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THE 



POPULAE ENCYCLOPEDIA; 

OH, 

CONVERSATIONS LEXICON. 

BEING 

A DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, LITERATURE, BIOGRAPHY, 

HISTORY, AND GENERAL INFORMATION. 



EDITED BY 



CHARLES ANNANDALE, m:a., 

BIIITOK OF OOILTIX'S IMPEEUL BICTIOHART 0¥ TBI BHSUSH LAHOUAQE, HEW BSinON. 



ILLUSTRATED WITS NUMEROUS ENQRAVINOS. 



NEW AND REVISED EDITION, IN FOURTEEN VOLUMES. 

VOL. XL 
PETEBWABDEIN— BANC& 




LONDON: 
BLACKIE & SON, OLD BAILEY, RC; 

GLASGOW AND EDINBURGH. 

1884. 



Jff ■ oi 



?'S'^ 




OUBOOWl 

W. a. BLACKIS ARC CO., mHTU& 

TIL1.A»KLII> 



LIST OF ENGEAVINGS. 



Fun 

CLVI.-CLVII. . 



ciTiir. 



ClIX. 



CLX. 



CI.XI.-CLZII. . 



CLXIH.-CI.XIT. 



CLxr. 



CLXTI. 



VOLUME XL 
I 

PAOI 

PISCICULTURE— HloBtratioiiB of the art of Breeding Fish arti- 
ficially. — Hatching, Rearing, and Transport- 
ing Appliances, &c 99 

POL YCHROMY— Colour aa employed by the Greeks in Architec- 
ture and Sculpture, 179 

"Do. — Colour an employed in Byzantine Architecture 

—Interior of Palatine Chapel, Palermo, . . 179 
POMPEII — ^Atrium or Eutrauce-Iiall of Ancient Roman Bouse at 

Pompeii (in colour), 189 

PRINTING — Examples of the more iiaportant Printing Presses 

and Machines, 292 

PROTOZOA AND CCELENTERATA— Portuguese Man-of- 
War, Hydra or Fresh-water Polyp, Medusa or 

Jelly-fishes, &c, 323 

RAILWAYS— Cutting, Embankment, Tuunela, Bridges, and Via- 
ducts, 429 

Do. — Station, Switches or Crossings, Rails, Sleepers, 

Chairs, &c, 429 

Da — Carriages and Waggons, 433 



THE 

POPULAR ENCYCLOPEDIA; 

01, 

CONVERSATIONS LEXICON. 



I 



i 



I 



rETEKWARDKIlf, w Vamdw. b town In Hon- 
^krr. IS mil«a aonh-wnt of Bclgnde. It aUncU 
|wrtl/ on ft «be«[> r>vk and [lortl.v «n • SM bctow, 
■ad ia the stnaigivt. fiiTtrcM nu tbc Ilattulw, l>[ii]ii^ 
lit* to tt !> (hn tuwii ot NeiuwU, witb wMuh It ouin- 
IB— fcatw 1>T a bri<Ig« of bMta, Ttie (aTtl£'aatii>iu 
mn aitcnaive, lind rontain bwrMki for « guTisoii of 
10,000 nes; Imt Iba town itacU ia very ■nuill. It 
bai^ bow«v«r. four cboinbtt, & iullit«ry hosj^tol, >a 
mmmL » hlgb Miiool; and & tmdo in wino ud fruit 
Bzfaiwiw manhics in the neighhourhood nukkn tbo 
■Iroahcnhhf. Agnnlvfclor; wM^uwdltifn (Stli 
A«c(wt, 171<) ovw tb* Turk* br Priim Eii;;t<ue. 
ritiiBiiihLiWMOooDjrfedbytlwHiiiipnTAM in tbo 
dvUirarol lSIS-18. It •nrrcndtred to th« AuitrUns 
etb September, 18<». Pop. 4022. 

PETIOl.K. tb* loH-n- putof u \m1, wiully railed 
tbc jtoU. Wbea tbo nvoli ud fibna <i( tb* luves 
in^Mtd latoodiMalj on leftvia^ tbs stsm tbe ]>et{ol« 
ii WMrtiu; And ttM ImC u Mid to bo lenilv. lu 
gam^ bowwvw, It li dlitlntflj marked, and ii 
■Mullj tAtber rcnnd or b»lf e;llndric&l, md chan- 
naUed m tbc nppcr aide, in the porilM' it i* Ktmngljr 
flnltoaed at right Uifjlc* (o lh« liUitt?, tml hetirv Ibe 
nmarkabk moTvmont obwrvablo on tbe lout bnath 
of wtad^ Mpadalljr in tbe Mp«n. Sometairi'M, u in 
Ibe §Kiat cweet-pM, tbe petiole i* fumulip<l wiUi 
• loM «f bordar or wtng. In mmnj iuub«lIif<<n'iiR 
planta it> baa« ia dilated into a broad uiambranoua 
tnfialed abeath. la graaM md many other indi- 
poom plattlA It nomliito of a Kheatb embracing the 
•Um; in tfae pa» tribe tbo afjcx ol th* («tiol« la oft«a 
fbangad Into a tendril Xo <mo mcUdd of tbe gtamt 
il* ieitlnt ft hardena Inlo a ■pine aftor the Leaflet 
dra|& Hm prtiole in aome Auatralian af«ctca of 
At^ria and Eaadjrf^na i* AntU'Dod into * luaf-likn 
opaBrioB. Docapjrinff the pUuc of tbo true leaf; Nuch 
patiotaa b»T« nodrad the name of p&^Iodta. 

rtTiait DG VII,LKNEtrVE;JuAMB,aFnTncb 
imohitfanaiT atateaouui, ariKuially an advocate at 
Cbartn^ «o«r« bo waa U>ni in I'fiS, waa cbown 
i l a |wlj , by tbo tiMv.^cat of that city, to tha atatM- 
gmati m 1789. In thn kuI^ put of hi* caiwr he 
aatad In eenoert witb UiraU^au, but ilid nut ji»u in 
Mcb U hk maaarw aa woo calcuUted to impede 
lb* «rtMiaieB of libtrty aad oijoalitj of rigbt& In 
Octobv, 1781, ha waa aniatntad a membct of Lbe 
Ink CoiiiiDitteo of Ooaenl Safetr, and December 4, 
1790, ma abetod prwldaot al Ib'a N&donal Aaacm- 
My. I» Jnno followinc bo bocatne prcaident of the 
ttmbtal tribonal of Fana, and toKotber witb Bamave 
and Lalout^ManbouTK, waa appointod conunimioner 
to aUnd tbo rotm <rf Iba monarob. Howua «l«ct«d 
BMror «f Paris Novamber 1 4, 1 791. and In omaequenoe 
of Ua iiraHrartoo in tbe attack on tbo TuUeriea, 




Jnno 20, 1702, waa *D*ponilod from bbi fiiuctIoii% 
Jul; 6, but rettored by tbu Aaacmbly on the 13th. 
Afl hojul of the GamuuDo be auiiporte*! tbe demott> 
■LmtiniM of thi> lomr olaaaoi, and the aiming of Iha 
pouple, and when on SOtfa Jnuo^ 179£, tbo crowdo 
foroed tbeir way Into tbs TuQeriai, be left Loula for 
a conndorable time to hia hto. At 4 o'clbck in Ibe 
Kfternwin, hciwcvar, bo mado hie appaarann-, and b; 
BDtootb wurda prevaOod on the poopls to witbUmw. 
When tbo MandUeoe arrived In tbe ca^tal for tbe 
porpoao of oveituraing the throne, P^tton racoivod 
them like brotbera; bat VnfnrB tbo final Rtarm broke 
out be went on Ibe lOtb Aut^Jot to tbu TuUniei 
at the king's dMini tn order to cocccn moaanm 
rrf •Irfoncv, ITiia, bowevcr, proved of no aviuL 
Hi> bBbavivuT on the lOth of Ao^pist baa bj aoma 
been intcrprvtod w tb» teaull of weakneea, and bf 
others OB tbs oSwt of doatgn to avoid betraying fata 
cliaractor a* an alictUir n[ the viutontia. Being Qomi* 
iiated a doputy froiu tliu department of £un> and 
1 •t>ii« to tbe Conveution, he Iwcame tbe ftnt preid- 
<leut of that aMvnittly. Soiin afuir tbo draLh iif tbo 
king I'^tion Kan aoruiml nf havii^ enntriliiitnl to 
tbo niaiiftacrm uf .Svi'ivuilwr; but aniuat tbia cbargo 
he Bucccaxfully dGfeiLdcd bimaalf, H« now, bowever, 
hocame the object of jcalnnay to KobMpiomv and 
waa induded in Llie pTuacriptUni of tho (limndikta. 
May SI, 1793. (Sea UiBoMUprtm.) He made hia 
•SCMie^ witb aomv otbor deputiee of the same puty, 
to tbe departmcDt of Calvados, where tbey lii vain 
endeavDurcd to avul tbemaolTce of tbe inuuT»otiona 
a^alnat tbo Termriiitau Home time after the body at 
T6ti<m, with that of Buzot, one of bis oonfedaraM^ 
waa found in a field in the dopartnwnt of the Glnmda 
half devoured by wolret^ and it waa euppoood that 
he bad perUiou from hunger. Hia warka were 
priQt«d m 179t in foor vola. 8vo. His maansaript 
metnoJn won pnbUibod io 1S6I. Tbey present no 
ipecial intoTMt. 

PETITION {lo Parilameut). Tbe right oi lbs 
vubjoct to pi^titJoQ tbo king la iweogniiwd in the Itill 
of Uigbta, and all eomn^nteati and nroseDuliona for 
aocb petitioning bi« declarad iQegaL By a law of 
Cbaries U. (13 Cbarlaa IL ataL L oap. r.), wUnb 
baa bwm bctd not to bo npsalsd by tbs BQl cf 
Bights, tbc aoLidting, laboannff, cr proewfiic tbs 
putting lbe Laucla or conacttt of above twenty per- 
aona to any p«>UUon tn the king or «ith«r hooas 
of Patliaiaeot, for altorationa in oborch or atato, 
milnai by ■asiiiit of thna or more jnstleea of the 
peaoe of tbe oonsly, oe * majorily of tbe iory at ^ 
grand>jiiry at thr aNOMs or esasiani^ and rvpabing 
to tbe king or Farliameot to deUvor lodi petilioB 
witb above the number of ten penona, k no|scl to 
a Imo of jCIOO and thro* aunthif imiiriNnnMib 




Rxrraos OF sicbt 



:s»wa 



imm wen jmmtA to nNtrid p^ 




^i^t f *» ^ rf a a^ U tha How* of 

MM Viiifad KktfdM (« to *» niiM iiiii (bt 

^« liiiiii!) fai ^- ■■■■Ilii4.- TIk prti 

lfaMi^'13»HiMldBrallliMi(tf - . . 
ir faM i» fci« JAuta it HM« rf-te U* 

W iiWMwW 4 iIm t^wmti Ab Hridon WM hod- 
^■d* «U ft ipidBB^ftMrM-. Ho mm» MoUl <4 
■<ltWiM vfNHirt miatc ili*—t of <b« raaMxl j 
amgrni bM.wmU svMind. ' «-^t M«« 

Ifc ^wiiiii II I mi I II I I til if 




jrsor p<liMaf% M in Atb/ bo«ki,«ffl ewer 

«■!>■% iM« by ■gM*hk0*«Mr4i|ntod. A 
MMAol ^iit lor k paUfe *"—*"£. b(A ttna oomokna 
•Ml U tbm oOTpoadcM b t«arfv«d lor m wwiwral» 
bvdy. ThtjiHWiB 



br » tnMlalka tl» oMTMlDeM «l wfaM ta wtiSnd 
It th> iwwtfciif mimim. Jatgamnu lamgnaft 
or ImpalMkaw oa Ibe ooadnct of Pwikmaat ot 
CdOftaof fwtfae wvaot porwlttod fai patiliaDi, »cr 
niarMM to detMsa on »»MiBi In 
P«tiUaQi for tba mnMon a< chIh 
obI/ ba praented wttb tbe aoMtt cd tb* 
n« mMnnr t«i—iiiliii|| a MtUfan k oodantood ta 
vnnlD* if Urn tonu w* bMS ««aplM wUb, mad 
all pttWoiM pr wn ttd an aibjeckd to s ■entfar is 
iwmwHtwi. PatJtloiw a ddi w d to unnbMs of Par- 
Ihnnt for (icwetitatioQ to Bar JiMvntj or aUmt 
boilM of PwUuncot are ttannaltted mm by port if 
odw 2 IhL la Meigbt. Tliejr unit beaent in ooven 
opn at ^a ridaa. — Hm noda of obtabJnK ndreoa 
Cor tba ImpMfxr dwAioo of » nenbar of Pariiuie&t 
b br pMltloD to two hidgea of tfaa Qaewi'a Bench 
DMaba of tiu> HbA Court. 

PETITION OF RIGHT. Tba conflict betwnn 
tba tMon ami tba I'ariiaiaaDt bad alrcAdj batfun, ta 
Av n%a of Janaa L, wben a<31) Uia Hotm of 
CbHoaoi bmad ^ fnkoaa pntaitatioii that tbe 
>lrtlei, h—rtiac^ prirOago^, attd ioriadlctkna of 
^— **—"—* Of* ttia "^4"^' ukd andoabtad binhiHcbt 
Md fdMvitaiwa of tba aubjecto «( EngUod. ThiM 
i w twa tla a Jaiaa^ with Ua aiwn hand, tore out of 
lbs )ouBil. Tbo wMmry cHMorai of tba aeooBd 
■bnrt ialc*t *^ fovmd loao^ benarolaDoiat Uxaa 
4 vftMot OMMot of Fwlbinaat, aiUtrary 
immaata. tba faObtiar of aoldlaii^ Aa, fiaaJlv 
itB«d tb« Coniinofia to prepara a law wbicb 
rfwaU pt<4act tba ri^U of tin •nbj«c4 agalnat for- 
Umt InTidTB' tbia tbajr callad a ptlUton of r^/ftt, 
aa iBkplyla^ that ft criataioad nurrl; a cvrrubotatian 
aa aildanailna of tba aodant oonatttatloB, not any 
lalfktgBHast «f tba royal pr«ro|[ativa, or aoquiaidoD 
«f aaw Bb iitha. It pwid tba CanmonB and tbe 
trpp« Boaaa (lOSS), and alUr aooM allantrta oo tbe 
pan of Cbariaa L to arada it, norfvad tba rajal 
aaMot. After redting tba srlvrnoaa abora amtDN- 
ratad (t imridM agabmi tbalr w pa tltl o u aa matiaiy 
to tba lawi and atatqlaa of tfae nain and tbe righta 
aad Ubertlai ol tba nbioct, and ptajrs tba Idag (o 
declare tbaS Ue oBowa wd minMani iboold aam 
Uu aooonUng ta tbe Uw* and rtattilea o( tba realm. 
Sea Bui^BUI of Bik'bU. 



FKTITIO MUSiKSm, iB 

anoi, ^nna tt ta^Hiaa lit ba j_ 
^ woin b r dadom d fa—> it. 

nEUT JLTKT. SeeJiiBE. 

rain ISKABOH. 

raiQfi. _ 

rene ia eJ "but * Jtiiiilir artnw^ton . and bad 1 
Ma a bard i*mi^ is vootb, pnrtlj aa a i 
xddkij pAlfy M a nbw&n** BMdbar tf s 
aaollto t da jai a buaboMidi 

fiattbA ai iiiiililpiiindVaAfl^y 

adndadlbannti^ Dw 
Petdfitotf ~ ~ ' 





i^erilid 



bead of Hbbcht. In 1 
JArfl taadiliytf^ 

t^o. BewwlMBfettMHie aannrnft^i 
Bt Mbfr fca^ <tk HMipMai'e Ooid) «w a 
dal faOwK U Vvt^ IStA, be cnsn fcrnsd'n 
tba iMad of tite ;oalb <tf P«a& wU the olebitfri 
badre iiiMmiI l a q drf tto a, aad made tbe Riab- 
tfcMw^a— a tri na udw* to tfa. tiio*. Uki ' 
Ijnie koit TKT ■» (Kow «r Sienv> 
^ n a aayt prtnlBd la Haipn7«ilhoot tbai 
vUea«tf tbeoaaaor. Ha nwr arifc a ng e d tba i 
tbe awor^ and joiaad Ban'a army, -mha ay| i«»te l 
him bia adjOanl; but la caoaeqaawe ef a ^und 
witb Uiaiirva, -wbo wonld not ovarloolc bJa IbMIm- 
tkai b> nuIitaiT- diec%liaa, ba muttcd the aareiotk 
Hmj, 18I>, aad raturned to tba enllivatka ef Ha 
■maaa Oa tba adranoa of tba ThMrtaw. bawen^ 
baacam jdwd Bam aa adialaat, ai^ la brilaaad ti 
hare p«fabed m tba battle of ecUtabof 
doobtaWMV long antertained aa laUa ban 
dead, y iuaaiau ajdeoea maa o omp oaad byl 
tbe din of war, and a coB a oti n n of bk ffLnrhig 1 
Btnei, wiittra at tbia period, ne pabbAed at 
tig i& 1651. and aftatwardi tcamlatad iatn C 
nadar tbe tilla of National Songa of tha ~ 
A collacttOD of bia eai&r poama waa 
tw ovob. at Fcatb bi 18(7. 
PETRA. a rained cit;, tonaadf tba 

AnbiaF«tau,towfaiefaitlaaappaaedtor 

ita naBMi, in a oarrow vaU«<y of tbo Wad; HlUBkiW- 
rounded hj lofty aad f-v the moat part |vad|itan 
nouDtabu, about 110 oiilea s^^ of Jenwkm. It 
i* meDttoDcd in Soriptare (It Kingi dr. 7; iMiab 
xvL 1) under the muoa of Sdah, wa« t*kan hf Aaia- 
Aah, kinjf of Jndah, wbo chftiwiHl ita luuna to Jell- 
thocl; and tnm tbe notiMsoi li hj SuabosPtfaji 
Joacplina, luid varlooB CbrifitiAn wriloi^ 
haTB ))eien a placo of ootisi<|i:r>IiIr! citcitt and 
magnlfiooDca^ and to bare at aue time • 
taiga aharo of the traOe of tbo Eaat It wot 
number tt ramaricafate excaTatioiUt aad <wven a I 
■paca witli iUt ruina, but the only building 
xbuidiDg, though in an inipocftn:* ai>d dtlaMdated 
atato, bean tbe oMne of Pbaraob's Uoum. and seana 
to havo been a pnltux. It ia in the form of a aquata^ 
34 Tarda each way. 'Ilia four walla are aoady en ' 
aaa tbo out one ia lunDOODtad by a handaoma i 
nJca. The front fadnff tho north waa adoniad ] 
a colonnado, of which four pillars are Mill 
aad within tho oalotinaile i» s piaasj^ from 
throe apnriuivote an: entored, ooa of thun by a i 
arab from S5 lo iO feat Ugb. There ia alao a ruhwd 
theatre, which wh capable of aoeomaodatlng 1 
8000 and 4000 apocAatota. Anotbor ruin ii 
tba Treaanre-bouae, and ii balieTod by tbe i 
tbe place to coBtain aamewbeie boiiad in 
ttoaaureaof Pharaoh. 



I ban I 



tU 



PFTRAJtCA— FBTREL. 



\ 



FETRABCA, Fuxcisco, tto gmatwt lyric port 
of lUilyi wttii tho MO o( R Flonintiuu cxiltr, Pietro ov 
I'atruco dl tkraeaa, m ootuy ol tbo republic ud 
Iks Irknd of DkBto, wWk wlUM faction bd wu 
•dUd. JI* -WM bora kt Aracii\ 20Ui Julj, 1301. 
Hii wi ri itat yean w«n tftsmi at Aaeija, ia tb* vala 
of AnM\ uid aitonrards with bi> father at Caipca- 
Itm, hmt Angnofif wbere be hegui k£a ctntliea. He 
aflnwarda abated I»«r at Moclpelfiier from 1S18 Lci 
1321,aDdatBolagiui133l-34. Tib omi it»:liDaUoiiB, 
howvrer, led htm to irtudv Uie LaUa and Fro^'va^ 
pMla ia prafereooe to law and KholtBtfo dlTinlt;, 
and be waa oot diverted frtaa this pirf cnoce aJtbougb 
hn fatber rvpeatadlv burned but Imokn. H.w motber 
died in 13S4| and Ua falbw Iq tlie fbUowing ;t«r; 
aod tMtif wilfaent atoana bo adopted the ecGlaaiaBti- 
cal pfotiaaiion, but witboot fbrmallj taking oiden, 
and ntomed to Avienoi^ when blatolenU^r Latin 
BMtTT eommwiiUd nlm to 1^ court of Popo Joba 
?CJC1l. It waa at tbta tine tbat b« finrt taw in the 
rimrch ol SL ClaiTc, uu 6tb April, 13^7, the Laura 
wbo «t «if daed eo great an iaflavnc* on bia futtue 
life, and dietatod to hbn hla moat (amoiua wnrkx. Tht> 
ideoUtj of thb peraonadn eud whether ih« wu a 
nal or Meal one, baa Men moch diepatcd. TLe 
latter point baa been aettled hj tbe poet himiirtf in 
twat«t tbe reality of Laura; the Ifnwr it «ti11 
opBB, lot tba eomauin, and donbtleaa the oorrect 
<ioinjaa ia, that dw waa tbe daa);bter of Audibert dc 
Novei^ facnn la 1308, married in 1335 to Hugbea da 
a•d^ aad wbo died b 1318. Wbm the poet met 
faw aba was nineteen yean of a^, and two yean 
mMTwd. Hie love for Laiira wbJcb hauat«d Petrarca 
dnrias the greater port u( bia atibaoqnent lUe appaon 
bo h^« been pnntlj PUtoaic, thaolu, fa tho flmt 
*— ^""^ at lewt, miiialy to iha virttw of the Udy. 
Ha nauiBOd at Avignon three years, atngini; hii 
lore, aad kamtiag ber at cburch and in ber walka. 
Uc then leHAvinoD for Lombea, atterwanla rxiited 
Paris, Bmbast, Gbent, the ^biat, Aiz-la-GliwolIc, 
CiJnne, JbC-, and IiwiMHirlTig a vbioo froaa Laura 
le uiie e Ua g htoi to retnm to AvIgBon, he retoined. 
WU« hm he pleaded with vucctei befon the poa- 
MmX cont the ri^ta of Az» di CoRVfglo, prinoo 
ofPanBik ThapopealaoomifarrcdoBliimaeanoary 
at Lontbei (1S3&). Ia 1339 be embarked at Mar- 
aeOlei for Ktita% the aattqultlea of wbloh bo vinted 
with an esthaitem wUca ha bu recorded Id Ua 
pMBHk Id 1 337, aftar an exninioD in tbe Pyreneee 
Mid the weet of flpaht, be rrtumnl to Avignon, and 
bonsfat a eBall eaCate at TaucluM, la onLr to be 
Mar Lana. Twcun his own iodoanio he could ninr 
aee bar waltdnf in b«r park, which waa a groat hap* 
pIneM to lum. He remafaiBd bare for tloae yean^ 
and wrote nutnarcns aooaeta tat whJcli ha haa attcated 
the fact. TbeM HBDOta aoqpdred popularity even 
before tbe eaiUer and longer work of Jiante (which 
waa atall ia mannaoript), and aerved to fix tUe ItalUa 
Tlaaa aonnata wera^ bowev«r, only bla 
He reited fah b^pea of faaie ou his I^tin 
"Vtrgil, Clono^ aad Livy were bia fa?- 
9, but ha waa a diligpnt tuplnrvr vl tbe 
for old maonacripta of nil the Latin 
A* did net lean Gieek tiH eonparativelT 
laU in Ue), which he traaaeribed with Ida own band. 
and (fiHiaed aa mncb na poodhli^ while be formed 
a predoa ooHeetioa of bis own. In bla travels he 
made lalnahto diaeoeeriM^ which have placed hia 
nasM Uffh amonc the rtatorers of Ictton. He bad 
advaneed view* Tor his age of bickify and acicnca^ 
J a ^Ada g legtnda aad ajiti^Jii^, aud reeemmandiag 
Inw r eaw an ilt. Ia pulitioi hia viowi w«« equally 
adnaea^ and while he did not apare the vioea of tho 
U es gj be had no ^npathj with the so«pti<iain which 
among the acbiJan of hia day. lila 




lAtin trnrl:*, both tn pmaa and vene, were highly 
esteemei], atiJ tu 1341 he waa oalleil to ILi^uw to 
medve on Eaatci^day tho laureate cixpwd awanlad 
for fail poem Africa. B« waa rabeeqtiently ebacpd 
urilh Tariooa diplumatJc mlaalcini^ and in IS42 Via 
appointml jpiat-ambaatad or with Rien'xi to ClimeBt 
Vt to solicit his return to Rome. The nlsaloB was 
tmsuAoeadnl, but C1«inoTit gave him a niaako to 
Naples, lie praised tbe crit«r[iriMr; of Rienn {1347) 
ii) a Ijitin ejniitle, and weol to Honie, though too 
Intv, to support him. At Fanna be Inoraed ibe 
daatb of l>anra, which bo recorded on bia copy of 
Virgil, and cclebrabed in bis IMiimphii, Hr at firet 
thought of ahnttlag himself up i» a muiuuiter}', and 
detenalned to Bve non in aooordanoa with his 
eeeleaiastical profesiioiL His grsat popularly, how- 
ever, cauMd bim to be cro^yed in onny Important 
diplamatlo avgotlatlirus. lis was oonsultad Dy the 
pope and tbe sanpcror. In 1354 he ncgetiabed a 
peace between tbe Kcpublics of Gonoa and Venice 
in the name of Glovaiuii Viacuuti of Milan. From 
this tlm^ with tbe exception of embavUe Ui Crancw 
aad Germany, he lirud entirely In Italy, sad until 
1 3T« chiefly at MOan, Padoa, sad VenJc^ to tbe la« 
of which ho pieaeated hia library, In 1870 he took 
np bis rtaiilatica at Anqoa, near Fadua, where he 
passed hia reniairiiug ycara bi tiillh'ious vxpTcbies, and 
wbtm he died cm iBth July, 1374. He had two 
natural chlldrrn by an Avignon lady — a son wlio 
pre-deocsaed bim, and a dau^terwbomairiod SVnn- 
ocaeo dtt Broaaaac^ a UUaaeae gentleman who beeme 
Ui aecntor. Petram loft no worka in Italkm peon. 
Among lus Latin works are three books of KpistUa 
(l^pisU)!a; familisres) and twelve Eclogues, hia poem 
Africa, varioiu philosophloal, religlDQa, political, and 
bistoricsl trcHtiMS,aa DeofEcio el virtntiboa impora' 
taii»; Do vera sapientla; I)e oontcmptu roiindi; Ilin- 
erarioiu 6yri:u:um (a geographica] work) ; Epitnae 
ritarum rironira lUaatnam, Ac His Italian poems 
consist of Soiivttl aad Oiauoai ia vita e in moito dl 
Ijsura, anil of Trionfi. Tbe first editioa ia dated 
Teultw, 1 470. The subsequent edlilona are hummer* 
able. Tbfl Trionfi an In tma rtma. Desptt* Ibelr 
roGncment and delicacy of sentiment and pnii^ of 
laagni^n tbe sonnets of Fetraica are aomewbal dull 
amd moaotonoua. They an alao filled, according to 
the taste of tho age, with conoeits^ artifldal n&f 
nwnts of sandmen t, aad plays upon words. 

Of biographical mi critical notioea of Petnrai we 
may mention An IlUtnriral and Critical Knay on 
the Lite uf Fctrarvb, with a Translation of a few of 
bis SeoaetE^ by Alexander FraserTytter, Lord Wood- 
booselae^ S^boigh, 1810; Tho Life aad Ttmee of 
PstranJi, by Thomaa Campbell (the port), Iiowlon, 
18il; Pc-trarqup, Etudv d'aijrva in nouvcaux Docn- 
meata, par Alfred ilozifcrca, ISC'. 

PETKKIj, a ^i-aua of Natatorial Dirds, forrning 
the type of tho uunily PnwcUaridae, included in tbe 
Loagipeuaste sectloa of tho order— tbe Utter name 
being arolied to the aectian from tha well-devdoped 
nature of the wlnga ia fta members. The Petrda 
p(iss«n a ruilirueaian Under toe. Tho upper nasi- 
dible is very stioB^ booked, the lower maadlbla 
beingabmptortmncatedattheapei. Theeatremity 
lit ^e apper mandible apjxara of a distinct piece 
from tbe rwrt of tbe bill. Tbe noetrila form a tnbu* 
lar structore Iving alous tbe upper suifaoe of the 
mandible. l^esc btr^ an popularly termed 
'Bkother Carey's Cbickcos' by seamen. Tbcy an 
Eonad In every tiart of the world, on Uis ocean, at 

rit distaaoea irvta luid, t^aersJIy at Ivili^ or 
rtonny wentbcr. Thay feed oa small nmitse 
animala and weds of aea-WMda, and appear ocoeed- 
[n|^y lond of fab er greaae, for wbidi, aad for Bsb 
startled to tbe sojf aoo, they wtU follow ia the wake ot 




TMitW^ilifcii^ ~ 

Tb> />. OT r. VibMiiL b I II Md»«( 

lOBinid IB ft WBsnto mi 

Otwt BBMk FMi4 {^. I T IT Tl iT 

neciM. Tha Csps Pettd <F. 
•mtod oa PL CUL-CUII. % 4. 

pjCTKiKAcnosa s^fi 

PETRIKAtr, m ^wtmum. a uivm «i 
I'oUnd fai th« ijBf—M I << ftt — — . Itii 
» pUn of MM* Mlifd^ «idk a. raMi o^ k« 

FETBOLKUIC, tb« gmtal ■■• ||vm to m 
«a7 l^ptid fottd ia Jlgii—t Hrti tf A* mA. 
PfllndsBH b iiiiiliiii fhiifciiMlf ■.liiilljIiiliM 
iM to tb* B Mw h p a (OfiU wtt w. awBa — L 

SvviBa of Biasri] «il or Bqiid Mtali^B MS 
ta tlBKat «n LaaUHM lAoa 

•ibW in luutitjr ia th« ncte. nn aM tamd !■ 
Brttkb Buniuh, Peni^ on Hw m^k ■■> ilii i rf 
Uh OmiM Sm. aa MpMbSy h Kovth 
Tlw •Kbtnws of tbw* iraOi fan low Wn 
Ew h Amite Ik* oO of tha ~ 

ma ooUaalad and aoU fcrlha , 

lofSMMOaaJL It b cnh' ncMtfy, 
tha tha Importum of tlib avtfeb m • 
prodiMt hail ban dbovmL Attatita asfN 
tova baeo inl dlncUd to it I7 ThimiiiWal 
faelun aad aalt *f panOa im 0ib eonfaj. TIm 
aoonDooa ntofM nalbad br Urn fart fpaoilaten 
gtwaittt in» oaJ aBl «dlyimpld i p — ibntothottada: 
WWM npldlr i^nnc vp In Ika PcanaylTanlaa oil 
dklflflif nOwkTa mn alraadjr fonimJ thitmgfa Um 
dtaMol, aftd Um nloDl c< opmUoM Imb bM« riaea 
«MttMid)7 «XMwUiic. ArinaarbalkBpnlttadu- 
IriMhHtMBfawllnUtiparOHiada. Tha ofl dblrkt 
la Pmaaylvania b la Iba aortb-wart oMDar of tfaa 
tonaj. lltwrOla.OilCI^.Ooni'PlaBimv.FiClMla 
City, and aavcnU otlMr tewaa bava baw oraatod or 
ni—a inUt tmmp^rily br tha tndo. Tba aalarfKba 
Uku^ )'■ 1 Be^ Int sntU ISlW It took nfj IIUI««>Mn- 
rim. Tbaflmborinip-wHBaat verr (toai^ and tba 
OU waaaUewadloOowaatiinUyi bal wban tha aur- 
faaa arrrfufft wnniatliaiMlod brtamadlaUaltaU trara 
Inavi] Uirioitfli, bii'I now tad amuaetl* latihmntiWt 
•uuriMM 'if •Ki'i-li wvra tauaa at a teptb of 600 or 
laan faal 'iV oil 1« IikiikI hiIikI wltk «ll wklnr 
and ladaouaalik hmw, wLldi fraquantlj rab* U to 



EnrffalbaaHtrfXtr^ Ba 

~lb' 

daaa af a* «i»L a« a^eanft «t 

■rfttodMtt. Tbbb 
fceniew lAri, a «aA af iiSM >f cnaA I 
<f«UA«' ' 



lI*rr.8tader.aadB9ttw 

na biat iiilint aAaoabtbakaC 
1743, two vob. t,to), then b a 
Ai tf'w, (M tk liM* ef BmsMBfa 

PSTKOPAVLOVSE. a tewm' aai StAaat d 
Aalaifa B— b. terwrfy ^aattal af IT iiiKi ba tt a. aa 
lhafl«lflaMt«CKn«&«&a,«B ifaaKonbTMl' 
Ocaao,wilhafcatasdl^bUK)cwe. It 
bylbaAi^o-FRach flert tDlS6«. rapL479. 
» town of Caatnl A*Mtic Ronaa, ia tba 
ot AkmoD iMfc. « the lacfain. Fttp ll.«ML 

PETBOTSK, a bwa <d Raari% fa Um ftmra- 
iBMBt and 70 aJlea XJLW. of tba brm of Saratov, near 
tba ri^ lank of Um Madriadiba, « Iha olopa of • 
hOX oovaed by tba ndaa of a ImW aw. Ii baa a 
bade b con. Pop. 10.7«1. 

PETROZAVODSK, a town in RonIb, ofltri rf 
Um govaniDentot OloaeCx, oaUw LaaBolaaka,wfaac 
It Ub iato Lain Oiwga, IM niloa iMrtb-«aat of 9t 
P«tenbar|[. It b poorly bnilt; haa aa la^ofCaot 
taariaa and eaonoD faoBdiT; a gnnnnTdBr. foQiBg. 
and aavaral aaw milliv and eaaaid«a,hw nwnofactom 
of IroB and ooppor wan, wbkb fiod tbdr prisefpal 
tnarlMt at St. Patnbwg. Pop. 10^»10. 



PETTY BAO— rFBFFERS. 



PBTTT BAG, u office of tlio eatat of chuicnT 
OBt oi which writa bnwd Id nutters nhorom th« crown 
vw tDcduV-ly or iiniaedi*l«Ly concerned ; auch m 
amaU ^iUrt for MihotM, ftr. 

PKTTV OFKICEIta SowOmcraa. 

VKTTi SESSIONS, id Englud, an tami<aM of 
tWD or tnoro ] unices of the paaoe, on which power 1^ 
oanictTcd lij vttriuui »tatut«> to tr; muiur ofloaccs 
without jtmr, tuxl ta toko cagnixnnoe of indi-ctiibte 
oOnoM, ftod «uauui(. the partial afUr exMuiontkui uf 
wilniawfartrJAlAtiiarLrtar-wailoiUoraaBtieB; Each 
ttnratj !■ EnglMiil U kubdivided into petty-Karional 
diviiioai^ which an Nmuigcd by th« jnjittasa inquAr- 
iBx-^mmm, to wham tbcN Is fenwdly an appenl 
from the pvttj tcKiona. Kach petty Bouicaad diviiion 
haa a clurk, who ia the Ic^ adriaiT of tiic jnatico. 

rEirriNGER table. ftm«piOK)wini(lhi;miU- 
Urj roada of thn gr«at« part uf iliu kla^.'uom q( the 
Vfalgothi^ draws, it WM formerly bclieTctLforThco- 
dtarina lbs Great ItlacalledaftcrConnul rcutingrr, 
a GanDMi acholsr, bora 1485, oiid who iliinl iu IS 17. 
Among hia oapm waa thU fmiiouj map, Conrad 
Cdt«^ who foBDd il in the ISmcHictinc moDMWry cif 
Tiprue^ bomwed and did imt ntura it. Much a 
aMMM mvmdi in rotulo wia oxtauC to that conv^ut ta 
I603i and Um Tabula PtratiogariaiLa at Vioniia is 
IKobabb tbv asiDS which Werlnhor, a poet, made or 
oMitcd ta IIOO. Odlca gare tbia map to FeuUngrr, 
wao iBtODded to publioh it. Aftor hia dmitb it Jiv- 
mrvand fcr maoy jean, until Marx U'cEmt pab- 
ImmI fra^mnita A it, mdor th« title of Ftigme&ta 
Tabola; aotlqiue ex Pentangefanim Bibliotheca [\V 
nJM^ 1691). It waa not founil entire among rcnLtin- 
■nrr'a aunuKripta until tb» elsht«eiitfa century, whuu 
odwyb pobliabed a bcatitifnl impreMioii. with re- 
natka (folk), VlsDna^ 1753). 'J'ho manuicTi|>t of thn 
map ia at praaent in Iha iutpeml library at Vivnua, 
phuiM an add ition al I«af of it waa aoino tlinu atr> 
£acOTH«d. The charactera and figurva show Ut&t 
the map ia not the original. Uomd thinka that it 
baloogv to the twelflh cwitury. A new impnmoa 
ii tUi wdeot map w« pubUdied In Ldpsig (1624). 
not «atlRl7 freo from faoiti^ with a trcatiw by 
BCDUMat. Peutincer wm tlie lint who oitli.-ctcil 
BamoD ioMriptlaaa en atiioe, ht n HuaU vruric Bo- 
DMBMTetwMii FtacmtnUCAanbuT^, ICOS). He 
wnti^ liMJiliB other nlii&Uoirarks, on the dMilino of 
thfl Konas Kisp4i«t Pevtinger tSao held (or a long 
periodjniporiant pnblio oCcea. 

FKWS (Old Fivoch, pn, boa Ijitin, jMiiirm, a 
pm^M or bakooy), JDdoaed aeata in a cliurtih. I*crwa 
w«re kt naa before the ]{<rfomiat)on, but aire uuw 
aeldnta found in Koman CatbnJic cbuirbna on tlie 
ChathMot. Is Emlaad pewi an held in the Ectab- 
Babod Chimfa hj two Uoona, flnt by pmcrip- 
llTe 1^^ when taey deaoeod aa am l]dr>looin indc- 
pcodntlj tt ecdeaiuticaJ ooneurrence; aeoand, nil 
pnn not ao held an at the dbpoaal of the ordinary 
CUibop of (be dloocM) fw bcfaoof of the parish, and 
«• BMir him dbtarlbiited by the church wanlcna to 

Tlia|wMlinaMiairiiidiiit In Umi \i Tbebialiup 

nay niBl iba right to at in a p&rttculikr pew. In 
tb* d^oaal of Ibc pews or aeaU in the arva of pariah 
cbOKbca ID Seotlaad uaruhlnnEn hare a preferable 
«laia (for the apecm puraoaa tJ( att«nduig diTine 
aenke) aoeotdlag to the vaTned amount of tluiirrmt. 
Tba db poaal of eewa or aeata In Dhaenting churchea 
ia d vBmxm porwjr a Batter of private arrangement. 
The; an ouanmoaly let to defray the oongregationat 
aipaoaa^ In Amarica they arv euaicUinea |>ut up 
toaoeliaiL 

PEWTER Doariafei of tin alloyed with a qnantity 
«f vapffa, or othtf pwtalUr bodJtia, aa the cxjwrienco 
ctf tba wncfcnMD hoe abown to b« th« moat iMBduQi«« 
fo tb» iBpranoual of ite hardacaa and eoloar, auch 




M I»ail, kIdc, bLnnuth, and antimony. The bert aort 
of pcwtor ia formvd fruu aalinii.>ay 17 ixtrto, tin lOO 
parta. The Frcnoh add a little cupper to thin kind 
of pewter. A veiy fine aQrer-lonkinp mnt^l m rjim- 
prmed of 100 lb«L m tin, 8 of antiuioiiy, I ul biaiuutl^ 
and t of coppor. 

PEYEIt 8 GLANDft See IxiBfriKl. 

PEVROUSE, La. See IjArSllOCSi. 

I*f*.S(KNAK, a town of Franoe, in the denartmeot 
of H^ruult, on the lufc bunk of the Hteult, at tha 
ooaguMif^B al the Pdno, *25 milM ifAW. frcm Mont- 
pcUier. lb ia well built, but aororal naoiMifl strMt^ 
the raina of an old caatie, a Gna parub cbiutli, and 
a theatre; manufartoree of Udobi, napkin*, ntMi,lin, 
moloakina, woollen and cotton ooven, luta, auap, and 
dientioal ])raducU; scvtral cotton and alik millL 
extttuaiTe di*tilli.-ri««; and a trade In gr^n, dried 
fruit, wood. oUve-oU, capen^ oolton, ail^ wool, and 
more eepocially brandy, winc^ and ap{rlt& Pop. 7361. 

I'K/.OI'HAPS. flee SOUTAIRE. 

riQzoi'onus- sm i'*K*K«aT. 

PFAFF, CuHUtiiAX UKiMiJi'ir, wa <Tminent dien- 
iHt and natural philoaopher, tiorn in L772 at Stuttgat^ 
waa educated in tho gyuuuuuuni there, and in the 
Chailea Academy, whn« he abowed a decidaM] indin- 
atiiin for natural cdcuoc. and bcaame awiuaiubed with 
Cuviur. Hit inUrvet in d^Ktridty wu taiX awakenad 
by tlio nOL'bratt:*! cxjirmu cuter Groai^ and be made it 
thi) Hnbiect of bia fint litorarr labour, in faie thceia 
entitled I>e Klectricitstc aio dicta anlmalL In I'd} 
he wont to Gfittlnecn, wfaero be pubUabed the malt* 
of Ilia galvanic inouirica io bia work Uebor tiiicriacfao 
KIccLridtiit nnd Ibdxbarkeit. Ha ^Ufrwarila apnit 
nuoii.- timi: In Copenhagen: thca went witli a noble 
family u phy^ciaa to Italy, and after bia rctum 
practiacd in tliiidenlivini till ITti7, whi-n he oooepted 
of an inviUtiuu U> becoiuo an extriiuTdlDJUy [irofaaauc 
at Kiel. Aft«r vl«idiig Pwie In 1 )^0] , nt tbn nxpenaa 
of tho Daiiiah Kovenuni^ut, Li> r«tiirne<l ti> occupy the 
chair nf rbemutrv, luid nuik at tho aame time aa a 
mciubcv uf tti<; mnlii^ fatrulty. Thb gave Um aa 
opportunity of dirwting hia att^tlon partlcuhirly to 
pharmacentical chemiatry. lie van thna led to the 
camponition of hia mast important vrurk, mtiUcd 
Sj«t«iu Avt }Lfut«ria Modlca nach Chemlaoben Prin- 
cipi>]u(Bc<on vola. l$0d-2(). He formed a laboraUnr 
in Kiel, andool1eclcdArichphTNcala]iparataa,whlca 
gmremmrnt afierRaida purcLBwd. At the aaoa 
time he took an active jutrt in eTorything relating to 
phyMCH and chomiatry, aa ia apparantfrmi bia nuina- 
roua pi^xm In tho journala devoted to these nibjecl% 
and ahio from hia ae^iaiale writinga, among whidi 
may be mantiacted ilandbnchdor analytiarbeii Ohcnala 
(two vola, Altoaa, IS24-S&); ITeber uad gefeo dett 
thlerbdieD Siagnetdmina (Harabnri;, 1607); Da 
£]«CtnnnagiutiHiiua (HaDnlnirg, 1S21); ParaJlele d<r 
cbantiaclMai ^nieoriR uml dcr rolt^uwlieii dmtacU 
theorio der gatvanivchtiM Kt;tt« (mul, lSIC>hand IMa 
Aalat. Chnlera-epidemja im UerxoKthiim lloUteiii 
im J. 18S0 (Kief, ISfil). H« died at Kid in 1SS2. 
Hia broUMT, John Piederiok, wlio wa« born in 1795 
and died in 1825, waa profeoaot of mathematics fint 
at Uclmatiidt and then at llaHe, and haa ao^uired 
an hononrahle naone in the hiato^ el nmLbtniutici 
by hia Dl^oUtiona Analytfcw (Heimatadt, 1 1HI), 

PFEFFEKS, Frln-EKB, or FtXtkh, a nnaU towa 
of Switxcrland, in the caatoD and 31 BiQaa eait of 
St. GnJJ. It it famuiu for Ita hatha, aituated In Iba 
val« of tho Taniina, nbr.iit 4 milM aboT* tfae Tillage^ 
ia what haa been dewvibed aaone v( the lutat extra- 
ordinary apota, awn In Switaetlaad. lie hatha art 
aitnatcd on a Barrow Icdga of rock a few foet abora 
the itupvtuooa torrent, and tha baOdlna which form 
them, cvadatinf <tf two pQea oonnected by a ohapo^ 
are to deeply atmk batweoD the focka that the lus, 



d 



PrEIITER— PH^DRA. 



In Um Ioas»it xmowr da,y, la TklUfi abore thetn onl V 
txea ten to four o'clock. Ftem 300 to 800 p«ticv]U 
Mn be reoeivftd aX » Uroo. Ilia qning 1im k t«in|»r- 
alura of nuarly 100' Fahr. Thair greftt vQoaoy is 
i]u<i«n£ftUi>, but ia not cmly explained, » i pint o( 
tha trator oonUioaacaRely SgrauiB of aaline particles. 
Th« »prin^ gnnenll; cta aaa to flow in wintOF, biit 
eontinuea fmcii spring to autumn, from ivbiob It i* 
pnhMo that tlio ipting ie duo to tba neltlDg of 
anew aci] ioo. Sbioe ISIO tbo waters tiavo been 
cxiRynyeti by woodrD ptpea to Hm rlUwa of Ga^tc, 
belr)w Lbe gur^^o, a <liaUoea of aboat Sf mllea. In a 
high valley above U» sofgD £■ ritnatM tba andunt 
Banedktiae abbey «f Ffeffan, only recently luji- 
ppe»«<l. It U a rart edifice, boBt In 1 BBS. fa plaoo of 
aDotbcr devtroyed by 6rs, and la now uxiil as a 
lunatic aavlupi nndcr tlte nama of St rirminiiboiv, 

PFEIFFER, Ida, an Aiutrian lady noted for her 
indefatipblo awrtiooa aa a tcuriat, waa the daughter 
of amen^iaatui ViemLa,aiid bom thoroinl797. li«r 
tatbar waa a naD of an eoocntrio dupcaitioD, tgirtag 
her a bo/a adueatloD, and carryintr oat bla theories 
■0 for aa t« ba^-o her attimi in boy'a doHiea. Hu 
death put a atob (o thu Amuoaian i^atein of np- 
bringing; bvt Ida retained a]] bee pradllecUoiu for 
boyiabooeapatioaa, andrwolutetyrottitad all attempts 
to Instruct ner in female aooomplisbiiMnta. Itaring 
eontractcd as atlacbment for a jn>nii| man wfao acted 
aa her tutor, bvr mothirr refoaed lier ooaaeiit; and 
harlos been bad|,t;rcd by acTeral otber aoitora cowt- 
tag hamder the niat^rtial easotlon, ahe at looffth in 
despair «cdde<I Dr. I'ti-iflcr, a lawyer ami a widower. 
twBDty-fmir yean oldrr than bcTMiLf. Her buaband 
held an ofBoe under the Auitriao tvtaaxaaA; but 
bnrlne ^vaa effanca, it ia aaid. by Ua inootmpdblUty 
of ptueiple^ waa dinQiaicd frnm 1^ afipomtmont, 
and for many years tbe faiuily had to struggle with 
axtreoMwnnt and poverty, Uadane Ptelffer endeav- 
ooring to eke out a living by taacbine- Hcrfortunoa 
at lea^tb improved, and ibe waa eotablnl to gtil bcr 
tvFo sons establlahed In life. About this time ber 
buaband diad. Baing tbus freed bum domeatlo 
anfafoneoti^ abo reeolved to cniry out wbat had 
b«eii bor di«am tbrou^ life— the exploration of 
foniffo eoontrisa Uav^g managad to board up a 
•mall anm for effeoting uom object, ibo vet oat in 
1842 on ber flrat jonney, wbich extended over 
Ttariceyj Palestine, and Egypt An acooaol of bcr 
wandennn waa pnbliabcd on ber ratura, and austad 
oonatdeiaSle iutciMt. Anutbvr tnar was undertaken 
by Iwr ik 184S to Scsjidinavia and Io^laad, of wbioh 
■be alao published a narrative. In May, 1946. at 
the age o( fifllMMiei alie >tart«<l on a jouriMV round 
the worH ealuag from llooibarg to lUo do Jaaetro, 
vUtiny Om Intolor of Bracil, Mid afterwarda pra- 
eaedlDg by tea round Cape Hera to Cbill, feoni which 
abe atMatd tba Pacific to Obloay slopping for a aliort 
tlma at TabitL Fnrm China she proc aa dad by Sio> 
gapers te Calmtta, vroaaed tbe cuun^ to Bombay, 
noa wfalch aba aailsd to Baawra in tba Pendau 
Outf, tcamUed In a caravan to Moral, and then 
iewmyiag thrangb ^enia and Ciicaailiw reached 
Cooetutboplev fnm wblcb aba returned to Vienna 
by Atbona and "Meate in NovmbM-. 1818. She 
pnbliabed an m t a gaa tt ng Mcoonnt cf thii jonrtmy, 
irbicb attracted coonderable attentloD bvth oo tbc 
OoDtinant and in Engluiil, wfa«re a Iranalation of 
It appnarnrt Madame I'fdlTcr had now become a 
Brarater of •one ade: but tbe main object ol ber 
waodarbwi sasma to bava bean merely to gratify 
a afaraog faibennt lenglng tor Noing fo««gn laudii, 
•ad abe bad no purpoaa to aerva ettber In the 
w» of edentiJic or etbDolo^cal investigation. Slio 
fnoaad dttJainia all prBtamiorLi to a knawlodgD n( 
aJtanee^ Ibough aba appears to have made soma 



mcteoroloj^-il ot««irvattau, and also formed some 
collcQtlans of insects. A aum of £100 was gmntad 
hor by tho Auctriui govEmment ta wmwute hnr 
travels, and in 1851 aha arrivivl in LoKbot, from 
wblobahe aaUed to l^a Capo f>r Good Hmi^ litlead- 
lag to ponrtrate titaa tbenoe into the mteiior of 
AfticB, bat th« expenaa of travellin; tbora proved •» 
enormoaa tliat aba abandoned th« idea, nbe tben 
Bailed for the Eaat Indiec, vinted Bamrt^ Ja^a, am) 
Sumatra, and expcaed benulf fear]>M«ly amid tbs 
savage and <iamilh*l tribes is these islaBda. Nothing 
ia mora idntarkablo in all the wandesinga ot tbis 
oxtnuirdbiary woman thim the coUectaitaasa and 
umlsuutud ODunuH tvtdib she, a aolitory femaLt 
maintained in conjunctorcs which would nav« tried 
theoann^ofmanynMiL. AitcTTlsitingth<aMo1n(^caa 
■ba aroased tbs Padflo to Callfarma, sailed down tbe 
west court of America, croesod the Andes, and tbco 
rt'tumcd ta London in 1854, taking the Vnited States 
in hrr wny. Tbe last journey accuuipliabnl by ber 
[ncludt-fl lli0 Island of Mikd^asiiLr, whir.1i nha vudlad 
from tho Mauritius. After undcrguing inucfa sntfer- 
ing and privatiiiiv, and muT^wly eao^Ing with bar 
life from tliL- liaadd of the diikbolical (jiieiai BanaTolk. 
Madnms Pfeiffer oontrlved to effect her rstnrn tv 
Estiipv. Her fatiguca, bowcver, had told fatally on 
boT conititntion, luid ailer llngwing for n tin* abr 
cxiiiifl Hi ViiTQuu on I'Jth October, 18S8. 

I'l-'OltZllJ^IM.thi' most important mannfactnrbM 
town of the Gmnd-dudiy of Baden, In tbe cfrda ef 
Carlanihs and 1& milo) Bmith-east of CsrianlM, ia 
situated ou tho oni-thcm c>:lgi- of tbe Hlack Forca^ 
and at the jnniTtiou of tbe NajrDltl with tbe Kns. 
Among Iw buildings are to be mrationed tbe remafaa 
of an andeat oastle^ which waa fonnerly tba reaidiawe 
of the margraves of ISadcn ■ Durlaeb, tba 
chunrb, orctleil In Uib tweUtii, thirt^nl" 
tcMitli c«uti)rlos; and cbc town-bouse, 
building. Tbe chief ioduatn' of the place 
manufacture of trinkets, wbic^ employs 7000 I 
the produce being sent to the ohief raarketa i 
world; tbara an abo chemical worka^ macIune-< 
savaral eatabUabnents for tbe prodnettai of 
warea; fotjei^ and tanneries. In the neigfaboariwod 
are oopper-worlca, bleaobfields, paper-milb^ otl^ 
saw-miUa, Ac "Hie trade in wood !■ iinportaa 
timber being floated by Hia Ens and Keckar I 
Kldne. There is also a oonMderable trade 
fmit, wino, anil otttlc The trade bsa been i 
inareased by tbe constmotJon of railways. TbT 
Inbabftanta distinguished thantaalToa {n the TUrty 
Years' war. lU-uchlin, one at tbe nest distingniilMd 
precursora of tbe Hdonuntlon, was bom baro^ ^"^ 
(1880), 24.0S7. 

PH.SDO, of Elii, a acbotar of Socratea, and 
fnunder of a srhnol of [ihiloMphy in KUi. Tbe 
diali^iue of Plato on the iuunurtulty of the aoul, 
whi(£ contains the last eo n v ai aation es Socrabsa with 
Lis Bc6oUus whUe ha waa In prisan, bcMM Ida aam*; 
hnt it b aaid that Pb«do repudiated tbe part ast 
down to him in the dialogue of Plato, sikd no iafv- 
eooe can be drawn from it as to his tcawhlng. Ncme 
of PluDdo'a writing whidi were in Uia fbnn ol 
dialogaei^ have come down to ua. Hendouenaa^ 
who founded tlie l-'./rtdjui branch oS tba Blaatle 
school, was lodicectly n disciple el Fbedo^ hot l« 
what extent bo foUowed hb vlewi Is onkaowa. 

Plld^RA, In Ur«4-k mythology, daogbSer ti_ 
Uinoa, Idug of Crrtc and of I'lMriphan, was tba a~ 
of Ariadne and nlfeuf Theecua. Happenlnt; toi 
HippolytuB, bor atep-soo, when she bul never bi 
seen, and whom she did not know to be the an i 
Theseus, ahe waa InAaued 'with an anient \ 
tbe bniiijlifu] youth, lie woold not red| 
p— lion, and to MUiufy ber revenge ahe i 






I 



In bcr luuilMnil of & crimiiul attampt vpno tier 
hotivur. Tbe fMber ^mcd his no, utd Neptune 
Moa carried bia uwonUoDS Inbo cSeot b^ briii|^([ 
vpon Hippoljtua a noloA dMtb. Wbccd ttiia erfmt 
WM lUMfwu in Atbena PhBcIra repented of ber crimo 
aitd ballsed howlL AeeordinK tv loiuif Hhe vim 
kShi b7 I^oaaoa. St^thodw and Goripides, two of 
Uu moat ftJebrated poeto of aoti^uitr, tiara takca 
rha:dr> m tbe nibiect ot th«ir trage^M^ wUcb an 
DOW loat KadiM bu foDawigd thdr ozamplft. 

PH£DRUB,ft I^niawritir of die Aaewln aft, 
lAo tniulattfd and imitatal tiw hld«a of J&op in 
iambiu verar. LiUle it knowo of bin but from hia 
(NTB writing*. H* was a ilavo bntiglit from Htnuna 
«« Macwlottia to Roan;, and maimflrfttcd by AogiMtPfc 
3m livad in tb« reig^ of Tibarin^ and B«eiiu to hat« 
ni6iif«d •ema opprMHoB or tnjiwtioe from tl]« t)rnuuiy 
ol SrjamL mom auHiDritiua havo doubted Uio 
j^inilauiiM of thft (abki aaoribed to Pbednu, chiefly 
It affttt* Mt tb« ffronnd of a alAleaieut uf Seoec*, 
that tba ItonuuM had not >ttoinpt«d fnM* writing, 
aad tlw gensral aUcaoe of otlwr Ronuw writws about 
Pfaadm. Tbe atjle ot tbe fables i^ bowever, faT- 
oaimbbtotbaaiippoutiaiiof theirge&uJn<'nra& Th<>re 
■ra fiva boofca containing ninatj-«enn (liliin attri- 
bQlid to PbKdrua, wbldi an fpaunlly (upi^onvi] to 
W gcnube. In tbe prologu* to tbe fint book the 
author annoiinc<a faii work ai a freo tTaiiiiUti>^n of 
.-Gaop; in tubaoquent booka he iotimatca bAviitK 
uik«D er«st«r Ubcrtlu with his aubject, and Intrv- 
dooad fablea of hia own under the namo of .^^sop. 
Tho fint e^tioa of thia collection, wim jmbiUhcd hv 
P.Pitfaan(Troy<B,1&W); theb<«tiBacntical«Iili<»i 
l>yJ.aOwm(ZUrieh,1531). A furtbw coUwction of 
tbirtj-two fablea aaoibcd to Pb»dma, bvt of wbicb 
Ibe aatbentld^ li mnoh more donbtful, waa mb- 
IMMd at Naplaa in 1809 bj CtmilXi from a MS. of 
N. Paratti, to wbom aoms autboritiee have McrEbod 
the ftn Jxioln. 

P£IAKTM0K{h]rEnaliatiwritcTiicoTninon1yim«tlnd 
PAorkM, wUIcb dwho a |{iti>u after tlii? god to a 
tight carriago), is Greek mythology, tho ofTapring of 
llaliaa aad dyaieae, and brolbcr of thu IIcIiiuIm. 
Tb pleaae hi* nnfortunate inatbcr, aail to aatijdy 
tbcOT who doaUed whether tbe Son were hie father, 
ha dMind the lattef to grant bim » Eavonr. Hdioa 
ianpniaMj pronriaed it oaooadiUonaUj, and awnro 
bj the Styx that be would aA all arenta keep Ut 
w«d. PbMitboo DOW a*k«l penoiHlon to take bi* 
fatbcs'a place in tbe i^iariot « the Sun, and would 
not be denied. But h« had eearoely mounted tbii 
BamioK or and taken tbe rtdu*^ when the celmtial 
boon, dMfWBDg tbitr weak drivar, tnniod out of tb« 
path, and aet avwrlUng on fiiei Tbe Elbioplnaii, 
OS Iha liA, wen bJadwaej by tho near a|)proacb of 
lb« Sua; and when the chariot wia drawn over the 
earth to tbo right, Zoua with hie bolta nhmgod the 
thoocbtlen oharloteer into the river Ericutniu or Po. 
lUi Mten fooad bin tbsre Ufeleaa, and Umeuted 
htm. Tbcy wov changed into poplan, and their 
t^kn into amber. Tbegodof tbeaua waaalwcaQ«d 
PhaStbon (tbe eallghBener), 

FHAIAKG^S (/'Aa^aajKitMix^ a group of nnan 
maraojital Mammalia, indndied in th«i f*utMn>hBfiXitu 
•r fmlt-eatlo]; eeiAUin of that ucder, and denvmg tbelr 
uaste from the fact that tbe second and third toee ol 
Iba hiadfr fert are nnited almost to thoir eitrcmi- 
tiia. All tbe feet poMcaaflvc toca. Tbo incisor tfcth 
-w™'™^ alz In tbe upper and t«o Id tl>» louer jaw; 
Iba ewiiiM are alwayi of taall mo, iboce of the 
lower jaiw bcinf ooeaMcojJIy uaderelnpcd Jho tail 
ia generallj elongated and fovhenalle, but, oa b odl- 
> {PitatnlamM), It may be mdlmrDtiuy. Thi? 
t toee are oppoaabley and are dcntit^to of naila. the 
t dlfifei being jvoTlded with curved naila. Tht-ae 




luiimalg* ftr« liiibty iidapted tar aa arborail Uf*^ and 
uiliaUt thc! trgpN of iho foreete o{ Auitralia and tbt 
Euttcm Arohipela^o. Tbey are nocturnal In haUtit 
and feed tqwa fmite and I^avf^, but apponr nJno to 
doroiir yoDDff bird*. In cnntincmcint they arv (oiiDd 
to pivfiir ILedi ai aa artiolu vf diet. Thuy are eaten 
by t^ha natiTcs of tbo conntrios in which Ximy ocear, 
idtbonKh the Bcah is mud lo omit a atrong and oETen- 
■ive ooour. Hie ■tociuch is of uinpla etructoie^ tbe 
intestine being proviiI(>d with a long cwouiil Th* 
Amtialton OpaBum (fhitiiayitta ntTpiiM) is tbo 
heat-known apecica i if I'baianger. Thin form is net 
a trua opoosum, tha loiter genua oocurring KiUvly iu 
Aniorica. This animal Is busted by tbe Auatndia* 
coloaiflta. It aTorogea about 1 j foot !a length, the 
bnahy tall being about 13 inches long. The oolonr 
U a grayiefa blaok, the imder pnrte naa inner aspects 
of tbe limbe b«^g of a ydlowiBb whit* colour. 
/'. caiifmu or ' CapoTi) ' is another spedtt^ found In 
New Ireland. The FbaUuf^n proper are auiaetiEnea 
divldod into two groupA, the iiretof nthich includw 
tboao epeoea found only in Australia and Tasma nu ^ 
and iiiiiniaalini longlsh eon and a taD wblob Is oom- 

fletetybairyUiron^iout. Tbe second group ombraeai 
'halangm inhabiting ibm Uands of tbe Easteni 
ArcbSp^ago esolualmy, and which poeaeea short e«re 
and talk with the t^ bare or desthntc of bjuirs. Tbe 
natiTea of tbo Moluccas tenn these f omn>) t-'unriui or 
Covjotu. P. urtina, P. CoiAii, P. ntactJaia, P. /tJ^ 
ffintiso, P. gliriformit are also known spedesk The 
Petauri or Flying Pbalangnra are aUo faichided in 
thU family. Thi»e latter are diatingniahed by tho 
piDueaaiou of a paTa^'utn (wlUch eee)— cuoslsting of 
folds of skin oxteoding along tbe alaee of the body, 
bctvoen the fan and hind ttmbe^-wbicb acta ne n 
namchut« and supports Iheae animala tn their Mfflal 
leaps from tree to tree. They waut tbe prcheiUJla 
tAtls of the ordinary I'balaogom. lltair fur m aoft 
and glouy. Tbsy are noctuiriml In bftlilta. PeUtvra 
Tat/uaanid** ia tho largmt appcic^ and BVFnif;es about 
2 fwt in lonyth, itidiuive of Ujp Uiil. P. »rimn\ta 
b A well-knowu form, ths fur being much valued on 
account of iU iiilky texture. This spedee is cdtomd 
gray aboTc, with darker colour on tbe beskd and 
while OD the under parte. A blavk bue nma along 
tbe back, the pataghun being marked atcog the ddca 
by a similar ba»L A drcle of blade snrronnda 
Pitch eye; m Uackisb Uno running along the hinder 
limbs i<n their U[^ier lorfacr. Tho tip <^ tho tail ie 
also coloured of a darker hue. This form inbaUti 
New South Wale*. None of the Flying PhaUiOgen 
iuliaUt Van IMemen's Land. P. fitititmUr and 
P. mai-ntinu an also allied spMaca nf Pctauri; wbUst 
the Piirmy Pctsunui (P, jn^imtus) Is iba amalleat 
spedus, aiul ti not much l&rg«r In lizo than an 
ordinary mmiwr. 

Tbo genua PhamJaretog, rBpreaented by tbe P. 
etnerttu, the 'koala' or 'native alotb' or 'boar' of 
the Australian oolotusta, ia nearly allied to the 
I'hiUangrn. It is^ in f&ot, hitennediate bctireeo 
tbeee ^rma and the Kangarooe. It p o ss e ss r a a 
nidbnotaty taiL Hie thumb* and gnat too u* 
oppoeahlo to tbe other digits which are pjurldod 
with daw*. Bee KoAUL 

PHALANOES, tbe name applied to tbf eeporate 
bonce of which tbe digita (or htijivra aud toee) of 
Trrtobratee oro compoeed. Each digit er fingtr of 
tho bumaa baud conatsU of throe pbalanecsy wftb 
the exceptlaB of tbe poUex or tbumb^ which ia com- 
pceed or two only. The basal or pnjxtmal obalans 
of each finger— uat next tbe pnlm— Is tbo longaet. 
and littM beeene micceeeively mnaller; tbe last or 
U-miiniil pbalangea which support tbe nails being 
tbo nnnUett of aD. Tbe same numbor Is followed b. 
tlie toee^ the great toe or halhu, like the diumb^ 



PHALAJJGIDjfi— PHALLUS. 



I 



fe^S lomvd of two phalftssiBB only. The phAUD^es 
of n» gnat Im m nocfa Wg^r tbui tboac of tha 
4itii9 ^'^'^ Slid llw wfv^fiA and third ph^lAiLgmi of tbo 
Bnls lOT BHjr InqaMiUj Iw found oarified togsllwr. 
b lamr Twt aVrtw tb« number of pbilaogM vwiai 
gMt(f bmiriutobtaiiu in mui. In other matiiniiUa 
■M»ia OateoeaiMorWbalta — tlia {jluLUu^tx utuubor 
<k» HMW M la am. In itatypm riilMtu, nnn of thf> 
I tbfl phsllBffCB oC ^10 Ihnsc uliuir di^'ita 
in kofu u tbey appnuufa tfto end ol the 
Sagv. 1%M« ftra fouTtMD pliftUngn in tb» third 
4git of tfZoAwerpAa/iu, one of the C'etMWL The 
unntaal phal»D]rai Id tbtt Cuc (Liuiui, Ac.) davdup 
faroftdL bony pl&tcs for tb« mippart of the daws. Tha 
plwlaiigM 01 tbo tot* m*/ mm exoeol thn«: of niBJi 
B imwer. Tfaa termiiial ^nlMigm uf tbo tim 
Uhmte 1> Ow Sboit-taDed FuKoiia, wul thosu u{ 
tbo CUs ttihibit th« mbm eaBfornutioii u the 
plialMiutB ot tfatt fiiunn, 

PHXlANOID^ » famQjr of AnabnMoDa, repre- 
■■Blii W tbv&oiUiar Stmat-ffdden (/'Ao^n^'inny, 
aad faciwdwl in tho Mction or ordor of tho AdeUkr- 
tfarOMlDato. The lega in the BvT««t-apidBn> »re 
■inwdin^ hatg. Tba loudliMy palpi vxint In th« 
Idhb «( fifaxnontain ^ipssdmea, which timiinntQ in 
dnpl^ hookad prooc— . Tbo ftbdanwn ia dbdinctly 
divikd Infeo aegiDenti or KOiiltai Thwo furaui am 
aot to be oDnfnaed with th» tnw ■(ddtra, from which 
tlioj dlBor in p cw a— lug » MntBcl ftbdoowD uid oUiev 
tcmcM of lowW nsuttuaocL The HmrMt-eiddcn 
are oomnuo aiMOg graaa and planbi. Tbay appear 
to BuMat on fnaedi^ and are of vooM^ona oatnTo. 
Hnrnral of Ibe fonlgo spedea powMi abdomena of 
nfmoricablo caalormatioD. 

PHALANX, a wtml ummI bjr the Gredn (sipo- 
cialljl in tlw ploral) (o deaignato veneraDy th« Ibo or 
nnlca c< an annjr in ordor dt batUo; now apadfloally 
the mode ol fonnatioo «< th« bwv; {nfaDtr7 of tb« 
Gnek annio. Tbfw Greek autea aci|iiitcd kiutwii 
lor thdr coporior orgauUathni aitd u» of tbf' pludanx 
— Sparti^ TlwbM, aad Macodon. In all of them It 
aaniirted o< infttotrj in cloaa array. hc*viljr anncd, 
with toOK apcAn na their piiuoipal weapon, Tfao 
orgaidsaUon uf tba tmopa oompoatnff th« phaJjuix 
nwiMl JD difforant statoe, bat gcaanHy tb«y wora 
■ftaogod Id regular divisionji uniinr r-ttiorra of variniiii 
tDBk% aa in » modun anuy. TLo t^purtoa phaUui 
varied in dcpll^ acoavdins to circnm>tiuic«a, bnt wan 
•ommonlj ef|[ht doep. It moved tv ihe uiumo of 
BatM^ much impottanoa bcinff attadiod to rhythmical 
aooreneDt Tlu>Tliebaa|iltManx,particiiWlT riMlnr 
BiNunfnondaii^ w^a n»i«h deeper. At tba iadHn of 
Lanotra ba kept on* vt Hat two dlvidona into which 
Iba pbalaaz waa uruU; divided ntirod. naing' it to 
■tfeagthen the other Kino- in depth. Th« putMui 
waa porfootcd bj Philip of Maoedon. He Jncwaid 
Um lcn|[th of tbiT Bpnuii to 24 foot, tuid the linoe wvro 
anaD|{ed at aut:h inlvr^aht that the fpc«ra uf tho 
lUthnitik projected 8 foal in front of the liiat, ao tiiafc 
tba front wuHotacted bj » aolid array of llvo linea 
of apearc Tne nion wa w» abw armed with lat^o 
AleUi which nearly oovorcd thoir body, and defended 
li« belmcta, cxiats of mall, and gitttvm. The nucleua 
m Um Uacadontan phalanx waa n lyitUigina, or eom- 
plat* iqoan of aixtocn mco eacli way. Tfaaao wv» 
mbUdm k Tarioua gnrapa— & ddllardiy eoDlalning 
four lyitt^iiiaci^ a nMrarcby two cbOutrohiea, twD 
■nerarehiea llw pbalauc of MSO man, and four phal- 
Huea tba great phalani of 141,9^ men. Tho lowvat 
dlrWni waa tlw hidiDa or euomoda, oonabtln^ of ti 
lAuda Ua of itThwB meo. 

?HATAmS, a nOer of Agrifieiitam in Bioly, 
eeVbratf'd in tnu]tti«i for hla craeley, but of whuee 
Ufu iu.d (UiLrgkuUr Um b little authmtiD information, 
Uia rei£D It said to bate UaUd alzteen y*n; ita 



upa laaiiy. 

juaadn^^H 
Ditr ofl^H 



oommeBcomcnt may be placed about 8.0. 47(Il H« 
was a native of AgrifeDtiun, and mgipmn ta ban 

lieun raised to anthori^ ^ hia lellow-titiaeaB, and 
■ft«rwudi> to have umrpea deapotic antfaority. H« 
oxtvnddd hit douiiidon Doth by war and polhiy, bu 
ahiin&lely periahad in a popular iimmctiob TW 
beat known aboiy of the cnir.Uy of I'halaria i« tbat 
of Ilia burning liia Tif^ms in a braxeo IjtUl, witUn 
which a nlow &iv wm kindled, while their alia 
resembled the Iwllowing of tho bulL It ia added 
that ho ftnit tri'-d tins iiuitniment of torture npon 
Pcrillus, iU iuvotitnT. I'he Bbwy of the boll it M 
cotniierable antliinity, hut th> lart oirconutaaoa ft 
probably a later A<idit}''n, At a later period tte 
tnulitinnal otiaracternl fbaianaandorw«ntadtaDy& 
Hi> LTorlty waa ropraaeoted aa due to tho oonatrain* 
iug forco of circumftonoes upon a aatoraUy add 
diapositJoD. He now AAinired the chamcttf ol a 
t(ivi7u( literature luid gjhiluaupfay. It waa la tlu 
Lut chanK-tor that the ■purioiia epbtlw of Phalarit 
won attributod to hbn. See Butlzt (Bichabd). 

?UALAR(}I'E,a(:«nuaofGrallatorIalorWa^ 
BirdH bt'limtjiD^ to tlie Scolopadds or Snifo f^nBilf- 
Thoy fomi tho tinb-fiuiiily Phalaropinin. 
Blender, und dujiruMod at tbc lnuu;, the two 
b«lnf; tfmored to the apex. Tho extreaity _ 

u[ii«r niandiblc ia obtnsr, and carved orco' tiia tip rf 
tlii^ lowrrtnaiiiiiblc, which Inttr.r !■ awl-ahaped. lie 
utxiriLi oxLit at tlio tiidud vt tho Ijub of tho numdiblai, 
And uo BUTTonndHii by a mcmbranotta patch. Tht 
■«ot aro of n)odi:mto xiio, thp t'>•a^ tike Ihnae of Iha 
ooiita, Iwing frini^Dd with ineinbrniKHia luLea, enabling 
theee birda to tt^iu with grvat fu^ty. Tb« boat 
toes aro unitod up to tho first joinL I'he hinder lea 
doo« nnt iinnwsa any mcrnhnvnc. llie wing* aro ol 
mudcrate wiza, the lint aud secnud quilla exOOodlBg 

the (*tlii-ra In length. Thu rhalaropea «dat oa lh« 
aea-ooaata in docks of anuJl sIm. They more nraly 
ooonr In fre«b>water lake*, and are oooaatoiuJly nel 
with awimming out at eea at oonsideiabl* lEaUnnw 
fruuhuid. ThwoblrdBareaaldneTWtodlvflL Tliay 
fMd on Cnutaoea, Molluscn, and fiuMb^ which they 
obtain by grnping with tboir bills in tho water. 11m 
neat IK built iLriiui>i({«l l)ie;;rafli<ju Uie «eu-i.XHiata. FkoCD 
four to ax eggs are produced, and both aoxee 
Thofleahlaoily anannpolaUble; ThdrJUMUl 
iai nortli sod Arctic rc}[ii)iu, bttt in winter 
tb«iiboiv«c4iiiaT<»itoutberaimd teniperaColaoda. ^re 
spvcicathu* visit Britaui hi winter. Several an Vganera 
an innlnd^d under tUo chief Kuuua Pkaiaroptu. THuA 
ge]iiMiaitMlfreprc9pntiHl1)y'tne/'.Ay]Xr&i>rruii(iv/idi- 
cartTu), the Iteu-ni-'i^ki^d I'luiliirupe. whjiji MOoloand 
btock, varlt>>l with fornij^iioun tiiitK. nnd with 
the under pnrts. Tba winter pluuiair« ia 
with white Iwnoath. P. platyrAi/m-hui la the 
Pbalaixipu, whIiJi poaa c Me a a wide bill, 
at its boee, tbo ttil bcine Ions; ond raundrd. 
rpucioa ii aomntiiaea— an by Wilson^ hivlodod is tht 
aub-geauB Solofodita. Tba Qray Pbalarope in Us 
winter plnmage Is ooloared a Uoiah gray, with whilr 
beneatli, and posMeaaa a diectnut patoi and black 
band on cni^h sido of the neck. This bird inhaUta 
the ArcUc circle, the caHtuni portions of Nertheni 
Kurt^'pe, tht> Caapiaa Seoi ana tbo Dartiieni ahmva 
of tho American oantlnent. It uigratea eouthwards 
B« fat aa lileidoo In winter, and at tliat period may 
be found in liritain. Tbo Mge ant coloured ipamlJl 
Iirown, with bbuJc spota. l^e wab-goaym LMpta it 
aU(itlier>M-t<uuofthe^enua,andt*80iQatinMeiup]oywi 
to includo the P. Avpn-borcta above daecribad. 

I'lLALLUS (Crock. I'haUM), tbe maJe organ of 
gecFmUun, a ayinliot of the priHluctivo jiowen ft 
ualore Id almoat aniversal uim> in am-ipnt rvUsfou*. 
It is impoauble to traoe the oriiriu r>r thu> ■ynibotimi. 
which fa so widely ditliued aa jiiobably to indicate 



-PHA?rEK0OAMOU8— PKABTSBKa 



ft i^ontoiMcna orisio among diffennt nam. Tbc 
•oafoe, bowcver, inm wbkh it liu ipKad muat 
wbUl7 hM nadoubledljr b«eB an eMteiD oo«. In 
Eforjit Ikb ijmboliMm wm iworiadd with thttranhtp 
of tM bull A[^ tuid vitli tfae feiwta of Odria, thw 
nkr dfrisity. EUevbere the pbiJlu^ ttvetber with 
the fanutle organ cf geiM^r&liou, repnaeubnl tho 
fertilllfaig pow«n> af the inci uicl narth. l'b« luuiia 
■jmboUani li fotuul tujiouii tbe Fbu;uid&n» uail 
BabyluoMtm, and it ia odo df tiio molcA of falsa 
iwA^ vhieb tb« J«H» lulojiU-il fn-iu tbi-ir id>>l- 
alrova ReighlxHm, mad vrltitli wen cnntinmilly iW 
Domiead bv tbelr propbeta. Stuillar •yuibuU Latv 
bv«n toaai in Sfcdoo^ and io India iiief mn eTory- 
wfaan oommoa bo thii tlay. (Seo LiSGAiL) Sinn« 
of tba Enptiaii conqu«ran an >ald to hare diffused 
tfaem wxMJ on tlie nmtea of their conquvrita. 

In G ftaea Umw aymbob did nol ap^jear Ju Uie 
friinitivtt UjAolan of tbo llDllciiic mco. Ilwy 
WM» iBtradnoad wfttt ihe wuraliiv »f Didii^ysni, and 
aftvnrvda appUod to tliat of otbur dlvintetcs. par- 
tfcnlarij of Ocin«t«r, Anbroditv, and ApotJa Uovr- 
aw Mtanl nwj bavc bccti the MuJogiea whicJt lod 
Io thanaeof tb«a*«jmtioIi^aud hvwtiver ((etteral and 
Meal CMjr hara ban tb0 ooocvptioaa intended to b« 
coanjM bj tbam, tb«nr oreiyvbcN Kioner or later 
bacaiM aaaoditgi with obaoeailiea aod licmtioiin 
rilaa. I'hia wh oapeciaUy tb* oaae la Komu iu tho 
bttwpartolila biiloiy, whw* ttie oflaaoaa prndnoad 
hr Umb ritca wvr« ao great that thmr had to be lor> 
nddas bj law. The wonwD carried the embliun in 
| w oeaawo n frota ooa tempi* to aootfaer. Tbvy won 
tlwm aa amvkta; aad Utla praotioe aufcalitod 1od$ 
aflar tbe fall of tbe Itomaa tuTtbok^. and mil on 
into tbc mi^Ulo ^i». It waa pMbit>]t«d by ooimi-Ha 
of the dintcli at Man* in tS47,>tid at Tonn hi 1S9C. 

rilAXEKOGAMOUS, or PtUKistoaAMic, one of 
ttaa two sraat dirialona of tha re^etablo kingdotn, 
• n a rirt ag ot tboie ulanb whieb bare opao blntoma 
niaiM td ntaoauotloa; the othor obm, Cr^to- 
' , bttteg noo-Bowariikg, or with oonoealad orgaoa 

rmnwluctkiii. See Botant. 

PUAXl'ASMAGURIA, a U-mi applied to tba 
affect* produced by a luagic-Iautcrn, 

PBAKAOB, the nunc gi^-cii ia tbe Itible to tho 
Una of Egypt, cwrMfiuntUn]; to the t-Rx or rH-Rji 
ef the Kgyptiaii hieroglyph tve, wbich algnlftea the 
■an. Tbe iaentlficatioii of tbc riiattinba tDoatioaad 
In Scrlpt u ra^ partlcalariy the «atlicr oaca, i« a matter 
el great dilEculty, owing tA tbe uacertaiuly of the 



ebrooolnaio «n tNithiddaa. 
Tbe Pharaoh : 



I 



. oMfltioued in tbe ttrae cf Abfaham 
cannot very wdl be IdautiGed. If tho oiminoii 
8erip*ural i^rooblogy ia correct be waa probably one 
el tba ahepbod Icin^ but to tbda oonieciuM no vory 
Utgb pnbaUUcy can be aUactied. Of the Pbaraolu 
in Oa tima of Joaafili ad Mceei, aJtboagh we have 
many laon dotaila regarding tbon. little more i»u 
be aaid, iml du i^reatvr rvrtaititr exiiti vm to tlnrir 
identity. (Se« JBirs.» TIm tiio rboruolu aiuuiifjatd 
in tba rei^ of Solomon, the one who gs\« hii aa■t«^ 
i9<law bo Hadad (bo I<>Ioniilf, aod thii nne whoea 
daughter BoIohmo hiuueU uiarrivd likewiae nnuJii 
'—**—*"'—' TlwPbataob luenUoned aa the opuon- 
•at ct 6au«ch«ib waa probably the SeOoa of Her- 
ndotiw. Pbaraob'Nedio i* the Unt I'hanuih num. 
tiMMd Id the Bible wboae proper nuuie b rtcordeO. 
H» h nMoUinaid In Uendotua under cha naiao 
M dtlii^ and waa prooabty the fifth or aixtb of tho 
Salle «w<M|j-aat«ntiidynaal7. Pham>b-Uopbr» wai 
tbeeoeoiid uicaee—iati after Wecho. Ileiai»i*nlilled 
wilb Apriai, ithn idgnad from about 6&0-S71 ii.c., 
bat tb* dataa of both the bcffbinlng and end of hii 
RU;n are nrinuaiy stated. SevEral Icingi of &|nrpt are 
msBtiooad in tlio IUUb who an not wled rhanoli. 



I'lIAJilSKKS, a roUgiona acot among the Jew* 
which had riaen into great fnStienee at the time of 
Cbri«U auil pluvcJ & prominent part in the ertnta 
rK-»rvlnd in tlin Xniv I'oetanMmt, The Phariaeeaara 
nut nietitivui.'d iii the Old Teatanent or the Apooiy- 
ptut: they are, hnweviv, eoKmonly Identified with uie 
AaaidcAita (tbnt la, ttiasUttm^ godly men) mentioned 
in tho timt nnd uraKiiKl hnnki uf Miu.-c3beea (finl, ii. 
42; vocoiid, xtv. 4, &c) An impnitAlili* iut<^rprota- 
Hdh TtfuTt tho word truistAled 'aun^' (clujrtdlm^ in 
I'miIiub Imin. 2; »cviL 10, Ac, tolbn I'liArisPO*. The 
mcBt prubuHe account of the ortKiii uf the FhiLnneea 
04 a (UaUsBt Mflt ia probably that wbiah rvfera it to 
thonaetionagainattbeattamptof Aatiochua Epapb- 
liiic* to bn-ak down the diitiiii^tiona between nla 
Jewiah and Greek aubjectii. Etvu before tba Uaui 
of AntioebuB (aee .Iibwb) a afMt of oomptomlaa and 
cuoformlty to Gentile euatonia bod been ^triDging np 
amonff the <lnws th«niai<lTv>. Tbc Vhanaew ai;gwi- 
iwd Ing na^ouul oppmiliuii vi th[i brealdng down of 
tbo andent barrivrw uf their faith; but their aeal, ae 
tcatifiod by tba apcatlu Paul, waa nnirciw, faigot4.'d. 
ignorant, and tntotonuit; and amout; the clu>r}im 
wbioh our ^avlvur bronsht agalnat them a prominent 
plaoe la girsn to that of ndwodantaading and niia- 
intetprating their own propheta. Joaephua, who waa 
himtelf a f'hariicr, gi\ra in hia aevenl WDtfa brief 
■tateueuta of their •Joctrioat; but hia aoooonbi are 
BMuewhat affoctad, and being writbcn for Gentile 
ean; whidi he waa by do meana nnwiliing to pleMO, 
they are bannanhced to a pbUoaophical dii.-tiun. wUcI) 
wai not tbe natural langnage of thi.> I'hnriinn*. In 
tho aeeoad book of the Jewiah War he aays (chap. viii. 
a. II): 'Tbe I'hariaeca, who are tvputed accutatu 
espoaltora of tbe lawa, and beiice dcrire thor funda- 
mental dogma, aaorilw everything tq fatn and God; 
but admit that to act rightly or uthenviae reatc for 
tha moat part with men, though In each caaa fate 
o(M»cntM. Every aool they bold to be incleatmoti- 
ble; but maintain that tbcas of the good alono aaigrate 
iiito uthtT bodies, while theao of tho bad anBer eter- 
nal piininliniMit.' 'llio Phariaeea,' be add^ 'regard 
vtwh other nitb alTvetluii, and cultivat* public ctm- 
cord. The tnanncn of tfae Sadduceca towarda each 
other are forodona, and in their lateroouise with 
their own fnteniity they arc u wanting in urbanity 
aa with aliena.' The dootiinea held by tho Phariacee 
and by tb* SaddooMa JoacfAua cnlia 'tli« idiikeo- 
phical ayrtoma' of the .Tewa. 

1'be Muuroe (itmi which tbe nioet minute- and de- 
tailed aeoOTints of t)in doctrinoa of tho I'liariwrn aiv 
to bo derived in the Miahoa. Tliia ia the rirrt pot- 
Lian nf tho Talmud, and i« called by tba Jew* tha 
tieoond Law. It la a cuiujwiidiuiu, compilcil or 
edited by the niiAi Jelmdah tho Itoly, who lived tu 
the aeoond century after Christ. It fn^iueatly rvfeti 
to the Mdnlona cf UUlel and Sbammai. two rabbia, 
beada of oppodte adieola, wlio Homrinhcd befon the 
hirtli of Chrixt, and to (iamnliel, llie Leacher of PauL 
It thua eatabliabee a continuity of dnc-uine or tradi- 
tiftn eictending over this period. The fiindanienuJ 
priciriple of the I'hariao^a ia that of llic rxlittnoe of 
an oral law to cuniplvte and exjtlAiu tbi? written law. 
'Uoaea,' eays tbe Miabna, 'received the Uw (Ibc 
unwritten law ia mrant) from Sinai, and delirered tt 
to iTofiboa, and Juahua tu the eldvn^ and tlio elder* 
to tlie (itDphetit, and the pn^iht'ta to tbe men of the 
Great Srnat^iruc.' Thia priodpl* haa all tbe ood- 
vcnicncca anil inconvoniencea of the apeatoUfl^ tradl- 
iiaa and euocoaaiun of the Roman CathoHa ChurA, 
and Ita develapmcut bean a atriking analogy to that 
of Komiah tradition. Tlio aulbaritatira tnditiuu of 
the Phaiiaee* reoetred in prooeM of time additioDi 
wbidi n'CTa not protended bo bederived directly from 
MoMw. In Dr. Smftb'a ItiUo l}ictianaj7 theae ace 







FH A R IHKBa— FH A BMACT. 



<< &e 




IhIiwiImI boaiba 

mtrt A benki bm thdr f fowd 

HIIM >nd OmaHeL TlMm-wM Ikn a mttmoiy 

£iowiBg traaUoo, wfaMv fii^c ^ " aattnilBtN* 
BaCan, wu iinvarfLb; nd lb* aBh^lkitf aad 
taiurteDeMaf Um tmUHw it witihifi) ndaced 
nm to Um raiak of &lftw, wlAo«» Oi pomr to 
MM uukI or bdo cxMiit Mocnnig to moml 

X90 CBcnttCBiB^ Baton v tsMa vfyolBBcaa bbt 
be MliBMfld by the Wifriwwl ef tbe itriiM J i i fr ^ 
vfakli the MttMritj of Um detreee at tlw wm ims 
wiafaioded. It ma calkdiuktaK »'<««• far Ai 
tew.' Thus, tf ABTtfaing wm fofiUdoi to dw aoral 
or ccremunul I>ir, Uie wue nun taolc occmob to ' 
forbkl wtikt tl>*v ibou^t cni^t 1«kI to M, to v4er 
to keep nico txi fnan twiwgrwriiM. IVtimUUlias 



to Xsodna aad Dcqtcwiwy to tttAt a kSd to Ida 
notber's niU^ Imw tfana been ff»iatJij cxtCBdeA 
aiita it baa come topMhdtparUUac of laOk aloar 
wftli or enn irilUa wrwal boon of tba aatiDg « 
a&boal food, not eaocpttof penltrr. 

!%« «staat and aanrtwuei of Uuae regnlaticinB 
nrcemarily prcdoce* ooDidoai KBtOBc tbe aoUioritieik 
anil U' raail the aeooBDUoC tlieir varieoi dedrioaa i^ 
«-itJ) i.h« iDftte traaifeKDM of tmaa, eiaedy Hke 
ruftdini{ it cb»pt« of PaMal oa tbe cwnirttj ot Ifae 
.foaaibu Krui tli* F>>Dfib«t BUjab UmMlf, ft li uU, 
could oot take any anjlbiit; bma tba ^btcea 
fiotDta which b*d be«D detemined ta hj the acboAl 
»f ShunniM and the tcbool of HiUeL But tbeu 
i-»l»Imit«>d aciioob had thaJr AfTimfuM, anH on* of 
tbo momoDtona t|u«fltJoda oa wUcb they dicpoted 
wu whetbar aa «ffg night ba eatea whkh w» laid 
UD ■ fo^vaL Beth vcre Bfreed that if a bird whkh 
wai not to be klllt^d laid an, egg on a feedval h eoold 
not be f«1j!u, bul if Ibi- fowl whkh laid Iha egg wai 
to b^killmj Ui* Kohr^t of Shammai patimitbid tba egg 
Ui be «ateii, while tho ecbool of BiUel niftued to per- 
mit It. But why waa tlie eadag of tlw agf pro- 
hibited At allt Becauee in Ezod. xvi fi Iha people 
wfai) gatlicnd manaaweie oitlored to pietiaie on tbe 
«lxth day what thev brought la for toe wveath, 
hvDco It waa h«U uulawfel to prepare food on a Sab- 
bath for a feaat-day, or on a feaat-dav for tbe 8ab- 
halfa. Kow, aa c^f wae held to be 'inrepared' the 
<lay balore it waalaid, and oa uemm roa«t-dava tol- 
knred tbe Sabbath, tbe tss laiJ ou the fca«t day 
ndgbt have beaa pnpand en tbe Sabbath, aad to 
av^ thia riak of eifemoe it waa deemed axpediaitt to 
probibtt the eating of eggi laid on faaat^daya alt<^ 
ueUier. A multitude tf regolatloiia wen laid tor 
Jewiib itaushtcr-ineB, aad the eatiiig of neat afauirii- 
Irred by hcathriu wan altogether prahibited. Debta 
due to a he«tbeD were not to bo paid within three 
daja el a Jewlili feaUral, and a Jewlah midwife waa 
rortddden to aanrt a Oeotale mother. 

1V> olxMnra thoae regulatinna the Phanaora formod 
a aooiety, which waa etrictly bound by rwiptoool 
engageiUDiite to their conunon policy. Each member 
an }r>ln]i)^ It undertook before three mciDbere to re* 
nutin faithful to the tawa. One of tbe carduia] tajanc- 
tioaa waa to refr^ fron buying, aelUiife or eating 
asvtUiw that wae not to he tfthod, aad to avcad any 
rfak «f uiia the nenben wet* forbiddm to eat and 
>lrink with the people of the land, aa the nninitial^d, 
apeoiBUy at die lower order*, wnra called. 

A ■peelal dlatiaotioB of the Fharieeee, which ii 
Implied in what baa bcm already tald, wu the 
rMlwct they paid to tbe rabUa or doetora of tbe law. 




The 

<f tW _ 

piusiuoopaiA 

asfpOaoa far tke ftifMiAtoef 
bythagiiinlba^y^ 




FhirMinyrfirwaaeh Medh ylfce) 

Stoee' 

efltel 

PHABMACT, P»aaKagppB» (p'—fc. >^ "■ 
di^g), the art of p ii i a M i i a fc . ^nfmOac 
ceatWag adhitaoeaa far 
puf|ina;i, lite art it ifca apoAeearr. Aa theae mIk 

_ «i iietoBr. 

_ _^ mil 11 It Ii ail Mill ti 

dcMnnns ibc^ fvnpcvvs^ ^tta Uift Ivn of Unv 

la A SHIVW MB» ibflw^ h wHuiy tfc« «t of 

^IHpfBTIW TMtf iB^tap SVn ACDoranff to n0 pf^ 

ifeMa WW I* MMfanBad by & pfayAfaM Ow 
iiil III. I hii ihi aMiihliiil l1i iii in tlirii , 
aad ft fine *■—■*■ a dfaWart toaw^ 
■cwnoe at Alexandria lewardi the 
foattb eantoiT kc, wb<a aoae phi 
Aaaadfw ae«e^ to k. A ll ain aub It 
eiMflojia eal cf partfoalar todieidaak (r 
■toifteB), and Iha laedkal acfaae* and ^ apalh» 
caty'e art tboa beeaaM aapanitid fraot eacfa eitfwr. 
MMitiia, a pnpQ e( BanfAali%ln AkxandiH aeow 
to have beat the antbor ef the tnt T^Armmeofobt, 
having paUiihed a work oa lb* peeBaratioo of madl- 
cjiaa. Z«w ot landirwa Jattog ow hed hinweW W 
the tovtatten of a large auober of eoaapo ua d inadi- 
elHA RrtoMB alu atfliMnl tbe medical ■'S— »— . 
partlcolarly fat lelereaee to the preparatioa ot pelacaa 
andaatidolto HwawAWriMvltol kiagrf P a i g — 
<B.C. 18t), waa noted for hk audical akiD a^ hfi 
knowledge of pdante, and aercnJ peemimtMna whsA 
be toveailed at* knawn to oa; a^ for lititaae^ an 
oiDtnaat e( whatolead or oeraae. &c MitbtidaM^ 
king of Pontw (ISS-^S ba). foTcntod an aatidoM 
conpoMd tJl Gfty-foar ingiedieota. Hera^ of Ca^ 
padoda, wrote a weric «a phannacy at Bona [ml 
49). Mta^ the ealabratad phjwciaD to Angnpta^ 
preactlbcd aeveral medictoal preparatioiu, which 
aflerwaidf cootbued in oae oader hia name. A 
Wge aJlecthn of eompouad aedldiMi la enoiaar 
ated in tho worki ef Scriboniiia Largos (a.D. ti). 
Sleaeenlc^ pbjikiaB to Ttberjo^ waa tbe iaventor 
of the dJacbyloo or Qtham* piaater. Danocxalw 
(a,d. 47) toeamted and deecrfhed ia varM the prepara- 
lioD <jS aercnl mediciDe^ tooth-powder, oiatmapH 
&C. Phllo of TatioB <A.D. 23) dUoovered a aedatlre 
oompoeed of opiunt, Mffren, aad other iiiniiiineiit^, 
and eaQed from him jJtitomivm. AjKlefdacwa Fhar* 
maetoB ^ tbe tfane of Tnjaa, a.n 97) ptepani 
Bcvcfal odetoatod medldttea. IKrentrMea, who fn- 
bably flonri»bed in the reign of N«n> (a.u. 34) fa die- 
tlognUMd fnr hie knowledge ot tbe propettfea of 
plantar and fint espoaed the fraadalait pradiea 
made n»e of in the ooupoeltloD d f erctal medktoe^ 
and pmcfihfiil the pteparatinii nf *om« imiw oaaa; a*, 
for uutance^ of ceni>e, calamine^ flowen of liao ImikS 
oOusi), Ac FUay the Elder (Id) abo rendend in- 
portant errricee to phannacj by Ida reaearcbM in 
natural hixtory. In Galen** time (180-900) aevaml 
pJ>T*icia» In Borne employed tbemaelrea lo the pre- 
iexatioii of coiaetica. When, with the deellae el ^ 
K^raan Bmptre, edenee and Icarans became extinct 
iu Wcatoni Europe, eupvntitiiai aad blind empdrkton 



PHARMACT-PHAETKX. 



n 



prerulMl in th« modinl dopnrtinent, uwl [Jumnacj 
matUi uu pTVfpraa. Bat in Itie East, pttiiiinJarly in 
Alexandria, wheN mrt Mtd •d«iic« cantintwd to 
noorHh, ebowMiiy md pbamuur wu* cultlvktMl 
with udour bj ths Anbt&iu. They rtodlvd tliB 
warlu of Iko Oraeh writen, uid frvm tLoiu w« drrivu 
muij important Inprovnncota in tho pbumiaoeutio 
Mt. The Caliph AfaaaMor (75t> founded b B^[dftd 
tba fim pahUo opMAftw or dniKSin'* ataop, !nu 
■wmM <f Mvcni nedicinco, mich m ftlcotuil, f 
Ao, ara ol ArabJMi cawin, and it in moat proT 
thftt wa 0W9 to tbem u« fint official dlsp«BntoTloi 
waharBacopCBtM. (S«a PBARitAeoKUA.) SaborEbi 
Sanal, about tba tniddle of thi: nintli oaiVary, pub- 
liabad * pbarmaeopodK, atul iu the twvlftli oeaturv 
Abal Maaian, pby»lcUn to tbe Ca.1iph of Da^^dad, 
pnblUbad m nnuUr woric. which nibw>qnentlT lerved 
aa Iha atandaid work if the ArabittD anoUiecAriea. 
Tba AjaUan apothacaifea'ahopa wera uounr tb« jmu* 
tieidar dtnotioii of tka fforaiiBMiDta and wvro nib- 
jested te a rtiJct aitpemiloii, partienlarly ta re^ni 
ttf IhiB qofcU^ aid price of dntra. It ia related of 
ABUn, as Arabian gananl, that ho oiarainrd in por- 
■n th« tBedidae cheat of hta anov, tv t«« if ewr;;- 
tbiag mgaikraad In the dlapensatonea was proTided. 
With tho fttviral <t ntedic^l adcnco in tho Won 
araae the celcbrati-'i} nchnnl n( HalemoL I1ie apolhe- 
«MT'a tnda waa nuw (iu tbe thirteenth centor;) 
r«uUl«l by Uw, aod ApothM-atiea ftsd gncan won 
uUlgedUiacIl tbrirartirloatfixedprioeai Apothci^aa 
or apothecanea' hiUit oouM bo oLafaUihed only iu 
ovftaia placee^ aod two men at tttandlng wer« a]>- 
MiBled Ib the large tcwni to iBpofiDbend them. 
The nuaC fanpartaot medidDoa were compoiinded 
nadar their inapectioB, and tranda were aoverel* 
pnniahwd. Them in n work by Snlwlin of AKnli, 
phyaldaa to the Qraiid-eaa«Ublu t^f Napl«a, in the 
fiftseBth eentnr;, which, besidu other cimoua nale- 
rkli relating t« the ttate of the apotbecariea' trade 
ftt thai poiod, oostalDa a Uat of tho books which an 
Apotbecair; oo^t to liavc, with mnml prprf!riit-> ftnd 
directiona tar each mocth. Tho [irinapal jilviiniia- 
eratlcalwaricofthemlddleaBMWMth^AijtidiiUtiiiDa 
flf Rieholaa Prvpoaitoa of Salomum, which wu oclo- 
bvMed aa earlr aa the twelfUi ecnVary. In Franoo 
tha apetliecarJea' hatla wvn fint aiibiect«d to tlio 
isparTirioB of the mwflcal facalty in the fifleonth 
oaotwy. Ib Gennany the B^ntheoariea were meraly 
dwJw fet ingg, whlah ihey fanported (rom ItAljr. 
The phfdciaaaabo prepared their own prtacriptiont. 
la moat dtioi the apothncariaa were likewiae can- 
fevdooan^ and the naclatntea in their cuutcacta 
with tban etipakteil tor a certain qtiuktity of con- 
factjomaiy to be delivered in the cilv-halL Thf 
tefenna « Pancelraa in medidne (nxteonth ccnturv^ 
introdaoad Mine diauc«a into phamiary. Miuiv 
dHBieal prepantioaa wan adopt«d, an«l Ihe luo of 
mineral apecUca, aii^ for example, Mitimony and mcr- 
cwy, became mote cummoii. Uliil the uperati'-ULJ 
w«*« conducted without rofertoiN to adentlfic prin- 
dplai; but ainee the middle ct the lerentcentli era* 
liuy Iha aahinJ acdeaoea have continued to make 
nwk p iyaai^ aod phaimacy, aa well ai medklDe, 
Ma e jp eri Mw ed the eflocta of the iioprontawiit, (8a« 
Ajwihsoabt and CHEMiaiB.) In phanBaoootleal 
op er a ti ona tbe apotheoariea' weight ia oaed, tn whidi 
A nsiaa m^e a acrapje, 3 acraplaa a dnKbm. 8 
dnabna aa ooaaa^ and 13 onnoea a pound. 1'be 
(uOowtav at few t h ttoBa and rigna are naed by pby- 
ilBwtitinf their pmcriptuna: — 

IK — pound. 

3. Duuoe. 

3. dnchm. 

3..„ acraple. 

Or. ,. Rrain. 




a (coiwhm) gallah 

O... (maim) plat 

{. I fliild eonea. 

f. D flnid drachm. 

m ndidn. 

tiub (yiUta) drop. 

CochL {coeU*are) apoonful. 

Co!<hL msj, itachUart vutjiu) btlr1n.«pooa. 

Cochl. min. (nidU«ar« minui) tea-apoou. 

Mnnipt [mantpuitu] handful, 

i. L one. 

aa. halt. 

U or ODM.... at eaAx. Tncceeaarj. 

q. a iquanlun mfflcU) aa much aa 

p. «. . eqUai paiU. 

PHARO. a pune. Boo Vako. 
FUARO of MnanarA. Bee Faro or MBaaiKJL 
I'HAKOS, nanstlmea oaed iu EiigiiMh for lipJu- 
hovK; it) aome otbnr ]anin>ngr> it ia tlin ontinwr 
term for th<»o<!dific<«. Thn nunu b ilcrivnl fruiu 
tbe inland of PhnrM l>cit)re Al^XAndria, which pro- 
tected the piMi of that city. Ou thu ciMbcrr nr«- 
niontory of the ialund xtood tho lig^hthoitui cf Alui- 
tiudiia, >o famcpua in astiijuit^', auJ eonaldered ooeof 
tbe wondeni nf the worM built 300 yaan li.0. It la 
Haia to have bMO £00 f«ct higb. See LlOHtnovazs. 
rilAlLSAMA, Uicnlaiui mtheneiohbonrhoodof 
PhanuJua, a town of Tbaeaaly. wliere CKaor dafeated 
Pompey ac. 41*. Bco C.wmu and P'jjiiit. 

PH.,UlVNO0li1tANi:ilIH*pb»r,'ni-gilled'),Uie 
namr npplird to tli« loweat order of tiahcaj repicaented 
avidly by ill V LauL-oli-t (whiiAaee) — AnpAwtnu bumo- 
latuj. The term nlludea to the brcauiine oi^fuia ol 
thiH fioh, which am conttitiited not by gills but by a 
smtly enlarged jthaiyHx (or hack part of the tnouth), 
Ivnuing a cbambor, thowalla of which am »trengthmea 
br grtetly (Uameata. Between thcao filamenu a >erica 
of tranivMaaBlltB open OB each tide, whllit tbe Interior 
of thia pbaiyngeal duunber ia UiMd hf a detfoate 
Tucnl»- membnuw, the sotbc* ot which la richly 
citlaU'il Tlio |>raeem of bnsatbine ia performed by 
tho ulmiuian of water through the month into the 
dibli^ pharyux. Thi* water Uvea oertain free fila- 
mtnta aiinated on the ridca of tho throat, Mua«s Into 
tho phaiynx, and mppllea the oxygen for tho Miration 
»f the blood cuot^nvd in ita vaacuiar lining mciDbriuie. 
He effete water than paaaea thmugh the alita in tbp 
walla of tbe fburptx, and tbua cacapeo into tito general 
carity of the abdomen, wheaoe It u expelled Into the 
outer world llimu(;h an aperture known Bi the oUo- 
mtnoj fort, which in oitiiiLtod on the lower man^n of 
thebedj. T1ie:iBiae£rtinMM>*(o»ia('gill-mout£ed'), 
ecoadonallf given to the l^ncelet, baa reference to the 
fuULtioEia lif tbe phftryngcal tao. See lOHrnOlOOl 
and Litnrtij-T. 

PHAKYKX the term applied bo the nchn in- 
cluded In Um back port of tho mouth and nraer 
portion of the thrnat. It ia tbe nhArynx which 
reveirea the food after it haa been diihr maaticaiad 
In the mouth, aod whiob then traoafara n to the taao- 
phiifni or ^Ih-t. Tbe pharynx of a funnel ahapa, 
and ahoiit 4 incbe* in Irnjjth, itji wbIU being chieHy 
compoaed of DRiauuhu- tinue. It ia attochnl otijie. 
rioriy te tba boailar proceaa of tho ompital bono. 
Ita broadcat part liea oppoaite the hyoid bone. Ita 
lowest bouniiary ia at Uie O'iooid earUlaffe of the 
luynx, that i*, about tbe level of tbe fifth cervical 
wrtebn, where it paama into aod Iwcomn oootineotia 
with tho Danowar ' gtillet;' It ia loeaaly attached 
botiind to the bodiea of tlie cervical vertpbrc by 
arenlar tiiunic di^tilutti of fatty iilenMinta Tho In* 
temal carutiil arteries run clofe to the aidea of the 
phuTDz, whilst l&t«raliy the . I'lharynx ii alao fa 
coDtact with tbe internal juguUr vein*, nud with tba 
eighth, ninth, and aywpatliotic nervia. 



19 



PHASE-PHEASANT. 



Tfea liluijiu fa miiniiMiiT of thrm naU— the tnner 
tAf ta* BDOOiakjar, tbe middle » fibrous cokt, and 
A* VBlv » ■"— *'— u^w. TIm noMtnUc coMt u 
MHOBsi of nriODB dMBDCk imiiclM, cbtaf kmnLg 
wiia « Ae ttraa trntlrkUr uMadca of «m1i fide. 
Tb MvMT wilrftfar «!••• frrai tb* dd*« «f tiw 
friaoUaad Ajnoid caitil^ci; the miJ^ cerutriefor 
tataflrifJBtNBthefnaloanraurhfimof the hyoid 
Im»^ b«m the ItaMr eoran, and fix<m |»rt of the 
MjrfcMinid HgBmeiit; wUlat the rajwrior concfricCor, 
ii ft Mtod tt tbe opper put o( the phairnx, aiiiei hom 
Ab 1liniii1«r pnoMi of lbs i^benoid boiu. All of 
ttaSM madei n« ioMtCad Into tlie mirlrlle linfi of 
tbt fbagyia, wUcfa fa tmilttd bj » white, Bbruua, 
loBg ihiilli xl 1Ia« or fti/uU. Tiba tistc-ptutryjujtus 
■iwie of Meh ride fa ol long Kid deader Hlupc, 
Mid ttfae* froCD tbe iaam Ufwct of tbe baae uf Ibo 
atjrloid pRMan^ Iti Ibne pue betn-Mn tb» tnpnrior 
■Oil aiddle oonrtriotor rnvBlei, and an> Lq grakt«r 
pHt hiMrtad fato tfas thrnfal ortfiacv at ite postoriar 
border. TbemiutmfdrMiiwIetciEtbapb&rjiucmiitract 
■pen food and emaao it to dom datmwerdi U> tlio niur- 
pugiu, the ectioD of toe it^4ifharyngn munclva 
vmag to di»w the Mm of &• phvyni outv&n]« and 
mnirdi and eo to widen the eaxity for tho i^»|iti4i) 
of food from tbe ba«e d the tonftne. The yltmyax 
form* oalj part of tbe medianiHii ri->iin>me<l In 
doKludUoo, tbe toafoflw tb« potato, ouil ita wchce 
ud mneclea (aee Palate) being also tntinmbuly ooa- 
comedm (ha ptooNe. 

The /Otraut •xmt of the pbiu-ynx Is MUnctliD'ietvmiod 
Om pAarj/nffta! irumirane or apwtturotit. It i» iitu- 
ataa botwoon the twucDliu- and rowMiu layen^ and is 
lUekeet abore, erowing gradually thumer, and being 
finally lost ae lb deaceoda lowarda tbe awapbagiu. 
It ia attadied abOTo to tbe boeilar prooe« cl tbe 
ocdpitol booo, wbera it forma the obiof auppoit of 
the pborynx in tba ntnation in vrhicb tnuacniikr film* 
are thin vr wanUiiK, Kunivrow muoons gluids ara 
situated on this Sbrooi layer at the baae of the akull. 
Ibcao arc glands of ractmoae or bmnebed and ouui- 
ponnd klnil, whilst nmplH ioiicoim glandii nocnr niii* 
fonalr tbrunsbout tbe entire iiurfaoe of the pbaryux 
lying MTDeBlh the mucutu ntmlmnf. The lattoratnio- 
tnra ia Mintiniici) (rotn tbe nipmhnmc wbwh line* the 
nuar, tLe t'ujtae/iian tubct, tbe mouth, tuid the Ltryrx. 
It En inviurtnl liy a layw cif rolumnai* tpithrli/%1 rtll$, 
butbeluwtliele\«luf tbepcwtenornDetEDatbemlumnar 
oella are replaced by cella of \iit tfjvttmoui or favcuum 

8av«n ■ pcTtn rae open Intn th* pharynx. Tbc«e 
are^ llntly, the two tmlarhi<tn tufjtt of the Obp— ono 
on each sido — which opon into tb<) pharjngMl cavity 
at iti nppcr and pnolorior [mrtion and Btiar tho lowrr 
ttnbinated buDn. Tliia jiortiuu or apoca i« known u 
tbe «MUf ^ Mwyoffni, The two poaCeriar tiorti or 
Uodw openbgi of tbe noatrila farm the next two 
n)«tBrci% tbeea belnf> dtiiAt«d at the upper pari of 
the front phatyngeal wall. The abigu apeitnre 
opening baokwards fivm tfa^ ntooth, tensed the 
MiAnuu faeuim, fa tbe fifth s^MntnTo of the pharyiu^ 
thfa opening being placed above tba root of the 
tengoe and Deneatb tbe aof t palate (eee PAL*n> and 
vnht mti baring the epiglottis litvaCcd at hi lotnr 
■ai!gfaL Tbeeorffifonnorbcart^hapcdepenJn^o/'tbA 
AtryMB eoanee nest in order, (Ua latter aperture being 
giiwledbytfaeepig1attii(eeeLABTiri): wbilit, loMtly, 
the opmiajr trf tlu tnoph^fftu or gvllel, biU* wbtcli 
the pharynx itadf fa oontluie^ eoodudca tho U«t of 
the ^anngcal ^icTtureL 

PHASE, the mwonnoe prcwmtpd by the llliunt* 
Baled portion of toe moon or u{ on inferior planet. 
Ia walbMnatica, the pbaea of a aiinple hartntfilo 
raotiaa at any iaiitant i« the froctioo of the whole 
period whtob bait olap^ed ainoe tbe moving pcdnt laet 



paion] throui^h its middle pontion in tbe dlreccka 
which Is rogunlnd an nneitivc. 

PHASIS, aiircrof Culo'bla (TraTi»canca«a,Aiiatlc 
Kuacia), anciently rognnlcd aa the boundary b<««««a 
Europo and Ajtia. It wsa aftcrwanJa held am tbe 
buuti'lAry lino between Cul«;hia and Ana Slinor. It 
rltea In a upur of tho Cauc-iuuis (Mf>«chic]), and after 
raoeiving tho rircn anciiTmily t.ivll^ the Kbion, tho 
Glanctin, and tbo Ilippun, it folia into tbe Euxine 
near tho auritrnt town nt rbaaia. In the earl; fart 
of ita (xninu) it was call«L tim Bckw. Ita ntodem naaa 
fa Bhm or BionL Othur rivers were somatinBei «»• 
fbtmdsd by anolait nTitcm under the nne oame wUi 
this. Tlie Phacis of XcDophon waa the Arasea 

I'HEASANT {rhatiaaiis), a \i<sa>M of iUsorial or 
GaIUnut<euua BirJa, furmlng the typ" of tho iunily 
FliBMatiiilav This gcuiia and gronpare dtitingniibad 
by the mtNlcmte mec ami ounpresaed form of the 
bill, tbe upper nioodililu lH.-Iug djatinctly arc^ad and 
overhanging the tip of thu lovror mandibles Hie 
upper maadiMe ia naked at ita baae; the noetrtia are 

Elaocd at tbe baae of the maadiU^v l^^ ^^ ooverrd 
y a scale; the cheeks are naked, lOkd together with 
tho rc^on of the oyoa ara cwered by a teddfab aldn. 
Tbo wingn sjo «hoTt; the tall being long, wodgv- 
»)ia|ieil,iindoonalatiagof dightc^n fcftthcw. Thotbree 
front toM are united by a mcmliraiie up Ui the Snt 
joint, and the hinder too is aniaulat*d lo the tanna 
The mains poMeas a bomy, abarp, buaol ipor. Tbcee 
Uids, now forming the favourito lircodaof our gane, 
are woll'known tananti of our wooila attd IhicLds. 
Tbe food oonaiitts of umins, euft b«rbage, roata, and 
faisectik Tbey arf> chiclly tcrrcRtrial in oabita, taking 
abort rapid fli^^liU whin nlAmxi]. Ilie Pheaaaata 
ai« polyganioui^ tbe maW and females consorting 
together dnrfng tbe braedlng-time, wfaicb oocnm io 
spring. The malea ■laiiiiiliilii and feed tOKetbcr during 
n-int(:r, btit each aolecta bla bot^ of mates In qtriag. 
Tbe eggs are nlivo-brown in colour, and naniher 
twelve or fourteen, the aimple or rudo nett being 
fonuL'd amid lon^ grnaa ur bui^M, and tb r female per- 
forming thn Rntim diilipsof iii>cnbEitinn. The ComnMO 
I'beasant {P/tmittnu* C^Achiev), now fuEy domeatl- 
caMtd In Britain but originally a uativo ol Weatctn 
Afiik, is tbe familiar spcdcA 'I"hiM bird i* mppoaed 
to b»VD lip.--n iutroiiuccrj into Britain fniui the honks 
III the rhasiN (ijuw tliv Itlim), a river of andent 
<'olL-hia, the modem MinirKlia, a diatriot ntnatod oa 
tlio (-ju>t«ni riiif c4 tho lllivck S<^ between laL 43* 
and ta' If.; 41* 19' ami i'^ l!f' k. Ioil This pheasant 
cxtonda in ludEittributlon over Southern Europe, and ia 
sai>l even t« cxiiit in Sibcrix It is the Faiiano of Italy 
nnd Ibe I-'ftiaan df I'Vancc. 'I'hu lUto of Ita introdnc'- 
tiutL iiito BnVain la uiidt^cided. lu Cilurani I.** tinio 
the valno of a phi>!u>uit waa abotit 4<f. of the tbvo 
ciirrvuey. Tbo phcouiant was known to the anHifirt 
(irt^ekd and Itomana. Jaaon waa npoffted bo haia 
brought it from Culchia in the famoin ship JrjFo. 
Ariatopbancs notiixw it, an aUo doo Aifatotla auil 
AUwBKUi, It was in aU probability Introducod Into 
Southmi Europe by llie Grwka or Somana. 

These Innls hnvd frvoly in a ilomraiticatod state. 
The pheasant will interbraed with tbe oommoo (bwlf 
iba Guinea fowl, and even with the bloek pe — i 
and there are whito and pied varictieaof theeouBua 
apedea. Iha hybrid piwluoed by the nnioa of a 
oook-jdieasaot with the oumuLon faon fa termed a 
Perv- Tbo fcmala phcasauta when old may, Bfce 
peafowl (ko I'kacoi-'k), sanomo the feathen and 
general plumage of the uialca. Caaoa of le a oidtd 
'co^^ CKK*' iiiKy be explalo'sd aa the oecarional 
wodnoe olTtlteae ami femalta^ The ' Rine^nedied' 
Ptacaaaott so unied from Uia preseooe rouud ita n^k 
of a white ring, u auppoaed bo be the hybrid rtvult- 
log frum tbe breeding of tbe Ccnunon Pbaaeaat 



the Piamaim torqaattu td CUtui- Tho GtAHnn 
IImmmhI [P. pitfu. MM I'l. OXJ>VL-UXLVII. 
fig. 17) of Ckina li ft bMuitifol ifMdoB, colonrod 
■cftrlat, blnn, uid jvLLow, and LMving ■ brilluut 
golden mwctUo crcut borne on tbe heuL Tk« SUver 
Olilaw Pheiwnt I P. nyrtKBmenu) fotumm » einaral 
w^lB pluiDagr, Uiv fotbon being nurited bv fine 
bkdc Itnat; ihu under poiti nra colmiml bUck_ 
Othav apwrivB InlnblUos Sonthero Atii& ui<] tb<> 
Kuttn ArcUpelacti tn the Dkrd^a PheMont of 
Japan (f*. (crneoior); Recre'e lliMMUkt (P. ttneratut) 
ol CUnn; and Sanuneringa Pbenunt (P. SOmmer- 
ingiH, alH found In Japan. P. SUueti; P. Purraw 
\at Pucrmtia wiacntcphut) of tbe Hinudtyu; P. albit- 
mriuhii, [onn mMoM more nearly nUt^d to the 
tnM bmh, whiui nte al>u momU-n of Mm great 
fatnar PbMJMudM. 1^ Tngopaa Pbwnat iCer- 
iontit Mtera), alio fmad in ue Uiau^rai, ftp- 
proftcbai the bwh. The mftlceof thJe >pedee puweiu 
paoaUar bhrilb bora-Uka procaeaM boroB on Uw haa4, 
and wattfca d n limUftr oolonr. Tliti mala pluau^ 
la aotontad red with white nxibi, thAt of the fnnalee 
bdng farowu. The (niiuklc Truijuiiiuu wftnl th« horn- 
Uk» appendagca. Tba Aigna I'hcmnt {Aniit yi- 
fanfnu), fadoded braoma aaturaliata is the Peaoook 
map(i*aTDDfiuet,iiftIan[e*peclfatoi]nd luSoiuAtra, 
Halftoea, ke. The males of thia bird mpuure tmrn 
A to C feat from the tip of tho hntk to the uitremitv 
ot iba tail, wbidi ia (omixl by two e1uii(r>'t«cl <.i:ntnil 
feather ft The pbimage la eiocedlagly bcautifnl. tba 
•ocondary qnilla of the winga, which are longer than 
the primary faathen^ being each adorned wjth a 
aeriea of ooeUftted or eirc-like ejHjte uf brilliant 
natallje bnea. The gcoanU bodj-plumage is coloured 
^^teowa llie flight ie focbin, owing to the length of 
^^^k aeoondaiy feathen, which latter, however, awltt 
^^^pH birda in nunlng. 

na lafayia Pbanuot (Icf^epSemi Jwipiyanvi), 
lotniBf tba tm of tba ganna Lophophonw, is foand 
to Nepwl and on tha HiiDatayaa. Tbo bill is brosd 
at tiia baa% atixiDg, and «toag:ate(l: the up])cr unn- 
■tibia ptA^ecti greatly orer the tip of the lower; and 
Iba tail ie ■bott, broad, and miDikMl at the extramity. 
nit mala ia aa larga aa a turkey.'hu p]ama([v being 
oolmed UacJi; adoned wltfa beautlfnl metallic laatree 
and Ualtt. TIm head noaaeaaea a peculiar tuft or 
Croat of Bakcd-ahaftMt leathera, •ihibittng a goldrn 
BMB loattai The tail la of a eheatnut red, tb« ninip 
Mlof wUtai Tba colour of tbe fnuJea ia a moro 
aobar bnnra, iatcnp^rKd with light brown or gnj. 
None of the Fteatamt aub-family appear to be repra- 
■anted In Ajnerioa. 

PHENOL. Thia name to appUod to a aabataoce 

ofataned frnto ooal-tar by treating Ibo portion which, 

tn tbe aeMmd dktiUation, hoUm between ISO* and 

200*, whh potaab-ley, JU»ot«liig the aoUd nugma 

thna formed in water, removing tbe aH which than 

riaaa ta the earfftoe, neBtraliring the tower nlkatino 

bqoid with hydruchlorio add, and puriTyiug the 

phenol thna obtainod. Phenol forma coiourlow, 

Hadla-di^ied crTctnlB, which molt at M' or 3&' C, 

aad beil al lar-lSS* O. Tbe cmUla an: vny <kli- 

; tbay hara U»e ihmD cf kraaaoto, and attack 

Uka tbat mibetaagab As ttpaanB wtittioQ 

fbaiol coagnlalaa albnuMn very taadlty, and ^re- 

Vaata to a gT«al extent thf? imtivfaction of amnia] 

matter. TheformuUof pleoiLJ ia CiUfOlf, in which 

of tba bydrag«n atoma ia rtplaceabk, although 

dlAmh^r, Iv melahi ; rarioua ohloio-, bramo-, 

iodo-darirmtjfea are known, aa alao bodiea in 

which tha bjdnogeo it replaced by Rucb radiolaa aa 

PHENOUENON, tn philoeophy, that which ap- 
pearij tha apparant ab j«ct of peraeption or oonaciona- 
o^ conaldand aa auch, and apart trom the cunakler* 



otioD of wliat may be tbe taal object perceived or 

cognized. 

I'UENTL (0,Ht). The anhttanco harlng tba 
foTegoing fnrmuU U nut kiiu'wn in tba (r»o atatOihut 
in oombinadan It form* an nnportantimrica of bodiea: 
tbua with hydrotyl it forma phenol {which aeel, 
C,H,<.IU: unil wiU) ftmUoffen (KHi) It forma the 
nil - impurtaut ■ubstonoe pLuDylaniiue, or aulliuic, 
CalLNll;. Phpnylatnino i* pm-liicnd from benaol, 
which ocean in coal-tar, by the following atepe:^ 
(U I'onnivtidn of nitro- benzol CHdXO,), 
(i.) BcduL-tion c>f thia lubatanooby naaocnt hydro- 
gen — 

CB|(Nai,} + S* = 0«Hj(NH,] -I- 11],0. 

For on ao^ont nf the nuuiiifActure and ]nopeftJM 
uf titiii )>od} rH.-« tlie urtit^u Akilixe. 

PUEKJ;:, AD anciunt citr of Thtasftly, aituatad In 
tho aontfa-eaat comrr f<f i'cla^giotii, Math of the 
Lake Bwbeu, BO atadin from FagaaK, ita port. 
Admetua, and his aoa Eanalna, ara related to LaTe 
led aloroiL shipa tnnn Fbais and the neighbouring 
town* to the 'lYojan war. I'bonr Maiated the AtUi^n- 
iauB in the PelupoDnmian war. The gomnuai^ut waa 
ttien ariBtocTatir, but Iwfora the oonolaaion of the 
Prioponaanan war a tyranny had boon cataMubed 
at Phem by Lycophroo. His non .laaon woa e1ect«d 
Tftgus or militarr oeouaaoder of Thtaaalr about 
B.C. 874, in whidi offioa he was aiicoendod by hi* 
brathera Polydoma and Polrpfaroa. The anprenic 
power Gonttnuad in the aame ninlly notwithetwidlng 
the repeated aaaaiKiiiiitJiici of Ita head by buuiu of tbe 
memhanv until anclhrtr Lyraphron was deiioenl by 
PbilSp of Maoedon, and Phcne with tlw reet uf 
Tbeaialy aabieotad to hia power. In tbe middle of 
Phene waa tne oelebmtcd fountain Hyperemia. 

PHKKKCYDE3, a celobrated atge nf anrleot 
Gtt«oe. He to rvgnrded aa the firat who wmtv in 
pnwe on phllonophy and religion, altliough hia ei- 
pnancn, aa ia natural, inctiD«c much to poetn. Ha 
waa a nadra ot tbe bland of Syroa, fioariabed fat tha 
•iith c-ntiiry n.c, and waa a coDtemporar; of Thaloft 
The froffRicntB of hia work on nature and the Koda 
arsmerdj allegoHcft] tbougbts. Sttux uollocted oiean 
(aoeood witiDn, Gera, 171^8}. Pboncyiloa conndorad 
7.tmt or Aither, Ttme or dkronoa. and tho Earth. 
whkJi be <«U«ni»d a ebaoa, aa the elemnita u[ all 
thinga. Ha la aald to have taught tbe diMrtriiie of 
Metempajcboala, or of tha inunortality nf the touL 
He la ganetftlly atated by aaoient wrUem to hare 
been the inatmctor of Pythagoraa. 

PliiniAH or AiirzKM, a calebratod Groek etnjlp- 
tor, wbo waa born ahoot f 90 B-C^ and flonrisbed in the 
age of Perldea. Atverding to Bbttfger, Phidiaa exe- 
cuted three statuea of Atii«n& which were all in tbe 
Aampoliaiathatiiiiaaf Pantaniiu. OnoockMinl aUttue 
ot Athau he caat in bionze (taken bom tlw tenth of 
the ipafla won on the jjolna of Mantbon), for the 
temple of Athena I'oUaa, in which the waa raprtaentcd 
aa agnatdiaD deity. Myx wrmiKbl upon hrr xhtDld, 
In reneTO, the battle of tha C>;titiuirH, frum ileeigns by 
Parrhaaios. Xcar tho atatue stood the primitive poa- 
KVKir of tho mnimt., lui owl. Itta mlatiHjtiF thUtUttuti 
Uint luarlnon, duubtinii the prouiontvry of Suiuum, 
mv bar cnrted befanvt and the |Mlnt of her apear, 
The aeoond of hia moot famous atatuos waa made of 
ivory and gold It waa donuminatod thn atatun nf the 
Parthcnou, or tbe Partbenoa (tbe virjclu), and mc«- 
Kirod, with tha podeatal, about 41) &igUah feet In 
height. laatendofnutlilebeiaBdenBoofiToty, which 
admilted of a much aofler and more brilliant poliah. 
It won in rmlity fonnad of wood, overlaid wlthivorr. 
He thnw over it a girmant of gold, either beaten or 
caat with sncb exqnuite skill that it mi^ht be [lat n(T 
or ou at jjuaauni, and could he wdgbed al any time 
by tbe treaanrar of tba tample, which ofterwaida 




•Bilbled htm to ref iit« tli« cbarutt ot pemlation. Hw 
gntd vutak«tiMAybrLMbariBlDS04. Itvolgfacd 
41 talcnu. The eytm w*re of lawfoK lot in and pc»- 
ImUj jiaialacl aoaardins la Hm pTorailiDB awliwi. 
TIm golilni* Rtood upi^fat, witli th« Kfp* eo bv 
farMct and A tpaar io b« left luuid. Tbera wu like- 
•rbe an Immeiue •cTpvtit or dragon ncftr bcr, nipiHjtni 
to be tliatof ErictliiinituL Ttther r^bt hand ir*a tba 
g oddaw of Victory, funuvd in like "'■'■tT ot Ivofj, 
irith k vartmcDt of ^Id. 4 cnbita high. Br h« od* 
ilood tlw gniAt ahiclii, ropreoeiitiog on t£« cobtox 
■Ids tlio iMlUtt of tha Amaiopt, and on the coiick*« 
tb« bftttk of tlie TltKU. Th« difftmnt pwt* of tb« 
■totue^ u well ■■ thd podostal, v«» w TP ugh t fo 
tellAVO. Thiu, for exMnplc', rhidiu introdu«t3 him- 
mU and Periclca ou Ui« ubicld. Tb« third rtaUie, in 
broBM^ of « aniAllar nte, which ms called amphati- 
oftUj tb* 6«Mt(^ on. aioeonnt of ita «iqiiiiU« ptopor- 
tinua, mw piircbMed by tJio {>oo]il» ei Lanutoi^ and 
Kut tiy tliriu ti> lti« AotopoUa of Athona. nte Olym- 
plan, Zoos of riudlaa wpw ou ntad the aWBOn majwty 
of tho Ida; (it he*von, aod wa« nnkcd for it* bc^ty 
among Ihe wonilen of the irarld. Zcub traa hero kvd 
dtting upon a tliruuL-, with au (iliv« wmath of gold 
aboQt hb tOToplte; tho upper part of bla body waa 
Bftkod; a wide maoUc, oovoring tho red of It, bang 
domi ID tbe richeat fold* to hU foot, which reaCed oo 
a footttool. The naled porta of Uio atatna were of 
ivocj, tho dreaa wna of baatoD gold, with as imitatioii 
of eatbroidcTv painted by Pann him, tir other of I'hidiai^ 
In llw right niuid atooa tbe guldcsi of Victory, tnni* 
ii]gtMnrdatb*ftatue,a&dcarrfd,lik«It, vutotlrory 
and gold; ahfl waa holdfnr cmt a hand, with which bm 
apptiared deatroua to encirde hu oUt« orown. In hii 
left hand tho di%-ln!ty held a partJ>nilaured aceptre, 
mada of varioua melala aUlf ally joliwd, and on the 
•captro itatad an aaglo. Power, wtadom, and goodaoaa 
wi III itiliiiiiiililj imiii'Mxl iiiliiifi iiliiii I Fletalwilb 
tho air of a divinity, prcaidiiig among tbe iad^ree of 
the gamca, aad diapeoaiag tb« latml wrcauu to the 
ricton, oalm in oonacioin dlfimty, the htav idial ot 
Qntk anthropomorphinn. Cicero (Do Oratore, ii.) 
rvlaU» that the artiat waa lod by a paaaago in tho 
Iliad to iiaa^no aoch a tigmt. The atatae waa anr- 
rounded with maf^nificent drapery, wbJoh waa diawD 
aiide only on particular oocadona wh«n tlw 6mty 
waa to be exhibitvd. A Muau of gnatucaa aad aplen- 
door OTcrwhelmed the auactator. T^a Zeua waa 
removed to Conatantinople by Thoodoana L, and 
araa dettroyed by fir« in 475. IVom PhidiaM that 
devatod atylo whioli la k mudi admired la oommonly 
aappoacd to haru boca derived, and modam antiqua- 
riaaa luaiiikaiu that after bid di:ath Grofian art lic^^aii 
Id decline. I'lddiiu waa, looteover, aa architect 
By (ba axertiont of i'erioEca Atbeoa waa made tho 
uort SMgnufiocnt city ta Gcveoe^ Daring hb gov- 
ernment, whloh laated twen^ 7***% the dqr m» 
adorned with more coatly tomplea, coloonadaa, and 
ether work* of art, thao Ramcv thnaeb mUtrMa of 
Iba world, could buiwt iu iM.-vmi oeatwwa. Erary one 
waa aaxiouB to da aomethlng lor the oniamont of tbe 
dty of Atheua. The beet matoriala and moat akilful 
■rnabi wars tfaare in aboadaace. Fhidiaa auperia- 
tMkded theee impmvcmi-Dtii: and the acolptoreawlth 
which the Partheoao, for iiutanoe, among other buQd- 
lopL waa adonwd, ware partly hia own work, and 
pMtJy io the nirit and after the ideaa of tliia gTMt 
nuMter. Phioiaa received great bononra frum the 
AtheDiaiia,forwhoaa fame be waa laboitrin^. while 
IVriolaa had the aovercign powwr; bnt he wjm «>i1>- 
Jeotod to a ebange of fortune wbeu the popularity of 
ela patmo daellMd. Ho wan first aooiued of pocu- 
latioD, aad then of impiety for inittinEi hi* own Jikt- 
Deaa and that of Poncli^ oa tits ebieJJ uf AUieua. 
He died b priaon before BX, 432. Tho cauM of hia 



4ea«b b mtkaowa. See C. O. MtOler, De Fh»fi»~ 
THa el Opaiiba^ to. (the Life aad Worka of Phidiai; 
Gmiagm, IfiSr, Ui>\ Ftcllar'a article I'faidiM in 
BraA and Grabw'a benJcmeAa. Ac 

PHIOAUAK UA3&UE3. Tb^tawoidTVie^ 
alia.ritna>aa«cagthaMBaMibii bonier, in tbe aoalL 
weeten tatunatj td Aio^ ei[wnencsd tb* MDal 
vidadtadM of Oieak dtiea thamgh eatemal wan 
and bleraal faetbu^ tiU it fell wular tfae power of 
Maoadng Tbe dbMet ta which PbigalU liee b 
ahaeet cempbtaly aamwtded by a loountabxnagi^ 
wUdi, beguunng in tbe tanttory cl EUa, and mw 
iag tbe border of Aieadtk [■ id eaaterl j dlt«et&^ 
tnna aoatb aenaa tbe Mi<aanlaii border, and nianing 
weat agMB alnoak compIetaljtMlaen lbs aontfa-weat 
oomer of ArcadSa in wfaidi tfae cttj' Uaa, Oa one of 
tbeae moBBlaiai^ Mount CottUtna, to tba nottb-eMt 
of Fhjgalia, waa aitoated the Ks^de of ApoUo Bn- 
carina, bnilt at tfae taaieaf tba riilimiiimalaii war aj 
Ictiiiuj, tlur u^teet of tbe Fartkanoa at Atboa. 
It waa erM:ti>d aa a aenHdal ti tbe gntitsda of tbe 
rhigaliaoa for the relief aflont^ by ApoUo frote a 
plague which afflicted tbon daring tbli war, aad io 
oocaeqneaoe of whicb be rcc oi vo d tbe »"■■ — tf 
Epiconaa. la the qaality of atooa aad ezoeUaoeaet 
woriaaMuhip it ia aaid to have eoceUed all tlm tan* 
plea of Greece, with tba excaptica ui on* of **'t-» 
at Teirea. It atilt ttauina entire^ and axeapt Ae 
TheeaduD at Atheaa la the beet preaerved temple of 
Ukccc It rtMidi in a rockr glen near tbe •omnft 
of the rooantain, aamiandoa by anctont oaha^ and 
oommanding a eplendid vi«w uf the aunonidiae 



I 



eeantry. It Naudaed unknown till It waa vinlad 
by Cbandbr in ires. In 1912 an extcndve Invwii- 
gmtionof tbe temple ami iUnbe waa made by agroap 
of acientlflo explorera. It b baflt of a doeo-graiMo 
finely vnaad liBMatona, A thick wood of oaka covered 
the aodirity by which it wh> apiiroachod. aod bad 
long ootaoealed the temple from vi«w. Thia explor- 
aU^ resnbed In tbe diaooranr of ricfa tMaaorea of 
Bcolptore aad arcUlectureL Ilie temple pi aWilliiil 
■oma pecofiarittea. It* orbntatioB waa aovth and 
Bouth, fnatcad of caat and wort, aj b flommcB la 
Gredan templea. Tbe frieze, which waa nan^y eo 
the oxtcrior of the tempk^ waa ht-m in tbo tnterinr, 
and with the Matopea waa of Parian tuarble. In the 
Inuer temple waa ereoted a ooluwal atatue cf ApeHo 
Muaagetae. in a Sowlaf white tnnis and with a lyn 
in hb hand. TIm friMea, whicii were tbe glory of 
the temple, oanaiatod of twenty-thr** hnm mHrfh. 
meamriag 2 feet 3| toofaea is bcigbb Twatva of 
them rapreamtad the oonteeta between tbe Amaioa* 
and tho Atfacniana, eleven thoeo b atwi wu tbe Cca- 
tauraoud tli«L«{iiUuB. Tlii*ii Mi na aieiejaini|i»ai| 
iii1814for4i:>,000 by the Britidi govenneni, and 
bftvitiK been maorod from the tcmplo are imw In tfae 
British MuAAiim. 

rillLAlJELFUIA, a city of tbe United States 
in PcDaaylvania, nrxt tu New Yoric tbe l ar ge a l cf^ 
in tho American Unian, ISS mllee noitb-oMt at 
'WaafalDgton, and 8S milm aouth-weat of New Torit, 
situated on tho west bank of tbe Udawue at tbe 
mouth of tbe Schuylkill, S6 mllea from the Atlaatb 
(lUMt. Thti uri^uiaLl dty occupied an ana of Utile 
more than a mile from north to aontb, and two miiea 
from eact to woat^ bounded on the eaat by tho UoW 
waxv, aud uu tbe wist by tbe SdiuylltiU, but tn 1861 
tbe bonndaite were made ODOztutuvo wilfa tboae of 
tbe county of tbo same namo^ and tba d^haa new 
the largeat area of any in tbe ITnion. Tlia men 
di^naely built part uf it cnvora nbciut IS ai|aMe 
miloa. Tlie dbulot weet of tbe Schuylkill b known 
aa Wcat Philadelphia, and the Rtiinicijiality com- 
jtriMa euveral other jjacca, auch oa UDruiwitawa, 
Chcotnut lUU, Piaokfurd, Uanayunk, Bfidaabws, 



k 




PHILADELPHIA, 



15 





Udfaaetburg, which have luurly ftll th» cbanct^r 
Mnt« tawoM, and atill ivtMn Uie lutmiA thujr 
pravtoas b> th^ir Inoorporatlon with PhllA- 
■klpfau. Tbauudf ibemnnidpalityunowabout 130 
W|iui« milac, and the dt^ hu n fmoitaeo ftlonz the 
ooun* (il Iba Dolkwara of 23 mitcH. Much ul the 
■arfaov wwr tlis riivra I« low awl Sal, but towftrda 
tb« BDTth uil vrart it U uucluUtiiig uid aomvwlaftt 
bralteii. Tlw tlrMta were orljpiudl}' Ui<) oal anaMta 
run owtrl; <llu wwtwiutl fwiu tlic DeUwuv, inter- 
w c fd bj «Ui«r atncb numltiE ns^ly oant iui<l woxt, 
thli plan, tfa<nisb gciwnUjr conftinnv>l to iu the 
<)iiuten^ hu to be aodiAed owing to the oott- 
ttOB of the Hta M dotarnuiwd by &v cnnrM of 
rivBn. Stdl almoat ovorywhtva the sttocta cttwi 
I otli«r H ritfbt Kaclea. Seven] irrvuular a\ uuucsi^ 
Dtw tiine thft uborbMl Mid country mua roA<k^ 
vttwtch ftw»y fnm th* original to»-ii [•hU Mjirkat 
Stmt, tfa« giwat oratnd itrvct nuiniii;: cut nnj wort, 
aad enttfaniMalr built udod for orcr (our milci, ban 
■ width of too fe«t; Broad Stn«t. the [.riuciiMl 
onrtnl atrevt nuuiiug tuHrtli anil aaatb, !• built ania 
(o aiwnt tlie niuo Imj^tii, and is 113 feet iu wiatb. 
3tfd>t o( th« otbn oliMf atreots vvj from &0 Co 66 
ImI teoAd, MOM of tit* M«iiaai^ bowevor, baing mndi 
8ome of tbc bloclM mndc hy the intcnecdoa 
atneti^ InUead uf Itiut- l-uilt ujkiu iltv rurmMl 
OfMO aciom; anion; which may \m nHUiLiiilied 
aidanoe Stiuarc, lutl nut in almdj walk* and 
plote; WaahingtoD Scjuarp, aAnrdlnif an elegant 
icDade ; and Fraokliu S({uaw, wlUi » mi^ptlBooot 
in itt cmttn. Pann Sqiun. oaa of tho 
__-_ . dtv aquaica, u now occnpud by the new 
dljr-balL Many uf Um atreeta are well {)laDted witb 
rowa of ti«M ; all of tbsm w wdl dvanad, lighted 
witb gM, and abundaatly nipplicd with water, while 
tbc firine^Ml tttnroughfarea are laid with th£ llnea in 
anaectioa with aa sffictent ujAtm of tnunwaj-a, 
Sevetal flae bddgea, both for railway and gsDcral 
ttaAc, ipan th* B^njrlluU, the more uat«»-orthjr 
bring tliat at (iinrd Avaaao in Kiurniouiit Park, a 
Uflit and haaJaoiae iron ■tmcUtre lOM itxt lonx and 
100 feet broad : the Spring Garden or Callnwbm 
Stnet bridge^ alao of iron and having an iippi^r and 
a Imtct raadwkj' 1290 fed hmg; and the inm and 
bridge at CTbeatnut Street, 1528 feet long. A 
ajwUm of ferrin OT«r tbo Deluwara i^oi^ 
iBodioatliin with thn ahorce of Now J enny. 

early ptniuU o( the dtjr'a hiatory Ibc build* 
■oateiial used wat uliooat exdasiTely a browulRh 
brick for whid) Philadotphia was noted; tho 
monofiotiy waa •abae'iucnUy n-mcdicd by 
• beinc eniaaiented witli mublq fadngi^ 
■te^ of the Minv naterial. The chief bonnes 
Ai are aow Used with a larice number of ooetly 
au^erfor edlftoea of wbil« and blue inaible, gnui- 
fte, aumrtMie, and iroa. Aauong tha jiublic buildiiij^ 
the bet txitioa ie due — mcwR, bowemr, oa iLocouiit of 
its aiaiq^T awl hifLorieal a«ociatloiu than ita 
aidilteotaral nerH— to the Stale Houae, with the lai^e 
aaAem room of the lower fioor, called LndcpcudeQ'CD 
HilL froca *!**■ drcwtaDoe that the taiooiie dedar* 
t<Jb»depmdflnee waa dpiad here (-(th Jtdy, 1 776] . 
ooatoiB-hoaae ie a while aurble edifice, fronting 
on e ^ iit u ot and Ubrarr Stieata; the Unitad 
nfnt iaa marfole-frontcd boUdiiitf bi Cheetnnt 
; the aev poat-on<» li a aiifnuoeat granito 
with benta oa Ckeatniit, Niirtb,aDd Market 
the new caty<hall, the laigeat boiling in 
StatM, te boilt In the Freach HenaiaMoce Ay\t, 
at the eoraar of Market and Broad Streets. Other 
poblie Iniiklin^ worthy of mcntioa are the Cooi- 
aiHoal aad the Aferehant'i T'Wnhangifi*. the UjmodIo 
Tonplt^ the "FaUIo Ledger" ^Udlngs, the pub. 
kUae MM ef LJp}«Doott & C%, tho EaiKni Peni- 



teutlary, the United 8tatei ancnala, Uui permanent 
exhibition buUding* (which were tlM largeat d the 
■tnjctiirM erected for the CenteonJal Exhibition of 
1874), with tbo aonoiod Memorial and Horticuliaral 
Halla; together widi ntnnenua magnlfieent hotels 
and dub-bouaea; eileuaive banting, ineurauoe, and 
othnr biirinen pramiees, many uf which are of oun- 
■tdeiaUe archilfietaral merit. 

Among the promhient eodanaatlaa] bnUdiiicaTaay 
be mentioned tlie Epiioopalian ebnridiea of St. Peker'L 
RL Mark'M, thr Holy l^rinHr, Chriet Church, and 
the ChimJi u( the tnoamaUan ; the Pnabyteriui 
churobee in Weat Ardi Street. Waehlagton Sqnar^ 
the Calvary, and the Second Church ; the Belfa-edeo 
and First Baptist Churcbea; the Central Congmga- 
tlonal Cliurch; the Arvb Street Metbodist E|iiBcopal 
Church; tho I^uthcran Choreh; the Roman CalhoUo 
Catbmlral of St. I'ctor and St I'aal, tha Jewlab 
Synatrvgue, ti.ii. 

At tbc litad of the educational eetabliahmente of 
tlio city in the reim^lvania University, housed In 
■jutcioiui and elegant Imildtngs, indudiag medical, 
tciuntiliv, li^al. aud art Bub'jubi, aud having under ha 
maaagement a cmmodioua hceuiuL llio JefferMo 
M«dioal Collt-g'^ iH-iLh hoepitall is one of the beel 
attended acliuuU uf ita claM in the Union. There 
ace alao aeveral oolleges of phanuaey and dentiatry, 
hovKK^this acboolB, the Woman a College a poly- 
tecbnic eollege^ i/C; the Academy of Fbto Arta^ the 
Sclioal of Dedgn fur Women; the Academy of 
Natural Scleuoee, the Zoological Society, the FrankUa 
lastitQte. tha Warmer Free Institubo^ tha Hortl- 
onltnrol, PbUoiopb^, Mid Entomologioal Sodctica, 
Ac. ; nuuiiinoue ooUegea, academies, aiul other edoea- 
Uonol institutions suppmted by the various rallgtma 
deaomlnationii ; the Girard CoUsge, devoted aooordiag 
to the «iU at Ita fAnnder, exd^vely to the aeeular 
edueatiun of orphan boys ; ut er 200 public schools 
(attODdsd by man tbaa 100,000 pujnla) at tbe head 
of whidi are tho boys* high school and tho girls' 
ncaiaal acbooL Many of the above inatttutiona ptia- 
scaa extensive and valuable UbrarJes, tu addition to 
which arc tho n>U«0Uons of 130,000 vols. bclongfa( 
to the IjihrarT<.^m[iany, andof HQ,000 voliL belong* 
in([ tci tbc MorcaaUle Ubraiy. Ooimected witB 
xim principal adentiftc Inatltutlona an istereetlng 
and valuable museums, cabinotB, and coUmtiaas 
of objects eoDaeeted with the branchui of learn- 
ing studied fay their nivmburs. Beeidea tho art 
wUections belonging to tbe Academy of Fine Arts, 
and Idndnid iastitaUona, there are in tbe city aaota 
of the finest picture gaUeriea to be found in the 
country, and Pluladelpbia is one of the leocgniied 
ooutras of literary, dramatic, and artbtlo cultora. 

Fev dllee an so munifiocatly supplied with 
efBdent charitable Instltiitlona We can only men- 
tion the Ei^mpal, Presbyterian, and lUiman Catholic 
boapitaJai alwut ^^ homie for tha aiek (laoatly private 
ana dengminatioiml); tbe Mnaldpal, G«man, Willa, 
Christ Churofa, Penttiylvanla Ibbum^ Charily, Jewish, 
Children'a Womca\ State, and other hospitals; the 
Friends' usaue Asvlum, tbe Pnslon Betreat, sod 
opwards of SO orphanages and children's ttmmam^ 
heddee numerons djaponsories, and orv-anlsed sodstlaa 
for the raliiif of diatnss, povorty, aatTitctmcss^ mder 
Iwlb (fcucral and (In-nuuiiuaUuoal supervialun. 

lo addition to tb^ public iquarss already referred 
l\ the chief pUcc <k out-door recreation is Faii> 
mount I'ju-k, with an area of 2740 acru, pmrntmiag 
UMvlt natura.1 b«auty, b^g well-wutxied and having 
a grcAt variety of surface. The priouipol plaoie of 
indoor amusement are Uie tbcatres (at tho hcwl of 
which ia tlu) Academy of Musia), numeroiui concerb- 
rooms, &c. 

AcoBWtblc from the Atlantic by tbe largcat mar* 



IK 



vtm irjrrvm^—rtr-TTV.^ a5I> EAT^CK 



ntl »-xK ^w «33i«i>--*4 -JM* ff^:iia« ^f tat Ka» aaiit 
$-jn^ xi.agu'. wuC -J ■■Citi^ Vk'Jt. Tie >m2s7 

|«1iw^^ M^^^n* iroaMC '.< ?.«'.«. v.At>x. mif &= 
yMrfB n^tt-y^amt >-« Mil jrxr'.et -trin-i-*'* h^ b^^- 

Til* awM JH^jfjwe invjrt m<^ »-iy.«-: »»ot » ■ 
'yftM fcriUM ?/-«. ■ia-i ■« mai-^foi vtila fKris. 
tMMC*« aarf «<t£*. i-v^. 'JMa^^M. be. texK» -.1 
t iiti ni V;aa^f, **'■ ■*>*-'- --"-t v«a. Ix>frvj-ju, Axv 

tt« JM^fw*.**:; y»^ 'A tM T'i3«: iwaSoL Yz^L^ 

IStMtM. Kf^fM':^»ti 1/, aft ^&'i«^ "— -r—- T sab^ f=. 

fir^v!*a '^ t«« ^^/^.ate r^'^'A if A .**/:,' ff.-. ,Sa.ot 

ti!« W.wi'a. ff^ HuatMM^ JLA-IVA? ^JME; HMR U:k& 

'M,*r lM4M<)r BMibvfkffbgm «n inn laA mutl. 

mA rfUiKS, f,n:W4^ IV'yiv'Al, <;bttLii»il, Lu>M£iiC,Cd 

tnrfntt^mi, ft/.. 

•MiK 'M^ t/f Um wmtJ^jU >;f ito f'/3brier, Uid iiii 

a(A>« 'Am^trnu/fin 'A Vfithj in •fealu.;^ whL tl>« bei^- 
I'wrfAK ibfiiMM, Um* ^7 Lkd 'Mu.f«ntiv«lt' few 

lAo^MfSm t/, t^^.-j^"' wiUi, Mift, p'jMifeMiiii^ ia iw rite 

y«*r Im%« fi»riim 'A *!tul;gnaX» Mrivtd ffjm fi*x- 
tuMiy Mvl U;tlitti4 m wjl «■ frvia Kn^Uod vid 
H'aiMi. Tt>«> h^saHx kll Uhjtiitvl U, Xhf: ivrritXy <A 
Vr'uni^M, iiA/l ttii; lity •tnAiu'i'-A Ui \i^ aim/Mi excla- 
tifAy i^:i^nAtA aA'l offtlrJI^i by the taemijvn <A . 
UmI 'lnn<>fMlfiiiti'irj f'lr haii % txuiary alter iU \ 
UmuAaXUm. 'tun '4 tli* oi/M f'fftun»t« event* in I 
tla kUt/Ty WM tlm w.-li^Pm fif it fffr k n:«d«n» 
\ij t'Mniiiuiiiu Fruilclirj, !<< wtfOK fjncticftl ugacity 
Mvl |fffilMittir'f|f7 it in i»']<:lria'l fiir tuuiy of it* ! 
Heat imjr'fftWit irriiifiviAtiiiAtit, It |il»yt<] » pri>- i 
HiUuMi jMrt 'liiririK lliu ll^vJuti'inAry W»r; thu : 
iJiy.lMitliffn '/f tliKhb) hhv'uig linen ■il'i[ite'l in it in 
1774, «ii'l Uit lJi;'-UrBti'«u '/f lud'.'jf^ri'lence iiaaed 
h;M, It In 177'''. In 1777 it Ml luU, tfa« bancla of 
ttm ItritUh, wli'i 'K»niifiRf| it f'lr a3inut nine in(fnth& 
f» i7''.7 U(«i wmvi-ntl/m which uT»ni[0'l t>>« convti- 
tHll/M '/f the l/nltra] KlKf.ii met ttere; uul In I7tKl 
till! finil fvinffri-wi iifi'ier tliix ■:'fiiiititiiti<>ii, by Mclect- 
itiif It f'lr tiielr [<Iii"; of nif^i^tinif, nvi.-iituajly niailii 
It thti ('iii'itnl III th'i Iiiiioii, wiiidi it txinlmucil to 
Im III] i-.w. |b,tw<«'u I7:'''l aikI 17aH the yellow 
fiiver wna eaLnirticly illuMtriiriN, the ilnuthH within the 
«li ycnni (iihtir ovi^r IV!,<)<|i). I'hiliiiluljiliiA Iiah «ii 
hiviiI'kI iii'i'uiiiiiii) txien llii: wono of very (ieHtructivt: 
iloU. In IH.'M, IH:tf.,Miir| |)-.'ISatta';kii weniinudooii 
llt<mlHi]llt<iriUL>i,Hti<i I'liiliuli'lpliiit l{all,tlll:irnIeetiII[;- 
|tlM'<1, WM hiiriKiil •lowii. Uiiriiiff tlie A Mti- Catholic 
rliiU ol \HH miiiiy ll\i-» wiTx hml unil iniiiJi imi]H!rty 
WM ilxatmydil. in Mfiy Niivcnjlinr, lH7fl (ahiiiiilrud 
yunn ntlir tlm Imim of thii iloclarntion of In- 
i|('|H>ti>l<iiiii'), the ( 'I'lit-^tinliil [Cxhiliitlon wan holJ on 

friiiiMiU Nt lit" Roiith wi'hI I'ntroniity of Kniniiimnt 
'Mill, iihil |it'ov(iiI one lit ihii nioHt Niivci'HHfiil intur- 
iinlloiini i<ahMi|ll"iiH lillherto li«lil In any (.'ou&try, 
ritjh (IN7II), iVli.lITi; {IHMlll, H17,17U. 



