Full text of "Political history since 1815 (excluding the United States)"

See other formats

SB 7M5 177

io^r^^^d^U^u^^

IN MEMORIAM
BERNARD MOSES

POLITICAL HISTORY SINCE 1815

(EXCLUDING THE UNITED STATES).

A SYLLABUS OF LECTURES

PREPARED FOR USE IN THE

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.

CHARLES H. LEVERMORE, Ph. D.,

Assistant Professor of History,

and

DAVIS R. DEWEY, Ph. D.,

Assistant Professor of Economics and Statistics.

BOSTON :
W. J. Schofield, Printer, 105 Summer Street.

1889.

T)3k3

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889,
BY CHARLES H. LEVERMORE AND DAVIS R. DEWEY,

In the Clerk's Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

ntmfM® WBOTS

PREFACE.

This book is intended to serve as a basis for a course of
lectures upon the outlines of political history in the nine-
teenth century. As used in the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, it is placed in the hands of the students, who
follow in its pages the oral lectures upon the same subjects.
The lecturer, feeling that his hearers already know the skele-
ton of his topic, is at liberty to provide the flesh, blood, and
life, wherever and however it may seem best. The students
are required also to read selections from the references and
from apposite articles in the current reviews and magazines,
and to submit abstracts of this reading, periodically, to the
instructor. It will be seen, therefore, that no attempt has
been made to refer to works that are not to be found in a
comparatively small class -library. No books have been
quoted which are not easily obtainable at a small cost. At
the same time, those who are near large libraries can readily
expand the reference work, if they so desire. The individual
student into whose hands the book may fall, and who may
desire more comprehensive guidance, is recommended to
resort to the bibliographies of modern history already pub-
lished in Dr. G. Stanley Hall's "Methods of Teaching
History'' (2nd ed.), and in Prest. Charles Kendall Adams's

"Manual of Historical Literature."

C. H. L.

D. R. D.

Boston, Mass., Feb. 1, 1889.

887317

LECTURES.

Page.

Introductory Lecture : Races, Governments,
and Religions of Men. ....
I— II. England and Her Empire.

III-IV. English Political Parties

V. Canada. The Cape Colony. .
VI. English Colonies in Australasia and Poly-
nesia

VII. The Asiatic Empire of England. .

VIII. China. Japan

IX. The Russian Empire

X-XI. The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.
XII-XIII. The Ottoman Empire and the Revolted
Christian States of the Balkan Penin-
sula.

XIV. The Present Empire of the Ottoman Turks.
The Eastern Question.
XV. German Confederations and the Growth of

Prussia

XVI. The German Empire, 1871-.

XVII. France, 1815-1870

XVIII. The Third Republic, 1870-.
XIX. Italy, and the Struggle for Unity. .
XX. Switzerland. The Netherlands. Belgium.
XXI. The Scandinavian Kingdoms.
XXII. The Iberian Peninsula: Portugal (with
Brazil). Spain

XXIII. Spanish America, or the Revolted Colonies

of Spain.

XXIV. The African Continent. Colonization and

Emigration 112

8
18

32
34
41
45
49

72
78
81
86
90
95
98

101

107

BOOKS FOR GENERAL REFERENCE.

American Almanac. 1888.

Barker's Trade and Finance Manual. 1888.

Brace.— The Races of the Old World.

Dorchester. — The Problem of Religious Progress. New York,

1881.
Ewald. — The Last Century of Universal History. 1767-1867.

London, 1868.
Freeman. — The Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. London,

1882.
Fyffe. — A History of Modern Europe. Vols. I and II. New

York, 1887.
Labberton. — New Historical Atlas. New York, 1887.
Lalor. — Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and

United States History.
Latham. — The Varieties of Man. London, 1850.
Latham. — Russian and Turk. London, 1878.
Lodge. — A History of Modern Europe. The Student's Series.

New York, 1886.
Hazell's Annual Cyclopaedia. 1887, 1888, 1889.
McCarthy. — A History of Our Own Times, — from the Accession

of Queen Victoria to the General Election of 1880. 2 vols.

New York.
Meyer. — Hand-Lexikon des Allgemeinen Wissens. Leipzig, 1885.
Morris. — The Aryan Race. Chicago, 1888.
Mulhall. — The Progress of the World. London, 1880.
Muller. — Political History of Recent Times, 1816-1875. With

Special Reference to Germany. 1882.
Ploetz. — Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History.

Translated, with Extensive Additions, by W. H. Tillinghast.

Boston, 1884.
Putzger. — Historische Schul- Atlas. Bielefeld und Leipzig, Vel-

hagen und Klasing, 1887.

Vlll

Sergeant. — The Government Year Book. 1888.
Stanford. — Compendium of Geography and Travel. London,
1882. 4 vols., namely :

Bates. — Central and South America.
Johnson. — Africa.
Keane. — Asia.
Ramsay. — Europe.
Stieler's Schul-Atlas. Gotha, 1887.
The Statesman's Year Book. — Statistical and Historical Annual

of the States of the Civilized World. 1888.
Vincent. — Haydn's Dictionary of Dates and Universal Information.
New York, 1883.

» ' ' , •

POLITICAL HISTORY SINCE 1815.

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE.

RACES, GOVERNMENTS, AND RELIGIONS OF MEN.

I. RACES OF MANKIND.

1. Three broad, racial divisions of mankind, — the Negro, the Mon-
golian, the Caucasian.

" Topinard goes so far as to divide man into three distinct species. The first of these is
the Mongolian, distinguished by a brachycephalic or short skull, by low stature, yellowish
skin, broad, flat countenance, oblique eyes, contracted eyelids, beardless face, hair scanty,
coarse, and round in section. The second is the Caucasian, with moderately dolichoceph-
alic or long skull, tall stature, fair, narrow face, projecting on the median line, hair and
beard abundant, light colored, soft, and somewhat elliptical in section. The third species
is the Negro, with skull strongly dolichocephalic, complexion black, hair flat and rolled
into spirals, face very prognathous, and with several peculiarities of bodily structure not
necessary to name here. Morris : The Aryan Race, pp. 6, 7.

a. The Negro includes —

African Negroes, Bushmen, and Hottentots, Dravidians of
India, Oceanic Negroes, or Melanesians, the Negritos, Pa-
cific Ilanders, and the Australian aborigines, — the last five
divisions perhaps presenting, in most instances, various de-
grees of mixture of Negro and Malay Mongolian bloods.

b. The Mongolian includes —

Chinese, Siberian aborigines, Tatars, Turks, Finns, Lapps,
Basques, Eskimo, American Indians and Malays (perhaps
mixed races).

c. The Caucasian, probably resulting in its present form, at
least, from mixture of the other two, includes Hindoos, Per-
sians, Semitic people of Asia Minor, Arabs and people of
North Africa, all the people of Europe except Turks, Finns,
Lapps, and Basques. Name u Aryan " applied to Hindoos,
Persians, Greeks, Romans, Kelts, Teutons, and Slavs.

d. European Caucasian, , peoples classified, by differences of
languages inio tar; nWifc, divisions j'-^- - , .'

Greek.

Latin (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Rou-
manian).
Teutonic (German, Dutch, Scandinavian, and English),
Slavonic (Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Servians, Bulgarian).

e. Dark and fair Caucasians.

" Of the two sub-races which make up the Caucasian stock of mankind, the Xanthochroi,
or fair white, are now found most typically displayed in the north of Europe, mainly
in Denmark, Scandinavia, and Iceland. The Melanochroi, or dark whites, have their typ-
ical region in northern Africa and southwestern Asia. Between these regions an intimate
mixture of the two types exists, endless intermediate grades being found ; though, as a
rule, the Xanthochroic becomes more declared as we go north, and the Melanochroic as we
go south." Morris: The Aryan Race, p. 12.

" What, then, was the origin of the two Caucasian sub-races ? In response to this ques-
tion we may propound the views offered by Mr. J. W. Jackson, who advances the theory
that the Semitic (or, as we prefer to consider, all the Melanochroi) is really a derivative
from the Negro race; and the Aryan (or rather the Xanthochroi) is a derivative from the
Mongolian. Morris : The Aryan Race, pp. 15, 16.

II. GOVERNMENTS.

1. All Aryan peoples have shown a tendency to organize a govern-
ment with three characteristic features.

a. National chief, or King, with power more or less limited.

b. Council, of nobles, or aldermen.

c. Assembly of the whole people, or their representatives.

2. Governments gradually concentrate power upon the office of
King, — Despotic Monarchy ; or upon the Council, — Aristocracy (not
now existent) ; or upon the Assembly, — Democracy ; or upon all three
organs of government in proportion, — Limited Monarchy, Republic,
and Federal nations.

a. Despotic Monarchies. Power of National Chief lim-
ited only by force of custom and public opinion, or by fear
of revolution.

Russia,China, Japan, all Mohammedan and savage nations.

b. Democracies. Powers of government concentrated within
a parliamentary body representing the people, and controlled
completely and speedily by majority votes of that people.

France, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
and its Australian, Canadian, and South African colonies.

c. (1) Limited Monarchies. Fusion of hereditary monar-
chical principle with principle of government by parliamen-
tary law expressed through council and popular assembly.

Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, Italy, Greece,
Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Servia, Roumania, Bul-
garia, and, in form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland. Almost without exception, these nations are
imitating England in the concentration of powers upon the
popular assembly.

(2) Republics. Fusion of same principles as in (1), except
that hereditary monarch is replaced by an executive chief
elected by people for a limited term. See " Federal Repub-
lics "; also, in general, the republics of Central and South
America, and, in form, France.

NOTE.— Mexico and the Republics of Southern and Central America, with exception of
Chili, and the Argentine Republic, are Oligarchical Republics,— monopoly of power
by factious combinations of powerful families and interests. The five Central American
Republics, more nearly Democracies than the others in theory, are in reality more nearly
Despotisms or Oligarchies.

d. Federations. Unions of states (which conform in some
large measure to the principle of government by parliamen-
tary law) into one comprehensive national life under the
traditional governmental forms (vide 1, above). Separation
of organs of local government from those of national gov-
ernment. May be either monarchical or democratic in type.

(1) Federal Monarchies. Austro-Hungary, and the
German Empire.

(2) Federal Republics. United States, Switzerland,
Argentine Republic, Mexico, San Domingo, Venezuela.
The Republic of Colombia, formerly a weak confederation
under the federal form, is, since 1886, a centralized re-
public with some federal characteristics.

III. RELIGIONS.

1. Nature Worship. Crude primitive beliefs ; Shinto religion
of Japan among the most developed.

2. Confucianism. Ancestor-worship, state religion of China;
rites observed by all, even by adherents of other religions ; Buddhists
and Taoists (Mystics) ; bulk of population is Buddhist.

3. Brahmanism. Hindu religion, a social organization, and a
religious confederacy. In society, perpetuation of castes ; in religion,
combination of cultured philosophic faith of Brahmans with material-
istic beliefs of inferior races ; Brahman ideal, a life of ceremonial pu-
rity, self-discipline, and restraint ; gradation of castes from low to high.

Each caste is, in a measure, a trade guild, a mutual insurance society,
and a religious sect. W. W. Hunter : The Indian Empire.

4. Buddhism. Religion of good works; mortification of the will
and of bodily desires. Monastic institutions ; China, Japan, peninsula
of Farther India, Tibet, Ceylon, Cashmere, Nepaul. Monier Wil-
liams: Hinduism, 72-76.

5. Parsee. The worship of an Ideal Good under the image of
Light; sacred writings, the Zend-Avesta. Scattered remnants of
ancient Persian race, living for the most part in India.

6. Islam, or Mohammedanism. Creed, " There is but one God,
and Mohammed is his prophet." Sacred writings, the Koran ; sacred
city, Mecca in Arabia.

Secular head of Islam, the Turkish Sultan, the Caliph (i. e., fol-
lower, successor, of the Prophet).

Ecclesiastical head of Islamism, — under the Caliph, the Sheikh-
ul-Islam, chief authority of the Uleraa, the men learned in religion
and law. Statesman's Tear Book, 523.

Importance of Shereef of Mecca, — head of family of Mohammed,
and Guardian of the Holy Temple, the Caaba, at Mecca. Importance
of Ulema of Great Mohammedan Schools.

Turkish Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Russian Turkestan, and
parts of Siberia, China, southeastern part of European Russia, parts
of India, states of northern and central Africa, and of the east coast
of Africa.

Principal divisions :

a. Soonees, subjects of Turkish Empire in Europe, Asia, and
Africa. Accept the Soonah, or oral traditions, in addition
to the Koran, and pay equal honors to all Caliphs after Mo-
hammed. Stobart: Islam and its Founder, 197-199.

b. Sheeah, subjects of Persian Empire, found also in India,
Turkey, and the Soudan. Number about 20,000,000. Re-
ject the Soonah, and regard Ali, the fourth Caliph (656-661),
as the rightful successor of Mohammed. Stobart, 199, 200.

c. Wahahbees, people of Nejd, State in the center of the Ara-
bian peninsula, founded about 1750. Reject all modern
innovations and influences, and aim, first, at the revival of
the exact beliefs and customs of primitive Islam ; later, at
unity and independence of Arabia. Political power broken
in 1819. Stobart, 202.

d. Sultan of Morocco (lineal descendant of Ali) and his subjects adopt as a text-
book of faith a commentary on the Koran by Sidi Bokhari.

e. Sufis, Mystics ; in India and Persia. Stobart, 201.

7. Judaism. Religion of the Jews. Monotheism its principle.
Doctrines of " a chosen people," and of a future restoration to Pales-
tine. Sacred writings, the Law and the Prophets, of the Old Testa-
ment. Sacred city, Jerusalem. Found in all parts of the world.

8. Christianity. Origins of creed in Judaism, and in ancient
Greek philosophy ; doctrine of the Messiah ; creed, Apostles' creed
(see Book of Common Prayer); sacred writings, books of the Old
and New Testaments, excluding the Apocrypha.

a. The Eastern Christian Church. Constantinople, relig-
ious capital ; principal divisions follow national lines, com-
prising the most ancient forms of Christian organization, as
follows : —

(1) The Orthodox Greek Church. Absence of cen-
tralized hierarchical authority ; parochial clergy married;
monastic orders ; five patriarchates, Constantinople, Alex-
andria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Moscow [vide (2), below] ;
found in Greece. European Turkey, Georgia, and Asia
Minor. Stanley: History of Eastern Church, 4-17 '.

(2) The Orthodox Church of Russia. Offshoot of
Greek church ; Czar supreme in church as in state ; office
of Patriarch abolished by Peter the Great, and the Holy
Synod substituted therefor ; beliefs and usages same in
general as those of the Greek church. Number of dis-
senting communions, — the most considerable known as
" Starovers," or Old Believers, more conservative than
the National Church. The Orthodox Church of Monte-
negro is closely affiliated with the Russian Church.

Found in European and Asiatic Russia, the established
church of the Russian nation. Wallace : Russia, 426-434.

(3) The Orthodox Church of Bulgaria. Offshoot of Greek Church.

Orthodox Churches of Slavonic peoples under the rule of Hungary are
affiliated with groups (3), (4), and (5).

(4) The Orthodox Church of Servia. Offshoot of Bulgarian Church.

(5) The Orthodox Church of Roumania. Offshoot of Bulgarian Church.

(6) Chaldean or Nestorian Christians, in Kurdistan,
on the western borders of Persia.

Admit authority of first two general councils of the primitive Christian
Church; reject the third because that council condemned NeBtorianism, a
dispute about the nature of Jesus.

(7) The Armenian Church, in Armenia, and scattered
throughout the northern part of Turkish empire.

Patriarchate of Etchmiazin, in Armenia, their sacred city. Reject author-
ity of one out of the seven ancient general councils of the Christian Church.

(8) Church of Syria, or Jacobite Church.

Admit authority of first three general councils only. Differ from Greek
Church concerning nature of Jesus. Patriarchate of Diarbekir; Sacred
City, Antioch. The Christians of St. Thomas, in India, are classed with (7)
and (8).

(9) Church op1 Egypt, or Coptic Church. Descrip-
tion same as for (7) ; Patriarch of Alexandria, head of
church, lives at Cairo.

(10) Church of Abyssinia. Offshoot of Church of Egypt
and stands with it ; beliefs and usages more like those of
ancient Jews than those of any other Christian church.

(11) Melchites. Name applied to churches of Asia Minor
and Egypt which remain faithful to the Orthodox Greek
Church, and are not affiliated with the National Churches
of Syria, Egypt, Armenia, etc.

The Roman Christian Church. Developed in 16th
century, out of mediaeval European Church, which had grad-
ually separated from Eastern Christian Church, between
the 8th and the 12th centuries of our era. Rome, the
religious capital. Strongly centralized hierarchical admin-
istration of the Church culminating in unlimited ecclesiastical
power of Bishop of Rome, or Pope. Dogma of papal infal-
libility. Clerical celibacy. Monastic orders. Predomi-
nance of the Society of Jesus, commonly called "Jesuits."

Found in all parts of the world. Strongest in Italy,
France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Ireland, Poland, Bohe-
mia, Austria, and the nations of Central and South Amer-
ica. Divisions not assimilated :

(1) The Maronites, an ancient division of the Eastern
Christian Church, belonging to the Syrian Church, and
inhabiting Mt. Lebanon. In the 12th century (1181),
attached to the Romish Church. Use an ancient ritual
of their own. Inferior clergy allowed to marry. Found
also in Egypt and Cyprus.

(2) Melchites. Some of the Melchites, though using the
Greek rite, profess obedience to Rome.

(3) United Greeks, Bulgarians, Ruthenians, Chaldeans
(Nestorians), Copts, Armenians, and Roumanians. Sec-

tions of the larger divisions of the Eastern Church, which
have professed obedience to Rome. The local rites are
used. In some, clergy are married, and communion is
allowed to the laity. Service of United Roumanians is
in the language oi the people, the only instance of the
kind in the Roman Church.
c. The Protestant Christian Church. Principally de-
veloped in the 16th century, from the mediaeval European
Church. Luther and Calvin. Essential principle, asser-
tion of the independence of the individual judgment in
deciding questions relating to faith and morals. Absence
of uniform organization for church government. Principal
divisions indicate common preferences for methods of action
or expressions of belief.

Found in all parts of the world. Strongest in Germany,
Holland, Denmark, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, Great
Britain and colonies, and the United States.

Classified according to modes of church government, the
principal divisions are —

(1) Episcopal, hierarchical government, including —

(a) The Anglican Church, the Established Church of
England, and its representative in the United States,
the Protestant Episcopal Church.

(b) The Methodist Episcopal Church, found mainly among
English-speaking peoples. Originated in a great relig-
ious revival of the 18th century, in England.

(c) The Unitas Fratrum, or Moravians, dating from the
early Reformation period, and found in Germany,
Great Britain, and the United States.

(2) Congregational, each church self-governing, includ-
ing—

Baptists ; immersion, a necessary mode of baptism.
Congregationalists, including Unitarians andUniversalists.
Friends, commonly called Quakers.
Methodists.

Waldenses, and the Free Church of Italy, Italian Prot-
estants.

(3) Presbyterian, a system of parliamentary church gov-
ernment, without bishops, including —

Presbyterians, including the Established Church in Scot-
land.

Lutherans and Reformed (Calvinist). Most of the Prot-
estants of Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, Switzer-
land, and France ; the Consistory ; Lutherans strong
also in the United States.

Methodists.

Mennonites, Russian Protestants.

Total number of Christians, about 420 millions. Roman Christians, about 200 m. ; esti-
mates vary from 152 m. to 218 m. Protestant Christians, about 120 m. ; estimates vary
from 115 m. to 130 m. Eastern Christians, about 100 m. Buddhists, about 450 m. Brah-
manist Hindus, about 190 m. Mohammedans, more than 200 m. Parsees, about 85,000.
Jews, about 8 m.

LECTURES I-II.

ENGLAND AND HUH EMPIRE.

References: Acland and Ransome: Political History of England
to 1887; London, 1888. Amos: The Science of English
Politics, International Scientific Series, London, 1883. Bright:
History of England, vols, iii, iv ; London, 1888. Buxton:
The Imperial Parliament Series, 8 vols. ; London, 1885.
Especially, Baxter: England and Russia. Lome: Imperial
Federation. Lubbock: Representation. Richard and Wil-
liams: Disestablishment. English Citizen Series, 13 vols.;
London, 1883. Especially, Chalmers: Local Government.
Traill: Central Government. Walpole : Electorate and the
Legislature. Walpole: Foreign Relations. Fielden: A Short
Constitutional History of England; London, 1882. McCar-
thy : A History of Our Own Times, from the Accession of
Queen Victoria to the General Election of 1880, 2 vols. ;
New York. Mc Carthy : The Epoch of Reform, Epochs of
Modern History Series. Ward: Reign of Queen Victoria;
A Survey of Fifty Years of Progress ; 2 vols. ; London, 1887.

1. Component parts of the English Empire.

a. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, includ-
ing England, Wales, Scotland and outlying Hands, Ireland.

b. The Hand (kingdom) of Man.

c. The Channel Hands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark).
Area of a, b, and c, 120,832 sq. mi. A little smaller than
the territory of New Mexico. Population, 37,000,000.
Density, 303 to the sq. mi.

d. Colonies and Dependencies.

General References: Cotton and Payne : Colonies and Depend-
encies. E. J. Payne : European Colonies. Colonial Policy
and Progress in The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 403-559.
C. S. Salmon : The Crown Colonies of Great Britain. C. P.
Lucas : Historical Geography of the British Colonies.
1. Geographical distribution of English colonies.

For full list with date of acquisition, etc., see Statesman's
Tear Book, 286-289, and Hazell under British Empire.

Asia 1.84 m. sq. miles ; 261 m. popul.

Africa 45 m. sq. miles ; 2.8 m. M

America . . . 3.64 m. sq. miles; 6.2 m. "
Australasia . 3.26 m. sq. miles; 3.6 m. M
Europe (Gibraltar,
Malta, Heligoland) 119 sq.miles ; 177,000 u

Total, 9.19 m. sq. mi. 273.6 m. popul.
e. Estimate of total figures for the whole empire and its de-
pendencies, based generally on census of 1881 : —
Area, over 9 m. sq. miles. Popul., 320 m.
Revenue, £208 m. Public debt, £1,047,951,000.

2. The Central Government.

I. The Crown.

•' Although Parliamentary Government has existed since the Revo-
lution of 1688, the Crown has retained much of its influence, owing
to its position as the head of society, to its powers of patronage, and
to that love of monarchy which is characteristic of the English peo-
ple. The Sovereign has at present many legal prerogatives, most
of which are practically vested in the ministry, such as the power of
summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament at pleasure, of
refusing assent to any bill, of making peace or war, of dealing with
foreign nations by making treaties, and receiving aud sending ambas-
sadors, of pardoning offenders after conviction, and of creating peers.
Many of the feudal and fiscal prerogatives of the Crown, such as
purveyance, coining, regulation of markets, and the like, have been
surrendered. The Sovereign is, in fact, the head of the Church, the

army, and the law, the fountain of justice, mercy and honor, and has,
formally at any rate, the supreme executive power, as well as a co-
ordinate legislative power with the Houses of Lords and Commons."
Feilden, 26.

a. Separation of England from Hanover, 1837. Crown of
Hanover not to be inherited by a woman.

b. Annual expense of royal establishment : —

Queen Victoria receives from Treasury £385,000 per
year, £60,000 to her own purse, £325,000 for salaries,
pensions, alms, and general expenses.

Queen Victoria receives from the Duchy of Lancaster
about £45,000 per year, and for pensions £1200.

Prince of Wales receives from Treasury £40,000 per
year, and from Duchy of Cornwall about £65,000.

The Princess of Wales receives from the Treasury
£10,000 per year.

Annuities are paid to surviving descendants of George
III, to children of Victoria, and to wives or husbands of
these children. Amount uncertain ; estimated about £150,-
000.

The Financial Reform Almanac for 1884 estimates total
payments in one year to and for the Royal Family at
£886,973, and for Royal Parks and Pleasure Grounds at
£114,823 in addition per annum.
II. The Cabinet.

" It is theoretically an inner circle of the Privy Council, though
practically distinct from it, but, as a body, is not recognized by the law,
its members deriving their position from the fact of their being mem-
bers of the Council. It was natural for the Sovereign to select cer-
tain members of the Council as his more trusted and confidential
advisers, and as early as the time of Charles I. we find the actual
name, Cabinet Council, in use. Under the present system of minis-
terial government, ' the Ministry is in fact a committee of leading
members of the two Houses. It is nominated by the Crown, but it
consists exclusively of statesmen whose opinions on the passing ques-
tions of the time agree in the main with the opinions of the majority
of the House of Commons.' At the present time ministers do not
wait to be dismissed, as in the last century, but resign together, and
the Executive is now so closely connected with Parliament as to
represent the nation," Feilden, 44-46.

" The most curious point about the cabinet is that so little is known about it. The meet-
ings are not only secret in theory, but secret in reality. By the present practice no official
minute in all ordinary cases is kept of them. Even a private note is discouraged and dis-
liked. The House of Commons, even in its most inquisitive and turbulent moments, would
scarcely permit a note of a cabinet meeting to be read. No minister who respected the
fundamental usages of political practice would attempt to read such a note. The committee
which unites the law-making power to the law-executing power — which by virtue of that
combination is, while it lasts and holds together, the most powerful body in the state — is
a committee wholly secret. No description of it, at once graphic and authentic, has ever
been given. It is said to be sometimes like a rather disorderly board of directors, where
many speak and few listen, though no one knows." Bagehot: English Constitution, 82.

a. The present Cabinet consists of : —

1. Prime Minister, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ;

2. Lord High Chancellor ;

3. Lord President of the Council ;

4. Chancellor of the Exchequer ;

5. Secretary of State for the Home Department ;

6. Secretary of State for War ;

7. First Lord of the Treasury ;

8. Secretary of State for the Colonies ;

9. Secretary of State for India ;

10. First Lord of the Admiralty ;

11. Lord Chancellor of Ireland ;

12. Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland;

13. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster;

14. President of the Board of Trade ;

15. Secretary for Scotland ;
Occasional members are —

16. Lord Privy Seal (office sometimes joined to that of Post-
master-General) ;

17. President of Local Government Board;

18. First Commissioner of Public Works and Buildings.

b. How chosen.

«* On the resignation or dismissal of a previous ministry, it is customary for the sove-
reign to 'send for' some eminent member of one or other of the Houses of Parliament,
and to entrust him with the task of forming a new administration. It is his duty to select
such minister-designate from the ranks of the majority of the House of Commons, and,
further, perhaps (though this is a point on which some latitude of choree must naturally
and necessarily exist), to fix upon that one of two or more eligible candidates for the trust
who may appear the most likely to be acceptable to the majority of the party to which he
belongs. But with the designation of this one person the initiative of the sovereign is at an
end. According to modern usage the Premier alone is the direct choice of the crown, and
he possesses the privilege of choosing his own colleagues, subject of course to the appro-
bation of the sovereign. In the exercise of this privilege the Prime Minister then proceeds,
either with or without consultation with other leading members of his party, to nominate
the persons to be appointed to the various executive offices. The whole number of persons
thus nominated are in strictness entitled to the appellation of Ministers, while those ap-
pointed to the more important of these offices compose, either exclusively, or with one or
two additions, what is called the Cabinet* It is to this latter and smaller body that the office

of advising the Crown is confined. They, and they alone, are in the exact sense of the
words ' The Government' of the country. The Cabinet Minister is, as a matter of course,
' sworn of the Privy Council,' and advises the Sovereign, according to legal theory, in his
capacity of Privy Councillor alone, while that council itself at present takes no part what-
ever in this duty of giving advice, nor is in any way responsible for the advice given by
those particular Privy Councillors who form the Cabinet." Traill: Central Government,
11-13.

c. Responsibility to Parliament.

(1) Censure and dismissal from office.

(2) Impeachment.

d. Functions of the different members.

(1) The Prime Minister or Premier.

" There is no such official known to the language of constitutional
law as a ' Prime Minister.' Supreme as is the authority which the
so-called ' Premier ' has in course of time established over his col-
leagues, and complete as is their subordination to him, he is in theory-
only one among other ministers of the Crown, and his sole official
title is derived from the department over which he nominally pre-
sides. This department is usually the Treasury, and the office of
First Lord of the Treasury has been held by the Prime Minister,
either alone or in conjunction with another, ever since the year 1806."
Traill 31.

The First Lord of the Treasury should sit in the House of Commons. The Marquis of
Salisbury, the present Premier, is a Peer, and must sit in the House of Lords. When he
first became Premier, in November, 1885, he joined the Premiership to the Secretaryship
for Foreign Affairs, which office he now holds.

(2) The Treasury Board.

" The full official description of the persons who constitute this
Board is that of ' Lords Commissioners for executing the office of
Lord High Treasurer,' the said persons being the First Lord of the
Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and three other officials
known as 'Junior Lords.' The Treasury is still a Board of Com-
missioners in name, and the patent under which the members of the
Board are appointed still represents them as being of equal authority,
with powers to any two or more of them to discharge the functions
of the whole. But the Treasury has long since ceased to be a Board
in anything but name : it is now practically a department presided
over by a single head, the Chancellor of the Exchequer." Traill, 32.

Of this Board only the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer are, at present, members of the Cabinet.

(3) Secretaries of State.

" Constitutionally speaking, there is but one Secretary of State ;
for the five ministers who divide among them the departmental func-
tions are all of co-equal and co-ordinate dignity, all fully authorized to

transact, if need be, each other's business, all equally competent to
discharge those specific duties to the Sovereign which belonged to the
Secretary of State, when as yet there was only one. Thus they are
the only authorized channels whereby the royal pleasure is signified
to any part of the body politic, whether at home or abroad, and any
one of them may be empowered to carry the Sovereign's commands
at any time to any person. The counter-signature of a Secretary of
State is necessary to the validity of the sign-manual, and this coun-
ter-signature may be attached by any one of those five ministers.
The Secretaries of State were formerly resident in the royal house-
hold, and it is still the practice for one of them to attend the Queen
during her occasional visits to parts of the kingdom. It is a rule,
moreover, that one of them must always be present in the metropolis.
They all have necessarily seats in the Cabinet ; and, necessarily, they
are members of the Privy Council, and sit in one or other of the
Houses of Parliament. The Secretaries of Foreign Affairs, the Colo-
nies, and India, are appointed indifferently from either House. The
Secretary of War, however, has now for some years been selected
from the House of Commons, and an unbroken usage of nearly half
a century has confined the Home Secretaryship to the popular Cham-
ber." 'Traill, 60, 61.

