The poison war

THE POISON WAR

THE SOUL OF THE WAR

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LONDON: WILLIAM HKINEMANN

THE POISON WAR

BY

A. A. ROBERTS

MEMBER OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF FRANCS
MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

LONDON

WILLIAM HEINEMANN

London, William Hcinemann, 1916

CONTENTS

ARTICLE I

Asphyxiation in warfare : Nitric-peroxide : The Hague Con-
vention error : American views : Torture in warfare :
The German offence summarized : The French " 75 "
shell in comparison with the German "77" : The land
poison gas machine : Carbon-monoxide : Chlorin and
bromin : Sulphur dioxide : The naval poison-gas machine :
Blowing up the enemy : Restoring the asphyxiated :
The pulmotor : The oxygen helmet : Hand-grenades
and bombs 13

ARTICLE II

The Allied troops being systematically poisoned by the
Germans in a manner publicly unknown : The Hague
Convention and usage of poison in warfare : The Romans
and the Germans : Cases of the poisoning : Its subtle
method of administration 49

ARTICLE III

The German long-range poison : Its history : Nature

and effect 09

ARTICLE IV

Baron de Bieberstein on automatic contact mines : Gun-
cotton, its history and composition : T.N.T. : German
" Triplastik " : Cordite and naval disasters : Tolite :
Cresylite : Melinite : Lyddite : Picric acid : The Turpin
explosives : Mining explosives in warfare 83

5

334070

6 CONTENTS

ARTICLE V

Liquid-fire sprays : Incendiary bombs : Shells and pastilles :

Their history and composition : Zeppelin bombs : Thermit 103

ARTICLE VI

The German high-explosive and shrapnel shell combined :
The casualties of war : Percentage of mortality amongst
officers : Historical tables : Percentage of losses in
battle from 1704 to 1870 : Ratio of killed to wounded
in wars, 1864 to 1904 : The Balkan War : Increase of
bayonet wounds 118

APPENDICES

I. Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War

on Land 127

II. Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land 129

III. Respecting Asphyxiating Gases 131

IV. Convention (No. 8) Relative to the Laying of Auto-

matic Submarine Contact Mines 134

V. Sir J. Pauncefote to the Marquess of Salisbury 140

VI. Memorandum from Sir J. Fisher to the Marquess of
Salisbury, July 20, 1899, upon the Question of
Asphyxiating Gases 142

BIBLIOGRAPHY 144

LIST OF PLATES

TO. PAG»

1. THE EXPLOSIVE POISON TUBE OF A GERMAN " 77 "

SHELL 12

2. THE GERMAN POISON-GAS MACHINE 25

3. THE GERMAN NAVAL POISON- GAS MACHINE 35

4. THE PULMOTOR 41

•fA'\ THE OXYGEN HELMET 42, 43

4B.J

5. APPARATUS FOR THROWING A GRENADE FROM

A RIFLE INSTEAD OF BY HAND 47

6. THE SHRAPNEL BULLET POISON-BOX 63
7.1 THE GERMAN SHRAPNEL BULLET AND THE

8.J POISONED BULLET 64

9. THE GERMAN " LIQUID-FIRE " SPRAY 104

10. THE GERMAN HIGH EXPLOSIVE AND SHRAPNEL
SHELL COMBINED

INTRODUCTION

THIS book (with the exception of a few up-to-
date additions) was written in March last.
Publication having been delayed, in order to
ascertain, according to the march of events,
the advisability of including other matter, and
it being my honest intention to exclude all
information which could be of the slightest
possible service to our enemies, the particulars
referred to are not mentioned. The remarks
upon scientific subjects affecting the war are
merely intended to save the public continual
reference to technical works, sometimes not
easy of access. There is nothing so wholesome
as the light of day. The perfidious dual role
played by Germany for years past, during inter-
national discussions upon the customs of civilized
warfare, will be better appreciated if I say that
the bulk of the Teutonic poison shells recently
recovered by the French bear the date "1911,"
(see p. 65) and that the poison-gas asphyxiating
apparatus (see Figs. 2 and 3, pp. 25 and 35)
was under German military consideration in the
year 1909. The date of the last Hague Confer-
ence was 1907. It will be gathered from the
Appendices hereto, that the United Kingdom
only consented to the non-usage of asphyxiating
gases in warfare, provided the abstention was

10 INTRODUCTION

maintained by any aggressive State. Should a
belligerent resort to such practices to our dis-
advantage, this country claimed similar right
by way of retaliation. Lord Kitchener has now
announced Great Britain's intention to adopt
such protective measures as may be deemed
necessary to effect reprisal. In its strict sense,
the latter term indicates the retortion upon an
enemy for an act of breach of faith, by the inflic-
tion upon such enemy of suffering. Scipio has
taught us that such infliction should be upon
those bearing arms. It does not, however,
follow that the British War Department, adopt-
ing asphyxiating gases, will make usage of the
same methods of torture in warfare as those
employed by the Germans.

I am indebted to eminent French experts,
named herein, for information which they kindly
furnished — and to the authors of technical works,
a list of which will be found in the Bibliography
at the conclusion.

A. A. Ri
LONDON,

May 20, 1915.

PRO GLORIA ET PATRIA

Tolite ex-
plosive — *

Poison.

Horizontal
* — section.

FIG. 1. The tolite (explosive) tube, contained in a " 77 " cm.
German, common shell. In the centre is the poison. (See
p. 64.)

The guns are emblazoned with arms surmounted with
the words PRO GLORIA £T PATRIA. (See p. 66.)

ARTICLE I

ASPHYXIATION IN WARFARE : NITRIC-PER-
OXIDE ; THE HAGUE CONVENTION ERROR :
AMERICAN VIEWS : TORTURE IN WARFARE :
THE GERMAN OFFENCE SUMMARIZED : THE
FRENCH "75" SHELL IN COMPARISON WITH
THE GERMAN "77" : THE LAND POISON-GAS
MACHINE : CARBON-MONOXIDE : CHLORIN AND
BROMIN : SULPHUR DIOXIDE : THE NAVAL
POISON-GAS MACHINE : BLOWING UP THE
ENEMY : RESTORING THE ASPHYXIATED : THE
PULMOTOR : THE OXYGEN HELMET : HAND-
GRENADES AND BOMBS

THE glory of victory cannot be adequately
attained by our adversary with the systematic
poisoning of the troops as described in Article II,
for he is now officially credited with the asphyxia-
tion of the Allied Forces. Given that it has fallen
to our lot to submit to such savagery, let it be
known that — in so far as the present appliances
are concerned — asphyxiation, if painlessly con-
ducted, is to be preferred to the insidious poison-
ing by long-range gun fire, such as is hereinafter
detailed. Poisoned shell fragments and bullets
can be fired at long range and find a billet, but
it remains to be seen whether the adaptation
by the Teutons of ancient methods to modern
warfare has yet advanced to such a stage that
poison gases, conveyed by hand-grenades and by
such apparatus as the enemy is now employing,

13

14 THE POISON WAR

may prove really effective in any other than
trench warfare. It is nothing but the close
proximity of the adversaries in fighting which
has led to the introduction by the Germans of
so many weapons long lost in oblivion. Cer-
tainly the instruments and plant, of which I
give details, are only those with which the
Germans were experimenting years ago, and their
non-effectiveness at long range and dependence
upon atmospheric conditions is as well known
to the enemy as to our own commanders. Also
one has to take into consideration the ready
means of combating the toxic power of any
such agent utilized ; whether it be chlorin,
bromin, nitric-peroxide, or carbon-monoxide,
the same remark fully applies.

Months ago I drew public attention to the
probable usage by the enemy of asphyxiating
projectiles. These conclusions I arrived at
mainly as the result of observations in the
Balkans during the late war.

Speculation has recently been rife as to what
might be the particular nature of the toxic
means employed. The fact, however, seems
to have been overlooked that the Germans are
not making use of one particular gas, but of at
least three. These they naturally employ accord-
ing to the military exigencies of the moment
and the amount of their supplies obtainable.
For instance, it is clear that the gas used recently
is not of the same nature as that which the

ASPHYXIATION IN WARFARE 15

French formerly experienced. These circum-
stances may possibly account for the divergence
of views expressed by our scientists. I said,
on April 25, in the Observer that the Germans
had already made use of carbon-monoxide and
nitric-peroxide, and in the Pall Mall Gazette
of April 27 that the effect of the carbon-mon-
oxide would be action upon the haemoglobin*
of the blood, and that " the blood of a person
inhaling it will gradually become more and more
inactive. As to antidotes, better than cure is
prevention, and in order to prevent the advance
of troops into a suspectedly poisoned area the
simple expedient of setting free small birds
cannot fail to be effective. I have noticed that
of this gas 0-25 per cent, affects a bird in 51
seconds, but this percentage would not suffice
to kill troops on sudden exposure. The same
may be applicable to some other gases capable
of usage in warfare.

" A German chemist in the Balkans, during
the last war informed me there that he had
assisted in the discovery of a method by which
carbon-monoxide could be successfully utilized
in warfare at close quarters, notwithstanding
the slight density difference."

Continuing in the same communication, I
said in relation to nitric-peroxide that " it will
be easily perceptible by its distinct odour. The
disadvantage, apart from chemical reasons, in

* The colouring matter of the red blood-corpuscles.

16 THE POISON WAR

its employment will be the delay in the appear-
ance of symptoms.

44 Troops may notice nitrous fumes and re-
cover, retiring visibly little affected, only to
succumb subsequently to convulsions or pneu-
monia. Inhalation of oxygen is the antidote.
In the case of nitrous fumes a violent fit of
coughing will probably be set up, followed by
the most acute form of broncho-pneumonia."

It is noteworthy that a renowned expert upon
this topic, Monsieur Eugene Turpin, was inter-
viewed on or about April 20 last. The Special
Correspondent of the Daily Mail wired the
result of the interview, and the message was
published in that paper on April 29. In effect,
M. Turpin said that the Germans had made use
of nitric- per oxide — this view being borne out
by eminent French experts who had visited
various scenes of battle. In M. Turpin's opinion
the ready remedy was to be found in the usage
of ammonia by the troops.

In view of the official report set forth by
Dr. Haldane and published by the Press Bureau
on April 29, I have no reason to retract the
statements I made prior to that date. The
toxicological effect of chlorin and bromin may
be briefly described for the purposes of explana-
tion as being the same as that of the other gases
mentioned.

Official Report. The Secretary of State for
War reported on April 29 that Dr. Haldane had

NITRIC-PEROXIDE 17

written, " These men were lying struggling for
breath. . . . One of them died shortly after our
arrival. A post-mortem examination was con-
ducted in our presence by Lieutenant McNee,
a pathologist by profession, of Glasgow Univer-
sity. The examination showed that death was
due to acute bronchitis and its secondary effects.
There was no doubt that the bronchitis and
accompanying slow asphyxiation were due to
the irritant gas."

The resourceful Canadians appear to have
found relief from the noxious fumes by the usage
of handkerchiefs soaked in the liquid contents
of bottles of pickles. This recalls the conduct
of the troops in the Boer and Balkan Wars.
The Boers professed to scorn our lyddite gas, pro-
vided they had a sufficiency of vinegar at hand.

Nitric-Peroxide. There are five oxides or
derivatives of nitrogen, amongst these being
nitrous oxide, known as " laughing gas," and
prepared from nitrate of ammonium ; and nitro-
gen peroxide, prepared by several methods, as
from nitrate of lead. The " laughing gas,"
owing to its properties of anaesthesia, is much
utilized for dental and other minor operations.
When inhaled in a dilute measure it produces
a form of intoxication. Nitric-peroxide is a
poisonous volatile liquid giving off irritant fumes
of a brownish colour. It causes a remarkable
condition of asphyxiation, which may or may
not be temporary. The trouble is that the real

18 THE POISON WAR

effects of nitric-peroxide may only become ap-
parent some hours after inhalation. Cases have
many times been recorded of men who having
inhaled the fumes were deemed to have almost
recovered from the effects. Nevertheless they
succumbed that night, or in some cases upon
the following day.

Seeing that both carbon-monoxide and nitro-
gen-peroxide are liberated upon the explosion
of the ordinary projectiles of modern warfare,
in use by all the Powers engaged in the present
struggle, the German Press thinks to mislead
the world by the publication of official and semi-
official excuses, setting forth that the gases of
which they are making usage " are no worse
than those employed in the Russian, French,
and English shells."

" Frankfurter Zeitung." The Frankfurter Zei-
tung states that " the reports of Joffre and
French unite in complaining about the use of
bombs filled with asphyxiating gas — Field-
Marshal French even takes occasion to quote
The Hague Convention — and both commanders
ascribe the retreat of their troops to the infec-
tion of the air in the region of their fighting
lines. It is quite possible that our bombs and
shells made it impossible for the enemy troops
to remain in their trenches and artillery posi-
tions."

Hague Convention. In the Appendices hereto
will be found the clauses of The Hague Conven-

HAGUE CONVENTION ERROR 19

tion Declaration affecting this vexed question.
In reality the one and only object of the German
Press campaign is to endeavour to convince
neutrals that they do not employ projectiles,
the SOLE OBJECTIVE of which is asphyxiation,
and that they do not employ poisonous missiles
in their artillery.

Error in the Text. Germany is well aware
of the clerical error in the official translation
of the Declaration, which was made originally
in French. , As I pointed out, in the Observer,
the translation of the French text should have
read : " Sole object of which is the diffusion of
asphyxiating or deleterious gases," the words of
the official document being " qui ont pour but
UNIQUE." The English text reads, " THE OBJECT
of which is the diffusion," &c. The translation
of the all-important word " unique " has been
accidentally omitted (see Appendix III, p. 131),
and this furnishes the Germans with an excuse
to act as they do act.

The painless asphyxiation of troops can hardly
be said to constitute any greater crime against
humanitarian laws than the blowing to pieces
of soldiers in warfare. Therefore, at the most,
Germany desires to figure before the world merely
as having violated that which in Teutonic eyes
is just a " scrap of paper." In effect, the German
Press arguments imply the following reason-
ing : " You signed, and we signed, but prior to
such signature your delegates stated that they

20 THE POISON WAR

declined abstention unless the observance was
unanimously maintained. Now we find it no
longer necessary to observe these clauses, and
you will therefore be equally at liberty." * Con-
siderable emphasis has also been placed by Ger-
many upon the remarks of the American naval
delegate when objecting to become a party to
the Declaration. Captain Mahan, after having
set forth other objections, stated " that he
considered the use of asphyxiating shell far
less inhuman and cruel than the employment
of submarine boats, and as the employment of
submarine boats had not been interdicted by
the Conference (though specially mentioned with
that object in the Mouravieff Circular) he felt
constrained to maintain his vote in favour of
the use of asphyxiating shell on the original
ground that the United States Government was
averse to placing any restriction on the inventive
genius of its citizens in inventing and providing
new weapons of war."

As a matter of fact, the world's leading jurists
have differed materially in opinion as to whether
or no, in view of the altered circumstances of
modern warfare, painless asphyxiation is justi-
fiable. Now just as the word " UNIQUE " or
" SOLE " plays the all-important role in this
matter, so is there much dependent upon the

* It was agreed, however, that one year's notice should be
given of any intention to denounce the Declaration (see Ap-
pendix III, p. 131).

TORTURE IN WARFARE 21

word " painless " (which the German Press
deletes with the utmost care from its criticisms).
For with the introduction of painful methods of
suffocation, such as those officially described
as resulting from the German bombs and gases,
we find ourselves face to face with an enemy,
resorting not merely to asphyxiation as a means
of defence and offence, but TORTURE IN WARFARE.

Torture in Warfare. In so far as contraven-
tion of the " scrap of paper " is concerned this
constitutes a direct infringement of Article 23 (E)
of the Regulations of The Hague Convention
(see Appendix I, p. 127), but that is by no means
all. Long before the existence of The Hague
Convention — in fact, from time immemorial —
torture in warfare has been condemned.

Grotius, practically the founder of modern
international law, in his great work, " De Jure
Belli ac Pacis," 1625, quotes many instances
in support of these contentions. De Vattel
(1758), referring to such abominations, says,
" He who makes use of such methods is not
innocent before God and his conscience. The
Sovereign practising such execrable means should
be accounted the enemy of mankind, and the
common safety calls on all nations to unite against
him and join their forces to punish him." Further
historical references to this issue will be found
in Article II, dealing with the systematic
poisoning of our troops, as practised by the
Germans.

22 THE POISON WAR

Asphyxiation : to what extent justified. In order
to arrive at safe conclusions, it is necessary that
the public should clearly comprehend what con-
stitutes justifiable or unavoidable asphyxiation
in modern warfare. Asphyxiation, in a general
sense, means suffocation. That caused by carbon-
monoxide is known as asphyxia carbonica. An
inevitable consequence to the advance of science,
as applied to modern explosives, is the occasional
production of asphyxia, or semi-asphyxia. This
may be briefly ascribed to five reasons, viz. :
(i) The initial velocity of a projectile.

(ii) The rapidity of shell fire.

(iii) Ricochetting power prior to explosion.

(iv) The bursting height of a shell.

(v) Chemical constituents of the modern
artillery shell.

Now German officers in the present war, and
the German newspapers, have frequently stated
that the French employ in their " 75 " shell an
explosive " the objective of which is asphyxia-
tion." " Ce n'est pas un canon de guerre que
vous possedez, c'est un canon de boucherie,"
explained a German military critic to a French
officer.

The "75" Shell. The French "75" shell
does not owe its properties of asphyxiation to
the materials employed any more than shells
universally used in warfare. The " 75 " common
shell,? which weighs about 11 Ib. and has an
initial ^velocity of about 529 metres, is filled

THE " 77 " SHELL 23

with melinite, to which there is an addition of
cresylite (see p. 94). Cresylite does not mate-
rially alter the explosive properties. It is chiefly
employed to facilitate the pouring of molten
melinite into its receptacle. Generally, these
shells contain 60 parts of cresylite to 40 of
melinite. Upon explosion, a heavy black smoke
is given off, and the shells have been known
to cause destruction within a radius of 21 yards
of the bursting point. They are known to
French artillerists as " L'OBUS JAUNE " (the
yellow shell).