FP7T-.4J^7 j':^ Z^TH. 3m: 



L<f^ 






DP ^EI^B e:. ECCU l^tf 



y T ^1^ P..? j'fzj' "^ ^-' ' I ' iiirM^MBi'i ifFii— 

^ aa£ ■Bams Ef-rjcnEL ■»^'i r ■ ' ijia wc wttxl 
■laa^tA aK Ai'OiBt t£ xveai 

'•"r'THHi ft 3I|3b:£:aE " ■■III** frf T%^ 1 

js-VitiaaieK tast if ^uu. isaiK <f mt ia Efj^^ 
7^ a=R KBii ■ SBJT ucnz liX «r ^tM Ceat ■ 
>a(^ sit! ir<: n "att^: fe it wi fl i f ifr i t l y Ugk t» 

lo. fxnt-L^ Tvv cf aw cocv iuai vitfc. ito tkom 
TT.-i.— TT."t» T^ia« an ops MBji t » aiim^ilhii, 
1t=2: s cg^ iMJ IEX«L aai ■iw^'aTpd b> diffaaal 
ni5£i-AL TV Ei:^ ^ka^ x a **'^^ ended by 
N«9:^.H>Eb» L, -Oit LaN tf •» zstt* Fbiaob^ afaoat 
iT?-^-'. L'L l2 ii iMoS^ aai ixs for tbe Kolp- 
Ej-a T'T^ji Br-.c M ±AC^ fcr a t^ Tbcn ■ 
aiiii>-^ a gr» aa ftic^ b lak. bcih br Pliihwj II, 
FV-ie=i7 IIL. *:-i £ain-«a. :*7-e^ B-t Otkn 
m fi ici* •±=j» fl tin Pk^ada and Cxaaix. Ii 
Uit t^asTTi jatz tC izit kje ii a urmipbal aitli <f Aa 
ti=>t </ Ifi>:i)fS£aB. Fmc tfae BSBtovoa iuauiiCMM 
rjB :L!«6 Ki:c=i££:a. h a^^ean ihas tbe wwiliqi <f 
Im Taa w«^- ->=.>..< ia tjjc iuad nil tfae fifth «*- 
tcTj (if ^it tl'^nsian ss. Tben vaa a oaDeee of 
pneab in h in 4X-£. la 577 Kifaop TlKadoK pUBed 
ib« teinfue <f Ifis cndcr tbe pmMctkn of St. S(epb& 
Chrlit-AzitT WM ssbaeqacauly icfiljtoed by Mobatt> 

PHlLAGBirS, a Greek phjsdan wito ia m- 
poaod to haTc UtcJ in tbe tbinl cmtmy B.C. Ha 

mfptan to liaT« been veil ksovn to Anbiao medical 
writfTs, wbd fic^pieiitly '^aote him. Only fngniaiti 
id hia vorki are now eiuot. 

PHILEMOX, Epistlb of Pacl ra Thia epkde, 
according to the prentlent t^anioffl, va^ togeUwriritli 
tbe EpiaUea to the Ephesiaoa, Coloonana, aiid Pbilq^ 
piatu, writteQ from Roate daring St. Paul's Gnt 
imfoiaonment in that city. The only doubt tbroVB 
tin this opinion by thoae who accept the geanineneM 
of the epistle* ia contained in the anggeation Bap- 
ported by Meyer and otheia, tliat tfaeae ejoatlea van 
written daring the apostle's impriaoiunent at Cwnrm, 
Tboae who oppose this Tiew, among other objection^ 
consider it very doubtful that the apoatle then had 
liherty to preach, as it is stated in the Acta of tba 
Apostles that he had at Rome, and as be ifipeaif 
in these epistles to indicate that he h»d at the tiine 
they were written. The genoineness and anthenticity 
of Philemon is questiuned by very few critica. Baar, 
however, makes it the production of a later writer, 
and givea it a fictitious character, attributing it to a 
design to illustnte the operation of Christianity is 
the supposed cirGumetances. llie Epistle to Fhile- 
muD has a special interest, as iUustrating the attituds 
assumed by the early Cbriatians, and particularly by 
the apiistle Paul, in relation to the institution ot 
ulavery. It has also been much and justly admired 
in an ssthetlcal point of view. There is extant a 
letter of the younger Fliuy interceding with a friend 
on behalf of a fugitive sl&ve, which has been com- 
pared by various seholare with the epistle of Paul, 
greatly to the advantage of the npostle, whose tact 
and delicacy in tiiia epistle could hardly be exceeded. 

PHILEMON ANii BAUCIS, a pair celebrated in 
ancient Greece for their f^tbful affection even in 
advanced age. Fable (Ovid's Metom. viii) relatex 
tlio following story concerning them. Jupiter and 
Mercury travelling through Phrygia in a human 
form found no one willing to entertain them except 
this aged couple, who received them hospitably, 



PHCLEHON OF ATHENS— PHILIP IL 



17 



Ibetr Usel, Mt b&n them ft raatio meal, umI 
I m ooDcb for thiir ttodm. ^I^' dslties thim 
'Ibcb borta to m xmaBoovimg mpunlolq. mmI 
Ikaj feoked behind t£«n tfi«]' mw thetr rillAeo 
b«a«>ih tb« waret; but the cottj^o in which 
wdooBted tho pilgriow hud bwxime » mag- 
lOBpbi Jopltflr promSwi ftbo to fuliil all 
vUh; bat llwy only wkad tb»t thoy might 
_ M asrvuibi io thftt teiii|>laL At lengLh, 

.vnj advuMnd ago, as th«y aab al the t«mpl« 
at onoe tmufcnDedj^*blIeinoii Into 
and Bauck tato a liadeu. Th«y yten oco- 
,of their change, vhloh okme {radnally xipaa 
__ and wfail* tbey wer« abk to im and sp«ak 
ttajr took tit* BMrt lAwc^IoiiaM l«avw of aadi oouir. 
ooBildered Mend, uid long renutSaed 
Ifaatotple. 

SMON OF ATHENS, a Graelt oom*dian. 
aboat 340. began tg auflnt about 830, and 
jUmrt SflSL He duna with Menander llw 
«t otWiMtfaiff the ttenr ooEoedy. Ho was a 
aamir thaa Mmtmadmr, bat mfarior to him 
tlionghap«ater fat^writewith tbcAtbui- 
Tia b$imutK of Ua plays extant aro uiually 
~ with thoaa ct Henander. 
iIDOB, PEAH^otK AhdkS DahicaH, waa 
of Mkbael Danloan, a baulbuy player 
oovt of Looii xm, to whom ttw cewn^n 
klM •ureaino nf PhUidor, because he re- 
Iha Uiut of aoelebratad ItaliaD player nuned 
All we ramily, vhlofa prodwMl anmetou* 
and GOBpoMn, aftorwarda took the name 
dl ThUidor. Atidi^ I^lllilar, aa he waa neually 
callod, WM boRi al Dreuz In 1736. Al ds year* of 
«g« be was admituwl thrnngh the InfliMDoe cS his 
fMBiOy aawog the ehlldniD e( the chapel tA Louis XV. 
Ha had hen tha adrantage of the ioBtractlonB of 
Aadvf Chmpt^ one of (be ablcat fVeaoh mnrndana 
ta Bmweag. Whfls in the sendee of the 
be leaned to plav at oheai^ whiclt divided 
naio the inlenet of hia Uf^ and k> trbich ho 
owes Ua fame. The tnualciaiiB w«te tn thv 
playing dices in tho ante-nMia while waiting 
Knral edi the kiog toaln^ maM. I'hilidcir 
vakfaed theni, «-L«u aat day au ulJ pliij^rr 
U> anriT* early lamented the want ol an 
t, {"hOidor, then abmit ten yean of age, 
to play, beat falm, and on gtrliig ohedE^Btate 
IdMsfy fled from the room in drad of oor- 
\ ebaaweeneut. At twelve yttan of age ho bad 
befcre the king a uotet with ehonaes of hia 
* 1m^ OB wfaiafa the Icing hi^^ty oonniUswiited 
gars Un apnaeut of 10 luBiai Wbeo he 
him ednottiaa he beptn to pnnme hta 
. In PaHa, but was oonpelled lo eks out a 
[ by giring Icnooa at MUMrable fees, and a*en by 
jsuhI^ At thk tiate he madetheacquatntiwcn 
io( the leading cbeae playen^ and exdted mnoh 
I beie, aod aRenratw in K^^d^ by playing 
ssHna the boaid, Ums an uDknown aceom- 
pBahinaiL anaoegh the playing of eeTeral gamrei 
alamltaaaMBdy in this way fa now hardly a rarity, 
prOTindal playvn, and as many aa ten 
, mi tvelre Lava been soecttafolly attempted against 
vers Iqr Psalsan, Horphy, Bteiub^ Zaoker- 
'otheriL It fa amtning to lead of 
I aafterfag (rem these eeren exsnbei^ for which 
•d pcifars hinaalf by extnordlnary absdn- 
Dsbt at lencth compelled him to go abroad. 
Gnt to Ilnlland and friimiany, wliirte hn 
: vllfa the bnt playen, aail (labluiliMl Ui 1748 
da tehees. After nnting thii English 
kfaartridit, and plajiog with tlie Lhikc of 
* , he weal to Kngland, where, by lueane 
Iptfon made for buD by the daks, hs pab- 



listaed hia AnalvM du jcn d«e fchtca. His atay la 
Kngtaod waa pmlangcd till 175t. While berc hoaot 
Dry<!«i'a Alexaxtder'a Feast to made, lu 17£'l he 
niturocd to Pani, and, together with I>uiii, MoB- 
•igny, and Orrftry, he eontribated to foiind the omnic 
o[>erts for wldcb ho wrote nuny diannluK piL-ooe. 
Ills operatic ovoor waa a gieat aoooesi. Ufa cisoea, 
which wen muneioaB, woe waimly rsodrod by tba 
pnblitf, and asTcia] of them are still r^iarded as 
iunaC4-r-]iJsoes of their kind. Having beiin peualuoed 
for hi* MTvicss by tbo ComiVlio Italiooiw, he aban- 
donod miUBCBl uompcmitLoa tu 1T6S in order to give 
bimBoIf up eDCiroly to hia paad^n for eben. In ] 7911 
he settled in LonaoD, out. aa hat twuu uUe^'ed, mn au 
dmigr^ but umply an a diem-pUyer attracUxL by u 
pension from the liundou Club. t{e died in London 
lu 179fi. PhiUdor bear* tho repuUCion at haviair 
hnvo tho 6ret ohasa-pUyer of hb anj. H« atlemiHeo 
inaovatioaaoiillwtueuryvC the i{biui;, but hia notiou 
leem to have been narrower than tboee of the grsat 
Itali&n playera who preceded fain m docfn'nuina. 
Me aubatitoted an opraing whieb bean hfa na]n«, the 
PhUidor defencci, for ^aa giuew piano vt the Italians, 
whlobhtoo&demnedonliimfBdentb'ntiuKU. Althongh 
his opening, which fa technically ttylwl a cleee enst 
has been greatly imprarnl in utoilem practice, nnd 
fa atm plwed, it cvuiot wuipare lu iuter««t or value 
with the Italian open game, or oven with other eloaa 
ganii«, ^ the French game or tbe Sicilian, Hfa 
chiua wurka uiul cullecljona uf n^anKM pLsyod by blm 
are much Talnod for their ontlquAriRU and hLitorloal 
intcrcit. 

PH ILIP IT., King of Mooediin, tho ytmngwt aon 
of Ajnyutaa IL and Burydice, vnm bom k.c 3i>2. 
Ho iwwwd n pdrtjon of hJa early yean la Thebea. 
The explanntiana of thia cireumatanoe an niunBraas 
and oonfllotlng. It aeema probable that be wm 
brought thither by Felc^daa cither ■• » hostage w 
for hit own seoorlty. Hfa sdaoation in Thebea aeema 
to have been of a practical kind. On the death oS 
hia brotfacr Perdiocaa III^ who was aUin in battle 
agninst the niyrians B.C. 3i}0, he becAine the auprans 
ruler of Alnccdonia u guardian of hfa nephew Amyii- 
tas, whom he aoon set aside in enter to asaume for 
Iiiniaelf the renl title. Tbfa meaaore was probably 
T«nd*tw1 expodient by the dangers to whidt the kfng- 
duni waa then expceed, there ueing two pntendera 
to the throne, and threatened Invasions by the Illy- 
rians nud Paxmlana. Philip ndaed the oonrage cf 
hia snbjecta, and by hia improvomonta In their mili- 
tary orgauixatEuD pnparod them to most tbdr difB- 
coltiea. The llebima bad afaeady lm]noved oo tiM 
Spartan phaUtia, and Plulip earrwd it to the higheat 
perfectlooof wUeh it waasuaccptiblo. UoDnrcbassd 
peaoe bom the Fsonlaua. j^r^wus, cue of tho pre- 
timdcn to the oown, wsa anpported by Athena, but 
l'hi]i|i, havin|< dcfcuU-d tlt'a piotendrr, diamisaod ths 
Atheoiaia with prteewts, wJalchoondltatod tJw r^pub* 
Uc, end indnood It to «sad ambasmdora to r«ww the 
alUance bvtwoep the states wUch had existed in the 
time of Philip' ■ father. Peaoe waa concluded jlo.3£9. 
PbHip then cuaxiuered the PsofUani^ and having do* 
featodthelQyrianBfanod thorn to aoceptapsaeeontfis 
coadition of a ocaaion of territory. He now began to 
adopt an sggreaalve policy, which exeltod the enmity 
of tho Athenians; but Ua sobtlef^ wan equal to bb 
ambition, and ho negleoted no means to aDay ths 
suapldou of the dillerent powcn dueaCeacd by bis 
cciKiuicate, and skjlfully avadled hlmeelf of their divl- 
uoiu imd jcalctiiiea tn prevent thitm from oombinlns 
af^iut biizi. llius bo aecuivd Ajiiphi))oUa, whj£ 
he had formerly abandoned to propitiate th£ Athe- 
iuans,an the pirtcit of deUvortng it tip to them, and 
afterwards found another pnrtext for i«tatning it. 
He took PydtLA and Potidi«a (8.C. 35«), and a aettle- 



18 



PHILIP TT,— PTTTTf TP IV. 



li« leid^Ba pal Ua In noMMriw U vmhuUe 
fiUnbM. DoiiBc tin Boctd WM; BX. 367-SSS, be 
RHiaiBed OMqnnlivch pMBve. Bvm DamottbasM 
do* Bot ■n^ar at Uw tiate to lu«« nvpactad Iha 
«dB^ of ■■ aabitaoiL la ac 3£4 be Utak an 
wyti i n l tj t» lam a Maccdoikian party ia EuIkw. 
Ha B0<r lmt»i Ua eraa to tba dMnoaaaM, tnit did 
Bot at coca lad aa of^ortaBlty Cor taUac » dcosivc 
■tap is Aat dinetkn. Tha Bused «ar(8aeGuxc^ 
Ajicnn) aflacdfid Um as cfmrtaai^ cf iaiaifariiw 
IB Ifaa aSaiia el Graac^ of wUi^ Im arailwl Ibnt^ 
■ad is tha riaga oT MaUiOBa (blc SS3) he loM an 
era. TUi war aeniD SaTolTod Philip with Atbeoi^ 
■ad in B.C S£2 I>ea»i«th«aea pnaoaaced Ua fim 
ontioa agaiiMt him. Tbe immediate obfact of tha 
Bacr«d war waa aocwigJaiwd I17 tbe nbtnntfon of 
tbaPhodaaa. Altar Mnui^iBTkracaaadBpJnw 
b BlA U9 Im rtlarted tbe CbiJcidiaa citiai^ and ia 
ao. S4B-347 IwMgad aad bnk Oljatliw, the iahaUt* 
Miti of wUdt ba aold for ilavaa. Tba Atlumlma 
BOW attanptod to fcna a eoaliliaD asaiaat him, bu^ 
Cdhg, aalend ialo an aUiaaoe wiSi hiai. Fhilip 
oext aakaraand to tana a la^M in tba Pekcwn- 
Baaaaafaiait Sparta, irtiieb wm in vab oppoaaa bj 
Atbna. lUa gava riaa <Ka 341) t« tbe aaoood 
PUlilfie of DeakoatheoML In cbja jear be ton^ 
rte|B ta oonplela tha inbardi&atjaii «f Tbtmtiy. 
Tba AtbaeiaBi wen at kagtb pcovoked to oftan 
rwialaBet^ and in Kc Sa9 ttwj ennyaUed Philip to 
nAM tbe ak^ of Pcrinthaa and BTiantlim. Bat 
tbeir eacew waa ahort-liTad, aad the tattle of Ch»- 
ronaa (&o. tSS) pat tbe ^lole of Geceoa at tbe merejr 
of Pfailip. After tbia eictotr be bebaTad nwre ma^ 
nafitowwaly to tbe Albeniaai than to the Thabana. 
Pbil^i'e amUtlou had lun^ exteaded to the iavaaian 
el Fenlaf aad be had now tbe meaaa ef aeeocBpUrii- 
iay it witbia bia reach. A eowpwi WM held at 
Corbith, to whkfa «U tbe rtatei of Oneoe bat Spaite 
wwa iavft4ML At ibb oowooa tte war witli Forda 
wii detcnaiaad on, ud Philip appocDtod conaander 
el the Mof ederate (oreeiL Alter a caaipaign ^ainrt 
Sparta, in which be cotopetled fa«r to anmDder Tarl- 
oua purtiotti of bor teerftotiae to fab alUei. be ntoRwd 
to MaeadoB KC. SS8, aad faegaa aetire preparatieoa 
for hb anpedilioB to tha Baot. Next yntr be tnar- 
rfed C1eepiatf% tbe daaghtcr of Attiloa, one of hia 
awa fal ^rtJA caoaad a tirvtkch between bim aad 
£b aw Alexaader. lo a.C. 3:18 be oelebfited whb 
glcat pMCp tlie nuLTTio^ e4 hia daogbter Cloopatn 
wtth nia brotbor-in-law Alexander ef Eptrua, by 
wfaU ba hoped to heal thk dliiidoB, but he waa 
aaMriaatad daibig tbe feaat by a Maoedouum yoqth, 
P— awfa^ vbo iMd a pdvate gTBd^e againat him. 
Ahriaa<W and bia notfaer Olropiaa wen auapected 
af eeaapttdtj ia tba pIoL Hi* death oocarrad after 
tMmunmr. FUDp bad many of tbe vbtoeo of a 
paaC nim. Ba waa crafty aa well at boU la hia 
Aoaawaa. He waa a Inver «< pleaaor^ aad had maaj 
wftee; bol be cuold praetlBe aevere aalf-dooial wban 
babadaao^aettoaoMmpliabiaad bewaabaUtuall; 
WUPMBlianiM^ aol ealy fma poUey bat fen fatdiaa- 
tina. Ba waa a Ubaaal patroo of adcDM aad Htet^ 
tot*, aad Ue DBtviat dotpMBoe waa of Boamallaa^ 
•lae la mootaif tlw «b}Mta of bia amUtloo. 

FMlLU' II.. Arscnm, Kiag of yraaoe, bora 
11 0&, waa (Towaed aa enooeater dnrina the lifetime 
ef Ua father taiaia VI I., whom ha aomeeded In Sep. 
Mnbar. llMi In Atad of tba aam year ba bad 
■onkd laabaOa of HafaML One of hk flnl meaa- 
una wie tbe baaUuuat of tbe Jem from the khv- 
dom, and tba eoafiaeatloa of their pr o perty. Tlua 
waa dooa nadcr pret«ue of tbelr MUg KuQty of 
?affaraa oriaee; bat tbe teal tmrpoae of ue maaaar* 
wu lo get puwaaion d tbMr wealth. PhlUp aext 



and aa go ar e d to npnm the tyrumy and rapad^ rf 
tha ikoUaa,iriu(^ he effected fArtlr Wart and r«r 
by fereei la 1190 be embariud at GeBoa ea a n- 
aade to tbe Holy Land, when he bkI BkAaid Onr 
do lion (act BStAwrd L\ who waa engaewl m the 
•ante oaaae in Stdly. (See CBiratiwi,} Tbe )aal- 
ottdea and diaputea which ditidad tha two kap 
indnoed Philip to rettmi bone tba naiA year; tii 
he took ad>-aniage <d RkbanTa be|aiaoraaBt fa 
Aaatrta to aeba aoou el tba Eo^A Sab ilk ¥m- 
maady. Thia ealerpriiB waa la dbM* vklMkn rf 
the oath by which the two priaeaa bad aatadh 
boond Ibomaalvea to attempt nothiag ^afavt aam 
otbar'a dcniinioaa doriBc tbe ooatiiiiiai»oa ef ibe en- 
aade; and on lUrfianl'a deltreiy he O i a ii M W W ad aw 
^idaat Philip, which cantinued till tbe death of tta 
fdtnurlal]d0. Pbfll|i^ on bit ratocn boo tba Hsb 
Laod,b*dnanW Ii«Anita, liMar of ^ Ehr cl 
DanmaA; ba«t having lakea aatne dilgaak at Ml 
be ADally prooored fian bia bfahopo a diroro^ nnds 
pmlwifwnimnaaiifiiliiilj. niwlmirrirri Aipina, iWti|* 
ter of tbe Dnke of M^ao. On the owaplaiBt <l fti 
Kn^of Denmark tbe pape declared titia bmIv 
noli; aad oo nUUp'a refiuiBg to leeana Ii^boif^ 
iraionBoad tba btiwdict icanvt Fkaaea.* lliakiif 
waa tbe*cfat« obliged to yield, aad nMot* bar Ik 
boBoota of a wife and quean. <S«e Imocm IHJ 
la Ida anhaeiiaeiit wan with John (of which M 
aceooat i« giveo in tbe article Jobs) PbDIp eaaqaa r a l 
all NormaBdy, Toonine, Anjoa, and &UiM » tW 
of all Ibe BritUi poaaeMaopa in Ptaaoe (JBienne alt 
tvmaioed. Fhiltp alao toolc part in the cnadi 
aeauvttheAIUctMca{wUelLaee). HadlediolXI^ 
after a reign of foi^-lbno yean. Tfaja prinee w 
an able general aad aortnan ; he erteadea the hna- 
dariea <tf the Idngdooi, and contributed to nlae tta 
royal aatbority bom a Hate of depmdanoa on Ibi 
great Tunrilii Ha taiprorad tbe military oasaite' 
tion of hia nalm, f otMed naefol laititatkiB^ ■>• 
a lra ctad road^ and (avoored learning. 

PHLLTF IV. (LlBEL),EIi«of FnBce,waibDRi 
in 1268, and BucceeJ(<d hia father ia ItSK. He hti 
already (Aogiint, 12-H4) mairied Joann^ q a f «f 
Navarro, by wliii.-h nlUaoce he added ChaauiBwai 
well *e Navarre to tbe rojal domaia, wbicblwaudi 
it bis ii»lii:y still furthor to iocrraar at tba m^am 

at the great '- Ho even attempted to M* 

Gnlouu from Edward I. of Ea^bad, bql aflerwaidi 
eatetvd fatto sn alEtBC* mtb that moaard, and giM 
him bis danghKr in marriage ( 1 299). from wUcfa ad- 
ginated the cUito of Edward III. ou Ibe avaa of 
France. Tbb peace enabled him to uidia naafan^ 
which had been in alltaaee with EnaliaJ, to lb* 
diiDiain of F^anoe^wbUe Soodand, tbe a^yof Ptaan 
waa ^wa up to the rcngeanoo ef Kngtoad. Ub^ 
I'hilip ynuKM hw) bocnn to zrow toto a UnfdcoDL 
Two'thiida of it were mcluded la tbe royal damafa^ 
jnsiioe had to be administered, tuea ia ipuae J. and 
BMirccnary annica raiaod for coadactin; wan whkb 
werw now loo diataat and protraeted fur tbe feudal 
traopa. Urn Tlemlnn Dnaooatcaed to arUtiaiy 
rale, rerolted In 1802, and defeated at Conxtni a 
ntuBcroua army aent against then In Philip. FUUp 
made vigoroue efforta to npair im defeat, rabad 
(onod odotribtttlotia, ccjaed lalaa monoy, and ia fro 
montha hrrnght together a nnBtcrooa aimr. Bol 
ajlbougb tiia military operatiotu were attcra Jed with 
eoCBe aDcoaea be wm obliged to be comitentad with 
Ibe OMaion of tbe Wallooo tarriteey, nateini g tbe 
taat of nanden to Urn onont on ooadltioa of Modd 
hoooage. Philjp had been 'engaged at the aame time 

> jLiBM d* Hicaa 4iMl or crief at ptfwr ia UU. Um ;■» 
la whwh ifcj waa lepadiwwl Tbapepel^ntaand bari*e 
ctiiUnn bj ndDp,«i ihewaa aaiamaad laomMdw tbtblai 
fm ahMi aba aunMd htm. 



1 



PHILIP VL — PHTTiTP XL 



19 



b » Tiniest diipoto witb Pope Bonifftce Vlil., who 
tqmecbed him with the oppreMion <4 hii eobiecti 
bj krtiibvij ezkctioos and false oolnege, ea well aa 
nth taaomchattaiU on the ri^U of the church, the 
poBtiff'i real grieTance. Fhilip waa aupported by 
tbe atatea-genefal, which he ccaiToked in 1302 and 
1303, in giMntauning the isilepeiideiice of hia king- 
ieat against Boniface'a nnoonditional aMertion of tbe 
wptem acy (rf the ipiritual anthoritj, and poblicljr 
bmned the pope's Inul e »oomniwnic*ti ng him. How 
dw dispate tenninated in the death of Boniface will 
be Been in our article BoinPACi VTII. Boniface 
wia mcceeded l^ Benedict XL, wbo died aoon after; 
and Clement V^ wbo succeeded him, waa elected by 
tbe infloeooe of Philip, and fixed hit residence at 
Angnon. Clement before bis election entered into 
a regnl&r treaty as to the terms on which be should 
leceiTe tbe pontificate. The deatmctioo of the order 
<i the Tsnidan (1307-12), and the seizure by the 
ki^ td tbeir goods and eetntea, wm one of the fruits 
(tf this allianoeL (3ee Timplabs.) The policy of 
Utilip was to some extent dictated by the couditino 
of tbe kingdotn, whidi it tended to consolidate. Tbe 
■t'^itMiM of the right td prirate coinage claimed by 
tbe baraH^ for example, was a good measure in 
HmU; but am hia own coinage waa Mutually falnfled 
and fraqnentlT dianged, and as his extortions fn- 
MMaai with toe dotMica td his reign, the moat for- 
Bidabb dtaoontents were ready to break out fntn 
i]|Na rerolt at ita dose, which was further darkened 
hj jumaitie tragediea in his own family, and by the 
boning <d numerous peivoDs accused of heresy. 
Philip Idt nometona ordinances for the adminiatnt- 
tkm cf the kingdom, which mark the decline of 
taadaStm and the growth of the royal power. He 
■ko eoavoked and eonsnlted the statcA-genend for 
tlw firat tim& He died 29th November, 1314. 

PHILIP VL, or Valoib, King of France, head 
of tbe ■eoaad bt«nch of the Capetian line, was the 
B^bew of Philip the Bel, to whose last son, Charles 
IV^ be sDOoaeded in virtne of the Saliqae law. He 
waa bora ia 1293, and sneceeded to the crown in 
U2S. EdwBid UL of England claimed the crown, 
bat <&1 him homage under protest for Goieuie. 
FUUp's father, Cbarke of Valoia, had beaded the 
feudal leaction attempted bv the nobles since the 
death of PbHip le Be^ and ^hUip on his Mxeadon 
rmtond Mme of their pririlegee. In 1328 be de- 
feated the Fleming! in a great battle at CssmL 
Edward III, and Philip, tl^oagh mutual jealousy, 
supported each other's enemies, but Edwvd, baT- 
tng f»Ml t''''™*^^ at embarrasnnent on the tide of 
Boodmid, and made allies of Bobert, Count of Artois. 
^id of the Fleming*, wbo under Artereldt had 
KToltad against their count, reaolred to in vade FrKooe 
^id assert his ciaim to tbe crown. The fint campaign 
WM foc^it in flanden 133S-40. In the latter year 
Edwaid rstnmed to Tmaet, defeating the French 
Beet at Slays, but shortly after concluded a treaty 
with PfaiUp, and retnmed to England. From 1341 
to 13U tiie war was waged in Brittany, the snocea- 
rfoB to the dakedom of that province being in dis- 
pnto^ Mtd Edward and Philip sopporting different 
rwrB4itrt Tbe candidate supported by Edward, 
^ti who atgtged to recognize hu claim to the crown, 
ilaimiij thivagh the 8aUqoe law; the candidate sup- 
ported by Philip, wbo warn his nephew, claimed 
■gainat IL Edward invaded France again in 1316, 
ad adranoed to the gatea td Paris, when tbe ap- 
pcoadi ef Philip with a superior army compelled him 
to letita t. He fell back on the Somme, and g»ve 
battle at Ctiej, where be gained his famous victorr 
«a 2«th AngosL He then besieged Calais, which 
be took fai Augost, 1947, after a siege of eleven 
A trace kr tan yean waa ccoahided with 



Philip on 2Sth September. Next year France was 
visited by tbe pestilence called the black death. 
Philip died on 12th August, 13S0. Ria reign wss 
unfortunate for France by the long war which it 
Inaagurated, known in lYsuce as the Hundred Yean' 
war; and he boa left an evil memiHy by bis perseca- 
tioaa of Jews and heretics, bis confiscations and eiae- 
Uona. He originated tbe gabelle, and like Philip le 
Bel he frequently changed the value of money. 

PH ILIP 1 1., op Spain. Tbe |KsiUon and character 
of this mooarch, the time in which be lived, and the 
long duration of his reign, combine to make him one 
of the mo«t important personages in modem EutmieaB 
history. He was the son of Charles V. and Isabella 
of I'ortagal, and wasbomat Valladnlidon 21st May, 
1527. His education wm intnvted to Juan Martinei 
Siliceo, then a profMsnr in tbe College of tlalamanca 
(afterwards Bishop of Toledo), and Don Juan de 
Zufliga, commendador mavor of Caatille. He acquired 
cnustdentble knowledge of Latin and French, showed 
some capacity for mathematics, and a considerable 
taste for architecture, sculiiture, and painting. Al- 
though Charles bccums Silic«4> of careleaeneei, theee 
preceptors do not appear Ui be reapoiuible for tbe 
diapoaitioD Philip afterwards manifested. Even in 
eariy yean be waa grave and tadturti, and remark- 
able for self-poaaeMnon and f<ir the maturity of his 
utterances. Probably the admonitions as well aa tba 
example of his father bad much influence in forming 
his cnaracter. Amid much good ad^'ice Charlea 
Inculcated on his son the maiitns of absolute sove- 
reignty which be had himself practised. It was tbe 
wiU ct the emperor that Philip should be early 
accustomed to eiercise his mind about state affairs. 
When a mere youth (ISll) he intruated tbe regency 
of Spain to Philip, alonr with a rooudl headed by 
the I>ukeof Alva. In a letter of private instructions 
which he wrote to Philip on this oocaaiun, the emperor 
says, 'The Ihike of Alva ts tbe ableat statcaman and 
the best soldier I bave In my domioions. Consult 
him above all in military affair*, but do not depend 
on him entirely on theae or any other matters. 
Depend on no one but yourself.' In this letter ha 
found occasion to warn hia son of the dangers of 
libertiaum. (>n 13th November, 1543, Philip oiArried 
the Infanta Maria of I'ortugal, who died in July, 
1545, after giving birth to a son, tlie unfortunate 
Don Carlca. (See Caklos.) Charles desired to have 
Philip recognized aa hia nicceasur in the Netherlands 
and to secure for him tbe succfftaion to the emptra 
after his brother Ferdinand. Fur this purpose he 
ordered Philip to join him in the NetbeTlanda, passing 
in his route through Uermany. (.hi this journey 
Philip tried to make himself agreeable to the Uermaa 

Sirinces, but he did not succeed. He bad already 
ormed ideas of his own importance which were only 
suited for the society of hia Spaniah grandeea. His 
manners also alienated the Netherlander*: while the 
Spaniards, who looked on him aa their natural ruler, 
conaidered themaelvea injured by bis withdrawal 
from the kingdom. Having negotiated for his son 
a marriage with kfary, queen of England, ('harlea 
gave him tbe aovercigntr of Naplts and Milan, 
Philip landed in England on 19th July, 1554. waa 
married at Winchester on the 25th, and remained In 
England till September, 1555. He was recalled to 
receive the soveivignty of the Netherlands, which 
his father had resolved to abdicate. This waa done 
in public awembly at Brusaela on 25th October, 1555; 
ana oa 16th January, 1556, in tbe same hall he 
received. In preaenoe of the Spanish grandees then 
in the Netherlands, the crown of Spain, with ita 
pnsscaalons in Asia, Africa, and America. Une of 
Charlea'a last acta was to negotiate a ijeaoe, one of the 
leaat favourable ha ever made, wita Fraooo. Ilia 



n. 



te BMM ftmi. TV, . aui S^se? ZL-rm 
II III i^M I iirrfll-i n fa ^fc* ii i iidia i Puffin 
kn4 I ihnrirTj. larf ifer 'Mi— linuif » .iiuiiiig—fc 
i faida rwl war wn. ^m td^a. X.vm «w ftwwniiiiif 
toCA lfc« f'a^al m rr ami m. -mfiUur a* ra ««. ^br 
t>ilw»l By ^>nM^ Pnifo aaB«eif aiuaiiiiiC A Ko^- 
tewl, «rf nAicwt Xarj '^ -bnan -w^ nfc I^hol 

lock .Aaifwt, 1^7, Ranisefi a A« trvB if d* 'nr*' 

Ens I1m&^ 'firf ■•« koAW imw *• pmds i* x. t: 
Will lad lisBy kaMPV«4r, te bmu jmec via ~ ^ 

<w U( kawM MiMrf p«rii« m A* a^M ^xh bh^k 

tfxamrf tlw ^anitt i< 3c f^wacia. Tie Jvmrk it 

TPM«f •■# 'J»9M-<:4auvr^ai 3>i Ayri, liOV p« aa 
rMrffvtbtwarwidirnam. Hx «w&ks m EoafJKHi 

kaa •MSMfaa*! mbm oiim j. Ba ctMcbcIj iBeaf 

l>k — iet laaMtf f«fqlar; IkK Ac ■■*■—» ^ jfW- 
•Hnd iwtr Xm7 ■ fdl* i^^aia t>v MMtt it «*U^ 
Ibt bi j fygy m l tf all O* bar^aricaia << bv np, 
MM«lnHr<M<iU kM* biat«MEr fer Ua Amb to 

iw— i fry A* Flam il CMnai-CaakbpUi ww i* 
mmMm lM«faaMMRto l» tva Aw attcatinB to tke 
minnmitm if tMna^. Tbi wirriigi «< EV^ wnk 
fSa^<«A of rrMM^ «ane4 Vr tfe iimiarim JmlU 
4ttmfmt in* Ja«, UMh. » -iMipMid to 
lb* alfiiaM btiwiMa A* t«« pma 
friM%^ Fn»A al&M i« lU^ ia 
Am <'>aiM; bat a fJitKal <lu«W at tta Iom <Fr«r- 
«aaM irrita tUi troav bvwl '.4 aaina, md FUl^ 
«lM hand to M* Ax •mna «f Eacbvl Md Smtlaad 
naftwl vlA Oat «/ FnaM; f«ntKi«I IKiahrtfc, to 
wk» ha Ihwl «<M«I bai kwl ta nrfa, acaiMt a 
4tam«t m KuKAmA ia («*•« of Uarj atoait. la 
l£«< IM fKmOf Mt An N«tbcriaa>H I* ■>» object 
ta ntoraiatc to ftpaia 1m^ to cbecfc tba p n tp tm 
whkfa A* K<i"nMtt« Iwd kmI* Acn. Ob hii 
arrfval to bk natif* r/mttrj, im tm ^inr»((* to whicfa 
b« tmrfiwij KtiM^A dayriiek, h« had Ac plnuore 
'ff tcrfmc pr^Mtnt at m> anbr-dx'fi; ami a few jear^ 
Mra«««ra»r» b) rfinlbr vmMmfm tatn»y«M>w1 tlM 
ff((bt 'ff tiM f;^'im>atk«n, t/i{[it«faer whfa the apirit 
id Ifi^tiu awl iMit«rj«iMr in Hfiain, Tbe caoaa (if 
nfiirlr4> to Yniim wm aWf a cnoaUBt aabjoci of 
tfAMtatU wHh fOiflip, Imt bb i!««J U/r H WM occa- 
ttrMklljr liUUirimil iry [xJttieal ormpIkatioDa. In 
1 C/iV, b/zwow, b* nuaifjoal/ murU'i kimaeif to excite 
ftfij#i«tU"ti to that nmnXn to Ae wlkt 'if tnlenai'A 
mmmI at Um li«ifinntot( nf that year. Id NafJca, u 
In Hf«ln, bb xoaJ Wl hint Wi penwctiUi the Frot«stai)t«; 
fftit tt traa bt Ui<i NKthirrlMfh Uiat hia bi(;'jtry an4 
'ibatifia';)' bxl Mifir tiumi 'Iiiiwtnjtu,thou((L ultimately 
f'rrt'iiiatn rtmiltJi. 'f7io 'b^tkiU "f tli« ntitMariM 
yl'ifitwl Iry hi* atciTiU will \i» f'/tinil Id Ae kixt'iry 
of Difet fynintry. T'l ilJii*trato Um UTiirit in which 
\m vAiA, % aldvln fant will miflico. In July, 1C64, 
mum »(ut rm^lviiiK with fUtl'rry f>Fiint Kt^mont, 
wifi liwl liMTTi lll;■|ll(t■^ll'MI t<i Uy luifiire him tlio 
Ifriiri'Bri'iMt (ff tlin NiTtlinrlMiiit<;rN, alamiiMl at the 
^albniliiK Ntirriii nii''lt<''l by ht* baMtiial violation of 
t>i« UwM fell'] iimn\,\int\iitt of ihn nniiitry, Iw wiiit to 
bl« Mtat<ir Mari{ari!t, tlin m(('i(it, n 'i««|fat'ih (viiiwiiitlntf 
to tita al>olltl"o of tlm ImjiiUition on rani'litlon that 
tb« lilaliiiji* ■liiml'l tar Invont'^il with iii'jiiiiiltoria] 
jiiiwir, aiiJ HMMW "tlinr noiii-i-Mlunii of a tildi iiatiiro. 
At llin ■nrrin tlrnr, tin irrntnitiHl Imforo a notary Aat 
tlina* noii'iiHHliiDN hail tMxm nitifrtnl Irv force. A 
wll'lar aitraviffauM waa oummltlMl by uim In 1S68, 




ja«« tf ^aa^ xait ava sib. na airw- i 
TTBiit^ata^ ]■ ■ii'iai aiiaiii" TiibTj 'w 




s^EaDS ^C s^^^^Bi^H ^^a& va^BBcaL 

maaa. tx lITt ^ mBtaO. sB~4a (^ rf aa 

to 2nB nr &■ jnTTf^a ly Pioa ^%sa ^.^ lurt tka 
BKSv WM Boc k^CilIt hail Till? fiir .Afi^ to wba 
no^ xmAMl aL «9tttv> m^^nm iD*» ^^ad 
^Mr Ae^EBwrtf AcfHia. nB3 waa« Aaitai 
4caI-T manmf Aa auDaaaa rf E&sbsk. Ok Qi±. 7, 
lin.'k» kaX^m^ lb liiM^li Job w«b tfa 
bstSe ^ ^-^— "^ It Aa H^ Laapw ^aaait ^ 
Tvij^ iMa waactt n£Sp kai oaoad wvA t^ ]^ 
sad Aa ScpUifie 4< Tcaaea. TW fas F*«jaA ^ I 
leafaa was ■egosiind m Am ?*ar batwacB Hd^ 
mi. ^ D«ke «f Com, He tacHnd tb wai 
W t^ -"< FailhliMa ^^^ wvA ■aiim ad 
■ao^aaat >av, *itwia; It at «■« aa ^ aow b At 
poocT «f lat ri*ala (Did a wtel^aSe dcatiwetiaB d 
W iMJfa la ISTS ni%~a n^iaw val mAm- 
west a t^Bporai; a h a iiiiat He m a lav^att 
«f -«"— *^ to Ae GoBaa ^Mfva ob tbdealk 
^ VariaiiFaa, a^ be ^{a^ed if be AiaiM da a> 
to wm g a i tt- ibe pmile^aa •< tfae ^ '^'ilan ihai, ad 
tcinatBte tka Priaee of Ona^ aad bk *^xoBplieei' 
to Acir fifaaiwiiua la 1579. ob tfaa adriea of Giaa- 
«ell>, be pnaeribed Vmiaa, potti^ a pnoa flf ^OM 
giotd oDwaa OB bto hcML la A{nil, I5SI, I%ilqt i 
oMded to Ae ottwii of Factual, viA ita 
iiaitnu paaaesona, and be qtent tba two : 
jean to that ooantrr. Abovt tbia tnae be 
political BWtirca fca- intrigam g viA tfae Hngo^oti 
to FiaaGe,and twice to ISsiiuadeofrasof aadataaea 
to the KjBg at 'Svnm. In 1^4 be tcaewad Ui 
alUance wiA Iba lea^e, to wder to mnwai the aae- 
ceanoD of Hcbit to the crown of Fnaoe. Ia 15S6 
Philip deeland war viA EagUnd. The year 1588 
MW the deatractkn of the Annada and the dcaoat 
of Spato fnnn her poaition aa a *— * -^ — pinnr ia 
Eortipe:. In 15&9 Philjp mined, by hia ovetweoBBg 
aelf-ooDceit, ao opporttmity of making himMttf mailv 
of Fnnoe. The Stt tea -geDCTal aaacmUed by May- 
enne propoeei] to recogniie the InfanA laabeUaClant 
Eugenia ■• heireaa of the French crown; but FhiUp 
refused to marry her to a French prince, and wiwn 
he conceded thia pcdnt dedtoed to name \^^^ hnaband. 
Philip carried on his opposition by totrigtwa and 
warfare against Heniy IV. for aome yeatv, but in 
1598 the Peace of Vervins was condaded wi A France. 
He ahowed some disposition at Ae same thne to 
make peace with England and Ae Netherlanda, bat 
hia offers were not accepted, and he died without 
recognizing the independence of Ae latter oonntiy 
or bemg reconciled to the former. I>armg his lart 
\etn he suffered from diseases bronght cm by de- 
bauchery, which took a reTolting form, bis body 
being covered with vermin, which Ae skill at his 
jihyHicians was nnable to destroy. He died at Ae 
EiKurial, 13th September, 1593. Before his deaA 
he bad bestowed the sovereignty of Ae Spanish 
Netherlands on his daughter Isabdla^ sabject to the 



PHILIP T. 





vnm of Rp»ln; muI be -wtm aiKxwoted in Spun Iit 
Fbitjp UL, lit mm by Ann* of AuatriA, bU loutu 
vif«. 

I'hilip'i cbuMClcir Iwd Munc (Hnnta in RMmblanoo 
WJUi that ot JuM II. cf Britaiii. H« wiooewled In 
t1MiitiH.mhii • gnat «npiiv b; mrazu vtrj ^milv 
to IboM wUeh ut Jmum hta erown. He mnetline* 
Wst hi« TMwa to poticj, but his MhemM of tntoler- 
ODS wera ncTcr forgottcD or loft loaf in tba back- 
HKNOMi Hia InfiuMwe vd Sp^ wm very dujutmiu. 
XIm ifiric of tha poo|>la wu crvahed by Intolonum 
* tynmny, tkA U nuy bo taid that even t^ ttiin day 
b nffaviBg fmn Uie opprauion uf Fliiiip II. 
fatiMrbndi www mm* fonaiiaHi. uiJ I^iirope 
him Uh feunJatian of the Dutch B«piubli& 
l&anttMW HWMm Aaadoned one dbfnoeful 
r, baakba tba MmMtBrntloaa h««rM contlunaUjr 
ing. Be nw Aatwu'o Pons writtan iaitnio- 
ta MMMBttta Esooraido, th« aecrotaiy of the 
ArAdske John, ud vhra ba had MOaaDpUahed the 
■paOed htm hy thr»ata cf pRMeoitioa to 
*- 1 doruwent. He \rtt to lua children the 
whkb h« And bla lalber bad uoiir^ 
, with u Uttle b«n«fit in bis caae^ it would 
hia tnonl conduct ni tb« acourg* ho 
to bia wfajvcta bad on tbair material prua- 

PmUP v.. Kini of Spfthi, waa the fint Snaniah 

[iking tJ tho Dutirbun Jj-nul]-. Ua waa Llie gianoaiin of 

iLooiaXIV.af l>>uic» and aocgnd aoB of tba DMiphln. 

I had b; Urih the i!tl« of Dnka of Aajoo. Philip 

I bora a* VanaUlM tn 1 683. H« n)M««ded to thc 

I <4 Spain b^ tba will of Oharl«» II., who died 

t dfawct bdn^ aa tbagrandami of t.'liarlni'a alder 

Ob tha daatb of Chari«a b Nuvcml >or, 1700, 

< WW ImiwcdiaUly proclaimed Idn^ and vaa g«D«r- 

ily noegnixed in Spain, Naplea, and tJto NcthoT' 

. but tba inciooauoii had long been a matter of 

I aQiaoMS, and icon beouna tbe ooeaaion of 

• Kt«ipiiaa war, in which Philip waa suataiiii-d uuly 

hj Katun asd tbe minor pomtn (lependrait, nn hi>r, 

'~ I of bla oompeCiton lor tba CTotrn, tLu Arc:b- 

■rlaa, ■acona an of tba Mnpcmr, and who 

weoMdad Co tha cmpira^ was iinppiirted 

I wbnle weight of one of tboae groat coalitiona 

1 to dwelt tha ambition of Louia XIV., thi? 

Otaud Alliance, in wbicb England, Hollnnd, 

■pfaa, noat of tb« Gennan aUtea, and after- 

Fortapal, look part He mameil in ITUl 

I LouMk (iaIiHelU, itnctind daiig'btar of tho Ihiko 

bvoj. Koiwitb^tjuidiui; the iqilendid «ucc««aea 

igm and Uariborough, tha gnt» oonunaadera 

taUiaoea, the KVult of Aragon, and tha tempo- 

I nt PvlatboronKb and Galway in Bp^n, 

waa aaooiad for Fhlllp obiaflT by the 

Ahnanaa wea by the Xfuln of "Banricli 

LfrO, I7U7, and he waa cnofinned In poweauan 

D mwancinx hia claim to the erawu of Fnncn 

' tba tnatiea uf Utrerbt in 1713 and of Kaabuli in 
14. It waa daring ibb war, however, that Gib- 
■ wm lost to Spain, Minorca wm alao Mded to 
~ , BkOf to Saroy, the XaUierlaoda, Naplva, 
MBantaa to Auatria. Philip'* wifu dini iu 
r, 1714, and tha Priacam dca TTnins, whom 
bnugbt with bar from Savoy, and vrho 
tbe jJtniticin of Gnl favauriti?, jicmiadcd 
b> marry Klinbeth Fameae, nl«we of the 
IXika of PanniL la thii tlui prinoeaa had 
atad. Tba manlaea took pWa In Sep- 
r, and aba waa inmwdlalaly depoaed from ber 
fuM oa by tba inilnence of tbo new qun^. Tbn 
t t4 Fhi]q> waa now (riven to Canlinal 
tbe minifltBr of tha I>uk« of Parma in 
Pbltip waa pioua and niorioua, ami tlie 
I funaad of Ua ebanoter by bia new utaiater 



ajarad 




waa tliat a wlfo and a haami:^ were all that tbe King 
of Spain naodod. Allmmiii acoonliu^ly preparad to 
goTcnt Spain. Peace waa tor a time oaaential to hia 
rii'na, but it waa only a« a meaaa of acooropUablng 
ambitioua projocta. Am f hilip bad a aun by the firtt 
villi ilie cmlaran ol KlU»Wtb coiiltl not aucoecd tn 
the crown of Spain. Klixabetb M-i>h»d to prvviJo for 
tbera in Italy, and even covet^l tbe revernon of tha 
crown of France. TUeao picLenaiuni furmwl Uio barfa 
of AlWrottla eobemea^ who pmpoaod to num Spain 
to tha prvdotninanoe in Eiuopa which ahe bad lost 
kinoc thft tiin« of the EmpttoT Chartca V. (See 
Albkromi.) Tlicm acbamea of Allnrnmi olicuatoit 
Fnuio« and |hI to tba Triple Alliance lonuod in 
1717 by Grant Britain, Fnuice, and Uulland againat 
Spain, and whidi, after aame temporary auooewca of 
tba Spanlarda (coDiinaet oS Katdiiiia, Au|::iiat, 1717), 
waa UHTgtd by tba aocaadon ot Auxtria into tbo 
Quadruple AlUancs (AnguaC, 17 IS). Tbo invasion 
ol Spain by the Duk* of Barwi«k oonpelled Pliillp 
to occmle to tiie terma of the allianM. Spain oedod 
her conqueata, but BKureJ the rwveralon o( I'anna 
and Tliacany to the chilir«n of tbe queen, and Albe- 
Toni waa itinnriiBwiil Thia vim followed tn Intenur- 
riagca between tha royal fumiliM ol France and 
Spain. Tbv Prince of Aaturiai^ bair of Spun, and 
Don Carioa,hair of Tiucaoyud Puna, warn aSaooad 
to two daugbttra of tha 1le|;:«nt Orleans and Iba 
lofiuta to Loula XV. Philip, who waa a pray to 
rvUgiona melaooholy, and through Lbe Jeatnta, by 
wbum be waa governed, aa f^rait a panacotot aa 
E'bilip IL, now lock a >t«p attribotad by »taa» to 
hjrpocbuudri^ by otbera to policy. Ho mognad 
tbe crow n of Spain in favour of hu eon Don Ccnila 
(January, 1724), with a view, according to tba lattw 
explanation, to a«;uT« the revenion of tbe orowa of 
Franc* in tbo event of tbo (|r«tli of Louie XV., 
urboMB health waa than in a declining atat«. But 
tba Prinoe of Actiirias died In the following Anguat, 
and Philip rmtiuiiil bLi cruwii. In tho following 
yt^nr Chn InfuiLa waa axnt hack to SpMn on tbo 
prvtesl of bor U:lnu too young for Louii, an affront 
which nwrly provoked a war with P^atioa and In- 
dnced aolrwcr alliance botwoon Pbilipaod tbeemparor. 
Philip guaranteed the Pragmatic Saoctaon and culered 
iuto vfuiooa etipulatiooa oflenaiva to Kugland aa well 
aa to Franc*, as the ntontion of tba Stuaiti by fona 
of ortna. The ijueea, however, finding that the alli- 
ance of Anabria did not lorwatd beir view* in Italy, 
iiTougbt about a ivoondliatloo with llngliuiil by tba 
Treaty of Sarllla. Mb November, 172i>, which guar- 
ant««d tbo aaooeadoB of tba Italian dttehia to Voa 
(.'arloa. A similar engagauent waa entered into by 
tbe empanr by tbo aecond Trenty of Vionna, Mardi, 
1731, but tbe war at the FolLah Succeoaiou fiJIuwod, 
and Italy wns Invaded by a Franco -Spaniib army 
nndtr iJon t'arkA In tliia warSpaia waadcacrtedby 
Franca, by whom it waa btifpin. Paaca waa cuti- 
c-lndcd in 1734, and afler protnu:t«<1 nagolCations tbo 
third Treaty of Vienna waa aiimed, leth Xo'rcmbor, 
1738, in wbi<ih Naplea and Hii^ily were amlgnad to 
l)»n C-srloa In place of Tiiw^my, which waa ceded to 
tint son-in-law tjt tba euiporor. Mutual oMBntcrcU 
grievaneta next lad to a war with England, wfajoh 
waadadarad In NoidDbcr, 179Q. TUa waa foUowad 
by tba drath of Oharlra VI. (174(1) and tba wnrof 
th« Auatriau Snoocuiuu, iu wlikh Philip look part 
with Fnnca and tba anaialai of Atutria agalMl 
England and bar aUiat. Ba dSed baCora tUi war 
waa concluded, i>th July, 174B, after a nign of 
forty-ail yoxn. J'bilip was constantly {mramod by 
favuuiilea, and hia conatiCattonal melanoialy at burt 
complet«ly incanachaCad Um for bnslneaa. For tbe 
lAHt tun years of bia men hia dtiaf favoorita waa an 
Italian aiogec^ ^rineUT <aea FiAiMKi.u), who hod 



■rff— fa<fcw^rffcr1>*-|iiin'ii«rf _ 

■mm mnmtAul '-aw Fii fTiiMif TL, n novi mk k*- 
B* fcn^ at f-iie>t*i It&T. Mcrt^ MJu » Jii^ to 

•fc Envm /:«: aw rMEw«i S-^ iim Ae I>«t d 

'wm, md wmAt las p^ucr p«er << Ttmit. IW ■ 

fc*vt fiiMUCM V, rawc WM «M«B«>i I7 C%«da 

V. 'M Ui mKKmta, v. tn* owvs, w&aa FUs^kiMOB^ 

wiMb f»r« him 'm tfe« 4tau «f ka rnkii ii !■■ 

3C«m^ aibi MMi* 1h >SM tf tb* Ma« ptinrfd 

V. lU^ Mmrf ^MMi tk« Ex^afa «i:b ataSty 
Md maaHK fa wnnl *— 7-^- in Beawe md ' 
IiwrB<l7 /:»«4 , ttfim C*la» 'ISfS^ IB P<«taa ' 
nX7i.,mAnm>ltnnX77^ Om^^itwOiKiCbmim 
'13V„ h* Am^A tU ■>!KiBiitntk» << tU kinzdan i 
with Idi IvMkan the I^ob* <rf Asioa aadftxrv, ! 
■■d vbm th« Crjnur. who efaiiDcd tb Kg a ^ if br ' 
rifto •:< birth, kft b» Jiufim m lZ-2, the dnef ' 
fau>fe» Ul rm lam. Tim *. *«~!..t-t— *i— ^^^ ^it 
<>«4iUU« to the UodMn. E^fa «f Ums ooMened 
UbmU vith Ui ««B hereditary ■<~"i-i~-. and 
th« n*<BOM U the kngdan wen wasted on their - 
KhcoMi e< prime e^pwMfiwmetii. X«tiaH ol 
Vtinty v«r« et tfaie tine beginnm^ te be vwfelj 
diff oetJ in the citiM, end th« iamimeiiaaMty man- 
necrte, ezdted bf txaamn taxatiaa and otl^ acta 
'4 ^(ifnHiao, were pot down with a nithkai baad. 
In IVii Hdlip aiiinM Ua (atber-fn-law ag^ifaat bii 
revolted Pknkb nbiecti^ who —*-'"■* a crmiaDg 
MmX at KfAriieiiiie f27lh Norember). In 1385 ita- 
n«nee i««|«rati(Mie were made and raat mma oae- 
ImbIt en>rad«d in preparii^ for an invaiian of Eng- 
lamfwUcfaBeTertAok place. Tbe tnimber o( tcmcIi 
ecJlected, amrvding to FroiaMrt, would hare nifBced 
to f'jnii a bridt^ frm Calak to Dorer. As expedi- 
tloo aoafiMt the Doka of Goeldree, an all j of Eng- 
land, in I3S8, waa amQarir ooetlj and improdoctiTe. 
Thealliaaoeoftbe Flemkh democnOa with England 
gave Philip a double motire for lua boetilitr to that 
eimMry. HI* adminiatration in Flanden appear* to 
bare Men w\m and cnnciliatorr. In 1388 ttw IHng 
toJc npon btmaelf the adminifltration of the kingdom. 
la \ZVi be ihowed rign* of inaanity, Bod hu micles 
r^aomed the reeencry. The tniniHten of the king, 
who had been <^naen from amung the commonalty, 
the i/irviouarU, aa tbey were called by the party of 
the great iciMmi, were baniBhed. There were anaasioa- 
tlrm* and deed* of violence between the paridee, but 
nritbinj; cA thU kind aeema to be chugea to Philip, 
He retained the regency till his death in 1404, though 
"tT'Mvd by hi* nephew the iJuke of Orleans, who waa 
ajftrwarda a«Nuwinated by bis aon Jean Sane Peur. 

PHILIP THE tioon, Dake of Burgundy, Bon of 
Jean Kana Pear, wh bom at Dijon in 1396. His 
fathin- waa aaaaMinated in 1419 by the partiaana of 
the Uanjihin, a/torwarda Charlea VII., and Philip^ 
who had been bronght np at a diataooe txtaa the 




^ C^a» TL &£. m !<=. ^i IlMiy Tl 
EauffFEMBft. Safari, w^M* 

wja.Iaakig&.»kMg.MJfaaSTii>aiMadUlh*» 
'jfBtB^mcr. CJnmM« .i n is rt rfEkghM<Mararf 

IB* OasacH 4f ''-^^-— V tmd jiiiiiiail a prink 
wv W3B n£^ ^ — '-^ f K^ae ^amtmmm rf h« 

kiiil ij^i A^B'^nnaaf abeBae^dB^HaMAiTM 
1 Uf . at wtea. kc ±ud t» nxnefie Aa tw« pKtit^ 
r >i iia "i u\w\\ Till jaan ■" k Tl ai'Ma , Bfai iipdi 
itel iteBsnW <£ ka tasks', l a mgaia ed ks ndi- 
peaAaw , ceded u ka ame t tninaif^ a 
a dei^Hic ■ niTiT with ksH. ^USp 
decsvd warn EajSaad. bsi «ea Hade paaalEr 
ka 9wa Kasea, ^«3 ^ ti e aiwj ad, Oov^ B n^ to 
n^vtHS* a peace b' Fnaea. Ha naDMed tka 
Dske of Odnm. wW had ben a priKBM' far 
twicBtT-£v« jeara la FafbrMT, aad ga*« ks Ui 
neee m Kania^ He l e wt Tgd tte Daa|Ua Low 
aee L&CH XL' at Ui eow wbes he qaancOedwib 
bii EatlMr <HX\ bat rcftaed to aaMt Vm taoAm 
than br kw tnefiatkn. He gave hna, h w a w et , a 
pewaoe a< 6C>:*:) knk *^ a lendeaec ia the CaA 
«<GeB>{<f«. C^ika Rtn«ked that he had tacaifd 
a fox who woold JeToar kai ponhiT. FltQq* aena- 
pacMd Lmob to hie nroBatJoB (1461), when ke 
ditplajed a nMgnificatca which waa ia acoadMM 
with ha tMtea. Looia took adraatafa (rf hs aitaa- 
raganee to [wm biw fron bim ia I4C3 the towaa <> 
the Somine ceded by hie fstbex aa the price ofOi 
alha&ee ot the Doke of BargoadT. Ffailip'i aa^ 
Chariea, eonat tt r^— >J-t- who had ala> qaanded 
with hii Eatfaa- and been leoenoled, waa offendid 
at thia comxHioti. which Lonia had and all kb 
arta to draw fran ha fatho*, and entered with othv 
diaaflected noble* into the Leagoe of Poblie Good 
(14<5). Philip had by thia time faBen into a itito 
of mental incapacity, and the alTaiia of ha ■''— *"*™' 
aged till hi* death in 1U7 by hii aon, who 



managed 
then BDcceeded him. Fbibp waa daaohita is Ui 
maaoen aa well aa pnrfiae and oetentatiaaa in Ui 
taat ea. He left nnmemna natural cbildieat. 

P HTT.TP P L (THX MaoKAXmous), Laa^ran (f 
HeMc, waa bom in 1 504 near a town of the PdatiBata 
called Caal^ which the Hemiani under William hb 
father were then bodc^ing. After the death of Ui 
father in 1509 he lived nnder the gnaidianah^ of Ui 
mother, and in 1518, on attaining hi* fourteenth 
year, anumed the reina of government. He vaa- 
quiabed Franz von Sickingen in 1523, and joined the 
princes who went out in 1525 to qnell the inmiTeo- 
tion of the peasante. Tbi* waa effected by the battle 
of FnmlcenbaoBen; and the landgrave, befriended hj 
John, elector of Saxony, waa gained to the canae of 
the Reformation. The aame year be issued his edut 
on the preaching of the goepel and the morality of 
the clergy, and to aid the succern of the new doctainev 
and secure its followers from hostile attacka, his 
spirited counaels led to the League of Torgao, fonned 
between bim and the Elector of Saxony in 1626. 
After this be attended the Diet of Spirea, and spoke 
out atrongly and firmly for the rights of the Lutbetaa 
Church. After bis return ha began the Befonnatiott 
on an extenaive scale. The monks were expelled feom 
the monasteriea^ aud their nvenuea wara oonfiacated 



mt»i HardUd to Mwular and useful porptHMat. la 1527 
hefOBodwlUiaL'niveinity (if Mftrbiirv. BuwudriT«n 
talo warlike awwrara by Ui ml, iufluDed by thv m- 
focmalloa ol Otto von Pftck Uuit tba Catholfo princes 
had c«iidiid»d * Im^im for Uiq suppnanon of th« 
Itmtonattkm. la tbrn dnramrtwoMi b* labKribcd 
Iba pnteMttkn to tb* Diet oi BpJraa In 163», lub- 
nhMd tfa* OonfMilon cf Fkltb M Anptrarg in lltSO. 
ukd ndlhtr the penonal reproMntatioiis oT bbo om- 
penr north* poliUoU kOrnntagea off«a«d to hbn coultl 
Buk* Um nuAitbtul tu » ouue whoae blwrinp to 
hnmaaitf laj nnfoUed in oil thoir nuifrnituda IJcforo 
hbmmtMVlauHi. Inthi^liigtirst iiiili^-iintinnh'CC|viitte«l 
lb*di>twtlh hiauuauiruuii wArlikv luUuwun, wtd •(t«r 
ivtmtag HI ftUlMiov for ilx yauv nith tb« ouitau nf 
Zorich, BmcI, Mul StiMboig whh rcfcranoe to ■ttocka 
«n nitiitoa, attended the oantavtux of the Btectur ol 
anaunr, Um UmrqulM* of Ankalt »nd Uncd^ubiirg 
ud lot Count of T>T»n«f «lil nt Sobsulkaldon, aod 
wa% irtth the Elector of Saxony, fn 1631, hoMl of 
lb« Sekmaticald I^emgae, In 1642 ho foUKltt vlcr- 
hyj n rwt y egkinxt Hukf Knnry Lb" yonngnr cf Liriiiui* 
wlo^ Mt iraa obliged to Riibiiiit bJ (ho Kiiipurur 
ChnlHy. after the l»tU«r,(Muhlbcni (1517). On 
tUi oecMloa he confided in tho fATuoroIilo mediation 
ol Ui aOD-In-law Muirioe, duko nt SaJiony, but, cnn- 
traiy to the true moonhig «I thu cspiLuLitiutJ, wu 
detuned a priaooar try the etDiieror, was obliged to 
-ive o|> hia ajtOln?, and pajr a hoo of ifiO.OOO tlorina. 
1553, by meane of the PaMau Treaty, be obLiiiied 
freedom. After bis raturn to hJ« daminloue he 
t a body of anxiUariei to annit tho l^^cndi Hu^o- 
Be aftennuda labonrod dili^utly to gnvorn 
oa popular priaciulia. divided hia pMBoMioua amoim 
foor aoiM, aad died in 15Q7. With the oonMnt 
I wife, Cktiatina, who lived till lfi49. and after 
1 obtiined tbe eonacDt of Lntbei and MelAoch- 
CuiB, he in I&40 married Uar;garT.-t of Saalo, usually 
cnDed tlM Ifft laattgrmtM, and had by ber bU Bona 
and a dau|[hter. I[e yna equally Diagnanimmgn snd 
eoiivaceoa% mll-infononl aud acUvo, but diapUyed 
Bttle elataMDanaUp in Ida moaatira*. See IlunuiiBl, 
FUtipp der OrosnaHthise Laodfraf von Hueen, 
■abet oIhb Uifcundonbudis (tbree toIi. GieHcai, 
U80}. 

PKHJPPEVILLR, a <aty of Algtria, In the 
jwar i uBn aad 3B| milM s.r.^ vt Coutantine, near 
iba ntaa at tbo ancient Rudcada, at ttie bead of tho 
Baj «t Stdnk It ia ^nil laid oat, haa aeveral epa- 



I aqnaiei^ and fine itreet^ a laroo milibktT hoe- 
|Mb1, Kttb a handwroe cb^wl ; a pa^eh cburab, and 
ft ^*i™ti^ of oomuuiroo, and a bruk trado. Fop, 
(I8SI), ]&J>SO. 

PHILIPPI. a dty cj Macwloiii*, in Thracia, 
founded by Phili]) of Mawilon, who cAptored tbe 
aita faen Ibe Tbaaana, and oolonisod it about ma 
1168. Tbe p>«TioBi aaKltapant waa called Crenidu^ 
froia the nnmeroas apriim^ wfalob riae lu tho locality. 
Ita dUof adrantago Ur In ita oommand of a diatrict 
ridh la|[(iUmlBea,wluc&Fhnfpflaiiaed to be vrorkcd 
IO(Nb4 aJyaiiti^e. Tbe two batUea (nuEbt In b-O. 
4^ wbkh la iB lted hi tbe overibrwn of Drntna and 
Gmoi by Antony and OtAavioa, won; foo^bt horo. 
fU^pl «M Tiated oa aeTorat oceariooa by tbe apoatle 
ftal, who addieaeed to h one of hie q^tln. (S«e 
PmurriAS!!.) The nana of Phili]jpi iitill eiixt. 

PHILIPPIANS, qiistla of Paul the apoatle to, 
la HDpoaed to hare bwn wnU«n fmoi Rome tow«nIe 
tba waa of St. PanT* ftnt impriRunmi^t ihcn^ about 
tLD. 88. Boom aotboriUea ruppoen it to hare been 
written in Cweerea. (See Pbilemox.) Thennuine- 
ae« of tbfi matk haa only been questioned by Baur 
and tbe Tubtnnn HbooL It la raferred to, thiragh 
Bol qnolod. in UM tfuUe of Polycaip and by Tartul- 
htat and other eariy falhcn. Tbo opLitlo appear* to 



hare been writUn primarily to acknO^ldftttt Ml 
nf the Plullppiaoa in eendinK to minlitH UBtO Utl 
in bia impriaomnoDt. EpaptmxUliia, who <^oDvejed 
It, waa the mwmger of toe PhiUppuuix (o Paul, luid 
had boon Ell at Rome, which hati been a cauae of 
anxiety to tho Philippiana. T:iu\, tbenfon; baateaed 
hia n^nni, and anal Uiie vpEntle by blm. It gl*«e an 
acconnt of tlie apoetlo'i viowi ud feeUnga on tba 
■iibjott of hi* inijiriiiiiiinciiC. and in coDtemplatiaa of 
bin appniiicluni^ triaL It i* full of eraltmg faith, 
au J ouutiUau luaoy exhortation* baa»d on tbe example 
of Christ And tho doctriuBa of Chriitlanity, bul uone 
of thiNic^ *_vi>t.< -malic and argumentative atiktcmrnbi <4 
ductnuB which are to bo found in tbo othcc cpintlca 
of Paul 

PHILIPPICS, tbe three ontloniof I>emo«tb<ni«e 
agaiuat Pbiltii, Icing of Macodon. (Boo Doios- 
TUEitCB.) ThiM Dame waa aleo ^pb'ed to (liocro'a 
f outtaen qwecbaa iniiin Antony, and it baa benoe 
oane to ilmlfyiin UTective in genenL 

PHIL&PraEB. or Pmurran XAlaitdii, an 
archi[>o1ay(i in the Pacific Ocean, lying north-cMl of 
Bontco, having on tho woat the China Sea, on the 
eact the North Padflc^ and on the aouth tho Soa of 
Celebes; lat S* 83' to 1I>* ^8' v.; Ion. 117' 21' to 
ISd' 8' r. ItronididB nf forty inhtndii of cxiiunderable 
■LEt^ and a liuuo uumber ui MtuLller once. Of the 
former the chief am Luaon, Mindoro, Samar, Panay, 
L<!<yto, Zcbn,Xogroa,Dcih<il^Mint)aiiM>,iuiil I'&lnvan. 
llio ijioro tinea and intsnuU anrface of tba )ar{;er 
ialanda are extr&uiely minced and IiT^;ular. TbiA 
at^ftd&omt mountain rangoa am dothad with a gi- 
gantic and ovcr-t««raing vegetation; and betweu 
Ibeee lie exbenaivo alopea and plainH of the richtet 
troploal fertility, watered by namerotM lakee and 
riven, which aSccd abundant mcana of irrigation and 
traoapoft. On the weatom parte it rains from June 
to September, but in Ot-tolxtrachaogoof wind trana- 
fon tne ralna to tlie east«m parte. Theae ralna are 
ao iiitonae m to naako vast laltee of tho Inwgrminda, 
and to render tho highway* impaasable. Tae beat* 
lue temjwnd by perpetual molBtun^ and by the 
oltonuitioni of the land and eoa broete. The cliuiate 
on tbe whole ia hoaltfay. Eaithqnakea are frequent, 
and often very destmrtive. 

Metalliferous mountain* everywhere occur. Gold 
la pr^icand to tbo taud of tb'C riven. Iroivtone la 
found yielding elj.dity per cent, of Iron; and riob 
opeeiineoa of cojqter aUeet ita preeenoei. Among tbe 
Dumeraai volcaoaee, estanot or active, abundnnoe of 
inlpbur ia found. Coal «dati In ecnue epota, hot ta 
not woriced to any extent. There are vaat dapcdia 
of lime*tono and marbl^ and Nogroe produoea ma^ 
naua nud alum. 

Tbe mountidns am corervd with i^ganUo timber. 
Anoag pUnta cidtiT«bad for tiao am the abaca or 
Manilla hcmit. tbo pine-BK>)(^ the gantmntl-patm for 
their GlameuUi the eocoa^ and other palma; the 
ootton, ooffea^ and cacso-trw; tbe auger-cane, indigc^ 
tobaeeo, and the tamarind. Cavii^ dovea, tin wud 
nutinei;, and the rtd and black pepper vfaios, are found 
tu MttidaiLBO. RJos la ralaed in large quantities 
buth for home conanmption and export. To theae 
aild tnalM^ wheat, yanu^ the awoet-potate^ and ■ 
grval TBrii<ty of detiduua fndti^ orangee, lomotu, fta. 
Th« bitfEaEo in ntnployed in tillage, and aa a bcael 
of burden. Buth it aud the ox aio found in a wild 
aa well as domeetlcatod atate^ Tbe Phllipplnaa pio- 
duoe amaU but apiritcd boTw% dear, begs goat^ and 
•he^; dimiuutive fuxee and gaaeDea; aeveral rarifr- 
tlaa of monkeya; wild cata, ftc. The woods ar* full 
of game-cocks P^<w»i> <aglaa, pelieaaa, herona, wild 
dudca, quaHs, ana the m^lcBt-eized falcon known. 
The iuDt>toa swwm with bomming-Mrda, parrots ^"^ 
the bora-ldtl. On tba ahoree are found tbe eea* 



» 



PHZUPPCnS— PHIZJFPSSUKG. 





Una ^ifc« ^^ U^^^Ua >■ b^- 
jfcMpM^Mid tntei. ^TharhM* (MI 

tfaiBMoM gUmL MMMawhhgr 



I 
I 



.SLXiMlM; 
I biliKr "vM a^ ^h>^ If Uw laAiM^ aU lb* 
lB«Maillmihliliih««lMHMlMB»al «|««iw 
hiMMto to wkkk Byrfnhit looks to tbt mport c« 
lli «WB kitlMlMib Hilf tm^a, laAfEwraftm 

«Mllk rf llM bhwifc Ite Iwlc^MdMi tniM «« 
liillj If ihMiWiiTM ■iiT|iiirl| li mill III Tbamb- 
}Mto oT SpMfa w« pw>iwi fly B«naB CWbolin, aad 
■aibr B UbbcIit with Um Aifhthhoa o( IfaoiU rI 
khMd. 

n* tmlb imdnctfoo* of tfa» PhOpiifan Bra eoB- 
rfdmfcJa In MONlMrt naf^iV ''■^^ *^ dellMte and 
MMly fJMA mwlHiM. mwla frofD the [jtoe-afiple fibi«, 
■fldateoMaf* nada fi^m It, luiiod with Um aimra 
HMMut, to «MiM eoUvM, wduBtt hmI the bMwUfol 
■Mti aad* ef tba sUm mI fonnBliftln flitM. 
"■*■ "^ — Hfyr iw i iM BfaitTirH tir ■ irtiil ilimTi l f 
tMt^tt, and, aa a xovawiunt nonopol;, dpuK. 
EaraiMUi art ta mrriMafBlly imtt«tod b« tba aativM 
taMfhMUBtiMi asMA-boUdbe, Id Um diwIiiK 
h4 VMttUUof of iMllwr, aad In Oa BunfMltm si 
mHim. Aa cftondve Inda, irhidi haa titcmaacd 

niMlj daea Iba llhaulatioo of tlio Cucnpanjr uf tlin 

Tb[II|i|iIbm la I SSI, la oarrtod en in «xparting augar, 
toMOD, Manila lianiis ladigoh •(<•% UnlC'iuit^ 
lnnM(, aaFiAB-wood, dye-wood^ hide^ rataa^ 
iiMiibarwrf'|w*rl, gald dual, tM.. and in fanpartlng 
mamifartuTwl atiUM (rood^ marina atoraa, wum aaa 
UvHOh IMrmkia, vawrj, taatMh, drafa, te, Tha 
tobl nporta for lW2 w«m Mtfnialad at £2.600,000, 
a gnat piufisttiaa of wkldi went to Britain. Ttn> 
hBMla Mvrg glnw a( 45,400,000, to vblcfa amount 
Britain and fiw mlaalM wntiibiitod about f<mr- 

Twon [a ilbUngoliJiiKl m a grmd (HrUon from all 
tba oUiw lalaadi, Uuaa baas oaUad Blaar*. AU, 
Iwwavar. an, to|i«Ut«r adtii Ua Marianna latandi^ 
ondar U» uma oaatial oovannunt at Manila. 
Tba wbola HpMiUb dmaiUndM an dlTblad Into 
thirty lbf*a »r<>v)imi, btll aoBa wta ol thM« an 
Ml* aMNlnally Mibtaol to Spain. Tbe pravLncua an 
dIvbM Into ihuUm w iMmAlpa. 

Tlia aupraau drD and miUtanr KoranmoBt !■ in 
tba tinbda «t a iravMSCnrMnal, amadat«d by tbc 
aniwa. Baaldaa b•l^[ enuUBdar-la-dliaf of th« 



> boM Oa Ifik ^ gHat iaaaiMiiafc 

I «l Iba odoKy, aad ta 

tbMUbalMdlaiplTbilai^ la 17«S M^lan 

trfBnMdfaraAQrt ilM i h i H byate iai a w a. Siaca 

•ri rfcr--TTlfir-T-| rir-Tlria[iiaiMiiaM.lhi 

FUtinAiM an aw of gft i iayotUBM to %^ 
Md tWr imdaatiaQa and laade an fa a alala of ibbU 
dffnkfma^ Tba Ulat fflftditfaa, aMordii* to m 
(■•iaaai ■*"»*■""■* ia a nnnaiilii blaa boofc pabliifad 

in iss^b ow a,«no.eoo: 

FEXUFFOMESi a ffiMJia msI; a Waacfc «f iW 
WmtnTidri^^ w caDad fcaca ihiir Icaudo; FWfip 
PMtoaoiKt. na aect took ila rte m tba Mftba 
part of RuMia, towaida Ibaaadof tbe iiinaiiaMll 
OTBtary, and adtbar acknovladcaa tba vuf*, av 
aatooma BMiieiatica l^tbalEaaBBB Chvna aa laUl 
Tlwy diffar from tba olbar BnAolniciaoa dbaly ia 
lia*iag BO osdanad otefj, Ooauauaoi^ acnbma- 



tlno, abaohtiaB, and laaman 1>7 < 
not, tbarafim^ mctucol aaKng tban. (Saa Gmi 
CioracV aad ItiMKi^tyiciAX^.) Ia aaeb ot IhA 
aodetiaa b aa abler {tt«nH, cfaoaan by tbaaudfaaar 
I7 Ua la iJMMWi! , «b» en nad EOaTfloi^ amA h 
ooBcv^ aftM tab Baptba, to abtf^a traai atnag 
(Irinlw. Ha peHorma tba dVcratl clerical oflkaa. 
Abaolatloa, tbay eoandar, lauct b« noaiirad liiiiawlf 
atoly Inm Ooa Tbey Mmpla to talca an oatfa, «r 
to periana mflUaiy Berrloe. Many PhlHp[WMfla^ 
fai tba benaaing of Ihm dgblaentb cratoiy. Into 
Pcilub TJtniiajila. wbcnoa acaao of tbcfl& pawd Into 
tbe Praidan t«Ritort«a. 

PBtLIPPOPOLIS, or Fu.m, a town, EarmM 
Turkey, ftiinielia, on aa ialaad fonacd by tba Ha^ 
ftia, 64 tnHoi ir.K.w. of Adriaoopla. In 1619 it ««■ 
alinrvt ti^itally dectroved by «a aaiibqnake; but U 
boa dticc tvcovnred tirnngb Ha trade and numfae- 
taire In #llk cleih. Pop. 3Q,<KI0 to IO,00a 

I'lUl.ri'l'SUITRO.a towu of Baden, in Uiedida 
of Carlirtihc. on tiia rigbt bank of tbe ItUno, In a 
manhy and nnh^nlthy diatrict, IS milca north «f 
(.'af]«ruhc. rbiUp]«burg waa (oniirrriy a c«lc1«at«>l 
imiwrial fortrew, and np to 1803 I>«!'>n),-v<.l to tbe 
bUioprio of Spina. It »aa fortified by Pt^bUnp 
of Spin^ ia KlU aad Ie23, wbo bad ofaoara it for 
Ua rarfdenoa, nnd cshonged ita name fiun TTdmhwrn 
Is tbe Thirty Veikra' vrv it fvU anooearivaly Into 
tba luDaU of tbn SwihIao, tbe Frendb, tba buporial 
(orooi, and again of tho J-'nmdi. In tbo wan baCwaoa 
Loula XIV. and Gannoay It waa taken by tiia Gar- 
nifliu in 1 076, wiu aamgm-i] to tbem by tba Peaoa of 
Nijmegim in lOTi*, »iu taltt-n by tba F^vncb anin 
fai IdSS, bat rortorcd by tba Peaoa of BynrUk IL 



P niLIPS — PHTLTSTTNES. 



25 



1997. In 1T34 tlie Fi«Dch Wlaeik it vith liUl« 
CraoblA, bat with the Ium of the Duke of Berwick. 
In 1800 ill fortificatioM wen deniotiahed aiUr It 
h«iUMibnxilMnlMludtaJwab;lJwI>'n;iiclL Pup. 
(ISW). 2i4». 

PlItLirS, AmOKni^ • poet &nJ<lnuDaUL- writ«r, 
«*a K uatiTo of I.MCMtnwilj«, born nbout liI71-7S, 
Miul atodiwi at Cftubridtn^ On qniLtuitf the luiivvr- 
iitjr hs w«nt to Inoadoii, and becazuo one of Cho 
UUnry wtta who frctjaeutcd Bntkra'a cnfTir«-hoii*c, 
«mI ft fnntd of Steele ud AddiMD. Tho pubtica- 
at hk Partwila Inviiliod lUm la a war witb 
. wbo ritUeoled them in the tiuardun, Muttmu 
8m., In ooniequeiioe of which PhUiM 
IhreateBod to infUtit peraomJ catm^ian va the ntlf 
iaL Ue WW one of Um writ«n of ft periodical p^por 
calbd the PrMthioker; and Dr. Iloult«r, the con- 
dndor, obUiuing prctennciit iu Ireland. Philipa waa 
oada i^gutrar of tti« prerogfttirs ontirt at IJublin. 
GU ratuRMd to Knglond ia 1743, and died tb« next 
TMT. Ho WM (be authoir of tho DbtrcM Mother, a 
tneedr (t7]S), t*k«a fn»aB«ctne; the Briton (1723), 
■fld HiUDpbivy.Dakeof GlminoKtcr (1723). UaalBo 
wrote anumbef nf ehort'lived jioeEii*, wlijcli |in-eurvii 
him bom I'opv the uickmcia of Namby^Fauibj, 

PHnjPS,.IoHJ(,an Knglijih r«(it. bom in Oxford- 
*hiK, 1S76, waa eduoitcd at l-'hriiUibareh, Oxford, 
wfa«v ha p«vduc«d tJie S}>Uo<lid SbilTing, In wUvh 
tbe •ooonva oadcaoe of tho blank vetae of Milton 
la ada{)l«d to **—'"»' and ludicraiut topkat He oIjo 
wrote Bknham, a poem in oelfbraltuu at thv Duke 
of MadtKnocigb'a victory; and Cyder, a vork in itnl< 
tatfan of Vi^B G«rrici. He died ia 17Cll He 
ittitotco MtlMn'a «jU In all hla poema. 

PHILUsTINKS. a neople of Palntino, who ^ve 
their name to the wbole couetnr. (t{oo I'alkktiNk.) 
HiJIt anTCking la known of the hixtory uf the 
I MMofiC fron Incidental notiooa of them In 
I in oouMctloa with the hletorjr »( tki' Jowa, 
light eeema to linvo beon tbrowa on ib'sao 
bj nblionl oHUiv ^^° "* " variance on 
; CTttfj peinl referred to In them. The name 
la aomnionljr undantood to innan wamii'mrii or tanu 
gmttii, ahhoagb then are olbcr iiiUrurct:iti«na. Tbe 
eiMn <4 the PhitiAisei U mucb tUiputed. It ia 
Marred w bi GMMsia x. 14, where their doMent ia 
ifrMnMurainvaonof Ham; Deotemncnnjr ii- S3; 
xliil. 4; Amoa Ik. 7, and other iiaaaajfe« 
' Dot apAoa avm to state tbo phUologioaJ and 
■ ^rpnthenea founded on IIimo paaaagg^ and can 
ntentua thai the two leading tbeariea (whk-h 
' b* fimnil tliii>:iiMt«d in Kltto's, Soillh'it, aod Pnir- 
baim'a BiUical I)u.-ti<Kiarie«) eganoct thum with Cralo 
iBd with Berpt, and that the latter bypotbeaii aeema 
itlEoleaatinauperftblediffictdtiea. llerthean, 
, Vea Lengerko, and J. It. Beard (in Kitto'a 
gr) a<l<romt« the fonner. They are aUo 
whb thn Hveaoa, who for a ttme held 
Vg]rpt in *:»bjeoticin. TImi X*hili>tinoa aro firat tnntf 
tlanol aa a MwUmd peoide living in tiernr hi tbe 
iJsM fd AbnWm, and with wbam bo made a covo- 
aant Sj tho time of tho oxodoe they appear to 
hMM eecnpied the natbcm cntal ol PalMttne^ and 
to hare h«»na a powecful end oouiinerotal MOpl«^ 
7^ fint mention of them in Gnweia In held, how- 
tnr, bj many criticn to be ah intcrpatatinn, or to 
^fc ate ooly a pastunl peonle lit iu); iu Llie i-jiintry 
ranla nccupied bjr the lliilinliDe*. At the time 
invaaiwi n^ Palcatiue bjT the Bcbrewa tbojr 
1 the whole of the SheplwUh or low covntiy 
thtt eoaat from the river of Keypt to Kkron, 
a oonfederacy cJ five leading mtiea — 
, Ajfcalmi, Aahdod, Gath, and Ekron, with their 
mder five lordi. Their landa wen 
I Mtwnc tho bmelitoa, lieinj aji]Wo|!iriated to 



UtUo 



lopwe nt l 



Dan and .Tndah— not apparently becHn Uiay wvf 
ruclcoaed ainun); tho doomed Caiuunidah Battcm^ 
but hncaiian they bad occupied the t«rri(oT7 of one 
uI thein, U)« AvUna; anU their eoontrj w»* r o n w 
quentl V part of tbe poMawon pnioiaed to Abtaham. 
No Jittoinpt. !ii>w«vor, Wat nuwlo to occupy it during 
tbe UtuB uf Joahna. Tho firal Intimation of any 
enaouclimeDt on )l la in Juilgw i. 18, whore Jadab 
ia aaid to faaye taken Gain, Aakcloo, and Ekrvn, 
with thA ciiMiA th^Kof; btit thb T«ne ia held to ha 
ioounaiiilvTit with iluJi^ iJL 8. and if not an inter- 

C.ion, the ooi:u{wtiiia to which it lefifn tnuat bavo 
ven tcmpoTJiry. Ihiriut; the period of tb* 
Judgea the PhllifitlnM ap[«nr to have token advan- 
ti^o of the driJlnirig vigour of tho Hrhrew ooninon- 
wealth, and the ttudrility of the laraelitea to defend 
thomMlvoa agalnat tbe numoroua boatilo satloni by 
whom they wore aurroundcd to gun a complete 
aacondmcy ovor them. With ^e exoeptton of ooc»> 
aional 1>ut jm inroada from Egypt or Phcpnlcla, tho 
PhUiitlnca tfaemaelvca had noenemlaa but Ui« InaeU 
itea to dread, and whnn left nnitijtnrbed b; theat, 
could prepare at Idmirc In take advaota^ oS all 
tbpir trvublMt and diiiBi>»ne. Tbe npflw.t of tbo 
latter to oani[0<ite tbe wntgncRt of a territory thiie 
abeltered br themaejvee, and (onning ao Integral 
pnrt of tbnr own poaaeMiuaat waa tboa a tnanifcet 
breach of eoond policy. In the time of Sanl thr 
aaocndoncy of the Philiftinaa bad, notwithitaudlui; 
occaainnal defeats, beooma wtabUehed. Inatcad of 
a regnlar tribute tbe llebrewa aevm to have bcvn 
auUacbad to tbo far moro op pn— ire Infliction of 
periodical pRdatory exL-unlontt, to whoae devaMationi 
they wcr« abls to oppoae no rwdatanca. A mpari- 
ority ao manifeated could not fail to kindla pownal 
resetitmimta when public ipirit waa too low to realnt 
it, aiid the viudlctiva poltvy piiinued by Sainaon waa 
at once tbe natoMl mauh of the ritnatioB, and the 
beet uieAiie of excjtJng thenatriotir! emnlatian of hi* 
diprfa 1 oountrymcn. Tlie Philiftlne Muradeocy 
aiitmi to bare been one of tbe chief motlvea that 
weighed with the Inraelitee in demanding a Uog to 
ooaoDntratn tliidr furrv for defemaive puipoaei4 and 
tho confunt of tbe PbHlstlnea waa natnrally one of 
tho fint objacte of tbo Hebrew monarchy. TUa waa 
aooompliahodpartiAlly nnder •Sanl and RKweoompJetely 
under Darii^ who cairied tbo war into tfaeir own 
tcfTitoria^ ao that In the ndgn n[ .Solomon th» I'hili** 
tinaa wm complctoly aubduod aod put under tribut*;. 
but they ap|Kaf othcmriae to bare been left nudb- 
torbed uudor theiroMm lawaandor^ianitatton. lliey 
ooniMNjuently reappoar aa an independent atata after 
the dJviKion oS th<i Kinjrdom of ImeL Their power 
had evidently by this time been w far broken that 
tbev did not dan to attac-k the Kingdom of Jndab, 
whiob from tU immediatA niriffbbouThood cooUl have 
speedily broujfbt the whole ff its oritauliad tnlUtary 
torae to bear agauut them; but they aaam to have 
routnrd thvii ]imiat<iry hatntj< at the expenae of the 
laracltlea, nhu wum in a leai favourable poattioin for 
rotaliatiiy by a ro^lar invaelou. Thu may bt 
gathered from the incidental noticoa ef the aiupBi of 
Gibbetbon in the reigna ot Nadab and Elah (I King* 
XV. '^7; xvL IS). In the flrat instaoca H iaaaid that 
all larael won encamped againat CKbbethua. and iu 
tho Mconil that the people wer« encamped a^lnM it. 
In tbe luidstuf dynartie tronblea tbe aacnring of thla 
boriler atrnn^hold hkri* (o have been a national 
object, whicli i> nioet eoaEly eipUtned by niinisitij- 
that it waa dotiired aa a protertion agalnat pndatory 
inonisiona When the Jcwiah mnnardiy begaa In 
decline the Phitialinea waxed boldor. Tbey loraded 
Jeraaakm under Jefaonua, and under Abac reoovored 
aomaof their aadent maearieoa (2 CluoD. xxviii 18). 
They aa well aa the Jew* aufleted from tbe oontea- 



9( 



*mm it -^ tC76m.mil 

if iiij w ■lull Mini — f m f III Ti bi^^K-aas 
itf riiiiiiiMtfimiiM 'Via. lis Ztrmt .mjiiaiit a^ 

fct wwdry tf Imk HiaHB =srM«. md. % «h ho- 

''> in* "— ipfs rf^Sl^ ?^iil^mw amaniif » iaiwa. 

if 4Mfer BihL*. wtc^Ufft iiin ji i if 'iw 'hm 

<>:«. KlL Xt^ X >;p9«*a ^AB ^ iiSwt fron. w 
JMifnafR «f tut 4-«wi^ 7!ii!7 wcBigwK Zm^ik. 
.fcai H <i « i , fawfc^ w na, Hit Z^artKs^ k'ocon' ia£- 
wvnm. mA laiiAm. Turf ua vsmws *» 
<i "» iii M. iua jnuoMi. scum, kii ^ts« mtqKoa- 

iMMrf ^«w&UfVIB ia. 3M9r 4!r>'ifii:a v. Sim. T^ 

«■■( »MV« A 4m iujaofi Vidtf r^nw ck vt ^e»- 
>«M vt6w>» C^77<t wi att g-JBiJia'at* Sit ^M aura. 
<4 t w . Tbtar vvBter7 -via stmaia^-lj _ 

Amk«>m« :>!ii. Ayrx, '.M7. H* tm i&« ks, «f » 
w«A ji« «<iMauMV, -win. i*i! ;r-t>-.>wt Mn^ii e 
«w ani7. K« WM «iwae«j ilZ Ka wt fi wra, 

}MiU<4 1>v v^vSr^-vMc Vk u> "■'^-"——r tj aisi:ag m 

rtoflHMM* fl M art b? Kt»kx^ yirxia^ frue. Is 
VM» >* M jgiM*fc» «^ tiM pKTt w>>i br iii emxt 
tw fimUitt^ fMM wui »MMs.]r'.aiuL Wbts. be lad 
•HMMut Dm tlp*'^ tlurWKft bt rvjtSTtd ■r.ecjc kaCi-ae- 
tiMW f/'.M * >^;«> pr.vtnMi'^ai^'Vr, ki4 bt^ao to 

l>iw* >3 >4> Vr U WMil ik tn>4t fJT'.j w y.aa. H« kbo 
«HMiu<f««< * yjUnit '4 Uit frwjOa^ALi^. He ant 

mA KiMit», Ujm U •i<r>'>t<v] U> Lk BtMbr's w«rk 

frnJU^^ij if, tU wii(:<b^ 'i< f/'.-Uf «bn hb «m[^JTer 
WM f#«Mfi(t, M.^ whMnwn^ (rAD fu hiilii^'pUoe 

«*-*«*« !>;■ MMoMrTa ni'/iMinui twA Urn elwewtcre. 
|/u/t«^ bb kf^>n«rUrx*U(. U Vj^^Mi f > i«uit portniU 
fr^ wU>i« Ik liMuicA » tfoliM* » i^Or (btubwd and 
wtfA/. fl* *lt«n*M'l» at bb (;wd rtquMt wm taken 
fwl" (l#« «»<f/l'^w>«wt '4 ft (xxtraii^Ainter, James 
If'Mi^m, miitrri i/ir tb* 0n4 tiuM bt ud praper mate* 
riab aMi re^'jlar itMrw^in. lib c.^Mtrinf; abtadj 
*<«4b«4 tb* a/ltMinti/M '<f bb mairtn-. In 1634 he 
Kiada • vbit t<j f ^yfwl^A in a mmtiofcttm^ to virit 
Um fb/f al Atm^ufa vMUUno. On a mlMqoent 
vblt U MW tU i<«ihtlnKa </( Hlr iJavid Wilkb, which 
lui/itahii lib Mdiilati/ffi Vi |>*i»t a MoAtbh interiur^ 
It ttaa ttiint </f hU fatltKf'a li<rUM<;, a oUiler'i kitchen. 
AwAimr (liiAiif., tim l'a<:kHiaii'M Vuit, bwl an im- 
I'fiMUt iMfl'iirfCA 'Hi hU futura canwr. It was seen 
aitfl xlHiJtwl I'jr Mr. I'ryti limil'ta, a cunaouseor 
Mut wril<T 'fti iialiitltiK, who ilbu;mt^ in ft the 
|jf'miU« '4 futurn nuiliiniirui (fur a different vemon 
Iff ttib rt/zry HHi thn Alhenvfum, 1867, vuL L pagci 
»'i:i ami »C7), tiHtk I'liilllji U> Lb own botue, and 
jfrmiirnil a liji<ir fur lilm. I'r'iijierity, however, had 
lU drawliwrka, and riillllp a»ou fimnd he could have 
t<ifi iiiii>;)i ovnii Iff |«jiitln|{. lib patron thought 
atiiilliatlim wa« MverjrthliiK, Uid would have kept 
hliii at work from tnoniliiK to nlKht, I'hilllp, who 
fiKinil lib ifnUiM i-nuhwl liv thb drudgorj, relwlled. 
' Ihint 111 Ihliik,' ho laid, 'that I can paint at no 
liHiiw •■iMiuM of uilud Uian it took to put the red 







ti fi M T^mM" B, ISK Be w^ ^1^ ateaial a 
jKod. if a« Xjvil AiaOEHj. Ix ISB aad ISStls 
y crse Ma . tv wina.^»c lafiKai SMittMliiMd^ 
■— jiftmijjif ■*» A» j»^3Wtai— rf m» .^jaJ^ML la 
^i«l IB 3Sie9b£ « A^'aes. «^s« b* r^M fr 
■pv^K iiVK^ j"t ™"**y 3H T^TVi^B^a aa & VMB^fr 
;»^"^"- tax ms r''~'-'"""'""T ncsBaCr <f JMal ■& 

sat x ^^fTmr V -—»■'* ^nrf^ atSMSa^a. Be 1m 

fcaml jisBtrt» tt tat tiiiMu u m ^lA m ISC.ka 
M7T-.ra«J fc-. t.T>.^-»- Tiajiaibi iihriliilii Ihi 
A i ^V»7 «■ jA-g-^ trtai* im^ *i lay th» f iiiiaibliM 
c^ Lb ^Moe. ProtTtenn Caiw h uM^ Tbaik 
fe t n aaaZr rMi nrn 1 wiik tfae iMwtiaa Mb petaiv 
tncsne.'b e u-iii-u e d Aer Ob to mmd tboa i«|*- 
knr u tbe Ac»dKT. Dnvne te iba IQitk 
•T^{>. Eb;c^ a Sadaad tlSSA, a^ Iba Tm 
Kirk wn« Hxns lii BOM cdehnlwd paetsm it Ob 
pcnoi In tbe astasia cf I SfUhbbnltibbegiBBK 
to (a3, be ««:t to SeriCe, vboc he i(>^ aenaw 
ci£ii iiK«:tha. He viatted Sfmi» agaa m lSH-57, 
■(>i in 1>4>>-^ and K<mc f«r afcant lbi«» bobAb 
inl^<«. DsrischbfintTiHttoSeTillehelHbmed 
•pecsal stodT oo'tbe wovka of MnriOo and Tcbmi^ 
tbe latter of wt^m he espedallj admired Tttm 
tlia paiod » maiked dtange is hb itjie naj ht 
date^ *^ aomething ol the rich culuuiin^ and 
brilliant treatment cf the SpaniA a^oal are to be 
foatul in hb aohaeqnent work^ He waa intndaoad 
on hb Rtom br Sir Edwin LaadMer to the qoeo^ 
' who ordered aereral pictnrea from hb aketdbea. H 
: Paaeo, the Letter-writer (rf Seville, and the SpaaM 
Contra bandirtM were painted for the rejal colbe- 
; tioD. life among the Gipnea at SeviDewaa exhibited 
, at tb« Bojral Academy in 1S5S, and at enoe con- 
j manded the admiration ol critica. Xtmenm olbtr 
I pictures on Spanidi snbjecto followed, togetbn wiA 
I a few portraita and Scotdi [«ctare% imoBg tbs bat 
of which b ejecting the Offering in a Sootcb Kirk. 
I In 1858 be eihibit^ b^dea the ConlnfawkBrta, 
Yonthat Seville and the Dangfatenoftbe Alhambra; 
in 1859 The HoS, which procured hb election aa a 
member of the Royal Academy. Hb diploma wor^ 
Prayer, wm exhibited the following year, along with 
the Marriage of the Princess Royal, painted for 
the qneen. Among his pictures in 1863 were the 
House of Commons, 1860; and La Gloria, a Spanish 
wake. The Early Career of Murillo was exhibited 
in 1864, and » portrait of the Bight Hon. Duncan 
MacNeill of Colonsay for the Parliament House, 
Edinburgh, in 1866. Two pictures illustrative of the 
Spanish tottery. The Purchase of the Tickets, and 
I'he Results of the Drawing, are said to have been 
the last from hb easeL He died of paralysis, the 
result of a low fever, 27th Febrnary, 1867. Tbs 
chief techoical characteriBtica of Phillip's style as a 
painter may be said to be breadth of treatment and 
powerful colouring. In the last particular he was 
unsurpassed, and to the« he added humour, pathc^ 



PHILLIPS— PHILO JUD/EUa 



mmI * tra* mirTC-Utinn of diAractor. His fl^h-tinU 
u« (BRtii)(;iibAed by Ihi-'ir rich &D'1 hc»IUij' buo. 

PfflLLIPS, JoHK, LL.D., p!ol(>j:f*t, WM bom 
SStb J>c«eoibor, 1800. Me wu the ymuigMt ton of 
a WeUi familj, who ImM » mniUl prnprnij' to Car- 
BwrtiNMUra. Hb pannU dJed eixly, tad ha w» 
Wt owkr th» gUMiUaiubip of kia ande^ William 
flniltl^ wbo early ten^ him ttw liabit ol Molosical 
ohaWTkUoa. In bb bntb jrear h* entorml um adtool 
n* Holt Spa, In WUtoUn-, whcro fcr fire )■«« be 
worked tnrVaunUy, ku farouriUi studios h«ing Latin, 
ifnoeh, abd mathematic*. (.in I'ravtng Ai'hool hn 
■ p aat atwdvvinonth vrilliUie R«v. Bcnjaimn Richiinl- 
Boa, at Pkilalg^ CwU«, noar Bath, an exQcll«Dt 
natazalirt aad wt i tqglaitic admirer of mral life^ wbo 
RMtl7 amlribiitad to cultivate PhIIU|iir tMte for 
uka pnmiti^ Ha tlian returned to hia onde'e faouae 
la LnsdcA. Smith, who had a locratlva pntorioa 
an a cMl anglnaer, save kli vkoln fipan time to peo- 
lo£r, aad waa at thta time oooupied nilh Lii «]«- 
btated Hap of the Stral* of KngUnd and Wale*. 
In tUi oeonpatlon, wbkh eo abeorbnl hit iaivreat aa 
at bngthto pfOTa fatal to his fortuoo, be waa cIomIj 
ioUoTtd bj rhillini, vrbo aariM^d him buth In bis pro- 
liMlnni I irofk muI in lua ywlugioJ rmrmiiU In IS 24 
FUnSpa aooompaaled Smith to YaHubire, when tba 
latter had aBnged to deli*<r a couno of gtologleal 
lauhua^ aed nan ttiii tima be became hiinsalf en- 
gagad in a roond of HmDar oc-upationa. The coUco- 
tkoB arhich he had alivadf formad In nntnral history 
and pahamtoloe; brouRht bi* servicea into raqncat to 
anaaca mvmaw aad loctnre on tbelr onnt^nta. H« 
vUlad mask of tba Yorkahir* towna iu Ibis way, and 
fcnnad *alnabl« frlandahlpB in Vnrk, Scarbonniffh, 
HolLLaadi^aiid Sheffield. The bl>eral muunenbim 
lAtathanceitad for th«M atadiea he spent freal; to 
Inpnvtltf hia own adentific knon-Iotlgc, thna lajinx 
the foaaaathm of a arid* au(]uaiiit«n<.-a with the ran- 
oai braiRbas of natural idenoe, and makins himielE 
■aatar fanartimlar of the bnoebee of ec^ifj and 
geolOQr. He lubvcjaEiitly^-iiiitad Birmingham, Man- 
rh a ahfT , and Liverpuol, and, when the BriUdi Aaaoda- 
tloQ waa fgrmod to 18S1, hia opetaticma bad extended 
^JttI7iilTanltT OoUeg«, Londnn. Hia permanent n<*i- 
^^Hpoe at thii time waa in Yurkiibtrc, wbrro be had 
^^||kree of tbo VorLnhirfl Miu^iiid, and wu SM-rvtitrv 
P «r the YaciaUre Fhiloaophic«l Soaety. VhM^ 
took a liinltini put In the formabea of tba Uritiith 
Aawdatiei^ ana waa active and energetic in hi* sup- 
OOTt cS ii,am aantaet noani aocmtary, a podtUB 
oa lone coottooed to hwd. Tlw dntiea of arrangtoe 
and aAlin; the tvperta and of prqtarinj for thu 
anoaal meetings devolved on him in tbk capadtj. 
H> alao took a {iromfnent part in tba lactUTM on 
•pBdal anbtecta adapted to |i«n«ral audiaooeik In 
18SI PhiluM was choBui a membor of tho Rojal 
8ade^. Ha was a{)iiolnt«iI prvfoaaor of goolorv in 
Kiu'a Colkga, Loodon, and afterwardit in the unt- 
*ei^ J ofDubUa. Ontbe deathot Striddand (I8S3) 
be waa appalnted deputy reader in gwle^ at Oxford. 
Md raeeirad the di%-rce of M.A. <ht the (k^th of 
BnHrUarf (1854) he recelreil the a]jpviiitiuei)t of 
bnadir. In 185$-5» be was preaideDt of tb« Geolo- 
^■U Sodatr. H« died at Oxfofd. H\b April, I«7I. 
^^■<niilli|ia' MBtribotifms to the litotature of goologj 
won na mcrona, oooiiiciainKiDaia than forty treatlaea 
bat««aR 1SS8 and 1M6. They Indnde contrfbutiona 
lo tba Encydopwdia Britaudoa, the EncydopiRcUa 
HatrapoUcaaa, and the Peony Encydep«dia, a Ttm- 
tiM m Ocotogy la L«rdner's Bn«ydo]wdi>, tc Hia 
~ tna en UaokiQr from the Euoy«b>pt<.-db Britsn- 
via pabttalxidaepantdy to 1840. Among hU 
woata an: IDuatratiaaa of Geoloer, in two 
a«29 and ISSO); Gtitdo to Qtahgr (IS34); 
aad Deacrjptiooa of tba Pabaoaolo yoaaUs of 




PomwaH, Dotnrm, antl Weal Somortel: The RivM^ 
MuantniiLii, wid Sea Coasi n>f Ynrkuliiro (1S52); Life 
on the Eaxtb (ISlJU; Koliws of Kocks and FoaaDa In 
tb« lfriivcr»ity Miiacnm, Ijondnn (I'i'SS). 

PHILI.II'tl, TnoMAs, luicniiiitnt p.*rtrftit-pwnt<^r, 
bom in 1770 at Diidley, in Warwiikuliim, \t.i« bbiIv 
planed in Biminghiun lo loom [Jamtiotf on v^taa, aud 
m 1790 camo to Inmclnn. where WcM amploycd him 
on Iba glam paintinga tn St. Quot^t Chappj at 
WiudaOT. la 1792tisi'xliibit4HliiomBhutaT7cal piecoa, 
but soon after tumud bid aLtuntioL to portrait'paint- 
mgf, whiah yidded him aa nacb ^tplauae and far 
more prtAi. In 1808 he became a member of the 
Itoyal Aoidemy, aad in I8S4 be anoceeded f^iaeli aa 
pniifeBKir of painUnff. Hia leotura, which hav« been 
pubUahed {LeotureB on the Hiatonr aad Prindplea of 
Fatotlng, 1833), are in a nicar and iriniplci alyfe, and 
toUnably tostructive. InlSS'lbomadeatour toltaly. 
He died la 18I& A(t«r bia luocoaa u a portrait- 
painttf ma eatablinhcd bo confined himaelt ^moA 
cntimlv tn that branch, and hia fame rcsta upon It^ 

Pll I TAt oy ItvnUM Ea Identified by >v>m* aiittiontiM 
wiLh PUUu UsTflnniua, meationod by SniUiia. The 
latter waa bom ahcnt tho time of Nero, and lived to 
tha reign of Iladriau. The fuinjer ia mentioned by 
EuaeUusas having traoslated the Phomician History 
of Saacfaoniatbon Into Greek. Heronnii» wrute a 
work on H a<ltian'a reign, and numerons oihar w^rlEa. 

PHtLOCTBTEa, a Gredan hero, «>ii of I'n-na 
aifi Demonassa, oslelnrated for hia skill iu urtJitiry. 
Ho led the warriora of Methone, Tbauinnela. Meli- 
bffcft, ami Ollmn in the eipeitillon againat IVoy; hit 
hAving beeu biltun in his foot whilo ho waa o<Terin;{ 
■nrrifioo in thn ixlatid of ('bryaa, by a aeqwat wliii-li 
l^uardvd the t«mpl^ he became, by the mwrtlAcatiaB 
of hia woond, so oAautn that be wia nnt bade to 
Ij^mnna, and there dragged ant nine miaeraUe years 
in lamvuUitinna. But, according to ttie pimpbecy of 
Hel#nuii, 'lYoy oonid not bo taken irithont the arrom 
of Hcrado, and Uiew w*r« in pcMestion of Phil- 
octetv^ to whom th« hero had given tbotn when 
be aaoraded bis (nnernl ]»le. It tberefi-ro became 
neceoaTy for the Gredans before Troy to tvcall 
Pbilectetea. TJIyaMi^ who had odriacd hia exile^ 
with Pyrrhns (nccocding to som^ Diomedea) nnder- 
ti»k thi! embiMy ; (be latter, by prumlstng to heal 
bis K-ound. provailed upon him to irtnm to Troy. 
He waa cnroii by Macboon (nr .^>cn la piiw), and after 
many Trajou^ among whom waa Parts, bad fallen 
by hia arrows, tba oiqr ma taken. The hiiiU>ry of 
Philoctetca fmrna tiie mt^act of ono of tbo traffcdioi 
of ^phoolea. In the Homerie poema all that la totd 
of Pbiloctetoa ii bia biainff bfl at Leiuuoa in conae- 

auonoe of his wound, aadretvmiDK home Id aafir^; 
10 other particular* have boon added by the cyoUo 
and eplo pacta. There are numerous other venii<m 
of the starj, which each poet haa adomod after Ida 
own f.tiJiinn. 

PHILO JUDMUS, » philoeopher or Theoeopbist 
who flouriabad at Alexandria In tba flrat century of 
the I'hriitian era. He tn'ot to lUintn in A.11. 40 aa 
ono of a dvputatioD from the Jew* of Alenaudrla to 
the Emperor CaUgala to penn.'vie him to Twnka the 
decree by which be compcllGd tbr J<in-fl to pay divtoe 
hnnoura to hia itatiir. llu vita Ihv oldsit of fire 
dvputl^a. Tbia aiiJ tb^ fact that lie vidted J«n< 
sal«rm. that he belonged to a wealthy fiunQy. and 
recdrcd a ttb<cal cdncatinn, ia nearly all that ifl knowa 
of bia life. The greater |*rt of the writiii);* of Philo 
have reforance to the books of Mimcs. They coRikt 
of an aoocnint of tho Moeolc nanativir of the cti»tion 
(Qa Mnndl Opillclo), nllisgaeical eapoeitinna of other 
paiia «f Gcii«aia, Uvea of Abtabam, Joaeph, and 
Mnaea, tnnitiiRa on tba DecalogtM; Circomiidon, 
Mouareby, Pint fruity Offerugs, and other aubjectt. 




PHXIZ) JUDJtUB— PEILOU>aT. 



Dc Vita 






I •< PWlolk* Mlated Jnra (ms 
■ML raHflalMlr Ibn «r niiiMihh ted 
I Uni** Um iC Oa Omfc vUMQfbHB 
:rfih* [[■■■iiiilTiiiiW. Irt 11 
lilhifrtirm^rnrfclliTtfTriiTTfcn 
I •< fi I'i li I bw wMA «U Gfwb d«i«^ 
wkii natoM Ib ffaw fUoBfln, tli*7 dUaot banmr 
«Ml(r (MB Am^ 1« «i*«4 it rf^te QBadarioM 
hj inifiiliii li 1 1 III ■ iHi 1 1 rf Ifciir nil boola, «ad 

wf. HfltfdMiMsteMrftv 

I iiwn ^— ^ A» < T| i I 4 }T 1 

■. Bis lUMafkT WW tlM atfktlT k Omokh 

> ■ w liijhi I III I J^ii II. ^i wilh Ihiw i» 




^Aawriy^idwatoi 



Saltans 



tJM 

I Aitetdt h tfcs l«m <« 

llnL IkasliiMttkcr 
iWac^pM ififiiliHiiB war moA Ingfaal 

t— J, fa y— aot J JtJMil to 
Md Ui wuto lom tb« bok 

fo Un <« 0«rf n nrtir w^OAim, pntlf 

kr^ Cod b to be wmUppad w ■ por- 
MJ brf^ >i* to dw ArfM Us BHMHittoa <f G«d 
1« b iiTT* id «*idlir to |jji«ii|ilili ■! martilrtiwM 
Ho Md Ckit Ood k tovneoMl Mid of^ogKiMUo 
kvnMM. H»htfcf>Mfdiii^<>rbBl^MnJ 
Ujlbv Ifcn kMwtodpv caodDM^ <■ bna^, jw «. 
Urn bM^ miillj oj I ■■ill. "I ■llinoilm brag pun, 
■ liiMil bifa«: b* b tfante* tDOMapnlMMfUa. 
Tb* ■llritoMM Moribud toCod to Bcriptorou* to bo 
1 onl/ figofsliTtJr. God {■ [itxatat eroj- 
to Oo mlMW odvono bjr bto «Mratfaa*; 
I to Mi I ILL G«dtotfaafl«^fi<nlMii«. 

jU fllb«a wo M^oet to wWj PUto'i bocImhi 

id BoMor an not rotaiiabljt combtetiL B>^ keU 
0«d to bo too |iOTt<i«t to bkva aajr MoocuUno sith it, 
nk b* head* baa to bo Om Craotor «f Un unvcmeL 
Matta. wUth boo mly u ippanU oxbtaoco^ b tbe 
CMM « ill otll, «■ «|iparfBf nriitoMe to Oo anoiico- 
OMSto ol tbo OiMtoK !■ ito primoral ototo il b 
Mwata^ MuIm^ and dartibito c{ quality «r fom. 
ZM««« Ood nd tb« world tL«re i* an inMntedikto 
fariut too LegoL Pbile warvn to hb Mooont nd 
Um £•(■■ obft Tba l^omm b tbo Kutat univcnal ef 
al faaagB axopt God. Fbilo penoniSM tbo Logoo, 
brt mC 00 oonmtantly aa to voMor (t oortato thirt a 
^Mtoet fienaa and not a mam omaDatloa or ■■cm- 
Utca <i aMifbataB b tot«d«d. Thna ba reprMonu 
Goa aa tka kmm of ligbi, tbe Lugua aa Iho aearaal 
dida «l Ugbt ppoeaodtog from it, and aaeh MpanUo 
pawaraaaaenantanT. Tbe Iai^ oantatoa to iUalf 
Iba avBt ol mow— fwiren or ajitritoal fanaa wbiub 
Mnada tba oaiTtn^ aad wbkb am cnwtlTO; govan- 
!■£ fniiiHiig, law girto^ ftck Tfava tonna an 
aba iifudad aa cltber qnalltiai of tba daitj> or dla- 
tiMt Mcaooa. 8o()bi^ wbdota, b aoBottoiea cub- 
•idered aa tbe fint of tba potonaM of tho l^-na, 
» i Bai t[w aa tba laatber of Uw hofgM. Owl «mUoO 
tbawiiri4.aa alrawly todkatad, br tbe BMBsbi <)( tb«« 
pa fd w. or cd Iba Lena to wIuid Uiaj' rarida^ out 
a( iffclifiad nattor. Ha K<««a tba Lofoa tlia llUca 
of Son of God. Paoebb; aad Madbtor batwaaa G«d 
and Man. Ffalto addad as aknaiil of mraticbm to 
bb PtobBJeipwbricML HahaUbgtoandphTiIa 




to b« tofarior to 
and Ike htobart 
tobBtbaaTGod 



NMe,tlMdkr«bal,«4Ubtb« _ 
iiigwtoa^ Mdlhallliiil. aMit baotloba 
Till atobiniaiiiapbii ii|BiiMliihM irfPiidto 

ton baiagwded >• as aoeoaaodaltoa to tba 
aataBeafBaa. £\vn a UriaartoM 

bi (Hvisad uto 






Miiaiillm bm^vbkb araaantotoed to 1 
M Atoaba^ Imme, Jao■^ Mam, Ac. 
hf^ w Mt h W» Mptttatoid to cartigJar la a m toi H 
bafiiiiliiiiim prin^vbbbtoi tfaMtfak«i 
wbkb eaaMialta boa tka Batag wbo to balb 
(zaator aad tba btbar of tba wm »m» b, b to T 
wbhnto^aDd that ba wbo «fatotaa K b ; 
b« mtmX anrta. Ha «be Hvm 
toarofMoaaabB^ilbMaftbaverid. Baj 
ffaa aolnvd ^ a m n wm m t£ lafi^on ^itoal Iboao 
arfa vndd ham nlaood tbca to mm* ^nbob 
•AlOoiigbcboaMMo^* ha nid.' pamlj aradxib* 
tba fwniwal al aM paaMoa apd aaawaWjF and toipba 
tbonritt^ jet WW ma^ nat tbentoce ael aidde Ito 
pcacSoa anjotoadi U,t la that «aaa w* ahonld to 
eUigad tocmtiptbapBUic woihipof God totto 
toonpb, and * Ibwaadotbea' Dwaoaary anWMiritbi' 
n>a wbob of PhOo'a worfca an Bot cxiMit. Sane 
twatbw baw baa« tvooivro] \>y Angato Hat aid 
Baptbk Ancber to oaltoipacxta Ciitba dWar «■ to 

to Iba tod of Ibau- having boaa amaallr cootiaMaft 

Pfatto-a wnica hava Ucn aditod r ~ 
<LaiKtoB, 1741), A. P. PMffor (&rbi««, 11 
i«nDd«dilba,189».0.S.Bkhbr(Latodg,]Stt-M). 
A rt «Twt yp td edituti «m paUiBhad at Ldpdt 
ISSl-SS; BDd IbBn an aarwal adItfaaaoC Mrttoubr 
tiMtbca. J.G. MitUa'.AiigMtGbtlrar.A.F.DBbM, 
GnMauaa, H. Pbinek, and MNuraoa otitor acbola^ 
ba*a writtMi oa Fbito 

PHIlX)U>OT. Tkb word b tba EmIUi tea 
of tba CnalipUIalvto, and It fomeilr vftod ^ 
aamo axtoMava ajgirifrratfuw; bat it b aoar adosbd 
to abiiif Y i^a ■*^— '** of laoffaaflK It b j^ifli^wJi ta 
dafloa toa atonlfaalfaa of jAiMtrM, for b appaan 
only tobara MiHVMd In a ngno anaa to oonpriM 
all Utaraton mmI aaia actonab Thai msuBar, 
ibatonc^ wg K ^ ctttKboD. paati^ acatory. Uografvi^, 
aad hbton, fava all baia to wodad odiW Aa tatm. 
Aad all aciciKe that waa ac* pfalbaaphy, to tha Gradi 
aaon At that tana — all, todead, that cnold not be ooo- 
J«bed witlua tbo liaiita of pbOoaoph;, araa ambiMad 
imdor tba geaaral tatm of pUlology; mo tbat pfaOologr 
baoanw a nfotta tor bU that diliaaopby axdodatt 
latbor dkOB a aafiaad divbiMt tk gaaanl kB0irla4|t> 
It wtU boaest tbat the mbjActo cMnpfbed wklar toe 
Lenu pUltdogy were not unit«il by auy bood «d oom- 
nuiD cWaotanatka, but l>j' tbe Mie cireamataiiDe ibat 
Ihar vara not philoaopby. Tbay might be bljbly 
ubiuMapliicMl, M tbe muterij tnaibea of Ariatotb oo 
logk) and rbatocio b«Ta uatvanalLy iiaan decnted to 
bo: bat if tbay wan not phOaaophy Ibajiran tbtown 
baycnd Ita boandarj, to lad a refiua oadar tlw 
c«ii«T»l t«<nB of pbUobgy. A penon ablled to phi- 
uAagy «M oallod fkiUagtt, a tans which conwapond* 
U> tna iiUktlogif^ pUlofcgUii, or pliilalojpr, oaly 
tliMv tonna. In aioMra ttanoi, bare ahared to tha 
U nd t at ba of ataaatog whfadi, aa alnady ramarfced, 
Iba word phIblo|7 hw aadeigana. 

Tba Booiaaa adofiiad BQcb froa tha Gneha 
Cbato adadnd aad dtanly atodiod tbo Creek Ian- 
fu^ phUoaophy, and luaiatura. Ho did muob to 



PHILOLOGY. 



29 



omIm Graak Inning fiuhjonnhle In lUnn*, Cicfro 
dIrUJod hii writiug* iato two cImki; tli« Drmticnia 
eomtftoted om cUm, umI ftll bti other vorits tl» 
other, wUoh be AeatmiB^Urd philologies]. Sm-onl 
«( }m trBKtiim, m th&t on ths natiiro ot thn cofU, ue 
pUloOTfUaiJ, but he i>TOt« notliiiiK on t>tuk>«opfay 
ImeU; wo thkt hia cUnlflcitlDn is kftar tlm Ormili 
■MMkl;y«thefdtUutthuoa:»ticiMworTrnr>trihi1olr<gy, 
wkd ha piMcd than hy themMltcH, K[uut Iruni butli 
phDoMfxir wkd phUdocy, 

Aftar til* nrrira] of latton Iha lounad tncii of 
BnrofW lidiifitAd the terms miiI dixtinctiona of Urcfik 
phBoiopty uid Utaratiuv; Mid ik)u« oiloptnl tha 
tens pUuIfliTH*, vrhMi la found undar the eoentved 
purtnila of tliatiiigniafa»d sebolan of tha iwrio£ Tha 
raadar wfll obaem, h«w«v«r, Uuit th« j«miw1 men 
of Borcpa adopted th« word jAUotosni* tn > tUfTcrant 
MOW faom what Uh word agnifled in Grvcco and In 
Bom*. la Grt«c« th« Una wm npptiMl to r miui 
vrho «*» louned in the gnumnia; criticuun. Mid liter*' 
tura of hia mothcr-tongua. It waa tha aama ia nonio. 
But in Eoippa all tbo loamiDg in hia mothor-tong^ia 
WMild oannt tor sothlns; he nmit Im Icnnied in tvn 
(bnifl) TaiijiiMt<i la otdar to b« ilenumi a philoioipis. 
Tha GimIs eaflad all laaguagm but their own bar- 
barouA. So ^d tb« Boouuis. Tha Iwroed moo of 
Euope^ with atnoge Inooraiatonfrj, agreed irith Isolh 
the timaka and tha Bomaaa to atigu&LiM all other 
laagnagaa aa harbknnia, and, by vnT of cnntnut, both 
wan tanned leanwil laaffuagtat. No doubt nearly all 
Msdhr leaning at the niivu of letten waa untaiDed 
fat tbo Grcek and Latan lan^oagca; bnt, as Mr. Cob- 
bartt acntaty nonarkad, that tnTciunatanoe doee not 
■aka Uw laapuvea kanted. 

Thombjeeta oompriMd nndor the term phJlolof^ 
hara each been ao ■tudied, dcvdnpnd, and oxj>mi<)v<1 
bf modtra inqnicj a« tobaoome great cantrai of Icnow- 
ladgei ThnatbeantlqiiariaiiatiMleiotherwiUciuiliM. 
witting^ nuinianatld^ chnaolqnr, and hietoiy tlum 
tiboaa of Greeoe and Kocoik The growth of iboet- 
aaveraliabiecteintolaivedimeaBioae, and their <dLBr- 
■HwMn Mi^t BO dlBarant from vbat thn were 
wkaa Xnulad to tba thing* of OrMee and Bobm, 
ha*n tonlhar lad lo the diau*c of tho term philology 
In ha oU eoaae; and the *luJy nf liuijinucv-* hnving 
aHimed a character and Uiiport4uicc vrhicb it nover 
brfara paaaoHcd, tbe now aiicneft~for roch tbe phi- 
laanplij ot lango^e i»— haa ncavcd tlio muno of 
TUa tens, howerer, hoe not yet obtained 
litlo Id naBM the new acifsoe, for otlien 
Ml adopted. Sir John Stoddart proposed the 
tanna gloaaelogy aod gltMacign^j; but aa thenu 
caold nant ouy tbe laidoal, to tbe exduatnn of the 
giaBBiatknl part, they hare not boon rrwelmd, The 
■arma Ungnlatto akenoe and ItngDiatica, alUtongh not 
BBch in UK in Great lltit>in, en frequently hearrl 
OS the Continent Tbn otijct^Unii to the tenna la, that 
aan wbo to able to nad and write aevcral langnagea 
k ilnalgTialail ■ lln^iiiai Nowamanmay be a good 
^t^ and yateare nothing to know the phQoeaphy 
and g wenlogj Kit laagmgw. Ha my b« aUe to na-i 
■ad -wiHa a Bunber of nfferant langnagee, but yet 
hat* ma intereat in tn^Lng tbe relalii^udiip of one 
laagoaga to another, or in aneealalioBa on tbe ori^n of 
laneiniga. Tbe teem liiiKuut, then, already appropri- 
Uca ta a nan who ia ekUled ia langtugca, taavoi the 
tMm plolQlogiat an a d«Bi|;tiatiuti for liim who atuilia 
laignagaa in ordar to tnc« tb«lr r«>latiAn«liij« anri 
gMelogta^ and tba elUod wutd philology i* tbe 
naae ter the aclenoa The artabllehmmt in London, 
in ISIt, cf a aodety for the edrancenieDt of phUo- 
k^oal aejeBw, and nainwl by the foundcni th« 
FhOclofi^oal Society, and the cvovL-nSnM: <J bavin); 
the adnoa aMiiad n oo« word, and that a aofaetan- 
tW^ will pnbably ladaoe the Icaraed to egiec in 



reoegniiing the tcnn p)iilDln)|[y a» the anaif nf the 
•clenoe wnoee aim te to develop the pbiluaopliy of 

I'hilolngy ban a wido ecope; for It aim* at dcecrjb- 
■DR all the lAdgun^ea now apolien vu the earth — at 
doiermlnlog their affiidtlee and retntlonaUpa to each 
othcr^at tracing the oateoedent hu^ogca of each 
living iif-i.-«;h up to itA fital aaoeetral tanguwn — at 
(luturmiiiiuif tbe alBiutiea and rebtIonalil|]« of thoee 
aatooedont and aooaatnl laogoagea to eaab other— 
to make out tha getMalogy ot eadi, and thna to arrire 
at a knowledge of Uie natunl hlitory of langnagc; 
The philolu^at fueli aa much interest in cUaujing 
Ungnagas into family grmipe an tha zoologist doee in 
daadf^ag aidnMta utto family UKnipe. But howevar 
great majr be the taiterest which «tt>cheB to a knovr- 
litdge of Isngnagea, the philolHjgtat feels that such 
kncnrlwlge bw a gmter intereat and a bigher tbIug 
when ap|>tiod aa a maana to an end — a» a neana to 
Botva iDiportanl qucetlooa in pbtloeopby, in Uintory, 
and In ethoologT' 

The history ui philoloj^y ii IHco that pf othor acicnooa 
— tta origin, a f«w facta obtained by empirioal obser- 
vation^ whidi wen alowly augmented by others gained 
in a aimilar manner, and th« whole remaining a 
omilv uudiu<«ted man for a loiiji time before appro- 
priate ld(<as were brought to boar upon tbera to oring 
them into sLa^io. ilut aa soon as tbvsu idvaa were 
applied Uko empirical facta were veritir'il and teriewed 
vdtb a purpoae, the dgnU«tJoo of the facta waa 
Dudentood, ud aJmilw facta wore sought after la 
other liuiguagM. Tbi^ facta brought to light by theaa 
rawarchni wore examioiEd in nlation to thoae prarl* 
ooaly known, and all In relation to tbe Ideal liiat were 
iu)>pliod by tho philoIoglGt. The facta were aiiAiyud 
and daadfivd, new principles wnm aoen, law* wvro d)«- 
corered, and the aoruniuiated knowledge gradually 
RBaamedthedhanotenof acloafSortmyBdeiioa. m 
the space aaslgncd to the artlde Pbtloloot do«e not 
nMnw nmm tii liil in thia nki-trh with tlw bi'turii^l 
iji!tail», \\i> Rball nrfnr tf? a few nuthuritive td enable 
the reader to ccJlect tham for hfanadt In tbe Reati- 
tuUoD of Decayed Intellig«Bet in An^qnttie^ by 
Hiohard Vcnrtegan (IA06), tlie reader will find pro- 
loimd viewa on tbe value el phUdoicy in dctermhdng 
qoeatione et Uatofr and ethnology. Ventegaa waa 
a Tentoaic echolar of a larco nnzr of lanffsagea, 
oonpriauig thu living ScauthaaviMi timguea. He waa 
anxbniB to compare the Oermaa and Penlan lau- 
gaagBB, in order to dotanniac the qaoetioa then 
tnnotal of the roraian ori^n oF tlin Germann. Ho 
ti>:ik grvat pains to obtain a Peni»n *otabnliuT for 
the purp«ee, and at laat dupondad on aoomparieoiL 
mode for him by a friend in Italy in ISOl. On that 
Infnrroatinn, n1thMij(h hn fonnd certnln wmda to ho 
alike, ho decided tLat the Gennaii is not deacmded 
from Uio Peieiaa, lie onnaidnml tbe Pnrsian to bo 
no mora connected with tbe Latin, altbongfa ecttoin 
worda ate eomfliAiL to thoae tatagace; thia Iba Ladn 
and Welah, and 'broken LaUa worda* are foond in 
tho Wdib laogooge. Ho aaya he baa beard that 
Jicbrow worda an fonad ta the blah laaguan but 
n ot eoongh to make the blah to be * mod HeMoiana.' 
Kb oomparison of the KngUsh eod Ihrtdi langnaaa^ 
in order to nhlUt a ' nearmm of aijeeoh,' and Us 
cenpaiiaoa ot tbe Peidaa and I.atln by meana ot the 
finri five verees of the first chapter of GeneA^ bk order 
tfl eihibit m 'fanwM of apeiirh.' aiw ^eciinena of 
Uu(,'ual (.iJiniwHaun made In the enrilcet period of the 
hUtory of philology. Tnategaa wn a tnvetler, and 
ohtamed hia knowlHse of the langnagee by r«rid<noe 
in the citintria in wnlth ibey are apokm. He wa» 
not a metv llntTulst. He mouitalacd that Knglmi] 
woB originally oonaected with Fkaace fay oontinwma 
land fieCQ Boulogne to Itoter, and his argumeata 



FBSLOhOat. 



» 



I 



■n pnoiidj' IboM of tfao gvdcfbCi o< tbs praont 

It mm jiwt » coatury »Hmr Ventsera that Qm 
cd rtaMad tneoMir «( LubniU wa> rcou in the Aot- 
damy «f Sei«M« st Berlin. Tbe prladp^ object 
of Ixiboitz ia foanding tbat Ac^ftdemy ni, u bit 
mamoir o{ 17O0 tdMtm, ' ta iDauiv tbo pragTCM of tiw 
pUlMO|)liy sad dawtfloKkxi <il '^'y'*g^ M>d by 
tbrt SMaaa to tno* tba gauula g j «i mankiod.' 

The fitenuM of Jmdm lluriL jkiUUmI in 1751, 
b a ta a at ii u on gnuninalfeal ybooaofitjf MpmbUy 
la rafoNoew t« tiM Orsek mm Lfttln granniariau. 
TUa uapoTUst book wu followed by tba BllfiJl 
UTEPOENTA. or the Div«nlotu of Pnrley, bi 1777^ 
t^ Jobs Homo ToukcL Tbia nnwriuUs book on 
BngMi «tTiDoIogy lonan »a cfMxb in fdiilolo^cBl 
•cnm Tor llw fint time vtytnobgr mi iaTwti- 
gated bj the indactire aetbod, eoOo^tng EmM from 
all tfao uaguwM wbich M« tb« ■otuce cf tbo Bn^nb 
kagoaBB. Tw gmX w^rk wm ptiblidied abaat tbo 
■BM UH M tbo Moodo Primiiif, ualys^ M oon- 
pariftTae lo mcmdo modetiM^ ooaatdi'Nt dMU rbistcdn 
natoicUe do I* pamlo^ Par M. Court do Gobdin 
(abw ¥gla. 4to, 1774-82). la tbb TotnailjMna work 
OB tudvanal gniaaur llw Mitbar MtaBptfld to sbaih 
tboroolaof wort«baTi«tthftaM>ortp>ttc«How,wbla> 
bs had etillfrtod Ibroogb a wide tance of laagtu^M. 
Ttoo ocigiial we*te iodkate tbo atMtttoQ tbat wu 
dcToMd to phflotogyia tbo latter half of thod gfatoc nlh 
caatmy. It was at lUa ttmo diat Halbod, WOUb^ 
and a low oUi«n in tbo Baat Im£a GocnpanT'a Krne^ 
wofo ao^tdring Um knowladgo of a laasa^o oabMwn 
tin tbea to Europeaa w^olan^ bat wUdi waa dwAiaod 
•odfoctanmlatiaaiiinbilola^. That lancaj^ waa 
Iba SMdijil. Sir WiQiAtD Jedcaprocaedoa to ladia 
ia I783L Ho ttm enuneaUy quaufiod to ^prociato 
tba lia|MatMW« of a knua-loiuoof tbo Saiaknt to pbi- 
lelogy, aa wcU aa to (bo ciffllana of Isdii^ aad be 
coteiod Bpoft Ha atady with bk naul ardour. He 
waa OBO oC tbo toundon aad fint pnoident of th« 
Aalatk Sodety of BeocaL Tbo affinity of tba S«a- 
^rit to Latbt aad Groakkao patent to obaetratioa 
titat it wao iiiiiMaaJlilii for aam acbolan aa TTitlff-l, 
WUUna, aud Jwaaoot to potoaivo it; aad, accord- 
iivly,w«flaid tbat thcaopioaMfa b Saaakiitannotinood 
ha doaa alHal^ to then. Tbo Fwrfan acbotan a> 
aooa fcMBd It to boalUad b> FwaaB.aad Gtsiaaa 
acbolan to German. In the Edinbuivb Boview^ 
Jaooary, 1S09, k ao aliJs artido ub I'bilology, ia a 
rafiow of Wilkin*' Saaakrit Oramaiar, wrinoa by 
tbo laM Iter. W. Conyboar^ U.A^ wUdi mil 
mariia tbo itate of oar tmewkdge «f 11m lado^ior- 
laaak la^«i^«o at tbat poriod la 1613 aMoand 
Ut. Flidterd'a B aaaar cb ai into tba Pbyaical Hiatacy 
afMaa. 

Ia tbta great work, fram which modais atbaology 
say bo datod, I>r. Pridmrd, iff taJria g of Ibe Omb- 
panUre vooabulaiy of tba Saaakil^ Pinfaa, Latin, 
aad Irtfwuw laapiaflaa In Mr. Qiayb«i*'a artkb^ 
amL'Bot tbo proof woald bava baan oMao atiiklBf 
iflo had addMl tbo Orilie and Slatonjo dialaeta aad 
Iba Gnafc. I ban nadc aa attempt to mpply Ibe 
deidnM7, whkb I inlMtd abortly to mako pubUr.' 
Ia 18S1 Dr. Fricbard'a aaaooMMl work wia pub> 
bbwlaadtr tba titlo of lb* Eaatan Ori^ of tbo 
Cdria NKdaw nwid by a 0«aMri« of tbatr IMa- 
iMMvfthtba &^Dil,Oi«ak, Latb^ and Toutonio 
LaMmocaa. Tbo groan of Uiwaafat had bcow tbo 
^DW af lBibi««cnMiio lancw««a, bat aow that U; 
PtUnd ^d paorad tbo Odtio dmloeto to bahafl to 
^MBORMls tba BBBo «l tbo giwin waa cbaoKMl 
ta Indft-EaRi^a. Ia IS3J appoarMf tba ftnl i*rt 
rf ftof^cr Sofp'a OomiMfaliTa Orawaar of tba 
t, Zaa^Oiwak, Latla, 1 hbaanto. 6la^ ' 



la 1S37. It hH nacfcad a tbM attloq, aad baa 
traiulat«d into BiuUab aad Fnoeb. TbJa dabonaa 
work baa mat with a bsaxty wokoono fatna atftalaai 
in all ootmtrioa. It ia a axwt learned wnk, aad 
indiapoBMble to tba pbOologlat It ia baaod «d tba 
aaiunplion that the Saaiknt ia tbo Boat aadoift <f 
tfaoMB Un^ngis. Bopp baa alao written on tbo OelliB 
dialeou aa membeta o< tbIa tamOy of toogoaiL Iba 
Celtic dialeda afs doobtlaaa modi older tbaa Iba 
Sacakrit. Tbe opiaioo aow cnrrent ia that all tbaaa 
tongm am «uter djalocta of a loal anceatral langnagr. 
We ahall not occupy apaoa by ao aonmaration of ill 
tbeoniaatt philoloigteiwho urc oootribatcd tewanh 
our preacDb aoamate lokowledgo of tho phikaopby of 
tbia family of laagowea. It ia too large a liat for a 
popular viav of pUiology. 

It b familiariy known that the grammar aad laiip 
con tu^thi-r ccmtkin a Un^iiage. Now tbo philnlfr 
girt cocnpam gnunmar witb graimoar aod wxiecm 
with lonoon. Thia oDopariacm cannot \m aucoam 
fully made by thoia who are Igsoraat of tha tangaagai 
to bo eompared. Scom antbora, bowaTar, ocam a 
*enr alight "^ ■■-*»"■» with Ibe langoagea to be 
aumdaat, while othen oDorider it nooeaaatT to ksov 
tfao haciii^^ wcU— indeed, ao mii aa to M abb ta 
wifta tBctn-— heforo a man b qaalified to iutitata 
aacfa a oompaiison. It Ea quite oeitatn that we rdy 
with mote oonfidoDco on comparbooa nude by com- 
wtent oobolan in the laagoagea compared thaawe 
da tm oofflparlaofls made by tboae only allj^Aly 
aoqaaiated with the luiguagea. A oampariaon «f 
laagaagaa dlaplaya toar dearty-marked twuition>bi|a 
aa»ag than, aomely : — 

1. ThoM wbidi bare a afnilati^ of gnmmalbal 
foRDJ, ivmihiiw*! with a ooaaidetablo namber of 
|tti(iiiti«o WDcda or roota oonmioa to ibem, or ao 
naemMln g mA otbv in aaaae and aonnd aa maai- 
featly to bo ol tbo mme origa. Socb linpmia at« 
tMarlrnlatad to each other, aa tboae oooa^vlii^ tkf 
IndoTEnropaan tamQy of taonne^ aad tboaa ooatf* 
tatiag Um SbomiUe tJunQy of toagnaa. 

S. llMae vhSoh ban but few worda In o'tnnwti, 
and yet dbplay a remarkable aoaloor tn fhtit gmm* 
pwt^*'»| fonwi, aa tba lauenagaa oc tbo Ajaarima 
Indbaa ami the monoeyllabw lai^qagaaaf tba ChfaMM 
aad alliad toogoea. 

S. Tboaa wbicb bavo bat Unle Uketi«m in tbair 
gnuatnar, and yet hare a TocabiilBry in ooiamon fior 
tbo physical objacta of aatare, aa ana, moon, ftc; 
Iw domtatb aidnub, for pane of Iba body, for family 
rdaliaBrii^*a,lBdleacaaaaBcieBtalliaiicai Aoor- 
rea|MMidaBoe of vonb for eartala abjectly aodOM; Mid 
con J itiona ma^ arbe faem ooatqnaM, tian^laatatfoa 
<tf pii*adatbm,fa«m tU fatrodiNlfaa of a new natea 
of nllgtaa: bat audi cocimDoadeaeo, ahbotigh U mw 
mnbtaea tba whaU eoaabalaiy of tboatodcof idem 
ao imrodnoad iato a ooontiy. win eotaod no (artber^ 
aad wiU Dot mtorfaaa U> any great extent with the 
telaftiTe w«^ for mn. atoea, *«, bafoei>-aainad. 
l a lMal i m baa faitiodneed a nal TaeabnUrr of i^ 
pma t«na from tba Aiabic laagoago Into tboaa erf 
Tttrkey, Peral^ and Oa bCobaamaM eoaMriea of 
A£ica. A ooaeidaaaya vocabolary «C n^ai mlH- 
tary taama bM beaa iDttadacad iaio ercey olbw Eiiio> 
pM hwM A weababay of BmrHib oooumiM 
aad ^ot aagfaaoriBg tema hm baa dbtriboled 
over Evrope^ 

*. 1%«*«af«laagBaaaafa«Ueh,allboi^aaUb(r 
rioOTrial aor namnatlml tIkiMem <Mi bo trwBod, TA 
Ibaae an emtate taaamfabaeaa which appaar to ha IDO 
namiretta aad atvikJag t» be Ibo reaidt «f aoiMental 
c o to ri d eae a. M. Klapralh hypotbatioallr towta tbb 
oaaaaetkm MdtrfkhwMn. 



PHJLOLOQY. 



31 



runQf, it to ntemnry to dMcribe Grimm'* Inir of 
tfaa cxKKipcaKlenoe of oaoKiUMtU in the Tmitaauo 
iWJiirN it is callad Gtimm'B Uw baauM he wm 
Cba Snt to pcivdro uid dpvolop Ihb law. Grfmin 
diKOTctcd llut ft Onek p k dlifilMGd and an / 
■MMM* la ita pl«<» io the uotUc, wbllo ■ v tolccs ita 
[UAM in lbs Old High Gorman. Thtia tho Greek 
p«dot eommonda to tlie Gutliia Fvtut, aad Ui tlii> 
Old Higli OtfUMt V«Ku, t, iaat, Criiam's Uvr it 



«il>iaiisd. — 

OMk, . . . 
OMB«hO«nwu. 






LabiaU. 



k, .1, . . «l> (tJ. 



OiMk. . . . 






eh. 



tP^ 



W« (haQ giv« ddq oxunplo of nch of tkoM oonv* 
I M «a lUuttntioa of the Uw:— 



_ . . . P*im, 

OadiH, . Piulraiii, , 

OU Hlik QoaMM. . Vu«r. . 

CMhi^ . Tlu. . T», . 

Old tUch Otfinw. iy*. . Zocl. 

Clwdfc. . , E«nUii, . Gm% 

OolUt. . Ilaiitu, , Knin, 

OU Blih 0«Baa. Hero, . Cbiitn. 

(Aurtj (Sua) 



. JVca 

. PlfU. 



TtnntUr. 
DaiiLur. 
Tohur. 



CtiBa. 
Qbiu. 
Kuu. 

Pmftwtar Bapp •xtended Gritiim'R law to tb» 
Zand, LUhuMilaM and SUvaoii- iMupmp*; and Dr. 
Fli<lMid «st*Dd*d it to til* Cahic It U aiui«ce«»ry 
^daorOM tluM extnwtou in » impuUr trcfttiso. 
J lutfittcea 00CO|Ki>ltV tl>o tndn-Kumpcsui fomilj 
t Uw Huukrit, Zand, randan, GrMk, LstSii, Utliu- 
, IWtoBie, Slxroolc, aad Coltic ThofQ uv no 
[ tba geognphlcal u«na oocnpied bjr thcM Un- 
g— gnai Th« «••• now oorupied bjr them arc nearly 
tboiB wlikh tbaj ooon^ad at tba dawn of history, 
and tlwfr iriati** pnduon la uulonbtodlj tbo lame. 
Tba SaMfciH ana vaa North India; the Z«nd aitd 
, FMila; tho GrwJc, Grceoc; tbo Latin, Italy; 
} ^/Mv\mv^nr\, t\>o anwtll tract* et land abatting as 
■onib-aatt ooniar of the Baltk Saa, oompaSlBg 
CoQilaad, and Eaatara Pniasia; the Teu- 
, tha pRaml area rtf tlia Gvnnan and Kcandina* 
la^ufM; tbo Slavonic, fruni Hm Blatk S«* 
rama to Lake I^adoca, and froni Vauim eoat- 
to Iha Vulm; ud the Celtic, tbo wort of 
, llriwdlng Britain. Buc'i ia a grneral out' 
tba ar ti aa and rdativa poritlnoa vi the Iiido- 
faiaily of Uni^nagva. Thoao of the Ian- 
which an DO looser varaacular hare living 
utaliTai^ as the Latin, wbcae deaoendaoba arc 
I ItaUan, Bjwnish. Part«g»«aB^ and Framcfa. The 
, bawm, is not oidj tha bead of a mb-grciop 
Qla. It WH untMtljr oaa of a pottp of 

lansvagM which MBtattporancooaly oocnpied 

Italy, aa the Otcao, Umbrnn, S{eaupi»n, Habdlian, 
and parba|M tb* Etfrwcan. We shall nut have apaoe 
the ceatwnp oraa aoM and deaeanded 
I rf tha HTwa] laagufM wbloh oanstitate the 
k-BvopeiB battlr. W« now proceed to dto 
wwda fnu tbcM languages^ ta oidar to 



ahnw that they pcaNH a TooahuW; of primitira 
wurds in oommon, but aligbtly Taricd in form in each, 
tho TBTtation being that of pronnndatloti, auil reprn- 
sentad by the ourrespondeDce of consonanU u n)x>\-a 
ducribad. 

1. Words denoting persona and fatuU; nlotion- 
•hlpa:— 

Max. 
Suwkrit, . Vtrah, a b«ro. aotUd^ . . Ttlx. 
/-•nil, . . V»iryii, Iriili. ... Vmt. 

Lithiuwiaii. . \>ta«. W'ebti, , . . Qwr. 

LaUa, . , ViT. Ur*tk . . . (F>trta. 



FAniKR. 



SaadErit, . , Pilar. 

Eand, . . . P&ltar. 

Paralan, . . Itdtn. 

Oimk. . . . Faut. 

Utin, . . . FaMr. 



SlA^'nnlan, . . UU. 

Giihir, Pulndn 

Old HlBbUaraun, V>Ur. 

Qvnuan, . Ful«r, 

bfab, , . AU)4ir.< 

MOTRKK. 



euMMt, 

PwatMv. 

Latin. . 



faiMkrIl, 
tUamiUMU, 



. lUt«r. 

. Ualw. 

. UsAor. 

, MetM-. 

. HaM. 

8oH. 
SnBDa. 

. 8711. 

Davatrm. 



lUavonLin. . 
LithnaiiiMi, 
Uanaau, 
Imb, . 



Gothic^ 
Iknaan. 



Mutliia. 
MnlMr. 
WaUiab. 



Siiunl. 
Sebn. 



Suukiit, . . nuhiiar Lltliiuniao, , TVahlar. 

Xati. . 1>iiKliitlinr Ootlil.:, , . DauliUw, 

pMvlsa, . Dokbtar. Gamutn, . . Tarhlsr. 

Grask. . 1'liiiuBl£>. IIl•l^ . , . Xlmr. 

SlavouiMi, IMfaibw. 

Tba ptreoedlBe words are irlveit morely as tpeci- 
BioDB, The lilt may be extended to includo the wordi 
woman, brother, ai«t«r, fatber-in-Uw, mother' in -law, 
*on-Ia>law,danRhlar>iii-Iair, brother-in-law, ami aoRie 
othen. On rofweoca Ui the apeolmeD words nbave 
It will be aotm at uoce thai the word formaa aa hiTo 
is tho uuno word in all the langonga*, bat axisting 
in variant fonm. 

2. Words denoting parts of tha body: — 

ET2. 

. AlnlU. l^n, . . Oonhn. 

. AMi. OMlUc^ . Aata. 

. AUa CcmuUL . Auga. 

. Oka. Danlit, . . QJs. 



BuuluM. 

Lltlioauiui, . 
Slavonian 

Tooth. 

Suukrit, Daatai. OoU>^ 

Peralau. Danlaa. DaaMi, 

UUioaulaa, Onalla. liWi, 

(Inek. . Odootoa. WaUh, 
LUjh, . D«*|JM.I>MltU^ 



Kkkr. 



PnMaa, 



Juu. 

JsiiO. 

Zend. 
OoaD. 



Latin. 

Oulliu^ 

O. U. GamuL, 

0«nnan, 



nantvh 

TtUKl. 

DnwL 
UaoL 



Oenn. 
RnJu. 
Choia. 
Kola. 



A UM of fluch wurda lulght be extended to include 
brow, nose, voice, hiuid, hair, ear, nait, foot, body, 
oddnr, oavxl, hnart. Mood, tear, and aoina othern, 

3. Wonls deiiotinii,' auinmln : — 

CarrLR. 



Huukril, 


. Ftsfa. 


tiothle. 


. Palha. 


}b>»rl. . 


, rnml. 


A1a¥IID^ 


. Para. 


Uicrk. . 


. I'fl.1- 


O-U.Oarwaa. 


. Vibo. 


Latin, . 


. P>«IK. 


OwmaB, 


. VMh 


UtJi. (Old Pn^aa), Itetu. 








Shop. 




Banaklit, 


. Awfe 


Ootklo. 


. Art. 


Latin, . 


. Uva. 


Aaalo-aasoh 


. Xvwn 


Ontek, . 
tSlavonlB 


. (>M. 

. uwta. 


sr- : 


. Km: 
. A«t. 


IditliiiAuian, 


. A-u. 







■ Thar* i* evMwM lo ttunr that (lie mlUal iirMiiiiaal if 
JttatrUlask 




PHILOLOGY. 



Goou (G«id«rt. 



PmWi, 
Or»k, . 

LrMin. . 



Ha*. 



O. ILG«mu. 



Za*. 






A loag Ikt of such word* tn»]r be nude, m Ol. O0V| 
do^ bone, MM, wolf, moiuf, i^iat. run, hog, MW, dock, 
■mo, wom^ fly, an>I annio otbars. 



OiMk, . 



Bb'cati. 



SwMkitt, 



AlolU. 
LvkA 



aU(«aK 



laaea. 

OoUilc. 
Ownun 
V«Ub. 
buh, . . 

8cs. 
Sol um, . . 



UolutlL 

Lkfct. 

Uiirg. 



BralL 

OMliL 






Minh. 
Hon. 



GMhlo, 



MaML 
V«lr. 



1. (k* 

a. to! 

4. ikMoz. 

t EST 

•. html. 



•fn. 
dfm. 

tliri. 
itethra. 

haptan. 



3:^ 



•In. 
Id. 

kMorL 
pwJtt . 

MvtrnL 
■Btiud. 
dawTiu. 



^M Dnawral 1 !■ not eotuDMa to tbaae bngoacea, 
bat tfa> oifaw nia* w* axfXMwd bj wordi cammon 



asUKUuk pmrftji. 



^M iMiininstiT« «tii|[ulir of tb« penonftl ptvnoun / 
ti fam»d from ■ diff«<nt root to that wUch u the 
faMB of the obUqoe cum miiw kcd sk. It it well 
knoim to b« eo In Gmrk mnd Litfin, and it i« m> In 
kll tbo Unguigr« nf tliia fuolly «xo»pt Ibe Coltlo, la 
wbxb the mb* baM ori^iitttM ilL Tba vvidftnoe {• 
mmIihIv* thftt th» Toot of tf/o, I, Is nan Koeitt, u a 
eTOBoaa, than tho root of Mini, mti, vte. aaA henca the 
Cfcolc wbt in ni ara «td»r in fum tbiui Ukuw in il. 




Utkoanlan, 
OUHUnlnlfc 
Ootkh), 
IToUt, 



An. 

Aa. 

Ik. 
Hi. 



Thoc. 



UthiMMba. 



W«. 



Vajan. 
Vam. 

I Anaa 



LMbnabB, 

OUHUmkL 

TaUi, 



Suakfll, TvrMB and TtuliB*. 
Sml. Ta [l ■ aud Tm 



Yb. 



Ulkoaalan. 
Walib, 



Ttiil 

Tt 



?Ia 



Jua 
?Ja 

Chin. 



TIm proBomn* of the third person idn^Ur io the 

■dilative CMM ai« IcaFt; tfas obliqiie caaee, bow* 

r, nnela, Mkd po^Ujr fron than the loet naiain- 

ttXn ndght b« noaaMrneted. We therelMv pees 

ever the tlun) (icfson in both numbera. The atudy 



1 



Tills Uat might iadade ihjr, SMen, atv, «art^ 
water, firv, day, tugfat, dovd, nid ■onw otbiifc 
fi. Adicctiira:— 

Qbesk 



rmtai^ 
Oiwk. . 



Senakrli. 
Orack. . 



OeOk, 



BkoaDl 

FntbBB.| ScaadiMTtan, 
Plstu^ 

ruM. 



UST 



Youirck 



FWeUn, 



aiiiTguk^ 



T«na. 
JawL 
Jetvak. 
JaavtL 



Uihiuniaa, Jsmi^ 

Gvihic. . 3 

O wma a. . Jwa 

Wal*. . aiZ 



(umsMBia IBfaua 



Tliis lilt might indude aiiipl«, heavy, (nO, Mt- 
ratetl, long, thin, U^ht, aew, warn, dry, middlei rtA, 
whil^ widowed, holy, all, other, high, and niaiiy 
othan, W« add tbe notoetala np to ten:— 



wiuk, 
m. 

£?■ 

[i*lwir. 

pvmiK 

MlUu 

•rjih. 

na*. 



aba. 
iwai. 



Onrt. UW. 

Hel«(B«oUr.Han;. moik 

DnS. dnu. 

Tniv UK 

TMIana. qnamoi. Mm. 

Pvnaa qiuiM)tti> ■>■£ 
HaK. 
BefMa. 

Oku. oBtcL all 

BuiiMk lUTcni. Blki 

Daka. 



I to alL In the on^tual number^ bowerer, the wtri 
, lorthefint ia the aatneia all, oaly varied hi (onii,ai— 



pUL 



pttik 



prlBS. 




fA (iroDouiia ia nf high impprtaijce in philDlogj. ThlKj 
have t« bo iiudied at a part nf tbe^oaeaty ^d Aa 
cf tbo giKinmar of a taBroage. ^le ebndy of tin 
one mart ba aooomiMaied by tbat of the other. Id 
the tnfleotlaii of verbe the pranouns are niiinwiilwl 
■ad la •one laocium paittcnlarly ttwee of lb 
Shecaitia famfly, U* fragueote o( the immaaiu thil 
enter into tho »lnictiire nf tho ctmpcadta weed an 
easily reon^iiudL In the Inde-liaropeaB TimpMr 
they have ia part been uiiafactorily abowntTlhe 
resoarciKe of fiopp aad Prtehatd. A brief daao^ 
Uon aud illiuLrsiiun of the num obvions fr^nnti 
wQI be fiven iu tn«liu2 of the «oia|»riMai orf the 
grsmmara of those Ungusfeo. 
7. Verbal roota: — 



Sandun. 

lAUn, . 

iUaiiKilc, 



To DDL 



. Hon. 
. MiiJoU. 
. Htm. 



Oariaan, 
KitfUih. 

WalSl. 



Mwdw. 

Harw. ^ 



flsMkrH. 

Etnd, . 
Qraak. . 



To SB B0B9. 

Caflkflii 
OsunaA. 
0«B«ra(tabH*t>- 



Lltbuaalaa, OtBiw. 
Oolkio, K«U». 
Walah,. Oml 
lUih. . Qabdudehtaai 



Baaakrtt, 
&od. . 

OTMk. . 
Lalin. . 



BanakTtl, 
Onek, . 
Laus. . 
Slavonic, 



TV> STAxa 
TUbbminiUutd,! »aNole^ . Stan. 



ftca RwiStba). 

UtauraLflta^ 
810. 



Uthnaaiaa, MobML 
UaUiie. . SUsdM. 
Irtih, . . MadUL 
Vahh. . BdiA(teiU» 



To Eat. 

Admirieot). 

Bdo. am. 
Jan^, fut JadmL 



LiUnDnlaa, BtaL 

(lutliio, Itaa. 

Wdtt. . Taa.«rbK. 