(4) Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland.
" The government of Ireland is formally vested in a Viceroy, usu-
ally styled the Lord-Lieutenant, in abbreviation of his full official
title of ' Lord Lieutenant-General and General-Governor of Ireland.'
He is assisted by a Privy Council, consisting of fifty or sixty mem-
bers, whose sanction, like that of the English Privy Council, is neces-
sary to give validity to many of the official acts of the Executive.
The Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland possesses nominally very extensive
powers, but his actual freedom in their exercise is by no means com-
mensurate with their ostensible extent. He acts under instruction
from the Crown, conveyed to him by the ministry for the time being,
whose business ' is to direct him in his proceedings, and to animad-
vert upon his conduct if they see him act improperly, or in a manner
detrimental or inconvenient to the public service, or displeasing to
the Crown.' The Cabinet Minister, ordinarily responsible for advis-
ing and directing the conduct of the Lord-Lieutenant, was at one
time the Secretary of State for the Home Department; and it is
presumed that theoretically the responsibility still attaches to him.
But in practice it has now devolved wholly, and, considering his sub-
ordinate title, somewhat anomalously, on a functionary whose strict

official style is that of ' Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant.' The
Secretary for Ireland, as he is popularly called, has, since the aboli-
tion of the Irish Parliament, become essentially the Prime Minister
of the Viceroy. He wields great powers, which he is sometimes
called upon to exercise without communication with his chief, and he
is the minister responsible to Parliament for every act of the Irish
administration. He is invariably a Privy Councillor, and has always,
at least of late years, been a member of the lower branch of the
Legislature ; and the increasing frequency with which this part has in
modern practice been associated with a seat in the Cabinet is a testi-
mony to its augmented importance, and a proof of its virtual inde-
pendence of the control of the Home Secretary." Traill, 78-80.

(o) The Foreign Secretary.
" The Foreign Secretary is the official organ and adviser of the
Crown in its intercourse with foreign powers, and upon him devolves
the duty of conducting those international negotiations upon the suc-
cess of which the most vital interests of his country, or of Europe at
large, may on occasion depend. In affairs of this high moment the
general line of policy to be pursued would, of course, be settled by
the Cabinet collectively ; but the execution of the particular plans
agreed upon must be largely left in his hands, and according to the
amount of tact and address displayed by him in directing it, the min-
isterial policy may to a great extent be made or marred." Traill, 78.

(6) The Leader of the House.
The office of Leader of the House falls to some member of the
Cabinet, who directs the Parliamentary action of the partisans of the
Government, and in concert with the Speaker of the House exercises
important control over the duration of debates. This honor is held
by the Premier, if he sits in the Commons, but if he is in the other
House it is usually given to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, or the
Secretary for Foreign Affairs, or the First Lord of the Treasury.

" It is not to be wondered at that no constitutional topic has attracted more attention of
late yeare than that of the true relation between the Ministers of the Crown and Parlia-
ment. In the first place, this relation is, by its nature, of the most subtle kind, and sets at
defiance any attempt at legal definition. In the second place, no analogy or precedent for
the character of the relation, as it exists in England at the present day, is supplied by the
experience of any other country. In other countries the Ministers of the Crown occupy
a position either outside the representative Assemblies, as in the United States ; or in
only casual and desultory connection with them, as under even such free Constitutions as
those of France and Italy ; or one which is practically adverse to the representative Assem-
blies, in reference to which the Ministers merely personate the competing and conspicu-
ously jealous attitude of the Crown,— a state of things which seems to be represented in
the German Empire." Sheldon Amos : Fifty Years of the English Constitution, p. 336.

" The Opposition Party has now its recognized leader, who is the organ of communica-
tion, for all purposes of arrangement and simplification of public business, with the leader

of the Government, that is, the leader of the House. The Opposition recognizes, equally
with the party in power, the duty of loyalty to the clearly-ascertained will of its own major-
ity, or to the dictates of its chief, as presumably expressing that will ; and of faithfully
submitting to all the compromises or adjustments of business which its own chief, in con-
cert with the leader of the House, shall make from time to time, in furtherance of such
ends as that of deciding, satisfactorily, complex issues between the rival parties, and of
determining whether the party in power continues to possess, on some or on all topics, the
confidence of the majority of the House. In spite of the fact that it is the duty and habit
of the Opposition to do its utmost to expose the shortcomings of the Government, and
in fact to be the organ of the House itself, for the purpose of compelling the Government
to acknowledge the rights and claims of the House, and that thereby an irritating hostility,
sometimes of a most acrimonious and embittered sort, is engendered, — the existence and
nurture of the relations just adverted to between the Opposition and the party in power
have the effect of producing an extraordinary amount of unity of spirit and general co-
operation between the House itself and the Government. The Government seems to the
House to be, and is, the direct product and continuing creature of its own highest and
most intense organization." Sheldon Amos, pp. 341, 342.

III. The Parliament.
a. House of Lords.

(1) In 1886 this was composed of —

5 Peers of the Blood Royal, 29 Viscounts,

2 Archbishops, 24 Bishops,

22 Dukes, 285 Barons,

20 Marquesses, 16 Scottish representative Peers,

118 Earls, 28 Irish representative Peers.

(2) These hold their seats : —

(a) By virtue of hereditary right ;

(b) By creation of the Sovereign ;

(d) By election for life, — Irish Peers ;

(e) By election for duration of Parliament, — Scot-

tish Peers.

(3) Its Powers.

" From the Reform Act the function of the House of Lords has been altered in English
history. Before that Act it was, if not a directing chamber, at least a chamber of directors.
The leading nobles, who had most influence in the Commons, and swayed the Commons,
sat there. Aristocratic influence was so powerful in the House of Commons that there
never was any serious breach of unity. When the Houses quarrelled, it was, as in the great
Aylesbury case, about their respective privileges, and not about the national policy. The
influence of the nobility was then so potent that it was not necessary to exert it. Since the
Reform Act the House of Lords has become a revising and suspending house. It can alter
bills ; it can reject bills on which the House of Commons is not yet thoroughly in earnest,—
upon which the nation is not yet detei-mined. Their veto is a sort of hypothetical veto.
They say, we reject your bill for this once, or these twice, or even these thrice, but if you
keep on sending it up, at last we won't reject it." Bagehot: English Constitution, 99.

" In theory it has a coordinate power with the King, and the
House of Commons ; practically, it does not initiate important meas-
ures, but confines itself to amending and revising Bills sent up from
the Commons ; it is thus a most useful check on hasty legislation,

whilst on a matter on which the nation has really made up its minds
the Lords are compelled to yield, e. g., the Reform Bill of 1832. It
has the sole power of initiating Bills relating to the peerage, but can-
not initiate or amend a money Bill." Feilden, 126.

b. House of Commons, 670 members, composed of —

(a) Knights of the shire, representing counties (377).

(b) Burgesses, representing boroughs (284).

c. Parliament is summoned by the Crown ; new Parliament

in seven years.
3. Iland of Man.

Manx people are distinct Keltic nationality. Last kings of Man

were Dukes of Athole, who sold their revenues in 1765, but did not

give up entire rights until 1825, since which time only has Man been

a dependency of the British crown. Area, 220 sq. mi., popul., 54,000.

a. Government, home rule, consisting of Lieut.-Governor, and

an elected Parliament known as the Tynwald Court.

Two Houses of Parliament, the Council, and the House
of Keys. Acts of this Parliament receive the assent of the
British Crown. Must then be proclaimed on Tynwald Hill.
(See Introduction to Scotfs Peveril of the Peak, and article
by W. H. Rideing in Harper's Mag., Vol. 50.)

4. The Channel Ilands.

Government, Home Rule. Area, 76 sq. mi. Popul., 87,000.

Ilands divided into Bailiwick of Jersey and Bailiwick of Guernsey.
Each bailiwick under the control of its own representative legislature
called the »' States." The British government appoints for each baili-
wick a Lieut.-Governor and a Bailiff. (See Ansted's and Inglis's
"k Channel Islands")

5. Local Administration of England.

principal divisions.

a. The Parish. Organization ; a Vestry, and Board of Over-
seers of the Poor appointed by the Vestry.

Poor Law Parish, Highway Parish, and Ecclesiastical
Parish.

b. The Union. Generally an aggregation of Parishes ; au-
thority, Board of Guardians.

Most important duties, care of the poor and sanitation.

c. The County. Financial, judicial, and administrative di-
vision.

Chief authorities, — Lord-Lieutenant, Sheriff, Coroner,
Justices, and County Councils, the latter a representative
legislative and administrative body created by Act of 1888.

d. The City of London. English Citizen Series, Chalmers :
Local Government, 139-147.

e. The Local Government Board. The central authority
for local government. Chalmers, 150, 151.

" The local government areas into which England and Wales are divided may be enu-
merated as follows : There are 52 counties, 40 in England and 12 in Wales ; 239 municipal
borouglis, 70 Improvement Act Districts, 1006 urban sanitary districts, 41 port sanitary au-
thorities, 577 rural sanitary districts, 2051 school-board districts, 424 highway districts,
853 burial-board districts, 649 unions, 194 lighting and watching districts, 14,946 poor-law
parishes, 5064 bighway parishes, not included in urban or highway districts, and about
13,000 ecclesiastical parishes. The total number of local authorities who tax the English
rate-payer is 27,069, and they tax him by means of 18 different kinds of rates." M. D.
Chalmers : Local Government (English Citizen Series), p. 18.

6. Systems of Colonial Government.

a. English colonial governments are of three forms : —

(1) Those having neither responsible nor representative
government.

(2) Those having a representative but no responsible gov-
ernment.

(3) Those having both responsible and representative gov-
ernments.

(4) Dependencies.

(5) Protectorates.

b. Commercial importance. Colonies and Dependencies, 120-
125. The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 457, 458. One third
of British exports goes to the colonies. Colonies and Depend-
encies, 121.

c. England's colonies compared with those of France and Ger-
many.

(1) France. 885,000 sq. mi., or less than one tenth of
England's. Colonies represented in the French Senate
and Chamber of Deputies, and politically form part of
the Republic.

(2) Germany. Colonial possessions large on the coast of
Africa, but as yet not important. Change of policy in
1884, with extensive annexations.

7. Imperial Federation.

Marquis of Lome : Imperial Federation (in Buxton's Imperial Par-
liament Series).

a. Colonial conferences.

LECTURES III-IV.

ENGLISH POLITICAL PARTIES.

1. The different parties.

a. Tories ; Conservatives.

b. "Whigs ; Liberals ; Radicals.

c. Liberal Unionists.

d. Irish Nationalists, or Parnellites, or Home Rulers.

e. The administrations.

Tories ; Conservatives.

Whigs ; Liberals.

1812-1830

Lord Liverpool, Wellington.

1830-1834

Earl Grey.

1834-1835

Peel.

1835-1841

Melbourne.

1841-1846

Peel.

1846-1852

Lord John Russell.

1852

Derby.

1852-1858

Aberdeen, Palmerston.

1858-1859

Derby.

1859-1865

Palmerston.

1865-1866

Russell.

1866-1868

Derby, Disraeli.

1868-1874

Gladstone.

1874-1880

Disraeli (Beaconsfield).

1880-1885

Gladstone.

1885-1886

Salisbury.

1886

Gladstone.

1886

Salisbury.

A. Parliamentary and Electoral Reforms.

1. The term reform in English history is used with especial refer-
ence to representation in Parliament.

2. French Revolution and its ideas exerted strong influence upon
English politics, and diverted attention from domestic questions.
Whigs (C. J. Fox) inclined to criticise Revolution more favorably.
Tories (Pitt and Burke) violently oppose it and sustain the long war
against Napoleon. Popular Revolutionary societies. J3right ; His-
tory of England, II J, 1 1 60-62,

3. Attempts at Reform before 1832. Advocated in 1745 ; by Lord
Chatham in 1770; byWm. Pitt in 1782; by Earl Grey in 1792.
Lecky: History of England in \%th Century, IV, 60-62. Molesworth :
The History of England, I, 4-8 ; after 1816, bills were introduced
yearly. Molesworth, I, 11-14 ; 17. Opposition.

4. Rapid spread of Reform principles and of popular discontents
after 1815, due to —

a. Organization among workingmen. Knight : Popular His-
tory of England, VIII, chap. v.

b. Success of Irish agitation under O'Connell. See below.

c. Revolution of 1830 in France. Peaceful revolution con-
ducted by middle classes against reactionary king. See Lect-
ure xvii.

d. Manufacturing districts of the North of England unrepre-
sented in Parliament.

Domination of the land-owning class.
Triumph of Whigs over Tories in the Act of 1832 for the
reform of Parliament. Wellington. Knight: VIII, 262,
263. Bright,lll, 1420-22.

5» Character of the franchise and of representation in Parliament.
a. Distinction between county and borough franchise.

" The knight of the shire was the man of the county which elected
him. The borough member was ordinarily a burgess of the borough
which he represented. But the rule was not followed in the case of
the county. When the position of a member of Parliament became
a privilege, rich men evaded the law by being admitted to the free
burghership of the town. The election in a borough was not con-
ducted on the principle which was uniformly in force in the sur-
rounding county. In some towns the whole of the inhabitants, in
others the rate-payers, in others again the governing bodies, chose
the representatives. Originally, indeed, the borough franchise was
probably wide, and included either the whole of the adult male inhab-
itants of the borough, or those of them, at any rate, who paid scot
and lot, as the local and general taxes were called, or enjoyed the
freedom of the community. But it was the policy of the Stuarts to
limit the franchise, and the restrictions which were thus introduced
were continued by decisions of the House of Commons after the
Restoration. In consequence of these decisions, a great variety of
franchises existed in different boroughs.

These complicated and difficult franchises made the work of a
returning officer no sinecure. When Romilly stood for Horsham in

1807, only 73 electors voted ; yet the poll-clerk was occupied for the
best part of two days in taking down the description of every burg-
age tenement from the deeds of the voters. In Weymouth the right
of voting was the title to any portion of certain ancient rents within
the borough ; and, according to Lord Campbell's autobiography, sev-
eral electors voted in 1826 as entitled to an undivided twentieth part
of a sixpence." Spencer Walpole : The Electorate and the Legislature,
52-54.

b. Rotten and nomination boroughs. McCarthy: Epoch of
Reform, 25, 26.

" The members of the House of Commons were mostly returned
by decayed towns or little villages, and the inhabitants or electors
uniformly supported the nominee of their patron. It was stated in
1793 that 309 out of the 513 members, belonging to England and
Wales, owed their election to the nomination either of the Treasury
prof 162 powerful individuals. The 45 Scotch members were nomi-
nated by 35 persons. In 1801, 71 out of the 100 Irish members
owed their seats to the influence of 55 patrons. The House of Com-
mons, therefore, consisted of 658 members, and of these 425 were
returned either on the nomination or on the recommendation of 252
patrons.

"Some boroughs had almost literally no inhabitants. Gatton was
a park ; Old Sarum a mound ; Corfe Castle a ruin ; the remains of
what once was Dunwich were under the waves of the North Sea.
But the great mass of boroughs were a little more populous than
these places, and contained a dozen, fifty, or even one hundred
dependent electors." Spencer Walpole, 55, 56.

c. Non-representation of large and important districts.

"In 1831 the ten southern counties of Kngland and Wales com-
prised a population of 3,260,000 persons, and returned 235 members
to Parliament ; the six northern counties contained a population of
3,594,000 persons, and returned 66 members to Parliament ; Lan-
cashire, with 1,330,000 people, had 14 representatives; Cornwall,
with 3,000 inhabitants, had 44 representatives. In round numbers,
every 7,500 persons in Cornwall, and every 100,000 people in Lan-
cashire, had a member to themselves." Spencer Walpole, 58-

d. Restricted suffrage.

e. Bribery.

6. Act of 1832. Fyffe, II, 419-421. McCarthy: Epoch of Re-
form, ch. 6. Mutter, 149, 150. Molesworth, I, chs. 2, 3, 4, consider the
Reform bill in detail.

a. 56 rotten boroughs disfranchised.

b. 30 boroughs lost one member ; 2 lost two members.

c. 22 large towns given two members ; 20 one member.

d. County members increased from 94 to 159.

e. Changes in the franchise ; extension.

"Up to 1832 the county members had been invariably elected by
an uniform constituency, — the county freeholders ; the borough mem-
bers had been elected by different kinds of electors in different places.
The Act of 1832 exactly reversed this condition. The complicated
borough franchises were swept away ; and, except for the preserva-
tion of the rights of freemen and freeholders, the borough franchise
was confined to householders whose houses were worth not less than
ten pounds a year. The county franchise, on the contrary, was
enlarged by the admission of copyholders, of leaseholders, and of
tenants whose holding was of the clear annual value of fifty pounds."
Spencer Walpole, 62.

7. Change of party names. Conservatives and Liberals. McCar-
thy: Own limes, I, 28. Sir Robert Peel; Lord John Russell ; Pal-
mers ton.

a. Anti-Corn Law League, 1837-1846. Richard Cobden ;
John Bright. Gowing's Life of Cobden. Morley's Life of
Cobden. Molesworth, II, 178-226.

8. The English Radicals. Chartism. Molesworth, II, 270-302.
Bright, IV, 44-46, 87-89, 176-178.

9. Reform Act of 1867 ; Disraeli ; redistribution and reduction of
franchise. For abstract of the Act: Ewald, 232-238. McCarthy,
ch. 51, 52, II, 340-370. Molesworth, III, ch. 5, 271-355.

a. Rivalry of Disraeli and Gladstone. See Kebbeli Life of
Beaconsfeld. Emerson : Life of Gladstone.

10. Introduction of the Ballot. Ballot act of 1872. Gladstone.
Molesworth, III, 410, 411. Judges of Election Returns, 1868; Cor-
rupt Practices Prevention Act, 1883. Hazell.

a. "It is still felt by many who are most earnest vindicators of political liberty that the
effect of the ballot must be to impair political conscientiousness by hiding out of sight the
fact that the franchise is at least as much a trust to be publicly exercised as a right to be
privately enjoyed." Amos: Fifty Years cf the English Constitution, 39.

b. " The ballot is a machine to protect the individual voter, not against the nation on
whose behalf he exercises the trust, but against all sorts of illicit pressure, outrage, clamor,
intrusiveness, curiosity and confusion, which, on so solemn an occasion as that of recording
a vote for a member of the legislature, may disconcert even the strongest-minded voter,
and which voters of average mental strength and intelligence may be wholly unable to
bear up against." Amos : Fifty Years of the English Constitution, 39, 40.

11. Reform Act of 1885. Gladstone.

a. Extension of suffrage.

b. Redistribution of Parliamentary seats. Statesman's Tear
Booh, 212-215. Hazell.

c. Result of extension of suffrage in Ireland, the triumph of
Home Rule candidates except in Ulster; alliance between
Liberals and Parnellites to establish Irish Home Rule. —
See below, §B, 12, c.

12. Woman Suffrage.

" At a parliamentary election a woman cannot vote, neither can she Berve as a member of
Parliament. But a woman may exercise all local franchises if she be qualified in other
respects, and she also may fill most local offices. It haB been judicially decided that a
woman may be a commissioner of sewers, governor of a workhouse, keeper of a prison,
gaoler, parish constable, returning officer for a parliamentary election, guardian, and over-
Beer of the poor. In the case of the overseer the judges rather ungraciously intimated
that a man ought to be appointed, and that if there was no man available a woman was the
next best thing.

" Women have come forward lately in a good many instances to serve on school boards,
but with this exception they have not shown much disposition to take part in local affairs."
Chalmers: Local Government, pp. 11, 12.

13. Modern English Radicalism; John Bright, Joseph Chamber-
lain, Sir Charles Dilke, Charles Bradlaugh, Republican in tendency ;
Reform of House of Lords ; most urgent demands met by Reform
Act of 1885, and by Mr. Forster's Education Acts of 1869 and 1870,
establishing public school systems. Bright, IV, 462-66. See Wemyss
ReioVs Life of W. E. Forster.

B. Ireland and the Irish Question.

Popul., 5.1 m. ; area, 32,531 sq. mi. ; 4 times Massachusetts.

1. Four ancient divisions of Ireland : Leinster, Munster, Connaught,
and Ulster; the three former, Catholic ; the latter, Protestant.

2. History of Ireland before the Legislative Union with fmgland
(1801). First invasion from England, 1169. First real conquest of
the whole iland in the reign of Elizabeth, 1595-1602.

a. 1495. Statute of Drogheda.

(1) Irish Parliament not to be held except by consent of
King of England.

(2) No bill to be introduced into Irish parliament except
by King's consent.

(3) Recent English legislation should extend to Ireland.

b. 1597. Rebellion of the Irish. Green: Short History of
English People, 449-452.

c. 1633. The "Thorough" policy of Wentworth. Green,
509,510.

d. 1641. Irish massacre in Ulster; 30,000 Protestants slain.
The period of Cromwell. Deane : A Short History of Ire-
land, ch. v ; Green, 558.

e. 1652. Act of Settlement for Ireland. Land of the Irish
in Ulster, Minister, and Leinster was confiscated and dis-
tributed among those who had advanced money for the war,
and the soldiers. Papists who had not taken part in the
rebellion received land in Connaught.

f 1689-i"801. The Roman Catholics of Ireland supported
James II. ; after the Revolution treated with great harsh-
ness. Roman Catholics excluded from Irish Parliament.
Green, 670, 671 ; 772, 773.
"A reward of £100 is offered for information against any priest
who exercises his religious functions, for which the penalty is impris-
onment for life. Every Papist at the age of eighteen is to take
the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and subscribe the declaration
against transubstantiation and the worship of saints, in default of
which he is incapable of holding land by purchase or inheritance,
and the property is to go to the next Protestant kin. No Catholic is
to send his children abroad to be educated. N. B. — This Act was
rarely put into practice. Acland and Ransome: Political History,
124.

For the whole period before the Union. May: Constitutional His-
tory of England, II, ch. 16. Deane, ch. 7.

3. Legislative Union of Great Britain with Ireland, 1801 ; Imperial
parliament ; Ireland sent 32 members to the House of Lords, and 100
members to House of Commons. Deane, ch. 10. Green, 112, 113.

Pitt not successful in attempt to repeal certain Acts against the
Roman Catholics.

4. Emmet's Rebellion, 1803. Deane, 137.

5. Catholic Emancipation, 1829. Deane, 147-156. Green, 778-798.
Catholics admitted to all offices except those of Regent, Lord

Chancellor of England and Ireland, and Viceroy of Ireland. Daniel
O'Connell. McCarthy, ch. 12. Hamilton's Life of O ' Connell.

6. The tithe war. Molesworth, I, 293, 303, 373, 385; II, 18.
Deane, 156-168, 178. McCarthy : .Epoch of Reform, ch. 8. 1838,
Irish poor law.

" It is shown that the state church included little more than one tenth of the people, that
in 150 parishes there was not one Protestant, and in 860 parishes less than 50."

7. Agitation for Repeal of the Union, and for the reestablishment
of an Irish Parliament. Beginning of the " Home Rule " movement,

1843. Deane, ISo-ldO. McCarthy, I, 182-203. McCarthy: Epoch
of Reform, 191-194.

In this agitation O'Connell condemned the use of physical force, and
hoped to dissolve the Union by peaceful methods; this policy was
too cautious for the more radical portion of his followers, and there
was consequently a secession known as the Young Ireland Movement.
McCarthy, I, 302-317. Deane, 196-202. Epoch of Reform, 195.

8. Potato famine, 1847; emigration, chiefly to the United States.
. Deane, 190-193. McCarthy, I, 277-282.

9. Fenianism. Deane, 203-211. McCarthy, II, 373-390. Reign
of Queen Victoria, I, 577-583. Rutherford's Secret History of the
Fenian Conspiracy.

10. Disestablishment. Deane, ch. 14. McCarthy, II, 450-454,
463-471.

11. The land question. Deane, ch. 15. McCarthy, II, 471-479.
Land owned largely by few persons ; absenteeism ; evictions ; rack-
rent system ; Ulster tenant-right ; Clearances, and the Encumbered
Estates Act, 1848-49. Deane, 223. Mc Carthy, II, 473, 474. Bright,
IV, 165-168, 192.

a. First Land Act, 1860. Attempt to base relations between
the owner of the land and the tenant on contract instead of
custom, or common law. Reactionary measure against inter-
ests of tenants.

b. Second Land Act, 1870. For Gladstone's Speech, see
Molesworth, III, 385-388. Mc Carthy, II, 477. Deane, 230-
237. Bright, IV, 460, 461. Partly legalized Ulster tenant
right.

(1) Compensation to tenant for disturbance by landlord,
except in case of eviction for non-payment of rent.

(2) Compensation for improvements which are presumed
to be made by tenant unless landlord can prove the con-
trary.

(3) Possible for tenants to borrow two thirds of purchase
' money necessary to buy their holding from the Govern-
ment.

(4) Landlords might escape these conditions by letting land
on long leases.

c. Third Land Act, 1881 ; the " three F's." Deane, 238, 239.
Muller, 585, 586.

(1) "If a yearly tenant thinks his rent too high, he may
go before the Land Commission Court, and get a rent

fixed. This rent cannot be raised for fifteen years, and
then only by the Court which fixed it. This privilege is
called ' Fair Rent.'

(2) When a tenant has a fair rent fixed, he cannot be
evicted by his landlord except for non-payment of rent,
for dilapidation, persistent waste, or the breach of some
other statutory condition. This privilege is called ' Fix-
ity of Tenure.'

(3) Every yearly tenant has now an interest in his holding
which he can sell. Thus, a tenant wishing to give up his
farm can sell the right of succession for a sum equal to
several years' purchase of the rent. This privilege is
called ' Free Sale.'

d. Land Purchase Act of 1885, popularly known as Lord
Ashbourne's Act, — renewed and extended in 1888, appar-
ently a successful effort to increase the number of land-
owners. Deane, 239, 240.
" If a tenant wishes to buy his holding, and arranges with his
landlord as to terms, he can change his position from that of a per-
petual rent payer into that of the payer of an annuity terminable at
the end of forty-nine years, the Government supplying him with the
entire purchase money, to be repaid during those forty-nine years at
four per cent. This annual payment of £4 for every £100 borrowed
covers both principal and interest. Thus, if a tenant, already paying
a statutory rent of £50, agrees to buy from his landlord at twenty
years' purchase, or £1000, the Government will lend him the money,
his rent will at once cease, and he will pay, not £50, but £40 yearly,
for forty-nine years, and then become the owner of his holding free of
all charge." Up to Nov. 30, 1888, 11,920 applicants had received
advances amounting to £4,922,100; 3599 of these cases were tenants
paying less than £10 rent. No failures to pay installments.

13. The Home- Rule party, 1870. McCarthy, II, 542-545. Isaac
Butt, 1870-75; Shaw, 1875-77; Parnell, 1877-.

Agitation for restoration of Home Rule to Ireland based on disaf-
fection with the system of land tenure. Parnell leads successful revolt
of more violent wing of Home-Rule party against conservative leader,
Butt. " Obstruction " in Parliament, 1874-77. Bright, IV, 554-

560.

a. The Land League and National Convention system, 1879.

Refusal to pay rents. Agrarian outrages. Appeal to the

Irish in the United States. Bright, IV, 560-562.

(1) W. E. Foster's Coercion Act, 1881. Unparalleled
obstructive tactics of Irish members of Parliament. T.
Wemyss Beid: Life of W. E. Foster.

b. " No Rent Manifesto." Suppression of Land League, Oct.
20, 1881.

Organization of National Land League. Objects, polit-
ical and industrial independence. The plan of campaign ;
Michael Davitt, leader of the agrarian agitation. Doctrine
of the nationalization of the land. See Hurlbufs "Ireland
under Coercion" especially pp. 161-164; also Proceedings
before the Parnell Inquiry Commission, London Times, 1888.

(1) Phoenix Park murders, 1882. The " Invincibles."
Crimes Acts of 1882 and 1887. ffazell, 1888, pp. 166, 167.
The " Closure " to stop " obstruction," 1887. ffazell, 432.

(2) Contributions from America. The League in the United
States.

c. Alliance between Gladstone and Parnell, 1886. Gladstone's
Home-Rule Bill, April 8, 1886 ; defeated, 341 to 311. See
ffazell, 1887, uffome Ruhr

Gladstone's Land-Purchase Bill (1886), introduced to
accompany Home-Rule Bill, and failed with it. Contem-
plated universal purchase by new Irish state with money
loaned by English Treasury.
(1) Division of Liberal party.

(a) Home Rulers ; Gladstone, Morley, Harcourt.

(b) Liberal Unionists ; Bright, Hartington, Chamberlain,
Goschen, unite with Conservatives to maintain the union
of 1801, and to suppress agrarian crime in Ireland.

d. Appeal to the country. Defeat of Gladstone in General
Election of 1886. Marquis of Salisbury (Conservative),
Premier, 1886; A. J. Balfour, Chief Secretary for Ireland,
1887.

e. The League " proclaimed " under Balfour's Coercion Act,
Aug., 1887. ffazelVs Annual Cyclopedia, 1888, p. 386.

LECTURE V.

CANADA. THE CAPE COLONY.
A. Canada.

Reference; Payne: European Colonies, ch. 11.

1. Early history.

a. Until 1774, governed by England as a conquered province.

b. From 1774 until 1791, governed as a crown colony by a
Governor under the name of Province of Quebec.

c. In 1791, divided into Upper and Lower Canada, the Ottawa
River being the boundary between them. In each colony
a governor and council were established, but there was no
responsible government. Little wisdom shown in the gov-
ernment.

" The Councils and Assemblies could indeed vote new laws, but
their acts might be vetoed by an irresponsible Executive. The Coun-
cils and Assemblies voted supplies, but the Executive administered
them. No member of the Executive could be deprived of his post
by the Council and Assembly ; and however corrupt and unpopular
the entire government might be, it was removable only by the Brit-
ish Government, which acted through the Colonial office. The Colo-
nial office was presided over by an English Secretary of State, who
owed his position to the chances of party politics, and was sometimes
ignorant of the very names of the colonies whose fortunes were placed
in his hands. A system better adapted to degrade and irritate a
growing community could not have been devised." Payne, 103, 104.

2. Insurrection of 1837. Causes :

a. Ill feeling between the French and English.

** In Lower Canada there was a chronic animosity between the French and the English.
It was a war of races, which so divided the people that they hardly mingled in society, and
4 the oidy public occasion when they met was in the jury-box, and they met there only to
the utter obstruction of justice.' " The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 431.

b. Misrule.

" There was no agx<eement between the executive and the assembly. In all of them the

administration of pnblic affairs was habitually confined to those who did not co-operate
harmoniously with the popular branch of the legislature." The Reign of Queen Victoria,
I, 431.

3. Responsible government (the Union Act) granted in 1840.
Upper and Lower Canada were united.

" The subordination of the Executive to the Legislature, as in the
mother-country, which was thus secured, received the name of ' Re-
sponsible Government.' It was the emancipation of the colony, and
rendered it practically as free as one of the United States. It was
also the emancipation of the empire, for when secured in one of the
colonies it was within the reach of all. This change is the principal
event in our modern colonial history. Henceforth it was recognized
that the inhabitants of all colonies where Englishmen are the major-
ity were entitled to the same political rights as Englishmen at home."
Payne, 105, 106.

4. Canadian Federation. Payne, 162-164.

a. 1867, union of Canada, — composed of the provinces of
Ontario and Quebec, — Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick
as a u Dominion." Bright, IV, 433-435.

b. Since then Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, and
Manitoba have joined the Confederation. Newfoundland
not yet included.

" The Canadian federation was a consequence of the American civil war. Not only did
there seem to be every prospect of attack, but the action of the home government taught
the various colonies of North America that they must rely on their own strength for defense.
The necessity was common to all, and the advantages of a defensive union were conspicu-
ously brought before them." The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 433.

5. The Central Government of the Dominion.

u The government of the Canadian Dominion is modelled upon the
Federal government of the United States. P^ach of the seven prov-
inces which compose the Dominion — Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, and British Colum-
bia— -has its separate provincial legislature. The powers of these
provincial legislatures are limited to local questions ; and all matters
of general public policy are dealt with by the Parliament of Canada.