The " 75 " shrapnel shell, weighing about
15| lb., is made of three different kinds, known
as " 97," " 96A," and " 97M." But beyond the
facilitation of observance in bursting there is
little of importance as between the three varieties.
As a filling for shrapnel " 75 " shells, the poudre
B, or smokeless powder, is used.

From the foregoing particulars it may be
assumed that the German Press statements have
no foundation in fact.

The German "77" compared. One only needs
to study the rapidity of fire, initial velocity, and
manner of bursting of these French projectiles,
as compared with those of the analogous German
" 77," to arrive at the reason of the German
discord.

The French " 75 " gun is capable of firing 25
rounds per minute, against only 10 rounds of the
German " 77." The initial velocity of the " 75 "

24 THE POISON WAR

shell will be 529 metres, as compared with only
465 metres, under similar conditions, of the
German "77," but the weight of the German
common shell is about the same as that of the
French. Upon bursting, however, there is a
difference of about 10 yards, in the extent of the
danger zone of the French shell, in excess of the
German. The manner of bursting, in the case
of the " 75," is totally different from that of the
German shell, as the former strikes the ground,
or other obstacle, prior to explosion, and bursts
directly before its objective. These brief com-
parisons are quite sufficient to show that :

(a) The French gun conforms to the rules of the
" prize ring."

(b) That there is nothing unlawful in the effect
of the projectiles.

Now as to the so-called asphyxiation, an out-
come of modern artillery fire in general, very
little was known of this subject until the Balkan
War. During that campaign several specialists
devoted themselves to the study of this remark-
able phenomena, and I had the opportunity of
frequent conversation with some of them. Pro-
fessor Laurent describes the symptoms as those
of cerebro-medullary shock, which is now termed
" shell shock." It may be only slight or it may
be severe. To quote Laurent : " When of a
graver kind it causes arrest of functions ; the
wounded man falls into torpor, becomes inert as
if absolutely crushed, and all four limbs and the

THE "77" SHELL

25

26 THE POISON WAR

sphincters are paralysed." These symptoms he
noticed in troops at a distance up to about 15
yards from the bursting point. They may be
briefly ascribed as in no way due to poisoning,
but to the " gas and wind " effect of the shell —
its initial velocity, and the rapidity with which
the projectile is fired.

It is to be noted, however, that in the siege
of Liege, if not since, the Germans made use of
shells of large calibre containing great quantities
of sulphur.

The Poison-Gas Apparatus. In 1909 the Kaiser's
delegates having suitably delivered themselves
of various avowals as to their country's deci-
sion only to carry on warfare by humane
methods, the military department was busy in the
study of the best means available for the usage
of poisonous and asphyxiating gases. Accord-
ingly the apparatus (Fig. 2, p. 25) was made
the subject of experiment, and this diabolical
instrument has been adopted, in various forms
in accordance with the poison produced, as a
recognized weapon of civilized warfare by our
adversary. When used for certain poison gases,
it consists of a drum with a gas cylinder attached
by means of a tube. There is a closable orifice
in the drum or reservoir through which liquid
fuel is inserted. To the liquid fuel is added the
substance required for generation of the poisonous
gas. A cock, mounted on the drum's upper cover
at the end of the tube connecting the cylinder,

THE POISON-GAS APPARATUS 27

controls the supply of the liquid or gas under
pressure, which is used to expel, with force,
the poison mixture.

Sulphur was the substance first tried, producing
sulphur dioxide. The German experts stated
that in their opinion

" this gas acts as an irritant on the lungs
and eyes, and is thus adapted to incapaci-
tate the enemy, but it is not poisonous, so
that its employment in warfare is not
contrary to International Law."

Near the bottom of the drum there is another
cock joined to a long pipe, or hose, which may
be carried underground by means of a tunnel or
over the ground surface as near as possible to
the trenches. The mixture, liberated by the
opening of the cock, is forced from the drum
through the pipe at a pressure capable of carrying
it, under favourable conditions, a considerable
distance, in the form of poison gas, ignition
having taken place by means of an inflammable
liquid contained in a small receptacle near the
nozzle at the end of the tube. Various ignition
devices are employed, according to the length of
the tube and whether it is underground or
otherwise.

Carbon-Monoxide. Reverting to the subject of
carbon-monoxide, this is a colourless, tasteless
gas, almost without odour, burning with a blue
flame. It is produced by a number of methods,

28 THE POISON WAR

as by the burning of charcoal (carbon) with a
deficiency of atmospheric supply, and by the
generation of the gas in the course of manufacture
of acetone, also in the Leblanc soda process.

Cases of poisoning by this gas are of very
frequent occurrence. In France a popular method
of suicide is by inhalation of the fumes of charcoal.
Inhalation causes paralysis, eventually, of the
respiratory organs.

French and German literature contain many
records of the remarkable effects produced by this
poison. Poelchen cites the case of a woman
who lived unconscious for two days after inhala-
tion, but who made such a rapid recovery as to
enable her " to resume work in seven days."
She, however, suffered " aphasia," that is to say
loss of speech. Three weeks later mental trouble
developed, she became weak-minded, her articu-
lation gradually became more and more difficult
until she could no longer speak at all, and soon
after she died.

A French writer of the present day ascribes
some of the phenomenal cases of loss of memory,
subsequent to shell fire amongst troops in the
present war, to the known fact that carbon-
monoxide is given off by bursting artillery shells.
In 1887 Cacarrie published his " Essai sur les
Amnesics Toxiques," giving examples of loss of
memory resulting from exposure to this gas ; and
since that date the subject has been treated by
several French authorities.

CHLORIN 29

Ordinary, illuminating coal gas contains from
4 to 12 per cent, of carbon- monoxide, and
the escape of the latter has frequently led to
asphyxiation at gasworks.

The use of " geysers," in recent years, for
heating bath water, has led to many cases of
carbon- monoxide poisoning in England, and a
far greater percentage on the Continent. The
causes appear to be twofold, viz. want of ventila-
tion in the bathroom, and defective geysers.

Chlorin. Chlorin derives its name from the
Greek word meaning " green." It is a yellowish-
green gaseous element, an irritant poison, with
a highly suffocating odour, and being more than
twice as heavy as air, if propelled by such an
apparatus as that indicated, it would travel
along the ground for a considerable distance.
Chlorin was first made by Scheele in 1774, who
termed it " dephlogisticated * marine air." In
1810 Davy confirmed the supposition that chlorin
was purely an elementary body, and gave it the
present name. Chlorin gas reduced to a liquid,
under pressure at a very low temperature, is
carried by the Germans, in strong steel cylinders,
with stop-cocks, ready for use. To distribute
the gas, in these cases, the stop-cock is attached
by a nozzle to the tube apparatus (see p. 26).
The removal of the pressure drives the liquid
through the tube, and upon contact with the air,
it becomes reconverted into gas — which is driven

* Deprived of inflammability.

30 THE POISON WAR

by the pressure along the ground, and rolls into
cavities or trenches.

" Halogen " indicates birth from salt, and
chlorin is a member of the Halogen group, the
remaining elements, there are altogether only
four, being fluorin, bromin, and iodin. All are
poisonous. Chlorin exists very largely in the
deposits of Galicia, and also in the salt of
Cheshire. The latter deposits are, however,
dwarfed by those existing near Stassfiirt in
Germany, which, since the year 1879, have been
under the control of a powerful German banking
syndicate.

Common salt is a binary compound of chlorin
and sodium, that is to say, it is chloride of
sodium.

Cases of chlorin poisoning are extremely rare,
and h^,ve hitherto been chiefly confined to persons
employed in chemical works where the gas is
utilized, or to those engaged in dealing with
chloride of lime.

Following upon an exhaustive search of the
records, I am only able to trace seven cases of
really acute asphyxiation resulting from inhala-
tion of chlorin.

Chlorin is not employed in medicine, other
than as an antiseptic, in the form of chlorine
water, which is simply water charged with a
minute quantity of the gas. This preparation is
occasionally taken internally, 20 drops being
the maximum dose.

CHLORIN AND BROMIN 31

A child was once given in error a mixture of
this chlorine water and potassium bromide, pre-
scribed by a quack. She died in fifteen hours,
however, of bromin poisoning as a result of the
chemical change set up.

There are several medicinal, and chemical
preparations prepared from chlorin in various
forms, amongst these being chloral hydrate,
invented by Liebig in 1831, and now prescribed
chiefly as a hypnotic ; it is also taken as an
antidote for strychnine poisoning, and for attacks
of tetanus. Chloroform is also prepared from a
preparation of chlorin, viz. chlorinated lime.

The effect upon the troops of this and any
other gas employed in warfare would, to a marked
degree, be dependent upon the actual percentage
of poison in the atmosphere at the moment when
it reached the men. Thus the distance between
the adversaries becomes one important factor,
and the direction of the wind another.

At very close range, owing to the density of
chlorin, one might expect to find it nearly un-
diluted, and this would account for the severity
of the gas action in some cases as compared with
others. In the event of heavy rain, the effect
of the gas might be mitigated, as it is soluble in
water.

Bromin. Bromin is a heavy, dark, reddish-
brown liquid, owing its name to the Greek term
for " bad odour." It was discovered in 1826 by
Ballard of Montpellier. Bromin is volatile, giving

32 THE POISON WAR

off a brownish-red vapour, the smell and as-
phyxiating effect of which are very similar to
those of chlorin. In contact with the skin it
produces painful sores, and also has a peculiar,
irritating action upon the eyes.

Although cases of poisoning by means of
chlorin have hitherto been rare, those resulting
from bromin are even more so. Only about five
cases are recorded by the world's principal toxi-
cologists. Of these two were suicidal, the third
accidental, the fourth resulted from the prescrip-
tion of a shoemaker, practising as a quack, and
the fifth from inhalation of bromin vapour.

Bromin itself has no medicinal use, but a large
number of highly valued pharmaceutical prepara-
tions are manufactured from it. Bromide of
magnesia, for instance, contains 54-9 per cent,
of bromin. Most of these medicinal preparations
are sedative in action.

A condition of poisoning by bromin, or its
compounds, is termed " bromism." A person
having taken excessive quantities of medicinal
preparations of bromin, is said to be bromized.
The symptoms are chiefly an eruption upon the
face and body, sometimes called " bromide rash,"
accompanied by drowsiness and headache.

Germany at one time controlled almost the
world's market in both chlorin and bromin, owing
to the huge supplies obtainable from the Stassf iirt
potash deposits, but in recent years American
salt has become a factor in the reduction of the

SULPHUR DIOXIDE 33

price of bromin to about one-eightieth of that
at which it formerly stood. Germany in conse-
quence is estimated to have had on hand huge
stocks at the outbreak of hostilities.

The two important producers of chlorin and
bromin in Germany are the Badische Anilin und
Soda Fabrik, of Ludwigshafen on the Rhine,
and the Chemische Fabrik Griesheim Elektron of
Frankfurt-on-Main.

Even prior to the declaration of war the staffs
of these establishments had undergone enormous
increase, in spite of the fact that the prevailing
normal trade conditions did not warrant the
change. At the present time the number of
employes is said to have been more than doubled.
No tangible reason has ever been given by the
authorities for the adoption of these steps.

Bromin is a product at Stassfiirt from the
mother liquor of the German potash deposits,
which contain about 0-25 per cent.

Sulphur Dioxide. A ready and very inexpen-
sive means of poisoning the Allied forces is found
in the employment of sulphur dioxide. This is a
highly poisonous, asphyxiating gas produced by
the burning of sulphur with any suitable com-
bustible agent at hand. It is, when pure, trans-
parent and colourless, with a pungent odour,
and causes great irritation to the eyes, lungs, and
air passages, setting up bronchitis in an acute
form, owing to its corrosive properties, and
destroying everything within its reach.

34 THE POISON WAR

Troops engaged in the projection of this gas
upon a large scale would doubtless be provided
with smoke helmets (see pp. 42 and 43).

Many deaths have resulted from asphyxiation
by this gas in Bohemia, where the manufacture
of sulphuric acid is largely carried on.

A solution containing 5 to 6 per cent, of this
gas is used medicinally, under the name of
sulphurous acid, chiefly as a prophylactic (pre-
ventive of disease), the dose being from 30 to
60 drops. It is also used as an antiseptic.

Naval Poison-Gas Machine. The recent intelli-
gence, as to the usage of poison gas by the
Germans in land warfare, has created a profound
impression, but the fact that they intend to
utilize poisonous asphyxiating gases in naval
engagements will be unknown to the general
public.

Long ere this conflict, I gathered from the
candid confession of a German engineer, that
England would one day be the recipient of a
surprise in the shape of a poisonous air wave upon
German invasion of her shores, facilitating, in
his opinion, an extensive landing of the Kaiser's
troops. This plan may, or may not, be considered
feasible, nevertheless, the idea that the Germans
may seek to repel attacks of landing parties,
and small craft, in sheltered waters, by such
methods, is by no means to be lightly dismissed.

Certain German experts, in 1910, had under
serious consideration the adoption of an engine

NAVAL POISON-GAS MACHINE

35

36 THE POISON WAR

of naval warfare, such as I describe in Fig. 3, p. 35,
and I have reason to believe that, since this date,
very important improvements have been effected
in its design.

The machine provides, in the main, for the
sudden emission, at great pressure, of large
quantities of poisonous gas from the surface
of the water. A salient feature is the fact that
there is nothing of consequence visible of the
machine, or pipe, above water. A sudden rush
of poisonous vapour only, tells its tale upon the
approach of the launches, and tow-boats of
battleships. The apparatus consists essentially
of a cylinder containing gas under pressure,
connected with a reservoir filled with oil fuel,
to which has been added the poisonous substance
used for generating the gas. The reservoir (or
batteries of the same) is hidden away in a con-
venient spot. A long pipe is attached, similar
to that described in Fig. 2, p. 25, with the
exception that the capacity is much greater and
the construction more powerful. This pipe passes^
by a land-tunnel under water. The poison
mixture traverses by means of the pipe, and
ascends according to its density in comparison
with air, the nozzle being only just covered by
water, or preferably protruding an inch or two.
To accomplish this, oil fuel is employed — this
being lighter than water and insoluble in the
same. The poisonous gas generated would thus
also have to conform with these latter require-

NAVAL POISON-GAS MACHINE 37

ments, unless the nozzle protruded. Upon igni-
tion and the application of pressure, by means
of the cock on the reservoir, the gas develops
with great force. When the nozzle protrudes,
ignition takes place by means of the detonation
of a primer, connected with the apparatus by a
separate pipe bound to the first mentioned.
The primer, which is protected from water by a
thin casing of india-rubber, ignites an inflam-
mable and insoluble liquid contained in a small
receptacle attached, thus generating the poison
gas.

In order to retain the pipe under water, and
to keep the nozzle, through which the poison gas
is given off, just below, or at the surface, the pipe
is attached, at intervals, to floats which are
weighted. The floats are kept below the surface
by means of buoys attached thereto. The buoys
are spherical, hollow, and provided with air
cocks, by the regulation of which only such
portion of the buoys would protrude above the
water as to be scarcely 'discernible. The frame-
work is brought speedily to the surface, and once
more lowered by means of the boxes underneath.

These boxes are connected with a second pipe
underneath all, which leads to the big reservoir's
compressor. When it is required to raise the
frame, the boxes thus connected are charged with
carbon-dioxide by means of the lower pipe. The
water is thus expelled from the boxes through
the orifices, causing the frame to ascend. In

38 THE POISON WAR

order to lower again, the carbon-dioxide is
allowed to escape, and the water to re-enter.

It will be seen that, unless the nozzle giving
off the asphyxiating gas is allowed to protrude a
few inches above the water surface, chlorin could
not be utilized, owing to its solubility. Bromin,
forced through a little water, would lose a con-
siderable percentage of its toxic qualities, in
addition to there being other disadvantages in its
employment.

Sulphur dioxide (see p. 33) would be easy to
generate and might be more readily employed,
with the nozzle at, or in close proximity to, the
surface.

Experiments were conducted with the object
of driving the fuel mixture through water, thus
obviating the protrusion of the nozzle. The
theory was that the fuel mixed with the poisonous
substance would form an inflammable layer on
the water, and that this was capable of ignition
by the employment of a water-protected device,
connected with the apparatus by means of a
separate pipe and containing phosphide of cal-
cium. Upon the application of pressure through
the pipe, the protecting cover of the phosphide
bursts, causing the latter to rise to the surface,
whereupon the phosphide decomposes the water,
and ignites the gases given off by the decompo-
sition, thus generating the poison fumes.

Blowing up the Enemy. Many cases of as-
phyxia occurred during the Balkan War, as a

BLOWING UP THE ENEMY 39

result of " blowing up the enemy," although it
is doubtless a fact that the majority of these
might have been avoided had the troops been
equipped with the necessary remedial and pre-
ventive appliances, or had they adopted other
precautions. The explosives in general use for
this purpose (see p. 100) give off asphyxiating gases.
Gun-cotton has been known to produce from 27 to
40 per cent, of carbon-monoxide, upon detonation.
About fifteen minutes after explosion as much as
0-13 per cent has been present in the air. Troops
advancing too rapidly over a short range of
ground, subsequent to such explosions, may
expose themselves to considerable risks, for the
gas is wont to collect under heaps of debris and
rock, and is instantly liberated, even hours after
the explosion, by the removal of such obstructions.

An announcement will read, " We successfully
exploded a mine, blowing up one of the enemy
positions to-day." There are few of the un-
initiated outside public, who from this laconic
intelligence, would be capable of realizing what
the undertaking may have involved to those who
actually effected it.

It is indeed difficult to over-estimate the
heroism and self-sacrifice of officers and men
alike, engaged in these operations during the
present war.

Another explosive much in use for blasting is

GELATINE DYNAMITE. This emits a much lowe*

percentage of carbon-monoxide gas, but should it

40 THE POISON WAR

fail to explode and burn away, large quantities
of nitrous fumes, in addition to the other gas
mentioned, may be given off.

In fact, it not infrequently occurs that the
attempt to " blow up the enemy " fails, owing
primarily to one of the following causes, viz.
imperfect detonation, the explosive charge burn-
ing away ; or the detonator may become detached
from the explosive, and the latter fail to explode ;
or there may be only a partial or a premature
explosion.

