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UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE
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OOTBRWirBKT PRINTING OfTICB 1 * »020
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SEP 21 ,
Popular. Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
HLNRY WALTER YOUNG. Editor
VoL III
May, 1910
No. 1
CONTENTS
Page
CURRENT FROM— WHERE? CHAPTER I. By
Edgar Franklin 1
Testing with a Half a Million Volts 7
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY. CHAPTER XXV.
By Prof. Edwin J. Houston 8
ELECTRICAL SECURITIES. By "Contango" 12
Motor Power vs. Boy Power 14
Seasoning Wood by Electricity 14
WHERE ELECTRICITY STANDS IN THE PRAC-
TICE OF MEDICI ME. CHAPTER VI. By
Noble M. Eberhart 15
CURRENT OVERLAND AT 110,000 VOLTS 19
ELECTRIC PLATFORM TRUCKS 20
Making a Record of Fever Temperatures 21
TALKS WITH THE JUDGE 22
Are Upward Signs Coming? .' 23
Subscribers' Unique Telephone Sets 23
UNDERGROUND RAILWAY OF PARIS 25
Philadelphia Electrical Show 26
Pipe Lines of Wood 27
Setting up Gravity Cells 27
Correct and l tcorrect Window Lighting 28
Wire Measuring Devices 29
America Made Photography Practical 29
Tungsten Ore 29
Pipe Lines of Spiral Steel 30
Electric Furnaces as Auxiliaries 30
Fire Protection of Electric Plants 30
Trackless Trolley Lines 31
Electric Bleaching is Spotless 31
Color Changes in Early Stage Lighting 32
A Surprise for Foundrymen 32
Electric Tableaux Here and Abroad 32
Public Telephone Station in Holland 33
Insulation — Electric and Otherwise. . j 33
Can Trolleys Climb Mountains ? 33
Why Electric Autos Wear Longest 33
Freak Electric Locomotive 34
Electric Switch Mat 34
Growth of the Telephone Business 34
English as it is "Translated" 35
Creeping of the Rails 35
Please to Push the Button 35
Purifying a City's Water Supply 36
First Aerial Lighthouse 37
Boiler-top Electric Light Engine . 37
No Longer an Infant 37
Gasolene-electric Car 33
Electricity Solves a Dredging Problem 38
Letters by Telegraph 3S
Page
Lamp Adjuster 39
Arc Lengths Vary with the Gas 39
Street Lighting Once Thought Sacrilegious 39
A Pioneer Telegrapher 39
Electric Lighting on Ship Board 40
High Efficiency Lamps in Ireland 40
Galileo and the Telegraph 40
The Relief of Lucknow 40
A "Stay Connected" Connector 41
Telephone Booth Ventilation 41
Lifting Magnets Save Space 41
Heat Alarms in Grain Elevators 42
Electric Hoists as Time Savers 43
Combined Insulation Cutter and Pliers 43
Electric Smelting Furnace 44
New Rotary Snap Switch 44
An Iron-clad Bell 44
Electric Transfer Table 44
Motor Driven Grinder and Buffer 45
Mine Telephone 45
Charging Coke Ovens 45
ELECTRICAL MEN OF THE TIMES. Enos M.Barton 47
ELECTRICITY IN THE HOUSEHOLD 48-53
THE ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER 48
Why Should You Feir Electricity? 50
PLAN OF A PARISIAN MANSION. By
Emile Ruegg 51
Where does the Heat Come from? 52
An Electric Fan the Year Round 53
JUNIOR SECTION 54-59
AN ELECTRICAL LABORATORY FOR
$25.00. Part V. By David P. Morrison 54
To Operate a Bell from a Light Circuit 59
POPULAR ELECTRICITY WIRELESS CLUB.. 60-69
WIRELESS IN THE.PUGET SOUND FISHERIES.
By Frank C. Doig 60
Popular Electricity Wireless Club of the Cen-
tral West 61
HEARING GRAND OPERA BY WIRELESS. By
Paul N. Craig 62
A HIGH POWER WIRELESS EQUIPMENT.
Part I. By Alfred P. Morgan 62
First Wireless Union 69
Wireless Queries 69
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 70-72
NOTES ON PATENT TITLES. By Obed C. Billman 73
Book Reviews 74
Shoe Shining Machine 74
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS 75
SHORT CIRCUITS 76
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED 78
RENEWALS .?" you,r subscription expires, you Will find a renewal blank enclosed here. You should fill out and retur
, "•«-"-' with remittance at once, to avoid missing a number. Positively no copies will be mailed on any subscript)
same expires unless renewed, and We cannot agree to begin subscriptions with back numbers. The date on Wrapper of your magazim
the issue with Which your subscription ends.
CHANflF OF ADDRFSS N°*'fy us promptly of any change in your address, giving both the old and
, , . t . TT . ■r^*-'*-'ixi-"~"-' Since each issue is printed a month before the date it bears, we should be no
lour weeks in advance, in order to make the necessary change in our records
ISSUED MONTHLY BY POPULAR ELECTRICITY PUBLISHING CO., Monadnock Block, Chicago, III.
YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION. $1.00; CANADIAN, $1.35; FOREIGN, $1.50; SINGLE COPY, 10 CENTS
No additional copies Will be sent after expiration of subscription except upon renewal
Entered as Second Class Matter April 14, 1908, at the Pes*. Office at Chicago. Under Act of March 3, 1879.
Copyright 1910 by Popular Electricity Publishing Co.
T
viii
:-3R .Grac.^ JEvetseI
BOWERS FAVORED THEM WITH AN EXPANSIVE, REDDISH-MOTTLED SMILE
See page 3
Popular Electricity
Magazine
Volume III
Issues May, 1910 to April 19
INDEX
A
Page
Above the Clouds in an Electric Auto.. 904
Across Eurcpe on Welded Rails 713
Across the Atlantic by Airship 570
Across the Atlantic with a Thimble Bat-
tery 127
Accident Prevention, Exhibit Hall for.. 122
Adjustable Bench Light 741
Adjustable Lamp Shade 727
Adjuster for Lamp Cords 627
Adjuster, Lamp 39
Adjuster, Spring- Clip Cord 1110
Advertising Novelty, Window 898
Advertising- Shoe Polish 1001
Aerial 262, 1039
Aerial and Wireless Waves 1133
Aerial Electric Sign 910
Aerial, Leading- in from ...... 846
Aerial, Lightning and the 448
Aerial Lighthouse 37
Aerial, Looped 454
Aerial, Location of 1133
Aerial Lighthouse of Spandau 304
Aerial Search Lights.' 959
Aerial Wire 262
Aerial Wires for Two-Inch Coil 164
Aero-Meter < 1072
Aging and Curing Tobacco.. 170
Agriculture, Electricity in 118
Agriculture, Future of Electrical 279
Aid to the Deaf 815
Airship, Across the Atlantic by 570
Airship Propellers, Testing 709
Airships, Light Motors for 395
Alarm, Automatic Fire Extinguisher
and 1106
Alarm Clcck, Repeating 528
Alarm, Electric 238
Alarm in Grain Elevators, Heat 42
Alarm, Mail Box , 336
Alarm System, Camden's Unique Fire
and Burglar 796
Alarm, Water Tank 1122
Alarm, Wireless Burglar 350
Alcohol Chafing Dish Changed to Elec-
tric 1133
Alexander Graham Bell 533
All Metal Washing Machine 1017
Alpine Railway, A New 855
Alps, An Electric Train in the 971
Alternating Current Motor, "Variable
Speed 1102
Alternating or Direct Current 899
Alternator 1136
Alternator Exciter 264
Alternator, Frequency of 848
Aluminum and Copper Conductors 333
Pa ere
Aluminum Lines, Sleet on 870
Aluminum, Solder for 645, 1022
Aluminum Wire 71
Amateur Wireless at Electrical Show.. 1037
Amateur's One-Kilowatt Station 749
Ambulances, Nerve Saving 424
America Made Photography Practical.. 29
American Electric Girl 240
American Engineering in Russia 600
American Museum of Safety 122
Ammeter, Use of 1133
Ampere, A Monument for 523
Ampere Turns 560, 1136
Anchor Gap 454, 1133
Anchor Gaps and Sending 651
Anchors, Guy 497
Ancient History, Side-Lights on. 594, 696, 786
Ancient Tarsus Electric Lighted 414
Ancients, Lightning and the 122
Anesthesia, Electrical 138
Angle Worms Sensitive Electrically.... 789
Annunciator, Street 427
Annunciator, Three Push Button 72
Antlered Electric Fixtures 713
Application and Proceedings for Reissue 1137
Appreciation of Thomas Davenport 770
Architectural Models, Lighting 307
Arc Lamp, A New 486
Arc Lamp Pole-top 329
Arc Lamp, The First Carbonless 104
Arc Lamps, Fireworks in 278
Arc Lamps, Flaming 72
Arc Lamps, (Luminous Magnetite) .... 908
Arc, Cutting Metals by Electric 131
Arc Lengths Vary with the Gas 39
Arc Light Bath 116
Arc Light, Resistance Ceil for 166
Arc, Vertical Carbon Flaming 487
Arcs, Brilliant Flaming 214
Army Telephones, Use of 315
Artistic Display Sign 1080
Artistic Illumination , 809
Artistic Piano Lamps 928
Artistic Shadow Dancing 1085
Assayers and Toolmakers, Furnaces for 101
Association Central California Wireless 550
Association, Springfield (Mass.) Wireless 350
Association, Westchester Wireless 551
Atlantic, Graveyard cf the 206
Auristophone ^^\
Aurora Borealis 69£
Auto Electric Lighting Plant 815
Auto Electric Vehicle — '89 Model 1076
Auto, Lamps Delivered by 308
Auto Search Lights in France 609
Automatic Batteries for Home Lighting 734
Automatic Electrical Clock 334
Automatic Elevators and Dumb Waiters 426
.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Automatic Fire Extinguisher and Alarm 1106
Automatic Flag-man 493
Automatic Pump, Sanitary '.'.'." 482
Automatic Street Announcer . . ! ! ! 497
Automatic Telephone ' ' ] 66
Automatic Transportation ' " ' ' §94
Automobile, Above the Clcuds in an
Electric 904
Automobile Battery Exchange...!..'!!! 119
Automobile Field, Woman's Influence in
the 832
Automobile, First Electric 406
Automobile Jump Spark Coil 560
Automobile Lights, Electric 822
Automobile, Telephoning from an 886
Automobile Time Recorder 141
Automobile Trouble Lamp 487
Automobile Trucks, Electric 400
Automobile Wireless on Mountain Top.. 746
Automobile Wireless Telegraphy 551
Automobiles as Engines of War 408
Automobiles, Electric Lighting for 495
Autos as Show Windows 526
Autos, Electric Wear Longest 33
Autos, Prominent People and Their
Electric 387
Aviation Meet, Wireless at Los Angeles. 1035
Axle with Motor, Hollow 1111
B
Bachelor Girl, Letters of a 241, 432
Balloon, First Electrically Propelled.... 212
Balloons, Does Lighting Endanger 884
Balloons, Electric Power for 519
Balloons, Housing Dirigible 891
Baltimore, Wireless Club of 846
Bananas Ripened Electrically 1072
Banquet at Long Beach 309
Bare Wires of Unseen Metal '. 119
Barton, Enos M 47
Baseball Electric Score Board 312
Baseball Pitchers, Training 169
Bath, Arc Light 116
Bath of Electric Light 719
Battery Car 1074
Battery Cells, Setting Up 27
Battery, Connecting Cells of 263
Battery, Edison Tells of His New 567
Battery Exchange, Automobile 119
Battery for Ships 608
Battery for Two-inch Coil 750
Battery, For the Man wTith a Storage. . 816
Battery Lamp, Return to 220
Battery, Lifting Power of a Dry 125
Battery Motor, Changing to Induction. 922
Battery, Overcharging 560
Battery Paste, Dry 617
Battery, Plunge 70
Battery Porous Cups, Making 128
Battery Recuperation 875
Battery Solution 752
Battery Tester, Inexpensive 530
Battery, The Principle of the Storage.. 106
Battery, The New Edison Storage Bat-
tery 99
Battery, Thimble 127
Batteries for Home Lighting, Automatic 734
Batteries Large and Small 217
Batteries, Live 876, 947
Batteries, Protecting Signal 117
Batteries that Corrode Metal 801
Batteries, Utilizing Old Dry 617
Bavarian Roads, Electric Traction of the 215
Bed Post Fan 424
Bee a Live Battery, The Honey 108^
Beginnings of the Telephone 858
BeB, Alexander Graham 533
Bell Circuit, Door 228
Bell Circuit, Return Call 560
Bell, Ironclad 44
Bell, Lightning Rings Telephone 1133
Bell Operated from Light Current 59
Bell-Ringing Generator 1018-
Bells, Three Centuries of Electric 218
Bellows, Pressure of Church Organ.... 1111
Belt-tightening Idler '. . 623
Bench Drill, Electric 485
Bench Light, Adjustable
Benzine-Electric Railway Cars
Berlin Cars, Recorders on the
Berlin, Police Tickers in
Berlin-Zossen Electric Railway
Berlin-Zossen Tests
Best Lighted Office Building in the
World
Bichromate Solution
Billions in the Electrical Industry
Birds, Electric Bells Scare
Blacksmith's Motor
Blast Furnaces, Lightning and
Bleaching, Electrical
Bleaching Preserves Health, Electric...
Blind at the Key
Block Signaling, Electric
691, 781, 880, 984,
Blower, Kinetic Organ
Blue Prints from the Original Drawing.
Boats Controlled by Wireless
Boats, Speed and Pleasure with Electric
Boiler Room, A Modern
Boiler-Top Electric Light Engine
Boiling Water in a Glass
Bonding, Electric Rail
Bones, Making Heat Penetrate the
Book Making, Electricity in
Booth Ventilation, Telephone
Bottle-Labeling Machine
Boy Scout Signal Lamp
Bracket Fixtures, Tungsten
Bradley, Charles S
Branding Iron, Electric
Brazil, Scenic Railway in
Breaking the Circuit in Oil
Breweries, Electricity in German
Bridge Gate to Stop Runaways........
Bridging a Tuning Coil
Brief Guide to Vibratory Technique . . . .
British Cable vs. German Wireless
Brooklyn, Light and Power of
Brushes on Dynamo
Buffer, Motor Driven Grinder and
Bulkhead Doors, Electrical Operation of
Bullet Speeds, Timing
Bureaucracy, In the Chain of
Burglar Alarm, Wireless
Burglar Trap
Burglars Fear the Light
Buzzer, Receivers in Series with
Buzzer Test
Bvllesby, H. M
Cabinet, a Wonderful Kitchen
Cable, A Quarter of a Million Miles of.
Cable, How Many Wires in a
Cable, Making and Testing Telephone..
Cable Ships, New Philippine
Cable, Submarine Telegraph
Cable, Testing a
Cabled Message, What Becomes of a. . . -
Cables in the Ohio River, Laying
Cables, Locating Flaws in
Cables, Protecting Lead
Cabling Japanese Words
Cake Machine. Egg Beater and
Calculation of Illumination
Call Box, Messenger
Camden's Unique Fire and Burglar Alarm
System
Camera, Recording Checks with an Elec-
trical
Candelabra Switch
Candlepower of Filament Lamps^^^j^--
Cane, Electric Light ■.....;..-
Cannon, Electrically Operated
Capstan, Electric
Car and Controller, Miniature
Car, Battery
Car, Gas Engine Electric
Car Lighting, Tantalum Lamps for. ■ • •
Car-moving Capstan
Car, Odd Street Railway
Car of President Diaz. Private
Car Tracks, Vacuum Cleaned
Page
741
519
213
306
201
524
804
944
307
789
3 2 7
3 9 :j
31
393
1052
1068
482
1105
856
211
316
-°7
1015
999
769
817
41
1107
934
487
923
1099
1065
492
1089
414
558
457
101
89
72
45
1061
1093
563
350
708
1 73
166
1134
143
1025
818
308
686
313
130
136
1000
517
330
231
526
328
116
796
705
1111
10-10
399
511
415
645
1074
3S
1005
525
311
851
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Cars, Benzine-electric Railway 518
Carbon Lamp Resistance 360
Carbcnless Arc Lamp, The First 104
Carborundum 680
Carborundum, Experiment with 445
Carborundum for Detector 1039
Carnegie, The Non-magnetic Yacht 196
Carquinex Straits, Span of Wire Across 80S
Carr System of Transportation 894
Caug-ht in the Act 1087
Causes of Fires 431
Cell, Direction of Current in a' . . . '. '. '.'. '. 167
Cell, LeClanche 70
Cells of Battery, Connecting 263
Censors, Wireless Outwits the 938
Central California Wireless Association. 550
Central Station, The First 659
Central Station, The First Edison 663
Centrifugal Hair Drier 492
Chafing Dish, Alcohol Changed to Elec-
tric " 1113
Chafing Dish Luncheon 145
Chair, Vibrating 498
Changing Dry Cells to Wet 623
Changing Small Battery Motor to In-
duction Type 922
Charging Ccke Ovens 45
Charging Leyden Jars -. . . 166
Charles S. Bradley 923
Chats on Electricity 658
Checks Recorded by Camera 705
Chicago Electrical Show 960
Chicago Wireless Club 453
Chickamauga, Wireless Messages at.... 651
Chicken Food, Electric Heaters for 496
Chimney, A House without a 926
Chinee, The Progressive 183
Chinese, Teaching Electric Railroading. 871
Choosing a Pair of Receivers 349
C. H. Thordarson 829
Chucks, Magnetic Lathe 336
Church Organ Bellows, Pressure of 1111
Cigar Holder 784
Cigar Lighter 1104
Cigar Lighter, A Curious 820
Cigar Lighters, Taxes and 329
Circular Mils 752
City in Miniature 403
Civilization, Light as an Aid to 306
Cleaning an Edison Primary Cell 828
Cleaning Railway Coaches 484
Cleveland Viaduct 900
Clip, A Convenient Helix 943
Clip, An Insulated Test 913
Clipper, A Handy Horse 481
Clock, An Automatic Electrical 334
Clock, An Electric Pendulum 828
Clock, A Remarkable 886
Clock, Electric Utility 630
Clock, Repeating Alarm 528
Clock, Self-Winding 496
Clock Selling Once and Now 417
Clock with Pendulum Above 427
Clock with Swimming Pointers 838
Clocks, Municipal Electric 563
Coaches, Cleaning Railway 484
Coal Mines, Electricity in 324
Coal Production, Speeding Up 995
Coasting of Cars, Recording the. 897
Coffee Roaster Resurrected 221
Coherers, Relay with 164
Coil Carrier, Telephone 125
Coil Dimensions, Spark 163
Coil Heads, Distance Between 1040
Coils, Pupin and Tesla 559
Coke Ovens, Charging 45
Cc Id Sawing of Metal 479
Collapsible Signs 119
Collins Wireless Telephone 158
Color Changes in Early Stage Lighting. 32
Color Changing Fountains 236, 1116
Combined Insulation Cutter and Pliers. 43
Coming of the Multiplex Telephone.... 965
Commutating Pole Motor 167
Ci mmutator Troubles 1040
Compass, A Recording 1003
Compass, Magnetized Rail Upsets 1088
Compass Needle, Polarity of 1040
Compensation for Patent Infringement.
Compensation for Patent Infringment,
Profits Recoverable
Compound-Wound Generators, Parallel-
ing
Conclave of the Knights Templar, Tri-
ennial
Concrete House, The Edison Cast
Concrete, Measuring Temperature in...
Concrete Mixed by Electric Power
Concrete Timed Electrically
Condenser 357, 359,
Condenser, Fixed
Condenser for x/2 K. W. Transformer...
Condenser for One-Kilowatt Transform-
er
Condenser, High Tension Variable
Condenser, Sliding Plate
Condenser, Spark Coil
Condenser, Tubular
Condenser, Variable
Condensers for Sending and Receiving.
* Condensers for Sending Set
Condensers, Receiving
Condensers, Sliding and Stationary
Conductors, Aluminum and Copper
Connecticut, Fessenden Equipment of the
Connecting Cooking Devices
Connector, "Stay Connected"
Connectors, Midget Separable
Conserving the Power of a German River
Conservation of Natural Resources. . . .
Conservation of Resources
Construction of a Tesla High-Frequency
Apparatus
Construction of Induction Coils and
Transformers
Construction of Small Motors and Dy-
namos 835, 930, 1029,
Contest, Wireless Club
Controller, Miniature Car and
Controlling Boats by Wireless
Convenient Helix Clip
Convention, National Electric Light....
Convertible Electric Derrick
Convertible Lamp
Cook Stove, Fireless
Cook Stove, Hughes Electric
Cooking Devices, Connecting
Copper-Clad Steel Wire, Testing
Copper Conductors, Aluminum and
Copper Wire
Cord Adjuster from a Rubber Band
Cord Adjuster, Spring Clip
Correct and Incorrect Window Lighting
Correction
Cost of Electric Current 342,
Cotton Mill, Motors in
Counter Sign, Flashing
Country Railway Station Lighting
Court Held by Telephone
Cozy Toaster
Crane, Electric
Crane for Handling Locomotives
Crane in the Foundry, Electric
Crane, The Work of the
Crane to Carry Locomotives
Cream Separator
Creeping of Rails
Crocket, David
Crooke's Tube
Crossing Signal
Crossing Signal, Railway
Cruiser
Curfew Wink, An Electric
Curing the Sleeping Sickness
Curing Tobacco
Curious Cigar Lighter
Current Cheaper than Kerosene
Current from Where 1, 92, 184,
Current in a Cell, Direction of
Current Overland at 110,000 Volts
Current Polarity, To Test
Cutting Lamp Filaments on a Planer...
Cutting Metals by Electric Arc
Page
849
359
469
367
414
701
616
847
453
35S
751
650
751
751
846
751
750
750
751
69
333
939
147
41
632
522
714
363
728
946
1117
1038
645
856
943
265
1005
820
490
436
147
217
333
71
922
1110
28
1072
537
136
726
983
118
735
481
1087
235
224
132
S21
35
792
360
.493
71
983
329
127
170
820
537
284
167
19
101
123
131
PC )PULA R ELECTRICITY
D
1 1 -» r , Pa ee
Damascus, Modernizing the City of... 59<4
Dancing-, Artistic Shadow 1085
Davenport, An Appreciation of Thomas. 770
David Crocket 799
"Dead Man," The Passing- of the'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 497
Deaf, Aid to the 815
Death, What Voltage Causes '.'.'. 6 79
Decorations, Electrical 46
Decorative Lamps 120
Decorative Lamps, Fancy 487
Decorative Novelties, The Latest 534
Defenses to Patent Infringement 753
Definitions 559
Demagnetizing Watches 129
Dentist, The Modern 806
Denver Gas and Electric Building 804
Denver's Electrical Show, Illuminations
at 790
Denver's Prismatic Fountain 520
Department Store Delivers by Electrics. 795
Department Store to Install Wireless.... 1037
Depolarizer 759
Depots, Electric Stairs at 526
Derrick, A Convertible Electric 1005
Derrick, An Odd Looking 60S
Design of a Small Lighting Plant 41S
Desk Lamp Usea as a Portable 486
Detector 558
Detector, Carborundum for 1039
Detector Crystals, Solder for 1129
Detector, Perron 262
Detector, Microphone 262
Detector, Peroxide cf Lead 558
Detector, Pyron 162
Detector, Silicon 262
Detectors, Construction and Connection
of 358
Detectors, Oddities in 554
Detectors, Tantalum and Mercury 262
Determination of Wave Length 253
Diamonds, The Making cf Near 680
Diaz, Private Car of President 311
Dies, Engraving 428
Dip, Magnetic 1063
Direction of Current in a Cell 167
Directory, Electrical Trades 946
Directory of Wireless Stations 846
Dirigible Balloons, Does Lightning En-
danger 884
Dirigible Balloons, Housing 891
Disasters, Prevention of Mine 326
LMsplaying Lamp Shades 125
Distributing Morning- Papers by Street
Car 607
Diver's Apparatus 1084
Divided Circuits, Resistance in 944
Divided Orchestra 762
Diver's Electric Lantern 811
Divining Rods, Magnetic 606
Doctor by Telephone 538
Doctor Studies Heart bv Telephone 333
Door Bell Circuit 228
Double Deck Trolley Car 780
Douche, Hot and Cold Air 425
"Don'ts" for Electricians 1109
Double Slide Tuning Coil 558
Drawing, Making- Blue Prints from the
Original 1105
Drawn Tungsten Filaments Ill
Dredge, Electric 38
Dredges in Klondike, Electric 784
Dredging on the Yukon 870
Drier, Centrifugal Hair 492
Drier, Electrical Hair 489
Drill, Electric Bench 485
Drill, Suspended Electric 610
Drink Mixer, Electric , 1104
Drop, Figuring Resistance and 847
Drop in Voltage 656
Dry Batterv Lifting Power 125
Dry Battery Paste 617
Dry Batteries versus Wet Batteries... 166
Dry Batteries, Utilizing Old 617
Plumb Waiters, Automatic 426
Dyke's Automobile Encyclopedia 1042
Dynamo, Brushes on 72
Dynamo Building an Exact Science 393
Dynamo Building for Amateurs. ... 457
Dynamo Driven by Ropes 614
Dynamos ' ' 195
Dynamos and Motors, The Difference.!. 694
Dynamos, Safe Temperatures fcr 33-j
Dynamos, The Construction of Small
Motors and 835, 930 1029
E
Earache Cured by Lamp 616
Ear Drum Massage 495
Ear Treatment, Tuning Fork for . 169
Edison and His Work 77s
Fdison, An Interview With '.'." 563
Edison Article 79
Edison Battery Car • • • - • _^_^
Edison Battery Car, Trial of the 903
Edison Cast Concrete House 363
Edison Central Scation, The First....!! 663
Edison Medal, The Institute 851
Edison Primary Cell, Cleaning an 82s
Edison Storage Battery 99
Edison Tells of His New Battery 567
Edison Writes for Popular Electricity. . 74
Edward Schildhauer . . 98o
Eels, Electric 876
Efficiency, Hints on Increasing 1130
Fgg Beater and Cake Machine 328
Egg Boiler, Electric . 341
Eggs, Electrocuted 127
Eiffel Tower Wireless Station 160
Election Night, A Telephone System on.. 794
Electric and Fireless Stove Combined... 1025
Electric Alarm 238
Electric Arc, Cutting Metals by 131
Electric Auto, Above the Clouds in an.. 904
Electric Auto Plorn 496
Electric Autos Wear Longest 33
Electric Automobile Lights 822
Electric Bells Scare Birds 789
Electric Bells, Three Centuries of 218
Electric Bench Drill 485
Electric Bleaching Preserves Health 393
Electric Block Signaling.691, 781, 880. 984. 1068
Electric Boats, Speed and Pleasure With 211
Electric Branding Iron 1099
Electric Car, Two Thousand Miles by. . . . 324
Electric Clocks as Timekeepers 252
Electric Clocks, Municipal 563
Electric Cook Stove, Hughes 436
Electric Crane 481
Electric Crane Carrying Locomotive 108.
Electric Crane in the Foundry 235
Electric Crane to Carrv Locomotives. ... 132
Electric Curfew Wink 329
Electric Derrick, A Convertible 1005
Electric Diving Sign 119
Electric Dredges in the Klondike 784
Electric Drill, Suspended 610
Electric Drink Mixer 1104
Electric Driving Increases Output 140
Electric Eels . 876
Electric Egg Boiler 341
Electric Engines on Italian Railroads... 225
Electric Engines vs. Steam 417
Electric Eye Magnet 521
Electric Fan, Flies and the 436
Electric Fans, Uses for 148
Electric Farm 319
Electric Ferry, Suspended 607
Electric Fireless Cooker 4 8
Electric Fireless Cooking- 733
Electric Fixtures, Antlered 713
Electric Flasher 531
Electric Flasher, Patents on the 706
Electric Fortune Teller 540
Electric Fountains, Plousehold 539
Electric Furnaces as Auxiliaries 30
Electric Gate Opener ." 139
"Electric Girl" Shows 890
Electric Girl, The American 240
Electric Grain Handling in Rcumania... 390
Electric Hair Drier 4 8 9. 914
Electric Pleat 202
Electric Heat in Hat Manufacturing. . . . 625
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Paee
Electric Heat, Ripening- Bananas by 1072
Electric Heat, Storing 133
Electric Heat, Portable 615
Electric Heaters for Chicken Pood 496
Electric Hoists as Time Savers 43
Electric House Pump 236
Electric Incubator 1016
Electric Iron 435
Electric Lamps, Odd 120
Electric Laundry Outfit 144
Electric Light Bills Vary, Why 1079
Electric Light Cane 399
Electric Lighting for Automobiles 495
Electric Lighting on Shipboard 40
Electric Lights, How a Parmer Secured. 731
Electric Lights, Welsbach 8S9
Electric Locomotive the Largest 108$
Electric Locomotive, Freak 34
Electric Locomotive, Model 343
Electric Locomotives, Power of 224
Electric Milk Jug 1099
Electric Peacock 604
Electric Pendulum Clock 828
Electric Plant, Portable 898
Electric Platform Trucks 20
Electric Power Cleans Streets 708
Electric Power for Balloons 519
Electric Power in Paper Making 140
Electric Power, The Romance of 722
Electric Pressing Iron 633
Electric Pyrometer, Record of 137
Electric Rail Bonding 999
Electric Railroading, Teaching Chinese. 871
Electric Range, A New 833
Electric Sandwich Man 1072
Electric Score Board, Baseball 312
Electric Scrubbing Machine 328
Electric Sealing Wax Heater 491
Electric Semaphore 217
Electric Saw Filing 995
Electric Sign, An Aerial 910
Electric Sign, Facial Expression 613
Electric Smelting Furnace 44
Electric Soldering Iron 227
Electric Stairs at Depots 526
Electric Steels as Money Savers 130
Electric Stevedore 1097
Electric Stove and Toaster 228
Electric Stove Cooks for Eighteen.... 638
Electric Switch Mat 34
Electric Tableaux Here and Abroad 32
Electric Traction of the Bavarian Roads 215
Electric Train in the Alps 971
Electric Transfer Table 44
Electric Travelers' Iron 145
Electric Traveling Hoist 629
Electric Tree Felling 810
Electric Trucks 400
Electric Trucks on the Farm 468
Electric Utility Clock 630
Electric Valve, Largest in the World. . . . 996
Electric Vehicle — '89 Model, Odd 1076
Electric Vibration 498
Electric Washer and Wringer 435
Electric Water Purification 36
Electric Wedding Decoration, Impressive 1023
Electric Welding 138, 1018
Electric Wiring Diagrams and Switch
Boards 457
Electrics, Strong on 599
Electrical Agriculture, The Future of . . . . 279
Electrical Anesthesia 138
Electric Bleaching Is Spotless 31
Electrical Clock, An Automatic 334
Electrical Decorations 46
Electrical Engineer, How to Become a. . 458
Klectrical Engineers' Pocket Book 74
Electrical Engineers Well Paid 802
Klectrical Fan the Year Around 53
Electrical Fertilizers in Japan 519
Electrical Fires 882
Electrical Fishtale 740
Electrical Heat Energy 52
Electrical Industry, Billions in the 307
Electrical Inspection 264
Electrical Invention, Episodes in 206
Electrical Laboratory for $25.00
54. 149, 247, 314, 442, 542. 642. 736
Electrical Inventions, Five Epoch-Making
Electrical Laboratory on Wheels
Electrical Operation of Bulkhead Doors.
Electrical Progress, Thirty Years of
Electrical Protection of Vaults
Electrical Railway Exposition, Russian.
Electrical Securities
Electrical Show, Amateur Wireless at the
Electrical Show, Illuminaticn at Denver's
Electrical Show, The Chicago
Electrical Stunts
Electrical Threshing
Electrical Trades Directory
Electrical Training That Brings Success.
Electrical "What Is It"
Electrical Wind Measuring-
Electrically Hardened Stairs
Electrically Heated Hot Water Radiator
Electrically Propelled Balloon
Electricity 693,
Electricity Aboard the "George Washing-
ton"
Electricity and Gravity Do the Work...
Electricity and Invention, The Tomor-
rows of
Electricity as a Builder of the Gatun
Locks
Electricity at a Modern Rifle Range
Electricity by the Wagon Load
Electricity, Experimentally and Practic-
ally Applied 754,
Electricity from the Sun's Rays
Electricity in Book-Making
Electricity in Coal Mines
Electricity in Factories and Work Shops
Electricity in Fire Fighting
Electricity in German Breweries
Electricity in Mine Rescue Work
Electricity in Modern Theatre
Electricity in Newspaper Office
Electricity in the Service of Woman....
Electricity in the Submarines
Electricity in the World's Granaries
Electricity Is Turned to Heat
Electricity, Leg Power
Electricity on the Farm
Electricity on the Violin, Frictional
Electricity, Popularizing
Electricity Produces Mountain Air
Electricity Saves Fruit
Electricity — The Farm Hand
Electricity, Why Don't You Use?
Electricity Wrongly Accused
Electricians, Practical "Don'ts" fcr
Electrified Stage Costume
Electricians, Ghost
Electrocuted Eggs
Electrocutions, Two Interesting
Electrolytic Iron
Electrolytic Solvents
Electrolytic Treatment of Wood
Electro-Magnet
Electro-Magnet for Handling Pig Iron. .
Electro-magnetic Effect
Electro-magnetic Ironing Board
Electroplating Machine
Electroplating, Vat for
Elementary Electricity . 8, 84, 191, 292, 380,
Elephant Ambulance, Impromptu
Elevator Lights
Elevator Passenger, For the Abstracted.
Elevator, Portable Grain
Elevator, Portable Power
Elevator Signal System
Elevators and Dumb "Waiters, Automatic
Elevators, Temperature in Grain
Elfland, Line Construction in
Elmer A. Sperry
Embroidered Electric Fans
Emergency Battery for Ships
Empire Cloth
Enamel Insulated Magnet Wire
Enameled Wire on Tuning Coils
Energy for Two-Inch Coil
Engine, Boiler-Top Electric Light
Engine That Spins, Tale of the
Engines on Italian Railroads, Electric. .
Engineer, How to Become an Electrical.
Engineers "Well Paid, Electrical
Page
1047
740
1061
128
704
14
1037
790
960
839
785
946
1043
415
901
819
629
212
1088
526
1006
79
951
476
851
1042
305
817
324
850
521
1089
990
959
. 115
735
376
888
634
901
373
703
808
134
1095
1056
171
1091
1109
414
102
127
885
1051
828
335
394
1103
752-
169
492
727
499
379
291
291
719
133
165
426
129
225
1112
510
608
559
422
1134
943
37
271
225
458
802
6
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Page
English As It Is "Translated" 35
English Hand Lamp 821
Engraving Dies by Machinery 428
Enos M. Barton 47
Episodes in Electrical Invention 206
Epoch-Making Electrical Inventions.... 1047
Eskimo and the Telephone 123
Europe's Greatest Inland Harbor 711
Evolution of the Vacuum Cleaner 536
Eyeball, Locating a Shot in the 905
Eye Magnet, Electric .'. 527
Exhibit Hall for Accident Prevention. . . . 122
Exit the Hod Carrier 1024
Exciter, Alternator 264
Explosion in Power Plant 987
Explosive, A Safe 306
Exposition, Rochester Industrial 710
Exposition, Russian Electrical Railway.. 309
Exterior House Illumination 518
"Extra," Getting Out an 115
Facial Expression Electric Sign 613
False Alarm 1095
Fan and Ice to Cool a Room 639
Fan, Bed-Post 424
Fan Motor to Reduce Fuel Bills' 928
Fan, The Uses of 53
Fans and Home Comfort 148
Fans, Embroidered Electric 510
Fancy Decorative Lamps 486
Far East, The Telegraph in the 1062
Far Sighted Scientist 603
Farm, Electric 319
Farm, Electric Lights on 731
Farm, Electricity on the 279, 785, 1052
Farmers Light and Power 373
Farmers' Telephones 720
Fastening Up Insulators 331
Fastest Mile 524
Fear of Electricity 50
Feeding a Trip-Hammer 325
Feeding the Furnaces 600
Ferron Detector 262
Ferry, Suspended Electric 607
Fessenden Equipment of the U. S. S.
Connecticut 939
Fever Temperatures, Record of 21
Fifteenth Century Trade Marks 605
Fifty Kilowatts of Water Power 618
Fight Returns, Shown Electrically 386
Filaments, Drawn Tungsten Ill
Files, Sharpening 129
Films, Preparing Moving Picture 899
Fire Alarm Box, Where Located 1004
Fire and Burglar Alarm System, Cam-
den's Unique 796
Fire Department, Electric 1077
Fire Engine, A Horseless 805
Fire Extinguisher and Alarm, Automatic 1106
Fire Fighting, Electricity in 521
Fire Protection in Electric Plant 30
Fires, Electrical 882, 1091
Fires, Causes of 431
Fireless and Electric Cook Stove Com-
bined 1025
Fireless Cooker, Electric 48
Fireless Cook Stove 490
Fireless Cooking, Electric 733
Fireproofing Wood Electrically 335
Fireworks in Arc Lamps 278
Firing a 60-Ton Gun, Training and 511
First Carbonless Arc Lamp 104
First Central Station 659
First Edison Central Station 663
First Electric Automobile in United
States 406
First Trackless Trolley in America 700
First Wireless from Mars 463
Fisheries, Wireless in the Puget Sound. 60
Fishtale, An Electrical 740
Fixed Condenser 453
Fixtures, Antlered Electric 713
Fixtures, Tungsten Bracket 487
Flagrran, The Automatic 493
Page
Flaming Arc, Vertical Carbon 4s7
Flaming Arc Lamps 72
Flaming Arcs 214
Flash Lamp 124
Flasher, Combined Lamp and 1103
Flasher, Electric 531
Flasher, Patents on the Electric 706
Flashing Counter Sign. . . .• 726
Flash Lights for Hunters 773
Flat Iron, Electric 435
Flat Iron 1015
Flat Irons as Sterilizers 640
Flaws in Cables, Locating 330
Flexilyte, Some Uses of the 720
Flickering Lights 506
Flies and the Electric Fan 436
Flying Machines: Construction and Op-
eration 754, 1042
Flying Scarab and the Seventh Heaven.
865, 979
Fly Trap, Vacuum 1115
Fly-Wheel, An Enormous 507
Fogs, Getting a Ship's Location During. 1073
Foreign Countries, Use of Telephone in. 518
Forest Products, Learning to Use Our. . 714
Forests, Telephone Helps Save 741
Fortune Teller, Electric 540
Foundry, The Electric Crane in the 235
Foundiyman, A Surprise for 32
Fountain, Denver's Prismatic 520
Fountain, Small Color Changing 1115
Fountains, Color Changing 236
Fountains, Household Electric 539
France and Norway, Some Railways of. . 203
France, Auto Searchlights in 609
Frank J. Sprague 338
Freak Electric Locomotive 34
Freezer and Ice Crusher Combines 479
Frequency and Slip 560
Frequency of an Alternator 848
Fresh Air Trolley Cars 780
Frictional Electricity on the Violin 703
From Coal to the Car 1082
Fruit, Electricity Saves 1095
Frying Griddle Cakes on a Motor 323
Furnace, Electric Smelting 44
Furnaces as Auxiliaries, Electric 30
Furnaces for Assayers and Tool-Makers 1011
Furnaces, Feeding the 600
Fusing of Wires 421
Fuse Wire 455
Fuses 264
Future of Electrical Agriculture 279
Galileo and the Telegraph 40
Galvanometer, Simple 1030
Game, A New 245
Garbage Made Into Electricity 900
Gas Engine Electric Car 38
Gas Leakage, Instrument to Detect 221
Gas Lighting Coil 752
Gate Opener, Electric 139
Gate to Stop Runaways, Bridge 414
Gateway, A Startling 1037
Gatun Locks, Electricity as a Builder of 951
Gauge, Vest Pocket Wire 229
Generator for Bell-Ringing 1018
Generator for Niagara Falls 8S5
Generators, Grounding Transformers and 263
Generators, Connecting 263
"George Washington," Electricity
Aboard the 526
Georgia Section of the N. E. L. A 755
German River, Conserving the Power of a 522
German Taxes, Dodging 712
German Wireless vs. British Cable 101
Getting a Ship's Location During Fogs. 1073
Getting Out an "Extra" 115
Ghost Electricians 102
Giant Induction Coil SOS
Giant, Obedience to the Law of the 437
Giant Tubes Under River.... 903
Glass, Making a Hole in 330
Glass Not Always Insulating 610
Glass Oven 1014
Glass, Pillars of 1116
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Glass Signs, Illuminated Prismatic 1020
Glass to Cut 1023
Glass, Tree Insulator 1022
Gold Prince, To and From the 405
Gold vs. Silver for Mirrors 789
Gocd Investment 851
Governmental Test of Office Devices 178
Grain Bags, Sewing- Up 1105
Grain Bins, Temperature in 12'J
Grain Elevator, Portable 719
Grain Elevators, Heat Alarm in 42
Grain Handling- in Roumania, Electric. 390
Granaries, Electricity in the World's. . 888
Grand Opera, Hearing by Wireless 62
Grand Opera, Producing a 1007
Grave Yard of the Atlantic 206
Gravity Carrier 1006
Gravity Cells, Hints on Caring- for 921
Gravity Cells, Setting Up of 27
Grinder and Buffer, Motor Driven 45
Ground 1039
Ground Block, Handy 726
Ground Circuit 72
Ground Wire 751
Ground, Wireless Without 1128
Grounding, New Method of 821
Grounding of Lightning Arrester 455
Grounding Transformers and Generators 263
Growth of the Telephone Business 34
Guard, An Effective Trolley 721
Guy Anchors 497
Gymnasium, Lighting a Big 707
Gyroscope for Window Cleaners 415
H
Hair Drier, Centrifugal 492
Hair Drier, Electric 489, 914
Hair Singer, Mer-Maid 429
Hand Lamp, An English 821
Handling and Cutting Ice Sheets 1092
Handling Mail With Electrics 702
Handling Radium 278
Handy Ground Block 726
Handy Portable Lamp 424
Harbor, Europe's Greatest Inland 711
Hat Manufacturing, Electric Heat in. . . . 624
Haverhill Wireless Association 845
Heart Beats Electrically Recorded 699
Hearing Grand Opera by Wireless- 62
Heat Alarm in Grain Elevators 42
Heat, Electric 202
Heat Energy, Electrical 52
Heat, How Electricity is Turned to.... 634
Heat, Storing Electric 133
Heater, A Portable Stand 1019
Heater, Electric Sealing Wax. . . 491
Heater, Portable Electric 615
Heater, Water 1015
Heaters for Chicken Pood, Electric 496
Heaters, Magnet Coils as 117
Heating in the Future 244
Heating Pad as an Incubator 130
Heating Up a River 1043
Helix 357
Helix Clip, A Convenient 943
Helix for One-Kilowatt Transformer.... 751
High Efficiency Lamps in Ireland 40
High-Frequency Apparatus, Tesla 728
High Frequency Currents, Stranded Wire
for 944
High Power Wireless Equipment 63,
155, .255, 351, 449, 547, 646, 742, 842, 935, 1124
High Resistance Receiver, Tuning Coil
for 262
High Speeds and Signals 201
High Tension Coil 70
High Tension Insulators, Testing 412
High Tension Magneto 560
High Tension Transmission 7, 19, 915
High Tension Variable Condenser 650
High Voltage 407
T f i ci.li Voltage Cigar Holder 780
High Voltage Line, Testing a 706
High Voltage Insulation 263
High Voltage Transmission 71
Hint on Making a Small Rheostat 727
Page
Hints on Caring for Gravity Cells 921
Historical Measuring Instruments, Some 1021
Hod Carrier, Exit the 1024
Hoists, Electric 43
Hoists, Electric Traveling 629
Holland, Public Telephone Station in... 33
Hollow Axle with Motor 1111
Home Illumination, Planning 244
Home Lighting, Automatic Batteries for 734
Home-Made Lamp Reach 421
Honey Bee a Live Battery 1087
Honey Combs, Stiffening 796
Honolulu Heard By Wireless 745
Hook and Ladder Electric 1077
Hoosac Tunnel to be Electrified 713
Horn, Electric Auto 496
Horse Clipper, A Handy 481
Horseless Fire Engine 805
Horsepower 263
Hotel, Lighting the Lobby of a Famous. 893
Hotels, Electricity in 574
Hot and Cold Air Douche 425
Hot-Room, A Miniature 309
Hot Water Radiator, Electrically Heated 629
House Pump, Electric 236
House Without a Chimney 926
Household Electric Fountains 539
Housing Dirigible Balloons 891
How a Thief Was Caught 708
How the Telephone Talks 22
How to Read Telephone Circuit Dia-
grams 946
Hughes Electric Cook Stove 436
Human Heritage 369
Human Side of a Great Phj^sicist 508
Humming of an Induction Motor 46
Hunters, Flashlights for 773
H. M. Byllesby 143
Hydrogen, Some Uses of 884
Hydroground 821
Hypnotic Eye 789
I
Ice Crusher, Combined Freezer and 479
Ice Handling by Electricity 118
Ice Sheets, Handling and Cutting 1092
Ice Skating All the Year Around 892
Idler, Belt-Tightening 623
Ignition Trouble Finder 237
Illuminating Engineering, Lectures on.. 755
Illuminating Our Warships 474
Illuminating the Exterior of a House... 518
Illumination, Artistic 809
Illumination for the Steel Pier, Indirect. 396
Illumination, How to Calculate 116
Illumination, Intensity of 1135
Illumination, Measuring the Intensity of 970
Illumination, Planning Home 244
Illuminations at Denver's Electrical
Show 790
Imbedded Lightning Rod 606
Imperfect Wiring 230
Impromptu Elephant Ambulance 379
Improved Toaster 832
Increasing Efficiency, Hints on 1130
Increasing Life of Tungsten 713
Incubator, Heating Pad as 130
Independent Interrupter 654
Index to Volume 3 H39
Indicator, A Potato Polarity 731
Indicator for Propeller Speeds 237
Indicator, Polarity 493
Indicator, Wind Vane 617
Indirect Illumination for the Steel Pier. 396
Indoor Lighting from Outdoor Lamps.. 128
Induction Coil, A Giant 803
Induction Coil Connections 456
Induction Coil, Largest 679
Induction Coil, Polarity of 455
Induction Coil, Telephone 360
Induction Coil 70
Induction Coil, Winding Secondary of... 848
Induction Coils in Vaudeville 410
Induction Motor Runs Under Water. . . . 800
Induction Motor, Humming of a 46
Inductive Signals 1133
In Quest of a Voice 674, 763
POPULAR ELECTRICITY"
Innovations in Wiring- Devices 1023
Insect Shuts Down Power System.. 415
Inspection, Electrical 264
Institute Edison Medal 851
Instructor, Wireless Telegraph. . . . 1019
Insulated Magnet Wire, Enamel 422
Insulated Test Clip ''913
Insulating, Glass Not Always \\\\ 610
Insulating Materials. . . .219, 337, 423, 529 622
Insulation, Before Porcelain .' 139
Insulation Cutter and Pliers, Combined. 43
Insulation, Electric and Otherwise 33
Insulation from Milk, Making .." 804
Insulation, High Voltage 263
Insulators, Fastening Up 331
Insulators, High Tension... 7
Insulators, 110,000 Volts ' 19
Insulators, Testing High Tension '.'.'. 412
Intensifler, A Wireless Signal 1038
Intensity of Illumination 1135
Intensity of Illumination, Measuring!.!! 970
Interrupter, An Independent 654
Interrupter, Behavior of Wehnelt 1134
Interurban Brings Countrv to City. . . . 887
Interview With Edison " 563
Invention by Effort and Study 1066
Invention, Episodes in Electrical 206
Investors' Pocket Library 362
Invention, The Tomorrows of Electricity
and 79
Ireland, High Efficiency Lamps' in !!!!! ! 40
Iron, Electric 435
Iron of High Purity, Making. .!!!!!!!!'' 1051
Ironclad Bell 44
Ironing Board and Cord Support!!!!!!! 1013
Ircning Board, Electro-Magnetic 169
Ironing Outfit, Washing and 483
Italian Railroads, Electric Engines on.. 225
Japan, Electrical Fertilizers in 519
Japanese Investment . ... ! ' 215
Japanese Words, Cabling !.!!!! 526
Jar Tests of Tungsten Lamps 622
Jewel-Shaped Lamp 610
Jordan, Electricity from the River....! 221
Josephine and Her Fan 416
Josher, Trapping a Telephone ! ! ! . 154
Journalism of the Sea 972
Journalism, Wireless in Modern !!! 652
Jumbo of Filament Lamps 804
Jump Spark Coil, Automobile 560
Jungfrau Railway 759
K
Kelvin 5Qg
Kelvin, Interesting Glimpses of. .!!!!!!! 175
Kentucky and the Alamo 69
Kinetic Organ Blower 482 1012
Kitchen Cabinet, A Wonderful .' 1025
Kitchen Stove 349
Kites, Man-Lifting !!!!!!!! 599
Klondike, Electric Dredges in ! 784
Knights Templar, Triennial Conclave of
the 469
Labeling Machine. Bottle 1107
Laboratory for $25.00, An Electrical...
54, 149, 247, 344, 442, 542, 642, 736
Laboratory on Wheels, Electrical 740
Lady, The Vanishing 1121
Laimes' Pocket Telephone 815
Lake Ice, Navigating the 128
Lamp Adjuster 39
Lamp, A Dainty Table 488
Lamp, A New Arc 486
Lamp and Flasher Combined 1103
Lamp, Artistic Piano 929
Lamp, Automobile Trouble 487
Lamp Cords, Adjuster for 627
Lamp, Earache Cured by 616
Pafre
Lamp Filaments, Cutting 123
Lamp Flasher 124
Lamp, Handy Portable 424
Lamp, Jewel-Shaped 610
Lamp Pole-Top, Ingenious Arc 329
Lamp Reach, Home-Made 42-1
Lamp, Return to Battery 220
Lamp Shade, Adjustable 727
Lamp Shades, Displaying. : 125
Lamp Used as a Portable, Desk 486
Lamp Vacuum, Testing 727
Lamp With Magnet Base 429
Lamp With Three Degrees of Light 821
Lamps at the Opera, Pccket 1077
Lamps Delivered by Auto 308
Lamps, Fancy Decorative 486
Lamps, Fireworks in Arc 278
Lamps, Flaming Arc 72
Lamps for Military Use, Portable 997
Lamps, Hiding the 221
Lamps in Ireland, High Efficiency 40
Lamps, Jar Tests of Tungsten 623
Lamps, Mercury Vapor 559
Lamps, Oil or Gas Converted to Electric 820
Lamps, Odd Electric 120
Lamps, Platinum in 710
Lamps, Renewing Worn Out 412
Lamps, Room Illuminated by Miniature. 46
Lamps, The Jumbo of Filament 804
Lamps, Trimming 171
Lamps, Tungsten Street Suspension 421
Lamps, Watts Per Candlepcwer of Fila-
ment 1040
Lantern, A Diver's Electric 811
Largest Induction Coil 679
Largest Sign in the World 402
Largest Steam-Electric Locomobile 703
Latest Taxicab 141
Lathe Chucks, Magnetic 336
Laundry Outfit, Electric 144
Law of the Giant, Obedience to the 437
Lead Cables, Protecting 231
Leading in from Aerial 846
Learning to Use Qur Forest Products... 714
Leclanche Cell 70
Lectures on Illuminating Engineering. . 755
Legislation, Wireless 446
Leg Power Electricity 901
Letters by Telegraph 38
Letters of a Bachelor Girl 241, 432
Leyden Jar from Test Tube 847
Leyden Jars, Charging 166
Life Saving Telegraph Pole 911
Lifting Magnet 135. 479
Lifting Magnet Recovers Cargoes 126
Lifting Magnet Saves Space 41
Lifting Wreck from "Davy Jones'
Locker" 1084
Light. Adjustable Bench 741
Light and Power of Brooklyn 89
Light as an Aid to Civilization 306
Light Bath 719
Light Bath, Arc 116
Light Bills Vary. Why Electric 1079
Light, Burglars Fear the 773
Light Companies Conserve Natural Re-
sources 363
Light Motors for Air Ships 395
Light Rays Penetrate the Body 494
Light, The Making of 883
Lights, Electric Automobile 822
Lights for a Penny 605
Lights, How a Farmer Secured Electric .31
Lights, Portable Wardrobe 4ss
Lighting a Big Gymnasium 707
Lighting a Home 342
Lighting Architectural Models, 30 .
Lighting, Color Changes in Early Stage. 32
Lighting, Correct and Incorrect Window 28
Lighting. Country Railway Station 9»3
Lighting for Automobiles, Electric >. 495
Lighting, Moore Tube 10 2 4
Lighting on Shipboard, Electric 40
Lighting Plant, An Auto Electric si 5
Lighting Plant, Design of a Small 418
Lighting Powder Magazines 12s
Lighting the way in 921
Lighting the Lobby of a Famous Hotel. 891
POPVLAR ELECTRICITY
9
_ Page
Lighthouse, Aerial ST
Lighthouse of Spandau, Aerial 304
Lightning' and Balloons 884
Lightning- and Blast Furnaces 393
Lightning and the Aerial 448
Lightning and the AnGients 122
Lightning Arrester, Grounding of 455
Lightning, a Safety Valve for 718
Lightning, Protecting Chimneys from... 802
Lightning, Protection Against 752
Lightning Rings Telephone Bell 1133
Lightning Rod 321
Lightning Rod, An Imbedded 606
Lightning Red Inspectors in Prussia.... 909
Lightning Rod, The Straight-Away 494
Lightning Strikes, Where 701
Limericks 641
Line Construction in Elfland 22-5
Linemen, Protecting 332
Live Battery, The Honey Bee a 1087
Live Batteries 876, 947
Locating a Shot in the Eyeball 905
Locating Flaws in Cables 330
Locating Pearls with X-Rays 1043
Locating Springs Telephonically 706
Locomobile, The Largest Steam-Electric 703
Lock, Magnetic Doer 532
Locks, Electricity as a Builder of the
Gatun 951
"Locomobile" 37
Locomotive, Freak Electric 34
Locomotive, Model Electric 343
Locomotive, Playing with a 93-Ton 1087
Locomotive, The Largest Electric 1088
Locomotives, Power of Electric 224
London to Paris, Telephoning from 305
Long Beach, Banquet at 309
Long Distance Equipment 453
Long Distance Telephone 774
Long Distance Transmission 788
Looking Through Metals 685
Looped Aerial 454
Loose Coupled Tuner, Sensitiveness of.. 1134
Lord Kelvin 508
Los Angeles Aviation Meet, Wireless at. 1035
Loud Speaking Telephone 1014
Low Voltage Transformer 238
Low Wireless Rates 904
Lucknow, The Relief of 40
Lumber, Monorail for Handling 1106
Luminous Quoits 934
Luminous (Magnetite) Arc Lamps 908
Luminous Radiator 491
Luminous WatGh ... v>v:<
Lunch Counter, Electric 633
Lunchecn, Chafing Dish 146
Lure of the Tatoo 590
M
Magic Mirror 201
Magnet and Pole Strengths 656
Magnet Base, Lamp With 429
Magnet Coils as Heaters 117
Magnet, Electric Eye 527
Magnet, Lifting 135, 479
Magnet Recovers Cargoes, Lifting 126
Magnet Talk, Making a 684
Magnet Wire, Enamel Insulated 422
Magnets and Magnetism Simply Ex-
plained 850
Magnets Instead of Tongs 629
Magnets in the Making, Telephone 232
Manners, Lifting 41
Magnetic Dip 1063
Magnetic Divining Rods 606
Magnetic Door Lock 532
Magnetic Lathe Chucks 336
Magnetic. Pencil Holder 525
Magnetic Pull and Temperature 101
Magnetic Puzzle 740, 934
Magnetic Thimble 735
Magnetic Traction Fake 807
Magnetism. Myths of 318
Mag lie! ism. Residual 848
Magnetism, Terrestrial 196
Magnetism, Who Discovered 706
Magnetite Arc Lamps, Luminous 908
Magneto, High Tension „ . 560
Magnetos, Telephone
Mail Box Alarm
Mail Handled With Electrics
Mailometer
Making a Hole in Glass
Making a Magnet Talk
Making and Testing Telephone Cable. . . .
Making Heat Penetrate Bones
Making Near Diamonds
Management of Dynamos
Manchuria, Telegraph in
Marble Cutter, Stcne and
Mariners, Time Signals Aid
Mansion, Plan of a Parisian
Mars, First Wireless from
Martin, Thomas Comerford
Massage, Ear-Drum
Mat, Electric Switch
Meadowcroft, W. H
Measuring Instruments, Some Historical
Measuring Intensity of Illumination....
Measuring Sending Current
Measuring Temperature in Concrete
Mechanical Boys
Medal, The Institute Edison
Medical Electricity
Medicine, Electricity in
15, 107, 207, 300, 397, 503,
Meditations of a Science Man
Menlo Park, The First Edison Central
Station at
Mercury Arc Rectifier
Mercury Detectors, Tantalum and
Mercury Vapor Lamps
Mer-Maid Hair Singer
Messenger Call Box
Metal, Little Batteries That Corrode....
Metals, Looking Through
Mica, The Story of
Microphone Detector
Midget Separable Connectors
Milk, Making Insulation from
Milli-Arnpere
Mine Disasters, Prevention of
Mine Rescue Work, Electricity in
Mine Telephone 45,
Mines, Electricity in j
Mines, Electricity in Ccal
Military Lamps
Milk Jug, Electric i
Miniature Car and Controller
Miniature City
Miniature Hot-Room
Miniature Lamps, Room Illuminated by.
Miniature Trolley Train
Mining With Magnets
Mirror, Magic
Mirrors, Gold vs. Silver for
Missouri Chief Josephine
Mixing Concrete by Electric Power
Model Balloons and Flying Machines. . . .
Model Electric Locomotive
Models, Lighting Architectural
Modern Boiler Room :
Modern Dentist
Modern Journalism, Wireless in
Modern Village Smithy
Modernizing the City of Damascus
Money Car, Uncle Sam's New
Money Transported by Motor
Monorail for Handling Lumber
Montana, Wireless Association of
Montefiore Prize
Monument for Ampere
Moore Light for Matching Colors
Moore Tubes
Motion Picture, Its Making and Its
Theory
Motorman's Window Cleaner
Motor Boat Searchlight
Motor. Changing Battery to Induction
Type
Motor, Commutating Pole
Motor Driven Grinder and Buffer
Motor Driven Paper Cutter
Motor for the Home
Motor, Frying Griddle Cakes on a
Motor, Humming of an Induction
Motor Power vs. Boy Power
Motor Runs Under Water, Induction...
Page
166
336
702
1013
330
684
686
764
680
113S
1062
142
600
51
463
239
495
34
4 30
1021
9 70
1039
414
541
851
596
91
663
1135
262
559
429
72
°.01
685
766
262
632
804
263
326
990
800
995
324
99-7
1099
645
403
309
46
857
1095
201
789
416
701
946
343
307
316
806
652
599
798
698
1106
845
215
523
1024
107
170
910
1032
9 2 2
167
45
125
63 9
323
46
111
800
10
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Motor, Smallest in the World
Motor Starter
Motor to Reduce Fuel Bills, Fan
Motor Troubles 754.
Motor, Variable Speed Alternating- Cur-
rent
Motors and Dynamos, The Difference...
Motors and Dynamos, Construction of
Small 835, 930. 1029,
Motors for Airships, Light
Motors in Cotton Mills
Motors, Speed Regulators for Small....
Mountain Climbing Trolleys
Mountain Top, Automobile Wireless on.
Mountains, Effect of High
Moving Cars Without a Locomotive. . . .
Moving Picture Films, Preparing
Moving Pictures, The Inside of
Moving Pictures on Broadway
Moving Pictures, X-Ray. . . . :
Moving Targets Electrically
Muffler, Spark
Multi-Indicator Switch
Multiplex Telephone, The Coming of the
Municipal Electric Clocks
Museum of Safety, American
Myths of Magnetism
Page
777
530
928
1042
1102
694
1117
395
136
1099
33
746
1133
525
899
582
792
601
1002
1133
238
965
563
122
318
N
National Electric Light Convention
Natural Resources, Conservation of
Natural Resources, Light Companies Con-
serve
Navigating Lake Ice
N. E. L. A., Georgia Section cf
N. E. L. A. Proceedings
Nerve Saving Ambulances
New York and Paris Subways
Newspaper Cause
Newspaper Establishes Wireless Station
Newspaper Office, Electricity in
Niagara Falls, A Mig-hty Generator for.
Night Telephone Shopping Service
No Longer an Infant
Noise in Receiver
Noise in Telephone Receiver
Non-Electrical Conception of the North-
ern Lights
Non-Explosive Welders
Non-Magnetic Yacht Carnegie
Northern Lights, Non-Electrical Concep-
tion of :
Notes on the Construction of Patents...
Notes en the Law of Patent Titles. . . .72,
Novelties, The Latest Decorative
N-Rays
264
714
363
128
755
850
424
223
121
260
115
885
507
37
262
751
695
335
196
695
361
168
534
360
o
Obedience to the Law of the Giant 437
Ocean Cable 819
Ocean Cables 1 000
Ocean Waves, Power from 791
Odd Electric Lamps 120
Oddities in Detectors 554
Office Building. The Best Lighted 804
Office Devices, Governmental Test of. . . . 179
Ohio River, Laying Cables in 517
Oil from Water, Removing". 1110
Old Time Electric Machines 602
One Hundred Years of Tin Cans 659
One-Kilowatt Station, Amateur's 749
One-Kilowatt Transformer ..• 751
One Mile Equipment 655
Open Core Wireless Transformer 747
Opera, Pocket Lamps at the 1077
Opera, Producing a Grand 1007
Operation of Spark Coils on 110 Volts.. 1127
Operator, A Plea for the 989
Operator as I Know Her, The Telephone 671
Optimist 416
Orchestra, A Divided 762
Ore Transportation 405
Organ Bellows 1111
Page
Organ Blower, Kinetic , 482, 101Z
Ornamental Pendant Pushes 220
Ornamental Posts for Tungsten Lamps. 489
Oven, A Glass 1014
Oven and Warming Plate, Combination. 834
Ovens, Charging Coke 45
Overcharging Battery 560
Ozone 235, 598
Ozone Generator 134
Ozone Machine, Portable 814
Ozone on the Increase 481
Ozone, Purifying Water With 1013
Ozone, Sterilizing "Water by 987
Ozonizer, with Fan Electrodes 498
Pad, Warming
Palaces of the "Well-to-Do"
Panama Canal, Electricity on the
Paper Cutter, Motor Driven
Paper Making With Electric Power
Paralleling Compound Wound Generators
Para Rubber
Paris, Telephoning from London to
Paris, Underground Railways cf
Paris, Under-R.unning Trolleys in
Paris Subways, The New York and
Parisian Mansion. Plan of a
Party Line Telephone Troubles, A Rem-
edy for
Paste, Dry Battery
Patent Infringement, Compensation for.
Patent Infringement, Defenses to
Patent Infringeemnt, Profits Recoverable,
Compensation for
Patent Infringement, Remedies for.. 561,
Patents on the Electric Flasher
Patent, Surrender and Re-Issue of Let-
ters
Patent Titles, Notes on the Law of. .73,
Peacock, An Electric
Pearls, Located with X-Rays
Peeler, Potato
Pencil, Electric Lamp
Pencil Holder, Magnetic
Pendant Pushes, Ornamental
Pendulum Clock, An Electric
Penny, Lights for a ■
Permanent Vacuum Cleaning System. . . .
Peroxide of Lead Detector
Petrifiactions, X-Rays for Examining. .
Philippine Cable Ships
Photographing Actors and Actresses....
Photographing Through the Body With
X-Rays
Photographs by Wireless, Transmission
of
Photography by Electricity, Self
Physicist, The Human Side of a Great..
Piano Lamp, Artistic
Pig Yard, The World's Greatest
Pillars of Glass
Pioneer Telegrapher -
Pipe Lines of Wood
Pipe Lines, Spiral Steel
Plain English or Symbols
Plan of a Parisian Mansion
Planning Home Illumination
Plant Growth and Electricity
Platinum, A Ton of . . .
Platinum in Lamps
Plaving with a 93-Ton Locomotive
Plea for the Operator
Pliers, Combined Insulation Cutter and.
Plug, Multiple
Plunge Battery
Pocket Lamps at the Opera
Pocket Testing Lamp
Polaritv Indicator
Polarity Indicator, A Potato
Polaritv of Compass Needle
Polarity of Induction Coil
Polarity, Reversing the
Polarity Test
Polarization ■
Polarization, Battery
Pole Strengths, Magnet and
490
574
951
425
140
359
121
305
25
216
223
51
912
617
849
753
945
657
706
1041
168
604
1043
485
741
525
220
828
605
732
558
721
313
1079
926
254
1031
508
929
1103
1116
39
27
30
330
51
244
118
413
710
1087
989
43
481
70
1077
828
49 3
731
1040
4 55
34 7
101
167
S75
656
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
11
t^ Page
Pole-top, Ingenious Arc Lamp 329
Poles, Preserving' Telegraph 970
Police Tickers in -Berlin 306
Popular Electricity Wireless Club of the
Central West 61
Popularizing Electricity 808
Porcelain Insulation, Before 139
Porcelain, Silver Plated 1051
Porous Cups, Making Battery 128
Portable Desk Lamp 486
Portable Electric Heater 615
Portable Electric Plant 898
Portable Five-Mile Outfit 69
Portable Grain Elevator 719
Portable Lamp 821
Portable Lamp, Handy 424
Portable Lamps for Military Use 997
Portable Ozone Machine 814
Portable Power Elevator 133
Portable Stand Heater 1019
Portable Sub-station 702
Portable Vacuum Cleaner 481, 929
Portable Wardrobe Lights 4SS
Portland Safety League 437
Positive Plates 752
Posts for Tungsten Lamps, Ornamental. 489
Potato Peeler 485
Potato Polarity Indicator 731
Potentiometer 164, 558
Potentionmeters 454
Power Development, A Great 914
Power from Ocean Waves 791
Powder Magazine, Lighting of 128
Power of Electric Locomotives 224
Power Plant, Demolished 9S7
Power, The Romance of 823, 915
Practical Electroplating 850
Practical Handbook of Medical Electric-
ity 170
Practical Hand Book for Millwrights... 754
Practical X-Ray Therapy 3 62
Preparing Moving- Picture Films 899
Precision Coherers, Relay with.' 164
Prescription by Wireless 1131
Preserving Telegraph Poles 970
Pressing Iron of New Design 633
Pressure of Church Organ Bellows 1111
Prevention of Mine Disasters 326
Printing Press Control 812
Prismatic Fountain, Denver's 520
Prismatic Glass Signs 1020
Private Car of President Diaz 311
Prize, The Montefiore 215
Producing a Stage Illusion 1104
Progressive Wireless Club 846
Prominent People and Their Electric Au-
tos 387
Propeller Speeds, To Indicate 237
Propellers, Testing Airship 709
Protecting Chimneys from Lightning. . . 802
Protecting Lead Cables 231
Protecting Signal Batteries . . 117
Protecting the Lineman 332
Protection Against Lightning 752
Protection of Vaults — Electrical 704
Protective Device for Wireless Appara-
tus 159
Prussia, Lightning Rod Inspectors in.. 909
Public Telephone Station in Holland.... 33
Puget Fisheries, Wireless in the 60
Pump, Electric House 2.36
Pump for Inflating Tires 909
Pump, Sanitary Automatic 482
Pupin Coils 559
Pun* Air in Sch'ools 4 83
Purifying A City's Water Supply 36
Purifying Water With Ozone 1013
Push Button 35
Tush Button Annunciator 72
Push Buttons, Ornamental Pendant 220
Puzzle, Magnetic 740
Puzzle, The Magnetic 934
Pyrometer 32
l 'yrometer, Electric 136
1'yron Detector 162
0
Page
Quadruplex Telegraphy 167
Quartz Lamp 105, 1100
Quartz Vessels, Making 809
Questions and Answers 1139
Quoits, Luminous 934
R
Receiving
Receiving
Receiving
Receiving
Receiving
Receivini
Receiving
Races, Getting the Time in
Radiator, Luminous
Radii, Sending and Receiving
Radiometer
Radium, Handling
Radius, Receiving
Radius, Sending
Rail Bonding, Electric
Rail-cutting Saw
Rail Upsets Compass, Magnetized
Rails, Creeping of
Railway Coaches, Cleaning
Railway Crossing- Signal
Railway Exposition, Russian Electrical.
Railway in Brazil, Scenic
Railway, Suspended
Railways of France and Norway
Range, A New Electric
Rates, Low Wireless
Rating of Standard Socket
Receiver, Noise in
Receiver, Noise in Telephone
Receiver, Rewinding
Receiver, Tuning Coil for High Resist-
ance
Receivers, Choosing a Pair of
Receivers in Series with Buzzer
Receiving Condensers
Connections
Connections for Sensitive....
Connections for Transmitting
Instruments, Connection's cf . .
Radii, Sending and
Radius 164,
Set
Record in Track Laying
Record of Fever Temperatures
Recorder, Smoke
Recorders on the Berlin Cars
Recording- Checks with an Electric Cam-
era
Recording Compass
Recording Heart Beats Electrically
Recording the "Coasting" of Cars
Rectifier for Obtaining Direct Current..
Rectifier, Mercury Arc
Rectifier Solution
Recuperate, How Does a Cell
Reflectors, Using Windows as
Regulators for Small Motors, Speed....
Relay with Precision Coherers
Remedy for Party Line Telephone Trou-
bles
Remedies for Patent Infringement .. 561 ,
Removing Oil from Water
Renewing Worn Out Lamps
Reno Figh't Returns, Shown Electrically
Repeater, A Telephone
Repeating Alarm Clock
Rescue Work, Electricity in Mine
Residual Magnetism
Resistance
Resistance and Drop, Figuring
Resistance, Carbon Lamp
Resistance Coil for Arc Light
Resistance in Divided Circuits
Resistance, Temperature and
Return Call Bell Circuit
Reverser, Toy Railway Car
Reversing the Polarity
Rewinding Receiver
Rheostat
Rheostat, Hint on Making a Small
Rifle Range, Electricity at a Modern....
Rio De Janeiro. Electric Railway of....
Ripening Bananas by Electric Heat....
Riveting without Rivets
Rochester Industrial Exposition
141
491
261
944
278
1039
357
999
237
1088
35
484
71
309
1065
518
203
833
904
560
262
751
453
262
349
166
751
357
261
552
454
261
1039
558
305
21
1019
213
705
1003
699
897
632
1135
944
875
891
1099
164
913
657
1110
412
386
1071
528
990
848
119
847
360
166
944
656
560
546
347
4 53
530
727
476
1065
107 2
1018
710
12
TOPULA R ELECTRICITY'
Pa?p
Rockland County Wireless Association. 260
Roentgen Rays 360
Romance of Electric Power .... 722, 823, 915
Rocm Illuminated by Miniature Lamps. 46
Rope Drive 614
Rotary Snap Switch 44
Rotating- Condenser 358
Roumania, Electric Grain Handling in.. 390
Rubber Covered Wires. Seams on 532
Rubber, Para 121
Russia, American Engineering in 600
Russian Electrical Railway Exposition. 309
Sacramento CCal.) Wireless Club 943
Safe Explosive • 306
Safeguarding Airships by Wireless 260
Safe Temperatures for Dynamos 333
Safety League, Portland 437
Safety Valve for Lighting 718
Sal Ammoniac Cells 359
Sandwich Man, An Electric . 1072
Sanitary Automatic Pump 482
Sawdust, Using Electrically 124
Saw Filing, Electric 995
Saw for Metal 479
Saw, Rail-cutting 237
Scenic Railway in Brazil 1065
Schildhauer, Edward 988
School Room, The Telephone in the 121
Schools, Pure Air in 483
Scientist, A Far Sighted 603
^Score Board, Baseball Electric 312
Scrubbing Machine, Electric 328
Sea, Journalism of the 972
Sealing Wax Heater. Electric 491
Seams on Rubber Covered Wire 532
Searchlights, Aerial 959
Searchlights in France 609
Searchlight, Motor Beat 1032
Seasoning Wood by Electricity 14
Secondary of Induction Coil. Direction to
Wind 848
Securities, Electrical 14
Seeing Is Believing- 593
Self Photography by Electricity 1031
Self Winding Clock 496
Semaphore, The Electric 217
Sending and Receiving Radii 261
Sending Connections 357
Sending Current, Measuring- 1039
Sending Radius 357
Sensitiveness of Loose Coupled Tuner... 1134
Servant Call 238
Setting Up Gravity Cells 27
Sewing Up Grain Bags 1105
Shade, Adjustable Lamp 727
Shadow Dancing-, Artistic 1085
Sharpening Files 129
Ship Lighting- 40
Ship's Location During- Fogs, Getting a. 1073
Ships, New Philippine Cable 313
Shoe Shining- Machine 74
Shooting Without Ammunition 315
Shopping Service, Night Telephone 507
Shot in the Eyeball, Locating a 105
Shows, "Electric Girl" 890
Show Windows, Autos as 526
Show Windows, Torches for 822
Sickness, Curing the Sleeping- 127
Side-Lights on Ancient History. 594, 696, 786
Sidewalk Sign 9S9
Sign, A Flashing Counter 726
Sign. An Aerial Electric 910
Sign, Artistic Display 1080
Sign, Electric Diving 119
Sign, Facial Expression Electric 613
Sign, Sidewalk 989
Sign. "Whirling Window 488
Signs, Collapsible 119
Signs f r r Airships 23
Signs, Illuminated Prismatic 1020
Signboard to Facilitate Ticket Selling.. 1108
Signal Batteries. Protecting 117
Signal, "Enough Water". 921
Signal Intensifier r.... 1038
Signal Lamp, A Boy Scout 934
Signal, Railway Crossing
Signal System. Elevator
Signaling, Electric Block
691, 781, 880, 984,
Signals Aid Mariners, Time
Signals, High Speeds and
Signals, Inductive
S'i'con Detector ■
Silver Plated Porcelain
Simple Galvanometer
Simplicity the Keynote
Skating All the Year Around, Ice
Skull, The Story of a
Sleeping Sickness, Curing the
Sleet on Aluminum Lines
Sliding- Condenser
Sliding Plate Condenser
Slip, Frequency and .
Slug Holder, Telephone
Smallest Motor in the World
Smelting Furnace, Electric
Smithy, In the Modern Village
Smoke Recorder
Snap Switch, Rotary
Snap Switches, Testing
Snow-Melting- Trolley Cars
Snow Plows and Trucks, Trackless
Snowstorms, Suspended Railways Con-
quer
Socket, Rating of Standard..
Solder for Aluminum
Solder for Detector Crystals
Soldering Iron, Electric
Solenoid, Therapeutic
Solution, Battery . :
Solution, Rectifier
Solvents, Making New
Some Accounts of the First Edison Cen-
tral Station at Menlo Park, N. J. .... .
Some Historical Measuring Instruments.
South Pole Quest, Telephone in the. . . .
Span of Wire Across Carquinez Straits.
Spandau, Aerial Lighthouse of
Spark Coil Condenser
Spark Coil, Construction and Operation
of a Ten Inch. . .
Spark Coil Dimensions
Spark Coil, Energy for Two Inch
Spark Coil on 110 Volts
Spark Coil Windings
Spark Coils on 110 Volts. Operation of. .
Spark Gap, Voltage and
Spark Muffler . . ■
Sparking Brushes
Sparkless System
Sparks Under Water
Speed and Pleasure with Electric Boats.
Speed Regulators for Small Motors....
Speeding Up Coal Production
Sperry, Elmer A
Spiral Steel Pipe Lines
Sprague, Frank J
Spring- Clip Cord Adjuster
Springfield (Mass.) Wireless Association
Springs. Locating Telephonically
Square Mils
Stage Costume, Electrified
Stage Illusion, Producing a
Stage Lighting, Color Changes in Early
Startling- Gateway
Stair Lighting, Three-minute
Stairs, Electrically Hardened
Static Electric Machines
Station Lighting, Country Railway....
Stations, Directory of "Wireless
Stationary Condenser
Stationary Vacuum Cleaning System....
Statistics, Electrical 128.
Statuary Authenticity Determined by X-
rays
Steam-electric Locomobile. Largest
Steam Turbine
Steam vs. Electric Engines
Steel City Wire Tower
Steel Electrically Made
Steel Pier, Indirect Illumination for the
Step Down Transformer
Sterilizers, Flatirons as
Sterilizing Liquids by Ultra-Violet Rays
Pag-e
71
165
1068
600
201
1133
262
1051
1030
136
892
1081
127
870
69
751
560
1015
777
44
327
1019
44
317
947
1075
700
560
645
1129
227
456
752
944
828
663
1021
1075
808
304
751
943
163
943
453
847
1127
751
1133
359
358
220
211
1099
995
1112
30
338
1110
350
706
752
413
1104
32
1097
399
819
602
983
S4 6
69
1020
307
703
271
417
4 05
130
396
644
64 0
11 flil
POPU LAP ELECTRICITY
13
Page
Sterilizing' Surgical Instruments 489
Sterilizing' Water by Ozone 987
Stevedore, The Electric 1097
Stiffening- Honey Combs. 796
Stomach, X-ray Pictures of the 1096
Stone and Marble Cutter 142
Storage Battery, Edison 567
Storage Battery, For the Man with a... 816
Storage Battery, Principle c f 106
Storage Battery. The New Edison 99
Storage Batteries 1138
Store Delivers by Electrics, Department 795
Store to Install Wireless, Department... 1037
Storing' Electric Heat 133
Story of a Skull 1081
Story of a Telephone Pole 515
Story of Great Inventic ns 1042
Story of Mica 766
Story of Sunbury Station 391
Stove and Toaster 1014
Stove and Toaster Combined 1020
Stove and Toaster, Electric 228
Stove, Combined Electric and Fireless.. 1025
Stove Cooks for 18. One Electric 638
Stranded Wire for Hig-h Frequency Cur-
rents 944
Street Announcer, Automatic 427
Street Lamps 421
Street Lighting' Once Thought Sacrile-
gious 39
Streets, Electric Power Cleans 708
Submarine Telegraph Cable 130
Submarines. Electricity and the 376
Subscriber's Unique Telephone Sets 23
Sub-station, Pcrtable 702
Subway in Paris 25
Subways, The New York and Paris 223
Sunbury Station, The Story of 391
Sunday Telephone Letters 1076
Sunlight on Transmission, Effect of 260
Sun's Rays, Electricity from 305
Superheated Steam Units 823
Sure Remedy 911
Surgical Instruments, Sterilizing- 489
Surrender and Re-Issue of Letters Pat-
ent 1041
Suspended Electric Drill 610
Suspended Electric Ferry ■ 607
Suspended Figure 604
Suspended Railway 518, 894
Suspended Railways Conquer Snow-
storms 700
Sweden to Denmark, Tunnel from 213
Sweeping-, Beating- and Dusting- in One
Operation 734
Sweets for the Sweet 339
Switch, Candelabra 142
Switch Mat, Electric .34
Switch, Multi-indicator 238
Switch, Rotary Snap _ 44
"Switchboards" ' 562
Switchboard that Thinks 812
Switches, Testing- Snap 317
Symbols, Plain English or 330
Table, Electric Transfer 44
Table Lamp, A Dainty 488
Tableaux, Electric 32
T.-iI'l Banquet, Tubes of Light at the... 407
Tale of Engine that Spins 271
Talking Between Chicago and New York 774
Tantalum and Mercury Detectors 2G2
Tantalum Lamps for Car Lighting 1005
Targets Electrically Operated 476
Targets Moved Electrically 1 002
Tarsus, Electric Lights in 414
Tatoo, The Lure of the 590
Taxes and Cigar Lighters 329
Taxes, Dodging German 712
Taxicab, Latest 141
Taxicabs, Telephone Stations Eor 803
Teaching Chinese Electric Railroading.. 871
Telegraph • 1047
Telegraph, Galileo and the 40
Telegraph in the Far East 1062
Pase
Telegraph, Letters by 38
Telegraph Pole, A Life Saving- 911
Telegraph Typewriter 1016
Telegrapher, Pioneer 39
Telegraphy, Quadruplex 167
Telephone and Time Service 493
Telephone, A Loud Speaking 1014
Telephone as a Current Setector 130
Telephone Attachment for Ncisy Places. 632
Telephone, Automatic 166
Telephone Booth Ventilation 41
Telephone Cable, Making- and Testing. . . 686
Telephone Calls, How Handled 1012
Telephone Coil Carrier 125
Telephone Construction, Installath n,
Wiring, Operation and Maintenance.. 850
Telephone, Correct Time by 801
Telephone, Doctor Studies Heart by 333
Telephone, First Wireless 226
Telephone Helps Save Forests 741
Telephone, Holding- Court by 118
Telephone Jcsher, Trapping a 154
Telephone Induction Coil 360
Telephone in an Emergency 904
Telephone in Foreign Countries 518
Telephone in South Pole Quest 1075
Telephone in the School Room 121
Telephone Letters, Sunday 1 076
Telephone, Long Distance 774
Telephone Magnetos 166
Telephone Magnets in the Making 232
Telephone, Mine 45
Telephone Operator as I Know Her 671
Telephone Pole, Story of a 515
Telephone Receiver Handle 822
Telephone Receiver, Noise in 751
Telephone Repeater 1 071
Telephone Sets, Subscriber's Unique.... 23
Telephone Shopping Service, Night 507
Telephone Slug Holder 1015
Telephone Station in Holland, Public... 33
Telephone Stations for Taxicabs S03
Telephone Statistics 34
Telephone System on Election Night.... 794
Telephone Talks, How the 22
Telephone, The Beginnings of the 858
Telephone, The Coming of the Multiplex 965
Telephone, The Eskimo and the 123
Telephone Twelve Thousand Feet from
Daylight 800
Telephone, Wireless 164
Telephone Wires, Building a Hou-e Over 416
Telephoning frcm ah Automobile. ...:.. 886
Telephoning from London to Paris 305
Telephones, Farmers' 720
Telephones, Use of Army 315
Telephonology : 362
Temperature and Resistance 656
Temperature for Dynamos, Safe 333
Temperature in Bins of Grain 129
Temperature in Concrete, Measuring.... 414
Testing with Half Million Volts 7
Terrestrial Magnetism 196
Test Clip, An Insulated . : 913
Test for Current Polarity 101
Tester, Inexpensive Battery 530
Testing a Csble 136
Testing a High Voltage Line 706
Testing Airship Propellers 709
Testing Copper-Clad Steel Wire 217
Testing Electrical Apparatus a Quarter
of a Century Ago 611
Testing High Tension Insulators 412
Testing Snap Switches 317
Tesla Coils 559
Tesla High Frequency Apparatus 728
Tesla High Frequency Coil 946
Tesla High Frequency Coil, Its Con-
struction and Uses 1042
Testing Lamp, Pocket 828
Testing Lamp Vacuum 727
Testing Telephone Cable. Making and.. 686
Texas. The Early Hays in 215
Therapeutic Light Treatment 494
Therapeutic Solenoids 456
Theatre, Electrici'ty in the Modern 959
Theatres, Signboard for HON
Thief Catcher 70S
14
POP [ FLA R ELECTRICITY
Thimble Battery, Across the Atlantic
with
Thimble. Magnetic
Third Wire
Thirty Years of Electrical Progress
Thomas A. Edison 567 663
Thomas Comerford Martin
Thomas Davenport
Thompson. Sir William < Lc rd Kelvin i ' '
Iho-mpson, Sir William
Thc-rardson, C. H
Three Illustrious Wrights '.'.
Three in One
Three In One Plug
Three-minute Stair Lighting i :.'..".
Three Push Button Annunciator.-. .
Three Slide Tuning Co.l. . . .
Threshing, Electrical \ .
Thunder Storm Announcer. Wirele-s
Tickers in Berlin, Police
Ticket Selling, Signboard to Facilitate.
Time by Telephone, Cc rrect
Time Recorded for Automobiles
Time Service, Telephone and
Time Signals Aid Mariners
Timing Bullet Speeds
Timing Concrete Electrically
Tin Cans, One Hundred Years of
Tires, Pump for Inflating
Toasters, A New Wrinkle in
Toaster and S'tove
Toaster and Stove Combined
Toaster, Electric Stove and
Toaster, Improved
Toaster, The Cozy
Tobacco, Aging and Curing of
Tomorrows of Electricity and Invention
Ton of Platinum
Toncan Metal
Tongs, Magnets Instead of
Torches for Show Windows
Torque
Tower, Transmission
Toy Railway Car Re verser
Track Laying, Record in
Trackless Snow Plows and Trucks
Trackless Trolley in America, The First
Trackless Trolley Lines
Traction Fake, The Magnetic
Trade Marks, Fifteenth Century
Training and Firing a 60-Ton Gun
Transfer Table, Electric
Transformer
Transformer, A Low-Voltage
Transformer, A Step Down
Transformer, Condenser for % K. W. . .
Transformer Losses
Transformer, % K. W. . .
Transformer, One-Kilowatt
Transformer, Open Core Wireless
Transformer Ratio
Transformer, Tuning 847.
Transformer Windings
Transformers and Generators, Grounding
Transmission, Effect of Sunlight on....
Transmission, High Voltage
Transmission, Long Distance
Transmission cf Photographs by Wire-
less
Transmission Tower
Transmitting and Receiving
Transportation, Automatic
Transporting Money by Motor
Transporting Ore
Trapping a Telephone Josher
Traveler's Iron, Electric
Traveling' Crane
Tree Felling, Electric
Tree Insulator, Glass
Trial cf the Edison Battery Car
Triennial Conclave of the Knights Tem-
plar
Trimming Lamps
Trip-hammer, Feeding a
Trolley Cars
Trolley Guard. An Effective
Trolley Lines, Trackless
Trolley Train, Miniature
Trolley Wheel ■
Page
127
735
530
128
778
239
770
175
508
829
103
1015
481
399
72
1132
'785
93S
306
1108
801
141
493
600
1093
616
659
909
834
1014
1020
228
832
735
170
79
413
801
629
822
456
546
305
1075
700
31
807
605
511
44
310
238
644
358
752
454
751
747
656
1039
1136
263
260
71
788
254
88
552
894
698
405
154
145
224
810
1022
903
469
171
325
780
721
31
857
621
Trolleys Climb Mountains
Trolleys in Paris, Under-running
Trouble Finder, Ignition
Trouble Lamp, Automobile
'.L rucks, Electric
Trucks, Electric Platfc rm
Trucks on the Farm, Electric
Trucks, Trackless Snow Plows and
Tube Lighting, Moore Vacuum
Tubes of Light at the Taft Banquet. . . .
Tubes Under River, Through Giant
Tubular Condenser
Tuner, Sensitiveness of Loose Coupled. .
Tungsten Bracket Fixtures
Tungsten Filaments Are Squirted, How.
Tungsten Filaments. Drawn....
Tungsten, Increasing Life of
Tungsten Lamps, Jar Tests of
Tungsten Lamps, Ornamental Posts for
Tungsten Lights Up First
Tungsten, Not a New Metal
Tungsten Ore
Tunsten Production in 1910
Tungsten Street Suspension Lamps
Tuning Coil
Tuning Coil, Bridging a
Tuning- Coil Dimensions
Tuning Coil, Double Slide
Tuning Coil for High Resistance Re-
ceiver
Tuning Coil, Three Slide
Tuning Coil Wave Length
TTaning Coils, Enameled Wire on
Tuning Fork for Ear Treatment
Tuning Transformer 847,
Tunnel from Sweden to Denmark
Tunnel to be Electrified, Hoosac
Turbine, Steam
Turbo-Generator
Twentieth Century Han<_f Book for
Steam Engineers and Electricians....
Two Thousand Miles by Electric Car. . .
Typewriter, A Telegraph
u
Ultra- Violet Rays, Sterilizing Liquids
Underground Railways of Paris....
Under-running Trolleys in Paris...
Underwriters" Laboratories
Underwriters' Rules
Uncle Sam's New- Money Car
Upward Signs
Uses of the Flexilyte
Uses of Hydrogen
Utility Motor
Utilizing Old Dry Batteries
by
Page
33
216
237
487
400
20
468
1075
1024
407
903
846
1134
487
623
111
713
622
489
219
225
29
11177
421
164
558
558
262
1132
454
1134
169
1039
213
713
271
271
457
324
1016
1100
25
216
317
1136
798
23
720
884
639
617
Vacuum Cleaned Car Tracks 851
Vacuum Cleaner ...734, 1020
Vacuum Cleaner, A New Portable 929
Vacuum Cleaner, Evolution rf the 536
Vacuum Cleaner in a Glass House 1017
Vacuum Cleaner, Portable 484
Vacuum Cleaning 1115
Vacuum Cleaning System 1017, 1020
Vacuum Cleaning System, Permanent... 732
Vacuum Fly Trap 1115
Vacuum, Testing Lamp 727
Vacuum Tube Lighting' 1024
Valve, Largest in the World 996
Vanishing Lady 1121
Variable Condenser 751
Variable Condenser, High Tension 650
Variable Speed Alternating Current Mo-
tor 1102
Vat for Electroplating 727
Vaudeville, Induction Coils :n 410
Vaults, Electrical Protection of ,04
Ventilation Easily Controlled 820
Ventilation, Telephone Booth 41
Vertical Carbon Flaming Arc 487
Vest Pocket Wire Gauge 229
Vestibule LigM 921
Viaduct. A Half-million Dollar 900
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
15
Page
VVbrating Chair 498
Vibration,' Electric 498
Village Smithy, In the Modern 327
Violin, Prictional Electricity en the.... 703
Vise, Making- a 921
Voltage and Spark Gap 751
Voltage Causes Death, What 679
Voltage, Drop in 656
Voltage for One Inch Spark Coil 943
Volts Lost 752
w
of.
War, Automobiles as Engines
Wardrobe Lights, Portable
Warming Pad
Warming Pan
"Warming Plate, Combination Oven
"Washer and Wringer, Belt Driven
Washer and Ringer, Electric 435,
Washing and Ironing Outfit
Washing Machine, All Metal
Warships, Illuminating Our
Watch, Luminous
Watches. Demagnetizing
Water Heater
Water Power, Fifty Kilowatts of
Water Supply, Purifying of City's
Water Tank Alarm
Wave Length 69,
Wave Length, Determination of
Wave Length, Tuning Coil
Wave Motor
Wave Motors Feasible
Wedding Decoration, Impressive Elec-
trical
Wehnelt Interrupter
Welded Rails, Across Europe on
Welders, Non-explosive
Welding, Electric 138,
Wellman Expedition
Wellman's Achievement
Welsbach Electric Lights
Westchester "Wireless Association
We Wonder Why
What Becomes of a Cabled Message....
What Voltage Causes Death
Where Art and Science Meet
830. 924, 1027.
Where Electricitv Stands in the Practice
of Medicine. .15, 107, 207, 300, 397, 503,
Where Lightning Strikes
Whirling Window Sign
W. H. Meadowcroft
Why Don't You Use Electricity
William Thompson
Wind Measuring. Electrical
Wind Mills and Wind Motors. How to
Build and Run Them
Wind Vane Indicator
Winding Secondary of Induction Coil...
Winding 12-slot Armature
Windings, Spark Coil
Windings, Transformer
Window Advertising Novelty
Window Attraction, An Effective
Window Cleaner, Motorman's
Window Cleaners. Gyroscope for
Window Lighting, Correct and Incorrect
Window Sign. Whirling
Windows as Reflectors
Wire Chiefs Meet
Copper and Aluminum
Enamel Insulated Magnet
Measuring Device
Gauge, Vest Pocket > . . .
Testing Copper-Clad Steel
Tower, A Steel City
Wiring a House.
Wires, Building ;
Wires in a Cable
Wires if Unseen Metal, Bare
Wires Hue Hundred Amperes Will Fuse
Wires, Seams on Rubber Covered
Wiring a Three Tush Button Annunci
ator
Wiring Devices, Innovations in
Wiring, Results of Imperfect
Wiring Through Joists
Wire,
Wire.
Wire
Wire
Wire,
Wire
House Over Telephone
408
488
490
229
834
485
482
482 ■
1017
474
909
129
1015
618
36
1122
164
253
454
791
607
1023
1134
713
lbi's
570
755
889
551
947
1000
679
1114
596
701
488
430-
171
508
901
1138
617
S4S
848
847
1136
898
519
910
415
28
488
891
413
71
422
29
229
217
405
850
416
308
119
421
532
1023
230
29
Page
Wireless Apparatus, Protective Device
for , 159
Wireless Association, Central California 550
Wireless Association, Haverhill 845
Wireless Association of Montana 845
Wireless Association, Rockland County. 260
Wireless Association, Westchester 551
Wireless at a Los Angeles Aviation
Meet 1035
Wireless at Electrical Show 1037
Wireless Burglar Alarm 350
Wireless Club Contest 1038
Wireless Club of Baltimore 846
Wireless Club, Progressive 846
Wireless Club, Sacramento (Cal.) 943
Wireless, Controlling Boats by 856
AVireless Club, The Chicago 453
Wireless Efficiency 1130
Wireless Equipment, A High Power. . . .
63, 155, 255, 351, 449, 547, 646, 742, 842,
935, 1124
Wireless from Coast to Coast 260
AVireless, Hearing Grand Opera by. . .-. . . 62
Wireless, Honolulu Heard by 745
Wireless in Every Home 348
Wireless in Modern Journalism 652
AVireless in the Puget Sound Fisheries. 60
Wireless Legislation 446
Wireless Messages at Chickamauga. . . . 651
Wireless Newspapers 972
Wireless on Mountain Top, Automobile. 746
Wireless Operator, The First Woman... 938
Wireless Outwits the Censors 938
Wireless, Prescription by 1131
Wireless Problems 943
Wireless Rates, Low 904
Wireless, Safeguarding Airships by 260
Wireless Station, Eiffel Tower 160
Wireless Station, Newspaper Establishes
a 260
Wireless Telegraph Construction for
Amateurs 754
Wireless Telegraph Instructor 1019
Wireless Telegraphy, Automobile 551
Wireless Telephone 164, 226, 658
Wireless Telephones 946
Wireless Telephones and How They
Work 850
Wireless Telephone, Collins 158
Wireless Thunderstorm Announcer 938
Wireless Transformer, Open Core 747
Wireless, Transmission of Photographs
by '- . . 254
Wireless Waves, Aerial and 1133
Wireless without a Ground 1128
Woman, Electricity in the Service of... 735
Woman, First to Send C. Q. D 938
Woman's Influence in the Automobile
Field 832
Women Vote for Electricity 147
Wood, Seasoning by Electricity 14
Work Shop Wrinkles and Recipes 850
World's Greatest Pig Yard 1103
Wrecking a Bridge 1065
Wrecks from Davie Jones' Locker, Lift-
ing 1084
Wrights, Three Illustrious 103
Wringer, Belt Driven Washer and 485
Wringer, Electric Washer and 4 35
Writes by Its Own Light 741
X
X-Ray Moving Pictures ... 001
X-Ray Pictures of the Stomach 1096
X-Ray Tubes 455
X-Rays 360
X-Rays for Examining Eyes 905
X-Rays for Examining Petrifactions.... 721
X-Rays, Locating Pearls with 1043
X-Rays, Photographing Through the
Body With !>•''
X-Rays, Statuary Authenticity Deter-
. • , -. 9 0 9
mined by ---
Y
Yacht, The Carnegie Non-magnetic 196
young Experimenter 343
Yukon, Dredging en the 870
,vn
^
&ms.
Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
VOL. Ill
MAY 1910
No. 1
Current From — Where?
BY EDGAR FRANKLIN
CHAPTER I.
AN OBSTACLE OR TWO
The powerful little second-hand runabout
grazed the curb and stopped; and Race,
having delivered a last torrent of under-
breath profanity at the world in general,
turned toward the one-story brick office.
And his evil humor departed suddenly, as
his eye caught the chaste brass tablet be-
side the door — Race actually grinned!
It was a pleasant thing to look upon, that
tablet. "Bronton Electric Light & Power
Company" stood forth in the unostentatious
dignity of small, square black letters. It
was a conservative, impressive sign— and
very, very new and shiny.
"Bronton Electric Light & Power Com-
pany!" Bustling little Bronton had at-
tained her place as a city; her first mayor
was in his second year of office; and now
she was to put away the gasoline and oil
lamps of her earlier days, and shimmer with
electric light!
Somehow the notion struck Race more
forcefully than usual this morning. He
stopped on the upper step and looked around,
and he thought of the Bronton of eleven
years back, when Dunbar's people had first
located there and he had come to visit
studious Bill Dunbar.
Where Main Street had been little better
than a dirt road then, she boasted asphalt
now; across the way, where the big granite
bank stood now, had been a little ramshackle
home, with two huge maples; on the other
corner, Jenkins' store, with its wonderful
maze of shovels and forks and wheel-barrows
strung outside, had been replaced by Berg's
three stories of department store and —
incidentally, there was Berg, staring over
at the Bronton Electric office, as if to ask
just when the arc lights would be put on
his fixtures and the current turned on!
Race came out of the dreamy past with
something of a bump and turned abruptly
to the office door. The smile had vanished
in a flash, and his face was angry as he
entered.
At one of the desks sat Dunbar, big,
keen-eyed, sharp-faced — a man, like Race,
in the early thirties — with a mass of blue-
prints spread before him. At the other,
Mr. Carey, Dunbar's wealthy uncle, was
dozing comfortably over his paper.
Together, they looked up as Mr. Race
landed in his own chair with a thud.
He glanced at his mail and left it un-
touched; he whirled his chair around and
shot at them:
"Gentlemen!"
"Er what?" Dunbar had almost lost
himself in the plans again.
"As president, business manager and
private detective of this company," rasped
Race, "I have to report a fire at our eternally
uncompleted central station!"
"What?" Dunbar came out of the land
of blue-prints with a rush. "Another
one?"
"Maybe it's the same one!" the president
snapped. "It's only two days since the
last!"
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"But, my dear Robert," protested Carey,
"how on earth "
"I don't know how — I don't pretend to
know how!" said Race, rather violently.
"I know just this: if we're ever going to
build that generating plant, we'll have to
abandon that wooden shack, build a solid
concrete power-house — and then hire a fire-
engine to go around and around it at a slow
trot, day and night!"
Race snorted. Carey folded his paper and
frowned a little.
" What was the trouble this time, Robert?"
"Bunch of shavings — incidentally, soaked
with kerosene — caught fire outside the north
wall. Ryan found it just as the clap-
boards were getting a good start, early this
morning. If we hadn't had him there for
night-watchman the whole place would
have been gone! And that's the third fire
in a month!"
"But who " Dunbar began.
"Some relic of the War of 1812, who
doesn't approve of modern methods, I
guess!" Race grunted.
He sat back, gnawing his lip. Mr.
Carey cleared his throat.
"I don't know, boys," he said thought-
fully. "Somehow, it seems to me that this
whole concern has been mismanaged from
the start! The "
" Why? In not building the plant first?"
Race asked, rapidly. "I don't see it!
Look here! When Bill, here, suggested that
there would be a lot of money in an electric
plant in this place, I threw up the job in
Chicago, drew the savings of ten fat years
out of the bank, cashed in my lonely five-
thousand-dollar mortgage, and came here
with the roll. Therefore I didn't come
purely for love. See ? I came for business
— came here to do the business end of it
myself, for Bill hasn't enough business head
to buy cigars without being trimmed!"
Dunbar smiled a little at his life-long
chum; that last statement was near to the
truth.
"I may not be able to connect up a tele-
phone without calling out the police and the
fire department to help," pursued Mr.
Race, whose capable tongue was well under
way, " but I was able to walk in and get the
charter for this company with two men
already on the ground — and it didn't cost
me two hundred dollars, all told, either!"
he chuckled. "Why that blamed charter's
so broad that literally all we're bound to
do is to leave the town where it stands and
be ready to sell it electricity before mid-
night, June thirtieth!"
"And just that June thir " Mr. Carey
interposed.
" We're getting well along into May now —
I know it," the president admitted. "But
that brings us to the point! Have I done
good or bad business in letting the actual
plant-building slide for the sake of bustling
the distribution end of the thing? We've
got our poles up and our lines and trans-
formers and everything else on them be-
fore anyone could raise a rumpus! Not
that anyone wants to — the whole town's
too crazy for its light — but there are sore-
heads lingering around from the crowd that
didn't get the franchise. If they'd managed
to stir up a few property owners and get
injunctions about planting poles, and so on
— well, you know what an injunction is,
Mr. Carey."
" You and William have done wonderfully
quick work with the few good men you were
able to get," conceded Mr. Carey.
"And now — good Lord!" laughed Race.
"The interior wiring — fixtures — everything's
ready, in the houses and stores and streets.
Gentlemen, we have stirred this Western
town into something about ten points livelier
than New York! Now, with the building
owned by you, Mr. Carey, and on your own
land — we'll simply build our plant and "
Dunbar had been silent. Now he looked
up rather moodily.
"When we have something to build it
with!" he said.
"You've got your boilers, Bill!" said
Race cheerily.
"We're not calculating on furnishing
Bronton with steam heat," said the engineer.
"How much damage did the fire do?"
"Not much — not as much as the one day
before yesterday — not nearly so much as the
first one, a month ago. It's all easily fixed.
We'll be ready on time!"
"And Ryan had no idea how it started?"
"Not the least. He said there was no
one around."
" One fire inside, when there was no watch-
man about. Two fires outside, since we've
kept Ryan there at night!" Mr. Carey mused.
"And no fires henceforth!" Race directed
his optimistic smile at the elder man. " Be-
cause I told Murton to stop waiting around
the station for the arrival of the fragmentary
engine-room equipment he's going to put
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
together some day, do his sleeping in the
day-time and patrol the outside of the sta-
tion at night!"
Silence came, the sort of heavy silence
that had taken to invading the office re-
cently. Race turned to his mail and opened
an envelope.
"Coal people," he observed. "Guess it's
our contract at "
"Did you stop at the freight office?"
Dunbar asked, irrelevantly.
"Yes." The president turned from his
mail.
"Any signs of our generators coming?"
"Yes! They're actually on the way and
almost here!" Race cried, enthusiastically.
"They've been that for some time!"
Carey observed dryly.
"Well, this time " Race began — and
stopped short. "Lord! Here comes Bowers
for a social call!" he said, softly.
The trio turned toward the glass door.
A figure was visible outside; indeed the
figure would almost have been visible
through a wooden door, for it was clad in a
wide-striped suit and its burly owner wore
one of the few silk hats in B ronton, cocked
at a jaunty angle over one ear.
Such was the exterior of Mr. Bowers, the
newest important arrival in Bronton. Where
he came from, what he had been, nobody
seemed anxious to determine. He was
merely a rather crude citizen who had made
some money somewhere in lumber and,
settling in Bronton, had interested ,hims If
in local politics — to what end the future
alone could reveal.
"Everybody's friend is going to honor us
again!" said Dunbar, rather wearily, as he
shoved back the plans with a sigh.
Mr. Bowers closed the door and favored
them with an expansive, reddish-mottled
smile.
"Howdy!" said Mr. Bowers, as he waved
one hand at them in a general sweep of
greeting and plumped comfortably into the
big chair in the shaded corner. "Have a
cigar, anybody?"
They declined. Bowers smiled as he
crossed his legs and puffed for a minute or
so; then his lips opened with a characteristic
smack and:
" Y'know, I never saw this town in spring
before! Them trees on Ridge Street are like
a picture, aint they?"
"They're fine trees," Race agreed, without
enthusiasm.
"Say, when the leaves are out full, they're
goin' to hide them wires of yours fine!"
"That's good," agreed Dunbar, apathet-
ically.
Mr. Bowers smoked on contentedly for a
little.
" Well, how's the juice factory comin' on?"
he inquired. "Pretty near ready to light
us up?"
"We're doing nicely!" replied Race.
"All ready, hey?"
" Oh, — there are always a lot of finishing
touches to be put on at the last moment,
you know," smiled Dunbar.
"Great town, this here!" mused the visi-
tor. "Biggest kind of future for us fellers
that come in about now. This place is
going to grow so fast when the new road
runs through, over at the other side o'
town that — say! they ain't ten miles away
with their track-laying now ! Why the dick-
ens didn't you people build over there, in-
stead o' down across the old tracks? That
old Kane Junction-Bronton branch'll be
so dead when the new road comes that the
pyramids'll look like a moving picture show
beside it!"
"Well, the land belonged to us, you see,"
Dunbar explained. "Then, there was a
building on the spot which "
Race, with a rather caustic glance at his
partner, broke in abruptly on that gentle-
man's charming frankness.
"I say, Bowers!" he said, with a grin.
" That mysterious factory you've been build-
ing over in the new part— pretty nearly done,
isn't it?"
" Eh ?" Bowers turned suddenly dubious.
" We haven't seen any crates carted through
here for a month," Race pursued. "Got
your machinery set up ready for business?"
"That's what I came over to see you
about," said Mr. Bowers, gravely. "Sure!
I'm ready for business, all right, when "
"What are you going to make over there,
anyway?" Race urged, jovially, for he had
little desire to dwell on anything connected
with their own particular affairs. "Come
on! Let's have the secret now, Bowers!"
The other looked at him grimly.
"It'll be no secret, by the time I'm turn-
ing out goods," he said, angrily. "Process
patent I bought — compound for combs, poker
chips, and that sort o' thing. Keep it quiet,
if you will, boys."
Mr. Bowers sat up and looked at them,
earnestly and very sourly.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"And that's the main thing I came t'
find out!" he announced. "How'm I going
to run a factory — how are you — now?"
" Now?" echoed Dunbar.
Bowers stared at him.
" Aint you trying to contract for coal with
the Stelton people?" he asked.
"Of course. We can't buy from anyone
else out here."
"Well, aint you heard from 'em, this
morning's mail?"
Race regarded him for a moment; then
he turned swiftly and SDatcbed the letter
from the envelope he had opened. Possibly
twenty seconds were consumed in running
over the two or three lines; then:
" Holy Moses!" gasped the president of
the company.
"They won't sign no contract now, and if
you want coal, you gotter pay seven dollars
a ton for it — huh ? Did they hand you
that, too?"
Race licked his lips. He stared again
at the typewritten note; then he faced
Bowers.
"Yes!" he said, rather weakly. "They
handed us that, too!"
CHAPTER II.
NAILED DOWN!
Half a minute, the trio sat almost agape,
their gaze on Bowers. The visitor returned
the stare, smiling ironically.
"What d'you know about that?" he in-
quired at last.
"Why, it's — it's idiocy!" Race gasped.
"It's worse'n that!"
"But — seven dollars! You can buy hard
coal here cheaper than that from the little
dealers!" Dunbar cried.
"Guess so — if you wanted it and could
get enough," acquiesced the visitor.
"But — good Lord Almighty!" Race burst
out. "This is nothing but a plain, old-
fashioned hold-up! Here they'll sign no
contract of any kind before the middle of
August — they hint at some unholy figure
then — and we can have what steam coal we
want now for seven — bah!"
"Have you any idea of the cause?" Mr.
Carey inquired mildly.
"I aint slept twenty -four hours every day,"
grunted Bowers. "I smelled this coming,
and I've done what little investigating I
could."
"And "
"Well, it looks to me as if they thought
this was a mushroom village, with a gold
mine in the middle and a bunch of imbeciles
around it! They've got us good; there's
nobody else but Stelton to buy from; we're
here to be milked good and proper — that's
all."
"But they give reasons," Carey suggested.
"They'll give them in dozen lots! Have
you tried to figger out what they mean,
Race?"
" Well, they're not very definite, certainly."
"Why, they talk about — high-priced la-
bor— increased difficulty in mining — coal
moving slower and harder on the rails —
impending strike almost certain — conditions
are such that and all that damned rot!"
snorted Bowers. "I aint struck one yet that
could be translated into English t' mean
something!"
"Neither have I," admitted the president
of the electric company. "I've had a hard
job getting any kind of price from them,
but— this!"
"Well, there are people enough in this
town using soft coal and not paying seven
dollars for it!" Carey announced flatly. N
"Of course there are! They've got their
contracts — anywhere from a year to five
years!" said Bowers. "They're in soft, I
suppose. That's all it amounts to. There's
only four real factories here, and the whole
four don't use half what you people and my
plant can burn!"
For the moment, Race's chronic optimism
seemed almost to have deserted him. His
brow was wrinkled in a frown as he looked
at Bowers again.
"It doesn't make so much difference to
you," he began.
"It doesn't, hey?" The visitor snorted.
"That little factory isn't all the money I've
planted in this town! I've bought more
acres of rough land, over by the new road,
than you folks know anything about! That's
going to be the factory center of Bronton,
that is — and I expected to have a lot o'
smoke whirling around there and be doing
a regular land office business in factory sites
by the end o' the year!"
"But you haven't anything you've got to
deliver on the first minute of the first day
of July!"
Painfully, as Race had been realizing
more forcefully every day lately, the time
limit on their charter was no secret. The
infernal Bronton Herald, with its slogan of
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
"Light For The Fourth!" had, under Race's
careful tutoring, absorbed more than his
own enthusiasm over the impending reign
of electricity; the date was anchored now
in every brain in Bronton; postals and let-
ters were coming in every mail from pros-
pective consumers, begging that their actual
lamps be put in place at once, to catch the
first flare of the novelty.
A slow, rather compassionate smile came
over Bowers' face, as he sat back and thrust
his hands in his pockets.
"There's a whole lot in that, Race," he
murmured. " All I have to do is to pay taxes
and wait for sane coal. This dollar-a-
pound rate aint going to last, no matter
what anybody says. But I guess it'll last
till August, anyway, and — you people have
t' make good on the first o' July or quit
altogether, hey?"
"Essentially!" said Race, between his
teeth.
"Say! I'm sorry for you!" said Bowers.
"A couple o' young fellers, with all their
money sunk in a game like this. It don't
matter to me. I got money. I aint tied
down to any date! I "
"Mr. Bowers!" said the president, and
the words came with the effect of a machine
gun. "This company is not insolvent.
Neither will it fail to furnish the full five
hundred kilowatt service it has planned;
nor yet will that service be delayed ten sec-
onds after midnight on the thirtieth of June!"
An instant, Mr. Bowers stared; then he
burst into a boisterous laugh and slapped
the silk hat back at its usual angle.
"Say, I wasn't rubbin' it in!" he cried.
"I'm sorry for you — dead sorry! That's
all. And— hey! Thunder! Is that clock
right? Good bye!"
The door closed behind him, and a sup-
pressed sigh of relief went up.
Carey, rather uncertainly, found his paper
again. Dunbar stared at his desk and whis-
tled softly. Race brought his chair round
with a jerk and picked up an envelope;
there was nothing in it that interested him
particularly. He tried the next and the
next and the next; nothing of importance
was revealed.
Indeed, nothing under the sun could push
aside that coal question! He stared savagely
at his cherished bunch of clippings from the
Herald — the little "Bronton Electric Com-
pany Incorporated" — the big, full-page ar-
ticle on "The Lighters of our City!" with
its photographs of Dunbar and himself and
a wood-cut of a glowing incandescent be-
tween them! His hands all but twitched
to the point of tearing the whole bundle in
two and hurling it into the waste-basket.
And he was interrupted by:
"Were'n't you a bit hasty, Bob, in guar-
anteeing things in that wholesale fashion?"
Race grunted.
"Self-confidence is a mighty good thing,"
pursued Dunbar, "but "
"Well, I couldn't make matters any
■worse, could I?" Race demanded wrath-
fully. "We might as well make a bluff at
the thing and brass it out to the end, now!"
"But as a matter of fact, what are we
going to do?"
Mr. Race bounded from his chair and took
to walking the floor.
"We're going to have that plant running
on time!" he cried. "I'm frank to say I
don't know how, but — it'll be running."
Dunbar looked up from the figures he had
been scratching on the back of an envelope.
"Bob," he said, very quietly, "we are
practically bound to suppose that, for some
unfathomable reason, we can't buy coal
under seven dollars. When our plant is
fully paid for, we haven't a surplus of more
than four thousand dollars. Uncle Dick,
here, is going to buy in enough stock to
finance our first year's operating expenses,
if necessary. We were reckoning approxi-
mately on thirty-five hundred tons of coal,
bought under three dollars. This crazy
increase in price adds just about fourteen
thousand dollars to our expenses!"
"And I don't know that I'm quite pre-
pared to finance that," murmured Mr.
Carey.
The president stopped short before his
chair.
"You're — you're a genius at figures,
Bill!" he observed, wildly.
"They show the facts. Is there any use
in your going down to see the Stelton people
personally?"
"I've been twice and got nothing definite.
Now they've declared themselves and —
we're stuck!"
"You might see Keller, our attorney?"
Dunbar hazarded.
"And drag the Stelton bunch into court
to find out why they're trying to murder us ?"
Race laughed bitterly. " Did you ever hear
of anyone starting one of those 'restraint of
trade' actions without dying of old age before
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
anything happened. We've got just about
six weeks!"
"I suppose there is more truth than poetry
in that," Dunbar sighed.
Mr. Carey cleared his throat.
"See here!" he said. "You both know
well enough that I am no man to carry
around a supply of wet blankets; but, fac-
ing it frankly and squarely, isn't the whole
thing hopeless?"
"No-" said Race, flatly. "We're hard
up against it, but "
"You've no power plant, Robert. You
haven't more than a photograph of a gen-
erator or an engine!"
"The generators will be here all right
enough!"
"And the boiler-room's all in shape, you
know," added Dunbar. "It won't take
long to mount the engine-room part of it;
we've got the men on hand."
"Very well." There was a faint smile be-
hind the gray beard. "Assume that the
engine room is ready. Is your boiler room
really valuable without coal?"
"If we were ready otherwise, we could
buy in coal enough to start on time "
Carey leaned back and lighted a cigar.
"William," he said, "you're many years
from being children, but you both seem
young enough still to neglect the future."
"Eh?"
"Your charter is good for nearly all eter-
nity, isn't it?" asked the elder man, "pro-
vided that the service is satisfactory?"
"Yes."
"Have you any idea that, having signi-
fied your willingness to pay seven dollars
for coal, you're going to buy it any cheaper
in future — at least, until Stelton loses con-
trol of this part of the west?"
"Well, I — suppose not."
"So that the plant you build for profit is
practically certain to run at a pretty heavy
loss?"
"Well "
"Then why have any plant at all?" ex-
claimed Mr. Carey.
Race looked at him in some bewilderment
for a minute or so. He moistened his lips
as he said thickly:
"Cold, conclusive business logic like that
is a great thing! But if I had stopped to
reason out everything that way, sir, in ten
years on the road, I'd never have brought
the thousands here that I did!"
Mr. Carey studied him earnestly.
"It may be young wits clashing with old
ones," he said. "I'm hanged if I know!"
"Well, you'll admit that, up to twelve
o'clock on the last night in June, we still
have a show?" Race asked.
"Certainly."
"Good!" said Mr. Race, as he turned to
his desk again. "Those generators'll be
whirling around if I have to get a herd of
wild horses and send 'em up a treadmill!"
Carey was forced to chuckle quietly. He
liked Bob Race ; he had liked him since little
Robby had been paddling about in kilts.
And if, more than once, that supreme self-
confidence had rather staggered Carey, he
could not recall one instance when — whether
by energy, keen methods or sheer luck —
Race had not made good!
"Bob! How about those engines?" Dun-
bar asked suddenly.
Mr. Race jumped an inch, as he whirled
around.
"Say, what in blazes is this — an office or
a place to tear the last nerve out of a man's
body?" he yelled. "We've had shocks
enough for one morning! You know as
much about those engines as I do, don't you?
You went east to Chicago with me and
looked 'em over and said they were a bar-
gain and would fit our plant better than
anything else we could get without having
'em made to specifications! Didn't you?"
" Of course. But "
"And you saw 'em begin to dismount the
things before we left, didn't you? Is it
my fault that they're somewhere on the rail-
road and not here? Am I running the
freight business of three or four rail-
roads?"
"I only meant," said Dunbar mildly, "is
there any news of them in the morning's
mail?"
"No!" said Race, as he turned and
shuffled over the unopened envelopes. "Yes
there is, too!"
He ripped open one of the envelopes and
jerked forth the sheet. He stared hard at
the thing — his eyes bulged crazily — and,
with a wild whoop, Mr. Race's legs straight-
ened out before him and his arms hung limp
over the arms of the chair!
"Somebody bent on burning us out!"
he chanted. "No coal — no generators —
nothing but a boiler-room! None of 'em
worth two cents without the engines!"
"Well, what about them?" Dunbar asked
sharply.
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
"Nothing much, only they've caught it
too!" shouted the president of the company!
"They're sick of the job and they're taking
a vacation! They've tracked 'em down at
last and "
Mr. Race calmed himself with a mighty
effort. ^j
"And now they're rusticating out in Los
Angeles, California!" croaked the president!
(To be continued.)
Testing With Half a Million Volts
As electrical transmission lines are built
for higher and higher voltages, having now
reached 125,000 volts, the problem of build-
ing insulators becomes more complex.
There must be absolutely no defects in
these insulators, otherwise the transmission
line would in all probability be put out of
service.
It would never do, therefore, to put up
the insulators without knowing that they
will stand the strain, so they are tested
out in the factory under very much higher
electrical pressure or voltage than they
will be called upon to stand on the line.
To make the test, it is necessary to use
a special transformer which develops a
voltage across its terminals of hundreds
of thousands of volts.
One terminal of this transformer is then
connected to the part of the insulator which
is to carry the wire when it is in service,
and the other terminal is connected to that
part of the insulator which is to be connected
to the transmission tower.
Then the "juice" is turn-
ed onto the testing trans-
former, water is sprayed on
the insulator to imitate a
rain-storm, and all sorts of
things are done to allow the
electrical pressure on the
two sides of the insulator to
puncture the porcelain or to
flash over its surface. If the
insulator "stands up"
under the test it is con-
sidered sound and ready
for shipment.
The illustration shows
a testing transformer built
by the Allegemeine Elek-
tricitats Gesellschaft of
Berlin, Germany. It de-
velops the enormous pres-
sure of 500,000 volts across
its terminals.
In the picture two small
wires are connected to the
terminals and their ends
pointed toward each other,
whereupon an electric dis-
charge leaps from one to
the other with a brilliant
flash three and a half
feet long, and with a
sound that is almost deaf-
TRANSFORMER DISCHARGING AT HALF A MILLION VOLTS
ening.
Elementary Electricity
By PROF. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. (Princeton)
CHAPTER XXV. — SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICALLY GENERATED HEAT.
An important application of electrically
generated heat is found in various forms
of flat iron heaters, not only suitable for
use in the house, but also, on a much larger
scale, in laundries, tailoring or dressmaking
establishments, etc. The advantages of
the electrically-heated flat iron are many.
Among these may be noted:
(i) They are smooth, free from smoke,
soot or dirt, and always ready for use.
(2) The temperature of the room in which
the ironing is done is free from the excessive
heat and disagreeable odor so common where
a number of gas burners or coal-burning
raDges are employed.
(3) The temperature of the flat iron is
easily regu-
1 a t e d, so
that it can
be made
just hot
enough for
the work to
be done.
(4) Much
time is saved
i n passing
between the
ironing
table and
stoves or
other source
of ordinary
heat.
Since the
electric cur-
rent can be
supplied by
wires that
come down from the ceilin_
room, a free motion of the iron is
possible. This is plainly illustrated in Fig.
160 which shows the ironing room in a
commercial laundry.
Electrically heated flat irons do not differ
in general appearance from ordinary flat
irons. They are made in various sizes and
weights. Fig. 161 represents a six-pound
flat iron. These irons are generally made
with the heating coil or unit arranged so as to
fig. 160.
be readily removed from or inserted in the
iron.
A heavy twelve-pound iron, provided with
a stand so arranged that the placing of the
iron on the stand automatically cuts off
nearly all the heating current, only per-
mitting enough to pass to maintain the iron
at the temperature required for use, is
represented in Fig. 162. The device is so
arranged that the act of removing the iron
from the stand again automatically turns
on the stronger current.
The following data will- be interesting.
A six-pound flat iron requires for its proper
operation an expenditure of 500 watts of
electric energy. Twelve-, fifteen-, eighteen-
and twenty-
four -pound
irons re-
quire from
700 to 800
watts.
It might
be supposed
that the
amount of
electric cur-
r e n t re-
quired for
the opera-
tion of flat
irons from a
central sta-
tion would
never be
consider-
able. In
point of
fact, how-
ever, the station load required for this
purpose is rapidly increasing. A single large
company, the General Electric Company,
furnishes the map, Fig. 163, showing the
distributing centres for the operation of
electric flat irons in the United States. As
will be seen, there is scarcely a state or terri-
tory that does not contain one or more such
stations.
Load curves of typical lighting stations
are shown in Figs. 164 and 165. The
USING ELECTRIC IRONS IN A COM
MERCIAL LAUNDRY
of the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
9
shaded portions show the increase in the
output required for the maintenance of
electric flat irons. Fig. 164 is from the
records of a lighting company in a city hav-
ing a population of 25,000. Here, 100 flat
irons are in use all day
in factories, and 500
are distributed through-
out the residential sec-
tion. Fig. 165 shows
a load curve in a city
of about 30,000 with
the effect of 500 flat FiG. 161. six-pound
irons on the lines. domestic iron
The rapidity with
which heat can be generated electri-
cally and the ease with which any de-
sired temperature can be maintained by
regulating the quantity of electricity
passing, have enabled heat of electric
origin to compete favorably in many useful
processes with heat obtained by the burning
FIG. 102.
TWELVE-POUND IRON WITH CUR-
RENT CUT-OFF STAND
of coal, oil, or other combustibles. Indeed,
this is so true that certain processes can be
carried on by electric heat that would be
practically impossible by heat obtained in
any other manner. This is the case with
electric welding, electric forging, electric
annealing, electric casting of metals, etc.
When a sufficient pressure is brought to
bear against the ends of two pieces of metal
that have been brought into contact, pro-
vided they have previously been raised to
a temperature at which they begin to soften,
they will cohere so firmly that if an effort
is made to tear them apart the break or
rupture will occur as frequently at some
other place as at the welded joint.
In order to obtain a good weld it is neces-
sary that the contact surfaces be kept clean
and free from oxide. Since an incandescent
temperature is required for the welding of
most metals, the oxygen of the air tends to
unite with the heated masses, so that it
would be difficult to keep the surfaces clean
were it not for the fact that by the use of
a suitable flux the oxide is dissolved by the
fluxing material and thus removed as soon
as it is formed.
Probably one of the most important re-
quirements for a good welded joint is that
the proper temperature be obtained. The
best welding temperature varies with dif-
ferent metals, and it is because the skilled
workman has learned by long experience
FIG. 163. SHOWING DISTRIBUTING CENTERS
FOR ELECTRIC IRONS
to ensure the temperature that the success
of his work is due. But the means he
adopts in order to determine at what point
to stop the heating and press the heated
surfaces together is by the very unsatis-
factory indications of the colors and other
appearances assumed by the heated metals.
In the case of electric welding, however,
having determined the temperature that has
produced the best results and noted the
current strength required, and arranged
the rheostat so that this current only shall
pass, it is possible when pieces of the same
character of metal, and the same dimensions
are to be welded the passage of the same
current' will produce the same temperature.
Electric welding was invented by Professor
Elihu Thomson, who has so perfected bis
system as to render it possible to employ it
extensively in actual practice. Before, how-
ever, describing the Thomson system, it
may be well briefly to describe a system
invented by Bernardos, known as the arc-
welding system.
10
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The Bemardos system is not properly-
speaking a true welding system. In order
to cause two plates of metal to be firmly
united the following steps are taken. The
edges of the plates to be joined are placed
together and an electric blowpipe flame,
consisting of a carbon voltaic arc deflected
by the action of magnetic flux, is so directed
at the edges as to fuse them. As soon as this
is done the blowpipe flame is removed, and
when the fused metal cools, the two plates
Generally the entire operation requires but
a fraction of a minute, or a few minutes at
the most.
The fact that in electric welding the weld-
ing temperature is produced only at the
surfaces to be welded gives to this process an
immense advantage over ordinary welding.
Indeed, so readily can the temperature
necessary for a good weld be obtained and
maintained that it has been found possible
to electrically weld together metals that
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FIGS. 164 AND 165. LOAD CURVES OF LIGHTING STATIONS, SHADED PORTIONS
SHOWING LOAD DUE TO ELECTRIC IRONS
form a practically uniform mass. It is
evident that such a process cannot properly
be called electric welding; it is rather elec-
tric soldering.
In the Thomson system of electric welding
the surfaces to be welded are electrically
heated by the passage of an electric current
between them. Suppose, for example, that
two pieces of wire are to be soldered end to
end. These ends are brought into contact
and an electric current passed between them
across the contact surfaces. Now, as is
well known, the temperature produced by
the passage of a given electric current through
any part of a circuit will depend on the
electric resistance of this part. In the case
of a circuit consisting of fairly heavy con-
ductors, in which only a portion has a high
resistance, the temperature of all the cir-
cuit except that having an especially high
resistance, may be so low as scarcely to be
perceptible to the touch, while the parts of
high resistance may be raised to incandes-
cence.
The above is the case in a circuit consist-
ing of two fairly stout pieces of wire pressed
together end to end. The contact surfaces
are the points of highest resistance. The
passage of the current at once raises these
surfaces to incandescence, when, by pressing
them firmly together, the welding is effected.
either cannot be welded at all by the ordi-
nary processes or can only be welded with
considerable difficulty. Some idea may be
had of the advantages ensured by electric
welding from the following quotation from
a lecture delivered in 1877, at the Franklin
Institute, by Professor Thomson. He says:
"The results obtained in the application
of electric welding to the various metals,
promise to be of great practical importance.
While ordinarily it has been the exception
that metals weld readily, with the electric
method no metal or alloy yet tried has failed
to unite with pieces of the same metal, and
the trials have included most of the metals
commonly known — such as wrought-iron,
mild steel, tool steel, special steels, such as
Mushet steel , and even cast-iron joints have
been made between these different varieties
of iron. Copper and its alloys, brass,
bronze, German silver, etc.; silver, pure
and unalloyed, gold, likewise platinum,
zinc, tin, lead, aluminium.
The list is being extended as time and
facilities permit."
There are two kinds of apparatus employed
in Thomson's system of electric welding;
i. e., direct welders and indirect welders.
In the direct welding apparatus an al-
ternating current dynamo or alternator is
employed for producing the electric currents
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
11
and these currents are passed directly be-
tween the articles to be welded. Direct
welders are employed for small work only,
such as for the welding together of iron
hoops, wire, etc. In this case the strength
of the current passing through the welding
joints or surfaces is regulated by means of
a suitable rheostat.
In indirect welding the current produced
by the alternators is not passed directly to
the joints to be welded but through a suitable
form of step-down transformer; that is, a
transformer in which a comparatively small
current of high pressure or E. M. F. is con-
verted into a large current of comparatively
small E. M. F., and this current only is
used. Indirect welding is suitable for large
work.
In order to ensure the exact amount of
pressure that is required to produce the best
results, ingenious devices have been pro-
vided by means of which, as soon as the
desired temperature has been reached at the
joints to be welded, the current is auto-
matically thrown off and the pressure ap-
plied. Apparatus of this kind is called
automatic welding apparatus in order to
distinguish it from that in which the pressure
is applied by hand.
Some of the advantages possessed by
electric welding over ordinary welding have
been thus described by Lemp:
"The heat is sharply localized to the
joint and metal near it.
"The temperature obtained and required
can be exactly regulated.
"The rapidity of heating and its distri-
bution can be controlled by simple means.
Irregular forms can be welded in the de-
sired relation of its various parts.
"By this process all metals, as well as
the alloys of all metals, are weldable.
"The welding operation is carried on
under the direct inspection of the operator.
"The operation can be and often is made
automatic, and the result is absolute uni-
formity; oxidized surfaces are excluded
from the joint, and only clean metal unions
made.
"Pieces can be welded to exact size, and
finished pieces may retain their finish during
welding,
"The process may be applied to pieces
in place, as in track -welding. Water-power
may be employed for the work, or the cheap-
est fuels of lowest grade.
"The greatest convenience and cleanliness
likewise attend the practice of the process.
"The cost of fuel is not greater and gen-
erally less than in forge-welding, while the
labor is reduced one half."
Another application of electrically gen-
erated heat is to be found in what is known
as electric forging. In electric forging, the
piece of metal to be forged is heated by the
passage of an electric current through it,
and when the required temperature has been
obtained the metal is subjected to the forge
or hammer in the usual manner.
In a modified form of electric forg-
ing known as electric swageing, the pieces
of metal are first brought to the desired
temperature when they are brought into
the desired shapes by placing them on swages
or anvils having the shapes it is desired the
plates shall acquire. The electric current
employed for heating the metal is obtained
from a suitable, step-down transformer.
Still another application of electrically-
generated heat is seen in the process of elec-
tric annealing. In what is known as Har-
veyized armor plate the percentage of carbon
present in the steel plate is so great that
when the plate is highly heated and then
suddenly chilled it becomes so hard that it
is able to resist the impact of heavy balls
from large calibre guns. But this hardness
renders it practically impossible to bore
holes in places where they are required for
the attachment of ladders, etc.
To anneal or soften any hardened steel
plate it is only necessary to heat it to in-
candescence and then permit it slowly to
cool. In electrically annealing Harveyized
steel plates the portions of the plate that
are to be softened or annealed are electrically
heated by placing on them heavy blocks of
copper so as to cover those parts only. A
powerful electric current is then sent through
the copper sufficient to raise it to incandes-
cence, and this temperature maintained
long enough to thoroughly heat the steel
underneath it. As soon as this is ef ected
the current strength passing through the
copper block is gradually decreased until
its temperature is the same as that of the
rest of the steel, when the annealing is
complete. Of course after the holes have
been bored or other work done it is necessary
to see that the annealed portions of the plate
are again hardened by electrically heating
them with the blocks of copper as before and
then suddenly chilling.
(To be Continued.)
Electrical Securities
By "CONTANGO'
FINANCIAL TERMS — WAYS OF FINANCING A PLANT — SAFE AND UNSAFE INVESTMENTS
Having drawn direct attention last month
to the great opportunity, at this time pres-
ent, in almost every kind of electrical enter-
prise, a more intimate discussion of the
actual financial terms and financial ques-
tions usually involved in such undertakings
is now in order.
One hears a good deal of stock or shares,
common stock, preferred stock, bonds of
various denominations paying certain rates
of interest, income notes and other like terms.
What do they constitute?
For the most part common stock or shares
(with the rate of dividend not fixed) and
bonds bearing a fixed rate of interest are the
form in which most electrical investments are
offered to the public. It may be explained
that "dividends" are defined as the division
of profits made on shares of stock, represent-
ing the interest on them after certain fixed
and other charges have been made. Divi-
dends are therefore not fixed but are elastic.
Payment on bonds is called "interest" and
is at a fixed rate.
Stock is the manner in which the capital
of a company is divided; the stock is made up
of shares of specified denominations. Thus
a company may have a capital stock of
twenty-five thousand dollars, composed of
2,500 ten dollar shares, or twelve hundred
and fifty 20 dollar shares, or two hundred
and fifty one hundred dollar shares — the
terms stocks and shares are the same. But
though stock in a company is a form of in-
vestment offered to the public, it is mainly
so in the case of large companies where there
are a great many shares. In a small con-
cern the capital stock or shares are usually
owned by a few individuals and held by them,
representing of course the ownership of the
company, and the title to its property. The
individuals who start the enterprise and
form the company then take the common
shares at its first inception, later for the ob-
ject of improvements, additions and so on,
they may vote to increase the capital stock
and offer shares to the general public for
investment, or they may decide on a bond
issue.
Sometimes, too, in forming a company,
those promoting it issue the common shares
indicating ownership entirely to themselves,
and offer to the public a limited partnership
in the form of preferred stock or shares bear-
ing a specified rate of dividend, but not con-
veying any voting rights or direct ownership
rights, unless expressly stated. Stock of
this kind draws dividends at a specified rate
which must be paid before any dividend
is paid on the common stock, and if this
dividend on the preferred stock is described
as cumulative, it means that all arrears of
dividend must be paid up on it before the
common stock gets anything. So if a com-
pany is earning a clear twelve per cent on
its issue of five per cent preferred stock, that
five per cent is paid on the preferred stock
first, and the remaining seven per cent goes
to the common. If only five per cent has
been earned, it all goes to the preferred
shares. If not enough has been made to
pay the full amount of dividend due on the
preferred stock and it is cumulative, then
the deficit must be made up the next year
and so on until the amount specified is fully
paid before the common shares receive any-
thing.
Assuming, however, that the company has
been formed without any preferred stock
and that a group of men have joined together
taking so many shares apiece, then in all
likelihood the usual course by which the
public will be asked to participate in the
undertaking as an investment is by the offer-
ing or issuance of what are termed bonds,
bearing a fixed rate of interest.
Bonds in such companies are indeed the
normal form of investment offered to the
general public. They represent a first
charge or lien on all the property and earn-
ings of the company. A bond issue is in
point of fact a blanket mortgage. It may
not merely represent a mortgage on the
company's plant, but on all its assets.
The interest on bonds must be paid before
anything else. If default is made bond-
holders can, after a certain period, take
action to enter into possession of the com-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
13
pany and its properties. But as long as the
interest is paid, the bondholders, as those
who own these securities are called, have
no right to interfere in the management or
affairs of the company. They have no more
to do with it than a man with a mortgage
on your property has, so long as his interest
is paid to him. They must, though, be
paid, and paid regularly.
It is therefore on the correct method of
financing a plant that its success depends
as shall be presently explained.
Securities of this type — bonds — at the
present time must in the main, bear five
per cent interest. It is true, there are some
bearing as low a rate as four or four and a
half per cent, but in most cases the market
now demands a five per cent security. On
the other hand when the interest offered is
too high it is the danger flag.
SAFE AND UNSAFE INVESTMENTS
Will it pay, that is the question at
issue ?
Now it is probable that there is no safer
or more attractive security at this time be-
fore the public than the bonds of an electric
light plant where conditions are more or
less settled, and where there is right along
a normal and steady growth and where
the company is run on a cash basis, and has
been properly financed. The cash basis
represents two things— actual investment of
cash at the outset by the men who form the
company and subsequent ability to meet
obligations promptly out of earnings. The
earnings of such a company, as before sug-
gested, must be at least twice its interest
charges, and even that figure of net earnings
must be reached after a fair charge has been
made for maintenance, and after an ade-
quate reserve has been set aside for renewals
and a depreciation fund. This depreciation
fund should take the form of cash or some
equivalent of cash. While the equipment
of electrical plants is year by year becoming
more settled, yet improvements are con-
stantly coming to the front, and it is most
important that the item of depreciation
should be adequately recognized, in order
that money may be available to add new
and improved types of machinery where
such additions will reduce operating costs.
Managers of plants are often under a
great temptation to charge to renewals, ex-
penditures that should go under operating
expenses, and the careful bond buyer will
therefore look carefully into the statements
furnished by brokers and bond holders to
see that this habit has been avoided, or at
any rate get their assurance on this point.
To take up the manner of financing a
plant: There are, it must be remembered,
legal restrictions that prevail in different
states. A lighting plant, or a trolley com-
pany is what is known as a public service or
public utility corporation. It serves the
public, is dependent on the public, and is
therefore subject to special safeguards on be-
half of the public, which, however, are not
necessarily restrictions. New York state
has a commission governing these corpora-
tions in certain directions; the state of Wis-
consin has a state board governing them in
other directions, and so on.
But assuming all regulations have been
complied with, then it is usually a question
of whether or not the original owners and
promoters have put up part or most of the
cash necessary for the enterprise, or whether
the public shall furnish it as bond holders,
subscribing the amount asked for in an issu-
ance of bonds — the money realized from the
sale of which will be used in building the
plant and furnishing the equipment.
The group of men who get together to
build and install a plant issue say 5,000
ten-dollar shares of stock among themselves,
having acquired franchises and land; they
then issue bonds with which to build and
equip the plant and system. These bonds
bearing interest say at five per cent payable
in gold are offered in denominations of
$100 each at the actual figure of $100.
That is to say they are issued at what is
called par. Or again improvements and
additions are needed and bonds for that
purpose are issued. Sometimes such bonds
specify the purpose for which they are issued,
but in all cases practically they are a first
lien on the entire plant and system. If the
company is well established and has no
excessive bonded indebtedness, then the
public may be asked to pay rather more
than $100 for each one hundred dollar bond.
This means that the bonds are thought so
highly of as to be at a premium. Naturally
if more than par has to be paid it reduces
the return on the money invested. For
instance, if $110 is paid for a $100 bond
bearing 5 per cent interest, the interest on
the investment will be a little over Ah per
cent. But it means also that the security
is more than a gilt edged one.
14
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
It may be mentioned here that in some
communities a limit is set to the amount of
interest payable on the capital stock and
there is also a limit to the amount of bonded
indebtedness which is allowed to be created.
In the United States, however, this matter
is guided by the rule of the state in which
the incorporation of the company is made and
the regulations of the state or states where
it operates.
The main points for consideration having
now been considered, the practical charac-
ter of the men identified with the under-
taking as well as the character of the equip-
ment installed must never be lost sight of.
Taking into account the future scope of
almost all electrical enterprises it may be
reiterated that there is no greater investment
opportunity before the general public than
the securities of electric light plants which
are on a cash basis, are conservatively capi-
talized and competently managed.
There are naturally strong economic rea-
sons on the side of combining the small
companies into large ones and that is the
tendency of the times. The economies of
management, the economies of production
on a large scale, the better results that come
from comparison of operations in numerous
plants — these are the obvious advantages
of, and reasons for, the constant linking up
of small electrical undertakings.
The placing of securities so wonderfully
carried out by companies in the large and
conspicuous cities in the past is now being
extended to the smaller cities and the aggre-
gation of small villages and hamlets, and
the consolidation of these small enterprises
into larger and more effective concerns will
unceasingly attract investors in every market
in the world. Nevertheless, it is the taking
hold of the securities of the small centers
at the start that gives the ground floor oppor-
tunity for the small investor, and he will,
under the conditions outlined, find his great-
est chance in the small plant. He can ob-
tain the bond issues usually at a cheaper
rate and therefore obtains a security in-
creasing in value year by year and on which
he can always realize at an advantage.
Electrical enterprises are doubling their
profits on an average of every five years,
and in the case of some of the larger cities
the business has for years past doubled
every three years. They are good at the
start and if taken into a consolidation are
guaranteed further by the larger company.
Motor Power vs. Boy Power
The recent educational advances made by
China have so far been very slight along the
technical lines, for the reason that teachers
who speak the Chinese fluently are not yet
available and it will take some years to
train them. At present the technical in-
struction is all given in English and is there-
fore only accessible to those who have learnt
English or who can command the services
of an interpreter. Even at that these
schools are overcrowded, so that at the
technical institute in Shanghai (which offers
a five-year preparatory and four-year tech-
nical course to boys entering when about
14 years old) there are about seventy pupils
to each instructor.
No wonder that the majority of Chinese
boys, however ambitious they may be, can-
not be accommodated as yet, though an-
other five or ten years will undoubtedly see
a decided change. Meanwhile this absence
of available instruction makes boy-power
so cheap that even in Shanghai, where
electric motors are easily to be had, most
of the machine shops use lathes driven by
boys. Each lathe is belted to a countershaft
and this to a flywheel (about six feet in
diameter) having a crank which the boy
turns. With such competition the low
current rate offered by the local electric
light company is not very enticing in itself.
But the much greater steadiness and higher
daily output which the electric motor offers,
is gradually being appreciated and promises
to relieve one after another of these boys
from their present monotonous task.
Seasoning Wood By Electricity
Have you ever lived in a frame house
built of unseasoned timber? If so, you will
be interested in knowing that in France by
what is called the Nodon-Brottonneau
process seasoning can be accomplished in
a few hours. The timber is placed on a
lead plate in a tank of water containing ten
per cent of borax and five per cent of resin
with a little soda added. The lead plate
is connected to the positive side of a dynamo.
Another lead plate is placed on the upper
side of the timber which is not quite covered
by the water. When current is turned on
the sap in the wood seems to pass out and
borax and resin take its place. Drying
completes the process.
Where Electricity Stands in the Practice
of Medicine
By NOBLE M. EBERHART, A. M., M. S., M. D.
CHAPTER VI. — ARTERIOSCLEROSIS
"A man is as old as his arteries."
This saying is itself old enough to have
arterio-sclerosis,1! but, if possible, it is more
pertinent now, than when it originated.
This is because our present mode of life
with its strenuous effort to gratify lofty am-
bitions; its excesses or indiscertions in eat-
ing, drinking, etc., has produced many men,
young in years, whose arteries are those of
the octogenarian, and forecast the prob-
ability of a sudden termination of their use-
fulness.
In other words it is the old story of "burn-
ing the candle at both ends."
Arterio-sclerosis means hardening of the
arteries and it is a natural concomitant of old
age. It may be looked upon as essentially
a thickening of the muscular portion of the
arteries, with an increase in the cells lining
them and consequently diminished caliber
in the blood-vessels. The muscular elements
tend to be displaced by a hard form of tissue
designated as fibrous, therefore one author
defines it as a "fibrous infiltration of the
muscular coat with degeneration of contrac-
tile tissue," and it is ordinarily accompanied
by an increase over the normal blood-pres-
sure.
The arteries are vessels carrying the blood
from the heart; those returning it being
known as veins.
The arteries divide and re-divide, much as
the branches of a tree. The small arteries
are called arterioles, and finally the smallest
sub-division are known as capillaries or
"hair-like" vessels. These capillaries seem
to be merely extensions of the lining of the
arterioles. They connect the arterioles with
the smallest veins (venules) and mark the
point where the return flow to the heart is
inaugurated.
In order to understand the development of
arterio-sclerosis and the phenomena of blood-
pressure it is necessary to remember that
the arteries are made up of three layers, an
internal lining layer, a middle muscular wall,
and an external cellular coat.
The internal coat is thin and elastic.
The middle layer contains muscular fibres
which by contracting or relaxing control
the size of the artery. This layer except in
the arterioles, also contains elastic fibres.
The outer layer is composed of connective
tissue, (a term that is self-explanatory) , some
elastic fibers and the tiny blood vessels
which nourish the walls of the arteries.
The heart may be looked upon as the
central station, the dynamo or pump and
the pressure in the heart is therefore neces-
sarily greater than in the arteries. This
pressure, in fact, decreases as the size of
the arteries decreases. The large arteries
have a greater pressure than their smaller
branches, and these in turn have more than
the "hair-like" capillaries.
To continue this a little farther, the capil-
laries have a greater pressure than the tiny
veins, and the smaller veins more than the
larger, decreasing the nearer the veins are
to the heart.
In this way we have the complete round
of the circulation, and the blood follows
the rule of water and of electricity and flows
from a higher to a lower pressure, and thus
circulates from the heart through the ar-
teries, capillaries and veins, back to the
starting point.
The pressure of the blood is an important
factor in arterio-sclerosis, and it is measured
by its power to lift a column of mercury and
it is found to have normally a pressure
capable of sustaining a perpendicular column
of from no to 130 millimeters of mercury,
the average being 120. In arterio-sclerosis
it sometimes increases to over 300. The
method of ascertaining it will be considered
later, but before doing this let us leok into
the causes which produce arterio-sclerosis.
We might divide the disease into the func-
tional and the organic stage. The func-
tional stage would be that previous to actual
hardening of the arteries and the organic
would be that in which actual structural
changes had taken place.
16
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
In the first stage there comes to be present
a contracted condition of the artery, pro-
ducing increased tension and raising blood-
pressure, but this is essentially the result
of irritation and spasm on the part of the
muscular fibres and an actual degeneration
and permanent change in their structure
has not yet appeared.
Thus this disease develops gradually and
usually without any particularly noticeable
or alarming early symptoms.
The theory is that poisons (toxins) in
the blood first cause irritation, and then
contraction or spasm of the arteries, which
may be intermittent, but later becomes a
more or less steady contraction, thus estab-
lishing increased pressure by narrowing
the caliber of the vessels. Later the
permanent changes of the second stage
occur.
It is but fair to say that although the
great majority of physicians believe that high
blood-pressure produces arterio-sclerosis,
there are some who hold the reverse to be
the case.
Be that as it may, increased blood-pressure
is the most common and constant symptom
of the disease.
The causes of the primary irritation are
gout, uric acid, lead poisoning, excesses or
abuses in eating, drinking, tobacco, etc.
There is faulty conversion of food products
into living cells; with failure to properly
eliminate poisons from the system; and the
absorption of the products of imperfect in-
testinal digestion. Other causes of arterio-
sclerosis are worry, prolonged mental or
muscular strain and the after-effects of
infectious diseases.
The disease most frequently occurs after
forty years of age; but no age is exempt,
cases occurring in individuals of eight, fifteen
and twenty-eight years, respectively, being
on record. In men and women of middle
age, say forty to fifty-five, it is found that
three men are affected to one woman. The
reason is apparent when the causes are
considered.
We have given the impression, probably,
that arterio-sclerosis is always a disease in-
volving all of the arteries and therefore
readily detected by feeling of those which
are accessible to the touch. This is not
true. The arteries supplying any organ, as
the kidney, or the stomach, may be involved
in this process and there may not be present
any evidence in other blood-vessels, hence
the value and necessity of testing the blood
pressure.
"An ounce of prevention is worth a pound
of cure," and today we are paying just as
much attention to preventing -disease as
we are to curing it when present, and there-
fore I should consider myself subject to
criticism if I failed to speak of methods of
warding off or indefinitely delaying the de-
velopment of arterio-sclerosis.
From the nature of the causes, it at once
appears that habits must be regular, all ex-
cesses avoided, and worry and strain elimi-
nated, if possible.
The diet should be simple, all alcoholic
beverages tabooed and frequently even tea
and coffee, although in suitable cases they
may be allowed in moderation. Tobacco
should be prohibited or used sparingly.
Milk and buttermilk are allowed; especially
the buttermilk made by adding lactic acid
bacilli cultures to sweet milk. Red meats
are to be eaten sparingly; but plenty of vege-
tables are advised.
There is a growing opinion on the part
of many physicians favoring the partial
or complete elimination of salt from the
diet.
The individual should take his time and
avoid all worry, haste and excitement. In
addition strict attention should be paid to
personal hygiene, and regular but moderate
exercise, baths, etc.
It has been shown experimentally that
in a normal subject the blood pressure may
be raised five to ten millimeters by taking
beef broth, hence the necessity for curtailing
the amount of red meat.
Among the symptoms of arterio-sclerosis
are drowsiness; morning fatigue; dizziness
or vertigo; irritability; insomnia; tingling
or numbness in arms or legs,; nose-bleed;
slow healing of any injury; coldness of ex-
tremities; neuralgia; headaches; and loss
of memory. Later there may be symptoms
of apoplexy, etc. Above all the high blood
pressure is to be looked for.
As I read over the foregoing symptoms, I
am reminded somewhat of the old "patent
medicine" almanacs and I do not wish to
give the impression that having one or two
of these symptoms implies necessarily that
the individual has, or is tending toward
arterio-sclerosis; but if several of them are
present I would certainly advise consulting
a competent physician for the purpose of
ascertaining the blood pressure and thereby
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
17
confirming or refuting the
possibilities suggested by
the symptoms enumerated.
Since the most import-
ant symptom of this dis-
ease is high blood pres-
sure, it is desirable to
know how this is esti-
mated. The instrument
used is called a sphyg-
momanometer and one
form is shown in the
illustration. Its action de-
pends on opposing the
pressure of a column of
mercury with the pressure
of the blood in an artery.
For this purpose the
brachial artery (a large
vessel in the arm above
the elbow), is selected.
A cuff or band contain-
ing a rubber sack is fas-
tened around the arm
above the elbow, with that
part from which the rub-
ber tube emerges, lying
in front, over the artery.
Ordinarily the sleeve is
rolled up before the band
is applied, but if the
clothing is thin this is un-
necessary. A rubber tube
runs from the cuff to the
machine, which has a U-shaped glass tube
containing mercury, with a gauge be-
tween. The zero mark on the scale is
placed on a level with top of the mercury.
A rubber bulb is attached by a small
tube to the machine, and the physician holds
this bulb in one hand, while with the other
he keeps a finger on the pulse in the patient's
wrist. The bulb is now compressed and
immediately air fills the cuff and the column
of mercury begins to rise. The operator
continues to slowly inflate the cuff until the
pressure about the arm overcomes the pres-
sure of the brachial artery and the pulse
can no longer be felt at the wrist.
When this occurs the pressure of the col-
umn of mercury has balanced the pressure
of the blood in the artery, and the reading
on the scale opposite the top of the column
is the patient's blood pressure.
One observer reports a study of the
blood pressure in seventy men. At forty
years of age the average pressure was
MEASURING THE PRESSURE OF THE BLOOD
115; at sixty, it was 135; and at eighty it
was 150.
Another physician found the average in
100 men to be a little over 118.
An increased determination of blood to
the surface of the body, lowers the pressure,
and, conversely, driving the blood from the
surface, raises the blood pressure.
It is important that the sphygmomanom-
eter be used, as in one series of 1000 tests
it was observed that abnormal pressure
existed in many cases that a competent and
experienced observer failed to detect with-
out.
In treating the disease all of the suggestions
given under the paragraphs on prevention
apply equally well. Methods of increasing
the peripheral (surface) circulation are in-
dicated, such as judicious massage; warm
baths; electric light baths, etc. The bowels
should be carefully attended to, and elimi-
nation through the skin and through the
kidneys.
18
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
I have reserved for the last the method
which, in my opinion, is the best we have
for arterio-sclerosis. This is auto-conden-
sation.
Many of my readers will recall reading
in the daily press of that distinguished
writer Bjornsen going to Paris that he might
be treated by Prof. D'Arsonval for arterio-
sclerosis. This is the form of treatment the
latter employs.
THE AUTO-CONDENSATION COUCH
Auto-condensation is a method originated
by D'Arsonval for the application of high
frequency currents.
As the term implies the individual, "auto"
or self forms part of a condenser, and is
charged and discharged with the high fre-
quency current.
In order to get the D'Arsonval current it
is necessary to attach to the generating ap-
paratus (induction coil, static machine,
Tesla transformer), an apparatus in which
two sets of condensers are connected so that
the circuit on one side is made through a
spark-gap and on the other passes through
a solenoid or coil of coarse wire. The pa-
tient is connected to the solenoid side of the
condenser circuit, and is placed on a couch,
pad, or table devised for the purpose, and
having a layer of condenser covered by
some form of di-electric, as glass, mica, or
rubber cushions stuffed with silk waste.
The sketch illustrates the general appearance
of the device.
The condenser layer is connected to one
pole and the patient to the other, thus a
charge of positive electricity is held in the
patient while the plate below is negatively
charged. These charges alternate very
rapidly from positive to negative and the
result is a high frequency wave, passing
back and forth through the patient's body,
thus influencing the individual cells com-
posing the tissues. It is essentially a "cel-
lular massage."
The primary effect of auto-condensation
is to increase nutrition, and nutritive pro-
cesses. It also increases the elimination
of waste products; and raises bodily heat.
Furthermore it does what is especially
important in arterio-sclerosis; it lowers
blood-pressure when above normal. There
are scarcely any exceptions to this rule if
proper apparatus is employed.
The proof is at the command of the phy-
sician and "seeing is believing." It will be
found by testing with the sphygmomanom-
eter before and after a ten-minute treatment
that even a single seance will reduce it five
to ten millimeters. This will not be a per-
manent reduction but continued treatment
will so result, and it may then be maintained
by occasional applications.
The dosage of auto-condensation is from
150 to 900 milliamperes as measured by a
hot-wire meter in the patient's circuit.
The average dose is 350 to 500 milliam-
peres. Daily treatments of ten minutes
each are advised at first, gradually de-
creasing as the patient improves.
Auto-condensation is not only good for
the treatment of existing arterio-sclerosis
but it is strongly urged as a means of pre-
venting its development.
One gentleman aptly put it as "anticipa-
ting old age." He observed that we put
aside money in the bank for old age, and how
equally important it was to save the vitality
of our arteries for the same occasion. It
might be called Life's Savings Bank.
(To be continued.)
Current Overland at 110,000 Volts
It is no simple matter to insulate an elec-
trical transmission line carrying current
under the enormous tension of 110,000 volts,
and the current is ever on the alert to es-
cape to earth by any hook or crook. The
transmission line of the Grand Rapids
Muskegon Power Co., between Croton
lowing what is known as the three phase
system.
The illustration also shows the General
Electric link type insulators which carry the
wires and prevent the current from leaking
to earth through the steel towers. In going
around curves the insulators stretch out nearly
ONE -HUNDRED- AND-TEN THOUSAND VOLT LINE AND METHOD OF SUSPENSION
Dam, Michigan, and Grand Rapids, carries
current at this pressure. The line is 50
miles long and is carried on 5 2 -foot triangu-
lar steel towers, 10 towers to the mile on the
straight-away portions.
As will be seen in the picture the line is
in duplicate, there being two rows of towers
side by side. If anything happens to one
line the other is ready for instant use. There
are three wires carried by each tower, fol-
horizontally. Where the line wires are
straight the insulators hang vertically, carry-
ing the wires at the lower end. The insu-
lators are each made up of five disks of
specially mixed and carefully glazed porce-
lain. They are 10 inches in diameter and
are hung together byf'steel links. Any
current to pass [to 'earth ;must jump across
or creep over the surface of the entire five in-
sulators, which it cannot do.
20
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
In the strain type (horizontal) insulator
you will see that the wire carrying current
is brought up to the ends of the two sets of
insulators and anchors. It then drops in
a long loop down beneath the insulators and
far enough away from the steel cross-arm
of the tower so that it cannot jump the
space.
It is said that, at the working pressure of
110,000 volts, about the highest that has
ever been used for transmission purposes,
the brush or static discharge from the wires
is plainly visible at night and a slight noise
is distinctly heard. This discharge, how-
ever, does not represent a serious loss of
power.
Electric Platform Trucks
In some of the stations in our large cities
the sturdy little electric platform truck is
platform from the train, may note that the
long, low-bodied truck standing at the door of
the baggage-car is being loaded with an ex-
traordinarily large number of trunks and
bags, and will perhaps pity the man, or
set of men, who (he imagines) are going to
have to push such a load, even on the level
concrete surface.
The new Edison storage battery applied
to the motors of the truck, however, makes
no pushing necessary. This battery, which
was first launched about six years ago, and
which has now been developed to meet the
exacting requirements of propelling auto-
mobile trucks and vehicles of all kinds for
road use, is now the happy means of trans-
forming the human pack animal on dock and
platform into the driver of a power truck.
He sits at his ease at the steering-wheel of
a little giant of a truck that walks away with
a mountain-high pile of baggage about as
easily as a lady carrying a shopping-bag.
The type of four-wheel truck shown
making its way through the snow has a
flat, "flush" top or deck, with the storage-
battery and motor slung beneath, out of
the way of the load. The rubber-tired
driving-wheels are in the middle and the
becoming a
common
sight. The
average pas-
se n g e"r,
alighting
from an in-
coming
train, would
perhaps hardly detect the difference from
the old hand-operated vehicle. The
more observing person, as he walks down the
TRUCK EQUIPPED WITH NEW EDISON BATTERY
two other wheels "fore and aft." The
steering mechanism by which the driver
controls the vehicle operates to twist the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
21
front wheel one way and the rear wheel
the other way.
At the new $20,000,000 Union railroad
station at Washington — the finest railway
terminal in the world — somewhat similar
trucks are now used. The concourse of
this station being big enough to accommodate
the entire standing army of the United
States, made virtually imperative the use of
some substitute for the old-time truck that
would cover the great distances involved
with less consumption of time. The new
power truck does this admirably, and in ad-
dition to operating, under normal condi-
tions, at from three to six times the average
speed of the hand-power truck, it moves a
load several times as great as is permissible
Record of Fever Temperatures
An apparatus for recording the variable
temperature of feverish patients has been
designed by Siemens & Halske of Berlin,
Germany. Its principle is very simple,
depending upon that quality of platinum by
virtue of which its resistance to the flow of
an electric current through it varies with its
temperature.
In this unique German instrument a
small coil of platinum wire forms part of the
electrical circuit and is enclosed in a lit-
tle tube which may be placed in the
mouth or under the arm of the patient.
Current from a battery passes through
the coil of platinum wire and through the
FEVER TEMPERATURE RECORDING APPARATUS AND ONE OF THE RECORDS
with the old-style equipment. In short, as
demonstrated at the Washington terminal,
one power truck will do the work of at least
five or six hand-power trucks, and inasmuch
as both styles are operated by colored men
at the same wage rate, the saving effected
is the more tangible.
Two classes of the electric trucks have been
introduced at the Washington station. They
are identical in design and in almost all
particulars save size and capacity. The
larger size which will ultimately be used
almost exclusively has a carrying capacity
of 4800 pounds, and twenty-five of these
trucks will be employed.
instrument which is similar to a millivolt-
meter. As the temperature of the patient
varies, the resistance of the platinum coil
varies in direct proportion, and the needle
of the instrument moves back and forth.
This needle of the millivolt meter has a pen
attachment which marks a record on a strip
of paper carried by a drum which is re-
volved at a regular rate by clock work.
Thus the pen of the millivolt meter marks
the record on the sheet of paper in the form
of an irregular curve indicating just what
the temperature of the patient was at any
minute and hour during the days that the
instrument is kept connected.
Talks with the Judge
HOW THE TELEPHONE "TALKS"
I entered the Judge's office one day just
as he had finished speaking at the telephone,
and as he swung around in his chair to greet
me there was an interrogation point in his
look and manner. In a half musing way
he said, "I suppose I use that telephone a
hundred times a day. It is a part of my
business life — yes, and my home life as well;
but do you know, when my little boy asked
me the other day how it is that a telephone
can talk I fell down entirely when I tried
to tell him. Yes, sir! I found that when
I got right down to it I was almost abso-
lutely ignorant of the principle of the greatest
time saver of this or any other age. All I
knew was that there is a diaphragm in the
transmitter and another in the receiver —
and the kid knew that much himself.
"Now I want you to tell me once and for
all how the thing works. I don't propose
to be caught again."
"You are no more at sea than the majority
of people," I responded. "Most of us are
prone to rest easy in the belief that we un-
derstand a thing until we are called upon to
give exact information on the subject, and
then we are astounded to find that our
knowledge extends only as far as a few
generalties. However, I think I can put
you right as far as the telephone is con-
cerned."
"I shall not try to take you through all
the intricacies of talking circuits, ringing
circuits, switchboard apparatus, etc., for that
would require a book. But what you want
to know, I imagine, is the principle of the
transmitter and receiver which convert
sound waves into electrical waves and back
into sound waves at the distant end.
"To begin with, sound, as you know, is
only vibrations in the air. These vibrations
strike upon our ear drums and set them to
vibrating in unison, which vibrations are
interpreted by the brain, through the audi-
tory nerve, as sound.
"In the telephone transmitter, which you
speak into, there is a diaphragm made of
thin sheet metal. It is something like the
drum in a person's ear, and as the air waves
generated by your voice/strike against it
the diaphragm vibrates in unison with these
waves.
"Back of the diaphragm is fastened a little
platinum point which moves back and forth
ever so little with the vibrations of the dia-
phragm. This point is adjusted so that it
just touches a little carbon button mounted
in the back of the transmitter. The pres-
sure, therefore, of the point against the button
is determined by the strength of the air
fluctuations striking the diaphragm.
"That's about all there is to the principle
of the transmitter most commonly used.
One wire comes out from the telephone ex-
change and connects with the carbon but-
ton. The other line wire connects with the
platinum point. When you lift the receiver
from the hook a switch is closed in the in-
strument so that an electric current flows
from a battery at the telephone exchange
out over one line wire, through the carbon
button and platinum point and back to the
exchange. Now this current is very weak,
but it flows constantly while you talk into
the transmitter. As you talk against the
diaphragm, the degree of pressure of the
platinum point against the carbon button
varies directly with the intensity of the voice
vibrations, so that the area of contact be-
tween the point and the button increases
and decreases with the pressure. This in-
creases and decreases the resistance to the
flow of current and, as a consequence, the
talking current, as it is called, is a constantly
fluctuating one, the rise and fall or the
fluctuations of the electric current corres-
sponding to the rise and fall of the air waves
created by your voice.
"We will now consider that the proper
connections have been made at the exchange
and that the two wires from your instru-
ment have been made to go straight through
to the instrument of the party to whom you
are talking. The next thing to consider is
the receiver at the distant station.
"Inside the receiver is a long permanent
magnet wound on the ends with little coils
of very fine wire which are connected with
the line wires. Wrhen the connection is
made between you and your party, current
flows as before described from the battery,
through one wire to your transmitter,
through the transmitter, back to the exchange
through the other wire, then out through
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
23
one of the wires of the called subscriber's
line, around the little coils in his receiver
and back through his other line wire to the
exchange battery.
"By one of the principles of electricity,
when current flows through a coil of wire
wound around a magnet the magnet becomes
stronger or weaker according to the strength
of current flowing through the coil. There-
fore the poles of the magnet in the receiver
become stronger or weaker according to the
fluctuations of the talking current set up by
your voice, as before explained.
"Now right in front of the poles of the
magnet of the receiver is a thin iron dia-
phragm similar to the diaphragm in the
transmitter. The poles of the magnet draw
the diaphragm toward themselves with a
force corresponding to the strength of the
poles, which, again, is dependent upon the
strength of the current flowing around the
coils.
"Therefore, it is plain to be seen that as
you talk into your transmitter you cause the
diaphragm to vibrate, which causes the cur-
rent to fluctuate, which in turn causes like
fluctuations in the strength of the poles of
the distant receiver magnet, causing the re-
ceiver diaphragm to vibrate in unison with
your transmitter diaphragm.
"The receiver diaphragm then sets up
air vibrations which impinge on your friend's
ear drums — and he hears."
Are Upward Signs Coming?
Across the seas in Auvernier, Switzerland,
an enterprising hotel keeper has decorated
his inn with this sign:
Evidently he is catering to both the auto-
mobile enthusiasts and the aerial navigators,
for his sign is the only one in the whole
canton of Neuchatel that can be read from
above. But he would have done still better
by having the upper edge of his sign studded
with electric lamps spelling the letters
straight "upwards for the enticement of the
real "high fliers" who might patronize him.
Subscribers' Unique Telephone Sets
The illustrations from Telephone Systems
of the Continent of Europe will interest many
because of the curious and elaborate de-
sign which was early displayed in the sub-
scribers' telephone sets used in Sweden.
The handsome wood carving and inlaid
decorations are foreign to American instru-
ments, while the connecting of receiver and
transmitter is unusual except on testing out-
fits. A lightning ar-
rester and connecting
plug is shown on each
wall instrument just
above the bells.
The desk sets with
the exposed gear wheel
and central hook sup-
ports for receiver and
transmitter remind one
of a miniature fire en-
gine. The cranks on
opposite ends of the
magneto- ringing shaft
on one of the sets,
are so placed to enable the bell to be
rung from opposite^ sides of the table on
which the instrument is placed.
Underground Railways of Paris
Of all the corners in Paris which have
been turned upside down, so to speak, by
the works of the Metropolitan Railway, the
Place de POpera is the one that has suffered
longest from the presence of the workmen.
Three railways, each on a different level,
are being built there, underground, and for
each of these railways there must be a sta-
tion requiring special means of access, and
intercommunicating passages allowing the
public to go from any one of these stations
to another. These stations, being very
near to each other, have been extremely
hard to build because the whole of the earth-
work and masonry has had to be done under-
ground. The elevator shafts, only, have
been opened up through the ground to the
level of the pavement.
The three lines cross in the center of the
place, one above another, one line, No. 3,
crosses No. 7 upon a diagonal steel bridge,
and line No. 7 crosses No. 8 the same way,
so that the whole appearance of the work,
outside of the masonry, is that of three
metallic bridges placed one above* another.
The preliminary work having been effec-
ted, there remained to construct a stairway
of access common to the three lines by means
of a general ticket-office; then to clear the
way for the platforms and finally to provide
the means of transfer between the platforms
of the three lines. The three stations are
disposed at the three points of an inclined
triangle. Further, the second stairway lead-
ing down will be established on the enlarged
refuge opposite to that of the first one, and
within the axis of this latter and of the
monument. It is the creation of these ap-
proaches which now makes of the Place de
1' Opera an immense basin, an exact idea of
which is given by the plan on the opposite
page.
The transfers between the six platforms
will be effected by galleries, giving access
to stairways. It may be imagined what
difficulties were overcome by the engineers
in establishing the plan of this labyrinth.
Finally, in order to assist the passengers in
knowing what direction to take, it was
decided to build a vast hall of intercommuni-
cation through which the passengers can
reach all the platforms. Furthermore, two
elevators will deposit people conveniently
at the level of their starting platforms after
leaving the ticket offices.
This great hall of intercommunication,
situated over 20 feet below the surface of
the ground, measures 98 feet in length by
23 feet in width. It occupies a space ex-
cavated transversely before the Boulevard
des Capucines. From there start the pas-
sages and the stairways leading to the two
platforms of each station, to the two eleva-
tors and to the two distributing halls. The
hall of intercommunication constitutes the
central point of transfer.
Besides this network of communications,
there have also been provided passages to
connect platforms with the two elevator
cages and with each other and with the
ticket office.
The engineers took upon themselves the
task of making all these passages, stairways
and subterranean halls with the use of a
single shaft, equipped with an electric crane
and which is located at one of the extremi-
ties of the works not shown in the cut. It
is through this shaft that all the waste and
rubbish are carried up, and all the materials
for construction are carried down. Never-
theless, when the tops of the two elevator
cages reached the level of the pavement,
they were obliged to open two shafts into
which to place the elevators, but these served
only for that purpose. All the masonry has
been executed in concrete of slag cement or
in crushed stone and cement mortar.
The total height of the elevator cages is
62 feet. Each one of these, measuring 16.4
feet on each side, contains two elevators
running in opposite directions. The rails of
the line No. 8 are 43.4 feet below the level
of the street; those of the line No. 7 are 35.8
feet, and those of the line No. 3 are 20.4 feet
below the same level. Finally, to give a
concrete idea of the extent of the galleries
built in this part of the Parisian sub-soil,
we will say that they contain about 375
stairway steps. In short, the construction
of these approaches was a veritable head-
splitting Chinese puzzle, and gave rise to
numerous projects with unceasing modi-
fications, the execution of which was rendered
more difficult by the necessity of doing this
work under ground. Condensed from a trans-
lation from La Nature, by Annette E. Crocker.
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Pipe Lines of Wood
Continuous-stave, wood pipe is now very picture on this page illustrates the banding
extensively used for conducting water to rod utilized on this remarkable conduit,
water power electric plants from reservoirs which conveys the water to the hydraulic
far back in turbines.
C ion On PIPE LINE OF WOOD STRENGTHENED WITH BANDS OF STEEL wr0 6
wood pipe, « iron, while
which is a non-conductor of electricity, it is cheaper than either of the above
The illustration on the front cover shows and its capacity at all times is con-
the construction of the continuous stave stant. The carrying capacity of iron and
pipe line 8J feet in diameter of the Great steel is said to decrease as time goes on, due
Northern Railway power plant, while the to rust, greater friction, etc.
Setting Up Gravity Cells
A writer in the Signal Engineer gives the
following directions for cleaning and setting
up gravity batteries in order to reduce
crystallizing:
(i) Have the jars, zincs, copper, and
vitriol clean.
(2) Place the copper in the jar and fill,
to the even top of the copper, with vitriol.
Avoid using dust.
(3) Put the zinc in place. The top of the
zinc should be one inch below the top of the jar.
(4) Pour in clean water so that it fills
the jar to a point just below the bottom of the
zinc.
(5) Put a plug of wood in the center of
the zinc.
(6) Carefully remove zinc from an old
cell and pour the sulphate of zinc from this
old cell into a pail having a cloth over the
pail to strain it, so that it will be clean to
fill the new jar.
(7) Pour this sulphate slowly into the
new cell letting it fall only upon the piece
of wood in the center of the zinc. In this
way the sulphate will run down slowly and
will stay on top of the water.
Then, in a very short time, five minutes
or so, the battery will be up in voltage and
amperage and ready for business; the blue
line will form in the center of the jar and the
battery will respond in a satisfactory man-
ner.
28
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Correct and Incorrect Window Lighting
' The principle of efficient show window lighting de-
mands that lamps be placed high up in the front of the
window and out of sight of the passer-by. Also] the
light must be strong in the window and minimum out
on the sidewalk. The] cuts illustrate the difference
between efficient and inefficient lighting, being drawn
on the plan employed by illuminating experts to illus-
intensity of light distribution.
In Fig. i a form of trough reflector is used, sometimes
these are home-made affairs. A large percentage of
the light is not thrown into the occupied portion of the
window at all but is directed into the street and over
the top and ends of the window. It can only be made
efficient by using a large number of lamps, which is
expensive.
Fig. 2 shows the same window equipped with trans-
lucent, prismatic or opal reflectors. Considerable
light passes through these reflectors and is wasted as
far as results in the window are concerned. Such re-
flectors are all right in their place but not for show
window lighting.
More nearly approaching the correct effect is that
produced by what is called the X-ray reflector shown
in Fig. 3. Here the distribution of light is strongest
in the part of the window where it is needed.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
29
Wire Measuring Devices
When wires or cables are bought by the
foot, as is the case with all rubber covered
wires used for indoor circuits, it pays to get
exacf measurements of the lengths of each
America Made Photography
Practical
For^Lai^ge Ccn'r>es
WIRE MEASURING DEVICES
size used on any given job. All that is
needed for the purpose is a wheel of known
circumference which will be rotated as the
wire is drawn over it and which will record
the number of times it revolves. If the cir-
cumference of the wheel is exactly one foot,
the length of the wire we are measuring will
be as many feet as the number of times the
wheel has revolved.
Small sizes of wire may be guided through
a pair of eyes in uprights on opposite sides
of the measuring wheel. For large sizes
the eyes can be replaced by vertical and
horizontal rollers which^may be adjustably
spaced to suit varying diameters of wires.
In either case an extra wheel resting on the
wire makes it bear firmly on the measuring
wheel so that it will not slip past the latter
without turning it.
While the original photographic process
was invented by a French artist, Daguerre
to whom the French government gave a
pension of 6000 francs in recognition of his
work, it was an American who made this
process practical. Just seventy years ago
Prof. J. W. Draper took the first commer-
cially successful photographs in the old
building of New York University. London
experts, perhaps a little vexed at having
1 gland left out of the early photographic
nonors, described Draper's success as "due
to the brilliancy of the climate."
Perhaps there was some truth in this
unsolicited comment, but America was not
to stop with offering merely the brightness
(and freedom from fogs) of its atmosphere
for picture taking. When the incandescent
lamp was perfected here, it was soon applied
to photography but required too long an
exposure to be extensively used. The arc
lamp (also an American invention) proved
much quicker for the purpose, but it took
still another American to outstrip them all
by developing a mercury vapor lamp which
is cheaper to install and quicker in action
than the arc lamp. For, while the greenish
light of the Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapor
lamp does not give the most pleasant ap-
pearance to what it lights, it abounds in
highly "actinic" rays, that is, in rays which
are quick in affecting chemicals such as
are used on photographic films or plates.
So our British cousins were quite right.
It was the brilliancy of the light here that
has led to American advances in photog-
raphy, and when the natural brilliancy of
daylight was too slow for American ways,
we made it more and more brilliant arti-
ficially until now the brightness of the outer
day (or night) need not be considered at alb
by the successful photographer.
Tungsten Ore
Most of the tungsten ore used in the
United States is mined in the region of
Boulder, Colo. A new field of deposits has
been found near Round Mountain, Nevada,
however and preparations are under way to
mine the ore at these beds which are said
to be more extensive than at Boulder.
30
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Spiral Steel Pipe Lines
Electric Furnaces as Auxiliaries
The accompanying picture illustrates the
way water is brought from a source, some
three miles distant, to the hydro-electric
plant of the Homestake Mining Company at
Englewood, South Dakota. The pipes, one
of which is something over two feet in diam-
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PIPE LINES OF SPIRAL STEEL
eter, are made of spiral steel so well riveted
as to withstand a pressure of 210 pounds per
square inch. At the lower end where the
power plant is located these pipes are equip-
ped with nozzles which direct the stream
of water into the buckets of the water-
wheels driving the dynamos. These streams
of water rush out of the nozzles under terrific
pressure and are almost as solid as a bar of
steel when they impinge on the buckets of
the water wheels.
At present the chief field for electric
smelting furnaces seems to be in localities
where both ore and waterpower are cheap
and where the electric process can therefore
compete with smelting by means of coal or
other fuel. But even where coal is cheap
and water power scarce, the electric furnace
may still find its place as a supplement to
the ordinary methods whenever high grade
iron or steel is desired. The fuel-using
furnaces all have their limitations because
the flames themselves have an ef'ect on the
charge, which ei ect annuls the action that
might otherwise be obtained from well
known and cheap ingredients.
For instance, in making hi^h grade steel
by the Siemens-Martin process, the so-
called protoxides of iron in the charge should
be deprived of all of their oxygen so as to
leave merely the iron. This is attempted
by the use of silicon in the charge, but the
flame of the fuel again oxidizes the hot
mixture and undoes part of the good work.
Now if the molten product is run into an
electric furnace and silicon is again added
there, its work can readily be completed
as there is no oxidizing flame present in
the electric furnace. By running the molten
metal into this auxiliary, very little current
will be required to keep it going and the
absence of flame and smoke will make it
comparatively easy to obtain standards of
purity that have been impossible with the
older methods.
Fire Protection in Electric Plants
In the case of a fire in an electric power
plant more care must be used than in an
ordinary building because of the danger4to
firemen. The operator must decide whether
any circuits may be "killed." Fine sand
is commonly provided. However, in a
recent fire starting from trouble in a com-
pensator in which the cover of the latter
was blown off, sand only raised the level of
the oil without hindering the fire, which was
finally put out by smothering with a heavy
wet canvas tarpaulin. A Babcock fire
extinguisher had no effect.
Care must also be used in playing a chem-
ical extinguisher upon live apparatus, for
it is said that the chemicals have the property
of conducting electricity.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
;\i
Trackless Trolley Lines
Trackless trolleys as they are called are
in reality street car lines without metal rails.
They are coming into quite extensive use
abroad. One of the pictures shows a line
running between Pirano Portorose and St.
Lucia in Austria, a distance of about three
miles. Four trolley wires are used two-
thirds of the way and two the rest of the
distance. Unlike the ordinary trolley pole
with a single wheel, this car has a pair of
systems are used in Germany, some of which
haul loads of fifteen or twenty tons up
hills having a 45 per cent grade.
It is obvious, though, that before extensive
use can be made of such systems in this
country the roads must be improved to such
an extent as to compare favorably with those
in Europe.
Electrical Bleaching Is Spotless
The damage done to clothes, paper or
fabric by using chloride of lime for bleaching
is due largely to; two causes. First, there
are impurities in* the ordinary chloride of
sliding con-
tacts, one to
receive the cur-
rent and pass
it to the con-
troller and
twenty-two
horse-power
motor, the
other to return
it from the
motor to the line. The car carries twenty
passengers, runs at a speed of about fifteen
miles an hour, and with/ubber tires on stone,
asphalt and macadam roads is a pleasant
means of travel.
The second illustration from Wurzen,
Germany, shows a trackless trolley loco-
motive capable of hauling twenty-seven
wagons of grain weighing five tons each, at
a speed of three and three-quarters miles per
hour. Like the Austrian road, two wires
and sliding contacts are used, but two trolley
poles instead of one. Current is supplied
both systems at 500 volts pressure, which is
the voltage ordinarily used for street cars in
this country. Several short trackless trolley
TRACKLESS TROLLEY LOCOMOTIVE AT WURZEN
lime which discolor the articles treated.
Then it is difficult to dissolve the chloride
of lime and any undissolved parts will
either stain the fabric or eat holes into it.
Both of these troubles are avoided by the
electrolytic method which consists simply
in passing a current through a solution of
common salt. Everybody knows how easy
it is to make a clear solution of ordinary
salt, and when the electric current frees the
chlorine from the dissolved salt, this also
is readily soluble in water so that it remains
well distributed. The result is a clear
bleaching liquid with no half dissolved parts
to damage the pulp or fabrics — the ideal
bleaching mixture.
m
POPULAR KLECTRICITY
Color Changes in Early Stage
Lighting
One of the interesting points about the
early epoch of electric stage lighting was the
way in which the changes in colors were
brought about. At that time, more than
FOOTLIGHTS
25 years ago, incandescent (carbon filament)
lamps were about as costly as the present
Tungsten lamps, so the installing of sep-
arate rows of white, red and blue lamps
would have been too expensive. Moreover,
the coloring of the lamp globes themselves
was still an undeveloped art,
so color screens had to be
used. These were made of
the thin gelatin as still used
in Christmas tree ornaments
and either attached to the
same base with the sockets
or arranged as separately
movable slides.
For the footlights, each
lamp was partly surrounded
by a gelatin screen half of
which was red and the other ijlli^Hi
half blue. The screen reached |
only two-thirds of the way
around the lamp so that the
other third exposed the clear
lamp which was mounted
so that it could be rotated strip
with its socket. Then a cord lights
was run alternately in opposite
directions around the bases of the lamps as
shown in the cut, so that pulling the cord
Pfe-n
BORDER LAMPS
would rotate the lamps and expose one cr
the other color of screen. A somewhat
similar pull arrangement was used with the
border lamps which were hung from their
pivots, while in the strip lights the lamps
were stationary and the screens were moved
past them. These gelatin screens were too
thin and flimsy to support themselves, so
they were held up by the wire meshwork
indicated in the cuts which show the ar-
rangement originally used at a theatre in
Munich.
A Surprise for Foundrymen
It was to be expected that electric pyrom-
eters when used for measuring the high
temperatures of foundry cupolas would give
more accurate readings than the devices
formerly used for this purpose. But in-
stead of merely giving the temperatures with
greater exactness, the electric devices have
shown that some of the readings taken with
the older types of thermometers were far
out of the way.
Thus in the case of cast iron, our text-
books and cyclopedias commonly state (and
on high authority, like that of Regnault or
Rankine) that the melting point lies between
2600 and 3400 degrees Fahrenheit, varying
with the percentage of combined carbon.
Now careful measurements with electric
pyrometers have shown that this melting
point really lies between 2000 and 22500 F.
and that cast iron is generally poured into
the molds at a temperature of little over
21500 F.
So if discrepancies should be found be-
tween old and new textbooks on this sub-
ject, the greater accuracy of the electric
thermometers may be thanked for correcting
the figures.
Electric Tableaux Here and Abroad
To us in America, the word tableau im-
plies "living pictures" or similar represen-
tations by persons in costume. But not so
to the electrical fraternity in Germany.
There the term tableau means what we call
an "annunciator," which, there as here,
may be had in either the drop or in the dial
type.
The idea evidently is that the dropping
of a flap shows a number or name to the
European, while with us it announces it.
Hence what we call a drop annunciator sells
abroad under the imposing name of (Ta-
bleaux-Klappen-Apparat) or, literally 'Ta-
bleau-shutter-apparatus."
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
33
Public Telephone Station in Holland Can Trolleys Climb Mountains?
Without a telephone in the house, it is
usually necessary in this country to go to
the nearest drug store to find a public tele-
phone. In Holland this is somewhat dif-
PUBLIC TELEPHONE STATION IN HOLLAND
ferent, as is shown by the picture of a public
telephone station in Baarn.
Insulation — Electric and Otherwise
In its broader meaning, the term insulator
means any substance which will not readily
permit the passage of some form of energy.
The latter may be a current of electricity,
or it may be energy in the form of heat.
Thus the layers of asbestos, magnesia, gran-
ulated cork or mineral wool which the steam
fitters wrap around steam pipes in basements
and around the "risers" or vertical pipes
leading to the upper stories of tall build-
ings, are insulations. They are heat in-
sulation just as truly as the wrappings around
copper wire are current (or electrical) in-
sulations. Hence the curious instance of a
large Milwaukee and New York concern in
which the electrical department is entirely
distinct from the insulation department, the
latter being devoted to the sale of heat-
nsulating pipe coverings.
How steep a grade are trolley cars able
to climb ?
The answer depends not only on the speed
at which the cars are run in proportion to
the power of their motors, but also on the
loads they have to carry. Steam railroads
can readily limit the number of persons
crowding into one of their cars; but the
moment an electric line tries to do the same
there is a general protest from the public,
for apparently everything is thought possible
when electricity is the moving power.
Thus on the electric railway running from
the mining town of Cripple Creek to the city
of Victor in Colorado, the rush hours often
find the miners not only filling the cars but
crowding the roofs as well, so that the load
is far beyond that for which the cars were
planned. Still the cars readily take the
steep grades, climbing a thousand feet in a
distance of three miles and making the total
run of six miles in the remarkable quick time
of forty minutes.
The grades on the Cripple Creek side
average 6\ per cent and the same cars
could easily climb much steeper grades if
they were to carry only the number of
passengers which they could readily accom-
modate.
Why Electric Autos Wear Longest
"Whom the gods would destroy, they
first make mad." Thus said the ancients
tens of centuries before the days of our
present machinery. Were those same Greeks
or Romans alive today, they probably would
apply the same saying to modern devices
such as our automobiles. To them the
auto having a mechanism that jerks, twists
and thumps would seem possessed of some
mad spirit that was working to destroy it;
as indeed it is, for sudden strains do more
to shorten the life of any machine than is
done by long continued smooth running.
This absence of jarring and pounding is
one of the great differences between the
electric and the gasoline autos. With an
equally strong framework and mechanism
(or even with a somewhat lighter one for
the electrically propelled vehicle) it takes no
expert to see that the madly thumping one
will be the one that will need the frequent
repairs and that will give out much sooner
than its smoothly purring competitor.
34
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Freak Electric Locomotive
This picture is not part of the structure
of a bridge as the reader may at first glance
assume, but is a very oddly built electric
locomotive for hauling canal boats. The
masonry work upon which the locomotive
rests is a roadway along a canal near Bremen,
Growth of the Telephone Business
FREAK ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
Germany, and has to be kept clear for the
passage of teams. In order to do this, the
two U-shaped steel structures were built
and held together by the connecting girder.
The trolley wires supply a motor located
in the upper part of the peculiar locomotive
and also furnish current for lamps which
light the roadway as the locomotive passes
along.
Electric Switch Mat
Operators of machines driven by small
electric motors are apt to forget to turn off
the current when they leave the machine.
The mo tor keeps
on running and
wastes current.
The Beynon
switch mat is de-
signed to pre-
vent this waste.
It is so con-
structed that the
weight of the
feet on the up-
per surface presses itjiown and closes the
circuit. Upon lifting the feet the circuit
is opened and the motor stops.
ELECTRIC SWITCH MAT
President Theodore N. Vail has sent to
the 35,000 stockholders of the American
Telephone and Telegraph Company the
annual report of the directors, showing that
1909 was a year of remarkable progress.
The important activities include the pur-
chase of a substantial in-
terest in the Western Union
Telegraph Company, the
conversion of over a hun-
dred million dollars of
bonds into stock, the in-
crease in the number of
shareholders by over nine
thousand during the year
and the rearrangement of
territories of some of the
associated companies in
accordance with state or
geographical boundaries.
The number of sub-
scribers' telephone stations
in the Bell system was
increased to over five mil-
lions, including one and
a half millions operated
by connecting companies; the wire mile-
age of the Bell companies has been in-
creased to over ten million miles, the
traffic has increased to" nearly twenty million
connections a day, amounting to six and a
half billion connections a year; the plant
additions were over $28,000,000, with nearly
$45,000,000 applied out of revenue to
maintenance and reconstruction purposes,
with the result that the plant has steadily
become more permanent.
All the telephone apparatus of the Bell
Companies is manufactured by the Western
Electric Company, being concentrated prin-
cipally at its great plant in Hawthorne, 111.,
a suburb of Chicago. The business of this
latter company showed an improvement of
$3,000,000 net during the year.
The relation between the telegraph and
the telephone and the obligations of the
company to the public consequent upon
taking over a substantial interest in the
Western Union Telegraph Company are
explained at some length.
Briefly stated, it is maintained that the
two services are supplemental or auxiliary
to one another rather than competitive.
Telegraphy eliminates time of transit of
correspondence, by the electrical transmis-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
35
sion of the text from the office of origin, to
the office of destination, but it is incomplete
in that the methods of collection and de-
livery are slow and primitive.
Telephony eliminates distance by placing
parties at distant points in direct personal
communication with each other, but the
expense prohibits its use for the transmission
of written messages over long distances.
Telegraph operation requires a separate,
distinct and entirely different operating
organization and equipment from that of
a telephone company. Line construction
and maintenance are common to both and
can be combined or performed jointly with
economy. The same wires may be used
for both telephone and telegraph circuits at
the same time, but the wires must be
strung differently, and the differentiation
continues from that point. Where there is
density of message traffic sufficient to keep
busy an expert telegraph operator, the tele-
phone cannot compete with the telegraph
in handling message traffic, but where the
traffic is comparatively light, the telephone
will gradually supersede the telegraph in
handling message traffic. Each will have
its well-defined field, the telegraph between
centres of density and for long distances,
the telephone for short distances and for
collection and distribution between the
customer and such centres.
Creeping of Rails
English as It Is "Translated"
When foreign technical writers try their
hands at the king's English, the resulting
twists of words are sometimes rather curious.
Part of them are easily understood, as for
example the term "glow lamp," which the
British persistently use instead of saying
incandescent lamp, as we do. But other
expressions are not so easily accounted for,
as for instance the following five gleaned
from a 1909 edition of a prominent tech-
nical dictionary:
Stretching Insulator (Strain Insulator).
Hook Screw (Screw Hook).
Cross Rod (Ground Anchor).
Indicator Disk Drop (Annunciator Drop).
Wall Lamp Holder (Wall Socket).
Perhaps those of us who are not interested
in promoting Esperanto or some other
prospective world-tongue, would do well
to try and standardize the terms of our own
international language.
As you sat the other afternoon in a swiftly
moving interurban car, being carried to
your destination, you probably did not
realize that the steel pathway which stretched
out ahead of you is moving just a little in
the direction you
are going. The
rails are "creep-
ing," and that
gang of men who
stepped aside to
let you pass are
sawing off rails,
readjusting
joints, and re-
placing track
bolts due to this.
Roads having
two or more
tracks with traffic in one direction on each
are subject to this trouble.
Engineers and trackmen are not (mite
sure as to the cause, but the blows given the
end of a rail by the wheels, and the wave
motion given to it are supposed to be re-
sponsible. The illustration shows a device
to prevent creeping, any tendency to move
in the direction of traffic only causing the
clamp to grip the rail closer.
RAIL CLAMP
Please to Push the Button
If Rip Van Winkle were to awaken today,
we can easily imagine him as looking in vain
for the massive knocker at the front door of
almost any house he might approach. Of
course among English speaking peoples we
have no such out-of-time folks to deal with,
but they are still to be found among the
people of the smaller villages in other lands
where even as simple an electric device as
the doorbell has been slow to introduce and
they need be told how to use it. That at
least is what we would infer when we find
pushbuttons still on the German and Austrian
markets labeled "Bitte zu Driicken," which
in our tongue reads "Please to Push."
36
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Purifying a City's Water Supply
The water supply of Jersey City, N. J.,
is derived from the Rockaway River and is
impounded in the Boonton reservoir, having
a capacity of 8,500 million gallons. A
rather unusual feature of this great under-
taking is that the water itself provides the
power by which it is sterilized and made
wholesone to drink.
A common method of sterilizing water
is to use a substance known as hypochlorite
of sodium. A very small quantity of this
so-called "bleach" will purify a vast quan-
tity of water, the objectionable bacteria in
the water being destroyed by oxidation.
At this plant the hypochlorite of sodium is
made by passing an electric current through
an electrolytic cell containing a solution of
common salt (sodium chloride) and water.
The electricity for this purpose is generated
on the spot by a water turbine and dynamo
driven by the water from the reservoir on
its way into the pipes which supply the city.
Thus the water not only serves the purpose
of quenching the thirst of thousands but
at the same time provides the means for
its own purification.
After it is sterilized the water is carried
to the city through a steel pipe conduit 23
miles long, the average flow being 40 million
gallons a day.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
37
First Aerial Lighthouse
To make aerial navigation even reason-
ably safe at night, there will have to be
strongly lighted points corresponding to the
lighthouses on our coasts and rivers. The
first of these has already been provided by
the German government which has fitted up
a tower at Spandau for this purpose. The
equipment consists simply of 38 incandes-
cent lamps of high candle power placed up-
right on a circular horizontal frame some
twenty feet in diameter. By flashing the
lamps at stipulated intervals, they will also
be tried as a means of signaling at night
to the military airships and dirigible balloons
during the spring maneuvers at Spandau.
Thus begins the new era when lighthouses
will no longer be confined to points on our
seacoasts and along navigable streams, but
will dot our inland landscapes also.
weight, one firm is building them after the
general plan of our farm thresher engines,
with the engine mounted right on the boiler.
The combination is considerably cheaper
to transport to distant lands than the sep-
arate boiler and engine would be for the
same capacity, and can easily be of much
higher efficiency than our farm engines.
The illustration shows such a 235 horse-
power combination, the engine being a
compound one, in the electric light plant at
Lorenzo Marques in Portuguese South
Africa. It also shows the native helpers
of the electric light company who are being
trained to understand the value of electrical
devices.
No Longer an Infant
Boiler-Top Electric Light Engine
In exporting apparatus of any kind, the
transportation rate depends partly on the
weight and partly on the space which the
goods occupy in the hold of the vessel.
BOILER-TOP ELECTRIC LIGHT ENGINE
Knowing this the Germans who have been
more keenly after the export trade than we
of the United States, have designed some
unusually compact types of machinery for
this export trade. Thus instead of offering
boilers and engines with separate bases,
each of which adds to both the bulk and the
Among people of any education we now
very rarely find any one so poorly informed
as to repeat the old phrase that "electricity
is still in its infancy." However it takes
time for well balanced conceptions of any
topic to become universal and occasionally
our readers may still find some ready to
repeat this long outworn quotation. If they
do, just let them be ready with a few figures
to show the. healthy
strength of the so-called
infant. Not figures as to
the extensive use of elec-
trical devices (for a few
decades more may make
the present number of
users seem quite paltry)
but as to the rate of de-
velopment attained in
electrical devices as com-
pared with any others.
For instance, the steam
engine, in spite of so
many years of develop-
ment, rarely reaches an
efficiency of 16 or 17 per
cent, while dynamos and
motors with an efficiency
of 85 or 90 per cent are
commonplace and even 96
per cent is frequently
reached. In other words, these electric
devices have already attained five or six
times as much of their possible growth in
efficiency as the steam motors which are
many times as old in years.
Which then is really the immature
38
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
A car, driven by electricity, which may be operated without a trolley wire or third
rail, is realized in the type shown in the illustration and is somewhat dif erent frcm
the one described in the January issue. This car may be run over steam roads or city
car tracks. A direct current, electric dynamo is coupled to a ioo horse-power, eight-cylinder
gasoline engine and supplies current to two 60 horse-power motors. A water cooler for keep-
ing the engine cylinders at a low temperature is shown on the roof of the car. A storage
battery lights the car, and heat is provided by passing the exhaust of the engine through
pipes in the car.
