in putting forth its
full power, and also its speed of contraction are dependent on
them. Hence, two horses of identically the same " make
and shape " (if such a thing were possible) might differ widely
in pulling power, handiness, or speed, on account of a want of
similarity in their nervous systems. We see this fact well
marked among men, in whom uncommon quickness and great
dexterity of muscular movement is often inherited. The
speed, then, obtained from "blood," independent of confor-
mation, may be regarded as an outcome of heredity. In
judging, therefore, by a horse's conformation, of his suitability
to any particular kind of work, we should take into careful
consideration all the " blood " points which he may possess.
I may mention that the fact of a horse having Arab blood
in his veins, is, in itself, no reason for our inferring that he
has a good "turn of speed;" for Arabs, though charming
hacks and admirable light cavalry troopers, are not race-
horses.

It is noteworthy that thoroughbred stock which are
allowed (as they often are in the Colonies) to run wild, say, up
to four or five years old, before they are taken up, and which
are then put to ordinary labour, lose in a great measure the
blood-like appearance they might have possessed, had they
been handled early and put into training in the usual way.

SYMMETRY. 267

Symmetry is the conformance, as regards size, shape
and arrangement, of the various parts of the body to some
particular type of useful horse.

In violation of this condition, we may have united in
the same animal, the long legs and light body of the race-
horse, and the heavy head, loaded neck, and thick shoulders
of the cart-horse ; or the contours of the race-horse, with the
exception of the loins being weak, and the hind legs short
with drooping croup. Even with the ordinary saddle-nag,
to say nothing of the hunter and officer's charger, we have
too frequently the massive shoulders of the draught-horse.
A coarse, heavy head, which reveals but too plainly a cart-
strain, is a terrible eyesore to an animal whose neck and
shoulders are light, and which might otherwise figure as a
high-class hack.

We may see short-legged, deep-bodied cart-horses, with
great power of limbs and shoulders, having weak loins. I may
also mention that a horse which has oblique shoulders should
also have sloping pasterns and a horizontal croup. We must
here remember that the effect of "work" is often to render
the pasterns abnormally upright. We may witness many
instances of want of symmetry in the "tying-in" of the legs
under the knees, short pasterns, and large, flat feet of long
and slender-limbed horses. I need hardly say that a mean
carriage of the tail will contrast most unfavourably with a
showy and graceful bearing of the head and neck.

The generic term "weed" is applied, usually, to long-
legged animals which are weak in the loins, and are light in
the back ribs. As a rule, the cause of their comparative
worthlessness is wrongly attributed to the length of their
limbs, rather than to their defects of loin and rib. If we com-

268 BLOOD, SYMMETRY AND COMPENSATIONS.

pare PL 56 (which represents a typical weed) with the
Frontispiece, we shall see that the mare in the former was
actually "longer" and "lower" (taking the proportion
between her height at the withers, and her length of body),
than the deep-ribbed and strongly "coupled" Ormonde. It
is evident that no amount of shortening of her legs could
improve her conformation.

Compensations. The points which I shall consider
under this heading have special reference to the saddle-horse
and light trapper :

"Plainness" of head will be best "carried off" by a
" kind," intelligent expression of face ; quick play of the ears,
which will do well to be small ; good carriage of the head ;
and graceful setting-on of the head with the neck. The size
of the latter should conform to that of the former.

Undue lightness of neck. Full mane ; light head, small
ears, sloping and flat shoulders.

Heavy neck and loaded shoulders may be corrected to
some extent, from a beauty point of view, by a good-looking,
intelligent head, nice crest, and light mane. From consider-
ations of utility, we should have the shoulders and pasterns
sloping ; the bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments of the
fore limb below the shoulder strong ; feet good ; and loins and
hind quarters powerful.

Fore legs below the elbows too light ; Pasterns too upright,
or too oblique. Legs otherwise well-shaped ; light forehand ;
sloping shoulders ; and good loins.

" Calf knees" or " over at the knees." Strength of leg below
the elbow ; parallelism of back tendons with cannon-bones
(see p. 218) ; sloping shoulders ; light forehand ; strong loins.

COMPENSATIONS. 269

Ribs "flat-sided." Good depth of body at lowest point
of back ; flanks well ribbed-up.

Too hollow in the back. Light forehand, sloping shoulders,
and in all cases, broad, powerful loins, which is the special
kind of compensation in this instance.

Loins too light \ and flanks badly ribbed-up. Light fore-
hand ; shoulders and pasterns oblique ; light abdomen ; well
rounded barrel ; strong hind quarters ; good gaskins ;
"straight-dropped" hind legs.

Hind quarters too light. Light forehand ; shoulders and
pasterns oblique ; light, but well rounded barrel ; muscular
loins ; good gaskins ; " straight dropped " hind legs.

"Sickle-hocks"- With this defect in a saddle horse which
would be required for fast work, it would be well for him to
have good length of hind legs, the possession of which
will presuppose that of a horizontal pelvis ; and the com-
pensations mentioned in the preceding paragraph, with the
exception of " straight dropped " hind legs, which is the
opposite kind of conformation to that which we are con-
sidering.

2/o SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES.

CHAPTER XXV.

SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES.

The Race-horse The Racing Pony The Jumper The Heavy Cart-horse The
Harness-horse The Hack The Lady's Horse The Cavalry Trooper The
Officer's Charger The Artillery Horse The Polo Pony.

The Race Horse. i. The height of the galloper at the
withers, and also over the croup, should be at least equal to
his length of body (see p. 152 et seq^).

2. The depth at the withers should be considerably less
than half his height (see p. 153).

3. The loins behind the cantle of the saddle should be flat
on account of the presence of largely developed muscles (see
pp. 64 and 200).

4. The gaskins should be broad (see p. 234).

5. The neck should be long (see p. 181).

6. The forehand should be light (see p. 211). Con-
sequently, the neck should be free from "lumber;" the dis-
tance between the fore legs should be short (see p. 65) ; the
shoulders flat and without any " place for the collar" (see p.
212); and the horse should not be thick between the upper
ends of the shoulder-blades (see p. 196).

7. The withers should be high, and should run far back.

8. The hind legs should be long.

THE JUMPER. 271

9. The hocks should possess the ability of being freely
straightened out, as well as bent.

The Racing Pony should possess all the points of the
race-horse which have been described under the preceding
heading, but modified where necessary, by conditions suitable
to superior ability for carrying weight ; for ponies, in com-
parison to their height, have almost always to bear much
heavier burdens than horses which are used for racing.

The Jumper. i. The forehand should be light.

2. The jumper, as a rule, should have no tendency to be
higher at the croup than at the withers ; for he requires to be
light in front (see p. 49), and to have the bones of his fore
limbs comparatively long, so as to be able to efficiently raise
his forehand, both when taking off and landing.

3. The shoulder-blades and pasterns should be long and
sloping.

4. The muscles which lie along the front portion of the
shoulder-blade, and the lump of muscle above the fore-arm
should be well-developed (see PL 57) ; as the former straighten
the shoulder joint, and the latter straighten the elbow joint ;
two actions which help to prevent the horse from falling when
he lands over a jump.

5. The muscles over the loins, behind the saddle, should
be particularly strong (see p. 64).

6. The hocks should be large ; and their straightening
power (the gaskins) broad.

The steeple-chaser may be regarded as a combination, in
fairly equal proportions, of the race-horse and jumper. The
hurdle-racer^ as a rule, will have more of the former than of
the latter in him. The hunter should be essentially a jumper.

272 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES.

In a " flying" country, he may be more or less of a steeple-
chaser. In all cases, he should be a thorough stayer. His
galloping and weight-carrying powers (see Chapter XXIII.)
should of course vary according to the nature of the work he
will be called upon to perform. In a " flying" country, a tall
horse, other things being equal, will tire less than a smaller
one, from jumping big fences. In a " cramped" country, the
difference may be all the other way. As the ordinary hunter
has to carry a fair? weight, and as he may have to raise it
frequently over fences, besides having at times to go through
heavy ground ; he will require to be much stronger than the
mere galloper, and his legs should consequently be shorter in
comparison to his length of body.

The Heavy Cart- Horse. i. The legs should be as
short and massive as possible : consequently the animal will be
considerably longer in the body than he is high at the withers
or at the croup, and he will be deeper from the withers to the
brisket, than from the withers to the ground.

2. He should be of great width of body when viewed from
behind ; and across the chest in front.

3. His muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments should be
as thick and strong as possible.

4. The shoulders should be sloping in cart-horses which do
not use their fore legs, to any marked degree, as propellers ;
and somewhat upright in those which utilise them in that
manner (see p. 212).

5. The height over the croup may be less than that at
the withers (see p. 74).

The Harness Horse. For convenience sake, I use the
expression " harness-horse " to signify all horses which go in

THE HACK. 273

draught, except the heavy cart-horse. Taking the limits as
the racer and Shire horse, I may say that the conformation of
the animal should approach that of the former, or of the latter,
according as his work is fast or slow. The only difference
which I can discover between the respective shape of the race-
horse and match trotter (or match pacer), is that powerful loin
muscles and shortness of body, in comparison to height, are not
so essential to the latter as to the former. The reason for
this difference, as far as I can see, is that in galloping, more
muscular effort has to be spent in raising the forehand, than
when trotting or pacing. The ordinary trapper should be
thicker in the shoulders than the saddle nag ; and, if he has
strong hind quarters and fair action, he may be pardoned if
he be long in the back, slack in the loins, and somewhat
flat-sided. For fashionable town work, the harness horse
will, as a rule, require to be either one of the smart small
sort, or of the imposing brougham type. The former should
have all the good looks and " quality "of a well-bred, middle
weight hack. The latter should measure high at the
withers ; should have sloping shoulders, so as to have free
action in front ; and should carry his head high. Owing to
the manner in which he is bitted and " checked," his hind
action is not taken much into consideration. Between these
two kinds of horses, there is as much difference, as between
a clever bull-terrier and an overgrown, weak-loined mastiff.
Being a professional breaker, I can vouch for the fact that
fashionable trotting action is the result of training and not of
conformation. For pairs and teams, horses should match in
height, colour, general character, action, manners, and mouth.

The Hack. The chief points about the hack are that he

274 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES.

should be " light in front," have sloping shoulders, and sound
legs and feet, so that he may be sure-footed and able to stand
work ; and he should be rather high in front (see p. 1 60).
The conformation of his head and neck should be such as to
allow him to bend readily to the rein. The action of the
hack should be somewhat " high," and should be ''true," so
that, when viewed from behind, the near pair of limbs, in the
walk, trot and canter, should move in a line parallel to that of
the off pair. Action, good looks, and a showy carriage of the
head and tail are essentials in the high-priced hack.
"Mouth" and " manners" are two other indispensable
requisites which do not come within the province of this
book.

The Lady's Horse. A lady's- horse should be a good-
looking hunter or smart hack, according to the work for
which he is intended. He should carry his head and neck
particularly well ; because his rider, owing to the nature of
her seat, cannot keep her hands low down. His forehand
should be inclined to be high, so that his paces may be easy.
His withers should not be high and thin ; for if they are, they
will be liable to be galled on the off side by the saddle.

The Cavalry Trooper. The chief requirements as
regards conformation, which the cavalry trooper should
possess are :

i. That he should be up to the weight he has got to carry.
But he should on no account be too heavily topped for his
legs, or for the work he will be called upon to do. His loins,
therefore, should be strong, his shoulder-blades long, and his
legs should be as short as is compatible with the possession of
sufficient speed for military purposes.

THE OFFICERS CHARGER. 275

2. His legs and feet should be particularly sound and well
able to stand work. As he will be called upon at times to go
fast and to leap ; his back tendons should be more or less
parallel with the cannon-bone, and he should have no ten-
dency to undue width of fetlock (see pp. 218 and 219).

3. His forehand should be light, so that his legs and feet
may continue sound, and that he may be able to do his school
work properly.

4. He should have a good carriage of the head and neck,
so that he may be obedient to the rein.

5. He should be a "good doer," and have a strong consti-
tution, which will usually be the case with a horse that has a
bright eye ; soft, cool skin ; deep rounded barrel ; full flank ;
firm, prominent anus ; and is well-ribbed up.

The Officer's Charger. A cavalry officer's first charger,
with all the useful points of the cavalry trooper, should have
undeniably good looks, and a showy carriage of the head and
tail, which should not be docked. As he will have to carry
less, and will cost considerably more than an animal in the
ranks, he should be well bred, and, with a rider of ordinary
weight, he should approach the type of a handsome chaser, or
well-bred hunter. A second charger should have all the
useful points of a first charger ; but need not be so good-
looking. The colour will, as a rule, depend on regimental
regulations. Speaking generally, he should not be less than
15.3. A man at the head of a regiment of cavalry, or of a
battery of horse artillery, looks best on a tall horse.

The Artillery Horse. Artillery horses are divided into
those for the horse artillery and those for field batteries. As

T 2

276 SPECIAL POINTS OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF HORSES.

the teams of the former have to manoeuvre with cavalry, and
also drag their guns, they require to be exceptionally strong,
smart horses. The latter, as they are supposed not to go
faster than a trot, are stronger and slower horses than those
of light cavalry. The wheelers are active, light-draught
cart-horses. For their work, they need to be somewhat
thick in the shoulders, short on the leg, and of considerable
weight to stop the gun when the order to halt is given.
For this, their hind-quarters, loins, and hocks should be
particularly strong. The riding horses of the No. i and
markers of field batteries should be of the light cavalry type.

The Polo Pony. Handiness and speed, with sufficient
staying and weight-carrying power, are the two chief require-
ments of the polo pony. Consequently, he should be light in
front, should carry his head and neck well, have sloping
shoulders and particularly strong hocks. The fact of his
being slightly " goose rumped," will be no detriment. English
ponies, nearly, if not quite thoroughbred, are the best for the
game. In India, country-bred ponies are generally found to be
better for polo than Arabs; for they are "quicker on their
legs," probably on account of the sons of the Desert having
their croup very horizontal. To sum up, the polo pony
should be a remarkably handy sprinter.

277

CHAPTER XXVI.

REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

English and Irish Horses Australasian Horses South-African Horses South-
American Horses Arab Horses East Indian Horses Burma and Manipuri
Ponies Sumatra and Java Ponies Mongolian Ponies Corean Ponies
Japanese Ponies.

IN this chapter, I shall confine my observations on conforma-
tion to those breeds of horses with which I have had some
personal experience.

English and Irish Horses. The great beauty about
English and Irish half-bred and cart-horses is that they are
generally " well topped ; " their chief defect, that they are
inclined to be poor below the knees and hocks. Lack of
substance in the bone of the legs, and undue uprightness of
pasterns is but too apparent. " Weediness " is probably the
greatest fault of our thoroughbreds. Good carriage of head
and neck, well rounded and well ribbed up barrel, powerful
loins, more or less horizontal croup, and muscular thighs are
certainly characteristics of the horses of these islands, and are
the products, to a certain extent, of good feeding and careful
management. The large majority of our hunters and saddle
hacks are disfigured by cart blood, and consequently have too
thick shoulders. The Shire horse is a model of gigantic

278 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

strength, but he often fails in his hocks and feet. The Shire
and the Clydesdale seem equally inclined to contract foot
troubles, such as laminitis (fever in the feet) and side bones.
The chestnut Suffolk horses are a beautiful breed of compact,
smart cart animals, which are admirably fitted for agricultural
work. The Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire carriage horse are
grand types for harness work. The Norfolk trotter and other
roadsters have at present great attention paid to their breed-
ing. The English racing pony, thoroughbred or nearly so,
like Lord Clyde, Predominant, Sylvia, Dorothy (PL 39),
Water Lily, Maythorne, and Mike (PI. 38), is by far the
best of its class in the world. Among the best known
native breeds of ponies, are the Welsh, Exmoor, Kerry,
and Shetland (see PL 61), which averages not much more
than ten hands in height. England does not seem to lend
itself well to the production of very large race-horses. I
think that in comparison, say, with Australasia, thorough-
breds under fifteen hands, in England, would be found to be
better than those over that height. If this be the case, the
fact that big horses are more liable than small ones to con-
tract roaring in countries where, like in this country, that
disease is rife, would no doubt have an important bearing
on this point.

Though somewhat foreign to the present subject, I cannot
resist saying that much of the judging at English horse-shows,
seems to me to be conducted on an entirely wrong principle.
Thus, prizes are awarded to " hunters " which have never
been over a fence in their lives ; and ribbons are given to
decorate the heads of heavy cart-horses for their action in
trotting, and their general appearance, instead of for their
style of work between the shafts with a ponderous load

PHOTO. BY FRANK HAES

PLATE 60 ICELAND PONY.

PHOTO. BY FRANK HAES

IE PAGE 278

PLATE 61 SHETLAND PONY.

A USTRALASIAN HORSES. 279

behind them. The cruel and senseless system of overfeed-
ing horses which are intended to be " shown," is a fruitful
cause of laminitis and other ills.

Australasian Horses. The special good points of Aus-
tralian, Tasmanian, and New Zealand horses, from a saddle
point of view, are their excellent flat shoulders, light necks,
well-shaped legs, and sound feet. Their loins, barrel, and
croup are not, as a rule, as good as those of English horses ;
but they are able to stand more work. Animals that are
brought up on extensive " runs " till they are, say, four years
old, develop better shoulders and sounder legs and feet than
those which are " taken up " early ; although, other conditions
being equal, they may, perhaps, not be as neatly " topped."
Their light forehands and good shoulders make the Austra-
lasian horses clever jumpers. The Colonial animals, taking
them all round, have more thoroughbred blood in them than
their English cousins.

The Antipodes, as far as I can judge, are far more
favourable for the production of thoroughbreds with large
bone and substance, than is England. Hence we find, in
these colonies, a comparatively large number of animals of the
weight-carrying hunter and charger type which have little or
no stain in their pedigrees. On the other hand, although
thoroughbreds in England have a greater tendency to "run
light " than in Australasia, they certainly show more
" quality " than those of any other country. Without wishing
in any way to dogmatise, I would venture to say that the
Colonies are capable of producing more useful saddle-nags
and cavalry troopers than Europe ; but not as high-class
" sprinters." As an exception to their general utility for

280 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

Army purposes, I think that better field artillery horses, and
especially field artillery wheelers, which require a strong
admixture of cart blood, can be obtained in England,
than in Australia. As a proof of deterioration in racing
"quality/ 1 I may mention that up to the present, the produce
of imported sires has, as a rule, been more successful on
the Australian turf than that of Colonial-bred sires, of which
the best has been Yattendon, whose two most distinguished
sons at the stud were Grand Flaneur and Chester, both out of
imported mares. The best Australasian sires have been
imported horses, such as Panic, Musket, Fisherman and St.
Albans. The same rule appears to hold good in America, if
we may judge by what the Spirit of the Times says in the
following extract: "The success of imported English sires
within the past twenty years, beginning with Leamington,
has certainly impressed many breeders with a belief in their
superiority. Glenelg, Australian, Bullet, King Ban, The
Ill-used, Great Tom, King Ernest, Bonnie Scotland, Rayon
d'Or, Prince Charlie, Phaeton, Eclipse, St. Blaise, etc., have
well-nigh driven the native stallions into exile. Virgil may
be said to have been the only stallion who was native bred
on both sides of his pedigree, and who has held his own
against the imported horses. Longfellow, Spendthrift, En-
quirer, Eolus, King Alfonso, and other successful native sires,
were the sons of imported horses. The English mares have
also succeeded in a great degree."

As long as Australia and America have to obtain fresh
infusions of blood from England, to keep up the excellence
of their respective breeds of race-horses ; so long should no
jealousy, as regards horses, exist between the mother-country
and her offspring, who should regard their state of dependency

SOUTH-AFRICAN HORSES. 281

on her, as one of her strongest claims on their affection and
support.

Australasian race-horses at long distances are probably as
good as any horses in the world. The performance of
Carbine (a New Zealand son of Musket) winning the
Melbourne Cup, two miles, with 10 st. 5 Ibs. up, can compare
favourably with anything done by Ormonde, Isonomy, or
St. Gatien. PI. 62 is a photograph of Bravo, who won the
Melbourne Cup in 1889, beating Carbine, from whom he was
receiving 21 Ibs. In the Colonies there are many smart
racing ponies, like Glengary II., Little Wonder (New
Zealand), Mayflower and Jeannette ; but they are not, as I
have already remarked, as good as the best in England and
Ireland.

South- African Horses. The ordinary horses of the
Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal, show
a fair amount of " blood," with a dash of the Arab, and have
very good legs and feet. They are, however, for the most
part "weedy." Although they are admirable " slaves " with
a light weight, or with but little to draw, they are quite
unsuited for military purposes. Those which are up to the
weight of a trooper, or fit to take their place in an artillery
team, would, at an average price of ^35 or ^40, be too slow
for cavalry or horse artillery work. The weight-carrying
hunter type of horse is practically unknown in South Africa.
The success on the turf of locally bred horses, like Prosecutor,
proves that the country is capable of producing good race-
horses. The freedom in which stock are raised there,
undoubtedly accounts for the excellence of their limbs. The
chief native breed, the Basuto pony, is a remarkably hardy

282 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

animal, with capital legs and feet ; but as he is rather short
on the leg, he is deficient in pace. Indeed, South- African
horses, except those that are thoroughbred, are, as a rule,
very slow ; a fact which is no doubt due, in many instances,
to their loins being weak, their gaskins poor, and their hocks
being too much bent. South-African breeders are much
handicapped by outbreaks of " horse sickness" and by want
of water. With the exception of these drawbacks, the country,
especially in the Colesberg district and Orange Free State,
is admirably suited to the production of good horses. South
Africa is singularly wanting in smart ponies, such as those fit
for polo. In this respect it forms a marked contrast with
England, Australasia, India, and Arabia.