IrtUv . . lUdM0aal 



FUILOLOGV. 



33 



nM TcrUi io U*«^ know, wee, bear, HAik, guv A>1^ 
«ttny, bMT, a>*ka^ giv«, plaice, drink, tliiriit, hMtt fear, 
niough, bcnoM^ •trew, nix, be, mad otben, nftclit 

& FHtfelMv or fodednuUt wordi; — 
XIm DHfticlM indiale iidrarb^ coajimctiaM^ and 
ppapouDDS. A tvw of ikew mmi am coouiira to 
ibm nrcntl hagnagM cd tbtlr gioaph bat in g«aw»l 
lartidM u« gmnmatic*] devclapiama of iadindiMl 
lodgoaa, or of Ui« dilel tangott of a ■tb-poop of 
uaigiMC 

Aaontn, 

. Ab&l I O. H.Owmu, . UmM. 

. AMfaL Umtum, . . UtB. 

. AmMnill WaUi, . Am. 
la OMBpartW wanb on, m 

WiTM, 

Snakfll, . . SwB. I LMin, . CWa. 

Omk. . . . 9an. | Wabb, . . Cjn. 

Aboti, Ovk& 
. UurL I O. H. OtnlMW, . Cbw. 
. H«|«r. 0«RUiih . Uhw. 

. Vbr. I 



I 

L 



krit, 
OrMk, . 



It ia mamxmmrj to «xtand tbe IM. Tb> jveoad- 
iiuc sxBnndGL fram tbo vocabolarica of IIm woraj 
tuocM) u* ipMdiiMoa fKon a vBit anooM of «ri- 
dwoa. wUch iMoanttataa tfaa endnkoB that tbo 
word* for prinitiVA idea* and cominop HaagH are 
"—■"w to an the Ungusfica at tba group. Lot na 
I BOoaa J to tlw graiDiiuu-. 

Ua gmnmaXiati fonna of wiwda oomiit of tha 
cfaancna wUch vordt aadtrfa in the twn proccaaat 
eallad dadanttcoi knd oonjiwatiou. 8ub*t>uitivn, 
adjoetlvoi, aadnraDOUtu aro dacUnvd, but v«rtM are 
jattA. Tm seaenl term iattc-ctiua uomiirt- 
both dKlaooim and omjiicatloiL la some 
tb* duovaa to -whloh » w«rd b anbjecled 
n BIO wy nanwrvos, is oUwn Ion aoy and 
ia aona than an ioanelj anj. Tbo LAtin ward 
pladuy^ Ifaa nrord, for eianipl(i,aul[«n oertain chanffu 
at ib and to a j yiw ootaia la«M (rf nbtioa, vbldt 
h T^TMi ar* iinwnil by aaiNwato wdr!% utai: — 



KOMhHUnMM, 

Onntta ,. 
Taoalin 



Afapiitar. 

. aiamat tlMtwofd. 

. OUdK ^'''^••MnL 

. OUai-«, (»i**a««rd. 

titwU^ua, n* imnl. 

GLkdl-f. vvenl I 

audi d. J>>M» lU ooid. 

. aU41-<, th«innn]*. 
OlaAI-onai, <if Iht nronlt. 

. 01«iU-««, Urivvtdi. 
OUdl-v ■■■onli I 
. OtadMk Jrtm liU imavdr. 



=^11 



■111 ba abaemd that the final * in lb« Bcnitiva 
caao itanlar ia ovoinlent In imwiiliiu to tha nusiiah 
worda^ 1A«; and an of th« otb«r ptuti of tb>« Lotbi 
word aod tbe KngUdi words which an printed ia 
Ikliea. Tbe imrt of the word which rcmaiiu nn- 
ii oalUd tho root, and Um other, the nior^ble 
tba faifloctinn. It will ba ofavBiirvd that tlie 
Uka tha other eaaei^ oaaairta of thcM 
t»« patH gladi-w; ao that ■« Is the aocninative end- 
■tg M the wont, jiut a* vn in the a«c(u»tiv« ending. 
U ia ti''>p«r to rvmark tliat the root cannot of Itaw 
luad aa a word; tt niul have a caae-ondliiff In order 
(u take ita f*laca ia a aent^noe. Some lao^i^m 
lore man]' ca■M^ and otbcis very few. ^Iie 8aa*krit 
haa CwoiDor* thaa the Lalis, BaoHljitlie Iii0truiueiital 
aad tha iDcaliva oaaca. Tba Gnsk baa odIt Ato, as 
ft. laeka tha ablative caa& The KngUab boa only 
tWD, tlie nomiiiativD and piuaiwrive; ita praaonna, 

Vol. XL ' 



lMW«ver, have a third, called the ohJMrtifv. Tbe 
Snomi, or lajignage of t'lnland, h*a fiftoen c MW^ aad 
ooo of ita diafecta, the Sjrrjanian, baa lixteen. 

A aBoeepafiil oonparboa cf tiM gramniatiGal fortna 
of aonaa can oitly be nudo by tlMae wiko an familiar 
wUh the dedenaiona in the langoagia to be oooipatvd, 
who an haaJliar with the lain tii ««phony la each, 
aad with tin wpa ei w odaae a at oomaaiati. We 
ahall aMcottit to dii^y tbo idcotity «f gianmatical 
iluliaiatiii by dttng a noon In the acensaltvie and 
gaoiUvv cneea Biii«ubir. Tba diancUrlatlo vi the 
aopuaalivc i« in m tbe Sanakrit, Zend, aad Latin; ia 
Greek tbe m ia aoftoied to n. In the I.itlitiAni/in 
tbo at baa beoone weakened to be aoiaetbing lilco the 
Acoch naaal o( tba weed on.^- 

WOLP, 

Tb* MMMtlt* «■• In Saiukitl, , . Vrllum. 

„ „ Zand. . T«h'k«iib 

,. „ GtHk, . . LofcoM. 

,> .. lalin. . Impom. 

., „ LlUiauilaa, . WUkaoL 

.. Oothio; . Tuir 

The Gothic baa lod tbe ending. 

The characteiiitia alfii nt tha ganldra caaa dlifiv 
lor ia j: It ia aol aSbmad tfaat the gmiUvo ease of 
eveiy deoleiwloa eada ia a, for bny« in the lnwc«t 
fonn kaow that lo Latin then arc gEuitivM in u, i, 
iMj na, and ft, 

Wou. 



Tha gialUfa cmb In Sftiukilt, 


. Trflwra. 


.. .. Zand, 


. Vekriuta. 


. Oi-k. 


. Lukao. 


„ l^tlu. 




„ u LlibiuaUa, 


„ „ Qotiiiii, 


. VoUU. 


„ ., Eafluli, 


. Wolffc 



The K \a Zend oorreapoads tu the < Id Sanalczit. 
Tbu t In the Lilhaaaiaa ia loat 

Thn dodcmiiniuaf adj«c-tivM aad pTonouiw are vary 
■iniiliir to tliow 14 «uWt.iuti*DiL 

It wcmld taquire a volume Lo dlscuai the oodjti(^- 
tion of Uitt verb. W« aluUi dto a verb in the preaent 
teoae of Uw indicative mood, became tbe root ia 
Inflected only b^ the f ragmeDta of woidi «x[iRMdvD 
of pononol uiitmeUona, aad is imencambored with 
thoaa that expttaa time and mood. We ael^ct tbe 
aubatantlve \w> to Ae aa eoavenient and anlBdinit to 
diaplay the £aot that tha mxM root ja ioflectvd by 
meana of the aame eoSxea: — 

To Bb. Preasnt Tenae. 
1. ^BukiH. 

Tied pCTMO. Btcnii I emtu. Tlilnl ^wMBi 



BiDKnlar, 

Plund, 

flural. 



Slnnlar, 
Plural, 



ni']ifalu', 
l-Iuial. 



Aofular, 
Plui^ 



BInrnlat. 
Plunl. 



Bfncnlar, 
I'likral. 



ami, 

(OWi. actLk. mxai. 

S. Xni'l. 

all ml. nli<_ aML 

bniAlO. lUuk btaiU. 

\. GiMk (arabala fornu). 
■mini. Old. ■di. 

•Imati ale. eiiU. 

«.UUu. 

ntiB. at MS. 

nmiu, aMk imt. 

4. aavoslaA.) 
jeon'. !^- Jttt'. 

yeokL yaaUb JtMl. 

0ta lilfinflnina 
antii. oMt. nU. 

anu. ertit. wU. 

T.Cctbh. 
Int. ta. lit. 

(ijuni. djalJk, ilad. 



I The Initial f ol iha SlaTODiau riyr— nt» tk* RbTsale 
hatoflefnTUulnf U>a ultonooa of lolIM towolk 

«81 



34 



t Psnan. 



Sncnlu, 
Fhuai, 



S: 



tan. 

bml. Uto. 

U *laii. U albb. 




PHULOLOGY. 



ud. 



II Ud. 



TTio RitBxei we ^ntgioenta of pronooiM. It wnnlil 
ooRiipr tou muck n»oa to onbar upon tile di^cussiuu 
otthuTiwU on wklwtblaopbi^b bated; but itmay 
b« lUtod Uut la tbe Wclut Un^uagv ft Kpoimto pro- 
naan o( the third penoD. piml tttMa, naindj, &urjr»t, 
wlu<;h i* found ta ui ftbDr«n«t«d form in Iha thinl 
potvoD plontl in til tha toiMi; u carrnl, tbaj' <3i(t 
ur«; MraMtli tliv; have lov«d; conuml. tiiey htA 
lo*red: contnl, thajr ■hall Ion; aavni, let thom lovo. 
Tlw fiiud nt U tbe charMHerutic of the ttiinl pt^ru-in 
pluntl, hikI Itiiit nt It mIsv t)ia vluu»ct«ciiitlo tif tb« 
third panoo plunl In all the ludu-Earopean lao- 
gatata. Th« ni of the Wtlih benaM ia » fragment 
of bmgiU, the prunouD t&eg. Hcnoe tha nt n tha 
othac hnggMBa b a fragmait of Xbt> aanw pmnoun, 
irfdeh mnit fonavriy haw oiirtod in tb« Biu:o8lnd 
laa^pa^ oi thla family. Tha pnnoun AuyM (thoy) 
ia now (ouDd in ths WeUl aiaao. Tb« pnsaerr&tluu 
of thia pMDouix anpaan to ba dus to thn circatn- 
■tanm tliat th«n u do proaent ttam iu altribi)ti<c 
nAa, tbo toiue bolus auppUad by a dKninlooutiuit 
or pknao^ Iik« tlio Engliak / Aorc writUn, wliich 
nacBMltatea tfae adopdoa of tha pranonn Ln Ha wnpa* 
tata atat«; and Id tha pwriva voice Ui«ra are no per* 
aon-an dings to varbe, bo that tha prcaonn. bung ooa- 
(■naaUy In tt*e, «raa nnl ma likely (•> Imi Irat n* It wm 
En the ipther Indo-Buropaaa laugnaKm. 

It will ho oltMTTod that tbo orlgiiial n&mo toT thli 
i:roiip vt Iiuti^ii^ei, lodo-Gomaoio, waa a rory im- 
(>ci4»:jt oD^ for it did HiOt Inobida tha Foraiaii, tho 
lircclf, and I.ntin, bcndaa whidi it ia a cumbrouH 
aompouad, Th« KDMndMl nanw^ Indo-Eoropsan, la 
aa oombraai^ and, aa a name^ ia isanffidant for the 
Aatatio lansna^oaof the gionp, and too much far thn 
Ki]rap«<an laosaomi It li, however, quite coru- 
monly uiod, Pnlwaor Bopp adopU tbo term San- 

lenn Ai>au laogxiagea. 

nU Aemftle Lmnfftuvtt. — LanmagM alliod to du 
Bebmr an 0oapad irith it undac ttia gooenl title 
tt lbs **>*i^"'^ laiwuaffta. Thia naine waa imgg<«t«d 
bj dw puai^ih "Onto Sham alao, the father of oil 
the ohUdran of £lwr, tha brother of Ju^arth tbo 
elder, »van to fain wan ehlldrait bon." ThiBn fol- 
lorna tbe nnealwy (0«tl x. 21, << mq.) Tie peopln 
of PaleaUn^ Puonilola, Siwia, UaaopoUinu^ and 
Anbin all ipok* Sboatltlo iaagmget, IIhm ooud- 
tifaa an in gaomphical oantunlty, ftnd oooatttnto a 
large area In Weatem Asia, which atrvtcbca from the 
eaatem abora cf tbe Moditerrsuoiut Sua to tlie Tieru>, 
mkI from the moontaloa of Armenia to tb<.' loutUuru 
aliorea el Anbi& From thia area Shaniticlaagiia^ca 
rarend tlianaelvM Into A&len and Enropor thua tbo 
Arabic p a aaed over the Bed Sea, and eeUbUafaod 
itaaU En jEthli^pia; and tfae PbmoliiIaD ipnad ItaoU 
ont the ahfircM of tho HncUtamuiean Sob, aa well aa 
orar aereral at Ha lalawk. Aa tbo poiitilcu) ot tboan 
conatariaa are riilpfly deaomid^] from tlj« patriaroh 
Shan^ Aa t«nti Sbwaitio lamyiagaa ii an i^ipropriate 
naoM lor tbo grotq). 

The Shanitia fwcSIj of languagaa eonaMaof three 
'[irincif*! diraiuna, muncly, I. The AnJnc, of which 
tba IHmyulUc ia Booth Arabia and the iEUucrpio 
an ancient dialocta, 3. Tbe Araouean, which ia 
called Cbaldee aakeaiati In tfae boolc of Daniel and 
Um Tari^uma, and ii tbe Sjriac of the ou-lr ChH*' 
tlana. And S. The n«brvw, w]tb which tba'Pliu^- 
oUn, Indudinff the Puoli^ la clnedy alUed, if net 
identical, and tbe Aaajrian and Babylonian, whitbalao 



are cloaely allied to tbe Uebnw. Tha Sananitan ba» 
giiago ia, aa mi^ht ba aappoaed, a niaed laBjtwp, 
for when "the kln^ of Aaiyrin took Satnarlai wid 
carriisd laravl away into Aa^rii^aod placed Iboan ia 
llkloh and in Ilabor by the lirar of Goxan, and ia 
the uitiM oE th« Medea (2 Ela xviL 6), he taRi««fat 
men from Kabybn, and (rem Outbah, and tna An^ 
ivutl [njHi ItAniAtli, and from Sopharvaiow and nlaoad 
theca in the citicv of ftamaria inf liiad of the ehiichaa 
of loraal (d. xvlL 21). The deaoenduiU of thtae 
mixed pec^Jaa war* caUod Cothim by the Jew^ tn- 
bdlily from a ncdon^nuoe of the men of Cntsah. 
Aud it le afaited brf Nl^iolla that '• t^»t noB^ivaf 
Cutheao woida. Imported, donbUeaair, by tba «o)ob> 
i*ta,' are foond !n tbfl Samaritan, but Aa laalDaa 
and grammar prove the langoa^ to be eaaiBllallT 
SbeiiiLltl& An excellent aoommt of the Samaritaaa 
hy B«v. John W. Nutt ia prefixod to hia editka tt 
rngaMttM el a Samaritan Taigtun ll.oadon, I874t. 

T%e Sbemllie lantr<uuioa b**e peeoHaritie^ both 
Inrical and grARimititml, which oonatHnte tbetr di^ 
tiucLivQ (.'ln-LTU-'tcr, iLiiil widely tepanta them bwn 
tba Aryan and all otb«r tonfoacta. Tfaa i-KarMf 
in which thoao languagn aro wiittoi being knoan la 
few but Shianttic «cliolan^ they hava baea timndi* 
t#raU>J lutij ordiuary Roman type, !n order to enal'4e 
tbo more Ln^'lijb scholar to follow tbe Mated (acta 

Tho Shvmitjc inngnagce an written, and conit 
qnently na^from rioht to ]aft,exoept too Aatyriaa, 
Baliylonlaa, and MaUypia, wluoh an nadt m iht 
Bngliafa, from left to right And iboM tluee laa- 
gmfgoi are not written by m«ani of letton, bat by 
'ctarjM^n whidi repcvaent nylUblea. It may be 
ilifiLcult to itiiily a language s|iart bom tfae ateUMjd 
adopted in wriiiiijr it, bnt tba onl, not tha wiMaa 
bu^juagA ia whit ttio pbUoIotfist aima at aa as objecl 
for comparisoti luid etudy, thna tbe word iVialafc=a 
Idng whether it lie written In Hebrew OT AiiUo 
lottery with or without tho vawel-p<4nla, lo expraa 
bha vuwol*, or whether it be written In Awyriaa 
■ylioblo cuneiform charaoten^ or whether It be writ- 
tan, as in Hobnw, from rizht to left or aa fa ^tUo- 
plo from left to ri^t, tiie r.hjcct of tbe p&ilolt^ial ii 
to arrive at the duuyllaLiu word aMlel^ and lo atodi* 
oualf trace it la thooa laogtu^eai 

Tno Hvbnw bricift mon gaDoraQy faxrwa ^aa 
any o^er of the Shemltlo lango^e^ and IxAig a 
good tjrpe of them, may bo token aa a atandaad &• 
comiiariacqi. llolintwmmmariaoa, both native Mid 
foKthii, uiioo the time « BabU Jafanda BM^vg at tba 
end cj tho t«nth centiirr of tforent have adopted hii 
victr t>i*t Hebrew vrrhf are dorived frotn triUtenl 
nioU; tint ui,cociaiat of three lottora,aa*^[l( LSI 
which will be a verb or a aubataaUve aocordin^ to 
tho vowda pronounced with tboae cooaeamata. tbna 
titaiak, bo rfiifpoi]; fiutich, t^ rrrign: vitlrh, eking. 

TliL* TOutu at lLo tihcaiilic l>u;^iai(fi!s than an d»> 
■ylUluc, yet Ja»»j are monoeyUabio aa Ci (rfomli, 
blood. Their vocabulariea an caaantaaDy the aanwv 
eapecially for primitini wordi, wlilch eonatttiite tba 
orif^bud materlala of apeech expreariv* of ainpla and 
primitive idoaa, aoch aa let Wordadeaoluig pMsofN 
and family relation*-, Sd. NaniM of tba pftnclpal 
elemeota of nature aud tliu vjaible objeda of tba 
onlvcna; 8d. Kamea of oommon aidmab; 4tbL Tlw 
munarala or namaa of nnmbon; and Ufa. Tbe pr>- 
noona. Veriw alao denoting conuBon actlona aad 
atatea are enHotlally tbe aame, aa to eat, drin^ aaek, 
find, live, dia^ kID, walk, moember, aae^ heat, Ac 
It would oowpy ton mnuh fl[Mioe to eHe examTjM 
fn>m tbeaa doMWi of nunla in illuatratian of tb* 
wunvnMa of tha vocablea of tbeae laocn^nt bnl tb* 
tcreol faijt of tbe aamcaeaa can only b* eralalued \p^- 
their deaoent bora a common eourceb T^al eaortw 
iiaa been auppoaad to be one of the languagea — ^tm 



unfjf* M 
of the! 
Qltbafl 
.edfarfl 
eaoroa™ 
i-^tfaa 



PHiLOLoay. 



85 



Refamr, but the nmrkiling opinian is, tUkt tbe 
U<*braw u waD h uw otbcn or* (lMn«iiile>i from mi 
ftBCMtnl IftBf^QW* whkfa bu long bwa cxtiuct, aiul 
Urea «aI; in its dnennlAiiU. 

Tba gntaaarct Ui«m hitfiugM !■ kl>o CMenUallf 
Um mum, Tk« At*Uo ll (tab ta gmummtlral form*, 
bnl dm AjKjnuD b fir iiclMr,aacl wns bjippily termed 
by Dr. Umok^ ths Sftrakrit of tlu SannltlB laa- 
fw^^ Tb» aMo-«mdiii^ of Douna — m (noiDiiwtiva), 
■ fgM^T*), »nd n (nociuailvB>— of tbo priinitivB 
Sh ialri o luygB win only til Aaiyriaa and Aabift 
fthbooi^ nlliM of tlkM& Am foutMi in H«bMW wia 
.Cduofil^ bat tbej im,v* diMpj-cArcd from inodMn 

r«MQil pVHWiBM tnloag botfa to tlw l«dcciD uwl 
gt — m nr. xbay camot Iw dtrivod from rorb«, w 
mun ■abalanttv«n, "nuj are "»~"^ damcDta of thn 
vM'Baai itntum «f Ungrng*, uid banea thatr v&luc 
to ibf pbOolo^rt in tndaf tit* ganstJagy ot Ian- 
IW p«nctwl pronntnt in Um poindpal 

Ptssoyju. Pnoitia'sif— Sixgvulb. 
Ilnl Kno^ 1, ii of Cdmnon (icoulor. 



CbAliLia, 

iff**, 
Aa^tten, 



AAOtl Ifcd Aitl. 
Aiwii uul llUL 
Alw. 
AH*. 



g awoi Ptntn^ Thou, &U>Kuline uul Pvminins. 
Bahrww, . . mote. AHah, for AnUb; /nt. At. 
JUUh- „ Anl. 

ABt; „ AulL 

■toU; ., AMI 

AtU; „ AtU. 

Third ronoa. Ill ind Sn. 
CktUM 






inuc. Hn; 


JW. UL 






Bn: 


,. »■■ 




u 


Bu: 


.. HI. 






Rnwa 


: .. >l\ra- 




1, 


Ba: 


.. «. 



VWUlOVkL PkOHOCJla — Plosai. 



Tint Vvnaa, YT%, b of CDtmnaa Gender. 
M««*, . . AuM^M ^Mahsa, anB). 

Inirlia* [axhii*) 
ChaM. 
HaAoa. 

Penan, Ys, IfawiUine and Feiniiiln& 

Att«iB, (or AnMa; /n. AtUn, C>i Autan. 
„ A m ill. 
.. AMto. 
„ Antaa. 
„ AttaBn,fbrAjitiuiii: „ At(lDA.teAallBa. 

^'ntir>l pArUB, Thxt, MMculine uiil Pemudftc. 
llabnrw, . . MU(. Hih; /,m. Qon. 
■ Ct i» 1 *«, . ., maatmn; „ Hlaaao. 

H trttit, ,. Bhwb: ., iiaDta. 

W JbaUtk .. Haia: ., Uiu. 

li^ilM. . « aaaa: „ Slaa. 

T%m Ufcta i ol tbo pononal ptunouM in th«fla 
I — gitfM h battv dJiFbywl wbeo written in tiwdr 
owa iMtan thea by moaiui of tnuulikntion into 
Boaan btten. It iHQ tw otMmd that tb« Ai- 
evnan luijuuiiaM of tbo tlitrJ pv99(jvi ungnlar and 
flwal o^fiu witb «, wiiila tboae of tha otfaer lan- 
wilfa A. In other irord* aa Amyrkai « 
ta a Hebrew k: and Aryan pbUologMi 
of aodi eonopcodoioa In tlw Sanskrit and 
Zand, aa vail ae fai SMoe oS tba Odtk Ui^fucei. 

Wagnenta «< lb« panonal innmiiM aia ntffliied 
to wtrttntirea to txprcs tbo g«tutiv^ and tben 
mm aa poanadva tmnaaaa. Wben inttjied to 
orfaa, tlMiy wxjnm tba aecwatire. Wbta MtSxad 
to MTtlela^ itaay U|nn Oa genltiTe, when tbe pw 
tua tnclodaa tea twaidng of a auMaatlTe, bol the 



I 



acMiaatire when It faichidea the "— '^"c of a Terb. 
'llda ia oommcn lo tita Shantitic languagva, and it It 
nnnccn i L f y to ooctipy apace by quotinu a aeriea of 
worda wbkb would preaent a iJkeoeaa aa oIoM aa 
tlkat between the aeparata pfDiiaaiia. 

llui oonjtlgatioii of rvrba i* e9n.-tad by the addl* 

tioB either aa prdUw or affiua^ aad In ■oom ewei 
both, of fragments of tha pnsoml pnncma to Aa 
fmmjid-fonn of the verb. Tbo Hebmw baa aefon of 
uuaa ffR)tiiid"f onua in oonvmon um^ ma\A olbera of leai 
frequent nae. In the Chaldee, Syiiac. and Arabia 
kasnagaa a eonddcrablo nnmbar of fonna oocar, 
wineb are not foiinil in tlio cominciii gnunmua of 
thoae langnagea; tbaa Ecpeniaa rive* tbirteen fbmu 
of tbo inUo trUfteral vmb, H. da Saov fiftaan, 
Scfaoidtna apwarda of forty, and Mr. lAimaaan fif^, 
Tlie foUowing tabic exnibita tba simpla graimd* 
fona of the taaae witb prefixed Erajfrneata of pxK 
noona of tbe varh Paqod to licit, in tba Habraw, 
Aiwyrtan, Chnldee, Syriae, and Anbfe langn^sa, 
Ibe numurak denule tlw uetmmM cl the teiM^ and 
tba Iwttvn C, M, aad F dmoto tha genden to be 
oomnwu, uiuoiliocv and fvminine leapoctirely: — 



I. a 

2.11. 

r. 

a. X. 

r. 

I.C- 

p. 

3.11. 

r. 



unw 



Faqod, to \iaL 
lavifaa. 



lapqid 



Dtnnd. 

timodfMb 

(m\ta 

*tfpn'HtinS 



saiqid 

tapqlda 

U)iqUa 

Ipliilfi 

t|i^>ila 



anqoA. 

llliqiiii 
riMrai. 

IllMHll 

Upqitiin 
Uia'ilaa 



Bjriu. 

epqnd 

lf|it|'illn 

tapi|ud 

Dcrand 
Mpq'don 



iiq'lTia •nvpqVim 

lli^'daa I'niqi^'daii 



I Ankto. 

' la|i>iud. 
Oap(|iiiL 

tanudu. 

tapiuilua, 

7>pqw)a- 




Hw cosunaplacod between two conaonanta to tbe 
Hebrew aad CuUm eolnmns lapraoetita ibe norakle 
ahwa nnder the letter prac«ding it. And tbo oonatiia 
BO placed in the Syriao column repnanDtii an inaartail 
aocmd, unwritten, iHit to Im b«ard aulHiiently to 
f iffOllato tbe prcaHnLciation of the word. TbamonUa 
ahwa of the Hebrew and <3kaldM, and the nnwriUeb 
^jriac, an abort vowel Hmsdiv^.^^i^r be proaouocad 
aa the r of tlie wnd her, but ao' abort aa not to eon* 
atltule a ivllable. 

It wQl be obeorred that an aateriiik la [Jaoed bn 
the 11 ebrew column, and thr«« in the Syriac, in radar 
tu nark irrvgnlar fonm, whtob cannot be aoconutod 
for, and whioh are deeued to be ORmptiona tl the 
aueiiat and tn* fanui 

Tbe Indo-KorUMan and Ilia Sheuita langugea 
have been ptofonndly atndied. Tbnjr are wall aadced, 
and the mamben teeosalaed aa biilougias to aneh 
fall bitotbeb-proper placaaintbegroap. Theaetwa 
famillca of lanffuage^ howercr, contain but a nry 
fow ont ti the Luge number Uial exict om Iba aartb, 
aad of that lame ntunhar vny few have been atudlad; 
yet aome philowgbu group all remaining langnages 
togetlter under toe jpueral name IWanian. It woald 
be far bottar to tann Iham Uaplnoed, and to leaTo 
tbe term Turanian to deiignaea the Soythio buifugea 
of HigbAs!a,towUcliitwaallntafi^Ued. InSoalh 
ladia ia a group of allied laocoaMa, eompriabg tlw 
Tamil, Telugu, C'nnanau^ Ua^dam, ia., wbl^ are 
Bometiniee named the TamnUaii hnguagca, biit whlok 
Mr. Caldwell, in bta axcalleat Comparative rammai 
ot than, t«rma the Dravidian laAgn^ea. The word 
Dravida in Sanakrit meaoa an onfaaal^ aad thavldaa 
i* the comtry ol tba oalcaata^ which waa afiplied by 
tfccSanakritgeognuihcntBtlMTanilooantry. lliia 
Dnridian family of langnom ia not oounoctod with 
the Indo-Biirapean nor witfa tbo Shemitic, but ap- 
pean to be alUad to tbe Scythlo tongnei of Northan 



PHIWn/MJT. 



AaU.Bad 



pUlologMi Win* MpMidlr «itk dvtafat 



tbo FlaB cUn of tonfiM*. OvapaM wOlMtaDonr 



KTlbwl 



lakvtcli <d Um: diSssA 



Ifaa curth,: 



b U 



fS2:i?iErc hSK 



in Ma vtlda W* l»*« <!»- pnvias tbv to U WM^BdUi:; but h ;«( ' 



fsnuli 



ukbrief 



■tbeZwlo- 



to 



flOw a itw nmib OB tbMs two ;ni«|M. 

nUdtoffieil WMrtJMM hars ikswH teoad aad 
inukaal Hum betwon tboM tow enapa Th* 
efcjwl now b to «aaipM* tb« niuiiUif hmMiy di 
tbow fln«|a. Bw cas thb wnii bB it Se Wfjp! 
Tba iJliBi n m arimf g| tbA Indo-BDnMCii liniOj 
•ra abton dearatulrd fron mm motlMT. Tht now 
IBM 1)9 ittiil of tlfev nwrn^ftn <^ tke Sbmiitlo biDfly. 
bt IHilUit d tka bdo-Enrofieui ToafanlaiiM w« 
drev altorttfco la tlw iranb llMt an ombsmd to 
diMD, bat nid anthiiig coaovBing tbow wDfib whidi 
bvbo^ onlj to two or tiirw «< Um mnp, asd Ikir 
■Uch tiie ether memibm hmn a dm«nmt «urd — 
IhtM^ 0^ tba aaitfa, ia foanl oalj in tli« Urr^k, th« 
BaaJait bamg Dkara, Ifac X^tin, Odticv wul Gothic 
b«bg Tarfaat tooM €< Dhaim. Whm did tha ««n] 
GfoHMfpaait Did ft dMMsd frnn dw ueMtnl 
iH H iiifa L fir ma It fm p f rH dl n* maait tptemkm 
maf ba aaked ol man/ other wcadi^ aot «ulj Id 
OmdCfbnt b «acdi of tb« oUicr laagoagM of tfaa 
bmOj. Tlkm b afanadaBt a ridMca thai acoDs «f 
IbeaaaaBlaiy wardi bare been impoilad, bat aa le- 
inidl otfaar word* tbet« an raUd rwriiM to cooalder 
Aan of nativa origia, Santa langn«gaa of tb* EunSj 
km dapUcato wont (or tbe mmt lUng; tbna, w 
ai—kr i t baa two words for tba aoi^ Banel j, HaOib 
aad SnniML Tb« Gnck Il£lioi^ W«Ui Uaol, Ltfio 
Hoi, RUvoBW Bolnic, LiUmaiiian Sanl^ GotUo SauU. 
Iiiab Saole, are vaiiaiit fonu of tbe fonner wofd; 
wfella lbs Colhio dnpUata Saana, which alooo ia 
ntrdnad ia all tbo otbar TtaUaio dial««to «xcept tb« 
Sendlaama, b • ndaat Umm of tha lAtt«r word. 
Both worda mnat hara bo«i la tbe Tooaholarr of tha 
anetalia] lanvoam of the ^ido-R iir opeao faiBUr. In 
■KempttiM to uitltato a ooapailann b«t»««D tb« 
auunUaJ luguBega td tbtaa two familioa, Ibo voca- 
bolaitaa of each ncnber mtiat be ataplojed; but tbe 
wocda ia thcao roeabulaiieo an ratiaola ef tbe word* 
tf lbs aae«tral Unguiga, ao thkt a wtinl in tba BDoeo- 
tnl langniga ia not qalto tb« aamo fom that baa 
tema dowa to na hi aa3r of tha lirter dlalactiL We 
do neC know its )>r««ijM fm-in, bat we know iH form 
wilfain eerUin limiU, for it muat be cucb a form aa 
•oold otigiiiato all to daaoondad vaiiaata. 

Saudcnt enmnar haa beea of immciiaa nloo to 
lb* pUUo^t, for It haa enabled him to fiad the 
atetMBL root^ or atan of the worda in tbe vocabula- 
riaa of tiw Ind»>Earop«eii langiugaa. Tbaaa roots 
are mraioaylUbl^ and oommoauy ooonit of a vowel 
flanked on cadt aide hy a eooaonant^ m L>ff at tbe 
wotd toffa». lu Iheae langai^ei^ then, ttie wunl can 
be atrippod of it* anffixea rad aflEbto* to it* avdv form, 
■adlMBoetofteroot Kvanr Saukrit scholar knowa 
Ikht ngnJarijr words are built up from the root* in 
that tonffUf, and thoae who hare iqi^led the Seaakrit 
cnde form ejHtem to Latin and Gteak know bow 
DMcb light it tbiYiwH an the fomuttlon of wordA 

The roota td the ShcmiLic tan;^)'^ ■■" f"^ roota in 
the Indo-Eoropavi eonae of lbi» t«riii, for Ilt>Iirvw 
loeti^ for inatanoe, are actutl word*. Tbo varhal root 
ia the third penan ■inpibi' nuMCoHse of the pnstcritti, 
wbfctb b a diMylUMo word. Hmr, the queaUni) 
occar% Oannat thi* root b« *nalpi«il to a true root — 
one is the Indo-EniopeaD tentt of the tonn 1 Id 
abort, «■■ It not beradiued toanonosylhililof If 
111* actual roote of tho Ilobrow can he obtained, we 
najr CDOipan tbem with the Indo European, and 



and have I%litl7 Ornim Ihe Uvjlbfak wiad nU> two paiH w^Ti 



We have 



I thai 



haa« 



liar Ihe 



lOa- 



<«a< 



IWbto Dt TBnt In U Hebrew Lobes 



I 



•«"J'"Wi> 

IthM ^ 

iTbnH 



lat. Thm affftak nMjt ; >«d 9dlr. What baa 
nuted to it. In wna wocdi be fiodt the «!■'■ 
not to be the fin^ awl 1b ethan the MoBd qrlblfe 
One raenll of Umm nawRfeea b to Mtofefi* tbe te- 
mtwt tr«tb,thflk t heje-^ bd «(pafe rant wttk 
ita ttnitwi onneM Bowlilntac tna w^ ihmbiiI) 
tbe eldoM Mfied knom «f the laj^oj^^ Md tin- 
ton aanat nare bcvn ao mated ia |««biatocie taaca 

lakanaaia between e artah i flbeiuitio and Aijan 
wotui haTe becfi potnted ent wj ummuj 
bare tbdr ralo^ bat worda toti^wiiilid fe 
fi tbe aoua^ ibmy lypnwi, aa the Behraw paren k 
brak, Bost not b« oompand with the Imtinfimf, 
Gennaa irerAea, and Soribh (real:, Cor all ihiB 
hare bMD lo oonafemctod B their aereral 
All impcrtod wonb mnat aba be enisded; 
aUowaaee baa bean made lor aveb woadtav 
ilfll mujr that an partial^ <r wbeUjr aBt» b At 
two jamflba of laynwa. The Itbh laafaaoa «w^ 
bv — "^w* resectable itfiolan at hvat, ^ iiwi 4 tab^ 
allied to the Hebtew, bat Dr. Pikhaid |am«d At 
Iriah Mvdl aa tbe oth« Cahie laogoagea to b J 
manbtn of tbe Aryan familj. Hb praoCa an botb J 
IfiTJ^al and cnumnaticnl (eee hb Kaatam 
the Cdtle Natboa), wUdi ha«« beea 
Pktal and othac^ and which are aocaptad 
philelqglMa. A aaci>ta6o compariaon of tbe t«« 
>-"■'**— of langB^ee baa jet to be made, wUdt can 
only be roncemfal whan tbe lettet afaaagea of tht 
Shonitie langoieca iball faara baaa detamiaed 

Dr. PritMJd draw apecfal attoation to aone n- 
marknble likeaeaHa between eone AtTon aad Shea- 
bb wofdi of tbe aame algnlftealhn, and added U 
the liat ai^Ffied b; Gtaeoiiia, Le^ and otheok, Tb* 
following wurdi are dUaBy taken twtm l>r. I^ifcharl 

Tub NcxEEAta. 

to 
TTtlrJ. llithai'ClLtL 
BtToD, ■ba>a, aboWOlobJ, 



I 



Anbb, 1^ . 




Dar. a EHvnlala (lI*ti.X 
Ijudi, pn>)itii. 
LdacIi. k (toiia taUs, 
Katan, t, turn. . 
!iMr, a jwutli. • 
Nulnh, ■ riuJilai, 
OIdID. ui t». 



. J Latin. 

On*. 

UMah. aflatetaaa. 

KenvkOncna. 

Kuah OknakrilX iaitfflmia. 

Nari<aHMkfitX 

Ollu tlAHa). 



The above aiirciiQeiu uf Ukeneas do not exhanat tha 
inataaeee, and I>r. FUnt'i naeanbea Into the Hebrew 
roots point to mnn^ mora nwta than bo haa stated to 
he coDunon to tha Aijan and Sbemitic ^ndlMa of 
Ungnafos; hat the results of hb reaeniebaa nqahe 
oonfinnatlon by invaatlgatioaa of • KodbrBatva br 
the roots 00 npMtlml in ^ words ef the Other Sbendde 
Ungn&gce. Tho labnnr of tbcae Inreatigaliaiia b ttrj 
great, and tbe time required for their oontplstlan a 
fang. The lahoar b one of Iotv, and incapable of s 
money remuneration, but tlie cnlleetioB « erfdcnos 
to eatahlish truth is a aatisfscliua, and eqieciallj to 
establish >s a truth of sdence that eUtemant of tbe 
ins[ilred writer, which we receive with rcntrenoei — , 
' AXD TBB wnoLl KASra WAS OT OKI USaDjUU AEB | 
or 0X1 arucu.' 




PHILOMELA-PHILOSOPHY. 



57 



PHILOMELA, in Gndt mytliolosy, • dmvbMr 
al PukdkKi. idttg ol Athuiu, who wm tra&ifanned 
Into * sb^tuiKftlu. An-unJinR to tke TiLblo Pru^n^, 
airtar of I'tuiorocla, nuurii^ tho ThrmUii pnnoe 
Tcrraii b; wboiu ilut had a sou, Ityx. ^Vhcnl lt)'> 
had giDVB ra> Terau went to Atbtna, an>l At ttkt 
pVmUAMI ol Ilia wife took ber ■ixtor wJtb him ou Um 
ratmn. On Um ■vny T«nn» TioLatod Imt |i»ruiii, luiil 
to tanetal U« orfnie out out bur tus^c But Piulu- 
melA mvle It laidwn to Ptq^tm by muuia ol aaxat 
tApcatry, un which ahe eiubroidcrcu ber ator;. To 
gntlty their rerai^ thoy munlorcd It^ uid awod 
Un up to Ub tathcr. \VhciL he mw thu rvuuiiu of 
Ul MM b* jmaQBd tham; but thej- Invoked tho goda 
for h«lp^ AM Umjf wore iJl inunc'liAtnly triuMfonned. 
Prapw fled to llw wooda in th« tuna cf n nii:btiii(^« 
buBratinii for Itya. PbOdmeU ntoumfiiUy nttmd 
Tirm vaaot tho fona of a avallow, lu brvkuo chirp- 
tnp^oa aoaoiiiit of tb« titutil&tion of htir lottgaa; and 
Tacvoa, in the tvna at a Ispwtn^, titUrvd a i^iennnn 
poa or wov. Another nury mAkee PhUomet& thni wUn 
aad tbft iiigiit»ig»l* And Progua thu iusl«r and the 
■wnllow. 

F1UL0P(EU£N. the Inat tfnwt mllJMrjr cum- 
mnndar vt tl» Gnvki^ wna bom At MofpUopoUi^ In 
AKAdin, about Lc. 252, And After the oarly dcAth «f 
hia £aUi«c wm cdncAtcd bj CIcMider, a nable Manti* 
Biwt TwoBndainlcaliituloaoptienw«t«libteucben, 
■ad iaMiUed into hun Ugh principlM of hoootir and 
|lAtiinrinn, DiaindiDcd to » lifo of atudr, and thint- 

Sfbr astavfiae, military glory wm fiia aatbitimi, 
to tliAt «U hia youthful exndaM worv Jdnuud. 
Sn wautr bad fao begnn to be*r Arau than ho joiood 
Us cuantojriaen In tbdr tncnrnoiM into the Ijpartan 
larritatw. WWn ho waa thirty y«aia old Cloumoaea, 
Unw of Sparta, sai|viaad Hagafopalifl bv nlglitt and 
T h iwp npawB , who liad WMioecwfiuly WwavounMl to 
mptl htai, eoTtfed tiM ratnat of Ui feUov-dtlfeai 
to Havaao at Ibe axtnue hatard of bia own liAi. 
la tba tbUowiag ywu- wbaa Antigonui^ Idng of 
Hacedoaiat oatoe to tho aaiistanoa of tbo Acfasans 
agfiatli CUatueaa, Philopamoi icHned him with tb» 
^«alrT«< Ida naiir« plao«,and diatJagulabod hlimtelf 
ia tha Mtlo oC Sallaafa. io wfaidli thm Spartasa worv 
totally daCeattd. After thiAbawrredfw Bomo yean 
la Um Cnlan wan aa a volnnteer, and, rotunting 
tbenoa with a high laimtAtlca), li« nceived from the 
Ar^laal^a tha oanunaod of tltetr cavalrr, which undor 
falsi bacaOM fortaldabla dutmghaot ul Greece. In 
a battW with tha ^toUaaa and Bleana ha kilWl irlib 
Ua own hand th* oonmandor of thtr Elaau cavalry, 
and tbui doddtd tha rictory in Ua favour. In 208 
BjC h» WW qppolutod mttUgiu or eanmiAndor-iQ- 
duel of tha foirwa of tha AdaBan Lcaguoi. Af lor 
haviav raocnnisad tha Aohiaaui aimy ho led it into 
tha Ud agdurt Maduuddaa,tynnt of Sparta, whoM 
broBA ba ricnaQj defcatad. hinuoU Blayuig Machan- 
IdAi witb hiB own hand. Ho Aducaaa parpotnatcd 
tha mwnory of Udt achlevemejit by the erartion of a 
bniu* atattw fat tba tatopb of DalpbL In 301 ha 
waa again olectad Mtalfyiu of tlw league, aiul dn- 
fated XaU^ the auccTjMur of Al^ihaniilAx. Ifn 
aflarwania want to Cn-t« « toouod time, Ut bikv the 
wnaand of the fonea of Gortyna. He rotunioU to 
Palnouicaat In 194, and two yaara later was again 
Bffwmled MDonl of the league, and took tbc Sold 
Bgaiart VJm^ wfaoai ha oooe more defeated. NaUb 
wae Bogn aAarwanli murdcnd. ood PhilopcBiiwa 
iadoioid tha SpartAOB f> joiu Um Acluraa Louob; 
hulk Moa bMotting diiaAtiafii^d, they Mi[«rat«l from 
tha oeBfiadeney, «ad CAlIod iu the Ituin-tiia U> their 
■■faUaMk FUIoparaea,BaeaaunAnderof tbo AchiB- 
aa^ dadaiad war BgabMt SpArta, and, hAving taken 
the d^, teaated it with Un grtnteat aevority. K« 
eewunaaded the S|«rtaiu to deetroy their walla, to 



dlsnua theii mvreonAriw, to wltnlt the cxflee^ it 
expel the aUree who hod bMn at-t ffca by the tyraJtt^ 
and aubatitutc tbu Achftan code for tho lawe of Ly> 
rnrgiia. 'Che Itoimuia, howevor, interfered, and finally 
prcvAilcdon the fedetal ooojjTeaa toadinlt SpArtaagabi 
tutathcoon(edcrAcyABAaindMende&tBtat«. HiM^ 
waa tbia aSair aelUod whan HoMene revolted. Via- 
topoDDiBn, thoogh broken by infirmity and dlaenaB, 
inardied agabuit the Insuigiinta, and At fint beM 
them baclt; but waa afterwArda attacked vith aoch 
fury, that he wam obliged to give wn;, nn>l, falling 
into the hands of tbe eueniy, wan cirriad in cbniua 
to Mcaaeae. Here he was cast Into a diuigcon. aud 
oompeUod to drink pcuoo. Thoa died (k.u 183) one 
of the greatest genoral* of Oroeec^ whom tbo Andenta 
coun^d to Hannibal and Sdploi The oewa of hia 
deatk filled the wholo of Pcloponnwna with griaf. 
Ilia AAhoB were trantported to hia native city with 
gn:at |">np, Pnlytiini, thn liixtorian, carrying the 
UTD ; atutuM win« retiiKHl to Un uiemory in moat of 
the Graoiaa cltl<3^ and a yearly oflailag waa nude at 
hiii tomb by thn city of MegalopoliM. 

PHlUlS(»PHKR-8 STONK 8« Auramu. 

PUlLOSftPHY (Gnwk, yKir.>ev}.hUi, love of win- 
dom) in a term which wu brat briiugbt into gonond 
nao by Socratflik who employed it to denote the 
acienca that deala with Uiu cauaes and exiit^iace at 
thine*. The orfglo of the term ICadf ia attributed, 
though on doubtful authority, to FyUugoraa, who 
tuodntly Mtylod himself piiiloiyikot, lover of wiadom, 
in ounlrTudialincLiou to the mora preteutiuna title of 
tofAot, tho wiae, am^ted to tbemaolvea by atnte of 
hu predeouaaam PhuaaophyiaAacMoce;lnit,unlikfl 
iitbts adMioe^ It it not oonveraant about any qiedal 
rau^u of pbeuomcua with thoir approxiinale cauata, 
bat deals rather witb tbe gtmeral nrlac^laa which 
form the V»»S» of thtae idencea, and of wUdt Uiey 
thonuelvea tolia no oo^l&ui«>. It follows up the 
ifaid of experienoe to tbuir ultimate grouuds, rtvard- 
ing each particular fact in rulatien only to a final 
prindplc, and aa a detenninate link In the sjatem of 
knowledm. In tliia riow philoaupby may be defined 
as the actsaoe of priudulee. It cau never, bowavar, 
bo i^ardod aa a cocupletod adeuca *o long as naa 
i« in a atate of development, for it nuat always WAit 
upon Uko lawa uf this duvelopment. The pro^preaa o€ 
the eclenoe will bebeataeen m Its hittai7,wbidipr^ 
Mnta us with a scries of idiilosopbioal mtaou exhiHt* 
ing thought tn its vaiionn stagos of daTalopacob 
Accordingly in what follows wo abatl endeavour to 
traoo a brief outline of tbe history of philosopby. 

The Autory if pUttuopAy ia the rclatios of the 
moet important attietnpta to nallie tbe ideas of phD- 
ueopliy, or, according to TeBaemaon, the pragma- 
tical reimscntation of the gradual doretopmMil of 
phQoeophy as a sdeDce. 1 1 ia of great value as 
one of the most important branches of the history 
of human dviliioUnn, and prcecats tho moat iB> 
portant prablema of philii«ip1iy in their true nteaa- 
iDg, eitent, and couiloctiou, lUuatratea the varioBB 
pliiloauiibical ayatems, anil affonls a mirvey of the 
I'nj^HM and al»rniiicmi «£ the human mind wbidi 
tcadiea the luuat imU^ucUvo Icaaoua. The history at 
pbUoeophy b commonly divided into the Andoot, 
middle. And modern. Some divide it Into the Gteelc 
(including tbo Greek pbiloeuphy In tha Roman Eni- 
pire) and the modem Kurcipeao. In this dlvUoa 
tba phQoa»phy of the middle sges fomu. bb is obvi* 
ooM, the tnnaition. The fitat rwrlod begins with the 
ar«ek, becansov though the maposltlota. to philoso- 
pfaim is oonlinad to no psitlcnlAr SAtlon, bat ia in- 
herent in aU. so that anry hdln foma pbUosophloal 
notions OS won sa Its lell^ons ooaeeotlooi pus one 
iaUi mSe^tiun, aod ita feelings into doabt, yet pbOo- 
so|iby was fint atudicd sdentifienlly by the Greeks. 




AmmC hli non-MoMde vrorlu tn a TnMav dc MuikI! 
ZnooRUptibOlule, ud Do Vlt* ConterapUtlvA uid 
Qnod Omnis I'robna Libor, which tf«*to oi ttt* 

Before the tlin^ «f Pfailo t1i« heUeiilzed J«wi (wa 
Rkllkiisr*), r«rticultttly thoM of jUoxutdru, hjul 
bagaa b> blena the IiIcm of tb« (ircrk |iliilM> rphnrn 
wittl tho iMohins uf the-Ir <nwii Mwrod boolci; but a» 
the; gofianlly bvld that tb« rpoUilouch itcolf wb* the 
•onroe of lasplimtfaD from which tb« Gt«d)u derived 
wbal ffu Cma in tboir pblloBophy, ibtj AH not bcorov 
•BittcUy fmm tbcm, hut arrived at •Jniitar cnnclunooa 
by (Jlejjurical iuterprvtaticiiu of thctr (iwa Iwoka, and 
vva by tbo taventJon t>t H^>uriuus vnea. Il was iu 
thii Aiejundriaii scbool of bdloniiad JudaiBm thai 
Philo wu hma|[ht up. ]lc did not rvcn knnw Uk; 
H«br«w S«>rii<turaa except tbr()ni;h the Sc]>ltMf[iDt 
vcm^^n. Ui» pbiltMophf was tbna etrictly a tbaoto- 
phy. ItrG«ted,M!taclir«ctfotindatioii,nnth»Jevn>b 
Scn|iturea m ma iiwpired tvrclAliun, And with th«ie it 
b)carpant«d tha ■pacul&tloiu of th« writ«r fuundei 
on th« ■j»brau pf Qrask philoaopbv wliich beat hkr- 
nwnlzed wftli Aa tMidbingat thft H«brew Scriptiirea, 
M riirtA ftnd Arietotte^ In the fonn of commcata on 
and dednotMHiafitimtliCMicrsd text. Tberounaithar 
mncfa depth of orijiUud ^wcnlatioit ncr mnob Ivgical 
ma^tcficj' or anontUic coinplettioeaa of qnrtcm Id 
I^ila (In tbe nthcr bADd, bo wm not AeRdait in 
COOUtnirtiro iwwor, otul hU worka fnrm tbo Inst 
rnmamtAtivo of tli* Ciioou-Jewi»b [ihlluiuiiL}', 

FbQo'* iilen of Uod was rartly NlielcruB, portly 
pMlotophicaL Frr^ai hia faitb m a Jew hn dcrivol 
tba principle tliat Cud la to b« ironbipped w n nar* 
aoiul briiitf, but in d«T«lo|ine Ida ODDOaptiou of Qod 
be I> tudL-Ued (jbii-fly to pliBoMphicsJ ■pecnl^aona. 
Ha hold that God is inoorporeol and only cogniiaMe 
by rcoKin. He i* titt-. mciit univrraal of boiag^ nod 
lugber than knowlwlgc^ goodnaa^ ar boanty, per vt, 
tia haa^ strictly qiealilD;, do attribnto, being pnrv, 
iinqualHied being: he la therefore inaiinpreben«lilc. 
Tiie atCribntea aacribed to Uod En Soripturo an to be 
undvniiwd only fijrontivdy. God i* preBeot arory- 
where in thu mnteriiU tiniT««o by hia npcratinn^ ; 
DOnht-rn in Lui inuaioe. Gud in the oidy free bviit);. 
otben ar« Mahjact to Ufceaslty. i'bUu'a nnli'jua 
matter an not lemarlubly oonnitaiiit, H« favM 
d to be too perfact to have any aaaodaUoD with It, 
yat be hotdi him to be the Cnatur of the nolvBraeu 
Matter, which haa only aa apparent cratcnco, i> the 
cmnaa of all evil, u oppoaing reaiatance to the tmat^t- 
menta of the Creator. In fta primeral atato it ia 
MHive, Ufelaae^ and dMlitute of quality ot form. 
Uefewe«u G«dand Ibn Kmld tiiere b ao tntenuiHliiLtv 
bdnj, the Logoa. Philo wavnn la Ui acwunt of 
the I«Koa alaa Hie Lup* i* tb* nort OBlTrnval of 
bU btmga exoapt Qod. FhOa pcnwftiflea tha Lokkn^ 
bat not ao OQD«atent!y ax to render it certain that a 
dlaUnot penon aud ucit a luora emanation or anom- 
blacv ol attributee !a iat«ad«d. Tbua he rvprMeut* 
Gm aa the aourcs of U^hl, the Logoa aa tha noamt 
drde of llf^t proceeding from it, and each acparate 
power aa a aepanrie ray. The Lotfoa omtalna in itaolf 
tho Bon of ideas — powan or apoitual fotma whieh. 
pcrrnda tbo nniTen^ and which arocnativ^ govettL- 
uig, [ureamng, biw girmji; Ac Thtan fonna arc 
aao raigarded aa either qualittea of tha deity or dla- 
thut perauK Sopliia, viadotn, b aometimoa con- 
aktarM aa the fitat of the potencies of the Ijogoa, 
tetmatim** aa the mother of Uie Lugis. Gud created 
tbeworid,aaalrcwly indicated, by theAcvndm of theaa 
poteodea, or of tbe Ix^ff^a U> wncm they realde, out 
of no^uaUfied matter. Ha ^vaa the Logoa the titlea 
of SeoofUcd, l'arackte,and UediatorbctwcoDGod 
and Man. FUlo added an element of myvtioam to 
hb Platoalo apogalatloDa. He held logloaiid pbyaica 



U> be Eiiferiur to uielapbyaloB aa a auotal dian pl& m 
ani tba high«et attainaant of phlloeofdiy to M tfw 
intuition of irod, which b attaaud tfarragfa dlTfaic 
iUuminalion hf meana of aeU-rennnciation and tha 
resi^atlcm of finite oonadooaaaM to tha divine infla- 
coco. 

In fnterpreting Scripture PUlo recomUieaa donUa 
»<>[iiie, til*? ihUririirical, vtliii^h is the hi^er and mere 
im|;KirtAiit, luid tht> Utitrid, which U nnt tab* neglected. 
The anthrvpomorphio rvpieaiiutationa of God la Serip- 
tore he reg&nkd u an aooommodatioa to tlw •moal 
nature: of man. Kvcn in hiatarr the allegDrical WBia 
ia never wanting: thi^a be divided the l>ira bito 
unwritten laws, which areoontalned in living pattemat 
u Abraham, laaa^ Jacobs Moaoa, fto., aad wiittM 
lnw>, whioh aro contained tn particular precttta. Il 
ia a fundauiviital }>riucji>le w)tb him that the bw, 
whkih em^uatHH from tba Btiaff who ia both the 
croator and the fnthrr of tbe onirene, b In hamDiij 
n-ith lUiturc, and that he who vioUtd it ta pnaiahed 
by natural eteuta. He who Uvea aooording to the 
law of Moeoa ia adtiun of thewerid Hodefoidad 
the outvrard obiarvancea of rdfgion afalssl tlioM 
wbo would Iiavo reduced thera to mere ajnbola. 
'AHIinii^hriiviimKiiirin,' hr Ktid, * properly ajmboHaaa 
the rvjouval uf all puasiou and •eoauallty aau Ifptwi* 
thonghta, yet we may not tbarefcn aat ulde tka 
pnu'ticc <iiijriincd: for in that caae v» ah4Mild be 
olitiged to Dire up the jmbtic worabip of God in the 
tempW, auu a tliuuiouid oiher ueeeaaary saleraaitba' 

Tho whole of I'bilo'i works an not aztant. Soma 
tientiiva havu Iwcn rri-^ovi^nil by Angein Mai load 
Baptist Aucher iu pnUutiaeBU. Critic* differ aa Id 
the arraiigemvDt of bb Moealo oonuaeatariea, and a* 
to tbe fact of their having beon origfaially eontianona. 
Philo'e worka have been edited by Thooias Maanr 
(London, 1713), A. P. PftriSer (Eriangen. IZSS-H; 
■ooond editian, 1920) , C. K Richter (Lenpzig, lSS8-34)t 
A atctwtyped edillon was publbhed at Letpci^ 
1HSI~£3; and there are amreral editions of partionlar 
treatiMN. J.G. Mtiller, AngiistOfk«rar, A.F.IMm^ 
Gmmnat], H. Planck, and nnuwrooi olfaar bAoIk^ 
have written on Philo. 

PHILOLOGY. Ililnword b the Eogliah fm 
[^f thu liriMik jihiiiJtrjia, antl it fonoerly carried tha 
•nine eitcuiti^'u niguificatiun ; but it b now ndovtad 
to alt^nlfy tha scEtmca of laiiiruaAe. It b difflenll la 
defitie the sicnificatioii of j>hiM«yi<i, for it appean 
oidy to have Iven iianj in n meuc ititiae to oompaba 
all literature aud euuio edeuoe. Thus er^umar, 
rhetoric, logic, critiabm, poetry, oratoir, biography, 
ikiid hiitory, Itavo all been in-eluded under tbe tana. 
And all kciniL-u that wua not philoaupby, In the Qraefc 
MDM of that tenn— all. Indeed, that oould not be ocn- 
prised within tho limits of philoaoidiy, waa onbnwid 
ander tha general term of phIIoti»y; ao that pbilotofY 
bocMno a refuse for all that puloaophy exdode^ 
ntthor than a oslinH] diviidon of gaannU knoMle^Ba* 
It w!U be ai«ou thut the aubjecia eomprlBod uadsr bm 
term iihilnlogy were nnt united by any bond ol eon- 
tiion Rharairt<triiitii.-9i. hut by the sole circnmatancotbat 
tliKj wfre Dut plJIocupby. Tbey nigbt b« UgUy 
phi]oeopliical,aatbu masterly treatises of Ariatotlaca 
Ig^c And rhetoric have universally boon deemed to 
Ik; but if tht-y wore nnt pliiiiaopby they wen thrown 
b^yMiid Its Uiuudury, to find m refuge under the 
Cioncrral term of philoIi>^. A pervon udUed la phi- 
lology was colled pJtUoIeac*, a term which Mrteaponda 
to our philologist, phUtJoRian, or pbilologer, only 
ttiaao tcrau^ in modem timaa, bat's afaared la tbe 
liroitation of meaning which, as alniady nmarked, 
tbe word philology bak undergone. 

The Romans adopted much from the QvadoL 
CSoero Admired and dnenty ntudiod the Oredl lan- 
guage, phQoeopby, and Ltvnturv. He did moob to 



milk* Gnelt learain); fiutbionaUe In Rom*. CIc«ro 
dlTUod Ui wnttDci into two cUttei; tha oratioiu 
coaititBtttI ana elM, and tU his other workii the 
otber, wUdi ha dcwnniDktod philiJoipo]. Hevcral 
of hb treatiiM, ■■ that on the aaturo ot tbe god*, an 
|)hilaaD|>UcaI, tnt ka vnta DoUuog on pMloaophT 
itaelf; •■> that hi* clMufioalJini u after the Greek 
tDOiiel; jret b« full tb>t hi> uraUoma wera not fhilologj, 
kttd ba plMad th<m by tbamMlvw^ apkrt from both 
pUkaopaj asd philology. 

Aftar tha nrinl ol lettMS the leaniad men fit 
B Mot W mIo|i4m1 the tenna and diatiaotiooa ci Greek 
phUoao^T and litaratura; and tarn* Bdopl«d tlia 
teim fwWtfnuL irtiidi b found aad«r tho cnitnved 
{WftndliflfdlMlivuiafaadadtoUn of the period The 
raadar will obaam, bowevar, that th« ]«arnaJ Bn«n 
of Bnrqw adoptod Ui« word pASoTosu tn a diffravot 
aioaa Iiud what tbe word rf^fied In Greece anrl in 
Rmml In Greece the term waa a}i[i£i«l to a mui 
whowaaleuiMdinthagrmmnuu-, criticMin, anil litnni' 
tnra of hia iDotbn'-toni.'ue. It waa the aanie in Bomo. 
Bot in Europe all the leunliiK fn Us motherton^e 
would eouDt for nothine; ho murt be loanied in twu 
foraipil— gnagBainorawtobodaeineda fAfloiym. 
The Gradu o^ed all langaigBa but Ibeir own bar- 
buvua. So did tba Sotnaoa. Tb» iMiuod tncn of 
EntMMi, with atrango inoonaiatcnc;, agreed with both 
tha OtMica and the Bomana ta •Li^fuuitixe all other 
Imgnagaa aa barbarou, aod, bj way of onntnat, both 
««n tannad Icanwd lai^^acts. Nodoubt naarl;^ all 
aeeolar laandag at the rctival oC letter* waacotititknorl 
in Iha Gnali adid Latin laceungeai but, aa Hr. Onb- 
batt acutely nrauifcad, tbrt oirouBwtaave doM Dot 
naka tha languacM leanwd, 

Tba aobjwta oonqniaed under the t«nn philoU^ 
hnv« aach boco ao aludJed, doreloped, aud expatuieU 
faj modKB iiM|Dii7 aa to faaoDOM gnat cautraa dl Icnow- 
It^ih Thoitbeutfqaftriaoatadlaaothfranliqiiitiea, 
WlfiiBfi^ n iitniwnBtira. dwoDolo^, and hiitarv thnn 
tboaa «rf Grmoa and Bema. The xrowtb uf iheK 
MWnl labjccti into Urgt dlmaiuioiia. aul tbeir char- 
■rt»iaticB being ao diffnrcnt from whnt th«^ were 
WliiA Unitod to the tbiupi uf Greece and Rome, 
laara togathar lad to the dimee of the term phllolc^ 
la iia old aanae; and tba ttiidy of langnagw linvinjr 
Mntnad a dtaractar and imnoita&w whieh it nerer 
bdfisra poaaeaatd. tha new acunoe — Car auch the pbi- 
by td langua^ ia— bai lacdrad tha name of 
27- Tkit tern, lioirevor, baa not y«t obtainad 
itod titlo to natne the new aotencei, for otbcia 
n adopted. Sir John Stoddart propoMid the 
^omMoag and ^oaaogruihj ; bat aa tbrne 
maM otur tbo lasleal, to tha excluiiiii of the 
1 part, thaj bara ool bean reoelTed. 'Hie 
I llngoiatio aeUnee and Imgniatica, althoogb not 
in oaa in Gnmt Britain, are froquontly hrard 
» Continent Ilia objectioo to tlie t«rma ia^ that 
ftMn wbo la able to rand and write aavaral laagaagen 
h dadenatad « UngulaL Now a man nay be a gr»-K[ 
Saniat, and jat care aotiilaf to know th« phlIi«oi/1iT 
IM giBanlogy of langMM* HenarbealK' torK»(l 
* write a nombar el oUEemd tangiia^rv, but jet 
BO Intarcat in tndiig tbo relatiannhip nf miH 
» to another, nv in nacuUtioui on the origin t<f 
_ t. llie term UDirnift, then, abvady i^propH- 
~a man -who la ikTUad In kngnagM^ leaToa tbo 
lam pMlologirt aa a dcaignatlon fur tim whu ctudii-a 
'■«y»g— in order to trace tbntr rwl.-tilrinthliM u»il 
ganaalfulea, and the allied word phili>logy ii iho 
nanie for tbe tctcncei Tlw eAabUahment In Iiondnn, 
in 1641, of a aodety for the adTaDMni«nt of pli]]o< 
Ivicnl acianoe, aod named bj the tbnntdera the 
fVMoffloal SodatT, and the oenTenlenoe ol lading 
tba adanoo named W one word, and that a subetan- 
llv^ wfU ptobaUjr nduoe tbe learned to (.grea b 



rwMgniring thv term philnlogy aa th« name nt th« 
■cience wbvav aim is f> duvelop the pluloaophjr of 
lannuf^ 

Philology haa a vido scope: for it nima at deaorib. 
inc; all thn languagM novr apnkrn nn the rarth^at 
detcnnininiT tk^ affinitlt* and nsIatiuuithifM to taeiii 
other — at tradng the anteoedont lan^agea of each 
living apeoch up to ite firat anceatral tangna^e— at 
detennining the afflnidea and lelationalilpa of thciae 
anteeedent and uioeatral laoguagea to ew>b otlier^ 
to make out the gvoMlogy e( each, and thua to arrive 
at a knowledge of the natural histAty nf language. 
Tbe pbilulo^^ foeU aa luncb tnlerrat ia dAmilyiag 
lansvagca Into family groups u the zoologist does in 
danrifying "■'''"*i« into family sroupvt Sut howovar 
grftst nay be the interait whk£ atlachaa to a know- 
ludtiu L>r language^ tbo phUtdoglBt fe^ that such 
knowledge has « gntator Intorost and a biglwr value 
when applied as a means b> an cnd—ns a means to 
■Milve iminrtaiit ciu<Mliana in [iliiluaojihy, in history, 
and In euiuulo^, 

Tbe liiatory of phiSolcgy Ii Uko that of otlior scioncw 
— its origin, n few fsnto obtained by cnnpirical obser. 
vation, which wrrealowly ui^iui'iitvd by otber* rained 
in a limiliw mnuner, nnd thn wlinle remaimng a 
crude aDdigevtnd dims fur a loiii! time Morv ap[<ra- 
priate fdnui were brmight to bear iipnn them to bring 
tham Into shape. But as soon sa themi ideas w«re 
applied the enipJrioal tmoit ware verified and reviewed 
irith a pnipoaa, the dgniflcnClnn of the facts was 
understood, and liiQUar facta were soiii^ht after in 
other laoguagea. Tbe facta brongbt to %bl by tlieae 
rssiawhea ware exaoiload in relation to tbeae previ> 
oody known, and all in relation to the Ideas that were 
supplied by the phllolosl<^ The facta were analysed 
and classified, now principles wore sum, laws were dis- 
covered, and thn aecumulatod knowledge gimduaUy 
nMiuneu tbe elianci«t8 of » eUudfieatory mieuBO. Am 
tba space Maugned to tbe article PhiIjOUMT doea not 
allow room to fill in this sketch with the hlstncioal 
detoila, wo shatl refer to a few authorities to enable 
tho rrailnr to collcrt thetn for bimaelf. In tbe BesU- 
iiiUuu of Deubyctl Iut«lli);H&c« in Antiijaitie^ by 
Kicbsrd Varetegan [IBO.*!), tbe mader wiU find pn>- 
fonnd views oa tbo value <^ phflolugy in dotemtining 
qunatlooB of history and ethnology. Verategan wb« 
a Tentonle achotar of a liu^e nage of luttnagea^ 
compritiog the living Hcandinaviam tongues. He wh 
uuwoa to fiompare Um Oomian and Fonnan Ian- 
gnagea. In order to determine the queation then 
mooted of the Porsian origin of the Gennans. He 
took great pninn to ntitain a Veriisn vooabulary for 
tbo purpose, and at last dupcnded on a eomparison 
made for blm by a friend in ItAly in luul. i_hi that 
ioformatiou, aHhoDgh ho finiml c-rrtnin words to be 
■like, lie decided tliat the German is nob deaoeudeil 
from tbe Peialan. He censored the Fenian to be 
no more connected with the I^tin, altbongh otvtain 
word, are commooi fa> those tonguei^ than the JjUin 
and Welsh, and 'broken Latin words' are fonnd In 
tha Welah langug*. Ha aaya he has beard that 
Ifobrev words are fonnd in tbo Irish laneuwe, bat 
not enough la make tbe Irish to bo ' ffood HebriidBna.' 
Ilia (-oinpaHsou of the English and Uutob languagee; 
in order to ciltiMt a 'noeraees of i pescb,' and his 
eompMisiw nf the Forrian and I^tin bj menna of tbe 
linl i^re verses of tbe Brat chapter of GoMib^ in o»der 
Ui tttbibit a 'famsM of speacb,' are ipecfmana of 
lingual oommrfson made In (he earliest period of tbe 
hlKory of pnllology. Veretegan was s travuIlLT. and 
obt^ned hu kaowledcc* of the InnguAi^tn by rntiilBnee 
in the ooontrias In wbirh tbi-y snr ni-okmi. Ha was 
not nnere Une^Usl. He miUnLuuM that England 
«aa originally connected with Knnce by coalinaaaB 
tand fnm Bonlogne to Dover, and bis argnnMOla 




mteamat, howerer, td DcMutM was SplnoHL Tba 
•ohmns (it SpinoiA roducM ttM three CArU«i*n anb- 
stesOH to onit^r, to one inKnite origiiin] ■uIuLuidc, 
tiu groaDd of kU Uiji^'b, that ticlii>W tram Iljelf ftU 
MSl^aa or doUtmunation. ud is luunnl God or 
utMie. To thi« beioag ia> iniinito number of ftttri- 
balM^ of which two oolj ara knun-n lo ujl, t-Luu^tit 
Bud extvodoa. Slodes ak tbo oli»si^Dg fonni of 
Hum kttribuUa, To ngard fisita thingi m dirtiiict 
tndlirblil&litdfa in tbo 7*^f*f^^* of oor inucin&^on; tha 
iiwii B ooQtenipUtM thexa otHy u noteitt natunia, in 
wUob til* Notwra natwan» ia rovetled. Spfooxa'a u 
tbotaoatcdsbontAofaUijMoiiiBofpaDtliriiiD. I<ooka 
(11I32-170J), who had a praennaela Uobbas [IftSS- 
iS7D), th« inniience of whani, however, chioflj con* 
oenml the history of jKilitii^ ndciiDn, i« ntj^^iLnlRil m 
tbe fatlivr ul Uiuduro uinlcriulum audcui|MrEaiiiii. Two 
leaidiiig Uiuu^hts nui thrau^h hia phiiuauuhj-: fint, 
that thoTB am no innat« ii]»a«, »« l1(«CMt8S bad main* 
taiood; aod Nooad, that ilII our luiowlcdg* ipriiiict 
from exparietuo. The mind \a a mere ndmiE of the 
•rtcraal woiidt a dark room inUi which the Imogee 
of exiemal objuct* antor, withoiiit any oootriliiition 
befatg fondthed on ita part; tt» eiitire ootit«Qta aiv 
<IiM to imprMdooa aade on it by tnaMiial thinga. 
Loelea, howerer, did not alwaja r«nijun trae to hi* 
prindplea, and it rwnainwi for nil ■uum— nr* bo carry 
tbaai to their ultimate oonoliukicia. Aa ocvupylD^ 
die imoral poritioo of Locko montton may be mada 
td the naiBM nf the illii»Lri.->iiB LuiAc Nowton (16-12- 
1737) : Samuel Clarke, > disdple of Newtuo't, priaci< 
|aUv mtoractod la mond philoaophv (1975-17 3$); and 
thaKngUab moraliaU of tbe period, WEUiMo WoUaa- 
too, tba Earl of Shafteebnry, and Francda HutobiiHoiL. 
Tbe phUoeopby of Lock« rc«uivcd a further develop- 
Dwot In Pninoe. niirirD CondilJac aou^bt to Mplom 
tli« dervelopiot-ut nf tiuinanlty by the eintple develop- 
mcnt of the scmuiCiDnB. Otben went forthar and 
reduced aenaotioa itaolf to a pturdy phynoal pbeno- 
nwnon. TheofoUonrad tbamatariaOaia of Eelratiua, 
d'Holbadb, La Mattrie, and otben. incbiding- MTcral 
ed tiie Eaoydopediali^ thuuK'' "•^it^'^r Vultaira, Di- 
derot, nor d'Alembort beluiig«d properly ia the ecliool 
of matcilalifta. Tbo rwolt of toia pbiloiophiuttg waa 
to make tbe mat«rf&i world the only fona of ezlit- 
ence, ntind only a collee^OD «f atcou^ (be baaia of 
Lta HicUua CKotinn, and Uio end of th«e actiona a 
ivfinad ■aDJusUt^. Tbe b«lit.'f iu moral frvedom, 
elrtoe; Qod, provideiiQe, aad immurtallty were tbenca 
nfudad m folly niiVDrehy of a refleotiDg mind. In 
oppoahioa lo the matoriallnD we hare bMO ooiulder- 
iqg thane anaa tba ayatem of IdaaUam. Jmt aa the 
fonDer eeeka lo matcnalbte mlad, eo tbo latter kccIu 
to i^jritualisa matter. The ono holds that thero at« 
OoIy material tilings, and thn other, aa Tcprceentcd 
by IidlmiLc and Berlcv^ley, tbut tb«re are only aplrita 
aadtho thou^taof i^iiita— Ideaa Every RibataDo^ 
Meonllng W XcIbidtB (1643-1716), poaaanaa aa u- 
UtI^ of which w« can only gain an idea by compar- 
fag It to tbe actiTlty of utir miod, and wbidi be 
denomiikalaa paroepticn, aa cauauur oa to know, aod 
^fpatitlaB, •• eaoabf; oa to will. The oniverso ia mi 
anmfaleof InteUigDut, »etf>iM.-tire, immaterial poutta, 
wUch be calla monada, and wUdj oombine aa ele- 
VMOrta to form evetytblsg. Ea«fa mcmad baa a tiaturv 
pewltar to ItaeU, ud aaasot be ackad upon by oay- 
ddn^ Bztatnal lo HaeU. Tbe eoitl, whidt ia a oud- 
fldOM inottad, cannot therefore act apoti tbo body, 
•ad tbe relation bet^weo tbem la doe to a pre-et tab- 
IWiod bonDouy, God faavlii? ao ocuitittitcd tbem In 
tba b egfnnfa g that tbay oparabe ia perfect hamony, 
ijatn^ bdapaadcally. God is the HuOioiEnt couio 
ol Iba nnlTMB^uid tbe world !■ thi bn*t of all !»•• 
rfblo Wnrida. 11m tboariee of LcJbniU wtv ayalom- 
«lfa«l by Wolil, aul Inaii lua time to Kant tiennan 



philoat^y Hnuoed oo new atantt-poittt. 
(Ifi84-1753), fotuulfw oo LocJm's prfndpla ttM ti 
arc iwrcipientof noth&g but our own peroepticae lad 
Ideaa, and that all tbe objecta of human kanwiecitt 
OPD idcaa of aensatioa or leAeatioo exiatuig ia b 
mfaid itael^ cornea to the oandoaioo that tba iii^ww 
of bodlaa out of a mind pero»Ting tbc«D b in>^M■^l^^ 
and a oontnutiction in terma. Granting tbo paewn 
of Barkdey, wbidi wun tbe commodT neAiwt 
Iddloeophbal views, at leaat in En gl and, Ui oMcb- 
■iuuB could not bo rrfutod; hut it waa rMerred br 
Hume to trace out, by a vigoroua and unahrinkiaf 
logi^ tbe legitimate conaequeiwe* of tbe ~ 
■ad Loddaa philoaephy to tlieir nUttnaUe 
and thua, though unintentionally, by * aort of i 
ad a6«tinium, to iirodooe tbe great molaphjaral 
roTolulion of whicb U«id and Kant were tbe fcA 
morcra 

bYnm thn data of Locko Home dedooed Ibe 1 
t!oii uf all oauaality, all notione expreaaiwa of ftl 
tioD of neccedty boing merely the reanit of 
cialinn of ideaa. Tbo ep> or aelf li BoOfay : 
tbim a bundle of Idcaa: ll ie quite iUuaory to ■■ff 
a Butwtratum called tbe aoul undemeatb tbeaa lona. 
Tbo Bwptidam that follovn from preuiaea like tbw 
mar bo eaaily inferred. Proporiy ifwaklBg; it ndi 
iuiViAr^iMn, God, mind,aiid matter beiu^alilMt' 
Tlin att«aii[it to oppoea the aoeptaciBm of He 
birth to tbe Soottiab or 'oemmoo aenae* i 
tibiloaopby. Tbli sdh.ool, nodeat and petbapa tsniS 
in ita prcleaaians,haa tbo merit of having firft aban|^; 
and lai^gely Enculoatad the abeolute necceiity <4 ad' 
mittmg certun prlnelplaa aa the foondatioo of all 
roaaoning, and tbe indurpcnaable ooDfitlooaof thencbl 
itacU. Ai^cordiog U> the Sootch nhSoeopbea oeitiia 
nmple idcu are im|iUed and inTolvetl iu oertMB 
Intuitive judgmentat^ tbe miml; thun identity, eaoa^ 
time, number, truth, certainly, probability, are idmi 
peouliar ta a rational tnlnd, and neoeeaaiflr arte in 
the human undcntandiac wben empkmd in thi 
oxeicifle of lu diSereot facnltloe. Keid, tfaenCsR. 
wliila be rcjvctvd the Cartesian theory of UoM or 
imagda in th« mind hfrtng theonly abjecta<J thoa^L 
dinwlMl bin Iiiquiri^ to an aaalyais of the Tarfooi 
powers and priuciplca of our oonatitution, in ord« te 
diacoTor tbo fimdiiin^^tal lavni of belief which fcm 
tbo groundwork of bnmiui kiiowledKtv Tfaoogb [to- 
fMoliig to build oiilv 'XI experience be did not limit 
orpcnonce to thd rclntiutia of acnee and its olnecta 
'Without claiming for man more tbaB a nudae 
kiiuwledge of oxiatenocv and rcatrictuig tbaecieneeef 
mind to an obMi-iation of tbo fact of oMiaciuwaaw. 
be analyzed that fact into a ([rcatcr number of oun 
lni[Mirt&nt clemt^Dta thim bad bc«n recognized la tbt 
aenaualiat acbool. lie sbowed that piMAomeua ate 
f«*enl«d In tboDght which cannot bo ivanlved inUi 
any modllicullou of seaae; that tsteUIgenoe nppcata 
pdneiplea wblcli. aa the oondidoaa of ita aOirity, 
cannol be tbe midt of ita operationa; and that the 
wind contain* miUoui wbicb, aa primitiiie, neoeancy, 
and aniveiwl, are not to be explainod aa cenenlin- 
tlona &om the contingient and paiticolar, about whi^ 
aloDO our external experionca ia cnnvenuuit. J^i^tiA 
Stewart, with aome derlatluns, followed la tbe 
of Ui suHrter; bat Ttaomae Brown, wbila ba 
not a few of tiu; prfne^« of llcid. departed on : 
pointa of fundanuatal importODce frvon his 
phy. llic loune occaaian Uiat give riae to the 
acbool— luuiioly, tbo eceptieal condoaiona of Hi 
and otboia— also produced tbepbilnaopbyoC Kamaa- 
nrl Kant. Kant flTSt-lSOl), «ho may be jdiUt 
regarded na tbe fathnr of the philcnophy of tba nine- 
teenth century, aoucbt to bHn;; tuuctber into unity 
the one-aided cadcavocra of hia predeoeaaore In tba 
realiatlo and idoaliatic achoobk lie took np a critkai 




J 



PHILOSOPHY. 



41 



•taad-polat, aid bom !t uutitntcd u inqntr; ioUi the 
««irio of m MMioBoe or caption. All ootfattioo 
il UM fndoct cf two fitctora — the kDoving subject 
Mid toe ofajeda known. The nun factor, Lha cxU-rtud 
ot»Mi^ OOUMblllM the UMtarui of )tu>m'li>tlue; the 
«mr UeUf, ^ Mbjtet, eootribntoa tha furm. or 
ttoai notiou fa rirttw of whidi alone any cmmrcted 
iBMwladK* h pOMdblo. If Um «xEenud wurU had no 
■wlitwiM «i« would tutvt) DO p«n«ptk>iu, uid if we 
poHMHtd DO a Briori sodoiia oar parcnptiaou ooald 
sot be ootnUDea ao u bo f^n& aa mdentood whule, 
ThOMfc oogDhiaa (knowledga) b ^« onion of thaw 
two dhownla, jrat wtt d» DOt know tUng* aa tba/ ara 
!■ thamaelvti^ ptutly (mckiih ot llio foma oEtiTo to 
tho iBind (caMpMtet «f lAlob ba «Dsii»mtea twelve), 
whidt an ooocaaarilr pradoctira of Kinra chanee in 
tbs objecta; and partij l)octia«i aur peraoptioiu uom- 
mIvm an modified in tbeir tratudt thranzh the jtub- 
)a(*iTa madincM of time and maoe, which are the 
aafraaal fonna «l aQ objaota of aanaa: wbalavor ia 
bo ba panwivttd mtMt be pero^Ted in tijno and apaoe. 
Ia im pcacUcal pkHoaophy be aeala to eliow that 
eooadoanten icvcals to tu tho anhuiomv of tho will, 
eapnanoy itNlf in the mpsemacj' of comdenoe, 
whicfa fi Uw oataooffloal Impecative of datj. ThU 
noral oatun iiB|uua trwtdoa n ita neeonarj' oondl- 
Hm; the axktauca et God, a« otherwiao thcro would 
b* a law wlLboot » lawgiver or jndge; and the 
Emmortality of tbo aool for Hu conplatlon of our 
iBoral «ii»t«ifiico. Tluaa tratha, tho poctDUtoa of tho 
fntctiai raaaoB, Ua beveod tho bonads of aotual 
adooec bat ara Ibe nndomoBatrable necMaiLie* of a 
imtloMM faith, Ha ablad opponimt of Uw Katitinn 
pUkaophjr, Jacob), took tlw aloiulf utut of fiiith ia 
epfxidtioo to that of critldam, in order to givo theo- 
retic ccituntj to tlio poetidatea of tbe pnurticial naaoo. 
Tb« abaolnle^ wliicb i« unaHalnaMo hj the rwwuiii, 

kaowladfe raqoirirw no otEer avldenoei. Id hie later 
writiBga Im idantiMd faith or intnitlnn with tbe 
Kantian reaaon, dahatna tvr tho Uitcr tho faoulty of 
ofajwtln kDowladi^ u tbe banJn of Ficbta, who 
waa tba Arect anoeaaaor of Kant, pluloaopby waa idmIo 
to aaiiiiiiii a parelj idaaliatic aiiMct. Ills critical 
Idaaliam of Kuit baecmea aliaolutel; cabjectiva Ideal- 
fan. 'AUtUtli^bago^ thlaialbapriadpleofibo 
Vkbtfta ^ton. Tbo woild ia not ouj phcnomcoal, 
b«l b a fajrpoUiean of tbe ahaolnte ego. ' We Icnuw 
mvihlafL' aajra h^ 'bat by oouacJouaDeaa; oonadoua- 
■■■ itimit a pbMMaaaiKBi; tbo inagw pmcot to w 
an (onnad of fmagfa aad by inMg«a; all nali^ fa 
Aaagad isto a woDdrtma dream, wltliDat a Ufe tu 

«< aad witboat a aiad to dream, a dnam 

id «l a drami oCltaelf. FttroopttoDlaadrcnm; 

; k tlta draam of that dream. I'ichte'a aub- 
■m fooad ita rfiUrniatifm in tho objective 

I of SefaalliaKand tba abaalntn klenfiam of 
SobeOlDc (m5-1854> atartod from ihu k^o 
, and hj a oonhliutian of the doctrtao of 
Ua «ga with Hjaaoiiam tnanafonaed it into tbo 
entem of tdemtity. Object aod mbjectt real aad 
ineal, aatnra aad apMt, are identiaal la tlie abaolnte, 
•■d lUa Monli^ wa peroein bj iotaUaetual intaition. 
In natnr^ which at tba aegativa polo of being, thvra 
redilea a >llal prinoiple— Um (oul M tfaeworld — wliicli 
vitm all otgaoic and titoii[wilc ia oao oompleto 
wxiilaiii In tbedeTclMnaaDtof ^Arit, whicli iatho 
paritire or Ideal pule cf beiBg, Ibero lire tbrve it«ga, 
tlMoj, practun, and art, or IJm raductlnn <>i matter 
lo fom^ Iba iatraduetloa o( form into matter, and 
thfl abaolvia lateqiaDattalloD ol form aad matter. 
SdMUtng anbaaqneatly, by auoouedvely imoorporat- 
inff into bia *v*t*mi varioue oplDionii from llnitio, 
BMMie, and olbeia, devvlupvd a lyuorctiatic doctriau 
whkk flOBrtaitly approximated to myatidani, aad 




exRrciwd far leu influence on tb* d0nlB(nuat «t 

iihilowpby than tlw orl^nal ayatflB at Idaatity. 
logcl jl770'1831).dovelopiDgthiaprindplo of iden- 
tity, crcfttcd the ayatcm of abaoluta itlealiem. In hi* 
pbilotopliy ba alma at elevating oonaclvoaiuaB to the 
atand-point of abaolota knowladgo, and lyatematlcally 
dovclDjiina the entire oontonU of thia knawlodge t^ 
meaae of the dla.ttH.-tii:>! uolbod. * The prindpal 
atagea in the dovelopmunt of hunum congcio m neiw, 
from tbo ata^ of dinict, unrcflooting, unancatioaiag 
oertainty, tlmmjli tbe different fonna of reHection 
and eali-allonatbD up k> abacduto co^itiuu, ara oon- 
acloiiin— ^ aeH'Oonariontneaii, rrtur.n, ntitic&i spirit, 
Telljlioii, aad afaaolute knowled^, tlia object of wbicb 
ia tlio movement of spirit Itielf . Abaolnte knowlodgs 
rcnrigniMw thought And being aa identical. Finile 
tliinga lutve thu ground of tbuir being not in tbem- 
aelvca, but in the univunud ilivine Idea. The abaolate 
naaoo ia nvealod in nOitim and spirit: It alien&tee, 
axtaniaUaea itaalf in na.titm, and retumn f-n-im thin itii 
witf >M<iaim<iiiiMii[ tu apirit. Spirit in the idea luvlng 
omaodpated Itself from nature, aad waked to ood- 
adooaneas id mau; and it ia by thia awaluug tiiat 
tlin univerae aa aucfa ia pruduocd, BLnco thought and 
«xlat«ai-e ar« Ideotlcal. Tbe perfeotba of aplrit la 
in revealed religion or abaolato pbiloaophy, In whiob 
tho oonacioua idea atteina to unlTBiaaihT, ivnd rcpro- 
duoea from itaell tbe wltole natural and inUilUctual 
univene. Sohlelonnacber 07G&-18S4) modiftad lbs 
Kantian oluloaophy, attcmptinff to do aqnal jnatioo 
to the realiatio and idealistic itL-mcnta noiibunnl fn 
it. Tho tdtaliby of all existing tliuipi b the uuiveree; 
tbe nnityof the nniverae is tbe IMtv, with referenew 
tu whom man hii» a fndin^ of abaoiute depaadeaoe. 
In this faeUog religiuu hu Ita root. In plaae of 
Kanta too narrow comcoption of duty, by winch Um 
apeciiio and vartabla an micriliaod to tho uniconal, 
ha sabatltutM tho doctrine tltat each oiau'a duty 
variea aoearding to bia individu;dit;. lu thu biKhcat 
gMid, wbiob he deflnee aa th« aupreme unity of tbe 
real and tbe ideal, Sdiloiermacbrr finds tbo ethical 
end of nan, ia du^ tbo law of advaaoeskent tawarda 
tbl« end, and In ratue tba Dwring foroe. .St-htipen- 
haucr (17&ft-l8ff0) dovelopcd a diidruia which may 
be deeoHlied aa a trvuittuaal form frvm tbe Idi^alixin 
of Kaat to tbe realism at present prevalent. Ia 
i^podtioa to Kicbte'a subjectini idealtara, and tu 
Sohelliug'a renewed Spinoxiam, Eerbait (177A-1841), 
on tba raala of tb« raalbtlo demrut In Uie Kantian 
pluloaopby, •■ alio of Eloatio. Platonii^ and Leib- 
nItziBn dootriaeit domloped a philoaophiiAiI doctrine, 
wbicb be hlmaelf danoDdnated reulinu, fruiu iu pre- 
domloant diawrt t w. After the death «f Ucg«l, 
amongit othon, Fewrbadi, Ricbtcr, Stratm (i&d 
187 <), BruDO^ Bauer, and Arnold Itoge develojM^d, Id 
BB extreme maDDor, Hegeliaa thmght. Beueke 
(1799-18S4), in oniodtlan to Hard and lo Herbait, 
denlopeiLcatbe MsiaofoBttainaorttiacaaf English 
and Sootdi {Moaopliet^ a saydiobgioo-philasofibical 
doctrine. Rating exdodvi^ ua iniemal cspencDoe. 
Dnring the last decade in Genaany He|{allaaiam baa 
oouatM more adhereata than any other eyatam. Hot 
to it baa stood tbe Ueaburtian adwiol: and more ra- 
oontly tho modification of ayatcma through a return 
to Aristotle or Kaat, and tbe atody of pbiloaopby 
upoD its bistorlo lido. bav<ioccupi«d too Urnr nombor 
of miada 'llie tanobings of Sefaopcahascr aad 
Bcnrlte, as aha of Krauaet Baader, GUntber, and 
otiwra, h*\e Ijeen tepiodueed aad moAAod by indi- 
vidual diadplea. MatarialJsmlsfopraaDtodby Vogti 
Mftlasobot^ and Bttdtaer, and Bansaalism la CboIm 
and otbcrra. WfaOe resting in part upon tbo bads 
lit the doctrinea of cartier thtnkan^ Trendelenburg, 
Fuvhuer, Lotee, and vtbm have advaooed Id new 
and pacnliar patha. Tba doctrines of H. Bittar, 



42 



PHILOSOPHY— PHILTRE. 



Cftniit, Wpiibo, tfa« joungnr Indite, mkI othoni *l»o 
1111? rit Bttc'tition. 

Tlii>ugh phildfopby of lata ycAn haa nowhora bom 
enttivMcil In rnicli An rxtAnt M in (iannnnv, other 
ODiuitriea luive miKle nu incatuddcmblu omtnbutioiu 
to phUoaophioaJ Huuoe. la France two phOwopUosl 
tendesdM cpwaed tht MnnuUflin ftnd matwioliim to 
udItctuI at tiin bef;:) ruling ot thu centtiry. Of then 
the 0D« w«ji tliU'Diiipbii.'sl uitl tbe olfaec fixiDil exjires- 
•ion fn tfan ocIocUq and iipiritunJistto schrxil wbicb 
^^^aa (mui(Ii:d fay RoyiT-CoUjknl h thc diitdiik) ot Bsld, 
wbicb «-na futtber Didlt up b; Gouidn, who lacorpo- 
nted into ha bod; or 'iiK4rina8 a Dumber of GonnKO 
|ihiluM>phsiiHi^ and in u-hicli th* ('artiwiui tnulitJan 
«M iVDswed. LeM btilUuit tban Cwuiu, but i>uti- 
■Mitni^nrimiilliiniill iin rliiiiliiii. Ti iitTi ij iitr iiiji i1 
to wdt* tlin fAilMOphy «{ bu pi«dKe«aor Mauia tlo 
BlraD (o tfaot vf Uia Soottiib kIwoL, and beounc 
HwdMad witb tba iplrltiiaUvtla lohcMiI, to wUok ftUo 
belangtb^iuUDMAf <iftrtiicT,Jafiet, Rf^mnMt, FrandL 
Jsln SfmoQ, Mid othcn. Tbii iK-iirx>l bu cnntosded 
vallaotl; ^^nit tbe puitlivictlu t«u<leuc!«« of the 
t^€. IndopendoitsTttomB&retboaoof PiarreLerouz, 
]^Rifii»u>i«,Jcftii]le7nAiid, MidBnctiaL MiUcrialinn 
liM it« mipportera in CaMnii^ -who aeea in tliaaght 
Italy a aamRtJon cif tlis brain, BrouMsda, Gall, and 
utben. FnutiviNiD, foiuidwl by Aniruito Cfimt«, 
nnniberv not a ivw followcn; at tho head at whom 
i» Littr^. Tlie cbii*(> of another achool, fcjundeJ ou 
tb* \suda of Kiuitian criticinL H* Ibniouvier and 
Plllfln. 

In Gn%t Britain th« SooUitb achool hail Uter 
expononta in Sir Jamca Jdacld&tosb (ITciS-ISSJ) 
Mid Sir \rimiun Hamilton (17SS-1S531, tho lant- 
luiiwd being, moreoTer, lar(|«ly inilueuoed iu miaie 
pobits ni hifl nirrdiolo^ by Kant Our knonledga, 
ftooordtng to ilnmilton, in crinititiinRd by onr faoid- 
Um; ttb bava nu faculty for com preb ending tlin 
infiDftfl and at»oIuta; ajid nil liiuiiuii [jlillimipliy, 
therefor^lRial* only of the relalivo &iid pheno* 
mtnaL TIm abaolnte, aa tmkDOWAblp, U tnuuif«<mid 
fnnD tbo prm'iiicQ of diHoHphy to ihM of rvUjnoD, 
from mAon to f.tith. Aliuiiwl may hn mrntinnod lui 
adiaci|dcof Hiuuillfjn. pLTrier (1808-64) laiumed 
a potBtnioil Httitudo fwaTda th« cotnmon •Hinaa 
aobool Iu n«pcct of it* fuadamcDtal peculiarity, oa 
Im vltwod it, of abacdjliij; philoaophy into payoli- 
alogj M veil M on ndaor d^itaila of the aytrtcm. 
Tht ■aaodatlcnal paychologj of Hartley, PrimtUry, 
anil Dr. Unrwin hwt it« nprewntaUves in the ulno- 
tveiith Gcntory in Jaidm Mill (1778-1&3S) and his 
■on John Btuart Mill (1806 -T.'l), who mako tho 
pciodpln of funcciation th« aoie eipluintiou of pay 
ehica] phenauenit. Rain, Omtn, and LeTc* follotr 
mots or loea In thv kainu tnwjk. Hi-rljert Spencor 
b« Attvmpted tn wiilcn the pfiycholo^cal priadple* 
tt Hu UModatioDal iwycholo^y into a univontid diic- 
tifaio of owlution, whiDb ibould ri>^ only prarlde for 
tb« evolution of all foniu of btisig tut aUo of tha 
fandjunmta] [iriDcipIoa of pblloaophy JUelt. In Ame- 
rica, am in Knghwd, philoaophy lu» bovn proaacuted 
nun aa an appliod Mionoo. and In iti ^«cial mU- 
thmB to rnonL^ poUtloa, and thoolo^. npeenlation 
thare haa been widely lD6t]0D«ed 1^ Scoliiiih pKilo- 
■oiAy. Amonf tbo bmt known tiunva of tmniist- 
lanttc plitlMupbical wHtcn art* %)umo of Jonoltian 
£dwaid% Henry P. Tappon, Th.»&H C. TTpham, 
nanda Waylnnd, and othcn. A modified icbolaa* 
ticinn, moatlr Humuni, iitRiaiU in thr? ('Atholio 
Mpfnarici of I'Vwice, Spaiu, luid Italy. In luuat of 
the oontinetital cowitniii German philosophy baa 
uiirt«d DO naall Infliumoe. In ItAly a poooliar 
pIii]o*oi|hictJ acliool, repraarated by Roonini, Mauii- 
■ml, aiM Giobctti, ha« flnuriiihiHl dnrinc tba pi aai i nt 
century. Olobertl and Rfanniul Imvo been eh^rnc- 



worto:— 



I Judin 



teri>!«'l »» thc Plato and AriatoUe of modem Sdy. 

Tb«i iriniier d«<ntlop«d a philaaophy tliat WM d«alfiad 
to rowuKtmct nil miMlera acino* and aooia^. Ba 
atarta with the Intuilion of roal bdn& a( tbe actbt 
Deity, OB tho abMlate aoiiroo of ezitteDiM. tiSk- 
Dophy in foundod on reTe]iAio& and perpetnalod bf 
tho churdi, wlilch Is tho dopoaltory of trathjnid 
BoiiK>a of ciTiliEation. Aoenrding to Soanfail ] ' ~ 
aophy ia tbo acicna; of th« tdtiniato re 
duct nt hitfhoat rodecUon, It la tbo tMoIa of all i 
iu ilio unlveteal epbeie cf tba ksowabl*, ami) 
ideality, reality, and monlity, tbe tfai«« fmBi i 
whi<-h tiring nnanifeala itaelf. MmwIm^ t 
Uifl dijctrina tUol Enunediata peroeptaon ia 
foutidutloii of the knowlodgn A twdity. Tha 
■chnol i* romarkabLo for ita d priori method and to 
FMpoct for oddoaiiurtlcal and national traditloSL T<r 
the Italian phUtm.' libera iT the loiddlo age* oaa lutT, 
divlaiaa Ibuian Lilcnturo. 

More information reganUne the hlxtory of {AA»- 
■c^by will be found aaaUoieu throughout thia wttfc 
In tlie Uogxaphlcal notloea of individual fb" 
•a wall aa In tho akotchn of tlio dlfforont 
phflnaopby. Fnr a complete history of 
referenoe may be made to (he fonowin;' 
Tranemann, Ueectdchtodar PhiloMpldc! lelovMivek 
Lcipde, ITiiS-lSlf), of whlL-b thorn !■ ua abridced 
Kn^llah traniilatlfiii by 1'. R. Mandl. Txnulon, 183t; 
Het^l. Oeachic^to der inuloeupbic (thr«« Tola. Berinv 
IMC): Rittor, GooohiohUidor l>kiI«nnhie(tw«lraTak 
Hambura. 1863); Sohwegler, Gvaohlofato d«r FUlo- 
ao|>hift (StnttsorC, 1848), tranaUtad by J. H. Stir 
liiij;, with annotationa, accond odition 1808; Cooab^ 
Cnim d(i PhiLnaonbio Moral* (1S4I); Lewao, Biogta- 
phii'id HLituiy <A PhUoaophy (itb odltioo, two voh. 
1.S71); tLndUeberweg. GnuldriMderC)fl«fllldlUda^ 
l'ililo•opll■■', n-bicik hoa bonn tranaUtad Into l&if ~ 
by U. B. Morrin (two ruin. Loudon, Hodd«r 
StimKlitnn. li^72-74). 

PHILOSOPHY, PBHiTATiTia Soe PniTAf 
Philosoitit. 

PUILOSTRATUS, FLAVitra, tho Elder, a diitia- 
^riahed (inck 8o[ihMand rhotoridan, Immat I^mnea 
tiliout tbr middle of tbo a«)ooDd oeotury of our ei& 
Few facts regarding his life have oomo down 1 
Ail we kuuw ia thoA ba taught rhetoiio at At 
iwd euheeqnently at Bonie, where he ot 
fiivotir of tho ompenr Beptimius Sorerua, and 
received inU> tha <urdo of Ultrati that tha emp 
Julia Di'uuut hod gathered onnuid her. Be aooom- 
ponlod thin princxwa in h^r travcU, and wna MlU alin 
in tkr. tliird cnnliiry under tho ompcror Alexaoder. 
Tbo data of liia dpatli, bowavor, la miLuuwu, Hfa 
piindpal work ia hia Life of ApoUonlcaof l^HU^ 
midortoken at ths dndn of tbo ero p w, aad wfakb 
name oritici havo aoppoacd to ha a parody on the 
Uoapdo. Hie other woria oro the Hernjca, a fiicti* 
tiom hiBtory of tbo bacoea of ths Trojoo war. In tb« 
form of a dialogne; tba ESlconca, a dcocriptiMi of 
eertain poJnttnga the anthor had aeen at Nulca; 
Vito) Sopbiat&nun, or th« Uvea of aevenl ol Am 
Sophlata; I^tlura, &c. Among the oditioaa of Ui 
oallocted w^rka nrc thnao of K Mo«^ (Paris, I7D0) 
and Kayaor (ZOriob, ISl-i-ie). — Pmuxn-uaTca. tba 
Yoon^or, a nephew of the preceding, waa Ukeirfae a 
Sqiluat and rbvtorfdnn, t>at in owry way laferior lo 
Ui nnde, whom be ta,th4ir aorvilely *^ifTTit ta Ui 
Iimu^nea. 

I'blLTRE, love potloo. Ftom tba oarlbat ttmaa 
It bna Iwen euppuwd that Uiere wen moani by ' 
low ooold not only be exdt«d but be dlieetad 
pitrticnlar object Various anhstaaoea front tbead 
and vegetabla Idnffdotnii hatv boon oaed for tUa par" 
peae. aone dlasuitiuf. Home Injurlooa; scote vlttcM 
any duUnsnlahin^ chnracter. The troth iM, that 



I 



PHLEBIXIS-PULEBOTOJIY. 



43 



i 



\ 



jtb^Mcal dmrtt mj ba psnduccd by phymoil vUinuli, 
which mn raU«d nfhfwBttatOy but It la kbrnud to aup- 
pon ibftt mich mcaaa «mi prodno* a poidoa for a 
IMTtienUr obi(«t 

POLES Ilia (GneV, pt7^p«, « vain), tnflsmmfttlon 
o( IKb vefauL It auiT aJfeci uiy of the voUw of tko 
bod^, but nan luiuulj niMiifati itvdf Id the puti 
of Uw Ttsu Id tibe yia^tr of irotuMlB. lis aeat b 
th* "Jl"!*'- tliiii of tbe vMD, ac(] tlie nmilkr ILbroiu 
COttt te M bur IW tb« Intttr axhilntji nny degTM of 
iwln^ or taKoUritr. WhonplilobiiiiiMtlui^Jiuftry 
diHiM it b tha eaoM of the diangea of the blood, fic, 
iaridi Iha vmmL On th« other hMMl, it irinf ibidf 
t«iuc— J frotn tb« ceagiJmtion oi th« blood, paiauning*, 
«r other icDiatfcable AaagM withla the veto, tawhlcb 
oaasltbnoMdary. HwdlMaHb indicated by grmt 
liajgntw^ taulaB, ncuto mtin, and > knnttoil, cord- 
Vk» fWallinc «r baria<M in tb« cuune of a vdn or 
vria% ■umauiuai attended, whim the vdaa are snfwr- 
MU, iriA Aeoloratka Tho btDer maitan of tbo 
ioflnad TSMcl ia aufpoaed to throw out fibriiKnia 
itM, vUA ooagolatea ia layen, and Soally oloat* 
^ PMMga. In many lutaDcoe the inflnmei] velni 
•acraU pui, and if ui artifid&l iniiiio in not gircb to 
■1 tba RiaMer malcea iu wov iiiU> the ndjpmin^ celluW 
tfsae and forma abaccsaea, wh«n It la pectiUarlj 
daogaroDi. The caum of tbo ducaau an duidctitus, 
bnl not neaalljr oeoiiat of «staa»l injtiriR* of rariniia 
Uwh, am panctana or wound*— apedally wheu bi> 
ttmbn bj a fool or patKmoua InatruaMnt—haotiirea, 
lauwatiuM, —d the like; alao the exiflt«nceof abeoeaKt 
with whlefa tefaH oaraiDniUcato, and the imbtUnff by 
Um runa of morbid matten from cariU(« in wniui 
iDOrUd dapoaita aommulKb^ or from luoToaod homn^ 
Ac WooMo an pecoUariy liable to thia diMaao 
aflcf pkrtnritlaa, aa the v«iu of Cba womb are apt 
to bocooM inflaiaod and anuDaaicato tbo inflBOiiiia- 
tioo to ibt voDooi tnuiki ooonectod with them. 

PhlabUte may ba praTcatod by takioz great care 
in the dnMong of woniurli^ tpp]yiiig fuoi a draudug 
aa wID prvTrnt palr«factioa. Ttia treatmoat recoiu- 
BHsdea for thia diaMuw i« rny *ariuu>. Ia gvaaal 
' Ik ifandd raiy with the cauaM of tiie Inflammatian. 
with tba a j r mp lw ua ootDplabied of, with the baUt td 
ba^T ^ ^ patient, with the preaumwl extent to 
wUeh the diaoMa baa advanced, and wfth the aitua- 
Han «l the inflained vcdu.' In moat oaaea the fdlov- 
inf to«ate>«at ia likely to bo found benefidal, aainely, 
* raat, warm fofoantatiana am! ixmlticca, earlr tncidon 
it aJeetawi^ eracaaUoa of bile and fieoea by one or 
two doata of ealooul, opittn to nliers pein wd Insore 
<|aia> oC mind and wdy, and wine, eapcdally if than 
baa baan sreat Ioh of Uood ' (Droitt'ii Vade Meoum). 
PHLEBOTOMY {Gntk.f'kltboUmia. from pfUtp*. 
a Tsla, and fcnarin, to cot), the not of lotting blood 
hyt^eaiag a v«iB. Anonc the andonta great ngonl 
waa had to Um place wlwra lh« opening waa to be 
mmim, At wea un t tha coatom ia to open one of the 
f fla al p riTafatoltha Ml. the hand, tbe foot, the neck. 
m the tesfnei The operadoD Itaclf waa andontly 
paformad with a epfug lanoet; now for the iu(«t 
part wHh a ■nnple lancvt. Of the attariaa, that of 
tha lanUi la the only one which ia npenod, anil 
thai k done la caaea of local oDanptiuiiUi uf the hewL 
Anetbar node of hrttiag blood la by ruppiug, or by 
the afvUeadoQ of leochee for tha furpoM of extract- 
la^ Unod froiB pbece affected by iaflanmatioiM. 
PUabetatny fa one of the moat effcotnal meaiiaaf the 
matfral art, hut ita anilMation iadiff«reiiUyMgard«d 
by tha meat dlatfawwhad phyilaIaB& Hlppocratc* 
fwely n a m t ad to K f or u coaddnad the <nm of 
!•*«* aad taflanmalioiu aa tbo work of iiatur«, and 
d lAlebptom y aa a nxide of wmkaning tbe 
oa bar operatioiia. Bla followeta applkd it 
fraqnaatly, BMnetimea «ran to •xoata. Tbe 



sch'iija uf the empirics (35l> B.C.), rclvla^-. Iiho Kip> 
pocrat**, nti thnir mm exporicnm and nn tbo ohacr- 
vaLi^iQ (if nntiirv, undeiivoured to d<.'tcTnn!n« the elite 
In which bleeding waa tndhfwasable. But medidoa 
decUnod with tho connal dMiino of ecitmce^ Gr««k 
phymcian* indnnd utill dintingaixluHl thnnueltca 
aniODjj the Bonuuia, but the evot of empirlca had 
degraerttted. Kioeanve bleeding agi^n bocaine oom- 
mun, unliL AMlcpiadca of HithyiiiB l,Oicrm:i'* phj-iiidaa 
and friend) fauight a new method ul plilelxitumy. 
He CMidilered tbe cauw of the KKUtust number 
of ftlniwini to bo rtdiiudanoo of blood, and on thia 
acocnint adrocntrd the prartioe of blocKling, bnt 
prindpally for tbe aiUeviutioD of pnin, and applied 
this Kmedy frequently In cue of Vt^ affeonooa. 
After fatan Celnta gave an accoont of the cMca in 
wbtdi bleeding waa neceaaaiy (a.Ii. 6), and his 
remaifai and dhectiona coneapontt exactly vrith 
tboaeof tbe greateaC modem pmotitioDDrs. Areton^ 
fooBder of a neweohool (a.d,70), pr«>cnhe<l bleeAnf 
more fraqmaitly in acute than ui cbrunic diaeoaea^ 
and hi extreme caaea he bled the patient to complete 
eshauetioB. Galim (160), wlio rcfomd tho orijpu of 
a Inrgc clfUMi of diwAJu^a bo cxcMa of blood, ordered 
cio[>irjiiii lilmiinK* ; and Ibta practioe fcalned great 
r<i(fiite, and prv^vtlk-d ftir several conturiRK. After 
tbe fall of dio Pomau Empire [ihyucuuis wen ao 
K-arrr in Idimjiu that Charleinogni; died of an In- 
ll;iLmituiti(in uf tbe liin(n for ^aat of bleeding and 
medical attendant. The Arabian phyidriana fol- 
lowed the aothority of Galen, and apTwil bin doctrina 
ovar Spain, Italy, and Franoe. DmiUhj; wm etill 
more cvnerally pracllard by the uioulu, who wore in 
the BoTa poaeoaaion of meiUcine aa well m "I all other 
sdcaoa m iboac agea At a later period MUology 
was oonoeded wlUi the medical art, aud bldodLDga 
were pnacribed on certain daya. The popca, indeec^ 
had onoD forbidden the moDu to pnctiM nwdldae; 
but they aithor diarogarded the orders or oouldered 
then aa referring only to aurgical operaliona. Tbun 
auisery beitan to be aeparated from medldne, and 
fomod a new profaanon, including the art of bleed- 
)»?> npplyin? loeebcK, and abaviaff. But whoi, after 
the Invuntion of printing, the writlu|^ of ttto phy- 
alclana of Oroeoa^ eapechdly of Hil^ocrate^ began 
to ctrculAtn. and tbeir doctnaea to rerire, tb« prao- 
tfeeof bleading, at leaat among phyaidaao, waa ag^ 
confined lo oort^n caaea. In Genuaoy Faraceuoa 
(IfiSS) orertumed the nyxtem of Galen, and with it 
the practice cf bleeding, which waa now ocofined to 
the aurseoDa and barbeia alone. In PTanoe^ Italy, 
fto^ tbe method of Hippooratea aad tho degenerated 
ijetom of Oalan wrre, hownYer, not yet abandannl, 
aad the pnutlce of llcudbg waa oarrk-d t^ tbe 
graateet axceaa. Bclmnnt OS00\ the founder of a 
new ^atem, doubted tho u.iw of cTtracttng blooil, 
allwing agalnxt it tbkt it wcakcnett too siuidi the 
vit«S apirit, whieb be otiU<:d artiauK Harvey'a dis- 
ooveryof tiioclrcntailonof tho blood (1619) bad aoma 
inflvenoo on tbe modca at phlebotomy, In oa fftr aa it 
led to cxperimoDts (1943) by wlili-b medkineeWMW 
Infuaed fanmedtatdy into the roba, or a portion << tbe 
infootod blood extraetod. nnd ctimilied by the blood 
of hnalthy mon or animal a. In t^igland Sydetihatt 
roee (1473), who thom^t it poaslUe to nfvl d h a a aii 
by cpplooa blMdlaga. Bo extracted Upm in nlmoat 
all caaaa, aevar Um than 8 on, pnerally 10 or man, 
and in aaee of bflaBiBiatlon aa nocfa as 40 ot. 
Tba paraldona oonaaqnencea of tlua pracUco did not 
aacapa hira, but he thought fae could not aubdue 
diaeaae fay any other meana. StaU (17o7) attempted 
lo unite tho ayKlirni of lltjipociatea with that of llel- 
tnnnt, and (iiitA)ilii>h«lojn\<Tt Anil moderate princfaile* 
of pblchotumj. He taujfbt thai abuodance of blood 
waa no diacaw, but might beooine to by a dicptopor- 



44 



PHLEGETHON— PHOCION. 



tUm «mUd betwwo tbc lolid and fluid p«ta of tbe 
■;«t«m, io which cue tlia twnMr bAloDca aagiki to 
M mlored. But ha fauna bleediag Indlapeiukble 
In CMM of too grwt •xdt«inaDt niccMdad by « con- 
gtstion or effunon of blood. To prgrtat Hub 1i« 
praicribed ooouloiul bleeding, fib method wu eoon 
miaiuidentood kod muappliod. Tha extraction of 
blood for tho preaervAtion of honlih wm ovorywhoni 
ibousht hvceuary, Burdeu cudiiavoured to atop thla 
abuM ia Franon. CoIIgil (1777), who ngirded ail 
dmmtm m procoodiux from mi utuLitnnd stnto of the 
nervM; nil irre^l»ntic« of tba tiuldi iw tbe oun- 
seqaeooM of w««k])OM and ipano, reeomni«n>d«d 
blooding u tha boot mouu to diminiah tbo activity 
of th« -whoJo bodf, and MpedaItT of the aytlem at 
the blood- TCMsIa. H« riKniiiuieDawl, however, a due 
ngwd to obvumstaiicea, aad maijJjr adopted stabl'a 
ddo.trins of the mperahnndanoe of blr^od. StoU nf 
Vienna {1780), an admirer of Sydi^tuun, resorted 
frequently to bleeding. Several of the l&tur [-hy- 
ddans wtight. hovnvm, to Umit it> too frcqnvat 
appllcatioii. Wotlattdn (1791) reoomnienHed it only 
in a tew casea. Gall aleo improved the syatein sUll 
nmrv. Brown adhered to the aama nrnxim, and 
limiLcd the pmctioo of Uoediog too mooli. Bleoding 
1h one of the meet effectual, but alio one of the moit 
daitgeronfl means of chDoldng diaeaso. 

PHLKC£THON, in tho (Jrcciait mythology, a 
river of fire Is the iulornol ninoiuL Seu CocirCS. 

PHLOGISTOX. Thla n.inio waa ap;jUod, bof<l» 
the time of lAvtiiMcr, to a bviKithctit^t cuhrtaiioe 
■uppueed to be i.'uutuned in all cunibuatibla bodiea. 
See OsvdEN. 

PHLOX (Grtd^ iiAW, flanie, referring to tho 
bright oolonr of the nowen), a gcniu of licrkwMitia 
pl&ute of the natural order PolemonaeoK, nativoa for 
the inovt part of North Ainericai tbon^ aoiiu of the 
^wdoi are to be utet with io Aula. Tho leave* are 
geaeraUv ahnple^ CDtirei Mutlle, the l^iw^^r ontA q[,\x,- 
dte, aou the ii[i]Kr aneii altcrunto; llw f1';iwFn ure 
of a purple or violet eolour, more ruely white or red. 
Illo corolla la salver-ehnpod, with a narrow sub- 
eylindrical tube, and longiir than thn calyx, whii^l:) 
latter la deeply five-vlvft uud suVcyliudrii^ ur Hub- 
primiaUc. Tha geaaa U pcrannlal, anil a givat 
favourite with floriala. 

PHOCA. SeeSui. 

PKOOAS^ a Greek emperor, born iu iViiu Mluor 
of obwure parentage, ont«n)d the anuy in tho reipi 
of Hanriciaa, and loee to bo a oentarinn. While on, 
tha bantu nf tbi; Danube be toolca I«ud iuimeuf ibe 
"'"**■*"* then of NO fnqnent oocnrmioe, and eet wit 
at tha bead of fib* dltaffaotad od their oiarcih to 
CoMtaaltnopla. Ilieir ^^iroach ounpoUad the etu- 
Mror and hla tatnOy ta aare tlienitelrca by fln-ing U> 
ChalcodoD. Ffaocaa took pua mi riom of the thruuii, 
and waa fomally (mm-netl In 0O3, Hauriciiu, with 
hie five auiiB, and ohurtly after all the mcmben of 
bia family, were cruelly butchend. Phocaa fmine- 
diabely attempted to open a neeotiatioa with the 
Penlan nwaiarcb Khoeru n., hnt tho nature of hb 
nanrpation and tho atrodtica attending it cauMd hia 
advaacea to be tienlcd with dindain, and the Peruana 
ImuMdlalely oame forward aa the nvsngen of Uau- 
ridna and hia family. Tho war thui buwaiiiated 
OBPtlBBBd for twenty-ttmr yaata, dnrine tha fint 
eigbteaa of wfaich tho Ponlaoa wex» unuomUy soc- 
cwrfnl. But the Romiah conrtwa* not ao icjupnUma 
aa the Mnhiunnedaa oo<url had proved; aiiiT Popo 
Gregory I. aot only reoognlaed tba le^tiraacy of 
Phooaa, bat addroMod a acrioa of unitiiliuisntary 
hmeta to Um and hia wife. The cml which tde pntio 
bad hi view no doubt «e«tn«d to him to juttify tbe 
Deanm and the Infamy [ocmred by vriting the 
bnan wai tbongfat to ba mora than Kimpemated 



by the liberal donatIonBeniectad,aad toaameeiloa 
actually obtained from Phocaa. BaoUboa II L anil 
IV., the immediata anooaaMra of Gragvry, poi^td 
the aaine policy; and if wo can bcliore the Pl^ 
clirouicler Aoaatariiii, this atrociona imperial i 
formnlly acknowledged the pope to be the ' 
rOl Chksiiaa chnrchttL Vongoanoa hail 1 
lung, but it at hkat overtook him. licraelioa, < 
of Afrii'o, fitu-d ont a poRcrful armatnetit lifj 
and at tho sooio timv aunt a jxiwerf ul army by 7' 
the one oommaDded by bia eon Haradhu, aa ' 
other by bio nephew NiwVm. The combiiied 
met before Conatantinojilp, vrhh:h mada but a fe 
rcatitoQce, dlaaflectlou within giving powarful aid to 
the asaatdt mado from without. Phocaa waa aiatat 
the captive^ and ended hi* \He in £10 by a death •• 
onel M thoae which he bad luiiicted. The yqnag«r 
HcrAclins imniadhitaty took poee wri oa of tba vaeuit 
throni!. 

I'llOOION, an Atbmian general, and one of Ihc 
uio«t vtrtuoua churai'tera of auUijully, ia ao pp oeri te 
have bc'eii hum about u.c. 102. Thoogb of bamUt 
doaccDt, ho n^crivtid a good odaeatjoD, and '"Mfc^ 
uoder I'Uto and other philcmaphcn tfaoee elevated 
■mtiments wbleh covenied hie whole tifet fie fint 
served under Chabria^ and bis actl^-ity contributed 
emiMitially to tho naval viotory of Naxos (3T7 ha) 
In tlici wnr with Philip of Macodoa the Atlwaisw 
tent PbucEciD utth some troopa to Babona, who* be 
ohtainod a <xiniplcte vfirtory over the atemy. Be 
beniiibcil I'liitarchue, who had naada blaiMll tymft 
of Brelrio, and left the island aacore from the adaeka 
of Philip. Some tbne after he waa deapatcbed bj 
the Athoniniu to narist the citfee of the ileUsipart 
n^nat i'hilip^ whom ha oompelled to rotira. Sk 
honesty, disialereatednn*, nn<E patriotiani wa 
geaorally aoknowledoed that be was oominalod i 
moiider fdrty-five tunet without oow applying! 
tho offloa. He always led a stmfde life, and ealtl- 
vated hta email farm with his own handa. Wb«i 
Philip appeurod la Fhocis with a view to aHacfc 
Attica, I'hodon in vidn adviaed peace. The battle 
uf ClucroatM in ^SH ]irov«d the soundneaa ti hi* 
advice. Tbe Atbi'iiiAns disregardod tbe advioe of 
Phodon not to tak« pact in tho aasemUy of tbs 
Crediui States, oonreiud by Philip, till tbay kasv 
tlic inbentions of the Idng, and in eonaMnetioe fauod 
thoinselves obliged bo fnrniih I'bilip witb a quota of 
cAvidiT and gaDieya Ttiia they w«ru reluotaot tod«^ 
but Fhodoa adi-laed them to enbnit to adveni^ 
with patienoe. After Philip's death in 83* Fboasa 
sdvisM the Athr-niana not to expoae lliMiiieli 
new dinatera by jutiiint; a oonfedeiMiy i 
ynuag Alexandor. Ilia opinion was jwti 
event. Whcn.afli^r the doitniction of 'Utebea, Ata- 
ajuler dotuarided of tbo Athenians the deUveranca of 
tbe omtoia who bad spoken so violently agaloat him, 
Phocaon undertook tiu ctanmiasUin of nfisasini lbs 
anger of tbe king with tbe hi^iplesC enooea. Alex- 
ander oonedved » ktvuI aSeotion for bbo, and snt 
blm a prment of 100 tolenta, whlcb b« 
Tho dcpulioM fotind him carrying water, wb 
wife waa bakiiiK broad. But nut to diaplenaaj 
king, he rmuiMtad tha liberation of eoma eT 
imprieoacd friendly a muaM whidi waa at 
complied with. After Aleaaader'a dcaHi 
the project was formed of freeing Greece I 
Macedtmian yoke. Phndon disapproved the ms 
tboush he aeoepted the cnnituaud. llw Alb 
wan at flrrt nccmsful; but Antipater sqob ob 
thn iniporioritr, nnfl throntenod Athma. wUoh ' 
instantly alucJouL-d by th« orators who had 
claiuon>us for war, Phodon euoeeeded in obt 
I>Dace, but nu very hanl conditiDni, and all his efforts 
Were directed to mitigate the heavy burdena of his 



J 



Piiocis— ph<enk: ia. 



45 



i 



\ 

I 

I 



eoanXxj, and la turn hl« influfmra vitb tlio Alftcc- 
doniaa* to itji advantJttiL NcvotthcloM Phodon mu 
AODUMdof bavin); w!t«d »([Aliwt tbe good o( hiaouuu- 
try, mad <4 hkiio); bctnytd it to tbv «n<ttny. Ho 
«n« caa)|irllM! b^r clainctm nnd •ccuxitiont to take 
rafnim in Phocw, but woidelivcml up to ttue Athen- 
humvj PotjqMmboiL Pbodau, wito «ev«Tsl of hia 
bii^A, WW caotbnuMd to dtath qnhurd. Ria 
■»*—*— ooattkoMl nniJutkcn. 'Tell my wn,' Ukid 
ba to » frieod who talced if he had any c<KiuiiE«ai>m 
Cor Uin. 'to fwvat ttiAt th« AtbealanB h*v» bam 
BBJiat to DMi.' wbea Duty bad drank the fatal 
diKD^t, tt was obaerred that th«f« was not enough 
Nuanilig for tba rcat^ and the *iflLi«r who admiiiia- 
tandftnAuwdtopcoonnmorawithmitiiay. Pbociiia 
mpeMod a Mend to pay hini. anil tiuii jevtingly, 
* It ia not evta allovrM ua tu die (gratia iu Atheiia.' 
Hb body waa thrown nnhnriei] hvyond tho Hmita 
of AtbcM, bat hi* frivad* carried it to Elcoala, anj 
b^nad It Ib tbe booM of a Me^arciialaii woman. 
TIm Atbeoiaaa b«£*&i« aeiudbUi of their injnatiM; 
tfaoy pt jcur a d hia iwnuina, biiriad theia at tho pablic 
eTpo aa o , eroctod a mcmument to Ilia meowrj, aud 
putUdwdhia aoctuen. 

PBOCIS IGrMk, Piatuy, a diriaiaD of andcnt 
Giooea, boanoed on the north by tho Ijucri Kpicnc;- 
mldil asd Op<imtii, oo the ea«t by B<«>Ua, on the 
vwt bj tba Locri OxtHm and Dorii^ and cu the Boatb 
W tba GuH of Corinth, llie principal rircn wcni 
la0 OflnbEaiaa and PUaiui^and tho prinoipaL mountAlo 
PMb— M. Fboda waa a iDOUDtaiiiouB and unpro- 
dauUra eomttr, tba rallay of tbs CapUmu boing 
almoat tho only fettila tract in it. Acoordbg to 
tradiUoo tbo oarUaaL bthaUtaute woro tha lAMJgm, 
ThncUna, Ahaata*^ Uyantei, and aubooquotitly tho 
Fblogyw, aa Acbmui tribe. The Pbodaiu an said 
!■ bava darifed thefr name from Phootu, aon of 
4pn% wbo oooducted hHfa«r an jSgvmtio colony. 
llMy wtM m tndnitrkna people, and mibaisted ohiefly 
by agricattoTe. They vora dbtiagiu'ihed fcir tfacir 
wa TOiy, of which thor g&ra a aignaj nrrxif in the 
war wiifa tbe Tbeaealianr, and bi the rnrauui and 
tlHopoBumJiA inn, ta wuoh laet thoy took part aa 
aUta of tbe Spavtaan They were tba oauao of the 
8a<jaJ war, ao dartrudiTe to Greece, aud sharod the 
tato of tbelr oooatrymea aftor the battle of 
. <>o. 989). 8«e Gusor (Asvukt). 
Sea AroLLOb 

PH<ENiaiA (Grvek, PJbtitOif; Latin, Phmiet, 
and Ut«T PhoTtina), a oonntry od tbe ooaat of Syria, 
bMmded on tbe caat by Mount Lcbaoon. VarlDna 
darlTatioDi have been aadgmsl tn thn (irf^k niu-nr. 
Sane would talte it from tlie epunyinuiu Phunix, 
aon of tba lint king h^mtor \ ouiere from piwnir, 
ifae pailin tr«e; otbera from p&oinir, tbe purple dye, 
■Ueb lonned an Important article of Pbcenicihui 
coauaaree; while otbetv a^^aio, from the oLil traditioo 
that tbe FlKmlciaaa came from the HkA Saa, roguil 
fkpimia aa but tbe renderinv of trutftr^*, ' red,' the 
tfttk^ ^tnm to Ibe Anhfaui Gulf, and in Hercdotna 
totiwiHirtiMrBportioBof tbe Indian Uoean. Uy the 
FkoMtdam tbenaelvoe, aix) by tba larMlitce, the 
aoantry waa called Cbaa or Cojuan, which ai^fiee 
dke 'low country' or lowUnda, in conlnat lo the 
eaalent 'height^ at tho bane of which It wm iritDateH. 
Caaaao; birrevcr, ctune generally to aisuify tbe 
wbcl* GOOBtry of PalaatfaiB, fai relation to Uie moan- 
tiiBa ar taUa-laod of GUead and Aram— tho hklt* 
land i^ion to tba north and eaat. ''I'he ciprowuiD 
'Tyn aad SUoo' often re p rtaenta tbe whole country 

Fba&ida is ile narroweat acceptation, or Pluxauda 
Bgap giL waa a tract of cotmtry atrotoUns ■jjni g tbe 
aaMOB Aon of tbe ModltemuieaD: Dot mucfa more 
Ibaa 18 nflea in Iragth, and little more than 1 mile in 



avon^ breadth ; Si^i^n hr-ing Hitiiatrd nniir it* nmr- 
thom, and Tyni not fur fruut itn bouDilth buuudary. 
Id Ite wideat aena% aa In Stralio, Phcpnicu mvdm to 
bavo meant tbe wbolff aaaboard from tbo G ulf "f lann 
to tho Houthetn dcarrt — 'fromOrthnsiata Pduidum' 
— a ImutUi of 450 noilo* (Geoji. »iL 1 1, 20), But gen- 
erally PhcmtlcJa was regarded oa U^ginoing at tbo 
north with tho laland of Aradua, and extending 
annth In the town of Dora, a Itttle below the pro- 
nii>uUiry of Caniiel; lium;; iibuut I'lO iDllea in length, 
and rarely more tbaa 20 in biuulth; lying about 
btt. 33* SS'— SI* 52* n.. aad Ion. 3&'— St}" E. It U 
watered byaeveral streama flowing frum the v«etoii) 
decUritiee of Lebanon to tho aea; auch aa fmm ita 
northern frontier and Is order aouthward, tbe Bloif 
tfaonM^ tbe Adonia, tbe Tiyma, tbe Tamyia^ thu 
Bostrawi^ tbe Lenntoi, and the B*^lii» TbAOOmilry. 
with ita Tarietlea of rliniato, wan frrtQo; piae^ w, 
crpiea*, cwlan, tvrcbiutba, ayoamorta, fiu, palm nnd 
oliTe treea, and acadna crown the boLfhta; on tho 
lower regioua are found wheat, rye. ani] barley, 
togwther nnt <inlv with ordinniry fniit, but olio with 
Aprioola, peodiea, puiungrauatoa, nbuoDila, ritruiu, 
mgar-oanea, grape^ *""■■". all growing InxoriaDtly, 
and forming a foreat of finely tinted foliage. Tlie 
Inwlnnda further yidd ailk, cotton, indin:^ and to- 
hevoo. Tho oaly metal found !» iruo. wblui occtm hi 
conaldenAla qnantitlce In the hUla abon Beyront 
(the andeat Borytii*). 'Ite whole conntry i* auhiecit 
tocArtifcpuko)^ tliDeffcctoF Vdlciuiioageiicy. Bealdm 
tbe great dliea of SEdou and Tyre, the eoimtiy v>aa 
atodded with numerow muJlar towna; 'fonaiag.' u> 
Heerm aaya, 'almoat an nnbraken inty, extending 
along tho whole line of tbe coaat, and over tbe lal- 
anda.' Auionj; tbese Cowns in eurller timeo were 
Arrad, Acvfao, Orthoaia, Ailca, Trijiolia, Botrya, 
Ilerytiia, 8ar«pt^ IJonK kc. Many of the roadaUwIa 
or harhoun wen noeltoDt, but are now silted np by 
the onn«nl« whioh earry the alluvial aoQ brooght 
duwD by thu Kilt to the viutward. 

The <|De8tJnn of tbe orii^n of tho I'hmnician* haa 
oa yet reodred do aatfafactvry aolutloo. Aooordlog 
bo Hflrodotoa they deaoribed tbemeetrM aa Imal- 
graota fi«m the ahoroa of Ibe Kiythmiui Sea. a rnport 
oonfirmorl by Juitin. fltrabo write* that iu ibe 
Pentian Gull thene wexo two lalanda called Tynt* or 
Tylua, aad Aradua, with a town njunod Dorik in 
which tbero were tomplea ahnilar to tboco of tbe 
Plurinciana, and the innabitanta of thoae ploos r«< 
lat«d that the PbGeuIclaaa bad quitted them lo 
f'l'ind new <-<>lonica. Tho BryUtiman Sea, in ft« 
wiilrjt Hi'iiiu-, iiirliidca the Ked Si^-o, the Person Gtilf, 
and tho uuriheru pgul of tba Indian Ocoaa oonAu«l 
between tbe eaaten aboree of North Africa and tbo 
wcotem ahores of Uindnnaa; and aa tbo writer vf 
Qeneaia calls Canaan tho aon of Ham tbe fonniler of 
tbe na6, aorae tn««atigaton bare conoluded that the 
Pevrian or Arabian Gtdf ia tho ori^nol hame of thi* 
pwple^ Agminat each oonjectnraa, huwiviT, Import- 
ant aigimuntB havs bees addoced from tho gontune 
ttnditutia of the Fbttaldana tfaeniiwltrs, aa pro* 
Borrad, not In a eormpted Qtcdc itatv, but In tlivir 
mytha, in tho biblical aooonuti^ and in their lan- 
guage, whiiJi la ite moat ancient fomu ia purely 
Sondtic. llicir imtnigratbm lo tiie coast of th>T 
&I«dilerRui'«iil>i'luii)iatoprahiatariotimen. Thepnt- 
baUUty b that it did not take ptaee from ooo tv0<m 
or at due time, and that many fwntoriea elapMd 
bcfoTD they ware fined tnUi ona lutinuality. The 
avttlvuuDt '.if laraai In Oanaan did not pnnduce any 
gTuat or pormanest dnag* on Phvnicia. l*be tribvo 
of Najibtali, A*hnr, and Iten, to which It was 
oeaigned, did not comjuiir PhiFoii^La, but ocoupied only 
a amall portion of it. Tbe canton of Dan reached 
to Joppa, and in tbo straggle with Jabta be reiaalDed 



«$ 



PHtENICLA. 



'in lil> alii]*,* w if miub •rITeniir'.Ata oiul wtirMl^v 
by conunerao. Anbur, wlut li»(I ulitidjuHi a (iiwriJiu 
(ootiii^, had slw lo«t patrtoUc spirit, and 'aUxIo 
[n hi* breAchc*' (creck«). Tha rolntioa of Lvncl to 
l^fairiiida w*a quite diiforrnt fmm ttiat of Iintcl lo 
FbUkllft— tbe latUr bolu;; tljitt uf ooatiiiu^iu («iud, 
•ItentatifD oanqiiut or wmod poooo: tbo othor bo- 
fioming OHO of unitj, intcnwime, reoipmcBl «dvan- 
ta^ and 'biotherijr oortoi^t.' Suob aUlnoca wu 
aot hdovd uobrokeii. Cor we read of early ^donlaii 
MprtMJMM. But at a later period ' Qimin,' king vt 
Tjwa, wa« *«T6r a lover of JAkviit ;' anil in lliA relg^n 
of SulcjnioD the ncrvuitii of HlnW" prepared cocLm 
and tir wood for iba twnple^ bowing' th» troos in 
LuLoiioa, and cmveyiiiK uludl by w« 'iit fioala;' 
vliilt- Koiomon in r«Iutn gave him, 'yeu by jMr, 
tn'uuty mt^aims ot wheat and twenty moasniMi of 
(lun oil'^food CO abundfint in tbo odo country bcisg 
|*iven in oxchongt! for pldlliut Uhonr wbLoh tb« otbef 
eoold BO etuUy fomJab. Tba Pbieiiidiuia, alir« to 
tbair tnio interetrta, aou^ to oolonJu and not t« 
eonqiMr. War* would kara boot fatal to tlunr com- 
iMrdal ivoi^ority. IHusir wealth and power anae 
from tli«ir wimnii»irl of the m^ and » was their 
policy not to provoin aay of the nation* to the cant 
«i Ihem, and not to ijuarrcd uniiooeauirQy wilb laiael 
— which wu tbefr ([tanary— tbo relation b«twyuu 
Hiriun Aod Uavid boing prutinbly bat n nudjiIo nf 
■uoh intoraatianil traatiM anil tatoronunH!. After 
David had DMi(|iiered£doiD,££tau')^bvr ou IhvBcd 
Sw bocame a Hebrew port, and ' Solomon had a 
aavjof ■hitia.' AaChollRlircwa hiu) not 1x-cntnunnl 
to DaT^tfon, tbey took advnntn^ uE tbcir dcIkU- 
boan^ Bxpfrleaoe, sad Fbuealdaa orews partially 
maimed ouh of their vouola, for ' H'""" mnt in tbo 
nary bia aervant^ ibifdneoi that had knovledfe of 
tha M^ with tlw MTvanCa of SidomaD.' The rMult 
WM a anddon and gi^at aooomion of w«a]th and lux* 
nrivii-tbu navy of Tanbisb rvtnmud every tlirco 
jeskn bringing 'gold and rilTwr, ivory, anrf niw*. nnii 
peaoook*,' ao tbat 'ailvcr wn« n»thtiii; aticouutud uf 
m tlie daj'sof ScJonum' — nay, it wan 'made to bo la 
J«nualMn na stooea.' ATt^r the division oi tbo He- 
brew kingdiini Phiroiciii noulit natitriUly cultivate 
alUaooe with tbo Ten TribcM neartat U> it, and Ahab 
married » Phcenidan priaoan. The Jt^t oommerdal 
voyagea probably wero not proaatrntod daring any 
huag p«nod, aa tha Jerwii had no liking far tbc wen. 
Indeed, tha ttada Mama to liave b«eu abanilouod fur 
•ome thna, wbnu Jehoebutbat attempted to rartore it. 
A hMJah, OB tbs Rnoftb ut old tndHioint, and he- 
ovnw of bb motfaer'a FhcEnidao oonuectioD, tou^t 
a vhara in the enterpria^ and wae at fint rsfoaedL 
Aflerwardb tba refuul Boema to have been nocUited, 
tail m imrtaonbip wai admitted, on aooonnt of which 
theenbirpTiui wu fniatratad. Tba hiaCorv of rbcc- 
nida in ita qiedal polata, ita ramugencc^ and the Inva- 
■lona wlucb it Mffered from Sobylon, rersia, aod 
Grveca will bo best oonaidored nndar SIdoa and l^^re 
{wbioh MO). 

Hwodotut dcacribca Uie PtuenidiUii aa beBinning 
won aitor tLdr aett]«m«nt to oeeapy themaeivM in 
ibtant ToyagM. FroiD tha construction of rude 
tafia Ibey miut ■jm-iiily barn reached to a iitylM (if 
■ijbatantiid altip-builduijc. Tb^ eouitnervial vMauI* 
an repntMuted eitfaar m lon^ In ihape. and fitted 
both for aaiUnff ud being roared witb fifty «u»~ 
* ihi]* of Tarahuh ;' or aa rouiidi-r iii f omi. and icon; 
oapaoioiu in atowaga, but alo wer In apeed— baacen of 
caigo on abort Te^asca. SenophoB paaBW « high 
•nlogy tm a Pboakdao ahip — *tho greatoat qnanttty 
ef tnekUng vaa diapoaed MjnkimU-Iy in the ■utaUat 
abowage.* Their tneBchantmeD abo carried anna for 
defence and had ftnirai on tbidr prow, which the 
BfSBka Mmad jMaUai. Thaj ataand by tha Cj-n- 



i~j- 



laodi 



omre, or thu lait atar in XTna Minor; aad tbtj 
could c«at rvickoiiingB, from tha combined atylicalica 
of avtronomy and aritbiucti& Thdx natitiad tf^ 
cation of aatronomy In aacribed by CalUmaofana to 
Tbalea, a PWiitciau by dcaceut. Lebanoa sa|ipUc^ 
ib«m with abuodaaca of timlior, and Cypnia pit 
them all necaaaapj' mval euuipiueDta, Cmm Iha had 
to the top-oaila. Theaa dannf PhcBnidaB aavtaMn 
in tha rrAga of FbarMb-Nocbo lirriiiiiiria i^ ah J 
Africa— dvpaxting from the Bad Soil amd i H nnfa i 
by the Straita of GUxrahar. They reported that b 
sailing round libyk th^ hod tbc ano do their ri^ 
hand — a atorv of which Uorodotu* aaya, ' I, foe mj 
part, dg not beliave tbem,' and yet it in thn pontile 
(jToof that tbey bad cone roood tbe Cape. Diodsna 
Bpaaka also of Phanidan marin«tB beiiif ddm 
wcaCwanU beyond tbo }'illar* of HercuLes into 
ocean, and rcaf/bing at Ien;;tli a very fertile imd ' 
tltullalaiid— 'adwaUlngot gods rather thand 
— ono probably of the AJtorM or Oaiuty 
Tha I'ha-.iucLana fumiahed to Xerxea 800 
tbuy were defeated at Salamla. 

Tbo leinoto perloda of Phnoidaa commem lod 
colonization nrowr^ipedfnmytha. Phoenician iU|a 
may tiave firat earned the prwluoc tt Aaayria and 
Egypt — but tk^ own warn and maoafacturcs ihk 
soon lorgvily (.'x^wrtcd by tbom. Ilw oovameroi U 
Tyre reached thmngli the world. (See Trs&) It 
triuJed in tbo npicea, dnnamon, and aUmeaof Anla* 
ill tbo mvnh and frankiaWMaa of Sabtea; in 
ubcrny, ' brigbt iron,' and oottom fiafarica frtaa 
ill linen alia com from I'^pt; in wine 
froiu Uatnaatiis; in embroidcrios from Ki 
Uftbylon; In wbr-nt, balm, and oil from 
in intlery from Attica; in alUns of UotiM, 
and clwhants from Mauritania; Id buraoa 
iota ftrom Armenia; in copper and ita muUarea beo 
the cOBKtii of the Kuxlne; in lead and oUtar 
from the Bouth of Sjjaiu; and in tin tran the 
cjf Oarnvall and Ilcvoiuliiro. lliero was alao 
trtula lu thti tuimy fithMdei^ and the Tyrian* 
&ah in Jcnualeta. Fhamicia exoelled is tha 
fnctnra cf the purple dye extracted fram the 
fub tuurtx, HI abundant on parta of ila WMeta. lUi 
colour in lU riuLvat hoe waa at length qipiv|Riaied 
to imporial UH, and the atlL ao drM wM td 
ardinary valoe. 'I'hi glass of Sidoa was M 
fauiuue lliau the IVrum (^»— the fioe wliile 
uied for the praocMoaiDgveryabtindant near 
Oormet. Glass has been found in NiaeTeb, 
glass-blowii^ la figured at Beui-llMHan ia E^ 
Tbe art mlt^t have come from KgYpt, but tbe 
oot-ary In Fbomida ia npreaantad aa MMidantaL 
Tha pXar d eaendd ahlning brikhtly in tha ai^ 
which Herodotus cpeaks of aa bdig la tha lei^ik 
of Uciculca, was probably a boUow oylinder oS fjbm 
with a liunp wilhin it. Pbmnicia prednoad alao 
driuMui; cu^ of silver and gold. Hotnor deaoribaa 
Sidon aa abounding la worlcs of bnwa. Ite bnddlac 
atone waa not of vary good quality, bat cedar^aeoa 
waa Iar){c]y employed. When stone waa need the 
Joints were bovolled— a pracUoe which also chano- 
teriaoa Hebr«w aichitoctut^ and gives it a fAoeOed 
anpoaranoo. The mining oporatioai of the Itiaai* 
anna were alao odebrat^il. Horodotua says that 
they turned a mouDtoia orer ia tha narah flew goU, 
Miiioa wire wrought in the various vitaita fat Ifat 
Grodan iilonda and in Snatn— by pmcsBMa nadt 
tbe eame aa tboae employeu la nmn aiodera timea^ 

The muring fcnowledga and Bzp«ii«Bca af I^ioaidB 
led bi tbe plantation nf niimf nvita colonics ia Cypra^ 
Rluxlea, Cdicio, and the island-i of the .-Ggeaa— the 
Cyoladas and Sporadea— In SloUy, ia PirthW tbt 
Balearic lalaods, and in Spiun. Strabe mm tfkitk 
tbe PboaiidaBfl poaataaed Uie beat |>4rta of Ibcsia 



coaata. lUi 

wm<£ nha* ■ 
waa aalHH 

e while tf^H 

tnewUHH 
Ciaenb, iwH 
in ia Bml H 
.but tbed^ ■ 



I 

I 



J 



PniENICIA. 



47 



haltm Um dftjTB of Iltinwr. On» prindpftl oolony wu 

ia Nflvtiwni Afri<n, uid Stnbo aHorta tbftt tboy 

ocCTipfad ttw middlo p«rt d Afriot soon atUr tba 

TMni mr. TIm tttoty of Dido and the faundAtJoa 

«f CUrthago u weQ knowi^ tb« •not Wiig gcneraUy 

IiImmI betvflui 900 and 900 ac^ thoiurli >w» place 

itM«M)j'Mbc(onlSOO&c BjTsa, tita nAUe i:rf Ui0 

Un on wUch Um o^ wm buill, donotei a fiMtroM, 

bofag Bonali, tfaaaaina abo ol tfaa Idnm»aa ca{nt«l; 

I Uw«(b Ito Graek fwm gxve rise tv tbu sUiry about 

^ <h» |>iimlwir of as mudi Uad as a Mda would meo- 

HHM Caithige SMaiu 'new town,' and l*uitid u 

^^^Bjl MMttwr wpMng of PkonkL Intercouraa with 

VSir •*»!»» «ad tintatorad vaow M the Phoenl- 

daoi to iBiulffe in fictiou, aad lora of g^ lattgfat 

thaa marotttBa dacetta and •tntakgAma. * Piumidan 

figUHOt'— «tni«ma fJioinitiJtait^-at » trovoUi-r'a tali% 

wia pcowra i al in funnor timee, Uke,;Si^ Punt'cn at 

a Ulor period. IIm Ktymologiam Magnum blimtl; 

tltfiuea fAatnikiixm hy to pieudM, tlte He, In tlii: 

OUUiMnr tlwv aa» daacribcd u 'mtij,' or aa 'cnJly 

•oa wkMI As » tndine lurtloa tbey wcrv ready 

wiwIlwM tfl take adnntaw of Uw igrwrant and 

B»va« tribea with wUch tVjr livtcrvd, and Uicy 

<m>aa notMog for law or rigbt on tb« Idgb Dean, 

iritMV iw power «D(ild oontivl ov puabb ; fo ihjit 

DInMi warn tt» pfanM T^Aotnu anA" apaUiia eider 

I ri Hh, 'a Hwaklap dimi kaovlng decettful Odogt 

— obRj.' "Hay were oftan piiate*; they wwro «t- 

toUy i^ra-tnoen, 11>^ piirahaeMl da<r« from 

tba BATtboa Bborea of the Black Sea, and they alao 

IdJaapped and nid the duldren of InaeL Tbia 

,ice brooght apoii thna the eeverot 

of the propheta, and a joat retaliation 

ptadicted to fall apon th«ni. The kmu 

'Canaanitg.' or 'nian of Canaaa/ tha 

of the PJmaicLui, ia tnmetiiarm rvudBtvil 

X ' in the l^'^H**' TCcdvu. ' PliuMiloiaa ' luid 

t' ««n thai iabeidiaii^abla Umta; m> that 

PkaimiKgitKmiaim«aa», 'Iheoomeattader.' 

phfwe aeaxia t« have aimk in monl meaa- 

trader ma bol asotber Baau for a hndi- 

or a pedlar gabg from booae to hona^ aa in 

Pta-xxxL U. Kay, the prophet Hoaeaeayi.' He ia 

m Canaantte,' cr 'Fhrniician,' a 'oa for Cauaan, 

th« fc**""— of daecit are la hia hand, he \nw,ib to 

pfpn^ A cttmmoD proTerb exptenive of fraud 

wratrhfng Irwnd wm ' Byriana munst I'hivnIclAiUL' 

No oafaMd iBoaey of Pliuaikia b extaut prior to iu 

■Mbjagallw by we Greeka. The ataadard sMns to 

bATO becD the aaiae aa the Jevidt; the HhelteL hiAuf; 

■ijaal to the Attic tatradiacihti) ; aad the :it.-, n-bich 

eecon oo the tablet of Manefllc^ hciiig vf the value 

U a deoarioa, Oa tha bobid tahlet £raqtA (idlTer) 

■locaii^ trith tho probable cllipeo of 'ihekel,' aa in 

Hahemr. F(*«iga oQrer nuiDny !■ alwi thi-Te rvfistral 

Wb AaMag the aatiqufdea duji vy in NLuuteL an 

BTfttal branao mights » tho tana at Iwoa; havinj; 

hott cnaeUorm legeoda with the name of Scuoach- 

■rib^ asd alau Pbamiciau or cunlTa Sendtii: inacrip- 

dooi. Hie cor waa a FhaaJdaa meaanre, tbo tuune 

M Ifaa Hebrew chdaaer. aad holdlntj^ 10 Attiu niet- 

cach inetn-tia bciog nqtial to about lOJ 

The ariUun«4lL-al uuution wu ca/rk-d out 

uBopU atnJcea for the uniti; ten vaa 

BtRHca or « aioncircl^ twenty waa rcfne- 

by the letter N, and 100 waa al»o a apmal 

nait atmkaa added to tt detiutUii; adiliticinul 

Um late nxiiiiiM of the Fhtcalciaiu with 

ly dlalaat eoantriea j^kve new wonb to both 

aad Gtveka. Such worda exunsung the 

fa which they traded were a nottonal l^por- 

Hula In Hefanv wo havo almug, tSm-abtiim, 

laHyM — ladlaa ev Baaakrit term* denoting 

the cnriueitKa which Sujomon'a Sni broHybt but. 





They alao adilod to tho tongne «if the Greeka «uch 
teraia as murrha, hiMia, hiu$6pe4, nardo*. Huna- 
nCnwn, Imms. itom^Coi^ on-Aofi^N, (myrrh, oaada, 
hyeaopt aard, cinaanoim, yellow flax, comd, eaimeat- 
mciiMiy), worcU which era oaly Greek fonna of 
PbcMriclap ituua; jiui aa we have mvalln, bayonots 
danuton, oordov&n, and cnnant— luuace of thlaga 
impOTtnl, and Uio nami« are nnw nnlunlixed. 

A* waa the c^k ia Cnnaau at tlio iuvaidaia, each 
PbcenkiaB city vriu gi>verued by a king or |>«tty 
chi«f. A povuful iiriitocTnicy oxiated ia the uhief 
towns, and mav havo fomi(Hl a ihlilieratire aaaembly 
oti jirejit ouciuioiia. Tliero wfiu uIbo tlectiwo magia- 
tratve, called by the lUonana ju/dIm, a di>gii!*«d farm 
of the Hebrew i^eti and two officers xj uatucd the 
L'hanidaa eoloay of Carthaga placed annually at the 
head of tbelr Kovenimaot. Sldat^ aad afterward! 
Tyr«, auToiaea a lu^mooy orw the other ataUe; 
yet tho joalonay of the three great towna waa ao lucii 
Uiat tfa^ met fur oonanltatuin on comujon ground 
at TripoUa, where eaeh cf them had a district wpar^ 
ated from tha olheta by • atadituu, Tbo rvlatiuu of 
rbotaicia «n ber <so1aiii««, ao aumamiu aad bo dlstaat, 
di>c4 not Kocm to have been, aa iudiM^d it cduld not be, 
very clow. I'hua we read that the DanitN, when 
tbuy iNja$hl tbcm nn iahcritouce, marching la on 
armed band, come to I.oith, anil took II ao eaaQy, 
' becauee there waa uo dtdiverar, and it waa far from 
^don.' Their religion, however, bound tho mother 
ooontryaad tboooloaiceiaacommoo wunhip. Car- 
tilage often aeat preast^ to the great god; ao did 
Qiulea and other aetUemeute. 

While the waalth and eoramarce of Pbanidamtut 
have bmugbt art and ro6iicmvat, the people, aa baa 
commoahr happened, were noted for tti«tr dbaolate- 
Doea. The Weet«m Wiirld often tnui^d ita corrup- 
tion to PhirnicLa. I'hipnidan muiga ore itlgmatind 
by AthenuMu on rude oud indcoeul, and pAoiautudn 
ia one who i« brutally liutFul. Effeminacy aad liccn* 
tiouuieoa *apped tlie natund power of aelf-defeace^ 
and led the FbcDUciana to the eaiployiDat of swr- 
cenariea. A rich and oawarlike people conld nut 
but Inre the oonc^uerore to aa eaay prey, and bucIi 
oaoie ta aooonaion from Asayiia, Babylon, Penuo, 
aodBona. 

Tb* nUgion of the Pbataidaaii waa a npeci«» <i 
UMtiMV-sntnMw the ubjccte of adoratiun Li«hi]{ the 
inn, tnooTt, aiid Ittv |ilaiiet«: or in another fono it 
wna the wonhip of male and female reprodoctire 
powers — the former reprwented oa Hoo] and Ibo 
laKcr aa Itaalith, Aabtoreth, or Aatarte. The wor- 
Hhip of ABhtnivLh become a* degraded and Uocntioin 
M that of Uylicta at Balnrlok Large tcoopa «f 
hloroduls (proatitutes) miniatered to the goddeaa. 
Thcei! miniatcia did not lielong to one aei— there 
wna tba — rt"f^l-*-'' mi well na the ticnDtioitii. Thia 
uu|jure and ounatural worvhip, an oppowd In letter 
&ud BpJHt to du) Moaaic law, was [•'iloratod in the 
mry vicinity 'if tho l«inple. Hut tlii'^ WDmhiji wbirb 
waa no liuLtitiuua on the one ndo wan tnhuuioa and 
bloody en the uthcr. The god oalled H, a aoct of 
Pboniciaa Oroooa \x Saturn, had hnaum aaeiificea 
ttfTored to bim. Hia itiioKi; waagf faronto, iuid,ac(nn)> 
inic to the diweriptiuu oi Dlwlvrua. reaeublBd thul of 
Moloch or Mtleom, the god of ^a Amginnitea, la 
whom children were aocrifieed. After a trins^ tbey 
alao aaoificed boaatlful eopUvca. Their litctatore 
having pariabed it ia Impearibla to arrive at any 
adnata Ksowlodgv of PlunuEiaa polytbelim aad ita 
ritual, la aomc part* nf the oonnby tbey practiaeil 
vircuiuciidoti, thouj-h tli« rite du«a not aeem to iMve 
been oommon anwug their neareai nelgbboon of the 
iaterioraad theooaat — the Oaaaaaitaaaad PbiliatiaaB. 
I'ht&r ooanogony, aa givea la the remalna of Sancbo- 
ni&thon, ia peculiiLr, and '» aaaibed to l^aul^-Tbotii 



43 



PHtENIOIA— PHGINIX. 



or H»mm. From the trln^, KolpJU ^th« %-oina of 
Un moutb v! Jab), luid BnotL, hi* wife, wera prcxhioul 
the two tintt roonftli: thc«e hnd three loni, Light, 
Fire, Mid fl&nii-, who pr(>din:cd a race of yiiuitJi fifitn 
whom thr inoniitatni — (.'judiin, Iilhjuiilj^ Hrnthjr, &G 
— ynn named, mi<1 who with tbdlr deaceuihuits dlv' 
oorend Lb« ru-ioiiA arts of liia. In later tini«a the 
li'oda wera i«g*rdcd as merrljr <3eili«d tiicti, nod thin 
IMW mytholugy vn» nbiunllY cnnu^h groftod oa thu 
Mtt cuaacsouy. Elyoti (tbe Mijfht; Oiie) and bis 
irifo Bemth an their pro^^tora, who dvmlt nav 
BfbliiN. Kmni I'llfc)!! dcMccn-d* UeRVen, who wed« 
hia Mitvr Earth, imd bci|[etB finir auDB, B, Brtutun, 
DsflOD, and Atliu. Ueawn dvpows hia (Atb^r, and 
kills ilia own Km, Sadld, and ono of bis daoghtDrL 
'Ilia ROD anil moon were nvenA in eonjunotton with 
Baal and A^tartSL The pn^enr Bune ot GoaI i« 
Baalamw, ' lotd of tbe bMVSiu.* Tbii noma Banl 
is oomnounded with mjuiy jmpm nameii — Kthhiul, 
Jwebel, HmuuIhiI, Asidrulud; and with iiaw«a uf 
[Jaoei^aaBaal-gnd, JliuJ-hiuDoii, ]3iii»l-sb a] ub s, «b ow- 
ing th« ^valaacv of liii wonhip over tho bud even 
After tbo Hebrews had taksn puniiaiicin of tL Among 
a amfarinff peopls m&mie duitiw miiat have hold & 
pnuninant pUo» dcitios onnwvpondin^ to Ncimm 
and Posvldon, wUeb Isat wu wurshii'pvd at Boryliu. 
Tba Cablrl (Stroni; Ones) presided over navigation, 
and are in many respects of flimilar raak ami prano- 
lintdva with thu Dioinuri — tho prnt^ctoni of ■ailnn. 
Id the uld^ot teui]>li.-« tiiaiv were uu buacw; whut 
'radtna ci^ the ^fyiu AsmitrMi was abasnt. But 
them wen mda fcCiafaca— omiRal orobloug stooec 
th« lari^ ones fwrluiM aeioUtea ' UXUm from lisavHi, 
und tho miallKr onea (lossiblj foMil belsmnltcs. Sndi 
a itonc WAS called by tbo Greeks kiifu^ and Bochoit 
und others of a formi^r o^'e traced thcM to Detliel 
and to the pillar wliiuh Jscob erected there. 