Electricity Solves a Dredging
Problem
A land company was recently engaged in
pumping sand out of the bed of the Des
Moines river near Ottumwa, la., and load-
ing it into cars on the river bank. The out-
fit consisted of a centrifugal pump on the
bank driven by a steam engine. A long
MOTOR PUMP ON A DREDGE
pipe extended out into the river from the
pump, supported on floats, and sucked the
sand and water up from the bed of the
stream.
In high water the pump was submerged
and they could not work. In low water
the pipe line had to be extended half way
across the river and it was almost impossible
to retain an air tight suction system.
While in this predicament the Ottumwa
Railway and Light Company suggested that
it be allowed to try a motor driven outfit,
which, after considerable argument and
figuring was permitted.
It was then possible to put the pumping
outfit out in the middle of the river on a
barge; the cost of this would have been
prohibitive with a steam plant. A 75 horse-
power motor was put on the barge along with
the pump. The suction end of the system
was thus very short, being only from the
pump down into the bed of the stream,
and there was almost no leakage. After
leaving the pump the sand and water was
forced through the long pipe line under pres-
sure instead of by suction. Here there was
some leakage at the joints, but it was the
water which leaked out instead of the sand,
so no harm was done.
This system worked so well that they were
able to fill a car with sand in 30 minutes in-
stead of in one and one-half to three hours
by the old method. Moreover the electric
pump would work in all stages of water.
Letters By Telegraph
The Western Union Telegraph Company
have inaugurated a night letter service be-
tween the hours of 6 p. m. and midnight.
Between these hours fifty words may be
sent at the same rate as ten during the day.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
39
Lamp Adjuster
A Pioneer Telegrapher
The sketch illustrates the "Noslip" lamp
adjuster for regulat-
ing the height of an
incandescent lamp when
it is attached to the
ordinary lamp cord.
The device is made
of hard fibre and the
weight of the lamp and
cord, when the latter
is threaded through the
two holes, causes the
two cams which turn
on centers to turn
slightly and grip the
cord so that it can-
not slip. The cord is
put in place by removing the center
piece.
LAMP ADJUSTER
Arc Lengths Vary with the Gas
When Louis B. Marks, who is now one
of the prominent illuminating engineers of
New York City, developed the first success-
ful enclosed arc lamp, he
found that the length of
the arc is much longer in
a partial vacuum than in
the open air.
If instead of air we use
some simple gas in the
enclosing globe, the
lengths will again change
according to the gas used.
And more than this: Vil-
lari (a French scientist )
has found that the arcing
length changes even in the
same gas when the current
is reversed. Thus in
comparing hydrogen and
oxygen as gases for use
in the arc chamber, he found that with the
positive carbon uppermost, the arc in
oxygen was 25.7 times as long as in hydro-
gen; but when the negative carbon was up-
permost, the arc in oxygen was only five
times as long as in hydrogen.
The average experimenter might not have
thought of reversing the current, so this
shows how many factors must be watched
by the true scientist and how important it is
to have the test readings cover varying con-
ditions.
Colonel Joseph Green, one of the oldest
telegraphers in this country, while visiting
the Philadelphia Electrical Show sent a
wireless message from the station to ships
on the Atlantic. He is 77 years old, and
remembers the time when the telegraph
instrument was as much of a curiosity as is
wireless apparatus today. Colonel Green
had the unusual honor in his younger days
of hearing Professor Morse use the tele-
graph key, and of "working a wire" with
Thomas A. Edison.
Street Lighting Once Thought
Sacrilegious
Those of our readers who have traveled
in continental Europe will recognize this
characteristic profile of the city on the Rhine
that was over six centuries erecting the mag-
nificent cathedral whose 500 foot spires are
among the tallest in all lands. But few of
them may know that one of the greatest
battles in the early campaign for street light-
ing was fought here almost a hundred years
ago, centering largely around the city hall
whose magnificent tower shows at the left
of the cathedral in the silhouette. The most
influential local paper, the Koelncr Ameiger
even combated the proposed street lighting
on religious grounds, contending in strong
editorials that "had the Almighty intended
to have night turned into day, he would have
created a second sun to shine after dusk."
To this the advocates of street lighting
promptly replied: "Then since the Lord
did not create a second sun, do you mean
to imply that He intended us all to go to bed
with the chickens ?" For, devout as the peo-
ple of Cologne were, they would go out after
dark and were soon won over to the adoption
of a general system of street lighting. This
meant an extensive installation of gas lamps
which in recent years have been supple-
mented and partly replaced by electric
lights, for the great city on the Rhine con-
tinues to be among the progressive ones.
40
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Electric Lighting on Shipboard
The electric wiring on board ships, espe-
cially those navigating in salt water, is diffi-
cult to keep in good condition unless well
installed. It may interest some to know
that this class of wiring has received parti-
cular attention from the Underwriters' Na-
tional Electric Association in that the Code
devotes several
pages to " Rules
for Marine Wir-
ing."
Salt water on
any current car-
rying device acts
very readily as a
carrier of current
to ground, and
copper also is led
away, and what is
called electrolysis
or electrolytic
action takes place
soon, leaving the
damp copper in a
corroded condi-
tion.
The lighting fix-
ture shown is pro-
tected from me- protected lamp used
chanical injury on shipboard
by a substantial
guard. Inside of this is a heavy glass
globe, commonly called a "vapor-tight
globe, "/screwed against a rubber gasket in
the metal box containing the socket. The
use of heavier metal in the conduit outlet
than usual may also be noted, the whole
device forming a water-tight fitting.
The Relief of Lucknow
Again the appeal for aid has come from
the famous city in British East India where
1700 men held out for twelve weeks against
a besieging force of 10,000 during the mutiny
of 1857. But this time it will not be a thrill-
ing theme for a Lowell to treat in poetry or
a Bruch to set to music. For now it is relief
from darkness and backwardness that this
ancient city is seeking when it is asking for-
eign manufacturers to figure on lighting it
electrically. And the relief will surely come,
for a city of 250,000 people must offer a good
field for electrical progress even in benighted
India.
Galileo and the Telegrapr
Had that keen observer, Galileo, been as
fond of writing fiction as he was of stating
exact facts, we might today be crediting him
with being the first to predict the telegraph.
Indeed, he just missed his opportunity, for
in his "Dialogues" one of the speakers has
this to say: "You remind me of a man who
wished to tell me a secret for enabling one
to speak, by means of a certain sympathy
of magnetized bars, to some one at a distance
of two or three thousand miles. I said to
him that I would willingly purchase the
secret, but that I would first like to see the
experiment, and that it would satisfy me to
perform it, I being in one of my rooms and
he in another. He answered me that at so
short a distance the operation could not well
be seen. Thereupon I dismissed him, say-
ing that I had no desire just then to go to
Cairo or Moscow to see his experiment, but
that if he, however, would go thither himself
I would do the rest by remaining at Venice."
Evidently Galileo had some idea of the
transmission of signals. A Jules Verne
would not have ended the matter there, but
would have sent one of the parties a thousand
miles off to test the suggested magnetic
celegraph. But Galileo, intent on his studies
of pendulums, telescopes and the solar sys-
tem, was too sober a scientist for this.
Some years later the report spread in France
and Germany that it was possible to cor-
respond at a distance by means of magnets,
but it took two more centuries to make this
an accomplished fact.
High Efficiency Lamps in Ireland
That the proverbially thrifty Scot should
take advantage of the high efficiency tanta-
lum and tungsten lamps to save current, was
to be expected. But how about his col-
leagues of the Emerald Isle? If any one
thinks they have been left behind, let him
read the recent news from Dublin. There
the people took so generally to the high
priced, current-saving lamps that it cut the
revenues of the electric light plant down to
a losing point, whereupon the Dublin Elec-
tric Light Commission ordered a ten percent
advance in the rate for current! Can this
be another proof of the contention that cen-
turies ago part of the Scotch emigrated to
Ireland, taking their characteristic thrift
with them?
ELECTRIC CURRENT ATWORK
NE W DEVICES FOR APPLYING ELECTRICITY
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"Stay Connected" Connector
An hour spent in hunting for a broken
wire or trouble on a bell or alarm system
operated by batteries, frequently ends in
finding one or more loose contacts where the,
wires are attached to the
binding posts of the bat-
tery cells.
The Fahnestock con-
nector is designed to hold
the ends of two wires
which are to be joined to
close a circuit, the cur-
rent flowing from one to
the other through the
metal of the connector.
It is also made in a slightly different form
to act as a battery binding post. Obvi-
ously no tools are necessary in making
connections.
CONNECTOR
Telephone Booth Ventilation
"Gee! But that's a hot place." How
often that remark is made by someone who
has just emerged from a telephone booth
on a moderately warm day. The ordinary
' T^^^yvw*-"*** -rrwy- .::. ■
.'•:A
LOCAL Ar>
S UBU R.B/«
EXCHANG
TELEPHONE BOOTH FAN
Hi '
LOCAl
S U B U
Jnfi
E.XCH/
telephone booth contains about 40 cubic
feet of air, and in some states health depart-
ments require that this air be changed at
the rate of 30 cubic feet per minute.
The picture illustrates a booth ventilating
apparatus manufactured by the B. F.
Sturtevant Company, Hyde Park, Mass.
The equipment consists of a motor,- fan,
piping, and diffuser shown inside the booth.
Fifty cubic feet of air can be blown into two
or more booths every minute without noise,
the air being released by a patent arrange-
ment which does not affect the hearing at
the receiver. Further, the dead air breathed
by a previous user and containing germs of
disease, perhaps, is driven away.
Lifting Magnets Save Space
One reason why electric magnets are
preferred by modern steel mills to the old
types of devices for gripping the articles to
be lifted, is because they save space both in
handling and in storing the articles. For
HOW LIFTING MAGNETS SAVE SPACE
instance, in handling steel I-beams by the
old method, the tongs or grapple-hooks
themselves spread7 out alongside the flange
of the beam, so that these beams cannot
be set close to each other. They may be
slid over afterwards, but that requires manual
labor and also means that they must either
be slid back or tipped up when they are to
be gripped again. Electromagnets, as now
used more and more for such work, save
this extra time and labor. With them each
beam or rail can readily be set snug up against
the previous one so as to use the storage
space to the best advantage.
42
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
TESTING APPARATUS FOR AUTOMATIC JOURNAL ALARM
Heat Alarm in Grain Elevators
"Insuring grain elevators is a lottery,"
remarked an insurance man recently. Filled
with floor openings and chutes, with always
an unavoidable quantity of grain-dust and
dirt present, a fire spreads rapidly in this
class of buildings.
An overheated bearing covered with oil
THE JOURNAL THERMOSTAT, CIRCUIT
OPEN AND CLOSED
and dust affords good conditions to start a
fire. Automatic journal alarms used in
18 elevators in Chicago and in something
like 42 in other cities, gives warning of hot
bearings by ringing electric bells. The
small illustrations show a journal ther-
mostat, one being set in the cap of every
bearing and connected to bells and bat-
teries. (A) [is metal surrounded by hard
rubber (B), upon which fits a metal base
(F). The coiled spring and T-shaped
metal (C) are held down by solder which
melts at 1650 F., closing the circuit at (A)
to ground. This operation rings a bell
which gives the number of the circuit where
the trouble may be, and the oiler can thus
locate theAbearing quickly.
The testing apparatus is usually located
in the engine room. The right hand portion
of the large illustration is a clock arrange-
ment which may be revolved, making an
electrical contact with the fingers shown,
telling the engineer whether or not the cir-
cuits are clear. On the left are magnetic
drops, one for each circuit. A fused thermo-
stat operates the drop which tells the number
of the circuit needing attention.
The "Western Fire Appliance Works,
Chicago, which installs and maintain this
system, states that a record covering several
years shows that the number of warnings of
dangerously hot bearings in any elevator
every three years equals the total number of
bearings.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
43
Electric Hoists as Time Savers
In moving machinery or materials by
means of a crane, every minute saved in
time increases the daily capacity of the
man operating the machine; and where the
parts moved are so heavy that it takes sev-
eral men to guide them, every minute saved
in the time of handling these materials
counts for all of the men. For quite heavy
loads a slow speed means severe enough
strains on the crane and hoist, but when the
loads are lighter it is logical that the same
hoist should move them more quickly.
This is actually done by modern electric
hoists which are so designed that the speed
changes automatically with the load. Thus
in the case of a three-ton electric crane the
rate of raising or lowering varies as follows,
in feet per minute:
Load 6000 lbs Speed
4000
2500
2000
1000
500
None
ft.
13
15
In other words, the empty hook returns
to a new position in one-third of the time it
took to move it with the three-ton load.
Combined Insulation Cutter and
Pliers
It is no small trick to be able to remove
the insulation from a wire quickly and deftly
COMBINED INSULATION CUTTER AND
PLIERS
in preparing it for a soldered joint. Wire,
being "drawn," has a hard outer surface,
which, if it be nicked with a knife when cut-
ting through the insulation, loses much of
CUTTING INSULATION
its strength and the wire is liable to break
at that point if there is any vibration or
working back and forth. Also in "skinning"
the wire it is quite difficult to do a neat job
quickly as
the insula-
tion tends to
fray out.
The Goehst
combination
cutting pliers
and insula-
tion cutter,
made by Ma-
th ias Klein &
Sons, is a
novel tool designed to
relieve ' the wireman
from working with
jack-knives and other
make-shift tools.
When cutting insula-
tion hold the wire in
the V-shaped cutters
and press the jaws
firmly together, when
the insulation will be
cut through. It may
then be pressed off
with the flat nose of
the pliers as shown in
the second illustration.
The method of slit-
ting the insulation on slitting insula-
duplex wire is shown tion
in the third illustra-
tion and is very simple, being done with the
cutting jaws. These jaws are forced through
the insulation and the pliers drawn toward
the operator, the insulation being cut as
rapidly and as clean as a piece of cloth with
a sharp pair of scissors.
44
POPULAR ELECI RICH Y
Electric Smelting Furnace
An Ironclad Bell
The accompanying illustration shows an
iron and steel smelting furnace located in
Domnarfvet, Sweden. Three-phase alter-
nating current at 40 volts is turned onto
three electrodes, two of which are shown
plunging down at an angle in the top of the
furnace. These electrodes are raised and
ELECTRIC SMELTING FURNACE
lowered by wires and pulleys. The lower
ends come close together in the lower part
of the furnace and the heavy current forms
an arc across from one to the other so that
intense heat is generated. No air is used in
this furnace. The charge is made up of
ore, lime, coke and charcoal.
When the charge is melted the plug shown
in front is removed and the glowing liquid
metal flows out through the spout.
New Rotary Snap Switch
The Tirrill snap switch upsets our idea
that a rotary snap switch is usually placed
on the side wall. This switch is designed to
be placed on the ceiling. A strong fish cord,
attached to the interior mechanism, extends
through the switch cover to within reach.
One pull turns the light on, and a second
turns it off.
In the ordinary electric bell, the vibrating
stem requires a long slot in the cover over
the works, so that these cannot be completely
housed in. If this vibrating clapper could
be arranged to slide lengthwise through a
closely fitting opening in the cover, then the
mechanism could be better protected from
the weather.
This can be done by connecting the usual
vibrating armature of the magnet to a plun-
ger mounted so that it will strike the gong
at one end of its travel. It is easy to fit
this plunger snugly into an opening in the
casing which can be a heavy casting. The
wires are brought out through a stuffing
box which can easily be sealed watertight.
For marine use the castings can be made of
malleable iron and copper plated to with-
stand the action of the salty mists.
Electric Transfer Table
The Oneida Railway of New York has
adopted transfer tables to use in handling
their cars in switching at the barn instead
of putting in a costly layout of switches and
track that is not required with this arrange-
ment. Not only does the arrangement
ELECTRIC TRANSFER TABLE
quickly and efficiently convey cars from one
track to another, but it also does it silently
and without the changing of trolleys neces-
sary in switching. This device also saves
a considerable amount of space in front of
the barn for the laying of switch frogs
in the old method.
The movable track is run by a regular
car motor of fifty horsepower and controlled
with an ordinary controller. The photo-
graph shows one of the cars in the process of
handling by this unusual method.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
45
Motor Driven Grinder and Buffer
Along with the rapid increase in the use
of labor saving devices in shops and factories
comes a General Electric induction motor
equipped with an emery wheel, a water
supply arrangement and a tool rest about
MOTOR DRIVEN GRINDER AND BUFFER
the shaft on each side of the motor. The
entire device is shown in the illustration
and is a valuable help in shops where sharp
tools are necessary. The shaft being thread-
ed at each end, buffers for smoothing up
and finishing work may be attached when
desired.
Mine Telephone
Prevention of loss of life from fires in
mines has become imperative. The most
practical safeguarding measure that has
been advanced , by /authorities on the sub-
ject is a systematic use of the telephone.
The cut here shown is oCamimproved mine
MINE TELEPHONE
telephone made by the Western Electric Com-
pany which has special features adapting it
to damp underground places.
All the parts are enclosed in a compact
metal case, and when the door is closed they
are protected from the wet and from cor-
rosion due to acid fumes and gases, all of
which would quickly destroy the usefulness
of an ordinary, unprotected telephone.
The parts may also be readily removed with-
out the use of a soldering iron and so are easily
accessible for quick inspection and repair.
The gongs are especially designed to give
a loud, clear ring which can be heard a
long distance in the mine. They are
protected by a hood, making it im-
possible for large particles of foreign
matter to fall on them or interfere
with their action.
Charging Coke Ovens
The accompanying illustration shows
an electrically driven coke oven charging car
COKE OVEN CHARGER
designed and built at Columbus, Ohio.
A large driving motor of the rolling mill
type of construction is geared directly
to the rear axle of the car, and is
- 1 operated from the controller in the en-
closed cab at the left. This motor is
suspended from the truck frame by heavy
springs to reduce jarring strain on the
gears. A second motor operates two
shafts at the top of the hopper, and
from these, two "poking" rods prevent
the coal from clogging the discharge
spouts through which it must pass to the
ovens. At the top of the hopper are two trolley
poles instead of one as on the ordinary
trolley car; one trolley wire bringing the
current to the motors and the other con-
ducting it back to the power plant, an ar-
rangement frequently used in Europe on
trolley cars operated without a track.
40
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Room Illuminated by Miniature
Lamps
The world-renowned art dealers Keller
& Reiner of Berlin, Germany, have recently
remodeled their old establishment on Pots-
dam Street. One of the rooms in this
building is fitted up as a parlor containing
the most elaborate decorations. This par-
lor, which was designed by Prof. Peter
Behrens of Neubabelsburg-Erdmannshof,
contains something new in the way of illu-
mination.
possible by the miniature lamps, while
prisms of crystal glass heighten the light-
breaking and decorative effects. A faint
idea of the beauty of the arrangement is
shown in the picture, reproduced from
Mitterlungen der Berliner Elektricitats-Werke.
Humming of an Induction Motor
Inquiry is often made as to the cause of
the singing or humming of induction motors.
This in part is due to the vibration produced
MINIATURE LAMPS STRUNG IN FESTOONS
The visitor on entering the parlor is sur-
prised by what appears to be a wealth of
pearls spread in graceful festoons over the
whole upper part of the room. The artist
seems to have had the intention of proving
that the chains of small globular lamps,
destined originally by the General Electric
Company of this country for use only for
purposes of festive illumination, may well
be employed as permanent lighting factors.
And he arrived at his conclusion through the
consideration that the lighting of a room can
best be effected not by the strongly concen-
trated light from one source only, but by
the diffusive one, dissolved into numberless
small light centres. This method is made
along the air-gap by the teeth of the rotor
and is lessened by building the slots nearly
closed.
We know also that by striking a magnet-
ized steel bar several sharp blows with a
hammer that much, if not all of its mag-
netism will be lost. The theory of a magnet
is that its molecules arrange themselves
end to end along the path of the magnetic
lines of force, which are not strong enough
to hold these particles against the shock of
the hammer.
The changing magnetic action about the
laminated portions of an induction motor
no doubt causes vibrations which add their
notes to those of the air-gap's song.
Electrical Men of the Times
ENOS M. BARTON
The man whose strong face is pictured
on this page has played an important part
in the development of the electrical industry.
For forty years Mr. Barton was actively
engaged in the manufacture of electrical
apparatus, and when, in 1908, he retired
from the presidency of the Western Electric
Company to become chairman of the board
of directors, probably no man in the higher
positions in the entire
industry had exceeded
him in length of ser-
vice. Mr. Barton built
up a great business,
identified largely with
the telephone — a busi-
ness that numbered
its employees by the
tens of thousands and
became known around
the world. But he
traveled no easy road
to success.
Enos M. Barton was
born on a farm in
Lorraine Township,
Jefferson County,
N. Y., December 2,
1842. He now lives
on a farm, at Hinsdale,
near Chicago, but it is
a different sort of a
farm. He started in
life with one great ad-
vantage; he was well born — well born in
the American sense that he came from a
long line of sturdy, upright, native ancestors,
with the inestimable advantage of the ex-
ample and counsel of a good mother. The
Barton farm contained but 17 acres; the
household was one of plain living and high
thinking. The father, a school -master and
a scholarly man, died before Enos was 13,
and even before that the boy had gone to
work, first in a grocery store and later in
the Watertown (N. Y.) telegraph office,
where he learned the rudiments of tele-
graphy. Thereafter, for several years, he
had many vicissitudes. At one time the
ad was a clerk in the Watertown post-
office. Here his fellow clerk was the
late Roswell P. Flower, who became gov-
ernor of the state. In the intervals of various
employments, Enos was studying and going
to school when he could. At 16 we find
him a night telegraph operator in Rochester,
where he managed to attend a preparatory
school and later the University of Rochester,
where he remained a year. From 1861
to 1863 he was a West-
ern Union operator
in New York, hand-
ling press reports of
war news. While
there he entered the
University of New
York and completed
his sophomore year.
Returning to Roches-
ter as chief day oper-
ator, Mr. Barton work-
ed faithfully for sev-
eral years. Then he
managed, partially by
the help of his mother,
who mortgaged her
home, to raise the
money to enter into
the business of manu-
facturing electrical
supplies in Cleveland,
in partnership with
George W. Shawk.
This was in 1869.
The Cleveland enterprise prospered. With-
in a year Mr. Shawk sold out to Elisha
Gray, later one of the inventors of the tele-
phone. In 1870 Gray & Barton removed
to Chicago, General Anson Stager having
previously been admitted to the firm. The
ultimate successor of this business was the
Western Electric Company, formed in 1882,
of which Mr. Barton became president in
1886.
Mr. Barton has been a man of deeds
rather than words, but his work proves him
to be an executive of the very first rank.
His success has been conspicuous, and it has
beenan' honestly earned, clean success.
ELECTRICITY IN THE
HOUSEHOLD
The Electric Fireless Cooker
We hear a lot of talk these days about
fireless cookers. They all work on the
principle that a comparatively small amount
of heat is required for the ordinary cooking
operations if that heat can be confined and
not allowed to escape as wasted energy,
which is the case in the ordinary cook stove.
The simplest form of fireless cooker consists
of a large receptacle of some kind which is
lined with material which is non-conductive
of heat. Into this is set the cooking utensil
containing the food which is
to be cooked, the latter hav-
ing been partially cooked in
an oven or on the stove and
As stated above this is the principle of
the simplest form of fireless cooker. Obvi-
ously an improvement would be to generate
the small amount of heat necessary inside
of the cooker itself and do away with the
stove altogether. This idea has been worked
out in an electrical fireless cooker, the heat
being generated by electric lamps of special
design. These lamps are of low efficiency
as far as lighting goes but throw off a great
deal of heat as in the case of the lamps used
in luminous electric radiators.
You say you do not see
how an incandescent lamp
could produce a temperature
high enough to cook with.
CEREAL COOKER
PLATE WARMER
COFFEE URN
already at a high temperature. The fireless
cooker is then covered over airtight and left
to stand, the cooking process going on unin-
terruptedly for several hours due to the heat
already in the materials, which heat cannot
escape. Beans, which require a long time
to bake, can be thoroughly cooked through
in this manner after having been only
partially baked in an oven.
It could not if it were exposed and the
heat were constantly being carried away into
the atmosphere. But take that lamp and
confine it in a place where the heat cannot
escape and the temperature will immediately
rise to an astonishing degree.
In the line drawings showing the interior
of the utensils will be seen the principle
applied to an electric cereal cooker, plate
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
49
warmer and egg
poacher, and a coffee
urn. As will be seen,
the ordinary cooking
utensils such as are
sold by the thou-
sands, and conse-
quently of low price,
are employed, with
slight alterations.
Take for instance
the cereal cooker; an
ordinary one is em-
ployed and a hole
cut in the bottom
over which a tomato
can is soldered in an
inverted position to
receive the incan-
descent lamp. This
is mounted on a suit-
able, base to keep
the heat from escap-
ing. The same is true
of the coffee urn
and the egg poacher,
an outer heat-hold-
ing casing being
added where neces-
sary as in the case
of the urn. In every
case the lamp im-
parts its heat di-
rectly to a small
quantity of water
which comes in con-
tact with the vessel
which contains the
articles to be cooked.
It is held that in
these electric steam
and vapor cookers
with incandescent
lamps there is only
necessary the heat-
ing of a small film
or thin layer of water
to the boiling point
or thereabouts, the
vapor or steam aris-
ing from this small
amount of water do-
ing the cooking in the
steamer, while the re-
maining quantity of
water is at a much
lower temperature,
and is utilized only
as a source of sup-
ply or storage, while
it is at the same
time absorbing heat
APPLICATIONS OF THE FIRELESS COOKER
50
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
which is ordinarily wasted by
radiation.
As it is well known that
dead air space is one of the
best heat insulators, this is
taken advantage of in this
electric fireless cooker, by
providing air chambers and
outer shells, with air spaces
between the same, for re-
taining the heat, the water
boiling in the center while
the outer shell is compara-
tively cold. While with or
dinary fireless cookers the
heat is all first absorbed by
the water heated by a flame,
and then given off to the
food during the night, tht
electric cooker applies only i
small amount of heat elec
trically and continuously foi
a considerable length of time
the food being then hot anc
ready to be served.
With this system of fire
less cooker units the ordin
ary gas range becomes
merely a table as shown ir.
one of the pictures; in tht
dining room the sideboarc
becomes an electric kitchei
and in the bathroom the
curling irons and shaving
mug are heated upon the
same novel principle of utiliz-
ing the heat of lamps.
Why Should You Fear Electricity?
THE SIDEBOARD BECOMES AN ELECTRIC KITCHEN
strange and sensational electrical
There is probably no other subject in the
world with which really intelligent and
cultured people are so unfamiliar as
electricity. We all know, of course, that it
gives us light and runs motors which do a
variety of useful work, and that it will heat
flat irons, warming pads and a few small
utensils. But that is about as far as most
people's knowledge goes.
This is not at all surprising — in fact, if
people knew much more, that would be
remarkable. For, in the first place, elec-
tricity is such uncanny stuff — nobody in
the whole world knows what it is. All we
know is that it will do certain things. And
again, because of its very mystery, the news-
papers have always "played up" all the
stories
until many people are afraid of it.
Too few have told us about the millions
and millions spent to make electric service
not only safe but practically "fool proof."
Too few have bothered to show us that this
strange force has been so harnessed and
trained that a mere child can use it.
This lack of familiarity with electricity,
coupled with just a touch of hereditary fear
of the lightning flash, is back of that timidity
on the part of some women to adopt elec-
trical innovations. In this connection there
are two things to be remembered: modern
electrical construction will not permit you to
come in contact with live wires if you try;
wires of house circuits carry current at such
low potential or pressure that if you were
to contrive to touch them you would not
be harmed.
Plan of a Parisian Mansion
BY EMILE RUEGG
Those who read the description of the
wonderful electrical mansion of Georgia
Knap, which
appeared in
the January
issue of Popu-
lar Electricity,
may think that
the application
of electric cur-
rent was there
carried to ex-
treme. But
the curiosities
of today are
the realities of
tomorrow and
we cannot be
justified in say-
ing that houses
built on such
elaborate plans
may*[not Eeyen
become com-
mon as people
ELECTRIC MANSION OF GEORGIA KNAP
use electricity more and more. In this
article some views and plans are shown
which give a
better idea of
how the strange
things were ac-
complished in
Mr. Knap's
double - walled
house.
If electricity
is to be fully
applied it is
evident that
the exposure
of wires, tubes,
motors, switch-
boards, rails
and machinery
of all descrip-
tions would
make an awk-
ward appear-
ance, thus
spoiling much
BILLIARD ROOM WITH DISAPPEARING TABLE
52
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
ot the real value which such service would
otherwise afford.
It is quite natural therefore to build such
a mansion on the plan of double walls,
which plan was carried out.
The construction of double walls gives
to the house real value if we consider that
they keep the building warm in winter and
protect it against the heat of midsummer.
The chill of the rainy
weather with all its con-
sequences may also be al-
most completely elimi
nated. Then, too, the
water and other pipes are
kept from freezing in win-
ter, besides being hidden
from view, and are easily
reached and repaired
without intruding into the
costly rooms. All the
wires, motors, conduits,
etc., are easily accessible
if necessary and remain
unseen at the same time.
The plan of the main
floor as shown here indi-
cates how the double
walls are arranged, the
space between the inner
and outer walls being
three or four feet. They
can be entered and the
wires, pipes and cables
can be put in and ar-
ranged to suit the require-
ments of the various
rooms.
In the dining room is shown the unique
electrically served table which was de-
scribed in the previous article. In the
billiard hall the billiard table is so arranged
that by closing a switch the table is lowered
by a motor into the basement beneath, the
opening closed up, and then the room may
be used for a ball room.
With all the plans and illustrations shown
here and in the previous article it is
easy to imagine how an electric mansion
might be arranged to the best possible
advantage.
As said before, although this may all
seem somewhat visionary, still such houses
have been built, several of them, in Paris,
according to Mr. Knap's plans, and there
is no reason why they should not ultimately
become popular.
From Whence Comes the Heat?
"Mama, where does the heat come from ?"
asked a io-year-old boy as he pointed to a
dish of water boiling on an electric heater,
and at the same time felt of the cord that
led from the plug to the device. "The
electricity does it," replied the mother, and
there is where we nearly always stop ex-
PLAN OF THE DOUBLE-WALLED MANSION
plaining.
When electric current^ travels along a wire
it expects plenty of room, and when this is
not provided, a protest is made in the form
of heat, part of the energy of the current
being used up in overcoming the obstruc-
tion to its flow, called "resistance." If a
fine piece of platinum wire be inserted at
some point in a copper wire carrying cur-
rent, it will oppose the passage of this, more
than does the copper wire, and the platinum
will become white hot. This is just what
takes place in any electric heating apparatus
when you turn on the current, but here the
resistance which may be fine wire or some
thin fiat metal between the two ends of the
copper wire in the cord, is hidden under the
heater plate, on in the "heating unit", as
it is called.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
53
An Electrical Fan the Year Around
With the approach of warm summer days
it is natural to think about buying an elec-
tric fan for the home. Last summer and the
summer before you were on the point of
doing it, but put it off until the worst days
were over and then thought that the fan
would be useless until the next hot season,
so didn't get it.
Did you ever stop to think of the electric
fan as an all-the-year-around proposition?
Probably not. But just the same there is
hardly a day in the year when it cannot be
used to advantage.
Very little need be said about its advan-
tages in the summer time when its cool
breeze is a blessing. But aside from its
cooling properties it may be made to act
as a ventilating device on those particularly
muggy days when there "isn't a breath of
air stirring" and it seems impossible to
change the air in the house even with all
the windows up.
At such times a little 12-inch fan when
Jit
properly placed in front of a window will
create a very noticeable circulation of air.
By driving the air out of the house in this
manner air from the outside must of course
come in at other points to fill the vacuum
and so the air circulation is obtained.
In the cold-
est days of
winter it is a
good plan to
place a fan
near the steam
radiator so that
the breeze from
it will play up-
on the coils.
This will be
found a very
efficient means
of driving the
heat from the radiator to the farthest [cor-
ners of the ' room — heat which otherwise
would rise to the ceiling. Also if the
house is heated by a furnace the same effect
may be obtained by placing the 'fan near
the register.
Some days it is almost impossible to get
the furnace to "draw" properly, especially
on those cold, still mornings in the winter.
Then you may transfer the fan from the
room above down into the basement and
set it in front of the furnace draft. It is
GIVES BETTER HEAT
DISTRIBUTION
HELPS THE FURNACE
"DRAW"
surprising how quickly the furnace will re-
spond to tnis treatment and get down to
business.
On cold
mornings you
have had
trouble with
frost on the
windows. Do
you know that
a fan placed
in front of a
window so that
the breeze will
play upon the
glass will very
soon clear away every trace of frost?
This principle is often utilized in show win-
dows to good advantage.
There are
days when the
clothes cannot
be hung out
to dry ; then
1 is when a fan
becomes the
assistant of the
laundress and
you will be sur-
prised how
quickly the
clothes will dry
in the base-
ment.
The breeze of the fan is also a ready and
efficient aid in drying out one's hair after a
shamDoo.
DRIES THE CLOTHES
PERFECTION
DRIES THE HAIR
No matter what the season may be there
is always a use for the fan.
JUNIOR SECTION
An Electrical Laboratory for Twenty-Five
Dollars
By DAVID P. MORRISON
PART V.
ALTERNATING CURRENT AMMETER AND VOLTMETER
the brass tube. Cut from some g-inch brass
two pieces one inch long and f-inch wide.
The ammeter and voltmeter described in
the previous chapter will work satisfactorily
on a direct-current circuit, but it cannot be
used in measuring alternating current and
voltage. The instruments described in the
following article will operate on both alter-
nating and direct current circuits, but their
indication is more accurate when used on
the former.
"The repulsion" or "magnetic vane" type
of ammeter or voltmeter depends in its
action upon the fact that, if two pieces of
soft iron be placed inside a coil carrying a
current they both become magnetized in the
same direction; and since like magnetic
poles repel, the result is the two pieces of
iron repel each other. If one of these pieces
is fixed and the other free to move the two
pieces will be separated. The force tending
to separate them will depend upon the degree
to which they are magnetized, which in turn
depends upon the current flowing in the coil
surrounding them. The movable piece can
be balanced on a small shaft that is parallel
to the axis of the coil, and mounted between
two bearings so that it is free to move. This
movable element can be caused to assume
a definite position by attaching the inner
end of a spiral spring to it and then fasten
the outer end of the spring to the stationary
part of the instrument. With this arrange-
ment the movable element will take a definite
position for a given current, since the spring
acts against the magnetic force tending to
move the two pieces of iron apart, and as a
result the deflection will be a measure of the
current flowing in the coil. This indication
can be read by means of a pointer attached
to the movable element and arranged to
move over a marked scale.
In the following instructions dimensions
are given for a moving system that may be
used as an ammeter or a voltmeter by simply
changing the winding; which will be explained
later.
Secure a piece of brass tubing ij inches
long, inside diameter 11-16 inch and a 1-16-
fig. 38
inch wall. Cut from some 1-1 6-inch sheet
brass two circular pieces five inches in diam-
eter. Make an opening in each of these
pieces one inch from their center and of
such a size that they will slip on the ends of
the brass tube. Cut from some £-inch brass
two pieces one inch long and f-inch wide.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
do
the holes before you
Drill two 3-32-inch holes in these pieces
f of an inch apart and tap them to take
a machine screw. Now solder them in
place as shown in Fig. 38, making sure they
are exactly in place when the solder cools.
If you tin the surface of the disks and the
back of the brass blocks you can join them
by first clamping them in place with an iron
clamp and then heating the joint until the
solder melts. The
solder on the sur-
faces no doubt will
be sufficient to hold
them ; if not, a little
more can be added,
making sure that
there is no solder in
cool the joint.
Cut from some |-inch brass three pieces
2\ inches long and \ inch wide. Drill a
^-inch hole in the center of each of these
pieces and tap it for a machine screw. Now
bend them into the form shown in Fig. 39.
They should then be soldered to the out-
side of one of the disks, as shown by dotted
lines and in cross-section in Fig. 38. The
spool formed from the two brass disks and
the tube is to be supported by these three
pieces, which will rest on the wooden base
of the instrument and be fastened to it by
three screws passed through from the under
side and countersunk.
The two brass disks can now be soldered
to the brass tube forming a spool, but before
doing this cut from some heavy pasteboard
two pieces whose dimensions correspond to
those of the brass disks. Slip these on the
tube before the last disk is soldered in place.
You must be very careful in forming this
spool to see that the two disks are parallel
and that their plane is perpendicular to the
axis of the coil.
The pasteboard disks should now be
fastened in place with some shellac. Wind
on the cylinder several turns of heavy paper
and shellac each layer in place.
Drill two |-inch holes in the lower disk
as indicated in Fig. 38, (Hi) (H2). The
terminals of the winding that is to be placed
on the spool are to be carried out through
these holes, and they should be insulated.
Small paper cylinders will serve this purpose
or the conductor can be well taped where it
passes through the metal.
The spool is now complete with one excep-
tion: you must saw a slot, with your hack-
saw, through both disks and one side of the
FIG. 40
tube as indicated by the line (L) in Fig. 38.
The purpose of this is to prevent the disk
acting as a short circuited secondary on
the field produced by the current in the coil.
Secure a piece
of very thin soft
iron, about two or \_\
three-hundredths
of an inch thick,
and cut from it a
piece whose di-
mensions corre-
spond to those given in Fig. 40. Bend this
piece into the form shown in Fig. 41. The
outside diameter of this piece after it is bent
should be a little more than the inside diam-
eter of the brass tube forming the center of
the spool. Slip this piece into the core so
that the projection is in the position shown
in Fig. 42. This piece
can be soldered in place
before the insulation is
put around the outside
of the brass tube by fil-
ing a groove in the tube
and applying the solder
from the outside, first
making sure you have the
iron in the proper place.
Cut from this same
fig. 41 piece of iron another
piece whose dimensions correspond to those
given in Fig. 43. This piece is to form the
moving element when properly supported.
Secure a piece of steel rod two inches long
and 1-16 inch, or a
little less, in diame-
ter. Point both ends
of this rod and tem-
per them. Now bend
the projecting lugs
on the piece of iron
around this steel rod
and solder it in
BrossCYLmdcr
FIG. 42
place as shown in Fig. 44.
Make a pointer or indicator, similar to
that shown in Fig. 43, from some very thin
sheet brass, and mount it on the steel rod
as shown in the figure. The piece of iron
and the needle should be on exactly opposite
sides of the steel rod.
Form a small brass cylinder \ inch long
from some 1 -16-inch brass by bending it
around a piece of iron that has an outside
diameter approximately the same as the
steel rod. Solder this cylinder in place as
shown in Fig. 44.
56
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Now obtain from the jeweler a small spiral
spring and solder its inside end to this
cylinder. The plane of the spring when it is
soldered in place, should be perpendicular
to the axis of the steel rod, and so arranged
that it coils up when
the end of the pointer
is moved toward the
right, the outer end
of the spring being
u soldered to a projecting
jz lug as explained later.
The moving system
is [now complete with
the exception of bal-
ancing which can be
done as follows:
Support the steel rod in a horizontal posi-
tion by allowing its end to rest on two par-
allel pieces of thin metal, which are also
horizontal. The lighter side can be easily
detected in this way and the system balanced
by adding solder or beeswax to the lighter
side. Your instrument will De a great deal
+ *
I
1 "
■ ' k * lo
"i
,1*3
-►
4-
♦ It.
+ 3-
16
«-
fig. 43
fig. 44
more accurate if properly balanced and its
indication will not depend upon it always
being in the same position as it was when it
was calibrated.
To mount the moving element inside the
brass tube you will need two supports for
the bearings in which the ends of the steel
rod are to be placed. Cut from some £-
inch brass two pieces whose dimensions cor-
respond to those of (A) and (B), Fig. 45.
Drill two holes in (A) to match those
drilled in the piece (A), Fig. 38. Now
mount this piece in place with' two machine
FIG. 45
screws, with one end projecting over the
opening in the tube. Cut two pasteboard
disks that will fit snugly inside of the tube
and place one in each end having made a
small hole in the exact center of them. Now
pass a long needle through both of these
holes until it strikes the projecting piece of
brass you just mounted. Mark the point
where the needle touches the brass, and drill
a 3-16-inch hole in it with this point as a
center.
Now. drill two holes in (B) to match those
in (B), Fig. 38. Bend this piece into the
form shown in Fig. 46 and fasten ' 'it rin
place with two
screws. Locate
a point on its
projecting end
as you did in
the previous
case and drill
a 3-16-inch
hole with this
point as a cen-
ter. Drill a 1- 16-inch hole in the end
of (B) after the end has been filed round
as shown in Fig. 45, and solder the end of
a piece of brass wire about i\ inches long
into this hole.
Two glass bearings can now bejnade as
described in the previous chapter and they
can be fastened in place with some common
sealing wax. The movable piece of iron
should be the same distance from each end
of the brass tube, when it is in place, which
can be accomplished by the proper adjust-
ment of the bearings in their supports.
Secure a piece of cherry or other close
grain wood 6\ inches long and $\ inches
wide, and one inch thick that is to serve
as a base for the instrument. Drill three
holes in this base to match those in the three
fig. 46
IM H'ULAR ELECTRICITY
'7
pieces shown in Fig. 39 that were soldered
to the lower side of the brass spool. Drill
two other holes to match those in the lower
brass disk, (Hi) and (H2) through which the
terminals of the circuit are to be passed.
The first three holes should be countersunk
so that the heads of the screws used in fasten-
ing the instrument to the base will be entirely
below the surface of the board.
Now mount two binding posts on the
board one in each lower corner. These
binding posts in the case of the voltmeter
need not be very large as they will carry a
small current, but should be considerably
larger for an ammeter as they are to carry
a greater current then, depending, of course,
upon the current capacity of the instrument.
It would be best for you to use binding posts
of the back connected type. Cut two
grooves in the under side of the base from
the binding post to the two holes (Hi) and
(H2). The binding posts should now be
removed, the edges of the board all rounded
off and the base thoroughly finished.
A cover or case with a glass top may next
be made to suit the fancy of the builder.
Your instrument is now ready for the
scale. Cut from some good quality white
cardboard a disk of the same size as the
upper brass disk in the spool. Make open-
ings in this disk so that it will drop down
upon the brass disk and fasten it in place
with shellac. Draw two arcs, with the bear-
ing as a center on the upper portion of the
cardboard disk. These arcs should be so
drawn that the end of the pointer is midway
between them and their length will depend
entirely upon the angle the moving element
is to move through. When the zero posi-
tion on the scale has been located you can
solder the outer end of the spring.
Bend the wire, projecting from the end of
the upper bearing support, down at right
angles so that it touches the outer coil of
the spring and cut off the end so that it is
just flush with the lower side of the spring.
Now solder the spring to this wire when the
needle is at zero.
It is impossible to give the proper number
of turns that must be placed on the spool
to give a full scale deflection, with a given
current through the winding, as there will
be slight differences in the construction of
different instruments, due to different quality
of iron, springs of different strength, etc.
You can determine the proper number, how-
ever, as follows:
Wind on the spool a few turns and pass
a known current through them, increasing the
number if the deflection is not large enough
and decrease them if it is too large. When
the current with which you desire to produce
a full scale deflection is flowing through the
winding the needle should be at the extreme
right of the scale. The wire you use must
be of sufficient current carrying capacity to
carry the current that will produce the maxi-
mum deflection without undue heating.
After adjusting the number of turns to their
proper value solder the ends to the binding
posts. You are now ready to calibrate
your instrument which can be done as fol-
lows :
Standard
0
1
FIG. 47
Connect the instrument in series with a
direct-current ammeter as shown in Fig. 47.
The switch (S) is a double pole, double
throw switch so connected that the current
through the instrument you are calibrating
can be reversed without changing it through
the standard ammeter. You will find that
there will be a difference in the indications
when the same value of current is flowing
through the instrument but in opposite di-
rections. The average of these two indi-
cations for the same current is the one that
an alternating current of the same value
would produce. Make a mark on the scale
to correspond to this average value. Now
decrease the current by disconnecting bat-
teries or changing the resistance (R) taking
two readings again for the same current
and making a mark on the scale to corre-
spond to the average. The nearer these
marks are together the more accurate the
scale, you of course need not determine all
of the small divisions in this way but can
approximate them quite closely after lo-
cating those corresponding to greater am-
pere steps.
It will always require the same number of
ampere turns to produce a full scale de-
flection, that is, the product of the number
of turns in the coil and the current will be
constant, so te double the current carrying
capacity of the instrument you will need to
58
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
reduce the number of turns to one-half of
their original value, making sure, however,
that your wire will safely carry the increased
current.
To make this same kind of a moving sys-
tem serve as a voltmeter you will need many
more turns of wire than in the ammeter
and the resistance of the winding should be
as high as possible. The ammeter will al-
ways be connected in series and its resistance
should be very small, while the voltmeter will
be connected across the circuit and its resist-
ance should be large to prevent a large cur-
rent flowing through it; which would mean a
loss. You will have to determine the re-
quired number of turns to produce the
desired deflection experimentally as you did
in the case of the ammeter. Start with
No. 28 B. & S. gauge copper wire and change
the number of turns until a full scale de-
flection is produced by the desired voltage.
The connection for making this calibration
Siandard
FIG. 48
is shown in Fig. 48. The new voltmeter is
connected through a double throw switch,
cross connected as shown in the figure, to
the same leads that the standard is connected
across. Two readings must be taken as in
the case of the ammeter, with the current
through the instrument reversed. If you
make a full scale deflection correspond to
fifteen volts the instrument can be made to
indicate higher values by connecting non-
inductive resistance in series with the coil.
To make a non-inductive resistance take
two wires and solder one pair of ends to-
gether and tape them, then wind them on a
wooden spool as though they were one wire.
The outside ends of these two wires will
form the terminals of the coil. The coil is
non-inductive because the current flows
around the core through one-half of the
turns in one direction and through the re-
maining half in the opposite direction and
as a result the magnetic effect of the current
is practically zero. The wooden spool can
be made such a size that it can be placed in
the upper part^of^the brass spool. A com-
mon binding post can be used and connection
made for various ranges as shown for the
direct current voltmeter.
A HANDY SWITCHBOARD
When you have completed your instru-
ments you can mount them on a switchboard
with your transformer and various connecting
switches. An inexpensive switchboard that
will serve your purpose nicely may be con-
structed as follows: Secure three pieces of
oak three feet long, 10 inches wide and f
inch thick. True up the ends and edges
and glue them together, making a piece 34
inches long and 28 inches wide. Fasten two
cleats of wood, 28 inches long, two inches
wide and | inch thick, across each end, with
screws about one inch from the end. It
might be well to glue these pieces in addition
to using the screws. Now give the piece
several coats of good shellac, paying par-
ticular attention to the finish of the front.
J Sw'ilctiboard
Bracked
FIG. 49
Construct two brackets, from some oak
pieces three inches wide, as shown in Fig. 49
that are to serve as supports for the switch-
board. Two other pieces 18 inches long,
three inches wide and § inch thick may be
used at the top to steady the board. The
figure shows a side view of a board supported
as just described.
The transformer previously described can
be mounted on the back of the switchboard
and the switches for varying the voltage con-
trolled by rods projecting through the board
with small handles or wheels on their outer
ends, as shown by (Ri) and (R2) in Fig. 50.
Your voltmeter and ammeter may be mount-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
59
ed in thejipper corners. It might be well
to stand them in place rather than to mount
them permanently and make the connections
to the binding posts so that they can be
easily disconnected when it is desired to use
the instruments in some other part of the
laboratory.
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Jf^sL.
WvVvVVVwW ] i
----/^-l^-ft,
Fig. 50 also shows the circuit for charging
a storage battery (which will be described
in the next chapter) with the electrolytic
rectifier, transformer and rheostat. This
circuit is of course subject to many changes
and is given merely to serve as a guide.
The voltmeter may be connected to either
side of the rectifier by means of the switch
(Si). To charge the battery close (S5) and
throw switch (S2) down. If you want the
ammeter to read the current in the alter-
nating current leads to the rectifier throw
switch (S4) up and switch (S3) down. If
you want the current flowing through the
battery throw (S4) down and (S3) up.
When you want to discharge the battery
throw switch (S2) up. The rheostat is
connected in this circuit and the ammeter
may be if desired. The terminals (A C)
are for the alternating current connection
which may be made with a piece of lamp
cord with a plug on one end to fit the socket
in the lighting fixture and the terminals at
the other end under the binding posts (A)
and (C). The terminals (DB) are for
taking current from your storage battery,
or they may be connected direct to the direct
current terminals of the electrolytic rectifier.
The additional handle (R3) on the right
of the board is to control a rheostat (to be
described later) that is placed in series with
the battery on charge and discharge. This
rheostat is to be mounted on the back of
the board with the transformer so you must
mount your tranfsormer on one side of the
center. Other switches may be mounted
on the board that will connect to the other
batteries you have constructed.
The rectifier and batteries should be
placed away from the board on account of
the gases they give off when in use.
Fuses are placed in the various circuits
and are represented by (F). The leads
lettered (1) are the alternating current leads
to the rectifier, those marked (2) are the
direct current leads from the rectifier and
those marked (3) are the battery leads.
(To be continued.)
To Operate a Bell from a Light
Circuit
A simple method which has been used
to operate electric bells from the lighting
circuit and do away with batteries is shown
in the diagram. A wire is led from one side
of the 1 10- volt circuit through a 108- volt
lamp and to one terminal of the bell. From
Bell
9.
1 /0 Volt Circuit -
WO Voli:
Lamp
-®-
Push Button
BELL OPERATED FROM LIGHT CIRCUIT
the other terminal of the bell a wire is led
through the push button switch back to
the other side of the circuit. When the
button is pressed the lamp lights up and the
bell rings. This scheme will work as long
as the voltage of the supply current is fairly
constant around no volts. If it should
fall, to around 108 for instance, the bell
would not ring. Likewise if the circuit is
alternating you will require a bell that will
ring on alternating current.
=™2»r--=ae£«^«^«lig^^
EIOTI IIY MLESS CLUB
Membership in Popular Electricity Wireless Club ^is made up of readers
of this magazine who have constructed or are operating wireless apparatus
or systems. Membership blanks will be sent upon request. This depart-
ment of the magazine will be devoted to the interests of the Club, and
members are invited to assist in making it as valuable and interesting
as possible, by sending in descriptions and photographs of their equipments.
Wireless in the Puget Sound Fisheries
By FRANK C. DOIG
Sea-going steamers go forth from the ports
of Puget Sound and Vancouver, B. C, to
wrest from the waters of the Pacific the crop
of great white halibut and bring the harvest
back to be shipped to all parts of the United
States in fast
refrigerator cars.
Off the coast
of Vancouver
Island and in
the vicinity of
Cape Flattery
on the Wash-
ington coast,
these big fish
swarm in slug-
gish schools.
The little steam-
ers launch their
boats and spread
their nets and
after loading to
capacity race
with each other
for port.
The rivalry
between the
companies oper-
ating the steam-
ers has grown
in the last few
years. As a re-
sult every mod-
ern device for
aiding in hand-
ling the cargoes
and dispatching
the vessels, is
employed. The
latest addition to
PUGET SOUND FISHING BOAT EQUIPPED WITH WIRELESS
the equipments of these steamers is the
wireless telegraph.
Managers of the concerns that have fitted
their vessels with wireless apparatus, say
wireless has become one of the most impor-
tant, if not the
most important,
addition to the
equipments. By
means of it, the
owners are able
to keep in con-
stant communi-
cation with the
skippers and
know to a cer-
tainty what re-
sults are being
accomplished
with the nets.
As soon as a
steamer lifts its
tackle and starts
for port, the cap-
tain notifies the
home office that
he is starting
back. He tells
the size of the
catch, the con-
dition of the
fish, the prob-
able time of
arrival and any
other informa-
tion of value to
his employers.
With all this
information the
managers of the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
61
OVERHAULING THE CATCH
warehouses are able to make arrange-
ments for receiving and shipping/"! the
fish. This method saves a large amount
of money and avoids the annoyance and
confusion that would result, if this informa-
tion were not received until the boat docked.
In addition to the reports of the catch
the captain may make requisitions for sup-
plies and repairs, if any are needed. It is
estimated^by owners who have equipped
their boats that thousands of dollars can
be saved yearly.
Popular Electricity Wireless Club of the Central West
Popular Electricity Wireless Club of the
Central West, which was organized in St.
Louis last fall by Mr. David Marcus,] has
reached astonishing proportions. It now
has 2500 members throughout Missouri
and neighboring states to show for a little
over six months' work, which figures do
credit to the organizer and secretary. That
Mr. Marcus stands high in the opinion of
the members is shown by the fact that they
bestowed upon him a diamond-gold medal,
recently, as the most enthusiastic and popular
non-professional. The medal was awarded
in a voting contest and Mr. Marcus received
a plurality of 1084 votes.
As we have more than once received in-
quiries as to how to carry on intelligently
the work of a local or sectional wireless
club or association, we believe readers of
this department will be interested in how
they went to work to put this St. Louis Club
on its feet and doing so well in so short a
time.
The main object of the club is to exchange
views and propose experiments relative to
the development of wireless. Most of this
is done through the mails. The question
is mailed to the home office of the club
(1820 Washington street, St. Louis), and at
its regular weekly meetings the various topics
on file are: discussed by the local members.
The questions are given open debate and
experiment, and the distant member who
asked the question is informed of the result.
As a consequence of these debates and
experiments carried on at the meetings the
interest and enthusiasm of the members is
kept up.
Hearing Grand Opera by Wireless
Ey PAUL M. CRAIG
Considerable speculation in regard to
a new field for the application of wireless
has been occasioned by a recent exhibition
in New York of the transmission of vocal
solos through several miles of space by Mme.
Mazarin, the new star of the Manhattan
Opera Company.
Of course the idea has not been unfa-
miliar for some time that wireless could
some day be utilized for the distribution of
music, lectures and
even news, and one or
two writers have dwelt
at length upon the pos-
sibility of having the
music of an orchestra
or other entertainment
reproduced in restaurants,
on steamships and even
in the home.
While it is true that in
January the entire per-
formance of "Cavalleria
Rusticana" by the Metro-
politan Opera Company
was heard in such a
manner as to give con-
siderable promise for the future of that sort
of wireless transmission as soon as the
proper amplifying and sound-gathering -'ap-
paratus could be perfected, the test of Mme.
Mazarin was the first entirely satisfactory
demonstration of opera by wireless to become
an impressive factor |in the field of enter-
tainment.
The prima-donna sang selections fium
"Carmen" and "Elektra" which were heard
MADAM MAZARIN SINGING INTO THE WIRELESS TELEPHONE — LEE DE FOREST
ADJUSTING INSTRUMENT
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
63
at a wireless laboratory in Newark, N. J.,
by several notable technical writers, but the
best results were obtained at the wireless
room of the Metropolitan Life Tower, over
a mile away from the singer who was sta-
tioned in the DeForest laboratory, just
opposite the Grand Central Station. At the
Metropolitan Tower a select company in-
cluding Prof. Hudson Maxim, several city
officials and members of the Manhattan
Opera Company heard distinctly every note
of the music.
The writer's impression of the enter-
tainment was that of a voice coming from
nowhere in particular and yet apparently
emanating very softly from some one present
in the audience.
The guests listened through head tele-
phones, much the same as those used by the
old-fashioned phonograph, and while close
attention was necessary for proper appre-
ciation of the music, the climax of the selec-
tion from "Elektra" which must have been
almost deafening in the small transmitting
room, could be heard several feet from the
receiving apparatus in the Metropolitan
Tower.
After the performance many of the guests
repaired to the laboratory where Mme.
Mazarin and Dr. Lee DeForest were heartily
congratulated for the success of their achieve-
ment. Prof. Maxim especially was enthu-
siastic and showed a great knowledge of wire-
less by ably assisting the inventor in explain-
ing the operation of the wireless transmit-
ter, which consisted of a "multi-micro-
phone" in connection with the new "radio-
tone oscillator" which sets up a rapidly
vibrating radiation from the antenna, varying
in accordance with the variations caused by
the human voice modifying the microphone
circuit. The receiving apparatus consisted
of a regular long distance wireless telegraph
receiving and tuning apparatus at the
Metropolitan Life Station, using theaudion
in connection with half a dozen head tele-
phones, and at Newark of the regulation
Navy wireless telephone receiving set with
both audion and perikon detectors as shown
on the preceeding page.
A High-power Wireless Equipment
By ALFRED P. MORGAN
PART I.— AERIALS
The novice in search of information upon
the construction of wireless instruments,
has been forced to rely somewhat upon a
variety of disconnected articles, which often
lead the reader into the predicament of
Mark Twain's famous steamboat which
had such a large whistle and such a small
boiler that the boat had to be stopped in
order to whistle. For instance, a tuning
helix and spark gap are often described and
used in connection *vith a one or two-inch
spark induction coil when in reality they are
more suitable for a one-quarter kilowatt
transformer.
In this series of papers it is proposed to
give details pertaining to the construction
and operation of a set of wireless instru-
ments, both for transmitting and receiving,
which are capable of the most exacting work.
The apparatus is all entirely practical and
is only offered after considerable study and
experimental work.
The builder need not possess exceptional
skill or ingenuity but rather patience and
judgment. No departure from the design
and dimensions here offered is advisable
unless they only affect very immaterial
factors.
The old proverb, "Haste makes waste,"
applies very well to the construction of
electrical apparatus. It is apparent that
straining an induction coil just to see how
long a spark it will give, before it is properly
completed and insulated, is exceedingly
foolish unless the builder is blessed with
time and a fat pocket book. There are
always those who prefer not to spend any
time in putting a finish on the wood or
metal, but it may well be said that care
with the little details always insures the
successful completion and operation of the
collective instruments.
The station in question has a positive
transmitting range of ioo to 300 miles, de-
pending upon whether the induction coil or
the transformer is used. By "positive
range" it is meant that the station will tran-
mit messages these distances without being
64
POPULAR ELECTIRCITY
seriously hampered by weather conditions
or the state of the ether. Under very fa-
vorable circumstances it might be possible
to communicate three times these distances,
but such occasions would be somewhat ex-
ceptional.
The receiving apparatus is not only cap-
able of giving good, clear signals in the tele-
phones when used to receive from the trans-
mitter in question over the
distances named above, but if ,.---
properly adjusted will detect
signals over one thousand //' ) ,
miles.
It should be understood ?/.■■": :j
that sending and receiving /// /// /
radii are only relative terms
and depend upon many
factors. The ability of the
operator in many cases de-
termines the distance over
which the station can work sucess-
fully. The favorable location of one
station sometimes makes it possible to send
twice as far from that station as from one
of the same rated power. It is impossible
to base any statements of the transmitting
or receiving range of a station on such data
as the kind of tuning coil, spark gap, aerial,
etc., but something about the conditions
under which the station is operated must be
known and even then the distance cannot
be based on any data but rather upon knowl-
edge gained by actual experience. In giv-
ing the probable range of the outfit which
we are considering the author has not taken
into consideration any exceptionally favor-
able factors but rather considered the ques-
tion from a more fair standpoint and named
figures that can be relied upon.
The antenna or aerial system consists of
a number of wires elevated in the air and
insulated from surrounding objects. Its
purpose is to convert an electrical current
into electromagnetic waves and to regenerate
part of the energy of an intercepted wave
back into an electric current.
All electrically charged bodies are sur-
rounded by an electrostatic field, the nature
of which in theory is a state of strain. The
action of the tn nsmitter is to charge the
aerial, say with negative electricity, and es-
tablish a field of force in its vicinity varying
in area from a few feet to several miles.
The lines of electric strain stretch from the
aerial to the earth on all sides as repre-
sented by the dotted lines in Fig. i. They
are spherical in form although of course on
paper they must be represented in one
plane.
When the charge reaches a certain value,
the air gap between the spark knobs is
broken down and the space- becomes con-
ductive so that the electricity in the aerial
rushes down into the earth and the aerial
is discharged. With the discharge the
tit jii iU tit i?ii q ?ft.i ♦ W \\\ \\\ \\\
FIG. 1. THEORY OF THE ACTION OF WIRELESS WAVES
strain in the electrostatic field is released,
but in so relaxing it produces a new current
and charges the aerial with positive elec-
tricity. A new strain is immediately built
up around the antenna but is opposite in
direction to the first. This process repeats
itself very rapidly and with every oscilla-
tion or reversal of current the direction of
the dielectric strain is changed and the lines
which originally stretched from the aerial
to the earth are displaced and the ends
terminating on the aerial run down it and
form semi-loops or inverted "U's" standing
with their ends on the earth in a circular
ripple around the aerial and moving away
from it with the speed of light. In Fig. i
two complete oscillations are represented
as having taken place and the aerial is about
to discharge a third time. The small arrow
heads indicate the reversals of direction in
the lines of strain. Right here it may be
stated that the distance between like points
on any two consecutive waves is the wave
length.
Modern practice demands greater effi-
ciency in producing oscillations than the
above method affords, but the systems,
although they differ in the details of
their operation are the same in principle.
Instead of generating oscillations directly in
the aerial itself, they are first produced by
means of condenser and spark gap and then
impressed upon the aerial through the me-
dium of a transformer called a transmitting
helix. The action of the condenser will
be explained later.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
65
A long wave length is generally desirable
since the dissipation of energy due to trees
and sunlight is not so pronounced. The
length of the wave emitted by an aerial
composed of a single vertical wire having a
spark gap at its lower end near the earth is,
generally speaking, between four and five
ssbssssssssssss^^
FIG. 2. THE UMBRELLA AERIAL
times the length of . the wire. However,
many undeterminable factors depending
upon the location of the aerial influence its
wave length and make it impossible to ac-
curately predetermine it without the aid of
electrostatic held and consequently the more
powerful will be the electrical waves de-
veloped. But after a height of from one
hundred and eighty to two hundred feet is
attained the engineering difficulties and the
expense increase so rapidly that few but
ultra-powerful stations exceed it.
After the limit in a vertical direction has
been reached, the only remaining possi-
bilities are to increase the surface and to
spread out horizontally.
The desirable feature of an aerial is
measured by the quantity of the charge re-
quired to raise its potential one unit, and
is called its electrostatic capacity. An in-
crease in capacity enables more energy to
be accumulated in the antenna and conse-
quently more poAverful waves are emitted.
The capacity may be increased by adding
wires to the aerial, but the increase must
not be carried too far or the transmitting
apparatus will not be able to raise its po-
tential sufficiently. Owing to an effect of
mutual induction between the wires, the
lines of strain are not distributed evenly and
symmetrically. As a result, the capacity
does not vary directly as the number of
wires but rather approximately as the square
root. In order to decrease this effect and
use the surface more efficiently, the wires
should not be placed nearer than one-fiftieth
of .their length and preferably farther apart.
A few years ago the wireless antenna con-
sisted of a metal plate, high in the air and
3?-
±1
FIC. 4. THE "t" TYPE AERIAL
having a wire suspended from it. But today
the form best capable of sending and re-
ceiving equally well in all directions is that
a special instrument termed a cymometer or illustrated in Fig. 2, called the umbrella
wave meter. aerial.
The higher an aerial is placed above the The wires spread out from the top of
surface of the earth, the wider will be its the mast similarly to the ribs of an umbrella.
FIG. 3. INVERTED L" AERIAL
66
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The outside or lower ends lead into the
station at the foot of the mast.
It often happens, as is the case on ship-
board, that the horizontal space available
is confined to two dimensions. The best
form is then one of the flat top aerials shown
in Figs. 3, 4 and 5.
Fig. 1 is the inverted "L" in which the
vertical leads are taken off from one end of
the "T" or inverted "L" may be converted
to this form by bringing the vertical leads
in pairs down to the receiving instruments.
A station equipped with a looped aerial
system does not suffer the annoyance of a
bum in the telephone receivers caused by
induction from neighboring light and power
lines. It has the further advantage of being
well adapted to long waves and close tuning.
FIG.
THE LOOPED AERIAL
the horizontal. This form is advisable only
in certain well defined cases, where, for
instance, two stations are intended only for
communication with each other and not
with outside stations.
This aerial radiates its waves most
strongly in a direction opposite to which its
free end points and receives its signals best
from a station lying in the direction of maxi-
mum radiation.
This directive action may be considerably
lessened by taking the leads off at the centre
and forming a "T" aerial as in Fig. 4. This
type is slightly directional and emits or
receives signals best in its own plane, but
the effect is not pronounced unless the
horizontal is much greater than the vertical
height.
The leads should preferably be taken off
at right angles to the horizontal but some-
times an oblique direction is necessary.
There is a difference of opinion whether or
not the ends of the horizontal wires should
be connected together and it is impossible to
say with good reason which method is the
best.
Fig. 5 illustrates the type of aerial used
by the United Wireless Telegraph Com-
pany, and known as a looped aerial. Either
The next consideration, after choosing the
type of aerial, is the means of suspension.
On ship board this is an easy problem, for
the masts may be readily utilized. In the
case of a land station, the masts are usually
0 erected either on the roof of the building
Q in which the operating room is located or
/#00^00i^/M^else set up in the ground outside. For effi-
| E. I cient service the aerial should be at least
125 feet above the ground. The erection
of a pole of any considerable height is a
matter best left to the dealer who furnishes
the pole and so nothing will be said here
regarding the operation.
It is very important that the material used
for the insulation and suspension shall be
of the best grade so that in event of bad
weather, the station will not be losing en-
ergy or be put out of operation because the
aerial blew down. Every effort must be
made to guard against faults in the insula-
tion which would cause leakage. Hard
rubber is undesirable since it is affected by
the atmosphere and becomes coated with
a conducting layer. The most widely used
form of aerial insulator is that shown in
Fig. 6, called the Electrose insulator.
It is made of a dense, hard material known
under the trade name of Electrose. The
iron rings are moulded into the ends so
that it is impossible for them to pull out.
The insulator is corrugated so that it pre-
sents a large surface and tnere is less likeli-
hood of a conducting nlm forming on the
surface.
The wires are held apart by two wooden
spars and one spreader, preferably of spruce,
and made to conform with the dimensions
indicated in Fig. 7. The spars are nine
feet long and 2% inches in diameter at tbe
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
67
centre. They taper to ih inches in diameter
at the ends. If the aerial is short the middle
spreader is unnecessary unless the vertical
wires are taken off at the centre, when it
FIG. 6. ELECTROSE INSULATOR
must be used to prevent the horizontal
wires from being pulled together.
The necessary hardware may be pur-
chased from a dealer in ship chandlery.
Two mast withes 2J inches in diameter and
having one eye, four two inches in diameter
also having one eye and four 1^ inches in
diameter having three eyes are required,
as shown in Fig. 8. Eight lap links are
<Sec/-/on oS C
Sect ion <* A
FIG. 7. SPAR
Section & 8
used to fasten the insulators to the spars.
Forty feet of steel stranded cable, 3-16 inch
in diameter and two wire rope thimbles and
two screw shackel bolts shown in Fig. 9
are necessary to form the bridle.
One of the largest mast withes is forced
on the centre of each spar, and the next
smaller ones, 1^ feet to either side. The
smallest withes should just fit on the ends
FIG. 8. MAST WITHES
of the spars and be placed so that one of the
three eyes points down and the other two
respectively to the front and rear.
An Electrose insulator is secured to each
of the eight withes other than the two centre
ones by means of the lap links.
The bridle is arranged as shown in Fig
10. The ends of the wire rope are spliced
through the rear eyes in the end withes. A
wire rope thimble is included in the centre
of the bridle and a short length of cable
leads from the thimble to the eye on the
centre withe. A rope thimble is fastened
to the end of the hoisting rope and con-
nected to the thimble in the bridle by means
of the screw shackle. A short piece of
hemp rope fastened through the lower eyes
in the end withes and tied to the supporting
fig. 9.
WIRE ROPE THIMBLES AND
SHACKEL BOLT
mast some distance below the pulley will
prevent the aerial from turning over and
becoming twisted in windy weather.
The wire used for the aerial itself is so.t
drawn phosphor bronze cable, made up of
seven strands of No. 20 B. & S. gauge.
Phosphor bronze is tougher, has better
wearing qualities than copper and does not
sag or stretch as easily. Four pieces are
cut, each about one foot longer than the
length of the aerial and all of exactly the
same length.
The spars are laid on the ground, at a
distance apart equal to the desired length
FIG. 10. BRIDLE
of the aerial, and the ends of the wires
passed through the eyes in the corresponding
insulators. The ends are then doubled
back, bound with a No. 16 phosphor bronze
wire and soldered. In case the aerial is a
looped system of the second type, the wire
may be one continuous length laced around
C8
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
through the eyes in the insulators. If a
"T" aerial is used, the leading-in wires
which are also phosphor bronze cable are
soldered as nearly as possible to the centre.
In this latter case the horizontal wires pass
through short lengths of hard rubber tubing
set in the spreader, shown in Fig. n, so
that the strain of the vertical wires cannot
pull them together.
The rope used to sustain the aerial is
one inch manilla hemp. It passes through a
FIG. II. SPREADER
tackle block fastened to the top of the sup-
porting mast so that when the aerial has been
assembled as directed above it may be hoisted
aloft. It should not be pulled up taut but
rather allowed to hang slightly slack.
The leading in wires must all be of exactly
the same length and gradually converge
until they terminate in one wire just outside
of the point of entrance to the building where
the operating room is located. Where the
wire enters the building itself it must be
very highly insulated and the best method
is to lead it through a hard rubber bushing,
:,Fig. 12, in the window-pane.
FIG. 12. WINDOW PANE BUSHING
The construction of this bushing is il-
lustrated in Fig. 13. A |-inch hole is bored
through the axis of a hard rubber rod six
inches long and \\ inches in diameter. One
end of -the rod is turned down to one inch
in diameter for a distance of two inches.
The centre portion is threaded for a distance
of ih inches. Two hard rubber flanges or
washers \ inch thick and three inches in
diameter are bored through .their centres and
threaded to fit the middle portion of the rod.
A piece of |-inch brass rod, 7J inches long,
is threaded at both ends for f of an inch and
passed through the axis of the hard rubber
rod.
A hole i\ inches in diameter is bored
through the centre of the window pane in
the operating room and the insulator placed
therein with one of the hard rubber washers
on either side of the glass. A soft rubber
gasket must be placed between each of the
hard rubber flanges and the glass to reduce
the liability of its cracking.
The leading-in wire is clamped to the
outer end of the brass rod which passes
7f-
\*~- FLANGt
"D
J]
BRASS J
ROD'
FIG. 13. DETAILS OF BUSHING
through the insulator, by means of two brass
nuts. A wire connects to the inner end in
the same manner and leads to the aerial
switch. The high tension cable used for
the secondary wiring on automobiles, is very
suitable for the interior wiring.
The leading-in wire must be anchored
outside of the building with an Electrose
insulator, so that the glass pane is relieved
from all strain.
(To be continued.)
The Kentucky and Alamo
Motors connected to fire pumps are now
built so as to be entirely enclosed or "splash
proof." Need of this protection was re-
cently shown in another line, when the
steamship Alamo rescued the Kentucky
after receiving a wireless call. It is said
that the dynamo for operating the wireless
on the latter had to be wrapped in tarpaulin
blankets to keep out the water until the
rescue.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
69
First Wireless Union
Record of the first movement to organize
wireless workers was made on Feb. 18, ioio,
when formal application was presented to
E. McEachren, president of the Cleveland
Federation of Labor, for admission to the
American Federation of Labor.
This new organization, according to the
application, names B. D. Smith as presi-
dent. The name of the "Order" is to be
the "Order of V/ireless Operators and Con-
structionists," and is the first of its kind in
the world.
by paraffined paper about one-fourth inch
larger all around than the metal sheets.
Alternate sheets of metal are connected
together. A total metal surface of 400
square inches is sufficient for most wireless
' fS AtrM
WIRELESS QUERIES Jf. &%#r,«w3$&3w
V.O.- Variable Conef'tsei"
TC-fixed Condenser
~D-J3e1ecior:
~p- Tote* f 10 meter:
Answered by A. B. Cole
Questions sent in to this department mus*
comply with the same requirements that are
specified in the case of the questions and
answers on general electrical subjects. See
"Questions and Answers" department.
Wave Length; Sliding and Stationary Con-
densers
Questions. — (A) How many meters' wave length
will a tuning coil like that described in the January,
1910, issue respond to? (B) What would be the
wave length of this tuner using enameled wire, and
what size enameled wire should be used for the
primary and the secondary, and how many ounces
of each ? (C) Please explain how to make a sliding
condenser and a stationary condenser. (D) Give
diagram for connecting two sliding and one sta-
tionary condenser, a variable coupling tuning coil,
electrolytic detector, potentiometer,, and 2000 ohm
telephone receivers. — E. J., Chicago, III.
Answers. — (A) About 500 meters, if used
in connection with an aerial 60 feet long.
(B) About 600 meters, with the above
aerial. The primary will take about nine
ounces of No. 18 enameled wire, and the
secondary will require about six ounces of No.
24.
(C) By a sliding condenser you probably
mean a variable one. This may consist
of two brass tubes of slightly different
diameters, separated by paraffined paper.
The larger tube may have an inside diam-
eter of two inches, and both may be eight
inches long. Connect a binding post to
each tube. By sliding the smaller into the
i larger, the capacity of the condenser is in-
> creased. By a stationary condenser you
'probably mean a fixed condenser. This
consists of sheets of metal or foil separated
CONNECTIONS OF VARIABLE AND FIXED
CONDENSER
purposes, if a moderate pressure is applied
to keep the sheets close together.
(D) See diagram.
Portable Five-Mile Outfit
Question. — What instruments would be neces-
sary to assemble a portable wireless outfit to send
3 to 5 miles? Please name instruments for as
cheap and compact an outfit as will do the work;
also show diagram of connections for such a set.
I already have a one-inch spark coil. — H. H.,
Monmouth, 111.
Answer. — The following instruments will
be needed: Two inch coil; D. P. D. T.
porcelain base switch; spark gap; telegraph
key; eight dry batteries; single slide tuner;
small fixed condenser; silicon detector;
double headband with two 500-ohm re-
ceivers. The aerial should be at least 60
7o 4 e rial
"TK
T f?.- Tel- T?ec- T>- rVe tecfor.
T ■ -Tfniij Coil- Sw- Aerial Switch.
V -fired eorfettser. SG- Stxir/f Gap-
C -Coil Clinch.)- K - IUY-
23 -fatten G' -Grot/rief.
CONNECTIONS OF PORTABLE EQUIPMENT
feet high, and consist of at least four par-
allel wires. A one-inch coil might send five
miles, but could not always be depended
upon to do the work. See diagram above
for connections.
QUESTIONS AND AN^EPSI
Use of this department is free to readers of Popular Electricity, but atten-
tion will not be given to questions which do not comply with the follow-
ing rules: All questions must be written in the form of a letter addressed
to the Questions and Answers Department and containing nothing for
the other departments of the magazine; two-cent stamp must be enclosed
for answer by mail, for space will not permit of printing all answers;
the full name and address of the writer must be given.
Action of Induction Coil; High Tension Coil;
Plunge Battery
Questions. — (A) Please explain the action of a
medical induction coil. (B) -How can I make a
high tension jump spark coil? (O) Explain the
plunge battery as to construction, voltage, current,
use and internal resistance. — F. B., Great Kills, N. Y.
Answers. — (A) If two wires be placed side
by side and parallel yet insulated from each
other, and a current be sent through one
wire, this current by induction produces a
current for an instant in the second wire.
Then if the current in the first wire be inter-
rupted or the circuit broken, a galvanometer
in the second wire will show another rush
of current in a direction opposite to that
caused by the closing of the circuit in the
first wire. Thus we know that opening and
closing circuit No. i induces a fluctuating
current in circuit No. 2. Circuit No. 1 is
termed the primary circuit and circuit No.
2 the secondary circuit. By winding wire
No. 1 on an iron core, and over and insula-
ted from it wire No. 2 be wound, a strong in-
ductive effect is produced between the two
coils by concentrating the lines of force.
Providing a contact breaker described in
several issues of Popular Electricity gives
the means for making and breaking the
primary circuit. What is called extra cur-
rent must be taken careof. On the "make,"
induced current in the secondary flows in the
opposite direction to that in the primary.
The primary wire acting on itself weakens
its own current so that at the "make" the
effect on the secondary is weak. However,
at the break a current is induced similar
in direction to. the inducing current. In the
primary wire the same effect is found and
the two currents, initial and induced, travel
in the same direction in the same wire, which
produces a strong effect on the secondary and
shows itself in the extra current in the primary
by giving a bright spark at the contact
breaker when it opens the primary circuit.
To reduce this sparking and assist the effect
on the secondary coil, a condenser is bridged
across the make and break contact.
(B) On page 724 of the March, 1909,
issue of Popular Electricity are given com-
plete "Specifications for a Thirty-inch Spark
X-ray Coil." Also see article "Spark Coil
Construction and Operation," May to
August, 1909, issues, for coils for wireless
work.
(C) In a plunge battery, the plates are
of zinc and carbon, usually three of the
former and four of the latter in each cell.
The electrolyte which is best contained in
glass jars is made of three parts of potassium
or sodium bichromate dissolved in eighteen
parts of water, to which four parts of sul-
phuric acid is added. This cell gives a
voltage of about two volts, and has an in-
ternal resistance of about one ohm. The
American Bell Telephone Co. uses the Fuller
bichromate cell, which is capable of giving
.6 of an ampere at two volts.
The Leclanche Cell
Question. — Will you please tell me how to make a
sal ammoniac cell? — J. P. H., Macon, Mo.
Answer. — Provide a glass jar 4.5- inches
in diameter and 6 or 7 inches high; a 7-inch
zinc, § inch in diameter; a porous cup, 3
inches in diameter and 5 J inches high;
carbon, 6 inches by ij inches by 5-16 inch.
In the porous cup place the carbon stick
and pack around it coarsely powdered man-
ganese dioxide mixed with small pieces of
crushed coke. Drill a hole in the carbon
stick and run in a little lead. Drill this
lead for a binding post. A binding post
contact should also be arranged on the zinc
rod. Over the top of the packed carbon
stick and manganese pour paraffin to prevent
creeping of the salts from the porous cup.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
71
Sealing wax also may be used for this latter
purpose. Place the porous cup and zinc
in the glass jar and fill with water two-
thirds up, putting in about five ounces of
sal ammoniac.
Railway Crossing Signal
Question. — Please explain how to connect an
electric bell in such a way as to have it ring when
a car passes over a certain place in the track about
one-eighth of a mile from the bell. — H. B. W.,
Bennington, Vt.
Answer. — The diagrams show the general
arrangement of Hall's electric railway signal
for crossings. The essential parts are:
two track instruments (A, B), two inter-
locking magnets (C, D), a gong (G), and
HALL S ELECTRIC RAILWAY SIGNAL
two sets of batteries. Suppose a train to be
approaching the crossing (X) from the di-
rection indicated by the arrow. When the
engine reaches the point (A), the track in-
strument is operated by the weight of the
wheels and closes the circuit through battery
(i) and magnets (C), the armature (F) of
the latter being attracted. Armature (H)
passing through a slot in (F) and being
notched, as shown, holds (F) locked. (F)
in being attracted pulls against the tension
of spring (S), and a projection on the hori-
zontal bar presses spring (T), making con-
tact at (U), closing the gong circuit through
its battery (2). The gong now continues
to ring until the engine reaches (B) where the
second track instrument closes the circuit
of magnet (B) which attracts its armature,
releasing (F) which is drawn back by (S),
the gong circuit being then broken at (U).
The points (A) and (B) are chosen in ac-
cordance with the length of the train and
the length of time it is desired that the gong
shall ring before the train reaches the
crossing.
The second illustration shows a little more
in detail the track instrument which is a
lever with one end at the track and the
other resting between hard rubber buffers
(B, B), so that the instrument can be opera-
ted only by a heavy weight. The vertical
rod (F£) has at
its upper end
an opening and
closing device
which operates
as the rod, to
which is at-
tached a pis-
ton (P), rises
and falls. All delicate working parts are
enclosed in metal.
DETAILS OF TRACK
INSTRUMENT
High Voltage Transmission; Copper and
Aluminum Wire
Questions. — (A) Compare the carrying capacity
of copper and aluminum wire on a no, 000- volt
line. (B) What is the advantage of small wires over
large ones on a transmission line ? (C) Can a cop-
per wire § inch in diameter carry an unlimited
voltage if the insulation is sufficient? (D) Sup-
pose a w7ire on a 110,000-volt line were to break
and fall on dry grass. Would it set the grass on
fire ? (E) Suppose the wire in (D) fell on a wire
fence supported by cedar posts, would it kill a
cow leaning against the fence some distance from
the line? (F) When giving the voltage of a system
what is meant? — H. R. H., Burlington, Ont.,
Canada.
Answers. — (A) Aluminum has a con-
ductivity of about one-half that of copper,
and its density is 2.7. Aluminum wire
2.7 1
weighs x-= .607, or a little more than
8.89 .5
one-half as much as a copper wire of the
same length and resistance. Although alu-
minum wire is light, it must have about
twice the cross-section of an equivalent
copper wire, and hence would require more
insulating covering where used inside.
(B) Your question is not clear. Do you
refer to small wires in a cable or do you
have in mind the small wires used in three
phase transmission lines.
(C) Yes, if properly insulated. It is
the current to be carried which determines
the size of the wire.
(D) If the soil were damp or contained
mineral deposit, current into the soil
through these conductors offering resistance
would generate heat. Absolutely dry soil
72
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
without mineral conductor would act as an
insulation.
(E) In rainy weather enough grounds
between wire contact and cow might be
established to provide for escape of current
to the earth, sufficient to kill the animal.
(F) The highest reading obtainable by
connecting each wire of a system through
a voltmeter to earth is the potential of the
system, or the highest voltage obtainable by
a voltmeter reading between various wires.
If a series arc system, the voltage reading
to earth at the positive terminal of the dyna-
mo is the potential of the system.
Messenger Call Box
Qiiestion. — What is the circuit of a messenger
call-box? — J. W. M., Boston, Mass.
Answer. — The diagram shows a single
stroke bell (B) operated by an electromagnet
wound to about four ohms. (G) is a four-
ohm magnet operating a pen Morse register.
(B) and (G) on the same circuit work as this
circuit is opened and closed by relay (R)
of ioo ohms on the back stop. This por-
tion of the equipment is in the central office.
MESSENGER CALL BOX CIRCUIT
The call-box contains the toothed wheel (W)
and a recoil spring (S). (W) is mounted
loose on the shaft of crank (C), but is geared
to wheel (P) so that the tendency is to turn
the latter in the direction of the arrow.
When a call is sent in, crank (C) is pulled
to the right, and the cam is moved out of
the path of pin (P). The wheel (K) is
then free to move. A ratchet and pawl
prevent (W) from turning with (C), and (S)
is put under tension. When the crank is
released the spring unwinds, turning (W)
with it, operating wheel (K). (K) makes
one complete revolution when the cam again
resumes its position in the path of pin (P).
Spring (M) falls into the notches in wheel
(K) making and breaking the circuit to the
central office in accordance with the box
number which in this sketch is five. To
guard against the opening of the circuit when
the call-box is in its normal position an
additional spring (N), resting against the
cam, is provided with connections to the
same point as spring (M). In case (M)
fails in normal contact, a closed circuit is
still maintained.
Wiring a Three Push-Button Annunciator;
Uses of Brushes on Dynamo; A
Ground Circuit
Questions. — (A) Please give diagram for wiring
a three push-button annunciator. (B) Of what
use are the brushes on a dynamo? (C) What is
meant by a ground circuit? — R. S., West Spring-
field, Mass.
Answers. — (A) In the diagram a common
wire (C) is run from the battery to one side
of each magnet coil. From the other side
of the battery taps are taken off running
DD
IO
w
WIRING OF ANNUNCIATOR
through each push-button and to the mag-
net coil this button is designed to operate.
(B) The brushes on a motor or dynamo
are for collecting current from, or passing
current to the moving commutator or slip
rings.
(C) The dynamo at the railway power
house has its positive terminal connected
to the trolley wire and the negative wire
grounded. The current passing from the
trolley wire down the pole to the motor and
off to the tracks makes its way back to the
power station along the rails, by way of
pipes, earth, etc. This return path is a
ground circuit. Single wire telephones are
operated by using the earth as one side of
the line. The March, 1909, issue, page
725, shows a diagram of this latter circuit.
Flaming Arc Lamps
Question. — Can flaming arcs be used on either
direct or alternating current? — H. H. S., Cleve-
land, Ohio.
Answer. — Both alternating and direct
current lamps are on the market and are
made up for the standard voltages,
Notes on the Law of Patent Titles
By OBED C. BILLMAN, LL. B., M. P. L.
i. In General. — Patents and interests
therein may be owned, transferred, and made
the subject of contracts like any other proper-
ty, subject to such restrictions or conditions
as may arise out of the nature of patent rights
as property, or as are imposed by law.
2. Legal or Equitable Title. — As in the
case of other property, the legal title to
a patent may be in one person and the
equitable title in another. And in such case
a court of equity will ordinarily treat the
holder of the legal title as trustee for the
equitable owner. But the legal title will
prevail over the equitable title unless the
former was acquired with notice of the latter.
3. Co-ownership. — Where a patent is
issued or assigned to two or more persons
they become cotenants. There is no limita-
tion in the United States of the number of
persons who may be joint owners of a patent
right. The exact mutual rights and lia-
bilities of co-owners of patents are perhaps
not fully settled in all respects, the peculiar
nature of patent rights as property making
it difficult in some cases to apply the ordi-
nary rules of the law of cotenancy.
Assignment by Co-tenant. — One part owner
may assign his undivided interest without
the consent of his co-owner and the latter
cannot sue the assignee for infringement.
Use of Patent. — Each co-owner may use
the patented invention with or without the
consent of his co-owner, and without being
liable to account to him for profits.
License by One Co-owner. — A license
granted by one co-owner of a patent is valid
as against the licensor and his co-owners,
and the licensee is liable to the licensor for
the agreed price, but he is not liable to the
other co-owners. There are intimations
in some of the cases that the licensor is
liable to account to his co-owner for what he
receives from the licensee, but in a recent
case it has been held that he is not so liable.
Co-owners May Become Partners by Agree-
ment, but in the absence of such agreement
they are not partners.
Power to Bind Co-owner. — One part owner
cannot bind his co-owner by any special
contract with an assignee of the patent, not
connected with the enjoyment and exercise
of the common privilege under the patent.
Nor can one part owner prejudice the rights
of his co-owners, as by a release of the right
to recover damages for an infringement,
or otherwise.
4. Partnership. — Patent rights may be
held in partnership like other property, the
mutual rights and liabilities of the partner
being determined by the agreement of the
parties and the general law of partnership.
5. Invention by Employee. — An inven-
tion made by one employee independently
of his employment and without any assistance
from the employer belongs to the inventor.
6. Transfer of Patent Rights. — Assign-
ments.
1. In General. — A patent right being
created by the federal laws may be trans-
ferred only when and in the manner author-
ized by such laws.
Ihe statute provides that "every patent
or any interest therein shall be assignable in
law, by an instrument in writing; and the
patentee or his assignee or legal representa-
tives may, in like manner, grant and convey
an exclusive right under his patent to the
whole or any specified part of the United
States.
2. Who May Assign. — By the terms of
the statute, a patent or interest therein may
be assigned by the patentee or his assignee
or legal representatives.
3. Who May Be Assignee. — No restric-
tions whatever are imposed by the statutes
as to who may be an assignee of a patent
right or interest therein.
4. What Constitutes Assignment. — (a)
Execution — aa. In General — Necessity for
Writing. — The assignment must be by an
instrument in writing, executed by the
assignor, or by some one acting for him and
in his name under legal authority. As be-
tween the parties, however, a verbal assign-
ment is valid and passes an equitable right.
Seal. — The assignment need not be under
seal, though executed by a corporation.
Acknowledgment, is not required by the
statute, but an acknowledgment in due
form obviates the necessity for other proof
of execution.
74
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Recording. — The statute provides that
an assignment, grant, or conveyance of a
patent or interest therein shall be void as
against any subsequent purchaser or mort-
gagee for a valuable consideration, without
notice, unless it is recorded in the patent
office within three months from the date
thereof. The only object of this provision
is to protect bona fide purchasers for value
without notice. As to them the assignment
is void unless recorded as prescribed. But
as between the parties, or as against in-
fringers, or subsequent purchasers with
notice or not for a valuable consideration or
within three months from the date of the
assignment, the assignment is valid though
not recorded.
Time of Recording. — It is immaterial
whether an assignment offered in- evidence
was recorded before or after the suit was
brought.
Effect of Record. — Where an assignment
has been duly recorded the assignee will
be protected as against a subsequent as-
signee of the assignor. The record of an
assignment is constructive notice to all the
world, and a purchaser has the right to
rely upon the record title.
Form and Contents. — No particular form
of assignment is required, but there must, of
course, be some operative words expressing
at least an intention to assign. A mere
certificate in writing that a certain person
has .a joint interest in a patent right with
the subscriber will not operate as an assign-
ment. But an irrevocable power of attor-
ney to hold and control a patent may operate
as an assignment.
BOOKREVIEWS
The Electrical Engineer's Pocketbook. By
the International Correspondence Schools.
Scranton: International Textbook Company.
1908. 414 pages with 225 illustrations. Price
$2.00.
There is such a vast amount of available
material which might be profitably embodied
in an engineering handbook, that the prob-
lem becomes one of selection and condensa-
tion of information which is likely to come
up the most times in every-day engineering
work; and at the same time keep the book
from becoming an encyclopedia instead of
a handbook. The publishers appear to
have made the selection and condensation
of the material in a logical manner and the
book is everything that it is designed to be
— a pocketbook in reality as well as in name.
It is 3 \ by 5 \ inches and easily carried in the
coat pocket. But in these small dimensions
there has been collected a great quantity
of useful information; and it is presented
in very readable form, for the printing is
good and the illustrations nicely done, leav-
ing nothing to guesswork. The most im-
portant subjects have been treated in con-
siderable detail, such for instance as the
description of dynamos and motors, the
faults to which they are. liable and the me-
thods of locating and remedying these faults.
Shoe Shining Machine
This device for shining shoes is auto-
matically operated by an electric motor in-
side the neat appearing cabinet. At the left
is a dauber wheel, for polish, and at the
right is the polishing brush. These are
carried on flexible rotating shafts. In the
SHOE SHINING MACHINE
middle of the front panel is a snap switch
for turning on and off the current.
To shine your shoes you step on a plat-
form, turn on the current, remove the dauber
from the hook and apply the polish. Next
take down the polishing wheel and complete
the operation. Then turn off the current.
The inventor is George E. Russell of Long-
beach, Cal.
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS
EDISON WRITES FOR POPULAR ELEGTRIGITY
Let everyone be glad! Thomas A. Edison has contributed an article to Popular Elec-
tricity, and it will appear in the June issue. Long and anxiously has the public waited for
a message direct from Mr. Edison and it is with just pride that we announce his selection
of Popular Electricity as the medium through which he will make known his views on sub-
jects near to his own heart and to the hearts of his readers.
"The Tomorrows of Electricity and Invention" is the title of Mr. Edison's article.
The keen insight of the great inventor into the needs of humanity is manifest in every para-
graph, every sentence, and the promise of future strides to be taken toward the conservation
of human energies, the triumph of brain over brawn and the general betterment of condi-
tions of living are bright, indeed, for those who are to live on, in the great Electrical Age
which we are barely entering.
Great as have been the accomplishments of Edison; world-wide though his fame may
be, as the greatest inventor of any age; ideal that he is of every aspiring boy in the land,
still, with characteristic modesty he believes his work to be only preliminary to that of an
age of electrical development along practical and economic lines which will completely
overshadow the things which have thus far been done. He says:
"It is those that will work at the art in the next fifty years that are to be envied. We
poor gropers of the last fifty are like the struggling farmers among the bare New England
rocks before the wide grain fields of the West were reached. The crops have been thin,
without reapers or threshers to harvest them. We haven't got very far beyond Franklin
or Faraday."
For the man who has taken out nearly a thousand patents in his time, contributing
to almost every field of electrical development and other fields far removed from electricity;
inventions so original in their conception and far-reaching in their benefit to mankind as
those of the incandescent lamp, the phonograph, and the moving picture machine — for him
to say that these are only gropings in the realm of scientific discovery is truly significant.
Yet in the mind of an Edison there are visions of future things which do not come to the
minds of other men.
Read, then, his own words in the June issue and live with him for a time in the Great
Age that is to come.
,< ■■"'■■■■ <i
1 w^,^f '
SHORT CIRCUITS
The Fernie (B. C.) Free Press, has recently had an
electrical equipment installed and has consequently
suddenly become electrically enthusiastic to the ex-
tent of printing the following definitions: A trans-
former is an apparatus that hangs on a pole on the
street and grinds the volts into domestic sizes for ad-
jacent consumption. A meter is an automatic case-
keeper that is designed to keep the conscience of the
consumer pure and untainted. A motor is a Christian
Science medicine box that is influenced from the
powerhouse by absent treatment. The method of
operation is as follows: The armature amperes the
rheostat at the switchboard by kilowatting the voltage,
thereby transforming the resistance into two-phase
electromotive ohms, with which the motor absorbs
the peak load on the cut off. The dynamo reduces
the insulation of the series wound exciter, producing
multipolar generators on the direct current, and you
pay at the city ^lej;k's office.
* * *
A sailor had just shown a lady over the ship. In
thanking him she said, "I am sorry to see by the
rules that tips are forbidden on your ship."
"Lor' bless you, ma'am," reolied the sailor, "so
were apples in the Garden of Eden."
The First Phonograph. — A reporter was interview-
ing Thomas A. Edison.
"And you, sir," he said to the inventor, "made the
first talking machine!"
"No," Mr. Edison replied. "The first one was
made — long before my time — out of a rib."
'There was a young lady named Banker
Who slept while the ship lay at anchor;
She woke in dismay
When she heard the mate say,
'Now hoist up the top sheet and spanker.' "
* * *
"Oi'll work no more for Dolan."
"An' why?"
"Sure, an' 'tis on account of a remark he made."
"An' phwat was that?"
"Says he, 'Casey,' says he, 'ye're discharged.' "
* * *
Bystander: Come, cheer up, old man. You may
not be so badly hurt after all.
Victim: How can I tell how badly hurt I am until
after I have seen my lawyer?
# * #
It takes a lot of nerve to enable a young married
man to enter a store and purchase a dozen safety pins
from a former sweetheart.
On a recent declamation day in a New Jersey school
a promising young idea shot off the subjoined.
"Our yaller hen has broke her leg,
Oh, never more she'll lay an egg;
The brindle cow has gone plumb dry,
And sister Sal has eat a pie;
This earth is full of sin and sorrow —
We're born today and die tomorrow."
A good story is told of a doctor, who, while making
out a patient's receipt, forgot his visitor's name.
Not wishing to appear forgetful, and thinking to get
a cue, he asked her whether she spelled her name with
an "e" or an "i". The lady, smilingly replied, "Why
doctor, my name is Hill."
Hipe — Do you keep your mug at the barber's?
ipe — No. Only take it there to get it shaved.
Sunday School Teacher (to the quiet looking boy
at the foot of the class) — In what condition was the
patriarch Job at the end of his life?
"Dead," calmly replied the boy.
"They say that when a mountain climber has a fall
all the sins he ever committed flash through his mind.
Was this the case with you?"
"Oh, no. You see, I fell from a ledge only a hundred
yards high."
The Speaker — Marriage, my dear sisters, is a huge
mistake! Believe me, I would not marry the best
man in the world —
Sweet Voice (from audience) — You couldn't, for
I've got him.
Little Girl — Papa would like to borrow your lawn
mower.
Subbubs — Tell your father I'm sorry, but I've made
a rule never to let it go off my premises. But if he'd
like to use it on our own lawn, it's at his disposal at
any time.
$ $ . Hs
"Father, what is meant by bankruptcy?"
"Bankruptcy is when you put your money in your
hip pocket, and let your creditors take your coat."
A Scotchman and a commercial traveler occupied
neighboring seats. The Scotchman was not inclined
to talk. Finally the commercial man said: "Could
you lend me a match?" The Scotchman took one out
of his pocket, and gingerly placed it on the window-
ledge.
"Oh! by-the-way, I've forgotten my tobacco, tool"
said the traveling man.
"Um! Then ye'll nae need the match," replied
the Scotchman.
Ethel, aged six, had gone down the village street with
her new doll. It could be plainly seen that she was
in dire distress. She stood still, and after a close
scrutiny of several men who passed, she accosted one.
"Say are you an honest man?" she demanded.
"Why, yes, I think so," was the astonished reply.
"Well, then, if you're sure you're an honest man,"
said the little maid, "please hold my dolly while I tie
my shoe."
# .MRCtt/NE FDR CRILPREN WHO
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ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED
In this age of electricity everyone should be versed in its phraseology.
By studying this page from month to month a working knowledge
of the most commonly employed electrical terms may be obtained.
Accumulator. — A term commonly applied to
a storage battery. Also used to designate a Leyden
jar; a condenser.
Acoustic Telegraphy. — The method of read-
ing messages by means of a sounder, the dots and
dashes being distinguished by the periods of time
between the forward and back stroke of the
armature of the magnet.
Adaptee. — A threaded coupling used to provide
a screw shell for an Edison base lamp on old type
sockets having a center screw contact. A device
for connecting incandescent lamps to gas fixtures.
Adjuster for Lamp. — A device for regulating
the height of an incandescent lamp suspended by
a flexible cord.
A. I. E. E.— An abbreviation for "American In-
stitute of Electrical Engineers," the foremost elec-
trical engineering society in the United States.
Aerial. — A term used to designate electrical
conductors suspended in air as distinguished from
those in the water or underground. Applied also
to the antennae in wireless telegraphy.
Ageing of Transformer. — A condition brought
about in the iron core of a transformer by running
it at a temperature exceeding 8o° C, which increases
the core loss and decreases the efficiency. The
mechanical and chemical character of the core iron
has much to do with this change, which may also
be produced by heating in any other way. Known
as transformer fatigue.
Air -Gap. — The space between the armature
and pole pieces of a motor or dynamo. It tends to
cause magnetic scattering or leakage of the lines of
force. Also designates the space between the poles
of a magnet.
Alarm, Electric. — Any system operated by
electricity to give a warning of signal when certain
conditions exist. Among those so designated are :
water level, overflow, valve, sprinkler supervision,
fire, journal and burglar alarms.
Alive. — A term commonly applied to electrical
conductors, switchboards or other devices when
subject to electric pressure or carrying current.
Alloy. — A mixture of two metals which com-
bine upon [the application of heat or in an elec-
trolytic cell.
Alternating Current. — Current which changes
direction periodically, the voltage and current
starting from zero rising to a maximum in one
direction, dropping to zero, pass-
ing to a maximum in the oppo- /\
site direction and returning to _=<X»=A^— •f
zero, in a constantly recurring \J
cycle. Alternating current is «"»•
represented by a curve of this general form
known as a sinusoidal curve.
Alteenation. — A change in the direction of
flow of current; one-half cycle.
Alternator. — A dynamo which generates al-
ternating current.
Amalgamation. — Covering a metal with a film
of mercury, usually done by dipping first in sul-
phuric acid and then in mercury. Amalgamation
prevents eating away of the zinc by the chemical
action of the acid.
Ammeter. — An instrument measuring the am-
peres of current flowing in a circuit. Sometimes
called ampere-meter.
Ampere. — The unit of current. It is the rate
at which electricity will flow through a resistance
of one ohm under a potential of one volt. As de-
fined by the International Zlectrical Congress it
is the current which, under specified conditions,
will deposit .001118 gram of silver per second when
passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in
water.
Ampere-Hour. — The quantity of electricity
passed by a current of one ampere flowing for one
hour. A unit sometimes used by light and power
companies to measure electric energy in which case
the voltage must be constant. Used also in rating
the capacity of a storage batten.-, which by agree-
ment among manufacturers is referred to an eight
ampere-hour rate as a standard. This rating is
based on the constant current at which the battery
will discharge without the voltage falling below
1.75 per cell. A batter}- giving fifteen amperes
under this condition would be called a 120-ampere-
hour battery.
Ampere-Turns. — A term applied to magnet
coils and specifying the product of the number of
turns of wire multiplied by the number of amperes
flowing in the coil. Thus, a magnet wound with
a coil of ten turns of wire carrying two amperes
would be regarded as affected by twenty ampere-
turns.
Angle of Declination. — The angle measur-
ing the amount that a magnetic or compass needle
deviates from the true north and south position.
This deviation varies according to location, and is
due to the fact that the real north pole and the
north magneti" pole are not at the same place.
Angle of Inclination. — The angle measuring
the dip beloY/ t':e horizontal which a magnetic
needle free to move makes, when placed in the
magnetic meridian. Due to the path of the
earth's magnetic lines.
Angle of Lag. — Self-induction in a circuit
carrying alternating current causes the current to
lag behind the electromotive force or voltage which
is forcing the current through; that is as the voltage
rises and falls (see alternating current) the current
will reach say its maximum value a little later than
the electromotive force. Considering a cycle or
double alternation as 360 degrees, the angle by
which the current lags behind the electromotive
force is called angle of lag. The term is also applied
to the angle through which the brushes of a motor
are moved backward against the direction of rota-
tion (given a lag) to overcome sparking.
Angle of Lead. — When a circuit contains
capacity, such as a condenser, the current leads the
electromotive force; that is it reaches a maximum
value during the cycle before the electromotive
force. The amount (measured in degrees) is
called the angle of lead. Also the angle through
which the brushes of a dynamo are moved forward
to secure sparkless commutation.
Popular Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
HENRY WALTER YOUNG. Editor
VoL III
June, 1910
No. 2
CONTENTS
Page
THE TOMORROWS OF ELECTRICITY AND IN-
VENTION. By Thomas A. Edison 79
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY. CHAPTER XXVI.
By Prof. Edwin J. Houston 84
New Type of Transmission Tower 86
THE LIGHT AND POWER OF BROOKLYN.
By W. W. Freeman 89
The Meditations of a Science Man 91
CURRENT FROM WHERE? CHAPTER III. By
Edgar Franklin 92
THE NEW EDISON STORAGE BATTERY 99
Magnetic Pull and Temperature 101
German Wireless Vs. British Cable. . •. 101
To Test Current Polarity 101
THE GHOST ELECTRICIANS. By Fred R. Furnas 102
Three Illustrious Wrights 103
THE FIRST CARBONLESS ARC LAMP. By War-
ren H. Miller 104
TALKS WITH THE JUDGE 106
WHERE ELECTRICITY STANDS IN THE PRAC-
TICE OF MEDICINE. CHAPTER VI.
By Noble M. Eberhart 107
Drawn Tungsten Filaments Ill
GETTING OUT AN "EXTRA" 115
Arc Light Bath 116
How to Calculate Illumination 116
Protecting Signal Batteries 117
Magnet Coils as Heaters 117
Ice Handling by Electricity 118
Holding Court by Telephone 118
Plant Growth and Electricity 118
Electric Diving Sign 119
Automobile Battery Exchange 119
Collapsible Signs . . 119
Bare Wires of an Unseen Metal 119
Resistance 119
Some Odd Electric Lamps 120
The Newspaper Cause 121
Telephone in the School Room 121
Pira Rubber 121
Lightning and the Ancients 122
Exhibit Hall for Accident Prevention 122
The Eskimo and the Telephone 123
Cutting Lamp Filaments on a Planer 123
Lamp Flasher 124
Using Saw Dust Electrically 124
What Weight Can a Dry Battery Lift 125
Displaying Lamp Shades 125
Telephone Coil Carrier 125
Lifting Magnet Recovers Cargoes 126
Across the Atlantic with a Thimble Battery 127
Curing the Sleeping Sickness 127
Electrocuted Eggs 127
In-Door Lighting from Out-Door Lamps 128
Navigating in Lake Ice 128
Making Battery Porous Cups 128
Page
All in Thirty Years 128
Telling Temperature in Bins of Grain 129
Demagnetizing Watches 129
Sharpening Files 129
Submarine Telegraph Cable 130
Heating Pad as an Incubator 130
Electric Steels as Money Savers 130
The Telephone's Alertness 130
Cutting Metals by Electric Arc 131
Electric Crane to Carry Locomotives 132
Portable Power Elevator 133
The Storing of Electric Heat 133
Electricity Produces Mountain Air 134
A Ton at a Time or One 1.35
Simplicity the Key Note 136
An Electric Pyrometer's Record 137
Electric Anesthesia 138
Electric Welding Saves Heat 138
Electric Gate Opener . 139
Railroad Crossing Signals •...'. 139
Paper Making with Electric Power 140
Electric Driving Increases Output 140
The Latest Taxicab 141
Getting the Time in Races 141
Stone and Marble Cutter 142
Candelabra Switch 142
ELECTRICAL MEN OF THE TIMES. H. M
Byllesby 143
SPEAKING OF WASH DAY 144
Electric Travelers' Iron 145
AT THE CHAFING DISH LUNCHEON
By Florence Latimer 146
Connecting Cooking Devices 147
Fans and Home Comfort 148
AN ELECTRICAL LABORATORY FOR $25
PART VI. By David P. Morrison 149
Trapping a Telephone "Josher" 154
A HIGH POWER WIRELESS EQUIP-
MENT. PART II. By Alfred P. Morgan 155
THE COLLINS WIRELESS TELEPHONE 158
Protective Device for Wireless Apparatus 159
Eiffel Tower Wireless Station 160
That Night at Chester 161
The "Pyron" Detector 162
Spark Coil Dimensions 163
Wireless Queries 164
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 165-167
NOTES ON THE LAW OF PATENT TITLES. ... 168
Training Base-Ball Pitchers 169
Electro-Magnetic Ironing Board 169
Tuning Fork for Ear Treatment 170
Aging and Curing Tobacco 170
Book Review 170
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS 171
SHORT CIRCUITS 172
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED 174
With remittance at once, to avoid missing a number. Positively no copies will be mailed on any subscription after
same expires unless renewed, and we cannot agree to begin subscriptions With back numbers. The date on Wrapper of your magazine shows
the issue With Which your subscription ends.
four Weeks in advance, in order to
Since each issue is printed a month before the date it bears, we should be notified at least
lake the necessary change in our records.
ISSUED MONTHLY BY POPULAR ELECTRICITY PUBLISHING CO., MonacWk Block, Chicago, III.
YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION, $1.00; CANADIAN, $1.35; FOREIGN, $1.50; SINGLE COPY, 10 CENTS
No additional copies Will be sent after expiration of subscription except upon renewal
Entered as Second Class Matter April 14, 1908, at the Post Office at Chicago. Under Act of March 3, 1879.
Copyright 1910 by Popular Electricity Publishing Co.
rn Plain English
VOL. HI
JUNE 1910
No. 2
<rxn vention
<By
I understand that the readers of Popular
Electricity are numbered among those who
are interested rather in the future of electric-
ity than in its past. I shall be glad to be
counted as belonging to this class, for while
no longer young in the sense of mere years,
it is with what electricity can yet do that I
am concerned in these days. If I thought
that the possibilities of electrical develop-
ment were exhausted I should not give it
a moment's consideration. Sometimes fa-
thers come to me, or write to me, about their
sons, and want to know if in view of the
fact that so much of the field of work is
already occupied by electricity, I would
recommend it as a career. It is assumed by
them that all the great electrical inventions
have been made, and that nine or ten billions
of dollars is about all that electricity will
stand, in the way of investment. Well, if
I were beginning my own career again, I
should ask no better field in which to work.
The chances for big, new electrical inven-
tions are much greater than before the tele-
graph, the telephone, the electric light and
the electric motor were invented; while
each of these things is far from perfect.
We shall have easily $50,000,000,000 of
money in electrical service in 1925, and five
times as many persons will then be employed
in electricity as now, most of them in branches
for which we have not yet got even a name.
I often pick up my laboratory note books,
of which I have hundreds, full of hints and
suggestions and peeps into Nature, and real-
ize how little we have actually done to set
electricity at work, let alone determine its
secret. Why, barely thirty years ago, there
was no dynamo in the world capable of
supplying current cheaply and efficiently
Copyright toio by Popular Electricity Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
80
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
L
to the little incandescent lamp, and some of
the keenest thinkers of the time doubted if
the subdivision of the electric light was
possible. Tyndall remarked in a public
lecture, with a dubious shake of his head,
that he would rather Mr. Edison should
have the job than himself. It is those that
will work at the art in the next fifty years
that are to be envied. We poor gropers of
the last fifty are like the struggling farmers
THE TOMORROWS OF ELECTRICITY AND INVENTION
81
among the bare New England rocks before
the wide grain fields of the West were
reached. The crops have been thin, with-
out reapers or threshers to harvest them.
We haven't gone very far, yet, beyond
Franklin or Faraday.
Look at the simple chances of improve-
ment in what devices are known today.
They are endless. About one hundred
million carbon filament lamps are made
here every year, "much the same in all es-
sentials as a quarter of a century ago. We
must break new ground. Lately the art
has gone back to metallic filaments bringing
down to one-third the amount of current
needed for the same quantity of light. That
is only a step. The next stage should be to
one-sixth, and, as Steinmetz says, carbon
is still in the game, for many of its qualities
render it superior to metal. It is the same
way with electric heating and cooking ap-
pliances, very ingenious even now, and
better than any other means; but ten years
hence they will be superseded and in the
museums with bows and arrows and the
muzzle-loaders. As for the electric motor,
it will not be perfectly utilized until every-
thing we now make with our hands, and
every mechanical motion, can be effected
by throwing a switch. I am ashamed at
the number of things around my house and
shops that are done by animals — human
beings, I mean — and ought to be done by a
motor without any sense of fatigue or pain.
Hereafter a motor must do all the chores.
Just the same remarks apply outdoors.
For years past I have been trying to perfect
a storage battery and have now rendered it
entirely suitable to automobile and other
work. There is absolutely no reason why
horses should be allowed within city limits,
for between the gasoline and the electric
car, no room is left for them. They are
not needed. The cow and the pig have
gone, and the horse is still more undesirable.
A higher public ideal of health and cleanli-
ness is working toward such banishment
very swiftly; and then we shall have decent
streets instead of stables made out of strips
of cobblestones bordered by sidewalks.
The worst use of money is to make a
fine thoroughfare and then turn it over
to horses. Besides that, the change will
put the humane societies out of business.
Many people now charge their own bat-
teries, because of lack of facilities; but I
believe central stations will find in this work
very soon the largest part of their load.
The New York Edison Company or the
Chicago Edison should have as much cur-
rent going out for storage batteries in auto-
mobiles and trucks as for power motors;
and it will be so some near day. A central
station plant ought to be busy twenty-four
hours. It doesn't have to sleep. So far, we
electrical engineers have given our atten-
tion to two-thirds of the clock; and between
10 p. m. and 6 a. m. have practically put
up our shutters, like a retail store. I am
proposing to fill up that idle part of the clock.
Electricity is the only thing I know that
has become any cheaper the last ten years,
and such work as I have indicated, tending
to its universal use from one common source,
is all aimed consciously or insensibly, in
this direction. I have been deeply impressed
with the agitation and talk about the higher
cost of living, and find my thoughts inces-
santly turning in that direction. Prices are
staggering! Before I became a newsboy
on the Grand Trunk Railroad, I raised and
distributed market garden "sass" grown
at the old home at Port Huron, Michigan,
and made many a dollar for my crude little
experiments that my mother with great
doubt and trepidation let me carry on.
Thus with early experience as a grower and
distributor, reinforced by fifty years of in-
venting and manufacturing, I am convinced
pretty firmly that a large part of our height-
ened expense of living comes from the cost
of delivering small quantities to the "ulti-
mate consumer."
My poor neighbors in Orange pay four
or five times what I do for a ton of coal be-
cause they buy in such small quantities;
and thus the burden falls on the wrong
shoulders. This appeals to my selfishness
as well as to my philanthropy, for the work-
ingman hasn't much left to buy my phono-
graph or to see my moving pictures with,
if all he makes is swallowed up in rent,
clothing and food. I'll speak about rent
a little later. In clothing we have got onto
the universal "ready-made" basis which
has vastly cheapened dress while ensuring
82
POrULAR ELECTRICITY
a fastidious fit. When we come to food,
let us note how far we have already gone in
centralized production of the "package."
I believe a family could live the year around
without using anything but good "package"
food. What is needed is to carry that a
step further and devise automatic stores
where the distributing cost is brought down
THE TOMORROWS OF ELECTRICITY AND INVENTION
83
to a minimum on every article handled.
A few electro-magnets controlling chutes
and hoppers, and the thing is done. I won-
der the big five- and ten-cent stores don't try
the thing out, so that even a small package
of coal or potatoes would cost the poor man
relatively no more than if he took a carload.
If I get the time I hope to produce a vending
machine and store that will deliver specific
quantities of supplies as paid for, on the
spot.
Butchers' meat is one of the elements in
high cost of living that this plan may not
apply to readily; but it is amazing how far,
even now, automatic machinery goes in
carving up a carcass. We shall simply have
to push those processes a little further.
Thousands of motors are now in use run-
ning sausage machines, for example. Be-
sides I am not particularly anxious to help
people eat more meat. I would rather help
them eat less. Meat eating like sleeping
is a bad habit to indulge. The death rate
and sickness of the population of the country
could be reduced several per cent, in the
ratio of abstinence from animal food.
One most important item in the modern
high cost of living is rent. The electric
railway has been an enormous factor for
good in distributing people so as to lessen
congestion and lower rents. But homes and
rents are still much too high in price because
of the cost of construction. I saw it coming
long ago and hence went into the making of
cement, the cheapest and most durable build-
ing material man has ever had. Wood will
rot and burn, but a cement and iron struc-
ture seems to last forever. Look at the
old Roman baths. Their walls are as solid
today as when built two thousand years
ago. When I came to the close of some
experiments on magnetic ore milling, on
account of the opening up of the Mesaba
Range — which will not last forever — the
insurance companies cancelled their poli-
cies because of the "moral hazard" on my
idle buildings. I said to myself that I
would construct buildings that did not have
moral risk, and thus went into the Po: lland
cement industry. I have already put up a
great many large buildings of my own all
of steel and concrete, avoiding this moral
risk, and now I am rapidly developing the
idea, in building with large iron molds,
houses for poor plain folk, in which there
is no moral risk at all, nothing whatever to
burn, not even by lightning. When I get
through, the fire insurance companies can
follow the humane societies, for the lack of
material to work on.
My plans are very simple. Nothing that
is fundamental and successful in dealing
with the wants of humanity in the mass, must
ever be complicated. I just mold a house
instead of a brick. A complete set of my
iron molds will cost about $25,000, and the
working plant $15,000 more. As a unit
plant, I will start six sets of molds, to keep
the men busy and the machinery going.
Not less than 144 houses can be built in
a year with this equipment. A single
house can be cast in six hours. With in-
terest and depreciation of 10 per cent on a
sum of say $175,000, the plant charge against
each house is less than $125. I believe that
the houses can be erected complete with
plumbing and heating apparatus for $1200
each when erected on land underlaid with
sand and gravel. Each house may be dif-
ferent in combination of design, color, and
other features; and endless variation of style
is possible. The house I would give the
workingman has a floor plan 25 by 30 feet,
three stories high, with cellar, on a lot 40
by 60 feet, with six large living and sleeping
rooms, airy halls, bath and every comfort.
In cut stone such a house would cost $30,000.
These houses can be built in batches of
hundreds and then the plant can be moved
elsewhere. When built these communities
of poured houses can become flowered towns
with wide lawns and blooming beds, along
the roadways. Rats and mice and Croton
bugs will have as much show in them as in
the steel safe of a bank. Cement neither
breeds vermin nor harbors it. There is
nothing in all this that is not common sense
and easy of practice. With a fair profit
these houses should rent at ten to twelve
dollars per month. Who would not for-
sake the crowded apartment or tenement on
such terms for roomy, substantial houses,
fitted with modern conveniences, beautified
with artistic decorations, with no outlay for
insurance or repairs and with no dread of
fire or fire bugs?
Elementary Electricity
By PROF. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. (Princeton)
CHAPTER XXVI. — THE INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LAMP
The incandescent electric lamp depends
for its operation on the fact that any part
of a circuit the resistance of which is com-
paratively high, will be heated to incandes-
cence by the passage of the proper current.
The possibility of producing artificial
light by electricity flowing through a high
resistance conductor has been known for
a long time. At a very early date a man
named Children made an investigation on
the effects produced by the passage of elec-
tricity through conductors consisting of
different metals. The current employed
for this purpose had sufficient strength
to raise the wires to bright incandescence.
Besides the above, a num-
ber of early experiments were
made by De La Rue, Grove
and others. De la Rue pro-
duced a device not unlike
the electric lamp of later
days. It consisted of a spiral
wire placed inside a glass
cylinder in order to protect
the glowing conductors from
the action of the air. This
early form of lamp is repre-
sented in Fig. 1 66.
But since the amount of
O light produced by most of
these early devices was so
small and their life or ability
to continue supplying this
light so short, none of these
devices can properly be con-
sidered as operative lamps.
One of the most im-
portant properties that a
substance suitable for use as the incan-
descing or light-emitting part of an in-
candescent electric lamp is a high refractory
power; that is, it must be capable of being
raised to a high temperature without fusing,
such, for example, as a wire of platinum or
a cylinder or rod of carbon. Without going
into their description, it may be said that
many early forms of incandescent electric
lamps employed these substances for their
light-emitting material.
As we have seen, the heat produced in any
FIG. 1 66
de la rue's
LAMP
conductor by the passage of an electric cur-
rent may be either entirely non-luminous
or unaccompanied by light, or partly lumin-
ous or accompanied by light. Unfortunate-
ly, the radiation produced by the passage of
an electric current through wires of plati-
num or rods of carbon contains a greater
proportion by far of non-luminous than of
luminous heat.
Even in the case of the best form of fairly
modern incandescent electric lamps the heat
emitted by the glowing filament is greatly
in excess of the light. Sixteen candle-power
incandescent lamps, or those that produce a
light equal to that produced by sixteen
standard candles, require, for their proper
operation, an expenditure of electric energy
equal to about 50 watts. Now, it can be
shown that of this activity about 48 watts
are employed in producing non -luminous
radiation, and but two watts, or four per cent,
in producing luminous radiation. Although
in later types of incandescent electric lamps
somewhat better results have been obtained,
the fact exists that even in its best form the
incandescent electric lamp is far better as
a source of heat than of light. Indeed,
electric lamps have been successfully em-
ployed for electric heaters.
Nor is this disproportion between the
percentage of the non-luminous and lu-
minous heat limited to incandescent elec-
tric lamps. Nearly all other sources of
artificial illumination are equally deficient
in this respect. Indeed, most luminous
sources show even a greater disproportion
as can be seen from the following figures.
The Welsbach incandescent-mantle gas-
lamp, a lamp that is far more economical
than the light of the ordinary gas burner so
far as the amount of light it produces, but
which possesses the disadvantage of pro-
ducing ghastly effects in interior illumination
from the absence of the red rays and the
presence of a large percentage of green rays,
produces 2% per cent of light and 97^ per cent
of heat, while a common candle flame yields
but i^ per cent of light and 98^ per cent of
heat. The light of the magnesium lamp
produced by burning a ribbon of metallic
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
85
magnesium, produces 12 per cent of luminous
rays and 88 per cent of heat rays. The
ordinary carbon arc lamp possesses a some-
what greater economy, but even it yields
only 13 per cent of light rays to 87 per cent
of heat rays.
In strong contrast with the above is the
light emitted by the glow-worm or the fire-
fly. This is essentially a cold light as dis-
tinguished from the" above sources which
produce what might be called a hot light,
since the light emitted by these animals
consists of probably 98 per cent or 99 per
cent of light and two per cent or one per cent
of heat rays.
In order to increase the percentage of the
luminous rays emitted by any heated con-
ductor, it is only necessary to raise the con-
ductor to a higher temperature. Generally
speaking, there is no difficulty in raising
the temperature of an incandescent carbon
thread or filament and thus increasing the
percentage of its useful light-producing en-
ergy. To do this it is only necessary to
increase the electromotive force or electric
pressure applied to the lamp terminals.
But when this is done the life of the filament
is thereby greatly shortened. Indeed, it is
possible to pass a sufficiently powerful cur-
rent through the filament instantly to de-
stroy it by the resulting high temperature.
There is then a practical limit beyond which
the light-emitting power of a carbon filament
cannot be carried.
A comparatively small increase in the
temperature of an incandescent filament is
attended by a marked increase in the amount
of light it gives off. The temperature at
which the ordinary incandescent filament
is employed is about 13450 C. (24530 F.).
If this temperature is increased a few de-
grees only, the candle-power, or the quantity
of light the filament emits, will be materially
increased. But even this slight increase
results in the gradual disintegration of the
carbon in the filament, and, consequently,
in a decrease in its light. It has been shown
that an increase of but 20 C. is accompanied
by an increase of 3 per cent of light emitted.
Were it possible safely to double the tem-
perature of an incandescent filament, the
amount of light it would be capable of giving
off would probably be something in the
neighborhood of 64 times what it originally
emitted. It will be understood, therefore,
how valuable the discovery would be of some
substance that could safely be employed
as an incandescent filament at a higher
temperature than that at which the carbon
filament is ordinarily employed. As will be
shown in the next two chapters this has been
done in the case of the tantalum, tungsten,
and osmium lamps as well as with the
Nernst and the Cooper-Hewitt lamps, with
the most satisfactory results.
The substance almost universally em-
ployed for the filament or light-emitting
part of the incandescent electric lamp up
to within the past few years was carbon.
Carbon possesses a number of properties
that eminently fit it for this character of
work. It can readily be obtained in a nearly
pure condition; can be prepared in threads
or strips of uniform diameter; can be readily
rendered electrically homogeneous throughout
all parts of its length ; can be given a surface
eminently qualified to emit or throw out
light; and, most important of all, is ex-
ceedingly refractory, since it can be heated
to a very high temperature without disin-
tegrating or breaking up. Generally speak-
ing, however, this lamp can be made to
possess an efficiency of from 3.1 to 3.5 watts
per candle with a life of about 800 hours.
The general principles of operation of
the incandescent electric lamp having now
been described, it remains to show how
lamps are actually constructed in practice.
Since, when exposed to the air, incandescent
carbon rapidly unites with the oxygen, it is
evident that it would be impracticable to
attempt to use incandescent carbon filaments
when exposed to the air, as such filaments
would rapidly be destroyed by combustion.
It is necessary, therefore, to place them
inside a transparent globe or chamber.
It was at one time believed that it was
not necessary to exclude all gases or air
from the lamp chamber or globe; that if
the oxygen only were removed, the presence
of nitrogen or carbonic acid gas would be
harmless. Indeed, at one time incandes-
cent lamps were constructed in which the
globes were purposely filled with nitrogen
gas. Such lamps, however, were soon found
to possess smaller efficiency than the lamps
provided with vacuum globes since the con-
vection currents set up in the lamp chamber
lowered the temperature of the glowing
filament by the rapid extraction of heat.
But a more serious objection soon mani-
fested itself in the employment of an atmos-
phere of inert gas within the lamp chamber.
A rapid disintegration or breaking down of
86
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the filament resulted from the dashing of the
gaseous molecures against the glowing car-
bon. This process, known as air-washing,
resulted in the mechanical disintegration
of the filament and consequently a decrease
in the length of its life.
It was not long before it was found that
a lamp chamber filled with carbonic acid
gas was also impractical. While carbonic
acid gas is incapable of combining directly
with any more carbon and would not there-
fore be injured, yet it was able to give up
some of its oxygen to the glowing carbon,
thus being converted into carbon monoxide
and liberating oxygen. It is, therefore, the
universal practice of the present day to
place the incandescent carbon filament inside
a lamp globe or chamber in which a vacuum
is maintained as nearly perfect as prac-
ticable.
The early forms of incandescent electric
lamps employed rods of carbon, cut or
fashioned from the bard carbon deposited
inside the retorts in which illuminating gas is
produced by the destructive distillation of
coal. The impracticability of obtaining
such rods in sufficient length and thinness
led to the employment of other kinds of
carbon.
In Edison's early form of incandescent
electric lamp, the carbon filaments, were
formed by cutting a horseshoe-shaped piece
from a sheet of cardboard or other stiff
paper and then subjecting it to a carbonizing
process by prolonged heating while out of
contact with air. By means of carbon
filaments so prepared he produced the in-
candescent lamps that when first exhibited
created such excitement all over the world,
and resulted in the unwarranted and there-
fore but temporary depreciation of the sell-
ing price of gas stocks.
Another thing necessary in the construc-
tion of an incandescent lamp is to provide
a suitable support inside the lamp chamber
for the incandescing filament, as well as
means for passing the current into and out
of the chamber. These supports must be
of such a character as will make it pos-
sible to maintain a high vacuum in the
chamber. The leading-in wires, i. e., the
wires by which the current enters and leaves
the lamp chamber must not, by expansion,
crack or break the portions of the glass
chamber through which they pass.
It is evident that the dimensions of the
leading-in wires must be such that they will
not be sensibly increased in temperature
by the current. Moreover, they must con-
sist of some fairly good conducting material
whose rate of expansion, under an increase
of temperature, does not differ greatly from
that of the walls of the glass chamber through
which they pass.
Of all the materials that have been em-
ployed for leading-in wires, platinum has
been found the best, since the rate at which
it expands by increase of temperature is
practically the same as that of glass.
Various forms of glass supports are em-
ployed for the carbon filaments. In the
form shown in Fig. 167, the leading-in
wires are fused to the glass support shown
by melting the glass
around them. As will
be seen, this support con-
sists of a small piece of
glass tubing (T) with a
shoulder blown on it at
(S). The two platinum
wires (PP) are placed in-
side the tube, which is
then fused around it by
the flame of a blowpipe.
In order to decrease the
expense of manufacture,
platinum wire is only
employed at the places
where it is sealed into
the glass of the sup-
. Wz port, the remainder of
the wire for by far the
greater part of its
length consists of pieces
of copper wire (Wi W2).
It is especially neces-
sary to provide good
electrical joints, where the incandescent
filament joins the leading-in wires. Various
plans have been employed to provide such
a joint. Probably the simplest and best
consists in joints formed by a paste of a
carbonaceous material that is afterwards
hardened by baking.
The filament so mounted is then placed
inside a suitable glass chamber or lamp
globe, such as shown in Fig. 168. This
globe is first provided with a glass tube
(A T), as shown in Fig. 169, and a suitably
shaped shoulder formed on it. The
opening at the neck thus formed is of such
a size that when a mounted filament is
introduced as shown in Fig. 170, the shoul-
der comes so nearly in contact with the
fig. 167
GLASS SUP-
PORT FOR
FILAMENTS
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
87
narrow part of the neck at (G) that an air-
tight joint can be formed by fusing the glass
of the support and that of the lamp cham-
ber together.
Matters being thus arranged it is now-
necessary thoroughly to exhaust the lamp
chamber. The pumps employed for this
purpose are capable of producing a nearly
fig. 170
STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF LAMP MAKING
complete vacuum. In most cases the
greater portion of the air is first removed
by the action of a mechanical pump with
automatically operated valves, and the
rest of the exhaustion obtained by any good
form of mercury pump. When the required
vacuum is reached the lamp is removed from
the pump by a blowpipe flame applied at
the constriction (A) in the tube (T), so as
to separate it by fusion.
No little trouble was experienced in the
early days of manufacture of the incandescent
electric lamp from the difficulty of main-
taining the necessary vacuum. No matter
how carefully the lamp chamber had been
sealed, air would somehow or other leak into
the chamber so that the length of life of
the lamp was too small to permit it to be
used in practice. This leakage was at first
attributed to air entering at the points of
the lamp chamber through which the leading-
in wires passed; for, it would seem that
this was the only place where air could possi-
bly get into the chamber. When it was
found that the difficulty was not situated
at these places, it was suggested that the
leakage was probably due to the platinum
wire, taking in or occluding gas which passed
through the spaces between the molecules
and so found entrance into the chamber.
Happily, however, the problem was soon
solved, so that the vacuum of an incandes-
cent lamp bulb can now be made so high
that lamps are now made that may have a
life in excess of 800 hours.
If, as was done in the early history of the
manufacture, the lamp bulb with its mounted
filaments was removed from the pump by
fusion of the glass at (A) while the lamp
filament and chamber were cold, the vacuum
would necessarily be rapidly
destroyed by the air that had
been occluded or shut up
between the pores of the
carbon filament, or had ad-
hered in the shape of a thin
film of liquefied gas to the
walls of the lamp globe or
chamber. The force with
which the occluded air clings
to the solid surfaces would
be so great that it would not
pass out of the lamp chamber,
during the operation of pump-
ing, along with the free air,
and would, therefore, remain
in the bulb and filament
after the lamp was sealed off and
removed from the pump. Under these
circumstances, as soon as the current
was sent through the filament, thereby
heating both the filament and the lamp
chamber, the gas was driven off, greatly
vitiating the vacuum, and soon resulting
in the destruction of the filament.
The cause of the difficulty having been
discovered, its remedy was evident. As
soon as the lamp globe has all the air it
originally contained drawn out by the pump
except that occluded by the filament or
adhering to the walls of the chamber, an
electric current is passed through the fila-
ment the strength of which is somewhat in
excess of that required to maintain the lamp
in constant operation. If, while this is being
done, the pumps are kept in constant opera-
tion, the air thus liberated is carried out of
the chamber, so that when the lamp chamber
is sealed, a permanently high vacuum is
assured.
There is a requirement of the carbon fila-
ment of the incandescent electric lamp that
has not yet been alluded to. The filament
must not only nave a much higher resistance
than other portions of the lamp circuit, but
it must also possess a comparatively small
mass together with a fairly extended sur-
face; for, it is from the surface of the glowing
filament that the light is emitted. The
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
double requirement of a fairly extended
length of glowing conductor, and a small
mass, can only be met by making the glow-
ing conductor of comparatively small diam-
eter; that is, of giving it the form of a thread
or filament.
But the requirements of the carbon fila-
ment do not stop here. Not only must it
possess a fairly high resistance but this
resistance must be the same for any small
portion throughout its entire length. If the
resistivity of the carbon, that is, its electric
resistance per unit of mass, varies in differ-
ent parts, or if the carbon filament is thicker
in some places than others, its electric re-
sistance at different portions of its length
will vary. Consequently, when the electric
current passes through it, only those parts
of the filament that possess the relatively
highest resistance will begin to glow or emit
light, so that the filament will possess a
disagreeable spotted appearance.
If, in order to avoid unequal brightness
of the glowing filament, the strength of the
current be increased, the portions of next
highest resistance will begin to glow until
finally, when a sufficiently strong current
strength has been reached, the filament will
glow uniformly throughout its entire length.
But such a filament must necessarily be
short lived. If the current strength is such
as to produce good luminous effects in the
parts of lowest resistance, it will be too
great for those of high resistance. The life
of the filament would therefore be necessarily
short.
By the use of an ingenious process known
as the flashing process, spotted filaments
can be readily rendered electrically homo-
geneous throughout. Before mounted in
the lamp globe, each filament is placed in a
carbonaceous liquid or vapor and an electric
current, the strength of which is gradually
increasing, sent through it. By this means
the points of highest resistance of the filament
are first raised to incandescence. These
points receive a coating of electrically de-
posited carbon due to the decomposition of
the carbonaceous liquid or vapor and thereby
have their electric resistance lowered. The
current is then increased, so that the next
highest resistance portions of the filament
begin to glow, and these in turn have carbon
deposited on them. The consequence is
that if the current is properly increased in
strength, in a very short time all parts of
the filament are thus automatically brought
to the same resistance per unit of length
and the filament glows uniformly.
Improvements in the manufacture of a
variety of carbon filaments known as squirted
filaments have rendered it possible to make
them of a small diameter and of fairly con-
siderable length so electrically uniform
throughout that the flashing process can be
dispensed with.
(To be Continued.)
New Type of Transmission Tower
An entirely new idea in the support of
high voltage line wires, is shown in the cut,
the idea being not to bring the tension of
the line on any one of the supports but
rather to support the weight of the conductors
on each one of the steel transmission towers.
It will be noticed that this type of trans-
mission tower differs widely from any cf
TRANSMISSION TOWER
the steel towers used at the present time, in
that the supporting insulator chains allow
a considerable amount of freedom to the
swinging of the wires and at the same time
act as a very reliable support. No trans-
mission towers of this type have been put
in actual use as yet and the photographs
shown were taken of the experimental line
which was erected by the General Electric
Company on their farm at Schenectady for
experimental purposes. The insulators are
novel, being composed of alternate concave
disks of porcelain and galvanized links.
The Light and Power of Brooklyn
By W. W. FREEMAN, Vice-President and General Manager of the Edison Electric
Illuminating Company of Brooklyn
Less than a quarter of a century ago
ground was broken in Pearl Street for the
first electric .light plant in Brooklyn. This
was in 1889. Imagine a little plant con-
sisting of two, 250 horse-power engines
belted to two of the old Edison dynamos
each with its pair of grotesquely tall fields
— this was the start. As "charter" con-
sumers there were a theatre, a barber shop
and an ice cream parlor.
Coming forward to the present we find
Four months after the original station
commenced operation the company had con-
nected to its system the equivalent of 6600
16-candle power lamps, and there was great
enthusiasm at the progress made. But
measured by the standards of the present
this was insignificant. Only a short time
ago the Sales Department called my atten-
tion to the fact that the new business signed
during a recent month exceeded the aggre-
gate business connected to the system of
GOLD STREET POWER HOUSE OF THE EDISON ILLUMINATING COMPANY OF BROOKLYN
that the largest power house of the com-
pany is equipped with the latest type of
steam-turbine driven dynamos, turbo-gen-
erators as they are called, each one of which
has a capacity of fifty times that of the origi-
nal engines.
In the beginning the capital invested was
$500,000. Today it is $25,000,000.
the company at the close of its first four
years of operation.
These comparisons may serve to illus-
trate to some extent the rapid development
of the business, and it is my opinion that
this development, notwithstanding its rapid-
ity, is but prophetic of an even more rapid
and successful development to come.
90
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The Borough of Brooklyn has an area of
77 square miles with a present population of
1,500,000 and room for several millions
more. The Borough is certain to become
the controlling Borough of the Greater New
York through its voting power.
The electric franchises of the compary are
The property of all of the above companies,
excepting the Kings County Electric Light
& Power Company, is owned by the Edison
Company, the capital stock of which is in
turn owned by the Kings County Company,
and, through lease agreement, the net profits
from the operation of the combined systems
STEAM TURBO-GENERATORS IN THE GOLD STREET POWER HOUSE
all perpetual and cover the entire Borough.
There are no other electric fran-
chises in existence, except one that is con-
fined to a single ward, namely, Flatbush,
and which is owned by the Brooklyn Union
Gas Company. Under the present charter
of New York future franchises must be
limited to twenty-five-year terms.
To those who care to understand the
financial phases of the subject the following
will be of interest. The system now oper-
ated by the Edison Electric Illuminating
Company of Brooklyn is a combination of
systems of the Citizens' Electric Illuminating
Company of Brooklyn, Municipal Electric
Light Company of Brooklyn, Amsterdam
Electric Light, Heat & Power Company,
the Bergen Beach Light & Power Company
and the Kings County Electric Light &:
Power Company.
are paid to the Kings County Company,
which is the financing company, whose
securities are held by the public.
The outstanding securities are as follows:
$10,000,000 Kings County Capital stock.
2,500,000 Kings County first mortgage 5 per
cent Gold bonds, due 1937
5,176,000 Kings County 6 per cent gold bonds
due 1997, additionally secured by
purchase money mortgage on
Edison stock, and interest pay-
ments secured by $1,000,000,
guarantee fund deposited with
trustee.
2,500,000 Kings County 6 per cent convertible
debenture bonds, due 1922, and
convertible into stock at par after
1913
4,275,000 Edison first mortgage 4 per cent
bonds due 1939; issue limited to
$10,000,000.
t> 24, 45 1,000
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
91
The merit of these securities is evident
to any one who will examine the company's
record.
The Edison 4 per cent bonds are secured
by first mortgage on. the plant and property
costing and worth four times the bond issue,
and the earnings for 1909 applicable to the
bonds were more than eleven times the in-
terest.
The Kings County 5 per cent bonds are
secured by first mortgage on the plant and
property costing and worth several times
the bond issue, and the earnings for 1909
were more than thirteen times the interest.
The Kings County 6 per cent bonds are
also more than adequately secured, and the
earnings for 1909, after payment of prior
bond interest, were more than five times the
interest.
The convertible debenture bonds paying
6 per cent interest and the capital stock,
paying 8 per cent dividends, represent real
money put into plant and property, without
capitalization of franchises or earning power.
The present organization of the company
has been built up with extreme care, and is
composed of men who have grown up in the
business, or have been selected because of
special qualifications for specific work.
The officers and the departmental heads are
organized into a staff council, which meets
at luncheon one day of each week, at which
meeting matters of general interest are dis-
cussed and inter-departmental affairs deter-
mined. There are sixteen members of the
staff council.
The Sales Department of the company is
thoroughly organized and aggressively con-
ducted. At the present time 68 men are
employed in getting business.
Perhaps nothing shows more plainly the
rapid advance in the use of electricity than
a record, year by year, of the connected load
of the light and power company in almost
any city where aggressive methods have been
pursued. The-following table is the record
of the Brooklyn Edison company from 1890
to 1 9 10, everything, power and light, being
reduced to the equivalent of 50 watt units,
or in other words to a unit represented by
the ordinary 16 candle-power, carbon-fila-
ment lamp.
Connected to System in Equivalent to 50
Watt Units
January 1st 1890 6,060
" 1891 25,170
' l892 4i,379
' l893 -- 75,45°
' 1894 100,533
" " 1895 128,189
' l896 154,523
' l897 i99,052
" 1898 227,095
" 1899 267,193
" 1900 310,943
" 1901 376,243
" 1902 465,041
' !9°3 537,352
" 1904 637,083
" " 1905 808,189
" " 1906 932,715
" i9°7 1,167,595
" i9°8 1, 345, 233
" " 1909 1,546,498
" 19" !, 772,357
Glancing down this row of figures you
will see a constantly and rapidly rising trend.
Where will it end? I venture to say that
in Brooklyn — in any large city — the end will
not come until electricity produced at large
central power plants will meet every require-
ment for light and power and heat of that
city.
The Meditations of a Science Man
How doth the busy little volt
Improve each shining hour?
He travels on the D. C. line
And gives the people power.
And when he meets the little ohm,
It standing in his way,
He sends an ampere in his place
And stays and wins the day.
And when he's done his daily task
And made the motor go,
Like chickens home to roost he hikes,
Back to the dynamo.
Or perhaps he takes the A. C.
Because he thinks it pays,
And takes his family along
And then we have a phase.
line,
And if they meet along the line
A henry or a farad,
They'll treat him as they did the ohm,
For which we should be glad.
For if the busy little volt
Did not work both day and night
Where would we get our kilowatts
And our electric light?
D. Y. Namo, in the Queen's University Bulletin
Current From — Where?
BY EDGAR FRANKLIN
CHAPTER III
ACCIDENTS
The entire platform of the Brontoii rail-
way station was a decidedly lengthy affair.
Wholly level with the road-bed at the
station end, matters were radically different
down by the distant freight shed. Here,
with the track side at loading height above
the rails, the off side of the platform pre-
sented a good ten-foot drop to jagged rocks.
Half way down the platform, Race waited
in the sunshine as Dunbar hurried toward
him from the station.
"It's our stuff all right," announced the
latter, as Race fell into quick step beside
him. "The actual generators are here
anyway."
"All that pile?" Race squinted at the
heavy crates and cases at the far end.
Two big generators there, son, when
they're assembled," Dunbar chuckled ex-
citedly, as he trotted forward.
Race followed more slowly. The things
were there — that was the main considera-
tion. One item at least was off his mind;
now he could concentrate on the coal ques-
tion and start a new bombardment of the
railroad, as concerned their Avandering
engines.
Yes, their luck had turned. Race felt it,
as his optimism began to surge back. This
was the first really encouraging event since
the arrival of their boilers — it was an omen of
better things to come. The outrageous coal
letter of a week ago remained unanswered;
maybe the Stelton people were repenting
now. And as* for the engines — why, they
might turn up at any minute and
."Bob!"
Race, startled out of his pleasant revery,
all but jumped to his partner's side.
"Wnat in thunder's this?" that gentleman
demanded forcefully. "One whole arma-
ture's missing here!"
"Missing?" queried Race.
"Yes! Core — shaft — commutator — every-
thing! They "
He stopped short. Race was at the rear
end of the platform and just now, staring
downward with open mouth, he was not
listening. Hastily, Dunbar followed his
^;aze.
And with a wild little cry he ran to the
end of the platform, jumped to the ground
and went clambering down the shallow gully
behind. Race, following, was at his side
a moment later, swearing fervidly.
Here, there and everywhere, torn, splin-
tered and broken, were bits of thick board.
In the center, tilting on the edge of a rock,
rested a big. wheel-like, oily complication of
windings and loose wire ends, of steel and
copper — wrecked !
"Is that — it?" Race choked at last.
"Yes! Look!" Dunbar squatted beside
it and almost wept. "Look at that shaft!
It's bent at both ends and all strained out
of shape in the middle and — look at that
commutator! It's smashed to bits! And
see this winding — it's bruised in a full inch!
The wire's cut in a dozen places!"
"It hit that rock — right there — and
smashed it!" Race snarled. "And — psst!"
Together, they looked up. Overhead, at
the edge of the platform, stood Baker,
freight agent, stupid of countenance and
sluggish of movement.
"Say! Ain't that a darned shame!" he
demanded.
For the moment, Race's vocabulary failed
him.
"I left her jest as she was, fer you to see —
so's you couldn't blame it on me," pursued
Mr. Baker. "They come in late last night
and I had ter git 'em unloaded— had t'
send the car back on the early freight.
Some o' the boys must 'a' left her too near
the edge — an' she jest toppled over some-
time during the night."
"Which one of the boys, and how the
devil could she topple over?" the president
demanded in a roar, as he gripped the
trestle under the platform and climbed
straight up, eyes blazing.
Baker backed away.
"It — it must 'a' been some o' the train
crew." he protested. "They slept in the
station last night — I couldn't stay there all
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
93
night — they got the stuff off early this morn-
ing, before I came."
"That's all a string of lies!" thundered
Race, as his partner, less excited, sadder of
expression, reached his side.
"That ain't no lie," said the freight man,
as he continued a highly judicious backward
course toward shelter. "I tell ye "
"And I tell you that the responsibility is
right on you! I know you're an ass, Baker,
but there's more in this than plain imbecil-
ity. Who knocked that thing over the
edge?"
"Now, lookahere! I — tell yer I found it
like that," sputtered the agent. "Maybe
you kin claim damages, but you gotter
claim 'em from the railroad. I gotter put
in my report, that's all. I ain't got no re-
sponsibility. I ain't got no re "
"You haven't, eh?" shouted Race. "Well,
by the time I've kicked the truth out of
you, you'll find how much "
He darted toward Baker — and Dunbar
caught him as Mr. Baker's steps pattered
down the platform at something like twenty
patters per second.
"It's done now, Bob. If killing that
little cur would do any good, I'd advocate it,
but it won't. The thing's hopeless "
Mr. Race pulled himself together. For a
moment his teeth gritted; then he said:
"No way of fixing it up here?"
"We have no facilities in town yet. We — "
"All right!" Race interrupted again. "You
go over to our hoodoo powerhouse, nestling
there in the pretty pines. Tell 'em to get
that mess together and ship it straight back
to the builders. You can walk back to the
office," he added, as he stepped into the
dusty machine. "I'm in a hurry."
"What are you going to do?"
"Write to the manufacturers, order a new
armature and stick a special delivery stamp
on the letter," responded the president,
as the little car departed with its customary
suddenness.
It was at no particularly brisk rate that
he returned to the "Bronton Electric Light
& Power Company" sign, however; and
his low speed was just as well, for Race
happened to be staring at the vibrating
bonnet and not at the landscape ahead;
dogs, humans and other movable things had
time to dodge as he pondered.
This last calamity dispelled whatever
lingering notion he might have of blaming
their series of misfortunes upon mere coin-
cidence. The wanderings of the engines
might be well enough laid to error; it was
possible, at least, for an isolated building
to catch fire three successive times without
crime having been committed : but the price
of coal looked daily more and more like a
hold-up with a definite purpose behind, and
this thing of having an entire armature in-
advertently step backward of its own accord
and commit suicide on the rocks was too
great a strain on credulity.
Mr. Race decided as he stopped before the
office that he would write one letter instead
of two, and if the second didn't result in
damages and the removal of Mr. Baker's
official scalp, it would be because the gentle
art of flavoring his ink with sulphuric acid
had suddenly left Race.
Carey was at his desk when the president
entered; and, curiously, Mr. Bowers stood
there, too, apparently on the verge of leav-
ing. He saluted Race with a nod and a
grin that, to the latter's irritated nerves, held
a queer quality of tolerant pity.
"Just been chatting with the treasurer
of the company," he observed, indicating
Mr. Carey with his thumb.
"I didn't suppose you were boxing with
him," said Mr. Race, briefly, as he took his
seat.
Bowers stared for a second and chuckled.
"Sore over your busted machinery, hey?"
he asked.
"What the dickens do you know about
that?" came from Race as he faced about.
"Why— I heard about it. That's all."
"How? You haven't been near the sta-
tion, because it's early morning still and
you've got a spotless new shine and there's
no dust around your legs — and the dirt
down there's a foot deep," Mr. Race fired
at him, surprisingly.
Mr. Bowers went into a series of guffaws.
At the end, he laid an unwelcome hand
on Race's shoulder and puffed:
"It's wonderful the way you reason out
them things, Sherlock. The fact is, I sent
a man down to cart up a keg o' bolts to my
place, and he said somebody's electric motor
or something was all smashed to smith-
ereens."
"Well, it's not yours and you won't worry
about it, will you, Bowers?" snapped Race.
The brilliantly-clad man chuckled again;
he dragged a chair beside the desk and, seat-
ing himself heavily, he faced Race with a
look of hearty, honest pity in his eyes
94
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"Don't get mad, boy," he said, quietly.
"Them things'll happen t' beat the devil,
sometimes. This is one o' the cases — that's
all. You got to give up now, hey?"
"You stay up late on the last night in
June and watch us giving up," replied the
president, viciously.
Bowers' smile was very tolerant.
"That's all right, boy, but you know,
down in your heart, that your whole
blamed plant's down and out now. That's
what brought me over when I heard the
bad news."
"What?"
"Yes!" Bowers leaned forward earnestly.
"I've watched you two young fellers. I
know you've sunk your last cent in this;
I know what you're up against and I know
the way you feel about it — sorer 'n blazes."
He took the cigar from his mouth. "Now,
I'm darned sorry for both o' you. I went
up against it twenty years ago, and there
was nobody to be sorry for me. Therefore,
while I ain't no multimillionaire, I'm ready
to buy out this whole joint cheap — and you'll
save something instead o' nothing."
"Buy us?" came from between Race's
teeth, when breath returned.
"For cash, to hold on to against the day
when conditions are fitter."
"How much cash?"
"I should say, about fifteen thousand
dollars," said Bowers calmly.
"Including the charter?" said Race, out
of the fog of emotions that seemed to have
enveloped his brain.
"I wouldn't give three cents for your
charter. You can have it."
"But you would be willing to pay fifteen
thousand for everything we have and expect
— boilers, engines, generators, transformers,
exciters, switchboard, lines, poles, lamps —
everything else?"
"That's the idea."
Race drew a long, quivering breath.
"Bowers," he said, with a mighty effort
at self-control, "I will assume that you don't
know what you're talking about — because
if I assumed anything else I'd pitch you out
that window if I broke my neck doing it!"
He swallowed hard.
"I'll say right here that the best piece of
advice this firm can give you, is to get an esti-
mate on what it costs to trim up a town of
over five thousand people with electricity
even on the small scale we're using for a
starter. If it's ignorance, it's putting you in
line for a coroner's verdict of deliberate
suicide."
"It's 'way below cost — but it's more'n
you'll get in July. My idea's to call that
investment dead money till the time comes to
start up and make real money. You can't
swing it."
"Pardon me^ Mr. Bowers, but you're
not quite certain of that!" Carey broke in
abruptly.
Bowers eyed him with an insolent smile.
"You're Bronton's rich man, but you're
no wizard. You couldn't have no plant
running on time now — you wouldn't start
her on a sure dead loss, anyway. If ycu
were that kind o' guy, you wouldn't be
rich now." He turned to Race. "Well,
does it go?"
"Get out of here," snarled the president.
Mr. Bowers laughed shortly as he strolled
to the door and opened it.
"Race, I'd hate to call you a " he
began.
"You'd hate it a lot worse after you'd
done it!" yelled the president as he gripped
the arms of his chair and glared r.iidly at
the caller.
The door closed. Race, with a jerk,
brought up the typewriter and hammered
hard for some minutes. With a swish, two
sheets were signed and folded and addressed.
And with hard-set jaws, the president arose
quickly and snatched his hat.
"I'm going to mail these and telephone
to Wilkes, the freight agent at Kane Junc-
tion, and see if those engines are in sight,"
he said abruptly.
""Why not telephone now?"
"Because I'm going over to use the 'phone
in Carroll's drug-store," said Race, excitedly.
"I'm getting superstitious about this whole
business. I don't want the call to come from
here. It's beginning to seem as if everyone
in town knew more about our affairs than
we do — I don't know why."
"Robert, do you know, I'm beginning to
have that same sensation," exclaimed Carey,
with some amazement in his eyes.
He stared after the younger man, as the
latter hurried out and turned toward the
post-office.
A minute or two later, Mr. Race brushed
by a heavily-built man in the doorway of
Carroll's store; and in the mood of the
moment, he was tempted to deliver a brief
talk on the comparative space occupied by
door and by fat people, when:
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
95
"Don't get hot, boy. You think it over,"
said Mr. Bowers, as he stepped to the street,
and strolled away, puffing calmly.
Race's teeth bared as he looked after him,
and his fists clenched. And then, with
commendable self-control, he - relaxed and
stepped into the telephone booth and called
for Kane Junction and the freight office.
That call usually meant a long wait, and,
receiver still at his ear, the president of the
electric company was about to make a final
request for speed, when faintly over the
line came:
"Yes. This is Kane Junction. What'd
you cut me off for?" And then, loudly.
'"Hello, Bowers!"
Race's breath fairly exploded into the
transmitter. Then:
"What'n blazes you doin'?" reached him
"Is that you, Bowers?"
"Yes." Race contrived, with admirable
gruffness.
"What? This is Wilkes."
For the second time, Race all but tottered
from his little stool.
"They cut me off," pursued the slightly
familiar voice of the freight agent. "Say!
What I wanted t' ask you, Bowers. Did
they put them electric motor things on the
blink?"
"Knocked 'em to smithereens," Race
risked, in a gruff imitation of Bowers that
was heightened by the sudden dryness in
his own throat.
"All t' the good," responded the freight
agent, happily. "Well — don't you worry
none. Them engines don't stand no more
chance o' getting there alive than "
The circuit was broken again, and the
wire merely buzzed.
But it was all, all sufficient. Race rose
like a man in a trance and walked straight
across to the office.
Certainly, if luck had deserted him in every
other direction, Fate this time had handed
him the very quintessence of explanation,
in a very neat, compact and unexpected
package.
He looked up and down the street for
Bowers. That gentleman was laughing
heartily as he chatted with the cigar man a
block below — and for the moment the presi-
dent was tempted to rush at him and de-
nounce him publicly.
And sense returning in a second or two he
laid his hand on the knob and entered his
own domain.
CHAPTER IV
AN EVENING CALL
Dunbar, rather dusty, had just arrived.
"She's shipped," he said, tersely.
"What?"
"To be more exact, I set three of our men
to crating her. She'll be ready to pull out
of the gully and put on the eleven o'clock
train. Then I left money to prepay the
thing by express. It cost like fury, but it
was worth it — getting Merrivale's straight
express receipt."
"Hum!"
Mr. Race settled down in his chair.
"It may have been worth it. I don't
know."
"Why?"
"Because I have had positive assurance
from the railroad company that when our
engines do get here, they'll be smashed."
"What?"
Briefly, Race related his telephone ex-
perience. Alike agape, Carey and Dunbar
stared at him; and at the end they looked
at one another for a moment and then back
at Race.
"Are you sure the man said Bowers?"
"Bill, have you ever seen me answering
advertisements for patent eardrums?" the
president demanded.
"But it seems " Mr. Carey hazarded.
"It isn't what it seems — it's what it is,"
said Race. "That was Wilkes' voice and
Bowers must just have left the telephone.
Bowers is at the bottom of all our troubles!"
There followed a silent minute or two.
"Bowers has always seemed really friend-
ly," Dunbar murmured.
"Bowers is a good actor."
"And frankly, I should say, too, that
Bowers, despite his roughness, has always
appeared honest and pleasant enough, until
this morning," contributed Carey. "There
was too much assurance in him when he
made that offer."
Race scowled at them.
"Gentlemen," he said, "I'll admit that,
up to this morning, I, too, took Bowers at his
face value — kind of a bore, but a reasonably
decent citizen with some money, starting in
business in a growing town that's going
to be a big city some day. Now I know
otherwise. Now I know that he's back of the
coal proposition — back of smashing our
dynamo — back of the delay in our engines — "
Carey shook his head.
96
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"Admitting that he has a motive," he
interrupted, "assuming that he has managed
to convince the Stelton people that, for some
reason we don't know, they will profit by
the hold-up; assuming, too, that he paid
Baker or someone about the depot to smash
the generator, Bowers is certainly not con-
trolling the freight manipulation of a trans-
continental railroad."
Mr. Race's eyes opened wide suddenly.
"No! He's not,!' he shouted. "And he
doesn't have to! D'ye remember that letter
six or seven weeks ago — the one from the
railroad that said they'd traced the car
half way from Chicago to the Junction, and
that it was headed straight for the Junction
and had never arrived there?"
"Yes."
"Well, Bowers slid down and corrupted
Wilkes. And Wilkes sent that car kiting
for the Coast — and he may have opened it
before it went, and God only knows what
shape our engines are in at this minute!"
"That — that might account for it," Carey
muttered, as he regarded Race with narrowed
eyes.
"That does account for it, and now "
"Now, what are we going to do about it?"
Dunbar asked blankly.
"Do?" yelled Mr. Race. "Arrest the
whole blooming bunch. Get warrants for
them all and "
"Perhaps Keller, our lawyer " said
Carey.
"I'll go and see him." Race was on his
feet in an instant. "I'll — there he goes
now!" He hurried to the door and jerked
it open and called.
Mr. Keller pulled up his buggy and
stared.
"Come in! Come right in! It's im-
portant!"
The lawyer obeyed. And Race, hands in
his pockets, eyes blazing, hurled at him
without preliminary:
"See here, Mr. Keller "
"Mr. Race, I'm in a great hurry just at
the moment. Mr. "
"He can wait. Listen. Suppose we'd
discovered unexpectedly that someone in
this town had managed to cut off our coal
supply altogether, had bribed people right
and left to smash our machinery and burn
our power-house, and generally do every-
thing to put us out of business and make us
lose our charter, what's the quickest way of
getting a warrant or warrants?"
"Yes. Quite so," said Keller, with his
unruffled smile. "When did you make this
remarkable discovery?"
"This morning?"
"How?"
"I overheard a telephone conversation
that wasn't meant for me."
"Did anyone else overhear it with you?"
"Certainly not."
"Then I take it that this — er — telephone
conversation merely confirms matters of
which you alread* ^ave proof positive?"
"We haven't -oofs of any sort, but
this "
"Then if you are depending on something
that you, personally and alone, heard over
a wire, I should hesitate at swearing to a
complaint," smiled Mr. Keller, as he stepped
to the door. "Courts have a way of de-
manding evidence, and people one arrests
have a way of getting back at "he fellow who
arrests them without making a case."
He stepped calmly into his buggy and
gathered up the reins, while Race stood on
the top step and glowered at him.
"We'll talk this over later, Mr. Race,"
he called. "Don't do anything hasty, for
it's dangerous. Giddap, Sam!"
Whereat the buggy rattled swiftly away and
Mr. Race slouched back indoors.
"I think that was the shortest, sweet-
est consultation with a lawyer I ever knew,"
he said dazedly.
"Keller can put a good deal into a few
words. He's right," sighed Carey.
"Keller could copy the Bible on a postage
stamp," muttered the president.
"And the safest thing for the moment, is
to sit back and smile mysteriously," added
Dunbar, in bewilderment.
For a full quarter hour, Race sat staring
at the ceiling. Then:
"It's Bowers, and — he's got his own
motive. Eh ?"
"Everything points that way."
"Then we'll find out the motive and act
accordingly."
"How?"
Mr. Race grinned.
"Bill," he said, "I love to make money
and fight the other fellow for it in the open
and I hate this meet-me-by-the-old-mill-
at-midnight business, but "
"Well?"
"I have one fixed idea in mind. Why the
dickens it hasn't occurred before I don't
know. Probably because Bowers never
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
97
THEIR EYES FITTED TO THE CRACK THEY STARED, RIGID
9S
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
laid himself open to suspicion before today."
He leaned forward. "Tonight, William,"
he said with a faint grin, "you will eschew
your early-to-bed, early-to-rise nonsense
and be ready for a long walk, about half past
twelve. Meanwhile," he ended, "I'm going
down to the depot and watch that armature
go aboard, for I told 'em to fix that one if
they could and send us a new one of they
couldn't, inside of six minutes after it
reached them. As for you," he grinned,
'.'you get the wagon and two or three men
and begin putting arc-lamps where they'll
attract attention. Get up three or four and
make a fuss about it. Go over to Berg's
first and stick 'em in the show windows.
There is nothing," concluded Mr. Race,
"nothing on earth like keeping up the bluff."
It was nearing one o'clock when they
started from the comforts of Carey's home
and headed for the new section of Bronton.
The two pairs of long legs swung steadily.
The more thickly populated part of Bronton
passed to the rear. The newer, bigger
suburban places, still as death itself, pitch-
black save for a lone light in an upper win-
dow here and there, followed. Then even
they emerged into small places, far apart
— and at last the pair were hurrying along
in the new section of Bronton, where "For
Sale" signs were the sole tenants of newly
graded lots.
Ahead, red lanterns marked the little dip
in the road, through the new railway cut.
They passed through swiftly, under the
unfinished steel work which would be the
carriage road a little later; and very cau-
tiously indeed they struck off on a rough
wagon track, hedged with thick bushes on
either side.
It was an ideal night for inconspicuous
traveling — clouded heavily with no moon be-
hind the clouds, hazed with a light, murky
spring mist.
Slowly now and carefully, picking their
footsteps very daintily, lest a stumble should
bring a cry from one of them, Race and
Dunbar avoided even brushing the bushes.
They struck a heavy, barbed wire gate and a
silent gasp escaped them.
"We can vault it. Go easy!" Mr. Race
commanded.
The wire was behind and now, rather
suddenly, a big brick building was looming
blackly just ahead — and Race stopped.
"Someone else walking around," he
commented.
They listened long. The noise was not
repeated, but Dunbar was making queer
little noises of his own.
"Bob!" he breathed. "Hear that— that
little, tiny humming?"
"I hear it. Come on. Crouch low, Bill."
Stealthily, they crept on and on. And
Race's hand met the cold brick wall and
he breathed:
"He's got all his iron shutters closed, eh?
Bowers must be particular about draughts.
Come around here — away from the door."
A dozen soundless paces and both men
straightened up as if jerked to their feet
by a single wire. They had passed half
a dozen shutters, to be sure — shutters which
revealed tiny lines of light around the edge;
but here was a shutter open a full inch and
sending forth a stream of yellow radiance.
And quite as mechanically as they had risen,
their eyes fitted to the crack — and they
stared, rigid.
And they found good cause for rigidity in
that brief inspection of Mr. Bowers' new
"factory."
Their eyes fell first upon the gentleman
himself, sitting in a far corner and talking
to a man in overalls. Another person,
similarly clad, was shuffling calmly aroimd
the big machine near the center of the room
— an electric generating unit, engine and
generator directly connected, so large, so
beautiful in its newness, emanating the
word "P-O-W-E-R" so clearly from every
line, that even Race guessed correctly at its
ability to supply ever}' fixture that stood
ready for the Bronton Electric Light and
Power Company.
Mr. Bowers was going to manufacture
electricity. Indeed, so fond did he seem of
electricity that he must use it even now — for
the little gas-engine generator beside him
was whizzing merrily for the sole purpose of
lighting his plant.
An involuntary croak escaped Dunbar.
It found almost instant echo a dozen yards
away, in:
"Who's there?"
"Duck!" breathed the president.
"Answer, or I'll shoot!" the voice said
very distinctly, as bushes began to crumh.
"Sneak! Bill!" hissed Race. "Wake up!"
And as they took the first step into further
blackness, there came a red flash and a
report — and a bullet flattened on the brick
wall above them!
(To be continued).
The New Edison Storage Battery
Years ago Thomas A. Edison set out to
build a storage battery which would eliminate
the serious faults of the lead type, chief of
which is the great weight in proportion to
the power obtainable. After making nine
thousand experiments he thought he had it,
and the original Edison battery was launched
six years ago. It was a radical departure
from the working principles of all former
batteries. He had started fresh, forgetting
everything
that had been
done before.
As the or-
dinary man
would look at
it the original
battery was
a success. It
proved light-
er, cheaper
and cleaner.
It gave more
output for
equal weight
than any
other battery.
Its greater
initial cost
was offset by
lower cost of
upkeep and
operation. It
did not deteriorate when left uncharged and
was not injured by over charging.
They equipped 250 automobiles with this
first battery, known as the E type. These
batteries, some of them in operation from
two to five years, proved superior to lead
batteries and more economical than horses.
But Edison had other ideas. He had
not reached the results he had anticipated;
so he did a characteristic Edison thing. He
closed the factory, scrapped the machinery,
withdrew the Type E battery from the mar-
ket and started out afresh after the perfect
storage battery. What cared he that the
Type E battery was a commercial success?
It wasn't the battery to go down in history
bearing his name. So after six years more
of persistent toil he brought out the new
Edison battery which is said to be as much
better than the original as the original was
GARAGE OF THOMAS A. EDISON AT LLEWELLYN PARK, N. J
better than the lead plate type. The new
battery is called the Type A. It is made in
two sizes, the Type A-4 containing four
plates and the Type A-6 six plates.
The active materials are oxides of nickel
and of iron, respectively, in the positive and
negative electrodes, the electrolyte being a
solution of caustic potash in water.
The retaining cans are made of sheet steel,
welded at the seams by the autogenous
method, mak-
ing leakage
or breakage
from severe
vibration im-
possible. The
walls of the
can are cor-
rugated so as
to give the
greates t
amount of
strength with
a minimum
weight. The
can is elec-
troplated
with nickel,
and a close
union of the
steel and
nickel is ob-
tained by fus-
ing them together so that they are practi-
cally one metal. This coating of nickel pro-
tects the steel from rust, and also gives to
each cell an attractive and highly finished
appearance.
Each cell of the A-4 type contains four
positive and five negative plates.
Each positive plate consists of a grid of
nickel-plated steel, holding 30 tubes filled
with the active material, in two rows of
fifteen each.
The tubes are made of very thin sheet
steel, perforated and nickel-plated. Each
tube is reinforced and protected by small
ferrules, eight in number. These prevent
expansion, thereby retaining perfect internal
contact at all times.
The active material in the tubes is inter-
spersed with thin layers of pure metallic
nickel in the form of leaves or flakes. The
100
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
PLATES OF THE EDISON BATTERY
PLATES ASSEMBLED
CELL COMPLETE
pure nickel flake is manufactured by an
electrochemical process.
Each negative plate comprises 24 flat
rectangular pockets supported in three
horizontal rows in a nickel-plated steel grid.
The pockets are made of thin nickel-
plated steel, perforated with fine holes, each
pocket being filled with an oxide of iron very
similar to what is commonly called iron
rust. In the negative plate each pocket is
subjected to very heavy pressure, so that
it becomes practically integral with the sup-
porting grid.
In a cell the positive and negative plates
are assembled alternately, the positive plates
connecting with the positive pole, and the
negative plates with the negative pole. They
are correctly distanced on this rod by nickel-
plated steel spacing- washers, and held firmly
in contact by nuts screwed on both ends.
If this description has been followed closely
it will be seen that in an assembled cell
nickel plates are alternated with iron plates,
and that the two outside plates are both
iron or negative plates. The outer surfaces
of the outside plates are insulated from the re-
taining can by hard rubber sheets. Specially
designed hard rubber pieces are fixed between
the can and the side and bottom edges of
the plates; and these, together with hard
rubber rods inserted between the plates,
maintain correct spacing of the plates at all
points and insure permanent insulation.
Each cell has a cover which is welded in
place by the same autogenous process used
for the side and bottom seams.
On the cover are four mountings. Two
of these are the stuffing boxes through which
the positive and the negative poles extend.
One of the other two is the "separator,"
so called because it separates spray from the
escaping gas while the battery is charging.
This prevents loss of electrocute and renders
the gases inodorous.
The fourth mounting is an opening for
filling the cell with electrolyte and for the
adding of distilled water to take the place
of that which evaporates. This opening
has a water-tight cap which is held in place
by a strong catch. Fastened to this cap is
a small spring, so arranged that the cap
will fly open unless properly fastened. This
reduces the possibility of leaving the cap
open accidentally, thereby causing the elec-
trolyte to spill out should the cells be vio-
lently agitated by vibration of the automo-
bile.
The electrolyte consists of a twenty-one
per cent solution of caustic potash in dis-
tilled water.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
101
In order to fill the cells and to add water
conveniently a special filling apparatus was
devised. It consists of a nickel-plated,
copper tank, rubber tube, filling nozzle and
electric bell and batteries to indicate when
the can has been filled to the proper level,
as it is impossible to see into it. To fill a
cell the nozzle is placed in the filling aper-
ture and the valve released — the proper
German Wireless vs. British Cable
ELECTRIC FILLING APPARATUS FOR THE
EDISON STORAGE BATTERY
height of solutioD being indicated by the
ringing of the bell.
The Edison Storage Battery Company of
Orange, N. J., manufacturer of the battery,
has this to say concerning its advantages:
"An Edison battery weighs about half as
much as a lead battery for the same output ;
but in addition to this it saves about fifty
percent of its weight in the construction of
the truck itself. That is, a truck built to
carry an Edison sixty-cell battery would
save not only 500 pounds in battery weight,
but about 250 pounds in the weight of the
truck built to carry lead cells."
Magnetic Pull and Temperature
Experiments have been made to show
that the temperature of a magnet has some-
thing to do with its power to attract and
hold. By placing a magnet in alcohol Mr.
Pictet found that if the unit 57 measured
the pull at +3ocC, the attraction when the
temperature was at -io3°C was 76, thus
showing a decided in crease in power at a
low temperature.
The Germans have long been nettled at
the British monopoly of ocean telegraph
cables which, more than any other single
factor, is held responsible for the present
supremacy of Great Britain over Germany
in foreign markets. With most of the cables
under its control, England can obtain news
of foreign market changes or of any events
likely to influence the same much more
quickly than Germany, and its representa-
tives can color the cabled news in harmony
with the plans of the British. This was
clearly demonstrated by the effect that the
opening of a direct cable between America
and Germany had on the German bond
markets which formerly had only received
the belated information long after the English
traders had been able to protect their inter-
ests.
Owing to the tremendous investment re-
quired and the poor prospects of adequate
returns for lines competing with the present
British cables, the laying of new cables under
German control to other parts of the globe
has been out of the question and Britannia
has continued to rule both the seas and the
world markets. Now the wireless telegraph
promises a competing means of communica-
tion and Germany has already begun to
erect wireless signal stations for this special
purpose.
Recent tests have shown that the vessels
regularly plying between Germany and its
African colonies, if properly equipped, repeat
messages between the two, and the various
colonies are therefore to have wireless sta-
tions.
Then the financiers of Berlin hope
to see the circuit extended to Japan, to offset
what they consider a pernicious activity of
the British in coloring the news cabled from
the island of Nippon.
To Test Current Polarity
A testing paper for finding the polarity of
weak currents may be made by saturating
a piece of blotting paper with potassium
iodide and a little starch paste. With the
paper slightly damp, place the terminals of
the battery so that they are separated by
the testing paper. A blue stain will appear
at the anode or wire connected to the posi-
tive pole.
The Ghost Electricians
By FRED R. FURNAS
The spirits of Watt, Coulomb, Ampere,
Dr. G. S. Ohm and Alexander Volta, re-
spectively, were strolling around Chicago,
taking in the sights. At the corner of Van
Buren and Dearborn streets they came sud-
denly upon the wraith of Ben Franklin.
Ben was gazing in hypnotic fascination at
the trolley of a North State Street car. The
conductor of the car was endeavoring to get
the trolley wheel back on the wire and being
too lazy to get off the car, was leaning from
the rear vestibule and sawing the cord up
and down in his efforts to replace the wheel
on the wire. Naturally, he created a minia-
pectedness, caused him to start violently.
In fact, in his agitation, he stepped right
through a steel "elevated" post.
"Fellow," he exclaimed, "know you not
even the rudiments of gentlemanly conduct ?
But, hold! whom have we here? Watt!
Ohm! Volta! Coulomb! Verily, birds of a
feather — and did I not meet you, too, at
the last convention of the Scientific Souls?"
"That you did," replied Ampere, "and
my jocular greeting was based on the strength
of our brief acquaintance. We, too, took
advantage of the centurial solar storm, en-
abling us to come from Mars back to Earth.
STEPPED RIGHT THROUGH A STEEL 'ELEVATED POST
ture fireworks display, as the motorman,
being engaged in a discussion of city hall
graft when the trolley had "jumped," had
left his controller one or two points "on."
"Hello, Ben," called out Ampere, "come
out of the trance!" Now Franklin's sense
of dignity had in no wise been abated by
his transition from the mundane to the
spiritual world, consequently the familiarity
of Ampere's address, together with its unex-
We had best be quick to see what changes
we can, that have taken place on our old
home, the Earth, ere the etheric disturbance
subsides, blocking our return to Mars.
"But these strange conveyances!" ex-
claimed Franklin; "I can in no wise account
for the propulsive power in them. I have
deduced, from the sparks given out by yon
metallic cord, that it is undoubtedly elec-
trical, but further than this I am lost.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
103
"Evidently, my electrophorus and pith
ball experiments are no clue to this mysteri-
ous force. Even should the coach be
pushed forward by the repulsion of static or
frictional electricity, one can easily compre-
hend that the compressional strain on the
little iron rod would be sufficient to bend it.
Verily, it savours strongly of the infernal."
"Away with conjecture!" cried Volta,
"let us all ride upon it, the better to study
its mechanism. Mayhap its mystery will
be self -explained." Ignoring the "pay-as-
you-enter" sign, the six spirits walked
bodily through the side of the car and looked
around for seats. Each of the party, with
the exception of Dr. Ohm, found one, and
after some hesitation, the Doctor sat boldly
down in an old lady, causing her no in-
convenience whatever by so doing.
Nothing could be ascertained by the de-
funct scientists, however, in regard to the
car's power, although they enjoyed the
ride immensely. For several hours they
rode around the city, boarding this car and
that. Watt and Volta were considerably
diverted by the corset, pickle and bean ad-
vertisements in the car; Coulomb and
Ampere found the view from the car win-
dows very interesting; while Franklin, al-
ways of an investigating turn of mind, had
soon studied out the system by which fares
were collected and sometimes registered.
Presently he nudged Ohm, surreptitiously.
"Note the proclamation at the forward
end of the vehicle, Doc," he remarked.
"THE CITY GETS 55 PER CENT,"
read Ohm. "Well, what of it?"
"That means that the coach line gets 25
per cent," said Franklin.
"Odds Zounds, Ben," exclaimed Ohm,
" thou wert a better kite flyer than a mathe-
matician. Who gets the other 20 per cent ?"
Franklin grinned slyly and jerked a
ghostly thumb in the direction of the rear
platform. "Foorsooth, the coachman," he
replied.
* Two electricians had entered the car and
taken a seat near the ghostly passengers.
Something in their conversation caused the
spooky sextet suddenly to sit up and listen.
"Yes," one of the men said, "the fuses
were blown out. That was all, for a wonder.
You see, they've got a kid down there that's
always experimentin' with this wireless
dope; got a wagon load of apparatus laying
around, such as tuning coils, transformers,
detectors, etc., and he's got the roof of the
house lookin' like the back yard of a woman
who takes in washing. Wires strung all
over. Y'see, the kid claps a transformer,
takin' about 10 amperes at 104 volts on the
primary, across mains that was only plugged
with six ampere fuses.
" Naturally, them fuses goes, the minute he
connects up. So, bein' a foxy kid, he takes
and wires his fuse plugs with No. 16 copper
wire, so's he won't be bothered by fuses
blowing all the time.
" Of course, since the kid's been monkeyin'
at this, the meter hasn't done no loafing,
either, and the way the old lady kicks on
the bills for juice is something awful, I
guess.
" You see, she don't know that a watt
is a current of one ampere at a pressure of
one volt, flowing through one ohm's re-
sist " But Messrs. Watt, Coulomb,
Volta, Ampere, Ohm and Franklin, de-
ceased and in the spirit, waited to hear no
more, but drifted collectively through the
roof of the car and back to the planet Mars,
mystified by the complexity of the wheels
of an industry which their historical experi-
ments had set in motion.
Three Illustrious Wrights
In our admiration for the great ad-
vances in aviation due to the ability, daring
and persistence of Orville and Wilbur
Wright, we should not forget that there is
at least one other of the same name whose
pioneer work has gone down in history. It
was John Wright, the English physician and
surgeon, whose finding of a suitable working
solution made electroplating practical.
Back in 1840, while his fellow countryman
Elkington was working hard to develop a
successful method of plating baser metals
with gold or silver, John Wright of Birming-
ham hit upon the use of a cyanide solution
of the metal that is to be deposited upon
the other. So wise was this choice of a
plating solution by Wright that today after
just seventy years it still remains the accepted
standard. Fortunately for him, the credi
for it was not delayed till after his death, bui
as in the case of our winged countrymen
came to him in his prime. Elkington, who
proceeded to exploit the sale and use of
apparatus for electroplating objects hung
in a cyanide solution, paid a royalty to
Wright and after Wright's death to his
widow.
The First Carbonless Arc Lamp
By WARREN H. MILLER
An arc lamp without carbons! Incredible!
Ever since Sir Humphrey Davy first ex-
bited the beauties of the carbon arc the idea
of an electric arc has been always associated
with carbons — an intensely luminous vapor
of carbon, under terrific temperatures, due
to the electric current and the resistance of
the vapor. To get the vapor, you volatilize
the carbon into infinitesimal particles, and,
to get a continued supply of particles, you
must have a convenient stick of carbon and
means to feed it properly into the crater of
the arc. That's all there is to the arc lamp.
Even the flaming arc is simply the same
old carbon supply, with the addition of
coloring mineral salts.
But, hold! Suppose we enclose this arc
in a tube, and let the vapor be some sort of
a condensible material, and at the same time
a conductor of elec tricity, of high resistance.
Then we get the arc as before, but the vapor,
after passing along the tube, can be con-
densed in a suitable chamber at the ends,
and is then ready for another trip. It is
a curious thing, but the particles of carbon
in the arc lamp are not necessarily burnt —
for the most part they merely are heated
to incandescence and fly off into the at-
mosphere.
In the same way, a metal may be found,
that will not burn or oxidize, and yet be
heated to incandescence by the current, and
give out light but not burn. If such a metal
can be found, that will not condense later
into solid and unmanagable form, we
have an arc without carbons, non-renewable,
continuous.
The regenerative flame arc is one answer
to this idea, using the vapor over again be-
fore it gets a chance to solidify. It is used
somewhat in Europe and is now exploited
by one company at home, on European
patent licenses. But, among the very few
metals that will condense into liquid form
and thus answer our proposition of a car-
bonless arc, mercury is the only one in com-
mon use, and easily obtainable. And it
gives the other answer for a continuous
arc, for it will vaporize under the heat of
an electric current, and will readily con-
dense back into a liquid, once out of the
region of the arc. The familiar green
Cooper-Hewitt mercury lamp is an example
of this metal, used to make light.
Now, as glass is the material for the tube,
and as it melts at the comparatively low-
temperature of about i5oo°F. you cannot
get the mercury arc very hot, and so there
are two unfortunate results from this limita-
tion— the tube must be long and unwieldy
to get enough resistance at that temperature,
and the color will be a pale nauseating green,
turning everybody's complexion to a sea-
sick, lemon-rind appearance, falsifying all
color values and robbing the lamp of many
fields of usefulness.
But, if the temperature be carried on up,
say, a thousand degrees higher, not only may
the tube be shortened to a few inches, making
it compact and in manageable form, but
also the luminous intensity will increase
enormously, and the green be almost en-
tirely replaced by white and yellow rays —
the nearest light to daylight yet produced.
This new material for the tube must be
transparent, and capable of being manipu-
lated into suitable shape, and must also be
able to stand about 25000 of heat, which
no glass possibly can.
To find and applv this material to prac-
tical use, took years of the best labors of
the scientists of Germany and France. It
meant years of discouragement against the
well-nigh impossible problems of fusing and
working the mineral quartz, of getting afflux
that would weld it to glass without melting
the latter; but it was finally accomplished,
and our illustration shows the first of fifty
of the Silica- Westinghouse lamps, often
called quartz lamps, installed here and
there, about the city of Paris, France. Only
the tube which holds the arc is quartz, the
condenser bulb and trunnions are of blown
glass, welded to the quartz tube, for the
latter will not blow and shape, even at high
temperatures, as will glass.
The mechanical construction is the same
as the ordinary mercury vapor lamp. The
current passes first through a central selenoid
which it energizes, tipping up the bulb so
that the mercury flows across the bottom
of the tube, thus establishing a path for the
main current. This at once boils the mer-
cury and the current flows both through
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
105
the boiling mercury in the
bottom of the tube and
the vapor above it.
In a few seconds the
whole tube is one arc of
vapor, and the resistance
has risen to such a point
that it cuts out the solen-
oid by the little trip-
hammer magnet shown
on the right of the opened
lamp in the illustration.
The bulb at once drops,
so no more mercury can
get across, but the vapor
arc is now established, and
feeds along the tube with
the current, continually
condensing in the bulb at
the negative end, while
more from the puddle of
mercury just over . the
cathode, is continually be-
ing vaporized. In this
way the arc keeps up
indefinitely, condensing
and vaporizing over and
over again.
The light is a beautiful whitish yellow,
faintly tinged with green, very brilliant and
powerful, giving about the same illumina-
tion as a flaming arc, but a splendid soft
color with no sharp inky shadows. Its
economy is \ watt per candle; voltages no
and 220; amperage, three amperes for
both sizes; rated candle powers, 1000 and
2000. The lamp is mounted in multiple,
that is to say, direct across any no volt or
220 volt line, without any resistance, or hav-
ing to put two or more of them in series, so
it can be installed anywhere without work-
ing up any special lighting scheme. They
cost in Paris, about $40 for the 1000 c. p.
and $47 for the 2000, with a charge of $6
for replacing any burner that gives out after
1000 hours service. Before that time they
are replaced free of charge, but the usual
life has been found to be about 2000 hours.
With such a lamp, having no renewals
of carbons and no cleaning of globes to look
after, the ideal arc seems at hand. One
curious fact about the lamp nearly upset
the whole thing, after all the years of labor
of the scientists and engineers who developed
it. They found after at last getting the
quartz and glass blown together so as to
get an arc out of it, that the ultra-violet rays
THE QUARTZ LAMP
of the spectrum went right through quartz,
while they are arrested by ordinary lead
glass. This sounds only scientific and of
no great practical importance, but when you
reflect that these rays are dangerous to eye-
sight, it must have caused considerable con-
sternation to make the discovery. But in
actual practice, these rays are not harmful
beyond nine feet from the lamp, and the
outer lead glass globe protects one abso-
lutely, no matter how close he gets. In
case of breakage of the outer globe, the lamp
would be of no practical danger to the
public, being hung anywhere from fifteen
to twenty-five feet above the ground to get
good distribution. But when working on
it to make adjustments or the like, one would
have to wear glass goggles. The matter
will make no difference whatever in the
practical use of the lamp. All electrical
apparatus is "dangerous" if you neglect
simple precautions, and the only man whom
it affects is the expert who may have to ad-
just a broken resistance or some such acci-
dent. He will put on glasses, just as an
electrician working around a switchboard
puts on rubber gloves.
At present there is but one of these lamps
in America.
Talks With the Judge
He Wonders About the Storage Battery
"What is the principle of the storage
battery?" asked the Judge one day as we
were strolling down Michigan Avenue. His
inquiring mind had been turned in that
direction by an easy running, quiet electric
brougham which sped down the smooth
asphalt with a lady at the steering bar.
"You have told me that electricity can-
not be seen or tasted or smelled," he con-
tinued, " Yet you say it can be stored up in
a battery. I'd like to know how you can
make that statement?"
"I don't believe I ever did make it in
those words," I replied. "If I did I was
in a great hurry. As a matter of fact, the
storage battery does not store electricity, or
bottle it up in other words. It simply
brings about chemical changes in the battery
plates which puts them in a state so that
they can produce electric current by them-
selves, as in the case of the ordinary primary
battery as it is called which rings your
door bell.
"The common storage battery consists of
two lead plates or two sets of plates, cor-
rugated or in the form of perforated grids.
The plates of each set are connected together
and when placed in the cell the plates of
each set alternate with each other but do
not touch. The cell is then filled up with
a dilute solution of sulphuric acid and water,
called the electrolyte. In this state, how-
ever, the cell will not generate an electric
current. It must be charged.
"To charge the cell the two sets of plates
are connected to the two terminals of a di-
rect-current circuit and current sent through
it. The set of plates through which the
current enters the cell is called the anode.
The other set is called the cathode. When
the current starts to flow through the cell
a very lively chemical action takes place.
The anode at once begins to receive a coat-
ing of lead peroxide (red lead) while the
cathode turns gray and spongy .although it
still remains metallic lead. As soon as the
anode becomes completely covered with the
peroxide of lead, which takes quite a long
time, the cell is charged and must be taken
out of the circuit.
"Now we have an altogether different
cell from the one with which we started out.
Before the cell was charged we did not have
a battery in any sense of the word because
we did not have two different metals for
the plates, which is necessary for a battery.
After the charging, however, we have one
plate of metallic lead and one of peroxide
of lead, and the charged cell is capable of
delivering current in a manner similar to
any primary battery. Connect its ter-
minals to a circuit and you can run motors
or burn lamps the same as if you had a
dynamo connected.
From the moment the cell begins to fur-
nish current, or discharge, it begins to run
down. Current begins to flow from the
gray plates through the electrolyte to the
red plates; that is, in a direction opposite to
that during charging, and the chemical
action is also opposite, undoing the work of
the charging process. The oxide of lead
changes to sulphate of lead, and the spongy
lead on the other plates also to sulphate of
lead. The current continues to flow until
both sets of plates are changed to sulphate
of lead and then it ceases, because the plates
are then alike, and as I have said, no battery
will operate unless the plates are of different
metals or compounds.
"The discharge being complete the cell
must be charged over again before it will
give current. You will now understand,
however, that the electricity is not stored.
The nature of the plates is simply changed
by the charging current, then they are
ready, with their electrolyte to act as a com-
mon battery."
Where Electricity Stands in the Practice
of Medicine
By NOBLE M. EBERHART, A. M., M. S., M. D.
CHAPTER VI. — THE APPLICATION OF HIGH FREQUENCY CURRENTS BY MEANS OF
VACUUM TUBES
We have considered the application, of
high frequency currents by means of auto-
condensation and their use in the generation
of ozone, and it seems fitting at this time, to
devote a chapter to the numerous uses to
which high frequency currents may be put
by means of the glass vacuum tubes so
commonly in use. This is especially im-
portant at this time because the manufacture
of portable and low-priced instruments for
generating high frequency currents makes
them as accessible as a faradic battery and
FIG. I. BODY TUBE
I venture to assert that within a few years,
they will be as generally in use.
The principal value of the high frequency
currents as applied with the vacuum tubes
is in skin diseases, chronic ulcers, headaches,
neuralgias, and
other painful
conditions and
for the relief
of all diseases
of a catarrhal
nature, no mat-
ter what organ
or part of the
body may be
affected, if ac-
cessible.
The glass
vacuum tubes
employed are
of a number
of different
shapes suited
to their special use. For instance, as shown in
Fig. i, we have one with a large bulb on the
end which is suitable for applying these cur-
rents to the body or to the face; any place
FIG. 2. EYE TUBE
where the flat surface of the tube may simul-
taneously give the current to a considerable
area at one time. In Fig. 2 we have a form
used in treating the eyes. The tube branches
^
~>
FIG. 3. EAR TUBE
so there is a bulb to come in contact with
each eye; another form, Fig. 3, shows a
small. tube which may be used in the ear;
another, Fig. 4, in the throat, etc.
All these tubes are made to fit into the
socket of a common handle. For body work
— — - - ezzz>
FIG. 4. THROAT TUBE
I prefer a handle with a fixed socket, Fig. 5,
but for other purposes I employ one where
the socket holding the tube may be placed
at any angle, Fig. 6.
When the high frequency current passes
FIG. 5. HANDLE WITH FIXED SOCKET
through the vacuum tube the latter lights
up usually with a blue or blue-violet color;
sometimes with a white light, according to
the vacuum of the tube.
FIG. 6. HANDLE WITH MOVABLE SOCKET
On account of the violet color this form
of electricity sometimes, though incorrectly,
has been called the "violet ray."
When the hand is in Contact with the ex-
cited tube there is no sensation from the
current, but when the hand is withdrawn
a little way from the electrode, fine sparks
108
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
jump across in accordance with the strength
of the current. I have said that no sensation
is noticed when the hand is in contact with
the tube; this applies to the higher fre-
quencies and in some forms where the fre-
quency of the current is comparatively low
there will be communicated the sensation
that is felt when holding the electrode of a
faradic battery.
At this point it might be well to define what
we mean by a high frequency current. The
term frequency has the same application
that it has with the commercial alternating
current. Here we understand the current
to be constantly changing its polarity, with
a complete reversal of the current constitu-
ting an alternation. Two alternations make
a cycle and the number of complete cycles
occurring in one second of time constitutes
the frequency of the current. Thus, with
the ordinary current, we find that the aver-
age number of cycles per second is 60, vary-
ing from this up to 133, all of which repre-
sent low frequency currents.
As we increase the frequency the rapidity
becomes such that the cycles really are oscil-
lations, but the analogy is preserved, and so
in genuine high frequency currents the
number of cycles or oscillations may be
from 100,000 to several millions per second.
The dividing line between medium and high
frequency is' placed at various points by
different authorities. Many call all cur-
rents with a frequency of 10,000 or more, high
frequency currents, while I personally pre-
fer to place the dividing line at 100,000 as
seeming to be more nearly in proportion.
Therefore, a high frequency current means
one in which the number of cycles has been
increased to an extraordinary degree. Now,
a current of 10,000 cycles would probably
yield some faradic sensation through the
glass vacuum tube, but one with a million
cycles per second would give absolutely no
sensation whatever when there is perfect
electrical contact. With this word of ex-
planation let us again take up the matter of
applying the vacuum tubes. How shall we
know what amount of current to use in ex-
citing the vacuum tubes? How may it be
measured ?
As the hand is brought near the excited
tube it will be found that there is a definite
point where a spark is capable of jumping
across the intervening distance between the
hand and the tube; this distance will re-
main the same while the same amount of
current is passing through the tube. De-
creasing the amount of current shortens
the spark and increasing the current length-
ens it. The spark or fine spray that comes
from the tube is spoken of as the effleuve.
I have employed the length of spark that
may be drawn from the vacuum tube as a
rough method of standardizing its dosage.
This method is crude and open to some
serious objections, but it is the only method
that I have been able to devise which will
apply to all forms of apparatus. If I say
that I employ a tube capable of emitting
a one-half inch spark, it gives to rhe physi-
cian some definite idea of the amount of
current employed. It does not take into
consideration the sharpness- of the spark
which must be regulated according to indi-
vidual sensibility.
In treating skin diseases, such as pimples,
eczema, psoriasis, etc., I use the tube shown
in Fig. 1, and pass enough current through
the tube to enable me to draw from it a
spark of from one-half to three-quarters of
an inch. In applying the tube, however,
I do not hold it away from the skin, so that
the full-strength spark has a chance to pass,
but keep it in light contact with the skin so
that there is only a slight stinging sensation.
The reason why I wish to have a current
sufficiently strong to give the specified length
of spark is that this insures a certain in-
tensity of current. Occasionally as patients
become accustomed to the use of the high
frequency I raise the tube from the surface
slightly, thus giving a spark as sharp as they
will tolerate. This, however, is only done
where we wish to produce a quick reaction,
as the application of the spark is followed by
an increased amount of blood and a conse-
quent reddening of the surface treated.
In treating pimples tending to form small
pustules, I find that a few seconds' applica-
tion of as sharp a spark as the patient will
permit is often capable of preventing their
further development.
Generally, however, the application is
made by a to-and-fro motion of the tube,
so that it does not remain steadily in contact
with any one spot, but by reason of passing
back and forth over the skin avoids too in-
tense an irritation in any one portion. The
length of time for making the application
averages from three or four up to ten minutes.
In many of these cases the high frequency
is employed in connection with the X-ray,
in which case the high frequency is given
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
109
for from three to five minutes only, but
where it is the sole treatment employed, twice
that time will be satisfactory. In this con-
nection it is worth while to mention that I
believe the use of the high frequency current
in connection with the X-ray enables us to
give more X-ray with less danger of a " burn"
than is the case when the X-ray is employed
without the high frequency current.
My theory in accounting for this is that
the X-ray has the effect of gradually decreas-
ing the amount of blood supplied to a given
part by reason of increasing the layer of
cells lining the small arteries, which finally
become smaller and smaller in size until with
a serious X-ray burn we have death of
tissue, necrosis or gangrene
produced by starvation
from insufficient blood
supply. On this account
the tendency of the high
frequency current to in-
crease the determination
of blood to a particular
area, and its generally
stimulating effect upon the
circulation, tends to offset
this particular action of
the X-ray and thus en-
ables us to give safely a
somewhat longer or more
frequent X-ray exposure.
In treating pimples and
other skin diseases daily
applications of the high
frequency currents are ad-
vised. In Fig. 7 the ap-
plication of the current to
the face is illustrated. In
this instance the tube is
inserted in the handle with
the fixed socket.
In treating eczema,
psoriasis and other con-
ditions where itching is
a prominent symptom,
it frequently will be found
raise the tube slightly from
so that the patient receives
would use a tube of about the same strength
used in acne, but the spark gives great re-
lief in itching and the patients appreciate
the treatment where they get more of the
spark than occurs with the tube in actual
contact with the skin. In both eczema and
psoriasis, however, the reaction from the
treatment occurs quickly and therefore the
application should not, as a rule, last more
than from four to seven or eight minutes;
occasionally two or three minutes will be
ample.
In treating skin cancer, lupus and also
in chronic ulcers or old sores I use a spark
as sharp as the patient will allow, which is
usually one of about one-fourth to one-half
inch, and keep the tube raised about that dis-
tance above the surface treated, so that the
full effect of the spark is obtained. This
gives a very strong, stimulating and at the
same time germicidal effect from the spark.