South-American Horses. In the Argentine Republic
many good thoroughbreds are raised by Mr. Kemmis and
other breeders. I have no means of " drawing a line " between
them and English or Australasian horses, except the fact that
Camilla, the aged daughter of Phenix, with 32 Ibs. the best
of the weights, beat the Australian plater, The Wild Oat, and
five others at Calcutta in December 1890. Neither Camilla
nor the Wild Oat, at the time, were good representatives of
their respective classes ; so the result of the race is no
criterion to go by. The common Argentine horses, if some-
what wanting in blood, are of the sturdy and useful sort.
The country seems well suited to the production of excellent
stock.

Arab Horses. My friend, the late Shaikh Esa bin
Curtas, always maintained that the best Arabs did not, as a
rule, exceed 14. \\ or 14.2 in height. Ali bin Abdoolah,
another Arab friend of mine, and of nearly as great experience

ARAB HORSES. 283

as the late Shaikh, likes them bigger. From a galloping
point of view, judging by the Indian records of the last half
century, there is not much to choose either way ; the balance
of weight being probably with the big Arabs, like Child of
the Islands, Raby, Lucifer, Marquis, Sherwood, Euphrates,
and Euclid. Yet with such good fourteen handers as
Anarchy, Chieftain, Shere Ali, and Turkish Flag, who, in
their time, were second to none in their own class ; the fact
remains, that for the attainment of galloping excellence, an
Arab need not exceed 14.1. My own impression is that
among the Arabs sent to India for racing are to be found
many of the best and highest caste horses bred in the Desert
This opinion is in accordance with that often expressed to me
by experienced Arab dealers whose friendship I have enjoyed.
Also, poor Colonel Valentine Baker, whom I knew in Cairo,
and who had an intimate acquaintance with Eastern horses,
told me that the best Arabs were sent to Bombay, where new
importations, if of really high character, readily fetch from
^200 to ^300 a-piece. We may infer from the foregoing
remarks, that the Arab horse is, according to our Western
acceptation of the term, a pony. Even restricting him to
this class, I feel confident that the best Arab that ever lived,
no matter what his height, was inferior, from a racing point
of view, to a first-class English or Australian pony of fourteen
hands. The English fourteen hand pony mare, Skittles
(see Fig. 171), the property of Captain Mowbray of the
Black Watch, beat in a two-mile match, at Cairo in
1886-7, the Arab Haddeed, in a common canter when giving
him 7 Ibs. He was looked upon in Egypt as an extra-
ordinary good Arab. Mr. Kelly Maitland's Australian 13.2
mare, Fleur de Lys, several times proved herself as fast as

284 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

any Arab in India for -| mile. Taking the time test, which
has been applied with great precision to the running of Arabs,
we find that their performances in India have been much
inferior to those accomplished by the English ponies, Lord
Clyde (formerly belonging to Mr. John Watson), Predominant,
and Labby (by Wisdom), and by the Australian pony mare
Achievement, none of whom exceeded fourteen hands in
height. Although Arabs are not race-horses, they are ex-
cellent hacks, and particularly excel as light cavalry troopers.
In these respects the small Arab, not exceeding 14.2, is, as a
rule, undoubtedly better than the bigger Arab. A son of the
Desert of the best type has a handsome and intelligent head,
with broad forehead, large, "kind" eyes, straight or concave
line of the face, large nostrils, well carried ears, lean and wide
jaw. His neck, if somewhat coarse, is well set on to his
head, has a good crest, is carried bravely, and is fairly long.
His shoulders are well sloped, although they often err, from a
galloping or jumping point of view, on the side of thickness,
and his breast is tolerably broad. He has capital legs and
feet. His withers are often somewhat low and thick. His
loins are flat, broad, and powerful. For roundness of barrel
and length of back ribs, for levelness of croup, and for
beautiful carriage of the tail, he is certainly without equal
among horses. He is not unfrequently higher over the croup
than at the withers, which, in that case, will have a conse-
quent tendency to be unduly low and thick. I do not think
that his hocks and gaskins are as good as those of well-bred
English or Australasian animals. In justice to the Arab, I
must point out that the heaviness of his forehand, as com-
pared to that of the English thoroughbred, is due to the
large size of the muscles which attach his shoulders to his

ARAB HORSES.

285

chest, and which draw the fore limbs forward and backward.
The comparatively large development of the muscles of his
forehand and loins makes him a good weight carrier for
his size. The common statement, that Arabs have bad
shoulders, has evidently been made by persons who do not
know that the kind of shoulders which might be very good in

FIG. 179. CAPTAIN BEDDY'S ARAB PONY, BLITZ.
(Drawn from a photograph^]

one class of riding horse, might be equally bad in another
kind of saddle animal. The grandly shaped barrel of the
Arab plainly indicates that he has clear wind, strong consti-
tution, and that he is a good "doer." Fig. 179 is a drawing
from a photograph of Blitz, who was the best 13.1 Arab pony
that has ever run in India.

286 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

The more an Arab exceeds, say, 14.2 in height, the more
inclined is he to be long in the leg, light in the loins and
flanks, and flat sided.

East-Indian Horses. The native horses of India are
of the smart, wiry sort. As a rule they are best when they
do not exceed 14.1 or 14.2 ; for the more they overtop
this height, the " weedier" do they become. Having light
forehands and well-sloped shoulders, they are clever and
jump well. They have excellent feet. Their legs, though
capable of standing a great deal of work on hard ground, are
often, from errors of breeding and bringing up, misshapen ; so
that turned-out toes, calf-knees, cow-hocks, and sickle-hocks
are of frequent occurrence among them. Generally, they are
flat-sided and light in the loin. Consequently, they are poor
weight carriers, and bad stayers at fast paces ; but are
marvellously good at enduring fatigue and privation. The
best of them make capital light cavalry horses up to, say,
13 st. 7 Ibs. Although they are not as strong or as good
looking as Arabs, they are probably hardier and better suited
to endure hunger and thirst. Many of them, especially if
they have a dash of English or Arab blood, have a fair
turn of speed, and consequently make good pig-stickers
and polo ponies. Indian racing ponies, which have a
strong infusion of English blood, are, speaking generally,
about 14 Ibs. worse than Arabs of the same height, and
particularly so over long distances. At fourteen hands
it would be difficult to " bring them together" with
English ponies in a race for, say, a mile. Without the
constant importation of fresh blood from England, it is
impossible in India to breed horses fit for racing, or for the

SUMATRA AND JAVA PONIES. 287

requirements of English cavalry and artillery : even then, the
results are very poor. Good as Tangri, Minden (see PL 63),
Engadine, and others of General " Ben " Parrott's breeding
have been in their own class and against Arabs, their form
has been but little better than that of fourteen-hand English
ponies. PL 34 is the portrait of a typical Kathiawar " country-
bred " of a useful kind.

Under the present heading we may put Cabuli, Baluchi,
and other Trans- Indus horses which are largely used in
India, and which, though stouter and shorter on the leg, are
neither as smart nor as hardy in hot climates as the " country-
bred." We might consider them as intermediate between the
East Indian horse and the Mongolian pony.

Burma and Manipuri Ponies. The so-called Burma
pony (see PL 32) is chiefly bred in the Shan Hills.
He rarely exceeds 13.2, and is probably at his best when
about thirteen hands high. He is a grand weight-carrier,
jumps well, and is very hardy ; though slow. The ponies of
Manipur, which has been the home of polo for many centuries,
are closely akin to those of the Shan States ; but are smaller,
and smarter for their size. These two kinds of ponies appear
to belong to a distinct breed, which seem to have no relation-
ship with those of any other country except, possibly, with
those of Sumatra and Java. The Burma pony is sometimes
called a Pegu pony. I may say that in the vast extent of
country from Rangoon to Mandalay, there are no good native
ponies bred.

Sumatra and Java Ponies. The strongest ponies for
their size I have ever seen, are those of Deli (Sumatra).

288 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

Their average height is about 12.2. They have handsome
heads set on to high-crested necks, are full of spirit, and are
simply balls of muscle. The capable and light-hearted way
in which one of these grand Lilliputs can trot away with a
four-wheeled carriage containing five or six heavy men, is a
sight worth going many miles to see. Acheen, which is in
the north of Sumatra, has a good breed of ponies. The Java
pony, though a relation of, is inferior to, the Deli pony.

Mongolian Ponies. Under this broad heading I
would class a breed of ponies which is found in the highlands
between Siberia and the Himalayas ; for I can see no dis-
tinctive difference between the ponies of Bhootan, Spiti,
Yarkund, and Mongolia, with all of which I have had a
good deal of acquaintance. I may remark that the so-called
China pony is bred in and exported from Manchuria. They
have thick-set bodies, short, sound legs, capital feet, fairly
good shoulders for a saddle, and are handy and sure-footed.
They average about 13.1 and are very slow. In China,
Mongolian ponies are used extensively for racing, of course,
among themselves, and with excellent results, as far as sport
is concerned ; for the entries are large, and the pretensions
of the candidates pretty even. It has been found that it is no
advantage, from a racing point of view, for a Mongolian pony
to exceed 13.2. The once matchless Teen Kwang (see
Fig. 1 80), who may be regarded as the Ormonde of the Far
East, was a little under that height. An English, Australian,
or Arab 13.2 racing pony could give, in a mile race, about
1 50 yards start to a first-class China pony of the same height,
at even weights. The pony of the Himalayas, Yarkund,
and Chinese Tartary is a splendid weight-carrier, and is

COREAN PONIES.

289

matchless for enduring fatigue and privations in a cold and
desolate country.

Corean Ponies. The indigenous pony of Corea is an
extremely small animal, often not more than nine hands high.
He is very handsome, being built on fine and graceful lines ; in

FIG. 1 80. THE CHINA PONY, TEEN KWANG.
(Drawn from a photograph^)

fact, he looks like an Arab, or like the Iceland pony in
PL 60. Despite the smallness of his size, and the slightness
of his build, he is capable of doing a good deal of hard
work. He seems to be of quite a different breed from the
Manchuria pony.

290 REMARKS ON VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES.

Japanese Ponies are weak-bodied, long-legged animals
of about fourteen hands high. In the main island are used a
large number of imported Mongolian ponies, which, being
thick-set and short on the leg, differ a great deal from the
indigenous animals, the best of which come from the province
of Namba. There are several half-breds which have been
produced by a cross with English or American blood, and
which show an advance in height and speed as compared with
their local ancestors and with Mongolians. The Nippon
Race Club has a very nice course on the Negishi Hill, which
is about three miles from Yokohama. In the northern island
(Hokkaido or Zezo) there is a distinct breed of ponies,
which are weak and weedy.

CHAPTER XXVII.

EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

IN this chapter I intend briefly running over the chief
points of the horses whose portraits are given in this book,
and shall assume, so as to avoid needless repetition, that my
readers have mastered the observations which I have made on
the various " points."

Frontispiece. Ormonde (by Bend Or out of Lily Agnes)
was, I need hardly say, the horse of the century. He is
a little higher at the withers than he is long in the body ;
and about as high at the croup as at the withers. His legs,
though long, are muscular, and their bones are strong, as
we may perceive from the appearance of his fore-arm and
gaskin and from the shape of the limbs below the knees and
hocks. He has a particularly straight dropped hind leg.
Although he was in training when this photograph was taken,
he shows great depth of body in the centre of the back : a
fact which points to the unusual length of his back ribs, and to
the admirable shape of his chest for purposes of breathing. I
may point out that his roaring infirmity being a nervous
disease of his larynx, had nothing to say to his conformation.
As his neck agrees in length with his limbs, and as his withers

u 2

292 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

run far back, he has a very long " rein." His neck, though
muscular, is light for a four-year-old entire. He is coarse
about the throat, where the head and neck join. The hori-
zontal marks on his legs, on and near his fetlocks, are curls
in the hair, due to bandaging. His back view shows that
he is narrow behind. The setting-on of the hocks is par-
ticularly good. His tail is placed very high on his croup.

Plates 7 and l8. The former gives us a portrait of the
Duke of Portland's St. Simon (by Galopin out of St. Angela)
slightly fore-shortened. The latter shows him in strict profile ;
but as it had to be copied from a photograph which was not
good enough to bear reproduction, its details have not come
out as well as I would have wished. They were both done
in 1884, when St. Simon was a three-year-old, and when he
was in training. Owing to the death of his first owner, Prince
Batthyany, his nominations for the great three-year-old events
were rendered void. Despite the fact that he had never met
a great race-horse, he won all his contests with such con-
summate ease that I am inclined to think that as a two-year-
old towards the "back end" of the season (1883) and for the
first half of his three-year-old career, in other words, as long
as he kept sound, he was as fast a horse, with, perhaps, the
exception of Ormonde, as ever lived. St. Simon's height at
the withers or over the croup, is considerably more than his
length of body. Also, his back and loins are remarkably
short, and his shoulders are long and extremely oblique. I
remember having been greatly struck by the marvellous
beauty of his shoulders, and by the shortness of his back and
loins, when I saw him for the first time, when he was sold as
a two-year-old in 1883, after the death of his owner. He

THE SHIRE MARE CHANCE. 293

had a light head, neck, and quarters, and was narrow when
viewed from behind. He was extremely round in the back
ribs, and was very well ribbed up.

Plate IS- Stepaside is a nearly thoroughbred, and very
smart, light-weight Irish hunter. She was invincible over
hurdles in India, where the class of "timber-toppers" is
extremely moderate. She has capital shoulders, light neck,
neat head (except for a bump on the nose), powerful hind
quarters, and well-rounded ribs. She is a good stayer. As
might have been inferred from the fact of her being somewhat
longer in the body than she is high at the withers or over the
croup, she is no race-horse on the flat.

Plate 19. The famous champion Shire mare Chance,
appears here as a four-year-old. The fact of her being in foal
detracts somewhat from her great beauty of conformation.
I can find no fault in her as a "show" animal, except that
she is a little "back at the knees/' For heavy draught pur-
poses, however, her hind legs are, possibly, too long.
Farm, Field and Fireside says : "Her sire is Lincoln, and
dam Brock. This animal has taken twenty-four first and
champion prizes, amongst which we may mention that she was
twice champion at Islington, and three times at different shows
of the * Royal.' During the whole of her eventful career she
was never beaten, and finished in grand style by carrying off
the Queen's gold medal at the Jubilee meeting of the * Royal,'
beating Starlight and other famous mares. She was foaled
in 1880."

Plate 20. This pony mare is disproportionately high
over the croup, and consequently her weight is put too
much on her fore legs. As she is, also, somewhat "back"

294 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

at the knees ; her fore legs could not be expected to stand
a great deal of hard work. As she is much higher behind
than she is in front ; she could hardly help being rough in
her paces.

Plate 28. Magistrate was a very good 13.2 Arab pony,
who shows, in his photograph, the same points of speed (short
body, long legs, " straight dropped " hind legs), as the
English race-horse.

Plate 30. This Arab is too heavily "topped" for his
legs, which are particularly light below the knees ; although
they are fairly good below the hocks. His neck is very
coarse and his shoulders are heavy and upright. He is a
useless animal.

Plate 31. The Brat is a handsome Arab pony which has
won a large number of pony races in India. His shoulders
and neck are particularly good. He has a nice head ;
but as he was champing his bit and had his eyes closed when
his portrait was being taken, it does not come out well.

Plate 32. The body of this Burma pony has great
depth in comparison to its length. As a hack, he has a
nice head and neck, and fair shoulders ; but his croup is too
drooping. He is much better " topped," than he is below his
elbows and stifles. His fore-arms and gaskins are poor, and
he has "sickle-hocks." As might be expected, Burma ponies,
of which this one is rather a good specimen, are strong
animals, but slow.

Plate 33. This is a very handsome cob. He has a neat
head (which is somewhat favoured by being slightly turned

ROMANCE. 295

away), small ears, short back, long "rein," good "middle
piece," and capital legs.

Plate 34. This mare is a " three-cornered " animal ;
but having been brought up among rough surroundings
is capable of enduring much privation and hard work ;
though necessarily slow on account of her body being much
longer than she is high at withers or croup. Her body is
also very long compared to its depth. She is " calf-kneed,"
" sickle-hocked," and slightly " tied-in " below the hocks. As
compensations, her shoulders are fairly well shaped ; her
forearms and gaskins are strong; and her "bone" below the
knees is

Plate 35. Romance is a handsome Australian horse
of the light or even middle weight hunter or charger type.
He has won several races over hurdles and on the flat in
Australia and India ; but among inferior company. His
shortness of leg, as compared to his length of body, precludes
the possibility of his being gifted with a fine turn of speed.
Though no race-horse, he is perfectly shaped as a fast hunter.
He has a short back, long " rein/' and particularly strong,
well-formed legs. His good shoulders and light head and
neck are valuable jumping and galloping " points." His
best points of speed are, no doubt, his straight hocks and
powerful gaskins.

Plate 36. This is a picture of an under-bred horse, of
the light cart type. His shoulders are very upright; his
croup is drooping almost to deformity ; he has a slightly
roached back; and he is somewhat "calf-kneed." As he
has good depth of body and fairly strong legs ; it is probable

296 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

that he would be up to a deal of useful work, if not pushed
beyond a moderately quick trot.

Plate 38. Mike was in a high state of excitement when
he was photographed, as we may see by his stiffened tail,
erect head, pricked ears, and by the ''collected" manner in
which he was standing. He has capital shoulders, good legs,
and, like St. Simon, has not much to carry. He was one of
the best 13.1 ponies that was ever bred in England.

Plate 39. The thoroughbred racing pony Dorothy (by
Exminister out of Rosebud) is a great beauty. Her only
weak points, as far as I can see, are that her croup is too
drooping and her body too long. The fact of her appearing
to be a little " goose-rumped " may be due to the way in
which she is standing. Her head, neck, and shoulders are
very good. Her muscular fore-arms (as we may judge from
the appearance of the off one) are beautifully set on to the
portion of the leg which is below the knee. Although the
look of the hind legs is somewhat marred by the position in
which they are placed, we may note that they are "straight
dropped," and that she has strong gaskins.

Plate 48. This depressed-looking pony is not badly
bred ; though, on account of his dejected attitude and the
rough condition of his mane, he looks worse than he is. He
is particularly good behind the girths ; his depth of body at
the centre of the back, from the great length of the false ribs,
is almost as great as it is on the withers. The coarseness of
his lower jaw gives a plain look to his head. As the general
character of this pony is that of a saddle-nag, or light trapper ;

FA VON I US. 297

his shoulders are unduly upright. His gaskins are poor.
With this exception, his legs are fairly well shaped

Plates 54 and 55. In 1871 Hannah (by King Tom)
won the Oaks and St. Leger ; and Favonius (by Parmesan
out of Zephyr by King Tom), the Derby of the same year.
Both of them and Corisande, who won the Cesarewitch of
that season carrying 7 st. 12 Ibs., belonged to Baron Roths-
child. Lord Suffolk states in the Badminton book on Racing,
that Favonius was 16 or 18 Ibs. better than either of the
two mares ; but that he became unsound. Accepting this
estimation, we must regard him as one of the best horses
of the century. We might have inferred the fact of his
superiority over Hannah by noting that he was much deeper
in the body behind the saddle, than she was, and consequently
his chest was better formed for forced breathing than was
hers. He looks up to more weight than she does, on
account of his fore-arms and gaskins being more muscular,
and his bones below the knee being larger. Both animals
have equally " straight-dropped " hind legs. Her neck is
lighter, and her shoulders appear flatter and more oblique
than his. Both have almost exactly the same proportions
between the length of body, and the height at the withers ;
and between the depth from withers to brisket, and the
height of the brisket off the ground. As both were in
training, and were standing in nearly the same position, we
have a capital opportunity of comparing their respective
conformation.

Plate 56. This thoroughbred English mare is a typical
"weed," as we may see by her short back ribs, and slack
loins. As deficiency in these points is incompatible with

298 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

staying power, she was unable to " get" beyond half a mile ;
although she was fast for that distance. Her good length
of limb, "straight" hocks and sloping shoulders all point
to the possession of speed.

Plate 57. Blue Ribbon (by New Oswestry out of Miss
Honiton) may be taken as a good type of the well-bred
middle, if not heavy, weight hunter. Though a fine weight-
carrier, she was fast enough to win steeple-chases. I have
refrained from calling her thoroughbred ; for her sire is not
in the Stud-book. Blue Ribbon has capital shoulders for
jumping with a heavy-weight in the saddle ; as they are
oblique and muscular. Her neck is light, her back ribs long,
her quarters powerful, and her fore-arms and gaskins good.
Her head looks somewhat coarse from the lightness of her
neck ; but its size is in harmony with that of the body. In
the photograph, her fore fetlocks look a bit round, and her
fore pasterns a trifle upright probably from work.

Plates 58 and 59, Lord Stamford's Diophantus (by
Orlando out of Equation by Euclid), the winner of the 2,000
guineas in 1861, and Mr. Snewing's Caractacus (by Kingston
out of Defenceless), winner of the Derby in 1862, being in
stud condition, give us but little idea of their true " make
and shape." Diophantus appears very upright on his
pasterns ; no doubt as a result of work. The fore-arms of
Caractacus look weak. Both of these horses seem a little
" over " at the knees.

Plate 60. This handsome Iceland pony was only 30
inches high. He looks a miniature race-horse.

BRA VO. 299

Plate 6l. This beautifully " topped " Shetland pony
was a great prize-winner at Agricultural shows many years
ago. The strength of his legs, though the more important
point of the two, is not in proportion to the size of his body.
Except that he has a neater head and a better set-on tail, he
is much of the same class of animal as the Burma pony shown
on Plate 32 (see p. 294).

Plate 62. The Australian race-horse, Bravo (by Grand
Flaneur out of The Orphan), won the Melbourne Cup in
1889, when in receipt of twenty-one pounds from Carbine (by
Musket), who was the best horse that had run in Australasia.
When I took his photograph, he was about half-trained, and
was consequently somewhat lusty. To judge of him as he
was standing for his portrait, he appears to have been a
trifle longer in the body, than he was high at the withers,
from which fact we might infer that he was not a race-horse
of the highest class. He had good shoulders, long neck,
short back, and good depth at the centre of his back, and
was .consequently a fine stayer. His hocks were not as
straight as those of Ormonde (Frontispiece), Favonius (PI.
55), or St. Simon (Pis. 7 and 18).