These results may be produced, either by the
deterioration, or bad quality of the explosive — its
having been improperly stored, the dampness
or weakness of the detonator, or similar causes ;
but upon all such occasions there is serious danger
of asphyxia involved to those within reach of
the gas.

When nitro-glycerine explosives are employed
for blasting purposes, acrolein and prussic acid
also are given off. Acrolein is a volatile oily
liquid, highly poisonous, formed by decompo-
sition of the glycerol.

Pulmotor. In cases of asphyxiation, where
oxygen is the antidote, the portable pulmotor
is utilized. This is a very cleverly designed
apparatus, and the type shown (Fig. 4) is that
devised by the German Draeger Company, of
Liibeck (near Hamburg). It operates by forcing
oxygen into the lungs, and drawing out the
air. The German inventors recommend its usage,

PULMOTOR

41

42

THE POISON WAR

" in cases of asphyxiation by noxious gases."
Oxygen is contained in a cylinder (the capacity
of which is about llj cubic ft. of gas) and this
is fitted with a pressure-controlling valve.

Absorber for exhaled air

Oxygen cylinder.

FIG. 4A. The oxygen helmet.

The oxygen travels from the valve to an in-
jector, which draws in air by means of suction,
and likewise sends it forward, by means of a
tube in front of the injector.

THE OXYGEN HELMET 43

Thus the lungs are alternately filled by pressure
and emptied by suction.

The Germans, to the fore in the study and

•* — Poison gas helmet.
Breathing tubes — *F&tf^,

Air breathing bag.

FIG. 4B. The oxygen helmet.

usage of noxious gases, have adopted the pre-
caution of equipping many of their regiments with
protection or rescue apparatus. Whenever there
is a leakage in the reservoir of poisonous gas,

44 THE POISON WAR

the officers and men undertaking the repairs don
oxygen helmets (Figs. 4A and 4fi), and are thus
independent of the toxic atmosphere, the entrance
of which is prevented.

The four chief varieties of these instruments
of safety are known as the " Essen0," the " Fleuss,"
the " Weg," and the " Draeger." They are all
light and portable, the main feature being a
supply of compressed oxygen, which, carried in
small cylinders, is strapped to the soldier's back,
his head being protected by a helmet similar to
that worn in coal-mines.

There is a breathing bag, or reservoir of air,
affording a continuous supply during usage by
the wearer.

The amount of oxygen contained in the cylinder
is calculated upon the basis that a man at rest
consumes 0*3 litres per minute, and when at
work, according to the nature of his task, up
to 2 litres per minute, an ample margin being
allowed.

Bombs and Grenades. The present Chinese
term for firearms is " huo-p'au." In ancient
times this term represented a machine or frog-gun
called " huo-p'au," which was used for firing
poisonous or incendiary compositions at an enemy
at short range. Translated from the Cantonese,
" huo " and " pao " indicate, in reference to
this subject, a dirty " stink-pot " fire machine.
There appears to be considerable diversity of
opinion as to the nature of the original " stink-

BOMBS AND GRENADES 45

pot," probably owing to the traditional unreli-
ability of early Celestial chroniclers.

The origin of such weapons, it may be ex-
plained, is of great antiquity. They are referred
to as having been in use, in various forms, since
the year 904 (at the siege of Salonika). Pitch
balls, composed of pitch, oil and fat, were reported
by William of Tyne to have been exclusively used
at the siege of Nice.

In 1560 Whitehorne referred to " earthern
bottles," as having been utilized for hand-
grenades. He gives a recipe as follows : " hollow
balles of metal, as big as smal boules and J in.
thick, cast in mouldes and made of 3 partes of
brasse and 1 of tinne." Further he states that
they should be loaded with " 3 partes serpentine,
3 partes fine corne powder and 1 part rosen."
He suggests that, as they will " breake and flye
into a thousand pieces," they should be quickly
handled.

In Evelyn's " Diary " we find that on June 29,
1768, he saw, at the Hounslow Camp, certain
soldiers called " Grenadiers " who were dexterous
in flinging " hand-grenades." This weapon of
defence was not much in vogue during the
Napoleonic era, but in 1885 it came once more
into prominence, being favoured by the English
against Soudanese tribes — and the advent of
the Russo-Japanese campaign found the hand-
grenade nearly as important an adjunct of in-
fantry equipment as the rifle. A modern hand-

46 THE POISON WAR

grenade, or bomb (when not especially filled with
poison by Germans), is spherical in shape, and
contains picric acid, T.N.T., tolite, gun-cotton,
or any suitable explosive. The general weight
is about a pound. As to its action, unless the
explosive radius is limited, there is considerable
danger to the thrower. The Germans en-
deavoured to utilize heavy-weight grenades in the
present war, only to find themselves once again
hoisted with their own petard. For it was found
that the weapon being so heavy was incapable
of being thrown to a sufficient distance, in order
to enable the thrower to escape the increased
danger zone. The numerous accidents to German
infantry opposing the trench battle-fronts with
these weapons are due to this cause.

Effect of Grenades. Colonel W. G. Macpher-
son, R.A.M.C., in his report (1908) states :
" They caused wounds which were difficult to
treat satisfactorily. . . . They were usually mul-
tiple, and in some they were not only caused by
strips of the metal case but by the explosive effects
of the pyroxilin gas, which appears to have been
the explosive agent. . . . The explosive effects
were, as a rule, those of complete shattering of
a limb. The wounds were also, at first, of a
brilliant yellow colour."

Pyroxilin gas is given off by gun-cotton, which
was then, and is now, the explosive agent much
used for grenades.

The Teutonic poison grenade, instead of being

EFFECT OF GRENADES

Grenade

Showing striker

FIG. 5. Apparatus for throwing a grenade from a rifle,
instead of by hand (Kale's patent).

48 THE POISON WAR

filled with ordinary explosive, is charged with
chlorin, nitric- peroxide, or other gas. The tube
of the Poison gas machine (Fig. 2, p. 25) has
a special nozzle which can readily be adapted
for charging bombs on the field.

The Germans, in the present conflict, have
sometimes utilized an apparatus for hurling
grenades, from the ends of sticks, to which they
are attached by means of a simple device, which
permits of their prompt liberation. These in-
struments have also proved, from time to time,
a source of danger to the throwers. One of the
most important innovations in the matter of
grenades was that evolved by Hale, an English
engineer, in 1911 (Fig. 5, p. 47). This consists
of safety devices for the firing of shrapnel or
other grenades from the ends of ordinary rifles,
by means of which the missiles may be carried
upwards of 200 yards. The invention provides
safety for the user, inasmuch as the " striker "
is so arranged that the projectile will not explode
by accidental falling. There is a rod in the
rifle barrel and firing takes place by means of a
rifle cartridge- minus the bullet.

ARTICLE II

THE ALLIED TROOPS BEING SYSTEMATICALLY
POISONED BY THE GERMANS IN A MANNER
PUBLICLY UNKNOWN : THE HAGUE CONVEN-
TION AND THE USAGE OF POISON IN WAR-
FARE : THE ROMANS AND THE GERMANS :
CASES OF THE POISONING : ITS SUBTLE
METHOD OF ADMINISTRATION

IN the preceding article I dealt with a subject
publicly known, namely the visible, poisonous
asphyxiation of the Allied Forces by the Germans.
This is a method of barbarism only recently
adopted by the enemy, and clearly contravening
Clause 23 (E) of The Hague Convention, which
states that a belligerent may not employ material
causing unnecessary pain or suffering to an
enemy. I now propose to explain how the Ger-
mans have been and are carrying on the syste-
matic, invisible poisoning of the Allied Forces
at long range in a manner hitherto generally
unknown.

Thus does the enemy cast to the winds the
laws of civilized warfare, and The Hague Con-
vention, Clause 22, also 23 (A),* (forbidding the
employment of poisoned arms). The most casual
of critics cannot fail to note the vast difference
between the occasional use, at short range, of

* See Appendix I, p. 127.

49 n

50 THE POISON WAR

poisonous gases and hand-grenades, and the
general usage by an enemy of poisoned long-
range projectiles.

In order clearly to state the position I may
say that the German Military Authorities de-
liberately poison the Allied troops by the
employment of a most dangerous, irritant poison,
in the composition of their artillery projectiles,
from the " 77 " shell upwards, namely, white or
crystalline phosphorus. Also they are now manu-
facturing ordinary rifle cartridges containing a
percentage of the same poison.

If their intention had been to produce luminous
shells, that end might well have been accom-
plished without the introduction of poisonous
matter.

It is within my knowledge that German
chemists made experiments with harmless in-
gredients, but that these were discarded by
experts in favour of the toxic composition
described upon p. 65, and that in the selection
of this toxic or poisonous compound, the said
experts must have had in view the insidious
and deceptive nature of its action upon the
human body, thereby rendering it extremely
probable that such cases of poisoning would
either be mistaken for symptoms common to
wounds in warfare, or pass unnoticed.

I am informed by reliable experts that such
cases of poisoning actually have been mistaken
for effects due to other causes.

EVIDENCE OF POISONING 51

The real questions at issue may be summarized
as follows :

(1) What evidence is there to show that the
German artillery did and does use such poison
as a weapon against the Allied Forces ?

(2) The poison, if any, so used and the nature
thereof ?

(3) The mode of its employment ?

(4) The manner in which the poison referred
to destroys life or causes serious injury ?

(5) The toxicity, or the lethal dose, necessary
for this purpose. Or, in other words, could the
substance used cause injury or death ?

One of the most eminent toxicologists, Dr.
Swaine Taylor, stated as follows: "A poison
is a substance which when absorbed into the
blood is capable of seriously affecting health or
of destroying life."

To quote Emerson on Legal Medicine : " Evi-
dence in cases of poisoning is derived from
several facts. For example :
" The symptoms,
Post-mortem appearances,
Chemical analysis,
Experiments upon animals.
" In addition to these we have the so-called
moral evidence which may be apparent to others
besides physicians — who are immediately con-
nected. The chemist may testify as to the
action of the poisons upon the human system,
though he may not be a physician."

52 THE POISON WAR

It has been frequently stated of The Hague
Conferences, that in reality they consisted of
assemblies of delegates, each present with the
paramount intention of safeguarding his nation's
interests, these being, as a rule, widely divergent
from those of other nations represented. It has
also been stated that the phrases of many of the
clauses are elastic and not applicable to the new
situation. This perhaps may be correctly said
of the regulations respecting the use of contact
mines * and of asphyxiating shells f in warfare,
but in no sense can such reference be made to
apply to the usage of poison in warfare.

In arriving at the regulations concerning
poison in warfare, the Articles of the revised
Declaration of Brussels were accepted (with
slight modification), as a Text, Articles 22, 23, and
23 (E) J, corresponding almost exactly with those
of 12, 13, and 14 of the Declaration of Brussels.

It must, however, be borne in mind that in
the drawing up, and adoption of these Articles,
the delegates were bound by time-honoured
custom.

The Romans forbade the use of poison in war-
fare. The fact is commented upon by Grotius
(1625) and by other jurists of note.

It is interesting also to observe that the
Romans often confounded the " Law of Nations "
with the " Law of Nature," calling the " Law of

* See Appendix IV, p. 134. f See Appendix III, p. 131.

% See Appendix I, p. 127,

POISON IN WARFARE 53

Nations " (jus gentium) the " Law of Nature," as
being " generally adopted by all polite nations."

Tiberius, in spite of the unnatural vices in civil
life, with which he has been accredited, scorned
the use of poison in warfare, and rejected the
proposals made by the Prince of Catti that he
should utilize poison in warfare, against Arminius.
Tiberius did not think that poison should be
made use of, even by way of reprisal, although
his troops were at the moment outnumbered,
and hard pressed.

The Consuls Caius Fabricius, and ^Emilius
rejected with horror the proposal of Pyrrhus'
physician to poison . . . haughtily adding, " it
is not to make our court to you that we give
this information, but that we may not draw
on ourselves any infamy " ; and in the same
letter adding, "that it is for the common interest
of all nations not to set such an example." ,

It was a maxim of the Roman Senate, that
war was to be carried on by arms and not by
poison : " Armis belli, non Venenis, geri debere."

Jurists of the eighteenth century were em-
phatic as to the abuse of the customs of warfare
by the usage of poison. De Vattel (1793) gives
his opinion on the equivalent of Article 22 of
the Regulations annexed to The Hague Conven-
tion (see Appendices), which treats of the right,
or unlimited right, to injure the enemy. " The
most effectual, the most proper methods may
be chosen, provided they have nothing odious."

54 THE POISON WAR

Concerning the right " to employ poisoned
arms, poison, or kill treacherously " (Article 22
of The Hague Regulations*), De Vattel asks,
" whether all sorts of means may be employed
to take away an enemy's life ? Whether he
may be assassinated or poisoned ? "

" Pepin, father of Charlemagne, having passed
the Rhine with one of his guards, went and killed
his enemy in his chamber, and should a resolute
soldier in the night steal into the enemy's camp,
get to the general's tent and stab him, in this
there is nothing contrary to the natural laws
of war. But in order to dismiss this question
with solidity, assassination is by all means to
be distinguishable from surprises, which in war
are doubtless very allowable."

" Nations may do themselves justice sword
in hand . . . but shall it be indifferent to human
society that they employ odious means? . . .
Thus, whoever by his example contributes to
the introducing so destructive a custom, declares
himself the enemy of mankind and deserves the
execration of all ages." f

" A treacherous poisoning has something more
odious even than assassination ; the effect
would be more inevitable, and the use more
terrible ; accordingly it has been generally de-
tested"

Concerning the employment of " projectiles

* See Appendix I, p. 127.

f Dialogue between Julius Caesar and Cicero.

POISON IN WARFARE 55

causing unnecessary suffering," * the same autho-
rity states : " This use is not the less interdicted
by the law of nature, which does not allow us to
multiply the evils of war."

"It is therefore with reason, and agreeable
to their duty, that civilized nations have classed
among the laws of war the maxim which probably
prohibits the poisoning of arms, and all are war-
ranted by their common safety to suppress and
punish the first who should offer to break through
this law." f

The reference by De Vattel to Charlemagne
and poison recalls the fact that no less than nine
of that monarch's successors, as Emperors of
the Holy Roman Empire, prior to the advent
of the Austrian rule in 1438, succumbed to the
effects of the " more gentle operation of poison."
Of the Popes of Rome down to 1471, five are
said to have met with similar deaths.

The writings of these ages seem to show tKat
poisoning was a la mode as a weapon of political
murder, or vengeance, but that its usage in
warfare was discountenanced to a marked
degree.

The Romans had a superstition that the bodies
of those whose death was due to poison offered
a much greater resistance to fire than those of
persons who died from natural causes. According

* Hague Convention Article 23 (E) Appendix I, p. 127.

t The quotations from De Vattel are abstracted from a trans-
lation, dated 1793, in the author's possession, of " Droit des
Gens, ou Principes de la Loi Naturelle " (1758).

56 THE POISON WAR

to "Secrets d'Etat de Venise," published in
St. Petersburg (1884), political murder by poison
was counted a legitimate method of procedure.

The political poison craze was also very much
in vogue in England about the sixteenth century.
The Statute, 22 Henry VIII, c. 9, date 1531,
ordered " poisoners to be boiled to death."

Froude records that in 1537 precautions became
necessary for the safety of Edward Prince of
Wales. " The food supplied for the child's use
was to be largely assayed."

The German laws do not appear to err on the
side of undue severity in the matter of poisoning.

TRANSLATION OF THE GERMAN LAW

Sec. 212. He who intentionally kills a human
being, if the killing has been without premedita-
tion, is guilty of " Todtschlag," punishable by
not more than five years' imprisonment.

Sec. 229. Whosoever shall administer to
another, for the purpose of injuring his health,
poison or other substances capable of destroying
the health, shall be punished with imprisonment
for a term of ten years or less. If a severe bodily
injury has been caused, the imprisonment shall
be for not less than five years, and when death
has been caused it shall be for not less than ten
years or for life.

In recent times Colonel Stevenson records
that in the Boer War it was supposed that the
Boers used poisoned bullets, and that " no little

THE NEW GERMAN SHELL 57

sensation " was caused by the finding of a great
number of bullets in the possession of the Boers
covered with a green wax. Subsequently, how-
ever, it was found that the substance with which
the bullets were covered was merely paraffin,
used with the object of reducing wear and tear
of the rifle barrel. The wax had become stained
with verdigris, and the green colour was thus
accounted for.

When in France during November last I had
been informed that the Germans were making
use of an explosive possessing certain novel
characteristics upon explosion, and was asked
whether I could throw any light upon the subject
of its composition.

I believe the earliest reference to this subject
to be contained in " Eye- Witness " report,
published as follows :

" GERMAN GUNS

" CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WOOLLY BEAR

" Following is a continuation of a dispatch
received this afternoon from c Eye- Witness.'

" On some parts of our front it has been
noticed that the Germans are firing a new type
of high-explosive shell, its visible characteristic
being that it detonates with a cloud of thick
white smoke."

The white smoke referred to, upon the explo-
sion of German shells, is caused by the union of

58 THE POISON WAR

phosphoric and phosphorus acids with the
oxygen of the air.

Our leading journals have contained refer-
ences, in reports from their Special Correspon-
dents, to the firing by the German artillerists
of " luminous shells " in the present war. As
to the Russian front, the most noticeable descrip-
tion which I have chanced to peruse is that of
a Special Correspondent at Warsaw, reporting
an interview of consequence with Prince Woroni-
sky of the Red Cross Society, just subsequent
to the battle of Warsaw in February last, as
follows :

" Our work," he continued, " has been ham-
pered by the latest German devilry — treating
their explosives with a preparation which poisons
the wound and leaves an acrid smell. The scene
at the wayside station of Bednary was terrible."

The following telegram also recently appeared
in the Press :

" NORTH OF WARSAW

" MASSED ATTACK REACHES RUSSIAN DEFENCES

" PETROGRAD, Sunday.

" The Germans used guns firing new shells,
which illuminated the battlefield. — Press Associa-
tion War Special."

A French surgeon from the front assured me
in February last, that symptoms, now recognized
as those of phosphor poisoning, had been most

SYMPTOMS OF PHOSPHOR POISONING 59

prevalent amongst those of their men who had
been wounded by shrapnel and common shell
fire. These symptoms were attributed unsuspect-
ingly to various other causes.