When headaches, neuralgias, and other
painful conditions are being treated, a spark
of one-half to one inch is the guide for the
fig. 7.
APPLYING HIGH FREQUENCY DISCHARGES
TO THE FOREHEAD
desirable to
the surface
a spark.
amount of current to be passed through
the tube. In most of these cases the tube
must be kept pretty close to the surface
treated and the application must continue
until the pain is relieved which will be all
the way from five to ten minutes, occasionally
longer. Where congestion is responsible
the drawing of a considerable amount of
blood to the surface gives relief of pain in
much the same way that counter-irritation
from a mustard plaster would act.
110
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
FIG. 8. SCALP TREATMENT
In lumbago and other forms of muscular
rheumatism this same method should be used.
I accidentally discovered a few years ago
that the high frequency current was not
only useful in stimulating the nutrition of the
hair roots and thereby increasing the growth
of hair and preventing it from falling out;
but also that applying it for a sufficient period
of time will restore the color to the hair in
premature grayness, and in one case a result
was obtained where the grayness was not
premature. The length of time required
to produce this result is so long that few
FIG. 9. NASAL TUBE
people have the patience and perseverance to
carry out the treatment; many, however,
will employ the current for the purpose of
preventing falling of the hair. In these
cases I recommend the combination of
vibration with high frequency. The appli-
cation of the current to the scalp is illustra-
ted in Fig. 8. I use a spark of one-fourth to
one inch. Too sharp a spark will not only
be painful, but will produce liny sores from
the caustic effect of the current.
In catarrhal conditions the treatment con-
sists in applying a suitable tube to the sur-
face from which the catarrhal secretion is
coming, or as near thereto as possible. For
instance, in nasal catarrh a small vacuum
tube (Fig. 9) is slipped into the nostril.
Another form of tube is suitable to pass
back into the throat. In Fig. 10 is shown a
small vacuum tube passing into the ear, as
used in the treatment of catarrhal deafness.
Here the advantage of the handle with the
movable socket is apparent, as it enables the
patient to hold the tube in place comfort-
ably and easily and also keeps the wire con-
necting the tube to the apparatus away from
contact with the hand.
Catarrhal conditions hi any of the ori-
fices of the body are similarly treated and
physicians will understand the scope of this
treatment.
FIG. IO. APPLYING THE EAR TUBE
In all applications of this nature where the
tube comes in contact with a mucous mem-
brane the tube is adjusted before the current is
turned on and in this way, since there is perfect
contact between the tube and the body, there
is no painfulness whatever in the treatment.
The current is allowed to pass for an aver-
age of seven minutes, when it is turned off
before the tube is removed.
High frequency currents are capable of
producing annoying, though superficial burns
if left too Ions* in contact with a mucous
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
111
membrane, such as the red skin lining the
mouth, nose, etc. On this account I make
it a rule never to leave a vacuum tube in
contact with a mucous membrane for more
than seven minutes at any one treatment.
Another way in which high frequency cur-
rents have a burning or cauterizing effect
upon the skin is where a sharp spark is
allowed to play steadily on one point. This
has been taken advantage of in the destruc-
tion of warts, callouses, corns, etc., by using as
sharp a spark as possible and keeping it
FIG. II. FULGURATION TUBE
steadily over the spot for one, two or
three minutes.
If an electrode with a metal point is
V used the effect is still more pro-
nounced.
This method as applied with a tube, such
as the one illustrated in Fig. n, is known as
fulguration, and is a method much in vogue
at the present time, especially in Europe, for
the destruction of malignant growths.
In this tube the spark is emitted from a
FIG. 12. TREATING THE EYES
platinum point and the outer tube or jacket
around it enables it to be kept from sur-
rounding tissues, as the spark can only pass
out through the tiny opening in the end of
the jacket. This can be pushed up or down,
thus accommodating the distance to the
length of spark desired.
Whether this treatment will prove of
lasting value, remains to be seen.
In treating the eyes the tube is used most
conveniently with the handle with the mov-
able socket as illustrated in Fig. 12. The
eye electrode may be held lightly but firmly
against the closed lids; the patient holding
the handle easily and comfortably.
Although the spark from the tube has been
proved to be germicidal, it seems scarcely
necessary to suggest to the physician the
necessity and importance of carefully cleans-
ing and sterilizing the vacuum tubes in
order that no disease may be carried from
one patient to another.
This is easily accomplished by either of
two methods. The first is to keep the tubes
immersed in jars of antiseptic solutions when
not in use; and the other is to sterilize them
in such solutions both before and after using.
(To be continued.)
Drawn Tungsten Filaments
Simultaneous announcement of great in-
ventions and discoveries of the same nature
from widely different places has been com-
mon in the history of the world. An example
of this is the case of Hittorf and Crookes
who, working independently, found that
when air in a tube (Crookes) was gradually
reduced to one one-millionth of its original
volume, the red rays give way to blue as the
vacuum is increased.
Up to the present time tungsten lamp fila-
ments have been made by mixing powdered
tungsten and a binding paste, and then
squirting this under pressure through a small
die. Drying, cutting and finally purifying
by an electric current completes the process
of making the filament.
England and America are said to have
just found another way of producing tung-
sten filaments. Dr. Whitney of the General
Electric Company by means of an especially
designed furnace produces pure metallic
tungsten of such ductility that it can be
drawn into fine wire of great strength. At
the same time Siemens Bros. Dynamo Works
of England announce the production of a
tungsten drawn filament lamp under the
name of "one-watt," indicating a high
efficiency.
Electrical Securities
By "CONTANGO*
THE LARGE PLANT — THE GRADUAL LINKING UP OF PLANTS IN SYSTEMS — THEIR INCREASED
FINANCIAL STRENGTH — THE ECONOMIC REASONS FOR SUCH ABSORPTIONS
In the last issue the general financial
arrangements of the small plant were con-
sidered and the general outline of pro-
cedure in such cases outlined. Now as to
the financing of large plants:
There is first to be taken up the formation
of the large central station company, then its
relation to the individual concerns which it,
in so many cases, gradually absorbs, and
then the means by which these consolida-
tions admit of the parent plant strengthen-
ing and protecting the securities of the smal-
ler plants. Thus, for example, we have a
company with bonds and stock amounting
to a certain amount and it is found that back
of this there is the greater security of a
parent company. A small plant in a small
town has been brought into existence by the
issuing of bonds to the extent of, say, $50,-
000, and there is in the hands of the owners,
common shares to the amount of $25,000 —
this, we will say, has all been paid for by
the capital subscribed by local men and all
of it is absolutely paid up. The bonds are
issued to the public, and very naturally the
question is asked — What security is there
behind the investment other than a project ?
This question may be followed up to the
ultimate absorption in the big central station
system.
In such case these bonds, that is the money
derived from their sale, is generally appor-
tioned to the equipment, building up and
developing of the plant. In some cases
such bonds are issued under the special
designation of equipment bonds. It is not
necessary here to complicate matters by the
consideration of this form of security. The
point is: What are the tangible assets of an
enterprise of which bonds to the extent of
$50,000 are offered to the public? One
hears a good deal of companies with patents,
patent rights and problematical good-will
all set out as representing assets, sometimes
for almost the Avhole amount of the capital
stock outstanding, but it may be at once
stated that as far as electrical securities are
concerned this peculiar feature will scarcely
ever be found. And this fact in itself marks
their difference from, and advantage over
many other forms of quasi-industrial securi-
ties. In electrical securities at all worthy
of consideration in any way, the visible
assets are speedily recognized. The good-
will which is so often spoken of in other lines
of business is in this case fortified by the
public need, and this should never be lost
sight of. Assuming then that bonds issued
to the public are general bonds, a part and
parcel of the enterprise, they form an abso-
lute guaranteed mortgage on the property
and title of the shareholders.
The shareholders have secured the origi-
nal rights to ti..^ property with franchises,
and the actual property on which such a
plant is to be built and in the developing
and organizing of which they have used their
initiative and enterprise. The public has
all this, and, as well, an absolute security
in the plant which their money builds. The
profits of the business over and above the
fixed interest on the bonds belong to the
owners of the shares of common stock —
to the men, indeed, who started the enter-
prise, and the greater the amount they can
. earn on that common stock the greater the
security of the bondholders.
But, on the other hand, the amount
earned on the common stock or shares of the
company is no concern of the outside public,
any more than it is if Tom, Dick or Harry
should build up a private business and make
therefrom a large fortune, except in this
one particular, that being what is termed a
public service or utility corporation and
thereby serving the public, the shareholders
or owners of the stock are bound more or
less by law and courtesy to give the public
a good service at lowest possible rates com-
mensurate with a fair return on the money
invested in the enterprise after allowing
for proper expenditures. This is practically
the crux of the situation in so far as it may
relate to the regulation of a public service
corporation or the establishment of any light-
ing plant or trolley line.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
113
Now as to the "enterprise necessary to con-
trol, in the sense of ownership, and start the
big concerns in the large cities where all
manner of watchdogs, in behalf of divers
interests are ever on the lookout to herald
or note a false step.
It is clear that the financing of a large
plant must be hedged around with many
perplexities and complexities altogether for-
eign to the establishment of a small plant
in the average small town.
To start with there are the franchise to
be obtained, the different political factions
to be considered, and to put it bluntly, the
omni-present publicity organs to be more or
less humored. Not necessarily as regards
the latter because of any special temper,
just the reverse, but because of political
leanings or affiliations which to a degree
affect the public service corporation at its
start. The satisfaction of all these divers
critics only makes the position of the securi-
ties of a great central station plant, once
established, doubly secure. For then the
co-operation of the average banker or
broker is certain. Thus one gets down
to the meat of the financing of a big pub-
lic utility corporation, or big plant in a
big city, to put it in plain English. And
on the successful establishment of such a
central station plant always depends the
future and welfare of the many small plants
that will sooner or later be controlled by
or linked up to it. That means of course
plants in the same city or vicinity.
One will suppose that it is a large town and
that many people have to be served, involv-
ing an outlay of much capital to equip the
central station and obtain entrance overhead
and underneath to the principal streets of the
city. It is possibly easy to imagine what
it means, for it is and has been one of the
livest issues of the day.
Thus, once the work arranged for and
the cost apportioned, it may readily be seen
that in such an enterprise, after the initial
difficulties of starting, the later difficulties
of effecting co-operation with the public and
the physical difficulties of actual completion
have been figured out and overcome, there
has been created a most solid and concrete
tangible asset.
The satisfactory position of the central
station plant in a large center when properly
managed and financed is thus attained
largely through the certainty of the integrity
of the work to be done and being done and
the permanent character of the investment.
This of itself is making the electrical se-
curity of today the best and safest known,
for the very simple reason that it is created
out of the necessities of the public, by the
good-will of the public and has the backing
and countenance of the public, as forming an
integral part of their daily well-being and
one which is acknowledged to be permanent
— in the vernacular, to stay.
Having thus established these fundamental
conditions of tangible assets, real property
and stability, the value of the securities
created out of such an undertaking may be
considered more in detail together witl
their relation to the securities of the small
plants. Suppose a large company with out-
standing capital stock amounting to $25,000,-
000 has been formed, this capital belonging
to private owners and such part of the pub-
lic as has been brought into the undertaking
by public subscription to the capital stock —
the chances are that an immediate bond
issue will be made to pay for the large cen-
tral station plants and the transmission sys-
tem necessary to serve and cover the wide
territory in which the company operates.
These bonds will be the first issue, then
unquestionably they will be made a first
lien on the whole property and title of the
undertaking. Five per cent is probably the
fixed rate of interest payable on them and
they are offered for sale to the public at that
figure. This interest is absolute and final.
It must be paid out of earnings after
current expenses have been met and before
anything else.
Then follows the further developing of
this central station plant or system whereby
other and smaller plants are acquired.
Possibly these already have a bonded in-
debtedness, the bonds of the parent plant
are therefore further enlarged to acquire
these smaller properties or for the purpose
of retiring the outstanding bonds of the
concerns taken over. In this way it is
really a case of going on from strength to
strength if conservative and judicious finan-
cial methods are observed. But the mere
fact of a big company guaranteeing the
securities of a smaller concern, unless they
are taken in as a direct part of the new se-
curities created must not in any way inter-
fere with investors looking closely into the
value of the issues of the original plants.
The actual assets of the smaller concerns
must be ascertained at all times.
114
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The new bonds of the big company pay
for the whole property of the little ones
as far as fixed and outstanding indebtedness
is concerned — a general issue of the stock
or shares in the parent company takes care
of the ownership in the same way, usually by
exchange of existing stock certificates for
certificates of shares of stock in the new
company. The new general bonds of the
big company are not only a charge on the
small plants even where there are outstand-
ing bonds on the small plants, but they act
as a direct lien on the whole property. Thus
the interest on them must be paid before
anything else except the interest on the
original bonds of the small companies left
outstanding. These have the right of prior
mortgages as to the property out of which they
have been created, and they also have the
further guarantee of the securities of the
parent or holding company.
The large company usually makes ar-
rangement to take up the bonds of the smal-
ler plants and substitute therefor from
time to time, issues on the property as a
whole. Thus holders of securities based on
concerns which have been absorbed are
protected at every stage of the development.
And this concentration of small plants in a
large central station system is now recog-
nized as an economic necessity.
There is the old axiom that the greater
the demand the greater the production, and
the greater the production the lower the
cost; for where things are produced in great
quantity they are able to be made and sold
at much smaller cost. In no product is
this more true than with electricity. The
very essence of its cheap production lies
in its production in quantity on a large
scale, in a large central station plant. And
in the case of the production of electricity,
this is carried to a still further and still
more logical conclusion by the selling and
distributing of the current in bulk, that is
wholesale and at a wholesale price to the
very large manufacturing concerns and
street railway and other such companies,
which in the ordinary course might otherwise
have their own big stations and supply their
own power.
It is the absolute necessity for ultimate
consolidation, a condition well recognized by
the general public, that brings about the
great financial transactions and absorptions
to which allusion has been made. When a
great central station system with a capital,
say, of $30,000,000 and bonded indebted-
ness of perhaps $25,000,000 decides on a
further increase of its capital stock, it is
quite safe to assume that it is filling its
destiny in the community which it serves
and is making great and profitable strides
in the way of development and growth. It
secures more cash to provide for the needs of
the very near future and therefore those
who have the good judgment and sense to
invest in the securities of such a concern are
certain, ultimately, of larger dividends on
their shares of stock, not to mention owner-
ship in a property always enhancing in
value year by year. And should a bond
issue for equipment and further additions
be decided on in the case of a company not
overburdened with such fixed charges, then,
too, the buyer of these bonds is getting an
ever increasing security for his five per cent
income and one that may be described as
gilt edged. There is nothing like the secur-
ities of a company whose business consists
in supplying something needed and used by
the public in daily life, and that is why the
issues of well managed and carefully financed
public service corporations are always
eagerly taken up by the well posted and
are prime favorites with successful bond
houses.
(To be continued.)
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Hi
Getting Out an "Extra"
Getting out an "Extra" in any big news-
paper plant depends a great deal upon
electricity. It is electricity that makes it
possible for you to read all about the base-
ball game in the base-ball extras right after
the game ends. If it were not for electri-
city shortening every step in modern news-
through the telegraph instrument near him,
typewriting it as it is clicked off by the in-
strument. A copy reader sits at the table
with him and corrects the "copy" as it
comes from the typewriter and he in turn
passes the "copy" along to the linotype
operator seated at the linotype machine
which runs by electricity. The linotype
operator casts the story into metal, line by
THE EMERGENCY CORNER IN A NEWSPAPER COMPOSING ROOM
paper publication, the quick extras telling
you all about the accident almost as soon
as it happens would not be on the streets
until many, many minutes after. All modern
newspapers are depending upon electricity
for their power. The big triple-deck presses
are run by electric current, and clear through
the plant to the telegraph department elec-
tricity controls the situation.
Here is a scene in the "composing room"
of a big afternoon newspaper when the
forces are concentrated into the "emergency
corner" getting out a "hot" news story for
an extra. The telegraph operator seated
at the table in the left hand corner depends
upon electricity to carry the news to him
line, which is assembled in the "form" by
the four men who are at work just beyond
the linotype operator. These men are the
"composers" and make up the page in metal
in duplicate of the printed page.
As soon as the story is "all in," the metal
form is locked and sent hurrying to the stereo-
typers who, with their electrically controlled
and heated machines are able to reduce their
time to seconds instead of minutes.
In less than two minutes the big plates
are cast and are being locked into the
presses and in another minute the current
of electricity is turned on and the presses
are stacking up the extras faster than any-
one has ever been able to count them.
116
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Arc Light Bath
It is a well known fact among
physicians that the blue, violet
and ultra violet rays of light
have decided curative properties
when applied to the surface of
the body. The illustration shows
a bath cabinet built with the
idea of providing a means of
giving such treatments. At the
left is an arc lamp so enclosed
and situated as to throw its
rays through the glass front of
the cabinet and upon the body
of the patient within. The
color of the rays are controlled by a glass
slide holder on the front of the lamp in
which glasses of different colors may be
placed in changing the treatment to meet
the requirements of individual patients.
ARC LIGHT BATH
The interior of the cabinet is white and
at each corner, as shown, is placed an arc
lamp and reflecter. Rows of incandescent
lamps are also arranged in the interior of
the cabinet.
How to Calculate Illumination
How to go about locating and finding
how many and what candle-power lamps
to provide to light any given room is a
problem usually given over to the illuminat-
ting engineer.
A booklet "How to Figure Illumination,"
to be had for the asking by any one in-
terested, has just been published by the
Sunbeam Incandescent Lamp Company,
Chicago and New York. The Western
Electric Company of Chicago also sends
out copies.
The table oppositeis based on data obtained
from experience. In order to use this table
intelligently we should know the meaning
of two or three terms. In England and
America the sperm candle is the -standard
for measuring candle-power, and the light
which this will give at any point one foot
away is called a foot candle. If a standard
sixteen candle-power incandescent lamp be
suspended vertically, the light which it will
give at a point one foot away from the lamp
and in a horizontal plane passing through
the filament will be sixteen foot candles.
Since the intensity of light varies inversely
as the square of the distance, at a point two
feet away four foot candles will be given,
and at a distance of four feet from the lamp
one foot candle of light would be the in-
tensity, thus the unit "foot candle" is de-
rived.
Foot Candles Constant
Required Dark Light
Bookkeeping 3 to 5 4 5
Corridor, Halls 5 to 4 5
Depots, Assembly Halls
and Churches 75 to 1.5 4 5
Drafting Rooms 5 to 10 4 5
Desk Lighting 2 to 5 4 5
Factory, fgeneral, where 4 5
individual drops are
used 2 to 3 4 5
Factory 4. to 5 4 5
Hotel Halls 1 to 1.5 4 5
Hotel Rooms 2 to 3 4 5
Offices (waiting rooms) 1.25 to 2.5 4 5
Offices (private) 2. to 3 4 5
Offices (general) 3 to 4 4 5
Offices (where desk lights
are used) 1.5 to 2.5 4 5
Reading 1 to 3 4 5
Residence 1 to 3 4 5
Stores (light goods) ... 2 to 3.5 4 5
Stores (dry goods) .... 4 to 6 4 5
Stores (clothing) 4 to 7 4 5
Store Windows 5 to 20 4 5
School Rooms 2 to 3 45
Rooms to be lighted are classified as dark
or light according to walls and furnishings,
and in each case the table provides a con-
stant to use in figuring, this constant rep-
resenting the average foot candle intensity
produced by one watt per square foot,
using the tungsten filament lamp.
The formula below used with the table
is based on the light given by the tungsten
filament Mazda lamp, which is rated at 1^
watts per candle-power.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
117
No. of sq. ft. in room x foot candles required
Wattage required
Constant
Assuming a dark school room 40 by 50
feet to be lighted, substitution from the
table gives:
2000x3
= 1500 watts required at i| watts
4
per candle power, or a total of 1200 candle
power. The type and number of lamps
may now be easily found, remembering that
a large number of small lights give better
distribution than a few large ones.
wooden cover resting on felt he enters by
the ladder. All around him the walls are
coated with asphaltum which keeps out
dampness, but in addition to this, just back
of the asphaltum are air channels in a
bituminous fibre structure, these dead air
chambers affording an insulation against
heat and cold.
Magnet Coils as Heaters
Protecting Signaling Batteries
How batteries may be protected on rail-
road, fire and other alarm systems is shown
in the accompanying illustration of the
SIGNAL BATTERY VAULT OF CONCRETE
Potter-Winslow concrete battery vault. The
battery man enters the vault by first lifting
a heavy cast iron cover which has below it
an air chamber. After lifting a second
The so-called "Lifting Magnets" as now
used in large steel plants and foundries for
loading and unloading pig iron or scrap,
usually have the magnet coils surrounded
by a massive steel casing which protects
the coils from injury. On some makes the
coils are impregnated with a high insulation
compound before they are slipped into the
casing. In others, the core and
windings are first inserted into
the case and this is then filled
with the insulating compound
which is forced in while hot and
which cools into a solid mass
that both increases the insulation
and keeps out all moisture.
The one great drawback to
such a solid filling lies in its
binding the magnet tightly in the
casing so that it cannot be with-
drawn for repairs. If the de-
vice never needed overhauling,
that would not matter, but an
apparatus that is used around
railway cars where it can acci-
dentally be jammed between
two cars, may in time need at-
tention. When this happens, the
repair man does not try to pry
the magnet out, for he might
damage the insulation on some
of the coil windings in doing
so. He simply connects the ter-
minals of the magnet coils to a
convenient circuit and turns on
enough current to overheat the
windings. Thus the magnet
coils become heaters, melting the
insulating wax or compound so
that it can be poured off. Inci-
dentally, this method shows how
well such lifting magnets are
able to stand Excessive heat, for no manu-
facturer would deliberately instruct his repair
crew to overload any device unless he knew
that the insulation was perfect.
118
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Ice Handling by Electricity
Plant Growth and Electricity
In an artificial ice-making plant, large
heavy blocks of ice have to be lifted from
the freezing tanks or cans and removed to
other parts of the plant. The accompany-
ing illustration shows an electrically driven
crane carrying a cake of ice 20 feet wide
and 12 feet high. The supporting rods,
The farmer must depend for his crops
upon the warm weather, right amount of
moisture, and good soil. By throwing a
switch it is possible that in the future elec-
tricity may be a means of growing plants
in a shorter time even, than under normal
conditions.
ELECTRIC CRANE CARRYING ICE SHEET
which can be seen, are frozen into the ice
while in the cans, the latter being just
visible at the openings in the floor. The
transportation of such a weight of ice
to cutting tables or to shipping platforms
by hand labor would increase considerably
the cost of production.
Holding Court by Telephone
The fact that contageous diseases cannot
be transmitted over the telephone wires
enabled Judge F. E. Bowser of Warsaw,
Indiana, to try a case at home while quar-
antined because his children had scarlet
fever. The Judge heard the evidence by
telephone and imposed a fine and a 60-day
sentence upon a young man for stealing.
Metal plates have been placed in the soil
and charged wdth current by connecting to
wires. Beets with which the ground was
planted yielded two and one-half times as
much sugar from one acre as where elec-
tricity was not used.
A galvanized iron wire network charged
with from 70,000 to 100,000 volts from an
induction coil and dynamo has been experi-
mented with. This network, supported on
posts, about eighteen feet above the ground,
is said to increase the yield per acre by one-
third, through the effect of the static dis-
charges from the wires to the plants. This
effect may be easily felt when walking under
the wires as a prickling sensation similar
to that felt when walking under a rapidly
moving belt charged with "static".
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
119
Electric Diving Sign
Following the popularity of the moving-
picture show, electric sign men are using
the idea of motion to attract attention.
The illustration shows a sign erected at
Euclid Beach, a lakeside resort of Cleveland.
The "act" is as follows: The girl first
appears on the platform, poised for a dive.
She then disappears for a few seconds, and
is next seen just as she enters the water,
ELECTRIC DIVING SIGN
which splashes and ripples as she disappears.
The following legend then appears in letters
of light: " Come in, the water's fine. "
A motor driven sign flasher throws rapidly
on and off the lights of one position after
another and then the invitation which with-
out doubt attracts many a bather.
Automobile Battery Exchange
The best way to light an automobile is
a question which according to Motor Age
requires some thought at the present time.
The generator built either .on the plan of
a dynamo or a magneto adds a good deal
to the mechanism of the car besides making
it cost more. One novel solution offered is
that of using small storage batteries based
on some sort of an exchange system similar to
that employed by lighting companies in
providing new lamps to their customers, the
old ones being received in part or full pay-
ment for the new. If such a plan could be
arranged the annoyance and trouble of
waiting for a battery to charge would be
done away with.
Collapsible Signs
Those who enjoy an occasional bit of
word play — and who among us does not? —
will appreciate the wording on the two views
of a "knock-
down" electric
sign. It consists
of a triangular
base to which
both the lamp
and the flasher
are fastened, a
front with the
removable glass
sign, a pair of
folding metal sides
and a triangular
top. The parts ^
hook into each
other so that they
can be assembled
without the use
of tools. When separated, they are easily
transported as a whole dozen of them would
hardly take up more room than a single
pair of similar but non-collapsible signs.
COLLAPSIBLE SIGN
Bare Wires of Unseen Metal
It is possible to have exposed wires with-
out an insulating covering and yet not have
the metal itself visible. That may sound
like a paradox, yet it is practically true in
the case of aluminum wires of which over
half a million dollars worth were recently
ordered by a single company for its trans-
mission lines. For while aluminum does
not seem to be tarnish able, it really becomes
coated with a thin film of an oxide of alumi-
num on continued exposure to the air.
This coating closely resembles the metal
itself in color, so that what we commonly
see is a coat of oxide of aluminum .and net
the metal itself. It is probably this oxide
which makes it so difficult to solder alumi-
num, so that wires of this material have to
be actually fused to the contact terminals.
Resistance
For a given length and weight aluminum
has the least electrical resistance and mer-
cury has the greatest. For a given length
and cross-section annealed silver has the
least resistance and bismuth the greatest.
Some Odd Electric Lamps
Above are some of the many shapes in which miniature incandescent lamps are made
for battery, surgical, dental and decorative purposes: (i) Large dental, (2) gun night
sight, (3) grain of wheat, (4) scarf pin, (5) range finder, (6) round, (7) candle, (8) tubular,
(9) Flat end round, (10) round 1 c. p., (11) round, (12) surgical, (13) Fisk instrument, (14)
candelabra, (15) series and multiple candelabra, (16) series candelabra, (17), (18), (19)
candelabra, series and multiple, (20) festoon, (21) torpedo.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
121
The Newspaper Cause
The current that leaves the motor of the
street car and seeks to make its way back
to the powerhouse along the track, often
comes to a place in the rails where it is
much easier traveling to jump off the rail
to adjoining moist soil and then to a nearby
water or gas pipe. All is well until this
current leaves the pipe for some better path,
when it takes with it bits of the pipe, finally
producing a leak. This destruction of the
pipe is called electrolysis.
As is too often the case a newspaper re-
porter not versed in things electrical having
to tell the readers of his paper why a certain
telephone line was to be changed from an
overhead to an underground line did the
best he could by asking the lineman about
it, and was jokingly told that there was trouble
on the overhead wires caused by the " electric
currents known as electrolis." The next
morning the newspaper account read:
" The electric currents, known as electrolis,
in the air have become so strong that it is
impossible to run a wire more than fifty
miles without grounding, even at ten miles
the currents gathered from the air will
almost tear their arms from the sockets and
they have frequently been against it where
at ten miles the current was strong enough
to burn off a wire or furnish power for a
low resistance electric bulb."
This is somewhat in line with a recent
newspaper report of the cause of a fire,
reading:
"As no other cause could be found, it is
probable that the fire was started by crossed
electric wires."
Telephone in the School Room
The telephone is still further extending
its already wide use as a convenience and
time saver by being of service in the schools.
Any one associated with central or even
ward schools will know of the numerous
things that require the attention of an asso-
ciate teacher or the principal.
What are called "interphone systems"
are now made, consisting of a wall transmit-
ter and receiver in each room, and a main
station small enough to be placed on one
side of the principal's desk with a few
batteries on the floor. Labeled push but-
tons designate the circuits to the rooms.
When one of these is pushed the bell rings
in the room called, and talking may begin
by merely taking the receiver off the hook.
At the main station any room may also be
connected to any other.
Para Rubber
This picture shows half a "biscuit" of
pure Para rubber, just as it was received
from South America. There are many dif-
ferent kinds and grades of rubber, but the
best rubber comes from the country around
the upper part of the Amazon River and is
generally referred to as Up-River Para.
A BISCUIT OF PARA RUBBER
For use in compounds for insulated wires
and cables, as described by the Hazard
Manufacturing Company of Wilkes-Barre,
Pa., the biscuit is ground between rollers
covered with small teeth while a stream of
water is played on it. This breaks up the
rubber and takes out the dirt which has
accumulated during the process of curing.
The ground rubber is then thoroughly
dried and put through a further curing pro-
cess when it is ready to be mixed with other
ingredients. This mixing is done by tak-
ing the various ingredients and the rubber
and rolling them between two smooth
rollers. This compound is folded on itself
and run through the rollers many times until
it is thoroughly mixed.
The compound is now in a plastic state
and ready to be put on the wire. Next
comes the vulcanizing or hardening which
is the finishing process. The compound is
then ready for covering the wires.
122
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Lightning and the Ancients
The study of atmospheric electricity, as
noted by Killingworth Hedges in his book
"Modern Lightning Conductors," dates
from very early times. It is doubtful
whether the supposition that the art of pro-
Museum where the bronze is now placed.
The picture herewith, selected from Phil-
bert de l'Orme's work dated 1560, entitled
L'Instruction, shows that architects at that
period had to contend with thunderstorms.
De l'Orme was the architect" of the Tuileries
and died in 1570.
It is generally supposed that
Divisch, a learned priest, erec-
ted the first lightning conduc-
tor in Europe at Prendiz, Bohe-
mia, in 1754; the rod was said
to have been 130 feet high, and
although he was patronized by
the Emperor and Empress
Stephen and Maria Theresa, it
had to be taken down a year
later, as it was said to have
occasioned a terrible drought.
It is not likely that Franklin
had heard of Divisch.
Exhibit Hall for Accident
Prevention
THE BAD ARCHITECT
tection from lightning was known to the
Egyptians but the Greeks and Romans
are reported to have drawn fire from the
sky. And Tullus. Hostilius is said to
have perished in a sacred experiment of
this kind. Cicero, in his. ode against
Catiline, drew attention to the bad omen to
Rome that was caused by the gilded figure
of Romulus being destroyed by lightning.
The same stroke mentioned by Virgil,
/Eneid VIII, burnt the hind legs of the well-
known bronze Capitoline Wolf, probably by
a side flash. The damage can still be seen
by the tourist who visits the Capitoline
An exhibit hall for devices
to prevent accidents has just
been engaged in the Engineer-
ing Societies' Building, by the
American Museum of Safety.
This will constitute a permanent
exhibition, free to the public,
of safeguarded machines in
operation, models, charts and
photographs.
No exhibit will be displayed
that has not been approved by
the Board of Approval of Ex-
hibits. There will be no charge
for space, but a plan of each
installation must be submitted
in advance to the Director of
the Museum. Each exhibit will
be accepted as a loan for one year, then to
be replaced by others if substantial im-
provements have been made. The Museum
assumes no responsibility for any damage
by fire, or loss by theft, and exhibitors
showing non-patented devices or processes,
do so at their own risk.
The Board of Approval consists of Pro-
fessor F. R. Hutton, Philip T. Dodge,
Charles Kirchhoff, T. C. Martin, and W.
H. Tolman.
All makers and inventors of safety de-
vices, in the threefold aspect of safety for
the worker, the public and the machine,
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
123
are invited to exhibit. All applications for
space should be sent to the Director, at the
Museum, 29 West 39th street, New York
City.
The Eskimo and the Telephone
Cutting Lamp Filaments on a Planer
Prof. D. B. McMillan, of the Peary North
Pole expedition, relates an amusing story
regarding the efforts of an Eskimo to con-
struct a telephone line.
The Eskimo came into possession of apiece
of wire of considerable length and never
having seen wire before he asked Professor
McMillan what it was and what it was for.
He was told that the white man strung it
on poles stuck in the ground and by talking
to an instrument at one end the voice could
he heard at the other end. After some
search the next morning, the Eskimo was
found to be engaged in telephone con-
struction work of his own. He stuck some
sticks in the ground and hung his wire on
them. He held one end of the wire to his
mouth and talked to it at the top of his
voice. Then he ran as fast as he could to
the other end and held the wire to his ear
with the expectation of hearing his own
words repeated.
When he failed to hear any sounds the ex-
pression on his face revealed his opinion
of his white friend.
Before baking or "carbonizing" the almost
threadlike part which forms the filament
in the ordinary incandescent lamp, this has
to be cut or otherwise trimmed to the re-
quired slender shape. Can this be done
by cutting the material on an ordinary
machine shop planer? Our machinist read-
ers will probably smile at the seemingly rash
suggestion, yet this is neither a wild specula-
tion nor a mere laboratory possibility, for
it has been a commercial success. Indeed
there was one season within the memory
of most of our readers when all the filaments
used by two of the smaller lamp factories in
this country were made by this process in a
little shop hardly a block away from the
recently outgrown headquarters of Popular
Electricity. And thereby hangs this bit of
history:
When the Thomson-Houston Electric Co.,
which is one of the constituents of the Gen-
eral Electric Co., first introduced its dynamos
on the Continent, its European representa-
tive was instructed to study the incandescent
lamp situation there so as to see what Euro-
pean make of lamp could wisely be offered
in connection with their apparatus. That
was over twenty years ago, long before the
methods of making the present high effi-
ciency filaments had been evolved, and yet
there were already a variety of lamps on the
European market for which the filaments
were roughed out in different ways. Some
makers started with threads or fibres of
bamboo, wool or cotton; others stamped
the shape out of a thin cardboard or celluloid
sheet. But the man whose filaments at
that time were reported as showing the best
test records did none of these in the lamp
factory which he, though himself a Russian,
was operating at Rotterdam in Holland.
Being an able chemist, he had worked out
a mixture which could easily be carbonized
into a hard, fairly tough and uniform prod-
uct. Carefully mixing the ingredients in
the right proportions into a solution, he
poured a thin layer of the liquid mixture
into a shallow pan with a heavy bottom which
had been planed perfectly level. Then he
let it stand until the more volatile parts of
the, mixture evaporated, leaving in the pan
a thin coat of jelly which gradually hardened
to the consistency of a stiff glue. Then be-
fore it reached the brittle stage, he would
clamp the pan on an ordinary metal working
124
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
planer and with a fine tool would cut the
thin mass into narrow strips about as wide
as they were thick. The stroke of the planer
was adjusted so that the cutting tool would
not quite reach either end of the pan, but
would leave a connecting strip across the
end of all the strips, which was cut off after
the strips were tied on the carbonizing
block.
By this seemingly crude method he
secured filament strips or threads that
were unusually uniform and homogeneous
throughout their length, having no hard
spots or knotty places such as were frequently
found in filament threads or fibres prepared
by other methods. Moreover he avoided
the patents covering these other processes
of filament making.
Of course his filament threads shrank
considerably in size while being carbonized
in this manner, so that the actual cutting
was to a much larger section than that of
the finished filament. Many years later,
the same uniformity of structure in fila-
ments, together with still higher efficiency,
was obtained by other methods. But that
is another story.
Lamp Flasher
Here is a simple scheme for making a
lamp flasher or "winker" for advertising
purposes, etc. The lamp can be made to
burn for about five to 10 seconds and remain
dark the same length of time.
Take a small glass tube four inches long
and J inch in diameter open at both ends
and place a plug of sealing wax in the lower
end through which is passed the end of a
piece of No. 40 S. C. C. copper magnet wire.
The remainder of the wire, about 20 feet
in all, is wound in a single layer on the
tube and finally carried down to binding
post (A).
The tube is nearly filled with mercury,
carrying on its surface a float of sealing wax.
Through the float is passed a small piece
of an old lamp filament, the hooked portion
at the top being the platinum leading-in
wire. A twisted strip of metal is fastened
to the upright support so that the hook just
touches its outer end. You can make a.
little adjusting screw to regulate the posi-
tion if you desire. This metal strip is
attached to binding post B. From one side
of the source of current a wire connects to the
amo and post (A). From the other wire
of the source connection is made to the
post (B).
In operation, current flows through the
lamp, around the coil of wire on the tube,
up through the mercury and hook to the
spring and then back to binding post (B)
and out.
In passing around the fine wire coil the
current heats the latter and causes the mercury
to expand, raise the float and break tbe cir-
cuit at the contact of the wire hook and
SIMPLE LAMP FLASHER
metal strip. The tube then cools down, the
float falls with the mercury and the circuit
is closed again. This keeps up indefinitely
and causes the lamp to wink with pleasing
regularity.
Using Sawdust Electrically
Every now and then the daily papers
bring in an item about some one who is trying
to utilize the sawdust which accumulates
all too rapidly at some sawmills and
woodworking establishments. Meanwhile
some of our electric furnace pioneers have
quietly gone ahead and have already been
using sawdust for years as one of the in-
gredients for making that exceedingly hard
grinding material, carborundum. To pro-
duce this, a heavy current is passed through
a core of coke surrounded by a mixture of
carbon, sand, salt and sawdust. Which
again goes to show what marvelous results
can be obtained from the most commonplace
ingredients when the magic of the electric
current is available.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
125
What Weight Can a Dry Battery Lift?
Storage batteries have many uses where
the relation of their weight to their normal
output in electrical energy is quite important.
For instance, any vehicles propelled by stor-
age batteries must carry the dead weight of
these batteries, and the less this weight is
in proportion to their output, the less energy
will be spent in moving the batteries them-
EXPERIMENT WITH A DRY BATTERY
selves. The last two decades have shown
decided decreases in the weights of such bat-
teries, but how about the so-called dry bat-
teries? What improvement has there been
in the dry cells most of which have carbon
and zinc elements with a pasty sal-am-
moniac solution?
Some years ago one experimenter found
that with a carefully proportioned electro-
magnet he could get a single dry cell to hut
almost its own volume of iron. Has this
record been surpassed, so that we can now
get a dry battery with a lifting power fully
equal to its bulk in iron? It is so easy to
modify the contents of so-called dry cells
by pouring in different solutions, that many
of our readers have undoubtedly tried it.
Now who can show the best record with
such a battery for holding up its own volume
of iron, and for how long a time?
Displaying Lamp Shades
The customer who is buying globes or
shades always likes to see the effect on the
shade with the light inside.
The accompanying illustration shows how
one fixture house does this. A table is
LAMP DISPLAY TABLE
fitted with three lamp sockets already wired.
Into these sockets may be screwed any size
or type of lamp the customer contemplates
using. Then the shade is set over the lamp
and the switch snapped on. In this way
several shades may be tried out at once
and the effects compared.
Telephone Coil Carrier
A writer in Telephony describes a con-
trivance for carrying induction and ringer
coils so as not to have them injured by tools
in the bag. Take a piece of 2 x 4 inch pine
TELEPHONE COIL CARRIER
of any desired length and, by using an ex-
pansion bit, drill holes just the size of each
coil, so as to prevent rattling around. An
additional coil may be carried by drilling
a hole in the end of the block and plugging
with a cork. A strip secured by two screws
serves as a cover.
126
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Lifting Magnet Recovers Cargoes
Giant lifting magnets made by the Cutler-
Hammer Clutch Company of Milwaukee are
being employed to recover steel cargoes from
barges that have sunk in the Mississippi
River. The first experiment was made
recently near New Orleans, where a barge
load of kegged nails was raised successfully.
The magnet was brought from Milwaukee
by express and the Carnegie Steel Company
promptly dispatched C. S. Proudfoot, an
expert electrician, from their Homestead
Steel Works to install the magnet and over-
see its workings.
The work of recovering ' the cargo was
then taken over by the American Steel and
Wire Company, another subsidiary of the
RECOVERING A CARGO OF NAIL KEGS WITH A LIFTING MAGNET
The barge, which sank on Feb. 9 had
been towed from Pittsburg to New Orleans
laden with 1500 tons of wire nails in kegs,
steel barrel hoops, staples and barbed wire.
It broke loose from the tug when landing,
struck the wharf and sank within thirty
feet of the docks at Lafayette Street in
fifty-five feet of water. Almost instantly,
however, as was developed by divers, the
barge began slipping into deeper water.
Even the manufacturers of magnets were
sceptical as to their efficiency for this pur-
pose, as a magnet had never been used for
such purposes under water. But this New
Orleans loss was a good chance to make a
trial.
Steel Corporation, which owned the larger
portion of the sunken material. It, through
L. H. Korndorff , division freight agent, con-
cluded a contract with C. W. Wood of New
Orleans, who with an associated firm of
divers, has recovered the steel and thoroughly
demonstrated the success of the magnet.
The largest haul made with this magnet,
consisted of five kegs of nails weighing 100
pounds each; one bundle of hoops weighing
seventy-nine pounds; one bundle of fence
wire weighing 155 pounds; thus aggregating
somewhat over 700 pounds. When the
magnet was working in a well-supplied part
of the barge an average haul was about four
kegs of nails. A particularly attractive
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
127
feature of the work was the appearance of
a bunch of nails in the exact shape of the
keg stuck to the magnet. In being pulled
up the keg had been broken off, and stick-
ing to the magnet these nails held in the
shape of the keg.
In order to drop the load immediately
when desired, because the effect of the
magnetism on the nails had a tendency to
make them stick even after the current was
turned off, the current in the magnet was
reversed.
Across the Atlantic with a Thimble
Battery
In no other respect is the contrast between
wireless and submarine telegraphy more
striking than in the amount of electrical
energy required for transmitting messages
over the same distance. Being so con-
structed as to send out the waves in almost
all directions besides the particular one for
which the message is intended, an ordinary
wireless outfit must imply a tremendous
waste of energy as compared with the ocean
cable in which the current is all concentrated
in one delicate receiving mechanism. So
delicate is the latter that messages have
been sent not only across the Atlantic but
for double the length of the oldest Atlantic
cable with the current from a silver thimble
battery.
This is what the famous electrical en-
gineer of the Atlantic Telegraph Com-
pany, the late Latimer Clark, described
briefly in a letter dated at Valentia in Sep-
tember, 1866: "With a single galvanic
cell composed of a few drops of acid in a
silver thimble and a fragment of zinc weigh-
ing a grain or two, conversation may easily,
though slowly, be carried on through one
of the cables or through the two joined
together at Newfoundland to form a loop.
And, although in the latter case the spark,
twice traversing the breadth of the Atlantic,
had to pass through 3700 miles of cable, its
effects at the receiving end are visible in
the galvanometer in a little more than a
second after contact is made with the bat-
tery. The deflections are not of a dubious
character, but full and long, the spot of light
freely traversing a space of 12 to 18 inches
on the scale; and it is manifest that a battery
many times smaller would suffice to pro-
duce similar effects."
Of course every forward step towards
concentrating or directioning the wireless
waves will reduce the energy required for
transmitting messages by the same, but we
evidently have a long way to advance before
our wireless methods can be at all compared
in efficiency with the submarine telegraph
of even 45 years ago.
Curing the Sleeping Sickness
Not being satisfied with the slow rate at
which drugs act upon the so-called "sleep-
ing sickness" so common in Africa, a young
mine owner who contracted the disease in
Rhodesia is also being treated by a re-
frigeration method in the tropical hospital
at Liverpool. The method used requires
him to spend a number of hours daily in a
room kept at a uniform temperature some-
•what below the freezing point. How was
this to be obtained independent of the
weather?
The answer was soon found: simply
by installing a small refrigerating plant
run by the ever convenient electric motor.
At last reports the patient had in-
creased the time during which he could
stay awake in the cooled room from two to
about six hours and was suffering much less
from the usual pains in the joints. Thus
another method seems to be added to the
many ways in which electricity is vanquish-
ing ailments that have long baffled the medi-
cal profession.
Electrocuted Eggs
The peculiar taste of a cold storage egg
is something not easy to mistake. It is
possible that this taste may be removed if
the experiments now being made by the
Rochester Railway and Light Company are
successful. It is claimed that when fresh
eggs are placed in cold storage the eggs are
alive, and that they are slowly frozen to
death and in spite of the preservative qual-
ities of the ice the eggs do not taste good
when cooked.
It is now believed that by " electrocuting"
the eggs the natural fresh taste may be
retained and not removed when the eggs
are placed in cold storage. The eggs are
"killed" by placing a metal cap on each
end of the egg and then throwing on a
pressure of 500 volts.
128
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Indoor Lighting from Outdoor Lamps Making Battery Porous Cups
Is it practical to do indoor lighting with
outdoor lamps? The suggestion sounds
almost like a paradox and yet is not that
what we universally do in the daytime when
we get our indoor illumination from the out-
door sun ? Were we not spoiled by the ad-
vances made in
artificial lighting
by means of
lamps placed in
all sorts of indoor
locations, the idea
of leaving the
lamps out of
doors might not
seem so prepos-
terous.
It is unusual,
to be sure, and
yet there are oc-
casions where this
is not only prac-
tical but advis-
able. One of
these was found
some years ago in
connection with a
powder magazine
located on the
outskirts of an
Iowa town, where
the only avail-
able current was
that of a direct
current arc circuit.
An incandescent circuit might safely have
been carried right into the structure, and an
alternating current might have been trans-
formed to a suitably low voltage for this
purpose, but to bring the high voltage arc
circuit into the powder magazine seemed
risky. So the lamps were hung out of doors
close to thick glass windows, but instead of
the usual glass globe each was fitted with a
reflector which threw the light inside.
CONSTRUCTED TO THROW
LIGHT THROUGH A
WINDOW
Navigating in Lake Ice
The high power electric search lights with
which vessels on the Great Lakes are now
equipped prove most useful in the early
spring nights when the water is covered with
a partially broken ice field. By means of
the light, openings are located, thus often
saving many hours of delay.
The porous cup of a battery is a familiar
object to electricians but only now and then
will you find any one able to tell you
how it is made. The first porous cups to
hold the carbon of a battery were used by
Leclanche in France. The materials, which
must be pulverized and mixed to make the
cup, are feldspar, eight parts; ball clay, six
parts; kaolin, nine parts; quartz, two parts.
The last gives the mixture strength. Kaolin
is a china clay imported from England, and
feldspar is a mineral common in Vermont.
The whole mass in pulverized form is mixed
while water is poured upon it until thin,
about like common paint. In this shape
it is run through a fine screen into a tank
having a floor of tiling through which heat
from a coal fire at one end passes, boiling
the liquid for about 25 or 30 hours. By
this time the water is about all evaporated.
Pieces of the cooled mixture are placed in
cups or moulds of plaster Paris. A disk is
then forced down into the cup pressing the
clay into shape along the sides. After the
clay in the plaster Paris cups is partially
dry, the formed cups are taken out and
placed in clay boxes which hold several,
and moved in this way into a drying kiln,
where after twenty hours of burning at a
temperature of about i8oo°F. the cups are
taken out, cooled and packed for ship-
ment.
All in Thirty Years
Mr. Samuel Insull, president of the Com-
monwealth Edison Company of Chicago,
in a recent address before the Electrical
Trades Association gave some interesting
statistics concerning electrical development
in this country. There are in the United
States, he says, 5,500,000 telephones in use,
representing $550,000,000 capital, or about
$100 for every telephone. There are in this
country 40,247 miles of electric railways
using 89,216 cars and capitalized at $4,557,-
000,000. There are 6,000 central stations,
costing $1,250,000,000, earning $250,000,-
000 a year and developing 2,500,000 horse-
power. In all about $6,000,000,000, Insull
says, is invested in the electrical business
in the United States. This is equal to about
$75 for every man, woman and child in
the country — and all in 30 years.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
129
Telling Temperature in Bins of Grain
Grain stored in one large bin will often
heat. A good many dollars would be saved
if the temperature down in the grain could
be known at any time. This has been made
possible by the Zeleny thermometer. About
ninety years ago it was found that two
metals, such as bismuth and antimony, if
heated while in contact would generate an
APPARATUS FOR TESTING GRAIN TEMPERATURE
electromotive force and this principle, that
of the thermo-electric pile, is used in this
device.
In the illustration one wire of nickel-
copper is run in a conduit for protection down
into a bin represented at the left At
various points taps are taken off with
copper wire. An ordinary galvanometer
and scale is placed on the wall near
a contact board on which the wires
terminate. When the lever is in the
position shown, all the circuits are open
and the scale (S) is moved so that on look-
ing through the telescope the scale is shown,
by reflection from the little mirror in the
galvanometer. Then the lever is moved over
to point (i), for instance, this places the gal-
vanometer in circuit with one of the thermo-
electric junctions down in the bin. A
slight current will then flow through the
galvanometer due to the heating of the
junction and will deflect the galvanometer
mirror so that the scale as you look through
the telescope will appear to move over.
The distance which it moves indicates the
temperature of the junction, as the scale
is calibrated to read in temperatures.
Demagnetizing Watches
Very often an electrician or an engineer
or even a visitor to an electric light plant
discovers after a few days that his watch is
losing a half hour a day, or more, from be-
coming magnetized by the dynamos. In
the newer stations where the most modern
machines are used there is not so much danger
from these "stray" magnetic fields as there
is around older types of ma-
chines.
The apparatus used by
jewelers for correcting this
trouble consists of an ellipti-
cal piece of soft iron with a
hole in the center large
enough to permit the watch
to be inserted. Over the iron
are wound a number of lay-
ers of fine insulated wire
Alternating current is sent
through the wire and if there
is none handy an additional
device known as a polarity
changer must be used with
direct current.
With very little trouble and
no expense anyone may de-
magnetize his own watch by
a simpler method. Take a heavy thread
or a light string about two feet long and tie
the ring of the watch to it. Hold the string
by one end and turn the watch around until
the string is twisted about fifty turns. Allow
the string to unwind and as the watch re-
volves pass it slowly back and forth about
two inches above the fields of a motor or
dynamo, not smaller than a quarter horse
power, while the machine is running. Great
care must be taken to keep the watch re-
volving constantly while it is over the
motor.
Sharpening Files
One of the tools often of service to the
worker in the electrical line is a file. A
very satisfactory though odd way to sharpen
these tools is to clean them of all grease and
suspend them from a metal plate in a bath
of three parts of sulphuric acid, six parts of
nitric acid and ioo parts of water. In the
bath are also immersed several carbons con-
nected to the metal plate. The file cavities
only are eaten deeper so that the edges are
made as sharp as if worked by a file cutter.
130
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Submarine Telegraph Cable
Electric Steels as Money Savers
This sketch of a telegraph cable, which is
one-half the actual size, gives some idea of
the care taken in the building of such
cables. Jute, which forms some part of
the insulation, is made from the fibre of
an East Indian plant. The twenty-three
No. 4 wires serve for mechanical protection
and strength. When we consider that this
■25Pa/r>s, A/a f4 Bands < Coppep&fpe
Spec/a/ fnsu fating Paper*
t/eauy Paper*
% fnch Lead.
Soft Jute Si Tar> Compound
23 A/o.4- Ga/c/anized
Steel Urines
Tar/sted Jutej/apn
Si Compound
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH CABLE
cable is made in mile lengths weighing
twenty-six tons, it is surprising to know
that the soft jute, the No. 4 wires and
the twisted jute yarn are all put on at
the same time. One test given this cable
was that of applying 2000 volts electrical
pressure between each current carrying
copper wire of the core and all the others,
and between all the conductors and the
ground.
Heating Pad as an Incubator
As at present planned and conducted,
electric smelting furnaces do not promise to
reduce the general cost of steel. What they
are doing, and will continue to do at an in-
creasing rate, is this: they will produce a
uniform product of much higher grades of
steel at only slight advances in cost over
the ordinary grades. Such high strength
steels can be made and indeed have already
been made by non-electric processes, but
the electric furnace simplifies their manu-
facture and makes it much easier to obtain
a uniform product. Then while the result
may seem considerably higher in price per
pound than ordinary grades of steel, it will
prove cheaper for the same service wherever
both strength and the cost of transportation
are important items.
Thus, suppose you needed some steel
wire strand to stand a steady pull of a
thousand pounds. For quantity orders,
you would find on the Chicago market four
grades of galvanized steel strand on which
the breaking strains and the costs per 100
feet (at this writing) are as follows:
Common Steel 1-2 inch 85001b.
Siemens-Martin.-. 7-16 inch 9000 lb.
High Strength 5-16 inch 8100 lb.
Extra High Strength. . 9-32 inch 109001b.
The last of these would weigh only a
third as much as the first, hence for distant
points the saving in freight would more than
offset the difference in cost. Besides, the
fittings used with it can all be smaller and
the labor of installing it would undoubtedly
be less. Wherever transportation is an
important factor, the higher grade steels
can easily mean a saving and the electric fur-
nace will speed their economical production.
1.77
1.62
1.62
An interesting experiment in the use of
electricity to hatch eggs was recently made
by the Cleveland Electric Illuminating
Company, Cleveland, Ohio, the apparatus
being placed in its display window.
The " incubator" was very simple, con-
sisting of an ordinary electric heating pad
upon which were placed one dozen eggs,
a small dish of water and a thermometer.
A large glass dome was used to cover the
"nest." In twenty-one days and a few
hours eight little chicks were running around
in a pen previously provided, and hundreds
of people stopped at the window long enough
to look and exclaim, "What do you think
of that!" .
The Telephone's Alertness
With the great strides in things scientific
and their application to every day life, we
become blind to some of the really man- elous
properties of devices with which we are ap-
parently familiar. Consider the small bar
magnet, the little coil of wire, and the disk
iron hi the telephone. The delicacy of
this little instrument is well shown by
Preece who calculates that an audible sound
is produced in the receiver by a current cf
.000,000,000,000,6 ampere, while Pellet finds
that a sound is produced by a difference of
potential between the terminals of the re-
ceiver of 1-2000 of a volt.
ELECTRIC CURRENT ATWORK
NEW DEVICES FOR. APPLYING ELECTRICITY
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Cutting Metals by Electric Arc
The use of the storage battery to run
motors and supply current for lights is
common, but to apply its energy, as was
recently done with success, to cutting up
sheets of metal where great heat is needed
is quite unusual.
On the fourteenth floor of the Auditorium
Building, Chicago, were some large wrought
iron tanks 24 feet in circumference and 12
feet high. These tanks were a part of the
MAKING THE FIRST CUT ON THE TANK
hydraulic elevator system for which steam
was substituted. The tanks occupied so
much space that it was decided to remove
them. To dissemble them by removing
rivets, would have caused too much noise,
and also would have left the sections in too
large pieces to go through the door of the
passenger elevator.
FINISHING THE CUT FROM THE INSIDE
It was finally decided to cut each tank into
ten sections by using a carbon point electrode.
This point was connected by a heavy copper
cable to one terminal of a 40-cell, 150 am-
pere-hour, Jewell storage battery, of the
Haschke type, so named after the inventor;
the other terminal of the battery, which was
temporarily removed from an automobile
for the purpose, was connected to the tank
itself. Then, when the carbon point was
held to the iron of the tank, a fierce arc was
formed which cut through the metal like
a hot knife through wax.
The resistance of the circuit being very
low the battery discharged at an enormous
rate, 500 to 700 amperes, almost, in fact as
if there had been a dead short circuit.
132
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The arc was so extremely bright that it
was necessary for the operator to wear
colored glasses to keep from being blinded.
One of the illustrations shows the first cut
being made from the outside. A hole was
bored straight through thk f-inch wrought
iron shell in four and one-half seconds.
The second illustration shows the work
being continued from the inside. Alto-
gether, 465 running feet of cut was made in
this way.
This method has also been used to cut
I-beams in buildings where alterations were
to be made and to open safes where the only
one knowing the combination had died
suddenly.
Electric Crane to Carry Locomotives
One of the most thrilling sights to the
visitor in a locomotive works is to see the
electric crane come spinning down the ways,
pause for a moment over a giant locomotive
weighing perhaps a hundred tons, lower
away the grappling hooks and chains, lay
hold of the monster and raise it as if it were
a billet of wood, and hurry off with it to
some other part of the shop.
The illustration is a view in the shops of
the Southern Pacific Railway in Bakers-
SAFE DOOR PUNCTURED BY ELECTRIC ARC
field, Cal. The crane is of the Whiting type,
with a capacity of 120 tons. In this case
it is working in the boiler shop, but it would
be capable of lifting the completed locomo-
tive just as easily as it does the boilers.
The span of the crane is 57 feet 4% inches,
with a lift of 23 feet 7 inches. It is driven
by two 60 horse power motors.
ELECTRIC CRANE CARRYING LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
133
Portable Power Elevator
Piling heavy bales and boxes in ware-
houses requires hard manual labor, espe-
cially where the ceilings are high, and it
is not an unusual thing to find stock roughly
handled or poorly piled. The Economy
electric tiering machine consists of a plat-
form raised and lowered along metal posts
PORTABLE POWER ELEVATOR
by a motor. The machine on wheels is
pulled along to the place needed and stock
is placed on the table and lifted to the top
of the pile, 2000 pounds being a load. A
heavy cable and plug connect the motor
to the power circuit. The machine in the
picture is being used to pile large bales of
waste paper.
The Storing of Electric Heat
In the April, 19 10, issue of Popular
Electricity brief mention was made of
the device of G. G. Bell, a London engineer,
to store up the energy of electric current so
that it might be available for use at any
time. By its use it would be possible for
the electric 'power companies to furnish
FIG. I. BELLS HEAT STORING DEVICE
current to residence consumers on a more
economical basis, owing to the fact that the
current could be supplied at a constant rate
during the 24 hours or else, if desired, at
low load periods of the day. As it is now,
the householder is likely to demand current
at the very busiest part of the day and ag-
gravate that troublesome factor known as
the "peak load." Thus the central sta-
tion must charge the consumer a little
more for current to make up for this " readi-
ness to serve" feature of its service. You
say you do not exactly understand why this
is. Well suppose you and one thousand
other householders begin using your electric
cooking apparatus at six o'clock on a winter's
day. This is the time when lights are going
full blast all over the^city, the central station
machinery is taxed to its utmost at that
time. In order to get you and your neigh-
bors for customers the company had to in-
stall more machinery in order to be ready
to serve you when everyone else was being
served. It could have taken care of you
nicely without additional expense if it could
134
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
have known that you would not take any
current during the peak load.
It is just here that the advantage of a
heat storing device would lie and Mr. Bell's
invention, of which we are now able to show
some illustrations, contemplates such a sys-
tem, Fig. i being an external view.
It will be noted by the drawing, Fig. 2,
that the apparatus consists of a central
•'.N
^y^gyf
'.:'/•'.'.": Magnesia.;;
Water
Tank
Case
FIG. 2.
SECTIONAL VIEW OF HEAT STORING
DEVICE
block of iron with a coil of pipe cast within
and an electric heating unit located in an
opening in the center. The cast iron block
is embedded in a covering of magnesia two
inches in thickness, a water reservoir being
located between the latter insulating cover-
ing and the outside shell or casing of the
device. The water is passed through the
coil of pipe in the cast iron block absorbing
the heat from the latter when hot water is
desired for domestic uses. The block of
iron absorbs the heat from the electric cur-
rent which is flowing continuously in the
heater elements.
If a consumer desires to use the electric
current for other purposes than producing
hot water for cooking, etc., he can switch
on his electric light or a motor in the ordi-
nary manner, and, by means of a simple ar-
rangement, a proportionate amount of elec-
tric current would be automatically cut out
of the electric heater retaining the total load
at 200 watts, say, if adjusted for that amount.
Thus the consumer may use 200 watts con-
tinuously throughout the day instead of,
say, nothing for several hours in the day and
then five or six hundred watts for short
periods at other times in the day, in the
latter case very probably, when every one
lse on the system is using a large amount
also.
Electricity Produces Mountain Air
Nature constantly vitalizes out-door air
oy sunshine, winds, rain, snow and electrical
discharges. The peculiarly fresh, invigora-
ting, pure, sweet and wholesome air after a
thunderstorm is due to the ozone produced
by the electrical discharges.
Ozone, from the scientific standpoint, is
considered as an alotropic form of oxygen,
"condensed oxygen" if you please. The
ordinary form of oxygen contains two atoms
OZONE GENERATOR
to the molecule. The chemist represents it
by the symbol O2. Ozone, on the other
hand, which is made out of oxygen by elec-
trical processes, contains three atoms to the
molecule, O3. Ozone molecules, however,
are very unstable. They want to get back
to the oxygen form as soon as possible, and
that third atom of oxygen in the ozone mole-
cule, which feels it doesn't belong there, is
on the lookout to combine with something
else. Sometimes it combines with another
restless atom in another ozone molecule, or
else it seizes upon and oxidizes (burns) the
carbon of which bacteria are known to be
largely composed.
Knowing these things the scientist said:
"Ozone must be a powerful germicide."
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
135
And sure enough experiment proved that it
was. Then inventors set about devising
ways to produce ozone for this specific pur-
pose and one of the results is an electrical
machine known as the Ozone Pure Airifier
which is made by the Ozone Pure Airifier
Company, 307 Rand-McNally Building,
Chicago.
The small generator here illustrated,
which is only 11 by 8 by 8 inches, when at-
tached to an electric light socket, furnishes
a sufficient supply of ozone properly to
ozonize a bedroom or sick room, practi-
cally insuring the occupants of the room a
refreshing night's sleep; in fact, no better
condition of ozonized air can be procured
at the seashore, pine woods, in Colorado or
at the Adirondack mountains.
It practically imitates the action of a
thunderstorm on the outside, right in the
bedroom, home, office, store or factory, at
an expense of only a fraction of a cent per
hour. The revitalizing . principle of the
ozone makes it a preventative as well as
a corrective of such conditions as hay-fever,
asthma, catarrh, insomnia, nervousness,
tuberculosis, fevers, etc.
While the small size or bedroom ma-
chine, only, is illustrated, the generator is
made in various capacities up to that re-
quired for the very largest buildings.
A Ton at a Time or One
A TON AT A TIME
OR ONE
Nothing could show much more forcibly
than this illustration the difference between
old methods and new.
Pig iron is pretty
heavy stuff and it
takes a lot of tedious,
back-aching labor to
unload a car of it in
the old way, by hand.
The modern method
is by the use of the
electro-magnet attached
to a crane, which will
pick up a ton of the
heavy pieces as easily
as a man could one.
It is said that the or-
dinary cost of handling
a ton of pig iron by
hand labor is from five
to eight cents, depend-
ing upon the "carry."
The lifting magnet will
do the work for half
a cent per ton and isn't
half as apt to go on a
strike.
When current is
turned on the magnet
literally grabs a mouth-
ful of the iron chunks.
The instant the cur-
rent is switched off the
magnetism departs
and the magnet drops
its load.
136
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Simplicity the Keynote
One hears on all sides these days of the
wonderful strides that have been taken in
the application of electricity as a means of
power distribution and of the immense
business the large electrical factories have
developed in supplying the demand for
motors. One glance at the two accompany-
ing cuts will show a potent reason for this
development more vividly than reams of
written matter.
The views are in the " picker" room of a
modern cotton mill. The upper view shows
the old method, transmitting the power by
many belts and shafts; while the lower one
shows the new way with a five-horsepower
motor on each machine. Is it any wonder
the mills and factories are discarding the
old for the new ?
Testing a Cable
The man with the fishpole in the picture op-
posite is locating trouble in a lead-covered
telephone cable. It may be a ground or a
short circuit, but just where the fault is the
telephone receiver which the trouble man
is holding to his ear, will tell by its be-
havior.
The outfit consists of a high frequency
vibrator and battery located at the office or
at some point on the line where the wires
in trouble can be reached. The terminals
of this vibrator are connected to the wires
to be tested, which must have no current
on them at the time except that supplied by
the vibrator and dry cells. On the upper
end of the fish pole carried by the man who
goes out along the line is a coil of wire called
a detector which is connected to the tele-
phone receiver which he holds at his ear by
a pair of wires down the pole, this part of
the outfit working on the principle of the
secondary of a transformer. As the trouble
man follows the cable along closely with the
coil carried by the pole the receiver con-
PICKER ROOM IN A COTTON MILL BEFORE AND AFTER MOTOR DRIVE
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
137
tinues to "howl" like the electric auto-horn,
from the effect of the current, which flows
from the vibrator along one wire in the
cable, across the short circuit and back to
the vibrator.
When the coil carried by the pole passes
the short circuit it, of course, then leaves
behind the two wires in which the vibrator
CABLE TESTER AND METHOD OF OPERA-
TION
current is flowing, and consequently the re-
ceiver becomes quiet. The tester is thus
able to tell within a few inches where the
trouble in the cable lies.
In testing for grounds in conduits or cables
one side of the vibrator is connected directly
to the conduit or to the cable sheath in which
the trouble exists and the other side to the
faulty wire. By placing the detector coil
close to the conduit or sheath and parallel
to it the tone can be heard, but not loud,
except at the outlets, where it is very distinct.
An Electric Pyrometer's Record
Here is a piece of the "tell-tale" marking
which is continuously done by an electric
recording pyrometer. In this case the re-
cording instrument was in the superinten-
ELECTRIC PYROMETER
dent's office, quite a distance from the fur-
nace to which it was electrically connected.
This furnace was intended to be kept at an
even temperature of i44o°F. and the attendant
PYROMETER RECORD
did well from midnight until nearly three
o'clock. Then he seems to have dozed off,
for the chart shows a decided drop in the
temperature, followed by some excess over
the normal. It is such variations that often
spoil the whole charge and a visual record
138
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
of this kind not only forms a check on a
negligent attendant but also gives due credit
to the watchful one.
Electrical Anesthesia
For minor operations, the nerves may be
made insensible to pain by subjecting them
to a mild but intermittent, direct current
— not an alternating current which con-
Electric Welding Saves Heat
Compared with the various non-electric
methods of welding or brazing metals, the
electric welding process shows a wonderful
saving in the amount of heat needed, since
it concentrates the heat right on the spot
where it is required. All blowpipe or torch
methods scatter a large share of the available
heat while incidentally applying some at the
PERFORMING AN OPERATION UNDER ELECTRICAL ANESTHESIA
tinually reverses its direction, but a current
flowing steadily in the same direction and
interrupted at regular intervals. The action
is claimed to be strongest with about a
hundred interruptions of the current per
second and with the current left on for about
a tenth of each period, that is for one
thousandth of a second after each inter-
ruption.
In the apparatus as illustrated, the current
interrupter consists of a small motor driving
a split ring on which the contacts are ad-
justable as to their distance and therefore
as to the length of each current pulsation.
Adjustable resistances allow the current to
be varied, its strength being indicated by
the milliammeter shown just to the left of
the current interrupter. The strength of
current needed varies both with the indi-
vidual and with the extent of the nerve ex-
posure that is to be deadened. Generally
two milliamperes (.002 amperes) are suf-
ficient for producing a concentrated local
anesthesia. The terminals are applied to
the nerve which is to be rendered numb,
the positive electrode being usually ap-
plied to the corresponding spinal nerve
center.
right point, but not so with the electric weld-
ing process. In many kinds of work the
man operating the welder can even hold
the metal pieces right in his hands while
OPERATING AN ELECTRIC WELDER
he uses a foot lever to turn the current on
and off. Of course the metal parts will
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
139
conduct the heat to his hands if he holds
them long enough, but before this happens
he is through with the weld and has passed
it to a cooling rack.
Incidentally the greater coolness makes a
big difference in the rate at which the opera-
tor can work as compared with the chemical
or flame methods which waste so much of
their heat on the adjacent metal parts and
on the air of the room. This is particularly
true in summer when the man who welds
by electricity can profit by the zephyrs from
an electric fan which would be barred in the
other cases as the draft might interfere with
the directing of the flame.
Before Porcelain Insulation
Electric Gate Opener
Besides using electric door openers, much
as we do in our modern apartment houses
or even in ordinary flat buildings, our
British cousins have adapted the same to
the unlatching of garden gates. These
gates are often at quite a distance from the
house, so that it would take too much cur-
rent to have the battery itself operate the
ELECTRIC GATE OPENER
latch. To save the battery power, the locks
are arranged so that the magnet merely
moves a pawl or catch, whereupon a strong
spring moves the latch itself. The screw
eye shown in the cut is screwed into the
jamb of the gate so that closing the gate
pulls the chain taut and rewinds the spring.
Of course the lock itself is weatherproof and
the wire is either carried under the walk
or run inconspicuously along the garden
wall to the house.
While porcelain was used in the shape of
knobs for supporting wires even on the
earliest electric light installations, the art
of making porcelain in difficult shapes with
any uniformity in size had not yet been
learned by the porcelain makers. The one
material that at that time could be easily
worked into any desired shape and that gave
some insulation, was wood and this was
promptly utilized on the pioneer work
EARLY WOOD FIXTURES
throughout the country. Indeed, instead of
being confined to crude and homemade
products for which its use was quite ex-
cusable, it formed the insulating parts of
devices made by the tens of thousands in
nicely finished forms. Thus Keyless Wall
Sockets (corresponding to what we now
call receptacles) were made with a short
wooden shell which was screwed on the base
part and covered the binding screws to
which the wires were attached. Ceiling
rosettes were also made of wood, sometimes
with metal clips for the wire terminals right
on them so that the wires could be connected
to the lamp cord at the rosette.
The sight of these wooden devices with
the bare wires right on the inflammable wood
may make the modern inspector shudder,
for it meant a steady risk of fire and indeed
was responsible for many of the fires that
were actually traceable to electric wiring.
By the time this serious objection to the use
of wood as an insulation was clearly proven,
the porcelain makers had begun to duplicate
one after another of the wooden shapes in
a safer material, so that wood played the
part of both a makeshift and an educator.
Today wooden sockets or rosettes such as
we are picturing would be hard to find even
in towns that have gone backward, but the
cuts will interest those who like to trace the
influences that helped in the early stages of
electric lighting
140
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
A LONG ROW OF METAL CYLINDERS, DRIVEN BY MOTORS, FINISH THE PAPER
Paper Making with Electric Power Electric Driving Increases Output
Many changes in the making of paper
have taken place since the ancient Moors over
in Spain first manufactured it from cotton.
The people across the Mediterranean
changed the method a little by using rags
because cotton could not be easily obtained,
and today although we use rags, too, we
also grind up wood and run the machines
by electricity.
White pine or poplar wood is cut into slabs
and ground on heavy millstones, then con-
veyed to tanks where acid and live steam
reduce it to pulp. Next it is washed,
screened, worked on by the "beaters,"
mixed with resin, clay and the required
coloring matter to make the paper desired,
after which it goes to the wet end of the paper
machine to be now transferred to the dry-
ing rolls shown in the illustration. These
rolls and in fact all of the machines of the
United Box and Paper Company near
Lockport, N. Y., are operated by electric
motors. The long row of metal cylinders
are heated by steam and gradually dry
out the paper as it passes from one set to
the next until finally it emerges finished and
is wound into rolls for facility of ship-
ment.
Actual tests recently made in a cotton
mill in which electric motors at each loom
had been substituted for the old rope drive
showed these results: In all thirty of the
looms the speed had been increased a little
over nine per cent, but owing to the freedom
from the jerking which comes occasionally
with all belt or rope drives (as when the joint
passes the pulley of the machine) the in-
creased speed did not add to the breakage
of threads. This higher speed in itself
would increase the output a little over 9
per cent and the ability to start and stop each
loom more quickly than before without
snapping the threads showed a still greater,
increase in the working capacity per day.
With the 30 looms tested it was found that
with the old method of driving them the un-
productive time (that is, the time during
which the looms were standing still) plus
the time consumed in starting- and stopping
them was 40 per cent of the total working
hours. The adoption of electric motors as
individual drivers for each loom reduced
this to 26.4 per cent. The power consumed
by the same looms was 4! per cent less than
before and the output was increased by 15 to
20 per cent for different classes of work.
POPYLAR ELECTRICITY
141
The Latest Taxicab
The type of automobile shown in the pho-
tograph is an electric taxicab which has been
undergoing exhaustive tests in the taxi
service of Boston. So far the experiment
has proved a marked success and it is more
than probable that Boston will be one of
the first cities in the United States to have
electric cab service.
The taxicab company of Boston after
considerable investigation picked out a
type as shown in the picture to suit their
specifications and decided to test it. This
was done by giving it the same service as
the ordinary taxicabs were and comparing
the results. So far the test has been an
entire success. The cars are charged at
night, and while good for 75 to 100 miles on
a single charge, they are rarely run over
50 miles a day, so that charging once a day
is ample. They have required less repairs
than the gasoline cars and the "mechanical
ELECTRIC TAXICAB
care necessary for keeping them in running
order is greatly reduced," to quote the words
of the man in charge of the tests.
Altogether it is probable that the Boston
company will gradually replace their ma-
chines with electric taxicabs.
Getting the Time in Races
If five or six men with stop watches try
to get the exact time of a horse race or auto-
mobile race, it has been found
that they will vary as to the
time taken, an average being
the only way to decide the
matter.
After the automobile races
at Indianapolis last August,
where various methods were
tried out, Mr. C. H. Warner,
Beloit, Wis., set to work to
devise some better way to
record time, the results being shown in the
picture. This instrument is called a horo-
graph. It consists of a small
enclosed motor at the left, on
the shaft of which are four
wheels containing type which
at the proper time print upon
the strip of paper just above,
and over which runs a type-
writer ribbon. The first
wheel indicates hours, the
next minutes, the third sec-
onds and the fourth hun-
THE WARNER TIME RECORDER AND ITS INVENTOR
142
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
dredths of a second. Between the rib-
bon wheels are shown a pair of magnets
which operate the four little hammers that
crowd the strip of paper against the type
wheels. When in use the motor is started,
while the electrically connected clock on the
right by proper clutches keeps the wheels
under the paper in position to record the
hour, minute and second. A wire across the
track is connected to a trap which is operated
by the shock of the automobile hitting the
wire (not by the strain on the wire) so as
to close the contact in the magnet circuit.
This causes the magnets to throw down the
four little hammers, thus printing the time,
opposite which is written the name of
the car. A similar operation records the
finish.
as shown. The principle is applied with
equal advantage to various forms of cano-
pies, bracket lights, etc.
Candelabra Switch
The accompanying " phantom" view shows
the arrangement of the Cutler-Hammer
candelabr a
switch designed
for controlling
electric candela-
bra lamps. At
the bottom is
seen a porcelain
body, held in the
candelabra base
by prongs, which
contains the
switching m e-
chanism. Pres-
sure on the little
push bar shown
at the side of
this porcelain
element turns
the lamp on.
Pressure on the
other end of the
bar, which pro-
j e c t s on the
other side of the
porcelain, turns
the lamp off.
The lamp itself
is carried on a
socket stem
which projects
up through the
candle-shaped
•phantom" view of A body, the wires
candelabra switch being connected
Stone and Marble Cutter
Drilling, cutting and carving of marble
and stone has heretofore been done by
pneumatic tools,
but now electric
power is largely
used to do this
work.
The illustration
shows a motor for
this purpose sus-
pended from the
ceiling by means
of pulleys and a
counterweight. The
flexible shaft with
the tool attached
hangs within easy
reach of the work-
man and the height
canbe easily varied.
In a shop equipped
with pneumatic
drills and cutters
a large tank of
compressed air
STONE and MARBLE must be kept sup-
CUTTER plied from a com-
presser even when
only one or a few tools are being used, while
with an electric tool the pendant switch
hanging alongside the shaft allows the motor
to be stopped when the tool is not in use.
Foster & Hosier, Chicago, who make this de-
vice, state that 5400 blows a minute may
be struck and that the vibration so common
in pneumatic tools is greatly reduced.
Electrical Men of the Times
H. M. BYLLESBY
Many men find their hands full in directing
one public-service utility, but Henry Marison
Byllesby, whose portrait appears on this
page, is connected in various responsible
capacities with no less than thirty-one
public-utility corporations widely scattered
throughout the United States. Nearly all of
these enterprises are large and important,
and of course Mr. Bylessby does not im-
mediately supervise the many details in-
volved in the opera-
tion of these proper-
ties. He does the work
through an engineer-
ing organization in
Chicago which he has
built up, and which,
in the character of
men engaged in it,
in high-class, clear-
headed work, in esprit
de corps and effective-
ness per human unit,
and in size, is quite
an unusual aggrega-
tion of men working
toward a commonend.
Mr. Byllesby is a
clergyman's son and
was born in Pittsburg
51 years ago. He was
educated at the Wes-
tern University of
Pennsylvania and at Lehigh University,
being in the class of 1878 at the latter insti-
tution and taking the course in mechanical
engineering. From 1881 until 1885 he was on
the engineering staff of the old Edison Elec-
tric Light Company of New York. He is one
of the group of early associates of Mr. Edison
who are now directing large affairs. He
made the drawings for the historic Pearl
Street electric light station in New York
city and installed plants and electrical works
in Canada. During this period also he had
charge of the notable electric-lighting dis-
plays at the Louisville, St. Louis and New
Orleans expositions. These were perhaps
the largest intallations made up to that time.
From 1885 until 1890 Mr. Byllesby was
first vice-president and general manager of
the Westinghouse Electric Company and
managing director of the Westinghouse
Electric Company, Ltd., of London, Eng-
land. When he went with these companies
the alternating-current electric system was
little more than a laboratory experiment.
Within ten months he had equipped the shops
in Pittsburg and was
turning out a full line
of alternating-current
apparatus. Next Mr.
Byllesby turned his at-
tention to the operating
field, and early in 189 1
he became president
of the Northwest
General Electric
Company of St. Paul
— a central station
organization. He es-
tablished the present
business of H. H. Byl-
lesby & Company in
Chicago in 1902.
The career of Mr.
Byllesby has been an
exceptional one; he is
an all-around electri-
cal man. Not only
is he an engineer,
central station operator, a- business admin-
istrator and a financier, but he is an in-
ventor as well. Thirty-six patents re-
lating to electrical apparatus have been
issued to him.
In 1882 Mr. Byllesby was married to
Margaret Stearns Baldwin, daughter of
H. B. Baldwin of the New Jersey Central
Railroad. His residence is in Chicago,
with a summer home, " Arrowglade, " at
Lake Geneva, one of the most beau-
tiful lake resorts in Wisconsin. He is a
member of many technical societies and
also president of the Chicago Civic
Federation.
ELECTRICITY IN THE
HOUSEHOLD
Speaking of Wash Day
Perhaps you may think you cannot afford
to buy an electric washing outfit. If you
are good at figures, however, you may easily
prove to yourself that the seemingly rather
large first cost is really an investment which
pays good dividends. Take a pencil and
paper and calculate how much the weekly
wash costs you in a year, figuring in the
THE ELECTRIC LAUNDRY COMPLETE
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
145
WORKING THE MANGLE
wages of the woman who conies in on Mon-
day and Tuesday to do the washing and
ironing, or add up the laundry bills for a
year, if you have all the work done in that
way. Take into consideration also the
annoyance of having the help fail you at
the critical time, the natural depression of
"Blue Monday," and all the other things
which have come to make "washday" the
bugbear of the housewife for so many gen-
erations.
Now balance up against these things the
cost of an electric household laundry out-
fit and the cost of the current needed, which
is but a few cents an hour while the machines
are actually working. The Monday work,
which with the aid of the electrical apparatus
becomes insignificant, you are now able to
perform yourself, thereby saving the wages
of a laundress. The result of your figuring
will be all in favor of the electrical method
and the machines, which will last for years,
will be found to pay for themselves many
times over.
Taking as an example the outfit of the
American Ironing Machine Company. It
embodies a motor driven washing machine
and wringer and an electrically operated
and electrically heated mangle. One of
the pictures shows the whole equipment
as may best
fitted with overhead drive
although the machines are
also made with individual
motors, which latter are
perhaps a little more neat
in appearance.
Have you ever stopped
to think what a few cents'
worth of electric current
turned into an outfit of
this kind will do for you ?
The washing means only
the work of putting the
clothes into the machine,
and then, when they are
done, of steering them
through the wringer. The
ironing consists only of
handling and folding the
clothes after they have
passed through the rolls.
Washday then becomes
"wash hour" and ar-
rangements for the opera-
tion need not be made
for any set day in the
week but for such time
suit your convenience.
Electric Traveler's Iron
Of course, when you have been traveling
you have at some time been confronted with
the problem of getting certain articles of
apparel pressed out into shape to wear
right away. In a hotel if you ;send these
things out, even if accompanied by tips
and many admonitions to hurry them
through, you are likely to sit and do a lot
of fidgeting before you see them again. An
electric flatiron among the things in your
luggage would then be a welcome friend.
But perhaps you have neglected to put it
in because it is a troublesome thing to pack
and you're afraid it might get to sliding
around in your trunk and tear things up
like the old time cannons in a man-o'-war
when they broke away from their moorings
and went careening about the decks.
The American Electric Heater Company
suggests the idea of furnishing an electric
iron irt a neat velvet lined leatherette case.
It is easily packed and at the same time the
iron is kept away from dirt and moisture
when not in use. Many women prefer
to have their regular household irons put
up in this way.
At the Chafing Dish Luncheon
By FLORENCE LATIMER
Having recently attended a unique little
luncheon, I am going to tell you about it
while it is fresh in my mind and because I
know that for the readers of this depart-
ment the "magic button" has as much
charm as for me.
The hostess had been worrying herself
almost sick trying to devise some inexpen-
sive way to entertain a few ladies to whom
she felt under obligation. I know that
sounds terrible, for, of course, our friends
wouldn't want us to feel that way about it,
but all the same we do have a queer sort of
feeling about always accepting and never
entertaining, and that was just the way she
felt. She was greatly handicapped in the
beginning by having no maid. But sud-
denly it dawned upon her that she possessed
what was infinitely better than any servant
"an electric chafing dish, percolator and
toaster." Simultaneously came the thought
"a chafing dish party." Not the ordinary
one where spilled alcohol prevails, but an
electric party. Why not? And then came
visions of ladies in dainty aprons flitting
about the dining room helping to prepare
their own lunch.
Another thought that beat the other "all
hollow" was this: — If things aren't good
I'll never know it, for after preparing them
they'll declare that they never tasted better,
and what's better still, they'll really think
so. Just like a friend of mine who, when she
was a little girl ate
a mud pie, just be-
cause she made it
and the children
dared her to. She
crossed her heart
and "hoped to die"
if it wasn't good,
and do you know,
to this very day she
» almost believes it
M| was good.
te> So this woman
lljfelt intuitively that
an electric chafing
dish would be her
salvation. Her invi-
tations were written
under her name on
her regular calling
cards something like
this — "Luncheon,
One o'clock April
7, iqio — Reply."
These were fitted to
tiny envelopes, ad-
dressed and posted.
Seven ladies, myself included, accepted
and were there promptly at one o'clock to
be welcomed by a smiling hostess, who in-
vited us into her dainty bedroom and con-
trary to the prevailing style asked us to
remove our hats. My but I was glad, for
I had a splitting headache and, of course,
forgot and said so.
"My dear girl," she said, "how does it
happen that you have a headache?" You
must know that electricity is a panacea for
all pain."
In a moment she brought forth an electric
vibrator which she quickly adjusted to a
lamp socket, applied it to my temples and
then at the back of my head and (whether
We Were Eager
to Begin
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
147
you believe me or not) my head was well in
five minutes. Think of it. I certainly
mean to have a vibrator.
Each of us was provided with the dearest
little chafing dish apron, made of two
Japanese napkins — of daff-o-dil design (that
being the flower she used for decorations,
etc.). Then we were ushered into the din-
ing room.
The table was a round one, and dainty
doylies took the place of a table cloth, a tall
vase of daff-o-dils adorned the center and
two highly polished electric chafing dishes
(one of them borrowed, of course,) a per-
colator and a toaster were arranged around
the table about equal distances apart.
There was a dish of iced olives and one of
pickles, besides some dainty peanut-butter
sandwiches, salt and pepper shakers, forks
and spoons and all the ingredients with
which to prepare the following menu:
Oysters fried, creamed asparagus on toast
and delicious coffee.
We laughed and all declared we felt
as eager to begin as when little girls we
were allowed to cook "taters" on a brick
stove in the back yard.
We chatted as we made good things to
eat — two ladies to each device — and in a
few moments everything was ready. Good?
Well I should say so. No make believe
about an electric chafing dish.
We had vanilla ice cream served in tiny,
new flower pots. On top was a liberal sprink-
ling of grated chocolate to resemble earth,
and stuck up in the middle of each flower
pot was a single daff-o-dil. We certainly
enjoyed every moment of the time and
almost before we knew it the afternoon was
gone.
We were much interested in all elec-
trical things, and I have often wondered
why so few of us, comparatively speaking,
take advantage of electric current — a power
that creates neither heat, odor nor dirt. I
am happy to know, though, that some
women are making use of its wonderful ad-
vantage in making housework, if not a real
pleasure, at least less like the drudgery of
the past.
Before the party broke up we all agreed
to pay a visit in a body to the Electric Shop
as soon as moving season was over, and
make a study of all the new types of elec-
trical cooking utensils that have been de-
veloped so wonderfully and put upon the
market of late.
Connecting Cooking Devices
There are many women who are very
cautious about using electric household de-
vices, and still others who delay buying such
convenient kitchen appliances as coffee per-
colators, chafing dishes, bread toasters and
the like because they have an inexplainable
feeling that electricity is something to be
feared. With the present methods of putting
electric wires, fixtures and sockets in build-
ings and the care used in constructing house-
QUICKLY AND SAFELY CONNECTED
hold devices it is entirely unnecessary to get
into this state of mind. Even if one were
to touch the inside of a socket nothing more
than a sharp tingling sensation would be felt
and no bodily harm would result. So let
us get away from the fear of a danger,
which, after all, is only apparent. Electric
cooking utensils are provided with means,
such as the Hubbell attachment plug, for in-
stance, of connecting them quickly and safely
to the lamp socket.
Women Vote for Electricity
At a recent election in Owosso, Mich.,
where about half the votes were cast by
women, the proposition to grant a new elec-
tric light franchise was carried by a large
majority. Women may not generally view
the business aspects of franchise grants in
the same way that men would do, but when
it comes to any move that will promise them
more electrical conveniences, you can cou
on them every time.
148
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Fans and Home Comfort
What a time you had on cold windy days
last winter keeping the furnace going so
that the house would be comfortable. One
of the Sturtevant ready-to-run ventilating
fan sets such as is shown at the furnace in
the illustrations would no doubt have reme-
died the whole trouble. Placing the fan in
front of the damper and blowing air into the
furnace would have roused it up. The
fan may also be placed in the fresh air duct
as illustrated in the second picture, thus
forcing the furnace a little and also fanning
in some fresh air besides.
That room which was so hard to keep
warm when the wind was in a certain di-
rection might have been made comfortable
by placing the ventilating fan over the
register so as to draw the warm air out into
the room; then again let the fan blow air
from the warm room into the chilly one.
The housewife who is shown at work in
the kitchen is not worrying how she can
keep the odor of the cooking cabbage and
other vegetables from the other rooms in
the house, for the fan is gathering up the
air and passing it out of the window. On
Monday she uses the fan in the laundry to
dry the clothes and to remove the excessively
moist air while washing.
In the sick room the ready-to-run fan is
almost a necessity, giving the needed venti-
lation at slow speed without draft.
And, don't forget the boys who drop in
for a friendly game on a hot summer eve-
ning. With one of these fans in the window
you would never know the next morning
that there had been smoking in the room
the night before. It all went out of the
window instead of settling in the curtains
and rugs.
JUNIOR SECTION
An Electrical Laboratory for Twenty-Five
Dollars
By DAVID P. MORRISON
PART VI.
CONSTRUCTION OF A STORAGE BATTERY
After you have completed the equipment
for your laboratory described in the previous
numbers you will still find yourself badly
in need of some form of battery that is
capable of delivering a strong current for
a considerable time. Such is the secondary
or storage battery.
The storage cell, however, must be charged
from some other source of electrical energy
by passing a current through the cell for
several hours in the opposite direction to
that it would flow in if the cell were supply-
ing current or discharging. Oftentimes
storage cells are charged from gravity bat-
teries by allowing a very small current to
flow through them for quite a number of
hours, and the storage cell can then be dis-
charged at a much greater rate than it would
be possible to obtain from the gravity battery
alone. With your transformer and electro-
lytic rectifier you can charge a storage
battery direct from an alternating current
circuit.
All storage cells might be thought of as
consisting of three parts, usually, a number
of lead plates, a solution of sulphuric acid
into which the plates are placed and a con-
taining vessel for holding the solution.
There are three different storage cells de-
scribed in the following paragraphs, they
differing more in mechanical construction
than in any other way, the chemical action
being practically the same in all of them.
It might be well at this point to describe
in a very elementary way just what takes
place in a storage cell when it is charging
and discharging. If an electric current is
passed through a conducting liquid, such
as sulphuric acid, the liquid will be de-
composed. This chemical decomposition is
called electrolysis, and the liquid in which
electrolysis takes place is called an electro-
lyte. The current is usually carried into
and out of the solution by means of large
plates as the electrolyte has a high resistance.
These plates are called the electrodes, and
the one at which the current enters the elec-
trolyte is called the anode and the electrode
at which the current leaves the electrolyte
is called the cathode. The plates in the
case of a storage cell are usually spoken of
as grids and the cathode of the cell on dis-
charge is called the positive grid and the
anode is called the negative grid.
The commercial storage cell has a cathode
of lead peroxide (Pb02), an anode of spongy
metallic lead, and an electrolyte of dilute
sulphuric acid. When this cell is discharged
both the lead peroxide and spongy lead
are changed into insoluble lead sulphate
(PbSCH) and when it is again charged by
forcing a reversed current through the cell
the lead sulphate is converted back into
spongy lead and lead peroxide respectively.
The lead peroxide and spongy lead are
called the active materials of the cell.
These active materials are mechanically
weak, porous, and poor electrical conduc-
tors, and they are usually supported in
openings made in large plates of metallic
150
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
lead. These metallic grids not only serve
as mechanical supports, but also to conduct
the current to and from the active material
which constitutes the real electrode.
A very simple storage cell may be made
in the following way: Procure from a
plumber two pieces of lead pipe. One of
these pieces should have an internal diameter
of approximately two inches and be six
inches long, and the other one should have
an outside diameter of about one inch and
be seven inches long. Square off both ends
of the larger pipe and solder a circular piece
of lead just inside of one end with a very
poor quality of solder so as to form a lead
cup. If you use ordinary solder which con-
tains a large percentage of tin the cup is
likely to leak after a short time as the sul-
phuric acid attacks the tin and "will eat it
away. This cup is to form the negative
plate of the cell. A terminal should be pro-
vided for making your electrical connection.
Cut from some sheet lead a piece § inch in
width and about three inches long. Solder
one end of this piece to the upper end of
the cup, and a binding post can be attached
to the other end which will be explained
later.
Drill the second piece of lead pipe as
full of 3-32 inch holes as is possible, except
for a distance of about f inch from each
end. Saw six or eight notches in one end
to a depth of about \ inch, and bend the
projecting teeth thus formed inward so as
to close up the end of the pipe. This pipe
need not be water tight at this point, but
sufficiently tight to hold a paste that will be
explained later. This second tube is to
form the positive terminal of the cell and
must be supported inside the larger tube in
such a way that it will not come in contact
with it.
Cut from some f inch pine a square piece
whose edge is equal to the outside diameter
of the larger pipe. Drill in the center of
this piece a hole of such a size that the smaller
lead pipe will fit snugly into it. Saw quite
a number of slots in the upper end of the
smaller tube to a depth of § inch. Now
bend the projecting pieces outward and
down until they are at right angles to the
side of the tube. A terminal strip should
be soldered to the upper end of the smaller
tube as in the case of the larger tube. You
should immerse the wooden block in smok-
ing hot paraffine wax and allow it to remain
until thoroughly saturated with the wax.
This will protect the wood from the action
of the acid. Make sure that you do not get
any paraffine on the lead tube as it will pre-
vent the acid coming in contact with it.
You should now make a box to place your
cell in to prevent its .being overturned.
Make the inside dimensions of this box as
follows: Each side should be equal to the
outside diameter of the larger pipe, or a
little greater, and it should have a depth £
inch greater than the length of the larger
pipe. Cut a groove in one of the sides so
that the piece that was soldered to the out-
side of the pipe for a terminal will slip into
it and prevent the pipe from turning around
inside the box. The base of the box can be
made considerably larger than the outside
dimension of the box and this will add greatly
to the stability of the cell.
The two terminals of the cell can be at-
tached to the outside of the containing box
by means of two screws and back con-
nected binding posts fastened to their ends
which will give an easy means of making
connections to the cell. The containing
box should be boiled in hot paraffine wax
until it is thoroughly saturated. The space
surrounding the tube when it is placed in
the containing box may be filled with saw-
dust which will aid in holding the tube in
place.
Your cell is now complete except the paste
in the inner tube. To make this paste pro-
ceed as follows: Make a weak solution of
sulphuric acid in an old dish, by pouring
the acid into the water very slowly. Never
pour the water into the acid but always pour
the acid into the water slowly and be very
careful in handling the acid as it destroys
everything it may happen to touch. This
solution should consist of one part acid and
12 parts water. Procure from a paint shop
about 1 \ pounds of red lead and mix with
the sulphuric acid a sufficient amount to fill
the inner tube. Stir this mixture with a
stick and make it very stiff. Now ram the
tube full of this paste to within \\ inches of
the top. Remove all the paste that may
have oozed through the holes and put the
tube aside to dry.
When the paste is dry place the inner tube
in place in the wooden block and this block
should fit into the upper end of the con-
taining box and rest upon the upper end of
the larger tube. Fill the larger tube with
a solution of sulphuric acid to within \ inch
of the top. This solution should contain
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
i5i
about 30 parts of acid by weight in 100 parts,
the acid having a specific gravity of 1.84, or
it should contain about 33 percent of acid.
The specific gravity of the resultant solution
should be about 1.25 which can be deter-
mined by means of a hydrometer.
The solution can be poured into the cell
through the upper end of the inner tube
after the cell is all assembled.
This cell can be easily charged with three
gravity batteries. Connect the three cells
in series, and the positive terminal of this
battery must be connected to the inside tube
and the negative terminal to the outside
tube of the storage cell.
The first time the battery
is charged it should be
allowed to stand con-
nected to the gravity bat-
tery for five or six days.
Fig. 51 shows a cross
section through the cell
just described. The con-
nections of the gravity
battery and cell for charging are shown
in Fig. 52.
The above cell will give very satisfactory
results but the capacity no doubt will not be
The above rate is based on an eight hour
discharge, meaning that your cell should
supply about five amperes per squaie foot
of positive plate for a period of eight hours.
If this discharge rate is increased the time
will necessarily be decreased and if the rate
is decreased the time will be increased.
The product of the current times the time a
cell will supply that current is its ampere-
hour capacity. This ampere-hour capacity
is usually given for the eight hour rate. It
is impossible to get as many ampere hours
out of a storage cell at a high rate of dis-
charge as you can at a lower rate of dis-
SIZE OF PLATES 6x6 INCHES
Number of
Discharge in
Discharge in
Discharge in
Normal
Plates
Amps, for
Amps, for
Amps, for
Charge
8 hrs
5 hrs
3 hrs
Rate
3
2-5
3-5
5
2-5
5
5
7
10
5
7
7-5
10.5
i5
7-5
9
10
14
20
10
11
12.5
17.5
25
12.5
13
i5
21
30
15
charge. You can never get as many ampere
hours out of your battery as you put into it,
no matter what the rate may be, as its
efficiency is not 100 per cent. The above table
gives the data on the type D battery made
by the Electric Storage Battery Company.
A much larger capacity cell can be made
FIG. 51. CROSS SECTION OF THE STORAGE
BATTERY
sufficient to meet the general requirements.
It is customary to allow about five amperes
per square foot of positive plate on charge.
CONNECTIONS FOR CHARGING
as follows, and its capacity can be increased
indefinitely by increasing the area of the
plates and the number of plates in each cell.
Fig. 53 gives the general dimensions of the
plates which can be made as follows: For
each plate you must procure a piece of thin
lead 13 J inches by 5! inches. In each cell
you will need one more negative grid than
positive, which prevents their being bent out
of shape due to unequal chemical action.
Suppose you select seven grids, four nega-
tive and three positive Remember that
152
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
this can be any number as well as seven
although it is customary to increase the size
of the plates as you increase the number,
rather than increasing the number in-
definitely as the capacity of the cell increases.
Ur
e o
o
3"
4 1
; 1
g"
j»
l"
1 ^
i <
- ,
\-'<
Lead
%
Pas\e
Ni
FIGS. 53 AND 54. CONSTRUQTJON OF
BATTERY PLATE
Lay all of the plates in a pile and clamp
them together. Then bore them full of
3-32 inch holes inside the squares marked
on them as shown by the dotted line in Fig.
53. These pieces should then be bent over
the rounded edge of a \ inch board, form-
ing plates 5 \ by 6| L inches. Place an
oak board \ inch thick and 5 \ inches wide
between the two sides of the plate and
hammer the edges together. Cut from some
\ inch lead seven pieces 7 \ inches long and
h inch wide. These pieces are to be soldered
between the upper edges of the plate after
the active material has been put into place.
It might be well to use several rivets in hold-
ing the plates and pieces together.
Allow the pieces to project f inch
beyond the plates at one end and 1^ inches
at the other. A cross section through one
of the plates is shown in Fig. 54.
Mix in an old dish a thick paste of dilute
sulphuric acid and red lead. Make the
dilute sulphuric acid by adding about one
part acid to twelve parts of water. Now fill
three of the plates with this mixture forcing
it in place with a stick, but be careful not
to bend the sides of the plates. Fill the
remaining four plates with a paste of litharge
or yellow lead and sulphuric acid made in
a similar manner to that just described.
All of the paste that may be forced out
through the holes in the plates should be
removed and the plates all set aside and
allowed to dry.
While your plates are drying you can
construct the containing vessel for your cell.
If it is possible for you to obtain a rectangu-
lar glass jar approximately six inches bro»d.
six inches wide and seven inches deep, in-
side dimensions, it will serve admirably as
a containing vessel. You can, however,
change the dimensions of the plates given
in Fig. 53 so that they will correspond per-
haps to the dimensions of your jars if you
happen to have any.
In the event you have no glass jars and
are unable to procure any, a simple con-
taining vessel may be made in the follow-
ing manner: Make a wooden box, whose
inside dimensions correspond to those given
above for the glass jar, from some J inch
material. This box should be well con-
structed and it would be advisable to put
it together with screws and glue. When the
box is complete it should be immersed in
hot paraffine and allowed to remain for
several hours until it is thoroughly saturated
with the wax. If you can procure some
pitch or asphaltum and line your box with
it the life of the box will no doubt be greatly
increased. The best lining of course would
be one made of sheet lead, but you will have
to use additional care to prevent your cell
being short circuited by the projecting lugs
on the various positive and negative plates
coming in contact with the lining where it
bends over the edge of the containing vessel.
The likelihood of such a short circuit occur-
ing can be reduced to a minimum by placing
strips of glass on the upper edge of the vessel
upon which .the lugs, on the sides of the
plates, may rest.
Cut twelve wooden strips 3-16 inch square
and six inches long that are to be used in
separating the plates in the cell. These
pieces should be thoroughly boiled in
paraffin wax. When the plates are dry
you will be ready to assemble your cell
which may be done as follows: Take one
of the negative plates and lay it on a smooth
board, then place two of the small strips
across it about one inch from the edge and
running parallel to its longer dimension,
which will make the separators stand on
end when the elements are placed in the
containing vessel. Now lay on top of these
two pieces one of the positive plates with its
edges parallel to the edges of the first plate,
and the longer lug projecting in the opposite
direction to that of the negative or first
plate. Place the remaining five plates in
the pile with the separators between them
and the long lugs of all the negative plates
projecting in one direction and the long lugs
of th^ positive plates projecting in the oppo-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
153
FIG. 55. METHOD OF
BENDING THE
LUGS
site direction. Fasten all of the plates to-
gether with several very strong rubber
bands placed around them. Cut from some
J inch sheet lead two pieces about one inch
wide and 12 inches long, solder these pieces
to the ends of the long lugs on the positive
arid negative plates. Allow all the surplus
length of the above pieces to project at one
end which will form the terminals of the
cell.
Place the elements in the containing
vessel, making sure they do not come in
contact with the
walls of the vessel
if it is lead lined.
Fill the vessel with
dilute sulphuric acid
to within about one
inch of the top.
This acid should be
mixed as previously
described.
With the above
arrangement of
plates there will be
a considerable por-
tion of them that
will not be immersed in the acid. This
can be prevented by bending the lead strip
fastened between the upper edges of the
plates into the form shown in Fig. 55. You
will of course need a deeper containing vessel
when this change
is made, and the
lead strips will have
to be longer than
in the previous case.
It might be well
for you to cut some
pieces of wood of
such a size that they
will just slip down
between the elements
and the containing
vessel and prevent
any movement of
the elements. These
pieces must be thor-
oughly saturated in paraffine wax.
A second method that has been employed
by the writer in making the grids is as follows :
Procure from the plumber a quantity of 1-16
inch sheet lead and also a small quantity
of \ inch sheet lead. The size and number
of plates you expect to build will determine
the quantity of lead and the dimensions of
the sheets you must procure. Let us assume
50
5
1* «
* t.
FIG. 56. ANOTHER
TYPE OF BAT-
TERY GRID
you expect to build the plates of the same size
as in the previous case. Cut from a piece
of one inch oak a block 5 by 5J inches and
fasten it to a larger board. Now cut from
the ^ inch lead seven
strips 5-16 inch wide
and about 26 inches
long. Bend these
strips around the
block forming seven
frames as shown in
Fig. 56 and solder
the ends together.
Now cut from the
1-16 inch lead strips
5-16 inch wide and
run part of them
through the gears of a lathe or crimping
iron. Place one of your frames on top of a
smooth surface and fill it full of corrugated
and plain strips, alternately, until it is like
Fig. 57. Then take your soldering iron
and solder the ends of these pieces to
the frame.
Four of these plates should now be filled
with the litharge paste and the other three
with the red lead paste. After they are
dry they can be placed in a pile separated
by small strips of wood and fastened with
FIG. 57. CORRUGATED
AND PLAIN STRIPS
ASSEMBLED
Lamjis
666666
FIG. 58. CONNECTIONS FOR CHARGING
rubber bands. Solder a strip of lead to the
projecting lugs, all of those on the positive
plates being on one side and those on the
negative plates being on the other side.
Two pieces of glass tube may be placed in
the containing vessel to rest the elements
upon and prevent them coming in contact
with the walls. When the elements are in
place the vessel may be filled with acid as
in the previous case until it covers the plates.
These cells can be charged from a gravity
battery just as the first cell, but the time re-
quired will be considerably longer on account
of the greater capacity. If you are fortunate
enough to have a direct current source of
154
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
power at hand such as a no volt lighting
circuit you can charge your battery from it.
The proper connections for charging the
battery in this way are shown in Fig. 58.
You should allow, as previously stated,
about five amperes per square foot of posi-
tive plate which can be regulated by chang-
ing the number of incandescent lamps con-
nected in parallel.
All of the lead should be as pure as it
is possible to obtain, a kind known as
chemical or desilverized lead is the best.
You should be careful in handling your
paste and acid not to get any foreign sub-
stances in them.
If you have a blow pipe and can use it
burn or fuse all connections. When solder
is used make it of four parts lead and one
part tin and use resin as a flux.
A storage cell should give about 2.2 volts
when fully charged and should never be
discharged below 1.7 volts. It should never
be allowed to stand in a discharged con-
dition and should be given a small charge
every few weeks even though it is not used.
If it is desired to put the cell out of service
discharge it to about 1.5 volts, pour off the
acid, fill the jar with water and completely
discharge it. The water can then be re-
moved and the plates thoroughly washed.
They will then keep almost indefinitely.
Always use rain water in mixing acid.
(To be Continued)
Trapping a Telephone "Josher"
"We sent for you," began the telephone
manager as the middle aged man in the grey
suit was ushered into his office, "to see if
you could suggest any way for us to stop
the annoying of our operators by some one
using your phone. You know our em-
ployees have strict instructions to talk only
business, else they would keep other sub-
scribers waiting, and when we find one of
the girls holding a long conversation be-
fore making the connection, she is promptly
reprimanded. Then if she insists that the
party on the line would not tell her the num-
ber wanted, but kept on "jollying" her —
what are we to do ?
"Don't ask' me," snapped the man in the
grey suit indignantly. "That is your look-
out as to how you handle your help. But
if they report that any smart young
men have been entertaining them on the
wire, they must have told you the wrong
phone number. It is very rarely that any
young fellow gets at my phone and my
stenographer happens to be a woman of
very few words. You ought to have found
out the right number instead of getting me
to come clear over here right in the midst
of a busy week. Here you are taking up
my time when I never even heard of such
a thing as 'jollying' an operator and I" —
"Oh, if that is the case," interrupted the
telephone man who had remained calm
while his visitor's temper was visibly rising,
"it is only fair that we at least show you
what we mean. You know we use the
phonograph a good deal in training new
operators to speak the set phrases in a low
and resonant voice. Now here is a record
that may give you the idea." With that he
slipped a cylinder on the phonograph beside
his desk. "Number, please," began a
gentle voice, followed by a man's voice that
started: " Good morning, Maud, how are
you feeling today?" "Number, please."
"Say, isn't your name Maud ? Didn't I see
you at the show last night?" Good, was it
not?" "What number do you want?"
(This time more emphatically.) " Oh come,
don't be in such a hurry. You know "
The manager looked up, then reached
over and shut off the phonograph, for the
man in the grey suit had risen, highly flushed.
"I think, I I ," he stammered.
"Yes," said the telephone man, I know you
need to get back to your office. Thank you
very much for coming in." The middle aged
man in grey slipped out of the room rather
sheepishly, for the voice that the phonograph
had repeated, was unmistakably his own!
MTMCITYYiELESS OBI
Membership in Popular Electricity Wireless Club is made up of readers
of this magazine who have constructed or are operating wireless apparatus
or systems. Membership blanks will be sent upon request. This depart-
ment of the magazine will be devoted to the interests of the Club, and
members are invited to assist in making it as valuable and interesting
as possible, by sending in descriptions and photographs of their equipments.
A High Power Wireless Equipment
By ALFRED P. MORGAN
PART n. — AERIAL SWITCH AND INDUCTION COIL
The high-tension cable leads from the
insulating bushing in the window pane to
FIG. 14. END VIEW OF SWITCH
The base is a sheet of hard rubber 7 by
11 by I inches. The two large knife blades
are made of hard brass and measure 8 by
f by 3-32 inches. A small blade measur-
ing 3 by f by 3-32 inches serves to break
the primary transmitting current when the
switch is up, so that in case of an accidental
touch of the key while receiving, the de-
tector will not be injured. In a looped
aerial system the precaution is absolutely
necessary, for the high voltage currents
would pass across the anchor gap and into
the receiving instruments. With an open
aerial the third knife blade is often used to
short circuit the detector during each period
of sending so that it is not made inoperative
by the heavy discharge of the transmitter.
Two methods of fastening the knives to
the yokes are illustrated in Fig. 16. In the
first method the end of the knife blade is
bent at right angles and fastened to the yoke
by means of a short 10-24 brass machine
screw and nut. The second method is not
the aerial switch. The
aerial switch is used for
quickly changing the aerial
and the ground from the
receptor to the transmitter
or vice versa.
An ordinary power
switch may often be
adapted for this purpose
but the best plan is to
construct one according to
the design indicated in
Figs. 14 and 15.
//*
®,
L
3-
(g>,-^r^/f- )
CONTACT1'
^eCAKINQ
,Q 1
.; <n,
©
„3;
lH
,1;
w*l
(!)
»4©
*
33
FIG. 15. PLAN OF SWITCH
156
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
quite so simple but offers a better appear-
ance and is somewhat stronger. The end
of the blade is cut out in the shape shown.
A slot 3-32 inch wide and 1-4 inch deep is
cut in the yoke at the point where it is de-
sired, to fasten the blade. A hole is bored
in the center of the yoke and in the same
YOKE
SCREW
.'-//it
/ / / '
NUT
^YOKE
FIG. 1 6. METHODS OF FASTENING KNIVES
TO YOKE
plane as the slot. A 10-24 machine screw
passes through the hole and the end of the
biade is placed under the head of the screw
so that when a nut is screwed against the
other side of the yoke the two blades will be
held firmly in the slot. The "T" which
serves as a support for the upper contacts
is made of | inch hard rubber. Two pieces
of rubber may be used in its construction
instead of one and in that manner some ma-
terial economized.
HOLE BORED IN
BLARING STANDARD
L
V— HOLE
TAPPED / 0-2.4
FIG. 17. CONSTRUCTION OF CONTACTS
The yokes are also of hard rubber. The
smaller one is fastened to the large blades
so that it moves up and down with them.
The construction of the contacts and bear-
ing standards is shown in Fig. 17. The
only difference between them is that the
bearing standards have a hole bored through
them as indicated by the dotted lines in the
illustration. They are both formed out of
a strip of brass.
Eight binding posts are mounted on the
base and on the "T". They make con-
nection to the bearing or contact to which
they are nearest as indicated by the dotted
lines. (A) and (D), Fig, 15, connect re-
spectively to the aerial and the ground; (B)
and (C) are included in the primary circuit
of the induction coil or transformer or are
placed directly across the detector terminals ;
(E) and (F) lead to the receiving apparatus,
while (G) and (H) are connected with the
transmitting instruments. A wiring diagram
of the complete transmitter showing the
position of the aerial switch will be given
later.
A hard rubber handle four inches long is
fitted to the switch yoke so that it may be
thrown up or down. The contacts should
press against the blades firmly but not so
hard that they stick.
A great deal of hard rubber is used in the
construction of the switch just described
and since it is rather expensive some may be
tempted to use fibre. Fibre is all well and
good for small induction coils and trans-
formers but when used on a switch in con-
nection with the powerful coil and trans-
former to be described later, is worthless.
The author in his experiments first used
fibre, and one rainy day when things were
damp, the fibre yoke became slightly con-
ductive and a brush discharge between the
blades of the switch commenced. The
transmitting was continued but in a short
time the fibre became so carbonized that
almost all of the energy passed across. A
hard rubber yoke was substituted with the
result that the base began to leak and soon
burned out and so was discarded in favor of
the rubber. The conducting layer, spoken
of in connection with aerial insulators is
due to smoke and the action of the atmos-
phere and does not form on the rubber when
it is used for instrument insulation
about the operating room.
INDUCTION COIL
Reference has been made previously to
the charging of the aerial but without ex-
plaining definitely how it is accomplished.
In small "untuned" outfits, the secondary
terminals of an induction coil are connected
one to the antenna and the other to the
earth. The spark gap is also bridged across
the secondary terminals. This arrange-
ment is the one presumed in the explanation
of the generation of electrical waves, but is
worthless for long distance work. The usual
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
157
method is to employ the induction coil to
charge a condenser. The condenser in dis-
charging produces an oscillatory discharge
which passes through a large coil of heavy
wire called a transmitting helix and acting
at once as a transformer to impress the
oscillations on the aerial and also as a vari-
able inductance to "tune" the circuits
with.
Choice lies between the induction coil
and two types of transformer known re-
spectively as the "open" and "close" core
depending on whether or not the magnetic cir-
cuit is metallically complete. Since the in-
duction coil may be operated on batteries
it is more commonly used and will be the
most suitable in the average station.
An induction coil in its simplest form con-
sists of two or three layers of insulated wire
wound around an iron core and surrounded by
a winding composed of many thousand turns
of very carefully insulated fine wire. The
two windings are known respectively as the
primary and secondary. When an inter-
rupted direct current is sent through the
primary, a magnetic field is established in
the neighborhood of the coil. The lines of
force in this magnetic field cut the secondary
coil, and, being of a constantly changing value
because of the fluctuations of the primary
current, they induce a current in the sec-
ondary. Since the same number of lines of
force are generated and destroyed with
every "make" and "break" of the primary
current, the electromotive impulses in the
secondary are equal. But by means of a
"condenser" shunted across the interrupter
the current at "make" requires more time
to grow than to die away at "break," which
latter, in fact, is practically instantaneous.
The induced electromotive force at "break"
while not lasting so long as that at "make"
is much greater in intensity and is sufficient
to pass through the air as a spark.
CORE
The first consideration in building a coil
is the selection and preparation of the iron
wire which is to form the core. In order to
promote rapid changes in the magnetic field
it is never solid but is built up of a large
number of soft iron wires. Since a high
degree of magnetization is to be produced,
the iron must possess a great degree of per-
meability and Nonvegian iron will be found
to be very suitable in this respect. It
is considerable of a task to cut the wires
for the core of a large induction coil and so
if the wires are purchased already cut,
much labor may be saved.
The wire is annealed by placing it in an
iron pipe and plugging the ends with clay.
The pipe and its contents are then laid in
a coal fire where the whole mass will come
to an even red heat slowly. The fire is
then permitted gradually to die out and the
pipe and wires left in the ashes until cool.
When cold the wires are removed from
the pipe and each one separately rubbed
with emery paper until bright. After
brightening they are dipped in hot water,
wiped dry, and dipped in a thin solution of
shellac and allowed to dry.
The wires are brightened in order to re-
move the rust and scale which adheres to
them and lowers the proportionate amount
of iron it is possible to place in a given core.
The wires may be straightened by rolling
them one at a time between two boards.
The core of the coil in question should
be 25 inches long and three inches in diame-
ter. The wires are No. 8 B. and S. gauge.
After forming into a perfect cylinder in
which all the wires are parallel, the core is
wrapped with two or three layers of well
varnished linen.
The primary is wound over the linen and
is composed of three layers of No. 10 B. &
S. gauge, double cotton covered magnet
wire as indicated in Fig. 18. There is no
advantage in carrying the primary the full
length of the core and so it begins and ends
about i\ inches from the ends.
FIG
COMPLETED CORE AND PRIMARY
An insulating tube is placed over the pri-
mary to separate it from the secondary. It
is formed of four layers of hard sheet rubber
1 -16 of an inch thick and 23 inches long.
The rubber may be softened by steaming
and then wrapped directly around the pri-
mary or around a form of the same
diameter and slipped over the primary
afterwards. The overlapping edges, that is
the beginning and finishing edges should be
beveled with a file and cemented.
(To be continued.)
The Collins Wireless Telephone
The following descriptic ~\ of the Collins
wireless telephone system is fairly complete
with regard to the sending apparatus.
The receptor comprises a thermo-electric
FIG. I. COLLINS' REVOLVING OSCILLATION
ARC LAMP
detector the full details of which cannot be
given out at the present time.
The transmitting apparatus in its entirety
includes a Collins revolving oscillation arc
lamp, Fig. i ; a high frequency and high
potential variable tuning inductance trans-
former, Fig. 2; an adjustable tuning auto-
transformer, and the usual revolving variable
condenser. These separate devices are de-
signed to withstand potentials of 5,000
volts or more. Fig. 3 shows the scheme of
connections, and Fig. 4 is a general view of
the apparatus in use.
The initial current is at a pressure of 500
volts direct. This was raised to 5,000 volts
in the case of transmission between Newark
and Philadelphia, though a pressure of 2,500
volts is generally used, produced by a motor-
generator set. The latter high-voltage cur-
rent is used to operate the revolving oscilla-
tion arc lamp, which is an improvement on
those previously employed.
The lamp proper consists of a pair of
hard carbon disk electrodes, and these are
mounted on parallel spindles so that they
are in the same plane, and are connected by
means of bevel gears secured to an insulated
shaft. The disks are insulated from each
FIG.
2. TUNING INDUCTANCE TRANS-
FORMER
FIG. 3. SCHEME OF CONNECTIONS
other by mica bushings fitted in the gearing,
the casing forming one of the connections,
while the insulated bearing in the bottom
of the casing forms the other.
The gearing is so arranged that the disk
electrodes are rotated in opposite directions,
the power being furnished by a small motor.
One of the bearings of the shaft is mounted
in a keyed sleeve, which permits the spindle
carrying one of the carbon disks to be moved
toward or away from the opposite disk, so
that the length of the arc may be varied
while the lamp is in operation. The carbon
electrodes are placed in a metal casing, while
the rotating mechanism is attached to the
bottom of the casing. In the long-distance
test between Newark and Philadelphia hy-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
159
FIG. 4. MR. COLLINS AND HIS WIRELESS TELEPHONE
drogen was used, but for short distances the
arc burns in an air blast.
The rotating oscillation arc obviates the
disadvantages of the stationary arc, in that
a constantly fresh, cool surface is presented
to the arc, preventing uneven burning away
of the electrodes which gives rise to distur-
bances in the oscillations.
As in all arc type telephones the principle
embodies the burning of a direct current
arc. There is in addition a secondary cir-
cuit, including the telephone transmitter, by
means of which another current, fluctuating
with the voice waves, is also impressed upon
the arc, in this case through a trans-
former. These fluctuations imposed upon
the arc circuit affect the arc and likewise
the oscillating circuit which is connected
across it to send out the oscillatory waves
from the aerial.
The chief improvement in the combina-
tion tuning inductance transformer used by
Collins is that a new and novel means of
contact is introduced, whereby any variation
of the inductance can be had, and in tuning
a wireless telephone transmitter this is
vitally necessary. The contact is made by
a ring provided with three small grooved
pulleys, which press against the turns of the
tubing forming the primary. Having a
spiral form, this coil causes the ring,
when it is rotated, to travel back and forth.
The secondary is arranged to slide in or
out of the primary, making a loose coupling,
which is another essential in the production
of high-frequency undamped oscillations.
The transmitter is of the carbon granule
type, but of special design. It is formed of
two oppositely disposed diaphragms with
the granules between them, so that the voice
impulses cause them to vibrate against
each other, thus increasing the amplitude as
compared with a single diaphragm trans-
mitter.
The longest distance covered by the sys-
tem was 81 miles, between Mr. Collins' lab-
ratory in Newark, N. J., and the Land Title
Building in Philadelphia.
Protective Device for Wireless
Apparatus
In the winter the experimenter need have
little fear of lightning or "static," but as
summer approaches he begins to think of
thunderstorms and their effect on his ap-
paratus. This is especially true of the be-
ginner in the art, who is often led to abandon
his hopes of setting up his own station, on
account of supposed danger from lightning.
No particular danger should arise, however,
if the apparatus is suitably protected.
160
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Lightning in general may be considered
to be composed of many small charges of
atmospheric electricity which have been
united into one large charge. These small
charges are not in themselves dangerous to
wireless instruments. Their elimination by
discharges to trees, clouds, and other ob-
jects, is never noticed,
except by wireless opera-
tors, for the amount of
energy in each is small
and the discharges are
not perceptible either to
the eye or the ear. The
wireless operator, however,
can hear these discharges
in the summer, and some-
times in the winter, as
clicks in his telephone re-
ceivers, and he calls them
"static."
Just before [a thunder-
storm the air is filled with
these small charges. They
gradually unite, forming one large charge.
When the large charge approaches suffi-
ciently near to any object, such as a cloud
having an opposite charge, or a pole or a
tree on the earth, the energy stored in the
charge appears as lightning, and if this
energy should use an aerial system as a
means of escaping to the earth, it would
melt the wire and cause considerable dam-
age, since a large quantity of heat would be
developed.
A good solution of the problem is a means
of eliminating all the small charges near
the aerial as soon as they are formed, and
thus to prevent the formation of a large and
dangerous charge. The device used is a
single pole double throw porcelain base
switch, connected as shown in the drawing.
The switch is perferably mounted outside
the house on a window sill, or in some con-
venient dry place. A wire connected to
one of the spring clips of the switch leads
to the instruments in the house. The other
is connected to an outside ground-. The use
of a gas or water pipe is not recommended
for this purpose, for the idea is to keep the
high tension charges wholly outside the
building. An iron or brass pipe driven six
or eight feet into the ground will do very-
well. The wire leading from the switch
to the ground should not be smaller than
No. 8. The switch blade is connected to
the aerial.
When the apparatus is in use, the aerial is
connected to the instruments. At all other
times the aerial should be connected to the
ground by throwing the blade of the switch
to the other position.
As the small charges form, they are con-
ducted by the aerial to the ground. The
To Aeri<r/
To Outside
C
I Bl
Qrovid
>
Itl^trutriefi fe-
SWITCH TO GROUND AERIAL DURING STORMS
aerial is then acting as a lightning rod.
The wireless experimenter should be care-
ful to always ground the aerial when it is
not in use, and he will not be troubled by
lightning. The writer has used this device
for nearly four years, and lightning has
never caused him annoyance during this
time.
Eiffel Tower Wireless Station
Everybody knows of the Eiffel tower, the
ornament of Paris and the pride of the
Parisian. This tower, iooo feet high, is
being used for the purpose of supporting
the largest wireless antennae ever set up,
the wires being about 1500 feet in length.
Six aerial wires spread harp-like toward the
park below. Each antenna is calculated
to stand a pull of nearly 15,000 pounds at
the same time being insulated well enough
to stand a tension of over a million volts.
To insulate perfectly each aerial wire under
this enormous mechanical stress and swayed
by strong winds is a great problem in itself.
The ground wires are buried under the
foundations which again are lower than the
level of the Seine river. These grounds
cover nearly 2000 square feet.
All the instruments are underground.
There is enough space to accommodate all
the instruments sending and receiving sepa-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
161
rately. There are also rooms for the offi-
cers and about 20 soldiers as well.
The capacity of this station is about 75
kilowatts. Storage batteries of sufficient ca-
pacity are always kept charged for times of
emergency. Transformers are ordinarily
used, however, capable of stepping up the
voltage to as high as 110,000 volts.
There are Leyden jars in the condenser
equipment, and they constitute the most
EIFFEL TOWER AND WIRELESS ANTENNAE
powerful condenser battery ever set up.
A direct voltage of 110,000 volts maximum
is introduced.
The loss of energy in the whole system is
almost eliminated owing to the perfect in-
sulation from all ground. The arrangement
of the anchors of each aerial wire is remark-
able in this respect. In some places the
antennae would have needed to be anchored
right in the streets of traffic. This difficulty
was overcome by erecting pillars of concrete
into which the wire ends were fastened in
such a way as not to form any angle, insuring
against breakage. Where the wire finds its
end in the midst of the park it is fastened to
a concrete foundation.
Unfortunately the late flood which caused
millions of dollars of damages in Paris also
entered into the new underground compart-
ments, submerging the machinery, and the
sulphuric acid of the storage battery by no
means improved the insulation of the ma-
chines and transformers. But in a few
months the station will be in complete
working condition.
The engineers take it for granted that
they will be able to control all the French
colonies in Africa as well as communicate
with America. At the same time it has been
asserted that with the Eiffel tower station
all the steamers will remain in touch with
Europe until they arrive in the States, and
those traveling east to China and Japan,
the Indies, etc., will remain in communica-
tion until they get the signals from the Cali-
fornia!5] coast stations.
Emile Ruegg.
That Night at Chester
Editor, Popular Electricity:
Referring to article, "Suggestions for
Aerials," by Mr. E. H. Waits, in edition
April, 1910, I would like to inform him that
the station he heard at Chester, Pa., one
night last November was in a sense hardly
an "amateur" station, as most stations
operated by other than government or com-
mercial operators are generally called. It
was the U. S. Scout Cruiser, "Chester,"
sending, and at the time which the con-
versation quoted was sent was working
with the Navy Station at Fire Island, N. Y.
I remember the night distinctly as I had
just made some changes in my receiving
set here and was listening for some of the
battleships which were to assemble in
Hampton Roads in a few days. The rea-
son I am so positive that it was the "Chester"
we both heard is that I heard her call-letter
(at that time "C-V") when she signed off,
very plainly, as well as the sign of the
operator whom I knew. The "Chester"
was invited to Chester, Pa., for some cele-
bration of some kind, I do not know exactly
what, but the crew of the "Chester" Were
all "shown a good time" to quote from the
wireless.
The "Patuxent" is a large sea-going
navy tug with a small wireless equipment
and only one operator, who incidentally
looks out for all the electrical equipment of
162
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the ship. On this particular night we were
at Norfolk, Va., and all the stations, ship
and shore, heard the "Chester." There
was no static and it was a good night for
wireless.
The "Chester's" transmitter is a five
kilowatt, Shoemaker set, and they have done
good work with it.
I did not see the February number of
Popular Electricity, but would be glad
to correspond with Mr. Waits if he will
drop a card to J. L. Allen, Elec. ist class
U. S. S. "Patuxent" care of Postmaster,
New York.
Jerome Allen.
U. S. S. Patuxent, April 9, 1910.
The "Pyron" Detector
The "pyron" detector is one of the latest
of the mineral or crystal type of detector.
The active material used in this detector
is iron pyrites, or "fool's gold," as it is some-
times called. This is a sulphide of iron,
chemically designated as FeS2, which is
a natural compound occurring in nature in
(M) may be made from copper or brass,
about 1-32 inch thick. A slot £ inch wide
and f inch long is cut or punched in (M),
or a hole \ inch in diameter will serve the
purpose if the slot cannot- be made by the
builder. (M) passes under a binding post
formed from battery binding posts as shown.
This arrangement allows the cup to be
moved readily, so that different portions of
the surface of (F) may be brought under the
point of screw (G).
The standards (A) and (C) are made from
square brass rod, \ inch wide. Both these
standards are drilled and tapped at each
end for an 8-32 thread, and a hole \ inch
in diameter is also drilled through (C) at
(X). A hole is drilled and tapped for the
8-32 thread of a thumb-screw (T).
The strip (D) may have a thickness of
1-16 inch, and may be made of phosphor
bronze, brass or copper. Of these three
materials phosphor bronze is the best for
this purpose. The screw (G) has an 8-32
thread, and a lock nut as shown. The ver-
tical movement of (D) is regulated by means
of the hard rubber disk (S), which moves
up or down the threaded brass rod (J) as
CONSTRUCTION OF THE "PYRON DETECTOR
large quantities, both in the massive con-
dition, and in bright cubical crystals. Either
a fragment or a crystal will serve our pur-
pose. The size of the piece is not impor-
tant, but may conveniently be about \ inch
square.
In the drawings (F) represents the piece
of iron pyrites, which should be so selected
and placed in the brass cup (E) that the
exposed surface is clean and bright. (F)
is held in (E) by means of solder or some al-
loy of low melting point. Cup (E) is fastened
to a metal strip (M) by means of a flat
headed machine screw or by solder. Strip
it is revolved. (W) is a metal washer. (J)
should be soldered into the standard (A).
It will be found that the iron pyrites has
a few very sensitive points, and when the
point of (G) rests on one of these points the
detector gives very good results in long
distance work. A certain pressure of (G)
on (F) gives best results, and this pressure
is varied by revolving disk (S). Mr.
Pickard, who developed the Pyron de-
tector, states that when the detector is
properly adjusted, it is the most efficient
of the rectifying type known to him, for
comparatively short distance work. It is
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
163
practically unaffected by "static" or at- be short circuited while the operator is
mospheric discharges, and by the trans- sending.
mitting apparatus, and therefore it need not A. B. Cole
Spark Coil Dimensions
A large part of the questions asked by amateurs relate to the dimensions and windings
of spark coils. Below is printed a table giving exact information on all the essential parts
of the coil. It was compiled by an expert in coil construction and represents the best
practice at present in the construction of coils for wireless work. Those who are building
coils should study this table carefully. Also those who have built coils which do not give
the results expected had better see that the dimensions and windings in general correspond
to those here given.
Size of
Coil
£-inch
^-inch
1-inch
2-inch
3-inch
4-inch
5-inch
6-inch
8-inch
10-inch
A
5|-in.
5£-in.
5 J -in.
7-in.
8-in.
8|-in.
94-in.
10- in.
14-in.
24-in.
B
i-in.
i-in.
i-in.
i-in.
f-in.
1-in.
1-in.
lj-in.
lj-in.
3-in.
C
Cardboard
Tube
Cardboard Tube
and
Empire Cloth
Tube 1-16 in.
2 layers cloth
Empire Cloth
D
1-16 in.
2 layers
3 layers
4 layers
E
No. 20
No. 20
No. 18
No. 16
No. 16
No. 16
No. 16
No. 14
No. 14
No. 12
F
225
225
170
184
208
232
256
214
320
400
G
Empire Cloth
M i c a n i t e
H
4 layers
6 layers
8 layers
i-in.
i-in.
i in.
L
No. 38
No. 36 Enameled
No. 28
Enamel
J
3 oz.
4 oz.
I lb.
1 lb.
14 lbs
2 lbs.
3 lbs.
5 lbs.
8 lbs.
12 lbs.
K
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
4
8
16
L
If in.
If in.
If in.
2£ in.
3 in.
4 in.
4J in.
5 in.
8 in.
11 in.
M
4J in.
4} in.
4i in.
5| in.
6 in.
6 in.
6 in.
6J in.
7 in.
12 in.
N
250
300
800
1400
2000
2500
3800
G000
8500
10,500
A — Length of Core.
B — Diameter of Core.
C — Kind of Insulation on Core.
D — Thickness of Insulation on Core.
E— Size (B. & S.) Primary Wire. (D. C. C.)
F — Number Turns Primary Wire.
G — Kind of Insulating Tube.
Note: These coils use a medium speed vibrator.
H — Thickness Insulating Tube.
I— Size (B. & S.) Secondary Wire.
J — No. Pounds Secondary Wire.
K — No. Sections in Secondary.
L — Approximate Diameter, Secondary.
M — Distance between Coil Heads.
N — Total Number sq. in. of Foil in Condenser.
164
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
WIRELESS QUERIES
Answered by A. B. Cole
Questions sent in to this department must
comply with the same requirements that are
specified in the case of the questions and
answers on general electrical subjects. See
"Questions and Answers" department.
Potentiometer and Tuning Coil
Questions. — (A) Is a core of wood suitable for
a potentiometer? (B) How much German silver
wire and what size would I need for a potentiometer
having a core three inches in diameter and seven
inches long ? (C) Would a pasteboard roll do for
the core ? (D) How much No. 28 D. C. C. wire
would I need for a tuning coil 3x12 inches? — T.
R. S., Cohasset, Mass.
Answers. — (A) Yes.
(B) About four ounces of No. 24 single
silk covered 18 percent German Silver will
give you 100 ohms on such a core.
(C) Yes.
(D) About 600 feet or six ounces.
Receiving Radius; Wave Length; Tuning Coil
Questions. — (A) Over what distance can a 10
K. W. commercial station be heard by a station
having an aerial 40 feet long and 50 feet high, a
single slide tuner, fixed and variable condensers,
silicon detector and one 1000-ohm receiver? (B)
What is the wave length of a tuner six inches in
diameter, 12 inches long wound with No. 24 enam-
eled wire? (C) Give dimensions of a tuner to
catch a message of 1800 meters wave length, same
to have a core six inches in diameter and using No.
24 enameled wire? — A. H., Lexington, Ky.
Answers. — (A) About 800 miles under
ordinary conditions, over water.
(B) About 8000 meters.
(C) Length about four inches, other di-
mensions as you give them.
Aerial Wires for Two Inch Coil; Relay with
Precision Coherers
Questions. — (A) Which is the better for all-
around work, a two or four wire aerial? (B)
What length will work best with a two inch coil?
(C) Should one use a high or low resistance relay
with precision coherers ? (D) Are relays used on
telegraph lines simply for resistance or to enable
one to use fewer batteries? — J. M. S., Rudolph,
Ohio.
Answers. — (A) A four wire aerial.
(B) Four parallel wires, each 50 feet
long, all connected together at each end,
give very good results.
(C) A relay of from 150 to 300 ohms
works well.
(D) A relay of high resistance has a
winding of fine wire on the magnets. By
using wire of small diameter, and conse-
quently high resistance, many turns are ob-
tained on a magnet of given size. For this
reason a current of less intensity is required
to operate the relay. Therefore the use of
a high resistance relay on a telegraph line
requires less battery than a low resistance
relay of similar construction.
Wireless Telephone
Questions. — (A) In the wireless telephone de-
scribed in the April issue are the ends of the core
wires in the impedance coil pushed up to meet each
other or is a space left, and how much space, if
any? (B) Could the core be made of one con-
tinuous wire ? (C) How long should the fiber be
upon which the wire for the choke coil is wound?
(D) Will cardboard or rolled asbestos do for a
substitute for the fiber tube? (E) What kind of
a condenser is used and please give data for its
construction? — P. E., Minneapolis, Minn.
Answers. — (A) The ends of the core
wires of the impedance coil should meet.
(B) Yes.
(C) About four inches.
(D) Either will do, but asbestos is
better.
(E) The condenser should be of the ad-
justable type, and may consist of 25 glass
plates, each 5 by 7 inches, coated with tin
foil sheets 3J by 5I inches. The exact
capacity used will depend largely on the
aerial, but the above condenser will have a
sufficient maximum capacity for most ama-
teur aerials.
Wireless Telephone
Questions. — (A) Give diagram and dimensions
of choke coil and impedance coil for wireless tele-
phone. (B) Also specify condenser for above.
(C) If a key is inserted in the wireless telephone
circuit will the equipment work as a wireless tele-
graph for a distance of two miles? (D) Could a
chemical converter for changing no volts A. C.
to D. C. be used for the arc of the above appa-
ratus.— L. F. M., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
Answers. — (A) and (B) See answer to
P. E. in this issue, also article on "A Simple
Wireless Telephone Set" in the April, 1910,
issue.
(C) Yes.
(D) The rectified current as supplied by
a chemical converter cannot be used, since
the action of the arc in producing high fre-
quency oscillations requires a direct current
of constant intensity. The chemical con-
verter produces a direct current which is
pulsating, that is, varies in intensity many
times per second.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWEUSI
Use of this department is free to readers of Popular Electricity, but atten-
tion will not be given to questions which do not comply with the follow-
ing rules: All questions must be written in the form of a letter addressed
to the Questions and Answers Department and containing nothing for
the other departments of the magazine; two-cent stamp must be enclosed
for answer by mail, for space will not permit of printing all answers;
the full name and address of the writer must be given.
Elevator Signaling System
Question. — Will you please explain the operation
of the ordinary elevator signal system using red
and white lights at the various floors. — A. H.,
Chicago.
Answer.- — The diagram in general of
such a system is here given. Current is
supplied at no or 220 volts to a 1-4 H. P.
motor-generator (26) on the high voltage
side (20) of the machine, the mains being
ELEVATOR SIGNAL SYSTEM
connected to the switch (22). Current at
10 volts from the low voltage side (19), is
used to operate the push buttons and mag-
nets through one blade of switch (23). By
closing switch (22), starting the motor
generator and closing switch (23), the high
voltage is thrown on to light the "up" and
"down" lamps on the floors. The wiring
for one car is shown. The upper magnets
and mercury cup (4) control the "up"
light when the "up" button (1) is pushed
on any floor. The lower set of magnets
control the "down" light when the down
button is pushed. At the right of the dia-
gram are brass studs (5) to (14) mounted
on slate and connected to the light and mag-
net circuits. This panel and those for the
other elevators is situated at the top of the
shaft in some convenient place. To each
car mechanism in this system is connected a
chain gear which through a worm gear
causes a contractor to slide over studs (5)
to (14) opening and clos-
ing circuits at the proper
time as the car goes up or
down the shaft. Some-
thing of the operation
may be understood by
tracing out a signal.
If a person on the third
floor wishes to go up he
pushes the "up" side of
button (1). The current
then finds a path from
(19) through snap switch
(25), to (1), thence to
magnet (2), pulling its
armature and allowing the
armature on (3) to drop,
plunging the needle at its
end into the mercury cup
(4) which closes the no-
volt circuit up to (8);
then, as the traveling con-
tactor attached to the driving mechanism of
the car bridges across (8) and (9) the cir-
cuit is completed, for the floor signal light
(15) and the car operator's light (17), the
contactor being adjusted to throw on the
lights two or three floors from the floor at
which the car should stop. When the car
passes the third floor the contactor opens
the floor light and signal circuit which es-
tablishes a circuit from (26) to magnet (3)
up to studs (6) (5), through (18) back to
(23), thus energizing magnet (3) and raising
166
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the needle out of the mercury and resetting
the magnets (2) (3) in their normal position.
In case a car is loaded, the operator may
transfer his signal to the next car by press-
ing push button (18) on his car, which
opens the circuit and allows the magnet
controlling the needle to be de-energized,
thus holding the signal for the following car.
The Automatic Telephone; Resistance Coil for
Arc Light
Questions. — (A) Explain the operation of the
automatic telephone. (B) How many feet and
what size B. & S. gauge iron wire should be used
as a resistance coil for a 35-40 amp., 110-v., hand
feed arc lamp ? — J. P. D., Newark, O.
Answers. — (A) Consider a 100 line ex-
change. Each telephone is connected through
the line wires with a machine having a
vertical shaft, which can be raised, lowered
and rotated. This shaft carries a set of
contact springs or wipers. Connection is
made through the wipers with contact lugs
connected to each of the other telephones or
machines. These lugs are arranged in ten
banks of ten each ; each bank is semi-circular,
and one bank is above another. Each tele-
phone has a separate machine and each of
the hundred telephones is "multipled" in
each machine in these contact lugs. In
calling a telephone, say number 75, a sub-
scriber moves a disk on his telephone to
number seven and lets go. This sends seven
impulses over one side of his line and ground
to the machine. These impulses operate an
electro-magnet which raises the vertical
shaft and contact wipers to the seventh bank
of lugs. The subscriber then moves the
disk to number five and lets go. This sends
five impulses over the other side of the line,
which operates another magnet which ro-
tates the wipers to the fifth lug in the seventh
bank. This makes contact with lugs 75
which are multipled through to telephone
75. The subscriber then rings by pressing
a button on his telephone. When through
talking each subscriber hangs up and this
automatically restores the machine wipers,
etc., to zero position. Provision is made for
busy signals and central energy. Exchanges
of over 100 subscribers are arranged in
groups of 100 machines each and provision
is made for automatic trunkings between
the groups.
(B) You will need about 176 'feet of No.
12 iron wire, or you can use 95 feet of No. 14
iron wire.
Receiver in Series With Buzzer
Questions. — (A) Can a telephone receiver work
in series with a buzzer so that the receiver will buzz
when a wireless signal is coming in ? (B) Will the
winding need to be taken from the receiver so that it
will not have more than 4 ohms resistance, or that
of the buzzer, or will it work with 75 ohms resistance
by increasing the resistance of the buzzer? —
H. M. K.
Answers. — (A) We know of no way to do
this.
(B) Either way will do if you wish to
operate the receiver and the buzzer in
series, but you will get a sound in the re-
ceiver several hundred times as strong as
that produced by a distant wireless station.
Charging Leyden Jars; Telephone Magnetos;
Wet Batteries vs. Dry Batteries
Questions. — (A) Name some of the simplest
ways to charge a Leyden jar. Can it be charged
by means of an electrified comb or glass rod? (B)
Would a telephone magneto run as a synchronous
motor with the current from another magneto?
(C) With what size wire should I rewind my four
bar telephone magnetos to get twelve volts ? (D)
Is it better to use a sal ammoniac battery for ex-
perimental purposes than to use a dry battery
when sal ammoniac sells for 13 cents per pound? —
O. M., Moline, Mich.
Answers. — (A) The simplest and best way
to charge a jar is by means of a glass plate
static machine. It can be charged by
means of an electrophorus or electrified
rods as you suggest, but the results will be
disappointing. A jar can often be heavily
charged by holding the knob near a moving
belt.
(B) No. The magnetizing current pro-
duced by the generator would not be suffi-
cient to affect the motor.
(C) The voltage depends on the number
of turns, not in the size of the wire. Take
off the wire now on the armature, counting
the number of turns as you do so, and
rewind with about one-sixth the number of
turns, using as large a wire as possible
so as to obtain the greatest current capacity;
or divide the wire now on the armature into
six equal lengths, lay the six wires together
and twist the ends together, making elec-
trically one wire of six times the cross sec-
tion, and rewind the armature as though
the six wires were one. Magnetos vary so
much as to voltage and capacity, it is im-
possible to give better directions from your
description.
(D) Dry batteries are never better than
wet batteries except as a convenience. You
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
167
can always renew the parts of a wet battery,
hence, irrespective of price, you will find
the wet battery better for. experimental
purposes. You will find other batteries,
such as the bichromate, still better than the
sal ammoniac for experiments.
Quadruple x Telegraphy
Question. — Please show diagram and explain
the principle of quadruplex telegraphy.
Answer. — The principle may be under-
stood from the diagram, in which (PC)
is a pole-changer, (K) a key, (R) a Morse
relay and (PR) a polarized relay. With
the key (K) in its present position only a
part of the battery is available. This cur-
rent is sufficient to operate (PR) when the
4HIM
Bn-r.
QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPH
pole-changer key is worked, but is not
strong enough to cause the armature of (R)
to respond. When both (R) and (PR) are
to receive at the same time, key (K) as well
as key (PC) is used. Key (K) sending full
battery current through (R) makes the
armature of (R) a receiver of the message
sent by (K).
Commutating Pole Motor
Question. — What is a commutating pole motor ? —
M. R. H.s Austin, Texas.
Answer. — A commutating pole motor is
one in which commutating poles are placed
between the main field poles and are wound
with insulated copper wire or strip con-
nected in series with the armature circuit
so that the proper proportion of the main
current flows through the auxiliary field
coils around the commutating poles. The
main field is usually wound with a shunt
winding, but it may have also a compound
or series winding when service conditions
require.
The function of the commutating poles
is to produce a magnetic field of such an in-
tensity as properly to reverse the current in
the armature coils short circuited during
commutation, the brushes remaining in a
fixed position. The detrimental effect of
the armature reaction which ordinarily pro-
duces sparking at the commutator is thereby
avoided and sparkless commutation is in-
sured at all loads within the speed ranges
specified, as the strength of the auxiliary
field is always proportional to the load and
independent of the main field. Further,
these poles are reversible in action, enabling
motors to be run equally well in either direc-
tion. By the addition of commutating
poles, therefore, motors can be operated at
a higher output and a greater speed range,
thereby reducing the size of machines for
the same horse-power, and at the same time
enabling larger overloads to be carried for
short periods.
Direction of Current in a Cell; Polarization
Questions. — (A) In the different kinds of cells
does the current flow from the positive to the nega-
tive element, or does it flow from the negative to
the positive? (B) What is the meaning of polari-
zation?— B. S. P., Jasper, Ala.
Answers. — (A) In a simple cell the plates,
the liquid and the connecting wires from
one plate to the other form the electric cir-
cuit. Much confusion results from not
clearly understanding what is meant by the
terms here explained. Assuming a cell
with a zinc and a copper plate immersed
in dilute sulphuric acid. The wire con-
nected to the copper plate is called the posi-
tive electrode, and the other the negative.
The copper plate itself is called the negative
plate, and the zinc the positive plate. When
the ends of the wires connected to the plates
are joined the electric circuit is completed
and current flows from the zinc plate through
the electrolyte to the copper plate and from
the copper plate through the wire to the
zinc. For further information see page 275
of the September, 1909 issue.
(B) In the cell just mentioned the con-
dition may be represented in chemical terms
before the circuit is closed by the following*
Zn I H2SO4 I H2SO4 _ I Cu
Zinc I Sulphuric Acid | Sulphuric Acid | Copper
After the circuit has been closed for a
time the following represents the condition:
ZnSC»4 I H2SO4 I H2 I Cu
Zinc Sulphate [ Sulphuric Acid j Hydrogen | Copper
The hydrogen collects on the copper plate
forming a resistance, and the bubbles allow
little of the surface of the copper to come
in contact with the electrolyte. The current
falls off and polarization has taken place.
Notes on the Law of Patent Titles
By OBED C. BILLMAN, LL. B., M. P: L.
Patent-Right Notes. — A valid patent,
without regard to its pecuniary value, is a
sufficient consideration for a promissory
note. But a note given for a patent which
proves to be void is without consideration,
and cannot be enforced. So also such note
may be avoided for breach of warranty or
upon proof of false and fraudulent repre-
sentations by the assignor, as where the as-
signor falsely represents that he is the
owner of the right sold, or that a patent had
been obtained-. In a suit on a note for a
patent the questions whether there was
fraud or warranty in the sale, and, if either,
what was the value of the right sold, are
for the jury.
Statutory Regulation of Patent-Right Notes.
— In several states it is provided by statute
that notes given for patent rights shall con-
tain the words "given for a patent right."
5. The right to an invention not yet
patented, or the inchoate right to obtain a
patent or an extension or renewal, may be
assigned so as to pass an equitable title to
the assignee. The statute provided that
patents may be granted and issued or re-
issued to the assignee of the inventor or dis-
coverer, the assignment being first entered
of record in the patent office.
Co-tenancy Created by Assignment. — The
assignment of an undivided interest in a
patent right constitutes the assignee a joint
' owner or tenant in common with the as-
signor.
6. Agreement to Assign. — An agreement,
either before or after the issuance of a
patent, to assign the patent, or an interest
therein, is valid, and will be specially
enforced in equity in a proper case. A con-
tract by an inventor, to assign to an assignee
of his invention all future improvements
which he may make thereon, is valid and
not contrary to public policy. It seems,
however, that an agreement to assign in
gross the product of all one's future labors
as an inventor is void. It is immaterial
whether the agreement is in writing or not.
Such agreements are not within the statute
of frauds, nor within the provision of the
statute that patents shall be assignable by
an instrument in writing, and need not be
recorded.
7. Cancellation and Recission of Assign-
ment's.— An assignment or contract for the
sale of a patent or interest therein may be
rescinded or cancelled for fraud. So, also,
an assignment may be cancelled by mutual
agreement, and the cancellation and de-
struction of an unrecorded assignment by
agreement of the parties reinvests the title
in the assignor, without a formal reassign-
ment to him. A contract of assignment
will not be rescinded at the suit of the as-
signor without an allegation of fraud or
offer to return the consideration, or other
ground justifying equitable interposition.
What Passes by Assignment. In Gen-
eral.— In general, an assignment of an in-
vention or patent, or interest therein, will
pass only the specific right, title, or interest
described in the conveyance.
Extensions and Renewals. — An assign-
ment of a patent carries the right for the
original term only, unless the instrument of
assignment contains words indicating an in-
tention to convey the right to an extension
or renewal also, in which case such right
will pass. Such conveyance becomes opera-
tive upon the grant of the extension.
Improvements. — The same rule applies to
improvements as to extensions. An assign-
ment of the patent does not of itself pass the
right to future improvements, but may be
made to do so by the use of apt words.
But in order to have this effect it must
plainly appear from the language used that
such was the intention of both parties. An
assignment of future improvements on a
particular machine will not convey any in-
terest in a future patent for a machine radi-
cally different though having the same
object.
An Assignment of an Improvement con-
veys no right to the original patent.
Right to Sue for Past Infringement. — A
mere assignment of a patent does not carry
the right to sue for past infringements.
But such right is assignable and will pass
when expressly included in the conveyance.
A claim for profits and damages for past in-
fringement cannot be assigned separately
from the patent, since this would give a right
of action for such claim in disregard of the
statute.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
169
Record Unnecessary. — An assignment of
the right to sue for past infringements need
not be recorded.
Assignment Conveying only Assignor's
Interest. — An assignment not purporting to
convey all the right, title and interest granted
by the letters patent, but only the right,
title, and interest of the assignor, passes only
such right, title, and interest, as he has at
the time, and if he has previously parted
with some interest, such interest will not be
affected by the assignment although the first
transfer may not have been recorded. The
form of the assignment in such case is suf-
ficient to charge the second assignee with
notice of the prior unrecorded assignment.
Such an assignment is not a mere release or
quitclaim of the assignor's interest, and
implies that a patent has been issued in
due form. But it does not import a warranty
by the assignor that he conveys all the rights
under the letters patent.
Warranty of Validity of Patent. — It has
been held that on an assignment of a patent
there is no implied warranty of its validity
nor utility. On the other hand it is well
settled that the invalidity of the patent is a
good defense to an action for the purchase
price or on a note given therefor.
Electro-magnetic Ironing Board
Using magnetic attraction to produce and
vary the pressure of the iron upon cloth or
other material being pressed is the subject
of a patent issued to E. St. Clair Clayton,
Baltimore, Md. The ironing board con-
sists of a magnet wound with a coil of wire
with the pole ends dovetailed into each
other but having air spaces between. A
thin board of wood or non-magnetic material
is laid on the magnet surface and upon this
the usual cloth. By connecting the mag-
net coil to the circuit through a foot switch
and resistance the current around the mag-
net may be varied at will, thus increasing or
decreasing the downward pressure of the
iron on the goods, making a light iron do
the work of a heavy one and relieving the
operator from lifting a heavy iron.
Tuning Fork for Ear Treatment
Isidor Miiller of Vienna, Austria-Hun-
gary, is the inventor of an electrical device
for vibrating the auditory nerve. It con-
sists of an electrical tuning fork which is
made to vibrate by a small electro-magnet.
TUNING FORK FOR EAR TREATMENT
It has a projection which is pushed tightly
into the ear passage and when the current
is turned on, the air in the ear passage, the
tympanum and the skuJ itself is set into
vibration which vibrations are communi-
cated to the auditory nerves and brain cen-
ter. It is used for the purpose of clinical
examination and for treatment of diseases
of the ear.
Grora section*] rie« of the magnet Foot control switch
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC IRONING BOARD
Training Baseball Pitchers
The illustration shows a patented device
of Harry E. Hire, Mark Center, Ohio,
which is to be used as a training equipment
170
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
TRAINING BASE-BALL PITCHERS
for pitchers in the outdoor game of base-
ball. The screen at the back represents
the grandstand and catcher. At the proper
distance in front of it is placed a figure
representing the player at bat. The home-
plate is provided and just behind it a padded
frame which is called the " umpire." Balls
thrown by the pitcher if passing over the
home-plate as they should will ring a bell,
the circuit of which is closed when the ball
strikes the umpire.
Aging and Curing Tobacco
Green tobacco must be subjected to a
treatment of dry, warm air before if is ready
for consumers. The cut shows leaves of
green tobacco hung in an enclosure on racks
AGING AND CURING TOBACCO
ready for curing by a patented process. At
the corners near the bottom are electric
heating coils for keeping the temperature at
approximately ioo°F. Ventilation is pro-
vided at the sides and top. "Modified"
air used in the process is made by passing
air through a flaming arc and into the en-
closure. The air so treated contains nitro-
gen peroxide. From 24 to 96 hours com-
pletes the treatment. S. G. Martin, W. O.
Bartholomew, and E. Schaaf of Chicago,
St. Louis, and St. Marys, Mo., respec-
tively, are the patentees.
?BOOK REVIEWS
The Motion Picture. Its Making and Its
Theatre. By David S. Hulfish, Chicago:
Electricity Magazine Corporation. 1909. 144
pages with 23 illustrations. Price, paper, 50
cents; cloth, $1.00.
The desire of the public to know some-
thing about the production of the moving
picture and the chance by theatre owners
to profit from the experience of others is
accorded in this volume. The book con-
sists of two parts, the first being devoted to
describing how moving pictures are made,
and written in a way to be interesting to
the average reader. The second part gives
to the theatre owner and operator informa-
tion on an infinite number of problems that
are sure to arise. Although the book is
largely a compilation of the author's answers
to questions by machine operators, by theatre
managers, and by the public, yet much
additional matter has been put into this form
to make the treatise complete.
Practical Handbook of Medical Electricity.
By Herbert Mcintosh, A. M., M. D. Boston:
Therapeutic Publishing Company. 1909. 498
pages with 200 illustrations.
Electricity is becoming more and more
recognized as having a definite and estab-
lished place in the practice of medicine.
When rightly used by an ethical member
of the profession it is a great aid not only
in diagnosis but as a valuable assistant to
established methods of treatment, and in
some cases as a specific treatment. This
work is calculated to give the physician as
much as he will be required to know about
the theories and laws of electricity and how
to apply it in his practice.
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS
■••'■■-;-■■ ■■■■■■.,■■, .-mi — ..--..-...■ v.-.- •/. ;.»^, ■.■■.-,. -v . •■. .■....■■■ ./.,,..■ , . ■■ • . , ,■
Millions of people in this
Why Don't country today make use of
You Use electric current in one form
Electricity or another; from the house-
holder with a single porch
light to the largest railroad systems, the
greatest factories, the deepest mines. In
between these extremes there are also other
millions whose homes, stores, factories and
shops have never been equipped with the
wires which bring about better and more eco-
nomical conditions. This, for various reasons,
which in the general run turn out to be not
reasons at all but simply lack of understand-
ing of the real benefits and economies to be
derived by the use of electricity. Of course
electricity as an applied force is still com-
paratively young, and it takes time for any-
thing to grow. If all were to suddenly
wake up to its advantages at once and de-
mand current the central stations and the
manufacturers would be tied up in a terrible
tangle trying to fill the demand. Still,
without bringing about such a chaotic state
of affairs, the consumption of current would
be, tremendously increased if only those who
are just wavering on the dividing line were
to make up their minds in favor of the
modern way of doing things.
It would be interesting to know just why
those who do not use current in their homes
and places of business have not taken the
step which tends toward their own better-
ment in every way; what answer they would
give to the question: Why don't you use
electricity? If sufficient answers to this
question could be obtained from people in
all walks of life and in all localities some
very interesting data would be available
and possibly some valuable conclusions
might be drawn.
It is presumed that all who are readers
of Popular Electricity are users of elec-
tricity in one way or another. But you
know people who are not, and we would
like to have you put that question to some
of them and give us their answers. Some
may think it too expensive, others may be
afraid of it, others again may not have cen-
tral station service available and do not know
how to obtain current in any other way.
But no matter what the answers may be
they will have a value in the data we wish
to collect, and we will appreciate your
services in helping to obtain it. Simply
ask a non-user why he doesn't use electricity
and give us his answer together with the
nature of his business (whether he is a house-
holder, storekeeper, dentist, manufacturer
or what not). Also any other information
which might have a bearing, such as the price
of electricity and of gas in that locality,
whether fuel is plentiful or scarce.
The more of these answers we can get the
better, and we feel that we can depend on
our readers to help obtain them.
Still Trim
Lamps
One is reminded of the old quotation:
"Water, water everywhere, but not a drop
drink," when contemplating
the curious state of affairs in
Palermo, Cal. This town,
which has two railroads pass-
ing through it and is not out
of the world by any means, is decades be-
hind in electrical development, and although
thousands and thousands of horsepower of
electrical energy pass through it, the in-
habitants cannot use the current and are
worrying along with the old fashioned
kerosene lamp. The housewife, looking
through her window, can see the tower of
the Great Western Power Company's plant
where 150,000 horsepower of electrical
energy is developed. In other directions
can be seen the plants of the Pacific Gas
and Electric Company and the Oro Water,
Light and Power Company with thousands
of horsepower more. Some of the trans-
mission lines from these plants pass through
the town, yet the women must trim the
primitive lamps in the morning for approach-
ing darkness.
However, the townspeople look for better
things, and in the near future their homes
will in all probability be lighted by electri-
city from a substation.
SHORT CIRCUITS
One of the officials of the Midland railway, com-
ing from Glen wood Springs recently, was telling a
young woman on the train how wonderfully productive
Colorado's irrigated ground is.
"Really," he explained, "it's so rich that girls who
walk on it have big feet. It just simply makes their
feet grow."
"Huh," was the young woman's rejoinder, "some
of the Colorado men must have been going around
walking on their heads."
rounds, he stopped at one of the mains in a busy street
to turn off the water, owing to some repairs. He had
just put the handle on the tap and begun turning,
when a hand was placed on his shoulder. Looking
around, he was confronted by a tipsy gentleman, who
exclaimed solemnly:
' So I have found you at last, have I? It's you
that's turning the street around, is it?"
"Yis, Mrs. Muggins, Pat and Oi part to mate no
more. Oi wint to the hospital to ax afther him.
'Oi want to see me husband,' sez Oi; 'the man that
got bio wed up.' 'Yez can't,' sez the docther, 'he's
unther the inflooenyce of Ann Esthetics.' 'Oi don't
know the lady,' sez Oi, mighty dignified loike, 'but if
me lawful wedded husband can act loike that whin
he's at death's door, Oi'll have a divorce from him I' "
A few days after a farmer had sold a pig to a neigh-
bor he chanced to pass the neighbor's place, where
he saw their little boy sitting on the edge of the pig-
pen watching its new occupant.
"How'd d'ye do, Johnny," said he; "how's your
pig today?"
"Oh, pretty well, thank you," replied the boy.
'How's all your folks?"
Customer: I look upon you, Sir, as a robber.
Courteous Solicitor: You are privileged to look
upon me in any character you choose to assume.
"What did you do, James, when Edward called you
a liar?" asked the teacher.
"I remembered what you said, that 'A soft answer
turneth away wrath,'" replied James.
"Good boy. What soft answer did you make?"
queried the interested teacher.
"Why, I hit him with a rotten tomato," said James.
"Is that you, dear?" said a young husband over the
telephone. "I just called up to say that I'm afraid
I won't be able to get home to dinner tonight, as I
am detained at the office."
"You poor dear," answered the wife sympatheti-
cally. "I don't wonder. I don't see how you manage
to get anything done at all with that orchestra play-
ing in your office. Good-by."
A Washington woman has in her employ as butler
a darky of a pompous and satisfied mien who not long
ago permitted a chocolate-colored damsel, long his
ardent admirer, to become his spouse.
On one occasion when the mistress of the house had
occasion temporarily to avail herself of the services of
the butler's wife, it was observed that whenever the
duties of the two brought them in conjunction the
bride's eyes would shine with extraordinary devotion.
"Your wife seems wonderfully attached to you,
George," casually observed the mistress of the house.
' Yes, ma'am," answered George complacently.
"Ain't it jest sickenin'?"
One winter's evening, in "The City of Churches"
(Brooklyn), when a water inspector was going his
A rather seedy looking man hurried excitedly from
the rear coach into the one ahead. "Has anyone got
any whisky?" he shrilly inquired. "A lady back
there has fainted."
Half a dozen flasks were offered instantly. Seizing
one, he looked at it critically, uncorked it, put it to
his lips, and took a long, lingering pull.
"Ah!" he exclaimed, with gusto, "I feel better now.
Seeing a woman faint always did upset me."
The teacher had been telling the class about the
rhinoceros family. "Now, name some things," said
she, "that are very dangerous to get near to, and
that have horns."
"Automobiles!" replied little Jennie Jones, promptly.
"Fountain pens," snapped the wife, "remind me,
Horace, of some husbands."
"Why?" responded the meek little man.
"Expensive, can't be depended on, won't work, and
half the time they're broken!" she snorted.
"That's pretty rough, Marial" bleated Horace.
"I call it most 'unkind, in fact. Really! But you
couldn't compare a fountain pen with some women."
"Of course not!"
"No, Maria. You see, a fountain pen will dry up,
and some wives won't."
Mrs. X (away from home) — John, did you leave out
anything for the cat before you started?
Mr. X (who dislikes the beast) — Yes ; I left a can of
condensedmilk on the table, with the can opener be-
side it.
* * *
A little girl fell out of bed during the night. After
her mother had picked her up and pacified her, she
asked her how she happened to fall out. The child
replied: "I went to sleep too near the place where I
went in."
The Night School of the Future
ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED
In this age of electricity everyone should be versed in its phraseology.
By studying this page from month to month a working knowledge
of the most commonly employed electrical terms may be obtained.
Annealing. — Heating iron used for electro-
magnets and allowing it to cool gradually increases
the magnetic conductivity. This process when
done by passing an electric current through the
material is termed electric annealing.
Annunciator. — A magnet and drop arranged
to indicate, by the latter, when the circuit, nor-
mally open, is closed. Used on passenger eleva-
tors to give notice to operator of passenger waiting;
in hotel offices; on automatic alarms; telephone
switchboards, etc.
Anode. — Applied to the plate in an electroplating
bath from which particles of metal are carried for
deposition upon the article to be electroplated.
Also the positive plate in an ordinary battery, the
positive plate being the one to which the negative
terminal of the outside circuit is attached. Also
the positive terminal in an X-ray tube.
Anion. — The electronegative element or radical
of a molecule, such as oxygen. It is the portion
which go to the anode in electrolytic decompo-
sition.
Answering Jack. — The termination of a sub-
scribers' line in a telephone switchboard panel into
which the operator plugs when answering the call.
The subscriber's line terminates in only one
answering jack located in one of the switchboard
panels.
Arc. — An electric arc is produced by placing the
ends of two electrodes near enough to each other
to allow the voltage to force current across the re-
sistance of the air gap, these electrodes forming
the terminals of an electric circuit. This arc pro-
duces the most intense heat known.
Arc Lamp. — An electric lamp producing light
by means of the arc formed between its electrodes.
These electrodes are ordinarily of carbon, sometimes
one is of metal, however, as in the magnetite arc
lamp, sometimes also the carbons have special
cores as in the flaming arc. Arc lamps are also of
the open and enclosed types, in the latter the arc
burning in a globe from which the 1
air is nearly all excluded. Generally I
represented in a circuit drawing *>
thus: I
Areometer. — A glass tube enlarged and weighted
at the bottom and having a scale marked on the
upper portion for measuring the specific gravity of
a fluid. In a light liquid this tube will float deeper
than in a heavy one, the specific gravity being read
directly from the scale. Used in caring for battery
solutions.
Armature. — The part of a dynamo or motor
which revolves between the pole pieces. It con-
sists of an iron core (usually laminated) on which
are wound a large number of turns of insulated
wire. These coils of wire cut the lines of force be-
tween the magnet poles and, in a dynamo, generate
electric current. In a motor the lines of force
react upon the wires of the armature and give the
latter a rotating movement thus converting electric
energy into mechanical motion. In some few ma-
chines the armature is stationary and the fields
revolve. The term is also applied to the bar or
mass of iron or steel designed to be acted upon by
a permanent magnet, as a nail placed across the
poles of a horseshoe magnet when laid away.
Armature, Disk. — An armature in which the
coils are wound so as to be flat and carried on the
face of a disk forming the core.
Armature, Drum. — An armature which takes
the form of a drum or cylinder, the armature wires
being wound on its surface or in slots below the
surface.
Armature, Ring. — Armature whose core is in
the shape of a ring.
Armature Coil. — One of the coils wound on
the armature core in a dynamo or motor.
Armature Core. — The mass of iron upon which
the armature coils are wound.
Armature Reactions. — When a dynamo is do-
ing work the current in the armature coils sets up
a magnetic field in addition to that produced by
the field poles. The effect of these two fields upon
each other together with the rotation of the arma-
ture results in armature reaction which may show
itself in several forms, such as: eddy currents and
heating, cross magnetization of the armature,
sparking at the brushes, tendency of the armature
current to demagnetize on account of the lead of
the brushes (see Angle of Lead), changing of the
place (see Neutral Point) wdiere the brushes best
take current from the commutator.
Armature Slots. — Slots in the surface of an
armature core in which the windings are placed.
Armature Stampings. — Thin pieces of soft
sheet iron stamped out to the form of the cross-
section of the armature core. They are then piled
one above the other to build up the core, forming
what are called the laminations. They are pressed
together under hydraulic pressure and mounted
on the armature shaft.
Armature Windings. — The coils of wire wound
on the surface or in the slots of an armature. In
the larger machines these sometimes take the form
of copper bars.
Astatic Galvanometer. — A galvanometer
equipped with an astatic needle. (See Astatic
Needle.)
Astatic Needle. — Two magnetic needles sus-
pended parallel and near each other with opposite
poles adjacent and in the same plane. So arranged,
they are practically unaffected by the earth's mag-
netism and will remain pointed in any direction.
This fact is made use of by surrounding one needle
by a coil of wire leaving the other outside. A very-
feeble current passed through this coil will produce
a strong deflection of the needles, the principle being
made use of in the astatic galvanometer.
A. W. G. — An abbreviation for "American Wire
Guage."
B. S. G. — An abbreviation for "British Standard
Gauge."
B. and S. W. G. — An abbreviation for "Brown
and Sharp's Wire Gauge."
Popular Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
HENRY WALTER YOUNG. Editor
Vol. Ill
July, 1910
No. 3
CONTENTS
Page
INTERESTING GLIMPSES OF KELVIN. By T.
C. Martin 175
GOVERNMENTAL TESTS OF OFFICE DEVICES.
By Waldon Fawcett 178
The Progressive Chinee . . . . ; 183
CURRENT FROM— WHERE? By Edgar Franklin 184
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY. CHAPTER 27.
By Prof. Edwin J. Houston 191
Are Dynamos Understood? 195
THE NON-MAGNETIC YACHT CARNEGIE 196
ELECTRICAL SECURITIES. By "Contango" 199
High Speeds and Signals 201
A "Magic Mirror" , 201
TALKS WITH THE JUDGE 202
SOME RAILWAYS OF FRANCE AND NORWAY 203
Episodes in Electrical Inventions 206
Graveyard of the Atlantic 206
WHERE ELECTRICITY STANDS IN THE PRAC-
TICE OF MEDICINE. CHAPTER 7. By
Noble M. Eberhart 207
SPEED AND PLEASURE WITH ELECTRIC
BOATS 211
FIRST ELECTRICALLY PROPELLED BAL-
LOON 212
Recorders on Berlin Cars 213
Tunnel from Sweden to Denmark 213
Brilliant Flaming Arcs 214
Who Will "Invest" Him? 215
Electric Traction on Bavarian Roads 215
The Montefiore Prize 215
Under-running Trolleys of Paris. By Emile Ruegg 216
Testing Copper-clad Steel Wire 217
Batteries Large and Small 217
The Electric Semaphore 218
Three Centuries of Electric Bells 218
Insulating Materials ■ 219
Tungsten Lights Up First 219
It Sparks Under Water 220
Return to Battery Lamps 220
Ornamental Pendant Pushes 220
Hiding the Lamps 221
Electricity from the River Jordan 221
Old Coffee Roaster Resurrected 221
Instrument to Detect Gas Leakage 221
AUTHENTICITY OF STATUARY DETERMINED
BY X-RAY. By Dr. Alfred Gradenwitz . . 222
The New York and Paris Subways 223
The Work of the Crane 224
Power of Electric Locomotives 224
Line Construction in Elfland 225
Electric Engines on Italian Roads 225
First Wireless Telephone 226
Tungsten Not a New Metal .' 226
Electric Soldering Iron 227
Electric Stove and Toaster 228
The Door-bell Circuit 228
How to Make a Warming Pan 229
Wiring Through Joists 229
Pocket Wire Gauge 229
Results of Imperfect Wiring. By George Rice 230
Protecting Lead Cables 231
Telephone Magnets in the Making 232
Electric Crane in the Foundry 235
The Making of Ozone 235
Color Changing Fountain 236
Electric House Pump 236
To Indicate Propeller Speeds 237
Rail-cutting Saw 237
Ignition Trouble Finder 237
Multi-indicator Switch 238
Waking the Servants 238
A Low-voltage Transformer 238
ELECTRICAL MEN OF THE TIMES— T. Commer-
ford Martin 239
The American Electric Girl 240
THE LETTERS OF A BACHELOR GIRL. By R.
Gracelyn Everett 241
Heating in the Future 244
Planning Home Illumination 244
A NEW GAME. BY "SPARKS" 245
AN ELECTRICAL LABORATORY FOR TWEN-
TY-FIVE DOLLARS. PART 7. By David
P. Morrison 247
Electric Clocks as Time Keepers 252
Determination of Wave Length 253
TRANSMISSION OF PHOTOGRAPHS BY WIRE-
LESS 254
HIGH POWER WIRELESS EQUIPMENT. PART
3. By Alfred P. Morgan 255
Effect of Sunlight on Transmission 260
Newspaper Establishes Wireless Station 260
Rockland County (N. Y.) Wireless Association 260
Safeguarding Airships by Wireless 260
Wi.t-less From Coast to Coast 260
Sending and Receiving Radii 261
Wireless Queries 261
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 263-264
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS (N. E. L. A. CON-
VENTION) 265
SHORT CIRCUITS 268
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED 270
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Entered as Second Class Matter April 14, 1908, at the Post Office at Chicag-o. Under Act of March S, 1879.
Copyright 1910 by Popular Electricity Publishing Co.
By Courtesy of the MacNHlan Compan y
rn Plain English
VOL. Ill
JULY 1910
No. 3
Interesting Glimpses of Kelvin
By T. COMMERFORD MARTIN
Two interesting books have just been
given to the world dealing with the career
and character of the late Lord Kelvin, so
much better known to the world as Sir
William Thomson, that a distinguished
European savant once wrote indignantly to
London to inquire who the man Kelvin
was that had the audacity to claim so many
of the things done by Thomson. It is one
of the misfortunes of the English peerage
system that many great men are thus made
to lead a kind of " double life" in history; for
after a few hundred years it is difficult to
remember to whom the changed appellations
belong. In Kelvin's case, however, al-
though it might have been better if in be-
coming ennobled as was his great German
friend, he had like Helmholtz retained his
own surname, it does not seem likely that
the world will readily forget the greatest
scientist of his century and the great father
of the submarine cable art.
One of these biographies is by Prof.
Silvanus Thompson and is worthy the pe-
rusal of any student of physics. The other
is "Lord Kelvin's Early Home," being
chiefly the simple, unaffected but very charm-
ing reminiscences of his sister, the late Mrs.
Elizabeth King, throwing vivid flashes of
light upon the youth of the great scientist.
As the son of a professor of no mean attain-
ment, it was not unnatural that William
Thomson should have manifested precocity
and even genius. Mention is made of the
after-dinner study of the globes in the pro-
fessor's home, and of arithmetic. " William
was scarcely four when he began to take
some part in these cheerful after-dinner
lessons, and from the very first be showed
the wonderful mental capacity with which
he was endowed." A little prodigy is
sometimes a little prig, but it is pleasant to
learn that Thomson was very natural as
well as intellectual, and there is one amusing
story of the mere infant being found one day
seated before a looking glass and remarking
complacently to himself: "P'itty blue eyes
Willie Thomson got!" There is much in
the two books to show that Thomson was,
in fact, one of the marvels of the time in
his astounding precocity, very much like
the mathematical genius that has of late
been enjoying the applause of the pundits
of Harvard. In 1834, when only ten, he
is described as working upon electrical ap-
paratus, and shortly after that he entered
the University of Glasgow as a student.
Within a year he had won two prizes and
by the time he was twelve secured another
prize for translating Lucian's brilliant sat-
ires: "Dialogues of The Gods," and for
parsing completely the first three dialogues.
Imagine a Japanese boy of twelve doing
the same with three of Skakespeare's plays,
and we form a relative idea of the feat.
People began to get interested. When he
was fifteen Thomson was a prize man in
natural philosophy, and a year later had
the class prize in astronomy, and a university
medal for an essay on "The Figure of The
Earth." Taking a trip to Germany with
his father, he smuggles into his box a cele-
brated French book on heat, and at Frank-
fort goes surreptitiously down to the cellar
to read it, for fear his father might object.
At seventeen he goes up to Cambridge Uni-
176
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
versity, and soon begins to contribute to its
"Mathematical Journal," his articles plac-
ing him in line with the greatest mathema-
ticians and physicists of the period. Gradu-
ating with highest honors at twenty-one, he
becomes professor at Glasgow in natural phil-
osophy at twenty-two, and gets into touch with
Helmholtz, Faraday and the other intel-
jjy Vourtzsy of the MacMUlan company
lectual leaders of the day. All this was cer-
tainly "going some," and he kept up the
pace not only through the fifty years of his
notable professorship but up to the very
time of his death in 1907. He wrote and
delivered during that fruitful life some 300
papers, addresses, etc., on all the great
physical questions, particularly those re-
INTERESTING GLIMPSES OF KELVIN
177
lating to the nature of the solar system and
to electricity and magnetism — many of them
of the first importance. He was engaged in
controversy meanwhile with such men as
Huxley, but always held his own, and a
little more. Added to this were his numer-
ous inventions and his great conquest of
the science and art of submarine telegraphy.
Westminster Abbey contains the remains
of many great English worthies; but cer-
tainly no finer genius is there enshrined than
Kelvin.
Prof. Thompson devotes wisely a large
part of his biography to the story of the
Atlantic cable. It is ever fresh and exciting,
and as here narrated the part of the plain
college professor in pushing to success the
daring plans of Cyrus Field and his asso-
ciates is seen to be of the most vital nature.
In 1855, telegraphy on land was not very
far advanced, and in this country still
awaited the touch of Edison, then only eight
years old. Even when the pioneers were
able to get laid their primitive cables, they
did not know how to work them. The
popular plan was to jam into them all the
current that could be got from big batteries
and strong induction coils; and if dynamos
had been handy in those days they would
assuredly have been hitched on to furnish
even heavier doses. No wonder the fragile
cables gave up the ghost ! William Thomson
was the homeopathist who showed that deli-
cate currents too weak for human sensation
would do the work, and the cables were
saved. There was endless research and
invention in all this, but not satisfied he
brought in two kinds of instruments to re-
cord the "talking." His mirror galvan-
ometer gave the pulsing signals in little
flashes of light; and then he supplemented
that with the siphon recorder which writes
the message out on tape in tiny hills and
valleys that the expert operator reads at
a glance. These two wonderful advances
made the art practicable, helped bring into
being the extensive modern cable systems of
the world, and incidentally made a number
of millionaires, of whom Sir William him-
self was deservedly one.
He who did this was able to appreciate
all the more such inventions as Edison's
incandescent lamp, Bell's telephone, West-
inghouse's air brake — and he did. Every
visit to this country was a source of inspira-
tion to him, and he loved to take back with
him some new example of American in-
genuity. He was deeply interested, more-
over, in the utilization of Niagara, and was
stout in defense of those who, believing in
the conservation policy discovered much
later by President Roosevelt, did their best
to prevent such waste of needed energy from
going on for ever.
There are many human touches in Prof.
Thompson's handsome volumes. Kelvin is
shown as fond of music, and as playing the
cornet in the college band. He took up
rowing at Cambridge for the exercise, and
won the silver sculls. When he got money
at last, he indulged his taste for sailing and
bought a staunch seagoing yacht, the "Lalla
Rookh," which in the long summer vacation
he would navigate himself, turning it into
a floating laboratory, and sometimes leaving
his guests to flop around on the wet decks by
themselves when he happened in a hurry to
note some wave effect or think out some
formula and would take a hurried header
down below to record it in one of his ever-
lasting little green note books. With re-
gard" to the work he did in his mariner's
compass, finding the position of a ship at
sea, the nature of the tides, etc., Prof.
Thompson quotes the following incident
related to him: "I don't know," said a sailor
in the distant seas of the East, "who this
Thomson may be, but every sailor ought to
pray for him every night."
Many of the stories and incidents refer
to Kelvin's work as a teacher. He appears
to have been a great teacher, but not in the
strict pedagogic sense. He was not exactly
ideal for the handling of large clasess, but
was a great intellectual stimulus to the stu-
dents who could appreciate what he was
driving at and who were willing to follow
up his line of thought and experiment. His
consumption of chalk at the blackboard was
enormous, in working out the equations, but
he did insist on proving all things and loved
to take a share himself. Helmholtz tells
how " Thomson's experiment did for my
new hat." — The eager investigator threw a
metal disk into rotation and hit it with a
hammer, treatment which the disk resented
so much that it flew in one direction while
the iron foot on which it was revolving went
off in another, ripping up the savant's hat
and pretty nearly braining him. Another
amusing picture is that of the Paris Electrical
Congress of 1881 where there was mani-
fested a strong feeling in favor of abandoning
the British Association's unit of resistance,
178
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the ohm, in favor of Siemens's unit, the col-
umn of mercury, one meter long. "The
debate grew warm. One who was present
has narrated the unforgettable scene of
comedy of Thomson and Helmholtz dis-
puting hotly in French which each pro-
nounced more suo, to the edification of the
representatives of other nationalities." It
may be noted in passing that his house was
the first in Scotland to be lighted by elec-
tricity. Altogether in these books we en-
joy a splendid and vivid picture of a great
genius, and of the greatest electrician in
England for at least fifty years.
Governmental Test of Office Devices
By WALDON FAWCETT
There has recently been held under the
auspices of the national government at
Washington, D. C, a unique test and de-
monstration of no little significance to the
electrical interests of the country. This
event which was conducted by Federal
officials acting wholly disinterestedly in the
cause of general progress, consisted, primari-
ly, of an exhibit of labor-saving devices
suitable for office work and was held in
the Treasury Building. There were more
than 70 different exhibits, many of them of
most elaborate character.
Participating in this practical " try-out"
of modern office aids and business equipment
were not only all the well-known firms manu-
facturing such utilities but many inventors
and newcomers among electricians and
manufacturers who presented novelties of
recent inception. Moreover, the magnet
NEW MODEL ADDRESSOGRAPH
POSTAGE STAMP PERFORATOR
of prospective heavy government contracts
served to induce the first public demonstra-
tions of a number of mechanical and elec-
trical marvels which have never been ex-
ploited at any of the "business shows" or
electrical expositions held in our larger
cities of late years. The contemplation of
new business, as mentioned, was due to the
fact that this whole exhibition was planned
as means to the end of modernizing the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
179
FLEXOTYPE FOR DUPLICATING TYPEWRITTEN SHEETS
equipment of our government offices. Heads
of bureaus, chiefs of divisions, and in fact
all officers and clerks of the various depart- ,
ments in Washington and Uncle Sam's
"branch offices" throughout the country
were invited to familiarize themselves with
the devices shown and to make recommen-
dations for the adoption of any that might
seem to give promise of promoting economy
or efficiency.
A number of circumstances and consid-
erations rendered notable and significant
this new departure on the part of the govern-
ment. However, probably the most im-
pressive object lesson afforded by this com-
petition concerned the rapid and tremendous
growth of the use of electricity for power
purposes of all kinds, in the up-to-date
business office. Reference is not made,
of course, to the indispensables such as elec-
tric lights, electric fans, electric elevators,
etc. All such are established institutions,
although improvements are continually mak-
ing their appearance. Rather does the newer
development contemplate the displacing of
hand power by electricity in all the functions
of recording dictation, writing letters, re-
producing typewriting, folding letters and
circulars, addressing and sealing envelopes,
and all the other functions of office routine.
With examples of the various classes of
machines, shown at the Treasury, in opera-
tion in a well-fitted office, very little human
brawn will be required to dispatch business,
and to do it, too, in far less space than
would be required under the old methods.
Persons who have kept at all in touch with
the trend of the times have noted in recent
years the strong tendency to have electricity
supplant all other forms of power as the
universal source of energy for office activi-
ties in all branches of the work-a-day world.
What has not been generally appreciated,
however, even by electricians themselves
is that there is no field where this new func-
tion of electricity has been so welcome or
where it finds such boundless opportunities
awaiting it as in the government offices.
For one thing Uncle Sam has plenty of elec-
tricity and to spare — manufacturing his own
current for most of his big business estab-
lishments at the seat of government— and
consequently there is never any question
regarding available current. Secondly, the
national government has need of electrical
helpers in the discharge of office routine
180
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
SHOWING THE SENDING AND RECEIVING PARTS OF THE TELAUTOGRAPH
because Uncle Sam does business . on so
much larger scale than the average private
institution. With upward of 30,000 em-
ployees (in Washington alone) to be kept
constantly in touch with one another; with
dozens of different mailing lists, some of
them containing as high as 50,000 names
to be handled daily or weekly, and with other
chores of corresponding proportions it goes
without saying that the central government
needs something much speedier than hand
labor if desks are to be kept cleared for
action.
Consequently the government officials who
planned the recent exhibition of office ap-
pliances rather specialized on electrical
toilers. No charge was made, of course,
for exhibit space and electric current at
no volts or 220 volts direct was furnished
free to all exhibitors who would make use
of it. Many of the new inventions or new
models of old appliances which were dis-
played were designed especially for electrical
operation but equally interesting were the
object lessons afforded as to what may be
accomplished by harnessing the magic cur-
rent to equipment, such as some of the smal-
ler desk devices, which until a few years
ago Avere never thought of as adapted to
other than hand power manipulation.
A distinctive feature of the governmental
demonstration as reflecting electrical prog-
ress was the evidence of the advantages of
"electric drive" for all manner of type-
writer reproducing, manifolding and office
printing outfits, indexing and addressing
machines, etc. Only a few years ago this
important new class of time-saving and
labor-saving office equipment provided for
nothing but hand operation. Now all the
new models of such machines, as shown for
the .first time at the Treasury display, are
motor driven, motors ranging in power from
I to 1 -1 6 horsepower being employed in a
majority of instances.
DICTATING TO THE DICTAPHONE
Electrical operation, combined with auto-
matic feed, also made practicable through
the introduction of electrical power, has
enabled great increases in the speed and con-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
181
sequently in the capacity of machines of
this class. For instance a new model ad-
dressograph, equipped with automatic en-
velope and card feed, which was tested at
the Treasury, maintained a speed of two
addresses per second for " runs" of consider-
able length. This machine fed envelopes
and cards ranging all the way from five to
like notices which must be selected for
printing according to date. Under the new
scheme all the cards or stencils are put into
the magazine of the machine and the appa-
ratus set in operation, whereupon this won-
derful toiler automatically picks out the
cards that should be printed and allows the
others to go through without making any
impressions. This auto-
matic selection is accom-
plished by means of dif-
ferent notches on the
frames of the cards or
stencils which cause them
to be separated accord-
ing to months or by any
other system of classifica-
tion desired.
10 inches, in their greatest
dimension, with uniformly
satisfactory results, the
adjustments for the dif-
ferent sizes and weights
being made on an aver-
age of less than on minute
for each such change.
An interesting feature was
the evidence afforded that the shape
of the flap on an envelope did not
affect the successful operation of the ma-
chine, the envelopes in this new model not
being carried to the printing position by the
flap. The electrical feed mechanism in this
machine is rotary in its movement.
Some of the newly perfected motor-driven
rapid addressing machines which were
"tried out" before the government officials
featured not only an automatic envelope
feed but also an automatic wrapper cutter
attachment, actuated by electricity. That
electrical operation has been reduced to a
perfect stage is eloquently proven by the
fact that machines of this type are being
used nowadays for sending out premium
notices to insurance policy holders and other
TALKING INTO THE DICTOGRAPH
Worthy co-workers of the new and im-
proved patterns of addressing and mailing
machines are the electrical letter folding
machines and the electric envelope sealing
machines. The former are especially mar-
velous in their well-nigh human capabilities.
The new electrically operated folders de-
monstrated at the government test, and each
operated by a motor of one-sixteenth horse-
power, attested their ability to fold letters,
bulletins and other printed or typewritten
documents in note, letter and legal sizes
into standard folds for large and small size
envelopes. Tests were made on thin,
medium, heavy, smooth and rough papers.
Sheets are fed automatically, folded singly
and stacked consecutively ready for inser-
182
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
be run at a better gait, with evenness and
uniformity of operation, than would be pos-
sible with hand power and, furthermore,
power operation combined with the safe-
guard above described makes practicable
two-handed feeding. As high as 8000
letters per hour were printed by one of these
machines under test. Even these improve-
ments will be overshadowed a few weeks
hence when an electrically operated auto-
matic paper feed is to be introduced for use
in conjunction with such machines. It will
feed from the bottom of an eight-inch stack
of paper and this new operation, alike to
all the others involved in the action of the
machine, will be carried out by the power
tion into the envelopes and at a speed about
eight times as fast as experts can fold by
hand.
No class of office equipment has been the
subject during recent years of such speciali-
zation as that embracing the various forms
of printing, manifolding and duplicating
apparatus for reproducing typewriting, etc.
Uncle Sam has been a powerful incentive
to the development of this class of apparatus
because one or another of these office ad-
juncts are used for the production of all
the governmental form letters, bulletins,
etc., that are not issued from a regular print-
ing press. A few years ago in all govern-
mental offices, as in all private business es-
tablishments, there were
to be seen nothing but the
hand-operated machines of
this class, and in many a
Federal office two, three
or even four men gave up
practically their entire time
to the work involved.
Now a long step forward
has been taken with the
introduction of the elec-
trically operated duplica-
tors, and the recent educa-
tional event in Washing-
ton witnessed the suc-
cessful conduct of motor-
driven mimeographs, writ- PROTECT
er presses, printographs and all the other
members of this large family.
It has long been recognized that motor
drive if introduced successfully would con-
tribute tremendously to the economy of office
printing and duplicating apparatus. The
trouble has been in many of the attempts
made in this direction that infallibility of
feeding could not be depended upon and any
slip-up in this respect spelled disaster. The
best of operators would skip a sheet occa-
sionally and when the cylinder of the ma-
chine turned without a sheet feeding the
imprint would be received on the platen and
each succeeding sheet blurred or offset on
the back, requiring the cleaning of the platen.
With the latest type of machines, however —
for instance, the motor-driven flexotype —
the machine automatically detects the fail-
ure of the operator to feed the sheet and
instantly lowers the platen in time to pre-
vent the offset.
Electrical operation has meant greater
speed because a duplicating apparatus can
furnished from a one-eighth horsepower
motor, operating on either direct or alternat-
ing current.
The government demonstration embraced
another modern invention for the reproduc-
tion of writing but of a character widely
dissimilar to those above mentioned. This
is the telautograph, an electrical device
which enables the transmission instantane-
ously to a distance of handwriting of any
kind. The equipment of the station as
installed at the United States Treasury con-
sisted of a transmitter and receiver associated
together so that messages could be either
sent to or received from the other end of
the line. The telautograph which operates
on well known and reliable electrical prin-
ciples is self-registering. It makes two
records, one for the sender and one for the
person addressed, the latter, if absent,
finding the message on his return. Two
instruments may be used for a simple pri-
vate line between two points or a number of
instruments at various points may be con-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
183
nected to a switchboard to send and re-
ceive messages in a manner similar to the
operation of telephones through a central
exchange. One transmitter may be con-
nected to operate a number of receivers
simultaneously in series, the same message
going to all, or one transmitter may be used
in connection with any one of a number of
receivers by means of a rotary or cam
switch, distributing the messages as re-
quired.
The telautograph did not, on this recent
occasion, have its first introduction to the
government officials for it has already been
adopted by the United States Army for the
coast defense artillery service and by the
Navy Department for use on the warships.
The line wires for the telautograph are in-
stalled according to the rules which are
followed in telephone line construction.
For exterior service two line wires are re-
quired between stations. For interior ser-
vice there is used a special type of instrument
that requires three wires. Operating, cur-
rent is taken from the ordinary direct cur-,
rent electric lighting mains, or if only alter-
nating current can be obtained a motor
generator is used to convert it to direct
current.
New models of electrical apparatus for
voice reproduction arid transmission had
prominent place.
Conspicuous among the number was the
new model dictaphone. This form of busi-
ness phonograph has, in its essential char-
acteristics, been familiar to the public for
some time past but the new model has a
number of improvements, among the added
features being a resistance coil enabling the
use of either direct or alternating current.
The cylinder of the new machine will run
for twelve minutes instead of only eight
minutes as formerly, and in the tests it
was demonstrated that as high as 3,300
words can be recorded upon a single
cylinder.
At the governmental event there was given
for the first time under such circumstances
a complete demonstration of the dictagraph,
the vehicle of electrical communication which
has been hailed as the successor of the tele-
phone. A master station was established
in one of the rooms in the basement of the
Treasury while at a substation in another
room some distance away sat a stenographer
who received and repeated dictation at
varying speeds.
A novelty of the display was an electrically
operated postage stamp perforator for per-
forating postage stamps with letters, nu-
merals or other marks or devices for identifi-
cation purposes — an effective preventative
of theft by dishonest employees.
^ As noted above, too, there was an illustra-
tion of the extent to which electrical operation
has lately been adopted for minor office de-
vices. For instance there is the new elec-
trically operated protectograph, the function
of which is to offer a safeguard against the
"raising" of bank checks. Electrical opera-
tion will be advantageous in large business
establishments and government offices where
great numbers of checks are prepared.
The Progressive Chinee
Hing Kee, a Chinese laundry man in the
City of New York, had been induced by the
New York Edison Company to buy an elec-
tric washing machine. After he had used
it a while he became highly enthusiastic
about it and wrote the company the follow-
ing letter.
&/$ — -m A %
w
*}
■* HI
>te ft
And here is the translation:
Dear Sirs:
My electric washing machine you make
run by electric is very good and saves me
lot of money. I have.it in over three months
and it never stops. We get more business
for we can wash quicker and cleaner.
Send me man about new electric light I
see in the stores.
Hing Kee,
204 E. 13th St.
. Chinamen are said^to be heathens. Are
they?
Current From — Where?
BY EDGAR FRANKLIN
CHAPTER V.
THE MAYOR INQUIRES
Now, there is something about a pistol
bullet, flattening little more than a foot above
one's head, which convinces the average
man that he is in the wrong — temporarily, at
any rate. Hardly anyone will stop and argue
the question with you, if you demonstrate
clearly a firm determination to allow the
passing of spring breezes through his
anatomy.
Race seemed not to differ from the aver-
age man; for he gripped Dunbar's arm
and whispered, so rapidly that the words fell
over one another:
"Don't stop! Go on! Keep low down,
Bill! He can't see! Run like the devil
when we're clear of the building!"
And Mr. Race set the example.
With the least possible commotion, he
hugged the brick wall and — travelled. Some-
times running low, sometimes ploughing
along on all fours, he cleared the wall with
Dunbar at his heels, just as a second shot
crashed out behind. Doors were opening —
they heard the creak of a shutter hinge
— the landscape just behind grew lighter for
a few seconds — and a third shot followed
them.
And they ran.
There was a barbed wire fence to expect.
They met it, head on. They found poles
and went over, monkey fashion; and without
a pause they plunged ahead through the
rough fields.
Later, when drops of perspiration were
fairly streaming behind and breath was
coming hard, luck sent them stumbling
straight into the main road at the far side
of town, and in the distance they caught
the faint twinkle of an outlying street lamp
and there, at last, they slowed to a walk
and listened.
The annoyed cluck of an awakened chicken
was the solitary sound to meet their ears;
and Race heaved a choking sigh of relief.
"Well — either we've outrun them or
they didn't chase us far," he panted.
Dunbar, leaning against a tree, could not
speak for a moment; then:
"Did you see it all too?"
"I saw it."
"I — I don't mean so much the plant it-
self. I've been expecting to find that all
.afternoon, somehow. But — did you see
how it was laid out?"
"Huh?" asked Mr. Race, as his handker-
chief started on a new mopping tour.
. "Why, he's built the place so as to leave
plenty of room for tlie stuff we've bought for
our station. Ten feet from that big unit
he's left the floor all unfinished, so that there
won't even, be any bother setting up our
engines when he gets them."
"Are you indicating that he's even getting
ready to fit our own engine beds in his in-
fernal place?"
"Certainly. It's clear as daylight, isn't
it — the whole business? Bowers has us
where he wants us. He's put up a good
spacious building. He's set up a generator
big enough to do all the lighting, at least.
He's left room to absorb our stuff and be
ready to handle the power end for two or
three years to come as well."
Mr. Race stared at the distant lamp for
nearly a minute.
"Let's go home, Bill," he said at last.
"This night air's bad for you."
On their way to business next morning,
Race left Dunbar, some two blocks from the
office, to pursue his way alone.
When the president himself put in an
appearance, it was with Mr. Keller.
Mr. Keller seemed entirely calm and un-
hurried this morning. His keen little eyes
were a trifle keener than usual as he found
a chair; his lean neck seemed more angular
as it thrust his lean face forward to an angle
of constant attention; and he patted down
his little old fashioned black tie and straight-
ened his impeccable collar.
Race dropped wearily into his own place
and sighed:
"I've told Keller the main facts."
The attorney nodded.