The Parliament of Canada meets annually at Ottawa, upon sum-
mons issued by the Governor-General in the Queen's name. The
real business of the government is carried on by a Cabinet of fourteen
ministers, who have the support of the majority in the House of
Commons. The Prime Minister of the Dominion, who is called upon
by the Governor-General to form an administration, and who forms
it out of his political supporters, is the ' Minister of the Interior.'
His duties, besides the general management of the government and

miscellaneous duties which are not entrusted to any other minister,
include those of the Home and Foreign Secretaries in England."
Payne, 143, 144.

England has a nominal veto upon Canadian legislation, but never
exercises it. Appoints the Governor-General.

6. Government of the Provinces.

" For provincial political business each province has its own execu-
tive and legislative bodies. Each has its Lieutenant-Governor, who
is appointed by the Governor-General. He is assisted by an Execu-
tive Council or Cabinet, enjoying the support of the majority in the
Legislative Assembly. Except Manitoba, all the Provinces have
Legislative Assemblies ; Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and
Prince Edward Island have also second chambers in the shape of
Legislative Councils. Ontario and British Columbia have none."
Payne, 144. Canadian voting ; The Nation, Jan. 10, 1889, pp. 29, 30.

7. Political parties in Canada.

a. Conservatives, or Tories ; Sir John Alexander McDonald.

b. Liberals, or Reformers.

8. Recent growth and development of Canada. Its indebtedness.
Its relations with the United States.

B. The Fishery Question.

Open sea is open to any one ; each state owns the sea for three
miles from the shore. Method of measurement.

1. The treaty of 1783.

"By the treaty of 1783, which admitted the independence of the
United States, Great Britain conceded to them the right of fishing on
the Banks of Newfoundland along such coasts of the same island as
were used by British seamen, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on
the coasts, bays, and creeks of all other British dominions in Amer-
ica ; as well as the right of drying and curing fish in any of the
unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, the Magdalen
Islands, and Labrador, so long as they should continue unsettled ; but
not the right of drying or curing on the island of Newfoundland."
Woolsey : International Law, 83.

2. Treaty of 1818.

u Article I. — Whereas differences have arisen respecting the lib-
erty claimed by the United States for the inhabitants thereof to take,
dry, and cure fish on certain coasts, bays, harbors, and creeks of His
Britannic Majesty's dominions in America, it is agreed between the
High Contracting Parties that the inhabitants of the said United

States shall have for ever, in common with the subjects of His Bri-
tannic Majesty, the liberty to take fish of every kind on that part of
the southern coast of Newfoundland which extends from Cape Ray
to the Rameau Islands ; on the western and northern coast of New-
foundland, from the said Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands, on the
shores of the Magdalen Islands ; and also on the coasts, bays, harbors,
and creeks from Mount Joly, on the southern coast of Labrador, to
and through the straights of Belleisle, and thence northwardly indefi-
nitely along the coast, without prejudice however to any of the
exclusive rights of the Hudson's Bay Company; and that the Amer-
ican fishermen shall also have liberty for ever to dry and cure fish in
any of the unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of the southern part of
the coast of Newfoundland here above described, and of the coast of
Labrador ; but so soon as the same, or any portion thereof, shall be
settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure
fish at such portion so settled, without previous agreement for such
purpose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground.
And the United States hereby renounce for ever any liberty hereto-
fore enjoyed or claimed by the inhabitants thereof to take, dry, or
cure fish on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays,
creeks, or harbors of His Britannic Majesty's dominions in America
not included within the above-mentioned limits ; provided, however,
that the American fishermen shall be admitted to enter such bays or
harbors for the purposes of shelter and of repairing damages therein,
of purchasing wood, and of obtaining water, and for no other purpose
whatever. But they shall be under such restrictions as may be neces-
sary to prevent their taking, drying, or curing fish therein, or in any
other manner whatever abusing the privileges hereby reserved to
them."

According to this treaty, therefore, American vessels can enter
harbors for shelter, food, or water, but not for bait*

3. Reciprocity treaty of 1854. Liberty to American vessels to
fish, and commercial privileges to Canadians. Fish were admitted
free of duty.

" The inhabitants of the United States shall have, in common with the subjects of Her
Britannic Majesty, the liberty to take fish of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea coasts
and shores, and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,
Prince Edward Island, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, without being re-
stricted to any distance from the shore."

This treaty terminated in 1866; treaty of 1818 again in force.

4. Treaty of Washington, 1871. Government of United States
agreed to pay Canada a certain sum per annum for the grant of right

to fishermen. In 1880 this treaty was extended for a further period
of five years. Allowed to lapse in 1886.
5. Present situation.

C. The Cape Colony.

1. Cape Colony, or Cape of Good Hope. Payne : European Colo-
nies, 185-191. Settled by the Dutch ; since 1806 possessed by Eng-
land.

English colonies in Southern Africa have been incorporated with
Cape Colony, except Natal ; and Natal, although a crown colony, pos-
sesses a representative government. The Boer republics also must
be ranked by themselves.

" The only colony outside the North American and Australian groups which has obtained
autonomy is the Cape Colony. This Colony has a Legislative Council of 22 members,
elected for seven years, and a House of Assembly of 72 members, both houses being elected
by electors possessing a property qualification. The Governor is president of the Executive
Council, which consists of the Cabinet plus several non-official members. The Cabinet
consists of the Attorney-General, the Colonial Secretary, who is the Premier, the Treas-
urer, the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works, and the Secretary for Native
Affairs." J. S. Cotton and E. J. Payne : Colonies and Dependencies, p. 151.

2. Natal. Payne, 191-195. Declared an English Colony in 1843.

a. Zululand, northeast of Natal ; war with Cetewayo, 1879.
Annexation of the territory occupied by the Zulus, 1887.

3. The Free States : Transvaal Republic, Orange Free State,
formed 1836-40; the new republic in Zululand, formed 1886-87;
Boers.

" These districts are occupied partly by natives and partly by Euro-
peans of mixed race, chiefly Dutch, whose ancestors have emigrated
in past times from the Cape Colony, and who are called ' Boers.' " Colo-
nies and Dependencies, 151.

War between Transvaal Republic and England in 1882 resulted in
nominal suzerainty of England, but practical independence of the
Boers.

4. Confederation of African colonies. Act of 1877.

LECTURE VI.

ENGLISH COLONIES IN AIJSTKALASIA AND POLYNESIA.

References : The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 437-448. E. J.
Pagne: European Colonies, ch. 12, 165-185. Silver: Hand-
book of Australia and New Zealand.

1. The eight English colonies: Fiji, Western Australia, Southern
Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and New
Zealand ; area nearly that of the United States ; popul., nearly 3 m.

2. New South Wales.

a. Early history ; discoveries ; Cook's voyages. Botany Bay
discovered in 1787 ; New South Wales the oldest settlement ;
first settled by convicts ; 1854, gold discovered; growing
importance of the colony ; poor government ; governors
were despotic ; no trial by jury or criticism of the press ;
four classes of society ; convicts, emancipists, free settlers,
and officials ; rivalry of emancipists and settlers who were
admitted into the colony in 1851.

b. Establishment of responsible government in 1855. Par-
liament ; Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly ;
nature of each ; the Governor and his Cabinet.

" There was one grievance common to all the Australian colonies. They objected to the
mode adopted by the Home Government in dealing with the public lands, and, in their
consequent anxiety to obtain full local powers of control, they hastened to avail them-
selves of the authority granted by the Act to introduce a more fully representative system
with two chambers. Their action was confirmed by the Home Parliament, and the public
lands were surrendered to colonial management. By that time New Zealand and the
Cape had obtained representative legislatures, the one in 1852, the other in the succeeding
year. The result of the policy of this period was, not only that representative institutions
had been granted to the colonies of Australasia and the Cape, but that throughout the
British possessions the independence of the colonial legislatures had been acknowledged,
and their claims to a parliamentary government satisfied." The lieign of Queen Victoria,
I, 414.

c. Question of single or double legislative chamber.
A. Advantages of a single assembly.

1. " That the enormously increased legislative business of modern times is, on the whole,
delayed, hampered, and interrupted to an extent wholly disproportionate to any benefits
derived by a second discussion conducted in a different assembly.

2. "As a barrier ag-ainst the tempestuous current of democracy, the Second Chamber is
worse than useless, because if the more popular Chamber is practically omnipotent, resist-
ance will only be persisted in in matters on which the mind of the people is not fully
made up, and therefore on which no legislation ought to take place at all ; which is only
saying that the popular Chamber is badly composed, not efficiently representing the peo-
ple, and prone to reckless legislation ; or if, on the other hand, the popular Chamber is
not omnipotent, and the two Chambers are of co-equal efficiency, legislation will either be
the result of a series of compromises, or be barred altogether by a succession of deadlocks,
as it has been in the British Colony of Victoria.

3. " So far as, like the Senate of the U. S. and of France and the Legislative Councils of
the Australian Colonies, it represents a different class of interests or sentiments, it is pure
legislative loss, without any compensating gain."

B. Advantages of a double assembly, or a bicameral system.

1. " That it affords a check upon the characteristic tendency of a democratic assembly to
hasty and precipitate legislation.

2. " Unless the constitution of the Second Chamber exactly repeats the constitution of
the first, its existence affords the opportunity of approaching a legislative problem from a
new point of view, and throwing, perliaps, fresh lights upon it.

3. " By prolonging and complicating the process of legislation, it affords multiplied op-
portunities for correcting the oversights, supplying the defects, and improving the struct-
ure of legislative measures.

4. " In the case of the Second Chamber being representative like the first, but represen-
tative of other classes of the community, it affords a security tliat the interests of these
classes are not overlooked." Amos: The Science of Politics, 238, 239.

See also May : Constitutional History of England, II, 535-537.

3. Victoria ; capital, Melbourne ; separated from New South
Wales in 1850; constitution granted in 1855; more liberal than
that of New South Wales ; legislative council elected instead of being
nominated by the Crown.

4. Southern Australia ; capital, Adelaide ; discovered in 1802 ; set-
tled by a company and not by convicts, 1836 ; real estate speculation ;
governed by the Crown until 1856, when a liberal constitution was
granted.

The Wakefield system.
" Mr. Wakefield's plan was to arrest the strong democratic tendencies of the new com-
munity, and to reproduce in Australia the strong distinction of classes which was found in.
England. He wanted the land sold as dear as possible, so that laborers might not become
land-owners ; and the produce of the land was to be applied in tempting laborers to emi-
grate with the prospect of better wages than they got at home. It was really a plan for
getting the advantages of the colony into the hands of the non-laboring classes." E. J.
Payne: European Colonies, 173.

5. Western Australia ; capital, Perth ; first settled on King George's
Sound by convict party from New South Wales, 1825, sent to antici-
pate a French attempt. Governor appointed by the Crown. Legis-
lative Council of 18 members, 12 of whom are elected. Growth of
colony retarded by convict labor.

6. Queensland ; until 1859 known as Morton Bay, a convict colony ;
not so advanced as others. Governor, responsible ministry, and two
Houses of Parliament. Excitement on annexation of New Guinea
in 1883, and over New Hebrides in 1887.

7. Tasmania; convict settlement, 1803-50; constitution and rep-
resentative government similar to that of New South Wales.

8. New Zealand ; English sovereignty proclaimed in 1840; repre-
sentative government; representation of natives in the parliament.

9. Fiji, ceded to England in 1874; a crown colony.

10. The transportation of convicts, 1787-1858 ; arguments in favor
of it ; objections.

11. Alienation of public lands. Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 443.
Hazell, 1888, p. 32.

12. The gold supply of Australia ; export of £700 m. ; no prospect
of a diminution.

13. The Australian system of voting.

14. Federation of Australian colonies; Act of 1885 providing for
a representative council to meet once in two years ; its power.

15. Doctrine that Crown may not appoint Governors without con-
sulting the local authorities. Resistance by the colony of Queensland
to choice of Crown for Governor of that colony, 1888. Sympathy in
other colonies. Australian nationality. Geo. Baden Powell: Select-
ing Colonial Governors; Nineteenth Century, Dec, 1888. A. W.
Stirling: Queensland; Fortnightly Review, Dec, 1888. United
Australia and Imperial Federation; Westm. Review, Sept., 1888.

LECTURE VII.

THE ASIATIC EMPIRE OF ENGLAND.

A. India.

References : W. W. Hunter: The Indian Empire. Sir Henry
Maine : India ; in The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 460.
McCarthy, II, chs. xxxii— xxxvi. Monier Williams: Hindu-
ism. Rhys Davids : Buddhism. Meredith Townsend : Will
England Retain India? Contemp. Review, June, 1888, p, 795.

Sir James Caird: India ; The Land and the People. A. R.
Colquhoun: Amongst the Shans. Sir J. Phear : The Aryan
Village in India and Ceylon. A. H. Keane : Asia ; in Stan-
fords Compendium of Geography and Travel. J. R. Seeley :
The Expansion of England ; Course II, Lectures II-IV.

1. Size, density, physical characteristics. Area, including Ceylon,
Aden, and Burmah, 1.66 m. sq. mi., or nearly one half United States;
popul., 260 m. Hazell.

2. History of acquisition by England. McCarthy, I, 440.

a. Organization of East India Company in 1600, for trading ;
rival companies ; final consolidation and exclusive privi-
leges to trade to all places between the Cape of Good
Hope and the Straits of Magellan.

b. Establishment of factories. Hunter, 276, 277.

c. Contests with Dutch and French trading companies.

d. Clive and the battle of Plassey, 1757. "History has
agreed to adopt this date as the beginning of the Brit-
ish Empire in the East."

Hunter, 285 ; Mutter, 154 ; or Lodge, 418.
(1) Conquest and annexation of Lower Burmah, 1826, and
1852 (Rangoon).

e. Governed by East India Co. until 1858. Hunter, 322,323.

f. Sepoy mutiny occurred, 1857-58 ; its cause, " an outburst of
terrified fanaticism," and desire to restore native independ-
ence ; the government transferred from East India Co. to
the Crown. Muller, 21)2-294 ; or McCarthy, II, 85-92.
Hunter, 318-322. t

<g. In 1876, Victoria took the title Empress of India. Hunter,

323.
h. Protectorate over Beloochistan established in 1883. Quetta,

chief town, occupied in 1876. Important only as an approach

to Persia or to Afghanistan.
e. Conquest and annexation of Upper Burmah ; King Thebaw ;

French intrigues, 1885-86 ; conflicts with native " Dacoits";

approach to Chinese frontier. uOur Task in Burmah''':

Fortnightly Review, vol. 41, p. 376.
j. Relations with Tibet ; war about territory of Sikkim, 1888 ;

interference of Chinese Ambassador at Lassa.

3. Language and Education. No single common name for all
India; extreme varieties; 106 different languages, of which 18 are
spoken by more than a million persons each. " India is much less

uniform than Europe." The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 461. In
British India, out of 200 m. inhabitants not more than six per cent can
read and write ; less than one per cent has any knowledge of English.

4. Religion. 187 m. Hindoos ; 50 m. Mohammedans ; 6 m. Bud-
dhists ; 1.8 m. Christians ; 85,000 Parsees ; bitter antagonism between
Mohammedans and Hindoos. W. W. Hunter: London (Weekly)
Times, Mar. 2, 1888, pp. 8, 9.

5. Administration and organization of the Empire of India.

a. Parliament of the United Kingdom the supreme authority.
India office in London ; Secretary of State for India respon-
sible to Parliament ; a Cabinet Minister, assisted by a
Council, divided into Committees. Hunter, 328.

b. Administrative divisions in India. McCarthy, II, 91, 92.

(1) Supreme authority in India vested in Viceroy or Gov-
ernor-General, who is assisted by Council ; both Viceroy
and Council appointed by the Crown.

Two functions of Council :

(a) Administrative, consists of Viceroy, and, usually, the
six appointed members.

(6) Legislative, consists of Viceroy and the six members,
with about twelve additional members, nominated by
the Viceroy, of whom one half must be non-official per-
sons, and of whom some are always natives.

(2) British possessions divided into 12 governments (two
presidencies, Madras and Bombay), and 10 provinces.

(3) Provinces divided into districts, — 240 in number, —
each in charge of a collector. " Upon the energy and
personal character of the collector depends ultimately
the efficiency of the Indian government." Duties two-
fold : fiscal officer, also civil and criminal judge. Hunter,
332.

c. Responsibility.

" The political constitution of India is regulated by a series of Acts of Parliament, which
culminate in the Act of 1858 transferring the government from the Company to the Crown.
By that statute it is enacted that India shall be governed by, and in the name of, the
Queen [now the Empress] through one of her principal Secretaries of State, assisted by a
council. The Secretary of State is a Cabinet Minister ; and, according to the practice of
the British constitution, he must have a seat in one of the two Houses of Parliament, while
his Under-Secretary must sit in the other. Responsibility to Parliament is thus provided,
with all that this entails. The Indian Budget is annually submitted to the House of Com-
mons, though the ways and means are not voted in detail as with the English Budget. Still
it is recognized in countless matters that the English Parliament is really the supreme
ruler of India." J. S. Cotton : Colonies and Dependencies, Part I, 36, 37.

d. The village communities of India.

" The community is so organized as to be complete in itself. The end for which it exists is
the tillage of the soil, and it contains within itself the means of following its occupation
without help from outside. The brotherhood, besides the cultivating families who form
the major part of the group, comprises families hereditarily engaged in the humble arts
which furnish the little society with articles of use and comfort. It includes a village
watch and a village police, and there are organized authorities for the settlement of dis-
putes and the maintenance of civil order Villages frequently occur in which

the affairs of the community are managed, its customs interpreted, and the disputes of its
members decided by a single Headman, Whose office is sometimes admittedly hereditary,
but is sometimes described as elective ; the choice being generally, however, in the last
case, confided in practice to the members of one particular family, with a strong prefer-
ence for the eldest male of the kindred, if he be not specially disqualified. But I have
good authority for saying that in those parts of India in which the village-community is
most perfect, and in which there are the clearest signs of an original proprietary equality
between all the families composing the group, the authority exercised elsewhere by the
Headman is lodged with the Village Council. It is always viewed as a representative body
and not as a body possessing inherent authority ; and Whatever be its real number, it always
bears a name which recalls its ancient constitution of five persons." Maine : Village Com-
munities, 122, 175.

(1) Zamindars, — land-holding aristocracy of Bengal,— rel-
ics of old Mohammedan Empire. Hunter, 334, 335.

e. Extension of local government. A. H. L. Frazer : Local
Self- Government in India; Fortnightly Review, vol. 39, 238
(1886).

Lord Ripon's policy, 1879-84 ; Ilbertbill. Extends bene-
fits of local self-government. Ilbert bill to extend jurisdic-
tion of native judges in criminal offences over Europeans.

f. Four Indian National Congresses :

In 1885 at Bombay ; in 1886 at Calcutta ; in 1887 at
Madras ; in 1888 at Allahabad.
Demands :

(1) Admission of Hindoo people to a share in the govern-
ment of India.

(2) Abolition of the Council of the Secretary of State for
India as at present constituted.

(3) Admission of Hindoos on equal terms with English to
the civil service of India, and upon competitive examina-
tion tests.

References: R. S. Watson: Indian National Congress; The
Contemporary Review, July, 1888. John Flagg : The Na-
tional Indian Congress ; Nineteenth Century, vol. 19, 710
(May, 1886). Sir Wm. H. Gregory: The Indian Moham-
medans ; Nineteenth Century, vol. 20, 886 (Dec, 1886). The
Allahabad Congress ; London (Weekly) Times, Jan. 4, 1889,
p. 12.

Reasons against representative government in India,
strongly stated by Lord Duffer in. London (Weekly) Times,
Dec. 7, 1888, p.'lO. N. T. Nation, J an. 10, 1889, p. 26.
g. Unifying influences : Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 462.

(1) Land system.

(2) Extension of Christian morality.

(3) Administration of justice by English courts.

(4) English language.

h. Wheat trade of India. Hunter, 384, 385 ; 452 ; current num-
bers of BradstreeVs.

6. Feudatory India. About 800 states, 20 or 30 large ones ;
area, 509,000 sq. mi. ; popul., 55 m. ; governed by native princes,
advised by agents appointed by Viceroy ; no right to make war or
peace ; some pay tribute. Hunter, 60.

7. Non-British possessions in India.

a. Portuguese, — Goa, Daman, and Diu on Western coast.
Popul., 400,000.

b. French,— Pondicherry, southeastern coast. Popul. 300,000.

8. Ceylon, Crown Colony. Cotton and Payne, 152, 153.

9. Relations with Siam and the states of the Malay peninsula ; most
of the latter dependent on British Empire. Admirable commercial
position of Singapore; occupied by the English, 1818-19.

B. The English and Russian Empires in Central Asia.

1. Russian encroachments upon Asia.

a. Possessions in 1750.

b. Lines of advance.

(1) Southeast from Oremberg. The Khanates of Kho-
kand, Bokhara, and Khiva were acquired, 1881-84.

(2) Valley of Jaxartes to Oxus river.

(3) Southward on both sides of the Caspian.

c. Capture of Merv, 1884.

d. Herat, the Key to India.

c. The Trans-Caspian Railway, 1887. A. Vambery : The
Trans- Caspian Railway; Fortnightly Review, vol. 41, p.
294.

f. Exclusion of all but Russian trade.

g. Destruction of the Turkoman slave trade. Curzon: Visit
to Bokhara the Noble ; Fortnightly Review, Jan., 1889.

2. Relations of England and Russia to Afghanistan.

a. Afghanistan, subject to Persia until the first part of last
century. No Afghan nation. Warlike tribes, most of whom
are united under the sovereignty of the Ameers of Kabul.
Fierce inter-tribal rivalries and jealousies. Religion, Mo-
hammedan.

b. First Afghan war, 1839. Muller,lo4. McCarthy, I, 151-
180. Hunter, 309. 310.

War between England and the Afghans in 1839, on
account of the advance of the Russians. England set up
a friendly prince as ruler. At the instigation of the Rus-
sians the Afghans rose against the English, and defeated
them disastrously. The English, however, soon gained
supremacy, destroyed Candahar and Cabul, and then evac-
uated the country. England lost prestige on account of
political and military mistakes.

" The permanent interest of this Afghan war arises from its being the first of a series of
efforts to arrest or neutralize the steady advance of the Russian power to the mountains
which form the northwestern frontier of India." The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 465.

c. Second Afghan war, 1878-81. Muller, 577-580. McCar-
thy, II, 617-619. Hunter, 326, 327.

In 1877, England made a treaty with the Prince of Be-
loochistan ; Quetta and the road between Candahar and
Cabul were granted for occupation. The Ameer of Afghan-
istan, Shere Ali, sought alliance with Russia. A mission
was sent by the latter power ; this, however, a breach of
the understanding between England and Russia. An
ambassador was therefore sent by England ; he was denied
admittance, and an English military force consequently
advanced. At this juncture Shere Ali died. His son,
Yakoob Khan, succeeded him. A treaty was made ; a
subsidy granted to the Ameer, and a resident agent of
England appointed. A mutiny then occurred, followed by
a massacre of English troops. Advance of General Rob-
erts, and war. Abdurrahman recognized as the Ameer.
English finally victorious. Candahar evacuated in 1881.
Present supremacy of English influence.

3. Boundary disputes between England and Russia. Determina-
tion of the northern boundary of Afghanistan by a joint commission
of English and Russians, in 1886-87. Geo. N. Curzon: The Scientific
Frontier an Accomplished Fact; Nineteenth Century, June, 1888,
p. 901.

4. Position of Pall Mall Gazette and Non-alarmists. It is claimed :

a. The true scientific frontier is not the northern boundary of
Afghanistan, but the Indus.

b. Herat is not the key to India.

c. England has no right to complain of Russian advance ;
matched by English policy of conquest.

d. Impossible to make Afghanistan a u buffer" state since it
is peopled by a variety of races in tribal condition.

e. The true frontier is the great wall of India, consisting of
the Suliman mountains. Few passes ; the Indus is unford-
able up to Peshawur.

John Slagg : The True Scientific Frontier of India ; Nine-
teenth Century, July, 1885, p. 151. Henry Green: The Great
Wall of India ; Nineteenth Century, May, 1885, p. 905.

5. Relations of England and Russia to Persia.
References: Claude Vincent: Through Persia ; Contemp. Review,

vol. 49, p. 252 (Feb., 1886). S. G. W. Benjamin: Persia.
Area of Persia, 630,000 sq. mi., or one fifth of United States ;
largely a desert. Population, 7 m.

a. History. 632-651, A. D., all Persia conquered by Sara-
cens, and gradually converted to Mohammedanism. Until
1747, a populous and more extensive state than at present.
In that year Nadir Shah died, and the country fell into a
state of anarchy, owing to rival claimants for the throne.
At this period Afghanistan and Beloochistan separated from
Persia, which became divided into a number of small inde-
pendent states. In 1755, unity again established in western
Persia. Wars with Russia and cessions of territory.

(1) 1797, territory along the Kur ceded to Russia.

(2) 1802, Georgia made a Russian province.

(3) 1811-13, surrender to Russia of all territory north of
Armenia ; Russia obtained right of navigation upon the
Caspian.

(4) In 1826, lost all possessions in Armenia. In 1829, the
popular exasperation toward Russia led to a mutiny result-
ing in the murder of many Russian officials. Further
concessions, however, had to be made to Russia, and since
that date the power of Persia has rapidly declined. In
1834-1848, through assistance of Russia and England,
Mohammed Shah obtained the throne, but was constantly
assailed by rivals. In 1856, Persia seized Herat, violat-

ing treaty with Great Britain ; war and restoration in
1857.
(5) Seizure of territory at the northeastern frontier by
Russia, 1883.
b. Government and administration.

a, Shah ; b, Cabinet ; c, Provinces ; d, local government.
Apathetic condition of people, no fleet, small army.
6. Present politics.

a. Russian ambition ; a port on Persian Gulf ; alleged will of
Peter the Great : " hasten the decay of Persia, and penetrate
to the Persian Gulf." Russia regards Persia already as a
dependency.

b. After 1858, predominance of Russian trade and liberal use
of Russian money and influence among Persian officials. In
1887-88, revival of English influence in Persia. Prohi-
bition of Russian trade by Persia. In 1888, convention
between Persia and England (Sir H. D. Wolff) opens the
Karun river (southeast and central Persia) to the com-
merce of the world, i. e., to England. Russia and Persia,
Spectator, Dec. 15, 1888, p. 1758.

c. Hatred of Persians for Russia, on account of fear of con-

quest or annexation.

d. Russia and England control all approaches to Persia.

e. Importance of the question of religion.

LECTURE VIII

CHINA. JAPAN.

References : J. H. Wilson : China, with a Glance at Japan. S. W.
Williams : The Middle Kingdom.

A. China.
1. Chief geographical divisions: the 18 Provinces, or China pro-
per, Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, Hi, or Chinese Tatary, Bodyul,

or Tibet. One third larger than the United States ; population, 404
m. China proper is about one third of the empire. Wilson, 63-68.
Williams, I, 187-206, 237-257.

2. Opening of trade with China by Portuguese in 1516.

a From 1742 until 1834, almost a monopoly of commerce by
English East India and Dutch trading companies ; the tea
trade; licensed Hong merchants. Wilson, 315.

b. 1834, Napier sent to force open trade with England. Wil-
son, 319. Williams, II, 464-474.

c. Smuggling of opium into China from India ; efforts of
Chinese government to stop the trade, 1834-39 ; opposition ;
English interests. Wilson, 321-324. Williams, II, 378-
380, 501.

d. Opium war, 1839-42. Wilson, 324-340. McCarthy, I,
112-124. Williams, II, 463-546. Muller, 154.

e. War closed by Treaty of Nanking :

(1) Five open ports to British trade ;

(2) Hong Kong ceded to England ;

(3) China paid $21 m. ;

(4) Official intercourse on terms of equality ;

(5) Tariff established. Williams, II, 546-553.

3. Taeping rebellion, 1850-64; religious rebellion; hostility of
secret associations among the true Chinese to the Manchu dynasty
which now rules China ; Hung-Tre-Chuen ; rebels professed to pro-
mulgate a new religion based on Christianity ; immense loss of life ;
increasing hostility to foreigners ; rebellion suppressed by aid of
English Col. Gordon. Williams, II, 575-624. WUsoji, 331-333.

"The Emperor Taow-Kwang, who died in 18C0, during latter part of his reign hecame
liberal, and favored the introduction of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor,
departed from his father's wise policy and adopted reactionary measures, particularly
against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug., 1850, of
alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in
March, 1851, a pretender was announced among them, first by the name of Tientch (Celes-
tial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. He announced himself as the restorer
of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, but had derived many of his dogmas from the
Bible. He declared himself monarch of all beneath the sky, true lord of China (and thus
of the world), the brother of Jesus, and the Second Son of God, and demanded universal
submission. His followers were termed Taepings. The Taepings, who began hostilities
against the Imperialists, met with some success. Operations, suspended during war be-
tween France and England and China, were renewed in 1861. They sustained many
reverses, and were defeated with great loss in Feb., 1864." Ewald, 122.

4. The Arrow, under British flag, boarded by Chinese in starch of
pirates, 1856; McCarthy, II, 9—19 ; wars, 1857-60; alliance of France
and England; treaty of Peking; further concessions. Wilson, 336-
342. McCarthy, II, 1Q8-H1, 175-183. Williams, II, 625-689.

5. Rapid progress among governing classes in China since 1860.
Prince Kung (Ch'un), and Li-Hung-Chang. Wilson, ch. x. Great
influence of the American, Anson Burlingame, 1868-70. Education
of Chinese youth in the United States by order of Chinese govern-
ment, 1872-81. Williams, II, 739, 740.

6. Dispute with Russia over a revolted portion of Chinese Tatary,
1871-81. Triumph of China, reconquest of district. Withdrawal of
Russians.

7. Dispute with France about French protectorate over Tonquin,
formerly a dependency of China, 1882-87. Unsettled relations still
existing. Negotiations with Italy, Germany, and the Vatican con-
cerning French protectorate of Chinese Catholics. The Position of
Roman Catholic Missionaries in China; London (Weekly) Times,
Jan. 4, 1889.

8. Corea; hereditary, absolute monarchy, and hereditary aristoc-
racy ; since 17th century formal acknowledgment of Chinese suprem-
acy. Country closed entirely to foreigners until 1876-82. Area,
82,000 sq. mi, PopuL estimated at 11 m. Russian designs.

9. Political system of China.

a. Emperor, supreme. Wilson, 169-174, 179-181. Williams,
I, 393-403.

b. Fundamental laws : first four books of Confucius ; State
governed as a private family. Wilson, 182, 183.

c. Central administration ; ministers of state. Wilson, 184-
192; the six boards of government; the Censor. Wilson,
192, 35 L Williams, I, 415-433.

d. Provincial administration, 18 provinces. Wilson, 193-196.
Williams, 1, 437-447.

<e. Civil service ; examinations. The " Peking Gazette," offi-
cial organ of the government, published daily for the last
800 years. Wilson, 181. J. N. Jordan: Modern China;
Fortnightly Review, vol. 20. China, A New Departure ;
Western Review, Sept., 1888, pp. 294-309.

10. Religion; the state religion is Confucianism; Taoism; popular
religion is Buddhism; ancestral worship ; 30 m. Mohammedans.