Plate 63. Minden was a famous "country-bred" race-
horse in India, among his own class, which is not within
" measurable distance " of that of English ^50 selling platers.
Viewed as a smart saddle-nag, I must say that Minden looks
a nice-shaped horse. He has capital shoulders and a good
" middle-piece." I may mention that he was in training
when I took his photograph. The fact of his being longer
in the body than he is high at the withers or at the croup,

300 EXAMINATION OF OUR PHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES.

points to deficiency of speed, as the term is understood
among racing men.

Plate 64. Cremorne (by Parmesan out of Rigolboche)
won the Derby of 1872 against a bad field, with the exception
of the roaring Prince Charlie. He has achieved a great
name at the Stud. His produce have been famous for their
jumping powers. He is standing so awkwardly in his
photograph, that it is difficult to form from it a just idea of
his ''make and shape." He seems to have had well-sloped
muscular shoulders, and a light head and neck, all of which
are important jumping points.

( 301 )

CHAPTER XXVIII.

WILD HORSESc
Wild Horses in Australia and America Tarpans Prejevalsky's Horse.

Wild Horses in Australia and America. In Australia,
there are many herds of wild horses, which are descended from
escaped or ''turned out" domesticated animals. Those of
America are usually supposed to be of a similar ancestry.
This idea is, however, open to doubt ; for : fossil remains of
horses like unto those of the present time, or closely akin to
them, are to be found nearly all over North and South
America. Considering their former abundance in prehistoric
times, and the favourable conditions for equine life which
appear since then to have existed in the New World, it
seems highly improbable that there were no horses on that
continent at the time of the Spanish discovery. This doubt is
still more strengthened by the fact that Northern Europe was
in communication with North America hundreds of years
before Columbus first sighted the Bahama Islands.

Tarpans. " The nearest approach to truly wild horses
existing at present are the so-called Tarpans, which occur in
the steppe-country north of the Sea of Azoff, between the
river Dnieper and the Caspian. They are described to be of

302 WILD HORSES.

small size, dun colour, with short mane, and rounded, obtuse
nose " (Sir William Flower]. The Russian naturalist, Polia-
kof, states that they are mouse-coloured, lighter coloured
under the belly than elsewhere, and that their legs are black
below the knees and hocks.

Prejevalsky's Horse, which has been found in Central
Asia near Zaisan and in the desert of Dzungaria, is described
by Poliakof (see " Annals of Natural History," 1881, p. 16
et seq.) as intermediate between the horse and the ass. Like
the former it has castors (chesnuts) on its hind legs as well
as on its fore extremities ; and like the latter it has an erect
mane and no forelock. It has no stripe down the back. Its
tail is bushy, being furnished, like that > of the horse, though
not to the same extent, with long hairs from the root of the
tail. Poliakof states that it is of a dun colour ; has a
yellowish tinge on the back ; and is lighter coloured under
the belly than elsewhere. It is supposed to be indigenous to
Central Asia.

I may mention that all kinds of wild horses are smaller
and inferior to domesticated animals, in every useful particular,
except, perhaps, in the quality of their hoofs, and in the
soundness of their constitutions.

( 303 )

CHAPTER XXIX.

ASSES.

Differences between the Ass and Horse Hybrids between the Horse and
Ass Varieties of Asses The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild Ass
The Onager The Kiang The Mountain Zebra Burchell's Zebra
Chapman's Zebra The Grevy or Somaliland Zebra The Quagga.

Differences between the Ass and Horse. The following
are the chief differences between the two animals :

i. The ass has castors (see p. 216) only on the fore legs.

M. Chauveau is of opinion that the castor is the rudiment
of the thumb, or rather first digit. Against this idea, there
are the following facts :

(a.) The castor has no special connection, bony, liga-
mentous, or otherwise, with either the bones of the knee, or
those of the hock. As, in the evolution of the horse, the
wasting away of the digits which have either disappeared or
have become rudimentary, began from below r ; it is unreason-
able to assume that a vestige of the first digit should have
remained, after all trace of its metacarpal, or (as the case
may be) metatarsal bone had been lost.

(6.) The second and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal
bones still remain strongly in evidence ; yet their digits have
entirely vanished.

(c.) The castors are situated below the hock and above
the knee. In the onager, f have seen them much nearer
the elbow than the knee t

304 ASSES.

I think the foregoing facts are sufficient to prove that the
castors are not rudiments of the first digits. I have no
theory to offer respecting their origin.

2. The ass has a tufted tail, somewhat like that of
a cow ; erect mane ; and no forelock, The horse has a
bushy tail, drooping mane, and a forelock, when they have
been allowed to grow. The difference in the mane is
due to the length of the hairs of the part. In the horse,
the hairs of the tail grow long from the root of the dock.
In the ass, they do so only as they approach the end of
the tail.

3. Veterinary anatomists state that the ass has five loin
vertebrae (see p. 30) ; and the horse, six, unless in some
very exceptional cases when he may have five. If we
examine the skeleton of the mountain zebra (see PL 29), which
is in the Museum of the R. C. S., Lincoln's Inn Fields,
we shall, however, see that it has six loin vertebrae. The
skeleton of the famous race-horse Orlando, which is in the
same building, has only five loin vertebrae. I have never
heard of an instance, in the domestic ass, of the number of
these bones exceeding five. I do not know their normal
number in zebras.

4. In the horse, the lachrymal duct, which is the canal that
conveys tears from the eye, on each respective side, into the
nostril, has its opening near the inferior commissure of the
nostril and on the line of union between the dark-coloured skin
and the pink mucous membrane. In the ass and mule, it is
situated at the inner face of the outer wing of the nostril.
This orifice is sometimes double.

5. In the ass, the false nostril extends higher up than in
the horse.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ASS AND HORSE. 305

6. The male ass has two rudimental teats in the form of
small tubercles. They are absent in the horse.

7. The ass brays ; the horse neighs.

8. In the ass, the deep depression at the base of the
epiglottis is covered by a thin membrane, which is capable of
vibrating, and which is wanting in the horse. Its presence
may have some influence in causing the voice of the ass to
differ from that of the horse. I may mention that the
epiglottis is a cartilage that acts as a door to the larynx, which
is the organ of voice, and which forms an opening into the
windpipe.

9. The ass hardly ever has any irregular markings on its
coat, such as a " star," " blaze," " reach," or " stockings," all of
which are very frequent among horses. A small star, on one
or two occasions, is the only mark of the kind I have ever seen
in the ass. At the same time, I must state that I have not had
much experience among these animals.

10. I believe I am correct in saying that the colour of the
ass is never of a bright bay, chestnut, red or blue roan, or nut-
meg grey. I have seen mules of an iron-grey colour ; but
have not observed it in the ass. This conservatism in colour
and freedom from irregular markings, shown by the ass, is
very remarkable ; considering how greatly the coat of the
horse varies in this respect, and that the ass has, in all
probability, been longer under the influence of domestication
than the horse.

1 1 . As regards conformation, I may say that the ass differs
from the horse, chiefly, by its greater height over the croup,
as compared to that at the withers, and by the narrowness,
uprightness, and concavity of its hoofs. The excess of height
at the croup tends to make the withers of the ass appear

3 o6 ASSES.

unduly low (see p. 196). The spines of the vertebrae at the
withers are only a little shorter in the ass than they are in
the horse. As a rule, horses are higher at the withers than
they are at the croup.

12. The horse has a thick strong dock to his tail; the
ass, a thin, lissom one.

13. The horse, on each side of his croup and covering his

pelvis, has, underneath and closely adhering to the skin of

the part, a thick and extremely dense layer of connective

tissue, which is so close and hard, when the skin has been

tanned and dried, that it looks like horn. These two patches

of thickened skin, are separated from each other about four or

five inches apart, so that there is a strip of skin of ordinary

thickness running down the croup towards the tail. These

pieces of skin are utilised, chiefly, for the manufacture of long

boots for foreign cavalry officers, by curriers, who dress and

pare down the "shell," or hardened layer, until it is almost as

smooth as glass, and can consequently take the brilliant polish

which is greatly esteemed by these beaux sabreurs. I need

hardly say that the leather which is thus employed, is worn

inside out. It is both air and water tight. The " shell " is

connected to the skin so closely that the two form one piece ;

although their respective consistencies are different. If a

section be made through the hide, their line of union may be

readily seen. In the ass, the " shell " is not confined to the

skin that covers the pelvis ; but also extends over the ribs,

which are consequently not as sensitive to the effects of blows

as are those of the horse. I may mention that the tendency

which a horse has to turn his rump, as the least sensitive

part of his anatomy, towards falling rain, cold currents of

wind, etc., appears to be due to the feeling of protection to

HYBRIDS. 307

that part, which the presence of the "shell" on each side
gives him. *

Professor Huxley remarks that asses form a distinct
species from horses ; because " all asses have tufted tails and
have callosities only on the inner side of the fore legs. If
animals were discovered having the general characters of the
horse, but sometimes with callosities only on the fore legs
and more or less tufted tails ; or animals having the general
characters of the ass, but with more or less bushy tails and
sometimes with callosities on both pairs of legs, besides being
intermediate in other respects, the two species would have to
be merged into one. They could no longer be regarded as
morphologically distinct species, for they would not be dis-
tinctly definable one from the other." When Professor
Huxley wrote this, he was evidently unaware that the horse
has not invariably callosities on all four legs (see p. 2 1 7).

Hybrids between the Horse and Ass. Neither the
mule (the produce of the jackass and mare), nor the hinny or
jennet (the cross -between the horse and the she-ass), is
fertile, either among themselves, or with other members of
the horse family. Those animals which have been mistaken
by superficial observers as fertile mules, have been, I venture
to say, in most cases the offspring of mares that have
previously bred to donkeys, and have endowed their young
with some of the characteristics of their former asinine lovers.
Both the mule and the jennet respectively ''take after" their
dam in size ; and their sire, in appearance and disposition.

I know nothing respecting the question of the fertility of
the respective crosses between the different kinds of asses,
true or striped.

x 2

308 ASSES.

Varieties of Asses. These animals may be divided into
the true or whole coloured asses, including the domestic or
Abyssinian ass, the onager, and the kiang ; and the striped
asses, comprising the mountain zebra, Burchell's zebra, Grevy's
zebra, and the quagga.

The Domestic and Abyssinian Wild Ass (Equus
asimis, see PI. 65). The domestic ass or donkey is, with
hardly any doubt, identical with the handsome and speedy
wild ass which is found in North-eastern Africa, and which is
known as the Abyssinian wild ass. The chief characteristics
which distinguish it from other asses is the possession of a
nearly vertical black stripe running down the shoulders, from
the front of the withers, and the narrowness of the stripe down
the back. These two stripes, which are, as a rule, only from
a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, make the well-known
cross. Sir William Flower states that the shoulder stripe is
" sometimes double, and not infrequently altogether absent."
I believe the stripe down the back is now and then wanting.
It is not uncommonly seen among native bred, and especially
dun-coloured horses in India. This wild ass is of a light
mouse colour except on the muzzle, under part of the body,
and inside of the legs, which are more or less white. Its
coat, particularly in the case of the domestic ass, may vary
from white to a very dark brown, or even black, with tan
"points." This animal, both in a wild and tame state,
frequently shows dark horizontal stripes on its fore-arms. It
resembles the mountain zebra in having very large ears,
and a very large head compared to the length of its body.
From ancient Egyptian records we learn that this ass was
employed for domestic purposes in Egypt many centuries

THE ONAGER. 309

before the horse was known in that country. Its introduction
into Europe, however, has been comparatively of recent
date. It does not appear to have been known in England
before the time of the Saxons, and did not come into general
use until the beginning of the seventeenth century. The
horse, as we all know, was employed by the ancient Britons,
even for purposes of war, at the time (55 B. c.) when Caesar
landed. The donkey, used by native washermen in India,
is the smallest and most miserable of its kind. It is often
not more than eight hands high, and from overloading at a
far too early age, its hocks frequently are so much turned in
that they rub against each other at every step, even when
the animal is at liberty. In countries like America and
Spain, where care has been bestowed on the breeding of
this ass, it may be found as big as an ordinary saddle horse,
and proportionately strong.

The donkey associates itself to man as readily as does the
dog ; and, unlike the horse, evinces little or no inclination to
return to a wild state of life after it has become domesticated.
It is interesting to note that this ass, which is characterised by
a stripe (sometimes two stripes), down the shoulder, and
frequently by horizontal stripes on the fore-arms, is a native
of the country (Africa) in which zebras are indigenous.

The Onager (Equus onager, see PL 66). The wild asses
which are found in Syria, Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan, Turki-
stan, Afghanistan, and Kutch (in India), resemble each other
so closely that they may be classed under the one heading of
" onager," which is the term usually reserved for the Indian
and Persian wild ass. It is lighter in colour and longer
in the leg, in comparison to its length of body, than the

310 ASSES.

Abyssinian variety. It is generally of a light mouse or ash
colour on the head (with the exception of the muzzle), and
on the upper parts of the neck, shoulders, back and quarters ;
and more or less white on the muzzle and under part of the
neck, chest,i and belly, and on the legs. Sometimes the
colouring is so faint that the animal's coat looks almost of a
silver white. It has not, or only to a slight extent in ex-
ceptional cases, the cross stripe on the shoulders. There is
a broad stripe, about five inches wide at the croup, down the
back, nearly similar to that of the Burchell zebra (see Fig. 183).
Adults are from twelve to thirteen hands high at the withers.
Its ears are not quite as long as those of the Abyssinian wild
ass. It is handsome, very fast, and extremely difficult of
approach.

The Kiang (Eguus hemionus, see PL 67) is the wild ass
of Thibet and Tartary. It seems to be identical with the
onager, except that it is different in colour, more heavily
built, on shorter legs, and that its stripe down the back is
narrower. The colour of the kiang is a rather light brown,
which is darker and redder than the light mouse colour of
the onager. The colour is not red enough to be termed a
bay. This ass is about thirteen hands high. It is far less
wary than the onager, and consequently falls a ready prey to
the cockney sportsmen who invade its domains in the high
table-lands of Thibet.

The Mountain Zebra (Eguus zebra, see PL 29) has a
more tufted tail, a scantier mane, longer ears, and a larger
head for its size than the Burchell zebra. As far as my
experience goes, it has a thicker neck, and its legs, especially

THE MOUNTAIN ZEBRA. 311

as regards the back tendons and suspensory ligaments, are
not as well suited to civilised requirements as those of the
Burchell zebra. The male, at least, appears to have a
rudimentary dewlap. Its stripes are black or dark brown,
on a white ground. The most distinctive difference between
the arrangement of its stripes and those of the Burchell
zebra, is the existence of a number of transverse stripes,
which run across the top of its croup and across its tail.
In some instances, this zebra is white on the underneath
part of the body. With this exception, it is distinctly
marked all over the body, even down to the coronets, with
black and white stripes. It is indigenous to the southern part
of Africa. I believe it has not been found Inorth of the Vaal
River. At present (1893), it is met with in a wild state,
only in a few mountain ranges in the southern part of
Cape Colony, where it is preserved. There is a herd of
these zebras preserved on a farm near Craddock, which
is a small town in the eastern province of Cape Colony.
It is much wilder and more intractable to handle than the
Burchell zebra. I have been told that on different occasions
it has been successfully "inspanned" in South Africa;
although I have not heard of its having been put into draught
between the shafts. I may point out that the steadiness of
an animal is far more severely tested by having to bear
weight placed on its back by the shafts, than by merely
pulling against breast harness, or even against a collar, in a
11 span ; " and by going in saddle than by any kind of harness
work. In the year 1891, at Calcutta, I broke in, after two
days' training, an old entire zebra, quiet enough for my wife
to ride and to get photographed while on its back. This
was certainly the first time a lady has ridden this variety of

312 ASSES.

zebra, which has the reputation all over the world of being
unrideable. Although I made many inquiries on the
subject while I was in South Africa, I could not obtain a
single authenticated case of any one in that country ever
having ridden a mountain zebra. With the advantage of
the special instruction in horse breaking which I gave during
my tour through South Africa in 1892, the residents of that
country ought to experience no difficulty in getting any
zebras which they may have in captivity, broken to either
harness or saddle. The height of the mountain zebra, when
full grown, is about twelve hands.

BurcheH's Zebra (Equus burchelli, see PL 37) differs
from the mountain zebra in being taller (its full height is
about 13.1, or 13.2), having a longer and thicker mane, a
more bushy and less tufted tail, smaller ears and a smaller
head in comparison to the length of its body ; and in the
differences of its markings.. The dark stripes are more brown
than black. The light colour is of a yellowish cream. The
stripes are broader and differently arranged (compare PL 37
with PL 29). A broad stripe runs down the back, and there
are no stripes across the top of the croup (see Fig. 183). Its
legs, below the knees and hocks, from their " flatness," with
the back tendons and suspensory ligaments clearly showing,
are much more like those of a well-bred horse than are those
of the mountain zebra. It further resembles the horse by
having a fairly lissom neck and a well-rounded barrel, and in
the size of its head and ears. The typical Burchell's zebra
has no dark stripes, or only very slight ones, below the
elbows and stifles, on the legs. The Orange River has
been generally regarded as its southern limit. Mr. F. C.

BURCHELUS ZEBRA. 313

Selous, the celebrated African sportsman and naturalist, tells
me that it " was first discovered by Burchell near the Orange
River in Southern Bechuanaland. It is still to be met with
in Kama's country, and along the northern and eastern
borders of the Transvaal. In the neighbourhood of the
Pungwe River, it exists in very great numbers, herds of
hundreds together being common." It is probably widely
distributed throughout Central and Eastern Africa. On
account of the fact that this zebra, when in a wild state,
possesses immunity from the effects of the bite of the tsetse
fly, which is certain death to horses, I strongly advocated,
while I was in South Africa, the taming and employment
for harness or saddle, of these animals in "fly" infected
districts. With respect to this subject, Mr. Selous writes to
me that : " although Burchell's zebra, born and brought up in
the ' fly ' country, does not surfer from its bite, it is my
opinion that if a young one was caught and brought up in a
locality where there was no * fly/ and was then taken into a
' fly ' infested district, it would die. This, however, is only
my opinion.' As the Burchell zebra is comparatively easy to
break in, and as it will breed in confinement, there is but little
doubt that it will in time become domesticated. If, as is
quite possible, it possesses little or no tendency to contract
" horse sickness," it will prove a valuable means of convey-
ance in South Africa. During one of my horse-breaking
performances in 1892, at Pretoria, the capital of the
Transvaal, I made a young Burchell zebra, after about an
hour's handling, quiet to carry a rider. In doing this, I
did not throw the animal down, nor did I resort to any of the
usual " heroic " horse-taming methods. Throughout South
Africa, this variety of zebra is wrongly called a quagga.

ASSES.

Chapman's Zebra (Equus chapmant) appears to be
identical with Burchell's zebra, except that its legs have
stripes continued down to its pasterns. These leg stripes are
not so regularly defined as those of the mountain zebra. As
we* may meet with specimens having all degrees of striping
on the legs, I would submit that the presence or absence of

FIG. 181. THE GREW OR SOMALI-LAND ZEBRA.

stripes on the limbs, is a mere question of individual or local
difference, and that the so-called Chapman zebra should not
be regarded as a distinct variety.

The Gre'vy or Somali-land Zebra (Equus grevyi, see
Fig. 181). This animal, which is found in Shoa and Somali-

SKINS OF ZEBRAS.

315

land, closely resembles the mountain zebra in being striped

FIG. 182. SKIN OF THE SOMALI-LAND ZEBRA.

FIG. 183. SKIN OF BURCHELL'S ZEBRA.
down to the coronets, and in having the hair of its tail

316 ASSES.

collected as a tuft at the end. It differs, however, in being
white underneath the chest and abdomen, and in having
white patches on the rear part of the croup at each side of
the stripe down the back. Also, there are no transverse
stripes on the croup. The stripes are somewhat narrower
than those of the mountain zebra, and, in their arrangement,
resemble them more nearly than do those of the Burchell
zebra, with which it closely agrees in its conformation. The
differences in the stripes of these two animals are shown in
Figs. 182 and 183.

The Quagga (Equus quagga, see PL 68), forty years ago,
was to be found in immense numbers south of the Vaal river
in Southern Africa. I have the authority of Mr. F. C. Selous,
for saying that it is extinct in a wild state ; although it is
possible that there may be a specimen or two in some
menagerie or other. During a tour last year throughout
South Africa, I failed to obtain any tidings of the quagga. It
was a strong, somewhat heavily built animal, slow of pace for
a wild ass, and could have been readily broken to harness or
saddle. It stood about the height of the Burchell zebra.
Its colour on the shoulders and body was brown. The head
and neck were marked alternately with white and dark-brown
stripes, like those of the mountain zebra. There were on the
shoulders and body some faint stripes, which gradually faded
away as they went backwards. The colour was more or less
white beneath the chest and belly, on the tail, except at the
root, and on the legs below the elbows and stifles. It had a
broad stripe down the back. It closely resembled Burchell's
zebra, with the exception of being differently marked, and
being more heavily built.

POINTS OF THE ASS. 317

Points of the Ass. The law which I put forward in
Chapters I. and XV., with respect to the influence of compara-
tive length of limb on speed and strength, holds as good in
the case of the ass, as it does in that of the horse. From it
we may justly infer that the onager is the speediest of its class.
From personal deductions, which I cannot support by any
precise data, I would think that the onager is faster for its size,
and under equal conditions, than any kind of wild horse, or,
perhaps, than any horse which has not some English racing
blood in its veins. As it is not at all probable that this ass
will be bred for racing purposes, I need form no conjectures
respecting its future on the turf. On page 305, I have alluded
to the fact of the ass being higher over the croup than at the
withers, supposing, of course, that it were to stand "at
attention" (see Fig. 35). In the domestic ass, the gaskins
and fore-arms are, as a rule, very poor ; but they are not so,
at least to anything like the same extent, in the wild ass.
Probably, on account of the ass having fewer loin vertebrae
(see p. 304) than the horse, it has less tendency to be " slack
in the loins." Compared to the horse, the ass has a very
weak tail, and is consequently unable to " carry its flag " in
the style usually affected by a spirited horse during movement.