"As I understand it, Mr. Dunbar and
Mr. Race, you visited Bowers' new factory
at an early hour this morning — you dis-
covered it to be an electric power plant —
and while peeking through a shutter, a
watchman shot at you and you escaped."
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
185
The pair nodded. Mr. Carey lit a cigar
and sat silent.
"From what little I heard yesterday and
from what Mr. Race told me as we came
here, the conclusion seems pretty obvious.
Bowers has his plans entirely cut and dried,
to keep you out of the business until your
time limit has passed and then secure a
franchise for himself and start business in
earnest."
"But Mayor Wendell " Dunbar be-
gan.
Keller's long, keen, dry stare stopped
him.
"Upon my word of honor, gentlemen, I
know practically nothing about politics in
our city. But I presume they are much
like politics in other cities."
"Which means "
"Anything you like to have it mean,"
Keller smiled. "Now that we are, to all
intents, certain of the situation, what are
we going to do about it?"
'"Well, that's what you're here to tell us,"
Race said, vigorously.
"What do you want to do?"
"Put that Bowers plant straight out of
business."
"Naturally. Why not get a few pounds of
dynamite and make another evening call?"
smiled the lawyer. "Don't let that excit-
able nature run away with you, Mr. Race."
He settled back in his chair. "There are
laws here as elsewhere, and we'll have to
be governed by them. Now, in the very
first place, are you positive of your ability
to make good on the first of July?"
"No," said Race, frankly.
"That's -the saddest feature in the very
beginning. As to Bowers — do you know
any law that forbids him building a power
plant or a dozen of them, so long as he
remains within the law and attends to his
own business? Is there anything to pre-
vent his constructing a line of central sta-
tions from here to Jericho, so that he pays
his bills and annoys no one?"
"No. I suppose not.!'
"Take another tack. Do you want to
have a warrant issued, go back tonight with
an officer, and arrest the man?"
"There might be something in that."
"Then again, there might not. They
tell me Bowers has signs all over his proper-
ty, forbidding trespass of any sort. It is
possible, in the present condition of affairs,
that Bowers might choose to raise a time
about it. At any rate — will you gain any-
thing?"
"I presume that we'd advertise the fact
that we're worried to death, all over town!"
suggested Carey.
"Benefit to be gained thereby?"
"Hardly!" snapped Race.
"Has Bowers — or anyone else — ever inter-
fered with your lines or your equipment?"
"No. Except that armature "
"That's a matter for the railroad, I'm
afraid. You've no actual evidence that it
wasn't an accident?"
"No."
Keller leaned forward, until his thin elbow
rested on the^president's desk. -
"To call a thing a case, a Court demands
real proof, gentlemen. You haven't one
iota of that, have you? You — I — all four
of us know now just what is going on. If
we had known it all three or four months
ago — if we'd had time to get a couple of
good detectives here, to gather real evidence
and real witnesses — I'd guarantee, without
knowing one of the inside details, to give
Mr. Bowers and whoever may be his asso-
ciates and accomplices, such a thorough
airing in court that they'd seek the sea-coast
for a change of climate. And what's more,
they'd stay there."
"Well, that's the talk!" Race exclaimed.
"And it is only talk," said Keller. "It's
too late now, as I understand matters. Be-
fore we'd get a chance to have the case
heard, provided evidence walked straight
in here, June would be over. What's more,
assuming we could force our way straight
in now, all three of you would have to be
present, which would leave business here
pretty near a standstill, eh ?"
"Yes."
"And be doubtful of outcome at the best,"
concluded Mr. Keller.
For a little time, he looked over the
gloomy trio; then he arose slowly.
"Gentlemen, you believe that I have —
that I am — advising for the best interests
of this company?"
"Certainly," said its president.
"Then you have one course to travel
and only one. Deliver the goods on time
or quit good losers." He picked up his
hat. "My place is not to inquire into your
financial standing. With sufficient money
at your command, I presume you could
rush in a wholly new equipment for your
plant. Doubtless it would be expensive.
186
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Doubtless, also, it would be more expensive
to burn seven-dollar coal. But in the course
of time, we can unquestionably force these
Stelton people to a proper price."
"How long?" Carey inquired quickly.
"I have no idea whatever. They're in
a strong position, evidently, and there are
probably resources behind them.
I'm sorry. I'm sorrier than I can say. I
could snow you under with legal expenses
— to no end. Try to be cheerful. Keep
up the impression that everything is lovely,
to the last moment, if you want to, up to
the last second. But if you have to quit —
well, do it with a grin and die game," said
Mr. Keller, mournfully. "Good day."
There was no undue clatter of joyful
talk as the door closed behind.
For a minute or so, all three stared at the
floor, as if the corpse of their company lay
there at rest. Then, for the same idea was
in three heads, two pairs of eyes met Mr.
Carey's — and he shook his head sadly.
"If I were certain that it was worth the
risk — certain that we could buy coal properly
within a reasonable time — certain that, hav-
ing once started, we could go on without
incessant opposition and trouble, and eventu-
ally put the proposition on a paying basis,
however small, I would gladly raise the
money now and do it. As it is, I cannot."
Neither of the younger men spoke. When
Mr. Carey had had his say, there was nothing
to be added.
"If it appears that you have both lost all
you have put in, I shall make it up to you,"
said Carey, with a slight smile. "I was the
one who suggested the thing in the first
instance."
"We don't want you to do it!" Race
cried, almost wrathfully. "We don't want
to — to just drop out of the procession and
cry for our money back because we couldn't
keep up. We've undertaken the job of
lighting this benighted burg, and by the
living "
"Shut up!" said Dunbar politely.
"Hey?"
"More company!" announced the en-
gineer. And as he squinted at the approach-
ing pair through the glass door, he straight-
ened up with a jerk and produced a con-
tented smile that was neither more nor less
than miraculous. "I'll be drawn and
quartered if it isn't the Mayor and the
president of the microscopic Board of
Aldermen!"
The guiding spirits of the electric com-
pany were growing hardened to rapid
changes of countenance. Possibly one sec-
ond later, they were smiling and chatting;
and when the street door opened, they looked
up, surprised, and rose to greet the visitors.
Mr. Wendell, Mayor of Bronton, was a
nice little old man, with sharp little red eyes
and long white beard. He had grown up
with Bronton; he had been Chief of Police
when the town found need of a uniformed
force; except for Link, the retired miner,
he had been essentially the only candidate
at Bronton's first mayoralty election.
As for Schwartz, of the aldermanic body,
he was the biggest butcher in Bronton and
had been for years. He was a man of im-
portance, wholly out of place in any official
capacity short of the Governor's chair —
and he knew it well.
Greetings were exchanged — and the elec-
tric trio wondered actively as both exalted
visitors settled in their chairs with an air
of real business.
"We have — um — called to look things
over," Mr. Wendell set down as a fact.
"Sorter see how you're gettin' on, y'
know," supplemented Mr. Schwartz.
"You are welcome, gentlemen — certainly
very welcome indeed," beamed Mr. Race.
"Um — yes. Thanks," said the Mayor.
"Everything in proper running order, I
presume?"
"Got your lines all up in fine shape, ain't
you?" bawled the president of the Board,
with almost weird heartiness.
"Our line construction is complete all
over the city — every one of our consumers,
under yearly contract and otherwise, has
had his wiring inspected and approved —
lamps are all ready to be installed, down at
the central station. Yes!"
"Um — that central station, Mr. Race,"
the Mayor looked at him with keen interest,
"is that all ready to start up?"
"He means, could you go down there
now, light up the fires and illuminate the
city tonight!" Schwartz added.
"Essentially so — essentially so," said the
president of the company, happily. "Of
course, we couldn't precisely fulfill Mr.
Schwartz's expectations. There are always
finishing touches to be put on."
"I see." The Mayor nodded. "I sent
a man down there yesterday to look things
over, and one of your men chased him off
the place."
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
187
"We do not encourage visitors at present,
Mr. Mayor," Race laughed, airily. "We
are going to give the city a surprise — and
on the first of July and afterward, the entire
public of Bronton will be welcome to view
as perfect a central station as money and
modern methods can provide."
It sounded extremely well. The Mayor
allowed the briefest glance to wander in
the direction of his companion.
"Then you can assure us beyond any
shadow of doubt, that everything will be
in perfect working order on time.?"
"I can," said Mr. Race, blandly. It was
quite the truth ; he could have assured them
with equal ease that the planets were about
to form a trust and travel hereafter in a sort
of celestial combine.
"And even if something unavoidable
should turn up to delay us for a day or two,"
Carey put in, "the city would no doubt
grant us a reasonable extension of time?"
With a start, the elderly Mayor faced
him. His eyes bulged a little and he blinked
them back before he said:
"No! That's just it! The city wouldn't!"
CHAPTER VI.
STRAIGHT TO THE WOODS
Mr. Carey scowled.
Mr. Race, whom little less than dynamite
could have startled now, maintained his
smile without great effort. After all, the
gentle edict of the Mayor seemed to put a
neat, workmanlike finish on the situation;
it was the last, shining nail to be driven into
the lid of their electric coffin, and without
it, the obsequies would hardly have been
complete.
"The city — wouldn't ?" escaped him rather
stammeringly, however.
"No, sir! The city would not," repeated
her Mayor.
"V see, we held a special meetin' to
consider it!" said Schwartz, who was the
tactful, secretive politician personified. "We
voted unanimous that we couldn't give you
no more time if things weren't ready on the
first."
Slowly, Race sat down before his desk;
and if his eye appeared wholly calm and
genial at first glance, a closer study might
have revealed a dancing, ugly fire somewhere
within.
"Just why" he said, "did you find it
necessary to call the Board together to con-
sider us?"
"Be— because," said Mr. Wendell, stiff-
ly, "because the matter was deemed worthy
of especial consideration."
11 Why?" persisted the president.
The Mayor pursed his lips, crossed his
legs and expanded his official chest.
"There have been rumors, Mr. Race,
that you had little or no chance of starting
up your plant on time."
"Where did they come from? Who told
you that?" Race asked, with his easy smile.
"Personally, I may say — directly, that is
— no one has spoken to me in the matter,
save "
"Well — save what?" the president shot
in, as the Mayor cleared his throat.
"Save — um — in an official capacity, re-
porting to me."
"Hearsay evidence?"
"Um — well, yes."
"Did you send anyone to get hearsay
evidence against us?" Mr. Race asked,
politely.
"Why — God bless my soul! We — cer-
tainly not!"
"Then, if it isn't impertinent, may I ask
again why it was necessary to call a special
meeting to consider hearsay evidence."
Mr. Wendell was not quite accustomed to
being cross-examined. Indeed, he had been
Bronton's star Prominent Citizen for so
many years that this kind of heresy stag-
gered him.
"Now listen to me a moment," Race con-
tinued, "before this electric business ever saw
one cent of our investment, I went to you
personally — I talked to you and to the Board.
I showed you that we stood ready to furnish
the city with light and power at a rate cheaper
than any other city of this size that you can
quote. I didn't ask one thing of you, save
that you give us the sole right to make elec-
tricity here for public consumption. I ex-
pected to pay pretty well for that franchise.
You wouldn't hear of it. You were all too
devilish grateful that somebody'd taken
enough interest in your ten-cent town to
light it," Race's voice was rising. "I
thought you might stick on our getting our
poles up last fall, rather than risk a delay
this spring, if the ground thawed out late.
And you said, both of you, .that, even if we
had a late spring, a month or so one way or
the other wouldn't make any difference.
Do you remember that?"
"No!" said the Mayor of Bronton, as his
face turned a vivid red.
188
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"I don't remember nothin' like that,
either," Mr. Schwartz blustered. "Maybe
somebody said it in joke. I dunno. Any-
way, you ain't got it in writing? No!"
"I haven't it in writing no!" sneered
Race. "What I'm trying to dig out of you
is this: why are the highest authorities of
this great city getting excited'wow and calling
special meetings and sending their Mayor
to inform us that we've got to produce on
the second — when we've been promising
just that all along?"
"You see, it's like this," said the alderman.
"You people didn't pay nothing for that
charter. Now, there's other people that
are willing "
Mr. Wendell popped to his feet.
"It is — um — not necessary to go into
details, Mr. Schwartz," he exclaimed. "I
think we have done our duty here. We
have Mr. Race's assurance that "
"You have Mr. Race's assurance that we
know "
And there he stopped. No new sunshine
had lighted their pathway since Keller's
departure; it might be as well to keep a
close mouth and "die game."
The visitors waited interestedly for a
moment. There seemed to be nothing more
to come, for Race was smiling again — and
the queer little meeting broke up suddenly
as Schwartz jammed on his hat.
"They understand it all right, Mr. Wen-
dell," he remarked.
"We understand it perfectly," said Race,
as he opened the door with a profound bow.
"We appreciate the honor of this visit, too.
Come and see us again."
He closed the door and faced his asso-
ciates with a sour grin.
"Now, I wonder," he said, "when it
comes to finishing the job altogether, whether
they'll hire thugs to kill us, or merely have
us arrested?"
"The last remnant of hope's gone — that's
sure," said Dunbar, from his particular
gloom-cloud.
"It certainly is," sighed Mr. Carey. "I'd
thought of making an appeal for another
month, myself. Now "
There was no need to finish the sentence.
The elder man sat back and smoked in
silence — and Race took to studying him in-
tently, with a queer little smile.
"Mr. Carey," he said at last, "do you
remember, when Bill and I were about three
years old and we all lived back East, how
you used to argue with me and try to con-
vince me that I could or could not do this
thing or that?"
"Yes?"
"Well, do you remember that big mongrel
pup of mine and the time that -you tried to
convince me that I couldn't get across the
little pond on his back, and that we'd both
be drowned?"
"Yes." Mr. Carey laughed a little. "The
pup was very nearly extinct when the opera-
tion was over."
"So is this company very nearly extinct.
But the doggie got across and lived to a ripe
old age, if you remember."
Mr. Race rose, stretched and remarked
irrelevantly:
"I'm going for a ride in our exquisite
four-hundred-dollar racing machine."
"Whereabouts?" Dunbar asked, in some
surprise.
"I'm going to find a spot where there's
no house — no electric light poles — no sign
of civilization," said the president, savage-
ly. "I don't know where it is, but I'm going
to find it and sit down and bite my nails
and cuss myself back to a normal tempera-
ture. Coming, Bill?"
"I might as well," said Dunbar, disgus-
tedly.
Silently, they rolled through the town,
Race beaming on everything in sight. They
came upon Bowers, seated on the veranda of
the new Brontonvale Inn. Mr. Bowers start-
ed and stared. Mr. Race waved him a
sunny greeting, stopped the machine, climbed
briskly to the top of their nearest pole, made
a thorough and wholly senseless inspection
of the cross arms, and, returning to earth
with a nod of satisfaction, bowled on again,
chatting merrily with Dunbar.
They reached their forlorn, powerless
power-house at last and stopped, and Dunbar
dropped down, while Race sat still and
stared at the big hills beyond, piling higher
and higher, thick with timber.
"And all those belong to Uncle Dick, who
never tried to make electricity," observed
the president. "Your uncle is a wise man,
Bill."
"And bought them almost for nothing,"
Dunbar muttered thoughtfully. "That was
five years before we moved here — after the
forest fires — when people said that timber
would never be worth ten cents an acre.
How like sin they've grown up in sixteen
years!"
RACE SAT STILL AND STARED AT THE BIG HILLS BEYOND, PILING HIGHER AND
HIGHER, THICK WITH TIMBER
190
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"I didn't know 'em personally sixteen
years ago," said Race, "but I'll wander up
to them now. They're Mr. Carey's private
property, aren't they?"
"Near two miles straight ahead and half
a mile down the tracks," said Dunbar.
"Altitudinous, green and calm," con-
cluded Race. "Are you coming, William?
Going to stay around the power-house, eh ?"
He stepped down from the machine. "Well,
if you feel just like it you can leave the
machine here, Bill, because I'm going for a
long, long tramp. I'm going to commune
With Nature to beat the cars and I don't
know when I'll be back. I don't want any
lunch. Good bye."
* * *
The City Hall clock was booming out
half past two.
Dunbar, back from lunch, was folding up
his plans and blue-prints of the central sta-
tion, with sad and methodical care — when
a chorus of wild yells down street brought
him hastily to the window.
A meteorite had landed in front of their
office! A meteorite that bore some resem-
blance to their little auto, until the dust
cloud caught up and enveloped it and
Dusty, hatless, pouring perspiration, with
eyes wild as the wildest maniac, Mr. Race
entered with a crash that shattered the
pane.
"Damn the glass!" choked he, at Mr.
Dunbar. "How much • cash have we in
the bank, Bill?"
"Over three thou "
"Draw three thousand and have it here
ready for me inside of five minutes!" shouted
the president of the company as he whizzed
out — banged into the car — disappeared!
For seconds, Dunbar and his uncle stared
after him, rigid. Then, without a premoni-
tory symptom, Race's craziness seemed to
infect his partner, for he jerked their check
book into position, scribbled a blank and
ran bareheaded for the bank.
He was hardly within the office again
when the meteorite returned and banged to
a standstill before the door. Mr. Race did
not walk in; he pranced in, with a suit case
in one hand, and he pranced straight at
Carey.
"Can you raise ten thousand dollars cash
inside of a week and have it banked
here?"
"Of course. I "
"Do it!" commanded Race, as he whirled
on Dunbar. "Gimme the money! Gimme
all the plans of that power-house! Quick!"
"What "
Mr. Race snatched the roll of bills from
his hands and rammed it into his trousers
pocket. His wild eyes noted the plans on
the desk and he grabbed them, crushed
them, tore open his bag and hurled them in.
"Is it all here? All the machinery part?"
he demanded fiercely, as he slammed the
lock of the case.
"Yes, the whole thing "
"Come with me and bring the car back!"
Mr. Race vociferated as he leaped the steps
and into his seat. "Hurry up! Hurry up
there, you "
But Dunbar was in his place, gasping for
breath— and the automobile pitched head-
long for the center of the street.
It was the sort of ride one rarely remembers
clearly. Dunbar, later, could recall only
that, from somewhere in his neighborhood,
came a yell of: "I'll make that three-forty-
two to the express, if I kill every man, woman
and child in this "
Then there came a blood-curdling whirl
at the station platform — and Race and his
bag seemed to hurtle through space — and
land somehow on the back platform of a
moving train.
(To be concluded.)
Elementary Electricity
By PROF. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. (Princeton)
CHAPTER XXVII. — INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LAMPS. (CONTINUED.)
Incandescent electric lamps assume a
variety of forms according to the character
of the work they are intended to perform.
They differ either in the size and length of
the filaments; in the amount or character
of the light emitted; in the character of this
light; in their life or duration, as well as in
their efficiency or the relation existing be-
tween the amount of useful light produced
and the amount of energy expended.
But none of the above mentioned differ-
ences alter the general construction of the
lamp as described in the preceding chapter.
Up to a comparatively recent date they all
consisted of a carbon filament suitably sup-
ported inside a lamp globe or chamber in
which a high vacuum is maintained.
The character of the light emitted varies
markedly with the temperature of the fila-
ment. The higher the temperature the
more nearly does the emitted light resemble
in its color values that of ordinary daylight.
When a beam of daylight is passed through
ka prism, all the colors of the rainbow are
produced. This is not true, however, with
the light of the ordinary incandescent elec-
tric lamp. When examined by a prism it
is found that this light contains an excess
of red, orange and yellow rays, and a de-
ficiencyjof the indigo, blue and violet rays.
It is only white bodies that are capable
of throwing off all the colors of the rainbow.
A red body can only throw off red rays or
at least rays near the reds of the solar spec-
trum. A blue body can only throw off blue
rays or rays near the blues. A red body
appears red when placed in sunlight because
it throws off the reds or colors near them,
and absorbs all the other colors; a blue body
appears blue because it only throws off the
blues and absorbs, the other colors.
Consequently, colored bodies illumined by
light that does not contain all the colors of
sunlight, can only appear in their proper day-
light colors, that is, the colors they possess
when illumined by daylight, when the arti-
ficial light contains all such colors.
Since the light of the incandescent elec-
tric lamp contains an abundance of red,
orange and yellow rays it is capable of so
illumining red, orange or yellow-colored
objects as to cause them to appear the same
as they would when illumined by sunlight.
If, however, an attempt is made to illumine
blue or violet-colored bodies by the light
of the incandescent lamp, the color effect
produced will differ markedly from what
would be produced by illumination in day-
light
It is, therefore, a matter of considerable
importance that the light emitted by any
artificial source, such as the incandescent
electric lamp, should have, as nearly as pos-
sible, the same color values, or, as they are
called, daylight values, as that of sunlight.
Consequently, as is generally the case,
where the lamps are employed for the
illumination of colored bodies under con-
ditions in which it is necessary that they
shall possess the same appearance as they
would present when illumined by daylight, it
is necessary to employ high temperatures,
and this means a decrease in the useful life
of the lamp.
When placed in positions where it is dif-
ficult to reach them, as on the ceilings of
high rooms, an advantage is ensured by pur-
posely employing a smaller pressure and
current thus decreasing the number of neces-
sary lamp renewals.
b b b
FIG. 171. COMPLETED LAMPS WITH BASE
ATTACHED
The tendency at the present day for pur-
poses of general illumination is to use long
lamp filaments. This is easily done in the
case of the squirted filaments that are now
generally made. These assume a variety
of forms three of which are represented in
Fig. 171. It will be observed that all of
192
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
these have the shape of a horseshoe. The
lamp represented at the left hand side of the
above figure has the form of a simple horse-
shoe. That represented in the middle of
this figure has the shape of a horseshoe with
a single loop, and that on the right-hand side
a horseshoe with two loops. In order to
prevent the breaking of a looped filament
by vibration, it has been found advisable in
practice to provide the filament with what
is known as an anchor wire, a wire attached
to the top of the glass mount, and the center
of the filament loop. In the case of the
double loop filament two separate anchor
wires are sometimes used, attached at points
on top of the filament and sides of the lamp
^lobe as shown in the above figure.
But the increase in the amount of light
obtained by an increase in the length of the
lamp filament is not the only advantage en-
sured. An incandescent electric lamp emits
more light in certain directions than in
others. Generally speaking, the simple
horseshoe filament lamp emits the greatest
amount of light at the bend of the horseshoe,
in the direction of its length.
Since electric lamps are generally em-
ployed with the bulb or lamp chamber
pointing downwards it is desirable that the
amount of light thrown in this direction
shall be as great as possible. Now, in the
case of the ordinary sixteen candle power
horseshoe carbon filament lamp it can be
FIG. I72. LAMPS IN PARALLEL
shown that, approximately, an amount of
light represented by six of these candles is
thrown downwards from the top of the fila-
ment and the remaining ten in other direc-
tion. When the filament is provided with
a single curl an amount of light equal to
seven candles, and when provided with a
double curl, an amount equal to ten candle
powers is thrown downwards.
Generally speaking, incandescent lamps
are placed on the lighting mains in buildings
in multiple or parallel, as shown in Fig. 172.
These mains are what are known as con-
stant-potential mains because they are main-
tained at a constant voltage pressure or dif-
ference of potential. Frequently, however,
in order to permit a lamp of a lower voltage
to be employed on a high voltage main the
lamps are connected in series groups to the
I
+
A B C
FIG. I73. LAMPS IN SERIES
multiple mains as shown in Fig. 173. In
this case, the current, instead of passing
from the mains in parallel through the three
lamps (A), (B) and (C), passes through them
in series. This series connection is con-
venient with lamps designed for use in a
candelabra. In lamps of this character
although fairly lengthy filaments are used,
yet the resistance is comparatively low.
It is evident that by making the lamp
bulb of different colored glass, or by color-
ing it with a suitable transparent paint,
lights of various colors can be readily ob-
tained.
Incandescent lamps, capable of being
operated by the comparatively low pres-
sures, produced by a small voltaic or storage
battery, are known as battery lamps. These
lamps are generally so'designed as to produce
small candle powers. They are generally
designed for use in electric signs and are
intended to be placed in series of two, three
or four across 100 to 120- volt mains, or in
multiple series across 50 to 60-volt mains.
Usually they are of low candle power capa-
ble of producing, say, one-half a candle,
one, two, three, four and six candles. The
pressure required to be applied to the ter-
minals of the half candle power lamp varies
from three to' five volts, and the current
from 1 to 0.6 ampere. The one candle
power lamp requires from four to six volts,
and from 1.4 to 0.9 ampere. The two
candle power lamp from four to seven volts,
and from 2 to 0.1 amperes. The three
candle power lamps require a pressure of
from five to seven volts, and a current of
from 2.5 to 1.75 amperes. The four candle
power lamp requires a pressure of from
seven to nine volts, and a current of from
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
193
2.5 to 1.75 amperes. The six candle power
lamp requires a pressure of from nine to
twelve volts, and a current of from 2.75 to
two amperes.
The fact that small candle power lamps
can be operated by a battery small enough
to be readily carried in one's pocket, renders
it possible to employ miniature electric
lamps, or as they are sometimes called
electric jewelry, on one's body. Such lamps
are employed for stick pins and are especially
common in producing various effects on the
stage. In the latter case, however, instead
of a single lamp being used, a number of
separate lamps are connected in series in a
single circuit across the lighting mains.
Small lamps are also employed for the
illumination of parts of the human body,
such as the throat, the ear, the nostrils, or
other parts that are readily entered by its
natural cavities. Lamps of this character
are generally employed at high tempera-
tures and therefore produce considerable
light and consequently have a short life.
Electric lamps are sometimes employed
on bicycles and by miners. Lamps for these
purposes, however, do not differ essentially
from other battery lamps.
High candle power electric incandescent
lamps have been de-
vised for special use as
a luminous source in
magic lanterns. As
shown in Fig. 174, a
peculiar shape is given
to the carbon incan-
descing filament in or-
der to concentrate the
light roughly at the
focus of the condensing
lenses of the lantern.
The best results are
obtained by giving the
filament a spiral coni-
cal shape, since in this
way the light is concentrated in a compara-
tively small area.
Incandescent electric lamps are some-
times used in what are known as lamp
banks for rheostats or variable resistances.
By providing suitable receptacles, the mere
screwing of the lamps in place connects them
in series with the other lamps. While almost
any ordinary electric lamp is suitable for
this use, yet lamps known as resistance
lamps are especially prepared for this pur-
pose in which a comparatively great length
fig. 174. SPIRAL
FILAMENT LAMP
FIG. 175
of a thick filament is placed in the lamp
chamber connected in series. In the elec-
tric resistance lamp shown in Fig. 175 three
separate filaments are connected with one
another in series as shown.
Where especially high candle powers are
required what are known as low-voltage
lamps are used. These lamps differ from
others simply in the fact that they employ
heavy filaments. They are made to furnish
from 100 to 150 candle
power or over of light when
so desired, and can be made
to operate with a current of
from six to nine amperes and
a pressure of about 50 volts.
A very common use for
incandescent electric lamps
is for electric signs. Lamps
for such 'purposes are gen-
erally connected in series.
The lamp bulbs are made
either of clear or colored
glass arranged in groups
having the shape of the let-
resistance ters to be represented. They
lamp are either mounted on a
single board covered with
white or other colored paint which is
brightly illumined when the lamps are
in operation, or on wooden supports
cut to the outline of the letters that
the group of lamps is intended to repre-
sent. By painting such supports strik-
ing effects are obtained by the brightly
illumined wooden letters provided at the
center with the bright surfaces of the in-
candescing lamps. Of course as is some-
times done the ordinary incandescent lamps
are employed for this work, connecting them
in multiple.
Electric incandescent lamps are now uni-
versally employed for the lighting of street-
railway or trolley cars. The current re-
quired for their operation is taken directly
from the trolley circuit. In such cases the
filaments are designed so as to be able to
use the trolley pressure, which is generally
in the neighborhood of 500 volts. This is
done by connecting a number of lamps in
series across the main to ensure the desired
current strength.
Smce the vibrations of an ordinary street
railway car are marked, where, as is gener-
ally the case, loop filaments are employed,
it is necessary to employ anchor wires to
prevent the filaments from being broken.
194
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The attachment of anchor wires for double
and single loops has already been described.
In what are known as double-filament
electric lamps two separate filaments are
placed in the same lamp chamber. One of
the uses to which a double filament lamp can
be put, consists of a device by means of
which it is possible to vary the quantity of
light the lamp is capable of producing.
This device embodies a switch arranged so
as to produce the maximum quantity of light
by connecting the two filaments in parallel
and smaller amounts of light by connecting
them in series or by cutting out one of the
filaments.
Another method, sometimes adopted for
turning down an incandescent lamp so as
to obtain a smaller amount of light, is by
the introduction of resistance into the lamp
circuit. Such a method is far from economi-
cal, since too large a percentage of electric
energy is expended in the useless production
of non-luminous radiation. A lamp of this
character is known as the Edison night
lamp. Here, the filament is provided with
an electric resistance so placed in the base
of the lamp that the turning of the small
screw introduces the resistance into, or re-
moves it from, the lamp circuit, as may be
desired.
The length of life of an incandescent
electric lamp depends primarily on the care
taken in its construction, and the extent to
which it is possible to maintain a vacuum
in the lamp chamber. But it does not de-
pend only on these circumstances. Any
lamp can readily be caused to emit a greater
quantity of light by supplying it with a
greater amount of electric energy, and the
extent of its useful life depends on the amount
of this energy. By increasing this energy
a lamp that is capable of producing either
sixteen or thirty-two candle power when pro-
ducing the larger quantity of light is subject to
a marked decrease in its length of life.
Such a lamp when constructed to produce
sixteen candle power under conditions in
which its life will have a value of 800 hours,
might have its life reduced to 200 hours or
even less by using an excessive amount of
energy.
Another form of lamp the. chamber of
which contains two separate filaments is
called a twin filament lamp in order to dis-
tinguish it from a double filament lamp.
The twin filament lamp is employed in
places where it is a matter of considerable
importance that the light shall not be
accidentally extinguished, since such a fail-
ure might occasion considerable damage.
This is the case in the lighting of the side
lights, headlights, stern light, and signal
lights of ships. By the use of a twin fila-
ment lamp the separate filaments can be so
connected to the lamp circuits that should
one fail the other may continue burning.
The same result is sometimes reached by
the employment of two separate lamps.
A general belief exists that it is true
economy to use an electric incandescent lamp
as lr,o.g as its filament remains unbroken.
This is a great mistake. While such a
lamp will continue to give light yet the
amount of this light is so small, that it would
be far more economical to purposely break
the lamp, or remove it from the circuit as
soon as its loss of efficiency has reached a
certain point known generally as its smash-
ing point.
One of the many interesting stories to be
found in that great book known as the
Arabian Nights Entertainments, relates the
manner in which the wicked African magi-
cian succeeded in obtaining Aladdin's magic
lamp by offering to exchange new lamps for
old lamps. At first sight such an exchange
naturally strikes one as extremely foolish,
yet the General Electric Company advises
central station managers to offer as soon
as their lamps show a certain fall in effi-
ciency, to replace them by new lamps.
In a circular letter the company alludes
to the necessity that exists for frequent lamp
renewals; that this necessity exists regard-
less of the cost of power and whether the
new lamps are charged for or furnished
free; that no matter how excellent the con-
struction and operation of the lighting plant
may be, it is impossible to furnish satisfac-
tory light unless all dim lamps are periodi-
cally removed from the circuits.
Generally speaking, it is evident that the
removal of the dim lamps can not be left
to the customer. Consequently, such re-
newals must be made without charge, or at
a merely nominal charge, by the lighting
company. The decrease in the cost of in-
candescent lamps has reached such a
point that it should be possible for all sta-
tions to furnish free lamp renewals at but
slight expense. The advice in the com-
pany's letter in this respect is as follows:
" With free renewals, one of the following
methods should be adopted:
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
195
" i. Periodically remove all lamps from
the circuits one to four times per year, ac-
cording to conditions, and replace them by
new ones. Photometer the lamps removed
and save those measuring above a prescribed
limit (say 13 candle-power) for use at high
voltage points, or locations where reduced
candle-power is of slight importance. Scrap
the remaining lamps.
"2. Give a new lamp in exchange for
an old one, for, say, every three dollars
worth of current supplied, or for any fixed
amount determined by the meter rates and
conditions.
"The second plan is an excellent one, in
that it offers a bonus for the use of current
and regulates renewals on the correct basis
of number of hours of lamp service: It can
be profitably adopted wherever meters are
in use. A station attendant should visit
customers quarterly and install the number
of new lamps due each, removing and re-
turning to the station an equal number of
old lamps.
"In cases where lamps must be charged
for, some measures should be adopted to
induce customers to renew their dim lamps:
as, otherwise, dim lamps will be continued
in service as long as they will burn.
"A good method is to offer new lamps
in exchange for dim ones (not burned out)
at a reduction in price of one-quarter or
one-half cost. A customer, for example,
would save by paying, say, half-price for
the renewal of a dim lamp, instead of wait-
ing and paying full price when the lamp
burns out.
"Another method is to offer lamps for
renewals at less than cost, say 15 cents
each, and reserve the right to say when
lamps shall be renewed. Such a plan works
well, as no customer can justly complain
when the company renews lamps at less
than cost.
"The price of lamps to the customer in
any case should be made as low as possible
— cost price or below cost — for the reason
that profit on the sale of lamps is secondary
in importance to the sale of current and im-
provement in quality of lighting service."
The failure of an incandescent electric
lamp to produce the quantity of light for
which it was constructed, is due to many
causes. Perhaps the commonest cause is
found in the fact that in various ways the
carbon filament undergoes a gradual dis-
integration, that results in a decrease in
diameter and a consequent increase in elec-
tric resistance.
If the resistance of an electric lamp is in-
creased and no increase is made in the
voltage applied to the lamp terminals, the
current supplied to the filament will be so
cut down that the lamp will give off a much
smaller quantity of light than otherwise.
This is one of the commonest causes of the
decrease in the amount of light emitted.
Another cause is to be found in the black-
ening of the lamp bulb due to the deposition
on the inner walls of the lamp chamber, of '
the carbon that has been disintegrated, by
the breaking down of the filament.
(To be Continued.)
Are Dynamos Understood?
How far the popular understanding of
electrical terms and electrical devices has
advanced during the last two decades may
be inferred from an interview in regard to
the principles of dynamo-electric machinery,
held a little over twenty years ago. It was
given to a correspondent of the New York
World by Prof. Moses G. Farmer who was
the first in this country to make sucessful
experiments with electric lights, being the
inventor of one of the earliest types of arc
lamps. Said Prof. Farmer:
"The electricity for the purpose of
illumination is produced by the movement
of coils of copper wire in the neighborhood
of magnets. Electricity is developed in
condition whenever it is moved across the
lines of force streaming from a magnet.
The electricity is more powerful the more
rapid this motion; more powerful the longer
the wire and more powerful the greater the
intensity of magnetism in the magnet.
These are the fundamental facts that under-
lie the construction of all magneto-electric
machines. Any more technical description
of the process of producing electricity would
scarcely be understood by the general reader."
That satisfied the public of his time.
But today who that pretends to have any
education would be put off in that way?
Now the progressive man and his bright
sons all revel every month in a great
variety of detailed information on such mat-
ters, for the intelligent reader of today un-
derstands many times more about electrical
devices than was dreamt of by the experi-
menter whose most noted work dates back
some fifty years.
The' Non-magnetic Yacht Carnegie'
The Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
of the Carnegie Institute of Washington,
D. C, has undertaken the gigantic task of
making a magnetic survey of the world and
to accomplish it within the next fifteen years.
The results are to be published in the form
of magnetic charts, from which the naviga-
tors of the world may read at a glance the
error of the compass in any particular spot
Constructed throughout of non-magnetic
materials and designed especially for a float-
ing observatory in which to do the marine work
of the magnetic survey of the world, the non-
magnetic brigantine "Carnegie" — the first
of her kind — has just completed her first
season's work in exploring the magnetic
field of the North Atlantic Ocean.
The Carnegie was designed by Mr. Henry
THE CREW OF THE CARNEGIE
which is due to the action of the forces of
nature. The work will not be a national
one, but will prove a boon to mankind and
thus subserve the avowed object of the
Carnegie Institute: "to contribute something
of definite value to man." This work was
commenced in the Pacific Ocean in 1905,
when the Institute chartered the brigantine
"Galilee" of San Francisco. Sufficient data
was obtained by this experiment to convince
the bureau that the work was worth doing
well, and it was decided to construct a vessel
built, as far as possible, of non-magnetic ma-
terials and designed with special reference to
the facilities for taking magnetic observations
under any and all conditions of sea and
weather.
J. Gielow of New York, architect of the Ger-
man Kaiser's yacht "Meteor," and was built
by the Tebo Yacht Basin Company of
Brooklyn. She is essentially a brigantine of
568 tons displacement, 155 feet six inches
over all; length on load water line 128 feet
four inches; beam, moulded 33 feet; depth
of hold 12 feet nine inches; mean draft 12
feet seven inches. Her lines are fair and
easy, running in an unbroken sweep from
stem to stern, showing great strength and
seagoing qualities.
The hull is constructed according to the
standards of the American Bureau of Ship-
ping, combining the grace of a yacht with
the staying qualities of a cargo vessel.
The keel, frames, knees, stern post and
POPULAR ELECTRICITY )
197
deadwood are of white oak; the deck beams,
planking and ceiling are of yellow pine; and
the deck is of comb-grained Oregon pine.
All fastenings are of locust treenails, copper
and Tobin bronze bolts and composition
spikes, all through bolts being riveted over
rings both inside and out. All metal deck
fittings and the metal work on spars and rig-
ging are of bronze, copper or gunmetal.
She spreads 12,900 square feet of canvas.
Her spar plan measures 122 feet from fore
truck to water line and 210 feet from bow-
sprit cap to after end of
main boom. She measures
48 feet from head booms
to cut- water; cutwater to
foremast 35 feet; from
fore to mainmast 48 feet.
The rigging is of Russian
hemp.
Auxiliary to her sail
power, the Carnegie is
equipped with a four-
cylinder, Craig internal
combustion engine of 150
horse power, which alone
is capable of giving her
headway at the rate of
six knots an hour. The
necessity of some auxili-
ary power independent
of the wind for close
handling, accurately plac-
ing the vessel on a given
magnetic heading and for
use in calm weather or
head winds is apparent.
Additional interest is at-
tached to the installation
of this machinery in the
Carnegie from the fact
that all parts of the en-
gine except the cast-iron
pistons and the steel cams necessary
for operating the valves are made of non-
magnetic material.
Consideration of the available fuel for
such a motor resulted in the elimination of
gasolene and oil, not only on account of
cost, but also because they would be quite
unavailable in the zones to be covered by
the Carnegie, as well as being unsafe in the
quantities that would have to be stored for
the long cruises which are contemplated.
A careful investigation showed that a gas
producer for marine purposes could be built
which would generate a gas suitable for use
THE CARNEGIE
in an internal combustion engine from
bituminous or anthracite coal, coke, wood
or charcoal, and that such a plant could be
constructed almost entirely of non-magnetic
materials. In the actual accomplishment
of this feat the Carnegie is again a pioneer,
in that she is the first vessel of any size in
which producer gas has been utilized for
propulsion. The cruising radius of the
Carnegie at six knots an hour on 25 tons of
coal is 2,000 miles.
Of especial interest in her construction
are the vessel's observa-
tories where the bearings
of celestial bodies are
taken and the compass
declination and dip and
the intensity of the earth's
horizontal force are meas-
ured. The standard com-
pass is set up in the chart
room directly below the
bridge compass, and two
others are located on the
main deck under glass-
covered domes forward
and abaft the standard.
At these two stations ob-
servations can be made
in any sort of weather,
the observers being under
cover of the domes.
In all forms of com-
pass azimuth circles hither-
to used the bearing of a
celestial body had to be
taken from whatever point
the card in its oscilla-
tions to and fro as the
vessel rolled had momen-
tarily reached. In the
under full sail Carnegie's work, however,
a special form of "ma-
rine collimating compass" invented and
constructed by the Department of ' Ter-
restrial Magnetism is used. The basis of
the instrument is an eight-inch Ritchie
liquid compass with card removed, and an
optical collimating system with scale intro-
duced. This enables the observer to note
the arc oi motion of the magnet while sight-
ing on the sun or star, hence knowing pre-
cisely to what part of the arc the stellar
azimuth applies. The angle is next deter-
mined between the circle setting and some
mark, or the true meridian, and the declina-
tion is finally deduced.
198
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The non-magnetic character of the Car-
negie was found to exceed the most sanguine
expectations when she was swung for com-
pass deviations in Gardiner's Bay, Long
Island, just before she started to sea last
August. On arrival at Falmouth, England,
her compass errors were again tested out
with most satisfactory results and were found
to agree exactlv with the observations taken
sail was set on the 28th for New York. On
the run up the coast the Carnegie had ample
opportunity to display her remarkable sea-
going qualities. She encountered nearly
three weeks of very stormy weather in the
Gulf Stream and was five times driven across
the lattitude of Cape Hatteras by the same
weather which swamped the unfortunate
Naval Tug Nina. One of her crew was
SECTION AND PLANS OF THE CARNEGIE
on shore at the Falmouth Magnetic Obser-
vatory.
During the voyage across the Altantic
Ocean the vessel was hove to at intervals
and the magnetic elements of different local-
ities determined by a series of careful ob-
servations. The efficiency of the new in-
struments was effectually established on this
voyage, for although gale after gale was en-
countered, observations were taken with
regularity on every day save one. From
Falmouth the little vessel carried her work
down the European coast to Funchal,
Madeira, about 300 miles off the African
coast, and from there she re-crossed the
Atlantic, arriving at Hamilton, Bermuda,
January 7.
After re-occupying the Bermuda stations
and again testing out the ship's instruments,
thrown from the topsail yard as the vessel
took a violent lurch, but saved himself by
clinging to the rigging. Another was swept
overboard by a boarding sea, but was hauled
back by a staysail sheet. After vainly try-
ing to make the port of New York, the little
vessel was obliged to lay a course for Mon-
tauk Point, and, on the 15th of February,
sailed into Long Island Sound.
The results of the Carnegie's work for the
season show that the charts used to. navigate
the North Atlantic Ocean are in error along
the transatlantic steamship routes by from
1 to 1 J degrees, and, when published, will
not only enable navigators to lay their
courses so as to save time and distance, but
to feel sure that they are not likely to be set
down on the Sable Island shore and lose
their ships.
Electrical Securities
By "CONTANGO'
HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS AND THEIR FUTURE — IRRIGATION UNDERTAKINGS AND THEIR
CONNECTION THEREWITH IN THE WEST — THE SECURITIES OF SUCH ENTER-
PRISES IN THEIR RELATION TO THE PUBLIC.
The next form of electrical development
to be taken up is the hydroelectric plant,
that is to say, the use of water power for
producing electrical energy which may be
used right at hand, as in the case of a small
installation or as is more usually the case
distributed far afield by means of transmis-
sion lines extending many hundreds of miles.
It is with the public service plant of such
kind that this article will briefly deal from
the point of view of its securities.
The use of water powers, great and small,
is now being developed east, west, south and
north wherever they may be found in the
least degree accessible, and the natural
tendency is towards a combined management
covering large areas. To a certain extent
the hydroelectric plant goes hand in hand
with the irrigation project. The most
notable example of such a combination is
the Roosevelt dam at Roosevelt, Arizona, a
government undertaking just completed,
and practically the largest of its kind in the
world. By controlling the water in a very
narrow and very deep gorge at this point,
a vast territory has been turned from desert
into a most productive and fertile region,
while the large water power obtained is
producing energy for towns and villages
throughout the entire district. It may then
be noted that once established the future of
such a system is ultimately only limited
by the amount of power that can be furnished.
There is in point of fact no waste and if
the affair is conducted in a business-like
way there should be no difficulty in bringing
in handsome returns on the capital outlay.
Naturally financial experts, bankers and
the like look with particular favor on securi-
ties of such companies. The cost of main-
tenance is comparatively small and the ability
to generate current at low cost corresponding-
ly great. As a final word Frank A. Vander-
lip, the well known banker of New York,
may again be quoted on this latest phase
of the generation, distribution and sale of
electricity:
"If a layman might venture an opinion
it would be that the next era of distinct de-
velopment in the electric lighting field will
come as the result of the utilization of the
great water powers of the country, and the
progress that the technical experts will make
in long distance transmission. With great
power stations located in the heart of the
coal districts on the one hand, or drawing
their energy from the great power plants on
the other, the problem of cheap production
would seem to be pretty well solved. If
current thus produced can be economically
distributed over a very large area, as indeed
it is now being in many sections, the way will
be open to securing the economies of a
concentrated management and the advan-
tages of large corporate issues of securities,
and such combination should result in a
large profit to the business venture and in a
high degree of efficiency and satisfaction
to the stockholders."
In other words, by the development of the
hydroelectric plant will come more perfect
centralization of the whole business of dis-
tributing electric current.
The largest and most efficient hydro-
electric plants of the day in this country are
those at Niagara Falls. They demonstrate
excellently the practice of selling and dis-
tributing electricity in bulk — selling at a
wholesale price to users of power far and
near. It will have already been grasped
by the readers of these articles that the pro-
duction and sale of electricity as a com-
modity in large quantities, that is on a whole-
sale scale, is one of the greatest commercial
assets of the times, and when its source
is from an almost unlimited water power it
may readily be seen that the possibilities
are enormous. Now while Niagara is by
far the greatest producer of power, it was
not until the value of long distance transmis-
sion of energy in bulk had been proved in
the West and Mexico that the water power
from the Falls reached its greatest value.
The Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and
200
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Manufacturing Company started the ball
rolling in a small way in 1895, and now
there, are five important companies distribu-
ting electricity in bulk to far distant places
and selling to countless manufacturing plants
in Niagara Falls, in Buffalo, and throughout
the district surrounding the Falls.
Engineers for years looked longingly at
the tremendous power in the Falls. It
was estimated that theoretically there was
7,500,000 horsepower capable of develop-
ment. The power was there, but to use
it economically and in commensurate quan-
tity— that was the question. Then came
the development in the use of electricity for
factories and railways and in electrochemical
processes, and the perfecting of economical
long distance transmission systems. Today
electricity is distributed in bulk from the
Falls to Toronto, Syracuse, Tonawanda,
Buffalo and numberless lesser towns. Within
the last year or two the progress made with
this bulk distribution has been wonderful
and today something like 575,000 horse-
power are derived from the Falls. The
principle is the simplest — water power opera-
ting turbo-generators. It is now in use
through the country.
In the South, for example, there is the
great hydroelectric plant at Hale's Bar on
the Tennessee River, 33 miles below Chat-
tanooga. This is one of the largest in the
country aside from Niagara. There is an
installation of about 50,000 horsepower at
Hale's Bar.
Or turning to such a central point as
Chicago it will be found that the waters of
a river of a very modest size into which the
waters from the drainage canal discharge are
utilized for power development at Joliet,
111., and points below that city, while the
Sanitary District, the corporate body oper-
ating the drainage canal also has a hydro-
electric plant at Lockport at a point where
the drainage channel's waters pass into the
Desplaines River.
The financing of the hydroelectric central
station plant is on precisely the lines of
other large central station undertakings,
only there is this advantage that the ability
to produce at lowest cost gives corresponding
ability to furnish current at lowest rates
and therefore the field is more quickly cov-
ered and the public more readily uses elec-
tric, in preference to any other form of
power. It is very evident then that the
securities of a well thought out, well situated
hydroelectric company are justly entitled
to the confidence of the public and the finan-
cial world as being among the most sub-
stantial and solid form of property known.
As to the combination of irrigation and
hydroelectric or the simple irrigation com-
pany— such securities have the position of
a mortgage on the property of the users.
That is to say, the average irrigation bond
of which a great many issues are now being
offered, particularly throughout the West,
is guaranteed by the land holdings of the
users of the water. The water itself creates
the value of the land, and the mortgage on
that land is the security given the company
selling the water, therefore the bonds of
such a company which are bought by the
public have back of them these land mort-
gages.
The supplying of water for irrigation pur-
poses is a form of public service of its own
kind, differing materially from the service
of transportation, light or power. Without
the water the land is to all intents and pur-
poses nonexistent, but with light, power and
transportation it is another matter. This
position makes for the irrigation bond, a
special form and security of its own.
But the securities of all public service
or utility corporations should rightly be
regarded as of the highest value, for the
simple reason that they are based on the
sale of public necessities, the use of which
extends and grows year by year. The vil-
lages, towns* and cities of the United States
are growing at a tremendous pace, the arid
spaces of the country are fast being brought
into cultivation and when the tale of the
new census, just taken, shall have been
told, there will be found one of the most
convincing arguments as to the solidity and
tangibility of investments in all these pub-
lic undertakings. The general use of elec-
tricity has only just about started. Take
the growth in the population of any city or
state in the years to come and consider what
the then necessities must be. To meet
such demands of the future, even year by
year, must mean a constant and ever in-
creasing expansion in the business of supply-
ing them, and those who have the present
sagacity and courage to invest in the securi-
ties of concerns whose business is meeting
the public needs have an assured present
and guaranteed future of profitable return
not presented, with the same degree of ab-
solute certainty, in other forms of securities.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
201
Sufficient advice has already been given
as to the necessity for dealing with bond-
houses and financial agents of known reputa-
tion and integrity, and where there is time
and inclination, for personal investigation
into the character of the management, of
all such companies. The man at the head
of such an undertaking of trained experi-
ence who has proved his works by results
is naturally most to be depended on, for he
has a very personal interest in the success
of all he undertakes.
Perhaps the most remarkable example of
results from irrigation known to the business
world today is found, not in this country at
all, but in far away Egypt, where the opera-
tion of the Assouan dam, confining the head
waters of the Nile, has proved the salvation
of that country. This was a government
enterprise and by its completion the ruler
of that country and his family and Egyptian
landholders generally have been placed
among the rich men of the world. In the
United States it is good to say that the people
who benefit most by irrigation enterprises
are the plain people. Not only those who
take up the land but the people at large who
have the faith to invest their money in such
enterprises. Yet even so their opportunity
has still to stand the test of time, whereas
the electrical undertaking can now at this
time stand on its proved merits.
(To be Concluded)
High Speeds and Signals
In 1 901 on the Berlin-Zossen (Germany)
military railway an electric car reached a
speed of 115 to 125 miles per hour.
Now a mechanically operated railroad sig-
nal cannot be depended upon to act with
reliability at a longer distance than 2000
feet from the operator. If with a train
velocity of 60 miles the signals are disposed
at 2500 feet from the block tower to give
time to the engineer to stop before entering
the block ahead, a velocity of 115 miles
requires for the. same purpose the signals
to be 6600 feet from the tower, a distance
which renders their operation very difficult
if not impossible.
One hundred and fifteen miles per hour
means 168.6 feet per second, and if we sup-
pose that in clear weather the signals can
be seen 1600 or 1700 feet before reaching
them, the engineer has nine or ten seconds
in which to realize the conditions of the
block ahead and act accordingly. Now if
the weather is foggy this time must be re-
duced and in some cases the engineer may
have from two to three seconds in which to
decide if he can run ahead safely or if he
must stop.
This high speed question may be dis-
cussed from many other points of view — but
actually 125 miles per hour is only to be
reached safely on a special right of way,
with specially ballasted track and at a very
high cost.
A "Magic Mirror'
Suppose you saw a little framed mirror
at a conveniently tempting height in a show
window and you stopped to look at yourself
— for who of either sex would resist the
temptation? Then suppose your reflection
suddenly vanished while an advertisement
appeared in its place: would you not be
surprised? And if your image reappeared
shortly, would you not stay and wait again
and again for the interesting change to re-
peat itself?
MAGIC MIRROR
That is exactly the effect produced by a
novel type of electric sign in which the adver-
tisement, or a part of it, is placed back of
the thin film of silver on a mirror. The latter
reflects just like an ordinary looking glass as
long as the light shining on it is more in-
tense than that behind it. But if a strong
light is lit behind it, the reflection will vanish
and the advertising matter will show right
through the thin film of silver as shown in
the picture. An ordinary sign flasher turns
on the hidden electric light, thus effecting
the changes in the "magic mirror" much
to the amazement of any who happen to
come upon the mirror when the light behind
the same is turned off.
Talks With the Judge
A "HEATED" DISCUSSION
"Although I don't believe you could put
me down as a Bowser, as far as self-conceit
goes," said the Judge as he clung to his strap
and looked longingly at the full seats, " still,
I give myself credit for being mighty careful
and far-sighted for an advertising man."
"You are quite right," I said, "your look
of profound wisdom would have prevented
any one from trying to sell you a lightning
rod even in the hal-
cyon days."
He looked at me
gloomily for a moment
and then continued:
"My wife is set on
having a lot of electri-
cal things to cook with
— the whole blooming
outfit, range, perco-
lator, disk stove,
cereal cookers, chafing
dishes and (sic) a
shaving water [heater
for me, and I don't
know what all. Now
I am one of the best
husbands a woman
ever entrapped, and I
propose to let her have about what she
wants, but before I get these things I
am going to know something about them.
As we sway from .side to side in this car I
want you to give me a little dissertation on
electrical heat. How can electricity make
heat when it also runs refrigerating ma-
chines ?"
"When we rounded that last curve,
Judge," I replied, "and you flew outward
on that strap with a force that made it give
out a plaintive creak, you almost burned
your hand against the leather didn't you?
At least it was a trifle warmer. That heat
you say was caused by friction. Well,
frictional heat is nothing more than the
manifestation of a whole lot of energy ex-
pended in a small space — in this case the
little area between your hand and the strap."
"Electricity is a form of energy and when
you concentrate that energy in a very small
space it is bound to manifest itself in the
form of heat. Take for instance the incan-
descent lamp. Current flows to it along a
wire from the main circuit through the fila-
ment and back through another circuit wire.
The circuit wires are comparatively large and
offer very little resistance to the flow of cur-
rent and no noticeable amount of heat is
generated in them. It is the same as if you
were to move a heavy book across a large
smooth surface — no perceptible heat would
be generated. Let that book pass over the
head of a match so
that all the energy
were concentrated at
the little point of sul-
phur and enough heat
would be generated to
light the match. In
the incandescent lamp
when the current
comes to the little
hair-like filament it is
forced through by
the pressure behind
it. The energy re-
quired to force the cur-
rent through is about
six one-hundredths of
a horse power, all con-
centrated in that little
filament, so of course the latter gets very
hot — white hot.
"This same principle is embodied in all
electric heating and cooking utensils. They
contain what is known as a 'heating ele-
ment.' This is located somewhere within
the utensil. It is made in various forms,
sometimes removable, and always consists
of a fine wire or metal ribbon which pre-
sents a high resistance to the current which
is passed through it. Then as in the case
of the lamp filament the energy expended is
turned into heat and the temperature of the
heating element and the utensil is raised.
"The particular advantage of the use of
electric utensils lies in the fact that the heat
is all generated at the point where it is to
be utilized. There is almost no waste of
energy as the heat all goes into the heating
or cooking process and does not have a
chance to be radiated to the surrounding
atmosphere as in the case of a cook stove
where there are twenty or more square feet
of surface giving off heat to the air."
Some Railways of France and Norway
Connecting points of interest along the away between the mountains in the fore-
borders of France is the electric railway
operating between Martigny and Chatelard.
Never in the history of electric railroading
has a line penetrated a region more beau-
tiful, more impressive in the grandeur of
mountain scenes which burst into view at
every turn. Reference
was made in a pre-
vious issue of Popu-
lar Electricity to
the beauties of this
mountain route, but
some later photo-
graphs, depicting
scenes even more en-
chanting, are here
presented.
Over the gorge of
the Triege are three
viaducts spanning a
cleft in the solid rock.
The lower one is a
mere foot bridge of
stone — an
unassuming
little arch
built nobody
knows how
many years
o r perhaps
centuries ago.
The middle
bridge is a
stone arch by
which the
wagon road
crosses the
chasm. Above
the others is
the Triege
Viaduct of
the electric
line with a
main arch the triege bridge
spanning a
distance of over a hundred feet.
A little farther along is the "Viaduct des
Torrents," near Finhaut. The combina-
tion of the most wild and rugged moun-
tain scenery and the pleasant warmth of a ing page is but one of scores of examples of
sheltered valley furnishes at this point a the harnessing of brawling upland streams
contrast wonderfully pleasing. Looking miles of Norway to produce electric current for
ground may be seen famous " Glacier du
Trient" suspended as it were from the steep
slopes of the mountain.
It is hard to imagine a more picturesque
spot than the station at the little village of
Les Marecottes, which is nothing more than
a small group of cha-
lets. It is one of the
central attractions of
the thousands of tour-
ists who come to this
region every summer.
One of the four-
motor cars which
operate over this di-
vision is shown at
the station and pre-
sents a marked con-
trast to the type of
interurban seen in this
country.
The scenes pre-
sented to the traveler
who rides on
an electric
r ai l.w a y in
Norway are
totally differ-
en t from
those of sun-
ny France;
no less pic-
turesque,
however, and
no less satis-
fying. Nor-
way is a land
of wild and
rugged moun-
tains, a land
of plentiful
water - power
and the de-
scendants of
the Vikings
are rapidly making use of this form of
energy for purposes of transportation. The
Skienald water fall, with its power station
seen at the left in the picture on the follow-
204
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
SKIENALD WATER
FALL AND POWER
STATION
railways and industrial
purposes.
The Thamshavn-Lok-
ken electric railway in
operation between the
mines at these two cities
on the Orkedald Fjord is
the first line to be oper-
ated in Norway on what
is known as the single
phase system. It extends
inland nearly 20 miles,
skirting the River Orkla
as far as Svorkmo. From
this point it rises rapidly
to the Lokken copper
mines which are among
the most important of the
vast mining interests in
Norway.
Electric locomotives are
employed to draw the trains
as will be seen by the view
of the train on the bridge
over the Svorka Canal.
The closed-in appearance
of the locomotive, like a
box car, in much different
from that of electric loco-
motives seen in this coun-
try and indicates that the
engineer is in need of ade-
quate protection from the
frigid climate. These
locomotives weigh 20
tons each, and the
nominal rating of only
80 horse power for the
two motors makes pos-
sible a speed of only
about ten miles an hour.
But then, perhaps the
people of Norway are
not in such a hurry as
they are in this coun-
try.
FINHAUT BRIDGE AND GLACIER DU TRENT
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
205
MARECOTTES STATION OF THE MARTIGNY-CHATELARD ELECTRIC RAILWAY
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THE THAMSHAVN-LOKKEN ELECTRIC RAILWAY
206
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Episodes in Electrical Invention
Mr. Charles A. Brown, one of Chicago's
prominent patent attorneys, familiar with
early electrical patent contentions which
have now become historic, recently ad-
dressed the Electric Club of Chicago on the
subject "Episodes in Electrical Invention
and Patent Litigation."
Among other things Mr. Brown men-
tioned Mr. Edison's early work in con-
nection with the telegraph. Edison de-
voted his attention to a system of duplexing
which he patented and which to all intents
and purposes was identical with the system
used today. At the same time an inven-
tor by the name of Stearns devised a system
along somewhat similar lines. When Mr.
Edison was asked as to the difference be-
tween the two duplexing systems he replied,
laconically, "Mine works."
The Edison patent was sold to the West-
ern Union. As a matter of policy it was
thought best at the time to put forward a
co-inventor and a man by the name of Pres-
cott was selected. Edison was to receive
$100,000 and Prescott as co-inventor was
to receive $100,000, said $100,000 given to
Prescott to return to the strong box of the
company. But politics went wrong and
Prescott calmly pocketed the $100,000 and
it never went to building telegraph lines.
Field in his early telegraph work invented
what he called an "expert relay." Today
it is known as a "neutral relay." Such a
relay embodies an armature of soft iron
which is not magnetized, as distinguished
from a polarized armature. When asked
to describe his relay Field humorously re-
plied: "An expert relay has a tongue
adapted to lie on either side with equal
ability according to influences."
The greatest patent case ever fought in
the courts was that to determine who was
the inventor of the telephone. On the same
day Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha
Gray filed in the United States Patent office
almost identical descriptions of a method
of transmitting human speech electrically
over wires. So far they may have been
said to have had equal rights. But Bell
looked direct to the transmission of human
speech whereas Gray in the beginning in
his own mind, and upon the advice of his
friends, never believed that the device
would work to that end and sought to apply
it to multiplex telegraphy. The thing
drifted on. Bell worked doggedly at the
telephone idea and at last brought it to a
practicable stage. Then Gray waked up
to what he had been losing in working on
the telegraph application. Then came the
lawsuit which was fought for years in the
courts, Bell being finally given the credit of
the invention principally from the fact that
he had first fully grasped its significance
and developed the idea.
Thomas A. Watson, a mechanic who
worked in Bell's shop was the first man in
the world to hear a word spoken over .a
telephone. Money was scarce with Bell in
those days and he induced Watson to
accept a little stock in part payment for his
services. Today that little block of stock
is worth just $6,000,000.
In the famous litigation between Edison
and Brush regarding the compound wound
dynamo there were 7000 pages of type-
written testimony taken. Both had worked
out practically the same scheme of placing
two windings on the field magnets but
Brush didn't know that by so doing the ma-
chine could be made self regulating as to
the voltage. He simply described his sys-
tem as a device to prevent reversal of polarity
of the dynamo. Edison, however, knew of
the regulating principle. Brush went so
far as to deny that the compound winding
could be used to regulate voltage. But the
other side had rigged up a dynamo with
the two windings in place and demon-
strated by taking off and adding on lamps
to a circuit fed by the dynamo that it would
so regulate and the lamps would burn at
proper brilliancy no matter what the load;
so Brush lost the suit.
Graveyard of the Atlantic
How much electricity is doing and in the
future will do to save and prolong human
life can not be given in figures. What has
been accomplished by wireless telegraphy
in saving ships and passengers is fresh in our
minds. The "graveyard" of the Atlantic
is said by sailors to be located off Cape
Hatteras and is known as the Diamond
Shoals. To warn ships of the danger when
near these, two huge megaphones will be
used, the diaphragms of which will be oper-
ated by electricity just as is the electric auto-
mobile horn. Tests show that the sound
from these devices is able to penetrate fog
and be heard for miles.
Where Electricity Stands in the Practice
of Medicine
By NOBLE M. EBERHART, A. M., M. S.f M. D.
CHAPTER VII. — GALVANISM AND FARADISM
We are inclined to overlook the medical
value of the galvanic and faradic currents
in view of the great popularity of some of
the newer electrical methods. The galvanic
current is a "chemical" current and it does
some things which none of the other cur-
rents do and some which it does better than
the others. For instance, it is the current
necessary in electrolysis; lights diagnostic
and therapeutic lamps; heats the blade of
the electro-cautery, etc. Do not lose sight
of the fact that its effects are chemical effects
and that the prime essential to keep in mind
is the difference in the action of its poles;
for "polarity is everything."
In contrast to this the action of the faradic
or induced current is mechanical; it pos-
sesses no chemical properties, and polarity
is an indifferent matter.
Reverting to the primary wet cell of the
galvanic battery the positive pole is the end
of the copper element outside of the solution
and the negative, the zinc element. To
those who are not familiar with this fact I
will give the method I use in my classes of
enabling students to remember it.
The letter P, standing for positive, oc-
curs only in copper and N, standing for
HARD RUBBER NEEDLE HOLDER
negative, only in zinc, so by spelling the
words with a p and an n capitalized we have
the letters for the corresponding poles, thus:
coPper, ziNc.
The polar effects of galvanism depend
upon the attraction which the poles have for
elements of the opposite polarity, thus the
positive pole attracts oxygen, which is, itself,
negative, and since oxygen is a necessary
element in acids, the positive pole has there-
fore an acid reaction.
The characteristics of the two poles are
herewith summarized, and by contrasting
their properties and keeping them, well in
mind, the physician will have no difficulty
in selecting the suitable pole for the purpose
sought, and it will serve as a therapeutic
guide.
Positive Pole
Acid
Corrodes
Oxygen found at this
pole
Contracts blood-vessels
Coagulates albumen
Stops bleeding
Soothing
Relieves pain
Hardens tissues
Acts as an acid caustic
Leaves a firm unyield-
ing scar
Negative Pole
Alkaline
Attracts hydrogen
Does not corrode
Dilates blood-vessels
Does not coagulate al-
bumen
Increases bleeding
Irritating
Increases sensitiveness
Softens and liquefies
tissues
An alkaline caustic
Soft pliable scar
In the electrolysis (electric analysis) of
water the negative oxygen is attracted to the
FIBER CAUTERY HOLDER
positive pole of the battery while the hydro-
gen which is positive is drawn to the negative
pole. Thus, the fluid is electrically sep-
arated or analyzed.
Electrolysis in medicine is applied prin-
cipally to the removal of superfluous hair,
moles, warts and other small growths. For
this purpose the negative pole is employed
because it forms an alkaline caustic and be-
cause the slight scar produced is soft and
pliable.
CAUTERY ILLUMINATOR SET
A simple experiment to show the compara-
tive action of the poles may be made by
208
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
attaching a steel needle to the positive pole
and plunging it into a piece of raw meat.
After the current has been passed (say one
of 10-15 milliarivperes) for a moment it
will be found on attempting to withdraw
the needle that it sticks in the meat; that
there is a dark area around it and the needle
itself is corroded or oxidized. There also
will be found a deposit of the oxide of the
metal composing the needle in the tissues
surrounding it. When the negative pole
is attached the needle comes out easily and
is not blackened or corroded.
In measuring the current an instrument
called a milli-amperemeter is used, which
measures the current in thousandths of an
ampere.
In removing the
superfluous hair, the
needle is attached to
the negative pole, us-
ing a special needle
holder. Some of
these have a switch
in the handle with
which to turn on
the current. The milli-amperemeter
positive pole is con-
nected to a large pad, moistened in salt
water and in contact with the upper part
of the back, the patient lying on it, or it
may be placed at some other indifferent
point, as on the breast with the patient's
hand lying on it.
The needle is passed down alongside of
the hair shaft into the root or follicle. This
is an average of about 1-16 of an inch. A
current of from two to five milliamperes
is then allowed to pass for possibly 20
seconds, when the current is turned off and
a gentle pull given to the hair. If it has
been destroyed it will pull out easily, if not,
turn the current on for a short time again,
as hairs occasionally curve abruptly in a
different direction from that which they
take at the surface. A reasonable percent-
age of them will not be destroyed, and fin-
ally the caustic produced by the current
burns the shaft through but does not kill the
root and the hair will ultimately return. The
bubbles which arise about the needle are
produced by the hydrogen gas evolved.
After the treatment is over a little peroxide
or simple antiseptic solution should be
applied to the skin.
Physicians usually employ the current
derived through a wall plate, affording both
galvanism and faradism. Dry or wet cell
batteries may be used with equal success.
Space forbids discussing many of these
points. In removing moles, warts, or small
growths the needle is attached to the nega-
tive pole and the growth transfixed through
its base, on a level with the skin, by the
needle. A current of five milliamperes (oc-
casionally up to 20 or 30 in large growths),
is employed and passes for 30 to 60 seconds,
and then the needle is passed through at
right angles and ,he process repeated.
Sometimes I have found it convenient to
withdraw the needle almost to the point of
entrance and then thrust it back in another
direction. Thus without turning off the cur-
rent I still am able to transfix the whole
base of the growth.
The object is to destroy the blood supply
to the growth and thereby cause it to shrivel
up. The growth whitens out as the cur-
rent passes, but later turns dark. I seldom
make a second application under five days,
should a second one be required. Growths
that have a small stem or pedicle to them
are removed usually by one application, but
flat growths with a wide base may require
several applications before their blood supply
is entirely obliterated.
Cataphoresis or as it is frequently called,
phoresis, is the carrying of substances into
the tissues by means of the electrical cur-
rent. This also depends upon the attrac-
tion or repulsion which the poles possess,
for the various elements. A solution is
placed on a sponge or a small electrode made
by covering the metal electrode with ab-
sorbent cotton and after immersion in the
solution, frequently with gold-beaters' skin.
If this is attached to the positive pole as
the current passes, all positive elements will
be repelled from it and drawn through the
tissues toward the negative pole. The
converse is true if the solution is on the
negative electrode.
If we wish to carry a certain substance
into the tissues we must consider the pole
to which that particular substance will be
attracted. - For example in using a saturated
solution of potassium iodide in treating
goiter, our object is to drive the iodine into
the goiter. Now the potassium is electro-
positive and will travel toward or remain at
the negative pole, while the iodine, being
negative, travels toward the positive pole.
Therefore, to utilize the iodine the solution
is placed on the sponge attached to the nega-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
200
tive pole. As the solution is broken up,
the positive potassium remains at the nega-
tive pole while the negative iodine travels
through the tissues toward the positive pole.
Cocaine solutions are used from the posi-
tive pole, for local anesthesia. Massey
destroys cancers by treating with a zinc
electrode amalgamated with mercury. The
electrode used is the positive and it is intro-
duced or plunged into the tissues.
It is well to remember, then, that oxygen,
chlorine, iodine and acids are electro-nega-
tive, while hydrogen, alkalies, and most
metals are positive.
A simple method of determining the poles
of the battery is by immersing both in a
glass of water containing a little salt. Bub-
bles (hydrogen) gather at the negative pole.
A few therapeutic applications of galvan-
ism are enumerated. Others, which the phy-
sician will readily understand, have been
omitted in this discussion.
NEURALGIAS
Apply positive pole over painful spot; negative
to spinal origin of nerve or to an indifferent point,
and allow the current to pass from three to five
minutes, of a strength of one to five milli-amperes.
CONGESTIVE HEADACHES
Apply positive pole over the forehead and nega-
tive to the back of the neck. One to five milli-
amperes, three to five minutes
GOITER
Negative sponge electrode moistened in saturated
solution potassium iodide placed on one side of the
goiter; positive sponge on the other side. Two to
five milli-amperes, five to ten minutes.
ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM
Solution of lithium citrate on sponge attached
to the positive pole, over joint, negative on abdomen
or some indifferent point; twenty milli-amperes,
ten minutes.
Diagnostic lamps are made in many
styles and sizes. Some are used to reflect
light into the mouth, nose, ear, etc., while
others are so small that they may be intro-
duced into the various cavities of the body.
Still others are used to show by the de-
gree in which the light penetrates or shines
through the tissues (transillumination) the
presence or absence of a diseased condition,
and finally we have the high candle-power
lights used for the heat or chemical effects
they produce when shining on a diseased
surface. All of this must be left for con-
sideration later in a separate chapter.
In using the electro-cautery there are
platinum blades and points of sundry styles
and sizes. I have employed the electro-
cautery successfully not only in the minor
conditions in which the cautery is indicated,
but in operations of a major or semi-major
character.
A point of the greatest importance is the
degree of heat to which the cautery blade or
point is subjected. It is at first a dull red;
then a bright red and finally a white heat,
as the current is increased. The white heat
will cause the blade to cut through the
tissues as smoothly as a knife, but as it
does not stop the amount of bleeding it
really has no advantage over the knife and
is more clumsy, hence unsuitable for the
physicians' use. On the other hand, the
ST
CAUTERY ELECTRODES
blade showing a red heat, cuts slowly, but
seals up the bleeding vessels on either side
and thus leaves practically a bloodless field
of operation. It is this which gives it its
great value. Also, in sealing up these blood
vessels and lymphatics there is no oppor-
tunity offered for the entrance of septic or
malignant matter.
If the skin be incised by this form of
cautery the adjacent sides will heal to-
gether as readily as after an incision made
by a knife, and furthermore, because there
210
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
is no loss of serum or especial damage to the
tissues there is practically no swelling of the
cauterized wound.
As the blade comes in contact with the
tissues it cools down quickly and it is de-
sirable to remove it every few seconds until
it glows again, when it is re-applied.
The electro-cautery is especially valuable
in nasal surgery, in orificial surgery, etc.
It is employed frequently to destroy as much
as possible of a cancer or other malignant
growth which is so situated that complete
surgical removal is impossible or inadvis-
able.
The faradic current shows practically no
difference between the effect of its poles
because it is an alternating current and the
poles change too quickly for chemical
effects to be manifested. I am referring
now to chemical effects only. As regards
the physiological properties of the two poles
there is a perceptible difference between the
positive and negative pole and the negative
pole is more irritating because the negative
wave is more abrupt, being the wave that
occurs with the breaking of the current.
The faradic current possesses absolutely
no electrolytic properties and cannot be
used to remove superfluous hair, growths,
etc. Ludicrous letters are often received
from physicians who state that they have
been unsuccessful in following the directions
given for removing small growths with their
battery and on further investigation it is'
found that they have been trying to do so
with the faradic battery.
The feature which gives this current its
true value is its ability to cause muscular
contractions with each make or break of
the current. The result of these contrac-
tions is the exercise of the muscular tissues
and consequent improvement in all of the
various bodily processes. There is an in-
creased oxidation of the tissues and an in-
creased elimination of the poisons or waste
products. Therefore, we think of the fara-
dic current as a "massage" current, and
find that in common with the high frequency
and sinusoidal currents it increases metabo-
lism or cellular activity, and is indicated in
all conditions where increased nutrition
either locally or generally is desired.
There is a method of applying the cur-
rent called general faradization, which is
accomplished by placing the feet upon a
plate connected to one pole of the battery
and a moistened sponge electrode attached
to the other pole, moving back and forth
over different parts of the body, usually dwell-
ing for from one to three minutes over the
head, neck, back, abdomen and extremities.
The patient may sit on the plate instead of
placing it under the feet, if so desired.
The galvanic and faradic currents may be
combined and thus the advantage of both
currents made use of. The method of
doing this is the connecting of the negative
pole of the galvanic current to the positive
pole of the faradic battery.
One method of administering faradic
currents and which also may be employed
for sinusoidal or galvanic currents, is by
means of the electric bath. In giving this
the poles of the battery end in good sized
copper plates, one of which is placed at the
ELECTRIC BATH
head and the other at the foot of a porcelain
bathtub, partly filled with water. Orainarily
the feet touch the lower plate, but the other
plate is kept from contact with the head or
shoulders by interposing a cushion or other
obstacle. The size of the plate used for
the head is usually about 12 by 16 inches;
the other possibly 10 by 12 inches. Another
way is by means of special electrodes as
shown in the diagram.
The patient is placed in the bathtub be-
fore the current is turned on; when it is
allowed to pass for a varied length of time
according to the case, the strength of cur-
rent being governed by the toleration of the
patient. This form of faradic bath may be
given with the ordinary home battery.
(To be continued.)
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
211
ELECTRIC POWER BOAT THAT MAKES 24 MILES AN HOUR
Speed and Pleasure with Elec-
tric Boats
The use of electricity as a means of pro-
pelling pleasure boats or launches is a matter
of common knowledge. But it will no
doubt be a surprise to many, especially those
who are enthusiastic over high-speed boats,
to know that power boats capable of making
24 miles an hour are now being run by stor-
age batteries and a motor driven propeller.
One of these high speed boats making fast
time on Lake George, New York, is shown
in one of the illustrations, the boat being
40 feet long and carrying a 70 horse-power.
Electric pleasure boats are also becoming
more popular every year. The one shown
seats 40 passengers and for its purpose is
built, in contrast to that of the high speed
boats, for making only six or seven miles
an hour.
The cost of current to run a 30-foot boat
is placed at about four cents an hour by
the Electric Launch Company, Bayonne,
New Jersey. The furnishings are almost
equal to those in a small modern home,
while electric light is used in the cabin and
for the headlight.
ELECTRIC PLEASURE LAUNCH, CAPACITY 40 PEOPLE
First Electrically Propelled Balloon
ELECTRICALLY PROPELLED BALLOON OF THE TISSANDIER BROTHERS
The continued suc-
cessful nights of the
dirigible balloons de-
signed and piloted by
Count von Zeppelin
recalls the much earlier
French effort in that
direction, the first in
which electricity fur-
nished the motive
power. Remarkable
as it may seem, this
was over a quarter of
a century ago, long
before the invention
of the storage battery,
hence the source of
current had to be pri-
mary batteries. In
1 88 1, one of the fea-
tures of the Exhibi-
tion of Electricity in
Paris was a small di-
rigible electric balloon
designed by Gaston
Tissandier, who was
then (as he is still)
CAR OF THE TISSANDIER BALLOON
editor of the clever
French scientific week-
ly "La Nature."
Having developed a
bichromate of potash
pile which promised
to be more powerful
in proportion to its
weight than the bat-
tery used in this small
balloon, M. Tissandier
and his brother Albert,
(who had meanwhile
started a .balloon fac-
tory at Auteuil) built
a much larger dirigi-
ble balloon, measuring
36 feet in diameter
and no feet from tip
to tip. The balloon
proper was of the
double pointed shape
developed by Dupuy
de Lome in 1872 and
was filled with hy-
dro gen gas. The
motor was of the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
213
BATTERY USED ON TISSANDIER BALLOON
Siemens type, wound to run at a maxi-
mum of 1800 revolutions per minute
and connected to the propeller through
a 1 to 10 gear. Current was furnished
by 24 bichromate of potash batteries
arranged in four groups, each of which was
connected by a flexible tube to a light hard-
rubber pail which contained the liquid.
When this pail was raised by means of a
block and tackle, the liquid entered the
battery and started the current. The 24
cells were connected in series and controlled
by means of a mercury commutator.
At the very first ascension the two Tis-
sandiers remained up over Paris for an hour
and a quarter, and while they were limited
in their evolutions by an incomplete control
of the rudder, they found the motive power
fully equal to the air currents which they
encountered. Indeed, Gaston Tissandier
promptly reported in "La Nature" (to
which we are indebted for our detail cuts
of the car and the battery) that "electricity
furnishes a balloon with one of the most
favorable of motors, the management of
which in the car is extremely easy." He
also adds what some of our contemporaries
have waited a quarter of a century to de-
monstrate: "Aerial navigation will not be
created all at once, for it necessitates numer-
ous trials, multiple efforts and a perseverance
that is proof against anything."
This historic ascent of the first electrically
guided balloon occurred on October 8,
1883, and seems to have been appreciated
by the leading periodicals of that time, to
one of which (" L 'Illustration") we owe our
illustration of the Tissandier balloon.
Recorders on the Berlin Cars
Since 1908 the Berlin traction companies
have equipped their cars with an electric
recorder which consists of a clock which is
automatically started or stopped every time
the motors are started or stopped.
The motormen have, as everywhere else,
a certain fixed time to complete a round trip.
This time is determined experimentally.
Those recording instruments make is pos-
sible to observe if the normal loss in time
due to stops is exceeded or not. The re-
sults of those observations are noted on the
crew record cards— and if for a certain period
of time they are unfavorable the crew is
detailed off to a new period of training.
If after that there is no improvement . the
men are discharged.
For 3000 conductors the control service
is looked after by 13 employees and the
clocks cost $10.00 each. Nevertheless the
resulting economy is considerable.
It was found out, however, that soon after
the device was installed the cars began to
come in ahead of time and it was possible
to increase the average speed by about
10 per cent and so it was found necessary to
buy 80 new cars, which increased number of
cars required the employment of 300 more
men. But the resulting service was better.
More, the repair cost of motors and brakes
has decreased about 20 or 30 per cent.
Tunnel from Sweden to Denmark
A project is on foot to build a tunnel be-
tween the Southern extremity of Amajer
Island in Denmark and Schonne in Sweden.
The length of the tunnel would be about
20 miles. It would contain two tracks; the
power for running the trains would be elec-
tricity, and the tunnel would be built with
great iron sections that would be deposited
on the bottom of the sea. The tunnel would
be used for the transportation of freight and
passengers.
214
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Brilliant Flaming Arcs
The first installation in the Northwest of
18-ampere flaming arc lamps was made in
front of the National Guard Armory at
Minneapolis, for service during the first
annual electrical show held by the North-
western Electrical Association, March 26th,
to April 2nd, 1 910.
One of the difficult problems to be solved
by the Association was the illumination of
ture suns, attracting considerable attention
for a great distance in all directions.
The Early Days in Texas
One ring of the bell: "Short of ice;"
two rings: "Need more beer."
Such was the signal code used in an en-
terprising Texas town long before the pro-
hibition wave struck that section, and in-
deed long before the telephone was gener-
TWO FLAMING ARCS LIGHT THE WHOLE FRONT OF THE MINNEAPOLIS ARMORY
the exterior of the Armory and its grounds.
After giving the matter due consideration
as to the best methods of illumination, it
was decided to install the new 18-ampere
General Electric flaming arc lamp.
As an experiment, two of these lamps
were placed at the top of a fifty-foot pole,
approximately 75 feet in front of the Armory.
Much to the surprise of those interested
these two lamps not only gave a brilliant
golden light, sufficient to illuminate the en-
tire building and street in front, but proved
to be the best possible advertisement for
the electrical show. As the lamps swung
high in the air, they resembled two minia-
ally introduced. At that time most of the
saloons in the town were controlled by a
brewer who tried to save expense by carry-
ing only a limited supply of both beer and
ice at each place. By having his head-
quarters connected with each saloon through
an ordinary annunciator call system he was
able to keep in touch with the urgent needs
at each point. The saving in ice alone is
said to have paid for the installing of the
system in a single summer, but with the
general introduction of telephones it was
outclassed some years later. However, the
method was typical of the many uses of
even a simple electrical annunciator.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
215
Who Will "Invest" Him?
The Montefiore Prize
That the Japanese are interested in the
new electrical developments, and have an
eye for a good money-making proposition,
is evidenced by the following letter. Per-
haps someone with a little money to invest
would like to go into the lecturing business
in Japan:.
Editor Popular Electricity:
I am afraid to ask you these questions, but allow
me to inquire you. I have an ambition on elec-
trical business. I am a Japanese boy who have
an interest in electricity. Well, few years ago
when our country first time saw the telephone, we
were surprised to see it (we saw the telephone in-
strument by the traveling telephone show man)
and he operates instruments everywhere he went
(especially in school) and he made about $20 to
$35 every day by operating instruments and he
made his fortune with his pair of telephone instru-
ments.
Now I would like to be a one of traveling man
with the wireless telegraph instrument. There is
no one tra'veled yet with the sample wireless instru-
ment, so I would like to go to Japan with pair of
instrument but I can't devote all my expense in
this present time so I would like to know if there is
someone would invest me in business. Few
months ago I wrote to Manhattan Electrical Sup-
ply Co. and Mr. J. J. Duck, Ohio, but they can't
do anything but give the percent if I would take
order for their Company.
Please let me know where I can find the man
who would invest me on this business.
Yours very truly,
Thomas Uchiyamada.
Care The Escalante,
Ash Fork, Ariz.
P. S. I am the student of the I. C. S. Electrical
Engineering.
Electric Traction on Bavarian Roads
From an official report published on the
eventual electrification of the Bavarian
railroad the amount of power necessary for
the transformation would be about 600,000
horse-power.
There is enough hydraulic power in the
country to permit of the electrification, which
would be particularly convenient in the
southern part of the country where the
traffic is comparatively light and where
most of the waterfalls are situated. In the
northern part for economical electrical
operation the traffic should be twice as
heavy as it is in the southern part. The ex-
pense for the three lines to be equipped first
is counted to be about 8,000,000 marks.
The speed of express trains is to be 50 miles
per hour and single phase alternating cur-
rent is to be used.
The Administrative Council of the Asso-
ciation of Electrical Engineers connected
with the Montefiore Electrical Institute in
Liege, Belgium have announced the giving
of a prize which will bear the name of
"Fondation George Montefiore Levi." Thir-
ty thousand dollars invested in three per
cent Belgian bonds furnishes the means for
offering a triennial prize which amounts to
$4,000 and which will be available for the
first time in 191 1. This money is to be
given for the best original work on the
progress, advancement and application of
electricity in modern life. The papers
will be passed upon by a body of judges
consisting of ten electrical engineers, five
Belgians and five foreigners, presided over
by the president of the Institute. The papers
may be in either French or English, printed
or written. Each manuscript must bear an
assumed name and also a sealed envelope
in which the writer on a card gives his real
name and address. Contributions must be
in on or before March 11, 191 1, and should
be addressed to the secretary of the Fonda-
tion, George Montefiori Levi, 31 Rue St.
Gilles, Liege, Belgium.
THE AERIAL BURGLAR
The field of usefulness of the lightning rod
is to be presently extended.
Under-running Trolleys in Paris
By EMILE RUEGG
It is unquestionably a fact that trolley
wires spoil the good looks of any elegant
city. Paris knows it, too. But can we do
without them? The picture proves that the
Parisian is able to do so. The scene
represented is at the Etoile, one of the most
beautiful places of the picturesque city.
Here the Thomson-Houston system has
found the largest application.
In the centre between the two rails we find
a slot about ij inches wide and rather deep
carry three slides which glide constantly
upon the pavement, from time to time mak-
ing connection with these plugs. The dis-
tances between these plugs are measured
very exactly so that some of the slides are
always upon plugs which is essential for a
regular current supply.
The loss of current in this system is quite
considerable, it is said, especially during
rainy weather and in winter when the
humidity acts as a conductor. The plugs are
UNDER-RUNNING TROLLEY CAR AND TYPE OF CONTACT BUTTON USED IN PARIS
(about one yard). Instead of having a.
trolley upon the roof of the electric cars
reaching up to the wires, we find here a
trolley reaching down into the slot where
it takes the current below the surface of the
earth. This system is the most perfect one
of its kind and hardly ever gives rise to
any disturbances or irregularities.
The small view shows a current tap of
peculiar shape. Such plugs are buried at
regular distances from each other in the
pavement between the two rails in some parts
of Paris. The electric cars are long and
weii insulated from the ground but losses
occur just the same, caused by moisture.
It is also a peculiarity of this system that
during night time there may be seen tre-
mendous flashes like lightning. This is
especially true during rainy weather or
when some sand or stone causes the slide
below to be lifted from the plugs, thus in-
terrupting the current. Many a horse has
been frightened by such sparks and accidents
have occasionally been reported. The news-
papers also reported occasional accidents to
horses during rainy weather, which have
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
217
been caused by a contact of the hoofs of the
horse and the iron wheels of the wagons, etc.
But such accidents are fortunately but
very seldom and happen perhaps every one
or two years. Pedestrians are not harmed
because to step on one of the plugs will not
permit of a shock and they are too far apart
to enable one to touch two of them at the
same time.
The cars carry a trolley pole in addition
to the "under-running trolley." While the
cars are running in the city the trolley is
hooked down, but as soon as they leave the
city walls behind them, the trolleys are set
upon the trolley wires above and without
a moment's delay may run under another
system. There are, however," many sub-
urban electric cars which run in the city
as well as also in the country on such plugs
only.
Testing Copper-Clad Steel Wire
When selecting wire for carrying electric
current, the mechanical strength as well as
the conductivity must be considered. Al-
though copper wire is a better conductor
used in making steel and copper wire and
comes out copper-clad steel wire. To test
this wire two poles are set some distance
apart. In the illustration a No. 10 hard-
drawn copper wire and a No. 12 copper-clad
steel wire are suspended side by side be-
tween the posts and weighted uniformly by
pieces of lead, the total weight on each wire
being 109 pounds. The sag is measured
from a third wire drawn between the posts
the test being carried in some cases to the
breaking point of the wires.
Batteries Large and Small
Nowadays when we light our way at
night on country paths with pocket size
batteries, it is interesting to look back at
some of the experimental batteries of exactly
two centuries ago, when various investigators
were using batteries of enormous size with-
out even dreaming of producing light from
the same. Several experimenters of that
period reported their using batteries com-
posed of at least twenty cells, each cell having
a pair of zinc and copper plates and the
plates themselves being two feet wide and
THE WIRE IS PUT UNDER TENSION BY HANGING ON LEAD WEIGHTS
than iron and steel wire, the latter is much
used for telegraph and telephone purposes
because the copper wire lacks tensile strength,
a copper wire large enough to stand the
strain on long spans costing too much on
account of the increased size of wire neces-
sary.
To secure both conductivity and strength
a steel wire covered with a coating of copper
is now made by welding molten copper on
a billet of steel. The bar is then sub-
jected to a process of rolling similar to that
four feet high. The favorite solution at
that time was a diluted mixture of nitric
and sulphuric acids, which must have con-
sumed the plates rapidly. But the more
remarkable point was the size of the plates
and therefore of the cells, some of which
held over a hundred gallons of solution.
Think what a supply of energy we would
have today if we were to fill the same size
of tank or jar with the modern high-ampere
dry cells as used for our portable flash-
lights!
218
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The Electric Semaphore
"Stop, Look and Listen!" are words sig-
nifying danger to those who cross railroad
tracks guarded by a crossing signal. To
the locomotive engineer who must cross the
, track of an-
other road or
run into the
railway station
of a big city
where trains
are arriving
and leaving
every hour of
the day and
night the arm
attached to the
top of the pole
as shown in
the picture
spells "stop"
when in its
horizontal po-
sitio n and
"clear" when
it swings up
to a vertical
position.
In the little
iron case on
the pole is a
motor, the
wires of which
run down the
pole and to a
watch tower,
where, by the
simple opera-
tion of closing
a switch, the
motor is start-
ed and swings
the semaphore
into the proper
position ready
to deliver its
message. On
many railroads
these signals
are still oper-
ated by hand
from a system
of levers in the
signal tower
and metal rods
along the track
THE INTERIOR OF AN ELECTRIC SEMAPHORE
to the signal pole, but the illustration shows
the same thing accomplished by the elec-
trical equipment of the General Railway
Signal Company.
Three Centuries of Electric Bells
ELECTRIC SEMA-
PHORES GUARD
THE WAY
What is probably the earliest available
reference to an electric bell is found in a
rare volume to which the catalog of the
British Museum assigns the date of 1600,
though it more likely was issued some ten
years later. It was published in Nurem-
berg, the famous toy center of Germany, by
Janus de Sunde under the title: "Secret,
Magic and Natural Arts of Communica-
tion." In this book de Sunde tells of a
wonder worker as calling up a friend by
ringing a bell through the means of a bar
magnet — in other words, he vaguely de-
scribes a magnetically operated bell.
Another of the secret and magical means
of communication described by the same
author consists of needles moved by bar
magnets so as to indicate letters by one or
more strokes of the needles to the right and
the left — a simple needle telegraph . Thus we
find among the mysteriously magical of three
hundred years ago the basis of the magnetic
boys' play of more recent years. Fifty years
later another philosopher of Nuremberg
described a bell in which the clapper was
moved by the armature of a magnet.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
219
Insulating Materials
VULCANIZED FIBRE
The very extensive use of this material
is due more to its mechanical properties and
to its easy shaping in all required forms than
to its insulating qualities. This material is
nothing more than wooden fibres which,
treated by some chemical agents, dissolve
and are solidified by drying after being sub-
mitted to a very high pressure.
The manufacture of this insulating fibre
requires the right kind of wood, very ac-
curate workmanship in making the paste,
in drying and in its compression. Particular
attention is also paid to the humidity in the
surrounding atmosphere and its tempera-
ture, and powerful machinery is required.
To obtain it in workable quantities and
conditions it is necessary to have recourse
to American manufacturers. Germany has
tried to manufacture it, or just as good a
substitute, but has now given up hope of
ever succeeding. It is put on the market
in sheets 44 by 66 inches. The thickness
varies from thousandth of an inch to one
inch and a half, in rods or in tubes.
The color (black, red or gray) does not
involve any difference in the ' properties,
and the price is satisfactorily low.
But while this substance has high mechani-
cal resistance to vibration, is not sensibly
affected by acids or solvents and oily mat-
ters and can be easily worked, its dielectric
strength is not high and it is very sensitive
to humidity and can give trouble by absorb-
ing water up to 10 per cent of its own weight.
It is true that it regains some of its good
properties by drying, but the drying process
must be natural and the fibre must not be
exposed to a high temperature — otherwise
it will lose its elasticity.
The proper precaution to take is to use a
very high grade waterproof varnish to pro-
tect the fibre.
The fibre is a poor conductor of the heat
and burns with difficulty and also under
operation gets better the older it is.
WOOD
Wood, especially when hard and seasoned
in a dry place, owing to its comparatively
low price, its abundance, and the ease with
which it is worked, is used very largely in
electric machinery, i. e., from bases for elec-
tric bells to the largest three-phase motors.
In theory the price should not be considered
at all when looking for some scientifically
perfect insulating material. Practically, the
price is one of the most important factors,
and this gives wood a preference except
where it cannot absolutely be used, as in
case of high electric tension.
Often wood is used for the bulk of the
insulating device, to give it strength, and is
lined with porcelain, asbestos, etc., in
holes where electric conductors go through.
Wood is highly hygroscopic and when
wet loses all its dielectric power. Its texture
is not uniform, and burns easily, and its
dielectric power is not high.
To obviate this the wood used is very hard
and dry, is coated with varnish or impreg-
nated with preserving matter. But if for
this purpose the usual solution of paraffine
or vegetable resin is used there is a*n increase
in the possibility of fire. It is preferable to
use a good varnish which will preserve the
wood from water and will not increase the
danger by heat or short circuit.
When wood comes in contact continuous-
ly with heavy oil the danger of humidity de-
creases, moreover the wood will enjoy the
advantages of being continuously in contact
with a substance which is by itself a good
insulator, without any increase in its com-
bustibility. So wood can be used without
inconvenience in oil switches and in cer-
tain parts of transformers. Wood cellulose
is moreover largely the foundation for the
manufacture of many other insulating ma-
terials like fibre-insulating paper, etc.
Tungsten Lights Up First
Have you ever noticed how much more
quickly a tungsten lamp lights up after the
current is turned on than does a carbon
lamp ? This effect is due to the difference
between the hot and the cold resistance of
the two filaments. A piece of tungsten wire
having a resistance of one ohm at o°C in-
creases its resistance to seven ohms at
iooo°C. In the carbon lamp the resistance
of the filament cold is twice as great as when
it is at an incandescent heat. Now if we
E
apply Ohm's law, C= — , with these two
R
conditions in mind and remember that the
heating effect is proportional to the current
squared, we see that the heat generated in
a tungsten lamp when first lighted is very
great, while in a carbon it is correspond-
ingly small at the start.
220
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
It Sparks Under Water
Nothing so quickly tells on the action of
an induction coil used for ignition as the
presence of moisture in its windings. The
water soaks through the insulation, short-
circuiting the coils and preventing a spark,
liijjSs^ and to repair
a coil so dam-
aged requires
the services
of an experi-
enced work-
man.
The illus-
tration shows
a Perfex ig-
niter consist-
ing of a coil
and spark
plug com-'
bined operat-
ing under
water, as ex-
hibited at a
recent motor-
boat show.
Operation
under such
co nditions
speaks well for the quality of the insu-
lation used in the coil.
light lamps of practical sizes with the same.
Besides, the voltage of these bichromate
batteries is considerably higher than that
of the dry batteries used in the flashlights
now on the market both here and abroad.
It therefore is not surprising that a revised
form of this familiar bichromate battery
should be offered on the European market
for temporary or intermittent lighting, such
as may be needed in a sickroom, closet or
cellar. In this commercial form the lamp
is fastened directly to the screw cover of the
jar, while the zinc is lowered into the liquid
by merely depressing the top of a sliding
rod which normally holds the zinc out of the
solution. The latter is made by adding
clear water to a chromic salt which is sold
in packages to users of the battery. Each
filling is said to last about fifteen hours with
intermittent use of the battery; that is, if the
light is used fifteen minutes daily. The battery
should run about two months before the
liquid ne^ds renewing. The same battery
lamp is also said to make a convenient ruby
lantern for photographer's uses when a ruby
globe is placed over the lamp.
COIL AND PLUG
OPERATING
UNDER WATER
Ornamental Pendant Pushes
Return to Battery Lamp
Centuries of use have made the old
fashioned bell pulls such a familiar part of
European interiors that many people in-
sist on still maintaining them, partly for
Thirty years ago the experimenter's
favorite source of electric current (as hun-
dreds of our readers can
testify) was a battery in
which carbon and zinc
electrodes were used with
a solution of bichromate
of potassium and dilute
sulphuric acid. Such a
battery gives a fairly
steady current for 15 or
20 minutes and could be
used on a play scale even
for temporarily lighting
low voltage miniature
lamps. In recent years
the development of tung-
sten and other metallic fila- novel battery
ment lamps has made the lamp
lighting power of such a
battery thrice as great as before, so that in-
stead of the toy miniature lamps we can now
ornamental pendant pushes
their artistic effect. This is particularly
true of hotels and inns which like to keep
up their time honored appearance. In these
we still find bell pulls, but instead of the
clumsy cords and tassels of fifty years ago.
we now have dainty flexible cords with
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
221
ornamental forms of what we generally call
pendant or pear-shaped pushes. Some of
these imitate fruits or nuts, such as apples,
pears or acorns. Another has a sparkling
glass column set in a gilded metal frame-
work, while still another has a miniature
figure of a maid of Munich.
Old Coffee Roaster Resurrected
Hiding the Lamps
The old adage about not hiding one's
light under a bushel seems to be set at naught
by the developments of recent years, for a
large variety of interiors
are nowadays lit by lamps
which themselves are hid-
den from view. By pro-
jecting the light to the
ceiling and letting that
diffuse the light, we get
rid of the direct glare of the lamps, so we are
practically getting our illumination from
lamps hid under. a bushel.
Where such a method of lighting is ap-
plicable, the present problem narrows it-
self down practically to a choice of the re-
flecting and concealing fixture, which may
be highly artistic or decidedly homespun.
For instance, two such indirect lighting fix-
tures were recently advertised in the same
month's issue of a European and an Ameri-
can technical journal. Both designs
are here reproduced, leaving each reader
to make his own comments.
Electricity from the River Jordan
It may seem sacrilegious but nevertheless
a company is being formed to build a light
and power plant at the falls of the Jordan
between Meron and Lake Gallilee. The
river at this point makes a descent of 700
feet and it is planned to build the plant large
enough to supply all of the large towns of
Palestine.
As long as coffee is " green" or unroastea,
the oils in the beans preserve its freshness
so that it will keep not only through the long
voyage from
Guatemala o r
Brazil, but also
for months and
even years af-
ter reaching the 72
northern coun-
tries. Roast- -3=
ing the beans
removes these preservative oils, hence the
roasted coffee loses rapidly in strength and
flavor unless kept from exposure to the air.
The average dealer gets his supply only
once or twice a month, and it may have been
roasted for weeks before being shipped to
him, so the consumer often suffers from the
flat taste of the old coffee.
Having had this experience once too often,
a shrewd German with a fondness for a
good cup of "Bliemchen Kaffee" decided
to roast his own hereafter. So he resurrec-
ted a neat little coffee roaster which his
grandmother had tucked away in the attic
years ago. This he fastened to an electric
hot-plate, so that the heat of the plate would
gradually roast the beans in the drum, which
is slowly turned by hand. A Yankee prob-
ably would have fastened this to an electric
toaster, but toast is not a German dish.
Instrument to Detect Gas Leakage
An Italian professor has invented a very
simple instrument adapted to any locality
to detect gas leakages. It is very strong
and makes an electric bell ring long before
sufficient gas has accumulated to endanger
people by fire or suffocation.
The gas molecules to get into the surround-
ing atmosphere have to pass through the
sides of a small porcelain cylinder which
contains air at a normal pressure. These
gas molecules enter the chamber much more
quickly than the inside air can escape and
make place for them. This is due to the
"osmotic" properties of the gas.
The pressure inside is so increased that
a small column of mercury is moved and
closes a circuit setting a bell to ringing.
The bell is kept ringing also after the normal
pressure is restored inside the cylinder by
a special disposition of the circuit.
Statuary Authenticity Determined by X-Rays
By DR. ALFRED GRADENWITZ
Dr. Bode, director of the Royal Museum
at Berlin, purchased in England, a short
time ago, a wax bust called "Flora," sup-
posed to be a production of Leonardo da
Vinci (XVI Century). Immediately after-
wards the authenticity of this bust was
questioned by an English art expert, and
The Times published a letter from a South-
THE FLORA OF LEONARDO DA VINCI
ampton antiquarian and auctioneer, Mr.
Cooksey, in which the writer declared that
an English sculptor, Mr. R. C. Lucas, who
died in 1883, was the author of the work.
This sensational assertion did not fail to
have its effect, and new proofs of the recent
origin of the bust were sought for and found
every day, which naturally induced the
purchaser, who believed in the authenticity
of the bust, to search for counterproofs.
Though the artistic value of the wax bust
itself, which has been placed at the Emperor
Frederick Museum, cannot be affected in
any way by the issue of this discussion, the
different methods used for ascertaining the
age of the bust are of more than passing
interest, as all the resources of modern
engineering were drawn upon in this con-
nection.
The principal reason for considering
Lucas as the author of the work was a
photograph said to have been taken by the
sculptor in his studio from a wax bust, and
which bears the following inscription written
in pencil by Lucas himself: "The 'Flora' of
Leonardo da Vinci." This photograph
showed a female figure, draped in a shawl
and dressed in a light garb, which, apart
from the hands, that are wanting in the wax
bust, bore a striking likeness to the latter.
Dr. Bode compared this photograph with
some pictures taken from the bust he had
X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH SHOWED THAT THE
HEAD WAS STUFFED
purchased and came to the conclusion that
the busts represented in the respective
photographs could not possibly be identical,
some striking differences being visible at
first sight.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
223
MENTS FOR MELT-
ING THE WAX
However, in spite of
this visual evidence an
accurate photographic
measuring process en-
abled Dr. Miethe to ob-
tain a perfect coincidence
of the Lucas picture and
the recent photographs.
In view of the absolute
identity of measurements
in all parts of the bust,
Dr. Miethe pronounced
himself in favor of the
English hypothesis.
Needless to say, those
of the other party were
not satisfied with this
negative result, and called
in the aid of chemical
analysis. The melting
point of some wax
samples taken from vari-
ous portions of the bust special instru
was determined and
found to be somewhat
lower than that of the
usual wax as used by modern artists.
Other chemical factors failed to yield any
definite evidence.
The most sanguine hopes however were
attached to the use of X-rays for examining
the structure of the bust. In fact, some
persons, among whom was the son of the
supposed author, affirmed that Lucas, in
order to save some material, had practised
the strange habit of filling up his wax
figures with old rags, pieces of clothing,
etc. Now, as X-rays enable substances of
different densities in the interior of an object
to be distinguished on the photographic
plate, an X-ray examination of the bust
was made.
This interesting operation was carried out
on November 13th, last, in the photographic
studio of the Museum, in the presence of a
committee composed of the foremost Ber-
lin art experts.
One of the X-ray pictures so obtained is
illustrated herewith. It shows without any
doubt that the interior of the bust does
contain substances of different densities,
and the same result was obtained by visual
X-ray inspection. In order further to in-
vestigate the nature of the material con-
tained in the bust, the committee had an
electrical manufacturer construct a special
electrical instrument for melting an opening
into the wax, without marring the appearance
of the bust. This instrument, as shown in
the picture, was somewhat on the principle
of the electric cauterizing instrument used
by dentists and surgeons.
After thus melting some holes into the
bust, the experimenters succeeded in re-
moving some tissue samples, which were
submitted for further examination to special
experts. In order to leave no doubt as to
the possible origin of the fabric, a sample
was even sent to London, where the officials
of a museum found them to belong to the
Victorian Age.
In spite of this apparent evidence in favor
of the recent origin of the bust, those who
believe in the opposite hypothesis are still
left the possibility of considering Lucas
not as the author but as the restorer of this
masterpiece.
The New York and Paris Subway:;
The New York and Paris subway sys-
tems are of about the same length (31 miles)
in two cities of about the same population.
The Paris subway is a double track system,
the New York four track one with two ex-
press tracks. Paris has many branch lines,
New York one main line and very few
branches.
The average speed of trains in Paris is
about 12 miles per hour and the maximum
36. The corresponding values for New
York are 15 miles for local and 25 miles for
express trains, and a maximum speed of
40 miles.
The average distance between stations in
Paris is about three miles, against four
miles for local and several miles for ex-
press service in New York.
The fares are three cents and five cents,
with transfers, in Paris, and five cents and
no transfers in New York.
The following figures give an idea of the
traffic intensity:
New York Paris
Number of cars 837 951
Total seating capacity per car. . 52 28
Total car kilometers (3280 ft.)
in millions of km 70 56
Total of passengers in millions. 200 282
Passengers per track mile 2 2.9
Passengers per car mile 2.85 5.1
The difference in the figures is easily ex-
plained by the fact that the distribution of
the population is more uniform in Paris than
in New York and the distances are shorter.
224
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The Work of the Crane
Power of Electric Locomotives
To handle the tons and tons of metal in
the form of beams, and girders stored in the
structural steel yards of today would be an
impossible task were it not for lifting cranes.
Electrically driven traveling hoists capable
of lifting tons are much used for this pur-
pose and hasten the loading and unloading
of cars and long hauling wagons. Parallel
From the latest experiments in Italy on
the state electric railways it has been estab-
lished that a three-phase electric locomotive
can pull 5.45 times its own weight, while a
single-phase locomotive can only pull a
train of 2.7 times its weight. Other
conditions being equal it takes a single-
phase locomotive twice as heavy as a three-
TRAVELING BRIDGE CRANE IN A STRUCTURAL STEEL YARD
CRANE PILING STEEL RAILS
tracks of heavy I-beams are supported on
posts as shown and across this span is
placed a heavy girder which is electrically
propelled back and forth while the load lifted
is carried from one place to another.
phase to do the same amount of work. As
the price per ton of the two kinds of engines
is not very different in the calculations for
electric operation of railroads this will prove
quite an important factor.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
225
Line Construction in Elfland
Every age develops its share of folklore,
though some generations may pass before
this becomes current enough to be classic.
The fairy tales so ably gathered for the bene-
fit of our grandparents and of all succeeding
times by Grimm, Andersen and Hauff
relate to folk with much simpler customs
and surroundings than we have today. Our
own times and habits will play their part
in the folklore of another century, and will
**-— _ r\ v-"\. V< ' v*--^>J
LINE CONSTRUCTION IN ELFLAND
no doubt reflect some phases of electrical
development.
Or it may easily be that the vague and
erratic memory which helps to create such
vividly beautiful tales, will transplant some
of our customs to the fairy folk of much
older times, so that the same fascinating
people will occur in new roles. One artist
has already been embued with this idea.
He has let his fancy roam to the time when
Elfland has felt the wave of electrical progress
and when the little gnomes or elfmen have
started to erect pole lines from the water
falls Way up in the wooded mountains to
their capital on the little knoll by the sea.
Will they use single phase or three-phase
transmission? Ah, how prosaic we are!
The artist, like the moulders of the word-
pictures in our fairy tales, sees the more
artistic points. What matter how the cir-
cuits run, or what rate of alternations is
adopted, when flashes like this appeal to
him: "And the other gnomes crowded
around him, for no more had he touched
his magic auger to the ground but it bored
itself deep and straight into the earth, just
where the first pole was to be set."
Electric Engines on Italian Railroads
Following is some data on the 40 electric
engines that the Italian State Railroads are
going to use on their new electric lines.
The engines have two motors fed by a
three-phase current of 3000 volts, 15 cycles.
The motors have eight poles and connected
in series run at a speed of 11 2.5 revolutions
per minute, giving the trains a velocity of
14 miles per hour. Connected in parallel,
with a speed of 225 revolutions per minute,
the train velocity is 28 miles per hour.
The total length of the engine is 31 feet
four inches between bumpers. The dis-
tance between the rail and trolley contact
is 19 feet eight inches, and between the rail
and roof, 13 feet. The trolley contact can
be lowered to a distance of 14 feet from the
rail to take care of the different heights of
the trolley wire. There are five pairs of
driving wheels 40 inches in diameter and
the total weight of the engine is 165,000
pounds with ballast.
The total horse-power is about 2000, at
300 amperes. For the operating conditions
this was required for two engines to be able
to pull a train of 840,000 pounds net weight
at a speed not to exceed 28 miles per hour
on a grade of 35 per 100c and with curves of
1350 feet radius.
The motor temperature after an hour run
at 117 amperes and 3000 volts does not ex-
ceed by more than 750 C. the temperature
of the surrounding atmosphere.
The continuous run tests were especially
fitted to the peculiarly mountainous country
and very thorough. An 84,000 pound train
had to be started and brought up to a velocity
of 14 miles per hour 30 times per hour on
a three per 1000 grade with curves not to
exceed 600 feet radius without any of the
engine parts getting out of order by heating.
The trolley contact is made up of two
bronze cylinders on ball bearings and a
steel axis. The trolley is kept in place by
a spring actuated by compressed air. If
the air pressure in this mechanism is released
226
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
from the engine cab the trolley pole falls
by its own weight.
The net weight of the locomotive being
67 tons, the horse power per ton is about
30, which gives a fair idea of the advantages
in regard to power per ton weight of this
electric locomotive over a correspondingly
powerful steam engine.
It is to be noted that all Italian electric
railroads use alternating high tension cur-
rent with overhead conductors and that the
third rail system has been used very little.
First Wireless Telephone
In 1879, long before the day of the Hert-
zian wave and modern wireless telegraphy,
Alexander Graham Bell devised and operated
a "wireless telephone." Starting with Clerk
Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light,
he undertook to impress phonetic distur-
bances upon the light waves and reproduce
them in a telephone receiver by means of a
bit of selenium, which has the remarkable
property of changing its resistance to an
electric current when under the influence of
Battery
FIRST WIRELESS TELEPHONE
light. A cell made of two narrow strips of
annealed selenium attached to a block of
brass alters its resistance from 300 to 150
ohms when brought from darkness into the
sunlight.
A beam of bright light was directed upon
the surface of a silvered mica diaphragm which
reflected it to a parobolic mirror at the re-
ceiving station. Here the light was again
reflected by the inner surface of the mirror
so that it converged through a lens upon a
small selenium cell at the focus of the mir-
ror, and in series with a battery and the
telephone receiver.
As the voice waves of the sender impinged
upon the silvered diaphragm it vibrated to
and fro, altering the amount of reflected light
according as it became convex or concave
toward the receiver. With each variation
of the intensity of the transmitted light the
selenuim cell or "detector" offered a cor-
responding variation in its resistance to the
receiver current; and since each variation
of current causes a sound in the telephone,
the voice of the sender was accurately re-
produced.
At first the apparatus was called a "photo-
phone," but it was afterwards found that
when a black solution of iodine in carbon
bisulphide was placed in the path of the
beam of light the instrument would still
work, for though the solution is quite opaque
to all light visible to the eye the long, in-
visible infra-red rays pass through unhin-
dered. From this circumstance the name
was changed to "radio-phone."
Of course with the old arrangement speech
could not be transmitted over any consider-
able distance, but that is because the wave
length used was too short to penetrate many
obstacles and too refrangible to maintain its
individuality in the presence of interference.
Tungsten Not a New Metal
While the metal tungsten has been used
only during the last few years as a material
for making incandescent lamp filaments, it
is not in itself a new article. Indeed it is
practically as old as this republic of ours,
for it was in 1781 that Joseph and Fausto
d'Elhujar discussed the properties of tungsten
in a Spanish treatise.
Even at that time they recognized its
unusual density and hence unusual weight,
which make the name tung-sten (heavy
stone) so appropriate. For, instance, a bar
of tungsten of a given size will weigh about
two and a half times as much as a similar
bar of iron or steel. This implies that the
particles composing the metal tungsten
must be packed much more closely together
than those forming iron or steel. Is it a
wonder then" that the addition of tungsten
to steel makes it harder and more tenacious
so as to adapt it to tools for use at higher
speeds? This so-called "tungsten steel"
was first made in Germany fifty years ago
and embodied the chief use of tungsten
until the latter proved itself to be the most
suitable of all known materials for making
lamp filaments of high efficiency.
FORPMCTICAL ELECTMCALWORKERS
//OW TO MAKE AND OPERATE ELECTR/CAL DEV/CES
Electric Soldering Iron
Numerous inquiries have been sent in
asking about the construction of electric
soldering irons. As much money and time
have been spent by manufacturers in this
field with more and often less satisfactory
results, and as such a device is somewhat
more complicated than the amateur would
care to undertake, we have not heretofore
given space to this matter. However, a
subscriber sends in this sketch and de-
scription of an iron which he states operates
very satisfactorily on either no volts direct
or alternating. The more essential features
are here given, from which by referring to
steel (N) shouldered at (F). The coil
spool (S) is threaded at the left end, and
into it. is screwed the soldering copper (G)
which has a flange as a shoulder. A 1-32
inch brass shell (H) protects the heating
coil. Mica washers (M) held in place by
a steel washer (O) assist in keeping the heat
from reaching the handle. The wires from
the coil are brought out through holes
drilled in the mica, the iron washer being
cut away as shown in Fig. 2.
In winding the heating coil, first insulate
the spool (S) by wrapping it with a layer
of sheet mica, and also with two mica
washers (W1W2), (WJ being reinforced by
an iron washer (K). Then wind on 70
SHOWING THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON
the illustration, details can be worked out
by the builder.
Provide a brass tube (A), \ inch outside
diameter, f inch inside, and threaded at
both ends. One end of this tube is screwed
into a nut (B) in the hard maple handle
(C). The open space at the left of this nut
affords room for the knot which serves to
anchor the heater cord. A smooth steel
bushing (E) forms the outlet at the handle,
and a brass ferrule (D) is fitted over this
handle at the other end. At the right, the
brass tube (A) is screwed into a neck of
turns of bare No. 28 iA iA resistance
wire, separating each turn from the last a
distance equal to the diameter of the wire.
Over this wrap another layer of mica, and
upon it wind a second layer of resistance
wire. Six layers of wire should thus be
put on, and the final coil insulated from the
brass shell (H) by mica. Glass beads are
strung on the bare wires from the coil to
the cord in the handle. Our correspondent
says that in from five to ten minutes after
current is turned on the iron is ready for
use.
228
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Electric Stove and Toaster
Quite a number have asked how to make
a small electric stove or toaster. Although
it would be difficult to make one of these
devices which would be as efficient and long-
lived as the commercial types which have
required years of experiment to develop,
by exercising a little care and ingenuity one
can be made which will work fairly well.
FIG. I
One of the readers of Popular Electricity
has written in and explained how he turned
the trick, which may be of interest to others.
Here is how he went to work :
The first thing to do is to get a piece of
asbestos board one-half inch thick and cut
out a circle 12 inches in diameter. This
is the part (A), Fig. 1. To the bottom of
this screw three one-inch porcelain insulators
for feet.
FIG. 2
From a piece of f-inch asbestos cut a ring
(B) Figs. 1 and 2, 12 inches in outside diam-
eter and nine inches inside diameter.
Screw this down on (A) with three or four
screws.
Get about No. 19 German silver wire and
wind it on the blade of a table knife, taking
it off as you wind.
To find out when you have the right
amount stretch the wire out on some bricks
and join the electric circuit wires to each
end, and if the wire (German silver) does
not get red move one of the circuit wires
along down the loose coil till the latter gets
red hot. If it gets red quickly move the
circuit wire back till the coil comes up to a
red heat slowly, then you will have the
correct amount.
However before doing this be sure to
anneal the heater wire by passing it through
a flame till it gets red hot, this makes the
wire softer.
To put the wire in the heater start from
one side, Fig. 2, and nail the wire down to
(2) by small copper staples so that the wire
will not work loose and make short circuits.
Carry it back and forth as shown. Fasten
the two ends to binding posts (1) and (2),
IV/ne Co\yer> A
In
Or^TI
Circuit Wines
fig. 3
going through to the bottom. To these
posts connect the two terminals of your
circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
The last step is very easy, get a piece of
wire netting, made of No. 16 wire, and also
made without solder, cut this to fit the top
of the stove, screwing it down over (B), with
small washers to keep it firm.
Instead of the German silver wire you
might use some of the well known resistance
wires, such as "Nichrome," for instance,
using about No. 21 or 22. This is known as
non-oxidizing and will not burn out as
quickly.
The Door Bell Circuit
The article that appeared on page 59
of the May issue on how to operate a bell
from a lighting circuit by means of a lamp in
series with the bell has been justly criticized
from the point of view of the possible dan-
ger of fire. Of course while the lamp is
intact and if the wiring is done in a manner
to enable it safely to carry the no- volt
current no harm would result. But some
might get the impression from the article
that ordinary bell wiring could be used,
which would be highly dangerous.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Vest Pocket Wire Gauge
229
A convenient pocket or key ring wire
gauge is here illustrated', the pointer being
Divoted so as to swing over a scale as the
WIRE GAUGE
device is applied to the wire. The pointer
stops at the proper point to give in direct
reading the size B. and S. gauge of any wire
from No. oooo to 18 inclusive. The scale
is made of hardened finished steel.
How to Make a Warming Pan
When Dickens, in one of Mr. Pickwick's
celebrated speeches, laid emphasis on warm-
ing pans, he little dreamt that even these
might some day be classed among electrical
devices, yet such is the case. Any mechanic
can make a simple type such as we are
picturing, which consists of a flat and pre-
ferably curved tin case with an opening at
one end through which an ordinary incan-
descent lamp can be introduced. The
opening is closed by a flange bolted to the
end, which flange supports both the lamp
socket and the receptacle for an attachment
plug through which the patient can discon-
nect the device from the circuit without
reaching for a switch.
Of course this arrangement is neither as
convenient nor as adaptable as the more
recent heating pads made of resistance ma-
terial imbedded in a flexible mat or webbing,
but it is easily made by any mechanic and
has proven helpful in many forms of stom-
ach troubles. Indeed it is one of the elec-
trical appliances for which the summer
with its severe strains on our digestive ap-
ELECTRIC WARMING PAN
paratus brings no less a demand than does
the winter.
Wiring Through Joists
Here is a job in electrical wiring that often
comes up; that is, to run wires parallel
with a ceiling and through the floor joists.
Anyone who has
■ ever tried knows
that this is about
the most awkward
place to bore holes imagin-
able, yet with the standard
boring machine now on
the market the boring be-
comes a simple matter.
A rigid standard, which
may be lengthened or
shortened as desired, car-
ries the auger or bit in a
position at right angles at
the upper end. The bit is
driven by a little pulley
which in turn is revolved
by the rope belt which the
man has in his hands.
Over and over, down one
side and up the other,
goes the belt and the hole
is bored quickly and no
step ladder needed.
BORING
MACHINE
Results of Imperfect Wiring
By GEORGE RICE
Recently I saw a workman nail his in-
sulator firmly to a tree, adjoining a building
into which the wires were to carry elec-
trical current. I observed that the tree
swayed to and fro. I wanted to remark
about it to the workman, but he seemed to
be in a hurry. Not long after I had occasion
to pass that way and the insulator was hang-
ing loose as at (A) Fig. i. The motion of
the wind in swaying the tree back and forth
had pulled the fastenings out. This sort
of thing is of remarkably frequent occur-
rence. You can find similar examples about
manufacturing plants where electrical wires
are installed by workmen of the plant.
Sometimes green electrical helpers do this
way.
Then again we find wires so securely at-
tached to projecting parts of buildings that
the vibrating motion is exceedingly detri-
mental. In one case a workman attached
the wire to a bell tower. The tower swayed
a little, as it was constructed of steel. The
vibrations soon tore the wire fixing free.
Then the same man went to work and at-
tached stronger fastenings. These again
ripped out and finally he rigged an ingenious
system of fastening by which vibrations
could be allowed for. He fixed up special
fastening wires, something like the plan
shown in Fig. i at (C). The steel spiral wire
was wound on a metal spindle in a turning
lathe. A number of such pieces were made
and carried in stock for convenience. The
wire carrying the electrical current passed
through the eye in the spirally wound wire
support as shown, the spirals being con-
nected to insulators. A device like this can
be employed readily on trees as at (B) in
Fig. i. In this way, the tree may rock and
sway as much as it likes and the spiral coils
will give in the one direction, while the
strand slipping through the wire gives free-
dom in a longitudinal direction.
The other day I saw a man put a bore
straight through a tree as at (D) Fig. 2.
He inserted a wire through this hole. It
seemed to be an odd manner of doing the
job to me; While I never learned the con-
sequences, I am convinced that it is better
to adopt the scheme presented in the same
view, consisting of the driving of two ring
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
231
pins one each side of the tree as at (FF).
Then secure your insulator as at (E) and.
attach the wires to the ring pins as shown.
Thereby the tree can move back and forth
with the wind without ripping down your
fastenings.
I see that they are utilizing cement poles.
Fig. 3 is a drawing of one. Some of the
poles are made in round form, closely re-
sembling the common pole in shape. Other
poles are hollow and some are flat. The
■ I.'.'.1
Portland cement is mixed with sand and
water and you can, if you desire, watch the
workmen mould the poles in long wooden
flasks, in a simple and quick way. Then
the flasks are opened and the long stretch of
cement is allowed to# harden in the sun.
The pole is watched closely during the hard-
ening operation to make sure that it settles
out straight, as a warped cement pole would
be rejected.
Then there are the steel poles with cross
arms as in Fig. 4. I refer to this steel pole
because of an incident. Steel poles have
many merits as all know. But in this in-
stance the steel pole failed in its work, due
to carelessness of the workmen.
The pole was set up in a soft bottom.
It settled and swung to one side. The usual
bracing did not help matters. The pole
kept going. Then the workmen excavated
the ground on the off side of the pole, re-
lieving the pressure of earth on that side.
Next a block and tackle was rigged to pull
the pole up straight. As fast as the pole
straightened under the pull, sand was
packed on the inside. Then the base of the
pole was filled in with cement and the pole
hardened in place perfectly upright.
I often observe insulators torn from cement
and brick walls of buildings. A certain
party made his fastenings to walls with
split pins like (H), Fig. 5. The same figure
shows one of the pins driven at (G). Now
then, sometimes the expanding point of the
pin would cling and hold and then again it
would not. Considerable of this man's
work pulled off. Finally he used a threaded
bolt in places and in other places bolts with
fastening nuts on the inner end, thereby
making sure of a strong joint.
Protecting Lead Cables
In underground circuits the buried cable
is usually covered with a lead casing which
protects the insulation from the damaging
effects of any chemicals pervading the soil.
When used in this way, the lead serves its
purpose admirably so long as it is not
damaged by an accidental cut from a pick
or shovel. To guard against such a me-
chanical damaging of the lead, underground
cables are sometimes protected by a trough
or sheathing which may be of wood, clay or
iron.
One form of such protecting sheath is
made of cast iron of a somewhat better
grade than that used for the so-called " soil
pipes" of the plumbers, and is made in two
sections so that the cable can be laid in the
lower half before the cover is slipped over
it. The upper and lower parts are laid
" staggering" so as not to have their joints
come opposite each other, and the spread
of the upper half is so narrow that it pinches
the under part
and makes a tight
joint. This cover
part is driven in-
to place with
wooden mallets.
To remove it, the
over- lapping lips
are first sprung
Outward by spe-
cial screw clamps
as shown in one
of the cuts.
Both parts are
tarred or as-
phalted before
being laid, so as
to guard against
their rusting, and
are commonly
tool roR kemovmg o*rpiN& made in lengths
LEAD-CABLE of 20 to 25 feet.
sheaths The weight of
232
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the cover and the spring grip of the
overlapping parts is sufficient to keep
them tightly together, but for severe con-
ditions a steel clamp may be placed around
the whole sheath. For turns, similarly split
elbows are used with ends large enough to
slip over both of the connected sections.
Telephone Magnets in the Making
By Frank L. Whitaker
Though the bit of steel, which, properly
shaped comprises a telephone generator
magnet, looks insignificant in itself, it re-
quires a lot of skill and patience to bring it
into its proper state, so that it may perform
the intended function. And not only this
but that it may be able to retain its proper
state or strength almost indefinitely. This
retentiveness lies in the grade of steel used
in the make-up of the magnet. Commercial
or American steel is most commonly used as
it is very easily worked and not at all expen-
DLL
FIG. I. CUTTING THE MAGNET BAR
sive. Magnets made from this steel must
be carefully tempered otherwise the result
will be anything but satisfactory.
Thousands of dollars are wasted each year
in the' telephone business just from this one
thing and it goes without saying that a little
study along these lines will be of benefit to
many in almost any branch of the electrical
business in which permanent magnets are
used. I do not see any reason why good
workmen in telephone exchanges or elsewhere
should not be able to take old apparatus
which has been discarded for loss of magnet-
ism, retemper and remagnetize the magnets
therein just the same as the workman in the
factory does.
Probably the following brief outline will
throw some light on the subject. Fig. i is
an illustration showing the first operation
used in the construction of a telephone gen-
erator magnet. Steel of the right width and
FIG. 2. THE FORMING DIE AND PUNCH
thickness is procured from the manufac-
turers, so it does not have to go through any
forging or drawing after it reaches the maker
of telephones. A bar is first heated to a
light color and placed in a jig under a heavy
shear as shown, which descending rapidly
cuts off each piece the required length.
These are immediately thrown back into the
fire and reheated for the next operation
which is illustrated in Fig. 2. Here is
shown what may be termed the forming die
and punch. The magnet bar when again
brought to the proper temperature is placed
in a jig which exactly centers it across the
forming part of the die ready for the down-
ward stroke of the punch which is shown in
Fig 3 where it is just entering the die, taking
the magnet bar with it. Fig. 4 shows the
finished stroke, the magnet bar now being
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
233
brought to the desired shape. For the sake
of clearness the cuts show each operation
separately, and while it is a slow process it
is a very good one. Many manufacturers,
however, cut and form their magnet bars
in one operation, one heating and one hand-
ling being all that is necessary to complete
the shape.
PUNCH
FORMING DIE
FIG. 3. ENTERING THE DIE
Next comes the most important part of
magnet making — tempering — and herein lies
the secret of successful apparatus, for if the
temper be poor likewise will be the mag-
netism. The magnet bar after having been
formed as shown in the illustration is put
back into the fire and again brought to a
light color. It is then immediately plunged
into a bath of water which chills it very
quickly and which causes it to become very
hard and brittle. It will be well to explain
here how this tempering process can vary
enough to cause trouble in the finished mag-
net. As stated above, the temper determines
the quality of the magnet, so the heating and
chilling of the steel must be perfect in every
detail. Most of us have watched a black-
smith tempering his tools and know how
little he seems to be concerned about the
piece he is working. To an onlooker it
would seem that he merely heats the steel
and puts it into the water tub, but never-
theless he knows exactly what color to heat
it to and how it should be manipulated in
the water. Experience and practice enable
him to do this apparently without thinking,
and perfectly to meet the requirements of
his tools. As stated, magnets must be very
hard and brittle but there is a limit to this,
as a piece of this steel heated to a whiteness
and plunged into cold water will come out
cracked and worthless on account of the sur-
face cooling and contracting too rapidly.
The best method for tempering any steel
for this purpose is to find out how much heat
it will stand and then adjust the heat source
to that temperature. Ordinarily this is very
hard to do — but experience, again, will
finally result in perfect magnets every time.
Factories usually have a gas furnace which
can be adjusted to the proper heat. Some-
times in making magnets in large quantities
the temperature in the furnace falls just
enough to render the temper too "soft"
after it falls into the water. The work-
man who has grown tired from a hard day's
work does not notice it and so goes on tem-
FIG. 4. THE END OF THE STROKE
pering just the same, not knowing that the
work he is doing may mean dollars loss to
the company later on. Experience is a good
thing but it must be experience supplemented
with constant carefulness in every stage of
the process.
The water used in tempering should be
moderately cool as the metal requires a cer-
234
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
tain suddenness in chilling to bring about
the desired results. Large numbers of bars
tempered in the same tub will often get the
water too hot for first class work. Heavy
magnets do not temper as perfectly as light
ones, as the center does not cool rapidly
enough. This is why compound magnets
are found in some makes of instruments.
When the hardest temper that it is possible
to obtain in the steel has been reached the
finished bars are ready to be charged with
magnetism, or, to use the common term,
"magnetized." This is a simple operation
and is shown in Fig. 5. The magnetizing
power comes from the two cores of an elec-
tro-magnet which are wound with a suitable
size of copper wire, the ends of which are
shown connecting with a switch and battery.
Closing the switch at (X) causes battery cur-
rent to flow through the windings of the two
coils and the two cores become heavily
charged with magnetism. At (Y) the mag-
netic circuit is broken, until the magnet bar
is placed in position as shown. The mag-
netism now completes its path through the
steel resting on the pole pieces. If the cur-
rent flow from the battery is great enough
FIG. 5. MAGNETIZING THE BAR
the bar becomes heavily charged and is now
a magnet, for when the switch is thrown
open enough magnetism will be found re-
maining in the piece to enable it to pick up
several times its own weight. This is called
saturating a magnet. The perfect temper in
the magnet retains the magnetism, provided
the magnetizing force is strong enough to
fully charge it. It would seem that if a
magnet could be undercharged that it could
be overcharged, but such is not the case as
the steel absorbs a charge up to a certain
point only. A very good illustration of this
is a sponge absorbing water. It will soak it
up until it gets full, after which it cannot
take any more.
Some magnets have a greater capacity of
saturation, especially those made from an
imported grade of steel called "tungsten."
This steel is very expensive and is not used
extensively on this account. Its power of
retaining magnetism is excellent. Manu-
facturers of high grade automobile magnetos
use this steel altogether in the making of
their machines. Makers of telephone ap-
paratus use it but very little as the demand
for a strictly high grade magnet is not press-
ing. Commercial steel magnets will lose
some of their magnetism in a very short time
no matter how well they have been created,
and after several years service it is not a
bad idea to have them remagnetized. Care
should be taken when this is done to see
that the magnetizing force is sufficient to
demagnetize the magnet and to charge it in
the opposite direction. This is done by
placing like poles of the magnet against like
poles of the electro-magnet and cutting in
the battery for an instant.
The time required to fully charge any mag-
net is a period just long enough to obtain a
good fat spark at the switch points, not over
one second in any instance, as no amount
of soaking would render the magnet any
better.
When placing magnets back on the pole
pieces of a generator it is probably needless
to say that care should be taken to see that
all of the north poles are side by side before
putting them in position. This may be de-
termined when the magnets are in contact
with each other and not sticking together.
Some makers of generators make a slight
punch mark on one side of each magnet and
like poles may be determined in this way.
In remagnetizing care should be taken to
see that each one is charged in the same rela-
tive position. Magnets when taken from
their working position should be handled
very carefully as the magnetism is easily de-
stroyed. They should not be brought near
any heavily magnetized apparatus unless a
soft bar of iron is placed across the poles.
ELECTRIC CURRENT ATWORK
NEW DEVICES FOR APPLYING ELECTRICITY
^:Jv\ju-^-.\nnrJ\j\rjvv\APJV\jv\f\}^nA/v\ni\rjvvvv\T\nrvvvyifv
Electric Crane in the Foundry
•You recall vividly your first visit to a
foundry while they were "taking off a heat"
or "pouring," the white molten metal throw-
ing off sparks as it flowed from the mouth
"taking off a heat
of the furnace into a clay ladle, while two
workmen stood ready to grasp the iron
pronged handles and hurry their load to
the moulders. At each flask the metal was
poured out into funnel shaped holes to run
down into the space shaped out to form a
casting. Many accidents have occurred
where workmen bearing the ladle have
tripped and fallen, spilling the hot metal
and burning themselves and others.
The picture shows one of these ladles
arranged so as to be lifted and carried by
an electric crane, the handles of the ladles
being used only to tip the ladle and pour
out the metal. The crane travels back and
forth along a track on a swinging I-beam,
the motor being controlled by the two chains
at the right. Very heavy castings and
ladles are handled in this way with safety
and little labor.
The Making of Ozone
It is maintained by scientists that an
ozonizer for the production of purified air
should be so constructed that the air drawn
in by the machine shall pass through the
electric glow in a comparatively brief period,
thereby treating a large volume of air rather
than overtreating a small volume. This
principle is embodied in the Vohr ozonizer.
This ingenious apparatus is the invention
of a well-known electro-chemist. The ozone
is produced by a rapidly revolving fan, which
is an electrode, placed within a glass dialec-
tic of circular shape. The apparatus can
be operated from an ordinary electric light.
AN OZONIZER
It has only one unit of production. The
apparatus can be regulated to produce ozone
in just the quantities necessary to give the
proper air content of ozone, such as Nature
produces in her most favorable locations.
236
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Abroad, ozone apparatus is absolutely ac-
cepted, and has passed beyond the field of
a luxury into that of a necessity. In England
many of the leading hotels, offices, public
buildings, have ozone apparatus installed.
This is also true of Germany, France and
Russia. In the United States the field has
been somewhat neglected, but unquestion-
ably the interest in this form of air vitalizer
is growing.
Color Changing Fountains
The cost of delighting the evening crowds
by the fascinating color spectacles of an
electric fountain like the celebrated Yerkes
Fountain at Lincoln Park in Chicago depends
on three items: the water supply, the current
and carbons, and the cost of attendance.
Where each arc lamp requires a man to
change the colored glass slides, this cost of
attendance alone is a large item of expense.
For more modest installations which would-
be ample for small parks or amusement re-
sorts, the cost of attendance can be almost
annulled by using an electric motor to effect
the color changes.
). For instance, in the three-light fountain
pictured herewith the color screens are
ARRANGEMENT OF LAMPS UNDER THE
FOUNTAIN
mounted in a circular frame geared at its
outer edge to the vertical shaft of an electric
motor. The space between the three arc
lamps allows a larger number of colored
glasses to be used, thus producing numer-
ous color combinations, particularly if the
number of colored slides is not a multiple
of three. Each lamp has a parabolic re-
flector to project the light upward through
the colored glass and through a window of
clear glass set in the metal roof which covers
the central chamber. An underground pas-
sage leading to this chamber allows the
electrician to make any needed adjustments
and to recarbon the lamps. For a basin
25 to 30 feet in diameter fine effects have
been obtained by using three arcs at 40
amperes each. The continually changing
color combinations make such a fountain
a general source of enjoyment, and the use
of a motor-driven color changer reduces
the needed attendance to what can be given
incidentally by the regular park electrician
or trimmer, thus bringing the expense of
such an electric charm within easy reach
of the average amusement place.
Electric House Pump
Those who carried water from the "spring"
on washday in time past, will be interested
in the compact Westinghouse alternati g
L. _ .
ELECTRIC HOUSE PUMP
current induction motor and pump shown
in this illustration and which is adapted
for household pumping equipments. At
the right is the motor, and on the left on the
same shaft is the pump rated to lift 1000
gallons of water to a height of 50 feet in one
hour. The length of the equipment is but
one foot. The threaded hole opening
toward the reader is the pump discharge
outlet and takes a one-inch pipe, while
the connection for the intake pipe is shown
at the end, projecting downward.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
237
To Indicate Propeller Speeds
Rail-cutting Saw
Suppose the captain of a ship, who is far
away from the engine room, wishes to know
how many revolutions the propeller is mak-
ing. The latest method of imparting this
information to him is through the Hutchi-
A LITTLE DYNAMO DRIVEN BY THE PRO-
PELLOR SHAFT
son electrical tachometer. A collar carry-
ing cog wheels is clamped to the propeller
shaft. This drives, by means of a chain,
the sprocket wheel on the shaft of a small
magneto, which is one form of an electric
dynamo. Now the faster you turn a dy-
namo the greater will be the voltage or elec-
trical pressure which it will develop. If
you connect a voltmeter to the terminals of
the machine it will show, say 10 volts for
a certain speed, 20 volts for a higher speed
and so on up. Therefore, with this magneto
driven by the propeller shaft and wires lead-
ing up to a voltmeter in the captain's quar-
ters he is able to determine instantly the
speed of the propeller. The scale of the
voltmeter in this case is marked to indicate
speeds instead of volts, for the sake of con-
venience.
Cutting iron with a saw as shown in the
illustration is a somewhat unusual sight to
most people. The saw is mounted on a
RAIL CUTTING SAW
pair of trucks and moved from place to
place on the street car tracks. When in use
the machine is clamped firmly to the rail
on either side of the saw and current for
the motor is taken from the trolley wire.
Ignition Trouble Finder
When your automobile
creeps along or runs by jerks
or misses fire you may feel
pretty certain something is
wrong with the ignition. The
Phelps trouble finder is a
small adjustable spark gap
enclosed in a glass cover.
It shows you, between the
two terminals of the spark
gap, just how the spark is act-
ing in the cylinder of the en-
gine, and you can determine
at a glance whether the
trouble is in the plug or some-
where else.
The device, after it has
been adjusted to a very small
gap is substituted for the
spark plug terminal and the
terminal is connected to the
finder. By adjusting the
thumb screw, you are able to
see the manner in which
spark is really acting inside
the cylinder.
238
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
A Low-voltage Transformer
Not so very long ago someone hit upon
the idea of building a small transformer
which would take the uo-volt alternating
current used in most dwellings and step it
down in pressure to the few volts necessary
to operate a door bell, thereby saving the
expense and annoyance of batteries. Now
there was nothing new about a little trans-
TRANSFORMER ON BELL CIRCUIT
former, but it was this particular application
which made the hit. It was something the
people needed and it sold like "hot cakes."
Pretty soon there were a lot of manufac-
turers putting out these little transformers.
Rut there are thousands of bells still un-
rung by the alternating current, so there is
room, no doubt, for a new-comer in the
field — the K-B low- voltage transformer.
The drawing shows the scheme of connecting
it up to the circuit. It may also be used
to operate fan motors, toy motors, low-volt-
age lamps and Christmas tree lighting outfits.
Waking the Servants
One of the serious problems of modern
life, from which the poor man is happily
exempt, is that of waking the servant. In
many a household this has proven a bother-
some task. If an alarm clock is set for the
servants, they can easily change its setting
to a later hour, or else claim that they did
not hear it go off. If a signal bell is rung
from a button in some other part of the
house, they may likewise claim that the bell
did not work.
To overcome this uncertain condition an
"answer back" servant call was offered on
the European market last winter as a "choice
Christmas present for the Hausfrau." In-
stead of the usual button, the push was
in the form of
an iron shutter
which closes the
circuit when
raised, whereup-
on a magnet in
the casing holds
this shutter in
place until the
servant presses a
button. His do-
ing so momen-
tarily opens the
circuit and drops
the shutter, thus
letting the mis-
tress know that
he has been
awakened. Of
course the an-
swering button the "answer back"
in the servant's servant call
room is placed
where the sleepy one could not reach it
without rising.
A Multi-indicator Switch
Nothing equals a visual record for giving
the head of any plant a dependable survey
of the way any given device has been run,
no matter whether the readings indicate
temperature, voltage, air-pressure or still
other factors.
But recording
instruments are
expensive and
when a number
of similar de-
vices are being
operated at one
and the same
time, the cost of
a separate re-
corder for each
may seem pro-
hibitive.
In such a case the next best thing to do is
to have a single recording instrument note
the readings of all in rotation.
To accomplish this, each instrument is
wired to a special mercury switch, which
has . a contact connecting the central (or
recorder) terminal successively with the
various instruments. The contact arm is
rotated by a simple clockwork.
multi-indicator
SWITCH
Electrical Men of the Times
T. COMMERFORD MARTIN
" The irrepressible and irresistible Mar-
tin;" so did Andrew Carnegie characterize
him when paying tribute to his work which
had so largely to do with the success of the
great Engineering Societies Building in
New York. The words fit the man. Irre-
pressible, but not domineering, irresistible,
by virtue of a peculiarly magnetic and con-
vincing personality —
these qualities have
assisted Thomas
Commerford Martin
to a high position in
the field of electrical
development.
Born in London,
England, July 22,
1856, he was educated
for the clergy, but his
inclinations did not fit
him for the work and
we find him in 1877,
in this country, work-
ing in the laboratory
of Thomas A. Edison.
Here he stayed until
1879 and obtained a
technical knowledge
of electricity which
was the basis of a
broad system of self-
education which he
has ever since pursued.
Being a man of letters and by instinct a
journalist, Mr. Martin, in 1883, became
editor of the Electrical World. After 10
years he became editor of the Electrical
Engineer. Then when these two publica-
tions joined forces as the Electrical World
and Engineer, he was its editor until about
a year ago, when he resigned to become the
executive secretary of the National Electric
Light Association.
Tn all those 28 years of service with the
publications which so largely through his
efforts became to be looked upon as the
.technical authority in matters pertaining
to electricity, Mr. Martin was making
friends and winning praise for his untiring
work in raising the standard of electrical
engineering. His efforts were broadly dis-
tributed. He was president of the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1887-1888.
He served the United States Census Office
for many years as special expert, collecting
and compiling a vast amount of statistical
information relative to the electrical and
allied manufacturing industries. He was
made an honorary member of the National
Electric Light Associ-
ation and straightway
it felt his influence , and
his "Progress Report"
each year is looked
upon as a classic in
the literature of the
organization. He
found time to write
books, among them
being "The Electric
Motor and Its Appli-
cations," "Researches
of Nikola Tesla" and
"A Life of Edison."
Mr. Martin's schol-
arly attainments are
readily manifest in his
writings, and he pre-
sents moreover that
happy and unusual
combination of a man
who not only writes
well but is a graceful
and polished speaker.
When T. C. Martin addresses any of the
gatherings common among the engineering
societies, attendance is maximum.
It is more than likely that he will find in
his new work with the National Electric
Light Association the greatest opportunity
of all in which to further the interests of
the electrical industry. A marvelous growth
has taken place in the field of electric light
and power in the last few years and the
Association, as one of the factors which have
been instrumental in bringing about unified
effort on the part of the various interests,
has grown apace. The future of the in-
dustry is brilliant beyond comparison, and
the Association has done well to select a
man who by natural ability and associations
is so well fitted as Mr. Martin.
EltCTRICITY IN THE
HOUSEHOLD
THE AMERICAN ELECTRIC GIRL
[Over a quarter of a century ago, when electricity
was comparatively little used and when women had
never dreamed of an electric range or a coffee per-
colator, a poet or near-poet was inspired to pay
tribute to the "electric girl" in the following lines
which appeared in the New York Graphic]
A maiden fair to see, I know,
Of loveliness the essence;
Him upon whom her arc-lights glow,
She turns to incandescence.
When first we met, a shock I got;
But held on, just to test her;
Alas! I'd left at home, forgot,
My "sole lightning-arrester."
The keenness of her brilliant mind
Makes her o'er others tower;
Who sparks this girl of mine will find
Two thousand candle-power.
Her silken tresses rippling flow,
You ardently admire;
Her small coquetting dynamo
Is wound with "thirty" wire.
Soft as the sweet magneto-bell
Her influence on you switching,
Your watch don't know what time to tell,
Her volt is so bewitching.
Winds of despair and storms of doubt
May struggle to benight her;
Should Fates combine to 'put her out,
Joy comes with her re-lighter.
Two pretty feet on equal poles,
Nimble and quick denote her
The envy of all rival souls,
Who else has such a motor?
When longing nearer joys to taste
I strive with brave insistence,
Why will you fix about your waist
Shunt-magnets of resistance?
Ah, alternating-current girl,
No praises can be flattery:
Short circuit, dear, and cease to whirl,
Make me your storage-batten'.
And, dearest, should you rather not
Accept my offering votive,
Might I most humbly ask you Watt
Was your Electro-motive?
To several circuits hereabout
You are the Central Station:
Would I all others could cut-out,
You lovely installation.
Soft nestled in your armature,
Lulled by your soothing brushes,
Your commutator's drowsv hum
All earth's excitement hushes.
No more my carboned heart would roam,
Sweet girl these wishes grant me,
Reduce your resistance to one ohm,
My isolated plant be.
Were I Am-Pere and she Gramme-Ma,
With insulation rounded,
We'd charge some unfrequented star
And live there till we grounded.
The Letters of A Bachelor Girl
BY R. GRACELYN EVERETT
Dearest Edna:
Well here I am! If you had told me a
month ago that I would go to the city and
take a really good position, I should have
laughed you to scorn. But such is life.
As the rooster said,
"An egg. today and
tomorrow a feather
duster."
My trip was un-
eventful even though
a nice looking young
man did sit a little
way down the car
from me. I was
afraid to look at him
for fear that he and
the others would
wanted to but I was
Madge
think me a] flirt,
"askeered."
Madge was at the station and took com-
plete charge of me. She hurried along
through the crowd in the station as though
it was an every-day occurrence, and poor
little me had to hustle to keep up. The
crowd reminded me of the county fair at
home and I asked her whether anything
special was going on and she only laughed.
Now I know why. I have become so used
to seeing lots of people that now I would
not notice it either.
It seems as though the three days that
I have been here were not more than three
hours, and yet when I think of you and the
home folks it seems months since I left, so
much has happened in the meantime.
Madge had found a room for me — a dear
little one — at a price that just fits my pocket-
book, and she took me right up there. It
is with some sort of a cousin of hers, and
they are simply splendid to me. I spent
the first two nights unpacking and wink-
ing back a few tears over the family
pictures.
The first morning I went without break-
fast because I was not familiar with the
locality, but I became so faint at the office
that Madge insisted on sending the office
boy for a malted milk which resuscitated
me. That evening I was particular to find
a little place, but it is two blocks from my
room. Think of it, dear heart, two blocks
to breakfast. I nearly starve on the way.
Yesterday it began to rain about noon and
all afternoon I was dreading to go home to
the hall bed-room and an evening all by my-
self. The room is all right but I would get
lonesome. Strange how lonesome you can
be with people all around you. Just as I
was planning on a letter home as an even-
ing's entertainment Madge came over and
announced, " Tonight you are coming home
with me." Needless to say I was more
than delighted — I bubbled over with joy
all the rest of the afternoon.
At five o'clock the rain was coming down
in torrents, but as it showed no signs of
letting up we decided to risk a wetting. We
got a little damp between the office and the
elevated station and at the other end of the
line we had two squares to go and ran all
Winking Back a Few Tears
242
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
of the way. We splashed through
puddles of various depths and
were half drowned when we got
to her house. We made record
time getting out of our wet clothes
and into comfortable dry kimo-
nos. It was then that I had my
first chance to look around me
and marvel at the wisdom of
woman.
Madge is almost beautiful in
her trim tailored suit, but in a
kimono which was a marvel
of color harmonies she was
as dainty and exquisite as
a daughter of fair Japan.
The daintiness with which
Madge surrounds herself
impressed me even more
than her pretty clothes.
On a tea table in one
corner of the room was a
beautiful brass electrical
chafing dish and an elec-
trical bread toaster with
some dainty china. Of
course they took my eye,
and as I hovered over them
I could not but think what
extravagance they were.
But Madge has explained
and demonstrated how
really inexpensive they are
in the long run. I snug-
gled up on the couch and;j
was so cozy and "comfy that I
quite forgot we had not eaten until
Madge asked whether I liked clam
chowder. I did not know. But the
delicious odor that came from the
chafing dish caused me hastily to
make up my mind. After the chow-
der, we had grilled sardines on
toast — made on an electric toaster while we
were grilling the sardines. Bread and
butter and jam that Madge had got from
home completed our feast.
I had often heard of fixing things to eat
in one's room, but it seemed such a bother.
With an outfit like this it was a pleasure be-
cause of the little trouble involved. Madge
is engaged to that dashing young chap from
out West whom you met a year ago, and the
chafing dish was a gift from him. He had
wanted to give her a pearl necklace but she
very wisely took the chafing dish in pre-
ference.
Dainty and Exquisite as a Daughter of Fair Japan
She is making some beautiful things to
go to housekeeping with — stenciled cushions
and curtains. She uses dye colors and then
sets them by pressing them with her electrical
flat iron. Then they can be laundered with-
out fear of the colors running.
She showed me a beautiful gray waist.
I think I must have looked envious. Then
she laughingly said, "Do you know this is
an old white lace waist that I dyed pink
after the newness had worn off. Not long
ago I dipped it gray to match my suit."
The secret is she boils the dye in a little pail
by setting it on the flat iron turned upside
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
243
down, which sets firmly into a holder for that
purpose. Really this iron is fine. While the
chafing dish is busy, one can boil coffee
nicely on the iron.
But I must continue about the dyeing
operations for I just know you can make use
of this idea. She filled the lavatory with
water and poured in dye enough to make the
desired shade and miracle of miracles, the
waist came out new and lovely. Sprinkling
with water in which a little gum-arabic had
been dissolved, then pressing, and finally the
addition of fresh coral velvet pipings pro-
duced a result that was astonishing. Do you
wonder that I looked envious?
Before retiring we pressed our skirts and
waists, and my waist, which looked hopeless
for another day's wear, was so fresh that I
then and there decided upon an electric iron
as an immediate need.
Madge says many of her jabots and collars
she does not trust to the laundress and by
pressing them herself they last much longer.
It was late before we got to
bed, there were so many things
to talk about. I think Madge
was sound asleep long before
I stopped asking questions.
In the morning while we
were dressing Madge put the
coffee on the iron, and with
toast and eggs we had an
ample breakfast.
I was lamenting that, in
the excitement of the evening
before, I had forgotten to
do my hair up on curlers, as
I always have to do to make
a presentable appearance next
day. Madge brought out her
electric curling iron. I always
said I should never bother
to curl my hair on an iron, but
now my views are completely
changed, for an electrical iron
is clean, and the even heat
cannot hurt anyone's hair.
A curler I must have, for I
know my beauty sleep never
could make amends for the
faces that kid curlers caused
me to make in my sleep.
Upon, leaving for the office
I took a farewell glance into
the pretty room of this wonder
girl and made up my mind to
have some improvements made
in my own quarters immediately. I found
what seemed to be extravagance to be real
economy, and Madge is far-seeing enough
to know this.
I' know, dear, you would welcome any
advancement like a true suffragette, and
these appliances are doing wonders toward
making work easier for women. When you
come up on that visit you promised to make
me I hope to have quite a complete outfit
of my own.
I am sending a flat-iron to mother. You
know they have a new electrical plant in our
little city, and, with the hot weather coming
on, it will be a joy to her to have one.
My work is becoming easier as I get
better acquainted with it. There are several
She Showed Me a Beautiful Gray Waist
244
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
dandy young fellows in our office. One
especially, for he has invited Madge and me
to go -to the opera next Friday. Wasn't
that splendid of him? I will write and tell
you all about it.
Now, write soon, Edna, and tell me all
about your dear self, and what you have been
doing. There are lots of things I am keeping
back, hoping you may make arrangements
to come to the city sooner.
Lovingly,
Vivian
Planning Home Illumination
To get the best results from your electric
current the first wiring of your house should
be carefully planned. It is a mistaken
idea to stint on the wiring expense, for any
outlay here will be amply repaid by reduced
consumption later when the current is
turned on.
When a house is planned spaces are al-
ways provided suitable for the large neces-
sary pieces of furniture, such as table and
sideboard in the dining room, stove and sink
in the kitchen, beds and dressers, and so on,
through the house. All these may then be
provided with the proper light by specifying
outlets nearby, and it is in this matter that
the woman who is planning a house should
be especially interested from the point of
convenience.
The bedrooms, clothes closets and bath-
rooms are probably the most neglected por-
tions of the house when providing for out-
lets for electric lighting and for the use of
current for other purposes. In the bedroom
usually a one-light fixture is considered
satisfactory for general illumination with
one wall bracket near the dresser. If one
wishes to read in bed a flexible cord and
lamp connected to an outlet are frequently
'hung over the head of the bed. The closets,
too often, are without any light, depending
upon the reflected light from the bedroom.
In the bathroom a high candle power lamp
must be burned when it is desired to light
the bathroom all night.
Not only from a point of economy, but
also from the standpoint of safety and good
illumination plenty of lamp outlets are
desirable. It is hardty economizing to turn
on a lamp of high candle-power at the dresser
when an outlet near the bed in which a
small candle-power lamp is used .with a
shade is entirely sufficient to throw plenty
of light for reading. The bedside outlet
will be found useful also for supplying other
devices such as a heating pad, bottle warmer,
fan or massage machine. Taking the "cue"
from actresses who often carry two tall,
slender portable electric lamp fixtures, one
for each side of the dresser, to "assist in car-
ing for the hair, every woman will appreciate
wall light outlets so arranged that the dresser
may stand between them.
All insurance men know that the free
use of good electric wiring is in itself the
best kind of insurance and especially is this
true in the closets of the house. A fixture
arranged here with *a pendant chain for
turning on and off the light does away with
matches, and lighted candles, and assists
one in putting dresses, skirts and other
clothing away in good order.
Bathrooms are usually finished in light
colors so that small candle-power lamps are
sufficient here, but at least two or three out-
lets should be provided for such conveniences
as a radiator to take off the chill of the room,
small water heater and curling iron.
Heating in the Future
Electricity is an ideal source of heat, as
there is absolutely no loss in the change from
electricity to heat. It seems practically
certain that our coal supply is limited, and
will be too costly, and that new and better
ways of obtaining the heat so necessary for
our lives and comfort must be found in the
years yet to come. Steinmetz, the genius
of the General Electric Company, says that
unless some such discovery is made before
many years all the water powers will have
to be harnessed to secure electrical energy,
and this energy transmitted to various points
and turned into heat.
Electric heat can be had on the instant,
for electricity travels at the rate of 186,000
miles a second, and in any degree desired,
from warmth that is barely perceptible to
the touch, to the terrific heat of the electric
furnace in which platinum, diamonds and
firebrick itself melt and run like water.
Electric heat can be carried anywhere about
a building and applied just where wanted
without serious loss through radiation. Con-
sequently the electric kitchen and the " wood-
en range" can be operated all day long to
cook and bake without raising the tempera-
ture of the kitchen to any considerable
degree.
JUNIOR SECTION
A New Game
BY "SPARKS"
Weary and I were sitting on the porch
talking electricity and magnetism as we
used to do a lot. Thinking I could have
some fun with Weary I bet him he couldn't
float a needle on water. He took me up
for a quarter which was all I happened to
have in my house-coat at the time, which
was lucky for me. We marched out into
the kitchen and got a soup plate of water
and I got some needles out of Sal's workbag
and then we marched in to the dining room
table.
Weary took a piece of tissue paper, wet a
needle with kerosene, laid the needle on the
tissue paper and the paper on the water.
Bye and bye the paper got waterlogged and
sank, and sure enough there was the needle
floating away just as nice as a chip in the
brook. Then he took another needle and
oiled it and rolled it off a fork and it floated
too. After trying a couple of times to float
one from his hand, he got one to go.
Next I took an ordinary dry one and
made it float. Soon we got so we could
drop them in, careless like, and make them
float sometimes, fishing up the sunken ones
with my knife which I had magnetized quite
strongly.
He said, "Let's make a compass." And
I said, "how in the name of silicon are
you going to do it?" He said, "Watch,"
and picked up a needle and my knife, and
with the end of the blade that was one of
its magnetic poles, he rubbed the needle
from the eye to the point and then brought
it back to the eye away from the needle and
did that several times. He said a physics
teacher or anyone who knew a lot about it
would say that it was "magnetism by in-
duction."
"Has it anything to do with an induction
coil?" I said.
"No!" he replied, kind of snappy, so I
shut up.
After we had magnetized the needle we
floated it, and sure enough it pointed north
and south no matter how we turned it,
except when the knife was brought near it
when it would sail away sometimes and
turn around and sail back again. It would
certainly do some funny stunts when we
moved the knife.
Then we magnetized another needle the
same way and they both did all kinds of
funny tricks and finally they both stuck
together, as they were both magnets of them-
selves.
I said to Weary: "Lets' go and get some
magnets and develop a game out of this."
He said, "Good idea, Sparks, we're off."
So off we went hunting all around my shop
for magnets that were suitable for our pur-
pose but as we couldn't find any I decided
to dig my wireless phones apart.
We dug out their insides and got three
permanent magnets that were the right
shape, and two electromagnets that we didn't
want. We took the permanents and the
diaphragm, because we were wondering if
the latter would float. It did, and just as
easy as the needle if we were careful.
We each took a needle and floated it and if
we moved the magnets above them they would
follow as if they were on a string. We
dropped the extra magnet under water and
then we tried to run each other down with
the needles. Well, with our magnets and
the one under water, and being magnets
themselves, those needles went crazy. I'd
start my needle straight for his, but it would
246
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
TO RLOATA NE~ETDLE
BE SURE /T /S DRY. TAKE /T
BETWEEN THE THUMB AND
R/RST R/NGER. LAY /T GEHTL Y
AND HOR/ZOA/TALLY OAJ THE
SURRACE E/LAJ OE THE WATER
REAsfO\/E THE THUAJS AMD
E/A/GER SL OWL Y
RRACT/CE MAKES REREECT
RARARHEEPNAL /A
-2 OR 3 HORSESHOE -MAG-
A/ETS , 2 NEEDLES. AND
/ SOUR f^L A TE OR WATER
TO RLOAT AD/ARHRAGM
rlace/t rlat on the
surra oe: or the wate:r
/r the tor doesn't get
wet /t w/ll rloat
TOUAGNET/ZET A A/EEDLET
W/TH OA/E ROL.E OR A
AJAGA/ET RUB THE NEEDLE
EROAsf THE EYE TO THE
RO/A/T AA/D BR/AJG THE
asagave:t BACK TO THE
EYE A WA Y ERONf THE
NEEDL.E , RE RE AT.
A W/A/S
A \A//AJS
DRAW
DRAW
B
DRAW
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
247
go daft and turn tail and sprint or else put
itself calmly in front of his and wait to be
run down. Then again his would be sail-
ing along peaceably when it would stop and
turn around over the magnet in the middle
and wait.
Then we made the rules which follow:
i. A soup plate of water shall be the
sea, with a magnetized needle for each
battleship. A magnet may be submerged
in the sea if desired.
2. There shall be two players to each
sea, each having one ship. They shall also
have a magnet, each preferably a horseshoe,
to propel the ships by attraction and re-
pulsion only, and not by mechanical force.
3. When both players have said "go"
the "battle" is on.
4. If the point or bow of one "ship"
hits the side or stern of the other, the former
wins the "battle." If the bows or sterns
collide it is a draw, also if they come to-
gether exactly sideways it is again a draw.
5. If a ship sinks after the word "go"
it is a victory for the other player.
6. Mechanical pushing or ruffling of the
surface of the water forfeits the "battle."
7. After a "draw" or a victory another
battle is begun.
8. Each battle won counts a point and
the game is of 25 points or any number
agreed upon.
Well before we quit Weary and I were
as daft over the game as the needles were,
and we made up a fancy set with wood
boats with magnets on them, and we also
got some "sporty" magnets, but we came
back to the soup plates and needles because
we found that the wood boats were too
clumsy.
An Electrical Laboratory for Twenty-Five
Dollars
By DAVID P. MORRISON
PART VII
CONSTRUCTION OF CURRENT RHEOSTATS
A rheostat will be needed to connect in series
with your storage battery when it is being
charged, and the following simple types will
be found serviceable.
Assume that you have a single storage cell
that has a normal charging rate of five
amperes and that you want to charge the cell
from a no-volt direct current circuit. Fig. 59
shows the con-
nections of the
cell (B), rheostat
(R)and ammeter
(A), and the pol-
arity of the bat-
tery with respect
to the line. Now
if 2.5 volts are
required to cause
a current of five amperes to flow through the
cell there remain no — 2.5 or 107.5 volts that
must be consumed in causing the five amperes
to flow through the rheostat. By a single
application of Ohm's Law you can now
+
__
A — -
B
+
c
R
> vvww
FIG. 59
calculate the value of the resistance that
must be placed in the rheostat:
E 107.5
R = — = =21.5 ohms.
I 5
To construct such a rheostat you should
proceed as follows: — Cut from some J-inch
248
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
oak two pieces of dimensions given in Fig. 60
and drill the holes as indicated. Cut two
other pieces of dimensions in Fig. 61 from
some \ or f-inch wood. Now obtain seven
round pieces of wood f inch in diameter and
16 inches long. Wrap around each of these
pieces two layers of
asbestos paper. This
paper should not
come nearer than £
inch from the ends of
the pieces of wood.
One end of all of
these pieces can now
be glued in the holes
of one of the pieces
shown in Fig. 60.
Slip the two pieces
shown in Fig. 61
down inside of the
asbestos covered
strips and then glue the other ends into the
holes in the second end-piece. The two pieces
inside of the cage just formed should be so
placed that the distance between the two end
pieces is divided into three equal parts. A
small finishing nail may be driven, and counter
sunk through the round wooden rods into
these separators after they are put in place to
hold them. Cut from some oak a piece
^4
<>
A
■a
\
<P
/
* 2
FIG. 62
one inch wide, f inch thick and 12 \ inches
long: Cover this piece with asbestos paper
as you did the round pieces except the paper
should go to the end of the piece. This
piece should be fastened at the point marked
(H) Fig. 60, by means of two screws that
pass through the end-pieces from the outside.
Now wind on this cage § of a pound of
No. 18 B. & S. "Advance" resistance wire,
manufactured by the Driver Harris Wire Co.,
Harrison, New Jersey. The reason this
wire is used is on account of its extremely
low temperature coefficient, and its high
resistance properties. Fasten one end of
the wire around one of the round rods about
one inch from the end and solder. Now
wind the bare wire around the cage with a
•*"
- — tf.—
(S
<
B
r
16
/
w
FIG. 63
piece of twine of approximately the same
diameter as the wire. When the winding is
complete the end should be securely fastened
and soldered as in the previous case. Two or
three inches of free wire should be allowed at
each end for connections.
The sliding contact with which to vary the
resistance is the next thing you will want to
fig. 64
construct. This should be mounted on the
top of the cage and arranged so that it can be
moved back and forth over the entire length
of the winding. Cut from some hard wood
two pieces one inch wide, one inch thick and
14 inches long as supports for the sliding
contact. Mount
them in the two
notches in the top of
the end pieces. Place
a piece of 1-3 2-inch
brass or copper one
inch wide and 14
inches long on one
side of one of these
pieces so that it will be on the underside when
the wooden strip is mounted. Decrease the
thickness of the wooden piece an amount
equal to the thickness of the brass strip.
Now cut from some 1 -16-inch brass two
pieces (A) and (B) as shown in Figs. 62 and
63 and drill the holes as indicated. Bend (A)
into the form shown in Fig. 64. Cut a block
of wood with dimensions given in Fig. 65 as
a handle to be used in operating the sliding
contact, and give it the form shown in Fig.
fig. 65
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
249
66. Cut from some 1-16-inch spring brass a
piece of dimensions given in Fig. 67 and
bend it into the form shown in Fig. 68.
These various parts can now be assembled
as shown in Fig. 69.
Cut from some one-inch oak a piece six
inches wide and 16 inches long foi a base and
mount the completed
resistance coil with
screws that pass
through the base from
the underside. Three
terminals should now
be provided by
mounting binding
posts on the base and
making the following
connections. Con-
nect two of the posts to the ends of the
coil with pieces of No. 14 B. & S. insulated
copper wire and. the third to the brass strip
mounted on the support for the sliding con-
tact. By using three binding posts either
end of the coil can be connected in circuit
and thus equalize the wear on the wire and
slides. It might be well for you to provide
fuse connections in the lead from the sliding
contact to its binding post.
The current capacity of this rheostat can
of course be increased almost indefinitely by
FIG. 66
FIG. 67
increasing the size of the wire and the current
capacity of the leads and contact spring. If
it is desired to have a finer adjustment of the
resistance you can use a smaller cage and
put on more turns.
The following form of rheostat will be
found equally as good for the particular case
mentioned at the out- c=
set and may be easier
to construct. This
rheostat is to consist
of a number of in- fjq# 68
candescent lamps so
arranged with respect to each other that they
can be connected or disconnected from the
circuit by a special switch to be described.
Obtain 12 porcelain lamp sockets and 12 car-
bon filament 16 candle power lamps. Cut
3=F
f^S=^-
FIG. 69
from some one-inch oak a piece five feet long
and six inches wide. Now mount the lamp
sockets on one end of this board four inches
between centers with all the terminals pro-
jecting to the right and left as partly shown in
Fig. 70. Con-
nect one side of
all these sockets
together with a
No. 14 copper
wire, removing
the insulation
from the wire
only at the
points it is
fastened under
the screws.
Now cut from
some well-sea-
soned close
grained wood f inch thick, a piece six inches
square. Drill the holes in this piece as indi-
cated in Fig. 71. Procure twelve ij-inch
round-headed brass screws, £ inch in diam-
eter and file off the top of the heads until
there is a flat place about 3-16 inch in di-
ameter. Fasten
these screws in
the |-inch holes
in the board
with a small nut
on the under
side, placing
brass washers
on both sides.
Now cut from
some 1 -3 2 -inch
spring brass a
piece as shown
in Fig. 72 and
slit it as indi-
cated by the dot-
ted lines. Ob-
tain a f-inch
brass bolt 1^
inches long, put
it through the
hole (H) and
solder. Now
make a small
wooden handle
as shown in Fig.
73. The fan-
shaped piece of
brass can now
be fastened to
the handle with
250
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
four small screws. Mount a washer one inch
in diameter and J inch thick with a hole \ inch
in diameter, in the center of the board with
two countersunk flat headed brass screws.
This washer is to serve as a bearing for the
piece of brass at-
tached to the \* —
wooden handle.
Bend each of the
segments in the
fan-shaped piece
of brass down a
short distance so
that they will rest
firmly against the
tops of the screws
when the fan-
shaped piece is
held down against the washer on the wooden
base. A small spring placed on the bolt in the
back and held by two lock nuts will aid in
maintaining a constant pressure of the fingers.
Cut from some §-inch brass a circular piece
as shown in Fig. 74 and mount it on the
*",
FIG. 71
K
"*
FIG. "J2
FIG. 73
wooden base so that its upper surface is on
the same level as the top of the screw heads.
A stop should be placed in the position
marked (S) Fig. 70 to prevent the handle
being turned completely around.
Now mount this special switch on four
short pedestals under the corners, on the
same board you moun-
ted with the lamp
sockets, and arrange to
make the following con-
nections. Two binding
posts (Tt) and (T2) Fig.
70, can be mounted on the main base
that will serve as terminals for the rheostat.
Connect one of these binding posts to the
lead common to all of the lamps. The
other binding post should be connected to
the bolt in the center of the switch with a
flexible lead. The free terminals of the
various lamps should now be connected in
regular order to the back end of the screws
in the special switch base. When all the
lamps are in place you can vary the number
FIG. 74
connected in parallel between the binding
posts of the rheostat by simply turning the
rheostat handle.
You no doubt will want to make a rheostat
that can be used on your switchboard in
connection with your transformer and recti-
fier in charging and discharging the storage
battery. The construction of the switch for
this rheostat will differ from the one used
FIG. 75
with the lamps and it will be so arranged
that a more gradual change in resistance
can be made than in the previous case.
Assume that it is desired to have a rheostat
that will give a range of current from one
half to five amperes when connected to
circuits whose voltages range from a few
volts to 50 volts. A convenient way of
fig. 76
making such a rheostat would be to connect
two in series, one in which the resistance
units are relatively large and the other in
which the resistance units are relatively
small. Fig. 75 shows how such an arrange-
ment should be connected. The total
resistance of the small rheostat should be
practically the same or a little greater than
the resistance of one step in the larger rheo-
stat. With the maximum voltage of 50
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
251
volts the total rheostat resistance should be
ioo ohms to give the minimum, current of
\ ampere. This total resistance can consist
of 19 five-ohm units in the larger rheostat
and 20 one-fourth-ohm units in the smaller
rheostat.
Fig. 76 shows a cross section through a
switch suitable for operating such a rheostat,
and its construction can be accomplished as
follows. Cut two pieces, from some |-inch
fig. 77
well-seasoned wood, one 10 inches square and
the other six inches square. Draw a 55-inch
circle on the larger board with the stationary
point of the compass in the exact centre of
the board. Divide this circle into 20 equal
parts and drill 20 J-inch holes with these
equally spaced points as centres. Draw a
four-inch circle on the smaller board and
divide it into 20 equal parts, and with these
points as centres drill |-inch holes. Now
procure 39 |-inch brass bolts £ or one inch in
length. Fasten 20 of these bolts in the holes
in the smaller board and 19 of them in the
holes in the larger board which leaves one
blank spot and the rheostat will be open
when the arm (A) is in this particular posi-
tion. It might be well, however, to fill this
space with any kind of a blank screw. Cut
a second board 10 inches square from
some \ or f-inch stock to serve as a back for
the rheostat. See (C), Fig. 76. This board
should have a ^-inch hole drilled in its centre
for the rod (R2) to pass through. Cut four
pieces two inches wide and 4^ inches long
from ^-inch oak that are to serve as supports
for the switch (S2). Four more pieces three
inches wide and 7I inches long should be
cut from some ^ or f-inch oak that are to
serve as supports for the switch (St). Obtain
a piece of ^inch brass rod iof inches long.
Thread one end of this rod to a distance of
about one inch and drill a 3-3 2 -inch hole
through it \ inch from the opposite end.
This rod is to be used in operating the contact
arm (B) of the switch (S2). Cut from some
1 -1 6-inch spring brass two pieces as shown
in Figs. 77 and 78 that are to form the arms
(A) and (B) of the switches. A brass
washer (R), Fig. 76, should be cut from
some |-inch brass and soldered to the arm(B)
and both of them then soldered to the brass
rod so that the lower side of the washer is
5§ inches from the threaded end of the rod.
Now fasten this part of the switch in position
as shown in Fig. 76. A brass washer (W)
should be placed on the end of the rod
before the nut is screwed on. It would be
best to put a lock nut on the end of the rod
in addition to the one shown. These nuts
should be run onto the rod until there is
quite a little tension in the arm (B), thus
assuring a good contact between it and the
heads of the screws. Procure an insulating
tube, 4§ inches long, with an inside diameter
a trifle larger than the outside diameter of the
brass rod (RJ and an outside diameter of
approximately ^ inch. Next obtain a piece
of brass tubing (T) 45 inches long with
about 1 -1 6-inch wall and of such an inside
diameter that it will fit snugly around the
insulating tube. Now fasten the arm (A)
to the brass tube with a brass washer (Rx) as
you did the arm (B) to the brass rod. The
lower side of the arm (A) should be i| inches
from the lower end of the brass tube when
they are fastened together. A special washer
(R2) should now be made. Two holes
should be drilled in the lower end of the brass
tube and threaded so that they will take the
screws (S3) and (S4). There should be quite
a bit of pressure exerted by the arm (A) upon
the heads of the screws when it is fastened in
place.
Two handles (Hx) and (H2) as shown in
Fig. 76 can be turned from hard wood and
mounted on the outer end of the brass rod
and tube. A washer (R3) should be cut from
insulated material and put in place, to pre-
vent the brass tube coming in contact with
the arm (B). Two small uprights (Px) and
(P2) should be placed on top of the boards
(Sx) and (S2) to prevent the arms (A) and
(B) turning entirely around.
The elements of resistance connected
between the screws mounted on the board
(SJ are to each have five ohms resistance.
No. 18 B. & S. gauge "Advance" resistance
252
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
wire has a resistance of .184 ohm per foot so
that there will be required five divided by
.184, or 27.17 feet. This number of feet is
equal to 326 inches. Divide this length of
wire into two parts. Wind these pieces around
a round piece of wood with the various turns
touching each other allowing \\ inches of
free wire at one end and 2\ inches at the
other end for connections. Holes may be.
drilled in the boards (Sj), (S2), and (C)
through which the free ends of these resis-
tance coils can be passed, thus giving an easy
means of supporting them. Two coils can
now be connected together in series by
soldering together the ends that project
through the lower side of the board (C).
The upper terminals of these coils should
now be connected to adjacent screws, the
last screw of one element forming the first
terminal of the next element and so on.
The elements for the smaller rheostat are
to each have a resistance of \ ohm and have
a total length of 16.3 inches. These lengths
of wire should of course be increased a small
amount on account of end connections.
Two binding posts should be mounted in
some convenient place such as shown by (T\)
and (T2). Connect (T\) to one end of the
series of resistance in the smaller rheostat.
Then arm (B) can be connected by a flexible
lead to one terminal of the resistances in the
larger rheostat and the arm (A) by a flexible
lead to the terminal (T2). When these two
rheostats are to be used in series as just
described there is no need of the insulating
tube that separates (A) from (B). The
rheostat was made in this way so you can
split it up and use either separately if
desired.
A hole should be drilled in the front of
your switchboard of such a size that it will
allow the brass tube to easily pass through.
The rheostat can then be fastened rigidly to
the board with four large screws.
The rheostats described here may not be
suited to the particular circuit you want to
use them in but the general plan of construc-
tion will be the same. A small booklet
containing tables giving the resistance of
different size wires of different kinds of
materials and their change in resistance
with a given change in temperature can be
obtained from the Driver-Harris Company.
These tables will be found very convenient
in selecting the size and kind of wire to use
in your rheostat.
(To be continued.)
Electric Clocks as Timekeepers
Can electrically wound clocks -keep better
time than those wound by hand, the rest
of the mechanism being the same? The
question is an important one, for in the long
run the device that is more nearly right in
principle will come out ahead. In our
hand- wound clocks the rate of movement
is controlled by an escapement which is
moved either by a spring or by a pendulum.
Changing the tension of this spring, or the
length of the pendulum, alters the speed of
the escapement and therefore the rate at
which the hands move over the dial. As
long as this adjustment of the balance
spring or pendulum is kept the same, wc
21-HOUR WIHOINC
M\N^^M\^^N\l\^w\^^^^^^^^N\
HOURLY WINDING
ELECTRIC W/NO//VC
I 134 St, 7 e f 10 it a. 1} /y is /* /7 w 19 2» v ix » *j
HOURS
FREQUENT WINDING MEANS MORE UNI-
FORM SPRING TENSION
generally assume that the clock will run at
a uniform speed, yet this is not entirely true.
For while the swing of the escapement may
have a fixed time, the speed at which this
escapement catches and releases will vary
with the pressure of the teeth against the
same. This pressure depends on the ten-
sion of the main spring* and is many times
greater when the clock is fully wound than
when it is almost run down, so that the
escapement in a 24-hour clock will act with
more snap during the first twelve hours.
The difference is not great, but it explains
why two clocks which may read alike each
evening will differ by a half minute or minute
at other times of the day. Now, if we re-
duce the difference in spring tension before
and after winding, we will lessen this varia-
tion in the hourly speed of the clock. A
glance at the diagram will show how winding
the clock every hour would reduce the change
in spring tension. Electrically wound clocks
go still further when they wind the spring
several hundred times each hour.
Membership in Popular Electricity Wireless Club is made up of readers
of this magazine who have constructed or are operating wireless apparatus
or systems. Membership blanks will be sent upon request. This depart-
ment of the magazine will be devoted to the interests of the Olub, and
members are invited to assist in making it as valuable and interesting
as possible, by sending in descriptions and photographs of their equipments.
Determination of Wave Length
How can I determine the wave length of
my equipment? What is the formula?
These and other questions of like import
are continually being asked by readers of
this department. Invariably we have an-
swered the amateur by telling him to get in
tune with some station of known wave
length and thereby determine his own.
There are of course wave meters which may
be used for the purpose, but they are ex-
pensive and generally not available except
to the commercial station.
Still, there are no doubt many who may
think that our customary answer is an eva-
sion of the question — an easy way of putting
them off. So for once we are going to side-
step the "popular" idea of our magazine
and delve a little into the technicalities. If
you want the formula here it is. Those who
understand higher mathematics may make
use of it. To those who do not we simply
say: "Do not ask us to explain." We do
not conduct a correspondence school in
mathematics.
W=3.i4i6x2X2 V V~l~c
in which ....
W=wave length in meters
V=velocity of light, or 300,000,000
meters per second
L=inductance in henrys
C=capacity in farads
Both capacity, C, and inductance, L,
enter into the equation and except in simple
circuits are difficult to calculate. The
capacity of a straight vertical wire of length
I and diameter d well above the earth and
away from other conductors is m micro-
micro-farads found from the equation,
1
c=
4.1454 log (jj)
When brought near to other wires and
connected to them, the above value will be
modified. The capacities of the connected
condensers must also be considered, but
this will depend on how the condensers are
connected, which varies in different systems.
Stefan's formula for self inductance is:
L=4"TTn2ajlog
b2 „ •
e V b2 + c2
/, 3b2+c2\
+
16 a2'
where L=inductance in micro-henrys after
being divided by 1000.
a=mean radius of the coil
n= number of turns
b=over-all breadth of the coil
c=depth of the coil
yt and y2=constants depending on
the ratio of the quantities b and
c (always dividing the smaller
by the larger). For example,
suppose b=2cm. and c=
1 cm.
CI
—=—=.5 By reference to previously de-
ls 2
termined table of constants, for the value
•5- yi=-796 and y?= 13066
This formula is quite exact for square
wire insulated by a covering of little thick-
ness, but requires correction in the case of
round insulated wire. This correction con-
sists of three parts and is represented by
£L = 4 IT n a(loge -^- + 0.13806 + a)
where £ L is the correction in L (in micro-
henrys after dividing by 1000), a and n are
radius and number of turns as before, D and
d are diameters of wire plus insulation and
.bare wire, respectively, and A is a constant
depending upon the number of turns of
254
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
wire in the coil. (The correction 0.13806
is the increase in the self-inductance of the
separate turns because the wire is round
D
instead of square, loge — is the increase be-
d
cause the wire is smaller than the square
wire assumed in the formula, A is the cor-
rection due to the difference in the mutual
inductance of the separate turns on one
another, being more for round wire than for
square.) For wireless telegraphy coils the
correction, A, is small and may be disre-
garded.
Transmission of Photographs by Wireless
We have often wished that we
could see the party to whom we
are talking over the telephone.
From the present outlook there is
a possibility that our hopes along
this line may be realized, for a
Mississippi inventor has recently
perfected a new system for trans-
mitting photographs by wireless,
making it possible for us to talk
over the wireless telephone and
then see the face of the party to
whom we were talking gradually
traced on the recording cylinder of
a phonographic looking instrument.
Victor H. Laughter, the inventor of this
system, is well known to the readers
of Popular
Electricity
through his
many con-
tributions to
the subject
of wireless.
Mr. Laugh-
ter, who has
over twenty
pending
wireless pat-
ents, has
been experi-
menting for
a number of
years along
this line.
Transmis-
sion of photographs by wireless with Mr.
Laughter's
system has
been carried
out up to the
present in an
experimental
way, although
he thinks that
his method
V. H. LAUGHTER
r~
can be made practicable. The
principle of transmitting photo-
graphs by wire or wirelessly is very-
simple, and not original with Mr.
Laughter, but the many obstacles
in the way of small details to be
perfected have received careful
study and much experiment on his
part.
The inventor refuses to give a
detailed description of the set
owing to the patent situation.
He writes, however, that instead
of sending out a wave from a
JL
^*Jls (X
spark coil or transformer to correspond with
the varying
0 " . 1
11
nam
1
portions of
the photo-
graph being
transmitted, a
"J K/Z/Y\A^Tij^*UMXy generator of a
fj continuous
wave is uti-
. — _ zsm lized and this
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
255
wave is varied and thrown in and out of the
regular current to correspond with the pho-
tograph. At the receiving end a special type
of coherer is used and for printing the pho-
tograph a method both electro-chemical and
photographic is employed.
The inventor found it next to impossible
to send photographs with the old type spark
sending set and coherer, owing to the periodic
character of the spark and the slow working
action of the coherer. He informs us that
the set he is now employing is used in con-
junction with his wireless telephone system
and to talk over the wireless telephone, then
run off a photograph of the distant party
makes a very interesting exhibition.
The illustrations herewith were furnished
by Mr. Laughter as examples of the work
he has done in this line.
This system can also be applied to wire
use and it is expected that it will come into
use for newspaper work. To be able to
transmit a photograph from city to city, of
some noteworthy event a few moments after
it actually happens would certainly prove
a great help to the newspapers.
A High-Power Wireless Equipment
By ALFRED P. MORGAN
PART III. — INDUCTION COIL SECONDARY; KEY
The secondary sections are 50 in number.
They measure 12 inches outside diameter
and|three-sixteenths of an inch thick. The
hole in the center through which the in-
FIG. 19. ARRANGEMENT OF CORE AND
WINDINGS
sulating tube passes is five inches in diameter.
About 15 pounds of No. 28 B. & S. gauge
Flancfe
Pollejl
silk-covered wire is required to wind the 50
sections. A sectional view showing the gen-
eral arrangement of core; primary, insula-
tion and secondary is given in Fig. 19.
They are formed on a winder similar to
that illustrated in Fig. 20.
The flanges are 13 inches in diameter
and \ inch thick. The core is 3-16 inch
thick and five inches in diameter. The parts
of the winder are preferably made of brass.
FIG. 20. SECTION FORMER
Sections nor Effech've increase
Beveled of insulo-h'on by bevel
FIG. 21. ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
The core is tapered so that the completed
section may be more easily removed from
the form. This construction also results in
better insulation between the sections by
forming an air space next to the insulating
tube. This may be better understood from
Fig. 21.
The flanges are held tightly against the
core by means of two nuts which screw on
the shaft. The shaft may be either placed
in a lathe chuck or else fitted with a pulley
and the form revolved by attaching a belt
which runs to the driving wheel of a sewing
machine. Those who possess a small work-
shop may find the suggestion illustrated in
256
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Fig. 22 of permanent value and useful for
other purposes than coil winding.
An old bicycle is adapted in the manner
shown and should require no other explana-
tion than that afforded by the illustration.
The base and uprights of the winder are
made of wood and may be of almost any con-
FIG. 22. SIMPLE WINDING MACHINE
venient size. The bearings are short lengths
of brass tubing into which the shaft will fit.
The wire is fed slowly and evenly into
the winder until the section is 12 inches in
diameter. Use a great deal of care not to
pass in any kinks or snarls. The wire must
be very carefully watched for breaks.
Oftentimes the wire itself is broken but is
held together by the insulation. It is a
good plan therefore to test each section for
continuity by placing it in series with a battery
and a telephone receiver. If broken, the
Fe/f-^ Spoo/
To Winder
iSecA/on <£■
A Icohot
Lamp
FIG. 23. IMPREGNATING THE INSULATION
section should be discarded or else unwound
and mended. The splice should be soldered
using resin as the flux.
The wire is passed through a bath of
melted beeswax and resin before it is wound
into a section. This operation not only in-
creases the insulation of the wire but the
resulting section is mechanically stronger
as well, and will not fall apart when removed
from the form. The wax must be kept
fairly hot and the form revolved rapidly so
that the wire is wound in before the wax
has had time to cool and become solidified.
Fig. 23 illustrates an arrangement for im-
pregnating the insulation. The wire passes
from the reel over a small pulley and down
into the bath, then under a pulley and out
over another. Before passing over this
third pulley it rubs against a piece of felt
which removes the surplus wax. The piece
of felt requires frequent scraping or renewal.
A square, cracker tin contains the wax
mixture and is supported at its four corners
so that an alcohol lamp may be placed un-
derneath as a source of heat. The pulleys
are simply ordinary spools turning about a
round headed screw and having a small
washer placed at either end so as to elimi-
nate friction.
The separators between the secondary
sections are circular disks of blotting paper,
12^ inches in diameter and having a hole
five inches in diameter cut in the center. A
template of sheet metal of the same size
is first made and then laid on the blotting
paper so that the separators may be cut out
by scoring around the edges with a sharp
pen knife. The separators are impreg-
nated by soaking them in a hot mixture of
beeswax and resin. They are then hung
up and allowed to dry before using.
The secondary is assembled by slipping
alternately a completed section and then
two separating disks over the primary and
insulating tube. The method of connecting
the sections is indi-
cated in Fig. 24.
The direction of
winding of every
alternate section is
not necessarily re-
versed as the arrows
at first seem to indi-
cate but they are
merely turned around
as shown by the bevel.
When the complete secondary is as-
sembled two wooden flanges 13 inches in
diameter are forced oVer the insulating tube
until they come tightly against the ends of
the secondary.
The ends of the insulating tube of the coil
illustrated in Fig. 25 were threaded and
fitted with hard rubber flanges which screw
against the wooden flanges and hold them
tightly against the secondary, but this con-
struction is no doubt rather difficult for
amateur coil builders to imitate and im-
possible with an insulating tube composed
of several layers.
FIG. 24. METHOD OF
CONNECTING
SECTIONS
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
257
FIG. 25. COMPLETED SECONDARY
After assembling, the whole coil is placed
in a metal receptacle which contains a
quantity of the mixture of beeswax and
resin used for impregnating the sections.
The container should be built up in the
shape of a cylinder out of sheet tin, and
of a size just large enough to admit the
coil so that there will be no necessity to use
a large amount of the wax. The wax is
kept hot by a gentle heat and the coil
allowed to become thoroughly " soaked."
1 ... ,,— ~
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Gas
Flame or
Alcohol Lamp
FIG. 26. ASPIRATOR
The usual method of impregnating the
secondary after assembling and the one
followed in the case of the coil in question
is to solder a tin cover on the top of the
cylinder so as to render it air tight. A
small piece of one-quarter inch brass tubing
is soldered in the top and connected with a
rubber hose to an aspirator on the water
faucet as shown in Fig. 26. When the
aspirator is set in operation it will exhaust
the air from the receptacle and cause any
air bubbles in the coil to expand and pass
out. When the atmosphere is readmitted
the pressure will force the hot wax into all
the interstices.
After soaking in the hot wax for a while
and under atmospheric pressure the recepta-
cle is opened and the coil removed. If the
primary and insulating tube are covered
with a layer of ordinary insulating tape
previous to immersing in the wax, they will
be protected and not become covered with
the compound. The tape is removed after
the coil is taken out of the receptacle. After
cooling the secondary is given several coats
of wax by painting it on hot with a brush.
It is then covered with a layer of tape which
protects the sections and separators from
mechanical injury and in case the coil is
set in a solid mass of insulating compound
when mounted, is easier to remove if ever
necessary.
One of the best and simplest ways in
which to mount the coil is to place it in a
rectangular wooden box fitted with a cover.
The case should measure 27 by 15 by 15
inches inside dimensions. The ends of the
primary rest on two wooden supports which
raise the secondary up clear of the bottom
of the case. The primary terminals lead
to two large binding posts on the end of
the case. The terminals of the secondary
are connected to insulating pillars on the
top of the case.
The insulating pillars are made, as in
j m i
FIG. 27. INSULATING PILLAR
Fig. 27, of § inch hard rubber rods, four
inches long. A J inch brass rod, 5^ inches
long, is threaded at both ends with an 8-32
die and passed through a hole bored along
the axis of each pillar. A binding post
screws on the upper end of each rod, while
two nuts on the bottom end serve both to
secure the pillar and also the secondary
terminal.
Small grooves may be turned in the pillars
to improve their appearance and also to
increase the effective insulating surface.
KEY
The telegraph key of a modern wireless
equipment is a somewhat important factor
since the ease with which it may be manipu-
lated will largely determine the time and
current energy consumed in transmitting a
message.
The ordinary Morse telegraph key is not
large enough to conduct or break the cur-
rent required by a large coil or transformer
258
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
without becoming overheated. However a
wireless key must not be of such a size that
it is awkward to operate but rather be de-
signed so that the weaknesses of a small
key are avoided. This is accomplished by
providing auxiliary conductors which relieve
the bearings of the key from carrying the
current and by shunting a condenser across
the contacts or placing them in a magnetic
field to prevent arcing.
fig. 28. KEY
Fig. 28 illustrates a key which is easily
constructed and entirely practical, it being
the form adopted by one of the large com-
mercial companies.
The lever is seven inches long and is
formed from a piece of square brass § by f
inch, by bending one end in a double curve
so as to bring the key knob nearer the surface
of the operating table and render it less
awkward to manipulate than if it were
straight.
fc> i; o o 6 6j
fie
^-/o-^-f
/o-z+
7"-
FIG. 29. DETAILS OF KEY
Fig. 29 is a detail drawing of this key.
Six holes, (A), (B), (C), (D), (E) and (F)
are located and bored in the positions in-
dicated in the illustration. (A) and (D)
pass all the way through the lever and are
threaded with a 10-24 tap to receive a
thumbscrew having a similar thread. (F)
also passes all the way through but is not
threaded. A 10-24 brass machine screw ^
inch long under the head passes through
rJ>
this hole and screws into the under side of
an ordinary key knob. The hole (B) is
3-16 inch in diameter and passes through
the lever at right angles to the sides, iji
inches forward of the rear end. A piece
of 3-16 inch round brass, 1 \ inches long and
pointed at both ends passes through this
hole and forms the pivots of the key. The
holes (C). and (E) are bored \ inch deep.
The former is threaded with a 10-24 tap,
while the other is threaded with a 5-16
inch tap having 20 threads to the inch to
receive the contact stub.
The base, Fig. 30,
is five inches long, 2§
inches wide and \ inch
thick. The plan and
elevation may be best
comprehended from
the illustration. A
wooden pattern, 1-16
inch larger all around
than the dimensions fig. 30. key base
here given is made
and a casting in brass procured from a
foundry. Smooth the pattern with sand
paper and give it a coat of shellac.
The rough casting is finished up to the
shape and dimensions indicated by filing or
grinding on an emery wheel. Two holes
are bored on the center lines of the uprights,
7-16 inch below the top and threaded with
a 10-24 tap to fit the bearing screws. On
the center line of the base \ inch from the
rear a hole is bored 3-16 inch deep and
threaded to fit a 5-16 inch brass rod 2^
inches long and having 18 threads to the
inch. This rod forms the rear leg of the
key and serves both to fasten the key on
the operating bench and also as a means to
make connections.
A \ inch hole passes through the forward
part of the base \ inch back from the edge.
This hole is purposely made large so that
the under contact may be moved about to
bring it into perfect alignment with that on
the lever.
A shallow recess is formed with the point
of a f inch twist drill, \\ inches back from
the front edge of the base and on the center
line. This recess prevents any lateral
movement of the spiral spring.
One inch forward of the rear edge and
on the center line of the base, a hole is
drilled through and threaded with a 10-24
tap. A 10-24 machine screw \ inch long
under the head fits into this hole.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
259
A strip of No. 25 hard spring brass Fig.,
31, 5-16 inch wide and 2 \ inches long serves
both as an auxilliary and also to conduct
part of the current passing from the base
to the lever. The upper end is clamped
2?
"<°
H'
3)' kc
Auxiliary Spring Pivot
°>[5
>'
•I? •--**-*:!
Thumbscrews
FIG. 31. KEY ACCESSORIES
by the screw fitting into the hole (C) in the
lever. The hole in the lower end is elongated
as in the illustration so that the tension is
adjustable. The lower end clamps under
a small machine screw in the base.
The spiral spring is formed of seven turns
of No. 16 hard brass wire and is ^ inch in
%|
Le9
p— "-
f" ^Ploh num
Nut Stub
FIG. 32. CONTACTS
diameter. The upper end is bent upwards
at right angles and fits into a hole in the
lower end of the adjusting screw.
Four thumbscrews, Fig. 31, are required
and an equal number of knurled lock nuts.
All have a 10-24 thread. The bearing
screws are i\ inches long under the head
and have a 3-32 inch hole bored in the ends
to receive the pointed ends of the lever
pivot. The rear adjusting screw which
regulates the play of the key is pointed and
is 1 J inches long. The other screw govern-
ing the tension of the spiral spring is \ inch
shorter and has a small hole bored in the
lower end.
The contacts, shown in Fig. 32, and their
adjustment deserve careful attention. They
must be heavy, perfectly flat across the con-
tact surface, in perfect alignment and of
proper material. The points of the key in
question are \ inch in diameter, 3-16 inch
long and are platinum-iridium. Silver is
sometimes used but the first metal is pre-
ferable. The upper contact is set in a small
brass stub | inch long and 5-16 inch in
Bearing Screw
*OS
o
Lever
Bose Knob
Bearing Screw
Adjusting
Screws
1 ^tSpnnqs7 1
Con foe t
i Le,a
Leg
FIG. 33. METHOD OF ASSEMBLING
diameter, which screws into the hole (E)
in the lever. The lower contact is set in
the upper end of the front leg. The contact
points are driven into place • and held by
friction. The leg is 2\ inches long, 5-16
inch in diameter and is threaded with a die
having 18 turns to the inch. A similarly
threaded washer, \ inch in diameter, \ inch
thick, is placed on the upper side of the base
and screwed on the upper part of the leg.