TbeUngungsof aacimt {'hamioiamaybteoiierally 
called H obrcw, or tlis language now oommoaljr nodai^ 
iitood br that dHrignatlacL Jarameand Aogmtinfifliif 
tin otly bear tbb testimony. Acoonling to tti« lint ttiQ 
(we ton^na was eo^^jlnis to the other; aocordin? to the 
Utter ahnoat all tlm vords, pate omnia, of the two 
tongua wcra tho ■»!«(<. 1'ho fsmoUB passi^ in tha 
Pocnaliu of PInutua illuatrats* tho sMwrtlwi. Act v. 
wsns 1 ooataina In alxteen Unci the Phonidaa trans- 
lation of the L&tin t/'xt, with upwards of 100 Pbatoi- 
■.-iiui words. Svvand othrr pitnun aiid words are 
fniind in tho two foUow^nj; scenev PhiunEi'Jan or 
Puniu words are quite iutolli^dble from their ralaUcn 
to Hebrew. Thua Jcromo BAva tliat in Ihnt tongiic 
a viff^n w called aimoh. Mcasiaa, aL'totdioj' to 
Angnstine, ww M«» in IVinic; and niniilar am 
B«l or Baal, Adoid, MaUui, Ao. 01 unety-four 
woria on a tahlet disoorared at ManeiOeB In ISIS 
nUtiag to Ui« eacrifidal ritual oo ]«■■ than aerenty- 
foTir STB fonod in tbs Old Tcsttament, Coins and 
sealM alio disdoee the same affinity as do the nuincrona 
fnaarlptiana OB stones found in mimj pUoeti In Cyprus, 
MaJt^ Kdon. Sidly, SardiniA, luid Afric*. Proper 
naasa can all be ex^aiaed in the same way, Md* 
kattb, otlled on a Malteso Insa^ition the IVrinn 
Baal, Is a compouad of two words which in Hebrew 
■ig&ify long of the city. lIanno,oD«of tbsconinioneRt 
Puuic nanuM, is froni Ain, fsvottr, tcraoe, tbo some in 
neaalns vitb Jouutei. John; Anna, tbs afiAer of 
IMdi^ is the same as Uaonah, nnother of SaunoL 
Dido heneU, ' hi* lot-e,' is of the ■ann root as Jlsrid; 
Uaonn>al li the 'grace of BaiJ;' Asdrubol the 'belp 
of Bsal:' Carthage, as ve bare seen, b 'new town.' 

The tnrcBtion of lettccs is often Mcribcd to tho 
Pbenlciaiis. The Greeks betiefvd tbnt Iclbrni had 
eome to them £poni Phavldik As the works and 
wanderintpi of the T^rabui Hcrcalea mythically picture 
the pK^peaa of Pbsnklan eolonliatioo, so Cadaraa 



reprcsonta in the same way ttttt Infloeikoe an4 WfHii 
of FhuniciAii L-tilcure. Letters were aud to hsN 

boco brought to Greece by Cadnrae—ao eastwa 
ntiui. The so-called Cadmean letters of the Gteak 
iklphnbet eroABriBPIKLMNOnPIJ 
the alxtb letter F being the Hebrew f, or the <"_ "^ 
The names of those lettete have do rawaning lai ^^ 
biit they hftve each » algTilficance in PhiiinidSB « 
Hcfhraw. Thua A ii aUjJi, an oi, B, Utk, a bcwar, 
r, gimti or gamat, a camel. A, dal^K, a tenl'door, 
■na T, or (au, a croaa. Tbe tongue In wldeh Ibm 
noraee ore slgnlScaot tnnst be an old om^ f«_ 
written ri^ was proTiably at first a rado i ' 
the object, and the inittst umnd of its : 
the {rawer and expieesioii of the letter. Hie i 
of the old Gnjek lotten in form to tb« PtumUn 
fuid early Hebrew can be easily traced. Tbe naoM 
of many of Uio Cadmean lettei* end la a, tbe enftetb 
form of an Aramaln notm — a |iiiwiiiipl tmi, as atm 
Bunpoae, in favour of an Aranuic ori^n. or pcrluft 
onl V oE an origin from the northern oonliiMw of I'be- 
nicin. 

The lileratur« of Phumlcla bas perinbed. A lav 
frvgnieots of SanchoniAthon bare twen pnatii a ed bf 
KnBcbiua, but tbeirgctiutniiniuH is now denied by aam 
acboliLn as Mu> er^ mid they are regarded as a fo 
mode by Pbilo BybUus, whoprofawM to translaui 

inloUrc-ck. Mochna is referred to aa tbe anther < 

ntamic Iheury. Thcodotn^ PbilostratiM, Mcnandv, 
Bius, Hlerouymua ore called Pboenlolan writers. Iwt 
little more than ch cir G reolc names ramaiti, with fatiif 
elloaionsrireTlTnctsiuthROhTistianBnolagiBtit SfiB, 
if eKcarxtiocuwureuuulewitbcaiein tlieaealdr* 
daa towns, as have been made at NlneTeh and i 
plocts, many relics of interest weald no donb 
brought to light. Aa anwoinienor wbatms,y heantJ- 
cifisled, TfauiOMiu (The Land and tbo Book) dewrfbw 
thofindingatSidonin Janiiary.lSSSiOlaaarDOpbagua, 
which was bou^dit hr the Due do Xjajvim, ma bur* 
in the Ijonvre. Tlin long inmription on tllS 
Pbii-nk-iriti clisnuiU^ni, wiil^'h liavw been i 
tells that the iiarcophagua is that of BUng . 
and it must belong to on ciurly period, tat be i 
bitnx-If tbo pDMEiaor or cmrjDFnir *of IXn*, Jt/fipm^i 
iurij.ili! ooru-liuidjt ut tli0 ruut of Dan.' There anT 
liinda of Phamiciiin wiitini^ which can be olead/ j 
tingniahod. 1'hc Ancient fnnn, which is pnrei^ M. 
ortnognyhi enl, and very ncully inscrilied, is fonwl < 
the munumenta of tbe inc>t!ier oountiy Itself and ef 
hor wlonics in hfalt-^ Carthan, Cititam aad Albou: 
tho later frirm. in tvhirh tho language is oonniit, tb> 
letLen leiii uriLitii^Ldly lilL, sud even mixea with 
strange (^'rubnbly dvgenenLte) character^ b to be 
tn«t with in the inacriptaons fonnd in aMtte parts of 
North Africa, Citido. ('.ypna, Sardinia ^P^' ^ 

Aiatitiif buoka on PLomicia and iite Fbainieiana 
we DirLy incntino Dnrthi^nroy, Koflexlons sur audqu* 
Monuuims Pbo^ctcna |in 1795); Kopp, BUoartinJ 
Scbriften der Vomit (l!i-t-l); Hamakcr, IHstrite 
do aliquot Mununientia Ponici^ Ac, (1^-2); Raoid- 
Bochotto, Mouumcata Phoinidn (18Z8); GeaeBdn^ 
Scriptiirip. I.inguA<><|UQ I'hiFnidm Monameatft qeot- 
qnot Bujicmiut (18^7); Mi>rcra, Die Pboainer (raL 
L 1941, voL ii. U50), Anil PbwnisEen. Eu Ench ud 
Gmbor'e AUgomuuo Encyulopiulio; Kcnrick. Pba- 
nida <ISfiS>; Jhkrit^ Catthace and b<^r Kcmaios 
(1861); R^sn,Miia{onsdeP£^de(l^*i*-7-<^ 

PHOfNTX. a fabnlona Egyptian Uid, about the 
abe of an cimiB, with plumage partly rod and partly 
golden. Aocr^in^ to the atory told tn Herodotua j' 
bird ciiia« fruu ArAl)i& onoe every &D0 years I 
asnctnary |>artic>ilwly dedicated to it at Uc . _ 
brini^iug with it the uesd body uf its parent, wbldi I 
Incloeed in a lorige tigg of myrrli, and buried in the 
ahrino. It ia furtbec rolMed that when It felt tb life 



PHOLAS-PHOSPHORESCEKCE. 



49 



» 



I 



dimvbc lo » eloM ft built Haeil » nnt, to wblcb It 
faipHMd tlM powot of Identical, lo tiiM tttat ita 
daatb ■ a*w pboalx mm out at It; pUJe oUmt 
TArnntu pfxnk of » «mnm, whiob prooMding Crom 
Um body M ttw dead binl wu danuiptd into n now 
phrniiT. A mora BOdeni ud uopuUr mfnlitlc&tiDn 
al tka Mtarj nuM tbU Uut Inrd, st u afo uf 500 
ftmn, oddkIoiv of it« Afipnaching dMth, biiilt » 
iiiiMsal pllv of wood uid ftromaitSo guns, whiofa it 
li|fbi«d with tbo fa&iiine of it« ir^^ and K«e from 
the fljunfls with » new lifct. SinuUr ■toriM af nur- 
TeUoui binU oomr In tko orionUl mytliikloi^icBi, an, 
for buUncB, Uto muh tuf the Peniaa lirO tlaujrg 
and tbal of tbs looun aemauUw, A&cicAt writcn 
iBWDtkie f«Dr periods m bkvinx b««n imu-kol hy tlio 
•pMMnuMS of tbs pbwBii Id I^TVi: nnda ScsMtru, 
ouar Anssis (M9-CI2S B.C.), nader Ptolemy IlL 
(9t4-iM fiLC.)> ^^ (">'><' Tiboritu (S4 A.n.) In Ihe 
CIsmsotilM etiislle to tJie CthruiLbiuia it ia now Mid 
■gam ttKd OM an Ulaatfallun of tLs docUiiu of iho 
rMurTMcUou; K bad boca ragardod by tb« Ef^ptiMu 
as tbe symbol ot InnnortaUty thonsaads <il yc*n pro- 
Tiomlj; it appoats on tbo ooUu at sewral iRaman 
amnirmi ■• a aymbol of thnr own afwthooila or aa 
Hm dawa of a uun filoHous era vndor tboir rviffn, 

PHOLAS, a g«Qua of LaauJUbraaehiato MoliiuKa 
brio agl ag %o the aectioa Stpbonidaof tbal cUaa. Tbia 
gntua fonna tbo type of tba family I'huUiUdw, in 
wfakfa tba ibsU r<kpua at boUi todi. It ia i>f tbia 
wUt* Ifeiton^ and atnddod ov«r on its outer aurfaoo 
wlA aniasnia raap-Ulia pitnniiifjiooa, AccMBury 
pMon or valvea an prmsnt in tbs aLell, which alw 
exUliita tnuurtna ridfBs and lencitodiiiat f um>w* 
CO lu *si«rior. Tbo umlmitt or boaks of th« ahtJI 
an e»rar«d with oaUositiiis. No binge or ligamont 
flit s ia tbs ibcIL 111* auimal ia dub-du[icd and 
tUdc, Bad posiw — s a abort obtoss 'foot,' Tb^ 
hnattbif'ttiMiir 'dpbtou' are rary lon^and nnlted 
to nearly tbeir dpa, wbtcb oxbiut fringvd odgaa. 
Tba maatls lobes an naited or dosed ia front. 

Tbsas BKtUnsca tata typical examploB of iitKcdanout 
or 'itMis-bntinff' moUiuea, Muce they excavats bur> 
row* 1b rocka «l variuna kinds, and tiva witbin these 
bomnra, UkIt dfibons fonBlu£ tlie ni«din tbiuuub 
m\ach cuBtmvaicatiioa li leapt Up wltb tbo outar 
wudd. Variooa tbacrics bare bc«D advanced to 
aooaoal lor tbo mode in wbicb tbe bnrroaa are cxca^ 
Tatad. Tbs bynothede of a cbemtual aolreot was 
loBK Jeb rt sd; wbOst tbs action of tbo foot and of 
tmm Uti rfUidoiiB partidea was wniilikrly c-mtoUxl 
lor. Tbe Irae cxplaualioa d«p«iJii ii|iim tbe nnrojj* 
altltMi of tbo sbcU and tta rwip or file like lurfac** as 
ifca boriae otfi; awl by nwaaa of this itructun, 
huatbar with tbe jets of water from tbe aipfaono, m 
loadmf to carry ofl waat« particka, the bardot rock 
t> fai due tisw axcavatcd. Uluss rfialls are popularly 
luwrwB aa ' piddooks,' aad ar« eaten on oiany parts 
of tha Briwh «oBsta Tbe ctnonua apecies la tbe 
Flaitu J>aatlmi; and tbe /'. oiacfMl^ A jmrni, and 
P. CTWoU an also fouud in Britain. P. papymtta 
mti r. nrfsMwra in addlUcntl axamplea lluae 
1 appear to pciwa tbe power of emittiug a 
raweni ligU, P. Datlflmt being apccially 
I nn tbt* anxMint. 

I''^ rr- WRITING. S« ■WaiTUW. 

1 VrnV. .Sve SiIOBT-IIAHOl 

tiiiyoucSK la tbenamo given bi a gaseous body 
wtdA is pmduesd bv tbs a^kn ot dlnot sanUgfat 
4B a aiittua of eqaa] w i l unus of carbon iiifln''mt 
•ad cUorioe, tfaut CO + C3« = COCV 



t^OtSPBXDESC wopouada of jJaospbona with 
ooa other demeal, more especially with tba metala. 
tOSPHOBKSCKXCB la de property wbich 
^ia bo^os ptiM of becoming Inminoiu without 
ftca- XL * 



undergoing onmbuitlim. iDSsmuoh aa phoepbaroB 
•xbiblta tua property in a marked degree, the nams 
baa been beaoo dorived. Two |ncoea of qunitt emit 
llgbt on being ni1>b»d together. LIgbt In smmi Iu 
bnaldn^ lum^d of sugar. A vsrioty of blondo |«ul- 
phiile of hoc), en lictng icnttched with a kiLifc, emits 
» Hue yellow llabt. In tJie year IGQ3 Mr. Boyle 
obseri'od tbat the diamond, "when allgbtly beat«d| 
ribbod, or compnand. emitted a light almost Mual 
to tbat of the glow-worm. 'Jlte mMl eompJete 
account wc po eac a of tbs ubuaptionnuoQCO uf miuerata 
i« that furnitbtHJ by Sir D. Brewstw, Ho ohtJUiuDd 
biurvaialtsbvplaciaftfra^iicntatFftLobodiiaiexamLned 
npon a tbiclc [nam ot iruu heat»rl a Uttls bolow nd- 
ncu^ut introducing IbeuiiuWapittol-liarrclaimilarly 
bested. Tbe fgllowing table prcieoU aovoQ of bu 
retmlls: — 



Man* nl (ha HIo. 
•nU. 


Calsof al tb* SiUi- 


CAlAor nl Ilia Uihl, 


FiBor qiar. 


Fink 


(inwii. 


„ 


Purjil*. 


H\aULb. 


ij 


Htituh iibit« 


Bluo. 


„ 


WLIt* 


WMunwka 


CaleuaoTu t^m*. 


TrniawnDl. 


TKllowuh. 


A|utiu 


PU.k. 


Yallir*, 


Armipjiilte. 


Dalr whiU 


Rnldulj yellow. 


Riirniutiiin*, 


ColiMU'lm 




Tiifiu 


WlilUNI'lbluilll. 


BlnUh. 


[tnlwUite. 


Hedauli. 


Deoftrt. 


Potolitu. 


R«l4i>b whlM. 


Brieht Una. 
AediUeb T«Uftlr. 


Anatoat. 


Uuk brown 



The phoapbnresccncr of anataae is entirely different 
friiui Uiat of tbe other minanda. It nppeun suddeoly 
like a Raoie, and 1* suon over. Cei-tain varieties of 
Buor roqnite no moru bi?at than that of tba hand to 
occaaiiiii tl)e cmioiiirn of li^lit. The pboMphoric llgbt 
ef Diiiiuralii baa tbe aune pni|»rtiei w tbe direct 
%bc ot the Bun. Tbe fore^iini; iut< Eniitiuicefl lo 
which it was not neoesaary tu uxpuK the bodiaa to 
tbo liffbt pmviniia ta tboir exhibiting phoapbensosMS. 
Certain artJfloial compounds emit light la oodst- 
(lueaoo of tbe action « extraneous IfghL llie moiit 
powerful of tbsse is tba oonipound called Cact<m'a 
pbespluirua. It U fomvcd by ntixing three parts of 
CAlriiiiTii r)yat«r-sliell* iu jujwder witu one of fiowefl 
of ■ulpbiir,and mmming tbe mixture Into aomofbU^ 
and igniting it for luklf an hoar. Tbo brigbb parte 
will, on expoaure lo the Bnnlicain, or tn tbe oommon 
daylight, or to an electrical explteiun, aoauire tha 
pruperty of sbmiag ia the dork, so aa to iituminate 
tbe dbu of a watch, and make iU figures legible. 
It will, indeed, after a wbile, ceoae to ahtne; but if 
wo keep the powder In a weD-corked vial, a new 
exponira to tbe sna'i light will raaton tbs nhoepbo- 
resmnt quality. When tlie electric diacbarge ia 
tranmnitled along tbe aurfacea of wrtain tmdiea, or 
a little abaro thciu, a aomewbat durable phoepboiaa- 
oenoe is prndncad. Sulphate of baryta gives a bright 
gTMQ Unti acetate of potash a brilliant green lirii^ 
and rock-eryrtal a nd and then white light, Iwa- 

Eerature hu a marked elfoct on the omiaaion of liglit 
y theao bodies. NVben they are ahining, tbe Inmin- 
oiu Mf[iearHiee ceases if tliey are aiimsed to the odd 
of a mezing-inixtari^ It bamiaea mere vivid by 
ajiplytog beat; andlf KfaasoeaMd, itmaTbsraiWwad 
by applybg a strongsr beaL Tbe (ollowinc ftuida 
have been found by % D. Brewster to be pbos|4K^ 
rcsc«ut when pound into n cup of lirjUed Iron; — 
Albumen (white of an egg) di]ul««l in water, lauiglsa 
In solution, saliva, soap and waCsr, sulutloa of rhn* 
barb, satutlco of common salt, aohition of nitre, tal* 
low (the pbospboreseenoe of which mav be ohssrvod 
erhem a candle Is extlngulsbed tn a dark room), alea* 
bol, oU. of dlO-eeedi, and oil ef oUvoa. In most <f 
tbo instanoBB of pbofrboieaoenoe eonmeratcd abow 



50 



PHOSPHOEESCEXCBL 



thn« kppenra to be no chemlaid dumge taking phc« 
in tb« body whicb cmita Ui9 Hgiit. The ctuAge ia 
purely mschaitioal; by hMt, by fricticiD, or b; elec' 
IriciCv the iDoliMulOTCd th«b«d]Fu«muedlo vibr»t« 
*» rn.pi<llv tiu,t tlto pliMiainRioD of light b prodnoed 
The lulalataoea wbioh esbibit tbti kind of nhoflpho- 
KBconcx M« genenUI; bkd eaadaelnn of b««t and 
of electricity. In ntbor inat&DOM, lioM'Hvcr, phiMpbo- 
reMenoc in kcconipuiied with a trQ« chemicwl change; 
IbuB % Btick I'll g^ilioijliiruii uuiitit % p«l« Um Usht fai 
the dkrk. Tbc fibonphonia ia here aknrij exfrnlot^, 
with fDrntbtioR of tlic new mitwlMioe photphorua tri- 
uiiile (PjO.V 

I'HOSl'UnilESCENCE (Aimur) and LCTMIPT- 
0TTSN£8ft ii the nuns BppLi«d to the scintlll&Elng 
or photphamoent light emitted fnim the bodir* of 
oartidn narin* MJnMJfc TUb phunciiucnon ii woll 
HSD on tbo fnrfww «f tha ocean At night. EAcb 
movenieDt nf the vmwI or of tha oan^ or taeh ripple 
of tbe waves, cauwo gleaOM of * weird light to tiiuui 
over th* mii-faon nf tbo Mt, or 4arta «pArkii of li^jbt 
In iu dfplli*. Tlio pbmKiDoncQ » well describwl by 
Sir Waltiir Scott In hi* Loid of the U)tm:— 



fOoIoHdgi% in hi« Anoiont I^Iiuinrr, nnd tbo poet 
Onbbe, mbm refer to Uiia luuiiuiMit/, tbc latter 
miurtdng — 



'Awakail liefura Itia nuliluo |,isuk 
Tin DilintD ftna of ocavi glun*, 

ThniB lifhtnlnp efths nnra; 
Wnrl (jiarklM ant tliB brokaa tiilt^ 
Alul fiitfliiiig miiitil Lhs Ta«»l'> ndo^ 

WlUidBililuitralkTs; 
WklZe, far L<hu><t. their U*M l<(1it 
T» LLi dntk hill an of Uia ninht 



'Th* flvy iparka thew iBiiglail frondi antold — 
Myrlkila of living poliiti; th' uiiaMal aj'* 
Ciui bnt tl's On, iluiI uox tin tuna dncrr.' 



QoatrafacM, dwcriUng the lunimoaLty of the hoa 
off tho StdliitnooMCBftys: "llinwdvcM, a* th^j' brolco 
aloDtf the mckv «horr, encircled it with a glowtnf 
bcutd of lyit, wbila every firojectlng cliff waadrvlM 
with n wroath of Bn. Our boat Hwnwd u if It wen 
opening fur itnelf a paxMgw thrmigb Mime flowing 
nud fu-v^t liijuid, whiUt in tt> waku it left a hnig 
track of licht, *!uih iitnile* of tb* oar br^gbtoulng the 
boH>m »t tbo imvr» wllh a brokd vlvw Kleam. Tljo 
water that waa taken up in ft buokot preoantod tht' 
nppmrnnco of niolt^-ri lc>d u we alowlr pourrd Jt 
Inck into the ikw. Kverywhore over thia brilliant 
BorfMO of caJm Uglit mjrrtada of dnaUnc erevo 
ipariu ttnd glohoi of ftrn vnn fiaaUn», qidvcriD^, 
and '(Ting amid thn ondiilAticiiu of tbo wavca* 
(lUmbW of m Kalnralint). 

Tbo luinInoiMn««s tbna doscrllW wm kncrwa to 
and oboomad by tho uicicnt*, who also speculated 
M to it* ckuM; and the pheiiomenon hoo nut eookjicil 
tbo omtd fate uf aamiUr and Htrautra ippoanuvei in 
boluf roHvded by tho Ignorant and suptintitious aa 
of unreal and aupcraatuivJ origin. 

71ls animal* in whioh th« lundiKnia property baa 
boon obfcired bolong to nearly oveiy main eroup of 
ttu MMlogtokl Mtrtoa. Begl&iiJne mth tbo Frotozoa 
or VtmtM mb-khtgdom of Miimali^ ws (isd a prinni- 
ncnt example nf a Inminoaa ftwio In the Noctilura 
miiiaris (wLlcb in»\ ao organiam moat nMtrty allied 
to tbe Intuaorian acimalculn. Tfaii or^Miiamappenra 
to be tbe ohlvf amitn at the dijuttd Intnlnoalty of ttia 
ae^ tbeaa animalouloa euHtiiiK <" uiUDoase myrUds 
In tho watarv of tbo ocean. Uth-r and truo Infuaorja 
nppur nlao to po««a pbaapboreacent protwitlec 
Among Cffilantcralo fimna aany of the Mediuec (hm 
HKDUfllDS) or ddly-Raboa an |in>miiicnt in n»wot 
vi tbeir luminoua qualities ?1is Pkfftaiia, or ' Foi^ 




tngncao Uon-of-War;' the C*i(im yrncrti, and otta 
Ct«nophonc; many Zoopbytea; the PmnattJa jJui- 
jB&aTTii>,arluniinou>'MA-pen,' Ac, all exemplify phc*- 
■Aienacvmt foma boloogiog to th« ( '(rJentcnte grmtp. 
Some BchiDodemat^ oxempUSed by «ertkin Star- 
fiflbea, are liunlnoUL Amongrt tlui AunloM UMif 
Annelida or Worma (for ttxampir, eeitain &natia 
or marine wonna); oertain llyriapotla (for emtaplB, 
CeDtipedea and MiQopedea); a"mo Inaect^ <Uef 
among whicli an the FiroBiM [Elattr^, tbo I^atan- 
Riot {Pu/j/ora), and the Ulnwwunua (tamf^frii), tc; 
and cerbun Cruatacmt {Csel^pt, Oantmanu, 4c.li 
cxhiUt InmltKiitf pn>pertMi. The HoUum* oenHJ- 
biito their ahvo to thia lift, cUody fmm tbo dia 
ISiDioata. In tlilt dam tbo Sjilpa, and mat« ytr- 
ticiilarty tlie couipuiuid Tunicatea known m Pjr^ 
lomix, an) linninoua. The latter tianH, loiloed, bai 
r«fer«ieo to tho pb^spbon-naint prop«rtiM of Uw 
^n-'nun, wbitJi ia rcjirvaented by freo Knd *'"T""T' 
furirio, pre«euting at night the appoMsooo of i 
miwra of flame. Humbvldt deaoribea tb» ' 
Appearance nf tho luminous Pynworao^ d 

^Quua aeveral apeciea are knowii — P. Alia 

thfi (Hjiiatnrial *««ui, and P. drifnia xad P. gigamtnm 
of tlie Medltcrmnciui, bcln^ familiar exampla*. Vx. 
Bennett deoorlbos the appeanuiM prodneed by J*. 
Jr/anrM-tm at 'ft broad and extcnairo ahoeC of fttm- 
phflrraconon, oxtemdtng fmm tort to went aa te ■« 
cha eye oould r«n«b.' thU wan Lu lot. 30° B., and 
27° 5' w. long, Mr. Bennett caat hla tovfag'Oct 
aver the ilem of tbe ship, 'which aooa titnTsd 
throngh the brilliunt maai, the diitarlmDOO Tl4iy 
strong flaohet of Uk!ic t^ b« emitted, nod tbt i^u£, 
judgtag fram iho time the veaael took tn p"'*-j 
tlimneh thn msM, may bara boon a mik in liiniillli 
On taking in the towmg-net U wu fonnd baU-filM 
with /'.vrvfJiNa Jl^nfjriniit-wbjobabone withftbaw- 
tiful pale-tfreDiiigb licbt,' 

Tbe Pholot (whidi aee) or Flddoclc, K gesw d 
MoUuKs bdoDgine to tko LrawUfbnaddito ^tm— 
^fl mombonot whiah grani poMOM birotro abkt^ 
like tbe ojBt(>r8, mii*ei^la. !tt^ and bore into rodi by 
moBnK nf Ihrir nhrllii — olui exhibit Inminooa pnm^ 
Uea. Tbe PMut JJacttfluj la tpeoioUy nMntJooM as 
a pbosphonHent apodeai and other kindi td UJ^isr 
MoUnsca proMnt Inrtao^M of anailogaaa, tboi^ km 
morked, phrnnmcno. Amrmg the V«r4«l>ntt« anbaal* 
oru iiiohided a ft-w exumplea of lainlBona forme; (fa« 
majority of ioBiaacoe of pkoepborweeaoo bdngthm 
•in-n tt' be ini-.luiled in the Invertebrato aerM^ and 
oUisHy ainongit luarine animala. Oartain fiabea mi' 
donbtediy appear to exUIMt pboephoresocavo, f^anu 
of light Mtng emitted cliielly, it ia aaJd. (rom Ou 
ahHnminnJ <vr under aiirfaeee of aucb forma. As 
Hliark* have thus been apedttUy noted; bnt I nmln ow n 
neaa baa bmn nndoabtedly obeerved to wwipawy 
tbo movemcnta of ihoida of noi* eomawn Ubm, 
•nch u tbe herrtnga, Doal-fUh, pUebard^ ■wkjiww^ 
Ac. By aome natw-alitta tbe Inminaoe afipeannos 
olBOfTDd In fidMa hn« lieen mnpoeod tO depend 
r«tbar on tba proMnoc nf imIt or fatty mottora (ban 
on tho puaaaBleo of trui- ph(Bpliureo<mt qoalitiea. 
But th«re appears littln doubt at the ume tun* thai 
vwm of actual phospfaoreseencu on trolyexampHM 
in tho daas of fiabsA Certain tpttiex of tanles i 
a Surinam toad — reapecttTely npreaentlng tbe ~ 
tilia and Amphi\n»— ere all^^ bo bo lomlnoui^i 
it is highly prolobfalo that many leptileo jmnH pbtm- 
pboresoent proporttoe, atlhougl) doftnito ohn sin atioDe 
are etiU vanting to utisfactMlly aettJe tbe poinl 
Amongst the Inrda and qnadrapodi a f«w detwthad 
euuDtdee of tbla phsnomenua occur, 

Begatding tho apptaranrtt and twtture ti Ola 
animnj phoaphoresoenoe a variety of information baa 
be«D coUocted. The iutenalty, rtigiihuity^and ooloor 



\ 



PHOSPHORKSCBNCE. 



n 



or bnit of tba light nLtygrMtly imiler riilTereiit circnnn* 
ManoM) XMfa M tlwav conuvotod u-itJi Ihu tviuporv 
ton. ud cftbvr phjgial ud Burrouudlug eoDditiou 
o< Ow uinuk andttanff it lite hiio of tb« yihoa- 
plumanncie emitted hyrheiia Ikieii/tva in thui itated 
to b« blulsli-uibj(«: In Lampyrl* nort&Ma, onv of tli« 
cluwwufiDi^ it ii gnMnuh-bliw; la L. Italifa it is 
m^t bine; whilft in me of Ui« ftrcHin {tJlater noc- 
tSmem») the Ucht onittvd h«t » brilU»at green, with 
^NDta of m gciAni bloe; Tbe light Iim bM& fcnind 
to rar7 io tb« iaUoAtf and rcgiJvtt; of Ito va'w- 
litn. Some MollaBa appMr to M nemiuiently phoa- 
p h uM Mtt l. — alan kra Gorteia fira-nJM; bat tlicnii>rr 
ganw a l rale it that the lomtncnuineai in intertuittsiit, 
and b prodtiBed onder th» InAucuoe ot Htiuuli ul 
wiatw UadiL Thna, ehuij^ in t«iii]>«nitiire and 
other alUrxtifinii of th« mndium in irhioh Iha ph(a> 
pbonnonat uiiiutdii exi*t {iruduoe vnristioo* iu tlm 
mtMid^ of tlM lumlnouHDeflu The ivuTnor t'^ao 
■ra— r to b« thcae in wUch lumiiLocity is ctiirfly 
onaerrsd; beaoe, eltbongh jAcMphoreaoeaca ia »Ijhi 
obnerved In Aictic MM, we coDdnda tfaftt e blgb t«i[i ■ 
p e wtui e ii that b«et adapted for ila tavouiabte exhibi- 
tion. The lewart tenpcntare at which ineeete etoit 
Uflil under natural and ardiniwy drcninrtaiuxa vt 
•tatod to be !M' Fahr. llw glowonna ehlne inr«t 
farigbtl* in temperate rcgiooa daring Rtmincr, aiid 
U^ MghUj tn autumn. Electrieal disturb*tic« «f 
the alnboepheie, mcb ae geneiallT preoedae aUirui*. 
le Hid ba facniaee tbo brilliancv of the light oniitted 
bv narina fating wufAi a> the t^laa, Aa And the 
abntphw oepee of thta latter tDOlioKi is also aiiid to 
be atrauiwt in enminer. The iuBuenco of innligbt 
dnring the day baa ben alleged to be faronrablo to 
tba lB*ignf»tim ot the pheaphonaoeot qualitte* cf 
■KM bmeta, and the nmeraUiation thm made haa 
haeo ettcnded to Inolude other fcnna. Bnt the more 
maoBiI'la eiulaoaliDo of Ibie droumataitce wvuld 
•ppnr to eooim in the (aot, that the ennligbt beia^ 
neeaaaarjroradvantafpMnatotbe nutrition and h<rAltb 
cf tb> being a* a wbnle, whatvror fatncU to inmir* 
that beahh wQ natnrally alev came iU pbocpliur«a> 
qvaUtiea to be pneent tn fuUor «-lgour. By 
' It waa remark«l that Itiminou* Meduaai 
I theirater at muon-nau, and Uiua nppeand lo 
: t^>cim the louar light. 

initation, ■> by helng atmck or after 

wHb other bodifii^ ondoubteHly atitnTiUea 

ttie cmbeioa of phaaphon««Doe. Many loiitinoua 
(enm which whro at r«at are perfectly dull and 
BliiparldebvilliaiitlT on being toncbed. Von*» 
to act hi •& epfouta manner upon Imaloona 
. and time caueo them to oeaae trcim ihininj;. 
ita am the part of phospboraccnt animalu, 
ilj OB aooouot ot their beinjt due to niuMmUr 
aeHMi and MrroaaacUvity.saemtointenBlfy the light 
Hha aerrona nflneaoe^ aa we ahalj iimnntly nntinc, 
ii |*nbably wy Inllmataly oonneotvd vii.li tlia ictuAl 
mm* asQ origin of tbi hunbtodty. And the eLiiuAl 
, in the oaat ef aomo faMoeta at leaat, Lav« 
aUqjed to be intiniatelr oonncctcd with ttie 
' n at pboepboreuent %bt Tbua, In the gluw- 
llM ligbi eodtted by the fomalca has been 
ranided aa nuf ioUIt dcaUned to gnido the miiXf\ 
wM ii itatad to grow leea brilltaBt ^t«r the deiKiai- 
tko of the en*' But thia theory i« inapptioatite to 
~ in wakh luninoiwDcai ia oUwrred. £l«c- 

r^ipUod la the fotm cf galTaalo ouiTeDta paaKd 
|fa ih» water ap|(iai«d to reaalt in tho intcuii- 
B of the huninnaity; bnt removal fmin tlicir 
i u a w a ter to fraib wat«r, or tu other media, 
I affaat od aooo CTtini;:iiijihing tba phcapbor- 
Ib inariaa fonaa. ^iiiiilailv, in the caao of 
, rwnoval from the atmuapLicTe to a vacuum 
i Ibi pbe^Aoneooaoe to oaaee. 



VTith regard, in tho Inat initonce, to the parts or 
orcaus iu varloua aiiiuiaU which pn^luce tbli- lumln- 
tmty, and also coDccminir the mnia in which auch 
orsaa* proi)nr« the phntijibnTeaneDre, little will re- 
cgiiire to be aaid. In aoiae caaea the aonrce of tba 
li^bt «{ipear8 to be dlstinotiy loctliMd within th« 
bi>dic« of the atittnaU productofr it TiivM, Ln aoma 
Meiluaa: aa-callMl luminftii pMnii h&ve been obaervad. 
Id JicrOr, ojie of thu Uglier Ci> hi^terata, Khroabeig 
aaya the luminiwity iiuii]>n* frrjm the ovaries, and in 
a nearly allieO fonu from tliu cirri or Cestaele-IUM 
tHacnenta trlth which it ia praWdcd. The light of 
rhniu ia cmiltwi a.r.papcnt!y from the innda of the 
jrvfAifitr t>r brealhu^-tuliM. ^3ee Pbouls.) Ib 
otiier forma the lumlncdty appeaia to be motv dif* 
fused, anil to exiat gnneraUy thningfaoat the tiwnn 
nf tha oF^ninn, Whilut in many marine atLimals 
a Uminimt muea* or vJaoiJ Micretion, given off frtim 
thuir bodlea, and mixing with llie water, ia tvgacded 
M the Ki^rto of the phoaphoreecanoo. Id inaec^ tba 
■cat of tho Innunodty can Im raore aiicuralely d-eter- 
miaefl, Thus, iti the female glowworm the light 
pr^>CK<da from the hinder abdominal aoguenU: the 
Ciral^ee are Inminoti* in their eh«ata, klA alio from 
their abiluinonii; wbilRt in S«iojimiir^ eUetriat, a 
crntiruHte.form, the light pmcRodii frmn the bond. 
1'ho intimato atnicturv of luminoua organa in tniecta 
a[^ieafa to exhibit a aimple oonf I'lnnatlnn. and a fattj 
compoailicin. TreTir&nua, iuilecd, concluded that tha 
ndipimie or fat-tLaima of iusocta wna thn gonnra] aoat 
of M't* luminouaueaa. 

Varlona theoriea hare fmm time to time been 
«nnnciat«d with rt^ard to tlie mode iu or through 
which the hiniiDoiia orgnna in antninla, whatorer thdr 
Datore, operate to pivduee Uie ph'Wplioreecence. By 
Mayer, fcc, the light of tho aun Bbeorbod and re- 
emitted from the animal organitation waa held to be 
th<.- iwunc of (lie lumLooimcMb U^ •wal]owed(f) 
with tlie food, and elabomfied br ipedal organic waa 
the chief elrraonl in BrugualelU'a theory. Sptillaa- 
utnt maintained a chemical hypotheaiB, that the oxy* 
ueu of the KIT fenuMl tbe ehief element in a auppoaed 
combuition piodncUra of lunUnonanoaa. MaMire'a 
ideas TMolrni tfaemaelrea into Um theory that the 
eaMntlal Iiiminooa matter ooindated of nhoephonia 
and albumen, and that opco tbe more or 1«a« perfeot 
coagulation of the lattar depaodad the intanalty or 
decreaio of the hnnliwafty. Catwln, TrtTijainu^ 
Davy, Ac, In part adtmteil HpaHauzani'a view of the 
Gombostianof oiygmi; out the v held that this elsnicnt 
intTodaoed in brealbing acted upon phoepborus ae- 
creted by the lumlnooa organa, and lo ]>r»ilii(vd tho 
lumiauelty. Wldlat a laet hvpolliada, aupijortwl by 
Todd aiul hlacartni^y, Iifid that the loiuinoalty waa 
•oliily a nUd effect di-iienilunt ujion a peculiar cxbiU- 
tlon and modiUcAtion of tbe nmoui i^/tUvi: and that 

i'mt a« in ordinary cAAca aene-/i>ri-e may bo trana- 
nrmed into notum or into ttertriciti/, m In thli 
fpedaleaaeitlitnuisfoniiedlnUi'^/A'. Tlcil>'maDB'a 
view ineladed the phwphonii and osygcn tbeonr ti 
Darwin, An.; but the fonnes phyntuogiat alao hald 
that the aecrvLton (4 tbe pheephenioent elcraenla 
waa in haeU n vital aet 

Without cnBeriag ftito the merita of thcae rariona 
■u^Heatiomi^ it may be aimjJy atateil that the vienra 
of Todd and Ktoojirtney, which maintain the ante 
action of tbe Denou* «y«tem and vital or servo force 
in the produetioB ot tba lunlnoalty, are thow which 
iur«t antiafactorfly and thoroughly mert and t^y 
with the r«aeaicbc» and opintona of modem pbyrfology 
and luology. And the luminoaity of tntiPiTilp out 
therefore bo mo6t safely ngatded ati a peculiar modi* 
fixation of ttrrri'-riirre. exerted in eome InatanMn 
through ■puoaliiet.l itructnTBa (aa in inaecta}^ or in 
other caaea throagfa tbe eeoeral timtea or iicntkak 



PHOSPHORITE— PHOSPHOBtJS. 



^M aJMBttda of ft distbet nervima wymam in iracii low 
lariDi^ M Na«tilnea^ Meduui.-, ho., tluea nut In ibo 
bant miUtKt* i^Miut thia thmir. SLnn> iihyninlo 
gtata ara oow nounoiltKl to tlw txlht tlinl ucrvoua 
Kb Mid tbe pkflDonuiu of ooireUtlun cuiy be exbl- 
liit'-i! without tba preaoocv of, and eutirely dlnioci- 
■ileil fmmitcatuniitnUoDervv-LinTica. Incaacwwhera 
liimlnority is exhibited after dcalb, tliii nanli it 
■imply dn« to the xomali^ ritaiity (or tbnt i^f ths 
tUiut4). being for n ivrtain i>ori«(i ioherent in the lifo 
IcoH body. Thin theory, incireover, iIcjm ncit enttraly 
]*y oflilo soma uf tbo oUmr tlivorlea vr Iduu alrewly 
awntionod. No en* mny deny tfanl ovory vittl act, 
Altbongh eMeDtJAllv Ibking oriL'in fmm a vital forc«, 
mny yvt atidl itavU uf and Ik mwiifeMtad tlmjugli 
chmnicjLl or chomlmj-phyBlcAl Iswa and oondftio'ns. 
And evtm if, Id oeriatn cuc», actual chcnucal B«tiiMM 
nuy be pruved U> occur, Ihia disuovtrj would mil 
l«u«n the valna or appUcDitiviu i't tlii» Uie^'iry; since 
tbow Ktlioni cui only bo «xvrt«d as ginrt of a living 
oreaoliaUoQ, which Li ountiollcd by vital force and 
aubject to vital laws. 

I'liUSI'IlUinri-:, a maalve rsdUtsd mineral 
oomlitliig ewcntiallyoF phcup bate of caidufD, obtaiiiwi 
dilvfly from Eitrcroodura in Spain. 

PHOSPMGItUS waa diaoov«t«d by Brun<lt ia 
IRW, ihaaah there are aonui ruaon* for b^lievinc; 
that iiie alali«cibit of «a «*rli«r pofod wun b1h> 
•oqiiauit«d with this mbatanca Brandt k«pt bia 
[ttwiMM aecTot (or anniia time. Kiinukd, nnutbrr Olt- 
mail cbemint, knuwing unly Ibut Bmndt hwl jirnciirod 
it fmin iirlne, «i)b«fv<a on ihw invwtle'tl'Jtii and suo- 
seeil«0 in diacnrcrin^ tbo ptoocm. Mr. Boylci, in 
Eni^and, aldo diMOTwed ft* and Godfrey 1 luiiicvritz, 
• UBD who wan taught tho pcoceaa by Boyla, null] it 
for many years at a liigh ]<rico in London. In I?C(» 
dian dboovurvd tiut [ihoupbatc of limo in tba baaia 
«f bum; and aiz yaan later SchMlo publiiJicd a jiro- 
oetc for eilntotiBg pboapUonu from Vmca, a muJiS- 
Cfttlati of whJoti prooeas ja stilt In tjenonl uae. Bone- 
lab eontaina a larg« atnount of (ricaltdo pboaphMci, 
O^P^O^ By treatment witli ■iilphuric and thia Milt 
b daoorappae^ljuulublw caluluui ■u]|>kat<% and a vol- 
■M» ptMNfibait* of calcium boin? produced; on evt^ 
paOktiBg the Nohitinn containing tbo pboAphato to 
oryiuae it uudci^t"*^ decma (Haiti on, water bcinn 
dnren nS, wliilo a cnw cAlciuin metMihoapbate, an It 
la t«aTU«l, in I<^u■luc<^l; 011 adding tiiarcool to thJa 
raiduo, and Hlrouglj heating it, part ot tbe phoaphnnis 
la aet f re« and diatila orcr, wliilo annthor part remaina 
bohiud aa iiiaulubl« or bona phua]>hata. Tha various 
atage* of tba doooBipoihloa enumeratod ubovu ara 
TviiRMvntod In ehwnJoal lu^uagt aa foUatn: — 

(1> Pnidi>otl(iiii>faDliiliIojihnphata,(XPtO|^3HtaO| = 
fOkSOt + CkU,l>,i>, 

^) UaoMBpoUlioo of llili»liilils jiliiajibaU, CWII,PiO^ = 
CaP,0| + SHta 

(1.) Pc«da«UanctfphMpLania,3CaP,0(+Cw— C<r,0,-f 

isco + r«. 

B^ amirfiitng tbeM cqnaUooa it will be aeen tliat 
tWO-lh!ida oiuy ot tbe pboaphorua of the buue-nali is 
<Ataiaad, at tn* berminatioa of the proccaa, Id the 
fmatata. 

Tbe MpnUon of ths total anonnt of phocphonia 
nay bo brooght abont by mixing Mod with tb« chitr- 
coal in the lut atage of tlic oprmtion, wLercby a ad!* 
cat* of caldiun ia prMluoed— thtu^ 

aCaPtfl. f RHIO, -f Cu = aCaBiO, + UOO-f r«. 

The diatOlation of the phuaphorua ia carrind out in 
an earthenware retort, coat«<l ext«nudiy with a gla«« 
ef borax and Gni-duy, placed in a fumaco; tho ntort 
is ooDMcted with a wide capper tube wliidi paawa 
into a eloaed vcaKJ ooataintng water, under the aur* 




\i dadr 



faoe of which tbe end of tba tnb« dlpa; tUi 

Gttcd vrith an exit tube, whioh oonr^ys tb* odms* 

dcnaed gaaca to a chimney. 

Aa loue-aah oontalni, on an sver^«L Cmu 90 la 
2S per rant, of pboephanu, it foUowa u»t (lam U 
to 16 per cent. abouUi 1m obtatniHl by tbo abovn pf»- 
ccaa; in practjoe, buwBimr, thia amount ia raialy. If 
ever, ptodaoed, froia 10 to 13 per cmiU bvbtt eat- 
ndoredafoodyictd Tbeadiuixtui«ofailkn,altbov^ 
inauring Uie expulalon of tbe whole of tlie phoMihdn^ 
ia nut tak«n advantage of to anjr gnat «xt«ot, bacaoM 
the temparaturo to wbiob the ivhxtta mnat ipa 
ia sxoMxIingly bis'li. The pbcspbann, u 
in the reodvem, muit nndergo purWoattoa 
gUDeraUy mixed with carbou,aJliooi^ and vaiiona 
Iropiiritiis. I'liro pboaphonia ia oMained 
mechanical or by chonitaal tnatment of tba 
material. The furmer method cou&iMa in aqaeeOH 
tbe subatanca through chamoia Icatbsr or tbro*^ 
pDroua earthen ware, wo lalt«r in oxidiiing tba nw>Qii> 
tica (and removing them aa a slag) by meau tdm^ 
phuric acid and pcitosriiim dichromata. Tba ~ 
TiiKtIiCNl la niniijgonnraLly adopted. PbcMpboraa 
nlly owiica iutij the utitrUtrt in atioka; thea 
by running tbe multeu lubttwiaa into gUa 
surroiindud by «oId water, wherv it yriekly aniiatia 

t'JiiHijihonii^ when pure, ia aa auuoal coloufleai^ 
wax-li]iv, trunapwrent a^Ud, wbiuh melti at ii' C. 
bolls about iitV C and liaa a ipacifio gmtitr uf 
About 1 '9. When cooled to a tow ttfmpcraturo pbM- 
[ihonia bociniiiia bard and brittle; when baoke^ b 
exliIUta a cryetalUne fracture; faideed tt may ba 
obtainod in iviJl-dotiiiod octahedral cryatala by«*» 
porating iU aolutiuii in tnrboa disulphida Afts 
pliiapborua haa beeu prtpared fur aome time It loan 
its tranaporcncy, bocontea white and opaqne^ and 
I<«t d«nce than before. Black pbuaphvnia ii b1» 
produced under certain oonditlona; bnt the red « 
amorpliuua variety of phoapborva ia tb* oMMt nmA- 
able. If ordinary phoaphonu b« beat«d to near Ua 
boiliti^'p.iint in an atiHiMpbere whicb ia JwiytW t 
[if cbcmicalty acting vpoa it, a change ia gnKMally 
bruu^'lit aV)ut in the alruotnia of tbe anbetaaoe, the 
wax- Like, cryat nllinc autid Unng gradually truulanaad 
into a red, amorfihona powder. 

Ordiniir; pbuBiihunia ia very readily oxidiied,laking 
fire apontaneoualy when expoaed to air; anorpbovi 
pho^itiorua dooa not ignite nntU timted to 260^ C; 
ordinary phoepbonia u lolnble In oarbon rlltnlpliidn 
anic'r{ibuii]i plio*)ib>>nia u inaolubla in tfaia iimaal, 
ordinary pbiwphorua hiuaapacWc gta.vltya( MMWt 
I'S, the apuciEic gravity of amorphous pboapboraa ia 
about 1t'2; ordjnary plioapliorua b eitremctly polaov 
uui^aiDorjiliiiiia phi:<*pliorti* i» not poiMDOoa; sotwilb- 
stuiding tlirne well-niarked differancaa ia pbyitaJ 
charnotera, and ewu in tvxioologleal aotimi evmnary 
and amarphoiu phoqihona an to tb« dianii* oite 
and tho aome elementur aubatnnoa 

Fboapboma very readily oomHnee with iiiigeii. U 
a itidcc^ the dry aabetaneo beallawed to lemaln ia con- 
tact with air it nwodily tolcoa fire and bnm^ wiUi tba 
{■riKliiiTtiiin iif phoaphorie pontoxtde^ Pi^V If thia 
experiiuL-nt he L^arried on In tbe dark m peculiar encD* 
iah light will ha notictid playing around tb« sSek el 
phoei>tinniH (or *nn\« time hefom it bursia into flams; 
tbii lifcht {aee PHOarHOUSOntCB) ia producied by tlM 
alow oxidation of the phoaphonia, with the production 
of tbo trioxidv, PiO^ Ou aooount of its <oay taflam- 
mabillty pboephiinis mtiat be kept out of oontact 
with air; it niuHt not be touched Cor any leiij(th od 
time witti the linger^ and it moat not be bntogbt 
into a h«at«d aliuoapliere. The greatest care is 
Bocreeasry on ths patt of any one u working wtth 
tbia sabstonoo. 

In ita ohemloal lelatianalupa phoaphoma la allied 



I 
I 




I 

I 



I 



to aitngn, menio, witinion;, ud bumnth ; it has tha 
paw«r of OTcatiliiiog iritb three »Uiuu ul hydrogen or 
aUMriiinaov*batelani«Dt,ltiatb«r«ror«»trUd. Thn 
•leoda wdabt of pliosphvnu b mgvt prolwlily 31; it* 
vafomt li dsty-twtt times heavier tiun hjdn^^sD, not 
lfairt]r-«M time^ ■■ would bkva b«aa ike owe ^id 
HobsjtlwgVBvnlraleoaoeemtngtliio vAptmrdonntiM 
of tbc CMMOt vlementa. 

PbM^bonH la naed krgety !n ttie ATb, MpecbU; in 
tlM nambctar* of ludfor mktchea^ which tn ti[<i)c<l 
wllli k pe rt e cDubdning pboaphonu and another Di»tu- 
rial wnkb nadi!; parts with in oxjgQo, aiioh u 
cUonta of miiaailiim, porooida cf load, A& Safcty- 
matftift — tBBt ii, DutebM which i^itc only wbi;n 
mbhad on a prepared nirfaue— ^utnll)- cuntuu 
cfalotmu of potHHium and Bulphldo of aaiimony mads 
into a paflto with gmn, while Hm prepared aorfaM 
mnlaina aiDanihoiM pboaphnro*, 

Thrn auraal |»oduotioo of phceplivriii in Europe 
■B wa n li to obonl S^OH orto, involving Hm eonsnnip- 

Am baa bean akeMi; mcntionn!, two oxidta of phM- 
phnma may b* pmdiioed br oxididng th« cleitient 
in olr. Ttta fint of tbwe, jJioipharvt trtmniU (P|Oi), 
ia bvt pradoeed bj burning pheapbonM in a very 
ahnr eonaat e{ dry tit; it farmi a buUiy, nrhitc, 
oifMKpbona rablbnatM^ wbioh ffreedflr takef apwator, 
loranc yAMPpAonna wiJ^ tbiu, F,Oj -t- SHjO = 
SHtPOe TIiiBacid,whkhiaalBoprodDoed tnTDUy 
other wajs, foRDi inuupan.-Dt, oolourleM crjrst*Ii>, 
witich are detiijiiBBoeDt Ld tbg Bar, melt at 74* 0., Mid 
diBol** fa water to finm a ■ttonslj actd liquid, which 
i l rllr aa to pbewborle add on eipoeun to the air. 
Pkomhorow acid la dibaaio, two of it* hydrogen atonui 
oitlv being replaoeahle by metaljL The moetal Car- 
mill* for tke phoapUtea on thrrdor* MUtFOi and 
UtHPOit where M ra p jeae n te a monovalent metal. 
E*cb or all of tba three hydrogen stoma laay be 
tajilaoad l^ slcobolio lodiclei, gitin^ riM to a swjoi 
flf alhai^ toe eeoeral fonnnis for which are X H«PO« 
X»BPO^ and S«PO« whpre X repra«aLts a mono- 
valent radicle a« ethyl, oivtliyl, Ac A Urgo aombcr 
of ^boifiliHea !• known. 

nttftanu pentoxide (PtO*) ti produced oa a snow- 
wWta^ atBorphoui aobietanoa by baming ph<:«pl^nrt8 
h excBB of perfectly dry air or nxygnn, ThU auli- 
ataotoa eegjAw rery enerseitcally with wiiter, «{t1i 
■ fafaring Dolae. tirm dnwant adds ore prtMluccd 
bjr this reaetioii, wUah may be written Uiua — 

pfOj.DtO — snrcv 
7,0,-111,0 = u.r,o,.i 
PtO^.iBiO = iii,ru|. 

lb bD of these acods the geoerie naina of pha$pioric 
•flU b aftpUed; Iwt eertoin prefixev are lued to di>- 
tingviih Ibam bora eocb other; — 

BtOt teosetsHf er «ms-|Jientboria aetJ. 
HiPOt c^oiffOTefUo-pbeiiilMtleeeliL 
B.Pi(>i Mreteiftrnrre^ihaiihertaaMd. 

Hm mmobasia aelri [a prodncvd by tho action of oold 
wai«r an tbe pentoxide; the tribadc odd is prodncod 
by tba actMO of hot water on tlie aatiio body; the 
trt mh a sio b prodaoed by the ^ry srodnnl abeorp- 
tluo of water by tha monohasla odd. Or, itartlng 
with the mart nydimtad odd, samoly, the tribade, 
wa may pndtieo tha ttCnbasie by driving oD port 
of tba voter, aod tha loaoobasie by driviog uR a fur- 
tbar qmrntftr of wafw. Tbeeo reaetious are made 
•rtdnt by the toUoviDg eqvatioii: — 

urcH +n,o = H.rot - 

loro^^UtOs — ii.fsO, 

m4 ntO, ->B,PO. -11,0 — 

iUtOt = - B,P,0, -B,0. 



Three duaes of pboaplutte an thflrefore known, tha 
meta-fAoijikaUs, repreaented by tho fortnul* MPOi; 
the artha-phatpkate*, represented by tbo fonutdie 
MH,POo M.HPOfc and M,PO,: and the pjrmv 
pKoiihaX<ty reprasontad genaraUy by tfao formuliB 
Mn,l',C),. M,H,P,0,, M.HP.tl^ Olid M.P.Ot. 
Aaothtsroinduf |jbuiph<mui,uauiisIy,Apj>r)-jiA'j*/iAorwiij, 
UiPOt, U known; it i< a monobaaic odd, fonning 
salts MH,?CV 

J'htjapKaitiied K^rapeTtj or phoepKins (Ttl]), is a 
gaseous subeLsuce^ wbich is prcidui;*d by hroting 
pbocpborus with tho solution of a cnusiJc alkali, 
thus— 

P. + lKHO-h3HjO = SKH,PO,+ PH^ 

The gam Intlstuisi spontaueounly uu cuuiiiig iuto con- 
toot with air, being hereby burned; ibna SFHi + 
O, = PiO, + 3 H,0. If. however, tbo gM he paxeed 
throng a tulie nLrmtiDdird by s (reexiuj;- mix turn, » 
small quanUCy '.>1 It !■ ixiuileijitei] to s Iiijujj, oiid the 
nmaindor no longor takes Gi« on isnuEig into tho sir. 
The liqnid ia tk« cold tube i* annthor hydride of 
pbtajjIiomM, rutrl it ia U> tho preacncfof >>msll quou- 
tlty of tbia lii^uid ia the gassous hylridi' thst we are 
to trace tLu fiK^ntaneoaa inBommsbility of the mix- 
tiirt!. 

A great insuy othL-r componnds of plioaphorus are 
known; ibna w« have two diknide^ F CU and POU; 
two or perbapti ttirea iodide^ hmmkloit sulphides, ii. 
Thaae wbidi vnn hare already described ore the most 
geuorolly iut«rest[iig rompoundi nf ItUs eleniiebt. 

PHOSPHOiaTS BASKS. This mvoie is oppHwi 
to s large series of bodies which eimtain phosphorus 
unit^ with an organic radldft. Tho two iirlnclpol 
ciicmbera cf the serine b«m whiob the atjitrrm an 
d«rivetl, aro frinwlAyf jJinipftint iClIi)jP. ""l *■^- 
ahyl pfittphhte (C,H,)]F. These subttoucoa may 
be looked on as pboepboralted hydrogen (PH*), to 
wtitL-h tbe liydrvgeo h replsoed by tbe radicles mtAhyl 
and ethyl rcepcctiwly, 

PI.I(.)TH?S, A patriarch of Conjttiuitinopli! in tbo 
nictL ciTntury, born dX polrioiAa parents iu that city 
u)>out the year 615. Ub waallh and int«rMt rabed 
him to tbo highest offiooa of the state, whilst h« 
enjoyed the reputation of being the most nnlvenallj 
learned sod acconiplbhed man of kb a«e. 'Whan he 
hclil the nnniinsl oAico of csfitain of lbs gvanis ba 
woA teuton adtplomotiouiliston to Assyria (vr mon 
prcb&bly Parda), and ha smidoyad the Idsun wUeh 
bin light duties afforded him in oomposli^ his Myiio- 
bililiuii, hb chief literary work. He alfarrsraids 
became secretary of state under Xhti emperor Micboel 
III., and contrwtad on intlmatty with tbe minbter 
itardna, uncle nf tlie empocDr. llio [istriArcli Igno- 
tiiii Iisvm^ (Imwn upon hiniadf by hin plain ■pRoking 
tbe displwiBure of Uie weak and prvdii^ata Mlohoel, 
it was icaolTed to deprive bini ol Ida swrad olSoa, 
An attempt was mode to tit<liiM! hiui to resign, but 
It foiled, and L!i« uuf-urtunste ]iBtniin:h was depcaed 
with giMt Indignity, iiuiirbonwl, and afin-wsrds asot 
Into exile Bwdos now [<Tr*ua'lRd tlio emperor to 
raise Pbotina to tho palriircbiil di^iiily. He vina, it 
b tni^ a layraoB; bnt in the ansce of d> days be 
hurriaa tbmirii all tba stages of mcrsd ordera, and 
on Chiislmas^y, ftSS. was consecrated potriordi \>y 
Qregory, btahap of Syracuse, Utdy deposed by the 
Rdiuu) pontiff. Ills Initsltation was rwngnizsd by 
the metriijiulllaiii uf the patriarebate, but was opposed 
by Fo|)e KieboUa I., whom Fhotius soon after 
oxoomannicatod. Dot tbe Emperor Mivbael having 
boon mmdeivd in 6(7 by Rssll. vho was raised to 
tha throtM, that prinaelmmediatelyre^jUoDd Ignatius 
In bb offiea, and hanbhsd Pbotins, who, howavar, 
reanmed bb dignity on the death of Ignatius in 878. 
On the accaasiun of I.«a, Km of Basil, to tbe Impvbl 
throne is 86S, FhoUus was again depoaw^ and baa- 



PHOTOGRAPHT. 



Uwd to » soowtcr; in AimcmiL, when hu died in 
891. Hii death night hnvo put nn end to the divl- 
■iou be tftd occOdoiiL-d butwrnu the Greek uul L^tin 
Cbiiivhes bod not Uio pcipna r»fii»«il U> Bcknowlnclgn 
the pric«ti and biiliopi vrdjduod bj him, and liuuit^ 
upon their dogTkdstloa. ThisnuAeiMiDililaaMntion of 
aulbonCjHorxiuiporktod theGn'cloi, tbat BlthCiugh ail 
ill turai unto betw-L-an the cbtirchen wiui not brnltun offj 
tlic acliliui wlitcb bM ever •tui.-o iuloialvd hcul IkIcoq 
root. It is now impoanble to utIto at a correct 
MtitnAtc of the cbtLrftctcr nS Vhatia»; hi« biogr&pbcra 
beIoii{[iiiL{ Lci tht! Kumiui Cburcb aMriba to liunvvery 
CIOMB of craft, violence. Mid per&dy; while thow of tho 
Greek Church u uiuluitvdl^ eulogin him. H« waa 
Ml Ma mftn of the world, but not iDflmeDoed bj the 
hijjb prindulee wUcb befittod bia ntcj«d office-, yet be 
WH pvobiUy not boiow th^ avongovf the *bit(»mca 
■ad pnlatw of that con-npt age. Uifl chief riMQAiiui 
Me (1) the MyriobiLIion above meotiociH], wbiuli iuay 
bedsKrihcs) am an nxtpimiva review of ancient Gr"cl£ 
llt«ralun: by • auliolar of imm^niie erudition tuid 
Bound judgment. The number of booka reviewed 
amounta to 2.90, and m many wblcb are do lou^r 
BXtuit luc R|itt(iinLxrd, it i* acnCTRly pflmibic to ovnr- 
eatiuiatv tlio valtio «l Pbotlua' work. AiuuJJii lbs 
naiat rDceot odlU'ona ia that of Bekkor (two vols. 4to, 
Itorlin, 1825). (2.) ManiocanoTt, a coIW-tion of the 
nuiona ol the councdc, aud canonical epiatlcaaad tbi: 
Imperial lawBixiiic«n)iij,i:c(vlt<4iii«Llcalmatteiv. I'liia 
vork wu printed in Grook aud I^atin, with comman- 
tAriea W BklauDon, in Paria (tto, I Sin). (3.) A 
Greek Lexicon, which ka> iMmti firiiitad from the 
MSS.ot Poraon andfrtbnnipi)rint«iideac«of l>obroo 
(two vola. Gvo, London, 1322). (1.) A wiUectiDU uf 
lattan^ many of them extremely interacting and 
•lu^ant ill itvlo, cdit(.'d by I!icli«rd Moulagu (Qreck 
and Latin, folin, Ijnndmi, IUSI). (5.) A trBalbw, 
jVdver«ua ImMim* de PrM-emiuue S^iritUB Snuctl, iu 
which the writtr uphiilda the doctriuH that th« Holy 
S]iirit uroL'««da fruui the Father oiily; tuicetlier wiLh 
feveral other theological a&d controvcrvial work). 
I'hoCiiia' work* have been ooltM;te<l and t>ubliabed in 
a txim[jlcU! form Ui Mignc'a Patrcilujt-ia: Curatia Coni' 
p1«tu« (four vula. roval Svo). 

PilOTOORAFliy (Gredc. phc^, li^t,Hd gn- 
pk6, t write] la the ait of taking TttprceeaitatioaB 
of objecU by the action of light tErough Lbe Icuaos 
of Uu9 camera ohacura on ■ pruvioualj prrparod sur- 
faeck It h i<r cnni|(acatirely teeeat origin, thuv){1i, lu 
Aarly aa the commanoemftnt of the preaent century, 
Mr. Ilioniaa WMg'ewaod had diacinercd a luelbod 
of cupjlu}; piiiuLiiigd ou Klan^ by plamng bemeath 
thno a ulioct of n'biui pnp<:r or white leather covered 
with B Nclutiou of nitrate of lilver, and ibua exposed 
to the action o( the aolar li^hl The tight peai^at- 
iii{[ thnjugli tho gitut* producer! oti the paper or [ckliiur 
biowrj aiiii IilM:k viiiU, varying id Intooaity according 
to the ahadca of tho pivturey anct pitwnting the 
dMpeet biM whaM tiia Ught wu tiusmilted onAl- 
tered. Mr. WodgewDod alao aucc«ad«d in obtaining 
pnKloa of figurea by throwing thc-ir abado'wa on thia 
prepared paper, but fouod Iiltnivlf unable to^ the pic- 
turea, thai is, to prevent the iij^Lt or while parte from 
anbae()iiral.ty Iwooming darkonnl hy rxpomre lo the 
light. About 1411 M. Nicjphore Niepoe In Fnnoe 
oeonnd ■ ujrthod of produdng, by meau of the 
oaman obaeuf% pioturea on platea of ooiipar coated 
wtth atlrt-r, and at the aamc time of RiulcrinB thrm 
permanent To thla art he gave the ounie ol kflio- 
grmky. fr\nn Ac/vm. th« ran, to the agvocy of wfaow 
lifU the jdctarea owed thdr origfai. In Um eoune 
01 a few year« H. Niepce formed a oonnectloa with 
H. Dagueir^ who had alao been employing bimaolf 
In the aame Und ef expeiimenia, and a deed of 
oopartDoy wu aot«rad into between tfaem in ISS!f. 



M. yicpoa died in 1833, and a fnMb cnparttwry wia 
formuil between Ui aon and U. Dagnerre, who 
having in tbo conrae of hta reaearchee dlaoonnd u 
entirely new pmoraa frnm that invented hj the Mk 
Kitfpc'o, woa aUuwtKJ by lUa aeiveoMat to claim it la 
his own, and call it by hie own Damei Snob ia the 
hi«tory of th<; (tfjuerrtotypt, whifih WM firA girca te 
tho world in 1SS9, and loon booam* famona onea 
Europe. Id the meantime^ bowaver, Mr. Hemy 
Fox Talbot had diacorered, without any ki>ow1ed(t 
of the pmriona labotua of Mr. Wedgewood the pn- 
cvfet uf iibtaLiuiig picture* in Uie camera by the ageaej 
of liglit (in pajHir waiHind with nltrat« of aalvvr, vad 
aliio of fixing thi;ni wheu to obtained. Mr. Tklbot 
gave the name of ra!oi»jpt to hia procoH (tram bain, 
fair, aud tupo» or ti/fMi«, lu) impreaaioDy, and iubm- 
quvotly introduvvd varJoua iraproTementa on it, and 
took oDt Boverei ]»tenu, the earlieet being ta l$tl 
It baa alao been called after him taAMj9>«, in Ibeama 
■natmer aa dtffmrreatj/pt from Daeacrre. Kmnena 
modificatiima of the oaiotype have been lnt(vdiMMd ef 
late yoara, beaidea varioua now pbotograpfaic pro- 
ccMca, tho Dioat important being thoaa of M. Niepeede 
Bt. ^'ictnr and Mr. Hcott Archer, the former ol when 
iutiudueed tliB iiiie uf a1Liuni«n and tba latter that af 
collodion aa a aubstiluto for paper, tbeae aubataaen 
being in cithrr cjwe Kproad over a plate of ^>^ It 
woukl be impuariblo to give b«e a debolea aoooiBl 
of the diffarent pbotograpbie proooaaaa, wUdi an 
bodi nomeroua and eontinuaUy rvn^viag owdifca- 
tiona and improvemcnta. We shall, thefefore, onlf 
pToaont tbe roador wilh a doacriptiou of three of the 
principal and heat-known Htyloa, tbe dagnemotyp^ 
the calotype or talbotype, and the ooUodion p iuut aaea 
In dacucrrooEy^ pktnrea a plate of oa(Qwr,«aatid 
with ailvor, and liigbJy poliahed by meaaa of BuiDaJ 
chanoal and apiriU <« wtna, or tripoU and eMOntial 
oil uf lavender, in r<iudur«d »«i)jiIUve to U(ht bj bifag 
ploovii in a hax, tbi^ iKittutn uf which b Strewed wlu 
iMUiie, oovvnid njth a little aaud or a card. Thi* 
Ulivea a fino alraw cohur to the plato, which ia thoa, 
to aoceleratc still further the notion of Ugbtt ftqiflaad 
to tb« f'npuur of brutiiiiie till it atlalua a roao colow, 
a thia BLm of iodo'liromida of silver being thos pro- 
duocd. It is then placed in tbe camera for a parwd 
varying according to drcumitanoea from a aeamd to 
a few tuinutte, and having thua received an imptw- 
•ion (if thcobjoct deairvd to he reprcBcntcd iaraiDOVed 
to a box, where the pletuie Is ae«eloped by pladag 
the plate a few intibea above a snail pan of BMCtvy. 
A spirit lamp ia plarcd brnoath, and by the aifli- 
oatiua of beat the mercury riv-s iu vaponr, wUdl 
deoompoeee th»e (Kuta of the tUu whi<ii have been 
exposed to the light, fomiiag thereby aa iipftlgv 
with the ailv«r: aa the thicknoM of ^da ■untt'gf^ 
variea with the intensity and duration of the aotien 
of light, dllTeraat diadsa oonei^Dnding to the Ugfals 
and shadows of the object becvae apMneat In tbe 
pictnre. Tbe proeeea o{ development U watched hy 
tlio light of a candle tlimugh a pane of yeQow glam 
in the Bide of ihn box, and whan completed the pie- 
tnre ia tixed by immersing it in a aolution of hypo- 
sulphite of sudiuuL. and Llien wiutbiu^ it with water, 
wiifireliy the uiidt^ciimpmHiii imli). bromide of ailver ia 
rcuioued. A solution of salt of gold i> then poored 
over it, and the plate held over a spirit lamp till tbe 
gold pmdnord 1^ the reduction of its aalt U bamed 
in, after wliidi it is waaliod and dried, and the pictera 
i« Gnishisl In aharpnvta and delicacy uf detail tbe 
daguenwitype txeuls all other pbatogrs|ihk piotoraiw 
but is very traablesome to oomplele raoccaafully, and 
b beddei liable to fade soon, from the lend 
mercury and diver to combine with oaygeiL 
aoDordlngly, In a great nwaann been aupeni 
other proeeaaaa. 




PHOTOGRAPHY. 



BS 



In Um aiotn* or tMlbot^w proce** * ab^et of 
wnUag iMper n vwhad on ona nds with » talutuw 
o( ntUata of dlr«r, applied by & aoft eamel-hftir 
bnMh,aiid wheo (liTinim«n»d in ikaolutli>nof Iodide 
of pgtaMum. tbon dippad in water, uid Hnimy driod. 
Tbo P*peF abould Sow be kept uxdudL-d fruui the 
Ugbt ml nqoited (or lUe. To malce it sansitiTB to 
tbo Mtioit of licht it u wuliod wiDi » niixtiirt' >>f two 
■4itnU«l aolatiuns, on* of nitrkte ■itt niUnr, with Lb« 
•ddiUoiiotMetlaMidjtlteoUicirvf cryatallkeJ ijatHo 
■rid. TUi nuxtan, call«d gaUo-nUrale of tUi'er, ia 
^^^■■lad witli ft bnuJi on tho tiitrnUd njile of tlift 
H^Bbed M|>^ wliicli, kfCer hariiijf AlKurbed the mlu* 
^Kn, ia dipped in dittlUwl vatvr mi tbi-u dried, 6rat 
with blotting -plater, sad ftftorwarda by hc«t. It u 
now mbdf &r reoeiriuf tb« bnpreMdon of U]« object 
is UweMBWMiKfterwktuh It b Uken to«dark room 
wbar* Ibt pietora ii davoloped by bruahiiiff h oror 
with tlw gnllo-Bitrato of atlvftr, ]t ix th«r) lippod io 
wal«r, pvUy Jned by blultinj^-pujicr, aad fijud by 
WMhiag it with » aolutim of hypaaulpblteof aodluin, 
whUi diaolvo tbo wfaol* of tbo lodiJs of nlvi.-r 
"■"*"' npoo by the ti^^ The pictnte thn* ab- 
Uiati ia * Mpatitt, Uutla, with the lights duk oJid 
Ihe ahadowa whita^ cnntrary to thn iiAtiinil uipoar- 
utM of tbe object. To pmdiion a jvtithx pii:turc, 
wham tha Ughta and ahailowa alall &p^)ear aa In 
■uUuK; tlM tKgatiTc ia plnood on tho aouaitivc aurfnco 
of tatoihtt aheet of pre|iar«d p^Mf, and apioca uf 
riaa prewaA <m both to Infltm coatoct. Tha wun- 
SkM poMtntM the negatiTB, and diu-kena tha parta 
m tba ODderlying P*P^ opimriU: the lietila of tho 
pjctun, wbilit the pxrLa iipjiuiaW the aWli>m, or 
flpaqiM part* i:>r tin* UtUT, are protected. This pro- 
caaa fur obtaining a poettivs picturo from a Dcgativa 
la called jMinTtafT. 

n* vaa of lullodion in phoUigntphy wm fint lujj- 

fHtadbjr ILIaGny.udiDtrDduoBd I^Mr. Arcbur 

lUO. The eaae with which thii mwxm may be 

leled haa Isd to Ha onirtnal adoptioii, and the 

ifak art haa tn ooniequemoe bc«n gmatly 

and baeomv man gcaioTally practlaod auon^ 

tbm nibUfl at largo. C'OlMiim is a fluid loAdo by 

diMaliina pia-oMoa In a mixture of lalpburic ctber 

and alomol; and whan obmI f(^r jil>(>u<|-raj>Ui<: pur- 

|MHB ia miJM wilh a aolutlon of iudido oE potaBaium 

or iodide of ■■»"*"-'» in aloohol. Ulaas ia tlio nih- 

•t*DM «D which fortune are taken by the cuUodiun 

Mvcva. Tb» niata beina firvt acniputotuiy oleaued 

mm atain aoa g niaa a, Um ooUodioa ui poorad over 

il BO aa tn coTsr tha whole auifaoe: the auixTflufiiia 

ftuid ia tbcD dnaned off ao aa to lo&vo a solid Sim, 

and tha plala la aacdtod or made vaniitive by the 

fbmadoa npoo It of a amall ^uaalfty of iodide of 

^ttm, hnmjcht about by imiDeniiig It in a hath, com- 

[meedof nitrate of ailvcr, iodide of pntaaaiura, alix>hiil, 

and dbtlllcd. water in oerlain jimportiotuu After 

rsMibUsg th«n> from two to fuur mlciutea It b 

Nmovw^ and while (till in a wet Mate placed in the 

wbefc It remairia for a number at acmndii, 

_ aocutdtng to dTVuuutanoea. The pictum U 

dwaloped by pourins over It a aolntluu muiposed 

ti mn^aUio ado. diatilted watAr, glauial acetic aanil, 

MM akoliol, «rilb the addition cd a few drape of a 

mlaUoB of Ditn^ of ailvar; tUf aolutlon abaorln 

vxnm, and ao, in tbo witnii e of ailvvr nitrate, 

tau fio ndiwa the Iodide of aSrer to the metallic 

Mala. 71m aalutim b tba pound o9, and the aiin 

cf tba pUU wMbed with water. To fix the 

ire a aclncioD of hypoaulphlto of aMiium ia 

_ ' orer h, and aftovarda waahed avray b^ 

Mring water oopioualy over tint pl>t«, wbiL-b >■ 

laatly varaiabed by apirit vamiab, an by a aolution 

e( antMT in ohlcroform. A nvi^tiw picture ia thua 

proJiad, from which a poaltlva may be obtained in 




the Kune ntnnnnr lu tlmt dmmbod above bi tbe calo* 
type procoas. FuaiUve ]<iitur»« mav, however, be 
oVtalned on |:laBB directly without ua OQC ii hr d 
printing, by pouring ovwr the pla.te, when taken mm 
the camara^ a mibiUon of protoaulpliate or proto- 
nitrate of Iron aud nitrio add. Aftvr a DegatJT* 
plotiire has thiia boen dovol'^pod, a mixtnro of pynh 
galb'c aril! and M-p-aiiliihiti; of nrida in poured orer 
it, and tha plato ■lijjhtly wanuml, when tho dark 
parte wIU beoome of a brJeht whits by tha formatfoa 
of metallic stlTor, brought about by the redodag 
nntinn of the iron anit aMd nitric add. The plotore 
la then pU<.i;(t iu a fnuuo, with a linio^ of black clotJl 
or Tslvet to prodiine tlio aliadovm. I'liotngraphicta 
frequently cover the buck of thu h'law plaUi wilL a 
black vamith, Inatead of mlng the inner back of tha 
caae; but the eftett ia to r«ver>M- th<> mmition of the 
objoctB in the picturo, nknldnj; tl»« Ti^it tiidv appear 
litft, and tho loft aido right. I'hla mur be obriatcd 
Ijy applytiiR the Uack varaUh to tha Jaee iDstcad of 
t1i« hitnl of the picture, which ia then viewed through 
the rovorae tddo. 

The Aftion of light on the balold salta la a aubjeet 
vrbiL'h Laa ntit yet ueon fully Inveatigated. Fri>m the 
laimt rex^nnt reaeardiea it would appear tlint a nubult 
i« tint (it all produced by the aotiuu of the sulur raya 
wyiaa chloride or bromide of diver, and that after a 
Lime the lalt ia further reduced, with the fumiation, 
nirolwhly, of metallin ailver. Thn tlifTpreut ailtw 
balolil nlu MNMwa diffiveai degivea vt aen^UUty to 
the dwmlBtl action of Uj^ wjiag wltb tba «n<mnt 
{if the halogen (cblorine or bromine) praaent; thuiv 
if tbo ■enaibiUty of the chlorida bo ween aa I, that 
of tbe bromide u 2'39fi, whUe the number rapreeent- 
ing the MnaJbllity of the iodo-brotnide ia 4'0'6. The 
raya of the ■fimctniio have not all thn uunn piiato- 
i-homicil puweTj the violet and ultra- v iLiK't raya 
bHiij^ aliiiiii diemlcal deoumpodtlon toon oavip^v 
ally tbaa the red or yellow raya Upon diffcrout 
aubataoo«a tha aamo my ham not, however, the aama 
photo-duimiaal eCcut: the maxiuium pliutoi;ra|>liio 
action bdng, as a ccneral rule, oktaitwd by expomn 
to those raya which tho particular mbatanoo under 
cxaniinn.tion haa tbf^ jnwcr of almrbing. Ilie admix- 
turn uf <»rUlu L-lii^miL'ally liiiK.*live aubatanoeiL wMch 
have the power of nbeurbing rays not alworoed by 
ChombittATicn it^rlf, may altogether alter thn praition 
of iiuiiimum ffTtft: thus, if auriue — a yelluwiils-rod 
coluuriug matter— be added to diver bi^<iuid<!, tbe 
mlzturo 11 enercctically acted upon by tho indigo 
raya, mi ut aUo the caw with the pure bromide, and 
ftlao I'y the yollow ra.yi whidi have little or uo actiuO 
on the brontido alou^. 

To tnnrfer the pictnio obtained in tbo camera to 
aiuitabls printing aiirfacc,*o that fMtbfulimprtiaal on* 
may be pruduoed with rapidity, a;]d, kIxivd all, at 
a mcMlnrate c(«t, is a pnililcm which liaa for many 
yeora occupied the attentlun of phutourapliora, lit 
lH3l' Mr. Muu^ PoiiUiD (Liceverea that paper 
impregnated with a aulutiria of bichromate nf {Hitaah 
becamo highly scnaidve to tluht, aud that by eipoa- 
ing It under a negative In ue usual way a picture 
oould be olitiun£<d, which was revealed luid tiled by 
simply washing away th^ anlnble bichti>u;ate nnact«d 
iipou iiudiT the dnrk iKirU-.4M of the negative, the 
portion.'i Ai-t«d upon by light tbrouflfa the tnuupmnt 
parts boiugrcnderodinsntublotlisniby. M. Baoqnord, 
and Kubac<]aent]y Mr. Fox Talbot, added to our 
knowle^e of the action of cbRdnlo i^ta upon o^anlc 
matter. LnlSSSM-PdlvvindeTissdapncoNbywhidi 
pictures of great beauty and pcmanenoevrercobtained. 
Uu iTjuiliiiied carbrjD ur any utber [ligment. In a Sut 
Ktafof divisinn with gelatin", starch, or gum, applied 
it over tbe xuiface of bla paper, dried it, submittad 
It to Uie acUan of light under a photographic Eieg»> 



tin, and •d fint pmltiMd what ta ditw Twunlly callvJ 
K oartMn prlot. Ths raulU veejo oalv iiati«(actor;y 
whweTW tho ncgfttivA n-u tbi^t (>f * Bubji^ct in lino 
or atipple; but when thr cn^.-itive wwi otie taken 
from » n&tura] otjeci iLti im'.-ma wan unununl Iti th» 
twk of repro^ucia^ the boftutiful gradatioiii iin^ half 
tone which wo ton in » good yhatagttiAL In \i5G 
the I>uc (la Luytteii fuctidccl o jirize of 8D0O fnuica, 
to b« givvn Ui ihe aniat who ithciulct dltoovw » pro- 
CM by wbiob pictaru coukl be pTodoccd oonlalnmir 
ftU lbs KntdftUdo of ti'tcbt *nd shade found in a giuvi 
photograph oamloiied with the penn&n«nce tit a 
]irint*d biKik. He aluD gnvo 2000 (nuioi to hii iliviilnl 
Amo&x thow who, up to k ouHaIu tiiav, luul n;ipruacli(Hl 
iMMMt to th« d«ind end; and oat of thifl fend a 
medal of 400 tnaa wm giran to Mr. rotinccy, nf 
Doirhntor, for bi> cnrbon jprnnw, whiob ia (Ivicribod 
by its ibvcufr u follows: The Koaitiro mediom used 
ia bitumen of Judn^a diiMolrod jn turpnttStie, bentul, 
ttr otlier hydrocarbon, with which U ground up oil- 
oolour of any desired liiil. The puty iiim» U tbon 
bnubad oTor a thin iheet of tranxluccDt paper, and 
dried in the Axtk. When driml, the nhcet is sxpoMd 
un'ler a p\iatajfr»phic n«ip»tivo ti> (Uylijjhl, or to a 
strongly artinirarlilidal llgljl, whlub rvnilr^ntlriBnliiLlo 
those part* of ttio soDsitiiod |iigmsnts to which th« 
tmuparent parts of the ncgatiira have pcimittiHl 
aocoia of light. After somo minntea' exposiira to 
light the embryo pirture is wiuihwd In turpontino, 
benxul, ur any other solvent of bitumen- This Ou- 
BolvM those partionB whifib have not been alfecrted 
h/ tho artinio nLjrs, loarin^ tbo ivinaiii'lir nf the ]iig- 
Bieot firmly attMbed to the paper m tiiuuitity pro- 
portloDAt to the ainount of IIkIiC which pvrtneaU'^ 
the diiToKnt parts of the nogativo. Tho picturo la 
DOW oomiilott!, and may ho tran>FniTcrl, as in the 
lithographic process, to csj\l-boarJ, caufss, wouil, 
stone, kc ; or if corsRiIa ooloiira are nsQil, It may be 
Inn&farnHl to pottcn' biscuit, and burned in a* usual. 
Ia I84I4 caiiHiri' printing wnji hniiight to a high ststi) 
of perfection by Mr. Bu-nu of Newusstle. He Atwt 
preparw a tinue by fonuini; a layor of icetatiiae tnd 
■unr mixiyl with a duo prrfpnrbioD of pigmont, and 
w&ch hu calls the tiano cntntiaiinil, upon pajier. 
This onopowod may l>e uilxeJ at once with the 
Uobimnte or Multizvr, and nppllcd nith it to tbo 
psur, tn which ease sensitiAifl tissue is at once fonnnd, 
which haa only to be dried to be ready fur nae. The 
tiMne ia eipowd to light undvr the negative with Its 
■eositjve lurfaoe in ovntact with the glaat Aftsr 
etposing for a short time, the Hurfaoe of the tissue 
is cetnentrd to a pirvc of paper, wbii-b is called the 
snppott, the picture formeil on tbo snrfiic*! ij( tho 
•enaltive Ciisne being thereby iniusfurred to, and 
■opported by, the wsond abeet of paptr. This nsj 
eithiBr be permanent or temporary; if ti\« latter, Uie 
best cement Is a sulutiou of cooutchuuc in beniol. 
Tlie picture wltb the tturplus tissue uuacltxl upon by 
light is now inclosed betweca ttie layers of paper, one 
only of which is peimeable to water. On imncrNng 
tbo whole in this fluid s%htly beabed Uie eoloble 
part of tbe ooropoond softens and partially dInolToa, 
and the dooUed shoot splits Into two portions, one 
taking; with it thn soluble tiisuc nompnimd, wliilo the 
ethor retains the Iiisutuble purLl"n which viiiuHtitutee 
the pictnni formed by li^t, and which is rcuder»d 
perfact by simply wnshing in warm wat^r. It is, 
nowerer, revateed, and mnst bo truufcrred bo umtbcr 
sbeet of paper, which tbea becomes thv Gnal iiupi>ort. 
Odatlne, rendered insolable by chrome alum, ii 
tmuUy employed as Ibe ccraent In this casci and 
when the pietnre bns boon thus treats), it is sfpun 
put between two sbeeb of pnpor. The temporary 
support ts easily removed by spreadinK on its back 
a little benxol, and tho picture is then niady to be 



trimmed and mouDted. Among Iba latart and laort 
important disooveiies in oonnoctian with pbMoenqUa 
printing is that of Mr. Walter Woodbtiry. "Am fail 
■tep iu the prucos ii the pitposure, in a eolareamtn^ 
of (he De[>:itlv«i, which lo taleo in tho orrlinary man- 
ner, in contact with a film Di bichrorantiaed gehtlDS 
supported on a plate nf tain. By this opatstioa Ibl 
parts acted opuu by the light are rendBred taee h i hto : 
a stream c4 hot wikt^r removea all tbe soluble pestiBa 
of the film, leaving a taitbfol tmaserfpt of tlw aep- 
Uve In relief. A cast, or etKiii, as It Is lediiiicilly 
tailed, of the golatine ^bn is then taken in soft ^fo- 
mctal by mesm of a liydtatilic prr^ lids racU 
forms ibl printing' surf ouc. Tbe Ink Is a aolotioa d 
gelatine mixed with any snitable colonrinc mattsr; 
it is piturt'i) hot n[Hm thr stiifaoe of the plate, opea 
which a )deeo of p^jier ia then placeii A gentle 
pressure Is ^tpllw), and mslntainad tcBafaiUThi^ 
to allow the gelatine toset. The gelatins film aAsMS 
to tbe pajior, snd farms the picttire. It will tfatn be 
■<!«n that the sbvlea uf the picture are piwluosd by 
the varying; thickncu of the gelatine— tliat the pie- 
tnre ii^ in fsct. a ciu>t of the metal clich^ but aa Uia 
that when the print ia dry it Is Imposssbta to se^ m 
even to feci, thiit )t In lu relief. By Turing an bkcf 
the ordinary j)hutngrap]iic lono, it b with great AS- 
cnlty that pictures tbiu obtained ean be distingolibtd 
frum pbotup'aphic prints. About 200 nriuU ps 
hour can bo produced by one man worfclBg tbrse 
presses timultanoously. Eeautiful sffects are ob- 
tained by taking Imprassions on opal-glass ttmle^ tt 
Siper. It is found that noiitehouc, uke bitumen al 
udma and scirns other hydrocarbona^ is capafate at 
iMvIvini; a photogiapblo iuprasinoB; and « IUd 
fllm of caoutchouc diaaolved in bemol U spread vpcB 
pajwr, wh'oh is cxp<-«>:d in tho cstncra in the nsaal 
iniinner. The portions which barn been anhjectad 
to tbe action of the light are rendered inaoloble, and 
the other portiom an then waabed nmy as in 
roiinoey's process. He eaamtdioiic^ wberwvsr it 
remains on tbe paper, will reoaiwe a greuy ink bvai 
a roller which is now psased over tba damped duett 
and thu iinpreiisli'n thus ubtaini'd m^ be tra&afemd 
to the lithngmphic procea*. By the platincAype pro- 
ceei permiineut prints on paper are obtained. A 
sheet c>f paper is coated with a eolutaoo of platiooaii 
obloride and iron oxotata. After the paper baa been 
dried and eipised under a negative a faint iBiM» is 
percelverl. 'llii* imsee deirolops into a ridi Uack W 
immoning tbe print m a solntlnm of oxalate of potath 
heated to UU" Fahr. An add wat^' bath ia all IbaC 
is rwiuired to Rx the Image. I'boto-eBgraviiig bas 
not beon brongbt to tho same stage at perfoction as 
printing by the above prooeiMe. W« can only give 
one or two of the methods 1. Tbe pbotonapble 
Image is first impressed upon a senritited sbeet oC 
gelatine, whlcli i* thca dipjied in a solution of alum, 
and when dry and bard tbe film Is presud down 
with {rest force vjfoa a sleol plate uul leaven aa 
indentation of tho photogrspbio netunc, whieh may 
be printed from In the manner of urdiuary steel ea* 
gravings. 2. A pure sQver eurfaoo is expand to tbe 
autjon uf iodiuo, and a film of iodide of nli'er fa 
thus obtainnL The pUto is then expoeed in tbe 
camera, aiiil Ik next sutuiltted to tbe aotbm of an 
electrotype battery. The copperonly attadiea itaslf 
to those portions of tho plate which have been tcii' 
dcmd ci-ndiictora of clertiicity by ^be action of tbe 
Itvht, tiud n well-deBued Image tn copper Is thoe 
obtoinoit Tbe pinto la next diiml^ and etcbinc solu- 
tion ponred over it, composed of sulphmle sod and 
nitrslo uf poUub. This at-taclcs the ahadowa or ex- 
pcMod portions of the silver plate, leaving tho oepper 
partA uaalTectod. After etcJnng to the neeemary 
depth, tbe cc^per is nimoved by oiqaa reei% leftvliig 



» 



k fiiMiy alebed laii|e on the silver plAta. It [a ^i^lvan- 
ta^mi^ In tbis BfOC M I, to gild tho copper before 
i w wfa ig OD Uu> vttuung liquiil, m its Mtiou un Lbe v"^' 
tsboMtt puts vonUl thiu ba balt«r nsbted. Photo- 
atm tttgmpkjf, • prooeM inT«ntdd bj M. Tonw«r uiil 
bmoght to * ft r u n t lUto rj paHottion hy Kir Henry 
JiB«^ diivcear oi tbft oidiuBoe niney of GkU BH- 
teki, !■ Tor* •dvftBtacHiii for rcproducin; uiTthlng 
in Um. TlirdHtiniciUi^eiitanacdmtbe[irep«nttiaii 
c^ thjtj due tJitv uv bidutmuitaoF potK<l) M)d cralatiiiA- 
Th< govKnnMui mapi prodoDed b; tbia proowa mxt 
tk« «aek«n«r teUj £50,000 laaa thu tboy would 
bwM diaw t)]r Miy atitor aiiifakble prooeaa. Onpin* of 
iairii or itnwli^ cui ba pruducecl bj it tll(^Kpc^ 
(iua by baod, and ot couraa witb mucb mora ac' 
canaj. 

Tba adraatagca of pholograpbT are beconiing dailj 
nton nanifcat, wbethor w« emoAa It tn an vtioliu. 
■odal, or •dnaHlonal point of vlvw. Ita widnt and 
meat poptdamn^ of oaofnliieM in la tho prodoction 
at pottnilaand tli«d«p!ctiDSof landacapea and nAtunit 
■oanaik CofiMa o( tba ni»t calabnted worlu o{ art, 
w h atba r Ea p»[iitu)8 or aculpturv, may oow b« multi- 
jUti iadaAttltaly: and In tb« oaaa of atatuory, vben 
UkM btoacMlafly and viewed through diectL-rvMCupOr 
nwy ba alndied aa if tba originalj irsra pmect. In 
aUdapat1iiiMiU(i(«i:iL-Dta Uiiaart Lu bwouwan hu- 
|K>rUat anziliaiy ; tba aoologlal, tbft botanlet, tho 
aatrnoomer. tii« arcbitac^ anti Ibe angiiiocr fioJ iU 
aid inTalaaoloL Viewed eUber aa a brajioh of tbe fiuo 
muti, or a BwUoia fur furt^riiii; tb« oanaa of adcjioe 
Hid vdncatioa, pbMo^fnpbv miut bo ngird«d aa auo 
bI tha moat belaotifu and OMfal iavcntiona of tbo 
jiaa an l owrto ry. 

PHOTOMETER, an iDBtTQTnestlatendod toludl- 
taM nlatiro quaatitiea of light, aa is a cloudy or 
bri^t day, or to enable tve ligbt-giring boilica to 
ba oomparad. Tba pbolouialer in general um mta 
iBVHitad by BanKn; It ooaalBts of a Kraen of tbin 
■noialenMl iriUi a aolulion of ipermaooU in 
tarpaatinB, except a spnt in tho cintra Tbi( icraeii 
placed OB a aUuid at a fixed diitauce btmx a 
• at U^ ^ oooatant inteiiBCy, the nagrMMd 

t MpMn darkac thaa the grcAMol part One at 

I tipita to ba oompamd ia then placed in front of 
tba a c Toaa, and adjcuted at a diilAUM lucb tbnt the 
mgnand apot ii iUamiuBtod oa much aa tbo rwt of 
tiM aawift. A aimil&r rxpcrimect being made with 
Uw other light to be oompared, tbe inteuattiea of the 
two an to MM asottMf Is tha proportioD of tba aqnarea 
ctf Aa ''H'^"— from iha acroeo at which the lighta 
moat be plaeed in order to oanae tho diaa[ipeAranc« 
of Iba uiMieaatd apot. 

PHOTOPHOJSE. an imtruniiint invontoil ialSSO 
bv Pnl. Graham Bell, which rcacmblua the tcle- 
pkm» msatfA that It traauntita amioda bjmeaas of a 
baaua of light inrtead vt tha ooanecting wira of tho 
tahfbana. Tha noeMe of the tiutrainent dopend* 
npona paenUar pcwer ty ol tbo raze metal aeluoium, 
tlbB^ Bunely, of ofFertnf non or leaa oppoaitlon to 
tbe paaage of electricity aocordlog aa )t b a^'ts'] 
Upon or aoC by light. In ita riupleat form the np- 
|iai>llM "n"*-*" at the receiving end of a plute mlr- 
rar at aome Aexible material (auoh aa eilvciod uacet) 
apMt which a beam of light ia ooncentrated, nnd tbo 
T«iea flf a apeaker dixecUd atalnat tbe baole uf this 
wAnvr ihiom tba beam of light raflecttd from Ita 
snfaee lalo oadnlationa which art received on a nora- 
ly ^^ re0aetor at the other end, aud are cmtreii on a 
ttaaitiea f *■■'■"" eeU in oonnecUnn with a telephone, 
■hick nrpradoow In artjoolala fpavcb tha undulatiotu 
aat Qp in tbe beam vS Ugbt by tbe voice of the apeakiM-. 
For tba beam of light ewplared the aim ie obilotialy 
Aa beat aooiw, but artlfhdal light ta alao acoilaMe, 
Iba oay-hydrogen lamp baring proved almoat equally 



effective. It ia not yet certain to what distanoe tbe 
htimon vaic« may be lliut traiiaiiiitt«j, tiut it la !>»• 
lieved tbnt tbu iuitnimont will bg utiU/«d ia droijta* 
■tanaee aucb u those in which the heliugrapb has been 
found tuicful i. in I'unbling, for liiBtaiic«, coiumunica- 
tiaita to bo carried on Mtwaan bm^ioi of troope at 
BoiDo diituioe from vacb other or belwiMu tbe abtire 
and toucfIb at aea. 

PHRASE. SooMtisic. 

PHRKNOLOliY (Cnwk, phrfa, mind, andloffo*, 
dlacoune), tbe term applivd tu a tcleuce, or what 
layii claim to be a sddnce, of recent orl^n, which 
alfvcta to l)o a philowifihy of minil fniin-Icd upon 
Uw pbyuoluajr of the bnun. It waa luug ago ob- 
aerved by puyalologlata that In aniaala a oartida 
character and intairigaaDa aaoined to Beoompany a 
ccrbun fonaatiiin and siu of akull. Ijavater, to 
his ajatein uf pbyviuguomy, wvut further than tbia, 
and gave to partieuJai ihape* of tfa* bead oorlun 
nownra and pudoiu: tbe conical hoad ha btrma r*- 
ii;fiouM; the naiTow retreating front, leiak-iaiaded; 
th<> broad naol^ talaciout: Ao. But it waa reacrvad 
tti Vn. ijall and Spnraholm to oipand thii gam of 
doctrine into a nUunte aynteni, and to map ont the 
wbnie cmui jm itilo Biaull Bectiuns, oacb aection being 
the liwcllinK-plROo of a crt-ain fnciilty, profwnnity, or 
aeriliiiiciit, in all atniiuiitiiig to tbirty-Qvc^ a uuiulier 
ivhich by no meauH oan 1m aui^poaed to iaelude all 
tlio rouDcivable faculties nropeiuitloi^ or aeotimouta 
that may be alleged aa belotielag to man, but wbicb 
we may Imjigiim tboy were oUi^id to reatrict ihcm- 
lalvna to for want of n>oro, 

I>r. Ciall hu* tbo hononr of flrat ■lihrtlng tbia ao- 
celled acionce; hut to 1>r. Spunheim it ia mainly in* 
dubtod for ita ayalematlo arraugeuieut, and to Dr. 
OomboofEdLnbtiishforltaadvocaoy. I>r.Ga]lteIlaiu 
that when aachonMnif he could nut bolp noticing that 
boy 1 with larijo and [iroiniuent eyea vrom remarkable 
for tbe excellonco of titeir memory, and that thlt led 
lilm to ooDodve that aiiioe meuary baa ita external 
■ign, the otber faoulti«a might vary wdl have thcini, 
and cauaed him to pay particular attention to tbe 
ali^M of tha head of every panoa ramaricahla (or 
any talent or fnt any ijiiality. By degroca bo came 
to tliiuk bo could iiemdvo one conatant abape In the 
head vt every groat paiutvr, at every gnat muddan, 
of oTory great mechnnie, aeverally dsnoting a decided 
prcdiapoaition in the indiriilual to one or otbct of 
ibcae arli^ and waa thus led tu aunpfi^t that the fana 
vt the ikoU k entirely due to the form of tbe organ 
wbicb la Dcotainad in iL 'From that inatant,' be 
aaya, * 1 oonoeived tiio hope nf being able ono dny 
tu detciruiine the moral and inlellectital (aoultieB c^ 
man by moans of bla oawbnl orgaalsadoiv and at 
eatablLiliiug a pliytiology of the brain. X uorBforo 
reaolved to ootitlnue my reaearchea until I ahoitld 
obtain my object nr Rod it tmpoaBibls. The t»»k 
wnnbl havohwn Invdiflicalt hw! [■beuiitoned myaelf 
ontirely to aulitre. £ut I had learned too mu«h (4 
tho cfTon and prejudloos then lan^t opon tboae 
iiubjei:ts not to 1>« biauiHl hj them, and I wa« rtill 
f urtliqr enlJiBglod by the doctrines of metaphysliriuiut, 
who teocb that all our Ideas eome by our wnaas : tbit 
all niea are bom alike; that edncoUoo and aocidrnt 
ainiio mako them differ. If this be truc^ aaid I, no 
fikcidty oan have an external aign, and to atndr tba 
brain. Ita pacta, and its fuactioQa ia abeolute naoMM. 
i^tilL I remembend my former obaerratieoa ; I knew 
that the cirouinatanoea la which my brothera and 
aiatora, my achoobfellowa and my playmalee, bad 
from their tatancy beoa pkced w«r« all aliko. I 
aaw that education wai beotowed (n vain en tanti 
penan^tbatotbenbadtalenbwlthotit it. luLeerved 
a proportionate variety ia the diapoaitinn* of nnimalL 
Some doga are bora hunters, wbUo t>tbccs of tbe »amo 



88 



FHRKXOLOCY. 



^ttet Moot 1m Uoghl; «m* am pOMofnl, Borae ill- 
teBMred. In ludi tba« ia » aimilKr di«enitj. Tlie 
wboU aaiauJ kingdom ipok* tbmn In hvaur of my 
•tnog mtadnt. Mod I nulvfid to prvaoctita mj pUo.' 

I^, Gkll, from vbom the aJbovt ^oatAtiaa ti bor- 
row«d, oommeneed giving phrate bctura* oo Um 
Bubjcct In 179<!^ but at Um sod of fir« jMtt Um 
AuUImi nrwnnwDt took nbnn at bia norel doe- 
tttawik AM p^lUUd Ut leoturea nnlea under n 
■pccinl pemBBon. Tift paobibittoQ of eoniM lUuut- 
UmI Burionty, and nd^d to tbo tuAotwtj of tbt 
•cfaDM. In 1800 ha wm Joined by I>r. Spiuibetm; 
who coalknud hia collMpu tUl 1813. both coodnct- 
lag their Ttunrchei in eommMi. Tfaoy travelled 
faojgatlwr faun plaoa to plsioa, vialtiiiK* ^rlKicia nnd 
•xaniidng Mont of ovny dmerijiHua. fur Uiv puiipoM 
of citanoiB^ or eonfinoinff thor theories, ud leC' 
bning occamonnlly, with &m ritir of indanni^ng 
OXp tiMM or anlnlng ytvttlytvt, Tlirir ffrant trUiwu 
Bt the bnr « Uw modi Ludtuta. Pnrii^ where tbey 
pnMDted thenwlvM to roouTo official support or 
CondemnHitkBi uf their adcncw. A ouminisuin was 
nnoMd by the IiintitMl^ iji report ii;>ou thu lubcnin 
of Dn. OvU ukI S}wnb«iia. After Uiuub patient 
iavwdgation the nport wa« dr&vn up b^ tlia ocle- 
bffttMl Cuvior. It vnu unfAvuiiraljli- tu tLe »cicUMi 
of pbrcnoirigy, kdiI oi^ril icrnt m fur as to fJTujr (Ac 
Jnttitittt fw hating UiLta iKt »uljjta into tantitUra- 
tion at alt. 

In Much, 1614, Dr. Spnnticiia canio to Briloin, 
End prticrcdcd to I^adon, wliors ha axiiiliiUd nt tha 
Mtilleo-CLSnirjjloil SooLet/a lialt, ootuuivu^iu^ by a 
duMction of tho brain. Ha delivswl a course of 
kcture% but bU aiidiCon ««r« not mnrc than forty, 
and hia aocund vi>nn« wiu oiualty tJjiiilj' AtUudstL 
At Bath, Britiol, Dublin, and Cork, whwre h« alao 
delivered loctures, be wm eqnoUy coldly reeeivod; 
but at Kiliubiirgh ha uraa mure Bucccoaful In pnxnr- 
iutf pmwthtva. AlUutiuti lind bwn drawn to the 
BuhjGict thcK l;,v A \'Qry puof.'ont article a^ainat 
fthnoology Id tho Edinburgh ICoviow fur June^ ISlli, 
which au fu* farniiml Dr. Spurxhvin) na to raiae 
curioaily abutit Lim, uud fill hi* cIom-rooDi. He 
ntnoined hi £dinbur{;b idveii oionlhs, and was k 
aueceaafiil io mininz ooQverta IhttC ho predicted it to 
be tho ipot Irniu wniob, aa frum a ouutre, tho Ouc- 
triueaof phranulogy ahuuld aprviul over Briuiu. Uii 
pntdiclum ba« been tLua far verified, thnt Udinbaish 
MOD bflcuna the very head-^iaiirten of phrenokfQT, 
ftnd hiw long poeaoMod a fluuriiihuig Phronolo^cal 
Sodoty, with a muBoum. The (oundrr aUo of thia 
•odety, G«or(re Combe, nitut be aUowud to have been 
one of the beet ucpenndera and dcfaudcrs of pbnn- 
Olupr which the sdotioe y&t cnn boitat. 

Ct. Spunbeim mturiLiHl tu Luudun, thence to 
Pari*, and did not ruit Britain iigiun till IS 25. 
Sodetici with coUectlona of buata hM by thia time 
been eatablUlwd in almoat erory conaid (arable town 
In the empire; and auch ma the innnia cif tho (Lay, 
that the doctor wna warmly reoelvc-d H'lii:rc*Dr he 
■wont — at LouiIdo, Uverpool, SdiLnvhiMtor. Uull, 
Exeter, Dubliu, Cork, QIaagow, Faialcy, Dundee, 
Jba l>r. Spunlieim evealnally went Ut America, 
wboc* he died in 1831 

Altbou^ I>r. Gall wu the founder of phrenology, 
and although ho waa tho diacovtrar of twcnt^-aavon 
oigana out of thirty-five^ he ia generally »diuttt*.-d to 
lia«« been deficient la forming a ayatem, or la deduc* 
iag from it ph3oeo}>hical data. Dr. Spurtholm la anid 
by phronuloj^ata to have coatiibuted meet to the 
Mvanoemeut of the aoiGtiioe, by enriching it with 
Inmortant dlacaveriee, by arranging it into a ayitcm, 
ad \yj ahowing how It ndghl be applied to many 
falBMtiBg pnrpOMa eonneoted with tho hnnan mind. 
Wo ahall aera ^vo a Uat of the twenty-aevon organs 



diaoovcnd by Dr. GaU. with the Utte b» aOMd hi 
e*cfa. Tbeae tttle^ It will be oLaanrod. difftr ektafiy 
from tboae of Dr. Spotxbeiu in being 
bendve tn tbeir ehancMr, and thenfare laaa | 
In lepranotlnf the varioni bwahlw tad dti 
at man. For example^ what Gall called 
Spuraheim ralla drwtmrtUtma*, thna Imoloding b it 
a deaiR) to dutioy noxiooa aBltnali^ and to kill for 
food: and while GaU baa « bnn^ for rniera*iM aad 
one for r/^m's, Simrriipan oonfiMi htmaelf to HBCT' 
atiom^ aaying it ttidudv nut unly a prupeadty 10 
venerato Geo, biat w veoenta wealth, powei; or anj 
diatingniihed peraonag«4 

The blowing is Dr. Gall's list:— No. 1, tba iartfaci 
of TMmtiutL Xo. 2. tho lore of offapring. Na i. 



^■^ 






VC 



^I 









L 



frierulahtp. No. 1, conrage, aelf-deleno^ No. S. 
Biiirdor. No. S, cunning. Ko. 7, tho aeatlmeot of 
property. No. 0, prid^ seU-ertoaiiL haaghtlw 
\u. 9, vanity, auhition, Ha. 10, caaPOO Wl Wfc Mb 
II, the memory of thJnga, the power of belBg odo- 
Gated. No. 12, local memory. No. IS, the mtmwj 
ofpenona. Ko. 1-1, varhal metnucy. ^o,lS,mamorf 



PHBSNOLOaY. 



69 



for ]aagQac«. Kol 16, ocJotm. Ho. 17, bhibIc. No. 
13, anmber. Na 19, ftptituda for tha py^hMiWiJ 
utL Ko. 2(^ mptitnde (o> dikwing compariwHu. Na 
21, i^toda for dnwing ooocluaiona. Ko. 22, wiL 
Na 23^ poetiy. Na 24, good-oaton. No. 25, 
miiukT;. Not 28, nliguuL No. 27, fimmeM of 
cfaanctor. Tha figims in thu liat bkv« do T«l«tion 

tOtbOWODtlM CMta. 

Dr. Spanheim'a amngemeat ol the fKoltiM U 
eompciaMl in orden, gener^ Ac. We •ubjoiii m 
pbraDologieal chmrt, tog«th«r with Dr. Spunheim'ri 
lut of Um fxgaam, taken from Combe'a ElenunU of 
Phrcnokigj. 

Okdkb L— feelings. 

Genus L — Fkopkxbitib — evmmon to Man witk tXt 

Lower AnimaU. 
1. Atu.rmnm—Fmdaemmn»ilan. 

I PHtLorkoomnvnma.— Fm*.' laraof oaprlDg.— ^frww: 

Punpolng kud >poUlS( ehildnu. 
1. CosaxTBATTTxan*.— L'm; It (Itw Uw datira fbr pwnu- 

MDc« in pUca, aod tor ptmnuHnaa of «Dotk»i ud 

Um* In Um miai.—Abu»i»: Artnion to mota •bn^; 

morbid dwelling on tnlomnl "■>'*W i* and Hmi. to Um 

ncflM* of ataninl Inptwshmi. 
4. AcRaimm*.— {7ia: AtUchmant; fHaodiUp and lodMr 

rMQlt b«m it.— Jhuci: vnko tor impropar object!. 

attadunant to wortUiH indlTidoaii. U ia fMianllT 

■ttoofin woBMO. 

II CoMMATTTDicaa.— r«>.- CoviBfa to cnaM danfar, to mar- 

CDOM ilignoltita, and to naiat attacka.— J6sia: Lo*« of 
ODDtesUan, and taodane; to fjivTak* and awauH. Thla 
faalint obrionUj adaiita man to a ootid in which dangar 
and diflcoltj abooncL 

ft. D^ntnTnTKxna.— ffaci,- Daairatodartrajnoxloiuo^Jacta, 
and to kill lor food. It ia tvj diKoralbla Id isnii*cr- 
ooa an Imala. — A btta; Crnaltj, ^alra to tormant. ton- 
4^tej to paaion, rag*, hatahnaa* and aaTarit; In apaach 
and wiitinc Thla fMlln| plaoai mail In bannon; *lth 
daath and d^rtnwtloii, which ara worai into tlia ijaiam 
of •ablonaij enation. 

ta. ALan>TaTtTcxiai,ara|>patltobth>od.— (r«n.*NDtrltlaiL 
— ^biiMi.' Olattouy and diwikannaM. Thla oifan la 
iiritiaidarad onlf profaabla, and la not markad on Um 
chart; tt la tltBatwl brtwaan Noa. « and 0. 
U>«a o* Ltn ia a anjactnnl imnoaitr, alao laft dd- 
markad. Conba aagiaata that thla otgan la prohabl; a 
smrolatloD at tha baaa of tha niddia loba of tha bnln, 
tha aiM or wUch oanDo* ba weaftainad dorltif Illk 

T. a acK K W T Wfc .— Paw: TtaimtCT to natnin within tha 
mind tha Tuloaa ■uuUuua and Idaaa that lUTolantaiilj 
pt aa i t thamaaJTaa, nntll tha jndgBMnt hM ^jprorad of 
Btiini thiD nttoraooa; it ia aioipl; tha [>roiiaiialtr to 
BDoe^, and k an infradlant In [iradMiaa. — Aiiua: 
Cmining, daaalt, dspUdtr, l;inc and, Jslnad with 
meq^oMUvtaam, thaft 

a. Aoaciii I n I aiai — Pan." Deain to jiimim, and tandancj 
toaoBonialato artlclaaof DtUitj, toprorldaagalnat want. 
— JhiHa.' Inordinala daaiiw for proparlf ; aiilflaliiiMa. 
ararloK 

•. CoaarsDcnrnraM.— Pad.- Daalia to build and Moatnict 
workaorarl.— ^ttuo; ConatracUuO of aifiiMa to Injure 
or daatro^, and fatriratioa of objaota to daeatia man- 
kind. 

Genua IL — Sxirmilirra. 

L SemtimtnU common tc Man mtk Ut£ Lower 
AnimaU. 
10. SKLV-Hmx. — Tie*.- Salf-raapaet. aalf-lntataat. lo*« o( 
indapaodaBca, panonal dlgnltr— Jbawt.- Prtda. dia. 
dain, iiiMaaMiliii oOMait, axoaaal*a aaUifaDaB, lora of 



IL. Lo*B or ArraoaaTKW.— ras; Deain of tha aitaan of 
otha^ lora of pniaa, daalreef ta.tne vr f^oTJ.—Atn^Ml: 
\maX*J, aBbitioo, tblnt far praiaa lada)ia»daiit]j of 



U. Ca t T iaw . — Um: It flT« orlfln to tha aantlmant of 
fear, tha daalra to ahnn dangar, to eiicnmapactlon ; and 
U ia an ingiwiimt in tnimm. — Abiua.- KuaaalTa , 



Umlditj, pDttmm*t7, nnlbnndad apprahanaioaa, d» 
aiMndaiMT, nialanchol7. 
IS. BD(ETai.nci.— t'aa.' Daalra of tha happinaaa of othata.— 
AbuMt: Profuaiun, liijurluua indulgaoua of tha appatUM 
and (andaa of othaia, prodigaLlj, Ctellilj of tampar. 

n. Stntimmii proper to Man. 

H. VauBKanoH,— r«t>,' Tandanc)' to wnnhip. adora. rtuK- 
aU. or rnpwt whataTir u great and giwil ; gi'ia c*{(in 
to tha nligioua ■fnllmant.— >6iu<i.- Kinaalaaa napael 
for unworthy otfjacta coiLaecratad hj lima or utaatkm, 
loTa of aotiqoatod ouitom*. abjact wibaarTleucj to p«- 
aopa <n aDthoiilr. anpentitioa. 

IS. PiBMjiEM.— £'k).- Uat ana! nation, pwaaratanea. ataadl- 
naaa of |iiiT](iaa. — Almta: llliililiiniiiiiw. IntatnatkM, 
tanadtjr In aril. 

1ft. CusatiuiTiuiaxaaa. — Cut: It gl^m origin to tha aantl- 
mant of Juatioe, or raajiact fur ilia righta uf uthaia. op«*> 
naa to ooniieUuD, Uia lofa uf troth.— Xburi.' 8«np«- 
loua adhamka* to nuiimu iirliinjilea ohati ignorantljF 
ambncad. axoaiBJTa rallnnnriit In tliaxlawauf datf and 
obligatioa. aioaa In mnuna, or aelf anxIniiuaUiin. 

IT. nor*.— I'act.' TvndaiKj to aijccl anri m look tirwaid to 
tba fatora with oinBdmoa and retUnca; It cliartobaa 
bith, — Abut/i- CTa>laiil)',alaunlaipsctaUutiaaffiilU^ 
not fbtUKlad oo rBaaon. 

IS. WuSDUt — t'cj.' Thadaureof DOTallj. admlreUon of tba 
naw, tha iu)az]>aet«l. Uia graiui. tlw wtinilarfal, and 
aitraotiiinarr. — AbiU's: Li>Ta ol iha siarvaUoa^ 
aalunlahmant. — /•'■■U. Vrnrratiun. b«l«. and wondar 
oombiued glia tlia fn-lvnrj to rcligiuo; tliair atraaaa 
prodnoa auparatltion and bvliaf In faljia mirai^l^ in pfo- 
dlgiea, magic, ghcata. anil all iiipcrtialanl atiaiirdlttaa. 

19. IntAirrt—l'm: Lora oftha liaautirul and tjilriHlid, tba 
daaira of cioallaDoa. poetic faeling. — AIniMi: EitraT»> 
ganoa and abautU atithoaiaam, |irafar«uoa uf tha abowy 
and glaring to tha loliil and uiaful, a tmdaticj ta dwell 
In tha ngluoaof (ancf, and to naglatt tha duliaa of 111b. 

10. Wit— OiiaailM taallnguf the luJivruu*. 

SI. IMITATIUX— CupifB tjia tiiBiiiien, gmluna, anil actiofM af 
olhert, and tialun (aiierall}. 

Order II.— INTELLECTUAL FACVLTXES. 
Genua I. — Exter.sal Senhes. 

'Vm: To bring man into oommnnloatloa 
with sxtaniat uiijecta, aiid to atiabla 
him to atiju; Uicm. — AIntta: Eaaaa- 
■iic indiitmnce In tlia iilaaiuraa aiia- 
liig fri'tii the •?■»(■, ti> tti« aitaat af 
Imiainng the utfrnni and -ItH Ulal- 
ing thamlul. 

Genus II.— Iim-LLEcruAL Eacl'lticb — trAarit 
perteire tti*tenft. 

IS. Individcautt— TakwougnUanoaof aiUtanoaand almplt 

facta. 
S3, FiiBH— Bondaia man olaoiraiit of form. 
It. Bizi- Hendan man obaarraat of dlmanaioiu, and atdi 

penpectiTe. 
V. Waianr — Communicala* tba permptlon of momaotvait 

weight, raaialanoe, and ai>l* equilibrium. 
SO. Cuu>i'ki>iu — Uifaa paniepUan of ouIuutl 

Genus III.— I.tTELI.ECTlAL FACLLTIEa — irKitk 
perceirt the rdalione of external u/rjtcU. 

ST. l^K-t LITT — GiTaa tba idaa or ipara and ralativa pcritlOtt. 

18. N't;iiu> — Ulraa tha lalenl fiir caJculatii-D. 

Su. OanrJt — Communicatee the lora of pIiTiicaJ amuigamait. 

SO. EvcwTt-'iLliv— TakaacogiiiianocofoccurrauaiaandaTiBfc 

31. Tmi — (jliaa na« to the i-rrApiiuii uf duratiuu. 

3*J. Tu>a.— Tlia ariiH uf niclol/ aritce fnim it. 

S3. LASiir«<iK— tiiraa ■ faiililj lu aniuinng a knnirladia of 
ariiitrmr? (igii* U> eipteaa tbougiila, rndimaa In tha naa 
of them, and ■ powrr uf ini autiiig Iham. 

Genus IV. — KBri.ECTiNa Facultiek — tritcA compart, 

}wlgt, and difriminate. 
i*. CoHriaiKoi'— GI'H tba )«weT of diaooTeriQi analogta. 

naemhlancea. and dlllatenoM. 
S5. Cai'KAUTT— TraoM Ihr dr|«iHlmcaa of pbanooiena. and 

the ralaUai of ouwa and aSact. 



Fm.iini or TuLtn. 

TUTK. 

IlKAaiKO. 
KlOBT. 



60 



PHUENOLOOT. 



Tha rcftder nut be apprlwd tbixt mimt of tlie 
orsiuu cntuntntvd ftbov* b«va duplicates, tlut u, 
the ono hemispber* nf the brain it mid to ntemblft 
exactly the otlia. This b IntrfirvJ frora ugnlogf. 
Wn hnm two b;« and two •arm. uy phr«iialrigi«bi: 
■o w» Lava tvo organi of wit, qcrtrecti v t n aw. Aa, 
In those oTgatu, bowtrer, ttuU on oltufttod ftlotae the 
naidiile Uoie of th« hcftd, tko two hotii;i«()hcrf4 of thu 
brain uprcoch «o cIo«aIj thnt both thn nrgnnn aru 
bcladea in ouu uirclu; tut ittill iilirvuil'iitista Uuitit 
on two organs, one nn c&ch aiila Th^ ajiv.vitiLgvi <>f 
pontMn^ diipliiuttc (irgMLi is tliiK. Tt Eiiu nfWti Ibrrti 
oliJMbed to pitrenultigy, that p«)jjIp nn (r»i|ueatlv 
Isjand ua putloular porta of tlio cnnilum- tnJewl, 
thero an many caws not iAtAl in which portiooa of 
the brain hare been actually deatniycd— and vet th« 
bcuHy attributed by ^lir«iiolo^ta to tba mjured 
looJity baa not b«ai in tba ulghtust dagm im< 
paired. A autdier on tbs field of battle, u bM boeo 
wittily observed, whoM argan «f V'eiipration receive* 
a bloir, u nvvM* beard ta«xclAiiii, 'Tberat ii^rsli- 
Kfoa ia olewL goito! I can: nothing nov for Cod ov 
Wft oaptabil' A tender father wounded on the 
organ of Phi1c<prui,-ciutiTGnraa teak no sudden dI«ro- 
gard for hin cliildrvn. A mifnr w«!l bnnKitd on tho 
ontau of AditiUitiverjna due* not luitautly bm^nua 
euuvlew of bla moody bai^t uor U a oow&rd, wboao 
largo bump nf outioiiuicu baa been balf boatci) iu 
by Tuf&aiu, in any ilegre* cnntd of his timidity. To 
mush facte a« tbeea phionologlsta aay tbe brain Is 
canpoMul of two rimilar halvM or hemisphoroa, and 
the ttgana of all the famltiri am diviible. That cma 
•y«, ono oar, or one udatril may ]j«rform its func- 
tions, and tli« poreon hci, bear, or omcll, although 
the eye, oar, anil n<xtril >J the onpndta in dimascd or 
InJnrM, la a fact (d which we all oro awaret yovr, 
M the organs of tho inriital faculties ara double, 
IkOalc^ would litad ii« to (<ntic1ii(!n that fnifh will nUn 
be lite CAM with them; aui] tLnt bi^foni wo caq fix^wot 
eomplat* loM of any ono raciiltr the cntuv organ of 
each dde mtut be i]estiv>M-'l, jiist u both n«s or 
both tan mnet be discaa&d bofoire oonpleto loos of 
^ht or hearing occurs, lint this reasonlDe is by no 
meona aatialactory. For ercn granting tne hypcv 
tberfs, and nut to Insixt on tb» positlun that It is 
aoeeasHry to produce aomething tuoro than t<aiv a»or- 
tlott for tho dnfilickto ciiiHtcnce nf tho organs bofnro 
we admit Ihcir illiutiaLi"ii as atailuble in arv^iluuiit, 
we may aay, tliat whroi a man Iihrx bis «y« be fwls 
Ita want, and if he tiecomes dvaf on one side he is 
quite eanaduiiB of a dtifoct in hearing. A Btmllar 
eonMioiisnesL by analogy, sbonld arcompany the 
deatruoUon of ana of a pair of pbrennlogical organs. 
The wounded soldier should at le««t betwma by one- 
luktf leas ardent tn his deTotions, and the wonndod 
miser talce a rooob teaa firm grasp of bis noney-bagsL 
Bat nnther tbe oomsclonsness oi defeol nor the fact 
of defeol noooinpanfee tb« Injury. Beddes, It so 
happens, u w« have already said, then is a rann of 
faculties at the oonjimctifm of tb« hemlanbens ol the 
brain, the onians <>[ wbicb, thuii^b cidl(^i diwble, ure 
qnlt« contiguoiu, and thuTofora siibtLintially singlo, 
•0 that U U iiKpo**iUt U injure cat teit&out infurinff 
bot/i. I.'heso otgant coin|>rchond Comparison, ilcne* 
volenve, Veocvntiun, Flnnutas, &«., all of whlob, 
bvisc dtaat«d on the frcmt, top, and cmtre of tho 
bead, are nore opm to injury than any oibt-rs. 

Wore phnuology on cstabliahcul ad^L-i*, unit wer« 
it pONUble to draw unmring deductions from tho (bU 
vttidi it lays down. It oaunot be denied that Its dis- 
ooTtij would be the grMt«it step over made In 
nsntal pbilosophT, and its application the most b«ne> 
fldal ever ii>«i lor the amRliuntirm nf Uia human 
tam. It would give man a kuowleilga of bimn-rlf. 
and direct hin in the ap[>tication of the fscHltica 



with which be might be en^owmL By dl s Awn g 
ladividual character it would jprn aecunty to aDcU 
tnbercourvo, and niake oomfflunlcshtloa pnnnpt wd 
«My. It would discloM r«sl merit sad •xpoMtSf 
wnrtliinnw. l*ho truly wise and good voula at !■■ 
attAin their prugter tlatiun la soolety; while As 
ignorant and vlcions would bo oblig«d to Uds ihifr 
clioiinisbcd hriuls. To paronts Use adeneft wooU be 
of invalanUe scrvtce, In dIrecUng them M lo lbs 
pr<.<per oiorikl and int'Ilcctnal troiniDg of thsfr AaH* 
dnin ; nor would any difficulty haga oxlst itfudtag 
the f.hoira (if a prufessiun— no one^ In (store, wmu 
bu iiuuIb a lawjer who should have been ajMisAcr, 
nor a d'^rgyniiuL vha ■hmilil hare htsca a fiddW. It> 
tnudicol jiiriaprud-^iicu, and Indeed la tbe adinlnlstW' 
tion of justice generally, i^hrcnology would create sa 
entire r«uolutiiin. llie real maniac would at ooa 
bo distinciiivhcd fnTin the temMoalble agent, and 
erinia might even he prevented by saeorlng tbe thkf 
and muraerer before thoy bad given scope to tbab- 
pmMnaitJcM. 

But ucithur b {ihrvnvtn^ sa estah1iih«il adesu^ 
nor, if It were, caa It eirer bo appliod with certain^ 
to tho illustration of indik-idiiol chancter. Uaoyst 
the organs arc an hptvrii){eiieoiiB In thw nature that 
tliey may Indloata foculilea or dlspoaitlona dlanxtti- 
cally oppodte, while olben aro furalahod with ea» 
pciwating organs which balance tha good or theeifl 
of either, and thus trader both IneffBcllTtt. Tbt 
organ ot Kfrfti4tnf»s, foroxnmpla, which badiealasa 
thief, also indicatea a Usr, an actor, and ■ novdMI 
It is even ssJd to be naoeosMT to conatltate dlgntty 
of charaeUirl Again, Tou may bavo the organ Of 
datrrn-thtnuM dorolopod largi:1y,and yet bo a peace- 
alile and good man. How b ihts aoDonsMd tfrl 
Your organs of eautioumtai and beneraltatt tn 
brought to hror npon it, so that it la tatnad iIo«b 
into a vary hartcli-ia aSiUr, and would notaren hurt a 
fly, Tt may bo Kud, therefore, to be Icejit man for 
sh'iw than luu--. 

Ibere are other cIrouniKtancoe in tbe way, whM, 
even according to the |ibT«nologi(ta' own diiowia^ 
muHt for ever jirevcnt them from oorreetly Jndglar 
of tho chnractt-'r of man frvm the AXtemal lumM H 
bia craninm. An organ, thinr aay, ruay be ao «!• 
tramdy developed as to push t^e Deigbbotvingotgasf 
from the phtoes naually ocoupisd by chem; and bqb» 
times several orgnna, in tho vidnitj of tmdi other, 
an oqnnlly or propoTtinnally duvvlope^ ao that in 
placuuf a protubcraui^c, frum which the la&alfcn 
inlgbC bo taken, a Gm<:ioth or regular sotCaM Is BMt 
wiU). Now thero oin tiit fewer than fivo importsitt 
OTgons iu tbi: lino of ciich eyebrow, and it no distinct 
protuboranoe ajApear In tltb region, wliat k the 
observer to infort Ait tbe organs all dafidsnt or 
alt rcdundontl Must we estimate tham by their 
ahaoLuto or relalive ehtel Or if the smoolknMB 
arisos from tho oitrmne davelopment of one osgaa 
railing up aaother, hou- are we to dlstlnguMt between 
the one which eieTott^fl and the one whiM la elerated! 
Cantions |ihr«no)ogi»ts, howsror, do not considsr the 
(unctions of those parts of the brain whldian In tho 
rocion of the froDtal sinus as bdng so welt aaeer- 
tafned as tboso of tbe lar^ oraana. 

Ilw fundament*] docinne of phronolngiste Is, that 
the sixe of an vryon determinos the fiowvr of tbe 
alleged faculty or propensl^ bdangfaig to It. But 
aiu alone, Ch'cT admit, Is not fn all cases n tmo 
mtsrion. In uiditidnaU of tbe ncnro-bslioos teoa* 
peroioetit tlie brain partakes of the gemeinl aodvltjt 
and oomvs more raidlly iato play than wfasn Uta 
tempcromi^t is lymphatic, TbevlgonroianjteailQr, 
boo, may be inoreosed by education at aauiLlsL, or 
even by disease, without any " 

ia its nia. line, if a man is (oiind 



I 
1 



PHRENOLOOT. 



6t 



mm! a r^ty Hgweoi ouuiIfMUUcni of lt« 
Ucnltj, pltnnal«guti B>cftp» trom thu fact 
Uw OMMD to be in n ttMo at unna- 
ftcUtl^, iron mtnxrr or MitDi: oLher c»um. 
lHacnd^traundtodmr»<iutinct)onbftwoan 
th* finer Slid octinty u( u (luMtlty, by Myiag tlut 
the pmeoM of the one, thnu^h not of 
But the diitiurtioD ia witbi.iul « 'liffKrvnoc. 
'lutt b tba pow«r ol a facriltj Init iU Mi!ti«ityr 
^Vbat la CuiUouBiMMi, Im\ a <ituvk ttaim td dBBgw! 
\\'hat Imiftioa, but a nod; Uenl^ ef eopylngt 
What LftDgnace, but a oonHHu docutioi\ ora prompt 
moOecikxi of wonbr What WiL but apaiUIng 
wd apt Oluiloiu! What batructlreDeM, 
to Amtray, tha fmevr lying in tho arm 
in the brainl 
nrakoloKT daiuu lo be obUin] the evieuee of wt>* 
WTvittoH, and vfanaolosbu are cauitaritly Tauntintf 
at tha /oefa toejr can add oca iii aiipport of tbcir 
tbooriea. Tbcir crj ii^ 'Cmiic to our acliKiolii and 
asd vbeem afcaK with ue wLether iii«a- 
■» or on mot In ooutoot proper- 
amtbnl AKtclefmenti wbethor a givea ihApo 
el bead ii not alwajr* aooonipaniod by a ccrtun talent 
aad a oertain cbaraotMr. If thia be not eo we ar« tii 
^M oppoooiti of phroDoIogT hav« on the 
Wpooded ootDpwntiTclT ItttJo to thin invitii' 
The; have been k» eatUTuK] wiUi the ari;uu)enla 
' agaliuC tli« HjnbMD Iron ahnoet every polot 
and pbjralca] phUeaopbr, tliat thov have 
left the tnaalpttUllBgot headeiuidaandJiiigotriiMlU 
I and caata to Utm pbranoliMfiata tbemaelree. Tbe reiult 
, baa been tbat fttraiuilogMa, bring left to statu tfadr 
hat and balance tbetr wkvu after their ovra faehion, 
bava Bade out many what tbay oall triumphant 
in support uf thdr ttiaorr, and dialbngs tbalr 
to a ninlatton uf tba aam«^ In a good 
Mi^ boweTcr, the okalleup) boa been ao- 
For inatanoe, Mr. Stone, prcsidDnt of tbe 
SCedlca] Sodet; of EJIobiirjib, met them on 
m giotind, and b; a wriea of tbe lauet Inile- 
ataialnattox m awMOrcmcnU at a va*t 
d tkaOa (atrljr proved nianjr of their bjva- 
to be etTouaaa and falae. lite (oUowuii; 
an eooM td tha rveiilu of l» invMtlgatiaiw:— 1. By 
cBMparia^ tba crania of dghtaea nurtlerers with 
twa «staMlva aariea of crania, this able ini|tiirFr 
)am nwleniaUy abown that tlie crania uf *<ich uriiul- 
D>la a*« not Maracierned hy any eupvrior dcvvlop- 
■Mlft la tba n^on of DeatractireocM: and tliAt, 
tertaad of being broader, thay ac« frviueotly unch 
uMwownr than crania in oeaenJ. 2. \Ilie eapNirior 
tt tiw eraalum, to wudi nfion phnnokgiata 
niamd tfa« ocgana of tbe monl Mntimenti, ia 
fonad hH[hor and Iwttar in the crania of 
than in crania in goaeraL X The naiiin 
have nut bevu fuund to exhibit any 
of anterior davetopnMint; and MmotbuH, 
beootiMa with otlior crania, tho iuit'-ri>>r r<^'oa U 
eem faUar and better developed in >iirb cruninoli 
Am Ib OMiia ia gvoeraL 4. The poeterinr develop- 
er qiianti^ nf brain behind the «ar, to which 
phreaologtria refer tbe aninmi |<r>ipnniiiti<Hi, 
benn fimtxl In eiUdlnt any reuiatkable prv- 
ia tlM crania of aurdenra. 6. There^un 
ts whlcb tba m^Mted organ of Aetplirf- 
reCerred, hae na% been found liroader in 
aalorlow thievae thaa la ladlriduala ut ciempUry 
fhanetar; and K<«>ietIaHi ana narrDwer— proved by 
tha ^f**"!" from Ao^uiaitlvent!** to Ar^tiiritivencM 
havfatf been taken iu Iweatytwo tbivvM, and com- 
laiad wttli tha Mtoe dimeoaions In various poraona, 
HgiiBh, SoDtcb, and IrUt, each daae of indinduala 
hainag haea Caken witbent any aiiuctioD. 6. By a 
eoapariaon of tha boada uf tbe aane iudlrlduida 



tblevM are fniqivntlr found to jiouem tliM MflB* 
of tbe liuad, to wbii'h the urjjiuii uf CtititdantfoOBMa 
ia aacribed, mora highly devolnpfld than bdividuala 
of exemplary cbaraetcr. Sir William HiLtnUton, who 
oinminiHl a vm-y lurga nutnlier uf akullB for the pur- 
poM of oom|)>arinu Um: the of the fionUd dmiRM (two 
cavities in the font part of tlie akull), came to the 
conclurion tiiat as tbeao caritica vanr Kf<!<>^7 '» '^ 
in difTorent individual*, and aa »\^cii, diveratllBa are 
not nado mauifL-tit \)y Ibe cxMnial onnfonniitioa of 
the head, thcrcfiKra for the front p^rt uf tbe brain at 
nay rata tbe ao'Callcd farultii-';) could not be ollucotcd 
adtfa any oertainty whutcrvr. 

Tbe Uinita SMtl^aed to tbia artlrle pmront u* from 
cntcrin^' upon the wide ficlda of phyuca anil niota- 
pbyirioa with wliioh t)ic aiibjcct of iibrenoloj^y la con- 
ueutvd. Wure it olbtirwiBu we uljfnt deny tliB *Klat- 
euoe of auparalQ and indepcndeDt/airuZlinat all in 
tho compoeitioiL of uhat ia caIImI the human mind, 
which wn Iwlicvo t» be one and indii iaible; what nie 
denomluated /acuttitt being ratber different acta or 
rather aCofra of it. But we contina ounelvw to thfl 
th«oric« and automonts of the phrenologiaCa than- 
selvea. We give them tlie bunufil of their ■>wii aa- 
Hiiii'ipUonB, fe«lliig aaaurad that ov«n with that their 
i>i;i<:ai.v ia unable to uphold itKlf befuru tliu ali^hteat 
■Qvcatigatinn, 

In luolcing over the liat of faviiltiea anigned by 
phrenolot^ata to the mind of man. It ia Impossible sot 
to bo atruck with thvir redundancy on some parti> 
cular pointa, and Utcir lann^ntahla detldenqr on 
otliL'n. Ttiua, vrs huva buth Ji'ttk aud 'Ur. Ao- 
cording to mutaphyeicians a knowledge of r.ztcmion 
Includca tbe two, form bving but the coaiparativa 
entenaicin oi the aereral porta of the aamo object, and 
auc tbe comparative extension uf twu leveml objecU. 
Again, the orgune of (.'onflxitti'rni'M ami JUitrvtirt- 
not oouicide ao nearly, that the aliecniM: uf onu would 
■carcely be miisiid if tho other w«n in vi^iir. 'I.'he 
uae it Dealractiveneaa ia aald to be tv teavh us to 
'kill for food' — upon which it has boon wall ro- 
nuirkod, that we aliould alao have organs to teach ua 
to diff for fooi^ and to rooH ur U'it for fiK>d. Such 
organa amOtnffnttyttiimfit anil Ail/utiifiuu can never 
ba ccoiidnvd as tircinitive (ncultiea, but only aa tn- 
leniifien <i athict lacultiea. What ia tlie meaning of 
the devi-Iu)nii<mt uf au01gan,but Ibat tlie faculty 
attributed to it ia atrong; and w1it<rvii>, therefore, Uca 
tha utility of au«h ornos as couveutrativcuH and 
oilheeivcaiea^ which ot^y mean a atrong and oonatant 
nttaadiment to any partionlar objeot! BaJdea^ what 
proper diatlootion can Im drawn betvoaa Um ngaa 
af Jtrrmta and tbe orjnna ot concentntiranaai and 
adheidnneai? 8oino at the otvana haT« ^-fi-'-fifg 
faculties auch aa hopr, vrluirb ta balanced by tavtunu- 
nflo; d*tUuetitenr*» by iritruii>!mrf, Ac. lint why 
liavB two orgaaa where tUu two princi[ilca nucai- 
aarily imply oaeb other, and where edtfaer could bs 
itidicatvd by tbo elevatiou or dcpresMoo of a ui^to 
tiiimpT It would be rauder to bring down hope to 
the requisite ataiidaiil, by dlmlulahing Its pecaliar 
opk'an, than by leaviuK It largo, Olid addmg to the 
biilkofcaatiousnasB, Orif aparticidarorgonrenniraa 
a oompenaating uie, why not carry tbe |u{odjiw out 
through tha wnole ajttoin!^ — why not match V oaar*- 
lioD with an organ of Sonra. Language with an 
organ of SJlenoe, or AcquiaitiveDeaa wiUi an nrgan t4 
Pruiiijpililyl 

But Lba dsfidency of the [acuttiee attiibutod by 
phroDologiata to man ia atill mmre remarkahle than 
their ocawnoDal redundancy. Tliia h> well iUiiotratcd 
by Lord Jeflmy In ao article of lib in tbe Ediubutgh 
Roviow (N(x 8S, for September, ISS6), wiuaUT dia- 
tingulafaed for aoute invtatlgation and pLayful ridieul& 
' The great boaat of phrenulogy,' be says, ' is that it 




PHBEa'OLOGT- 



■■I iwt «■ iuilMtlal and ubitnr; khatrae- 

^ faat ^ k comet obMTvatlott of tiw vuietiM of 

■wotai; and b ap^ed sot to a Bwra ■poco- 

JifadairjriiuiIyiiaafniiKWMdquUtlai^tiat 

to tiM ■wliMJitili raUitiw by wbtoh iii«n mn (Estiii- 
fai oomnoii lifo. It f»ir*- bd coffuiiuics of 
I »|— IJMitifci exiftotoei u ponepUon, in«DK)f7, 
, or jndgiBeitt; but looks ftt odco to the 
I bf which tke ootidnct snii charactrrra iJ 
in society an marlnd to urditutry olxMnatiaii. 
nm it finb on* man Mtii«t«d inaU hii wmdnet 
tif ft •trmg dnin of fame, aad immediatdj it bdU 
dovn 'ion of Apjvobation' aa an oricisal piiaciplo 
in oar nature and IikiIcb about for a uumji oo aoaao 
^KMit part of tW akall, by the rixe of wliif^b tbe 
■tnactk of thfa propesaitr may be neiutucwl! Aa- 
r ia dictiigaUted by his Iotb of monej, and ao 

_•_-- ^ 1^ aaUblubad aa a pHioitiva and 

ivtlj! Anothor it n pvat talkor, aad 
fortkwfch' Tiinrnupt la mado a diatinot and indc- 
pcadnt facal^ ! Another baa a tuni fw maluiift 
■■••cimdufa and looiuwtra]*, aad whu am b« ao 
aatsnl m to i«fer thk to tb« bulk uf hia oigao of 
C ot nii.t irw>Mat Anothgr Amn a great love for 
dilldna wftboiit indicatinr mMh beB«v«l«iio* lo any 
grmm acatar^ and nntbing conaaquantly can be 
plajaar than tfiat Hii]L>j>n>£i:tiitit'eii(na h an original 
MBtODaib Soma ar« quick at arithn>etiaklo[>er&tjoiut, 
■Btd wkat cxjitanatkm can he bo luttitfactory aa tbat 
tbay baT« lbt> faculty at ?fomb«r very pnminentT 
Otban rcmonber all tbo ervae-roadt Utoy Lave ovtr 
aona tliroagh, and vbo can deoy, thanfen^ that 
tboy an diatUipiiafaed for tbrir J^kcali^ I Scaao 
kc«p tbdr P*pv^ dotliM^ and faruitim wj nkcdy 
mamnfeA, wlmh can bo attribatod only to tba dcene 
fai wSUk tbey poMMa tb« facnhy of Order; wU]a 
tltara an otiun a(at&— at lean lo Mr. 0<nnb« aasuna 
aa w h oaa gmuoa ""-*-*- in a pacuHariy autck oV 
MVTaUoB of tba ain nod might of atcnial nntaoffia, 
for vlioao aaka acoofdiagry ft h^ bom thoti^^t 
naaenable to create tbe apreial original facoEti^a nf 
BIwand Weight I Tbb, wv moat adrai;, Ii lulScieatly 
■ttnplc and bold. Bat vhan la It to slop I If tro 
are thiu to toko all tha taatoa, habits, ai^rorapliah- 
BWDti^ and propountiea by which grown man am 
dWitaguUiaa In tfaa oouBnle, and torUiwitk to nki 
timn to aooM pgculiar origiiwl faculty or principla^ 
inaflBed for the tun ptopoaa of aceoantiiic lor 
titan, tha thlrty-iix oHgbtal faeultiea of the phrcno> 
lo^aU mfty >t catco ho n:ultii<tiod to 3<I0 or 39,000, 
aud rijuui idimI be made upon the akoll for aa many 
Btw organs. Sotaa man hare a nmarkalile tore for 
tbefr adUren, and therefor* wa ba*e a aeparate 
pihwiple of rbniumi J, I iiiliii him But other nwn 
nara aa reoarfaable a 1l» e fur their pannta, and vlty, 
Ibmfoia. ihonld we not bars « faculty of PhUo- 
jvogcnitoncat, with a oarrMftondiDjr baiB|i oa aona 
■idtahia place of the CTnidmn I 'Uw affectioaa of 
otken, asala, ar« leaa mnadcable In the aaoen^ng 
Hu) daacmdiiig lino^ and fl|«aad meat kindly la the 
ODlbtcnJ. Can it be dnnbtod, then, that wo obeold 
have a FhDadelfbk principle to attach vm to our 
brolhen and iiaten, and another to keep OB In ehaiity 
with oar firat oounnaf If the fact thai some men 
ars distiiiguiahcd for thcdr loTe ci wealth Is a suffi- 
dent {Twnd for aasoniing that Acqnisitiieacaa is 
■D iodependwt mkI orlgliuu prindple of onr natai% 
ihmild not tike fact of other man being disliikguiahed 
for litelr love of don aad boraea justify na in refetnqg 
this also bo an inLaieBl principle I Or ttpua what 
gnuads can «« nfusa tbo same boooor to the lore 
nf aid-playtnAmHipinc,«va^caltBnT SonHmen 
— OMT. aoma wh«e fsinlTlca are notonoaa for lying, 
though addtctsd to no Other luisoralUv; some, the 
natitnl prey ol the former, are proTerfaial for cre- 



dulity; some for inorAoatoMHRtaaol ami hng^tor: 

some for cnv^; sotae for lore of aoCt^f; Hns IdT 
Ulling loiii; stariM- sone for lova of noias, ■osne tar 
bofror of iL Mart of (haa^ it appcnn to n^ s» 
qirito aa wall entitled to the tank of primltlre bmliias 
or pcDpensttiee a* any on the Itat of the plirenalogida. 
Undoubtedly they mark la ooaapinMoaly the chaae- 
ter ukI raaaoen of the pawow to wbom Aej bllm; 
and are not in genenl aa easily TMohrnd into na* 
guoenl pnnri]4ea. Why then abonld they be ex- 
eluded from tbe poheni«(« the pfamnokigiats aad left 
without any organs in their impKxvidmt dIstribuIlM 
oftiietknlir Nay, apOAtlMMiitiMiplo^ whyihodd 
there not be a aep«rat« ori^ml faculty prampdng 
ns bo the practioe of skating, salHaK or plantingi or 
towards toe study of botany, minarilogy, MM m wy , 
bookUndliui^ cbcnisOy, gymnasttca, er nay of tts 
other five BnnAwd pumiiti tn which idle men an 
foond to betake thcmitclTes with an enpuednn sod 
often pasiknato partiality t" 

Then are two arguments which baTo cflen been 
urged in fnrocrr of pfarenoloey. Tbe firat iiy thai 
genioi is generally partial — &t a man b often n 
oeeDent mnaiciaa who baa wi InUot (or oaialing 
or metapbysica. Haw, witbovt Inrisllng en u« fata 
tlut there are many caaaes whiefc m^ lead a pesMn 
ti< one purdU, mm ttat few SBceoed to Mwnwiii 
unless tbay ooniBe tlwaiBcilva to one tnck, w« bh^ 
Biin|dy aay that we find it jiai aa easy to admit m 
oriffwd iitparily in the eibleflce cmlled mind as 
an original dUTenuee in the *i» of the phmologbal 
organa. Tlta aaoood argune&t i% that in ill iMiiiiiif 
one cr more faculties an awake, vhi]« etben aie 
aalevp; and if all acted by toeaos of one organ the; 
could not poHibly be In different atalaa at the SBm 
time. To this it may be answered that It b quile 
aa difScolt to imderatand why one of the taiuDeclnil 
oigaua should f&U asleep whila the oithera ai« awaka, 
as why the mind eboald contUiun to act la wnw 4 
its modes, and cease as to othera. 

PhrcDology baa often been accnaed of trading b 
materialism aad tataUara; bnt with all tta fsnlu^ we 
think it has bean la thb iBstoamdaall with anfairi; 
and nnphilosoplucalty. PhmologfMa napremlr de- 
dan their bfrltirf that the ^"*"" b no^ the minif, bnt 
simply the oigaahed uedhim thnragfa wbfefa In this 
Ef it Bunifsafa itMlf. Thb doctrine dosa sol np i itor 
Habla to the efaam of matarialifm. Aa to btalMBW 
the tnystety tmnanis the aarne whether an indiridnsl 
becomes the perpetrator of harm by the 6brea«f hb 
brain or by lus oeMutial nature^ 

riIRYUIA>'S >fpc* to have been the nans 
of lLd iiriiiiitive inhumaats of Asfa Minor, linae net 
only tlM Trojaai^ but abo the Myilaaa and Lydbna 
wero BO called. Under tbe Ponfan Jominiea Phiygia 
was the largeet and meet oeatral prartDoa of Aafa 
Minor. At a later period it wasdinded Into Oiuatu- 
and LcsMT I'farv|,'ia and Phrygia SpktelDSi the 
nonb-westeia part of Phiyiria prvper. Tbe priiudpat 
dtiea wen Apamea, Laodioe^ nd Cotcntt. Tbe 
inbabitaab of thb fwrtile xtffs^ war* eady diriSae^ 
sad Hul rnndt atteaitiaa to graing and t&bgn 
Ibe hisbofr of Fbr]^ b abogethor eonoeetad wuh 
mytholodeal erenlsi Sereni of its Idaga an inen- 
tioned of the namaa of Uordiue aad Midaa. On tbe 
death of Adrastus (n.o. 500) the ivnl family vf 
Pbiygia became extinct, and the UngdOB became a 
prorino* of Lydia. It afterward! formed a part of 
the Peimnn, and still later «f tha P"™*" Bmpui*. In 
the m«^ of tbe aadeata tbe Pkrffiait modt was of 
a marUul character. 

rilJLYKE, one of the most eddsabcd oourtcaaaa 
<J Greece, bc^ at I'hrapin in B os otla . 8fa> airiTml 
at Athens in a humble cooditioii. Imt aooa beinui 
to aoqtiini wealth by trafficMng In her eharma. She 



1 




A 



PRRYXUS— PHYLLOXERA. 



6S 



I VBRt 



MMll 



tiMBBM Um mJ Btnm tt Prultolm uxlA of IIjr[>crii]e»; 
iba Conur of wbotn immaitiliMiil lier beauty hy hU 
»rt; th* latter oljCaiaed her aoiiuitul wLen she bail 
tMMB aoeoMd gf Wbci«m liy nxpisiiig bcr dunus to 
ths «g«d JadcM of the ildi**. lliu crcnt wui 
daditv* el bar ruoocm. Sbc hcnc^rorth wiled Iter 
b — Bti W j ^aad aold ber hroun only s.t so sDoriDxnia 
prioi^ Sha lnH>Hia «> imlth; tlut sho offend to 
'd tbo mill o( TbehM u th« dtiier« woutd 
tb« inscniidoa, 'AluSkuiler ticatrujreil t)ii:iu; 
1, tb* conrteun, rabuUt Utem,' to ba Iiiit on 
Ths TbebftiM dediaed Um) oflor. At Elvuui 
MlMd Into the Ma btiora tha ABsemblcd 
. bat this WM pKibabI; to ranvw tils Jm* 
ibarahamiB. (SeeAMAnrOMXXK.) Fbr]nu)v 
to toiiu, Likii, oaae wa^end tbat >bs 
tbo BtMn and rig^d Xeaocnt«a; but lior 
a pToTcd anRucoMiful, uid aho doclajvd 
bo waa tivt a tnftn, but a ttatnei £v«a in hoc 
oU ua •ba wa« not vltbout ailintnra. 

I*HKYXUS. See Abgoxactii, Atuauai!, and 
H rrf 
F HTH I SIS. S wi CoNscMFnoK. 
PHTLACTERV, called iu B*bUiiieal Hebnv 
tlfktim, vaa tb« auntf: ^rrn to strips of parobtiiBut, 
so wU^wm tnuiacriLied lour porta om of Soriptuni, 
twofr«a>£xodosand IwofrvuDrulctoDomy. Tbsao 
itajja Iran raQcd vp and pat in small liatbar tmxoa, 
Bsmd m w)^ tbo siaowBof acItAtiaoiniiJ. Acvord- 
bg to Um gnat Jewiah cbamptua Rablii Lvpiiiwi, 
mrof tbaas bona b«bo«od to be p«t on tb« bead In 
Iha plaoa vbsn tba pnlaa of ao uJant's brain boats, 
to oonsspond to the four senses of leoing, hearina, 
lnlflnQ. aad taatins; aiul oa« to be pat ou Uia l«Et 
ana, omasito bo tbo hoart. Tboy wars attacbod by 
a In(£«m tboag; aa to the leogtli and braadtb of 
vfckh IMTJ minnte diroctJoos wen g:lven. These 
lirfactgka wen rejarded as amtilet^ which pro- 
IMad lbs waanr fron the power of demons, and 
hmt» their naaM, whicJi is from tbo Greek phylattrin. 
Is gnard. The aotbority for uung tlie phjriactcrj 
was rtKiiided on dlffentol paass|[eaa( Siriptui*, giaf 
tteolarlj- Ezodos xiiL IS; and tba nso as a port of 
•cdhiBirr Jowiab dnaa WMBO eoMiral tbAtnur tSnvi.>ur 
Unaoll Is SBMKiwd b; Ligbtioot to bAvcwom ihvtu, 
Usoooann ol the FbartsMs bdug directed uui atjoliiat 
ths phyU ctary hsolf, bat a faypocritical abiua of it. 
FHTLLOFOI>A C l«^-faoted '}, an oirdtf of Onis- 
ttoat, pOMeoaiiMt auBMrons foot, numbering oight 
faba at loaat. Tha foot an ittfUio'tmu or lOkf-Uke 
Mnetan, and nn jnorided with bt^mthiai append- 
sge^ adapted to mlisena Iho breathing at KspJra- 
lorr (oactioa. The 'oanpaoe,' or aboUy-eoveiiujf 
joatactiiia tho head and cbna of tboso fomui, aa in 
aisBT otbar Cnataoea, may be well davelopcd, or 
As Mdjr tahj, on tbo ocmtrary, be destitute of a 
<B» «llltt. Tm oy«e may \m dintim^; but in somv 
■ UMJ sra BMra or lew ouattucnt or uoltcd, and 
[botiw oo foebly-deHned otaUs— tbe term nb- 
baing applied to tha eyes on this ]axx*a 
ant. A pair of iniuidibiM or targa jaw* uxirt; 
I oc^aas iMing of bony cuuaiilfucy, and Ijebig 
Itnte of palpi ^ 'feoJsn.' Tbe first pair u 
aro aatstocrlB obaractor, and poaseas uristlo- 
filainenta. In tbcir deralupmcnt tbe Phyllo- 
poda paa through a metaonrirpiioeia; and In tbvir 
■riiflst Stat* tha ombryoa appear as NauijUi (seo 
?^»imiTTll) Ihati Iff, as imfrtgrnrntri lirrrr, Trhirh lio 
sol poHOM a Gampaoev and wlikb are [irtividnl wiUi 
• niglt modlsn eya. In Ui« genus ?itbalia, wtuch 
fitna tha ooly Iniyllopod inbabitlnj; tba sm, tbe 
' aanpl&bnn * IvTaiaaaMeeded by sLkgee oorreepood- 
iag to thai aosit la tba daveloptDoat of tho familiar 
Cnibst and known sa tbo Z<Ka pbwo of tbe mnta- 



All the Pbyllopoda an of amall aiso. Tbo order 
is ra^msenbBtl liy tha familiar 'Pait^ Shrimpa' 
{ChiitKtphxdmdiaphannt),^^^ wilb tn freab-watv 
ponds, irtiiofa poeoosB clenr, delicate Iwdieo, and fwin 
tbmngh the wator book liownwards, 'ihe {rurintu 
'Briue Shrimiu,' fnuuil ill the bri»e>pftiiB of aslt- 
works, Mjd in tbe salt lakes of ImthtboOld and Now 
1\'orlds, an also eampriwd within this groDp^ The 
Artemia safmiM iit 'Brine Shrimp/ fmmd fn tho 
Lj'tiiiii^^u Bidt-paiiii, eiviupUtJ-n tliese bttter furoia. 
I'liis form Inhabits a briny lolntion strung onoiisb 
to pivlda boof . AnaIHod(omL,£rancAi^u««(ci^u^w, 
la Iijund in piMla and rutd. 