Williams, II, 194-278.

11. Economic development.

«. Telegraphic communication admitted to Peking, as a result
of trouble with Russia. Great popular prejudice against
railways.

b. Navigation, commercial intercourse. Wilson, 363. Wil-
liams, II, 390-405.

c. Financial system. Wilson, 202-214.

B. Japan.
References : Wilson, 13-18.

1. Geographical situation ; four islands ; area equals Dakota ; pop-
ulation, 38 m.

2. History.

a. Lack of early records.

b. 3d century to 1192, the Mikado was supreme.

c. 1192-1868, dual government of Shogun, or Tycoon, and
Mikado ; Mikado rightful ruler ; Shogun, at first ambitious
minister representing powerful noble family, pushed Mikado
into background; Mikado spiritual, and Shogun temporal
authority.

d. 1854-78, conflict between Progressives and Reactionaries,
. precipitated by foreign intrusion.

e. 1868, revolution, and Mikado reasserted his authority.

f. 1871, feudalism abolished.

g. 1878, final overthrow of Reactionaries.

k. 1873-85, local representative institutions introduced ; code
of criminal law ; Court, Council, and Cabinet ; establish-
ment of schools, telegraph, railways ; Shinto religion, ancient
national religion recognized as official; in 1881, Mikado
promised full national Parliament, to be assembled in 1890.

3. Intercourse of Japan with foreign countries; 1854, treaty with
United States, negotiated by Commodore M. C. Perry, marks intro-
duction of Japan into circle of modern nations.

a. Extra-territorial jurisdiction of foreign nations in Japan.
New Princeton Review, Mar., 1888.

b. Oppressive nature of treaty stipulations concerning duties
on imports.

Efforts of Japan to obtain revision of treaties. New
Princeton Review, Jan., 1888.

4. Increase of Newspapers.
Japanese in the United States.

a. Shinto-ism, Buddhism, Christianity.

5. Land System. U. S. Consular Reports, No. 75, Mar., 1887, 626.

LECTURE IX.

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.

References: Rambaud: History of Russia. A. F. Heard: The
Russian Church and Russian Dissent. D. M. Wallace: Rus*
sia. L. Tikhomirov : Russia, Political and Social. Stepniak :
The Russian Peasantry. George Kennarfs Articles in The
Century Magazine, 1888-89.

1. Area about 8£ m. sq. mi. More than twice as large as the
United States. Popul., about 104 m., of whom 68 m. are Slavs.
Popul. increases at rate of more than 1 m. per annum.

2. Early history.

a. Not until the House of Romanoff succeeded to the throne,
1613, did Russia begin to grow powerful. Rambaud, I,
254, 258-262.

In 1613 Russia comprised Lapland, Central Russia, the
valley of the Volga, and Western Siberia.

b. 1689-1725, Peter the Great; reforms; Wallace's Russia,
310, 311, 385-389. Rambaud, I, 296, 297, 303 ; II, 22-40.
Important changes.

(1) Admission of foreigners to trade and own land in
Russia.

(2) Nobility to depend on service to the Czar.

(3) Forbade Asiatic customs of seclusion of women.

(4) Change of capital from Moscow to new city of St.
Petersburg.

(5) Establishment of Boards of Control in Church and
Departments of State.

(6) Improvement of local government of towns and prov-
inces.

(7) Compulsory introduction of usages, inventions, man-
ners, ideas of Western Europe.

(8) Acquisition of a seaboard, especially on the Baltic, and
creation of a navy. Rambaud, II, 9. Lodge, 268—270,
284-287.

c. Fierce opposition to Peter from nobles, actuated by strong
Russian feeling, and from adherents of old ecclesiastic
order of things.

d. In 18th century, acquisition of Baltic provinces from Swe-
den (1717-21), of Black Sea region from Turkey (1792),
and of Poland by divisions with Prussia and Austria (1772,
1793,1795). Rambaud, II, 42-47, 94, 95, 117-126. Lodge,
448, 460, 471.

e. In 19th century, acquisition of Finland and the rest of the
northern coast of Black Sea, Georgia, Persian Armenia,
Southern Turkestan.

f. Alexander I, Czar 1801-25. Overthrow of Napoleon Bona-
parte began with his invasion of Russia, 1812. Alexander,
founder of Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia), 1815,
to suppress rebellions against monarchy.

"Almighty Wisdom, in dividing the universe into different countries, has assigned to
each a sovereign into whose hands the reins of absolute authority over the nations subject
to his dominion are placed." Utterance of Congress of the Alliance at Laibach, 1821*

Liberal domestic policy. Polish disaffection and separate
constitution, 1818. Mutter, 86.

3. Nicholas I, Czar, 1825-55. Rambaud, II, 226, 227; 254.
Change from the policy of Peter the Great ; Russian forms and cus-
toms insisted upon. Rambaud, II, 229-232. European influences
checked. Mutter, 86, 87. Poland made a part of Russian empire,
1832. Fyffe, II, 390-398. Rambaud, II, 238-243.

" The late insurrection of Poland had determined Russia to put an end to its separate
existence, and reduce it as much as possible to a Russian province. The University of
Warsaw was suppressed, the archives, libraries, scientific collections, etc., were removed
to St. Petersburg, the Polish uniform and colors were abolished, and the Polish soldiery
incorporated into Russian regiments. The leading Poles were relegated to the interior of
the Empire, and it is computed that 80,000 Poles were banished to Siberia. Polish children
were taken from their parents and carried into the military colonies of Russia. Last, but
hot least, the Roman Catholic Church was persecuted agreeably to the Czar's Grsco-
Russian system." Ewald, 82.

4. The Crimean war, 1854-56. Rambaud, II, 248-258. Ruin of
Nicholas's policy.

5. Alexander II, 1855-81. Rambaud, II, 255.

a. More liberal policy. Rambaud, II, 258, 259. Mutter,
267.

b. 1861, gradual emancipation of the serfs ; 23 millions set
free. Wallace, 485-509. Grant Duff: Studies in Euro-

'47

pean Politics, 71-85. Rambaud, II, 260-266. Lodge, 746.

Mailer, 26 7.
" By this decree the peasants attached to the soil were to be invested with all the rights
of free-cultivators ; the proprietors to grant to the peasants for a fixed regulated rental the
full enjoyment of their holdings, after a term of years the peasants to become full owners ;
domestics to receive their full enfranchisement two years hence. To assist these measures
in each district a court was to be established for the question of the peasants ; justices of
the peace were to be appointed in each district to investigate on the spot all disputes ; com-
munal administrations were to be organized in the seigneurial properties ; a charter of
rules was to be confirmed in each district in which were to be enumerated the amount of
land to be reserved to the peasants in permanent enjoyment, and the extent of the charges
to be exacted from them for the benefit of the proprietor. These charters were to be put
into execution within the term of two years up to which time the peasants and domestics
were to fulfil their former obligations without scruple." Ewald, 170.

c. Growth of Nihilism, 1871-81, the result of social upheaval
of emancipation ; 1871-77, demand for immediate re-organ-
ization of State on Socialistic basis ; 1877-81, attempt to
revenge the governmental prosecutions, and to terrorize
Government by assassination ; demands for a constitution ;
the secret police ; transportation to Siberia. Muller, 569-
572.

d. War with Turkey, 1877-78.

Effort to divert attention of Nihilists by foreign war, and
to establish Russia's position as protector of Southern Slavs.
Bulgaria set free. Annexation of Bessarabia. Progress
of Russia towards Constantinople checked by England.
Treaty of Berlin, 1878.

(1) Renewed Nihilist activity. In 1879-80, 60,000 polit-
ical prisoners sent to Siberia without trial, and on suspi-
cion alone.

e. Assassination of the Czar, March 13, 1881. Muller, 574.

6. Alexander 111, 1881.

Policy of consolidating Empire upon Russian basis, by —

a. Opposition to use of any language but Russian.

b. Opposition to freedom of worship for Protestants and Roman
Catholics.

c. Persecution of Jews.

d. Strict supervision of education in interest of Autocratic
Government and of Orthodox Church of Russia.

7. Central government of the empire. Wallace, 194-212.

a. The Emperor ; absolute hereditary monarchy.

b. The four councils or colleges. Statesman's Year Book,
1888, p, 413.

(1) Council of the Empire, consultative body, members
appointed by Czar.

(2) Ruling Senate, a superior court of appeal.

(3) Holy Synod, since 1700, superior authority of the
National Church, and controlled by the Procurator, the
representative of the civil power.

(4) Committee of Ministers.

" In its present form the Russian administration seems at first sight a very imposing
edifice. At the top of the pyramid stands the Emperor, the ' autocratic monarch,' as Peter
the Great described him, who has to give an account of his acts to no one on earth, but has a
power and authority to rule his states and lands as a Christian sovereign according to his
own will and judgment. Immediately below the Emperor we see the Council of State,
the Committee of Ministers, and the Senate, which represent respectively the legislative,
the administrative, and the judicial power. An Englishman glancing over the first volume
of the code might imagine the Council of State to be a kind of parliament, and the Com-
mittee of Ministers a ministry in our sense of the term, but in reality both are simply
incarnations of the autocratic form. Though the Council is intrusted by law with many
important functions, such as examining and criticising the annual budget, declaring war,
concluding peace, etc., it has merely a consultative character, and the Emperor is not hi
any way bound by its decisions. The ministers are all directly and individually respon-
sible to the Emperor, and therefore the Committee has no common responsibility or other
cohesive force. As to the Senate, it has descended from its high estate. It was originally
intrusted with the supreme power during the absence or minority of the monarch, and was
intended to exercise a controlling influence in all sections of the administration, but now
its activity is restricted to judicial matters, and it is little more than a supreme court of
appeal." Wallace, 197, 198.

c. Tchinovniks, or the Bureaucracy, the civil and military
service of the empire. Wallace, 200-212. Stepniak, 94-
101.
8. Local government.

a. Empire divided into general governments, governments or
provinces, and districts ; the officers and their functions.
Statesman's Tear Book, 1888, p. 415.

b. The Zemstvos for a more general administration of the
affairs of the district and province. Wallace, 213-228.

(1) District Zemstvos elected by landlords, towns-folk, and
peasants.

(2) Provincial Zemstvos, formed of delegates from each
District Zemstvos.

Supreme influence of Governor of the province.

c. Municipal self-government in towns since 1870.

Control of Governor.

d. The Mir (parish or commune). Wallace, 118-137. Tikh-
omirov, I, 115-127. Rambaud, I, 41, 42 ; power limited as
to economic affairs.

" In European Russia the government of the parish, in so far as the lands of the peasan-
try are concerned, and part of the local administration are intrusted to the people. For
this purpose, the whole country is divided intocommunes, which elect an elder, or execu-
tive of a commune, as also a tax collector or superintendent of public stores. All these
officers are elected at communal assemblies by the peasants from among themselves. The

offices are more or less honorary. The communal assemblies are constituted by all the
householders in the village, who discuss and decide all communal affairs. These communal
assemblies are held as business requires. The communes are united into cantons, each
embracing a population of about 2000 males. Each canton is presided over by an Elder,
elected at the cantonal assemblies, which are composed of the delegates of the communal
assemblies in proportion of one man to every ten houses. The canton assemblies decide
the same class of affairs as do the communal assemblies, but each concerning its respective
canton. The peasants have thus special institutions of their own, which are submitted
also to special colleges for peasants' affairs, instituted in each government." Statesman's
Year Book, 415, 416.

9. Grand duchy of Finland, ceded by Sweden, 1809 ; only province
of European Russia not fully incorporated into empire.

a. National Parliament convoked once in four or five years,
has control of taxation.

b. Senate, at head of judicial and administrative service of
Finland.

c. Grand duke, — the Czar.

10. Poland, under separate administration from rest of empire,
1815-64. Rebellions, 1830-32, 1863. Absolute incorporation with
Russia, 1868. Muller, 142, 399, 400.

11. Journalism and public opinion in Russia.

The Censorship. Tikhomirov, II, 93-97, 279-284.

12. Political parties in Russia. Tikhomirov, II, 141-147.

a. Panslavism, or the Slavophils. Wallace, 416-420.

b. Katkoff and the Moscow Gazette. Conlemp. Review, Oct.,
1887, pp. 504-522.

c. The Russian Peasants. Stepniak.

See also article in Fortnightly Review, 1886, vol. 40, pp.
595-604.

d. Nihilism and Democracy.

LECTURES X-XI.

THE AISTRO-HI \<URIl\ MONARCHY.

References : Grant Duff: Studies in European Politics, ch. iii.
Francis Dedk : A Memoir. Laveleye : The Balkan Penin-
sula. A. Vambery : The Story of Hungary. A. B. Malleson :
Life of Prince Metternich.

Area : Austria, 115,903 sq. mi.; popul., 22.5 m. Hungary, 125,039
sq. mi.; popul., 16J m. Austria nearly twice as large as New Eng-
land.

A. The supremacy of Austria, 1815-67.

1. Destruction of old German empire by Napoleon J, in 1806.
Francis, Archduke of Austria, head of Hapsburg House, which had
held dignity of German Emperor since 1438, declared Emperor of
Austria, 1806.

2. Austrian dominions included (1815) Hungary and its depend-
encies, Galicia, Bohemia and Moravia, Venice and Lombardy in Italy,
and Austrian influence reigned in all Italian States except in the
kingdom of Piedmont, or Sardinia.

3. At the close of the Napoleonic wars, the Germanic Confedera-
tion was formed (June 10, 1815) ; 39 states and four free cities; per-
manent Diet at Frankfort. Grant Duff: Studies in European Poli-
tics, 257-260. J. JR. Seeley : Life and Times of Stein (Tauchnitz
ed.), IV, 31. Austria predominant in the confederation. Timid policy
of Prussia.

4. The Constitution of the Confederation.

a. Agreement of states not to declare war against each other
or form injurious alliances.

b. Disputes between states to be referred to central Diet.

c. To contribute to confederate army according to population.

d. Certain military forts made the property of the confedera-
tion.

e. Constitutional government to be established in each state.
f. Weakness of the constitution ; people not represented in

central Diet.
g. Chief purpose of Austrian policy, — to prevent any more
revolutions.

" There were two things of which they were mortally afraid, Russia and the revolution."
Grant Duff.

Prominence in the Holy Alliance. (See Lecture IX.)

5. Metternich (1815-48), reactionary statesman of Austria, lead-
ing champion of arbitrary government in Europe. Muller,220, 221.
Lodge, 609, 622, 637, 651,669, 688. McCarthy, II, 338. Grant Duff,
143-144.

" Metternich described his system with equal simplicity and precision as an attempt
neither to innovate nor to go back to the past, but to keep things as they were. In
the old Austrian dominions this was not so difficult to do, for things had no tendency to
move, and remained fixed of themselves ; but on the outside, both on the north and on the
south, ideas were at work, which, according to Metternich, ought never to have entered
the world, but, having unfortunately gained admittance, made it the task of Govern^

ments to resist their influence by all available means. Stein and the leaders of the Prus-
sian War of Liberation had agitated Germany with hopes of national unity, of Parlia-
ments, and of the impulsion of the executive powers of state by public opinion. Against
these northern innovators Metternich had already won an important victory in the forma-
tion of the Federal Constitution. The weakness and timidity of the king of Prussia
made it probable that, although he was now promising his subjects a Constitution, he
might at no distant date be led to unite with other German Governments in a system of
repression, and in placing Liberalism under the ban of the Diet. In Italy, according to
the conservative statesman, the same dangers existed and the same remedies were re-
quired." Fyffe, II, 82.

a. Austria's condition under Metternich's methods.

" Austria must make herself felt, not by her military strength, but through the skill of
her diplomats and the omnipresence of her police and her spies. This was Metternich's
chosen field, while the emperor found his pleasure in the details of the police system,
which was developed under him into a system of espionage of the most unworthy sort.
This was, however, admirably adapted to that patriarchal system in accordance with
Which the government, so far from denying its Oriental views, even dared to inculcate on
its subjects the doctrine that the sovereign ' has full powers over their lives and property.'
No less care was exercised in shutting up Austria against other lands. The influx of for-
eign intellects and intellectual products Was guarded against like the smuggling in of the
cattle plague. Study in foreign universities was forbidden. The entrance into Austrian
schools of foreign teachers, and of scholars over ten years of age, was forbidden, and even
for younger children special permission had to be obtained. The imparting of private
instruction was rendered very difficult, permission being granted by the police only under
oppressive conditions, and even revocable every six years. All political literature , as well
as modern histories, was subjected to strict censorship, with a view to police prohibition.

And as for popular instruction, scarcely three fifths of the children of

school age attended school, and those who attended were, with the teachers, confined to a
mechanical drill from which the why and wherefore were carefully excluded. The object
Was not to produce savants, but subjects and officials trained to blind obedience. For this
purpose no guard and overseer could be more effective than the clergy. Upon their relig-
ious certificate decoded every advance in the gymnasiums and universities, and confession
was exacted from teachers and scholars six times yearly. It will be readily understood
that the Protestants were much oppressed, — hardly tolerated. Upon purchasing a house,
upon assuming a trade, they were obliged to apply for a dispensation. To enter the mili-
tary academy in Vienna-Neustadt, they must abjure their religion." Mailer, 5, 6,

6. Metternich and Austria antagonized by —

a. German Liberals desiring Constitutional government in
Germany.

b. Italian patriots, desiring freedom and unity of Italy.

<c. Magyars (or Hungarians), desiring to free Hungary from

Austrian control.
d. Slavs, of Hungary and Galicia, hostile both to Austrian

Germans and Hungarian Magyars.

7. In Germany, agitation among the students and the Karlsbad
conference, 1820. Seeley : Stein, IV, 148, 149. Under leadership of
Metternich, agreement was made to —

a. Restrict freedom of press.

b. Restrict university teaching.

c. Forbid societies and political meetings. Midler, 12-18.
Lodge, 638.

8. Rebellions against despotism in Italy, 1821, 1831, suppressed by
Austrian troops.

a. Revolutionary agitation in Germany checked by Austria,
1833.

9. Hungary, including Transylvania, Croatia and Slavonia (town
of Fiume), separate kingdom, with a constitution dating from 891.
Vambery, 9, 10. Diet of two houses must, by constitution, be con-
voked every three years.

Austrian disregard of Hungarian laws. Vambery, 398, 399.

a. Metternich yielded to Magyar discontent in view of possible
complications with Russia over Greek war for independence.
Hungarian Diet convened at Presburg (for first time in nine-
teen years), 1825.

Emperor Francis disavows tyranny of his officers.

b. Szechenyi. Francis Dedk, 8. Vambery s Hungary, 400-41 1 ,

*•' Great schemes of social and material improvement also aroused the public hopes in
these years. The better minds became conscious of the real aspect of Hungarian life in
comparison with that of civilized Europe, — of its poverty, its inertia, its boorishness.
Extraordinary energy was thrown into the work of advance by Count Szechenyi, a noble-
man whose imagination had been fired by the contrast which the busy industry of Great
Britain and the practical interests of its higher classes presented to the torpor of his own
country. It is to him thai Hungary owes the bridge uniting its double capital at Pesth,
and that Europe owes the unimpeded navigation of the Danube, which he first rendered
possible by the destruction of the rocks known as the Iron Gates, at Orsova. Sanguine,
lavishly generous, an ardent patriot, Szechenyi endeavored to arouse men of his own
rank, the great and -powerful in Hungary, to the sense of what was due from them to
their country as leaders in its industrial development. He was no revolutionist, nor was
he an enemy to Austria. A peaceful, political future would best have accorded with his
own designs for raising Hungary to its due place among the nations." Fyffe, II, 481, 482.

10. Death of Emperor Francis I, and succession of Ferdinand, a
weak ruler, 1835. Muller, 163. Lodge, 688, 797. Grant Duff, 150,
151.

11. Revolution in France, 1848 ; spread through Europe ; uprisings
in Hungary and in all parts of Italy. Muller, 186-191, 203-211.
Lodge, 682-686.

a. Revolution in Vienna. Lodge, 696. Flight of Metternich,
abdication of Ferdinand in favor of Francis Joseph 1, 1848.
Muller, 221-230. Lodge, 688-690. Grant Duff, 158-164.

b. March, 1848, resolves of meeting at Frankfort to call a
national German constituent assembly. Muller, 221-230,
239. Lodge, 690. Grant Duff, 260, 261.

c. May, 1848, formation of a German National Assembly
{Miiller, 215), and dissolution of old confederate Diet.
Lodge, 702.

d. New constitution for the German Empire, and offer of im-
perial dignity to Prussia. Opposition of Austria, Bavaria,
and WiirtemburtJ-. King of Prussia declines the offer.

e. Two parties in Germany.

(1) The Kleindeutsche party, wishing Prussia to be at the
head of the Confederation to the exclusion of Austria.

(2) The Great German (Grossdeutsche) party, favoring
the inclusion of Austria. Mutter, 231.

f. Rupture between Prussia and Austria. Czar Nicholas of
Russia interferes on side of Austria. End of Assembly
and new Constitution, 1851. Restoration of old Diet and
the Confederation of 1815.

12. Austria conquers kingdom of Sardinia (Charles Albert), which
had taken sides with anti- Austrian party in Italy. Mutter, 203-211.

13. Uprising of Magyars, 1848-49 ; demand of Hungary for inde-
pendence conceded by establishment of separate ministry for Hun-
gary, 1848. Intrigues of Austrian Court against its Hungarian
ministers. Dedk, 85-92. McCarthy, I, 382-387. Miltter, 241-248.
Lodge, 695-698. Grant Duff, 152-157. Burdens of the peasantry.
Dedk. 17-20.

a. Rupture between Hungarian Diet and Francis Joseph, the
new Emperor of Austria. Francis Joseph disregards Diet's
right to elect the King of Hungary. Dedk, 100-105.

b. Kossuth.

" On emerging from prison under a general amnesty in 1840, Kossuth undertook the
direction of a Magyar journal at Pesth, which at once gained an immense influence
throughout the country. The spokesman of a new generation, Kossuth represented an
entirely different order of ideas from those of the orthodox defenders of the Hungarian
Constitution. They had been conservative and aristocratic ; he Was revolutionary ; their
weapons had been drawn from the storehouse of Hungarian positive law ; his inspiration
was from the Liberalism of western Europe. Thus within the national party itself there
grew up sections in more or less pronounced antagonism to one another, though all were
united by a passionate devotion to Hungary, and by an unbounded faith in its future.
Szechenyi, and those who with him subordinated political to material ends, regarded Kos-
suth as a dangerous theorist." Fyffe, II, 483.

c. Deak. Francis Dedk: a Memoir, with Preface by Grant
Duff. See in particular ch. iii.

" Between the more impetuous and the more cautious reformers stood the recognized
Parliamentary leaders of the Liberals, among whom Deak had already given proof of
political capacity of no mean order." Fyffe, II, 484.

d. Successful appeal of the Austrian government to Russia to
assist in putting down the rebellion. Dedk, ch. 14.

e. Suppression of revolt ; repression of revolutionary senti-
ment ; arbitrary treatment of Hungary by Austrian govern-
ment.

14. War of Austria with France and Sardinia, 1859.

a. Attempt of Austria to gain assistance of the other states of
the confederation ; checked by Prussia. Mutter, 278-280.
Lodge, 719.

b. Austria unsuccessful ; loss of Lombardy ; retention of
Venetia.

15. Schleswig-Holstein question. Mutter, 213-219, 267, 309-326.
Lodge, 690, 691, 709, 727. McCarthy, II, 244-253.

16. Austro-Prussian war, 1866.

a. Causes. Mutter, 335-355. Lodge, 729, 730. McCarthy,
II, 336.

"The desire of the German people for greater unity, and the impossibility of reaching
a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government, as long as two great pow*
ers confronted one another in the German Confederation, one having a population largely
non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests.

" Special cause : the quarrel about the future of the North Albingian duchies. Austria
Wished the Crown Prince of Augustenberg to be recognized as Duke of Schleswig-Hol-
stein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. PrusBia demanded that in case a
hew small Btate, Schleswig-Holstein, was created :

(1) ' Its whole military force should become an integral part of the Prussian army and
fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united With those of Prussia ;

(2) ' That several important military posts should be given to Prussia, to enable her to
undertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark.'

" Reason for participation of Italy in the war ; the favorable opportunity of acquiring
Venice." Plottz, 507.

b. Results : Peace of Prague. Mutter, 355-357.

(1) -' The Emperor of Austria recognised the dissolution of the German Confederation,
and consented to la re-organization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to annexa-
tions contemplated by Prussia. A special Condition secured Saxony from an alteration of
her boundary.

(2; '• Austria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the reservation
that the northern district of Schleswig should be re-united with Denmark, should inhabit-
ants express desire for such re-union by free popular vote (reservation rescinded, 1878).

(3) " Austria paid 20 m. rix dollars for costs of the war.

(4) " At request of Prussia, Venice was ceded to Italy." Ploetz, 510.

17. Complete disorganization of Austria after the war of 1866.
Financial disorder. Magyars, under Dedk, refuse aid unless their
political independence is recognized. February 8, 1867, Hungary's
demands conceded. The dual empire of the Austro-Hungarian em-
pire established. Restoration of Magyar constitution of 1848. Fran-
cis Joseph crowned King of Hungary at Pesth. Constitutional gov-
ernment fully established in the Cisleithian Empire (Austria and
dependencies), as well as in the Transleithian kingdom (Hungary and
dependencies). Transylvania and Croatia attached to Hungary.
Perfection of a federal government for the dual monarchy.

a. Complete overthrow of the Metternich system of internal
administration in Austria. Modification of legal supremacy
of Roman Catholic Church.

" The constitution of 1861 was revised, and adopted in its revised form on the 21st of
December, 1867. This conferred upon the people and their representatives rights and
privileges of the greatest importance, — equality of all citizens before the law, freedom of
Press, right of associating and meeting, complete liberty of faith and conscience, the unre-
stricted right to impose taxes and levy recruits, etc The marriage law

restored civil marriage to the statute book, in so far as it introduced permissive civil mar-
riage, depriving the clergy of all jurisdiction in the premises and conferring it upon the
courts. The school law took the control of education, with the exception of religious edu-
cation, away from the church, and gave it to the state. The interconfessional law regu-
lated the religious obligations of children in case of mixed marriages, change of confes-
sion, burials, and the like. By the concordat the children of one Protestant and one
Roman Catholic parent must be educated in the faith of the latter ; by the new law, male
children followed the father, and female the mother." Muller, 373, 375 : see also Muller,
484.

18. After Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78, occupation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina by Austria, 1878. Laveleye, chs. iii and iv. Rebellion
against Austria in Herzegovina. Muller, 553, 555, 587.

a. Intimate relations between Austro-Hungary and the Ger-
man Empire date from Berlin Congress of 1878. Bismarck's
desire to see Austro-Hungary powerful in the Balkan region.
Muller, 587, 588.

b. Hatred of Hungarians for Russia.

c. The subject Slavs. Bishop Strossmayer. Laveleye, ch. ii.

19. Central government.

The Cisleithian empire and the Transleithian kingdom are united
under the hereditary rule of the House of Austria (Hapsburg) ; each
realm has its own parliament, ministers, and government; while the
connecting tie is a common sovereign, army, navy, diplomacy, and a
common parliament called the Delegations. Statesman's Year Book, 6.
Dedk, ch. 29.

a. The Delegations, 120 members, chosen by the Parliaments
of each kingdom, one half from each kingdom, have juris-
diction over foreign affairs, common finances, and war.

b. The three executive departments, Foreign Affairs, War, and
Finance, responsible to the Delegations ; Minister of Foreign
Affairs, chief officer of the monarchy.

20. Local government.

A. Austria.
1. The Constitution of 1867. Lodge, 731, 732.
a. Provincial Diets.

(1) 17 provinces, each having a Diet of one assembly.

(2) Members of the Diet : (a) archbishops and bishops ;
(b) representatives of great estates ; (c) representatives
of towns ; (d) representatives of boards of commerce and
guilds ; (e) representatives of rural communes.

(3) Functions : local administration, taxation, agriculture,
educational and charitable institutions, public works.

b. Central Diet, or Reichsrath.

(1) Upper House, or Herren-haus ; consists, 1st, of the
princes of the Imperial family (13) ; 2d, of a number of
nobles (53), possessing large landed property, in whose
families the dignity is hereditary ; 3d, of the archbishops
(10), and bishops (7), who are of princely title, inherent
in their episcopal seat ; 4th, of any other life-members
nominated by the Emperor, on account of being distin-
guished in art or science, or rendering signal services to
Church or State (105). Statesman's Tear Book, 7.

(2) Lower House or Abgeordneten-haus, 353 members,
elected by citizens, 24 years of age, and possessing small
property qualifications.

c. Executive Ministers, eight departments, Council of the
Emperor, responsible to Reichsrath since 1870.

B. Hungary.

1. The Constitution of 1867; Francis Deak. Beak, 259-269.

a. Legislative power rests in King and Parliament (Reichs-
tag). Two Houses.

(1) House of Magnates, hereditary peers (286); represent-
atives of Roman Catholic, Greek, and Protestant churches
(51) ; life-Peers (50) ; officers of state (16) ; delegate
from Croatia-Slavonia (1) ; Archdukes (20).

(2) House of Representatives, 453, including 40 from Croa-
tia-Slavonia, elected by citizens 20 years old, with small
property qualifications.

b. Executive Ministry, responsible, nine departments.
The Croats.

2. Local Diet at Agram, for Croatia-Slavonia, granted by Hungary
(influence of Deak), 1868 ; control of local affairs ; 55 per cent of
revenues paid into Hungarian treasury.

a. Chief Executive of Croatia-Slavonia (title of Ban) appointed
by King of Hungary. Beak, 284, 285.

b. Parties in Croatia and political purposes. Laveleye, 151-166.
20. Political parties and tendencies.

a. The Czech (Tschek) movement ; to establish an autonomous
government for Bohemia like that of Hungary. Contem-

porary Review, Dec, 1884, pp. 815-819. Known as the
Autonomists, or Federalists. Mutter, 483, 588.

b. Panslavism. Laveleye: Balkan Peninsula, 3, 4; 171, 172.

c. Parties in Lower House of Austrian Reichsrath actuated by
racial antagonisms.

(1) German party, . . .

(2) German-Austrian party,

(3) Center party, . . .

(4) German clerical party,

(5) Czech party, . . .

(6) Polish party, . . .

(7) Slavonic party, . . .

(8) Italian party, . . .

(9) Trentino party, . . .

(10) Croatian party, . . .

(11) Ruthenian party, . .

(12) Anti-Semitic party.

(13) "Wilde" (Free-lance) party.

Moderatelyliberal, weak-
ened by its opposition to
occupation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, 1879.

Conservative.

LECTURES XII-XIII.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE ANI> THE REVOLTED CHRISTIAN
STATES OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA —

MONTENEGRO, ROUMANIA, GREECE, SERVIA, BULGARIA.

References : Laveleye : The Balkan Peninsula. R. G. Latham :
Russian and Turk. Lewis Sergeant: New Greece. Lane-
Poole : Turkey ; Story of the Nations Series. David Urquhart :
The Spirit of the East, 2 vols.
A. Empire of the Ottoman Turks to 1878.
1. Early history of the Turks.