Reference to any of the leading works upon
wounds in warfare shows that the absence of
hygienic surroundings has always been an in-
fluence in the consideration as to the reasons
for the appearance of septicaemia in the wounds
of warfare.

It is therefore not surprising to find anaerobic
conditions,* caused in reality by phosphor poison-
ing, set down as due to soil and surroundings.
These conditions, when not set up by phosphor
poisoning, appear to be caused by anaerobic
micro-organisms found in the soil. The presence
of these germs is said to be due to the intense
cultivation of the lands in France and Belgium —
the lands teeming with anaerobic organisms.

On January 6, 1915, Surgeon Figuiera reported,
in a paper read to La Societe de Chirurgie, upon
the case of a wounded French soldier who had
died from the effects of violent phosphor poison-
ing. The soldier was wounded in the arm by
the explosion of a German shell. The chief
symptoms were those of phosphorescence of the
wound. The sufferer lingered for several days,
and apparently the longer he lingered the greater
became his agonies, until death relieved him on
the seventh day.

* Anaerobes are microbes thriving without access to air.

60 THE POISON WAR

Monsieur Victor Henri, the energetic Sous-
Directeur of the Physiological Department of
the Paris Sorbonne, communicated to the Paris
Biological Society, on January 23, 1915, the
result of exhaustive researches made by him,
with the assistance of M. Urbain, as to the
effects produced upon the wounded by the usage
of phosphorus in German shells.

A quantity of German ammunition had been
captured at the battle of the Marne, and at
Vincennes. Some of the shells thus captured
were forwarded to Paris, and were submitted to
chemical examination by M. Urbain, both com-
mon shell, and shrapnel, with the result that
the shells were found to contain considerable
quantities of poison in the form of phosphorus.

M. Urbain states that " both the common
' 77 ' German shells and the shrapnel of the same
calibre contain for the most part a great quantity
of a violet-brown powder, smelling strongly of
white phosphorus."

Monsieur Victor Henri states that " The
majority of the German shells contain a reddish
to violet-brown powder smelling strongly of
white phosphorus and containing up to 97 per
cent, of phosphorus."

Credit is due to Monsieur Victor Henri, for the
able manner in which he conducted these
researches. As a result of his investigations,
M. Henri sets forth in the report of January 23,
that " In some cases, when the shell explodes,

SYMPTOMS OF PHOSPHOR POISONING 61

either the phosphorus does not take fire, and the
poison is carried into the wound, in its existing
condition, or the phosphorus takes fire, and enters
into the wound in a form highly poisonous."

He explained how he introduced into the
muscles of guinea-pigs, by way of experiment,
shrapnel bullets taken from the poison box of a
" 77 " German shell.

In the cases where phosphorus on the bullets
had not been ignited, poison symptoms devel-
oped slowly. When the bullets were ignited prior
to insertion, the symptoms rapidly developed.

Three of the animals experimented upon died
of phosphor poisoning, on the fifth and sixth
day following ; a fourth succumbed after several
days, having in the interim suffered the loss of
about one-sixth of its weight.

A post-mortem examination was conducted
by M. Faure-Fremiet and showed " fatty de-^
generation of the liver in a marked degree."

It may be added that this is a common
accompaniment of phosphor poisoning.

M. Henri states that seeing that the quantity
of phosphorus thus introduced into wounds
derived from German shell fire is variable, the
introduction of even the smallest particles of the
poison is likely to produce gangrene and other
serious consequences to the wounded soldier.

On January 11, 1915, Professor Dastre com-
municated to the Academic des Sciences the
result of the researches made by M. Victor Henri,

62 THE POISON WAR

his Sous-Directeur — the essence of which I have
already given.

The avowed object of the use of this poison is
of course LUMINOSITY — or in other words, to
ascertain the range of the enemy's position.

This being the case, why, one may ask, have
our adversaries deemed it necessary to fire
innumerable phosphor shells during broad day-
light ?

Do they advance the theory that the smoke
given forth by the range-finding common shell
is invisible at a distance suitable for the purpose ?

Be this as it may, I am credibly informed that
German chemists, in a certain Rhenish factory,
were very busy at one time in the evolution
of a material for luminous shells — in the com-
position of which material a poison played no
part.

Given the military necessity for the firing
of luminous shells in battle, that poisonous
compounds should form an ingredient thereof,
is wholly unnecessary. Judging from the nature
of experiments carried out in Germany with
other, and non-poisonous chemicals, also the
fact that with these an effect as good, if not
superior, to the phosphor light is produced
upon explosion, one is drawn to the conclusion
that there is and has been a deliberate attempt
to poison. Readers seeking further evidence in
support of this conclusion need only to peruse
the subsequent pages of this book.

METHOD OF ADMINISTRATION

63

The Method of Administration. The method
of introduction of the poison in the case of
shrapnel shell is particularly diabolical. It may
be briefly described as follows :

The projectiles I examined were of the German

Poison — >

•« — Poison.

FIG. 6. Perspective view. Top partly open and lid bent back.

" 77 " pattern. The shell cases contained round
metal boxes of a diameter of 65 mm. (see Fig. 6
above).

At the base of each box was a quantity of
violet to reddish-brown powder ; and on top
of the powder the bullets were closely packed.

The shrapnel bullets, of 1 cm. diameter
(Figs. 7 and 8) and weighing each about 10 grm.

64 THE POISON WAR

(154 grains), were especially holed and dented
instead of presenting the ordinary smooth surface.
These bullets had obviously been agitated
and compressed with the reddish powder in
order to make their fiendish object more assured.
Upon explosion the bullets would take up a
certain amount of the adhesive powder from the

FIG. 7. The normal FIG. 8. The shrapnel

shrapnel bullet. bullet poisoned.

base of the box, in addition to that already
contained in the dents and holes mentioned.

The explosive in these particular instances,
was " tolite " (see p. 93). None of this was
contained in the aforementioned box, but in a
glass tube inserted in the shell case.

The common shell contained a cylindrical
metal case about 2*37 in. in length and 09'8 in.
in diameter (Fig. 1, p. 12).

This cylindrical case was inserted in the
glass tube, a hollow in the tube having been
especially constructed to receive the metal case.
Those glass tubes which I have had the oppor-
tunity of examining were filled with 96 grammes
of compressed " tolite." The tubes were those
contained in the " 77 " German shell, which is
analogous to the French " 75 " and our 3-in.
Thus the poison was surrounded by the explosive,

ANALYSIS OF THE POISON 65

and its distribution assured, for the cylindrical
metal case referred to contained, in a strongly
compressed form, the violet-brown powder pre-
viously mentioned.

M. Urbain's analysis of the powder disclosed
an average of 97 per cent, of phosphorus in
two varieties, viz. amorphous phosphorus * and
white phosphorus. The quantities of each
varied considerably, but the white phosphorus
present (being in combination with the red),
was always sufficient to constitute a highly
poisonous element in wounds.

The outer case of the " 77 " shell bore the
following marks :

Rh.f M.P. 77
Tan. O 1911
Diisseldorf.

The poison tube or case contained in the
tolite tube, Fig. 1, bore no mark, but the
tolite tube bore the following inscription :

Sprengladung J E.F.
96 Grammes L. 77
Hanau 1911.

* Having no definite form.

f " Rh.," when not a contraction for Rhein, is probably one
of the German military marks designating the particular explosive
contents. A large number of these cases bear the military code
mark " R.G." (tubular powder used in German field guns).
44 M.P." probably stands for field-gun ring powder.

J Sprengladung, or Sprengmunition, is the German synonym
for tolite-explosive. (See p. 93.)

E

66 THE POISON WAR

Hanau is a Prussian town, of about 30,000
population, situate fourteen miles from Frankfort,
thus being conveniently near the phosphor
factories. In Hanau there are extensive en-
gineering works, and doubtless to one of these
the poison tubes were dispatched from Frankfort,
to be fitted into their receptacles.

The 77 cm. guns firing these poisonous pro-
jectiles bear the distinctive arms of the Teutonic
kingdom to which they belong. The arms of
Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirtemburg are
all separately represented.

Over each or any of these arms is inscribed
the motto, " PRO GLORIA ET PATRIA." Above the
breech is the Imperial Crown, accompanied by
the monogram of the Kaiser, completed by the
significant inscription, " Ultima Ratio Regis."

About 300 shrapnel bullets are contained in
each of the German shells.

In spite of the fact that the shrapnel bullets
of the French " 75 " shell weigh 185 grains,
whereas those used in the German " 77 " shell
weigh only 154 grains, the initial velocity of the
German shrapnel bullet, fired from the " 77 '
gun, is by no means equal to that of the French
" 75."

The shrapnel shell of the German field-
howitzer carries 500 bullets.

The position of the explosive charge in the shell
has an important bearing upon the effect and
velocity of the shrapnel. For example, in the

POSITION OF EXPLOSIVE CHARGE 67

French shells it is generally mixed with the
bullets. This would have the effect of increasing
the power of the shrapnel.

The Austrians, as a rule, place the charge
behind the bullets, thereby imparting greater
force thereto. In the German shells which I
have seen the charge is placed in front, thus
producing a lower initial velocity, but much
greater scattering power. It may be added
that in the event of poison forming a portion
of a shell's contents, low velocity renders the
poison easier of distribution, and its effect more
dangerous to the troops. On the Russian front,
in particular, the Germans have used guns of
large calibre, firing shells containing this poison.
These projectiles have the characteristics of both
the common and the shrapnel shell combined,
and are remarkably destructive, for they throw
both bullets and fragments, and each, although,
not all, may convey the poison.

In the case of these shells, the explosive charge
is placed behind the shrapnel bullets, and there
is an ignition tube which serves to explode the
charge. In the centre there are loose shrapnel
bullets mixed with powder, and in front a
powerful charge of high explosive.*

Upon explosion of a common shell, air re-
sistance materially decreases the velocity of
the fragments, and owing to the weight of a
shrapnel bullet, and to the fact that its shape is

* See Fig. 10, p. 119.

68 THE POISON WAR

spherical, its velocity would not be anything like
that of the modern bullet discharged from a
rifle.

The power of penetration, therefore, of the
fragment, and of the shrapnel bullet, is generally
less than that of the rifle bullet.

Statistics conclusively prove that wounds
which owe their origin to shrapnel bullets are
as a rule not so pernicious as those due to rifle
bullets.

Given normal conditions, a man struck by a
shrapnel bullet at low velocity and in a non-vital
part of the body, will recover. Under the
abnormal conditions imposed by the German
poisoned shrapnel bullet, he will, generally, make
a pretence of recovery — even so far, perhaps,
as to be sent away on leave — having merely
exhibited symptoms of such a minor character
as to pass unnoticed. Stealthy and serpent-
like as is this poison in burning, so is it in its
toxicological action upon the human body.

In a number of experiments which I made
with shrapnel bullets extracted from such boxes,
the average duration of the phosphorus in
burning was about ninety-five seconds.

ARTICLE III

THE GERMAN LONG-RANGE POISON : ITS
HISTORY : NATURE AND EFFECT

FROM the foregoing it will have been perceived
that the poison employed is phosphorus.

Phosphorus owes its origin to Germany, having
been first discovered by Von Brandt in the year
1669. This alchemist, however, succeeded for
some time in keeping the discovery secret.

Kunkel, a celebrated scientist of the period,
assisted by no less a personage than Frederick
William the Great Elector of Prussia, first
published its method of preparation in 1678.

The scientific craze of the period was no less in
evidence in Prussia than in this country, and it
was due to Frederick William that Kunkel was,
put in possession of a chemical laboratory at
Potsdam for the purpose of furthering his
researches.

Science, as a study, had become at that
epoch, almost as essential a portion of the man
of fashion's daily life, both in England and in
Germany, as his toilet.

Charles II was fascinated by the mysteries of
chemistry. He called for the exhibition of the
substance which was then described as " one
of Nature's wonders," and accordingly phosphorus
was submitted to the royal gaze by a German

69

70 THE POISON WAR

interested in its production and named Krafft.
This, it is said, took place at the Royal Labora-
tory of Whitehall, notwithstanding the fact that,
according to Macaulay, " Half the jobbing, and
half the flirting, went on under its roof."

Samuel Pepys, in his Diary, records that in
1667 : " Chemistry divided for a time, with wine
and love, with the stage and the gaming table,
with the intrigues of a courtier and the intrigues
of a demagogue, the attention of the fickle
Buckingham."

Macaulay writes that : " Charles himself had
a laboratory at Whitehall, and was far more
active, and attentive, there than at the Council
board. It was almost necessary to the character
of a fine gentleman to have something to say
about air pumps and telescopes."

Pepys states that, " even the ladies of the
Court became afflicted with a scientific mania."

The monarch whom Macaulay characterized
as " addicted beyond measure to sensual indul-
gence, fond of sauntering and of frivolous amuse-
ments," found time to study the virtues of
phosphorus. For he was nothing if not " an
observer of men and things " (David Hume).

History records that the period of 1660 on-
wards was an era of experimental science :
" Dreams of perfect forms of Government made
way for dreams of wings, with which men were to
fly from the Tower to the Abbey — and of double-
keeled ships which were never to founder.

VARIETIES OF PHOSPHORUS 71

" Chief Justice Hale, and Lord Keeper Guild-
ford, stole some hours from the business of their
courts to write on hydrostatics."

Pepys, however, appears to have been of the
opinion that the ladies of the Court congregated,
upon the occasions of these scientific gatherings,
more for the purpose of criticizing each other's
costumes than in the interests of science. He
was disappointed at the meagre attention be-
stowed by the Duchess of Newcastle upon the
wonders shown her at the Royal Society's
assembly, the probable explanation being that
Mrs. Stewart was present.

Phosphorus, which derives its name from
the Greek word " phos " (light) and " phoros "
(bearing) is a metalloid. It is prepared commer-
cially in two varieties, the one crystalline, the
other amorphous. Crystalline phosphorus is
usually kept under water in order to prevent its
oxidation. It is used in the form of sticks, of a
somewhat waxy appearance.

Amorphous, or " red " phosphorus, is made
by heating white (or as it is sometimes called,
" yellow ") phosphorus.

It possesses, however, remarkable allotropic*
properties — inasmuch as if heated to about 260°,
it is converted to "white" phosphorus. Thus
the " red " phosphorus is merely the " white "
variety, made to occur under another form.

* Allotropic means the existence in two or more forms of an
element, each form having distinct properties.

72 THE POISON WAR

This other form, however, possesses totally dif-
ferent properties. In order not to weary the
reader, I will proceed to summarize briefly the
difference between white and red phosphorus.
White or Crystalline Phosphorus :

(1) Is of a soft, waxy nature, possessing a
pungent odour not unlike that of garlic.

(2) When warmed it catches fire, burning with
a brilliant white flame.

(3) It is so sensitive that mere friction will
fire it.

(4) Is highly luminous in the dark, and to this
fact it probably owes its designation.

(5) Changes on exposure.

(6) Becomes oxidized and converted into phos-
phoric acid (highly poisonous).

(7) It is a powerful, irritant poison of a highly
deceptive nature (due chiefly to its characteristic
slowness of, and uncertain action).

(8) The vapour given off by white phosphorus
is also very poisonous.

(9) Burns on the body, produced by white
phosphorus, are generally of a most serious
nature, on account of their slowness in heal-
ing.

" Red " Phosphorus :

(1) Is a reddish-brown substance, of somewhat
hard nature, devoid of odour.

(2) When heated to 260° it becomes once
more white phosphorus.

(3) Does not give off fumes in the air, as does

RED PHOSPHORUS 73

the white, and does not possess the luminous
power of the white variety.

(4) Does not change on exposure.

(5) Cannot be fired by ordinary friction.

(6) It is non-poisonous when free from particles
of the white phosphorus, but whenever it con-
tains the latter it is highly dangerous.

Red phosphorus, it should be added, was the
invention of an Austrian chemist, having been
discovered by Schrotter in 1848.

The question will probably arise as to why
the white phosphorus is mixed with the red
variety by the Germans, when used for shells ?

The reply is :

White phosphorus could not be made use of
alone for this purpose because :

(a) It may be ignited by mere friction.

(b) It would burn away too rapidly.
When, however, the mixture contains a large

percentage of the red variety, ignition will
only be produced by the subjection of the
mixture to a great heat, such as that produced
by shell fire, for example.

The red, retarding the combustion of the white,
causes it to burn in a very slow, serpent-like
fashion, and the red will probably become once
more white phosphorus of a highly poisonous
character.

Thus we arrive at the inevitable conclusion
that by the time the shrapnel bullet, or shell
fragment, strikes or enters the body, the phos-

74 THE POISON WAR

phorus will have accomplished its deadly mission,
viz. :

(a) Of burning slowly.

(b) Of having a highly poisonous effect.
The statistics of wounds in warfare show the

impossibility, as a rule, of obtaining reliable
figures as to the precise number of men killed
or wounded by any particular instrument of
artillery. It is therefore doubtful if precise
data will ever be forthcoming as to the number
of men poisoned by phosphorus in this war.

It suffices to add that, although I have taken
as an example the German " 77 ' shell, the
poison is similarly contained in the greater
portion of German shells of larger calibre.

The medicinal dose of white phosphorus is
^ to ^ of a grain.

Uncombined white phosphorus is, however,
so dangerous that it is rarely, if ever, prescribed
in that form. But in combination with various
other articles it enters as an ingredient into a
variety of pharmaceutical preparations, its chief
use, therapeutically, being as a nerve tonic. As
to the minimum lethal dose, opinions differ
somewhat, but Sir R. Christison records a case
of death at the long delay of twelve days,
resulting from a dose of 1J gr.

Red phosphorus is comparatively inert ; there
are records of as much as 90 gr. per day having
been taken for forty days, with apparently no
serious result.

PHOSPHOR POISONING 75

It is to be noted, however, that in this instance
the red phosphorus was perfectly free from the
white, and that wherever the white is present
in combination with the red, the combined prepara-
tion is highly poisonous.