A mica washer of the same diameter must
be placed between the washer and the base.
The leg is clamped on the under side by
means of a large hexagonal nut the dimen-
sions of which are indicated in Fig. t>3- A
mica washer is also placed between the nut
and the base, but a metal washer must be
interposed between the nut and the mica
to prevent damage to the latter when the
nut is tightened. The large hole in the
260
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
base through which the leg passes permits
the point to be moved around until it comes
directly under that on the lever. The
points must be filed until they are perfectly
square across and make contact over their
entire surface, otherwise there will be trouble
from fusing of the surfaces.
The bearing screws should be just loose
enough to permit the lever to move easily
without side play. The tension of the
springs and the amount of movement given
to the lever are matters of individual
taste.
A one-half micro-farad condenser con-
nected directly across the contacts will
absorb any sparking which takes place on
a direct current circuit.
Connections are established to the legs of
the key by means of two large hexagonal
nuts on each.
(To be Continued.)
Effect of Sunlight on Transmission
Considerable attention has been directed
of late to the effect of sunlight on the trans-
mission of Hertzian waves. A writer in
Electrotechnische Zeitschrift, in comment-
ing on this subject, points out that the strong-
er the sunshine the less the conductivity of
ether to the Hertzian waves, so that it is
incorrect to speak of a wireless telegraph
station as having any definite range; for
one which has a large radius of communica-
tion in northern latitudes would have a
much smaller radius in the warm climate
of the tropics.
This would be particularly noticeable on
vessels sailing north and south, and he
suggests that it would be desirable to
prepare a " radio- topographical" map, giving
the. relative conductivity of the ether .at
different latitudes.
Wireless from Coast to Coast
A new wireless company, formed by com-
bining several companies now doing busi-
ness in the United States, has been capital-
ized at $5,000,000, and will be known as
the Continental Wireless Telephone and
Telegraph Company.
The object of the company is to es-
tablish a coast to coast wireless transmission.
The officers include Thomas E. Clark
of Detroit, General Manager; Walter W.
Massie of Providence, Rhode Island,
Vice President, and A. Frederick Collins,
Technical Director.
Rockland County (N. Y.) Wireless
Association
On April 16 the Rockland County Wire-
less Association was formed. A system of
by-laws was voted upon and the following
officers chosen: President, W. F. Crosby;
Vice President, E. B. Van Houten; Secre-
tary, C. Tucker; Corresponding Secretary,
V. N. Giles. The object of the Association
is to help wireless amateurs and to prevent
interference with commercial and Govern-
ment stations. Meetings are held once a
month. Anyone living in Rockland County
and wishing to join will kindly write to
Vincent Giles, South Broadway, Nyack,
N. Y.
Safeguarding Airships by Wireless
The early attempts to equip dirigible
balloons with wireless telegraph apparatus
were made primarily with a view to receiv-
ing information from the same while aloft.
Now it is dawning on those interested in
military airships that the proposition may
also be reversed, by using the wireless to
advise the balloonist of approaching storms
or danger of any kind. With the enormous
cost of the aerial crafts such a means of
safeguarding the same may easily pay for
the whole wireless outfit and this protective
feature will undoubtedly stimulate the more
general equipping of the airships used for
military purposes with wireless receiving
apparatus.
Newspaper Establishes Wireless
Station
A South American newspaper, La Prensa
of Buenos Ayres, has had installed as a part
of its system a wireless telegraph station.
The hundredth anniversary of Argentine
Republic will be celebrated this year by
an exposition which opened May 25th and
one of the purposes of the station is to keep
the newspaper offices in constant wireless
communication with the exposition grounds.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
261
WIRELESS QUERIES
Answered by A. B. Cole
Questions sent in to this department must
comply with the same requirements that are
specified in the case of the questions and
answers on general electrical subjects. See
"Questions and Answers" department.
Sending and Receiving Radii
It becomes necessary again to call the
attention of. those who take advantage of
the wireless queries department, to the
necessity of definitely stating all the con-
ditions when asking questions regarding
sending and receiving radii. It should be
self-evident to most of you that it is next
to impossible for us to advise over what dis-
tance you can receive with a certain set un-
less We know what kind and how large a
station is sending at the other end, and what
the nature of the space is between the two
stations, whether hilly or level land, or
water. Moreover, we cannot intelligently
decide how far you can send with any par-
ticular transmitting outfit unless we know
all about the receiving station, and the space
between the stations.
In asking questions on this subject it
will be necessary for you to cover all of the
above mentioned points, as well as to state
definitely what instruments are used in each
station, as one-half kilowatt transformer or
two-inch coil, straight coil tuner or variable
coupling tuner, etc., and also the height
above earth, length, and number of wires
of the aerials. The shape of the aerials
is also very important.
For example, a one-inch spark coil con-
nected to the aerial of a commercial station
is very different from the same coil connec-
ted to an amateur's 40 or 50-foot one, as
regards transmitting distance to a particular
station. We have known such a coil con-
nected to a 100-foot aerial consisting of four
parallel wires, top of aerial 90 feet above
earth, to transmit to a commercial station
over a distance of 12 miles, but we have also
known of experimenters using a similar
coil who could nor cover a distance of one
mile. There might be many reasons for
the difference in sending radii of these two
stations, but if we are to decide how far
such a coil will transmit, we will have to
know all about both the sending and the
receiving station, as we have pointed out
above.
Every instrument in a wireless station
has some effect on the radii of transmission
and reception. For example, a 75-ohm
telephone receiver will not give as good re-
sults with an electrolytic detector as will
a 1000-ohm receiver, both receivers being
of the same make. Other detectors require
receivers of different resistances, depending
on the detector itself. Moreover, the cheap
telephone receivers cannot be compared
with the better makes, in regard to sensitive
qualities. We have had signals come in
clearly with the better receivers, and yet be
entirely imperceptible in cheap receivers.
The make of receiver as well as the other
instruments should be given in asking these
questions.
We therefore urge you to follow carefully
the above instructions, as otherwise we cannot
give satisfactory answers.
Connections for Sensitive Receiving
Questions. — (A) Please give diagram for con-
necting a _ variable receiving transformer, two
slides on primary and one on secondary; a variable
condenser of the tubular type; a fixed condenser of
tinfoil and paraffin paper; a pair of 75-ohm re-
ceivers (Mesco); four detectors (perikon, electro-
lytic, carborundum and silicon). I wish to use each
of the latter by use of a four-point switch so that
the perikon, electrolytic, and carborundum shall
be connected with battery and potentiometer, while
the silicon shall be connected without the potentiom-
eter and battery. I will use a loop aerial consist-
ing of four wires suspended between two houses,
250 feet apart, one end 60 feet high and the other
70 feet. (B) How may I improve this receiving
set ? (C) With a one-inch coil how far ought I be
able to transmit, assuming sensitive equipment at
distant station ? (D) Will condensers improve my
sending radius? — T. C. C, Jersey City, N. J.
Answers. — (A) See diagram. To connect
the silicon detector without the battery,
Var-
Coidentr- r
Acru
TvieS
■T/xeJ Cotfdeiiser.
RECEIVING CONNECTIONS
merely move the slider of the potentiometer
down to the end of the resistance rod corre-
sponding to no voltage.
262
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
(B) To improve the set, put a single slide
tuning coil in place of the fixed condenser,
as shown in answer^to J. G. W. in this issue.
(C) From two to fifteen miles under ordi-
nary weather conditions, and over water
or fairly level land.
(D) A small condenser, such as a \ pint
Leyden jar, connected across the spark gap,
will probably improve transmission.
Connecting Instruments
Question.— Please give me a diagram showing
the best way to connect up the following wireless
instruments: One double slide tuning coil; i single-
slide tuning coil; silicon, molybdenite, carborun-
dum, microphone, ferron and electrolytic detectors;
i fixed condenser; i variable condenser and i po-
tentiometer; iooo-ohm head -phone receiver. How
far can I receive with the above outfit and a 6-wire
aerial ioo feet long and 95 feet high? — J. G. W.,
San Francisco, Cal.
/jer/a/
JZk£ie£l ye/, -fa
RECEIVING CONNECTIONS
Answer. — See diagram. You should
be able to receive from high power sta-
tions a maximum distance of about 800
miles under ordinary conditions of weather.
Noise in Receiver; Silicon Detector
Questions. — (A) As I move the slider on my re-
ceiving tuning coil I hear ticks in my receiver,
although my aerial is disconnected. Should this
be the case? (B) Are two silicon detectors better
than one? — J. S., Plymouth, Wis.
Answers. — (A) If you do not use a con-
denser in series with your detector and tun-
ing coil. The cause of the sound is loose
contact between the sliders and the wire of
the coil. If you use a condenser in series
with the detector and the coil, the cause of
the sound is probably the same as in the
above case, but is due to the discharge of the
condenser each time the slider touches the
wire. The sliders should always make
contact with the wire of the coil. (B) No.
Aerial
Questions. — (A) Could I use an aerial 25 feet
high and 20 feet long with telegraph wires about
20 feet distant? Would they affect the instruments
and if so how could I stop the trouble? (B) Can
an aerial be placed between two buildings about
10 feet from the top?— E. J. T., Chicago, 111.
Answers. — (A) The telegraph wires will
diminish the distance of transmission and
reception to a certain extent in their direc-
tion, but will not otherwise affect your sta-
tion. The only way to prevent this is to
remove the telegraph wires.
(B) Yes, but it will give much better re-
sults if placed above the buildings.
Tantalum and Mercury Detectors; Aerial Wire
Questions. — (A) Is a detector made of tantalum
wire and mercury as sensitive as the electrolytic?
If not, will it do in place of the latter in most cases ?
(B) Is No. 16 B. & S. gauge bare copper wire too
small for aerials? — B. A. E., Roseburg, Ore.
Answers. — (A) The tantalum detector is
not considered as sensitive as the electro-
lytic, but over comparatively short distances
the signals are reproduced in the telephones
quite loudly, and the detector is satisfactory
for all around work.
(B) No. 16 B. & S. copper wire may be
used for the aerial of a small station. A
larger wire is, however, to be preferred.
Microphone Detector; Ferron Detector
Questions. — (A) What is a microphone detector?
(B) What is a ferron detector? — C. O, Fennimore,
Wis.
Answers. — (A) A microphone detector
consists of a steel needle supported by two
sharp edges of carbon.
(B) A ferron detector consists of a metal
point so arranged that its pressure on a
crystal of iron pyrites can be varied. We
expect to publish an article on this detector
in the near future.
Tuning Coil for High Resistance Receiver
Questions.- — (A) I have a 3010-ohm, head-piece
receiver. Please give dimensions for a tuning coil
to be used with same which will receive up to 1000
miles? (B) Please give wiring diagrams of these
instruments with a silicon detector. (C) Give di-
rections for making the tuning coil. — A. A., Indian-
apolis, Ind.
Answers. — We refer you to an article on
"A Variable Coupling Tuning Coil," in the
January, 1910, issue, which answers your
questions fully.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS]
Use of this department is free to readers of Popular Electricity, but atten-
tion will not be given to questions which do not comply with the follow-
ing rules : All questions must be written in the form of a letter addressed
to the Questions and Answers Department and containing nothing for
the other departments of the magazine; two-cent stamp must be enclosed
for answer by mail, for space will not permit of printing all answers;
the full name and address of the writer must be given.
Milli-Ampere
Question. — What is a milli-ampere ? — G. E. L.,
Phillipsburg, Kansas.
Answer. — The prefix "milli" signifies
"one-thousandth part." A milli-ampere is
the thousandth part of one ampere (.001).
Grounding Transformers and Generators;
High Voltage Insulation
Questions. — (A) Should a dynamo or a trans-
former be grounded? (B) Should wires carrying
2300 volts and running through a town be insula-
ted if they are on the top of a 40-foot pole ? J. H.,
Richfield, Idaho.
Answers. — (A) Regarding generators the
National Code reads: "Mustwhen operating
at a potential in excess of 550 volts, have
their base frames permanently and effec-
tively grounded. Must, when operating at
a potential of 550 volts or less, be thoroughly
insulated from the ground wherever feasible.
Wooden base frames used for this purpose,
and wooden floors which are depended upon
for insulation where, for any reason, it is
necessary to omit the base frames, must be
kept filled to prevent absorption of moisture,
and must be kept clean and dry. Where
frame insulation is impracticable, the in-
spection department having jurisdiction
may in writing permit its omission, in which
case the frame must be permanently and
effectively grounded." The Code forbids
the installation of transformers in buildings
other than central or sub-stations unless by
permission of the inspection department
concerned. When installed in central or
sub-stations, casings of all transformers
must be permanently and effectively ground-
ed. Transformers used to supply current
to switchboard instruments only need not
be grounded provided they are thoroughly
insulated.
(B) These wires may be bare but should
be supported on petticoat insulators.
Connecting Cells of Battery
Questions. — (A) When cells are connected in
series what is the voltage and current ? (B) When
connected in parallel what is the voltage and cur-
rent? (C) When connected in multiple-series
how figure the voltage and current? (D) I have
7 gravity cells in series and each one tests one volt.
Why will not 7 cells test 7 volts ? (E) About what
is the amperage and voltage of a gravity cell? — O.
W. Y., Kennedy, Minn.
Answers. — (A) If cells are connected
in series the voltage is that of one cell
multiplied by the number of cells, and
the current will be governed by Ohm's law:
_ Electromotive Force _, .
Current = — : , Resistance
Resistance
being whatever there may be in the circuit.
(B) If cells are connected in parallel the
voltage is that of one cell, and the current
capacity is increased, the cells thus arranged
representing one large cell having a very
small internal resistance.
(C) Cells connected in multiple- series
give the voltage of one of the series sets,
and represent a cell, as far as current out-
put is concerned, having a plate area as many
times larger than a single cell as there are
series sets.
(D) They should show seven volts unless
you are using connections between cells that
cause a voltage drop, or are taking measure-
ments at the terminals of the circuit, in
which case a drop along these wires would
have to be allowed for.
(E) One volt and a little less than one-
half an ampere.
Connecting Generators; Horse Power
Questions. — (A) Will more than two generators
operate in parallel? (B) Explain how they should
be connected. (C) Will A. C. generators of the
same voltage and frequency operate in parallel
if they are of different make? (D) Do generators
working in parallel have to be of the same size and
run at the same speed ? (E) How is the horse-
power figured for driving generators? — J. S.,
Kansas City, Mo.
264
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Answers. — (A) Yes, if each machine is
raised in voltage to the bus-bar pressure
before closing the switch connecting the
generator leads to the bus-bars.
(B) Compound wound machines are
usual for this purpose, the positive lead of
each being connected to the positive bus,
and the negative lead to the negative bus.
In addition an equalizer as large as the
machine leads should connect the series
coil of one machine to the series coil of the
next at the brushes and so on.
(C) Alternators running together so that
their outputs may be combined must run at
such speeds that their frequencies are the
same. They must run "in phase" or "in
step." The machines may be of any make
so long as the above is adhered to.
(D) No. They divide the load auto-
matically if all are run at the same voltage.
(E) A generator is rated on the name-
plate at its output under normal conditions
of speed and regulation. Taking this rat-
ing, an additional allowance of from 25
per cent in small dynamos up to 5 per cent
in large ones must be made to get the neces-
sary power that must be put into the ma-
chine under normal load.
Electrical Inspection
Question. — If a building were wired for electric
lights according to written specifications without
having the wiring shown on plans, and these wires
were concealed, would the insurance inspector re-
quire the floors to be taken up and the walls opened
in places for the purpose of ascertaining whether
or not the work was propely done? — H. L. M.,
Clarksville, Va.
Answer. — The specifications for the in-
stallation of any electric wiring are satis-
factory to the insurance inspector when
these specifiactions comply with the rules of
the National Code which is the standard
of the underwriters for such construction.
However, the inspector will not concern
himself about such parts of the specifications
as have to do with installing the wires in this
or that way so long as the Code rules are
not violated. The inspector should not
accept any concealed work unless installed
under his supervision, or without having
such openings made in the floors and walls
as will enable him to know whether the work
is standard or not. As a rule contractors
who desire approval of a job notify the in-
spector when the work is begun, and it is
then the inspector's duty to follow up the
job until completed, examining all con-
cealed work when "roughed in."
Alternator Exciter; Fuses
Questions. — (A) Please explain how an exciter
works in connection with an alternator. (B) Sup-
pose a set of feeders runs to a point, where a pair
of branch wires are tapped off with fuses. If these
latter wires get short circuited, would it blow both
fuses out, or only one? (C) Would there be any
danger of getting a shock if only one fuse blew
out?— C. R., Boonville, Mo.
Answers. — (A) The exciter of a alternator
is a direct current dynamo. It is sometimes
belted to the main shaft of the alternator
or run by a motor. The two wires from
the exciter run to the fields of the alternator,
and in series with one of these wires may be
a rheostat for regulating the current through
the alternator field coils. Besides this a
rheostat in the field of the exciter itself regu-
lates the exciter voltage.
(B) Fuses for protecting electrical circuits
are built to "blow" and open the circuit
when they carry over ten per cent more than
their rating. With a fuse rated to carry
30 amperes, a time limit of 30 seconds is
permissible before this fuse opens the cir-
cuit on a 50 per cent overload. On a fuse
rated to carry 600 amperes, a period of 10
minutes is allowable before it should blowT
on 50 per cent overload. Under these re-
quirements in tests, it can be seen that a
slight difference in construction, a better
contact in the fuse block on one side of the
line than on the other, and the carrying
capacity are factors wrhich might vary so as
to cause one fuse to blow, opening the short
circuit before the second fuse became hot
enough to blow out.
(C) Yes, if the fuse on the negative side
only opened the positive' side wrould still
be alive.
Twenty-five years ago a small
-i-, Ja-10inan i group of men who were inter-
Electnc Light & ^ .
Convention esteo- m the then infant
electrical industry met in
Chicago and organized the National Electric
Light Association. As a result of this first
meeting there were recorded 71 members.
The idea of the association was probably
that of George S. BoWen of Elgin, 111. The
first president was J. Frank Morrison. The
thirty-third convention of the association has
just been held in St. Louis, May 23d to 27th.
That it was the thirty-third is due to the fact
that the conventions were held twice a year
in the beginning. At the first convention
there were a few over 50 present. At the
last over 2,500 delegates were registered.
To-day the National Electric Light Associ-
ation stands as the largest and most repre-
sentative organization of electric light and
power interests in the world. Allied with it
are the principal manufacturers of electrical
apparatus whose exhibits lend to the con-
vention the air of a great exposition, a bare
idea of which is gained from the illustration
on the next page. The members flock to
the convention from all over the United
States, Canada, Mexico, and our island pos-
sessions. They come to listen to and partici-
pate in the discussions of papers read by the
best talent in the engineering, management,
accounting and business departments of the
profession; they study the newest and most
improved electrical equipment there on
exhibit; they meet old friends and business
acquaintances; they many of them bring
their wives and families, who are entertained
by an endless round of receptions, excursions,
theaters, etc. Altogether it is a week of
combined work and festivity, which an
electric light man will plan on for a year
ahead, even if he has to "pass up" every-
thing else.
The scene of the convention this year was
the fine concrete-steel Coliseum in St. Louis,
with ground dimensions of 200 by 300 feet
The main hall contained the exhibits. At
one end of the hall is a vast stage, recently
used by the Metropolitan Opera Company.
This was partitioned off from the main hall
by a fireproof curtain, forming a great amphi-
theater where the principal meetings for the
reading and discussion of papers were held.
Other meeting rooms in various parts of the
great building were utilized by other sections
so that there were as many as three or four
meetings being held at once. This year a
daily paper was issued at the convention, of
from 16 to 24 pages, which detailed the life
and heart of the convention day by day.
On the evening of the 25th, an anniversary
meeting was held, among the speakers being
Elmer A. Sperry, one of the organizers of
the association; Samuel Insull, past presi-
dent, and known as the dean of the electric
lighting profession; President Frank W.
Frueauff; W. W. Freeman, chairman of
the public policy committee; T. C. Martin,
executive secretary, and Frank M. Tait,
secretary and treasurer.
Interesting and amusing incidents of the
early days of electric lighting were related by
Mr. Sperry. "There was abundant evi-
dence," he said, "that many of us were
willing to assume great risks at that time.
Mr. Ridley, the Boston representative, told
us how he lighted up a queen of light in some
Boston theater; he told us she had a number
of incandescent lamps in her hand and three
or four on her head. He said, 'We took a
loop from the arc light circuit and brought it
down on the stage; these six or seven incan-
descent lamps took the full force of the cur-
rent.' One can but wonder what would
have happened to the queen had these
lamps not taken the full force of the
current.
"There was a strong feeling on the part
of many that the series-parallel distribution
for incandescent lamps would prove superior
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
267
to the multiple system owing to the vast
amount of copper required in the latter.
"The first convention reflected very
strongly the great controversy that was going
on at this time between the telephone people
and the arc light people. In many centers
each had franchises. Complaint was made
that the telephone people had wires strung
on both sides of the street, and no place was
left for the lighting poles and wires without
too close proximity of the sets of wires pro-
ducing serious induction. A committee was
appointed on this matter, and in its report
are to be found excellent suggestions and
wise counsel.
"Think of these earnest fellows struggling
with high-tension currents with no better
insulation than "undertaker's wires," as it
was familiarly called at that time. One
speaker started his remarks with the comment
that he did not mean to advertise any wire
man; another man had difficulty with the
insulation 'between the rubber covering and
the wire.'
"In the discussion of motors, opinions Were
divided as to what efficiency should be
expected. Many could not understand how
it was that as between two similar machines,
one being operated as generator and the
other as motor, the efficiency could rise above
50 per cent, inasmuch as it was apparent
that half of the total resistance was in the
generator and half in the motor. There were
some contemporary writings on this subject
by Edward Weston that gave force to these
remarks. I was deeply interested in this
question of the motor at that time, but my
talk is not recorded and posterity owes the
reporter much. The only record that exists
reads as follows: 'Mr. Sperry went into quite
a lengthy discussion on this subject which,
being all technical language, and being
uttered by him very rapidly, was not under-
stood by the reporter.' "
Speaking of the commercial aspects of the
business Mr. Insull said:
"How far the commercial development of
the business has been forced by the work of
the engineers or how far the necessities of the
salesmen and the business managers forced
the technical development it is difficult to say,
but the fact remains that as the possibilities
of economical investment and economical pro-
duction have increased, the business obtained
and the energy distributed have increased by
leaps and bounds, so that it is no uncommon
occurrence for a central-station company to
double its output every three to four years.
"In the early days of the development of
the central-station business, say for the
first ten years of its existence, from 1881 to
1 89 1, the customers of the central-station
companies looked upon our product as more
or less of a luxury. Partly owing to a lack of
knowledge of the conditions governing the
relation of cost and selling price and partly
owing to the difficulty of getting our cus-
tomers to make the necessary investment to
connect with our system, our service was
used rather as a luxury, or an advertising
proposition than as a necessity."
"It was not until the early nineties that any
of the managers of the large central-station
properties of the country appreciated the fact
that if they desired to place their business on
the basis of a general public necessity it was
necessary for them to rearrange their rates on
such a plan as Would give the long time con-
sumer, the man vvho used the central-station
company's investment most steadily during
the year, the lowest possible price; and the
recognition of the necessity of meeting this
condition may possibly have had as much
to do with reducing the cost as have the
wonderful work of the inventors and the mar-
velous skill of the engineers."
" It matters not by what name you may call
it, — whether you speak of it as the improve-
ment of your load factor, whether you speak of
it as creating a day load, — the fundamental
reason for the success of the business in which
we are engaged is as much an appreciation
of the proper method of selling our product
as the opportunity to use the many brilliant
inventions which have been made by the
great technical minds of our time."
SHORT CIRCUITS
A little Swede boy presented himself before the
schoolma'am, who asked his name. "Yonny Olson,"
he replied. "How old are you?" asked the teacher.
"Ay not know hold ay bane." "Well, when were you
born?" continued the teacher, who nearly fainted at
the reply "Ay not born at all; ay got stepm utter."
"I thank you for the flowers you sent," she said,
And she smiled and blushed and dropped her head,
"I'm sorry for the words I spoke last night;
Your sending the flowers proved that you were right.
Forgive me."
He forgave her.
And as they walked and talked beneath the bowers,
He wondered who in hell sent her those flowers.
An editor had died and was, of course, directed to
ascend to the Abode of the Just. But during the
ascent the editor's journalistic curiosity asserted itself,
and he said:
"Is it permitted for one to have a look at — er — the
other place?"
"Certainly," was the gracious reply, and accordingly
a descent to the other place was made. Here the ed-
itor found much to interest him. He scurried about
and was soon lost to view.
His angelic escort got worried at last and began a
systematic search for his charge. He found him at
last seated before a furnace fanning himself and gazing
at the people in the fire. On the floor of the furnace
was a plate saying: "Delinquent Subscribers."
"Come," said the angel to the editor, "we must be
going."
"You go on," the editor answered, without lifting
his eyes. "I'm not coming. This is heaven enough
for me."
The schoolhouse had just gone up in smoke, and the
taxpayers in the crowd looked at one another and
groaned.
A small boy, upon approaching the smouldering
ruin, burst into uproarious grief.
"Does it grieve you so to lose your school?" asked
a sympathetic bystander.
"T'ain't that," howled the boy, "but I left a nickel
in my desk, and I'll never be able to find it in all that
muss."
Mrs. Jones and her neighbor, Mrs. White, were
talking over the back yard fence and neither of them
could solve the identity of the new neighbors who had
just moved in. Presently they saw the garbage man
approaching and knowing him to be an unfailing
source of information asked, "Jake, who are the new
people who have just moved in?" "I don't know,
mum," replied Jake, "but they have the swellest
swill in the block."
Anxious Suitor — But, sir, I thrill at your daughter's
slightest touch.
Practical Father — Young man, I find her slightest
touch is usually for a hundred dollars.
(A serious accident, in one prolonged, agonizing
stanza.)
Of recent date, I met a skate, who left the state in
'98. His name was Nate, — his surname, Tate.
I'd really hate to perpetrate the rhymes of "ate"
that fitted Nate; inebriate, degenerate, profligate and
turtle bate, — At any rate you'd hesitate to advocate
the cause of Tate.
The hour was late, when in walked Tate and calmly
sate beside my grate. To irritate he took one straight,
then didn't wait to thus relate:
"I had a date at Golden Gate to meet my Fate, —
her name was Kate; no words of 'ate' are adequate to
illustrate this girl sedate. Affectionate, compassionate
— it makes my pate coagulate to contemplate. At any
rate I got there straight and met my mate at 7:08.
En tete-a-tete, (the lunch was great,) we sat and ate,
and something fat-al in that bate got next to Kate
and sealed her fate. It sent her straight— C. O. D.
freight, a candidate to the pearly gate, — "
Here, to abate this tale of Kate, I grabbed a plate
and threw it straight, then chased this Tate from my
estate.
* * *
The village cornetist, who made his living as a bar-
ber, was massaging a patron's face.
"That's a peculiar way of massaging the nose,"
remarked the man in the chair. "Some New York
method?"
"That? Oh, no, I was just practising the fingering
of the Second Hungarian Rhapsody."
Prosecuting Attorney — Your Honor, the bull pup
has gone and chawed up the court Bible.
Judge — Well, make the witness kiss the bull pup,
then. We can't adjourn court for a week just to hunt
up a new Bible.
* :£ $
"The country is going to the dogs!" shouted the
agitator at a street meeting.
"Quit your snarling, then, and wait for your share!"
said a spectator who sized the speaker up.
The train was drawing into Baltimore. The porter
approached a Son of Jove, saying, "Shall Ah brush yo'
off, Sah?" "No," was the reply, "I prefer to get 'off
in the usual way."
* % 5fc
"Thar's a sign up there, daddy, what says, 'Don't
blow out the gas'."
"Well, who blowed it out? I jest hit it a lick with my
britches an' I haun't seen nothin' er it sense."
"Mama, do all angels fly?"
"Yes, Willie, why do you ask?"
"Cause I heard dad call the hired girl an angel the
other day. Will she fly, too?"
"Yes, Willie, tomorrow."
"Mary," said the lady of the house, "I want you to
go and see how old Mrs. Jones is." Mary went and
after she returned the lady asked: "Well, did you find
out how old Mrs. Jones is?" "Yes, ma'am; she says
she'll be 60 years old next February, if it's any of j-our
business."
TRE MIDNIGHT RIPE
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CH8RGIN& THB BRITISH
If Our Heroes of the Revolution had Understood the Use of Juice
ELECTRICAL TERMS DEEINED
In this age of electricity everyone should be versed in its phraseology.
By studying this page from month to month a working knowledge
of the most commonly employed electrical terms may be obtained.
Atmospheric Electricity. — Static electricity
present in the atmosphere. The cause is not well
understood. Atmospheric electricity varies greatly
in amount and often changes very quickly from
positive to negative or from negative to positive
during a thunder storm. The cause for the great
increase in the potential finally resulting in a
lightning discharge is attributed to the change in
the capacity of a cloud by the formation of large
rain drops from particles of vapor, also from the
friction between the cloud and air.
Attachment Plug. — A device to which flexible
or other wires may be connected so as to plug into
a receptacle and thus supply current to portable
lamps, motors, etc.
Attraction. — The tendency of a body charged
with static electricity of one polarity to approach
or be drawn to another body oppositely charged,
known as electrostatic attraction. Also shown be-
tween bodies capable of being magnetized, classified
at electromagnetic or magnetic attraction.
Aurora. — -Rays and bands of light seen in the
northern and southern skies at night. Considered
by some scientists to be due to the electric dis-
charges in a thin or rarefied air similar to the
display obtained in a Geissler tube.
B
B. W. G. — An abbreviation for "Birmingham
Wire Gauge."
Back Electromotive Force.— When a motor
is in operation the wires of its armature are turning
in a magnetic field the same as in the case of a
dynamo. Therefore they generate an electromo-
tive force or voltage, as in the case of the dynamo.
This electromotive force is opposite to that im-
pressed upon the motor from the outside source
and opposes it — hence the name back electromo-
tive-force.
Balanced Load. — An equal distribution of the
load on a two- or three-phase system, or between
two generators, or on the two sides of a three-wire
Edison system, or over five-wire distribution mains.
Bank of Lamps. — A number of lamps so con-
nected that they may be thrown on a circuit as a
load. Used frequently in electrical testing labora-
tories.
Bank of Transformers. — Applied to any group
of transformers connected together to step up or
step down the voltage.
Bath, Electroplating. — The solution in the
vat in which articles are placed while being plated.
Bath, Electro-therapeutic. — The applica-
tion of an electric treatment to the body or to a
portion of the body of a patient by means of suitable
positive and negative electrodes. Called also an
electric bath.
Bath, Stripping. — A term applied to the solu-
tion in which any electroplated article is placed for
the purpose of removing this plating. It is the
process of electroplating reversed.
Battery. — A term commonly applied to a com-
bination of a number of cells for the production of
electrical energy. Used also to designate a single
cell for producing electrical energy. Applied to
Leyden jars when two or more , III]
are connected together. Re I | 1 1 —
presented by the symbol: I I I I I
Battery, Aluminum. — A battery having alumi-
num for the negative plate and aluminum sulphate
for the electrolyte. Its E. M. F. is .2 volt.
Battery, Bichromate. — A battery consisting
of a zinc plate for the positive element suspended
between two carbon plates forming the negative
element. The electrolyte is a solution of potas-
sium bichromate, 1 part; sulphuric acid, 3 parts;
water, 9 parts. Electromotive force, 2.1 volts.
For open or closed circuit work. The plates
should be removed from the solution when not in
use.
_ Battery, Bunsen.— A type of two fluid cell con-
sisting of a bar of carbon immersed in strong nitric
acid contained in a porous cup, this cup being
placed in a glass jar containing water, 20 parts;
sulphuric acid, 1 part, and a cylindrical plate of
zinc. Potassium bichromate is sometimes sub-
stituted for the nitric acid which gives off disagree-
able fumes. Electromotive force of this cell, 1.8
to 1.9 volts; internal resistance, .08 to .11 ohm.
This battery is adapted for experimental work, but
is expensive and requires frequent attention. May
be used on either open or closed circuit work.
Battery, Cadmium. — A battery set up like the
gravity cell and consisting of a cadmium plate for
the negative element, zinc for the positive and sul-
phate of cadmium for the solution. Electromotive
force .3 volt.
Battery, Closed Circuit. — A battery which
may be kept on a circuit requiring a steady current
without serious polarization.
Battery, Dry. — A battery in which the solution
is replaced by some form of material which holds
the exciting fluid by absorbing it.
Battery, Fuller's. — Battery consists of a cone-
shaped piece of amalgamated zinc within a porous
cup. The zinc is connected to an insulated copper
wire and a little mercury is placed in the cup. In
other respects similar to the Bunsen cell (see Bat-
tery, Bunsen) except that the mercury renders it
unnecessary to remove the plates from the solution
when not ; in use. Sometimes referred to as the
mercury bichromate battery. Electromotive force,
2.14 volts; internal resistance, .5 to .7 ohm.
Battery, Leclanche.— Consists of a glass jar
in which is placed a zinc rpd and a strong solution
of sal-ammoniac. In this solution is placed a
porous cup containing a carbon slab surrounded
by small pieces of carbon and manganese dioxide.
Over the top of this is spread hot pitch only a few
small air holes being left. The cell is not ready
for use until time enough has elapsed, usually ten
or twelve hours, to allow the solution to soak into
the porous cup. Electromotive force, 1.48 volts;
internal resistance, 1.13 to 1.15 ohms. Adapted to
open circuit work such as door bells, electric gas
lighting, etc.
Popular Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
HENRY WALTER YOUNG. Editor
VoL III
August, 1910
No. 4
CONTENTS
TALE OF THE ENGINE THAT SPINS 271
Handling Radium "."..' 278
Fireworks in Arc Lamps 278
THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICAL AGRICULTURE.
By Frederic Lees 279
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?. By Edgar Franklin 284
For the Abstracted Elevator Passenger 291
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY. CHAPTER 28
By Prof. Edwin J. Houston 2C2
ELECTRICAL SECURITIES. By "Contango " 297
WHERE ELECTRICITY STANDS IN THE PRAC-
TICE OF MEDICINE. CHAPTER 8. By
Noble M. Eberhart, M. D 300
AERIAL LIGHT HOUSE OF SPANDAU 304
Record in Track Laying 305
Telephoning from London to Paris 305
Want Electricity from Sun's Rays 305
Light as an Aid to Civilization. 306
Police Tickers in Berlin 306
A Safe Explosive 306
Lighting Architectural Models 307
Billions in the Electrical Industry 307
Lamps Delivered by Auto 308
How Many Wires in a Cable 308
A Miniature Hot Room 309
Banquet at Long Beach 309
Russian Electric Railway Exposition 309
TALKS WITH THE JUDGE 310
Private Car of President Diaz 311
Base-Ball Electric Score Board .< 312
New Philippine Cable Ships ; . . 313
Use of Army Telephones 315
SHOOTING WITHOUT AMMUNITION 315
A Modern Boiler Room 316
SIX THOUSAND TURNS OF A SWITCH 317
Myths of Magnetism 318
"ELECTRIC FARM" 319
No "Out of the World" To-Day 320
THE LIGHTNING ROD. By Brother Potamian .. . 321
Frying Griddle Cakes on a Motor. ..'.'."., 323
Two Thousand Miles by Electric Car . . . 324
Electricity in Coal Mines -. 324
Feeding a Trip Hammer 325
PREVENTION OF MINE DISASTERS 326
In the Modern Village Smithy 327
Page
Electric Scrubbing Machine 32L
Egg Beater and Cake Machine 328
Ingenious Arc Lamp Pole Top 329
Taxes and Cigar Lighters 328
An Electric Curfew Wink .' 329
Locating Flaws in Cables 330
Making a Hole in Glass 330
Plain English or Symbols — Which ? 330
Fastening up Insulators 331
Protecting the Linemen 332
Safe Temperatures for Dynamos 333
Aluminum and Copper Conductors 333
An Automatic Electric Clock 334
Electrically Fire Proofing Wood 335
Non-Explosive Welder 335
Mail Box Alarm 336
Magnetic Lathe Chucks 336
Insulating Materials 337
ELECTRICAL MEN OF THE TTMES. Frank J.
Sprague 338
SWEETS FOR THE SWEET. By Laura M. Warren 339
Work "Well Begun — Half Done" -. 341
Truth About Current Cost 342
Kitchen Stove 342
Lighting a Home 342
A Young Experimenter 343
Model Electric Locomotive 343
AN ELECTRICAL LABORATORY FOR TWEN-
TY-FIVE DOLLARS. PART 8. By Dc.vid
P. Morrison 344
Wireless in Every Home 348
Choosing a Pair of Receivers. By C. Brandes 349
Springfield (Mass.) Wireless Association 350
Are Wireless Burglar Alarms Possible 350
A HIGH POWER WIRELESS EQUIPMENT.
PART 4. By Alfred P. Morgan 351
WIRELESS QUERIES 357
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 359
NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF PATENTS.
By Obed C. Billman 361
Book Reviews 362
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS 363
SHORT CIRCUITS 364
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED 366
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■ * *-« ' *-* »V r\i-i<D with remittance at once, to avoid missing a number. Positively no copies Will be mailed on any subscription after
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YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION, $1.00; CANADIAN, $1.35; FOREIGN. $1.50; SINGLE COPY, 10 CENTS
No additional copies will be sent after expiration of subscription except upon renewal
Entered as Second Class Mitter April 14, 1908, at the Post Office at Chicago. Under Act of March 3, 1879.
Copyright 1910 by Popular Electricity Publishing Co.
NEW YORK EDISON COMPANY S WATERSIDE STATION NO. 2 — 8,000 AND I£,000 KILOWATT
TURBINE-GENERATORS INSTALLED
: YJ
: . : .
VOL. Ill
AUGUST 1910
No. 4
Tale of the Engine that Spins
The steam turbine-generator has brought about a revolution in power plant practice that many do
not realize. The pictures show some remarkable turbine-plants of the day.
When Watt first made a steam engine
he constructed it with a reciprocating piston
inside of a hollow cylinder. Steam was ad-
mitted first on one side of the piston head and
then on the other, giving the desired recip-
rocatory motion. At first he manipulated
the valves by hand, and it must have
been lively work even with the tea-kettle
prototype of the great prime movers of today.
It wasn't long, however, before the sliding
valve was developed, worked by an eccen-
tric, which did very well for a couple of
centuries, giving way in later years to what
is known as the Corliss valve, which came
into almost universal use outside of railroad
locomotives. But the principle of convert-
ing the energy of the steam into mechanical
motion remained steadfastly the same —
the motion of the moving parts was a back
and forth one.
The reciprocating engines grew and grew
in size, until about 10 years ago, when the
monsters of six or eight thousand horse-
power were installed in the plant of the
Manhattan Elevated Railway System in
New York. They were and are mammoths
of their kind, standing over 50 feet high, to
the top of the high-pressure cylinders, and
the low-pressure cylinders, extending out
horizontally, would make good-sized living
rooms. But like the mammoths of glacial
times they represented the last of their race,
as far as the production of great quantities
of power is concerned. A little invader was
entering the field; as little, in comparison
of sizes, as was the Monitor which de-
stroyed the Merrimac, but with "a strength
out of all proportion to its stature. This
new-comer was the steam turbine.
You naturally ask what all this has to do
with electricity. This much — the turbine
engine has revolutionized electric central
station operation where great quantities of
electricity are generated. Whereas a few
years ago it was a matter of discussion' and
much calculation in the building of %" large
plant whether or not to use the new turbine-
generators or turbb-generators, as they are
often called; now they are installed in almost
every instance without question be^|raised.
Why is this the case? For 'one/i,ea$on, they
are more efficient than the reciprocating
engine; another, they take up but a small
fraction of the space; third, units of enor-
mously greater power are possible; fourth,
they are cheaper per unit output and more
272
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
o
o
o
8 <
O w
of £
« es
W <
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
USINE DE L HARRACH PLANT IN ALGIERS, NORTH AFRICA. TURBINE- GENERATORS
OF 1,000 KILOWATT ( 1,340 HORSEPOWER) CAPACITY
easily handled, and besides, will run at a
50 per cent overload for many hours without
hurting themselves.
The first steam turbine generator of the
Curtis type, which is the type shown in all
the illustrations, and is made by the General
Electric Company, was of 500 kilowatts
capacity (between 600 and 700 horse power).
It -was shipped in February, 1903, to the
Newport and Fall River Street Railway,
Newport, R. I. The first 5000 kilowatt
(6700 horse power) unit was installed in
Fisk Street Station of the Commonwealth
Edison Company, Chicago, and was put
in commission in October, 1903. This
latter was the first of the "big ones" and the
Fisk Street Station, with its later sister
station at Quarry Street, hold within their
274
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
o
2
, O
% 2
8<
O w
£
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
275
A GLIMPSE IN THE GENERATING ROOM OF THE UNION ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER
COMPANY, ST. LOUIS. THESE MACHINES DEVELOP 5,000 KILOWATTS \
(6,700 HORSE- POWER) EACH
walls almost the complete history of the
development of the Curtis turbo-generator
to date. Beginning with Fisk Street in
1903, and later with Quarry Street, new
units were added every year to the constantly
lengthening stations, which were always
left unfinished at one end to allow the struc-
tures to be pushed out farther and farther
to accommodate new units.
The steam turbine practically began where
the reciprocating engine left off — at 5000
kilowatts. It crept up and up in size —
eight, ten, twelve, fifteen thousand kilowatts,
which is about 20,000 horsepower. Such
are operating today. Within a year units of
thirty thousand horsepower will be turning.
Think of it, the power of thirty thousand
horses equaled by a single engine. The
power of thirty railroad locomotives all
produced in a space not much larger than
a single mogul of our mountain railroad
lines.
After all, what is the Curtis turbo-gen-
erator and how does it behave? Well, to
use a rough analogy, it is not far away in
principle from the ordinary windmill with
which most people are familiar. There is
a cylindrical steel casing something like a
big cheese box. Standing vertically inside
the casing is a shaft on which is mounted
a tier of disks, one above the other and spaced
about their own thickness apart. When
they turn the shaft must turn with them.
These disks extend outward from the shaft
to the casing. Then on the inner side of the
casing is another set of disks extending
276
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
P OT
a> as
£ a
O Oh
o
Ph
a
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
277
TWO 1,000 KILOWATT ( 1,340 HORSEPOWER) TURBINES INSTALLED FOR USINE DE LA
GOULETTE, TUNIS, AFRICA.
inwardly, and they dovetail in with the first
set, but are stationary.
On the outer edge of the disks or wheels
which drive the shaft are bolted rows of
curved buckets or blades. They are shaped
something like the curved blades on some
steel windmills. In the stationary disks
under each revolving disk are similar buckets
called guides, which curve in the opposite
direction. Now all these things are enclosed
in the casing and superheated, "dry" steam
at enormous pressure is admitted through
nozzles and impinges with terrific force
against the buckets of the first moving disk,
setting all the disks to spinning. The steam
after it has rushed through the first set of
buckets strikes the guide blades in the sta-
tionary disk following, and these blades being
curved in the opposite direction, the steam
is deflected back into its original line of
motion and strikes the buckets of the next
moving disk. In this way the steam
"worms" its way down through the successive
stages of the turbine, losing pressure and
power with each stage until it is finally ex-
hausted at low pressure into a condenser.
In the mean time the shaft with its movable
disks spins like a huge top at 750 revolutions
a minute.
The shaft of the turbine is vertical and
on its upper end, which extends outside
the turbine casing, it carries the armature
of an electrical generator or dynamo. This
armature spins with a low humming sound
278
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
inside the stationary fields and generates
its thousands of horse-power of electrical
energy.
But the weight of the shaft, and blades,
and armature, many tons, must be borne
in some way. This is done in an ingenious
manner and almost without friction, by
what is known as the step bearing. The
lower end of the shaft stands in a receptacle
and oil is pumped into the latter under high
pressure, sufficient to lift the shaft bodily
and support it on a thin film of oil. There
it spins so easily that the tons of weight may
be turned by a man's hand. Once started
the turbine will spin for hours by its own
momentum, if the load is taken off.
Such in brief is the nature of the steam
turbine generator which, within the last
decade, has quietly usurped the power of
plunging pistons and ponderous fly wheels
in the great modern power plants. Most
of those who read this have heard of the
steam turbine, but comparatively few outside
of engineers and mechanicians realize how
great has been the change. To the popular
mind a power plant means mighty machinery
with fly-wheels and reciprocating parts.
This is not true to conditions in the [large
plants of today. The pictures here show
to many of us scenes which are new. To
step inside one of these palatial generating
rooms is to be impressed with the almost
total lack of visible motion, yet, notwith-
standing, the very air of these places is
pervaded with a subtle something suggestive
of mighty forces, and the dull roar bespeaks
the power of a Niagara.
Handling Radium
Because of its great value and also on
account of its chemical action and its power
to produce ulcerated wounds hard to heal,
the traffic in radium is confined to scientitlc
institutions and physicists. In Austria ra-
dium is certified and guaranteed by the
Vienna University and is sold and handled
in what is called a radium cell, a case of
nickeled brass in two parts which screw to-
gether. The bottom of the case is run full
of lead in which a square hole is made and
in this hole is placed the radium. Over the
top is laid a mica plate so that it is not
necessary to open the cell entirely to use
the radium ray, which is unaffected by the
mica cover, but does not readily penetrate
the lead.
Fireworks in Arc Lamps
The reason the long green tubes which we
call mercury vapor lamps are being intro-
duced more and more into shops and draft-
ing rooms is because of their high efficiency
and their distributing the lighting surface
of the illuminant so as almost to do away
with shadows. The reason they are not
adapted for more general uses lies in the
strongly green coloring which characterizes
the mercury arc and which vitiates any red
tints in objects viewed by this light. It
gives to flesh tints that ghastly hue which
even in a lesser degree has been so objec-
tionable in Welsbach gas mantles.
Nevertheless the mercurial lamps have
been introduced in spite of their obnoxious
coloring and if this could be offset by adding
a decided red from some other source of
light, the combination should be more widely
useful. Attempts to do this by combining
tungsten lamps with the mercury vapor
units have already shown fair results, but
the green really needs a stronger red to
balance it than can be expected of the tung-
sten lamp when run at high efficiency. It is
as if on the Fourth of July a neighbor per-
sisted in lighting the house fronts with a
greenish Bengal light, in which case we would
need not a white light but a "red fire" to
offset it.
Now one of the elements commonly used
in the red Bengal lights is lithium, which
gives a pleasing red tint to a flame, hence
if this could be burnt in the mercury vapor
tube it might serve the purpose. Realizing
this, that most versatile of our Americanized
electrical inventors, Mr. Steinmetz, has de-
vised an arc lamp which is double ended in
color, having a mercurial green at one end
of the arc and the lithiated red at the other
end. To accomplish this he uses mercury
for the lower terminal of his arc lamp, while
the upper terminal is a carbon impregnated
with a salt of lithium. In other words, he
tinges the arc of a lamp with red and green
fireworks blending with each other into a
color effect which is said to be very pleasing
in its results.
Owing to the difficulty of getting glass to
stand the intense heat of an arc confined in
so small a sealed chamber as is needed for
the mercurial arc, the new bicolor lamp has
not yet been placed on the market but its
practical development will be awaited with
much interest.
The Future of Electrical Agriculture
By FREDERIC LEES
Use of electricity in plant growing is no
new thing. Numerous experiments have
been made in all parts of the world, and
often with remarkable results. Yet these
do not appear to have made any lasting im-
pression on agriculturists. Why so ? Is it
THE LATE PROFESSOR LEMSTROM
that practical difficulties stand in the way
of an economical application of electricity
to agriculture ? Though the argument may
hold good in some cases, I do not think that
it does in all, and I hold with Professor
Daniel Berthelot, of the Meudon experi-
mental station, near Paris, that electricity,
if properly applied, may be found of the very
greatest utility in the raising of certain
produce, and at no great cost to the pro-
ducer.
But before giving a description of Professor
Betf helot's recent experiments, let me briefly
t<j~ upon the various methods which have
beuu employed in electroculture. One class
comprises methods which utilize atmos-
pheric electricity. The apparatus consists
of a sort of lightning rod, supported by a
pole in the center of the field, and connected
with a network of subterranean wires. F.
Paulin's geomagnetifere was of this type.
Its use showed rather remarkable results.
In a case of a field of spinach, there was an
increase from 43.3 pounds to 53.6 pounds
for every 57.8 square feet, and at a cost for
installation of only about $8 for 2.47 acres.
The use of underground wires, however,
presents difficulties and the system can
hardly be recommended to the practical
farmer.
Another group of experimenters have
utilized dynamic electricity — in other words,
THE LATE MARCELIN BERTHELOT
an electric current produced by plates of
zinc and copper placed in the ground and
connected by metallic conductors, insulated
or not.
280
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
A third group have used electric machines,
and among these investigators was the late
Professor S. Lemstrom, of Helsingfors
University. After many years of experi-
mental work, he came to the conclusion that
in a large number of cases crops grown in
an electrified atmosphere are far above the
average both in quality and quantity. Dur-
ing the years 1902 and 1903 he had experi-
mental fields in England, in connection with
Durham College of Science, in Germany,
near Breslau, and at Alvidaberg, in Sweden,
where he grew many plants under electric
treatment. Strawberries in electrified fields
stretched across the field a little above the
surface; and this was then connected with
an electrical machine placed in a shed at
some distance. The high potential current
charged the net and exercised its action on
the growing plants, in a form known as a
static or brush discharge; to use a rather far
fetched analogy it was like "spraying" the
plants with electricity. As the seeds sprouted
and the little plants began to grow, the net
was raised, as on no account must it touch
them. But this raising of the net, said
Lemstrom, need not be done more than
once or twice during the summer.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE GARDENS OF MEUDON
showed an increase of 50 to 128 per cent
over those grown in ordinary fields; corn
showed an increase of 35 to 40 per cent;
potatoes 20 per cent; beets 26 per cent and
so on.
It must be remembered, too, that in many
of these cases the treatment was merely ten-
tative, so that even better results are pos-
sible. In fact, Professor Lemstrom con-
tended that if his method were rigorously
carried out an average increase of 45 per
cent over the normal for all crops grown on
land of ordinary fertility might be expectedt
The electric current he applied in the fol-
lowing way; A wire net was first of all
On wet days the electrical machine was
stopped, for through the damp the wire net
lost its charge directly. He also found that
it was injurious to the crops to work the
machine when the sun was shining brilliantly.
The probable reasons for this electric in-
fluence are as follows: In the first place
the positive current passing from the points
of the wire net to the earth causes the pro-
duction of ozone and nitric compounds
which are beneficial to the plant. Secondly,
the negative electricity passing up from the
earth to the points of the net tends to draw
up with it through the plant thenar DU>:rn
the root, and thus increased circulatfcP- vof
THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICAL AGRICULTURE
281
the juices gives name. Berthelot pointed out in one of his
increased energy epoch-making works that the use of electric
of growth. As machines might exercise an invigoration in-
to the cost of fiuence on certain plants and might bear
Professor Lem- some resemblance to the action of atmos-
strom's appara- pheric electricity in stormy weather, but it
tus, this was was far from resembling the normal action
rather high, but of the free electricity of the air. He pre-
he showed that ferred, therefore, to note the growth of plants
the results jus- placed merely within an "electric field" —
tified it. "It that is not actually in contact with a current,
appears to me He was anxious to learn the fundamental
without doubt," truths that underlie plant growth; not to
he said, "that make hap-hazard experiments with the ob-
TOWER OF MARCELIN
BERTHELOT
my experiments have led to
results of the greatest practi-
cal importance, for the cost
is small in comparison with
the advantages."
The method of growing
electric influence employed
PROFESSOR DANIEL BERTHELOT OBSERVING THE RESULTS
OF HIS EXPERIMENTS
plants under
by Professor
Daniel Berthelot is quite different from any of
the three systems described above. It is
that invented by his father, the late Marcelin
Berthelot, the great scientist who started the
Meudon experimental station and built
there the 90-foot tower which still bears his
ject of proving to the farmer that he might
increase his crops by the use of electricity
but to discover some of those secrets of Na-
ture upon which all true progress must be
based. After sixteen years of work at Meudon
he did actually find out some of these
secrets. He discovered, for instance, that
certain microbes at the roots of leguminous
282
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
ROOM AT THE TOP OF BERTHELOT TOWER
plants exercised a beneficial influence on
their growth, and also that the natural elec-
tricity of the air invariably lent its aid.
Plants placed at the top of his tower, where
as he termed it, the potential electricity of
the air was higher, thrived better than those
grown at its base. Here was the explana-
tion of the indefinite fer-
tility of mountain fields,
such as those in the Au-
vergne — fields that never
receive any fertilizer and
yet are better producers
than those in the valleys
below.
Working on these lines,
Professor Daniel Berthelot,
who has been appointed
by the French Govern-
ment to continue his
father's work, studies the
growth of plants placed
within an "electric field."
A wire net is suspended
over the plant and con-
nected with one of the poles
of the electrical source, the
other pole being in com-
munication with the earth in which it is
grown. Side by side with each experi-
mental pot or field, he has a plant or
plants, growing without the aid of elec-
tricity, so that he can note the relative
progress made by each. The results which
he has obtained confirm those of his father
ELECTRIC STATION AT MEUDON WHICH SUPPLIES POWER
FOR THE PLANT EXPERIMENTS
THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICAL AGRICULTURE
283
TURNIPS GROWN WITH AND WITHOUT ELECTRICITY
— nay, they enable him to go further than
did Marcelin Berthelot, since he has no
hesitation in declaring that market gardeners
could profitably adopt the method he has
employed in a small way at Meudon. Peas
grown in an electric field are in pod before
others grown under ordinary conditions have
done flowering, and the same is the case
with French beans and other leguminous
plants. Gardeners whose
establishments are near
electric stations or electric
tramways could easily make
an arrangement for con-
necting the insulated wire
netting suspended over
their plants with the com-
panies' overhead wires.
Electric companies could
make but a mere nominal
charge for this privilege,
which entails no appreci-
able expenditure of current.
The only real cost, there-
fore, would be that oc-
casioned by the metallic
net and its placing in posi-
tion. But wire netting is
not at all costly. As to insulators, all that is
needed is a number of jam-pots and posts.
With this inexpensive outfit and permission to
attach a wire to a neighboring conductor of
electric current, gardeners could get their early
vegetables to market long before less enter-
prising competitors. Of this M. Daniel
Berthelot is convinced, and the result of his
experiments proves that he is right.
FRENCH BEANS GROWING WITH AND WITHOUT ELECTRICITY
Current From — Where?
BY EDGAR FRANKLIN
CHAPTER VII.
DOOM SEALED
There followed a period of days — days
that ran into weeks. And it was a period
quite as exasperating, quite as unusual,
as several other periods had been, in the
early days of the Bronton Electric Company.
Race was gone. As regarded complete
certainties, that was about all that Dunbar
and Carey could figure upon.
He had risked his neck by jumping to the
coupling block of a rear platform, and he
had climbed aboard apparently sound of
limb — and where the ensuing dust cloud had
taken him Heaven alone knew.
Not that there had been no word from
Race; so keen a business man could hardly
have neglected sending back tidings of
himself. Therefore, on the morning after
his disappearance, a telegram had reached
the office. It announced merely:
"No time to write.
Race."
And with the oddly uniform way that
unfortunate happenings had occurred in
the neighborhood of the railroad station, the
sheet bore only the date of sending — and not
the location.
Dunbar and his uncle studied it long and
carefully. In the end, they knew as much
as at the beginning. Race, indeed, had
seemed slightly pressed for time at his last
appearance; evidently business was keeping
. up quite as briskly — and Mr. Carey hazarded
the opinion that his nephew's partner had
gone mad and was confined somewhere
with or without his three thousand dollars.
As regarded the apparently deliberate
omission of the telegraph operator, they
agreed that investigation would be worse
than useless. They might be supposed to
know the whereabouts of their own presi-
dent; and advertising their ignorance would
hardly help things. For the message itself,
they gave over speculation after a little. It
might have some subtle meaning which they
were supposed to interpret; it might be a
plain statement of fact; it might be anything
else.
So that, their future wholly in the dark,
Mr. Dunbar and Mr. Carey gave their
splendid imitation of two optimistic, close-
mouthed men attending strictly to business
— business with which they were wholly con-
tent— business which made them smile with
compassionate tolerance, when one or an-
other citizen of Bronton hinted that maybe
they wouldn't be ready on time, eh ?
It was in the second week that Dunbar
sat staring gloomily at an electrical magazine
for want of better occupation that Mr. Carey
looked up from his newspaper and said:
"William?"
"Eh?" The nephew turned to him.
"I " Mr. Carey avoided his eye;
and then he snapped his fingers and said
merely: "Bosh!"
"What is it?"
The elder man ceased gnawing on his
moustache.
"Well, it's just this," he confessed, "if
any other man but Bob Race had exhausted
our bank account and disappeared in that
fashion, I should say that he'd grabbed what
he could and made the best of a bad job —
for himself."
Mr. Dunbar sat up with much energy.
"See here, uncle," he said. "Did you
ever know Bob Race to do one crooked act
in all his life?"
"I never did, William, but "
"There are no buts about it. If Bob
isn't doing what's best for the concern, he's
gone crazy fretting over this infernal busi-
ness and landed in an asylum somewhere.
If you haven't confidence enough "
"I have confidence enough to have put
ten thousand dollars in cash in the bank —
all of which he can draw from anywhere if
he happens to have a blank check with him,"
Carey suggested quietly.
"Well, of course you have! And now — "
The telephone bell tinkled — rather start-
lingly, too, for the telephone had not over-
worked itself lately. Dunbar answered
hurriedly — and when he hung up the re-
ceiver it was with rather an ugly look.
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
285
" Baker!" he announced. "He says there's
freight for us down there. I asked him
what it was and he said to come down and
see for ourselves — and rung off."
Carey smiled faintly.
"Is there anything — er — pressing to pre-
vent our taking a stroll in that direction?"
he asked.
Their sole piece of mail that day — a cata-
log delineating styles of portable electric
lamps — offered no hindrance. They locked
the office and walked stationward, silently,
until Mr. Carey murmured:
"What do you suppose it is?"
"Some of the little odds and ends we've
been waiting for," said Dunbar, bitterly.
"The engines are off in Tahiti now."
Another five minutes, though, and he
quickened. That mass of stuff by the
freight shed was no mere collection of "little
odds and ends."
He hustled forward his uncle; he crossed
the tracks and vaulted to the platform
while the elder man sought a less energetic
way of reaching it. And when Mr. Carey
came up he was staring mociily at as bat-
tered a collection of freight packages as
could remain undesired.
Mr. Caiey reached him with:
"Anything broken?"
Dunbar's finger pointed downward.
"There's a cylinder that's felt a sledge
hammer since it started on its travels," he
said tersely. "There's a crank-shaft that
might do to prop up a fence — it's no good
for anything else in its present shape — there
is a crank, too, that's worth — well, whatever
junk- steel is worth."
"Out of commission?"
" Up here, away from anything in the way
of a big machine-shop, they are absolutely
out of commission."
"Any hope of having them put into shape
on time, if I buy coal for the station?"
Carey demanded with rising anger.
A curious calm had come over Dunbar.
"Not the slightest," he said quietly.
"These engines were built to specification for
somebody else — they happened to fit into
our plans by the wildest kind of luck. The
things we should have to replace, would
have to be made to order. Uncle, it is
absolutely all up now."
"Well, I " Carey began fiercely.
Heavy steps behind caused them to turn
abruptly.
It was Mr. Bowers — Mr. Bowers, who
had not taken his wonted interest in their
affairs of late. And Mr. Bowers said
heartily:
"Well, where have you fellows been late-
ly?' I stopped at the office yesterday '
His eyes opened as they fell upon the
engines.
"Hello! Got 'em at last, did you?"
He stepped forward. "Why — say! This
here's busted, Dunbar!"
Mr. Race, in all probability, would have
descended upon the heavy gentleman and
annihilated him. Dunbar, quiet always,
almost apathetic under the last blow,
answered :
"It is damaged — yes."
"No thin' you can't fix up, is it?" said
Bowers, solicitously.
Something in Dunbar's eye stopped him.
Mr. Bowers' countenance took on an ex-
pression of child-like wonder.
"Good Lord! Don't look at me as if
I did it!" he laughed. And then, as op-
pressive silence continued, Bowers hands
went into his pockets, and he said: "Why
the dickens didn't you sell out to me when
I offered to buy you?"
Dunbar did not answer.
"It was your only hope." Mr. Bowers
pursued. "I dunno what a hoodoo is, but
there's one around you folks somewhere
or other."
"There is unquestionably a hoodoo!"
Carey began forcefully. "And when it
comes time to put a name on that hoodoo — "
Bowers stared at him wonderingly; and
just here Dunbar gave further evidence of
his tremendous business acumen — for he
had accepted the fight as lost and he was
considering what possible raise Bowers
might make in his offer; and he said:
"If you'll bid a reasonable figure on our
plant, Mr. Bowers, it is "
Bowers started. And his eyes narrowed
down to a sly slit as he smiled.
"Reasonable? Good Lord! Wasn't fif-
teen thousand dollars reasonable? I ex-
pected to get a couple of good Corliss en-
gines at that, that I'd use some time or
other. This here stuff's junk."
"Bowers!" burst in Mr. Carey. "Before
this concern would consider selling out to
you, we'd tear down every pole and wire in
the city and throw it away! We'd "
"Hold on!" The other faced him quick-
ly. "Pardon me, but I ain't talking to you.
I'm talking t' Dunbar. Them two fellers
286
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
have their money in it — not you, yet." He
turned back to Dunbar. "I've been think-
ing it over," he said, flatly. "T'aint worth
fifteen thousand to me, son. It was only a
kind of charitable spasm, that was. All
the same, rather than see you two stranded
for money for a new start somewhere else,
I'll give you ten thousand cash for every-
thing as it. stands and take a chance."
"Well " Dunbar muttered.
"We will do nothing of the sort!" Carey
exploded. "Don't imagine for a moment,
Bowers, that your whole scheme isn't known
to us — that you're planning to light the city
with our plant — that "
Mr. Bowers' voice was the heavier, for it
drowned Carey as he said:
"I guess you think you know what you're
talking about, Mr. Carey. I'm sure I
don't. , Mr. Dunbar, listen here. Your —
your uncle's excited about something, I
s'pose. But I'm sayin' to you that that
offer holds good till noon tomorrow and no
more! Ten thousand cold money — noon'.''''
ended Mr. Bowers as he turned and walked
abruptly away.
All but frothing, Carey watched him step
into his brilliant red automobile at the far
end of the platform and whirr gaily up the
grade to the city. Then he turned on
Dunbar with:
"William, you're a magnificent electri-
cian, but — but when I see a member of my
own family with as little business in
him—"
"It seems to me that I've got pretty good
business sense in this," Dunbar replied,
with a rather injured stare. "We're licked.
We know we're licked. Ten thousand dol-
lars is better than no dollars."
"But why run up a white flag like that
before you're absolutely forced to?"
"Would you rather have ten thousand
dollars in your pocket tomorrow afternoon,
or no dollars," Dunbar inquired, gloomily.
"I " Mr. Carey seemed to wilt. "Good
God! I don't know!" he gasped.
"And what's more, if we'd been able to
finance a fresh plant and coal and all, as
Keller suggested " Dunbar began, with
more force.
Now, between B ronton' s wealthy man and
his nephew ~ there seemed to be an opening
for an unpleasant discussion, as concerned
the risking of large sums, the value of sport-
ing blood and the wisdom of collecting what
fragments of currency were in sight.
It was the ripest kind of time to interrupt
a conversation — and the interruption came
mercifully. Down track, a long, shrill
whistle announced the coming of a locomo-
tive— and both men started.
"Nothing due this time of day, is there?"
Carey exclaimed.
"Not unless they've put a new train in the
schedule," said his nephew.
Curiously, he peered down the cut to the
curve. The steady rumble of a fast train
climbing the grade grew louder. A locomo-
tive poked her nose around and headed for
them in a cloud of black smoke; and vaguely
they saw the shape of a box car — a shabby
passenger coach — another box car, trailing
behind.
And then the indistinct figure which had
clambered down to the steps of the engine,
took a wild leap to the platform before them
and:
"How d'ye do?" said Mr. Race!
The pair stood petrified! From the pas-
senger coach, as it stopped, there tumbled
forth a stream of roughly-clad men — Italians
at the first glance. Not two or three, but
ten — twenty — thirty, came pouring out, star-
ing about and chattering. The door of the
forward box-car opened, and an even less
wholesome looking pair of laborers emerged;
and Race said softly:
"See the two tough ones? They used to
work for a man named Pinkerton."
"Bob! Is — is it " Dunbar was able
to stammer.
"My garden party! Look 'em over!"
Race chuckled excitedly. "Come in here,
you!"
He seized Dunbar's arm and propelled
him into the shadow of the freight-car.
And a full minute later, when Mr. Carey
had blinked his way to a realization that
something extraordinarily odd and mysteri-
ous had happened, he heard his nephew's
voice, coming squeakily, in a thunderstruck:
"Gee Whizz!"
CHAPTER VIII.
LIGHT ON THE MATTER
Little Bronton forgot herself that night.
For 'probably the first time in its
history the town was wide awake after
eleven 6'clock, on the night of June thirtieth.
People walked the streets in crowds, stores
were open, watches were consulted every
second.
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
287
Mr. Isaac Berg, strolling on the pavement
before his department store, encountered
Freel, the big hardware man, and for a
time they stood chatting animatedly.
"Funny, ain't it?" Freel was saying.
"The whole blamed town's excited, and
they don't one of 'em know what's going to
happen."
"Some of them do," said Berg, wisely.
"Ain't a sign of life over at their office
office, when I went with my tomorrow's
advertising, I asked 'em what was going to
come off tonight — and all they said was that
their paper was coming off the presses about
three in the morning, if it didn't set fire to
the place."
Mr. Freel nodded.
"They're a funny bunch, them electric
chaps. Everybody in town's been saying
they couldn't get started no way — they'd lose
"k> Grace Evs-retC 10
■( ...
FOR A TIME RACE STUDIED HIS MEDICAL ADVISER
either," pursued Freel. "I ain't seen any-
one but old Carey go in there in two weeks,
and he only stops about fifteen minutes
and then hustles off. I wonder if they are
doing anything?"
Berg cleared his throat importantly.
"They've put every lamp in its place," he
stated. "I got Mr. Race's positive assur-
ance this morning, when they stuck tungsten
lamps all over my place, that all I had to do
was wait for twelve tonight. He wouldn't
tell me no more Then, up to the Herald
their charter an' everything else — an' they
go right ahead just the same."
"But the funny part is what the dickens
they've been doing. Nobody knows! Here
this Race goes out of town and nobody
knows where he's gone; then he comes back
with a freight train and a lot of machinery
and Dagoes; and they march the Dagoes
and the machinery into the power-house —
and that's all. Nobody's seen anything
more of 'em since. No Sir! they just
seemed to vanish utterly."
288
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"And you can't even get on old Carey's
property," Freel pursued. "They've put
signs everywhere. You can't get in sight
of the place without somebody coming and
chasing you off."
"Well, I tell you one thing," escaped
Berg. "I give it to the Herald for news,
so you needn't say it to anyone. Two days
ago, I got so curious, I sent my Moe down
at night, to see if he could get a chance to
look in the power-house. Well, he got
there and he got chased off, but he also got
a look inside."
"Yeah?" Freel grew curious.
"There wasn't a thing inside but mat-
tresses and a lot of dirty clothes hanging
around."
Mr. Freel straightened up.
"Well, I don't believe they're working
their Dagoes nowhere. They ain't bought
so much as a pair of pincers from me in
two weeks — and I've the only full line o'
hardware in town."
"It's a mystery," Mr. Berg announced,
thrillingly.
* * *
At about the same time, Mr. Robert Race
was lying stretched on his couch, with a
light blanket over him, while young Dr.
Morton lounged unprofessionally in a big
arm-chair and smoked.
"I'm going to get up now," announced
Mr. Race calmly.
"You are not," Dr. Morton replied, quite
as calmly.
"Thomas, were it not for your value to
the community, I should arise and dis-
member you," said the president of the elec-
tric company. "I've slept from nine this
morning till ten tonight. Now I'm dressed
and going "
"You are dressed, only because I chose
to humor you, Robert," said the physician,
cheerfully. "You are an all-in man —
nerves, body and all. You're going to
stay in bed about one month, I think."
"But tonight, you " Race cried.
"Be calm, please," said the doctor, as he
shifted his cigar. "Otherwise, I shall drive
a hypodermic spike through your epidermis
and watch you sleep till the middle of next
week . . . ." He paused in contem-
plation of the cigar. Then he eyed Mr.
Race with, a mysterious smile, and a sig-
nificant one, too. "And tonight, as you
were saying?" he murmured. "Just what
is going to happen tonight ? Everyone seems
so interested and expectant, and yet no one
knows. Um."
For a time Mr. Race studied his medical
adviser, with a keen, calculating eye.
"Do I infer from this that you are inor-
dinately curious?" he asked.
"It is always a satisfaction to get a whack
at big news before anyone else hears of it,"
said the doctor, airily.
"And do I further infer that, if I put you
wise to some of the mystery, I get up at half
past eleven and go down to the Square?"
Morton pursed his lips and smiled.
"If there. is anything to justify such a
course, it is possible that we may come to
some agreement by which we can walk to-
gether to the Square and back, about that
time." And he added earnestly: "But if
we do, Bob, you'll agree to come straight back
and go to bed and stay there?"
"Done!" sighed Mr. Race, as he stretched
his weary legs.
"It is now nineteen minutes past," sug-
gested the doctor.
"Well, you know we were pretty nearly
put out of business — no coal, no engines,
nothing but some smashed dynamo stuff?"
"That's town talk."
"I know it is," snarled the president.
"Well, here's something that isn't town talk.
You know where our power-house stands —
tight up against the base of the hills?"
"Yes."
"Ever been up those hills?"
"No," admitted Morton.
"Did you ever hear of anyone going up
them? No? Well, I never did either.
As a matter of fact, I doubt if they've ever
been thoroughly explored, because the
going's worse than Hades and there's
nothing to go after. Anyway, that's neither
here nor there. The main thing is, / went
there! I went there to walk off a grouch!"
"Ah? Well, now cut out the landscape
dissertation and get around "
"Dry up!" said Mr. Race. "I went
there because I wanted to find a locality
big enough and tough enough to stand what
I had to say out loud. I climbed straight
up that first rise; then I meandered over
rocks, boulders, snakes, tree-stumps and
so on till I began to climb the second high
spot — the big, almost perpendicular rise
that goes up to the high level beyond. Then
I sat down, because I'd walked about four
miles to get one mile away from town and I
was sort of tired."
CURRENT FROM— WHERE?
289
"Go on." said the doctor. *
"I did not get up. I just sat there, and
it was mighty still. It was so still that after
a minute or two I began to imagine that I
heard a roaring sound, somewhere in the
distance. Then it got to be so strong an
impression that I tried to get up — and "
Mr. Race sat up and his face shone with
the memory.
"Tom," he said, "I'll bet there wasn't a
worse scared man in the whole United
States."
"Why?"
Because instead of getting up, my two
feet went straight through the ground and
I dropped into a cold, wet, pitch-black hole
— and that roaring, all of a sudden, sounded
like a train going full speed! Well, it was
about two minutes before I was steady
enough to light a match."
"Going down all the time?" queried the
doctor. .
" I ceased going down after dropping about
nine feet, and I landed on the soles of my
shoes at that." responded Mr. Race- "I
got the match lit and there was nothing in
the immediate foreground but empty, wet,
rocky blackness — and that infernal roaring
was off in the blackness, too.
"Well, I haven't any more spunk than
I need, but that roar didn't scare me a little
bit. Instead, it began to tingle through me.
I had the little flash-lamp we use in tinker-
ing the machine, and I lit that up — and there
was still more blackness ahead, so I walked
on."
"Is your head hot?" asked Morton, not
altogether in jest.
"And I kept on walking ahead for close
to three hundred feet, and the old cave grew
higher and wider and wetter and more slimy
at every step, until at last I came to a little
corner and turned it. And there it was! J''
"What?"
"A grand old foaming, roaring waterfall,
fifty feet high if it was an inch, and pouring
about a billion gallons a second down into
the Bottomless Pit — which I'd missed step-
ping into by about one yard! It may possi-
bly have been slightly less than a billion,"
conceded Mr. Race.
"Water- power!" gasped Morton.
"Great and astute physician, you have
grasped it!" grinned the electrical man.
"Well, I started to climb up the rocks be-
side the fall and I made the top at last.
There's an underground pond in the middle
of that hill, so beautifully big that, without
a boat, we haven't yet explored the other
end — and you can't hear the water coming
in. That's all."
Mr. Race rose.
"But "
"Why, that's all there is to it. I don't
know much about using water falls, but I
wasn't taking any chances. I wanted to get
the afternoon train so as to make Chicago next
day. Therefore, I merely grabbed the plans
of the whole works, hit the trail for the East
and left without a soul knowing where I'd
been or what I'd seen. I thought that what
had been undiscovered so long might as
well stay undiscovered a little longer.
" I've been wandering as far as New York,"
pursued, Mr. Race, as he arose and found a
collar. "I've been tripping it around Penn-
sylvania, too, and freshened up my memory
of Chicago and a few other places. I just
headed straight for the best maker of water
turbines I could find — laid the whole propo-
sition before them — and had what I wanted
hustled into shape. I got a new armature
in place of the one we smashed. I bought
in everything everybody could suggest as
being necessary. Brought labor and every-
thing else along and marched the whole col-
lection into our supposed central station —
and nobody's seen 'em since!"
"I know that! How "
"You see, about the handiest way of
starting uphill was directly behind the shan-
ty— and if you'll observe closely, you will
note that you can't see the rear of that place
without getting pretty close; Nobody got
pretty close. And the merciful undergrowth
did the rest — bushes and saplings are thicker
than blazes on that hill."
He began jerking his tie into shape.
"Not that it hasn't been the devil's own
job," he murmured. "We've had every
man-jack going as many hours out of the
twenty-four as he could stand, and they're
mostly all closer to the grave than I am now.
But it's done!" he yelled joyfully, as he
turned on the doctor with the last jerk.
"They've got a turbine outfit up there that
actually isn't on the market yet. They've
got a lot of the cavern cut away on top and
electricity lighting the rest of it at this minuter
"But why all the mystery?"
Mr. Race sat down.
"For one thing, we were sick of unfore-
seen accidents happening to everything we
owned. For another, I believe, the State
290
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
control of water-power rights is still all up
in the air. You see, as nearly as we can
figure it, all this blessing comes from Lake
Barton, thirty miles up in the hills — she's
fed by springs, she's never low nor high and
nobody has ever found her outlet, or wanted
to, I guess. Anyway, the water we're
using is on Carey's property — and it un-
doubtedly ends up down Thornton way,
where the subterranean stream has been
pouring into the big river since the memory of
man hereabouts began . . . And now
Bill and his uncle are up in the new central
station and our working force, with a few
additions we have made by accidents, and
I'm down here to watch the effect."
"Well, you'll have darned small chance
to watch the effect," said the doctor, as he
noted the rather unsteady gait of his pa-
tient. "You'll be back in bed by quarter
past twelve, if I have to stun you and haul
you back."
Mr. Race had donned his coat and hat and,
with some lingering professional doubts,
Morton accompanied him to the street,
silently giving him credit for remarkable
self-control of the excitement which must be
within him. Mr. Race, who had reached a
point of weariness where an earthquake
could hardly rouse his enthusiasm, led the
way slowly down toward the Square.
People stared at him as he approached
and chattered when he had passed. Some
tried to speak to him; Mr. Race passed on.
He chanced to be looking for someone — and
surely enough, with one arm in a sling, Mr.
Bowers was standing in the dark doorway
of his little office building.
With Morton, Race slipped gently out
of the crowd and gained his side with a
polite:
"Good evening."
"What the heU do you "
"Now, my dear sir," smiled the president
of the electric company, "don't be impolite,
be "
"You "
"Because you're not in a position to be
impolite," Race went on, his voice fairly
vibrating with glee. "I hope your arm is
setting nicely? You know, I supposed,
with everyone else, that you'd broken it
when your automobile back-fired — until my
man Ryan reported that he had smashed
it with a club when you drew a pistol on him
in your efforts to wander around Mr. Carey's
property that night, two weeks ago, or so?"
A stifled roar escaped Bowers.
"You came to look for the half dozen
friends you'd sent up our hill before — the
ones that never came back, eh? I'll tell
you where they are. We caught each one
and put him to work, without pay. They
won't make any trouble for us; in fact,
they've been good enough to sign affidavits,
regarding the reason for their visit to us.
In the name of the company, I thank you for
their help."
Mr. Race bowed. Bowers took a step
forward, growling wildly:
"I — don't know — I — your damned char-
ter calls for a plant run by steam on the
spot where "
"Well, now, I don't believe there's going
to be one bit of trouble about that," Race
purred on, genially. "You see, I've had a
couple of really capable detectives working
around here lately — probably Bronton's
first. And they have done excellent work.
Why, Wilkes, down at the Junction, was
arrested about supper time — they took Mr.
Baker into custody an hour or so ago —
they've got sworn statements from about
two dozen other people, as to your dealings
with them — and none of them are likely to
run away from the witness chair now,
anyway. You know, it's bad policy to
bribe people, Bowers. The kind of people
you can bribe are the kind that'll turn on
you when they're caught."
Mr. Bowers, incapable of speech, was
breathing hard.
"And that applies to the esteemed Mayor
and his Board of Aldermen, too." sighed
Race. "You haven't seen Schwartz lately,
have you? That's because we scared a
confession out of him — and he's been in his
sub-cellar ever since, I think. Why, we even
got up enough energy to convince the
Mayor's clerk that his only right course
would be to get at the new charter you
actually had down in writing, mulcting the
whole town for their current, make a copy
of it and swear to it!"
Bowers was leaning limply against the
wall; shot and shell were coming in a tor-
rent that staggered him.
"I wouldn't leave town if I were you,"
Race smiled. "There's a man watching
you now "
"Race, for the love o' God, what'll ye
take in money to keep it quiet?" wheezed
from the dazed man. "Take everything
I've "
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
291
"It can't be kept quiet now," said Race,
gravely. "Electricity makes big changes
in a town. This town needed an airing.
Tomorrow morning's Herald, Mr. Bowers,
will contain the whole story, from our
broken armature to your broken arm — and
you can't get into the office, because there's
a policeman at each door." He caught
Bowers, as he tottered, and straightened
him up. "You didn't know it, but you've
done a good job," he said. "Crooked
politics and corruption in this town have
been electrocuted."
And he stepped to the sidewalk, with
Morton fairly gasping for breath.
"Is it — true?" he managed to say.
"As true as gospel — and every word in
the Herald will be supported by affidavits,"
Race said grimly.
"But what in Heaven's name "
Morton's words were cut short.
From the buzzing, humming crowds a
sudden, frenzied shouting went up. Hats
were hurled into the air — men roared cheers —
— windows went up — and Bronton had sud-
denly gone mad.
For the whole Square was blazing with
arc -lamps. Houses were illuminated as if
by magic fire. Shop window after shop
window flared out into brilliancy. Dusky,
shaded, half-lit streets glowed with streaming
white light, bringing out in a single second the
whole dancing, cheering throng. In the
center of the Square, with a circle of arc-
lamps above them, the quietly imported
brass band, blared out with "Hail The Con-
quering Hero Comes!"
But the conquering hero did not come.
Instead, as the big clock boomed out its
first stroke, Race leaned rather weakly on
Dr. Morton and drew him into the shadow.
"It's twelve o'clock, Tom," he said, with
a weary unconcern that was far from affec-
tation. "Take me home to bed. We can
see this any time — now."
(The End.)
FOR THE ABSTRACTED ELEVATOR PASSENGER
In a certain 12-story office building in
Chicago equipped with seven passenger el-
evators each car makes an average of 250
round-trips per day and 16 stops per trip or
an average of
4000 stops in
a day. A re-
cord shows
that these sev-
en elevators
carry 33,000
passengers in
this time or
4700 passen-
gers per car.
During this
time the op-
erator finds
many persons
so absorbed
in thought or
conversation
that his "step
up, please"
or "down, please" goes unheeded. To stop
his car just at the floor level every time is not
possible and for a mis-step or fall he is often
blamed.
An estimated average of two elevator ac-
cidents occur every day in the year with
nine out of ten due to careless passengers.
To make the passenger "see" where he is
stepping and also to aid the operator in
stopping at the floor level the device shown
in the illus-
tration is said
to be most
satisfactory.
It consists of
a cast metal
plate on the
floor of the
car at the en-
trance, into
the holes of
which are fit-
ted glass len-
ses. Under
this in the
floor are
placed two
tubular
lamps. Lights
so arranged
attract the passenger's attention when enter-
ing the elevator and also warn him not to
stand too close to the door when inside.
To change the lamps when burned out a
small section of the floor is made removable
to give access to them.
Elementary Electricity
By PROF. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. (Princeton)
CHAPTER XXVIII. — TANTALUM, TUNGSTEN AND OSMIUM INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LAMPS
The efficiency of the ordinary carbon fila-
ment incandescent electric lamp, or the ratio
of the luminous energy emitted by the lamp
to the energy absorbed by it, can be taken as
3.5 watts per candle-power. This is the
efficiency when the lamp is operated at a
pressure no greater than that which will
permit it to have a useful life for a period
of about 800 hours.
Many efforts have been made to increase
the efficiency of the incandescent electric
lamp by the employment of materials for
filaments that can be safely raised to a
higher temperature than has heretofore been
employed.
One of the first improvements in the above
direction consisted in the production of an
incandescent electric lamp with a form of
filament known as a metallized filament.
This filament consists of an ordinary carbon
filament that has been made to possess a
greater refractory power by intense heating
in an electric furnace. This lamp is gen-
erally known in the art as a "Gem lamp,"
or a "metallized filament lamp." Its in-
creased candle-power is due to the fact that
its temperature can be safely raised to a
higher point than usual without a marked
decrease in its length of life.
The next marked improvement in incan-
descent electric lamps consisted in the use
of a substance other than carbon for the
incandescing £ lament. One of the first suc-
cessful materials employed for this purpose
was metallic tantalum.
Tantalum is an element that occurs in
tantalite, a mineral containing tantalum,
niobium, tin, iron and manganese, and many
other minerals. The name tantalum wa^
given to this metal because, when surrounded
by various acids, such as nitric, sulphuric,
hydrochloric or aqua regia, it is, like Tan-
talus of old, unable to drink in or saturate
itself with them.
Tantalum is a highly refractory metal and
can therefore be raised to a much higher
temperature than can the carbon filament.
By its use it is possible greatly to increase the
efficiency of the lamp without decreasing
its life. Indeed, the life of the tantalum
filament lamp is greater than that of the
carbon filament lamp. The efficiency of
the tantalum filament being as high as two
watts per candle.
But besides the advantages of an increased
efficiency, and a somewhat increased length
of life, there is a marked improvement in
the character of the light produced. The
higher temperature at which the tantalum
filament is employed results in a character
of light more closely resembling the light
of the sun in its color values than does the
old carbon filament.
Careful measurements show that the ener-
gy expended on a 35-watt carbon lamp pro-
ducing 10 candle-power, when expended on
a 25-watt tantalum lamp produces 12^
candle-power. Here, as will be observed,
the tantalum lamp consumes 20 per cent
less current but gives 25 per cent more
light. Besides this, the tantalum lamp
possesses the great advantage of producing
light that is more nearly equal in its color
values to that of sunlight.
Since the resistivity of tantalum, or its
electric resistance per unit of length is small
as compared with that
of carbon, it is neces-
sary to employ fairly
long threads or wires
of the metal, and this,
even though such
threads can be made
of very small diameter.
Consequently, the in-
candescing tantalum
filament has a length
so 'great that it re-
quires a number of
separate supports.
This can be seen in
Fig. 176, which repre-
sents a 20-candle-
power tantalum lamp
of the General Elec-
tric Company's manu-
facture, requiring an
expenditure of 40 watts and therefore
possessing an efficiency of two watts per
candle.
FIG.
176. TANTALUM
LAMP
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
293
The many separate supports that are
necessary to hold the long filament can easily
be seen from an inspection of the figure.
The higher efficiency of the tantalum lamp
as compared with the ordinary carbon lamp,
made it possible when this lamp was first
introduced to employ it satisfactorily in such
places as apartment houses, hotels, and office
buildings, desiring an increased lighting
capacity, but in which the owners, by reason
of the expense, were unwilling to make the
necessary additions to the generating plant.
The use of the tantalum lamp renders an
increased yield of light possible without any
Imu. 2
LAMPS WITH HOLOPLANE
GLOBES
addition whatever to the generating plant;
for, the tantalum lamp can give 20 candles
instead of 16 by a consumption of 40 watts
in place of 50 or 56 watts.
It is interesting to note in connection with
the above that the Metropolitan Life In-
surance Building, in New York City, one
of the highest buildings in the world, its
tower rising 700 feet above the level cf the
street, is lighted with 10,000 40-watt, 20-
candle-power tantalum lamps.
80'
70-
vVv/K/C/S?^!-!
L-Nk
60-
\X y\^/^Zr~-f-4
Li-J
\^!^\ Jo\/ V ^A.
\ V^/N. /C ^S^+-J
§ 4-
\\x. v/ ">cl/ S
i> \
FIG. I78. DISTRIBUTION OF LIGHT
When supplied, as is usually the case,
with a frosted globe and holophane shades,
tantalum lamps are especially suited for
isolated plants, producing as they do an
excellent distribution of the light. In the
two forms of lamps and holophanes shown
in Fig. 177, the candle-power distribution
for the No. 1 and No. 2 lamp units,
requiring, respectively, 40 and 80 watts,
is shown in Fig. 178.
The tantalum lamp represented in Fig. 179
is especially suited for the lighting of rail-
road trains. This figure represents a 12-
candlepower tantalum lamp requiring for its
maintenance a pressure of 32 volts.
The current required for train lighting is
generally produced by a special generating
plant placed on the train. The generating
outfit consists of a small horizontal steam
turbine generator set operated by steam
from the locomotive and located in a part
of the baggage car or on top of the locomo-
tive boiler.
A still greater improvement in the effi-
ciency of the incandescent electric lamp,
as well as in the character of the light it
FIG. 179.
TANTALUM LAMP
LIGHTING
FOR TRAIN
produces, is obtained by the use of another
metallic filament; i. e., tungsten. While
possessing a length of life of 800 hours, this
lamp possesses a higher efficiency than any
incandescent lamp yet described, this effi-
294
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
ciency being from i to 1.25 watts per candle.
Tungsten, or, as it is sometimes called,
wolframium, occurs principally in Nature in
the minerals heavy stone or tungstate of
calcium and in tungstate of lead. When
heated in air it burns, producing an oxide
of tungsten. The filament must, therefore,
be placed in a lamp chamber in which a
high vacuum is maintained. Pure, metallic
tungsten has a bright gray color and a
metallic lustre.
The increased efficiency of the tungsten
lamp is due to the high temperature to which
FIG. l80. TUNGSTEN LAMP
it is possible to raise the filament, for metallic
tungsten is very refractory and does not fuse
or melt until a temperature of 30500 C.
(55220 F.) has been reached.
In the manufacture of the tungsten fila-
ment a paste formed of powdered metallic
tungsten mixed with a suitable binding ma-
terial is forced or squirted through diamond
dies. The threads so formed are dried,
when the separate particles of tungsten are
electrically welded together and so formed
into a continuous wire or filament.
Tungsten filaments possess so low a
resistance that lamps intended for use
on a 1 20- volt circuit require very long fila-
ments. This filament is generally made up
of four or five hair-pin loops connected in
series in the manner shown in Fig. 180,
which is that of a lamp that produces 80
candle-power (mean horizontal) by the
consumption of 100 watts when subjected
to a pressure of 100 to 125 volts.
Like many other metals, tungsten pos-
sesses a positive temperature co-efficient. In
other words, its resistance increases with
an increase of temperature. Consequently,
a change of pressure in the lamp circuit is
not, as in the case of the carbon filament, pro-
portional to the change in voltage. In other
words, the tungsten lamp undergoes smaller
changes in candle-power efficiency and life,
with changes in the line voltage. It will
be understood that this gives the tungsten
lamp valuable advantages.
Tungsten lamps are now especially manu-
factured for use on mains the voltage of which
is either from 100 to 120 or from 200 to 250.
Those for mains of 100 to 120 volts are made
in the following sizes and candle-powers, i. e. :
18 watts 16 candle-power
25 " 20
40 " 32
5° " 40
60 " 50
115 " 100
45° " 4oo
For use on mams, the voltage of which
varies from 200 to 250 they are made as
follows — :
40 watts 32 candle-power
65 " 5o
115 " 100
250 " 200
In Fig. 181 is shown the lamp economy of
the ordinary carbon incandescing filament,
the metallized carbon filament; that is, the
Gem lamp, the tantalum filament and the
tungsten filament. When an amount of
energy capable of producing 32 candle-
power in the ordinary carbon lamp filament,
is passed through a metallized filament, or
a Gem lamp, there will be produced 40
candle-power; when expended in a tantalum
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
295
LAMP
ECONOMY
TUNGSTEN
ao C.P.
TANTALUM
SOC.R,
GEM
4QC.P.
CARBON
32
OR
filament, 50 candle-
power, and in a tung-
sten filament 80 can-
dle-power.
The great gain in
efficiency of the tung-
sten lamp accompa-
nied as it is by the
advantages already
pointed out cannot, it
would seem, but re-
sult in carbon incan-
descing lamp filaments
soon becoming things
of the past. Indeed, it
would seem that the
following results must
attend the invention
of this very high effi-
ciency lamp.
1. Electricity can
now compete with gas
and other illuminants
on an equal basis of
cost. This will neces-
sarily result in the
opening of a great field
that has not yet been
occupied.
2. A more liberal
use of light both as
regards larger units
and longer hours of
service is now possi-
ble without an exces-
sive cost.
3. Much of this in-
crease can be had
without necessitating
an increase in the
generating power of the central station or its
distributing system.
For the lighting of small rooms single
tungsten lamps are employed, but for larger
areas it is preferable to
place a number of sep-
arate lamps inside a
frosted glass globepro-
vided with five or six
lobes and placed below
a diffuser. This de-
vice is known as the
tungsten economy diffuser and is especially
suitable for the lighting of stores and other
large areas.
The lamps employed in tungsten diffusers
are of course provided with clear bulbs.
QUANTITY OF LIGHT
GIVEN BY DIFFERENT
KINDS OF FILAMENT'S
USING SAME POWER
A STRIKING
, COMPARISON j
The frosted globe in which they are en-
closed is made with either five or six lobes
as desired.
As shown in Fig. 182, means are provided
for the ventilation of the group of lamps in
the economy diffuser. The curved arrows
show the direction of the ventilating currents
through the system.
But the tungsten lamp is not only suitable
for the lighting of interior, but can also be
employed economically when connected in
series for the illumination of such exteriors
as streets, railroad yards, etc. For this
purpose the tungsten lamps are made with a
large area of cross-section. Consequently,
the filaments have a greater mechanical
strength than the filaments of the lamps em-
ployed for interior lighting. Moreover, an
average life of from 1200 to 1500 hours is
possible.
Since the tungsten lamps produce a light
whose color values are more nearly that of
sunlight, streets and roads are now fre-
quently illuminated by them after the manner
shown in Fig. 183.
Either the direct or the alternating current
can be employed on the tungsten lamp.
The efficiency operation of the constant
current transformer has led to its use for
ensuring automatic current regulation
whenever alternating currents are em-
ployed.
Series-connected incandescent tungsten
lamps are especially suited for street lighting
by reason of their great length of life; for
they can be operated at a great length
of life without a great decrease in the strength
of illumination. From careful tests made
FIG
ECONOMY DIFFUSER
it has been found that in one installation of
172 series-connected tungsten lamps for
street lighting, there was an average
length of life of each lamp of 1350 hours.
In a test on 18 lamps, 12 continued
296
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
running over 2000 hours without breakage
or perceptible decrease in efficiency.
Tungsten incandescent lamps are also
especially suited for the lighting of signs.
Generally speaking, the lamps employed for
electric signs are of small candle-power.
Tungsten lamps are now constructed giving
four candle-power with five watts. In the
case of the tungsten filament a small candle-
FIG. 183. TUNGSTEN LAMP AS USED FOR
STREET LIGHTING
power lamp is only possible with a low volt-
age.
One of the forms of tungsten incandescent
electric lamps as produced by the Westing-
house Company, is shown in Fig. 184.
It will be observed from an examination of
the preceding figures of various sizes and
candle-powers of tungsten lamps that the
portion of the bulb to which the base is
attached is of larger diameter than usual.
This is necessary from the thread given to the
arbor wires to which the filament is attached.
There is one peculiarity about tungsten
lamps to which reference might be made.
When they are first burned their candle-
power is considerably above the normal, but
falls to normal after about three hours'
burning. It is, therefore, advisable to sub-
ject the lamps to what is known as seasoning.
This consists merely in burning the lamps
until their candle-power runs down, and this
generally requires about three hours.
Another form of metallic filament in-
candescent lamp is known as the osmium
lamp. Here, the filament is made of the
rare metal osmium, that generally occurs
associated with the platinum metals.
Metallic osmium is the heaviest metal
known. It has a specific gravity of 22.47,
FIG. 184. WESTINGHOUSE TUNGSTEN
and is exceedingly refractory. It has a
bluish-white color, and is harder than glass.
Experiments have recently been made
with lamp filaments made of this metal.
Great care, however, must be observed lest
the glowing filament becomes oxidized by
exposure to the air. For this oxide is vola-
tile, and may result in a permanent loss of
sight from the formation of a film of metallic
osmium on the eyes.
Owing to osmium possessing a higher
refractory power than either tantalum or
tungsten, it is capable of producing a lamp
of higher efficiency than the tungsten lamp'.
Osmium lamps have been produced in
the laboratory, but have not yet been placed
to any extent on the market.
(To be Continued.)
Electrical Securities
By "CONTANGO'
TROLLEY LINES AND THEIR FUTURE — THE NECESSITY FOR CONNECTING SYSTEMS — AD-
VANTAGES OF CENTRAL STATION POWER FOR THE SOURCE OF ENERGY.
This article of the series dealing
with electrical securities, covers the
traction proposition quite closely. The tele-
phone situation has purposely been left to the
imagination of the reader, for the simple
reason that the divergence of interests
between the regular, or so-called trust, tele-
phonic connections and the independent lines
makes it difficult to arrive at uncomplicated
conclusions regarding them. But the trac-
tion field is different, it is in reality a very
simple proposition although some companies
have gone into the hands of receivers, and
accidents, and the subsequent damage suits,
have at times disturbed public confidence.
If one takes the whole country over it is
clear that the greatest development of electric
railways has been in the central states, in
particular in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana and New
York State, nor should the South be forgotten.
The mileage developed along electric trac-
tion lines in the Central States in the last
decade has been extraordinary and it now
amounts to nearly twelve thousand miles in
the three states named.
What is the keynote to the electrical trac-
tion situation in the country to-day? It is
the same simple proposition that has con-
fronted all congested areas of population —
the traffic from passengers. The steam
railroads of this country have for years been
depending for their great profit on the freight
they carry. The steam railroads of Europe
on the other hand have for many a long time
past been getting their big returns from the
passenger traffic, and most noticeably is this
the case in the British Isles
Now the whole matter of the worthiness or
unworthiness of electric traction lines must
be found in the connections they have, that is
to say, the absolute certainty that there is a
leading line going from the small links that
make up the gradual and whole development.
If you take the states mentioned you will find
that one after the other the lines made and built
in small communities are being closely con-
nected up and delivered to the main feeders,
so that they form part of a "system," and it
is the system that brings results in the electric
railways of the country. When it comes to
the patient organization of small connecting
lines between villages and towns, then there
must always be kept in view the point that its
presence or absence must be the final test of
their worth or lack of worth — they must
become part of the system. It would mean
giving the present history of the country, in
its industrial progress to give a complete idea
of what has been, for the two or three years
past, and is now going on in this very wonder-
ful movement. Involved in it is the opening
up of all sections of the country from one end
to the other, resulting in an intercommuni-
cating network that must in the end bring
about a most extraordinary awakening, not
only of all the conntry side but in the electric
end of things — the source of energy, the
central station, that final source of reserve for
all the power needed.
After giving this actual statement of prob-
able future and actual present conditions,
not unduly rosy but decidedly matter of fact,
it is certain that weak spots will crop up, but
even so, the wonder is that more people are
not stirred up to an interest in the way of
direct investment in electric railway securi-
ties.
As a matter of fact a great part of the pop-
ulation made up of the more or less promi-
nent citizens of each hamlet and village
tapped, is at some time or another asked to
subscribe to the bonds of this or that pro-
jected line that is going to do all manner of
wonderful things for their respective local-
ities. How far may they dare go? What
then is the worth of an electric traction
company's bond ? What is the worth of its
stock ?
In fairness to the properties which are
worthy, it must be said that in many cases in
the past they have proved to be worth very
little and have only brought sorrow and
suffering to the hundreds who have taken
their hard earned money from the banks to
"invest" it in a project beginning nowhere
and leading nowhere.
Let it be again repeated that it must
always be a case with a connecting line of
298
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
certainty that ultimately the line will become
part of a system. Why is it that to-day the
McKinley system, to mention the line of
electric railways that is now tapping the
whole state of Illinois and is helping to make
that state, is able to build a bridge over the
Mississippi and spend a great deal of money
on the work? Because it has taken the
simple, sane business precaution' of seeing
that its feeders and feelers all connect in a
concentrated whole. A system fast spread-
ing into other states. Lines between points
are as nought unless they go beyond those
points and connect and so spread the good
gospel of electricity over the whole country
and locality.
A passenger does not want to land at A,
just to be told that coming from C he cannot
go on to D because there is no connection.
There is a break and a jump. That is not
the reason for a traction company's existence,
nor is it a good one for investing in its bonds.
Therefore look to your company before you
put in your money.
In the present day there is no excuse for
errors in roadbed, equipment and the like, all
matters of known quantity and standard
efficiency. It is not the purpose here to deal
with electric lines within city limits of even
moderate size. It is the question of the
interurban, pure and simple, which means
that the character of the population has a
great deal to do with subsequent results.
For example as has been before suggested a
series of small towns or villages scattered
along the route is of much more importance
than having at each end of the line a quite
large sized city. It is in the constant come and
go of the interurban that its most paying
qualities will be found, and an investor must
look into this at once before putting in his
money. Of course if he is merely a local
investor, that is, a man undertaking to sub-
scribe a given amount to the "proposed new
electric," he will have long before subscribing
to stock been informed as to where the line
begins and where it ends. If it is to be in a
thickly populated district where many people
go back and forth from one center to another,
and back and forth and beyond, there is the
cream of the business. But it must be
without stupid wearying changes and must
have direct and connecting accessibility.
Sometimes an interurban has rights of way
clear through connecting towns, but this is
merely another way of stating that it is part
of a system. This will be found to be the
most paying property of all. Considering
the bonds of such companies — of the secur-
ities generally — it may be said that the stock
is usually a local proposition whereby the
local capitalists and leading citizens are in-
duced with certain promoters to organize and
start the proposed new line, but after all it is
usually the bond-holders who take mortgages
on the line which pay for its building. They
must then see that they have security and are
not putting their money into a bottomless pit
or buying a pig in a poke.
The first thing to ascertain is that there is
and has been an actual investment by the
promoting people. Then after that is estab-
lished the point is how much of this money
has been put up and how much should be
invested in a mortgage which stands on the
cash cost of the property. By the rules of
the public service commissions in some states
governing these conditions there is an estab-
lished principle that no more than 80 per
cent of the cash cost of the railway can be
hypothecated, so to say, in bonds. Having
started with this it would be well then to look
into the gross earnings and net earnings of the
properties as they compare with interest
charges. Thus the gross earnings for say a
period of twelve months should have ex-
ceeded the interest charges by five times and
the net earnings should exceed something
like twice over. And this is only suggesting
a very absolute security. As in other elec-
trical enterprises there should be a good
amount set aside for depreciation and in con-
nection with electric lines this would seem
an absolute necessity, for the very clear
reason that all manner of untoward circum-
stances may intervene in the case of ordinary
properties.
The average bond of an interurban com-
pany is paying five per cent and selling a
little below par. It is good or not according
to the observance of the foregoing conditions.
Much of the financing of these companies
is done among the people who benefit by
their operation in a direct or indirect way by
proximity to the line, yet as the county
becomes a perfect network of such enter-
prises such securities are being offered more
and more extensively by leading stock and
bond houses throughout the country.
A few words of advice then. As near as
you can do, be sure you obtain information
as to the people behind the projected or
existing electric railway into which you are
asked to put your money — not of necessity
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
299
their financial standing alone, but more par-
ticularly as to the practical character of the
men engineering the project or financing
the company. Know your ground or let
your banker show you facts about it if it is
not nearby, and be as nearly certain as pos-
sible that the line is part of a system. Don't
put your money into a road leading simply
from Sleepy Hollow to Podunk.
As it is now, the electric traction develop-
ment is likely to be one of the most mar-
velous and interesting problems of the next
five years. Just" remember that to all
intents and purposes through sleepers are
now being run from Springfield, 111. to St.
Louis and from St. Louis to Indianapolis
and all over the state of Ohio.
From the point of view of the immediate
future the greatest opportunities seem to be at
this time in the state of Iowa. It has been
but a matter of the last eighteen months since
the electric traction proposition was really
brought to a reasonable position there. With
the connection with the Illinois systems, now
so well understood, and their connections
with Ohio and Indiana and then on to the
Eastern States, the outcome can but be most
satisfactory to those who get in on the ground
floor. But again let it be said — beware of the
little single line from Frozen Out in Texas to
Burnt Out in Arizona. And also beware of
the big air lines whose principal assets con-
sist of Sunday Supplement publicity and
other forms of "air."
The subject of electric railways must not
be dismissed without reference to the losses
occasioned by expensive individual power
stations when in many cases all the necessary
energy may be obtained from a central sta-
tion. Indeed this elimination of unnecessary
plants is one of the fundamental advantages
of systems. In any case the tendency of the
times is to take power from some hydro-
electric or other large distributing station.
The investor will find his returns so much the
more secure and remunerative by giving
careful attention to the source of the supply
of the electric current. The larger and
better the electric railway system the greater
the certainty of saving in this direction.
. It is for this reason that large central station
controlling companies are now found owning
both light and traction systems, the central
station supplying electrical energy for both
light and power. Or it may be the case that the
generating company, independent in itself,
sells current to the traction companies as
well as to subsidiary light companies. In Chi-
cago there is an excellent example of a large
central station — possibly the best example in
the world — supplying current at a wholesale
rate in bulk to the great street railway and
elevated railway companies, While it supplies
at retail, current for electric light to the busi-
ness houses and residences, and also power
for commercial use in factories and similar
institutions.
In London there is in particular one great
central station in the county of Essex which
distributes electricity in bulk and sells it at a
wholesale price to other companies which in
turn sell it at retail. The big company in
this case is not allowed to sell direct to the
final user, it only deals with the wholesale
supply. These facts are mentioned because
it has been determined finally that in the long
run the big power producer dealing in current
and nothing else can produce more cheaply
than even the large transportation companies
with their own large stations.
It is the age of trolleys, East, West, North,
and South. They are covering the country
with a perfect network of interurban lines
connecting up one with the other, absorbing
and being absorbed, and they need and will
need for a long time to come a big share of
the public money.
In conclusion the success of electric traction
lines depends mainly on the position they
occupy as part of systems; the source of their
electrical energy; elimination of small plants;
character of the country traversed as to densi-
ty of population; passenger traffic; relation of
bonded indebtedness to earnings, and as is
the case with every organization, the men
conducting the enterprise.
Where Electricity Stands in the Practice
of Medicine
By NOBLE M. EBERHART, A. M„ M. S., M. D.
CHAPTER VIII. — MECHANOTHERAPY OR VIBRATION
Vibration, being in itself mechanical,
would not come within the scope of this series
were it not for the fact that it ordinarily
requires electricity to produce it. Vibration
is probably the most popular and most uni-
versally used of all of that group coming un-
der the general term of physical or physio-
logical methods. Stripped of all technical-
ities, the real value of vibration lies in its
power to stimulate or soothe the action of
the various functions or organs of the body.
That is, it will stir up the nerves to renewed
activity or quiet them if already too active.
It will increase or decrease the blood-supply
to a part, thus equalizing the circulation
and doing away with congestion and inflam-
mation. It stimulates the lymphatics or
natural drainage channels of the system,
thus eliminating poisonous or waste prod-
ucts.
STIMULATION AND INHIBITION
It will be noted that I say it will either
stimulate or soothe; in other words it pro-
duces two apparently opposite effects, which
at first thought sounds ridiculous and im-
possible, but will be seen to be perfectly
simple and reasonable with a word of ex-
planation.
The first effect of vibration is to produce
stimulation, that is to stir up +he activity
of the part to which it is applied or in the
case of a nerve center of the part which it
controls. If after this has occurred the
stimulation is still kept up there comes a
period when the nerve or other part becomes
tired and relaxes or becomes numb or par-
alyzed. In other words, over-stimulation
brings about a result the opposite of stimu-
lation.
To this effect we give the name of inhibi-
tion. Therefore, in vibration we have at
our command two remedies, as it were,
stimulation and inhibition. The first we
use when we wish to increase bodily ac-
tivities; the second when we wish to relieve
irritation or over-activity and produce a
sedative or soothing effect.
HOW OBTAINED
Just as the same-sized dose of medicine
may have a somewhat different effect on
different people, so it is with vibration. A
slight application will produce stimulation
in one person, but may be entirely insuffi-
cient for another. Or what will be necessary
to stimulate one individual may be sufficient
to have a sedative effect on another or even
the same individual may vary somewhat
at different times.
There is no fixed rule to tell us when we
have reached the dividing line between
stimulation and over-stimulation (inhibition).
It is on this account that individual judgment
and experience come to count for so much,
and this is why some physicians succeed and
others fail in the application of vibration.
The greatest danger the beginner has to
contend with is the likelihood of producing
inhibition when stimulation is his intention.
As we have hosts of vibrators on the market,
big, little and medium-sized, good, bad and
indifferent, it is impossible to state in seconds
more than an approximation of the time
required to produce stimulation. In gen-
eral the larger and heavier the machine, and
the longer and stronger the stroke and the
deeper the pressure, the quicker sufficient
stimulation is obtained.
In an average individual with the largest
machines stimulation will result in from two
to five seconds; with medium sized machines
12 to 20 seconds; and with small vibrators
from 40 seconds to two or three minutes.
With the largest machine, 20 to 40 seconds
produces inhibition; 40 to 90 seconds with
the medium vibrators, and from two or three
up to several minutes with the small ma-
chines. In producing inhibition, speed
counts, and some of the small machines
produce it quickly by reason of their very
great speed.
WHERE APPLIED
Vibration may be applied to any part of
the body. Ordinarily it is applied along
each side of the spinal column to reach the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
301
nerve centers, and by influencing them, bring
about the desired change in the organ or
function controlled by them.
In order to understand this it is necessary
to keep in mind the fact that the body con-
tains two great nervous systems,
the spinal and the sympathetic.
The cerebro-spinal system consists
of the brain, the spinal cord and
the spinal nerves. This system
presides over sensation and motion.
Roughly speaking there is a
spinal nerve emerging on each
side, between each joint of the
spine.
The sympathetic system consists
of numerous nerve-centers lying
in front of the spine on either
side, with their connecting nerves.
It also has an especially large nerve
center in the chest, abdomen and
pelvis and smaller ones connected
with the principal abdominal or-
gans. For example, the solar
plexus, is the great sympathetic
nerve center which lies back of
the stomach and which the late
Byron Robinson called the "ab-
dominal brain." The sympathetic
nerves control secretion, excretion,
the muscles surrounding the blood-
vessels, digestion, absorption,
growth, etc.
The spinal centers and the sym-
pathetic centers in front are con-
nected by communicating branches,
(called rami commimicantes) . On
this account vibration to a spinal
center also penetrates to and affects
the corresponding sympathetic
center.
CONTROLLING THE CIRCULATION
The most important centers for our con-
sideration are those known as the vasomotor
centers, because they control the muscles
surrounding the blood-vessels and through
causing the latter to contract or relax as
the case may be, we regulate the blood-
supply to an organ or part, or, as suggested
before, we equalize the circulation. The
importance of this is not to be under-esti-
mated and if we could do practically what
we theoretically have the means of doing with
vibration, it would prove almost a panacea
for many ailments. Actually we fail fre-
quently in trying to put our thoery into prac-
tice, but not so often that it causes us to
lose confidence in vibration. The fault lies
with the individual more than with the
method.
SPINAL APPLICATION
When an organ or function is over-sensi-
CHART FOR APPLYING VIBRATION
tive or irritated, the condition usually com-
municates itself to the corresponding nerve-
center and on applying the vibrator along the
spine in these cases these centers will be
found tender and sensitive. When such a
condition exists it indicates the need of a
long application of vibration to each of
these places until the tenderness disappears.
In other words we wish to inhibit these
centers and thus quiet the part they control.
VIBRO-MASSAGE
In addition to spinal treatment vibration
is applied locally over various areas and
organs to produce local stimulation or seda-
tion as required. When vibration is applied
302
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
with a stroking motion instead of holding
steadily over a spot, we call it vibro-massage
because it is essentially a combination of
vibration and massage.
By referring to the outline drawing, the
various joints of the spine are shown. They
are called vertebra (singular, vertebra).
Those in the region of the neck are called
the cervical vertebrae; in the upper part
of the back the dorsal; and in the lower the
lumbar and sacral, while the end of the spine
is called the coccyx. The seventh cervical
at the lower part of the neck has so large a
process that it is easily distinguished from
the others and is used as a point to
count from in locating other centers.
In applying vibration to the spine the
thumb or fore-finger is pressed against the
bony projection or point on the back of the
vertebra known as the spinous process, while
POINTS TO APPLY THE VIBRATOR ON THE
SCALP FOR HEADACHES
with the right hand the applicator is pressed
down firmly along side of it; first on one side
and then on the other.
By means of the figures on the various
segments in the illustration it will be easy
for the physician to follow the directions
given hereafter for vibrating the spine in
various diseases.
APPLICATORS
That part of the vibrator which is held
against the body is called the applicator.
It is also known as the vibratode, a word
constructed to show its analogy to the word
electrode.
Although there are many types of vibra-
tors on the market, they all employ certain
general forms of applicators. Of these we
will consider four: the ball, the disk, the
brush and the cup.
The ball applicator is used for spinal work.
The disk, if small, is sometimes substituted
for the ball and if larger is used over the
muscles, chest, or abdomen. The brush
is of soft rubber having a number of teeth
or small points. It is intended for use over
various body surfaces. The rubber cup is
used in facial massage, over the ear in deaf-
ness, and occasionally in place of the brush.
GENERAL TECNINQUE
In order to apply vibration to the spine
a sufficient amount of clothing must be re-
moved to give free access to it. In men, this
usually means the taking off of coat, vest,
collar and suspenders. In women it is
frequently necessary to remove the corsets,
and a very satisfactory method is to have the
patient come to the office wearing a kimono,
or have one that she may slip on during the
treatment.
The patient is placed face downwards on a
narrow table or couch, and if possible the
arms should be brought down under the
table in order to separate the shoulder-
blades as much as possible and thus further
facilitate reaching the spinal centers.
It occasionally requires the additional use
of a cushion under chest or abdomen to
still further relax the spine. The necessary
centers are then located with the thumb
or forefinger of the left hand and vibration
applied as required.
When the object is inhibition the appli-
cator remains for some time over each center,
especially until any tenderness present has
entirely disappeared.
The approximate time has been suggested
previously. In case stimulation is the ob-
ject the following method will enable the
operator to obtain a sufficient amount of
stimulation without much risk of producing
inhibition.
Suppose the centers to be treated are the
second to ninth dorsal. Locate the spinous
process of the second dorsal joint of the
spine, and press the ball applicator firmly
down on the right side of it for the length
of time suggested for your particular vibra-
tor. If it is a medium-sized flexible shaft
machine the time would be 12 to 20 seconds.
I would hold it in place while I slowly counted
to myself up to 15, then I would place it on
the corresponding location to the left of my
thumb and count 15 again. Just before
finishing the count I would slide my thumb
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
303
down to the projecting process of the third
dorsal vertebra and be ready to apply the
vibratode first on the right and then on the
left of it and so on down to and including the
ninth dorsal. Then I would go back to
the second and repeat the whole process
over again, doing this from two or three up
to a dozen times according to the amount of
stimulation I believed the individual case
required. By this method each center re-
ceives a sufficient amount of stimulation, but
by reason of the period of time intervening
between each additional application to the
same center we have interrupted stimula-
tion, and so the result is thorough stimula-
tion without inhibition.
If the center received the total application
without any intervening period of time, the
result would be over-stimulation or inhibi
tion. When treatment is applied to the
abdomen, the patient lies on the back with the
legs drawn up in order to thoroughly relax
the abdominal muscles. In some instances
it is unnecessary to have the patient recline
and they may be treated while sitting on a
stool.
CAUTIONS
There are some instances where vibration
should not be used.
A vigorous treatment should not be given
immediately after a hearty meal.
One should not vibrate over a cancer or
other malignant growth.
When an abscess exists or any condition
where pus is under tension, vibration may
rupture the sack or otherwise spread the
infection.
If the patient has an advanced case of
arterio-sclerosis and the blood-vessels are
very brittle vibration if used at all must be
employed with great care or arteries may be
ruptured by it.
Except for this danger it is useful in arterio-
sclerosis because it may be employed to
stimulate the peripheral circulation.
REFERRED PAINS
It has been observed that pains arising
from disturbances of various organs are
referred to certain centers in the spine. For
instance, if from the heart, it will be the
first, second and third dorsal centers. Treat-
ment is thereby shown to be necessary over
these points in the spine and should be of a
prolonged or inhibitory character.
Some organs with the centers where pain
is noticed are as follows, the numbers in-
dicate' the locations to vibrate as shown in
in the first illustration.
Lungs— i, 2, 3, 4, 5, dorsal.
Stomach — 6, 7, 8, 9, dorsal.
Spleen — 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, dorsal (left side).
Liver — 7, 8, 9, 10, dorsal (right side espe-
cially).
Kidneys — 10, n, 12, dorsal, and 1 lum-
bar. II
To regulate the circulation in these same
organs requires the treatment of additional
centers, but space forbids going into this
subject.
THE STROKE
If the vibrator delivers a tapping or pound-
ing stroke, it is called percussion. The per-
cussion stroke is always employed in spinal
stimulation and inhibition.
The lateral stroke is one from side to
side and the rotary or gyrating stroke is
one which is of a circular nature. Either
of these may be employed over body sur-
faces or in cavities.
Some vibrators give a rotary stroke as
their natural stroke and to obtain percussion
with them it is necessary to turn the machine
so that the side of the ball gives the stroke.
(To be Continued.)
304
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
That electricity must be called
upon to further the problem of
aviation, is certain for already
it has been brought into service
in affording the means to illu-
minate the first light-house for
aerial travelers.
Consul Thomas H. Norton,
Chemnitz, Germany, states that
the question of enabling aero-
nauts to tell where they are at
night or in foggy weather is re-
ceiving much attention.
Numerous plans have been
proposed for a systematic net-
work of signal stations to cover
the entire Empire. While no
one system has yet received offi-
cial or professional sanction, an
initial step in this important
matter has already been taken at
the town of Spandau in Prussia,
as briefly mentioned in the May
1 910 issue of Popular Elec-
tricity, where an aerial light-
house is now in full activity.
The necessity of such a con-
struction has been felt more
particularly at this point, where
the experiments of the German
war office with aerial craft are
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
305
largely conducted and nocturnal nights are
increasingly frequent.
This pioneer beacon for aerial guidance is
comparatively simple as shown by the artist's
conception of its outlines. It consists of an
elevated support on which rests, in a horizon-
tal position, a wooden ring of considerable
diameter; 38 powerful incandescent electric
lights are placed at equal distances about the
circumference, and there is an automatic ar-
rangement for interrupting the current, at
regular intervals, for a short period.
The location of Spandau is thus clearly
indicated to a traveler passing over the place,
by a large luminous circle, alternately disap-
pearing and reappearing. While this device
answers admirably for the needs of aeronauts
during the night, it is of little or no use when
fog prevails at any time. For such contin-
gencies it will be necessary to install a siren
or similar apparatus.
Record in Track Laying
Without delaying the schedule and in
just 21 minutes and two seconds 3,720 feet
of 56-pound rails weighing 69,440 pounds
finished at 9:34:12 A. m., during which
time 78 tons of steel rails were handled
and a remarkable record established in
track laying.
Telephoning from London to Paris
Talking by telephone between Chicago
and New York is very common, and in
keeping with this, steps are now being taken
to establish direct telephone communica-
tion between Liverpool and Germany. At
the present time, for a fee of $1.95 any one
will be given service for three minutes be-
tween Liverpool and Paris, Brussels, and
many adjacent smaller towns. Reduced
rates are allowed for service at night.
Want Electricity from Sun's Rays
Several persons residing in the Persian
Gulf region have requested an American
consul to furnish them the names of Ameri-
can concerns manufacturing an apparatus
for utilizing the energy of the sun's rays for
generating electricity. On account of the
great amount and intensity of sunlight in
THE START
HALF WAY
RECORD IN TRACK LAYING
THE LAST TWO RAILS DOWN
were replaced by 86,800 pounds of 70-
pound rails. This was on the Lake Shore
and Northern Railroad in Syracuse, N. Y.,
near the Syracuse railroad junction bridge,
where the interurban also uses the tracks.
The rails to be laid were bonded together
and placed beside the rails to be removed.
The crew began work at 9:13:10 A. M. and
that region such an apparatus would be ex-
ceedingly useful. If such a mechanism
capable of running an electric fan and of stor-
ing up enough power to keep it going at
night can be furnished at a moderate cost a
great many sales could be effected. Such
an apparatus might also be adapted to a
variety of uses.
306
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Light as An Aid to
Civilization
Light is the greatest
enemy of criminals and
evil doers. A city lighted
well is a city well policed
for it may almost be said
that an arc lamp is as good
as a policeman any night.
That this fact was fully
realized in the very begin-
ning of electrical develop-
ment, as we know it to-
day, is shown by an old
woodcut here reproduced
from the Electrical Review
of March 7, 1885. They
were just beginning to
think about central sta-
tions and electric street
lighting systems in those
days and undoubtedly the
argument "light prevents
crime" was as effectively
used then as now.
Police Tickers in
Berlin
A new use has been found
for the telegraphic type-
writers or printing tele-
graphs which have long
done service for stock
brokers in the larger cities
and which we commonly
call "stock tickers." The
police department of Ber-
lin has recently equipped every police
station in both the city and its immediate
suburbs with such a ticker for the simul-
taneous transmission of orders and messages
of all kinds from the police headquarters.
In this way any important information
(as for instance a description of someone
who has disappeared with his employ-
er's funds) can readily be transmitted to
nearly two hundred points and received
at each without requiring some one to
answer a telephone call and without the
risk of errors in recording the messages.
The instruments as installed at Berlin are
connected in series on a metallic circuit and
record the messages on wide strips which
remind one of the column galleys of our
newspapers.
ELECTRIC LIGHT AS AN AID TO CIVILIZATION
A Safe Explosive
A new explosive which is being tried in
connection with the building of the Panama
Canal consists chiefly of perchlorate of
ammonia, nitrate of soda and paraffine.
The latter makes it water-proof and the ex-
plosive is said to be nearly 50 per cent
stronger in disruptive power than dynamite,
although less costly. But the greatest ad-
vantage claimed for it lies in its greater
safety, as ordinary warming, matches or
hammer blows will not set it off. The only
way to explode it is by the high heat of a
platinum wire connected to a battery; in
other words, it is an explosive that can only
be fired electrically.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
307
Lighting Architectural Models
In residence districts where each house
has plenty of space on all sides, it is easy
enough for the architect to plan each room
so that it will receive ample sunlight. The
moment we crowd the buildings closer
together, this problem grows more difficult,
and when we get into congested city dis-
tricts it is often puzzling to predict just to
HOW THE ARCHITECT LIGHTS HIS MODEL
what extent the sunlight will have access
to certain windows at various seasons of the
year.
To avoid guesswork on so important a
theme, Prof. Eugene Hoenig of Munich
has started the practice of trying an imitation
sun on models of the buildings designed by
him, so as to tell at a glance where the
light will fall when the sun is in various
positions. For this purpose he fastens a
small incandescent lamp to the end of an
arm which can be swung in an arc above
a table, corresponding to the arched path
of the sun, the height and swing of the arc
being easily varied to match the sun's
course at different seasons of the year. On
this table he sets a clay or plaster-of-paris
model of his building, moulded in 1-500 or
1 -1000 of the actual dimensions, sometimes
adding such parts of adjoining buildings as
might cast shadows on the proposed struc-
ture. Then by swinging the model sun
through its arc he can see at a glance to what
extent the sunlight would enter the courts of
the building and what changes, if any,
should be made to secure better lighting and
ventilation in case the model shows an unin-
tended screening of certain windows from
the sun.
Billions in the Electrical Industry
From the Bureau of the Census comes a
very interesting statistical report dealing
with the development of electrical properties.
The report was prepared under the super-
vision of Chief Statistician William H. Steuart,
assisted by T. Commerford Martin, of New
York as consulting expert special agent on
the part dealing with the technical features
of the electric railway industry. It is not a
report of the year 1910 but of 1907, the
collection and compilation of the data being
such a huge task that it is impossible to
keep these reports up to the minute. The
figures are, however, none the less interesting.
In the year for which the statistics were
gathered there were 30,000 individuals,
companies, corporations and municipalities,
exclusive of isolated electric plants,
which reported the generation or utilization
of electric current in what may be called
"commercial enterprises."
Statistician Steuart has found that these
industries represent the outstanding cap-
italization of $6,209,746,753, of which
amount $1,367,338,836 is credited to cen-
tral electric stations, $3,774,722,096 to elec-
tric railways, $814,616,004 to commercial
or mutual telephone companies, and $253,-
019,817 to telegraph companies, the latter
item including $32,726,242, the capital
stock of wireless telegraph companies.
It is stated in the government report
that the capitalization of the 17,702 inde-
pendent, rural telephone lines and of the
1,157 electric police patrol and fire alarm
systems could not be ascertained. It is
set forth as well that there are also ex-
cluded a number of companies organized
for the purpose of acquiring the capital
stock or bonds of electric companies, to
hold it for investment purposes, and to
some extent supervise the operation of the
underlying companies.
There is noted by the government officials
an increasing tendency by electric railway
companies to sell electricity for general
commercial purposes. In 1902 there were
251 railway companies that furnished elec-
tricity for light, power and other purposes.
These companies reported an aggregate
income of $7,703,574 from the sale of current.
In 1907 there were 330 railway companies
in this class.
In 1902 the annual output of all electric
stations and electric railways amounted to
308
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
4,768,535,512 kilowatt hours. In 1907 the
output of the two classes of stations was
10,621,406,837 kilowatt hours, the increase
in that year as compared with 1902 being
5,852,871,325 kilowatt hours, or 122.7 per
cent. In 1902 the output by electric roads
formed 47.4 percent of the total, and by
1907 proportion for such railways had
fallen to 44.9 per cent.
In 1907 the total number of miles of street
and interurban railway lines, by which is
meant length of first main track or roadbed,
was 25,547.19, as compared with 16,645.34 in
1902, the per cent of increase being 53.5.
The total number of miles of track, meaning
the total length of all trackage, including
sidings, was 34,403.56 in 1907, as against
22,576.99 in 1902, the per cent of increase
amounting to 52.4. Of the total number
of miles of track, those operated by elec-
tricity in 1907 numbered 34,059.69 and in
1902, 21,907.59. The per cent of increase
was 55.5. The trackage operated by ani-
mal pcwer in 1907 was 136. 11 and in 1902,
259.10. The per cent of decrease amounted
to 47.5. The trackage operated by cable
in 1907 wcs 61.71 and in 1902, 240.69, the
per cent of decrease being 74.4. The
trackage operated by steam in 1907 was
146.05 and in 1902, 169.61, a decrease of
13.9 per cent.
Lamps Delivered by Auto
The accompanying illustration shows a
unique auto-carrier utilized in London for
delivering Ediswan electric lamps. It is of
light construction designed so as to have
little or no vibration for damaging the lamps
having delicate filaments.
This English auto-carrier is provided with
a gasoline motor of from five to six horse
power capacity, having two large external
fly-wheels which give great flexibility and
steady running.
The fuel tank has a capacity of 2 \ gallons
which is sufficient for 75 to 100 miles and is
fitted with a special by-pass arrangement for
giving due warning when the gasoline is
getting low in the tank. It is stated that in
actual practice these British vehicles average
from 40 to 50 miles per gallon of fuel con-
sumption operating about 100 miles daily, the
cost of operation being less than three cents
per mile or about $15.00 per week for a dis-
tance of 450 to 500 miles.
How Many Wires in a Cable
If you watch the men drawing a lead cov-
ered cable into the conduits which form a
network under our city streets, it usually
is not long before you hear some one ask:
DELIVERING LAMPS IN LONDON
SOME DIFFERENCE IN THE NUMBER OF
WIRES
"How many wires are there in the cable?"
That there may be some variation in the
number of the wires, is easily guessed, but
few realize how wide the discrepancy in
the number of imbedded wires may be.
The two sections shown in our illustrations
are by no means the extremes, but give some
idea of the range. One is of a telephone
cable containing 26 dozen pairs or 624
wires, each pair wrapped with paraffined
paper and the whole intertwined in such a
way that plenty of air space is left between
the wires. The other pictures a 20,000-
volt cable for a three-phase power trans-
mission circuit such as is used for conveying
power from the central stations to the
scattered distributing stations in some of
our large cities. This has the copper cables
embedded in a solid mass of rubber or
gutta percha, with no air spaces whatever,
the number of conductors being only three
instead of 624.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
309
A Miniature Hot-room
As an addition to the already complete
equipment in the bath department, the
Chicago Athletic Association has provided
an electric light bath cabinet. This, is not
to serve as a substitute for the hot-room
but is an added feature. While the hot-
room, the first process in a Turkish bath,
Banquet at Long Beach
Long Beach, Calif., will have a great
electric plant, to be built by the California
Edison Company, and which will ultimately
develop 150,000 to 200,000 horse-power and
cost in the neighborhood of $10,000,000.
The citizens are highly pleased at the pros-
pect and recently entertained the officials at
ELECTRIC LIGHT CABINET FOR ATHLETES
causes the body to perspire freely, the elec-
tric bath cabinet accomplishes the same thing
besides applying the stimulating and germi-
cidal effect of what physicians acknowledge
as next to the sun's rays in beneficial results
— the light from electric lamps.
The interior of the cabinet is lined with
rows of 16-candle-power incandescent lamps,
64 in all, back of which are mirrors for throw-
ing the light upon the bather. In addition
to this a portion of the floor is of glass, under-
neath which are more lamps and reflectors.
The cabinet is finished in white enamel and
the control switches are located as shown by
the open door. Many of our readers will
recognize as the bather, Mr. Frank Kehoe,
a swimmer of national reputation, holding
many records. Through his efforts as
coach and captain of the water polo team of
the Association the polo championship was
recently won from the New York Athletic
Club.
a banquet. The affair was held in the dining
room of the Hotel Virginia and in harmony
with the nature of the banquet the room was
elaborately decorated with 25,000 small
colored electric lights and four electrical
fountains. At the entrance to the banquet
hall, the guests were confronted with a revolv-
ing electric wheel which at ten-minute inter-
vals stopped, all the lights going out but those
which spelled the word " Edison."
Russian Electrical Railway Ex-
position
Under the auspices of the Imperial Russian
Technical Society, an international exhibi-
tion having for its object the education of the
public to the present state of electricity as
applied to railways will be held in St. Peters-
burg opening Aug. 15 and continuing for
three months. Foreign as well as Russian
exhibitors will participate.
Talks With the Judge
THE TRANSFORMER
"What is a transformer?" asked the
Judge. "The electrician was at my place
the other day fixing a lamp socket in the
bathroom and he said that it wasn't always a
good plan to stand in the bath tub and turn
on the electric light. In explanation he went
on at great length with a strange lot of lingo
about how it might be barely possible for
some accident to happen to the transformer
insulation- so that the primary and secondary
might come in contact, and
how the secondary might
not be grounded right, and
how it might be possible
under those conditions to
get the current under the
full primary voltage from
the lamp through one's
body to ground through
the water pipes. I didn't
understand what he was
talking about, but maybe
you can explain what this
transformer is."
"From what the elec-
trician told you I suppose
you have transformers and
bath tubs in some way
connected in your mind,"
I replied. "But the little
warning which he gave
you was only incidental.
There is the barest chance
in the world that
an acci-
dent would happen as he explained that it
might, but don't let that hinder you from
taking your regular baths.
" A transformer is a very simple device for
raising or lowering the voltage of an alter-
nating current. You will remember that I
told you once that alternating current flows
first in one direction and then in the opposite
many times per second. Also you under-
stand that voltage in an electrical circuit
corresponds to pressure or pounds per square
inch in a water pipe system.
"Now I will explain in a very elementary
way what a transformer is and why it is used.
When electric current is made at a central
station it is generated at a high voltage or
pressure because then the energy can be
transmitted long distances over comparative-
Not a Good Plan to Turn on the
Light from the Bath Tub.
ly small wires, just in the same way that
you could send a great many gallons of water
per minute through a small pipe if you had
sufficient pressure back of it. In this way
they save copper, which is very expensive.
"But when the central station company
gets the high-voltage current to your door or
to a group of houses which it wishes to light
it dares not bring the high-voltage inside for
it is dangerous — it is liable to puncture
ordinary insulation and
get away. So transformers
are brought into requisi-
tion to "step the voltage
down" as electricians say,
to a low pressure of about
no volts, which is not
dangerous.
" In principle, the trans-
former which does this is
very simple. It consists
first of a coil of wire of a
great many turns wound
around a core of iron.
This coil is called the pri-
mary winding of the trans-
former. It is very care-
fully insulated from the
core, and the turns of
wire in the coil from each
other. The two ends of
this wire are connected to
the two wires of the high-
voltage line coming from
the distant power distributing point.
" Over the primary coil is wound what is
known as the "secondary." The secondary
is entirely insulated from the primary and
makes no connection with it whatever. To
this secondary coil are connected the wires
which lead into your house. Now the very
peculiar action which takes place is this:
When you send an alternating current
through the primary of the transformer, and
the pulsations of the current and voltage rise
and fall, rise and fall in rapidly concurring
cycles a current is 'induced' in the secondary
aHhough the two windings are not connected.
And stranger still, the ratio of the voltage of
the current in the secondary and primary
is directly proportional to the ratio of the
turns of wire in the two coils. That is to say:
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
311
suppose the current in the primary (power
station current) is at a pressure of n,ooo
volts, and the number of turns of wire in the
primary winding is 10,000. And ■ suppose
the number of turns in the secondary is 100.
Then the pressure of the current in the
secondary, the pressure at which current will
enter your house, is no volts. Stated in the
form of a proportion. The voltage of the
current in the primary is to the voltage of the
current in the secondary as the number of
turns in the primary is to the number of
turns in the secondary.
"A transformer used as just described is
known as a 'step-down' transformer with a
' 100 to 1 ' ratio. If you were to connect the
high tension wires to the coil of the small
number of turns and your feed wires to the
coil of the high number of turns it would
become a 'step-up' transformer and the
voltage of the current delivered would be 100
times as high as the voltage impressed or
1,100,000, only of course this wouldn't be
practicable with a transformer of ordinary
design, as it would burn out.
" When alternating current came into use
and the transformer was developed, together
they revolutionized the electrical business.
Then it became possible to transmit current
long distances, hundreds of miles. Big
transformers are installed in the water power
plants far off in the wilderness. They step
the pressure up to enormous voltages —
20, 50, no thousand volts maybe. Then
reasonably small wires of copper or aluminum
which will not bankrupt the company to
string, can be used to transmit the energy
miles and miles away to civilization.
"The transformer has also made prac-
ticable the great central power plants in our
large cities which generate vast quantities of
electricity at from 11,000 to 33,000 volts and
transmit it economically to out-lying sub-
stations where it is stepped down to an inter-
mediate voltage by special machines, then
transmitted to small transformers seen on the
poles about the district, where it is finally
stepped down to a pressure available for
consumption.
" Again transformers have made long inter-
urban electric railways possible.
" The principle of all static transformers is
the same, as just described. They are made
in a great range of sizes, however, from the
tiny ones which ring your door-bell to the
gigantic coils in steel cases standing two or
three times as high as a man's head."
Private Car of President Diaz
President Porfirio Diaz is provided with a
handsome private car by the Mexican Tram-
ways Company which operates an extensive
system of electric railway in the City of Mex-
ico and the Federal District. This car was
CAR OF PRESIDENT DIAZ
built specially for the private use of President
Diaz and is kept constantly at his command.
It is fitted up and furnished in luxuriant
style. The president uses the car chiefly
when he desires to make a visit to a portion
LUXURIOUS INTERIOR OF THE CAR
of the city or Federal District which is not
easily accessible by carriage or automobile.
He is a great lover of horses and takes no
little pleasure in riding behind his spanking
teamhitchedto thepresidential carriage. But
of course the use of a carriage in these days
is limited. As he has never taken to the
automobile as a means of conveyance,
although he rides in them frequently when
his time demands that a hurried trip be
made, the car was provided for the longer
journeys.
312
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Baseball Electric Score Board
Cleopatra dropped her most precious pearl
into a bath of grape juice, then drank both,
and the history of woman since that day
shows her ever ready to pawn her jewels to
buy her heart's desire. But
to make use of the na-
tional "diamond" for any
other purpose than^to play
the national game upon,
found its initiative in the
construction of the World
Advertising Company's
electric score board at the
Cub National League Ball
Park out on the West Side
in Chicago. The board
is 150 feet in length by 24
feet high, built of angle
iron and sheet steel resting
on a concrete foundation.
As is evident, its primary
object is to give information
to the 700,000 fans who at-
tend the season's games
by placing in the center of
the board, as shown, all
the data necessary to
keep track of the game
while it is in progress.
Incidentally (?) it carries
the short, crisp stories of a
great number of national
advertisers.
The little section of the board which most
interests the fans records the balls, strikes
and outs, gives the number of the batter,
pitcher, catcher and umpire, and also keeps
an accurate record of the games played by
clubs on other grounds in their respective
leagues. With this valuable addition to the
baseball game there will be no further difh-
HOW THE SCORE BOARD IS OPERATED
culty in understanding the decisions of the
umpire which appear on the board the instant
THE ELECTRIC SCORE BOARD
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
313
they are given. On the score card all the
players' names are placed, and each is given
a number ("13" being omitted) beginning
with the rotation of the batting order and
going down the list, including all the extra
batters. To keep informed as to what has
taken place at all stages of the game, a score
card is of vital importance to the spectator,
because the numbers as they appear on the
score board correspond to the numbers on
the score card, and the score board assists
in keeping a correct card.
This is all controlled by the young man
you see sitting in front of the desk switch-
board in the press box. He is just about to
push the button to show on the score board
that batter No. 3 is up. As he does this a
magnet on the back of the board over yonder
is energized, attracting its armature which
releases a plate that turns over on a small
shaft and shows the number "3" which is
painted on one side of the plate. When this
number is no longer needed the plate is
turned half over again by pushing the button.
Each number is controlled by a separate but-
ton and circuit from the switchboard and the
shaft on which the plate turns is operated by
a weight and train of gears on the back of the
score board after the manner of the old
fashioned clock.
New Philippine Cable Ships
The telegraph and cable systems of the
Philippine archipelago in the days of the
Spaniard were not very extensive. The
provincial capitals were connected with
Manila by
wire, but few
other, if any,
of the outside
cities enjoyed
the distinc-
tion. After
American oc-
cupation one
of the first
tasks of the
army was to
string t e 1 e-
graph wires
to every nook
and corner of
any import-
ance. Thous-
ands of miles
were strung
into the inte-
rior. This
vast system about two years ago was turned
over to the civil government to become, un-
der the head of communication, a part of
the Bureau of Posts, or as we know it, the
Post Office Department.
Upon our arrival the only inter-island
cable system, connecting the many islands
with one another, was that of the Eastern
Australasia Telegraph and Cable company.
It was over these cables that Dewey sent and
received his instructions after the battle of
Manila Bay. The cable system was also
THE CABLE SHIP RIZAL IN PHILIPPINE WATERS
enlarged and bettered, the army laying many
new lines of its own in connection with those
of the commercial company, A big army
transport, the Burnside, was fitted up as a
cable steam-
er, manned
with an ex-
pert crew of
electricians.
Later she was
sent to the
United States
for similar
service on the
Pacific and
Alaskan
coasts. The
Burnside was
replaced in
the Philip-
pine work by
another army
transport, the
Liscum. This
vessel, after
the cable and
telegraph systems were turned over to the
civil government, continued in the work,
being chartered by the Philippine govern-
ment. But about a year ago the army con-
cluded it could no longer spare the Liscum
from her regular work, and the Philippine
government was compelled to cast about for
other ships. In the end the Basilan, a coast
guard cutter, was remodelled and fitted for
work as a cable steamer. Later the Rizal,
a clipper bowed, yacht-like ship of British
registry, was bought at Singapore.
314
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
315
Use of Army Telephones
Realizing that efficient telephone commu-
nication is as essential in the transaction of
military business as in the commercial
world, it has been the policy of the United
States Army Signal Corps to install modern,
underground, common-battery systems at
the larger posts as rapidly as funds become
available.
Such use of the telephone is more extensive
than is generally known. During the last
year a large number of camps and posts
in the Philippines have had their systems
remodeled or new ones installed, and 36
posts in this country have been provided
with extended systems.
Rifle ranges at 57 posts have circuits to
aid in target practice, and at eight of the
picture two members of the corps are re-
ceiving orders over the field telephone line
of special twin conductor seen lying on
the ground.
Shooting Without Ammunition
By Courtesy of Telephony
TWO MEMBERS OF THE CORPS RECEIVING ORDERS
largest posts of the army plans have been
perfected and materials purchased for the
installation of buzzer systems. These sys-
tems include a push button at each firing
point which will ring a buzzer at the target
fired at, additional telephone communica-
tion and special arrangements being pro-
vided, for sending signals to all targets
during rapid fire.
The large illustration shows a detachment
from the Army Signal Corps establishing
communication with headquarters by means
of a field-telephone, while in the second
Ex-president Roosevelt once said "the
shots that hit are the shots that count" and
this thought is eternally uppermost in the
mind of our army and navy. Good records
upon the rifle range are much sought after by
the men composing the organized teams, and
while this target practice is expensive, results
have proven it to be a wise expenditure.
To avoid this expense as well as the dan-
gers accompanying target practice the Gov-
ernment has adopted a machine known as
the "sub-target gun" which does away with
actual firing yet gives the
same results.
In a sense it is a rifle with a
captive bullet the course of
which can be followed from
gun to target.
A target is placed about
sixty feet from the marksman
and his aim is taken at this
with the weapon in connection
with the apparatus upon
which the records are made.
No support for the gun or
assistance is given the marks-
man by means of the ma-
chine, however, but his etfery
movement be it ever so slight
while taking aim, as well as
the final result of his attempt
to hit the bull's eye, are
faithfully recorded upon a
miniature target located on
the machine.
No ammunition is used,
the effect being produced by
mechanical means. A needle operated by
electricity pierces the small target in
exactly the spot aimed by the marksman
when the trigger is pulled. The apparatus
is shown on the front cover of this issue.
The record shown by fne small target is of
the greatest value to an instructor, as it shows
the cause of unsteadiness in taking aim and
brings to light faults in manner of holding the
weapon and discharging it as well as nervous-
ness due to fear of report or recoil.
The War Department has already invested
about $40,000 in the machines.
316
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
A MODERN BOILER ROOM
If we were not told that the boilers in this
picture use coal for fuel we would be quite
unable to believe it to be the case, as piles of
coal upon the floor, firemen busy with
shovels heaving it upon the white-hot grates
and the attendant dust which are so fre-
quently the accompaniment of boiler rooms
are here lacking.
Three plants of the Pittsburg Electric
Street Railway Company are so operated
that the coal for the 40 boilers in each plant
is not handled by manual labor again after
leaving the mines.
The coal arrives in freight cars and is
dumped directly into the huge bins of the
company. A small electric dump car con-
trolled by the engineer from the power house
Comes down a tram track under one of the
huge hoppers and the coal is automatically
allowed to fill the car.
The engineer, by a simple movement, then
turns the current on the car which starts
for the boiler house, at the same time trip-
ping a lever shutting off the flow of coal.
The car when it comes over the boiler
supply hopper is automatically dumped on
reaching its destination and then goes back
for another load.
The coal is next forced into the furnace by
automatic stokers and the ashes, shaken
down by the automatic grate rockers, fall
into another car similar to the first and are
carried out to the dump.
In the power house of the company shown
in the accompanying illustration only one
man is required part of the time to look to
the boilers and see that all of the supply
hoppers are full. During the night shift
however two and sometimes three men are
used. It has been estimated that to do the
work of the mechanical and electrical
contrivances would require the continual
services of a force ["of 38 men, whereas at
the present time sometimes one and never
more than three are required to operate the
plant at its full capacity.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
317
Six Thousand Turns of a Switch
Few devices in the electrical line come
more frequently to our notice through use
than the ordinary snap switch of either the
rotary or push-button type. If you pick
up one of these switches today you may find
on it a yellow label upon which are the words
' ' Underwriters ' Laboratories,
Inspected Snap Switch"
.and wonder just what it means. A great
many devices, like snap switches, are installed
in grain elevators, cotton mills, furniture
factories, furniture storage, paint factories
and numerous other places where a break
down in them might start a fire.
Some nine years ago the insurance com-
panies began to realize that electricity was to
be the energy of the future, and that standard
these as to the recommendations to be made
to insurancs organizations. To correct the
mistaken impression sometimes found that
the Underwriters' Laboratories test only
electrical material it should be stated that
their field covers all appliances and material
which have to do with the fire hazard, such
as fire extinguishers, fire doors, gases and
oils, fire alarm systems, fire hose, pumps and
hydrants, and with the co-operation of the
manufacturers and insurance inspectors,
many improvements in devices have been
made.
But to return to the story of the snap
switch. When received at the Laboratories,
207 E. Ohio St., Chicago, the switch is turned
over to an engineer who has given this sub-
ject special study and attention. After
being examined as to mechanical construc-
SNAPPING A SWITCH ON AND OFF THOUSANDS OF TIMES
appliances properly installed make the use
of electricity practically safe, and in the
matter of light would do away with the open
flame. To assist in making and upholding
safe standards in the construction of devices
the Underwriters' Laboratories were estab-
lished in 1 901 with authority to examine
and test appliances and devices and to enter
into agreements with owners and makers of
tion the switch in company with others of
the same make is placed in a testing machine,
which you see on the table in the picture,
and so arranged that enough lamps from the
lamp bank are connected to give an overload
of 50 or 25 per cent according as the switch is
rated to carry less or more than ten amperes,
respectively. The shaft on the table top is
run by a small motor beneath. This shaft
318
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
operates a train of gears, to each set of which
is connected a short projecting clasp which is
fastened to the button of the switch, thus
turning the switch "on" and "off" from two
to three times a minute until a speed counter
indicates that the switch has made and broken
the circuit 6,000 times without failure. The
same machine is arranged to test push-
button switches and pull sockets as the case
may be.
Formerly re-examinations of appliances
were made from time to time, but the newer
form of inspection and one which is much
more satisfactory to the manufacturer, con-
sists in having the manufacturer test his own
devices under the supervision of the Labora-
tories' engineers, there being 19 branch
offices located in various parts of the country.
By means of this service the quality of goods
in factories where approved articles are made
is carefully observed, and the use of labels
restricted to such portion of the output as
meets in all essentials the standard of effi-
ciency shown by the sample originally tested
and on which approval had originally been
based.
Myths of Magnetism
When we consider that the laws of mag-
netism have been clearly understood only
within the last few decades (thanks partly
to the master mind of American electrical
mathematicians, Steinmetz), it is not sur-
prising that there should have been mis-
conceptions of magnetic phenomena for
centuries. Going back a thousand years or
more we find an interesting variety of what
we may now call "magnetic myths" among
the current beliefs, many of them being
repeated in various guises almost down to
our own time.
Some of these myths seem quite plausible
considering the scientific knowledge of the
time, while others are so far-fetched that we
can hardly conceive of their having been
taken seriously by the great thinkers of the
day.
For instance, we may very easily excuse
the great Greek philosopher Aristotle for
believing that submerged magnetic rocks
might attract ships loaded with iron nails,
even to the point of sinking them. Indeed,
this notion was so strongly believed that in
certain vessels sailing for Tapiobane the
nails were replaced by wooden pegs. But
when he also maintains that some lodestones
attract gold, silver, copper and tin, we smile
at his scientific inaccuracy; and when he
says further that there are even lodestones
which attract the flesh and bone of man, we
must put him down as repeating one of the
numerous magnetic myths of his time.
Most of these related to supposed magnetic
rocks and magnetic mountains, others to
magnetic ores which were said to attract
human flesh — so-called "flesh magnets."
Another and evidently popular myth
which we find seriously reported in several
books issued as late even as the Sixteenth
Century, tells us, with all seriousness, how the
ancient temple of Serapis in Alexandria
(Egypt) had a lodestone fixed in its roof so
that an iron statue was suspended in mid-air,
touching neither floor nor ceiling.
Parallel to this is the legend told of
Mohammed's being magnetically suspended
within his tomb. Another writer of the 16th
century contended just as seriously that
Venus was magnetic, hence her attracting
Mars, the man of iron.
Another series of myths, apparently
originating in Sweden, sought to explain
the fact that the compass needle does not
point to the geographical north pole of the
earth by telling of a strongly magnetic island
to which it pointed.
Other myths, now equally as funny,
with our present day knowledge of these
subjects, were the Italian ones about the
"Ethiopian magnets" which were said to re-
pel iron; also the French ones about rubbing
a diamond to make it attract gold and
about the effect of garlic on the magnetic
needle. Coming nearer our own time we
find one English writer telling of magnetic
cures for wounds, while another wrote a
whole volume to refute the idea that the
earth is a gigantic globular magnet. At
Amsterdam one of the Seventeenth Century
authors held that everything in the world
had the magnetic power of attracting
or repelling and that the sun was the most
magnetic of all bodies.
Then when in 1677 a German writer
worked out a scheme of perpetual motion
by means of magnets, we have the connecting
link between the myths of the past and of
the present. For even to this day there are
some in every country unscientific enough to
believe perpetual motion possible and im-
aginative enough to look to magnetic means
for realizing this sole survivor of a long
series of myths.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
319
OLD MANSION ON "ELECTRIC FARM'
"ELECTRIC FARM
»
Up in Maine in the town of Minot, An-
droscoggin county, is a farm which, on ac-
count of the numerous electrical devices and
the things performed by them, is known as
the Electric Farm. The owner, Mr. E. E.
Ramsdell, is chief inspector for the New
England Telephone
Company in that sec-
tion and is constantly
adding to the equip-
ment.
The great number
of switches, clocks,
bells and telephone
sets first attract the at-
tention of the visitor
who is still more im-
pressed when he real-
izes that each device
has something to do.
Three of the five
electric clocks on the
place are shown in the
j^'cture, on the next page
the upper one causing a
1 5-inch gong on the front
of the barn to strike the
hours and half-hours.
The little clock in the
middle of the panel is
arranged so that by
opening or closing
switches, bells are rung
THE FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
in any or all rooms in the house at a
stated time. The lower clock gives the
horses their breakfast. The grain is placed
in a box above the stalls the night before,
and when the time arrives a magnet opens
the 'bottom of the box and the grain falls
into the feed box below.
Another of the illus-
trations shows the
switching and signal
panel which controls all
electrical apparatus ex-
cept the fire alarm and
telephones. Running
into this board are
194 wires. The an-
nunciator indicates that
the rural mail-carrier
has just visited the
letter-box in front of
the house. A burglar
alarm system protects
the poultry-house and
the windows and doors
of the dwelling, a bell
ringing and an indi-
cator telling where the
trouble is in case of
an alarm. A new in-
cubator installed in the
shop 400 feet from the
house is provided with
a thermometer so con-
320
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
nected that when the temperature rises too
high or falls too low a bell in the dining
room announces it. In fact this room is the
headquarters from which most of the ap-
paratus is controlled.
One of the latest improvements is a com-
plete fire alarm system with a 12-inch gong
in the house, and an "electric whistle" on
the barn. The box which tells the location
of the fire is given on the annunciator and
recorded on the tape just as in a city fire
alarm system.
Not the least interesting also is the port-
able field telephone equipment. When the
men go to the fields to work they take a
portable set along. A line of telephone
poles provided with jacks into which the
connections from a portable telephone may
be plugged, runs through the center cf the
farm and at any time the men may call up
the farm house.
Electricity for operating all devices comes
from 32 Columbia dry cells, but plans are
under way to
build a d am
across a small
stream on the
farm and install
a water-power
plant from which
sufficient current
may be obtained
not only to light
the buildings but
also to saw wood,
to do the churn-
ing, run the fan-
ning mill, corn-
s h e 1 1 e r, grind-
stone, sewing ma-
chine, operate
electric cooking
devices in the
kitchen and per-
form numerous
other duties.
y
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CONTROL CLOCKS
No "Out of the World" Today
SIGNAL AND SWITCHING PANEL
A Frenchman in talking about life today
remarked, "The more it changes, the more
it remains the same." Wireless telegraphy
and long distance telephone communication
are tending to make one place just like
another so far as getting out of the world, so
to speak, is concerned. Steam ships started
on their voyage were once a secure refuge
from the worries and cares of business, but
today equipped with wireless apparatus and
a daily paper the broker and business man
keep tab on the doings in their respective
lines during the trip, while their wives may
patronize the dressmaking shop where the
latest styles are displayed. Orders are taken
for gowns and transmitted ashore by wireless,
the garments being ready upon arrival.
The Lightning Rod
BY BROTHER POTAMIAN, D. SC., LONDON, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS IN MANHATTAN
COLLEGE, NEW YORK
As early as November 7, 1749, Franklin
recognized that the "electrical fluid" agreed
with lightning in twelve particulars, among
•which he enumerated its brilliancy, sinuous
path, snappish noise, heating power and
conduction by metallic rods. Though the
resemblances were remarkable, he did not,
however — philosopher as he was — feel him-
self justified in concluding that the two
orders of natural phenomena were abso-
lutely identical until he had succeeded in
establishing this identity by further experi-
mentation.
By the month of June, 1752, he had
matured a plan, very novel in its way, of
putting the matter to a crucial test. Ac-
cordingly, accompanied by a stalwart son of
twenty-two summers, he took with him a
queer assortment of electrical appliances,
including a silk-covered kite, a Leyden phial,
an iron key and a silk handkerchief. With
these, he went out into the fields surrounding
Philadelphia where, with the expert skill of
his son, the kite was raised and an experi-
ment begun, which while dangerous in it-
self, was fundamental in theoretical im-
portance and pregnant with practical possi-
bilities. With this classical experiment of
Franklin all are familiar.
When the cord of the kite was made con-
ducting by the falling rain-drops, sparks
were freely taken from the silk-insulated
key, the jar charged and discharged and
other experiments made by the electricity
which was derived from the cloud by the
inductive action of the pointed wire fastened
to the top of the kite. x\t the same time,
the anger of the cloud was appeased and
its striking power enfeebled by the stream
of electricity of opposite sign which went up
from the pointed conductor. Franklin felt
that he had drawn "lightning from the skies"
and foresaw the consequences that would
follow from his bold experiment with regard
to the protection of life and property.
It was not, however, until the month of
September, 1752, that Franklin raised a
pointed conductor over his own house,
which conducter he intended for experi-
mental purposes rather than for the pro-
tection of his home. Acting on his pub-
lished suggestion, pointed rods were erected
by French physicists in the month of May
of the same year, 1752, when results of a
formidable and spectacular character were
obtained in Paris and its vicinity.
Off in distant Bohemia, a parish priest,
Divisch by name, with a double Doctorate
in Philosophy and Theology to his credit,
was carrying out at the same time and on a
grand scale experiments for the protection
of the severely tried villagers of Prenditz
who were confided to his pastoral care.
His "Meteoro-
logical machine,"
as he called his
multiple-point
lightning conduc-
tor, was erected
in the summer of
1754, that is, six
years before any
building in Amer-
ica and eight be-
fore any building
in England was
protected by a
lightning conduc-
tor.
Franklin's divi-
ded rod of 1752
with it pair of
AN early light- Gordon chimes
ning rod was an experi-
mental rod and
not a lightning conductor. Franklin
erected a lightning conductor in 1760
over a building in Philadelphia; his friend
Watson did the same in England in 1762.
It was only in 1769 that conductors were
placed on St. Paul's Cathedral, London.
It was early recognized that to be effi-
cient a lightning rod should be continuous
throughout; and, at the same time, make good
"sky" above and good "earth" below.
The good "sky" is secured by making the
end terminate in one or more sharp points;
and the good "earth" either by connecting
the lower extremity to a plate of metal
sunk away in moist ground or by making
322
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the said extremity send off a number of
branches into deep moist soil. The con-
tinuity is obtained by means of an uninter-
rupted rod, round or fiat, made of iron or
copper and preferably insulated from the
building. The reason for the insulation is
that a flash of lightning, like the discharge
A GOOD SKY
of a Leyden jar, is oscillatory in character,
consisting as it usually does of a few violent
rushes of electricity up and down the rod
until all the energy of the flash has been
spent. For the same oscillatory reason
these violent surgings in the rod give rise
to a tendency to throw off vicious little
sparks sideways from the conductor so that
its vicinity during an electric storm is de-
cidedly one of danger, and hence to be
carefully avoided.
It is not because iron is cheaper than
copper and less liable to be stolen that its
use is recommended for lightning conduc-
tors, but because its higher resistance tends
to slow down the discharge and make it
less violent and less explosive.
As to the sharp point, which is screwed
to the end of the rod, it is sometimes made of
platinum, but more frequently of copper.
Copper is cheaper and, what is of greater
importance, it is less liable to be melted
owing to its higher conductivity.
At a time, it was customary to make con-
ductors rise considerably above the building
in the belief that their protection extended
over a circular area the radius of which was
twice the height of the rod. Present prac-
tice discards this arbitrary rule and relies
for protection on a number of inconspicuous
points distributed over the highest parts
of the building.
Gas and water-pipes as well as balconies
and projecting metallic masses are best
separately grounded; or else, they may be
well connected together and then grounded.
The same holds for gutters, drain-pipes
and the like.
Wooden ships need a lightning conductor
which may consist of a wire-rope fastened
at the top of the main mast to one or more
points, the lower part of the metallic rope
being thrown overboard on the approach
of a storm. Ships built entirely of iron and
steel, such as our merchantmen, ocean grey-
A GOOD GROUND OR EARTH
hounds and fighting monsters, need no such
artificial protection, as their sharp tops make
good "sky" and their broad ironsides good
"earth."
The functions of a lightning conductor are
twofold: (a) preventive, by which it gradu-
ally reduces the potential of an approaching
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
323
cloud and prevents the stroke; and (b)
preservative, by which, if the rod is struck,
it will carry the energy of the flash safely
to earth. Conditions of impulsive rush may
arise, and they are known to electricians,
when, however well a building may be pro-
tected, it will be struck; hence the necessity
of having the conductors examined peri-
odically, say at the beginning of summer, by
competent men.
We smile today when we read of the differ-
ence of opinion which gave rise in England
to the controversy of "Points versus Knobs"
in 1 7 72 -i 77 7, and which led to the "knob-
bing" of the rods of St. Paul's Cathedral and
of the royal conductors at Kew. Error
prevailed, but only for a time. A writer of
the day put the matter in epigrammatic form
when he wrote:
While you, Great George, for knowledge hunt,
And sharp conductors change to blunt,
The Nation's out of joint;
Franklin a wiser course pursues,
And all your thunder useless views,
By keeping to the point.
It is germane to the subject to say that
the expression "electric" storm is preferable
to "thunderstorm," because electricity is
the active agent or principal feature of the
impressive phenomenon. No one thinks
of calling a hailstorm by the descriptive
term of patter storm; yet that would be just
as logical and appropriate an appellative
in one case as thunderstorm is in the other.
The expression "thunder and lightning" is
illogical because it puts the effect before
the cause.
"Thundertube" is certainly a startling
misnomer applied to the long, narrow,
glazed tubes formed in siliceous materials
by the fervid heat of the flash, but not in
any way by the sound-waves produced by
the crash. "Thunderbolt" does not mean,
despite the common opinion, a white-hot
mass that accompanies the discharge; it
is purely and simply the flash itself. A
glowing mass that comes down in the track
of the discharge is a meteorite, a body of
cosmic and not terrestrial origin, a visitor
from space that chooses the path of the
flash, for its descent to earth.
Again, there are no "thunderclouds" in
nature, only electric clouds; nor is there
ever "thunder in the air" save when the
lightning breaks from cloud to cloud or
leaps from cloud to earth, or strikes from
earth to cloud. But though thunder is
only occasionally in the air, electricity always
is. We have a normal electrical field in all
seasons, times and places.
Though it is the lightning that kills and
not the thunder, we would not object to the
following inscription found on a tombstone:
"Here lies (so and so), oh! what a wonder,
She was killed outright by a peal of thunder,"
because the suddenness of the peal may
have given the aged lady a shock from which
her failing heart was unable to recover.
We are well aware that such criticism
of technical terms in popular use will have
no reform effect; because as long as people
will say that "the sun rises" and "the stars
set," they will continue to speak of "thunder
and lightning," of thunderclouds, thunder-
storms and thunderbolts. Though con-
taining an element of error, these expressions
have the sanction of centuries; and so they
have come to stay.
Frying Griddle Cakes on a Motor
Of the thousands who daily use the modern
electric motors probably few realize how
great an advance has been made in certain
types within the last few decades. The
writer does, for he remembers " carrying the
dough" to settle a heated argument about
the earliest type of alternating motor (the
invention of Nikola Tesla) of which one had
been sent to the electrical engineering
laboratory at Cornell. While a decidedly
practical motor, it wasted a good share of the
current in heating both itself and the sur-
rounding room. Indeed it grew so uncom-
fortably hot during certain experiments with
it that one student bet he could fry griddle-
cakes on it if he only had the batter.
A few days later the writer procured the
latter from his boarding house, but the
motor proved to be just a little too efficient
for simultaneous use as a stove and the
heat was not ample to bake the cakes, so
the student who had made the rash predic-
tion paid for a bounteous feast of gas-baked
griddle cakes at a hotel on the following
Sunday. Since that time one maker after
another has learned how to raise the effi-
ciency of his alternating motors, so that no
one would now dream of using one simul-
taneously as a kitchen range, and the student
who lost that bet is among those most pleased
at the progress, for he is an enthusiastic
user of the present highly efficient and cool
running types.
Albert Scheible.
324
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Two Thousand Miles by Elec-
tric Car
Electricity in Coal Mines
The car shown in the photograph is one
of the regular cars of the Oneida Railway
Company of Utica, which on a continuous
trip of 1,994 miles travelled through five
states to Louisville, Kentucky, and returned
in fourteen days. The actual running time
of the car was 75 hours and 56 minutes
and the car maintained an average speed of
38 miles an hour which the schedule re-
quired. The car kept to its schedule
throughout the trip and not a single mishap
marred the long journey which officials of
the Oneida Railroad and citizens of Utica
Some very interesting facts regarding the
use of electricity as to its safety in coal mines
have been brought out by experiments made
by Professors Thornton and Bowden of
Armstrong College, to find out under what
conditions coal dust will be ignited by electric
flashes.
Coal in bulk or as dust is not a conductor
of electricity, but coal dust made into the
form of a paste with water, when placed on
a marble slab, affords a path sufficient to
form a dead short circuit between ter-
minals one inch apart subjected to a
pressure of 480 volts. Stones and rocks in
PARTY AND CAR THAT TRAVELED 2,000 MILES
participated in to learn something of the
railway development of the Central States.
The cities of Detroit, Indianapolis, Ft.
Wayne, Toledo, Buffalo and Syracuse were
all passed through on the long journey, and
the lines of 26 distinct electric corporations
were passed over in making the trip. At
one place where no connection existed it was
necessary for one road to lay a temporary
track over to the other to allow the car with
its passengers to be transferred to the other
line. Over all but four miles of track the
car travelled under its own power, that dis-
tance it was towed owing to a difference in
voltage to which the motors of the car were
not adapted.
The car was the regular type equipped with
four 75-horse motors and the trucks were
fitted with three-inch flanges, while the in-
side of the car was fitted with wicker seats
instead of the regular seats used in the ordi-
nary passenger service. The photograph
shows the party as it started from Utica
May 10, returning May 24.
the roof and walls of the galleries of the
mines were such good insulators that when
struck by the ends of live cables one-half
an inch apart no flashing occurred. Coal
dust deposited on live copper contacts
one and one-quarter inches apart did not
flash over at 480 volts.
Cartridge fuses are recommended and
should never be replaced by a bare wire.
Commutators should be kept clean, espe-
cially where the gap between live copper and
the frame is small.
When an alternating current cable was
broken it was found that the voltage neces-
sary to ignite the dust was much higher than
on a direct current conductor.
Tests of various kinds to the number of
2,200 were made, and although it is shown
that coal dust may be ignited by an elec-
tric flash and the probable conditions have
been determined, it does not follow that the
use of electricity in collieries is dangerous.
On the other hand electricity is deemed
much safer than gas.
ELECTRIC CURRENT ATWORK
NEW DEVICES FOR APPLYING ELECTRICITY
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Feeding a Trip-hammer
If you ever have visited a steel mill and
watched the ponderous power hammer forge
a billet of steel weighing, perhaps, 20 or
30 tons, you have thrilled at the sight of the
operation. Almost irresistible power seems
to be represented in the rapid strokes of the
devised to do the work electrically and save
expense and labor.
In the picture a 25-ton jib crane is shown
with the electric billet-rotating device in-
stalled. Only a small section of the billet
is shown, as in actual practice it is much
longer, and balancing tongs are attached to
each end. The wheel and the chain which
HOW THE BILLET OF STEEL IS ROTATED BY MOTOR
hammer, which itself weighs tons and tons.
The billet, white hot and dazzling, is hung
by the middle from a crane and is quite
deftly rolled by the men so as always to
present a new surface to the -timer and
eventually secure a nearly roun ± lorm. But
many men are required to perform this job
of feeding the hammer, so a way has been
surrounds the billet may be turned in either
direction, thus rotating the mass of steel
as you would roll a lead pencil between your
fingers. The motive power lies in the little
motor shown in the angle of the crane, a
long shaft and gearing transmitting the power
to the wheel and chain which roll the billet
over and over.
326
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Prevention of Mine Disasters
When fire breaks out in a mine, when an
explosion occurs, or any other circumstance
arises which may endanger the lives of all
of the men in the mine, some way must be
provided to warn the miners in all the work-
had been done," would have prevented a
horror.
A new system of signaling for mines has
recently been developed by ■ the Western
Electric Company, complying fully with the
laws of Illinois and other states regulating
the use of telephones and emergency sig-
naling systems. This set is
simple and consists of a magnet
generator — a little dynamo simi-
lar in principle to the generator
or magneto used in some tele-
phone systems for calling " cen-
tral"— the necessary wire and
a large number of electric gongs
or bells distributed throughout
the mine.
The generator, which is oper-
ated by a hand crank will
operate 60 eight-inch gongs over
an eight-mile line. It must be
0mm. se'lls^ .:
■ ».. \
u m
MINE SIGNAL SET
©ISNAL BEU5
GWW6THE «L«Rft
ILLUSTRATING THE ADVANTAGES OF THE MINE SIGNAL SYSTEM
ings of the danger which is present — some
system independent of all others, protected
against the elements in every conceivable
way and to be used only in cases of emer-
gency. When such a system is not provided
and lives are lost there is one more terrible
"If1' added to the things which, "if they
absolutely in working order at all times, so
note the precautions taken to protect it.
Each generator is arranged in an iron box
provided with a padlock, ordinarily to be
kept locked. To protect the generator when
the outer door of the box is opened, a steel
cover is fastened over the opening of the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
327
box and in front of the generator. This
cover removes the possibility of any part of
the clothing of the party operating the gen-
erator being caught in the generator wheels,
and also protects the generator from in-
terference by other foreign substances which
might collect should it be exposed while
the door is open.
A compartment in the front of the door
of the box equipped with a glass front is
provided for the key to the set. It is the
intention that a key to the set shall always
be kept in this compartment and that this
key will be used only in cases of emergency,
when anyone may break the glass front and
obtain the key to open the set. This com-
partment is made air-tight so that it will
be impossible for dust to get inside and hide
the key from view. The back of this com-
partment is painted white so as to make
the key more noticeable.
It is also intended that the foreman or
man in charge of the mine shall be provided
with an extra key to enable him to open the
box under ordinary conditions in the mine
when it is desirable to operate the generator
for fire or emergency call drill.
Every precaution against water following
the line wires into the case of the signaling
set is taken. A curved inlet at the top pro-
vides an entrance which removes the pos-
sibility of water flowing along the line wires
and into the set.
The emergency signal bell used with the
generators consists of a non-sparking bell
provided with two eight-inch steel gongs
mounted upon a wooden or steel backboard
and having a protecting canopy. The
gongs are hot galvanized and have an espe-
cially loud and clear tone. All parts, in-
cluding the windings, are especially treated
to stand conditions of mining atmosphere.
In the Modern Village Smithy
Many an awkward piece of repair work
falls to the lot of the blacksmith, work that
requires the tool to be brought to it rather
than the work to the tool. Particularly
there are a great many holes to be drilled
in unmanageable parts which cannot be
held on the ordinary drill press. Then it is
ordinarily the case for the smith to bring
into play the "iron-band" muscles for which
he is justly renowned and laboriously drill
the holes with a breast drill. But even in
AT WORK IN THE MODERN VILLAGE SMITHY
328
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the blacksmith shop electrically driven tools
are driving out the old methods wherever
day current is available, and one of these
tools is the electric drill which runs from a
lamp socket.
In the example here illustrated the smith
is fitting a steel strap to the under side of
a thill. He has probably already drilled
one or two holes in the strap, but wants
to use it as a pattern to drill the rest
through both wood and steel. If he were
to do the job on a drill press a helper
would be required to hold the awkward
thing. With the electric drill it is a simple
and quick process.
Electric Scrubbing Machine
Up-to-date building managers will be
interested in the machine here shown for
scrubbing floors by electric power. It
weighs only 50 pounds and derives the cur-
rent which propels the brushes from a long
flexible cord attached to the nearest lamp
socket.
The revolving brushes are driven by a
little vertical motor as shown and surround-
ing them is a ring which carries the water
along with the machine, eliminating the
necessity of mopping up. Varnish, paint
and stains may be removed by the use of a
steel brush and chemicals. Then sand-
paper surfacers may be attached to the
machine in place of the brushes and the
floor finished smooth for filling and polish-
ing.
Egg Beater and Cake Machine
Electrical energy transferred to angel
cake by means of a motor driven egg beater
and cake machine is said to make possible
ELECTRIC SCRUBBING MACHINE
EGG BEATER AND CAKE MACHINE
nine cakes where only seven can be made
from the same material beaten by hand,
such are bakery statistics.
Material for cream puffs, lady fingers, etc.,
when electrically prepared results in a
greater number of these dainties than when
hand beaten. The machine, which is used
in bakeries, may be run fast or slow and is
provided with several different kinds of
beaters shown in the picture. The large
bowl holds 50 quarts and the small one 25
quarts. The various kinds of beaters or
paddles will serve for almost any kind of
dous;h.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
329
Ingenious Arc Lamp Pole-top
When arc lamps are supported directly
over the tops of poles by fixtures known in
practice as poletops, it is customary for the
trimmer to climb either the pole itself or
a ladder leaned against the same when he
goes to recarbon the lamp. This is ob-
jectionable not only because of the danger,
in windy weather but also because a man
steadying himself on a pole or ladder cannot
use his hands to the best advantage. To
overcome these drawbacks an ingenious
type of poletop is being introduced in Eng-
land, in which the lamp is hung from an in-
verted stirrup pivoted within the poletop
proper. Paying out a wire rope (which
runs down one side of the pole) allows the
stirrup to swing the lamp several feet out
from the pole and to then lower the lamp
so that it can be trimmed by a man standing
on the ground. On lowering the lamp it is
automatically disconnected from the cir-
Taxes and Cigar Lighters
One of the curious effects of the heavy
taxes which Germany must levy to support
its enormous army and navy, is shown in
the widespread introduction of electric cigar
lighters. The recent increase in the tax
on matches
makes their
use almost pro-
hibitive in cost
for cigar stands
or restaurants
where many
light their
pipes or cigars.
Where a lighting circuit is available, the
electric cigar lighters of types familiar also in
this country serve the purpose admirably.
But in the scattered country inns, which the
electric current has not yet reached, the
GERMAN CIGAR LIGHTER
ARC LAMP POLE TOP
cuit but is switched into it again when the
lamp is returned to its normal position by
pulling the rope taut.
problem is more puzzling and a variety of
semi-electric types have been evolved.
Here is one consisting of a little gasoline
torch (or rather benzine torch, that being the
liquid preferred on the Continent) hung from
a box which contains a battery and an in-
duction coil. The user lifts the torch off
the hooks, raises the hinged lid with his
thumb and lights the torch with a spark
from the coil. According to the manufac-
turer's estimate, each filling with benzine
lasts a week and the battery outlasts the
equivalent of over 100,000 matches. To
some of us who expect electricity to supplant
rather than supplement such dangerous
fluids as gasoline or benzine, this combina-
tion seems curious.
An Electric Curfew Wink
According to reports from Cape Town,
the electric light company in this important
South African city makes a regular evening
practice of switching the electric lights off
each circuit for an instant and switching
them on again, in place of the former ringing
of a bell or blowing of a whistle. If this
practice extends to other lands will we have
to revise the classic recitation which each
school class in succession perpetrates upon
us, so as to have it read: "Curfew shall not
wink tonight?"
FORPMCTICAL ELECTRICALWORKERS
//OW TO MAKE AND OPERATE ELECTWCAL DEV/CES
Locating Flaws in Cables
The tremendously high cost of laying a
submarine cable, of repairing it after it has
been laid, or indeed of even locating a faulty
spot in a finished but unlaid cable, make it
essential that every strand comprising the
cable should be thoroughly inspected before
the assembling. This can be done with
fair rapidity by passing each strand (with
its gutta-percha covering) between the
screen of an X-ray tube and the tube itself.
In the apparatus pictured, the strand to be
tested runs over guide wheels on the support
for the screen and tube, while the induction
coil, rotary interrupter, rheostat, fuses and
switch are all contained in the cabinet on
which these are mounted. With such an
outfit even a rapid inspection of the insulated
strand will detect any flaw present in either
the copper core or the gutta percha covering,
so that any such fault can be remedied before
the strands are twisted into a joint cable.
Making a Hole in Glass
It is stated that a hole may be made in
thin glass by pressing upon the glass a
disk of wet clay. Make a hole through this
clay the size of the hole desired in the glass,
being sure the glass is clean and bare. Now
pour molten lead into the hole and the lead
and glass will drop through at once. The
quick heating of the glass at one point
causes a circular crack to form, the outline
of which corresponds to the hole made in
the clay.
LOCATING FLAWS IN CABLE BY X-RAYS
Plain English or Symbols — Which?
To more clearly realize what it means to
have a magazine devoted to as technical a
subject as electricity and yet written in
" plain English," our readers should turn
to the opening pages of one of the standard
works on dynamo designing, Wiener's
book on the " Practical Calculation of Dy-
namo Electric Machines."
In this volume the author
prides himself on adhering
strictly to standard nota-
tions as adopted by elec-
trical congresses to design-
ate certain common phases
of electrical construction
and calculation, and pre-
faces his fine work by giv-
ing a list of these symbols
— there are 348 of them
altogether.
Truly the reader who
is not scared out by this
list (which occupies 12
whole pages) has the
making of an electrical
mathematician in him, but
most of us will prefer to
do our reading on these
themes in just plain, un-
symbolic, United States
English and let it go at
that.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
331
Fastening Up Insulators
There are various kinds of brackets and
supports for fastening insulators to brick
walls. Some stay up for a long time, others
pull out very readily, some are easily installed
HOLES ARE
DRILLED INTO
BRICK IN ONE
MINUTE WITH A
SPECIAL DRILL
and others are put up only after a great deal
of labor. How the all-steel bracket of
Hubbard and Company is put up and how
well it holds is here illustrated in a graphic
manner. The bracket itself is made entirely
of metal, and a special tool is used for drill-
ing a hole rapidly in brick or mortar and
then forcing the expansion bolt in place.
THE REVERSE END OF THE HAMMER-DRIVE
IS A HOLLOW PUNCH WHICH SLIPS OVER
THE BOLT. FIVE BLOWS OF THE SLIDING
HAMMER DRIVE IT HOME
THE BOLTS ARE INSERTED HEAD FIRST
THE BRACKET FASTENED WITH TWO BOLTS
IMBEDDED ONE INCH HOLDS A 172-POUND
MAN THUS
332
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Protecting the Lineman
Even if the wires were all "dead," most
people would call it a ticklish job to work
around among the wires at the top of a
pole, which may be anywhere from 30 to
60 feet above the ground. Now multiply
the danger fourfold by presuming several of
the wires to be carrying high-tension current
under a pressure of several thousand volts;
you wouldn't care for it, you say. Yet the
lineman must frequently encounter this
"live" work, as he calls
it, and he must be
given credit for great
precision of movement
and no small degree
of personal courage
when he performs
these precarious duties.
Touching two wires
of widely different po-
tential may cause him
to crumple up and
go hurtling to the
ground, or else he may
fall across other high
potential wires in the
maze which surrounds
him.
To protect the line-
man against such ac-
cidents a device known
as the "linemen's
shield" is now made,
a product of the
Linemen Protector
Company of Detroit,
Mich. It is made of
rubber and is about
the size of an auto-
mobile tire, terminating
at each end in two
small tubes. It is hol-
low, of course, and is
slit all the way along
one side so that it can
be opened out and
slipped down over a
wire. At the shoulder
between the small tube
and the body tube is
a hard rubber ring
which fits closely
around the small tube
and clamps it upon
the wire. This ring
nas a slot * so located as to admit the
wire.
The rubber is pure Para and varies in
thickness from | inch, where it is subjected
to pressure, to 3-16 inch along the flaps.
Each shield is subjected, before it leaves the
factory, to a pressure of 30,000 volts, so after
putting shields over the live wires the line-
man need have no fear of accidental shock.
He can also throw the shields, spread out,
over the cross arms, to sit or stand upon.
Then, as he works upon a wire, current can-
LINEMEN AT WORK PROTECTED BY SHIELDS
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
333
not pass through his body to the ground by
way of the pole.
In trimming or repairing arc lamps there is
also danger of shock, so the lamp man may take
one of the shields along with him on his rounds
Safe Temperatures for Dynamos
The metallic parts of a dynamo can stand
a high running temperature without danger,
only being limited to the temperature that
can affect the insulating materials
which are near these parts.
The temperature of the con-
ductors is also limited by the tem-
perature of the insulating material.
It seems reasonable to establish
as limit of temperature of the
windings for a continuous indefi-
nite run the temperature at which
the cotton lining would fail, or
about 2i2° F., but as the exact
temperature at any moment can-
not be exactly determined it is
safe not to exceed 1900 F. or
2000 F.
For the commutator or collect-
ing rings the temperature limit
is fixed more by mechanical than
dielectric reason. In order to keep
the soldering of the joints in good
condition the maximum allowable
temperature is about 31 8° F.
But the centrifugal force and the
increase in length due to heat may
at a temperature above 2400 F. pro-
duce distortion and loss of align-
ment of the parts.
Under overload for a very short
time an increase over these tem-
USING SHIELDS IN TRIMMING ARC LAMP
and stand in it as he would in a snowshoe.
Still another application is in tunnels or
subways carrying live conductors. When the
lineman is splicing or repairing these cables
he makes use of one or more of the shields
to sit or stand upon while at his work.
peratures of 6o° F.,
or 2600 F. instead
2000 F. can be allowed.
viz., 250"
of 1900 F
F.
Aluminum and Copper Conductors
Doctor Studies Heart by Telephone
The Isle of Wight and London are one
hundred miles apart, and over this distance
Dr. Milne who lives on the Island recently
prescribed for a patient having heart trouble
in London after listening to the beating of
her heart as heard over the telephone. A
stethoscope, an instrument which every
physician has for listening to sounds in the
lungs and heart, was held over the pa-
tients' heart and attached to a specially
made telephone which magnifies the sounds
in the transmitter.
The use of aluminum wire as a conduc-
tor in some cases in place of copper usually
brings up the question as to the differences
between the two metals for this purpose.
The following table, the result of experi-
ments and calculation, gives some inter-
esting comparisons-
Aluminium. Copper.
Same resistance — Cross section. .100 60
Same conductivity — Tensile
strength 100 125 to 130
Same diameter — Weight 100 330
Some conductivity — Weight. ... 100 200
Same resistance — Cost (raw ma-
terial) 100 170
Same resistance — Cost (manu-
factured) 100 147
334
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
An Automatic Electrical Clock
A few weeks ago I was called upon to
devise a clock for use in a medical college,
notifying the classes at 10 minutes of the
hour, and calling them on the hour; the
clock was to ring an electric gong for a few
seconds each time.
Now this, in itself, was, of course, a simple
proposition; but an additional specification
German silver adjusted to make contact
with the screws (C), successively.
Now upon the outer edge of the face at
the hours of ten and twelve, (D1), (D2),
Fig. 2, I mounted springs of thin German
silver, curved inwardly to make contact
with the minute hand at the proper time;
these springs were insulated from the face
itself.
Next, I took a piece of sheet German
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DESIGN OF AN ELECTRIC CLOCK
that it should be so arranged that any hour
could be switched on or off as desired, made
the situation more complicated.
I will explain how, by the use of very little
material or apparatus, I solved the problem.
I first obtained a large wall clock with a
good sized face, some ^-inch hard rubber
sheet, German silver strip, wire, screws, etc.
Removing the face and hands I mounted
a sheet of hard rubber (A), Fig. i, upon the
frame of the works with screws and washers
as shown, so that it was removed from the
frame about \ inch. Circularly disposed
about the spindle carrying the hands I placed
brass screws (C), Fig. i, with the heads be-
hind the hard rubber and projecting just
through the surface of the front. Attached
to the sleeve which carries the hour hand
I made an arm of sheet brass (B), Fig. i
upon which was riveted a thin brush of
silver and cut it like (G), Fig, 3, and screwed
it to the bottom projecting shelf over which
the door is mounted (although it may be
mounted at any other convenient and ac-
cessible place) ; the ends of each of the pro-
jecting strips were formed into a hook as
shown. Twelve German silver springs (H),
Fig. 3, engaged the hooks at right angles;
these springs are made to be disengaged
at will.
A cable (J) connects the springs (H),
Fig. 3, with contacts (C), Fig. 1, better shown
in Fig. 4.
Fig. 5 shows a diagram of the circuit of
the complete apparatus with the battery
and night switch connected to binding posts
which are upon the clock.
The. arm (B), Fig. 1, must be mounted
sliglitly in advance of the hour hand and in
a manner that it may make contact with
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
335
the screws (C), Fig. i, before the minute
hand reaches 10 minutes of the hour, and
break contact after the minute hand has
passed the hour; also the pressure of the
brush upon the contacts must not be enough
to retard the movement of the hands.
The springs (D1) and (D2), Fig, 2, should,
of course, slant in the direction the hand
moves; the length of each call may be gov-
erned by the distance the spring projects
toward the sweep of the hand; my adjust-
ment was 15 seconds.
When completed, this clock was imme-
diately put in service, and I have yet to hear
complaint of it failing to perform the duty
assigned it. L. D. Surles
Fireproofing Wood Electrically
The general difficulty in fireproofing
wood (or for that matter, almost any other
combustible material) has not been that
of finding a suitable material for the pur-
FIREPROOFING TANK
pose. Quite a variety of mineral salts
can be used for this purpose, including some
inexpensive ones like alum or borax, but
the puzzle has been how to saturate the wood
thoroughly with these salts. Painting it
with a solution of such chemicals will only
fireproof the outer layer, as the sap in the
wood will not let any solution penetrate
far unless it has first been removed.
This removing of the sap and the replacing
of it by a fireproofing solution can be done
electrically in a very simple manner as shown
in the cut. The wood to be treated is placed
on a lead plate connected to the positive
pole of an ordinary electroplating dynamo
while a similar negative plate is suspended
over it, the whole being immersed in a
reservoir containing a solution of borax.
When the current is turned on, the sap rises
towards the negative plate and the fireproof-
ing solution gradually takes its place. A
little resin and carbonate of soda are said to
make the borax solution more effective, but
other solutions can be used in the same way.
Non-explosive Welders
In trying to develop a new type of elec-
tric battery some years ago, one of our regu-
lar contributors had the discouraging ex-
perience of repeatedly having his experi-
mental battery explode. On counseling
with one of the most eminent chemists in
the country he was assured that his reasoning
out of the chemical reactions was correct
and that the mishaps could be explained
only by impurities in the chemicals. Un-
fortunately even the so-called chemically
pure chemicals then available on the market
had just enough of the obnoxious impuri-
ties to cause havoc, and as the proposed
battery was to be supplied with lower priced
(and hence still less pure) chemicals, its
practicability was out of the question.
Very similar to this seems to be the ex-
perience of many who lave used acetylene
gas and its products for the welding and
hot cutting of metals. Even in Germany
where chemical progress is at its highest,
the explosions of acetylene welding devices
have been continuing with truly shocking
frequency. Recently the causes of these
explosions have been discussed in a treatise
issued by a prominent acetylene engineer
of Vienna, who has analyzed the supposed
protective arrangements of the ten different
types of acetylene welding apparatus and
who frankly reports that not one of the ten
can be depended upon to avoid explosions.
If the German and the Austrian mind took
less kindly to the complexities of chemical
reactions and more so to the simplicities of
electrical devices, these costly and sometimes
fatal explosions would undoubtedly have
been avoided. As it is, continental Europe
has merely been showing the rest of the world
what not to use in the way of welding devices,
while the electrical welders which originated
in the United States are steadily finding a
wider market even among European manu-
facturers. For where is the man with keen
business judgment who will not appreciate
the greater convenience of the electric weld-
ing devices as well as their entire freedom
from danger.
336
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Mail Box Alarm
Our mail box is situated almost a city
block distant from the house, and this
necessitated rigging up some kind of an
alarm, or detector, in order that we might
be informed when mail was left by the mail
carrier. So I made a good-sized wooden
mail box, and, through the medium of a
cheap electric bell, we are notified when
mail is put in the box. The lid of the box
is arranged to open as shown in Figs, i and
2, opening partly on top and partly on the
front. Two pieces (BB), Fig. 2, are at-
tached to the lid to strengthen it, and fit
just inside the box when closed (see c, c,
Fig. 4.) Fig. 3 shows two pieces of spring
brass, attached to a wooden strip, insulated
from each other, and this arrangement is
screwed inside the mail box so that, when
the lid is down, one of the pieces (B) will
Two cells of dry batteries ring the bell
loudly when the lid of the box is opened
only J inch. I placed a switch near the bell
to cut it out in case the carrier should put
magazines, long papers, etc., in the box,
thus holding the lid open far enough to
allow the contacts to close the circuit. Other
modifications of this arrangement can easily
be made.
Herbert C. Sugg.
Magnetic Lathe Chucks
A
//^^
1 /wK^
/ \j
\ f '■
/% '■
a
1
-N^V^
Fig. 2
MAIL BOX ALARM
enter between the brass strips, separating
them; when the lid is raised \ inch, the piece
(B) rising with the lid, slips from between
the strips and allows them to come together,
forming a contact.
A piece of incandescent lamp cord is
finally run through a hole in the box, and
one part is attached to each brass strip;
the other end is spliced to two wires leading
to the house, where they are attached to the
bell and batteries in the same way that any
electric bell system is connected for operation.
A stop prevents the lid from opening too
far, and a small spring on the stop makes
the lid fall down. On the under side of the
lid, (I), a weight is fastened to help make
the lid close.
Every one familiar with metal working
lathes knows that a considerable part of
the lathe hand's time is consumed in "set-
ting up," and that the time required to ad-
just the tool is small as compared with that
needed for properly clamping the material
which is to be worked. With pieces of
some shapes it even takes
longer to clamp the piece in
the properly central position
than it does to take a cut off
it afterwards, and if a piece
is to be faced off on both
ends it often is a hard mat-
ter to chuck the piece so that
both ends will be exactly
parallel. Now in general
shop practice probably 95
per cent of the metal pieces
that need such turning are
of iron or steel, hence it
is surprising that magnetic
means have not been exten-
sively used for holding these
pieces in position.
The principle of a mag-
netic lathe chuck would seem simple
enough, for if we grip a powerful horse-
shoe magnet in the chuck of a lathe it
will hold its armature so firmly that a
light cut could no doubt be taken off the
latter.
To apply this principle in ordinary shop
practice all we need is a strong electro-
magnet mounted in place of the usual chuck
and so designed that the piece to be held
will form its armature. This is done quite
effectively by making one pole of the magnet
in the shape of a star, with the prongs of the
star fitted into suitable recesses in the shell
which forms the other pole. Then the
magnetizing coil or coils can be wound in a
groove in this outer shell.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
337
Insulating Materials
PAPER
Paper is used very largely in electrical work
in the form of common paper and pressed
board. To render it impervious to humidity
'it is very frequently impregnated with par-
affine or other hydrocarbons. Its dielectric
power decreases with an increase in the
pressure to which it is subjected.
The best insulating value is given by good
manilla paper disposed in well spread
sheets. It must be dried in vacuum before
using and the impregnating mixture is to
be neither too hard nor too fragile. If too
hard the paper would break when first
bent — if too fragile it would end by complete-
ly pulverizing.
Paper covered cables, lead sheathed, are
more homogeneous than those covered by
rubber and are more easily manufactured.
But the dielectric resistance of India rubber
is greater than that of paper, making paper
covered cables larger and heavier for the
same insulating capacity. The paper insula-
tion, moreover, is destroyed with the lead
covering and so paper covered cables can-
not be used where there is any electrolytic
effect on the line. Their greatest use is in
telephone work.
CELLULOID
This material is made up of a mixture of
camphor end gun cotton and is a very good
insulator. When they first began making
celluloid it would burn very rapidly when
its temperature reached 284° F. By means
of a process involving the use of alcohol,
ether and a ferric salt it has been rendered
incombustible. Before the introduction of
this process the manufacture of celluloid was
very dangerous on account of the explosive
character of the gun cotton. The old time
celluloid, itself, was a dangerous thing to
handle as it would burst into flame with
almost explosive violence. It is used es-
pecially in the manufacture of storage
batteries and dry battery cells.
RESINS
Different kinds of resins are used in the
manufacturing of insulating varnishes for
the insulation of spools and wires of electrical
apparatus. Their insulating power is quite
high, moreover they afford mechanical protec-
tion to the inner layers of wires in the spools.
(a) Yellow wax mixed with white wax (in
the proportion of 10 to 1) is used for tele-
graph apparatus spools. The unwound
spools are subjected for five hours to a dry
temperature of 2120 F. and are then dipped in
the mixture which is kept at a temperature of
350° to 3750 F. The mixture is left to cool
gradually and the spool is withdrawn only
when the mixture begins to coagulate. After
withdrawing the spool is heated up again to
eliminate the excess of insulating material,
and then wound. After winding the spool
the immersion process is repeated at least
three times.
(b) To increase the inner insulating resist-
ance of electro-magnets and galvanometer
spools a red varnish made up of sealing-wax
dissolved in alcohol at 1040 F. is used. This
varnish is spread on the spool cold. To
apply a second layer wait till the first one is
dry. In practice it is better to apply several
thin layers than few thick ones. Sealing
wax is also used in the composition of insu-
lating cements for storage battery and simi-
lar work.
BITUMINOUS SUBSTANCES
Among those the most important bitumin-
ous substances are tar, bitumen, and pitch.
(a) Clark's mixture, which is used to
insulate underground cables, is made up of
65 parts of mineral pitch, 30 parts of silicon
and five parts of tar. This mixture is ap-
plied to the cable together with rough hemp
in the proportion of one part of hemp to two
of the mixture.
(b) The bitumen used in electrical work is
largely vulcanized. Used for electrical cables,
it contains from five to 20 per cent of sulphur,
For junction boxes and other applications
bitumen is mixed with chalk or potter's clay
to obtain an economical filling material. Its
insulating power is not very high; so it is
used for low tension work only.
(c) Dialite is a mixture the basis of which
is tar. Cables protected by this insulating
material are not subjected to electrolytic
effects or to humidity. It does not fuse under
overload and can be very easily twisted
without cracking. Moreover its cost is very
low.
These substances are used principally in
connection with the Edison system of under-
ground conduits. In this the cable is drawn
into an iron pipe and the space between the
cable and the inner surface of the pipe is
filled up with tar. When the iron pipe falls
away by getting rusty the tar is the only pro-
tection left to the cable.
Electrical Men of the Times
FRANK J. SPRAGUE
Frank Julian Sprague has been called
"the father of the electric railway." As his
portrait shows (and it is a recent one), he
is still in the prime of vigorous manhood,
so that his offspring must be correspondingly
youthful. In truth, it is difficult to realize
that the great electric-railway industry of
the United States, with its 40,000 miles of
track and cash investment of over $3,000,-
000,000, has come into existence within the
last twenty-two years.
Mr. Sprague is not
to be described as the
inventor of the electric
railway. Many men,
both in this country
and Europe, have con-
tributed to the devel-
opment of this means
of transportation as we
know it today. Like
most great inventions,
it is a composite, the
first name on the list
being Thomas Daven-
port, a Yankee black-
smith, who exhibited
a toy motor, mounted
on wheels, operated
by a primary battery,
in Brandon, Vermont,
in 1834. Later David-
son in Scotland,
Farmer, Page, Stephen
D. Field, Edison, Van
Depoele, Daft and
Short in the United States, and Siemens in
Germany contributed materially to the
development of the invention. But it was
Sprague, more than any other man, who
brought the thing to pass, and by general
consent the electric street railway put into
operation by him in Richmond, Va., in 1888,
stands as the pioneer road of the modern
commercial electric -railway industry.
But the merest outline of Mr. Sprague's
career can be attempted on this page. He
was born in Milford, Conn., July 25, 1857.
He graduated from the United States Naval
Academy at Annapolis in 1878, and for a
few years was a naval officer. He early
manifested an interest in electricity and
developed strong inventive faculties. He
resigned from the navy to become an as-
sistant to Edison, but a year later he, with
others, organized the Sprague Electric
Railway and Motor Company and began
the development of electric motors. In 1882
he applied for his first patent, and it was
his company that later
took the contract for
equipping the Rich-
mond road, which was
accomplished, after
overcoming extraordi-
nary difficulties, in
1888. Within six
years five-sixths of the
existing horse-car lines
in the country had
been converted into
electric lines.