%. The Ottoman Turks appeared in history in 1240; gradu-
ally acquired province after province from the old Eastern
Roman empire ; finally established themselves in Constan-
tinople in 1453. Lodge, 19. Fisher: Outlines of Universal
History, 352, 353.

b. About 1550, the kingdom of the Turks reached its greatest
power, including all Asia Minor to the Persian frontier ;
Arabia, Egypt, and all North Africa to Morocco ; the whole
Balkan peninsula, from the southernmost extremity of
Greece to the southern boundary of Poland, including all but
the extreme western portion of Hungary, and including the
Tatar regions along the north shore of the Black Sea ;
1683, siege of Vienna; Hungary recovered by Austria,
1682-99; Barbary states of North Africa become only
nominally dependent during 17th and 18th centuries ; Mon-
tenegro (Czernagora) rebelled successfully, 1700. Lodge,
208, 209. Shifting of territory between Turkey, Austria,
and Russia, 1768-74, Catharine's first war against Tur-
key, by which Russia gained territory in the Crimea, and
right of navigation for trading vessels on the Black Sea.
Fyffe, II, 258. Lodge, 449. McCarthy, I, 453-455. Wal-
lachia and Moldavia restored to native rulers, for whom
Russia was henceforth to be the Protector at Constantinople.
War closed by peace of Kutschouc Kainardji. Fyffe, II,
259, 260 ; six important points in this treaty. Ploetz, 412.

(1) The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey,
and brought under Russian influence.

(2) Russia obtained a firm footing on the north coasts of
the Black Sea (Crimea), pushing back the Turkish fron-
tier to the river Boug.

(3) The frontier line between the two powers in Asia was
left much as it was before the war.

(4) Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople,
and for certain privileges for Christians in Turkey.

(5) Russia exacted promises for the better government of
the principalities, reserving the right of remonstrance if
these were not kept.

(6) Russia obtained a declaration of her right of free com-
mercial navigation in Turkish waters. All subsequent
controversies between the Porte and Russia may be
referred to one of these six heads. Ploetz, 412.

e. Gradual encroachment of Russia by successive wars. From
the Boug river to the Dniester (1792), then to the Pruth
(1812). Miiller, 89,90.

Servia partly autonomous ; England becomes diplomati-
cally powerful at Constantinople; Lord Stratford de Red-
cliffe. N. T. Nation, Dec. 27, 1888, p. 522.

d. Egypt becomes only nominally dependent, 1811-41 ; Mehe-
met Ali ; England forces from Turkey a promise of justice
to Christians, an empty promise.

2. 1821-29, Greek Independence. Lodge, 650-656. Fyffe, II,
268-280, 285-300, 305-312, 345. Miller, 70-73. For the Eastern
question in general before the Crimean war, see McCarthy, I, 433-
46 L For a sketch of the previous condition of Greece, see Fyffe, II,
237-262.

a. Russian interference after accession of Nicholas in behalf
of Christian subjects of Sultan. Loss of territory in Arme-
nia. Gradual rise of Servia and the Danubian principali-
ties. Treaties of Akerman (1826), of London (1827), of
Adrianople (1829). Latham : Russian and Turk, 48-5 1.

b. The Turkish Janissaries: their destruction, 1826. Miiller, 88.

3. Crimean war, 1853-56. Miiller, 253-264. Lodge, 743-745.

a. Causes : ambition of Nicholas I : protectorate over all
Christians of Greek church. Mc Gar thy, I, 47 5—517 '. The
Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 81-87.

*' The guardianship and possession of certain places at Jerusalem were for many years
the source of contest between Christians belonging to the Greek and Latin churches.
These spots, known as Holy Places, are hallowed from a supposed connection with our
Saviour, the Virgin Mary, or the early disciples. Amongst them the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, on Mt. Calvary, in which the sepulclu-e of Christ is said to exist, occupies a
prominent position. In 1690, this Holy Sepulchre was appropriated to the Latins, and
though other Christians might enter for private devotions, the Latins alone were allowed
to celebrate mass therein. It afforded constant matter of dispute, and France always
appeared as champion of the Latin Church, and Russia in modern times espoused the
cause of the Greek, for the conflict was at length confined to these rival sects. In 1740, a
treaty was signed between France and the Porte, having special reference to this question.
In 1757, a serious outbreak occurred at Jerusalem, and the holy sanctuaries were placed
under the protection of the Greek monks. Thus the rights and privileges granted to the
Latins by the treaty of 1740 were gradually encroached upon by successive decrees issued
at Constantinople in favor of Greek Christians. For many years these matters were
fiercely contested at Jerusalem. In 1850, the French government directed their represent-
ative at Constantinople to effect some arrangement. The Turkish Government admitted
the justice of the French claims, and affairs were progressing when the Emperor Nicho-
las, favoring the interests of the Greek Church, wrote a letter to the Sultan, requiring his
adherence to the status quo. Pressed by these formidable rivals, the Sultan knew not how
to act; and as the discussion was prolonged, Nicholas gradually disclosed his real inten-
tions. An arrangement was nearly concluded in 1852 ; but toward the close of the year
the Czar set the forces of his empire in motion. In Feb., 1853, Prince Menschikoff
repaired to Constantinople, as extraordinary ambassador from Russia ; and, although the

real nature of his mission did not at first transpire, it soon became evident that the ruin
of Turkey was intended." Condensed from Ewald, 128, 129.

"In his conferences with the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Sir Hamilton Sey-
mour, Nicholas called Turkey a " sick man," whom no doctor could help, so that it was
already time to come to some definite agreement about his inheritance. According to his
plan, Servia, Bulgaria, and Bosnia were to be made independent states, and with Moldavia
and Wallachia, to be placed under the Russian protectorate. If England wished to appro-
priate Egypt and Candia, Russia had no objection. In his opinion, England and Russia
were the only countries concerned, as they were the only ones who had a tangible interest
in Turkey, and if they agreed about the transaction, there was no need of consulting the
other powers." Muller, 254.

b. Peace of Paris, 1856.

(1) Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small
portion of Bessarabia, on the left bank of the lower
Danube.

(2) Russia renounced the one-sided protectorate over the
Christians in Turkey, and over the principalities of the
Danube.

(3) Russia restored Kars, and promised not to establish
any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to maintain there
more ships than the Porte.

(4) The Western powers restored Sebastopol to Russia,
after having destroyed the docks, the constructions in the
harbor, and the fortifications. Ploetz, 501. Lodge, 745.
Muller, 264-266. McCarthy, I, 517-523.

(5) Promise of justice to Christians renewed. Hat Huma-
yun, 1856.

" England, which had accomplished nothing grait, either at sea or on land, was regarded
as on the decline. The Chancellor of the Russian Empire, Prince Alexander Gortschakoff ,
a brother of the General, in his circular of Sept. 2, 1856, described Russia's new pro-
gramme in the words, • Russia does not repine, she collects herself ' (La Russie ne boude
pas, elle se recueille). Against Austria, which had ' astonished the world by its ingratitude,'
Russia cherished a most bitter grudge, while it recognized Prussia's favorable attitude by
friendly approaches." Muller, 265.

4. Revolt of Christians in Syria, 1860 ; temporary occupation by
the French. Muller, 266.

5. Wallachia and Moldavia united as Roumania, 1861 ; a blow to
Turkish power. McCarthy, I, 518. Muller, 266.

6. Revolt of Crete, which led to ill feeling between Turkey and
Greece, 1866. Lodge, 448. Western powers interfere. McCarthy,
II, 585. Muller, 398.

7. Continued revolts, 1870-75. Lodge, 749, 750. Virtual inde-
pendence of Egypt; revolt in Servia. McCarthy, II, 585, 586.

8. Revolt in Herzegovina, 1874. McCarthy, II, 587, 588. Muller,
505-508. Lodge, 748. Turkish system of taxation ; demands of the
rebels ; a, reform in taxation ; b, native instead of Turkish officials ;

c, native militia. Sympathy and support of Servia and Montenegro.

Miiller, 511. McCarthy, II, 597.

a. The Sultan Abdul Aziz, deposed by the Turkish war party.
His successor, Murad V, deposed in thirteen months, for
idiocy. Accession of Abdul Hamid II, 1876. The Death
of Abdul Aziz and of Turkish Reform ; Nineteenth Century,
vol. 23, p. 276.

9. Bulgarian atrocities ; policy of Turkey towards Bulgaria one of
repression by harsh abuse and even massacre ; revolt in 1876 ; the
Bashi-Bazouks, Lodge, 749. Miiller, 514-517. McCarthy, II, 591-
594. Gladstone: Bulgarian Horrors.

a. War declared by Servia and Montenegro, under Russian
instigation, 1876 : interference by the great powers unsuc-
cessful because they demanded rights of guardianship over
Turkey, while Turkey would grant nothing but promises of
reform.

10. Russia declared war against Turkey, 1877, as protector of
oppressed Christians, and especially Slavonic Christians in Turkey.
1877-78, Turco-Russian war. Lodge, 750. Miiller, 518-545. Mc-
Carthy, II, 600-603.

11. Concluded by peace of San Stefano, which aroused great oppo-
sition from western powers as too favorable to Russian interests.
Miiller, 545-548. Lodge, 751. McCarthy, II, 602-605.

12. Congress of Berlin, June, 1878. Principal conditions :

a. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, but
the cessions to be made to the two former states were some-
what reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to
receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged.

b. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country
between the Danube and the Balkans, including, however,
Sofia and its territory.

c. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries con-
siderably narrowed toward the south and west, was left;
under the immediate rule of the Sultans, with the title
Province of East Roumelia, but received a separate mili-
tia, and administration under a Christian governor-general ;
only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turk-
ish troops.

d. The Russian troops were to evacuate E. Roumelia and Bul-
garia inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year.

e. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and
administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the
military occupation of the Sandshak of Novi Bazar.

f. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thes-
saly to Greece.

g. Russia received in Asia, Batoum, Kars, Adaghan, and some
border territories.

h. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated
from her, there should be political equality of all confessions.
I. Turkey promised reforms in the Armenian provinces, and
security of Armenians from attacks of robber Kurds, h
and i have not been adhered to. Armenians worse treated
than before. Ploetz, 524. Lodge, 751. Muller, 550-552.
McCarthy, II, 606-612.
13. Cyprus given to England, 1878. Statesman's Tear Book, 534.

a. Intervention of England in Egypt, 1882.
B. Montenegro.

Area, 3630 sq. mi., about § the size of Connecticut. Popul., 250,-
000 ; same blood as the Servians.
History :

1. Declaration of independence of Turkey, 1700. Establishment
of hereditary hierarchical government permitted, but not recognized
by Turkey. Union of church and state under one head, called Vla-
dika, 1700-1851.

2. 1851, the Vladika renounces the priestly dignity and becomes a
temporal prince ; war with Turkey.

a. Display of friendship for Russia in Crimean war rewarded
by yearly payment.

b. Accession of Nikita, 1861.

3. Begins with Servia the war against Turkey (1876), which led to
the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78.

a. Independence recognized by Congress of Berlin, with ces-
sions of territory, but under restrictions favorable to Aus-
tria. Muller, 553, 554.

b. The Dulcigno demonstration. Muller, 561-563.

4. Relations with Russia ; hostility to Austria and to Albanians.

5. Government. Hereditary prince has absolute power.

a. State Council, 8 members, 4 elected by the people.

b. Inhabitants divided into tribes, each under elected " Elders."

6. Land laws, to prevent large estates. Laveleye, 281, 282.

C. ROUMANIA.

Reference : James Samuelson : Roumania, Past and Present.

Area, 48,307 sq. mi., about the size of North Carolina. Popul.,
about 5i ra. About 4 m. Roumanians live in countries bordering
Roumania. A race of mixed origin, the Vlach, or Wallach.

History.

1. Known as '* Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Walla-
chia." First relief from Turkish rule by Russo-Turkish war, 1768-
74. Native rulers, but dependent on Turkey.

2. Greek insurrection begins in the principalities, 1821. Placed
under protection of Russia. Treaty of Adrianople, 1829.

3. Autonomy under the suzerainty of Turkey guaranteed at end
of Crimean war; union of two provinces under the name of Rouma-
nia, and under one elected Hospodar, or Prince, 1859-61. Alexan-
der Couza.

4. Navigation of the Danube. The European Commission, 1856.
Eugene Schuyler : American Biplomacg, 352—363. Laveleye: Balkan
Peninsula, 366, 367.

5. Emancipation of peasants from serf-labor, 1864. A peasant
proprietary. The weight of indebtedness, Jewish money-lenders.
Laveleye, 344-346. J. D. Bourchier : The Fate of Roumania,
Fortnightly Review, Dec, 1888.

a. Jewish question. Muller, 563, 564. Laveleye, 361, 362.

6. Constitution (almost exact copy of that of Belgium), 1866,
modified 1879 and 1884, and election of Charles of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen, as hereditary prince. Laveleye, 342, 343.

7. Alliance with Russia against Turkey, 1877. Important services
of Roumanian army at Plevna ; declared independent, 1877 ; and inde-
pendence guaranteed by Congress of Berlin, 1878; loss of territory
east of the Pruth to Russia ; recognized as a kingdom, 1881.

8. Government, hereditary constitutional monarchy.

a. Political parties ; Conservatives, pro-Russian ; National
Liberals (Jean Bratiano), anti-Russian.
Triumph of Conservatives, 1888. Russian intrigues.
D. Greece.

Area, 25,000 sq. mi. ; 3 times Massachusetts. Popul., 2£ m. ; about
h\ m. more under Turkish rule.

1. From the 16th century until 1821-29, Greece was governed as
a province of Turkey.

" The forward movement of the Greek nation may be said, in gen-
eral terms, to have become visible during the first half of the eight-

eenth century. Serfage had then disappeared; the peasant was
either a freeholder or a farmer, paying a rent in kind for his land.
In the gradual and unobserved emancipation of the laboring class,
the first condition of national revival had already been fulfilled. The
peasantry had been formed which, when the conflict with the Turk
broke out, bore the brunt of the long struggle. In comparison with
the Prussian serf, the Greek cultivator at the beginning of the
eighteenth century was an independent man ; in comparison with the
English laborer, he was well fed and well housed. The evils to
which the Greek population was exposed, wherever Greeks and
Turks lived together, were those which brutalized or degraded the
Christian races in every Ottoman province. There was no redress
for injury inflicted by a Mohammedan official or neighbor. If a
wealthy Turk murdered a Greek in the fields, burnt down his house,
and outraged his family, there was no court where the offender could
be brought to justice. The term by which the Turk described his
Christian neighbor was 'our rayah,' that is, 'our subject.' A
Mohammedan landowner might terrorize the entire population around
him, carry off the women, flog and imprison the men, and yet feel
that he had committed no offence against the law ; for no law existed
but the Koran, and no Turkish court of justice but that of the Kadi,
where the complaint of the Christian passed for nothing." Fyffe,
II, 238, 239.

a. Phanariotes.

b. Klephts. Sergeant, 258-260.

c. Hetseria. Fyffe, II, 265-270.

d. Ionian Hands under British Protectorate, 1815-62. Ser-
geant, 397, 398.

2. The Greek Church. Fyffe, II, 243, 244 ; 249, 250.

3. War of Independence, 1821-29. Lodge, 650-657.

a. Unsuccessful rising of Ipsilanti.

b. General revolt. Fyffe, II, 273-285.

c. Interference of the Great Powers. Selfish diplomacy of
Russia and England. Sergeant, 278-280, 350-352.

d. Battle of Navarino. Fyffe, II, 330-334.

e. Philohellenism. Sergeant, 312-320.

/. Presidency of Capodistrias. Fyffe, II, 345-348 ; disputes

over the new boundaries ; civil war. Fyffe, II, 353.
g. Crete given back to Turkey, by England's influenoe.

4. Greece a kingdom, 1830. Lodge, 657.

a. King Otho, 1833-63.

" A frontier Somewhat better than that which had been offered to Leopold was granted
to the new sovereign, but neither Crete, Thessaly, nor Epirus was included within his
kingdom. Thus hemmed in within intolerably narrow limits, while burdened with the ex-
penses of an independent state, alike unable to meet the calls upon its national exchequer,
and to exclude the intrigues of foreign courts, Greece offered during the next generation
little that justified the hopes that had been raised as to its future.

" Poor and inglorious as the Greek kingdom was, it excited the restless longings not only
of Greeks under Turkish bondage, but of the prosperous Ionian Islands under English rule;
and, in 1864, the first step in the expansion of the Hellenic kingdom was accomplished by
the transfer of these islands from Great Britain to Greece. Our own day has seen Greece
further strengthened and enriched by the annexation of Thessaly. The commercial and
educational development of the kingdom is now as vigorous as that of any state in Europe;
in agriculture and in manufacturing industry it still lingers far behind." Fyffe, 354, 355.

b. Representative constitution, 1843.

c. Agitation for extending the northern boundary.

" Greece was very much dissatisfied with the Peace of Paris, which guaranteed the Turk-
ish boundaries. Henceforward King Otho had a difficult position. The nation could not
forgive him for having shown no enterprise or military ambition during the Crimean war;
and from that time on he was regarded as wholly unfit to carry out the ' great idea' of a
great Greece and transfer his residence to Constantinople.

"The Hellenes asked themselves whether that which the Italians had striven after with
almost complete success was to be forbidden them ; whether they did not have the same
right to give ear to their Grecian brothers who were sighing under the yoke of a barbarian
people, and unite into one state all the Grecian provinces of the Olympian peninsula."
Midler, 266.

5. Revolution and expulsion of Otho, 1862. George of Denmark
chosen King, 1863. Cession of Ionian Hands by England. Sergeant,

397, 398.

a. Insurrection of Crete in favor of union with Greece,
1866-68; Greater Greece; interference of the Powers;
England, chiefly through fear of Russia, aids Turkey to
retain Crete.

6. Position and claims of Greece in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877.
Restraint by England ; unfulfilled promises of England. Sergeant,
402-413. Miiller, 554.

a. Greece, by threat of war, obtains Thessaly, 1881.

7. Government, hereditary constitutional monarchy. Single cham-
ber. Election of members of the House by Scrutin de liste. Ser-
geant, ch. iv.

a. Political parties and tendencies. Tricoupis and party of
peace and domestic reforms. The desire for expansion,
and a vigorous foreign policy.

b. Brigandage suppressed. Sergeant, 116-126.

c. Greek influence in commerce. Sergeant, ch. vii.
E. Servia.

Area, 18,750 sq. mi. ; popul., nearly 2 m.
History.

1. Subject to Turks, 1389-1806. Gains some powers of local

government, with aid of Russia, 1807-11. Successful resistance to
Turkey, 1815-29, under Alexander Milos Obrenovitch, whom Tur-
key recognizes as hereditary prince. Annual tribute to be paid.

2. Russian intrigues to prevent growth of national Servian feel-
ing. Civil wars, 1839-60.

3. Agitation for complete independence, 1860-68. Withdrawal of
Turkish garrisons, 1867. Accession of Milan, 1868. Liberal con-
stitution, 1869. Free press and a re-organized army. Opposition of
Russia.

4. Servians and Montenegrins, acting under Russian influence,
begin war against Turkey, 1877. Independence of Servia confirmed
by treaty of Berlin, 1878. Proclaimed a kingdom (Milan I), 1882.

5. Unsuccessful war against Bulgaria, 1885, caused by Russian
intrigues and by envy of Bulgaria's advancement. Servia saved by
Austria.

6. Government, hereditary constitutional monarchy.

a. Senate, or Council of State.

b. The Skuptschina (Parliament), one chamber.

c. The Great Skuptschina.

d. Communal institutions. Statesman's Year Booh, 1888,454.
Laveleye, 182-189.

7. Political parties and tendencies.

a. Conservatives, pro-Russian, Ristics.

b. Progressist, pro-Austrian, Garashanine.

c. Radicals, supposed to be pro-Russian. Laveleye, 194-198.

d. New Constitution. Radical triumph, 1888. London
(Weekly) Times, Jan. 4, 1889, p. 16.

F. Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia).
Area, 37,860 sq. mi.; popul., about 3 m.
History.
1. Under Turkish dominion, 1392-1878.

" The Bulgarians, of Turanian race, came across the Danube from the banks of the Volga
in the fifth century. They settled in the eastern side of the peninsula and intermingled

with the Slavs, whose language and customs they adopted During the ninth

and tenth centuries, the Bulgarians struggled victoriously with the Magyars in the North,

and the Greeks in the j^outh. They were then at the height of their power

For two centuries, 1018 to 1196, Bulgaria was only a Byzantine province, but Kaloyan re-
stored the Bulgarian Empire and decided the defeat, near Adrianople, of the army of the
Crusaders commanded by Baldwin. Joanice-Asen II (1218-1*241), reigned over almost the
whole peninsula, compelled the Patriarch to recognize the autonomy of the Greek Bulgar-
ian Church, and besieged Constantinople, which was saved by the Italians in 1236.

" The Tatars arrived soon afterwards and ravaged the whole country horribly; then came
the Turks, who crossed the Bosphorus and invaded the peninsula. If Greeks, Bulgarians,
and Servians could have united, they might, perhaps, have driven them back into Asia ;
but they continued to make war wjth each other to the end,

" The Servians, under their great Emperor, Dushan, joined with the Bulgarians, threat-
ened Constantinople and seemed on the eve of constituting a powerful state, 1356 ; but for
want of an administrative organization, nothing lasting could he established. The Servians
were defeated in the decisive battle of Kossovo in 1389, and Tirnova, the Bulgarian capital,
was taken by Tchelebi, son of Bajazet, in 1393. The Turkish domination began, and the
Bulgarian church, losing its autonomy, fell again under the authority of the Greek patriarch.
The Bulgarian nationality had apparently ceased to exist." Laveleye : The Balkan Penin-
sula, 245, 246.

2. Subjection of Bulgarian Christians to Greek Church. Acquisi-
tion of ecclesiastical autonomy, 1869-70. Laveleye, 249-252.

3. Insurrection against Turkey, 1876. Cruelty of Turks. See A,
§ 9, ante. How the promises of Turkish Government to Christian
nations were performed. (See A, 1, d, and A, 3, b, ante.)

" The hatti-sheriff of Gulhani, sent by the Porte to satisfy the demands of the Christian
Powers, far from affording any relief to the rayas, only made their fate more terrible.
* The only change which resulted,' said Blanqui, ' merely concerned the finances, and was

directed with the greatest harshness against the Christians The various taxes

imposed on the rayas were added together, and represented by a sum which included them
all, but did not increase them; but the unfortunate Christians, however, instead of paying
once, were compelled to pay them two or three times. The collectors pretended that they
had not received the taxes which the people asserted they had really paid. As they, for
the most part, could neither read nor write, they were deceived with receipts which gave
smaller sums or fixed earlier dates. Most frequently they had no written receipts, but
notches were cut in little bits of wood, always lost or out of the way when they might be
useful to a rate-payer ; always at hand when they bore witness against him. After all, it
was still the old system of extortion and violence, with hypocrisy added, and a deceptive
appearance of legality. That is what the Turkish mind had made of the hatti-sheriff, an

atrocious deception Now. in Turkey, those who are behindhand with their

taxes have soldiers sent to live in their homes. These soldiers install themselves in the rate-
payer's house day and night, rummage everywhere, use everything as if it was their personal

property, and leave the inhabitants no peace Europe does not sufficiently

understand that at the present time there is not a single Christian woman whose honor is
not at the mercy of the first Mussulman whom she has the misfortune to please ! Europe
does not know that the Turks enter a Christian's house whenever they like and take what-
ever pleases them ; that a complaint is more dangerous than resistance ; and that the
simplest quarters given to the lowest men in the most benighted countries would be
immense favors to the inhabitants of Bulgaria." Laveleye, 294-296.

4. Great Bulgaria of the Treaty of San Stefano. Muller, 546.

5. Congress of Berlin (1878) recognizes Bulgaria as self-governing
** principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan." Annual tribute
(on paper). People to ordain Constitution and elect a Prince.

a. No Prince of European reigning house eligible.

b. East Roumelia, with an autonomous administration and a
Christian Governor-General, left under the control of the
Sultan. Muller, 551, 552.

6. 1879, Constituent Assembly of Bulgaria, under Russian auspices.

a. Liberal constitution. Single legislative chamber, the So-
branje.

b. Alexander of Battenberg chosen Prince. Laveleye, 253.

c. Separate organization of East Roumelia by Turkish Gov-
ernment, under foreign pressure. Mutter, 557, 558.

d. Radical or anti-Russian sentiment in the Sobranje. Rus-
sian intrigues to keep Bulgaria weak. Tyranny of Russian
envoys. Laveleye, 255, 256. Contemp. Rev., Nov., 1886,
pp. 609-615. Suspension of the Constitution, 1881-83.
Laveleye, 254.

e. Prince Alexander and the National Bulgarian party. Hos-
tility of Russia. Contemp. Rev., Oct., 1886, pp. 501-508.

7. Revolution in East Roumelia, Sept. 17, 1885. Union with
Bulgaria under Alexander proclaimed.

8. Defensive and successful war against Servia, 1885. Russian
intrigues.

9. Aug. 20, 1886, Russian Plot. Prince Alexander abducted.
His return and resignation, Sept. 7. Contemp. Rev., Oct., 1886, pp.
583-591.

a. Provisional Regency.

b. Conference of Ambassadors at Constantinople, 1887.

c. Russian candidate, Nicholas of Mingrelia.

d. Sobranje elects Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, July 7, 1887,
who accepts. Fortnightly Rev., July, 1888, pp. 39-56.

e. Attitude of the Powers towards Bulgaria.

10. Government. Form of a constitutional monarchy. Princely
title hereditary. Responsible ministry. National Assembly (Sobranje)
" elected by universal manhood suffrage at the rating of one member
to every 10,000 of the population, ' counting both sexes.' " States-
man's Tear Book, 539.

11. Political Parties.

a. Governmental, anti-Russian, Stambouloff.

b. Opposition, pro-Russian, ZankofL

c. Strength of Nationality. Fortnightly Rev., July, 1888,
pp. 53-56.

d. Influence of Robert College.

12. Railway Connections. Baron HirscKs Railway, Fortnightly
Rev., Aug., 1888, pp. 229-239.

LECTURE XIV.

THE PRESENT EMPIRE OF THE OTTOMAN TURKS. THE
EASTERN QUESTION.

Additional References: J. M. Bugbee: The Eastern Question
Historically Considered. Fortnightly Rev., vol. 40 (1886), 563-
547. Sir R. Roberts : Asia Minor and the Caucasus. W. G.
Palgrave : Central and Eastern Arabia.
1. Government and Administration.

Area (including nominally dependent States of Bulgaria, Bosnia,
and Herzegovina), in Europe, Asia and Africa, \\ sq. mi. ; popul.,
over 33 m.

a. Fundamental laws based on the Koran, the Multeka, sup-
posed sayings of Mohammed and his immediate successors,
and the " Canon Nameh," edicts of the Sultang.

b. Authority; Sultan's will absolute; Head of State and
Church alike ; in latter capacity claims to be the Caliph
(l. e., successor of Mahomet) of the Mohammedan world ;
dignity acquired from last Egyptian Caliph, 1517. Succes-
sion usually to the oldest male relative of the last Sultan.
The Harem, a State institution. 5,000 individuals constitute
Court and Harem, absorbing all revenues of the State.

c. Grand Vizier appointed by Sultan at head of administration,
President of Divan, or Imperial Council of Ministers.

d. Country divided into vilayets (vali, or Governor-General,
with Council), provinces, districts, and municipalities. En-
tire civil service dependent on central power. " Birth con-
fers no privilege, as all true believers are equal in the eye
of the law." Statesman's Tear Book, 524.

e. Sheik-ul-Islam (Elder of Islam), appointed by Sultan, at
head of religious administration ; chief of the Ulemas,
interpreters of law and Koran. Religious administration
includes :

(1) Ulemas proper, chief religious and legal functionaries.

(2) Mollahs and Kadis (judges and magistrates).

(3) Muftis, theologians and expounders of the Koran.

(4) Imams, ministers of worship.

(5) Sottas, theological students.

(6) Hadjis and Dervishes.

2. Religion and education. Under actual Turkish rule, in Europe
and Asia together, Mohammedans, 16 m. ; Christians, over 5 m.
Annual pilgrimages to Mecca, 120,610 in 1883. Education in con-
trol of Muftis. Foreign Missions and Schools. Robert College.
American Missionary schools.

3. Finance and taxation. Country bankrupt since 1875. Excise
taxes in hands of a commission of creditors since 1881 ; other reve-
nues mortgaged. National debt, permanent deficit. English loans.
Vakoufs, church lands. Laveleye, 317-321. Different forms of land

tenure. Statesman's Tear Book, 534, 535.

4. Local government under Turkish Empire.

a. Egypt. Khedivate hereditary in family of Mehemet AH
since 1841, on condition of annual tribute. Tevvfik Pasha,
Khedive, 1879. Rebellion of Arabi Pasha, 1882, to drive
out foreigners, and establish National Assembly.

Withdrawal of France. England occupies the country.
Constitution of 1883. Mixed courts. Government Tear
Book, 1888, pp. 588-592. The Mahdi and Gordon in the
Soudan, 1883-84. Abolition of forced peasant labor, 1887.
Our Task in Egypt; Fortnightly Review, Nov., 1888, p.
629. Egypt and the English Occupation ; Revue des Deux
Mondes, tome 90, pp. 654, 890.

b. Samos. Limited local control since 1832. Prince (a
Greek) appointed by Sultan, and Council of four Greeks.

c. Christians of Mt. Lebanon, in Syria, under a Governor of
their own faith since 1864.

d> Crete has a National Assembly in which both Christians
and Mohammedans are represented.
A. The Eastern Question.
The disposal of the territories of the important Mohammedan states.
1. The question of Turkey in Europe.

a. The Race Question. Macedonia. Laveleye, ch. x.
k Claims of Greece. Fortnightly Review, vol. 40 (1886),
pp. 404-413.

c. Aspirations of Russia.

d. Interests of Austro-Hungary.

e. Ecclesiastical influences.

f. A Balkan Confederation. Laveleye, 330-335.
g. The interests of England.

2. The Asiatic question.

a. Russia's advance upon Asia Minor. (See Lecture VII, B.)
Objective points, the Persian Gulf and the Bosphorus. Fate
of Persia. The advance through Circassia, 1799-1878.
The advance through Turkestan, or Central Asia, 1846,
1860-84 (Merv and Bokhara) -1887 (Afghan frontier).

b. Claims of Greeks and Armenians. Laveleye, 321-323.

c. The mountaineers of Asia Minor.

d. The English in Cyprus. Miiller, 552. Hazell, 1888. Fort-
nightly Review, vol. 40, 1886, pp. 372-387.

e. Interests of European governments (France, Russia) in
Palestine. Fortnightly Review, 1882, p. 427; 1883, p. 227.

f. Independent Arabia. Beni Shammar, Nejd, Oman. Pal-
grave, ch. viii. Fortnightly Review, vol. 33, 1880, p. 141 ;
Feb., 1884, p. 191.

g. Religious sympathies of Arabs. The Shereef of Mecca.
Stanford 's Compendium. Keane : Asia, 135, 136.

h. The English at Aden; occupied in 1838. Keane, 138-140.
i. Trade routes. Keane, 140-142.