318 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

CHAPTER XXX.*

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

Ancestry of the Horse Immediate Ancestors of the Horse Conditions
which modified the Form of the Horse Points of Speed and Strength
in the Fossil Horse The Horse of the Future.

Ancestry of the Horse. It is my intention here, with
special reference to conformation, to write about the descent
of the horse in such a manner that my remarks may be easily
understood by those who possess no acquaintance with fossils
or comparative anatomy. Instead of commencing the history
of the horse according to the orthodox method, at a period
many millions of years ago, I shall begin with him as he now
is, and shall try to trace back his lineage to a time sufficiently
remote for our requirements. Although we cannot hope to
determine the exact sequence of the footsteps of the animals
which, in their march of evolution, became gradually changed
into the horse ; we shall find on their track marks left by them,
or by their near relatives who accompanied them on their
journey, that will guide us in the right direction. As science
progresses, so will the intervals between these land-marks
become filled in from time to time ; though it seems impossible

* For fuller information on this subject, see Professor A. Gaudry's
Enchantments du Monde Animal, and Sir William Flower's The Horse.

ANCESTRY OF THE HORSE. 319

that the position of every footprint can ever be accurately
defined.

We learn from the study of geology that living creatures
began to inhabit the earth after its crust, which was once in a
liquid state, had cooled down, and the action of physical
causes, such as wind and water, had commenced to form
sedimentary rocks, in which the bones and other remains of
existing animals, became entombed as fossils. Thus, through
countless ages, a history of animal and also of vegetable life
has been written in stone by the hand of time. The last leaves
of this book lie uppermost, while the first ones repose on fused
rock, of which granite is a familiar example. This history is
divided by scientific men into the Primary, Secondary, and
Tertiary periods, of which the last-mentioned is the only one I
shall take into account ; as, during it, hoofed animals appeared
for the first time on the earth. The Tertiary period is divided
into the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene periods ;
the Eocene being the most ancient ; and the Pleistocene the
one immediately preceding historic times. In searching
through the records of the past, an examination of fossil feet
is particularly interesting ; for we can obtain from it the most
direct and the most clearly expressed evidence respecting
the capacity of movement possessed by the animals which,
during life, walked on the earth.

Before beginning, I may remind my readers that the knee
of the horse corresponds to our wrist (see p. 32) ; and his
fore fetlock to the row of knuckles nearest to the wrist.
Instead of having, as in our hand, five metacarpal bones
between the knee and fetlock, he has only one entire bone
(the cannon-bone), and two rudimentary (or splint) bones. I
may remark that in the hind limb, the bones between the

320 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

hock and hind fetlock are called metatarsal bones. Each of
our five metacarpal and metatarsal bones is furnished with a
digit, a synonym for either a toe or a finger ; but in the horse
the cannon-bone only is provided with a digit. I may
mention that the bones of each digit (the phalanges) are
numbered from above downwards. Thus the long pastern-
bone (see Fig. 3), is called the first phalanx; the short-
pastern-bone, the second phalanx ; and the pedal or coffin-
bone, the third phalanx.

If we examine the bones of the horse's limbs from, respec-
tively, the knees and hocks downward, we shall notice that
although the splint-bones form joints with the knee bones which
are immediately above them ; their lower ends do not, like that
of the cannon-bone, articulate with any other bones. Were a
man who knew nothing about the anatomy, working functions,
and diseases of any other animal except those of the horse, to
criticise the plan according to which the bones below the
knees and hocks were constructed ; he might justly remark
that for purposes of equine labour, it would have been better if
the cannon-bone and two splint-bones had been one bone of
corresponding size. Such a combination would have rendered
the column of bones stronger at that part, and would have
obviated the frequent evil effects of sprain to the interosseous
ligaments which connect each splint-bone to its cannon-bone.
I may here point out that the disease known in veterinary
surgery as " splint," is, as a rule, brought on by sprain of this
ligament. If we agree in considering the working of the laws
of nature to be perfect, we cannot accept the theory of special
creation ; but must regard the body of the horse, like that of
other animals, to be in a transition state ; in that it is con-
stantly, though slowly, accommodating itself to the conditions

ABNORMAL FOOT OF HORSE.

321

of life in which it finds itself. While indulging in the present
train of thought, the first question which the inquirer after
knowledge will probably ask, will be : the splint-bones being in
a state of transition, what was their previous form and

FIG. 184. (After Gaudry.} ABNORMAL LEFT FORE LEG, BELOW THE KNEE,
OF HORSE Q-th real length).

functions, and what conditions have reduced them to their
present rudimentary state ? I shall now try to suggest answers
to these questions.

On rare occasions we find in the horse, that one or more
of the splint-bones have the character of the cannon-bone, in

322

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

that they are provided with a more or less perfect pastern
and hoof. From time to time, there have been well authen-
ticated instances of horses which were so completely furnished
in this respect on their front feet, that instead of having
been shod on only four feet, they carried iron on eight. I
need hardly say that the four supplementary shoes were
applied merely for exhibition purposes. Such a digit is well
shown in Fig. 184, which represents the bones of a colt's near

FIG. 185. FRONT FOOT OF PIG (th real length).

fore leg that was given by Professor Goubaux to the Veteri-
nary College at Alfort. These new digits are no functionless
monstrosities, like a sixth finger or toe which sometimes ap-
pears on the hand or foot of man ; but are the restorations
of parts once borne by the horse's ancestors. Here we have
a good exemplification of the struggle which is constantly
going on in the animal body, between the tendency to
preserve the ancestral type, and the effort to adapt itself to its

THE PIG, 323

surrounding conditions. If we examine the foot of the pig
(see Fig. 185), which, like the horse, has hoofs ; we shall find
that it has two toes upon which it walks, and two supple-
mentary digits which do not touch the ground. As the
function makes the organ, we may confidently assert that
ancestors of the pig walked on these four toes, two of which,
apparently from disuse, have become reduced to their present

FIG. 1 86. (After Gaudry.} HIPPARION GRACILE (^th real height}.

insignificant size. We may, with equal certainty, affirm that,
if the pig remains under its present conditions of life, which,
as we all know, do not demand work from its small side
toes, these digits will in process of time disappear, and their
metacarpal and metatarsal bones will become as rudimentary
as the splint-bones of the horse. Even if it were objected
that these facts did not warrant us in assuming that the

Y 2

324

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

ancestors of the horse had, on each foot, three toes, two of
which were more or less rudimentary ; we have the still
stronger evidence afforded by fossils of horse-like animals

FIG. 187. LEFT FORE
FOOT OF H. GRACILE
(|th real height).

FIGS. 188 AND 189. LEFT FORE AND RIGHT HIND
FOOT OF SAME H. GRACILE (^th real height).

(Hipparion, see Fig. 186), whose feet were in this condition
(see Figs. 187, 188, 189 and 190). Figs. 191 and 192 give
front views of the horse's foot. Sir William Flower points
out that the European representative (Hipparion gracile) of

H1PPARION GRACILE.

325

this fossil family could not have been an ancestor of the
horse ; for. besides differences in the teeth, it possessed

FIG. 190. (After Gaudry^) FRONT AND
SIDE VIEWS OF LEFT FORE FOOT OF
HIPPARION GRACILE (ith real length).
The lettering is the same as that of
Fig. 192.

FIG. 191. FRONT VIEW OF LEFT
FORE FOOT OF HORSE (ith real
length).

a deep depression in front of the eye, on each side of
the face, in which depression was lodged a large tear or

326

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

scent gland, similar to that found in several kinds of deer
and antelope. Had the H. gracile been the ancestor of the
horse, this depression would not have entirely disappeared in

FIG. 192. (After Gaudry.} FRONT AND SIDE VIEW OF
LEFT FORE FOOT OF HORSE (^th real length).

(cannon

(longp

(pedal bone).

the horse. The H. gracile does not appear to have left any
descendants. It is probable that the immediate ancestors of
the horse of to-day (Equus caballus) came, in prehistoric times,
from America, in which country are to be found the remains

ANCHITHERIUM.

327

of various kinds of fossil horses which resembled our present
ones more nearly than did H. gracile. The Hipparion
flourished in the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene ages, and
was from 13 to 14 hands high.

The Hipparion was preceded in the Miocene period by a
somewhat similar, three-toed animal, the Anchitherium, which
was about 10 hands high. We may see from Fig. 193 that
its side toes were longer than those of its successor. The

FIG. 193. (After Gaudry.} LEFT FORE FOOT OF ANCHITHERIUM (|th real
length). The lettering is the same as that of Fig. 192.

Russian palaeontologist, Kowalevsky, points out that the bones
below the fetlock in the Anchitherium, were not so firmly
united together, as they were in the Hipparion, and still less
so than in the horse ; and, consequently, that there must
have been a certain amount of lateral play in them. The

328

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

length, also, of the side digits would lead us to form the
opinion that this animal walked on three toes.

The majority of palaeontologists, I believe, consider that
the Hipparion used only one toe of each foot in progression.
Against this opinion I may advance the fact, not very gene-
rally known, that some horses, especially high-caste Arabs,
have such a naturally large amount of "play " in the fetlock
and pastern joints of the fore legs, that during the fast gallop,

FIG. 194. (After Gaudry.} FORE
FOOT OF PALOPLOTHERIUM (|rd
real length).

FIG. 195. (After Gaudry^ LEFT
FRONT FOOT OF OROHIPPUS
AGILIS (full size).

the fetlock pad (see p. 221) is liable to come down on the
ground and get bruised. The ergot, which is in the centre
of this pad, is evidently, as pointed out by Sir William
Flower, the rudiment of a structure (like the pad of a dog's
or cat's foot) that acted as a buffer to the fetlock at the time
when the horse was a digitigrade animal, namely, one which
walks on its digits, and not as the horse now does in unguli-
grade fashion, only on their tips. In all horses which have
free action, the fetlock descends a good deal in the gallop

HYRACOTHERIUM. 329

(see Fig. 98). Hence, I am inclined to think, that the Hip-
parion, whose immediate ancestors were digitigrade animals,
used the second and fourth digits, at least of its fore feet, to
some extent at fast paces ; if not in slow movement.

Still earlier, we find in the middle Eocene age, the
Paloplotherium, which resembled the Anchitherium and
Hipparion in its feet (see Fig. 194); and the horse tribe,
generally, in its teeth.* Its principal digit was much weaker
than that of its successors. The foot shown in Fig. 194 is
that of a small variety of Paloplotherium. Among the
Eocene deposits in America is found the Orohippus agilis f
(Fig. 195), which, as the name given to it by Professor
Marsh implies, may be taken as the limit to which we can
fairly trace the horse in his character of a one-toed animal.
Going further back in the Eocene period, we meet with the
Hyracotherium (Fig. 196), which had three toes on its hind
feet and four toes on its front feet, and which had hoofs on
all of them. It was about 15 inches high, and was closely
akin to the tapir, which has maintained its peculiarities of
conformation, up to the present day, almost without change,
during that vast period of time. Although the Hyraco-
therium had four toes on its front feet, it may be considered

* The teeth of the Paloplotherium have a plentiful supply of crusta petrosa
(cement), and thus resemble those of the horse. I may explain that the
cement is the outer layer of the teeth. In youth, it forms a thin covering to
the enamel on the outside; and a thick one in the depressions which all
the teeth, with the exception of the tushes, have on their crowns. The
cement becomes quickly stained by the action of the food and gives the
"mark" in the teeth its characteristic dark appearance. The front teeth
of the horse become white with age from the wearing away of the cement

| ' Opos, limit ; TTTTTOS, horse.

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

to have been an odd-toed animal ; for one of these digits was
off the ground, and was consequently functionless.

The foot of the rhinoceros (see Fig. 197) shows a marked
tendency to become one-toed. Being three-toed on its fore,
as well as on its hind feet, it belongs to a less ancient type
than the tapir. The Acerotherium (see Fig. 198) was a pro-
bable ancestor of the rhinoceros, if not of the horse. The
Brontotherium, which has been found in the Miocene of

FIG. 196. HYRACOTHERIUM Q-th real height).

Colorado, had, similar to the tapir, four digits on its front
feet ; and three on its hind ones (see Figs. 199 and 200).

Proceeding still further down in our search, we find in the
early Eocene, the Phenacodus primcevus, which is supposed to
have been the ancestor, or one of the very early ancestors, of
all hoofed animals. Fig. 201 shows how it appears in a fossil
condition. It was about twenty-one inches high. From the
form of the third phalanx of its digits, we may conclude that
each of them carried a hoof. We may also see that each

PHENACODUS.

of its digits had three phalanges. As I am considering the
genealogy only of hoof-bearing animals, I shall not go fur-

FIG. 197. FORE FOOT OF
RHINOCEROS (|th real length).

Jrv-

FIG. 198. (After Gaudry.} LEFT
FRONT FOOT OF ACEROTHERIUM
TETRADACTYLUM (th real length).

ther back than the Phenacodus. Having now arrived at an
animal with five toes, I may point out that in no case do
the digits of any normal mammal (an animal which suckles its

332

EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

young) exceed that number. The digits, I may remark, are
numbered from within, outwards. Thus, the thumb on our
hand is termed the first digit ; the little ringer, the fifth digit.
Among the ancestors of the horse, the first digit was the first
to disappear ; and after it, the fifth digit. In the Hyraco-
therium, the first digit has gone from all four feet. The fifth
has vanished from the hind ones, and has begun the process

FIG. 199. (After Gaudry.} LEFT FRONT
FOOT OF BRONTOTHERIUM (|th real length).

FIG. 200. (After Gaudry.}
LEFT HIND FOOT OF BRONTO-
THERIUM (fth real length).

of doing so, in the front feet. The Orohippus has also lost
its fifth digit. The Anchitherium (like the rhinoceros)
appears as a true three-toed mammal ; having lost its first and
fifth digits. In the Hipparion gracile, the second and fourth
digits have begun to disappear ; and have done so, completely
the horse of the present day. From the foregoing

considerations, its ancestors are classed among odd-toed
animals (Perissodactyla). We must further observe that,

PHENACODUS.

333

from the Phenacodus to the horse as we now know him,
the third digit has remained the principal one of both fore and
hind limbs. It is instructive to note that the phalanges and
digits of the hind limb have a greater tendency to decrease in
number than those of the fore leg. As the fore foot is nearer
to the head than the hind foot, its functions are more various,

FIG. 201. PHENACODUS PRIM^EVUS (^th real length).

and its digits are less liable to become affected by disuse. In
man, we find that the toes are smaller than the fingers ; and
that, in many cases, the little toe has lost its third phalanx ;
although the little finger still retains that bone. In the case
of the reappearance of the second and fourth (as in Fig. 184)
digits in the horse, the fore legs are far more frequently
supplemented in this way, than the hind ones.

334 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

Immediate Ancestors of the Horse. The type of
horse immediately preceding the present one, is a subject
which I approach with a great deal of diffidence ; as I have
not had an opportunity of studying it carefully, much as I
would have wished to have done so. Darwin, very justly as
it seems to me, points to the probability that all the existing
races of horses have descended from " a single dun-coloured,
more or less striped primitive stock, to which our horses occa-
sionally revert." This primitive stock, I would conjecture,
closely resembled the quagga or Burchell's zebra. The not
uncommon appearance in horses of dark stripes on the fore-
arms, and a dark stripe along the back and across the shoulders,
seems to be cases of reversion to the likeness of an ancestor,
especially as these markings, when they do occur, show much
clearer in early youth than when the animal grows older. Not
alone in this respect does the horse take on the markings of
the ass ; but his coat not infrequently assumes a near approach
to the colour of the ass, with white under the belly, insides of
the legs, etc. The ass, on the contrary, never clothes himself
in the bays, chestnuts, roans and greys which are greatly
affected by the horse ; and is practically free from the irregular
markings so freely indulged in by his relative. " Stars,"
' 'blazes, ""reaches," ''snips," "stockings, "and coats, piebald and
skewbald, can hardly be the unbiassed result of domestication ;
for the ass appears to have been the companion of man even
longer than the horse, and he shows little or no tendency to
adopt such motley wear. The apparently functionless false
nostril of the horse is of lesser depth than that of the ass, and
may be expected to disappear in the course of ages. I would
therefore infer that the immediate ancestor of the horse, as we
know him, was a more or less striped ass. From the drawings

IMMEDIATE ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE. 335

made on pieces of bone and horn by the cave men of Southern
France, it would seem that the horse of Western Europe, say,
ten thousand years ago, was a small, rough, thick-set animal,
rather like the Mongolian pony. The instinct this and other
horses have of scraping away with their fore feet, snow when
it covers the ground, so as to get at the underlying grass, would,
as Darwin suggests, point to the probability that our horses
originally came from a country in which there were severe
winters. It would be interesting to know if this instinct,
which no doubt is possessed by the kiang, is retained by the
onager, the Abyssinian wild ass, and the eastern horse. The
horses of the present day may be divided into two, more or
less, distinct types ; the one, thick-set and " coarse," like
the Mongolian pony ; the other of comparatively slight build
and smart appearance, like the Arab or Indian pony (see
PL 34). I would refer the aboriginal horses of Western
Europe and the various cart strains to the first division. Our
saddle horses and trappers are, as we all know, a judicious blend
of English and Eastern blood. The differences which exist
among the various breeds of horses in the world, are evi-
dently due to the effects of climate, selection, and stable
management.

From the remarks made on page 306, with respect to the
presence of thickened skin in the horse and ass, we might
conclude that these two animals are descended from a thick-
skinned ancestor, akin perhaps to the rhinoceros, whose foot
(see Fig. 197) shows a marked tendency to become one-toed.
It is almost needless to say that the rifle of the sportsman
will, in the near future, put a summary stop to this process of
evolution in the case of this horned pachyderm. The fact of
the ass possessing a larger amount of thick skin than the

336 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

horse, also seems to prove that his type is the more ancient
one of the two. Judging by the general conformation,
especially as regards the comparative size of head, Burchell's
zebra appears to be the nearest akin, among asses, to the
horse ; and the mountain zebra, the furthest removed. The
recent extinct quagga more closely resembled the horse, than
does Burchell's zebra.

Conditions which Modified the Form of the Horse.

-The conditions which have produced an animal (the horse)
with a single toe to each of its feet, from ancestors with five
toes, have been, apparently, those of soil, combined with a
tendency to place the weight of the limb more on one
particular digit than on any other digit. The fact that the
feet of the tapir have undergone, practically, no modification
for several millions of years, proves that his conditions of life
at the present day are nearly the same as they were when
the ancestors of the horse, like those of the tapir, had four
hoofs on each front foot, and three on each hind one. Feet
like these, which, under the influence of pressure, had the
faculty of spreading out, were admirably suited for going
through soft ground similar to that over which the tapir still
roams in a wild state ; for the increase of the area of support
thus offered by the feet, was a direct help in preventing the
animal from sinking too deeply in the mud over which he
travelled. It is evident that this lateral play of the digits
entailed loss of speed for progression on hard ground, on
account of expenditure of muscular power required to restore
them to their normal state, and from increased friction. The
less lateral play the digits would have, the faster would the
animal be able to travel over hard ground. For instance, the

FOOT OF STEINBOK.

337

wild pig, whose feet (see Fig. 185) spread out a good deal
more than those of the Steinbok (see Fig. 202), is much
better through " dirt" (to use a racing and hunting expression)
than this speedy South African antelope ; but is far inferior to
him in a gallop over hard ground. We may, therefore, infer

FIG. 202. (After Gaudry.} FOOT OF STEINBOK.

that the decrease in the number of the digits of the horse's
foot has been due to residence, during thousands, if not
millions, of generations on dry soil. With the loss of lateral
play in the foot, there has been a consequent increased of spee,
which was necessary for protection against the attacks of
carnivorous animals, like the cheetah '(PL 2), lynx (PI. 17),

338 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

and wolf, whose conformation was unsuited for predatory
operations in the morasses which had afforded an asylum for
ancestors of the horse.

Points of Speed and Strength in the Fossil Horse.

At the outset of this investigation, I am met with the
pertinent question : what is a horse ? My natural reply to
this will be that the horse is an animal which has only one toe
to each of its legs. I might also add, for the benefit of those
of my readers who are interested in comparative anatomy,
that his teeth are plentifully supplied with crusta petrosa (see p.
329) ; and that the pulley-like processes on his astragalus are
directed forward and outward (see p. 70). The fact of unity
of digit a peculiarity which distinguishes the horse from all
other mammals will probably suffice for ordinary inquirers.
Taking this test, we cannot with propriety apply the term
horse to animals further back in equine descent than the
Anchitherium. The Phenacodus resembles a carnivorous
animal (a Dandy Dinmont or otter hound) more than he does
one of the horse tribe. His great length of humerus must have
given him considerable power in raising the forehand by the
play of the shoulder and elbow joints, the diminution of which
play is compensated for in the horse by the action of the fet-
lock joint. His hocks and knees, like those of the dog and cat,
were "well let down." He might have had a fair "turn of
speed " for a short distance ; but he was too long in the body to
have been a stayer. There is no doubt that the ancestors of
the horse were of very slow pace at the time when they were
identical with, or nearly akin to the Paloplotherium and the
Hyracotherium, animals which were not far removed from
the rhinoceros and tapir. With the tendency to the gradual

CANNON-BONES OF HIPPARION.

339

adoption of the one-toed method of progression, there was an
evident increase of speed. By examining Figs. 187 to 193,
we may see that the length of the bones below the fetlock,
compared to that of the cannon-bone, was greater in the
Hipparion than in the Anchitherium ; and in the horse, than

FIG. 203. (After Gaudry.} CANNON-BONES OF TWO DIFFERENT KINDS

OF HIPPARION.

in the Hipparion : length of pastern, as we have seen on p. 224,
being directly conducive to speed. Taking the converse of
this argument, which we may fairly do from our present
knowledge of palaeontology, we may assume that this increase
in the comparative length of the bones below the fetlock, is

z 2

340 EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE.

a sound proof that this kind of conformation is conducive
to speed.