Tbo genera Limntutia and dj>u4 dilTer from .Dran- 
thiptti aadjirtrtnit in piiw lOsing adistinctly deroloped 
canpaoe. Tn Ijimnadia tha canjiace sxlsu In ths 
(ut-mof m abiJly abruL'tun coiuposod of two pjooea, 
and wliich (ipciin xjnng the vontrul or lower iLJipeot of 
the animnl. Tbo numbur uf fuot io this ^euua t'Oriea 
from eij[ht»en to thirty pairs. In the g^nus Apiu — 
tho snecies of which occur id ^rfnt T4iiRibvrrs in ponds 
and ditchios aftor heavy rotiia — Um canpoci: b«* tho 
form of a shield, iuulLMiuj; tbe luitvnot jisrls, and tha 
front portion of tbe abdumtin also. Iu Apus tbe foet 
number six^ psiis; all tieing of leaf-like confonna- 
tioii, saro the fint [wir. 

llie FhyUopodu, minute and appanutly nnlm> 
portant mambsra as tbey aro of the great Cnutbcoaa 
oIiMs, aro ioresbed with a bi^h iiit<-mt l» thii palin- 
onUiJogist, on aooouutof tho aChnitica they prasenl 
to those aitiaat Cnistaeaa to which tho name of 
TrilobUa ban been t^ven. (Soo Tulobril) &trao> 
tiirally, Uieoe ouriuiis fowil orgsniKms slimild he 
placed in all prubabiUty ueiir to tbo PhyUu|M]dn; fmm 
wbioh, however, tlioy widely dllfiirwl in tb« ["orfoct 
nature of thdr oxoskeletnu, u woU us in other parbs 
of their orgaaltaUon. Tito Phytli^|M>il» thotrutJTes 
an rapmoutod aa fonib in the Foheoioic rocks, 
Ths genera ffymmoearis, from tho Upper Cambrian 
system; CarifOfarit, from the liciwvr Silurian; and 
CtroftDCorM, from the Ui)|icr Biluriiui, rcinrcaent thia 
order. Tbe i^uus iJiV^yrvrdruoocUBaln tbecarboQ- 
iferous limosU'ni:'. and the doul-tful oxampleof ShS*- 
ria, fmm tlio llctniuiui Riickii, iihixiM also, in all 

pTubnbiLty, liO rL-f(.'rTT?J Co Uie Fbvlliipuda. 

PllYLLOXJat.V, a genus of iiisMta noted as 
causing Bmoaest tho vines of Franco and other Mua* 
trial a serious form of dlseaea. Ths Pl^Uoxera unqQW* 
tionobly originatod from tbo IToitctl Stateo of dme- 
Hea,altboaffh this RtatomeiitisdBnled, as will hereof lor 
be sotioed, Dy scono natiiraUst& Mr. Fitch, an Ams- 
riean entomologist, being charged in 1654 bjr tha 
state of Now York to report on tho insects bene6cial 
or injuHoas to the agricnllnm and crops r-f the Btat^ 
disoorereil on the leave* of i-inca nuiuerous small 
gAll-liko oicnscenceB. Tbeee 'galls' wen sttualod 
uD the lower surfsice of tbe loaves, and each asjcno* 
cencn appeared t« open at its apex or opper part by 
a small apertun, the margin of which was snirvunded 
by hsbr-Uko filamsnta. Within oaoh gall, and at 
its lower portkn, a small inseot was found. This 
crcattm poasesaed a rounded convex body, short leg^ 
and a suctorial form of month. The antaiuuB warn 
ftlif onn and obtuse. Ilieso insects won fnrariaUv 
found to be /rntoles, and tha e*^ pruduced by c*en 
uuiuliored sovorat bundradu Astudy of tha gonesls 
of tbcM insects showed that the eggs gan engfa to 
Im-v.-k, which sBoeaded to the upper parts of tba vftua. 
Kacb larva in its tun, by biting or eroding tbe plant- 
surfsoss, produocd a nnw gall, in which it speedily 
bOMUna inoloeed in the lamv manner as the pannt. 
Mr. Fltob, comparing the galls and the entin titB- 
history oE Uic vine-insect to the gaUa aeon ta tta 
leaves of tbe elm-tree and pnptar, and which aia 
fvmud by various spevles of Peiuphiii'i, named the 



6i 



PHYLLOXERA. 



vliwpart /Vm/jAifftfir riti/olirr. It wiw mpcrtftinwl 
thtit the m&Ituniintiuii* (hue [iroiluced un ttie vtiic* 
did DOappkratit barm to vicoroua nud bealthy pluiiU. 

Two oUier AniMicivn rn^>mci1ri2t»U. Ulr. IJcnjumin 
W*Ui KUil Ur. Ch»rlcB Kilcj, iUbu ittrH:nli(.ii Lbc pew 
Pampklffw of FItoh. Mid included it in Che Il«t of 
inwcU which w«n injnrioui mid liunful to the ititor- 
mU of the ■grimlturiit. lit, Hcary Shim^r, in 
186?, dnoribinjr the B«ae g^lls aud'tholr bclutl«d 
tltMOtl^ klso adobd tbe important olawrvatli^n that bo 
hlid diMorered Ui iivii ridual lUffcrin^ from thoM wen 
hy Ua predeoeoBon, wtiidi vu profltlcd with wingv, 
uid was conaiderod by Shimer bo be it matr. TLi* 
latter auUinrity, tlMrnfon^ aapwratnl tlin vinn-[iciit 
boa tlim ceuuH PcmjAigui of fituh, Aiul nuuou It 
Dcutylotp&jri-a rid/olur. 

Mwuiwliile tlie w>-ca.llisd Pempblgiia itppeanid on 
thootbvr nidi; of Uio Atlnntt?, boia); fuand in rineriva 
ftt Huamonmith, near I^udun, fn 1863, nnd in othnr 
nwts of SngUnd and Iri'laud in 1&67-BB. Sir. 
WoctwocMl, studyiti^ tho inw-ct, wwviiRed it t« be an 
mtirely iiew«pccip«,aii<J tiainodit/Vri/jrinUaWfuana. 
WeftvKfod waa furtunaie onaugh to aee the ituicct 
imdar form* in vhich it had not previduuly been n<ib>d. 
He tbu* tLiund it nn tho learc* nf the vtnci^ in ttie 
gall% aod aIsu od the imjI* of tlie [itauta, txiniiij^ in 
tlw lattv ODodltloD in ILq form bf a BubturranvaD 
gntb-liko cre«tni«. Wc»tirnod'» obicrvatioiia were 
uut publliiliDtl until 19S9, wliem Ibe iiia«ab waa found 
la the Boutli of l''»Doo. 

Some yoanpravioudy to 1 ^49 amalady of unlmcnvn 
natura affected the vineyanla an bnth oidm r.f the 
Lower ItibSno. At Pujault in Oani it ha.d besii 
vaguely mot witli in ISDS. Dot in 1S«7 it bad 
■MOBIM M formidable proportion* that tho vina- 

rvtn of L« Comtat, ct Ia Ctam, t>f the ALpa, and 
the neigbtiourliixid of TanuicoEi, bc(,'Kn lu take 
■Krioiw alnmi f-nr t}ie wetfarc of their crnpoanr] imlin- 
try. A %-incgTOWcr ot Arlos, M. Dulonn*, bnd 
doscribcil the outward appearanoie and aymptnnui uf 
th« viuD-malody, witliout aaTLng or augKeetiatc ^uiy- 
thing as to Iti origin or oaiue; wbllal the puoaatry 
gave to the dinrjvc the name of ie bianvaet or 'rot' 
The lattur confounilrit the diaeaae witn a malady 
■Iwwiiig it**lf tu vines planted by ingmfUirj* them 
In oal:. But it Is Ile(^dlc«• U> rvmark tho now vine- 
naUdj wai am entirely HiSerent affection from the 
'rot* of the peaaantA. Tho Pliylloxera cauaoi a kind 
of gaognna or decaj of the Tino-rtmtx; the g»xigi\'n> 
008 mattar having a blaekiah colour, but poucMiiiii; 
so odour of fungi, u Ie pio'oeptibla in * rot. 

Aft«r 1667 the erti atill innrcMcd. Thr, Ajrrioil- 
fenml Society of Viiucliiee and utbvr allied iKxlifli 
met in ooniniltatiati in July, 1868, and appUM them- 
•elvea to the iiivtrsd);atiun of tho pbenonena of tho 
dlMue in the vioeo. Th^ dloooveffid no Inacctfl, 
fungi, or parantea niffieient to aecouDt (or the aytup- 
toma, althongh the aweeplng- and erer-extendiag pro- 
gren of the malady thioijitk &e tl>e vlnvyard« «c>uii)ul 
to point to a Hriitff canee M the origin of the epfdcinlc. 
' It Riarirhia liko an army,' wa« the f^licibiiis expr*«- 
•lun i<( a vincf^v-ur in deecrilnnf( tlie rarnj^ of 
tlw plagiw. 

Uarki of a y«^lIow cotoar and ume etafau were, 
howttver. oleerved by the nalMx) eye at tbe roota of 
Tinea, ihcen miufca b^g dlacloeea by the expoeura 
tit roots by tho Uow ot nn nico. Microscopie isvwtl- 
(cation of thow aarklitga ihowcd that they onoileted 
of a GoUectlciB of luocta with Huctvriia nutttfas; and 
fnrtlMr invvstigatlotu of an anali>gnna hind mTnaled 
Ihe faofe tluri inaectji fd niliii)t« thv, bnrruwini; Mpw 
grooad, and moltiplyiu^ by mTriada, cauaed the 
alrongwt tumi In tine to saonimb and decay. 

Tho Mractnral mlationa of tbcMe iuMN.-ta formn! 
Iho aaxt point to which the attention of aatundiiiifl 



was directed. The« wbt^itm iaaocta of the ntaA 
vinea were at flnl named by Prafeeaor Flanrhreid 
Montp^-UJer HfiiiajJiii, or 'pesta of the tocMk' lU 
latter inrMtign.tor d^tennlned. howvvvr, to laMMi 
ii.i:tueeBtiirch for Die wing«d form, which be hdltnl 
Hbijuld c^ruiintv exint; n»d acoontingly tue fooad tl 
in the pupa or ehryaulis state, with Its wingi (tO 
indo«ed ur in an bnperfect atato. On the S8A 
August, 1868, I'rofceaor rUtiriioQ aaw thii |m(a 
hntchod or enter tile imarni or perfect atate. ll Ibis 
rwcmblcd nn ck-),-ant little ti'aadiopper, and «w 
provide-! with taur tranapanat wingi. Tbo aania 
Illiizaj-ItU was ROW chanKod to PhylloMftxt (UlenUy, 
'Imf-btiietnr'), under whkia dealgiiatton tlie viae-pat 
haa latUn-ly continued to be known. Ilaneboo ni^ 
ther found it diflicult to diitin^ith the Fhylloam 
of the vine from that of thu wliitc-oak lc«rea (PAit- 
ioxtra Twrcut), which cauM« theee leaven to aaane 
a yellow sppearaneeu 

The T«latioua nf tho Tine PhyDnxcra to the Ainni- 
can inai^ct dmcrilioil by Fitch and his fcllaw-llal•I^ 
allata were next inveetigated. On the 11th of Jely, 
1^6i', Flanchon dlacorqivd at Sorguae fVnn^MjL 
ii|ion twohranfh'?'' of a variety of vino known i 
M-icml gnU* utmilar to thi>a« described ae foi 
tlie pDriiphigUii liiMct nf AmeriML At Umtle 
few days aftemardi) ^[. Lnllmaii dbeorered Um WBB 
gnlla, but with the im[ioitant addltlcn, tuunely, ikl 
the Bordeaux galla were aituated npoo J«*mon 
vines, uuLuy of which ciuried Iliylloxenv on theirfocM 
alH. Buipocting tliat the two fonna of iuaectt— 
namely, thdOG of the leaves and those inhabiting Ihi 
ruoL^^were merely modificatton« of one auottwr, Mtt 
one b«dng adnptod for a ■ubtemuie.-m and the odMt 
ffir nn aerial existtmee, M. LiclH;uat«in nnd M. 
I'lanchon at length arrived at the ranoluaion Hut 
the Pnnpkigut j-itifoiitT of Fitch wa« aimply the 
PhijUatrm tatSatnx of l-'rwioe. This bypouMii 
rvcoiveij striking and imtvrlAnt ootifirmatiooi wba 
it was aaoertjunnj that tbo Pbylluxeno of thepolb 
lieeame tranatonned In ibe courae of derelopnot 
into then of tbo rwU. And Biloy. the AaNrieoB 
entnmolo^t, ci^ming to Kiirope, eonfinned tho fdsn- 
tity of the Fbylluu-'ra of Fnuiee with the A iua fc S B 
Ptrmphlgiis; and In America Hiloy in turn disoovend 
the insect* In their tubtcrraiieou conditicm, that k 
oxid^tinj! on t^e roots, judt as provlotialy tiiey bad 
Ixreo fuiuid in that conticont infeating tlie Icaree Is 
tht" form of galls. 

The quemoa as to the original habitat of the 
Pbyllaxem naturally cropped up la order, after lU 
fttructural rflatiuiutLijis hud boon fully detefBiinsd. 
I'he fimt thonry of the fluropcan origin of the Phjl- 
Idxera wa« set aside lu Iu4<rub«ble. Tbe biMOl, If 
of Europenn origin, should, under thn ocdhucy flB 
lif ctmuniHtanccs, l>a«e bcon heard of long befoi* iti 
ilii>covi.-r> ; and Miimal pla^uM of ao gieat and gan 
n cbanictcr are not auddraly or Bpaatanecmaly |«o- 
duced for the fint tima in a ctntntry which bai [*•• 
vifrusly boon entirety fn.-e lr<tm their loniMli and 
devaatatiouN. Ou tlila hytiutheaui also we abouhl 
havo to account fur tbo Bpoataoeona and atmnlUM- 
ims appeoranoo of the inarcts in rari<raa regioiu *<i7 
far rt'iiiut ed froin each otfai^r. Another tiieo(T,e«ran- 
dati-d by M. Koremioe of Atliens, held that tJM 
\aw»il was nc;t nevr to Europe — that, in fact, it waa 
the old Pbthelr or vine-insect dcsorlbed by Strtbow 
and which Uie modem Qreeka atill try to ropraaa by 
means analoooiia to tiinao cmployml in andmt ttmes 
"Vhrn Ro-c«Uea Phtbeir la, boncver, n widely tiSffennt 
insect frum tho Phylloxera, It Is tbe Daet^pima 
hn^tpinuj, aJliod to tho cochineal tnaects; and It 
attadu lu spring the outer part* of the vinm, and 
rvvem tlicoi with a syrupy fluid, andd wUch a crrp- 
Uigauu^us plant known as fuwutgvu darolotia itself. 



I 



I 



itsolL I 




PUYLLOXEltA— I'HySIUAJ, GEOGRAPHY. 



6S 



I 



IbgrBHb 
Dr. lug 



Thb iiUMt tlm d»Tait«t»tlie viBM of the H*£lar- 
■nd Black 8m comAm. A tbird wamtMoo, 
bvm iL Noairigat of Lwud, udataliieil 
tti* tUt'avolIed PhTlloien dtMua kd drendy 

iitonaaJ vith thai UraMd by the Gtirnuuw llaM, or 
' ft o ffc i M iiM u / on MOOSBt oT tii0 lorlukt ut UTurcnta 
obwmd Ib tiM bnadiM <tf tlw ikiTecU>d 
Bat thk Ifttter dJMMa corracpoodi eviJimtly 
to tfa* Arfria uf CbarenUi, or tlw Anl/irantotc Ht 
SuBllMfii ffucv, doKribed bj EapriX, F&bro, aad 
DwmL 

Vbat tbe Phyllox«rB I* » native of, and iniligcBou* 
ttt Amenca fontu lli« tut bvpatlmb; and td Ui« 
cwnctn^ of tfaU BUteniBOt tb«re OMi b« little doabC 
It im tfaoi bem only reccoUj introdnced into Eoropo 
Iraa the AmaitaM oootiDeot. In proof of thia 
tkttMj it ma/, fintiy. 1m nwntJoiMMl that. tb« Phyl- 
kuMr» ooron ttny gvBctsUy on th« mid vings of 
Aanka h well u co th« (-nltiratod -rmfuttiM; nd 
tkm nTDodUMk pJk mrv diacurcrvd od • opecfaiwD 
«< Iha VitU mtnliaJa (g«Ui*rad lit Tuu in 1834) 
bgr Batiandhr the batuHt. PlADchoa nlatw that 
h« has asMi thli spedDieD (a th« berbkrium of 
Dr. lOgidinum of St. Lonk, wlio tlanda uBriralled 
■• an ■wlhurity en the AtnrHdn Rpc4-ii^ nf rinvm. 
Tb* afal«Bc« of Pbylloxcni in thu United St&tca 
bM bMO T«rifi«d lor «e leaM forty yvxn; uid if 
doaqsMOtaiy «*idaBM OMild be chtMia^d ita hiitorv 
vnold be oeriainly found to extoid Ui n puriod miich 
hirtbcr bwk. ^d lyt^iit^ng \i,^% ii^ cuhim uf 
•iaaa in the Unitad Statca ia a thing of comjMuikEivcIy 
nOBA dat^ that Karopnui rioi« do not grow Wfll 
B Anarfoa, and that trliilat *B<eral American spodes 
OB wiBn ia J iiUy twist it, nooe of the Eurcpaan >p«oi» 
■pp«r aUa to aorrive its attack—it Is iapcMbl* 
ifMr ihaae facta to doubt tlkat Auorira hna me etnA'tt 
rf 1>«tBg Uw nativa nrion of tbe Phyllaxera. Were 
h Bth ir wiaa wa alMidd, finUy. liarg be«n aware in 
Im^ «f tho nvvacn of ibc Pbylloxcra in former 
NUa, and the Kumjifui vinna »l»>iild &ot luiTa so 
Uviuldy and (voarally ■acmunbnl to its attack. 

Tim pTOofa that tlno Fbylloxera haa been imported 

toalon^ tram America an abo Y«ry clear. The 

<Mbt (ircanutanoca attendiag tlia langta of tbo 

nijll(uia» pojut to ita flivt awearlng ia any t^reu 

Mkt Id a* imaiiodiiilD ncigbDOvriiood of Amwiwm 

•ta«a ThuB la Gironde tb« Phylloxera amcArcd 

ten FlciMC, naar Bordoar, in Uie centre of vitica 

AmIj Inportad fna America. Frota thIa [xilut, 

* h«t a oanti^ it impidly flfffvad to adjoluiiig viDc- 

t^^ nd rfneo 1SA8 i|>reiad to atill wider miiTi.tmd- 

yt _ li AtMlria the Phytluxcn diMiuw >liuw«(] 

Ml tb a TiiMvy at KlivtvTDeuburi;. De«r Vli-ima, 

"^ WMnd exactly ai the apot wbun Auuriota 

*■" hd bMD pUttted. Tbeae rina bad been 

■MybifOfteil Iran the Tnitod Slatea. 

■^■IW)t' tlia omditionM whkli bvonr the growtb 

^ pnMWB •>( FfayUoxera little oas be daiBib^r 
**' « ahamined. Oold, drongbt, and other eaaaea 
'"■ btm put forvrard aa nqdaaatoty and £a*mmBg 
^|*>^ bet untlumt addidf any mU knowledge of 
™r^*iiiiiiBi Maa-gtowaa have mea&whlle not 
^^Ua hi ffji*g tA aincidabo muiuta for Die 
2^^*tlMl at the PhylloERim. I'oUonnua aoEntioiw 
*■ '■fana hnda haw proved etTeotual in deatruy- 
2 ^ h a rm ; aad Ttiim» neaoa, irom aatnratlog 
*^fUDto with pan cold waUr, to mine aolatiotia 
fH** |ia-wat«r, aolotioaa al anunaoia, anlpbaiettai 
5*Hp^ carfaoUc add, ananlt^ &c^ have htva triird. 
J;^ et diflScoltiaa, bowaver, are net with in the 
JlliiUgw «f neb nmedlea; the fitat of tbeac being 
^y^ Um aohitMn ao aa to klD the fauecte wilhonl 
P*wa | the plaata; and aacoodly, to apply each 
^BfM Ml a aeala aofBdaotly lai^ to Include whole 



Tinorice, and at the satnA time tn devote the nooea- 
aaiy atlantiim to utdi iiuUvidiud [JiUiU Viiiea thna 
ap|>«<U' |nuticulu-ly lU.Ua ti> be affected by the action 
of gaaes, and it may be ftat«d aa a )^n«nd ratilt 
that nil »tt<^Tnpta to fortify the vinet. or to prsTsnt 
tba vpr<miJ uf titc' dtBuaau in Ihia manner, haT» aa yet 
lievD (utUtT. 

Certain insDcta tmdoubtcdly pray opon the Pliyl> 
Inxpnn in their turn, luid it waa anggectcd tb&t thcae 
iiiBi^rU i&i'jtht bo utiliwxl for the deatruciion of tbair 
mora liDjKirtant nvighbouT, lUloy thiui diacavered a 
vcnoiform larva (Pipiia mcffctita) wbidi hi hukpcvumI 
IivmI on lho«ie Phyllnxerw which infect the ^-in«• 
mote; and a aeooud mUe-UlM form, or nnartia, allied 
to the c b eaae mitea and named Tyrogft/phuM pAyUox- 
era, iraa bdiered to Infist the vine-pest, Soni« 
doubt, koWQVer, «dala as to the exact nature and 
relationa of this latter parasite, and the entire qnca* 
tion of teganlinEf tho pansitua aa aid* in the Hxt«r- 
tnlnation of the ('hy1]nx«nE cannot beaaid to present 
very ho|jL-fii] or ikiinite aapecta. 

All impirtant iil^ei > atiiili. uitl oni> fmm which 
valuable rusult« in tbe limitation or extiniatinu of 
the diiwMi may hv dt!riv«(], wu uiulo in Uie yeara 
I8S7-49 by M. Luliniau, wbow riupyikrd ntiiatod 
near Porditaux, had Iwcn nlmnut comfil-ctidy deva^ 
laU*d by tliu Pfayllnscm. Thia ([untlenian notioed 
that certain American vinca flourished amidst tiuaa 
that aaecninl)*d to the diaoase, and thi-.in Amolfiu 
fnrtns rnnninad healthy notwilhaLam-lirif; the vety 
ifuueral dti-uy of their uelj^bonni. Lid by thia Uct 
M. I.&limjiD cune to regard the hc&Lthy American 
vinra aa the proper apncira to replace thran dr«tmyed 
by the diaiLUv, and ua likely t^i reaJat it in time to 
come. Mr. RUey of Aniorioa, tDdependantly of 
M. Lalitnan'a cltMrvationi, waa led to a ainilir coa- 
dacion; oud M. Gaaton BMoUe, of Mont^ielUer, auf- 
geated the Idea of grafting European vlnea on thw 
of Amerle* — ■ work which haa already been attended 
with good naollB, nlthoueb time alrue can prvve 
\khuUier tbe tinv-peat can be fitlly muilccril, and ita 
dD%-aatationB aa folly and completely repaired. The 
American vlnea which beet roiCtf tbi PfLyUocnm tn 
those derived from Vitit trttiivlit, rUerbemoM. the 
I'linniu^liam vn.rii-tv, 1u Concoril, the Pndifia Hart- 
forJ, tlio Ivpt S™d!iiij,', Ac. The only qwdea not 
attaelcd by tbe Pbylloxom la the Tkit ntundifolta, 
termed Muieiline in ita wild etatc. 

PHY.SETKlt. SeeWnALt 

PHYSICAJ. GEOOKAPEY U Uiat branch of 
geogtapby which treats of the Btirfaco of the eorthi 
of the atn)oii]Ji'Tc which siirmiiniU it, nS the anb- 
ttaneea wblcb i^cimpuH: it, and of the organiuil bodla 
widch It produiiM or aupporta. [S«e Geookapbt.) 
Phyaical geography dooa not, however, enter into tha 
mintitn dutaiia i^ natorol adeoce; it give* a genef^ 
viuw (if pboDomeiia and their mutual relatujoa, and 
loavoa to tho more rlcorona adonoea tbe cl»dlIcation 
of the ralfllaBoaa eS which they treat, bociowlng 
from eaeb ita nanlta, and ranneetfnc then inlo ana 
vrbolu. Tbe furun of the euth and ita relatiotia to 
tho othrr part* of the mtveree are determined by 
mathematical geography; phyalcal geography pidnli 
unt ita natnraf dtriaiona Into laud and water, oontl* 
naata,aM^ ooeaaa,fts.,andtT«atsof tbeext«maloon> 
figuimtioo of mouDtaiu^ voUeya, eooat^ Ac. Having 
examined the turfaoe, we attmipt tu penetrate the 
inteiior. and d^U-rmino tho etmcture and cnmpoel- 
tion at the anlld pM-ta of the eartli, ita atrata, eavema, 
vi-iixa, kn. ; the rwlo or affgTfvate anbataneea of wUdt 
it ia fonnod, their dlitrllKitkn, propert l *^ age, Ac;; 
wc atndTtboronuineof iGipaatmhabllaBta,aadtii* 
proob <j tbe violent revolntiona which it haa tmdet^ 
goDS^ and aeeir for the cauaes el thoee revohitienfl 
(Sea OlOLOOr and PaIuNvtoloot.) We next oxo- 

sea 



PHYSICIAMB— rHYSIC NTTTS. 



mine the auuplc mlntjuicci of wbicb tiio eucth U 
ocrapoaod («iw MntEtuLcaT^, uid Ui«Er v«rioas com* 
binntiooi, frum which wo obtaun bo maay oontn'bu- 
tioiui to uiir onmfort, health, or Ituniry. U wu then 
ttun to tho fluid parts of tho globe, l^drogmphjr 
palate odt its divisioaa Is to lakes, rivan, ■»•, ooMiu; 
oetermuiw the diftorcBt nfttnral qiialltfes c( wnter, 
ita chemical pn>p«ctiM, Ac («v (A-ea^, WArcn): 
knd th« nature, ext«tit, anil cnubca of tliu«e grt-nt 
finctnationa which It rncularlyniidvrgoc*. (SnoTiiiut, 

CUBBEKTii.) Tho fluij whjch ■UTTOimiil thu Iflobcl 

way anct bo examlnad {ete Aib, Athobphere, Kle- 
TKBOtiOOT), it* onnuoaitioii duUirminod, and thn 
curfDna pUetiomena «! which it i« tlm theatre, and 
th« uwvoiu6iila ty wbith it Li b«bjei;l, Iw ttudieid, 
After coDcluding our cxAmhuition of inorganic uaturv 
hy TlMiri ill ii into tho local tomparattii* of thd at* 
moKilun (•«« Cuhatk), wu may next coochlet ths 
«utE M tii0 KeldenM oi or^anlnd Uring trai&gB, 
vhlch adorn its mirfaca ud feed upon itt Inoxhaurt- 
fUe reaouroea. V^etaUea, from the nlnmilance 
with wUoh tfaey an prodoosd, and [mm th^ir Intl- 
siata eoniiocticin vrith tbt nuuoa of tho gWbo, tnt 
kttnrt AttottliMi; Ixitaaj exuaaaea in detail the 
ttCMWM oif the Yegetable wurid, while iihysical goo- 
cpraphy n;arka Eta gmwral relatioiia, and trac«a the 
lufluoooe ill climate, tompenture, soil, atoKwpbeiv, 
&a, apoD, the pm^en and extent of Tecotatlcm, and 
thenograpliioddutritrntioa of plants. (Si-u Uotakt J 
Kinng above tho Inirrat form of nrgantc to no i ma! 
lifo^ we search the utr, the land, and the vea. foUow- 
in; thff motiona of insMta, nptilM, birds, tiab, and 
bcAiittii', and fix tlif^ I>oiimlui«« within whirh they ore 
ouiifiiiiM], or tiiv ijuL ui the'u (■riK'^ii, and tho prvf^ren 
of iitpir migratious. {Sev Ahiual, Ziiolout, itc.) 
Mas in hli phjilcal cnodty, hii aaimnl nrvM\izsi- 
tian,iiia rarietjrof oompuzlDn,i1atun^ (Mnfomiation, 
and mode of lif«; L1j« pru^Hirtioiia uf the agea, aeMn^ 
deaths, and fajiths; with the latiui^noe of heat and 
oold, molstUTe and dnrugfat, local babttation and cli- 
mabs^npon hb body atid mind, ii tho but and bighsat 
•ubjeet of pUyniuJ i:(.iii,'niphy. (See Ethkoloot, 
Max, Loshevjti, PHveioi-ouT. &,c.) Sc* Somer- 
Tillo'i or Anatod's rhymoAl Goography; Lycll's I'tio- 
c^ea of GonloOT; tho geagraikhical warlta of Hnm- 
bgldt; B«ishau?BPhy«ivalAtliia; JohBKm'a Phyilcal 

PhYSICTANS, Kotal CoiLWis or CE<KnbnTBh>, 
a bo^ locorpuratL'd by rujol i:hartvT dated the i&tii 
ot Novambi'r, 1481, aod i'io[»wi<rr'<I to Biak* laws 
for pmnoliiii,' tbc art of phjMc, and to regnlate the 
praodca thsKxil withia the city at I'^liaburxlv, tin™, 
of licitb, and di«trirt» of the CanMiiyatj.', Wosl I'ort, 
PleMauae, aud Futtemw. No iHrncon wna to lio 
ullowvd to pmalst? phyalc within iLoao Uinlta without 
a warrant from tho oolliipi, and all medlcinw sold 
within the >duiie lintiU woi« made liable to be in- 
■pected by tho ufBcMa of the ooUege, who were 
ompotrcn>d to throw out into the stT«*t all saoh u 
were found bad or unwholuMHM. A wnrrut irorn 
the oollcgo i> hd Iookot neCKoury to a piKirtiUoner 
within the UniiU of its former jiirladictiiin: but Ilia 
body ]■ BOW npreeetitBd In ths geasral medical ouuu- 
dl MteblUted br tfae Medloal Act of 1S5?, and 
iillMn and Uoentuiea of H are CAtiUed, on p*yittx thu 
neceaaarj foaai to be r^i»t«r«d aa qualified madinl 
praotftloneni lo accndanoa with the ptorlaloua of 
tint act. Sea Medical Act, 

PHYSICIANS, RoYAi^ CoLiEai or, Lonroh. 
TbiB body oww its «ngin to the esBTtlaTui nf Thotnaa 
lihuers, one of the fdiyskiaaB o< Henry VIII., who 
IhraufA tiis bdueaee of Cudiul W<^y, obtained 
iBlfildfrointhktnianard) lett«ra patent incorik:irnlini; 
himself with certiua other phy^daos natued, aad bU 
othetuenol the tame faculty In London, a* one body. 



Varlrma pntil'^gni were aoootdad to tbam, Uw dtU 
iif which was tb»t of pirohibiting any ooafawi tyae - 
lUiiig aa a pliyaJdon in London, or within acirant 
of 7 miloa round it, unless h« had first oUained a 
lio^mse fmnj thla corporation. A dmrtar gnatti 
four yeam L>ler i;i)iirjruii-<i thn privilMM OC tlM VtOJ, 
exwpt th^t gradantoa of <Jjifi>rd aod Cambcidgs vtn 
ponnittod to practise within tbo jnriadiottom of &■ 
ovllogu wiUinut imTiooalj being esMolmed be it. 
Varidiu -.'hartcta have been gtuted «a Ibo ndj 
stiU^tiDontly. bat ■inoe the PMOu oi tho Hedkal 
Act of 1 S6a, by whicli any duy qoaJified pr a c ti UBB w 
U cntitlc'il to prootiae aceordisg u> his qmraeaHoa 
iu atiy part of her majesty's domlnioMi tlia UeOMcf 
tho collogn !■ nnt neotwiaiT to tboee pcaetlifag is 
Londou or within 7 miloi found. Aa at prMl 
conBlitutod thn corporatifiTi conaiata ol » ptimiKi 
and fellow* <who aloiio fnnn the goTeming hodylani 
mombcm Thu fi-Uows are a aelf-olectiag body, mI 
are elonMl fn>m the tnetnban of bor yean st Mafaa 
The mcunbcrs centrist of penoni wbo htA b«« M- 
mittod brioro l-'ubruary, 13CS, Ik«ot)«tM td Iht 
oollcae; of wrtatu extra-llcwitUtee (that U, fenm 
qualified under tlie pmran formerly belooatng to *» 
oollogo to proctias aaywhera la Englana Meapt a 
London or withiu 7 nulaa roond it); and ed pnaa 
of at lunat tueuty-fiTe yfiani iif age, who do Ott A- 
pcnso and siq>plv medioae^ who uid bem "Bgiffi 
in tlic Ktady of nbysfo for at IsMt fire ynan prvnos 
to their Mbgdimon, and for at least four yean at a 
m«dioal school recogtUaed by the eoUege, and wbc 
aft«r having bc«n daly proposed, hvn aatiaSad thn 
oollegtt as to thetr attainmenti in medical Bind Mos^ 
science and llu<r»ture. Mcmbcra are entftled totts 
uae of ths library nni) iiii»euiii and to att<fid all At 
collc^ lootures. LlccutiaUa t>f the collage do wt 
fiirm port of the oorporatioa Tfavy mnM be at Ia«t 
twHuty-ona ycon of ag<^ and mnst han stodiel 
rocdidne four years bafora being allowed to mdstpi 
eiaminatiuti, A fitllow on being admitted amt pay 
a foe of 30 guint-ai, cxoluaive of atamp dntf ; a aM- 
bcT 30 ifiLiu«ma, and a licentiate 15 nuDeaa. Tbt 
Boyal CdUdrd of Phyncians of Loodosils i o ia sasa t i d 
by ono member in ths eenenl nodical oonodl arta^ 
Ushod by the Medical Act of I8S8, and fiSiaw\ 
Ucantlate^ and •xtra-liceaLtlates of the body may, m 
ftotxmlanos with the proviaionB of that act, be ra^ 
teral aa mAdiinl practitioners. The same act «»• 
powora any collego of phjnricians to paM a by«-1nr 
to tbe offecb that no oQe at their fellowa or mombeta 
may sue for fwa fur prufefdonal aid or advtoe; awl 
tho Royal Collogo of Fhyaciaaa of Londoa baa tabm 
ndvanuige of Itiis pIaqki to prohibit their felloWB ben 
doin;t ao. 

PHYSIC rrUTS, the name by which the aaadi of 
the Curfos pitrsant [Jatrvpha ymwvant, T.faiB )^ a 
ahrnb helongine to tbu natural crdar EttpbarUaoiB, 
an known, and whidi they have aeqinrod ia virtoft 
of their stloQg emsti« and purntire ump ei H ea. The 
ahrub from which they ar« oDtafaied b a nstivs of 
intertropical countric*, prinnpallrtheBact and Weak 
ludivK. Its bol^ht oevar excoads 13 or 19 feet, bok 
iu Bt«m ia mora than pToportiooaUy tlildc Itebarsa 
cnnidjit of live oooto segmeati. lu flowon an of a 
dtdl y«Llow colour, and moiMMloaa, tho male fUnrtrs 
JiniUng fmm right U> tarn r*""— — and the fetnale 
flo'WL-Ts thr«)e Ktyl<:a, with tUcJc tttgiaa*, and five 
glands suiTounding the ovar?'. nhich is throc-oelled. 
Tbo emotio and pnrrativo pMpcrty of the seeds la 
due to a filed oil whidi rcaidee laiutipuUy In tbo 
fimbr^-o, This oD ]• espreaaed nncl nsed in ■"■^"''t 
under tho namc^ of iTotropha oil, for the same purpaasi 
aa croton oil. nlthough it is teas poworfuL 1 no name 
o( Fmicb ur Bpaniab fihysle-nuta la giren to ibo^ 
aoeds of aaothor monbsr of the same ganm^ 




PHYSICa. 



«7 



I 



Oitrru mutiiitlttt, a ahrub wludi j^rowi l« tfa« hds^t 
M aboat 10 foct, and bi* s tugnL&Mnt toUae& lU 
kfttM an Uin, «ad iMUmMad with ofna loh«v of ft 
daifc (not ouoor above^ and olanoaua bcnckbh. lU 
tammn an of a faijght r«d colour, and uv urruiijed 
in cyiae& It b a natire of tho umo radons u tbo 
tetmtg apMlM^ The oil exprecaoi! from it i* njlixl 
00 of FnhMD, and ia nuuUr m itd properlim to 
Jatnoka otL 

PHYSICS (GreeV, pJhvatt or p&j'mi, utnn), or 
NjinnuL PmiiOeorar, b the tXuAj ot the phenomuia 
of tiM — letial world. Ttic study (iiiitim.-iM a. Urser 
Add of acfapoe Uuux Ibat which u commonly imphml 
irtan 'iMtt«r' Is Bpokut of. It U only the uatnralwt 
(■o wa wonld t«nn a lutunl phUc«ophor) who hu 
Modtad fak tbe acfcool of Kcwtnn. l-'anulAj. aiul 
TV*»OB who am ocmoriv^ tbo wtwKtfi:! rcUtiona 
^idi «drt botwmn tba tnatcrkl <uitl nil other 
fldMMik Tbero is ttiU, bowovcr, a wido eep&ruion 
batwvtn iba acienor ot dead Biatter and tliit adtmtM 
it BatUr tudar the tnHueaoe ol life, and towiuda 
ItUtSaa tbb fvlt wry littla haa baon dooe. Wa mo 
«BV UvtBf thoagirta to dSneam doad mattw; wo pcr- 
eaiva lore* br our tanacular exertaona; but life iUolf 
lica oatBd* toa pa3* of oar lBTMt[g»di>uB, TImm^ U 
naUj no UvicM diviiKia b«tw>;cii tbo two acioncra, 
■alirial and numtal It ia wfth ttie inatminnnt, tho 
baiDaa laiud, that wa itudy uiaUml phcjiuiuuna ; 
bat wa OM thu iiutnuiw^t h a pereon IgnoRuit of 
«Mba a»j nw a talcacopo or bit oyoa ia rbaynag 
o b jaalfc AfBil^ Ribjoeta wbkh belong men mr- 
tCoDlarir Co aatond cihiloaaidLy ai« often atadied to 
gnalaavanlaga WibeiDet^ihnnciMi,>j>ftir inntanRo 
tl» Mbjaet ol optki waa rtadled by B«id, who euun- 
dalad Ua Iboocj of cbrrapotiding [Mints on tbe 
nUaa. 

Hm Stat atop* ta fnYoatJgiiting a phonoaientm of 
BilBn m tbo obaertattan ttd dMrincadon of tao*, 
•od Ibcaa Conn what ttuqr bo called tbo nattml hi*- 
tccj alaga ol tba iaqnii;. Amdng on theao i«s»lta 
tn bdaetkn b the natoral puikaopbjr atago^ Tbo 
AdirtkB bctWHii tbeae two tagc^ tho man e]e> 
mmaxj or man obMFvatioDal and tbo moio adentiilc 
itaf^ ia of oooaidaabla imiiortaBco Ja all brmncboa 
d Batarat aokaoc^ aatnmonrr, ffxiugy, cfaooiiErtiy, 
and biology. Uantal •danoa baa oorreapondlair diri- 
iioM^ Bcatal biatarjr bdog tbo pfoparatoif and mua- 
Id lAAoaophj tbe idotb iidTaiuied ttage. Aatronomj 
baa bMig «Bi««gvcl from ita oaturaL biitury ttoKc 
AiMW( tba Chahlcan abei>faaidi> who tnigbt BAtioc 
olaalial ob)wta aa tbejr aotioed planta aDd aaimals, 
WW eaa faagflM aatiMunnj to havo faecn daaaad with 
«ttv aataia] UatofT ae ba oaa. Now, tbaaka to lonx- 
u ^ t faaad obaamtun aad iiaiiiiilin, w* faal on 
laoh^ at flolaatkl bbfoota that thej are fcodifa wc 
knowaboat^aad ia our totj tbo(i^lit« aatninumv baa 
auMigaJ bom the natural hLdnn' dagv. Aod yet 
tar fiutbar nocnaa we alEU aapui; aatwal hiatoiy 
Bfllfaedb Vrm the aid o( tba qieetroaoope we ma 
ofaawa pbaaomena wfaidi wo cannot explain; for 
faiiaimk w« learn that aoBM atan ^vo difleront 
B^rii -WMB viawod Imm dUTerait qtiarteT^ a fact 
faaxpUcaUa at prcaeat 

la Ifaa fiiBt ifaidj of mitMfala w» ai« coooem«d aa 
la whalbar the; ai« mere ojatala or tbe romaina ot 
fkBli Mid aairnaliii VTbea we find a bono or a loaf 
k ta ■^™****^ that tiicra haa boen aa animal whcae 
b f a or a plant wfaeae itat haa bsni fonniL KnwiLi 
evidantlj ladi cnt a the previooa exbtcooe of tiviui: 
tm. FalKQDtoloffj la the aama gtren to tbat 
> ti gaoIag7 whkb deala wHb UoIoct. Scnuo 
giiil g acla giil a aiBpUij a rabioiitoltwlat tobdp tfaom 
ia lyedal in wHga ti o a a ; athen, IIko Agaauz, are 
0«t gwlugbta and paltemitalogbta at lb* aasw time. 
Tba laalopitBnBt um ooaadt the obendrt aa to tbe 



ooinponitiooB ot icini-nda. Tb* tflMUBlo bnutb of 
gwlogy, doalinf with tbe fotOMinlA bave gitan ita 
preacat abapa to tbe eartb't erfM, baa hitherto pes- 
baps been proaecnted rather taahlj; jet no other 
branch ot natural tdenoe baa boMi oi ao nucli tin 
in opanin; onr minda to our poaHloa on thi« globo. 
DynamiM onawcra auoh qneationa aa' How rig:id mnat 
tbe «artb'N cnut be, »ui>pouQff the iaUaioe parti to 
bo liqtdd, to withatMid tho aooomnaaing actiona of 
tlu) Kui and moout* The tidaa ncbiblt vety vialMjr 
the jiel^ng of tbe watoa on tbe earth, and It la 
proved by dynuniM tlutt unltw thv rarth's cnwt 
were protaranturally n^it thora woulil be no riaiblo 
water-tldMilwoanaeof Uie7f<ildioj[of tbeonut llaolf. 
Wo eee, howenr, that Utt cnrt oom not yield aoa- 
Ably, and w« an compeUad to believe thut tho 
corui'a oruit is not thin. In favt dynauiii.'s •licwa 
that tbe earth oontabu ojmpantively little fluid 
EDOtMr, and that it u on the whole much mon rigid 
than glaim oir Iron. 

Etury pnrt •■( natural pbikwuiihy la oonuectod 
with dynnmlu, the adenoe of fcrcc; and the gtaater 
cnr kiiovrledgo of a nubJLVt tbe mnro we employ 
dynamical melhodi ai inrc^stignttoi]. Ia <:ainbuatic]a 
u« have foraea of attnctiuti uf [larticlm, and the 
pUL^omcna of dwBiiatry an orvry dny boovtuiiig 
more and more oompatablo with tho ordinary drna- 
mioa of faBing bodlea. MagneCimi tliDwa itaelf by 
foroea ot attraoUoii and i^poUoa. We caimot yrt 
azpluD the pbeoomenoa. Wo see that a oertiuB 
wonderful prop<aty maj be eommnnioated to a pjeoa 
of atMil; tiii* ptoporty u an eitenial dynunic pbc- 
tiomniKin pmdupfvj bv intomnl dynamics whidi we 
do nut aMi, ju«t at vxtenud pbonumen;^ ara produced 
by the internal inrLalblo maohaolnn of a dock. We 
know tbikt maonctiam la a certain luntitin, and that 
there ia a certain 'alignment 'of rotation in Um ajda 
of tiie magnet. Heat too la certainly a moda of 
inoticai. Lif;hb la a mutiom ot a aubtlo modlmi per- 
vading epace. There are striking nlationa exJiMng 
botwvco light and electramagnr^D pbaDomciia. 

We find then that every £vUcn ot lutliual pbllo- 
•ophy ia (uundcd on dynamic^ Iho Kitroco of foivo. 
Tba adenc* uaed. to bo called loediania, but Newton 
cvnfinea tbla term to ita gtifedy literal meaning, tba 
adanoe of nachlnea (It b doHred from mictiant, a 
oontriraneoh na fcroe woa obiiuaaly onncrmod fa 
mariiuuM tno tt-rm cnmo to be uiml fnr the »cieiice 
of finve. Pn.4ewora l^oiuon and Talt have pro- 
t«tcd against the mlmae of tii« term. Tbo adenca 
of dynamin i« milxlividod into atatica and kinetioa 
Static* reln.ti-« to (cimi in «inlllbrinm, Unelica to 
force and uollvo. Tbe term Idnematica ww glvto 
by Araptn to the study of motion irrwpcctan ot 
force. It ia evident that a ]imblem in atatica baa a 
liiueinallo and kloatia baaia. There ara diiialoni of 
dj-nomloa dapen^Hng do the condition of thn matter 
mioaemotioaBareinvest^iated. Thni bydndynamioa 
it the dynandoe of water aad other Anlda; it ia anb- 
divided loba brdrcatatJca and bydroldnotia, treatlqg 
iwpaotlTdy 01 tba •qolUbritUB and motions of flnldi. 
Bnachaa of bydrcMhvuniai an pnanmatlca, atatlo 
and kinetic, the acieace of gaaea. Acoustics, the 
adanoa of bearing, ia intimately ooanect«d with 
imonmattai, aouods bung commuoleatad to the oar 
or tbo vibratioaa of gnsea It k obo oponaeted with 
almoet evaiy other bnnch of natural phOowpby. It 
rests eat a waU • aatatiliahed drnamic baala. Tbo 
artldaa tnatlng ot physloa bi thh Knoyotopndb an 
nunatiTUi aad need not hen be apedally ivfomd to. 
ThonuoD and IWfe's Ebsnunta of Natnnl Phfloao^y, 
voL L, Ireate vl dynamics Studeuta ar« >1m> reoum- 
mandsd to read £vor«tt*a truuluIoD of Dpacliaii«rs 
Natural Philoaopby, Ixoogfat out by tbe publiaben of 
thia work. 




«d 



PHTSIOCBATIO SYSTEM— PHYSIOLOGY. 



PHY8T0CEATIC (or Aoeicultdb-vi.) SYSTEM, 
In T<ilitical ecaaomr. Kr&Dcis Qncsuoj-, iih]r«icUii 
to Louii XV., bM abiervrd tho veiy dcTpmsH.-H 
■tst* of agHoultuM tti Fnuiii* wltlbt trftvcUliij; mllh 
tbo ksDg, ftud ABcribod it to tbo raorcMtUs wjwtam 
intiodaced nmlc-r Colbert, which f**oand the ia- 
duattjr of thn dtit». Qoeanoj pnblUIiMl Ua Tkb- 
Inn £oonoinlgue ftvoo toit ExpUoatloB (17I>S), wd 
dttvolopcd hii ■yatcm in hia Ia rhyriocntio. on Con- 
Mitutton NfttUKlle ilu (totivernenient le [Uta nviat- 
.taemx »u Q«nra HTiiuKln <Paru, 1707), aitil * wliulc 
Mwool, cnllod tha p^t/ttocatic, soon ipnuig Dp. It 
wu aott however, uotU tbo reiga of LonJa XVI., 
midar the mlnbter Turcot, that tha foUowen of th« 
i^tcm Gkuto iuUi office. Ilivir Authocityagiin sunk, 
but in the rorolntion tboy bod tar svtom ymn & 
dedilod pr«poitderaikO«Itithoi:<mvet]tia&. Jocephll. 
of AiwttUt md Ifoopulil uf Tuscany, hia tirotbcr, 
w«n frioDdlT to Uiv nvtom, but did not kllow th» 
pnfeot freedom of tntue whiui It noommandod. Tliv 
prindiilOT of tti* phTidoenitio mjtbaoi m«— 1. Tlie 
Mrth ii the only Muroe oi &U n^tioikkl woftlth; tad 
oaJy tbnee who qbo or inae am t tho uktaral powers 
Oftnd&g Ib tbo TCcetaUe nad aulmal \diigiioni, iw 
tMnamw, fidMnnan, iiwdnwD, afatan, add to the 
■nonot ol KtnnI w(Alth. AH otbcr UboLtnent, 
lMatuuiIoa,iuiuiufactunTni,merch*uti^nrodiieciLutbiiif; 
wfal<;h CMit tucrcu«d tbu pubUo WMitli; they oal>- 
cLinice iiic fona oi the &rticloa pradnasd Ivf tbaformcr 
cloBseo, and tboir wage* vtiil uwftjTS bo pAid hy tiio 
■urplut of nw pndu«ti, which tiiB tArmer uvea fnin 
hb own c o nwxm ptlon. Tho morcbaut only pramotoa 
the exdunn of goodi. StOl \tm it it in tno |Kmcr 
of pnblla oraem aod mm la atmilor eimJojinenbi to 
ineroMe the flemenU of wraith. 2. All momben uf 
tbeoammuDi'ty, thnntfiirn.iimdii-iiM into produotlw* 
uidunproduoUTu. Ta thu lattvreUuulxiIangMboUn, 
utiAti. iDochanla^ nerduntB, &e^ becuae all <jf 
tbeia »» to be tupported by the prodootlons of tbu 

Aem. What they aaw fron tba wacea iMMTod front 
the nuui of the natcrttl prndncli^ "■ vkriom torma, 
cootrtbate^ Indeed, u> untEonal weaJth, and they 
baooma tbaraby a luuful daaa of dUssni^ indirwUy 
iBBTMitng wealth. It is only by thpir moaata, man- 
OTer.&ftttheafi'Ticnltutut u enabled toderofahiRiaeU 
excltudrclv in the coltura of tho oarth. S. From thia 
It fuUowi ih^ the noreatrietod exorciio of all faoacat 
oocnpatiooa i» nao— aiy to tha Tfralth nf brthrlaairf 
TYtB ayaum israloataa Eraadom in rt|ga>rd to foreign 
OomotBroo, aa well aa to the moohaalo arta, ooaaidar- 
iag it a tnattar of lodifTeTeuoe wlivther the prodncia 
uf aouautryareoDDBiimadbynfttiTcs or by foreigners. 
4. As acoa^laf; te thin sytUtn all wnaUb ii derived 
from the tai, tho only ■*il>j^'^ tiued ahould be tho 
nal pradwM of tha vmL The OBtenableiieBa of tbui 
■ysMB, witiioat replj^ng to it k dotaO, nata chiefly 
tatkaiciKiODoeptlMioliutaraaadttaprodDcta. Tbo 
Gm of tlto ateam-oi^tne ia aa much a pcodnctiva 
natinml power aa Utat pKodoelDg grain, and tha ploagb 
aa nnch a machine as the ateun-onnno. 

PHYaii (GNOMY (Grods pAyntynAnnnM, liter- 
ally, the knowlitdp of natnn), fa tha name siven to 
tha oDontetiaaoe ^ mao. ootuudared aa an Lndox of 
Ua seoaml dianoler, and alao to the adenoe which 
traata of the meaoa ef jodcfn; of ehoiwiter bom tho 
ooastenanee. Whaberarbetbooghtof tbapoaribility 
of Uyiog down atrtot nilea for sucb judgmeota, It is 
a fact of »T«ry da/a ooc utr eaca that wo are, almost 
without reSactlon at our part, Imprcaaed favourably 
or onfaTOurably, la rogatd to the temper and taleata 
of othar^ by ttm expnaaion of their ooimteoaooeii 
Aa tba faon b that paii of aniinala in which tbo 
aoVbmit atffua ora uoltad, by which they put tbem- 
«lm Ib coutaiM with the world, and, for Tarioua 



naBooB, di«wg stoat of tbob oharactarfatic traR^ 
baa been made the particular object of atndy by to 
[jbykio^uiniat. Aristotlo is the 6nt who ia be*i 
to )l»vh imulu anv attjinipbi in phyaiognomy. Ht 
obaervad that oa^ animal baa a apodal paad twn hia nt 
ioataoet; aa the fooc ontiiilBf, tbe woU loracity, ui 
ao forth, and he theaca eoododed that men wlUM 
foatorea reeemhln tboca of certain anltiiala wtD ban 
aimilar qualltus to ihoae ■"'"•■^ Baptiata ddia 
Porta, ill his work De btunaoa phyaiofDamia (ISHV 
revivol tliis thi.-ory and carried it out fartbar. Tk* 
(Vench pnintsr I^eltrun, In the next cantury, eacecnled 
a auriun of dcslhtia expr«asiDg tbt ralatfcn hetwen 
the buounflgnro and thntof annDsb; aad tibatbeoiy 
that snch a reIatioaialiij> ia inditatirA of haaaB da- 
ivieter was alao adc^itvJ iiod tlluatratcd by 'na^biJB, 
a German pafalar of tha «lgfat«imtli cantuiy. Tb« 
phyaiologiat Caaapor, aitonding tba atody of phyat- 
ognomy, aongfat new data in a coupanaoa of tb* 
ticada of dliftnnt ^pea of the hsman spada^ aad b 
attempting to dediioo tha degrea of lataUlMea be- 
longing to fAch typ'! from tho alxo of the faoal aB^ 
LnTatcr wiu tlir 6nt tadovelop an elaborate arjMn 
of pbyaia},'Dumv. the scope of which Im eolaned K 
as to include all the tvlationa bcli»««n tbe poydcal 
and mnral natiirft of man. (Sea Lavatsm.) A gml 
part uf tbu art at painting and Bcolntara ia foonlid 
on pkvaiogQooiy, Aa tha atpra wi on of tba hm 
doponda wry mnob upon tho tomiatlon of tha baa 
piut of the akuli, phyaiognoiny b filaatratad by aml- 
ulugy. Among the chiof points in pbymognony, 
Kaat, in bb anthropology, rockuns — 1. tha geocnl 
fonnatiuii of the face; partfoulariy in tbo praffl^ 
wU^ b tnberosting, both Id napact to tha TOifar 
aocny of Individnab and of natrooi^ aa BhdBauadr t 
iavastigatlana proro; 3. tha (eatoraa of Hm laee; L 
the aiodoBs of the face, as far aa tbey ba*» t ia w 
haidtnal; also tbo waU:, ftc Kant nod otboa think 
tbL-y can abow why pbyijosiicrmy can never be al» 
vatedto aadenoo. It 1% bowarar. a snbject uf (nat 
intOToat, but tbo stodoit tniut be eo Ua naid apibal 
a genend application of tbe ntlea wUoi o Kp e f ha r a 
seems to have furnished Um. Thla waa tba raaaoa 
why Lavatcr's systom tatted but a short tloa, tfamb 
he hita collected valoabla matcriala Axacnif tte 
Worka on pbysio^umy are MIchari Soott'a I>e pro- 
cmtinoe et homliiia phyalanoniia mfos (Pkiia^ 1477); 
Dissertation aur losdmerancaa rfcUea cine p rf iMtl anl 
lea tndta dn TlaagDi by CaBtter (ITtiMU^ i?»l); Aa 
Attempt to Estab&ih Pby«aog>Mi>7 >pna SdantiSe 
Frinojplo^ by J. Croat iOlBwow, ] S 1 7) ; Da la pyasoff 
numio et iet moavenaats d ezprearfon, by Gratlolet 
(Paris, 18GS), baddea lATatar'swwkaoothasahject. 
Sc« LAVATKn. 

PfTVaiOLOGY. Thb name is applied In madical 
and blologbid aobooo to tbe depanmeot of loaaiiT 
whirh innatieatoa tha ^nrttont of Uvfaw' bon^ 
Tho n&ma 'sowncBCf fnoctiot)' haa thenfotv oima 
to ba regarded aa ayncoymoaa with 'pfaysialagy,' 
and tha (arm *tiKtltat«a m medtohM' baa alao baea 
i^njied to this tdeno^ from lla affcvfnp tba know- 
lcU]fe □! narmal functions ncocassiy for the due af^ic» 
oiatioa of theao funotiona when atmomsl or diswacL 
Tbo word phyalolagy b dartvad from tba QnA 
pAyni QgAvtU, natnn^ and l^gM, adsooB; aad fai dia 
AiitotoUan pbDoaophy it alsaified, ia a wide aad 
cenaral aaaoi^ tbo enure knowladga of aaCoral obiacti^ 
uii^ludin); tbua the modem aooooea of mttoial ptdl»- 
sopby or pbyaica, natural biatory, ftc At litamd at 
tbo prcaent tima. howarer, tbe acleDDO of pbyriology 
baa for ila aim tha dnddatian of the acttoua and 
prooaMea laddnital to aad dianctaiiatie ol Ibe Ihvw 
vtata. In its wida aeaaa, tberofcm, tbe UtIbc fmo- 
tlona of both u^mala and plants fall to ba uveati- 
galod by pbyalolDgy, thb cBrinon of tlie subjaot being ' 



I 




PHYSIOLOGY. 



69 



I 



ODapnkmded ODder tha tnaa amparnlirt pkftiilogy 
•ad —<■■< and tviKtaMe ^Ay«iau$sr. Wben mora 
■padAUj 4)|ili«d to t&o m*«t%ktka of the funetlMM 
in mail tu kppcU>tioai i^Einaa pkytiotogy ia ^plud 

n« iaportaDM of phyriologicsl Inquiry, klreitdy 
alladad to in eonaoolioii witli the o1)iMrr&ti<ai of dia- 
oaaad oooctitiaa^ caanot be ororatcd. Tho kaow- 
ladg* of h wl Ut jftiDcttoaM Ii absdutcljr aAoea&r; fot 
Ow iwi fa i iiiilMilMii1 1 i n .irf diMModocstditions; uu) 
tba ■>!«■«• of jMdbbyy, dealing witb the eauaca md 
MiUpiMi df dbaaac^ ma j In tlua waj be aaid ta ariau 
moL and to dqimd upom, pbyriologlcail Inquiry In 
Am nt fir*"*"" Pl^^loo; ia'iCiBlf thui forma 
a Unk cenBacCfatff feoBathw tm vmifliia bmnchaa of 
aaliml bntec; or luologr and Lli<«a adencee whk-h 
an mm tpadally indnded wiLhIn a m^dlcnl curri- 

1%e |iii^ii^ of [iijaialaKy baa of labe yi:»n boon 
<rf KB exoaMfaokallj ra{4d Und; ami in the e*rUtfr 
Utfory «l uw ■dwiw tbon b much to bit«reac and 
taibtuA. The Inad aafenoe <i phf aioloay. a« kn^wn 
lo ami aladled bf AxktoUe abd the earljr iwtutmliata, 
ma tlw fint coHnabad dmiiaiait of faiqalry nlatiag 
Is livlDg Mn^ Itwatfinttaogbtaod ismtigatad 
M • part In the lyitama ol 'pbiloaopbj' -n-bich 
veR M nnaanwa in ihe claarf-^ acta, Fytbagoraa, 
EaUW^nclaa, Akmaon, aod otbar pbDoaopben^ amid 
tbeir diawilnaa m ahatfwe met^yaical niVioctiv 
did aa» alto(allwr iMgUet to notiae tiis htunan body, 
ili rtroetatwaodfuactMoa. And mdi notioo, aa tfiu 
iMaliialiija of pfajfaMo^oal adeoea tfaaa obtainni, 
•laongkrf a Tcay •ooWfidU ckaneicr, yat aerrM to 
riMW in tbaC ioaaBBuilT pwIuunl but hmm tlw W* 
■Bvly, the atod; of lirmg atmctorca was deemed an 
^■KDbBl part of nhPoaojdiio aptoma and modea of 
IhowfhI. About mO &o. aa to time, and In the per- 
■DM Wtpfoawtam, the ad^KM ef phTdology noeired 
Bare dafiwle attcntioB, and aaatuned a ocftain degree 
<d inqrarlaace In layiui; tliv fuuiuLaturu of Ifae ajatom 
of isedldM of that old Greelc worthy. Tbe worica 
it Hippocfataa afford undoubml esideBM tli&t hia 
ataarratiaia upon diuaaod ootiilitioca had aiigg^atcd 
lbs iliiintirHtjr of an acquaintaim wUli nonnail func- 
tfoM and atxiKtana. Indeed, fcJa apeoalationa aa to 
tfaa acdinary fonctinoa of tbt hnmao bodr definitdy 
rftowthattba phydotagkal knowledge of EuppocTatoa, 
If orada BDd in many lenaea nroneuM, wna at all 
•v«oli «l a Katpacaavaly tibaoava diancter, can- 
dddring the few OMMttuiitlca and rocnna afforded 
Um far maldt^ ofaaerrationa. About 42S kO. we 
find Flab) in Ua leototea embodylnE oertaln Idoaa 
idiltv* ts Iba formatiaB of the hnmto body, and 
to the node In wUch Ita demenia and parta vere 
-"»«flH Tb* BpeeuiatioDi of Plato had perhapa a 
AW nianooe to tbe 'aoiol' or 'uUm%' and to ita 
rrMf— vilh the body; and hia knowledge tberefore 
ana rambled that Incloded in modem ideas and 
ttBMa tndtr tha idaa of titm mxtum of paydiology, or 
1h« fkjtleiofj of nuod. BDcoeedtag Plato w« find 
Arwotla, abont 3B1 kc, maUng gnat advaaoea on 
tba phyitologfaal kaowtfidgs of Ms pmdeoeaBor^ and 
oonnalag "litb that knowladga modi Informat&xi 
«aanrany the dartaOi ol atractnre aiaa In Aria- 
totia'a Natnnl HiatDry of *"*'"'■ tnanent phyd- 
olnglnil datdk ara faibmpened aiaong ua accounta 
«f tha anatraiiy of lirtqa fonna. The Alaxandriaa 
atbool «< •dtB(% lloiuliUng about 280 sx, under the 
VlelaiilMh nd w p a w anted by Enaktratni^ Hero- 
pUfaB, lod otben. obtained greater opaortanitiGa for 
the aeqalreateat <d phydokwical knawlodg«, thmugh 
the ianatigatloo ef^ tha boifiea ol orimlndfl wLu bad 
ba>B amea l ad Eraditiataii t^na tbrirw mach li^kt 
aa the aerrana eyMem and ita pti>->io1o);^; vhilut 
ll«rophllaa made mipactaut ub««rvataua«uu Llm [lulav; 



and in odditfoB dicouvered the lacteal or abaorbcnt 
veescla. 

Aft«r thia pm'od came tbiy ' dark daya' of ph^vdo- 
luteal Rciiiicv, uici of otbr.r bnuicbai nf knowledgik 
Galen, liv{ii|> tu tlie ancuud ('(■uLiiry afUr Cbr(«t, uiaj 
bo Btdd to 1w tbo first who awoko tho world (ram lu 
(Innibom; ftnd by the hrilHiwiny of hia inU'llRi^tt by 
bis (en our lud leal, liy bi« flomicuoe Bju-d tiia Icani* 
ius. thia diatinii'uidwd li>boim.>ir «iTt:ct«cl a va*t adranoe 
and impiovamant fo phydolo^caJ knowlodco. Be- 
•ide«Bnmeiiraai«aearTche»an tbcatnirtiiraandotgani* 
zatiou of tbe livioi,' LiNly, GaluU ia noteworthy aa tha 
firet who intrfduced tho motliod of interrogating 
nature by experiment He thoa proved that muadea 
depended for aeondod and tbdr power of motion upon 
tho nerves with which they were aapplJed, by divid- 
ing thp Rctrvc* uid tlum pandyxfaig Uio mtncloa. He 
Hhuwed that tht: artcrioa did not comtabi air, aa waa 
believed by Hia predocaaan, by eshlUtlu^ the living 
vQaaela filled with, blood. lie mligbtcmed his oon- 
tempoiaiiaa aa to (be fanctjuna of u« kidneys^ and 
of mt biU-duet; a&d in many other respects laredy 
faicreaaed the aton of medicu Icnowled^ of hia day. 
Tha ayatoma of thought vhidi aucoeadad CitJon nod 
bia timeaooodatvd, notil about 1S43, of abeurdapccn* 
latloQS and tbeoriea, cendndre In no reapeet to the 
advauceof tme k&owledreandNaauch, Paraoelaiu 
than af^eand with hU idrhcmy aod witmln^. Van 
Kt^mTFt MtpLuuinl llfi* luid ita urt^iu liy uii iutelli* 
gent bste^ or ar^/uetu, which bad Ita eeat in the 
•I ; littyitriuin ; w hilat Deacaitoa' doctriciaa of automata 
uiif nnimal spiritii may alio examiitify a fow of the 
many specalaUre ayatemi diaraetenstlo of thii middle 

In 1 549 Veaaliua tho anabamlat paved the way 
hmrarda Uie moittddbntaadentlfio epadiaof modem 
times by Ua tnvestigatlaaa into the anatomy and 
Btmctnra of tho h&maa frame; a work wUdi ulti- 
mately coat him hia life, dnoe this ahlnbig Ifght of 
•dimoti perinlied by uliipwtedE wtiHat raluruing from 
the Holy Laiid in 1S64, whenoe he bad been sent by 
the Spudab Inquldtfoo in expiation of Ida oll'.-^ 
offenoa of disiacting men wlulat aliv«. Ia 1619 
Horruy, the 'falbi^r^modoru phydolujiy,' dl«M9vered 
tbb drauUti<rii cf the blood, thia diaoovcry "■— "'■g 
a Tcty importAnt and dgaificant epoch in phyaMo- 
gical knowledge In 1S2S Aaeiltiui deicrib<Ml tba 
Uct<ala and tlidr tunctioo; and In 1961 Rudbeok 
of Sweden noted hia obegmtiona on the K«Miil 
lymphntic or absaibairt ayitHk. Of Harrcy'i fmlbar 
rtmsATcfae* in connection with reprodactum nothing 
fortbef beyond mentioning these may be said to dtow 
tha importaatadvanoD which had thus boon made on 
the nnocrtamty and tpccniationii oF thi^ older sonintlL 
RudlMclc traced ttio lacteal ur lymphatic veaiBla et 
the tutesdnes to their termination In the thorado 
duct; a labour in whidi Bartholin and Jolyfle abont 
the aama tfna partidpati^d. Mabbighi is also to be 
renitiiubeted aa an original phyJologieal worker of 
th» aamt oantmy, and aa having cbieRy davotad him* 
aeU to the exuninatlon of tM latlinate or mlnots 
etraotnre of many organs and tianua of the body, a 
labour lisadintf to the better undanitandiRp <Mf tbdr 
pkyddogy and ftmottonal usas. To Ituyach, a con- 
temporary of tha praoedlng fJiyalologiBlB, beloBj^ 
the oedit of first fnjeotlBg vcaaela with wax, fte., and 
of sa ttadng them thnraghout their mors mumla 
ramlBcariona. Boarfaaave^ datltm about the oIcm of 
the aiiTiiiitleiiiilTi and bsriudng of the dghtnnrrb 
contniy, made aomr few ori^nal obaervatioD]^ bat 
did not materially aid the advance of phyaiological 
•deooe. On UoSmann and 8taU aa phydolomlB 
mudi the Bamee^nidtin aaybep—sd; bnl cb Hallv, 
who flnnriahed about the miools of the eighteenth 
century, a very dilTifeBt judgment uiuit be pn>- 



70 



moanead Ilia EUmentfl of Phjrnaloigy ooutjJn much 
oilniMl msttor, deriToiI from lua own ob»r(-aUoii 
Mia WMMch. HftUer «xperbn«Bted and ioTMtlfftted 
b^y, Mid b> ntnoyof Lia pupOflL uncngwlurm may 

h» «iiiun«i«to<] /inmnrmatin aaA Maclcel, he eom* 
iDiinIc«t'j:il iDuch (it bia cDovetic irpirit fur iavottiipt- 
Ckm. The epithet ' tha mcrdem f&lhcr of phj^ology,' 
wbjeli haj been appIicH tu Uallcr, i> aa dcscrvr^l; 
fcoatowad u tiiat of 'fatbor of niMiduo' wiw on 
Elppocratea of old Suwet^dJn;; Haller viv fiud tb« 
non Bwilare kIiooI of pfa^-BJologiatB to i&clndo tho 
■uuua of Jfihn and Willtntn Htinlcr, Ciivir-r, llkhat, 
Blmnenbafli, Mak({SD(lie, FlonrEiia, •aJ Vun Biwri 
and to oxt«nd tliia hUtorical gUiioe further would 
ba iimplj to snumcrato tlto nazuM and laboura of 
liriny tarantt, by vbam moch impartaat work fa 
coBthmally b«iug acfalvved. 

On* BoteworUT pecolladfy of tuodcro ph)-Hiologj- 
«al r a n areh ma; M brfafljr nforrcd to id conrlnding 
thia hletarioal notke. lliiM peculiarity or fei>lur« 
«ouist« in (ba fntroductlon and «xt<ai^v« uae Into 
pfa jutdwy of thv vxpenimnital mods of iavwti^tiou ; 
and of uaboraSe aiui dalieata ItutrunuiiU and appar- 
atus, by moani of which many lotcreatlng ronilta 
bnTo bcitn nttoinod whicJinthnrwiw woold Iwvo been 
wholly Itwt to »ctuiic«. Tuinc'iittnnlbeipliygiDOgrapIi, 
or polie-rQcordci oi Mar^j; the myo^raphioD, for 
d«tcnntning tlut cloctncal cnrrmtii of maacis; the 
opbLbalmoKopt!, much nmd ia invnatfgattng tho nor- 
mal and abDonuiU atnioturu of thu eye; and ihe 
larrngaaoona, far axploring the cavity al th« larynx. 
wiU b« BOJndeat oa ahflwing Vhr. dclicjttn and iinpnr< 
last appantna now at Llw com man d of thu ph)iii>1o> 
glat. and tbronsh him plaood at tb« aarvio^ of the 
phyaidaa. WiUi tho impioTemait of that all-impor- 
tant hutntmantal adjunct ta tb« b1olM;lat, Iha micro- 
KMp4 (whioh aea), phvnologj has made rapid Htridea 
[q th* mora vwA dotanntoatioii of th« atniotvni 
eltnunta and in limald compoaitiuu <if living tntnrai. 
Ri> wida^ iadcod, u tha field which mlcroacoptcal 
ijiiiuiry haa ^^miimI up to phyalologlata that a apoeiiJ 
kraach «f ths eolaooe has bem conatitutod, tor tho 
amdy of the minntd stmrtnro nF timraca and orgaiw in 
thnrobnouarduLLoiulup tu tticfuuctianiiwluch theae 
oTgana perform. Thua tha deparCmeut of tnitTOKOjnc 
jAyiMoffiit 0' hUtolojyt haa arUau. aad from tho 
naearcb thna proaecuted vaat additi^na have bean 
nade to otb«r dopartmenbt, not only of pbyaioJogy, 
but also of other and widely* rcinavaa acioncM. 

Cont«iiiiK>nui»ouBly, too, with tlw aboT« dcpatt- 
nocnt of phjiioloeicai inquiry, tho sdaneo at «lLyMo- 
Icffieal eheniaCrynu bean maldng rapid ■tridns ami 
thvooiDpoaitioDLof tha fiuidaand tlaaueaof thu liiic^ 
bocly, ia thor ralatian to tha fanoUom of th« orgau- 
In^ an wm Inveatlgated with groat tuoocM niid 
fri^ nlnablo pnotieid nsuttB. 

The diScrait dcpartmcntn of nhyniology may bo 
aDiuiiefat«d a« oomprv bonding tiie iDvealignLicin of 
the thiM gntt fosotlcDa wblob every llvins beluj,' 
parCanna. TImm indiula, Bntly, tM fnnctian of 
hhMCmh. Under thta head (aaa NOTBtnoN) wc tn- 
veatigata tha natni* and oompoalUon of fuivis aud 
aUmoDla; Uia proc co aaa of ouati«ati«ti. iiualiratioo, 
daglntitioo, and dismtinn— thn bitter proccw of itnolf 
tavolring Ibu muiudt^raliuu uf Ihe uutiru aliiuL-nlary 
fnnctioo*, wfaarabv tha food lasuhjact«d to th* action 
ellbavariuuaBaidafanudiodby thadigwUve K^da, 
■gdi aa tho Uvor, pancraaa, ka. From dlgesnim ire 
naaa lo abaoTptiOD, or that fnnetion vhereby tho 
lood-produCta, now digitatod, are lakon op or ahvirbcd 
by tho tyinphatic rMaelj; and pourvd into tha cummt 
of tbo oimlation, or Uood. Tbia laada ua to oun- 
■(dar tho blood ItMlfj Ita dnulattoo, Its niodo of 
OOnnahiBK ttm tuanao; and ita return to be puriflvd, 
loaded wUh tiame'watAe, In tbe breatfaiDg organa. 



Itetjiiiatinn and the oompoaitioai ol air next 
«ur att«Dtioii, and un<l*r thia head wa inn _ 
the proMds of blood- puii£catiii(i, toovUier with 
imjxirtuit nibjcct nf the elhninatloo fnai Uui. 
by the ulcin, kidticyi, IvugB, Ac^ of tha prodMli' 
tbo tisBucj-waavt. Svery fonction whsral^ tlia Dotaf- 
tion nf the organism is eiToctcd, nmititalnwl, and nb- 
Rorrrd, in nhort, falls to be inveatigatod undir tUa 
fir»t htrad. 

The aeooud funotlon la that of corrw&Own, mmt- 
RUwfsorarntsMi^. Voder Oda bead tha (oMOoa 
of the lurrom agitah art Iniwtl^atod and delar> 
mlnodtheaefimcUDna bains the mcd in thrmi^hwhkli, 
■a it wero, thffOT^ganlamia cirotight into rvUtiun with 
tho world in whish it tirva, and tlumigh which K 
reacta upcn tbe world. The tut fimetiaB ia that d 
reprodttrtion, under whinb aro comprabsnded tht 
gancrativo auU wbicb rcvult in tho prodnctfen vt a 
new brin^, iui.d which thoa repair tba lonw daath or 
diKiaaeiriakeiuibiiipeoieaatlarga. Tba p honi a wn a 
of dttrhfAntnt, or tba changM ermcad dnrtnf the 
pTograaaof tho bcio;; frnm iU youuic or Mnbrronle to 
ita matnn or adult Btate, aro aUo loclndod in tha 
study of tbe rcproiluictiva ftuKition. 

Evary liring bainK therefore^ viewed phyawlogi- 
cally, nouriabea itacU, reptodaeca Ita apMJaa^ and 
poBMHMa or appradatee throui;h ita norvoDa ayttcni 
cortun ndationa with anrrounding ntMlia. Tbe mode 
in which it thna, through tbeao three grvat funcliani. 
maintains Ita nonual exiatenoe fonna tbe atady of 
tiie idiydolociat. And ootnddont with thia atii4r ^<v 
may auo find oortaht p^nta bearing a ganeaal nla- 
tion to ibeae niure speoial denaitmeata of Inquiry. 
Tho primary qaoitlon which tooa matt tba phy»o- 
lo^ ia connected witii tbo inToitiwriop ottboDntun 
of life and riial jJienrntitna; and he haa tbnt lint 
to detormlno if pM^tde tbe nature of tha vital prin- 
dple, and thenoe nroooeda to de«] with ita mon 
obvinu nuuuffxtationai In Bborty phyalologj dnli 
with the livii^ bdng in all ita acbva fnnrtifiMl 
asjieota, bc^inuhig with It* life, ptooee^nff next to 
invGotigatfl it» Wdag mechaofaro. and fioaUy tndng 
ita growth thmiigh tho earlier atoeea of davalojoMat 
ODwarda tu niAlurity, dt-cHne, and death. 

Tbe variooa pbyatologleal proceaaea, fmatlMM^ and 
apodal aubjeda minting to thia adeuMM* tr a n tad of 
in detail under thdr tcopaotiTe baadlngi^ andt aa 
AuKEyr, iHdtsnow. EianRATiosi, QiscsBaTtoa. 
•Skix. ToMoca, Era; Uak, TjAXYKX, 4c. 

PHYTOLOGY (from Onek pAutm or pAflen. ■ 
pUot^ and b^M, adenoe), a mrd aametlmea oaed Iw 
ioiany, dapocially in Gonaany. Sea BorAin. 

PIACKNZA (uideaUy Pbtetntia, Vtmach Pbw- 
anot), a t«wn lu Ituly, capital vf tbe prodaos of tite 
aamo namoi in a l^ir^-o luid fErtlla pUlti, naarty eqol- 
diatont from Famuk nnil Miliui^ at tbo conflusDOa of 
tho Tntbia with the To. It b a plaoa o< aoma 
■tTBtigth, and liaa eome epadow, but a far lamr 
number of uumxv, gloomy, and dcaottod-loakuc 
Btreota. Tfao prindpal street is the Coiao Stiados^ 
whicJi bwi f«w to tMjual it ill Italy, and omlolM 
iiuaieruua ain«ui£ceirt private boiuaa, boflt after tbe 
doalgua of the moat eelebmtod Italian arobilacta. 
Tha nrindpftl edificea ore the othcdnJ and othar 
cbnrchci. The cathedral waa mostly bollt between 
1123 and 1233, but luu uLimv additloua baloi^iag to 
tho fifteenth century. Soma at the churdMi^ parti- 
cularly that at tbo Maria di Caui»gna) Mcribed to 
Bramant^, atid bitTiii>{ a noble domo^ are wybaanti- 
fnl and rich in piUiitlngB. The town-ltovaa (Falaizo 
dol Cuuuuuuu], of tbu thirtciinth oentvry, la one of 
tho finoet stmotarea of fta kind; tbe I'alouo Fartteae^ 
ertctod during tha reign of Margaiat in 1523, ia one 
of the Snl great woraa of VJgnolL Tbe monufao- 
tnrca conduit of various deKripdoBi of eoMOD Road% 



I 




PJA MATER— P1A3TUE. 



71 



I 



■bxUag*, lute, WthcT. &c., ud tinm tuv 
ml rflk ■ptBntaf md papei nlUs. It Is the 
ae* ti * bUicip ftCid th« M«t of ft suprorD« court ot 
appaaL Pbicgn** <nw orieinallj » IConuui oalnuy 
■M WW baaded aloiv wufa Crcuioua lu 219 B.O. 
It bxuM an tadapmlait t«imbtic in 1120. It lo«t 
i«iBbatyfBlSS4,lMMBd under tbn hnnilfl of vftrians 
vaalan, MiwHg ouim tba KforMricIii, uuiJcr wbnm it 
MknrM tlw fortvMa of Htlau. ^Utur the Imttlu o( 
Bcvawift in 1512 it b«cftino inbjcct to th« popw, one 
oCvhaiD, fanl III^ bestovrnt it in lAI.*), along with 
PlHna, on Ui ■on PkrluigL Ib> wiljaimiu«ut history 
ii UmOUi wHli Uut of Farm*. tU bnttLi) of 
TMiiK io wUcfa w««*<**»i defeated Sempceoiw, wm 
fMgfat 1b tbe ridUt^ <d tkla toiro. Asumg the dis- 
ttngBi^edttAtineal PiacCTuaan Ludiu CaJpnmiua 
I*HC\ Ikthcr-in-I&w of JulSiu Cinar, I'opo Gratfcirj X., 
AkModn Funew, and Pietrv PkllMtrelll, » oele- 
hralcd oavigMur, aiid lather-in -Uw of Colmnbiu, 
Pott (IWl), 3^.937. 

Ft4. UATKR. One of tbe membraoM iareetiug 
tbafanln. 8aa MxmniB. 

PIA2<A DEI GBECI, a town in ^cily, in the 
pntrinoo of Palenno^ aad 10 niilca b.:«.w. of ibn ci^ 
«f Palamio^ Inbabitcd by m oolony of Alboncait, who 
loek xiioga b«* la tb» flfteentli ccatnry, in tho time 
<i tha Ottoinaa loltu Mahomat IL, ivdiI still rrbun 
thA p— '**■* manncra ant! tho f«tUg;goci <A the Urvck 

cbonk. Fwrnc 

PIAXO (ItalUiiX aoft, dow; oead b nuuic in ooa- 
tra^rtioetioD to fortt. I'ia»Utim», tfaa atipcrlative 
<4 rim ■* 

flAXO-rOETB, or Puvo, a mudcal strijiged 

ioatrasMat, tbo itriu^ at whidt a» oxtoiulod over 

hridgca riiiag on the aonndins-boant, and an nude to 

rihata bj maaiii of ■maQ felted liamnun^ wUoh ara 

mt tai notloo by Itaya, and wbere a ooattmied aoand 

11 DOl intBDdea to be pndnced have their lound 

"t— *— '*^ Inoiedlatdy after the tonch of the )teya 

by niHiia of Uatbara dampen. Ita juudo (• ouat- 

poemdad of two ItaUaa vorda dpdijtag aoft and 

«n)«f^ asd it waa ao caUcd in contradirtioction to 

tba hannchoird, the uurtmincnt wluch it aiipenwdnd, 

aad wUdi did Dot mrndt of Uie atrvmiftb of the aotea 

tehgJDCtiaaadaBadiHifa^ihadatwm, TbemediaB- 

laa ij which tbe movemoot of the kcyt ia oooreyad 

to Ifaa atrfa^ h calli-d the action, and there ia no 

(Mit of tbe piaoo-f'>rte in whioh the varlaUoiu are 

*iMff« mmMTOa, The oriadpal bnpTDVomonta which 

bava been aflectad fai tbla meohaniim conjiiNt in noa- 

ttrivaoeea for eaahHng the perfanoeT to strike llie 

fc a ja wttb aa oiadi or aa little force aa he pleaa««t 

AaaaabliDE Un to npaat wbea nap— ai r tas mno 

^nla afasr us aborteat pcesiblfl Intemd of time, and 

4ar frenotiiK a rnbhing ooatactof tlMhammur with 

K and thnt aecBring a eleaiar aouad There 

Br three ■trioca fai tbe piano-forte for each 

fat tba bl^tar aad ulddla octare^ tiro In the 

', akd one in tbe lowcat aotea. The atringa ara of 

«1rl Tlielowaat notea have their atrinsaminid 

«rlthado«UaooUelbraMi>liv,anil thoeeaeit 

vUb a aiaela ooU. The bi-chord and tri-chord 

hava DO mich wrafipinff. A acifteaJDg or loudan- 

&a( el the toua i» tinxluved by maaai of pedallL (See 

^teUL) Ptaao-fortea are either ta the foiiD of the 

d plaao-forto, io «hleh the atnoga lb in tbe ^leo- 

oC tbe keji^ or tbej ■■« of a eqtiare or tabuLar 

witb tbe etarlaip otoaidnc borizontaDy tbe diT«c> 

ot the keys; or the; have tbe atrings itretchcd 

vwtleaUjr pefpeadkalar to the k«ya, irhiich i> now 

Ua Beat aomipan fonn, and omNtitutea the npri^^bt 

XMBOt The aqnar* piux^forte ia no longer juiule. 

Qmd phac-fartaa an oeed aa ooooert inatnuncDU, 

nad hava A* giaa t aa t oocniiaaa and atrength. Tbe 

l^taa-gnad faano-fcrte b a amallar inatniui«&t tbaii 




that tued fur mncerts, hot haa a peculiar arraog^ 
mgnt of tfao atringa by which alnidat aa nodi pevac 
of trmo is ^vcn to It aa to the larffer fnatnuaeab 
Tbu striiiKs'iie in two layers, tho tenor and treble 
atringa in the lownr lay^^r, uid tho liiiaa in the upper 
j^cr, which is at a difTi<ruut mi^'le from the Iottot. 
Tnia arrangemont aUown of greater langtb babf 
given to aoiou of the ntniij^ tliau coutd be dona on 
soy oth«r plan, 'i'hn comninn mmpnw nf plano-fortee 
at prcHunt ia lix and aevuu-viifhthit or tMivtii ootarea. 
Thd invention of the piono-firta can acarooly be 
ascribed Io any one mm ia fi«rtii;uLar, aa it waa tmly 
by a aiicccHion at impruvouicuta extending over a 
conaldenble liiu<r, aud iulrodu>.%d by dlStrt-nt per- 
aOD^ that it reached anything liko compLctenaaa. 
The Brat aatiifactaty bammcr-nction appci»r« to havs 
been Invented by an Italian oi Padua, named Baito- 
kcunMCrlBtafali, about 1711. AlMmtlTlOaFrenoh- 
man namod Mariui eihibitod licfora tho Academy 
of Scinocei of Paris three mad'cU of i»rtnimi!iita ot 
thin Idiid iti which tlie atringa wen atnick by hauuuura; 
and B tittlo later a Gertnaa orgni^t of Xordbaoscn. 
called Schroter, afipoan bo have invented a nmilar 
iuafcmmiint indepcndeiitly, two apeeimena of which 
he preamted to the Kleotor of jSaxony in 17S1. Tbe 
inatrumont was not introduced into England tUl the 
latter half nf the <igbt<icnth ocnttiry. Among the 
principa) ttn^rari^rs id the piimu-Forti.' are Seliaetien 
£RLrd, the fotinder of the cclvbmt^d fkm atiU Id 
ezifltaneo; BoUar et Blaachet, tho French firm whlcb 
iabodnoed tbe t^uuht tiianr>; Ilmtulufnnd, Collaid^ 
WomDm, Leitber, Hapltmwin, Kirkuuui, &e, 

riABISTSL fatbara of the i^oua aoboda (teM- 
arum ptaruitt}, tho mamben of a religiona order, wboi 
in additirm t" the thtce ocual motuatlo to«% tooi: 
alao a fuurtb, namely, to dBvutu tbamaelrea to the 
grataltous Inatruotios of yonth. This older waa InsU- 
tntod at Rtona, about the andot the dxtaentb eeatarT, 
by Joaaph Caaalaaia (died IfltS), a Spaniah noble- 
man, and ouB&xiued by Fopo Paul V. in ICIT, and 
a^aln by Gref^ry XV. la 1631, on each of which 
oocaaons ite mivilc^ea were ineroMod Id I6IKI it 
waa rewaidccl tor ita uaeftd laboun Isy tho moab 
iinportiuit prirllei^ of tli« nwnd leant ordera. The 
PiariaU are. liko the Jeauita, a aocolar ordor, nbjact 
to m)». They alao Raemhte the Jeauita in their 
ccatuiivc, ami w their devotion to tho aervioo of the 
cliurch and to vducatioD, and have been the rivala of 
that order from the tiuo of tluir inetitutioo. They 
*ooa spread themsrivca thnragh tbe I'atholic conn- 
triea, particularly in tho Austrian dtmiiitiona, and 
beenw nameroQa and gK^werftil, nLihunt mbjeettag 
tbemaelvaa to the charge of ambitious riowa, and 
without nteddUng inpolitioal niattfrni, m tho Jeauita 
did. Hany ftymnaala and aobD<ila in Hotirary and 
Poland are Rtl1] andcr their direotloii. In Bohemia, 
Mora via, SiUaJo, and Austria thOT have some reqwel- 
alde ooliago^ and their eerrioea m the eanaa of adn- 
cation hava uadradably bean great. At praeaat Ifala 
order numben ^xnit SOOO menitMra, vriio are diatrl* 
buted over 200 catabliijimunta iu the oountriva nwo- 
tioDad. 

I'lASSADA Pi*<;arji, or 1'rAKWj.TA, a atrong 
vet^ciablo fibn imported from Braxil, and lamly 
uaed for T"»'^"g brooma. It la chledy obtained nom 
the Plaaaava Ttim (Atu^M /untfera) bat alae^ It la 
aald, from other fcinda of pabn, aa toe XaoDoUma 
iM«(M6a. The Sbn piooeeda from tfaa decaying 
leavea, the patlolea d which aepaiato at tha naaa 
into long, coatac, pendnloua fiingea It b also called 
monkcy-gra— and para-Kraaai 

PIASTRE, a name adapted by aeTenl European 
loaguagaa fram tha Itallaa (plakn, that 1^ 'metal 
plate'), and lirat applied to a Spaniah coin, which, 
aliout the middle <j tho dxbeanlb oootury, obtained 



PIATRA— PICABD. 



ftlmovt tmlrersal etawncy, and waa fmiiMinily imi- 
taUd In Spain Hadf t&o ma was callinl frKi (juro, 
or mi>r« tmuiklly aimply dure, and Bomotim^a pcK> 
futrU. lu [iruper T&lu« waa about 4*. 4^., bat iM 
■otual TaltMi vadad couridnraMy. In the atates of 
Anvries iriildi vere fonacrly apuiiah mlouii^ti tli« 
jiiiari r U naually called ^ao or doUar. The Italian 
piajrts« or irmeTo wan origtoaUy coinod in imitation r>( 
tbv Spiuiiiih piiwtre. Ita *alna wiu ilifCermt io dif- 
farant rtatca. Tke nam« of pUstrti In stIU clron by 
Otbor Boropaan nadaiu to tha Turkish iffrik (ploru 
j^ujtiiA or !7rufA), vbich wiu nri^nslly wortti ftbnnt 
3*. Br/., Ijut h»ii now declined iu vaiiw to alxjut 2(/. 
in Titrkvy and 2^<(. La Ktr>'pt. 

PIATRA, a town in Moldavia, on tho Editritaa, 
53 mile* a»tiUi-weat of Joiwy. It haa BruunLbotaraa 
ot paper, and K trade in ci-rv«di*, GiitUe,tionM, loatbeiv 
tnbaoco, w^ixsB, fto. In tlie ncighbonrhood grow* « 
wlno which, if pn>|>er attention were giT«i to itt cn]- 
ti>»tion and [in-'iiaraliDii, would civnJ tlmt of Tukivy, 
but wLk-L In w>y ftt A i:tHnjMirfttlrely low price, na it 
it is uegloctod by the iukabitantA. It ia nvarly all 
(Utport.«l to Itniwlft. Pop, 20,000. 

PIADHI, or PiACHT, a [irorince of Bcadl, bouod»d 
uorth by the Atlantic, east by Oant and PBraam- 
Imco, eoutb by Bahia, tkod wtiat by MaraahAo; nroa, 
81,755 Bquara milas. Ita oowt-Iino [a not abovo 
10 uiica in length, and it oontalna only one harboor, 
and tlint nsrj IndlffercrDt, at tliatMutera nimilli of tiio 
Faniablb«, whiob Is thv only liver, and wbicb dorinit 
almrat tbo wholo of its cnnrao fornu tho bonndniy 
between tbta pmrmci^ njid Mikrtu)h&n. T^iwardaitabed 
tlie aurf aca baa a pumr*! slupc, and luruui-dmjjly potira 
all Ita dnlnagq Into it by niinmnxiK td1'utiiric«, tito 
moat important cf wlucb aru tba Uru;ulii. the Gor- 
piM, PlAuhlf Ceailnd«, an attuonl of the PlAuhl. Poti, 
andliOBgat TbedimateiasztraiDcly wiu-iq. DariciK 
tba tltna bcAlaat inontfa" of tho yoar thn iitnvunii and 
laltaa an often laid complrtoly dry. Th« surfAoe, 
from it« flatuuu, ti wrH nda,]>ti--<l for ciiltiratiaD; nna 
tilt! *oEl, ^eDvmlly i>iiii]<i.>««l of alluvium, is of gttftX 
natural f<^ility. Where n de&dcncy <d modatnre 
ia iu>t exX"-ricQc<rvl, a« on tho linnkn of tho laigor lalc« 
and atruanu, LoTuu^ro, nix, and IIir auKar-caiU) nn 
mOMaafully <.-uItivat<>nl; and tiveu iu thoaa dlitriots 
wfaloh mf[flr moit from drougtitv tho nday vmaim laats 
lone «noagb for the growtli of Boillet, lnuiant, inauinc, 
and eoftoa. Th* norinea b not air dciiK-lj' wuxlrj 
as ia ooRimon witun tba tcofdoL nuuiy of tba w(t«n- 
rin plikin* linvicK only % ooTocmg of ihrubs or wr- 
dxat. The vaiiduB spedaa of palm, bowaver, a» 
tolankbly «bandiuit, aad no want ia fult of timber for 
boildiag and other cnlinnry nurpoamt. Tho renring 
tf c*Ul«^ eatoomed the but Iu BneO, oooatltutea a 
IHTindHl aotnua of wealth to tho prorinoa. H«»m 
alao of an esc«lJcnt hived aiv niuoaroiu^ and fnraiah 
an importMit branch uf tf«8la Tba norlnea coo- 
taina an eatabUahnwot for baobidcal Aonattlan, poa- 
Baadw worluhopa for taOon^ dioamakeii, tiuamitha, 
aodoiiier tradM. fllio pmrindal aaaembly hold* ila 
■htiiw* in 0«lrM. Pop. (1SS2K 241,»3|l. 

PIAZZA, in ardiitecturo, u a portico, or oovvrod 
wallc, mppootad hj iwoImm. It pn^riy aignttiM a 
aqoaitt, or cpen pl*ce of any ahnp^ iu a city, aud baa 
d«riv«d is» artbilwtaral maanlss fr<»l tha fact that 
in warm eountrioa anch open pUooa nn Enqiumlly 
niTimnded by eot-ered waJki. 

PIAZZA-ABMEKmA, a luwn in tli« SiBgdom 
of Italy, in Sicily, pmvincQ of Ui^ltaniMatt^ Mid 
18 onilea K.KX of t^ town of CaltauaMtta. It ii 
tba aM «f • Udkop^ aad tbe onto* of am acricaltnnd 
iUeAet. Pon. of Hm nnmnna, lS,3ft£. 

FIAZZI, OnnunmL an Italian aatnmomrT, bom 
■fc FMitob b tba VaheUiM, In 1740; In 1701, uutvivd 
Un dtdsr of the ThcMiDoa at Milan, and studied at 



Milan, Turin, and Kotoe, nnder Tinboachi, LMaar, 
Mil] Botx-arin. In 1770 h« wu appointed prafMKt 
of nuLthomatica at tlie new nniveraity in Idall^ «e 
the abolition of which he returned to Italy, and in 
1780 beeamo profcuor of the htglMr mAtboiaatka tt 
Palermo. Having indiiond tliir vioaroy Io —tabliah 
an otiaorvatory th'uru, Piaeii went to Kngland m\ 
Franoe to pnrohua tha naoeaury i MOTi DMif. Ths 
obaervatury waa complotad in 1769, and ia daaoBicd 
in Piox^'s Dvlla ftpvcola natronomicn do' ITimlililj 
di Pal«nno (17d2-et). Bm ilnt obHrratlona ven 
published in 179S. Ha scion oftor began UacitalagD* 
of »tan, aod dcrlioatcd the Untt, containing 8784 itar^ 
to tlko Inatituta at Paria. January 1, ISOt, Piaad 
diaoorercd tlw planet Corei^ In ounaianundoa ot 
vbioh tbo King of Naplos wiahad to ahrikn n gold 
nwdal in bin hniiiinr; hut I'uuxi pn^fnmtd that tha 
iDonay abould bu api'ljoi to tbe pumhaw) of inatrn- 
monts for thd obatir^ator]-. Ia 1814 be ooDBlMad 
bis sopond CAtAlogiic. i^^nnUkining 7646 Man. Ba hid 
■lao bcm ocrcipiud in the rcformsUoB of tba ajiltas 
of wi-l^hta aud lUL-axurea in SicUy. TIm ofaaervattm 
of comote ho always ooorndsrvd aa iinnlmw In 181* 
tbo king called him to Naples to ezamino tlu plan «f 
t)io new obaervatory there. He was then appnnled 
director-ganeral of tha obaervatorl«a of Napfoa and 
PalnrniD, Ei> lait nan woi« chiofly dovotad ta tfca 
Biibjeot of pnblie cdiioalinn in Sicily. IIo died July 
22, 182A. Hia Lttdoni elmuaulari dl Aatronomia, 
hia moat important work afwr the catalogoo of atan. 
iraa publiahod at Palermo in 1317. 

PIB-CORN. See HoRSriFt 

FIItltnGK, a martial air played to tha bagiipe 
by \^f f^pottiih llighlancleia. Suob ain ara of a wfld 
and irregular cbnncter, ami upon Higlilaadcn haTe 
always a stjrring, oft«n an Minost tnagtekl, effoot 
Ever? clan Iliad it* own pibroch. 8e* EUoPtPS. 

PfCA, a nie of type. Sea PHiMTiKU. 

PICARD, JsAS, a FroaiJi astronoiBer, bom in 
1630 at La Plbche, in tbo department of tba Sartba; 
died at Parla in ISSS: He waa of rarr faanUt 
pwontagt^ and appoara to haw oomauaoad Itfa aa a 
gardennr; but having naturally a atraog [odinatfaB 
for aatronomy, availiM bimiclf dl an opporbtni^ with 
wfaidi an astronomer fumiahed htm of *— *"'*^ 
acE|uaInt«d with aatrononlical iQctrun>eiit% and irtn 
inch Hiocoai that be ultimntRlr Iiecanw on* of Ike 
boat obaorreta of hia liuif. lie liwlc prieafc'a atd«a, 
and ofEdalod for Ronii tim« at lUUe, 1b Ua aativo 
dopartmcDt; but ho tint bocnmo laiawBtDtba pafalia 
In 164fi, yArna lie ofdi^ii^ Taarindl In ohaarring the 
•olar eclipao wliich took placo fai Anguat In that yMr. 
In 1655 no becoma Qawandfa cuooaawr Id tho {Aair 
of aatimomy In the Koynl CoUogo cf Fhuon. In 
1666^ whan the AcAdeny of Sdeneea ori^natec^ ha 
waa one of tho ught pcnana aelocted by Colbart for 
(he fiiat memboia. 4^ mnnmrvmout oC an an <i 
the BMridlaa la the work by wldeb Piewd la now 
ddofly iowwn. Uia arc, the measurement of wfakb 
he eommeoioed in lAtli>, extondod between AnieM 
and IhliiliuJainu. The rovuit gav« 67.&60 tnliia fv 
tho length of iho degree In tut lalStadc, which has 
ainco boon found to be only 14 tolaca ton little. 
Tbia nwaaurement ia htntorir^ally innmrtaut in tbo 
KioDoecf astrooomr, na it funuabea Vtwton wilb 
tho m«nns of vcrifj-ug hIa theory of graritatian, for 
want of which reriUcntion ba had not ventured pre- 
Tluujly to make it known. 

I'lCAKl), Lovis BkxoIt, a Freneh writar cf 
coiumlioa, bom at Paris in 1T6&; died in 18Z& 
Before he was <iaibe at^hlMB ha beoame an actor, 
maldog his debut at the TbMtre Lodvoia. Almost 
oa early ha b^gan to writa tm the stage with anooaa. 
About 1800 ha beoMue the raani^w cf iiu UM&tro, 
eontinning to perfinm and write at the aante tima. 



I 



I 



PIGASD8 — FICHEQRU. 



73 



Qtt aaoB after (1800) withdnw frum thit IxNtfilx, wsm 
■rfnittUiii Ut tbe Ficncb Acadeniy, Mid iutruiU-il by 
gvtmaaml wjtb tlw dinctloD of tha open. Vtluia 
At lb» bead of tbe open ho ceMcd writiiie, hut in 
tSlfl R«ttB«d Um direction of tba Th^dtra Txmvou, 
v^Iob had la tbe meuUnui been tnnaferrvd to tbe 
OiUea. mad ■fifai bwui U iniu. Ho died in 182g. 
ItiiMid^ ooMomntflfklaikalful dolinMtion ai chu-- 
Micter, WM okllad tij the Frenoli Le ftttU Mdiirt. He 
WM tlw Mlbor « Ban titan wvettqr Ivger uid 
g»«]1er pteea^ tuddw wvonl ronuBca. In muiy 
{if tbe niuller |neeei he eraplnjted eoHafKimtriue. 
Hi* trarka were puUiihed in ten \uii. kt Paria iu 
1321-22. 

riC^UlDS. SeeADAMnu. 

nCARUY, fonnerlr ft proviDce of Flrucc, in the 
aectbeni part of tba 1aa|[d(KD, Ijlog on Uie Britwh 
CbMmd, to daa mnli-veat of Kontuudj. nad wutti 
ei Aitok. rS«8 PuKd.) It wu tor •one tiiD« in 
poMaariMi of tha Britieli ctowil He patoia of Pic- 
aidj ii OM cf tlin« priiud|Md dialects id the ian^iu 

FlCCiyi, NicooiA, an Itallaa imtsical comnaMr, 
l»ora at lUri, in the KiD^dt-ni of N>i>Im, in 1728: 
diad at I'aMj, in FVanoe, >a 1800. IU wiadMi^ed 
I7 Ilia father, who wna a mndcian, for the cburdi, 
Mk HMt dbplayad mdi a deddad tutu for nnnic 
tbrt ha waa plaood at Um Oonaarvatorr o£ Soiitu On- 
ofifc^ al the bead of whicb waa the calebrat*d Leo. 
Aftv >p«Bdi]ig twttt«« yv»tt tben, be left tlie eun- 
mtf K kK jf , thokn^iir gTointded la the bcIcrm of 
■aiic^ iDd aaimalad with a glowing imagiBatiuii, 
vUdi wanted onlj an oppaitunitjr to ahnw itaulf. 
Ha aow bteaa to oooipoee oomto and eerluuii openu^ 
tUt&j f<v the Mages of Itam« and Nipples, with suob 
aooocaa that fur luaov yt^re tic wm withoat a rivjd 
ia Italy. At laal^ in 1778, a coterie of eueutiea nic- 
awied tn CMiiDg one of Ui aoeru to fafl at Ktmie, 
tad fai niAtf Anfoaai to Uie pUee tn popular laTonr 
widA l^cHni l«t, aad tUa ao aortilLed tba httat 
that be fell aick. aad afl«r bli neortrr debwniiiwd 
to derotfl hlBieelf bqMjp to tbe theatna In Naplna. 
la ins h« aeceptMl aa invitatMO, on wry favourable 
lanaa, U^au the Fnnch ooait, aad wvat to V»n». 
M that time, laaidea numerooa oratorioa, CEUitatju>, 
ta, ha bad compaeed 133 operas. Beiii( cntitelj' 
IgBwaat of the VitMuh langua^. be recirivod in- 
itiudJuB fitiBt UannoDtel, and witli hia aaiJilaiiin 
hmriht out the Bolaad of Quiiuult, which, uvtwltlf 
MMW tbt Mwcahioit of Glnclt and bu Meiuia, was 
Mfleaacul Altbongh Glnck and I'iDcini waro p«r- 
aaaall; laeonePed, jwt tbe war twLwaen tliair raapeo- 
tttaamntnia ccotamed (ww Clock); and la order 
le eanpafa thor nwrita, the two rivaU ooo^oaed tbe 
aenM aBbJect, Iphlfenia ia Tanrii: in Uiia ooot«rt 
Oladt bad Iha advanta^. He waa appuiutml direo 
b« of tbe Bojral Singing School ia 17^2, but tba 
rwahtfon deprived him M hia q>p<^tiiuinta, aad he 
Maraed to Naplea in 1791, vbere the Idn; graatM] 
Un a penMoo, and cmplograd bin on varioua ooca- 
Bow; nrt baviog beoooM mipeoted of nvolutionary 
■jnpiitUeB ha waa expeaed la nooh bard treatauait, 
ind finallj retaniMl to TVance In I7P8. 

PICCOLO ( ttjdUn, iUlU), a amall flute having tbe 
■IH aapaaa aa the ovdlosry fltitv, Intt pitched an 
ootaaaldAher. 

PICCOLOICIKI, a diatlagnidwd SlennMe fandlj, 
tUm SowUuag IB Italjt ia tare fannehaa llie two 
t oaiebeatwl ■aeBi1;en en:—]. XSEM SlLTlVS 
tOLOUXce, afterwards Pope Pins IL |See 
t» n.) — S. OcTATio, a grand-nephew of tho fint, 
in IfiPS; died in Vinuin In IfiSd. Ha early 
HUiiad tba Spankh aerrlcw^ hut afterwardtt terved 
la dia artolaa at tho Cetnan oatpocer, and boeama 
ooaof tbe dhtiagBiabrd fcBsnla in tba Thirty YcatiT 



waj. Ilf! w«» a fnYOoritn of VTolIcotdii, who ic- 
tnut«d liiiii with H knuwl^il^io uf his prujvcta, wlieu 
ho purpufied to attack tho empcnr. In spit4 of this 
ho mmla himnclf the chirf inKtniincnt of Wii!l<m> 
aleiu'ii overtluow, and alti^r the Iktter'n n—naai nation 
(H31) was rewarded with a portion of his estatea. 
After tho battle of Xordlingon (September 7, 1S34), 
tn wtiidi lit!'. Bwcilcs were greatly wealcened, hft 
ailiantod witb Imilnui through WOrtemberg, orer 
tho Main. Ill th') fiill»n'iii2 year he was Mat (o aid 
the kincT of S|xu'n aguiimt lAe French, aad delivered 
tha >'«thirrlutiiU from the hands of the. l&tter. Ho 
waa IfHn nuocimidul agaluat the DuLeh. Hltt further 
KiicoreafiU oaiDTtnJgna in the Thirty Yenra' war In* 
duoed Philip tv. of Spain to hv^c the empenr to 
aUow hfan to lead the Spanish amdee. The reqnest 
waa granted, and aa a Sponlsb gen<nd Picecdcoahd 
aaaia distiiigulahed hiinsi^ ia the Katboriandi^ 
aonhut both tlio Krench and the I>ut<ih. The Kng 
M Spain rewimEHl hiin fur litH acrvloei^ lyy beotowing 
on huD tbe Uuchy of Amalil. During the vlctoriooa 
advanca of the Swedes in 1648 ho was recalled by 
the emperor, and vu appointed, w-ltb the title of 
field' naanhal, to thi> comruaud c>f tlio troope deetined 
to oppoee thetn. Ilia milit-iry curc.i^r was cioncliided 
after a tJxjrt uunimigu in the tamu yenr by tlie Pcacv 
of WmLphi^Ua. He isoneof the priudpol dtoroclerv 
in ScbillLT's dnuna of Wallvtiatuiii, Co tbe ■cvi.ed 
part of which ho give* the title. Hi* oon Mai, who 
appeuni in the saine play, is an htveution of th*.- 
pQot'a. 

riUIIEGRU, Cbarlu, a French gt'iiiral, iiom at 
Arlioi^ in the department of Jura, in 17(11. Ue had 
a good educaUou, and was for aouio tttun a tutor at 
tbe College ot BHoDne^ bnt soon eitchnngwl tlda pro- 
feaaion fur that of a aoldier. Ho va* •tntiuiipd at 
Beaan^on at the time ot tho ontbrealc t>l the Frsneh 
BnvolutJoUk and tist-big jibued btmself at the bead 
of the revolutioaaiT morement in that t<iwii, waa 
ohoaen Uie oonunonaar of a body of voluiit'>*r« who 
went to jdn tbe army of the kfaiae. In 1792 he 
held tbo rank of ntafF-major tn that army, aad wan 
n^pidly adranood to thoae of general of brigatio and 
general at divinon, anil in October, 1703, wna >p> 
pcduced geii«fal-in-chicf uf the wune onav. Being 
nnable with Ids Invxperieaood and unmsdpUned 
troopa to meet tbe well-driUed foraa of the enemy 
in the open Sold, ho oaniad on the war by repeated 
■Idnnlehea aad partial attoclu, and in tbis w ay i^auied 
null mooeaHS tbot In 1791 be was iitli^irvd as the 
fittc«t Duui to command tho muy of tbv nurth, then 
lientcn and democaliied. In hla new ccimmnnd he 
aUtiwed nut le« capacity than he bod duuo iu hEa 
flrrt. He defeated the enemy at CoTirtray, Mcnla, 
Uoogelede^ reduced to sutnoctian ltnig'«, Glinnt, 
Antwerj^ HprlnKouboach, Venloa^ and Nljmegea, 
oroaeed the Maas and the WaaJ im the lee In tbe 
winUr of WJi-9S, subjugated Holland, and onkred 
Arant«nlaiR in dannary, 179S. Plcbcgra now n- 
tunied to Paria to enjoy hla triumph. lie woa now 
at tbe height of bis bme, and was honoured by tho 
Convention with the title et saviour of Ua country. 
The Jacobute inauitection of the 12th of G^ 
minal [April 1, \7SS) happening to break ont when 
bo waa in Faria, ho woa ordprpil l" auppress it. Soon 
after he act out to take tbe command of the army of 
tbe Bhiu<> and MokII^ bat in this poet dlqdaycd 
non« of hia fiirtnor energy. lie had became disgusted 
by what lie bod seen at Paris with tbe anan^cnl 
state of alfaira then [nnfllag b the capital, and 
allowed hunactf to bo woo anr by the promiaea of 
Prinoe Coudd to declare hiroaelf wifUiis bo bring bade 
theDourbona. TbedlreotorybavingMiCabsed know- 
ladga of his u^otiathms with Prinee CooM deposed 
bin <1 788), bnt being too weak to call Um to aeeooBt 



lur his coodiidli offttvd hlin tlia poit of nmhvuoJor 
loSwiyicu. PiolMgninliiwdtbeofferftiMlrattnMliuto 

privaU li(«. HitringweunMl hill olnction LntheCoiincU 
of Five HunJpcd b« wm olioweu iU pn^ilJent {Hiirob, 
1?V7), and boaune Uie soul of the party biietilB to 
tho rovoliition. ilftvinj^ 'bt-cn pmncrilwil in coQae- 
tmiMioo of tho ovenU of Uio aij^hUeuth FrucliJor 
(asptember i, 1791), he wan tnutHportoil to Cayenne, 
but muugoi to mnko faia cac^o the ycftt following. 
He rspoiMd firat tn Iirmdi-ii), anil th<moo ta licr- 
luuiy, wfa«» b» Iftboureil fur tlic luiii of tho npubtjL-. 
la 1803 faa ww agiun In Lr-odon, luid thou ha oUiod 
blnuoU with Goorfio Cbdoudu, with irbotn be 
GOlered lnb> » oaoj^Enuiy te aaaiualiuita Kapoleon. 
Ilkvtnff gono in V(ui» for the purpove, ho wiw eap- 
limd by tlm police, Atid 1:0111 inittiKl t« th« Tiitnpln 
priiiiiti, vhcre hi> wtu found «truigl«d on the bth of 
April. 18ui. 

I'K'HI.KIl, KAKcii.iKr, aCronniui witiorewt, bom 
Kt VIouuii, Sejil'-mbi-T 7, ITflS; ilioJ then July 9, 
1 343. Hur miUdt'ii u&iut' vroa Kftroline von Greiner. 
tihe appvMTVtl in Ut«mtiiro oa & pooteas, drnm&Ust, 
kml noveUnt^ but U only t^lcbmtcd on n nnvolint. 
Her Rret nov«.I, Olivier, waa pnbluibeil wiotiyniiflwly 
in tbo 0<.-st«rroicbuo)lM Xudienk&lcnilar In liiO)i, 
l.«iare followed io 1804, uid Apithoklc« in 1808. 
UftTfaij been teuommended b> popuUnM the histoij 
ot ber oooobry, aliv in 1811 tuMgontod » leriea a 
bUturicol norcl* by tho pablieotion of tho Gnl von 
H<.ibi>nber(r. The dilef ai the r«nuiJnilFr of Uie •erica 
an Die Bolageruog VTuam Ton 1688; Die ScUir«l<.-i) 
iu Frftg; iJio Wiadereroberosg von lHem, Henriette 
VDU EuBluid, And Frjedrieb in StioUbaro. An 
tdition of hsr oollectlvc works, embradn^ rixty vol- 
oiDM.wiMpuMiabcd nt ViciinAiKitiraiu 1820 and 1845. 

PICK-AXI^ »n kxacoinpcBadaf kiruodcD hjuidlD 
isA ta iron Itvad. vihiob baa two alightly carved 
pTDoei, on« on eech sido of the handlo, and forming 
togwior onfl pioce. The pick-uxe ia employed in 
ImwolnB the saQ, in picking viit pitv«mflDt, &c. 

riC'^TS, In mUilerjr elfain, shun ntakca viuy- 
ing in length eooordinK U> th« purpoM for wluch tliL<y 
w« ueed. Wlirn used for Uylng ont gruuml thoy 
mn ebont 3 f«el liinji,uid Kiuctiiae* abuil with avu; 
when Intended for pinning the baelnea of n bntCerr, 
they an) from 3 to ( feet long. In tii« artillery 
tricLcU 5ar B foot longuvoaed to pin the pvk line*; 
In the camp they are vaed abont or 6 tiK^faM long 
to Gx tbo tont-ourdv, or S f««t long Ja tiio capolry 
camp to faHtt-n tho hnntfa. 

PICKLE-UJiKKI>'U. See HARUtQtm. 

I'lCKfiKS, part* of vagat>blgB pr««arrv«d In vtns- 
giiT, lucd to ifive seet to auinul food. Hiey ore pro- 
pared by first waihing the parta in clean water, th«n 
•oaJdng for a frw liivyii in hrinr, ofberwarda drying 
Ihero with a dutli or drsuniJig tliein, and flnnlly 
pulttuK them into tho v««»ol in which they nrv 
intended to ba prt«erved, and pouring in boiling 
vinegar until thn yomcI {a quite fnll. Before tlic 
linear I« puuml in a few peppercoma, nue ur two 
bbdee of mace, » little gingor, or nma other apioa^ 
nav ba addod, rr whatever apioea are 'oaed mvj be 
boiled with tbo vintKar. ^Vbeu the vetietabtea that 
are to be {rfckled are nalnraliy aoft the vinn^'iir Is 
eomctinwe |Knired in o^ld. To prowrva tlie ouluur 
of Tegetnblee that ire naturally creen, the beet meaoa 
ie to steep vina^ ckbbage, ^tinub, or parsley learoe 
lit tlw Tioegar. lu many caaea tlua ia cAected with 
iiiwh l«n trouble by bcflbig lb* vinepv ia ooppor 
vcwvl*, and thus fonninff am aoctat* ol copper, or by 
directly adding thM aaft, which b green; but thia 
practice ie a veey fnjnricma otM, oa the noet«te of 
oapper Is paiaonuiu. 

FlCO, one of the Axorei, ao ealled from a vvry 
high tnounloin tflmiinating in a peak. It lice to the 



aouth-cnat of Fnyal. trova whieb It (e eepanUed by a 
ebftnni] fttwut 8 milM in width. The isUnd iaaboot 
25rail<=i Ifiaa, and h.-ui an arrir.ign broadthof lOlnUa^ 
It is eutii-i-ly c-uiup<iwHl of luva, origliiaUy ao baft 
that earth bad to be brought from Fnyil to make a 
•oil Now the «lnp» aro ooverad with variona objocH 
of c>ultiva.tt[]n, cajiocially vtnca, which yidd In an 
average y«f tnna 20.0UO to 25,000 pipw ol wine, 
whicb b ehiefly exported, by way of Fay&l, to tiit 
Antilles. The oki«i tAWn b VUla-dJ-Laguna. Pop. 
27,0^)fJ, Sob AiottCa. 
PICO DELL4 MIRANDOLA, Sea SIbaS- 

PICOLIKK {C.H7N), a hue, boraerio with am- 
linr, preparvd from ooal-aaphthk. It ia ■ oalonrle^ 
mobile liqiiirl, poneanng an intenaely powerful odour; 
whon inhaled throngh the nostriU it prodneea ft bit- 
l&r taabe In the moulli awl book of tlia throat. PSoa. 
lino hn* an alkAline reaolliin ; it boiU at ISj*. It 
fornu a wdl-defiuud irtisa iit mitn; and naxieaif 
mihittitutlon producta ia durived from tbb bnae, Pioo- 
liue i» alao produced in tho dry distillation of « nma. 
bar of anitnnt and vcgut.tblo autiatancci, mch aa booM, 
bwaoa, ciocbouiuo, pnnt, Ac, 

PICOTEE. S«J CAK5ATI0S. 

PIOQUJiT. SCO I'lttUW. 

PICRia ACID lO,H,N,<i,). Thia arid fcnw 
light yellow, ttrongly-ehinlujt lamtnu.', which ban 
an exoeedin^y btttor taato. It ia prodnoed in many 
dilftirent waya and fnim inany noiiroce; from [Jie> 
uul (whi<:h «ee), by the action uf nitric aoid, n re«o- 
tinn which Inadii to the ntionnl formula C«H,t!XOi)iO. 
and the namu triniiroplenic acid, for thia body; ton 
iudigo nlaa by the action ol strong nitrio acij; bum 
ailk, bom aloes, fr:<ni bcincoin, Ac ftc Piaia add 
ia a powerful dye-itutT; it ie npeetally need for dye- 
ing idlk of a yellow colour The eoumr rodita tbe 
action of light very wall, but ia aomewbnt alTeeUd 
by wuhing with eonp. Aa cottos, benp^ and flax 
are not dyod by picric add, tlua MbetoiKe may be 
naad an a test for dintiogalahing tboao maberiala 
from flilk and wool. Pioic aicid b moaobwc, focm- 
ing a *m-ieii of picraia having the genenl tecnnla 
CVH,M(NC>J(0, whunj H mpraeonti a nniionlnt 
metaL 



riOKOTOXIN (CHmOi), the poEeonoua pcinc^te 
of the HH.-dB of C'oi-tiiiuA Jadimu ( JfntitparMWa dacm- 



tiu). Uy HxliAtinlin^- tljn iiulveriiodeeedswitbalMbo) H 
and docolouriELng with l-:>ad acetate^ pierotoxin mn V 
beobtalneit iDoolanrlftu,necdtc-«bApcd cryrtala, wbicn 
have an intenaely Uttur twte:. Plcrotoxis Ie toW 
ably aolubic in water; it Dnitee with variuua mdAtUc 
oxidiai, forminir auciyvtnllizabte oompoundit It ta a 
poldonotia uibetano& 

PICrOU, a tbrirfuij oriiuoiercUl town in the 
nurtlicm |«rt of Notr Scotia. It ia well built, and 
has a safu aud couunodioai harbour, with » Ugbt- 
honse at tho Much aide of ita entranee. It b the 
roort of coaNtan from all parte of the Oulf of St. 
Lawraiixi, the eaatem ahona of PHooe Kdward'a 
liland. and the north oouat of C^w Breton. The 
ooal-mince in ita vicinity are very exlemive^ and the 
ooal u cxcdlunt. Iron in also foand and mannfso- 
tnnad In small quautitJeis and then are extensive 

2aaiTiea of boilmig none. Coal b Ibe chief export. 
1 the year 1831-^3 tho totnl valua of tbe exports 
anountM to £t6,Ci'0: that nf the faaporta to £67,308. 
Pop. in 1^1, 341.'!. 

PICT8, tlie name aoriently given to the InltaM- 
tanla ot m largs portian of the preaeni Bootland. 
ilioy are oolelnabed in Scottiih luatory gn aooount 
of tne ooDtromay which haa long been waged as to 
tfaeir ethnological relatione, and whic^ b known ae 
the PicliaJi (luasUcrn. Itie piedae ii^jcci of contro- 
rerav b whothcr they were n Celtio or a Toutonio 



I 
I 



PICT8. 



75 



p«|)lak TIm Miteriali on uhluh the rnDtmranj b 

■■M u rtt d m vtry tbailD, tnm wUch it tukturiilly 

(oUtMn^tbatiiliapiUof the gn-At amount i^f litAmin; 

Mkd ingenniij UmI liav« Iwi (mi|>luv«l in it, it bM 

Ud to aqoall; ■landMr rtnilU. It i» not even kacnm 

wtwUm tbi ouM of I^cti. hv which th« Bomiuii 

dHifBftted lUi pooplB, ■od wfauk vcmAoular chroni- 

d«n of StaodiBATUD and &UU& arigin ca*ni|iti!(l into 

Paeht and PachUr, «•• orieiiutUf a I^iUniMd form 

of Uw auiu which the peoole gav« lo tbvuaelrtM, or 

ft dMcrtptlva ippeHftlldn bMbnred Q|)on them ou 

Mcooont of tboir habit of jMUDtin^ tb«ir bodjr. lite 

naoM i*^ at an; rata, moutionnl by Roman writsni 

aa an appropriate ooe, from whldi It would api>e«r 

that Uw; had tho ettatora nfarrad to^ whvthfir thajr 

got tbdr tuuxto for that reaaon or not. On the lup* 

pu dt fa n that Iha aama la a native one nnmeEOua 

attMDpti bav« bavo mada to ooanoct than with BOiae 

other pM|4o hnarinc a aiinilar name, but none of 

tfacM) attonpla haa led to any txiutadury conclitiinn. 

IIm moat aodadooaol them u that uf Pinkarton, whu 

■Mmptad to idntify thm with the PeuUai. a 

Smrthlaa, and, •■ ha tbenea annnved. TentonEc pooplo, 

cOffaatij localad about the niontb of tliu Dwmbe. 

Tba oane of tUa people thus faHiog to afford any 

tnatwottfa; doe aa to th«ir sthaologioal idontitT, 

■Ufqaatiana and hliteriana hare Bought (or more 

lig^ en Iha aubjeet b the htngutce o4 the MopLe, !q 

iB etyaiolagioal ttaAj of thdr get-grapbiical aiul bfo< 

BiBntal ■»»*■— ^ in the allmloni nado to them by 

tBJy wiltei^ and in the character cf their rvmaliu; 

Ibaeo iaT«atiga^on■ have acaroely 7ie3dud any 

Informatton than tba flnt. Aa to their ha- 

all that w« know ia that tlivy lioA a liuii.tt!i;;e 

i (ran the Saxon or Engtiab, from the Uiidfih, 

_ . bvn tiM Irith, or the laoeni^ of tbo Scota of 

DaMada, who were aettlod to Uie weat of the Pict«^ 

ud eaffiolently dttferent (ram the laat-mentioiied to 

Dtki It BiBawiTy (or the Seo^ 8t. Cohtmba, whoL 

IWailiiim the goapel to tbo Northern Pkta to make 

■• of a* lDt«n>ntor, aa bo ia nonttaaed on two 

aaeMtoMB b; Ua bdocranher Adamnan to have done. 

01 ihb language the Mue relic thai waa Icnuwu for a 

loM tlnw waa the aagla word Paanfahvl, which 

htm BtaMe to bavo hew tba Pictitb name of tlio 

wta an tarmlaatioti at the northem Roman wall, 

called in Saioa Feneltan ; jrt noCwithatoni^g thia 

that aln^a word haa been made the gnmnd oE many 

Daaiad diae iMal ona^ bearing a toleraUy eloae naetn- 

Umm to that batwam Moakbaraa and Sit Arthur 

Wariov in Sir Walter Scott* Antiquary, where the 

Itnoar iladBcaa bom ft a Gothic, uid the latter a 

origlB (or tba Plata. A fsw more PlotUt 

I led ^Uablaa hare rinca boon broneht to light 

^ tbelaboanof Dr.Skene, hot little more fiaa 

gleaned (nm tham than from the biukU word 

~ r known. Hie attonqita to diaw any woU- 

inferoDDsa (nm the »'*'""''™' to the Piota 

I writefiy and from the e^rmeloglcal atudy 

«( Ifce taMyn>hh>l namea which wera given, or may 

bava baoi ^v™* to tbo rivera, lakn, moontolDa, and 

looiUto m the R«ion Inhabited by them, or of thu 

DanM onlained In tho Uato o( PkiUah Idufi^ bavu 

baaa aqoaily fniiU«aa; and tba aame ha* hitherto 

baw tha oat with the aodaot remaioa attributed to 

■twPbttfc IttathaaamareBttlMt there an not the 

mtmtia for deSnlttrdy deciding tbo qnoation either 

■aa way or Oa» other: Init it may ba nHaUoned that 

naee of i^fiiuMii aeena to be on the aide 

that the Plota wen a Celtic people^ a 

I lAkh ia farourad by the eaao with vUich 

I Pklo aad Soola amdeamatcil into one aftar tbay 

wen nsHed nnder ooa king. In the mtddlft ot the 

dnth eeotnry. 

The hialory tt the Picta ia wrapped in nearly. 



thongb not qult«, M much obi»niritv :« tlnir *tb»"»- 
logical character. One cf tlic mtiin cnuice t>f thin 
obaouiity is the Irr^coocilable ditforenooa U-tu-««n 
the varioua o&Hy SctttcJi cbri.tD,icloa, and it hM nuw 
been HhowD thnt thnu tlifTeronn-a ariic to a tnrge 
uxtoiit from wilful fubricatii-ii. lu bi» rei-eot imlifi- 
catloDB, nodoed at tho end of thia articJe, Br. Skene 
haa aliowu the mottvea and traced Ute hiitovj of the 
fiRtitioua chronidea. The rwnilt of hia reaaarchaa ia 
that the fabrivatlons tvuk place at the time of the 
diapotoB botWBea England and Sootland as to tha 
rlnim of tbc fortoor to ecdaiiartical and roidal 
Kupmuacy over the latter. When the daiiu to 
eocleataallcal nqiromaoy waa that which was clilcflj 
to be reeistad, tba Sootoi chionieleB are Emrned ao an 
to anpport the eeoledaatieal iadependenee of the aoe 
of 9t Andrewi^ wfaloh ia dcoie by throwing Ita fonnda- 
doa back from tha eighth to the fourth century, and 
tbitR to a date aatooodcnt to tbo fanndotion of tba 
■EC of Yolk, and altering the chrouidw of the Scot- 
tish klufi'a <«hloh wen aJ ready crowded with udooq- 
BciouB mytha) ao aa bo harmonizo with thia change. 
When, on the othor hand, tbn mitin object of ti>a 
tallricatian wan to mNutaJu the acottiab claim to 
civil Indemndmce^ the chniniclm were framed ao aa 
to ahow tho eu(>arior antiquity of tho Scotti«h king* 
dom aa oompaMd with that of Eagland, and thi« waa 
duno by plooiiig the whole liat of Uie Seattifh klnfia 
of DalriAdn, in Argytt^ bafoni tho Uabt nf ISclixh 
Idags, which made ute Kingdota ol Sootland ditto 
from 443 B.O. Finally, towarda tha oloae ot the 
tourteenth century, Fordun speared with a new 
chmniclc, tbe main foature of vbii^h 1)r. Skene baa 
shown to be an attempt to wcavu thu two acti of 
Ghroniclea olmdy oiOAtlng Into one. 

Itic fmt mention that ia known to have bocu matte 
of the l^cta oocun in a ajimsch doUvered En tlio year 
309a.i}. byoneEumeoioBiDD tlwoocaaloiL of the tEo- 
tery of ConatantiQa Chloraa^ afterwards emperor, over 
Allcctua Thoy arc agiun mcntii^ncd by Ammiaana 
UarocDinua, in SOOa-D., alon^ with Cho ScotB,aa layhg 
WMiti! the luvrfi of tbe Roman prorince adjarent to 
thL-ir UirnU}ry, and the carLicat British diruiiiclun frc- 
qu«<ntly Kpoak of tho I'icta and their conntry llctavla 
or FicUiuid. The r^km occnviad by them appean to 
have embraood the whole of Bootlaad to tho north of 
the Forth and Clyde, exoept the oonnty of Argyie, 
wlicre aome iaolalod banda of Scota fram Daliudi^ 
in tbt> north-out uf Trclaud, eetabllahed themadvoa 
aa early aa tbe fourth onttDiy, and when they act 
up a acpArat« kingdom in tho mining of the dxtk. 
"FLt aanieat ini|K>rtjkiit historical fact oonaaoted with 
the Piota b the iutruducliuu of Cfariatiaaity auotig 
them by the nreaohlag of St Ntnlan In the begla- 
ntne of tbe fifth century, and bv thia titno they wave 
dividi^ into two kinodrana, tnat of tbo Southern 
Fiota to the south of the Orampiana, bavluj; It* 
capital at Forteviot; in Stiathiuim; and that of the 
Northern I'icta, called hy the IriHh diraniolen Cm- 
itbns or Cruitluiach, to the north of thoae roonntains^ 
having its cA[iitAl at Craig Fbadrick, and H waa to 
tbe formar uf thcae that SL Klnlan cooiKned Ua 
labuura. Tho kioirUvti of tbe KartheCD Picta did 
nut r«i«ive Chrintianily till abont the doaa of tho 
BiAth oontui^', when it waa iBtmluoed by SL Co- 
Innihn. Thia i* almoat the aole (aot that haa oomo 
down to ua rcKatding the Xorthem Picta, although 
thera is aiiffldant endnnoa to ihow tliat they eoa- 
tbued to have a ae}Mirato exiateuce 1ou|{ aftor ibSM, m 
thing which la at any rate probable enough, (rau tba 
nature oF tho bairicr which diridod the two kiar- 
dami. Someviiiat more ia known aonoominff the 
Soathcm Piota. In the aeventb century their Matory 
ia doaoly oauieetod with that of Iforthumbria, tha 
Idagdom oootcaminnna with tlicira on the aontb. In 



76 



PICT8— PIDDOCK. 



617 Edirin ct Debft, tha Unt Christian king of 
Noitliambrift, h&viug aUia EtbeUruI, tha preriuiw 
Idci^i knil (Irivon hU too* Irom tbe kingdom, theso 
took nfii;;ti wiUi the Pk'b!, nud one ol tbcta, Kuifrid, 
narrisd a SoutUcm Pictish iiriaceiai. Ilieir noa To- 
iMgaik mcoocdcd lo tbn ttiroaH, uud rFi^ued till 057 
or 66S. MeuLwhUo thn broChura of J^anfrid bad 
ncov«red tlie tlmiDu vt Noctbumbm, nmJ oijo of 
tham. Otwy. who hftppenod to be kin^ ftt thn tUu« of 
thi! denth of 'J'olnrKMi, ahcirtly aftLX that uvKint, had 
|in>bsbl_y taking adVMitAga iif toam pmttiit wbiah 
tb« nUtJaiuliIp lictwean thv Uvt> tiSorJed, invaded 
the Kiii^<lc>i& of tho &iuthcni Picta, and Encc«>DdBd 
ioMtftblutliingKarthaiiibriimrulcthcrc. This North- 
umLnan ntpranwcy laalwd till 6SS, when Bgfrid, wbo 
bnd )ii«uitiai« raooMd^d Onry, attcompted to push 
hbooDif)iieatt«till fiirthcr, AiidcnMB*d OieTay wiih &n 
amty akpiiftraill/ [iivttjr niiincroua, HehBdpmn'cdcd 
)M far M Neoht4inVmer« or Dtum«chtau (idciitiSed 
^th DuDDicb«R in Porfmhiro) whou he n-u met by 
tlio PkU^andnjtoisediHin-uchingadvfcAt thftttbo 
Picti not only rAC^rcrcd their iiid«pendi;iioc^ hut evea 
appear to hare extcodod th«r frontiers far a time a« 
f.ir M the Tw^eiL Tlio pivctw dat« vi thii oveat 
iv:u thfl 20th of Mar, 68S. Diirin;^ tli« Northum- 
hriftn dominiLtion thu religious oWrvaucca i.<f tho 
Anglican Cbitrcb, 'nbich were tlie latnn om thme at 
th« orthodox obiucX liad l-een lutruduowl lutu the 
Kiastlom of tlia 8oath«m Picta, in placa of those of 
the loUowan of Colaniha, whir.h difFi-ri-<! froin tiioxo 
of Uw orthodox diurdi u to th« time uf kevpiuK 
Kattar and tho farm of the toiwor«, and which at 
aono prcviouK iwriocl had been ostendod from tha 
Northeni to tha Southern Ptota. After tha expulsion 
of tho XorUtumbriana tho orthodoK practtcca do not 
•earn to have bnen altogctbor abandonRd, or if almti- 
dwoed for a time wen nat^red early in thu elifhth 
oentury. Thifl was done by KochLin, nno of the two 
1]v«t kuowu kiiigs iif lli« Suutht<rQ PleU. II« ftppU«d 
for ^'uidoucD in thia mattar to Cwlfrid. abbot U Jus- 
row, and acted no cnergffetiealW Mi hia advioe a« to 
uipel thu cliTKy who proved tefractoty from bi> 
dinmititini. llo a!w> founilnd a mooaatery at Aber- 
ncthy, tQ tako lb« pbcn of that of loaa na tho chief 
euclcaiaotloa] authority for hi« kingdom. He reined 
fnr dghtooD years, at tho end of which Umo he waa 
dcdeabed by Anifim Mwifcrgiti, who, sftr itn inter- 
tnadlata pariod cf ntnijiijlp, >ui?L-rfclLil him. Anyua 
WM the moat poworful of all tho Pictisb kim^ 
After flmlr cotabliahine hi* away ovpr all the land 
of tba SonUiem Picta, hs e>teuLlr-0 It also over the 
NortUDm Picta, and finally ovorran lutd put nn «nd 
to tlio kiDgdom of the Scota in At]fyle (711), thus 
brbijnatr lor tho fint tims Uio whole of Sootlaud to 
the north of the Forth uul C'lyde nndcr ono rule. 
Ue rotgnod for twunty yvan aftrr (Jila lait ccuqucat, 
dying in 7fil- Aftur this Uio I'iirta din|ip«ar boot 
fautofy fur the (rreatur part of a century, and when 
thoy Tea[i]}ear Ihoy do ao aa foncin? V^ ^ >^ kln^- 
dmn ci>-pxt«nmva with that of An|p,iB, but rvlcd over 
by a I>nlriad Soot, Kenneth Macalpin (84S}. It Ii 
not improbablfl that tfale monarch had hereditary 
daims to ttie throuio that had previooaly belonged to 
the Picta. Ur. u called the grandian of Aucha or 
Kooba, and It hi aald that tida Andta had married a 
I'k-ttxti jmncMB named Erguno, tlirough wbom Kon- 
ueth ilacalpJn inherited hii title. A pawnfnl cor- 
net of tniLtition makes It not u&Ukely, bewerer, that 
whctlier tikis king had any hereditary ch^m to tha 
ri>eti*b thinne or not, he had to make good hia poal- 
tioo by force of amii. Many faJittnians have con- 
laodei^ on tlie attength of the labor efaronklca, that 
the change «f the njti houae at thIa time waa due 
to tlMoontpIete cuaqueat and alnioat the attnihOation 
of tha Picta by the Dalriad Scote; but an examina- 



tion of nld«r and more tnwtworthy doetUDOti Bm 
■hcmn that this suppotiition must bo abandotted, tt>t 
tho two peoplM hjul been gradiiallr pcepered for 
union bvioro it actually Cook place, uat after E«s- 
neth bad eaUblStih^d nlmseU finmy on the thvona 
whether pnaeefuMy or by f<ir«e, they lired tqgellur 
not as a eobjiMt and a conquering people^ ana that 
while the oauio of TielU and Futlaad continaed to 
be naud more or leas at gonotal dedgnatiana Ux th« 
pMi^Ji? sud the country of the north ol SootlaBd ior 
[norx than a century aflot Keiineth'a acoeaaon. &am 
of Scoti and Scotia do not oome to be -oaed la the 
eame way till abowl two oenturiea after that eranL 

Tho m'et important worka throvtog U^t em the 
lii>tory nf the Pitts sud tLo Pletiih qoaekioo, are the 
Life fit St. Nininn, by Ailred of lUennx, in Pinker- 
toe's Anci«Dt Lives of ScctUsh Saiata; Adaautaa'! 
Life of St Colnmlia («liU-d by Dr.Reevea); O'OofMV'a 
L'JiticDK cf thu Iri^b Annals (the moet trustwertby 
early i:hnjmd(!s); Pr. Skono'iCbroniclcaof the Plci^ 
(TbroniclM of the Snyts, and other early memorialt of 
SoutUah hiitt^ry, with a preface trt-atin^ of the rabf 
UoDs between the I'icts aod Sn>tj> (l!ii67}i the mom 
editor's Four Aadent Books of Walea, with a en- 
face which, among other matten^ dlaetniMB tb« ]Mue 
of the PioMamau^' tho nntivoraoosof Britain (19Bf!|; 
b'ordan'a 8oatichroiiiuiii, ■.■dttcil hqiI tiamdated from 
tha WulfenbUtttfl MS. by the same scholar {1871-72); 
C.'eltlo Scottaiid. by tlie ume authar (In 8 eols. 
lS(S~dl); Father luuus'a Critical Eaiay on lh» 
Andent Dihabitanta of tha Northern Part of Itritain 
(172:>); Pinkcrton'a Inquiry into tho Ilistury ol 
ScoUand |17B9) ; Kltsnn'ii AniutU of the CaledoiMiia 
Picta, and Seota (1828[ ; E. W. lEobcrUMU'i Scotlud 
nnderhcrKArlyKin^dStit!); and Sculptured StoBei 
i>f Ki-otliinil. (iiLitcd for the SpJtEding (Jlub by Dr. Jebo 
Stuart tlSS8-07). 

PICTS' UOtJSES, a noma given in Scotland K 
a kind of sDcitmi uiuijTground dwellings otherwbe 
called tarih-hwift. They are Eeiterally bidit In dry 
sloping ground, Kuch aa hUl-odea or the banka at 
riv«ra, and uaually Mouut of a chamber (naa DO lo 
00 feet lono:, 4 to 10 wide, and 4 to T lu^ omt* 
stmuled of nnhewn BttniM witlioul cementv reefed 
with unhewn fUgs, and ontored by a namnr door- 
wi\y nc4kr tho top. Ktone implemcab^ boae^ aaba^ 
Sic,, arc found in then). 

PiUTUItES, Oon^niOHTiH. This b now aeonrad 
to Ijritiab arbtita and other artiste naidMit wilhta 
the dominions of (he crown, by Act 2& and 20 Tiet. 
c. Liviii (I8S2), whliJi not only appliea to painlinga, 
but also to drawincs and phntographa. This act 
irlvee to the artist tbe sole right of oopynig; npre- 
dudnc;, and mMttinlying mich paintings and dTawtnA 
and the di^i^s thereof, ni siirh photograptM and ue 
negallvi-H tlii-reof, fur the wliole of the artist's Bf^ 
aadtnbishiireforeeTenyeanafberhlsdQath. When 
a paiiilitij;, drawing, or Bsgatira ef a photogra}i)i la 
firat sold orotherwiBediepceedef after its prodwition, 
tliere mast be a ^lecial agreement slating whether 
the oopyright ia ntaisMl by Uw artJat. or made orcr 
Ui the pnrehaaar or aitignM. The penalty for the 
violation of eoeb a c^ynigiht, is any mm net exeeed- 
ing £1 Q, and forfeitiire «f all the coplea. A regfa t et 
uf pn>[jdeton la kept at StationM Hall, nod ko 
penalty is rocovcrahtc uoleM the picture or otlwr 
work hM bocn nxiat^rod. 

PICUS, an old eoothsayirr or wood-deity In Italy. 
MOD of Satam and father of Faunas, was belorod W 
the aoTniieai CiTea; who Qbanged bim into » voM- 
pecker because he wonid not retora her paarfon. Hia 
wife Cencna pined away ietu air from grief. Plooi 
was r^uesented with Lhe bead of a woodpecker 
(Latin, nirtu)^ and prenided over divisatiotL 

TWvQCK. Sea Piious. 



I 



I 



I 



PIEDIMONTE D-ALITE-PIEREE. 



77 



FIEDmo.NTK DA M FK, a town in Italy, in t\m 
prorisM cl Terrik di Lavorti, ID niil«a uurtli uf CsHertx 
It hMM mftimracturM of oottnii vxl piwor, and tb*r« 
u* wpp T-iniiw in tlir udeblwuriiuod, Fopi 7073. 

PIEDHOIfT (lUUu, PiaaoiUi), a da[)artiiieiit 
(Mnp«rtfMMH&> (crritorMfc) of Italj, bcni&ded on Ihe 
■wAWSw ■ - ■" 



I 



I 



I 



I hj S«its«clai>d, oanA by I..nmu»r<lT Mid KtnUus 
I vj JJgaiih, aad wi=«t bry Fnaw. &»&, 11,198 

TVS siilifc It derives its iiu&t\ Bi^ifyine 'loot 
tbe moaatlli,* from it* fritiiii.ti>iD »t thn b»o of 
Um knftiut tnil|« <i( the Alid, tho I^{joatii]e, and 
PamlB*, irtikb radrcla it on itm uorlli and oorth- 
»«M: lis Gnian ftod Coctiftn Alr« on the vat, 
akd the IfariUme Alps knd ApaininM on the Kinth. 
Tba i|Hfl* to clox i d wiUiia tlicM banierB furuu uue 
«( Uw DQCt bMotifitl and (otfl* potttoiu of Eoropo, 
«wnMOffaj «• Um tMrth, the tontli, ftod tho west 
Ik B*J<tlto mcanfaun*, and tbenoe dnivnduig bjr 
iDMgxifioaat tamcw sod finely-auduUtlnc alopea to 
tha lieh plaint uf tho Fo. To tho baiLn of thla m«r, 
■nd noBMUMtttly to tlut d the Adriottc, idl the 
■ufMe tM^MigB. Beddaa tUng witliin PlnilnioiiL, 
tmd wioSna drcaHomdj »enm its contre, the Vo 
raedno witliin U (beaidc* oiuDenni* miaor vtrcuii*) 
OB tiw tieht the Ualra, Tuaro, and florivla', and 
CO tha kft the Cliwoncv Donv-Ripura, DoT»-Bthlt':A, 
S«iin, and 'lldtia^ wliidi last lonoM the ciutvm 
bnaadaiy ol the pravinee fK«i tlu polst when it 
iMoaa fniD the Ligo Hacgkc* to Ita Janetioo with 
iha Poh Few of tliwae are of navigable importancci 
boA fnno the estencive and ildlful nae made of tlunn 
Ibr fwrpoaw of trrigatioti, it la almost impoalble to 
orenmtellMadranUgsaderiTodfra&ithinii. Inov^nr 
qoarter Ibejr are aean aoiii^ m nn cMnntiiJ o^nt 
in lh« praduettoo of moat luiuiiuit (td|j9 of wLeat, 
loalai^ rioa^ beana, bemp. mid hay. Iji oU o( tbi«o 
FiadBonl attmr fnlly ntiafying ita own wantt ban a 
li^ aniplv for espotl wine abo ia abnndantlT 
BMni, and va«t uiunbvn of csttlo ana rvand bouL 
nr lactgdng and tbe d^y. There b an region of 
Italy in wlikh iiDEvanna kiw mora oxtcnuirolj roared. 
Itm valne of the sUlc which U tibiained from them^ 
lad which b Kioatly vx|Kirt«<l in the mw itate, ia 
■dBitod at about £l.OuO,OtfO annually. The mnt 
valnafcla aibaiab am iron and marble, bat tborv ant 
ilao Dinea eC af^entifertnu lead and of copper. Tlw 
■naofactBrea oonatrt of silk, woollen, oottoD, and 
fiax tfaaoa^ and then am groat numbcn of aOk- 
■m^ The ex]>orta are chinfly grain, cattlo, iiilk, 
tAdm^ wina, woij, luid iron. The m%l 1»dy of tbo 
fnhaUtanU profoM tho IIwDaii Catnolio roli^on; but 
Ilia mooBtau diatricta have from tuno immmioiial 
rrmtahind flToat nombeia of Waldenatani^ attaohed 
to a pnrw latth, and well known tliruu},-Lout Europe 
br Um tnal bigotry with which tboy bava been 
holadt >Bd like beraie paCittMo with which they 
haf* ^ l e d . Piad^KNit la dlrided bto four pro- 
Tlasea— Ttario, Ahaaandria, Cunao, and Novar^ Tho 
Afal town ia Turin, which fram 1800 to IHfIS wu 
Iha oafiitBl of tbe Xingdoo of Italy. Fop. va ilie 
Utt of Daetmber, I88I, 3,089,188. 

Ked m ont corrtaponda to tha ww Jw n part of ili« 
(ititi* TkwMp*dana and the northera pari of tho 
L«nria <tf tlu Bemana. TheSaUBtl,wbait)hab{tod 
Ua nortt-WM l r cro part of thia diatrict, w«r« a v«ry 
Waillku people^ and were frajnently in (xmiict m'tli 
■ the Bananas They worn wrt Anally ■olxlued till tho 
tea of AngOBttuk wh«& aeat of the lahabitanta were 
Ulad Is UmI^ and the noaindar (abont 36,000) 
CMried 00 aa daroa. llteiT cluef itrwa wm then 
oatfinMad by Roman aoldim of the pra.-tt)rUii i^tuuib, 
•ad l ae al Tad the name of Aagnat* PrBtoria (A^cta). 
The tribe HvfaHF between the Salaaai and Uio Li^- 
riana vaa tbe Taorinl, and their chief town In tbo 
ntgn al Aogiutii* wu callud Aneuata Taorinonun 



(Turin). After the fall of iha Sonan Eapin Plad- 
niont paBi«d iutu tht^ handa of the Ooth*, and Uiaa 
into thnwof tho Lumbwdii, from whom it W9M taken 
by C^arlcmiLgui;. Ou tbe entabllaliDieDt <tt the feudal 
syvtem It waa posMtved at flrat by tbo Marquian of 
Siiaa, IvTOH, MoDtfsrrAt, and i^aliii^ In 1043 it 
p— ad to \.he raixata at nTaoriiinne, of tbe houae of 
Sftiroy, with which it hoit Hinoe remaliud. In 1431 
iBwaBorBctod intoaprinnpalhy, aadinlTlS baoama 
a part of the Kingilom of Sardinia, whic:h waa formed 
in the niga ol \Tctor-Ainmioo II. Since that date 
It baa abared tbe fortunea of that kbgdom. 9«e 
SuttitKU, Satot, and Itily. 

PIENO (I^'i^. fuU), in mturlo, a word often naed 
for tuiti, grxtndt', or ifroui, to aignify that »U tha 
iiiHtruDiQata of au orcbeatrB an to ba employvd; and 
M>mntimc« with core, aa punc eoro (a frill chonu), 

PIEPOWDBR WiUBT, or Piepoo.m Court, 
a court f i.'nii<<rly m4 np at fairs and mukaU in Hog- 
Lu:d for tho Euuunary ndminiatratiun of jviatice la 
autett ariiiing theru. It la alao oalled the Court of 
Du>ty Foot, vliicli has ibeoitmetaewtiogaapttipowder 
(a cormptioa of the Fronoh pifd foudraix), and 
probably got ita name ftMiu tho fact of ita being 
chiefly reatvted to by podltm aod wayfaring panotu. 
to whom tbo namo of pUcU puidrtattx was girco in 
Did Kr«nch. 

FIERIAK, an o^tliet given to tlie At umo, from 
Mount I'ienu laTatnuly, which was aocrod to th«in. 
or from tbcir victory onw the uisa daughten of the 
Mnoedonian Idna Picnu^ who were onangod into 
magploa for having dared to engage In a conteat 
with thfln. flccidMVUalMOseof tiko deai^DatioiU 
of the Moasi^ for tha aame reatson*. 

PIKRTtg^ jAOt)DitH BuufAXiiix Hexni t>i: Raixt, 
a mboeUaQeooB IWidi writer, bora at Hkvic 1q 
1737; di^ on his oatat« at Kn^^v-aor-Oiao, Jon. 21, 
1814. In hia twelfth ^«ar be sailed with hb u&ole 
to tho Island of Martuique. After hia rotum ha 
cctored in 17&7 the school of englneeiB {ieoU det 
ponti et ekavuiti) at Paris. In 17ltO be was sent aa 
an engineer officor bo IlUnnlilnrf, but wax dinninod 
for luttbmdinnUoD. Ho tlj«n wciit v> Alalia t» 
roodvs aa appointment which ba had bem pivmiMd 
asengiDoortothe Mallceo kni^ta, but aoon rotnmod 
to Franoe. After mnaining' tor a certati) period in 
Paria^ giving private itiHtrtictton Ir; itjAthtviJktlc^ ks 
went to AffisUrdam, wherv ha gauiod a living M 
a jonmahat, Wo next find him in tho acrvlco of 
CatbJiriuB II. of lEuKQa, wbrrs b* rpamiDed eighteen 
moQtha. He then joined tbe FreocJ] patty in Folaul, 
waa made priaonar by tbe Boarian^ released, and 
aftn tcaoduig fat wiunaw, Draadeo, Berlin, and 
Vienna, refenned to Pnria. He obtalDed a oommlB- 
■loD 111 tbe eogfateer oorpa atatloned lo the Xslo da 
France, bnt in two years throw up hb oonimiasloB 
on aoonnnt of anmo diapntos in which bo became 
Iuvi>liL-<l, aiid ntumed to Vnacm. Here begina bb 
libTiu-v cArw, for wUcfa hia ohaaaeful life had fnr- 
nivLod'bim with rii^ materials, ffis fint publfatation 
wu the VovBKB k riite do Franco, wliiat anpearod 
In 1773. In 1784 anpearad hb 6tudea ds la Naton, 
in five vohmua, Louis XVI. now appofntad bba 
iinporintandent of the botanlo^ gatden and of tha 
KIuiHMiin uf Niklural Hbtoty. Hb Paul et VIrgfade 
(17 t^H) ]i!uiinl through 6fty improMtioiH In one year, 
and baa boi.ii tnnilated Intoalatoat all tbe languages 
of F.Tirope (English by Uvloa Haria WIUiMna). 
NapolccQ oonfmrd on him tho order of the L«g!oo 
«f llonniir, and .To9C|>)i Bonapaile granted him a 
peuafun o( OOOO fraiK*. SL Ptarrs waa abo tha 
aatbor of La Chaumli^ra Indbnne, HaRnonioa do la 
Natwv, and never*] other works. Thn best edition 
of hb whoU worka b that pubUabed at Paris in 
ISlft-SO, which haa been several timoa reprinted. 



Th« eJttor of tW« edition wm Alvaf Mftrtlu, who 
obo «roto lUi £«&>' DD Ulo Ufa and Wrilings of 
Bcmftrdin do St. Vitm. 

I'lKRKEr, St., ■ ■m&U utaml bclitn^ng U> Fmncn, 
n>ear th* aoutlierD coMt <jf NewfoiiudlAud, tuid Im- 
nwdutely totb«Mntth-cAt of tho laLindof Mi-jUolDii, 
Alto belonging ic J-'mnco. 'J'hn two togirther farm 
une culouy, wiiic;h U utider a oanuiiiBJidJuil naidicig 
Id St. l'i»iT«. Tbo lubablciuita rabdet entirely bv 
tbo ood-fidhcrlci and tha iatliurtrwa eoniicctwl witli 
them, nich u the ympuattou of ood-Urer oU mid 
tho raildiDK of Kbolijun and anall boola, which &re 
employed ui the fiehiag. ^[lie Mvtngt number of 
boaU nnplojod Id ihe fitheriei In uout 400, tho 
cmn abcat 16.000. Tho EorfAce of thd Inland Lt bivrc 
aud rugged, and there ii i»ithing dc*arviD|> the naiae 
of ogrlciilture. The export* t>[ tho colony (including 
UlqndoD) con^t slmMt cscltitively io tho proiInctB 
of Vm iiAniM, and tho importa of articlEM ti fund 
and romiu factored gooda Emm Kranr*. 'I'bo IiLuids nl 
Bt. Pierre and Miqnejoa vmv RnA acquired by the 
French In 1743: aud after bebg aovcnl UnHMtaksD 
by the En^luh and rertorcd, irero finallj oonftmMd 
to the fi>TTni:r at thf> qtnen^ Peace of ISli. Fixed 
poa of St Picrrv, 'iHSS. 