3. The Turkish question in Africa.

a. Algiers nominally subject, 1516 ; conquered by France,
1830.

b. Egypt virtually independent of Turkey since 1841 ; politi-
cal importance of Suez canal ; the Red Sea route.

c. Tunis, nominally subject, 1531 ; conquered by France, 1881 —
82. Kairwan.

d. Tripoli, and the hopes of Italy.

e. Feeling of Arabs and African Mohammedans towards the
Ottoman Turk. Soudanese sects and fraternities. Doctrine
of a Mahdi.

/. Mohammedan Missions in Africa. E. W. Blyden: Chris-
tianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (2d ed.), 199, 277, 350.
Canon Taylor: The Great Missionary Failure, Fortnightly
Review, Oct., 1888.

g. Arabians and the slave trade in the Soudan. The English
at Suakim. (Lecture XXIV.)

4. The future of Islam and the Caliphate. Fortnightly Review,
vol. 36, 1881, pp. 204, 315, 441, 585 ; vol. 37, 1882, p. 32. See also
Blyden.

LECTURE XV,

U EIOI \\ CONFEDERATIONS AND THE GROWTH OF PRUSSIA.

References : S. Baring- Gould : Germany, Present and Past.
S. Baring -Gould : Germany. James Sime : History of Ger-
many {Freeman's Historical Course). Moritz Busch ; Our
Chancellor. J. R. Seeley : Life and Times of Stein (Tauch-
uitz ed.). M. Grant Duff ': Studies in European Politics, chs.
iv, v. Sidney Whitman : Imperial Germany.
In 1806, the German empire came to an end ; Francis II, Emperor
of Germany, forced by Napoleon, resigned and retired to govern his
own inheritance, Austria, under the title of Emperor of Austria. New
confederation formed. Lodge, 592. Sime: History of Germany, 202.

I. 1806-15, Confederation of the Rhine, composed of 16 states
which were induced to unite by Napoleon under promise of cessions
of conquered territory from the rest of Germany. Lodge, 592-595.
The mediatized Princes. Fyffe, I, 295.

II. 1815-66. The Germanic Confederation, 39 states, under the
hegemony of Austria. See Notes on Austro- Hungary, Lodge, 637,
669, 687. Muller, 7-9. Sime: Germany, 209. Gould: Germany,
p. 166. Stipulations of the Federal Act. Grant Duff, 258, 259.

1. Influence of French Revolutionary Epoch upon Prussia, espe-
cially after the defeat by Napoleon, 1806-7.

a. The Ministers, Stein, and Hardenberg. McCarthy, II, 348.

b. Reforms introduced about 1810. Lodge, 605-608. Former
social system. Fyffe, I, 33, 34.

(1) Abolition of serfdom and prerogatives of feudal nobility.
Lodge. Seeley, II, 18-31.

(2) Abolition of trade guilds.

(3) Abolition of all restrictions to the right of property in
land.

(4) More equal distribution of taxes.

(5) Compulsory education. McCarthy, II, 481.

(6) Introduction of the Landwehr system.

2. Increase of Prussian territory at Congress of Vienna, 1815.
Ploetz, 482, 483. Character of King Frederic William III, 1797-
1840. Mutter, 10. Relative positions of Austria and Prussia; ques-
tion of Alsace-Lorraine. Fyffe, II, 60-74.

a. The Burschenschaft, or student fraternity ; murder of Kot-
zebue aud its suppression. Lodge, 638. Mutter, 13-17.
Fyffe, II, 127-129, 139-142.

b. In 1815, the King promised the people a constitution;
opposition of Metternich and reactionary party, so that it
was never fulfilled. Lodge, 630-637. Mutter, 3-5, 9. Fyffe,
II, 121-125. Sime, 224.

c. Period of depression.

d. The Zollverein, 1828-36. Industrial and commercial union
of Central and South German States, under leadership and
protection of Prussia. Mutter, 164, 165 ; 318, 319. Fyffe,
II, 406.

" The idea of a uniform system of customs for the German States, first suggested at the
Congress of Vienna in 1815, was acted upon by the government of Prussia, which abol-
ished all distinctions of customs throughout its territories, May 26, 1818, and invited
other governments to unite for a similar purpose. The invitation was generally accepted,
and the result was the formation of the Zollverein, by which internal trade was free from
all restrictions, and a uniform system of duties agreed on for those states that joined it."
Ewald, 84.

3. 1837, dissolution of union between England and Hanover,
(1714-1837) ; accession of reactionary King Ernest; relations with
Prussia and South German States. Mutter, 162, 163.

4. Frederic William IV, 1840-57, imbecile; 1857, gave way to a
Regency; died, 1861. Character. Grant Duff, 202-20 6. Hopes of
reform ; disappointment. Lodge, 688. Mutter, 165-168. Fyffe,II,
496-498.

a. " Royal Patent " of 1847.

(1) Landtag or Central Diet assembled at Berlin. Lodge,
688-690. Miiller, 168. Fyffe, II, 498, 502. Sime, 233.

" Prussia herself had no parliament of the whole monarchy until 1847 ; up to that year
there had been only local ' Landes Stande,' estates or diets for the several provinces. The
liberal party had two objects to struggle for,— the establishment or extension of free insti-
tutions in the several states, and the attainment of national unity. . . . Now, in Ger-

many, such liberties had not been known since primitive times ; and there were few seri-
ous practical grievances to be complained of. From the time of Frederick the Great the
country had been well and honestly administered ; conscience was free, trade and indus-
try were growing, taxation was not heavy, the press' censorship did not annoy the ordinai-y
citizen, and the other restraints upon personal freedom were only those to which the sub-
jects of all the Continental monarchies had been accustomed. The habit of submission
was strong ; and there existed in most places a good deal of loyalty, irrational perhaps,
but not therefore the less powerful, towards the long-descended reigning houses. It was
therefore hard for the liberals to excite their countrymen to any energetic and concerted
action ; and when the governments thought fit to repress their attempts at agitation, this
could be harshly done with little fear of the consequences.

" It was therefore only through the carefully-guarded press, and occasionally in social or
literary gatherings, that appeals to the nation could be made, or the semblance of an agi-
tation kept up. There was no point to start from ; and it was all aspiration and nothing
more ; and so this movement, to which so many of the noblest hearts and intellects of Ger-
many devoted themselves (though the two greatest stood aloof), made during many years
little apparent progress." James Bryce : Holy Koman Empire, 415-417.

b. Development of political parties.

(1) Liberals; free institutions; peaceful foreign policy.
" Prussia Germanized, and not Germany Prussianized."

(2) Conservative ; extreme wing known as " Old Prussian
Party "; warlike and ambitious.

(3) Junkers. Muller, 306. Grant Duff, 214-216, 243-
245.

c. Bismarck. Lodge, 708, 727-730, 737, 751. Muller, 306-
332, 445-448, 460, 466, 550, 568, 632-639, 645-651. Mc-
Carthy, II, 246, 504, 508, 509, 606. Sime, 245. For a
sketch of Bismarck in his private life, — Busch: Our Chan-
cellor, II, ch. 7. Grant Duff, 233-235.

" Distinguished for the acuteness of his political diagnosis, of unbending will, an ardent
enthusiast for Prussian and German greatness, at the age of forty-seven he already had a
checkered career behind him. In the United Landtag of 1847, he was the leader of the
extreme right, and distinguished himself by his determined opposition to a national assem-
bly and a constitution. He accepted for his party the nickname ' Junker,' and replied to his
opponents : ' Be assured that we for our part will bring the name of Junker to respect and
honor.' As delegate to the Diet of Frankfurt, in 1851, he had an opportunity to observe
Austria's influence over the second-rate and lesser German states, and to appreciate thor-
oughly Prussia's false position. Hitherto, in Junker fashion, he had overflowed with praise
of Austria, but now ' there fell from his eyes as it had been scales,' as he himself said, and
from that time he stood forward as her open and secret adversary. That he might not be
compromised by Bismarck's sympathy for the cause of Italy, the King transferred him to
St. Petersburg, as ambassador, in 1859. In 1862 he became ambassador at Paris, and had a
chance to study his future rival, Napoleon. His words in the Budget committee attracted
universal attention : ' Prussia must collect its strength for the favorable moment, which
has already been several times allowed to pass. Prussia's borders are not adapted to sound
health in the political body. It is not by speeches and resolutions of majorities that the
great questions of the times are to be decided, — that was the mistake of 1840 and 1845,—
but by blood and iron." Midler, 306, 307.

d. Prussia joins in European Revolution of 1848. Overthrow
of the Metternich system. Frederic William IV goes with
the tide. " Henceforward Prussia takes the lead in Ger-
many," Muller, 226-228,

e. Constitution of 1849-50. " By this step Prussia entered
the ranks of modern constitutional States." Mutter, 228-
230.
f Desire of Diet of Germanic Confederation (28 States) to
revive German Empire under Prussian King. Fierce oppo-
sition of Austria and South German States. Frederic
William IV refuses imperial crown, 1849 ; desires no
'* crown that will horribly pollute the bearer with carrion
smell of revolution of 1848." Mutter, 230-232.
g. Schleswig-Holstein, and the desire of the German Liberals
for national unity. Prussia outwitted and brow-beaten by
Austria, Russia, and England. Mutter, 213, 218, 219,
245-253.
5. William I, Regent, 1857-61 ; King, 1861-88 ; Emperor of
Germany, 1871-88. Accession. Mutter, 273. Military reforms.
Milller, 304, 305. Promotion of Otto Von Bismarck-Schoenhausen ;
definite and vigorous policy. Grant Duff, 233, 234. Whitman, 116-
125. Sime, 245.

a. Prussia's commanding attitude in Germany in 1859.
Sime, 244. Mutter, 283-286.

b. Austria repelled in attempts to enter and control the Zoll-
verein, 1853, 1864. Mutter, 272, 318, 319. Busch, 291-293.

c. Revival of Liberal- Democratic party of 1848 in Prussia and
Germany (Fortschritts Partei), 1859-62. Grant Buff, 228-
233.

d. Lassalle and the Social- Democratic party. Baring- Gould,
History of Germany, 410-414, 430-437. Laveleye: Social-
ism of Today, ch. v.

e. Constitutional conflict between the Ministry (Bismarck) and
the Lower House of the Prussian Landtag, 1862-66. Miil-
ler, 307.

/. The Schleswig-Holstein difficulty, 1863-65. Sime, 246-
249. Mutter, 309-325. Prussia and Austria drive the
Danes from the Duchies, 1864.

g. Difficulty results in Prusso-Austrian War of 1866. Causes :

(1) Rivalry for possession of duchies of Schleswig-Holstein.

(2) Ambition of each state to be supreme in Germany.
Austria to keep the supremacy, Prussia to win it.

(3) Success of Prussia with the Zollverein.

(4) Opposition of two systems of Government. Prussia,
more Liberal ; Austria, the Metternich system. South

German States, together with Hanover, Saxony, Hesse-
Cassel, and Nassau, side with Austria ; the remainder
with Prussia ; Italy also the ally of Prussia. Sadowa
(Koeniggratz), July 3, 1866 ; destruction of the Austrian
power. MiMer, 326-366.
h. Peace of Prague, Aug. 23, 1866. Austria excluded from
Germany. End of Germanic Confederation declared,
Aug. 24, 1866. South German States recognize hegemony
of Prussia. Sime, 255. Baring- Gould, 167.
i. Annexation to Russia of Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover,
Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt. Lodge, 726-730.
Muller, 367. McCarthy, II, 244-247. Sime, 255.
III. 1866-71, North German Confederation. Lodge, 730, 731.
Muller, 368. 22 states in this alliance ; Bavaria, Baden,
and Wiirtemberg, states south of the Main, were excluded,
but were bound by secret treaties to Prussia, and in 1867
joined the Zollverein.

1. The constitution of the Confederation.

a. Military forces were consolidated under the leadership of
Prussia.

b. King of Prussia as President of the Confederation was
vested with the control of foreign affairs, and also with the
right of declaring war and peace with the consent of the
federal Parliament.

c. All legislation for revenue for federal objects transferred to
the control of the Parliament.

d. Parliament consisted of —

(1) Bundesrath or council of 43 members, of which Prussia
was entitled to 17; this represented the government.
Muller, 379, 383.

(2) Reichstag, or popular branch, elected by manhood suf-
frage. Muller, 378-383, 368, 381.

2. The Luxemburg Question, 1867. Muller, 370, 371.

3. Strength of desire for German unity among the South German
States, 1866-70. Particularism in Ultramontane Bavaria and Hesse,
and in democratic Wiirtemberg. National feeling in Baden. Muller,
376-388.

4. War of Prussia with France, 1870. Uprising of the South Ger-
mans ; demand for German unity. Mc Carthy, II, 503-505. Lodge,
734-737. Muller, 409-460. Sime, 256-264.

5. The Culturkarapf, 1871. Its beginnings. Mutter, 165, 166,
272. The May Laws, 1873-74.

a. Church officers cannot inflict social or civil penalties.

b. Priests must have a secular as well as clerical education.

c. Performance of ecclesiastical duties must be authorized by
the State.

d. 1874, compulsory civil marriage and registration laws.
MiXller, 499-503, 631-636. Gould, ch. x.

6. Government, hereditary monarchy ; since 1850, constitutional.

a. Ministry appointed by King.

b. Legislature, the Landtag, two chambers. Herrenhaus,
composed of —

(1) Hohenzollern princes.

(2) Heads of 16 princely houses (mediatized).

(3) Heads of territorial nobility (about 50).

(4) Life-peers.

(5) 8 Noblemen elected in the 8 provinces to represent
land-owners.

(6) Representatives of universities ; burgomasters of large
cities.

(7) Unlimited number of members nominated by King.
Abgeordnetenhaus, — 432 members, — chosen by electors
who represent the great body of voters in ratio of 1 to 250.

7. Education, universal and compulsory.

8. Military organization. Statesman's Tear Book, 108.

9. Character of the Hohenzollerns. Importance in Prussian his-
tory. Eulogistic view in Whitman, ch. iv.

a. Bismarck and the Emperor Frederic III. Diary of the
Emperor Frederic; Pall Mall Budget, Oct. 4, 1888, pp.
24-31. The Morier Incident. N. T. Nation, Jan. 10,
1889, p. 25.

LECTURE XVI.

THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 1871.

Area, 211,196 sq. mi.; equal to Colorado and Nevada joined;
popul. (1885), 47 m. Area of foreign colonial dependencies, 591,000
sq. mi. Population, about 687,000.

1. Irresistible current of public opinion in South Germany in 1871,
in favor of unity with North German Confederation. Influence of
war with France. Initiative of Baden, and King Louis of Bavaria.
Milller, 460-468. Proclamation of the King of Prussia as Emperor,
and of the new Empire, made at Versailles, Jan. 1 and 18, 1871.

2. Constitution of the German Empire, April 16, 1871. By the
terms of the constitution, the states of Germany formed an eternal
union under the supreme direction in political and military affairs of
the King of Prussia, who, as such, bears the title of ''Deutscher
Kaiser." Lodge, 7 37. Mutter, 463-467. Sime, 267. Baring- Gould:
Germany, 168-170.

a. The Emperor (Kaiser) represents the nation internation-
ally.

(1) Can declare defensive war.

(2) Can make peace and treaties.

(3) To declare offensive war, the Kaiser must have consent
of the Federal Council. Statesman's Year Book, 101.
Lodge, 737. Mutter, 463-467.

b. The Bundesrath, or Federal Council ; 62 members.

(1) Represents the governments, and appointed by them.

(2) Proposes legislation.

(3) Controlled by Prussia.

(4) Supreme administrative and consultative Board for the
Empire. Mutter, 382, 383 ; 463 (note). Baring-Gould,
170-172.

(flwl-

States of the Empire.

Kingdom of Prussia ....

" " Bavaria ....

m a Wiirtemberg . * .

M " Saxony ....

Grand Duchy of Baden

" " " Mechlenburg-Schwerin

" " " Hesse ....

" " " Oldenburg .

" M " Saxe-Weimar

" " " Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Duchy of Brunswick ....

" " Saxe-Meiningen

«■ " Anhalt

" M Saxe-Coburg-G otha

** " Saxe-Altenburg

Princ

pality of Waldeck
M Lippe

" Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
" Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
" Reuss-Schleiz
" Schauniburg-Lippe
M Reuss Greiz . . . .
Free town of Hamburg . . . .

" " " Liibeck

" " " Bremen

Reichsland of Elsass-Lothringen .

Total

Number of
Members in
Bundesrath.

Number of
Deputies in
Reichstag.

236

1
3
1
1
15

397

Baring-Gould, 176-178.

c. The Reichstag, or Diet ; 397 members, elected by universal
suffrage (ballot) for term of three years. Annual sessions.
Emperor can prorogue or dissolve. Confirms, amends, or
rejects proposals of Bundesrath. Can draft bills and send
them to Bundesrath. Without its consent the State can
contract no loan. Muller, 463 (note). Baring- Gould, 172,
173.

d. Imperial Chancery (Ministry), under control of Imperial
Chancellor (Reichskanzler). Ten different departments.
" There is no provision in the laws of the Empire for bring-
ing the Chancellor to account." Baring- Gould, 173, 174.

e. Strongly centralized nature of Government. The Hohen-
zollern prerogatives. Restrictions upon the Press. Charac-
ters of the three Emperors of 1888, William I, Frederic III,
and William II. Busch, II, ch. iv. Muller, 646. Whit-
man, chs. v and xiii.

" In the royal rescript of January 4, 1882, the emperor, speaking in his character as
king of Prussia, says : ' The government acts of the king require the countersignature of a
minister, and, as was also the case before the constitution was issued, have to be repre-
sented by the king's ministers, but they nevertheless remain government acts of the king,
from whose decisions they result, and who thereby constitutionally expresses his will and
pleasure. It is, therefore, my will that both in Prussia and in the legislative bodies of the
empire there may be no doubt left as to my own constitutional right, and that of my suc-
cessors, to personally conduct the policy of my government, and that the theory shall
always be gainsaid that the inviolability of the king, which has always existed in Prussia,
and is enunciated by article 43 of the constitution, or the necessity of a responsible counter-
signature of my government acts, deprives them of the character of royal and independent
decisions.' " Muller, 646.

3. Local Governments of Germany.

a. Three Free Towns — republican.

b. All other States hereditary and constitutional monarchies,
except Mecklenburg-Schweriu, which has yet a feudal con-
stitution.

c. Elsass-Lothringen. Statthalter (Gov.-Gen.) appointed by
Emperor, with Council.

(1) Feeling in Elsass-Lothringen. Muller, 497, 498.

4. Education. Baring- Gould, 185-187. Whitman, ch. iii. Gould:
History of Germany, ch. vii.

5. The Army. Baring- Gould, 181-183. Whitman, ch. vii. Gould,
ch. viii.

6. Social Structure. Baring-Gould, ch. viii. Gould, ch. xiv.
Whitman, chs. viii and ix.

7. The Culturkampf in Germany. Gould, ch. x. Muller, 499-
504, 630-636.

8. Financial Policy. Demonetization of silver, 1873. Adoption
of Protective Tariff, 1879. Muller, 643, 644. State authorized to
purchase railways, 1879. Muller, 643. Tobacco monopoly ; laborer's
insurance.

9. Anti-Semitic agitation, 1879. Opposed by Frederic III, 1888.
Muller, 648, 649.

10. The Alliance of Central Europe, 1879.

a. Its composition.

b. Its motives : to push Austro-Hungary eastward, to check
Russia and France, to strengthen Italy, to preserve peace.
Fortnightly Review, Jan., 1887, p. 1.

11. The Septennate discussion, 1887. Papal action.

12. Social Democracy in Germany. Busch, II, ch. v. Gould, 430-
437.

a. Programme of the party (1876). Muller, 637.

b. Attempts on Emperor's life (1878). Muller, 637, 638.

c. Anti-Socialist legislation. Muller, 638-640.

d. Growth of the party.

12. Political parties and tendencies.

a. Account of. Muller, 495-498, 632, 633, 641, 645, 648.

b. Divisions in the Reichstag elected Feb., 1887 :

(1) Center (Ultramontane), 101.

(2) Elsassers, 15.

(3) Poles, 12.

(4) German Conservatives, 78.

(5) Imperialists (Reichspartei), 42.

(6) National Liberals, 97.

(7) German Liberals, 32.

(8) Social Democrats, 11.

(9) Independents (anti-Semitic, Guelph, Dane, "Wilde"), 8.

13. German Colonization, 1884-.

a. The East African slave trade.

b. Samoa. W. L. Bees: " German Conduct in Samoa"
Nineteenth Century, Nov., 1888.

LECTURE XVII.

FRANCE, 1815-1870.

A. Royalty, 1814-48.

1815-30, Louis XVIII and Charles X.
1830-48, Louis Philippe.

B. Republic, 1848-52.

C. Empire, 1852-70.

D. Republic, 1870-.

References : The Student's History of France. Lebon and Pelet:
France as it is. E. Levasseur : La France avec ses Colonies.
J. F. Elton : With the French in Mexico. J. G. Scott : France
and Tonghing. A. R. Colquhoun : The Truth about Tonquin.

Area, 204,177 sq. mi., twice the size of Colorado. Population over
38 m. Area of colonial possessions, 953,062 sq. mi.; population about
26 m.

A. Royalty, 1814-1848.

1. Upon the restoration of the Bourbons. {Fyffe, II, 12-14. Lodge,
638-641. Miiller, 90), a liberal constitution was granted, which pro-
vided for :

a. Limited monarchy. Fyffe, II, 15, 16.

b. Legislative power vested in two chambers ; the Upper
House, or Peers, named by the King, and the Lower House,
or Chamber of Deputies, elected by the people. Fyffe, II,
14, 15.

King alone proposed laws, but Lower House controlled
taxation.

c. Property qualification for suffrage.

d. Responsible ministers.

e. Freedom of the press, " within the limits necessary to pub-
lic tranquillity."

f. Religious toleration.

g. Land titles not to be disturbed.

2. Reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X. Miiller, 79-102.
"Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bour-
geoisie)." Fyffe, II, 14-19, 31-77, 356-368. Lodge, 657-660.

a. Domination of clerical influence. Ultra Royalists.

b. Interference in Spain in behalf of Holy Alliance, and
against constitutional rule in Spain, 1823.

c. Conquest of Algiers, 1 830.

3. Revolution of July, 1830 ; " The Three Days." Fyffe, II,
368-381. Lodge, 660-662. Miiller, 99-101.

a. Causes :

(1) Freedom of the press suppressed. Fyffe, II, 368.

(2) Representative government restricted ; the number of
electors limited by raising the suffrage qualification.
Fyffe, II, 368.

(3) Control of the King by the " Congregation" (Jesuit
and clerical party).

(4) Lafayette, Talleyrand, Thiers.

b. Results : Charles X abdicated ; Duke of Orleans succeeded
as Louis Philippe. Miiller, 102-112.

" In comparison with the Revolution of 1789, the movement which overthrew the Bour-
bons in 1830 was a mere nutter pn the surface. It was unconnected with any great change

in men's ideas, and it left no great social or legislative changes behind it. Occasioned by
a breach of the constitution on the part of the Executive Government, it resulted mainly
in the transfer of administrative power from one set of politicians to another : the altera-
tions introduced into the constitution itself were of no great importance. France neither
had an absolute Government before 1830, nor a popular Government afterwards. Instead
of a representative of divine right, attended by guards of nobles and counseled by Jesuit
confessors, there was now a citizen.king, who walked about the streets of Paris with an
umbrella under his arm and sent his sons to public schools, but who had at heart as keen a
devotion to dynastic interests as either of his predecessors, and a much greater capacity
for personal rule. The bonds which kept the entire local administration of France in
dependence upon the central authority were not loosened ; officialism remained as strong
as ever ; the franchise was still limited to a mere fraction of the nation." Fyffe, II, 379.

c. Constitution changed.

(1) Religious sects made equal in the eyes of the law.

(2) Censorship and all restrictions upon the press abolished.

(3) Power of the King to suspend laws taken away.

(4) The privilege of initiative in legislation extended to the
Chamber of Deputies.

4. Parties during the reign of Louis Philippe.

a. Legitimists, desiring a king of the Bourbon family ; their
candidate was the grandson of Charles X, the Count of
Chambord, also called Henry V. Mutter, 173.

b. Orleanists ; since the death of Louis Philippe, his grand-
son, the Comte de Paris, has represented the party. Mutter,
197.

c. Bonapartists ; in favor of the election of Louis Napoleon,
nephew of the great emperor.

d. Republicans ; in favor of a republic.

5. Reign of Louis Philippe ; causes leading to his overthrow.
Fyffe, II, 414-418, 503. Lodge, 672-679, 682-686. Mutter, 186-
201.

a. The laws of September, 1835 (Thiers), to restrict the press,
on account of several attacks made upon Louis Philippe ;
their unpopularity ; rivalry of Thiers and Guizot. Student's
France, 686, 688.

h. Plotting of Louis Napoleon ; 1836, unsuccessful attempt
to raise an insurrection among the troops at Strassburg;
goes to America; 1841, again landed in France; declared
himself emperor ; captured and imprisoned for six years.

c. Failure of the government (Thiers), in its support of the
ambition of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, who attempted
to make himself independent of Turkey, against the wishes
of England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, 1840.

w France proposed that all Syria and Egypt should be given in hereditary dominion to
Mehemet Ali, with no further obligation towards the Porte than the payment of a yearly

tribute. The counter-proposal of England was that Mehemet, recognizing the Sultan's
authority, should have the hereditary government of Egypt alone, that he should entirely
withdraw from all Northern Syria, and hold Palestine only as an ordinary governor ap-
pointed by the Porte for his life-time. To this proposition all the Powers, with the excep-
tion of France, gave their assent." Fyffe, II, 457.

d. Charges of avarice on the part of the king ; increased his
wealth by business undertakings.

e. Charge that the government was not sincere in its promise
to England with respect to the Spanish marriage; this
weakened the English alliance. Fyffe, II, 504-506.

f. Foolish return of Napoleon's body to France, 1840.

g. Scarcity and want in 1847, which aroused the Socialistic
classes ; Louis Blanc ; reform banquets, and attempt of the
government (Guizot) to prevent them ; riot ; abdication of
Louis Philippe. Fyffe, II, 506-513.

" On the one hand were the Legitimists, aiming at the restoration of the elder branch
of the Bourbons ; on the other hand there were the Republicans, who wished to be rid of
monarchy altogether. The government of Louis Philippe satisfied neither. It served as a
transition, or temporary halting-place, in the progress of France towards the goal of ra-
tional and stable republicanism, to which the great revolution tended. It was an ' attempt
to put new wine into old bottles.' This inherent weakness of the Orleans rule it would
have been difficult by any means to neutralize in such a way as to avert sooner or later a
catastrophe. The unbending conservatism of Guizot — as seen in his refusal to extend
suffrage — hastened this result. A government over which less than half a million of
voters of the middle class alone had an influence could not stand against the republican
feeling of the country. The middle class, on which the throne depended, became separated
from the advanced party, to which the youth of France more and more rallied. Guizot
was personally upright ; but official corruption was suffered to spread in the last years of
his administration, and bribery was used in the elections. These circumstances, added to
the mortification of national pride from the little heed paid to France by the other pow-
ers, weakened the throne. The failure of the government to support the cause of liberty
in Poland and Italy was another important source of its growing unpopularity." Fisher:
Outlines of Universal History, 562.

B. The Second Republic, 1848-1852.

1. Dissensions between Moderates (Lamartine) and Socialists and
Communists (Ledru-Rollin, Louis Blanc).

a. Constitution. Universal suffrage, single chamber, elected
President.

2. Louis Napoleon chosen President; conflict of parties.

a. Monarchist.

b. Republican.

c. Bonapartist.

d. Socialist and Communist.

e. Power of the clerical party.

/. Coup d'etat in 1851. The Plebiscite. Lodge, 709-715.
Student's France, ch. xxxiii.

3. Successive changes in the constitution.

a. Louis Napoleon's appeal to the people, Dec. 20, 1851.
"The number of recorded votes was 7,439,216 to 646,757"
in Napoleon's favor.

" In the Constitution thus granted to France the form of liberty was maintained, but its
spirit was suppressed. It consisted of a Legislative Chamber, a Senate, and Council of
State. The Legislative Chamber was to be elected every six years by universal suffrage,
and the members of the Senate and the Council of State to be nominated for life. The
President was elected for ten years." Ewald, 125.

b. Jan. 15, 1852. "The French President promulgated a
new constitution ; the whole executive power to be vested
in the President, who is to be advised by a state council, a
senate of nobles, and a completely powerless legislative
assembly, whose transactions at the demand of five mem-
bers may be secret." Ewald, 125.

c. Dec. 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon declared " Emperor of the
French, by the Grace of God and the Will of the People."

C. Empire, 1852-1871.

1. Napoleon strengthened his position :

a. .By co-operation with England in the Crimean war.

b. By assisting Sardinia in ridding Italy of Austrian influence
and rule. Acquisition of Savoy and Nice.

c. Appeared as protector of Papal interests. 1860, French
garrison at Rome.

d. General purposes of his foreign policy.

2. Power weakened.

a. Dissatisfaction with his arbitrary rule.

b. Growing importance and ambition of Prussia, especially
after war with Austria, 1866 ; failure of France in attempt-
ing to secure more territory.

c. Alienation of Italy, by sending French troops in 1867 to
keep Garibaldi out of Rome. Miiller, 400, 401.

d. Interference and failure in Mexico, 1861-66. Wells:
Study of Mexico.

3. War with Prussia, 1870-71. Miiller, 409-460. Lodge, 734-736.

a. Causes :
General Causes :

1. ** The idea entertained by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by histori-
ans, poets, and the daily press, of the re-conquest of the left bank of the Rhine.

2. " The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political
unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia,
and in the victory of the latter state over Austria an impermissible encroachment upon
their own military fame."

Special Causes ;

1. " The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III» Growth of Constitutional
Party. New Constitution, 1870. Clerical control of Napoleon." J/ttMer, 3 88-394.

2. " The rejection of the ' compensation ' demanded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin,
for the growth of Prussia, in extent and population.

3. " News of the approaching introduction of an improved weapon for the North German
infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French chassepot.''

Immediate Cause :
"The election of a prince of Hoheneollern to the throne of Spain, Which Was repre»
sented in Paris as a Prussian intrigue, endangering the safety of France. The request
made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of King William I, in person, that he
Bhould forbid the Prince of Hohenzollern to accept the Spanish croWn,Was refused. After
the voluntary Withdrawal of the Prince, the French government looked to the King of
Prussia for a distinct announcement ' that he would never again permit the candidacy of
the Prince for the Spanish crown.' King William refused to discuss the matter, and re»
ferred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the ministry at Berlin.
This, and the telegraphic announcement of the proceeding, was represented by the Duke
of Gramont as an insult to France*" Ploetz, 513.

b. Results. Milller, 460.

(1) Capture of Napoleon. Fall of the Empire (Sedan),
Aug. 31-Sept. 4, 1870. (Death of Louis Napoleon in
England, .Tan. 9, 1873.)

(a) Government of National Defence (Gambetta, Favre)
proclaims the Third Republic. MUller, 439-443.

(2) Siege and capture of Paris, Jan., 1871. Mutter, 457.

(3) General election of a National Assembly (Thiers) to
meet at Bordeaux, Feb. 12, 1871. Peace, March 1 and
2, 1871. Terms:

(a) France ceded to German Empire Alsace and part of
Lorraine (4700 sq. mi. ; popul., 1.5 m.).