Although, as regards the number of toes, the horse's foot
is better suited than that of any other animal for the develop-
ment of a high rate of speed ; the fact remains that the four-
toed cheetah (see PI. 2), hare, wild dog, and wolf, and the
two-toed black buck (see PI. i) are comparatively, for their
size, if not actually, faster than any wild horse or ass. Here we
have an instance of the complex nature of physical faculties,
which, like speed, are not made up of one component, but of
many. In the cat, dog and hare, the muscles of progression are
of much greater comparative length than those of the horse ; as
we may judge by the way the hocks and knees are " let
down." Although these joints in the antelope are " high off
the ground," the extreme length of his limbs compensates him
for this disadvantage, as well as that of having two toes on
each foot. In the case of the ancestors of this fleet ruminant,
the tendency to place weight both on the third and fourth toe
was so evenly distributed on these two digits, that the balance
between them has remained practically undisturbed for ages,
and under modifying conditions which have nearly doubled
the comparative length of the limbs.

Like the horses of the present day, the members of the
Hipparion gracile tribe differed a good deal among each other
as regards conformation, as we may see by the respective
cannon-bones shown in A and B of Fig. 203.

The Horse of the Future. The bones of the limbs,
as we have seen, are gradually assuming the character of a
single column, and are increasing the rigidity of their con-
nections between the joints necessary for locomotion. We

THE HORSE OF THE FUTURE. 341

may observe a tendency to bony union between the splint
bones and their cannon-bones, and between the lower row of
the small bones of the hock and knee, and their respective
metatarsal and metacarpal bones. Thus we find that com-
paratively harmless forms of " simple " splint and " low " spavin
are increasingly common among young horses subjected
to civilised conditions. They will, as suggested by Mr. H.
G. Rogers, gradually lose their morbid character, and will
become normal processes of development. Agreeably to
this we may note that such splints and spavins are less
liable to injuriously affect the usefulness of a thoroughbred,
than of, for instance, a Mongolian pony or a South American
broncho. As ages roll on, the splint bones will disappear,
and pari passii, the small bones of the knee and hock which
rest on them. The increasing prevalence of " side-bones "
among heavy cart-horses seems to justify the idea that the
Shires and Clydesdales of the near future will have no lateral
cartilages. Among other changes, the bones of the sternum
will in time become joined together, and anchylosis will take
place between the pelvis and sacrum. The racer will become
comparatively longer in the legs and neck, stronger in the
loins, rounder in the barrel and better ribbed up than he now
is ; and the draught animal will become shorter in the limbs,
and more massive in muscle. Both will increase in height
and docility.

342 PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES.

CHAPTER XXXI.

PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES.

PHOTOGRAPHY is a very useful aid for the acquisition of a
knowledge of conformation ; for it enables us to place on
record exact results unobtainable by other means. This is
a truth which is too evident to need support by argument.

Photographs are taken of a horse with the object of
obtaining a picture, a portrait, a combination of the two,
or a likeness of the animal by which his " points " may be
best seen and compared, with the greatest exactness, to those
of other horses. When a picture is the end in view, the
pose will have to be subordinated to artistic requirements.
If a portrait, the position should be that which will convey
to the spectator the best possible idea of the general look
of the animal. This will usually be obtained when his
body is in profile, and the head and neck carried in the
manner most characteristic of the horse in question. The
head may, therefore, be turned a little to one side or to the
other, as in Pis. 33 or 62. When, however, the photograph
is required as a more or less exact record of the horse's
"make and shape," he should be in as nearly perfect profile
as practicable ; just as if he were posed for the inspection
of an intending buyer. Owing to the laws of perspective, a

PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES. 343

photograph is no more an absolutely correct map of the
surface in view, than is a carefully drawn picture.

In order to preserve harmony in the graceful curves of
the upper line of the body, the horse, to look his best, should
have his ears pricked forward, his head carried high, and,
if possible, he should not have his tail tucked in between
his legs. When standing still, he will look to most
advantage when the fore leg of the observer's side is more
advanced than the other, and when its hind leg is more
drawn back than the other hind leg (see Pis. 33 and 35).
Unless the background be a specially prepared one, the
horse should be well away from it, and it should be out of
focus, so that he may stand out in bold relief. (Compare
Frontispiece and Plate 62, with Plates 33 and 38.) As a
rule, the animal, even when he is a grey or white, should
be placed, more or less, against the sky. If possible> the
horse should not be put, as is frequently done, close against
a building, the lines of which would prevent the eye from
following the contours of the animal. I find that horses look
more animated and hold themselves better, away from their
stables, than near them ; and especially when they are in an
open plain. My readers can draw their own examples from
the photographs given in this book.

It is absolutely immaterial whether the camera used is
on a fixed stand or is held in the hand, so long as the
results are satisfactory. For "taking" horses standing still,
it is evident that it would be best, were the plan practicable,
to photograph the animal in diffused sunlight, as might be
obtained by using a roof of ground glass. The difficulty
here would be the attainment of sufficiently long exposure
while the animal remained in a suitable position. Although

PHOTOGRAPHING HORSES.

I generally try to " take " animals with full sunlight coming,
if possible, from behind my back ; I fully understand that I
would do better, were I to wait for the light to become
diffused by the intervention, for instance, of a translucent
cloud. But being a busy man, I am obliged to utilise the
opportunities I get. The distance at which I like to photo-
graph horses standing still, is from 7 to 10 yards ; and horses
in motion, from 10 to 25 yards. I use a quarter-plate
twin-lens hand camera, which can be focussed up to the last
moment, and which was devised for me by Messrs. Newman
and Guardia. Its full aperture is one inch in diameter ; its
equivalent focus is about 6} inches ; and it has two shutters :
one working at ^-J-g- second, placed between the lenses ; the
other, at from i second to -^ second, behind them. I may
explain that, up to the present, no shutter has been made
which can be regulated with approximate accuracy, between
these extreme limits, with the aperture I have mentioned.
When time and light permit, I stop the lens down to from
to tr- When taking rapidly moving objects, I find it best
to direct the lens, !by means of the finder, on some point
at which I wish to make the exposure, and, while holding
the camera as steady as I can, I continue looking at the
moving object until I think it is in right position, and I then
press the release. In such cases, one has to receive every
possible help from light, plate, developer, and, if need be,
intensifies In temperate climates, the best light for very
short exposures will usually be obtained about mid-day ; in the
tropics, some time from eight to ten in the morning, or from
two to four in the afternoon, so as to avoid getting the light
from too. nearly a vertical direction.

( 345 )

CHAPTER XXXII.

PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE.

BOURGELAT, Merche, Duhousset, Goubaux, Barrier, and other
writers on Conformation have laid down certain proportions
for an ideal horse, which, unfortunately, does not exist as a
distinctive type. Failing to draw sufficient attention to the
great difference of shape between horses of speed and those
of strength ; the comparisons which they have instituted
between the dimensions of the limbs and those of the head
and body, are wholly arbitrary. I need hardly remind my
readers that, speaking generally, although the respective
proportions of the head and body are practically the same
in all classes of horses, the length of the neck and limbs
varies according to the work for which the muscles of these
parts are best suited. Hence, the only proportions of the
horse, which are fixed within narrow limits, are those of the
head and body. We may sum up the most evident ones
as follows :

Proportions Common to all Classes of Horses.

The Measurements here given have Reference to Fig. 204.

(1) Length of body (a b) - 2^ to 2- times length of head (k /).

(2) Height at withers (c d) = height at croup (fg).

(3) Length of head (k t) = depth of body at lowest part of back (h i).

346 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE.

(4) Length of head = distance of " swell " of muscle at posterior angle of

shoulder-blade, to point of hip (s t).

(5) Distance (k /) of top of head to corner of mouth = distance from

point of hip to point of buttock (t u).

(6) Width of head (m n) = \ length of head (k I).

FIG. 204. PROPORTIONS OF HORSE.
(Drawn from a photograph?)

That careful observer, Colonel Duhousset, states that :
(7) Length of head = distance of point of shoulder to top of withers.

As this proportion must necessarily vary according] to
the length and position of the shoulder-blade and humerus,
1 refrain from applying it to all classes.

PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE. 347

The following proportions are approximately correct for
all horses, except those of the heavy cart type, whose necks
are particularly massive (see PI. 19) :

(8) Width of head (m n) = width of upper part of neck (n o).

(9) Distance (k p) of top of head to corner of mouth = thickness of

base of neck (q r).

Any attempt as has frequently been made to formulate
proportions of length between the limbs and body of what
might be called an "ordinary horse," would be merely
begging the question by constructing an ideal animal to
conform to one's own theories ; instead of, as one ought to
do, supporting one's hypotheses on the firm basis of fact.
As the comparative length of limb varies according to the
class of horse ; we find (see Chapter XV.), taking the two
extreme types, that the legs of the heavy cart-horse are far
shorter than those of the racer (compare PL 19 with Frontis-
piece). Thus, the length of the body and its depth at the
withers in the former, are, respectively, several inches more
than the height, and the distance of the brisket from the
ground. The racer, on the contrary, is inclined to be shorter
than he is high, and measures much less from the withers to
brisket than from brisket to ground.

As the result of my own observations I may add the
following proportions for thoroughbreds only :

(10) Height at withers (c d) = length of body (a b), or a little (say, up

to 4 inches) more.

(11) Depth at withers (c e) = distance of "girth place" to lower part of

fetlock in a three-year-old, or to centre of pastern in an " aged "
horse.

Beyond repeating (see p. 1 60) that the muscles of the neck
should be proportionate in length to those of the limbs, I

348 PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE.

can offer no useful hint as regards the comparative length of
the neck ; for the only measurement which can be readily
taken of it, namely, that from the withers to the top of the
head, greatly alters in length, on account of the elasticity of
the connecting ligament (see p. 34), according to the position
in which the head is held. We must here remember that
this suspensory ligament of the head and neck is immediately
underneath the crest, and that the vertebrae of the neck
(see FIG. 3) does not follow this line.

( 349 )

CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE PAINTER'S HORSE.

HORSES have been treated by painters, and also by sculptors,
in a very unhandsome way, and especially by English so-

le Kaffcr
'ofr.s Parrocel.
7*50.

FIG. 205. (Copied by Duhousset.} Louis XV.

called artists, who continue to perpetuate the conventional
or stencil-plate animal in a style long since forsaken by con-
tinental draughtsmen. There are, of course, several brilliant

350

THE PAINTERS HORSE.

exceptions. The most usual faults of conformation to be
seen in horse pictures, are absurdly small heads and ex-
travagantly long hind-quarters, from point of hip to point of
buttock. We see them well shown in Figs. 205 and 206. The
former is a sketch of an equestrian portrait, by the French

FIG. 206. HORSE BY ALKEN.

artist Parrocel, of Louis XV. in his youth. The latter is
from Beauties and Defects in the Figure of the Horse, by
H. Alken, who published it seventy years ago, and who
described the subject of his work as follows : " The animal
from which this drawing was made, is accounted one of the
finest figures in England." He must have had some mis-

THE PARTHENON.

givings about the dimensions of the head and neck ; for he
takes care to add that : "A small head and neck in a horse
are considered a great beauty ; and in the original of this
drawing, I think they are the least I ever saw in proportion
to the body." All the saddle-horses of some English artists,
among whom was that unrivalled caricaturist, Mr. John

FIG. 207. HORSE AND RIDER IN THE PARTHENON.

Leech, have a remarkably "good place for the collar" (see
p. 212) on their shoulders. " The old masters" drew horses
very incorrectly ; and yet we find in the bas-reliefs of the
Parthenon done over two thousand years ago, horses depicted
with a near approach to truth both in form and action (see
Fig 207). The greatest of all horse painters, Meissonier, drew

352

THE PAINTERS HORSE.

horses with marvellous correctness, as we may see in his
11 Napoleon i er " (Fig. 208), and in " 1814" (Fig. 209).

The stencil-plate man generally represents the walk by
the action of the trot. Even the great and careful painter

FIG. 208. MEISSONIER'S NAPOLEON i er .

Gericault sinned in this respect, as we may notice in the
mounted horse of the pair shown in Fig. 210. The Arab
horse, which forms the second drawing in this figure, is repre-
sented at the amble. Gericault evidently meant them to be
at the walk, at which corrected pace Colonel Duhousset {see

MARENGO.

353

his Le Ckeval) has redrawn these two animals unmounted.
He has, however, given somewhat exaggerated action to the
near hind leg of his first horse. A well-known English
artist drew a picture of Napoleon's charger, Marengo (see
Fig. 211), balancing himself on a fore and hind leg of tb p

FIG. 209. MEISSONIER'S " 1814."

same side ! Possibly he followed the bad (in this instance)
example of Gericault (see Fig. 210). Artists of the present
time have no excuse for similar lapses into error ; for they
have the results of the researches of Marey, Muybridge,
Anschiitz and other photographers to guide them. Figs.

2 A

354

THE PAINTERS HORSE.

54, 47, 52, 88, Meissonier's " 1814," and PL 69, prove that
the walk, trot, amble, canter, and leap, can be drawn artistically
and truthfully at the same time. A combination of these two
conditions is harder to find in the canter, than in the other
movements just mentioned, and still more so in the gallop.
The difficulty, here, lies in the nature of the action rather than
in the speed of the pace ; for the eye can, for instance, follow
the order in which the limbs work, far more easily in the

FIG. 210. HORSES BY GERICAULT CORRECTED BY DUHOUSSET.

fastest trot or amble than in the slowest walk. Here we come
to the noteworthy truth that the eye will seldom recognise as
true in Art, what it has not actually seen in Nature. The dis-
tance at which we usually look at the movements of a horse's
legs in the canter or gallop is usually too close to permit us to
take in all four together at the same moment. Hence, when
critically regarding the action in either of these two paces, we
generally content ourselves with studying that of the fore pair,

GIVING THE IDEA OF MOTION. 355

and, subsequently, that of the hind pair ; or vice versa. In
such a case, therefore, whichever pair be focussed sharply
on the retinae of our eyes, the other pair will of necessity be
blurred. Consequently, if both pairs of limbs be depicted
sharply in the canter or gallop, the chances are that the
idea of motion will not be conveyed to the spectator. For
this reason, the painter who is trying to give the " feeling "
of motion to a horse he is drawing at either of these paces,

FIG. 211. NAPOLEON'S CHARGER, MARENGO (After Mr. James Ward, R.A.}.

will do well to blur (by means of dust, snow, etc.) or to hide
(by a bush or grass, for instance) one pair, if he desires to
make the other pair sharp. I can see no error of technique
in giving indistinctness of outline to the limbs themselves.
A painter who exhibited, in the Royal Academy or Salon,
a picture representing a horse running away with a carriage,
would most probably incur no rebuke from the art critics
for blurring all the spokes of the wheels, and drawing all the
legs and feet of the animal sharp. And yet those of us who

2 A 2

356 THE PAINTERS HORSE.

know anything of the laws of motion, must be aware that,
in such a case, any of the horse's feet which are going
forward, must be passing far faster through space, than the
more or less perpendicular spokes which are revolving
through the lower half of their circle !

At paces in which there is a moment of suspension, the
idea of motion, will, as a rule, be best conveyed by drawing
the horse with his feet off the ground. On account of vio-
lating this principle, old time painters, who represented the
horse in the gallop with both hind feet on the ground, failed
to give the idea of movement ; although, as it happened, the
attitude they adopted was not far from true (see Fig. 93).
The later method of showing the racer at full speed, sus-
pended in the air, with his fore legs stretched out in front and
his hind limbs extended to the rear, was absolutely incorrect,
as well as utterly impossible ; and yet it conveyed the feeling
of motion better than that practised by the earlier horse
painters. It is manifest that a pictorial attitude which we
know to be incorrect, will look unnatural to us. Consequently,
the more general knowledge becomes, the more difficult will
it be for a painter who tries to draw horses in motion, to
satisfy the artistic requirements of his public. Hence, pictures
of galloping horses appearing to claw the ground, as the
fore feet come down with the knees and fetlocks well bent,
or committing equally absurd eccentricities, will, to any one
who has studied the paces of the horse, look simply ridiculous,
no matter how meritorious the painting may be in other
respects. M. Barroil {L Art Equestre] justly remarks that the
fact that the domain of the painter is what one sees and not
what really takes place, is no proof that one sees attitudes
which do not exist. " It is, however, by virtue of this theory,

HORSE LEAPING.

357

set up as an axiom, that many artists represent, in their
works, horses in attitudes which they have never assumed,
and which they could not assume."

One form of conventional leap appears to have been
taken from Alken's drawing (see Fig. 212). It is neither

FIG. 212. HORSE LEAPING, BY ALKEN.

correct nor does it give, at least to a horseman, the idea
of what is intended to be represented. A horse which is in
the act of landing, is usually represented, by the stencil-plate
man, with its fore feet so far to the front, that, when they will
come to the ground, it could not possibly raise its forehand,

358

THE PAINTERS HORSE.

and a fall would be the inevitable result. The " tail-piece,"
on this page, gives a correct and far more artistic rendering
of the action at this moment. A method of recent date is to
give the animal, just before landing, the appearance of being
afraid to face his bit (see p. 138). Consequently, although
the position may be true, it will look constrained and awk-
ward to the eye of a 'cross country expert, which is a role
that such artists are evidently unqualified to assume. I need
hardly say that the more an artist knows, the better will he
paint. I venture to think that the requirements of truth and
artistic feeling are fairly well fulfilled in Plate 69, which I
took at the Dublin Horse Show in 1892, and for permission
to do which I have to thank the Committee of the Royal
Dublin Society.

(Photograph by M. H. Hayes.}

THE WATER JUMP AT SANDOWN PARK.

INDEX.

ABDOMEN, 45, 192
Abdominal tunic, 34, 193
Abyssinian wild ass, 308, 335
Acerotherium, 330
Acheen ponies, 288
Achievement (pony), 159, 284
Action, 65, 82, 83, 249-254, 260
Afghanistan, wild ass of, 309
Africa, 309, 311

South. See " South Africa."
African horses, South. See " South

African horses."
Age affecting shape of nose, 171

withers, 197
Albatross, breast-bone of, 4
Albinos, 243
Alfort, 322

Ali bin Abdullah, 167, 282
Alken, H., 350, 357
Amble, 100, 354

speed of, 67, 102
America, 280, 282, 301, 309, 326, 329
American horses, 280

,, South, 282

Anarchy, 283
Anatomy, 29-44
Ancestors of the horse, 318, 334
Anchitherium, 327, 332, 338

Anchiitz, 353

Anderson, Col. John, 168

Angle of elevation, 133

friction, 74
Ankle, analogue of, 32
Antelope, 337, 340

conformation of, 2, 3, 13, 66
gallop of, 68
shoulders of, 211
Antipodes, 279
Anus, 203
Appetite, 256
Arabia, wild ass of, 309
Arab dealers, 167

heavy topped, 294

ponies, 159, 200, 276
Arabs, 266, 282

bones of, 7

carriage of tail by, 205

colour of, 242

ears of, 176

hair of mane and tail of, 246

height of, 149

legs of, 265

noses of, 167

pasterns of, 222

points of buttocks of, 233
Argentine Republic, 282

36o

INDEX.

Art, truth in, 354~35 8

Articulation, 29

Artillery horses, 275, 280

Artists. See " Painters."

Asphalte, drawing loads on, 73, 86,

214
Ass, Abyssinian wild, 308

colour of, 305, 334

conformation of, 305, 317

difference between horse and, 303

domestic, 308

domesticity of, 309

,, hoofs of, 305

in America, 309

India, 309

Spain, 309

mental capacity of, 44

pasterns of, 224

Prejevalsky's horse and, 302

" stars," " blazes," etc., in, 305

varieties of, 308

withers of, 195, 305
Astragalus, 32, 70, 338
Atlas, 34

Attachments of a muscle, 29
Attention, standing at, 75
Attitudes of horse, 75
Australasia, 279, 299
Australia, 226, 278, 301
Australian horses, 7, 149, 154, 223,
279
ponies, 159, 296

BACK, 23, 199

,, hollow, 199

length of, 200

tendons, 22, 38, 40, 116, 220

parallel with cannon

bone, 218-220

Badminton book, 297

Baggage animals, roach-back in, 199

Baker, Col. Valentine, 283

Ball and socket joint, 29

Baluchi horses, 149, 287

Baluchistan, wild ass of, 309

Ballet dancer, 252

Barbs, 159, 265

Barcaldine, 13

Barrel, roundness of, 191

Barroil, M., 356

Bars of the hoof, 23, 227

mouth, 19

' snaffle on, 86
Base of support, 57
Basuto ponies, 149
Bath, swimming, 58
Batthyany, Prince, 292
Baucher, 84
Bay (colour), 241
Bearing reins, 83, 214
Beauty in horse, 259

line of, 259
Behind, broad, 13

, narrow, 13
Belly, 25, 193
Bendigo, 13

Bengal, horses bred in, 8
Bhootiah ponies, 149, 288
Biceps, 12
Big head, 168

Billiaid table jumped by Howard, 68
Birds, breast-bones of, 4
Biting, mules, 93
Bit in jumping, severe, 137, 138
effect of curb, 83, 252
Black, 241, 244, 245

buck, 340

conformation of, 2, 157

INDEX.