PHiRltK St., » U'vra lo tbo W«t Indlea, capital 
of the Iiland of Martinique, on the noitii-weBt oout 
of the Inland. It » huilt iipnu a narrow etr^ of low 
land, and nuu parUlel to the beach of a circular 
bay. Tbo hill* bohind almoet orerbaug the Louaea, 
which are in general well baiit in a luporior Mylo of 
l^nropean architeotnre, and tlie Bhnps ore numcmus 
and well gtmed. The t«wii coutaliis wiuui fine 
churobei^ a botanie gardpn, and ia nvll fortified. It 
)■ a Toiy Bodve BUport. Tbo beat ascbonge in 
St. Fietro's nad Ii at its Bonthem port, whete than 
are aome ateep diSi and rocks. Fort Boorboa baa 
a caiwitiateJ iramw^lt for 2400 men. Pop. 28,000, 

PIKKIlE-Li;.S-CALAIS, St., a town in France, 
in ttie department of Pae-do^alai«, forming part nf 
the inbarba of Calais^ with Important manafacturca 
of tull*. uotal button^ glased hate, leather, bMt-root 
Hopu-. and leAiwd aalL Pop. (ISM), 318,190. 

PIEKKOT, a oomio ttinnlc ou the Trench atage:. 
He ia drewind like the harlequin, and aocordlng U> 
the old type waa a nm^lotoa and a babbler, with 
OGcaidonal traita of irlt, like pnndiinoUfi. lint the 
pkmt of tfie modem typ<v oealod by Gaepa.nl 
Debnnui nt the beginning of the proeent ceDtnr;, is 
a cunning and riiaineleu pvItKHUi who aoeiBl faukp- 
able of luiy good fecUag. He la pal<^ emadUed, uad 
faniddng In appeanmoe, oiFccU indifference to tbo 
action that ia proceeding on tlje 'ttm/a, but all the 
time b on the watch for an oppartunlty el a o oi c tly 
coaamittlBg aotne pteos of bqaUoo or roguery. 

PXBTX&bC, ia Gennan theology, llie name of 
pUUtl* waa origiaaUy applied in di-riaion to econe 
yoang tc*dera \A tlieulogj at Loipidg, who began 
in 1699 to doUreraaoetie lecture* on tlw NewTerta- 
laeot {tolUaia fASobQiliea or evtUgim pUtaUt) to tlw 
etodCDU and dtjzoui. Thu idea of imparUng; t]ieoI»- 
gieal inatmcilvii In a popular tray camo irou tbrir 
iriend and teacher Spcaer (the Gennan FiJnclon), 
who liad held rcligioo* moc^nga in F^anldoit baa 
tbo year 167u, nC which the laiU piayod, and WM* 
allowed to Mk qac^ttdiui, &c. The theidcvJ d th« 
Latbsraua at tliat time bad becuiuti eiiS and dog^ 
matical, MtMldng nnaparingiy all other ayatan^ and 
maUllC the ««ebce of theulo^ to conaiat in doc- 
tlfncfl. Speser and hia frienda were dnirous of r*- 
ertaUiabing a Christianity of lore and choritv. wliloh 
ebonld maulfcst Itadf in the Ufe <if tho indin.Iuftl. 
The covenunonts, however, in eovetal phuva soon 
iiri>bihltod such aMemhlioa, which in amao cases may 
ID fact have given riM to disordete. Pietim, how- 



ev«r, did not Mcpfaa; on Ibe cantnry, the pmtieri 
principtu ibMi » ptoov life waa better than et viit loa 
^vo it ratuh Kueta. 'WhUe on the om bud die 
LL'ipdg lectoroi inn pnt a stop to oa being hoNfla 
to good gnv^rrnnent, tuore trna oo Um a4her head a 
new univcnity, that of Hallc^ founded (1(I9£) ■mdv 
th<) inriiiciioc of Sponer and ^i« pietiita^ The ' 
adb«rcnt« of Spcncr wrre appointed its flrrt 
■on, nnnng tbom Francke, the [oundor of the 
lirutfd Wais^nbauB or ornbaosge at ElaDo. 
anetcre, often aambro morui^, % boUet In a anddes 
rcgrncratiim by tbii ojH^i&tlcai of dirliM cnoe^ ptivat* 
mtwtini^ni for r«lit,'iuiii eitirasii, Aa., ■nirtingnirfH 
the piocEsts, tboiizh thny nerer Comed a sejmrate 
sect. But, like tbc systema of so maity noti^ ofi^ 
tinting from a ejnoere dedre for aomo batter mewM 
'jf qu*<ticbing a reUgioQB tfairat tluui tha dogmas of 
tbDcetiiblithedcliuruiafforled,pietE(m tnaiBaTeaeM 
(l«^«:ncratcd byd»rees into an lU-re^ulatod nuigioiis 
exdtt-uietit. ThoJanseninu &nd ijuictismof Fiaaee^ 
and the Motlifidiam of Kngliuid, aiiruig from sou rew 
itmilar to thu«<; vf tbe Gemiau iilelism. Tbe wns 
of pletbts it BtiU given In Germany to that wrtiaB 
of Frotcet&nti which inclince to tho vfewt of Speas. 
In the more recent period of religions hisleiy !■ 
G«niiuny tbey have been found Dow in alBancawith 
tbe orthodox party In oppodtion to the nUaomliatt; 
and agiun holding a snj>nnkte iNHritaon, in oonAictwftk 
Inth orthodox and ratlonalbitiu tbeofcigiaoa. Sm 

PIETOLA, a village In luly, on tbe MbMfo, 
abcmt 6 miJte soutb-east of Mantua, aooordiny le the 
tiwlitiuua of the uei^htmuThoud Um bixtb-plaee cf 
Virdl, which Sillua Italii^ni radla Arndtt. JLgrcrtto 
in Uo victnity U callt-d VirgH'i OroUa. Hh ftCMb 
laid out a publio garden here, ia wMcfa they emeltd 
» statue uf the poet, but whidi was de stro yed diiriag 
thn RocinnH sincn «t Miuitiia (1797). 

riETRA DrRA, a kind of mosaic exeoated En 
Italy, and especially at Florence, in liard stooea, snoh 
OS Kipaxes, garnets, oaraelian^ ruUe^ too. Ittferior 
kinds, In which tmitation stones are wni, are bwgdy 
Riade in England (Derbyshire and clju.trhc(«)t M 
nrll aa in Itjdy. 

PLETKO DI COttTONA. See Coxiojca. 

PIG. See Hoo. 

PIGAFQTTA, Antokio. the ecunpaolaD of Ma- 
gellan and the binloriau of his disooretsSSL was bom 
at VionnsA towartis the end of tlie ftfteenta oeatunr. 
loflamcd by reading the acoomite of the SmbIu 
and Porttigneae diacoverle* with a dedie of vWHag 
distant partf, ho studied tho matbemalical a e itpcia 
and navigation; and when Magellam waa seat e*t 
by Ohatlee V. Go seftrcib for a vestem panen to ttw 
Moluoeaa, in conaeqiwBce of the dlqnta tMCveea 
Spun and Portugal coooenung the line of demariok 
lion between tli^ reapective pnsiBWBCPS (see A1.KX- 
Atroxn VL), Flgafotta ebtafaieu Ieav« to aoeonpaay 
Inm.aad tbiii took put in tho first drcnsutavigmon 
of the glebe (1510-22]. llo kept a jooitmI of tbe 
voyage, vi which Rauiuno tfivcs an auetract fai tbe 
first F<daiUB of his coQectioD, and of which « anaphta 
editaon waa firat pnbliahed uider the title Prime 
vimcgjo Inboma al glolxi tcrraoqneo (Mflm^ 1800), fay 
Amwsttl, who dboovered a copy la tbe Aubnisiaa 
libraiy. A IVsncb tnoaloticio by Jrobmi waa nob- 
lUisd at Paib lu IMl. 

PIGEON, a genns of binls, foimli^ the type ef 
tha family OilumbidiK, but sJso rrinmenaHag In iieai 
synleuis o{ umitbok>gy tbo typo cd a Satinet section 
of tha order of Basorlal or Gallinaocoas Birds. Ibn 
I'igcons or Dovm as a group ace dlatlngniidMid ttatu 
otiier GaliianciHiiia lUrdji, such as the FowIa Ac., 
chl«dy and priwurily by the eonfanaatioo of tbs 
biU. The u;^or mandible ia in them orebed toward 



I 



I 




PIOEON— PIGMENTS. 



Iti »fmT, uxt U of hont; muutvoc^ wbibt a leoODd 
com mxun M ita bue; this lUMr convexity 'btAne 
lomad olikdiy liy » ouiilsginous fJabo or piece 
aWTwtag Uw ooatril* — wliicJt Apcrttma open in iU 
•atafior pottiao. lliig c*itiUelDoui pcrticn loity b« 
IbvmimI by ft aoft ikiii, wbuth ia ocearianally pro- 
vided wllk ft flohy or vftrty pTotainenoe. Thn tftnd 
ftro ritor^ ftod am k""'^^^'}' cwemd witb tcftls^ bnt 
in wamm ctam tbay mitj j>>:aK«i ft fofttliMy InvMt- 
m^iL Tbft time trcmt toea are in tha majority 
of CMM oolirely diKOnnected ; the outemiMt of 
tbOM digha beng occMionftUy united to tLa muIiUe 
la« iMftr tlw bMa. Tbo hiDdsr ton nachM tti« 
maad, betas Bltitftted co tbs nue level with tbe 
crant digHft TiM tow an aoftly at ttaetr vippec 
fotVaiia, loninbed vith nMrnhnuioai lobei btmmtb, 
and an pravided with ■liurt naib vt curvtj ■bapc. 
Hm qoilU o( tba vingi an eloDj^ted. They are 
lamaUy of poiated th^nj. and noiuber ten is tbe 
frhaarj aertea. Hie qaillj of tiio tail gaoually 
aaabar tw«lv«; but aizteea may be pnaent. No 
■PBiww y phnuM at* dovolopecl on the feathen ol 
the PlgsouL The ' cr^ * in tbcae btrda b of l&t^o 
tdac^ Mid ol ddttlile coof omiatioD ; the aocallMl 
^tagtBo't aalk ' cnniiattDg of the moooiu wcretloaof 
tM otftDdi of tba crop mixed with tha Bofteaird food, 
■ililiili, btlay r«fw;^ttated from the enp, n nacd by 
tba Rgaow ta fead thcjr s*"^S- Tb^ <=*■<» ^ t^o 
iuUatiBa ai« ef noall nie. Thv giitAni la of atroug 
anS'xtaM.tiom. 

Ia babtti Che Ptj^ooca diCTer from the majcrHty fi 
Raaorial Birdi in mJo^ arborc^ in kabtta, pfcrcluug 
vpon ti a ta, awl buiMittg tfanir Dnti in alevu«d 
•uoaUoaa, Tbdr peweta o( flit:ht am alao greatly ta 
adnacaqf thotpowwod by ft al Un ao ri aaarule; and 
tbay an alio c^«ble of nnmiu actively oo the 
poud fa) aaafdi of food. Tbe Figaona alao take 
vfttcr b^ bnmanlDg tbe bill, and oy taking a coa- 
HtMuma driak; tuteail of frequently mtang tbo 
Raid aftar tba fuhioa d other Kaaoraa. Tlw ycnuig 
■» bfterapbagtraa, that I^ an wrtinly dspoidBiit 
vptm tiM pamita' can after bebg hatched. Botb 
•kBH bteoMle; aad tfacM biida geacrally pur for 
Bla; tba loaa or deatb of a nut« bahig ia mouTcaaea 
amnMly moonad and fcricvad over, aad the nir- 
nnr frvquaotty nfoBlng to be eonaoled by annther 
ttata. TbeaoBgeouiataof the weU'kaowD plaintive 
iooimff. The PSgeeo* are diatribated in every qunrtr 
4f tba (lobv, but attala tbe greateat liunxHaace uf 
pfanuga In mum aad tropical nf^ona. 

Tba Rgeon family ia divided labo variooa gieapa, 
MfciMttwg cTVJiter Dr IcM vailallom In plumage and 
W BCt un . Tkv true PIgMU or CelumMdia are n- 
jnanAtd by the Stodc I3ovd (Cotumba amu) of the 
nntbara '^^■■^ counUca, which hM been credited 
altb btiag Uie progenitor of the dooootlc pigeon. 
nia Bin^^a or Cwbat (0. foimmbtu) is the Urgmt 
EiUah i|Mdea, aard baa a wide AatribnlJoa in Britain, 
■d orav Buropa gaoccaUy. It Ib f annd In Uadetra^ 
Vertb Aai^ aad ATricfc The Tnttla Dove (C. Iid^ 
(v), foand in Britain is nunner, and the Cape Turtle 

iC. Capauit}, an alao repnaantallTO Kpetam, 'llui 
!odi Dora (C. Urim) foma a third apedei^ bom which 
the Tarinaa donatie vMictiea have Mpnag. TIm 
Radt fteaoB ii fooad In the Burthem porta of tbe 
wMm D ii i i Bh MU L It boUda in tbe bolee and 
•avlags flf locKB, fta food eeaaiating of gnona. It is, 
kowavar, alao aMd to fond tio ■lltulJ^ hn. Sacb of 
tta two breeds produced annually luuludes a pair of 
jomg. Tba Hoom Pigeoni, I'aiiiblcn, FantaUs, 
Pootai^ Oanien, aind JacoMoa are tbe cbicf vario- 
Hmzd tba Beck Pigeon, and are well known as fonn- 
bg same of tba VNit slagaat of doimaUeatod Urda. 
"nHBa faifda and thsir nrietica ban been eoiployed by 
Mf. Danrfn (aea hit Origin of Speetoa aad hb Anlmala 



under Doiiu-itioali'.in) to iUu>trat« many or the |ir^ti 
inrolved in bis theory of ' dcecMml by nntRral srlec- 
tion.' Tbo PoutcM an? no nAiDiM frfiin thi^ir inflated 
cTopa; lUo FaiitaJU (rom llieir expiuniwi Liil, con- 
BiatULt; of no has than thlrty-«ix fcAthen; t!i« ■Incn- 
bina from tba pKaenee of a ruli or bood of (tatlieni 
on the nedc and head; and Ch<^ Tumlilon, fn>m their 
habit at tombUng over In the uir tthiUt (lying. Tbi: 
Carrier Flgeoa (vUob WVq) •xnmplitii™ n atriking 
davolopmenC of the ' boming ' faculty. pocMwwd by 
Pigenna generally, through tbe exarebo of vblcb 
iha* biida are ruablud to return to thcJr native 
haunts fmm ling dUL-inoiM nnd with great aueed. 
Before tbe intnxluctiuu of tbe t«l4!t;<^pb tbese Ur^ 
wem— and indeed In aone caacs sliil are— employed 
in OJiavcytDg inteiligrnce fn>iD vno Uivm or place t» 
Mi(.itbor in oases when deapnteb tuid locrrcy are rv- 

Jnired. llie Paaenger Ptgeon of North AJncrica is 
cecribcd under tbe article of Chat name. 
Tho TVrrnmViir nrlYsa Ptgeoosof India, tbe Ka*t- 
em Arvbipelngo, and AnabaUa, are diatlugulahed 
by the ih<at itout bill, Ulo maadlbka bebgof oearly 
equal tbicknen, and both arched at tbo tojk Tbt 
inner toes are sbart^r tknn the outer dlgifa^ aad tbe 
tard an feathered. They inhabit trees and subdti 
on fr^ta The plumaga in mniiy foruu of this givup 
ia tirilliantly onloured. 

The Goia-ida or Ground Pijnona, liiheljlttng tlie 
troplo reglona of both Old ond New Wgridt^ pMMaa a 
ftraightaloiidcr bill, oonvex towards ita tip, Thetai^ 
are eJongatod. This tne* are long, aad are bordered 
with a mvmbnmoua fringe. Time (anna, aa iupU^l 
by their popalar same, are more typically temiatiiiJ 
lona tbe fmniliar or true I^goona. Tbey walk easily 
on tbe gronnd, and snbalat on eeeda, Ao. Tbaj are aaid 
rarely to perch on treea. The Crowned llgecm 
(6'oura nrannia) at the Kaatem Arofaipelimo arer* 
ogea a turkcv iu aize. It it ao named from tbe 
preeoneo of a iiend-crcat of narrow atrai^bt fcotbora. 
The gwit-ral bwiy-cwiour la a graylah.blae. Tbe 
Kicobor Pigeon IC^ecnat iV'Kv&anm), inhabiting 
India, poaaccaoa pliinuga of brilliant ooloura. Its 
IxKlyculuur ia a daric blaoklab purple; tbe nevk- 
fenthi^r* biiiug elongated, and peaManng blue, red, 
and p.'ldcn buo& Tba winn ate coloured blue; tbe 
tail bdo;; white, and tbe bade of ft golden-giMtL 
lualrc. ilie bail-featliars roMmble tboee of the Cock 
in their diajKai tion. TiMUnrunealaiedGronndPiKDOn 
[tltoiAHiit earun^:iilsUui) forma auutber apeoica of tbe 
group. Soe PI. CXLVL-l'XLV'IL 
ria-IKON. See iRUy. 

PKJMKN'I'S, tnnti-riala uiii-d for imparting colour, 
wbetb>.<r by dyelug, pniuUng. or otberwiae. (See 
DtEistt.) The colouring sahstUMa used aa painu 
arv partly artilicial and partly natural produotiona. 
They are derived prind^ial ly from tbe miueral Uugdom; 
and eves iriien aaimal or vegetable substanoos an 
need for cdlaurbig thay an neariy alwqnt united 
with ft nisenl •nbataaee (an eaiu or an oxide), 
because Iw tbwoaelves they have no body, which 
tlwy acqoin only by a mixture with a minemL In 
painting tba odoora are grooad, and applied by 
means M tome liquid, which dries n^ vHhoot changing 
them. The dUTerenco of tbe Tohielo used with the 
metbod of employing it baa j^ven rise to tbe modea 
of painting la water-ooloun^ ufl-coloank in (roNS^ in 
diatempv, Ar. Tat odl>pftinting mineral snfaetMUsa 
are more suitable than lekc* nrvpaied with miuerali^ 
because the latter become aarker by being mixed 
with oQ. Among iha miuDral eotonin an flake 
white ^carbonate of le.vl, wiib an Bitew of oxide), 
atrootiao yellow (chratoate of ttraetian)^ cadmium 
yaUov (sulpborot of cadmium), yallow, Oxford^ 
lUmaa, atone, brown, onnga^ paee^ pniple, and a 
fTcat variety of other oehrcai which an all ocridaa 



I 



of Inn; J^nnr Ao Mnra utA In^an rod (ulso o«ii]t« 
ol in>o), vennilion (liidglpliurct of mcrwinf), pnlla- 
iltntn nd (kirniKinio'porahloride of )WUil!uirj, utUs< 
aiariuu (a compound of nlicALg of alumiiu and 
rilicftbQ of Kxla with ralphnrct cf wdiain. wkirib 
produca • blue cototir by Rating upon Lbe uthar 
two (yimtitiicntii}, chromitou gT«en (mqiiioxlde of 
clironJum>, tt-rru veite (jlliat« of protoxiiio oi iron), 
amber (aa iron ora with mongMieu), MphaUnin, Ac 
FUke white h tlic heal uf tS wluUi pi^'ULuiit!i [ur 
a vehicle of oil -or nuin, but Ixith it luiil all otUvr 
wUt«a of lead, wLkli uv iu ulW rwiwcla xhv "ixitt 
wUMe,hAva the defoct ol baoomlng blukHied tlvroush 
ex{)oaara to the foul gMW eoDnnoii to ma*t dniiK^tio 
Mnioaptiens, Ficturci wliich h»vo bpoa detariumtiMl 
In Uii» way can. however, bo nwUirvd by Iwinij 
aUovred to oxpcrienco the ACAion of u slrotig li^lit 
la n |nir« Ktmosiibcra. 'IIm Uk« coloun have tin 
or alum fiir Ui«tr busii, and ow« tb^ tint to utimid 
or w^tablo colouring iiibetMcea; Amaag thuoi 
an tba red lake*, iiiopar«d from madder (tvbich 
are regarded aa tbe rouit enduring), oocbincal, and 
of infmnor ((iiality frcan Braall wood; tbe yellow 
from fuitk^ wt-ld, Ac; the brown (Vandyko, Cappoh, 
Robem^ Oanel, and Cologne brownii) fnvm vitriniin 
doconipotod vr>c;et&blc mat u-n mil Lfl M'itb 'bituuuuuui* 
matter. ]ii<ltt[n ii ii |HiT<<Iy vpj;;Ht4il>!<i oolottr. M Is 
alw Uoe-black, wbicb in obtoiuotl from bursM vin^ 
tirln. Ivory lilnok is a jiurely animal colour, being 
*"»tft?ng «Uo tban bumcd it ury. Iii ttUlnioK pciTvelatu 
and gUM the mctalUo ooloiira trbiob are not drivea 
off by beat and an sot ewily obangeablc are nacd. 
Gold containing tin git-ea a purple, nickel a grecc, 
oclmit a lilur, iriiii e-ud maugancao black, ■njiiiuu 
yellow, cbronio grorn. 

riGMY. Soo PioMT. 

PIGNUT. Sbo Bc!(iu«. 

PIKR, a ponui of fiaboa bel)»ging to tbe order 
Teleottai, aod included ia the SlaUoopterous divitjoa 
of the order. The Malueofltn AMominaItt, or bcc- 
ttoD to whiob tbe ptkca belong, indtidcM thnaa iiihia 
which poeM** ventral fin« ptaowl tuwnrON tlie bimlttr 
Mpect of the body. Tho Pikes form Iha typea of 
the family Ktociijn'-, in whicb group tbs body in 
lengUieoeu, fiatt«Ded im tbo back, and tapering 
abruptly towatds the talL One i]ur«al fin exuits, 
thia atniotiirQ bebig plamd far t<ack on tba body, 
■ad op}KMltfl the nul fin. Ilin lo«-cr jaw proJMta, 
the biting edge of tbe upper jaw bi-iii^- tonaal \>y 
the maxillurT ami intcrtrntxillnry boDM. Teuili are 
prennt In pkutiful array, and are boroo by idni<:«t 
OTory bono nntrring Into the compooitian of tba 
DMutb. 'Jlio body i> d'-thcd with cgeloid scaloa, or 
lltoae of a nmple rounded ivciety. The pyloric 
ciM» fmnd »tta«h«d to the «lomach of moet flabee 
an wautiDg in tbe Eaoddai. The plk«a Inhabit the 
fieah-water lakea and riven of tcinpRrate rlimatcn. 
He Common Pike {Btax furiui) ool-u™ in tba rivirri 
of Enro^ie and North AmuriciL It !■ fiahi?d chleflv 
fur tbe aakc of ila Bcab, which ia aiscoimbed 9xixtd- 
bglf wholeaome. The plkea form the tynnta of 
their iphenh being tbe noet vonudoua of mih-wmtar 
fiihea. Th<7 food apoo ainaUer Sabea^ opoa froga 
and (itbcr Inbabitanta rif the riven; bat young dnoka 
and othi^r iu)uaUc binla bav« been known hi be 
dragged below the water and deronred by theee 
Bahec The Mrohei nro laid to VBaf% the pike's 
atudc from tae pteaenoe of their apiny donal fina. 
When fully grown the pJke may attain a leuictli ut 
& or fl feet. Biid there are uomarona iartancea on 
teoonl ill wLioli tbeee fithes bare gnsitly exceeded 
that ktogth. Of this desoriptiaa waa the monster 
^ke caaght at KaiaenlMttem, near UaDiibciin. in 
Suafali^ iu 14tt7, wbkb meaanred Ifi fret, and weighed 
UOIbe. Thia MoaepOcs bad attaobed to it « copper 



ring, on which an inacriptioD bore that the CA had 
bM-u pinned in t)ut -n-nti^ by tbo Ktnperor nederirk 
II. on October Stb, 1230. 'lldt date made tbe fiah 
at the date ol its capture Co hare besn nt leaat 3(7 
y«an old. Tbeao iiebee grow very riipidly. {See PL 



CV.-C"Vf. li«. 9.) 

Sim Pikea {E»»x ieTenr), also Imowm as sfA- 



TLc 



Siiitta, gar-pikce, gar-fishM, and bilMuho*, ate alao 
included in tlko family l->oinilic. Tbe Imdy ia loci 
ami of vory BLDndor confarmatian. It ta oofoea 
vf'ah luiuut^- ■c'lIm. Tbe bead I* miouth. tbe jaws 
bting elongated to form a almder beak-like strac- 
tnrc. An entire dormd and anal fin exiita. (See 
PL C-IIL-CrV. fig. U.) Tbe Saury Pike [Stam- 
btrtf'x Murui) r«*emblea the gar-pike In geaonl 
conformation, but 'poesensa the dorsal and niial ta» 
in the ihxpc t>( a number of divided 'fintcta.' 

Ttiir Buiiy Pike (l^fndaitfut uwcm) of Xortb 
Amorlcao lakoe and riven belongs to aa Mtitih 
diflorent order of Athoa — that of tba GaaoUlai. It 
buj tberrftira no stractuial relntiona with lbe ocdi' 
nary and common pike& (Bee Bokt Piks, and It 
CI.-CIL fig. e.) 

PIKK, a wi;apon much used la the tnldJls am 
an an ann for intantr;, and Mill sometllMe uaed VJ 
irre^tilnr acid liosUly armed treopa. It vaa fttm 
10 to IS tittA. lonj;, and (H>niuitccl of a pole wHb aa 
iron point, (Sue Lajiob.) Men aimed with It woe 
ealled ^Ute-meK. After Che invention of gone tb^ 
gradually fell into dinuM. Tbe PmMina LeadahuM 
waa BxtoKA witli ptkra tn IKI^. ia be uBcd in caae no 
betUir arina were ^l^ be luid. Tbe- Snisa (irst tabetl- 
tutod the hftlbcrt for tbe pike Cowartli tha Aftaoitfa 
contitr}-. ]<Vir soma time every company in tbe 
armii^B of Kurope ootuueted of at leaat tw«^tlil(ds 
plku-iutju and oce-tblnl barquobiitleis, Oiatavna 
Adolphus, the groat improrar of tbe modem an 
of war, ikbnut 1630 oinitte>d the piko-nwn in aoma 
rccimenta entinly. Tho invootioD of the bayonet 
atHl more cffrft\ia!ly dEo\-e it out of oaa 

PIKE'S I'EAK, ODD of the highest aommita e( 
tha Itncky M>->iuiL.-unM (11,497 fe«t), in tbe centra id 
tbe (tnte of Cotonwlo. It was discovered bj Genend 
Pike in 1 806. It aboundi In rich gold-beuing quaftz. 

PILASTERS, B(|uare colunuis naually set ta » 
Wftll from which nnlj oni>>fiftb or omvfoorlb of tbstr 
tbivknne itkuids out. Their parte an tbe amo aa 
thiMo of (Ordinary colnmna. See Colukx. 

PII^\TE, PoxTTDH, Uis oxtb Roman pmeqnier 
of .liidi-n. ilo snoceedsd Valerius GTstna in AM, 
ie. Nulbtuji {b knovit eE liie early liiaucy. Be 
was a Donow-aunded and Impolitio govemor, aad 
at tbo very beginning of bin term of ofBce led bo 
ooantnutinaa tattaaa toe Jews at Jerutalam, vrito 
bad lived Is perfect qaletOMs for twenty yevs 
previously. He bRn]*:ht the Renun tioopa frotn 
Uaearea, which was liliniiat a piirdy Itonian lewn, 
and where, aocurdiugly, Uielr prveeuce wxe not Ukdy 
to Irritate the people, with whom tboy cams little In 
ooDtaci, to Jsrnaolcm, and cndcaTotutxl to introdnoa 
Into the aune d^ the R«nan etandarda with the 
Image of tbe emperor, in Tfolatfoa of tbe Jewiah 
wages. Eo alao nppiupriated the ror^m^ a acnd 
tovenuo deriv«d from tho redcmptioa of vo>ii^ W 
defray tbe coet of an iMju«lncb whicb be boilk In 
aopply tbs dty with water, and pot to death sonte 
Galilsana in tlui midst of the sncnficea^ which latter 
act bron^t upon him the hostilitv of Hwtti^ tatimUt 
<if Galilee. When Christ had been oendemaed In 
death by tho Jowtab priMla, who bad no power 
of infli'.-tiiiij cspital punubments, he wae eanled hj 
them to Pilate tu bt! executed. Pilate, seetngBotUng 
worthy of death in 'bJifi sent blm, as a Gaulean^ to 
Horod, who, howei-ar, eont him bade to Pilata 
Yielding to tbe etamouts o( lbe Jews the BotoaB 



PILATU3— PnXS. 



81 



fuvwwi flull; ordered Jwh to be executed, bat 
p ma ia ti J<Mrph of Aiimathek to tAke his bod; 
maA Iriij iL. PDale wm aftcm-Mila rotnovnd fmin 
hk aOe* W TlteUiiai. prvfect of Sjri» <a.d. 3«)>, 
aid, aoptraag to tt«diUf<a, wu buii&licd bj Call- 
n^ to Vlcwuk (Vienne), in (lanl, whcm lie U Mud 
w hft** djad or oammitlc*! auiddp xuae yua» after. 
Tba Act* of PUate, writt«D Id tireek, u well u 
np» LatiD lctt€ra pttr(>oitine to have botm writtcD 
by Pftftte ta tba Atapenr, &r« spurioviB. 

FUaATITS, Hosn, ft uutuutuD in SwitzerUncT, on 
tfa« bacdnM of tb> aototiR of l.noornp and I.Tnt«r- 
waldao, wnlli vt tin toira uf Lucumc aad wot of 
the TlannMtUtt«nee. Its loftl^Bt peak, the Tom- 
liiiMni^ »tC»iiw » b*!glit of 71 1 U fc«t. FonnerLy iU 
aaoetit waa dangemua kfiil rkrel; >ttentpt<M), but * 
floavtabnt pstb tip it hftviaif been tn«de in recent 
jMn it hM beoocns Mltaoat w great « favourite witb 
tamamtaim cbobcn ne the B^ on accotsnt of tbe 
hiyiMhia riewv of tb» Deim» e moBotaiD Keocr; 
ettiiBea (ma vwiooi pdati. Uone PlUtw in «ao- 
ditlfi in tbe im^Betien of the pMpIo with more 
lynii» tban any other locality in SwiticrlwuL Itn 
miinaa are popularly beli«v«d to be tbe IiauuI of 
Jt igOBi aad fHilim, and tba mountain itMlJ Is aup- 
pMM to bare got to name trtm Pontiti* l'ilnt«, who, 
wnftlBii by mnocae loe- tbe abare tbal Iil- had io ihe 
death of Cbifltt la believed br the inlmbltautii at 
thai tliftricC to have put an ana to his life by plung- 
Ui( into a glMfny lake which cnsts on tbe aniamit 
of Iha niiMuitaia. Superetitioo aildi that > Luuun 
llfvn b e uon e tii pee aeen to ri*a from this lake and 
ga An«gb tbe ope n rtton uf waduna hia handa, after 
«UA k tubt gauen about tbe lake and gndually 
enTClepa the whole Bunntain, pranging a atona. 
BeCtMoea ia naada to thii legend in the beginning of 
Seott'a Anne ol Geieratdn. Some have roppMod 
that tba name of tbo uoinBtala fe teally a comiption 
of aKHU fiUattn, that la, 'hatted Baouniaiu,' a uiuue 
wUck weald b« eotplauied by tiie fact that it ia fro- 
^OMitt^ aMMt eapped with dead% but tbe true mean- 
ing of tbe aaine appean to be 'pillar uKmntaiu,' 
tnm the LattopOa, a [Alar. 

FILCHABD (CTufMB pStkardta), a spodna of 
WmI hdadaJ In the family and genn* of the 
HetrfMi (Clapdaltt), and pupularly fcnuwu aa tba 
Gfpay H«t7^. Ilia pilduwd doeely leeenibXM tbe 
htrniig; bat la d imaller uio. iu in the latter 
iAaa the body !■ ooaipfC8»d and covered with Ui^ 
qfuleid aoal^ which am noulily rvtuuvcd. TlJe 
anar Up fa entire, the moDtb being of modcruto 
MHk Tm pQohat^ like the hcninh-a, were form^nly 
MMOBMil Blgratoiry fiiheik iu that they r«trcat«d to 
the aorthem or Arctic eraa duiiog the enmmcr and 
anieMed rotind the Britijb omata in winter and 
■frtng. 71m pUofaaidi, boweve^have been aaoer- 
•■Ibm to fre(|wiit the eooata of Britain all the year 
naad, and tatj aiay tberedve ha aocounted natire 
iibw. llMBaiMJapevmifigUmeia October, although 
the pochard baa bMO known to deposit fg^ Id Uay. 
Mr. Ooneb and otb« aathoritice maintain Uwt thoae 
fiab^ breed once a ycnr only. The food oannala 
tMaByefCr^wtaceaandanalogMuaorganiann. Theae 
iAn an tovmA ia giialw t pWcy em Ibt ■mtbem 
•oaMi ol BaglaBii, the Ckirnwalf pUdUrd fiaberioa 
hakof Ifaeee beat known and nio«t oeMiiated. The 
Mmi^ ia BMM or lea* oontiDnouily carried on, but 
Iha mautii <4 July appoan to be mb in wliich the 
eMtalteaa pruoe t ia with the giealeat ▼igaur. SboaJa 
ol pAcharda then ^>pea>, iomdkig tDUMoaa jnyriada 
el Bebw^ which are taken hf anani oE the 'aaine 
M%' — ■ ee n tr i KDoe by BMaoi of wbteib the eboal 
la auiJWdad by net^ after the thu^Mn of a huge 
jiiijral. tho Anita cl wbidi arc cradiially leweood 
m th* M* ta worited towardi aballow water, tbe fiah 
Vet. XL 



being taken ont by the ' tnok net ' aa the tfda noada. 
Watcbote, locally known n« ' bnem,' are rtatiooed on 
bdghta and riunx gmand tu iiiforni tbe (uhrruBii 
waitiuK Iu thirir hoaU b«low <if the ajiprtiach uud 
locality of the pilohanl aboala. The pilcbarJa nie 
pncktMJ fn luMi^ieadi) which eanh amtain abonl 
SIJUO fiiJiea. ITpwarda of 10,OutJ auch huffaheoda 
b«v« been filled in a ein^lo day'* fiHhing aC one port 
ThsH fiabea ore called and cured, and arc thfin piled 
into great etacka, knm which a valued oil exude& 
They reiuaia fuur weeks in these alacltB, and are 
tlien wncli^d to fr^ie theni fn>Tn the oil, packed in 
barrels, and aftvnvanls cxpiirt<.'d. Tbe pilcbanbi are 
chiefly coceamod in Spain, Italy, and FraDee during 
Lent and other failing lensona Uf late yciue quan- 
titiea of pilcharda ate preacrrod in oil, after the 
fashion of lardilut, and eKportod a>i artidea of food 
and as table deliokcin. prcacrvcd iii hormetically- 
sealed tina Mn-ny of Uic rnrnmnrdjU 'nardiuea* are 
in reality iJIahiknU, thu anrditiu (ivUk'ti »<:ri — Clicpea 
tardina—hvimi oUo included In the Homog gVDUli 
(Sec PL CV.-tVi. tig. H.) 

FHXriMAYO, or AkjmCAX, a river in South 
AiDeri<<a, rliwe fii BolEvIiv on tha eaetem decUvItiee 
of tbe Ajidca, ntair bL Id 8.; lun. 67' W., from which 
pcrint it llnw* K.n.s., paaatng a little to tbe aonUi of 
Chuijuiamia nudcr the luune ainiietiuio o£ the Ciiohi- 
mayo to about lat. 20'' 40' ».; Ion. Ca" C3' w., where 
it ia joined by the Pdaya; thonoe it flowa •outh>we>t 
and R-FLW. ftiiirowi the Oran Chaec^ fn Iia I'lata, and 
falls into the Paraguay, alxnit 4 mllea below, or 
south of Acundon ; Ut 25° 20' e. ; Ion. fir 40' w. lU 
entire length ia between 700 and 300 milea. On 
account of IM ahallawnees during tbe dry leaBon and 
the great current in tt« namiw parte it docs nnt aprn^ar 
likely to becnmriiu-fiiDy navigable. Alioiit Ifld milua 
from ita luouth it diviJv* into two bnuicheti, Ihu uurtb 
or main itraam, callod Pilcomayo or Ara^al Guam, 
and the smith Aratfiial Mini; the latUtr eii(«r« the 
Paraguay by two mouths, H miles apart, and the 
nv-int northern one 9 mili» anuth from the mouth of 
the main atrcnin. 

PILES. See HmoHRHOinH. 

PILES, in worka of enginccnDg, are usgd silbor 
for tompcinuy piirpoaea or to form a basis for per> 
Dianeut atTTji-turea. In the fonuer caae thoy are 
wnially ■(|iiareH logs of wood aharpHnod at tlxi point, 
wliich ta >>.>mctinHe proteeted with ao iron shoe to 
enable it to penetrate the harder strUa wbi<^h It may 
incut nitii In bcinL' drii-vn into thv [;ri>uji<l. Tbe 
tnotbod of placing tiicm is by niMLnii of n hmvy wirigbt 
which b raUud to a hcii;bl and then allowed to fall 
ptriwiiiliciiliu'ly on the tt'p of them. Steam i> now 
gLuerally cuiulDyed to nuse the weight in tbia opcra- 
ttoo. (Sm> STKAK-HAHHKk.) If while being driven 
into tbe ]frouud the yilvt sLiMild maulfeat rigm ot 
BpUtting at the t^ip they are pratectad by ins liagK 
'Iho molt usual puqxwo to which pike are applied in 
tomparary atruoturee ia to make cuffn^ams. They 
are driven doae together In a oirdo nnind any part 
wboitt ouginoering operation* are to he carried oo 
IwJowthe level of the attrTtiuodiiig wat«r. 'When the 
dn-le has been i:i.>itipl tried the water is poiaped out 
of the incloaed 8i:<nc< , and the operatioDi, ludi as 1^ 
ing tho fouadatiana of pien, abutmenta, Jto, ou than 
be peif aimed en dry laud. 'When the preemr* outride 
la greater ttkan a nngle row of pilee la able to leairt 
then a doubl« row I* mode with lui intervening ipaeo 
of 3 feii-t or nKirc, which is filled up with day, MOftd, 
and othar matcfiala well rammed in, or, to um Uie 
lefhnli'al tenn, puddled. The iicrtniuient ]>ur|.>(i«M 
for which pUee are employed are variuua, but in all 
casM the object ia to sDcnrs a hrm foundation in a 
looee or swampy soil. In thnic casca tbe pdlea OMd 
are fur tbe moat i*rt of awt-lrcm, sometiiiMe aolid 

Ml 



ITLETTS— PrLORIMACfflS. 



ftnd lomrtimM hollnw. Tht in«tho^ o( driving tbttD 
ia gnnornlly tlin Nunn mi with mxKlen pilon, DOt in 
two kiuiU ut jiiliM (jiecdtU mcthoO* m iiw<l. Tlie 
tma of ibwe Lb thQ sorDW-pUc, Innsted by Mr. 
MitcbelL. vhtdi iv>nni«t8 of % long shitft of motlcftbln 
Iron, niia & brotui cljsk nt tbi; foot nuula on tlia imilsr 
■Ida In the form of a lorew. Thiii IdaJ of {-Qo b 
iDScrt«d ia iu plaoo by maana of a capeUn, whicli 
worlu tbd pild into tho gronitil like n acrcw-ilrivor. 
PQw of tlii* kind are found very uw-rul in loiwa aud 
ihlfhr iidtli. TheotherkiodlBtbatpa.teiit«dI>eo«iobar 
ff, ISiS, by Dr. J. L. PfltU. Mb pile u boUow, 
ud le sunk b3P hnvin^' tha air vrittiin \t extiMtsttnl by 
an ur-iiuntp, whirli draws Lbs lacd mil] water tip 
bom tnn buttom of the fiilo Kod cc>n*nyB it to Ui« 
receiver of the air-[miitp. Aa the «aad ia removed \a 
tUa way thi^ JiUu ounliuucs to ■trik until it reai:hca n 
•oUd l<nind»tion. If a niiiglo pllo In t\'-t lima nnnngb 
fw thl« |>urua«c aiuAlivr toay bo fitted into Iod t»p of 
Um flat, taa tiib may be npeMai u oftoi u b nooei- 
my. PQm of thia deaoription have been lued with 
ntmen to form foundaticma for Kgbthniinai nn wtni!- 
baaka, a* on the Qoodwio Sanda, wli»re they have 
be«ti sunk to a depth of 75 feet. 

PILCITS. See ¥vvr,r. 

PILGKIMAGES. The practice of making [ii3- 
grfanwe* to pl-if^M '4 peculiar itaiictity la aa andent m 
It ia wida-sprcad. Tbn ancient EzyptianB and Syriaiu 
hftd privllagod temple*, to wbicb wnrahipiwrn ounu 
bom diaUnI parta. The chief teraplce of G reen and 
Aaca Uinor, thme of Athena at AtlienB, of Artomii 
nt EfAiemu. Zeut at Olympiu^ Hora at Samoa, Aph' 
ndit* M AnathBi. Paphcje, CniiJ-^ &nd <?yth<±m, 
Aaonlapiaa at Kpadaurux, awnrujed wilb atraugeia, 
vheae object in viailJiiB thnan nbrinca woa the uuno 
aa that (a Ciaini\a pUi^riuw iu visitiu|£ Jenuolcm, 
or of MohammodanB in visiting Mceca. Tha J«m 
UlcDwiae weie roijiiiitni by the Mnanjc i.iw t» gii up to 
J«n«d«m one* a yi^ar, at a fixed time, to hol<l the 
ftnat «f tbs paaoTcr; and that olan vriu a kind (i 
tSMamftL Bnl it ia io Chriatianitf and McjIuuh- 
Baoanlam that the prartloe haa attained its great^t 
dsralopmeat. Th« Gnt Cbristian pil^rimaigee wen 
mida to the ^rnvM of tho mortyn. Helena, the 
mrither of Conatautini-^ uiiule ik jountL-y to JHru«al«cQ 
to visit thn ^ai« nf Chriit, tuid her euunple f-niiiLd 
Boauy IniEtutura. St. Auctuitfau> deaoribea the tcnnb 
of St. Slophenaa liiruc^uj vlCb pUgrina^uid vuiaDa 
ether enrly ('hrintinn urilrrs hear similar (aetnnooy. 
Indued by lliu tiiDo (end nf fniirth and b^inaini; at 
fifth oentury) tho cuawu had buoums «i KonenJ aa 
to toad to alinjiM, and SC •TDromo and Oregoiy of 
Nyaao, buth >i1 whom Uvod about th<T tumo tinw •• 
BL An£iutin%orntdMreRrlier, ualuuilyi-ndr-avonred 
la diode tbo pvMtlM •• ttawug to t,T»tit iDciral oor- 
, ML objoetioB that has uwaya been mode to 
I when they haTO beoeaaa omnmon and an 
I in lar^ proocjieuoDa aaaembliea. Thruugh- 
ont the middle agae, and eepmrudly aliniiit tho year 
100t\ the relicloua fervour of the jicnpli; mouifcwtvd 
itMlf in nnmcToaa pilninuMi^ eepedoUj to JeruM- 
laai. At ihiU time toe lloly Sepidehro woa la the 
baoda of the Snniceiia, who hod at flnt troftted tbo 
Chiialiu pllpima, from whom they dorivad OMiBLder- 
ablapcofit. with lenity; but from about tho begilUllBg 
of tho tattb onttnry, whan Jnmaalrtm oune under 
tho power of tho fanatical aect i>t the FatEmieea, tbe 
I^lgnmn wort made tha vtotlma of oil forma of 
0«tn(». The oantionanoo of thia treatments In the 
MonM o4 about two oentoiMi^ gmdoaily m-odaoed 
■ocJi a vpirit of indlnintion tfaniiBhaut tha Chriatlan 
WDcU aa prepared tb« minds of Uw people for those 
OzpediClonB (the Oranadftt) for the rocorery of tbe 
Holj Sepnldira^ wkicb w«re themeelTte nothing else 
than gigaotic aimed pilerimages ond whlob nlao hod 



n powetfal offMil In stimulating; tbe 6tatn of 1 

S'urimsgw to lbs Holy Scpiilchra amcqg tbone i4o 
[f out join the Cniaade^and at tiiOM whan no 
cnuode wna in program. But tho Holy Sapnlifat 
WM not thn only s<«i of Chrictian pilgrims. PQgil- 
mngt» wem performed in the middle ages to many 
dlf[i;reiit plocva, S-^mo spota, howovw, attnot«d a 
much larger concoiirsa tbon othon^ tho credulity cf 
tbo time onsiKiiatini; with thera peculiorij great v 
Buujeruiui uiinn'ltv, or gieoidlArly oxbenHivo indal- 
geneea )>tiing gnuiitod to tha pili^nu irho vfaitad 
tlicm. Tbo ihrmu of Onr Lady of LoiroCtD^ nmt 
Itome, that of St. James d Compootella in Bpidn, of 
St. Martin of Toura in I^ance, were all lacrad spoli 
to which, frnm the tnntb to the thirtuentb oso tiu j, 
and ev«D mudi later, pHetlma nsortsd la Inanrnw- 
able oiuwda; and fn>m the end of the twelfth en- 
tiiry the ahriiin of St. 'ITiomM IWJcet at Caatw 
burybadtboeainahoDouriuEngland. Tbeloilowing 
instanes wIU ahow to what extent |illgil0»c« •<)« 
to dlatant plocea wore performod aa Into aa tbt 
ytint 1423. At that dots there went la tbe dirine 
<jI St. Jauiea uf CoojixisteUa in Sgioin, from Londca, 
2S0 pU^Tiiiu; from Bristol, 200; from Wsynmlk, 
122; from Ifartniouth, 90; from Yarmonth. 80; frsB 
Plymouth, i<l ; ftom Kxoter, 30 ; liom l i im uo el, 
24; oikd truiLi Ii«wiL->i, 20— In all 040 rdgrllM ROB 
nine towna After tho llaformatioa ths pnetiea d 
making iiilicrinia^fa fell more and more into ahey- 
anoK, and tlm apirit which Inl to It aeems obnoal le 
have beoome OXtinot amjuig Chriitiotu, altboogb 
tbora an stiU oocananal outbunt* vf it in the Boaan 
C^athnlio oommnslon, oa in the y^at 1825, <Aa 
Ia-u Xll. pToclidmod a jubQee^ Mid loigo aomhsn 
of pilgrima Hocked to Itoma bmn all parta of Cbfi» 
tondum; and Hipaa En France In 187S, aod Boat 
eepeciaUy Id 1s73, when various sacred iMSdltlai In 
that countf?, but ahon; all raray-lc-moniol. wet* 
viaitod by pilgrima from oU parta of Frtnca, aod 
ovta frooi foreicn ooimtriea, indnding Baglaa^ 
Tbeee outboiata^ however, arc troiuiloty aad loeal, 
and comparative Iv weak. 

During thu rai^dlo ag«s, when pQgibnaess mn at 
their hciKht, It fa odcnnwled^ed uiat tb^ wan to ft 
^■rcat eitcnt noxious in their efloeta. Tbe plea of 
beins alMiit to undertake > pitgrimago to somo boa- 
ourvd ihriuu «':ui iiiuilu hy Ui» poor the enroe for 
men<UcuLqi', by whi^ they often aattaiod mrnddar 
able aume of nirinoy, which wen neari7 as often 
aqnandervd at Konu^, or whaterer olber plooo tba 
pQl^ibaamlithtbedetiUned fcr. In all Idoda^i exoeaaoL 
On tht other hoed, it haa oftisi bean pdntad oat ttal 
tbny served aa a great mesa* of eenmiudeatiaB 
bertween differaut nations, and Ifana proanoted eon* 
meroe and tbo diffudon «C BMBy arts and i)a|)t«*«- 
monta. 

For Mohammbdans the gnat plau of pUgrimsao 
is Mecca, the btrth^placoof the founder of tudr idi- 
gion, and thn plaoo when utanHa the Kaaba, or a»iiwd 
nltar, which u bsUsved by Muhammedana to have 
baen origtnolljr bnilt by on aageL and wfakih mads 
Meoc« the resort of Arabian pijgrima tone l^aAirs 
tbo time of Mohammed. Stvj joar joat baft** 
the feuit r.t Bi^iwa large nnrana anire at Mocek 
from all (juartcn. The persona wfao Job theee ran- 
ran* bavo uininlly two objncta in view — firrt, thai of 
porforuiingi a rcli;;ioua duty, and second, that of doing 
aome bnalnoBs: for these [idlgilmagM to Mooca i 



commercial fonMscs to a mnch larger oxteat than 
thoae of the Uhnstiana in tbe middle wea. Aa mndi 
Uewrttonineaa b said to prevail In these MokaauDedaa 
asaamUlos aa avor dia^acad the CbriatlaB pOgrim- 
smL Among the Hiadus and the Buddhiats alto 
the pnctlce m iJurfunuiDg pili^rimagaa hu^^y [w- 
valla, la India the priaapol reeofte of pQ^ime aia 




PILLAB-PIXOT. 



83 



Km ■MamBMB tjwwfii of tlie HmmI (tf'iflUtaBttt, 

In tfa* HoHnoQ of OriNft; aad Ui« tvDipU of EHoro, 
la Urn K]iMm't DandiiioiiiL Amaag us Buddhiats 
cMtein p^podAB in China, mad the inoit nv«r«<I 
iBmuMtarica of tJio wliMntiiU of Ijumumi in Tibet 
•nd Tutarr, kr« vW(«cl by nunxtivius [lil^Tuuit. 

FlUJiR. 8m Caunai. 

P] I.LAK'eAtNTa Sw Sttlitc9. 

PILLAU, « ampart of Emit l>nii«li^ 25 mila 
WAw. of Kcinigsberg, U lli« KntUiern txtrvmity uf 
ft narmr MiuBiaU fcinn«l bjr tJie Baltic sad the 
n^adics mA. 'Tha |wrt (t Mfc and comtni^liono, 
and aS pwitli gotiu to KunigabarK or KlliiuK '^P 
Imm. Itla«oniMCl«awitbKSlUjpb<ri;b,TnKlln'ay. A 
foM ywtaet i A« pU««i Uodi &ihii]g u carried oa 
hvc Pop. 11*80). »^5. 

rrLlJlJUrr, ** Pn-Lmiinr. k town in India, In 
the dblrlet of Sanilly, in the Xorth-met PtotIuwo, 
Mtt mfliM aorth-VMt from Talcnttn, oo tho l!nmh, 
la ttM MihvpAt lur an cxtoEudve tnvBio between the 
■BBir and law«r oountiy, mora flmdally for Hoe, 
nikb b ««lebf«ted aver India for ito wMtonMs uid 
8aa flaroor. It fa grown tn the aodth of Ki»nai>n, 
■Bd iac«iy tta name frc>m twtng brought to Pillilihit 
ioTHla. Rllibhit oontaina goxnnaBnt b»rticiiltnral 
■wJw^ aad a bwntiful noaquo biillt by Bnfu 
Mbdo^ a SobilU eUel Pop. 90.CKK>, 

PILLN IT/h a polaee of tha Kin^ of Satonj oB 
lb* 4g|fat bank of the Elba, 7 miloa from Dnvdan. 
n* ooort ramliM b«i« utnuaDy for lauie time. lu 
^tBatim k Vaj beantlfuL In hbto^ PUInits fa 
tMBOoa far a neetioffof tlie Emiwmr Le»p>>]d 11 
Fndarkk HfBlUm U. of Prnnin, tin Count of 
AHtia, tba «-B)liibt«r Calwmv, and Kveml <)th«E 
pwiBWf^ horn Angni* £1 to S7. 17»t. A CrMty 
af flbodn alliaDM waa not ooneliKtod, hut pr<:liini- 
aaciaa arara a^pvad oo for adeftmiva alliauoe Letween 
Aairtria and PruMla, which vm Mttled at Ih>rUn, 
Ftb. 7, ITKL Tha FKucb wars nwtly i(ritnt«d by 
'Jtia ooDvcntSoa, which thmj oon^arad aa tha baab 
o( tha ooaJhioa of Europe agalnat Fnuioe. 

PILLOBY, a bauo of WNd oracted on poota^ with 
naraUo boards and bdoa thiotigb whieh wvro put 
tba bead and banda of a criminal lor pnniahmout. 
la thia ai l u atiia crimlsala In Britain waro luniiurly 
oAoL axpoanl to tlio outngaa of Hbm mob in a wa; 
I n iwih ne n t with an; mional notions of pnnfabTncnt. 
Ttaaa who w«re affoutife to the crowd were in nn 
wtmO danoar bvat tba mlMllaa by whiob tli«y wer« 
aariWL Tin cnloric waa allowad to malta siwecbca, 
Ain^tac **— — " and aUackins hfa enemicn. In 
ISIA am puBHfcBMDt waa abdfahed In all onaea 
aamfit that of [Hirjnry^uid it haa iinoa baas abolMied 
altanlkar (by act 1 Vicu cai>. xxilL, Jsne 30, ISST). 

PlLLft. owdidneB made np In glotmfaa of a oon* 
vaucal riM for awallowiag wfaole. Tbejr at^tDtry 
mwlfjlil la S gialna. Soma vamtabla anbatanooa UHd 
m — dfclaaa jlaj bo mada Into |^U« without cho 
alfitfao of mj otbw natMial. bat naiully tho nib- 
atMMaa hMibf nte^dnal pmpoKica aro nut uf tho 
prapor aoBifalinei to ba mado into jillfa by thom- 
nma, aod ntiuire the additinn of loma other mato* 
rial,nkhfacu]odaDCict|>ient. Thuoaualciclpienta 
aca laiail rmiiil^ hard bobi^ astract of li^aoricav 
mnMtftf •Trap, tread?, and eonaervo of T(Mm. Tho 
1m* Ivq an too atort ^'^uabts, pnaerving tbo proper 
' cf tiba pilU for a vcfj Ions ttmo. The 
> of which [dUa iM« made are mixed together 
Ib b — riar ontfl th^T are p«rf«ctty bmnq^eoecua, and 
an rftarwarda diridod into pilb wltb uutm&mta 
4k«ind lor tlM pnrpoaa. To prevant then from 
-'*— *^ to <ma aaoUMT, m wolf at to aome oxtcnt 
to otoaaa ! tba taato^ tbay are oowred with aomo fine 
ptinJar, and aa Jii^ooilco powder, wheal flour, fias 



•ugar, and on the Continent lyooptxliom, which fa 
vary mucb uaad th^ro. ]iiati>ad of thin powdur pUfa 
aometimoa recoivo a tbiu coating of gofi] or ailver. 
PUla ar« a highly sultabla form for admloJilolnf 
medictnea wUcb operate in amall doaea, or whioh ara 
iati^niliMl to act alowly, or not to act at all until tbaj 
rvttcli the luwer luteatinoa, and In eome other oaiea. 
PTLOT and PILOTAGB. A pUot ia a poiMU 

3iiAlitiii3d to DavigAto a vuaaol within a paTfeicnlar 
ictnct. Tbe pjloti (if tile UuitH] Kingdom are 
fvnuod into MwuckUunit at diff«r«nl placea by aneI«ot 
(rbaxtcn of inccrpomtlaB, or W particalar statatofc 
Thf prinnipnl of thcao aaarninTHnt are the Brotfur* 
!]«od o( Trinity Houae of Doptford Strood: tho Pel* 
lijw abip of thd Pilot* of I)ovi>r, Hoal, wiil tho I»lo of 
Thauot, or tho Cin4aD Port PUoU; and tho Triiuty 
Haaata of Hnll and Newoartie. Tho law rolatlDg 
to pQoU and [iQotnge la contained iii acta 13 and 17 
Tict. cap. cix^.; 17 and 18 ^^ct, cap. ax. (Morchant 
Shijiping Act rf IMll, It. v.; 26 and 26 Vid. can. 
Ixiil. a 8a-42; 85 and 39 Vict. ca.p. Uiia a. S*-ll; 
and S3 and S7 Vlrt. cap. Uxxt. ». 19. Tht Trinity 
Ho>a» of Dnptford Strood it iiitnjxtvd with th« 
i;cn<.Tid regulation and RU[iiir{ntondeuoo of pUotom 
for the Uuit<id Kiugdom, and hiut in addition the 
•ntJTO adininintrHtloD within certain dintricUi, I'Iimni 
are, let, tlw Li.iiiduu Diatrict, C(>u){'riiuit{ the TliatDca 
and Uedwsy up to Londcn Bridge and Roctaoitcr 
Bridge rMpecUtvly, and Iha sosa or obannela leading 
tharato mm Orfonlneaa on the north to Dunpmma 
on the Kiutb: Sd, the Eogllab Cbannel Dfatriut, from 
thinganeaa la the hla of Wight; Sd, the Trinity 
MoiMe Outpnrt iliatrirt^ which CdDiUit nf Ihoae for 
wbidi DO particular provijdan hi miulo by any aot of 
PwUament or charter. It fa wiapulaoTy upon all 
viawta aboT* 04 tona btird?n, oiccpt ooaattnc vaaBola 
nob carrying paaeeng«r% abipa bound to Itoiilogno or 
to any plaoo north of Botuogno, objae-liMlen abhn 
from Ui« Chaonol laUnda, and aUpa nai-i^pti ng wltbln 
tijo limitJi cf tho port to which they l>«li>ng, to havo 
cin Ixiiutl, within the Lcindnn Diitnct and tha Out" 
port Diitrit-t* of Ttinity Houa«, a pilot qualified to 
act wlthb tbe Uraila of auch dfairicta, uiileea tha 
vtasol bo merely mwinf tfan^b tbcw limita without 
loocling or utiliuLdiai; at any port witliin tlicmi. In 
lli« dislrii-'ta l>#youd the adnilniatrati'iimf tliv Trinity 
Hoiifo of Doptford Str'>Dd the obli^tiona to and 
cxcTnptiiinx frrim comptkUnry piiotnco wbich eifatod 
iKftire the Merchant Snipping Art td ISM were oon< 
tinu«<d by that aot; but tbo vailoQa pQota^ autbori- 
tics woro empowBrod, with tha aanctjon of an ordor 
in onnndl, t« make now cxemptiona nr extrnd tb<^wa 
already fai mw. Pilotage aulborltiea may aim, with 
tho Bama annctlDn, altor and fodaea Ui« nt«e of 
I^lotage, amnga Ibe limits cl pQotaga dutrlcta, and 
maJfo by-lawa tnr varioas oth«r ob^ecta; Init if any 
audi by-law, or any pQofci^ ragnUtiuu in furco pro- 
vioua to the paaaing of tho aot. fa n^ipoalod ngainat 
by tbe mftjon^ of tb« pQota, by tbv local marina 
bovrl, or, where there k none, by alx mnateta, ownaai^ 
or inaiirm of ahipa, it may bo rcvnlced or altered by 
tho Inunl of trade. The board of trade may auo 
appoint a new pilotage authority for a port under 
the juriadiction of tb* pUotago antbority of another 
port, nnli'M Uinl pilnt.tco Authnrity buiijxni to be tha 
Trinity IKmi* "f lA-jilford .SlninJ. l-.iery qtudUed 
pQut on hfa appointment rocci^cs a Uconco for a par- 
lictilAr district from the pilotage antbority of that 
district. Mactcra or matca of any abip may, upon 
gtrlng da« notioe, be oxamlnad and paand if tba 
pQotan antboHties, and rocdro pOotan certifleatai; 
Tn tMs oBoe tbey most be renewed tvety year. 
Further, any master or mat* of a ablp may oMalD 
frcm the board of trade, after asaminatica, a certi- 
fieata to tbo effect that he Is aotborind to pUoi waj 



M 



r— PIMPERNKL. 



cUp or ships belnvglng to tliD same owner of u;c! 
nnQST D oertMa djitu^^ht of wnter. Any quaIiG«>il 
nUot who koepi, or is iut«rest«d in ketping, a public 
buUM, or in gelling' wino, Hpirita, tobrkco, and t«A: 
or who commiU tuj fraod agiuniit thn ciistoms or 
•nds^ or is guUty of oorrupt pnclious u to ciiipe. 
MipJM, crews, at paasengors; ivho loods his license, 
•ds M pilot whilst Buspeii'lol or wh<tn ttruiLk, fi&usea 
vaamemmary Mp«ii»e to euhanco faiii avm or aoine aae 
•In*! gsla; dwulnee, without rvwoa»bl« ctiuM. to go 
off vMi ri(;ulbd for or iivqnirMi; mmecoMErily cuu 
or ilipa ft Cfthln; rfifiUM to oondnct a ship into port, 
exH]>t an reaaunaiblo ifruund of dangur to the iibip; 
or ItWiTes th« ship of which h« is in chiu-gD, without 
tho iDMlor'i caaUDli bcfon; tba terrlco for which he 
was Ured hu bsan performod— r«nden himself Usbte 
to map«asion or diamisssl, sa well aa to » pensJty 
not ojiooadiiig £300, in ftdditiaD to damagM to tho 
penoB* aggrieved. Pilot boala naat alto b« approved 
and lIccuBed hy the pilotage anthoricica. TheymuA 
l» pninU^ hliick mibiidn, and have the namo nf the 
owner ouJ gxirt tn thrcv-inuh l«ttcr9 ou tba stcru, 
number of licenao on the bows, and a largv fla^ with 
the upper half white and tho Inner hnlf rod; and 
whouevia- a pilot i» c-nmitd ulT to a ■hip in a boat not 
heloui-Sui; to tba iiiluture •«r^■ice be must niliiUt a 
pilcft's lint;. Pilotof^ fiBCi dcpoud on thu dmu^ht u( 
wat^ of tho ship pil»tod, and (ivr ve«H£li) with a large 
draught of water aw very much higher than fur tbow 
with a suiall one. In Britaio an owner or nuut«r <i( 
an^ ship is luuwonblo tn any piuwuu for any lotta or 
daniacc occMrioned by thfi fault or inoapodty of any 
quaJtflad pilot acting in charge of Nuch ship within 
a&y district wbaro the empliiynciit of aucli pQot la 
oompulsory; but tlie pUuC wiitt not be InterfGrvd 
with in th« dlscbftrea oi bia dnUcc. Utlicr maritime 
coiuitriia havo also paflKd Uwa to r«^lato the 
plloti^ of TCMcla. In. the UnJted Statu oacb in- 
diTidiul Mkte nutko Its own Kgnhtiona as autbor- 
ind hy acta of OoDgreMi Themoat important body 
lit pili'ita tn tbo United 8tat«a ar* thona nndor the 
ldli>t conunJHlointi of New York. The ius>t<!r uf 
a T««Mcl with a pjtot on tnud baa BtUl tho macagd- 
mcbt uf the vmsuI, and sees that sbo is kept in tbi' 
oourse the pilot dtmcta. A laaKtor raftuiDg to take 
a pilot viUatw the luauraiLoe on the veaMl. 

PILOT FISH (.Vou(Ta(«. or Seamier clucfor], a 
eenns of Tiil«»l<^n fiahfui inclodfid in the Swnnbor- 
liln: or Mackcrul fniidly, luid muxetinioi iiiduilnd in 
tho samn gitntis iSotmfirr) as the Msck«Tvl itself. 
Theev fiahoi dcrivo thoir pupolar name froio their 
babii of following shipe for long distances^ led pro- 
bably by tlie cxpMitfttion of food being thrown ovet- 
board. Itisalsociwlited with leading sharks towards 
food, bviiic freqTioDtly eoen aocompuytn;; tLv huh''^ 
SibMi ilthougli Dbaen'en hara rtSitMl that thoy have 
nottoed sharka prevented fmm scitin^ a bait by scvi^ral 
pUat fialiea, and tlsat wbun the sliuk hiul wrtunlly 
Mbed th« tDonvl the smaller fl«b«6 dung to mu 
duri^a body u it wu bein^ pulled oat ot ^« water. 
*rhe ascienla credtbed the pdlot fiabea with the lalmnr 
o( directing the mariner la his proper onnnH.- wht-u bo 
had loot nckoniiiKof hii way. Pnbabty a similar in- 
Ktinet and dodre lor food more than any other or more 
roysl«rioitB relationship oansea the aawiciation of thoc 
liiihee with the sharks. Tho avwace length is about 
ISioehea. Ingenoml fotmit reee uj wce themackiirel 
III oolonr is a allrer gray, raerging iota blue «d tho 
bade, whilst the body in marked by five endrdlng 
biuida cd a dark blue colour. Unc doml Gn esiala, 
and free aj^nea exist before this and alao befor« the 
anal fin. Both tbe upper and lower aspects of the 
tail are 'keeled,' that u, poisnui a nurtilaginooa ridge. 

PILPAY, ur BtnrAi. Iha reputed autlior of a 
collection of fablca which iuve bean circulatod for 



nearly 2000 yeara in nomberleM tTKBtUtioM Ud 
redHdJuUi, anioQi; all tiit DaticKM of tba Eaal and 
West The caMul tovesdeatiaDa of Oolelmek^ 
Wilson, ^ylvMtr«deSHj,LouelMirdeaLofigcbani(i^ 
and Betifry have suooeeded In tneing tho onicio d 
this co^llectloD, Its gradual dovelopmetit, and iLe 
vkrimu obon^os it has iiiidorgon«. Tbe osiginal 
soiiroe is the old Indian orJlectioB of fjtblea <»IM 
Fam-baUutra, vrbicb is aiK-ribod to OCM Viabnoa'M- 
man, and which acquired its pr—ent fbnn nodtr 
Buddhist inJlQencv*, nut earlier uan tlie wooad e«- 
tury ac. It was afterwards apnad over aD b&t 
and hnnded down frnm iigc to age in vaiioaa mm 
or las diBerent reniuna, and in ti^nalations tntoall 
tbe laugusgii* of Nortfa«ni and Saotbam India. The 
ODilHMTtioD of faiiln known onder tho oudo of m»- 
piulc»'a is chivily bas«d ontUsolderooUeotloa. Thi 
uld IniUiui PAiLcbataatia mu tnnslatad Into Nilen 
under the title of KtUla and IMmna (tho amn el 
two jackals who appear in the fintt fable), la the 
■Lxtb ccntiiry of our «r», by Barf uy«^ pbyaiaan to 
King Nuibirvan the Great, hy wbooe onfcr tba tnoa- 
latioQ was mad<'. Thia nhlevl tnaslntiaa ww 
itjwlf tho liodis of a tnnaUHoD Into AnUo, wUeb 
was made in the efafath oeoton nndor tho Caliph 
Almanwir; and thia latter Innautian m tbe meJndi 
by wLivb tbvee fiiblet have been Introdaoad, directly 
or Indirectly, into the langiuigoi of tbe Wast. Thw 
Araliic Kalila and Pimna waa traoalaled (I) into 
Oreok by Symcrm Sath aboat 1080 (AtboM, 1S£1): 
(2) into Hebrew by the Babbl Joel about ISM; asd 
(3> into Spanish iindar AUonaa X of Caatili^ alw 
alMyiit 12£il>. I'bo Ifebrew veraion was reBdared iBia 
I^tin between 12413 and 1278 by John of Capaa, 
and the Spanish one waa rendered into tba same laa* 
guage by Ilaymonct ron Btfaenabont 1313; and tat 
or other of tbrM two 1 .atin TCnloiia bas be«a (oUamd 
iu nearly alt tbu (nuuilations by wfaicb tfaeao Mies 
wore tint iiLtro;luocd into nearly «U modani Banpaa 
languagoi. Tho fir«t KiigUab tmulatioa wampab- 
liahnd in 1.170. The original Sanskrit text of the 
Paui-bAtjLntra was pubUslwd by Koaegartcn at Bcno 
in iblS&d, and a Gensao tranalaticrp, by Banfoy, 
with an intniduction trainng tba atorica through 
tbcrir aiib>«|iient history, at Leipng in 1859; there is 
aino n Frenrh tinviivlnUiiii ixilli iKluable pcefaoe and 
notce by Edoinrd Lmmrean (Paris, l&TtK 

PILSEN, Neo, PmiLS, or I'lLflB.^, a t«wTi in 
Bohemia, iu a plain Ivtwccu llie Mke and Bradawfci^ 
whic-h Ity tbcir oonflnwH-* a little below fiina tho 
Benron, 68 milca ■outh-wutt uf Pra^'ue. It i* walfed, 
entered by fi?s galea, and La well built and wdl 
paved; baa a doaooiy church, a epleodid Oolhk 
(tnictiire of the thirteenth csmtury; a town-iioaaah 
Pranciocau mvnutery, theatre, lycuum, Kytnnaaum, 
barrncks, infant and otbar schools; and tuportant 
nianiifacttitvs of woollen^ leather, pottery -ware, man- 
col iuitnimsnta and iron-wke, large bn!WeT^Ci^ and a 
cwiuidemlile goneial trade. Coal, Iron, and alam an 
worked in tho nelgtabottrhood, FUaan pnw— aJ a 
printing-prriBe aa early a< 1175. It waa csic* a fsv> 
tilled town, and was aoTeml tlmea barftged during 
thoHonhewan. Id 1S18 itvaartatuMby Mana- 
fcld; and at a Inter period, in tbe I'birty Years' mi^ 
wa« for a time tho hcad-ijuarten uf WallenatMn. 
Poj.. (IR^tJ), 33,884. 

rlMKNTO, or FnmrTA. See Aujarici. 

l'I&U'KRNXL(il>Mk^i«),agenuao(plaBtal 
Ing to the natural omer Prin»t»oe^ and 
gnUiad by acadnoons, wheal-shapod oonilhi i 
n-itb bearded flkoMnta^ and with antfaen find baUad. 
Tho fnUt )a a pyxfa er eapanla opBOter by a •iii|»' 
shaped lid. TheiiMpo/iMarvnut^or Field Plmpanai^ 
Is a lieautiful ■■m.nmt, which grows in cultivated dia- 
tricts, and is common nearly overywban la Eorept^ 



lenatMn. 

ibaloog-fl 
1 distin^ 
atuMoaV 



pm— PINDAB. 



SB 



» 



Mtd tcMiffbiiiy; UMOot<i>U»«xoc«dt tbe calyx but littl«. 
Tba Bvwm acvwiiMdiDM aearlat, with ■ inirple ■!»( 
in th* eatn, Mid MmetflOM hlne. Thtae tvo Idndji 
at* W M ttfaw i«ffMt]«l >■ iliBtinci upeciea, c&]l«d 
WCtiwhr JwngiJf it pAo-B ■.■yg anil A <ui(iallit tttrulra, 
i womtmamm obIj h vkrivtiM. Thu tpediat is win> 
aioaly kmxm ht K«gi»~* (iriura the soiurlec-&>wer«d 
twirtjr k by fw the moit eommmi) m tbe * gxior 
nm'a wc«tbar-gla<H,' from tlio fact tlut ita flowttn 
do aoC optA Id nkln; ««atli«r. lu finu weather Uj«y 
Cfia akdOk «C^t m the morning luid dMo kbout 
mML The Bog I'imiTmcl {.inatjaliU iciulla) U mi 
otnaMlj diUcBta hmm Lieauitiful planl, wLLdi gniwa 
fa lfa> dn*r put* ol ButnbM In Eoglaiid, bvt liwl- 
doB MiB is ft*^^"-* III flowsn ore red. Mid it u 
ilMln,iililiiiiT tram the FIdd Pinwemel by the fai-t 
thai il* corolla oonslderabi; oxoeeda th» ctijx. The 
Una mkI Bao wirticaof tho JndfNiZfM tvffirKi, ori^D- 
kQj ft native of South ATricat ttave been intrndiiMd 
iala cardeaa ki Great llnutim, where thojr have a 

FIN, a fhn of wire, generally bnum, aliarp at 
tmr aod aad with a h«ad at tho other, cbieBy used 
hf woaMB tn adjtiatinf their dm*. By tbi> old 
netboda of maaulactaiv tbo distiDct proceMMa were 
moaU; aaid to ba Enurtaan, btgimdng with atralgtit- 
aaiaK tba vira after it bad bevn thonniiclily olcaocd 
Md |jiwi|{lit to tbo raqnlred lize. The atnl^hteninz 
waa aAaelad bj dnwing it betiveen iron pina Gied 
In n board tn a xlgxaf toannar. The vrire wan thii* 
m out bio leDgtba of 30 Icot, whieb were luaui 
ect bno abofftar piaatt, tuh voAdsnt tea threey four, 
ur aix fiMta. Poi&tiBg wm deiM by griiuUag the enda 
speai aioMM or aled q'lUidera, Uditr or forty of the 
■nrca Woe ^>*U ttcatber Id the haxMb and luade 
to ntats aa Ibdr audi wen a|>plied to the grinding 
enrtaoea. A lad nf tndvo ynun) of ago ooold thua 
pgisl 18,000 in an butir. "fbey wttrv then cut into 
tb« l%bt lei^[tbi; and Ilia U'u not |>olnted were 
lahiwa^ to Ina peuitcr. Tbu pio-bcadii, nuule of » 
ftaar wiia^ war* prepand hy winHmg tbpm by a 
laAa Into • nlral ttrand either wirca. Tbrea tunia 
ti tha tfioi MW out off funiiabed the bead for 
ana fib Tba beaJSt were annealed b; being brought 
•o a red bea^ aad then abided by the blow nf a 
haannar. Bacb ooa being talcea up ub a ufu-vrir^ 
wd thia bitivdvoed point downwud in a hcje in the 
eeatn ot a die, n Mow fmm a dmp-haanncr wnrltcd 
br • tread]* aooared the head to the pio. Sevirr^ 
aABtional proocaMa were oacwary for preparing Uif> 
piM br tnarlcct, and dMKiati the pina are now nu'lo 
alnwal anlirety by muliuierj tbeae pnteueee atill 
iiaiiiin nnich tbe aamc. They are cleaaod by butliitf* 
tbaoi half an bour in eoor be«r or mlution oif tartar. 
Tu wUt^ er tin tbem tbey are laid lo a eepper pan^ 
■MannAs layen with gr^-tiii. aad wbMi tbe 
■el ia nearly full water ■* added and boat tipplied; 
ibotaaonacreauiof tartar la added, and the Ih<U> 
fay ii cootiniMd fur an bow. To gin tbem a poICsh 
the* «n p«t Into atubeentainbynqDaiitityof bran, 
wbu ii Mt in tDotiea by tumbg a shaft that nwa 
tbfMwb it> eenCre, and tboa by meana ot fric-tiim the 
fiaa bapo— cntiray brigtit. Sticking tbo pLiu in 
pafaa wm Jonnnly a ■ouoo el cmDloyiaunt to great 
ft'T*"— ef wenoi and diQdren aVwut tbe pjn-fac- 
tialaa, bat tbia ia new done by an inganiana and com- 
pllralril maaMae. 8oUd-baaaed pint, whldi are tboeo 
BOW muntly Is naa, were firat mado in 1834 by a 
■hUm fnwted by Ur. Wright of the United 



Varfona ImprovemeAta have aiacc been 
latndoieod, emdaily bv Mr. How«, aad the machinea 
mm wJL edndi eumpUle tbe pin to tbe colciutiag 
tad pefloUng^ ar« altogether loo eompUcnted for a 
paeHralar deecriptioD. 



PINA CLOni, an eitremoljr loft and doUeate 
ffthric. tbo maniiijwtnr* of wliich i» iH>culiar to 
Manilla. It ia made from tlie uuajitui Glirea of the 
leaves of the cultivated pine-applo plant {Ananiuia 
Mlint), and the &nor qoalltico ore alway* made in 
•mall l^eoo, atnce only nngle Gbree are uaed forthetn. 
For Uie eoaner qiuditlea aaveral fibraa are ort«iD 
jdsed toc«Uk«r, an «• to malm waip threads of eon- 
aid«rmhle length. lU oaioor ia aJmnat white, but liaa 
n KlJgbt tingB of yellow tn tL In apite of tbe ddic»cy 
of lUi t«nur« it i» remaikablv stroeg. ita cbiBf uaa is 
far mnirfng iKdiee' pocket aandlturcbiefi, but it la 
aumetiiaee also used for dreffien It ia froquostly 
adorned with ex4)uL«ito embroidery. 

I'lNACUTlIEK, c.r Pisakothkk (Gi«iOt ptnoto- 
tAfJ:f\ A uAUe oouietimes applied la Gennauy to 
galloriea of art, espaatally ooUoctioni of painUcga, 
'Jbc Pinaootbelc fbrmctl by I.ohu I. of Ilavaiia at 
Munich is partimlarly tamouj^ 

PINCHBECK, an alloy of oopper, known also 
under the namco of inulaliiM ftr«n«;, tomttof, JffotMf 
htint ffild, priner'M metat, te. Tbia nlloy cnntalna 
iibuut SQ pur i-aut. of cupper and SO per ceiiL of ilnc^ 
lead and n littlo tin boing also somctimce prcscnL It 
i* cheaper thiin true liranxc, whf;:h ih an alloy ot 
i;u]i|>er and tin, and ia uiutb uk4 for making unia- 
aiHit)tal artielea. 

i'DCCKlISYA Pt^EXS. or Gtouau B^k, • 
nmiUl Uee doaely raembling the cinehena or Peru- 
vian barb, and aald lu puasout tbe same febrifuge 
nunJitiea, grewlng wild in the soutbera parta of 
U«uri,'ia. It belong tu tbe natural order Ciiicbonaoea; 
It rarely esoeeda '2S feet in height, by 6 or 6 Incbeo 
in diameter at baM; the leavea ara opjioaile, C ur 
6 indioa long, oval, and acute at eanb sitremity; the 
fluwen are |svtty large, whtt«, with loogttudlud 
Btripo of roee-oolonr. and are diapcaed in beantifnl 
cluatcn at the vxtreiuitic* ot tbo bnki><'ti'i-e ; each 
flowHT iv ac<i>[n|)Wiivd with a Hand luf, iKirderod 
with rose-oolour near tbe upper uarxEu; the corolla 
is tubular; the ■toJueiia five, with a tinijle alyle; and 
the capsnle otnitidn* two c«11ji and niimerijiia aeeda. 
Tbe wotid ia aoft and unfit for use in tbu nrta. Tbo 
inner bark Is eKtreDwly bitter, and ia tbe part 
cQiiiloycd with auoooai in iuUinuittt'Dt Forcn. 

I'lNDAR, tbo nuMt impntuoiu and aiihlimnor the 
lyrlv pouta of Gt««v& Ptndar waa boni in Btratia, in 
or acar Thebes, of a nobte family, in the slxty-flftb 
OlymriiAd, abont $0.2 ii.r. His father, or liia nnch^ 
in aaiil Ut liavc bci^n a lluU)-nlayer, and be m eaid to 
)iav« beeo himself a lunah'rly [wrformer un tbe lyre. 
At on early age be was instructed In musio and 

IKjetry; and for tlut dcTt^kipntrntcf his pocticol talent 
LU waa tent to Atb<;na, where bo bocoDia the pufJl 
uf Laaos of licnnionc, tbo founder of tho Atfaeoiaii 
school ti ditbynUDbic poetrj. Id ofter-lifg ba sbowod 
biniHif ft great admirer of Athena and tbe Atheniui^ 
who rewarded him during bis lifetime for Ifae bononn 
he \«dd to them by nalclBg bin a poblio gnealof the 
city and girlng faint a pneent of 10^000 draohmai^ 
and after his oiub eraoted ft rtatne in his bonour. 
t>n tiia return to lliehea he waa eapeelal^ indebted 
f<ir tbe furtbrr cuItivitUuii ot liia |»utic gifts to tba 
boautiful Corinna, who was hcrstilf a diatiingilMMd 
poet, find ix nniil tn havn oht-tinird the prlsa UON 
than uDtn in tlic ikktUi.' TTjnipttitiun with lier biend. 
lilt waa bdil in gr(<at hrinnur by nrnuT piinoooeC 
Greek stat«% lor whom be compMcd cli>^ soDSii 
Alexander, Idag of Uaeedooift, was one ot his moM 
ardent patron^ and it was probably in gratitude fur 
Uie praises Pindar beatowcd U{H>n him that hia 
deeonidant, Alexander tbo Qieat, gave onlera tbat 
Findai'a bmn la Tltaboa ditmld ba apuad when tba 
root ef the dty waa deebvyad. Little else Is known 
with Certainty of hIa life; erea the date of bis death 



86 



PDfDAR— PINB. 



tedoobtfill; accaniing to »ntae he dial in Eiia slxt^* 
Uttt Tear, acoordlna to otben 1ib tivvil to tlie a^-e of 
ligiAy or nluoty. Tbo moct prottaljlci accouol ap;H.'iLn 
to Im thkt he (lieil At tho hgo o( eighty, in ntii<:h nutn 
bit death woulil faU about 44'J h.C. IIo practued 
bU IdniU of lyrio poetry, utd excelled equAuy tu aH. 
Bit worfci (OnbTiiOcd bymoi to tbo g<^ pBai;^ dltby- 
mmb^ dandnf and drlnldiig songi, dirgoa, -ptucgyhca 
Ml pnnc«^ ana hj^ani En honour of the victon uf thu 
gpmaa, but tbo only piwni> of lU>i, vitb ono exiwptiiin, 
wUob havti wima dvwa to ua uitiro belong to tbe 
lull tUtM, tbo EplnicU. The ons exception nfemd 
to !■ tbe ode w-hicU nppoAn id o^ttoiiB of Pindar at 
the elwrenth NemFwi, and «bicl] «m iiit«tid«d to 
wlebrato the InstalUtion >A AiUUtipiTwi u ptytanis 
at Toosdm. I-'orty-livo ot the ppinicLin odes of Pin- 
dar are «UII extant {inditiltn^ till •innjiiitineiitioncd). 
Fourteen of tlnjne uru in w-Oolir«li«u uf (llywiplo vio- 
loTB, tweh-0 of FytbiaD, eleven ol Xumi-'ao. anil eight 
of lalbmian. Not only thu compcrur* attd their 
(rlluw'ciUxaai^ but all atmbbd Qroeoe, waa colo* 
bntcd ill hia pouDB, and tbos tbey weiv ■oos apnad 
wborevcr tbo Gnek los^a^ wu epokim. To 
tmdentuid Pindar it ia nccownry to bo inUmatdy 
MX^u^nted with Greek &iitif|uitii-B. In Uio jadg- 
ment of tho best critics hia poanie belong to the matt 
beautiful re m oJ n B vt andent lihinturc. Fratfmcnta 
of bia other workf h&vt also been preMmed. Of the 
•dition* of Pindar ttiu following daeaive to be reoom- 
mended:— that of BiwUi (Leipnz, 1 SlI-SS, two rob.) ; 
that of DtMtD (eeeond ediiiuu, l>y Scbueidewlu aud 
LotttKh, Gotiu, 1843-65); Uist of Itorgk, in ttie 
Poetn lyrlci (ined (third edLtJnn, Eiciiuig, vol, i., 
18il«>; and that of Honi»u»ii (Berlin, I86J). Hii 
odea have Snoa tratuiUt«d into Engliah by F. A. 
Paley and otben. 

PINUAR, Pbter. Rm Wni,ef>T. 
I'lNDAitKKS (that in, fruhvittrt), the name 
giron in Briliah Indb to the borda of mounted rob- 
brnt who for ecTcral yoazt (after 1812) infested Uio 
[HKirMJona of the Eiurt India (Tnmpany. In the 
autumn, when tbe Narbada U n luw thut It \t ford- 
ahlo by cavalry, they ontared into tbe rich torritor; 
of the Compftny, dorartatcd the connti;, and carried 
00 tbe epcHla to tbeir inountain*. Tbose freobooten 
bad oxiated ilnce 17C1, but made tbemaelvM fiarti- 
ntlarl; formidable la lb* bi^iiuiliig of tbe fo1lowiuic 
oantnry. l^y were deeeuided meetly from the 
caato of Hobamnedan warriors, wliich fonn«rly 
receiTnl high pay from tbe Indian prinoca. lint the 
Vritiah Eaat India Company diaanned many of tbe 
tributary native priooei, and maintained nnder the 
oommand of the BritiBh ttaidenta at the Tndian oonrta 
iHg* bodies of meroenan tioopi^ which the medla- 
Ifaaia nabob* were obligea to pay. Tbo onmber of 
Ibe PiadarMB waa thus IncKMed, and tbey were 
Mentlf sxclted hy tiw Iidlaa trlbutarioa to attAck 
Ibt Ooinpany. In 1S17 the Britiih aoreraor-sencral, 
Iha Ifaranii of Haating*, deterrainod on the deatruc- 
tfoB of tneM nAiber^ wboec fone waa eatlmated at 
MtOOO borae. Attacked on aU ridce, tbey were oon- 
qnered and dieper»«L Garriaona were pUcod in 
euine fortraaea, and boata(f«e taken to Calcutta; 
their other etroug pUcna wero demolt^ed. A flying 
par^ ol eepoya wna kept without intormiMloD on 
tber%btbBakattbeUailiada,Ae; At ImI ft moderate 
yearly tribute wia Imposed on the eulijeeted tribee. 

FIKDEMONTE. Cataueu Itfouto, an Italian 
poet, waa (mto at Vercoa b 1753, and at the a^ of 
•igbtoen yaara dietinpiiabed himself bv his poetical 
ptodooUona. Having tmvelledthrmig)i Italy, IVan43e, 
aad Britain, be preserved tbe h na w oU — made <m 
Urn by hb joaraer in bia ViaogL In Ui Fowla 
Canpeatri be ipnka with entonalaBra <4 Britlab 
•Denary and lifd IlUArulnio^ a tmgvdy founded on 



tbe death of Anoinfiui, eontuna etioraaw a( waafion 
and virgins which am modi-ls of atylft. Bla lyrie 
jjoenis are lUEong bis beat wi>rk», and dioplay a dcplli 
of thought and fei'iing with whk-h the author mtaia 
to have been intpirod by Krittsb litcrataiv. Bcaidti 
tmnalationa from Homer, Virgil, 0%-i*l, and CatnlUl. 
hia Futu Mon^nuio, Elogln di (!aaii«r, and B Cclpa 
di MartoLlo. are worthy of noliw. I'indi'inontis did 
in 1828.— IIi» brother, tbo Maik<I.I» GlOVaJOn Pw- 
liEMoNrE (b"ro I7S1, dir-.! 1S12), WM tbe anthoccl 
e&me dramatic wf.irk* — ('mniioiuiinsiiti Tcatrali' -afti 
tranalated Ovid's Beuiedia Amnris. 

PINBUS, tbe ancieDt name <A the prfodpal 
mountain rangu uf uorthcm UT<eeoc^ Tmndag fnn 
Doirth to ■T'liitii nboQt midway betweeo both aea^ and 
forniing till! ImundAry between Theeaaly aod Epelrak 
In itfl ucrtLum part it was cflllmi Ijtcnion or "Ltaam 
(now Metrovof, and hnrn tbe birj,'«>t rivMB of UrSNI 
had tb(;ir ori^^in — aucb as tlie Feoaioa, A fhwlfti^ j 
EfalioCTDon. It was, like Helieoo aad " 
seat i-f Apollo lUid the Masea. 

PISE. Tbo natunJ order Conifen»,ol which tbe 
pine is the uitnt [ininfrtAiit g>(inaii, is divided Into 
two sub-orders, n&mcly, l..it»r'<KMr, tbeflrtribe;asd 
2. Ciiyrfttinar, tbe. cypreM tribe. Th» gtDOnl ^t»f 
ructera of the oriler Bra tLo following: — TSoea ef 
sbnibe, »iUj disc-bearing woodv limue; linear ar 
baoeolato leans with pandlul ralm, eoiiMtinwe dtv 
tered^ and having a mombnuuma abafttb at tbe baae; 
flowen anUexunl, the male m deddnona rallrlm tba 
female In conesi n« style nor st^ma; orulea naked, 
one, two, or eevvral at the baM ofeAcb acale; fniit a 
cone formed of faardes*d acalea; erafarro toetoded 
witiUn a Heahy, mTy albumen. In tlu .dUttMsa- the 
oviilea are inverted, and the pollen is ond er cuned. 
In tbe Cvprtmnta tfa« ovnlea am ereo^ Iha poDn ■• 
BpheroldAL and tbe eon* Bocaafovally aoooaleal; at h 
tbi; gaUmlua of tbe joniper. The leftvea of all the 
■pocioa of pinca may be ehused ncoordlng to the 
nuralMrniiitedin asEkCfttb. All theEoropeaaapeciaa, 
except P. Omftna, have only two leaven in a ahcath; 
nioet of tbe Aaintic^ Mexican, and Callfonilao kinds 
have three, four, or fire leavee, and tbose of tbe 
tTnited States and Canada hare generally thitc 
Tbe cones also afiord on important ready manfli of 
clossificfittim. 

Tbe Sootuh Pine or Fir (P. ryf.MfrM) in a tall, 
straight, liardy trre, from O to 100 feet high; a 
nntive of mmt part* ni Kurope, Aowering Id May and 
Jane, and, as uiight lie expected troiu Its wide geo- 
graphical nuig«, having many vwiatioa. Its laavea 
are rigid, in pain, eomewhat w>ved aad twlata^ 
allgbtly odocaTe on tbe npper and convex on tbe mdm 
surTaoe; light bluish green, finely serrulated on tbe 
edges; the cnnc« from 2 to 3 inch<» in iencth, and 
1 boh to li In breadth; ecalea Iron 1 in^ to 1} 
long, terminuiag In an Irregntar four-aided paint, 
often recnrved. Tbe baric ia of* raddiabtingi^ ootn- 

ratively smooth. In seme vaiietfaa aollag off, and 
othen rough and furrowed Tlie braAclMi •» 
didpoeod in wborla, from two to fonr «r fit* cr lu 
together, at finit slightly turned np, afterwards taking 
a borlxontal direction, and finally beoomlng so me w hat 
pendant, except thorn brandice formhig the nsmnH 
of the tree. The leaves azv diatinpriahable frou 
Ihoee of all oUil't nbiea in whidi Uwy occur In pabs 
by their glaucous Lua^ eapscdally wbeo young. The 
Scotch Fine alwwraoeciui in maaaca; it u oonaidawKl 
full grown and fit to be cut down fur tlmh«ir In ftfly 
or rixty yeon; but in the north of Sootliwd, where 
pine forvita grew to pcrfcctlan in fomieir tlmei^ tiie 
tree ooDtlmied (o Incnase In bulk tat tfcne or bcr 
entmiai. TlwqwUly ol tbeUabcrTariaswIlbaDU 
and elimate, btrt the best wood iaaaid tobe prodneed 
in oold situatloua. Its durafciUtj, acocrdii^ to 



Brindlej' tfa* «agtiM«r, ia mcfatl to thaJt of the oak. 
Th* tra* ia bumC ftUukdMit in the aurtli of Eurupe, 
batwaoi l«tttiid« S2* Mid 9i'. Than tn •xuiuivo 
bnrtt «f it in RuHii, Polind, SwodM, Normv, Uer- 
; Um Alpa, Um FyreB tw , and the Vosftua. In 
' it mwa It tite beisbt of 2700 (<«t on tho 
i; tt ■ fDnd «t tiM bM^tit of 2300 fact on 
-■■•Boii^ Sa AlwirAwwiMrp; tail M u equ&l 
W|^ an Um liMiiintalif near Loob-iUkGw. lu all 
th—M ta «tiqa«itbfauiJo«»oibdry,iidy.gr»v»Ily. 
gnaltki, or **y""*~". tad leoM uraaenUy on n 
adewMHHBoU. Th« BBBnlftoent pjne loraatB ol tho 
Ntttbarm imd WMt«ni HigfaUada of Scotluid wore 
■ ■uiliiil bo lor tuuber & ontory wo^ wtuji the MMt 
«f wood bcgut to Idctmm ; and m tba woods of 
Sir TlioaM D. Landor ths forests wen 'tuamar- 
AbUt' abaubUnd,' In caiu«qu<>n<w of thii «ahaii«cd 
f(tM «^ Bulla timbar Ouriu); tho war* of the lattor 
Mrtof UMaadthalMfla&bcof d]« pnmnt oentory. 
Ial7UE tb« Daks of Gordon Bold huGlenmarayorMt 
loHi Ei^iakoofDpaDyfarflU.OOO. It «a> nip^iaKid 
Id b* tha fiaart puio wood In Scotland. M.uiy uf tii« 
tnm fallad nMntrad Id fwt aivd 20 fwt in Ktrth; 
■ad than !• Mill tirsKiTod a* Gordon Ca«tio & pUnk 
aeatlT 6 feet in breadtli, wliioli wna iweaeated to Uio 
iakmoy tha oompaoy, 

Hw ubnular or Baoki's Pics {P. BanlMtna,) ii a 

low attaf^lag trco in iU aatiro oountry, growing 

anou batm ncka lu a bwlj^ of froai & to 8 feely 

hit la Britfab eollaotloiMw la good Kril. atudninf 

ihfa* tiawa that hd(ht. The coov an reciuved 

^jad Miatad; aad the leavta m nguUrly dlotriboted 

^^^■V tta baacfaai, tnatead of being ooLloctcd in tu/ta 

^^^^Knalfaf with nakod apaoataBBinniast otbrr pmm, 

■ ■■ fctluullMI^ Ihwtfew, by which thh apeolM U onaily 

■ nnofaii In Non Sootta and tha Bute of Uainc 
' It b niawB aa tha Sanh Pine, and ia Canada aa tho 

Qtv Fl**- It ia not oomBwn In Bngtlah minmiea; 
altfaoQi^ tba plant apiwan to ham htat Intndnoad 
lata Britain neariy a oenlury ago. Ijtmdou remarlu 
I)ai4 aa aa onuwiMntal ti«« it ia 'ana of th« tuont 
(a^paiting of th« ganiii^ from th* graoefol manner 
te which ft throws abont lu long, fisxiblc, twtit«d 
tandu^ which are MneraUr cevand Utnraghout 
tUr vboW leiwtli with twiated^aaooua groMi lea vca, 
iriA ban and ilicro a whorl of eurlou^y hooked 
bm-lQH esBaa.' It hi cau of th« bardioel of the 



I 



"Hte Corwcan nne {/*. Ijariao) |^n*> to a bcif^ht 
c< Iron SO to 100 foet, and ia the iabuiii <A Conicn It 
i*Hld to nach aa altitude of Iti) to IBU foot, llio 
tnnk aad branchta hate a rt<-!dUh-o61ourod bark, 
liM that of Iba Scotch Pm«. Ihe Wwa van fiutu 
I to T «a 9 indiaa in Ivri^^th, and «r« dork voIourmL 
Tba noun oeoar In clustvra of two or morv, pointing 
■*y-"T downward^ ar« 2 or 3 inches kni(,*, aud of a 
tmitf y^lc* or tawny colour. 

na nnaatar, orCloxtnr 1'ino(/*. jnmuUr), la itxAU 
Ktaona to tbe eouth uf £uim[>u, to the weat L>f Ana, 
Aa HiBMlaya^ aot^ it iMnia, onin to China, It ia 
a laayo, bandacana, pvnualdal traa^ varying from 
40 la W t««t la heiiiu, and readily iU*iiiiKui«b<.-d 
ban Mbo' (rfaea by Ua ofaatarini; nawaa cf toUafa, 
cf a B^Uar man than tba Otmican jnna. Ita onnaa 
paint npw a raa, in atar-like doatcra, wheftootlmnaina 
of PfaMtar or Star PiiM. li ia of rapid powtb, 
phnta baviag in twenty yaan friNB tba aaed raacbad 
a bai|ht <f 90 foet in tba dlmata of Leodon. In 
l^aaoe it ooT«n imtii«iue Inula of haiten tand, fat 
wUA it baa bam plantad to prarant the aaad trom 
dfiftfay. It ylaiib rtab and tai to th* iiduUntanU 
of the Laadaa cf Bucdisanx, and batween that city 
and Baytana^ when the pinaatar loceata are uamc^ 



Ha Sioaa line (A fina) la a kif ty tn« In the 



aouth fif Kumpe, where it la a native; lU ipreAding 
b^Atl fonuM a kind <if p.iriMol; the trnok is 50 or 
60 foet high, nud clonr of bnmdioa; tbe bark i» red- 
dish, and Kmonth; tbe leaves aru of a Jeep m«en, 
■eiiiicirllDdric&l, U uT 7 iui'hea l*>[ig, twu 1q a afieath, 
Uid forming a triple cpiml roum! tho hrniirJioa. Tlie 
fruit ripena at tba «od of the tliinl year, wlitm tbu 
caata an about J inobea long and >t tnchea in div 
met«r, having a rodiliah htiu. Each •<»]•; is hollow 
at its baaa^ uad in its interinr are twn csvitim, oacii 
oontaininga toad much ]xt^ia tUau thM of a-uy other 
epedei of European pino. The lignGoua iboU envelop- 
ing tfaekaniel is bant but in tli'R viuic-ty I'.ji.fragUi* 
ia tuador atid ensily Wnkon by tba IlII^'ora. In both 
kiuda tlw kuruel In wblOu, awtwt. ajiil acraeable to 
the taste. In l^tain tho 'Ait<ao I'ine si^ldoni exneods 
th« siM of a largR Ininti, nltbongh apccitnenii hBV« 
ivacfaod a hdubt uf 30 and id (wt. Tlio Iceraela 
have bMU found among the domestle atorw of Hor- 
ciiIauouu) and I'ompeiL The troo baa bean known in 
Knghuiil for thrm conttuica. 

SabLiea PEiie (/>. SnMniano) waa diaoovared in 
California by Ilnvid Douglas hi IfiSft, and named 
after hia oarly MeaA And lAtnin Mr. Sablnak 'lite 
Itu^rei arc iu tUn^va, nu>:l^ in fuuia, from 11 to 
14 Inohoa ton?; tbe ti««a ore of a tApring form, 
stnijj'h^ and nom 40 to 120 ft-ct high, with trunlcs 
from 3 to 13 fn-t in diiunctur. The conea tnoaatire 
from 6 to 8 iiichea ruuud Tlui ^lecieS'lB said to be 
as hardy in thia oountry as the pinastar. 

Cooltar'a Pino ii Tariously describod as a aepante 
epedea and oa a variety of Sabine's. It was found 
by I>r. Coulter gTDwiii|> on tlia mountains of Santa 
Ijuoia fat lat. Se*, and at an elavatioii of 3000 to 
4auo fuet. Tbu leavea an brooder than thoas of any 
otticr pino, and thsoooMv which grow dngly, an the 
largoat of all. being ofton more than I foot long and 
4 inches In diametar, ud widgluug alKitit 4 Wm. Iii 
ita general appearance tho tree Tcacniblcs i^abine'a 
Piup, bat in dintinguiBh-vd fmju it by Ibe uEirigbt 
C'haracl«T -of ita foLlags. Doth ipeclttsan liardy, and 
of sorpaaring beauty. 

The Cembran Pine {P. CtfiAra) has ita leavca in 
fire^ throe-ribbed; oones about 3 Incbea loo; ; seed 
Isrgm- than that of any other spade* aseapt tha 
Stone Pbe. Tbe tne Is a native at Switserlsaid and 
Stberlfl- In Britijn it is as arect tree, with ainoolh 
trunkandwhnriiof branches. Larobort states that the 
tlowcn bav« a mum Iwautifnl opgiranuicit thui tlioeo 
uf kiiy utlwr ■pei'Iee of |.>Uu'. Altbouuh usually of 
alow groivth, yoG plants eotm in the nelghbonrhood 
uf I'^LJnburgh were found tn Imvn attained a height 
of fiom ti to 12 fe«tt ill fliKlit yoara The wood hi soft 
and Its graiu extreruiily fln«, 

Tbe tU-d Canadian I'ine [P. TftiwMo), inhabits 
the whole of Conuda from tho Atlojitic to the Pacific, 
and is also found iu tlic uurthi'm and muUuti |iarta of 
I tho United Stntnt. In Cniuuia luiil Nova Scotia it 
is caU«l Yellow Pint: — il is aumotimi'* al»o imiiro- 
periy termed Norway Pino. Uvoo in those districts 
wii«r« niiwtiroiniiirjn it nnly oocnnlaa small traotaof a 
fvw hiiiulrt^l acrcF, whore Uie strtl la diT ud sandy, 
and (TOWS either alone or in oompany with tb* wUto 

Eino. Tbe trank rise* to the bebht of 70 or SO (Mt 
y abmit 3 ia diameter at. the base, and fa diieAj 
tcmaricabla for ita onifonn rise for two-Udrds of Ita 
length: the bark la clear, red, and smooth; tha Isavoa 
am in [lAirn, and are eolleotad ht boo«Jtea at the 
eitruniitjuf tbe branchea; and tbescaJsaof tiiecDooi 
srv unannsd, llw wood ia compact, Bn*-gndn*d. 
tndnuua, aiid duraUe. In the liritiab provinoea and 
In Maine it la fn^iuuntly i^mpbyod la na?al arcUleo- 
lore, rxiieriaUy ftif tbu dcvks of vasstji^ furnisluiw 
plaiJM m« fixitu knots, of 40 feet in length. It w 
also used for mMta, and baa fumltlied the tiialtimrt 



PINE— TOTE nifCH. 



of a SO-sun ahlp. It la «zp<nt«i^ to Briudn both 
fcom Maine And from th« St. [.awrence. 

TLo true Veilow Pine (/". faWoAi/M) rist* to (.ha 
iM^ht of 50 or CO fMt, by 15 or IS tnchM In dja- 
moKr At biuo, and •om^imes mora; the l«»v« cm 
4 or 6 inches Icing, *nd arc nanxWy th p»ir^ but 
Namctinm iii tlmwa on Um youii};cr iliouUi 11iB'C'.it)«:s 
are euuLll, oval, and tumod with fine Bjiinsa. The 
timber in too ^[nuiiad, «jin[>B«t, and mixloratuly ra- 
niurinia. Immniie qnutitloa an UMd Id luviil arclii- 
truture *t Hew York, PfaiUdclplii*, Mid Jlnltintnrc, 
for Hwltii, Riojitii, y^aTi}]!, lieMiw, nnil cibina. 

Tbc Jurmy Plan (P. innpj) Lu reoetved thin appel- 
lation from bain^ moet abosdaiit in tbo lower |>iLrt 
of Nuw Jcntoy, vrhwe it growi in compMiy with the 
yellow pctie. TIub ii il kciiUI atntggluig tntr, rarvly 
ftUi^ain; tbe bdgbt of &(i or 1i> feet, with a diuuetor 
of Ik foot nt buM. Tbo Icatm tvra in pain, 1 or 2 
inchca ioag, uid tbn coitta 2 to 3 {ncho* lo^ig, »iid 
■nnod u'illi atruu^ a^iiiiiii. Tbi* tniiik Is too auUl to 
b» of uy utility in the axis, and bcaidea oonabti of a 
great proportion of M,p. 

'rUo Pitch Piiii! {P. riffida) ii most abundant alonn 
the Atlantic coMt, wb«ra tlte (oU ii divDraliied, but 
Kpnomlly meagre, llie rlilfjes of the Alleghaiiiea ia 
PminsylvaniA and Vir^ia are nnmotiinaii oovered 
with iL The 4fitb dc(,-n:L' vl Utitudfl kppMH lo be 
Ifancirthnm limit It is (rp<[t]ently aeeti In largw Rtid 
miry awaiupa, autl in mivb uituiitioaji attains thu 
height of 7u or (>D feol by 2 in di&iaetHr at baca; and 
it appcan to *n]>jHirt Ihr- prciR-ncc uE tc^t^watvr bi}bt<T 
than any crlber pitie. Tlii) Icnvm art in throca, rary- 
io^' tuui.-oIii length, as du th&cou«« lu Hiu; thvUttar 
arc ann«] with nmla spines. The biudua am 
auiocniua. and oocupy tLvn-iliirdi of the trrmlt. Tbo 
qvslity of thBWuud vjirieii ncmr'UtiK ti> tho lituatioo; 
la iwumpi it i« bi^ht, tufl, and ooohIjU of a i;r«at«r 
praportiun of «ap; t>ut in a dry, gravelly aoil it ia 
compact, hsavy, xnd contain* a bu^^ proportlga of 

Ths I.ablu]]y Fine (P. taida) often exceeds SO feet 
in height^ with a wide-apri'ftdiiig' tummit, and, naxt 
to tho white [linn, i> the Iriftimt Ami^ricjin n^incnRH. 
T^e !«•*« aro C Uietim luDg, uulbnl by tbr\«s, ur >»iii»- 
HtBM foura on iha younff and vi^moua shoota. Tba 
ooaM are 4 inchca lon^, and aimed vith Btronc (plTitai. 
Tbe timber decays ajieedtly on being eijioaea to tbo 
wr; tbia ta lo barogarded aaooeof ttia teoal valuable 
c( tbepiiMa. 

Iha Loag-leaved Pine (,P^paiutlriM) abonnd* in tho 
lomr part«f tfao Caculinaa, Oeoqfla, uid the Fluriibut. 
Not nily da>« It furaiKli mnin, bir, iiitch, and tur- 
pentliM^liut tb« timber u hardly tiifunurto the whito 
oak ia naval archltocturo, and, moreorer, the tree 
nowa oady in a anil do nb^rile aa lo Im inc^)abl« of 
bring oan?Mr(«d lo any utbec uao. It ia kncmm in 
oomiMrot nadar n variety of nnmei; In thove dii tricia 
wbora it growa it ia called long-laavad ptno, yellovr 
{rine, pitch jiiae, and broom pine; in llritain, QMHrgi* 
pitch pine. It gruwi tti the beight of BO or 70 feat, 
wiUi a tnink IS or IB inckea in diameter <or tvo- 
thir<rU of thin hdybt. Tbo conaa are 7 or 8 fochea 
long by 4 in diuueler, are amiiNl with amall apinea^ 
and contain aeeda of an agreeuLlu tbivnur, fm W- 
usual lui)[tb of tbo Im^-m, about L2 iuohe^ ^vca tlihl 
tn* n peculiarly atrikin^ appearance. The trtink 
OODtailia but little lap, auil the ounarutrical arclei 
are claao and at oqnsl dilltan(:oi^ while the reaiDaua 
matter la abuudaQi an J o'lnally distriUutod, wbiok 
T«ndcn the wood atronger, mor« eompaeti and more 
dtitmUe than in flie other apceiea; it ia, beaJdcM, flue- 
grained and aiuoeptibU nf a brilliant poliali, and ii 
npfUod toagrrat varimyof uaat. That Torie^ which 
•moinia a ciildiah hue from growing la oertun ■uiI^ 
ana la Imown by tbo oomo of red [uno ia moat 



ostoomod, and In the opinion of aoma Alpwrigbln It 
aa aobd and durable on ths udaa of Teweb aa Hm 
■whilo oak of the country. 

I'fao Weymouth >*ina {P. MtnAiia) ia a loflT treSi 
and its Unibsr, thoui;b not without aaaantial dafacti^ 
iaoonamnod in much greatsratUBtitiM^ and for* Ear 
grvalor variety of jniiiKacit tAan almaat auT Othtf. 
It attains the beiKbtoflfiO rei)t,aud oveu 180, witba 
trunk S ieet and upwards in diametM-; tha l^voa are 
in fiv«e, and the conot are 4 or 5 inchaa lang. pandn- 
Iniii^ with thin, amonth acalea. Owing to lb* llgbt- 
nca* and delicacy uf ttw foliaoe thm jovttg tn» 
ntako on elegant apManaoa. Tlw wood has IHlla 
atrcDgtb, andia liaDla to rmU fawn hunldlqr in tta 
atmfwphcrr ; but ft ia aof t, Ught, fro* fnm kaotk 
eaaily wrought, durable, furoJ^iOT board) of gnat 
wldtb, and, above all, la etill abundant and tiiaaf. It 
is employed for Tuantii. and iijcat numberi of thMt 
rnutu arvt expartM to Brituiu, and ar* aaid lo be 
li^jhter ti)nu th<t Hi^t. mimUt. hot har* laas atnnglh: 
the boweprilsaud yarda uf tuoD-ofwor are also tnada 
lit this itinc 

Lambert'a Pine (P. lambertia-iui) ia cf gi£«nt«: dH^ 
growing between the fortiirth and forty-tbml p a rall A 
of Ifttitude, and about lOd uulea frvm the PaclBc 
The trunk rise* from 150 to upwards of Si'O foot, and 
iatrom T to nearly 20 feet iadianwter. Iti««traigh^ 
and dmtltiito of branchm fur two- third* uf tta bnigfaL 
The leave* an in five*, and ibe oumes are fHodlUMi 
at tba oictTeQiitieB ol the branohea, and raqnin two 
yi-ont to attain lliolr full growth, when they arc 14 
to 1ft, and Kinintimca IS indiea, aod nearly 4 incbea 
in. diameter at the tblckoit fan. The timber is 
wUt^ nft, and light, and produoea abundaaoa of • 
juan aml'cr cr'lourod rcwn, which, when iba tnoa 
nra partly burned, aoqniree A aweet toate^ and in lUa 
state is used by the natives aa a suhatitut* for aonr. 
The aeads ara eaten either raosted or povnded uto 
coarse cakta for uae during the winter a ti man. 

PIXE- APPLE {Ananiun tntin), r plant beloog* 
ing to the natural order BroueUMen, anKh estcainsd 
for its fruit. It was originally found by th* Koio- 
peatu in Pern, stnd lias not bean known In Bnrone 
abovo two oenturicc It passed ftvm Brasfl to tan 
West Indlea. and thsoct was trsaspatt«d to th« East 
Indies, whom it baa long been snocesaftUly cnJti- 
rated. I'bu karen are canalitulabe, and apiny on 
the niarglu; the aUriu em't and about i feei Ugfc; 
the flowers bluo and united in a dense apike, wlndi 
ia crgWTiivl at the *iimmit with a tuft of icaTflS; tbo 
fruit ii (onued by the union uf nunierouB suocoleait 
ovorice and braota. The seeds ha*« laeeo Modared 
abortive by cultivation. The mne-apple li tnoal 
readily reproduoed by t>[Antin^ the terminal toft «f 
leavi^; but iuourgn«iiliuuH.-a it ia far inferior to tfc* 
tropical fruit, and yet ia genvraily cultivated In many 
piLTU of Europe, evpodally near the luger ddea. 
lilnny vuieties of tb« |)]na-appl« have been pro- 
duced, but they may be referred to seven princtfaJ 
onea. Some of the other spociaaat Bromeliaoeai hava 
crownii, and ttie fniit of ncst of them, though small, 
healabK Tbefinnmrlui piatrnn haathefrait eepar- 
ately in cluetem, an>3 ni^t In a coiM, atid the 1«*vm 
nfford K fibre which ia uuuiufocttuvd into oofdase^ or 
sometimes Into guod cloth. A beautiful flbra is also 
yi^ld^l by the eommon pine-apple pl^nt^ which is 
cmplnyed for textile hlvio. &t» Pr(a CuxB.) 
Prum the pine-apple Is made very good wine; vhUk 
turns In about thrm wMlcB,bat noovm by looow 
keeping. TfacfmitisaUoaomittiineatmservodsntln^ 
and when taken out of the symp ia loed with sngat. 

PINE rWCH, or Pom Gbosbbok (AMeeteTv 
PyrriiulA enueUator), a mros of Coniroatnl Perch- 
ing Uirda or Inscaaoroa, belonging to the sub-family 
of tbo Bullfiutfhee {/VrAntiwr}. It is of bugw ^ 



4 



d 



tbao Mm Cvaaaao Bullfisch. tad m«a«anx from 8 to 
• iBohOT ia Itofftk. Tho ttMd, for«- wta, neck, kcd 
MBA M» flolonrod bifghl red. Tte Wb fa n LUck- 
Ut DTOwi^ Uw ftaUiai «f this T^gtoa bkWng red 
vdgM, lh« lower portion <d tlu bod^ boiiig of » l%ttt 
R&j bnci. Tbe wlufa and taQ kk diukj, ths wtog- 
I f tt OT bang Tkiwnly OMrkml with wMt* itripi 
■ad latrbi^ Tlw food coodt t* oi Uu dalkkto buda 
B&d Mv«B of plABtt »Bd t»M^ tlw bndi of tke bbvh- 
wJSow babif mM U form Ua chief artlds «f dirt in 
its DMtiT* hftUBte. Aa implied fay ibt papaW D«nie 
tfak ftach cUeflj Inludiita pine fottvta. Ik ucoun (n 
Ui* Atodo and ■oKhera Kglooa of bath Old and 
N*w WorldL It braedi in thcM Qorthora porUont, 
balla America appeara to migr&to south waida to the 
Uail«d 8tete& It ia mv» rmmlj- taxuad iu tli« t^m- 
INnM portiiNH of Eiuvpfl. Its aong iiotn ug a^tco- 
abltv mA It* Seab la ertMmed in IlrunA, In which 
cOobIit H foraa » nutrtuttahlo delicacy. Four or five 
•gga «f a pala graen colour «pott«d witb brovn are 
peadneed; tha neat, rcoghly built of rticks and lined 
wfch f aathw^ betog alaeed enabrandkof atreenear 
tha groaad. AuJumji aa^a that theea birda are 
iiiiaaiHimlj tame and toWant of the faunuui presi'ucn 
•veals a wild alaCe. 

PIKEL, FuiLim, matnlxr of tbe French Insti- 
tute and si tho Legion of Honour, the Uoward (if 
tfaa h Ma III I. ma boro in 1745, Mt Hi. Andr<'. in the 
daMrtHtaot of Tarn, atudii-d at Tuuloine and Moot- 
petUs', when he aapported bimsolf 1)^ touching 
TnalfcfiaaTi ni In 1778 I»i wont U> I'aria, uul at 
6n* amli«d bimiwlf to Lhe atudy of tbe ■deiica cou- 
aactad with iDAilifinn, but aftcTKrwda davoted blm- 
••U entirely to tbat adeaea Itaolf. In ITSl he waa 
BMda diroMln; pb^aician at the BWtn, an tuMuie 
hcyUl, and in 17»« at the Sa]|i6tri(>ra. 'Vke bank 
InaftaMot o( the inaaoe tfaen in «ogne^ thau oliaini 
■ad onbaalth; dungua^ flDed Um wUh bomr. Ho 
Intaiodaead faatle traaLmcnt, aniting finmiaaa with 
hlii i la w^ aad waa tb* Knt definitely to reoonunend 
Bonl mnedka <in hii work Sur I'AHtfiiatioa man- 
tale), and ooe of the earUeat bo eetabUeh a regular 
aytltm in tbe mad-houaoa. He bIm proved the 
ad a lea oe of what be cadled aiaiiM jom dUin. He 
pl ae e d laea Mreei on pbyakal treatment, and in par- 
ticalar hi agnad whh Boidea la ooademalng btood- 
lattlii|[ In general he rooocanendMl delay. 'What 
art oanaol tmodL' he naed to aay, 'tinui may Brrnm- 
|4iek' Uia patl>olo(u waa fuuudod o& Coadillao'i 
ayiaiB al pUkaDphy, and was dirarted more to a 
giwaldnraHnil of ue obrioiu pbonnmcna than to a 
thoro ag h lodght into the nsturo of cU«.>ui!b; yrt bii 
Kcaag^ihlephih]eoi>hI(iva(rana,17»&;»ixthedItbui, 
1818) fbnDcd an epoch in F^ch medjeina, aa h mp- 
■tfed a want then geoetally felt. In many i t ep ect a 
Final ii to ba oooaidarMl m the jtrvcuraM- of Bit^at, 
alaoB ike waa tbe finit to point out tho |Ay«iolog{«al 
aad nUboloj^oal dfflenaoa of tho Tarioui tiiaaca. 
Ua adkad tar aona tfma the Gantte de Sant£, and 
ana a ooliaheaator in Poarao/a MMidae Maiti9 
par lae Bdeneea phjdquea, and m tbt great Diatkn- 
mii« dH Sofaoon mtfdlcalca. Uurin^ tho reign «S 
tcnar Ptoel coaccalcd tha anfortnnate Condorcel hi 
Ut bonee. In ltj'25, whan the icfaeol of medicine 
«aa lafoetaad by tbe goranunaal, hC ^nd waa 
r e aat red ftoai hit poet on luapldon of entertaining 
liberal fcfadplca; asd ha died threo ytan latM-, at 
(Iw aee of ^n*T-0(tieyeanL 

FINE-RBBIN. 'Hie jnlce wfalob aiuike ttwa 
pbei, fln, and otlwr oooifervu* trace oontolua a mix- 
ttn ef Nalna generaUj oontaininff oxygen with Tnla- 
tfla oSm, and anmebmee add bodioaL Tha realo 
calsM^ <C»H»O0 ia oharacterlatio of theee }aU»a^ 

PIXEBOLO, a lows. Kingdom of Italy, in tiut 
p a riuu B of INuin, SI mUae eaoth-weot of the oity of 



that name, at tho lonith uf Vat Cluaone. It h** 
Mvcral aqtiarce, one of them, the nptnuado, fonning 
a finely plauU'd walk. 'I'Iia cathoLlml, a modem 

■tnirtxirn, pmunure little merit; but one of tho 

djurchoi fa of autiiDUt Oothic; and tbore an> MvernI 
monaaterlee and nunneries, a town- bouse, cjiUcopal 
■oroinsry, oaUci|,*r, luiil hnncUomi! barraflia. 'I'he dta- 
drtl of Pinerolo wo* tke priniiu uf thu Man with the 
Iron Maak, Foviquul, »iii.! Limimn, The manufao- 
tun« tiro wnollcn anditlk ijooda, irun^ware, Creanna, 
vcrmin^llij 1ii|Ui-urii, anil ajvlriU. Pop. ll,bS2, 

PING WUOL, the uuiie giren to the (inn Rbrea 
of the loavea of tbe pinu-tree, wIido aeparat(>d and 
drceand into a itate in wlucU they uiuch rvaeroble 
cotton. The preparation of thi^ nuvtmnl i« chiufly 
ciMTierl on near Bwalau in Siliwin, l>y the invoitor 
I'aniicwiti. Il ia nseil for making: wadiliui:, atufiiug 
cnaliioDa, nutttreaaua, ftc 

PCv'EY VARNISH, a name of gtaa anime or 
Ewrt India cnpsl. Hon Coi-Ai- 

PIXION, ill mi-^lianiea, an arbour or ajilndle in 
the body of which are aewraJ notches, which catch 
tbe tottb of a wlioel that aorvra to tnm it round; or 
it i* a l«a>ar wheel that pbiy> in Llie teclbof a larger 
ou«. 

PIXK (Dianthvt), a genua of ptanto belonging to 
tho natural order Carvophyllaccie. Moro than 100 
•(KCtaa are loiown, all, witb parhapa oue or two 
ejia6|)tlona, natlvua of tbe uortheni aiid t«mp«rata 
pATtd of tho Kuropenn oontinant. Thoir rooU are 
onmiiU or pcrmnnial i tho ntrtn* lii-rtiftOOoiil and 
juiuted ; the leave* oppuailo and eutixo, and tbe 
flowere tenatnal, aggregate, vt eoUlanr, and alwaya 
beautiful Many are eommnn In gardcna; and per- 
hafie nn plant is mnre highly uteemed by tbe flortat 
tbaii Lha (.-anulion, Ixith fur Ita beaoty and ita ri(J> 
■jjjoy odour. Nearly 400 variotlxa are onumerated. 

PnfKEBTOy, Joiix, F.S.jV.. on emiusnt utti* 
qoarr, waa bom nt Kdlnbiirgh in 175.^ and waa 
arlklail tu a writvr to tha Hiipiat, iu wkoM office ha 
oondnuod livo yoara. In 1780 he wool to London 
to dovnti; himaclf aololy to literature, where in 1781 
be pubUiihi^ an oc-tavo voliuna of luiHLi-Ilaiiooua 
poetry, luidfr the title of Itlmee, witb diMartatinne 
On the Oral Trwlitina of Poetry, and Ou the Tragic 
Ballad, fte. In ]7b:ihepttbliahadhlaSalecC8oottUi 
BalladA in twu vulumiM. Among the pleeea In tbeto 
vdJumrai wnr« a Rumbor by Pinlcerton tdmadfi tbongh 
at that time be repnaenlad them aa gonoino aadcat 
productions. Hia Eonay on Meda^ (1784, two Tola. 
8yo) wcviit Ibrough three edltiona. To 1TS5 he piib- 
lubod IjnUm on l.lteratnre, ondnr the aeaumed 
naiua uf Surva. In tbhi publication be vuntured 
apoaanovd ayitcm o( urtho^TAphy, aulxttitutmg a 
for < to in^cato the pluiraJ. The ■^mk olitain«)l him 
tha Boquaintance of Horacn Wolpolo, after whuaa 
deoaaae be pabllahed ^Val■tolIana. Next year ap- 
peared Anctant fioottidt roeau, tnaa the Maao* 
aoHpt OoUactiOD of Sir nichard Biaitland of Ijothlng- 
ton, with Notee and a Qloaaaty. Theee poena erere 
by many beltovcd to ba forgariiM by Pkkartoa bln- 
tclf, but it ia now well known that thia waa not tha 
caa& The Maitland M8. ia contained in the Penjraian 
Ctdlection atCambridge. ADInertatioBonthaOrigfai 
and Progma of thu Scythiann or Gotba appoared lo 
17S7; ia thii work the anthor tint obtmdcd that 
•trong pTVJudira a^.'siiut the Highlaadem which 
nuned a huKt of niiKiniiw. In 1790 na pIlbUah«d Lin 
fuqiiiry into tho Hiitury of Scutlnnd preoading the 
R4)ign of Malcolm 11. or 105S. Thia worlt. notwith- 
•tanding that the author's abaord anlnoaiCy to the 
Celtio raoe neceaanrily hinderad him fracn bring ao 
impartial jndga, is yvt a murt valuable eoo, and eon- 
taina aona ran and oariooa docnmenta. It may be 
■aid to have bean tho Brat work which thorooghly 



90 



pncTA— PioaiBo. 



rifUd tbo grcAt 'Pirtiah niindon,' tilt qiiealion 
whether tlie Pit-ta itt-to (iothn or Celts. Piukerton 
KXmtvd the (dm of their b('1i)ii);liig to any ntbcr race 
than Um Gvlhia Ho ohanctcriu» tli'O Cvlti tm 'tatrv 
BftVBgea bnt ob» (Ieg7«e fthare bnitee;' «nd rmurka 
'■Jl we c&a do u to {>!u)l coloniea unong tboiu, mad 
tnr thia mud snconrasiDS thmr cmication try to ^t 
rid of the brecdi' Bis coEef remainiit;; wurlut iire Um 
MedaUio Blatcvj of EiiglMid (4tb): SooCtUh Fomu, 
raprinled iram Karoe cditinn* (thro» vola. 6to); 
leooogT^ihl* Sootick, with Xntca {two toIk Sto); 
Hodem G«0ET»pb5, dieeated on a New PUn (two 
yola. 4to, 1803; rq»1at«d thrM vola. I&07); GeDoral 
CVtllectinD of Vnymgrm and I'mrrla (nitifttMli VoU. 
41.)); At Ho diea »l ParU, Sfarch 10, ISM. 

PINNA, or Wisa Smeli, a genua of Laoelli- 
bruichinta Mo11u<ica Incliidod in the fntniiy Avica- 
lidiL The PitiiuB pnsuvs vrndge-ab»pcd ihcl}* of a 
born;, ddloata itmutuiv. Tbeliiiiseiatoothleta. The 
oinbomM or beaki of tho ahill fortn a pdntad ox- 
tramity. Thendgetof tliomAntlc are douMjr fringed. 
The foot ia tuDj; and ukkiv&J, uid secn^tL's a 'Iwtird ' 
of 'hywua' in great ijuantlty and nfitnmg, lillcy t?x- 
turo. ThvEODwiirvmamtwlbythu A'»tut|i-(rfi'Hirfi 
ottboBrittihcx>a«ta,bythftP. nd&i'uof tliGMcUter 
WLCftn SeA, trf the />. bulUUa. P. niiiU, P. ni^rinu, and 
by other apecm. The ' hyui»,' likn thutnf thcmuuct, 
b tuod tu moor or attach th« a&Euial to rocka and 
flxad objectf!, g.nd the A tuASis In paat dftva klTonled 
■nfficient iTiat<'i'ii>l from ite byMua foi the NoapoUtAn», 
Blmliana, and Malteaetowvavequaotitlcaof aduiable 
■JUc falnic which waa naed Id the mwaulvottire vf 
■tockia^ and umilar artiela. Br tho isdctLta thii 
bjana inat«ri&I waaalaonaod and hichlj valucd.nnd 
freanent mention b made of tho fabric hy LaLiii 
autnort. Pop» llenodlct XV, in 1754 had a pair of 
atock!■^r• preiMntcd to bim which w«ra made (ron 
the bTBBOB of th« Plnn». (PI. CXXX.-C'XXiI, 
filT.m 

PINNACE, a aniall Yewel osed at aea, with a 
■qusiro Btorn, hann; aula and oan, and carrjrio^ 
tliire maati^ ohieflr cmplojrod to obtain mtoUigcnce 
and tu land men^ ft«. One i>f Uio boats of a man-of- 
war, aMd to nrry the offloara to and bum the abore, 
la aiao eallod tha pinnaM. It ia DQaOar than tho 
lanmoh, but Wi{er than tba cottar, and ia rowed b; 
from t*n to rij(t«>en oan. 

PINNACLE, ta archlt«ctnr«i a amall aqoare or 
pblygiinal ahaJt, termltuitinz npwuda in ttio form nf 
a pfTamial, (inMHiihed witn foUagie at th« aoalM ot 
the pjnunidal parL H la niQ>Bh «nip]oyed In Gothic 
architecture aa a t«nainalio<i to buttrwaea, the to[» 
of gablea, Ac. in which eaaea It la In the form nf a 
opirc with cmckctji and a iintnl. T1>« dcoorati^I pin- 
nadea have ufleu tu Uieir fama nit^bea oocu|^«d with 
atatuee, and are highly onuinieuted. 

PINNIGRADA. Sm Caimvou. 

PINMPKDI.V S«. OAiisiToaA, 

PINSK, n tirwu (if WtvU^ru Btuab^ in th« govern- 
maiit of Minsk, and \4S milM K.a.w. of the <dtr vt 
that name, im tho left bank of tbt: Prip«t, which bore 
rMvivia the Pinn. Il ataudi atnong manhai, and ia 
*«iy Indifferenllj buUt. It baa cooalderahle maiiu- 
buiant of Rnidan laathar, and an aotln tmaalt 
trada ia oanted on br tneani of the Oehlnaky Cnnal, 
whldt connecta tho Dulepot and the fihtck Sci with 
tha Niatnan and th* Baltic The trade contiiita 
(UaBy in ccm, aalt, hcinp-««d, tar. tallow, iron. 
bIim, tobacco, and tbaher. aad ti oatried on mainly 
oy 3mm, who form ahout throe-fonrths of the pumi- 
laUon. In 1<HS a great battle waa fought her* d» 
twaan tb« Caamoka and the Polca, doling wUdi fiOOO 
bmMB mro bnraad dova, and 14,000 p«nou w«va 
UUei The town, wbieh baa narer i«oovar«d ha 
focmer pro^icrity, fcU into the powoMlao at Rnaida 



r>t the aeoond partition of Poland in 1703. Pop. 
17,718. 

Plfn'T, a mcamre of capocitj nard for botfa Uqvida 
and dry g(y.>dK; It Is the eighth part o( a g>]|oi\ or 
S4-d5925 cubic incbea. Thu Scotdi pint, oquivaleat 
to 8'O0C6 impcriM pinbi, Uiougfa ao longer a lugll 
meaaatv, in slil! in twH, 

PINTAIL DUCK. ngennBdf AoBU'da-orDmAa, 
■0 niunad from tbo cli^ngntod fonuotf the taU-(«athera, 
Tbmo diicka form th« raoTiB Jt^Oa, tha CoBBMO 
Pktail Duck being the I)<^/Ua acaia of tUe natnal- 
lat Tho hinder too, nx in tba tmo I>ui^la, i> aciaU 
and not attached to tbc other Oii^Ihi by the web or 
membnuio •nhleh iitiiti-a the fnnit tooa. Tho bd] ia 
deotilnta of a b»'':il tuburcle. Tho lamollir, or pla t a 
tike fetngcs of tha bill, an namw, and do not no> 
joot, 11)0 tall in tbtt mulo* bi long, ud axhlbna m 
puialod tajicrinK oi in forma tion. In aiM tha Pimtafli 
eqiiAl the Mnllanlii, vid am thiia hu^gar than the 
cntnmoi) ducki, tbc nock l>i;itt^ vlimsatcd in propot^ 
tloD. The head in the Oonunon Pintidl Dwk k 
oolaur«d bnnm, a white streak oxtaoding from tha 
hand down th* nrck on each mhv The geneml body 
ciiliitiT i* a (rTa\]ml:i-'wh]t«; Ute lowarpartaMlwwUtc^ 
and the wntral taU-foatban blaob Tlu Pinlalb 
ebicffly inhabit thotonth'orn ragiona of tfaa wmU, and 
arc fniind principally in the rieini^ of freah-water 
lakes. Tb<Me Hnli an found on (be Britiab eoaata 
in Bummcr, bnt tn1gnt« aonth wards la winter. T^oy 
am ninnnnn in the Mimiaiippi Valley, and therooair 
DU the M vditerraiirui oiKuta, la the Gulf of Mezioc^ 
b tL« We«t Indian lalanda, and in AtrlcSL The 
flight ia mfid and Doiaelcas. These ducks breed ia 
cDntinI:nl(^^t, ii-nd the fleeh ia sarouiy. 

FINTURICGHIO, aa aminenl pd&ter tj the 
Roman ichno), wboM raal nana waa BnxaxDuro 
Bsrri, the di>ci]da of Pietro Penicino, irai bora at 
Pem^a in 1-I.Sl. He painted chiefly la Ustary and 
griitewiiie, but ho alao exc«11«d fai {urtridta. Bia cUaf 
work waa the Hietury of Pope Piua IL, la tan con- 

tnrlmonta, in tbo liVirary at Siena. Othtra oooddw 
ia work iu the catiiedi^ of Spello hia licBt par* 
fomiance. H(a style waa effective^ but be Mkade use 
of too fplondid ooloiin, and IntTodnoed abnadsnoe 
of t.'ildin^. J le it xnid to bar* died of diagria at tha 
falluwtn^ cinruiuatanoe: Being envied to paint a 
Nativl^ for the monaateiy of SL Fiw^ at fflan^ 
be pvrtinodously insisted that evcfytbing sbooM bs 
removed out of the room in which ha worked, and 
obliged Ibe loouka to reiiio<re a great cliest IweofDe 
rotten from aga. In tbs attempt it bunt, and dl^ 
coToroO a hoonl of 600 rieces of pUt to Iha cml 
Joy of the fathers and the noTtlMation of na/M- 
ricohio^ Acourding to a more reliahia aceoont, be 
died of poison Admin iitored by hb wife, m wboet 
eztrsragant habita bo attempted to pot a chedL Els 
death took plaoe in 1&13. 

PIOMBlNO, a former ninopali^ of Toacanj, 
Iving betwnnn Siima and the Uedtanaaaas, cppo* 
alto the ItlaDd of Elba, from whioh It b aepnnted 
by the channel of PlnnLbiuu. Its eit«ut waa about 
21fi iigiiam cniloi, with a population of ^"1,000 at the 
tiiue vf its iucvrporatica with the Kingduio o( Italy 
(1 »«0i. It waa oHglnally a flef in the poMswloB of the 
Appinni funity, which, aft^r a rale ezteadliig> over 
Sun ycnra, sold it to tha Booncampagnj fninilT tm 
iL'rt't. In ISOi Napoleon mnted It to hb Mr 
Elisa, priupon Badoccbl; DDt by tha Caagii el 
\'tanna ahewai rejected, and tfae old famPy restored. 
Il now forma part of tha provlaca of Piaa. 

PIOMDO, SiBASiTASto LtrctAXO VWL, » odebrsMd 
painter, boca at Vanlca In UM. Hb fanOr aame 
was Liteianl Hatfag rcaomoed umai^of wludt he 
was rory fond, for paintfng, tw atvdled at first nndor 
tiia«anni BoUlnl, and nfurwarda ondor Gkn{lcA% 



I 



PIONEERS— PIPE. 



91 



«hMft fioa cnlonrin; h« IiDlt«t«<]. S«butiv)o onm> 
Misoad H ft pwtnit-pMiitor, uid the rr|<utKtioa 
wUeh 1m moo gBlnad in that branch in<tii<wct Ama- 
Hae CI4gl, ft rich aerchftnl of Slemi, tu take Lira 
to Boaaa bm ^eJo; him in oroamoDting lii* Hoilsp. 
TW dtkeavy of Ui pencil vu much i^ialrtd, luii 
lifciwl Ai^alc^ irho aeena to liftT« been oomeirhftt 
ImImn of Ute growing; Runs o< RAptuMl, «iioaiing«<i 
■In to •otar lato competitinn with Ihitt nwrtir, tttiii 
•no anppfitd Um vilo dtvi^'ua, whicli Pkiuibu ofuru 
OMalM Ttrfhrnopij, although by no mfma cApiihto 
rf Itftj flmeepaaris or mliliimo iDvrntiana. Whtn 
BftgAft «t bad pftintal lib oelobniUd AMWDnnn, Be- 
i Mft W i iin wa» iodocad by HJdiwI Anh*«lo to ftttempt 
to m pMi H bj tlw Raidnff of Luiuii^ vbich ii 
MHltead hte fKftUat work. lib Mart^om of 
BL Agidfaft wm ftlao nutkod among th* pleoM of tbu 
SM Mi at ii ft. Hi> dual narit, howvrar, la; In alcsle 
flnrto and POftraJta. Hi* Piotra Antino and hU 
ClniMOt VIL wi;r« Kcliniralil« likra«MM and apeci- 
flBMH «rf parfact colouring, H« waa hit^h In fsvoor 
"•ftb Ohomrt, who crtfttod him loMpor of ths Papal 
'i, 7VaiBlUiabaamMaBoabaderiv(idhi««nmaino 
ISombo, tbo aeak afetacbed to lbs Fftpal bulla 
fMag ftl that dBM of laftd (ptomfo), TMb po«t niadn 
HI BaooMaiy fup htia to oMurao tho dariciil habit, and 
[Ann that tima ba pafubed bnt llltk. He wrote 
•ntertuaed leannod mon at bis table, ami 
omaaiwiallj painted a pcrtridt. }Io di^d Id 
JT. It abo d«wma to o* raentloDed that be 
f bmlad ft pocsUar a»albod of polntlTiE: in oU on 
* valla, In wbi^ maimer tbM« {■ a ScoorgiDi; of Chri»t 
tto bo BM-n ia S. PieUo in Montaria. 

FIONEKRS, labooren atMched to an uiny for 

l-tta "*■""; and rvpftirixig of roada, and perfoncfng 

111! tftboon oennected tlterowilh, digging trcnrho, 

ind piaam iiiu| ctaftnlineaa in kbe camp when atatioo- 

kMJiU. OfifiuUy tben doUit Iiftd to be perfonued 

rl|*r Iftbonran in ui« oounbr oeoupied b; Ihe army, 

^Int DOW mcfa jmmmt aiw only «nplovM aa aaxili- 

, ft nombar of man being attftofaea to «aeb ixrim 

f— — ""■* body of pionean. In wrcnl anniea 

I flw ■** nitod -with tbo aapper» and pootonina. 

I PIOZ2SX Hmnm LmoH SALpaaURT, an KiiEltiili 

rai^ bora bi 1739, waa the dauxhtet uf JdIih 

[fldaabory tt CitnamMiBbira. Early in life abe was 

IdHlafillked to the faahknahlo world by hnr hrAnty 

) and ftoeampHahmwito. In 1763 ilie wu marriiril to 

' Saaf7 Thnle, a brawn of gnat opulenoa to Soutb- 

I Virk. whidi borongh 1m than rapwi en tcd in Parlta- 

' Beat Soon aftar oonawneed h«r awraalmance with 

! Xir. Johnaon, of whom aha paUtdiaa AnecdolM In 

I MM oatftvo volum* (1789). Mr. Thrala dying in 

' lltl, Ui widow, who waa the mother of Covr dnugb- 

> tm*. mnoled In 17M Pioczl, a >1oraatiB« nnalo- 

llMn rcaident in Ilath. This Allian>oo wiui 

' kaanlj raaantaii by all bar frionda, and Jolmwrn 

liWtMygftTa npberoocUty. Sbe aovumpaulecl lier 

Ad to hia native city, and wbilo there contri- 

[tntod aoYcral pocm^ aigncd Anna MathiMa, to the 

Jlofaatin* UJaeellany, faunded by thi^ leaden uf 

I>(llft CnHonn achoc^ Aaxng brr wriUngs ara — 

Obam-atioan made in Fraooa, Italy, and bennany 

U7SB>; biiliitt Synonymy, oc an Attempt at rvtfu- 

latlng tbo Choice of Wcada in FunlUv (\mr«natlon 

11774) ; Baviaw of tbo meat Strikbg ETtott and 

CWftctMS of the lut tftOO Yoan (1S01). fto. Mn. 

' TlMri died al Cliiloo, Afay 2, 1821, In her elb-lity- 

|l— wdyaag. 

PIP, «c Pv (ptpw), a diwa.io amons' ponltry, 

guMing of ft wUto thin aldn or film tlut growl 

■dar the tip of the tongna, and hindL-n their fecdinff. 

It Boat frwineotly oooon in damp or tery cobl 

f wwlbar. Ila eariieat tymptoma arv a tllKlit boftrte- 

WM iDd Ofttohlng In the breath, foUoirod by an 



off«rtisinadiacbarg«from the eye* and ifietrils, rattUug 
in tbo thioat, and fliwlly the accumulation v{ mtica* 
in Ihn month. The diaeaae mpldly ipreada orer a 
whi!i)o poultnr-y&rd, probbhly owing la the eontaml- 
nation nf the water in a ooirimon drinking vwaiol 
The dineaacd liirda moat be kept warm: inmo antho- 
riticfl rewnnmend tboaitminlstntlonof Po«trtr-MI and 
alwi » niixtiin^ ul ) dradim of dried mtlpliale of imn 
And 1 ilnclun of cnpm'nim, miwln iip inUi thirty pitlii 
with extract cf liijuurite; one pill to be jgivva tureo 
timea a dny. After a c?rt.\in time ttia la aiibstltutad 
by a compound nf eidphiwtc nf iron, caycnnn [wpper, 
and bottor. Otliora recDHimcntl that tb« fnwU Bknuld. 
be f>^l on oatmti«l mixed Mitli ale, alonK with a 
liberal lupply nf groen food. Aa the birds nwovcr 
the acal* on the tongua will diaappear of itwdf ; art!- 
fiuial lamoval It ODOOoaaauy. Tbo ey««, noetrila, 
and mouth may bo waahod mtfa Tfnegar. 

PIPA, ft £cnns rf AmphiMana^ popularly diMJg- 
natvd 'Surinam Tnnda,' and forming the ^rpo of a 
diadnct family (Plpldw) of the Amphibian order 
Anoani. Tho bi^ known epedea la tba PipaAmert- 
ntrut of Sniinnm and Ltnuril. Tho torgii" ia abeort 
throu^^hout this family, and t*wth nre Irat mrcly 
dnvi>!fi]i*ni. In the g«Dua Ptpa te*tb axe tulolly 
wantitii;, bnt in an uUod genos {D'ftylftfira) tbo 
upper jaw li proTided with minute tci^th. The head 
in the Pi]iaa ia of triiUKular form, the eye* Iieing 

tiaceil lAvim to the mouth. The body la broad, the 
ind Im long and powerfnl, tho toca of theae logs 
bedn; raUj webb«L 'I'hu tymivnnnni of the enr ia 
concealed. Dwlt/fttKra found nt the Cape of Ciood 
Hope and in 1Mn7Ambi<ioo dltTura from all other 
Amphibia (exoupt one of the Rolamandera) in poa- 
seflElng naila on the IhrM inner toee of the hind 
limliH. The Kurinam 'l-y^A, which \i iihi>\m on PI. 
XV.-XVl. Hg, V, \» one nl ihn mrat rcpiiUlvo 
lo3)dnK i*t the Toads, and it Is noted aa MeinplifTing, 
in the case of tho femalo animala, an anijmalous 
mode of dereloping tho egga Mtd young. A nomber 
of pita or depnoaloDB tormed 'donal e3la' appear to 
be formed on tJie back of the fnunle Pipaa at tLo 
broediug aenann. In ench cell an ncg fa de[)Ofited, 
the cjjj^-a bcinj- first dopcaibd by the lemale in water 
lifter tho uiunl inotbod, and being Impvagnatad bj 
the male, whu tben collecta tho cega and l^aoea 
tbem In tho female'a back. Each mU appeara \a be 
clcaed by ft lid-Hke fold, and withbi Vm ecUa tlkO 
denilopnimit a.nd tnftaniorphnKiii of tho Tonng take 
plncvi tlivK new fomu eiucr]i:ing fmm tne panntal 
oells Id tbo adult and mftCnre fonn. It waa roTmeriy 
ima^aed that tko agga wan not only contained aa 
deicfibod bat also developed within the donal eella 
of the femalea; but a dooer atody of the phenameoa 
showed that the eggs wcra prodnoed and extnidad 
from the rcprndtxtivo orffana aa in nttinr Amphihoa. 
and crerv placed in the cella by Ute maica aa alnjady 
atnted. About «tgbty-two daya 1* atated aa the 
period required for tho foil metatmirphoota and 
ctnvolopment of the yotmg within the naiUmftl oaUa. 

Nutwithatanding the r«pnU*a appeanuwa of the 
Plpaa thay an aald to bo oatan and ragaidad aa deli- 
cftcir« by the natlTea of Qulana and SnrinaaL 

PIPR, a wine m«aaDre, nasally eonCi^nfaig very 
nearly IDS Imperial or 12S wtna ^allona. Two pnea 
or 210 Imperial gaUona mnka a tun. In practfee. 
however, tne ain of tbo pipe variM acocr^ng to ths 
kiud of wniiR it centring. I'hiia a pipe of port eeo- 
taiuB 13^ winu-gallao.i; of ihcrry, ISO; of Uaddra, 
IIC^ ftck IIm pl{<e of port la aeldom noccnttely 
ISS nllona, and it la cuatomary to duug* what ttia 
Teaau adnaUy oontainn 

PIPE, ft tuba for the eonveyanoe 'Of water, atcam, 
gaa, or other fiuld, naad for a groat variety of r^ 
pooca In the ftru nod In domaatte economy. Tb« 



«s 



PIPE. 



tnAteriiOi of which pipes sre iubJa are &1ao very 
vuioui, wooil, itoae, MUltieairnre, iron, ieni, c^pimr, 
leftthnr, guU&-[ieivtui, 4c., being bU eutplojed, Far 
maay ^van Londoa wu aup{iUi.-d with water b; plpe« 
mode tit eim lopi liorod through tl]« centre by*ui,'«r, 
Auil filter! toj^tbirr by meuia of Lbs crmicmJ! tarini- 
nntion at out» (^ud (mtoring into thu oomapoDdiiiK 
enluKsd cavity of tho aaxt [on^h. T'ipu of this 
kiutl UM still tiwvl to Homo extent in t^imtrica whore 
wowl Ut |)l«utiEul, bwt they are very t]sfni.-live (nun 
the rapkii d^cny tliey uadcj^'o wbcD UI4 dawn; ftud 
InacrewthanwaniripMtrDbciiif gndojUy mibctt- 
tstad. Drmlnace ■luitMnnga ptp«taE gKUt strength 
and riu {meaaoring from I or 2 up to 64 luchca iu 
dlandhs^ *ra now twiuUy auuds of tiro-clny, glued 
OD tb«lr outer and iotwr nirbcuk Tbcn i» a socket 
at one end t« reodve t])e end «i the nexL Earthen- 
want [lifioii ant made by aqueodng a ix^iitluuoua length 
vt pliuLic clay thrausb B. cbcubir oriiicti, tho OD&tro 
of vchioh is oocupiiMl by a miuidril of tho aize of thut 
intorinr nf the pii>c Lar^'c iroo jii|WN arc luually 
raat, and are used for thn mpply of water and gaa 
ia the important touaii uf Grvnt KHtaiii and iniuiy 
ttmaga itatw. A groat proportion of tbe mannfao- 
foctnre ot oait-iron [>ip«a ia au-ridd on in Scotland. 
BinaQ pipe* >J wrought -imn, btsMi, nr copp«r, are 
mad* by rallliig out uarrt^w Kt.ri|iti nf iu«tal, aiid Uien 
pauiiig than through pain of rdlen, the on« at vhich 
ua a aeiiM of pn>iecting br-aih ri'imd it, tlm otbrr 
botng furmabed wiui oarreapundiug gmovo. By thia 
mean* thn nlgta cf tbs metfd atrip are lunwd up, A 
luaiidril it tliun laid in it, and it ia pasMkl thfou^ 
a pair of concave rolkn, whl>.<h bring the ed^ra 
lOgothoT, thua forming a L-viuplc't*: tuba. The sd^'ca 
Uun miuin aoldcointr- An iinprovad mothod of pr»- 
dudng Diall aaetal tubci has nuw, however, mom into 
gmunX nao, and be«n bimi^ht to great perfactian. 
A long cylinder of braait ci'<|>|X3r, or tin ia cast with a 
bola duwu tho ooDtre, t^ the aiune dlonetor aa tb« 
dflaiied bore of Ch« pipcu Tbe cylinder i« conical at odo 
end like a penal. An at^untely-GtttnK mandril la in- 
Mrtad in Cha hola; and made tit project a lltilo at the 
mni«al«Dd; HistltMi brought to thodnkn-b<! bench, 
whovtiia t«pared«nd i* placed in a fnnnul ahipca 
holrdriUed inaateel poat. lltiu |>uiut of tb<? cy tinder 
with the projacting tnandrU [humm tbn^tigh thIa l)u1« 
jnat auffld«ntlj far to be gri)>cd by a pair of pinccn 
attached to a itrong chain. Macbltie- power ia then 
applied to tha chain, and the metal and inandril are 
drawn through tho hole. IW tliia lui-ana the metal ia 
extModed equally over the lurfuce it the mandril, 
which ia then withdrawn, and tbo tube ia oompUte, 
or it may nM]iilre bo t" dran-n ibmugh acveni holoa 
gradually decrvMUUK in aixe. A {mteut baa been re- 
cently gT*nt«d for the manufacture u( bb^ plp^a on 
a rinnlar priuciplo. Ijovi pipea of abnoat any fengdi 
ud diamntcr c*a )v maile by a atmilar proceaa to 
tbat adopted fur «gkithcuware tubM. The loft metal 
la {tt-Miad tfanagll a holn in a Ktcf 1 iilatx la which 
then is a fiud mandnl, wbi^ fomu vtm bore of thu 
pipe. 

PtPB, Tobacco, a bowl and oonneciing tube, made 
of bakad clay, wood, atone, or othar matsriai, and 
naedinamoUngtnbaooo. The cheap pipea hi oominoii 
use thniufhuul Gntat Brilaiu tin made of a fine- 
grained wbibo plaatic clay, fniitid chieHy in the Iulo 
(if IVrbeck ha Dcmetahin!, and at Newtuu Abbot in 
DavoaaUnL Thb cl&y Is wwfced with v,-at«r into 
a tUn paatc, which ia allnwod to aottlc in pitx, or it 
may b« paaeod Uuougb a uc>c to remove all atony 
boporitiaa. 'i'ha water i« aflvmarda ein^Mnat«l till 
the clay beeomua a doughy ■ lika nuui, wkon It ia 
well kaaadvd to ^vn It nnlfono eoneiatenoe. A child 
takaa a small p«M» of this dar, ralla it wiUi tbe 
palma of hia hauda npua a plank mto a alandar oyUn- 



der, which forrma the at^in of the pipe. To th* end 
dI thia cylinder he Hxim a lump of rja* larga enough 
to form tbo bead or bowL Tbcae radlnwMair p^^ 
nraamuii^-d by downs on a board, and wt Mlaa Jer a 
day or two to gain mLire eonaistonco. Tb«y an tbea 
handed to the ptpe-makar, who pnaboa an oiled boa 
wire along the centre ut the >t«B, so as to tocm tba 
bore. I'hs bowl ia shaped by a folding bnaa moaU 
channelled inside, each pin^ being hollowed out Uke 
a half pipe cnl as it were lengthwioe. Thm pipe Is 
laid iu outt of tbe jaws of cho mould with tho win 
stilisticIciD^init; the other }Awia then bnngfatdoWB 
npno it. and b«[d with a rUmp. A lever prMeet aa 
uilod atupper into tba bowl of tbe pipe while still IB 
tbo mwdd aufflciontty far to fotni ton cavity, tlM wlra 
being kept working backwards and furwarda aloag 
tho whole length of the tube to keep it oiko. The 
win is then mtbdrawu, the mould open«d, and tba 
pipo taken out, and tho radundant day is removed 
with a Itnifc. After drying for a day or two Uie 
pipui are Bi^nipf^d, jsotiahnd mtba pjeoeof hard WOcm^ 
and tiie rt*ni« being b«>nl int™ tbn dnaimd ffwm, thsT 
an nimovcd to tbe baking kiln or aeiarar. Thu 
comdHta nf an inner drcular chamber with a &umb«r 
of Bniall atagM, on which the pt;>ca are arraagad with 
thair howU renting againit iiw circumference, their 
■tuuu being giijjjjortt-d <ju tirvular pie<<ea ol day art 
up in the Dcotni of the chamber for that porpoaa. 
Tho "H-L^gar )« inctnenl within a fnrnac« nf ordinary 
brick-worlc lioml with fire-bricka. Between tbin and 
iha ojiUndtfr theru la U'ft a apaoo ot about 4 Inohaa 
all round for the pnaanga of tfaa flama, Tba mw 
chambnr can U: rloMcd so aa to exdnde all siwkke^ 
and with a niodeiate fire uid ■kilful paoldnA a* 
many as &0 gr- >m of pij'o* inav bn bakix) la dpit or 
nina houn. \^'b(ja thonwitbty bukcd tb^ i«c«ti'« 
another prdislnng, and are tiien ivady for the mulMI; 
A clay pijie should not be too hard baked, ahcoU 
bars a inud«nit«ly lung and slightly bsnt stan^ ai 
almoat conical -sbap«d bowl, not rising from tbn ateia 
at an acute an^lc; both ateui and bowl ahuuld alao 
be of mudi!rat« tblikncaa. A pipo made an thi* 
principle vi'ill allow frM paaaafa to tba aaAt, will 
absorb the nil produced in amoktng, and will not an 
nAilily grt hot and bitt«r aa a bard, shvrt, and akn- 
der>Rt«nini»d pir«. All pipaa cnatod with an-calUd 
moeracbaum and other wnnhca ihoiild be avoided, aa 
tbeae help to deelroy the porodtty of tbo cbvy. Much 
finer and mcru ex^icnsive pipea aro made of near- 
■chanm, a snm<:whnt plaatia masnaaian atooia at a 
iKjft Knaay fuuL Thi* uaturiul w (onnd ta M?«aaL 
parts of Europe ^in Mora\-ia, Piodmont, aad tlw 
Oriroca). but uinre abundantly anil of finer qoalt^ 
in Aina Minor. Meerachaum pipe uiakini; ia carried 
on to the greatest eitcot by the (iennana, and V{«nn» 
may bo aaid to bo the cvstrv of the nanrafactaiak 
SometimeB the bowl alone (which ia Iretiiuotly artta- 
tlcally carv<>d) la i>f moonchaum, th« sten boag eC 
wood, th« best aorta of which aro got from tin Tova^ 
tlunui of the Mahalub cherry, grown aearVlewk^ tk* 
muck oraui^'c of HuQ)taiy, and bb« ju— mhiB atfcka of 
Turkey. I'he stem, wbetb«ir of the aama matarial aa 
the bowl or of wihkI, ia nanally proTidod witk a nnulb* 
nlaoa of ivoij, aUver, or amber, the lart brfaj pm- 
fen«d. MeendMun pipea of bh« beat vorkmaoah^ 
have bern known fiwjnenUy to oommand the prica 
of 1 00 Euineaa. Briar-root plpca^ with tba bowl and 
Ht«in of one piece of wood, and pra'idod wltb aotbv, 
ivory, or bone niotiih-frtrcnt, ore now very oooauin; 
they hare little or no advant^e orer Ibe day plpa 
oxoept in being l««a llablo to break. Many O 
and DutchmoQ profor ptpct wilb poreaUia 
wbii^b are aomctimes bcaiitifullr painted in the __, 
of fine cbiiiaware painting. Toe easteni booludl 
a pipe of gTMt aiHi, the bowl of whiofa ia aat apoa 




PIPECLAT— PEPISTRELLE. 