Mr. Sprague has
been prominent in de-
signing various forms
of electric elevators
and also large electric
locomotives. One of
the most important
of his inventions is the
multiple- unit system
of train operation, now
in universal use in
heavy electric rail-
roading where indi-
vidually equipped cars are combined into
trains.
We also find his name among the
members of the commission which carried
out the monumental work of electrifying
the New York city terminal of the New York
Central Railroad. He is a past-president
of the American Institute of Electrical En-
gineers and is a member of several other
engineering societies. He has received many
medals, and honors have been bestowed upon
him in recognition of his work. His home
is in New York City.
EIECTRICITY IN THE
HOUSEHOLD
Sweets for the Sweet
By LAURA M. WARREN
Judith Hamilton had put the finishing
touches to her tea table, taking special care
to have it look very inviting to the hungry
man who would soon be at home. She felt
particularly happy this evening, as it was
their first wedding anniversary and she
wondered if Robert had remembered, for
she knew that as a rule men are so forgetful
about the little things that mean so much to
a woman ; but then the thought came to her
that Robert was not like other men. She
had said nothing about it in the morning
as he bade her good-by, but all through the
day had gone about her work with a light
heart, singing snatches of the opera they had
attended the night before. Taking a last
survey of the room and giving her maid
final directions about serving dinner prompt-
ly at 6:30, she ran upstairs to finish dressing.
She had just completed her toilet and caught
up a few stray locks of her golden hair with
the new comb Robert had given her the
week before for her birthday, when she
heard his latch key and hastened down stairs
to greet him as he was hanging up his hat
and coat on the rack. She saw a package
lying on the hall table, but at the time thought
nothing about it.
" How beautiful you look tonight, my
darling!" exclaimed Robert as he kissed
the smiling face held up to him. "Even
more beautiful than you did a year ago."
" Oh, Robert, then you did remember that
today is a special one for us!"
" Of course I did, sweetheart, and I
have brought you something which I think
will be fitting for the occasion, but you are
riot to open it until after we have had din-
ner, as I am sure when you find out wnat it
is you will not rest until you have tried it."
"Then, Robert, do let us hurry, for I
can hardly wait!"
As soon as they had finished eating the
maid brought in the precious bundle and
with eager fingers Mrs. Hamilton undid the
wrappings, while her husband watched her
flushed, happy face with a glad light in his
eyes.
At last, his gift — an electric chafing dish
— stood before her in all its beauty.
"Oh, Robert!" she cried, jumping up
and putting her arms around his neck,
"You are the dearest man that ever lived!
It was only last week that I was downtown
and saw a woman demonstrating this very
thing and I wanted one so much."
"And do you know, little woman, I
happened into the store just at that time,
in search of something that would please
you, and when I saw you so interested in
what the demonstrator was doing, the
thought came to me that an electric chafing
dish would be the very thing, so I stepped
around to another counter until you had
gone, and then went back and bought this."
"I am so glad that you did, Robert, and
we will try it this very night, for some of
the girls have promised to run in this even-
ing, as they want me to show them how to
make some candy to sell at the bazaar
they are going to have on Saturday night.
I was thinking this afternoon how hot it
would be in the kitchen working over the
stove, but now we can just attach the plug
to the lamp socket above the table here and
make our candy where it is comfortable,"
340
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Shortly after eight o'clock the bell rang
and in came four laughing girls, looking
cool and sweet in their light summer frocks.
Mrs. Hamilton met them with a cordial
smile, telling them how pleased she was
to have them come.
"Judith, dear," said Polly, a plump little
lassie, the youngest of the four, "We put
on the very thinnest dresses we had, for
we expect to roast over the hot fire."
"Well, girlie," replied Judith, "I am
going to give you a pleasant surprise," and
she led the way into
the dining room and
showed them her new
chafing dish.
The girls danced
around the table with
wild exclamations
of delight, eager to
try ' making candy
by electricity.
"Let us begin by
making molasses
candy!" suggested
Ruth, "and I think
Kathleen should
make it as she always
has such good luck."
"All right, "replied
Kathleen, ' 'and while
it is getting cool
enough to pull get
Judith to make some
of her maple fudge
with the candied
cherries."
"Oh goodie!"
cried Polly, clapping
her hands, ' 'and after
that, if it is not too
late, we will have
Betty make some of those delicious choco-
late caramels that she had the last time
we were at her house."
"Very well," replied Betty, "that will
make three kinds, which ought to be enough
with what the other girls are going to make."
"Now, Kathleen, it is your turn to begin
first with the molasses candy."
"All right," said Kathleen, "I will begin by
putting in the chafing dish two cups of molas-
ses, two cups of brown sugar, two tablespoons
of vinegar and a piece of butter the size of a
large egg; then turn on the current and let
the mixture boil (without stirring) until it
hardens when dropped into cold water."
She Saw a Package Lying on the Hall Table
When it had boiled sufficiently, Kathleen
stirred in a heaping teaspoon of baking soda
and poured the candy on buttered tins to
cool, and Ruth and Jane began cutting
up oiled paper into pieceslarge enough to wrap
the candy in after it was pulled and cut up.
"Don't forget, girls," said Kathleen,
"that when you begin to pull the candy
you must rub a little butter on your hands
to keep it from sticking to them."
After the chafing dish was washed, Judith
began to make her fudge.
"I think I will
make a large pan of
this," she said, "as
Robert is very fond
of it and is sure to
buy some, especially
if it is made by elec-
tricity, just to see if
it hasn't a better
flavor."
"Oh Judith '."cried
Polly, "you didn't tell
us what you put into
your fudge."
"Well!" said Ju-
dith, "I put in two
cups of white sugar,
two cups of light
brown sugar, a cup
and a half of maple
syrup and a cup and
a half of milk. Let
it boil, stirring con-
stantly, until a little
dropped into cold
water makes a soft
ball that you can pick
up with your fingers;
just before you take
it off put in a piece
of butter the size of a small egg, and a tea-
spoon of vanilla. Remove the candy and
beat it for two or three minutes, then add
one-fourth of a pound of candied cherries
that have been cut up in small pieces, and
continue to beat until the candy begins to
get thick, but not too thick to pour smoothly
into buttered tins. Mark in squares."
By the time the fudge was done the mo-
lasses candy was ready to pull, and when it
was cut and wrapped up, the girls thought
it was time to go home.
"But Betty!" cried Ruth, "won't you tell
us how to make the caramels?"
"I surely will," replied Betty, "and you
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
341
may write it down. I was wondering, Judith
dear, if it would be asking too much of you
to let me come over in the morning and make
•''he caramels in your chafing dish. It is baking
day at home and mother does not like me in
the kitchen when she is busy. Besides, I want
to make the candy in the chafng dish as
I intend to ask father to get me one."
"Come by all means, Betty, I should be
glad to have you, and you may make the
candy here in the dining room where you
will not be at all in the way."
"That is so good of you, Judith, I want
the caramels to be just right and sometimes
when I make them on the stove they burn."
"Well, girls, I see you are waiting for
the recipe, so here it is:
"Two cups of white sugar, two cups of
Karo syrup, one-half cup of milk, a piece
of butter the size of a large egg, one cup of
grated chocolate; boil until it stiffens in
cold water and pour into buttered tins.
Better wrap the caramels in waxed paper
as the weather is warm."
The girls then packed their candy into
boxes, and telling their hostess how much
they had enjoyed themselves and that they
had never kept so cool before when making
candy, started for their respective homes,
singing the praises of the electric chafing
dish.
"Oh Robert!" said Judith, as she closed
the door after the girls, "I am so delighted
with your beautiful gift. I never really liked
to make candy before. I am going to cook
all kinds of dainty dishes for you this sum-
mer."
" I am very glad you like it, dear. It does
seem very convenient and makes no dirt
at all and is much safer than the chafing
dishes with vvhich you have to use the alco-
hol flame."
WORK "WELL BEGUN, HALF DONE"
Following the tendency of the business
world the housewife of today is seeking as
far as possible to eliminate the necessity of
labor and the waste of time attendant upon
the older-day methods of housekeeping, and
in accomplishing this she has no better helper
than electricity. Breakfast is usually one
of the lightest meals of the day and in having
it quickly prepared without unnecessary
labor the electric cookers stand first.
Eggs are a common American breakfast
dish but require a hot fire in the cookstove.
With electricity in the house just push the
button and directly the heat is where needed
without waiting.
Put up your windows and let in the fresh
morning air for there is no flame to blow out.
If one of those hot sultry mornings comes
along just run the extension cord out the
window and have breakfast on the porch, for
your cooker is portable. With breakfast
over there is little work to cleaning cooking
utensils, the kitchen is cool for the day and
as a good Irish cook once said "When you
smell a stove that doesn't smell, that's
electric."
342
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The Truth About Current Cost
A great many people have been misin-
formed regarding the cost of current for
operating certain household devices. Often
the questions are asked: "Why don't you
use a vacuum cleaner?" or "Why don't
you buy a vibrator?" In many instances
the reply is: " Oh, it costs so much for cur-
rent," or "I've been told they fairly eat up
electricity."
Now such answers are wrong. Here are
the actual figures. Five manufacturers of
vacuum cleaners list the watts consumed by
their household machines as follows: 250,
220, 210, 250, 225. The average is 230
witts, or make it 250 watts for good measure.
Two hundred and fifty watts equals exactly
one-fourth of a kilowatt. When you buy
current from the electric company you pay
by the kilowatt hour, that is the way your
meter measures it. Prices of course vary in
different cities, but 12 cents is considered a
good average price for a kilowatt hour.
Therefore, when any one tries to tell you
that current for a vacuum cleaner costs
frightfully and that your meter is going to
"just whizz around," just remember that
it is in reality not going to cost you over
three cents an hour — pretty cheap when you
consider the nice clean rugs and curtains
that result.
It is the same with the vibrator. Two of
the best makers list their vibrators as con-
suming 90 watts and 50 watts respectively.
Well go the highest one 10 watts better and
call it an even hundred. That is one-tenth
of a kilowatt and if the vibrator were to run
an hour it would consume one-tenth of a
kilowatt hour or 1.2 cents. Ordinarily you
would not care to use a vibrator more than
15 minutes, which means .3 of a cent's
worth cf current for a nice massage — not so
scandalously extravagant.
The Kitchen Stove
When we buy a ten of coal to supply the
kitchen stove, it is quite doubtful if we con-
sider just hew much of the heat in the coal
is actually used. The best cook stove made
cannot keep nine -tenths of the energy from
the coal from gem^ up the chimney. Of the
one-tenth left, only about one-half is really
applied to the cooking, the rest being wasted
in making the kitchen uncomfortable, es-
pecially in summer.
While the electric kitchen in which prac-
tically all the heat goes where needed may
mean a few cents more a month, no money
goes up in smoke.
Lighting the Home
It is not often that in making a comparison
between the cost of lighting the home by
electricity and lighting it by gas or by the oil
lamp the real cost of the latter is considered.
The oil lamp and gas light smoke up the
paper and ceilings and destroy the paint.
Broken globes cost money and are not
always promptly attended to which makes
matters worse, while the item of oil cost is
usually not taken into account.
Every open lamp, gas or oil, is a consumer
of oxygen and a producer of poisonous car-
bonic acid gas, and, no doubt, many doctor
bills are traceable to air from which the life-
giving oxygen has been taken, especially in
winter when lights are most used and win-
dows kept closed.
In the present-day plans for home illumina-
tion the tint of the ceilings and walls is made
to assist in diffusing the light while the saving
brought about by the introduction of the
high efficiency lamp and the placing of
outlets where a low candle power lamp will
take the place of a higher power lamp
farther away, makes electricity the cheapest
means of lighting where light, convenience,
safety and time are considered.
JUNIOR SECTION
A Young Experimenter
Model Electric Locomotive
This is a picture of an electrical experi-
mental table and its owner Harol E. Foley,
42 Plymouth Ave., Buffalo, New York. A
1* -^
1 v\ —m
miniature electric railway, with semaphores
for signalling, an electromagnetic engine, an
induction coil, a fan motor and other inter-
esting devices are shown as making up his
outfit. Many of the devices are of his own
construction and show what a boy can do
who really makes up his mind to become an
electrical experimenter.
Although appearing to be a steam loco-
motive the miniature engine and tender in
this picture are run by electricity. It took
three months to build this outfit, which
weighs seven pounds and is 19 inches long.
The boiler, cab and tender are made of
Russian iron. The frame, wheels, domes,
journal boxes, etc., are of brass, and the
steam pipes are represented by heavy
copper wire. A 10-volt motor is placed in
the firebox and geared to the wheels under
the cab. A 2^-volt lamp is used for a head-
light, the voltage being reduced by a small
German silver resistance in series with the
light. A lever in the cab reverses, stops,
or starts the locomotive. Two wheels on
one track are insulated from the axles by
hard rubber bushings, these two wheels being
each provided with a flat steel brush con-
nected to one side of the motor. When the
batteries are connected across the rails
the current goes to the engine frame,
through the motor to the steel spring brushes
and to the wheels and back on the track on
that side to the batteries.
J. S. Couret of 830 Canal street, New
Orleans, La., had the ingenuity and patience
to carry out this novel piece of work.
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MODEL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE
An Electrical Laboratory for Twenty-Five
Dollars
By DAVID P. MORRISON
PART VIII
It no doubt would be well for us to pause
at this point and see just where we stand
financially as we were going to construct an
electrical laboratcy for $25.00. To make
an estimate of thj total cost of all the equip-
ment described in the articles up to the
present would invoke so many variables
that it would not be at all accurate. No
doubt a great many of the boys had all the
tools required when they started; perhaps
some did not have the tools but had wire
and other materials that they did not need
to purchase so that the cost of different items
to different boys will vary through wide
limits. The description of the apparatus
may have been too crude for some or not
fine enough for others, which would result in
a wide difference in cost.
Some boys may have preferred to have
certain work done by outsiders rather than
by themselves, thus adding to the cost con-
siderably. The remaining articles how-
ever will describe the construction of small
apparatus that will be quite useful about
your laboratory and its cost will be very
small as compared to the equipment you
have been building; and in the majority of
cases it will be found that out of the original
outlay, after building the essential apparatus
that has already been described, there will
be quite a few dollars left to spend upon
the odds and ends which will go to make up
the apparatus now to be described.
GALVANOMETER CONSTRUCTION
The galvanometer is an instrument for
detecting and measuring, relatively, the
current in an electrical circuit. Its opera-
tion depends upon the simple fact that there
is a magnetic field about every conductor
carrying a current, due to that current, and
the strength of this magnetic field is depend-
ent upon the value of the current in the
conductor.
To illustrate this, if you take an ordinary
compass and hold it near a wire carrying
current the needle will be deflected and tend
to set itself in a direction at right angles to
the line of the wire. The earth's magnetism
will be also pulling it in another direction
(except when the wire is in an east and
west direction) therefore the needle will
point in a direction determined by the re-
sultant or combined action of these two
forces. The amount of its deflection will
depend on the strength of the current in
the wire.
The magnetic field around a current-
carrying conductor is supposed to be in the
form of little concentric "lines of force"
whirling around the conductor. If you
look along the wire in the direction in which
the current is flowing the unseen rings will
be whirling around the wire in the direction
in which the hands of the clock move, or
clockwise. The tendency of the compass
needle is to lie in the plane of these rings.
Put the compass above the wire when the
current is flowing away from you and its
north pole will be deflected toward the right
trying to get in the path of the lines of force,
and travel with them. Reverse the current
and the little whirls will reverse in direction
and the north end of your compass needle
will be deflected to the
left.
This principle is ap-
plied in the galvanom-
eter; that is, a compass
1 1< needle, affected by a
current flowing in a
coil of wire, is made,
by the amount and di-
rection of its deflection,
to show the course and
strength of the current
in the coil. A very
good one may be made
as follows and may be
used in a locality
where the value of the
earth's magnetic field
is practically constant.
Turn from some well
seasoned close grained
fig. 79 wood a ring whose
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
345
cross section is shown in Fig. 79 and whose in-
ternal diameter is \\ inches. This ring should
be thoroughly shellaced to prevent its warping
out of shape. Cut from some f-inch hard
6^ Radius
FIG. 80
wood a piece whose dimensions correspond
to those given in Fig. 80. Cut a groove in
this piece as shown by the dotted lines so
that the wooden ring will fit into it. The
groove should be \ inch deep at its center.
Now cut another piece whose dimensions
V
r
>
1
IT
- 1" —
4
t
— l" —
— 1" —
FIG. 8l
correspond to those given in Figs. 81 and 82
that is to be used in mounting the ring upon
the base. The groove in this piece should fit
over the wooden ring and it should be cf
such a depth that the block will rest almost
upon the wooden base when it is fastened
down over the ring. This block can be
screwed to the base.
Drill three J-inch holes in the base as
indicated in Fig. 80. Now obtain a piece
of brass rod about six inches long and thread
it for its entire length, then cut it into three
pieces of equal length. Round off one end
of each of these pieces and solder the other
end into a hole in a brass washer about §
inch in diameter. These three screws can
now be forced into the three ^-inch holes in
the base and are to be used in leveling the
instrument. Three ordinary brass screws
might be used for this purpose with small
pieces of sheet brass soldered in the grooves
in their heads
and the points
rounded off.
Two binding
posts should be
mounted on
the base as
shown at (Bx)
and (B2) Fig.
80. Two J-in.
holes (Hj) and
(H2) should also be drilled in the base for
the wires to pass through from the coil.
There should be grooves cut in the under
side of the base connecting these holes with
the binding posts to place the wires in, thus
providing both electrical and mechanical
protection.
The compass needle must be mounted in
the center of your coil and it must carry a
f \
1.
'4
- ai" .
FIG.
82
FIG. 83
pointer that moves over a graduated scale.
A suitable mounting, containing case, scale
and pointer can be made as follows. Turn
from some close grained, hard wood a small
box whose dimensions correspond to those
given in Fig. 83 which shows a cross section
of the box. Turn a small wooden ring
whose dimensions correspond to those of (R).
Drill about eight small holes in this ring and
arrange to fasten it to the upper edge of the
box. Cut from some thin ^lass a circular
piece 2\ inches in diameter that is to serve as
a tcp for the box. If you are unable to
obtain the glass a small piece of clear cellu-
loid will do. It might be well to place a
ring of heavy cloth under the glass or cellu-
loid as that will prevent dust and dirt sifting
into the box.
346
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Now cut from some heavy cardboard a
ring that will fit on the step (S) and project
about |-inch beyond the inner edge. Mark
this ring off into equal divisions, each corre-
sponding to a certain number of degrees.
Considerable care should be exercised in
graduating this scale and the finer the
divisions the more accurately the deflection
can be measured. Two zero points should
be marked on the scale exactly 180 degrees
apart and the remainder of the scale lettered
o to 90 degrees in each direction from these
zero points. The scale can be fastened
in place with some shellac, or a better way
to do this is to cut from some heavy tin a
second ring the same size
as the one you cut from
the cardboard, and shellac
the cardboard ring to it.
This completed ring can
now be fastened in place
with three or four small
screws.
The magnetic needle
should be made from some
good quality steel and its
dimensions should corre-
spond to those given in
Fig. 84. The thickness of the steel should
be about 1-16 inch. Drill a 5-32 inch hole
through the center of the needle and force a
piece of brass rod into it of such a length
that it is just flush on one side and projects
about 3-16 inch on the
R
<&
L
3"
f
■1
other side. Now drill in 1
this piece of brass rod a
3-32 inch hole, with a \Z.
pointed drill, from the end $
that is flush with the sur- _
face of the needle to a
depth 1 -1 6 inch less than
the length of the rod.
Cut from some very thin
spring brass a pointer as
shown in Fig. 85. Drill
a "J- 1 6 inch hole in the fig. 85
center of this pointer so
that it will slip down over the piece of brass
rod in the needle. The needle can now be
tempered and -he pointer soldered in place,
making sure you do not overheat the needle
when soldering. The pointer and needle
should be exactly at right angles with each
other. A right angle twist can be placed in
each end of the pointer at the points (Px)
and (P,) Fig. 86, and the ends then filed to a
knife edge thus greatly increasing the ease of
reading the deflection, as there will be a
fine edge moving along the edge of the scale
instead of a blunt point.
Obtain a piece of 1-16 steel rod about
\ inch in length and put a sharp point on one
end. Drill a 1-1 6-inch hole in the end of a
piece of J-inch-brass
rod, that is threaded
its entire length and
about \ inch in
length, to a depth of
about \ inch. The
steel rod should fit
into this hole very
tightly without being
soldered. Saw a slot
in the other end of
the brass rod so that
it can be turned with
an ordinary screw
driver. Drill and thread a hole in the
center of a circular piece of J-inch brass
one inch in diameter so that the threaded
brass rod will turn rather hard in it.
Three other holes should be drilled near
the outer edge of this piece for small screws
to be used in mounting it in the recess (R)
in the bottom of the wooden box shown in
Fig. 83. Be very careful to see that the
pivot is in the exact center of the box, other-
wise you will have an error in the indicated
deflections on the scale. The position of
the pointer can be changed vertically by
turning the screw that carries the small
steel rod.
This part of the instrument is now com-
plete and can be assembled and the box given
two or three coats of good shellac. It would
add quite a bit to the appearance of your
instrument if you would give the inside of the
wooden box three or four coats of white paint.
The box containing the needle must now
be mounted in the exact center of the wooden
ring which can be done as follows:
Cut from some J-inch hard wood two
pieces six inches long and f inch wide. Place
these two pieces on edge and a distance
apart equal to the breadth of the wooden
ring and mark out a circle on them as shown
in Fig. 87 with a radius equal to that of the
outer edge of the wooden box. Cut these
pieces out between the dotted lines to a depth
of \ inch. These pieces should now be
mounted on opposite sides of the wooden
ring with their edges horizontal and at such
a height that the needle will be in the center
of the coil.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
347
The winding on this galvanometer can be
made to correspond to almost any require-
ments. You no doubt had best first deter-
mine experimentally how many ampere turns
are required to produce a given deflection.
You will find the deflections do not increase
directly as the current increases. The num-
ber of ampere turns is the product of the
f
_>
FIG. 87
current in a coil and the number of turns of
wire in the coil. If you know the number
of ampere turns required to produce a
given deflection, and know the value of cur-
rent you want to produce that deflection
with, you can determine the number of
turns required by dividing the ampere
turns by the current. Use a size of wire
that will carry the current without excessive
heating.
The terminals of the winding should
be brought out in such a way that they
will correspond to the holes (Hx) and (H2)
in the base of the instrument
The wooden containing box should be
placed in such a position that a line drawn
through the two zero points on the scale will
be exactly perpendicular to the plane of the
coil. To operate the instrument the coil
should always be placed parallel to the mag-
netic needle, when there is no current in the
coil, which can easily be determined by
the ends of the pointer being at zero on the
scale.
A chart can be made that gives the relation
between degrees deflection and current by
passing known values of current through the
instrument and noting the deflections of the
pointer.
All instruments whose operation depends
upon a permanent magnet being controlled
by the earth's magnetic field, and another
magnetic field produced by a current whose
value is to be determined, are subject to
large errors in indication due to changes in
the magnetic field in which the needle
operates that may be produced by outside
magnets and currents, but so long as the
conditions under which the instrument is
used remain the same as those under which
it was calibrated, there will be no serious
trouble.
(To be continued)
Reversing the Polarity
In reply to frequent inquiries for a con-
venient means of changing the polarity of a
pair of wires two methods are here illus-
Supply
IP'l&'jlS^1'' &',''&
^
FIG. I
trated. In Fig. 1 the device consists of
binding posts mounted on a wooden base
and a pair of two point switches so connec-
ted by a hard rubber strap as to move the
switches at the same time. Connections
FIG. 2
from the binding posts are made in grooves
on the under side of the wooden base.
This device is fitted for use on low
voltage circuits.
Fig. 2 represents a standard double-
throw, double-pole knife switch suitable,
when mounted on slate, marble or porcelain,
for use on no volt circuits. The wires
should be properly bushed where they cross
each other in order to prevent any danger
of contact between them.
IPOPULM ELECTRICITY WIEELESS CLUB!
Membership in Popular Electricity Wireless Club is made up of readers
of this magazine who have constructed or are operating wireless apparatus
or systems. Membership blanks will be sent upon request. This depart-
ment of the magazine will be devoted to the interests of the Club, and
members are invited to assist in making it as valuable and interesting
as possible, by sending in descriptions and photographs of their equipments.
Wireless in Every Home
That wireless telegraphy, as applied to
the home, is not the complicated, expensive
science that it generally is believed to be,
is proven by F. B. Cham-
bers, of Philadelphia, who,
though an amateur in the
business, is known among
his friends as "The Wizard
of North Ninth Street."
On the roof of his two-
story home he has shown
to friends and experts alike
that it is possible to receive
messages through as simple
aerials as three strands of
wire clothesline, a wire cot
stood on end, an umbrella
and even a dishpan. He
has not, however, suc-
ceeded in sending any mes-
sages through the last
three.
His wife is almost as great an enthusiast
as he is and when he leaves home on a rainy
day or evening she frequently talks to him
USING A BED-SPRING AERIAL
MRS. CHAMBERS IS A WIRELESS ENTHUSIAST
with her key in Morse while he listens
through his umbrella, which is connected
up to a small portable receiving instrument.
To reply, he has to hunt up a wireless sta-
tion, but there are so many wireless ama-
teurs in Philadelphia and so well known to
them is Chambers that he seldom has to
search long to attain his purpose. Mrs.
Chambers, however, says she has the most
fun when she is doing all the talking and he
cannot answer back.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
349
UMBRELLA AERIAL
The " wizard" takes great pleasure in
aiding and instructing the boys of his
acquaintance in the mysterious science and
spends many a pleasant evening in talking
with them over the housetops. Several of
WORKING THE COIL
makeshift aerials and to see from what long
distances they can pick up messages with
their crude instruments. The best that
Chambers has done so far with his umbrella
DISHFAN FOR AERIAL
and dishpan is to get messages from the
League Island navy yard, about three miles
from his home.
Choosing A Pair of Receivers
his students intend to camp out in the
suburbs of Philadelphia this summer to try
especially to add to the list of Chambers'
By C. BRANDES
The beginner, in selecting the parts of his
receiving apparatus, very often neglects that
most important part, the head receivers.
The receivers, as a rule, are taken for granted,
not considering the fact that they cannot be
adjusted for better results, as can be done
with the other wireless apparatus, until the
desired results are obtained.
There are three very important points to be
remembered, when selecting receivers.
First and foremost sensitiveness, that is,
the quality of being able to respond distinctly
to the most infinitesimal etheric disturbance.
Second, both receivers must have the same
pitch, or, in other words, be tuned alike (in
the musical sense).
Third, the entire outfit should weigh as
little as possible, so as not to tire the operator
when wearing it continually on his head.
In selecting for sensitiveness, care must be
taken not to confuse the wireless receiver
with the high resistance telephone receiver.
The reason for this is plain. The high resist-
ance telephone receiver was originally con-
structed to respond as loudly as possible,
without consideration for the amount of
energy required to operate it,
350
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Winding a telephone receiver to a higher
resistance, merely improves it slightly on the
small amount of energy received, but the
diaphragm, size of bobbin, strength of mag-
netism, all remain unaltered, so that although
it responds very loudly on strong signals, it
dies out very rapidly on the weaker ones,
which are just the ones we are trying the
hardest to catch.
The specially constructed wirelesss re-
ceiver, with the proper bobbins, diaphragms,
magnetism, etc., cannot compete with the
high resistance telephone receiver in loud-
ness, as its tone is much softer, but it receives
the weaker signals clearly and distinctly, to
the very limit of its audibility, which is vastly
beyond that of the clumsily built, high-wound
telephone receiver.
The second point, in regard to pitch, is
very essential to distinctness, both in having
them alike and of the proper pitch.
Lastly, the weight. This is decreased by
making the receiver as small as possible, and
of the lightest material, the case, as a rule,
being made of aluminum in the finer grades
of receivers. The hard rubber case is also
very light in weight, but the drawback is that
the rubber case does not keep permanent
adjustment, as rubber does not expand in
change of temperature at the same rate as the
metal parts. There are other bad features
connected with it that render it not very
serviceable for best results.
In regard to resistance, the question arises,
which is best. Experiments have proven
that resistance is not the main considera-
tion. The point at issue is sensitiveness,
and this is governed by the construction,
etc., of the receiver only. Therefore, when
purchasing a receiver, sensitiveness is the
object, irrespective of the resistance of the
receiver, which may be 1,000 to 2,000 ohms,
more or less, per receiver.
Springfield (Mass.) Wireless
Association
The Springfield Wireless Association was
organized May 14, 1910, starting with a mem-
bership of twelve members. The following
officers were elected:
A. C. Gravel, president; T. F. Cushing,
secretary, Roy Armstrong, treasurer; and
Donald W. Martensen, technical adviser.
The purpose of the association is to regulate
the work among amateurs so as to cause no
annoyance between amateurs and commer-
cial companies, or between the amateurs
themselves. Also to assist the amateurs in
that vicinity in the proper erection of sta-
tions, the location of trouble and the selection
of the best apparatus for their respective
stations. Motto: "No Interference."
Any amateurs wishing to join should write
the Secretary of the association, 323 King St.,
Springfield, Mass.
Are Wireless Burglar Alarms
Possible?
Of burglar alarms which go off when the
intruder steps on a contact, breaks a thin
metallic film or otherwise touches off a con-
nection, there is seemingly no end. But
the shrewd lawbreaker knows these ar-
rangements all too well and too often thwarts
their action. The alarm to baffle him would
be one that will go off without being touched
at all, one that will sense his unwelcome
presence much as a watchdog would do.
Can this be done by using an alarm device
sensitive to the light which he needs in his
nightly prowling; that is, by using a con-
cealed wireless coherer so arranged as to
close the circuit of an alarm bell when a
sudden flash of light strikes it?
A somewhat similar plan has already been
tried by placing a box containing a plate of
selenium (a rare metal allied to sulphur)
where the intruder would be sure to flash his
lamp and connecting this both to an elec-
tric bell and to a source of current. In the
dark, selenium has a high resistance so that
with a suitably proportioned circuit it would
not pass enough current to ring the bell.
But when exposed to bright light, this re-
sistance drops to a hundredth, or even to
1-300 its former value, thus allowing a rush
of current which will sound the alarm. The
selenium plate might be covered with a thin
gauze of cloth or paper so as to hide it from
view, thereby making it not only an un-
touched but also an unseen guardian of the
place. Unfortunately the initial resistance
of the selenium itself varies greatly from day
to day, for reasons not yet understood, hence
such a .burglar alarm system would need
frequent readjusting. With the similarity
of the coherer in its action, might it not be
more practical to use this in place of the
selenium resistance plate as a means of
closing the alarm circuit, using a relay if
necessary? If so, who will be the first to
accomplish it?
A High-Power Wireless Equipment
By ALFRED P. MORGAN
PART IV. — INDEPENDENT ADJUSTABLE INTERRUPTER
The interrupter plays a more important
part in the operation of an induction coil
than is generally realized. That the coils
commonly designed and employed for wire-
less telegraph purposes differ from the old-
fashioned X-ray coils in having an iron core
which is much larger both in cross section
and length is perhaps well known. The
change has been made necessary through
the employment of larger currents. An
X-ray coil seldom uses over ioo watts, but
a coil used to charge the condenser of a
wireless transmitter may use ten times that
amount. Just how this concerns the inter-
rupter we will see later.
Electrolytic interrupters are not ordinarily
used in commercial wireless telegraph sta-
tions for several reasons, among which
may be mentioned the facts that the fre-
quency of interruption is considerably too
high and that when used for more than short
periods, and the electrolyte becomes quickly
heated. While it is true that interrupters
of this type may be adjusted to operate at a
low frequency, the current break will not
be sharp and it will require more energy
to transmit a given distance.
Mechanical interrupters embody two types,
the "hammer break" and the "mercury."
The mercury turbine is the only one of the
latter group worth more than passing no-
tice. It was the intention of the author to
describe one, but upon further consideration
he decided that in view of the several special
parts required and the increase in cost above
that of an interrupter of the " hammer break"
type it was advisable to give place to the latter.
In order properly and efficiently to operate
an induction coil the interrupter must be
adjustable, not only adjustable as regards
the frequency and rapidity of interruption
but also constructed so that the relation of
time between the periods when the current
is flowing and when it is broken may be
governed. An ideal interrupter would have
a much longer period when the current is
flowing through the primary coil than that
during which the current falls from its
maximum to zero. The latter should be as
rapid as possible.
The frequency of interruption must ac-
commodate itself both to the requirements
of the complete system and to the core of
the induction coil alone. The human ear
does not hear with equal loudness sounds of
the same strength and different pitch. The
average ear is the most sensitive to tones of
a somewhat higher pitch than those heard
in the telephone receivers of the receptor
and due to the interruptions or alternations
in the primary current at the transmitting
station. So in order to make weak signals
audible it is desirable that the interrupter
at the sending station should have a high
speed.
This is a feature realized in Dr. Lee De-
Forest's new wireless telegraph sys.tem. By
the use of an arc to generate undamped
high frequency oscillations, a clear, high
musical note having about iooo vibrations
per second is produced in the phones at the
receiving station. Such a tone is very easy
to read through severe interference.
The frequency of an oscillatory arc is
naturally very high. If it were attempted to
obtain such a note by using an extremely
rapid interrupter in connection with an
induction coil, a new difficulty would be
thrown in the way. When the speed of in-
terruption is very high, the current cannot
flow through the primary for a sufficient
length of time properly to magnetize the
core before the break occurs. Also, the
rise and fall of the secondary currents will
run into each other because the break occurs
before the primary current has reached
a maximum and the reverse secondary
current has died away.
Two other phenomena taking place in the
core which deserve attention are known as
hysteresis lag and eddy currents. When a
mass of iron is magnetized or demagnetized,
momentary currents of electricity are created
in the iron itself. These currents are of
low voltage but exceedingly large amperage,
and as we noted when building the induction
coil unless precautions are taken to render
them negligible they not only will heat the
core considerably but reduce the whole
efficiency of the coil. Hysteresis is a pecu-
352
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
liar action taking place in the core under
the same circumstances, but is of an entirely
different nature. When a mass of iron is
magnetized is does not immediately lose
its magnetism if the inducing field is suddenly
removed. Vice versa, it does not always
assume the degree of magnetization it should
in view of its position in the magnetic field.
Hysteresis might be compared to the action
of a spring which resists bending but after
being compressed or bent does not imme-
diately fly back to its former position.
It is impossible to eliminate these unde-
sirable phenomena altogether, but much
may be done to reduce them. They are
always directly proportional to the frequency
of the interrupter, and since this is a direct
argument against high speed the interrupter
must be adjusted so that it is a compromise.
All these facts concerning the effects of
speed, etc., have been discussed to emphasize
the value of experimenting to raise the effi-
ciency of the station. By working with the
INTERRUPTER ASSEMBLED
adjustment of some part of an instrument
during a spare moment it is possible often
considerably to increase the range of the
station or decrease the amount of power
required to communicate a certain dis-
tance under normal conditions. In order
to do this to the best advantage, the influence
a change in any one part makes upon the
others must be fully understood. In the
case of an interrupter, one may now readily
see why it might be well to call up another
operator and ask him how the tone of the
spark sounds as well as to watch the hot-
wire ammeter when adjusting the springs
or screws of the interrupter.
An independent interrupter is one whose
armature is operated by a pair of small
electromagnets and is therefore independent
of the magnetism of the core of the induction
coil. These electromagnets are usually sup-
plied with current from the same source as the
induction coil but draw only a very small
amount. They are connected with the
battery and aerial switch so that the armature
is set into vibration as soon as the aerial
switch is thrown into position for sending.
Fig. 34 illustrates an independent inter-
rupter designed for use with the induction
coil described in the preceding chapters
and has proven, by considerable service, to
be entirely satisfactory.
The electromagnets are illustrated in Fig.
35. Those used on the interrupter from
which the photograph was taken once saw
/~fo/e threaded M /' H
w,th /Q-2* tap,
t.
Oeto.i/^5 of E./ecf-romQ.g7ietu
W W
(-/0-Z4- Machine Screws
J
L^
O;
^.(
Ho/es threaded
with JO-24- to-p
Details of Yoke.
FIG. 35. DETAILS OF MAGNETS
service as such on a magneto telephone bell.
The bobbins happened to be just the right
size, so after rewinding they were fitted to
the interrupter. It is possible for the experi-
menter to obtain a similar pair from the
same source, since they are a standard size,
but a set may be easily made to conform with
those shown in the drawing. The cores
are wrought iron rods two inches long and
one inch in diameter. The heads are circular
\ inch disks of hard rubber one inch in di-
ameter and \ inch thick, having a 5-32-inch
hole bored through the center. The holes are
enlarged with a rat tail file until the disks
can be forced on to the core without danger
of splitting. The top of the upper disk
should come 1-16 inch below the top of the
core, while the lower one should be placed
so that the space formed between for winding
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
353
,4
°°o
]
° /
,t
u
NN
*
FIG. 36. ARMATURE
AND POLE PIECES
the wire is one and 3-16 inches wide. A hole
^ inch deep is bored in the center of the
top of each core and threaded with a 10-24
tap.
The electromagnets are connected and
held upright by a soft iron yoke, three
inches long, f inch wide and § inch thick.
The top edges are beveled slightly with a
file to better the appearance. Two |-inch
holes are bored through the yoke \\ inches
apart as indicated in the illustration. Two
holes are bored at right angles to these and
threaded with a 10-24 tap so that a short
machine screw having a similar thread may
be screwed into each. The lower part of
_„_,., the electro-
magnet cores
fit into the
large holes
and are clamp-
ed by means
of the screws.
Two holes, 2\
inches apart,
are bored in
the under side
of the yoke
and threaded
with a 10-24
tap so that it may be held firmly to the
base by two machine screws.
The electromagnets are wound full of
No. 28 B. & S. gauge magnet wire and con-
nected in series. Two pole pieces are
fastened to the upper ends of the magnet
cores by means of a screw which threads
into a hole. The
pole pieces are
soft iron blocks
which may be
cut out with a
hack-saw and
finished with a file
to conform with
the shape and di-
mensions indicat-
ed in Fig. 36.
One end is cut
off at an .angle
and the other is rounded to coincide with
the semi-circumference of a circle having a
diameter of § inch.
The armature is also illustrated in the
same figure. This is an irregular piece of
soft iron one inch long, f inch wide and
\ inch thick. Two large holes are bored
in the back face and threaded with an 8-32
•O
f
r
-O
-1*
'*.,,
'(-
-O
,1
J
\ ©•
6
X
*
1
0
I
°o
X
*
0
'1'
•*
+*
j* i
+
i ©■
.J
1
O
1
1
A/lai'n Spring. Shun/" Spr-iny
FIG. 37. SPRINGS
tap so that it may be fastened to the upper
end of the shunt spring. This is a piece of
spring steel 2\ inches long, § inch wide and
1-32 inch thick. A platinum contact is
riveted in the center of the spring 1^ inches
from the lower end.
The main spring is three inches long, \
inch wide and 1-32 inch thick. It carries
a heavy platinum rivet in the center | inch
from the top. A hole 3-16 inch in diameter
is bored along the center line, 2 \ inches from
the lower end. A 7-32 hole is bored one
inch below. Fig. 37 shows details of the
main spring and shunt spring.
The springs are fastened at their lower
ends to a brass block shown in detail in
Fig. 38. The block is i^ inches long, £
inch thick and \ inch wide. The corners
are rounded so as to present a neat appear-
ance. The holes in the sides are bored on the
opposite corners of a |-inch square so as to
correspond with those on the lower end of
the springs. They are tapped to receive an
8-32 machine screw. Two holes are drilled
in the bottom of the block and threaded with
a 10-24 tap so that it may be held securely
to the base by two screws having a similar
thread.
A piece of 1 -16-inch brass rod two and 3-16
inches long is threaded at the lower end and
screwed in the top of the armature. This
rod carries a small sliding weight which may
be fastened in position by means of a small
screw. The higher the weight is on the
rod, the slower will be the natural period of
vibration of the armature. The weight is
most easily made by cutting a small double
connector in half with a hack saw and
smoothing up the edge with a file.
A hook is made out of 1 -16-inch brass
rod and threaded at one end. It is then
screwed into the back of the armature, a
small hole as indicated in Fig. 36 having been
bored there to allow of its passage. The
hook is passed through the hole below the
contact in the main spring and screwed into
the armature so that when the armature is
drawn forward by the action of the electro-
magnet the hook will pull the main spring
forward, while in swinging back and beyond
its normal position it will allow the contact
on the main spring to rest against the con-
tact on the end of the adjusting screw. This
is the feature of the interrupter which makes
the period when the current is flowing
through the coil longer than the period in
which it is broken. By screwing the hook
354
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
in so as to shorten it the ratio of time is
lowered. Details of block, weight and hook
are shown in Fig. 38.
Two knurled adjusting screws carry the
platinum points which make contact with
the platinum ^ /*i_-, ■
rivets on the ■?■ _ -A II »— T
springs. The
knurled heads
of the screws
are § inch in
diameter and
3-16 inch thick.
The screws are
threaded with a
10-24 die. The
shunt screw is
one and 15-16 inches long and the main screw
two and 11-16 inches long. The platinum
points, which are 3-32 inch in diameter, are
set in arecess bored in the end of the screw and
soldered. They should fit tightly before
B/och
Hook
FIG. 38. DETAILS
FIG. 39. ADJUSTING SCREWS
soldering. After adjustment the screws are
locked in position by means of a nut
which screws tightly against the standards.
The details of the lock nut are shown in
Fig. 39-
The standards are cut out of | brass with a
file and hacksaw. The main standard is
'-J u^^"— J »!!^-j:-_j
FIG. 40. DETAILS OF STANDARDS
three inches high and two inches wide at
the bottom. The middle portion is cut
away so that the small standard may fit
between the two legs thus formed, but re-
main insulated from them. The small stand-
ard is two inches high and f inch wide.
The standards could be made perfectly
plain, but in order to please the eye they are
shaped as in Fig. 40. The arcs and centers
of the circles to which several of the parts
conform are shown in the figure. A hole
is bored along the center of the main stand-
ard 2 § inches from the bottom and threaded
with a 10-24 tap to take the main adjusting
screw. The shunt screw passes through a
similarly threaded hole in the main screw
\\ inches from the bottom. The brass feet
are soldered to the standards to prevent any
7i'
I I ---- \0-Qr~s
"1
FIG. 41. BASE
rocking motion which otherwise might take
place when the interrupter is in operation.
These pieces are made by slitting a piece
of f-inch square brass rod diagonally across
corners with a hack saw and then hollowing
out one face with a round file. The stand-
ards are each fastened upright by means of
two 10-24 machine screws which pass through
the base.
The base, Fig. 41, is a piece of black
fibre 7^ inches long, four inches wide and
I inch thick. Fibre may be rubbed smooth
with fine emery cloth and pumice stone and
then be polished with tripoli powder. The
location of the holes through which the
screws must pass to fasten the component
parts of the interrupter firmly to the base
are illustrated. All holes are 3-16 inch in
diameter and are counterbored from the
under side to \ inch in diameter so that a
metal washer may be placed under the head
of each screw. Otherwise parts of the inter-
rupter are liable to work loose from the
hammering of the armature.
Four large binding posts are mounted on
the base, one at each corner. Two small
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
355
holes are bored through the base immediately
under the electromagnets so that the wires
may be led through. One terminal of the
magnets is connected to the brass block.
The other leads to the binding post (A) rn
which break the primary current is neces-
sary. When the current is broken under
these conditions an oscillating current, the
period of which is dependent upon the
capacity of the condenser and the inductance
SLIDING WEIGHT
STANDARD
Doffed Lined Indicate Wirec /niaid in Base
FIG. 42. PLAN VIEW OP COMPLETE
INTERRUPTER
top of the base, Fig. 42, The small shunt
standard is connected to the binding post
(B). The large standard and the brass
block are connected to (C) and (D).
(A) and (B) are connected in series with
the center knife blade on the aerial switch
and a six-volt battery, Fig. 43, so that when
the aerial switch is thrown down into posi-
tion for sending, the circuit is completed
WTERRUPTER.
TO BATTERY, HEY
AND /MDUCTION
COIL PRIMARY.
AERIAL SWITCH BATTERY
FIG. 43. CIRCUIT
and the interrupter is set into operation. A
small condenser may be connected across
the shunt adjusting screw to reduce the
sparking, but in reality the sparking is so
small that it is not absolutely necessary.
The main standard and the spring are in-
cluded in the primary circuit of the induction
coil by connecting the wires to the binding
posts (C) and (D).
Fig. 44 is a side view of the interrupter.
To obtain the greatest difference of po-
tential from the secondary of the induction
coil, a condenser adjusted to stop violent
sparking at the break, across the contacts
FIG. 44. SIDE VIEW OF COMPLETE
INTERRUPTER
of the primary, will be set up in the primary.
The sparking at the contacts is not due
to the comparatively small e. m. f. of the
battery but to the induced e. m. f. in the
primary. When the circuit is made the
current increases in strength as shown by
the curve (a, b) in Fig. 45. As soon as it
is broken the induced current charges the
condenser which in turn discharges through
the primary producing an oscillatory cur-
rent as represented by (b, c). These currents
induce an e. m. f. in the secondary which
is greater than the e. m. f . induced by (a, b) ,
since the rate of change is greater. By
adding capacity
around the break,
the curve (a, b)
will be made flat-
ter, but if too
much is added the
length of the se-
condary spark
will be decreased. The purpose of the
condenser therefore is to produce as rapid
a fall of current with as little sparking as
possible, since the sparking leads to conduc-
tion across the break and the current cannot
then fall rapidly.
The capacity of the condenser required
to produce this result depends upon the
value of the primary current, the inductance
of the primary and the resistance of the
circuit. The secondary spark length is
also somewhat dependent upon several small
factors such as magnetic leakage, distributed
secondary capacity, etc.
FIG. 45. CURVE OF
PRIMARY CURRENT
356
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
A condenser suitable for the induction coil
which has already been described is composed
of 200 sheets of tinfoil 15 inches long and 6^
200 mem tinfoil is'* ft' with rivo
THICKN£3Se-3 Of PAAAPFIIfCO TYPEWRITER
PAPE/T IrtTCAPOSEO BETWEEN EACH.
FIG. 46. CONDENSER CONSTRUCTION
inches wide interposed between double
thicknesses of paraffined linen typewriter
paper 13 inches long and eight inches wide,
as shown in Fig. 46. Three inches of each
tinfoil sheet is allowed to overlap the paper
at the end so that connections may easily
FIG. 47. CONDENSER COMPLETE
be established. This allows a one-inch
margin on three sides of each sheet. The
condenser is built up in the usual manner,
that is by leading the tinfoil sheets out al-
ternately at each end. All of the projecting
sheets at one end are bunched together and
soldered to a piece of flexible lamp cord.
_, J' ■ .
, . J*. .. . J-
j * ;; ♦
J-
11 * .
f ••••] 1
■« I A
1 B II °
© ©
II ° 1
©"j
1 :
— 3 %' —
m ;
mmmmmmawjiimt.
HARD RUBBER
BASE. j
:i
FIG. 48. DETAILS OF PLUG SWITCH
The sheets on the other side are divided into
four groups containing respectively 50, 25,
15 and 10 sheets. These sheets are soldered
to four different lengths of flexible lamp cord
and prevented from coming into contact with
one another by sheets of well paraffined
paper laid between. Fig. 47 is a view of the
condenser complete.
The four wires are connected to the in-
dividual members of a plug switch which
is illustrated in Fig. 48. Eight holes 3-16
inch in diameter are bored in a piece of
brass three and 3-16 inches long, oneand 1-16
inch wide and 3-1 6 inch thick. Itisthencutup
with a hack saw
into five pieces,
using care that
one cut shall pass
exactly through
the centers of the
holes (abed).
These five small
pieces, Fig. 49, are
called plug blocks.
The four small
pieces are bored
from the under
side and tapped
Switch
P/vg.
P/ug Block
FIG. 49. PLUG SWITCH
AND BLOCK
so that a piece of brass rod 1 \ inches long
and having a 10-24 thread may be screwed
into the hole. The long plug block is fitted
with two such pieces. The blocks are mount-
ed on one end of a rectangular wooden box
measuring inside 8| by 14I by 2\ inches.
A piece of f-inch hard rubber four and 3-16
inches long and one and 5-16 inches wide is
bored with 14 3-16-inch holes located so that
a hole comes immediately under (abedeeee)
and the stub pins. The plug blocks should
be insulated by a 1-16 inch space.
The condenser is placed in a box, Fig. 50,
and the interrupter screwed on the center
of the top. One terminal of the condenser
CONDENSER BOX
is connected to the main spring of the in-
terrupter. The main standard is connected
to the long plug block. The four terminals
of the condenser connected to the 50, 25, 15
and 10 sheets lead to the small plug blocks
which should be marked respectively (50),
(25), (15), (10). The brass stubs screwed
into the under side of the blocks serve both
to hold them in position and to establish
connection to, by placing the wires under a
small nut screwed on from the interior.
The condenser is adjusted by inserting
switch pins into the holes (a bed). Switch
pins having a hard rubber handle may be
purchased from almost any electrical supply
house. When the pins are not in use they
are inserted into the holes (e e e e).
(To be Continued.)
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
357
WIRELESS QUERIES
Answered by A. B. Cole
Questions sent in to this department must
:omply with the same requirements that are
specified in the case of the questions and
answers on general electrical subjects. See
'Questions and Answers" department.
Connections and Sending Radius
Questions. — (A) Please give a diagram for con-
necting up the following instruments: Exhausted
coherer, polarized relay, sounder, tuning coil, and
condenser. (B) What is the approximate distance
that I should be able to receive with above instru-
ments, using either iooo-ohm polarized relay, my
aerial being 80 feet high, 30 feet long, 5 wires. —
F. S., Baltimore, Md.
Answers. — (A) See diagram.
f inch of the edges. After the foil is secured
to the glass, the plates should be given a
heavy coat of shellac or other insulating
varnish to reduce brush discharge over the
surface. It is assumed that the plates are
separated by about one inch.
(B) Aluminum wire is easier to work, will
make a helix which is stronger mechanically,
and will give as good or better results.
(C) The average helix consists of 12 turns
of No. 6 B. & S. gauge, wound so that con-
secutive turns are about one inch apart,
and on a drum about ten inches in diameter.
About 31 feet, or § pound, will be required.
Connections for Sending and Receiving
Questions. — (A) Please show connections for
one-inch spark coil, variable condenser and double
slide helix ? (B) How do you connect for receiving,
using double slide tuning coil, fixed condenser,
silicon detector and receiver? (C) What instru-
ments are necessary for a three-mile sending and
receiving outfit? — F. G. A., Chicago, 111.
Answers. — (A) and (B) See diagrams.
CONNECTIONS OF EXHAUSTED COHERER
(B) You could probably receive from high-
power stations over an average distance of
15 miles over water or level land, but you
will find that a coherer is not to be depended
upon, and, while at some times when it is in
adjustment a much greater distance might
be covered, you should not expect to receive
farther than this ordinarily.
Condenser and Helix
Questions. — (A) How large a plate glass con-
denser will I need for a one-half kilowatt transformer
working on no volts alternating current? (B)
Would not a heavy aluminum wire helix be better
than a brass ribbon one? (C) How much wire
and how large shall I use for the helix? — J. S.,
Wyncote, Pa.
Answers. — (A) Fourteen glass plates, each
3-32 inch thick and each having a surface
of about 80 square inches. Photographic
plates each eight by 10 inches may be used.
The plates may be coated with foil to within
SENDING
(C) One-inch coil, batteries, key, spark
gap, double-pole double-throw porcelain
base switch.
RECEIVING
One good 75-ohm receiver, silicon
tector and a tuning coil if desired.
de-
358
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Construction and Connection of Detectors
Questions. — (A) How far will a \ to £-inch spark
coil send with sensitive receiving set at the other
station? (B) In general, how are perikon, carbo-
rundum and ferron detectors made? (C) In
making a variable condenser could I use a hollow
cylinder of wood with tinfoil wound around the
outside and a solid cylinder of wood to slide inside
the first and covered on the outside with tinfoil ?
(D) Please give diagram showing connections of
variable coupling tuning coil, two variable conden-
sers, electrolytic, silicon, carborundum, perikon
and ferron detectors, (with a five-way switch)
potentiometer and two, iooo-ohm receivers. (E)
Will a Wehnelt interrupter run on a J-inch spark
coil with batteries? — M. H., Ithaca, N. Y.
Answers. — (A) A maximum distance of
about one mile, with an aerial 50 feet long,
consisting of three parallel wires, 50 feet above
the earth at the upper end.
(B) A crystal of any of these sensitive
substances is generally held in a metal cup
by a metal of low melting point. A pointed
metallic rod is so arranged that the pressure
of the point on the crystal may be varied.
(C) Yes, but if wood is used the walls
should be very thin, since the capacity of a
condenser varies inversely as the thickness
of the wall between the foil surfaces, that is,
twice the thickness, one-half the capacity, if
all other conditions of length, diameter,
etc., are the same.
(D) See diagram in answer to T. C. C. in
the July issue, using a variable condenser for
the fixed one. Change the switch to a five-
point one, and add one more detector.
(E) No, a Wehnelt interrupter does not
operate satisfactorily on less than 24 volts.
Moreover, it is not well to run coils which
are designed for batteries on lighting cir-
cuits in connection with electrolytic inter-
rupters. We have known of more secondary
windings being damaged in this way than
in any other.
Condenser for One-half Kilowatt Transformer
Question. — How many condenser plates will I
need to use for a one-half kilowatt transformer,
using glass plates 5J by 7J inches and u§ by 7J
inches covered with tinfoil to within ih inches of
the top ?— S. N., Pacific Grove, Cal.
Answer. — If we assume that the condenser
is of the most common type in which the
plates are separated by about one inch, and
that a space f inch wide is left all around the
foil, about 35 of the plates 5 J by 7^ inches or
14 plates 11^ by 7^ inches will give good
results with the average aerial system.
Sparkless System
Questions. — (A) What is the difference between
the spark system and sparkless system of wireless
telegraphy? (B) What instruments are neces-
sary with the latter method? (C) Is the latter
system taking the place of the former? — A. T.,
Thief River Falls, Minn.
Answers. — (A) The spark system of
wireless telegraphy depends on the pro-
duction of the oscillations in the aerial sys-
tem by means of the spark produced by an
induction coil, transformer, or other appa-
ratus. The arc, or "sparkless" systems
use a singing arc in place of the spark.
(B) Some systems use an outfit some-
what similar to the set described in the April
1910, issue, under "A Simple Wireless
Telephone Set," and have a telegraph key
in series with the aerial. Other systems
have a small step-up transformer connected
to a well cooled gap. Although the latter
systems use a spark, which is short as com-
pared to those of the "spark" systems, the
action is entirely different. The principle
may be explained as follows:
If a pendulum is set up, it can be started
swinging in at least two ways. The bob
may be raised to the side all at once, by
expending considerable force, if it is heavy,
or it may be struck with a light hammer,
which will start it. If when the bob has
reached the farthest point to which it will
swing, due to the initial stroke of the ham-
mer, and it is just starting back, it be
struck another light blow in the opposite
direction and the same procedure be con-
tinued, the bob will soon be swinging over
a long path. The action of raising the bob
to the side all at once corresponds to the
action of a "spark" system of wireless
telegraphy. The other action, of accom-
plishing the same result by light blows, is
analogous to the "sparkless" systems.
The circuits in the latter types must all be
very well balanced so that the proper action
can take place.
(C) We do not believe that the latter
systems are entirely replacing the former
at the present time.
Rotating Condenser
Question. — How is a rotating condenser made? —
W. J. T., Chicago, 111.
Answer. — The design of a rotary plate
condenser will require an article of some
length, and we hope to publish directions
for making such a condenser in an early
issue.
QUESTI0NSADAN5WEBSI
Use of this department is free to readers of Popular Electricity, but atten-
tion will not be given to questions which do not comply with the following
rules: All questions must be written in the form of a letter addressed to
the Questions and Answers Department and containing nothing for the
other departments of the magazine; two-cent stamp must be enclosed for
answer by mail, for space will not permit of printing all answers; the full
name and address of the writer must be given.
Sparking Brushes; Paralleling Compound-
Wound Generators; Sal Ammonic Cells;
Condenser
Questions. — (A) What is the cause of the spark-
ing at the brushes of a shunt or compound-wound
D. C. motor when it is over-loaded? (B) If the
armature does not generate sufficient counter E. M.
F., due to the load causing slow speed, why should
the motor spark excessively if the brush contact is
good. (C) What is the action of the current in the
coils at the neutral point in this case? (D) Please
explain the path which the current takes when two
compound-wound generators are running together
on the same bus-bars. (E) How does one machine
assist the other if the voltage of one drops? (F)
Does the carbon cylinder or electrode of a sal-
ammoniac battery become worthless or worn out ?
(G) How large a current can pass through a con-
denser? (H) Please give the theory of the con-
denser.— C. E. H.} Philadelphia, Pa.
rf/nmeiep
Vo/lmeten
rtmmeiep
TWO COMPOUND-WOUND GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
Answers. — (A) The brushes of a motor are
designed to carry current up to the rating of
the motor but usually carry up to as high as
25 per cent over-load for one-half hour
without trouble. However a motor which
does not run without sparking on a light
over-load may have any one or more of the
following causes to account for it: (1) Brushes
not set at the neutral point. (2) High, low,
or loose commutator bar causing poor con-
tact with the brushes. (3) Commutator worn
in ridges causing poor brush contact. (4)
Improper spacing of brushes. (5) Brushes
set with too little pressure against commu-
tator bars. (6) Brushes not set so that their
full area is in contact with the commutator.
(7) Armature coil short circuited. (8) Ex-
cessive over-load on machine. (9) Dirt and
grease on the commutator. (10) Commutator
bars partially short-circuited by a collection
of carbon or copper dust around them.
The Standardization Committee of the
A. I. E. E. recommend over-load capacities
of 25 per cent for one-
half hour, but state that
guarantees against spark-
ing should apply to the
rated load only of the
motor or generator.
(B) The field strength
of the motor cannot in-
crease as the over-load
comes on because the
voltage across the field
coils remains the same,
consequently the arma-
ture falls off in speed
which results in a reduc-
tion in the counter E. M.
F. This counter E.M.F.
which acted as a resis-
tance now being less,
allows a larger current to
flow through the armature and brushes
which latter show an undue overload by
sparking.
(C) The distortion of the field in a motor
increases as the current through the arma-
ture coils increases. Hence the brushes
360
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
would have to be shifted back as the cur-
rent approaches or exceeds that required for
full load, in order to bring the induced cur-
rent in the coil which the brush is short-
circuiting just up to that in the coil just
about to be left behind and prevent sparking.
(D) and (E) When two compound-
wound machines are running in parallel with
the load equalized no current flows in the
equalizer cable. However, if the speed of
either machine drops off, lowering the
voltage, current from the other machine will
flow through the equalizer cable and strength-
en its series field, thus increasing the
voltage. See diagram. The equalizer cable
may be run between the brushes as indicated
by the broken line if preferred.
(F) The sal-ammoniac solution when low
in the cell frequently crystallizes in the pores
of the carbon plate but is readily removed by
boiling in water for an hour. Practically,
the carbon electrode will not wear out.
(G) and (H) Current does not flow through
a condenser. Charges are "bound" by
attraction on opposite sides of the dielectric,
this being under strain during the time the
condenser is charged. As soon as a circuit
is formed these two charges neutralize
each other.
Roentgen Rays; Crooke's Tube; N-Rays
Questions. — (A) What is the Roentgen ray,
when discovered and how produced ? (B) What
is a Crooke's tube? (C) What are N-rays? —
D. M., Sawtelle, California.
Answers. — (A) The Roentgen or X-ray
is a form of luminescence created by the
passage of a high potential discharge through
a vacuum tube. Roentgen spoke of his
discovery made on Nov. 8, 1895, as follows:
" I was working with a Crookes tube covered
by a shield or screen of black cardboard.
A piece of barium platino-cyanide paper lay
near by on the table. I had been passing
a current through the tube and noticed a
peculiar black line across the paper. As this
effect could be produced by the passage of
light only, and as no light except from the
tube could have struck the plate, I made a
test at once, and found that some kind of
rays actually passed through the black card-
board cover. In a completely darkened
room the paper screen washed on one side
with barium platino-cyanide lighted up
brilliantly, and fluoresced equally well no
matter which of its sides was turned towards
the tube. The fluorescence was noticeable
even at a distance of two meters. The most
remarkable thing to me was that this fluor-
escence passed through the black cardboard
cover, which transmits none of the ultra-
violet rays of the sun or of the electric arc.
I found by experiments that all bodies are
transparent to this influence, although in
very different degrees." Because opaque
bodies throw shadows of different degrees
of shade Roentgen called the influence doing
this, rays. As their real nature was not
known he called them X-rays.
(B) A Crookes tube is a long glass tube
exhausted of air to a high degree, and pro-
vided with two platinum terminals within,
which can be connected on the outside to an
electric machine. Named for Sir William
Crookes, who first experimented with the
tube in the form of an egg-shaped vessel.
(C) N-rays occupy the space between the
ultra-violet and the X-rays. Their fre-
quency is about 1-100 of the frequency of
ordinary light. They may be observed
on a screen of phosphorescent sulphide of
calcium. The rays are highly refrangible,
highly penetrating and can be reflected and
polarized. Dr. Margaret A. Cleaves, of
New York City, is an authority on this sub-
ject. Of late years there has been some
discussion as to whether or not the so-called
N-rays are really a separate and distinct
form of radiation.
Carbon Lamp Resistance; Telephone Induc-
tion Coil
Questions. — (A) What is the resistance of a
16 candle-power, no- volt carbon filament lamp?
(B) What size wires are used on the primary and
secondary of a telephone induction coil? (C) What
is used for the core of such a coil? — A. W. A.,
Lowell, Wis.
Answers. — (A) The resistance of a 3.5
watt per candle-power, no-volt carbon fila-
ment lamp is 216 ohms.
(B) and (C) Induction coils vary in con-
struction in accordance with the length of
the line on which they are used and are
made up by experiment to suit the instru-
ments they are to operate. One of the most
efficient coils for ordinary service may be
made as follows: Provide 500 pieces of
No. 24 B. & S. soft iron wire five inches
long; allowing one-half inch at each end,
this leaves four inches for the bobbin. For
the primary wind on 200 turns of No. 20
single silk-covered wire. For the secondary
use 1400 double turns (two wires wound side
by side) of No. 34 single silk covered wire.
Notes on the Construction of Patents
By OBED C. CILLMAN, LL. B., M. P. L.
i. In General. — The usual rules appli-
cable to the construction and interpretation
of written instruments are, in the main, appli-
cable to the construction of letters patent.
The construction of a patent, as of other
written instruments, is a question of law for
the court. The general rule is that the con-
struction put upon it by the patent office is
not binding upon the courts.
2. Construction to Sustain Patent. —
Wherever possible a patent will be given a
construction which will sustain it, rather than
one which will render it void and of no effect.
But where there is no room for construction,
the language used must be given its obvious
effect even though thereby the patent is
rendered void. Claims for a function or
result will be construed as claims for the
specific device or process described, if pos-
sible, in order to sustain a patent. Patents
are frequently limited to very narrow claims,
often to the specific device described, in
order to support them, when to give them a
broader construction would render themvoid
for want of novelty in view of the prior state
of the art.
3. Construction in Favor of Patentee. —
— Letters patent are to be liberally construed
in favor of the patentee. But this rule does
not authorize the courts to extend the patent
further than the language used in the speci-
fications and claims will fairly and legiti-
mately warrant; the patentee is bound by his
claims. The patent must be confined to the
actual invention. The patent will, however,
be construed to cover the actual invention
made and intended to be patented, if its
language is fairly susceptible of that con-
struction.
4. Construction as a Whole. — The patent
must be construed as a whole, and due
effect be given to all its parts. The claims
define the precise scope of the invention
patented, and when unambiguous control
the construction of the patent. But where
the claims are not clear and precise, they may
be interpreted with reference to other parts of
the patent, such as the title, description,
drawings, and model. It is well settled,
however, that while the claims may be lim-
ited or illustrated by reference to the descrip-
tive parts of the patent, they cannot be
thereby enlarged. Of course, the claims will
not be limited by the specifications where
there is manifestly no such intention and no
necessity for so limiting them. Nothing is
covered by the patent which is not fairly
stated or implied in the claims. Reference
in the claim to the specification makes the
latter a part of the claim, and requires the
claim and the specification to be construed
together.
5. Prior State of the Art. — A patent
must be construed with reference to the prior
state of the art to which the invention be-
longs, and limited to what is new.
6. Pioneer and Subsidiary or Secondary
Inventions. — A pioneer invention is one
covering a function never before per-
formed, or a wholly novel device, or one of
such novelty and importance as to mark a
distinct step in the progress of the art, as
distinguished from a mere improvement or
perfection of what has gone before. A
patent for such an invention will be con-
strued as broadly and liberally as its terms
will admit, in order fully to protect the
actual invention. Subsidiary or secondary
inventions which are mere improvements
on an existing and well-known state of
things are not so broadly or liberally
construed, and are often limited to the
precise device or arrangement described.
Primary and pioneer patents cover a broader
range of equivalents than other patents.
7. Meaning of Words and Phrases. —
Words and phrases used in the patent will be
given their ordinary meaning unless the con-
text shows that they are used in a different
sense. Technical terms will be given the
meaning in which they would be understood
by those skilled in the art. The language
used must be applied to the subject matter
described.
8. Extrinsic Evidence in General. —
In construing the specifications and claims of
a patent, it is the duty of the court to read
them in the light of the conditions and usages
prevalent at the time they were written in the
art to which the invention relates, and extrin-
sic evidence is admitted for the purpose.
Evidence is admissible to show the meaning
of terms used in letters patent, as well as the
state of the art.
362
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
9. Expert and Opinion Evidence. —
The court cannot be compelled to receive the
testimony of experts as to how a patent ought
to be construed, but the judge may obtain
information from experts, if he desires it,
and such testimony is admissible to explain
the meaning of technical terms.
10. Proceedings in Patent Office. —
Where a patentee in the course of the pro
ceedings in the patent office, and in cons
quence of rulings there made, inserts in his
specifications and claims limitations and
restrictions for the purpose of obtaining a
patent, he cannot, after he has obtained it,
insist that it shall be construed as it would
have been construed if such limitations and
restrictions were not contained in it. The
patent must be construed and limited with a
view to such amendments. The proceedings
in the patent office may be considered as
showing the intent in granting and accepting
the patent, and the courts should not enlarge
claims beyond the patent office construction
in allowing them. But mere communica-
tions between the patentee or his attorney
and the patent office, not carried into the
patent as issued, do not control its construc-
tion. The language of the patent as finally
issued is always the controlling consideration.
11. Contemporaneous Construction of
Inventor. — The contemporaneous construc-
tion put by the patentee upon his own inven-
tion is entitled to consideration, but cannot
control the plain terms of the patent.
?BOOK REVIEWS
of apparatus being provided. If one must
confine himself to one book on the subject
this work should be considered.
Telephonology. Bv H. R. Van Deventer, B. S.,
E. E. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany. 1910. 586 pages with 682 illustrations.
Price, $4.00.
Practical workers will welcome this book
as one well adapted to their needs. The
subject matter is free from technical terms
and phrases and from cover to cover is
full of useful up-to-date descriptions and
data. The history of telephony is omitted
ogether with obsolete apparatus, the idea
being to deal with different types of equip-
ment, its installation and care, as now on
the market and in general use. The descrip-
tive matter could hardly be better illustrated,
numerous line drawings and excellent cuts
Practical X-ray Therapy (Second Edition). By
Noble M. Eberhart, A. M., M. S., M. D., Chi-
cago: New Medicine Publishing Company.
1909. 256 pages with 40 illustrations. Price,
$1.50.
The series of articles by Dr. Eberhart
which has appeared in Popular Electricity
has made him familiar to the readers of
this journal. His book on X-rays con-
tains, in a concise form, the essential facts
bearing on this subject. It discusses ques-
tions that confront the physician in his daily
routine and is distinctly a working manual,
written to be used rather than to be placed
on the shelf as a reference work.
The author is a pioneer in X-ray therapy
and his opinion, based on long experience,
is correspondingly valuable. In the treat-
ment of the various diseases the technique
is explicit so that even a beginner may em-
ploy the ray properly and intelligently. The
book is thoroughly illustrated and with its
comprehensive glossary it is intelligible to the
layman as well as the physician.
The Inventors' Pocket Library. Ten Talks to
Young Inventors. By an Old One. Washing-
ton, D. C: The Engineer Searching Co. 1910.
Price;, 2 cents each; 25 cents for the set.
The " Common Sense Series" of "Talks
to Young Inventors" by an old one is just
what the name implies — good, sensible ad-
vice to the inventor who has more brains than
money. The series consists of ten leaflets,
not bound, they couldn't be at the price,
but containing the information just the
same. It is dedicated to and approved by
the Brotherhood of Inventors, which was
incorporated in Washington, D. C, Dec. 20,
1909. Here are the titles of the talks in the
first series: (1) The Language of Two Letters
(A Straight Line and a Curve); (2) Hints,
Tips and Dont's for Inventors; (3) The
"Brotherhood" Protective Caveat; (4)
Inventors' Catechism; (5) Inventors' Dic-
tionary; (6) American "Wastes" the In-
ventor's Opportunity; (7) Why Success or
Failure in Invention?; (8) The Superstition
of Secrecy; (9) Educational and Protective
Value of Sketching; (10) Engineer or Lawyer
Searching. This is only the first series,
others are to follow later, written along
similar lines.
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS)
Light Few themes have lent them-
Companies selves more generously dur-
Conserve ing the last few years to the
Natural popular orator or the average
Resources r r ,., ,, ,, , °t
newspaper editor than that 01
conserving our natural resources. Speakers
as well as writers on this subject seem to agree
that what is everybody's business in this
matter is nobody's business; that it will
take concerted action by government de-
partments, federal and state legislation, in
short, some prodigiously formulated plan
which must be developed before we can ex-
pect headway along this line. But while
those all about us have been crying out
against the devastation of our forests and
suggesting various kinds of legislation to
both stop it and make up for it, one of the
far sighted electric light companies over
in Michigan has been quietly going ahead
and doing its share; yes, and more too.
Three years ago the Washtenaw Light &
Power Co., of Geddes and Ann Arbor, or-
ganized a forestry department with a view
to systematically reforesting the district
from which its gradually waning water power
is drawn. Thanks to the professors of
forestry at the University of Michigan,
Filibert Roth and Walter Mulford, the work
was carefully planned on long lines, and the
company's forest nursery is now stocked
with half a million young trees. These
include twenty different species, ranging
from walnut and hickory to some types of
the California big trees, although most of
the planting so far has been in white pine,
Norway spruce and red oak. With the aid
of university students who are available
during the spring vacations, about a hundred
acres have been set with trees each year, the
present season's planting comprising over
150,000 trees.
Meanwhile the nursery is kept stocked,
so that later on the company will be able
to sell young trees at Tow prices to the farmers
in the Huron River Valley, to whom this
fine example is set. Even without the aid
of the farmers this move of the progressive
lighting company will be far-reaching in its
effect, for it means restoring the more nor-
mal climate, proper rainfall and generally
prosperous influence which are bound to
affect the whole surrounding community. If
such a practice becomes general (and many
of our prominent electric utility corporations
will try hard to make it so) the electric light
and power companies will grow to be among
the greatest benefactors of large sections in
another and rather novel way. And wisely
so, for the general prosperity and welfare
of the community reacts on all business and
therefore on the market for that greatest
boon of modern civilization — the electric
current. Meanwhile, all honor to the pioneer
electric reforesters of Michigan, Manager
Hemphill and his colleagues!
How The last installment of Edgar
About the Franklin's interesting story,
Fiction « Current from— Where ?" ap-
Articles? pears jn this issue. We hope
that our readers have all enjoyed it and not
a few have written in to express their satis-
faction. In the September issue, to take
its place, there will be a story by E. M.
Smith — "The Human Heritage" — complete
in one number. This is a thrilling account
of what we might expect to see if we were
to live on earth one hundred years from
now, when man has conquered the warring
elements and is at last master of the air.
It is all visionary but interesting.
There is so much fiction printed now-a-
days that in a magazine of the nature of
Popular Electricity, which has its own
particular field to cover, there is a place
for only a limited amount. How much and
what kind shall lie with you who read this
magazine. We cannot, however, determine
your likes and dislikes in this matter unless
you write and give us your opinion. Do
you prefer a serial story of the order of
Mr. Franklin's? Would you rather have
short stories complete in one issue or per-
haps running into two and bisecting with
a bang, as Mr. Franklin once expressed it ?
Or would you rather have no fiction at all?
Let us have your votes.
SHORT CIRCUITS
"Did you have appendicitis ? " said the insurance man.
"Well," answered the skeptic, "I was operated on, but
I never felt sure whether it was a case of appendicitis or a
case of professional curiosity."
First Autoist — Is that the same automobile you bought
this spring?
Second Autoist — All except the body and three wheels.
"Do you see that man going along with his head in the
air, sniffing with his nose?"
"Yes; I know him."
"I suppose he believes in taking in the good, pure
ozone?"
"No; he's hunting for a motor garage, I believe."
The lecturer raised his voice with emphatic confidence.
"I venture to assert," he said, "that there isn't a man
in this andience who has ever done anything to prevent
the destruction of our forests."
A modest-looking man in the back of the hall stood up.
"I — er — I've shot woodpeckers," he said.
* * *
Robbie ran into the sewing room and cried :
"Oh, mamma! There's a man in the nursery kiss-
ing Fraulein."
Mamma dropped her sewing and rushed for the
stairway.
"April fool!" said Robbie, gleefully. "It's only
papa.
"Some men," said Andrew Carnegie at a dinner
"have very queer ideas of honor.
"I was once riding from Pittsburg to Philadelphia in
the smoking compartment of a Pullman. There were per-
haps six of us in the compartment, smoking and reading.
All of a sudden a door banged and the conductor's voice
cried:
" 'All tickets, please.'
"Then one of the men in the compartment leaped to his
feet, scanned the faces of the rest of us and said slowly
and impressively:
" 'Gentlemen, I trust to your honor.'
"And he dived under the' seat and remained there in a
small silent knot till the conductor was safely gone."
Simple Simon met a pieman,
Going to the fair,
Said Simple Simon to the pieman,
"Let me taste your ware."
Said the pieman to Simple Simon:
"Young man, my ancestors were the hardy spirits who
first blazed a trail through the pathless forest and founded
the pioneer settlement in the region which is now Missouri.
I myself hail from that glorious commonwealth, and
before I can be induced to part with one of the succulent
gobs of pastry which I am vending, I must be shown
your penny."
Said Simple Simon to the pieman,
"Indeed, I haven't any."
"Now, Archie," asked a schoolmistress, dilatingon the
virtue of politeness, "if you were seated in a street car,
every seat of which was occupied, and a lady entered,
what would you do?"
"Pretend I was asleep!" was the prompt reply.
Mr. Bug — It does beat all how mercenary some fellows
are getting these days. Now there's old Firefly letting
himself out as a candle on a birthday cake.
I went to a party with Janet
And met with an awful mishap
For I awkwardly emptied a cupful
Of chocolate into her lap.
But Janet was cool — though I wasn't,
For none is so tactful as she,
And, smiling with perfect composure
Said sweetly ,"The drinks are on me."
"How can you tell a Yale man from a Harvard man?"
"Well, a Yale man always acts as if he owned the
world."
"Yes?"
"And a Harvard man always acts as if he doesn't
know what vulgar person owns the world, and, further-
more, he doesn't care to know."
"What I want," said the man who was looking for a
home, "is a place with a fine view."
"Well," replied the real estate agent, "I've got what
you want. But it'll cost you several thousand dollars
extra."
"You're sure the view is all right?"
"Couldn't be better. By clin.bing on the roof you
can see the baseball games."
She laid the still, white form beside those which had
gone before; no sob, no sigh forced its way from her
heart, throbbing as though it would burst. Suddenly a
cry broke the stillness of the place — one single-heart-
breaking shriek; then silence; another cry; more silence;
then all silence but for a guttural murmur, which seemed
to well up from her very soul. She left the place. She
would lay another egg to-morrow.
Dewitt — Does your wife follow the fashions closely?
Jewett — I should say so; she has one of these "stand-
ing room only " dresses.
TOO BAD THESE OLD TIMERS DIDN'T UNDERSTAND THE USE OF ELECTRICITY
Cl£OPflTRfl IBIEPHON'MG fiNTOtlY
qHToNY CHONlMd
CLEOpftrRR
■— PfflPiPPlDBS
Dowa if 6 150 mils, sprint
FROM MBRftTHON TO
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PlSCOYERIWG 7H£ t/fl,,T£D 5T/)T£S
fl/YD SIR iVtfiTF/? RALEIGH
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COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED
In this age of electricity everyone should be versed in its phraseology.
By studying this page from month to month a working knowledge
of the most commonly employed electrical terms may be obtained.
Battery, Gravity. — So named because the two
liquids in the jar, copper sulphate and zinc sul-
phate, remain apart, the latter being at the bottom.
A copper plate of almost any shape is placed at
the bottom of a glass jar containing a solution of
blue vitriol (copper sulphate) and an insulated
copper wire connected to it. Water is now poured
on very carefully so it will float on top of the sul-
phate. A zinc in the shape of a crowfoot is then
hung over the edge of the jar and in the water. By
pouring a few drops of sulphuric acid into the
water the cell is ready for work. Electromotive
force, 1.07 volts; internal resistance, 2 to 5 ohms;
adapted to closed circuit work. Referred to also
as blue stone cell and crowfoot battery.
Battery, Grenet. — A bottle-shaped type of the
bichromate battery consisting of a zinc plate
suspended between two carbon plates in such a
manner that the zinc alone is withdrawn from the
solution when the cell is not in service. The
bichromate solution used is called electropoion.
It is made by mixing one gallon of sulphuric acid
with three gallons of water (acid poured into water
to prevent explosion) in one vessel and in another
potassium bichromate and boiling water, six pounds
bichromate and two gallons water. Then mix the
two solutions. Electromotive force, 1.9 to 2.1 volts;
internal resistance, .016 to .08 ohms. For either
open or closed circuit work.
Battery, Grove's. — Similar to the Bunsen bat-
tery except that Grove used a strip of platinum in-
stead of carbon in his cell.
Battery, Local — A batterv used to operate a
relay, transmitter or other device in a building or
station, its circuit being closed by a relay located
on circuits coming in from the outside or main
line.
Battery, Main. — Applied in telegraphy to the
battery used to operate the main line relays which
in turn actuate the local circuits. Also used in
the same manner to distinguish the line from the
local batteries in railroad block signalling.
Battery, Open Circuit. — A battery suitable
to use on circuits where current is required for very
short periods only, and which does not exhaust
itself by local action when left on open circuit.
The Lechanche is of this type.
Battery, Plunge. — So named because the
battery plates are mounted so that they may be
lifted out of the solution when the battery is not in
use. (See Battery, Bichromate.)
Battery, Primary. — Made up of cells in which
the electric current is supplied by the dissolving of
one of the plates. Distinguished from the storage or
secondary battery by not having to be charged.
Battery, Sal Ammoniac — Consists of a glass
jar which is filled about three-quarters full of water
in which a quantity of sal ammoniac is dissolved.
In this solution a carbon plate which forms the
positive pole of the cell is immersed and also a zinc
rod. The carbon and zinc should not touch each
other. Current flows from the zinc to the carbon in
the cell. Electromotive force, 1.4 volts; internal re-
sistance .3 to .5 ohm. Adapted to open circuit work.
Battery, Secondary. — See Battery, Storage.
Battery Solution. — The liquid or electrolyte
in either a primary or secondary cell.
Battery, Smee. — A zinc forms the positive plate
and a silver plated copper plate coated with plat-
inum black is used for the negative. Polarization
is prevented by the bubbles of hydrogen easily
releasing themselves from the numerous small
points on the platinum surface. Zinc is used for
the positive plate. The electrolyte consists of
water, 7 parts; sulphuric acid, 1 part. Electro-
motive force .47 volt; current falls off rapidly on
closed circuit.
Battery, Storage. — A secondary battery. As
first brought out by Plante it consisted of two lead
plates, or two sets of lead plates either corrugated
or perforated, each set fastened together so that the
plates of one set fit in between those of the other but
do not touch them. All are immersed in dilute
sulphuric acid. When current is sent into this
cell a chemical action takes place, the plates
through which the current enters the cell receiving
a coating of lead oxide while the surface of the other
plates turns gray and spongy. As soon as the
positive plates are covered with the red peroxide of
lead the cell is charged. Connect the cell to an
outside circuit and the process of charging is reversed.
The oxide of lead changes to sulphate of lead and
the spongy lead on the other plates also changes to
sulphate of lead. The discharge should not con-
tinue beyond the point where the voltage goes below
1.75 per cell.
Faure modified this cell by using a paste of red
oxide moistened with sulphuric acid to fill the per-
forations of the positive plates and a paste of yellow
lead or litharge to put into the negative plates.
Mso, both plates may be filled with a paste of sul-
phate of lead and sulphuric acid. The voltage of
one cell when fully charged is about 2.2 volts.
Battery Syringe. — A syringe made of a cylinder
of glass within which is a small hydrometer (See
Areometer). Some of the electrolyte being drawn
into the cylinder its density may be read through
the glass. Made especially for testing automobile
batteries. Employed also to remove dead liquid
from the electrolyte and to replace same with
fresh solution.
Battery, Sir William Thompson's. — Similar to
the gravity battery in construction. Consists of a
number of wooden trays lined with lead. On the
bottom of each tray is placed a thin plate of copper
and upon this wooden blocks which support a zinc
plate, the corners of which are turned up. These
corners support the next tray. For directions as
to charging see Battery, Gravity. Electromotive
force. 1.07. Must be kept on closed circuit.
Battery, Volta's. — A simple cell consisting of a
plate of zinc and one of copper immersed in a dilute
solution of sulphuric acid and water, which Volta
devised following his discovery that two unlike
metals in contact in air have a difference of potential
existing between them. Polarizes quickly.
Popular. Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
HENRY WALTER YOUNG. Editor
Vol. HI
September, 1910
No. 5
CONTENTS
Page
THE EDISON CAST CONCRETE HOUSE. By
Wm. H. Meadowcroft 367
THE HUMAN HERITAGE. By E. M. Smith 369
THE FARMER'S LIGHT AND POWER 373
Pre-Electric Trolleys 375
ELECTRICITY AND THE SUBMARINES. By
Frank C. Perkins 376
Impromptu Elephant Ambulance. 379
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY, CHAPTER
XXIX. By Edwin J. Houston 380
Reno Fight Returns Shown Electrically 386
PROMINENT PEOPLE AND THEIR ELECTRIC
AUTOS. By Waldon Fawcett 387
Electric Grain Handling in Roumania 390
THE STORY OF THE SUNBURY STATION. By
W. S. Andrews 381
Lightning and Bl st Furnaces 393
Dvnamo Building an Exact Science 393
Electric Bleaching Saves Health 393
TALKS WITH THE JUDGE 394
Light Motors for Airships 395
Indirect Illumination for the Steel Pier 396
WHERE ELECTRICITY STANDS IN THE PRAC-
TICE OF MEDICINE. CHAPTER IX.
By Noble M. Eberhart 397
An Electric Light Cane 399
Three Minute Stair Lighting 399
THE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTION 400
Largest Sign in The World 402
A City in Miniature 403
Steel City Wire Tower 405
To and From the Gold Prince 405
First Electric Automobile in the United States 406
Tubes of Light at the Taft Banquet 407
What is a "High" Voltage 407
AUTOMOBILES AS ENGINES OF WAR 408
INDUCTION COILS IN VAUDEVILLE 410
Testing High Tension Insulations 412
Renewing Worn-out Lamps 412
Electrified St^ge Costume 413
Wire Chiefs Meet 413
A Ton of Platinum 413
Ancient Tarsus Electric Lighted 414
Bridge Gate to Stop Runaways 414
Measuring Temperature in Concrete 414
Gyroscope for Window Cleaners 415
An Electrical "What is It?" 415
Insect Shuts Down Power System 415
Page
Did Not Disturb the Wires 415
Josephine and Her Fan 416
The Optimist 416
Clock Selling Once and Now 417
Steam vs. Electric Engines 417
DESIGN OF A SMALL LIGHTING PLANT. By
Warren. H. Miller 418
Wires 100 Amperes Will Fuse 421,
Tungsten Street Suspension Lamps 421'
Homemade Lamp Reach 422
Enamel Insulated Magnet Wire 422
Insulating Materials 423
Handy Portable Lamp 424
Nerve-Saving Ambulances 424
The Bed Post Fan 424
Motor-Driven Paper Cutter 425
Hot and Cold Air Douche ; 425
Automatic Elevators and Dumb Waiters 422
Automatic Street Announcer 427
Clock With Pendulum Above 427
Engraving Dies by Machinery 428
Lamp With Magnet Base 429
Mer-Maid Hair Singer 429
ELECTRICAL MEN OF THE TIMES, Wm. H. ,
Meadowcroft 430
Causes of Fire 431
THE LETTERS OF A BACHELOR GIRL. By
R. Gracelyn Everett 432
New Electric Washer and Wringer 435
The Latest Electric Iron 435
Hughes Electric Cook Stove 436
Flies and the Electric Fan 436
OBEDIENCE TO THE LAW OF THE GIANT 437
AN ELECTRICAL LABORATORY FOR TWEN-
TY-FIVE DOLLARS. PART IX. By
David P. Morrison • 442
Experiment with Carborundum 445
ABOUT WIRELESS LEGISLATION 446
Lightning and the Aerial 448
HIGH-POWER WIRELESS EQUIPMENT. PART
V. By Alfred P. Morgan 449
Chicago Wireless Club 453
Wireless Queries 453
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 455
Book Reviews 457
HOW TO BECOME AN ELECTRICAL ENGI-
NEER 458
SHORT CIRCUITS 460
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED 462
D> E7M J7\A/ A T ^» When your subscription expires, you will find a renewal blank enclosed here. You should fill out and return same
,vlji' *-* » » r\Mn& with remittance at once, to avoid missing a number. Positively no copies Will be mailed on any subscription after
same expires unless renewed, and we can not agree to begin subscriptions With back numbers. The date on Wrapper of your magazine shows
the Issue with Which your subscription ends.
PHAMPF OF AnriR17^Q Notify us promptly of any change in your address, giving both the old and new location.
V*nA\l^V»l-« V7r /-\ L/L^rvc.JJ Since each issue is printed a month before the date It bears, We should be notified at least
four weeks in advance, in order to make the necessary change in our records.
ISSUED MONTHLY BY POPULAR ELECTRICITY PUBLISHING CO., Commercial Bldg., Chicago, 111.
YEARLY SUBSCRIPTION, $1.00; CANADIAN, $1.35; FOREIGN. $1.50; SINGLE COPY, 10 CENTS
No additional copies Will be sent after expiration of subscription except upon renewal
Entered as Second Class Mitter April H, 1908, at the Post Office at Chicago. Under Act of March 3, 1878.
Copyright 1910 by Popular Electricity Publishing Co.
rn Plain English
VOL. Ill
SEPTEMBER 1910
No. 5
The Edison Cast Concrete House
By W. H. MEADOWCROFT
For many years past Mr. Edison has been
much interested in the betterment of homes
for workingmen and their families, realizing
the onerous and unsanitary conditions under
which vast numbers of them are at present
compelled to live, with apparently little out-
look for permanent improvement.
After some meditation on the subject, he
began to think up a plan which would pro-
vide for families of small income a class of
homes that should not only be substantial
and thoroughly sanitary, but at the same
time handsome and conducive to self-respect,
and, last but not least, suited to a modest
pocket book, either for rental or owner-
ship.
The outcome was the conception of a
concrete house to be cast in moulds so as
to form one inseparable piece from cellar
floor to tip of chimney. To crystallize his
ideas and bring them into practical shape,
Mr. Edison consulted architects, and also
put a force of engineers, draughtsmen, pat-
tern makers, mechanics, sculptors, and con-
crete experts at work to carry out the in-
vestigations he had made. After about
eight years of thought and experiment all
this has resulted in the evolution of plans
for a sample type of house of which the
model is shown in the frontispiece.
This model represents the character of
the house which Mr. Edison will construct
of concrete. He believes it can be built by
machinery, in lots of ioo or more at one
location, for a price which will be so low that
it can be purchased or rented by families
whose total income is not more than $550
per annum. It is an attempt to solve the
housing question by a practical application
of science, and the latest advancement in
cement and mechanical engineering. With
this idea in mind he has conducted a large
number of experiments. These experiments
have proven that it is possible to cast a house
complete in six hours by pouring a very wet
mixture of gravel, sand and cement into
iron moulds having the form of a house, and
after the removal of the forms or moulds,
leave standing a complete house with a fine
surface, plain or ornamental, all in one solid
piece, including the cellar, partitions, floors,
roof, stairs, mantels, veranda — in fact every-
thing except the windows and doors, which
are of wood and the only parts of the house
that are combustible.
The house is to be heated by boiler and
radiators in the usual manner; the plumbing
to be open and jointed by electric welding.
The experimental house has the parti-
tions arranged to give, besides the cellar,
two rooms on the first story (one to be used
as a living room and the other for a kitchen) ;
the second story to have two rooms and
bath; the roof story to have two rooms.
When large numbers of houses are made, the
partitions can be changed to make more
rooms. Once the house is cast, however,
no changes can be made — nothing but dyna-
mite could be used to remove the partitions
without great expense.
Well-made concrete, employing a high
grade of Portland cement, is the most lasting
material known.
In Italy, at the present time, there exist,
concrete structures made of old Roman
cement, constructed more than a thousand
years ago, and which are still in a good
state of preservation.
368
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Concrete will last as long as granite, and
is far more resistant to fire than any known
stone.
The iron moulds for the full size house are,
at the present time, about 60 per cent com-
pleted, and it may be possible that before
the coming fall they will be finished and the
first house cast. If successful, Mr. Edison
will use the forms to cast a few sample
houses, to prove how, with a few simple
additions to the iron forms, a great many
variations in the type of houses can be made.
For instance, by changing or subtracting
iron sections, the house can be made smaller
and cheaper. By adding sections, the num-
ber of stories can be increased, or the house
can be widened or lengthened. By a few
additional forms, the whole appearance of
the veranda can be changed. A contract-
ing company having the smallest unit possi-
ble to permit of cheap and rapid production,
must have six sets of moulds with the other
necessary machinery. From these iron sec-
tions, almost any variation in the size, ap-
pearance and ornamentation of a row of
houses can be made. The concrete could
be tinted with any color, but the general
type would be the same. The units might
be divided and thereby three complete
moulds for one type of house and three sets
for an entirely different type, would be se-
cured.
This scheme of constructing houses cheap-
ly and in quantities does not permit of the
building of one house at a time, for the reason
that the moulds are heavy and costly to
move from one place to another. The ma-
chinery necessary to handle the materials
as well as for the erection of the iron moulds
is also large and expensive.
The hardening of the cement requires
four days. While one house is hardening,
the men would either have to remain idle
or be laid off during this period, and this
would not be practicable; whereas, if the
full minimum unit of six sets of moulds and
machinery were in operation, the thirty-
seven men necessary could be employed con-
tinuously erecting, pouring, and removing
forms from one lot to another, at a minimum
of expense.
Mr. Edison believes that houses of the
type shown in the model can be built for
$1,200 each, in any Community where ma-
terial excavated from the cellar is sand and
gravel, so that it can be used. If the sand
and gravel must be obtained elsewhere, the
cost will be much more. A change in the
forms may be made so that a house can be
built that will look just as well, but smaller,
at less cost. On the other hand, by addi-
tion to the forms, houses costing $2,000 or
$3,000 or more, can be built.
To give a rough idea of the cost, Mr.
Edison estimates that six sets of iron forms
for the house he is to build will cost about
$25,000 per set — a total cost of $150,000.
The cranes, traction steam shovel, conveying
and hoisting machinery, he estimates will
cost $25,000 additional, making a total
investment of $175,000. With this ma-
chinery 12 houses per month can be made
every month in the year, with the aid of
one foreman, one engineer, and 35 laborers.
This gives 144 houses per year for the unit.
If he can prove this, then the labor cost per
house will not exceed $150.
Allowing six per cent interest and four
per cent for breakage on the cost of the
forms, and six per cent interest with fifteen
per cent depreciation on machinery, the
yearly expense will be about $20,000.
Dividing this into 144, the number of houses
built in the year, gives approximately $140
per house, for cost of moulds and machinery.
Two hundred and twenty barrels of cement
will be mixed with the sand and gravel
excavated from the cellar, and will provide
sufficient material to build the house. Al-
lowing $1.40 per barrel for cement, adds a
further sum of $310. The reinforcing steel
rods cost $125; and the heating system and
bath $150. These items total $875. This
leaves a margin of $325 between that sum
and $1,200 to provide for doors, windows,
painting, etc., and the correction of any
possible defects.
If the houses are smaller and 225 can be
built in the year for the same investment and
labor, it will be easy, from the above data,
to approximate the cost per house; the same
is true with larger size houses.
These houses will be waterproof and damp-
proof. The roofs, after the forms are rer
moved, are to be painted with a paint made
of cement tinted with red oxide of iron, which
hardens and never deteriorates. Cement
can be tinted to any color, or any shade of
that color, and the inside or outside can be
painted, and is permanent. The cost of
the paint for the whole house, inside and
out, including roof, will be very small.
Should the experiment succeed, Mr.
Edison will furnish all plans and give full
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
369
license to reputable building corporations
without cost, as he is not making these ex-
periments for money.
Mr. Edison thinks the age of concrete
has started, and believes he can prove that
the most beautiful houses that our archi-
tects can conceive may be cast in one opera-
tion in iron forms at a cost, which by com-
parison with the present methods, will be
surprising.
When this can be done even the poorest
man among us will be enabled to own a
home of his own — a home that will last for
centuries with no cost for insurance or re-
pairs, and be as exchangeable for other
property as a United States bond.
The Human Heritage
By E. M. SMITH
EARS are but mo-
ments in eternity, and
a century is a short
time to the dead or
sleeping, yet at the
present rate of dis-
covery and invention
unbelievable changes
in the life and cus-
toms of men will in.
that time have been
made. What bodily changes took place
after that day when two of us mutually
agreed to submit to the experiment of brain
inoculation with the new drug Nervine is not
a matter that concerns us now; we only know
that we were able to look into the future from
a vantage point never before gained. Our
trains resumed their normal functions one
hundred years later while our bodies re-
mained invisible. We became spirits of
another age; moving, seeing, thinking in the
far away future.
Waking from so long a stupor we are dazed
and all is blank until we grow accustomed
to our surroundings. We are far away in
space but everything appears as we always-
thought it would. Land and water is dis-
tinguishable from our great height above.
Gradually cities and rivers can be seen but
we shortly discover that our view is disturbed
by a horde of objects in the air. We natu-
rally conclude that some strange bird has
developed since our time, but our conclusions
are soon corrected, for even at our distance
we soon perceive that the flying creatures are
entirely mechanical. ' They appear to have
limitations as to the heights above the earth
to which they can attain. We therefore
hurriedly drop to their plane for we are con-
trolled with the pernicious curiosity of our
day.
The inhabitants of the air are now all
about us. They are a new craft to our eyes.
Never have we seen their like before. They
are built on entirely novel lines with extreme
variance in shapes. Some are long and
rakish as for speed, while others are com-
modious and extremely massive. They all
skurry hither and thither, shooting upward,
dropping downward, racing straight away or
curving gracefully, leisurely through the air.
Flying is evidently now the ordinary pastime.
The whole world must have become as
thoroughly accustomed to flying as we were
to the motor car.
Invisibly we board one of the largest. It
is a palace, it contains many decks, is wide,
comfortable and extremely stable. There
is absolutely no motion, no rolling, not even
slight careening as it turns upon its course.
There is no vibration. What is its power?
Surely not steam for there is no smoke. Our
desire to know so overpowers us that we can
not spare the time to see the people - nor
examine the luxuries of the great craft.
Into the bowels of the ship we hasten. We
search in vain for an engine room or even
a dynamo room, but we do find a compart-
ment amidship just under the upper deck
of which spins a horizontal wheel. Its
construction is the very lightest possible.
It is made of material resembling platinum
and consists of hub, spokes and rim. Its
diameter equals the widest dimensions of
the vessel. Its axis is vertical and the power
somewhere above. This wheel is rigidly
supported by beams extending to every
quarter of the ship. Our first discovery
shows us that the' gyroscope has yielded a
secret of which our 1 910 monorail inventors
have absolutely no knowledge. It over-
comes gravity in addition to assuring sta-
bility. Above this silent, spinning wheel we
look for the force which propels it. We
370
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
find on the upper deck a small house con-
taining the only machinery the craft contains.
At a glance the secret is laid bare — Elec-
tricity— the marvelous force of which we
made such use yet knew so little. Our descen-
dants have wrested fromNature's'store greater,
vaster and more useful knowledge. They
have snatched the unseen power from the
air without the use of generator or other
mechanical device. They have learned that
free in the air are positive and negative ele-
ments. The only requisites to control being
some simple device to attract the two in
proper quantities. This they do by pushing
upward a slender pole of cunning workman-
ship. The material of the pole with its
shining needle point whispers a siren song
to the warring elements which with the
humility of a stricken lion give their power
into man's keeping to be used in whatever
strength and volume he chooses.
Every craft is equipped with the collecting
pole as it is called, the machinery, at its
base, receiving its power direct and thereby
impelling the great horizontal wheel. Small-
er wheels are found fore and aft which
enable the craft to rise or drop at will of the
navigator. A long slender rudder gives
direction. The steering wheel has been
abandoned. In its place electric buttons
operate the rudder and all mechanisms.
For a few moments we stand in awe of
this monster of the air whose very existence
depends upon a slender pole which, while
glistening and peaceful, forces from the limit-
less space above a dynamic power greater
than the development of many engines of
our day. We tremble when we glance
below. Far above the solid earth we float.
The distance is appalling and momentarily
we shudder at the possibility of suddenly
being projected through space. We think
ourselves human like the many happy, light-
hearted aboard and look with horror at the
great distance.
Our ship doesn't turn turtle nor do we see
other similar craft meeting with any acci-
dents whatever. A very remarkable feature
of this mastery of the air is the fact that there
are no collisions, though the flying wonders
travel at incredible speed. They pass and
repass each other, darting above or below
or sidewise at will, traversing a pathless
universe. Our minds can not comprehend
the marvel of such infallible navigation.
Our first experience with impending dis-
aster left us breathless and inert with fear.
Our mammoth craft is headed directly
toward a sister ship. On and on they come,
making collision inevitable. Yet they pass
in safety. We do not appear to change our
direction in the least, neither does the other
craft, yet we do not collide. At the same
time smaller ships slip by above and below
us. What can the secret be? Another in-
comprehensible wonder to our narrow un-
developed minds. Yet so simple. Our suc-
cessors calmly utilize a physical law of
electricity that like repels like. Laws of aerial
navigation therefore prescribe that each
craft shall cause to radiate from itself a
repelling force which acting upon other
bodies makes collision impossible. This
repelling force is constant and under no
condition can two aerial crafts come closer
to. each other than a prescribed distance.
Consequently there can be no traffic in the
air between vessels.
As we near our goal we see the Great
Lakes and are glad to come back home.
We choose Chicago, but are astounded at
its cleanliness. No heavy pall of smoke
overhangs it. In fact the air is so clean that
for a time we think the great metropolis has
ceased its manufacturing industry. In our
day the stock yards vomited smoke enough
to affect the entire adjoining country, but
now the air is as sweet as a clover field in
haying time. We no longer wonder at the
cause. We know it is the all-powerful, in-
visible electric current, and as we draw closer
to the city we recognize the slender poles
tipped with their sparkling points.
Trains shoot about the country as of old,
but they use one rail only. Their speed is
much greater than trains of our day though
the passenger traffic appears much lighter.
Nearly all the trains we see are freights.
People evidently prefer aerial travel.
We hover close to the ground witnessing
the marvels of this new world. Changes are
so pronounced that we see little of the old
regime. We of today had but suggested.
Our successors are the masters. Streets and
buildings and means of locomotion there
are, but, oh so changed. Pavements are of
indestructible concrete reinforced with metal
new to us — traffic is under strange regula-
tions and the vehicles are all of modern type
— the air is full of traffic and the maelstrom
of humanity in the great canons of streets
is a dizzying sight, for the buildings rise on
all sides so far overhead as to appear to fade
away into the vanishing distance.
THE HUMAN HERITAGE
371
All streets are on a level with basements
which extend out to the curbs. Above are
the sidewalks, the outer portions of which are
traveling platforms moving at a rate of
about three miles per hour, traveling in
opposite directions on the two sides of each
street, crossing on girders and passing over
or under each other at varying heights.
Pedestrians are safe from street crossing
accidents and can travel leisurely or at
considerable speed on the moving plat-
forms. There are no street cars, but an
aerial line of transportation is maintained.
At convenient
points land-
ing stages are
built above
the sidewalks
and reached
by moving
steps. In the
streets below,
vehicles cor-
responding to
our autos but
far more
commodious
speed along,
being pro-
tected from
accident b y
adaptation of
some physi-
cal law simi-
lar to the re-
pelling force
of the aerial
ship. We do
not have time
to enquire.
There is so
much to see
and do that we can not be tempted by
insignificant detail.
One thing paramount and unforgettable
is the evident peace of mind and contentment
emphasized by every face we scan. The
people are all happy and satisfied and we
soon learn the cause.
Competition has been supplanted by gov-
ernmental control. The government is the
employer very largely, but private enter-
prise is not stifled. It is not only allowed but
encouraged under absolute restrictions as
to costs of material, wages, hours, salaries,
selling prices and even dividends. There
is no over production or waste. All natural
EVERY SIGNAL WORKED OUT ON THE KEYS
resources are conserved and protected
Man has learned the meaning of real human
charity and the value of living in harmony
with fellow man. Everyone knows that
the other is working and living under exactly
the same conditions as himself. There is
no occasion for "putting over a deal," con-
sequently unalloyed contentment. Utopia
indeed. Can you imagine a grander sequel
to our ownnerve racking, life destroying. daily
endeavor to get the best of our neighbors?
Welcome the day though its coming has
taken a hundred years to accomplish.
Fearing
lest we might
awake we
hurry away
from this vor-
tex of human
achievement
and seek a
home in a
quiet suburb.
As we pass
over the city
we rejoice at
its prosperity.
There are no
slums, no ten-
e m e n t s, no
hovels — all
the great
mass of hu-
m anity is
housed com-
fortably, but
the city has
spread over
an enormous
territory and
we have a
long journey
to arrive at the more open country.
The house we choose contains every
species of luxury one can possibly dream of
and yet it does not appear to house a rich
owner, for there are degrees of wealth still.
Some houses are far more pretentious than
others. This is a middle man's home, a
worker for the Government.
Let us dip a little deeper into these dream-
land realities. My lady wishes to order her
dinner. She no longer must, perforce,
harangue her cook nor complain against
the tardiness of the delivery boy. She simply
'phones her caterer (the Government again).
She tells him what she wants and how she
372
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
wants it served. At the appointed hour
she and her guests or family repair to the
dining room where the food is delivered to
her .through pneumatic tubes. If a maid
is employed the outlet is at a serving table,
if alone, the tube places the dishes on the
table. The food is perfectly cooked and is
delivered in sealed receptacles like thermos
bottles. All plates and silver come by the
same route and return when the meal is
completed. Could anything be simpler?
There are no servants. There is an equality
disturbed only by mental ability and even
then there is no bragging nor conceit. The
master minds do not secure greater joy of
living.
In the drawing room with the family we
continue to view in wonderment the new
life, electric buttons abound, each properly
labeled. Warm or cool breezes are equally
easy to secure, but the telephone shows the
greatest advance. As in our day we com-
manded the air currents to carry our wire-
less telegrams, so do we find our descendants
talking to their friends but with the utmost
ease. Every house or suite of offices, fac-
tory or store, is equipped with a separate
compartment known as the 'phone room.
Where space is valuable this room is a mere
closet but at the home it is luxuriantly fur-
nished where the speaker sits and simply
talks at an instrument on the farther wall
which in turn transmits to the air waves.
The method of making connections is the
most interesting feature. A small instrument
with keys like a typewriter is used. These
keys represent code signs. Every one is
designated by an individual code signal.
This signal is wprked out on the keys by
pressing the proper ones. The signal is
sent broadcast throughout a prescribed
district. If your party is within the limits
of this district she or he is notified through
the medium of a small pocket instrument
which is always carried about the person.
Repairing to the nearest 'phone room the
speaking connection is made. No one can
cut in on your conversation for the little
key board permits of only one combination
at a time. Very simple, isn't it ? And such
a comfort. You can lie on the couch or
do your fancy work and talk. The tele-
phone is operated and maintained by the
Government and every house in the land
obtains the service with no direct expense.
We find other uses for the 'phone room.
The new life has discarded some of our
standard institutions and introduced de-
cidedly novel features. There are no theaters
nor music nor lecture halls. Actors per-
form on a stage without an audience. Bands
play in a band room just large enough for
its own accommodation while a public man
delivers his lecture in his own home or in
specially equipped rooms in public build-
ings. The entire audience listens and
watches, each in his own 'phone room, for
every motion, grimace, sign and sound is
accurately transmitted to whomsoever de-
sires. On a peculiar surface which resem-
bles crusted glass the movements are pro-
duced. The telephone connection transmits
and receives. Thus does the actor perform
before immense audiences while every ripple
of applause or otherwise is immediately
carried to him. The theater, music and
public speaking are at the command of all.
Many are the marvels of which we can not
speak owing to the lack of time. We are
loath to leave this Arcadia of our dreams.
We, therefore, must simply conclude by
calling attention to the fact that the fount
of this wonderful metamorphosis is electrical
power wrested from the elements with most
extraordinary ease. Throughout the city
are to be seen the slender poles converting
into channels of industry the power of the
wind and rain and sun — whatever is a part
of the universe above. So it is all over the
country and the Government absorbs all
expense. Every living soul may use it as
he chooses. The supply is inexhaustible
and wasteless, and happy is mortal man.
* H5 %
In fact Electricity is the earthly mani-
festation of a Creator who loves his people
and loving them has brought them through
the Desert of Israel to a perfect existence.
Happiness is the human heritage; discord
and petty strife is a strange sight though not
entirely eradicated. One hundred years is
a short time to make over the human mind.
Therefore there still remains a gradually
lessening few who cling to the past and com-
plain against the new order of things. They
can not accustom themselves to seeing their
neighbors always happy and contented.
Such is the age in which we now live — the
age of infant Electricity, but mark my word,
vast changes are sure to transpire in our
short lives and now that we have awakened
from our electric dream I ask you to recall
my reading of the future when you look
down upon mortals from your throne.
The Farmer's Light and Power
It happens now, when we ride through the
country after dark, that we often come to
farm houses as brilliantly lighted by electric-
ity as any in the heart of a big city where the
blessings of electric current are popularly
supposed to be confined. From where the
electricity is obtained is not at first evident,
for no transmission line leads to the premises
from the distant town. Yet there stands the
house with its welcoming porch light and
bright interior, and at a little distance away
greatest step was taken toward giving the
farmer electric light. This lamp affords the
same amount of light as the ordinary carbon
filament lamp, with about one-third the
current, so naturally smaller engines, dyna-
mos, and batteries are required to light a
group of buildings, and an equipment so
reduced in size comes within the means of the
average farm owner.
It is hardly necessary to dwell upon the
advantages of electricity for lighting, already
THE LAY-OUT OF A FARM LIGHT AND POWER PLANT
stands the barn where brilliant lights, which
are not lanterns, come and go suddenly in
different parts of the structure — now in the
barn stairway, now up in the hay mow, now
down in various parts of the great basement,
as the farmer moves about doing the evening
"chores."
The answer to all this is that the prosper-
ous farmer will have electricity and not being
able to buy it as a commodity, as does his
city brother, he makes it himself. In the
corner of some workshop or out building you
will find the little plant driven by its throb-
bing gasoline engine, and from it the con-
ducting wires lead to every building on the
premises.
With the introduction of the tungsten
lamp, which came a few years ago, the
so well realized. Flaming oil lamps and
lanterns, with attendant match lighting have
been the cause of numberless fires. With
the introduction of electricity these hazards
disappear. A comparison, too, of the old
and the new illuminants in quality of light is
useless — there is no comparison.
A farm lighting plant, such for instance as
that furnished by the Electric Storage Battery
Company of Philadelphia, consists, first, of
a small gasoline engine of standard manu-
facture. Such an engine is reliable, econom-
ical in the consumption of fuel, is easily kept
in order and does not require either constant
or expert attention. A muffler is attached to
the exhaust pipe so that it is practically
noiseless while running. The engine can be
started when desired and left to run as long
374
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
as may be required,
it not being necessary
to watch or care for
it while in operation.
Country residents
or farmers often have
an engine for running
a pump or other
farming machinery,
which, if of suitable
design, can be util-
ised for running the
dynamo, thus saving a very considerable part
of the cost of the lighting equipment.
The source of electricity for a lighting
plant is the electric dynamo. It is connected
either direct to the engine shaft or else a short
belt is used. The wires running from the
dynamo go first to a simple switchboard
and from there to the storage battery
The engine develops mechanical energy,
which is transformed into electrical energy
by the dynamo. The storage battery acts
just like a water tank; it is a reservoir which
stores electricity to be supplied whenever
needed, so that it is unnecessary to run the
engine and dynamo continuously in order to
have electric light at all hours of the day
and night.
The length of time which an engine must
be operated ......
and the fre-
quency of oper-
ation are deter- ■
mined by the |
size of the \
storage battery /
and the amount
o f electricit y \
required for !
the operation
of lamps or
motors after the engine is shut down.
Storage batteries are furnished that re-
quire charging once each day, larger
batteries require
i charging only
\ once in two or
| three days, and
■ others still larger
| will store current
for a week or
more. Batteries
require an engine
lO be run from
four to ten hours
to charge them,
the time depend-
ing upon how
much electricity
has previously
been used from
the battery.
A storage bat-
tery of the type
used for small
lighting plants is
made up of a
number of glass
jars in which are suspended properly
prepared lead battery plates, the jars being
filled with an acid solution called the electro-
lyte. The jars and plates compose a cell.
. The cells are
placed on trays on
a rack, or set of
\ shelves, usually of
two tiers. A bat-
tery for a 15 light
plant consists of
nineteen cells,
which may be ar-
ranged on two
substantial
shelves, one above
the other, each shelf being about 2\ feet
long and one foot wide, with head room of
?,\ feet. A larger battery would be installed
on a two tier rack, occupying a floor space
of about nine feet by one foot and six inches.
The cost of wiring a house varies consider-
ably, due to the different methods employed in
installing the wires. If it is desired to have
all the wires out of sight, they can be run
between partitions, and outlets made in the
ceilings or walls at desired places. This is
known as the concealed method of wiring.
Wires can be run in wooden moldings, which
are painted to match woodwork, and there-
fore are not conspicuous. This is known as
the molding method of wiring. In cases,
however, where the appearance of wires is
not objectionable, as in barns, stables, cellars
or attics, the ex- .,
terior or exposed
method of wiring
considerably re-
duces the ex-
pense. Wiring,
where there are
approximately
ten or more lights
to install, can be
done at from
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
375
$2.00 to $2.50
per light, which
includes wire,
lamp socket and
lamp and all
necessary mate-
rial except the
fixture.
Electric light-
ing plants can
be furnished for
any number of
lamps that may be desired. The cost
of a plant will vary with the number
of lamps that are burned, but an approximate
idea of the expense involved is given. As an
illustration, a lighting equipment suitable
for an ordinary sized home requiring the
installation of from 1 5 to 20 lamps, consists of
a small gasoline engine with a suitable gener-
ator, a storage battery of "chloride accumu-
lators" and a small switchboard, and can be
purchased for approximately the sum of $400.
This price includes a complete plant with the
exception of incandescent lamps, fixtures and
wiring.
The cost of installing this plant, including
freight, labor, incandescent lamps and wir-
ing, with the exception of fixtures (chande-
liers), would be
approximately
from $75 to
$125. The stor-
age battery of
this plant would
be of sufficient
size to furnish
the evening
lighting, morn-
ing lighting
when desired,
and for supplying one or two lights dur-
ing the night in case of illness, or for
some other purpose, as is described in the
next paragraph. At other hours of the day,
any considerable amount of light or power
would be taken direct from the dynamo.
The running of the engine for charging the
battery can be done at any convenient time.
In cases where current is also furnished for
electric motors for operating cream separators,
pumps, washing machines, etc., which are
used during the day, the engine is usually
run while the motors are being used, during
which time the battery is also charged, so
that after the motors have been shut down
the electricity stored in the battery is ready
for furnishing
lighting at other
times. On spe-
cial occasions,
such as parties j
o r receptions, \
when it is de-
sired to burn all
the lamps con-
tinuously, the
engine can be
kept running and the electricity generated
by it, together with that previously stored
in the battery can be united and the plant
will then furnish ample current for special
illuminations.
The operating cost of an electric lighting
plant is \ practically covered by the cost of
, ^^g the fuel required
to run the engine.
A one-horse pow-
er gasoline engine
will cost about 2 \
cents per hour for
gasoline running
at jj full load, as-
suming gasoline to
cost 18 cents per
gallon. This
means that electric lighting can be sup-
plied where 15 lights are installed for from
four cents to eight cents per day.
Pre-electric Trolleys
So closely is the word "trolley" connected
nowadays with swift electric cars that most
people assume it to be a distinctly electrical
term and one suggestive of speed in its
origin. This is far from true, [for the old
French word from which it is derived means
"to ramble, stroll or drag about." Allied
to it was the Welsh word "troell," meaning
a wheel or pulley. This more nearly sug-
gests the contact part of our modern elec-
tric cars, but the word trolley itself was first
used in England to designate a handcart
and later a truck. Thus the steam pro-
pelled car introduced into British India in
1876 for carrying repair or inspection crews
along the Oude and Bohilkund Railway was
called a "trolly." Six years later when
Daft and Van Depoele began to instal elec-
tric railways with overhead wires, they used
the term "trolley" (adding the e which the
British had omitted) to denote the contact
wheel which takes the current from the wire.
Electricity and the Submarines
BY FRANK C. PERKINS
With almost feverish haste the naval de-
partments of the principal "civilized" na-
tions of recent years have been building
battleships of constantly increasing size
and gun power. At first it was a race for
supremacy between the gun maker and the
armour plate maker with the former gener-
ally a little ahead. As the years went by
the effectiveness of the torpedo, charged
Then men found that a boat could be
made that would float on the surface or
dive and swim for miles beneath — with that
same ominous little torpedo tube sticking
out in front. Once more there was con-
sternation and with good cause, for one of
the submarines, if it could manage to poke
the torpedo into the hull of a battleship,
could easily send a thousand men and five
HOLLAND SUBMERSIBLE MAKING 13 KNOTS PER HOUR
with the high-power explosives of modern
times, began to be recognized and so the
torpedo boat was evolved, the little " fly-by-
night" scourge which was for a time the
terror of the governments which were sink-
ing millions in the construction of battle-
ships. It wasn't long, however, before the
high-power searchlight, which could turn
night into day for a radius of several miles
about a ship, and the torpedo boat de-
stroyer, of marvelous speed and armed with
rapid-f.re guns, together came near putting
the torpedo boat out of business, and left
the gun makers and the armour plate
makers to renew their interrupted race
without fear that their labors would go for
naught.
or six millions of dollars worth of gun boat
to the bottom of the sea.
As no " counter irritant" has yet been dis-
covered for these latest underwater weapons
of naval warfare, all the nations are build-
ing submaries and experimenting with them,
firing men out of the torpedo tubes to see
if they can get to the surface before they
drown and similar "stunts."
Electricity is one of the principal factors
to make possible the submarine boat. For
men to live under water, of course, air is
required. Now a furnace for a steam boiler,
or any kind of internal combustion engine
consumes air, and if steam or gas engines
were used for under water propulsion the
radius of action of the boats would be
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
';$77
A FLEET OF RUSSIAN SUBMERSIBLES
greatly decreased as they would be obliged
to come to the surface sooner for a new
supply of oxygen. So the general plan
adopted is to use petrol engines to propel
the boat when running on the surface
(petrol will not explode like gasoline), the
engines being also used to drive dynamos
which in turn charge storage batteries.
Then when the time comes to dive beneath
the surface the engines are disconnected
from the propellor and the latter is driven
by motors which obtain their supply of
electricity from the storage batteries. The
latter also provide current for lighting the
interior. Therefore, when the boat is
traveling under water the only oxygen con-
sumed is that breathed by the men. Some
of the submarines, it is true, have vertical
air pipes and travel part of the time just
beneath the surface, with the pipe pro-
truding; but when total disappearance is
required the only available air is that con-
tained in the hull.
In order to dive under water it is neces-
sary to let water into certain air compart-
ments until the boat sinks. Here again
the storage battery is a help rather than a
hindrance, because its weight helps to carry
the boat down without making it necessary to
displace quite so much of the precious air.
The Russian flotilla of submarine boats
has probably as great a variety of designs
as any country in the world. Almost every
class of submersible has been tested by that
nation. The Bubnoffs and Bekiemischeffs
types are intermediate size submarines mak-
ing a speed of 15 knots under water, but
while Russia has found these designs
to attain most satisfactory speeds they are
said to have been troublesome and in-
efficient.
It may be stated that the Russian flotilla
includes a number of Hollands and Lake
Submarines.
.The illustration on the preceding page
is a partial view of one of the Holland type
submersibles, built for the Russians and
capable of making 13. 1 knots.
The "Karp," "Kanibala" and "Karas"
are three other Russian submersibles. They
RUSSIAN SUBMERSIBLE KARP
378
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
LAUNCHING THE NORWHAL
are designed for quick diving and great
stability and radius of action.
The total length over all of these boats
is 131 feet with a breadth
of ten feet, a surface
draught of eight feet two
inches and a surface dis-
placement of nearly 200
tons. The submerged dis-
placement is about 236
tons, a submerged speed
of nine knots per hour
being attained and a sur-
face speed of n knots
per hour. The propul-
sion is by electric motors
when the boats are sub-
merged and by oil engines
when the boats are oper-
ating on the surface.
All dangers of explosion are eliminated
by the use of petroleum as a fuel and the
arrangement of the fuel tanks outside of the
hulls of the submarines. The armanent of
these three submersibles includes three
torpedoes and one 18 inch torpedo tube.
AMERICAN SUBMERSIBLE OCTOPUS RISING
AMERICAN SUBMERSIBLE "OCTOPUS" AT FULL SPEED
An idea of the compact arrangement of
the machinery and the little space left for
the men may be gained from the view in
the engine room of one of
the Holland boats.
An Italian submarine
of the " Squalo " type has
a total length over all of
nearly 140 feet and an ex-
treme beam of about 17
feet .the hull free board
being nearly four feet.
The free board to the
top of the conning tower
is 10 feet 9.75 inches and
its surface trim draught
6 feet 10.5 inches. The
surface displacement when
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
379
THE ENGINE ROOM IN A SUBMARINE
the submarine is fully loaded is 180 tons
and it has a reserve of buoyance in light
condition of 60 per cent of displacement.
This type of Italian submersible has eight
bulk heads and a safety drop keel of 13
tons, the hull is designed to withstand sub-
mergence to a depth of 150 feet and the
boat is driven by three propellers. The
maximum power of the electric motors on
these boats is 190 horsepower and the
submerged speed nine knots per hour.
It will be of interest to compare the above
data with the American submarine torpedo
boats "Narwhal" and "Octopus." The
Holland type submarine torpedo boat "Nar-
whal" is provided with engines of 300 horse
power, the submersible making 13. 1 knots
per hour. The "Narwhal" has a total
length of 135 feet, and together with the
"Stingray" and "Tarpon", each measure
105 feet in length, was launched at Quincy,
Mass., at the Fore River Ship-yard.
The U. S. submarine "Octopus" has a
total length of 105 feet and a diameter of
13 feet 9 inches. It has a surface displace-
ment of 240 tons and is provided with en-
gines of 560 horse power, the electric motors
being capable of developing 360 horse power,
and providing a submerged speed of ten
knots per hour. So strong is the shell of
this boat, that a depth of 200 feet may be
reached without danger of collapse.
Impromptu Elephant Ambulance
While helping to push a heavily loaded
wagon out of the deep mud at Piqua, Ohio,
the elephant, "Tillie," belonging to one of
the big circus companies, had the mis-
fortune to strain a tendon in her left front
leg. The swelling rendered expert atten-
tion necessary, bandages and liniment being
immediately applied for temporary relief.
As no veterinary was available at this town,
an electric auto truck was ordered by tele-
graph to be ready at the next stopping point,
South Bend, to transport the elephant from
the circus show grounds to the veterinary
hospital, where the necessary surgical atten-
tion was available.
The picture on the front cover of this
issue shows Tillie about to take her first
"joy ride." She weighs only 8,000 pounds,
not too much for the big electric truck to
handle with ease.
Elementary Electricity
By PROF. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. (Princeton)
CHAPTER XXIX. — THE NERNST, MERCURY- VAPOR, AND VACUUM-TUBE INCANDES-
CENT ELECTRIC LAMPS
Improvements in the efficiency of incan-
descent electric lamps by the use of materials,
that can be safely raised to a higher incan-
descence than the ordinary carbon filament,
have been made with other materials than the
tantalum and tungsten described in the
preceding chapter. These additional ma-
terials can be raised to temperatures greater
than the tantalum or tungsten filaments.
They are, therefore, capable of ensuring
very high efficiencies, as well as marked
improvements in the color values of the light
produced.
The first of these incandescent electric
lamps we shall describe is known as the
Nernst incandescent electric lamp. Its op-
eration is based on the fact that many sub-
stances that are f-airly good insulators at
ordinary temperatures, acquire good con-
ducting powers as their temperature is
increased. For example, a piece of ordi-
nary glass tubing when no warmer than
ordinary atmospheric temperatures, will
permit but a very small electric current to
pass through it. When, however, it is raised
to even below a dull redness, it begins to
conduct electricity, and, as its temperature
rises from the electric heat liberated in it
by reason of its resistance, its conducting
power so rapidly increases that the amount of
current flowing through it will rapidly raise
its temperature to an intense incandes-
cence that will even melt it.
In the Nernst incandescent electric lamp
a small rod or pencil is made from a mixture
of oxides of magnesium and certain rare
earths, such as yttria, zirconia, thoria, and
ceria, together with some suitable binding
material. The rods or pencils are then
dried, roasted and provided with leading-in
wires of platinum, fastened into the ends of
the rods. These rods form what are known
as glowers. They have a length of about
an inch and a diameter of about the thirty-
second of an inch.
The glowers of the Nernst lamp can be
safely exposed to the air when raised to high
incandescence. So far as their life is con-
cerned it is not necessary as in the carbon
filament to place them inside a lamp globe
in which a vacuum is maintained. In
order, however, to protect the glowing reds
from blasts of air, which would tend to
produce an unsteadiness in the light they
emit, they are placed in a lamp globe.
As we have seen, it is necessary to heat the
glowers in order to make them electrically
conducting. This was originally done by
holding a lighted match near them. Even
this slight increase in temperature was suffi-
cient to permit enough current from the
mains to which the glowers were connected
to place the lamp in operation. This
method, however, was not only tedious but
also impracticable owing to the fact that the
globes had to be temporarily removed frori
the glowers before starting, and," where" a
group of glowers were employed, as is gen-
erally the case, too much time was needed
to place the lamp in operation.
Nernst electric lamps as now made belong
to a type known as the automatic lamp,
from the fact that a heating coil is provided
to raise the temperature of the glower for
starting. The heating coil consists of
platinum wire wound on a porcelain cylinder
and placed near the glower.
In actual operation an electric current of
sufficient strength is passed through the heat-
ing coil to raise the platinum wire to a red
heat. With this heat only a short time is
required to raise the temperature of the
glower sufficiently to permit the operating
current to flow. In well constructed
lamps the time required is only about one
minute.
In the early history of the Nernst lamp
a difficulty was experienced that at first
sight seemed to render its continual opera-
tion impossible. When the lighting current
began to flow through the glower, its elec-
trical conducting power, and consequently
its temperature, increased so rapidly that
but a few moments were required to fuse
and volatilize it. The difficulty, however,
was obviated by the ingenious invention of
what is known as the ballast or steadying
resistance.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
381
The operation of the ballast or steadying
resistance is based on the fact above re-
ferred to that the resistance of metallic
conductors increases with their increase in
temperature. It was possible, therefore,
by connecting a coil of iron or other metallic
wire in series with the glower, to arrange their
respective lengths so that the changes in
resistance would balance one another; for,
the decrease in the resistance of the
glower and the increase in the resistance of
the metallic wire mi~ht be made a constant
Line
Glower*
FIG. 185. CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS OF THE
NERNST LAMP
sum, so in this way the current passing through
the circuit would remain constant.
The circuit connections of the Nernst
lamp are represented in Fig. 185, for a
single heater glower and ballast together with
the electro-magnetic cut-off. Here, as will
be seen, the glower and heater coil are con-
nected in parallel with the constant potential
supply mains, while the ballast coil is con-
nected in series with the glower and the
electro-magnetic coil whose armature oper-
ates the electro-magnet.
In order to ensure good electrical connec-
tion with the separate glowers the platinum
leading-in wires are provided with small
aluminum plugs at the ends of the wires
that are connected with the glowers.
As to the efficiency of the Nernst lamp, a
single glower will produce an amount of
light equal to that of a little more than two
standard 16 candle-power incandescent car-
bon lamps. Since each glower requires the
consumption of about 84 watts, it is opera-
ted at an efficiency of about 2.4 watts per
candle, or about two-thirds the amount of
energy required to produce the same quantity
of light in the carbon filament.
When first placed on the market, the
Nernst lamp had a length of life shorter
than that of the carbon filament lamp. It
is now claimed, however, that by improve-
ments introduced into their manufacture,
they can be made with a useful life equal to
that of the carbon lamp or 800 hours.
A serious objection to the Nernst lamp
is found in the fact that the lamp rapidly
blackens by the deposition of platinum black
on the porcelain disk, so that frequent
cleansings are necessary.
The high temperature to which it is possi-
ble safely to raise the Nernst glowers re-
sults in the production of color values for
the emitted light so near those of sunlight
as to make this lamp especially suited for
use in all places where true daylight colors
are required, such as in stores where colored
fabrics are sold, or in manufactories where
they are made.
The Nernst lamp is generally constructed
with a number of glowers placed in the same
FIG. l86. NERNST LAMP WITH GLOBE
holder inside the protecting globe. In Tig.
186 is shown a Nernst lamp of the six glower
382
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
/ a
FIG. 187. CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS OF A
6-GLOWER LAMP
type suitable for the lighting of large areas.
It has a protecting globe to cover the glowers.
The circuit connections of a six-glower
Nernst incandescent electric lamp are shown
in Fig. 187. In this figure the glowers are
represented for convenience as being placed
together. The heaters are shown at (5),
the glowers at (6) and the ballast at (7),
there necessarily being a separate ballast
for each glower. A small glass globe, known
as the heater case, is supported by spring
clamps around the glowers. The heater
porcelain is the name given to a porcelain
disk placed immediately above the heater.
It is on this disk that the coating of platinum
black before referred to occurs.
While no practical method has as yet been
discovered for preventing the deposition of
platinum black on the porcelain disk, yet
the ease with which it may be removed is
greatly increased by coating the surface with
a thin layer of white paste that can readily
be removed by a scraper or stiff brush.
The Nernst electric lamp is operated either
by direct or alternating current. Since,
however, the glower is subjected to electro-
lytic decomposition, which is of course
smaller when alternating current is em-
ployed, this current is used in preference
to direct current.
Materials capable of being raised to ex-
ceedingly high temperatures, that have been
employed with more or less success for the
incandescing materials for electric lamps, are
the vapor of mercury, and atmospheric air
or other gases. These materials are placed
inside glass tubes in which they are raised
to as high an incandescence as possible. It
will of course be recognized that the incan-
descing material of this character cannot
be made in the form of filaments or threads,
but occupies the entire space within the con-
taining glass vessels, which are generally
cylindrical or tubical shaped.
Beginning with a description of the
mercury- vapor lamp, it is interesting to note
that although this form of incandescent lamp
was invented at a comparatively late date by
Peter Cooper Hewitt, of New York City,
yet it was first actually employed in a less
practical form as early as 1856 by an English-
man named Way. Way's lamp may be
regarded as a variety of arc lamp, in which
one of the electrodes consisted of a stream
of mercury.
The mercury-vapor incandescent lamp, or,
as it is generally called, the Cooper Hewitt
lamp, after its inventor, consists, as shown
in Fig. 188, of an exhausted glass tube
through which a stream of
mercury can be made to flow
from one end to the other.
The connections are such
that the liquid mercury
forms the cathode or electro-
negative terminal while the
anode or electro-positive
terminal is connected with a
mass of iron.
The glass tube is about
four feet in length and about
an inch in diameter. It is
exhausted to a high vacuum
and then hermetically sealed
by the fusion of the glass.
As in the case of most
other incandescent lamps the
platinum leading-in wires em-
ployed are sealed in the
parts of the tube through
I, which they pass.
FIG 188. The lamp may be hung
cooper *n any position. Generally
kewitt speaking, however, it is hung
, .,,_ in an inclined position as
LAMP . r
shown in rig. 189.
Although a high vacuum is maintained
within the Cooper Hewitt lamp tube so far
as air is concerned, yet the tube is necessarily
filled with a varying amount of mercury-
vapor. The tension exerted by this vapor,
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
383
FIG. I89. COOPER HEWITT LAMP IN OPERATION
or the quantity of vapor per unit of volume,
depends on the temperature. Since the
lamp operates at its maximum efficiency
under a certain mercury pressure, a device
has been provided that automatically reg-
ulates this pressure. This device consists
in the use of a comparatively large bulb
or chamber known as the condensing cham-
ber. Owing to the extended area of the
walls of this chamber, the heat is more
readily dissipated, and the temperature
within the tube kept cooler or lower than
it would otherwise be.
The higher electrode is usually provided
with a pull chain. When it is desired to
start the lamp the higher end is pulled down
until it is lower than the other end. As
soon as it contains an excess of mercury
that has flowed into it from the other end,
it is permitted to resume its original posi-
tion, so that a flow of mercury occurs. This
flow is attended by a breaking of the mer-
cury column into a spray, containing numer-
ous gaps across which the current jumps
and light begins to fill the tube.
In the early manufacture of the Cooper
Hewitt lamp much difficulty was experi-
enced from the unsteadiness
and flickering of the light.
It was soon found that this
difficulty arose from the fact
that the current entered the
surface of the mercury
cathode at a single point;
that it was the dancing of
the current over the mercury
that caused the unsteadi-
ness. The fault was reme-
died by placing the lead-
ing-in wire inside the cathode
bulb so as to terminate slightly
above the mercury surface.
When so placed the discharge
of the current takes place
through the wire and the un-
steadiness disappears.
The Cooper Hewitt lamp
is operated by direct current
having a pressure varying
from 100 to 150 volts and
the current strength is about
three and a half amperes.
It is possible, however, to
connect a number of lamps
together in series so as to
employ a higher voltage.
As already mentioned, the
Cooper Hewitt lamp requires the main-
taining of a high vacuum inside the
lamp tube. The presence of this vacuum
can readily be tested, since, as is well
known, if mercury or other liquid be per-
mitted to fail through a tube containing a
vacuum, it produces a sharp metallic click,
while the presence of even a small quantity
of air, providing as it does a cushion against
which the liquid may fall, prevents this
sound being produced.
As would be expected, since there is prac-
tically no limit to the temperature to which
the mercury vapor can be raised, the effi-
ciency of the Cooper Hewitt lamp is high
so far as the number of candles per watt is
concerned. Owing to the extended surface
of the tube from which the light is emitted,
this lamp is capable of producing a uniform
illumination. Hewitt experimented with a
number of different vapors, but found the
light emitted by mercury vapor to be the
greatest for the same expenditure of elec-
tric energy.
The Cooper Hewitt lamp, however, is
unfortunately open to the objection that it
is markedly deficient in the red rays of the
384
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
spectrum so that colored objects examined
by it display colors entirely different than
when illumined by sunlight. At the same
time, the fact that this light is especially
rich in the actinic rays or the rays required
for photographic work, makes this lamp
especially suited for use by the photographer.
These holders are mounted in a wooden
frame, four feet in width and five feet in
height. The resistances for operating the
tubes are placed across the back of the frame.
The circuit connections are such that the
tubes may be used independently, or in
different groups.
FIG. I90. COOPER HEWITT LAMPS AS PHOTOGRAIHEr's SKY LIGHT
Moreover, the light is not painful when
employed for reading, for work in the draft-
ing room, or, to a certain extent, for work
in machine shops.
When employed by the photographer,
the Cooper Hewitt lamp is generally ar-
ranged in the form of a skylight, as shown in
Fig. 190. As will be seen, this consists of
five Cooper Hewitt tubes, each of these is
45 inches in length, and an inch in diameter,
mounted in independent wooden holders
provided with white-enamelled reflectors.
Owing to the high actinic power of the
light of the Cooper Hewitt lamp, a photo-
grapher provided with this method of illu-
mination is independent of the weather.
It has been found in practice that the re-
sults obtained, when the ordinary glass
skylight is discarded, are equal to the best
work done by sunlight.
Photographic work employed for taking
the pictures employed in the moving picture
apparatus, requires a high and uniform
illumination, since such pictures are taken
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
385
of vacuous spaces,
various luminous
effects are produced.
As early as 1709,
Hawkesbee obtained
light by passing elec-
tric discharges through
rarefied air in glass
vessels. This light
was sufficiently bright
to ^permit large type
to be easily read.
In the well known
Geissler tube, which
consists of sealed glass
tubes containing only
moderately high
vacuua, the passage
of a discharge through
the residual gaseous
atmosphere is at-
tended by luminous
effects. Unfortunate-
ly, the actual amount
of light so produced
is comparatively
small.
FIG. I9I. COOPER HEWITT LAMPS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
at the rate of about 1,000 per minute.
When these pictures are taken in the entire
absence of daylight, eight skylights with
eight tubes will so light a small stage that
excellent pictures can be obtained at the
above rapid rate.
Where artificial light is employed for
photographic printing, the arrangement of
the tubes is as shown in Fig. 191. When the
outfit consists of four tubes, placed four
inches apart, between centres, a printing
area of 16 by 42 inches is obtained.
For photo-engraving, an outfit consisting
of two tubes, placed four and a quarter
inches apart and mounted on a holder with
white-enamelled reflectors is employed. A
device of this kind is shown in Fig. 192.
Besides the above, Cooper Hewitt lamps are
suitable for photographic enlarging and also
for blue-printing.
A form of incandescent electric lamp em-
ploying a gaseous substance such as ordinary
air is capable of giving excellent results.
It has long been known that when electric
discharges of high electromotive force are
passed through the residual atmospheres,
In the vacuum-tube
system of lighting,
devised by D. MacFar-
land Moore, by means
of various ingenious
devices the light pro-
duced in the above
manner has been so
greatly increased that
vacuum-tube lamps
are capable of being
employed for artificial
illumination.
In the Moore sys-
tem of vacuum-tube
lighting exhausted
glass tubes are em-
ployed instead of the
lamp bulbs.
Since the surface
emitting the light is
extended, and the
character of the light
closely resembles that fig. 192. cooper
of daylight, this hewit lamps for
method of lighting photo -engraving
386
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
would seem to be very promising. The
following description of the Moore vacuum-
tube system, from a well known electrical
magazine, contains a statement of some of
the advantages that -are obtained by the
use of this system:
"For illuminating the interior of a dwelling
or structure, the portions of the glass tubing,
which contain the luminous column from
which the effective illumination is obtained,
may be distributed in any desired way
throughout the whole interior of the dwelling
or structure. Then one or more tubes, with
the conducting caps or terminals may be
brought from within the illuminated spaces or
areas to an exterior cabinet or receptacle where
their conducting caps can be located out
of harm's way, and in immediate connection
with the source of energy. Or if desired,
the energy may be carried into a building,
and suitable transforming devices located in
sealed wall pockets within the same, the
terminals of the tube being located in the
same manner in the pockets, while the lu-
minous portion of the tube may extend
over or through the areas to be lighted, being
distributed in any desired form or manner.
(To be concluded.)
RENO FIGHT RETURNS SHOWN ELECTRICALLY
The Chicago fight fan who wished to get
in as close and realistic touch as possible
with the Jeffries- Johnson battle at Reno on
July 4th had only to visit the Coliseum,
where applied electrical science gratified his
desires.
The picture shows an electric board which
was used to illustrate the progress of the
battle and which was mounted in the balcony
of the Coliseum. It was 15 by 24 feet and
in the center were illuminated figures nine
feet in height outlined by small electric
lamps so arranged that every blow struck
in the encounter was reproduced at once
on the board by the flashing on and off of
various sets of lamps. Provision was made
so that if
either of the
contestants
were knocked
down the de-
vice would
show which of
the fighters
received the
blow, by out-
lining the re-
cumbent fig-
ure. At the
same time the
name of the fighter who delivered the
blow was flashed on the board, and the
words "knock-down" also appeared, the
referee's count being indicated by illumi-
nated numbers. The blows delivered were
shown by numerous lamps arranged be-
tween the opponents to show the position
of the arms.
Provision was also made to show by lights
a foul, draw, or referee's decision. In case
of a clinch the name of the one forced to
clinch appeared in lights at the left or right
of the board. At the end of each round the
number of the round was indicated and the
name of the man in whose favor it was
conceded to be. An inclined switchboard
shown at the
right, contain-
ing 56 small
switches en-
abled the op-
erator to work
the 650 lights
on the board
with rapidity.
Messrs. Burr
and Murphy of
Minneapolis,
were the pro-
moters.
ELECTRIC BOARD FOR SHOWING FIGHT RETURNS
Prominent People and Their Electric Autos
By WALDON FAWCETT
Every day finds greater dependency
placed upon the automobile by the promi-
nent men and women in all walks of life —
busy folk with whom time is always at a
premium and whose manifold social obliga-
tions and business, professional or official
responsibilities crowding close upon one
another, necessitate some vehicle that spells
both quick conveyance and ready recourse.
For many such sorely pressed individuals
the modern motor car has filled a long felt
want. In proof, witness the case of leading
physicians in many of our large cities who,
prior to the development of the Twentieth
Century self-propelled vehicle were obliged
to keep constantly in service two or three
horses, "changing off" as a steed became
exhausted just as the pony express riders of
pioneer days used to change mounts during
their relay rides.
The celebrities of the country have shown
the greatest variety of taste in indulging
their preferences for different types and
models of automobiles, but a person who
had not investigated the subject would be
bound to be surprised were there statistics
to show what a large proportion of electrics
are to be found in the private garages of
the famous and the near-famous. Nor is
the use of the electric in this sphere by any
means confined to the women of the house-
holds, although it is well known that the car
which derives its energy from a storage
battery has much to commend it to the fair
sex not only on the score of ease of manipu-
lation but also because there is no danger
of operator or passenger soiling the daintiest
of gowns. To be sure, the electric is pre-
eminently adapted for city use, but your
average celebrity wants a "town car" and
for that matter several recent exploits by
electrics, for instance the run on one charge
over the notoriously bad roads between
Washington, D. C, and Baltimore, indicates
that the electric has some capacity as a
touring car even without the aid of Edison's
new battery.
The President of the United States has sev-
eral electrics in the garage at the White
House. One of these is a phaeton which
was purchased for the use of Mrs. Taft,
but ill health overtook the First Lady of
the Land and in consequence the operation
of this natty machine upholstered in the
official blue and bearing a representation
in colors of the seal of the United States,
has devolved upon Miss Helen Taft, the
only daughter. The other Presidential elec-
tric is a package and baggage wagon which
is employed to transfer the Presidential
baggage to and from railway stations, for
carrying parcels, etc. This car, which has
a carrying capacity of 1,000 pounds, has
a 2\ horse-power motor with 300 per cent
overload capacity.
The women of the Roosevelt family are
enthusiasts on the subject of the electric
automobile. The former Miss Alice Roose-
velt soon after her marriage to Representa-
tive Nicholas Longworth received from her
husband an electric car. She has made use
of this machine continually, invariably
driving it herself, and when Congress is in
session she makes it a regular practice to
motor to the Capitol daily about the time
her husband may be expected to conclude
his legislative labors. Other electrics fre-
quently seen at the United States Capitol
are those of Senator Wetmore, Senator
Depew and others.
Oddly enough, perhaps, the electric
rather than the high power steam or gaso-
line touring car is the favorite vehicle of the
two most prominent bachelors in Federal
officialdom — Postmaster- General Frank H.
Hitchcock and John Barrett, the director
of the International Bureau of American
Republics. In the Cabinet circle the elec-
tric is generally popular. George von L.
Meyer, Secretary of the Navy and the
wealthiest member of the President's official
family, has ample means to indulge in what-
ever type of horseless vehicle pleases his fancy,
but his preference for the electric has re-
mained unshaken and his two daughters —
conspicuous because they always dress
exactly alike — have an electric of their own
which is in almost constant use.
Among the members of the Diplomatic
Corps — the foreigners stationed in this coun-
try as the official representatives of sover-
eigns and governments — the adoption of the
American-made electric automobile has been
extensive. The Dean of the Corps, Baron
German diplomats
— Lieut, von Brue-
ning, attache of
the German Em-
bassy, at the lever,
accompanied by A.
C. Horstmann, at-
tache of the em-
bassy.
The electric auto-
mobile of Senator
Wetmore.
The President's
electric baggage
and package wag-
on at the White
House.
A Roosevelt elec-
tric auto-party.
Right to left— L.
Anderson, Alice
Roosevelt Long-
worth, Mrs. Theo-
dore Roosevelt,
Jr., Theodore
Roosevelt, Jr.
The Misses Meyer,
daughters of the
secretary of the
Navy, in their elec-
tric automobile.
Left to right —
Perry Heath, capi-
talist and politi-
cian, Mrs. Conway,
his mother-in-law,
Mrs. Heath and P.
V. DeGraw, Fourth
Assistant Postmas-
ter General.
nsn
nen
pc=ir;
390
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Hengelmuller of Austro-Hungary and the
Baroness Hengelmuller have made extensive
use of the electric and so have many of his
colleagues, not forgetting the Chinese diplo-
mats, especially Mr. Yung Kwai, the Secre-
tary of the Chinese Legation, and his
American wife. However, the particular
stronghold of the electric automobile in our
official "foreign colony" is the German
Embassy, not only the Ambassador, Count
von Bernstorff, but several of the secretaries
and attaches owning and operating cars
of the magic current.
Legion, indeed, is the name of the women
prominent in official and social circles who
make- use of electric automobiles. Mrs.
Larz Anderson, the Boston heiress, has one
of the finest electric phaetons in America.
It has space with other cars in perhaps the
finest private garage in the United States —
a $25,000 structure that accommodates seven
cars. Mrs. John Hay, widow of the late
Secretary of State; Mrs. George Pullman,
widow of the car builder; Mrs. Albert Clifford
Barney, who inherited the millions of the
Pike family of Cincinnati, and Mrs. Walsh,
widow of the Colorado "mining king,"
constitute a quartette of wealthy widows who
own electric autos which in some instances
were built specially to their order. Com-
paratively few of the prominent people who
own electrics keep them at public garages.
Indeed, one of the advantages of this type
of motor car — with its freedom from dirt,
noise and odors — is that it can be kept un-
objectionably on the premises of the most
restricted city residence where, perforce,
the garage must be very close to the dwelling,
if not, in effect, a part of it. Some devotees
of electrics, as, for instance, Madame Hauge,
the wealthy American widow of the late
Minister of Norway to the United States,
have had a garage for electrics provided
as a "lean to" of the mansion proper — the
electrical charging equipment thus being un-
der the owner's personal direction at all times.
ELECTRIC GRAIN HANDLING IN ROUMANIA
Fancy a pair of fireproof grain elevators,
each with a storage capacity of 35,000 tons
of grain; a dock alongside these elevators
2000 feet long; an elevated conveyor and
shute structure capable of loading the grain
simultaneously into five vessels behind one
another (or into ten ships if placed in two
rows); a series of 18 parallel tracks for
taking railroad cars to the elevators, docks
and to the power station from which all the
conveying and other machinery is driven
electrically: Does not that sound like
Electrical America? Like some gigantic
enterprise worthy of Duluth, Chicago or
Seattle?
Yet it is neither on the Great Lakes nor
on the Pacific coast that we find this par-
ticular instance of progressiveness, but over
on the Black Sea in one of those little known
countries which occasionally send some of
their brightest young men to us as unappre-
ciated immigrants.
SHOWING SIZE OF ROUMANIAN ELEVATORS
The Story of Sunbury Station
By W. S. ANDREWS
Towards the close of the year 1882 Mr.
T. A. Edison requested the writer to have
some tests made on a new system of electrical
distribution which he had invented. This
was no other than the famous "three-wire"
system which has since come into almost
universal use where electricity is distributed
for light and power purposes.
The tests desired by Mr. Edison were
simple, so they were quickly made and the
results were found so satisfactory that im-
mediate steps were taken to put the new
system into practical
commercial service.
The picturesque lit-
tle city of Sunbury on
the Susquehanna river
away up among the
hills of Pennsylvania
was selected for the
plant, and a force of
workmen was sent
there early in 1883 to
build the lighting sta-
tion, erect the pole
lines, and "wire" the
stores and dwellings.
The "station" was
a small wooden struc-
ture located some dis-
tance from the busi-
ness center of the
town and it comprised
a boiler room, engine
and dynamo room and
a meter room.
The boiler was of the Babcock and Wilcox
type and the generating plant consisted of
two "L" dynamos belted to a high speed
Armington & Sims engine, the total capacity
being about 650 10-candle-power incandes-
cent lamps. The "bus-bars" were made by
straightening out some No. 000 copper wire
left over from the line construction, and these
wires were fastened to the wooden sheathing
on the station walls with iron staples without
any attempt at insulation and with the fond
idea that this was exactly the right thing to
do. The switchboard instruments consisted
of two voltage indicators which were con-
nected by "pressure wires" to the end of the
three-wire "feeder" where it joined the
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THE SUNBURY STATION, 1 883
"mains" at the center of electrical distribu-
tion, also one ammeter which was inter-
polated in the "neutral bus" to show how
the system "balanced." As compared with in-
struments now in every day use, these indica-
tors were of crude construction and doubtful
accuracy. They were, however, the very best
product of that period, having been designed
especially for the purpose by Mr. Chas. L.
Clarke, and made by Bergmann & Co.
The installation of the electrical apparatus
was intrusted by Mr. Edison to Lieut. F. J.
Sprague and the writ-
er, and the work was
completed on July
4th, 1883. Mr. Edison
had arrived in Sun-
bury the previous day,
and it was planned to
start the electric light-
ing plant commerci-
ally on the evening
of the fourth.
About 5 p. m. there-
fore preparations were
made for starting, but
the dynamos refused
to "pick up." "There
must be a loose con-
nection somewhere, ' '
said Mr. Edison, but
they were all care-
fully examined and
found tight and sound.
Matters began to look
rather doubtful for
"lighting up" that evening, when it was
suggested that there might be trouble
on the outside wires. They were accord-
ingly disconnected from the station
"bus" and the engine was again started.
This time the dynamos worked all
right, proving that the trouble was outside
of the station. Mr. Edison and the "gang"
therefore went out on a tour of investiga-
tion, leaving the writer to mind the station.
In a short time a "cross" between two
"feeder" wires was discovered and quickly
straightened out. Fortune now smiled on
us, the outside lines were again connected,
the lamps in the station came steadily up to
candle power and a general rush was made
392
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
"down town", by all hands that could be
spared.
The "City Hotel" was the largest "wiring
job" and we found it radiant with the new
light. Expectant excitement had given place
to loud expressions of wonder and delight
among the townspeople who thronged the
hotel, and thus was the first Edison three-
wire central station started up on the Fourth
of July, 1883, amid the firing of cannon
cracke s and other pyrotechnical displays
common to that day.
Mr. Edison remained in Sunbury for
about a week after the starting of the station,
to give instructions regarding the handling
of his new electrolytic meter and to study in
general the electrical and commercial opera-
tion of his new system.
The meters were of the old style Edison
type wherein the current is measured by the
loss in weight of one of the two zinc plates
by electrolytic action. At the end of the
first month, the meter plates were collected
and weighed, and the bills were calculated
from the loss in weight of one plate. Most
of the amounts thus made out came very
close to the estimated figures, but a meter in
a large clothing store indicated that about
$200.00 worth of current had been used.
As this was an impossible amount, a
bill based on a moderate estimate was
sent in. The meterman spent several
anxious days and nights trying to think
out where the mistake had occurred, for
Mr. Edison had firmly imbued him with
the belief that the meter was infallible.
At length it suddenly dawned upon him that
he had weighed the meter plates to a tenth of
a milligram at the station, but on arrival at
the clothing store he found that the copper
wires connected to the plates were too long
to go into the meter case, 'so, without any
thought as to the consequences, he just
clipped off an inch or two of copper wire,
which represented about $150.00 worth or
more of electricity when measured by loss of
weight. Moreover he found the pieces of
copper wire that he had cut off, and on
weighing them up and making proper allow-
ance he found that the "faked" bill that
had been presented was not far from be-
ing correct.
Like many of the earlier of the Edison
stations, the Sunbury plant was started at
sundown and ran until daylight, thus saving
the expense of paying two shifts of engine
and dynamo attendants.
At this time (1883) no such fittings as
"fixture insulators" were known and it was
common practice to fasten the electric wires
to the outside of gas fixtures with tape or
string and connect to sockets, which were
screwed to attachments held in place under
the gas burners. Rubber insulated wire was
unknown, cotton covered wire soaked in
paraffin or coated with white lead being
all that was available. The latter was
commonly termed "Underwriters' wire,"
although it was occasionally called "Under-
takers' wire" by would-be humorists
The insulation of these wires was naturally
rather weak and it was no uncommon occur-
rence to see bright sparks snap between a gas
fixture and the attached wire during a
thunder storm, to the astonishment and alarm
of the uninitiated.
Shortly after the Sunbury station was
started a heavy thunderstorm occurred early
one evening. A breathless messenger rushed
into the lighting station while the storm was
at its height, and gasped out that the " City
Hotel" was on fire. Naturally the writer
lost no time in getting there. He found the
proprietor and his guests standing out in the
street, exposure to the pouring rain being
considered vastly preferable to being burnt
up by electricity.
Going into the Hotel office, bright sparks
were observed at short intervals snapping
between the gas fixtures and the electric
wires. One or two "short circuits" at weak
spots had "blown" a few fuses, but the
points of low insulation being thus elimi-
nated no further damage was done, and the
snappy sparks were harmless.
The writer after taking in the situation
went out and assured the crowd that there
was no danger to be feared from the electric
sparks around the fixtures, so with some
trepidation a few of the bolder spirits ven-
tured into the hotel. Some explanations
naturally were requested and in order to
restore a measure of public confidence in the
electric wiring, which was naturally blamed
for the scare, the writer had to strain his
conscience to some extent in stating that the
hotel had certainly been struck by the light-
ning, and that in all probability it would
have been burnt to the ground had it not
been protected by the electric wires, which
provided an easy passage for the lightning to
the ground.
This incident was reported to Mr. Edison
and it led to the invention of "insulating
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
393
joints" by our late lamented friend Mr.
Luther Steringer. These joints, being
screwed between the grounded pipes and
the gas or electric [fixtures, prevent the
leakages which so much alarmed our
friends in Sunbury. In various shapes and
sizes, but with no important improvements
these insulating joints are still universally
employed, their use being stringently en-
forced by the National Board of Underwriters.
The interior wiring of the Sunbury electric
lighting station, including the running of
three-wire feeders the entire length of build-
ing from back to front, the wiring up of
dynamos and switchboard and all instru-
ments together with busbars, etc., in fact all
labor and material used in the electrical
wiring installation amounted to the sum of
$90.00. The writer received a rather sharp
letter from the New York Office, expostu-
lating on this "extravagant expenditure,"
and stating that greater economy must be
observed in the future! Our ideas of expense
necessary to proper central station equipment
have undergone considerable expansion
since the early days of the Sunbury plant.
The two aL" dynamos originally installed
on this plant gave regular commercial service
for about 20 years, and were then set aside
for occasional use as spare machines. To-
gether with the original Armington & Sims
engine, they were sent to the St. Louis
Exposition in 1904 and formed an interesting
item in the "Collection of Edisonia" there
exhibited. They were then practically in as
good operative condition as when they were
first installed in 1883, this bearing testimony
to the rugged and durable structure of the
original Edison dynamos which were admit-
tedly built for long service rather than for
elegant appearance.
Dynamo Building an Exact Science
Lightning and Blast Furnaces
The smoke from a blast furnace in opera-
tion contains a good deal of water and car-
bon dust and often extends upward to a
considerable height. Repeated instances of
lightning entering the chimney and passing
down through the furnace charge, through
the pig iron and to earth seem to indicate
that the column of hot air, moisture and
carbon issuing from the chimney furnish
a better conductor for a lightning discharge
than a lightning rod, judging from the
instances where the rod remained undis-
turbed by the lightning stroke.
The days of the "cut and try" method in
dynamo designing have long been left
behind, at least in so far as our customary
types of generators are concerned. Plan-
ning them has become a most exact science
in which every factor entering into the de-
sign must be carefully considered and in
which every effect can be closely estimated
before the real building begins.
For instance, in armatures it is generally
desired that the temperature after running
for hours at full load shall not exceed 1400
F. (or 6o° C.) and as the resistance of
the wire increases with the temperature,
this resistance has to be figured for the ex-
pected maximum temperature. Then al-
lowances have to be made for the cooling
influence of the air on the outer layer (or
for air-cooling in a ventilated armature),
for the heating due to eddy currents set up
in both the copper winding and the armature
core, and for heating due to magnetic
hysteresis. These factors are all interwoven
with each other, also with the shapes and
sizes of the field magnet and its polepieces;
these relationships have been worked out in
the form of fairly exact curves and formulas,
by which the designer can be guided. That
is why so highly efficient types can be de-
signed on short notice, for it is only an exact
art that permits the ready obtaining of pre-
determined results.
Electric Bleaching Preserves Health
Will electrolytic bleaching some day be
compulsory in place of the now common use
of chloride of lime by laundries as well as
paper mills? Perhaps it is too early to
predict this, but no one can deny that the
fumes arising from the chloride of lime make
it unhealthy to handle and that it leaves
an obnoxious residue when used for bleach-
ign purposes. When this residue is allowed
to run into a stream (a situation not unusual
even in this enlightened country) it pollutes
the water, killing the fish and often under-
mining the health of the adjacent community.
With the electrolytic method there is no
such objectionable residue, nor is there any
danger to health in handling the needed
materials which are simply water and com-
mon salt. Incidentally it also saves time
as there is no waiting for the chloride of lime
solution to clear itself.
Talks With the Judge
THE ELECTRO-MAGNET
"When I was a boy I had a horseshoe
magnet to play with," remarked the Judge
reminiscently. "It was simply a piece of
iron which would pick up needles and other
small pieces of steel or iron. To me and to
most people a magnet is a magnet, and when
one is spoken of our minds immediately
revert to that little horseshoe. But lately,
since I have been read-
ing up a little on elec-
tricity, at every turn I
come across the word
'electro-magnet.' Now
what is an electro-magnet?
If it is the same as an
ordinary magnet why in
thunder do they want to
complicate things and
puzzle us by calling it an
electro-magnet? When a
writer in a Sunday Sup-
plement story is telling a
yarn about some mysteri-
ous application of elec-
tricity and he comes to
some tough thing to ex-
plain he says it is done by
electro-magnets, or may
be a 'maze' or a 'myriad
of electro-magnets,' know-
ing very well that the
layman will swallow it
and nine times out of ten
never stop to question what
an electro-magnet is."
"There, there, don't get
excited, Judge," I replied.
"There is no intent to
mystify. The electro-mag-
net is a little different
from the ordinary mag-
net with which you were
wont to satisfy your youthful desire to study
into the laws of Nature — and which desire,
I might say, does not seem to have abated
along with the hair on your well propor-
tioned cranium. Before explaining further
what an electro-magnet is I might take the
opportunity to say that it is some way con-
nected with and indispensable to almost
every application of electricity which you
see about you. Take all of the electro-
Our Minds Revert to that Little
Horseshoe
magnets out of the world and every dynamo
and motor would cease to hum; the tele-
graph would click no more; the telephone
would become 'dead' as the proverbial
door nail and after an evening of mildest
Apollinaris and lemon seltzers you still
would stab at the button of your door
bell to no avail.
"There are two kinds
of magnets — the 'perma-
nent magnet' and the 'elec-
tro-magnet.' The former
is the common or 'garden
variety' known for cen-
turies. It is a bar of
rather hard iron or steel
which, once magnetized,
will retain its magnetism
a long time, although its
lifting or attractive power
is comparatively weak at
best. The latter is what
might be termed an 'arti-
ficial magnet,' that is, we
may put the magnetizing
force into it or take the
force away at will.
"This is the way in
which an electro-magnet
works: We know that a
wire carrying electric cur-
rent has formed around
it a field of magnetic force,
which is strong in propor-
tion to the strength of
the current flowing in the
wire. The theory is that
this field of force is of
the nature of invisible
lines of force encircling the
wire, and as you look along
the wire in the direction in
which the current flows the lines are circling
around the wire in the direction in which
the hands of a clock move.
This you must understand is theory, so far.
No one can see the lines of force, but the
theory fits the facts of phenomena which
we are able to observe, and as long as the
theory does not 'fall down' before the re-
sults of actual experiment we may safely
base our arguments upon it.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
395
"Now if you take that same wire which
is carrying current and form it into a spiral
coil you have what is called a 'solenoid.'
Remember that the lines of force are still
encircling the wire in each individual turn
of the spiral. Therefore the tendency is for
all these lines of force to thread down
through the hollow spiral and up along the
outside, or vice versa, depending on which
end of the solenoid you are looking at.
Then, strange to say, the solenoid, as a
whole, takes on the properties ' of a bar
magnet. That is, one end of the solenoid
is a north pole and the other a south pole.
Suspend it carefully by its middle and it
will point to the north magnetic pole of the
earth the same as a compass needle. Ail
this, remember, is due to the current flowing
in the wire. There is no permanent magnet
present.
"Then, just one step further and we have
an electro-magnet — slip inside the coil a
bar of iron. Now turn on the current and
the iron bar becomes a powerful magnet —
hundreds, perhaps thousands of times
stronger than any permanent magnet ever
made, depending on the strength of the
current flowing in the wire and the number
of turns of wire in the coil — called the
'ampere-turns.' Turn off the current and
the iron ceases to be a magnet except for a
very little magnetism left in it, called residual
magnetism. The explanation is that the
lines of force threading through the coil
saturate the iron with magnetism to a far
greater extent than any other known way of
magnetizing.
"Thus you see an electro-magnet means
simply a bar of iron around which is wound
a coil of wire, the wire carrying a current
of electricity.
"But what marvelous things that dis-
covery brought about. It made practicable
dynamos and motors, for the 'fields' of
these machines are nothing more than elec-
tro-magnets wound with many turns of
wire and forming between their poles mag-
netic fields of great intensity in which the
armatures turn. The sounder of a tele-
graph instrument which clicks off the mes-
sages is an electro-magnet, the iron cores
becoming magnetized and drawing down the
armature only when the distant operator
presses his key and sends current through
the coils around the cores. In a telephone
exchange, back of the switchboard, there are
thousands of electro-magnets working. When
you take your receiver from the hook you
allow current to flow around their coils.
Their little cores then become magnets which
attract armatures, thereby closing little
local circuits which light the lamps on the
switchboard so that the operator knows
when you take down your receiver, when
you hang it up, when your party answers
and all that. Again great electro-magnets
are used to lift pig iron, steel rails, cargoes of
nails, etc. .
"In fact, as I have said, you can scarcely
name an electrical operation that is not in
some way dependent on an electro-magnet."
Light Motors for Air Ships
Now that new types of storage batteries
are increasing the output per pound of
battery and thereby reducing the weight of
battery required for a given supply of energy,
it will not be long before we may expect a
return to electricity as a source of power for
aerial vehicles. The original electrically
driven balloon as navigated by the Tis-
sandier brothers in 1884, and as pictured
in our July issue, had a motor weighing
121 pounds, which developed a maximum
of only 1 J horse-power. This weight ratio
of 80 pounds per horse-power was speedily
cut down by other experimenters so that by
1887 another French investigator, Trouve,
of storage battery fame, brought out one
weighing only 3^ ounces and giving 1-38
horse-power — a ratio of a trifle over 7-3
pounds per horse-power i
Since that time there has been a lull in
the development of light motors for aerial
navigation, due largely to the persistently
prohibitive weight of the needed batteries,
which weight has only lately been reduced
to more reasonable figures. Thus while
the primary battery used by the Tissandiers
weighed over 300 pounds per horse-power-
hour of output, we can today secure storage
batteries of one-twelfth that weight for the
same available energy. Now the question
is, how much have the developments of the
last 23 years taught us to reduce the motor
weight below the mark set at that time by
Trouve ?
396
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Indirect Illumination for the Steel Pier
The interior of the auditorium, of the
Steel Pier at Atlantic City, N. J., shown in
the picture, will be familiar to many, as there
are from one to two million annual paid
admissions to the pier. This auditorium
is used for dancing, conventions, musicales,
exhibits, and on Sunday evenings for
sacred concerts.
The direct lighting previously used was
very unsatisfactory, and the management
This interior is 161 feet long by ioo feet
wide, containing 16,100 square feet, the
ceiling being 36 feet eight inches high in the
center, and gradually sloping to the sides
which, directly over the seats, are 27 feet
from the floor. The ceiling is wainscoted
and painted white, having no beams or
other obstructions. The sides of the build-
ing are practically all glass. The musicians'
platform, as shown, is 31 feet in width by
25 feet in depth. This platform is illumi-
nated with a row of incandescent lamps
INDIRECT ILLUMINATION IN THE STEEL PIER, ATLANTIC CITY, N. J.
was desirous of securing the most com-
fortable and efficient illumination possible.
In casting about for a proper method, Mr.
Both well, the manager, hearing J of the beau-
tiful results secured in the South Shore
Country Club Auditorium, of Chicago, by
the "Eye-Comfort" indirect system of illu-
mination, visited that city for the express pur-
pose of an investigation, and as the result
he ordered a similar installation.
The finest print can be read comfortably
at any point in the room on the pier. A
person can enjoy to the fullest any event now
held in this place, being entirely relieved of
the irritating, annoying glare so commonly
experienced in auditoriums of almost every
size.
around the upper part of the shell., which are
hidden from the hall by a curtain for the
purpose. They are, however, but seldom
used, as the indirect illumination from the
main auditorium is sufficient for the ordi-
nary uses.
Twenty of the diffusing type of reflectors
were grouped in each of the six fixtures,
each containing a 100-watt Mazda lamp and
hung six feet from the ceiling. This gives
a total consumption of 12,000 watts, or that
of 240 ordinary 16 candle-power carbon
filament lamps. The skeleton fixtures are
encased in artistic composition bowls. As
is known such composition fixtures can be
given any metallic finish to harmonize with
the decorations in any interior.
Where Electricity Stands in the Practice
of Medicine
By NOBLE M. EBERHART, A. M., M. S., M. D.
CHAPTER IX. STATIC ELECTRICITY
When Thales, more than 600 years before
Christ, discovered that amber when rubbed
attracted small objects, the electricity he
produced was static electricity; electricity
produced by friction. The modern static
machine is an elaboration of the principle of
frictional electricity, plus induction or in-
fluence.
There are several types of static machines,
the reader being referred to any text-book
on physics for description.
When I make the statement that the use
of static machines is on the wane, I shall
call down upon my head vials of wrath from
the many users of these machines through-
out the country. My statement, howe\er,
is not based on the therapeutic value of the
machine, nor intended to discredit the latter.
One great reason for the popularity of the
static machine has been the fact that it
produced its own electricity and could be
operated independently of an electric cur-
rent. Thus in towns where no lighting
plant existed or where the same was only in
operation part of the day, the static machine
was the most suitable machine to use, as it
could be run by a gasoline or water motor
or even by hand power.
The rapid spread of electric plants, so that
few cities are without current, together with
the great improvements made in induction
''oils, is largely responsible for the decreased
demand for static machines.
In addition, the static machine calls for
considerable care and frequently fails to
work at a crucial period so that coils have
grown in favor with the medical profession
for X-ray and high frequency work.
There are maiiy physicians who believe
the effect of the static current itself to be
purely psychological; that is, suggestion.
Others ascribe to it properties that would
make it useful in practically all 'known dis-
eases.
Between these two we find the truth.
The static current is capable of producing
a definite physiological action upon the sys-
tem, although at the same time there is
undoubtedly some result due to suggestion,
just as there is with most medical measures.
The static machine produces and delivers
a current of high voltage but low amperage.
It is not our province to go into the physics
of the machine, but to consider the nature,
physiological effects and use of its discharges.
The latter have been classified as convective,
disruptive, and conductive.
A summary of the methods of administra-
tion included under each is as follows:
1. Positive or negative static in-
sulation.
2. Static spray.
3. Static breeze.
4. Brush discharges.
a. Convective
b. Disruptive
c. Conductive
k 5. Vacuum tube discharges.
1. Direct spark.
2. Indirect spark.
3. Friction sparks.
[4. Leyden jar sparks.
\l:
Static induced current.
Wave current.
In static insulation the patient is seated
in a chair on the insulated platform and then
connected with either the positive or nega-
tive terminal Of the machine, according to
the effect desired, while the other pole is
grounded, that is, attached to' a water or
gas pipe or other conductor communicating
with the earth. The terminals are first
separated beyond sparking distance.
Positive insulation is stimulating; nega-
tive insulation soothing.
In the static breeze the patient is also
upon the insulated platform and connected
to either pole, while the other is connected
to the metal rod supporting the crown
electrode, the latter being a foot or two
above the patient's head.
When the spray is given the arrangement
is similar, but instead of the crown the at-
tachment is to a pointed electrode held in
the operator's hand by means of an insulated
handle. As this point is brought near the
patient a fine spray is produced.
With brush discharges, a soft wool is in-
terposed, so that the electrode discharges
through it.
398
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
STATIC BREEZE OR SPRAY
STATIC INDUCED CURRENT
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
399
When vacuum glass tubes are used the
patient need not be on the insulated plat-
form. The tube is attached to the negative
terminal and the positive is grounded. The
prime conductors (terminal sliding rods) are
in contact, being separated slowly until the
desired amount of current is produced.
When direct sparks are employed the
platform is brought into use. The patient is
attached to the positive terminal; prime
conductors widely separated; and a ball
electrode used by the operator. The di-
rect spark is painful.
The indirect spark is not as severe and is
obtained by grounding the negative side of
the machine and then attaching the cord
from the ball electrode also to a "ground,"
such as the water pipe.
In employing the static induced current the
patient may or may not be placed on the plat-
form. The prime conductors are touching;
the Ley den jars on; their outer layers con-
nected to metal electrodes in contact with-
the skin over the areas to be treated. The
sliding rods are then very slightly separated,
or preferably a muffler (a small spark gap in
a glass tube) is hung over them which admits
of greater regulation of the distance. Power-
ful muscular contractions are produced by
this method.
With the wave current, the insulated pa-
tient is connected to a positive terminal and
negative is grounded. Use Leyden jars; slow
speed; insulated platform three feet or'
more from machine; Prime conductors
at first touching and then very slowly and
slightly separated.
The general effect of static electricity is
analogous to high frequency currents. The
effect on the circulation is to lower arterial
tension and lessen the frequency of the heart's
action. At the'same time the volume of the
pulse is increased.
There is an increased elimination of car-
bonic acid and the respiration is improved.
On the nervous system a soothing effect
is customary. There is a general increase
in nutrition and metabolism and in the bodily
secretions. There is also increased elimina-
tion of urea.
In using the static machine it is necessary
to know the polarity of the terminals. There
are several rules for this, but the simplest
and most reliable one that I know of is the
use of a round piece of wood (such as a sec-
tion of a broom handle), placed in contact
with the terminal when a spark is passing.
If. it is the positive, the spark runs around
or follows the wood, if it is the negative
the wood apparently repels the spark.
The static machine must be kept free
from moisture or it will not work. Keeping
chloride of lime in a porcelain dish inside
the case is the method ordinarily employed.
(To be continued.)
An Electric Light Cane
Carrying a pocket flashlight has one
drawback for the fastidious dresser: it may
in time draw the pocket out of shape, be-
sides always bulging it
out. For such a man
the cane form solves the
problem, consisting as it
does of a cane with a
slender flashlight inserted
near the handle. By
sliding or turning a metal
sleeve as shown in the
illustration, the current
is turned on and the
miniature lamp sheds its beams on the
way or on the keyhole.
Three-minute Stair Lighting
In this country the average landlord either
turns the hall lamps off " altogether at mid-
night, or eke leaves only a very dim illumina-
tion. The German owner of apartment
buildings is perhaps wiser, for he considers
the dim lighting insufficient and yet does
not want to light the halls brightly all night
long. What he does is to light the halls
and staircases brightly until midnight, after
which time a system of pushes enables any
late comer to turn on all the lights for a
period of three minutes, at the end of which
time the lights go out automatically.
The whole system of hall and stair lights
is controlled by a pendulum clock so
adjusted as to turn the hall lamps on
and off at the desired hours. In turning
them off it switches the current to the emer-
gency lighting circuit which is controlled
by a pushbutton at each stair landing.
Pressing any button operates a little clock-
switch which turns on all the stair lights
and automatically turns them off again at
the end of three minutes, though the time
can be adjusted to a shorter or longer period
if desired.
The Problem and the Solution
No more forceful statement is made in
Mr. Edison's article in the June Popular
Electricity than this:
"There is absolutely no reason why horses
should be allowed within city limits, for
between the gasoline and the electric car,
no room is left for them. The cow and the
pig have gone, and the horse is still more
undesirable."
The two pictures on this page tell the
story of electric motor vehicle economies —
the ability of a power wagon to do the work
of twice as many horse drawn trucks by
reason of its greater power. By inference
we realize the reduced fixed charges for
stable room and attendance, fewer delays
and greater capacity to meet emergen-
cies.
From the civic viewpoint one has visions
of clean streets, reduced spread of disease
germs by street dirt, of emancipation from
overcrowded thoroughfares and the un-
ceasing din and confusion of congested
traffic.
Motor vehicle economies are largely
measured by the pay roll. It costs more to
keep a motor truck than a horse truck, but
it costs no more to men one than the other
and the motor ^.oes twice as much work.
The motor truck reduces the delivery and
stable pay roll from 30 to 50 per cent.
That's where the main saving comes.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
401
CONTRAST THIS FAMILIAR SCENE WITH THE POSSIBILITIES OFFERED BY THE UNI-
VERSAL ADOPTION OF ELECTRIC WAGONS
The limit of a motor truck's economies
is the limit of the driver's physical capabili-
ties. The average motor wagon can make
more delivery stops than any driver can
handle. Viewed as a business organization
problem, a change from horses to motor
trucks gives full play to executive ingenuity
in getting ioo per cent work out of every pay
roll dollar.
Time and again have these statements been
borne out in actual practice. Why, then,
are struggling teams of horses permitted
on the streets of cities? They move slowly
and require twice the space of an electric
vehicle, thus adding to the congested traffic
conditions which are daily becoming more
alarming. In spite of the work of anti-
cruelty societies cruelty to animals still
exists.
The answer lies in the fact that people are
slow to make changes so radical as would be
the universal adoption of electric trucks
even when such changes would result in
actual economy.
But nevertheless, the day is sure to come
eventually.
As the electric car in the past has re-
volutionized passenger traffic in our cities,
so is the electric vehicle even now revolu-
tionizing the trucking and delivery busi-
ness.
Stand on a crowded down-town corner and
see the electrics thread their way in and
out among the teams. Or perhaps late in
the afternoon, on some tributary street
leading off into the suburbs, watch for the
great trucks from the department or whole-
sale stores, piled high as small houses with
their five or six tons of boxes and crates and
see them whiz by as fast as the street cars
are allowed to go. Then ask yourself the
question:
"How many more years shall we give
the horse?"
LARGEST SIGN IN THE WORLD
For three years preparations were under
way for the thirty-first triennial con-
clave and grand encampment of Knights
Templars of the United States, which was
held in Chicago, August 7 to 13.
These pictures, show the beginning of the
task of transforming the city, which Was to
entertain no less than 100,000 visitors, into
one vast red and white installation of thou-
sands of electric lights. These were ar-
ranged to represent the various emblems
of the visiting knights and bring back by
flaming arches and battlements the archi-
tecture of medieval days. The electrical
work for this great spectacle was installed
and patroled by the Thomas Cusack Com-
pany, S. W. Van Nostrand of that company
and Gorham B. Coffin, acting for the con-
clave committee, planning the features.
Located on the lake front Park was' the
most stupendous undertaking of all— -the
construction of the official badge of the
encampment reproduced in colorsjind stud-
ded with more than 4,000 tungsten lamps.
Something of its immensity is conveyed by
the picture showing the men upon the steel
work, which placed the helmet at the
top of the badge 133 feet in the air. To
support this, the base measured 64 feet
across and rested on concrete piers six
feet square extending to a depth of 18
feet into the earth making the emblem
the largest and highest electric sign in the
world.
THE GREAT EMBLEM SIGN RISING TO
A HEIGHT OF 1 33 FEET
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
403
A CITY IN MINIATURE
Some years ago Chas. Mihleder of Frank-
lin, Pa., conceived the idea of representing
in miniature a city perfect in detail as far
as possible.
Eight years of patient work and study
were required to carry out the idea, which is
here shown in a picture taken at Riverview
Park, Chicagp, where the model city is on
exhibit.
Built on an inclined plane, the city covers
an area of 225 square feet, but was so care-
fully planned that even with its four miles
of electric wire it can be taken down and
packed ready for shipment in less than an
hour. The stores, dwellings, and public
buildings are exact representations of these
buildings in Franklin, Pa., while the in-
dustries of the city including the adjacent
oil fields, are portrayed.
During his lecture Mr. Mihleder says,
" I did not build my city to a scale but made
it pleasing to the eye. To make the work-
men in the factories and on the streets more
life-like I went out with watch in hand and
counted the strokes per minute of men han-
dling shovels and picks. I watched the
carpenter, the blacksmith and the men at
planers and drill presses and then proceeded
to arrange my miniature men to move at
the same rate. Not only this, the machines
at which they are working are correct models
of the actual machines and are running at
standard speeds. But here I found trouble.
A single shaft run by an electric motor turns
at 50 revolutions per minute under the plat-
form and from this I had to work out a way
of getting 20 different speeds and make
everything automatic in operation after the
current was turned on."
The passenger train emerges from the
tunnel, stops at the station for a few seconds,
then enters the tunnel, from which now
comes a freight train. As night comes on
the factories cease running, the cars on the
elevated railroad light up, then the streets,
the park, the electric fountain, the stores,
dwellings, city hall and opera house, until
with 700 tiny 6-volt electric lamps illumi-
nating the town one can readily imagine he
is looking down upon a real Lilliputian city.
404
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
ONE OF THE STATION TOWERS, INDIANA STEEL COMPANY S 32,000 KILOWATT
PLANT, GARY, IND.<
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
405
A Steel City Wire Tower
Gary, Indiana, has come to be a synonym,
almost, for the place where "Steel is King."
In this city whose growth has been so rapid
electricity has played a large part, and in
its application only the most substantial
and sturdy apparatus is able to stand the
strain. To carry current to numerous
motors which are used in every conceivable
labor-saving way, high voltage wires are
strung upon steel towers like the one here
shown just outside of the 32,000-kilowatt
station of the Indiana Steel Company. The
numerous wires from the station, carrying
current at 6600 volts, are attached to G. & W.
porcelain pot heads, some of which can be
seen in the tower connected to outgoing
mains. Frequently a double set of mains
is provided so that in case of a breakdown
in one set, wiremen may enter the tower and
transfer the cable ends to the adjacent set
with little loss of time so valuable where
thousands of men are employed.
To and From the Gold Prince
Cold and snow and high altitudes present
no insurmountable obstacles when it comes
to the quest for gold, as indicated by the
unusual photograph here reproduced. The
picture shows how ore is transported from the
Gold Prince mine, at Animas Forks, Colo.,
across Mastodon Gulch to an angle station
on Treasury Mountain 8,250 feet away.
From the mouth of the mine two endless
cables lead down across the gulch and back
again. The upper one is stationary and
carries the weight of the ore cars which are
suspended by little two-wheeled trolleys as
shown. The lower cable is a traveling one
and the cars are provided with grips to seize
hold of it. Ordinarily the cars are moved
by gravity, the angle station being some 187
feet lower than the mine. The loaded cars
travel down one side and drag the empty ones
up the other side by means of the traveling
cable.
But oftentimes the cars must drag their
way through great drifts of snow and they
will not run by their own weight. Recourse
must then be had to a 40-horse power electric
motor which drives the lower cable round
and round on its bearings.
There is also a Red Cross car for trans-
porting sick or wounded men. They are not
to be trusted to gravity, so the motor is
always brought into play when there is such
a load to transport.
The ordinary buckets are of 10 cubic feet
capacity and each holds about 1 ,500 pounds
of ore.
TRANSPORTING ORE FROM HJGht ALTITUDES
03 t* u"rt
tn £ V 00 £ to
2 O DO)
E 2 m"-^ 3
% o ^£ 6 »
IN *»2 s
= .mo „ fl .2
„ ^ h .2 y
5 S3-5 tJ S
■>-> ** ■ 3 O
C rt o i-2
,3 -Q »A en O
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
407
Tubes of Light at the Taft Banquet
The problem of how to welcome fittingly
a United States President was solved with
great success by the Decorating Committee of
the Passaic, N. J,, Board of Trade
on the occasion of President Taft's visit to
that city last May. It was done by provid-
ing a banquet hall illuminated and decorated
in a novel and unsurpassed manner.
The Passaic Turn Hall was converted
into an Italian Pergola for the banquet and
false framework was constructed for the
ceiling, and upon this were strewn branches
of artificial apple blossoms. The illumina-
tion was provided by two long tubes of the
Moore light — one around the ceiling of the
soft yet brilliant illuminating effect of the
light and displayed genuine appreciation
of the great beauty of the banquet
hall, declaring its decorations to be unex-
celled by any he had ever seen in all of his
travels in various parts of the world. Since
it was the first use of the light for such an
occasion, it is not surprising that he called
it "unique."
BANQUET HALL ILLUMINATED BY MOORE TUBES
Pergola and the other supported from the
edge of the balcony. Each tube was 162
feet in length of clear glass and if inches
in diameter. Nitrogen was used as the
gaseous conductor — producing a beautiful
rose-yellow color.
The room had been transformed into a
wonderful bower. Birds sang in a mass of
flowers and shrubbery serving as a back-
ground for the continuous tubes of the Moore
light. Never was setting more beautiful
for a public function. President Taft com-
mented again and again upon the remarkably
What Is a "High" Voltage?
Twenty-five years ago the terms high
voltage and low voltage were commonly used
to distinguish between the series arc cir-
cuits and the multiple incandescent circuits.
The latter were generally circuits of 50, 100
or at most no
volts, while the arc
generators ran up
to 2500 or some-
times 3000 volts.
Later on the arc-
dynamos were
gradually in-
creased in size
until it was pos-
sible to get over
6000 volts from a
single machine,
which was thought
to be a really
high voltage.
When alterna-
tors came into
the field, first at
1 1 00 and 2200
volts, it was not
long before they
were used with
s t e p - u p trans-
formers raising
the voltages to
5,000, 6600 or
11,000. In more recent years the voltage
thus used has often been 22,000. Mean-
while several firms undertook to build
alternators with armatures wound for volt-
ages that had been thought prohibitive.
Thus the plant at Paderno has alternators
running at 15,000 volts, while the Hungarian
firm of Ganz & Co. has lately built some
giving 30,000 volts at the armature termi-
nals. Doubling or trebling these voltages
by step-up transformers is easy, so it is
evident that we have not yet reached the top
in voltages, nor can we tell the dividing line.
Automobiles as Engines of War
The United States War Department has
during the last few years introduced for
military service a variety of war auto-
mobiles. In the case of most of these
classes of self-propelled vehicles Uncle Sam
has merely followed in the footsteps of Euro-
pean nations. Now, however, the Yankee
army has the distinction of having blazed a
path in the development of yet another im-
portant class of military motor cars. There
has lately been constructed for our fighting
forces a searchlight automobile truck and
engine. A novel feature of the truck is
the provision of an electric motor for each of
the four heavy wheels that carry this 10,500-
pound car. Each wheel is a driving wheel,
the power being applied direct to the per-
iphery of the wheel. Losses of electrical
power are reduced to a minimum. The car is
fitted with an electrical brake; operates
equally well backward and forward, being
capable of a speed of 16 miles per hour,
and is characterized by complete absence of
shock in starting or speed changing.
ELECTRIC SEARCHLIGHT AND TENDER ON WHICH IT IS CARRIED
tender that is the first adjunct of the kind
ever successfully operated by any army
in the world. Various foreign powers have
been experimenting for some time past to
devise a motor vehicle that would transport
and furnish illuminating power for search
lights, but the American officers were the
first to perfect a design that has proven
thoroughly satisfactory' under all the vary-
ing conditions of road and campaign service.
The Army's new truck and tender is
electrically operated, and whereas the magic
current could, if desired, be supplied from
storage batteries, as in the case of the ordinary
electric automobile, this war machine is
designed to generate its own electricity
through the instrumentality of a gasoline
Ordinarily the electric searchlight of the
outfit is carried on a tender attached at the
rear of the truck, but if desired a second
searchlight can be mounted on the rear of the
motor car proper. The new car, the ex-
periments with which have been under the
direction of Lieut. W. H. Rose of the Corps
of Engineers of the United States Army,
requires only three men for its operation
under military campaigning conditions. The
truck has traversed hundreds of miles of
very indifferent country roads; has traveled
over soft ground; has readily run over a log
ten inches square; climbed a 25-per-cent
grade and, on one occasion, was operated
continuously on country roads for twelve
hours without a halt.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
409
THE AUTOMOBILE TRUCK, TENDER AND SEARCHLIGHT UNDER WAY. ON THE
OPERATOR'S SEAT BESIDE THE DRIVER IS LIEUTENANT ROSE, U. S. Av WHO
HAS GENERAL SUPERVISION OF THE EXPERIMENTS
GETTING READY FOR ACTION
;I^^^CTWW;
Some one has aptly said that it is the
artist's business to beautify Nature. Then
if, as Shakespeare expressed it, the stage is
"holding, as it were, a mirror up to nature,"
that mirror should reflect the unmeasured
charms of life rather than its scientific exact-
nesses. The cold and immutable laws of
Nature may pervade the play but they must
be kept in the background, else the artistic
effect and the popularity of the show is
spoiled. Indeed, the playwright may take
liberties as to dates, localities or other
details, his historical settings may be quite
erroneous, but as long as the charm is there
for ear and eye and mind, these digressions
from the cold facts are freely overlooked.
Probably that is why it is the imaginative
fiction writers and not the accurate historians
that give us our plays on historical themes,
since some of the petty facts of a real situa-
tion generally spoil its poetic beauty if
followed too closely. That is true even to
a higher degree when we turn to science
instead of history; for no matter how fas-
cinating the wonders of science may be,
their sequence and relationships cannot
equal in dramatic effect what an imaginative
writer would have them do. The patrons
of a theatre go there to be entertained rather
than instructed, to see artistic climaxes and
unexpected changes rather than a carefully
traced obedience to any laws. Hence the
place of electricity on the stage has been
that of an unnoticed means to scores of
fascinating effects rather than an observable
exhibit of its powers; and when the rule
is broken by some one showing electrical
apparatus in a theatre, it need not surprise
us if he embellishes, distorts and even falsi-
fies some of what he presents. Nor need we
be surprised to find such a showman singling
out only one piece of apparatus for the par-
ticular group of effects out of which his
clever imagination builds an entertaining
half hour. This in the case of a now
popular vaudeville performer is the induc-
tion coil, although a host of electrica
devices might be implied by his modest ( ?)
card, in which he introduces himself as an
electrical wizard, "the man who conquered
electricity."
Imposing in stature as well as speech,
cleverly gifted of tongue, he comes to the
footlights of the dimly lighted stage amid the
flash and snap of three huge induction coils.
Yes, and midst their sparkle, too, for they
are so fitted up with spark gaps, extra brass
domes and what not as to give the impres-
sion of a capacity all out of proportion to
their real strength. The crackling stops
and the professor bows, beginning his
wondertale of original devices, said, to be
"covered by Royal Letters Patent in every
civilized community" and' of his having
trained himself to safely handle voltages
which would be fatal to ordinary mortals.
If showy size, flashy brass knobs and ap-
propriate stage mountings constitute in-
vention, he might truly have indulged in
some patenting. But the audience does not
care. His convincing talk sounds good and
many of those who 25 or 30 years ago knew
induction coils as their most popular pieces
of experimental apparatus may not even
recognize the stage version.
Indeed, it is a long time since our home
apparatus building in the electrical line was
practically confined to making some primary
batteries, a crude telephone receiver and
an adjustable "shocking coil," which latter
furnished amusement rather than instruc-
tion to the household. Fitted with handles,
such a coil freely amused any evening
gathering by the facial expressions and the
muscular contortions of the party who was
suddenly treated to an unpleasant strength
of the induced current. Often we would
join hands to give the same voltage to all,
so as to be fair in the matter. Had one cf
us merely made believe that he was par-
ticipating but really shielded himself from
it, he would have been despised as a faker.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
411
Yet when the same is done on the stage with
elaborate settings, the audience applauds
and hails the deceiver as an "electrical
wizard!"
The eight or ten young men who volun-
teered to assist him on the stage and whose
antics when treated to a series of unpleas-
ant shocks afforded fine entertainment for
the audience, may think him a wonder to
never flinch while passing such currents on
to them. And a wonder he would be, if
the current really passed through him from
the tip of one outstretched hand to the other,
as he pretends that it does. For a well
dressed man, the professor's long cuffs are
becoming,
but why does
he keep pul-
ling them out
instead of
drawing them
back, as men
usually do ?
Because they
will slide
back occa-
sionally and
in doing so
they might
expose the
bracel ets
which he
wears on each
wrist, con-
nected under
his coat by an
insulated cord through which the cur-
rent can flow from one bracelet to the
other without passing through his body at
all. To touch one bracelet unnoticed to
the terminal of the coil is mere play, while
the other is easily reached by the hilt of a
fencing foil or wand held in his hand. For
variety, he may place the victim's hands
on his shoulders so that the current can jump
through his coat from the cord connecting
the wristlets while the professor's right hand
is entirely free.
Or he may let the unwary touch the
bracelet itself, as in an amusing turn for
which many a hypnotist may envy him.
" Can you biff the palm of my hand with
your fist?" he asked of an able-bodied
volunteer. "Then try it a few times until
I say 'go.' If you strike my palm again after
I say 'go,' I will give you a hundred dollars."
The volunteer pounds the extended palm
repeatedly while the professor reaches his
other arm around to the terminal of the
coil, standing (as usual) on an insulating
platform. Then, just as he says "go,"
he shoots his arm out so that the would-be
boxer strikes the bracelet instead of the
palm, getting a shock that cramps the
volunteer's arm muscles. To see the latter
hop around, vainly trying to thrust out the
arm which is so tensely contracted, makes
good fun for the audience, while the pro-
fessor can easily smile for he can truthfully
say in the slang of the day: " It never touched
me!"
Accompanied by clever talk and if need be,
by ready re-
partee, such
fakery makes
pleasant en-
tertainment
for the spec-
tators, most
of whom
think the pro-
fessor a won-
d e r . For
does he not
pass sparks
through him-
self which, so
he assures his
audience, are
twice as dan-
g e r o u s as
those which
electrocute
ordinary mortals ? Are not the sparks of the
current passed through him so intense that
he can light paper with the same? If the
audience does not guess that the paper was
chemically treated so as to be almost ready
for spontaneous combustion, that is not his
fault. And did he not likewise light an
incandescent lamp with the current through
his body ? Some of those present can testify
to its being a bona-fide carbon filament
lamp, for it was passed around among them.
But the cloth draped tongs with which the
stage assistant held the lamp were not offered
for inspection, else some one might have
found a compact storage battery which could
light the filament brightly while the pro-
fessor was dazzling his audience with ir-
relevant sparks.
At each step the listeners are more amused
and less particular as to the truthfulness of
the so-called wizard, who in turn grows
412
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
bolder in his deceptions. Had he started
by treating the unsuspecting volunteers to
shocks through an insulated cable to which
he pretends to convey the current through his
body, many an observer might have won-
dered to what the other end of the cable was
connected. Now no one thinks of doing
so. The cable itself may lead direct to the
coil which the assistant starts into action
while the professor only pretends to tap it.
What matter? The audience roars anyhow.
Clever amusement, not scientific accuracy
was what it came for and for this the familiar
induction coil is ample when formidably
staged by a clever and not too scrupulous
manipulator. And what if the wonderful
developments of the last three decades have
been , ignored in it, for could not exactly
the^fame show have been offered thirty years
ago? That only proves how slowly the
nontechnical world utilizes what electrical
workers have so plentifully devised and how
much more we may expect when the myriad
developments of the past three decades are
more generally employed for our pleasure
hours as well as our working time.
Testing High Tension Insulators
The insulators which support the wires
from pole to pole on an electric line are
most carefully made and tested, especially
if the wires are subjected to thousands of
volts pressure. The illustrations show one
way of making these tests. The insulator
carrying one wire to the end of which is
attached a pointed conductor, is supported
GIVING AN INSULATOR THE RAIN TEST
over a tank of water. The other test wire
from the transformer lies in the water and
when pressure of from 70,000 to 150,000
volts or more is applied, a dangerous,
brilliant, hissing arc passes from the pointed
conductor to the water often breaking
around the insulator. To get as near
actual conditions as possible artificial rain
is produced in these tests, as shown in one
of the pictures, and its effect noted. The
testing voltage employed is always two or
three times the pressure for which the
insulator is designed so as to insure its safe
operation.
Renewing Worn Out Lamps
TESTING A HIGH TENSION INSULATOR
Were you to examine carefully a worn out
carbon filament lamp probably the points
that would attract your attention would be
the filament, broken, or very ragged and
thin, and the bulb coated with a layer of
carbon dust. As the base, bulb and leading-
in wires are in such a condition as to be again
used the lamp need not be thrown away but
may be subjected at a lamp renewing factory
to a process somewhat as follows: The
tip of the glass bulb is removed and with
the admission of outside air the carbon de-
posit is burned off the inside by applying
heat to the outside. The old filament is
now removed through the opening and an-
other one inserted and connected to the
leading-in wires by a paste made of powdered
carbon and molasses, other methods giving
way to this way of connecting on account of
its simplicity and cheapness. The bulb is
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
413
now exhausted of air and sealed with a blow-
pipe, the brass and globe are cleaned and the
"renewed" lamp goes out to begin life over
again.