It is seldom that phosphorus is used in this
country in attempts at murder or suicide —
probably its odious smell and unpalatable taste
render such use unpopular, apart from the
reasons given hereafter. It may, therefore, be
safely assumed that the number of surgeons of
the R.A.M.C. now at the front who have had
actual experience of phosphor poisoning prior to
the war is remarkably small — and this fact,
coupled with the known difficulties in the detec-
tion of the poison, and in the recognition of the
symptoms produced by it, still further affects
the chances of obtaining reliable evidence.

The number of phosphoric fatalities in this
country may be said to have risen and fallen
with the employment of white phosphorus, in
match making.

When matches were first made in England by
Walker of Stockton, in 1830, and afterwards
when they came generally into use about 1839,
records of deaths from phosphor poisoning were
conspicuous by their absence.

Since Germany discovered and first produced
phosphorus, it is not surprising to find that
country is to-day the largest producer of matches.
Of these Germany boasts of an annual production

76 THE POISON WAR

of the value of £4,600,000 as against Great
Britain's £800,000.

The Chemische Fabrik Griesheim Elekktron of
Frankfort is probably the largest phosphor fac-
tory in the world, and its directors should know
something about the source of the supplies used
in the German projectiles, although I do not
suggest that they are responsible for the usage
thereof in warfare.

Since 1907 the use of white phosphorus in
matches has been forbidden in Germany.

In 1910 an Act of Parliament was passed in
England, forbidding the use of white phos-
phorus in the manufacture of matches, and the
importation of foreign matches manufactured
from the same.

The " safety matches " of to-day contain no
phosphorus — but in lieu thereof a layer of red
phosphorus is contained on the sides of the box.

The fact that red phosphorus is non-poisonous
(when no white is present) has frequently led
people to suppose that the white possessed the
same characteristics.

A " rat exterminator " was once largely sold
in the United States of America, labelled " Not
poisonous, no danger." It contained 2*13 per
cent, of white phosphorus : two children were
killed by it— in 1894, at Yonkers, N.Y.— and the
makers were arrested.

Taylor records the case of a woman who
swallowed the scrapings of a number of lucifer

PHOSPHOR POISONING 77

matches. As these were made with red phos-
phorus the woman was not affected. She thought
the red was poisonous, and was disappointed in
her efforts to end her existence.

She then, however, proceeded to repeat the
dose, but with match heads made from white
phosphorus, and from the effects of this latter
poisoning she died.

Cases of phosphor poisoning are nearly six
times as numerous in France as in England. In
Germany and Austria- Hungary the proportion is
very large, probably owing to the extensive sale
of German-manufactured " rat pills " which
contain the white and red in combination.
These " rat pills " appear from statistics to be,
in Hungary, somewhat popular among wives
in dealing with recalcitrant husbands.

In the ancient medical literature of the Ayur
Veda, about 900 B.C., the administration of and
antidotes for poisons are treated. It is set forth
that :

" As the enemies of the Rajas (bad women)
sometimes mix poison with the food, on this
account the cook should be of good family,
virtuous, faithful, and not covetous, neither
subject to anger, pride, nor laziness."

During the Balkan War, visiting Budapest on
the outward journey, I was pleased to renew
the acquaintance of a very intelligent friend
whom I had met in Paris. He was a man of
letters, albeit a bon viveur and a dandy.

78 THE POISON WAR

Subsequently, when the monotony of the
return journey was broken, for a spell, in the
Transylvanian Alps, at Sinaia, taking a favourite
walk in one of the picturesque paths near the
palace of the late King Charles, I was somewhat
startled by the greeting of an unkempt, tottery
apparition, in whom I scarcely recognized a
once leading light of Parisian clubland. The
gait of a man of vigour had been displaced for
that of one who might have been suffering from
a severe form of lumbago, accompanied by
melancholia. The face had lost its fullness, and
eyes, now of a yellowish hue, glared in vacant
fashion. The skin was tinged a lemon-yellow
colour, the corners of the mouth turned down,
and the forehead wrinkled.

A mild inquiry as to what ailed him produced
a maniacal expression of countenance, which
suggested that this was a topic best left alone ;
but I afterwards ascertained that he had suffered
from jaundice, and then had serious liver dis-
order, resulting from a dainty dish prepared for
him, by his wife, in the form of a plate of soup,
said to contain a portion of a phosphor rat pill.

It may be gathered that the effect of this
poison upon the troops will be largely dependent
upon the exigencies of the moment. It might
be inhaled in some cases, thereby producing
disastrous symptoms, for Vauquelin, by exposing
himself to the vapour of phosphorus, proved that
the poison is absorbed and diffused through the

PHOSPHOR POISONING 79

body, also that the breath of a person so poisoned
is luminous in the dark.

Glaister states that " when phosphorus is taken
internally the symptoms of poisoning are generally
very deceptive, for owing to its slowness of action
the patient may so far recover as to give the
impression of being almost cured, and it may be
that, several days after, a new set of symptoms
will appear — often accompanied by jaundice,
fatty degeneration of the liver and violent
epigastric pain."

In a case recorded by Dr. West in 1893, a
second period in which health seemed to be
restored is noted. It lasted six weeks from the
date of poisoning.

Taylor, referring to the " delay in appearance
of the symptoms, and their similarity (taken as
a whole) to disease," states as follows : " If it
were not for the peculiar character of the circum-
stantial evidence, these cases might easily throw
a practitioner off his guard. In general, several
days elapse before a fatal result occurs, and
during this time the patient undergoes much
suffering."

Thus a wounded soldier poisoned by a phos-
phorized bullet or fragments may depart on leave,
light-hearted and contented, only to suffer sub-
sequently the miseries of jaundice, with serious
kidney and liver disorders — from which he may
never recover — and thus is accounted for the fact
that great numbers of phosphor poisoning cases

80 THE POISON WAR

were not, and have not, been detected or recorded
in this war.

Beyond doubt the slow, and very deceptive
action of the poison weighed heavily as a factor
in the minds of the German chemists conceiving
its usage in warfare.

The marked discrepancies in the duration of
symptoms, and delay in their appearance, have
been accounted for by various authorities. Dr.
Smith writes that modern research has explained
these symptoms as due chiefly to fatty degenera-
tion of the liver and heart, " due to the power
which phosphorus is now well known to possess,
of inducing degenerative changes."

The period at which death takes place " varies
greatly," and according to toxicologists it may
supervene after several weeks.

To illustrate this remarkable variation I may
say that Dr. Habershon records a case in which
death took place in half an hour. On the other
hand, the French Journal de chimie medicale re-
ports the case of a woman who swallowed phosphor
rat paste — and she did not die until the fifth
day following the taking of the poison. In fact,
many cases have been recorded by Continental
observers, of death after a long delay, with a
partial recovery intervening. Glaister says they
recover and subsequently relapse in the most
despondent fashion. The theory of Continental
experts is that phosphorus is a blood poison, and
that it passes directly into the blood.

BURNING 81

Another dangerous phase which has been
engaging the attention of French professors, is
that of the burning caused by the German
phosphor bullets and shell fragments.

Can the symptoms of burning exhibited by
the French wounded have been caused by
ordinary bullets ? This is extremely improbable,
in fact almost impossible. Most authorities are
agreed that a bullet of the nature described does
not enter the body at such a temperature as to
cause burning at all. Major Girard of the
United States army sets forth, as the result of
extensive observations, that a bullet never ex-
ceeds a temperature of 150° F. MM. Nimier
and Laval attach no importance to the heat
acquired by bullets discharged in warfare. Simi-
larly, quite a dozen leading authorities might be
quoted in demonstration of the fact that a bullet
enters the body at a comparatively harmless
temperature.

A burn may be produced either by the applica-
tion of heat or by a chemical.

A burn produced by heat will exhibit, amongst
other characteristics : singeing of the hair of the
body and singeing of the clothing. That produced
by phosphorus will exhibit direct combustion of the
tissues and, probably, colour stains on the skin.

The antidote much in vogue is French turpen-
tine ; nevertheless, cases have been reported in
the present war, as the result of German shrapnel
fire, wherein this remedy proved of no avail.

82 THE POISON WAR

Seeing that the Allied Forces are waging war
against enemies who do not scruple to make
usage of the most diabolical methods, opposed
to all the traditions of civilized warfare, the
important question arises as to what may in
future constitute the wounded soldier's right to
assistance or pension at the hands of the War
Office authorities. The grave physical and other
disorders which may become manifest, in spite
of the fact that the soldier's wound is healed, in
many cases, will prevent him from following
any vocation, and these circumstances should
be hereafter taken into account.

ARTICLE IV

BARON DE BIEBERSTEIN ON AUTOMATIC
CONTACT MINES : GUN-COTTON, ITS HISTORY
AND COMPOSITION : T.N.T. : GERMAN " TRIP-
LASTIK " : CORDITE AND NAVAL DISASTERS :
TOLITE : CRESYLITE : MELINITE : LYDDITE :
PICRIC ACID : THE TURPIN EXPLOSIVES :
MINING EXPLOSIVES IN WARFARE

IN conversation concerning the vagaries of The
Hague Convention, as applied to the regulations
regarding contact mines, an ex-British naval
officer once referred to the speeches of his Excel-
lency Baron Marschall de Bieberstein, the German
delegate, as being " hypocritical." I give below
one of the Kaiser's ambassadorial representative's
characteristic orations.

Scene : the eighth plenary meeting at The
Hague, October 9, 1907.

An attempt had been made by a sub-committee
to codify regulations in the "Interests of
humanity," as to the avoidance of danger to
neutrals and non-combatants, arising from the
usage of contact mines.

The delegates being chiefly engaged in the
subtle art of looking after each other's interests
and these being of a divergent nature no practical
solution was arrived at.

83

84 THE POISON WAR

The British delegate, Sir Ernest Satow, had
proposed that the use of floating automatic
contact mines should be absolutely prohibited.
The laying of anchored mines should, he pro-
posed, be subject to their being so constructed
that they became harmless if they broke adrift.
Sir E. Satow proceeded to demonstrate, as he
said, in the interests of humanity, the grave
danger that unmoored mines presented to mari-
time commerce, and the reprisals which would
ensue, as a consequence of damage to neutral
trade in the event of their usage.

The other delegates appear to have been in-
fluenced by Baron de Bieberstein, who accepted
the responsibility of reply, of which the following
is a translation :

" A belligerent who lays mines on the high
seas assumes the entire responsibility towards
neutral Powers and peaceful traffic. On that
point we are all agreed. No one would have
recourse to such an expedient without pressing
military necessity. Now military necessity is not
the only subject dealt with by international law.
There are other factors. Conscience, sound judg-
ment, and the feelings of duty imposed by
principles of humanity will be the primary con-
siderations of naval officers, and will give a sure
guarantee against abuses. The officers of the
German navy, I say it proudly, will always be
guided by the unwritten laws of humanity and
civilization. I have no need to say that I

BARON DE BIEBERSTEIN'S SPEECH 85

thoroughly realize the importance of codifying
the conditions of warfare ; but such code must be
studiously kept clear of all laws which it may be
impossible to observe through stress of circum-
stances. It is of the greatest importance that
the international maritime law, which we would
create, should only contain those clauses which
it may be possible to observe even in exceptional
cases ; otherwise international law will be brought
into disrepute and its authority will vanish. As
for considerations of humanity, I cannot admit
that any Government or country is, in this respect,
superior to that which I have the honour to repre-
sent.'"'

Although it may have no immediate bearing
upon the foregoing speech of Germany's delegate,
I cannot refrain from reminding readers of the
result of an ex-U.S.A. naval officer's interview
recently with German officers in Germany. This
appeared in the Daily Telegraph, from which the
following is an extract.

" Whatever was committed in Belgium cannot
be called barbarism on the part of the German
army, but once let us get into England and there
will be no way of holding back our soldiers, and
no doubt the world will learn of atrocities com-
mitted unknown of to-day."

At The Hague Conferences China violently
protested against the immense amount of damage
caused to her goods and subjects by the floating
mines dropped by the Russians and Japanese

86 THE POISON WAR

during their struggle. The Chinese pointed out
that though it was three years since the mines
were dropped, they were still obliged to provide
their coastguards and coasting vessels with means
of collecting and destroying the floating mines
which threatened not only the high seas but also
territorial waters. They further stated that
though taking every precaution, a great number
of small craft had been destroyed with all their
crews, to the horror of the eastern world, and that
500 or 600 Chinese, while carrying out their peace-
ful occupations, had met a violent death caused
by these dangerous machines.

Lord Loreburn, in " Capture at Sea," says,
" Our country lives on imports and exports, and
if these are interrupted the population will be
starved. It is vital to us that our communica-
tions be free in time of war, and all our concessions
should be made with that object ; but can we be
sure of always succeeding ? Is it to our interest
to abolish the right of capture and uphold the
freedom of commercial navigation so stubbornly
refused by us for many centuries."

Since Britain held the monopoly of mari-
time trade, and the domination of the seas,
she was deemed, rightly or wrongly, by the
opposing delegates, to have an axe to grind
other than the " interests of humanity." The
upshot of these lengthy international conferences
was that in principle the main problems re-
mained unsolved. The provisions of the Con-

CONTACT MINES 87

vention No. 8,* dealing with this subject, do not
especially prohibit the laying of contact mines in
open waters beyond the territorial, three-mile
limit. For such prohibition we are dependent
upon the laws of humanity, but prior to the
present disastrous conflict, the most eminent
German writers on international law deemed it
prudent to go so far as to declare that they
failed to recognize, under international law,
the " territorial limit " as being three miles at
all. This zone, they state, is governed by the
limit of gun range, and one of the leading
German authorities placed this as being ten
miles.

The Convention 8 referred to was, however,
ratified by Austria-Hungary, but only by Germany
with the important reservation of Article II,*
which article, in effect, prohibits the placing of
such mines along the coast of an enemy, or before
its harbours, with the main objective of damaging
maritime commerce.

Contact mines are frequently charged with wet
gun-cotton. It is compressed until as hard as
ordinary wood — and then cut into slabs — shaped
not only for contact mines, but for torpedo heads,
for which it is also used.

Cotton, in various forms, enters into the com-
position of numerous other British and German
explosives now in use, and also the French, such
as the famous Poudre B., which is utilized for

* Appendix IV, p. 134.

88 THE POISON WAR

filling some classes of the " 75 " shell, and many
other projectiles.

Gun-Cotton. Few explosive discoveries have
been of such far-reaching importance, and few
have met with such a chequered career, as that of
nitro-cotton, generally termed gun-cotton. Un-
like many modern explosives it owes, not it is
true its actual origin, but its origin in a service-
able form, to the untiring zeal of an English
chemist, Sir Frederic Abel, who was materially
assisted in his researches by the British War
Department.

During the Crimean War (1854) Nobel is
stated to have first used submarine mines of
gun-cotton in an endeavour to prevent the enemy
ships from entering the Neva. The difficulties
attending its manufacture, however, probably
prevented such mines coming generally into use.
In 1844, a professor of chemistry at Basle, C. F.
Schonbein by name, discovered ozone, and this
is said to have led to the evolution, by the same
chemist, of gun-cotton in 1845. The inventor
came to England in 1846, in order to demonstrate
at Woolwich and Portsmouth the power of gun-
cotton, and in the same year he obtained a British
patent, under the name of " John Taylor." The
Faversham Powder Factory paid him £1000 and
entered into an agreement, by which Schonbein
was to receive a third of the yearly profits, in
consideration of his invention. But in 1847 the
powder factory was blown up by gun-cotton,

GUN-COTTON 89

and twenty-one men engaged in its manufacture
lost their lives. Soon after, similar explosions
in the manufacture of gun-cotton took place at
Vincennes, and at Bouchet, in France. Such a
sensation was created by these accidents that
both England and France forswore the manu-
facture of gun-cotton for nearly sixteen years.
After a long interval Austria acquired the process
of gun-cotton for 30,000 gulden. It was viewed,
however, with hesitation by the other Powers,
and their surmises became justified when, after
the loss of many guns by explosion, Austria's
Hirtenberg gun-cotton magazine blew up. In
1865 another terrific gun-cotton explosion took
place, near Vienna, causing Austria to prohibit
its manufacture. In 1862 Baron von Lenk
(Austria), having secured the patronage of
Napoleon III of France, and under the name of
Revy, took out English patents for an improved
gun-cotton process, with the result that its
manufacture was once more adopted by an English
firm, who met with the doubtful reward of having
their factory partially blown up, as a consequence.
Under the direction of Abel, the English War
Department then took up the manufacture of
gun-cotton, and in 1866, and 1867, Abel confided
to the Royal Society some remarkable results of
his researches on gun-cotton. These experiments
had the effect of revolutionizing the manufacture
of such explosives. In fact, by Abel's process,
gun-cotton became one of the safest known

90 THE POISON WAR

explosives, both to manufacture and to use. The
improvements effected mainly consisted of the
pulping of the gun-cotton, its compression, and
purification ; subsequently it was found (by an
English chemist) that gun-cotton, if dried, could
be violently exploded by detonation, and this
led to its use becoming general. In 1886 picric
acid came into use as an explosive, and thereafter
from time to time was employed for contact
mines, under various names.

T.N.T. At present, however, the explosive in
most general use for automatic contact mines
is tri-nitrotoluene, or " T.N.T." as it is popularly
called. Gun-cotton had the disadvantage of
danger of premature explosion, when employed
with a primer. Picric acid has been found inferior
to T.N.T. in contact mines, for various chemical
reasons, and T.N.T. has the advantage of being
much less costly. T.N.T. is prepared by the
conversion of toluene and its treatment with
nitric acid.

Toluene. Toluene is a colourless liquid obtained
from resins such as tolu ; the latter being the
product of a South American tree. Some of the
medicinal preparations of this resin are well known
to the public, as " Balsam of Tolu " and " Friars
Balsam."

T.N.A. T.N.T. is, however, claimed to be
absolutely surpassed both in power and in safety
of usage, by a new explosive, discovered by
Flurscheim, German Patent No. 242,079. This

EXPLOSIVES 91

is composed of tetranitraniline, and is made by
nitrating aniline, of which Germany has a plentiful
supply. It is the most powerful solid explosive
known to the world to-day.

D.N.T. In 1907 the Germans filled contact
mines from Triplastik, which they manufactured
from di-nitrotoluene (a deadly poison). This
was about the time of Baron de Bieberstein's
speech aforementioned, a number of German
experts being then engaged upon the especial
study of the evolution of automatic contact
mines. This poisonous explosive was also tried
in torpedoes, and it is possible that the enemy
is now employing it for that purpose.