98 



•It alr-tigkl tsBal puti^lly filled wHh vua, taiA 
lUM * aull Inbo which pBMM duwH iaio Ui« wktcr; 
lb* l«ag fleriblc KDnkiDg-bibn in ini«rUt) in th» lirli) 
o( tiM tmmL B; «xli»uiUui{ the mt iu tho muwIuuk- 
Inbi^ tka tUDlu is farood down tfaruogh the water, 
»ad «oUrafi inlo Uio aput abors H pmwm into Lb* 
■tam^ atolea aod fnod from aome of tb* moat acrid 
propartlM of the tobeceo. Upon the AmerleKii ew- 
tianl (toee hare bwD in om from a very remota 
peffad. indUa pipes with «UhorktcIy-citr%*c<l coaii- 
rt oae bawleaodnmaincutcHl woudvii ■tama, or entirtuy 
of twk*deli9',ba*«b««i)[oand intboimcieiitiiiouiul* 
of dM WeM, tegvther with other r«lici qI tia nalmown 
nea. See CAttiMBT. 

PIPE-CLAY. Sco Clat and PiPl (Tobacco). 

PIPE-FISli£3 iHfitsfnatJitit), a g«aiu o[ fiahei 
tadnded in the nb-ordar Ix^bnhraiicliii (which mo) 
tt the TettoUbtma order, and ntiarljr allied U> the xcnua 
S ip fntca m pMt, lepr ee eatod bj the ctirtoua little ti*b«« 
l^palaHjr Known aa ' •ea'boraci' (wbHi eoc), Ah Ja 
mD Lopitobtmacbii ('tufl-gtUed') the Javraof the ptpv- 
lUua aia of «nnpl«te and frvo atructiire; the gills 
hnng diapoaed in tufla on the brancliinl arciioa, UiQ 

£-oov«r beiag t^nte and tbe giU-^jerture of amall 
I Til* boajr U oorerad by soalca of the ganoid 
wirty Ml l«i7thwi»c and in tbe pipe-fiaboa Is very 
kD{ nod l^ieony, aud of attennalvd, aleadcr abape. 
•J(o n&tnl Ou esbt, nad the jnwi are uiiit<^ tu 
B |dpa er tnbo, bearing the month at tho tip. 
Syifntlkvt atM m the most faoiiliv Kritixh 
ItavengeaSOiiidKainUDjfth. Tbeanuutia 
ij cyUadrkeJ, and tho mouth ia deatltntevf twlh. 
I enloor ii jreUowiah, mottled with brown. The 
ol cnntaeeana, wnnna, molhuca, ftc 
fawgwt of tbe Britisb afMK-iuB in taid tu attuiu 
I laBfth o( 3 font. Uther spadaa arv tho £>; tj/pfilr, 
PK Wfuornu, S. «f-ki<Jicn, S. af^tn'rvcw, and & Ivtn- 
■hit^ormii, 

A very curioaa and r«tuMkabIa dn-niuatao'Ce En 
t'-OTnectim with tbe pipe-fiabas wosUta In tbe nalca 
>tf Mawepaciaa paaaewing a poqch-like fold, ritualed 

> tt Ifae bnie of the tail, id which tbe eogi ar« con- 
after being eatiuded from the body of tlin 

■. Aad after the young fry are hatched they 
to eeallntM to naUe witUa thia pondi for a 
r «r ■heeler p«riod. tboa fordbly reanlndLng one of 
^tteeBnlopoaaamtagnDenteeen in the kaagaroceand 
fWlhm l JM i a < Hi b J ManiB>alia It ban bIm twan aUited 
[Aat If A* ywmg be ahaken ont of tho pouch Intv 
^tta water, tbor mil retnni into it an the kjdy uf the 

Kit b^ae neld In. the water ao aa to allow ttivm 
ter. Tim eeg^ U ia b^ered, are eitnided Into 
lU pondk at the nalaa by the fcanalea— the latter 
|eeeeeeug no analogmu »tnictiiro. Yarrcll »t«tc* 
that {nun repealed divectiiniB ho boa fannd that 

> Ibe povdi-bearing pIpe-lfalMe wei« Invariably malee; 
Asm deelitnte cf potubw bdng iemalea, noaaeming 

I angiai contat nta g eggt. The malee of otW fiahee 
[ffar emnple, etJauetnciaj are w«Q known to Mniet 
I«r to perform the dilaf part of the incubatory dvtiee; 
' vhilat ic if alto remnrit^e that in tb« llippncampidn, 
r rciatiooe <d tbe Pipe-fikbea, the maliai alio iioe- 
I n pouch riiniUrly eltnated to that of the Pipe- 
' fiihei, and uaed nmilarly for tho depoddon of tbe 
ittt* **>^ '"'^ ^ ^° y^'V- ^^ lining memfanne 
lafthk pouch inlho'ean-brnea' baa alao Wn allegnl 
[in fondah » Auid doatincd for the nutrition of tb« 
[jfoong. 

The name Plpe-ftih may aleo be applied to the 

of tbe genna FiMwlaria, Lnduded in tbe 

I divUon of tho Tolooetci. llio bonis 

[ «l tbe fiM «• pRilonged to f om n tvholitr Blructure. 

'U th* extruAty of which tba month opana. The 

KumUtria tabacoria cl the AntiSee, airer»gfng about 

B fe«t In Icngtti, teprceenta thia genua. 



PII'ER.\C;E.E, a natural order of ehrnliby or 
herbaoooua oxo^cnoufl planCa, inhAhiting the hottest 
pnrta of tiio glohti, particiiliirly Indiik aud South 
Anuirica. They haie artlfulaleil iit^nui, Wvoit oppo- 
Blt« (aometlmefl altsmate hy nbortinn of onu of the 
pair of leave*) or vcrticilliitcj exfltijiiilatd or «tlpiilate^ 
■nil niiikiKl uT raocniiiBa fluwera. Tliu llowcn are 
hen&nplu'L'ditv, and •upporti.'d on n l>ract Stamuna 
S-8-4, arranjod on one tJclu or all ninaJ the uvary; 
anthcn ano or two ocll«L Ovaty aolitiuy, frtm, one- 
celled. The wuud 1b ofl«a arranged in n-cdgca, with 
laedallary rays, hiit without cnnoentHi; mna. There 
are twenty-one known ecuum nud above G0OBi>»cieB. 
Thti planta of this order bavo pungont, acrid, and 
arodiatic pniperlii*. Mi"*t of thi-iii ciiiitnin an aorid 
reala and a cr^itnlline )>ritidi'tc called uiperiue (mmj 
PirmiNK). mnne arc naruutic and Htrlngeot. The 
(tried fruiting 'piki^ <>' fipfr longvm, an Tndiihn 
cr^wper, are the I'lng-pepper nf commerce. Of talc, 
however, the ^nua Piptr ham been eubdividud, and 
thia kindof iveiipirliaa beenrefoned to vaHouaapedoa 
(jf n new g^uua. Cfiai-iea, nanudy. C.petpuioid<», Rax- 
burghii, Had o^iVinarutn. Tho dnod unripe tniite 
vi Piper fiigrum coiuUtute hUck ].iej)per. (8ee Psr- 
tOL.) The fruit of Cubtha ogirindia (Piprr Cu*r6«>, 
a cliinbinz plnnt of Java nrid other Indian ialnnde, ia 
tho Cubcb ptjiptr iwcd eiteiuivply Ui arre«ltrnj cUa- 
charges fi«m mucnua iu<^Dibraup«, (Scv Ci:inciM.) 
The Imth and nnripn: fruit of Piptr ajuputifoli^in 
cooititnte the aromatiii, fngrant, and aatringent aub- 
etnnoe ealled mofKo or mo/uu, which ban bevu reoum- 
Dended for ^^eoklng hemorrhage. The leasee of 
Piper Bad {CharKa Bttit) nra chewed In the Eart aa 
a uioanii of intoxication. (See BcntL.) The rout of 
Macnrjiipcr mrth^tlicnm a the i«iiti«f tlie South Sea 
lelandera, and ia used in the prapjuntion of a atimu- 
Utisjc hcTTcrage. 

PIPEHIO ACII>, PifCTinure, and PiPEBOitAL. 
TbL-»tr utun«a are ^veu to three eulntauiiM ulitalned 
Indirectly from pepper. When plperioe {which tee) 
is bailed with caustio potaah ani) aJcobol mtaaeiinn 
pi^wnitc ia producml, (roni which pijieric aad may he 
olitafaixl by theactir'n of hydTi>rhlii)rii.'iwTid. Thtaacid 
hjM the formula CnUtfO^i it fotma yellowi^ needlea, 
which are nearly inioluble la water. By osddizlDg 
the furegoing «dd In neutnl aolntlon with potaeilian 
jinrmuigaDato, cokvurlen, tnuuqtaront h>ng, liintmoa 
)triHu« of piperoasi ar« obtalnML I'hia Iwly i> tho 
aldehyde «E jifoia aold; It luui the (oramla <:'.H.0> 
If pipcrine no heated with aula lime a vuhLlilc base 
ia obtainoid in the form of a c(}li>nrla«R, mobile liquid, 
with an aanouudaoal odour and a cuutlo tartc; to 
this body, which ia repreeeuted by the fcmuula 
OflliiN, the name of tdperidina ia ginm. 

PIPERIKE (C»H«NOJ, an ^aknd oontahied 
in pepper, from wUch it Ii prepared by exhauation 
with alcohol, tie. Fiperlne ia a oryat&lliQe. Oblour- 
Icae eubetance^ inaolnblo in water, bat diuulvcil by 
hoi alcohol; the nlcaholic aiilutiuu ha> a May !iot 
taste. Flpeirlne unltea with aovorat aoida to form 
wdl-doSncd talta. 

PIP18T1tELI.R {FapeHBio Pipulrtlla\ n genua 
of lata iii«lud(-d iu the family of the Veapvrttllonldie 
or True Bate, and in the Inecctivotoua eection of tbe 
(Cheiroptera or Ikkt Onkr. Tht PtplHtrelle ta tbe 
faiiiiliai' little bat which ocnm thruu^^buut BritMn, 
and ttita about during twilight. It ii ulmy naJd to 
oooor in Africa and ludi^ It la of einalt lisv, and 
poBMaMa a motue-Uka body oovered with hair, tma 
which reaemblanoe ite poimUr nameof l-littvr-mouae 
hoB tioen dcrired. It feed* upon inaoda of rnrioua 
kinds, whlib it punuM on the wing; bat It fa alao 
partial to mi'at, and haa been foana hi l«rdm Mtd 
nantrica fcediitg upon jointn Tlie Pipittrelle &• 
nabita the crevicva of waU> and old bulldlnge through- 



PIPIT— PmAOY. 



eat tbo <Iajr. It poMo* thn wintsr, liko moart iithcr 
l>at«, lu s BtAte uf Uir|iIdiCK but ajipean lo hybor- 
n&ta for R ■hort«r poriod tlua ollwr and larger 
■peoies. llifi moUr teeth wo provided wHh shup 
«uapa, M in Itmcbivoroaa fomu Ronattllj. Tho 
noa* Lm no l«of-Ufc« Appvodacoi. Ttw vrbtg mem* 
bnuio or i^'atAjftuni (whlcU wet) moiuniroii tilx<ui i 
indiM in cxpaiiM (PI. XXXVlIt.-XXXlX. V2). 

PIPIT, urTin.*aK (.(ii/Aw),a^eniiinif Perching- 
blrdi^ poneMUig mLki KtiiluDif tttGuiUra wtUt the true 
(CoiAntnd) Larhj, which ijbey xv«q-mXiId chloily lu 
tb« laret du of the blndoi d&w, ud iho devctap- 
swnl of tho tatHtkry ([iiUb. Mcxt eomiDonly, how- 
ercr, (ha PipiU ate audo to furm a ),-euui of Beuti- 
nntrftl PorciiMi, »ad tbo* M«ng to ih« eub-fanLJly 
<i( th« Mntxitllinie or WagtMib, which they duwly 
leaembhi in Uiclr hnhibi of nuuung stviftly ou thu 
OTOiuid. I'bar food oiiaMJtta chiefly of liuecta. The 
bill u of mwltiTftlo luagth, uul ilendcr, with tbo U)> 
of tlu opper maaiUbla notched ind ciirveJ. Jha 
wbgH Me lon^ and pelted, the t«rti&ry fefttbon 
Yxaag of gn»t leo^h. Tho tail !■ bIm elon^ited. ^m 
Menilow Pipit «r Titlult (Ant/tut ptyUtntU) b the 
'Xfrnmoneat Bntiab apodea. The Shore Pipit, or Bi»k 
Lvk {A. petnttut, not to bo coofouoded ndth tbo 
AmeHoa Sba>« Liftrk, oue of Ibn true Lnrla), fro- 
quMite tlie aea-beftdk. Mid fiMila oa mullusce and 
OnMtacea. Tho Trm Pipit or Titlark (JntAuj ar- 
(drau) bu a ahortcr ciirvRd bindur nLiur tlian tho 
others. It ia a auuimiir ilnltaut imly in tlia Drittah 
IbIm. AU tbe I'ipit* build their negtn on the grouuiL 
Thw lou^ in All cuiuintB u( B clcikr, liniplo note, that 
of tho Tree Pipit boing Imitated b; the vorda pU- 
pit. See alao LaKK. 

FIFPIX, the naina givoo to a oortain claw of 
dessert applee, probably beoMwe the trees were tninvd 
fron tho pips or soeds, and bore tbo apples vhich 

Gvo them oclohrity wil^out graftinf;. Thoy actnt t-i 
ve been Introdaood into Great Britain fn>n> Pranw, 
and were little kni>tn) tlierw luitil abiiit thi.> «di) of 
the aixfevath century. In the time of Bbakapt-rf 
pippina vrr-ra dolicadaa fur the desMtt: Uir lloKh 
Evaiu, bi tbe Men-y Wlveeof Wbidoor, say*, *I will 
make an end of my dinner — there's pip^>lns and cheese 
to coma.* Jtutioe Shallow, in his iuntatiou to Fal- 
ita^ >ayi^ ' Too diall we< miae orcbanl, wbore^ In 
sa arbdnr, we wHl eat a last year's [idppLQ of my 
ow&mCtliu.' Thcn4biton,Gi^da>,lfewtoD.andtho 
nnallSeot^ OsUn or Arbroath IMppin ar« favoniito 
varietke. 

PIQITET, a nmo at rain!* plnved between two 
petsons with thirty-two canl^ all the jdiun cards 
Doloir seven boing thrown nada. (ta the oardii htlng 
shuffled the playots cut for ^iL-al; the parly drawing 
the lowert card nas todeal fint. Thn otnU nn thpo 
dealt two by two miSl each player baa twdve oafda^ 
lbs elgbt ftnnamisg nudsalt (called Iha stock) ore 
laid OB the table between the jilayers. The first 
hand (Uw non-dealer) utiut tbt^u iliacard five or leu 
of bis cuds the muat dbeard at least oneX exchaoginf 
them for an equal nnmber drawn troia the stock; 
tlw younger hand (tbe dasler) may exchange fnon 
the stock three or lese, but may iwuee to exchange 
altogether. Za playing tbo cant nak in ordar m 
follows: tbe aeo (whtcn ooanti eleven), tbe king, 
tjaoen, and knave (each of wUdi oonnta ten), and the 
plain carda, oadi of which oonnta according to tbe 
ntunberof Us pt{ie. IV pteyor who fint reMfa« 100 
haa the pun* Tha soors u made op bj reelconing 
la the following maanor: — Carte blanch^ tbe pdn^ 
the aeuucnoe, tLe qnatonc^ tbe cords, and the capot. 
Carto olnnebe is a hand tk twelve plain oatdL and 
eouM ten for the player who bel^ it, Tba p«Bt la 
the soitof highest ralue, the valae being detenDinod 
by tho number it makoa up when tbe cards held are 



sddol toj^ethor; thus, if a player holds soi, klll|; tiB, 
nine, ani] eiaht, hit jxiint would be forty>e^;fat. "Rm 
first player ha viui; called a {miot, the yonngar band 
must then uy whdtber his point u aawtior. eqnal, 
or inferior in value bi hi« nppr<nrnt*«, nr calUnf in 
tho finit plooo 'gmiti,' to tio aetduJ equal,' and 
iu the last ' nut g>Md.' If the «Iilur band's point 
Is 'good' he at onoa show* it. and counts oae W 
oaoh card in it, except with the points thlrty-fosr, 
flirty ■(□iir, fifty-fuur, and aiity- four, which ooiint one 
luH than tho uuiabor of cards. If the pointa u« 
equal he coanU nothing. Tbe sequence b oompeeed 
of A regular sueoesalan of earda in ana eni^ aad tbs 
Iiit,-ho>t HL-auciico ^Ihat ronUtning the greatest aOBft* 
her of cartU, or if the huula Bra eqniJ that of tbe 
two wbioh begins with the bigbeet card), if of thne 
ciardi, oouute throe; uf futir, coonts four; of ttt, 
counts fifteoD', of six, coimta aixteen; of aeven, seriiin- 
teen; and of oik'ht, eigbteco. The ijuatune b ouat- 
■KL.-«ed of four mvh, fuur kin^ four qneena, foer 
knav«e ur fuur toDi, and eounbi fourteen. Shonld 
there not bo a qaatorxo in either hand, the bigbeet 
•Olios of tbrL>e or two (e oonnted, but it adds oidy 
three to the holdor's iooni. Theholdorvf tboUgbsst 
sequence, quatorzo, or trio counts all hb inmler 
aBquencca, quatonee, or trio^ whily tboee of Ids op- 
poueat do not cotiitt. The baitila are pUy<id u fol- 
lows:— After the elder hand ounnts his pt.i«nt4 belays 
a card; tho youn^ur boiid vauit lay a card of the 
kauja suit If he Laa it, but utny lay any card id it bo 
cbiiic»i!$. The highest cani in the niit takes the trick. 
Tlie winner of tbe trick had next lead, and the bands 
are pUysd out aa In whiat. Kach player for tren 
vard ho leads atxive a, nine oounts ntie, and tbe secooid 
pbvor otfo cijunta dub for evory canl above ■ iAm 
wIlIj which ho vlaa a triok. Tbe winner of tbe bat 
trick counts two for it if rained by a card aboTO a 
nine, anil one if with one below it. The winner d 
the t'Tcalcst number of tricks counts ton ia addition 
Itbo ' cards ') , if fas holds all the tricks he oonnta forty 
iu addltlou (the ' ca]xit'). If a plnyor eciirea twenty- 
nice in honil and oda for the rard he laada, before 
hb opponecil couiiU luivthini;, he at unoe adds tUrty 
to bb eoore; this b called ' iiique.' Shoold a [dayor 
score thirty by the cards in his hand, by acorae that 
reckon in onler before Ida advenaij can count, be 
obtains the ' r«p)qu«,' whldi enables Um to add ditj 
to hb scoTQ. For the aaka of oaitT«ni«Boe the aooni 
are gonetnlly reoordod at tho end of tho hood; hot 
they are noacdahlo no mutter by whloh hand Ihej 
aro made, aooording to the following table o< pttvoe- 
donce: 1, carte bbiioho; 2, point; i, sequenocs; 4, 

aufttoixea and trice; S, point* made In play; and 6, 
le i:arda. If oiso player sciMra a hundred before the 
otiier obbUna fifty ho wEna a donblo- 

PIQtr£-WORK, a ane kind of iubdd wp^ n- 
sombUiig Buhl-work (which see), but muoh more 
ri^Kniaivaaodclalxjrate, tbe inlay beiiae minutopisew 
of gold, silver, anil other oostty matsnals. It ia oon- 
Gnvd lo arUiilos of small sue, sudi aa oard-oasas, 
aouff-boiea &£. 

PI RACV ia IIm eriuin of mhbery and depredatiaii 
oumnilttud upon tbo luuh sess. It b aa offence 
against tho uuivoraol tnw of sodoty, a pirate bala^ 
aooordiug to Sir Ldword Coke^ Asstii Auaoas ftnen^ 
As, therefore, he has ranounoed all the Lea s fi t a tt 
aadttj and govemmeBl, and has rcdoeed himaeU to 
tbo savage stato uf natnrc, by declaring war sgalBBt 
all mankbid, all mankind mnrt declare war against 
hini; BO that evety ooinmnnltT haa a rigb^ by tbe 
niie of wU-dsfeoos^ to infiiet wah ponfahment upm 
hiiuwhiuheveryiDditddualwDvM,lBaatatoalnBtw«. 
etiumiao have been entitled to do for any Invsaiati 
of hb person or psnonal property. By vatioas 
statuUssln England and tho United Stat^irf America 



PIBiEUS— PIRITHOCS. 



95 



oftv olIcDow an isMla janey. Tbun, if n mbiMt 

g( ^Ifaw <4 thcaa DktfaMU oonuclto Kit; iwt of Lottillty 

Hifart ■ Mknr-wbJMt <m tbo Ugh eou^ uaiJor wloor 

CK • ooBBilaioii bvm uiy faraign power, thia » an 

ad <t fincy. So if mot "t**'" of any vewel, or 

— *"■. ran awaj wlch um vcmsI, or Uie goodf, or 

viddtbim in> to & pinto rolonuril^, or if uiy MiuiiAn 

Uj Tfalatt haoda on liii er<inmuiil<-r, to tiitulcr him 

tnm igbtiiig la dgfancKi uf tlie ihip or j-uuds cijiii- 

B^ttod to bb chatg«^ or male* a ro^oU Id tho iihip, 

Uhm q ff aDPBi an «oti of pinwy by tlae Uwt of £aj;- 

bal B/ tha itatuU of ft Georgo L onp. xxIt. the 

bwliiw or OJiimionding writh known pinit«^ or tlie 

Ctadbh' b<i*wltBg any nanhaat nmtl (though with- 

M* mUbS ber or eanytag ber off), ud d«trvyiii£ 

M17 of Um gooda ea board, w* dedimd to be«cU(j 

jiracy; mnd by tba KUtoto 18 GMrga II. cap. sxx. 

aoj natural bum rabjoct or deaiMn vrbo, in ^i« of 

war, thaU oommtt anj b"«^Mt**« at lea againat any 

of bia feUo«r-«obiacta, or thall aaaial ao onomy on 

Ikai elaneot, b liaU* to ba ptuiiabod aa a piratn. 

By ttaiato of Oaotye IL capi utv. the muKuniuK uf 

ny ONtnl nairi, wbluh has bwa ukea aa a prUe, 

by tba oooHDandcff of a prirat« sbip of war, i> dcc]«roil 

hi be pfaaqy. By tbo act cf Parliaiuetib, nwwod 

Hard 81, 1S24, tli* aU««-lnuio (■ alw dadaiwl to bo 

ataey. la th« tttno of Richard L, Ity tha lawa of 

OImvo, bU tafideb ware regardo) u pintaa^ and 

tbair fnpKty UaUa to MtiurB wbcrcvcr found. By 

Q» law^ of tuwMH dw taldng of coocb by j4raoy doea 

not dirtac tba actoal ow&or of the propertv. ]3y tho 

dffl *"■***"**"" of Spain and Vcnico ahjpa taken 

frtnn pJraloa bocone tli« pro\Krtj of Haam who 

Mtaka tli«ni. Virwey, wiib faitont to murdor, itab, 

« woand, ia (•lalal. Mid pinttu can irnin no ri);lil<i 

by eenqnasL It ti of ao bnpoTUuce, (or th« | ^u rpoae 

4 sivug yuriadiction in caau of (liracj', uu ivLntu dc 

*Im« a fdraljeal ofTanoa b oomoiittvd. A inrate, 

vho ii MM by tha law cf nations, niMy bo triM and 

pi»UlwJ in uij conntry wliRre be mny lie ffrintc]; for 

u Ii lapalod to b« out of tbe iirutouliou u( nil law*. 

Bat It tha atatnta of any goTaminent doolara* ao 

oflnoa^oamnlttedoaboardciMof tbeirownnauli^ 

to ba [draey, aocb an oSenoe will be puniilMMl exolu> 

d««ty hj In* iwtloa wUch paaaw tae atatuto. In 

1^0aaa Iba oflaaoi was fonntdy msiiablt only 

by iha adnfriHy «nirt% whkli procM&d witboot a 

jvy, bi a method founded «|wa the dvQ Uw. By 

tfaailatata SS Honry VIII. cap. xt. it waa mactoa 

tfcM ofaaoy ahould bo tried by ooundaioBora oomi- 

bMm by tba lordmbaneellor, but thia mode of trtal 

«M attend by aaroral atatAilaa, mure expeciallr by 

4 and S William IV. cap. xxzvi and 7 and S Vint. 

«a{v S. Tbe ]att«r enacta that any jtwUeui of aeuso^ 

eroyar aad tanninar. or jafl delirery, may try pinipr. 

niaey, ia tl>e commoii aenaa of tbo word, ia dia- 

tiagniahed fnnn privateering by tbo ciraunatance 

tbai tfa* plnOo aalla wttbout any ooamlarfeD, and 

KodwDomUonal Sag, and attadn llut mbjaeta of all 

udoBS alike; tha privataer acta wider a comnuMion 

flea m baUconnt nower, which anthoriica him to 

iWiA, phrar, WM deattoy tba vcaeela vbicb be 

m^ oooovntar beloaging to tha hMtOo sute^ Ho ia 

Bol ragatdad aa a pJnito by tbe lawa nf uaUitnx, hut 

b amndaaea with thaao la bound to obwrve oertain 

rels and nrtrfcthnu. TTiu^ ba b dobamd from 

•naming Iha TMiali of the emeniT wbito lying in any 

part or ttiven undar the prtilediou of a friendly or 

ncntral «tat«^ Bta article I'mrArKCiL. 

PIRXITS (Greek, Priroinu), tlio pnodiul port 
tl both andeul aad uudeni Atbena, b tituatiid about 
6 auka fram Um dty, on a peniuaola vf tbe Mom 
aaoM. It baa three faaibonr*; two on tba aa«t M», 
BUfaodjr named Zea (now SttatiolJU) and Hany- 
ttda (aoir I'haoari), and one on tha weat Mt, called 



aiitijily PiiwoB, or tlie Harbwur. Thia hivrbnur, the 
larg*at of the tlirw, wan Antieiitly cliridoil inta two 
parte, tba one on iko right Cwitluunw, wblih waa 
apijmpriatfd to war-abipa. and thu onu on the tuft 
Bmpaciiun, which waeocctipied by merchant veiMli. 
Pnvloaa to tbe I'nndnn war tlio prtud]>al Atiienlan 
port waa FLalBrum, which was uut siCuBt«d oa tba 
Piratan penlnaula at ail. but lay to tbo eaat of 
Muuychia; but Tbenii*looli'«, acoin^ thn nAtorel 
ndvontnco <if tho I*int>», ■urmunded the (ianuuid& 
ii'itb a Hue uf fuitiliL-atiuriM, Tbe octlobnitod Lnug 
Walla which oonnocted tho port with tbo cnpibu, 
wcrv l>c£im under the admin iitrulion of Potiolea Id 
4S7 B.C., njid fininbtd in 431. Thay wero deattoyad 
by tbe Spartww at the end rf tho PeloponneahuL war, 
ware nbnilt by Cnnrta, and in later yean wora al- 
lowed to fall iaba docay. 1'bo andcnt town pcaaeeaed 
a DOtt^domblo t<vpu1iit[i»i, and iniuiy noble pabUo 
acd prlTAto bnudingH. Tho modem town, wbi>uh la 
cctnnoctcd with Atbnu by a cArriage road, and which 
ba« riaon tip »iiici! ]S34, ocniLoiiui orcr lOOfJ LuUni-a, 
iiiuij 'jf I.huiii luLiidiMiui^. The |H>rt, thi>ugh rather 
dltllcull of acraaa, has gr«at dcptli, and wm rtwunlly 
proridod with a quay cafMtbla of aooammodaUng a 
Ixrae number of veMOU. Pop. <187e), 21,0£fi. 

PIRANKSI, OiovAXSi BA-mirrA, a c»l«bratid 
architoct, engra^'or, and uitiquary, wae bem at 
Vonica in 17S0. Ho j*mtd the gnuter part of hla 
life at HaoM. HIa earlleat work, pubUdied in 1713, 
oonaifte of deelt^a of hb own, in a grand atyle, and 
u adorned with vicwa of Rome. Hii otiicr works, 
are, Anlidtitii ItAmao^ or Roroan Antlqultiea, la 
2'2<i pUteii, with deecriptiona In Italian (lour vola. 
folio); Fasti Consularea Trlumphaleeiiuo ICjunJuioram; 
Del OasCallo dcU' Avc|ua Giulia (twuuty-one folio 
pUtos): AnticJdUt d'Albaiio e (U Cut«l Gandolfo 
(fifty-five plaice); C^uipiia Tklnrlius AntJijiue Urbb 
(tifty-four plate*}; Arcbi l^i>tifidi antiobi Tempj ed 
Anifit*4tri (thirty-oQc pUtta); Trofei d' Ottaviano 
AugDHto (trn pUtcii); IMla Magnifioenia ed Archt- 
Ictttiru lie' Kuiiiaul (rurty-four jwtes); AKliit«ttur« 
Dlvi-ree (twenty ->« van plates); Career! d' Inrou- 
riono (*ixt«cn plates), and alxxit 130 views ol 
moilvm Rome. nuiuveuUonsOiapliiyuucb grandeur 
and fertility; but his reprceentatiuna of iwaJ oMacta 
am not always f Mthful, on account of the scope willed 
be gava to Us inuwinatinn. He died in 1778. Two 
■uui^ FTMkoesoo and Pieltuy aHtl•^(l at Patia, continued 
bb woriu, amoaating to twenty-thr^a toU. folia 

FIRAXO, an Aastrian scajiort, lllyria, on a pen- 
iniinla In the bay of I.argan<^, IS milea sontb-wott of 
Trietita. It basuHrmw *(rt:i<ts, witbanolddilapidtfed 
canlo^ and a shnllow hnrbour, admitting «oaat«ia 
only, though there b good anvhoragu for tbe bkisest 
Tcaseb ia the welt-cheTbered roadsttisd. The prind- 
pal objects of commerco are wine and olivL-'oiL Pop. 
llSSOl. 7387. 

FuirrBOUS, in Gt«ek mythology, aon of Zeus 
and I>ia, wife nf Ision, Itlng of tba Lapith-i-, and 
friend of Tbcsnw. lis married Dejanini 01 Hinpo^ 
dnmin, daughter of Atrax, a priiioo uf th« l^pltha^ 
by whom he hod Potypceloa. Hb marriago u famons 
fur the battle nf tlio Lapitba- and C^cntoon, ooca- 
KionncI by Ui* nltnmpt of a drunken Centaur (Eury* 
thiuo) to do violenov to tbe bridr, aiid which raaultM 
la tbe expoUoD ol tha Csataurs fr<nn FcUoil Aftar 
Uie death of bb wife Pirithous went to Athens, aad 
with Thoieu^ who bad also lost bb wife, carded dl 
Helen from Spaita, Having nached Alhaai, tbay 
call l<>t« for her, on oomJition that bo wbo was cno- 
r4;«iiinl shonld aid tbe other in proourlag a vlfa. 
She fell to Thcurun, « liuiii Pirlthoiii reuuired to aid 
him in tbo raj* of rra«.rr[>lii«, wito of Finla. Hie 
two tricii<b, tliurtifoni, tlcoeundud into tba infefnal 
resions^ but having sal down to res^ tboy wan 



niitUa to rba ■gstn. ^IVmou wm tlUrvtada net 
frM by HorcnlM, tmt Pjritlioiu naiiuu<.il in tlic 
infnniiU vmrlii lowlvil with SOO chalai, or, scooiJiog 
U> tnmv, wan torn in ptccox by Ccrhorua. 

PIRSCA&ENX, a town »1 ItAVArin, in thn ciTe\f. at 
Pfftlr, 22 milm wcst-wjutli'west vi I^uiUu. It U 
wkllwl, n't:]] liuilt, hui Kcvrml cbnrcbw, ftayuilgugtK^ 
and Latin •uliuul ; luauufuutiiTM of iboM^ musicftl 
iostrutncntB, straw hst», anil ntlmars. Pop. I%0a9. 

I'l ItNA, k town III Smodv, cin:lo uf DrcHlun, &ud 
10 toilvm from the city «f thnt nuiio, on the right 
bvtk of thf) BIlw. It b waUed, ilqJ tiitun^l by 
two ntoa, hiu a ooart of law, aevenl I'Uhlio anitt-A. 
<fltaittu% »ail an on>ti«D Mylntn ; htiiMid^' liuclkw, 
■OHM ahlpplog; muinlMturt* iif inm-piate, itoncwnn;, 
chemicua, dgara, bwr. &o.; knd a coDaiilvrablu tniUu 
on th« VSha. A little «bov« the tuwu, on a lufty 
rock, atnuiU the oiaUi! of RnnncnKtwin, nrigjnajly 
A fifrtrMa aod attite priiou, auil uow ounvertiHl into t> 
lunntic iLBVlum. Fop. ] l,*i^O. 

riliON, Ai.KKi.i, h rRk-brntct lYendi wit, itaet, 
abd (irauiulLat, Imni al iJijoti in Irtny, «-« thw •un uf 
an a|H>thucAry. lie to>>k hia i]«^rvea iu thv fnciiUy 
of law at BnaQ^-oD, luid wu about to bo tulmlttinl 
lo practice, when bij parenta cipcricnMii a rcvciwt 
of fDrtime, wliieL. obUi;^ him to ri!lia«[tii«b hia dradgii, 
!{« renained antne time )tt iJijon, inA^iitm a life of 
dUpAtion, in tbo laidat of which his literary eSorta 
Vtn oonflned to the nnMliictinn nl a few Nttirical 
epjgmna. At lougth be biwjuiie dnrk to n hnancter, 
nrbom. ho (julttiHl ta gn ff I'aru, when> bs wan eui- 
plirjvil at a <.'up>i»t, witbaiaUryof forty boub a day. 
This irksomo aituatioii he noon rcliuiiuiBherl, anii it 
was wiCb difficiilty that he uliitaitieil the paymeut uf 
hla pitiful aalary. Ho warn next r>ngag«id to nrlCe 
for the Theatn of the Comic Opera, and hia first 
^eca WH Arltfqniii Donokllon, oomixMed in two 
daya, Bi* *uoc«aa inducod him ta pcrMvere, aud 
aftn- wridng Mt-oral plKoi, be produced in 1733 
hia eltef-d'aunt, Mi^tromama, a comwiy which 1m- 
harjM characU^riisu ua eioeUiii); in plot, ntyle, hnmrnir, 
anil vivai.-ity alnn*l every uther uuiupuaititiii of the 
kind, ritoii aftn.-mard" wrutu Ftmand Cortua, a 
tTB^ dratua, and some other piccca, which obtaiued 
MOW fucceaa. In tlie latter part of hi* lift: he made 
r^taated attampta to gain admlaaiou Eutii cbu FrvMeli 
Aoadomy; Intt Louia XV. wna induced by a nitjiui 
bltelKUo g>ot up by aevaral diitappointcil anthora to 
irittahotd hia annction to the eltttLuu, and Pirun wu 
Anally rBJocLcd Ho rvveiignl biiiuwlf for hia di»- 
mpointinent by calling ike Aoulcuiy t^ inViUida 
au M ttprit, and rampoalDg the buuomna epitaph, 

'Q-flt rtnra. qui nofut ileti. 
Paa tatoia aoidAnlelMl.' — 

Bare Mm Piioa. nlw waa aotiUiig^ 
Kin «Tsii ail Aiadoui Idan , 

To ooQioIe bun for tha vnxA of the Idng^'a favnnr 
lifa^lamo de Pooiiiaduiu' nve Ilron a pcnaiou (■( 
1000 lirroa Hia death toulc place Jannaij 21, 1779. 
Shortly bafoni Ua death be becnine blind and rfecply 
penitent, which did not, bawvvor, pravent the inna- 
MDt flow oi bona moCa and opignuiiB. A]ni<«t llie 
lut act ol hia life waa the oumporitiuii uf Ihrcv opi- 

rtna In answer t« t^we whioo Voltaire (hia rival 
thie department of literature) would be UliL-ly 
ta make em him on tbo newa of hia deatli. Hia hmu 
mat* wera collected and publiabed in one »oluttns 
ISmu; and bla "BitiwK IKvenes were printed at 
Xoofchite], 177S and 17C3, Svo. Hi« work* cnttru 
form aercD Tolumea cOaro, in thq oditium of Itigolcy 
lie Jutiffny, 1778. 

riSA (tbL'ani.'iecit /'(Kr>,atown of N'orth«m Italy, 
coital of the province ef the aame name^ituatod 
6 miiee from the aea, and 44 nitea w«at of Florvnoo, 



on the railn-ay thence bo TiCghom, aa both benka 
of the Artio, \iarc cn»Bcd by tbcE« atone fati^ea 
for gtmurnl traffic^ and one carrylni; the rallwav. It 
ia aunaiLndetl by walla and ditchoi, defended by « 
citadel, entered by five ^tee, and fornu a eiteidt *A 
nearly 6 niilc% much of the apaoe tndceed being 
tinnccnpjed. Tlie rivitr ia Hum] by handeouw qiMfli 
the atniulat though not atnuKht, are apnciaue WH 
well jiaved; and the b»iia<.'B are always snfaltanUa^ 
(iftrn cli^gAUt, Atiil rvmjvkabJo for the profuaion with 
wliidi niarUb baa Imm omployoil in their oonrtmc- 
tiu^ii. The most reniarkabti) edilicve and caCabUrii* 
launti am the l>uonLD or Cathedral, begnn In lOSl^ 
ooEiaocrated in 1 1 lii, on<; of the uobleat ecdcOMtkal 
atructurea of Italy, built of marble, in the fonn of a 
Latin crnai^ cuniionntod by a lofty eUl|MJoal dcme, 
RHptKurtcd by auvcntvffinr piDara The painiiuga, 
m.-ul]iture>, and Uuis4uci in tbc interior am the work 
of tlw grealeaC artiata of the flfteenth to the mghteentb 
onittirieiL TheBaptut«iy.bapmlnll&3,byDiotie- 
olvi, finlebed in 127^ ia an EmmraiM rwlonda^ adoriMd 
with Bumerciua culiuuiu und auuljitiirui, and c r u w wl 
by a nolds diinin, thv top of which Is 190 feK 
fruni Ibe urouud. The Campaiule Pvodaote or 
* I/eouing Tower,'i ia of a dienlar afaape, bidlt o< White 
ninrhlu, and fn'iulod with 2Li7 oulumna; ib beiglil ia 
17V f<ict, and it di^viatva IS. foet fruin the pecpcat- 
diimlar. Thv qu^tttion whathor thk pocnliarity wm 
desired or iiccidenta] atiU remains an o^^n ntie. Thn 
probniiloHnlntioniK that the fouudaliuna air tlloJ daring; 
the pnnjri.»i of the utructiiriT, and tliat to remedy tbu 
defeet au attempt was made to ipvu a vertical pen- 
tiun to the nppcr part. I'be toerer "i™***"* aatien 
bdh, Lhi! biAviMt o( which uvi^lia 15 tona; a steir ef 
2^4 iit<.-{.« leada l<j tbi? top, tlie virw ImtD wfaiot^ «a> 
bnwtni; tha town and uuvirvn^ the Gulf of Geooft 
to liie weat. and the AponnlnGs M tb« iiorth-eaM, b 
very beautifid. Othiir cdilii-i^ ari- llw- i.'ftinpo Sanli^ 
or eewetery, the nioit teiuarkabla structuniof the kind 
in eiiitenc«, conaiatlim of a rhonibiNdal coortv lined 
with arc«dcs of white morbtc, adnmed with 



1 



relirFm, frciEzoca, and tmintinga, by the eartteat Italian 
iiiiLatcrv, nud full ui nuiarkaUe nramuBti ; the 
Crucd-ducal Palace; the town-botiM (7*Alnm drl 
t^nmmtme); the miirt.houae (PaJaaxo Pteteslo); tlM 
uuiveraity, anciuntty (amnii)^ and atill one of the not 
iLvlebrated in Itidy, with about eeventy teu^en aad 
an nvvm^'v yearly attendanoe of about 600 etodaot*; 
the botanicnJ. garden, one of the oldeet In exfafaoee; 
the mueeuni ufiialunil biatarr, with inaoy fatttMlN^[ 

Saological ipocimeuai the Fia Omb delln TWhiiilm 
ia, a larpi, woll-managed, and weU-endaw«d boa- 
pitiU; tbdlul^nnnry, two foundling ha^tai^»hcn« 
uf rcru(,'e, auil mimtt di pietA. naa b tbe aeo cl nii 
archhiahnp, thti reddence of a civil and tB&ttnry 
Kuvemur, the aunt of a oourt of fitat teMTt, «id eeve- 
ral JmiK)rtant public ntlicca, and poaacaaaa aaveml 
aocii.tiita, cKunuiuiuU, litvrvy, acientiftc, and artlatic^ 
The nuuiufsctam oonalat «C ^Ik, wtwUea, and eoHoa 
euoda; wonted and apnn silka, aoap^ white-lead, 
vitriol and (;lan; and the tnul« ia chiaRy in ooni, oil, 
and wood fgr fii»l. Tbe populattuii, which reached 
1(0,000 when tbe city waa iu ita lonith, waa fat 1881 
37,701. The prorlnee of I'iaa hiu on ana of 1 ISO 
aiinarc milei. The aouLh-eaat and oentro are oocn* 
pied by ramiiiotioiia of tbe Apennines bat tb* 
iimth oonaiata uf extouaive plaiua, wUdi IwiNllWl 
dvprmaed tawarda the ahnre on tbe nnrth-wo«L and 
oontain auvcral vbitlluw lak«e, which fonn Ini^ and 
uubealtliy ■wumpa known by the name of MaNonu 
I'iaaaa ami Manuimit Vultcrraua. Tlw eoa k (W- 
erally fertile, and com. wine, oil, and frmi an 
very abiindiinL }'•>]<. 283,2(S9. 

Piaa waa an ancient ICtniKiui city. Mid one of the 
twalvM xltlna nf the eonfedunlwa. In ISO ■«. b 



i 



I 



PIS A— r KCIOIJI.TmiE. 



W 



Ihhm ft Reman oolaay, Abnot thft beginning of 

lb* ClHfitUa M« H wu * Bouriahliig dtf. Ou the 

Ul c< tb« KMB*a KmpJt* it w^ pillAged by th« 

G<«lt^ lad afUrwtHB lubJMitod b; the LougoDuda. 

la Iba (iBth MBtBiT it had mcceedad in taking 

akadamagtUIteluartatoa In lOSO tlicPfanuw 

iwifa llwwl»M maatvn ot Sardiua and Corrica, 

Lb loss Jw u pygd Ibe Sacavra float near Palmn'j, 

ia 14S4 look fart la the tint cniude, and in 1117 

foipam^d tbe UalcMie Idanda, lu Uiu iuUstiiw 

wan id tlia paninraU fu Iwcauo tb* niMt ppwvr- 

U «faaaipioa o( tha GlubelUn* caaN, and aufftred 

Bttanlj at the banda ot tha tktortoaa GoatfR. The 

~ wan wbicb Ibo PiMai canied on aKairul 

ri*ak tba (swmmim led to tbatr duastrniu tlefcnt 

Li|;bon^ In 1283, and the paaoa coaeiuiled in 

tVM OMopdlad tiMm bo uvacuate CVmiica and utli«r 

fc^Moaa In \iS6 Htm Mogt at Ar>goH got gxa- 

■■ita o( SaitUniik Hio citv wu fiirthtrr iroak«ac(l 

hf iAaoal dkamkna, and fell a victim ia tha atnbl- 

tlsi of Hw aoadoUini It iaaSy came wider tL^ 

ftma ti Dnfca Gakano Viaannti nf .Milan, fn>m 

*Vw am Thnnaa obtainad It by purotiaiM in 1 (Ofi. 

7W ckj ma aowpallad u nmndor bj famine, and 

iblagBpaitaftaadtliMMMBtgratad. But in 1494. 

vha (Aailea VIIL el Franoi! nuda an e(|icclitiou 

iMaltily.PliarcaoaitainA fkir«aoe,and (ur tiftv^ii 

yit fNgbt glorioaalf for bar libertf. At Icntth 

Ai fttixaa maa cMnpellod by faoiinii l» Riilmiit to 

1b> IVnntiMa (Jnna S, 150UX and ttiiw i-cmk] (or 

(n* ti ba iadapoidait. On th« mlu* ot Flsa vaa 

hnded Ibt pawn of tba Urand-dacbT of Tnacany. 

PUAt'oc'VCiL or, a^nrndunmoiloltlio Roman 

CiMw l.lurcb, lidd in tba beginning tif llie 

ffloKtb ontarj to «onil>ler tha protondooa of the 

i^ilfipiaf Avifpunnndof Roma. TltiacDUiicUwas 

«U Pliat 2&th Uarcb, IIOU. and waa corapi»e^l 
^•tva cardinal luur pstriandM, twalva arvh ■ 
Uikftilgb^ MiIk>p% t<ig«ih«r with ropreaenUliveB 
d tad** anllbnlK(|M^ 102 bishmM, and a great 
■nbv ti doctora M tlioology, abbot*, and (ithcr 
■^aia^i^ and the reprwenutlvei of nvaral kiiit:«, 
pva^M ulnniUMi Tbe rival fofae, Bsaedict 
Zilt (gf AvicBMi) and Gn^ory XU. (of Kome) 
*<nHMaK)aea ba appear witbin a trtaUd [wriml, but 
Am niiiMd to eom{ilj'. AfMr uaturv deliVwratiun 
^ MM wera tunaaHy dvpoei'd, and Cardinal 
Ate Philargi, arcbbijUin]! of llilMi, vfm cluctutl. 
^ Hthwity of tbe ouoncil was not, buwevEr, 
PM^ IVHvnlaad, aad tt aaa not untH 141T ibnt 
■^ «Mi can h* atid to bava tafsdnated. 

PfiANO, NiiViit^aMnlplor and architect, lum 

n Vim about lvO\ Mnnt tbe OKat of Ma life tberi>, 

ui Aid in 13714. lU boidt an fmportaat place In 

lb liia(«7 of Italian art, inaaaadi aa fail work* 

p^Mad a nddon and new dorelopoient and tar 

Klfmmti Iboaa af bia immMlialo pradcMaaon. 

Utag Ue awat EanoiM worka an tba reliefii on tha 

<baaM t4 Iba bapUateir <jf Pi«a, tbe t^iuir of tlie 

Mbadnl at Siaoa. and the beautiful Mroophagus 

rf 8t Uoniak la BoLma. Ilia ciiiof MiOiiu-i:tur»l 

Mibi Ml nhnnrliaa in Piw, I^atoja, Mid Vulbcrra. — 

Cmant. tba aon and aefaolar of Nlcctrla Pleane^ 

w ban In 1240, and died in IS20. lie bud oat 

Eantnai <'anipo Santo, in I'iea, osvcnted ibo 

ttaof Urban IV., Martin IV., and Benedict 

In tba cbuTch of Perugia, built the front of 

flkaa ratliedral, and nrodiicud a ricli]/ nculiitiircd 

allar in tba tailiHlral nf Armxa. — Anoiber win, 

AfVMBA VuUifO, the friund of OLolt«, uteciil«d tlie 

«■ Iba b^firy of Flcnnce catli«dnd. and ibo 

oaaa doon af tbo lM}itiat«(jr tbcrc 

ov Flauan. See IcurtiTOLOiiT. 

(tba FWica). a dgn of thu swUac, vbtcb 

ti (Al^teO br tbo mm aboot tha tvtb of Vebnuy. 



Ilia conatrilttioB wUd occiipk^i the sAdiiuml regim 
cwrtaponding to the aigu liua the uuue nouit' ; it con* 
taina eoiiM intaraating double atua. 

PISCICULTURE, tho art of artificiaUy bat«biag 
and rearing fifth. I>iiHni; n-^MOt jeaia tha hatching 
of flnll frulu :irliri<:i:ill/ I<.-rtiUzed egga hm, owiag to 
tho alleged ileijroMo ia tbo nDinbar nf iimIuI flahei^ 
attracted gnat attcntiua both in Earope and in 
Ainarica. Befon the proccaa of arUKirla! improgna- 
tion waa diacniivred Gthnnnds ex.wtad iu niutl oiiun- 
trivK for rearing fliih, while for nin.ny ountuties tbo 
Chinuae have hvea in the habit of hatuhtng Gab f roin 
natuntly fortilii»d egga. It may be takea for 
granted that ae long aa there waa an abundant anHily 
of Indi no atLempb waa mtule rithcr to jirotect tluaD 
or Co locveaie their number by artlAoIal meaiu; tbaG 
ill fftct it waa only when a great inereaso in tba pop- 
ulation loH t» a Kcarcicr nl fiah and other IdniU af 
fuoil that nian ruocvuised tbe ueceaaiCy of doing 
something to meet Uis iii<inuuwd demand d^t tub, 
oitlx^r hy guarding sgaiiiM tbe poUntion and tbe 
oi'urliahing of thu molt priidiictivo watum, nnd by 
iiiLTFajuug tlie kupply by aiUfli'ial means, ur bucfa. 
China and Egypt may bo montionod aa nadona which 
at an early period wcro denacly popnlated. wbilo tho 
IJuiUil States i* nn example uf a natiau inbicib bna 
ra^>iii1y hitrciaMfd during recent time*, AoLvidiiigly 
wo tind chat tbo Cbtneae and the EgyptianB icing 
(i^i> ungogi^d, a|i[iArRiitIy with great MlOOt^wi, in fiah> 
fulturs, while At tbe pnaient day pladouhiue as now 
nndeniiood U nowben) more oxtensively praotiied 
than in tha Unitad Statca. 

J ndging from what t&ken plnoe at the pieaent day 
in China, it nppimn that fiBh.L-ulturv to tbe aari<?ut 
Chinoae meant the di»trii)utiuTi all over the conntry 
of naturally lertiUaod egga obtained by intriMlucin; 
twiga lnt<^ or by tbrowiitg h&nilcn ami maUi acniM^ 
tbt n \ vre f rac]tiented by fish ; and f ^irtlipr, tbe faeding 
of tbe try when batched by brvaJtiug ordinary egga 
D\tt the aui-FtK^c of Iho watvr. In all probability a 
■iniiUrnii:thiHl WBH pracUiud by tha fltO'!'^''''^! ^"^ 
like tbe Kuuuuu after Ihttm, they warn lo ]igk\« 
devoted ^eir envrgiea eUsfly to tha oonitmcti<7D ot 
ponda in which large tinmb«ta of Hah warn luoooa- 
fully reared, apparently with conaidetable proliL 
Altkougb tbe poor na well aa tbe rich engnged largely 
iu Egyi't in what nuKht ba called a'/vicaUvrt, it 
>e«n>ii that in lUnme nearly all the bshininda ba- 
luagod to the unblea, aud tliat tbcy were ull«n taw 
■tmctod and nialntalned rogardloes of exp«naii^ Thla 
ii jHutly avcoitutwl for by tbo rich Ronuna bdng 
txtrcniely partial tu liati as fond, and partly btranno 
EL<ij-i:ullurp wa4 for a tiiua their favonrtte luuitiuie — 
tniillnts, ocls^ and bunpnya noeiviag the groatJ^t 
poaaible attention and felobinir aomsliins fabuluua 
amna when sold, aa much as £'HQ having onco been 
paid for a single muUoU 

Vtam Vami's work I)o Itai Kiutioi it scvma IIm 
Rouuua duvuted much imtv Vi tho ouustrut.'tiou of 
marine as wtll as frMh-waier fiHhpondn, and that 
thi> latter witTF oft4« I aiiUliiided into couiiiarimuiiLi 
ailaplod fgr tlii; <lilT«rvnt kiudi of fiah. Kolluwiui; 
to a certain extent the osample of tha QiiMaia tbejr 
aometinice oulLoctt^d from tba aea the eg« of amih 
Gab aa franiiftPt«d •atnaries and riven and depcailed 
tfaeminarnficU ponds aadlnkaa, anil th«yaoca«o(Mlly 
Introduatd mw mE Into tbdr water*. Optatua^ cv., 
brought a large number ct a apc^ei«• of Scanui trom 
the Carpathian Sea <ar aM near Crcto and IUuhIl'sI, 
and aet tbena free in the Itay of Napin, and proteatatt 
tbam from tbo fidianDoii lor aovctal yean. Prom 
otonaatic and other records it ia eviiltuit that li*h< 
ponds wen mora or laHoummon until ounijumlivi-ly 
recent Umea both In Urilaio and on the i.iiniinunt 
el Kniope, and it may be prudiotod, now that gnat 



«s 



PTSCIOrLTTRK 



»dwiee> In tbo ui of finli-cultiiro ]tiivo boon innde^ 
that th*yylll soon agatoloiircMctaBumUir. Althon^ 
ft form af fiih-cultiiro teftcbod & gntt ilevotopmoiit in 
ancient timot, wbatwe nowoMiAUyundinstatiil b)- liah> 
oolture^ tiwt U t1i» hatctilnir of Gob (toiu arLiliviiUly 
f«rtiUMd«gS>,iipt»«tic«U}-ftiii&ilemlT)Tentlai]. Th\s 
dboonn w aud to hnme boca lawlo in Ui« fifbwnth 
cvntary uylhiuPUichoiiiftPartuiiTwseiiionk; butif bio 
mlly made tbo Sltoovvry no pnolJmJ tmuIu f oUbwinl, 
wid to Jkoobi, a WMlthy Goimui gunElomui of Wott- 
phalik, we Arfi ludcbtoil far tbc fmt im^iiLljic ii] thn 
right dirMtion. Tin) raulta uf muijr exporiniBtiU 
nuda b; JsooU on hi* oatM* at IIohGnliluiMn wore 
nudv uown in Fraitce in 1770, snd in CDgknd kiiis 
fllgbl yeut Uter. Alttunij[1t the Briti.ih t^oionLtiient 
Uiprtciated Jacobi'a disc«»ory ioflideiLtly tfi i^raiit 
bim « pvnnon, no gnat advoncu was taods uniil t»2 7, 
when John Shaw of Dnimlnnriz, in the aniith of 
&Ot)tl»nd, made aipericuL-iiU un tlio Nitb, nnJ luc:- 
ccvdsd io rsuing trout frinn artitlrijJIy ii]))>r>>i(iitu>'d 
«gga, and ftt the vautu tiino in incivuiiig our kng wld<it(v 
of the life-hiAory ot the aolmon. in 1811 Itemjr, 
k li'mnch peaawit Li the Yoa^tt ileparLiuunt, having 
Iwei) ntnick with thn (.lilnrc of l)ii> ti«h ■u[iply, l)a>gaa 
tLi itudy the iuilitta ot tnnil during thu <|mffnin|{ 
Maaun. With the ■wirttpoe of » oorapuilan tijehiti) 
Uomy mftdc e> number of oxperimonto with tnmt 
OTo, anil tijifUly unceoHlwl lik* Shaw in hatcliini; 
trout from KrtilK'iuIly fvrtiliunl nsx*'. bat I^iuy tuii 
dehln vtn mnro fcirCDnatA ttuin Shaw, la u far &3 
thdr work wiu tnkcn u|> and «xt«oiJ«d by ttko Frvncli 
({ukarumacit., wLiu, in I^l.s, CDtulructol tlie )(rut 
huohery vf Uunlnifuv, uimt BaMl, which has, to a 
great DXtent, boon the mo&Da of r««CoeI(ljig ttio onco 
linpoveriaheil Frvnch Ikkm miiI ritnc*. Smin iift«r 
the Huuingiio ]iBtcli«ry ImJ Iwen p»titbli«ln«l iinilyr 
the diractioii of I'ix>fi?iwnr <.'o«te, Mvernl uliullur 
inntitutionii were formed in Germany and lirilain, 
Biid at a late <liit/p in tli* UniUd titatM am! C'tuiiula, 
atid ut-iv1y iJl cuuiilnM liavu uow providotl tlioia- 
KlvGfi with hatcbin; statlnua. One nf the uarli«4t 
of theao catAbliHhnienU la the KtoriuciiiitGelil IjNtclif ry 
on the 1'mj, triiicli was bo^n is 1SS3 ; but tbc mmt 
perfect «• well u the mo*t <Ml«bntted in tbo nno 
rscmitly sroctod by Sir Janies Gibaon-Moitland at 
Uowietonn. near Stirling:. 

Fish -culture ia now, bowet-cr, no lonp^r chioHy 
ctinfincid bi *.'tlmi)ii aiid trtqit Sloce tiiv iipinjlntnivnt 
of the L'tiiifiU Htatci I'ialuiry Comuuatiuu in 1871 
auoMaafuI nx]«riinu[ita liavo bc«n, made in the 
artificial ciiltivaLion i;r bIuuI, cod, and otlirr aott-fiah, 
aiul alio witb oyit^'ni nnH oliLnia; wblle Uie batohlng 
<if utbw aiolluaM. and of lutMtvni and other enulaoe^ 
in or bu olTMity been atUiRipt«l in W!Vi:irtil nxuitrica, 
•0 Ibat |itKai'idtiir» now >M-i'ii|)iu3t n Ini^' aud criT- 
ioovaMnif ficM •>( inefuliinu. Indeed it mnj now 
W Mid to lucliidu but oidy tho Itatohlu); ci unful 
Sahea but also tbo introduction of new fornix and 
tbo atudy of tltc^ir baliita tuul lifcbLrtAry, ami in Uio 
CMB of th« naltDon and allied fomu the provlJinif i>f 
foofUliM when neoanory to wiablo than to tvacb 
tbeir ■jwiralDg ^und. 

The Imporlanoe rJ tba diacovory rJ thv mnthnd of 
artiSdal tmprvjpinlion will be at uaue «vidrnt. lu 
the higher vertebratae (Mnlt. rcplllv, and mininijvlal. 
liiiiig iu natural coadiUoua, vi^ry few trggn reach 
inotiirity at a ttioe, and uuially nil tlio cgif* nro 
ferUUwd and to a S*^*^ extent prut#ct«d dunnjj the 
d«*«U>piB«ito< tbo embryo, and the youug when tbey 
appear are often oarofully tended and fed. In the 
case of moeb fiah, an the other hand, it aeema Uial 
often ocmpontively tew of the numeraua egg* pru- 
doeod an f«ctili2«d, and dorins the wbote of the 
dewiopmental procca* they on ab«)lubely unpro' 
tacted, and the fry hare uol unly to prutoul them* 



•elvea aa l>c«t lliey can from a niidtltmie of aovoila^ 
oftrn incbidlii^ tbe uldar iu«mbvra of tiwir uwn 
faniilv. but they have further to »l>t;kln nnoided tbdr 
own TiKid. Iti* owiti;^ to thin «ant of protcctios 
tliai no many fiali. In unlvc tn have a chanoe of anr- 
rlvinji', havo to produce an enonnoiu ntunber of agti 
— mmc, auch na the ood, tarbot, and Marfeett, fann- 
inK aevBral miilianB everr aeaaua. It u becaoa* ot 
Ma ricbnesa In eggf that eo mncb ia padU* to the 
ptBcicultnriit. and thai without mueh trouble he nay, 
w hen liu duirr*. nion than make aicenda (or tbe dk- 
turbuicD (if Una bulanni tbnt rvniilt* friTii Itia cMitanng 
MlDiirklly many niillionii of ihrr i-nrioua food IiAm 
It is w«ll LiDown how ra|iLdly hntvs and nbUu 
multiply when their surniundlngB are faveatmUie. 
and it caiL Imi voaily iiitdnnttood tlt.it in onlcr to 
iocrcasQ any ^ven fiah b> an nlnn^t anliiuitod ctUnB 
it is niily neCGMMiry (1 ) to cntiuru that a lor^ per- 
ii-ntftirc .if tlie cKge produted ore fcrtUiMd. and (2) 
tlna tliti t-^-i;!! arid aftenrarda tbe young finh ore pro- 
Itfctod ; and thu loD^r the protvcliuu iif tbe youue. 
the giwter tbe chance of maturity belne naA a l 
SomcUmea tio altvupt lit ma>lo loi)ri'te«tllie fry; the 
«iggt when well advanivd in dovdopmont are tnrard 
out, or the fry ar* all-owed to Mcope almuvt a* wan 
OS thoy ore batched. Thii aTatem baa bvu eqwdaUr 
L-arried on in Canada and the United Statei^ aa4 
alttigugb it niny ciie •xcvllaitt reaalta in anne 
inatanoea, then ia aTnayv an uknient of unevKoiniy 
abont tL lo the cam at salmon the 'eyed ' u«a may 
never haUrb, trr the fry when batchoil br artibi^al 
meaii* may bo (uwing to DVercmwdiii];, cbaugoi ia 
tbe leuipcrnlvire, or other cauw*^ Vx> w«*k to aureiv*. 
Hence, until It hu been proTiid that the metbod of 
batfbiiig oilopbo-l giv(:« fftron^ well-formed fry, it le 
luiinlly bi^Cter aiA unly to teep Llie c'^^ iinlll they 
buk-h, but also lo itrotecC tUu frv until thoy are well 
able to care ftvr tbcmiwlvee. In tbia way double 
]irvt»oliou U aa it wpie gircri. Hy takini; llui mitt 
and ri>e from tbo br«udiu]C iHduioii and batchiiitf the 
«^:^ in anch a vay that weak fry iuoaiuiLJe of 
durvivjii;; are produced, piadculture may Im Um 
mcana nf dimiimbing ratber than of impreaaing tba 
nncilwr nf liMb in any |rf««a river; wbetCNU U healtby 
feeding fry are intruduced int" a river, thore ctuuxit 
b(i muDb doubt as to the rceulL ^Vhen aa atlenM 
ii uiwlc: to pni-tcct tin; fry aa well as tbe n|q[4 tna 
(itiQillun ot (e^liiih' at ['Qoe artaeo. Fur yvara tba 
difficulty of provldtn;; luitable food foraalmoa fry in 
a ivinvrriii'iit fi'iin iit-iTtn<^d iriitnniiniintablr, tiut iii>w 
thi* ditticiitty hut Iwan (.-ouigiletely iiwronnie, chiaHly 
throuii'h the pereewranc* and ingvnuity of Sir Jt/am 
liibaoa-Maitland, who baa carried aolinoii eultunt.le 
«■> wondcrrfiii perfection that he is nble not only la 
fuitilizL'atidbnt[.*b'.iS-'.id[K.'r(vntaf Iht'cf^aobtttUiod, 
but alan to rear olmoat oil tbe fry luiurhnl until nady 
for mixrating tn thu na. Wlulu the ramarluUD 
reaulla obtained at HowiMitun prove ttmdnrin^jr 
iiiit only tbu ]»miLiility btit ali»> the irn-At oilvantag;* 
of ofiKugin^ in aalnicin culture, n-eutU obtained rise 
where are not no tntisfnotory. Tbb li in all prn- 
babilily due tu tboae in L-bar^o bciui,' iiiore anuuua 
t[> rojMirt a large number of eg^ hatcbiKi than to 
pruducu ftroDg booltliv fry; lieuce in fntim, in tba 
ctuiii of salmon, we ahaU come to judj^ of the anereea 
altkinvd not s>i mucli by tbo number of eggs Itatched 
as by tbo numbrr of tvulbfornied, ngoroua Uy uxitv 
duovd into ibu river*. 

l^lsh-cultuTQ, chiefly throng the tallKbtoned policy 
nf the goremmont of the Unilcd States in pra^idliig 
liberal aupplioi to the Pish ('ninrnksian appointed ia 
I!!>71, id now KcOkHuMd as an imporlant industry. 
It ia, bnwuver, aa industry which, In the casa of the 
aca fisbcriinat least. rei|uimiat tboontaRt thi»»ip«a- 
ditnus of larg« siun* of public money, and which, in 



PlATS Oin.-CLV 



^ 








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M 



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ti 





- 1 «■■■• - - 

. W«Mii» BVviwL ailLlii 



« Otlltofcrift. T. Tmwpotlini bOK to» Mbw i» *:,.^V*""°''' "rr*!.", »A5ySS 



i-^SLi^uiuM..^ h. w»«'«'-^^'jj^^jf '«"„**^:,7t^^^ 







PISCICULTUIU!:. 



99 



«3« te Im of u; ml wrtlegb will rvqntro to W con- 
Ua»i M ft nry Iw^e mmIa. ijutintini mi^ht be 
(mn to iiuUaatc «li>t bu Klrody b««u duns, liut bl 
d* Un tlw]r uw (m- from Mtiafkctory. It uill l>a 
' Bk 19 nmtira two oxunpUi of tfao nmlta ipuncil. 
f knudndiv (wo milllau cf yoDn^; fiab, durinj; Hve 
MOtftv ]reu«, laU) the SAer&ni»at» River, VaXl- 
Inii^tk* mtch wu iocrvuwl fr^iu five niilli'init to 
tiUit mSlIuiw of pouiub. Aniti, bjr intmiluL-iiiif 
'm; (fill Into Gtciuoeatcr li&rbour, Miutuiflxisotti, 
u Am beca tliuwu tbat evt-o the aupply of uii^ratitry 
M Bill okB b« influoiiaed, hr d qw p- aw cod aro now 
l*l<R i* ^ harbour wbere they won nem (oiuid 
Worn A» «a ittdiMlloD of tLo gnalt po«ibllillo«i o r 
lib-Mltarc in tbe fatur«, it maf bo n«ttlionu<t t)i*l 
*lnod^ tbc rgm of twentj'Dlna apeclaM of fooil 'BiJiva 
J>w» Imb aitiSdaUr ftrllliied wad hatcliud, uid Ihnt 
<«c«tlj it ham bMO diacov«i«d how bi aiiccMafully 
>ualpi)l>ta th« rgnh of tlie vnJiulile Ani«rlc«B nysten 
and cUa*. >'uftber, it in imw ]H<»ible to arrat for 
k tlH* tfat dsvelofKueut of the tg^ of fith, and for- 
ward tcp la pcrfoci lafcty not only mctem th« At- 
l^nti^ boktaliin oioitt r«nint* countries; whil* ymag 
MA am mtUy be coDruyed from anu iilde uf tlio 
AiuwfaiB wtiacnt to tho nthar. Tbenaturalmove- 
M«ou«lMliBon«Rd other tUh havo now b«en faclii- 
lalad Ofl TKioua riven by the cnctiaii at fall* luiil 
mmtm n » ^ «t aulublo fiab-wnya. the Maodunalil E«li- 
■ay having alnady opvaed up many mflaa of valu- 

la an article uf thia Itind it ia fanpcumiblii iii dicciju 
at Inietb the vafioos nethodi adapted for hstotuuiT 
tba fitfami luudi of flih osgs. far loa to giro aa 
•HOnt of tho noBM^roii* hatuiinK boxes that have 
inaed in different ooimtrloi. It will bsBudlcient 
■hortly how iLia baiofalug of looae of tbe 
BOB food tishca u earriud <«, 
AltbiMi^h the tfgn tjf fiahotYary greatly in fnrm 
_mI DiunLwr, tli«y can be readily arrsntiiid nadrr uue 
lttini|Ns vti.i il) E^'s« whicb sink, for t>x- 
o, tlwaa of tho aaluiuD. {i) K^tk* whicli lluat, as 
I (if thfl nm], (11) Kkk« u-liicJi aiv •omifaunyant, 
M tboee of tbe abad; aiid |t> Kukd which nra ad- 
Wira, aa tli<«« of tlko herring. Tbia bein; the 
■M ttia batching apparatu* naturally r«iiuifc« to be 
•daoted lor heavy, doatint;, anrl adbciivi: Bicg». 
Uy way tt iliintratinj; bow li«<avy ef,'{[« are iiiarii- 

tMiUt«d. wftball mfcrtooDDuf thvin«tbodd aduptod 
at harffhlnt Mlntno. In onlcr to hatch large unm- 
hrfa ■)/ aalann it i* nuoeaitary at tbuuuUot to ]>rovide 
a Itafahuaj-hnoM. lliis iliuiild bo aa f ar aa [i>«kiU» 
na<Wr fioina^ w that Um tomperatam rcmaiua niuirly 
ww^taat darfaf both miDiiuer and winler. Tbo 
bataUBS>hu<MB ihoul'l b^furainUi^l withanuiDbeTof 
haMlnc^xrxa' ami witii Ur^ sbnllow wooden tin>-B 
fat Tcanne the fry. Each luU«hiiiL'-box (t)ic. 'i^ Vl 
<.1^Vl.-rLVlI.) u prorlded with four pUlt*, and 
atwaU ba ca]wUe of accouunodatini; ab-mt 'iil.Otitl 
•M^ ana^ed aa aacii in fiuum H id mn-a licLwaen 
fUM lobea, which an liKeiTia itiipa of ])erfurnted 
alio ia Boch a way thnt they can be eairily mpJacad. 
I'k (Um i^lkw. in«t<-j>il i<r hetni; arfangnl in group* 
r>f fiiur in a wuuli^n box, ntny b« amuijfed >n a i«ri« 
ill vartbenwan) trmij^ha |fl^. i], each trough tflf. 5) 
hMMf ptuvided with a ahallow apout and rcata fur 
aaiipMliAg tba frame ll>)(. 6), rootjuiiina tho t(laa 
Ivle* of tlM (rille. C^iiea a hat^injc-oouae with 
hrtwhiwg-bqiw. the next ruqnitite it a supply of pure 
dew water, which itJi>->uUi if poMJble bo oiuilucU-d 
bo Ih* halffhiinc-bouae under uruuniL Tlio lupjily 
J water detoniiitiM ihe nuiDber ul t>)sgii ilini enu 
ha haltfbtd— for «*ery luv.OUu uout iten* 1'^ Kallnns 
at waltr arv rai|ulfotl per tninuta in urtlor to give 
•Ifaag rinafvtim fry. 

IW liM«UofiMM and water sufi'Iy liatln; 



UxD arrangoJ, and tho lalnion ur truut mloclcd, 
the fduiale U huld aa ttoeu in li^. 1, and tliu egga 
alliiWL'd to fall into a dry iiod. WLen a kulKcnvtit 
niunlmr nf ogp> bavn Ivcn ohtaini'd a iimiUI i|uiuitlty 
vf milt la •.-ijirvned froiu the lu.tlr, atii) ilio pau 
tilted and ifctitLy abi^Bti w or to iaciliu.ie the dirfu* 
sion ot tho milt. 8oR)« wator is then adiled, and 
aftnr KLirrin^ the mixture with tbu haiitl ihn Vggt 
aru allowed to re«t fur nbout half aii hour— the \iam 
varyinf; with tbo toinperaturc. When tho tfgga havo 
' liiM>i<:nrd ' [iiiro wator W pourtnl ^'I'litly ii«rr them 
until all tho milt U lemuvcd; liiey ara than rniuly 
to bo wuvt-yed in u. (^arr^iik^-i'uu uud dupotdtcd on 
tho giillca in the bntcbiu^^-houio. All that In fur- 
thirr rr:i(iiirRd U Lbut the diMd oggn »liniild 1m tv- 
uiuvt-d it they b«!oun« wbittv At the «nd of aix <ir 
(<i},'ht weelu tb« developing egga way be roiuwod 
fmm tbe grilloi and padccd in tiays od damp swiuia- 
down or inrwa, and fiirwaidud with pcrfnrt lufxlv all 
oi-er thu world. A truui]>ortat!oa box,UJKil by Atkin 
fur tranxmltlin^ aidmuu oggB butveou layurii of moM^ 
iH riTprcovntod in tij;. 7. 

'I'Ue uyp<l ora tnay citlier be depoaitod io natural 
ur aniCulid reJiU, aa thoy are called. In oithor caaa 
tbo tompurature of thu wat«r abould. If powtble; not 
vary men than £" I'ahr., and imtcM tho fi-y am tu be 
fi'il wliuu liatt^bi-il, tbo redil ehoulil lie in tbo vicinity 
of aiilDcient f>K<<l. Aconvenlpiit furiri of a r(.-d<[ m 
npn««i}U'd in li^'. S, It couidiitH uf n ^tltliux' pi.ud 
(ci^, frirm wbidi tbi; water [rAHii.! thmiit;!! ^mvul (6) tu 
reafli tliH rt-dd pro|*r (r). Tbia (i):aii»t« of a tiwrioli 
al«tiiC tnx> twi. wide at tbe bottom tuxd four fuvt at thu 
inrfaee, contaitiiD>; lint a layor of stonca [we eoctiun 
ftjpiK V), t))en coanm j^ravel, and finally a cnatiu^; uf 
fiiiv vlaan wulied grarel. ITnini the redd a cbnnnel 
i'l} Hllod with gnvol nay b« oontlnu^d to a rearinif 
pond. The eyod ora an dopoaitod amungat tbo tine 
l^ravdl on tho mirface iif tha r<;dd. Hatdiing Uki^ 
plai-u abuut tlio end of A]jrlt. I'be youii^' fry 
(nlevina) uuially m-niain hiilden amon^t the b'^^^l 
for about six Wrcka until tiia yulk-bi^ ia absuHml, 
whoii they ln-i^iu In fooiL Ahiitit tbia tiinr th«y 
KhuuM be alluw<?d ti> «ei<ape fivtii tlio ^ittilii'lal rvdd 
into a r»riDg pond, and tboiv ftd until Abi>iit 
midaunkmir on a mixture of lutct and yolk of egg — 
about rmit yulLs Ut a jmiind of beet, A ntiiAUm of a 
fry pond la r>>]in>a('nt4'il In fl^-. 10, nbL-h abowa (r) 
thu ])i{>a by iiioxna of tvbtch it can be annually 
cleaned. After mldiumniiur the fry \>e^n to riM and 
tako their food in tbo cirdiinirv way; they «ii»y tbon, 
Ixi placml in an oriliuary ]xiud tir iulro<luo(<d into a 
river. Tbo fry am caoly be transDortod fr>r con- 
Bldi-Tiibld <li4tatieeii in largo tJtuka, and uvrn yiurlinga 
atauU a furty boun' juuroi-y Kmarkably well, but 
largo trout cannot b« truated Inui^r than tvit U» 
twvuty hour* in tbe tanbs aiid ibey re(|uiTe oon- 
eiderable atl^ntiun tu louie. Id tlie UnlU'd Statoa 
lautal tray* n>b4in.il with iron wirv havu boon iubatl- 
tilted for tbo gloaa grillea. Five at aix trajra ara 
arnuitfod nbute each other like thuu in Ferguaou'a 
bntcliiii;; jarail)^*. Ill, 4u that there b great eeonunty 
of ■{■acaaiiil, nr>lviitJi*tandin(; tbacruwiting;, cxcullont 
reaiilta arc MiuI to be obtained. 

Nearly idl odbualva as well aa all heavy en,* 
depoiitud iu fn-sh water can be hatohed in tbe nairm 
ap|iaratus an aalmon and trout egl^ the ailbrsLi c (gi^ 
ut tbe *nirlt, t.'j., liBvitig been aoooeHftdly batchMt 
on Khun irriU« at Uowktonn. l*bo aggt of tho cod, 
haddock. turbot,aolc and of other li*h which prodoca 
lloatin^ tgipt, teqube very different Ircatranit from 
tbo Iwawy tggt of the salmon aud trout. Any 
sppamtas that pravcnW tlis eggs oacapiDg sudioM 
tirr hatcliin^ Kuiall numbeni for oxptrimental pur- 
[xatnL 'I'liu V)tK> o( tbe cod have been batched !■ 
ftvM nuuiben by (he United Stale* FLih rnmniiiliwii 



PrSCICTLTTTBE. 



Tli« flggi RivV «ItVi«r b« e'>lti.-et4.--l !n ipeotiOlj con* 
Mniotwlj oftnyuig cu», gr tekou from Uv« fl»b lurpt in 
tMtki near tbe ha(ch«ry. Kumorlj thnj wnre pliiiRott 
in Huatiuf batcbing-VKixuR (li^. 1£i), tatu wlttcb vratur 
«ut«ml by ft wtr»-clotb Itottum to «ecap« by opvolotpi 
near tb« nutr^ kIwi ctiAnlud 1*y fins wire-doth, but 
naw the tgn an uauiUly hat^ !i<;f{ in whiit nrc knnnrn 
HI IkI'DdllJiId'a ll&tcbiri}; JELi-H tHif. I'la). Tbu witcr 
iRCnniliintod to ttivbtitt'im of thi» jju" hy&glu» tut>«, 
from lbs bottom it nnw t» i»eti|>i; by a acconil tiibti 
[Kg. lia) b«]ow tli« surfAfo ni tUo wat«r. In this 
way tho vggt ato ke)jl Jii Liiiiatniit i:ij><)tii>[i, Biiid y<_-t 
tbay iim tint airrii»l awny by tbn oiitwuirl <niiTe«t. 
'Ilie >ouiiii rod vtbuu huti^liud uuu bi: uJK'cU'i] ill a 
similar jftr by gn&rding the bpoDint; ol the outltl 

Si'viu^ tbnt ovor tiino millions of c^^ mny he 
formed by citiecocl innoc&ian, it <An litt«futily ntidcr- 
■tiiod thut a vary larga uuuiU-t ot young rau mt^fat 
iviulily Wtutcborl util Iiitmiltj.c«d bito our territorial 
WBUir>. In nil {>r[!ljii)'i3ily it will bo foiind that tbu 
e^[j«cir thu baddiKlcHuIi^.tiirb'it, and other Huh may he 
trc^iittd in Lbo sktuo nay hh thriae uf tbe omL Hibht-rLo 
it hns bf^n v itrt-Riflly ilillunilt to ohtnin tun]* HDltiii, 
auU in order tii ImXvu youue ik>1o in nuy niimlwr it 
may la ueoujuury to coUt'ct matcH and iireoLTve them 

ID (idllJlODd*. 

Sirtiiihunynct c^e* ''-'>'' b? rctiuHly biitcheil in tbo 
M'L)'iiiitld jw*. !ilftny millioim cf Mhacl tfgK liftvn 
becu tuiCobe-i by tbu E^nll«tl sutus Fl^h l.'aTnintKion. 
8omobftvo l>r>-n biU«lK-ii in Hontiii)^ luixca (Hg. 22), 
while thn Kdl and Mntbpr hatcbiu£-onna« (%. 14] 
luLVo bevti UMil for utben. Tbe ttaSvftlfi <uv tukun 
fMm tba tish. and havin<^ boon fartilbed tbsy are 
t™iHi]Mjrtcrl in *jirrin] emir* (fig. 131 bo the batching 
■tatinu, whviB Ibey rira at uiica trium (erred tu thu 
liat<-bini[ AppMMtia. WbvD lnvtc-btHl t}i«/ oaa bu 
cjuily f'irwKMrd oonndorablv rILitaiioca in catiH limi- 
l.tr t-i tliMe mad for BalTuun fry, 

Adbovira vggi nifty «lLlicr float «r "ink. For Home 
floating adbcalro eggn tbe Ucll ntid Mnther conn 
(Rt;. 11) niih'lit aiiit well, wliilf tlid M'lltmuld jjir 
|fij*. V2) Tiiigiil ImhctlM JwlftiitiMi r T otlism, Adbrtivi:' 
tifg» wliidi *iuk li>v« hitbtttto bo«n batcb«d ioubI auc- 
oeufoUy on itlatea of j^au ■rranged tn woodat boxca. 
SomeUmoB Ibc ohMts of glaaa ar« armnsi-d (oa fn 
C'lark'B bene) ao tbat the wat«r nntoni at ono pnd of 
tba biix to eaoaiHt by tbe ulbcr, aftvr cijmin^ iu con- 
tnict with tlvo TarioUB plktes (9|[. '23a), while in an- 
ntber box uaod by tbo writer tlic glaaa plaU.t are 
Birangod boriiuo tally with a jut of watnr Iwtweirn 
cMh (lig. I'r). K'jiiall) (-iiod rwulta are obtutnird 
Trliui tbo Bii^ aiv do['ii8itvd nti flat Manus or piocua 
of «ca-wo<HJ if n xiiliitiEiit current of pure wattir is 
alluwvd to ruu urer Umni. 

In frrtillviuif small lutbMU'o ^SS^ *<iob h tbo*e uf 
Vbo herring, iartcad of follounng tbo dry mctbod 
usually ai1n[it4.'d fnr iMge eggn (f.y, naliTion and troiit}, 
It lit batter tu eipntM tba «kH" i"^' I'rvTtiinaly ler> 
tlllxod wat«r. If tba oggs are to b« d«[N«lt«d on a 
glaM i>latr, it Hhmild bo h«ld in wat^r into which 
aoma milt h» hcva iulmdnoed ; ax tb* ugga fall uid 
ailliera lu tba i;la«a tliey arv almtM oertaiii to b« fur* 
tiliuid. Tbu atgt flwaping iu the fumi of a long 
beadoti ribbon form \txx\* as ilioy rtinch tbe glan plata 
{6jt. '21); but ID ■ ahiut tttuii they rearran^ tbem* 
a«l*aa ai> aa tu form aii Mluunt cotitlimona lay«>r. If 
alluwcul to fall on a {licco of aca-fir tU«y goncraUy 
fortn a Amall round clii*t«r (ti^. ll'|. Vis. 17 abowa 
a Latebing-bux adnjiUd lor ainkinK to vannua dcptlu 
to tMit tlio iotliiiiiioi' of t^mficRilurv. Ac, au tliu de- 
vvlopioeat u( ftdhuaivv em, wfailo in 6g. iff en ofjMt- 
iMus it repreaentad for ae|)oaitiiig atond^ ftc., ooatod 
with adhcrivo ogga on dn«rl«d spawning banka 
Tb« ciiltitatioa of oy^tura ia iu tonuy reapacls b 



uiorv linjwrtaflt Indualry tban tbnt of aajniau, Imt 
althoogb it baa b<wD ou^aged in from at least ths 
timcoFISArciiw^irata, whobrftdoyatoniin tba Lucrirw 
[iidie in tba aewutb ountury, the niFtbod of arti- 
ScLally Imprejniatiits the «SB> baa ooly rvcvntly bevu 
diacovOTod, the cradit of m diaooranr baloDgiiif to 
the irniu-d StAtM Kiah OmmtaiJMi. Unlika Aah «*cb 
uyntur foriiui buUi e^'^ and ap«rau^ Tim mminiaihlim 
maturity at on>} tiim* and tba apertM at MOtlaar. W 
tliAt crom fertiliutJonia aecmtd — each oyiMr abcaldlBf 
about a nnllion t:gga during the apairainc aftaaan. 
'i'Ijun< bua nut yrt bevu time ti>iwc«rtAin wfaatialllMnc« 
till) iliiicov«rv nf artifiidal fertilization and H^rWlig 
iif oynUire will hbio ou iniavaciiic ibe roppty, bat it 
is hojiorl tbat it niAy be tba meana el Kattddag 
many of the uuw all but oihaoatcd bodic Uitlierto 
uyBttT-ralturo saMBtially wMiatcd la oiHactiBg tb* 
yoiui^oy«e«Ta(a[>at)dnriiif tlieirfrMBwintiiiayataM, 
and nsaring th<3n uiUicron naluml or artifiidal b«aka. 
Fur many veara oynttir-cultiire ban hmm carriaH en 
with nnulifvniblo auccm nn tb» FVnach cnaatt and 
re«enelj a number of «atfirfa«tory expntoonta kat« 
bMn made at the Jtcelaiid uyiit«r-beda by tiw Doicli 
gnvcmmont. In liit^liiml aiiiI (Inmiany oyatwr- 
L'ttlliiiv bos hithortfl pm.'ticnlly iirvvol a tailonL 
At Aroarhrin iwmth of Bordeauii, when the bort 
ramlt« ban- boon obtained, a atock of fuU-vTown 
ovitani baa alvays bm-n niaitit.-tinod on the nal^ 
Ibia liB> boon of tbe lint iuipt-rtttaM. btvaoae It hat 
not yet Ihm) poaiible to brocd oyatira aatiafadarfljr 
in oyittcr parks. Tbr oyntor-culturiit at tba pM«nt 
time devotot bia anorgy fint to coUrctbig tba apal, 
and nest to r«arinK » niany markvtable ojaun aa 
pvadblo from tba apat oollfMtad. Tba apM au>7 ba 
oillcctcd on hundl«a of fogigota (fnadnua) wbkb an 
anchored on tbo oyat«r>bed. Aftor fire or ab nMiBAfaa 
th« fagipits ar« r«nioved, and tbe Toong a j Wam «4 
wbioli tbvm may bo aororul thouaaadf on Meb bBS^ 
are dotachMt and depo«it«d on tbo hank amoagw tb« 
old oysicn, or thoy may bo u»cd to reatock an ai- 
bauabMl bank, or conveyed to aa oyaber inark. 

Instrad of fay^iitn jjUtfornis may bo uroiI, wtha 
■pab may b«> cmIIm^LiiI iiii fmmcs (6g. 'i',^), arraniad 
in buxtai tbnnicb whiuh wat«r vntera fttwly by 
bottom, to escape by boloa in the ddaa. When a 
has bccu tiacd by moaiia of fonir atalcoa a aumlxir 
nearly niaturo oyotem are placed on a layer ot aballa 
imJ«r It, while otlwni are laid oo tbe frwuea after 
tbey have l>oe]) similarly cuatod with abolU Mi'bea 
tbo aiiat oica[>i« it r>".'vilily udhRrm to thr »hcU pre- 
t'iouidy laid on the framea, where it davdnpa lato 
oyawn that In fi*« or eU tnontbi oaa ba andljr 
ruDiovcd. lliG iqMkt ia aomstiinea coUaetad on inef - 
niar hLncka nf ntoiin and afteii im riir(«d Ulb* 
tfi|[. 'i'^], w)ii<L:U biiTH litvii luvviuiuly ousted wtlli 
veiucot or lime t» ailmic of tbo yoiiii}> oystora Imii]; 
aftcnmnls rumovvd without frautcm: uf tbair titeO^ 
Tho lilir« may bo arrangf^d in a aiagle layer and 
reli^Dtd iu tbvir |jIaoe by xtoiita, or there nay be 
•everaJ Inyon; or inatoail nf oocnpying a hortcontal 
the titaa may oocnpy an olilii^ue rwadtMO. Tbe wftA 
wbicb adberei to tbe buUow ride of tbe lUe tnay 
bo nnaov«d and iitiliieil for atocking ^tbor natural 
or arUficial Imnlcn. 

Another inolLiuiu mnck aon^ht after fa tba mnaaal. 
Moaaela once exii>t(.-d iu gTvoC abundance aruuwl Uie 
eboraa of ;Uritain, morv aapcdally in the raifona Brtba 
nud bavBibatDowiiearlyall thuuii|<r»t*ot«d mwMel- 
IxankanavebMiideatroyedbyorer-dredgiDg. Hlilluot 
ouly ini^-ht tho iMnks bo rc»t<jekt'tl, but many niUca 
of mud'Hata, wbirb barn hitherto provided nothinK 
for man'i use, might nasUy be made toykld aftlcDdM 
erapa of muaMla erery asaMiL At AlgalDon «i the 
F/Midt coaat not far fnmi RodicUe ntiaaola have 
long been ctdtivatod by meana of wattlm^ and no 



PISCINA— PISISTRATlTa 



101 



biMr vr^bna thin tbo 'vrattlo' lyBtom bae y«t 
ben tfMWtnd. Na«r thnt it hu brcn ixi tbor- 
•qcUy toted on Um Fresdi uncut, tiieru u * cliatica 
■f tt* baiof •xt«(iiiv«ly ummI 1b Uriudu. 

!%• yoQuy muMil, like tha youg ovster. after 

w lB Mub j about tar K rftorl time Dim itaelf to ilonca, 

aiNUi^ or etlMT aolMfauice*. Duriu^r the frae *i*ff« 

tlw jraoBK BiUwU BHUIly mov* i* oo'l out with Lb* 

Mai whde Una KS<ird< Ui«m «i op|iortu&ity of ox- 

tMittajf Ibdr iU«tributU>ei, ib aim ineiini tbil riak of 

iMr Mng cwriod far out Ui mn, wliemfartberKrowtb 

k iaipuadhlB. Abnnt tha vitil o( thair piltpiina^ 

tbey, M il wdv, beina to luvk out fur « fiitd abadav 

■m Dmv abocv M p«aibl«. In inuiv IrisbuicM the 

•c»-b>itliiai H*r tiM) dum ia curr<rtil with a tliiulc 

' bjvr of lanH and nand, ovar wbich tbny |iiuh agnin 

wid a^kln wiLhiMit budiDj; a HuitAlih rn>l.iii;')>lA«o. 

Jt ia til auch caaia tliit waltlin, b,v iiraTJilitiu nciin- 

TMiiant aaifaca at MtAchawat, ar« m> uwfiil. lu 

[^•nUaBiy rimunstaiwci aavvral forma of wnlllcH arg 

[ b Bib 1. Tbets la a row of «tal(c« Oi»e eraici» thov 

\ ftN called) withbi about a fu'A uf cacb ntber, which 

V* onljr tuuMvered at ([irintf-tiiU*, Ibtw* MCtin manj 

rf the jrwuDK initaM-Ia nliivh vtbvntUt* woiiJd m 

earriMl out to tux. '1. Thun a» two towv uf fitltt 

<nuato in wUoh tiis >tAlu-a aru atx^iit 18 iutiji-s 

rap^ with the intenrcninK npncra hlUid up with 

*rick«jrworit *l"be fnbw vrawla iw« frcily oxpowwl 

during huth Rpnitp and naap ttd«a. 3. Tb^re itin/ 

be tWA or UtOTB niwa ItOM- tho abnre which arc< ex- 

, Miaad aovnr»l buunt every day, luid atv knntm ml 

iiyh n«iiH^ 'VVbm tha niuawla ou the low orawU 

\<arm aboat iIm ntu uf a bctui thoy an collected In 

[ liaaltali IS^ l^M.anil cunvryi^ in a ubhII Bat-boiti>tnod 

t {aa an.m, bg. ^6J to Uie wickerwrork of tba faUs 

[ ■n^wla^ trhtm thay an attadivd la bae* "^ <*'■' n«ttinir, 

■«.. wliiuhMoarot. Wbca they hava iserMkand in sue 

•u aa In (iMTi|iy tlw whole nf the avaiUbln ajinro pr»- 

vtiM by the faiaa vrawU (6z. 27) thi-y aru D«xt rv- 

.Burad to tti« bt^ crawla, wca« they remain natil 

[ thay reach uaUinty. Tb« waltloa may Im> arrajjp.Tl 

I tu aaauatc a V ahapa {&g. 2i ), wiUi tha puiiitvl 

i tmd apanlBB toward* tba ava, or tbi-y luay be arraiiiHI 

I la |MraU«l rows. Tbo atalca abould projeot al^iat 

r«a4 ahoTo tbi- KnrfaM of tbo nmd, and b« from 

]il to iU inchn >lttit, white the wLkcr-work aboiild 

i <i( liiitg Uiin Iwanchisa capable of li«iii[ ckwsly 

brtWM'ti the atakoa from Dear tbelr top to 

I about H iadiea of tbc botv^n dig. 27|. Tlio 

littitttvlj m wooka box about U feet In lunittb 

' wbiah tba Aaharmaa psabea alon^' over ILe mud, aa 

l apwa an la J ia (ig. ii. 

Ahhooffa tho AMMHity of incKMan^ tbu aiinpiv 
til |a)*>t»r« and oIImt itihIiwiua \iia lieeii ivciif;uiuid, 
tHtl« uf * pnuxii'abia uuturtr baa bJUiTto bv«u ac* 
^■■■pUabaiL I'be natunUy fertllbpd ojucm of both 
ilara and crayKah haie been artlUdidly batcbed, 
I tba yiiua^ rcan.il tu a aioaidorable tiEt*. In thu 
fatoni atvpi may \w Uil;en tu remoro nii'I hutoh init 
aO the 'IvrrltM found on tbo b«n lubaten captured. 
id furtbrf Ua cuiiatruut ponda fur rvnrtug vntba and 
ib^ira until tlwy raaoh a laarkntabU tax*. 
PliH^JNA, a hoUow riMio boaln or tniujtb, witb a 
HABal laadlau to the gnwad, pUee<) near tho altar 
.lb chof ab aa. and ftml at a oimenJant hcif;ht aboie 
tho lliMC It i* UM>I til luilil tlw wa^ar in ivhich tho 
yHaat waah*B liii fattial*; and fur ritiBini; tliu chalice. 
Fl-'^t aa couanadual inatt^riiO fur forniluK the 
waila of ixUM^psa, a^rtRultural txiildingi^ ftc, coMifl' 
ttl^ af atlff earthy nuUcriala well ranitned into a 
f baaa. asd wb«t dry fonnint; a i^ood atfung wall. 

fISSK. a tarn of Bohanuk on tbo rif bt bank of 
l^ba WvOawat bar* etowed by ono <>f tbc lincat atone 
in iba coaatry. &i aiilea Miulb by weoC «f 
l*l^a: It ii aurnMUiaod by aa old aad lofty wall. 



6atLl<Q(l wiiU numuniua ton'ors : ts w«11 biiHt, and con- 
tainH tlic rt'.tniiinn of n ro/oi cAKl.lr. It hnA rmuiufuo- 
turtBof liiiL-tia&J wouUcti clutb, wuitiL'ul iiutruiucuta, 
potaaa, and i^<lD-wi^f^ I'op. (I^HO), 10,.'i45. 

PlblUlA, in aiicicml uvogmiihy, a proving) of 
Ann. Minor, lM)iini!i.->l nnrtli liy part iif I'liryjfia, coaC 
by laaiiria and Cilicia, turuth by Pauipbyliii, aiid 
woat by Lyda, CitrliL. nml I'bryt^ TIm- inhn-liitantc 
worn tD(vimtaiTi«'ini, and wcru never nallj Kiil>iiitud 
by tbe It/iiiuiiiaL, bciiiif proteotod by tb>« tuuniitalnit 
ajiil ruviutB whit'li iutvneut the conutty. Tluno 
faatnoaaita itra atiU inliiililtwt by u u-iUl {imriatLirr 
people called Kannaaniawi aad tlic cuuuiry u 
^tiarn.lly little known. 

riStSTHATUS IllKok, /Vmrtrw/.Ml, 'tynwf ol 
Athena, wan fk*aon<l<id from Cndnui, the but kiii^ of 
Atbclia, aad wa« bwn nnt Iat«r tltnn 012 B.r. He 
woa ricb, bitnJKiiue, luiil uldciui-nt, nnd WinK by 
nalnra ambitjoua he aoon placed hiiii*«lf at the lioad 
of one of the tliT«o parUm into wkicb Attioa waa 
Iben divided. Thi^o waru the party of the Plnln, 
e<>iiipriBJii^ tli<! Iiuidtd jirupriL'tunt, Itieii Lcadod l<y 
|jyc<ii)iuii 1 thnt of ilif* l.'uaati irr wtuilthy tra>li[i){ 
ctniM, liriiilDi) by Meuaclm ; anil tbaC of tbe iliith- 
Uu'ls, mainly inode up of tbu liLUmriiiK iMipitlaUmu 
'l'lii» bvioj* the |>arty tliat avrim^d iu<:«t likely to 
fiirtbcr the den&na of l*iaiatatni> bi: tlirow iti bia 
lut witli It, ana MNnrod ita aUetcianco by ouiuiiiK 
forward na the patron aild bencfaiiter of the pix^r. 
In alt bia public apooobM ha waa tlw adiiicatr of 
citi] «|uality and n deni'icnitie cnniitiCutioR. Kulun 
aaw tbruii;rU bin pulity, luid e\pn.«M.-d biti appreliea- 
■ifins uf tbo roaiilt. 'i'boy verv but too aofio vcriliod. 
One day IHxiotnktiia ai'jcArail in tliir ninrkrt I'iiirre 
with aereral nli^'lil wimudi, wliicb be li«l inHiclal un 
bloraelf, and called u]x<i] hb fulluwultiiu>ii* ioptute>.^ 
him against certain aJlogwi uucmioa, wh» had. an he 
aud. attackoil hi* lifu nn acoiunt uf his a<lhcrenoe 
Ui tho doQwcrocy. An asKnibly of the pwpiv ^m 
Immediately ■timmoned, In wbiiih Aruion, onu <if Ida 
frienda, priifiOaed that a guard abould bo giicn hin 
fid' the Bcairity of Iiii jimwin. 'I'htu prngjiiast waa 
appnivL<d, Dot A'll,!i»l.-ii3iliiii; ihi.' u|<piii<itii>ti ■■( SliIiiii. 
A body-tfuarvl uf lifty Uiun vraa voted lUEu; tbla force 
bo foan greatly increiMod, aad iu &IH) iLC he aeixcd 
u]Kui the aoTopolia Iciladel). Ho waa now maatcr, 
ur, aa the Ureela taruieil It, 'tyrant' ut tb>> cliy, 
whilo Solon departed from his unslavad country, 
flut thoa^ a tyrant in the (ircek miuii% lifi twe nf 
IHiwer waa by no meana tynuudcal. lii- uiiult! uu 
attontpt (*> aboliab tho wiee lawa of Suluii. but con- 
flnnctl and extended tliair authority. Ha alwaya 
ahowcd the in^aldaG reapect for Ihit Uw^rer, but hia 
euduAtuim to iuduu mui to return tii Albi^ua wore 
inalTentiiil. 'Ilia aovvrat^mly of llaiHinuta naa not, 
however, aecure. Metradea left AtbctiN with hia 
family, and entered into a correeftuwlcuM with 
Lyciirgii^ fur the purpoaeof ovntbrwwiug tlio piwer 
(if I'iajiilmtiw. 'rhnir tiniject auoooodcd, and PiaiiK 
tratua naa ouui|<elled to leave tbo eity. But 3il«<|^et 
Buou hccanie diaaatisfied with tbc party to wliicb Im 
Iiad uiiiuil bimaelf. and otforrd to roinatato I'lMiitratua 
if he would nuury bia dauffhter. Tbia pivwialtlon 
he aooepted. aad hli ratnni waa aoon cflactnL Hot 
louff aft«r Meniclaa again made common canee whh 
l.ycTurgiia, and Hiajatiatua retired volnntarilv to 
Kretria. Herv he ucmiHiid himaelf wlib the e<}u<»- 
tlus of hia (cna, and took OHaaiuaa to nconr bb 
power. Contnhntinna ware eoUcitad fron fricadly 
cities and wrra freely granted, Tbabca cepedalgr 
aiiTf-anaiiig all tlit> rMt In thia raepcct. Bela]{ tliui 
■niililiud with m<>ney and troopa. in the elovtn^ 
yiuir of hill aeoiiiiil baninhiimit I*i)ii«tntlUH entered 
Attica at the head of an army, luid bavltij; dLojieiaad 
the lroo;[ia aunt againat btui he entored th« dty, and 



102 



I-PTTAVAT.. 



tnikda liiniMcU Tniut^r for tlia tlilnl time of tlie 
fottfrriRntj-. lie c--niiliniie(! to niln with hi« fiimicr 
railibii^B; but, ill unlifr Vi wvNlct-u ihe |iupulnr p»rVy, 
ho luluptud n gncnauro whicli u&a very uncfu] to lliv 
iUUw He fnrcoA miiny of tbo irilo inhAhitniit« bj 
]Mir« tbo oily anil cultivate tho cnuntTv nniund, 
vrldc'b by tliMO iDmas nos covcrcJ with wru-8«lJH 
Kiid ulivs piuitalioiu. ITiciao who hiwl qo resources 
(if tlivir owii he mifipliwl ujth c*ttlB iu»l nccit. ?lc 
eXHctei! from every out- tbo teiill) iiart of hi< iiifotntt 
ai)d •*niiii2>', snil tliiio liicreMciI tbo r«i'i>nii« iif t!ii< 
stotc, wbicli bc«xpcn<I«(l in nplcndi<] )>iibtic builiiin^t, 
He eaUbllnbcd a puMla llbntty, and oillecteil nud 
firntngMl ttio p>it;Dis of }toui«r. An be ivell kiiow 
hiiw lytax\tiy w.ik bnU-il )in cnntfiLlly »ini?pniijil liU 
]niiv(.T under iLu exlerinr uf n jirivnto t'itiwn. H« 
&nl)Tiif tu.'il likci itlicrA ia the jarfsdkctino i>f Lli« Ai«)j)&- 
eiin. iK'foni which hounxAcriivedof iuurJ«T, AndiMU- 
(iiit-tol liiiiuHrU vWi iiM Kiucli iimdimc* u clotnmcy. 
Ill thk w»y I'iaiHUutUH t'lurrUiiMl tba K)Vervf{Ciity 
tint an th« oiipriiixot but a/i tbu fstlieruf hU ciitintry, 
whicli Kcanxly ov«r vnioycd a longer t«mi nf |xm(» 
tiiiil pn«|wlty. He Alti 1>27 b.c., l««viDg t«ro »una, 
Hippiu uid HipparcliUF, to Inherit Ma paw«r. who 
wore Dot^ however, «blc to preserve it. .Soo Itir- 

MAH. 

riSOLITE. Sm PEAxrosE. 

PISTACHIO NUT ia tbo iiroduce of Platana 
tenliicuii, lielnneing t" tbc iinttiral '.>n]«r Aiiac»nli> 
acaw, mucli cultivateil in tbe<!rc-al( inUindK, vaptKi- 
ally tieio, wker« Ui« gam naiuud mutie u ubluned 
fr-iu) thii iipeeka, &• mil ju from P. atLmliia. Tha 
tilAtit is oIm culttvkted in ntAny iNkrla of nDiitlicrii 
Kvtri>iM!. Tlie nut ia uf il ivddlab-j^ea tint, MuL 
niMHit (in inch Iod^, nviU nnd nciimtnat*; tbo komi'I 
U brijfhl itrcHi nud bn* ui n^rccnblu llnvtnir. 'I'ba 
fruit La mufb i»«J by clio 'I'urka an<l (in.-«kA. tk-« 

riSTIL, ill bolany. thcfomaloorKanoIftiilinnero- 
fiuniiiUfl flonvr, orciipyirig altutut iuvitriikbly tli« 
centre of Ui« IIn«-i:r. In tniiat L-nxca tberc i* only 
■L liniilL- |>i«ttl in ft tluwiT, m ill tba lily, byiLL<{ntb, 
And |>oppj". UiotlKirhutanecslberairvBevcrftl in tliu 
Ktiini; flnwer. ha in the roM HTid nuiiineutiw. It rnn- 
■iata OMiDtiiUly of t*ru |>«rb, the mur^ or fformrit, 
cantaloing the ovolee or yauug aceds, und the ilit/ma, 
ft nUalKT ■ocretin^ body, which is cithsr coatail im- 
inmliAtdy an tbo ovftry |na in thu ttili]i luiil popjiy). 
Mid is tlion caJlod irtiitt, or ia buriiu on a ntalk 
cntli'tl > ■tylc^, intcrpnn^l lHitw(i«n the uvary mid 
*ti;;wik Tbo stytu in nut nuc-cwary (nr tbu purfoirtion 
uf the f>i*til. Liko the other ur^uu nf jiLuiIa l1i« 

iiintil €5iiini»l« iif otic or mnrc tnoditicO l**vc», %vi)ii:h, 
u lliia inntance, are colleil mrptlt. When n |vUtiL 
eunakte vf « aliifile ?ar)<«l It iit thapU; wlieu il eun- 
■iets of Mvenl, more or kse nnitod, it is fumpvu»<i. 
]i«h MTpel haa lU own Avwy, style (when i.rcwnll, 
and atJgmftt M>d li romiud liy a fr-lded leaf, the Mi<\mr 
■oiface of wliidi is turned invarda towards tbu ftnia, 
ud the lower <n)twardN; wbilo at its man,-iaa are 
«tevcl<^od one or moK buds cUIriI ovitloi. The 
atmrf alw»yo oocraplea the lout- r yiut uf tlx-- {lintiL 
Il nprewnti tlw limb vr lamion of the kaf, and ia 
compoacd of relbilar tiamiemritb Abrii-rAnrnlnr bundle* 
wmd Ml cpidurmal airci-iag. A trausverac acrLion at 
the orary often ehowe a liiiste bitemal cavity or nU, 
Dcntfti&bg tlw evtilee, in which caac il i> mted vni- 
Ufvliir: when there fl.rv two eoUa, It {• oalted bitoeu- 
lar; when there ate tbreu, triJofvlar; wbeu there are 
» grant nnmbor, m'llUiaruJar. Tbo •>variftn cells of 
MDie flowers etrntAiin only unu ovulu, tjtbvn cf>atnin 
agmttnumbDr. After Dowertni; la ovvr and fccimda- 
tiiA haa taken jiloer, the ecUulnr tissue cnlarfjra nud 
ri|iEnx tbe p'djiy miu »f the fniit, the «pi<lrrtiiii] 
vvverin); U.-C"Ui>:a Uie rind, tvbilkl each uvulv ia 



d( I ilopol inM n seed. The atylo and atlgiBB Mm 
fall iiFF, or rc-Riiun nnd dry ii|i, or iacrcaae ta ain^ 
bei-omtiix fijatbery Bwna, bi>alta, Ao. Tbe >tyl« has 
uHjally a cylindrical form, and ia tntvetaed try a 
nAtmw mnal, in which there are wnne looae prajee- 
Lio){ odIU, fomiing whnt is caIIvI Um aaaiWKAtiig 
Utoue, fruui the part which >t iilayn in ooaveybig 
tlie inlIn«nco of tbe pollen to the nvnlM. Tba atignna 
ia a c-rintjiiiintinn nf the cellulot tiaann in tbe central 
liart of tb« atylo, ]>lacvd at the aunuuiL of tbe ovaiy 
itr nty)^ and deatiji«d W l«cei*e the fntluenoe of the 
rccuiidatini; sabatanee inm tbe antfaen of the aU- 
Tiienn. It la cr>m[><>Bnl of ctllubr tiaaiie more or Ua 
bii. itnd uftcu linvinj; pn>j«L'tiii^- Mlliilea in the fimn 
«f jiAjiiiin' nr of bain, nnil at tlin ]>rri(Kl of finliliia- 
lirin vxudiu;; u viacum fluid, which rclotna the ^^naut 
of [>(}|]etL and caiiaea tbe protrusion iit tubeA. Wbiii 
■iCLi.itiid at tbe nnuimit of iLu'«lyle or ovary t^a 
cttuma i« aaid to bu Irnaintl; it ia laltnil when il 
Dccii|>icd the Ridee of the style, or, when that part b 
Wiiiitiii^. of tbo ovary. See HiirvNT. 

I'JK'hllA tuicifnt, J'lifuriu), a t^n-n of Italy, in 
tbe pnivttice of Florviim, nnd '20 niiliat niirth-nml "t 
tha city of thnC iianic, wllli wblch It ia cututecloil br 
rnilwaj-, neAr tlm bfi hank of tbe (.iiubro(i& It U 
auntiunilcd. by loUr witl li, h3iiievi:ral Inr^ie and band- 
aoaie eqnaree, a])acioviH, well'pavol, and w«ll-fi>rai«4 
strocta; is the see of a IiiaJiijp: ooulAim a cathedral 
i>f ancient dale, fm-Tii ii]tcnially and Jiavril willi 
marble, and ndiiniHl wit!i line Hiulptiima i.ail paint- 
ings; the oburcb Ik'll' I'lulll^ with a ioa$tillieuit 
dome; ach-enil other churches, a town-houM, ooort- 
hnujK^ Ac, and has inAntifuctnrca of woallea and ailk 
i^xla. I'iatula WMO ftnt made ber«. Pdk (IHSlI, 

PISTOL, a smftll flrr-ftrm with a cnrveil ated;. 
dieohsr^cd with una hand, nAnicd fn>in Uiu b>iwii iif 
Piatoia, wlK-ro they were lirat made. Blentiaisi la 
mule of lltoir uau in iHi. Ueinjc intntMled Ur 
fighting at do«o r^uartera, accuracy nf aim me m( 
alt<.'iriiitcd to Iw semirfvl ; in faft thi* u->hiM ba^e 
It-rn inipnu-tit'uble imlil the adiplion «f tt>e Kn^ 
l'>ek townnJa tbe cnrl i:>f tboscvciiUMiulh osntury; aaA 
until well nn in the ]<rcarnt eenCi^ry, indeud, pi»tubi 
wcry nut _i;ciiemlly pnnidol with uijlita. ITie 'dag' 
inenitionul by tbo P.H/:k1ietba(i iviitera wna a kind <4 
clinnsy piatuL TUcy were carried I'y the Ed^IMi 
cavalry a« early aa the rei^n e( Ili-nry VIII. 
PiMola are tnmle i%f ^'aTioua aiii^, nui^n;; from fi 
inchrDi (tlie Kilntm und pH'kut pistol^ t>i lf> and vv(« 
'21 luchoi (tlie holatcr pialoU. Tbe mecbaaian of 
thia arm reeemblaa Ibat of the musket (wbkbieei, 
and the proeoes of DiAuufncturc ia alao aimilar; See 
KrwLVKU. 

riSTOLE, a gold onin mot wiiU in Kveral ]«rU 
of Europe, tnora capedally In S|htin. ludy, Swiuir. 
Iimd, anil Koniciiai'tBof Germany, but nut nowUMtmL 
It WDB uriinn^ly a Siioniah coin, and wna eiinitaluit 
io a qnarter of a dotiblonui tbe pr«eeul ;Spnaiah 
piftol hna a vahio of 16*. 'id. 

PIT, ill liortic 111 turn, the nnmo applied to an esoa- 
vutitiii lvb>» Uiu KiirfEiee nf the ii>tu, iiitended l« \m 
covered by a i^laze I frame. In their aimpJeat form, 
withont any artificial tiint„ ibey are imifnl fur fin>- 
tocttdj; plaiila innu tlic ci>1d in winter; and even in 
summer chla LInd uf pit ■ITon.la a euuvenient tuean* 
of diclteHug dolicalo plauia troiii beary nlna and a 
aoarchfn? stin. 'J'hcy ntay hare turf, wnod, ur brick 
ajdca. W'liL-n a alnrng heat boa to be couMtantljr 
piainlaini"! it iii^y W kept up by femeating matter, 
*ir by lliien from a fire. 

PITA liHMI*. a name giTon to the fibre of tlie 
Bgui-e or Aiuerieai) »I"b. See Au'E. 

IMTAVAIt l''it,»xso]« Oatot UK, a Freneb juris* 
eonaiilt and luiai^clloneoui writer, was born at Lyoua 



I 



riTCAlEN ISLAND— PITT. 



lOS 



In 1873. H* WW wflmwrvlr al>b^, sulilivr, Iftwyer. 
tad >■■ <i IvUui. ThB tiiast iiD])ortant anil heal 
lokMra of hit worln i* * coUc«tinii nf mmin^l triftia 

120IA), • work *uliso)U«Dt1y RijiiilMiieiitM] bv 
ViUo ii;«i, four vola.1 uil by Itichor ll"'2-»*, 
aU.i. 
IKX ISLAND, «n Ul.im! in tl.o SowUi 
kHi^'lnS W iba Ijww Arviipc'Iixtfn, Jat. 'J4* 5' 
P.; Im. 130' Ei' vr.; U&sUi, 'J^ milra: brcAdtb, about 
1 mUia. IfroaoLualniost^icrxicniliciiW tbroii)(hoiit 
ito wbtd* estenk, and U, nioreover, frinKdl uitk 
hmmMMe tdcIm tm^ nvh, awkiog Jt IiiifH>M>lblt> v< 
bnd WMpt at B very f«w pointa— one at the wnt 
and. and anoUwr «ti tluj ni)rtli-«Mt, called lloTinty 
llay. IIm laat in llwt Kcncrally u*«<t, but uvho It 
ta c w n aa ii»iirM.-lknbIa iu vtroiu.' iriDiK Tbs iatand, 
tteiof to Um beijjbt ut UOO feet, bccomR* viriMe 
•I a dMaace «( >'><J iiulo, »ad irhen in<nv neivlr 
af|«uacfc«il prnH-itU * MniMurliat wiliL but bMutiful 
afifMmBCaL Ita inimuiu an dotbvi witb lusnriunt 
vtnlarv. and tba baucs uf lu Wty cllfl* ore KhtrtLil 
«ilh tbiekly-braocliiiig evtrrgnunB. But tbv iuU-rcsl 
■rbicli ■W'vabgi to I'ttruni iKlattd !• lierivnil for 
)«M frutD tta pkysiciJ tbnii irvm ita moral fciiturca. 

VOainalMtiabaailurf, mutinecnuf iiwJiouniy, 
on it, wiUi dghtrcn naKvci of Tahiti, tix men 

lwelv« n-qmcii. 'I'bey foand primt of fonner 
tt-Utki iububiUtiU, avid uii^bl <.-'iBi[y tuivo 

i;«d, from ibe natkiral fertility of the aoil, to 
niaiat in toientbla omifiwli bnt violent iHaaniNOiia 
WQ aioMi, and tlisy ouuimenccd killing mwIi olber, 
Mul at tbv aoil of t«ti y«an tha only >UTvi>an vvn 
Jnhii Ajdanw, an Eugliiuiniaa (wIicik nat naina woa 
•aid to have htt^ Aleuindcr Hniitbl, tbA fcmatai. 
Bad ninctmiti cLildieii. PruvlJetitially amoii^ tbu 
ittkiaa wbi<-)i t)>i> nuitiniwr* bwl bmtigbt with thvin 
«w« a (vw Bible* anil pnyrr-buuk*; aud Adnitin, 
Mrtlj by tba pnmoa! »f tbinn, niu utiiri^ with rcnione 
Imt Ilia pwt life, anil btcums » )feiiiiiua Cbriatiun 
ffwert. lla took u|Hin bJiu^K ihu rQliicious tralniui; 
titilo oomnunity. aiid wiUi auob rauarkable 
tbal jffobaUjr Mnoc tba Cnrt planting of tbe 
tta i;«atiiiNi fnilta bava never b«en prodund 
iMrttt pnn'ly awl abuBiinntly tban oa tbia loooly aint 
id tbi: radlic. In ISOS i'milMii I'nlKCT, an Ameriaui. 
luuclK-dut tbcUland, and reported tbt' ittatcolniatlun 
Uieb* ItiitUh goTamiMnt. In L)i» aiitunao uf ISI4 
a briUab v«>««l callol al tbo laland, &nd f<i)uid jidama 
»till alive atod rnnunandinj; Uia reaptict anil admira- 
Jfna of Iba lltll« coluiiy. Uvrry auooaaMno vUittir 
tl lu via nitb thorn who procvdwl him in taud- 
iababilaiiu for tbdr numcroua virtuca, audal 
MmI ikan««t*c. I'bclr kindiiew and biinittallty were 
at tbe jmnmt and iiiiMt unaupbiiticatcu deacriptiuii; 
•rvry indiviitual «f atiitalita aga oanld both r«ul aitd 
wTil«: dnuikvau^M uai untliely avoided; (iitamb 
bi tha naual h>iim uf Uiu t«rTn w0o unknown; and 
wban diiputca did ari*c, ibtiy wen; ritlic-r artttrd at 
«aic« by a magiatrate aDtinolly appointed by tbe 
Tutaa IS ad tbeinalea and femaua abora atghtwDiOr 
with tlM aa ai a t aaco of a jury, and in tba rar« coao of 
caattinuod mMindi-nilAniling; by tba final decbdon of 
tha emyUia uf tbi^ linit inaa-of'War tbat vialtwd Uiti 
fahocL TIh inhabttanta ware ooagrfitatvd In a vQ- 
laga wbiah wm c)tanl«d a littlo wnt nf [tonnty I1«v, 
aad oaoBtaVal of wrll-butlt, clean, and caiufivtalili; 
dwcUfag-lwuMi^ and a Urjtv and aubaUntlal building 
■Hd bvLb M a cfaap«l and aduMl-nxmi. la ISfftf tUa 
latafiaUog' enoraiinitr, to the number of IffI, wm 
tnaafond bo NuafoUc InIauJ, Pil^.iLim UavlnK b«- 
■NRV tiio anall for th<ir niRifiirtklila sulwiatance. 
IN tUia numW about 10 nooa rctiintvd to tbo ialand. 
U litf>l, at tb* tintc t>f tliL- viait of II.M.H. Thau, 
tbe inhaiiitaala ucra fonnd tv Duubac niuvty-aix, 



U^ItiK in tbe aune timpk' ud ptSnltliv muwr. 
Tbu men employ tbomeulvea In Manfthwdbf MtH^ 
anrl in Arid iivtmiir: the women, bcatdca attondtng to 
tlitirdoniuUcdiilir*, ureally amxt in cultivating tha 
Bull, v>iui.'b } ivliU aburidanoa of pcitatoea^ yaiua, aaiu« 
nniKO, oikd naay variotin of Ana frttii— pbutaioa. 
iitnc-apjJca, hteail-fniit, oranftoa, mclnna, Kmat, tte. 
rbtnn an excbuni^efil fur urcuriuu nppnn;! atid itlier 
uoo«iMiiHe«, obtaiaed from wbaliiij; aud other voaavls 
tbat occH^nally toiicli at tlio ialan']. 

I'lTl'II, the rcalibutm nliich rom^nM after Ixuling 
tiir 111 ail iitwu Ifou put, or iu a atill, till the \'<datili* 
inntCrr in drivan off. It J* Tnado in Cinat Britain, 
but urcnt •juantities ore imporicil tnm Buwo, Nor- 
way, anil North America. 1 1 la eilenalvely uiad by 
abip-biiildcrn for caulking' tkQ aeama aud coaCuig tba 
oiiui<lc» of alii^iH aud binta. An jiifcrior kind i>f 
jritch i) obtainLtt l>y iliHtlltinp Doal-tar, rmd Innii'tnr 
<(ti<iB an lulicic nluinniL L<|i.ial iu vuliio tu that f;(it 
frniii vf.xid. Miirh <iF thir artifkisl a«phalt iwkI fur 
biiililiii;; mid fiaviuK puTpijiica i) mada of cmd-tar. 

PriX'H, tbe acuternaaa or grAvlty of any particiilnr 
miiMcal auuiid. A muiical aound ia prcductil by a 
Horica of atmanphcric librationi foiling upon tha enr 
at precisely «i|iuil lutervaU uf tinic, uiid follnwinjf 
vacb other w rapidly tbat no intcTmlwIun can bs 
psrceiTf'l, Tbo numlitr ot vibration' In a giT<B 
limv dt'LcnniiKTH the piicb of Ihu lutic, the? lower num* 
ben giving ibe jft&\ e or de«ii (unci, and tlio Idtrbcr 
the acute or ahrlll ttmof. Aa all »l]ort and thin aan- 
oroua bodlca vihratc tnorc ra|iiilly in n |^iti:ii tiiua 
than larger and uium muaive !>odiiiii, it firllowa tbnb 
Inatringvd inaUtimanta tii* pltcb ia d«p«ndeul vti lb« 
leui^b, tldddcav uid dai;ic« of tMulini of tho etring, 
abort, tbin, and tightly- atretched atringa ^ling tba 
bii^buat louca; and in wind-inatrunieiitj^ nuL-h aa tba 
IliiLo or organ, the picdi la datorndued chiefly by tb« 
)<iii!tii of tile ailumn of air act In motion. (Aoa 
Mu'aic; and Aoii.siio.) Instruninnbi are tnn«d by 
UeMia (if a tiiuinU'fKrlc, the Iwu ]jtuiij-h (if wbich ara 
BUwIu o( KUcb a li'ugth that, vhi-a nn^da to vibrsto, 
ajiartieiilM' tonoi»prrnluucd. Thia note ia generally 
tbe C in iUe ttiinl bihuw of tbo treble drf, or A in 
th« Hjmca bel'iw- it, tha latter balag tbu notv to which 
Uieauocmd atniignC tbo vMin ii luuod. At tbvdoao 
of tbe a«veotMnth century tho atatidard (' tnnin^'* 
fork tnado iyi vibratlona per aewud; but in lb^9 
tbo npira pitcli bail riaam ao bigb na 61^, ivhicb waa 
too tfieat a atrain upon the aoprano and tvuor ^nion, 
A committee of tiie Kodety of Arta wna ehnt year 
appiiintcd tucimaidurtbuiiibjectoCauuifuroi miiricat 
pitch, til wbnm Sir John I Isntchel rteoukmonilad.the 
tbeiireticid iiunibiT of S I'i Tbia was obJMited hi by 
inutrumeut dealen and perf onnen, aa tbu iuatramDii U 
then in uae euuld not bo Coned below h'^S without 
altagetber aacriliainj[ brilllnnvy nf tone. 'J'bi! bitter 
number wna tbeu aowptud by tbe ^.xnniultiee aa » 
eompTDiniie. 

HiTririiit rr.ANT. s.c Niim[sth«. 

PITfH-HTONK, a fcUjmlhic miuend containing 
exceaa nf allica, and bacin^ a pitcby fracture. It U 
found chisHy in Southern Europe, Soutb America, 
and Ikluiioo, 

PITH. See MF.nitLr..\. 

PITl'.EorlofCbatliani. Sc«CiiATiUJi(WiLUAil 
Pitt, K\ui, or). 

Pl'IT, ^VlM.rAkr, aconnd mn of tbe Earl at Chat* 
ham, wua bum May 2-S, 1759. At Uie early mo nf 
aovcn be vma remaiiBblc for tbe interat bo took In 
pave aubjecrta, the anlour with winch be pumiod 
hla itudiea, and the piUuneaa of bia rcmarka. At 
funrleen be bad all the int«Ueot of a man, and wrulo 
a Iraiiedy not wnne then many printed by poiwme 
of malure yean, ilia pbykical development wna iu>t 
oiual to Ilia intellectiial; he waa taU, alauder, aud 



104 



WILLIAM PITT— PITTACITS. 



•iokly; port-wliu waa prourfboi) by the pbyniciana. 
Mid he daily dnnk tm much of Ihis |>Ina«Biil medictuu 
an woald lutvo helploulv iiitoiiitatod numy a full* 
KTowu UJiUL IK' WW mluontod »t homn initaKd of 
buing, like most of lib futon oolleApiei^ xsnt tn one 
of tbe grcAt public schooU. At the tm of laaxttea 
Im WMeutennl nf Peinbrnkn Ilnll, C'lUBpridj^ wlwn 
bh kDowM^e ot malli«tnittica and tba obunci Menu 
to hav* utoaislMNl ripe aohnlitn. His aeqtuialMioe 
with BKxIcrn literature wa* nlighb. Df living Un- 
giu^is Leiitdw bU iiwn \m wna ■Jrnnut cntitvljr i^u- 
rnnti mi iinperf««t la)uivltiUh'<i vf Fniuck wiut all be 
piMiMwd. Ilj* favouriU) t^^'tisii aiiihora wn Sbak- 
MMr& MilUin, Lw-kr, AHuii Kiihith, nnti IBolingbrokc 
Hb lathur liad U)iui4*J liiiu fiumiufMicy ID th»'nian-' 
ng«in«nt of bit voioe, nhlcb naa tiaturuly clear «u(I 
<lee|)- toned ; uid bi* wbole vducation had b«oa<Un'ct«fl 
to tile end ol making bim a gmat parliamitiitiu-y 
orator. In 1777 lie eiil«r«d IJiLix-In'a lun, Mid in 
17S0 was callod to tbo bar. Ha attondod tbe wctit- 
era drcRlt <iiicc nr twice, wbcm he wu introducrd 
into Parlinuient bjr Sir •■&tnr* I.nwtbcr, aa rmiretent*- 
tirn for liin fMiriMigb rif Aji'luby, at tbe age of tweiity- 
one Hi* maiilcD hjhwcIi wa« dolitered tu aupport 
of Bfirttd'a financtal nifonn bill, and liti al«n «pobo 
in fantur of a reform in rarliitmrDt. Da tbe IjK-ok- 
ins u[) i>r tbu I tockiiigti nni miniiiiiiitiaticiii hii bni'itiue 
«Laiiue1lvr o1 tbu vxi^bivjuer ut tbw a^e "f t»'i'tity- 
Uir««,Dnditrtbe|)r«mienliipo( the Harlot Kliolbttme. 
A gmerml posoo aoon foIl»wi>1, nhin;!) t><.-in;,- luiulo 
tbe groiuid uf umworv hy a itniti;^ onpiaitian, thn 
«al>ta«t wa« diiwlred, wij tin* Kox and Nortb coali- 
tSon took iOi tilnoo. On bu rotiromoat from othta 
Pitt ruutned kit efforts fur a mform in I'nrliamiriit. 
Hia lirat taotioa waa mode oii ibe 17th Mnj, I'K'J, 
beforo a boow of tnot* than 300 mvtnbora, and was 
oi4y loat by twmt? voIm, tlie beet diviiion reformen 
mooMdad in ohtatiilns till 1832. On tbe failnre i>f 
Vox'» India Mill, wbicfa produced the diamiaial of tbe 
ooalitioD, Pitt, allbongb at that tioie oiil; in bis 
twenty 'fourth jrcar, aaaamed the itittioo of prime 
Uiiuiiitn' by accepting tbe united potta uf linit Inrd 
of Lhu tr«««ury and rbaiiMrUikr of tbo uxcbeiiiiur. 
Altbuutfb itrotiplv eupporud by tbo soventi^, bo 
atood Dppotwd to a larre majririty of the lloiiac of 
Coincuuiia, ami a dUauTutioD Uh>]c placv in BJord), 
17Sfi. At Iho ^Mieial «I«rUon ivbicb followed tbe 
ToioDof the nation appoarod decidedly in bia favour, 
ntul ume of the alnrnKCft ariatooratioal lDt«t«ita in 
tbo eonntry wnre iVfcAtcd, Pitt bituMlf being n>- 
tunun! by ibc Uuivimity of i^nmbridie. Hia firat 
maaaara ws« tbe passing of bU ludia BUI, uaUliUvb- 
iaf tb« board ot control, wbich was followed by naclt 
of that flacal and CnaDdal rejulnlioa that garv ao 
murb frini h> tbio early poniiil of his iMlniluiBtraliua. 
TliR tutAbiUnliment of uiedcluiiveanhrmi: of aMnkln^ 
fund foUuwcd in 1764. lu U^i Pitt reaialod th« 
doctrine uf tbo op^KMitiOD tfaat the resaDCT, durbtjc 
tlio kiiiL''a indii^iciBitiiin, drvnl vcd upon tlw Prince of 
WaliDi by ri;;bL I'be uuiiintvr maintainrd tbat it 
lay iu tb« two reiDaioinp braucbtts of tbe lcii|i«lature 
to fill up tbo office, but that tiio prinoo oould not be 
paiwcd over in nominattjir to thia peat. By Ui» 
ndoptlon of tbia prludple be woa cnatilcd to uaa* n 
UU nstrktioK the raitsat'i powir, which the IdnK'a 
reoovery rendered tinnoeeeMry. The Ftoacb rovola- 
tloD now bruLc out, and in 17U3 war aroec between 
tiniat Britain and tVanco. Th« d«taila of tbe 
tuomentoua racttnt wbicb fnllowod form so aubJNt 
for Ibe UujfTApbur. threat ItritAin wna Micceaafnl by 
•m; but durioj; tbe lili: of Pilt Lbi.' (.iinllici on tbo 
t^Unent waa in faronr of l-'raocv. 1'h« 8tiap«ni<iun 
of caah paynioula (a I7b7, tbe neaenity of attdntin^ 
to bouiB ddfeace, the mutiny In tbo tlccl, oud tbe 
auounulntiau of (be |>\iUic burdoaa whicli itiii luteaa 



to boavtly on ibo natkia, wen eooH nf tbe bittov 
fmiU of tfaiA straggler In UOO the Iruh uui»n wae 
acraimptialiiHi. In IHOI the o|ip<adtiua of tbo bid; 
to all furlber cuuoeMion to A» Iriab Catbolks (am 
Cathulil EuAKviiuriOff) canted bin to reajjpi bia 
p[i«t Tbo Peace of Amicna eneaneded; and Ibv 
Addingtiiu admin iatration, m^Atii ooacluded it, Ptt( 
tuppun«d for a time, and then joined tbe (^po^tttoo. 
Tito Dcw minirtor. who bad naowvd tbe war, quable 
t<) mnintkia bia ground, nttipied; aod in IttffI I'iU 
nrsuiuodbiapjalat tbetreaaury. BetoTnii^ topoi*<Br 
an a WM miniiit«r, he exerted all tbe energy ut toa 
obaraeteT to trader the «at«« moawBTul. mtd finad 
means to engn|p tba two gnat niUitarj pmren rf 
Ituwia and AuHtria in a new omItUob, which wnadia- 
atilki-(i liv tho battle nf Auaterlitx. ^tt, wbiMi etate 
uf bijidtli u'ua previuualy dtreUalnif. waa evodbly af. 
fi.1 U-d by tliia «> ent : aiid hia conatilutkio, wc^kelied 
by a hxriHlitary (juut, nnd injored by a boo liberal 
tiati (if tviuu by way of stimulant, ropMly yielded t» 
tbo j»itit attack uf dlaeaaa and anxiety. !« parlia- 
iiioiilM'y attiMik upon liis old aaRodalc. l>o«d Matrilk 
(■oe UuNDAH^, not wholly parried either by mlnia- 
torial Influeuoe or tbe ueriu of the caae, la tbooi^ht 
to hate deeply wounded hit fowling^ and ounpteied 
Ilia mental d^reaalon. A acato of extnraa tlebUlty 
cnifued, wbitfb terminAbed to death, enoouDtoiad with 
gTMit calmnaat and rarfgnatlon, Jaanary 23, ItNM. 

1 1 ia genanUy ceneoded that tbe iienina of Rn waa 
bettor odAptoii to the nii.iilativc pTUoesaol paacwibla 
and domealic {tu^-rmitieiiL thuu to the arranfetaaot 
and onniliict of thuae warlllco opwationa whicb fam 
[Kilicy uutailed u|xio the uountry. At the aaine lima 
it miiat be eonfeaied tbaC be had to enMUitar i 
wbdiuing enorgjee— tbo rMulv >if a aodal cfuie 
moat extraorilinary efaaracter. If, therefor^ bai 
be acquiitad of a want of foredsht la i nliiiiliwli^i; 
snch a oontlioE. tlia nault of the waifaro. ta aalaUUi* 
ing French MC<q)c]cncy on the Continent, mtf be 
reflunM aa the effect of caueea which no abuiliM 
oould bare cnntnillcd. To adnic extent be waa, | 
hajKi, more the man of expedieucy tbaii uf jirtDC 
In the o[ilji<>t of bia CMwer he waa a wAnn adYocala' 
uf |Hutmiiit.-ulDry tefona, but ho toon abaadoned the 
cauae. Httttpulteand voted in favour of tlw aboUtUa 
of the alavo-trade; but aJtIiougb Mipportod by the 
vniiv (if a decided national majority, bo wnubl not 
make a nilnlaterlal meaauK? uf it, na wna iIudo wttbimt 
difficulty by bis immeijJatc eucecefeor: nor oao <av 
trace any decided sorlftl am clio ration to his infloeaoei 
Aa a iinander ho wu pig-vrt in practice rather tbaa 
E«I«nti6cally gruiuidud; whilo tbe waste and fnl^ 
tion of hit warlike evpunditiin) weru oitni&M^ 
will ionif bo frit in thi:ir fMn*ci|ui-ncca. l>orc tti 
pi>wer waa bin ruUni; pa^iua, luud bo waa altiuvtln 
itbova tbo in>--uiniB« i:>f avM^(«, his pi.-rtounl dinia 
tenatedueat betnx ostKiau. His «lo<|iieaoi:; if aoC' 
more olevated or prafouod, eras, upon ttua whole, nun 
cortoct thui that of any other orator ot bia tune, and 
bia languaBD waa rvmarkably copinu* and well n* 
ranged ^tfaough ueiiber iUumiuated by the fUahea 
of geoina wbiofa cbancleritcd bis fatiicr's onlory, 
nur by the imaelnAUaii which diaUnzoiahed tbe sl^ 
iguencv of Surke, it was more uni^mity juet and 
Imprcaalre than tliat of either; while the indtjfiuukt 
Mvcrity and keetineM of his eftrcasm were uiie<iuallad, 
[)u the wbuli? Pitt wan a ininiatBr of ooannianiiing 
powen^ and be *lie<d ui puaateatun uf tbe oatoeio of a 
large portion <rf Us oonntrymen. A public funeral 
waa dacreed to his honour bj ParlianiiMit. and a i:r»nt 
of t'lO.OdO to puy bia debts. See iMcd titaahope'a 
Lifo of I'iU (I/oiidou, l$4lf. 

I'l'ITACt'S, one of the eo-catlcd aerm wise men 

uf t^rtircu. t>arri ubi>nt K.C. f>i'2 at Mitylritr. •■■) tlio 

ialiuid uf Lcabua. He waa highly eelehimtod m a 



riTTSBTJRG— PITYRIASIS. 



105 



wtW, K •Utanuo, w. pbdMopher, miiI ■ poet In 
U» the ttntam nkta him to the cUeUtanhipv wi 
«A« «lucl> be NtKiwrimialy filled fnr Un JMn, wb*n 
^ vutiiriUrily rcvi^neil li. AiUr otlicr ten jvan 
^>nit in tumooml ntircmoot he died at *a adrancwd 
■GrelDSSW. MM^dtbesbuicatold *bout PittMus, 
ul uf wliiefa laad to abow hk comtaDtod and mijBt«n- 
Mioua dJaDdMooi, are d<wbtlcn apunrpbol. It la 
■aid thai m nfaaod a numbar <d ooetly prcaeou 
ifom CVauoa, iritb the reiBMHi that he biul ikltrndy 
tarke aa tmA wrndtli aa bo vuwi). lVi> nl tlm 
Haaima aaciibtfi] to bim an 'know the fitttn;; mu- 
nent,' wmI 'it ia a ro af <m <ina to ba eminent.' uf 
Ua 0a» dldactio renea only [imr have been prcM:rvi;il ; 
Ih* yCTwiinTHaa of bie Mtcr to Civaua, atill ejitont, ia 

' Jurf leil br many aatboritiea. 

FrrrHHl'ltU. a dty of the United Slalwi, in 
FaO'iBvlraiua, in Atli^haiiy county, *22.1 mJIra niirth> 
wart al WaaUDjftuu, advautanuuily aitualvd at tlje 
cantnl point c( the lai^ ana T»lual>l« ooal-Belda of 
Wtem Penuylvasia, in tba anglo trMed by Um 
UoooaipheLa and the Alleghany in nniting to fnnn 
Um Utdn It ia aituatad an the great Ponn*)'lraiUa 
tnwk lino* «f railway ftvm tba oMt to the west, and 
b osmiected by branch liaea with thnw othtr tnink 
linaa of the rountry. Gn-at, tnuiaporiAtioti Iiualitiea 
NMllt (tubi the t:D«prnt rati I'm uf vli.'von ililTi<i>-iit rikil- 
wqr liOM^ and tbo nniun al lh« three rivani nt whoM 
janclka It la aitaatAL Tbtt site in lutumtly rich 
m |actiiraM|ae baaaty; bat ila altnutiook iu thia 
TtaeaetaivBnichdwtroyDd by the anlpharrauiTapoun 
and dn m dauda «f stnoke wbiufa are (xuitiaually 
fidof tna the bttumiueui eaal tiaed tn the nuut- roim 
bctanaa^aod givv tbo vbole pbuM a dingy apiwaraace. 
IfUaboiK atmaiata cf the town pmper and of a«ter»l 
Ih^ anbaibi; irHb wUoh, when <m the oppoidte ride 
nf tita titma, tha OMUMWtJca la kept op by ewetv« 
MdfM aoropit u ng aoma of the' liuaat apccimon* of 
irm BoaiKaiion -bridge ardiitecture e*er constructed. 
ttttahof^ ta ifTcpnlarly triimgular in form, and Itan 
Ska gn*! ineiiaurB been laid uut in Hcjioratt: vviterna 
W tUr^iM cama|)oBdJng Ui itie divetueuee ul liie 
riven aad the f om oi the hills one wUob h oxtvnda. 
Uaity ef Aa atreets bare a respectable and cxnx 
baMioiiw apwaranee, while tlw Buburboo lumdi^uun 
are anfroaMiMl bv ample and attractlre gruivuitii. 
Of the adboent pUcea which, though wpamtvly [n- 
■MjNwmieil, an properly Kfanled a« only nibiirlxi at 
Pillifotfg, the iDoat Importaaliara Alleehftiiy ou the 
ll|ftt bank of tbo AUfstuuiy ifrer, and Urwdducka on 
Um ri|bt bank of the AlununKnheta te the wut ot the 
city. AUcKhaay vlea with I'ituburg in iu piiblio 
■lifiiaa, and aurpttaMe it in the dr^-anoe of its giiii iite 
■MMfeni^ whtob, often occupying airy arcI coiiiiniL&d> 
!■( MaitloM. have bwik elected (or rcaideuci; by the 
VMuUar dtiuoa. Anoog the public edllioei In the 
IffWQ pnper then are aver lOli cboRlici; none of 
Iham feaving brmI aicbitei4iml merit RiCBpt the 
Kenaa CaltMUo Cathwlnl, the IMnity K[>iit-opalUii 
Lliiudt, the Uominn Lntbcran, and tlic First and 
Third dcahytcrian (nionthMi. Tba tiuMt buiMinK* 
an the veurt-huuM, cuDaatiog of a baiwbouie Civthie 
Mrvctwn wkh a tow«tr; the saw Ualted titatee oourt 
mmI ^Hjet oflioe buUdiuga, both under cunstnictluo in 
IbM. Utber building! or objectn of note are the 

- tanki asd IkMlU, the city halla, throe large hoepitala, 
Imt daaaminMiaaal aoBdnariee (Catholio and Pro- 
laatantf. aikd the atato penitentiary in Alkgbany, 

llUaburv haa almoai UKihaimtiblu anurcea <if 
Mvepodty Dotfa In iU man u radon* and Ila trade. 
Iti oMd-aeaau, aituatvd (^vnenlly above (be level of 
Um riven and tuitniiti^ mnt tmUy worked by nwana 
ef adita, whbwitdeapMnkinga or emewrivB drainage; 
wUb fta riven and niUwaya bring It into immediate 
aemBMiloitwn with the gnM ounuardul umporinnia 



of the coat. n-eHt, aai south. Itfl Industrial oEtablisb 
tuenla int-lmie imniorous nillin^'inilU, fMiixInca. 
glAas-wnrka, lurawcriva, Ac In Milditioii to Ibvau aro 
extcoKiK; ftictvri'A in u'liieb atUole* in iron xud at^i^l 
are produced, whit«-I«ad and eoda-aali u-orki, wpper- 
aiui'ltitig furnaceL ct^ipCT ToUiag-inilla, Ao. In enoh 
of the itaiiln of iron, Bbeel, and gUua it la the prin- 
cipal prMlucing (wnlni uf Acovrlca; and the total of 
coal and a>ke produced by ita cnpitalirta in Wuat 
I'cimayl vikDut i» tl»n litrgi-r tbMi that uf any iitber 
city in the union. 'I'be duel articles of exjiurt are 
pctrvk-iitD, eoido. Iron, Iruumengvry, leather, tobacoo, 
malt liqiiora, &c. I'ittabiirg occnpiee the iitc of ■ 
fort called Uu tjucani^ whieb woo built by the French 
m 1754, and waa twed by tbi'm a* a vL-utntl piiiiit 
from wldub. In coDJuootion with the IdiIiium, tboy 
apfcnd terror amoiig the fmntier acttlemetita of 
1'trtiiiiyIvn.iiiiL In all nttjtck i>n tbia fort in I'bTi tba 
British ware duft-ftted, witb the lum ')f tliPir omw- 
miuidtr, Ocucnd Braililuck. Thu fori wim cnf>lurfd 
by tbc Uritinb under the loadorsliip nf 'W'Mliin^on 
in 17fi6, and named after William Pitt. For mhuu 
time I'ittsbui'g made little progreaa, ami in 17''i did 
not contain mon than thirty dwellings witbiu ita 
prcacnt city limitiL IU lint greut atort wan made 
Iu IKII, ua the intmiliiotiim of bI«u.d> uarigutluu: but 
it can hardly be miil to hiive entered on it* full 
cansur uf profipority till the opentni* of iu riuh 
tieldor ciiol ond iron. It wwi cliiirtcrvil in l<S]<>, tuid 
waa oeuly dciitniyvd by fire in IHtli. It» |<o[iitliiLi'TH 
In 1S70 wiw &il.0'76; by the ovueus of l^Su it wiut 
l''b,S80, not iuclndin^ Alleghany aad other auUnrbe, 
whiciii wmilil \miig it up to orcr •iMi,<l1H?, 

I'l'lTSFlELD, a. flouTiiiiiini city of the ruitcd 
State*. MaeuchuMtta, in iJerkabire county, on the 
f rMntien of New York, about 1 i 1 nulea west of Itoatun 
by rail, in a vide valley lielwecn the Taoculc and 
Gnmn Mountaiua, at the conllueooo of tbo I'ontooaiio 
and Hountaniu. It ii wuU built, and near it* ecutt* 
in n Millie with no area of about 4 acre*. I'ittalield 
contiuiiit tlifl Itrrkibire Medical Imtitutiun, wUioli, aa 
a inedieal aohuul, etijoya a hi;;h rvjiutatiou, and uo-u- 
pin a liandsotno aad comtnodious nuiga of baiklingi. 
llie mannfactnrcc arc very eittenalve, and Indtida 
ciittun and wocJlen gooda, ailk, onatingi^ madabteiy, 
UiiA*, papor, boota and ahoco, brawery prodnda, Ao^ 
Tbe salubriiju* cUctiate of l^ttalietd, ite caay noom^ 
and beautiful scenery make it a dodr«blo reddenco, 
au^] atttwcl (,Tvat nuuben of autuoier visitora. Poj>. 

Pli'YltlASIS, a chronic, non-oontagimu, auncr- 
belal aSectien of the akin, attenckil by the prnduo- 
lioa of uduute white acalea, fn:i[iii?iitly u[i ]iatckaa of 
irrepdar form, and of a li-;bl or iluU rod colour. It 
may occur <ia any j^art of tliu body [rarely over Uie 
genenJ eurfaoe), and givea riae to itching, tingling, 
or jiricking aenaaliona. I'he acalca are thrown off ae 
aoon aa tbey an pmdiioed, and are renewed an fiwt 
aa they luv luet. It ouuiira uiuat fp.T|ui.-iilIy on tbu 
aealp, when it Is ]wpulajly known oa iJAndKlf. 'l*ba 
ibdUTig attending the irTU[>tion ia often anuoyiiig, 
caniing the patient to *cr*t<.-li the part and lucneu 
abowen of aourf, whkb fall ou the clothes in the funu 
of a while fne*ly powder. Slight casea an eaidly 
cured by the fnequont uae of tbe warui bath, but ihoolil 
they ^rove obatlnate the bair muj>t Im cut ao short aa 
po^ble, and the sodea softened by poultioce and the 
vapoar-batbt the latter baiu^ continued for kibm 
tuneand alternated with allulme or emollient lotiooa. 
Attheaatnetimetbebowalaahould bo freely evMcuatod, 
the abdominal awntiusia and esentiona duly pro- 
moted, aad tha sutaMOua eidialalionB inowaa by 
meana of pui^atlvea, kUontirca, and cooling dlaphit- 
ntica. The stonnoli abould never ha overloaded, aud 
animal food sparingly parlakem oL 



10G 



PIU- PIUS VIL 



PUT, m Itnlimi yifv\ instiHsin^ more, mkI lund 
in luiiucal hcimcs tu iaUtinilv aiiuLlitr oilverl), •■ pin 
juiyrtv, Uiofu tjiiielil^i', jii'ti tjr.iim, cuoru i.<tily, piii 
tort" atUjTf, tvCLisr niorv truU^. 

I'lr^ II-, cri^iiially culled .-Kkkah Sri-Trtlii PlC- 
VOLOMrii), wu (lueutvideil fnun cirw »f llii: in-H<l iltiia- 
triiiii* l\t*ciin famUiM, anil u.-n« horn in I40j at Cur- 
fi.iiAuo, in tha Duchy <■{ Siutu. lu M'iA he vim 
ifui tn Wm Unlfcnity ol Kiviiu, wliurc lie apjili^Kl 
liiiimulf with unlour to thu atuily i;f Iwlk-s-lettivii, 
ilikI jiiiblJMlicrl Hctrml Latin iiiul Italitui [)i>inrti, 
vilik-U lucl wilb Km^l n{>(iUiviw:. lib iiftuwtml.i 
<Lili^Eiilly titii{litfd civil Inw, Ami in llil Itla knrnliit; 
mill un'iin]{ilii>liiiii;i>ti> ri^i.''>iiiiiir[iil<;il liirii In l_'itn!iii>il 
< *iL[i rallies, tthiiTu ha nccouipniiiRi] to th-a (Wucil nf 
liiiBtl iti tl*u wi'iM:it.> u( »i.'cr*ti»ry. IIu bdi-u i;niiiL-tl 
ttiu i-unliiicucu vf tiiu fiLthors by tho ilaI ^vitli ^vhiuli 
Itn rnjioiiwil llii'iT cnUMi B;^iiiiiiit ]'i>i>o Kiigoitiii* IV. 
lUiil ttie uiaiiy iFitnied aiMnwlKii tviiich liv itixlv tu 

Iinirc the iii^'riutity at (piRcral coundU uvur tbu 
it"h'H« i.f Ilnmr- lie wm Ihiffrufiiiv tiiAilu iocrutftry 
t» tbi: council, mxl wiu >iit}MH]i)Piitly ciiipioyeil tin 
iiiii'ijiii iulH>ii>ti« of ^'ivnt iiii|iorUiii(>-, Uii Ibu eltv- 
tiuu t>[ Ujc iiiiti-jiojiw l-'clix V. by tUv Council of Bawl 
Picciiluniiiii wim niailv J'Apkl tcnat.Mf, tint having 
haai aont uii an euiluuay U) Frcili-rii^lc IIL uC Cjvr* 
uituiy hi* V'lu inrtiiosil to tako <tl!k-« in th« iiuputtiU 
umirU U'licii tlio vmpvrar cmbrnccd n uuutnijlty 
liL-tM'f^Mi the ( 'oiilicJI of llMel And Kaycuiiw, ricifuhi- 
Uiiiji, iii>t« itliBtntitliiij^ tW iictivo lurl. Iiv ljiu.1 tubeii 
aiiiuii^ tlin fuUion, folluH'«il hi« inaaUrT'ii oiMnpIp, 
M\<\ K'u oftetvjuda chuNciL m tUo bapvrial saibsumulvr 
tu A liict ftt liAiMtMi, whuro tb<3 n)aM» o( puUtns au 
cikI t» LUc *cM«iii ill tho cliiirch wcro lAken iulo cm- 
iiiilFnition.. Al kn^th lie wan m-nt 1>y Freilcrick, 
klixiit llio uuJ uf II itj. Vi iivijotiutt.- llie s-MbiiiijKiuu of 
(Ji'rmMiy tu I'iii^niiis, nriil jivnikd hiniH«lf of Lliia 
it|ijH>i'tiiriiLy til iiuiiicliiti lii* iiivti J-Mt iMmUict nuA Ui 
itii[>]un: the for^ivtrtinu and (avuur »f lil> Ituliiicai. 
TIjm rc<|<icitt ICugeiiiufl ruiulily cumptiuil 'wilh. \'<y 
tlio iiKin-dinft |W[W, NiclMiloi V., I'icciiluiKiiil wiia 
iiiii'le lJUlii>)i ut TriiMto, and in I4''<i w.-ui rAi»r<l tu 
tliv (.'anliiiulikto 1>5 Cnlii-tui HI. \}\ma iljuduutli uf 
tliiH |iotitilI .Kiienn vxm iiiuuiiiiintiiilv di-ctud bi till 
ilio I'iijiilI itiiLir, ami at Itie ciiroLiitiuii ha awiuiiicil 
tliv li*Rl« i>f 1*11111 11. ()iini.if tlif 5r*t iiiKutiirvH of 
lii' k^'^' <-'''■ ""^"t vi4«iin titli.-m|>C t"<i[iit«chi} Clinniiitn 
^iriuvM I" driv« tlia 'I'ui-ka uut oi Kiiri)|Hi, but tlic 
Kjhi-mu frll l» tbo gniuiiil. Iii IICU he )>iililiahi:d 
n iiiiU cia:iiluuiiiinj( ttie ductrinc ha iiail in r>innor 
yeiir* »» vi»iir»iu4y defctidvd tbo vuiivri-^rity of a 
t'i:iicr.jl ooiiucil 1(1 tho f-')[>o —and furbiJiUu? &U 
ii|-|icnla to aiicb council* iiiiilirr tlic novcrcat paiutiUcn. 
Ho ditsl Hill Ait^'ti&t. \M>\. PiuB II. wa« one of 
tli« inovt lonrncd ii^on of liik su^v, and l<-ft iKliiiid lilin 
•uvtral bictunLftl wurk> and di«>«rUli'i]i« uf cntiaidct^ 
nMri vaUii}. to^iaChor with n, LoUirctiun of entrcinely 
iiitviuititii; IctlL'fK, i-li:ira<.'ti-riBliu liutli of lbs ivHlor 
ail 1 1 hi* *!iV. 

I'H'S IV'. (fiiovAKNi A>'«>EUi> MsDicif wB« bom 
nt ^lilim in WW. lie wont tii lUiiu in uvrly llfii. 
and rujjidly r<.»ir iiitti lb« favour of ill* •ucciwuvti 
p-'l«i I'lcinimt Vir., Paid 111. (wbo inoila bim n 
uariiin.tii, Jidiu* III., nnd I'oul IV.,ivhriin hu aiui- 
ectdcd ill \liM. (Iiiuiil tlic lint acta nf hi* jjutitilicaUi 
vr.iB tltv<^x«i:iitIo]i>if the1.'.n>AlfiU«,I>rutbi<randne])haw» 
I'f Ilia |itcd«oiHMr, for ituAt itiKiluncc, rn|»uHty, and 
iioturlaiie Crimea. Under bl« tnuvcrninifiit Uie iletnMr- 
atii>iia vi iImi k^uuncil of Ttitit wre bniuglit Ut a 
eliBu, awl the duty dtrmlrMl tipnn tilin of inxuini; In 
liiiil a liiiU (uiiliniiatory of it^ decrro*. TIjh Tiidcu- 
tiiiv C'rwd, aoinutiiDcif known a» tbal of Pliu IV'., 
is'im isAucil liv tiiiii n* ail cmbudiiuoiil of ail llio 
•lii-L-lriiiea ddiiiiMl in Ibe <_'uiiul-1I of I'rsnt. flu dic>d 
in 1^1^, Hq wm aunwtdvd by Plua V. 