Electrified Stage Costume
If there is any line in which novel effects
are continually craved, it is that of the
stage costumer. Thanks to light and there-
fore easily carried storage batteries and to
miniature lamps, quite a variety of beau-
tiful effects have already been obtained, par-
ticularly in marches and fancy dances.
Where sword contests form part of the play,
the thrilling flashes between the blades have
been produced electrically. But no am-
FRAU THANIEL S SCHEME FOR AN ILLUM-
INATED COSTUME
bitious costumer will want to stop with past
attainments, hence the method recently
originated by Frau Thaniel of Charlotten-
burg (a suburb of Berlin) will be welcomed
by theatrical men.
Those who have watched the researches of
the probable voltage of lightning flashes
will recall that one investigator proved ex-
perimentally that a long series of short
gaps could be jumped by a voltage far below
that needed to produce an arc across the
total^ distance. Frau Thaniel utilizes this
multi-gap principle by sprinkling costumes
with finely divided metallic powder applied
in streaks and connecting the ends of each
streak or stripe to a current of small am-
perage but of high voltage and high rate of
oscillation. If ^this current is turned on
while the stage is darkened, the myriad
flashes between the fine metal particles
make the costumes appear as if enveloped
in ribbons of lightning and the effect is
said to be as electrifying to the audience as
it must be to the costume itself.
Wire Chiefs Meet
The display of new instruments and para-
phernalia used in the telegraph and signal
department of railroading was the feature
of a banquet given by the association of
railway telegraph superintendents in con-
vention at Los Angeles. The banquet
rooms must have reminded the delegates
of their own offices when they entered, for
signal bells were ringing and telegraph relays
clicking, while a miniature railway running
across the rear of the room supported two
small locomotives which, traveling back and
forth, operated a number of block systems
and semaphores along the line. A number
of technical papers were read. Several of
them dealt with the introduction of the
telephone in train dispatching and the
opinion of the delegates seemed to be that
the telephone will soon supersede the tele-
graph for this department of railroading.
Another subject of discussion was in regard
to having conductors deliver telegrams
taken from the wires of railroad companies,
to passengers aboard their train.
A Ton of Platinum
It is an interesting fact, -perhaps not gen-
erally known to the general public, that
precious metals such as platinum, gold and
silver, and even precious stones such as
diamonds, are used extensively in the manu-
facture of telephone apparatus. The West-
ern Electric Company, the largest manufac-
turer of telephones in the world, uses up-
wards of one ton of platinum each year.
When it is considered that the value of
platinum is 30 per cent greater than that of
pure gold, it will readily be seen that this
expensive precious metal would not be used
extensively unless results justify it.
414
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Ancient Tarsns Eloctric Lighted
So accustomed are we to seeing the cities
of Palestine pictured as they were many
hundred years ago, that to think of them as
enjoying the results of modern progress and
invention is almost impossible.
Were the Apostle Paul to return today to
the city of his birth he would gaze with
wonder, for in place of the torches of olden
tfays he would find electricity sent from a
plant on the Cyndus river lighting Tarsus.
About its streets are 450 lamps, while 600
incandescent lights are used in the homes of
the people.
Bridge Gate to Stop Runaways
The Williamsburg Bridge, New York, in
this illustration, on account of its wide road-
ways and lack of trolley cars seems to have
acquired an unusual record in the matter
push the two ends of the leaves toward each
other forming V with the opening facing
the direction from which traffic oming,
xcept that a spac it \ inches through
which a man may pass is left at the apex.
In the one runaway which occurred since
its installation the horse started 150 feet
distant, and by the time it had reached
the gate the leaves were nearly closed.
The horse breaking away from the harness
passed through the opening without injury,
leaving the wagon in the apex of the V.
The leaves swing back parallel with the
sides of the bridge when not in service.
Measuring Temperature in Concrete
How does the temperature of a solid con-
crete wall vary as the wall dries out and
hardens? This question is to be answered
with reference to the concrete masonry in the
walls of the locks at Gatun, Panama canal.
GATE TO STOP RUNAWAYS ON WILLIAMSBURG BRIDGE
of runaways, far exceeding the number on
Brooklyn Bridge. In four years 185 run-
aways took place, 53 horses were killed and
47 injured, while at the same time 96 per-
sons were injured.
On -April 14, 1910-, a "runaway gate,"
the idea of a laborer on the bridge, was put
into operation. The device consists of two
leaves built of plank as shown, 40 feet long
and six feet nine inches high, mounted on
wheels. The officer in charge needs only
to close a switch which sets in operation
motors which cause racks and pinions to
by burying six iron bulbs, containing a coil
of wire, in the concrete, and bringing out two
lead-sheathed, copper wires to connect to an
indicating instrument, which is portable.
The resistance of the circuit will vary with
its change in temperature because the re-
sistance of all metals is greater or less ac-
cording to the temperature of the metal.
This resistance will be measured at in-
tervals and the temperature read direct-
ly on the portable indicator, a small
storage battery being used to furnish the
current.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
415
Gyroscope for Window Cleaners
According to press reports, an American
version of the Brennan monorail system
in which a gyroscopic flywheel keeps the
car from tipping, will soon be in service.
A European inventor has already demon-
strated by a test on a fair sized steamer that
a similar plan can be used effectively to
overcome the rolling of vessels. Now a
third has reasoned that the balancing of
i—^ — i — — i — ~-| r~^~
THE LATEST IN GYROSCOPES
cars or ships is no more important than that
of individuals working under unusual and
dangerous conditions. For instance, a man
washing the windows of any tall building
can work to best advantage if free to lean
back somewhat, just as he would do if
standing on the ground. Safety straps make
this possible to a considerable extent _ but
themselves are hindrances to free working.
Were the window cleaner a bloodless ma-
chine, we might simply equip his interior
with a gyroscopic balance wheel.
Next to this is the external arrangement
just patented by Hermann Zoern, an archi-
tect at New Brandenburg. He proposes to
strap a light frame to the man, carrying a
pair of hoops driven at high speed in oppo-
site directions by an electric motor. A prac-
tical test of this scheme will be awaited with
interest and — attention, prohibitionists!—
might not the same plan with a storage
battery supplying the energy thwart the
unsteadiness of a toper?
An Electrical "What Is It?"
As a pleasant bit of amusement, just ask
your friends to guess what this cut shows,
or better still try to guess it first yourself.
Is it an inkstand ? A jewel case for my lady's
dressing table? Or a bread mixer? No,
it is something far larger and more powerful
than any of these — an electric capstan of
French design.
Unlike most mo-
tor driven de-
vices, this does
not need a rhe-
ostat or a start-
ing resistance,
but is controlled
by a simple
switch. The
speed depends-
entirely on the
weight handled, being fast with a light
pull on the rope and slow for the heavy
ones. The enclosing case has no joints in
either the bottom or the sides through
which dampness or rain might enter, thus
protecting the motor from moisture as well
as mechanical injury. The current used
is always in proportion to the torque or
pull on the rope, hence there is no waste of
energy. So successful has this capstan
proven that a single French concern has
already installed nearly a thousand of them.
what is it:
Insect Shuts Down Power System
Horn-gap lightning arresters protect the
high voltage line of the Nevada-California
Power Company supplying current to Gold-
field, Tonopah and adjoining towns. On
June 23 a small insect known as the "snake-
feeder" flew exactly into the spark gap of one
of these arresters, and started an arc which
resulted in shutting down the whole system.
Strange to relate the insect, with its body
badly scorched, was found in the gap stil
showing signs of life..
416
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Didn't Disturb the Wires
Josephine and Her Fan
Lieutenant Murphy, chief electrician of
the Cleveland Police Department, has dis-
covered a man who figures it is easier to
build a house over telephone wires than to
have the wires moved. The man is Adolph
Berkovicz. About two years ago Lieutenant
Murphy put up some new wires for his
signal system, and his men strung the
wires across a vacant lot. Berkovicz, who
owned the lot, built a new house on it
recently and evidently imagined that the
wires could not be toucbed, so he built
around them. Now the wires enter the
south side of the house and come out on the
north side.
"In all of my 33 years of experience as
an electrician, I never heard of such a
thing," said Lieut. Murphy, when telling
about it. "The building contractor made a
clean job of it though, as the wires are not
cut nor damaged in any way. He left a hole
about three inches in diameter on either side
of the house. Of course we will have to
take our wires down."
Missouri Chief Josephine is the name of
a Holstein dairy cow owned by the Agricul-
tural College of the University of Missouri.
Recently Josephine went 'out after the
world's record in mi'k and butter production.
After 120 days of heroic effort she made a
new mark, giving an average of 50 quarts
of milk per day on about 65 cents' worth
of food. One of the adjuncts to this test
was an electric fan in Josephine's stall by
which she was continually blessed with a
cooling, fly-dispelling breeze and kept at all
times in a milky state of mind. Mr. DeBall,
the cartoonist, also hails from Missouri
and understands cows.
The Optimist
The Optimist sleeps, electric fans make cool
each sultry night;
He laughs and sings; electric tools make each
day's burdens light.
An Optimist he well can be who values watts
and volts;
Who lets the current drudge and pull and east
life's dailv iolts.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
417
Clock Selling Once and Now
Time was when clocks were bought from
the vender who carried the whole stock on
his back, crying his ware as he went up and
down the streets of one town after another.
His assortment was limited and his guarantee
of quality meant but little, for usually the
itinerant clock seller was one who had picked
up only enough of horology to dissemble and
reassemble the parts of a clock and to oil
the same. Occasionally an experienced
clock maker with a taste for the bohemian
The Old-Time Clock
Vender
than the old hand fitted ones, we have grown
to expect more and more of the finished
article and we look to the dealer to stand
back of it. His invitation to us is apt to
be itself in the form of a huge clock, elec-
trically lighted to show the time at all hours,
and his shelves are replete with scores of
smaller types ranging from cheap alarm
clocks • to electrically wound types which
need attention but once a year. No longer
do we wait for the clock seller to come to us.
We go to him, and to repay us for the trip
he gives us the larger assortment, the brightly
lighted store in which to inspect
the same, and a dependability un-
dreamed of by our grandparents
who patronized the itinerant clock
dealer.
Steam vs. Electric Engines
life would thus take to the road, but usually
the clock crier was a poor mechanic from
whom people bought because they had no
better choice.
And today? The roaming peddler has
entirely disappeared and the clock seller
is where we can quickly reach him; for
while the machine made parts in modern
clocks are more accurate and more durable
The limit of economical load of a
railroad train is determined by the
power and other qualities of the
engine. It follows that if we com-
pare the characteristic qualities of
steam and electric engines a general
idea can be obtained of the im-
provements that are made possible
by the substitution of electric for
steam power on a railroad.
The power that a steam loco-
motive call develop is limited by the
steaming capacity of its boiler, and
this limit has been reached: the
electric engine power might almost
be said to be only limited by the
capacity of the central station.
Different types of engines must be
used for different kinds of service
in steam railroads. An electric en-
gine can be used everywhere, and
operated on the multiple unit sys-
tem two or more engines being
made to utilize all of their power.
As a source of motive power the
electric engine is efficient. Its total
weight is utilized for adhesion. Its
rigid wheel base need not be longer than in
any one of the cars it pulls.
Its tractive effort is exerted on a larger
number of wheels and motion is obtained by
a continuous turning motion instead of a
reciprocating motion — thus sparing shocks
to the frame and other parts. This tractive
effort is larger per ton-load on each of the
axles.
FOR PRACTICAL ELECTRICAL WORKERS
//OW TO MAKE AND OPERATE ELECTE/CAL DEV/CES
Design of a Small Lighting Plant
By ARREN K MILLER
Many that are interested in electricity
have not the advantage of a technical
education, but are studying it for its own
sake. As exact knowledge of its principles
increases, it adds to the pleasure of the study
to now and then derive some pecuniary
benefits from, that knowledge, and to find
HOW THE WIRING WAS LAID OUT
that men value it in dollars and cents. The
ambitious one usually begins with bell-
wiring and telephones or wireless. Pres-
ently the chance comes to him to install a
small motor somewhere, and he learns some-
thing about starting-boxes and shunt-fields,
as he connects up and starts the installation
himself. He also becomes acquainted with
the ways of inspectors and the workings of
that elastic body known as the National
Electric Code. Having got that far with-
out the college education, it is more than
likely the chance will come to him to light
some small factory out of the reach of city
current, and he has his first real engineering
problem <o solve. One of the writer's earli-
est electrical jobs was just such a problem
as this, and the story of its solution may be
of interest to others who are treading the
same paths.
A large and powerful motor car company,
having driven its neighboring rival to the
wall, had acquired by amalgamation, all
the buildings, land and
business of the weaker com-
pany. When we were
sent to plan a general
rejuvenation, on every
hand throughout their
works could be seen the
traces of bitter poverty,
of a grim fight against
lack of capital, a fight to
the last ditch before giv-
ing in — tools worn out
and worthless to turn out
good work with, buildings
going to ruin for lack of
money to renew their
rotten underpinnings, no
light anywhere but kero-
sene torches and lanterns,
and no heat in the shops
to keep the men warm, except here and
there an insufficient coal-stove.
After two months spent in re-flooring the
shops, putting in concrete foundations, a
heating plant, and new tools, the problem of
how to light it came up.
There were several buildings, compris-
ing the plant, arranged as in the sketch,
and it would take about 150 lamps to light
them. Allowing half an ampere to the lamp,
75 amperes would be required, and to send
that much current from the power-house
of the large works, about a mile away, would
take very heavy and expensive copper cables,
as the following little sum would serve to
indicate—:
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
419
2 X IO.OI X75X 52OO
= 845,000 circular mils,
10
or about two miles of 900,000 circular mil
cable, nearly an inch in diameter. To ex-
plain the formula, which is standard for
CONSTRUCTION OF THE ENGINE FOUNDA-
TION
"drop," 2x5200 is the total length of wire,
and 10.81 the resistance per ampere of a
mil-foot of it. Multiplying by 75 gives the
total resistance for 75 amperes in mil-feet,
and dividing by 10 per cent drop gives the
size of the wire in circular mils to carry the
current and deliver it with the drop allowed.
It may also be explained that a mil is 1-1000
of an inch and a circular mil the area of a
circle 1-1000 of an inch in diameter.
As these enormous cables were out of
the question, means had to be devised to
drive a small generator at the new works
themselves. Their main power was a water-
wheel, and a little consideration of the ups
and downs of this prime-mover prejudiced
one against hitching a dynamo up to the
shop shafting anywhere. The best plan
seemed to be to use one of the small gas-
engines manufactured by the large car
works. Using a 7^ kilowatt, 115-volt dyna-
mo, the 12 horse-power gas engine — two-
cylinder, two-cycle, 900 r. p. m., — would
furnish ample power, and could be furnished
at one-fifth the cost of a regulation outfit.
But, the minute the writer proposed to use
the little two-cycle motor-car engine, there
were howls of disapproval, principally on
the score of the uneven speed of the en-
gine. The general opinion was that the
lamps would jiggle and flicker, and was
summed up by an old wiseacre of a pipe-
fitter, who held up his kerosene torch and
prophesied that I would be lucky to get
INTERIOR OF THE PLANT
420
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
even that much light out of it! Even the
general manager would not sanction the
use of the motor-car engine except with the
proviso that I get up some kind of a regulator
to take care of the varying speeds of- the
engine under different loads. He suggested
some sort of a solenoid, acting on the car-
buretter or timer handle, but left it for me
to think over and report. I never did have
any faith in such teasing little devices, and
presently reported that I had the best
electric controller ever invented — which was
no controller at all! Just a heavy 200-lb.
fly-wheel on the dynamo itself. This wheel,
revolving at a high rate, would store in itself
enough energy to render the electric light
plant totally insensible to any sudden varia-
tions of either load or driving power, and
the only time the carburetter would have to
be adjusted would be for large changes in
the load, such as at starting up at 4 o'clock
and when shutting down at 6:30 when they
went off. And it certainly removed all
question of the lights jiggling or flickering,
so the solenoid idea was abandoned and
the work gone ahead with. The flywheel was
18 inches in diameter, with a three-inch
face, 2^-inch rim, ^-inch web and four-inch
hub, and was finished all over and balanced
on the armature. It went on the stub end
of the armature shaft opposite the pulley
end.
The first care in the installation was to
get a proper foundation for the engine.
These little, two-cylinder engines could not
be balanced very accurately, and would
soon shake a wooden foundation to pieces,
so I had two 3x^-inch pieces of iron bent
in. the form of the foundation, and drilled
for engine and floor bolts. These were
put in a wooden box, also of the form of the
foundation, and this was then poured full
of concrete surrounding long bolts that stuck
inwards from the iron strips. I thus had a
massive concrete foundation, cheaper than
wood, and the bolts buried in the concrete
could be tightened so as to clamp the irons
securely to the concrete. It was an excellent
foundation and the engine never gave any
trouble from it.
The wiring was laid out as shown in the
scale sketch, and the mains calculated to
the various lamp centers by the ordinary
wiring formula: 2 x distance x amperage x 10.81
-j-4 per cent drop. Four per cent of 115
volts is 4.6 volts, leaving .4 volt drop from
lamp center to lamp, so no lamp could be
more than .4 volt above no, nor much be-
low it if at any reasonable distance. The
lamp center is not the geometrical center
of a group of lamps, but the point at the
center of gravity of the amperage, so to
speak. If the lamps are arranged sym-
metrically, it will be practically the geo-
metrical center; if unsymmetrically, it will
work over towards the biggest group of
lamps. For the shops right near the dyna-
mo, it would not do to branch right off from
the main passing through those shops, for
the voltage would be too high and the lamps
overglowed. It^-as necessary to come back
from a big central point as at (A), and then
distribute from a lamp center at just a little
above no volts. The voltage drop to (A)
should be about two volts, leaving three for
each sub-main, and one volt from their
lamp-centers to the farthest lamp on that
center.
Some practical "kinks" on wiring may
be mentioned here. No wire less than
No. 14 is allowed anywhere on the work,
except for drops. The work was all "knob-
and tube," and to get both wires true and
straight without sags and wrinkles, the
mains were stretched through the cleats
with a pair of small iron pulley-blocks, and
the cleats screwed home before slacking off
the tackle. The mains were dead-ended
at each end of runs with a turn around
porcelain spools, as they will sag, even if
screwed under the cleats while tight. For
the No. 14, running to drops and in outlying
spurs, it sufficed simply to pull the wires
through the cleats, and then get a heel be-
hind each cleat in turn, taking a twist with
the pliers to tighten the wire, and screwing
home the cleat with the left hand. Each
rosette must have a cleat on each side of it,
for good work, and the rosettes should be
fuseless and the spurs arranged so as not
to have more than ten lamps on each, pro-
tected by a six-ampere fuse -plug cut-out
where it leaves the main. All sub-mains
leaving feeders were protected by a cut-out
just a little above the total amperage on the
sub-main. Every circuit entering a building
must have a fuse and switch, cutting off
all the lamps in the building. Passage
through all walls must be by unglazed
porcelain tubes, and the wire must enter
these by drip loops which shed the rain away
from the tubes. Landings on buildings were
by standard deep-groove insulators on a
two-pin bracket with i^-inch locust pins.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
421
As the trusses of the larger buildings Were
on 1 6-foot centers, light, strong runways
were devised by the writer, by nailing a
piece of ix4-inch yellow pine to the back of
another 1x4 -inch pine strip in the shape of
a T. This gave it almost as much strength
as a 5X4-inch beam.
The layout gave, as you will see, two small
feeder lines of 15 amperes, and one large
one of 40 amperes. To make a switchboard
for them without spending too much money,
an oak board was got out at the carpenter
shop and slate-base switches mounted on it.
The equipment was: one Weston 100-
ampere ammeter, one Weston 150- volt
voltmeter, both front-connected; a 100-
ampere main switch, slate-base, cartridge-
fused; a 50-ampere ditto, for the heavy
feeder; and two 15-ampere porcelain fuse-
plugged switches for the small feeders.
The field-rheostat was mounted between the
two instruments, and it made a very com-
plete board, amply safe .and capable for
controlling the current. It was mounted on
he wall with iron brackets holding it two
feet out from the wall.
The plant started off without a hitch, and
required very little adjustment of the car-
buretter throttle as shop after shop went on,
nor did sudden changes of even fifteen am-
peres in the load have any affect on the
speed. The shop foreman adjusted both
field rheostat and carburetter on starting
up, and in shutting down for the night.
The flywheel on the dynamo would run the
entire plant for several minutes after power
was shut off the gas engine, so great was the
energy stored in it.
Wires 100 Amperes Will Fuse
A blown fuse is often replaced by a piece
of copper or iron wire with, " There, I
guess that will hold." This is, of course,
bad practice and endangers whatever de-
vices may have been protected. The fol-
lowing table from experiments by Preece
give the sizes of wire of different kinds that
100 amperes will fuse:
Copper No. 17 B. and S.
Aluminum " 15 "
Platinum " 13 "
German silver " 13 "
Platinoid " 12 "
Iron " 10 "
Tin " 6
Lead " 6 "
Tin alloy " 5
Tungsten Street Suspension Lamps
If lamps are not used freely along both
sides of .a street, the ideal location for widely
separated lamps is over the center of the
street. This center can rarely be reached
from a bracket arm as the distance from the
pole would be too great for a bracket fix-
ture, and fastening the lamp to a single
cross-suspension wire allows it to sway in
4m en/can Tungsten Suspension
European Tungsten Suspension
the wind. To avoid this swaying both
American and European users have adopted
four-way suspensions for street-center tung-
sten lamps in small towns, knowing that a
fixture supported from four points cannot
turn over in the wind but must remain level
if the supporting wires or ropes are drawn
taut.
In the American practice (which was de-
veloped at the same time by electric light men
in Wisconsin and Iowa without knowledge
of each other), the two wires form one side
of the suspension. The other side consists
of two small cords, usually 3-16 or \ inch
braided cotton ropes, which pass over pulleys
at the opposite pole and down to a fastening
near the base of this pole. This permits of
raising and lowering the lamp. Both the
pulleys and the insulators to which the
wires are fastened at the opposite pole are
at the ends of steel cross-arms, while an
arm of enameled wood spreads the insulators
422
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
over the hood to which the wires and cords
are fastened.
In the European practice, poles are gen-
erally prohibited and the fastenings have to
be made to the fronts of building on both
sides of the street. In this case ladder or
tower wagon has to be used („r replacing
a burnt-out lamp, and if tlu ~ords stretch
or shrink irregularly it is more difficult to
readjust the load. Besides, the shape of
hood commonly used in Europe concen-
trates the light under the lamp instead of
scattering it widely as in the wiser American
practice.
Home Made Lamp Reach
Every electrician who has to care for
lamps in fixtures and chandeliers that are
out of reach will appreciate this home made
lamp reach. Two pieces of heavy clock
spring, a piece of |-inch gas pipe, two hollow
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HOME MADE LAMP REACH
metal balls which may be had at almost
any fixture house, being made from two
small ceiling canopies, a piece of heavy iron
wire and some stout fish cord are needed
to make it. Bend the clock spring as shown
in the sketch. The iron wire need not
be used if the gas pipe is extended up as
shown by the dotted lines, as the string may
be connected directly to the clock spring
if the end of the pipe is made smooth so as
not to wear the cord. Pulling the string
draws the two springs together, grasping
the lamp, the tension being relieved when
the string is released. Wooden handles of
various lengths may be provided for attach-
ment to the gas pipe. Rubber may be glued
to the edges of the metal cups if difficulty is
experienced from breakage of lamps.
O. O. Brooker.
Enamel Insulated Magnet Wire
After several years of experimenting en-
ameled wire has at last been perfected so as
to be used successfully for commercial
purposes.
In some respects its insulation will stand
more rough handling than textile insulation,
although in cases where the wire comes in
contact with sharp corners or rough sur-
faces in the process of winding, the film of
enamel is injured.
Cotton or silk insulation will char and
finally be destroyed by 2500 F., whereas
the enameled insulation will withstand at
least 4000 F. for a long period without de-
terioration and 5000 F. for a period of shorter
duration.
Another very desirable feature of the en-
amel wire is the economy of space in winding
coils, armatures, etc. For instance, in a
coil wound with No. 36 single silk wire,-
approximately one-half the winding space
is taken up by the insulation, whereas with
the No. 36 enamel wire only one-fifth of the
winding space is so occupied. Therefore,
in this gauge about 60 per cent more turns
can be wound in the same winding space with
enamel than with silk insulation, or the same
number of turns can be obtained with a
much less weight of enameled wire.
The dielectric strength of enamel insulation
is in excess of 75 volts per .0001 inch of
insulation which is greater than silk or
cotton.
Experiments have proven that enamel
insulation does not dry out or become
brittle after a long period of usage, also that
it is absolutely water-proof and inert to
corrosive agencies. It also adheres tena-
ciously to the copper and has the same
elasticity as cotton or silk insulation.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
423
Insulating Materials
ASBESTOS
This is a mineral found extensively in
Europe, Asia, Africa, America and especially
in Canada. In its natural state it appears
in thread-like fibers and is easily crumbled.
Its chemical composition not being very
uniform its natural color varies from a
silvery white to gray and bluish. What
suggested its employment as an insulating
material was its notable property of being
highly fire-retarding. This would make it
a splendid insulator where high temperatures
are found. Also, its electrical resistance is
high. But the fact that it is very hygro-
scopic makes possible its use only in very
dry places. To avoid this loss of dielectric
power by humidity it is generally impreg-
nated with water-proof varnishes. Com-
mercially it is generally found as asbestos
powder, cloth, cord or board. If the powder
is kept to a temperature of 12720 F. for
several hours a kind of porcelain-like com-
pound is obtained.
It is the basic component of a large num-
ber of patented insulators, which are obtained
by adding to the asbestos different per-
centages of asphalt and glues and can he
said to differ from each other only by the
color or fineness.
A very good combination is ■ cement-
asbestos, a compound which is subjected
to a very high pressure and sold in sheets
of different dimensions.
Asbestos and caoutchouc from the so-
called vulcanized asbestos which resists
the action of water and can stand quite high
temperatures. While cement-asbestos can
be easily worked while keeping all its good
dielectric properties, vulcanized asbestos
is very hard and difficult to work, for which
reason it is sold already shaped.
PORCELAIN
The material entering the composition of
porcelain are kaolin (Chinese potter's clay),
plastic potter's clay, flint, Cornish stone and
feldspath. The percentages used vary with
the different manufacturers.
All these materials are mixed with water
to a consistency which allows of shaping
and finishing into the required form and then
after a close inspection for defects they are
baked in a furnace at a very high tempera-
ture.
For insulators the temperature at which
the material is completely vitrified is about
26500 F. The baking operation lasts about
50 hours and the cooling just about as long.
The objects are then ready for the enamel-
ling. The enamel components are kaolin,
borax, feldspath and white lead and they
must be free from any alkali, otherwise the
insulating surface would absorb humidity.
Only the so-called hard porcelain is used
for insulating purposes and its physical
qualities must be extreme smoothness and
hardness.
Porcelain resists tension and compression
very well, but its elasticity is very low, which
makes it so easily breakable. Its electric
resistivity is high, but varies with atmos-
pheric conditions, and it becomes a rela-
tively good conductor when heated to red
heat.
Bronzed insulators have no particularly
good qualities. Their color is obtained by
adding red earth to the usual components
of porcelain.
"Ivory," which looks like porcelain and
is used for clusters and insulations of par-
tially protected places, is obtained by the
compression of an earthy material. It is
not very vitreous and, when not very care-
fully enamelled, very hygroscopic, and its
only advantage is that of low cost.
Artificial granite competes very much with
porcelain for third-rail insulators. It easily
allows current dispersion and is very easily
perforated and totally unfit for high tension
work.
GLASS
Glass insulators are still widely used on
American telegraph and telephone lines.
They cost less than porcelain insulators and
their electric resistivity is, under the same
conditions, much higher than for porcelain.
Glass, however, expands and contracts
so much under variations of temperature
that insulators made of glass break very
easily, which would open way to disruptive
discharges in high tension work. More-
over, glass has a hygroscopic surface due to
the presence of alkaline matter in its composi-
tion which makes it absorb humidity so
easily as to decrease considerably its insula-
ting resistance.
In some tropical countries glass insulators
are preferred on account of the fact that
birds will not build their nests under them
owing to their transparency.
ELECTRIC CURRENT ATWORK
NEW DEVICES FOR. APPLYING ELECTRICITY
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Handy Portable Lamp
"Flexilyte," looking very much like a tape
measure enclosed in a leather case, is the
CORD UNWINDS LIKE A TAPE MEASURE
name of the device shown which takes the
place of an extension cord and light. Pro-
vided with an attachment plug, 15 feet of
cord, a crank on one
side of the ■ case for
winding up the cord and
a standard socket in the
center on the other side,
the equipment affords a
convenient, self-supported
light and an enclosuie
for the unused cord.
Nerve Saving Ambulances
In no other vehicle must so much con-
sideration be shown to the passenger as in
the ambulance; for the person conveyed by
it is apt to be not only weak and sensitive
to jarring, but under a nervous tension as
well. Hospital internes can tell of case
after case where a sudden tugging or lurch-
ing of the horses drawing a carriage or an
ambulance has so affected the nerves of the
patient as to retard his normal recovery.
This was to have been avoided by the
modern auto ambulances, but the gasoline
types have only made a bad matter worse by
introducing the thump of the motor which,
while smoothed down during the speedy
running of a well adjusted auto, is still
annoyingly jerky whenever' the vehicle has
to slow up or- perhaps stop at a crossing.
Then as if that was not enough, there is
always the risk of missing an ignition and
discharging the unspent gas into the muffler,
where the next exhaust may set it off with
an explosion loud enough to be heard sev-
eral blocks off. The recent eastern case
where a patient died of heart failure in a
gasoline ambulance, literally scared to
death by the sudden explosion of gas in the
muffler of the auto, may not be as rare as it
seems, for a death in an ambulance is apt
to be ascribed to the patient's last ailment.
The Bed Post Fan
"Couldn't sleep! Too hot!" And this
is a truth often heard in summer among
dwellers in hotels and flat buildings.
Whether the device here shown was thought
out by the inventor during some sleepless
night we do not know. However, the
Emerson bed-room induction type of fan
BED POST FAN
so mounted as to be easily attached to any
size of post goes far towards providing sub-
stantial comfort and is most economical of
current. Being but eight inches in diameter,
the power required is small and con-
sequently the current consumption low.
A flexible joint or swivel allows the breeze
to be directed just where desired,
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
425
Motor Driven Pa-
per Cutter
In blue printing
establishments paper
is cut on a table
equipped at the edge
with a large knife or
shear. The picture
illustrates a new
motor-driven knife
device manufactured
by the C. F. Pease
Co., Chicago. The
knife is circular in
form and is made
to move back and
forth along the table
edge by the very small motor and miniature
rope drive. A switch enables the operator to
reverse the direction of the knife at will.
Power may be supplied from the ordinary
lamp socket.
Hot and Cold Air Douche
In a judicious use of shower baths, the
most effective stimulus for
many purposes comes from
the sudden changes from
the hot to the cold and
vice versa. If similar
effects were produced with
air instead of water, they
could more easily be lo-
calized in their application;
there would be no danger
of scalding and the needed
apparatus could be used
in many places where a
shower bath equipment is
not available. As usual,
electricity has met these
requirements, having been
shown the way by the pio-
neers who made electric
hair dryers in which
small electric fans blow
air through electrically
heated tubes.
For medical purposes a
similar apparatus will give
a hot air application if
fitted with a tube of
smaller diameter which
will concentrate the blast
of air instead of scattering
MOTOR-DRIVEN PAPER CUTTER
it widely as in the case of hair dryers.
Slipping a smaller nozzle on the tip of the
tube concentrates the blast still more and
allows the air to get hotter before leaving
the tube. For quickly alternating hot and
cold air effects, the single heater tube is
replaced by a twin tube fitted with a vane or
valve which sends the blast of air either
through the cold or the heated tube. Then
Attaching the Twin Tubes
HOT AND COLD AIR DOUCHE
426
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
by leaving the throttling nozzle off
the heated tube, this can be used for
drying the hair, or for driving the
frost off a frozen window on a winter
morning.
Automatic Elevators and Dumb
Waiters
^ju.. .. ABU I ,.v..a t >\
That "necessity is the mother of in-
vention" is well exemplified in the de-
velopment of elevator service to meet
the demands of high office buildings,
| hotels, department stores, etc., and in
this field electricity is rapidly replacing
steam.
In the Burdette-Rowntree system for
operating dumbwaiters and freight
carriers the pressing of a push button
assures absolute control of the ear. By
one plan the car can be controlled from
one floor only. It can be sent to any
floor from any other floor, when operated
from the controlling floor, the control
box indicating the last floor to which
the car was sent. By another arrange-
ment the car can be controlled . from
any floor and can be brought to any
floor or sent to any floor by simply pres-
sing a button on any floor.
A signal lamp shows whether the car
is in motion or at rest and whether any
door is open. Signal devices are fur-
H nished so that pressing a button on any
J floor will signal to any person using the
', car that the car is desired at the floor
'/'?$* from which the signal was sent.
Sometimes signal devices operated
from the car are used so that before the
attendant closes the door, by touching
one of a set of buttons in the car, he
can signal to the attendant on the floor
to which it is desired the car should go.
Where desired a bell may be installed
on each floor and a set of buttons placed
on the control board, so that the oper-
ator can call up any floor where the
car is unnecessarily detained.
In the matter of safety, if the car
is in use or if any door is open, the car
can not be started. It might also be
noted 'that loads as heavy as 600
pounds may be carried at a speed of
50 feet per minute while a weight of 150
pounds may be lifted at the rate of
1,000 feet per minute.
'.-rV.^U i ;;»•"*< .
■fe
,
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
427
Automatic Street Announcer
Clock with Pendulum Above
The device here illustrated lets you know
"where you get off" if you have in mind the
nearest cross street to your destination, and
does away entirely with the calling of sta-
tions and streets on electric railways.
A curtain having the streets printed upon
it is unwound from one roller and rolled up
on another by a small motor in the box
as the car travels along. The second picture
shows how this motor is started, the upper
end of the trolley pole being equipped with a
circuit closer which momentarily closes a
circuit by means of contacts hung from the
trolley wire support at each crossing.
When the car comes to a cross Street the
four-armed contrivance mounted on the
trolley pole is turned over one position. This
momentarily closes the circuit in two wires
which run down the side of the pole. Closing
this circuit operates an electro-magnet which
in turn closes the motor circuit. This motor
then runs for a moment and draws down the
curtain a notch to show the name of the
street.
Advertisements may be displayed on the
curtain at the same time as indicated.
Rudolph Jaegermann, manager of the
St. Louis Watch Making School, 5815
Easton Avenue, St. Louis, has patented a
new type of electrical clock which, odd
AUTOMATIC
STREET
ANNOUNCER
CLOCK WITH PENDULUM ABOVE
enough, has a pendulum which swings from
a point above the clock. An ordinary
clock is used and the pendulum is impelled
by an electromagnetically operated arma-
ture of the oscillating type. The armature,
in its partial approach toward the energiz-
ing coil closes the circuit by which the coil
is energized. Under the attractive influ-
ence of the coil the armature is impelled
against the pendulum, driving it forward,
after which the circuit is broken, leaving
the armature free to be
returned to its original
position under the mo-
mentum of the pendulum
in its return swing. The
swinging pendulum also
operates the escapement
lever by which the clock
mechanism is advanced
so no weights or springs
are necessary. The pic-
ture shows a front view of
the clock and mechanism.
The face of the clock
being of glass the outline
of the unique pendulum
may be seen in the rear.
428
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Engraving Dies by Machinery
As ordinarily performed, the work of
die making demands the most painstaking
manual skill. To follow the intricate de-
signs of the patterns from which are repro-
duced the dies for stamping sheet metal,
silverware, hardware, etc., was formerly
thought to require an accuracy and refine-
ment of tooling which no machine could
duplicate. However true this may still be
is fed back and forth across the pattern and
work, its tracing stylus following the relief
of the pattern. The engraving cutter, at
a less distance from the pivot, thus share?
proportionately the movement of the guiding
point, reproducing with absolute fidelity,
but on a diminished scale, each feature of the
design.
The cutting tool is not dissimilar to an
acutely sharpened cannon drill, and revolves
at a speed of from 5,000 to 8,000 revolutions
MACHINE FOR ENGRAVING DIES
for the last finishing touches on the highest
quality of dies, there are now made engraving
machines which relieve the skilled hand of
all its former tedious labor, preserving its
craft fresh for the finest work; machines
which will themselves turn out a very credit-
able product of tooling without the inter-
vention of any manual agency.
The ingenious motor driven engraving
tool of the Keller Mechanical Engraving
Co. reproduces on a steel blank (which is
later hardened to form the die), the design
of the metal pattern carried on the revolving
faceplate at the right of the picture. The
die, under process of cutting, is shown on
the smaller chuck near the center of the
machine. Both pattern and work revolve
at the same speed, while the double pivoted
tool arm, carried on the bracket at the left,
per minute; being belt driven by the J
horse-power Westinghouse motor mounted
on the tool arm. The rotation of the work
and pattern, and the motion of the tool arm
across the work, are both at comparatively
slow feeds for the more accurate and de-
tailed operations. As the cutting operation
nears the periphery of the die, it is evident
that some reduction in the rate of rotative
feed of the work must occur if the die is to
be as well finished near the edges as at the
center. This variation is accomplished by
a parabolic speed governor constructed upon
the fly-ball principle, but having its maximum
allowable speed controlled through a rod
and lever by a special cam bolted on the
vertical slide. The friction clutch in the
governor thus remains closed up to the
maximum permissible speed as determined by
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
429
the cam shape, and then releases, keeping
the rotative speed within the limit thus set.
1 he rotation of the face-plates and the swing
of the tool arm are operated by the i\-
horse-power motor seen at the left on the
floor.
Ordinarily two cuts are made in the sink-
ing of one of these dies. The first or rough-
ing cut employs a coarse tracing point and
a comparatively large cutting drill, and
roughs out the blank following the larger
details of the pattern. This relieves the
fine cutting point, which is employed on the
finishing cut, of the removal of much of the
thick material which would dull it for fine
work.
During the finishing cut, a very fine
tracing point is used, and the cutting tool
is sharpened to a diameter proportionately
less than the stylus, in the reduction ratio
in which the pattern reproduction is to be
made. The cutting drill is driven at a
speed of from 5,000 to 8,000 revolutions
per minute.
Lamp with Magnet Base
The man who holds the lamp while you
locate the trouble loses his job if you have
a Federal magnetic socket and extension
in your tool box. Connect the attachment
plug to a near-by socket and by a touch to
iron or steel your lamp sticks, as in the illus-
tration, where you place it. You can work
with both hands and your helper can do the
same.
This convenient device consists of a
cylindrical socket, 2§ inches long (not in-
cluding lamp) and ij inches in diameter,
fitted with a lamp socket in one end and an
electro-magnet in the other. This magnet
is of sufficient strength to hold the socket
firmly at any angle or on any iron or steel body.
It is wound separately from the lamp cir-
cuit so that in the event of accidental break-
age or burning out of the lamp the current
still operates to hold the socket in its
place.
The lamp is also made for lower voltages
so that it may be used on electric auto-
mobiles and even on ignition batteries in
gasoline machines.
Mer-Maid Hair Singer
We are all familiar with the burning wax
taper so common in barber shops for singe-
ing and evening up the ends of the hair.
LAMP STICKS TO ANY PART OF A
MACHINE
MER-MAID HAIR SINGER
In keeping with the advance in scientific
lines this can now be done by using the
device here illustrated which consists of a
brass box mounted on slate in which are
resistance coils. From two of the binding
posts connections may be made by a plug
to any alternating current lighting circuit.
A flexible card from the other two binding
posts passes through a polished fibre handle,
supporting two copper wires, between the
ends of which is connected a piece of plati-
num wire. When the electric current is
turned on the platinum wire becomes white
hot, singeing the hair without danger as
from a flame, leaving it much smoother.
Electrical Men of the Times
W. H. MEADOWCROFT
A number of Englishmen have been, close-
ly associated with Edison in the course of his
wonderful career, enjoying his esteem and
confidence, in their various capacities.
Among them may be mentioned William H.
Meadowcroft, who came to this country
from Manchester in 1875. Prior to leaving
England he had been employed in a law
office, and soon after landing in America
he secured employment with the legal firm
of Carter & Eaton, New
York City. He remained
with that firm and its
successors for over five
years, studying law in
that period, and being
admitted to the New
York bar in 1881. Major
S. B. Eaton, of the firm,
had accepted the vice
presidency of the pioneer
Edison Electric Light
Company early in the
same year, and took up
his new duties actively.
The work was peculiarly
onerous and exacting in
its requirements, for the
art of electric lighting
was wholly new and
novel, not merely from the legal stand-
point but from every other. In his
emergency, Major Eaton summoned the
alert young Englishman to his side, and
Mr. Meadowcroft dropped the practice of
the law to become assistant and secretary
to the vice president; a position he held
through four memorable and eventful years.
Changes came in the administration, but
Mr. Meadowcroft continued in association
with the parent Edison Electric Light Com-
pany and its successors for over 18 years.
This notable period of service included a
great variety of work for all of which this
man of versatility and energy was found
ready. Two years were spent in the legal
department, but not less than six and a half
years were devoted to the miniature and
decorative lamp business of the General
Electric Company, a branch of the new in-
candescent lamp industry that Mr. Meadow-
croft himself set going in 1885. Toward the
close of the period he took an active part
in the creation of the Roentgen X-ray busi-
ness of the same company. But many other
matters received his time and attention,
including the development of the early Edi-
son Electric Illuminating Company of New
York and the Edison European Company,
as well as the work of the various standardiz-
ing and other technical committees organized
in the pioneer days for operating and sys-
tematizing the practical
side of the art. He also
had a share in the early
work of the Edison Ore
Milling Company.
Aside from executive
duties, Mr. Meadowcroft
with unusual literary
culture and talent as a
writer was prompt to
utilize the opportunities
that came his way in
the creation of a new
technical literature.
Much of this work has
a lasting historical value,
to say the least, for we
may note that he is
the author of the very
first pamphlet on in-
candescent lighting published in Amer-
ica, and that he prepared all the catalogues
of the Edison Companies up to 1884. These
he supplemented by a number of booklets
on kindred topics issued in 1888 and 1889,
and followed up by other important cata^-
logues and descriptive pamphlets in later
years. Much of this work demanded an
expert and accurate acquaintance with the
different branches of the electric light and
power industry, on- both the manufacturing
and the operative sides. Thus, for example,
Mr. Meadowcroft was intimately familiar
with the making of lamps and plant con-,
struction, the development of e&ctric signs
and the planning" of decorative illumination;
from which by easy stages he passed to
X-ray work and did much of the pioneer
experimenting in this country, taking vast
numbers of radiographs in connection with
surgical cases and examinations of the
interior of the human body.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
431
On leaving the General Electric Company
Mr. Meadowcroft took up the exploitation
of the Perret storage battery as general
manager of the company; and then went
into other enterprises of the same character;
but in 1908 he returned to the old fold,
to assist in the preparation of the standard
biography of Mr. Edison by Martin and
Dyer, to be issued by the Harpers this fall.
Out of this congenial work other tasks of
equally agreeable nature have grown at
the Edison Laboratory, where Mr. Meadow-
croft has for the past two years made an
exhaustive study of all the records there of
the master inventive mind of the century.
It will be gathered that Mr. Meadowcroft
has not only been directly and prominently
engaged in the upbuilding of vast modern
industries but has helped tell their story.
He has a pleasing literary style, and his suc-
cess in appealing to popular tastes may be
judged from the fact that his "A B C of
Electricity" has reached a sale of nearly
90,000 copies and is "still going strong."
He has written also an "A B C of the X-
Ray," which enjoyed a fair sale. In addi-
tion to this, he has done a good deal of
lecturing on Edison, X-rays, etc., and de-
livered a series of 24 very successful lectures
all- over the country, on and with liquid air,
at the time of the furore some ten years ago.
There is nothing dilletante about the man,
but he manages also to get a lot of real
pleasure out of very clever amateur theatri-
cals and the practice of vocal music.
The Causes of Fires
In a published article recently a prominent
underwriter stated that unquestionably elec-
trical fires are preventable and are almost
invariably due to carelessness; either care-
lessness in the use of inferior material in
electrical installations or the careless use
of good material at the time the work is
being done and later. Proper specifications
and inspections of the original installations
and periodical re-examinations would be-
yond a doubt do away with practically all
electrical fires.
The following table giving the causes and
number of fires in Chicago for the year 1909
shows electricity not to be the gross offender
it is so often pictured :
Ashes and hot coals 87
Blown down and ignited 16
Bonfires and burning rubbish 599
Candles and torches, carelessness with 81
Carelessness, not otherwise specified 36
Children playing with fire and matches 82
Chimney fires 435
Christmas trees 18
Cigar stubs and tobacco pipes 81
Defective flues 60
Dry-room overheated 5
Electric wires and lights 231
Engines and boilers, stationary 32
Explosions, alcohol, benzine and naphtha. ... 8
Explosions, chemicals 9
Explosions, dust 3
Explosions, gas 27
Explosions, gasoline and kerosene 74
Explosions, lamps and lanterns 69
Explosions, oil 8
Explosions, oil and gasoline stoves 111
Explosions, water-backs 2
Fireworks 27
Forge, coals from 1
Friction 28
Fumigating 24
Furnaces, heating 156
Furnaces, foundries, etc 2
Gas jets . . , : 99
Gas pipes, leak in 50
Hot iron and molten metals 3
Tovition, alcohol, benzine and naphtha 10
Ignition, chemicals 6
Ignition, gas 35
Ignition, gasoline and kerosene 126
Ignition, grease, oil and meats 79
Ignition, paints and varnish 9
Ignition, tar, rosin and wax 63
Incendiarism, known 60
Incendiarism, supposed 133
Lamp and lantern accidents 48
Lightning 56
Matches, carelessness with 454
Matches, rats and mice with 17
Mischievous children, etc 62
Open fire-places and grates 34
Overheated and defective kiln 1
Overheated and defective ovens 25
Plumbers' and tinners' furnaces 1
Prairie fires ■. 94
Rekindlings 24
Salamanders ' . . . 9
Smokehouses, overheated : . . 6
Sparks, chimney, etc 240
Sparks, locomotive 109
• Sparks, river craft 3
Spontaneous combustion 131
Steam-pipes .... 1 56
Stoves and ranges .... 285
Stove-pipes - 29
Tailor's goose 2
Thawing water pipes 156
Thawing gas pipes 18
Tramps 5
Unknown 2,225
Total 7-o75
ELECTRICITY IN THE
HOUSEHOLD
The Letters of a Bachelor Girl
By R. GRACELYN EVERETT
Dearest Edna:
Do not think that I have forgotten you,
for indeed I have not. If you have seen
mother you will know why I have not
written before. I have thought of you
many times, but the work of getting our
business started has taken all of my time
so far.
You are no doubt curious as to what it is
all about. Well, you know that this is
called a dirty city, along with the numerous
other mean things said about it. This very
fact has been the cause of our enterprise.
You see Madge and I were frequent
visitors to the one beauty shop in our neigh-
borhood that amounted to anything. We
would have been more frequent only it
seemed we could never think to make the
necessary appointment ahead. The place
was always crowded simply because it was the
only one in the vicinity, although the service
was not at all up to date. Every time I
went there I vowed, "never again," One
night the water was not hot when she gave
me my shampoo and I was so disgusted
I fumed. As we were going out I said to
Madge, "If I owned that beauty shop it
would be a little bit up -to date and have a
few modern appliances at least."
That struck Madge as a good idea and
being a regular business woman she • had
the scheme half worked out before we were
home.
I had a little money laid by before I left
home and she had a small amount left her
by an uncle. We came to the conclusion,
after getting the advice of several other
people, that with our combined capital we
could start a beauty shop on a modest scale
at first, but with all the equipment first
class, including the latest electrical con-
trivances which are a delight to the women
who visit these places. We also haunted
all the good shops in town and made a care-
ful study of their ways of doing things.
The ideas so gained, together with a few
original ones of our own, have enabled us
to fit out a really fine little establishment.
I wish you could see it with its gold mono-
gram sign on the window:
* THE HYGIENIC BEAUTY SHOP *
* 879 The Boulevard *
Our location is the best on the boule-
vard and we cater to high class patronage
only. We have had the rooms completely
redecorated in a delicate green and ivory
white. The reception room is furnished
with green wicker furniture and a beautiful
velvet rug covers the floor. We had some
elegant monogramed curtains made which
lend an air of distinction.
The thing that will interest you most
is our work shop where fine ladies are made
even more beautiful. We have two experts
on baths and electrical treatments and four
smart appearing young girls who attend to
the manicuring, shampooing, and hair
dressing.
Each girl works in a compartment sep-
arated off with coarse white linen curtains
hung on shiny nickel fittings. Each com-
partment has a large mirror fitted with an
electric light on each side of the frame.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
433
The furniture and the wood work are
finished in ivory white.
1 he baths are in the rear and are supplied
with the very latest devices. We now have
many improvements that are not used in the
less up-to-date shops, and when we enlarge,
as we shall when the business grows to
warrant it, we are going to put in one or
two electric baths which are now recom-
mended by electro-therapeutic practitioners.
rinsed. This does away with the hateful
system of stooping over a basin and insures
more comfort and better work. After wash-
ing, the hair is dried with warm air from
an electric hair dryer, which can be regulated
to any degree of temperature.
And when we have grown a little more —
we. are not trying to do everything at once
— we have in view an electric scalp treat-
ment which will be beneficial to locks which
By their use one may not only take a re-
freshing bath after a hard forenoon's shop-
ping, but may at the same time receive an
invigorating current of electricity through
the body by means of suitable electrodes
in the tub and various forms of sponge
and brush electrodes.
We have a shampoo board in each com-
partment, that fits closely to the neck, on
which the hair is thoroughly washed and
are falling out or losing color. This will
require what is called a "static machine,"
to produce small quantities of electricity
at very high voltage or pressure. Then
when you sit in a chair under a canopy
which is connected to one electrode of the
machine and place your feet on a plate
connected to the other electrode, you re-
ceive a veritable shower of bluish crackling
sparks which rain down upon the scalp.
434
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Your scalp tingles under the electric bath
and the circulation around the roots of the
hair is stimulated, which brings about the
desired result.
In the massage departments we of course
use electric vibrators, as many prefer them
to hand massage and they are in fact quite
beneficial from a therapeutical point of
view since they stimulate the nerve centers,
and, when the treatment is continued long
enough, have just the opposite, or a soothing
effect.
In the massage department we also make
use of a number of medical battery outfits
giving both galvanic and faradic currents.
When you grasp the electrode handles you
obtain a stimulating current through the
arms and body. Or you may grasp one
handle and the other may be in the form of
a little roller with which you are given an
electrical massage. Or a metallic hair-
brush is even connected to one electrode
and your hair gets an "electric brushing"
such as you never even dreamed of before.
We also use nothing but electric curling
irons. They are both clean and handy,
and are time savers as well.
One great improvement that we have
installed in our shop of beauty is an ozone
air purifier which is a very recent electrical
invention. It cleanses the air and keeps it
as sweet as the ozone filled atmosphere of
the native pine woods. This shop will be
hailed with joy by those afflicted with hay
fever when the dog days come, on account
of this machine.
One of our girls is an expert in the use
of the electric needle with which she removes
superfluous hair, moles, warts' and other
small growths. The electric needle de-
stroys the blood supply and causes the growth
to shrivel up. Every time I see that outfit
I wish that I could have old Mrs. Perkins
for a few treatments. Do you remember
how her beard used to amuse us?
I wish that you could peep into the -mani-
curing compartments with their cute little
white tables on which are desk lights shaded
so as to throw the most of the light on the
hands and keep the faces in shadow. We
were a little extravagant in the cushions on
the tables. We had them made of green
velvet and embroidered with our maik.
They have been quite a decided sensation
with our patrons. These, little distinctive
touches are a fine means of advertising and
amply repay us for our trouble and expense.
When you come on that promised visit
we will put you through a full treatment
and I know that you will enjoy every minute
of*it. I know you are interested in what we
are doing and wish us success. However,
seeing — or rather feeling in this case — is
believing, so hurry and come. I can hardly
wait till you get here.
As ever with best love
Vivian.
879 The Boulevard.
August 8, 1910.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
435
New Electric Washer and Wringer
The Latest Electric Iron
In no part of the home are electric labor
saving devices utilized to greater advantage
than in the laundry. There are many elec-
tric washers on the market, but here is a
new one which has never' been described in
this department. The picture shows the
par.— v ~ -.■.77— ' SSEES "' "--" 5S — BSE -"--"
5BasgBaaggsEaB3B srsai-saiBSgs
JSSSiss^mzsga^stzssgsBi
COMBINED ELECTRIC WASHER AND
WRINGER
combined electric washer and wringer in
the opened position.
The machine, called the Emperial, com-
bines the good features of the washboard
and steam laundry and is built on the plan
that it is the lift and drop of the clothes that
does the cleaning, hence the more frequent
the drop the quicker the work is done. In
this machine the cylinder is reversed after
each revolution, giving the clothes a thor-
ough shaking and rubbing on the inside
corrugations. When the washing is com-
pleted a simple shifting device transfers
the power to the wringer with no loss of time.
All cog wheels are eliminated from the inside
of the body of the machine and this prevents
spotting the clothes. The revolving cylinder
is completely corrugated on the inside and the
water receptacle of the machine is made of
heavy galvanized iron.
The success of an electric iron, or in fact
any heating device, depends to a large ex-
tent upon the qualities of what is called the
"resistor" or heating element. Expert met-
allurgists in the great laboratories of the
General Electric Company sought long and
patiently for the right material from which
to make this "resistor." After trying hun-
dreds of combinations of metals they dis-
covered a new alloy which seemed ideal for
the purpose. This they called "calorite."
It has a high electrical resistance, a high
melting point and is. non-oxidizing. It is
ductile and malleable but is not in. the least
degree brittle. From it are made the heat-
ing elements of the new G. E. electric irons,
one of which is here shown.
The iron is well suited for light, medium
and heavy laundry purposes. It is provided
with a leaf heating unit which is spread over
a broad path around the edges of the bottom
surface so that the heat is delivered most
directly to the parts of the iron which first
come in contact with the damp material.
Three standard forms of connection are
provided, the plain attachment plug, the
indicating switch plug, and the permanent-
ly attached cord. With light or medium
work it is advantageous to control the heat
regulation by turning the current on or off
as required, depending upon the nature of
the work. This may be most readily ac-
complished by means of the indicating
switch attachment plug. For very wet or
THE LATEST ELECTRIC IRON
heavy goods, it is generally necessary to keep
the current on continuously. The plain
attachment plug may be used where there
is an occasional demand for continuous heat,
as in the ordinary household. The flatiron
with the permanently attached cord is espe-
436
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
daily recommended for laundries and similar
establishments where controlling switches
and pilot lamps are located conveniently
near the ironing board.
The electric flatiron is made for one heat
only. Wherever heat regulation is required
it may be obtained by turning the current
on or off from time to time as previously
referred to. About three minutes are re-
quired for the iron to heat up sufficiently
for light work.
These irons, which may be attached to
any lighting circuit, either alternating cur-
rent or direct current, where the pressure is
not over 125 volts, consume 650 watts of
current or about that of about 13 ordinary
lamps.
Hughes Electric "Cook Stove
Most of the well known types of electric
ranges have been described in this depart-
ment in past issues, but the Hughes "electric
cook stove," as its maker terms it, being a
new-comer, possesses some features which
many have not heard about as yet.
The stove is made with one, two
or three "burners." The switch con-
trolling each burner is arranged to pro-
vide for a low, medium or high temper-
ature, while separate coils of wire
making up the heating elements of these
so-called burners are laid in grooves in
a plate of specially prepared material
so that their heat is applied directly to
the bottom of the vessel which is set
upon the plate. Another feature which
the separation of the heater coil into
parts makes possible is the repair of
any one of the sections without atten-
tion to the whole element. Any coils
burning out within a year after instal-
lation are renewed free of charge.
As will be seen upon examination
of the picture there is a large oven-
like compartment directly beneath the
heating elements or plates. This com-
partment is not used for baking but
rather as a warmer. Considerable
heat enters this warmer from the
heating elements when they are being
used for cooking. Then when the
current is turned off, if the cooked or
partially cooked dishes are placed in
the warmer their heat will be retained
for a long period and cooking will
even be continued at a slow rate,
upon the principle of the well-known
tireless cooker.
Some types of these stoves have an oven
proper, located above the stove top, as in the
most modern ranges This is provided with
its own heating elements and will do any bak-
ing that can be accomplished on a gas or coal
range.
Flies and the Electric Fan
There is something about the electric
fan which flies dislike. It may be the
strange humming noise reminding them of
some enemy, or more probably it is the strong
current of air which makes it hard for the
flies to aviate;, but, whatever it is, an elec-
tric fan is a first class fly discourager, and,
if kept playing in the kitchen, pantry or
dining room will surely drive them away.
HUGHES ELECTRIC COOK STOVE
JUNIOR SECTION
Obedience to the Law of the Giant
The Portland Railway Light and Power
Co., of Portland, Oregon, has the lowest acci-
dent account of all the large electric railway
companies on the Coast. This is due to
various policies adopted by the company,
among which is a unique educational cam-
paign carried on in the public schools. The
claim department of the company keeps two
of its claim investigators busy with a series
of lectures to the students of the schools teaching
them the ways and means to avoid accidents
from street cars. The idea of the lectures
originated with Mr. B. F. Boynton, claim
adjuster for the company, and was further
elaborated by his daughter, Mrs. Ida P.
Newell, who evolved the plan of a safety
league among the school children. The lec-
tures are first given in the schools of Portland
then league pledges are passed around for the
students to sign, one of which is here repro-
duced. Then each member is given a Safety
League pin. Naturally the League and its
object and the lectures themselves are talked
over at home and the result is that the grown-
ups become interested (and really fathers and
mothers and big brothers and sisters can
profit as much by the lectures as anyone).
Thus a very effectual work is
ure in talking to about 5,000 pupils in the
six grammar schools and the Lincoln and
Washington high schools and every day it
becomes more interesting to me as I see
the deep interest taken by the boys and girls
in the plans we have for making our beautiful
City of Roses known also to the whole
world as the Champion City of Safety for
Life and Limb.
A few days ago I went into the Public
Library and I saw a special shelf filled with
familiar books. It was another mute re-
minder of the recent passing of one of our
greatest Americans — Mark Twain. I turned
over the leaves of my old favorites when a
boy — Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn,
and out of the covers peeped the girl Becky
Thatcher and Willie Harper and Huck and
Tom — and at once I was struck with the
awful difference there was between the lives
they lived 50 years ago and the life we live
today. Theirs was the simple, natural life;
ours the life of activity and multiplied in-
vention. They saw only a slow moving
Mississippi steamer or a raft floating down
stream. We have a hundred lightning-like
servants on every side.
PORTLAND SAFETY LEAGUE
LLvery reader
Junior Department teacher.
being carried on which will
prevent the loss of many lives SLOGAN: "Portland, the City of Safety'
and many a little leg or arm
will be saved.
of the
should read and remember the member's pledge
Kiwi blp dirprtinn v luhirh nrp . . r pledge myself to t?, a11 r F" Lt0 save -life ^ KmbLby Preventm6 accidents in connection
bimyiv u,irvvi,l,vn$ uuruv^n "Aew;th street cars, automobiles and other moving objects, by
ZlVen in the lecture wMch\ W UsinS care for myself in not playing on dangerous streets crossing in front of moving
* ... 'Cars, crossing behind cars without looking out for danger on the other 8ide; jumping on or olt
foUOWS. Editorial Note. moving cars; standing on car platforms; putting hands, arms or shoulders out of open windows,
/~i • 1 , tj t 'land by never picking up or touching a wire hanging low or lying on the ground.
LrirlS and iioys: 1 appre- (2) By doing all I can to prevent others from doing the dangerous things named above.
n\tp fU;c ^Uor,rp +r> ™mp K^ (3) I will wear the SAFETY" LEAGUE pin, try to attend the vacation rallies, and work
Cldie mib cnance ^ IO COme UC- tQ make ?onhnd known ^ over t}ie world 33 &,. City of Saiety as well as the ^ity of Roses.
fore such an audience. Dur- l
ing the past two weeks I havef0185""1 NAME— ■ ACE J
had a like privilege and pleas- Book issued address .
438
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Another picture drawn by a New York
newspaper man came to my. mind and I
said I will contrast the old life with the new.
It is said, by way of showing how rapid our
progress in invention has been, that at the
recent Fulton Celebration in New York that
On All Sides He Heard the Honking of Autos
Old Father Knickerbocker came back to
New York on the Clairmont — Robert Fulton's
first steamboat. They wouldn't let him go
ashore for it wasn't safe to have the old man
face the dangers of the New Day, but still
husky and independent he jumped over-
board and started to swim ashore. As he
struck out he came face to face with a fast-
moving steam yacht — on the other side a
couple of motor speed boats barely missed
him and a silent electric launch came up
behind. Frightened for his life he dove
under the water only to face the glaring
eye of a submarine. More dead than alive
he reached shore and started up Broadway.
It was night. A million lights blinded him
— on all sides he heard the honking of autos
and ringing of gongs. A sightseeing auto
came around a corner, a string of electric
cars kept going by, an auto ambulance came
from another direction, fire and police patrols
were whizing past and in the midst of this
the Old Man could think of only one thing
— he looked up to pray, but just in time to
see that a propeller had broken on an aero-
plane and it was coming straight for him.
There was only one possible way of escape
and he took it. A manhole was open in the
street and he jumped down in it and just
at the right time to land in front of a subway
express going 60 miles an hour.
Now this is exaggerated but it has truth
as its essence. The times have changed
and we must change with them. Mark
Twain said that when he went to school he
had only two teachers and as was the custom
in his day he gave them both nicknames,
and it is from those teachers and their
names I want to bring the lesson* he learned.
He said that one of the teachers he didn't
like, because she was always marking him
down in his lessons — the other was his
favorite schoolmarm. The first one he
called "Honesty" — because it was the best
policy to do so, whatever his private opinions
were — and the favorite schoolmarm he called
" Experience" because she was such a
"dear teacher."
We want both Honesty and Experience in
our school. We want to be honest with you
in this matter of preventing accidents and
so we come with the results learned from Ex-
perience. All education is simply that one
thing — experience and the deductions from
it. I do not want you boys and girls to
learn the lesson that if you put your hand
in the fire it will be burned. If I see you
drink a glass that I know contains poison,
or if. I see . you in deep water drowning,
what should I do? I am not a man if I
do not do all in my power to save you, but
we want something better than that — some-
thing better than Carnegie medals. We
want to do away with the need of your getting
into such danger. We want to see every
school boy and girl in Portland doing the
same thing. Ten years ago Bands of Mercy
were started all over the country to prevent
cruelty to animals — today that is not needed
for we have all learned the lesson. I believe
with all my heart that now is the time to
have an American League of Safety made
up of school boys and school girls — 50
Portland Bands of Safety, organized to pre-
vent accidents on and off the street cars,
by automobiles and a dozen other growing
dangers. What I say today may form part
of the material for compositions for prizes
as well as good memory tests. The Port-
land Railway, Light & Power Company is
instituting a contest in all the grades of all
the schools — grade against grade — and so
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
430
soon as the plan has been perfected you are
invited to join this League of Safety and
enter the contest. Those who are too young
to write the composition may be asked to
tell to your teacher or some one appointed
Don't Cross in Front of an Approaching Car
for that purpose what the man said about the
Greatest Giant the world has ever known,
so remember you have your part.
When I was a little boy my favorite hero
was Jack the Giant Killer — I believed in
giants then — great, powerful, unseen. Then
I grew older and said I didn't believe in
giants any more, but today I want to tell
you that I know there are Great Giants. I
have met them and watched them work,
and the greatest of these Giants we call
Electricity. We don't know what it is, but
it is everywhere — in the rivers — in coal and
wood — in the clouds. The difference today
is that it is no longer " Jack the Giant Killer"
but something better. It is "Jack, the
Giant Harnesser," "Jack, the Giant Mas-
ter." I know the Giant and I know some
of the men .who have mastered him and
made a powerful servant of him. Some of
them are here in Portland, and if you want
to you can see this Giant working on all
sides of you. He pulls your heavy loads, he
carries you on the cars, he makes your shoes,
your clothing. He lights your school and
streets so that the old time aight is like day,
and in some homes he does the cooking, runs
the sewing machine, does the washing and
ironing and a thousand things besides. He
is a pretty good friend but he is still treacher-
ous and cruel and mighty to destroy if you
cross him. Harnessed ? Yes, but you touch
the harness and he crushes your life out or
tears off a limb.
My business calls me very often to scenes
that are enough to make any one turn gray.
A short time ago I went to the place where a
man crossed the Law of the Giant in getting
on a car when it is in motion. His car will
carry you safely if you obey his rules, but
this man tried to swing on and lost his hold
and the chariot wheels of the Giant took
off his arm and two legs, and he was dead.
But three months before, near the same spot,
a similar accident happened. A boy was
playing tag and ran right in front of the
hurrying wheels and he goes through life
on one leg and a crutch. But last Friday
a school boy on the other side of the river
jumped from the steps of the car and started
around the back end. Another boy who
had jumped off the front end and saw the
other car coming yelled a warning to the
two boys who got off together. One heeded
and the other ran in front of the moving
car when it was almost on top of him. No
Don't Cross Immediately Behind a Passing
Car
motorman and no invention could have
saved the boy from getting a broken leg,
and as I saw him yesterday being taken on
a stretcher to the surgeon — with his pale,
drawn face— I thought how easily it might
have been prevented.
Do you know that experts say that no less
than 98 per cent of accidents are preventable ?
That the tens of thousands of lives and limbs
sacrificed yearly to the modern Juggernauts
440
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Don't Play Near Fast-moving Vehicles
need not have been lost if care and caution
had been exercised? The time has come
that it must be stopped. We cannot afford
such slaughter from moral, from social, from
common sense business grounds. A hundred
and twenty-five millions of dollars annually
mean nothing compared to the countless
heartaches of those injured, and their
parents and friends as well. They talk much
of the conservation of forests and waterways
— better that we should conserve life and
limb.
The way is simple — use your head, your
hands and your feet. The old railroad
signal "Stop — Look — Listen" is a good one
yet. It takes control to stop your feet — it
is easier just to go on.. It takes trained eyes
to see a thing right — trained ears to hear dan-
ger coming.
RULES OF PREVENTION
It is a fact that men and boys get hurt
getting on street cars — women and school
girls in getting off the cars. There are
exceptions to every rule, of course.
Now, personally, I believe there ought to
be a law — an ordinance — against any one
getting on a street car while it is in motion.
Of course, some people will spit in cars and
public places, but most people will not, and
the same applies to such a law of safety.
I think it should be made just as plain that
it is an offense against the public for persons
to risk breaking
their necks in
jumping off cars
as the innocent
public alwa s
suffers when \a
accident happens.
But we have not
reached that point
of prohibition and
prevention yet.
Rule i. Don't
cross a track in
front of an ap-
proaching car.
The car runs on
those two ribbons
of steel. You have
all the rest of the
street. Your eye
may deceive you.
It says there is
plenty of time —
the car is a half
Don't Step Off from
Moving Car
Don't Jump Onto a Car that is Moving
block away — you have
done it a thousand times. Don't believe
such an eye. It is the good swimmer that
is often drowned — it is the man who shoots
that didn't know the gun was loaded. Con-
ceit has killed its thousands.
Rule 2. Don't cross immediately behind
a passing car, or one that has stopped at a
crossing without giving any possible danger
on the other side a wide berth. It may be
an automobile or a motorcycle or another car.
Rule 3. Don't play on or near the street
car tracks or in the road where any fast
moving vehicle runs.
These three simple rules are the Law cf
the Street. I will give you four as short and
as simple for the Law of the Car.
Rule 4. Don't jump on a car that is
moving. I know what a temptation it is.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
441
Don't Ride Where a Sudden
Lurch Will Throw you Off
boys — and
sometimes,
girls, too — but
if you will be
safe, "don't."
The power
of habit is hard
to break, but
possibly the
worst power for
evil in this
wjorld is the
power of
example to
others. You
may have nim-
ble feet, but
how about the
other girl or
boy watching you do it. If he or she
should be up in the hospital next week you
may be, indirectly, one of the causes.
Rule 5. Don't step, or walk, or jump off
a car step when the car is still moving, and
this brings me to the
one thing especially that
I would have you re-
member and take home
to your mothers and
sisters. I know it has
become a stock joke like
the mother-in-law, but
it is a most serious fact
to thousands of women.
If no other point is re-
membered we are well
repaid for giving up
/some of our business
t\ time to these little talks.
You can say that a re1
presentative of the Port-
land Railway said that,
after long and patient
study, wc had at last
discovered the reason a
woman gets off a car
backwards, like a Chinaman. Now, under-
stand me, there is no reason under the sun
why a Chinaman should get off a car back-
wards except that he does everything the
opposite way, but there is a reason why a
woman invariably takes hold of the wrong
handle and gets off a car backwards, and
it is so simple that any girl or woman can cure
herself today by taking my free prescription.
I have been watching school girls and work-
ing girls and women for some months, and
Don't Hang Out of
the Window
what I say is a scientific fact. The reason
a girl and a woman gets down and off back-
wards is because she has no left hand to use.
It is busy carrying the bundle, the purse, the
umbrella or the school books that should
be shifted to the right hand. Shift and you
can't get off wrong. That is, if you face
front. To walk off straight is almost as bad
as backwards. Just change the parcel to
the right hand and you will save half the
minor accidents to women.
Two smaller rules of the car are: (6)
Don't ride on the platform where a sudden
lurch of the car may throw you out. The
painful accident a few months back to the
nurse here on the east side would not have
happened had she remained inside the car.
(7) Summer is almost here. Everybody likes
air. The windows are open or the cars are
open. Don't stick your heads and hands
out the windows or side, as passing wagons,
automobiles, etc., may cause painful injury.
1 he last rule is neither of the car nor the
street — it is of the Wire.
DO NOT TOUCH A WIRE
After a storm or some accident to the wires,
one of them may drop. To cross the Giant
then means death or
suffering. I know a
case where a boy in
a nearby city saw a
chance to swing in
the woods and he
swung on a wire that
was hanging down,
and he lost his right
hand, and he can't
play base ball, or,
other things, now or
when he grows up.
A little boy cutting
across a lot saw • a
nice clean wire and
he said to his little
sister, "I'm going to
take it home for
mamma for a clothes
line," and he ran to
pick it up and his
sister saw him drop,
and her love made
her run to help him,
him her life was destroyed — by the Giant
in the wire.
A safe rule of the Wire is this: Every wire
you see is a live one. It may not be, but
consider it so. My grandfather gave me
Don't Touch a Wire
and as she touched
442
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
a safe rule once when I asked him how I
could tell toadstools from mushrooms, and
you can apply it to any wire you see. He
said, "The only way for you to tell if it is
a toadstool is to eat it. If it kills you it is,
and if it doesn't, it isn't." Today every wire
I see looks suspicious — it is a deadly toad-
stool to me.
YOU OWE IT TO BE CAREFUL
In closing, let me say that you owe it to
a lot of people to be careful and prevent
accidents to yourself and to others.
You owe it to your fathers and mothers
and brothers and sistera, for you make
them suffer with you when you get hurt.
You owe it to your school and your teachers,
for when you go to the hospital or are sick at
home you are getting behind in your lessons.
You owe it, I believe, to the motormen
and conductors. They are human. They
are serving you the best they can. You get
hurt and it hurts them.
You owe it to the great traveling public.
We must travel, and, if you get hurt, you
stop all the business — all the wheels — and
a hundred, perhaps a thousand, persons are
delayed until the facts are found out. It
is worse than bridge waits sometimes.
Then doctors and investigators and a score
of others are kept busy just because, in
your carelessness, you didn't think to do
the right thing.
Of course, you owe it most to yourselves
and your futures. You need your health
and your hands and feet, if you want to
succeed in life.
An Electrical Laboratory for Twenty-Five
Dollars
By DAVID P. MORRISON
PART IX. CONSTRUCTION OF A WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
It is quite essential that you understand
the principle of the slide wire and Wheat-
stone bridges before you attempt to operate
them in making measurements of resistance,
hence it would be best to study briefly their
fundamental principle.
The slide wire and Wheatstone bridges
"are nothing more than special forms of a
divided electrical circuit and if you have
an understanding of the relation of the
various electrical quantities associated with
the divided circuit the operation of the
bridge will be greatly simplified. For the
benefit of the readers who have had no
electrical training the following discussion
will give you a very good understanding of
the divided circuit. Before taking up the
electrical circuit, however, it might be well
to illustrate the same conditions by the use
of a water analogy.
Let us assume that there is a pipe (P)
Fig. .88, carrying a liquid and that this
pipe divides at the point (Di) into two
branches, (Bi) and (B2), and that these
two branches unite again at the point (D2).'
Now it is apparent that there must be a
difference in pressure of the liquid in the
pipe at the points (Di) and (D2), or there
would be no flow through the pipes connect-
ing the two points. . Two pressure gauges
connected at these points would indicate
the pressure in the pipe, and the difference in
the readings of these two gauges would be
a measure of the difference in pressure be-
tween the points. If the liquid is flowing
from (Di) to (D2) the pressure gauge at
(Di) will of course have the higher reading.
Now the pressure in the pipe will decrease
as you move along from the point (Di).
Take a point (D3) on the upper branch
such that the pressure in the pipe has a
value somewhere between that at (Di) and
(D2). Now there must be a point on the
lower pipe where the pressure is the same as
at (D3). This point could be determined
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
443
by placing a number of gauges along the
lower branch and observing their readings.
The gauge whose readings corresponded
most nearly to the reading on the gauge at
the point (D3) would be nearest the point.
Let this point be (D4). Now if these two
points are connected by a pipe as shown by
the dotted lines in Fig. 88, there will be no
liquid flow through it, due to the fact that
there is no difference in pressure between
its ends. * The point (D4) could have been
determined by connecting the point (D3)
to various points along the lower branch
until a connection was made that resulted
in no current flowing between (D3) and
(D4). When these two points have been
located you know that the difference in
pressure between (Di) and (D3) is equal to
the difference between (Di) and (D4).
Likewise the difference in pressure between
(D3) and (D2) is equal to the difference
between (D4) and
(D2). These vari-
ous pressures will
bear the above
relation to each
other, when the
pressures at (D3)
and (D4) are the
same, regardless
of the size, length, form or kind of pipes
composing the two branches, because the
difference in pressure between the ends of
all the various branches connecting (Di)
and (D2) must be equal to each other at
all times.
Bearing the above relations in mind you
can now consider the electrical circuit as
shown in Fig. 89. The two points (Di)
and (D2) are connected with two wires,
thus forming a divided circuit.
The current in the main part of the cir-
cuit divides at the point (Di), part flowing
in one branch and part in the other, and
again unites at the point (D2). There will
be a difference in electrical pressure between
the points (Di) and (D2) and this difference
is the. difference in pressure between the
ends of the two branches. Points to the
right of (Di) on either branch will have an
electrical potential less than (Di). If you
take any point on one of the branches, such
as (D3) on the upper branch, there will be a
point on the .lower branch whose electrical
potential is equal tc ;L?,t of (D3). Since
there must be a difference in electrical po-
tential between two points to produce a
current in a conductor connecting them, you
can locate the point on the lower branch
whose potential is equal to that of (D3)
in the following way. Connect one terminal
of a galvanometer to the point (D3) and the
other terminal to a wire whose free end can
• be moved along the lower branch of the
divided circuit. There will be a current
through the galvanometer, and hence a
deflection of its pointer, until the end of the
wire is on a point whose potential is the same
as (D3) and then there will be no current
and hence no deflection. The point (D4)
can then "be determined by placing the ter-
minal of the galvanometer where there
is no deflection. After this point is located
you -know the following relation exists be-
tween the pressures in the two branches.
The difference in pressure between (Di)
and (D3) is equal to the difference in pres-
sure between the points (Di), and (D4).
Also the difference in pressure between the
points (D3) and (D2) is equal to the differ-
ence between the points (D4) and (D2).
The above relations will exist regardless of
size, length, form and kind of wires forming
the two branches of the divided circuit.
Since the same pressure exists over the
two branches and the current in .any circuit
is equal to the pressure measured in volts
divided by the resistance of the circuit meas-
ured in ohms, you can see that the currents
in the two branches will be to each other
inversely as the resistances of the branches.
That is, the current in the branch of smaller
resistance will be as many times the current
in the other branch, as the resistance of the
higher resistance branch is times the re-
sistance of the lower resistance branch.
The difference in pressure between any two
points in an electrical circuit is equal to the
product of the current in the conductor
connecting them, and the resi^ance . of the
conductor in ohms. Knowing the above
conditions to exist in all circuits and since
the current in the two parts (A) and (B)
of the upper branch are the same 'because
there is no current leaving the wire or en-
tering it at (D3), you can readily see the
drop in pressure over the part (A) bears
the same relation to the drop over the part
(B) as exists between the resistance of
(A) and the resistance of (B). For similar
reasons the drop in pressure over (C) is
to the drop in pressure over (D) as the re-
sistance of (C) is to the resistance of (D).
Now all of the above relations can be re-
444
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
duced to the following simple statement.
The resistance of (A) is to the resistance of
(B) as the resistance of (C) is to the resistance
of (D). This written in the form of an
equation would appear as follows:
A C
- - ~ (i)
B D
In other words, A is to B as C is to D.
From the above equation it is apparent
that if the resistance (A) and (B) are equal
(C) and (D) must be equal, or if the relation
of (A) and (B) is known, then this same
fig. 90
relation must exist between (C) and (D)
when a balance is obtained.
Connect a resistance (R), Fig. 90, whose
value is known in series, with a resistance
(X) whose value is not known, between
the points (Di) and (D2), and connect the
same two points with a piece of wire (W).
A galvanometer (G) should have one ter-
minal connected between the resistances
(R) and (X) and the other terminal connec-
ted to a sliding contact (K) that can be
moved along the wire (W). A battery (B)
should be connected to the points (Di)
and (D2). Now the contact (K) can be
shifted along the wire until a point is located
that causes no deflection of the galvanometer.
When this point is found the following re-
lation exists between the various resistances:
A R
- = - (2)
B X
In the above equation the only resistance
whose value is known is (R) and the value
of the resistance of (A) and (B) must be
known, or their relation to each other, so
that you can determine the value of the
unknown (X). The resistance of a wire
having a uniform cross-section will vary
directly as the length, hence the relation of
the resistance (A) to the resistance (B) will
be the same as the relation between the
length of the part (A) and the length of the
part (B). Since the above relation exists
between the resistance of a ,wire and its
length it is only necessary to have one known
resistance in order to measure the value of
an unknown resistance. The scheme shown
in Fig. 90 is that of the slide wire bridge and
the parts of the wire (A) and (B) are called
the ratio arms, because they give the ratio
of the known resistance to the unknown.
The slide wire bridge, however, is more
of a laboratory instrument and it is not
very convenient for commercial work. The
Wheatstone bridge is based on the same
fundamental principle as the slide bridge,
but the balance is obtained in a different
way. Instead of changing the relation
between the ratio arms (A) and (B) to ob-
tain a balance the value of the resistance
(R), called the rheostat of the bridge, is
changed, the ratio remaining constant.
Fig. 91 shows what might be termed a
students' Wheatstone bridge. The two
coils (A) and (B) are the ratio arms, (R)
the variable known resistance and (X) the
resistance to be measured. This bridge
^□□^□□tl
r :
□□Lzoaaado]
FIG. 91
can be constructed by mounting twelve
binding posts (Bi), (B2), (B3), etc., on a
wooden base whose dimensions correspond
to those given in the figure. These binding
posts must be connected with pieces of
heavy wire as indicated by the heavy lines
in the figure or they should be fastened to
strips of brass. It would be best to solder
all of these connections.. The connections
of the galvanometer and the battery with
respect to the bridge have been interchanged
but the results will be the same as in the
previous case. The resistance (R) is usually
made up of a number of coils of different
resistance arranged so any combination can
be obtained by manipulating some form of
switching device.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
445
C^
All of the coils that go to make up the
resistance (R) can be mounted on a wooden
base, and their terminals connected to
the controlling or switching device.
A simple form of switching device can be
made by mounting a number of pieces of
brass on a board, with their ends only a
short distance apart, and then drilling a
tapered hole down between the ends into
which a tapered metal plug will fit as shown
in Fig. 92. The terminals of any coil can
be connected to oppo-
site sides of one of these
openings and the coil put
in or out of circuit by
means of the plug.
When the ratio resis-
tances are equal, the
value of (R) will be
equal to the unknown
resistance when a bal-
ance is obtained on the
galvanometer.- Hence
the value of the resis-
be measured with such
ratio arms are equal
p
'jOIjO
DO
FIG. 92
tance that can be measured with sucn a
bridge when the ratio arms are equal is
determined by the maximum and minimum
resistance in (R), This range for a given
value of (R) can, however, be changed by
changing the relation between the ratio
arms. For example, if (A) is made ten
times (B), then (R) will be ten times (X)
when the bridge is balanced. With the
above flexibility it would appear that the
range of the bridge would be practically
unlimited; but the errors in the measure-
ments become greater as the value of the
ratio is increased, the measurements being
the most accurate when all the arms are as
nearly equal as possible. In the commercial
Wheatstone bridge the ratio resistances, the
rheostat, the galvanometer, contact keys and
oftentimes the battery are all contained in
one case, thus making it a very portable
form of bridge. A diagram of the connec-
tions of a simple form of bridge is given in
Fig. 93. The ratio arms each consist of
three independent coils arranged so that
they can be switched in or out of circuit.
The various resistances in the bridge are
controlled by means of metallic plugs that
fit the tapered openings between the
metallic blocks such as (Bi) and (B2),
Fig. 92. The value of the resistance in
the rheostat can be anything from .1 ohm
to the combined resistance of all the coils
composing the rheostat.
Two contact keys (Ki) and (K) shown
in Fig. 93 can be mounted on the top of the
bridge with one terminal connected to the
proper place on the bridge circuit, with a
heavy lead inside the containing case as
shown by the dotted lines, and the other termi-
nal provided with a binding post that can be
used in connecting to the external apparatus.
An additional binding post (X2) is provided
in the lower left hand corner (Fig. 91),
that is connected to (D4) in the upper right
hand corner, with a heavy wire. By using
this additional binding post the two terminals
for the unknown resistance are near each
other which is quite a convenience sometimes
especially if the unknown resistance has very
fig. 93
short terminals. The construction of this
bridge would no doubt cost too much for
most of the readers and only a few would
care to take the time to build it. The pieces
of brass on the top of the bridge should all
be fastened to strips of hard rubber before
they are. cut and the holes drilled for the
tapered plugs. The dimensions of the
various parts and the details of their con-
struction will be left to those making the
instrument.
(To be continued.)
Experiment with Carborundum
If you have a wireless coil try this experi-
ment suggested by F. J. Wright and Harold
Arntzen. La Junta, Colorado. Clamp a
piece of carborundimi in the binding post
connected to one terminal of the secondary
coil, bringing a wire from the other secondary
terminal against the other side of the min-
eral. On operating the coil, instead of the
current going through the carborundum as
was expected, it jumped around it, lighting up
in a manner similar to a Geissler tube. '1 he
experiment was made in the dark.
Membership in Popular Electricity "Wireless Club is made up of readers
of this magazine who have constructed or are operating wireless apparatus
or systems. Membership blanks will be sent upon request. This depart-
ment of the magazine will be devoted to the interests of the Club, and
members are invited to assist in making it as valuable and interesting
as possible, by sending in descriptions and photographs of their equipments.
About Wireless Legislation
One of these days legislation is going to
be passed by Congress regulating the opera-
ting of wireless telegraph instruments;
either this, or the whole matter will be
turned over to a bureau of one of the govern-
mental departments with the power of con-
trol. The matter has been brewing for some
time as all the readers of this department
know.
What has been the reason for the steps
already taken in this direction? Why are
laws thought to be necessary? A little
serious thought will make the reason as
plain as day. It lies in the fact that the use
of wireless telegraphy as a means of commu-
nication is being extended at a rate more
rapid than that of progress in the art. In
other words, every month sees hundreds or
thousands of new stations, amateur, commer-
cial and governmental, put into operation,
and nowhere near the same progress made
toward new and improved methods by which
these stations may be enabled to operate
without falling all over each other, so to
speak.
As a consequence trouble and annoyance
have arisen and each class of operators —
amateur, commercial and government —
believe that it has a grievance against the
others. From the rate at which the number
of stations is multiplying this is going to
result finally in chaos. The cry which has
arisen that the ether is free like the air and
that everyone has a right to use it whenever,
wherever and however he chooses is fallacy.
The air which we breathe is free, under
certain restrictions. It is the medium which
carries sound vibrations. Suppose then you
go into a concert hall where an orchestra
is playing. Suppose you take a tin pan and
try to accompany that orchestra in your own
way. How long would you be allowed to
use that free air in such a way — and would
it be right?
There is an obstacle in the path of pro-
gress and that obstacle is lack of regulations
— certain well defined and clearly under-
stood rules of operation which will enable
each class of operators to pursue its work for
experiment or profit without interfering with
the rights of the other classes. To outline
the policy, whatever it may be; to make
it broad enough to be individual, national,
international in its scope is a task of over-
whelming proportions and in our opinion
one which should be undertaken by the
government.
For these reasons, we say again, regula-
tion by law is almost sure to come, and the
sooner just regulation comes the better it
will be for all. The readers of this depart-
ment are composed largely of the so-called
"amateur" class. Let your efforts be direcr-
ted toward securing legislation which shall
give you your share, and your share only,
of the privileges. Let Popular Electricity
Wireless Club go on record as one group of
amateurs ready and willing to co-operate
with the government to secure fair regula-
tion and not be of the class which wants
the whole earth, or rather the ether, and sets
up a howl that the government is going to
crush all the amateurs. Such only hurt
their own cause.
Suppose, now, we glance over what has
already been done toward the contemplated
legislation. The full text of the bills cannot
be given here, but enough for you to obtain
a general understanding.
On December 6, 1909, the Peters Bill
(Ff. R. 12384) was introduced in the House
of Representatives. This bill makes it a
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
447
punishable offence to (a) originate or trans-
mit a false message purporting to be official;
(b) to emit or radiate electro-magnetic
waves of lengths between 375 and 425
meters except when communicating with an
official wireless station, and specifying the
punishment therefor. This was referred
to the Committee on Naval Affairs.
On December 17, 1909, Mr. Roberts in-
troduced a joint resolution in the House
(H. J. Res. 95) authorizing the President to
appoint a board of seven members: one
expert each from the War, Navy and
Treasury departments, three experts rep-
resenting wireless-telegraph and telephone
interests, and one scientist well versed in the
art of wireless telegraphy and telephony,
this board to prepare a comprehensive
system to govern' the operation of all wire-
less plants.
On January 27, 1910, Mr; Burke intro-
duced a bill in the House (H. R. .19560)
which was referred to the Committee on the
Merchant Marine and Fisheries. This bill
embodies the filing with the Secretary of
Commerce and Labor by every station before
beginning operation a sworn' statement de-
scribing its ownership, location and construe -
i.on. The Secretary shall preserve these
records and issue to each station a number
by which it shall be known and which it
shall always use in calling.
For uttering, or acknowledging the re-
ceipt, of this call to establish communica-
tion between stations (between shipboard,
between shore, or between shipboard and
shore) a wave of 800 meters wave length
shall always be used and this wave length
shall be used for no other purpose (with
exceptions to follow) and shall not continue
for .more than 15 consecutive seconds, or be
repeated at intervals of less than five min-
utes. Messages shall then be transmitted
at over 900 meters or under 700 meters,
thus giving a range of about 200 meters for
callings only. However, a shipboard sta-
tion in peril may continue the calling signal
as long as peril remains imminent and no
other station in range shall use a wave
length between 775 meters and 825 meters
except to answer the call.
Successive waves in the train shall not
differ by more than 20 per cent in amplitude.
No station shall knowingly transmit false
distress signals.
For purposes of transacting business the
government is given exclusive use of 1,000
and 200 meter wave lengths, and no other
stations may use wave lengths within 25
meters on either side of the 200 or 100
meters on either side of the 1,000.
No messages received by a station other
than the one for which they are intended
shall be divulged.
The President shall have the power to
suspend all stations during time of war or
public danger.
On March 8, 1910, Mr. Bourne (for
Mr. Frye) introduced in the Senate a bill
(S. 7021, calendar No. 414) stating that after
July, 191 1, any ocean going steamer of the
United States or any foreign country carry-
ing 50 or more passengers shall carry an
efficient radio-communication system and
operator, except when plying between coast
points less than 200 miles apart. 1 his bill
passed both houses and became a law.
On March 17, 1910, Mr. Depew introduced
a bill in the Senate (S. 7243) which has
passed the Senate and been referred to the
House Committee on Merchant Marine
and Fisheries, where it will stay until next
session. Section 1 of this bill states that a
person, corporation, or company shall .not
operate a system as a means of commercial
intercourse by transmitting to or receiving
from beyond the bounds of the 1 State or
Territory in which it is located except with
a license in that behalf granted by the Secre-
tary of Commerce and Labor.
Section 2 says that the Secretary of Com-
merce and Labor shall determine the form
of such license, which shall be subject to
regulations established by this act and sub-
sequent acts or treaties of the United States.
Section 3 states that such apparatus while
in use be under the charge of a licensed per-
son under supervision of the Secretary of
Commerce and Labor.
In Section 4 it is specified that to prevent
interference with messages relating to vessels
in distress or naval and military stations
and private or commercial stations, the
President shall establish regulations by
designating wave lengths or otherwise.
Section 5 makes interference with the
regulations of the act a misdemeanor.
By Section 6 the Secretary of Commerce
and Labor shall prescribe the form of appli-
cations for licenses.
Section 7 specifies license fees, no fee being
required for licenses for the conduct of ex-
perimental stations.
Section 8 defines "radio-communication."
448
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Sections 9 and 10 regulate messages re-
lating to ships in distress, and prohibit
fraudulent messages.
Section 11 concerns radio-communication
on foreign ships in territorial waters.
• Section 12 states where trial for offences
shall be held.
Section 13 states that the Act shall be in
force on and after July 1, 1911, except that
the 4th, 5th, 9th, 10th, and nth sections
shall be in force four months after the pas-
sage of the bill.
On March 26, 1910, Mr. Green intro-
duced a bill in the House (H. R. 23595,
Union Calendar No. 177). This bill has
13 sections and in substance is the same as
the Depew bill in the Senate.
Finally on March 29, 1910, Mr. Roberts,
from the Committee on Naval Affairs, re-
ported a joint resolution in House (H. J.
Res 182, Union Calendar No. 170), which
was committed to the Committee of the
whole House on the State of the Union.
This in substance is the same as Joint Reso-
lution 95 and the board therein provided
for is to submit its report and recommenda-
tions to Congress not later than the first
day of December, 1910. .
Now there are all these bills and resolu-
tions pending in Congress. They have been
talked over and talked over in the various
committees. Experts have come before
these committees and given their reports.
In reading over the proceedings of these
committee meetings the reports show that
the committees have given careful thought
to the point that restrictions should not be
made so as to crush out the amateur and
deprive the art of any service which he may
extend in the way of development and im-
provement.
Of the bills outlined above affecting ama-
teur operation there is no certainty that any
of them will be passed as they are. Con-
gress is simply working toward some equit-
able means where'y wireless may be put
on a sound and sane basis.
It would be well for every member in
Popular Electricity Wireless Club to write
a letter to his congressman pointing out the
fact that the rights of the amateur are to
be respected in the forthcoming legislation;
show how wireless clubs and associations
are being formed all over the country the
object of which is to help bring about these
bettered conditions; impress upon him that
a law simply specifying a few wave lengths
or restricting interstate operation is not going
to better the situation, that something
broader is necessary, something sufficiently
flexible to adapt itself to the ever changing
state of the art; point out to him as many
instances as you can think of in which an
amateur has actually made a valuable dis-
covery and above all make plain that every
right-minded amateur is ready and willing
to accept any just regulations which may be
necessary so that all may work together.
Lightning and the Aerial
It is worthy of comment that although
through Popular Electricity Wireless Club
we are in touch with hundreds of wireless
equipments we are in receipt of the first
letter telling of damage done to such an
outfit by lightning. 1 he letter is as fol-
lows:
On the afternoon of June 26 lightning struck
my wireless station located in the rear of my home,
doing damage to the extent of about twenty-five
dollars. The lightning struck the wires at the top
of the pole, following the leading-in wire to the
aerial switch which was open about a quarter of
an inch; jumping the gap it passed to the instru-
ments, wrecking them and fusing a No. 12 wire
running from the detector to the ground wire. In
striking the antennae it broke off an insulator and
buried it a foot in the ground fifteen feet from the
pole. The following day with the help of a friend
I put things in order and our first move was to
install a double-throw switch on the outside of the
building so that during a storm or when not in
use the aerial could be grounded, as I do not care
for any more experience with lightning.
C. M. David.
So far as we are able to learn the under-
writers do not impose an increased rate
where wireless equipments are in use in a
building because no fire loss has been
incurred on this account. However, most
inspection bureaus enforce rules in this
matter similar to those of the Boston Board,
requiring a No. 4 B. & S. gauge copper
wire 'so arranged that the aerial may be
thoroughly grounded through a 100-ampere
knife switch; or, instead, connect the
aerial to ground through an approved short-
gap lightning arrester.
A High-Power Wireless Equipment
By ALFRED P. MORGAN
PART V. OSCILLATION CONDENSER
Condensers usually receive so much at-
tention when discussing wireless telegraphy
that their construction and principle are
well understood. However, in order to
make this series of articles, as far as possible,
each complete in itself and of value to the
lay reader it will not be amiss if these
points are taken up.
A condenser ordinarily' consists of two
coatings of tinfoil separated by an insulating
substance termed a dielectric and most
commonly composed of paper, mica or
glass, depending of course upon the use to
which the condenser is put. If the opposite
tinfoil coatings are connected to a source of
current having a high E. M. F. such as a
static machine or induction coil, they will
become sufficiently charged so that when
connected to a small spark gap, the current
will leap across in the shape of a brilliant
white spark. To the ordinary eye, such a
spark appears to be made up of a discharge
which passes in one direction only. But by
examining the image cast in a rapidly re-
volving mirror, it is found to really consist
of a large number of sparks passing alter-
nately in opposite directions. It seems as
if the first passage of current served to more
than empty the condenser and it became
charged in the opposite direction, that is,
the conducting coatings change their polarity.
A second discharge which passes in a re-
verse direction and also oversteps itself,
immediately occurs. This action repeats
several times but the oscillations or reversals
of current die away or become damped very
rapidly. The actual time consumed by
the discharge may take only a fraction of
a second but the frequency of the oscilla-
tions may vary from, 15,000 to 1,000,000 per
second.
If a piece of cardboard is perforated by the
spark from a condenser it will be found that
the hole has a slight burr on either side as if
it was formed by an object which passed in
both directions. If a card is pricked with a
pin, the burr will be found only on one side
and on that opposite to the pin.
The charge of a condenser resides on the
surface of the dielectric and not on the tin-
foil or metallic coatings. If a condenser is
charged and the coatings are removed and
tested they will not appear to be electrified
to arty extent. However, upon putting the
condenser together again it will be found to
be highly charged. If a condenser which
has been charged and discharged several
times is examined, it will be found that the
temperature of the dielectric has increased.
The dielectric has actually undergone a
strain and expanded or contracted, depend-
ing whether it is glass or some resinous
body. A condenser does not store elec-
tricity but rather energy.
A condenser used to generate the electrical
oscillations for transmitting wireless mes-
sages must withstand a voltage reckoned
up in the thousands. Only a few substances
are available, commercially, as a dielectric
for such a condenser and of these hard or
flint glass is by far the best.
Where condensers of small capacity are
required for high tension work they are
usually made in the form of a cylinder or jar
having the inside and outside surfaces partly
covered with tinfoil. They are then known
as leyden jars. This brings into notice a
point which is worthy of discussion, that is,
the merits and demerits of leyden jars and
the form of condenser usually built up out
of sheets of glass known as a plate con-
denser. The former are by far the most
common but are surely giving place to the
latter in whose favor lie economy and com-
pactness.
If the condenser is built up of tin foil sheets
interposed between glass plates, it is possible
to cast it in a solid mass of insulating ma-
terial or to immerse it in oil and so eliminate
all brush discharges 'from the edges of the
tinfoil. Absence of brushing makes it
possible to time a station more accurately
and save considerable energy which other-
wise would be lost.
Another deciding factor in favor of the
plate condenser is the lack of blistering.
In stations having a capacity of one K. W.
or over, the tinfoil on leyden jars quickly
becomes covered with blisters so that they
must be recoated or their capacity will be
150
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
FIG. 51. RACK CONDENSER
so altered as to throw the circuits out of
tune.
The condenser illustrated in Fig. 51 is
the one built by the author for use with
the induction coil which has already been
described. If overworked, it will develop'
blistering and brushing, but the author has
found it to operate with entire satisfaction.
It consists- of eight glass plates 18 bv 24
incher mounted on a rack which perm' 3
of their Cisy removal or inspection. The
tinfoil measures 1 2 by 1 8 inches which allows
a three-inch margin all around the edge.
Both side., of each plate are coated.
In selecting the plates take care that they
are very good glass, free from lead. Only
plates which are of equal thickness through-
out should be laid aside for. use. Many
will be found which are considerably thicker
in the middle than at the edges. This is a
serious weakness, for condensers are more
apt to puncture at the edges than at any
other place and so the use of such plates
should be avoided.
Before coating the glass plates they should
be thoroughly cleaned with warm water and
allowed to dry. Cut the tinfoil which
should be very heavy, preferably No. 35
gauge, with a sharp knife and a straight
edge. Pure shellac varnish made up of
anhydrous wood alcohol and white shellac
is the only adhesive which should be used
for sticking on the tinfoil. Almost all other
adhesives will cause trouble. The shellac
may be applied with a wide paint brush
which is clean. One side of each plate is
quickly brushed over with shellac and the
tinfoil applied. Immediately roll it down
smooth with a rubber, squeegee roller such
as is used for rolling out photographic
prints upon mounts or ferrotype plates. Use
great care to exclude all air bubbles. Then
coat the tinfoil with shellac along the edges
so as to cover a margin about one inch
wide all- the way around. Do not coat it
for any greater distance than this or consider-
able trouble from sparking between the tin-
foil and the connecting clips will be experi-
enced. Each one of the plates is treated
in turn until all have been coated on one side
only. They are then allowed to stand and
the other side coated when the shellac
on the first side has dried. Otherwise if
the plates were turned over while the shellac
was still wet, they will pick up innumer-
able particles of dust, etc., which will
cause brushing and loss of energy. Fig. 52
shows one of the plates with foil in place.
The frame of the condenser is illustrated
in Fig. 53. The wood is quartered oak,
£f"
G/ass
<o
FIG. 52. CONDENSER PLATE
which has been filled and varnished. The
four legs (AAAA) are 25 inches long and
i^byif inches in cross section. The side
pieces (CCCC) are 21J by 1^ by ^ inches.
The four members (BBBB) which support
the plates are 19 by 1% by ^ inches. Each
contains eight grooves 5-32 of an inch wide
and \ inch deep. The outside grooves are
located 2\ inches from the ends. The others
are all spaced two inches apart between
their centre lines. The two strips (DD)
which support the connecting clips are 17^
by \\ by \ inches. The frame is fastened
together with dowel pins and glue.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
451
The glass plates are slid into the grooves
in (BBBB) and held in place by a small
wedge of wood which also serves to keep them
from rattling.
Connections to the tinfoil on the plates
are established by a set of nine adjusting
FIG. 53. CONDENSER FRAME
rods and brushes. The brushes are shown
in detail in Fig. 54. They are formed out
of strips of No. 24 gauge spring brass, | of
an inch thick and six inches long. The
3 rush
A/0.£-f- GAUGE BRASS
o
/6"-
Adj u<ster
FIG. 54. ADJUSTER AND BRUSH
ends are rounded as in the illustration.
Seven of this size are required. They are bent
until they coincide with the circumference
of a circle having a diameter of three inches.
Two small brushes three inches long
bent into a quadrant of a circle having the
same diameter are necessary to make con-
tact with the outside plates, as shown farther
on in Figs. 57 and 58. Four |-inch brass
rods 18 inches long are soldered to the cen-
ters of four brushes as in Fig. 54. The
opposite ends of the rod are threaded with
an 8-32 die to receive a small composition
knob which acts as a handle. The details of
the knob are illustrated in Fig. 55. They
are obtainable at almost any electrical
supply house. The remaining five brushes
are soldered to similar rods 12 inches long.
Knobs on these f"
are unnecessary. *x-
1 h e adjusters J%
and brushes are —
supported by nine Dovb/e Connector
small connectors r*-£^~.
in°Fin k Thf W £'
are formed byc ompol'/honlFnob
cutting an ordi- e-& mctal bosh/ng
nary double con- ^T^ -H
{ , . FIG. 55. CONNECTOR
nector in halves , ^
.., , , AND KNOB
with a hacksaw
and smoothing up the rough edges with
a file. The connectors are then sold-
ered to a long strip of brass, Fig. 56, \ inch
wide and 1-16 of an inch thick. Four
-Hnoh
nn
Connecton
-Adjuster
Rod
FIG. 56. CONNECTING STRIP
such strips are required — two for the top
and two for the bottom. They are mounted
on the wooden pieces (DD) Fig. 53, and
held in position by two or three small round
headed brass wood screws which pass through
holes in the brass strip bored for that pur-
pose. A large
B binding post is
soldered to the
end of each strip
as shown in Fig.
56. A hole must
be -bored through
the wood and
brass directly un-
der each connec-
tor so that the
c rods may pass
through.
The adjusters
having a knob at
one end should
pass through the
brushes should
fTTTT
FIG. 57. ASSEMBLY OF
PLATES AND CON-
NECTORS
upper strip (D). The
come between two plates as shown in Fig.
57 and make a firm contact with the tinfoil
coatings. To adjust the capacity of the
condenser it is merely necessary to draw
one or more of the adjuster rods until the
brushes no longer make contact with the
452
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
tinfoil. A better idea of how this may be
done is shown by Fig. 58.
The best way to use the condenser in
connection with the 10-inch induction coil
is to have all the brushes in place and use
the binding posts (A) and (B), Fig. 57, as
the terminals. When used in this manner
the plates are connected in series multiple
and are not subjected to as great a potential
as a simple multiple condenser. When used
with the transformer all the brushes should
■ ' 1
> 1
V
- *
FIG. 58. SQUARE CONDENSER FRAME
ASSEMBLED
be in place and (A) and (B) connected to-
gether as one terminal. The post (C) forms
the other. The plates are then in parallel.
The condenser illustra-
ted in Fig. 59 was built to
determine the advantages
resulting from the use of
oil immersed plates. After
considerable experiment-
ing it was decided that
the " rack" condenser just
described was perfectly
suitable and gave excel-
lent results as long as it
was not overworked.
Whenever in an attempt
fig. 59 to increase the transmit-
oil immersed ting range it was forced,
condenser brush discharges at once
commenced which normally did not take
place.
Four units similar to that shown in Fig.
59 were built to form the complete
condenser. Each one has- approximately
FIG. 60. CONDENSER UNIT
twice the capacity of one of the plates
forming the "rack" condenser. The
containers are rectangular glass battery
jars, measuring 2 \ by 8 by 12 inches inside.
There is apparently no standard for such
jars, each manufacturer of storage batteries
using his own size. In case it is impossible
FIG. 6l. CONDENSER CONNECTIONS
to secure jars of the dimensions mentioned
above, others may be used providing that
the conducting coatings are arranged and
cut so as to furnish the same amount of
opposed surface.
Each unit contains eight plates, 11
inches long, which are just wide enough to-
slide into the jar when a strong rubber band
is placed around them. The conducting
coatings which number nine to a jar are
cut out of thin sheet copper. They are six
inches wide and nine inches long, irrespec-
tive of the lug at one corner. This allows
approximately a one-inch margin on all
sides of the coatings. The units are as-
sembled as in Fig. 60 so that the lugs on
alternate coatings come at opposite corners.
The plates are bound firmly together by
means of three large rubber bands. The
lugs are bent down at right angles and a
hole bored through into which a 10-24
machine screw may be passed. The screwr
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
453
passes through the base and into the bottom
of a large binding post on the cover. The
cover is a piece of hard rubber \ by 3^ by-
nine inches.
The jars are poured full of boiled linseed
oil until the plates are well covered. The
four units are all placed in multiple when
used with the transformer and in series
multiple in connection with the induction
coil. Fig. 61 shows the connections
(To be continued.)
Chicago Wireless Club
Meetings of the Chicago Wireless Club
are held on the second and fourth Fridays
of each month in Room 74, Auditorium
Building, at 7 :t>o p. m. A talk bearing upon
wireless telegraphy is given at each meeting
and is usually illustrated by chalk drawings.
The Club was organized Dec. 12, 1908,
with a membership of 94. Officers: R. C.
Dickson, president; John Hair, vice-pres. ;
H. S. Ayers, treas. ; E. W. Muellner, corre-
sponding secretary; Seldon Stebbins, re-
cording secretary. Motto: "Let us all be
one." Secretary Muellner, 6603 Langley
Ave., is desirous of getting in touch with
persons interested who live within a ra-
dius of 200 miles of Chicago.
WIRELESS QUERIES
Answered by A. B. Cole
Questions sent in to this department must
comply with the same requirements that are
specified in the case of the questions and
answers on general electrical subjects. See
u Questions and Answers" department.
Long Distance Equipment; Rewinding
Receiver; Fixed Condenser
Questions. — (A) What instruments are needed to
receive 500 to 600 miles with an aerial consisting
of 40 wires, 50 feet high at one end and 70 feet at
the other? (B) What size ground should be used
with above instruments? (C) What size and how
much S. S. C. wire would be required to rewind
a 75-ohm telephone receiver to 1500 ohms? (D)
How can I make an efficient fixed condenser of
4x5 glass plates and tinfoil? — A. R. P., Sterrett,
Okla.
Answers. — (A) Perikon or silicon detec-
tor, either straight coil or variable coupling
tuner, good variable condenser, and a good
pair of 500-ohm wireless receivers.
(B) A gas or water pipe will do for a
ground connection, and if neither of these
is available, a sheet of copper or zinc may
be buried six or eight feet below the surface
of the earth in as damp a spot as you can
find. The surface of the sheet should be
not less than 25 square feet.
(C) Since the bobbins of various tele-
phone receivers are of different sizes, we
cannot say. Probably, however, the size
of wire best suited to your purpose is No. 46,
of which \ ounce will be required.
(D) In the series of articles on "High
Power Equipment" a description will be
given of an efficient plate condenser, which,
we believe, will answer your question very
well.
Spark Coil on no Volts
Question. — I understood from your answer to
E. S. G., page 45 this volume, that a spark coil
could be operated direct from a no-volt, a. c.
circuit by screwing down the vibrator. I cannot
make it work. When I close my switch a second
I blow the fuse. When I put a 16-candle-power
lamp in series I get no spark, though my coil is
built to give a one-inch spark. What is the trouble ?
— H. D., Jr., Bergen Beach, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Answer. — No doubt the reason that your
fuse blew is because the carrying capacity of
the fuse was too small. We have connected
one-inch coils as described, and they have
run without blowing a ten-ampere fuse. It is
never a good plan to operate a coil on no
volts, whether in series with an electrolytic
interrupter, or direct connected to the mains,
if the coil was designed for battery power.
We have seen more coils damaged by this
procedure than by any other means, and we
never recommend doing this. When you
screw down the interrupter, and run the coil
direct on no volts, it is running as a trans-
former of the open core type, and it is very
inefficient. A short flame will be produced
at the secondary terminals, but the current
consumption will be high. On the other
hand, if the coil is connected in series with
an electrolytic interrupter, the current con-
sumption is also high, and the high potentials
produced in the secondary winding as the
current is made and broken by the interrupter
are exceedingly dangerous to the insulation
of the secondary. An example of the in-
efficiency of this combination is shown by the
fact that the ordinary cheap electroyltic
interrupter connected in series with a coil
requires at least 20 amperes, or about two
K. W., for its proper action. Since good
one-inch coils should not consume more
than \\ amperes at 6 volts, or about 1-100
454
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
K. W. it is not surprising that some coils are
damaged by careless owners.
In your second instance the resistance of
the lamp was too high.
Tuning Coil Wave Length; Potentiometers
Questions. — (A) Does the wave length increase
as the diameter of a tuning coil decreases? (B)
Is a graphite rod potentiometer better than German
silver wire? (C) Give dimensions of an 18 per
cent German silver wire potentiometer having a
resistance of 300 ohms. (D) When building a tun-
ing coil as described in the January, 1910, issue
would doubling or trebling the dimensions increase
the wave length proportionately? — M. R. R., Mer-
chantville, N. J.
Answers. — (A) The wave length to which
the tuning coil will respond varies approxi-
mately as the square of the diameter.
(B) We believe that the latter is as effec-
tive as the former.
(C) 167 feet No. 30 single cotton covered,
wound on 10 inches of a wooden core 12
inches long and one inch in diameter.
(D) Yes, as pointed out in Question (A).
Connections of Receiving Instruments;
\ K. W. Transformer
Questions. — (A) Please show diagram for connect-
ing two tuning coils, both double slide, one having
620 meters and the other 140 meters, fixed and
variable • condensers, potentiometer and battery,
silicon and electrolytic detectors, former to be used
with or without battery and with 3000-ohm re-
ceivers. (B) Would my receiving radius be in-
creased by using a perikon detector? (C) What
would be the sending distance of a \ k. w. trans-
former, helix, condensers, etc., presuming sensitive
apparatus at the distance station and fairly level
country with favorable atmospheric conditions?
— E. R. L., Pittsburg, Pa.
CONNECTIONS OF RECEIVING INSTRUMENTS
Answers. — (A) See diagram. To use
without battery. move the slider of the po-
tentiometer to the end of the resistance rod
corresponding to no voltage.
(B) Your receiving radius might be in-
creased as much as 10 per cent, depending
on the quality of the zincite of the perikon
detector.
(C) The average transmitting distance of
this set would be about 30 miles under the
above mentioned conditions.
Looped Aerial and Connections; Anchor Gap
Questions. — (A) Please give diagram showing
how to connect a looped aerial, antenna switch, de-
scribed in May, 1910, issue, fixed condenser, re-
ceiving transformer, silicon detector, double head
phones. (B) Also show connections for two-inch
spark coil, anchor gap and helix with same aerial.
(C) How is an anchor gap made? — H. A. T.,
Artesia, Cal.
(A), (B) See diagram.
(C) An anchor gap may be made by
mounting on a base three double screw
binding posts, such as are used on the small
zinc spark gaps. These posts in an anchor
LOOP AERIAL AND CONNECTIONS
gap are generally mounted 120 degrees
apart, so that the ordinary zinc rods, as
used in the zinc spark gaps, meet at the
center of a circle drawn through the binding
posts. An anchor gap with three such rods
meeting at a point is generally used in con-
nection with a loop aerial. If the gap is to
be used with a straightaway aerial, an ordi-
nary zinc spark gap will do very well as an
anchor gap.
QUESTIONSANDANSWEBSl
Use of this department is free to readers of Popular Electricity, but atten-
tion will not be given to questions which do not comply with the following
rules: All the questions must bewrittenin the form of a letter addressed to
the Questions and Answers Department and containing nothing for the
other departments of the magazine ; two-cent stamp must be enclosed for
answer by mail, for space will not permit of printing all answers; the full
name and address of the writer must be given.
Polarity of Induction Coil; Grounding of
Lightning Arrester
Questions. — (A) How can I tell which is the
positive pole or electrode of a high-frequency in-
duction coil? (B) Is it safe to ground a telegraph
lightning arrester to a gas fixture? — J. R. H.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Answers. — (A) If a disk be used as one
terminal • of an induction coil capable of
giving a spark across an air gap, and a ball
be used for the other terminal, the polarity
of the terminals may be determined from
POLARITY OF AN INDUCTION COIL
the behavior of the spark. At the top is
shown path of the spark when the ball
electrode is positive, and at the bottom its
action when the disk is positive.
Another way to determine the polarity is
to use fine iron wire for the electrodes.
With a short thick spark the wire attached
to the negative electrode becomes very hot
and may fuse at the end.
(B) No.
Making Fuse Wire
Question. — Will you tell me what metals are
used in making fuse wire and how it is done? —
W. T., Kenova, W. Va.
Answer. — Lead containing a certain per-
centage of tin is used for fuses on account
of the low temperature at which it melts.
Tin fuses at 23 50 C. and lead at 3250 C.
Fuse wire is not drawn like ordinary wire
but is squirted under pressure after the
method used in making incandescent lamp
filaments. The dies used are long enough
so that the fuse wire on emerging is suffi-
ciently cooled to retain its form.
To Prevent X-Ray Tubes from Breaking
Question. — Kindly advise me how to prevent an
X-ray and Crooke's tube from breaking; I have
just ruined one of each. The former was
melted at one point and the air admitted. How
long can they be operated? Must you stop when
the cathode becomes red hot? — F. J. R., San Jose,
Cal.
Answer.— In answer to your question
concerning the life of an X-ray tube, or a
Crooke's tube, as all X-ray tubes are Crooke's
tubes, it is impossible to know just how
long ft tube will last, but there are several
factors upon which its life depends. If your
tube and the generating apparatus are
properly adjusted, the target should not be-
come red hot while being used for treatment
purposes, but if you send a good deal of
current through it in taking a picture it will
produce enough heat at this point, as the
result of the bombardment of the cathode
stream, to make it become red hot.
If the current is still sent through, finally
enough heat will be evolved to melt some
portion of the tube. The heavier the target
the greater the amount of current the tube
will take without heating up.
In all probability you have too light a
target for the apparatus you are using, or
the material employed in the target is not up
to grade. With proper apparatus the tube
will stand sufficient current to enable you to
get a picture before it has become too hot to
endanger the tube. If the apparatus gener-
ates so much current that it heats the tube
before this takes place, the only remedy is
the purchase of a tube with a very heavy
456
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
target, such as is made for the heaviest
coils. A tube which is punctured may be
repaired, and all of the tube factories do this
work.
Therapeutic Solenoid
Question. — Please give instructions for building
a solenoid for therapeutic purposes. — C. H. M.,
Sandusky, Ohio.
. Answer.- — To build a solenoid in the form
of a cage to be used for the administration
of the D'Arsonval current by the method of
auto-condensation it is necessary to use about
number four or six copper wire. It need not
be insulated but must be solid copper wire.
The best results are obtained when the
length and size of wire are properly adjusted
to the capacity of the generating apparatus.
The easiest way to construct one of these
solenoids is to make a collapsible one. The
coils of the spiral should be about three
inches apart, therefore, in making a six-
foot solenoid, there should be approximately
24 turns of wire. The solenoid ought to be
from three to four feet in diameter so that
the body when inside of it will not come in
contact with the wire. For one three feet
in diameter it would take about 250 feet of
wire. This should be wound around a
drum of that size and allowed to remain
there for a few hours so that it will retain
its shape, when it is removed and cotton
belting is sewed on in strips running length-
wise of the solenoid and about four inches
apart, while the turns of wire are kept at
a distance of three inches from one another
as stated above. If these strips of belting
are sufficient in number the spiral will hold
its shape nicely. The upper and lower
spirals are preferably passed around a
wooden hoop or the upper one may be at-
tached to any wooden frame that will hold
it firmly. This may be suspended from the
ceiling and by means of a rope running to'
the lower turn of wire, the whole may be
collapsed like an accordion or like the old-
fashioned hoop-skirt.
Another method is to construct a cage
with a sufficient number of upright posts to
make it hold its shape, the bottom part being
open. The wire is run around the outside
of the cage as before, being held in place by
wooden fasteners or metal staples driven
over a thick piece of rubber. The whole
cageis suspended from the ceiling so that
it may be raised and lowered over the pa-
tient.
To attempt to construct a door such as is
present in apparatus on the market is too
difficult for home construction. The upper
end of the wire in the solenoid is attached
to one pole of the D'Arsonval apparatus
and the lower end to the other.
Torque; Induction Coil Connections
Questions. — (A) What is meant by torque? (B)
Why in spark plug ignition is one terminal of the
secondary coil connected to the primary as in the
diagram? — W. C. S., Biloxi, Miss.
Answers. — (A) By torque is meant the
force or pull exerted on the armature of a
motor which
causes the arma-
ture to revolve.
In a dynamo it
is the force
whose applica-
tion causes the
armature to ro-
tate.
(B) Bysodo-
1 --Bgfy in§ one less
binding post,
Si, is required,
connections be-
ing made inside
the coil box. A
ground wire to
the engine frame
INDUCTION COIL
CONNECTIONS
is then run from Pi.
Electrolyte of Edison Primary Cell
Question. — What is the electrolyte of the Edison
primary cell and in what proportions is it used? —
G. S., Greensburg, Kansas.
Answer. — Place water in the jar of the
cell and sprinkle in granulated potash,
stirring until the potash is all dissolved and
the solution saturated.
Bunsen Battery
Questions. — (A) What is the construction of a
Bunsen cell? (B) What is the amperage and volt-
age of this cell? (C) How long will this cell last
under ordinary conditions? (D) Could it be used
to run a medical coil? — E. C, St. Louis, Mo.
Answers. — (A) See "Common Electiical
Terms Defined," July, 1910, issue.
(B) This cell will furnish a strong current
for two or three hours. Voltage, 1.9.
(C) Requires frequent attention. Diffi-
cult to state how long this cell could be
depended upon.
(D) Yes, a small medical coil.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
457
?B0 OK REVIEWS
Twentieth Century Hand Book for Steam En-
gineers and Electricians. By Calvin F. Swingle.
Chicago: Frederick J. Drake & Co. iqio. 1530
pages with 696 illustrations. Price $3.00.
Thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged
from 500 pages in the original edition of 1903,
the present volume is one which the practical
steam engineer can ill-afford not to have as
a part of his working library. The worth
of the engineer in any plant is measured by
his ability to make tests and calculations
which will show where efficiency may be
made higher. The author has placed the
manner of conducting such investigations
and tests in a form to enable the average
engineer to understand how to make them.
Boilers, boiler setting, draft, stokers, steam,
evaporation tests, care and operation of
boilers, condensers, valves and valve setting
are thoroughly discussed while numerous
tables assist calculations. The indicator is
well taken care of in 81 pages telling how to
use it, with several diagrams of indicator
cards on engines of various types, problems
being solved for further illustration. Recog-
nizing the present status and the future out-
look for the steam turbine the various types
are described and illustrated by sectional
drawings leaving the reader with a clear idea
of this type of motive power. Gas engines,
ice machines, electric and hydraulic elevators
are given proper attention. For many en-
gineers who are expected to look after the
electrical as well as the steam end of a plant,
the 476 pages of "Electricity for Engineers"
are filled with plain, practical information
on the installation and care of electrical
equipment from the generators to the lamps
and motors — enough for a book in itself.
Each subject is followed by a set of questions
and answers on the matter considered.
A Brief Guide to Vibratory Technique (Sec-
ond Edition). By Noble M. Eberhart, A. M.,
M. S., M. D. Chicago: New Medicine Publish-
ing Company, 19 10. 160 pages with 10 diagram -
atic plates. Price, $1.00.
The present edition of this book has been
considerably enlarged and a number of
plates added, as well as a glossary. The
technique for treating various conditions is
brief but progressively arranged, and easily
comprehended. The theory of vibration is
concisely but clearly set forth and the book
should be in the hands of every physician
employing vibration in his practice.
Dyn\mo Building For Amateurs. By Arthur
J. Weed. New York : Norman W. Henley
Publishing Co. 1910. 83 pages with 64 illustra-
tions. Price, paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00.
This is a book well suited to giving the
amateur a working plan such that he may
without further instruction build a fifty-watt
machine. The one described weighs five
pounds and at 4,000 revolutions per minute
has a capacity of 10 volts and about five
amperes. The general and detail drawings
illustrating the text are good, while 14 pic-
tures show how to use a turning lathe in the
construction.
Electric Wiring Diagrams and Switchboards.
By Newton Harrison, E. E. New York: The
Norman W. Henley Publishing Company. 1909.
272 pages with 105 illustrations. Price $1.50.
This is a thoroughly practical treatise
covering the subject of electric wiring in all
its branches, including explanations and
diagrams which are thoroughly explicit and
greatly simplify the subject. Practical every-
day problems in wiring are presented and
the method of obtaining intelligent results
clearly shown. Only arithmetic is used.
The fundamental principle of drop of po-
tential in circuits is illustrated with its
various applications. The simple circuit
is developed with the position of mains,
feeders and branches. They are treated as
a' part of a wiring plan, and their employ-
ment in housewiring is clearly illustrated.
Some simple facts about testing are included
in connection with the wiring. Moulding
and conduit, work are given careful con-
sideration; switchboards are built up and
illustrated, showing the purpose they serve
for connection with the circuits, and to
shunt and compound wound machines.
The connections of the various instruments,
including the lightning arrester, are also
plainly set forth. Alternating current wiring
is treated, with explanations of the power
factor, conditions calling for various sizes of
wire and a simple way of obtaining the sizes
for single-phase, two-phase and three-phase
circuits.
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS
;-w,K*:*;"ss*SK'is^^
'.- - '-- ' '■:.'.'"■'■ . ■:- _"_'■,_ ■- ■'-■■ """ """.V.. '■ ;' ",-, •■.:■- - ■■-'■ .-
How to Be- Almost every mail brings us
come an letters from boys and young
Electrical men asking the question:
Engineer. «How can j become an
electrical engineer?" Many of these in-
quiries come from boys who say they have-
had only a grammar school education;
many are from young men now in other
lines of work who would like a change, and
the title "electrical engineer" sounds well
to them; some are from anxious fathers and
mothers, seeking to select a vocation for
their sons. Almost all of these letters, how-
ever, imply almost utter lack of knowledge
as to what the title "electrical engineer"
implies, and indicate that to the general run.
of people it means a man who can do wiring,
trim arc lamps, wind armatures, run dyna-
mos, etc. Such a man is an "electrician" or
an "electrical worker," not an engineer.
In the first place it should be understood
that electrical engineering is now on as
high a plane as the older branches such as
civil and mechanical engineering. It is a
profession in the same sense that Medicine
and the Law are professions, and no one
can become an electrical engineer unless he
is prepared to spend as much time, money
and effort as he would t'o become a doctor
or a lawyer.
An electrical engineer in the true sense of
the word is the man who is capable of plan-
ning, executing or supervising the operation
of great electrical undertakings.
There are a great many branches of this
electrical engineering profession. For in-
stance, there are designing engineers versed
in mathematics and the principles of elec-
trical machines, whose work it is to develop
new types of dynamos, motors, transformers,
lamps, accessories of all kinds, etc., and be
ever on their guard to discover new ways
and means to bring out more efficient and less
costly apparatus. They are mostly employed
by the large manufacturing concerns. In
ability, productive power and pay they
range over a wide field from the young man
but a short time out of college, with a good
ground work of theoretical knowledge, but
as yet with little practical experience, to a
Steinmetz, of the class of great research
engineers of long experience and great
originality who can command salaries as
great as a President of the Union.
Then there are operating engineers who
have under their supervision the operation
of great electric power plants, electric rail-
way systems, etc. They are not the men
who start up and shut down the machines
or rewind the armatures in the repair shops.
They are the men to whom the president or
manager says: "Here is a million-dollar
power plant," or, "Here is the electric rail-
way system of this |city. You are respon-
sible for the operation of the electrical end:
You are to see that there are no interrup-
tions to service; you are to make such and
such reductions in expenses without impair-
ing service; you are to plan how to build
up and increase this system as fast as re-
quirements make necessary."
There are construction and installing
engineers on the job where electrical ma-
chinery is to be put in and for whom the
intricate system of heart and nerves of a
great set of steam or water turbine-genera-
tors with their countless controlling devices,
network of conductors, switchboards, oil
switches, lightning arresters — all that and
more — have no terrors.
The above are only a few kinds of elec-
trical engineers, there are in addition tele-
phone engineers, electro-chemical engineers,
laboratory and experimental engineers, elec-
tric signal engineers — and many others, for
the profession has many ramifications with
room for all manner of specialists.
This in a manner suggests the type and
qualifications of the man who is privileged
to call himself an "electrical engineer."
"How shall I become an electrical engineer?"
you ask. There are two ways by which you
can attain your heart's desire, if you have
the courage and the tenacity of purpose
to spend the necessary years at the prepara-
tory work — and good average brains.
One way is by the college route, and as
time goes on and the necessity for minds
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
459
trained to consecutive thought increases
it may be said, with very little dissenting
opinion, that- the college route in the long
run is the best one, even if it is necessary to
borrow every cent of money which the four
years' course will require. Not that the
young man who graduates from a technical
school at 20 to 23 years of age is a real elec-
trical engineer, but he has received a ground-
work of theoretical knowledge and has been
taught to use his mind in a way which will
enable him to outstrip his chum who sought
the same end by a different means.
The other way to become an electrical
engineer is the "self-made" way, if so it
may be termed. Every electrical engineer
is not a college graduate. Those who de-
cry a college education as a useless waste
of time and money can point to many exam-
ples of electrical engineers who have no
Alma Mater. These men have become
electrical engineers by obtaining the same
knowledge by a different method. Each
one of them first set his mind on the goal
and went after it without the advantage of
a "professional trainer." Before he at-
tained that goal by virtue of which his
fellow men looked upon him as an electrical
engineer and entrusted their work to him,
he had put in as much time, as much study,
and had burned as much midnight oil, and
probably more, than his chum who went the
college route. If he had taken a college
course he would have more quickly arrived
at the pinnacle of his ambition 'and could
have had to look back upon, all his life, the
"golden haze of student days."
So much for the "electrical engineer" —
the man who by hard effort and long ex-
perience is entitled to a position among
professional men. But the electrical in-
dustry with its billions of invested capital
requires additional tens of thousands of
men whose qualifications are lower but who
nevertheless find lucrative and agreeable
employment. Just a few examples may
be mentioned to show the great latitude of
choice. Let us note, for instance, the
variety of electricians and electrical workers
required in the telephone industry. In the
great factories where telephones and tele-
phone switchboards are made there are
first required electrical draughtsmen who
make the drawings for the various parts of
the apparatus and the complicated switch-
boards. These drawings go to the various
departments of the factory where the equip-
ment is made up by men of whom more
or less electrical knowledge is required.
The equipment then goes to the testing de-
partment where skilled electricians look
. for and remedy the thousand and one
troubles which come up before everything
is letter perfect. Then the equipment is
shipped and anywhere from a dozen to 100
skilled men are put to work for several
months to install it and test out the com-
pleted exchange. Then the exchange is
turned over to the telephone company and
t under its manager are line men, wire chiefs,
"trouble shooters," etc., all having a cer-
tain amount of knowledge of the practical
working of electric currents, and it may be
added, as a proof of the fascination of
electricity — all eager for more knowledge.
The telephone is of course only one field.
There are the electric lighting field, the elec-
tric railway- field, the telegraph and wireless
telegraph fields, and many others which
•we can observe on every hand, all of which
require skilled electrical workers.
To those who find it absolutely impossi-
ble to prepare themselves for the electrical
profession by a special education, these
various lines of practical electrical work
offer stepping stones to the higher positions.
Many electrical workers and electricians are
able to advance themselves by constant
study and it is from the ranks of these prac-
tical men that the "self-made" engineers
come. Right at- this point the correspon-
dence and trade schools are doing a great
work. They teach the working man the
principles of electricity, if he follows the
courses carefully, and help him to direct
his efforts at self-improvement intelligently.
To become an electrical engineer at the
same time that you are earning a living at
the occupation of an electrical worker or
electrician is therefore not impossible, but
your mind must be made up to a long, hard
grind. It means that you must study out-
side of working hours. There is a certain
amount of theoretical electrical knowledge
necessary, a certain amount of mathematics,
some chemistry, a great deal of business
ability and a hundred and one other things
that enter into the composite electrical
engineer. This knowledge and these quali-
ties must be developed through personal
effort — by reading, attendance at night
schools, correspondence courses, by con-
tinually keeping your eyes and ears open
and by close application and hard thinking.
SHORT CIRCUITS
The young Scotchman never liked his mother-in-law,
and this weighed heavily on the mind of his wife, who
was ill.
Calling her husband to her bedside, she said to him:
"Sandy lad, I'm varra ill, and I think I'm gang to dee,
and before I dee I want you to gie me a promise."
"I'll promise," said Sandy. "Whit is it?"
" Weel, I ken that when I dee I'll have a fine funeral,
and I want you to ride up in front in a carriage with
my mither."
"Weel," sadly responded Sandy, "I gied ye my
word, an' it's nae me that's gang back on that; but
I'll tell you one thing, ye've spoilt the day for me."
"Why did you quit coming to Sunday school
James?"
"Aw, I had to — I was losin' me standin' wid de
gang."
"Life ain't nothin' but disappointment," groaned
the Chronic Grouch.
"Cheer up!" urged the Cheerful Mutt. "Didn't
you git S50 for puttin' yer picture in the paper as
havin's ben cured o' all yer ills by Bunk's Pills?"
"Yes, I did. An' now all my relatifs are askin'
me why I don't go to work, now th't I'm cured!"
"May I see my father's record?" asked the new
student. "He was in the class of '77.
"He told me when I left home not to disgrace him,
sir, and I wish to see just how far I can go."
Brother Attix, the Brooklyn contractor, created a
disturbance. Said he had hay fever so bad he had
to sneeze every time he passed a grass widow. You
should have seen Brother Simes rubber.
"Is there any portion of the fowl you prefer, Major?"
asked the hostess, blandly.
"The left wing, if you please."
"The left wing?"
"Yes," returned the major, gazing dubiously at the
platter. "I believe it is always good military tactics
to bring the left wing of a veteran corps into action."
"Papa," said the beautiful girl, "George and I are
two souls with but a single thought."
"Oh, well, don't let that discourage you," replied
her father kindly. "That's one more than your
mother and I had when we were married."
He made a big hit when he sent her six American
beauties and wrote on his card, "You're another."
A traveler in Arkansas came upon a dilapidated farm
house back of which was an orchard. In the orchard
were a number of razorbacks rushing madly from tree
to tree. Puzzled at this strange performance on the
part of the hogs, he stepped up to the old woman sit-
ting in the doorway and inquired the cause. Remov-
ing the cob pipe from her mouth she said: "Wall,
Mister, my ol' man, bein' deaf and dumb, learned
them hawgs to come for their feed when he pounded
on a tree. But some woodpeckers hev got into the
orchard and the hawgs hev been plumb crazy ever
since follerin' their pesky rappin'. "
A belated traveler who was compelled to "stay all
night in a backwoods cabin down in the Little River
country in Oklahoma says that soon after the frugal
meal a tall, gaunt youth of eighteen and an equally
sallow and gaunt girl of seventeen, both barefooted,
took their hats from wooden pegs in the wall and
prepared to go out, whereupon the mother, taking her
pipe from between her teeth, said reprovingly:
"Go long an' wash your feet, Levi; you arid Looly,
both! Hain't you 'shamed to go off to an evenih'
party without washin' your feet?"
They obeyed, but as Levi took the washpan from a
bench by the door he said with a grumble:'
"I'd 'bout as soon stay home from a party as to
have to fix up for it."
% ^ ^
A woman fell in love with a homely, shiftless,
brainless dub, and she, married him.
She told her friends: "He's so handsome, so ener-
getic, so clever!"
That was during the honeymoon. But after a while
the honeymoon was over. What then?
Why, she'd said the old stuff so much that she be-
lieved it herself. He proved even a worse mut than
he appeared to be to outsiders, but what difference
does that make? Suggestion and auto-suggestion had
done their work. .
This is how God makes matrimony successful.
Ethel— Poor Harold-
Bertie — Impossible,
the knee?
-he has brain fever.
Could a worm have water on
Teacher — Why, Willie, what are you drawing?
Willie — I'm drawing a picture of God.
Teacher — But, Willie, you mustn't do that; nobody
knows how God looks.
Willie — Well, they will when I get this done.
She signed herself "Your affectionate knob." He
didn't catch on till she told him a knob was something
to a-door.
Little Ethel had been very thoroughly impressed
with the idea that God could see everything she did,
and that she must always be good, for He would know
every time she did anything naughty. One day she
started out for a walk and her little' dog wanted to
follow her. She was seen to drive him back several
times. Finally she was heard to remark: "Spot, you
must go home. It is bad enough to have God follow-
ing me all the time without having you tagging
along."
THE FELLOW WHO WAS ALWAYS LATE
HT SdffOOL
he missed the st>Nony
School p/ayic. .
He loses
His job
HE OIDH 7 QET TO T//E CHURCH
ON TIME
<T
/V) SOZtf , JOHNIC 8l/T
1H£ CrfiT[.Z CLOUD HM
hour hqo- You'll HM)f//~
-TOCfOro THk OTHeR?LHu\U(llm'i
©ftf/?*'"^
ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED
In this age of electricity everyone should be versed in its phraseology.
By studying this page from month to month a working knowledge
of the most commonly employed electrical terms may be obtained.
BATTERY; WOLLASTON. A
battery consisting of a plate of
zinc surrounded by a thin sheet
of copper. Electrolyte, dilute sul-
phuric acid. (See cut.)
Bell, Electric. — Bells rung
by electricity are classed either
as vibrating or single stroke. In
the vibrating type the armature
of an electromagnet is attached
to a spring which holds a con-
tact on this armature against
a back contact. When current is turned on
the armature is attracted, the circuit is broken
at the back contact but the bell has been
struck, after which the armature spring draws the
armature back closing the circuit and causing the
operation to be repeated. On a single-stroke bell no
make-and-break contact is provided, the bell being
struck only as many times as the circuit is closed
by a push-button or switch.
Beaded Cable. — The wires of such a cable are
incased in wooden beads, the whole being enclosed
in a leaden sheath.
Becquerel Rays. — Light rays possessing some
of the properties of X-rays. They are invisible and
verge on the ultra-violet.
Bimetallic Wire. — Wire made of steel overlaid
with copper thus providing for strength as well
as conductivity. Called also copper-clad or com-
posite wire.
Binding Posts. — Metal posts having holes for
receiving wires, and screws for securing the wires.
Found on cells of battery and electrical testing
instruments.
Bipolar. — Having two unlike magnetic poles.
Applied to motors and generators having two field
poles.
Blasting, Electric — The ignition of powder or
other explosives by an electric spark or by the heat-
ing of a piece of wire placed in the powder and
connected in series with the electric circuit.
Blue-stone. — The trade name applied to crys-
tallized copper sulphate used in Daniell and Crow-
foot (gravity) batteries. Also known as blue
vitriol.
Border Lights. — Lights arranged in a row in
a reflector and suspended between the curtains
above the stage in a theatre.
Bound Charge. — Experiments show a state of
electrification suggesting two kinds of electiicity.
Rub a glass ball with silk and bring it near an
insulated metal rod. A charge of ' negative elec-
tricity is "bound" on the rod nearest the glass ball
while "free" positive electricity is driven to the
other end of the rod and may be taken off by touch-
ing the rod with the fingers or a conductor. The
negative electricity is "bound" by induction from
the glass ball and remains.
Boxing the Compass. — The compass has thirty-
two points designating directions. Naming these
points in order from any point called, or naming
the intervening points between two given points
is termed "boxing the compass."
Brake, Electro-magnetic. — A shoe so ar-
ranged as to be drawn against the face of a wheel
by the attraction of an armature for its magnet,
thus stopping the rotation of the wheel by friction.
Branch Block. — A block of porcelain or slate
used to take off a branch circuit from a light or
power circuit, and arranged to hold the fuses re-
quired to protect the branch.
Branch Circuit. — One of the secondary circuits
into which a main circuit is divided.
Branch Conductor. — One of the wires of a
branch circuit. Also a wire in parallel with or
forming a shunt with another wire.
Branding, Electric. — Burning in an imprint
upon the surface of any object by pressing upon
it an electrically heated iron.
Break-down Switch. — A switch so arranged
on a three-wire system supplied by two dynamos
that one of the machines can be shut down and the
positive and negative leads connected to one ter-
minal of the remaining machine and the neutral
to the other terminal by this switch, thus_continuing
the service. Only one-half the former load can
be "carried.
Break-down Voltage. — The voltage at which
the insulatiori such as air, oil, rubber, etc., used on
electrical apparatus can no longer stand the stress
and breaking down permits leakage and arcing to
adjacent material. The exact voltage at which
the dielectric strength of an insulating material
fails when subjected to electric pressure.
Breeze, Electric. — Applied to the administra-
tion of electric treatment in which the patient
sitting on an insulated platform is connected to one
pole of an influence machine while the other elec-
trode is attached to a metallic crown suspended
several inches above the head. Numerous brush
discharges take place between the patient's head
and the numerous points on the crown.
Breeze, Static. — The silent discharge of high
tension electiicity. (See Breeze, Electric.)
Bridge. — The heavy conductors in a direct
current power plant connecting the dynamos in
an overhead circuit to the bus bars. Sometimes
used also to designate Wheatstone's bridge.
Bridge, Induction. — An apparatus to detect the
presence of concealed metals. The device con-
sists of primary and secondary coils arranged like
a Wheatstone bridge with a telephone acioss the
circuit in place of a galvanometer.
Bridge, Inductance. — Synonym. — Bridge In-
duction.
Broken Circuit. — A circuit which is open either
by disconnecting a wire, by breaking same or by
opening a switch.
. Brown a\d Sharpe Gauge. — The gauge to
which the size of wires is referred in the United
States. Its range covers oooo wire = .46 inch
diameter to 40 wire = .00314 inch. Abbreviation,
B. & S. G. Also called Ameiican wire gausre.
Popular Electricity
IN PLAIN ENGLISH
HENRY WALTER YOUNG. Editor
VoL III
October, 1910
No. 6
CONTENTS
"FIRST WIRELESS FROM MARS." 463
ELECTRIC TRUCKS ON THE FARM 468
CONCLAVE OF THE KNIGHTS TEMPLAR 469
Illuminating Our Warships 474
ELECTRICITY AT A MODERN RIFLE RANGE. '476
How Metal is Cold Sawed 479
Combined Freezer and Ice Crusher 479
Lifting Magnet 479
A Wagon Load at a Time 481
A Handy Horse Clipper .' 481
Ozone on the Increase 482
Kinetic Organ Blower 482
Sanitary Automatic Pump 482
Exit Wash Day Drudgery 482
Washing and Ironing Outfit 483
Pure Air in Schools 483
Cleaning Railway Coaches 484
Portable Vacuum Cleaner 484
Electric Bench Drill 485
Belt Driven Washer and Wringer 485
Potato Peeler 485
Fancy Decorative Lamps 486
Desk Lamp Used as a Portable 486
New Arc Lamp 486
Tungsten Bracket Fixture 487
Automobile Trouble Lamp 487
Vertical Carbon Flaming Arc 487
Whirling Window Sign 488
Portable Wardrobe Light 488
A Dainty Table Lamp 488
Ornamental Post for Tungsten Lamps 489
Electric Hair Drier 489
Sterilizing Surgical Instruments 489
Fireless Cook Stove 490
Warming Pad 490
Luminous Radiator 491
Electric Sealing Wax Heater 491
Electroplating Machine 492
Breaking the Circuit in Oil 492
Centrifugal Hair Drier 492
Combined Telephone and Time Service 493
Automatic Flagman 493
Polarity Indicator 493
Light Rays Penetrate the Body ■ 494
The Straight-Away Lightning Rod 494
Electric Lighting for Automobiles 495
Ear Drum Massage 495
Self-Winding Clock 496
Electric Heaters for Chicken Food . 496
Electric Automobile Horn 496
Passing of the "Dead Man" 497
A Vibrating Chair 498
Electric Vibration 498
Ozonizer with Fan Electrodes 498
ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY. CHAPTER XXX 499
WHERE ELECTRICITY STANDS IN THE PRAC-
TICE OF MEDICINE. CHAPTER X 503
TALKS WITH THE JUDGE 506
An Enormous Fly-wheel 507
Night Telephone Shopping Service 507
The Human Side of a Great Physicist 508
Embroidered Electric Fans 510
Training and Firing a 60-ton Gun 511
Story of a Telephone Pole 515
Laying Cable in the Ohio River • 517
Illuminating the Exterior of a House 518
A Suspended Railway 518
Use of the Telephone in Foreign Countries 518
An Effective Window Attraction 519
Electric Power for Balloons 519
Electrical Fertilizer in Japan 519
Denver's Prismatic Fountain 519
Electricity in Fire Fighting 521
Conserving the Power of German Rivers 522
A Monument for Ampere 523
The Fastest Mile 524
Magnetic Pencil Holder 525
Moving Cars Without a Locomotive 525
Electricity Aboard the "George Washington" 526
Autos as Show Windows 526
Electric Stairs at Depots 526
Cabling Japanese Words 526
Eye Magnet 527
Repeating Alarm Clock 528
Insulating Materials 529
Inexpensive Battery Tester 530
That Third Wire 530
Electric Flasher 531
Magnetic Door Lock 532
Seams on Rubber Covered Wires 532
ELECTRICAL MEN OF THE TIMES. Alexander
Graham Bell 533
THE LATEST DECORATIVE NOVELTIES 534
Evolution of the Vacuum Cleaner 536
Current Cheaner than Kerosene 537
A DOCTOR BY TELEPHONE 538
Household Electric Fountains 539
A Fan and Ice to Cool a Room 539
Electric Fortune Teller 540
MECHANICAL BOYS. By George Rice 541
AN ELECTRICAL LABORATORY FOR TWENTY-
FIVE DOLLARS. PART X 542
Toy Railway Car Reverser 546
A HIGH POWER WIRELESS EQUIPMENT 547
Central California Wireless Association 550
Westchester Wireless Association 551
CONNECTIONS FOR TRANSMITTING AND
RECEIVING 552
ODDITIES IN DETECTORS. By George F. Worts 554
Electrolvtic Interrupter 557
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. . 559
REMEDIES FOR PATENT INFRINGEMENT 561
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS 563
SHORT CIRCUITS 564
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED 566
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Entered as Second Class Matter April 14, 1908, at the Post Office at Chicag-o. Under Act of March 3, 1879.
Copyright 1910 by Popular Electricity Publishing Co.
rn Plain English
VOL. Ill
OCTOBER 1910
No. 6
"First Wireless from Mars!
97
By WARREN H. MILLER
The city editor stared at the above title,
written in a bold, round hand at the top of
a yellow sheet of copy pad. He glanced up,
first quizzically, and then with growing
excitement, at the weather-beaten, blue-
eyed young reporter who stood grinning at
him across the desk.
"If that is so, Brownie," he growled, al-
most harshly, tapping the copy, "I say, if
that is even in the remotest degree so, young
fellah — why, then we'd better send over
at once and borrow a set of headlines a foot
high from the yellows."
"Read it!"
"No, I don't want to read it. I want to
know. If this thing's the truth, I want to
go and see it, right now — before a line of
copy goes in "
"They're talking — now — in this very city,
this darned old town that's always getting
out from under us, and the inventor is — '■ — ■"
"Not Prof. Charenton!" cried the city
editor, rising and reaching hastily for his
hat.
"No, you'd never guess it in a thousand
years," the reporter gurgled, laughing, with
excitement, "he's a she, a young girl not
yet twenty."
"No!" cried the other, incredulously,
"come on! What are you standing talking
there all day for? It's the most extraordi-
nary scoop this old sheet ever got wind of.
Some fair co-ed, I suppose "
"Not on your life! No use. conjuring up
visions of some bony creature in specs,
with a mathematical intellect. I tell you
she's a raving, tearing beauty. Brown eyes,
chestnut hair, a Venus of a figure "
The city editor shot a keen glance at his
enthusiastic young friend. "Ye-e-es?" he
vouchsafed.
"Man, she's glorious!"
"Say, look here, are you taking me to see
a scientific experiment," remonstrated the
' city editor, as they went out into the corridor,
"or am I about to be introduced to the girl
who has caught you at last?"
"And she's deaf as a post, if you'll be
good enough to let me do some of the talk-
ing "
"Aw, here! And has claws like a dragon,
I suppose," added the city editor, ironically,
as they turned down the subway steps,
"there is a statue in the Luxemburg with
the same idea — nothing new under the sun,
no matter how hard you try."
"No. I know the one you mean — that's
a cold snake, but this one's real — and warm
— and brown-eyed — and with a wit like
Rosalind's "
"Got it bad," muttered the city editor,
shaking his head, "don't go on and add that
she's replete with fabulous riches — your
picture won't hang if you do."
"The very thing that makes it 'hang,'
as you put it. How could anyone else but
a rich faddist do what she's done — but wait
till I tell you all about it."
"Brownie, ever since you covered the
Raisuli capture for us, and had all those
hair-breadth escapes; ever since you wrote
up the Jolo campaign where you ate those
•monkey chops and snake soups; and ever
since you worked up the Belgian atrocities
and the cannibal slave-trade, nothing but
the extra-extraordinary, suits your palate—
464
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
and still you manage to dig up something
wonderful around these humdrum United
States, when the rest of us can find nothing
but fires or funerals. But this last combina-
tion beats them all. Supposing your lady
love has got Mars on the 'phone, how does
she manage to tell them the color of your
tow topknot?"
"Numbers," replied Brown, succinctly,
vouchsafing no retort to his chief's chaffing.
"Really!" replied the city editor, interes-
tedly, dropping his bantering tone, "What
have they got to do with it?"
" Only thing we have in common with the
Martians is our numeral system. All human
beings and most animals can count — take
away one of your own setter's pups and see
if she can't "
"Granted say, look here, where are
you taking me? This is the Mott Haven
station we're coming to, now."
"Don't worry. We get out at the Bronx
and take a trolley."
"Beg pardon, for the interruption, old
man. How did your fair young scientist get
from numbers into speech?"
"Well, we haven't gotten that far yet.
She counts and the Martian answers her,
number for number; that's as far as we got
— a real signal though, all right — when I
begged her to let me rush out the news.
'First Wireless from Mars!' — oh, what a
beat!"
"Oh!" ejaculated the city editor, with
such disappointment in his tone that the re-
porter looked at him quickly.
"Skeptical? Well, we did a little better
than that," he added hastily, "when I left,
the Martian was spelling out some kind of
a multiplication table — 'two times two, four'
or some such matter, and Marian — I mean
the girl — was arranging the signals in orderly
form."
"Oh, you solid ivory!" jeered the city
editor, "Why there's your first word al-
ready! That word 'times' ! That's what the
Martian was driving at — I don't care what
his signal was, it means 'times'!"
"Sure it does. If Marian gets the same
signal all the way down the multiplication
table, it surely means 'times'. We get off
at the No. 19 trolley station."
The interurban whizzed along up hill and
down dale over a countryside of wealthy
places. Neat drives led from handsome
private waiting lodges off across the autumn
fields to where the windmill and clump of
trees indicated the location of the manor
house. No. 19 was such a station, and
Brown led his friend along a path, crossing
fields golden and yellow with the September
sunset.
"Wireless!" ejaculated the city editor,
excitedly, grasping the other's arm and
pointing to a tall, white mast, strung with
guy-wires and spreaders, that rose out of
the green just over the hill.
"That's him!" corroborated the reporter,
gaily, "Taking messages from Mars. Come
to think of it, you know, we're apt to think
of wireless waves as going out horizontally,
whereas they really do go out spherically.
And they keep on going, out and out, across
space, passing in turn through every single
planet and star, until spent, somewhere,
we know not where."
"And of course the same thing happens
with every single spark they may make on
Mars. WThy, man, that's the way we will
reach them eventually, if your young lady
hasn't, already!"
"Sure. Now, suppose you were rich
enough to get some scientific instrument
house to wind you a coil so big that it
could reach Mars, and a receiver so sensi-
tive "
" that every five-cent telephone coil
on earth would affect it? — not on your life!"
interrupted the city editor impatiently.
"Wait a bit, I'm coming to it. You've
probably heard of electric resonance, in a
general way of course, the same property
that makes a certain sized room resound to
one particular tone. It will give out that
tone no matter how softly it is sounded,, and
be dead to all others. Well, that is the
principle which is at the base of what they
call the 'tuning' of wireless apparatus, so
that it will take messages of only one fre-
quency and be dead to all others. Now,
Mari — the girl — has such a resonator,
'compound antennas' they call it, and its
'capacity' is so great that no other coil on
this earth can make it resound — do you be-
lieve now?"
The city editor shook his head slowly.
"Not enough to borrow headlines a foot
high. Tell me more about it."
"Well, the operators, mostly young Ger-
man and French university men, had hardly
gotten the apparatus up, with its newly per-
fected recording tape, before it began to
count — one; one-one; one-one-one; and so
on, up to ten. Then over and over again,
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
465
as though a clock mechanism were opera-
ting it. Then Marian opened the key "
"Yes go on, go on "
-And began to answer, number for
number, and, pretty soon the counting
stopped and — then it waited and seemed to
listen — and then began to answer her!"
"Gosh!" murmured the city editor ex-
citedly, "I seem to see — I see a big observa-
tory over there in Mars. They've had that
thing running, goodness knows how long,
in the hope that some day we'll catch on —
and then, at last, the answer comes! "
"Do you believe, now?"
"No — I — I can't. It seems incredible,
wonderful "
"Well, here we are, and in a few minutes
you can judge for yourself."
The path led directly towards a neat little
stone power house, with the puffs of steam
from some small engine issuing from an
exhaust pipe, while, far overhead, towered the
tall wireless mast.
The girl was absolutely unmindful of
their entry, poring over a tape covered with
dots and dashes. Then their shadows caught
the tail of her eye, and she turned enquiring-
ly, and instantly her eyes lit up as she recog-
nized the young reporter.
They were wonderful eyes. All the lost
sense of hearing had gone to intensify them,
making the iris golden brown and glorious,
and distending the pupils as if stimulated
with belladonna, so that one seemed to
see far into their dark unfathomable
depths.
"A girl of tremendous passions, tremen-
dous capabilities, if putting all the vital
fires into only four senses really does inten-
sify them," thought the city editor, noting
the partly opened, coral cupid's bow of
her lips as she gazed intently at his young
friend.
Brown was introducing him, speaking
very distinctly and using the full movement
of lips, tongue and teeth to articulate his
words, while she concentrated her whole
attention on his every movement.
Then it was the city editor's turn, and he
almost quailed under the battery of those
glorious eyes. Their beauty bathed him
like a flood of sunshine, seeming to search
his uttermost heart, and, involuntarily he
turned his own aside.
She held out the table of signals.
"He can't count," she smiled disdain-
fully, laughing in the peculiar inflexionless
manner of the deaf. "This middle signal
means 'times'," she went on inker unmodu-
lated voice, "Sometimes he says 'two times
two, four,' and sometimes, 'two times two,
five,' and always a second signal after it,
and I can't make head or tail of it."
"Let me see it, please!" requested the
city editor with suppressed excitement. He
snatched the paper from Brown's hand and
ran his finger down the lines of dots and
dashes. "Let's see — I used to know my
Morse — no, it's not Morse, of course, but
it's an arbitrary system of dots and dashes
just the same."
Then, like a flash — "Here you are — 'two
times two, four — right!' 'Two times two,
five, wrong!' — that's what he's trying to
say! 'Two times three, six, right;' 'two
times three, seven, wrong.' See, they alter-
nate all the way down the table — I tell you
those signals mean 'right' and 'wrong,'
'yes' and 'no!' " he cried.
The girl regarded him intently, but , he
spoke so fast that Brown had to translate.
Then her face lit up, radiant, luminous with
pleasure and understanding, and she shook
his hands, almost hugging the philosophic
city editor in her rapture.
"Eumm!" he muttered under his breath.
The girl strode over and opened a brass
key in front of a huge mahogany mounted
induction coil. She began sending, copying
from the table of signals. Then the two
large brass knobs in front of the coil began
to glow with violet fringes, and long, thin,
violet tongues stretched out, weaving un-
certainly about in the air before striking at
each other. They all stood watching the
rapid violet discharges, fascinated, the girl
with her intent luminous gaze," the city
editor with brows damp with excitement,
and Brown, stern, watchful and vigilant.
Presently the weaving, snaky discharges
ceased, and the girl studied the record of
dots and dashes she had made.
"New word," she said, smiling wistfully
at them both. "I feel just as I used to when
they taught me how to talk. Here are some
more numbers again, and here are 'right'
and 'wrong'," she added, pointing them out
with her pencil. "I'm getting so I can talk
to my new teacher quite well," she laughed.
"Boy, your sweetheart must have a
corking think-piece!" exclaimed the city
editor under his breath as both men took
the paper she held out to them. "Deaf, you
say, from infancy?"
466
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
J
THEY ALL WENT OVER TO THE WINDOW TO GET THE LAST OF THE
FADING TWILIGHT
"Look out!" warned Brown sharply, for the new word," suggested the city editor,
"She's looking at you and the fact that smiling re-assuringly at the girl as he re-
you are talking low don't do any good. turned the paper.
Please dry up." They all went over to a window to get
"Let's write out the table, leaving a dash the last of the fading twilight, and soon
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
467
had constructed the following table, the dash
being the new word:
88 — wrong.
225— wrong.
365— wrong.
687— right.
They looked at one another, enquiringly.
"Three-sixty-five," mused Brown, "why,
that's familiar enough. That's the number
of days in our — Quick! Get an astronomy,"
he commanded in his sharp, staccato ac1
cents. "As-trono-my!" he repeated, smil-
ing into the girl's eager, upturned face.
Her eyes dilated and returned again under
his direct gaze. Just a little flash of emo-
tion, as she turned away, but it did not
escape the city editor. In an instant she
had returned quickly, placing the open book
in Brown's hands. There was another
glistening swordplay of their eyes, and then
he rapidly thumbed the astronomy, hot as
a hound on the scent.
"Here it is, 'Diurnal revolutions of the
planets' — Mercury, 88 days; Venus, 225
days; Earth, 365 days, and MARS, 687.
What more do you want! Hooray! Marian,
you're a peach!" He took both her hands
in his own in his enthusiasm and wrung them
again and again.
"E-e-umm! — Is this a scientific experi-
ment, or — I say, there, old man," growled
the city editor, trying to get in a chance to
congratulate her.
"I will answer him," said the girl at
length, disengaging her hands and blushing
under Brown's ardent looks. She turned,
her face a flaming rose of color, and opening
the key, spelled out the dots and dashes of
the signal "Right!"
They stepped back, waiting. Presently
the snapping play of the violet serpents
began again, now lighting up the dim labora-
tory with violet tones, and shining in irides-
cent lavender tints on the chestnut-brown
filaments of the girl's hair.
"365 days-
"687 days-
it spelled.
"Oh, / can guess that," crowed the girl
in her peculiar aimless modulations, "three
sixty-five days, you, six eighty-seven days,
me "
"Sure! We're getting along famously!"
cried the young reporter. "Why, you'll
have their whole vocabulary, Marian, at
this rate. I don't know much about scien-
tific matters, you know, but, doesn't the
spectroscope show the same metals in Mars
as we have?"
"Yes, he can name them all to me, by
giving their atomic weights — all the great
physical facts common to all the universe,
light, color, various well-known distances in
diameters of the sun, density of the planets,
water, heat — why a big vocabulary can be
suggested by numbers alone. Let me an-
swer him again."
"Well, what do you think of it — shall we
go to print?" said Brown to the city editor,
as she clicked at the key.
• The latter shook his head doubtfully.
"Brownie, old man — I — really — don't
know. Sometimes I can't help thinking
someone somewhere on this earth is fak-
ing ■"
Oh, unfortunate word! The girl had
turned at that instant and her quick eyes
had caught it, unmistakably, as the letters
are all formed at the front of the mouth.
"Faking!" she stamped, flushing angrily.
"What are you talking about!" The great
brown eyes flashed at him scornfully, and
she turned away disdainfully, stepping up on
a low stool beside the instrument and
sweeping back the curtain of the laboratory
window with a regal gesture.
"Beyond this little film of air," she said
solemnly, pointing up at red Mars, who
shone large and luminous, "across those
forty million miles of void there is some
being, who, sure as yon beams of light
reach us, is striving to communicate with
us. Once his electric rays pierce the few
miles of air above him, there is nothing to
stop them, nothing to hinder them, until
they strike and pierce our little forty miles
of air — Ah, how can you doubt!"
Suddenly they noticed a thin, almost in-
visible, wisp of violet passing out from her
outstretched forefinger. It grew, and more
wisps added themselves, while one of the
large discharge balls of their own coil began
to crackle and sizzle, enveloped with a halo
of violet, as the Martian began sending
again. Something was wrong. From some-
where out in space their aerial was collecting
energy in such a deluge as to affect even
their own transmitting coil!
"Oh! — What is the matter!" gasped the
girl, turning white and terror-stricken, and,
looking fearfully over her shoulder, she
noticed for the first time that her clothing
was in contact with the other knob. "Oh!"
468
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
she called, weakly, "save me! / daren't
move!"
The two men stood paralyzed, fascinated,
not knowing just what to do, while slowly
a long, thin violet tongue weaved out
towards her from the free discharge ball,
like some deadly cobra.
"I don't know whether it's the right
thing to do, but, here goes!" croaked Brown,
hoarse and desperate. He sprang low at her,
hoping to pass below the reach of the great
discharge knobs, and his impact knocked
her clear of danger. It was neatly and
quickly done, but as well hope to be quicker
than electricity as to wish for the moon,
for with a vicious snap, both discharge
knobs shot down violet tongues of flame into
his neck and back. His body fell against
the side of the coil, thus providing a path
for the discharge directly into the coil it-
self, and the next instant there was a report
like a pistol-shot, instantaneously followed
by a roaring, rending crash, as the great
coil short-circuited on itself. The labora-
tory seemed filled with one huge, blinding
green copper flame, and the city editor
staggered back against the wall, shielding
his eyes with his arm. He seized the girl
and stumbled out of the smoking room in a
daze, dragging her with him. But she
struggled out of his grasp like a wildcat
and dashed back into the reeking laboratory,
and between them they got the reporter out
on the lawn under the stars.
" O-o-o-oh! — O-o-o-oh!" she moaned trem-
ulously, entirely unmindful of her own
burns. "O-o-o-oh, Go-od! Pie gave —
his — life — for — me! I will not — I can not —
and I won't — give him up! Get to work! !"
she shouted at the bewildered city editor.
"Plere! Pull his hands above his head — so!
Now, down to his sides again- — so! Again!
Again ! Again ! We must get him breathing ! ' '
Together they labored over him as the
minutes passed slowly, but no sign of life.
The girl shook with convulsive sobs that
quivered through her whole body, and still
they kept at the monotonous task as the
precious time crept on, minute by minute.
Suddenly she gave a low cry, like a hunted,
wounded animal, and ran sobbing to the
laboratory, presently re-appearing with a
small, hand magneto dynamo.
"Put these wires in his hands — his hands,"
she gasped in an entreating whisper.
Madly she spun the handle around and
around, sparing her wrist no agony. The
powerful little current set up a twitching
that seemed but a mockery of real life, and
after some minutes of it, the city editor
dropped his friend's hands with a groan of
despair.
"How dare you!" she snarled, springing
at him with raging eyes. Pie slunk back to
work again, reluctantly, hopelessly, com-
pelled by her imperious will.
Then — suddenly — a cry, a pean of joy
from the very soul of the woman
"Pie lives! — He lives!"
And quietly the great brown eyes closed,
and the full-fleshed palpitating body lay
very still, with the strap of the magneto
still across her bare outstretched arm, as
Brown came to with tremendous writhing.
* * *
It will be fifteen years before Mars will
again be in perihelion, and there, was no
time to re-wind the great coil that talked
with that planet during the recent proximity.
But, when he visits us again, Mr. and Mrs.
George Brown will be "at home."
Electric Trucks on the Farm
The electric auto truck and tractor is
invading the field of the horse even on the
moderate size farm in harvesting wheat and
in haying and other similar service.
An electric truck of 3.5 tons' capacity is
seen in the frontispiece, as operated at a nurs-
ery located several miles from Rochester, New
York. This truck when used during the
harvesting season was able to handle 617
bundles of wheat, which yielded 45 bushels
after being threshed, while the usual two-
horse load consisted of 260 bundles.
The use of this electric power vehicle in
the above service as well as the harvesting
of the hay crop has been of great advantage
on account of the time element being so
important, due to uncertain weather condi-
tions.
At this nursery the electric truck has been
used to great advantage in delivering shrubs
and trees to the railway station during the
shipping season, returning with supplies and
fertilizer to the farm. The electric storage
battery truck was recommended to the
farm owner for this work by the Rochester
Railway and Light Company and wherever
current can be supplied from power and
lighting stations, to farms conveniently
located, electric vehicles of this type can be
employed with economy.
Triennial Conclave of the
Knights Templar
L. •'■
Every three years the Knights Templar
hold a conclave. This triennial grand
encampment is the rendevous of knights
from the four corners
of the globe. One of
surpassing magnificence
has just been held in
Chicago, August 6 to
13, and it was in strik-
ing contrast to the en-
campment of 1880, the
last one previously held
in the western metropo-
lis. Colonel La Fayette
Lyttle, who was grand
commander of the Chi-
cago encampment of
1880, remarked on this
later occasion: "I have
seen every conclave ex-
cept two since 1877.
A 'City of Tents' on
the lake front served us
in 1880 and the affair
was badly managed.
This time Chicago is
redeeming its good
name."
Chicago had no elec-
tric lighting system
then. Today this means
of illumination figured
more than anything else
in presenting to its half-
mi.iion visitors a spec-
tacle of brilliant mag-
nificence not equalled since the Hudson-
Fulton Centennial.
Battlements and arches of medieval days
were outlined by rows
of electric lamps, while
shields draped with
black and white flags
and each bearing in
its centre an illuminated
cross signified the an-
cient origin of the
Order.
As the story is told,
after the capture of
Jerusalem by the Cru-
saders, infidels who had
not yet been driven
out of Palestine con-
tinued to annoy pilgrims
who came to worship
at the shrine of the Holy
Sepulcher. Nine knights
who had already aided
in the taking of Jeru-
salem banded them
selves together to pro-
tect these pilgrims,
choosing Hugh de
Payens as their leader.
The Council of Troyers
accepted their services,
and rules relating to
their duty and life were
adopted. They wore a
white robe, signifying a
pure life, a red cross
GREAT WELCOME SIGN AT THE KNIGHTS TEMPLAR CONCLAVE
TAT.T.EST ELECTRIC SIGN EVER CONSTRUCTED
470
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
-■■', •-• ■-
TWO OF THE MOST PROMINENT KNIGHTS AND THE SIGN OF THE APOLLO COMMANDERY
Rt. Em. Sir Knight John D. Cleveland, Grand D. c ^ . -, , .. . w-n-
/- , S .1 o j ~ j Rt. Em. Deputy Grand Master William
Commander or the Grand Commandery r D «» ,. ,
c f11. . fc>. Mehsh
or Illinois
on their left breast symbolized their mar-
tyrdom, while the banner expressing then-
purpose was half black, meaning "terrible
in battle," and half white, signifying "fair
in peace."
Chicago's first greeting to the modern
Knights oi the Cross was the "entrance"
arch erected on Michigan avenue near Park
Row. This was built to resemble the
massive masonry of an ancient battlement.
Over -portions of this, English ivy had been
so carefully placed that one might imagine
it had grown there for centuries. The
towers and turrets were outlined by i,ioo
lights at night and its windows, back of
which were electric bulbs, were made to
resemble stained glass. Buglers were sta-
tioned at its top to announce the approach
of the 35,000 plumed kinghts as on parade
they "entered" the city. Tramping to the
music of 145 bands, the procession of knights
required nearly four hours to pass through
the arch.
Near the La Salle Hotel was erected the
Grand Commandery arch, this hotel being
the headquarters of the Grand Commandery
of Illinois, at whose head presides Rt. Em.
Grand Commander John D. Cleveland,
under whose auspices the conclave was
held. This arch, illuminated by 1,000
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
471
ENTRANCE ARCH ON MICHIGAN AVENUE. THE MEN WHO PLANNED AND SUPERVISED
THE GREAT ELECTRIC SPECTACLE
S. W. Van Nostrand
Em. Sir Knight Gorham B. Coffin
Chairman Decorative Committee
William Becker
Thomas Casack
472
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
DAY -VIEW OF STATE STREET DURING THE TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION
^STATE STREET AT NIGHT WITH SPECIAL HLUMINATIONS
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
473
incandescent lamps, had each pillar sur- circle of lamps around the eagle and shield
mounted by a figure, fourteen feet high, re
presenting a mounted knight helmeted and
clad in armor.
State Street was transformed into "Tem-
plar Way" by 16,000 electric bulbs and 92
white Corinthian pillars along the curb.
Upon the top of each pillar a globe was
placed and studded
with 21 stars, each
star being a lamp.
From pillar to pillar
festoon lights were
strung, upon which
various emblems were
suspended and lighted
by numerous colored
lamps.
The most prominent
feature of all was the
official emblem of the
conclave erected in
Grant Park at the
foot of Jackson Boule-
vard. The tip of the
helmet at the top was
133 feet from the con-
crete foundation, the
width at the base
being 66 feet. The
letters in "Chicago
1910" were three feet
in height. The sword
hilts were eight feet
in length by two feet
wide, while from the
letter "K" to the let-
ter "T," inclusive, was
40 feet. From the
knights' heads in the
second part of the
emblem to the horses'
hoofs was 16 feet.
The words "grand
ENCAMPMENT OF THE
u. s." were 32 feet
wide by 22 feet high,
while the letters "in
hoc signo vinces"
("In this sign you shall conquer") at
the bottom were two feet in height.
"Welcome" was proclaimed in letters
10 feet high. This word burned
steadily in letters of red. Three separate
Hashers controlled by a master flasher
operated the three sections of the emblem.
The upper part flashed first. Then the
DECORATIONS of the commonwealth
EDISON COMPANY'S BUILDING
and around the letters "K" and "T" ap-
peared to revolve. The ribbon in the eagle's
mouth was made to present a constantly
waving effect.
The second section flashed on quickly
after the first and the horses of the knights
appeared as if galloping towards the ob-
server. In the third
section, which quickly
followed, the jewels
of the crown were
surrounded by waving
lines of light in steady
motion until all
flashed off together,
then on again for a
moment, thus com-
pleting the cycle which
was immediately re-
peated. In this sign
were 5,120 tungsten
lights. About 1,500
of these were of the
natural color. Other
shades and tints which
were shown were pro-
duced by a special
background of colors
and method of appli-
cation, with only clear
white lamps. No
colored caps or dip-
ping solutions of any
kind were used. Cur-
rent to the various cir-
cuits was conveyed
over 5,000 feet of
steel cable and 20,000
feet of wire.
For the encamp-
ment of 1880 records
show that $653 was
spent for entertain-
ment by Illinois and
Chicago knights, while
$50,000 is estimated as
being used for decora-
tions alone at the last
Conclave just held in Chicago.
William B. Melish, Acting Grand Master
of the Encampment, said:
"Since my arrival in this city I have been
so overwhelmed with the immensity of the
welcome that I am at a loss to express my
appreciation of the manner in which Chicago
has risen to the occasion."
474
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Much credit is due the Thos. Cusack
Company and particularly Mr. S. W. Van
Nostrand and Mr. William Becker who in
conjunction with Chairman Gorham B.
Coffin, of the Decoration Committee for the
Templars, formulated and carried out the
plans for the magnificent electrical spec-
, tacle.
Illuminating Our Warships
The general public which, on the evening
of a national holiday or other festal occasion,
views a United States warship silhouetted
against the darkness by lines of light, gives
never a thought to the amount of work and
preparation necessary to produce such
unique illumination and yet to thus "dress
ship" is one of the most arduous tasks that
falls to the lot of the electricians on one of
Uncle Sam's big fighting craft. The serious
energy and when on top of this routine comes
the necessity for outlining the entire ship
with strings of incandescent lamps it is im-
perative that every member of the electrical
squad shall step lively from dawn to dusk.
On an average there are' perhaps a dozen
different occasions in each calendar year
when a warship puts on gala attire. There
are, of course, the different national holi-
days such as Washington's birthday anni-
BKESSING A WARSHIP WITH ELECTRIC LIGHTS
phase of the matter from the standpoint of
these naval electrical workers is that all
the preliminaries for such a burst of glory
represent what might be termed "extra
work." Now, be it known, the electricians
on a naval craft are, under normal condi-
tions, just about the busiest men in the uni-
versally active warship community. Their
regular work ordinarily taxes their time and
versary, Memorial Day, the Fourth of July,
etc., and then there are an indefinite number
of other occasions, as, for instance, when a
warship is detailed to take part in some
marine parade, attend some celebration, or
lend interest to an exposition with the im-
plied obligation to put forth her best attire
in honor of the event. Under such circum-
stances both day and night decorative
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
475
schemes are carried out, but the latter en-
tails much more preparation. The adorn-
ment for the daylight hours consists in a
lavish display of flags — especially half a
hundred gaudy signal flags that are strung
as closely as may be on a rope that extends
from the bow over the two mastheads to
the stern of the vessel.
For the hours of darkness an elaborate
system of electrical illumination is standard
among all the ships of Uncle Sam's sea
patrol. This involves the use of practically
every illuminant above decks from the power-
ful searchlights to the electric torch used for
"wig wag" signalling at night, but the main
responsibility for the spectacle rests upon
great numbers of extra incandescent bulbs
brought into use specially for such an occa-
sion and which are utilized to outline the
contour of the warship in what appear from
a distance like continuous lines of fire.
Colored globes are used to some extent, but
for the most part lamps of 16 or 32 candle-
power with clear glass globes are used.
In the illumination of a first-class battle-
ship anywhere from 2,500 to 5,000 extra
incandescents are placed on the exterior
of the vessel. The lamps are placed at
intervals of from six inches to a foot on
wires which are strung on all the distinctive
outlines of the armorclad. A line of lights
replaces the string of flags which during the
daylight hours connected the two masts and
slants to bow and stern respectively. The
masts likewise support perpendicular lines
of lights and other glowing bulb,s indicate
the form of the huge smokestacks. In
some instances a string of lights is placed just
above the water-line of the ship and in calm
weather the electricians of some warships
are wont to depend strings of lamps from the
overhang of the stern. However, this latter
decorative touch presents the problem that
if the wind be at all high the string will sway
back and forth and some of the lamps be
inevitably dashed to destruction.
The electricians aboard ship begin work
on their special scheme of wiring soon after
daylight on the day set for an illumination.
If the vessel is anchored in the harbor of an
"exposition city" or other environment
where the illumination is a nightly affair,
the task for the electricians after the first
day consists merely of testing the lamps and
replacing those that have burned out, but
under the more ordinary circumstances, as
on a national holiday, when the illumination
is to be merely a one-night affair, the major
portion of the morning will be spent in the
wiring work. This completed the wooden
cases of incandescent lamps are brought up
from the hold and a squad of men set to
OUTLINING A SMOKE STACK WITH LAMPS
work putting them in place. Several of the
seagoing electricians busy themselves un-
packing the lamps and removing them from
the protective' cones of corrugated board;
others carry the lamps to the wires and a
third squad attaches the lamps to the sockets.
When all the lamps are in place the cur-
rent is turned on for a test and an inspection
made of every lamp. Some of the lamps
must be removed as defective or worn-out,
whereas others only require an adjustment of
the connection to glow properly. The
visitor watching these testing operations
is apt to be struck by the matter-of-fact
manner in which the average bluejacket
pokes his forefinger into the socket of a
lamp to probe for the current when a lamp
has failed to illuminate. Occasionally, how-
ever, on a rainy day, when the deck and all
the steel upperworks of the ship are wet, a
venturesome tar has a twinge as the penalty
of this practice. The searchlights are also
tested, for a searchlight drill lasting for
thirty minutes or an hour is a feature of a
battleship illumination. Finally the red
and white- incandescent lamps of the sema-
phore and other forms of night signalling
are brought into requisition to add to the
splendor of the illumination.
476
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
11
Electricity at a Modern Rifle Range
By WALDON FAWCETT
Modern rifle ranges are distinctly a
development of latter-day military science,
and it is particularly fitting that such prod-
ucts of Twentieth Century progress should
be largely dependent for their successful
operation upon electricity — the Twentieth
Century power. Indeed, electrical communi-
cation, as exemplified in the telephone and
the telegraph, supplies a nerve system with-
out which it would be utterly impossible
to conduct target practice at long range with
that systematic precision and rapidity of
operation which now characterizes it on
the great ranges maintained by the national
government and the several States of the
Union.
Target shooting has, of course, been a
pastime for civilians and a duty for soldier}-
almost ever since firearms were invented.
However it is indeed a far cry from the old-
time conditions of "shooting at a mark"
to the present-day procedure at a field spe-
cially fitted for long-range markmanship.
Many private citizens are yet content to
fire at targets placed at 20, 30 or 50 feet,
such as are familiar in the shooting galleries
yet to be found in every town and city and
at every popular summer resort. Not so,
however, the soldier, the sailor, the big game
hunter and others who make more or less
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
477
of a business of shooting with small arms.
The perfection of the modern rifle and its
high power, the added force of the newer
kinds of powder and changes in the form of
bullets are only a portion of the improve-
ments which have revolutionized conditions
and decreed that effective combat henceforth
must be at long range.
With the advent of a new era of longer
ranges for prospective battles came, of
course, the necessity for target practice
at longer range, and this has presented many
problems, the last of which has only recently
been solved. With the aid of telescopic
sights and other inventions it was found that
marksmen could hit the targets at 500 or
600 yards just about as accurately as they
did in the old days when the distance was
much less between firing line and target.
However, the scoring of shots, the manipula-
tion of the targets and other features of the
practical operation of a long-range shooting
arena presented problems not so readily
solved.
In the old days of short ranges it was
usually possible for a marksman to ascertain
from the firing line in just what part of the
target he had placed his bullet. Likewise
was there little danger of accident during
the placing of targets and other necessary
manipulation because marksmen and target
tenders were always within earshot of one
another and a first-hand mutual understand-
ing was possible as to just when the shooting
should be done. However when
the ranges were increased to 200
yards, to 600 yards, to 1,000
yards and finally to 1,200 yards
478
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
no such intimate relations were longer
possible. However, recourse was had to
electrical communication and with the
modern rille range now wholly enmeshed
with a network of telephone and telegraph
wires the system of operation is, in effect,
just as simple as in the old days. The new
conditions have also enabled a notable
advance in yet another direction — namely
in the number of marksmen who may be
shooting simultaneously without in any way
interfering with one another.
The great rifle range at Camp Perry,
Ohio, which is one of the finest in the coun-
try and may be cited as representative, covers
nearly 500 acres and has a total of 236 rifle
and revolver targets, all arranged to the
north so that they can be shot upon from a
common firing line. There are revolver
targets at 15, 25, 50 and 75 yards and rifle
targets at 200, 600, 1,000 and 1,200 yards,
and, with a far-flung firing line, smokeless
powder in use and an individual target tender
for each target, there is no reason why,
should circumstances dictate, it would not
be practicable to have firing in progress
simultaneously at every one of this lung
line of targets.
With the perfection of the modern rifle
range and the introduction of the telephone
as the universal artery of communication
has come a change from the old-time primi-
tive conditions under which the target was
tacked to heavy boards and set up against
a convenient tree. Nowadays, the targets,
pasted upon burlap stretched on frames of
wood, are exposed (to receive the marks-
man's bullets) above the crest of what appear
from the firing line like earthwork entrench-
ments such as soldiers throw up for shelter
in time of war. In reality these target
pits, as they are termed, consist of stone-
walled alleys, heavily banked with earth.
Here are stationed the boys — one for each
target — who act as target tenders or "mark-
ers" and here, out of sight of the riflemen,
they perform all the tasks of chronicling
the position of each shot; pasting a piece
of paper over the bullet hole following each
shot; and putting in place a wholly new
target when one in use has become so riddled
with bullets as to prove useless. The targets,
it may be explained, are all arranged in
duplicate and placed on elevators so perfectly
balanced that as one target is elevated into
the line of vision of the marksmen its mate
is simultaneously drawn down into the
shelter of the pit. It is predicted that ulti-
mately the approved type of target elevators
of this class will be electrically operated.
The communication from the target pit
to the firing line of the "score" made by each
marksman may be accomplished by colored
flags or disks, but the approved and de-
pendable method is by means of the* tele-
phone. Telephone wires connect the firing
line at each range with the target pits for
that particular range. At the firing line,
the "station," occupying a shelter house or
a roofed box affixed to a convenient pole, is
placed in a central location so that the opera-
tor can readily communicate with any of the
scorers who sit, with blackboards mounted
on easels before them, keeping tab in detail
on the marksmanship of the various partici
pants in the shoot.
Whereas the main volume of communica-
tion is, of course, between a firing line and
the targets of that range, an exchange located
on the camp grounds, makes it possible to
communicate between any two stations of
the system. For instance, if desired, the
range officer in charge at the 200-yard range
might communicate with the target tenders
on the 1,000-yard range in order, we'll say,
to admonish them to prepare the targets
for marksmen who might desire to proceed
from the one range to the other. The tele-
graph is used on some target ranges but is
not generally considered as effective as the
telephone. Overhead wires are used for
most of the communicative systems at rifle
ranges
Etectric light is also coming to be used to
a surprising extent at the modern rifle ran-.
ges. First of all the power plant which is
an adjunct of the thoroughly up-to-date
range supplies current for illuminating all
the streets and all the tents and mess halls
provided for the marksmen— there may
perhaps be as many as 1,500 of these marks-
men— who live at the range for several weeks
during a practice period or a competitive
national match. More interesting, however,
.is the recent innovation of utilizing electric
lights to illuminate the targets so that shoot-
ing may be carried on at night. For this
there are employed the most powerful incan-
descent lamps, partially enclosed in metal
cases that serve at once as shield and re-
flector and these are placed just below the
crest of the target pit; that is, protected from
the bullets and yet at such an angle as to
flood the target with light. - -
470
ELECTRIC POWER
How Metal Is Cold Sawed
The picture shows what is known as -a
xutting-off saw, which will eat its way
through a steel I-beam as if the latter were
a stick of tallow. The saw is 26 inches in
A SAW THAT CUTS THROUGH STEEL
diameter, driven by the electric motor at the
right. The metal to be sawed is clamped
in the moving carriage at the left and fed
against the saw by the hand wheel. Each
tooth of the saw is removable.
Combined Freezer and Ice Crusher
This machine is both an ice crusher and
ice cream freezer. By a simple arrangement
of gears the one horse-power General Elec-
tric motor drives the crusher which furnishes
a constant supply of cracked ice, thereby
doing away with one of the most disagreeable
features of ice cream making. The freezer
has a capacity of 4 J gallons of ice cream.
Lifting Magnet
It would be a laborious and skin abrading
task to handle the scrap metal bales shown
in the picture, if the work were done by
hand. A medium sized lifting magnet will,
however, pick up several bales at a time and
drop them the instant that current is shut
off from the coils of the magnet. The mag-
ICE CREAM FREEZER AND ICE CRUSHER
LIFTING MAGNET HANDLING SCRAP
net is attached to a crane and is lowered down
into contact with the metal, whatever it may
be, pig iron, scrap iron, nail kegs, or steel
rails. Then current is switched on giving the
magnet its lifting power.
480
JBLBCTRlcJ
■ C< Aa» .Vv^aSKS^I ft
ELECTRIC CRANE LIFTING A WAGON LOAD OF COAL
A Wagon Load at a Time
Few electrical devices have a more gen-
eral and ever widening field of usefulness
than the hoisting crane.
A journey through the industrial plants of
a large city would offer many surprises and
suggestions for in all places where heavy
weights whether molten or solid metal,
lumber, stone, coal, ashes, junk, engines,
boilers, or motors are to be handled the
electric crane is the lifting and carrying de-
vice.
The picture on the opposite page shows
a Pawling and Harnischfeger two-motor
hoist handling coal at the power house
of the Milwaukee Electric Railway and
Light Company. A wagon load at a time
is lifted to the top of the building, run
inside and there dumped into hoppers ready
for gravity to do the rest when the coal is
needed.
Three in One
To supply two or three household or office
devices, taking little current, from a single
outlet, is made easy and convenient by the
481
use of the Hubbell multiple plug. Just
screw the plug into an ordinary lamp socket
and three outlets become available, the
illustration showing a table lamp, an electric
fan and a ceiling wax heater in service. The
cap is connected in each case with as much
ease and safety as putting a cork in a bottle.
A Handy Horse Clipper
Of special interest to horse and livery men
is the clipper here illustrated. A clipper and
small motor are combined in a three and one-
half pound instru-
ment so light that
it can be operated
with one hand.
The current neces-
sary is less than
that required by
a sixteen candle
power incandes-
cent lamp, this
amount of power
making the knife
operate at the rate
of 1,500 move-
ments per minute.
The clipper re-
quires no spe-
c i a 1 installa-
tion. Simply
attach the plug
to an ordinary
socket. The
device runs on either alternating or di-
rect current. It is manufactured by a
Chicago concern, the Reliable Electric
Company.
Ozone on the Increase
A HANDY HORSE
CLIPPER
The use of ozone machines abroad
is much more universal than in the
United States. In one country in Europe
last year over $7,000,000 was expended
in ozone apparatus. In England one
company has been turning out between
700 and 800 generators a month. Their
catalogue is printed in eighteen different
languages. Ozone, manufactured on a
very large scale, is used in Paris, Berlin,
St. Petersburg, Nice, Lyons and about
40 other cities to purify their water sup-
ply, wholly or in part.
482
Kinetic Organ Blower
Since the
days of the
syrinx or
"Pipe of
Pan," which
was simply a
series of hol-
low reeds
bound t o-
gether and
blown by the
breath, there
has been a
constant evo-
lution in the
the pipe organ until now
"°°\ we find the modern organ
a very large affair and
blown by an electrically oper-
ated fan.
The diagram shows the very
simple system of organ blowing
employed by the Kinetic Engi-
neering Company. The
motor and the fans, of
which there are several
mounted on the same
shaft, are placed in the
basement or floor beneath
the organ. The fans are
mounted in a wind- tight
casing and add their wind
pressures, step by step, until the final pres-
sure is sufficient to operate the organ
through the large upright pipe and bel-
lows-like regulating attachment.
MOTOR DRIVEN
ORGAN BLOWER
Sanitary Automatic Pump
The Sanitary automatic pumping system
is designed for house service where the
requirements are not over 120 gallons an
hour and where the source of supply is not
more than 22 feet lower than the point where
the pump is located. It is suitable for small
residences, cottages, etc., having one or two
bath rooms and the usual fixtures. The
outfit consists of a one-eighth horsepower
motor which drives a double acting pump.
The tank at the left acts as a pressure regu-
lator. When water is drawn from a faucet
the pressure in the tank naturally falls. The
moment this occurs an automatic arrange-
ment operated by a pressure diaphragm
closes a switch which starts the motor.
The Sanitary Pump Company which
SANITARY HOUSE PUMP
makes this outfit also makes others of various
sizes suitable for all buildings from small
cottages up to the largest public institutions.
Exit Washday Drudgery
Washing machines are like automobiles
in a way. Each type of machine possesses
THE ELMO WASHER AXD WRINGER
•some feature in which it differs from all the
others. The Elmo power washer here
illustrated has the easy-opening lid. It is
not necessary to turn off the power before
raising the lid for the gears are disconnected
automatically when this is raised. The
Elmo is also equipped with a reversible
wringer so that whenever the clothes get
tangled in the rolls a simple turn of a lever
throws the wringer to a forward or a re-
verse motion as desired. The power trans-
mission from the motor to the washer is
so well arranged that a very low current con-
sumption is claimed while another good
point is the enclosure of all gear wheels.
Washing and Ironing Outfit
With a washing outfit such as the one
shown herewith, and the addition of an elec-
tric flatiron, all the utilities ordinarily pro-
vided in a commercial laundry are made
available. The outfit of the Automatic
Electric Washer Company embodies a
small motor mounted in the framework
483
beneath the tub of the washer. This motor
runs direct from the lamp socket. Through
an ingenious arrangement of gears and rods
the motor is made to operate the washing
machine, wringer, and a good-sized mangle
suitable for ironing coarse work.
Pure Air in Schools
Recent tests made by a ventilating en-
gineer, J. E. Mayer, in over 200 school rooms
showed that while the air might be quite
pure at the start of the sessions, it was
sufficiently vitiated in about half an hour to
be considered undesirable. Mr. Mayer
therefore suggests the use of ozonizers
operated automatically by clrdc switches
which would put them into service for five cr
ten minutes during the middle of each class
session, it being assumed that the windows
can be opened and the air radically changed
at the end of the session. He also suggests
that a similar installation in churches would
lead to a larger proportion of the wide awake
among the auditors at the close of the sermon.
WASHER AND
WRINGER
4S4
CLEANING A RAILWAY COACH BY THE VACUUM PROCESS
Cleaning Railway Coaches
The vacuum process is now. largely used
for cleaning railway coaches, where it is
particularly effective in removing dust from
the upholstery. It will be of interest to
note the construction and method of opera-
tion of a novel electrically driven rotary
pump outfit, of the Siemens-Schuckert de-
sign, as largely used abroad for this service.
A direct current electric motor is directly
coupled to the pump and mounted with the
air and dirt receptacle together with the
starting switches and rheostat on a truck so
that the outfit can be easily moved from one
car to another. A reel is provided with a
long armor covered electric cable for supply-
ing the necessary electric current to the
motor, together with a coil of armored
hose for conducting the dirt by vacuum from
any part of the car to the receptacle, on the
truck.
The air is received at the very top of the
machine and is drawn down through the
dust receiver where all the dirt and dust are
removed. It then passes through the cen-
trifugal fan and is discharged into the
atmosphere. The elimination of the dust
before passing the air through the fan is a
Portable Vacuum Cleaner
Among the various types of Westinghouse
vacuum cleaners is one called the Invincible
Junior. It is constructed on the centrifugal
principle and the motor is mounted on the
vertical shaft which drives the fan. The
collector is on top and the motor at the bot-
tom, and the latter being the heavier, great
stability is given to the apparatus.
PORTABLE VACUUM CLEANER
great gain in increasing the life of the bear-
ings.
About one-quarter horse-power is re-
quired for the operation of the cleaner,
and it is light enough to be carried easily
from one room to another.
OTRKfli APPUflMCE SECTION 1
485
Electric Bench Drill
An easily operated and economical bench
drill is shown in the cut, the motive power
being a small ^ horse-power G. E. motor
mounted on a shelf which is part of the
machine base. As the drill is raised and
lowered by the lever the pulley driving the
drill spindle remains stationary, the spindle
sliding up and down through it.
Belt Driven Washer and Wringer
A "1900 Washer" and wringer, operated
by a 1-10 horse-power G. E. motor, will do
all the hard work on wash day with very little
BELT DRIVEN WASHER AND WRINGER
supervision. The motor in this instance is
mounted on a small extension to the bench
which carries the machine and a simple
belt drive is employed.
Potato Peeler
The potato peeling machine here shown
is suitable for restaurants and hotels. The
G. E. motor, which is of \ horse-power, re-
volves the inner surface of the potato holder.
This surface is rough and grinds off the skins
ELECTRIC BENCH DRILL
of the tubers as they are thrown against
it by the centrifugal force.
POTATO PEELER
4SG
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Fancy Decorative Lamps
European manufacturers are particularly
skilled in the production of novelties of all
kinds and their artistic creations extend into
the field of lamp making. The Fletcher-
FANCY DECORATIVE LAMPS
Stanley Company are importers of a large
number of pretty designs. The miniature
lamps are made in various shapes and have
the appearance of blackberries, mushrooms,
pears, chestnut burrs, English walnuts,
acorns, etc., as shown in the illustration.
Desk Lamp Used As a Portable
An attractive electric desk or table lamp
which may be readily converted into a port-
able is here illustrated in the Federal couch
bracket. The shade and base are of heavy
cast brass neatly finished and the adjustable
handle allows the lamp to be hung up as
shown, over the head of the bed, making
a very convenient light for reading at night.
Eight feet of sLk cord and a plug for con-
necting to a near-by socket complete the
outfit.
A New Arc Lamp
DESK LAMP AS PORTABLE
The Tungsten arc is one of the most
modern appliances for lighting with tungsten
filament lamps. This device illustrated
herewith was developed recently to meet the
demand for an appliance to replace the
ordinary arc lamp. These are now made in
various styles to suit special purposes and
can be fitted for almost
any candle power de-
sired.
The type of lamp
shown in the accom-
panying illustration is
the product of the
George Cutter Com-
pany and is intended
primarily for lighting
factories, offices and
store fronts. It con-
sists of a cast iron cas-
ing similar to that of an
ordinary arc lamp to
which is fastened a
globe. The whole is
supported by a high
voltage insulator with a
metal ring. The ring may be replaced by
an iron pipe for suspending from the ceiling
or for inner- wired brackets. Tungsten lamps
are supported within the metal casing and
wired for series or multiple circuits. The
casing is large enough to contain a trans-
former when it is not convenient to operate
the lamps at the voltage delivered.
The expense of replacing ordinary arc
lamps with tungsten arcs is small. The
beautiful white light produced by the tung-
sten filament lamps is more like daylight than
any other kind of artificial light and the
power consumed is very small.
487
Tungsten Bracket Fixtures
While about equal to arc lamps in the
amount of light furnished for a given amount
of electrical energy, tungsten lamps offer
the advantage that this same amount of
TUNGSTEN BRACKET FIXTURE
light can be distributed in four or five units
along the block, instead of having the light
all concentrated at the corner. This makes
the street lighting more uniform and avoids
the deep shadows common with the corner
arc lamps. Each tungsten lamp is usually
supported by a bracket fixture with a re-
flector to scatter the light widely, as in our
cut of a. type made by the Ajax Line Ma-
terial Company of Chicago.
Automobile Trouble Lamp
It is usually an easy matter for the auto-
mobilist to determine whether trouble in his
machine can be easily remedied once the
trouble is located, but to find what is the
AUTOMOBILE TROUBLE LAMP
matter, especially in the evening, is oiten
impossible without a light. The illustration
shows the Vesta trouble lamp. By attaching
the ends of the flexible cord to the sparking
battery the lamp may be used to light up any
part of the machine. A guard prevents the
little lamp from breaking if it is dropped or
hit and the coil of spring wire on the end of
the handle protects the insulation of the
wires by guarding against a sharp bend.
Vertical Carbon Flaming Arc
The flaming arc lamp is one of the most
efficient lights yet developed since it is
capable of penetrating fog and smoke and
withstands bad weather conditions. The
General Electric vertical carbon lamp is
made for direct current circuits and can be
installed on circuits supplying 6.6 amperes
without the usual large and wasteful re-
sistance. A light opal globe, a diffuser,
and a substantial copper casing in two parts
make unnecessary the removal of the entire
case in trimming. The lamp burns about
20 hours with one trim, giving an average of
2,800 candle-power.