Black buck, gallop of, 68, 131
Bladder, 45
Blair Athol, 241
Blazes, 248, 305, 334
Blitz, 159, 285
Blood, 204, 265

circulation of, 41

Eastern blood, 14

in jumping, 140
Blowing nose, 258
Blue Ribbon, 298
Boat, leverage in, 53, 54, 63
Bob, 159
Body, comparative weight of, 161

conformation of, 3, 4

depth of, 28, 187

length and depth of, 154, 155

same for all horses, proportions

of, 155

should be short, 65, 186, 187
Bombay dealers, 167
Bones, 6 n, 30-32

from paralysis, wasting of, 8

in progression, duties of, 6

of birds, breast, 4

of legs, comparative length of,

162

of man and horse, analogies

between, 32

quality of, 6, 7

substance of, 6
Bonnie Doo, 159

Scotland, 280
Bony deposits, 7
Bouley, M. H., 70
Bourgelat, 166, 345
Boxing, quickness in, 16
Brain, 42, 43
Brain capacity, 43, 170

Brain of ass, cat, dog, horse, man, ox,
and pig, 44
size of, 171
Brat, The, 180, 209, 294
Bravo, 281, 299
Breast, 20, 197

bones of birds, 4
Breathing capacity, 35, 164, 188

forced, 36, 47
mechanism of, 45
rate of, 256
state of breathing, 257
through nostrils, 164
Brisket, 25
Britons, ancient, 309
Broad behind, 13
Brock, 293
Brontotherium, 330
Brown, 241

Mr. Tom, 184
Buck-eye, 178
Buffalo, conformation of, 3

lying down, 89
Bull, Indian draught, 3
Bulldog, 3

intelligence of, 172
Bullet, 280

Bullock, Indian trotting, 3
Burma ponies, 149, 287, 294
Bush, 355
Buttock, points of the, 25, 32

CAB-HORSE, 73

Cabuli horses, 149, 287

Caesar, 309

Calcutta, 182, 282, 311

Calf-knees, 217, 218

Calf of leg becoming tendinous, 15

Caliph, 159

3 62

INDEX.

Calkins, 121

Callosities on legs. See " Castors."

Cambridgeshire Course, 158

Camel, conformation of, 102

Camera, 344

Camilla, 282

Cannon-bone, 22, 31, 220, 238

Canter, 109-112, 354

Cantering to the rear, 62

Cape Colony, 281, 311

Capillaries, 40

Caractacus, 298

Carbine, 13, 281, 299

Carnivorous animals, ears of, 176

Carriage-horses, high action of, 83

wheels of, 355
Carson, Dr., 176, 249
Cart-Horses, 2, 63, 86, 147, 156, 162,
267, 272, 277, 278

action of, 252
colour of, 241

comparative length of body
and legs of, 152-156
distribution of weight in,
49> 73, 85, 86
feet of, 226, 227
,, ,, fore-arm of, 216
hair on legs of, 246-248,
260

height at croup of, 74, 160
height of, 149
hoofs of, 226, 227
knees of, 218, 260
length of body of, 74, 161
loading, 73
muscles of, 13, 156
neck of, 73, 181-183
pasterns of, 64, 225
reining back, 121

Cart-Horses, shoeing of, 252

shoulders of, 64, 73, 74,

155, 209, 210, 212-214

special points of, 272

,, straightening limbs, 56

weight of body of, 73, 161

width of breast of, 155,

198, 199

withers of, 196
Cartilage, n

Castors, 21, 216, 237, 302, 303, 307
Castration, 183
Cat, claws of, 33

conformation of, 2, 3, 340

gallop of, 128, 158

,, mental capacity of, 44
Cattle lying down, 89
Cavalry trooper, 274
Cave men, 335
Cement, 329, 338
Centre of gravity, 49

,, displacement of, 57,

61, 66, 67

regulation of, 85
Cerebellum, 42, 43, 171, 174
Cerebrum, 42, 43, 174
Cesarewitch, the, 154, 262, 297
Chance (mare), 152, 155, 166, 293
Chanticleer, 243

Chapman's zebra. See " Zebra, Chap-
man's."

Charger, officer's, 275
Chauveau, M., 303
Cheadle Jumbo, 152, 153, 155, 166,

242
Check ligament, 39

rein, 83
Cheetah, 337, 340

gallop of, 68, 128

INDEX.

363

Cheetah, shape of, 2, 13, 66, 157
Chest, definition of, 20, 45

depth of, 28

expansion of, 188, 189, 193

shape of, 48, 187, 197
Chester (horse), 280
(pony), 159
Chestnut colour, 241, 242, 243
Chestnuts. See " Castors."
Chieftain, 149, 283
Child of the Islands, 283
China ponies, 149, 288

racing in, 149
Chin-groove, 19

Circling, carriage of head when, 86
Circus horses, 91, 138
Classes of horses, various, 270
Cleveland bays, 278
Cleverness, 183, 254
Climate, effect of, 7, 8, 14, 226, 266
Clinometer, 208
Clydesdales, 213, 224, 248, 278. Also

see " Cart-Horses."
Cob, 294
Coffin bone and joint, 31, 36

shaped head, 171
Cold and colour of skin, 244, 245
Colesberg, 282
Collar-bone, 32

on shoulders, place for collar,

212, 351

Collectedly, standing, 78
Collecting himself, horse, 134
Collie, 172, 173
Colorado, 330
Colour, 241

,, for harness work, 242

of the ass, 305, 334
Columbus, 301

Compensations, 268
Concussion, 116, 207
Condition, 9, 255

by sweat, judging, 258
Conformation, comparative, 2
Connective tissue, 14-16
Contraction of foot, 228

of muscle, 29
Convexity, measure of, 188
Corean ponies, 150, 289
Corisande, 297

Comers of the mouth, snaffle on, 86
Corns, 228
Coronet, 23
Country breds. See " East Indian

Horses."
Covey, Mr., 222
Cow hocks, 234

kick, 93
Cracked heels, 244
Craddock, 311
Creation, special, 320
Cremorne, 300
Crest, 20, 34, 184

feeling the, 257
Cricket, quickness of eye in, 1 6
Crossing legs, 109
Croup, 25, 28, 201, 203, 232

height at, 157, 158, 196

prominence in, 233
Crust of hoof, 23
Crusta petrosa, 329, 338
Curb bit on action, effect of, 83, 252
Curbs, 91, 138. Also see " Bit."
Curnieu, Baron de, 100
Curve, convexity of, 188

DACHSHUND, conformation of, 3
Daisy cutting, 252

364

INDEX.

Dalmeny, 9
Dandy Dinmont, 338
Daphne, 159
Darwin, 334, 335
Deaf horses, 177
Dealers, Arab, 167
Deer, shoulders of, 211
Defenceless, 298
Definitions, 29
Deli ponies, 149, 288
Delphine, 179
Depth of chest, 28

body, 28
Derby, the, 9, 297, 298

winner of the, 186
Derbyshire, Shire horses in, 247
Diagonals (legs), 95
Diaphragm, 46, 190
Digit, 320

first, 303

sixth, 322

unity of, 338
Digitigrade, 328
Digits, conditions modifying number

of, 336

notation of, 332
to decrease in number, ten-
dency of, 333, 336

Diophantus, 298

Dishing 251

Distribution of weight in horse's body,

Dock, 26
Docking, 260
Dog. See " Bulldog," " Collie,"

" Dachshund," "Greyhound," and

" Poodle."

-cart, traces of, 74

conformation of, 3, 340

Dog, mental capacity of, 44

shoulder blade of, 210

too tall, 148

wild, 340

Donkey, weight-carrying power of, 210
Donkeys, 308, 309. Also see " Asses."
Dorothy, 159, 201, 278, 296
Dorsal, 29
Draught, 71, 232

horses. See " Cart-horses."
Driving, 85

Dry climate, effect of, 226
Dublin Horse Show, 358

Society, Royal, 358
Duhousset, Colonel, 28, 345, 346, 351
Dun colour, 242
Dung, condition of, 256
Dust, 355

Dutch farmers, 100
Dykes, Mr., 213, 248

EAGLE, breast-bone of, 4

Ears, 94, 175

Eastern blood, 14, 219, 265, 335

horses, 219
East Indian horses, 149, 159, 264,

265, 286
Ecka, 74, 264
Eclipse, 280
Egypt, asses in, 308
Elastic ligaments, 33
Elbow, 21, 31, 35, 216

capped, 89.
Electricity, stimulation by, 62
Engadine, 287
England, 226, 242, 278
Enlargements, bony, 7
English horses, 149, 167, 176, 223,

276, 277

INDEX.

365

English mares, 280
Enquirer, 280
Eocene, 319, 329, 330
Eolus, 280
Epiglottis, 305
Epithelium, 243
Epsom, racing at, 155
Equation (horse), 298
personal, 17
Equilibrium, 49

instability of, 67, 160
Equus hemionus, 310
Ergot, 221, 328
Esa bin Curtas, 167
Euclid (English horse), 298

(Arab horse), 283
Euphrates, 283

Europe, horse of Western, 335
Evolution of the horse, 318-341
Ewe neck, 184
Exminster, 296
Exmoor ponies, 278
Expiration of air, 46
Extension of limbs, 29
External parts, names of, 18
Eyes, 81, 94, 170, 171, 175, 177, 178

hollows above, 178

FACE, 116, 167, 168

with ground, angle of, 81
Fall, making horse, 140
Farm, Field and Fireside, 293
Fatigue, 67

ability to endure, 264
Favonius, 297, 299
Fetlock, 22, 32, 36, 40, 221, 238

descent of, 328

mechanism of, 69

width of, 219

Fever in the feet, 207, 228, 278, 279
Fibrous tissue, 33
Fibula, 32
Fillis, Frank, 182

M. James, 84
Fingers. See " Digits."
Fisherman, 280
Fishing rod, leverage in, 53
Flank, 24, 202
Flat-sided, 198
Fleur de Lys, 283
Flexion, 29

Flower, Sir William, 302, 308, 324, 328
"Fly" country, 313
Food, effect of, 14, 153, 193
Foot. See " Hoof" and " Digit."
abnormal, 321
-prints, 66, 123
putting down, 249
Fordham, George, 168
Fore-arm, 21, 31, 216
Fore feet, striking out with, 93
Forehand, fore leg raising, 63, 64, 208

weight of, 211, 263
. Forehead, 18, 168, 172, 174

prominent, 167, 169
Fore legs, 30, 35, 206

propulsion by, 74

raising forehand by, 63, 64

straightening, 208

to body, connection of, 138

wide between, 197
Fore limb. See " Fore legs."
Forelock, 18, 260
Fossil horse, points of the, 338
Foxhall, 1 68
France, Southern, 335
Friction, angle of, 74

in joints, 13

INDEX.

Frog of foot, 23, 228, 229

Front view of horse, 77

Frontispiece, 291

Fulcrum, 52

" Function makes the organ, The," 164

GALLOP, the, 67, 112116, 354
action in the, 251
carriage of head in, 83
,, difference between leap and,
126
riding training, 85

Galloper jumping, 140

Gamecock throttle, 185

Gaskin, 26, 40, 234

Gaudry, Prof. A., 318

Gayot, M., 172

Geldings, 183, 185, 192, 197

Geology, 317

Gericault, 352, 353

Getting up from ground, 89

Girth-place, 25

" Give and take," 85

Gladiator, 172

Gland, tear or scent, 325

Glasgow, 225

Glenelg, 280

Glengarry II., 281

Good looks, 259

Goose-rumped, 203, 233

Goubaux, Prof., 322

and Barrier, MM., 49, 100,
167, 176, 197, 198, 217, 345

Grain of meat, 14

Grand Flaneur, 280, 299

Grass, 355

Gravity, centre of. See " Centre of
Gravity."

Grease, 247, 248

Great Tom, 280

Grevy's zebra, 314-316

Grey, 241, 242

Greyhound, conformation of, 3, 13, 66,
157, 162

gallop of, 127

intelligence of, 172

Gudrin, M., 15

Gullet plate of saddle, 196

HACK, the, 160, 215, 273
Haddeed, 283
Hair, 245, 260

on legs, 246

strength of, 243
Hammond, Mr. John, 9
Hamstring, 25
Hand gallop, 1 1 1
Handiness, 254
Hands when jumping, 140
Hannah, 297
Hansom horses, 73
Hare, conformation of, 3, 157, 340
Harness horses, light, 215, 272

work, colour for, 242
Harvester, 9
Head, 18, 30, 164, 181

carriage of, 80-87

coffin-shaped, 171

comparative size and length of,

161, 164, 165, 166

,, in draught, 86

in gallop, 85

in locomotion, 68, 85

leanness of, 166

,, setting on of, 180

top of, 175
Health, 255
Heart, 40, 187

INDEX.

367

Heat, regulation of, 240, 244, 245

Heavily topped, 10

Heel, analogue of man's, 32

Heels of hoof, 23, 228, 229
cracked, 244

Height at croup, 28
withers, 26

and croup, compara-
tive, 74, 156-158
limit of, 148

Hemionus, equus, 310

Herati horses, height of, 149

Heredity, 266

High action, 252
blowing, 258

Hill, 62, 157, 158

Himalayas, 288

Hind legs, 36, 39, 230
landing on, 138
,, muscles of, 231
propulsion by, 73
straight dropped, 63, 235
,, well under horse, 78

Hinge joint, 29

Hinny, 307

Hip joint, 32, 36

Hipparion, 324-329, 332, 339, 340

Hips, points of, 25, 31, 192, 202

Hock, 26, 32, 36, 40, 235

Hock in man, analogue of, 32
,, desirable shape of, 236
mechanism of, 52, 53, 69
tied in below, 236

Hocks, cow, 234, 235
sickle, 63, 235, 263
straight, 63, 235
turned in, 77, 234, 235

out, 77, 235
well let down, 237, 340

Hocks, well under horse, 78
Hogging mane, 260
Hokkaido, 290

Holborn Circus, statue in, 203
Hollows above eyes, 178
Hongkong, racing at, 149
Hoof, the, 7, 8, 23, 31, 225

shape and slope of, 69, 227, 239

too big for pedal bone, 229
Horse, ancestry of the, 318, 334

attitudes of, 75

breaking, 172, 173

definition of, 338

front view of, 77

height of, 26

length of, 27

low in front, 160

modifying conditions of, 336

,, of the future, 340

painter's, 349

rear view of, 76

Show, Dublin, 358

shows, 278

sickness, 282, 313

,, walks on toes, 32
Horses, cart. See " Cart-Horses."

comparative shape of, 147

draught. See " Cart-Horses "

drawing, 349

dray. See " Cart-Horses."

Eastern, 219

fossil, 318

half-bred, 10

mental capacity of, 44
painting, 349

photographing, 342

race. See " Race-Horses."
Shire. See " Shire Horses."

small, 264

368

INDEX.

Horses, thoroughbred. See "Thorough-
breds."

various classes of, 270

wild, 301
Horsewoman, 99
Howard, Mr. J., 246

of Bradford, 67
Humerus, 31, 74, 208, 215
Hump of Indian bull, 3
Hunters, cart blood in, 277

conformation of, 195
judging, 278
length of legs of, 153

muscles of, 13

refusing, 172

,, shoulders of, 162

special points of, 271

,, thoroughbreds as, 10

,, width of breast in, 199
Hurdle racer, 271

racing on foot, 139
Huxley, Prof., 307
Hybrids, 307
Hyracotherium, 329, 332, 338

ICELAND PONY, 298
'Ill-used, the, 280
India, 7, 276

donkeys in, 309

wild ass of, 309
Indian draught bull, 3

,, trotting bullock, 3
Insertion of a muscle, 29
Inspiration of air, 46
Instability of equilibrium, 67, 160
Instinct, 173, 174

Intelligence of horse, 43, 44, 172, 173
Intestines, 45
Irish horses, 233, 277

Isonomy, 13

JAPANESE PONIES, 290

Java ponies, 287

Jaw, angles of, 20
branches of, 20
lower, 179
thinness at angles of, 167

Jaws, width between, 179

Jeannette, 159, 281

Jennet, 307

Jennings, Mr. Tom, 252

Junr., Mr. Tom, 163, 168

Jibber, 172

Jockey on horse, 157

Joints, 29, 32

friction in, 13

Jugular groove, 20, 185

Jump, delineation of the, 357
standing, 141

Jumper, Australasian horse as a, 279
,, fore-arm of the, 216
short body in the, 65
,, shoulders of the, 192, 210, 215
special points of the, 271

Jumping, 125-141, 253

,, carriage of head in, 83

,, loin muscles in, 65

man, 59, 60, 67

oblique shoulders for, 63

,, raising centre of gravityin, 67

" rearing muscles " in, 64

,, sloping pasterns for, 63

KAMA'S COUNTRY, 313
Kangaroo, leaping run of, 68
Kathiawar, ears of, 175

mare, 295
Kemmis, Mr., 282

INDEX.

369

Kerry ponies, 278
Kiang, 201, 310, 335
Kickers, 178
Kicking, 52, 64, 92

prevention of, 40
King Alfonso, 280
King Ban, 280
Kingcraft, 200
King Ernest, 280
Kingston, 298
King Tom, 297
Kink in tail, 260
Knee, 22, 31, 35, 217

action, 82

analogue of man's, 32

cap, 32

on landing, straight, 137
Knees, calf, 217, 218

over at the, 217

., tied in below the, 218, 219

well let down, 220, 237, 340
Knight of Burghley, 183
Knuckles, analogue of, 32
Kowalevsky, 327
Kutch, wild ass of, 309

LABBY, 284

Lachrymal duct, 304

Lady riders, 99

Lady's horse, 274

Laminitis, 207, 228, 278, 279

Landing over a jump, 136

Larynx, 164

Lateral displacement, 66

Leading fore leg, 109

Leamington, 280

Leap and gallop, difference between,

126
Leaping. See " Jumping."

Lecoq, 195, 224
Leech, Mr. John, 351
Leg, calf of man's, 15

fore, 30, 35, 206

hind, 36

length of, 150

,, thickness of, 156
Legs, clean, 220

comparative length of, 156

bones of,

161, 162

weight on, 49

long and short, 3, 4

straightening the, 58, 63

width between, 65, 161
Length of horse, 27
Lenoble du Teil, 124
Level action, 65, 68
Levers, 52

muscular, 54
Liberator, 183
Ligament, check, 39

of head and neck, 33, 194
suspensory, 22, 31, 39, 220,

224

Ligaments, 32
Limbs. See " Legs."
Lincoln, 293

Line on flank, diagonal, 256, 257
Lips, 179

Little Hercules, 159
Little Wonder, 159, 281
Liver, 45
Locomotion, mechanism of equine,

57
Loin muscles, 64, 65

vertebrae, 304
Loins, 24, 65, 200

paralysis of, 203

2 B

370

INDEX.

Loins, slack in, 190-192

well ribbed up, 190-192
London dray horses, 214

streets, 86
Longfellow, 280
Lop ears, 177
Lord Clyde, 159, 278, 284
Louis XV., 350
Low in front, horse, 160
Lucifer, 283
Lucy Glitters, 168
Lungs, 40

Lying down, horse, 88
Lynx, 3, 158, 337

Machine Animate, la, 4

Magistrate, 159, 180, 294

Maitland, Mr. Kelly, 200, 283

Maltre tfarmes, 16

Mammal, 331

Manchuria, 288

Manage. See " Riding School."

Manipuri ponies, 149, 287

Man leaping, 59, 60, 67, 133, 139

mental capacity of, 44

old, 15

running, 58

walking, 57
Mane, 260

of ass, 304
Mare kicking, 93

conformation of, 163, 192
Marengo, 353

Marey, Prof., 4, 8, 63, 142, 353
Margarett, Steve, 182
Markings, 248, 334
Marquis, 222, 283
Marsh, Prof., 329
Martin, Mr. Edwin, 184

Mastiff carrying weight, 210

gallop of, 131
Mayflower, 159, 281
May thorn, 159, 278
Meat, grain of, 14, 15
Medulla oblongata, 42, 43
Meissonier, 104, 351, 352, 354
Melanosis, 242
Melbourne Cup, 281, 299
Memory, 43, 174

Mental power of horse, 43, 44, 172, 173
Merche, M., 192, 345
Metacarpal bones, 319
Metatarsal, 320
Midriff, 46, 190
Mike, 159, 201, 278, 296
Minden, 287, 299
Miocene, 319, 327
Miss Honiton, 298
Mongolian ponies, 149, 288, 335
Morris, General, 49
Morton, Mr., 9
Moustache, 179
Mouth, bars of the, 86

corners of the, 86
Mowbray, Captain, 283
Mules, 224

kicking, 93

withers of, 195
Muscular contraction, speed of, 62, 63

sense, 43, 174
Muscles, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11-14, 3^

below knees and hocks, no, 3
connecting fore limb to body,

contraction of, 12, 41, 62, 63

development of, 256

,, leanness of, 256

,, long and short, 4, 9

INDEX.

Muscles, loin, 64
pectoral, 198
of back, 37
fetlock, 38

fore limb, 37, 38, 84, 137
head, 37
hind limb, 39, 231
hip, 39
hock, 40
knee, 137
loins, 37
mastication, 167
neck, 37, 84, 85
pastern, 38
shoulders, 37, 38, 209
stifle, 39, 40
vertebrae, 64
rearing muscles, 64, 151, 200
starting weight, 231
Museum of R.C.S., 304
Musket, 13, 281, 299
Muybridge, 353
Muzzle, 19

NAILS, analogue of, 32
Namba, 290

Names of external parts, 18
Napoleon I., 100

picture of, 104, 352
Narrow behind, 13
Natal, 281

Natural History, Annals of, 302
Navicular bone, 32

disease, 207
Neck, 20, 73, 181

carriage of, 80

ewe, 184

in locomotion, 68

length of, 37, 160, 201, 263

Neck, of cart-horses, 73

Negishi Hill, 290

Nervous system of horse, 16, 42

Newmarket, 155

New Oswestry, 298

New Zealand horses, 149, 154, 159,

279, 281

Nippon Race Club, 290
Norfolk trotter, 278
North American horses, 149
Nose, 19, 147, 167, 168, 169, 171, 177
Nose-band, 87
Nostrils, 178

false, 304, 334
Notation of paces, 142
Nutrition of tissues, 41

OAKS, the, 297
Oars, propulsion by, 54, 63
Obedience from horse, 172, 173
Occipital crest, 20, 81, 175
Odd-toed animals, 332
Old man, muscle of, 15
masters, 351
Olecranon, 31
Onager, 201, 303, 309
Orange Free State, 281, 282

River, 312, 313
"Organ, function makes the," 164
Origin of muscle, 29
Orlando, 298, 304

Ormonde, 13, 152, 153, 154, 155, 166,
180, 191, 212, 257, 262, 268, 291,
299

Orohippus, 329, 332
Orphan, the, 299
Os calcis, 32, 235
Osteo porosis, 168
Otter hound, 338

372

INDEX.