Reverting to the subject of gun-cotton, this
explosive is now made by soaking cotton or waste
in nitric acid. Cotton is indispensable as it
absorbs the oxygen and nitrogen contained in
the acid, and is a combustible substance. " De-
tonation " is the result of heat or shock applied
with great explosive energy, whereby the oxygen
escapes from the nitrogen and enters into com-
bination with the combustible elements.

"Cordite." The "Cordite" used for naval
shells contains 65 per cent, of gun-cotton and
30 per cent, of nitro-glycerine (see p. 98).

M.D. This cordite is known as " M.D.,"
and is largely employed also for German naval
projectiles, under a slightly varied form, known
as Rohrenpulver (tube powder). The German
10 cm. guns use the article under the military

92 THE POISON WAR

mark of " R.P. 97." For the 13 cm. Germans
guns it is employed as " R.P. 07."

Gun-cotton is used in two forms, viz. the dry
and the wet. The dry explodes on detonation,
usually with mercury fulminate. The wet gun-
cotton contains 30 per cent, of added water, and
is thus a much safer explosive, requiring a far
greater shock. This is generally produced by
employing a primer of dry gun-cotton. From
the foregoing, it will be seen that cotton is an
indispensable adjunct to the German naval
explosive factory.

Naval Disasters. Reverting to cordite, this
and most of the smokeless powders are subject
to deterioration, and thereby to spontaneous
ignition. Naval catastrophes, due primarily to
this cause, have been so numerous in the past
that it may be safely assumed at least one of
those, in the present war, owes its origin to the
same action. On the morning of November 26,
1914, England awoke to be shocked with the
intelligence that our noble battleship the Bulwark
had blown up with the terrible loss of between
700 and 800 lives, at Sheerness. All sorts of
rumours were afloat, as to enemy submarines,
but these may be scouted. The Bulwark was
loading ammunition, at the time, from barges
(which also disappeared).

France lost the Jena in 1907, and the Liberte
in 1911, both in Toulon harbour, as the result of
spontaneous explosion. In the latter 204 men

TOLITE 93

were killed and 136 severely injured. Similarly
Brazil mourned the loss of the Aquidaba and
213 men, in 1906. In 1905, the Japanese battle-
ship Mikasa went down, with 599 men, blown
up, from this cause.

Tolite. Touching the nature of some other
explosives to which I have made reference, as
used in the present war, tolite is similar in
composition to tri-nitrotoluene or T.N.T. By
Haussermann's (German) process it is composed
of : nitric acid — 1 part — and sulphuric acid —
2 parts. This acid mixture is then allowed to
run slowly into 1 part of heated paranitrotoluene.

The German shells are filled with tolite in the
same fashion as with picric acid.

Tolite is in needle crystals of light to dark
buff colour, without odour. When burnt, it
does not explode, but exhibits a smoky flame.
During a fire at a German explosive factory,
nearly a ton of tolite burnt quickly away without
explosion. A rifle bullet fired through a mass
of tolite also caused no explosion. In fact, it
can only be exploded by very powerful per-
cussion or by detonation.

The vapour of tolite differs from that of picric
acid in the fact that the former is non-injurious.

The explosive powers of tolite are not so great
as those of picric acid, or wet gun-cotton. Never-
theless, its destructive effect is said to be greater,
particularly so at a distance. This is probably
due to the fact that (being of slightly less power)

94 THE POISON WAR

upon the bursting of a shell, the fragments would
necessarily be larger.

Cresylite. Cresylite is a solid substance of
yellow colour in crystal needles. It burns as
does picric acid, and is prepared in similar fashion
to that acid, by nitrification of phenol (carbolic).

Melinite. Melinite is fused picric acid. In
1871, Sprengel, a famous German chemist, de-
monstrated the power of picric acid — but it was
not until Turpin took out his patents, in 1885,
that melinite appeared. The process consists
mainly in the compression of the picric acid.

The same article, with various minor modifica-
tions, has since been adopted by all the Powers.

Lyddite. England named the picric composi-
tion " lyddite." Germany manufactured it
under the designation " Granatfiillung," and
Austria styles a somewhat similar preparation
" Ecrasite."

Picric Acid. Picric acid, discovered by Woulfe
in 1771 and reproduced by Haussermann in
1788, was long used as a natural digestive, before
its explosive properties were fully estimated.
It is usually manufactured by treating crystallized
carbolic acid with acid sulphuric, and running
the mixture gradually into nitric acid.

Picric acid is in pale yellow crystalline needles,
sometimes of a scaly nature. It has an intensely
bitter taste. When strongly heated it burns
rapidly away with a dense black smoke. It
does not, however, explode when heated under

PICRIC ACID 95

ordinary conditions. Explosion of the acid is
generally effected by detonation with mercury
fulminate. It is fairly soluble in water, its solu-
tion being intensely bitter, and of a bright yellow
colour. Hence its use for dyeing purposes.

In spite of the comparative safety in handling
pure picric acid, there have been many accidents
in its manufacture, notably, 24 killed and 178
injured at the Griesheim Elektron Company's
Works, at Frankfurt in 1901. On June 18, 1903,
16 operators were killed and 14 injured, by a
picric-acid explosion, at Woolwich Arsenal.

This acid is known, in the French Pharmaco-
poeia, under the name of carbazotic acid. In
the Japanese Pharmacopoeia, it is called by
chemical description, trinitrophenic acid ; the
dose taken is from J to 2 gr.

Its therapeutic usage is chiefly in the treatment
of ague and malaria. A pigment made from
picric acid has been very successfully applied,
in the treatment of ringworm and other skin
diseases.

The vapours given off by picric acid upon
explosion, are asphyxiating and highly dangerous
to those in the vicinity.

I noticed recently, in the communication of a
correspondent, that he confounded picrotoxin
with a preparation of picric acid. This is quite
an erroneous idea, for picrotoxin is a highly
poisonous, bitter principle, extracted from a fruit
known as Cocculus Indicus, or " fish berry " on

96 THE POISON WAR

account of its peculiar effect upon live fish.
When picrotoxin is made into balls with dough,
and thrown into a river, the fish become, in a
very short space of time, intoxicated. Pike and
carp will come to the surface, indulging in the
gyrations to which salmon are usually addicted.
After a time, a second stage develops, and the
fish lie flat on, or near, the surface, and may
thus be readily caught with the hand. The
experiment, however, is a highly dangerous one,
and poisoning has resulted from its employment.
The Turpin Explosives. Eugene Turpin, a
Parisian, born in 1848 of humble parents, in
that capital, studied dentistry in his early days.
This occupation, however, he soon abandoned
in favour of the mysteries of science. In 1877
he surprised the world with his " non-poisonous
colour " inventions.

At the age of 33, in the year 1881, he carried
out sensational discoveries touching explosives.
From his famous laboratory, at Charonne, he
subsequently evolved " panclastite " (a very
dangerous explosive made from nitiric peroxide),
also " melinite " from picric acid. Having parted
with the result of his arduous labour to the
French Ministry of War, he found himself accused
of complicity in the subsequent sale of one of
his secrets to an English company. Stoically
he bore the accusation, and eventually his
innocence was established. The great inventor,
a victim of political intrigue, had no sooner

THE TURPIN EXPLOSIVES 97

emerged from this trying ordeal, than he was
sentenced to five years' imprisonment for having,
it was alleged, divulged State secrets in his
historic announcement, " Comment on a vendu
la melinite." It was characteristic of Turpin
that his heroic fortitude never forsook him, and
without cessation, he proceeded to subject the
French Ministry to a bombardment of accusa-
tions, resulting in his final pardon in 1893.
The inventor's indomitable spirit, however, was
roused, and he unceasingly demanded the com-
plete annulation of his unjust sentence. M.
Waldeck-Rousseau, General Andre, and many
French notables championed the cause of this
suffering martyr, whose wounds they attempted
to heal, with the result that his services were
taken over by the French Ministry of War and
in part consideration therefor he was paid the
sum down, of 50,000 francs.

With reference to the recent inventions of
M. Turpin — without divulging secrets — I may
say that I believe this chemist to be responsible
for certain inventions now in use in the French
trenches. As to the existence of a novel ex-
plosive, emanating from the same laboratory,
the discovery of which was reported some time
since, Monsieur d'Arman, in his recently published
work, states (with the authority of M. Turpin),
as follows : " ce que je puis garantir, c'est que
ces inventions existent, qu'elles vivent, et sont
capables de jeter dans la guerre de taupes et de

98 THE POISON WAR

termites que nous voyons se poursuivre, des
elements decisifs de victoire."

Mining Explosives in Warfare. An explosive
is generally termed " high " when it is capable
of being fired by detonation, or instantaneous
explosion, and " low ': when the explosion is
comparatively of a slow nature.

Thus, for comparison, the distinction between
" lyddite " and gunpowder.

The most powerful detonator is mercury ful-
minate. Nitro-glycerine, or even gun-cotton,
if burnt in an open vessel, will not explode, but
the moment they are fired by detonation, ex-
plosion follows, the explosion being due to
decomposition.

In 1846 Sobrero discovered nitro-glycerine.
He was a clever professor of chemistry at Turin.

The subject of his discovery was put to the
test, in the laboratories of European War Depart-
ments, and found wanting — being considered
far too dangerous for handling in warfare.
Nitro-glycerine was therefore, for the time being,
relegated to medicinal usage. At the present
time it is much prescribed for angina pectoris,
dyspepsia, and other complaints. A weak solu-
tion is used for hypodermic injection, in cases of
collapse, where there is difficulty in swallowing.
It is also made in the form of tablets, each
containing Twth of a grain.

To relieve angina pectoris, asthma, sea-sick-
ness, etc., these tablets are reported, in medicinal

NITRO-GLYCERINE 99

literature, as of considerable value. They are
stated to be non-poisonous; in fact, a case is
recorded of two children having made a meal,
between them, consisting of two dozen tablets of
nitro-glycerine, without the production of serious
consequences.

A laboratory employe, in another instance,
partook of two ounces of nitro-glycerine, mis-
taking it for chocolate, and on the morrow was
none the worse for his stupidity.

Hungry soldiers have been known to suck
cordite, containing a large percentage of nitro-
glycerine, with no more inconvenience, as a
consequence of their rashness, than a superven-
ing headache.

Nitro-glycerine is made by the addition of
glycerine to a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acids.

In 1862, and thereafter, Alfred Nobel com-
menced to manufacture nitro-glycerine, he having
discovered the power of this explosive, under
detonation. In 1864, the Heleneborg Works,
near Stockholm, where the manufacture took
place, were blown up by nitro-glycerine. In this
disastrous explosion perished the brother of
Nobel, and his father was the recipient of
injuries from which he failed to recover. Alfred
Nobel undeterred, erected a new factory at
Kriimmel, under German auspices.

In 1867, after suffering many more accidents,
Nobel took out patents for a mixture of nitro-

100 THE POISON WAR

glycerine with a fossil absorbent earth termed
Kieselguhr, thereby providing the missing link
in the production of a comparatively safe ex-
plosive for blasting purposes, now known as
"dynamite," or " Guhr-dynamite." By 1873
fifteen factories had been equipped for manu-
facture of these explosives. In 1875 the same
genius followed with the invention of blasting
gelatine, or gelatine-dynamite, much in use for
mining to-day, and made from nitro-glycerine
and collodion cotton.

Other explosives sometimes employed, in blow-
ing up enemy positions, bear the fancy names
of donarite, and cheddite, the former being made
from nitrate of ammonia, and the latter from
chlorates.

Ammonal. Another explosive used in warfare
mining is known as ammonal, and is prepared
from ammonium nitrate. It was invented by
Von Dalmen, and is largely used by the Austrian
army for mining, also for filling high-explosive
shells.

It possesses a remarkable characteristic, viz.
extraordinary stability, so that shells filled with
ammonal will keep in any climate for years.

It only takes fire with difficulty, and is con-
sidered one of the safest explosives known.

The dynamite and ammonite class comprise,
in fact, a number of mining explosives in use
under various designations.

There is little doubt that the want of a non-

MINING EXPLOSIVES 101

asphyxiating explosive, for mining in warfare
is keenly felt to-day. " High " explosives have
a considerably greater percentage of oxygen than
those of the " low " variety. In the " high,"
the chemical changes take place much more
rapidly. All explosives, however, the so-called
" safe " included, give off asphyxiating or noxious
fumes, which are particularly dangerous in en-
closed spaces, such as underground tunnels.

In Article I, under the heading of " Blowing
up the Enemy," I refer to some of the poisonous
effects of these explosions, and to the heroic
nature of the sapper's silent task.

Berthelot lays it down that, the " formation
of a large volume of gas " is a necessary quality
of an explosive. Even gunpowder, when used
for blasting purposes, has its dangers, for upon
explosion large volumes of gas, at a very high
temperature, are produced.

Dr. Haldane, the scientist who is now engaged
at the front in investigating, for the British War
Department, the poison gas used by the Germans,
has made exhaustive experiments concerning
the effects of mining explosives. These are
chiefly contained in his " Reports to the Home
Department."

In 1878 Professor Berthelot was appointed by
the French Government, president of a com-
mission formed for the purpose of studying these
questions. As a matter of fact, during the siege
of Paris, in 1870, the French War Department

102 THE POISON WAR

called upon Berthelot to renounce his scientific
engagements in order that he might give his
country the benefit of his especial knowledge
in this direction. In 1887 another French com-
mission was appointed to inquire into these
matters. This Commission appears to have
arrived at the conclusion that explosives em-
ployed for mining purposes, which upon explosion
would have a high temperature, for example,
nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton, would be safer
if mixed with any substitutes having a low
temperature, and these researches led to the
introduction of explosives of the so-called
" safety " variety in France. By the admixture
of ammonium nitrate (having a lower tem-
perature) it has been found, however, that
there are various disadvantages in the employ-
ment of this compound.

Roburite. Roburite, a similar composition to
which was, at one time, largely in use by the
Germans, caused a great number of cases of
asphyxiation, these being chiefly due to the
carbon-monoxide given off. A committee was
constituted to investigate the subject, and
arrived at the conclusion that a longer time
ought to be allowed to elapse, before approaching
the point of explosion.

ARTICLE V

LIQUID-FIRE SPRAYS : INCENDIARY BOMBS :

SHELLS AND PASTILLES : THEIR HISTORY AND

COMPOSITION : ZEPPELIN BOMBS : THERMIT

A TREMENDOUS sensation was caused when a
French official communique gave first intelligence
to the effect that the Germans were spraying
the French troops with "liquid fire," also that
they were utilizing pitch and sulphur.

In some quarters our adversary was credited,
on this account, with remarkable ingenuity,
but as a matter of fact the talent displayed
has mainly consisted in the revival of ancient
methods of warfare.

The English used, in the earliest days of wooden
ships, balls of pitch mixed with sulphur and
naphtha, the missiles being termed " wildfire."

Marshall gives an interesting account relating
to the " sea-fire " of A.D. 668, as follows : " Some
forty-six years after the flight of Mohammed from
Mecca to Medina, the Arabs, still at the height
of their conquering enthusiasm, commenced to
beleaguer Constantinople by land and sea, when
an architect named Kallinikos fled from Helio-
polis in Syria, to the Imperial City, and imparted
the secret of the sea-fire. This repeatedly
spread such terror and destruction among the

103

104

THE POISON WAR

FIG. 9. The " liquid-fire " spray.

" LIQUID-FIRE " SPRAYS 105

Moslem fleet, that it was the principal cause of
the siege being eventually raised after seven
years. In A.D. 716 to 718, the Arabs again
appeared before Constantinople with eighteen
hundred ships, but again were defeated by the
fire ; so effectually, that after a stormy passage
only five galleys re-entered the port of Alexandria,
to relate the tale of their various, and almost
incredible disasters."

Russian Naval forces were similarly defeated
in 941 and 1043, and the Pisans at the end of the
eleventh century.

What then was the nature of this " sea-fire " ?
It was discharged from tubes or siphons in the
bows of the ships, but its mode of preparation
was kept a close secret, and it was never used
successfully by anyone but the rulers of the
Eastern Roman Empire.

Colonel Hime concludes that it was composed
of naphtha, quick-lime, and sulphur.

The Moors made continual usage of incendiary
missiles about the years 1240 to 1260. At the
siege of Weissenburg, in the year 1469, stone balls
were in vogue, covered with an incendiary
composition.

Our " State Papers " show that incendiary
devices were favoured about 1588.

In 1599 the Government ordered " 184 Slur-
bowe arrowes with firewoorkes."

Fire-lances or pikes were long employed until
about 1660. According to Hime, they were

106 THE POISON WAR

last in use at the first siege of the city of Bristol
in 1643. He refers to Prince Rupert's Diary
wherein occurs the following passage : " Running
in upon the Royalists with fire-pikes, neither
men or horses were able to endure it. The fire-
pikes did the feat."

Berthelot refers to an experiment made at
Havre in 1758 with a naphtha pump, the jet of
which was inflamed, — "par une meche allumee on
brula meme une chaloupe"

In 1860 the Chinese employed " fire arrows "
against the French. In 1863 the enemy was
sprayed with fire, by means of naphtha pumps,
at the battle of Charleston.

In 1870, during the siege of Paris, it was pro-
posed to utilize " petrole fire-pumps " against
the enemy, but records seem to show that such
means of incendiarism was not eventually re-
sorted to.

A member of the French Army Medical Corps
gave the following account recently to Reuter's
correspondent of the employment by the Germans,
in the present conflict, of fire-sprays and torches :
" After a relatively calm day they were startled
by finding jets of petrol being directed against
their trenches.

" The officer immediately ordered his men to
put out their pipes, but this was no use, for a
few seconds later fire-grenades rained on them,
and in a few moments the trench took fire. The
Germans, profiting by the confusion, approached

"LIQUID-FIRE" SPRAYS 107

and threw lighted torches, which increased the
blaze.

" No one could escape from the torrent of fire,
and the position became untenable. With their
clothes streaming with petrol, the French were
forced to abandon the trench. The second line,
which had entrenched a few yards behind, had
succeeded in checking an attack, which the
Germans delivered ten minutes later.