488
A Dainty Table Lamp
A very graceful design in the way of a
hall or desk lamp is afforded in the inexpen-
sive Federal electrolier. The heart-shaped
base and stem are finished in brushed brass
and a frosted glass globe is attached to the
lamp which may be tilted to any desired
angle. An attachment plug and silk cord
are furnished with the lamp.
DAINTY TABLE LAMP
Portable Wardrobe Lights
Probably no other place suffers more from
lack of a convenient light than the clothes
closet or wardrobe. Candles and matches
are most objectionable. In fact, 454 fires
occurred last year in the City of Chicago from
WARDROBE LIGHT
"carelessness with matches." The Federal
wardrobe light here shown is designed with
the double purpose of eliminating the dangei
from fire and providing a convenient light.
The socket is made with a ring at the top
for hanging the lamp on a wall plate hook
furnished with it. A wire guard may be
provided around the lamp in cases where it is
liable to be left lighted and in contact with
clothing or other combustible material.
Whirling Window Sign
The fakir on the street corner fumbling
a pocket handkerchief as the crowd gathers
to watch his actions and satisfy their curi-
osity as to what is to come next demonstrates
what electric sign manufacturers are just
beginning to put into practice — the power of
motion, or its semblance, to attract.
The Reco whirler here illustrated con-
sists of a substantial arm and lamps secured
WHIRLING WINDOW SIGN
to a shaft which is revolved rapidly by. a
small motor. By placing one red and one
green lamp in the device and operating it,
a very pleasing rainbow effect is produced.
Back of the whirling portion a metal frame
affords a support for a lettered sign, the
whole offering a neat show window attraction.
489
Ornamental Posts for Tungsten Lamps
During the last few years
civic pride has shown itself in
the decorative street lighting
systems of our large cities.
Boulevards and private drive-
ways have been beautified as
well as illuminated and the
business districts have been
greatly improved by the in-
stallations of cluster lighting
systems. In many of the
small cities and suburban
towns private installations have
been made.
The fixture shown in the
accompanying illustration is
a cast iron pole of artistic
design and especially adapted
for tungsten cluster illumina-
tion. The middle globe is
ORNAMENTAL LAMP POST
13 feet from the ground and
the lower globes n feet. The
pole is bolted to a ground
section which makes the fix-
ture rigid.
Forty of these artistically
designed lamp posts were
recently installed in the retail
district of South Bend, In-
diana. They were designed
with the idea of having the
proper distribution of light,
decorative effect at night and
an artistic appearance by day.
These are the requirements
for good designs for street
illumination, whether with
tungsten lamps or any other
illuminant, and those at South
Bend fill the bill.
ELECTRIC HEAT
Electric Hair Drier
Hair dressing establishments now employ
electric hair driers., and the American type
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ELECTRIC
HAIR
DRIER
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here shown is unique among them. As
shown, it is a sort of tall can of the right
height to be placed back of an ordinary
chair and holds the tresses as the head is
tilted back. In the bottom of the recep-
tacle are a number of electric heating ele-
ments and of course the hot air rises from
these and takes the moisture out of the hair
in a short time. A wire screen prevents,
the hair from coming into contact with the
heaters.
Sterilizing Surgical Instruments
In these days of modern surgery the pa-
tient is prepared for an operation in the most
painstaking manner — by careful scrubbing
and wrapping in sheets and bandages. The
surgeon washes and re-washes himself a
dozen times and then appears in the opera-
ting room like a ghost in his grotesque head
wrappings and white garments. In keeping
with all these other precautions it is of course
necessary that the instruments be made
absolutely sterile by boiling and the use of
antiseptic solutions. For this purpose an
electric instrument sterilizer is often used,
and has many advantages.
490
The American instrument sterilizer
is made with steel-clad heating elements
attached directly to the bottom, and
all the other parts are of aluminum.
Inside the outer casing is a perforated
tray -which holds the instruments.
There are three heats available. The
maximum one brings the water to a
boil very quickly, and the minimum
heat is sufficient to keep the water
boiling continuously.
A Fireless Cookstove
The electric stove here shown, called
the "Comet," is built in various styles
and s;zes, and with it you can boil, bake,
at the left and is in the form of a double
plug. At the right is snap switch which
controls the current.
roast, fry or do anything possible with the
ordinary wood, coal or gas stove at a fraction
of the cost for fuel and with no more trouble
than the turning on of an ordinary electric
light.
The standard two-oven stove stands 18
inches high, is 24 inches long by 13 wide,
and is beautifully finished in white enamel,
making it not only an ornament to the
kitchen but suitable for the small flat or
apartment where it can be used as a window
seat even while in use. The thorough in-
sulation prevents any heat reaching the outer
surface, while the close-locked covers prevent
any odors of cooking escaping into the room.
Each oven is fitted with a four-quart alu-
minum pot with sunken cover, and the out-
fit is equipped with the necessary attachment
to connect the stove to the regular electric
light socket. This attachment is shown
Warming Pad
The electric warming pad takes the place
of the ordinary troublesome and cumber-
some hot water bottle. A snap of the
switch accomplishes the same results as
running to and fro heating water and get-
ting the hot-water bag ready. The Amer-
ican pad is furnished ready for use, with
10 feet of cord, switch and lamp socket
attachment plug. The heating element is
in the form of a fabric, and the outer
covering, which is removable and wash-
able, is either of eider down or rubber
cloth.
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491
Luminous Radiator
The new Detroit lumin-
ous radiator, made by the
American Electrical Heater
Company, is a portable
fire place, without fire but
with all its advantages.
It is suitable for drawing
rooms, staterooms, hall-
ways, bathrooms, cold
corners in offices, etc. The
heat is derived from large
frosted lamps made . in
LUMINOUS RADIATOR
tubular form. Behind the
hot lamps is a polished
copper reflector which
throws the heat out into
the room. Thus the heat
is by radiation rather than
circulation. The lumin-
ous elements (lamps) are
made for a consumption
of either 250 or 500 watts
to each lamp. They are
somewhat similar to or-
dinary incandescent lamps,
very much elongated.
'''*'*swsss>.j.i-
Electric Sealing Wax Heater
the pot. It has a maximum capacity of
three pounds, and is arranged for three
In express offices, banks, shipping depart- degrees of heat control,
ments, stores, and busi-
ness establishments of
all kinds, sealing wax is
used freely in making
up packages. The G.
E. wax heater here
shown is fitted with a
removable sheet metal
cover, the surface of
which slopes downward
to a center hole which
provides access [to the
melted wax. This
feature of design also
allows all drippings
to drain back into
WBBNmB
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SEALING WAX HEATER
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492
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Electroplating Machine
Time and labor may be saved in electro-
plating shops by using a machine for small
work, similar to the one shown in the il-
lustration. Instead of hanging the small
articles independently in the plating bath
they are dumped promiscuously into the
ELECTROPLATING MACHINE
revolving cage, which is situated between a
number of anodes. The cage is perforated
so that the electrolyte may fill it and is kept
constantly revolving during the process. The
machine is made by Hanson & Van Winkle.
Breaking the Circuit in Oil
When a dynamo is delivering current to a
line suppose the line becomes short circuited,
that is, an unusually easy path is inserted,
by accident or otherwise, through which a
large amount of current may pass. The
dynamo then becomes "overloaded" in
trying to make current fast enough and
danger to the apparatus may arise. To
protect the apparatus what is called a circuit-
breaker is inserted in the line, which opens
automatically upon a certain given load.
Some of these circuit-breakers open the
line inside of a bath of oil and no flash
occurs. The picture will give you an idea
of what a Westinghouse oil circuit-breaker
looks like from the outside. On the lever
at the right are suspended six contacts,
down underneath the oil in the tank. When
you set the circuit-breaker by pulling down
the lever at the left, these contacts are drawn
up and meet six others, closing the two sides
of the line. When the current gets too
strong an electro-magnet trips the breaker.
Centrifugal Hair Drier
A small centrifugal fan similar in design
to the ordinary forge blower, driven by
a motor of 1-20 horse-power and embodying
CENTRIFUGAL HAIR DRIER
a heating element to raise the temperature
of the discharged air are the elements which
comprise the new G. E. hair drier. The
heating element is so situated as to affect
the air just as it leaves the nozzle and a
steady stream of hot air is secured.
493
Combined Telephone and Time
Service
Nearly every business office now-a-days
is supplied with an electric clock which does
not require winding or regulating and al-
ways indicates standard time. This is a
special service, however, and requires spe-
cial wires. Thus it occurred to telephone
m a nuf acturers
to get out a
clock whereby
this time ser-
vice might be
given by the
telephone com-
panies along
with the tele-
phone service,
making use of
the regular
telephone
wires. The
picture here-
with shows the
combined tele-
phone and
clock of the1
Swedish-Amer-
ican Telephone
Company.
There is no
master clock
necessary for
its operation — no extra wires; just the
ordinary telephone wires, whether the cir-
cuit be grounded, common-return or metallic.
COMBINED TELEPHONE
AND CLOCK
The Automatic Flagman
A newly invented device for use as a safety
appliance at crossings of highway and trolley
lines consists of a large disk suspended like
a pendulum from a steel support, on the
top of which is installed a regular trolley
car bell. The disk bears the words "Look
Out," while at night two white lights at the
top of the pole serve to light the crossing and
a red light illuminates the center of the disk.
Two rails 1,500 feet each way along the
track are arranged so that the wheels of the
approaching cars form an electric contact
causing a small motor to swing the disk back
and forth. A. C. Hunt is the inventor of
the system.
Polarity Indicator
A simple instrument to determine the
polarity of a direct current is made by the
Witherbee Igniter Company. It is a small
cylindrical arrangement with connectors at
each end. which are attached to the circuit,
the polarity of which is to be determined.
POLARITY INDICATOR
The current then flows through a glass tube
containing a liquid. When the current has
passed through for a moment the solution
turns red at one end of the tube. This end
indicates the negative pole of the circuit.
This is a practical instrument where storage
batteries are to be charged, as in automobile
garages.
; :
:- ■ ■;■:.-' -.■-.:. , :'
THE AUTOMATIC FLAGMAN
494
Light Rays Penetrate the Body
An eminent physician says that we must
look to electrical forces and animal serums in
the future to cure many diseases that are now-
classed as incurable. The power of the
sunlight bath to drive out the germ of tuber-
culosis has led to the use of the electric or
"therapeutic arc lamp" as it is called as an
effective substitute for the sun. There are
many who might be inclined to believe that
rays from an arc lamp stop on the surface of
the body in the form of heat or are reflected
by the skin. Both of these actions do occur
THERAPEUTIC LIGHT TREATMENT
but physicians agree also that light pene-
trating the tissues is there turned into heat
and stimulates the nerves and congested or
ailing internal organs.
An interesting test, in which the rays from
a powerful arc lamp were used to show that
light rays are capable of penetrating the body,
was made by Doctors Gottheil and Franklin.
Already-developed negatives were taken
and on one side of each a sensitive film
these plates, one at a time, were then placed
with the negative side next to the skin of the
body of a subject in a dark room, and a black
cloth added as a cover to the plate so that
light could now reach the plate only by
passing through the subject's body. When
all was ready the subject was seated in front
of the arc and the light directed through the
body toward the plate on the other side of it.
Exposures of from ten to thirty minutes were
taken on several plates, the image of the
negative being printed more or less distinctly
on the film, the following conclusion being
reached:
Light in proper concentration from a
source of sufficient actinic power, can be
made to penetrate the entire thickness of the
human body including both surfaces of the
skin; hence all the internal organs are
accessible to its influence.
The Straight-Away Lightning Rod
One of the most commonly accepted
theories about lightning is its tendency to
follow a straight path. In fact the ground
wire from an arrester is always where possi-
ble run to ground without kinks or turns.
The old lightning rod with which we are
most familiar contains a number of spiral
grooves, and considering this as against a
straight path, a United States weather bulle-
tin says, "Sharp turns and spiral windings
present hindrances and cause lateral dis-
charges." Following this common sense
way of looking at the matter the straight-
away lightning rod shown in the illustration
fullfils conditions not found in the spiral
variety. The conductor is a cable made
up of a number of bundles of copper wires.
These bundles are held together by metallic
holders in such a way as to allowr air space
LIGHTNING ROD OF COPPER STRANDS
applied and fastened along the edges by
paste and tape. A thick black paper was
then laid on over the film so that the only
possible way for light to act upon it was
through the negative, in which case a picture
would be printed upon the film. Several of
between each bundle and its neighbor.
The Ohio Lightning Rod Company whc
manufacture this rod believe the absence ol
twists and spiral windings make the device
a much safer conductor than the old twisted
type.
Electric Lighting for Automobiles
The accompanying diagrams show a very
simple and convenient way to wire an auto-
mobile for electric lights so that various volt-
age lamps and batteries may be used, the
six-volt battery being the most common.
The plan with the necessary materials
is furnished by the Stuart-Howland Com-
pany. The permanent wiring on the car
consists of two small flush receptacles in
the dash near the side lamps and one in the
back of the car near the tail lamp. The
t;3i
METHOD OF LIGHTING AUTOMOBILES
twin wire from each of the three receptacles
is connected to a double-pole snap switch
which should be placed in a concealed posi-
tion under the seat where it cannot be tam-
pered with, as it is not used to light or ex-
tinguish the lamps. The twin wire from the
battery is also connected into this same switch
— thus avoiding all soldering.
From the receptacles any style of electric
lamp may be plugged in. With the double-
pole switch on the "off" position, Fig. 2,
the wiring is arranged for series lamps, while
with the switch in the "on" position any
multiple lamp which will match the voltage
of the battery can be used. The advantages,
however, are greatly in favor of the series
lamps for if three of the two-volt lamps be
used, the total current consumption will be
but three-fourths of an ampere, as against
three to five amperes in the multiple system,
495
and the series arrangement has the additional
advantage of instantly notifying the driver
when the tail lamp becomes extinguished,
since the side lights also go out immediately.
The single-pole switch in the battery cir-
cuit enables the driver to light or turn off
his lamps without stopping the car.
Ear Drum Massage
Application of vibration to ailing or weak
parts of the body as a means of rousing them
to healthy activity is made possible by
massage instruments with which we are
nearly all familiar. An unusual and inter-
esting development of this treatment is
EAR DRUM MAS-
SAGE APPARA-
TUS
called "sound
massage" and
is applied to the
drum of the
ear. The two
telephone re-
ceivers of the
outfit, which is
made by the
Victor Electric Co., are worn over the ears,
are similar to the head-band receivers worn
by the operators in a telephone exchange.
By connecting these to a wail plate contain-
ing a coil and vibrator, loud and sharp or low
and soft sounds may be thrown upon the ear
drums with stimulating effect. Each re-
ceiver is regulated independently of the other
thus making it possible to apply stronger
treatment, if necessary, to one ear than to the
other.
496
Self- Winding Clock
Like the electric lamp and the automobile
the electric clock comes forward with the
claim that it is here to stay. The Imperial
clock requires no winding and operates for
a year at least on the energy from two dry
cells. Many of the delicate parts of spring
wound clocks are absent, a Weight on the
end of a lever supplying the needed power.
As this " winding arm" drops to a certain
point it closes an
electric circuit
and energizes an
electro -magnet.
This magnet, by
attracting its ar-
mature, pulls the
" winding arm"
up ready to
gradually fall
again, applying its
weight to running
the clock. This
"winding" occurs
at regular inter-
vals of seven or
eight minutes and
on this account
an electric clock
keeps better time
than a spring
clock in which
the spring is un-
der extreme ten-
sion when first
wound and under slight stress before time
to wind it again.
SELF-WINDING CLOCK
Electric Heaters for Chicken Food
The old joke about the efficiency of electric
lights in making hens lay egg-sactly twice as
often by getting them to think that night is
day, keeps going the rounds and finding new
hearers. Mean-
while electricity
, is proving a real
f^Z,.„ tSffi/WLMMBEPV- '~M aid to chicken
raisers aside
from its well-
known application to incubators, namely
as a means for warming food and drink.
It is easier to enclose a pair of wires so that
no chicken's claws can damage them than
it is to arrange any sort of lamp or stove so
that it will neither smoke nor upset under the
ordinary conditions of the chicken farm.
The amount of heat required to take the chill
off either bran or water is quite small, and the
result is not
only an in-
crease in the
rate of laying,
but also a pre-
vention of ail-
ments tnat can
be traced di-
rectly to the
eating of frozen
food. In either
case the vessel
h o 1 d ing the
food or drink can be separable from the base
containing the heating coil, and where only a
part of the liquid is exposed, the heat can be
concentrated on this portion so as to keep
the current used down to an almost nominal
amount.
ELECTRIC CHICKEN
FOOD HEATER
Electric Auto Horn
The automobile enthusiast will appreciate a
signal horn which does not require removal
ELECTRIC AUTO HORN
of his hand from the steering wheel. Such
a device is the Mesco electric signal horn of
the Manhattan Electrical Supply Co. which
consists of a buzzer equipment made up of
four electromagnets. A specially made push
button and flexible cord make it possible to
attach the button to the rim or a spoke of the
steering wheel, leaving both hands at the
wheel in case of sudden danger or emergency.
The Passing of the "Dead Man*
Wherever a pole line changes direction or
is apt to be subjected to severe strain it
becomes the duty of one or two men to
"bury a dead man," and those to whom this
work falls are often the mark for many a jest
as they are frequently behind the main
crew and the job takes time. The dead
man consists of a log buried six or eight feet
in the soil and having an iron rod passing
through it to which the guy wire is attached.
Various better methods are now employed
one of which, the Crouse Hinds harpoon
497
guy anchor, is here illustrated. Four-
hinged blades allow the anchor to be driven
into the soil but any attempt to withdraw
the anchor as when the guy wire is tightened
THE OLD STYLE DEAD MAN
spreads the wings against the surrounding
undisturbed earth in the manner shown,
resisting the pull. A heavy sledge is the
only tool needed to install it.
ANCHOR FOLDED
ANCHOR SPREAD
498
A Vibrating Chair
One of the unique applications of the
vibratory principle as a therapeutic stimulant
is the vibrating chair. After the ordinary
vibrator had been pretty well developed
and of recognized value some one conceived
the idea of extending its application so as
to make a chair in which the subject is
A VIBRATING CHAIR
sitting vibrate, thus giving the whole body
a stimulating treatment instead of only some
local part. Such a vibrating chair is shown
in the picture and is the product of the
Lindstrom, Smith Company. In this in-
stance it is operated by batteries contained
in a neat case with the necessary switches
for the control of the vibrator motor.
Electric Vibration
The electric vibrator for home use is no
longer a fad but simply another one of the
electrical conveniences that were once a
luxury and now of common use. Vibration
has certain well known stimulating and
soothing properties frequently employed for
therapeutic purposes and, besides, vibratory
massage can be employed to put off that day
of crows feet and wrinkles which is dreaded
by most people. The Swedish electric
vibrator here shown contains a perfect little
motor which will operate on either direct or
alternating current. The power of this
motor is suf-
fi c i e n t to
give a very
strong and
positive ac
tion to the
stem which
carries the
vibrating
attachments
of which
there are a
number o f
different
forms for
facial mas-
sage, scalp
treatment
and treatment of the more deep-seated
muscles and nerve centers.
NEW TYPE OF THE
MOTOR VIBRATOR
Ozonizer With Fan Electrodes
One of the essential features of the Vohr
ozonizer of the Standard Electro-Utilities
Company is the use of a small electrically
driven fan as an electrode. This is the
second, or inner, fan shown in illustration,
OZONIZER WITH FAN ELECTRODES
where the outer fan is simply a suction-fan
to help pull the air through the ozonizer.
This inner fan constitutes one electrode of
the apparatus. Surrounding it is a ring of
glass six inches in diameter and 2J inches
wide. On the outer surface of this ring, or
annulus, is placed a metal band, which is
the other electrode.
Elementary Electricity
By PROF. EDWIN J. HOUSTON, A. M., PH. D. (Princeton)
CHAPTER XXX. — ELECTRIC ARC LIGHTING
The light of the electric arc lamp is pro-
duced by the passage of current between
pieces of carbon generally in the shape of
short pencils or rods. The pencils are first
brought into contact and then gradually
separated. If a suitable current and electro-
motive force are employed, a brilliant arc
or bow called the voltaic carbon arc, pro-
ducing light closely resembling that of sun-
light in its color values, will be established
between the two carbons.
The voltaic arc produces the most intense
artificial light known. This is owing to the
fact that the formation of the arc is attended
by the production of a cloud of carbon vapor
between the electrodes. This vapor is
raised to an incandescence far above any
temperature possible in any of the in-
candescent electric lamps that have been
described in a preceding chapter; for this
temperature is probably about 63320 F.,
the temperature at which carbon is volatil-
ized.
With reference to the direct current arc,
during the maintenance of the arc the in-
tensely hot carbons are gradually consumed
or burned by oxidation by the air. Besides
this, the positive carbon, or that from which
the current passes, is volatilized. For this
reason the rate of consumption of the posi-
tive carbon is greater than that of the nega-
tive, the difference being about two to one.
If the voltaic arc be examined through a
colored glass, since the light is too intense
to permit it to be safely examined directly,
it will be seen that after the arc has been
established for some time, a change occurs
in the shape of the carbons. The positive
carbon is hollowed out in a small crater or
cavity at its free end, while the negative
carbon, or that into which the current
passes, is provided at its free end with a
small hillock. The hillock on the negative
carbon as well as the crater in the positive
carbon consist of practically pure graphite.
What has occurred is as follows: The
positive carbon is much hotter than the
negative. Under the intense heat produced
by the passage of the current- the extremity
of the positive carbon, or at least that part
out from which the current passes, is volatil-
ized, thus leaving a tiny crater. 1 he carbon
vapor fills the gap or space between the two
carbons and constitutes the medium through
which the electric current passes. At the
same time the carbon vapor is raised in tem-
perature to the high incandescence produced
by a temperature near the boiling point of
carbon. When the glowing carbon vapor
reaches the relatively cooler surface of the
negative carbon, it is condensed on it and
assumes the form of graphite or plumbago.
Since the light emitted by a. heated body
increases rapidly with its temperature, the
crater in the positive carbon forms the prin-
cipal source of the light of the direct current
carbon arc. Consequently, an arc lamp
emits more li3ht in a direction away from the
crater than in any other direction, so that,
when the light is employed for the illumina-
tion of extended areas, such as streets, yards,
etc., the upper carbon is made the positive
carbon, for, it is in the upper carbon that the
crater is formed at which the greatest amount
of light is produced.
The two carbons employed in arc lamps
are placed in a variety of positions, with
respect to each other. Generally they are
FIG.
I93. RELATION OF CARBONS IN
VARIOUS ARC LAMPS
placed one above the other as shown at (A)
in Fig. 193. At times they are placed
slightly inclined to one another shown at
(B). When employed in searchlight the
carbon arc is placed in front of lenses for
the purpose of obtaining an approximately
parallel beam of light. They are then
placed as shown at (C).
500
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Since during the operation of an arc
lamp the carbons are gradually consumed,
suitable mechanism must be provided for
maintaining the carbons a constant distance
apart; otherwise the lamp would be extin-
guished from the distance between the car-
bons becoming so great that the arc could not
be maintained. In order to do this the lamp
is provided with mechanism for feeding
the carbons.
In all the ordinary forms of arc lamps,
in which the carbons are placed vertically
one over the other, only one carbon is
fed. This is the upper or positive carbon.
When the lamp is provided with full sized
carbons the arc at starting is nearer the top
of the lamp globe. After maintaining an
arc for a fairly considerable length, the arc
will be found nearer the bottom of the
globe. This makes but little difference for
the ordinary arc lamps, but this is not the
case where the lamp is employed for search-
lights or projectors, since here in order to
obtain an approximately parallel beam of
light the arc must be kept approximately at
the focus of the lens, and to do this both
carbons must be fed. Since the positive
carbon is consumed about twice as rapidly
as the negative the rate of feeding of the
positive carbon is necessarily about twice as
rapid as that of the negative.
It was Humphrey Davy who first exhibited
on a large scale the beauties of the carbon
voltaic arc. He did this by causing the cur-
rent of a large voltaic battery to pass between
two small pencils of hard carbon sawn from
the carbon produced in the retorts in which
illuminating gas is formed by the destructive
distillation of coal. This was in . 1809,
or some time after the invention by Volta
of the voltaic battery in 1796.
The splendid illumination produced by the
carbon voltaic arc resulted in the produc-
tion of many excellent forms of lamp mech-
anisms capable of maintaining the carbons
the required distance apart. Although many
of these lamps were well constructed, and
were capable of efficient operation, yet none
of them were employed commercially, owing
to the fact that the voltaic batteries were
unable economically to produce the current
required. As in the case of the electric
motors the systems of arc lighting were
obliged to wait their fuller development,
until the dynamo was capable of producing
the large currents necessary for their com-
mercial operation.
Among some of the improved forms of
arc lamps that followed the improvement
of the dynamo-electric machine by Gramme
end others was the Jablohkoff arc lamp or
candle. This was an exceedingly simple
device consisting as it did of two slender
rods or pencils of carbon placed side by
side and parallel to each other but prevented
from coming in contact by a small quantity
of kaolin placed between them. The voltaic
arc was struck or formed between the ends
of the carbons by a small quantity of car-
bonaceous material known as the igniter,
placed between them at the upper ends.
On the passage of the current this material
was volatilized, thus establishing the arc.
Since, however, the positive carbon is con-
sumed twice as rapidly as the negative,
candles so arranged were soon extinguished
from the distance between the carbons
becoming too great for the current to pass.
Jablohkoff and others spent considerable
thought in improving this form of arc
lamp. By omitting the kaolin between the
pencils and separating them by an air space
only it was easy to start the arc by bringing
the carbons together and then separating
them the required distance by the action of
an electro-magnet. Then, too, the difficulty
arising from the unequal consumption of
the carbons was avoided by using alternating
electric currents. With such currents each
carbon would alternately become positive
and negative so that the two would be
maintained the same length during con-
sumption.
The pencils employed in the Jablohkoff
candles were comparatively slender, so that
a pair of carbons was soon consumed. In
order to maintain the light for a number of
hours it was necessary to place a number of
separate pair of candles in the same globe
with a device that automatically shifted
the current from one candle to the other
as soon as one became extinguished.
The Jablohkoff electric candle is no longer
employed, having been replaced by the
cheaper light of the enclosed arc lamps.
There are various ways of employing
arc lamps for the illumination of large areas
and factories. These consist practically
of circuits in which the lamps are placed
either in series or in multiple.
In series arc circuits the current passes
successively through each lamp. The length
of such circuits may be from 15 to 20 miles
and the number of lamps connected with a
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
501
single circuit may be ioo or more. When
each lamp requires a pressure of 45 volts
and a current of about 10 amperes, the
dynamo, or as it is called, a series arc light
generator, must be able to produce a pressure
at its terminals of at least 4,500 volts, and,
as we have seen in the chapter on dynamos,
in order to maintain constant the current
strength of 10 amperes, there must be pro-
vided some regulating device whereby the
line voltage may be increased in proportion
to the number of additional lamps introduced
into the circuit, or decreased in proportion
to the number removed from the circuit.
Arc lamps are also connected in multiple
or parallel to constant-potential mains.
Here, dynamos must be employed that are
capable of increasing the current in propor-
tion to the number of lamps introduced into
the circuit, or decreasing it in proportion
to the number of lamps removed from the
circuit, and this without affecting the pres-
sure on the line.
In the early history of arc lighting con-
siderable difficulty was experienced in pro-
ducing a lamp mechanism that would main-
FIG. I94. ARRANGEMENT OF THE DIFFER-
ENTIAL ARC LAMP
tain, the two carbons a constant distance
apart notwithstanding their consumption
during use. 1 his important problem was
finally solved in 1885, by the invention of
what is known as the differential arc lamp.
This mechanism, as shown diagramatically
in Fig. 194, consists of two separate electro-
magnets placed in the feeding mechanism of
the lamp. One is a series magnet (M),
placed in the main circuit. The other is
a shunt magnet (S), placed in a shunt or
derived circuit around the arc. The series
magnet is wound with a few turns of coarse
wire, the shunt magnet with many turns of
fine wire. Since the resistance of the shunt
magnet is many hundreds of times greater
than that of the series magnet when the lamp
is started the greater proportion of the cur-
rent flows through the series magnet. When,
however, by consumption, the distance be-
tween the carbons is increased the resistance
of the circuit increasing permits a greater
proportion of the current to flow through
the shunt magnet. As soon as this increase
of current reaches a certain point some
simple feeding device, generally a clutch,
acting directly on the rod that holds the
upper carbon, permits it to drop. As the
distance between the upper and the lower
carbon is thus decreased the resistance de-
creases, more current flows through the
series magnet, the upper carbon is fed
towards the lower carbon and the constant
distance is thus maintained.
The carbons employed for most arc lamps
are approximately 12 inches in length and
five-eighths of an inch in diameter. In an
ordinary 10-ampere, 45- volt lamp, such
carbons will last about 10 hours. When
protected by electro-plating with copper they
will last for about 14 hours. During the
winter months the number of hours the
lamps must be kept in operation, from shortly
before or after sunset to sunrise the next
day, is longer than the time the carbons last,
so that in order to avoid the necessity of
recarboning the lamps, or supplying them
with fresh carbons various devices known
as all-night lamps are necessary. In some
of these a greater length of life is given
to the carbons by making them in the shape
of two rectangular plates, placed vertically
over one another, the lower being fixed
and the upper movable. As in the case of
the ordinary lamp, the arc is struck between
them by the action of a series magnet and
the carbons are fed by the action of a shunt
magnet. Nearly all that can be said in
favor of this form of all-night lamp is that
it is cheap. It is far from satisfactory as
regards steadiness, since the arc is apt to
travel from one part of the carbon plate to
another, disappearing mysteriously from
one place and appearing at the opposite
place in a very annoying manner that tends
to keep one guessing when it will next ap-
pear.
A far more satisfactory form of all-night
lamp is known as the Brush carbon all-night
lamp. This consists of two pairs of carbon,
and is therefore called a double-carbon
lamp. The carbons are so arranged that
the current is automatically switched from
one pair to the other as soon as one pair
has been completely consumed. This lamp
is admirable in its operation.
502
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
In the early days of arc lighting and in-
deed not so long ago the caroons were sur-
rounded by a glass globe open at both top
and bottom. Ihe globe was employed for
the purpose of protecting the arc from winds
which would result in unsteadiness, as well
as to ensure their less rapid combustion.
The form of lamp known as the open air
lamp has been replaced by an enclosed arc
lamp.
In the enclosed arc lamp a small air-tight
inner globe capable of withstanding a high
FIG I95. ENCLOSED ARC LAMP
temperature is made to surround the arc,
as shown in Fig. 195, and is itself surrounded
by a larger glass globe. The inner globe
is of an ellipsoidal or egg-shape. After
burning for five or six minutes, the inner
globe becomes filled with carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide which not only decreases
the rapidity of consumption of the carbon
but also shortens the length of the arc and
permits a higher pressure to be employed
without greatly increasing the actual length
of the arc.
Ihe decrease in the rate of consumption
is sufficiently marked to cause a pair of
ordinary carbons to last from 80 to 125
hours instead of the 10 hours for bare car-
bons and 14 hours for electro-plated carbons.
Moreover, in the enclosed arc lamp the dis-
tribution of the light is far more satisfactory
than in the old open arc lamp. This is due
largely to the fact that the inner globes
are made of opal glass which thus ensures
a more general diffusion of the light.
Even with the best construction and opera-
tion of the lamp mechanism a variation in
the intensity of the light emitted by the
voltaic arc is noticeable. For the greater
part this nickering or unsteadiness is caused
by changes in the position of the crater at
the end of the positive carbon. It is also
due to impurities in the carbon. The purer
therefore the carbons the less will be the
shifting of the arc due to a change in the
amount of vapor produced from time to
time. As soon as during their consumption
the softer portions of the carbon are reached,
a greater amount of carbon vapor will be
produced. The arc will therefore tend to
shift its position to the part containing the
softer portions. The greater the area of
cross-section of the carbons, the greater the
probable shifting, so that an advantage is
gained by burning thinner carbons. 1 here
is a practical limit, however, in the extent
to which the carbons can be decreased in
diameter owing to the more rapid consump-
tion of the thinner carbons.
A great improvement in the steadiness of
the light is obtained by the use of what are
known as cored carbons. These consist
of carbons the cores of which are formed by
softer materials than the rest of the carbons.
The use of cored carbon ensures a steadiness
of the light because the greater amount of
carbon vapor being liberated from the core
ensures the fixing of the crater at the core
of the carbon.
There are other causes of unsteadiness of
the arc light, such as those due to the im-
proper operation of the generators, but these
difficulties are now so well understood that
it is not necessary to refer to them.
Arc lamps are now frequently fed by
alternating currents both from constant-
current mains and constant-potential mains.
No positive crater and opposing negative
hillock are formed on the carbons of alter-
nating-current lamps, as each carbon is
alternately positive and negative.
Since the arc tends to be extinguished
with each reversal it might be supposed
that the use of alternating currents for arc
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
503
lamps would be attended by a marked
flickering. Indeed with low frequencies
there is a marked unsteadiness especially
at a frequency of thirty-five periods or double
reversals per second. As, however, the
frequency increases, this unsteadiness dis-
appears until when 60 cycles per second is
reached alternating current arcs produce
a light that is far steadier than direct-
current arcs.
A little thought will explain the cause of
the apparent inconsistency that an arc lamp
in which the arc is actually extinguished
at practically each reversal of current is
able to produce a light free from the most
marked flickerings. The explanation is
found in the fact that the sensation pro-
(The
duced on the retina of the human eye by
light tends to persist or continue after the
disappearance of the light. Consequently,
although the light is extinguished so far as
the arc is concerned, its luminous effects
continue on the retina, so that long before
the intensity of illumination has died out
sufficiently to be noticeable the arc has again
been re-established. The result is that the
rapid successions of lightings and re-light-
ings produce an average effect on the eye
that results in a light far steadier than that
of the direct-current arc; for, the smaller
variations in intensity or flickerings due to
the travelling of the arc are lost in the
greater differences due to the excessive
extinguishments and re-lightings.
End.)
Where Electricity Stands in the Practice
of Medicine
By NOBLE M. EBERHART, A. M., M. S., M. D.
CHAPTER X. — ELECTRO-DIAGNOSIS
The many uses to which electricity has
been placed in enabling us to recognize
abnormal or diseasesd conditions merit a
chapter devoted to them.
The most astonishing use of electricity for
diagnostic purposes is, of course, the X-ray.
To be able with the fluoroscope to see the
fragments of a broken bone, or a needle,
bullet or similar foreign body is seemingly
miraculous. With the photographic plate
this condition is shown better than with the
fluoroscope and is in a form to be consulted
by the physician when setting the fracture or
removing the foreign body.
So valuable is the X-ray in these matters,
that today a physician would be culpably
negligent who failed to confirm or refute his
diagnosis of dislocation or fracture by means
of a radiograph (X-ray picture), provided
the same is accessible.
I have made many X-ray plates that
showed the most egregious blunders in
diagnosis, made by surgeons of skill and
reputation. These blunders do not reflect
upon the surgeon, because the thickness or
swelling of tissues, pain, etc., frequently
make an absolute diagnosis impossible.
But if the ray is available to the surgeon he
should not neglect to verify his diagnosis by
means of it or to have a picture taken after the
fig. I.
BROKEN FINGERS WHICH WERE
DIAGNOSED AS "SPRAIN"
bones have been replaced, in order to show
whether correctly done or not.
.504
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The importance of the point I make will
be appreciated by reference to Fig. i, where
the fractured fingers are immediately recog-
nized.
So simple a thing as a broken finger would
seem to permit of no mistake in diagnosis,
without the use of the X-ray, yet the case
shown had been treated for three weeks as a
"sprain" and when the picture was taken
the bones had united with the shortening
shown and still remain that way. An
earlier use of the ray would have saved
this deformity.
I might cite many similar cases if I had the
space.
At the same time I would not be doing
justice to the subject if I neglected mention-
ing that an incorrectly taken X-ray pic-
ture under certain circumstances may be
made to grossly exaggerate the condition
remaining in a fractured bone. For this
reason there is a growing belief that this
work should only be undertaken by an ex-
pert who has made a careful study of the
nature and use of the ray. In other words,
purchasing an X-ray machine mill not make
an X-ray expert any more than purchasing
a set of instruments will make a surgeon.
A great many people believe that with the
X-ray a physician can look inside of them
and see the condition of their internal organs
in the same manner that he would inspect
the tongue, or scrutinize any accessible
portion of the body.
This is an entirely erroneous idea, but it
has frequently been taken advantage of by
charlatans and fakers who pretend thus to
diagnose all forms of disease by the "instan-
taneous method." The_ patient has been
placed before the tube and the fluoroscope
passed over the body while the physician has
calmly announced the condition of the var-
ious organs, such as "Your stomach is a
little enlarged and has an ulcer on the lower
surface; the bile duct is too narrow, etc."
The X-ray shows superimposed shadows
corresponding to the varying density of
parts penetrated. Some successful results
have been obtained in showing the condition
of soft parts, but this is still in a largely
experimental stage and requires a skill
beyond that of the average operator. That
satisfactory pictures of soft parts will ulti-
mately be obtained I have no doubt, but it is
not uniformly accomplished now.
At the present time the principal diagnostic
value of the ray is limited to fractures, dis-
locations, the location of needles, bullets,
and other foreign bodies, and including a
reasonable percentage of cases where the
foreign body has formed in the system, as
in stone in the kidney, etc.
Another method of using the ray which is
being used extensively is the outlining of the
stomach and intestines, and also disease
channels, by making use of bismuth.
In stomach cases a "bismuth meal" is
taken and the bismuth being a metal and
opaque to the rays enables a picture to be
taken which clearly shows the size and
outline of the organ. By this same method
the movements of the stomach and the course
of the food in it have been observed and
studied and some of our previous views
revised accordingly.
The usual form of administering the
bismuth is in the form of a milk of bismuth,
composed of an ounce of the subnitrate or
carbonate mixed with a pint of milk. It
has also been satisfactorily employed when
mixed with apple sauce. Cases of poisoning
resulting from the use of impure bismuth
have been reported and arsenic-free bismuth
should be obtained.
This method of taking X-ray pictures has
been employed of late to show narrowing of
the pyloric end of the stomach, and also the
presence of cancer.
Reverting to the galvanic and faradic
currents, which formerly monopolized the
field of electro-diagnosis, I will outline
briefly the "Reaction of Degeneration,"
which is ordinarily expressed by the abbrevi-
ation R. D. This test was so named by Erb
and applies to the manner in which a muscle
contracts or fails to contract, when elec-
tricity is applied to it.
Normal muscles and nerves respond im-
mediately and promptly both to the direct and
interrupted current, but when involved by dis-
ease, or changes resulting therefrom, contract
sluggishly to galvanism and fail to react
at all to faradism. This is the reaction of
degeneration and may be complete or partial.
To go into the technique of the method of
taking the reaction of a muscle or nerve and
the various diseases indicated by the different
findings, is too technical for this general
paper and is found in any standard text-book
on nervous diseases or on general electro-
therapy.
One of the most interesting fields of
electro-diagnosis is that involving the use of
diagnostic lamps, employing the electric
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
505
light either for the direct or reflected illumi-
nation of cavities, and also by causing the
light to penetrate the tissues of the body
(trans- illumination) .
As an example of the first class we now
find in use by nose and throat specialists a
small lamp held in place on the head by a
spring clip, and attached by a conducting
cord to the nearest light socket. See Fig. 2.
Back of the lamp is a reflector while in front
FIG. 2. PHYSICIAN S HEAD LAMP
of it a lens concentrates the light and enables
the operator to focus it on a small area and
produce an intense illumination. This is
used for direct examination or in connection
with a mirror showing the reflection of parts
that cannot be observed directly, owing to
their location, as the vocal cords.
Another form of diagnostic lamp is shown
in Fig. 3, where an ordinary lamp acts as a
rheostat and interposes sufficient resistance
to permit the small lamp to be used on the
no volt current. The small lamp may be
used to illuminate various cavities.
With other forms these tiny incandescent
lamps have been introduced through tubes
into the stomach, the largest bronchial tubes,
the bladder, etc. In these cases its use has
been to afford a view through reflected light.
Another method of value is through the
use of trans-illumination by the passage of the
light through the parts examined.
If you wii take one of the little one or two
volt lamps and press your thumb on the
lighted bulb, you will find that it becomes
translucent and the light passes through so
readily that you would have no difficulty in
noting the presence of a sliver or bit of steel.
One of the first methods of using trans-
illumination was in the case of disease of the
antrum, a cavity in the upper jaw bone,
which is not infrequently the seat of infectious
processes which cause it to be filled with pus.
When there is no disease, the light held
against the roof of the mouth, penetrates
through bone and cheek readily, but -is
interfered with or stopped by the presence of
pus. A comparison with the antrum on the
other side shows the condition clearly.
In the frontispiece of the February number
of Popular Electricity is shown the
trans-illumination of the skull as employed to
FIG.
TURN-DOWN LAMP WHICH MAY
BE USED IN DIAGNOSIS
examine the retina of the eye from the back.
Vibration has been used for diagnostic
purposes to some slight degree, basing its
use on the fact that with an irritated or
diseased condition of an organ the nerve
centers controlling the same are found to be
tender and sensitive to vibration. This has
not been worked out to the point that it
possesses unquestioned utility, but it often
serves to clear up a point when other methods
are vague. For instance, tenderness of the
fifth to ninth dorsal centers on the right
side would indicate involvement of the liver.
On the left side, same centers, would refer
to the condition of the spleen.
(To be concluded.)
Talks With the Judge
WHY LIGHTS MAY FLICKER
"Why is it that the electric lights some-
times flicker or even go out for a moment?"
said the Judge. "I am not one of the kind
to put up a big holler every time a little
thing like that occurs, but still I want to
know. My wife asks me the reason every
time it happens and now, since we have the
automobile and I have let on that I know
everything about electricity because I can
juggle the battery wires, it keeps me busy
inventing reasons. She's beginning to catch
on that I don't know what I am talking
about half the time."
"Well, it's this way, Judge," I replied.
"When the electric lights sometimes grow
dim and hang like so many will-o'-the-wisps
to wreck our nerves, or go out all of a sudden
and leave us in a mood ready to say 'Oh,
pshaw,' or worse, we — or that is, those who
do not understand the workings of the elec-
tricity— not too mildly condemn the electric
is termed in electrical parlance, 'trouble on
the line.'
"Alternating electric current is the current
most generally used for lights and it is this kind
of current we will keep in mind. To deliver
electric current, two insulated copper wires
are run from the dynamo at the electric plant
to where the furthest electric light is to be
located. Here, this little pencil sketch will
help you to understand.
"Alternating electric current is generated
by the dynamo at the plant at a very high
voltage,, which means in the science of elec-
tricity, high pressure. This pressure is
usually about 2250 volts. This is too great
and too dangerous and besides it is too
impracticable to be used for lights in the
stores or dwellings, and to make it serviceable
for that purpose, it is reduced by a trans-
former that is placed on the line as near as
possible to where the current is to be used.
£k/nccmc
HOW THE WIRES RUN FROM POWER PLANT TO LAMPS
people from management down to the
engineer in charge, or. lay the trouble to the
machinery or dynamo.
"If we only knew and understood the
causes we would show more sympathy for the
manager and the men at the switchboard;
for they are more worried on such an occasion
than anyone else. At such times they are
called upon to locate the trouble which may
be at the farthest extent of the electric sys-
tem or at a short distance from where they
are, yet unknown to them ; and the dim and
blinking lights will stay dim or continue to
blink until this trouble is found and repaired.
No matter what amount of experience or abil-
ity there is at the electric plant, or what the
quality of strength of the machinery or dyna-
mo is, it will not prevent poor lights or keep
the lights burning so long as there is what
This transformer simply reduces the pressure
or voltage in keeping with the strength of the
common incandescent lamp which it is to
supply and which is generally made for 105
to no volts.
" If the two wires running from the dynamo
to the lamp, or any other lamps that might
branch off from- these two wires, should by
any cause get together inside of the house, it
would be what electricians call a 'short cir-
cuit' and It would melt out the fuses which
are placed on the lines on the inside of the
house generally where the wires enter the
building. These fuse's are nothing more
than small wires made of lead and tin or
aluminum, large enough to only carry the
amount of electricity that will be required of
the wires in the building. When a fixture
gets out of order or a lamp socket breaks and
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
507
thereby joins the two electric wires, the fuses
which are able to stand less heat than the
copper wire itself, melt, cutting the current
off from the premises. If this safeguard
were not put in and anything should cause the
wires to get together, they would heat up to
such a degree as to ignite any inflammable
material near by. When the wires outside of
the house — between the house and the trans-
former— get together, by the falling of a
branch or tree or telephone wire, or the fuses
inside of the house are too strong, fuses placed
near the transformer will melt and the lights
go out. If the trouble is on the main lines, or
between the dynamo and transformer, then
that trouble is felt at the plant where there
are fuses that melt and the lights all over
town on that entire circuit go out.
"In most cases a circuit-breaker, which is
an automatic machine for cutting the lines
leading from the electric plant, is located on
the switchboard in the plant. Trouble on
the line causing an overload of the dynamo,
will cause this automatic switch to open,
which puts out all the lights operated by the
dynamo that that switch controls. This
sometimes happens when it is lightning.
Then it is that the engineer or dynamo
tender watches the circuit-breaker closely,
and as charge after charge of lightning throws
it out, he throws it back into place. If it is
thrown out by any of the main wires being
crossed with each other, the operator puts it
back and holds it there and the dynamo will
begin to groan, the lights flash up to a great
brilliancy, and if he should continue to hold
it and not let it Open, the probability would
be that the dynamo would be overheated and
damaged to a great extent, so rather than
have this occur, he lets the automatic switch
open itself and he continues to close it as it
is opened automatically, and the lights go
out and come on again until the trouble on
the line is burnt out or found and rectified.
It is an impossibility to prevent the blinking
or going out of the lights until this is done.
"Rarely ever do the lights go out or grow
dim and remain so because of reasons at-
tributable to the machinery at the plant.
On the contrary, nearly all the causes can
be laid to something along the lines outside
of the generating source, necessitating
almost every time, a close hunt by the whole
force of electricians. When the trouble is
found and the lights again come on, they
heave a more thankful sigh than you do
yourself
An Enormous Flywheel
In the coal fields of Liege, Belgium, there
is an electric generator having such a heavy
flywheel that it will run by its own momen-
FLY-WHEEL (iN REAR) RUNS 48 HOURS
FROM MOMENTUM
turn for 48 hours after the power is shut off.
This is said to be one of the heaviest fly-
wheels in the world.
Night Telephone Shopping Service
"When the evening mail brings a letter
which invites you to an automobile drive
the next day, don't say, 'Pshaw! I have
no automobile veil or bonnet!' Just go
to your telephone at any hour of the
night, call 'Grammercy 6900, please,' and
ask for the mail order section and tell us
what you want and your order will be
promptly delivered.
"If the dressmaker is to come tomorrow
morning, and you have forgotten hooks and
eyes and cotton or pins or needles, or the
lining, or some embroidery or lace, telephone
at 12 o'clock at night or at any hour and they
will be sent to your house by the first de-
livery in the morning."
This is the way one of the managers in
Wanamaker's big department store in Phila-
delphia described the recently installed all-
night telephone shopping service. Many
of the orders received are from persons
who in response to a message must leave the
city by a morning train making it impossible
for them to visit the store to purchase some
needed article or wearing apparel. Orders
received as late as five o'clock in the morning
are sent out on the first delivery.
The Human Side of a Great Physicist
By THOMAS COMMERFORD MARTIN
It was the great pleasure of the writer to
contribute to a recent number of Popular
Electricity an article on the biography of
Lord Kelvin, the leading physicist of the
last century, better known as Sir William
Thomson. The life story of that great man
told with SUch brilliant and exhaustive detail
by Prof. S. P. Thompson, is one of the books
of the year, and it will be long before it is
surpassed in value and importance. Kelvin
was not only one of the leading men of his
century, but he touched thought and progress
at so many points, it Was difficult alike for
his biographer to embrace in the narrative
the whole field of action and for a reviewer
to do anything like justice to such a vivid
and graphic treatment of a noble career.
It may be interesting and not amiss to
note here, more particularly, some of the
references to America and Americans in
this biography, in addition to such as were
mentioned previously in connection with
Kelvin's splendid work in making the At-
lantic cable "talk." That in itself was an
immortal contribution to the forces for the
development of this country, for which we
must ever be grateful; and it will loom bigger
as the ages go by and the Americas rank in
wealth and population with the older di-
visions of the earth. Said Carlyle: "The
true epic of our time is not 'arms and the
man' but 'tools and the man,' an infinitely
wider kind of epic," and Kelvin was essen-
tially an epic maker of these later industrial
days. To him it was a beautiful thing to
utilize Niagara; and when the meeting
house in London where Faraday preached
as an elder was turned into a telephone
exchange, Kelvin dedicated the bronze
tablet put there, and gloried in the conversion
of a place of worship to such beneficent
uses, with the remark: "This is a splendid
monument to Faraday."
Lord Kelvin, after his submarine cable
work and experiences, resumed his acquain-
tance with the United States in 1876, when
he acted as a juror at the Philadelphia Cen-
tennial Exposition, praised highly the work
of Edison as a telegraph inventor and took
back to England in a rather crumpled but
still vocal condition, the first Bell telephone.
Then came the swift development of the
electric light, so that when Kelvin came back
in 1884, to attend, as one attraction, the
first American Electrical Exhibition at
Philadelphia, a new heaven and a new earth
had been opened up in illumination. He
was greatly pleased with all that he saw
of the development, renewed his personal
friendship with Edison and other celebrities,
and gave a memorable course of physical
lectures at Johns Hopkins University, in
Baltimore. In a lecture at Philadelphia
on the wave theory of light, he furnished a
curious illustration of the bold grasp with
which his mind seized the largest problems of
Nature. In remarking that he found it hard
to agree with people who could not under-
stand a million million, he said: "I say
finitude is incomprehensible; the infinite in
the universe is comprehensible. What would
you think of a universe in which you could
travel one, ten or a thousand miles, or even
to California, and then find it come to an
end ? Can you suppose an end of matter or
an end of space? The idea is incompre-
hensible."
Then came the lectures at Baltimore, when
Lady Kelvin with a peculiarly British touch
spoke of the perpetual blue sky as quite
fatiguing, and regretted they had "never
been able to keep in cool regions." The
subject was still the wave theory of light,
and the audience was composed chiefly of
professors from American universities, all
eager to sit at the feet of the Master, who as
usual made each lecture a process of think-
ing aloud, an audible display of his wonderful
gift of divination applied to the secrets of
Nature. Here the characteristic discursive-
ness showed itself, and even became ominous:
"How long will these lectures continue?"
asked President Oilman of Lord Rayleigh
one day while walking away from the
lecture theatre. "I don't know," was the
reply. "I suppose they will end some time,
but I confess I see no reason why they
should."
The last visit of Kelvin to America was
made in 1902 in the spring of the year, to
look into the processes of the Eastman
photographic works at Rochester, N. Y. —
as vice chairman of the Kodak Company of
England — and to study the problems of
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
509
510
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
hydro-electric development at the same city.
He visited the great General Electric Works
at Schenectady; assisted at the inauguration
of President Butler at Columbia University,
New York, and was given a notable reception
at the University by the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers and kindred societies.
He was the guest of Edison and Westing-
house, and at Jamestown, N. Y., paid a
beautiful compliment to his old friend
Cyrus Field, as one "who possessed an ad-
mirable and unapproachable quality, an
attribute of heroes: he never knew when
to give in." At Cornell he told the students:
"A unilversity is a place that fits some men
for earning a livelihood and that makes
life better worth living for all men." At
Philadelphia he spoke in praise of the
Rhodes scholarships at Oxford for American
students and went so far as to say: "We
have shown that it is possible to get on well
together under separate flags, but I wish
we were all under one flag and one govern-
ment." At Yale he commended research
laboratories, and the need of giving profes-
sors time and means for investigation, but
not cutting them off from their students:
"A man comes away from his class room
with a new impulse to continue his work of
research." And in view of Zeppelin and
other recent developments in air -flight, the
following is certainly of interest: "The air-
ship on the plan of those built by Santos-
Dumont is a delusion, and a snare. A gas
balloon paddled around by oars, is an old
idea, and can never be of any practical use.
Some day, no doubt, some one will invent a
flying machine, that one will be able to
navigate without having to have a balloon
attachment. But the day is a long way off
when we shall see human beings soaring
around like birds." Yet the day has come.
One interesting little item may close this
brief summary of the various points at
which Kelvin came in friendly contact with
America and its people. Just before he
sailed for England on his last voyage across
the Atlantic, he sat to Falk, in New York,
for his photograph. An article had been
published by the present writer on the long
distance transmission of electrical energy
in California — over two hundred miles.
He was tremendously impressed when he
heard of it, and asked for the article. It
was given to him just before the photograph
was taken, and his impatience was so great
that he read the article as he posed, rather
than wait. He may thus be seen in the
well-known picture, and the incident may
be regarded as typical of that keen thirst for
knowledge that characterized him all his
life and was with him to the end of his
illustrious career.
Embroidered Electric Fans
To the unspoilt and slowly progressive
oriental the term fan suggests either a sprig
of wide palm leaves or a spread of peacock
feathers held by a servant and slowly swayed
to and fro. To the Hindoo or Arab such
a slow swaying of a broad fan means a
zephyr while the breeze from one of our
rotary electric fans would seem an unpleasant
AN EMBROIDERED ELECTRIC FAN
hurricane, and consequently the latter have
been slow to gain the expected foothold
in some of the hottest countries of the globe.
But whatever prejudices there might be in
favor of the waving fans, each requires a
human motor, and such purely mechanical
man-power is seeing its day even in the
tropical countries, hence the era of electric
fans is dawning there though the types
adopted will surprise most of us of the
western hemisphere.
For, unlike all our ideas of electric fans,
the oriental types do not rotate at high speed
but slowly sway back and forth, just as
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
511
has been done to some extent in India by
the cord-pulled vanes or "Punkahs." The
motor itself reminds one of the magnetic
engines which amuse each young genera-
tion, for like them they are designed to give
a reciprocating motion to an armature
carrying a hook or eye. If a cord is hitched
to this hook or eye, the armature will pull
it whenever the current is switched on,
while a weight or spring at the other end
of the cord can pull the armature and the
swaying vane back while the current is
off.
For general purposes (as in a store or
bedroom) the motor is usually mounted
high on the wall and the cord runs to one
or more of the vanes which are hung like
pendulums from the ceiling. These vanes
or Punkahs are from 30 to 80 inches long,
and from 12 to 18 inches wide and are often
trimmed with fringes. For desk or table
use the motor is in the base of a fixture
from the top of which the Punkah is pivoted,
this being usually about 30 inches long.
The vanes or fans proper may be nicely
decorated with needlework, giving the ladies
of the house the decidedly un-American
opportunity of embroidering electric fans.
Training and Firing a 60-Ton Gun
Recent years have witnessed a continual
extension of the dependency placed upon
electricity at the modern military post until
now we find the magic current relied upon
as the chief aid to human intelligence in all
greatest opportunity to prove its marvelous
efficiency.
At the great fortifications that line the
Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf coasts electricity
is used for lighting, for communicative
the operations of a unique and highly spe- utilities, and for all the more conventional ,
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TYPICAL UNITED STATES COAST DEFENSE BATTERY
cialized activity. At every United States
fort or military post — even the infantry and
cavalry posts in the interior of the country —
we find electrical energy depended upon for
a variety of important functions such as
signaling. However, it is at the strongly
fortified posts on the seaboard of the coun-
try— Uncle Sam's costly secret coast de-
fenses— that the silent, instantaneous toiler
is most extensively utilized and has the
power puiposes, but it is the varied uses of
the current in connection with the operation
of the great guns with which these strong-
holds are equipped that is most novel and
notable. The severest exactions would gov-
ern the operation of our coast batteries in
rime 'of war. Absolute accuracy, economy
of time and labor and efficiency in the mi-
nutest detail are demanded to a degree un-
paralleled elsewhere. Certainly there could
512
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Vuft/i iyut Uy )t uiuwt F. iKO.lt
RECEIVING TELEPHONE INSTRUCTIONS IN THE GUN PIT
be no more forceful
recognition of the de-
pendability of elec-
tricity than that it is
employed almost ex-
clusively in this
sphere of operations
where the fraction of
a minute or the frac-
tion of an inch may
represent the differ-
ence between success
and failure.
First of all, elec-
tricity is employed
for the manipulation,
training and firing of
the heavy guns that
guard the entrances
to American harbors
and navigable chan-
nels. All the guns of
large calibre are of
what is known as
the disappearing
type. That i fey they
are loaded and train-
ed out of sight of
the enemy, behind
walls of sand and
concrete and then,
Voiiyi tyht by H uiuutt >ua,ull
THE GUNNER'S
TELEPHONE SET
when all is in readi-
ness, the loaded gun
is quickly elevated by
mechanical means to
a position above the
ramparts, is fired
simultaneously with
its appearance in the
open and as sudden-
ly drops back out of
sight behind the
sheltering barrier.
Now it goes without
saying that the high-
est imaginable refine-
ments are necessary
in an application of
power that lifts a
sixty-ton gun quickly
• to a height of twenty
or thirty feet and
yet does it with a
nicety that does not
jar this 42-foot shoot-
ing iron from the
alignment, with re-
ference to the target,
which has been es-
tablished by means
of mathematical cal-
culations. The em-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
513
ployment of electricity in connection with
this phase of coast artillery work exempli-
fies its adaptability for delicate yet arduous
tasks just as does its employment for firing
the gun indicate the advantages of instan-
taneous response to a human or automat-
ic impulse when combined with absolute
reliability.
However, interesting as is the resort to
electricity for energy in the practical hand-
ling of the guns of our coast defense bat-
teries, it is scarcely as significant as the part
played by the magic current in directing the
fire of these destructive agents. As most of
you are well aware it is no longer the custom
to train cannon on a moving or stationary
target as a small rifle is sighted or in the
primitive way in which cannon were manip-
ulated during the Civil War. Nowadays,
as above explained, guns and gunners are
shut off from the sight of the enemy behind
a, breastwork and the aiming of the "peace-
maker" is accomplished by mathematical
means just as its discharge is effected by
mechanical, or, rather, electrical means.
What is more, the "range finding," in so
far as it involves the securance of data for
these mathematical calculations, is not a
task imposed upon the gunners of each
battery. Rather is this information ob-
tained by experts in. a special, centrally-
located observatory tower — sufficiently lofty
to enable their instruments to sweep the
horizon. Obviously the knowledge acquired
at this central intelligence station must be
communicated as quickly as possible to all
the different batteries and it is just here that
the efficiency of electrical communication
finds one of its most convincing demonstra-
tions.
The interior of the modern American coast
defense is a perfect network of wires. The
telegraph is used to some extent but for the
most part the telephone is depended upon
to keep all the units of the fighting institu-
tion continually in close touch with one
another. By means of this comprehensive
nerve system the "Battle Command Sta-
tion,"— presumably in charge of the colonel
or other officer in command at the post —
is in touch with the two "Fire Command
Stations," in charge of majors, and through
them with all the different batteries in the
fortification so that even though the big
guns of the defense system be scattered
along more than a mile of waterfront
the officers in command are enabled
to exercise the closest supervision over
the operations of all the different gun
squads.
Electrical links likewise connect all the
individual batteries with a common source
of technical information essential to effective
gun fire. The center of this system is found
in the two "Position Finding Stations,"
known respectively as the Primary and
Secondary Stations. The experts at these
two stations working in conjunction on the
system of the azimuth determine the exact
location of a vessel or other target. This
information is telephoned to the "plotting
room," which occupies a small frame
building in the rear of each battery. Here,
experts compute the range for the particular
battery to which they are attached and this
information, in turn, is telephoned to the
guns. One man in the plotting room and
one man in each gun pit has a telephone re-
ceiver in position at his ear at all times so
that there is little chance of the slightest
delay in the transmission of instructions or
the corrections of errors. The latter are
necessary when the observers on the ram-
parts or in the towers report that the shots
from any given battery are failing to reach
the target as desired.
514
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Story of a Telephone Pole
In beginning the story of anyone's life it
is usual to describe the place where they
were born. To do this with reference to
that telephone pole over on the corner would
take us back to at least 50 years before the
men and wild animals, for it requires 190
years, according to Government statistics, to
grow a 30-foot cedar pole.
There are more than 800,000 miles of pole
line in operation in the United States and
STARTING THE POLES
BUILDING THE £RIB RAFT
signing of the Declaration of Independence,
back to a time when the cedar forest from
which this pole came was peopled with Red-
something like 32,000,000 poles in use. As
the average life of a pole is 1 2 years, 2,650,000
are required annually to take the place of
516
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
TOWING A CRIB RAFT DOWN THE GREAT LAKES
CONCENTRATING YARD ON THE BANK OF A STREAM
poles that are worn out, while many more
are used in new work.
From where do these poles come ? When
is the harvest and what is it like? The
answers to these questions are full of interest.
The story is partly told in the accompanying
pictures obtained through the courtesy of
W. C. Sterling & Son Company whose
gangs of lusty lumber jacks and log drivers
scour the woods and " drive" the streams of
northern Michigan.
Clad in rough, warm clothing in keeping
with the hard but healthy labor in cedar
forests, these men are a vigorous and jolly
lot. Work in the woods begins in early Fall,
and large tracts are cut clean before the
"drive" begins in the Spring. The* smaller
trees are cut into posts, shingles and ties,
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
517
while trees that will make
poles from 20 to 60 feet long
are the most valuable. These
are hauled by sleds and horses
over the snow to railroads in
some cases, but often to rivers
to be floated down to deep
water and towed then by ves-
sels to "concentrating" yards.
The bark is taken off the
poles in the woods, and the
tops and butts are sawed off
square. In the concentrating
yards the poles are sorted and
piled where, if possible, they
are seasoned for at least ten
months during which time
they loose one-third of their
weight and last much longer
when finally set in the ground.
Cedar poles last the longest,
their average life being 15
years as against chestnut,
nine years; cypress, eight
years; yellow pine about six.
In the early days of the
industry poles were brought
from Canada and northern
Michigan by means of crib
rafts containing 15,000 to
20,000 poles. The poles were
cut along die banks of streams and driven
down during high water to the lake and
built into crib rafts, usually three in num-
ber, 36 feet wide, several hundred feet long,
drawing nine feet of water and projecting
some eight feet above the water. The crib
was first constructed of timbers fastened
together by chains, wire and stakes, and
then filled with cedar poles. The cribs were
then coupled together and towed several
jgy Courtesy Cumberland Telephone Journal
TRENCH ON THE KENTUCKY SIDE
hundred miles down the Great Lakes by
the largest lake tugs.
Laying Cables in the Ohio River
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By Courtesy Cumberland Telephone Journal
LANDING ON THE ILLINOIS SIDE
These pictures were taken on opposite
banks of the Ohio river while a submarine
telephone cable was being laid between
Carrsville, Kentucky, and the Illinois shore.
The cable on the Kentucky side was laid
in a trench from the cable pole
to the bank of the river 165
feet away. After this had been
done the barge, with the cable
on a reel, was towed across
the river by the steamer, pay-
ing out the cable as it went.
In twenty minutes the cable
rested on the bottom of the
river. Another trench on
the Illinois side received the
cable up to the pole where a
test of each pair of wires in-
dicated no mishaps. The
cable measured nearly one-
half mile in length and
weighed 28,000 pounds.
518
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Illuminating the Exterior of a House
The quaint "German House" at the
Brussels Exposition had its exterior lit at
night in a most remarkable manner, for in
addition to two-candle-power lamps outlin-
Use of the Telephone in Foreign
Countries
NIGHT VIEW OF HOUSE ILLUMINATED
FROM WITHOUT
ing the roof and windows the eaves were'
studded with lamps of 25 to 50 candle power,
shielded from the eyes by reflectors which
poured the light in a white stream down the
walls. Our illustration, taken from the
" Mitteilungen der Berliner Elektricitaets-
werke" shows that the softly blended effect
was quite artistic.
A Suspended Railway
The Schwebeban Electric Railway is in the
Rhine Province, Germany.
It extends from Barmen to
Rathausbriicke, a distance
of 30 miles. Steel posts in a
sloping position hold up the
heavy rail. The current is
supplied to the motor by a
wire running along side of
the rail.
As it is smoother running,
faster and cleaner than any
other railway system, there
will probably be similar ones
built in this country. The
cost of contructing these
railways is of course greater
than that of ordinary trol-
ley lines.
The city of Stockholm, Sweden, stands at
the head of the cities of the world in the
number of people in proportion to the popu-
lation who have telephones, 180 out of
every 1,000 persons being telephone sub-
scribers.
In Europe there are 1,800,000 telephones,
in Asia 56,000, in Africa 9,000, in Australia
53,000, while America leads with 7,700,000,
of which 7,590,000 are in the United States.
Denmark leads the countries as to tele-
phones per capita by having 32.2 telephones
for every thousand inhabitants, Sweden
being a close follower with 31.8 telephones
per thousand people.
Benzine-electric Railway Cars
The prevailing notion that government
ownership of railroads would put a stop to
any progressive experiments or developments,
is not borne out by the latest report from
Duesseldorf, a progressive city in Rhenish
Prussia, where six self-propelling passenger
cars are soon to be tried on the state railway
system. Each is designed to carry 100 per-
sons and has the rear axle geared to a pair of
electric motors, each of 82 horsepower. The
front axle supports the weight of a benzine
engine of 100 horsepower, built with a 50
kilowatt 300 volt dynamo on the same shaft.
This dynamo supplies current to the motors
which run normally at a speed of 700 revo-
lutions per minute but which can be slowed
down to 200 revolutions so as to reduce the
shock of starting and stopping.
SUSPENDED MONORAIL CAR
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
519
An Effective Window Attraction
Two light rubber balls decorated with
white and black smiles respectively were
made to dance back and forth in a diminu-
THE WINDOW
/ - Bar 24m square 8 m high gin hole cut in fop
2- Sin Fan
5 - 10 Posts with 2 ropes Posts Sin from edge, of 8 in hok
4 - Screen cone tin high covering Sin hole - coarse
mesh screen or chicnen wire.
5 - 2 Balls ■ Jin diameter light rubber inflated weight
about as niuch as a to/ balloon .
ARRANGEMENT OF FAN
THE RESULT
tive arena set up in the window of the
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing
Company's Baltimore office, about the
time of the Jeffries- Johnson affair. Their
energy was imparted to them by the breeze
of an eight-inch fan below a screen in the
center of the arena. . The balls were driven
to the rail by the draft and bounced merrily
back to bump into each other in the center.
The window novelty, how it worked and
the results which it brought are very clearly
shown in the pictures.
The effectiveness of reflecting current
events in an advertising "stunt" is well
known, and this window was no exception
to the rule. There was a constant crowd
about it, which could not help but notice
the electric irons, fans and other things
displayed prominently near the central
attraction.
Electric Power for Balloons
Among the dirigible balloons of which
working models are being tested by the
Military- Aeronautical Institute of Berlin is
one built by F. and A. Weingartner with a
cigar shaped balloon which in the full sized
craft will be 164 feet long and 33 feet in
diameter. It is remarkable in that the
gasoline engine which furnishes the pro-
pelling power is not connected mechanically
to the propellors of which there are to be
eight on the full sized product. Instead, the
engine drives a dynamo from which wires
transmit the energy to eight motors, thus
doing away with the gears and shafts which
have already wrecked so many airships.
The inventors claim that the separate motors,
each having its own propellor, can be more
easily controlled in this way than they can
with mechanical transmissions and that a
greater variety of combinations of motions
can readily be obtained by the operator.
The model tested at Berlin had only three
motors but these produced the desired range
of motions both promptly and effectively.
Electrical Fertilizers in Japan
If any further evidence of the progressive-
ness of the Japanese is needed, it is seen
in the formation at Tokio of the "Nippon
Cisso Hiryo Kabushikiki Kaisha," which is
not the title of a new comic opera or patent
medicine. It is the name of a new company
for making fertilizers from the nitrogen of the
air by electrical means, is capitalized at a
million yen, and is sure of a large market for
its product right in Japan itself..
Denver's Prismatic Fountain
Denver, the "City of Lights," can boast
of one of the most beautiful electric foun-
tains ever constructed and at the same time
one of the most economical in its operation.
It is located in City Park and is a product
of the engineering skill of F. W. Darlington.
Its color effects and wonderful spray and
stream shapes cannot be reproduced in the
cold black and white of a half tone, although
the illustrations give a slight foundation
Of the colored glasses there are nine plates
or panes over each arc lamp. The operator
at the switchboard by the movement of
proper switches can alternate the colors,
moving each of these plates in turn from its
recessed place into position in the rays of
the search light.
The spray effects are produced from 2,012
nozzles, arranged in twelve different group-
ings, each controlled by a separate valve.
DENVER S PRISMATIC
OF ITS
upon which the
imagination may
build.
The total cost
of this remarka-
ble attraction was
$19,500 and the
expense of opera-
tion is something
less than $10 a
night.
The intensive
light is obtained
from eleven large
search lights, located in a cross-formed cham-
ber beneath the fountain. In its wider
part this chamber is 66 feet and in the
narrower part 30 feet.
Each of these eleven lights is of 8,000
candle-power. The operation of the foun-
tain requires the total of 88,000 candle-
power during the whole of the two half
hours in which its effects are shown nightly
throughout the season.
The beautiful color effects are produced
by interposing the proper shades of colored
glass over the search lights.
FOUNTAIN AND MANNER
OPERATION
The valve control-
led by the operator
in some cases pro-
duces from a sin-
gle set of jets,
several different
displays according
to the extent of
the valve opening.
For one set the
valve is opened
very slightly and
produces what are
termed "bee-
hives." When opened somewhat wider the
effect is called "sheaves of wheat." When
opened still wider the effect is that of enor-
mous vases. This is the design which ap-
pears when the valve is opened to its fullest
extent.
Combinations of displays are made by
opening two or more valves, and variations
in these combinations are made at will, the
operator opening one wide and the other
part way, and then reversing the operation.
In each case the displays are totally differ-
ent.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
521
VIEW OF DENVER S FOUNTAIN SHOWING THE HUNDREDS OF NOZZLES
The fountain throws about four thousand
gallons of water per minute.
The operator is located in a tower of the
pavilion and can see exactly what effects he
produces, and can vary them at will in
minor as well as in larger details for color
and degree of opening required for each
valve to produce the most effective dis-
play.
The color slides and water valves are
moved by compressed air, which is con-
trolled by electric magnets operated from
handles in a roll top desk in the pavilion
tower.
The duties of the man under the fountain
are simply to see that the air compressor
works properly all. the time, and as well to
see that the search lights are not extin-
guished.
Electricity in Fire Fighting
Just why the use of electrical devices in
fire fighting has been so largely overlooked, is
hard to understand, as both the firemen and
the underwriters (whose influence they often
need in the large cities to secure needed
changes or improvements) are progressive
as well as aggressive. With hose carts and
ladder trucks as well as engines the room
taken by the horses adds greatly to the diffi-
culty of dodging cars and teams, thereby
decreasing the speed while increasing the
risk of accidents. And if the path is clear,
the galloping horses still will not equal the
electric auto in speed. Anyone who has
watched the firemen get started when an
alarm comes into the engine house knows
that very little of the delay is caused by
getting the crew aboard; it is the time re-
quired to hitch the horses.
As for pumping the water, the use of a
storage battery would not be economical
for any long periods; but if a source of
current were available, a motor driven pump
would be inexpensive to operate. It would
do away with the extra fuel supply teams and
with the occasional running out of coal.
The one great requisite would be a depend-
able supply of current (involving under-
ground circuits, as overhead wires might
be ignited by the fire itself or cut by the
men to afford access to buildings) which
would be accessible at many scattered points
corresponding to the present fire hydrants.
With current thus available, a light auto
carrying a motor, a small storage battery,
on which to run to its destination and a
pump would be ample. Were the pumping
current taken from the circuits of the local
street railway or central station, the amount
used could be measured by a meter carried
on the auto. Thus a series of suitable
tapping places on the electric light company's
circuits, each located near a water hydrant,
would allow of quicker and probably more
economical pumping of water than is com-
mon wifh the methods now in use.
Conserving the Power of a German River
About two miles from the city of Marklissa
in Germany, on the Bover River, is one of the
many hydroelectric developments which of
late years have been built to conserve the
natural resources of the land of the Kaiser.
The old castles on the Rhine may be pictu-
resque, and
dignified by
years, but in
this Twenti-
eth Century,
architectural
achieve-
ment, with
its mighty
dam of con-
crete and
masonry, the
substantial
power house
just below,
the neatly
laid out
grounds and
wild and rug-
ged scenery
surrounding
all, lie both
beauty and
sentiment
not to be out-
matched by
crumbling
towers and
dungeons of
ages gone by.
At the
point where
the plant is
built the Bo-
ver runs in a
deep narrow
valley or ra-
vine. The
great dam is
built directly across this from hillside to
hillside, and empounds 15,000,000 cubic feet
of water in the reservoir above, forming a
beautiful lake with ample reserve for the
dry season of the year.
A little way down stream from the reser-
voir is the power house, the water which
furnishes the motive power for the big tur-
DAM AND POWER HOUSE ON THE BOVER RIVER
bine being led to it by two penstocks of steel,
each about four feet in diameter. Close
scrutiny of the picture of the plant will show
the penstcoks coming down the hilside at the
left and rear. The tunnel-like opening at
the right is the spillway from the dam, where
all the sur-
plus water
escapes.
The head
of water is
85 feet, suf-
ficient to de-
velop 3,575
horsepower
of electrical
energy. This
transforma-
tion takes
place in the
main gener-
ating room
of the power-
house. In
one picture
three of the
water tur-
bines are
shown at the
extreme
right and
they are of
the centrifu-
gal type, the
blades with-
in the circu-
lar casings
turning at
375 revolu-
tions a min-
ute and driv-
ing the long
shafts to
which are at-
tached first
heavy flywheels and then, at the extreme
left the moving parts of the electric gen-
erators.
In a gallery above and overlooking all the
machinery is the switchboard with its con-
trolling devices. The generators produce
current at the very high pressure of 10,000.
volts which is further stepped up by trans-
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
523
HIGH TENSION WIRING IN THE BOVER
RIVER PLANT
TRANSFORMERS IN THE BOVER RIVER
PLANT
INTERIOR OF THE BOVER RIVER PLANT
formers shown in one of the illustrations,
to pressure of 20,000 and 30,000 volts
for transmission to distant points.
Great precautions must be taken in carry-
ing the wires inside the building when these
enormous voltages are employed and the
upper picture at the left is an interesting
view of this "high tension work," as it is
called, all current-carrying parts being care-
fully insulated on porcelain.
A Monument for Ampere
The French Association for the Advance-
ment of Sciences, recently in session in
Ampere's native city of Lyons, recognized
his achievements by voting to erect a monu-
ment to this eminent physicist and mathe-
matician. The needed funds for this
undertaking are to be raised by popular
subscription.
524
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The Fastest Mile
Editor, Popular Electricity:
Your note in the August issue, concerning
signals and speeds in railway work, and also
the recent achievement of Barney Oldfield
in making an automobile record of two miles
at a rate of 131.75 miles per hour, bring
to my mind a thrilling experience which I
had as a youngster. It was during the
famous Berlin-Zossen tests, which have now
become a matter of history, and I was per-
mitted, by fortunate' circumstances, to ride
on one of the test trips, though not the record
trip. It was plenty fast enough for me,
however.
Not all may remember these famous
tests which were made to determine how
fast an electric car could travel. To refresh
the memory it may be said that the tests
were made in Germany in 1901, the German
government putting at the disposition of
certain German manufacturing concerns
the military railway between Marienfelde
and Zossen. It is a short line 20.5 miles
long with a very small number of curves of
6,500 feet radius and gradients never higher
than five per cent.
The line was reinforced, ballasted and
straightened, for a designed speed of 125
miles per hour.
The current furnished was alternating
three-phase current at a voltage from 10,000
to 12,000 volts and 50 cycles. The trans-
mission line was made up of three wires
disposed vertically and the trolley pole was
a vertical and rigid one with contact makers
of peculiar design so placed as to touch
each of the wires.
Two cars of about 200,000 pounds
weight and about 75 feet long were used.
They had two trucks with six wheels each,
the wheels being about 46 inches in diameter,
and four motors, which could furnish when
coupled together, from 1,100 to 3,000 horse-
pDwer.
As I said, the line was designed for a-
speed of 125 miles per hpur, but when a
speed of 99 miles was reached the experi-
ments had to be stopped to reinforce the
line and solve problems of motor suspen-
sion, etc. Eventually a speed of a trifle
over 125 miles per hour was reached, and
until Oldfield's performance, the fastest
man had ever traveled, unless dropped
from a balloon.
And that brings me to my personal
experience, which I shall never forget.
I took a trip, on that line — once. I was
very much of a young fellow then and did
not know much about electricity and how
things were running. So I was not greatly
interested by the technical side of the ques-
tion, and my impressions, still vivid, recall
only the terrific speed at which we were
whirled along.
As a matter of fact, on that particular trip
we probably did not reach 125 miles per
hour. Somebody was singing out numbers
but I did not know German. My impres-
sion was that we were going fast — too fast
to feel comfortable — and I still remember a
lingering query that was in my mind then:
" Could we stop quickly enough if we had
to?" The poles were fairly flying by.
Ballast was sucked up from the track and
pelted the back platform, and the landscape
was nothing but a blur for rods on either
side.
Suddenly everybody lost his dignity and
grabbed hold of something and looked in-
tently ahead while the motorman was
frantically manipulating brake handle and
controller.
The line was very carefully guarded, but
some peasant had just stepped in on the
track and loomed up about a thousand feet
ahead of the car going in the same direc-
tion.
Well, we stopped — some inches from the
fellow — giving the motorman a chance of
expressing his opinion of the walker, who
did not seem to understand why a man could
not walk on the track at a safe distance from
an old trolley car, without giving rise to
such a fuss.
We got off at Zossen — and my final im-
pression was "never again."
Now to conclude — such high speeds are
possible, but not economical. They would
require an air line track, strong and specially
built and specially reserved for fast trains.
It is more than an operating difficulty; it
is an economical question.
A short heavy traffic line, viz., New York
to Philadelphia, could be probably built
and operated profitably, but in that case
the distance is so short that the time saving
would not be considerable, and would
probably not justify the considerable ex-
pense for what is practically nothing but a
whim. P. S. Paganini.
Chicago, 111., July n, 1910.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
525
Magnetic Pencil Holder
A pad of paper close to the telephone is a
great convenience provided a pencil is also
at hand. If left loose, the pencil is apt to
roll off the desk or table and be minus a
MAGNETIC PENCIL HOLDER
point when most needed, and if tied to a
string the latter interferes with the free use
of the pencil. The ideal scheme would be to
have a device which would hold the pencil
firmly when not in use but which would leave
it free when used for writing. This is
accomplished by slipping a light steel cap
over the end of the pencil and letting this
cap form the armature or keeper of a magnet
mounted on the same stand that holds the
pad of scribbling paper. By making the
magnet in the shape of a split cylinder, it
can easily be strong enough to support a
weight of half a pound, thus insuring a good
grip on the pencil holder, even if the magnet
should gradually lose some of its initial
strength. Such a device is made under a
German patent by Kleinig and Blasberg, of
Leipzig, Germany.
Moving Cars without a Locomotive
Unless an industrial plant is large enough
to employ its own switch engines (either
steam or electric) it is dependent on the
railroad company for the moving of any
cars placed on its sidetracks, and much time
is often lost by not having these moved more
frequently. In teaming practice, wagons
are always moved away from the platforms
as fast as they are loaded or unloaded, and
for economical handling the same should
be done with the heavier cars on rails.
Some manufacturers have gone to the ex-
treme of using gangs of men with steel levers
to move the cars, but this is a slow and costly
method.
Now comes the electric capstan and says:
"If I can move ships, why not cars?" Why
not, indeed? A strong hawser with a hook
at one end is easily attached to the head of
the capstan so that a single man can move
the car at the rate of from 50 to 100 feet a
minute. By mounting a pulley alongside
the track and passing the rope over it, the
car can just as easily be moved away from
the capstan, thus making the car users
independent of all switch engines while
close to their works.
ELECTRIC CAPSTAN FOR MOVING CARS
526
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Electricity Aboard the "George
Washington"
The steamship, " George Washington,"
which is the largest of the German merchant
fleet, carries 2,941 passengers and a crew of
525 men. Electricity is largely used aboard,
and is generated by dynamos directly con-
nected to compound high speed vertical
engines. The ventilating apparatus re-
quires an energy of 150 horse-power. The
light is given by 4,300 carbon filament lamps
of 25 candle-power. There is a Marconi
wireless station on board and the heating —
all done by electricity — requires 170 kilo-
watts or over 225 horse-power.
Autos as Show Windows
Is there a stylishly dressed woman in
any of our large cities who has not bemoaned
the fact that her costume is practically con-
cealed from view while she is on the way
from her home to the ball or theater and
back? If there is, it probably would take a
AUTO USED AS SHOW WINDOW
modern Diogenes with a searchlight as
a lantern to find her, for as much as the well
gowned woman wants' to be seen even in the
modern autos or taxicabs the occupant can
hardly be distinguished at night by those
in other vehicles or on the sidewalks. To
avoid this hiding of exquisite finery a New
York cab company is now building taxicabs
with the sides made of beveled glass and
with reflectors throwing the light of tungsten
lamps on the occupants so as to make the
costumes and their fair wearers even more
conspicuous than they would be in the day-
time.
That these "taxicabs de luxe" will appeal
to the gentler sex and their admiring com-
panions goes without saying. Indeed the
effectiveness of the innovation seems so
certain that a Chicago electrician is already
extending it into an advertising .proposition
for ladies' tailors, modistes and milliners
by adding the name of the concern whose
finery is being displayed.
Electric Stairs at Depots
In doing away with the dangerous grade
crossings, our railroads are gradually adding
to the amount of stair climbing for their
passengers. With so many other conven-
iences added in the modern depot, this
annoyance of the stairs might be overlooked
were it not for the slow rate at which people
move up the steps and therefore clear the
way for the exodus from the next train.
To facilitate movement of the crowds the
Orleans Railroad (Chemin de fer d' Orleans)
has installed a moving stairway or so-called
electric escalator at its Paris terminal, the
Quai d' Orsay. The steps are 50 in num-
ber, and nearly six feet wide and are mounted
on links of an endless chain which is driven
at the rate of 75 feet per minute by a 15
horsepower electric motor.
To see whether or not the installation
would pay, a count was made of the number
of people passing in a single minute of the
busy periods from the foot of these moving
stairs to their top, and .likewise of the num-
ber climbing a fixed staircase of the same
width. The count showed that for every
hundred people climbing the fixed stairs in
a given time, 214 were taken up by the
electrically moved stairs, so in a congested
railway station the increase in depot capacity
due to the more rapid exit of the passengers
will well repay the investment, besides add-
ing to the comfort of the railroad's patrons.
Cabling Japanese Words
Under the new agreement between China
and Japan regarding the cable between
Dalny and Chef 00 (of which 81 miles are
owned by Japan and the other 7J nautical
miles by China) the rate for messages has
been reduced from 48 cents per European
word to 8 cents. Messages are also accepted
in Japanese "Kana," counting seven "Kana"
characters as equal to one European word.
FOR PRACTICAL ELECTKICAL WORKERS
MOW TO MAKE AND OPERATE ELECTR/CAL DEWCES
Electric Eye Magnet
For the removal of steel and iron chips,
and other magnetic substances from the
eyes, there is no quicker and less painful
method than by the use of a small and power-
ful electromagnet. Such a device suitable
for use in the shop, and also for general
purposes is here described and illustrated,
and full instructions given which will en-
able anyone possessing average mechanical
ability to construct it successfully.
r-. „ ?J' 3/' s-i Diam. .... ..
Brass Cap '4 /S ( .W/nding
ing should be at the left-hand end of the
spool, and should be brought through small
holes in the black fibre head, and connected
to the brass binding screws (S). Over this
winding wrap two layers of the same kind
of wrapping paper, previously mentioned,
and then cover the spool between the fibre
ends with a layer of bookbinder's black
cloth (C) which may be purchased at al-
most any stationery store. A brass cap (B)
of the dimensions given in the illustration,
should be made, and threaded to screw on
ELECTRIC EYE MAGNET
The sectional view of the magnet shows
the necessary dimensions for making the
various parts. The central piece or core
is made of Norway iron turned to shape,
and tapped out at the right-hand end to
receive the various shaped tips, which are
used to suit different cases, and which should
also be made of Norway iron, as it possesses
much better magnetic qualities than ordi-
nary iron or steel. The core is provided
with a black fibre, or hard rubber washer
(F) at each end, which serve as insulators
and also to form a spool upon which to
wind the energizing coil. The core should
be insulated by wrapping it between the
fibre ends with two thicknesses of good
quality wrapping paper (P) shellaced in
place, and on the spool thus formed wind
40 layers of No. 34 B. and S. gauge double
silk-covered magnet wire (W), being careful
that the insulating covering of the wire is
not injured during the winding process.
The starting and finishing ends of the wind-
to the fibre magnet
head (H), and a small
black fibre insulating
bushing (I), having
a central hole of sufficient size to permit the
passage of the lamp cord (L), which is to
be used for a connection cable, should be
made and fitted to the brass cap (B). Before
assembling the various parts, the tips, core,
and brass cap should be nickel-plated and
polished. The edges of the black fibre
washer and magnet head, and the insulating
bushing may also be polished to advantage,
if a nice appearance is desired.
Now procure about six feet of incandescent
lamp cord (L), and after placing one end
through the fibre bushing and cap tie a
knot in it to prevent its pulling out, and
then connect each of the ends of the con-
ductors to the brass binding screws, as
shown. The other end of the cable should
be attached to a Dale current tap, which may
be purchased at any electrical store, and
528
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
comprises a screw plug attachment and
lamp socket for receiving an incandescent
lamp, which will act as a resistance and
protect the magnet from receiving too much
current. The method of connection is
Repeating Alarm Clock
HOW THE EYE MAGNET IS CONNECTED
plainly shown in the second illustration,
it being merely necessary to screw the cur-
rent tap into any lamp socket on the proper
voltage circuit, and then place the proper
voltage incandescent lamp in the current
tap, turning on the current with the lamp
socket key in the ordinary way. . This
causes the magnet to be strongly magnetized,
and after attaching the tip to the core the
end should be brought close to the object
in the eye, which wiil jump to the magnet
tip and be thus readily removed. i he
current should not be left on the magnet
longer than necessary, and never after the
magnet becomes uncomfortably warm to
the hand.
The coil winding previously given is
adapted for use on no-volt direct current,
with a 16 candle-power, no- volt lamp in
the current tap.
For use on 2 20- volt direct current wind with
40 layers of No. 3 4 double cotton-covered mag-
net wire, and use a 16 candle-power, 220-volt
lamp.
For use on five dry batteries wind with
six layers of No. 20 double cotton-cov-
ered magnet wire, with no current tap on the
connection cable, but merely provide suit-
able terminals for attaching to the terminals
of the batteries. Do not leave the magnet
connected to the batteries except while
actually in use, as the batteries will be rapidly
exhausted.
C. Nosrac.
The accompanying sketch shows the con-
struction of a simple attachment for an ordi-
nary alarm clock, to ring an electric bell.
The device is said to be better than the usual
form of trigger arrangement on the winding
key of the alarm spring because no setting is
required, the contacts are concealed and con-
sequently "fool-proof," and besides are not
sprung by an accidental jar which may be
given to the clock.
. A small wooden or hard leather base is ce-
mented to the framework (E) of the clock
near the alarm spring so that it will not inter-
fere with the works. A small brass bar (B)
is pivoted by a screw (C). One end is
REPEATING ALARM CLOCK
twisted at right angles and secured rather
loosely to the outside of the spring (F) by
the wire (G) so that when the spring is
wound the switch is automatically set.
Contacts (D) make connection with (B) as
the spring unwinds. The first contact
should be so situated that when the spring is
wound up, it is not quite in contact with the
bar (B).
If it is desired to have the bell ring until
turned off by hand, one contact only should be
used and made long enough, so that as the
spring is unwound the circuit will stay closed.
The contacts are all connected together and
a wire may be run from them to an insulated
binding post on the back of the clock. The
other binding post may be connected directly
to the clock It is well also to run a copper
wire from screw (C) to some part of the frame
work as not very good electrical connection
is made between the switch and steel
spring (F).
By placing a small vane or fan on the^
axle of the last wheel of the train used
to give motion to the clock's bell clapper,
its speed may be much retarded and the
period during which the electric bell may be
made to repeat will be much lengthened.
James P. Lewis.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
529
Insulating Materials
MARBLE
Marble is very much used in switchboards
and switch-panel work. Its insulating
properties are good if it is free from metallic
veins. Great care should be taken not to
spot the slab with oil or grease.
SLATE
Slate is cheaper than marble but it must
be enamelled to fill up the surface pores
and keep the moisture out. It must be free
from metallic veins and its surface must be
kept thoroughly clean.
LAVA
Lava is a mineral talc which has come to
be important as an insulating material.
It is not attacked by acids or alkalies, except
by hydrochloric acid, and then only slightly.
It neither shrinks nor expands under the
influence of moisture, and high temperature
has only a small effect on it. In its natural
state it can be machined as easily as brass,
and after machining it is baked at a very
high temperature (20000 F.) which makes
it very hard. Its dielectric strength is high
and varies with the thickness.
MICA AND MICANITE
Mica is one of the most valuable insulating
materials. It is a silicate of aluminium
and potassium or sodium. It is found in
laminated form and may be split to very
thin sheets. It has a very high dielectric
strength and can withstand very high tem-
peratures. When it is very gray or black in
color it contains iron in excess. Magnesia
also tends to darken its color. In its natural
state it is not flexible or uniform and per-
mits a large surface leakage. Consequently
most mica is reconstructed and put on the
market in the form of "micanite."
"Micanite" is one form of reconstructed
mica. The sheets of mica are stuck to-
gether with an insulating compound which
renders them impervious to humidity (at
least for a very long period of time) and
enables them to be bent when heated.
"Micanite" plates are made in varying
thicknesses and in two qualities, one which
softens when heated and is easily moulded
and one which is intended for commutator
segments.
Flexible "micanite" plates are made in
two styles. One style A will retain its
flexibility for years, is non-hygroscopic and
is used for insulating armature slots and coils,
armature and field magnet cores, etc.
Style B, is a cheaper quality, made from
selected pure India sheet mica split very thin.
" Micanite" cloth and paper are made, the
former with fine muslin on one side and paper
on the other, the latter with paper on both
sides. Each is made in three thicknesses
with one, two and three layers of mica.
PARAFFLNE
This substance is used for high tension
apparatus. To be of good quality it must be
white and not give out any odor. Squeezed
between two paper sheets it must not leave
any trace on the paper. Its must begin to
fuse between 1040 F. and 1220 F.
Its insulating resistance is very high but it
completely loses this when subjected to the
action of X-rays or radium emanations.
OILS
The dielectric resistance of oil at normal
temperature is high and reaches a maximum
value when the oils are very pure. This
resistance decreases with an increase in
temperature till it nears a constant value at
the temperature at which the oil begins to
decompose. Linseed oil has the least insu-
lating resistance.
The oils which are used in oil switches
must have special properties to avoid dan-
gerous accidents. Their resistance rnu?tbe
the very highest and they must not contain
acids, sulphur or other substances that may
combine with the metallic parts of the
switches. The oil must not be too heavy or
have any tendency to gum, and always be
transparent enough to enable the attendant
to determine the presence of foreign matter
without withdrawing the oil. Their flash
and burning points must be high (at least
4000 F.) to avoid the danger of fire.
Resin oil is slightly better from the dielec-
tric point of view than mineral oil — but on the
other hand its burning point is very low and
it absolutely cannot be used for high tension
switches.
Humidity decreases the insulating resist-
tance of oils. Oil exposed to a moist atmos-
phere shows after two days a decrease in
dielectric power of about 25 per cent.
The oil used in transformers is very heavy.
Its purpose is not to allow humidity to enter
into the transformer. It must not contain
water or acids and must be heated before
using to eliminate the water 01 air it may
contain.
Oils are used not only in their natural
state but in the composition of many insu-
lating varnishes.
530
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Inexpensive Battery Tester
That Third Wire
If an electric current is passed through
a coil or loop of wire we know that lines of
force thread their way through the loop and
like a bar magnet it has a north and a south
pole. A magnetized needle brought into
this field of lines will try to arrange itself
parallel to the direction of these lines.
The accompanying sketch illustrates a
battery tester applying this principle. It
BATTERY TESTER
may be made with a cigar box, a short piece
of No. 14 copper- wire, either insulated or
not, three binding posts taken from the car-
bon post of discarded dry cells, and a twenty-
five cent compass. Binding posts are in-
serted at the end of the box and upon the
inside a loop of wire is fastened to them.
The compass is secured to the cover by a
flat brass piece and wood screws. A bind-
ing post on this brass piece holds a piece of
bare wire bent to serve as a stop for the
needle. When in use set the compass and
box so that the needle points directly north
and is parallel to and nearer to one leg of
the loop than to the other. Secure the box
to a board or table by a screw in the metal
straps. Place the binding posts of a good
battery in contact with the posts on the
cigar box. The deflection of the needle
then indicates the effect of a good cell and
other similar cells may be tested by com-
parison. The wire loop may be bent
towards or away from the needle when mak-
ing the first adjustments. The lowest point
at which a cell will do certain work may be
determined also. Where a whole battery
"goes bad" I have often found by testing
individual cells that several were still good.
Although not so accurate this tester is a
good substitute for an expensive instru-
ment.— A. A. Weiss.
When we look at open wiring on a ceiling
and see that each drop light is connected
between two wires, and then' find, at some
other point, that the two wires are branched
off to make three, a question arises in our
minds as to the cause, as it did in the case
of one of the readers of Popular Elec-
tricity who writes in as follows:
"The other day I went into a shop that
had just installed a small power lathe. On
the wall was a box with a switch mounted
in it. At the top of the box two wires en-
tered, while three came out of the box and
were connected direct to the motor. What
was that third wire for and how was it con-
nected with the work of the other two?"
The illustration shows the condition men-
tioned with two wires running to and
through the switch. If these two wires were
connected directly to the motor the arma-
ture would be burned out. In a one horse-
power motor, for example, the resistance in
the armature is about two ohms, and by
E
Ohm's law G = — , with E = no volts and
R
R = 2, C would be 55 amperes, enough to at
TO sU?MATU/=>f
ARRANGEMENT OF MOTOR AND STARTER
least badly injure the motor. Hence a
"starting-box" which contains resistance is
placed in the motor armature circuit to
choke back the current on starting. In the
small diagram the path of the current is
from the switch to one terminal of the start-
ing box, then to the lower end of the arm,
and through this to the open contact.
When the arm is moved to the first contact
button the current goes through all of the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
531
starting-box resistance and to the motor
armature, while the field coils are taking a
strong current from the middle terminal of
the box over the " third" wire, the other end
of which is connected to the opposite side
of the circuit inside the motor. Referring
again to the starting-box in the small dia-
gram, as its arm is moved over the contact
buttons, the resistance in the box is gradu-
ually cut out of the armature circuit and
added to the field coils, thus reducing the
field flux flowing from the poles pieces
through the armature and allowing the mo-
tor to speed up, but in place of the resistance
of the starting-box a counter-electromotive
force is now created in the armature which
opposes the line voltage and prevents an ex-
cessive flow of current when the motor is in
operation.
Electric Flasher
A simple and inexpensive electric light
flasher, that may be used in operating a
ten, sixteen, or thirty-two candle-power
lamp, may be constructed as follows:
Procure two pieces of metal, one of brass
and the other of wrought iron, 3 J inches
Fig.I
Rg.3
ELECTRIC FLASHER
long, f inch wide and about 1-32 inch in
thickness. Solder two pieces of No. 8
copper wire across one side of the brass
strip, Fig. 3, then bend the iron strip over
the pieces of wire so that the surfaces of the
brass and iron pieces rest perfectly flat
upon each other beyond the wires, being
separated a distance equal to the diameter
of the wires between the points where the
wires are soldered to the brass strip. Clamp
the pieces together and drill two 3-32-inch-
holes through both of them at one end and
also two |-inch holes through them at the
other end, as shown. One of the pieces of
copper wire should be 1 3-16 inches from
one end and the other | inch from the op-
posite end, Fig. 3. Now wrap one layer of
thin asbestos paper around the brass strip
between the copper pieces and wind on 250
ohms of resistance wire of such a size that
it will carry ^ ampere. After the wire has
been put in place fasten two small rivets in
the 3-32-inch holes.
Cut from a piece of |- or J-inch slate a
piece 1 J inches wide and four inches long
to serve as a base to mount the metal strips
on. Drill six holes in this piece as indicated
in Fig. 3. The four end holes should be
counter sunk so that the screws used in
mounting the brass supports will be below
the under surface of the slate.
Cut two pieces from some |-inch brass
1^ inches wide and ij inches long. Drill
four holes in each as indicated in Fig. 1,
and bend them into the form shown in
Fig. 2. All of the holes should be tapped.
Mount these pieces on the slate base and
fasten the brass and iron strips to one of
them by means of two bolts as shown, in
Fig. 3. Place a screw (Si) in the outside
hole of the other piece. This screw should
be platinum pointed and the surface of the
iron piece with which it comes in contact
should have a small piece of platinum fast-
ened to it at the point of contact.
One terminal of the winding on the brass
strip should be connected under screw (S2)
and the other under screw (S3). This
winding is then in series with the lamp until
the contact (C) is closed, due to the brass
expanding and forcing the piece of iron over
against the point of the screw (Si). When
the contact (C) is closed the winding is
shortened and the brass cools off, drawing the
iron away from the screw, thus opening the
circuit again. The resistance of the wind-
ing is such that the lamp will burn very dimly
when connected in series with it but will
burn up to full candle-power when the con-
tact (C) is closed.
You should provide this flasher with a
substantial enclosure so that it will pass
electrical inspection.
D. P. Moreton.
532
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Magnetic Door Lock
frame pushes the door open an inch or so
and the caller does the rest.
The convenience of the electric lock or
door opener is most appreciated in flat and
apartment buildings, and when installed
in connection with a speaking tube system
Doon Frame Doon
Unlocked
MAGNETIC DOOR LOCK
saves much stair climbing. As shown in the
diagram the lock may be operated from a
simple battery and push-button circuit from
one, two, or more points, so that the con-
venience may be extended to any room in the
house. The lock mechanism consists of two
Battery
. CONNECTIONS OF DOOR LOCK
electro-magnets and an armature against
which the revolving latch cannot open until
a button is pushed and the armature drawn
out of the way. As this is done a little
plunger operated by a spring in the door
Seams on Rubber Covered Wires
Those of our readers who regularly handle
rubber covered wires may have noticed that
some of these have a seam along one side
of the rubber and may have wondered why
the seam was there, as it certainly plays no
part in the ordinary use of the finished wire.
This seam or ridge merely shows that when
the rubber was being "cured" it was sur-
rounded by a thin metal jacket having a
seam somewhat like that on ordinary iron
stove piping. When rubber covered wires
were first put on the market, it was found
that in order to secure a high grade of in-
sulation in the rubber, this would have to
be cured under pressure instead of being
left free to expand. For this purpose one
manufacturer started the practice of wrap-
ping the uncured rubber wire with a strip
of tin foil which was closed by a seam run-
ning lengthwise of the wire. Then when
the rubber expanded during the curing, it
forced itself well into the seam, thus forming
the ridge which is still to be seen on vires
made in that way. (The covering of tin
is always removed at the factory after the
rubber has been thoroughly cured.)
This method of surrounding the rubber
with a strip of metal so as to make a seamed
tube within wThich it would compress itself,
was patented; but another Easterner soon
found an equally ingenious way of accom-
plishing the same result. He ran the
wire with its crude rubber coating through
a bath of molten lead and squirted this
lead over it as the wire issued through a
nozzle in the side of the vessel. Thus he
surrounded the rubber with a seamless
jacket of lead which also could be sliced off
and remelted after the rubber was cured.
Later on, other makers of insulated wire
found that by tightly braiding the threads
which are usually put around the rubber,
the braiding itself (if put on the unfinished
rubber) would be unyielding enough to
form a tight jacket for this rubber, thus
compressing it while it was being cured, so
they avoided the patents on both of the other
methods. However there are many who
still swear by the method which uses the
seamed tube and this accounts for the ridge
or fin which you may find along the outer
edge of the rubber core in some brands.
Electrical Men of the Times
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
A few months ago Alexander Graham Bell
celebrated his sixty-third birthday anni-
versary, and celebrated it by plunging with
renewed enthusiasm into a series of ex-
periments which have engrossed his atten-
tion off and on for several years past and
the object of which is the solution of the
problem of aerial navigation along unique
and original lines. With the energy of a
much younger "globe trotter," Prof. Bell
has of late devoted con-
siderable time to travel
and scientific research
in Europe and, inspired
by that interest in
aeronautics which is so
prevalent abroad, he
has returned imbued
with a determination to
perfect a practicable
airship, embodying the
principle of his tetra-
hedral kite.
It must not be sup-
posed, however, that
the famous inventor of
the telephone has in
any measure lost interest
in things electrical. On
the contrary not only
does he keep in close
touch with all phases of
progress in the elec-
trical world but his mind
is occupied much of the time with pros-
pective innovations and inventions in this
realm where he won fame and fortune.
Save perhaps for the suggestion contained
in a snowy beard and hair, Alexander Gra-
ham Bell does not, today, look his three score
and odd years. On the contrary it is not
too much to say that he is today in his
physical and intellectual prime. For all
that he is a tall man there is scarcely a hint
of a stoop in his figure; his step is elastic
and he has a quickness of movement that
appears to endorse the promise made by a
pair of exceptionally bright eyes. That Dr.
Bell takes no account of climatic conditions
which many a man of his years would con-
sider a hardship is best attested by the fact
that in his anxiety to push his current
scientific research he has in effect trans-
formed his "summer residence" at Baddeck,
Nova Scotia, into an all-the-year residence.
On an estate of a thousand acres on Lake
Bras D'Or in northern Nova Scotia are lo-
cated Dr. Bell's principal laboratories and
such is his passion for work that of late years
he has spent much time in this isolated
locality. Moreover, despite his advancing
years this human dynamo continues his
habit of reversing the
usual order of things
and doing his serious
work at night. Dr.
Bell's favorite hours for
work are from 10 o'clock
p. m. to 4 o'clock a. m.
He never goes to bed
until after 4 o'clock in
the morning and his.
usual sleeping hours are
from 4 o'clock until 11
o'clock in the morning.
. Many persons who
are prone to regard Dr.
Bell as an American
electrician, which he is
in fact, may be surprised
to learn that he was
born in Edinburgh,
Scotland, and was edu-
cated in that city and
in London. He spent
two years in Canada ere
he came to this country in 1872 as professor of
vocal physiology at Boston University. This
was just four years before the telephone was
patented. Dr. Bell's father was the inventor
of visible speech for the deaf, and Alexander
Graham Bell chose as his wife the former
Miss Mabel Gardiner, who had been deaf
almost from birth — two circumstances which
explain in great measure Dr. Bell's well
known interest in the cause of and inventions
in behalf of the deaf and dumb. This same
sentiment impelled Dr. Bell when he some
years ago received the "Volta Prize" in
France to devote the fund to the establish-
ment at Washington of the Volta Bureau—
a most inportant institution designed to
promote in every way possible the interests
of the deaf.
ELECTRICITY IN THL
HOUSEHOLD
■ :./■••■- ,
The Latest Decorative Novelties
A dozen American Beauty roses costs any-
where from four to twelve dollars, the com-
mon varieties half that much. A few bou-
quets of sweet peas or carnations may easily
form one of the large items of expense for a
luncheon or dinner
party — but in a day
or two they are
withered and gone.
They are beautiful
while they last and
those who inhale
their fragrance and
feast their eyes on
the delicacy of the
blossoms and foli-
age are no doubt
refined to a cer-
tain* extent through
satisfaction of the
aesthetic sense. But
it is true also that
the desire to have
beautiful flowers out
of season, at tre-
mendous prices, is another manifestation of
the extravagance of the age, and the labor
of the thousands who are required to rear
these hot-house products, that they may
bloom for a day and die, is taken away
from the production of the necessities of
life and is another of the many factors
which enter into the high cost of living.
Is there a pleasing and at the same time an
imperishable substitute for flowers available;
something which can be used for -interior
decorations many times over and always
possess the charm of flowers themselves?
Those of you who have seen the cunningly
THE BULBS COME PACKED LIKE FANCY
FRUIT
formed lilac baskets, rose baskets, flower
jardinieres, strawberry beds, floral festoons,
Christmas wreaths and the hundred and one
other kinds of electrically decorated novelties
which are now produced will know that there
is. As the names
of Peacock and Tif-
fany have become
nation wide as
standing for perfec-
tion in gems and
the goldsmith's art,
so has the name cf
Gudeman come to
be recognized among
those who seek orig-
inality and beauty
in decorations em-
bodying the use of
electric lights.
These designs of
flowers and foliage
are as true to Nature
as human skill will
permit — and it is
that they are arti-
ficial. They are not only imperishable
but fire proof and absolutely safe in that
respect. Partially hidden within the leaves
and vines are tiny electric bulbs which are
perfect imitations of flowers and fruits and
which derive their current through an ordi-
nary lamp cord attached to the nearest
socket. The picture on this page shows a
box as it is packed with assorted bulbs
in the form of fruits, such as oranges,
peaches and pears and looking for all
like a box fresh from the orchards of
California,
hard to distinguish
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
535
/ '/"' "'.'"■ "
SOME ELliCTKIC FLOWER DESIGNS
536
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The designs on the preceding page are only
a few examples. The top one represents a
rose basket which is made in various colors.
It is one of the most popular centerpieces for
table decorations. In the middle at the left
is a lilac basket in the natural colors, the
lights being hidden in the flowers. At the
right is a small orchid basket containing not
only illuminated orchids but sweet peas and
ferns. At the bottom is a flower jardiniere
containing sweet peas, thorn-apple blossoms,
narcissus, etc.
Of course, the half tone illustrations with-
out the coloring can give but an imperfect
idea of the beauty of these decorative pieces,
but, as said before, they are very true to life
and will often solve the problem of a suitable
decorative scheme, with the advantage that
you or some one else can use them over and
over again.
Evolution of the Vacuum Cleaner
The principle underlying vacuum cleaning
has been understood for many years, but it
is quite safe to say that few people know the
interesting circumstances that led to its
first commercial application. Like many
other inventions, it seems to have been the
result of accident.
One of the earliest and most authentic
accounts of the use of air for cleaning is as
follows: About 1894 a railroad porter, to
facilitate his cleaning of the coaches, attached
a hose to the compressed air valve of an
engine and used it to blow the dust from the
corners and crevices of the car. One day
another employe after filling the ice water
tank threw down the bag in which the ice
had been carried and one end of it was
caught on the jagged end of the nozzle of the
hose. Later the porter arriving to complete
the cleaning, turned on the compressed air
and drew the hose along the length of the
aisle. Observing that the bag had become
inflated during its course through the car, he
examined it and found it saturated with dirt
He also noticed that the path traveled by the
nozzle of the hose had been cleaned better
than ever. The result was the construction
of a device in which a strong current of air
was forced out of a small opening, hugging
the floor or article to be cleaned. This blew
the dust and dirt into a surrounding bag
where it remained, the exhausted air passing
through the meshes of the bag.
STATIONARY VACUUM CLEANING SYSTEM
Experts began now to work upon the idea,
some retaining the use of compressed air,
while others inverting the process sought to
produce a suction of air by which dirt and
dust could be drawn up and deposited in a
receptacle. The portable devices now used
for this purpose are known as vacuum
cleaners.
- Following the evolution of the device, the
next step seemed to be that of making certain
parts of the equipment stationary just as the
coal stove has given way to the furnace and
radiator; the portable oil lamp to the electric
light fixture, and the portable bath tub to the
bath room with its stationary heater and tub.
The illustration shows the stationary idea
applied in the vacuum cleaning system of
the United Electric Company, the machine
itself being installed in the cellar. Piping,
running between the studding or in obscure
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
537
corners of closets or halls, connects with each
floor. To clean any part of the house all one
has to do is to attach the hose with the
cleaning tool to the pipe-opening on that
particular floor, turn on the current and the
cleaning begins. A half horse power motor
operating a centrifugal fan draws the air
down the pipe into the basement receptacle
where the heavier dirt drops to the bottom,
the finer dust being caught on a screen as
the impure air and germs pass on through
a pipe into the chimney or to the outside of
the building.
Current Cheaper Than Kerosene
Do you remember grandmother's kindly
dictum? "Better light the oil lamp, dear. It
is cheaper." There was reason for it, com-
ing in the bygone years when everything
electrical was much dearer than now and
when even rough figuring showed that light-
ing by oil lamps was cheaper than by incan-
descents. Since that time the cost of current
has steadily decreased, but thanks to the
Standard Oil Company the price of oil has
also gone down, so how do the two compare
now?
In grandmother's day the comparison was
merely as to the amount of light obtained at
the lamp at the same cost, for the use of
reflecting and diffusing mediums was then
practically unknown. Today all logical
comparisons must be as to the effective
lighting on tables, counters, desks, or in
show windows; in other words, what com-
parative illumination can be obtained from
each illuminant for the same money?
•Theoretically, according to one of our
leading authorities on illumination, Dr. Louis
Bell, a gallon of the highest grade of kerosene
burnt in the most improved type of lamp will
give 800 candle hours, which means that it
will supply a 20 candlepower lamp for 40
hours. To obtain the same 20 candlepower
in a tungsten lamp (requiring 25 watts) for
the 40 hours would take 40 times 25 watt-
hours, or just a kilowatt hour. Therefore a
gallon of the best kerosene can give theoret-
ically, as much light as a kilowatt-hour of
current. In practice the common grades of
oil fall from 10 to 30 per cent shy of the best
grade, so that it will take about 1 J gallons of
oil to equal a kilowatt-hour of current in
the light obtained at the lamp.
But when it comes to the effective light
at the places where it is needed, a 20 candle
oil lamp is by no means equal to a 20 candle
power incandescent. The oil lamp cannot
be inverted, hence the large oil reservoir is
always in the way so that both this and the
chimney interfere with the effective use of
reflectors. On the other hand, the modern
Tungsten lamps may be used in any position
and by means of suitable reflectors the effec-
tive illumination from them may easily be
twice what can be obtained from oil lamps
of the same candle power. Indeed, in some
classes of work such as show window-lighting
the proposition is as high as four to one.
Allowing for the commercial kerosene, which
is below the grade on which Dr. Bell based
his figures, this means that it will take any-
where irom i\ to five gallons of oil to give
the same illumination as a kilowatt-hour
of current. Thus at Chicago, where kero-
sene retails at 13 cents per gallon, oil lamps
would be effectively as cheap as the incan-
descents if the current for different classes
of indoor lighting costs from 32 \ to 65 cents
per kilowatt-hour, or an average of perhaps
40 cents. As a matter of fact it costs less
than a third of this rate, so that even the
much less efficient carbon filament lamps
figure out cheaper in service than kerosene
lamps.
Besides, the incandescent lamps can be
instantly turned on and off, thus saving
wasteful times of burning, and they do not
have the other annoying features of the
kerosene lamp: the labor of cleaning and
filling lamps, the difficulty of keeping them"
from smoking if exposed to drafts, the fire
risk in lighting them, the vitiation of the air
both by the smell or fumes and by consum-
ing oxygen, or the much greater radiation of
heat (for what is the ordinary oil stove but an
overgrown kerosene lamp ?) . If the lighting
costs were equal, these objections would
count seriously against the kerosene lamp,
but with our modern high-efficiency incandes-
cent lamps we have so far outstripped the
oil in economy of operation that we can
simply disregard its handicaps and look upon
L merely as an interesting, but now outgrown
factor in the historical development of
illuminants.
TSbpbono
zTL.ff&rbo,
"Hello, there! Is this six-five-three, ring
one? It is? Is Dr. Pillbag there? You
are Doctor Pillbag? Why, I didn't recog-
nize your voice at all. Somehow it sounded
so strange over the wire, but then I think
that often happens. I was talking to my own
sister yesterday afternoon and I wouldn't
have known it was she if I hadn't really
known.
"Well, Doctor, I just rang you up to speak
to you about the baby. I don't think that
he is really quite well, and yet I don't think
that he is hardly ill enough for you to take
the trouble to come away out here, although
of course I would have you come if I thought
it really necessary. I don't believe in taking
any risks in real sickness, and I don't think
very much of home doctoring. One of my
cousins has a home doctor book and a little
medicine chest and a 'first aid to the injured'
box, and all that, and she treats her children
herself, but I think that it is dreadfully
risky. I think that if one is sick enough to
take medicine it is always best to take it
under the direction of a doctor, and I
wouldn't undertake to give any of my family
treatment for you there, Doctor ?
"About the baby: As I say, he isn't
really ill, but he isn't quite himself, and I
thought it might be better for me to just
speak to you about it, for it would be easy
to do so by 'phone, and 1 was thinking
this morning what a help a 'phone must be
to a doctor. What a lot of time it must
save him, and of course it saves his patients'
time. Here I can stand right in my own
home and talk to you instead of changing
my dress and going away over to the other
side of town, as I would have to have done
a few years ago. I was in the country a short
time ago visiting a cousin of mine — or, to
be more exact, a cousin of my husband's,
but I call her cousin just the same and I
really think more of her than of some of my
own cousins.
"Well, she lives , her name is
Johnson, and I think you met her last spring
when my husband was so ill and you were
here every day for a week — a tall, rather
spare lady with such lovely dark eyes. I
think I recall introducing you to her. Any-
how, I was visiting her and she lives five
miles from the nearest town and her husband
was taken very ill — oh ! very ill in the dead of
night, and, as it happened, their hired man
was away for the night and the nearest
neighbor lived more than hah a mile away
and it was raining and just we two women
alone in the house with this very, very sick
man and no one to go for the doctor, but
there was the telephone! My cousin- — or
my husband's cousin — just rang the doctor
up and he was out to the house in about an
hour. It made me appreciate as I never had
before how useful the 'phone can be, and
yet I suppose that it does get to be a nuisance
sometimes when people ring you up and
talk and talk over the 'phone. Why, Doc-
tor, you know that we have a four-party line
and there is one woman on this line who
thinks nothing of holding the line 40 min-
utes simply visiting with some of her friends,
and you there, Doctor? What is that?
You have patients waiting for you in' the
office ? Why, of course you must have, and
I mustn't keep you any longer than neces-
sary.
"About the baby: As I say, he doesn't
seem to be quite himself. My husband spoke
of it this morning and thought the dear little
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
530
fellow looked a trifle pale and asked if he
was 'off his feed.' I don't approve of slang,
and yet it is often very expressive, don't
you think? Then I remembered that baby
hadn't taken quite all of his last two bottles
and that he seemed a little listless and
what is that, Doctor?
"Has he a temperature? I suppose so.
I suppose a baby always has a temperature
of some kind, hasn't it? I have tried to
count his pulse, but you know it isn't as easy
for an inexperienced person to count the
pulse as it is for the doctor to do it, and,
anyhow, I have forgotten just what is normal
in a child's pulse, but I didn't detect any-
thing unusual in his pulse or I would have
'phoned for you at once, for I think that it is
always best to what is that ? Has he any
fever? I don't know that he has, and yet he
might have some internal fever that I wouldn't
discover, and he is his tongue coated?
"Not that I know of. As I say, he isn't
really ill, and I simply rang you to ask if it
might not be best for you to give him some-
thing to keep him from getting ill.
"You might send it by mail, or I could
come around and get it, although, as I say,
he may not need anything. I think that
sometimes a baby's appetite is not very good
when there is really nothing the matter with
it and I don't believe in you there, doc-
tor? As I say, I don't want it to run on,
if there is really anything the matter, al-
though there cannot be anything very serious
the trouble or the symptoms would be more
marked. I don't believe in you think
that there is nothing the matter with the
baby ? I am so glad you think so. As I say,
I felt sure that he was not really ill, but then
shall I let you know if he shows signs of
being really ill ? I never let an illness of any
kind run on, for I feel that you there,
Doctor? Hello! Hello, there, Doctor! You
there? I guess they have cut me off, or
else he has hung up his receiver. That is
one disadvantage of the telephone. They
are apt to cut you off and keep you from say-
ing what you want to say. I'll ring the
doctor up again soon for there is really some-
thing I want to say to him about the baby."
Household Electric Fountains
Just as the brass band of our outdoor
concerts has its more delicate counterpart
in the chamber music of our string instru-
ments, so the mammoth electric fountains
of our parks now have dainty parallels for
indoor use. The charm of the water spray
has always been attractive to both old and
young, but any general use of indoor foun-
tains was blocked by the difficulty of pro-
viding suitable water connections at the
desirable locations for the sprays.
This handicap has been overcome by placing
an electric pump in the base of the fountain
to provide the pressure without the need of
any connection to the water pipes.
In the handsome designs now made
each has a motor with a vertical shaft
placed below the basin and driving a
centrifugal pump which forces the water
through suitable spouts. The same water'
is used over and over again, hence it
only needs to be replaced as it evaporates.
A simple lamp cord supplies current to' both
the motor and the lamps which may be
either incandescent or Nernst types, and the
whole device is as portable as a table lamp
or a fan motor. It can therefore be moved
at will to the conservatory, the drawing room
or even the porch, wherever its soft glow of
colored sparklings may be most desired.
On hot days the delightful cooling effect
of the spraying water will also be apprecia-
ted, so that the indoor electric fountain
will prove an unusual combination of
the useful and the beautiful. Its prac-
tical value alone will insure it a place in
summer homes as well as in city residences,
in either of which its esthetic charm will
make it a steady source of enjoyment.
A Fan and Ice to Cool a Room
^>
On an extremely hot day when there is
little air stirring, it is often a difficult matter
to so ventilate one or two living rooms of the
house that they are comfortably cool. A
crude but very effective way, especially for
sick rooms, is to place a cake of ice in a wash
tub or dish pan and set this in the room in
such a position that an electric fan will blow
the air upon the ice. In a very few minutes
a decidedly lower temperature will be secured
and will, remain for a long time without
further operation of the fan. Try it.
£> JUNIOR SECTION
Q BDQOQ
Electric Fortune Teller
To Batten/^
Much fun and amusement may be had
from this "fortune teller" which can be
constructed as follows: Provide a board
10 by i8by f inches. Plane, sandpaper and
paint it. Now draw lines on the under side
of the board spacing apart and from the
edges as indicated in the -plan. With a
push drill make a hole through the board
at each place where the lines intersect, the
holes to be a little smaller than the nails
which are to be driven through these holes
from the under side so as to project \ inch
on the upper side. Before driving the nails,
however, secure at each end by screws
wood strips (A), 8 by i by
| inches to serve as legs.
Next attach a buzzer and
two binding posts (BB)
to the board. We are
now ready to wire up the
board on the under side.
No. 22 B. & S. gauge
single cotton covered or
silk covered wire may be
used and each nail head
should be connected by
wire to some other nail
until the 72 nails are
arranged in 36 pairs.
With ordinary lamp cord
make connections from
the binding posts and
buzzer to the battery, and also use 20
inches of this cord to connect from each
binding post to a wooden handle into which
the cord should run and be attached to
a piece of No. 10 copper wire on the inside
as shown. Connecting the battery we are
now ready to "feel out" our connections if
we did not trace these as wires were strung
on the under side. Hold one pointer in
contact with (1) and touch the other to the
various pegs. When (V) is touched the
circuit is completed and the buzzer indicates
this. On a piece of bristol board already
prepared show this connection by a -line
between (1) and (i') and so continue until
a map is made of the whole board. This
map will serve as an aid in preparing ques-
tions and answers.
Next take several pieces of bristol board,
6| by 14I inches, rule off and punch holes
so that the bristol board will drop on the
board and allow a peg to project through
each hole. Now with the map before you
A/o./O Coppen Urine f,
ELECTRIC FORTUNE TELLER
write or print on the clean bristol board a
question around each peg hole, and around
the hole to which the corresponding peg is
connected by wire write the answer. This
bristol board may now be placed on the board.
The player chooses a question he wishes
answered, and touching one pointer to this
peg feels around until the buzzer indicates
the answering peg. Several sheets of bristol
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
541
board may be prepared containing riddles,,
conundrums, etc.
The board may be made to answer many
questions by writing very general answers,
such as: "Yes — Perhaps — No — I think so
— Certainly," etc., on a piece of bristol
board prepared as before, making sure that
each answering peg has the one to which it
is connected left blank. The player now
touches one of the pointers to a blank peg,
asks a question and then proceeds to hunt
for the answer until the buzzer indicates
that he has found it.
Earl Gardner.
Mechanical Boys
By GEORGE RICE
Success of the popular mechanical and
electrical publications throughout the coun-
try is due to several reasons. The principal
of these may be put under the head of
"mechanical boys." It is getting to be
quite the fad for the boy to have some kind
of a workshop in the basement of his home.
A bench is made and some tools are put in.
In a few weeks after operations begin the
boy has quite a number of woodworking
or metal working devices available for use
about the home. A little later he enters
the local market with his products and often-
times he is able to do quite a good busi-
ness.
In one case a lad of 15 years built up a
demand for little toy electrical motors that
proved to be good sellers in the neighbor-
hood. Soon some of the models got into
the hands of the large dealers and today the
boy is running quite a good-sized shop with
a number of men employed turning out
mechanical and electrical toys.
The electrical, building, and engineering
publications in which a section is devoted
exclusively to beginners are obtaining in-
creased numbers of subscribers of this class
every season.
The general introduction of concrete
articles for the markets resulted in encourag-
ing numerous young men to engage in the
making of marketable devices with the ce-
ment, gravel and sand mixtures. There
are some boys in one town making con-
siderable money by turning out flower boxes
and stands made of concrete. It is their
practice to buy the usual Portland cement.
Then with the proper proportions of sand
and gravel, the mixture for concrete is pro-
duced. The concrete thus turned out is
molded in flasks for the desired forms.
The boys showed the writer some well-
designed flower boxes. Many of the box-
fronts are figured. Flower boxes costing
but 10 cents for material are sold by these
boys for one dollar each; and the demand
is equal to the product right along.
In many of the little shops of the boys
you will find a file of the popular electrical
and mechanical publications. The boys and
the public in general do not care so much
for the more technical publications, con-
taining articles on making complicated
things, all of which is beyond the compre-
hension of the average novice. The simple
publications of how to make and how to
market little toy engines and little bob
sleds and the like are doing a world of good
in the country.
I know of hundreds of lads who used to
prefer to go fishing or to waste their time
about the streets, who are now working
industriously in a home shop. The father
derives the benefit of this state of affairs
because the lad usually ceases to beg for
spending money as soon as he gets his
equipment with which to work.
There are boys who are equal to making
little toy hoisting and other forms of steam
engines. The little hoisting engine can be
used to good advantage in the toy world for
the reason that it is easy to make a small
derrick and fit it with cord lifting cables
for hoisting miniature boxes or barrels.
It is well said that most boys like to work
with tools. One reason why parents hesi-
tate to fit up a shop for the son is because
they do not understand how to go to work
to do it. The advertising pages of the
publications devoted to this subject . carry
the advertisements of makers and dealers
of the tools and devices most- necessary.
By writing to any of these advertisers the
desired information can be obtained. By
looking through the newspaper directories
the names of the different popular scientific
publications can be secured. Most news-
stands also carry them.
542
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
It is possible to fit out a boy with a shop
for anywhere from 10 dollars to ioo dollars.
If the lad is inclined to work in wood only,
then the usual tool chest with its assortment
of tools will answer all purposes. The
makers of these assorted tools for boys know
just about what is wanted. A plain form
of foot power drill can be put in for a few
dollars. Sometimes second hand tools and
turning machinery can be obtained at a
low price. I would procure any one of the
woodworking publications and from the
advertising columns get the addresses of the
companies putting up chests and machinery
equipments for boys. Then one or more
of the woodworking journals should be
subscribed for. Every issue of the journals
will contain descriptions of how to make
certain useful articles for the home or the
market. All of the details of measurements
are worked out in the plans. The lad will
have no trouble in following the plans. He
can sell his products about as fast as he
makes them if he follows the directions.
The same ideas apply to the lad who
desires to work in metal. Little models
of devices may be made. A small forge
can be obtained suitable for the boy. Often
the instruction received at this kind of work
is the stepping stone to a high position in a
few years. Then there is the lad who
wants to be an electrician.
The father or the mother soon finds out
what the inclination of the boy may be. If
along electrical lines, then electrical publi-
cations should be subscribed for and some
electrical devices of simple character put in
for the lad to work with. The parents will
be surprised at the advancement made by
the boy. In a few months he will talk of
electrical things and can explain in detail
all about amperes and carbons.
An Electrical Laboratory for Twenty-Five
Dollars
By DAVID P. MORRISON
PART X. — EXPERIMENTS ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OP THE MOTOR
Every action is accompanied by an equal
and opposite reaction; or action and reaction
are equal and opposite. As an example,
you apply a force of a certain number of
pounds to the end of a spring; the spring will
exert an equal force and it will act in the
opposite direction. A magnetic needle, if
supported in such a way that it is free to
move, will be deflected when a current is
flowing in a conductor parallel to its axis.
There is a force acting on the conductor
tending to turn it from its position as well
as the one acting on the magnetic needle.
If the conductor were to be so arranged that
it could move it would change its position
were a current in the wire.
The above statement can be verified by
the following simple experiment: Take a
piece of hardwood 12 inches long, eight
inches wide and f inch thick and drLl a
f-inch hole to a depth of \ inch in its exact
center. Cut a groove \ inch wide around
this hole to a depth of at least \ inch and
separated from the inner opening by about
a J-inch wall. This hole and groove should
now be connected to two binding posts (Bi)
and (B2), Fig. 94, with copper wire placed
in grooves cut in the under side of the
FIG. 94. APPARATUS FOR A SIMPLE
EXPERIMENT
board. The wires should be sealed into the
holes where they pass up through the board
in the groove and cup, and there should be
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
543
a short piece of bare wire exposed. Mount
a f-inch upright (U) about 15 inches in
length, on this base. Cut from some ^-inch
wood a piece eight inches long and ij inches
wide. Drill a f-inch hole through this
piece two inches from the end. Saw a
groove from the end of the piece into the
hole you just bored, and put a round-headed
brass screw through the piece perpendicular
to the slot. This can be used in clamping
the piece on the wooden support. Solder
a piece of sheet brass in the groove in the
top of the screw which will avoid the necessity
of using a screw driver in making the adjust-
ment of the arm (A).
Now bend a piece of bare copper wire
into the form shown by (W) and hang it to
the arm (A) by means of a piece of thin
thread so that the two ends are in the hole
FIG. 95. EXPERIMENT WITH A BAR
MAGNET
and groove in the bottom piece. Place a
small quantity of mercury in the groove
and cup so that the electrical circuit is com-
plete between the binding posts through
the rectangle of wire. Bring the coil to rest
so that its plane corresponds to the direction
of the earth's field, or it is parallel to the
compass needle. Place a small permanent
magnet under the rectangle of wire as shown,
with its north pole toward the center of
the block. Close the circuit and allow a
current to flow through the wire and you
will find it is deflected to the left.
Now explore the magnetic field surround-
ing the wire both inside and outside of the
.rectangle, noting the direction the wire
moves when the magnet is brought into
its vicinity. You will find the wire always
tends to move into such a position that its
magnetic field will be parallel to that of
the permanent magnet.
This last statement can be further demon-
strated as follows: A bar magnet about
FIG. 96. HOW CONTINUOUS ROTATION
CAN BE PRODUCED
seven or eight inches in length should be
clamped in a stand in a vertical position as
shown in Fig. 95, with its lower end five or
six inches above the surface of the table.
Place a connector above the upper end of
the magnet and fasten to it a piece of tinsel
(T), which is an exceedingly flexible con-
ductor, and allow it to hang down along the
side of the magnet. The two ends of this
tinsel should now be connected to a battery
or some suitable source of electro-motive
force, so that a small current will flow through
it. Allow quite a bit of slack in the tinsel
wire at the lower end so it will be free to
move about the magnet.
When a current is sent down the wire from
(Ti) to (T2) the wire will wind itself around
the magnet in a left-hand spiral which re-
sults in the current circulating around the
south pole of the magnet, as viewed from
the lower end, in a clockwise direction.
The current in the wire sets up a magnetic
field in the same direction as that of the
permanent magnet and tends to increase
its magnetism. If you now reverse the cur-
rent in the circuit the wire will unwind and
again wind itself around the magnet in a
rightdiand spiral which results in the same
condition as before. The two fields are in
544
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
the same direction, and the current is in-
creasing the magnetism of the permanent
magnet.
The coil shown in Fig. 94 will cease to
move when the field surrounding the wire
becomes parallel to the field of the permanent
Hand
MaqneticField
FIG. 97. THE LEFT HAND RULE
magnet. Continuous rotation of the wire
could be produced if it was so arranged that
it was free to move under the influence of
the magnet but never attained a position
where its field and that of the permanent
mganet were parallel. Such an arrangement
is shown in Fig. 96. A small electro-magnet
(M) is placed on the wooden base of your
stand with one terminal connected to one of
the binding posts. Make a small wooden
trough that will slip down over the upper
end of the core of the electro-magnet, as
shown in the figure. Connect the second end
of the electro-magnet winding to a small
quantity of mercury placed in this wooden
trough. Hook one end of a piece of small
copper wire on a hook (H) in the horizontal
arm, which is connected electrically to one
of the binding posts on the base. The other
end of the copper wire should dip in the
mercury and complete the electrical circuit
between the two binding posts.
Current will now flow through electro-
magnet (M) and the wire (W) in series.
The direction of the magnetic field of the
magnet is practically vertical while that of
the wire is almost horizontal, and the wire
will rotate about the pole of the electro-
magnet, when a current is flowing through
it, according to the simple principle that a
magnetic body free to move, tends to move
into such a position that its lines of force
will be in the same direction as the lines of
the field in which it is placed.
You can determine the direction in which
the wire will rotate about the end of the elec-
tro-magnet by the following rule which is
. known as the "left-hand rule." Place the
thumb, first and second fingers of the left
hand all at -right angles to each other, . as
shown in Fig. 97, and the hand so that the
first finger indicates the direction of the
lines of force of the magnet; and the second
finger the direction of current in the wire;
the thumb will then indicate the direction
of motion of the wire. By applying the
above rule to Fig. 96 we find the wire will
rotate in a clock-wise direction, as you look
down upon the mercury cup. Its motion
around the pole is identical to that in the
previous experiment, so that, the field of
the wire tends to increase the magnetism of
the electromagnet.
The moving wire, in Fig. 96, is the same
as the armature of a motor and the electro-
magnet corresponds to the field of the motor.
Hence this simple rule can be applied in
determining the direction of rotation of the
armature of a motor.
By reversing the connections of the binding
posts in Fig. 96 with respect to the source of
electro-motive force you will reverse the
direction of the current in both the wire and
FIG. 98. BARLOW'S WHEEL
the electro-magnet and the wire will rotate
in the same direction, as in the previous case,
since the same relation exists between the
three quantities, current, field and direction
of motion. This can be verified by applying
the left-hand rule. If, however, you re-
verse the current in the wire and do not
change it in the electro-magnet, the direction
of rotation is reversed and can be shown by
the use of the left-hand rule. In the opera-
tion of a motor if it is desired to reverse the
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
545
direction of rotation, the current through
either the armature or the field magnet must
be reversed, but not through both.
A permanent magnet could have been used
instead of the electro-magnet as shown in
Fig. 96. The cup should, however, be
lowered to about the middle of the magnet
and the wire increased in length. By lower-
ing the cup a greater part of the field sur-
rounding the wire would be in the field of
the magnet. If, however, the cup were
lowered to the base and the wire increased
in length so that it was in the field of both
poles of the manget, one pole would tend
to cause it to move in one direction and the
other pole in the opposite direction, so that
there would be no motion if the two effects
were equal.
Continuous rotation of a conductor in a
magnetic field can be illustrated by a simple
FIG. 99. EXPERIMENT TO SHOW RELATION
OF MAGNETIC FIELD ABOUT TWO WIRES
device called Barlow's wheel. A copper
disk (C), Fig. 97, is delicately balanced on
the support (Si) so that it is free to rotate.
Its lower edge dips in a small trough of
mercury (M) placed between the poles of
a strong horseshoe magnet (H). The elec-
trical jrircuit is complete from the binding
post (B2) to the mercury trough (M) to
the center of the copper disk and by a con-
ductor to the binding post (Bi). The direc-
tion of the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet and the field due to the current,
which flows from the edge of the disk to its
center, are at right angles to each other and
the disk will rotate according to the left-
hand rule.
The above experiments all deal with the
relation between a conductor carrying a
current and the magnetic field of a perma-
nent magnet. It might be well at this point
to show the relation between the magnetic
fields surrounding two parallel conductors
both carrying current. Hang from the arm
on your stand a piece of tinsel with the two
ends of about the same length. These pieces
should hang close together and should be
FIG. IOO. ANOTHER WAY OF SHOWING
RELATION OF MAGNETIC FIELDS
connected to a source of electro-mouve
force, as shown in Fig. 99. In this case the
two wires carry currents in the same direc-
tion and they will be attracted toward each
other. If the current flows through the
two wires in opposite directions they will
repel each other or move apart.
The above statements can be better illus-
trated perhaps by the diagram shown in
Fig. 100. Let it be assumed that a line of
force is of north polarity when it is toward
you and of south polarity when it is away
from you. With this assumption in mind
the polarity of a straight conductor can be
determined. The direction of the current
in the two wires and the direction of the
magnetic field are indicated by arrows.
When the current flows in two adjacent
wires in the opposite direction the adjacent
sides of the wires are of the same polarity
and there is a force of repulsion between
them and the wires tend to move away. If
now the current in the two wires flows in
opposite directions the polarity of the adja-
cent sides will be opposite and there will
be a force of attraction tending to draw the
wires together. A small piece of cardboard
(CC) can be so arranged that the wires pass
through it and the resultant magnetic field
can be shown graphically by means of some
546
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
fine iron filings sprinkled on the cardboard
when there is a current in the wires.
While it is not essential that you perform
all of the above experiments in order that
you be able to construct a small motor, such
as the one described later, you will never-
theless find them very instructive. Before
taking up the actual construction of a motor
you should understand fairly well the pur-
FIG. IOI.
ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE
OF THE COMMUTATOR
pose of what is termed a commutator. A
simple turn of wire, as shown in Fig. 101,
is placed between the poles of a magnet and
so arranged that it can rotate about the axis
(X) . The terminals of this coil are connected
to a split metallic ring (R) upon which two
brass strips (Si) and (S2) rest. These two
strips are connected to some source of elec-
tromotive force and there will be a current
flowing through the coil when the external
circuit is complete. The coil will move until
its plane is perpendicular to the direction
of the magnetic field between the north and
south poles of the magnet.
If the coil moves beyond this position there
is a force tending to bring it back to the per-
pendicular position unless the current is
reversed in the coil as it passes from one
side of the perpendicular position to the
other. By properly arranging the strips
(Si) and (S2) with respect to the split ring
(R) the current will be reversed in the coil
at the proper instant and the coil will con-
tinue to rotate.
The split ring (R) is called the commutator
and it is the simplest form possible. Such
an arrangement serves only to show how the
current is communicated and would be a
very poor motor as there would be prac-
tically no force producing rotation when the
coil was near the perpendicular position.
The above disadvantage is overcome by
placing a number of coils on the same shaft
with their planes making angles with each
and have them all interconnected so that
there will always be some coils exerting a
turning force. The ring (R) must be split
into more segments as you increase the num-
ber of coils and these segments must all be
insulated from each 'other.
The strength of the magnetic field existing
between the poles (N) and (S) can be greatly
increased by making a form from iron and
winding the coils on it.
(To be continued.)
Toy Railway Car Reverser
The illustration shows the "voltamp"
reverser, a patented device by which a toy
electric train may be made to stop, start or
run in either direction by throwing a two-
point switch in the supply circuit. The
little metal box which is only 2^ by i\ by one
inches contains the reversing contacts which
are operated by an armature between the
poles of an electromagnet on the principle of
the polarized relay. This box is placed out
of sight in the car or engine and it is quite
impossible for the onlooker to discover how
the trick is done unless told.
MoTOfFp
FtfcLO
TOY RAILWAY CAR REVERSER
Membership in Popular Electricity Wireless Club is made up of readers
of this magazine who have constructed or are operating wireless apparatus
or systems. Membership blanks will be sent upon request. This depart-
ment of the magazine will be devoted to the interests of the Club, and
members are invited to assist in making it as valuable and interesting
as possible, by sending in descriptions and photographs of their equipments.
A High-Power Wireless Equipment
By ALFRED P. MORGAN
PART VI. TRANSMITTING HELIX
We considered in the first paper the man-
ner in which electrical oscillations are gen-
erated and how they set up electro-magnetic
waves. But we must also take into con-
sideration the conditions under which such
actions take place as well as the apparatus
necessary to produce them.
When a condenser discharges through a
high resistance the current passes in one
direction only, like a normal current. If
the discharge takes place through a coil of
wire, it will consist of a large number of
exceedingly rapid alternations which we
have learned were oscillations. Fig. 62
represents these actions graphically. In (A)
the curve shows how
the current dies away
gradually through a
high resistance without
oscillating. (B) shows «
by the wavy line the
form of the current
when it discharges
through a coil of wire.
The wire possesses a
peculiar property called
inductance. Inductance
is a foreshortened term
for the word "self-in-
duction" which may be
likened to a sort of
"electrical inertia." In-
ertia is defined as the
property of matter by current curves
virtue of which it tends
to remain at rest, when at rest, and
when in motion to continue its motion.
Inductance is the property of an elec-
tric current in a circuit to produce a
magnetic field surrounding the circuit. This
field, when changing, induces an electro-
motive force in the circuit itself or in a
neighboring circuit.
However, even though there may be in-
ductance in a circuit certain conditions must
be fulfilled before oscillations can take place
and so the "fundamental equation" of
wireless telegraphy is that there will be
oscillations in a circuit provided the resist-
ance in ohms is not greater than the square
root of four times the inductance in henries,
divided by the capacity of the condenser in
microfarads.
The instrument employed in wireless
telegraphy to furnish the inductance in
the transmitting circuit is usually called
the transmitting helix. It consists of a large
spiral of heavy copper or brass wire. High
frequency currents exhibit the- curious
property of traveling or flowing near the
surface of a conductor, i. e., they actually
do not permeate the wire very deeply. For
this reason the resistance of conductors
to such currents is several times the resist-
ance to direct and ordinary alternating
current.
The helix also serves another purpose
besides furnishing the inductance. It acts as
an auto transformer to raise the voltage of
the high frequency currents in the aerial
circuit. Fig. 63 will explain this. An in-
duction coil, spark gap, helix and condenser
are connected to the aerial as shown. When
the induction coil is in operation the sec-
ondary current flows through the leads,
through the condenser down the clip (A)
548
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
and lower part of the helix back to the coil.
During this process the condenser becomes
charged. At the same time it tends to dis-
charge but can not do so because of the
counter e. m. f. of the induction coil. To
w
o
-1
x<
o
f
f
D
r
FIG. 63. TRANSMITTING CIRCUIT
discharge, it is necessary for the current to
pass across the spark gap. If the latter is
properly adjusted, the circuit formed by the
gap, condenser, flexible lead, lower part of
the helix and return wire (D) becomes the
seat of electrical oscillations. This is known
as the closed circuit. Such high frequency
currents form a powerful magnetic field in
the immediate vicinity of helix and so
TRANSMITTING HELIX
generate oscillations in the other turns from
(B) down to (C) by induction. This latter
part of the helix constitutes a sort of sec-
ondary coil and the high frequency currents
generated in it are usually of a higher volt-
age than those in the closed circuit. The
oscillations in the "secondary" are free to
flow out into the aerial and ground and
generate electro-magnetic waves. The aer-
ial, ground and helix from (B) to (C) con-
stitute the open circuit.
The amount of helix wire necessary for
a transmitting circuit is most easily deter-
mined by coiling up some wire around a
form and then tuning the circuits with a
hot wire ammeter. A few extra feet should
be allowed in case it is ever necessary to make
changes or alter the wave length of the sta-
tion. Too much inductance beyond that
necessary to receive energy from the closed
circuit will weaken the radiation and shorten
the period. In such a case it will be neces-
sary to increase the capacity of the aerial
by adding wires to it.
Fig. 64 is a picture of a helix" suitable
for use with the apparatus which already
has been described. The circular heads are
cut out of mahogany one inch thick, and
are 15 inches in diameter. Six rectangular
notches 1 by x\ inches are cut 60 degrees
apart in each M /5 ^
head as shown : !--*
in Fig. 65.
The heads are
separated a
distance of 10
inches by six
struts placed
in the notches.
The struts are
1 by 1 \ inches
in section and
12 inches long.
Each strut is
notched to re-
ceive the
slipping.
The wire is composed of eight complete
turns of bare round brass f of an inch in
diameter. It is fastened at frequent in-
tervals to the helix frame by small round
headed brass screws passing through the
wire into the wood. The ends of the wire
are connected to heavy binding posts by
large brass straps.
The helix is raised above the level of the
table by four legs. These are two inches
high and x\ inches thick. They are cut out
of wood and fastened to the under side of
the lower head as in Fig. 66.
Fig. 67 shows the clip for making contact
with the wire. The handle is three inches
long and is turned out of a piece of hard
rubber rod | of an inch in diameter. Fig.
68 shows a cross section of the handle.
The contact is made out of a strip of phos-
phor bronze jj inches long and f inch wide.
A piece of flexible rubber covered wire is
FIG. 65. HELIX HEAD
wire and prevent it from
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
549
soldered to the middle and passed through
the handle. The contact is then bent in the
middle and forced into the handle. It
may be fastened and prevented from pulling
out by means of a pin or screw. The free
ends are bent as shown so as to be easily
FIG. 66. COMPLETE HELIX
forced over the helix wire and to grip it
firmly. Three such clips are required.
SPARK GAP
Fig. 69 is a picture of the spark gap.
The base is a slab of polished Italian marble.
In selecting the marble avoid colorings and
dark streaks. Color in marble is due to
fLfX/BLE
CO/V TACT
FIG. 67. HELIX CLIP
the presence of iron and greatly reduces its
insulating qualities. The base should be
8| inches long, four inches wide and | of
an inch thick. Four 3- 16 -inch holes are
bored along the centre line in the positions
indicated in Fig. 70. They are countersunk
from the lower side to permit the heads of
the screws which fasten the standards and
binding posts to come below the surface.
The holes may be filled with plaster of
paris and allowed to stand until set after
the screws are in place. The upper edge of
the marble base may be beveled if desirable.
This considerably improves the appearance.
The standards are turned out of solid
brass rods f of an inch in diameter. They
are 3^ inches long and shaped as shown in
Fig. 71. The hole in the bottom is threaded
with a 10-24 tap so that a screw having a
-similar thread may be used to fasten the
standard to the base. The side hole near
the top is threaded with a 5-16 tap having
20 threads to the inch.
DETAIL OF HELIX CLIP
The foot plate is detailed in Fig. 72.
These plates are placed beneath the stand-
ard. They not only better the appearance
of the instrument but also serve to connect
the standard with the binding post.
FIG. 69. SPARK GAP
They are two inches long, one inch wide
at one end, § of an inch at the other and
1- 1 6 inch thick. The exact shape is best
determined from the illustration. The holes
are located and bored so as to permit the
screws to pass through into the standards
and binding posts.
s§
<$—
FIG. 70. MARBLE BASE OF SPARK GAP
mo
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
The spark electrodes Fig. 73, are zinc
cylinders, one inch in diameter and § inch
long. The front surfaces are slightly convex
so that the sparks will tend to jump evenly
from the whole surface and not from one
The gap is now ready to assemble and
be lined up, as in Fig. 75. The opposing
surfaces of the spark electrodes should be
^STANDARD
f-HANDLE f
FIG. 71. STANDARD
side and the edges. The back face is per-
fectly flat and has a hole bored \ inch deep
and threaded with a 5-16 tap having 20
turns to the inch. The stems are brass
rods 5-16 of an inch in diameter and 3^
inches long.
They are
threaded
throughout
their entire
length with a
die to fit the
hole in the
electrodes and
the side holes
in the stand-
ards. It is best to make the stems
first, screw the electrodes on them and then
centre in a lathe by taking a light cut off
the zinc.
FOOT PLATE
^
Zo
FIG. 73. ZINC ELECTRODE
The handles, Fig. 74, are turned out of
hard rubber rods, three quarters of an inch
in diameter and 2J inches long. One end
M P _, ■■ ^ is rounded while
a hole one inch
deep is bored in
the other and
threaded to fit
the stems. The
metal parts are
completed by
giving a coat of lacquer to
i_.
FIG. 74. GAP HANDLE
buffing and
the brass.
^~BAS£
FIG. 75. GAP ASSEMBLED
perfectly parallel and revolve on the same
centre when the handles are turned to ad-
just the length of the gap. If the stems
screw into the standards firmly but easily
no lock nuts will be required to maintain
the adjustment.
If the gap is to be used for long periods
at a time it may be well to fit the stems with
radiation ^-electhooe
plates as
shown in Fig.
76, and so dis-
sipate some
of the heat.
These parts
can be made
out of sheet
brass and
r
/'RADIATION
PLATE
3USH/IVG
FIG. 76. RADIATOR PLATES
fitted to the stems immediately behind each
zinc electrode. They are 15 inches in
diameter and are spaced 5-32 of an inch
apart by means of small brass bushings.
This forms a very effective radiating sur-
face which will keep the gap fairly cool.
(To be continued.)
Central California Wireless Asso-
ciation
The Wireless Association of Central
California was organized on May 27, 1910,
with the following officers: President, G.
De Young; secretary, B. K. Leach. The
purpose of the Club is to promote wireless
telegraphy and telephony in California.
When organized the club had a membership
of ten. Any one in the state who has a
station is eligible to membership. Address
the association at 860 Callish street, Fresno,
California.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
:5i
and with it the occupants of two auto-
mobiles 25 miles apart are able to talk
with each other when running at a moderate
speed.
One of the pictures shows a complete
station installed in an automobile while the
Automobile Wireless Telegraphy
The adaptation of wireless telegraphy to
use on automobiles during a tour has been
experimentally worked out by Dr. Lee
DeForest and Carl H. Page. The real
object of the experiments
was to provide, if possi-
ble, a means of securing
news on the Glidden tour.
The idea is to have an
official wireless automobile
carrying an operator and
press representatives from
which messages and news
may be sent without stop-
ping the car. Two " scout"
cars will be sent ahead to
receive messages from the
official car. While on« of
these is receiving news at
some point and transmitting
it by local telephone or
telegraph the other car is
hastening ahead to a point
where its masts may be
set up ready to begin re-
ceiving messages when its
companion car finds it ne-
cessary to move ahead
again.
The apparatus which Dr. DeForest used other is of the portable or field set, which
is a duplicate in miniature of the Metro- may be taken out of the vehicle and set
politan Tower station in New York City, up in a very few moments.
SENDING MESSAGES FROM AN AUTOMOBILE WHILE
UNDER WAY
Westchester Wireless
Association
SENDING WITH AUTOMOT'.ILE FIELD SET
The Westchester Wireless
Association has been formed
in Westchester County, N.
Y., and is just entering on its
second year with every suc-
cess. At a recent election
the following officers were
chosen: Stanley R. Maning,
president; Ernest B. Moor-
house, secretary and treas-
urer. Any amateur having
a successfully working sta-
tion and residing in West-
chester County is eligible for
membership. For further
particulars apply to Ernest
B. Moorhouse, (Sec.) 37 W.
Main St., Tarrytown, N. Y.
Connections for Transmitting and Receiving
A large number of the queries which we
receive concerning wireless relate to con-
nections of apparatus. As these connections
are more or less standard, publication of
the following diagrams will anticipate a large
number of these questions.
In reading the drawings the following
key should be employed — ■:
L — Leading-in wire from aerial.
G — Ground (Earth Connection)
D — Electrolytic Detector.
C — Fixed Condenser.
V — -Variable Condenser.
P — Potentiometer.
B — Battery.
T — Telephone Receivers.
TC — Straight Tuning Coil.
VT — Loose Coupled Tuner.
L J — Leyden Jar or Plate Condenser.
CO— C oil.
H— Helix.
K— Key.
SG — Spark Gap.
S — Switch
AS— Aerial Switch (D.P.D.T Pore. Base).
AG — Anchor Gap.
The various thermo detectors, such as
silicon, perikon, etc., may replace the elec-
trolytic type in these diagrams. The po-
tentiometer may then be replaced by a copper
wire, and the battery may be omitted.
TRANSMITTING SETS
TC< D
Complete Station
B ©
SG
CO
r^—~
o± L-i'l'I'l-
Open Circuit Set
®
loop Aerial System
Comp/ete ■Station (3)
LJ
SG
Leyden Jans across Gap
H'l'l'l- L
Tuned Sending Set
©
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
553
RECEIVING SETS
©
7-^^—9—0
\jD
G R
©
=_B
®
TC> D
©
G —
= G
Loop depict I System
Loop denial System
®
®
~ G
7o Connect any
>$ ~* B number* of 7y pes
of Detector, so
Lnatr any one may
be used at urt'fl . To operate,
any Detector* usith out Battery, move
siider of potentiometer* to end of r=od
corresponding -to no (so/t-acje.
©
les in Detectors
By GEORGE F. WORTS
Since the origination of the first simple,
auto-restoring detector, there have been
many introduced into the wireless field.
The number has greatly increased recently,
till now almost every crystalline mineral
with a heavy percentage of metal for a basis
has been adopted and used as a detector of
etheric disturbances. Since the beginning
of the research very ingenious ideas have
been put in practice with usually gratifying
results, as. practically any high resistance
conductor will respond to electric currents
of an oscillatory nature.
SIMPLE FORMS
Perhaps the simplest of all self-restoring
detectors is the microphone. Almost all
FIG. I. MICROPHONE
amateurs have used this detector in its
simplest form — a needle across knife-like
carbon edges. Fig. i depicts a modified
form of this type. Contact is made very
lightly with the point of a fine needle on a
flat carbon surface. It is more sensitive
Canbon
FIG. 3. SIMPLE ELEC-
TROLYTIC DETECTOR
Brass P/ate
FTG. 2. WATER DETECTOR
than the "needle and knife edge" type, but
like all microphone detectors gets out of ad-
justment too quickly for practical use. A
drop of water between carbon surfaces (Fig. 2)
is responsive to wireless waves. This form is
only experimental
like the microphone.
The electrolytic of
which the foregoing
is a very simple
type, has gained
widespread popu-
larity on account
of its adaptiveness
for long-distanee
work. Fig. 3 shows
a simple form of
the electrolytic de-
tector, a modifica-
tion of which is used in the U. S. navy.
The bulb of a small spherical incandescent
lamp is chipped off at the top and the fila-
ment broken off at its juncture with the
terminals. The cup is filled with a 10 per
cent solution of nitric or sulphuric acid.
Though not as sensitive as the bare point
detector, the results obtained are ample
reparation [for
the small trou-
ble in making
it. Bare point
detectors will
not produce
satisfactory re-
sults unless
the anode con-
sists of a wire,
two one hun-
dred thousandths (.00002) of an inch thick.
Electrolytic detectors can not be given a
fair test unless a wire as small as this is used.
This size wire costs about 50 cents per inch.
It is possible to treat metal surfaces to give
results as thermo cells. Immerse a tablet
of iron or steel in a ni+ric acid solution for
five minutes. Then wipe away all traces
of acid. Bring to bear upon its surface the
point of a very light helical spring as shown
in Fig. 4. Messages can be received if a
well corroded part of the tablet is used.
Coal can be used as a detector of etheric
disturbances, owina; to its carbonic base.
Cor-Poded Tab/ei
FIG.
4. CORRODED
TABLET
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
555
The crystal should be held between metal
surfaces with considerable pressure, as by
the method illustrated in Fig. 5. The
pressure is regulated by adjusting the screw.
Mercury used between proper contacts is
fieauy Br>ass <SMp.
Coal
FIG.
£3r>assP/afe
COAL DETECTOR
suitable for receiving. It is not as sensitive
as the crystal or electrolytic types for long
distance work, but for local work cannot be
surpassed, as the incoming signals are much
louder and sharper than with the more sen-
. sitive types. The globule of mercury should
be held in a small brass cup, as in Fig. 6,
and contact made with a fine graphite point
(from hard lead pencil) or a tantalum wire
(this form known as the tantalum detector).
The adjustment is difficult to maintain.
THE FLAME DETECTOR
The principle of the flame detector illus-
trated in Fig. 7 has been embodied in De-
Graph/ie
,:'.■'.":. ,i!l"::""i"rr"
Bna&s Socket \
G/obu/e of 'Me^con/
SnassCup
FIG. 6. MERCURY DETECTOR
forest's "audion." It is satisfactory for ex-
perimental purposes and marvelously sen-
sitive, but, owing to the fluctuating quality
of the flame, is not reliable for practical
work. A strong battery current is neces-
sary for its successful operation. The
audion detector has proven sensitive enough
to be adopted for use in long-distance wire-
less telephony. In operating the flame de-
tector it is evident that a steady flame should
be employed, as one fluctuating would of
course register the fluctuations in the tele-
phone receivers. A Bunsen burner is ad-
mirably suited to this purpose.
Two metal disks should be held in the
flame at the point where the heat is greatest.
The metal should be cut in disks one inch
in diameter, 3-16 inch thick and the center
of one side of each disk is tapped to fit a
small threaded rod. The disks are held in
the flame by these rods from brass posts
seven inches in height fashioned from \
inch rod. The posts should be mounted on
a rubber or hard wood base and the Bunsen
burner placed between them. The metal
FIG. 7. FLAME DETECTOR
disks are next put in place. The round
brass rods to which they are fastened should
terminate in rubber or fibre knobs for ad-
justing purposes. The correct distance be-
tween the disks will be found to be 1-64 to
1-32 of an inch. For best results shunt a
condenser of .005 mf capacity across it.
A condenser of this capacity will consist of
about 300 square inches of tin foil between
paraffined paper. A variable condenser is
of course more desirable than one of fixed
capacity. The tuning system used should
be designed to eliminate all local disturb-
ances such as arc lights, street car flashes,
high tension, etc., as the "detector noise"
is quite loud in itself. Fig. 8 shows con-
nections using a loose coupler and a single
slide tuner with looped aerial. This "hook-
up" will cut out most undesire'd disturbances.
CRYSTAL DETECTORS
Ferro-sulphide in pyrite form, known as
"fools gold" to the layman and as iron-
pyrites to the experimenter, can be very suc-
cessfully used as a detector. The crystal
should be fastened on lead in a brass cup
and the contact made by a phosphor bronze
or brass wire about No. 18. As ferro-sul-
556
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
phide pyrites vary a great deal in sensitive-
ness, it is best to test several crystals before
selecting the one to be mounted in the cup.
Testing can be done by using the brass wire
and placing the crystal upon a nickeled sur-
face. The cup in which the crystal is
mounted should
be movable, as
the most sensitive
point is not al-
ways found at
first..
Fig. 9 shows a
detector stand,
easily made by
anyone at all fa-
miliar with tools.
It is suited to
iron pyrites. The
spring (S) is fash-
ioned from a
rather heavy strip
of brass as the
pyrites give best
results under con-
siderablepressure.
This stand may be used for iron pyrites,
cuprite, zincite and stibnite. By replacing
the heavy bronze contact for a lighter one
such as a light spring or needle it may be
used for silicon, chalcopyrite, galenite or
any of the " light contact" minerals.
carborundum; thermo-couples
Fig. 10 shows a detector stand suitable
for carborundum crystals. Brass disks are
fastened on small rods supported by brass
Connections fon FJame Declecfor
LA- looped Aerial
G ~ Ground
SS.Tr-<Siryle<S//de Tuner
L Cr Loose Coupler
B~Bollery
C -OOS M.F. Condenser
R. Receivers
F ' D. Flome Declecfor
FIG. 8. CONNECTIONS
FOR FLAME DETECTOR
'Vo/8P.B.tb>r>e tf I
Bharss P/aie XBase
FIG. 9. FERRO-SULPHIDE ( PYRITES )
DETECTOR
binding poles. The crystal should be placed
between the faces of the disks and the ten-
sion regulated by the thumb nut which in-
fluences the helical spring. Some car-
borundum crystals work better between car-
bon surfaces. It is a good idea to have
carbon disks on hand in case the brass con-
tacts are not satisfactory. This stand may
be used as a thermo-couple by substituting
cups in which the elements are mounted
in place of the disks. Bornite and zincite
constitute the most sensitive elements of a
thermo-couple to this date. There are
many others such as chalcopyrite and
cuprite, galenite and cuprite, etc.
A list of minerals, more or less suitable
for wave detection, is given below:
Carborundum.
Silicon. Fused.
Galenite. Sulphide of lead.
Graphite. Carbon, more or less pure.
Cuprite. Sulphide of copper.
Stibnite. Sulphide of antimony.
Sphalerite. (Blend). Sulphide of zinc.
Pyrrhotite. Essentially a sulphide of iron.
(Iron 60.4; sulphur 39.6.)
Pyrites. Sulphide of iron. (Iron pyrites.
Iron, 46.6; sulphur, 53.4.)
Chalcopyrite. Sulphide of copper and iron.
Corundum (variety of emery). Oxide of alumi-
num plus iron oxide.
Hematite. Oxide of iron. (Oxygen, 30; iron,
70.)
Magnatite (variety of loadstone). Oxide of iron.
(Oxygen, 27.6; iron, 72.4.)
Cassiterite. Oxide of tin.
Siderite. Carbonate of iron.
Malachite. Carbonate of copper.
A UNIVERSAL DETECTOR STAND
It is a good idea to have a universal de-
tector stand, in which any crystal may be
tested. It should be equipped with a
FIG. IO. UNIVERSAL DETECTOR STAND
variety of interchangeable contacts, so that
the ones most suitable to the various sub-
stances can be ascertained. A sketch is
given in Fig. n of a universal detector
stand. It is equipped with carbon disks,
one type of contact for carborundum.
It may be used for a variety of substances
by merely changing the contacts for ones
most suitable to the crystal used.
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
557
In the digaram (A) is the adjusting screw:
(B) phosphor bronze spring; (C) brass
block; (i3) and (E) removable cups; (F)
carbon blocks; (G) crystals; (H) hard
rubber base; (I) polished brass plate; (J)
fiber "pill."
FIG. II. UNIVERSAL DETECTOR STAND
Green carborundum (translucent, not
opaque) crystals are more sensitive than
blue or red.
Electrolytic Interrupter
An electrolytic interrupter, to be used
in connection with an open core transformer
(or induction coil) on no volts 60 cycles
A. C, can be maae at a cost of about $1.00.
The material necessary is as follows:
one large battery jar (or one-gallon crock);
one porcelain insulating tube (like those
used in the salammoniac battery) ; a piece
of wood for a cover; one piece of glass tub-
ing 14 inches long, and \ inch in diameter;
one piece of sheet lead eight inches long,
two inches wide and from \ to \ inch in
thickness; one large binding post, and a
piece of bare copper or aluminum wire, No.
12, 15 inches long.
Cut the wooden cover large enough to
allow it to extend past the jar one inch on
each side, as shown
at (8), Fig. 1. In
the center of the
cover a hole should
be bored large
enough to allow the
porcelain insulating
tube to be inserted.
Three inches from
the hole in the cen-
ter of the cover,
bore another hole
\ inch in diameter,
Fir,. 1. electrolytic for the binding post.
interrupter Drill a i-inch hole
in the lead strip
(6), one inch from the end. Bend the lead
as shown and insert the binding post (5)
and tighten the lead against the wooden
cover.
Insert the insulating tube (jo) and glass
tube (9) allowing the glass tube to extend
three or four inches from the bottom of the
jar. Now wrap a piece of tape (4) or a
rubber band around the glass tube to hold
it in place. Take the glass tube (9) and
hold the end farthest from the tape in
the flame of a blow torch, or in a gas name.
The end of the tube will begin to close up
of its own accord; allow it to close leaving
only a small hole. Two or three of these
tubes should be made, with different sizes
of holes, from the size of an ordinary little
pin to that of a large hat pin.
If you use a tube with too large a hole,
you will find that the lamps in the house
will flicker every time you work your tele-
graph key in sending. This means that
you are using too much current, and should
JbJ/Oro/isA.C.
Fuse
-©-
Suritch
-B-
Fuse f<eu
Co//
Co/ide/itfe/a
FIG. 2. CONNECTIONS FOR ELECTROLYTIC
INTERRUPTER
have a tube with a smaller hole. Good re-
sults should be obtained without having the
lamps flicker at all.
The solution for the interrupter is: one
part sulphuric acid to nine of pure water.
Pour the water into the jar first, and then
the acid, otherwise you are apt to break the
jar, as acid generates a great amount of
heat when coming in contact with water.
This solution should come up on the lead
plate about three inches, and the wire (7)
and glass tube (9) should be almost even .
with the lead plate (6). The operator can
adjust this to meet requirements.
It is not 'advisable to use the interrupter
on a coil giving less than a one-inch spark,
owing to the fact that small coils as a rule
are not built to carry very heavy current.
I have drawn a diagram of connections,
showing interrupter, coil, key, two fuses,
a switch and condenser shunted around the
key. The object of the condenser shunted
around the key is to diminish the sparking
at the platinum points. — H. I. Reiser.
558
PO PULAR ELECTRICITY
WIRELESS QUERIES
Answered by A. B. Cole
Questions sent in to this department must
comply with the same requirements that are
specified in the case oj the questions and
answers on general electrical subjects. See
" Questions and Answers" department.
Tuning Coil Dimensions
Questions. — (A) What are the dimensions of a
1,500-meter, single slide tuning coil using No. 20
enameled wire? (B) What are the dimensions of a
loose coupled tuning coil of 1,500 meters wave length
having a slide on both primary and secondary?
(C) What size enameled wire shall I use for (B)?
(D) In the diagram herewith which end of the
primary should be dead, (A) or (B), and which
connected to the binding post; which end of the
secondary should be dead and which connected to
binding post (C) or (D) ? — M. B. Van W., Hampton,
Va.
Answers. — (A) See answer to F. K., Jr.
(B) Primary — diameter four inches, length
of winding four inches; wire, No. 22 enam-
eled.
Secondary — diameter 3^ inches, length
3 1 inches, wire No. 28 enameled.
3=>n
Sec
3
3 2>
CONNECTION DIAGRAM
(C) See (B).
(D) (A) and (D) should be dead, and (B)
and (C) should be connected to binding
posts.
Bridging a Tuning Coil; Detector
Questions. — (A) If the wave length of a tuning
coil is 1,000 meters and its resistance three ohms
and it has a piece of German silver wire bridged
across it having a resistance of three ohms, what
would be the wave length of the combination?
(B) What detector would be more sensitive and satis-
factory than a gold pointed silicon detector, using
no potentiometer or battery? — L. T., Chicago, 111.
Answers. — (A) The combination would
have an inductance corresponding to zero
wave length, and practically none of the
received energy would pass through the coil.
(B) The Perikon detector.
Peroxide of Lead Detector
Question. — Please describe the action of the
peroxide of lead detector. — H. A. W., Chicago, 111.
Answer. — The peroxide of lead detector
consists of a small piece of compressed lead
peroxide, held between one lead and one
platinum electrode. The negative (zinc)
pole of the battery is connected to the lead
electrode, and the positive pole to the plat-
inum. It is supposed that the current of the
local battery decomposes the lead peroxide
into lead and oxygen gas, the former ap-
pearing at the lead, and the latter at the plat-
inum electrode. The lead, the peroxide and
the platinum form another battery of them-
selves, and whose tendency is to counteract
the local battery, since the electromotive force
developed is found to be in the opposite
direction.
. When the voltage of the local battery is
adjusted to the most advantageous point, it
is supposed to be very slightly in excess of
that developed by the lead, lead peroxide,
platinum battery. The oscillations are sup-
posed to destroy the state of equilibrium
between the two batteries, and to allow the
local battery current to pass, after which the
equilibrium is restored. As to whether this
detector acts as a rectifier, or a relay, or a
combination of both, we are not prepared to
say, for there are many factors to be con-
sidered.
Receiving Set; Potentiometer; Double Slide
Tuning Coil
Questions. — (A) What instruments are necessary
for a small receiving set using an electrolytic
detector? (B) Can a small 20-ohm rheostat be'
used for a potentiometer, and if not can one be made
using J-pound No. 28 German silver wire single
cotton covered, on a core 3 by 7 inches? (C) How
can a small double slide tuning coil be made? —
F. K., Jr., Oklahoma City, Okla.
Answers. — (A) The instruments neces-
sary are a detector, potentiometer, two dry
cells, and telephone receiver.
(B) The rheostat can be used, but much
better results may be obtained with the
potentiometer which you describe.
(C) Wind one layer of No. 20 enameled
copper wire on a cardboard tube two inches
in diameter and twelve inches long. The
winding should be eleven inches long.
One-half pound of the wire will be required.
Arrange two sliders so that they will always
maintain electrical connection with the wire
of the coil. They should tcuch only one
wire at a time.
QUESTIONSANDANSTOS]
Use of this department is free to readers of Popular Electricity, but atten-
tion will not be given to questions which do not comply with the follow-
ing rules: All questions must be written in the form of a letter addressed
to the Questions and Answers Department and containing nothing for
the other departments of the magazine; two-cent stamp must be enclosed
for answer by mail, for space will not permit of printing all answers;
the full name and address of the writer must be given.
Definitions; Pupin and Tesla Coils; Mercury
Vapor Lamps
Questions. — (A) What is the difference between
a spark coil and an open core transformer? (B)
(i) What is inductance? (2) Impedance? (3) Re-
luctance? (4) Admittance? (C) What is a Tesla
coil? (D) What is a Pupin coil? (E) Are mer-
cury vapor lamps made to work on both no volts
alternating and direct current? How many watts
per candle-pover do they consume?— -M. S.,
Fort Worth, Texas.
Answers. — (A) A spark coil is built along
the same lines as an open core transformer,
and is a transformer. The ratio of trans-
formation is usually much lower in the ordi-
nary transformer than in the spark coil.
In the latter a make-and-break contact with
a condenser connected across this contact
greatly increases the length, thickness, and
brkiiancy of the spark which is intermittent,
while in the transformer a steady flow of
current from the secondary is usual.
(B) (1) In general by inductance we mean
that inexplicable formation of lines about a
wire or coil of wire which a magnetic needle
tells us are there when a current flows in the
wire or coil. These lines represent energy
and exercise an inductive effect on adjacent
wires. (2) Circuits always have resistance
as well as inductance. The combined effect
of the two is called impedance and is ex-
pressed by the formula:
Impedance in ohms =
v'R2-r(2x3.i4i6xfxL)2
in which
R = resistance of the circuit
f = frequency
L = inductance.
(3) The term reluctance applies to the re-
sistance offered by a magnetic path to the
How of lines of force. For example, the
reluctance of wrought iron is less than that
of cast iron, the former requiring less ampere-
turns to produce a given flux. (4) If I
represents the impedance of a circuit in
1
ohms, — is its admittance. Used in fig-
I
uring problems regarding A. C. circuits in
parallel, into which calculations resistance,
inductance and capacity enter.
(C) A form of induction coil built to
give high potentials and high frequencies.
This coil and the method of operation is
described fully in the January, 1909, issue.
(D) In a long telephone cable the speak-
ing current is distorted, due to the static
capacity of the conductor, and is also blurred
if the frequency is high. To balance this
capacity and get rid ol the blurred sound
effect, Professor Pupin places an ordinary
coil of wire containing a laminated iron core
in each circuit at intervals one-eighth of a
mile apart. By the introduction of this
inductance the talking current is modified
so that the proper sounds are registered at
the receiving end.
(E) Mercury vapor lamps are made for
either direct or alternating current, but the
same lamp can be used only- upon the kind
of current for which it is designed. Lamps
requiring no volts take 3.5 amperes or 385
watts, the candle-power ranging according
to type from 300 to 800.
Empire Cloth
Question. — What is empire cloth? — L. S.,
Rochester, N. Y.
Answer. — Empire cloth is made of linen-
finished muslin, muslin, or special silk coated
with films of pure oxidized linseed oil. The
finished cloth is very strong and according
to design is capable of resisting a puncture
on as high as 15,000 volts.
560
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
Return Call Bell Circuit
Questions. — (A) Give diagram showing how to
connect a call bell with a bell and button at each
end of the line so that if the party at one end rings
the pa-ty at the other end may answer. (B)
Can this L'e done using only two wires? — L. B.,
The Bronx, New York City.
M5>
<§) '
FIG. I
Hllhr®-
FIG. 2
Answers.— (A) See diagram, Fig. i.
(B) By grounding at each end as shown
in the diagram Fig. 2 only two wires are
necessary.
Battery Overcharging; Ampere-Turns; Fre-
quency and Slip
Questions. — (A) What effect does it have on a
storage battery to overcharge it ? (B) What is
meant by ampere-turns when referring to a coil?
(C) Knowing the frequency of a circuit, the voltage
and the number of poles on an a. c. motor how do
you find the speed, and what is allowed for the slip ?
—A. S. C, Webb City, Mo.
Answers. — (A) Most storage batteries are
not injured by a slight overcharging at a
moderate rate and it is well to let this occur
occasionally because this tends to remove
sulphating. An excessive overcharge should
be avoided as it causes a formation of gas
bubbles in the active materials, is very apt
to heat the cell and even cause crumbling
and buckling of the plates.
(B) The number of amperes flowing
through a coil multiplied by the number of
turns of wire, give the number of ampere-
turns. For example, two amperes flowing
through 10 turns of wire would be designated
as 20 ampere-turns. Tables referring to
windings on magnets to produce a certain
flux and resulting pull are arranged with
relation to the number of ampere-turns per
inch length of the magnet. See "Common
Electrical Terms Defined" in the May, 1910,
issue.
(C) F
N= — , where .
P
N revolutions per second of armature.
F=frequency.
P=number of pairs of magnetic poles.
From one to five per cent is usually allowed
for slip in induction motors. Slip, as is
evident, is inversely dependent on the
voltage.
Automobile Jump-Spark Coil; High Tension
Magneto
Questions. — (A) Please explain the principle of
the non-vibrating automobile jump-spark coil. (B)
Is an induction coil used in the circuit with a high
tension automobile magneto ? — R. P., Roswell, N. H.
Answers. — (A) With the jump-spark pro-
duced from a secondary circuit there are
no movements of the electrodes the primary
circuit being periodically broken by a con-
tact breaker, this resulting in a current in
the secondary which arcs from the spark
plug to the engine frame, or from one spark
point of the plug to the other.
(B) In a high tension magneto the cur-
rent generated in the low resistance of the
armature is transformed by a high resistance
winding usually on the same armature and
distributed to the cylinders from a rotating
contact commutator. The device is, there-
fore, a generator, induction coil, and dis-
tributor all in one.
Rating of Standard Socket
Question. — For what voltage and current is the
ordinary brass shell standard key socket rated ? —
W. A. L., Syracuse, N. Y.
Answer. — The standard lamp socket is
suitable for use on any voltage not exceeding
250 and with any size carbon lamp up to 50
candle-power. For carbon lamps larger than
50 candle-power or requiring more current
than such a lamp a standard keyless socket
must be used; or, if a key is necessary a
special socket designed for the current re-
quired must be made. Recent Code rulings
require sockets to be marked with the capa-
city in watts rather than in candle-power as
formerly.
Remedies for Patent Infringement
By OBED C. BILLMAN, LL. B., M. P. L.
Remedies for Infringement. — In Gen-
eral.— A patentee may sue either at law or
in equity, according as the relief demanded
is of a legal or an equitable nature. If
damages for an alleged infringement are
sought, an action at law is the proper action;
and if a patent has expired at the time when
suit is brought, so that an injunction cannot
be awarded, it is ordinarily the exclusive
remedy. But if the patent has. not ex-
pired, and the patentee wishes to restrain
acts of infringement, he may sue in equity
for an injunction, and, as incident to that
form of relief, the court has power to decree
an accounting as to profits realized by the
defendant. A person may sue for an in-
fringement of any one of the separate and
distinct inventions that may be covered by
his patent.
Jurisdiction. — At Law. — If only the
recovery of damages for the injury is sought
in an action for an infringement, or if, in
an action ex contractu arising as to a patent,
the recovery of damages or compensation
is the only object, the remedy at law is ade-
quate, and a court of equity has no juris-
diction.
In Equity. — In General. — Jurisdiction in
equity is usually predicated upon the right
to an injunction, and so a suit in equity
merely for profits and damages cannot be
maintained. It must appear that the remedy
at law is inadequate, and if the case is one
in which equitable relief by injunction is
inappropriate, as where a patent has expired,
the suit will not be entertained for the mere
purpose of an account of past damages and
profits. It is well settled, however, that the
expiration of a patent pending a suit for
infringement does not defeat the injunction
which was the basis of equity jurisdiction.
Injunction. — In General. — The power is
expressly conferred by Act of Congress upon
the several federal courts vested with juris-
diction in cases arising under the patent
laws to grant injunctions according to the
course and principles of courts of equity.
The writ of injunction issues in patent cases
on the principle that the property in a patent
is just as much under the protection of the
law as property in land. The owner has
the same right to invoke the protection of the
court, and when he has made good his
claim to his patent and has shown an in-
fringement of it, it is the duty of the court
to give him the same relief meted out to
suitors in other cases.
Discretion of Court. — The granting of
a preliminary injunction is a matter resting
in the sound discretion of the court, to be
determined upon the peculiar circumstances
of the particular case.
Perpetual Injunction. — The general
rule that perpetual injunctions are awarded,
or their issuance is directed, or the prelimi-
nary injunction already issued is made final
or perpetual, by the final decree of the court,
or when the rights of the parties, so far as
relates to the subject of the injunction, are
finally adjudicated or disposed of by the
order or decree of the court, obtains in patent
cases as in others.
When Granted. — The general rules that
an injunction will not be granted when the
remedy at law is full, adequate, and com-
plete, nor unless it clearly appears that the
court's interference is required to prevent
irreparable injury, obtain in patent cases.
On an application for a preliminary injunc-
tion the court will consider whether a greater
injury will be done by granting an injunction
than would result from a refusal.
Threatened Infringement. — If the
rights of a party under a patent have been
fully and clearly established and an in-
fringement of such rights is threatened, or
if, when they have been infringed, the party
has good reason to believe that the infringe-
ment will be continued, an injunction will
issue.
Cessation of Infringement. — The fact
that the defendant has ceased to infringe the
patent, or promises to abstain from infring-
ing in the future, is no reason for refusing
an injunction.
Expiration of Patent. — As a general
rule, an injunction cannot be obtained after
the expiration of a patent. Where the
complainant can be compensated in dam-
ages, a preliminary injunction will not be
granted very shortly before the expiration
of a patent. But an injunction may be
562
POPULAR ELECTRICITY
granted even though the patent is about to
expire when damages would not usually be
granted where the complainant's right is
doubtful. Ihus, in order to authorize a
court to allow a preliminary injunction, not
only must the infringement be without
reasonable doubt, but the rights of the pa-
tentee must be clear; and failing prior ad-
judication in favor of the validity of the
patent, there must be shown such continued
public acquiescence in the exclusive right
asserted as raises a presumption of validity,
not arising from the letters patent alone.
Where the right to a preliminary injunction
is in doubt, it is always a material circum-
stance for consideration that the defendant
is responsible for any damages which may
be decreed against him upon the final hear-
ing.
Refusal of Injunction When Security
Gives. — A court will sometimes, in view
of the circumstances of the case, instead of
issuing a preliminary injunction, allow the
defendant to give a bond to secure damages;
but this course will not generally be pursued
when the validity and infringement of the
patent are clear.
Violation. — -The general rule that it is the
duty of parties to obey an injunction is
applicable in patent cases, and the violation
of an injunction is a contempt of the court
from which it issued, and is punishable by
it as such."
Federal Courts. — In General. — Under
the Acts of Congress, jurisdiciton of all suits
at law or in equity arising under the patent
laws is conferred upon the federal courts.
Under these statutes the federal courts have
exclusive jurisdiction in cases where the
infringement of rights granted by a patent
issued under the authority of the United
States is primarily involved, or in suits to
declare patents void and the like, not-
withstanding questions of contract or
license may also arise therein. Cases of
this character are not cognizable in state
courts.
Particular Federal Courts. — The fed-
eral courts which, by statute, have original
jurisdiction of suits at law or in equity arising
under the patent laws are the circuit courts,
certain district courts, and the Supreme
Court of the District of Columbia.
The Court of Claims has jurisdiction
of actions against the government founded
upon contracts as to patents, whether such
contracts are express or implied. It has
no jurisdiction of actions in tort for infringe-
ment by the government.
State Courts. — In cases where the rights
of the parties depend altogether upon com-
mon-law or equity principles, the state
courts and not the federal courts have juris-
diction. Thus, where a suit is brought on
a contract of which a patent is the subject-
matter, either to enforce such contract or
to annul it, the case arises out of the contract,
and not under the patent laws, and the juris-
diction thereof is in the state court. State
courts have an undoubted right to adjudicate
upon questions as to the rights of parties
which do not come within the provisions
of the law relating to patent rights. In
such cases the right secured by the patent
is collateral to the main purpose and object
of the action, and when this is the case the
state courts have jurisdiction to determine
the controversy.
BOOKKEYIEWS
Switchboards. By William Baxter, Jr. New
York: The Norman W. Henley Publishing Com-
pany, iqio. 188 pages with i^o illustrations.
Price, $1.50.
In the early days of arc lighting the
wires from the dynamo were run directly
to the lights without so much as a switch
being used. With the introduction of the
incandescent lighting system making the
danger from an overload possible, the
switchboard with its instruments and safety
devices came along as a necessity, being
looked upon as next to the generator in
importance. Modern switchboards are com-
plicated affairs, especially if the principles
upon which they are based are not under-
stood.
This book appeals to every engineer and
electrician who wants to know the practical
side of things and takes up all kinds of dyna-
mos, connections, circuits and switchboard
wiring. Diagrams are given showing con-
struction of switchboards, and arrangement
of switches and instruments in the use of both
alternating and direct current and on high
and low tension systems. Circuit breakers,
lightning arresters, synchronizers and oil
switches are also given due attention.
ON POLYPHASE SUBJECTS^
An Inter-
view
with Edison
One of our readers wrote in a
short time ago and said:
" Give us more Edison." Not
only he but all the rest of the
Popular Electricity readers will doubtless
rejoice in the fact that we are going to be able
to give them "more Edison" in the November
issue in the form of an exclusive interview
with the great inventor.
Most people know by this time that Mr.
Edison has been working perseveringly for
many years that he might give to the world a
storage battery which, in efficiency and
reliability, would be worthy of the name of
Edison. After nine thousand experiments
he accomplished his purpose and the Edison
battery is now a reality. Something of the
patience required to make the tedious
experiments and tests, more of the possibili-
ties which he sees in his latest achievement
will be told in his own words in the November
number.
_, To the Editor of Popular
Electricity. — In the May issue
Bureaucracy
of Popular Electricity, on page
35, the slow introduction of
the electric doorbell in smaller Ger-
man and Austrian villages is referred to.
As a matter of fact Germans are
very slow in adopting modern conveni-
ences, but the electric doorbell is as
common here as in the United States.
Regarding the inscription, "Bitte zu
driicken," I wish to say that it is not to
teach ignorant people how to use the push
button, but it is simply a queer German
habit to put names and signs on everything
which is intended for public use. If, for
instance, one looks at a German railroad
station he will notice numerous sighs and
hands directing the traveler to the ticket
office, baggage master, station master,
waiting rooms, entrance to trains, etc.;
but not enough with this, even the ex- and
interiors of railroad cars are "decorated"
with signs in German, French and Italian,
giving directions and destination of each
car. In many respects all this labeling is
of some convenience to the traveling public,
but it is also a link in the great chain of that
awful bureaucracy, the plague of Germany.
Very truly yours,
Joseph E. Schnecker.
Bad Kreuznach, July, 1910.
M . . . Should the municipality itself
F1 . overcome any disputes as to
„, , the exact time by maintain-
Clocks . r J, ,
ing a series of clocks scat-
tered all over its precincts and electri-
cally timed in unison? This question
has been before the authorities of Berlin's
electrically most progressive suburb, the
city of Charlottenburg, and the answer
there has been yes. Steps have already
been taken towards installing 720 municipal
clocks all connected to a central time station
which will have an ultimate capacity of
regulating 3,000 clocks. The specifications
called for an allowable variation of only one
second between the time of any of these
secondary clocks and the master timepiece'.
Offhand this seemed like a rigid require-
ment, yet tests on existing clock systems
have shown that in practice the deviation
need not exceed one twelfth of a second.
The entire installation is to cost about
$12,500.
The question of a magazine
The New cover is a hard one to decide
Cover upon. There are two ways
of looking at the matter.
One idea is to have a new cover every
month, making the cover one of the
features of the magazine. The other
plan which may be pursued, of preserv-
ing the essential features of the cover in
each issue, also has its advantages, especially
in the case of a new magazine where the same
dress each month helps in a measure to es-
tablish its identity. For the latter reason we
have used, up to the present issue, almost
the same design. However, the old cover
has, we believe, served its purpose, and with
this number a decided change has been made.
We would like the opinion of Popular
Electricity readers as to what they think
of the new design.
SHORT CIRCUITS
The enterprising manager of one theater believes in
profiting by the misfortunes of others. One day he
displayed the following sign in his house:
DO NOT SMOKE
REMEMBER THE IROQUOIS FIRE!
Which led one of his friends to put up in the theater
the next day another sign which read:
DO NOT SPIT
REMEMBER THE JOHNSTOWN FLOOD!
Kerrigan yelled: "O'Brien! O'Brien! Your dog is
mad! Look at the foam coming from his mouth."
"He's not mad," said O'Brien. "He's just been
eating a cream puff."
# * #
When Casey was promoted to the rank of detective
on the police force he erne home end said:
"Ellen, I'm a detective now. Hide something and
see if I can find it."
Here are some extracts from real letters received
by the San Francisco Gas and Electric Company:
"S. F. Gas and Elec. Co. — Gentlemen, — I wish you
would send a gas leak at your meter. — Respectfully,
Mrs. P. C."
From a Chinaman: "Please you call, fix meter,
heap stink."
S. F. Gas Co. — "My gas meter is out of order; also
my neighbour, Mr. Schmidt. Will you please send
somebody to fix them?"
From another Chinaman: "We have been burning
your gas for so many years and that usually to pay
the bill from 83 to $5 a month with no excessive!
However the bill claims so much in the future two
months. It is hardly to satisfactory. We will mail
these receipt to you kindly compare it at once whether
its reighteous. Answer. Respectfully yours, ."
A member of a State Legislature was very much
impressed with the dignity of his position and it was
always on his mind. One night his wife woke him
and whispered:
"John, there are burglars in the house."
"You must be mistaken, my dear," said her hus-
band; "there may be a few in the Senate, but in the
House — oh, no; the idea is preposterous."
Finnigan tells of a friend of his who was awakened
by his wife whispering hoarsely in his ear:
"Pat, get up quick; there's burglars in the house!"
"Get up yourself. You didn't marry a policeman,"
replied Pat.
A well-known business man attended his daughter's
commencement exercises at an Eastern college re-
cently. He had been greatly pleased with the beauty
and dignity of the exercises and was discoursing to
his wife upon the refining influences of college life.
Suddenly his impressive monologue was cut short.
A girl, in cap and gown, came dashing down the steps
of the main hall, waving her diploma and shouting:
"Educated, by gosh!"
The other day Pat went into a cafe and ordered a
glass of beer. The waiter brought him a very small
glass.
"I suppose if I called for a small one," remarked
Pat, "you'd spray my throat with an atomizer."
"Myrtle has gone upon the vaudeville stage and has
made an instant big hit because of her daring."
"What is her act?"
"She sings in a cage of mice."
Society Woman — I see by today's paper I am re-
ferred to as "one of fashion's butterflies."
Her husband — Considering the way you go through
my clothes I should think "moth" would apply
better.
An Irish politician had just returned from a trip
abroad. A friend met him and inquired:
"Did you have a fine time, Mike?"
"Of course I did."
"Did you visit the theaters in Paris?"
"Sure, I saw all the plays."
"And did you go to the cafes?"
"Sure, I was in all of 'em."
"Well, tell me, Mike, and did ye see any pommes de
terre?"
"No. I had the wife with me all the time."
O'Brien had one hundred and fifty cows on his farm
and had only five men to do the milking. He bought
some stools so as to make it easy for the men.
He gave Kerrigan a stool, and Kerrigan came back
five minutes later all banged up.
"What's the matter with you?" asked O'Brien.
"I couldn't make the cow sit on it," said Kerrigan.
Mike and Pat were playing draw poker.
"I'll bet yez you have a spade before we draw,"
says Mike.
"Sure and who told you Oi had one?" says Pat.
"I see yez spit on your hands when you picked it
up," says Mike.
The mother of the twins found them fighting furi-
ously. Willie, the larger twin, was on top. He was
beating Tommy about the face and head.
"Why, Willie, how dare you strike your brother
like that!" cried the mother, taking the boy by the
ear and pulling him off.
"I had good cause to strike him," answered Willie.
"What do vou mean?" she asked.
"Why," said Willie, with a righteous air, "didn't
I let him use my sled all last Saturday on condition
that he'd say my prayers for me all this week? And
here I've jus,t found out that he's skipped three days."
THE BASE EALL FAN
WHEN HE GETS UP "V THE
MOWING ■+ FIND) THE Hoi WftTEK
IS COLD
WHEH HE CUTS HIS FffCE
WITH IT IfAZOfi
WHenHEQlrs
St.oR<:H£P
FoU BftEIHfKT
WHEN THE /(EM AN
PRESENTS HIS BlLL-
Wf/£/fHEHfo
To STAND UP
IN THE STREET
Cflft.
WHEN HE SLIPS ON /?
&fWftfYft PECL. .
WHE/y THE W/HJ) fflOWS V'S
MPT OFF.
BUT-
HE LETS R LITTLE
THINC, LIKE THIS
WK£ HIM PEBv/SH-
COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMS DEFINED
In this age of electricity everyone should be versed in its phraseology.
By studying this page from month to month a working knowledge
of the most commonly employed electrical terms may be obtained.
Brush. — The pieces of carbon, or copper, on
generators and motors, bearing on certain points
of the revolving commutator either collecting cur-
rent or passing it to the machines. These brushes
are made, some of rods or slabs of carbon, others
of bundles of copper wire or strips.
Brush Discharge. — A form of continuous
electric discharge through the air from a conductor.
A brush discharge reveals a steady pale blue lu-
minous core and is accompanied by a hissing noise.
When the discharge occurs from a positive elec-
trode the brush effect is more marked than from the
negative.
Brushes, Lead of. — At rest the magnetic
fields of a dynamo pass directly from north to south
poles, the position of tl e collector brushes lying
midway between on the commutator. When the
armature is revolved these fields are distorted by
being drawn forward in the direction of the rotation
necessitating a forward displacement of the brushes
called "lead."
Brush Holders. — Clamps or clutches for se-
curing in place the brushes of a dynamo or motor.
They are so arranged as to permit adjustment and
are connected to the rocker. Springs under tension
cause the holders to press the brushes upon the
commutator.
Brush, Pilot. — By connecting one terminal
of a voltmeter to one of the brushes of a dynamo
and providing a small brush called the pilot brush
on the other terminal a study of the distribution of
potential may be made by applying the pilot brush
to different parts of the commutator.
Buckling. — A warping of the plates of a storage
cell by allowing a too heavy discharge rate. Quan-
tities of gas driven from the plates at the time of
sudden heavy discharges cause the injury. A
temporary cure for buckling is the insertion of glass
or wooden strips to prevent adjoining plates from
touching. If plates are not arranged so that the
resistance from every part of one plate to the cor-
responding part of the adjoining is equal, buckling
will take place.
Buoy, Electric. — A floating signal equipped
with an electric light fed by a cable from shore.
Bus Bars.— Heavy copper bars usually placed
either on the back of the switchboard or in high
tension work in a special room called a bus-chamber.
To these bars the conductors from a dynamo or
several dynamos are connected, and from them cur-
rent is taken off through switches and fuses to be
distributed by feeders to points where needed.
The name seems to be derived from "omnibus"
the first portion of which signifies "all." Each
bus is known as positive, negative, or neutral,
according as the positive, negative, or neutral leads
from the generators are connected to it.
Bus Rod. — See Bus Bars.
Bushing, Socket. — A threaded nozzle usually
of hard rubber which is screwed into the hole
through which the flexible cord passes into a brass
shell socket. This bushing protects the cord from
becoming worn and also acts as an insulator between
socket and cord.
Buzzer. — An electric make-and-break mechan-
ism or vibrator enclosed in a case so as to magnify
the sound produced by the very rapid motion of the
vibrator. Used as an alarm or calling device where
a bell would be too loud.
B. W. G. — Abbreviation for the Birmingham
Wire Gauge used in England for measuring elec-
trical wires. Its range is from oooo = .454 inch
diameter to 36 = .004 inch diameter.
Cable. — An electric conductor made up of sev-
eral wires insulated and protected by sheathing,
which latter is generally of lead. The enclosed
wires may not be insulated from each other, the
whole forming a single conductor; or, each wire
may be insulated so as to make a large number of
independent conductors. Cables are made for use
either in air or water. The term is also applied to
stranded conductors without insulation.
Cable, Armor of. — A covering of lead, steel or
wire used to protect a cable from mechanical injury
and corrosive action.
Cable Box. — The box often seen mounted on a
pole and into which an underground cable runs, to
be there divided up and continued as separate wires
of aerial circuits.
Cable Clip. — A metal cable hanger by means of
which an aerial cable is supported at frequent inter-
vals from a suspending wire as illustrated. (See
Cable Hanger).
Cable, Duplex. — A cable containing two sepa-
rately insulated wires laid side by side.
Cable, Flat. — A cable flat in shape so that it
will project but little when placed on a wall or ceiling.
Cable Hanger. — A metal or rope support for
aerial cable. (See Cable Clip.)
Cable Head. — A water tight cast iron box
placed at the end of a cable. Made also of lead or
porcelain and called a pothead. (See Cable Box.)
Cable Tank. — A tank containing water in which
the submarine cable is carried on a cable-laying
ship. While in this tank the cable is tt;ted. In
factories cable tanks are arranged so that tue cable
may be subjected to hydraulic pressure so as to
approximate the pressure of deep water during test.
Calibration. — In general the fixing by test of
•the scale readings on a new instrument. Applied
also to the comparison of . an instrument with a
standard for the purpose of determining corrections
to be made in order to have the readings of the tested
instrument accurate.
Call Bell, Extension. — A system of bell
wiring by which a switch, push button or magneto
energizes a main line circuit, this circuit operating
a local relay. The armature of this relay closes a
local battery and bell circuit, this armature being
arranged to keep the circuit closed indefinitely.
Applied also to a bell circuit tapped on as an
addition to an already existing circuit.
Call Button. — A push button used to close the
circuit of a buzzer, bell or annunciator to call the
attention of a person at some distant point.
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