Over-reaching, 137
Ox, conformation of, 3

,, mental capacity of, 44
Oxygen, 41

PACE, 96

on leap, effect of, 132
Paces, artificial, 96

natural, 96

notation of the, 142

of horses, 95
Pack wax, 34
Painters, 147, 349~35 8
Painter's horse, 349
Pairs, 273

Paloplotherium, 329, 338
Panic, 280
Panniculus, 36
Parallelogram offerees, 61
Paralysis, 8, 203
Parekaretu, 159
Parmesan, 297, 300
Parrocel, 350
Parrott, Col. Ben, 287
Parthenon, 351

Part to a whole, working from, 147
Partridge, breast-bone of, 4
Parts, names of external, 18
Passage, 117
Pastern, 23, 36, 221, 238
bone, long, 31
short, 31
mechanism of, 69
,, raising forehand, 63
slope of, 64, 207, 208, 221-

225

Patella, 32, 36
Pectoral muscles, 161, 198
Pedal bone, 31

Pedestrian, 58, 172
Pegu pony, 287
Pelvis, 9, 31, 200, 201, 232
Perceptive power of horse, 174
Perissodactyla, 332
Persia, wild ass of, 309
Persian horses, 265
Personal equation, 17
Phalanges, 320
Phenacodus, 330, 338
Phe'nix, 282
Photographers, 353
Photographing horses, 342
Piaffer, 94
Piebald, 242, 334
Pigeon, 4, 43
Pig, eye, 177

mental capacity of, 44

toes of, 323

wild, 337

Pink-skinned horses, 243, 245
Placer, le, 76
Plantigrade, 139
Pleistocene, 319
Pliocene, 319, 327
Ploughing by tail, 7 1
Poliakof, 302
Poll, 20
Polo pony, 276
Ponies, 150
Pony, English racing, 278

height at croup of racing, 158
mare high behind, 293
special points of racing, 271
Poodle, intelligence of, 172
Portland, Duke of, 292
Posterior iliac spine, 200

prominent, 233

Predominant, 278, 284

INDEX.

373

Prejevalski's horse, 302
Pretoria, 313
Primary period, 319
Prince Charlie, 300

William, 248
Prizefighter, intelligence of, 172
Prominence in croup, 233
Prominent forehead, 167, 169
Proportions of the horse, 345
Propulsion of body, 58, 61, 73, 74,

208, 232
Prosecutor, 281
Pulse, rate of, 41, 256
Pungwe River, 313
Punjab, climate of, 7

QUAGGA, 313, 316, 334, 336
Quarter mark, 257
Quarters, drooping, 233

hind. See " Hind limb," 230

RABY, 283

Racecourse, horse sweating on, 259
Racehorse, action of tail of, 205
American, 280
Australian, 279-281
back and loins of, 200

English, 278
footprints of, 124

gaskins of, 231, 234
general conformation of, i,
62, 147, 152-156
head of, 166
height at croup of, 158

of, 148

length of body of, 65, 152
length of leg of, 152, 153
muscles of, 12, 13, 156
neck of, 160, 181, 183

Racehorse, pasterns of, 224
ribs of, 192
shoulders of, 210-212
South African, 281
American, 282

special points of, 270
stifle of, 163
" straight dropped," hind
leg of, 231, 236

straightening limbs, 56
well ribbed up, 202
width between fore legs of,
66, 161, 199

Radius, 31

Rat-tailed horses, 246

Rayon d'Or, 280

" Reaches," 248, 334

Rear, cantering to the, 62
view of horse, 76

Rearing, 64, 86, 89

muscles, 64, 151, 200

Reason, 43, 172, 173

Reflex action, 42, 43, 173

Refuser, 172

Regal, 183

Rein back, 83, 86, 119

Reindeer, 183

Reins, 85, 87, 138, 140, 181

Respiration, 46. See also " Breathing."

Rex, 159

Reynolds, Mr., 213

Rhinoceros, 330, 332, 335, 338
conformation of, 3

feet of, 330

Ribbed-up, well, 190, 202

Ribs, 24, 30, 34, 35, 46, 47, 4$, 187,
200, 202

Richard, M., 177, 178

Riding, 85

374

INDEX.

Riding, long distances, 99

over fences, 138
Riding school, 81, 84, 94, 117, 118,

121

Rigolboche, 300
Ringbone, 7, 207
Rising from ground, 89

in stirrups,. 99
Roach-back, 199
Roan colour, 242
Roaring, 185, 223, 258, 278
Robert the Devil, 212
Rod, fishing, 53
Rokeby Fuchsia, 242
Romance, 180, 191, 295
Roman nose, 167, 168, 169, 177
Rosebud, 296
Rothschild, Baron, 297
Rotundity of back ribs, 191
Round action, 252
Royal Academy, 355

Dublin Society, 356
Ruby, 159
Running, man, 58, 66

SACRUM, 30, 31, 34, 204
Saddle hurting withers, 196

of mutton, 65
St. Albans, 280
Blaize, 280
Gatien, 9, 13, 154, 178, 212, 234,

262

Helena, 159
Leger, 297
Simon, 14, 62, 152, 154, 155, 166,

180, 192, 209, 292, 299
Sallenders, 247
Salon, the, 355
Saxons, 309

Scapula, 31

School, riding. See " Riding School."

Sculptors, 249

Second thighs, 40

wind, 258
Secondary period, 319
Secretion of horn, 31
See-saw, 52
Selena, 159

Selous, Mr. F. C., 313, 316
Sesamoid bones, 31, 36
Sex affecting shape of withers, 197
hump, 3

Sexes, differences between, 163
Sexton, Mr., 213, 246
Shaikh Esa bin Curtas, 167, 282
Shanghai, 149
Shan hills, 287

Shape of horses, comparative, 147
Shaw, Mr. W. F., 153
Shepherd, 173
Shere Ali, 283
Sherwood, 283

Shetland ponies, 150, 278, 298
Shin, analogue of man's, 32
Ships, centre of gravity of, 50
Shire horses, 152, 166, 259. Also see

" Cart-Horses."
Shire horses, foot diseases of, 278

hair on legs of, 246, 247

pasterns of, 225

shoulders of, 213
Shoa, zebras in, 314-316
Shoeing, effect of, 228
Shoes influencing action, 252
Shoulder, the, 21, 208

blade, 31

size of, 207, 210

joint, 35

INDEX.

375

Shoulder, muscles of, 209
point of the, 21
straight, 211
Shoulders, action of, 82

for fast work, 211

,, heavy, 211, 212

of antelope, 211

of cart-horses, 73, 74, 209,

2IO, 212

of deer, 211

racehorses, 210

place for collar on, 212

slope of, 63, 64, 207, 208,

209, 2IO, 211

Shutter of camera, 344

Siberia, 288

Sickle-hocks, 63, 235, 263

Side bones, 278

Side-saddle, 196

Sight, defective, 175

Sinews. See " Tendons."

Sirloin, 14, 64, 65

Skaters, 66

Skewbald, 242, 334

Skin, 14, 240
colour of, 243, 245
on croup, thick, 306, 335

Skye terriers, 248

Sleep, position in, 89

Sleeping standing, 80

Slippery ground, 56, 73, 86

Snaffle, 86

Snewing, Mr., 298

" Snips," 248, 334

Snow, 355

"Sock," 248

Sole of foot, 23, 31

Somaliland zebra, 314-316

Sore shins, 7

South Africa, 311, 312, 313, 316
' amblers in, 100
African horses, 149, 160, 265
281
American horses, 282

Spanish walk and Spanish trot, 118

Spavins, 7, 138

Special creation, 320

Speed, 96

animals of, i
causes of, 63
on leap, effect of, 132

Spendthrift, 280

Spinal column, 30
cord, 42

Spirit of the Times, 280

Spiti ponies, 149, 288

Splint bones, 22, 31, 320

abnormal, 321, 322

Splints (disease), 7, 207, 320

Spokes of wheel, 355, 356

Sprains, 116

Springbok, 68, 131

Sprinters, 3, 212

Stamford, Lord, 298

Standing at attention, 75

ease, 79
automatic action in, 79, 80

collectedly, 78
leap, 141

Star on forehead, 248, 305, 334

Starlight, 293

Starting weight, muscles, 231

"Staying," 42, 198, 212, 263

Steeple chaser, conformation of, 195

Irish, 344
shoulders of, 162

special points of, 271

swishing tail, 205

37 6

INDEX.

Steinbok, 337

Stencil plate animal, 349

man, 352
Step, 95
Stepaside, 293
Stifle, 26, 32, 36, 70, 234
Stirrups, rising in, 99
"Stockings," 248, 305, 334
Stomach, 45

Straight hind leg, 63, 235
Straightening fore leg, 63, 208

limbs, 58, 63

Street, Mr., 213, 246
Strength, animals of, i
Stride, 95

length of, 124
Stripes, zebra, 308-316, 334
Stumbling, 207
Suffolk horses, 278

Lord, 297
Sumatra ponies, 287
Support by legs, 95
base of, 57
Suspension, period of, 96
Suspensory ligament, 22, 31, 39, 220,

224
of head and neck,

34, 194

Sweat, judging condition by, 258

Sweating, 258, 259

Sweet William, 159

Swimming, 58

Sylvia, 159, 278

Symmetry,

Syria, wild ass of, 309

TAIL, 26, 34, 204, 260
kink in, 260
of ass, 304

Tail, ploughing by, 7 1

Taking off at leap, 125, 131

Tangri, 287

Tapir, 329, 336, 338

Tarpans, 301

Tasmanian horses, 279

Teams, 273

Tear gland, 325

Teats of male ass, 305

Teen Kwang, 149, 288

Teeth of horse, 329, 338

Temperature, internal, 256

Temples, 19

Tendo Achillis, 25, 40

Tendons, 11-15

back, 22, 38, 40, 116
Tertiary period, 319
Thigh, 25, 234

second, 40
Thoroughbreds, action of shoulders of,

250

as trotters, 251

,, bones and muscles of,

10, 13

,, Colonial, 265

colours of, 242

distribution of weight

in, 49

for jumping, 141

,, heredity in, 266

,, in Australia, 265, 279

pasterns of, 223

points of buttock of,

2 33

points of hips of, 202

roaring in, 223

sore shins in, 7

swinging tail when

walking, 205

INDEX.

377

Thorough-pins, 138
Throat, 185
Thumb, 303, 332
Tibia, 32, 234
Tidal air, 47
Tiger, gallop of, 128
Timber jumping, 134
Time of a pace, 96
Tim Whiffler, 62
Tips for racehorses, 252
Tissues, 1 6

nutrition of, 41
Toe-pieces, 72, 73, 74, 214
Toed animals, odd, 332
Toes. See " Digits."
Topped, heavily, 10
Traces, direction of the, 74
Tramway horses, 153
Trans-Indus horses, 287
Transvaal, 281, 313
Trapezium, 31, 218
Tripping, 207

" Tripple," 100

Tristan, 27, 168

Trooper, 153, 274, 281, 284

Tropics, photographing in the, 344

Trot, the, 67, 96
action in the, 251
delineation of the, 354
jumping from the, 132

Trotter, the, 2, 83, 215, 251, 252, 273,
278

Trunk, the, 186

Tsetse fly, 313

Turkish Flag, 283

Turkistan, wild ass of, 309

Turning, carriage of head when, 86

Turnips, 194

Two-year olds, 13

ULNA, 31
Undercut, 65
Unguligrade, 32, 328

VAAL RIVER, 311, 316
Veins, 41
Vertebrae, 30

muscles of the, 64
Virgil, 280
Vitality, 42

WALK, 67, 102

action in the, 250

delineation of the, 354

Walkers, 66

Walking, man, 57

Wall of hoof, 23

Ward, Mr. James, 355

Washing horses' feet, 244

Water jumping, 134

Water-lily, 159, 278
mark, 256, 257
on horn, effect of, 227

Watson, Mr. John, 284

Weeds, i, 151, 191, 267, 277, 297

Weight-carrying power, 192, 210, 262
of horse in draught, 72, 73
in body, distribution of, 49
on limbs, comparative, 49

Well ribbed up, 190-192, 202

Welsh ponies, 278

What's Wanted, 242

Wheel-barrow, leverage in, 5 2

Wheel without felloes, 124
Wheels, drawing, 355
White, 244

fibrous tissue, 33
Whole, working from part to a, 147
Width between legs, 65

2 C

378

INDEX.

Wild horses, 301
Oat, The, 282

"Wind," 179

Wind-galls, 207

Wisdom, 284

Withers, 21, 30, 37, 194
height at, 74
leanness of, 196
low at, 196

Wolf, 338, 340

Wood pavement, 73,186, 214

Wrestlers, conformation of, 3

Wrist, 32

Wuzeerees, 175

YARKUNDI PONIES, 149, 288

Yattendon, 280

Yellow ligaments, 33

Yokohama, 290

Yorkshire carriage horses, 278

Youatt, 1 88

ZEBRA, breaking in a Burchell's, 313
Burchell's, 201, 312, 315, 334,

336

Chapman's, 314

Gravy's, 3i4~3 l6

Mountain, 304, 308, 310-312

ridden by lady, i8r, 182, 311

Somali-land,3i4-3i6
Zephyr, 297
Zezo, 290

( 379 )

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

THE following are the chief books which have been written on the Con-
formation of the Horse, and on Equine Locomotion :

Alix, Eugene. Le Cheval, 1886.

Barroil, Etienne. LArt Eqiiestre, ist Part, 1887.

Borelli. De Motu Animalium, 1680.

Bourgelat. De la Conformation Exterieur du Cheval, 1808.

Carson, J. C. L. The Form of tJie Horse, 1859.

Duhousset, Colonel. Le Cheval, 1881.

Fearnley, W. Lessons in Horse Judging, 1879.

Gayot, Eugene. Achat du Cheval, 1862.

Goubaux et Barrier, MM. L Exterieur du Cheval, 2nd ed., 1890.

Giinther's. Beurtheilungslehre des Pferdes, 1889.

Hofman, L. Das Exterieur des Pferdes, 1887.

Lecoq, F. Exterieur du Cheval, 1843.

Magne, J. H. Choix du Cheval, 1864.

Marey, Professor. La Machine Animale, 1873.

Merche. Nouveau traite des formes exterieurs du Cheval, 1868.

Montigny, Comte de. Comment ilfaut choisir un Cheval, 1885.

Morris, General. Essai sur I' Exterieur du Cheval.

Miiller. Lehre vom Exterieur des Pferdes, 1884.

Muyb ridge, E. Animal Locomotion, 1887.

Percivall, W. Lectures on the Form and Action of the Horse, 1850.

Richard, du Cantal. ILtude du Cheval.

Roloff. Beurtheilungslehre des Pferdes, 1870.

Besides the books just enumerated, many useful remarks on the form
and movements of the horse may be found in the writings of Henri Bouley,
" Stonehenge," Youatt, Lupton, Lenoble du Theil, Barroil, Raabe, Colin,
and Ellenberger; in chapters on the Exterior of the Horse, in Schwarznecker's
Pferdesucht, 1879 ; and in the Handbuch der Pferdekunde, by Born and M oiler,
3rd ed., 1890.

LONDON :
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

A r o. 56.

May, 1893.

A SELECT CATALOGUE OF WORKS,
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VETERINARY
NOTES FOR HORSE-OWNERS,

An Ilhistrated Manual of Horse Medicine and Surgery -,
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BY CAPT. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S.

The
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chief new matter in this edition is articles on Contracted
Donkey's Foot Disease, Forging or Clicking, Rheumatic Joint

Disease, Abscess, Dislo-
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Joint, Inflammation of
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Flatulent Distention of
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"We have seldom come across a brighter book than 'The Horsewoman.'"
The Athenceum.

"A more thorough horsewoman than Mrs. Hayes probably does not exist."
Land and Water.

' ' A most useful and practical book in side-saddle riding, which may be read with
real interest by all lady riders." The Queen.

' ' Mrs. Hayes is perhaps the best authority in these countries on everything
connected with horsemanship for ladies, and her chapters deal with every possible
view of the subject. The style is plain and straightforward without being too
technical, and can be readily understood by an intelligent reader. A number of
graphic illustrations add considerably to the clearness of the instructions."
Freeman's Joiirnal (Dublin).

"The work is the outcome of experiences, aptitudes, and opportunities wholly
exceptional. " Scotsman.

"J'ai lu ou parcouru bien des traite's d'quitation usuelle ou savante ; jamais
encore je n'avais trouv6 un expose aussi clair, aussi simple, aussi vecu que celui ou
Mme. Hayes resume les principes dont une pratique assidue lui a permis
d'apprecier la valeur. Ce tres remarquable manuel d' Equitation feminine est bien,
comme la d&inS son auteur, a la portee de tous et il est a souhaiter qu'il trouve en
France 1'accueil et le succes qu'il a rencontre's des sa publication aupres des horse-
women anglaises. " Le Sport (Paris).

" With a very strong recommendation of this book as far and away the best guide
to side-saddle riding that we have seen." Saturday Review.

Uniform with " Riding," etc. 21 r.

ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING

Capt. M. H. HAYES.

1. Theory of Breaking.

2. Principles of Mounting.

3. Horse Control.

4. Rendering Docile.

5. Giving Good Mouths.

6. Teaching to Jump.

7. Mounting for First Time.

8. Breaking for Ladies'

Riding.

9. Breaking to Harness.

10. Faults of Mouth.

11. Nervousness and Impa-

tience of Control.

12. Jibbing.

13. Jumping Faults.

14. Faults in Harness.

15. Aggressiveness.

1 6. Riding and Driving

Newly-broken Horse.

17. Stable Vices.

1 8. Teaching Circus Tricks.

"The work is eminently prac-
tical and readable." Veteri-
nary Journal,

" Clearly explained in simple,
practical language, made all the
more clear by a set of capital
drawings." Scotsman,

"It is characteristic of all Captain Hayes' books on Horses that they are eminently prac-
tical and the present one is no exception to the rule. A work which is entitled to high praise
as being far and away the best reasoned-out book on Breaking under a new system we have
seen." Field,

WITH FIFTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS BY J. H. OSWALD BROWN.

TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

Foolscap 410, 34.".

THE POINTS OF THE HORSE.

& familiar treatise on iSquine Conformation.
BY CAPT. M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S.

DESCRIBING THE POINTS IN WHICH THE

PERFECTION OF EACH CLASS

OF HORSES CONSISTS.

Illustrated by 76 reproductions of Photographs of Typical Horses,
and 204 Drawings, chiefly by J. H. OSWALD BROWN.

W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON.

THE POINTS OF THE HORSE.

ORMONDE.

XII. Paces of the Horse.
XIII. Leaping.
XIV. Notation of the Paces of

Horses.

XV. Comparative Shape of Horses.
XVI Head and Neck.
XVII. The Trunk.
XVIII. The Fore-Limb.
XIX. The Hind Limb.
XX. Skin, Colour and Hair.
XXI. Proportions of the Horse
Common to all Classes,
Peculiar to Thoroughbreds,
Average Peculiar to Cart
Horses.
XXII. Action, Handiness and Clever -

CONTENTS.
I. First principles of

Conformation.
II. Structures of the Body.
III. Names of External

Parts.
IV. Sketch of the Anatomy

of the Horse.

V. Mechanism of Breath-
ing.

VI. Distribution of Weight.
VII. Levers.
VIII. Mechanism of Equine

Locomotion.

IX. Mechanism of draught
X. Attitudes of the Horse.
XL Stationary Movements
of the Horse.

XXIII. Condition'and Good Looks.
XXIV. Weight, Carrying and

Staying Power.
XXV. Blood, Symmetry, and

Compensation.
XXVI. Special Points of Various

Classes of Horses.
XXVII. Remarks on Various Breeds

of Horses.

XX VIII. Examination of our Photo-
graphs of Horses.
XXIX. Wild Horses.

XXX. Asses.
XXXI. Fossil Horses.
XXXII. Proportion of the Horse.
XXXIII. Photographing Horses.
XXXIV. The Painter's Horse.

TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

Crown 8vo. Uniform with "Veterinary Notes." Ss. 6d.

SOUNDNESS AND AGE OF HORSES.

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY ILLUSTRATIONS.

A Complete Guide to all those features which require attention when purchasing

Horses, distinguishing mere defects from the symptoms of unsoundness ; with explicit

instructions how to conduct an examination of the various parts.

BY CAPTAIN M. H. HAYES, F.R.C.V.S.

" Captain Hayes is entitled to much credit for the explicit and sensible manner in which he
has discussed the many questions some of them extremely vexed ones which pertain to
soundness and unsoundness in horses." Veterinary Journal.

" Captain Hayes' work is evidently the result of much careful research, and the horseman,
as well as the veterinarian, will find in it much that is interesting and instructive." Field.

W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON.

In Imperial i6mo. 35. 6d.

MY LEPER FRIENDS,

AN ACCOUNT OF PERSONAL WORK
AMONG LEPERS, AND THEIR DAILY LIFE IN INDIA.

IMIlRS.

WITH

A CHAPTER ON LEPROSY

Surgeon-Major G. G. MACLAREN, M.D.

ILLUSTRATED BY REPRODUCTIONS
OF PHOTOGRAPHS.

" Mrs. Hayes has now published an interest-
ing little book, entitled 'My Leper Friends,'
which contains not only an account of her work
in Calcutta, but many facts in regard to leprosy
in India which deserve to be better known. I
feel no hesitation in recommending the book to
the attention of my readers." Truth.