(b) Indemnity of $965 m. within three years ; until then,
Prussian occupation.

LECTURE XVIII,

D. Till: THIRD REPUBLIC, 1870

1. Presidential administrations:

a. Thiers, 1871-73. Mutter, 474, 475.

b. MacMahon, 1873-79. Mutter, 475, 476.

c. Grevy, 1879-87. Mutter, 620-629.

d. Sadi-Carnot, 1887.

2. Insurrection and overthrow of the Paris Commune, March 18
to May 28, 1871.

" Not until the Commune was suppressed could the French government provide for an
orderly and systematic administration of the country. It had before it, at the outset, two
aims,— to rid the land, as soon as possible, of the German troops, and to improve the army
according to the Prussian pattern. As large sums of money were necessary for the attain-
ment of both these aims, a great strain was put upon the taxable strength of the country.
The result to be achieved by the increase of the army was not the strengthening of the
defensive power of the country,— for a peaceful France had no assaults to fear,— but a war
of revenge against Germany. The lost military glory must be restored, and the ceded
provinces be regained, or compensation taken elsewhere." Muller, 471.

3. Strife of parties. Failure of attempt for Bourbon Restoration,
1873. Mutter, 474, 475. Royalists help elect MacMahon President
and establish a Republican Constitution, intending it to be temporary,
Milller, 611-613.

4. Constitution of 1875. Lebon, 75-84. Levasseur, 835-839.

a. The Executive ; President of the Republic.

(1) Elected by National Assembly, composed of Senate
and Chamber of Deputies.

(2) Term of office is seven years ; reeligible.

(3) Powers; among others, initiates legislation concur-
rently with the two chambers ; cannot veto.

(4) Assisted by Ministers (11 in number), who form the
cabinet ; these responsible to the Chamber of Deputies.

b. The Legislature ; Senate and Chamber of Deputies.

(1) Senate, 300 members.

" The election of Senators is by an indirect process. In the first instance, the communes
or municipalities of France, large and small, elect by a majority of their members, each
one delegate or more, according to population. The delegates, after a lapse of two months,
meet together, along with the members of each departmental Council-General, and the
deputies of the department, who are ex-officio senatorial electors, to choose the Senators.
No other qualification is required for a Senator than to be a Frenchman, at least forty
years of age, but by the act of 1884, all princes of deposed dynasties, are precluded from
sitting in the Upper House. Generals or admirals on active service are also debarred."
Statesman's Year Book, 63.

(2) Chamber of Deputies.

" The Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal suffrage, under the ' scrutin de liste,'
adopted by the National Assembly, June 16, 1885. Each department forms a single cir-
cumscription or electoral district, and chooses deputies in the ratio of one deputy to 70,000
inhabitants, foreigners not included. The total number of deputies is 584, — 568 for France,
6 for Algeria, 10 for the colonies. The Chamber of Deputies is elected for the term of four
years. The President is bound to convoke them if demand is made by one half the number
of members composing each chamber. The President can adjourn the chambers, but the
adjournment cannot exceed the term of a month, nor occur more than twice in the same
session. The Senate has, conjointly with the Chamber of Deputies, the right of initiating
and framing laws." Statesman's Year Book, 63, 64.

5. Elections for Chambers, 1876. Monarchical Senate and Repub-
lican House.

a. Reactionary policy of MacMahon under Clerical and Royal-
ist influence. Gambetta, Republican leader. Muller, 613-
617. Appeal to people, Oct. 14, 1877.

" The bishops also took part in the campaign, and threw the whole weight of their posi-
tion on the side of the government. A three days' supplication was decreed for the favor-
able issue of the elections, and papal absolution offered to all who rendered assistance to
the marshal. The electoral proclamations of the Republicans were for the most part con-
fiscated by the prefects of the departments in which they were issued. On the 12th of
October, two days before the election, the President issued a second manifesto, in which
the voters were appealed to in the following language : ' You will vote for the candidates
whom I recommend to your free choice. Go to the polls without fear. Follow my sum-
mons. I myself am your security for the maintenance of peace and order.' The elections
resulted in the return of about 320 Republicans and 210 Royalists, 112 of whom were Bona-
partists." Muller, 616, 617.

6. Jan. 5, 1879, Republicans elect majority of the Senate. Mac-
Mahon resigns, Jan. 30. Grevy, President. Gambetta, Speaker of
House.

a. Amnesty to Communards, Blanqui, Rochefort, and "Uln-
transigeant." Muller, 620, 623.

b. Removal of Legislature from Versailles to Paris.

c. The Culturkampf (Jules Ferry). Secularization of educa-
tion. Muller, 621, 622, 625. Lebon, 142-145.

7. Effect on Bonapartist party of death of Prince Imperial, June 1,
1879. Muller, 629, 630.

8. Acquisition of Tunis, 1881-82. Lebon, 290-295.

a. Political motives of French colonial policy. Muller, 625-
627.

9. Scrutin de liste vs. scrutin d'arrondissement. Lebon, 78. Death
of Gambetta, Dec. 31, 1882.

10. Claims upon Madagascar. 1882-85. Lebon, 307-310. D.
Willoughby : French Aggression in Madagascar ; Fortnightly Review,
March, 1887, p. 432.

11. The Tonquin War, 1882-84.

a. Early history of Anam and Tonquin. In 200, B.C., Chinese
invaded Farther India, and conquered a large portion of it.
For 1000 years Anam a part of Chinese empire. In 1418,
a revolt occurred and the Chinese power overthrown. In
1674, the kingdom of Anam split into Anam and Tonquin,
with the two capitals, Hue and Hanoi. Both countries soon
admitted the supremacy of China.

b. French interference. Conflicts and rivalry of Tonquin and
Anam. Emperor of Anam forced to flee to Siam, where
he met a French bishop, through whom he made treaty

with Louis XVI of France, in 1787. France to reinstate
the Emperor of Anam, and Anam to cede a small portion of
territory to France. Reinstatement of Emperor. French
revolution suspended operations, and not until 1858 did
France again push her claims. In 1862 and 1867, cession
of six provinces called Cochin China. In 1867, French pro-
tectorate of Cambodia. In 1874, French protectorate of
whole Anamite Empire by treaty.

c. Fertility of Chinese province of Yunnan; reached only by
Red river through Tonquin.

d. Tonquin war began in 1882. China re-asserted her old
supremacy. The Black Flags. Scott, 12, 13, 26-37.

12. Government of French Colonies. Lebon, 276, 277, 311-316.

a. Relations with Siam and India. Scott, 308-314, 369-372.

13. Death of Count of Chambord, 1883. Fusion of Monarchists.
a. Expulsion of the Orleans and Bonapartist Princes, 1886.

Hazell, 1887.

14. Administrative scandals, 1887. Resignation of Grevy. Elec-
tion of Sadi-Carnot.

15. Boulanger and his followers, 1887.

a. Demand for ** revenge."

b. Demand for revision of Constitution. France and Boulang-
ism ; Westminster Review, vol. 129, pp. 748-764. Fort-
nightly Review, Sept., 1887, p. 360; July, 1888, p. 10;
Feb., 1887, p. 161.

16. Administration of Government. Levasseur, 784-787, 825,
835-839. Lebon, ch. iii.

a. Finance and taxation. Nominal capital of National Debt,
over five billions of dollars. Lebon, 248-262. Levasseur,
806-819.

17. The churches of France. Levasseur, 832-835. Lebon, ch. iv.

18. Political parties and their tendencies. Lebon, 84-95. Nine-
teenth Century, Mar., 1887, p. 340.

/ Legitimists. ^ TT . , r>. . ~

United Right, or Con-
servatives. About
180 members in the

b. Bouapartists : \ . Lower House.
( victoriens. )

c. Conservative Republicans. Party of Center. About 60 in
House.

a. Monarchists : ) French Carlists.
( Naundorffists.

d. Opportunists (Gambetta, Ferry). About 150 in House.

e. Extreme and Radical Republicans (Clemenceau, Floquet,
Freycinet), Party of Left. About 160 in House.

/. Intransigeants ( Socialists-

Communists.
g. Boulangists.

LECTURE XIX.

ITALY, AND THE STRUGGLE FOR UNITY.

References : A. Gallenga : Italy, Present and Future. E. Dicey : Vic-
tor Emmanuel (the New Plutarch series). J. Theodore Bent:
Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi. M. Francesco Crispi et sa poli-
tique, Revue des Deux Mondes, Jan. 1, 1889.
Area, 114,410 sq. mi., size of Arizona. Popul., about 30 m.

1. Italy in 1815. Muller, 23, 24. By the Congress of Vienna,
Lombardy and Venetia were ceded to Austria.

a. In northern part of Italy the three duchies of Tuscany,
Parma, and Modena ruled by princes of the Hapsburg
House, and the duchy of Lucca ruled by a Bourbon prince.

b. In central Italy, the Papal States.

c. Kingdom of Naples, called " Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,"
ruled by a Bourbon line. Fyjfe, II, 178-180. Lodge, 631,
632.

d. Northwestern provinces, ruled by the King of Sardinia.

(1) History of the House of Savoy. Dicey: Victor Em-
manuel, 18-25.

(2) In 1815, kingdom of Sardinia consisted of Sardinia,
Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, Turin, and Genoa.

2. Reactionary policy and influence of Metternich in Italy after
1815. Austrian influence supreme. Dicey: Victor Emmanuel, 15-
17. Muller, 23-28. lodge, 643, 644,

a. Old constitutions re-established.

b. The inquisition.

c. Restriction of the press.

d. French ideas extirpated.

3. The Carbonari, in Naples and Sicily (1817), secret society.
Fyffe, II, 180-182. Lodge, 644. Mailer, 24, 25, 29, 129-131.

4. Attempts at revolution, 1820-21, 1831. Both suppressed by
Austria. Lodge, 671.

"The revolution of 1831, which affected the States of the Church,
Modena and Parma, had been suppressed, like the still earlier rebel-
lions in Naples and Piedmont, by Austrian intervention. If revolu-
tion had fair play in Italy, it was sure of the victory. It was only
foreign power for which it was not yet a match. Hence, all the hatred
of the Italians was directed against foreign rule as the only obstacle
to the freedom and unity of the peninsula. As in the times of Bar-
barossa and his grandson, so also in the forties the watchword was :

* Death to the Germans ! ' by which the Austrians were now meant.
The secret societies and the exiles in communication with them —
especially Joseph Mazzini, who issued his commands from London —
took care that the national spirit should not be buried beneath mate-
rial interests, but should remain ever wakeful." Mutter, 202.

5. Political parties, 1840 :

a. Red Republicans ; Mazzini Society of Young Italy. Fyffe,
II, 468. Mutter, 170. Lodge, 692. Garibaldi, " caor d'oro,
ma testa di bove."

H The Italian cause from the beginning was not political, but national. Its champions,
from Dante to Alfieri, were all aristocrats. It was Mazzini who, in his impatience and self-
conceit, raised the senseless cry, ' Dio e Popolo!" But Mazzini was not a democrat; he
was an autocrat. Had he ever had his way, the cry, like Mahomet's, would have been,

* God is God, and Mazzini is His Prophet.' " Gallenga, I, 183.

b. Federalists. Federation with liberal constitutions favored
by Pius IX (1846). Fyffe, II, 471-474. Lodge, 692.

c. Constitutional Monarchists. State a constitutional monarchy
under the King of Sardinia, Charles Albert. Fyffe, II,
469, 470.

6. Revolution of 1848. Mutter, 202-211.

a. In Sardinia, King Charles Albert leads the revolutionary
movement. Constitution of 1848. War with Austria and
defeat. Abdication of Charles Albert in favor of his son,
Victor Emmanuel. Mutter, 208-211. Lodge, 693, 700.

6. Revolution in Rome ; sympathy for Sardinians, and demand

that Pius IX declare war against Austria ; refusal. Lodge,
633, 695. Republicans force the Pope to withdraw ; French
assistance to the Pope ; French occupation.

c. Revolution in Naples. Lodge, 693.

d. General failure. Lodge, 700, 701.

"All Italy was again brought under its old masters. The expelled
princes returned ; the Austrians occupied Bologna and Ancona ; and,
owing to the valor of their armies and the skill of their generals, their
dominion seemed invincible. The storm that had raged over the whole
peninsula had subsided, and the Italian sun smiled once more ; but
Italian hatred of foreign rule grew ever darker and darker. They
thought that they now knew the country which under more favorable
constellations would renew the fight with Austria. Notwithstanding
Custozza and Novara, the Savoyard cross continued to be the hope of
Italy." Mutter, 211.

7. Growth of Sardinia (Piedmont). Lodge, 717.

a. Siccardi laws, 1851. Abolition of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.

b. Cavour, Prime Minister, 1852. Policy of Sardinia's share
in Crimean war, 1854-56.

" The keystone of Cavour's policy was a conviction that the freedom of Italy could only
be achieved with external assistance. He made it his object to obtain for Piedmont the
respect and the friendship of the European powers, and he sterrdy repressed the revolu-
tionary projects of Mazzini and his associates, which alienated all upholders of orderly
government." Lodge, 717.

c. Relations between Cavour and Napoleon III. France sup-
ports Sardinia in war against Austria, 1859. Mutter,
275-291. Lodge, 719-721.

(1) Causes: Austria perceived that her influence in Italy
was rapidly disappearing. Napoleon's foreign policy.

" A subscription was raised in the chief towns of the peninsula to assist in the fortifica-
tion of Alessandria. Austria was bitterly exasperated, and the Austrian minister was
recalled from Turin. It was evident that the struggle could not long be delayed. Sardinia
could not hope to contend single-handed with Austria, and relied for assistance upon the
sympathies of Napoleon III.

§< Austria refused to allow that Sardinia should be represented at a Congress to settle the
affairs of Italy, and finally sent an ultimatum to Turin demanding disarmament within
three days, under penalty of immediate war. This was exactly what Cavour was waiting
for." Lodge, 717, 719.

(2) Result. Lodge, 720. Ploetz, 502. Treaty of Zurich,
1859.

(a) Emperor of Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon
III, who surrendered it to Sardinia.

(b) Italy to form a confederation under Presidency of
Pope.

(d) Revolted portions of Papal States (Bologna) to be
restored, " but without foreign intervention."

d. Last three provisions not observed. Uprising of Northern
Italian people for union with Sardinia. Annexations.
Lodge, 722. France takes Savoy and Nice. Garibaldi
(Campaign of the One Thousand) overruns kingdom of the
Two Sicilies. Lodge, 723, 724.

e. 1861, Victor Emmanuel assumed title of King of Italy ; all
Italy, except Venice and Rome, under his rule ; Florence
made the capital. Cavour died, June 6, 1861.

8. Italy as a kingdom.

a. 1861, the first Italian Parliament.

b. Italy allied with Prussia in war of 1866 ; Venetia added to
Italy as a result. Lodge, 731.

c. 1871, French troops recalled from Rome during Franco-
Prussian war; Victor Emmanuel seized Rome.

9. Political supremacy of Party of Left and Left Center, 1876 ;
Rattazzi, Depretis, Crispi (1887). Gallenga, I, 189-195.

a. The condition of Sicily and Naples. Secret Societies in the
Two Sicilies ; Fortnightly Review, vol. 42, pp. 649-664.

10. " Italia Irredenta," 1878.

First alliance with Germany and Austro-Hungary.

11. Extension of suffrage, 1880-82 ; 2,112,563 electors instead of
621,896. Gallenga, I, 195-200.

12. Dissatisfaction with France ; Tunis, 1881-.

a. Colonial policy. Assab (1883), and Massowah (1885).
War with Abyssinia, 1887. Gallenga, I, chs. 3, 6. Italy
and Abyssinia ; Westminster Review, vol. 129, 1888, pp.
319-331.

13. Railway Legislation. Hadley : Railroad Transportation, ch xii.

14. The Triple League of Central Europe, 1887, probable terms.
Hazell, 1888. Fortnightly Review, May, 1887, p. 617.

a. Prime Minister Crispi. Revue des Deux Mondes, Jan. 1,
1889, p. 203.

15. Political parties.

a. The Ministerial Left: ) .

( Progressists.

b. The Opposition Left, including some Socialists,
Moderates, and Irredentists.

c. The Right, Clericals. Conservatives.

(1) Attitude of Clericals. Policy of Abstention.

15. Government of Italy.

a. Constitutional monarchy. Constitution granted to Sardinia
in 1848.

b. Executive. King, who rules by responsible ministers.

c. Legislature.

(1) Senate, composed of the princes of the royal house and
of unlimited number of life members nominated by the
king ; " a condition of the nomination being that the per-
son should either fill a high office, or have acquired fame
in science, literature, or other pursuit tending to the benefit
of the nation, or finally should pay taxes to the annual
amount of about $600." Senate also has judicial powers.

(2) Chamber of Deputies, elected by ballot and by scrutin
de Hate, by citizens who can read and write and have a
small prpperty qualification. Members of either House
unpaid, but travel free.

(3) Sits for five years; can be dissolved at any time by
king, but he must convoke another within four months.

16. San Marino. Independent Republic since 11th century; 32
sq. mi. ; 8000 people. Last treaty with Italy, 1872.

17. Education. Conventual property confiscated (1866) and used
for schools. Compulsory primary education, under state control. Law
of 1884. Gallenga, II, chs. 1, 6.

18. The position of the See of Rome.

a. The Supreme Pontiff. " By the terms of the royal decree
of Oct. 9, 1870, which declared that ' Rome and the Roman
provinces shall constitute an integral part of the kingdom
of Italy,' the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowledged
supreme head of the Church, preserving his former rank
and dignity as a reigning prince, and all other prerogatives
of independent sovereignty." Statesman's Tear Book, 338.

b. College of Cardinals, limited in number to 70.

c. Sacred Congregations, at present twenty in number, the
most famous being the Congregations of the Inquisition,
Propaganda, Index, Indulgences, and Sacred Relics.

LECTURE XX.

SWITZERLAND, NKTIIER LANDS, BELGIUM.

A. Switzerland.

Area, 15,800 sq. mi. ; popul., 3 m. 59 per cent of population
Protestants ; 41 per cent of population Catholics.

1. Increase of territory by Congress of Vienna. New constitution
(1815) aristocratic, and tending to disunion. League of 22 Cantons.
Lodge, 630, 669.

a. Neufchatel, both Swiss and Prussian.

b. Domination of city patricians, 1815-30.

2. Revolution, 1830. City vs. County. Democratic success.
" Siebener-Concordat " (1832). Liberal League overthrows " Sarner
Bund." Conservative League, 1834. Lodge, 670. Mailer, 127, 128,
169.

a. Liberal demand for Constitutional revision.

b. Right of Asylum. •

c. Religious dissensions, 1834-45. Muller, 170. Lodge, 687.

3. Civil war between Liberal and Protestant Cantons, and Catholic
and Conservative Cantons (Sonderbund), 1847. Overthrow of Son-
derbund and establishment of a National Government in place of old
League.

" All the cantons had to yield, and accept the conditions of peace which were dictated to
them. Among these were payment of the expenses of the war, a change of government in
the cantons, the dissolution of the Sonderbund, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. In a few
weeks all was accomplished. Then the reform of the Helvetian constitution was proceeded
with, and in 1848 the new federal state was established. The Standerath forms a sort of
upper house, which is to represent the governments of the several cantons ; while the Na-
tionalrath forms a lower house, which is elected by the people in proportion to the popula-
tion. By this united congress the highest tribunal of Switzerland — the Bundesrath — is
chosen, and at the head of this is a president." Muller, 172.

4. Culturkampf, 1873-80. Strength of Old Catholics in Switzer-
land. Liberal revision of Constitution accepted, 1874, in interest of
educational and ecclesiastic reforms. Muller, 491, 492.

a. Clerical political agitation prohibited.

b. Freedom of burial.

c. Compulsory civil marriage.

5. The Railway Question, 1886-87.
a. The Tunnels. Muller, 609.

6. Government. Federal Republic. See §3, ante.

a. Nationalrath, 145 members, chosen by manhood suffrage.

b. Standerath, two members from each canton.
The two chambers elect :

c. Bundesrath. Federal (Executive) Council, for three years.

d. President and Vice-President of Republic and Council, for
one year.

e. Bundes- Gericht. Federal Tribunal, for six years.
/. The Referendum.

7. Local Government.

a. Cantonal Sovereignty.

b. The Landesgemeinde.

B. The Netherlands.

References: T. C. Grattan: History of the Netherlands. J. T.
Rogers : Holland (Story of the Nations Series).
Area, 12,648 sq. mi. ; popul., about 4£ m. Area of colonial posses-
sions, 766,137 sq. mi. Population of colonial possessions, over 28 m.

1. 1795-1806, Batavian Republic.

2. Kingdom of Holland, 1806-15. Louis Bonaparte, king. Eng-
land seizes colonial possessions of Holland.

3. 1815, Kingdom of the Netherlands equalled former Holland and
Austrian Belgium ; under William I.

a. Cape Colony and Ceylon retained by England.

b. Luxemburg given to personal charge of King of Holland,
as head of family of Orange-Nassau. Fyffe, II, 387, 388.

" The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the Congress of Vienna, had been formed
by the enforced union of two utterly different elements, the Protestant commercial state of
Holland, which was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the Catholic manufacturing
country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and Walloon nationalities,
but was pervaded by French culture." Ploetz, 489.

4. Separation of Belgium, 1830. (See below.)

5. The Luxemburg Question, 1866-70. Muller, 369-371.

a. Again, from 1884 (death of Prince of Orange) to 1889.

6. Government. Constitutional hereditary monarchy, King, Minis-
try, and two Houses of the States-General. Liberal Constitution,

1814; revised in 1834-36, 1848-87. In 1887, extension of suffrage.

7. Local Government.

a. Communal Councils.

b. States Provincial.

8. Education.

9. Political parties and tendencies. Religious, theological, and
educational questions, the main causes of difference.

a. Liberals, in control generally since 1815.

b. Anti-Liberals, Catholics and Orthodox (extreme) Protest-
ants.

C. Belgium.

1. Separated from Holland, 1830. Nine provinces. Area, 11,373
sq. m. ; popul., about 6 m.

2. Cause of the insurrection was the underlying discord always
present between the two sections of the country. The two countries,
Holland and Belgium, did not have the same language or the same
religious or commercial interests. Fyffe, II, 381-390.

" The Belgians complained that they were saddled with part of the burden of the enor-
mous national debt of Holland ; that they contributed to the building of Dutch ships and
other objects from which they derived no benefit whatever. Their discontent was also
increased by the unpopular government of King William I, who treated Belgium like a
conquered country." Eimtd, 79.

" The antagonism between the northern and southern Netherlands, though not insuper-
able, was sufficiently great to make a harmonious union between the two countries a work
of difficulty, and the Government of the Hague had not taken the right course to conciliate
its opponents. The Belgians, though more numerous, were represented by fewer members
in the National Assembly than the Dutch. Offices were filled by strangers from Holland;
finance was governed by a regard for Dutch interests ; and the Dutch language was made
the official language for the whole kingdom. But the chief grievances were undoubtedly
connected with the claims of the clerical party in Belgium to a monopoly of spiritual power
and the exclusive control of education. The one really irreconcilable enemy of the Protest-
ant House of Orange was the Church ; and the governing impulse in the conflicts which
preceded the dissolution of the kingdom of the Netherlands, in 1830, sprang from the same
clerical interest which had thrown Belgium into revolt against the Emperor Joseph forty
years before." Fyffe, II, 382. Muller, 112-121.

3. Independence was recognized by the foreign powers, and, in
1831, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen king; reigned
until 1865.

4. Clericalism. Educational and political power of the clergy.
Miiller, 490, 604.

5. Culturkampf, 1878-. Liberals vs. Ul tramontanes.

a. Liberal regime, 1878-84. Influence of French politics upon
Belgium. Miiller, 604-606.

(1) "Liberal" Education Act, 1879, deprived clergy of
school supervision.

b. Clerical reaction, 1884. Partial control of primary educa-
tion given to communes.

c. Agitation for universal suffrage, 1886. Industrial disturb-
ances, 1886-87. Hazell, 43.

6. Political Parties.

a. Clericals (Catholics).

b. Liberals.

c. Radicals, Socialists, advanced Liberal programme. Constit-
uency mainly unenfranchised.

7. Hereditary constitutional monarchy. Property qualification for
suffrage. Statesman's Tear Booh, 35.

8. Relations of Belgium to France and Germany. Fortnightly
Review, Jan., 1887, pp. 24-28.

a. Luxemburg, upon the death of the present King of the
Netherlands.

LECTURE XXL

THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS.

A. Sweden and Norway.

References : B. Moses : The Crown and Parliament of Sweden, in
The Berkeley Quarterly, Oct., 1880. Home Rule in Norway,
Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1888. E. C. Otte : Scandinavian
History (to 1872). H. H. Boyesen : Norway (Story of the
Nations Series). J. W. Burgess : Recent Constitutional Cri-
sis in Norway, Political Science Quarterly, I, 259-294.
Area (Sweden), 170,979 sq. mi. Population, 4.7 m. (Norway),

123,205 sq. mi, Popul., about 2 m, Total area a little larger than

Texas.

1. Union of Calmar, 1397 ; Sweden, Norway, and Denmark united
under princes of Denmark. Independence of Sweden established
under Gustavus Vasa, 1521-23.

a. Territory in 1800, Sweden, Finland, Pomerania.

2. Peace of Tilsit, 1807. Russia seizes Finland. Representa-
tive constitution established in Sweden, 1809 ; ancient Diet of the
four classes, or estates, preserved. Napoleon's Marshal, Bernadotte,
chosen Crown Prince of Sweden, 1810. Lodge, 598, 599.

a. The Four Estates. Moses, 8-11, 25.

3. Treaty of Kiel and Vienna, 1814. Loss of Pomerania. Acqui-
sition of Norway from Denmark.

a. Norwegian resistance and claim of independence unsuccess-
ful. Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1888, p. 55.

" Union of the two kingdoms declared indissoluble and irrevocable without
prejudice to the separate government, constitution, and code of laws of either
Sweden or Norway." Statesman's Year Book, 482.

4. Constitutions and government.

«. Sweden, 1809, 1810, 1866. Hereditary constitutional mon-
archy. King must be a Lutheran, possesses legislative
power in matters of political administration. Responsible
ministry. Diet of two chambers, the first elected by prov-
inces and municipalities.

b. Norway. Hereditary constitutional monarchy. Responsible
ministry. King has only a suspensive veto on legislation,
and is restricted in power of appointment to office. Large
legislative and judicial powers of the Assembly, or Stor-
thing, elected indirectly ; meets annually.

c. Affairs common to the two nations decided in a Council of
State, in which both nations are represented.

o. Abolition of nobility in Norway, 1821.

6. Agitation in Sweden for Constitutional Reform, 1840-66. New
(and present) constitution, 1866. Moses, 32.

a. Compulsory military service, 1872.

7. Home rule in Norway. National resistance to Swedish propo-
sals for closer union, 1821-30, 1836, 1839, 1857.

Not until 1865 were subjects of the two kingdoms allowed to settle and trade at will in
either country.

8. Nationalist struggle to establish absolute supremacy of the
Diet over the royal veto, 1872-84. Nineteenth Century, 58-61.

a. Influence of Norwegian emigrants to the United States.

b. Surrender of the King (the Sverdrup ministry), 1884.

100

c. Radicals (Bjoernsen)j Liberals (Sverdrup), and Conserva-
tives.
9. Agitation for extension of the suffrage in Sweden, 1880-.

B. Denmark.

References : The Contemporary Review, April, 1886, p. 579. E.
C. Otte: Scandinavian History (to 1872). E. C. Otte: Den-
mark and Iceland (Foreign countries and British Colonies
Series). F. M. DeBorring : Notes from a Prosperous Agricul-
tural Country, Fortnightly Review, vol. 43, pp. 707-718.
Area, 14,124 sq. mi. Population, 2 m.

1. Question of succession to the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein.
Danish success in the wars of 1848-51. Ploetz, 496. Muller, 218,
219, 245-247.

a. Incorporation of Schleswig. Muller, 309.

2. Excitement in Germany, 1863-64. Austria and Prussia seize
the Duchies, 1864. Muller, 310-317.

3. Sympathy with France in 1870. Muller, 424.

4. Constitutional struggle between the Executive and the Lower
House of the legislature concerning the responsibility of Ministers,
1876. Contemporary Review, 581-586.

5. Political attitude of Denmark towards Germany, Muller, 610,
611 ; towards England and Russia.

6. Government. Hereditary constitutional monarchy. Riksdag,
or Parliament, two Houses. Upper House elected indirectly, repre-
sents in general the wealthy class. Lower House elected directly by
universal suffrage.

7. Colonies. Area, 86,614 sq. mi. Population, 116,000.

a. Iceland, separate constitution and government, 1874.
Statesman's Year Book, 52. Otte : Denmark and Iceland,
ch. xiii.

101

LECTURE XXII.

THE IBERIAN PENINSULA : PORTUGAL, SPAIN,

A. Portugal (with Brazil).

References: J. H. Harrison: History of Spain, chs. xxv-xxviii. J.
R. Seeley : The Spanish Revolution, in The Life and Times of
Stein, pp. 71-102. M. M. Busk: History of Spain and Por-
tugal. W. E. Curtis: The Capitals of Spanish America.
Anfriso Fialho : Don Pedro II, Empereur du Bresil. Spring
Time in Portugal, Fortnightly Review, vol. 43, pp. 483-493.
M. G. Liana : Political Parties in Spain, Fortnightly Review,
vol. 39, pp. 106-120. H M. Field: Old Spain and New
Spain. Rev. Wentworth Webster: Spain (Foreign Countries
and British Colonies Series).
Area (including Azores and Madeira), 34,038 sq. mi. Population,
4,708,178. Area of colonial possessions, 705,258 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, 3^ m. Former large colonial possessions diminished during
period of subjection to Spain, 1580-1640.

1. Napoleon's forces (Junot) occupy Portugal, 1807 ; driven out
by the English (Moore, Wellington), 1808-11; flight of Portuguese
Court to Brazil, 1807. Fialho, 8. Bush, 261, 262, 267, 268-270.

a. Cause of French occupation, a refusal to prohibit trade with
England.

2. Portugal ruled from Brazil, 1807-21 ; supremacy of English
influence in Portugal. Yeats : Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce,
pp. 327, 328. Mutter, 56.

a. Uprising for a constitution, 1820, and return of the king,

1821. Miiller, 57.

b. Treaty with Brazil as an independent nation, 1825. " In a
secret article it was ordained that the two crowns should
never be united upon one head." Miiller, 58.

102

3. Reactionary 'opposition to constitutional government (Queen
CarlotU. Dotf Miguel), 1821-26

4. Civil ' wars betwe'eri Migiielists (Clericals, Reactionaries) and
Pedrists (Queen Maria da Gloria, daughter of Don Pedro I of Brazil,
elder brother of Miguel, Constitutionalists), 1826-34. Liberal Con-
stitution, 1826. Interference of England ; Miguelists and Spanish
Carlists ; defeat of Miguel, 1834. Mullet, 58-61.

a. Conventual establishments suppressed and property confis-
cated, 1834.