" A vigorous counter-attack by the French,
eager to avenge their comrades, wrought terrible
havoc in the enemy's ranks, and the Germans
were forced back to their original position,
leaving 150 dead and as many wounded on the
field, while sixty prisoners were taken."

Mr. Philip Gibbs, the Special Correspondent
of the Daily Chronicle, forwarded the following
communication from France upon the subject :

" A stretcher-bearer, working with a French
ambulance unit at the front in the Argonne,
confirms the fact that the enemy has adopted
the new and horrible method of attacking
trenches by drenching them with an inflam-
matory liquid.

" The first news of this new departure on the
part of the enemy was given in the French official
report last Saturday, wherein was stated : ' In
Malancourt Wood, between the Argonne and the
Meuse, the enemy sprayed one of our trenches
with burning liquid, so that it had to be aban-
doned. The occupants were badly burnt.'

108 THE POISON WAR

" This official account does not convey in
any little way the horror which overwhelmed
eye-witnesses of the sufferings of those brave
French soldiers, who were severely burnt by this
new invention of war.

" A detailed narrative of the first attack by
liquid fire was given by one of the less seriously
burnt soldiers. 4 It was yesterday evening,' he
said, c just as night fell that it happened. The
day had been fairly calm, and nothing fore-
warned us, as is usual, of a German attack.

" * Suddenly one of our comrades shouted,
" Hullo, what is this coming down on us ? Any-
one would think it was petroleum ! 5!

* At that time we were incredulous of the
truth, but the liquid which reached in two jets,
cleverly directed, was undoubtedly some kind
of petroleum. The Germans pumped it on us
by means of a hose, perhaps specially made for
the purpose.

" PUT OUT THEIR PIPES

4 The sub-lieutenant who commanded us
made us put out our pipes. But it was a useless
precaution, for a few seconds later incendiary
bombs began to rain down upon us. The whole
trench immediately burst into flame, and in order
to complete their barbarous work those bandits
took advantage of our disturbance by advancing
on the trench and throwing burning torches
into it.

THE FIRE-SPRAYING MACHINE 109

" * None of us escaped this torrent of fire.
Our clothes were soaked with petroleum, and
we were soon enveloped in flames and forced to
abandon our position. But we waited neverthe-
less until our comrades in the second line of
trenches were ready to defend themselves from
the German attack which developed a few
minutes later.' "

It will be observed, from the historical data,
that far from the evolution of any " new and
horrible method," the Germans were merely
adapting those to which recourse was had very
many years since.

The German Liquid Fire-Spraying Machine.
These machines are of two varieties, the one
portable and the other fixed.

The portable machine is a drum, or reservoir,
of oval or cylindrical shape, carried on a soldier's
back by means of straps. There is a belt connect-
ing, which passes round the waist of the carrier
and keeps the machine in position.

Near the centre of the drum is fitted a tube,
which, being bent, reaches nearly to the bottom
of the reservoir. The outer end of the tube
has affixed a socket to which is attached another
tube of a flexible nature, so that it may be
turned in the requisite direction by the operator.
This flexible tube directly connects with a stop-
cock, and the latter with an emission tube.

Towards the end of the emission tube is a
striking pin, connected with the stop-cock by

110 THE POISON WAR

another tube which is bound to the main tube.
When the stop-cock is in the course of closing
the striking pin is pulled back. When the
stop-cock is open it detonates a primer, which
automatically sets on fire the liquid utilized.

The emission tubes employed are straight when
intended for use in the open, and bent when
required for use under cover. The reservoir is
divided into two chambers, the upper containing
carbonic acid gas for creation of pressure, the
lower holding a combustible liquid, such as
naphtha.

The lower chamber is first filled, and the orifice
closed. Gas is then admitted to the upper
chamber until the pressure required is indicated
by means of a manometer affixed to the side of
the reservoir. The floor of this upper chamber
contains holes, allowing communication with
the lower one. The gas is contained in a small
steel bottle attached by a strap to the reservoir,
and communicating with it by a tube, having
a stop-cock. Thus, when the requisite pressure
is obtained, the gas receptacle may be detached.

The soldier points the spray, or emission tube,
in the requisite direction, and opens the stop-
cock on the jet tube, whereupon the inflammable
liquid is forced out at great gas pressure, and
carried in the form of a spray of fire, for a con-
siderable distance.

The liquid having previously been ignited by
detonation of the primer, the length of the flames

INCENDIARY BOMBS 111

is regulated by means of the stop-cock afore-
mentioned.

The non-portable machine simply consists of
the instrument described above, enlarged, and
sometimes of a battery of reservoirs. German
soldiers handling these weapons are frequently
protected with colliery helmets.

The pitch used by the enemy against the
French in the Argonne, and other fields of battle,
caused serious injury to the eyes of the French
soldiers.

Pitch acts upon the conjunctiva* of the eyes,
in an irritant, and dangerous fashion. Burns
derived from this source have also been known
to result in cancer.

Incendiary Bombs. In A.D. 1250, at the
period of the sixth Crusade, Joinville thus
described an incendiary missile : " It" came
flying through the air like a winged, long-tailed
dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with
the report of thunder and the velocity of light-
ning ; and the darkness of the night was dispelled
by this deadly illumination."

Marshall surmises that the reason why men
of the stamp of St. Louis and Joinville, usually
absolutely fearless, should have been terrified
by such a cause, and should have described it
in such exaggerated language, seems to have
been due to the fact that they looked upon it as
a product of the devil. By 1250 the Arabs were

* The membrane covering the eyeball.

112 THE POISON WAR

acquainted with saltpetre, and it is quite likely
that they mixed some with the incendiary, causing
it to burn far more fiercely.

Incendiary compositions, thrown by hand, and
from machines, appear to have been recognized
weapons of warfare prior to the introduction of
shells, the casting of the latter in metal being
then an art unknown.

One of the varieties of the French " 75 " shell,
which I have enumerated, possesses incendiary
properties. Shells partaking of these charac-
teristics have, in recent years, undergone many
changes, and the evolution of a satisfactory
incendiary shell was still an object of study by
the German and other ordnance departments at
the outbreak of hostilities.

Incendiary " pastilles " have been extensively
used by the Germans in the present conflict.
They are about the size of an ordinary large
lozenge, and of various colours. These pastilles
are carried in small canvas bags, by the soldiers,
each bag containing several hundreds. The
features reported concerning these agents of
incendiarism are that they burn away without
smoke, leaving no trace whatsoever. A French
chemist informs me that when burnt they do
not even discolour white paint. Having obtained
a bag of such pastilles, I was not allowed to carry
it away, and therefore have been unable to
examine the contents ; but the base is probably
aluminium.

ZEPPELIN BOMBS 113

Zeppelin Bombs. With regard to Zeppelin and
flying-machine bombs, much remains to be ac-
complished in the way of research and inven-
tion. One of the chief problems is the accurate
dropping of bombs with the minimum of danger
to the machine's crew. Many devices have been
evolved, with a view of dropping bombs from a
great height with precision — but even the best of
these is open to improvement. Another issue
is the weight of the missiles, lightness being a
necessity. It is stated that, in lieu of filling
Zeppelin bombs with ordinary explosive and
incendiary compositions only, the Germans pro-
pose to employ, in their meditated attack on
London, poisons or poison-gas bombs. The
poison-gas machine (Fig. 2, p. 25) has a device
which can be screwed on or off, and may serve
the purpose of filling Zeppelin bombs with such
gas (see p. 48).

The charge of poison may form the only
contents of the bomb or may be inserted therein
together with an incendiary agent, such as that
described below. The field open to our adver-
sary in the choice of the poisons to be employed
is so wide and comprehensive that a book might
be written about these and their antidotes alone.
Before discussing the best means of prevention
one must be quite certain as to the nature of the
poison gas used or to be used. Moreover, gases are
of different densities, and whereas some might flow

114 THE POISON WAR

downward, filling the areas and basements of
houses, others would be capable of ascending.

I can mention one of the probable lethal
weapons with confidence, as I have seen, on the
Continent, a Zeppelin bomb undischarged, which
was found to contain thermit, but in addition
there was a strong charge of a powder, composed
of red and white phosphorus (see p. 72). The
vapour given off by the burning of this composi-
tion would be very dangerous, producing amongst
other symptoms, necrosis * and luminous breath.

French oil of turpentine is considered the best
antidote for such cases, and might be used with
respirators. In the event of prussic acid being
the base of the poison, respirators soaked with
sal volatile would be useful, although the ammonia
in the sal volatile might cause some little incon-
venience.

For the other gases which the Germans have
already adopted, a solution of common hypo or
bicarbonate of soda appears to be the most
convenient remedy.

Hypo and the carbonate or bi-carbonate of
soda, being alkaline, neutralise the effect of the
poison. The best result would be produced by
a mixture of the two sodas, say :

5 ounces of sodium hyposulphite,

1 ounce of carbonate or bicarbonate of soda

dissolved in enough water to effect a solution,

to which may be afterwards added
1 ounce of glycerine.

* For further reference see p. 79.

THERMIT 115

The respirators are soaked in this solution.

The most efficacious protection of all is the
oxygen helmet.

Thermit. Besides the incendiary compositions,
to which I have already made reference, the
German bombs thrown from airships are fre-
quently filled with thermit.

In 1824 Carnot, a French expert, wrote his
" Reflections sur la puissance Motrice du Feu,"
a demonstration of the pro rata amount of heat
which could be made use of, for the production
of mechanical energy or work. In 1843 Joule
published his experimental calculations as to
the amount of mechanical energy, or work, which
corresponds to a specific amount of heat.

In 1848 the late Lord Kelvin, then Sir W.
Thomson, proved the value of Carnot's experi-
ments ; and from Lord Kelvin's, and other
researches, resulted the science " thermo-dyna-
mics " (that appertaining to heat and energy).
Thus " thermal heat " has become a term indi-
cating a measured or specific heat, " thermo-
chemistry " the science treating of heat evolved
in chemical reaction — such as burning or com-
bustion, for example.

In 1898 a German scientist named Goldschmidt
reduced the oxides of metals by a process which
was not only more practical from a commercial
point of view, but safer than that hitherto
employed. For this purpose aluminium was
selected, on account of the fact that it develops
a greater heat (oxidation heat), under certain

16 THE POISON WAR

conditions, than any other metal. Goldschmidt's
process consists of mixing the powdered oxide
of any convenient metal with an equally fine
powder of aluminium. The product was named
"thermit," deriving its title from a Greek word
meaning " to warm." In ancient times the
Roman public baths were called " THERMAE,"
and we know certain warm springs as " thermal
waters."

Firing. Although such incendiary bombs usually
contain no actual explosive, in the general
sense to which this term applies, they are, when
containing some mixtures, liable to react with
explosive violence, and many minor accidents
occurred in the earlier stages of thermit manu-
facture. Upon firing taking place, reaction
develops throughout the entire mass of thermit
in the bomb, and a heat of 3000° F. is evolved,
capable of setting fire to or melting almost any-
thing. The time taken to effect this reaction
and to create the fire is the all-important factor,
from the public point of view, and this would
necessarily be governed by the nature of the
metallic compound employed in making the
thermit. When an iron compound is used, the
average time required to produce such develop-
ment would be about thirty seconds (it would
vary with the nature of the fuse), and this might
enable people to evade the effects of the bomb.

I examined several of the thermit incendiary
bombs made in Germany only a short time prior

THERMIT 117

to the war, and these contained a piece of mag-
nesium ribbon, inserted in the top of the recep-
tacle or bomb-case. On the thermit charge, a
small quantity of mixture of magnesium, and
strontium or barium peroxide in powder, was
placed. This was intended to act, in combina-
tion with the magnesium ribbon, as a fuse. By
the time the ribbon had burned, the bomb would
possibly have attained its objective, the layer
of powder mixture on the thermit would have
been ignited, and a reaction would follow, deve-
loping an enormous heat and causing fire.

I am informed, however, that in some of the
bombs the magnesium fuse is dispensed with ;
this, however, has not proved an advantage, for
the missiles so constructed have been found in
many cases unreliable.

Little comfort is to be found in the idea that
Germany may run short of aluminium. Even
granting such a possibility, a substitute could
immediately be found in magnesium mixture
with silicon, or even in a calcium and silicon
mixture. In fact, many substitutes can be, and
probably have been, found.

The bombs weigh from 18 to 28 Ib. If they
only contain one of the mixtures aforementioned,
we have but to look for fire, but I am inclined
to the belief that a charge of poison, either of
the kind I have indicated or of some other, will
be inserted.

ARTICLE VI

THE GERMAN HIGH-EXPLOSIVE AND SHRAPNEL
SHELL COMBINED : THE CASUALTIES OF WAR :
PERCENTAGE OF MORTALITY AMONGST OFFI-
CERS : HISTORICAL TABLES : PERCENTAGE OF
LOSSES IN BATTLE FROM 1704 TO 1870 : RATIO
OF KILLED TO WOUNDED IN WARS 1864 TO 1904 :
THE BALKAN WAR : INCREASE OF BAYONET
WOUNDS

FIG. 10 shows a German howitzer shell combining
the characteristics of a shrapnel missile and that
of a high-explosive projectile. These artillery
weapons are also used in the Austro-Germanic
" 98 " field-guns.

During the Balkan War many such shells
were fired, and the surgeons present did not fail
to emphasize the serious nature of wounds
resulting therefrom. It follows that a projectile
which emits steel fragments in addition to
shrapnel bullets, to say nothing of poison, is
liable to cause much trouble to the R.A.M.C.

In the Balkanic trials the shells were found
defective in several respects, notably in that the
heads were apt to burst prematurely in the air.
This has now been remedied by the addition of
another " burster " between the shrapnel, and
the shell-head, in order that the latter may
burst off prior to the discharge of the principal

118

GERMAN HOWITZER SHELL 119

Fuse — ••

High explosive — *•

Ignition tube — *•

- Powder charge
(Low explosive)

FIG. 10. The German high explosive and shrapnel shell combined.

120 THE POISON WAR

burster. The chief reason advanced for the use of
these deadly weapons in warfare, is that by the
provision of modern field artillery with shields,
and the erection of barbed wire entanglements
and other obstacles, shrapnel alone is rendered
ineffective in this direction. The method of
filling these shells, and the arrangement of the
fuses, is the subject of much variety. In many
the base is charged with gunpowder, which, upon
explosion by a time fuse, scatters the shrapnel
bullets. The high explosive, T.N.T., tolite, or
other employed is, in these cases, contained in
the head of the shell. The explosion of the
powder charge causes the T.N.T. to partially
burn, the head of the shell thus travels along
alone, and bursts either upon impact or upon
action of the special impact time fuse it contains.
The shrapnel of these German missiles is largely
mixed also with sulphur, or phosphorus poison.

Casualties of War. If it were possible to obtain
adequate information, interesting data might be
afforded by a comparison between the number
of killed in the past as a result of the use of
the ancient and muzzle-loading weapons, and
those disposed of by means of the various guns,
explosives, and poisons now employed, following
respectively the march of science and barbarism ;
but this information is unobtainable, and prob-
ably will so remain.

Concerning the high rate of mortality amongst
officers, it should be borne in mind that the same

CASUALTIES OF WAR 121

is a noticeable feature if one examines the
statistics of other wars. The opinions of leading
authorities appear to differ as to whether this
may be due to the wearing of distinctive
badges, or rather to the fact that an officer
is usually in front, and therefore more ex-
posed to fire. The concensus of opinion seems
to be to the effect that, at ranges of 1000 yards
and more, the enemy's fire is not merely directed
to the picking out of individuals, but that at
close quarters the distinctive uniform is a source
of danger.

Upon this topic Sir W. G. Makins, F.R.C.S., one
of the Consulting Surgeons to the South African
Field Force, stated as follows in " Surgical
Experiences in South Africa " : "I much doubt
whether, at the end of the campaign, the entire
abandonment of distinctive badges will be found
to have had any very important result in
decreasing the relative number of casualties as
between officers and men."

The same authority continues to show that the
percentage of men killed in the Boer War up to
September 15, 1900, was " slightly lower than
in the Crimean War, and nearly corresponded
with that observed in the Franco-German
campaign."

A perusal of the following Tables may be of
interest. The Tables given are compiled from
those of Colonel Stevenson, Sir T. Longmore,
the Russian Tables published in 1906 — those

122

THE POISON WAR

issued by the German General Staff — the U.S.A.
Surgeon-General's Report, and the returns of
the British War Office.

CASUALTY TOTALS

The total casualties of :

The British Army in the Crimea was
The German Army in the war of 1870-1871 .
The English Army in the Boer War .
In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian casual-
ties were .

Of the strength
present.

15-1 per cent.
13-2 „
7-1 „

12-4

The Japanese losses in killed and wounded were 14-5

CASUALTIES AMONGST OFFICERS AS COMPARED WITH
THOSE OF NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND
MEN

(From the Tables compiled by Major Burtchaell, R.A.M.C.)

Percentage of killed and wounded in pro-
portion to the number of men engaged.

Battle.
Belmont
Graspan
Modder River
Magersfontein

Officers.
8-75
3-06
6-56

17-94

N.C.O/a and Men.
3-15
2-29
4-68
8-29

CASUALTIES OF WAR

123

TABLES SHOWING THE LOSSES PER CENT. OF
STRENGTH IN VARIOUS BATTLES

Battles and Dates

Strength

Total Losses
per cent.

. f British and Allies .
BLENHEIM 1704-( ^ ,, T^
1 Gallo-Bavanans .

56,000
60,000

23-0
66-0

KUNNERSDORF, 1759, Prussians .

40,000

65-0

TALAVERA, 1809, British .

22,000

24-6

fBritish and Portu-

VITTORIA, 1813 *! guese .

60,486

7-6

[British alone .

35,129

9-4

T 1R1<* (Allies

300,000

16-0

1C, 1 i ^ppgjjgjj

171,000

36-0

WATERLOO, 1815, British .

36,240

23-3

AIMA, 1854 (English
\Russians

21,481
60,000

9-3
9-3

("English

14,000

20-1

INKERMANN, 1854 1 French

41,800

4-5

[Russians

55,000

28-6

CRIMEAN WAR, English

97,864

15-1

fFrench
SOLFERINO, 1859 {Austrians . .