"The name of Mrs. Hayes is already familiar to readers of the Queen. This
lady has been the Miss Marsden of India, for, like the courageous lady who is now
traversing the Siberian plains in search of leper hospitals, Mrs. Hayes has devoted
her energies with rare unselfishness to the cause of some of the most pitiable
sufferers in the world." The Queen.

' ' This is a book that ought to be widely known. " Spectator.

" Mrs. Hayes is a woman of intense and practical sympathy." Rock,

"Mrs. Hayes writes well and vividly, and there is a note of thorough sincerity in
all she says that lends an additional charm to the work." Home News.

" Despite the necessarily mournful and repulsive subject of the book, the cheerful
and genial spirit in which it is penned, and the native kindliness everywhere visible
in its pages, render it refreshing to read." J\Iorning Advertiser.

"An interesting and most heartrending book. To her Leper Friends Mrs.
Hayes must have been a very angel of light." Ladies Pictorial.

TH ACKER, SPINK & CO,, CALCUTTA.

In Imperial i6mo. Illustrated. 8s. 6d.

INDIAN .

RACING REMINISCENCES:

BEING

ENTERTAINING NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES
OF MEN, HORSES, AND SPORT.

Illustrated with Twenty-Two Portraits and a Number of Smaller Engravings.
BY CAPTAIN M. HORACE HAYES.

" The book is full of racy anecdote, and the author writes so kindly of his brother officers
and the sporting planters with whom he came into contact, that one cannot help admiring
the genial and happy temperament of the author." Bell's Life.

" Captain Hayes shows himself a thorough master of his subject, and has so skilfully
interwoven technicalities, history, and anecdote, that the last page comes all too soon." Field.

Fifth Edition. Revised. Crown 8vo. gs.

TRAINING HORSE MANAGEMENT

IN INDIA.

BY CAPTAIN M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S.

" No better guide could be placed in the hands of either amateur horseman or veterinary
surgeon.' The Veterinary Journal.

"A useful guide in regard to horses anywhere. Concise, practical, and portable."
Saturday Review.

W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON.

In Imperial i6mo. Uniform with " Riding," " Riding for Ladies," " Hindu
Mythology." 125. 6d.

A NATURAL HISTORY

OF THE

MAMMALIA OF INDIA,

BURMAH AND CEYLON.
BY R. A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., ETC.,

AUTHOR OF " SEONEE," "THE DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLE," "THE AFGHAN KNIFE," ETC.

WITH 17O ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS.

The geographical limits
of the present work have
been extended to all terri-
tories likely to be reached
by the sportsman from
India. It is copiously illus-
trated, not only by the
author himself, but by care-
ful selections made by him
from the works of well-
known artists.

' It is the very model of what a popular natural history should be. " Knowledge.

'An amusing work with good illustrations." Nature.

' Full of accurate observation, brightly told." Sattirday Review.

' The results of a close and sympathetic observation." Athenceum.

' It has the brevity which is the soul of wit, and a delicacy of allusion which
charms the literary critic." Academy.

"The notices of each animal are, as a rule, short, though on some of the
larger mammals the lion, tiger, pard, boar, c. ample and interesting details
are given, including occasional anecdotes of adventure. The book will, no
doubt, be specially useful to the sportsman, and, indeed, has been extended so
as to include all territories likely to be reached by the sportsman from India.
Those who desire to obtain some general information, popularly conveyed, on
the subject with which the book deals, will, we believe, find it useful." The
Times.

" Has contrived to hit a happy mean between the stiff scientific treatise and
the bosh of what may be called anecdotal zoology." The Daily News.

TH ACKER, SPINK &> CO., CALCUTTA.

GAME, SHORE,

AND

WATER BIRDS
OF INDIA.

COL. A. LE MESSURIER,

R.E.

121

ILLUSTRATIONS.

A VADE ME-
CUM FOR THE
SPORTSMAN,
EMBRACING ALL THE
BIRDS AT ALL LIKELY TO
BE MET WITH IN A
SHOOTING EXCURSION.

"Compact in form, excellent in
method and arrangement, and, as far
as we have been able to test it, rigidly
accurate. ' ' Knowledge.

"Will be a source of great de-
light, as every ornithological detail is
given, in conjunction with the most
artistic and exquisite drawings."
Home News.

W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON.

" Splendidly Illustrated Record of Sport." Graphic.
Third Edition. Enlarged. Demy 410. 36 Plates and Map. 2 zs.

LARGE GAME SHOOTING

IN THIBET, THE HIMALAYAS, NORTHERN & CENTRAL INDIA.
Bv BRIO.-GENERAL ALEX A. A. KINLOCH.

Reduced size.

" Colonel Kinloch, who has killed most kinds of Indian game, small and
great, relates incidents of his varied sporting experiences in chapters, which are
each descriptive of a different animal. The photo-gravures of the heads of many
of the animals, from the grand gaur, popularly miscalled the bison, downwards,
are extremely clever and spirited." Times.

THACKER* SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

Oblong Imperial 410. i6r.

DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLES:

& Series of &fcetdjeg of TOfltJ Animate,

ILLUSTRATING THEIR FORMS AND NATURAL ATTITUDES.

WITH LETTERPRESS DESCRIPTION OF EACH PLATE.

BY R. A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,

AUTHOR OF " NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA," " SEONEE," ETC.

I. Denizens of the Jungles.
Aborigines Deer Mon-
keys.
II." On the Watch. " Tiger.

III. "Not so fast Asleep as he
Looks. " Panther Mon-
keys.

IV. "Waiting for Father." Black

Bears of the Plains.
V. "Rival Monarchs." Tiger
and Elephant.

VI." Hors de Combat." Indian
Wild Boar and Tiger.

VII. "A Race for Life." Blue
Bull and Wild Dogs.

VIII. "Meaning Mischief," The
Gaur Indian Bison.

IX. "More than His Match."
Buffalo and Rhinoceros.

X. "A Critical Moment."
Spotted Deer and Leo-
pard.

XL "Hard hit." The Sambur.

XII. "Mountain Monarchs."
Marco Polo's Sheep.

"The plates are admirably executed by photo-lithography from the author's
originals, every line and touch being faithfully preserved. It is a volume
which will be eagerly studied on many a table. Mr. Sterndale has many
an amusing and exciting anecdote to add to the general interest of the
work. " Broad Arrow.
"The Volume is well got up and the drawings are spirited

and natural." Illustrated London News.
THE

SPORTSMAN'S MANUAL IN QUEST OF GAME

IN KULLU, IAHOUL, AND LADAK, TO THE TSO MORARI LAKES.

WITH NOTES ON SHOOTING AND A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPORT IN
MORE THAN IOO NALAS. WlTH 9 MAPS. BY LlEUT.-COL. R. H. TYACKE,
LATE H.M.'sgSTH AND 34 REGIMENTS. \R*. 3-8.

IV. THACKER & CO., LONDON.

The Second Edition, Revised, and with additional Illustrations by the Author.
Post 8vo. Ss. 6d.

S E O N E E :

OR,

CAMP LIFE ON THE SATPURA RANGE,

& Caie of Infcian

BY R. A. STERNDALE,

AUTHOR OF "MAMMALIA OF INDIA," "DENIZENS OF THE JUNGLES.

ElIustrateB fcg tfje author.

With, an Appendix containing a brief Topographical and Historical account
of the District of Seonee in the Central Provinces of India,

2 2

LAYS OF IND, By ALIPH CHEEM.

COMIC, SATIRICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE

Poems Ellugtratifce of ^Inglo^ntiian Hife.

ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR, LIONEL INGLIS, R. A. STERNDALE, AND OTHERS.

Ninth Edition. Cloth, gilt. los. 6d.

"This is a remarkably bright little book. ' Aliph Cheem,' supposed to be the
nom de plume of an officer in the i8th Hussars, is, after his fashion, an Indian Bon
Gaultier. In a few of the poems the jokes, turning on local names and customs,
are somewhat esoteric ; but, taken throughout, the verses are characterized by high
animal spirits, great cleverness, and most excellent fooling." The World.

"One can readily imagine the merriment created round the camp fire by the
recitation of 'The Two Thumpers,' which is irresistibly droll . . . The
edition before us is enlarged, and contains illustrations by the author, in addition to
which it is beautifully printed and handsomely got up, all which recommendations
are sure to make the name of Aliph Cheem more popular in India than ever."
Liverpool Mercury.

" Satire of the most amusing and inoffensive kind, humour the most genuine, and
pathos the most touching pervade these ' Lays of Ind. ' . , . From Indian friends
we have heard of the popularity these ' Lays ' have obtained in the land where they
were written, and we predict for them a popularity equally great at home."
Monthly Homoeopathic Review.

W. THACKER & CO., LONDON.

Reviews of " Lays of Ind."

"The ' Lays' are not only Anglo-Indian in origin, but out-and-out Anglo-Indian in
subject and colour. To one who knows something of life at an Indian ' station ' they
will be especially amusing. Their exuberant fun at the same time may well attract the
attention of the ill-defined individual known as ' the general reader.' " Scotsman.

" To many An-
glo-Indians the
lively verses of
'Aliph Cheem'
must be very well
known, while to
those who have not
yet become ac-
quainted with them
we can only say
read them on the
first opportunity.
To those not fa-
miliar with Indian
life they may be
specially com-
mended for the

picture which they give of many of its lighter incidents and conditions, and of
several of its ordinary personages." Bath Chronicle.

Seventh Edition. In square 3277*0. 55.

DEPAKTMENTAL DITTIES AND OTHEK YEESES,

Humorous auto (Character Poems of &nglo=ntuan Hife.
BY RUDYARD KIPLING.

"They reflect with light gaiety the thoughts and feelings of actual men and
women, and are true as well as clever. ... Mr. Kipling achieves the feat of
making Anglo-Indian society flirt and intrigue visibly before our eyes. . . . His
book gives hope of a new literary star of no mean magnitude rising in the East "
SIR W. W. HUNTER, in The Academy.

" As for that terrible, scathing piece, ' The Story of Uriah,' we know of nothing
with which to compare it, and one cannot help the wretched feeling that it is true.

. . ' In Spring Time ' is the most pathetic lament of an exile we know in
modern poetry. " Graphic.

RHYMING LEGENDS OF IND.

By H. K. GRACEY, B.A., C.S. Crown 8vo, 6s.
"A series of lively Stories in Verse." Times.

"Are not only amusing but are lively descripticns of scenery and customs in
Indian Life . . . Cleverly and humorously told. " Weekly Times.

THACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

Fourth Edition, Imperial i6mo. 6s,

BEHIND THE BUNGALOW.

BY EH A,

AUTHOR OF "TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER."

WITH FIFTY-THREE CLEVER SKETCHES

By the Illustrator of "The Tribes."

As "The Tribes on my Frontier" graphically and humorously
described the Animal Surroundings of an Indian Bungalow, the
present work describes with much pleasantry the Human Officials
thereof, with their peculiarities, idiosyncrasies, and, to the European,
strange methods of duty. Each chapter contains Character Sketches
by the Illustrator of "The Tribes," and the work is a "Natural
History" of the Native Tribes who in India render us service.

W. TH ACKER &> CO., LONDON.

"There is plenty of
fun in 'Behind the Bun-
galow,' and more than
fun for those with eyes
to see. These sketches
may have an educational
purpose beyond that of
mere amusement ; they
show through all their
fun a keen observation
oi native character and
a just appreciation of it."
The World.

BEHIND THE BUNGALOW.

By the Author of "TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER."
AND ILLUSTRATED BY THE SAME ARTIST.

"'The Tribes On My Frontier'
was very good : ' Behind the Bunga-
low' is even better. Anglo-Indians will
see how truthful are these sketches.
People who know nothing about India
will delight in the clever drawings
and the truly humorous descrip-
tions ; and, their appetite for fun
being gratified, they will not fail to
note the undercurrent of sympathy."
The Graphic.

"The native members of an Anglo-
Indian household are hit off with great
fidelity and humour." The Queen.

THACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

Fifth Edition. In Imperial i6mo, uniform with " Lays of Ind," " Riding,"
" Hindu Mythology," etc. Ss. 6d.

THE TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER:

&n EnDian Naturalist's Jam^n Policg.

BY EHA.
WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS BY F. C. MACRAE.

^=^==&i^ : -rr^t^E^H^|^' 5EZzr :' : N this remarkably clever

work there are most
graphically and humor-
ously described the sur-
_ \ roundings of a Mofussil

- bungalow. The twenty
chapters embrace a year's experiences, and provide

endless sources of amusement and suggestion. The
>

numerous able illustrations add very greatly to the interest
of the volume, which will find a place on every table.

THE CHAPTERS ARE

I. A Durbar,
n. The Rats.
III. The Mosquitos.
IV. The Lizards.
V The Ants.
VI. The Crows.
VII.- The Bats.

VIII. Bees, "Wasps, et hoc genus omne.
IX. The Spiders.
X. The Butterfly: Hunting Him.

XL The Butterfly : Contemplating Him.
XII The Frogs.
XIII. -The Bugs.
XIV. The Birds of the Garden.
XV. The Birds at the Mango Tope.
XVI. The Birds at the Tank.
XVIL The Poultry Yard.
XVIIL The White Ants.
XIX. The Hypodermatikosyringophoroi.
XX Etcetera.

W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON.

THE TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER,

Fifth Edition. 8s. 6d.

" It is a very clever record of a year's observations round the bungalow in

'Dusty pore.' .... It is by no means a mere travesty The

writer is always amusing, and never dull. " Field.

" The book is cleverly illustrated by Mr. F. C. Macrae. We have only to
thank our Anglo- Indian naturalist for the delightful book which he has sent
home to his countrymen in Britain. May he live to give us another such."
Chambers^ Journal.

" A most charming series of sprightly and entertaining essays on what may

be termed the fauna of the Indian bungalow We have no doubt

that this amusing book will find its way into every Anglo- Indian's library."
Allen s Indian Mail.

"This is a delightful book, irresistibly funny in description and illustration,

but full of genuine science too There is not a dull or unin-

structive page in the whole book." Kn&wledge.

" It is a pleasantly-written book about the insects and other torments of India
which make Anglo-Indian life unpleasant, and which can be read with pleasure
even by those beyond the reach of the torment ing things Ehadescribes. " Graphic.

"The volume is full of accurate and unfamiliar observation."

Saturday Review.

New Work by the same Author,

A NATURALIST ON THE PROWL

By EHA, Author of "THE TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER," "BEHIND THE BUNGALOW."

[In the Press.

THACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

Crown 8vo. 6s.

COW KEEPING IN INDIA,

A simple and practical book on

twct antr treatmmt, %ir bariums bmtra,

AND
THE MEANS OF RENDERING THEM PROFITABLE.

CROWN 8vo.

With Thirty-Nine Illustrations, including the various Breeds of Cattle,
drawn from Photographs by

R. A. S TER N D ALE.

W. TH ACKER &> CO., LONDON.

In Imperial i6mo. Uniform with " Lays of Ind," " Hindu Mythology," etc.
Handsomely bound. los. 6d.

RIDING FOR LADIES.

feints on t&t

BY MRS. POWER O'DONOGHUE.

AUTHOR OF "LADIES ON HORSEBACK," "A BEGGAR ON HORSEBACK," etc.

With 91 Illustrations drawn expressly for the Work by A. Chantrey Corbould.

HIS able and beautiful
volume will form a Stan-
dard on the Subject, and
is one which no lady can
dispense with. The scope
of the work will be under-
stood by the following :

CONTENTS.

I. Ought Children to Ride?
II. " For Mothers & Children. "
in. First Hints to a Learner.
iv. Selecting a Mount.
v., vi. The Lady's Dress.
vn. Bitting, vni. Saddling.
ix. How to Sit, Canter, &c.
x. Reins, Voice, and Whip.
xi. Riding on the Road.
xn. Paces, Vices, and Faults.
xni. A Lesson in Leaping.
xiv. Managing Refusers.
xv. Falling.

xvi. Hunting Outfit Considered.
xx. Shoeing. xxi. Feeding.
xxn. Stabling, xxni. Doctoring.
xxiv. Breeding. XXV. "Tips."

xvn. Economy in Riding Dress,
xvin. Hacks and Hunters.
XIX. In the Hunting Field.

" When there may arise differences of opinion as to some of the suggestions con-
tained in this volume, the reader, especially if a woman, may feel assured she will
not go far astray in accepting what is said by one of her own sex, who has the dis-
tinction of three times beating the Empress of Austria in the hunting field, from
whom she ' took the brush. ' ' Riding for Ladies ' is certain to become a classic.

New York Sportsman.

TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

SECOND EDITION.
In One Volume, 8vo. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 25^.

A Text Book of Medical Jurisprudence for India.

BY I. B. LYOIM, C.I.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.,

Brigade-Surgeon, Bombay Medical Service; Chemical Analyst to
Government; Professor of Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence,
Grant Medical College, Bombay; Fellow of the University of

Bombay.

Revised as to the legal matter by
J. D. INVERARITY,

Of the Inner Tern pie, Barrister-at-Law and
Advocate of the High Court, Bombay.

" An admirable exposition of the science
generally, but its special value lies in the
fact that it has been written for the pur-
pose of guidance for medical men in
India, The subject matter has been
arranged with great care, the classifica-
tions of poisons being especially worthy of
notice." Lancet.

"Will be absolutely indispensable to
every member of the two professions in
India, while the student will find in it
everything he needs. We may congratu-
late Dr. Lyon on his admirable system of
arrangement and the lucidity and simpli-
city of his style. His book is to the lay-
man eminently readable, and probably no
better book of reference has ever been
prepared for professional men in India."
Times of India.

"The special feature of Dr. Lyon's
book is that Indian Law and Indian
Practice are in each case contrasted with
the Law and Practice in England, and
the most conscientious care is expended
in making the book absolutely exhaustive
as a manual for Indian purposes. The
work is a monument of industry and re-
search." Home News.

Enlarged.

W. TH ACKER & CO., LONDON.

New Edition, Demy 8vo, with all Original Illustrations, fis. 7-8.

THE HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL INDIA.

ant jjprt.

NOTES ON THEIR

attir JBUlr rtto t Natural

BY CAPT. J. FORSYTH, BENGAL STAFF CORPS.

WITH

ILLUSTRATIONS BY R. A. STERNDALE, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.

In Demy folio, Thirty-nine Plates, Natural Size. 25*.
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE

GRASSES OF THE SOUTHERN PUNJAB.

BEING

$j)oto=3Litf)o0;rapf)0 of some of tfje rasses fount) at
2Bc0criptibe iLcttrcpregg.

BY WILLIAM COLDSTREAM, B.A., B.C.S,

TH ACKER, SPINK'& CO., CALCUTTA.

Uniform with " Lays of Ind," " Riding," etc. los. 6d.

HINDU !

MYTHOLOGY:

VEDIC AND PURANIC.

REV. W. J. WILKINS,

OF THE LONDON MISSIONARY
SOCIETY, CALCUTTA.

Illustrated by One Hundred Engravings
chiefly from Drawings by Native Artists.

REVIEWS.

" His aim has been to give a faithful account of the Hindu deities such as an
intelligent native would himself give, and he has endeavoured, in order to achieve
his purpose, to keep his mind free from prejudice or theological bias. To help to
completeness he has included a number of drawings of the principal deities, executed
by native artists. The author has attempted a work of no little ambition and has
succeeded in his attempt, the volume being one of great interest and usefulness ;
and not the less so because he has strictly refrained from diluting his facts with
comments of his own. It has numerous illustrations." Home News.

" Mr. Wilkins has done his work well, with an honest desire to state facts apart
from all theological prepossession, and his volume is likely to be a useful book of
reference. ' ' Guardian.

4 ' In Mr. Wilkins' book we have an illustrated manual, the study of which will lay
a solid foundation for more advanced knowledge, while it will furnish those who
may have the desire without having the time or opportunity to go further into the
subject, with a really extensive stock of accurate information." Indian Daily News.

TH ACKER, SPINK & CO., CALCUTTA.

In Post 8vo, uniform with " Sconce. " 8s. 6d.

A NEW AND ILLUSTRATED EDITION

ECHOES FROM OLD CALCUTTA.

DR. H. E. BUSTEED, M.D., C.I.E.

"We hear that Dr. H. E. BUSTEED, whose charming little book on 'Old Calcutta'
commanded a deserved popularity among Indian readers, is now engaged in his re-
tirement at home in bringing out a new edition, which will be much amplified, and
illustrated by portraits of ladies and gentlemen of the settlement who were local
celebrities a century ago. Dr. BUSTEED has devoted himself to research with
indefatigable industry, and fortunately his literary style is as graceful and entertain-
ing as his knowledge is profound and accurate." Calcutta Englishman.

" It is a pleasure to reiterate the warm commendation of this instructive and lively
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lamentable if a book so fraught with interest to all Englishmen should be restricted
to Anglo-Indian circles. A fresh instalment of letters from Warren Hastings to his
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Saturday Review.

" Dr. Busteed has unearthed some astonishing revelations of what European Life in
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the sufferings undergone by our countrymen and countrywomen." Daily Telegraph.

CHAPTERS :

I. THE BLACK HOLE. THE CAPTURE OF CALCUTTA.
II. THE BLACK HOLE. THE IMPRISONMENT.
III. PHILIP FRANCIS AND HIS TIMES i. ARRIVAL IN CALCUTTA.
IV. ,, 2. NUNCOMAR.

V. ,, 3. DUEL BETWEEN FRANCIS AND HASTINGS.

VI. ,, 4. HOME AND SOCIAL LIFE.

VII. THE FIRST INDIAN NEWSPAPER. VIII. MADAME GRAND.
IX. LETTERS FROM WARREN HASTINGS TO HIS WIFE.
X. LETTERS FROM MRS. HASTINGS. XI. AN OLD CALCUTTA GRAVE.

QQS
[^

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A TEA PLANTER'S LIFE IN ASSAM.

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Thacker's Guide Books, various. ... ... 38

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