5. Marriage of Maria da Gloria with Ferdinand of Coburg, April,
1836. The constitution disregarded ; civil wars, 1836-51. Duke of
Saldanha. Similarity of political movements in Spain and Portugal.
Muller, 148.

6. Government. Constitution of 1826, revised 1852, 1878, 1885.
Hereditary constitutional monarchy, responsible ministry ; monarch
has only suspensory veto upon acts of Cortes, or Parliament. Cortes,
two chambers ; Lower House chosen by citizens who can read and
write and have an annual income of about $100, and by heads of
families ; Upper House, Peers. Law of 1885 provides for gradual
abolition of hereditary peerages and substitution of elected life Peers.
Statesman s Year Book, 387.

7. Brazil. Area, 3 m. sq. mi. ; a little smaller than the United
States ; popul., about 12 m. A colony of Portugal after beginning
of 16th century. Pope's Bull of 1493. Ploete, 282. Curtis, 687.

a. Residence of Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1808-21 ;
ante, § 1, 2. Brazil declared a kingdom, 1815 ; dissatisfac-
tion.

b. Dom Pedro I, eldest son of King, left as regent in Brazil,
1821 ; independence declared, 1822, and recognized by Por-
tugal, 1825. Muller, 58. Struggle between the Liberals
and the Emperor, 1825-31. "I will do everything for the
people, but nothing by the people." Accession of Dom
Pedro II, 1831. Fialho, 9-15.

c. Rapid progress of Brazil; suppression of slave trade, 1852.
Fialho, 34. Assertion of strength against neighboring
states, Buenos Ay res, 1852, Uruguay, 1863, Paraguay
(overthrow of tyrant Lopez), 1865-70. Fialho, 42-56.
Muller, 299.

(1) German and Swiss colonists in the southeast.

103

d. Culturkampf, 1873-75. Illegal measures of Catholic
bishops against Free Masonry. Fialho, 74-80. Mutter,
493, 654.

(1) Present attitude of Liberal party; the struggle about
religious orders and their property. Curtis, 690-693.

e. The labor question. Abolition of slavery ; first, slaves
serving as soldiers in the Paraguayan war, 1867; second,
gradual emancipation Act, 1872. Law of the "Free Birth."
Fialho, 59-62. Third, wholesale emancipation by the prov-
ince of Ceara, 1881; fourth, gradual emancipation Act, 1885.
Liberating the Slaves in Brazil ; Nineteenth Century, July,
1888, pp. 94-105. Hazell : Brazil. Statesman 's Year Book,
575. Curtis, 702-706. Fifth, final emancipation Act, 1888.
Over one million slaves set free.

f. Government. A hereditary constitutional empire since
1822. Dom Pedro I and the works of Benjamin Constant.
The sovereign as a " Moderator "; responsible ministry ;
two Houses of legislature, both elected by people. Lalor's
Cyclopedia, I, 306, 307. Statesman's Tear Book, 567, 568.

B. Spain.

Area, 197,000 sq. mi. ; popul., 17 m. Colonial area, 163,876 sq. mi.
Colonial population, about 10 m.

1. Wretched condition of Spain prior to Napoleon's invasion, 1807.
Godoy, *' Prince of the Peace." Harrison, 614-627. Loss of Louisi-
ana. Harrison, 621.

a. Spanish resistance to the Bonapartes, directed by England
(Wellington), 1807-13.

b. By the Congress of Vienna, the Bourbons of the old dynasty
were restored to power, and the government established by
Napoleon was set aside. Strength and significance of popu-
lar resistance in Spain to Napoleon. Seeley, 74-84. Harri-
son, 632-644.

c. Liberal Constitution, established by the National Cortes,
1812, under English influence, ignored after the Restoration.

" This constitution inaugurated representative government in Spain, abolished torture,
the Inquisition, and most of the convents, founded the liberty of the citizen and the press,
and improved the judiciary. The seignorial rights attached to 13,309 out of the 25,320 vil-
lages of the peninsula were abolished, and though the nine thousand men's convents of
1626 had fallen to two thousand and fifty in 1808, these were considerably reduced. But
unfortunately this brilliant constitution died even before it was born, and was succeeded
by an absolute monarchy which utterly crushed it." Harrison, 643.

104

2. Ferdinand VII, restored in 1814. Character. Harrison, 645-
653. Muller, 43, 44. Grant Duff, 5. Rule of the " Serviles."
Influence of the Camarilla, courtiers, and priests. Despotism. Bitter
opposition to the Constitutionalists. 50,000 political prisoners.

a. Revolution in 1820. Ferdinand forced to swear obedience
to the constitution of 1812.

"The patriots of 1812 could no longer endure in patience the pain and need of their
country, and their rage discharged itself, in the years 1814 to 1819, in nine attempts at revo-
lution, which, as the work of individuals, and representing little force, collapsed like riots,
and were suppressed with little trouble." Muller, 44.

b. Interference by the Holy Alliance. Intervention and inva-
sion of the French, 1823, to support Ferdinand in his contest
with the Cortes. Constitutional government defeated.
Muller, 48-50.

c. Revolt of American colonies, 1810-24. Muller, 54, 55.

3. Death of Ferdinand, 1833. Muller, 53. Lodge, 679. Civil
war, 1833-40. Muller, 143-146. Isabella II, daughter of Ferdinand,
supported by the constitutional party. The repeal of the JSalic law.
Muller, 53. The Estatuto Real, 1834. Harrison, 665, 666.

a. The Queen Regency. Revolt of the Carlists, supporters of
Don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand, or Absolutists. The
Carlist provinces. Harrison, 655-661. Overthrow of Carl-
ists by Espartero, 1839. Harrison, 673, 674. Muller, 144,
145.

b. 1837, the Queen Regent (Christina) took the oath to sup-
port the revised constitution. Muller, 146. Grant Duff, 8.

c. Continued insurrections. Grant Duff, 10-13.

d. Espartero, Regent, 1840-43.

e. 1843, Isabella declared of age and assumed the government.
Recall of Christina, who had fled in disgrace to France in
1840.

" Thereby gate and doors were opened to the French influence, and the game of intrigue
and reaction commenced. In 1845, the constitution of 1848 was altered in the interests of
absolutism. The freedom of the press was restricted, the national guard abolished, and the
Cortes relegated to an existence even more nominal than that of the French Chambers."
Muller, 147.

f. Divisions of the Liberal or Constitutional party at this time.

(1) Progresistas (Espartero). The Constitution of 1837.
English sympathy.

(2) Union-Liberal. O'Donnell.

(3) Moderados (Narvaez). The Estatuto Real. Under
influence of Louis Philippe's government.

(4) Democratic Progresistas (Republicans, Socialists).

105

g. Supremacy of Narvaez, friend of Christina, 1844-51. Isa-
bella's marriage and the French policy. Lodge, 680.
Reactionary constitution, 1845.

" We have already seen that the constitution of 1837 was less liberal than that of 1812.
That of 1845 was in its turn far less liberal than its predecessor. The liberty of the press
was curtailed ; the Senate became a nominated, not an elective, body ; the Cortes lost its
right of assembling by its own authority, in case the Sovereign neglected to summon it at
the proper time ; and the principle of the national sovereignty disappeared from the pre-
amble. The most significant change, however, in the circumstances of the hour, was that
which precluded the necessity of the approbation of the Cortes as a preliminary to the royal
marriage. This was the event which was the pivot of intrigue for several years." Grant
Buff', 15, 16.

(1) Catholic-Absolutist triumph, 1851-54. Harrison, 682.

k. Revolt of 1854. Espartero and O'Donnell, 1854-63. New
liberal Constitution, 1855. Resistance of Queen and Court
party. Character of Isabella. Harrison, 685-690, 691-
693.

i. Triumph of Court party, 1863-68. Frequent unsuccess-
ful pronunciamentos, O'Donnell, Prim, Serrano. Absolute
power of the Clericals. Reign of terror, 1866-68. Harrison,
694, 695.

j. Insurrection in 1868. Despotism of Isabella and rule of
bigotry. Mutter, 406. Lodge, 733. Isabella obliged to
escape to France. Cortes of 1869, a new constitution.
Serrano's Regency, 1868-70. Aims of Republicans. Harri-
son, 695-697. Prim and Castelar. Llano, 106-108. Field,
ch. ix. First Protestant Spanish religious service, Madrid,
March 28, 1869.

(1) Search for a king. Prince of Hohenzollern offered the
throne. The Franco-Prussian war.

4. Amadeo, the second son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, elected
king, 1870-73. Mutter, 478. Lodge, 738. Harrison, 699.

"Amadeo's government, under which Serrano was the first minister-president, was one
continued scramble for office on the part of the regular monarchists, while the Carlists and
Republicans busied themselves in organizing insurrections in the north and south respect-
ively. Serrano and Topete, Sagastaand Zorrilla, gained and lost office with confusing rap-
idity. The king held fast to the constitution of 1869, but was bitterly hated by the powerful
nobles and the clergy as a stranger, and the son of Victor Emmanuel." Muller, 478.

Finally forced to abdicate.

5. Republic, 1873-75. Numerous civil wars.

" The programme of the new rulers was: a federative republic for Spain, with self-gov-
ernment of the individual states, after the pattern of Switzerland and the United States;
no centralization ; abolition of the standing army ; absolute separation of the Church and
State; proclamation of the rights of the individual on the basis of a democratic constitu-
tion and under the authority of the law." Muller, 479.

106

Four contesting parties, — Moderate Republicans, Radical Republi-
cans, Communists, Legitimists.

a. Presidents, Pi y Margall, Salmeron, 1873. Castelar, 1873,
resigned after a military coup d'etat, 1874. Muller, 479, 480.

b. Serrano, military dictator, 1874. Muller, 480.

6. Alphonso XII, son of Queen Isabella, 1875-85. Continued
revolts of the Carlists. Final suppression, 1876. Muller, 599-601.
New Liberal Constitution (present one), 1876.

a. Conservative Ministry of Canovas, 1874-81. Muller, 600,
601. Llano, 112-114.

b. Formation of Liberal party of the Dynastic Left by Serrano
and Sagasta, 1881. Z/arco, 114-120.

7. Alphonso XIII, 1886. Regency of the Queen. Field, ch. vii.
Sagasta's administration. Reforms. Colonial Minister authorized to
abolish slavery, July 30, 1886.

8. Spanish Political Parties.

(1) Moderate Liberals (Sagasta, Moret).

(2) Democrats (Martos).

(3) Centralists.

(4) Dissidents (Marquis de la Vega de }■ Ministerialists.
Armijo).

(5) Pacific Republicans, or Possibilists
(Salmeron, Castelar).

(6) Conservatives (Canovas del Castillo). \

(7) Liberal Reformers (Robledo, Dominguez). > .

(8) Intransigentes, Republicans (Zorrilla). )

(9) Autonomists, Federalist Republicans, Carlists.

9. Government, and Constitution of 1876. Webster, 162-169.

a. Monarchy, controlled by a constitution. Responsible minis-
ters.

b. The Legislative power is the Cortes, composed of a Senate
and Congress which are equal in authority. Senate com-
posed of hereditary, official, and elected members.

c. Local institutions. The Republic of Andorra.

10. Colonies. The Cuban Question.

a. Relations with Morocco.

b. Gibraltar.

11. Condition of Education and Religion. Webster, ch. vii. Field,
ch. xvii.

12. Financial policy. The Tariff Question, Webster, 174-180,
231-235.

107

LECTURE XXIII,

SPAIMSII AMERICA;

OR, THE REVOLTED COLONIES OF SPAIN.

References: William Eleroy Curtis: The Capitals of Spanish
America. Lalor : Cyclopcedia of Political Science, Political
Economy, and United States History. D. A. Wells : A Study
of Mexico. Florence C. Baylor : Hidalgo, the Washington of
Mexico ; New Princeton Review, 1888. C. B. Heller : Reisen
in Mexiko, in den Jahren 1845-48. J. F. Elton: With the
French in Mexico. Antonio Garcia Cabas : The Republic of
Mexico in 1876 (translated by G. E. Henderson). Edouard
Seve: Le Chili Tel Qu'il Est. K. B. Murray: Commercial
Geography, pp. 150-163. H. W. Bates: Central and South
America (Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel).
Laurence Oliphant: Patriots and Filibusters, pp. 170—242.
O. W. Doubleday : Reminiscences of the Filibuster War in Nic-
aragua. Geo. F. Tucker: The Monroe Doctrine,

A. Mexico.

Area, 742,000 sq. mi. ; or one fourth of the United States, excluding
Alaska; popul., over 10 m.

1. Colonial period. Authentic history dates from 1521. Until
1821, a province of Spain.

" During these three centuries the attitude of the masses was one rather of sullen sub-
mission than of active resistance to grinding oppression."

Valued by Spain simply on account of its metals. Country worked
for the benefit of the Spanish crown. System of repartimentos, or
distribution of the aborigines on the plantations and in the mines.
Wells : Study of Mexico, ch. 3.

2. Revolt in 1810 under Hidalgo. Wells, 67. " Liberator," Itur-
bide. Curtis, 9-13. Independence declared in 1821.

3. Mexico as an independent nation, 1821— •

108

a. Revolutionary spirit throughout the whole period. An-
archy. Dictatorships.

"Since the establishment of her independence in 1821, Mexico,
down to the year 1844, — a period of sixty-three years, — has had fifty-
five presidents, two emperors, and one regency, and, with some three
or four exceptions, there was a violent change of the government
with every new administration." Wells, 69.

b. Constitution adopted in 1824, modelled after that of the
United States. 19 states and 5 territories. Gen. Santa
Anna, 1824-57. Revolt of Texas, 1835-36.

c. War with United States in 1846, by which Mexico lost
nearly one half her territory.

d. Reforms introduced to correct prevailing evils. Amended
constitution, and "War of Reform" for three years, 1857-
60. Triumph of Liberal Party under Benito Juarez.
Financial embarrassment.

e. 1861, suspension of specie payments. Obligations largely
held in Europe. Interference of France, England, and
Spain. Napoleon's ambition to obtain power. England
and Spain withdrew. In 1863, the French army entered
Mexico, and established an hereditary monarchy. Arch-
duke Maximilian of Austria made emperor.

f. Demand of the United States, upon the close of the civil
war, that the French troops withdraw from Mexico. Monroe
doctrine. Compliance, and fall of Maximilian. In 1867,
the Emperor captured and shot.

g. Presidency of Juarez (died 1872). Confiscation of church
property. Banishment of religious orders (Jesuits) ; civil
marriage obligatory. Supremacy of Liberals since 1867.
Juarez, 1867-72. Lerdo de Tejada, 1872-76. Porfirio
Diaz, 1876-80. Manuel Gonzalez, 1880-84. Porfirio Diaz,
1884-88, 1888-. Curtis, 26-32.

4. Political Parties. Liberals and Clericals.

a. The Indian race. Cubas, 61-64. Bates, 26-28, 84, 85.
Wells, ch. v.

5. Government of Mexico. A republic of 27 states, 1 territory, and
1 Federal District. Similar to that of the United States.

6. Indebtedness and financial distress. Railway connection with
the United States. Influence of the United States and of European
nations. Wells, chs. x and xi.

109

7. Ship Railway scheme. Across Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in
southern Mexico. Captain EacTs.

B. Central America.

1. Composed of five republics: Costa Rica, 23,200 sq. mi. ; popul.,
203,780. Guatemala, 46,800 &q. mi. ; popul., 1,400,000. Honduras,
46,400 sq. mi. ; popul., 460,000. Nicaragua, 49,500 sq. mi. ; popul.,
275,815. Salvador, 7225 sq. mi.; popul., 651,130. Total popul.,
about 3 m.

2. Acquired their independence in the first part of this century,
Salvador and Guatemala taking the lead in 1821, and endeavor-
ing to found the Federal Republic of Central America. Frequent
attempts to unite them under one government as a confederation ; but,
with exception of a short period, unsuccessful.

3. Clericals vs. Liberals. Morazan, Carera, 1840-70. Curtis, 79,
80, 135-137.

a. Jose Rufino Barrios, President of Guatemala, 1873-85.

(1) Overthrow of the Clericals.

(2) Compulsory Education.

(3) Development of trade.

(4) Encouragement of immigration.

(5) A Central American Union. Curtis, 75-78, 81-88,
103-113.

4. Relations of United States and England to Nicaragua, 1848-60.

a. Walker, the filibuster, 1854-57. Oliphaut, 195-210.
Doubleday, ch. xi.

b. Nicaragua Canal project. Scheme revived in 1879. Treaty
with the United States proposed (1884), by which the
United States was to be empowered to build a canal. Eng-
lish objections based upon Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850.
Activity of Nicaragua Canal Co. (U. S.), 1888-89. Tucker,
ch. v.

5. Indian supremacy in San Salvador. Bates, 120. Curtis, 176—
178, 187.

6. Costa Rica, "Manana." Tomas Guardia, 1872. Curtis, 204-
212, 219-223.

C. Northeastern South America.

Colombia : area, 504,773 sq. mi. ; popul., about 4 m. Venezuela :
area, 632,695 sq. mi. ; popul., over 2 m. Ecuador : area, 248,370
sq. mi. ; popul., over 1 m.

110

1. Revolts from Spain began, 1810. Simon Bolivar, a Venezuelan.
Curtis, 266, 269.

a. The Monroe Doctrine, Dec. 2, 1823.

2. Federal form of government in Colombia. Triumph of Cen-
tralization in 1886-87. Curtis, 255, 256.

3. Panama Canal project. In 1878, government of United States
of Colombia granted concession to a company to build a canal from
the Atlantic to the Pacific through the Isthmus of Panama. De Les-
seps interested. Financial failure, 1888-89.

4. Overthrow of clerical domination in Venezuela, 1874. Guzman
Blanco. Curtis, 269, 270, 275, 286-291.

5. P^cuador, dissociated since 1831 from Colombia and Venezuela.
Political anarchy since 1874. " It is the only country in America in
which the Romish church survives as the Spaniards left it." No
railroads, no coaches, no wagon roads, no .secular schools, one news-
paper, one telegraph line. Curtis, 306-308, 317-319, 333-337, 341.

D. The Western South American Republics.

Peru : area, about 500,000 sq. mi. ; popul., about 3 m. Bolivia :
area, about 800,000 sq. mi. ; popul., about 2^ m. Chili : area, about
293,970 sq. mi. ; popul., about 2^ m.

1. Peru declared independence, 1821, won it (San Martin, Coch-
rane), 1824.

2. Overthrow of clerical supremacy, 1869-76. Curtis, 361.

3. Defeat and ruin of Peru in the ''saltpetre war," by Chili against
Peru and Bolivia, 1879-83. Futile interference of the United States
(Sec. Blaine), 1882. Cession to Chili of southern provinces, rich in
guano, nitrate of soda, and silver. Lalor, III, 164-166. Curtis,
388-401,431-438.

a. Financial depression; worthless paper currency. "You
give a $20 bill to your boot black, and $250 an hour for a
hack. It costs about $600 a day for board at the hotel,
and $50 for a bunch of cigarettes." Curtis, 365.

b. Revival of clerical influence. Curtis, 493.

4. Henry Meiggs. Present condition of the Oroya Railway and
the silver mines. Curtis, 401-409, 419.

5. Lack of organization in Bolivia. Succession of military dicta-
torships. Loss of sea coast to Chili, 1879. Priestly supremacy. Bo-

Ill

livia and Ecuador are the only Spanish American nations now under
political control of the priesthood. Curtis, 442-451, 493.

a. Relations with the Argentine Republic. Curtis, 512.

6. Chilian independence declared, 1810 ; war, 1810-18. An aggres-
sive, united nation. " There has not been a successful revolution in
Chili since 1839." Curtis, 475.

a. Acquisition of guano and nitrate districts by war from
Bolivia and Peru, 1879-83, and of jurisdiction over Straits
of Magellan by treaty with the Argentine Republic, 1881.
Curtis, 472-476.

b. Hostility towards the United States. Curtis, 455.

7. The Culturkampf in Chili. Curtis, 493-496.

C. The Southeastern Republics.

The Argentine Confederation: area, 1,125,086 sq. mi. ; popul.,
3 \ m. Paraguay: area, 91,970 sq. mi.; popul., £ m. Uruguay:
area, 72,150 sq. mi. ; popul., over \ m.

1. War for independence in the La Plata region, 1810-19. Con-
tinued importance of the State of La Plata and its capital city, Bue-
nos Ay res. Blancos and Colorados. The Gauchos. Lalor, 1, 114.
Curtis, 570-572. Bates, 392-396.

a. Dictatorship of Rosas, 1829-52. Curtis, 572-574.

b. Conflicts between Buenos Ayres and other parts of the con-
federacy. Constitution of 1853 ; revised, 1860. Enormous
progress since 1860.

(1) Immigration and trade. Curtis, 569, 581-590.

(2) Relations with Chili. Curtis, 528, 529.

(3) Relations with the United States. Curtis, 550-559.

2. Paraguay. Ruled by Jesuits, under suzerainty of Spain, 161 1 —
1767. Revolt from Spain, 1811. Dictatorship of Francia, 1811-
40 ; policy of isolation. Lalor, III, 49.

a. Lopez I and II, 1842-70 ; brutal tyranny. Ruinous war
with Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and the Colorado
party of Uruguay, 1864-70. Curtis, 624-627.

3. Uruguay (Banda Oriental). After revolt from Spain controlled
by Brazil until 1825 ; 1830-72, almost continual revolution and civil
war.

a. Trade and commerce. Curtis, 599-601.

b. Conflict with clerical influence. Curtis, 612-614.

112

LECTURE XXIV.

THE AFRICAN CONTINENT.

COLONIZATION AND CUEBENTS OF EMIGRATION.

References : Keith Johnston : Africa, Stanford's Compendium of
Geography and Travel). C. P. Lucas: Historical Geography
of the British Colonies. H. M. Stanley: The Congo and the
Founding of its Free State. Daniel De Leon : The Confer-
ence at Berlin on the West African Question, Political Science
Quarterly, I, 103-139. E. De Amicis : Morocco, its People,
and Places. E. W. Blyden : Christianity, Islam, and the
Negro Race. A. B. Wylde: '83 to '87 in the Soudan. John
Eliot Bowen : The Conflict of East and West in Egypt, Polit-
ical Science Quarterly, I, 295-335, 449-490, 636-677, with
bibliography, pp. 676, 677. 0. Crawfurd: Slavery in East
Central Africa, Nineteenth Century, Sept., 1888. H. H.John-
ston: British East Africa, Fortnightly Review, Oct., 1888.
England, Germany and the Slave Trade, Spectator, Nov. 3,
1888. W. M. Torrens: The East African Slave Trade, Fort-
nightly Review, vol. 43, 691. Joseph Thomson : Mohammedan-
ism in Central Africa, Contemporary Review, Dec., 1886, p. 876.
R. Bosworth Smith: Mohammedanism in Africa, Nineteenth
Century, vol. 22, 791. Grant Allen: A Glance at North
Africa; Canon Mac Coll: Islam and Civilization, Contempo-
rary Review, April, 1888, pp. 526-559.

Area, nearly 12 m. sq. mi. ; popul., estimated from 60 m. to 200 m.

A. The Division of a Continent.

1. Share of the Turkish Sultan.

a. Tripoli (including Barca and Fezzan) ; Turkish authority
reasserted, 1835; Turkish garrison strengthened since French
occupation of Tunis ; power of politico-religious frater-
nities; the Senoosiya, 1830- ; claims of France and Italy

113

b. Egypt and the Soudan. 1805-49, destruction of feudal
regime of the Mamelukes ; rule of the Albanian, Mehemet
AH, whose great grandson, Tewfik, is now Khedive. Con-
quest of the Soudan, 1870-73 ; its revolt (Al Mahdi) 1881- ;
Political Science Quarterly, I, 626-645. Gordon at Khar-
toum, 1884-85. Political Science Quarterly, 653-659.
Emin Pasha (Dr. Schnitzler), at Wadelai, on Lake Albert
Nvanza. Stanley's expeditions, 1887-89.
(1) Interferences of England; to drive out the French,
1801 ; to check Mehemet Ali, 1840; to purchase the
Khedive's Suez Canal shares (nearly half the whole), 1875.
Bright, iv, 516, 517. To manage (together with France)
Egyptian finances, 1875-76. Political Science Quarterly,
I, 314-334. To suppress Arabi Pasha's rebellion, 1882,
(end of the dual control). Political Science Quarterly,
I, 474-484, 487. To check the Mahdists (Khartoum,
Suakim), 1884-. u She has shrunk all along from the
final step of annexation, but she remains the virtual suze-
rain of Egypt." Political Science Quarterly, I, 674-676.
For unfavorable view of England's present policy in the
Soudan, see Wylde, II, ch. viii.

2. Share of England. (Lecture V.) Lucas, 111. Imperial British
East African Co. in Zanzibar. H. H. Johnston. Egypt (ante, § 1,
and Lecture XIV).

3. Share of Italy. Massowah given up by Egypt, 1885-86; trou-
bles with Abyssinia. (Lecture XIX.) Wylde, I, 340-342.

4. Share of France. Algiers and Tunis, the Senegal valley and
coast, 1856-88 ; French Congo (De Brazza), and (assumed) protec-
torate of Madagascar. Lebon : France As It Is, 895-300, 303-307.
(Lecture XVIII.)

5. Share of Spain. The future of Morocco ; its people. De Amicis,
280-284. Area, about 219,000 sq. mi.; popul., estimated from
2£ m. to 8 m. Grant Allen, 533-536. Powers of foreign consuls at
Tangiers.

6. Share of Portugal. Lower Guinea and Mozambique ; undevel-
oped.

7. Share of Germany. The Kameroons, Damaraland, and, on the
coast of Zanzibar, concessions to the German East African Company.

(1) German East African Company and the Arabian slave
traders, 1888-89.

114

8. Independent states.

a. Morocco, see ante, § 5.

b. Liberia, founded 1822, by American Colonization Society.
Republic on model of United States. E. W. Blyden, 221-
22%*228-253,- 392-432.

c. Congo Free State. The African International Association,
1877. Stanley's Explorations, 1879-84. Stanley, I, cbs.
ii and iv.

(1) International Congo Conference, Berlin, Feb., 1885.
The state defined, declared neutral and free to trade of all
nations ; controls valley and mouth of Congo. Area, over
1 m. sq. mi. ; popul., 27 m. Stanley, II, ch. xxxviii.

d. The Dutch Republics. (Lecture V.)

e. Madagascar. {Ante, § 4, Lecture XVIII.)

f. Zanzibar, subject to Muscat, 1784-1870; since 1870 inde-
pendent. Limits determined, 1886-87, by Joint Commis-
sion (Great Britain, Germany, and France).

g. Abyssinia (Habesh, Ethiopia). Estimated area, JH50,000
sq. m. ; popul., 3 m. Group of semi-independeut states.
Christianized about 329.

(1) Theodore, 1855-68, takes title of Negoosa Negust, that
is, King of Kings. English influence and missionaries.
War with England, 1867-68. Bright, iv, 436-438.

(2) King John II, 1872- ; "His Majesty Johannis, made
by the Almighty King of Sion Negoosa Negust of Ethi-
opia and its dependencies." Ilewett's Treaty.

(a) Repel's Egyptian invasion, 1875-77. Wylde, I, 312-
329.

{b) Treaties of alliance with Egypt and England against
the Mahdists, and against the slave trade (Ilewett's
Treaty), 1884. Wylde, II, 38-65, 304-309.

(3) The people. Wylde, I, cbs. x-xv.

h. Central African States. In Guinea, Ashantee (wars with
England, 1864, 1873. Bright, iv, 372, 497-499), and Da-
homey. In Eastern Africa, Uganda, the Gallas, and Som-
alis. In Southern Africa, Hottentots, apd Kaffirs. In
Central Africa, Mandingoes, Bornous, Foulahs, and the
tribes of the Eastern Soudan. Blyden, 312, 350, 356.

" We must not lose sight of the fact that there were many races hi Africa — that the typ-
ical Negro with prognathous jaw and woolly hair, who has been so eagerly sought as a
slave in all ages, is quite as distinct from the Kaffir, and from many of the races described
by travellers in the interior, as from the diminutive Bushman, the feeble remnant of an
older race now extinct." Blyden, 317.

115

B. The Slave Trade and Mohammedanism.

1. The extent of Islam in Africa. Its civilizing ;npwers.. Varieties.
The Mahdis. See especially, Bosivorth Smith, 795, and Blyden, 199-
216, 350-378.

" Whatever may be the case in Arabia, there is an irrepressible-activity — intellectual,
commercial, political, and religious — among the adherents of the creed in Nigritia."
Blyilen, 377.

2. The competition of Islam and Christianity. For faulty methods
of the latter, see Thomson ; but for general presentation of the subject,
see Blyden, 1-53, 277-297.

3. The Trans-Arabian slave-traffic. Importance of the outlets at
Suakim, Masbowah, and Zanzibar. Spectator, Nov. 3, 1888.

a. Reasons for Egyptian failure to control the Soudan and
suppress the slave-trade. Wylde, II, 65-68.

b. Complicity of Turkey and responsibility of England. Wylde,
II, 242-266.

4. The Trans-Sahara slave traffic. Crusade of Cardinal Lavigerie
of Algiers, 1888.

C. Colonial Empires op Today, and the Routes op Trade.

1. England, France, Holland, Portugal, Germany, Spain, Denmark,
and Italy. (Map exercise). Lucas, chs. vi, vii, with maps.

2. The world's commerce. K B. Murray : Commercial Geography,
pp. 15-19; especially 89-113. John Teats: Recent and Existing
Commerce, part iv.

D. Currents op Emigration.

1. Most important inter-continental emigration is from Germany,
Scandinavia, Great Britain, Italy, and China to the United States,
Argentine Republic, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Brazil, Uru-
guay, and the Pacific Hands.

For study of emigration from nearly all European countries, see
United States Consular Reports, vol. xxii, 1887, No. 76. For Den-
mark, Consular Reports, 1884, pp. 672-675. Report of German
Imperial Emigrant Commissioner, Consular Reports, vol. xxvi, 1888,
pp. 233-239. See also Richmond Smith : The Control of Immigration,
Political Science Quarterly, vol. iii ; also same authority on The Influ-
ence of Immigration on the United States of America, Bulletin de
V Institut International de Statistique, tome iii, 2eme livre, 1888.

Total immigration into the United States, 1820-87, about 14 m.
Of these about 6 m. were from the British Hands. Largest number
in one year, 788,992 in 1882. Total immigration into the United

116

States from China, 1855-87, 274,458, of whom probably one half
have returned to China. For Chinese in Australia, see Sir John Pope
Hennessey: The Chinese in Australia, Nineteenth Century, vol. 23,
p. 617.

2. Most important trans-continental emigration is in the United
States and Canada towards the West, and into the United States from
all parts of British America ; and, in Russia, to the East and South
(Siberia and the coasts of the Black and Caspian Seas). Walker and
Gannett 's Report on the Progress of the Nation, in Rand's Selections
Illustrating Economic History, pp. 286-307. See also Tenth United
States Census, vol. i.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE~OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
TSBOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

1936

APR 12 1!

APK_vi8

SEP

-*-Z77

MAY 1 J

— N6V— &mpt-a

LD 21-100m-7,'33

887317

L+5

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

nHHHH

AVvVnNViWAW^\WvVAWi\WA\\wAvAwk^^

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Political history since 1815 (excluding the United States)"

See other formats