135,234
163,124

12-7
13-6

G i Sfi^/^11*011*8*8 *

117,350

19-7

aG' ' \Confederates

68,352

46-2

NEW ZEALAND WAR, 1863-66, British.

7,930

8-6

PRUSSO-DANISH WAR, 1864, Prussians .

46,000

5-3

WEISSENBERG, 1870, Germans .

106,928

1-4

WOERTH, 1870 {^™hnS '

167,119
46,000

6-3
36-9

GRAVELOTTE, 1870 (S!rm?;nS '
\French

278,131
125,000

7-3
8-0

FRANCO-GERMAN WAR, whole German

Army

887,876

13-2

BEAUNE-LA-ROLANDE, 1870, Germans.

91,405

0-95

124

THE POISON WAR

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CASUALTIES OF WAR 125

Bayonet and Sword Statistics. It is a signifi-
cant fact that the number of injuries sustained
from side-arms, even in the earlier days of
muskets, has hitherto been trifling as compared
with those sustained from other causes.

Stevenson says : " Bayonet and sword wounds,
as well as those of all other kinds of side-arms,
do of course occur ; but their frequency is so
insignificant, as compared with that of rifle
projectiles, that they may almost be set aside.
Field-guns and portable fire-arms have in recent
years reached such a pitch of perfection, and are
so destructive to fighting men, and at such long
distances, that but little opportunity arises for
injuries from other kinds of weapons to occur
in warfare. The men of almost every branch of
the service in all armies are nowadays supplied
with a fire-arm of one kind or another — rifle,
carbine, or revolver."

Medical-Inspector-General Delorme of the
French Army, in his "Traite de Chirurgie de
Guerre," sets forth the percentage of wounds
derived from side-arms in the wars between 1850
and 1900, as being from 2 to 3 per cent.

The history of the war in America shows the
percentage of such wounds as 0*37 per cent.
During this war, out of a number of 246,000
men wounded, only 922 of the wounds were
traceable to side-arms.

In the Crimea, according to Matthew, the
English Army sustained 10,129 cases of wounded,

126 THE POISON WAR

so far as the hospitals accounted. Of these
only 1*5 per cent, were from side-arms.

Fischer's statistics of the war of 1870 set forth
that out of a total of 54,268 wounds, side-arms
accounted for 1*4 per cent.

The " Russki-In valid " of December 8 and 9,
1906, is responsible for the statement that in
the Russo-Japanese War, between 1904 and 1905,
the Russian percentage was 1*7 per cent, of such
wounds.

Arriving at more recent campaigns, we find
during the Balkan War, quite to the contrary,
a prevalence of bayonet and sword wounds, to
such an extent that the proportion is stated to
have been about 10 per cent, in these wars.
Thus the statistics of the present conflict, when
they are compiled, may create some surprise in
this respect.

APPENDIX I

EXTRACTS FROM THE

APPENDIX TO THE CONVENTION (1907)

REGULATIONS RESPECTING THE LAWS
AND CUSTOMS OF WAR ON LAND

SECTION II : OF HOSTILITIES

CHAPTER I : MEANS OF INJURING THE ENEMY,
SIEGES, AND BOMBARDMENTS

Article 22

BELLIGERENTS have not got an unlimited right as to
the choice of means of injuring the enemy.

Article 23

Besides the prohibitions provided by special Conven-
tions, it is especially prohibited :

(a) To employ poison or poisoned arms ;

(b) To kill or wound treacherously individuals be-

longing to the hostile nation or army ;

(e) To employ arms, projectiles, or material calcu-
lated to cause unnecessary suffering :

The above Articles were adopted at the fourth Plenary
Meeting held at The Hague on August 17, 1907.

Major-General Baron Giesl de Gieslingen (Austria-
Hungary) who had acted as Reporter of the Committee,
made the report and read the Text to the Meeting.

On July 6, 1899, Sir Julian Pauncefote, in a letter to

127

128 THE POISON WAR

the Marquess of Salisbury, encloses a memorandum
drawn by Sir John Ardagh, in which the latter reports
as follows :

"Article 23 (E) enounces a sound principle, and
does not affect weapons or projectiles which conform
to it."

APPENDIX II

* EXTRACTS FROM THE

HAGUE CONVENTION (No. 4) 1907

CONCERNING THE LAWS AND CUSTOMS
OF WAR ON LAND

BEING animated also by the desire to serve, even in
this extreme hypothesis, the interests of humanity and
the ever-increasing requirements of civilization.

Thinking it important, with this object, to revise the
general laws and customs of war, with the view on the
one hand of defining them with greater precision, and,
on the other hand, of confining them within limits
intended to mitigate their severity as far as possible.

Have deemed it necessary to complete and render
more precise in certain particulars the work of the First
Peace Conference, which, following on the Brussels
Conference of 1874, and inspired by the ideas dictated
by a wise and generous forethought, adopted pro-
visions intended to define and regulate the usages of
war on land.

Article 1

The Contracting Powers shall issue instructions to
their armed land forces, which shall be in conformity
with the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs
of War on Land annexed to the present Conven-
tion.

* Only the wording bearing upon the questions herein at issue
is quoted, similarly articles having no reference to the same are
deleted.

129 I

130 THE POISON WAR

Article 3

The belligerent Party who shall violate the provisions
of the said Regulations shall be bound, if the case
arises, to pay an indemnity.

It shall be responsible for all acts done by persons
forming part of its armed force.

APPENDIX III

ANNEX II
(Translation)

DECLARATION
RESPECTING ASPHYXIATING GASES

THE Undersigned, Plenipotentiaries of the Powers
represented at the International Peace Conference at
The Hague, duly authorized to that effect by their
Governments, inspired by the sentiments which found
expression in the Declaration of St. Petersburg of the
29th November (llth December), 1868,

Declare that :

The Contracting Powers agree to abstain from the use
of projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of
asphyxiating or deleterious gases.

The present Declaration is only binding on the Con-
tracting Powers in the case of a war between two or
more of them.

It shall cease to be binding from the time when, in a
war between the Contracting Powers, one of the bel-
ligerents shall be joined by a non-Contracting Power.

The present Declaration shall be ratified as soon as
possible.

The ratifications shall be deposited at The Hague.

A proces-verbal shall be drawn up on the receipt of
each ratification, a copy of which, duly certified, shall
be sent through the diplomatic channel to all the Con-
tracting Powers.

131

132 THE POISON WAR

The non-Signatory Powers can accede to the present
Declaration. For this purpose they must make their
accession known to the Contracting Powers by means
of a written notification addressed to the Netherland
Government, and by it communicated to all the other
Contracting Powers.

In the event of one of the High Contracting Parties
denouncing the present Declaration, such denunciation
shall not take effect until a year after the notification
made in writing to the Government of the Netherlands,
and forthwith communicated by it to all the other
Contracting Powers.

This denunciation shall only affect the notifying Power.

In faith of which the Plenipotentiaries have signed
the present Declaration, and have affixed their seals
thereto.

Done at The Hague, the 29th July, 1899, in a single
copy, which shall be kept in the archives of the Nether-
land Government, and copies of which, duly certified,
shall be sent through the diplomatic channel to the
Contracting Powers.

(Here follow the signatures.)

NOTE

The following Powers acceded to both the above
Declarations, respecting expanding bullets and asphyx-
iating gases, on the dates mentioned :

Austria-Hungary . . September 4, 1900.

China .... November 21, 1904.

Germany .... September 4, 1900.

Italy .... September 4, 1900.

Japan .... October 6, 1900.

APPENDIX III 133

Luxemburg . . . July 12, 1901.
Servia .... May 11, 1901.
Switzerland . . . December 29, 1900.

Portugal also acceded on August 29, 1907, to the
Declaration respecting expanding bullets.

APPENDIX IV

(Translation)

CONVENTION (No. 8) RELATIVE TO THE
LAYING OF AUTOMATIC SUBMARINE
CONTACT MINES

INSPIRED by the principle of the freedom of the seas as
the common highway of all nations ;

Seeing that, while the existing position of affairs makes
it impossible to forbid the employment of automatic
submarine contact mines, it is nevertheless expedient
to restrict and regulate their employment in order to
mitigate the severity of war and to ensure, as far as
possible, to peaceful navigation the security to which it
is entitled, despite the existence of war ;

Until such time as it may be found possible to
formulate rules on the subject which shall ensure to the
interests involved all the guarantees desirable ;

Have resolved to conclude a Convention to this
effect, and have appointed as their Plenipotentiaries, that
is to say :

(Names of Plenipotentiaries.)

Who after having deposited their full powers, found
to be in good and due form, have agreed upon the follow-
ing provisions :

Article 1
It is forbidden :

(1) To lay unanchored automatic contact mines,
unless they be so constructed as to become
134

APPENDIX IV 135

harmless one hour at most after the person who
laid them has ceased to control them ;

(2) To lay anchored automatic contact mines which

do not become harmless as soon as they have
broken loose from their moorings ;

(3) To use torpedoes which do not become harmless

when they have missed their mark.

Article 2

The laying of automatic contact mines off the coast
and ports of the enemy with the sole object of inter-
cepting commercial shipping is forbidden.

Article 3

When anchored automatic contact mines are em-
ployed, every possible precaution must be taken for the
security of peaceful shipping.

The belligerents undertake to do their utmost to
render these mines harmless after a limited time has
elapsed, and, should the mines cease to be under
observation, to notify the danger zones as soon as
military exigencies permit by a notice to mariners,
which must also be communicated to the Governments
through the diplomatic channel.

Article 4

Neutral Powers which lay automatic contact mines
off their coast must observe the same rules and take the
same precautions as are imposed on belligerents.

The neutral Power must give notice to mariners in
advance of the places where automatic contact mines
have been laid. This notice must be communicated at
once to the Governments through the diplomatic
channel.

136 THE POISON WAR

Article 5

At the close of the war, the Contracting Powers under-
take to do their utmost to remove the mines which they
have laid, each Power removing its own mines.

As regards anchored automatic contact mines laid
by one of the belligerents off the coast of the other,
their position must be notified to the other Party by the
Power which laid them, and each Power must proceed
with the least possible delay to remove the mines in its
own waters.

Article 6

The Contracting Powers which do not at present
own perfected mines of the description contemplated
in the present Convention, and which, consequently,
could not at present carry out the rules laid down in
Articles 1 and 3, undertake to convert the materiel of
their mines as soon as possible, so as to bring it into con-
formity with the foregoing requirements.

Article 7

The provisions of the Present Convention do not
apply except between Contracting Powers, and then
only if all the belligerents are parties to the Convention.

Article 8

The present Convention shall be ratified as soon as
possible.

The ratifications shall be deposited at The Hague.

The first deposit of ratifications shall be recorded
in a Protocol signed by the Representatives of the
Powers which take part therein and by the Netherland
Minister for Foreign Affairs.

The subsequent deposits of ratifications shall be
made by means of a written notification addressed to the

APPENDIX IV 137

Netherland Government and accompanied by the
instrument of ratification.

A duly certified copy of the Protocol relating to the
first deposit of ratifications, of the notifications men-
tioned in the preceding paragraph, and of the instru-
ments of ratification, shall be immediately sent, by the
Netherland Government, through the diplomatic channel
to the Powers invited to the Second Peace Conference, as
well as to the other Powers which have acceded to the
Convention. The said Government shall, in the cases
contemplated in the preceding paragraph, inform them
at the same time of the date on which it received the
notification.

Article 9

Non-Signatory Powers may accede to the present
Convention.

A Power which desires to accede notifies its intention
in writing to the Netherland Government, forwarding to
it the act of accession, which shall be deposited in the
archives of the said Government.

The said Government shall immediately forward to
all the other Powers a duly certified copy of the notifica-
tion, as well as of the act of accession, mentioning the
date on which it received the notification.

Article 10

The present Convention shall take effect, in the case
of the Powers which were parties to the first deposit of
ratifications, sixty days after the date of the Protocol
recording such deposit, and, in the case of the Powers
which shall ratify subsequently or which shall accede,
sixty days after the notification of their ratification or
of their accession has been received by the Netherland
Government.

138 THE POISON WAR

Article 11

The present Convention shall remain in force for
seven years, dating from the sixtieth day after the date
of the first deposit of ratifications.

Unless denounced, it shall continue in force after the
expiry of this period.

The denunciation shall be notified in writing to the
Netherland Government, which shall immediately com-
municate a duly certified copy of the notification to all
the Powers, informing them of the date on which it was
received.

The denunciation shall only operate in respect of the
denouncing Power, and only on the expiry of six months
after the notification has reached the Netherland
Government.

Article 12

The Contracting Powers agree to reopen the question
of the employment of automatic contact mines six
months before the expiry of the period contemplated
in the first paragraph of the preceding Article, in the
event of the question not having been already taken up
and settled by the Third Peace Conference.

If the Contracting Powers conclude a fresh Conven-
tion relative to the employment of mines, the present
Convention shall cease to be applicable from the moment
when it comes into force.

Article 13

A register kept by the Netherland Ministry for Foreign
Affairs shall record the date of the deposit of ratifications
effected in virtue of Article 8, paragraphs 3 and 4, as
well as the date on which the notifications of accession
(Article 9, paragraph 2) or of denunciation (Article 11,
paragraph 3) have been received.

Each Contracting Power is entitled to have access

APPENDIX IV 139

to this register and to be supplied with duly certified
extracts from it.

In faith whereof the Plenipotentiaries have appended
their signatures to the present Convention.

Done at The Hague, the 18th October, 1907, in a single
original, which shall remain deposited in the archives
of the Netherland Government, and of which duly
certified copies shall be sent, through the diplomatic
channel, to the Powers invited to the Second Peace
Conference.

APPENDIX V

SIR J. PAUNCEFOTE TO THE MARQUESS
OF SALISBURY

(Received July 21.)

THE HAGUE, July 20, 1899
MY LORD,

IN my despatch of the 20th June I forwarded to
your Lordship a copy of the Report of the Second or
Naval Sub-Commission of the First Commission dealing
with the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Articles of Count Mouravieff's
Circular of the 30th December, 1898.

Your Lordship will observe from that Report that
when the question of interdicting the employment of
asphyxiating gases was discussed, the result of the
voting is summed up as follows : " quatorze Repre*-
sentants ont admis — toujours pour le cas d'une unani-
mite — la possibilite d'une interdiction de cette qualit6
de projectiles a gaz asphyxiants."

The British Delegate, Sir John Fisher, voted with
the fourteen States above referred to, while the Dele-
gates of the United States recorded their vote in the
negative.

The question was again brought up to-day at a plenary
Meeting of the First Commission to consider its proposed
Report to the Conference, of which a copy is inclosed.

Captain Mahan was pressed by the President to with-
draw his adverse vote for the sake of unanimity, but he
declined to do so. A vote was then taken on the pro-
posal (see the Report) to recommend to the Conference
a Convention or Declaration containing the three

prohibitions specified in Section I. After some discus-

140

APPENDIX V 141

sion separate votes were taken on the question as it
affected each of those prohibitions. Great Britain and
the United States voted affirmatively as regards the first,
and negatively as regards the second and third.

I inclose a Memorandum on the subject by Sir John
Fisher.

I have, etc.
(Signed) JULIAN PAUNCEFOTE.

APPENDIX VI

MEMORANDUM FROM SIR J. FISHER TO
THE MARQUESS OF SALISBURY, JULY
20, 1899, UPON THE QUESTION OF
ASPHYXIATING GASES

WHEN the question of the interdiction of asphyxiating
shell was originally brought forward at the second Sub-
Commission of the First Commission, Sir John Fisher
(on humanitarian grounds), joined in the vote for their
interdiction, but on the distinct understanding that the
vote was unanimous. It was obvious that if asphyxiat-
ing shell were adoped by any one nation, other nations
could not avoid their use.

On Captain Mahan (the United States Naval Delegate)
being pressed to-day by the President at the meeting on
the first Commission to withdraw his original voice in
favour of the employment of asphyxiating shell, he
reiterated his argument that he considered the use of
asphyxiating shell far less inhuman and cruel than the
employment of submarine boats, and as the employment
of submarine boats had not been interdicted by the Con-
ference (though specially mentioned with that object
in the Mouravieff Circular), he felt constrained to
maintain his vote in favour of the use of asphyxiating
shell on the original ground that the United States
Government was averse to placing any restriction on
the inventive genius of its citizens in inventing and pro-
viding new weapons of war.

The vote being then put to the Commission, " Yes "

or u No," whether the Commission should recommend

142

APPENDIX VI 143

in its report a Declaration or Convention prohibiting
the use of asphyxiating shells, and the United States
Delegates having voted against that proposal, Sir Julian
Pauncefote voted in the same sense.

(Signed) J. A. FISHER.

July 20, 1899.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Works not mentioned below are referred to in the text.

BROUARDEL, P., and OGIER, J. : " Le Laboratoire de toxi-

cologie," Paris, 1891

BROUARDEL, " Les Asphyxies par les Gaz, Paris," 1896.
DELORME, E., " Traite de Chirurgie de Guerre," Paris, 1888.
FROEHNER, E., "Lehrbuch der Toxikologie fiir Thierarzte,"

Stuttgart, 1890.

GAUTHIER, V., " Manuale di tossicologia, etc," Milan, 1898.
GLAISTER and LOGAN, " Poisoning in Mining," Edinburgh, 1914
HIME, LiEUT.-CoL., " Gunpowder and Ammunition," London,

1904

HALDANE, " Methods of Air Analysis," London, 1912
" Handbuch der Waffenlehre," Berlin, 1911.
MARSHALL, A., " Explosives," London, 1915.
STEVENSON, COL., " Wounds in War," London, 1910
WITTHAUS, R. A., " Toxicology," London, 1911.
44 Matthew's Medical, etc. History of the British Army in the

Crimea."
44 Correspondence respecting the Second Peace Conference, held

at The Hague in 1907," London, 1908.
44 Protocols of the Eleven Plenary Meetings of the Second Peace

Conference, held at The Hague in 1907," London, 1908.
44 Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, held at The Hague in

1907, and Conventions and Declaration attached thereto,"

London, 1908.

WISE, T., " Commentary on the Hindu System of Medicine," Cal-
cutta, 1845.

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