Pirs V. (Mintiti.R Gilslikm) wm ^"ni of nV 
mcvTB jiaruutH iu l.ilM at Bomo, a uoaU t4>wn ixntf 
AlnMiiiidiia. At tlix %iso of funrtoi'ii be enteral tbr 
LKimiuioin oouv«ut at Vo^bwrs. He waa ralmt to 
the oudlnalato by Paul l\'. ia IS^T, and about t>i<i 
Bivitic tiiuu wiut agipolntud IntniMtor in IionibafUy. 
Ilfinil»nc[i]ciitl,v IxH-.-xRi'iiniuiicilor (^neral — anuffice 
nhicb LouKtij'cii>ed n-itU risuur nsaiart tliu llvfwma* 
tiim. Uii tbu death of Una IV,. in 1H2 be vtm 
chiMcn t<> mtcccud liiin, and iiRcncdintcly oet about 
clTrctin^' refonmi butb in iiiiind!! and tti*d{i)tiic. JI» 
csuited terryr Iu Italy by tha ttlinn*, iiuitfimu- 
mauc. and burning of tborc coiivittud or iiMpev'twl "f 
liCTc-av, Biiiiih^ vfhiiiii were m:vcnU jienou c( BulA 
III IJiUti lie Hunt » birHo l"idy of tniofii t"i aMir4 
Cbiirltti IX. tit J'lvui™ id bia war ayaiiut bi« I'lw 
t«.'«Cuntfiii<JL-ct«: and tbo Haiac year rcuennl lUv bnll 
In <.%i>na hoinini (\rhich ncn). lie ctiFon.'ei.l Uw 
■vutbuiUy (if tlip Iiidt^i Kniitir^atoiiii*, luxl iixi-rllwl 
tbo Jeirs fwm all [i.irw of tfio Paiial &t«t«s oxc>r)4iiiff 
the eillM of Komc and An-cina. Id ] ^To bu <.-vniiii- 
nninicoted Elkobetli uf EtigUnd. lie lotit bin iii> 
IliivDoa and Mdatanoa bo th« VeReliaiui and tho 
SpMiiar^ in thsir war aguiuit tho Tncfca, wliicb ended 
ill the tnetncirable \ietoTj of lAyiaaWfl iScpt^ubcr, 
ll'\ I. lie (bud on the Ul uf &Iay, l.'o^ lie waa 
CJiiiniii/Hl by Clement XI. on 'JJth May, ]71'± 

I'lUS Vf.| wlivso Mnjular iiauie v>a» IJiovaKXI 
AS(;ELit ItaAMCMi, WM boRiftt rFHHiiBiln 1717. Hu 
via« a|>|>iiintril tecntory %ii Pciimliii XIV., rillcil 
Movcral ini|Kirtlaut utGooi nndur deininit Xlll., nati 
wan raised tu the cardinnlalv by (.'lenient XIV. On 
llie dL>iitli of that pontiff, in 177jS, b« bucccihW (« 
tlic pAjukl lbn:>uo. and kliurtty after Riado a Rf>inna- 
ttuii iu the (iuHiicial di-]iarliU(Mit, luut also iiU|«utotI 
tbe luuKuuiu uf tUe ^'aUcan. But tb« er«ah*t ■■( 
hu uudcrUkin^ went the draining of the PunttiM 
Manihcii, tint iioiirovcjneitt of the imtt tif AniiA^ 
nnd the ■.■Liilwlli^imieul of Ituoie. While, liunwer, 
thin pontile vrna vucccaiif ul in bb domwtic adtnial«tt»- 
ti'in, tic had the uiuiiibcaLiuu Iu witUMa tho obavlHM 
flccay cif tho t«]ii>"r.il pimT of tbo holy aw^ lurgvlj 
llio rLiiuU uf tbo Fninob rciiLlutinn. In 17^1 In loM 
Avi;;iton and tbc county of ^'unaI■ala, whiidi wen 
ruiKiitcd tu I'm.icie. In Ibr firnt (xndttioD a^tial 
li'rui(;a Um po|<c taiigrd liiriixcir itnioni: Llm ciueutie* 
uf lln^ iT|iiiblii% In Juriuiwy, l"tt:5, lUfiBt-villD, ih« 
Frcni^ HVcTDtiLTy uf le^ati'in, vraa luaas^irrwd ditHns 
A[>o|iii1iiri'>iiu»iolion lit Ikinii-; auconliii^Iy, aft«T tbo 
victnries of ll<ifiii|ini-tc in Italy, in 17!lt3, (ienctal 
Au;;vtt)at] uiarvb^d Intu the tctritoriu* uf tfau |i«W 
wlio. unable to naif t, vaa (jlad to ncuotit ao armirticv, 
)\bji;b wa* >l§ai-[l at Holo'^-iia, June IStb. 'Jlic Itoja 
lmiin>; renewed liuslilitiva, Voospalte attacked and 
beat bb trm>[N at Svnlo, Fubi-uary % 17!>T, an>L 
pruucmled towarila Rome. Ho i>t<-|>iic(l, howovcr, to 
treat with iiiiniMi^ni acrit by bia Ixiliouu. and l'Vlini< 
ary 1 ') in an nij^ut^d the 'I'ninLy uf Toleptinci, by which 
tbo |iii]<u Iiml Kiimn^nA, Ilolc^ia, and V^mr*. 
iJetMuiLor 2)), ITf', in cui»«(|u«tiec> of another coat- 
inotioti, in which ticaonl liugibut mu killed, JoKph 
Punajinrlii, tin* Prviich aiu1>aaandor, ijulitvd liiouei. 
An aniiy, uuiDiuaiidod by UoDenl IJertbivr. catered 
thai capital Kebniory IU, 1 T'>*K, and on tlic ) 5th pro- 
dnimed Ui« MtobUabiueut of the KomaD Itepublic, 
guvenioit by oqmiiU^ a lanatii^ and a U'lbanat«. llva 
popo, nftcr tluN dvprivKtion of bit authority, wai 
<xinveyeil to Fraoooaa n ptiioner, unil died at Vako«^ 
AiiyuHt '29, 1"0)>. In IHO'J hia body waa rainorod lo 
tfoiue, and uikmnly iiit«rrcJ. 

PIUS VII. (Ui(rj.uiii>> UARNAna ClllAlUJIOKn) 
vrm buni at Cviwd;i In 1742, nud at tiie niga <it aiX' 
tiiro na* [>cix-ivn<l into tbo order of BuiiodlctlneBL 
Aftirr >rrviti|^ u icM-iiL-r in nrveral ablirvn lie iMoaiD* 
(wftMOMT vf I'bilvDcphy \a Puuii, mid lulMaiusniljr 



A 



riCS VIT— PIZAREO. 



107 



in TUmtr, whorn 1iU (tllow-tnirnimari, 

L^inAtnl Uun fiiabnp o{ Tiruli, kud iu 17S5 

[eu^liittl whI B.alu)p ol ItDuU. By iho Pctoe <rf 

1 9'ofantuio bo hecMiie k citucn vl tfao Cinaljiinq lla- 

hpaUM^ ■ad <lB[ilk]red mi itiolination to ropnbUciui 

^iplw: It oppMiB to twvu b««a under Frvncb 

■nee tlut ba vu clxwcn to &U th« Tupul ohair, 

sh H. ISOQ^ aftnr whifh hi« ii'>ti<iii* untlrrwcnt 

» faifaU cJuuif*. UU Bu«n<Btic »iliiiuii>tratitm wim 

t:«DQdiict«d wiib » ri|>ora(w voooomy ud ft wUa pnUoy 

fa lbs ciKMKngefiMiit of oomneroe vtd mftniifactnRM, 

la Isui be OMMltided a onnonnlftt irilh Knnoe; in 

IMil rovitad tbn ontvr of Jevuiu in Sicily, biil wim 

,'riileed bo cnwupnt to tho udn ri| the chimh lunila 

' wo f^T^auli wMrt, Plna, (3c«ir'iUN of Kivinj( tlie 

' ■wrttk ol tlie I>&f>il pnwvr, eonifilleil n-itb the invitv 

liuii ■>( N:>f<ilc«>ii Iu \m p'tMM at ths roTObati'in ; 

Imt b« WM tnaUul witb IJttlo mpoet, dtlivr by tili« 

1 J'aclafayu or by Uio cmtmw, vhn crmrucd himielf 

llMil Um MBptun whb hl> own IkukIs. Ilic pope, 

I'Sading tbat bo wan to ospcct no Envniini, nifiuad t» 

poH at Um coronation In IdOan, luid ciu reovivml 

\m MibJKta on bi> return (April i. ISUS) with 

•nrsnioM <d dkaatialacUot). The rerorniR if 

pfa in Naplea, uiil Um Mcn1arit«tt(ins ia tier- 

■y, were netr Mnuwa of inortlficntiua, iiti'l bavlnji 

wdeil Napoloon by rvfiiaiut* tu raovjniifl his 

^l««lber Jo«T|>li M king of Nm[>1cii, nnd t» abut bi« 

» aRaiiut EnS'iili kliigm, hi: waa ubl^^ to wit- 

I tbo octnipMioii of Rouio by Frenfli tnxjm iFeb- 

kiWary % 1808). Th« Papal dtici vrvro incofpomtad 

L VM) tlw KinsiIoRi at Italy, and the fiim TeaLataroe 

|«( Pioi to IbMe aggreaiioDa, Hud bid Ibn-itt of excuni- 

ioatiag tbo anporor, conlil not prDTcnt Jlome 

. akarin^r tba aUDo bl« (May 17, ISO'.)). Jime 

[.Id aftd 1 1 the pope tvaed two built o( exc«mmnni- 

aalk« agamst all viuUtura of the I'«pal tt-mb>ry. 

fwlif 9 W waa wrnted in bi« cbamber by Frcncb 

>* » ( A anil OB ntfamag to miiunee all claim* tu 

I'fc-tntnnl power, oondQctoil bo Floivnoc. and tbctico 

|>tn Sawtin. In bla ouafiminient ho rnjevted with 

I tlw otftn of Napoleon, and nftuwd to con- 

liM Udittpa aiipoiMMl bftho latter. In 1812 

nm rvtoovnl lo FoDtMneblewi, wbexe Napileun 

. kin tn acoodo to a now convantion (January 

ISlS), by wbkh bo ivomiacl to confirm tfaie 

pa; but the aupcrur luivitif, CfUitrnry to neree- 

, pniclatintid tlie ci^ncunUt Itcfunt iU cuDiplctlon, 

MMtcil witli it It (kkId (if nr[;xi>'^ lawn, *cri(>iu>Iy 

Vvrtin^ tbv dinciplind of tlw diiircb oil ituirriaee, 

\^Om daf^, and pnbUc ironhlp, I*iu^ wbou oooacnt 

baaa antmy oonditicmal, reftiM«I to eoncnr in 

vqoconlat Ibat tbonkl not eettle all dbpnCcd 

IfMMk Ua WM tbmfora tn«t«d s> a priaoner, and 

rbfa H&l that bavraa poranoally abated by Napoleon. 

la I5l4 tbe p<^pe ^na rt^luMfd and rc«t«rcd to tbo 

I leiarfnna' all tbe Pifial l«mt«mB except Aviznun 

. VmMlam fa Kranoa, and a na/mw nrip of tiuid 

»d Ifaa Pol Altbon^ attached to the old bier- 

l>fihit poUev, aa appears front his bnlla and bncfM 

f^ydnat Iba •liniribiitloauf the Bible, ajti^nat Catlw.lic 

" m/laiiil. tc, yol Douo of lu> nlana for rcttorini; 

ftbl Kbttc i<t tliin)^ except the revival of the 

[JwniLi, Anipat 7, ISl-l, wirre euooeMluL Tlie Clui- 

tw>data with Fruion, lUroria, and the IVo Uidli««, 

land tba eoantntion with P^Ia*b^ wero, bowever, 

of the policy of tbo Boman court. Hia 

ion. which wa« nixleralo and wiac^ waa 

indafated for ita cbaructcr to Canlinal Con> 

(mIH, kk bitiaiato trknd and nloUter. He n-pre**:^ 

l«Ub a f%gfvu band tba hrigs&dagv and diicirdcr 

Nilikb tbo MoCradad wan bad introduced, atul tirokn 

Iffp Bun* M Ibe aecwi aocictica which ttMB existed, 

Mdally tba Carbonari. Runw became a;piln not 

ily Um ntaffi of fal]i.-ii (irinocs and proaeribvd fam- 



i!ie«, but the aoat nf tl'.o fiiti! nrta. Piita Vlf. dlml 
iu con*ei(uc*oce of a fiUI, July it, 1S23, mii] wmm iiuo> 
Deeded by L«a XTI. In bia l.iiitcs h? van tiiDiU; in 
diBpOMtioD. (icv.iiit, hrnrvolcmr, imd milrt. 

Flt'H VIII. ^FRAxeiaco XAnCBo UMmcuoKit) 
wna bom at Cioeulla, a ninall town jn tliv Statot of 
tho ChuTx:li. in lilil', of pmir hat ro*r«rt(bto parcnta. 
Mo wna ruly djiitingTiiiirii^l for liia Imlnatrv, talcnta, 
and luamitiii, and luvlug cnUrral tbe Lbiin:b y<>un)!, 
pnned IbTODgh all the iHden of ttio hioinicliv, buv< 
ing been created cardtaat by Piui VII., luid .March 
81, ISSD, unnnimotialy elected pope by tbu Minclnvo 
of cardinal*, ou llie death of Luo XII. Piua VIII, 
Hii;.l BOtli NdvwiiljMr, Isii*', mid wa* sooewdod by 
Urrj;ory XVI. 

P12jU:U0, FDAXcmco, tha niuno of a edtbrat^d 
Spanish ailvnnturer, the lika^mrHr and aonrjuprnr i.f 
Peru. liia (■riicln and eitrly habila won *udidrDtly 
humble, lie lieinf tlM fruit of an illicit coiinectJxQ 
IwtWMn a pcanant girl and a hidalgo of I'nixillo^ In 
ICatmmuliira, in lbs nni^'iihotirhnud «f which pliini 
bo fir»t Baw the Uiiht ril"oit 1 173. H*wiring neiUier 
mipport nor couumqiuico fram hia father, be mu 
thrown cnlirciy nj-nn hU mntbcr's rcMurcft', wbf. 
ciniiliij'cd him lu a iH'iDL'hvril, and luft bim tiitully 
llliMrate. I'ba apirlt of ailveiiUiro which at Unit 
poriod pomdad 8|)un iiidiiood hiui at len^h to quit 
nUi inglririnni) ixriipAtion. anil in onni|)nny uith lu-iiiin 
other ■uhlit!T*u{ furLiiiiD loKFi-k jui itiiprDVtfUienl of Ilia 
condition in tho npnl)' found mrittnonl of Anierii.'n. 
He wu in lliKpnTiiola in ]0\<J, and afberwarda wm 
conneotml with Uol^ioa whiL-n lUa Utter dbcovcrcil 
the P»dSc After B.illiii.1'* ileiilh he altAcbed liicu- 
Keif to the gorornor I'edin Ariiv, nnd wu ongaged 
in acveral military expeditiuiw. In 1516 be waa cne 
fi n amalt omnpany who were unt acroaa the Uthmua 
of Darion to trade witli the nativea of the Pacific 
coast. Ho cabibliidLcd blnuMlf nMr Paoanu, wbui 
it bccaiDc tho capitnl of tbe Spanish domioiona in 
tl'ti qnortrr, aod cultiratod a pieoc uf l»nd by tbo 
Inl^'tir iif bI&vm, Suljaaqnently Le bemiiiH nnMoled 
with Ueniando Luquo, or do Lufiuv*, a piicat pos- 
•caicl of •oriMi mnnry, and lJi«gti do Almai^m, an 
■dveiitnrL-r like himself, and bavin; joinUy fitled out 
■a anpedition tho aauiciatos art eall from Patinnia on 
a Toyaee of u&|i1<ir«tinn and oon<)ac«t bIodj; the ctwut 
to tbe Bouthward (l.'i;i-l). Thdr titat voya^ n-aann- 
■ucceedful, bnt they leMncd tbo oaislciii-« vt Uie riirli 
cAijiiru cif I'eni, and wi^re tuit liin^* in m.tlini; » »er>iiid 
\o<f»sv, with llie iiitunliun uf cun^acrini; thiN country. 
Their forcM wore loo tew, however, lor this ol.j.-<t. 
and I'Ltarm delctmincd bo seek aauatanoo ici S[ikii'. 
Ha roadiad Seville in 1&23. He waa romired at 
court wllb diaClnj(ui»btr<l futour. and obtained a oom- 
minion beatowing; cm him tho ri^lit nf dlaoorery and 
cun<]neat in Peru, wiLli the rank kikI tjtto of );ovcmor 
and caplaiii-jteiiecal uf llio provintw. Rninna m amall 
forco in Spain, he reoroueil tbe Atlantic flu ISSd), 
and n«xt year aailed from Panama at the bead of a 
■mall (orci^. Takln|; adranta^ of a dril war then 
ruLiIn^ ill tliat country, the ^jianlaida became tba 
alli<e. and orvntually tbs onslavan of Atahualpn, 
or AtaliAlifiA, aa he ia varinnsly called, the rcdpiing 
iuc», 1 readicTviualy aeiziiig upon Uie peraon of tbu 
monarch at a friimdly haBr|a«t to wfaicb tb«y bad 
invited lutii and bis whole court, tbuy flrvl com- 
polled blm to purchasu, at an enonnone prin'. a 
(omporary reprieve from a di-Ath tvhii h tlirv Iiaii dr- 
bonnuKxl he should evcntuiily undcrvn; and having 
•ucceMtvl in eKturtlng froin blm. it b mid, a h<iiiau 
full of the nrvdoua metaU by way of ranaan. after 
a mnck trial for a prcK^nddl ct>n*|>iracy, conticmiicd 
him to be bunicd, aU/iwioK liiuj to be fuvt ntnuiijled, 
na a reward for becoming a Christian. Tlie news 
of their niwcai bnni^t » eonsilerabU accoaaloB cf 



108 



PrZARHO— PLAC 



•trauBth frvm Emvpo to tlia Invi,(3«n: nnil PUimtu, 
in M<ler to oonuUtbU hii eiD|>ire. founded, bi 1&35, 
tho dty of LimA, which he fobciLilod aa tbu c&pitAl of 
bin jHHwaairiru; hut thv (li>i--nT<) whii-h had Iiing cix- 
htvd Iwtvreisi Aluumi^ nnil I'iznrru nt Lw<t brvkcvut 
Into open Tiolenoe. nnd In the alru^gte which enoucd 
Almngro, now id hie ae^'enty-fif t>h yviur, wma i^ercfttcd, 
btlum [niKmar, niiil strui^lvd, by KortiMiila I'iiarm, 
brolhsr to the t.'ciieruL Ttii* caUtlrMpbi.-, wUcli tuuk 
|>Uco iD 1S37, was avenged four yun nftonranls by 
Ibe MS ot tho (rictim, uid boftring the iimi;c iimeikc, who 
bkvinij orxvthted a eoniqiinMiy agaioiit the deitruyani 
of hit father, broke Into ue palace at Lima, and 
afteron obatiaata raaistanao mecMdsd in diu[>iitching 
FtiuicIbco I'inrm, '2ntti Jtinti, 1611. It in itnixiMiblo 
to rttf UJM to thin mi runtunar (ho crmlit of «)UaidHni.ble 
adUtary aa well oa poUtioal talent, though the one 
im AiUicd by his eilmino barbarity, the Dtbor by 
UamrTidv ana bRorblnN diiwiRuUiinn. 

PIZAKRO, f!oSKA1«, hnitlmr ut llio jjpecmlliig 
by llic same fathur, but an'tthor niuthar, and alau 
illci^tiinato, VM Iwm at Trnxilln in IS02. Ho 
iLoTDiii^ituiird bia linrtticr <m his Kcoand viiit to Peru 
in l.'iSl. lu iiarly life be had aignally diatbguiMhod 
himiwlf oa a aoldier, and vban bo nwhad ths New 
World ho vroa acknowled^vd to be the beat lanco In 
IVrii. His talenU were exclusively tUoao (^t a guer- 
illa chief, aa ha wanted tlio military and cini capa- 
city of hi> Dldcr brother. Tn iStO )ig wiw afniointod 
by FVanciaiM gavwnar of tjuiti:), and he waa airctfted 
to iiudiurtake an ekpcdltJon towarda th<t raat, whore 
n Liit'I aiiji^xiMid tn b* eitiTinely rich in niicea waa 
ruiM^rtud tu liv. At die bead of 350 Spnuianla and 
H)Oi} Imtlan aoicfliarieB ho eat out on the expedition 
iti'roM Uio Aniir-N, wlucli rcaultcd in the diacuvery of 
t(iK hiisd-tintPTB of tho AiniUDU, and tha dtamnt of 
tiint atruaiu V< iho ucvnu by Fnuiciaco de OieUano, 
ODD of hlB officon. Tho cxpMhtion oocupied two 
yeara, and ao thinned the ranka of the adventitnen 
by ita hankhipa that only «i|;hty Siwoiaitlfl and tbe 
half of Che Indiana r«Aiimed to Q^Iol Aftor the 
BManainaticiu of Fnuii:ucn, Qouanlo r^sed an arniy 
mill ndvauwd ujxiu. Lima to attack Diaaco XuRaz, 
tho now and unpopular v-itwroy avnt out from Spain. 
Ho wna warmly anpported by tho bulk of the cuto- 
niatdr and many uf the royal tro<i|)e. On llio INth 
•Isnii.u-v, l.'i^'^ a l>aU]n tivik ploiii ni-nr IJiiito, in 
ivhii^b NuRoz wain dufvatvd uiid iiUiu. }iut iii thu fob 
liitviii^' year IMxarro waa attacked by an lumy under 
roifodo la Gaaca,wbo had boon tent frnm Spnin, 
invextsd with tfaa powvra nf tho aoveraipi. After 
•evvrnl v»count«n Pisarni was deserted by many uf 
hla followcra, and waa oventaally defoatfid, taken 
}iriiH^r>rr, nnd bnli^aded (1648). 

riZZH'ATU ^Italiao, contracted ji*—.), un uijinM- 
dlon fp'.'iiui.-ully met with In loijaio for iuatrmueiita cf 
the violin kiDd, dgnifyintr that the notee over which 
It ia placed are not to be played by tltci bow, but by 
twilcbinji tlic atriii^r* with the iiugim. A rrtuni to 
the ordinaiy mode at playing with the bow u mnrkod 
by the wnnla ml arm, afUm contracted e. a. The 
pixRoto in nfton emplojrod in aoconxpanlmcnta, and 
baa a piquant ifultar-IIke effect; fine examplw nf thla 
are the aooonipatdtaeDta to lh« romasra aiin^ by 
Cherubino in the NoKie di Figaro and in tho aerauwln 
in Don (iiovannt. On the viuUiucdlo piuiitaU) paa- 
aaoM have a iP*^, meUnchnly, and stco patlictio 
e&ot, and are oeeaclQDnlly taat with iu tho vymphw 
ikiea cif Beethoven and tlie openui of MevetMBr. 

PLACE. L*. See L*rf jlCE. 

I'liACKNTA, tir ' Ain-1'a.aiJiTti,' tho ■tnietuiw 
whk'li, iu the higher Maniiniilia, connecla the fui:tus, 
or onbnm ombry o, with tho circnlntiirti of the ni other, 
and thiia |mividca f^ir ita diii; nutrition, and for iU 
iai|>iralioa alau AltliouyL Iho |ilaceul«, aa auch, 



and iu iu niutt tvpl<^ (arm, ia aalr met with ta the 

devolupuient of tha higlwr W""™— '■% eertaio analu- 
gi'ia atntrtiimt appear to exiat ia eenne^m with 
tho cIciRlci^iiDcnt □( the ruuiij; of aome ajiMAca «# 
.S)iark« aud l>iu-fiHb(->«. Tljua in connfvtion with th« 
embryoa of M^mdui and Care^riai (baUiUsinE t" 
tho nrdrr KlajnnohraDcbii] a mdinwntnry ntaoiata 
ia ilevcloped by tba w&lli of th« nnibOKM veaxk 
beciodui; fobWd or plai;«d, and by tbwe t6U» tntot^ 
lacing and uniting with others dev«b)p«d Irom ih« 
wnll nf the KtniM cnvitiM. 'Hie vUri, «r wanbi, 
in thinm tikLu are fonui^d by the dOatod cnala of the 
oviducte; and the uterioo cavities open into the 
daara, or chamlwr conoiciD to the lemiinationa of 
tliedigeativo,urinary,ande«aerfttiTesy«Unt. TboM 
fiihea, buwevttr, it la to bo noted, not only ia their 
dovQlopmeutal btitory, but alio in their atraotural 
rRlatinna, diSer widely from the other orders <d their 
clou. 'I'he placenta of theae liabea olao diffon froa 
th» true pinoent* of Hamtnalia in bnn& devcbi|K3d 
from tbe tivMiicai rratdr. and imt, aa will pneently 
be explained, from the fi/J<tn/'''i*J and fAorion. oa in the 
majuriLy of Mauitiuilia. Tbo loa'cr Mamnialiu ofs 
tiimie^l implamitict nr ajJa^mliil, from their walitin;| 
a pIiK-unta, niul in con trad lit iiictiDii Ut the I dg ber ev 
plartntal inatnuiala. Theae lower niaiumals int-hid* 
two orders only — tbono of tho Moiioircmat* (reptw 
anntnl by thn Ornithnrhyncbtw and E^dnai. and 
the Iif7vniu[nalia (r^pmcnted by Kancarooa, Opn«- 
auma, Ac.) All other maminaia, iaduaad nadn- the 
name of Monodclphia, therefore, poaaaii a plaonnta, 
althongh in nno or two oaaaa (for example, Sin-uia, 
1>U);oui,ni, and Matiateea] the paitloular /onn of the 
plaoentallon bna nr>t oa yet boca awertahioi 

l}iRvix'ncm cxint in tlie mode nf dAvdopntfit and 
attaohnieutii uf the placonta in the lUHenmt ordrra 
of Mauinudia. It will tend to the claarw ondcr' 
ctuidin^ of tho aubjcct if the human placenta, aa 
preeenting ua with the taent jwrf<Tt type of thai 
(tmetare, bv first coimdend. After uujveynatiDa 
and ireatAtim have been fuUUed aod lina^iBitad 
the upper or Bupt^rSdal layer of the mtieoas or Ihnng 
menitirano of Uia human woml) grawa thicker, be- 
coinoa uiuro vaaculor, aud thua furuia the sieiBhtaae 
known aa the detldua. Ae developowBt ptoeeed^ 
and at a very nu-ly ata^ in ita Imtery, the deodua 
cdutiitaa threefold dividim. I'he layer immediately 
Utiliij; ibe uterine i^vity ** tem>wl the deni/tat i»»w, 
tliia name belui; given to it by I>r. W. Htrnfar; the 
ncond layor, or that directly investb)^ the er>)>riro 
or ovnni, ia nitinud the dedtiua xtiitia; wliibt a Ihml 
layer, naiutnl llie dnidva itr«tina, la dtnlopad 
towarda the base or lower portion of the dMWVA 
rvtIftXA. Tiiin tliiid lay«^r ia to Ijc regarded aa a 
Hjii-dnl j{iD«th til |>art uf Uiv ilecidua vara, aad it ia 
ilev-elojwd iit evpciria] cmuioclion with certain i«i>- 
oeeacs, oi n!l>, wlueh are deTcbj>ed (ram the cAonoa. 
1'ho fharUm b tho ocivering which directly Inveala the 
egg or embryo itaetf. The deddua rrflexa b alao lo 
bo ccnaldared aa developed from the doctdua v«ra, 
and oa a eenenJ outgrowth of that meiuhnute. 

The villi of the chorion are at fiiat looacly and 
aripn-ficially Imbedded in the deddna aeiotiaa: but 
ultiuiatoly ihvy diaappcar from every c>di«r mtlaii 
of the cborionio anrfaoc, and beeooM greatly auA 
(-nj>edally detelujml at the point cf altartiment of 
thn oTum to tho deciilua. Ilie omhryo tiecofDea thna 
fixed and attached to the uterine walla; aad aa 
development prooaedi htood-vcnaeb appear within 
the villi, theee veeaela bei^g formed bim the inaer 
layor of the chorion or «w(£ocAortin>, na it baa boea 
termed. Tbcae blood- v—l i, bj their gradual 
enlargement and Interlaetag witfa ekch otbtr, t£g«- 
thcr with Iho ianooaa of the contigHOU* dMidue, 
fona the or bulk of the Intura pUecata. Toe 



I 

I 



PLACENl'A. 



109 



I I ■imIiiim (I Ihnwtb tod^ fai tha nri^- 
> i i»fc «i J ABd *l O* aHa of th« pUmoiIaI d*nla|>- 
IMO^ b mcAnwliitc being tr«*mcd to iU dcc^ier 
bjafl bf bloHl'VcHMda, ooniutiiig ol arterie* untl 
vda^ woii^ cany blood v> ud ntum it from Uia 
|ilaflant& Thrn ■]«> t>i« (l«ci<IuB tkojct the tiUnis 
: tmd tartbMt from tbn diarian and ovnm bernino ex* 
kvatoj «r calhilar Id nniotun, and ikovr uuoiuroiiB 
, tocnod w'mum, into vUeb tho arteriM and 
lenu nf lb* attfriiw monbruw oocn. The villi of 
Um cborifiD iidwitRtU into tliow rinnaBO, tbs wnll of 
tlw dau bnDC poabed before tb« rdU, In M9 
mtmaat tlM vflu Mid tbo blood or the utonna ortcrica 
iBd valM DMUined in the atanMa ai« brmoght iatA 
•Mlaefc Hui, at kaaly U ona tww of tb« ukhIh in 
i4Ui Iha blmod-nMada of thv mother an brtrn^t 
liilo fdalioo with thoae of th« fotu* tir ambryo— 
Iha qwalioB wbeibvr liimi raacuW oammmtication 
j fcctwara tfaa plaomta and aterua «ibla bdas ona of 
iQcb intenat, and wbidi bai baen varioutlyaafaatod 
Y\j plinloUifiNta. Flaurau Mid otben boltowd that 
bluod-TCaaeli of tha mother and tlioaa of tb« 
■t» oonatuancated witfa toich othar, and that 
tha Artiu tna aouriabed dir««tly by tba para 
1 at tlia pannt By tbs Hunleni and Monro*, 
Wfiabeff aod Mbar jjbyabdogiata, tbii oontinuily 
tbo vaarular ayatemi «as dctuitcl. Tb« nmbilicU 
rhMi wen (onneriy tbougbt lo end in the 
I of Ifefl aiania ««» ahovn by ttaoni to ter- 
■ato in Iba vmUlical raua. Tbav bcliovad tJiat 
Miahu iial blood wa* oouvayod tlinnigh tbn •<>• 
~ 'cttiUaC aftMJea' of \h» ntoru into cdlular 
m, aad punod aoctaa to tba ambryo throio^h tha 
walla of tba nnloGcal vaaaola diatributod to 
|tt>plao«Bt». John Rddbelletodwitb tba Honteni 
IM *■»*••«• of plaoMito-atatiiw veaaab^ and tliat 
■■laiiial aad fixtal lyitaai wan in cemmunica- 
bkAiccily — tbe natanutl blood being aenl into 
laddoal nnnbraoo and Mnuaoi, aad tb« plocmilad 
I apftat Into IbMB ntcfiae itnaaea. Th\s vl«w, 
wilb tbat firat aUtcd, b ttie opinion 
ily adborod to by tba pbymologiato of tba pi«a«nt 
"kI it [a tiniwrtant lo nolo tlu.-M opJnwDa in 
I Id Uw atnictdn aad fuBodooa of tha i^aoeD la. 
Tte fnlly-fonnod btunaa plaoeata oooaiats, there- 
rtomt, at a foilal or embcycadc |«rt, and of a maternal 
|i o»ti«, th« loasMT vmUOag uf atxuoturaa devoluped 
by Um atabno, tba bttarol atmcturva fanned froa 
1 tM liMaaa a tiia notkn-. At tbo end of pr«gnjincy 
attain* a Ibtcknea of alwntt 1 or 1^ inoh, ita dia- 
Wo( S or 6 inclMa, and Its droamfnonofl 
IB Si. la nan H ii tbarafon of a ctHindad or 
r ifaaiwk and man ranJy bilofanlar or muU 
in gauaral farm. It* iutrraal ■tufaes U 
I and oorand by tha nmoion and oboiioo, and 
th«c mambraoM tha nmbiUcal voneb may 
_' ha tnued. Tba ohorlaa ia dfnetty attached 
I tha islcnial lurfaoc of iko placcuta, and pmceMea 
lUa maatbrana dip down Detiire«n tha lobaa and 
Into whkh Ita aubataaoa la divided. Tbo 
b mora bnaidy attached o>«r Ibo chorion. 
ITha o«l«r or alertaa warfat» dt iIm (ilii««iita, or th.it 
fhf which it i> altadiod to tbo walli of tho utsrut, ii 
rhat nraghenod aad CDTored by the deofdua 
It ia noifonD and laval, and the lobea or 
I of tbo plaoHrta ara nm* plainly Tirifala whan 
JariJaa aontfaia la ftHptwd off. F w ia w a c i of tba 
t dip down bctwoen tna lobea on Uiia anr&oe, 
I lb* tlw t fan did oe the inner aorfiMM). Ilia veaaeb 
'^f iiij the lobto of the ■trurtora do not appear to 
I or untta with tboai* i<f n«l8hbDurtuir luhea. 
At blrtb, er nthor dnrin^ tbo proccn of {artarl- 
jjliMi, tha deuidaa aerotina ^alita or ni[itiin» along 
lay«T shicfa baa beea alrcaJy dracriUol aa ticiii){ 
b atnctw*. Th» upper part of tbk meui- 



bmnfl; ^h» nnlaii atul afaorioB, flooadtnting tbo 
taiUH mombronoa; tha reat of tba daddua (vora and 
rrHcxa); and bhe umhitical cord are then caat off; tlio 
c«nneotioii between tbe wail at the ateruM anil thma 
placental sLnictarasbfinfFioTorad by tbo uterine can- 
tractionfi, thi: placraita hffing tbrownoH aa the '•a/tcr- 
birlb,' &It«r the ddld ttaelf baa buen expelled. Tbe 
dtofttfr liiyer of the decidaa aorotina, bowoTsr, it 
retninod for a longer or shorter pcrioil, but appous 
]:railiially to hf. diachiu^rl from lbs woiub with the 
usuid {tar/iial) diM.-barKo which follu«'> (.mirturilion — 
thin decidua undgrgoing fatty dogniurrmtion. WhUit 
the new mucctna or lliUaif membrane of the uterus, 
wbloh has been developing during; pregnancy, vBontt 
tho place of the cast-<iff (ioti'iiiiK and atlaina ita per> 
feet structura by having that portion of ita curfaoe 
which vttM oci:iii [liod by tbe plaeenta gradually f cnned 
and complcti.-d. 

Snob ia a brief rvriini/ at the formattoD and fitnc' 
tional darelopmciit of tbe pJjiccnla in man. This 
atmotara in man, from ita tnateraal pottioD being 
eaat oS at Uitb, ia callecl tadufimt or deeiduaU: or, 
from tha degvoa of union formed botweeo tha matar- 
nal and foital onU, it ia termed a coAertnt nlaeeata. 
In tbo Pif ana la other f^oupa of Mammallfti to ba 
proBontlj noteil, tho placentid etnirtiira dilTera in 
important roped* frnm it* tvpc in man. In thme 
lower fomia 00 docidual uemWiUiiM exiat, thu lining 
memln'ane of Uie atama merely exhibiting a grA>t<ir 
vaaculuity, but without devehinng iuto oi*liiict do* 
oidual laycra. ^'ha chorioaio villi trf tho embryo attacb 
tfaemseli'tt ditectly to the lining membnt&e of. the 
vtonu. And tlio villi are further derelopcd nnifonnly 
and iiniirrully over the mirfaceof the diorion— uvo 
at the }ta]^ — and an not nstric^ed to one portion, 
as In man. At Urtb, in tbi« latter caae, thervfore, no 
maternal porta or structnrea of the mother am caat 
off, the Tiili of tbo fecial membnuics being aimply 
withdrawn from the fume or deurevaiona ia tbo 
ntesiae walla 'Xhe placcata in ue latter oaae la 
therefMO aald to be nua-t/fi-vfuofr, cr Hort-faditcaiit, 
at infoktrttO, in onpodtlon to tha cbaracten aom In 
the placontation of man. 

Oa Kureying the hlgbor Miunnudla Tartatlona In 
the rum /emi nf the placinU lii^j be diaMtnod aa 
rtatdting from doriatioM in ■crurtiiiul dirvalapmaiRt, 
rhe QuadniDiuua, Bate, Iiueolivora, iukI ]{>Kl<mtN 
poaaei^ like man, a coko-Uke or 'dlacoidal ' placi-nta. 
In Camivora tlio placenta aadrdaa tha embryo lilco 
a mae or belt, and w hanoa tarmad 'uMuuT.* In lEnnd- 
naota the placenta oondata el detadwd hobaa or rofy- 
tedenj; awm oonaiating ol a groop of naoular aborioiilo 
villi, which are either onnvex, aad are received into 
cnpe 00 thu uterine atirfacv (aa in the Shaep); or con< 
cave, and fit oonvexlilue of the uteru (aalatbe Cow). 
In iha Pig, Horae, Camel k^ ud in Colaoaa. the villi 
otf the oborion prCMtnt a aeattered diincaitian, tbo 
plaoeata ia andi a nwa being termed 'difTnae.' 

Ha orden Blmaoa ()lan>, Quadrumaoa (Apva, 
&C,), InaeativDni (Sfarewi^ Hedgetiogi^ Ilc). Cbeirop- 
tera (Bala), and Bodcntia (Hala^ Uioe, Harm, Puroa* 
[ihiee, kc.) po aa eea a dechluata diecolila] placenta. 
The Camivora (Lion*. Toffv, &«), Pnboocwaa (Kla- 
phattC*), H)-raooidua (llyrnx) poaiem a deddoata 
lODiuy jijai-riita. The I'ujfulata, or Hoofed Qnad- 
m|>»rla (llorw>. Ithinecera^ Tapir, llimxipnlaiuua, 
Fi^, Ruininaata, Ac) poMeaa a aoB-dee£diiate pla- 
eenta. which ia edthar 'dlffuw' or ' eot^adoaatr.' 
11)0 Catacca poaaoia a plaecaU agiMiag u alrootwe 
with that i4 tbo UnguLala. Tim plaoantatino of the 
SirMiia (Dagooge and Mana teo e) ia unkiiowo; ana- 
logy, however, would lead oa to eoacluda that the 
plaoenU of tbeae forma agreea in form and atmrture 
with that of the Cataeea. In tba order Kdeotata, 
tejwaeaated by Slotta. AnuAlhia, Ajit-eal«fe, Pan- 



PLACENTA — IXAGIOSTOML 



gtUm, Ac« tW plMMrtAtiM vsiio, Ik Uug ImuJ 
uamtUmm <m Ib Kuli) to U iUIdm aad m»- 
4mIAmM: is lb* SokK to >» oo^Wmmh <&<»• 
deddnatef); mkI la Orjet m naat or Iba Capa Ant- 
wtw. to ba deehhato ud dtioBwU. (In » iwent 
BSBdr b]r PnrfcBor Tmwr of Edlabotflt, piUWwd 
in Iha TruMctioiH of the Bojal Bodetjr of Kdin- 
bv^b, vol. xxviL, Uhi |ila«CFBtalion of Um Two-tood 
ttlnUi (CUvpM i/:tfMa*«0 b •bowD U spproMh 
diady to tbsl a< bub ud thcao deeidaMa t"— ""*■ 
pwoeMing a (Ikcoialat [iUimsU. The plAcent* i* 
iWofun diaodbl in BbApa. Mitl vnUrrud ■tructorea 
M« Uumm off at Urtli akms witb tlw ftHal miia- 
InM.) 

nfl/uartiMM (i< the mwc p«a{cct placMtta, or Ua 
iBikgiiMa ia loww Conna, an cleariT tbuM af aaUb- 
lUiing ■ wwrmntfilcttfac bttwaa tlw blood or vaa- 
onlar ajMana of tba ntocbv and Uw tmbrjo, with a 
tI«W to the dno nntriUao of tiw latier. It i* ll>i> 
tnnBMtion, In iU raUtion to tba kogcr i^Hutl of 
imWJan in vivipanui aaimali, whicfa givw vo tu«h 
icnoB tbetr Ucn nprodocttre chatactenL A ooa- 
UiMial UlBow of nuUvaal and of fn-tol UooJ is cun- 
tinoallj taking |daoa in tbo fiUcaotal itnicturw; tlia 
■tocuDty bmnivr, mnaioioc dkUiKt and Miwiatcv 
alllKngk thnni^ tho ihfai nmnbranoua walla of tbe 
Uaod-vtaMli Mftaralbtg ttia two cnTTcnta oa intcr- 
dtanga of maUiclab fa pcrfactJy caUbli^al. New 
nd tnth Datrltive maUer fa ihna eo«T«]'«d to tbo 
£nliBwwUMthoaff«uprodscUa<Uu«nbrji>an In 
film evCTctcvl tUioueb Ibe matenial i^rtrm. 

PLACENTA, ialwtanj.adawaloproentaf ceUuUr 
tiaiao foniM«l at agmo point of tbe fauwr olile of u 
mimI, to wbich tbo otoIm an attacbcd either im- 
aamatelv or ttjr umUlical onnia, llie iiait (4 titr- 
carpal wWe tb« placanta Is foruwd U tlio inuvr or 
wnttml ratoro^ raRMpoiidlBK to tba marglii of tbo 
folded GMMllarjr leaf : while tbo ontar or donal lutura 
ootTHponoa to tba tnldrib of tho oatpellaij leaf; tbe 
idaowta U benoa «<nuL-tiiue« called mari^naL llie 
plaonita la fomod on «ach luar^ of tbe carpel, nud 
ia tltorefcm caaentlallj doul'lo. Vt'htn llio pwtil is 
ftinned hy oub rnrpul Uie iiitipr nior^ni ntiiti! in tlin 
ail>, and uiiinily funu a cuiuuiou pl&oeuuv M'tilt^h 
nujr •Eland alon'^ tbo Mbolo maj^gin of tJ» ovary n» 
far at tlM btat of t)ie •uiu. [>r It nutir ho oonflnod to 
tbe baMorafwxogily. \V)icu tbe |iiitil fa npocarjuotui 
llliat id, oompo^d of oevnal aaparato oarpala) taers 
aco Ifciicrully KC|<arat« iilaccntoa at cacfa of their 
inaryini. In a i^noarpDiu piMll, on tbe other biuut, 
Ui« uarpela am ao luulod that ih» edgw of «m.-h o( 
tho oontlguotia cinca by ttinr iininn form n iridium nr 
dif»rpiiatni, aud the iiuujl.<ur <.•( thvm t>;\iUi cuumc- 
ijnoDtly in'ticabM tha nuiiit>or of corpiils in tho cuvi- 
pound pi«til. \i\ten tlin iliinr|iiini»it« viUinl to tlio 
oantTB or ilxw tli« civnxy !■ divided tut« mil* ur !ih:i]- 
laiucut*, ami may be bUoviilar, trilocuUr, ur mulli- 
ioculu-, noconiiti; aa it ia formed by two, thno, or 
iiinny rjupol%caohc)3n«s|>ondtnx toaMii2loc«ll. In 
thLiw caaua tbn inar||1nal plaotntoa mevt ui tbe axia, 
and unite ao aa to furm a dnjjla oontral onn Siiiuo 
rail tliU plaonttatioD 0X4^, but tbia term ia pockapa 
]iriiji«irly rontriirtod to cnacti wticre Uiu |ilacenta ia an 
actual pruluii|[atl<in of tbe axfa. ^Vll<f■l the carjwU 
lu naynoarpcua pletU do not fold inwanla comptatoly 
r<) AB to moot in tba oootro, but only partially, no 
tliAt tbo dfaaefiiuiauta appear aa prujeouona oh tbr 
walls of tbe ovary, then tbe ovary ia untlooiilar, uid 
tbo plaoontBi aro parittat, llui dictiucUou of Mxilo 
and jiariclal fa of gnat boportanoc, U cbaractArlsin^ 
dlRoncut uuluial urdi-ra. 

I'l.ACKT, or i'l.AOcrra Rkciijh, tb» rigbt Wlong- 
inir to tbo goTcminff body of a alato to bo inlormwl 
>if utl impATtant ooolbslaatlcal roijulatlnna and alb^m- 
tiuKi, and give tlncir tandion tbereto, ur vriUibuld it 




it the lalattMa of tka state daMnl tL In Eui>]>mii 
hkocy «i lad lUa i%fal SMN fra^BHdy antviaed 

fo coMwcticn with Paptl baBi, hMa, or edtcr lii- 
■tntnwnta which. w«ra obna ri o t to tbe gavcrnment 
of tba eooatry or opaoaad to tba apint of ita law^ 
U ii woU known that in rirtaa of tbeb poeltion 
and tbo aappor t they (ave to tbe tterdi tib cariy 
ChifaUaaampacandaaiadlbaprivilagKoi kgwlat- 
Inc on aBElirtaatlaa aattota; and daring tha ndddla 
agw tha popaa had IraqMOt cnnaa <ar eoaplabt that 
tbdr free IntoeoaiM wtt thtlr chnrt^M waa ooa- 
•idenbly reetrktod by tha aot a i al gna of aevocal tttvn- 
tliM. It waa laid down aa a princtpie hi tba t n-itfaa 
of W»ti>h>U» (Sttb October, 14iS) that IIm will t4 
tbe aovetrign of tbe staU itwq— aaiwl final whbn 
hfa own ttnitor; in all matfaw << taligion. TUa 
daini waa vnfcniad by tba fownnaaita of P r u aiia, 
Jbubn, SaxnAT, WnrtembMx, 8aaa-Gotha. 8aJi*- 
Wdiaar, aimI olba Gcnnao ProtMlant and C^atboUe 
atotaa; but wan pmapd nuat utrinpnUT I7 Joaeptl IL 
of Auatiia, wbo tii^ofnnly forbwk tba pubbcatim 
ot all Pap^ balk, biiti^ and miililwHunn. and all 
Um ocdiMnoaioC Iho loenl bUuMi, urtfl they had 
baao anb jactod to Ua rerfaion. TImik dnina hava 
been natnrally obooxloiaa to tba Uooian aai^ and 
ban baen and itUI art tba caoao «( madh waiom 
diajmto in Gcmany. 

I'LAC'OID KUALES, a variety of acalcatnTfirinc 
tbe budi«a of tbe EbucniobraiMbiaM flab« (Sbarks, 
BkatM. Rays, Ac.) lliaaa atnctana gcnsnlly oob* 
Mat nf dctachcsl l«ny nlatca or gmina, not aet doaely 
tojCoUier, but diipiMed in a Mattatvd or invgoUr 
vuoQvr ovi;r tho aldn of tbaao Bahw. IW larjf 
or plate like placoid acalea generally peaaaai a ifaae 
which ritc» frum tlie oeatnof the Bade, aucb aatruo- 
ture being well aoeo, for axanqtlc, in tba HwmbMk 
Hay (Jtaia daraia), Prwfaaanr Agasuz, who pmpiaKd 
to daaaify fiahca by neaaa of tbe f wtu of their acaleik 
gave to the KlannobnnchU tbo nana /'^tMBidt^ fan 
tbe natura of ilia body-oormins. Plaotrfd lubirriai 
oucur in a foasU etato in tba Uppor Silurian nt^ 
thfM cptdennnl foMib being referred to tbe g e w w a 
TIwIdJub and Spliaijudua, which funn tlio carltMt 
tuiuuii exAinjilta bf L'Ui^iDitcimona tiidmL (S«a l*Li- 

UIOHTUHI.) 

1'I<A(iAL, in initidc, thr ramo jrfvoi W Greffcrf 
tbe Grral to the irnir culUtrml acnlca wfalob he addeil 
to tho four antb»ntic sr.tl«<» of Anibroaa. fS*a Uns- 
i}()R)Atr ToKN.) Tha icna placnl fa now q^cd to 
niuloilica In which the ]«indpal aotea lie betwatn tba 
fifth ol tbu kuy mill iU ocUva. Tba placal cadence 
ix>riii>it« of tbe chord of tbo mbdotninaut Mlawed by 
tbnt bf tho tonic. Soe Ttfraic. 

I'LAtilAKISM. Sw> PLAanm. 

VLAGlOiSTOMr. a nub-ordcr of GafaM c< Uw 
nniRT KliuuiubmuoLiJ. Ilio Plut;ioatoiDi |'traaav«vMf 
mouthed') aru rvi>teiiciit«d bv tbo SbarW, Rays, and 
t^katca ; the Riib-orilur bcin^ difitingntshed by tbo 
li4HLii.-rt <if tbp vortcbRT being dthcr biinj or at any 
taUi I'ouULlnin)! uMeuua elenienta. ^Hm akull fa of 
gristly or cnrtlbminnin material, and do« nnt abuw 
n iiivi«iaD into «ciiitrAt« and dutinct cranial boneiL 
'ilu! mouth cxiila in the furm of n tranavetao ali^ 
itiid It aStijutfd un tbn tinJur aiirfacc of ibe bead. 
Kd swioimiuif-bLiddcr exists In this group o< flabei. 
Tho acalosarnnf tlic'plivroiil' vario^, (Soo PUKttTn 
ScaI-CI No oimrtulimi ur Kill-oovcT fa praaent, but 
tlie ^illa (wliiuh in all iLlAxtuLibniiichii ariat ia tba 
fcnnof puucb-likodructuml opvuoacbbyadiniiict 
cleft. In addition to tho ext«raal apertnrca of lb« 
dill-HBica, two tubca o]xiung ou the upper iMpeot of 
tbe hMul by two apcrtiiroa tormod 'xpiraclH,' and 
vbicb lead into tho pharynx or bade pairt uf tba 
moiidi, convey wator to tbo breathing orgatta. I'bo 
tntb are generally numeroue in Pl^iuatotaoua fiahi'^ 



I 
I 



I 
i 
i 



1 




■"^ ■ 



PLAGITM— PLAC UE. 



Ill 



aaA ibm pahto-qnadrata utd unRpctiauriftl cwtilnTOt 
wv MMnte Ukd more spun Uie skull. The tl*gia- 
UMa i lodada this* graaM. Th* Oirtraphor^ i*i>r*- 
amiad Mlal; hy t& cWanpti FUMipi m Port- 
Jaefam Sharii, poam & prominmt sidne (n (mnt 
«f cAob Anal bb; ttie biuJrr tci-tb aro utitiiM-ly 
•bt()ad; iIm teotli w* ivnitgad npon tbo !>«> in > 
iMHiNtod «r pAv«i&«nt-Uk« muuHir; oud oy tneaii* 
vt Am deaUl ^ifiMMDi the Malliuca Mid CruaU- 
mna oa which thU furm fc«ils ftra cnwhod *bJ 
Imkan np. lite SeUcbii, fomiing tho miciiiliI irn>tir> 
taotnd* tb* Slwifca uid Dog-fiabai. Theae funns 
■« dlnlntidilMd bj iIm bmwliiftl apertnrca or gilt- 
HMUnea Mtir tUualbA an Uic aidca nf the ticck. 
7a« pc«tanl Obm mn iilaced, u in tbe Kenenility vf 
Mhb, od tba WvMt; aod tLo boiljr U uf eltinKii.ted 
>lu|ML TIm iMt groop of PlifffoiUmious IuLm is 
IbM of th* BaUdca, nwroentcd by tho HkatM, Itijra, 
and Skw^fidtM, hi whlcL Ui» ctQ wmiuna exUt on 
tb* TMiUkl or Ivwor surfaeo of tbo Dody bokiud Ui4 
tMOlk TIm body fa flMUned fram tbw down- 
ward*. Ha cnat breadth beia|[ prodnoed by the lam 
aba o( tba peciorBl or brawt iba, which meat In 
fruBt 1119 toU ia cf alander Qoafonuation, imd 
oiaaily famemm two or more donal fim, whikt It 
May bear apinotu pracaaaca of f aiiout kind*. Tha 
■OQth i* pTuvided with flat rhonihoidn] tcntli; tho 
«VM and mraclea ata botiw cm tiie iip|K-r »*p<Mt of 
tW kaad, tha DMtrUa httog altuat«d od Uw reDtnd 
Nrfaee Wltb Uta nontli and gilt apertures. Seo alao 
SAW-naK. SBAkK, BXATX, Rat, tc 

PLAUIUM, la tha Itonan law, U the «ritii« of 
Maalintt tba ikva <rf anotluir, or of kidnapping a fr«« 
ncaoai 1b order b> loaka him a sIaw. Accnnling to 
b«naaa law it ia tho getting furciblo ;ia>wa»ii>n uf a 
■■■'a panon, an aa to Kalrain blia of bl* liberty. 
fiy SaoWb law tbu «ziia« of atcaling^ an adult panoa 
ifi^fH froiMw) waa piuUuHe vitk dtatb, uid the 
mmim pMnbhim-iil baa bean appliod to the atoaling of 
cUdnn. Tba waid baa Rlreii oHftn tu the term 
' fda«<ar£(a, naed for tba act of atealug: tho Uioui^hla 
•M anicd* of aaotber by publtabia;a> Un^m na ana'a 
«WB. IlKiariaa, tbou|[b oftaa [irtMitMH), la not 
•ahwqveittiy cbaiiad wkara a aaeood iavcDtloii boa 
tak^ plaoe, idaoa tba nuat rtrlkbif fenrct^ ftf in- 
ilann\ at* tboae wludt an moab UkelV to «a)rgart 
tba— wltri to a varicrty of penuint. Tbo bleu uf 
nMay an tba nnt% of a dtj. and lookiua into tho 
latariwof Iba bDnaaa, oaed by Qnerado and La Sitm, 
mlAt caaDy oocnr lo a penoo nnacqnalatad wTtb 
thJtx wcwln. Such repvlitiDruiof oounw b«Kiniji* nwre 
■Bd nora Ulwly in propuctloD aa tbu nuuibcrof booka 
ami adueatcd in«D iocrannea. 

PLAUIT K, a dueoao rhkractcrinad by a oontflf^iouB 
tt-ph?;* 3n<] uDtir* imatnitirai at the atrangtb, aixl 
■--i] ayniptMQt, ad bul>o««, carbunuEtai, and 
' ■ Iprtediiit). Tbu laCtt'r arv in thi« connec- 
CKm tas pvctdiar chanutcriatiai of the plague, einco 
Iba fEnaar alao apfvar in olber malionant dijeaiea. 
la tW ba^nia^ tba patient {renerally exmrienoea 
fmrt Dcolal dajcttion and df^hility nf boiiv, Bltgbt 
«MIIa allcTBMin;; with licila, wliiirb ^re nfti;rwud« 
a«aaa«dad by a tumiag limiL within luid a beaviDnu 
abeol dw brad; thm folliArs Btiiix>r; ibe cyca anj 
gUclaf^ gfatod, or wild uid itfnrklin^': the faco 
afpewa whiUah and livid, find iba pnlimt ii melan- 
cboly, wtmm, or anaioiu, Tiuiit and deliriona. In 
■nay «waca naiiaen and vatuitinK ««vur; tlie ihinrt b 
•upMichaUBk tba totunw reddUh or yellAwiah. the 
Hwadi iadiatinfC lu tlto vtr^jntvt of the diat^-Mc tba 
Imw eflen bocnmea nd, tbc ruqitiBtinn i]iiii:k and 
mum^, ud UliMU, Kr«eo, or bl<.«dy and black 
■■Ibir h voBDitad. The deltriom often beromca 
ftma; tba tniiw la aontetlUM turbii!. hUok. n)>iii»h, 
^ Unodj; and betnotAafaa take placo wlicn dcati) 



doca not iinnicJUtely cruuo. Buboes a|i|ictir in ibo 
graiija, tbo orrnriita, tho p.unCiiU, and other placaa, nilh 
carbnncUu, unci imaUiwhite, ycUfiwij)i,or Llaclcaputa, 
uvcT the whule body. Tiiv fpar, aiiiioty, and dcapatr 
whicli seize tho psiii^tit with the first a|<pt<nnu<.-e of 
the pln^im itioTvoM th<i ihuijrtirof UitnliitoAfic. |)eatb 
in numy nuc< takvn pUce iiii the fiivt ilay. and fr^ 
quently in e. few houn aft4ir tii'n appaajmnoa^ but 
aometiniua oot till tho Hcond, tLinl, or avan fifth 
day. II u conaidored favoorable it the buboas and 
carbnnolea appear at the aame tiioc, aw ircry numer- 
oua, uid tt'nnlnale in imppiinitiQU. Tlmy eillicr 
torminato in BUppBralion, or bc<ouuiu bduraled. tm 
hcSkltni, or ciit ont. 

In recant to tha uiiKbi of tbo plagiit, and the 
loaijuvr in wblcb It la coiumuuicatod. very dllfcmit 
opiiiiun d havo Ixwn cnt«rtainvd, n^fionilnj; to the itate 
nf ini:<lii:nl ■di^nar. In cuuly tioiea, when cniamttOlM 
eveuti^ tlie cauaei uf wldch wcra not iinderatood, 
wera attribntad to ipirita and deniuna, tba ptagna 
waaKlaoaaoribedlatn«irinfluvDC& At a later paTfi>d 
it waa aoooimtad for by c]]fLn>>c8 iu tho air, poiaonona 
vapoiUB wbld) daacaaidod f mm tho atmonphen^ or to 
cloudaof inaects which werv n^ylvuU lutu the body 

SinapintioD, or fai the food, or by abaorptioD thTDUg;!! 
9 akin, and tbua cofmpted tba blood. I'bynicinn*, 
according to the londancy of their theories, (<iund 
tbo coaae is tho oxceaa of aulphnreoua nutter in tbo 
Idoad, or In lu eoa^latloo or naolution, kc. Many 
have conaidcred it aa not crmta^iH; at prMent mont 
havo Ik«ii conviuocd by experieiioe of JU wuiUgiuua 
eharacter. 

lite ptagne la n Bpc4iiAo dlaeMa^ and ou origJiMka 
of itaclf only in ocrlain oountoieiL It OfOean to be 
unktinwn oitbtn tho tropica, and i!ba eold weRth«r 
uf liii;h lutitudea baa been obaorvad to check Ita 
adrauoe. la Kuropo tha lato imniaer and aatumn 
nmnUia ba*o been martied bj fta doadUeat tava(^ 
Hot weather, bad air and food, and SlthltHwi favour 
it* pTodtictlDn and propagation. I'he imtun of the 
diacjM aoenia tu oonaiat in a diuiinutii.iti of tlie vital 
anorgy, wliich may ba ao japid and nnivmal that tlio 
oumpument parte of the ayvU-m, parliculiuly the blood, 
loae their aatnnl propertiea and become comiptod, 
and life ia deacnyad Mfora tbc ttrrvoua lyittjn la 
mHa lo connleraot tbc <A«cta. When tlic proKma 
* of the diiH^A*!* in nrit au rapid, tho vital eneiyy wliloU 
rvmaiju ia oxliaostcd by fcbrilo oxcitvmnita and local 
inllanimntion. llJMWtiiinii have Khnwn co1lo<Hinna 
of ciuij(u1:it<nl or dei'uuJpUKd finiil, liUi-'k llnod, ij]> 
flammatlone of lar-,;^ portloua of the aUn, and ear- 
boBcloa in great anmberb The buboaa diadiatEo 
an cAentive matt^-r, and eitend far inward, llie 
cubiincl«a wbidi precede tbe appToacli vf dLntli, and 
miitaii) dead part*, alao generally reach ilcrp In h nrdH. 
Winn naltire pwaBlita attfRckni vi^^>ur, the inllani- 
mttlotis ua cm the aUn rather than In the inti rinr, 
'Ibe bubnM aoon tarminata in auppnralion, and the 
carbimclca wbon cut diacfaarp a laaa comipt maltiur, 
and fall olT. The fever b oarrlcd off by a vinlent 
awrat: the recovery la ainw. Whpn the diieasu b 
nanplRtoIy lUv-nlopod it in highly cnntaipnti*: bi thin 
are uu'ing tbo trrrihle dei'aitAliuna which It ■'■dm*. 
From the fact that tha grot iiMJority, if U'Ft tbo 
whole of tho«e oetahtialunenta, oa nnnncriea, hoKpitala, 
ftcL, which hare taken the precanllun bi cut off all 
oouuDUolcatlon with tbair plagua-atridcen nalgblMuan 
have aacapad tha diieaait It haa been argued by nuwy 
antheritlea that diteot oontaot with a pMlonVa peiaaa 
or hill dothca ia ntCBMaty to owumiiileaia IL 

I'hera ia little drmbi tnat tba plagna appeared In 
tbc neat anient timat, patttoilarly where a numcr- 
ona papnbulon waa erowdad tc^etber la Uw -vmnn 
climatM; but we ainat twt ccnaider aicry diM-aMi aa 
the plagve which haa been ao oU«d by biattaiaia^ 



112 



PIAGTTK. 



M thoy often mma hf tho Urm Adthlnff inor« thfto 
a n»ligiuu)t dinonliTr pruvsiUit^' iiknr n imuiilpnibk' 
«st«iit o( oirimtry. Aiumij; Um tuuat fiuuuua iuttaucea 
U tb« ptagM dMcribod Id bo maBtvrly a mauaor iy 
lliacjrdidoi, whicb. in tho ttunl joat oF thn I'nlnpon- 
noaiai) war (■(SO B.C,), ntvpi;^] Athenx, Ibcii b«iBf;ed 
bj the SportBUsi A lartro uumliur vf the iohatltants 
of Attica hbl fl»3 into tho city, l-'oar, tinxioty, triuit, 
or ti.ulii'^ii* >if |>rr>viniiiii. iiiiii th<> i^irTii|ititn n( th« 
air caiukJ by the crou'i!i-tl ulatu «1 tlio ]«i|jiiliili<iii, 
produwd aii4 propa^att-d the )>li>;,iis iii Ui" city. 
I>eath gmiMtt]}/ cnsac-d ou tlio toventb or ninth day, 
Tlie pl^^O in J«nualeni \a.Ti. 72), yihta It wu 
bui^ail by the B4ntiui*, I* il««crilwj by JuaiiiLiin. 
In iiama th» nluaa osbtsH (a.h. 77) in tJio raign nf 
VmpiwLai); cl Mareiu Aunliui (170), when it nL^vil 
evtr aliDoaC all K^inM and Aala; of C^mmadua (io 
]9tll; and partknUaHp of Oallli^nua (En 2(i2), nhcn 
6000 ponnu ani niid to haw diitd daily in Kvisti. 
In OaiiitantIonftl«^ In tlio le^fD of Joititiiab (in 61i>, 
lb rag«d «□ %ioU'utly tbat lOilO grare>di([g<m arc aoicl 
to haoo l>o«n inniKici^oit for tha Intarnmit of th« 
deiut Tbia terrible plaffuo oontiuucil its ravasoa for 
fifty y(».in with but uort Int«n'als, In A65 it 
apiN-'iicvil undar the namo of jkiiU in^uiiMtrta Jii 
'J'ri^viHi; in f>8-^ in Marwilka. In thn Bnvnnth r*n> 
tury it wa* iu Snvouy; in 823 tt ijrwvaileil all ovur 
.Qnnnany, and fnvin b7S tn BT7 was partioiilarly 
maHguant iu Saxony and Mi«Dia, a« was atwi tho 
coan in tKI. In tha clotvtitb nentiiry it broko out 
Ja Germany at l«aet nix tlnitw, tuu*tlyaftnrur duriuK 
a famine, and nig«cl with bo much violcnca that it 
wu bvlioTod that all inankiad waa ditnmci) tn hi^ 
■wii|it away by IL Tbia unfortauato belief preveiite<l 
tbo taking of vSeotiial iu«anB to check It, and apatliy 
in luffarinf^ ma oonaidorRd na an act of pkty. In 
■nmn caaca, however, the ilitwx were •imjici^tcd of 
havlDK |K>iBUii«l tho wolli^ aa So a time nal very 
KiudUi thu HuiiL'&t'Ean po&antiy Biu]ieoteil tiie no- 
bility, nhva tU« dtuleru murbua «w«pl away >o many 
of tha poomr olamaa In tho twelfth contory tha 
pUiTua prevailed in Germany nbovo twenty-fivu yearv. 
lit the thirteenth ccntnrt- it woa bronfiht into Eampo 
by tbu Cnwaduni, Ftui'u 1S47 to 13&0 it traven«d 
all KiiTiiM', iind wiu then c»11m1 tha hIarJc dtalk. 
SiiiDo that liniu it lian never ra|;ixl with to uiui-h 
viioleiioe. Boccaccio, in the introduction to hia Deca- 
tUMOii, haa eivm a rivid deirription of its piiymcal 
and moral cnecta in Florence in 13JH. In thu latter 
balf of th« Kftveuth century ft raved lu all Euri<;K!, 
KBd wia aceampAniad with tha infct terrible Eutler- 
ings. 'rhc hiBtoriana of that time ^vo thn niioit 
liorriljile (lictimof tUttroa. Iu thu «ixtpru.tln»ntury 
the plaguo nesin ra^d, and in 1543 wa» inlmduotia 
into Kn)fland by the rvtom of na Engliiharmy frDm 
tlio Coti.tin«nt. Iliousb Mine moana were already 
tokcu UKHJiut the plairti« — for InBtance, liLuireltua 
built — yot it nugcA in Kiimpa liiiring thitiwivoTitoMitb 
century. In 1603, ll]2S, Itise, aiid IdtSfl it nindo 
gTMt ravagoe in England. In 17*J0 a Lovonlias 
T««ael imported tho |>i>f;iiB iiito MartaiUt**, which 
toon sptmd all over PrDvogoc. In 177L it noaHy 
aureiit off the whnle of tho population of JUoactvw, 
In 17115 and I7Bn it exteiidnt uver tbo ooniilrlu on 
Ui« Turklnb froiitlert, btit was oheckcal by the hIuU 
uf the jihyfjciana. It broico out in 1S16 at Noia, 
a tiiwn in Naplc* itn Uni apjioanmce tn Western 
Eiiniijie:. Il luui nut appearea aa an aijidmnio aiaoe 
IS:L5. whan it iqiread nvar ICgypt and IVirlcBy. It 
navvr visited tlui Ainwiiaan ountnient. 

The ueiBDta ondearourvd to &v«tt the nhwuc ^f 
aaciifloM, tiia duintiana hv pracosiia&a and prayen. 
Tlio anciait pbyalcians b-iM sevefal mode* of treat* 
SMat, ainaos tnem sweating. The rewarchge of 
awdera [ibyAclaai Iuit« given «• % gratMr iaalgbt 



into tlw utw« of tiw dkMM Hid of St* raneaks tluB 
wen poaasMed formedy, when want of ooimi* wm 
qnita as fatal as want of knowledge. PrOrtUtttoM 
ai[:LiuRt contagion, and wlien that Itxa once occurmd 
the arieedy expuledon of tho poiaon fruin lh« ayat^m, 
the diitiinnlion of tha int«roal h flammi tw ti . thu 
proaoTTstion nf the vigour of the arterial blood, Um 
atnaifftheiiini; uf Che norroa, tho pnunotiaa of aiqi- 
piuatian, the leaaonablo iwolation of the cnrbnnele^ 
are the main pi:>inta of the tteatment. Baldwin, 
>:iJEli<Ji conial'KDnem] at Alexandrii^ loooansMnded 
(ITyj) oil friution, whloh baa baon tried, with ancoaa. 
JUring obflorved that tbo nil porter* wen nevev 
attacked, ho condu^icil that olive-oU was a praaerva* 
tiini a^inrt the pbgne; and liia oipeetatiaaia were 
aurpowud by the lavoanUe nwnlta of bis prnrw aa. 
Ab noon as nny iTinptonia of tbo plague are percarvd, 
thn Ix^Hly nf thii pntinttt ia riguruualy and qiurklr 
riblwd u'itli wonu uil, aijd tba patient i* pnt bo berL 
Thia application la f oUowed by a prof wa sweat, wfakSi 
b promoted by elder boa. The Mciloa !■ NfMtled 
oncoor tirioeaday.unttl a violent awent ianrodooed. 
If then an buboea, tb«y mniit In frninently nabbed 
wtA oil until BUppumtion foDowa. 

L>r. Maddcm ^vc« tbo followio; aa the nanhavf 
hi* cxpi^riviico, both in regard to tbo notnre of tke 
diiK-iue, aijd the treatment nS iti — 'I have giTen 
pl&j^e tho naiiio of fyphvt gravunmii*. The wym^ 
tnnm Uraa tho tint are general deblli^, coDgWtkm 
about tho ht-art, not it«pending on inflaatmaticat, bnl 
ou ttie putn«cent atate of the dreulatinn. It diSera 
little from pntrid tyiihua, except In Ita dtuatioa and 
cniptiona. In ererr Btago of plagne nntnn ^ipenn 
to lie pniitrste under the infineaoo of the pniiaBOUS 
miacina; and when tho patient sinka at tut, tt la 
fruro tlie wast of force ui the oomttitviiuti tu drive 
tint the eniptlMia nti the surface. 'I'hu Imbo raocde*. 
or the rarbunole diniiniahea. or neither aiipcar at all 
sxtcnully: but they hart iclud on tin i&tenal 
vital oi^gane, and the immediate eanae of daatth haB 
been ahown bydiwection to have been carfaonclea ou 
tho liver, luui;>, spleeo, or meoentark glandi; in 
■bOTt, it appeals that tha whole glandular antem b 
the seat of the diaenao. I bare aeen all the atffemt 
nviicai (jf plttKiie eijom«rate«l by Rnael and Ute 
l<Vii<')i autlioni, and I hate no hsaitation ia pF> 
nouDcing all lb ceo differant apcvlea of plague tn ~ 
tbo x^Tiiptoma nf one cLua only; and I aaaert 
in Ijut oae JDilicatiuii tofullil, namely, to aaaiat Aal 
to vxpel the imlson liy atrengtbrtiiiiK the exlutiiitrd 
powon of the coiiatitution, and L-nabltak' it to thrvw 
out the mnrbilin matter. Bj wiiat meaaB ta Ihli to 
bo dirtiu' — wboliier by emetioL by purgatives, by 
bleeding, by calomel, by ntovurial nnctiaD, or by oil 
friction T There Es none of tbew meana I hrne not 
trifid, and out of the firat eleven paetwta ao treated 
I luat nine. I ha>l ri.-couTM to another mode ti cure; 
atrong atiniitliuitis Hiifimbia and jiennaneDt, I now 
tried. 1 commcnoed with wuie and bvajtdy the Gmt 
moment I saw the patii.>nt Whsther the eye waa 
BuDuBL-d, the ebeok Rushi-d, and the akin arid, nr the 
low dalinom eet in or not, I wltalaiftend it in the 
following manner ; — The fint dose was a tumUeir of 
bat bmndy and water, about one-third apirit I'his 
anmetimes waa vnmitod, and a^in nvpcotod ; tbr 
Bocond time it uaunlly remained on tJio atoniadi, and 
In the ontiBa of two bouiB It generally prodncail 
peraplraticn, ercn after Jtaatai* powd«f liaid failed. 
JVo nr thn* hnnni after the fint dene another waa 
exhibited, and tha patient wuuld fael leai of the 
buminif pain at the heart. If vomittng anpsr- 
tounI it waa agun repeated, and donng the day it 
waa iKiw given every funr or atx huura, aooraxUnc to 
olnnmutanaea. The luibo«e oomnwnly bereoaed In 
■laa^ and profrue awoating waa cfbaa foUowod by 



lattdV^^I 



fLAICB-PUkyAKIDA. 



iia 



fOtdtia or lltid qtola no Uw diart: wfaoi I mw 
Ikia I ■«> mlwnj* taiv of my p«timt. The •nojud 
dsf I tPMiawiii llw ■tnofUi of Ui« dow: InatMul of 
MM-ttird ^ibik I g*n mv-luU «vary eight houra; 
BO hIcgfctiOB CUM oa, bat » letbu^c drawiliiMa 
«■■ "■— ■*~'" «Doqgh, cooUmiiDK UU llw penpira- 
tka teokv rat, «r (wbuDdoa appe»rwl nxunuJly, 
If oa tb* thini day the p&ticBt 'ww dcddodlj bettor, 
1 k«pt np tbe eicit«in«tit with MroDg* Orpnu wlae, 
ia fraqnoat but miall iluaes of two taUe-ipoonfuls 
•««5 two boura: but if tbo bu] iymptonu war* un- 
abated I toaiiaited to gi«« thu hvt bnudy ui J water 
!■ laanaaad qnautittai till Kine dedded chaagc took 
plaea. Tbia aetiva traatmoDt it waa Mldom aM«*- 
•■aj ta poiana beyond the autb <Ut; fatdee^ in 
ffagna If tha patteot Un to th« alxlfa ilay b« li very 
U^ to raoonr; bat tiM third day b that which is 
Moal lo ba laved. Tb« only other treatment wai 
■aaa or twfea opaainfC the bowels with fiueuiH, for 
potfadvM by tbe taontb do no mrvfee, ud ipouging 
iba body baqnaatly vfth TiDcgar utd wat«r: the 
head waa ocwtently kept acM^ed with toweti di[i|Kil 
la wtmagxr, and the faubwa w«ra poulUoMi with viry 
hat oHMliiM^aiitBriuBllybpt to fvn pain, and they 
WW adawad to bunt ipoataaeoiHly. With thi« 
Inatateat al the nUa «l 76 per oenL recovered, lu 
'^tir'H of "i^ patieata five rscanred, and mine 
at Ibaaa van atanott bopelcM eana whea I \xgua 
■a toaaC then. Kveryuiinf Id pLafne of eminu 
depeoda on early Ireatnuoit, for la a diaoaae which 
•MHOoaly raoi it* eouna ia thraa days then Is no 
■faaa to be bat' 

fLAICE iPlaUna), a gtam of Teleoatean fiahea, 
iadaded in the dirinoo AnacaotJuiii, and forming a 
pl|a«an>latiT« gemu of tbe fuully IMeuToneetid* or 
a»4iUad ' FUt-fidica' It b. however, to be clearly 
iBdantood tiiat Ihoaa fiihea ar« only and tnily /ot- 
1 ^ ibe Mo»a that the »kU3 of the Inly are more 
dun ia other fiahcs. Tha broiid or flat 
I ot the body are nnt the bcwk nod belly, a* 
if OMamonly aoppoeiad. but Uie litUt of the fi«h. This 
Bay ba dUDO&itratad by nuifcing thai tha potrad 
paelaol flia are placed ooo on each m^ aa ia all 
alhar tiba^ Tbe ayea, wUdi carioualy eaou^h are 
eitnalad bolb on on« aide of the bcdy, are thus pUcod 
f ron tba beoao of the head bocooiing twUad, no ae to 
btlflc tta ayea to the one lUe. One aide of tbe body 
la darfcar tliaa tbfl otbar, tbe Us4>t or wUtor rfda bring 
Ibal man which tha fi^ Uea, and which ia u&domtMt 
wban itawtaia. He bead ia thiu uymnnTtricnl. In 
iba Plaiaa tbe eyea arw alloated ou tim riuLt aide of 
tha body, Ibo nearly allied Ttobota pOMMSing tho 
ey«a on the left able. 'Ilie single, long, and coatina- 
«na donal fin in tbe Plaice begin* over the eyc^ aad 
uiiy }efaw the tail fia, tbe aaal fin on tba oppoaite 
la iMliil iniiiiil iif rhiliiiilj liiiiiit iiiiiJIiiIji iliii'iiiiiil 
Bath anal aad doiaal 6m are aomewfaat pohit«d 
t^aardo Um middle, tbia oonformatiun linpartfiig » 
ifcoiboid loan to tha outline of tbo body. Tbe 
naiea iPbttmo mlgwU) attaioi aa avoraga leogth 
J IS or 18 iachea. Tbo dark or upper aide b col- 
parad bimni, apolted widi red or orange; the body 
la uauipaiatii Jy amooth: tho vuitra] fine are aitnatad 
na tta Ana^ and are tboa jagolar in poaitioii; tha 
nottlh leol wudl rise^ aad ptvi^dcd with Bmal) IciAb. 
Abavt Sa^OOO^OOO of I'laice ar* laid to txi luinuiLlty 
aiMMaed In Loadoa alone (Hayhew). llirac li*lio« 
■•• all ' gniuDd-fisbee,' that b, feed sod awim near 
Ifea bottom of tbe ica. They are caugbt chiefly by 
aaaaaof trawl-neta. Hie awimming- bladder ia want* 
Im In tha Flaloe. Tba Flounder* aad Daba an 
*~^-*-* la the Mua genoa aa the Plaice. 

VhAIS (geography), a trart i-t t-ctintry of nearly 
■allaaiB elevatloa. Pliuiia receive a variety of oainea 
Ib dWafant ooosbriaa, aa tttjipn In Ruaab and Aaia; 
Tee> XL 



datrt* in A^la and Africa: aaixinnaj, prairiu. pam- 
pa*, &c., in America. ElovaUxl ]ilalas are ofJlud 
plaUavt or UMflMuU. See tbe aeparata aiticlaa. 

PLAIN •SONG, the name given to the old eocliai- 
aatlcal chant In ita tnoet simple aUte, and without har- 
monic nppendagca. 'Hie origin of plain-aong in the 
cburth b Inat in antiquity, and the mode of perform- 
Ing i* b left to wmjocture, which haa by uo meant 
boon happy in eluddating ^a anbject The carllMt 
notation, which is in note* nf ca|iiBl length and wilti- 
out diriiion, that i> to any, without time or rbythm, 
leavca everything onewtaiii, except perhue the fact 
that it ooidd not hava beam ao pimnned, and that 
tho notation was then probably only an inatle<iu*t« 
ropieaentation of what was orally taught, a mere 
sasiBtaDoe to the moniory of tho pcrfonnar, and not 
on exact rcpreacotatKin of tha points of iht porfonn- 
nnc& The plaln^ong may in some cmiw have hetat. 
uiorely a kind of chant In uniaiin, liiit the practice of 
tho aociont church wu probably not uuifoinu An- 
bmae o( Milan and Gregory tbe (ireat introduoed 
iLvrt&iti irianaa iuto the dnircb muaiL- of their day, 
rvi;)kntins which »w Gkeoobiak To^ks. 

PLAINTIFF, ID £n^li«h Uw, the person who 
commcncta n suit BfratnA another in Uw or cpiity. 

rijAN, in arcbltectitte, a drawing ahowing tha 
dnaign of a btnldiog, ohiafty need m rererenoe lo 
horisantal drawings ikowing the dbpooitioD of tha 
variona ffoorB of tha bnlldlng. The term in aluo 
appliod to the draught or rapraaentation od jiajwr of 
any pmjoctod work, aa the flan of a dty or of a 
harbour. 

PLANARIDA, a anb-order of Sonledda, Iniduded 
in the order TorboUaria, and repreaeatod by free or 
non-paraaitjo famw, exempUfiod by the trploa] gwroa 
Planaria and other allied f<.<niiii. Tha flauudu m% 
nearly relatad in •tnctoro to the Vipoma at Ftukea. 
(.Soe pARAsm!!.) Tliry occur to tbo »oa and also 
ia fresh watora, or thoy may be found tuhabitbg 
moist earth anil rimilar damp iritnaCiont. Tbe Ne- 
UK-'HIiLk or Ribbou-wumu (see NmRHTTIiA), iuba* 
biting the aea, lunu the aecnnd group of the Tur- 
beUaria, and are allied to the Planarida ia nany 
pelnta ei organlxatloa. Tbs PlaoaridaoA ai« all of 
small Mic, and aro found on stones and marine planta 
at low-HBt«r tnju-h, aa well as on frveh-watcr planta. 
The body b soft, oval or elti|itical In shape, flattened, 
and abaadaatly provided with cilia. By means of 
tbe latter api><*ncUge* lommotion is aubeerred, aJ- 
Ihou^ theae liiniii aim 3pr«ar to move by cootractbig 
llieir bodlea, or by aid uf th«ir auckera. Muioalar 
fibres acoordhar to L^ugoa, are wanting In moat of 
iheae foma. The integument of I'lanaridans b alao 
fnniiebed with oell-Ulie atruetoreai, reeembUog the 
' thread-oaUa' or ' netnatoeyeti,' oo t^LNracteristio of 
CcDlantarale aDtDtala. Tbe mouth is ;>lBc«d towardi 
the feont portion ef tbe body, or in th>: middtoef tba 
twntral antfaoe; tba portion In front of the mouU^ 
termed the cro rt eariaai, betas podlflad to ften ftj 
proboaeda, waidi ^vcan to oa wed for ntctorial 
puipoaea. The phafyni may be protnudbte, and the 
digestive ayatem oonabta dthw of a branched or 
trae-lika airaagamentot the intestbworotaittalglil 
alimentary tracti bnt In adtber eaae daea It tcmd* 
Date la a vent or aoiHi. A * watcrraactdar' ayatem ' 
• <f tulwR u devoIofMd, and ifab ayatem opeoa •st4»> 
tially by two or nor* apertorei^ which are eontractUa 
in nature. A doable aorrou fangUoa, placed near ' 
the moulh, oooatitnUa tho nan-ou ■yatami whOat.j 
aeveral pigment ifiala or 'eyea' e]dat in the aaleriop \ 
part of the bo^. Befvadiietton may lake plaaa< 
aaazaally faj hmuoa or dlTUoo of the body-nbetasoa^ 
aad ^ gomnatieB or internal budding. Tbe mti» 
and Mnala reproductive organa are aUoated in tha 
aame tndivldaaL bnt tbe aexval union of two auch 



114 



PLANE— PLAN KT. 



harBUiAirodito indiriduftb uppMrs noceamry for ira- 
pngDatiiig tli0 ovk. Ttia PluiAricbi tueo <livide<l iutu 
two Mat MctJoiw. Til* fir«t of tbeao iududifii tbuow 
Phttferiduu ID wbicb the inicttinv U sttsi^'ht, not 
bt m ndud, ftnd pa««Ming » rooiuUd, othI, or elon- 
gated body. Tlua gruDii U nocoidinglj nMned AAob- 
(foeoto, aati of tbii divixioa the Comvluta mrodora 
luj OB mIocUiiI u a funJlior ciumplo. Eyn an> 
waatiBj; In tUa foniL 'rbc lietutrMida form the 
BMODd ffitnip, tii«w latter I'laiiAriilttTU pcMaeauug » 
bnuichfld inta>tiii(> nntl nhronul flut body. Tho g'^mo 
Planaria, ul fvliicli tliu ■puoiai i', [acfru, P. niifrtt, 
P. IrcmtUarit, and P. jiej:tiu mAy bo selected oa 
exJUnpIns, in iiiclo'!i--il in thi« »>icli-riii. 'J"bc gcnrra 
EitryUjila utd Lrptojilaaa of Elirottierg Jkna ueuly 
aUisd tci Uiu gvuus Planmria, and u« Bonwtinu^ 
inelnded to font) a third group, known as tho Cryp- 
toaz/a. 'lliCBC tami* are diBlin^iahud by the Urge 
niouth-openlug in tke lutddle uf the veotnU surftwe, 
and hy pouguiug tho v^rca urtuigwl in ^roupi, 

FIJUIE. The plane in a cutting iiutnimcnt on 
the guide pniiciiilc. II ia, in fact, n cliiscl guiik-d 
br tbs iitook or wixxlmi hiuidla In wUch it i* *ol. 
Tiim guido or ppId uf thu »tock ia ia g«D<ir*] as vsMt 
ep ntt iwyait «f tho form It la inlijiicCiMl to produi:<!. 
FlUM uc of Tkriona Idnda, m the /iM^-j^^ric (about 






4giA 



1 



JukPlMM 

17 lochcs Ufig), wwsi fnr taking off the rcnt);hc«t «ind 
DiuKt pruminuat uitrla of tbn ituS; the trifttig-plant, 
which b ii««d aft«r ibo jock (thuie; (he hng-iilant 
(24 indiu loag^, aaocl whon » picoo of ttufi i* to bo 
planod ytay attatght; the jainter, ntill longur than. 
tbe fotmer, which ia umJ for oUuiiintr vorf ntruuht 
•dgn; the tnooiliinff -plane (•} Incbea 1od2) <ui<1 
bloik-^ne (12 iudi^ea ioii^^, cliioAjf uaud for daaatng 




EmactitinB rioiiB. CcmpNM Ptano. 



BabikU Piano. 



olT finuihcd trorlc, and giving tha utiui.«t dcgnNi nf 
KinouUiEKBa U) Ibe kuHalv uf tbo WDod; tlio (omfttt*- 
tJane, which la aixoihir to the mioothiiijf-plauc, but 
ua ita tuid«r surface cod vox, ita aao being to furm ft 
vnnoavo cirUtidrioaJ aurfaco. Tlic tfiragniag are t«ch> 
iiic»Uy callad bcnch-jjianrM. Thini in aJao ■ arwdoa 
of pUnafl coUod rwite-ptawt, th« fint of wluch li 
■bBply «oIl«d the rdote^tane, hdag chlofly uacd for 
m«Mwg rabfttatL Of tho atnlring robatiiig phuica 




FilUitnr, till* sriil riiiL 



naoib Mooldlas. 



Ltbor« are two aurtn, tho mm-inyjlUitttT ouj th« foM- 
fdUUr, tha Hrat for nuldog the vdgo of the atufl next 
tbaworfcinaii, and thoannid fortioldDcthooppoaite 
•dg*. The jicvch ia » piano for lial^ a cbuiM) 
or gronvd io a aurfoce, cot drsB to tho edfio ol H. 
i/^tfuftJtnjf-pIaiwjakrafgrforaaiutcinoulfinziLBiid nilBt 
L k 



vary according to tho deaign. T\uhtttd-plnmi^vtinX 
foe mouldinga whoae aection la aeniicircular- IIaucb 
)bra alto uwa fur amoothlnff motal, and ara wroogbt 
by machinery. 3e« Fl-UdKC-liacniifK. 

PLANE, lMCLl]tK[>. Sea IxcttMEQ PuuCK. 

FLjVXE-TREE (Pf^Mtu), the name of a pmm 
of tr<«it belr.ngiiig Ui tbo nfttoral ovdor PlatsaaeaM. 
P. occidoitaiii ia the Anoricwi Plauo-tne or Botton- 
trotA. Tbo Oooldental Plaoa ia ttoa of tba btfeM 
prod act! ooa of tbo American f<imtA. Itaiboaodainoot 
uicj attaina tile largcat mxv aloaj; the intsriur watan 
of FuuusiUiuiIa and Tlnrtnio, aud osfNwiallj along 
tho banks of the Ohio, Hera atcraa om < 
iitanA tttiia 10 tii 14 fcrt in diAlnrtar, ofUn 
only tu K^vc uut tU-aic >'iut bnkm:}i<.-8 at the beighl 
SO or 70 (net, and n«Br tho aunimJu of th" aqnToond* 
ing troea. A muiat and oool aoll accma imlurpuaaabla; 
for it ia never f<iund on dry groundi. In the VTcab^m 
i5tat«a thia brw li uaually knowii by tbo name of 
ft/HTOniiTrv, and in »oni« dittiicU ia csuod ttOim'tm. 
Tho trunk und brandua an eoverod with a — "~^*'. 
jjaIi-i^tcl-u biu-k, the ep^dennEs of wUiA deladiea 
iuplf in pnrtioiiK; thn lootx wltnn fimt t^kaa txcmk 
thu vortli atv ui a Wautiful rvd ouluor, wUeb dl»> 
appears on oxpiMun) to hgbt in a dry place; tbo 
loave* ATO ollcraaUi, pAlmatod, or li>b«d: and tbo 
fiowfUB ore nnita<l in lltUo globular, pendent bnILk, 
Tlio uiK-d in aeoaonlntc takoa a dull red colour, ia 
liDo-^unod. and anacpptible of a good poliah, bus 
ii]iiK->lily d<K!Ayn on cxtKuum Ui the weather. The 
Urirml^ PIbjid {P. imentalit), >o c:vl«bt3ktad by tha 
aucicDti for tbo mftjiMty of Ita appmumnco, raoatnblea 
tho |<rcredin[>, oiid bean the (ame rolatSon to tbo 
fcirLdta of WMtem Aata. It la euppoood to he tbo 
UxK! wliii^u Ui.'1ir«tr name u tranalatod 'choalant-trao' 
ill the Eagliah Itiblo. Tho wood in thcae 
nh«rv It abinuida ia frequently employed ia tbo 
Tho A(rr Ptnida-pltOanUM. the Common Syoaanra 
Crvati^r TkLqili:^ ia colled in Scotland the plaae>trce. 
Sco Mai-LIL 

PLANET, a niune given nri^nally to thoao ccloo* 
Ual ubji^cLa wliieh thui^'e tbetr plana in the beavEO^ 
btit wliidi ia nun- givon to any boilv, liko tha aarth, 
which rvvuUva in an dliptic, nearly cirailar, otUt 
round a sun, and wUcb ahLnoi by roBeotod VAX, 
The Icnown nuijar ptands aro, in tba order of Ibeb 
■inixiuiity to tlie aun, Mercnty, Venti^ tha Soit^ 
Mara, Jupitor Saturn, Uraniui, and Xeptauo. itxe- 
cory, Vcnua, Man. Jui.4tcr, and Satan waio lawwa 
to tho andoDta. The ntnor pbsota form a ime of 
aatonida between tbo otUla of Han and Jiqrflor. 
Xoplor, Titim, and Bodo^ oboervinB Indtoatlona of 
rolationa oiuating among Ibe planotaijr ^iHmaem, 
oanatmctcd the well-known * Bodo'a law,' lUa on* 
piric4iJ law ia: Adding the ccmataotouBilwr4 toooofT 
l«-mi at the aariua 0, 3, 6, 13, 34, kc^ rivet tb* rala- 
tiro dJatoooee of too pUmeta from Ou aoiL Tbo 
Dutnbera io obtained corroapoad doody with the true 
relative diatanoca exotrpt in tho caao of Neptnno. 
Ghusi rvmorkod that th* aorica 0, S, 0, tut., la not > 
tnio proLnvMlnD ; on Inverting Jt we get ... 6, S, 
inat^iul uf ... A, 3, I J. Suppoatng tbo law to uply 
iHily Io tho diataucca of Vmaa, tho Kartl), Ac, nota 
tho orUt of Meroury, the ditlancoa increaMi in a real 
goomekiieal prosiMdMi — 3, 6, li, Ao, a ootaplete 
and slaplo fonn of tho law. Tho relative diataaeea 
of Jnpiter'a saWllites from the plaovt ai« ospceaaed 
by adding 7 to each t«irm of the avriua 4, 10, 29; 92'S, 
the coturtaiit inultiplior being 3V In Saturn'Roystm 
tho couiUnt cumber to be added » 4, and tbo aeriaa 
1,2,4,8,A«. Onths dlseoreryof tho pJanet Uranni^ 
whooe mean diatanoa eoinddea with that calovlated 
from Bode'a law, Bodo aaaurted that alrooBaiara 
nlgbt with advantage aeairb for a plaael bttmLtu 
tbo Qibitsot Man and Jupit«r,a part of tba bea' 



PLANET— PLANETAHIUM. 



115 



,1 MM Jw t w J Ovm, Dm 
fim of Ibe nllKir pluMta, mad tituM t!i«a ncareoly » 
jMT km pMaad witbaat » nev luone lieiiii; Milled U> 
'« Ort <rf iban tx>fiM. TIm Uw [ails in the coaa 
' N«Mnac^ jTi* {MfkspiiMitlior Atliuna nor LcvLvrier 
(MM hftftt ttUMnptod liy «alcul«tian tha tlMoowiy 
cf «Ui plkBBk Iwd tlwj sot bMD MWKd by tlie 
k» ihM lh» pUaat kj withia orUus Urnita of 



Tlw ielm wMtdrttl dUdgU aie kU small emnpAKd 
whb tb« eitnb-Mtcradkl, Ixtt in tkoM two fuuilim 
•ban i* no Inwe of m l>w im Ui relative nm. The 
•xtn-HUrcidal pbiuu mod to rotate uiUlly in 



wMtoff ftbonl ton faflim: Um uUl ptHoda of th« 
wtnMKteraitlal an abnut twantjr>rntir boun. Tlw 
iliroctlcaia cf »,xhl ratfttiuu leiin to b« in *nrj oan 
Uic BMDa, Imng ths oumtnon direction ol ivtiitioD 
utiotit tlie Bun (the omo of Neptune b«ln^ itill re- 
gafilod M (loubtiul, bowerer). The lucliuktloo* of 
utcs dLS«r oonudgntbljr. Tbe orbits arv all nimrij 
in tbo |due of tbe eoiptic^ but vith r^nrd to th« 
modUl odiltal plane the arblti ere mora nearl; olfke 
in th«ir incliiMtioaa 

'I'hTr clDDinnts 1.4 thn planet* and their tateUitea 
(uuiittiiig tliB mcKiti) are ^vva ia the following tablet, 
ri. XJI.-Xltl. «ibSl>K tbo niMt 'if i " -I t p T .n'let i^ni 
existing amuag tbo olemeats of tbe pIao«ta. 




W>«IT. 


■ft 


rf£SS&t« 


SMMM* 

llMB 


IMmm) 


•COiWt 

t« Flan* iri 

l:<>;llMie. 


ininiig 


ammit 


Semi t^PlwomM. 


iWteUlM 

XiBtiwa, ,.... 


1 


Pbotea. 

MmoL 
le. 

CkUUta 

MtBIMI. 


5,809 

«t).ieo 

<R8,SH 
l.lPt^N 

IM.MW 
15S.000 
IIII.0PO 
«M.IIM 
SIZ.O04 
TBa.OM 
1.«R,0M 
S,S14.0M 

m.oee 
in.o«s 

STCVoa 

Z.'O.OM 


d. A. ». 

II T la 

1 14 

1 la n 
a IS u 
T 9 43 
in 10 tt 

9 tt n 
1 3 a 
1 » u 
t IT 41 
( 1« u 
IS <t 41 
« T « 

n T u 

3 It >« 

» a w 

» 1« M 
13 11 • 

sue 


«(S-Ma.*M. 

r 

9 4 S 
S » i 
3 » t 
> » • 

SS M it 

f Noda 
UTt V 


1 

Lua 

l.«W 

t.»» 

T 

600 

1.W0 
3>M 

t 

t 
1 


T 

H 


(PtuCBaU 
;(U. fttoui}. 

!■ Oalllea. 
Mr W. HncM 

BunbMie 
Uao<I and Lwh J. 

UmU. 

atr V. IbvacUL 

M 

UmiIL 


IMtua 

UiUM 

BIwa. 

Tlten. 
Bjimkm. 

ArU 

UmkrteL 

TitMiia. 

OtMNO. 



Jm Um u« oI rotatfcm vl tbt pkneta an fncUnad 
ie Uiitr arUt% uid m lh«7 hare all eqoafirial iiro- 
tubenuMMv *^^ A>ial motioaa an pre«eeiioaa] and 
watnUcaal (olatloB*. (See I'ucnaiox.) One of tha 
■nrt inlaiwtitie probletu tn aattoiioiuy b tbat which 
VM Ant aolvM by Lagnngo vhen be eonnciaU.^ 



tbe lawi relative Co tbe elnbillty «< Ibe eolar inlem, 
Ijtplaoe ihowed la 1161 tbat in aBreTnlemof bodlct 

mtating in the lame direction rouid a central attract- 
inj; ntli, the eccsntricitiea and iiwlinaUoiu, if tamU 
at atiy onu lime, will alwaja reinaiu inooanderabl«. 
PLANETARIUM. BmOrubt. 



PLANIMETKB- PLAin-ATIOir. 



PXJIMIMETER, Akblbb'b, u fautnuncnt liy 
tiMMM of which Um) ftnift of t, plane figure may l>o 
maHiuvd. It k cmplcijrod by ■urvajron in Andiiu* 
■naa on map*, fte. It oonalaU of k iml c B, wUi£ 
mfty be attadicd to th* fwpar on » dnwieg-board 
by nicftni> of « pin »t o, which is the ctntn of » cinelo 
d««criliud by B. s A !■ ia « •econi] ntnti^bt rod jolntod 
(0 tlie fintat a; at tho «iid r then b a pointer wbloh 
la to bo canittd lound tbs bcnuidary of uw ana to bo 
meaanreil. A wboel at a on tbia nxl, nearer ft tlian 
C, haa a thin (^d)■a, which euablra it to mil wjlhuiit 
etidlng on tli« pap^i' '" ■ dimciion at right analp* ti 
the red B p. The riiu of this wLvul u v'EuuuatDd, 
and an Indsx fixed t« the rod enables the amonnt 
ot motion gf Br in a direction at right angles to ita 
Im^h to bo inaaaared. Now tho aiva awapt ont by 
the rod v p during any raollon In ft plane b e<)ua] to 
the Imgtb of tho rod multiplied by Ih^ amuunt of iU 
normal motion; hcoce tbia axvA i* knnwn fmm tho 
nadtnift of the wheel if w« adopt tin- wcU-koowa 
■Igebnic ooovontlon aa to potiilvo and negative 
araaa. When tho oentro o b external to tb> ai«A to 
be niBaaured, a rough dcetch will ahow that tha read- 
ing of tha whaal reprcaenta thta area. When c li 
Inada^ to Hw reading of the wheel a conataut nitiiit 
be added ezpreadnf; the araa nf tho dr«l« dcacrihni 
by -B. Id ervry t«ao the mdiog of the whed mnat 
be multiplieii by ■ particular conatant dapandlog on 
the icolo of the drawluj;. 

PLANlNft MAOH'INR. a tool nr liiatnimtnt 
wrougbl by atoaiiL power, fur aaving luaintsi] lalniur 
in piodocirw a perfectly piano nirfncv npno voiA it 
netaL Thb b usually accontpUahed In luc-taJ-plan- 
Ing nacUiMa by anc-h an arrAngomont of mechaJaiso 
aa will OMUe the objcot which in to te ojicratcd npnn 
to ttavona baokwarda aud (orwudu upiii) a oerfectly 
■mooth and WnA bad, while tl)<< cuttiug tool b Axed 
le ■ flroM aUde afaoTs it, and slightly penotntea tho 
mrfMO M it is cwTiod along, lit tool la scted upon 
W Knwi, K ei to onahlu tha attcudant to adjiut 
me depth of tiie oat, and to nrnvo h with unorrlnf; 
precbdoD over ovuy part uf the aurfocu witicb it in 
nqptiod to plana. 

FLAKT. See Boraxr. 

PLAKTAGEKCT, a funlly, the variona bnuichea 
of whidt r-ompiod the thronn nf England From tho 
roit;u of Ilounr II. (11£4) until Iba aoccvian (14S&) 
of H«nry Vll., the ropreeentativo In the female 
Una of the I^aucoatrion bnuich ot it, who, by his 
■unlaffv ClIBfl) wibb £Uubeth of York, dauchtor of 
IBdwaid tV^ repreaontatiro of tbo Yurk bmnch, 
mlled Ita tbHoub brauchn In thn housti nf 'J'udor, 
of which he na* tbo dirout ilni.t<uduiit. <^n thu 
death of Henry I. the or>wn was cinlmcd by hia 
dan(bter,MaudorMatil<U.Knitni;)rriL-<itDlf(-nry v., 
amperor of Urrrniany, arid »ftenkiird> to Geotfrui V., 
epnnt of Anjnti, iiuiTiiuii«t I'ljuitageaet, on belialf ol 
bw loa by tac Isttor, Huury Plantagomrt. Stephou 
obtained It during hla Ufetiae, and wu nooeeded 
on his (IcAlh by Itenrr, who tiecamo tho hawl of the 
Plaiitaovuet klDgi. Vh* name b said to hava boon 
dariTod tnm the obcunuttance of the Connt of An jnti 
woaring a branch of broom (pCanfe Je ^enft) in iiin 
oap. The direct line became aitiniit in liiohani 11. 
jtwO), befon whose death tho crown waa usuntHl 
vj Hunry IV., ■on of John of Oauot, duke of Lan- 
4Htn, fonith aon of Kdward III,, in prejndioo of 
XAanod and Anne Murtimor, the deaoendania ol 
lianel, duke of CUr«no^ thinl son of the Niinu 
Bdward. He waa neooMod by hia doaoendiuiU 
H«Di7 V. and Iftmry %T. and Airing the ttam of 
(h« lattor E<liiiund Mortinaer bavhq; died wilfaout 
hcii^ Bie]iafd,d»k« of York, son of Audo Mortimpr, 
who had married the heir of iMlmi^ml, duke ot York, 
fflh ooB «f SdwMd XIL, oI^ui«(l the crown. Thb 




oooarioned th« war of the tiatm, wfaicfa timinalai 
in the aoeeaaion of Hciiry VII. aa above 
See RMdtwtNn. 

PLANTAm (.PlanUtja major), a oaaUMD wa«l, 
tho laavoa of which an all radtenl, oviJ. isd petio- 
]at«, ami fmm amoogat them ariae aowal long 
cylindrical B[nk«a of grccmish inconspicaoaa f^nmvn. 
It U fcKUtd io meadowB, flald^ and on tha boedefs el 
rooda. Iti learoit which an ili^tty mIiIihhiI. won 
fonnerlj regarded aa a feMfofB^ and were alia pn- 
sctJIimI fur dysentery and apittins of Uood. Water 
of plantain ia atiU naad aa a Miieb ia noma eyv 

PLA^TTAIN-EATERS, a group of P«ndiiiigbMi 
belonging to tho CouirueCral aeciion of that ocder. and 
inclndod in tho family UuxopfaaffkbL "nieae bods 
occur excQudvely In Atriea. The bill b of awdaate 
siEC, ot comprawcd form, hroail at its baae^ tte t%i 
being notched and tlw ridge rorvoii Ho loaa an 
elongatod; the outer toe can be tnned ha c kw a rf i at 
will; a disposition of the feet cclatliig thoM fonDi to 
the Scanaotial or Climbing Urdi^ in whi^ siea|t Ihey 
havo Ixen indnded by aome orailhologiata. Ua 
tarsi an corered by la^ scalea. !%• genua Woaa- 
l^haya indndoe tho meet typical focma. ThMo lards 
cbioRy feed upon the fmit of the banana and plaa- 
taio. lu thin ){eoua the base of the bill appotn aa 
a brosd plalo cOTerjag the forohead. The plumage 
exhibits brilliantoolontioa. The Jf tueyAfljm inhaUt 
tropical Africa. The members of the geaaaCW|iflUtr 
or TovTO/MS puasoM a lull of ordinary slav and OOD- 
fomiBtian, and an orectilo crort, borne on the head. 
Tho Kuncral colour b grven, the quills of the wilgl 
and tail bcin? coloured red. They feed aa fauNen^ 
in addition Ui fruits, and are «ud to bo esioeefngly 
familiar and tame in halnta eren in a «ri1d atate. ^isy 
attain a dae averaging that of Che oenmtoQ pigKn or 
crow. 

PLANTA IN TIU^E, Ibc type of the natw*! order 
Uusaooa.'. Mvta parailijiata, the planlala. and if. 
tapUntutJi, tho haaana, are cnlttratad bt tnoatly all 
trojiical oduntricsL They are magidfiiocnt palm-like 
trocx, tho ati-nis nf which grcvw to a height of SO or 
mora feet, bcttriD;! on their sumniita cq^ht or ten 
large leavee, each 5 or U feet ton^ and IB laehoa in 
breadth. Theec Ioavck, ibo m<wt ramarlcaUe fcr 
sixC in any known ntiuit, spring frosn Ioe^ atoot 
petiole*, the baeee M which form the atem. The 
dried \m\xi supply thatch for the Indian oottagek 
and ncrrc tho natters for mtuiy other ecooen&ie pur- 
|HnH9i. Tlja fniit of butli Hp«nat.b extemdvdly used 
IN food by the nativee of the tropkc The flower- 
spike vprinj,*a from ttio centre of the tnft ef leavoi^ 
md conMsts of an inunense nambor of floreta, Aa 
the Qorols ul tho baae become mature Uie fruit awcUa 
out, and tho other flnreta aro pushed foowaed, ttnlil 
the italk on which thoy luv borne leadiea the length 
of 3 or more feet, and produoea oamfttlmes fraiu to 
tbe sumlitr of laQ to ISO, weagUhg together bom 
SO to 70 lb*. Each fruit b abont 6 im^aa long, 
straight, and about an Inob In diameter, ratbor dwrter 
and tiiickcr in the baoana than in the plantain. 
Whun rifn the fmit ii nf a pale yidlow eolour, and 
baa a luscious, evreet piUp. It b o»e of tbe most 
uecfnl fruita in the vogotahle creation, and, aa Mm* 
of the plants are in bearing moot of the year, forms 
tho main sustenanoe of mmiona of the mbabitants 
nf trapical climates. %t*hMi used aa bread It b roasted 
or boUed when juit full irrown; and wluo tipd^ ft la 
made into tarto, ellced and fried with batter, cr dried 
and preaerred m a swcetTucnt, Three drmen plan- 
tains are eeteemed Biifficirot to aerre an«i man for a 
week, instead ot bn.iad. 

PX.AKTATION 0»t). a term andently used to 
dealgnaCa a colony. Plantations, according to Bladt* 



I 



PLANTIGRADA— PLASENCIA. 



117 



■•oBiL ac* etAoidm wban tli* landi ai« cUsmc! hy 
thw right of ocevpwny only, hj finding Unm dwort 
sad BBcnltiTBla^ And pomliiig thsmlrMB thcmodisr 
tamatrj; «r wImt^ wmb Mn*ay enlti v«tod, tbejr Ilbt* 
bven ***fc*y guBod by ooiMoovt or codnl by tn^tiei. 

(Sd), A wood or p[«M o( |p«iind coveml witli 
feWiL Tkriooi Hta lif Lh« Scotdah PkrliamaitB wers 
pMnd to eoeoongft [ilMtting hiiI iitcUmng, ui>I to 
pmfat thcM who ■honld Injnn or dutroy ti«o* or 
fiantiria— i At oommra law lajuriw done to tnws 
« pliBlirtnna sra ])aaisbabU u malidoui mladiief, 
iM b}r Malnle twa iuattoa at the ptmot tnkj- tiopoM 
PmHIm far racb mjuriea. TIm [moIUm are. for 
■attUig ftra to tiw , braftkliic outtitig, or p«oItng 
tbaaa, £10 Svoto (or Mob tne niider ten yMnvfafrci 
•od £S0 tat meh tna orm IbM age 

!■ Biq^biHl, bj 24 ud Sfi Vict. ettp. Mti. a. 32, 
If aay pvnoa atw, cat, bnab, root up, «r oUrarwiso 
dab^ ^ dUBOf^ Titb iBtent to bCmI aajr tree, 
■■tliBg, ilinibv er underwood gmwinK ■» » pvk, 
fdr—BW grniiml, gudon, orcharcl, or awnu*^ or id 
taj gnvad belo^B^ to any dKollin^^-Iigiuw, li« la 
Uabla if tbt faiJuryMiwiuiU to £1 to poiud aerrltude 
f«r thr«*, «r iBprinDiDcot for two yeus; furdannag- 
ing ■*»"*—• pnnerty growing in any other utuatinn 
te tU crtvDt <a£&, with Iiitflnt to steal, be I* liable 
to lbs now iMoalty. For Mealing any of ttieee 
artUta t0 iba vahia f>f li. wluir«*iicvcr gifnrine he 
b liMbl* to « fino of £S, IxaidM tbe value oftbe 
M tich . tor tlio6nitnffoncw; for tbowKoml.hdb liable 
(• tanid Mwor in the honw; of cctrvctioa for twelva 
■satt^ and a tba oeovietloB be before two magi*- 
intm to vlibattigj for » third offence^ to penal 
^ I lUiih^ (w UH|)naoaiBenl aa abovia, TIio eaine 
pMttUea an Intlcted by cap. xovii. a. It) for molid- 
' Inrarine (wtthoot intent to aMid}. 
\fmCiRAI>A, I'LAXneauiES, the term ap- 
a Bootogiad edetice to rach Uanunata aa wiJk 
itb»wlkDl*aoloof tfaa foot applied to tba ground. 
Iks — " Plutignda ia, bowef«i^ mon apedflcally 
ONd to iadicaf > iwcttaa of Um ordtt Camlvon 
(^licb aae), r^K<aaeated tjpicallv by tbt Vni3tt or 
Mar faally, and aho by other um familiar fonn^ 
ndk aa Iho Haaxma, Coataa, and the Badgenu Th« 
•cda of tiw foot in tbeea forma in naoally daatttvte 
of a balnr oovariag. The coufonnatlon of tha fcvt 
Mrite IMH aidaakli to aaama the aeni-crect poai- 
llDBwltbMM. Tba fMtars lira-toed HietBtexUne 
vnM ft oaCTtm. Some caralrorDua fonn^ virniuli- 
iad by ttM Utiridkls or Weaaela, and by the Viver- 
iUb or Ctmi, an coUeetiTely termed teni-Plaitti- 
fwda, from tbs tact that they apply part of Ibc tole 
la tha grenitd in walking, and tbua link tr>geih<?r the 
naadgradaa and Uiiiw Carnivorvs (fgr tnuigplo) 
Ct/H, liona, TIffvn, iMtgt, kc) which walk on the 
1^ «t tba toea, and which are hmoe teRned Uiglti- 

PLAJrr-LTCK (Aphidaat, am IntertNting group 
<d HanloMtatoUo lnwc«^ bdoagtog to the order 
Hawii|i«i IK and to the Honoptoroiaa aectioa of that 
artw. TlMae iaaeeta pn«eM abort oTal bodieiL alx 
1^ and a pair of anUnuue. "Dm wLfalUt an alter- 
aiitmd WBgad and wIbj^bb lamTidnab^ the repro- 
<MB H eB U mtm faMacta fetmlng one of the meat 
perailar pbaate which can well ba oonnI*ed of in 
tba poaiwon of animal roniu>. Tbclr reprodnctlrv 
hMKjrbdaMnbcd at length in tbo article on Vui- 
t^VOamro (which aec). Wliftn wing* aro devul- 
•fad Ibe frcot pair an BMstbranom throaghout th«r 
«ib« aatnL Tba roetnm or 'beak' epringi fivin 
Aa bnaat or pealocior poction of the bead, th» nonlh 
hdM toned Mckvarda. The tard ai« oompoaod of 
tw« Jainl% and are norided with two dawa. Thems 
■c» y ri ally ootablo on aoooont of thdr 
e0K<e upon regoutioa of all Idnda. 



They live npon planta, and imbibe by mcana of their 
■octuiinl mouUia ttiu juicee of tbo plant tlaauee^ oaua* 
lag the decay or death of tbo Togvtablea. Uaj 
ipcdea of Aphidea mw Imnwn. The .1pAi> Jtota e( 
tne nae bnabea ia a very familiar agiFcim; A. Sapte, 
of a green colour, InfMta tumipe; A. Paht, ooloured 
black, livea npon tbo bean; A. tatlatv attooka th« 
potato and other planta. llie leavM of the infected 
pbtntd witJier, uurl up, and Iwcvtiit' diilorted wfctm 
tittAolced by thee» innncte. Tbe Woolly Aphia (A, 
Unigen), to aamol from a kind of woolly aubetanoa 
ODveiing th« bidy, kttikckft apple-treeeL This intoet 
firat ^ipoarod iu Ku^l&nd in 1787, and fmm the aup- 
pQMtion tluU it vnu imported fmin Anwrica the 
popular name of ' Ainurican BLI;,'hE ' hau b«en apjilisd 
totb TixBapAfbSaiA.IluMidijieAsi^ei'ee^ijiODtha 
abwnoe or praaooco of which tlie pmnpiirity i>r failure 
of the hop crop may is aome aenaona ebieflv dopond. 
Vaat differeneaa In tho Ktnnu fhim the hop only, 
rt-proaonting tho incr«aao or deficiency of large rum 
of nionry, may in thti wav he nuil to depend Dpon 
thvae niinnta jiealit. TUu Af>bi«liw ptwae ai glandular 
atmotons opodag M the extremity of the abdotnaa 
In little tulnilar orifiociv which iKcrcto a swoct, viadd 
fluid, of which aula are rvry fiiniL Ami ths ante 
iV[^iLrIy ' milk ' the Afiblil^ by ittrokiug Lh*fr ■l)d(H 
moos for thu take uf Ibta street liquid, which emdM 
from the claada in drop*. Tbe larno of the Ooodn* 
elliB ur ' Ij»dy-binl ' b«eUi3i are tsit daatmotivo to 
tbe Aphidea: tfaeeu Immature beetloe and alao tho 
adnlt tndy-binla dovourin^ tho plant lico in gmk 
niimhen^ADd til na aiding in limiting the rapiil increaas 
of tbepeaU. 

Th« renuukable fecundity of the plant-lice forma 
one of the chief notable pointi in thor economy. Il 
boa been oatcnlalMl that the progeny of a tiinglc ^dda 
traced to the fifth genoratioo only, may uuinlMr 
5,904,900,000, and in nna yoar tho prcigrny gf one 
fauale uuiy iiuuiber 100,000,DOO,000,OI>0,000! Tba 
effga produceii by nule and female inaecta aro (IeiN>> 
■Mod oa the axiLa of leavee during the autucm. Theae 
an hatdwd daifos tho nccoedfaig tpring, and f vmalaa 
alooMnprodBoaa Theaefemale^or'fniitfulvirgin^' 
aa they an oallod, continue to produce auuilar and 
female hoinge rhriparcnuily, and witliout the irrMaooo 
of any malt, till the onauiu); autuujn. See pAlttlUUO* 

PLANTS, Jsnmr n. By 21 and 25 Vk-L cap. 
iiivi. if any nrmon ati-al, di-atray, or damage with 
intent to nUM any pUnt, not, fruit, or vo^tabla 
prodnetloo growing fai any garden, ardiard, nurtcry 
ground, hotnouae, graenhouae, or oonaervatury, every 
stieh offender ihaltl at the diacrction of tho juatloe, 
dtbar be GMumlttnd to be imprisoned only, cr to bo 
lin{iriaan>ed or kept to hard labour for any (eist net 
exceeding dx ll>••llllt^ or elae fmj,0ttit ana aborstbo 
value of tbo article itidon, or the nnuRmt of tbe fa)* 
juiy done^ any aom not exceodlng j£30l On a aeeoad 
conviction tho oflandnr ia llahlo tn penal aervjtDda for 
three yeara, or toMRiaeautWDt not exceeding two 
yaata. If any peraoo Bt«al,deatrDy, or damage whfa 
taint to ateal, any coltivatad not or plant uaed fat 
food of man or beaat, or for iBedlcin% dkHlHng^ or 
dyeing, growing in any land, whether lodoaed or not 
incloMd, not a gardMi, orchard, Ac, he may be com- 
mitted for one month, with or without hara laboor, 
and a aeecmd ooariotian for tis mouthH, with orwith- 
out hanl labour. See alao FLaSTATioK. 

I'IjASKNC'IA fancioot^aitT^aoa),* townia^iaiB, 
E*tniouulura, ou tii« Joite, 120 mllaa WJ.W. of Mad* 
rid. Its walbu fiaokod by aioMnu tomi^ an 
oumblbi; to jwoe^ but tbe rtreeta are MDerally well 
fonned, and lbs boueaa well bnflL llie y racipel 
buUdinga are a OotUo oathednl, built of gradta 
finely aculptnTcd, the epiaoDpal and aoYaml ptivala 



118 



PLABSEY-PLATA. 



p^aca^ the mousht, aqnedncta, bridgea, ftc. It was 
Hoked And kliDoat dcalroywl b; Sonlt bk 180(1. Ita 
(^Uof iaduitrJAl otRblulimoati an tKUieruia, luul nlk, 
oil, tad ttonr niUlii. fan. 6026. 

PLASSEY, a vUUgL' m Hlndufttao, on the Hugli, 
SO Jtdim KTtL nl CftlcntU. livTv oa Jime 23. 17&7. 
Colonel, afturwud* Lord CUvo^ with a men buid/ul 
<j( man, 06QHi«tin^' at JiltMit 9(11} Kiimpekns &nd '2100 
aopoyv, ilvlK&tK'l Siuitj& Dtiwla, witli on anuy coo- 
iiwtiii)! <]f 50,000 foot. luid 1 B,»00 hnnw, and bud tho 
TuuiLclutEiji) it tliu Britiiili Kwpire iu ludlik 

PLASTKItlNfi is the art o( covering the sorfftce 
of iuA«i>iiry HIT wtjod work witi) ■> [ila«t)c matcriid in 
order ti> );ivn it a. imopth Mid ntiitomt ntrfacn, 
ud geu«rally In intuian to fit it for paiDCJnt; or 
dMOiMim. Is plwbnin^ the interior of hoowa a 
fint ooat il g»n«nUly lud on of limp, thnronghly 
dadtodfiP M to b» froo from toiy toiiduDi'y t>^ vontmct 
mditnni, uid mixed wtth uad Mid cow'b hair. The 
fftoodf tbafintC'iat. whicb should bo of coiuidemblc 
thiekrifiH, ■• trnwRlltid, or itirirnt«d with nrom lino 
bf thn trtvwel, to form n kny for tho fiiuihiiiu rasU. 
Tie leoond ouat is applied totlUu when ft b thoroughly 
dried. It ia rubbed iii with a flat hoarJ ni/ m Ibnr' 
on^lj Eo lill tho i&dvntktiocin aiid cjvvt tin; uniMjuai 
■uruoe o( the fint coat with a sniuolh and twuu vnv. 
Ia phutoruK walla groat c&re mnst be takea to havn 
thl^ KiirfocD prrfcctLy vrrtical. 'I'hs lottiiig coat, 
whti-'h in of nure lime, or for innuldiiiu« or finvr wurk 
of plnoUtr of Parii or atuuoo^ b a|ipli«Ni to the aeaond 
uoat bofQt« it ia quite dry. A thin coating of ploalor 
of I'ltria is fro<]^aenl1y applied t» mnf» after thft 
■etlioit coat. 

PLASTER or PARIS. Sw Pari* (Plasti* or), 

I'IjjU^TEKS aro applications of looid remedieii to 
any port of the niriaca of tltd Imfly by meaaa of & 
■up[Hirtiu|{ texttiTD of laatL»r, nilk or other cloth, or 
merely of paper, and frequently with th" aid of Rom* 
adhnive inbatanoe. Planets tnaytwint^ruilwl merely 
to give protection, atipport, or warmth, a* in tht; ewe 
of wounds, braJMM, or local wcAkni:^^ or th«y may 
be actiTelr mAdioioal, in which a lariety of uedicines 
Bnitabte toi exlfmal ajipUc^ittiuu may, aoouriling to 
the particular circiut)ataiic<« of the cnao, untvr into 
their compoaitioii. A Uivvly luod vUn of plvtera 
oallad bllBten hu bean OMcrfbed nndsr that hvad. 
TboHrttiab PhartnaoopMagimM tn-clvoprcemptiona 
fur plnatr.ru, in most of which the juihosivc projuTtj 
la due to the uurubinatiou of oxitlu uf Itiail with fatty 
acida. The DiatMlalaroMt frequontlyiuedin plaslcTV 
are bdlodonnn, eaatharidei^ galbanam, SalngUM, loa<l, 
mercury, Oiptuni, pitch, renin, iron, and «u»]>. 

PLATA. La, U»ite» PKosim-BS ar, now wni- 
moaly callod the Abokktikk Coxpkdhutiok or 
ABawmn RcpoiiucvaTaBtresionof South America, 
bwittd^ OB the south by the Rio Negro^ msat by the 
OonliUwaa of C'hlli and ]l<ilivia, north by Bolivi*, 
■od nrt by Paraguay, Brazil, Urufpuiy, and the A^ 
hotlo Ocean. It la diridcd into fonttoen ptoriBcea, 
the area aad population of wbiL'h u« aa UDd«r: — 

atMan.wiM. ri*.aiuta. 

OiwncaArratfolBnlnpiUV — .. SH.OOO 

■taewiATiw^TlnM] .... «3,fNlO .. na.MO 

BaataN 1^00O .. ta7jm 

ikmiUca 4ifim .. mjow 

Onrt^MM, M,IM> .. 9(M.mO 

Bkda llpBM .. S7,M0 

CUaauTM n,eM .. 10S,IHW 

ftuJaaik aCTM 01,tOO 

Haodm U,OW .. M/MO 

Oenlon M.OW ., IM/WO 

BnLuia ie,OM .. TefiOd 

BuitU«<>4elM«TC, ai,SM .. IH.WO 

T^iMnaB...... U^ .. 17t,000 

Biba 4S.0CO .. IST.OOO 

taiv f;,<iM et.oM 

TbUI »U,TM CnMM 



To thia haie to be added tbe are* and popolalfaM 
of the following national toniUirica:— 

KHlaoi mo!* ta^toUtt 

Onui-CluMt IU,IM i5,ttl 

HjiMUKca (I9T»> B.«a U.47S 

ruiiiai ISI.H! .. 1],0M 

rKta^DuiA uid PcMfD U9.Kia M.'M* 

Total .'ao>,»s .. m.rm 

By the trea^ of 23iJ July, ISSl, Chill : 
the nght ol ths AigMline Republic to alt tbe* 
cast of the oreat (3 the eaat^ m ridga of the . 
inuluiliDjf mMt of Patagonin aniI a antall portioo 
llvmt d«l ¥xii^o. 'I'ba oUidal ntimate of tbe tot 
popubtiaiiatthe«nduf 18i$2waa3,O20,OOO,ofi ' 
'iGSJib wora foivlgnon, moatly ItaliaiM, 
aud Fr«noh. 

Among tho Andes on Ita weeton boHar 
hcifhta and TcilcanlD poaki oocor; lowsr dom I 
are wtiU-watercd hilly rt^on^ irtkile at (ba took 
lialiitahU low tract*. In soma place* lateral T 
frotn the liiuh Aiidn run into tho plain to Si 
□f ISO or '^Ol> uUlias. aud the mountaloa carw « ' 
stderaMo portion ol tho nnrth-wcrt of tha '■ 
The lawti-m pnrtiun iil»c) rimnd the river 
M hilly. The |>Uiiui luuth aud aouth-w^at of Be 
Ayr« at a distance of ISO milos become billy: 
cbaina of hiUa ncTcr riaing 300 feet abore tbe 
extend fn>m anuth^ait to north-west. FnitiMT 
till? auuth-WMt the Vontana Mntmtaln 
feet abore the plain, vhich ia itoelf from 8O0 to ' 
foct abotnt tho «ca-l«vcl But the monntaiaooa 1 
form but aauall portion of Ihe whole tarritory, wl 
generally eprewls out into Immense uniform plainii^ 
called Pampas. Though there are aame laive tiv« 
cither fa the country at fonnlng lis bonnaarto^ 
Kreat portion of tb« Pampaa ia ateiilo for wank 
InlgatiDg BtreaOB. The Itio de la Plata, or ri« 
PUdo, which nma for more than 200 uIIm bet* 
tbe Argentine U«piiblic and Uruguay ia notv i 
■iMMkiuA K rivor, but rather an moMty. moat* 
tne riven Paranit and Uruguay. Tbn tonott 
U» origin in Bradl, and fanu for aotne dirtence tfea 
dividing lino between Paraguay and BnuU and then 
bi.-twut.-n Pnm^iiay and La Plata, tUl at ita jonctteo 
with the river Paraguay it loaves tho fomnr cmntry 
And cvintinuea its course solely in tbe AtftOOam 
tRcritnrr. The Umguay separates for a gcval pSfC 
ut iu coiine Bnudl and the repubUo of Uruvaj 
from t1u3 Arg<Bntinc llcpiiMIc Tho other imn* 
tiirh Ml tbn I'ilcomayo, tho Vermeio, the Salado, ka., 
niuitly tlow in a aoutb-eaateily dlroctios and eal 
tbe Paraguay or tbe Paiairf. The Oolorado, 
far from tho soatb border, and tlis Kem^ wtiisM 
aeparatcs it fiv-in Pj^togonta, rlniag in Uie Alidi%| 
How In a ■uuth-irtuterly direction and mler 
Atlantic The riven wbloh bfJone nidualT^y 
the plains are for tbe most part wa>t«d by evmpefW-^ 
tion and terminate in occasioaBl lake*, matrike^ or 
salt -liana. Theae are Damorooa, tha lakea and 
maranaa east of the Pangmiy and ¥mti htkag 
froKb, wlule those on the west a» BOMnUy mIl 
Many of lb« latter diu^xpear aoou alter Ibe r^iy 
Bosaon, Isaring the ground encrusted with salt to tha 
depth of eomo iochce. Tho Pampas are tbe most r«- 
laarkahle feature in the aurfiwe conflgoration ct thi* 
Otnmtry. As alreaiiy rvmarlud they arv in a great 
part diyand storile, tbongh there is an tKuncnse axt^t 
of good pasture land in tho plains areond Bdskm 
Ayies, and extending bo sone distanoe nptlw PataiHt. 
In general tho cultivable land h ooafinad to tbe banks 
(if the rirnn*. IKlnvial strain oocnpy an itmntnf^ 
area and oontaia many fossil remaias, ■"■"■g wbloh 
an tbosa nf some MammaH* tt ootcesal size. In tha 
geological (ormatian of the northern part of this groat 



PI.ATA. 



11» 



hmliiotj ib» iveTa]«nt rooks ve gituilte, gndli, uai 
■latb la tba iwUi aUoTi&l nada, ndxed wttb oiimw- 
«a» tbdk, «« AlmiMt •xcliwjvcly found. Th* moft 
nloabla ndaenl b mU, Khich i* found bath m rocka 
aod dmritod bi tbo Ijtkeo. Tbe» «» aW minei of 
pU, ■UTCT, copper, loftd, inn, ^ac, tn, and otbor 
■Mil% and of tolpbur, Miltpetm muI aIuid, c«a3, 
UlHBiaL a^ibahc^ >ad oUur valuaLla mfnendj; ftro 
fcond. V4>7 low of tka mhcnds mn workwL lo » 
•MBtty of Mch riM tbertt ii aatanlly « comidcnbLit 
diT«nt^ U dteftte. Tbe moat general oUautlo 
iMtvo b Aj mai^ Iboagh to this then jtrv, u iir>»md 
tad nnik fran Baaao* Ayimt, impnrtaiit «xcv|>tiaiu. 
IIm Bwat «iian«tari«tie ijtuidnpocU a» the icukoaioo 
«r «0d DuaA, tU Tieufia, the d^tyban, tba Capir, 
lfa» pona, tlu jagw, tba vucaKha and tncotuco, 
■IBsa to dw juuBott «rUdi Uto in (.tMutuuidtica iq 
Ifat phJM. bamnrfag sndor mund, and aereral 
WBriw of annadillo. Ammg hm biida an the con- 
■or, llw *———■» r u l tm ^ tbo gaUiiiAMii, tbo turkey' 
Imnafd or lurkvy-naltun, tbo rboa or Suulh Aue- 
iSmb OTtrich, pwrota, Haw ipocieB of paitridgaa oa 
th* FnipH^ lu. lIonM irct« istrodnocd by the 
Gpaabtdi^ and mnr roam over tbe dImiu in » wild 
fltiAa la dnmia of SOOO to 8000. Cutle and «he*!^>, 
iAkhaliolia<ra1)MBinlnKlBocd,9Uviiaiiicnni>. Tho 
fbina of La Plata oatlectiv'dy prawDt a rather ham 
mffmnmeB; Iml the banks of Um Parani an clothed 
ww» da* thnbOT^, aoA on approadlili^ tba tropica aa 
wdlaa ika Cccdillenu iba TecetatfoD beoomoa varied 
amd IsnriaaL nonaaiidi of aioara tnllM mat and 
■aalh Wial vl Buanoo Ayra* »n ooroicd «rith the 
I— rtiiiai. a kind rd wibt artichoke, wid tba tfai«tlo, 
wUdi pwra to •neb a betifhi a» to cooccal a man 
m hanataak. Tba AM waalth, it ia obrions, of 
. Hhm puiiliNM nxuiata i& the dnvoa of horaoB, tho 
, aad tba llocka tfiread o>«r tba i'amiNaa 'like 
bnUti aniMialljr Cor raport above 3,Uiii:«,iiiJ0 
' >Ua^ ba^haaallad bow, bonci^hora^ and hair; bono 
Udas are alao exjuirlcd, gaat and fehoc|i skiiut, and 
lu^qnantitiaaof Ruowool lliatnidaofthcrapuhlic 
hm ibawn g«DenJlj a rtaadjr iucr w e with nwral 
ymn, lBld80lbvlBpofta«anTaliiedat£a,8IS,iOD, 
1 1ha axporta at £11.29^400; ia 1SS2 the fignroa 
V n^Mtivdjr £1^249,233, and £12,D77.aiO. 
Mt aa»-lUnl «t tbe Intpocta oame from Britain. 
01 Iha aspofta SS pw cent oouditad of trod, and 3d 
if flUM and Udea. 

Iha IndigaDaaa tribe* of La Pbta htiang to three 
noM — the A/wwanbui, wUch Includea tbw Fequon- 
dua aod ocban who now roam ovar tbo plains aa far 
Bsvth aa the Kk) Salado; the Pcmriaa, apeaking the 
(Jakbaa lango^ta, which now rvacbee oaat from the 
OwdObta M far aa Santiaeo; aad tha Chiaranti or 
VatsaaiBt who pradoiiuiiato oixth of tho Salado and 
ea« ti the Paraai, and extead Into Btaidl. The 
Spaniard^ though coaparatircly few, are now the 
dsHiAMBt laotL Fma thair miktare with tho nntifc 
Viai^ haw apniBg op eofeured raeei^ diiTurun: ac- 
' — **■!; to tba deaeeat of tltoir mothon, and (Mrmin;; 
ia the Mnaotar diatricbi tl;" majoritv of th« popiila- 
tioB. Ia BuoDoa Ayrea aod about tJic •horea of La 
Flala BcgTD aUrea were f onaerijr BDmecoui^ and thdr 
(CofMkjr era rtOl diatingniahahle antoas the ooloored 
upaIatio& Thara an alao ctMuiiletablo nambon of 
Fiini|Miii. diiefly Italian*, Sfiantardi, Freuch, Ens- 
b^ sad Oartaaa^ who aa ouniLaBtB M artllan raduB 
fat Iha Cocdadaala Ttor ln na^ wtftdaUj la BvMua 
A jrea. la Boaaoa Ajraa tha bcMer elaaa of pee^ 
ara lapklly adopting Enropean dlreat and maanara. 
TWy eonainaa umIt tfane In aaiotdng, ttia weata, and 
I hi the oool of tbo aTs^ig, tearing the 
1 indortry of the plac« in the baud* of 
ne Oaochoor raitic b the traa typaof 
tho baoUi American la and aiwiad the Pampaik. 



The Ganolin weare a jacliBi of coann cloth or •hecp- 
■ida, uid bro«ch«a at tho a.mio uiaUrial opvn at the 
knee. Ho Una in a rids hut niDstructoJ of BtJcka 
uiterwor«n WJtb altera and plastered with mud, and 
■ubaiati almntt wholly on mm! and ¥rat«r. H» {• 
almort conttnuaUj oa bonebatJc galloping ov«r tba 
Tvlalsa, ooUecting Us hardi ud droraa, taming wild 
Dona^ or catcfamg and ilangbteriag emh. In bikAi 
avoaationa b* aoqnina a manallDua dextnitv in tba 
tiae of the laaao or noooe and the 1xlao or balU. Thu 
life of freedinn and exdtemant baa ita cbomu; many 
penooj even whn arc wnil-to-do do nAl eara to Uve in 
a maimer veiTdiSc: rent i aud theipirit of tbeOaad>0| 
who speiida nis time in smoking, gallopng, or nun- 
ing. and caroa littlv for fodal development ur jjolmcal 
uninn, widely perradea the provlnoea of La Plata. 

Tbf La PUU waa dinovered and natnad in 1512 
by Juoa Diac do Solit^ who on a lubaecjuent voyage 
in 1615 reached Che moiith of tbe Panuuk, In 153S 
Don Pedro de Meadioa, on hia way lo Peragnay, 
buQt m tort on tbo praamit ait* ci Kunnoa Avroe, bat 
tbat WB> ioaii doitrOT^ by the IniUoiui: and It waa 
not tttt 1680 that Dob Juan de Garay took formitl 
pcMoaaioa ef Ifae eountrr ami f.-und'-d tho citr. At 
tbat tima^ aad for naarly tn-o ccDlurii^ aftcrwarda, 
tbo whole oonutry fnim tli« uioiitb of tlie I'lnta ta 
the PadAo Ooean, Fara^iay inoludod, vraa ootnpriaed 
iu tho Tioeroyalty of I'cru. Tba ettly adTantaga 
tbon r«cc^ij»d in tho provlnoaa eonnecied wtih ul* 
Paraoi waa tbat thay afforded a ODamonication with 
PertL But tbo exmetatiraa thus coDodved proved 
deluHvoi and La Plata Iteoaine the channel, not of a 
le^tlmate ao mach aa of a ooatraloDd trade. Iu order 
to cbeok this evil by vlgoroua eoTernment La Plata, 
comprehending all tha SpaalM dependccdea uait of 
the CortlillevM^ waa aev««d from Pern In ITTO and 
erected into an IndapeBdant goTaraiaaot. In 1809 
tha ooaqncat id Bpaui tqr tlw Ttvaii nlcMcd the 
Spaniah-AmericaD gevermnanls from their tiee with 
tho mother ooiintry, and tha revolntiona which then 
f(il!miir«d narrowed the limlta of La Plata; Tarija 
and Boma other diitricta on tho Cotdillera* beln^ 
annexod to Itoliria. while Paraguay beeame inde- 
pendent. TIte eammarcial nroeperity of the interior 
prorinoaa aaaoctated with Burooa Ayna depandad 
wholly oa tbo latbar, wUdi eetnaanded tba oatiano* 
of tha Paraad aad tba faitereoiDao with Snrape. Bat 
Duenoa Ajrea hOtA rignally la the attempt to ortab- 
liih freeilom on a baaia of good order and vtalnlity; 
aud Iu reip«ct to the aModalod pruvinoe* It waa 
always aetoated br a adtteh poUoy. Uence tha die- 
content and disoroeiaof the ■tab^ lletwoan 1610 
and 1&35 Baenoa Ayrea bad no fewnr than thirty* 
■Ik chaagee of govenunent. In 1S53 a eoaetitntioQ 
wu drawn np la which Bnonea Ayna was aipready 
nominated na tho caqtital of tho coafedemlaii^ ffi 
bopMof iuducind thb paworfol atatu to joJathaotiMn; 
hut it waa not till 1803 that BneDoa Aym bt^nina 
A pcnnanent aicmber of tho npubUe, In lb65 a 
war nommeaoed with Paragoay, which did not ceaeo 
till 1 ^70, thuu^ tho Algantiiiea lud th* llranliaoa 
a« their aUiea. 8<m PABaaoaT. By the ooortitu- 
doa of 1^53 the government Is a npnaotitatln 
eonfedetatiun. IIm Romaa Catholic religion la i«- 
eogiuxad aa that of tha atate. The federal gOTen* 
tonit baa the risht t<< luter* ene la the prorinoaa In 
oaae of lodition. Tbo diSsrent pmvincea oamrt 
eatahlisfa aopaiato ooatona datiiw. I'be l^ialattva 
power ia veated In a oongteM ol two chamber*. Thu* 
la one dopntr to the chamber fJ dapatlaa for every 
20,000 hibaUlaota. Tim depatUo are oloctm) for 
four yean, and are re-eUgibl& The lenale eoaiiaia 
ul two mombora frocu each atato, aketad for aiaa 

Cn by tbo legiaUtana, llie head ol tbe •xacoUva 
the title of pnddonL He aad tha vfoa-pnafalsat 



120 



PLATA— PLiTH-MflS! 



arevlee(«<luSntli»T7]dt«dSUtM. llwtn&ofoSico 
U tor >lx y«an. Tha Mtbutod mrann^ uoonUng to 
tlM budert for th« ;cir 1884, wm £6,102,000, tb<.' 
MtJniBted expFoditure Xa.-tii^.JKlO. 'I'liera U m U-U! 
pnbUc debt of jL'JO.OOO.OOO ct £t!J.0OO,O09 Khirliue, 
bvndoi thd dabtB due bjr tb« inuntd nravinoAi. 
Tbo Array oouubcd in 1883 of 7G1S men, ue mUilU 
■nd utioiikl gOMtU 3SO,000; tho nnvy mmpHaod 
ana aMfgoiag faoo-cJad, two unuuurud uiunibun, six 
gwboata^ Hrasl torpodn-bo&M, and a imiDber of 

•tMUMn. 

PLATA, Hir\ m l^ From tbe Arnlea uid tbe 
mounteiu ot BnuJI ri*«n «f great mngnitiiile 
JmcsmuI, mid meettog toi^tfaer pout tiudr uiuwd 
tnita* into the ocean throagfa a ootnroon outlet 
Thit ontlet ifl tbe ri^^ I.a )'lNt4i. wtitrti in in reality 
sot a rivFT <io niiicli hb au lAluarj' rvc^iviii^ greut 
rivvrR. At iw luouth, butweeu C'a|ie St. AuUrcio 
.ud Cape St. Mair, it hw a width of 171) mile* 
out CO miloa bigbi^r up, nrar Muuto Vtdwi, 
it in rKliicad to a width of S3 uilleB, Ita 
WHt^m ar« already qioit* fnich. At Bumos A^rt<B, 
ISO miloB fartbarupt the laud, beinz lov, la not viaihlc 
from th<! middio m th« atnara. Tho iancUon of tbe 
tributarv rivora wbicb ttana tHs canmuacMnrat of 
tbo Ia PiaU uVea place 34 to 40 mllo akove 
Bn«i» AyroE. The cumnt of this great river Ja 
perueptible in tho Atlanlic at a diatanco of 100 milca, 
or even SOO milm; yet tho dapUi of tha atroam la 
br so niMiia proponiuual to Its breadth. Above 
MoDt« Video its aavinblo chaimols am narrowod 
by saDd-hanki, and so uialEnr an ita aauUir.ra ■tiorca 
that at Buanoa Ayrea voatela of moderata mUo an- 
obUgad to anchor to ft tolliM frvnn IiLud. Even 
bocto oaniwt run fairly on ahoro, but are obliged to 
tranafor their paanngora to mdely-ooDstnicted, large- 
vhealoil cftrta, which couto; tham orvr aotno hundred 
yarda ud alialltnr water. Tho f^rmt rirera which 
unite to fono tbe La Plata are tlie Paranit and Uru- 
guay (which aeo). Uonta Video and Bucona Ayna 
ai« almoat the only porta of thu La Phwta vialt«d by 
foreign slups. 

PLAI'.-KA, a town in Itfi'otia, oc]ehmt«i1 for the 
battle in which tha l^crniaun, undur Mardiniius, wcrn 
defeatod by tb« UroekiL B.C!. 479. After X-rx^ 
bad lM«n dufuated at Smjui^ he ratumvd with tho 
Kreater part of Us foiees, but left SQ'Q.OOU men 
under Mardonitifl in ThetseaJy to inlluOBoe tho nego- 
tiatluua «f that oiMninaudcr with the Grecka. On 
tha f.iiluTv of his atteiDpta to un^tiatv Murdoniiu 
•dvanuud towards Attica, and laid waste dTcr^ihing 
with tin and sword. Om^ liiuidrtHl thooaaad Un^i^ka 
uuitrr Pkaaaniaa aud Aristido^ having solenuily 
■wum to prefor doath to sub j ligation, adranoud 
ac^aat tho Ferslaua, and the two arnies n»t near 
tEe anwll town of Platsa, BepComber 2S. Tbe lata 
of the GreeJcs was ioooiuddenkbic. Klardoniua fvll, 
and hardly one tvatii part of hia army cacapcd by 
flight; bat few over rstuniod to their country. On 
tbe same day the remnant of the Pernan fleet, which 
had eseAj«d fmm Kal&mif^ waa destmyed off Mycaln 
by the drcvkH tiiidt-r thu AUicuiiui \«jitUiii|i'is ajid 
Iba Spartan Leolychidca. From that time Grwco 
was freed from inraoioiut fmro I'«r«i^ The I'Ubr- 
ana distinguiihcd thcnuclvea both at Marathon and 
IlaLitB. Tn tb« Pelopouneaian wnr PIat.»-> aided 
with Atbotii. nod was bodegod ia B.C iti> by aThobun 
and LacMheaioniaii ferae. Hu tf^c lojttcd for two 
Tear*, whMi at last the nniMOWan <Mui)x-lk-d from 
faaux°r to aumender. They wera pat to th» aword 
and thoir dtj deatrayed. It was ruhiuU in accord- 
ance with the terms of the Peace ol Antalddas (35T), 
but the tnhabttanlB were soon after driven out by the 
Thebani^ and tho town waa not finally reoooapied till 
aft«T tbe battle of Clueronea. 



PLATANISTA, a cnrlotts genna bdongiag to tin 
order of CctMen or XVholiW, and umally indndsd In 
tho family nf the Delpbinidaj or DolpliiDa. lUs 
genus iiii-Iudra » tingla qnKin) only (/>. Oaafttiealf, 
wliirh iohiLhitg tbe catnary of the Ganges. ItlsdJa- 
tini^i^bed by the gmatly elongated tnosaU, by tbe 
auulL blue and rudimentary nature of tbo eyei^ and 
by the blow-holca or nmtrib cxiattng fa> tha team of 
a longitudinal grooive ur hature. ThiM (ona diBcn 
thus in many struetnnl points from tha onUnaiy 
Polphina, and alio differs from tbe other membwe 
of ita family in hning an inhabitant of fresh watea. 
Ita average length ia about 7 temb. An allied fonn 
(/nia Bolnimtit) aimilarly inhalnta the riren of 
Bolivia, and ia thua found at diataooes eomrtbnaa 
exceeding SOOO milee from tho aea. Kmnerana email 
ttvth exi.it iu hAh }»w* nf the I'tatan i ttidm. 

PLATE-GLASS. Sc« Gla!**. 

FLATK IVLVBKS. Gold and Raverphbebbgiay 
atampnl as bcio^ of a certain dcgroo of fiaenaai tX 
the IjoldmnilfiN' Ilall, London, this aaaay office* hi 
£(.linburgb and Dublin, and several pravincoal offleai^ 
aa in Blirainghnin and Sheffield. Tu prooeae oaoally 
aduptcd ia thftt after the artide ia naoaand etampwd 
witli the mnker'i D;uiie or marlc, it is aO&t In the 
titjldfiuitha' Hall or other aaMy oSice^ whet* a few 
fngmeatB ara acrapod off for tbe purpoae of a— l yjnj . 
If they do not crime up to the standard tbe artma 
ia bmlcen np; if they do, it la ataiu^i and rctnned. 
Tbo aaany-ofiiM rocolvM a tw for aanayin^ and else 
ctdlccta the soTommont dnty on the pJateu la the 
rim\-in(iial ofRoea the portion of the matwial telisn 
(ui aaaay log ia divided into two p^rte, one of which li 
ana^'cd, thoothnr put into a roce])ljU!la called tbe dleU 
Imis, wluch ia uuit u[i annoally to tbe royal mbC hi 
London. Tbe master of tho mint assays aome of tbe 
fragments, and if tbey are found deficient the aasay- 
oSioo !■ fined; if utinfictory, it reteirea a oartiScsbte- 

Tbe fiiK^i^ of vM is expressed iu catnta. The 
carat ia a weight of 4 gratna, aud tbe anppoeed dbU 
of ([uantity to which tlte analjaia refemd i> 34 caiata; 
thus when gold b aoid to be 18 carats fine it is meaat 
that eighteen ent of every twcaty-four |iaita ooarfst 
of fine gold, and six of olioy. Tho finonoes of sQnr 
ia aimilarly denoted by the niinibet of ouneee and 
irennyweiyhta liue tu 1 llx "ITiB di-Tji** of Goeoaia 
is now fivquently cxpreeccd in lOOuth parts, as Ja 
FVanco. Until 1854, S2 and IS earata wen tbe ooiy 
atandarda of gold legally ntamped, but li> meei foragn 
oompetltion gold luis aiuoe then b«ev allowed to be 
stamped of 16, 12, and 9 canta. Tbe itendanls toe 
ailvcr am II oz. S dwta. aad II as. 10 dwts.; tbe 
latUr, callei! new storihig; b eeldom oaed 

llie standard marit for plate of the Jmenees of oofa 
is in Bigland a Uoa posint, in Sootland a tUatle, in 
Ireland a bain crovmed; bvt in EngUnd, ehno 1M4, 
goldof 2'2 and 18 carataan^atjngniahed byaorown 
EuUowtHl by the niunLter of carata ; 16, 1!^ and 9 carats 
bear only tbe numben denoting their ftparposi in 
carats aad milliemee; aUvorof 11 w. 10 dwts. has 
ft Itritannio. All utamped artides bear also the 
iitaker'* uiorlc ur )tiiii;>b; a date mark, which ia in 
tha form o( a Miriablo letter; the ball mark, nr dia- 
tinctive mark ff the MMj-offioe, that of tbe Uold- 
■mitba' Cotopauy beins a leopard'a bead croame^ 
of Birmlnghain an andior, of 8be0teld a crown, of 
Edinbur^ a caatlo. of I>tuiUn a Hibtrma; and the 
dn^ naric, which la tha sovaraigo's head. The date- 
letter of the QotdaralllH* OfiOuBany began in Abyr, 
1710^ with A, in Itoman cafutalB; the cn\* conaieta 
of twenty lelterv, omitting J and enmig with U. 
Small Roman waa used for tbe soeoad cytdi^ Old 
English for tbo third, small RomML for the fonrtbi 
Roman capitals for the &tt}i, Homan small lettan for 
the elxtb. Old EngUab capitals for tbe sevcuth. Old 



I 





PLATE- I'O WD ER-PLATINtrai. 



m 



BBBlU«Mllktl«n r«rthe dj;fatli,uul Ronuui letlcn 
<tBpj*«h) tar tha nlatfa multBa in 16V5-VCI. 

riATB- POWDER. IM oxU* of bm, a]1«d 
ftwtOitnt nof*, U iIm bal povdor for ciwdn; 
nid; Cor wOrtr prop«rr(l ch»lk of the beet ouiiW 
AovU he iiiL Th^ powdi^r inaf be apnliea wita 
a pht»-bruli, aikd dtuiMUa-lMUwr or aort woollMt 
lagi and fa fiMwftig np tlw pbte, Mcccorial plAtc- 
ficnrds teLDJnriana. 

PUITOTO. Par Uie fivxm ot phtbg with iha 
ft^ekmt meUk now In tw>«t gnwru <uo sm Ei,kc- 
m>-rLATDio. Tba method wbicfafomusrlypNvuIiHl, 
iBd vfikh to itlQ a good deal need, thongli declining 
vador lh« taSoMioe of aleotiO-pUtiiig, b c*II«d Sbcf- 
fieU-fiUting. Tbo netel oomraoalj ubm] for (ibitinit 
wish lOTer VM et one dme copper alone, or aJlojeil 
wllh fanes; bat Qermaa HUver or Bomo wluto mcUl 
«lk>; to iM>w gcoeraUjr iwol, h it docn not di*c»1mir 
ihe plKCe wbcM the ccMting of silvrr bvcranM tliin. 
GoU to fWianUj plated on ellver. la Sbemeld-pUt- 
tag tha euparior ntPtal u Laid on an iagd ol the infa* 
nor, MM or both Bd«a of whkii mar be eoverad. with 
It «< the mfttlr^ thlclowML Wfaen the mt€K«a 
ktm bMD cavoUy prepare^I ths ^nr plato is ooaUd 
wfib a atfonc MlotioD of boras and appliod to tb« 
tagoi. Thej are \3uea Bnnljt Unmd wiLli irtin-wire, 
md ■abfecte'l to a Mrang beat in a plat loir-f urn Hoe. 
Wbaa ttn fuiog-poiiit to altooat raaclwa the act 
<i widethg taua tdaofc and they are fnunadtote!; 
«— loraii fran the fnmaoe. The plate b aftarwanda 
beoa^k Id the reqaired tUdmeM ia a noUing-niill, 
lim mkng and the aUoy iBniptaiaintt the wmn mt- 
pertlaaale flilnlrii— i luooghoaL Umamentol bor- 
&B and moiJiWwgi an made amarataly of ttua nlvor, 
^ BUad with laad. 

PLATUfUM to a metal of modem diacoi^ry, and 
«■«§ Hi aaiDa ta tho idaa at first rat«nalDod of ita 
faeiM nlafecd to nlrcr, it hoing a <liittiu»t)vc of tho 
9pa^ili wonl pbdia. Wn ihall fint dnmbe iia ore, 
iIwiimIiiiIiiI fai miiienJovy nMiK ptatiaum. It 
oeans la itrj uuull, urvKuliirly funnnl Knuca^ of 
■oe«aa aarfaot^ OMtaUy Hiatt«n«d, and having the 
tofbeiag worn by attrition. Tbefaredea- 
t al daavaga, and poaeaad of a haold; fractore; 
feMtoe netoUie; odoar peifaet ateel-gray; ttavtk nn- 
etaagadandehining; ductile; bantneM a little above 
Mai el floor-mr; i^tedfie BTavHy 17'3. It nenorally 
•BDlalna ■ HttU ItDO, and to aoomnpaniod beddcH uy 
!ri 't l Tlini*T ffir" r^"'*"'", palladiutn, ruthenium, atid 
iba aiaiiiliima by oopper, ehmniiinn, nad titaiuuiu. 
b to veey rebaotorr, and eolulile uuly !q ultiu- 
■iriate add. TKe ptaeoi in whirh it occmrB mraly 
«Mead a few grains in aieight. It Ilm hern fniind 
oclneipally Lo ■otmodarydcpna!te,andwaa6i»t brought 
MB Ym, and front Clioco In New Oreosd*. It 
■lee oeean fat Bmil and Sl Doml&ge; but h now 
aiMa ia the tatfest qaaati^ from Eubeila, whars H 
to fieaod In the anriferaie eands of Kuschwi^ in tha 
UnBao If orniaiu. The richest bods of tbeM nadi 
M« fa^Bk 3) to fi feet fai tbicknees. and yfdd ben 
1 to S Iba. flf toettl for about STiiu tha. of tatid. 
Ifaliia plstiaam is also atrandaot on tbe wcslcn 
■bpa wt the UraUau Uoaataina. Mora recently it 
kw bean (ooad In a itonltl*! rock, along with oxlile of 
ban aad gctd. Ute grafna Is which h oocnmd poa- 
aBHad the eame shape aa those fbnad ia tbassiids. 
TUi leealitj to near Santa Bwa, la the pioviaoe of 
•Aatloqala ia Xaw Qmiada. 

Tbe mrthodt anqilo^ed for ohtaiiung the pure metal 
from lie oia an two^ namely, the inotbod ot WoUae* 
tea ami the nethod at Debray and DeTiUe. Accord- 
Sag to the foniMr method the crude platioum to 
dfaaelTad in aqua ngia. The add ihoold be allomd 
fa digeel three or four days, with a heal whldL <aghl 
gndaally to be vetoed. The solotiMi, being then 



poured off, ebonld be mfi^red to «tanil antll a quan- 
tity of fine pulvcmlenl am uf iriiliuin, inisp«ndcd in 
the liquid, li&a (MmpleUly eubeidwi, and xhoiild then 
be tniz^ with a solutioii of ohloride of ammijuiuin 
(tiiA salt heinc dUeoWod in five Uniea iU wvi^ht of 
water). A yelluw precipitAU' iif Lho t[<jublo cblnride 
of ammaDium and platianm will immodiatcly fall, 
which moat be well washed in order to tree it frvm 
the varjena ImputltieB known to csiit in native plat- 
inum, and must ultimalcty be well prcaicil in <u^1ct 
to rainov« tho Inst remnant nf tho wuhliif(>. It H 
next to bu beatvd with the utnu^t caution it a blaok 
lead pot, wiUi to low A hrat as jiut to eipet the 
whiilr of tb« ilili:>ri'iri nf aiumnniuin, and to occaaian 
tha particlea ct pUtiiiuin to culi«ra a> Uttle as poa- 
iilble^ fur oD tblu <l>.'peDda the ultimato dnotility at 
tho prwluct. When tamed out of the cniciUu it will 
be found of a gray colour, and it prepared with diM 
procauUon, lightly oobeu:«nt. It now requires to b« 
rubbed betweon, tho handi, in onlor to ptooan, by 
the gontleat iacaa% ae much m con po«dbly be ao 
obtaued of metallic powder, m fiuu as bo pass throogh 
a Rue lawn sieve. The ooanwr parts are then to be 
ground In a whxxIvd IkiwI with a wooden ifeatle, but 
iHi no acomint with any tiarder matcfial, capable of 
l>umi»tung tlLo particles uf plntioum (because bnr- 
niihed perLlolee of platinum will nnt wclil); and, 
indeed oi^'ery dcervoof bunuabiaji wtiujd prevent tbe 
paiticlca from ouherlng In tbe further Blag«a of tha 
prooMs. And oiuLn platinum cannot bo fwied at any 
(ir^iiia^ fomaoe h<^ and oonsoquontly cannot be 
freod Uko other ax.-tals from Its Imptmtlea during 
IgneouB fuokin by HuxtB, nor be nsdemt hooogane- 
ous by lluuvfaction, mechanical diffusion through 
wat«r should bars ba made to answer, an far aa may 
be, the piuyDsea of melting, bt allowing earthy, mat- 
ters to cooiB to the aorfaeo by their li^tBtai^ and is 
wiring the Ktlveat powm of water efled, as far aa 
poaalb^ the pnrifying powera of borax and other 
noxea, In removing eoluhln nridoa. Hj repesitad 
wnabtng, ahakiDg, and decanting, the finer parts of 
tiie gnty powderof platinum may bo obtained sa pure 
as ouior mdab are rendered by the variooa pro o eM u s 
of metallorgy; and If sow pouivd ovor. awl allowad 
to subMde in a dean barin, n uniform mud or pnlp 
will he ohtained, ready for tho Turtber proocan a 
ca«ting. Tbe Diould to ba need for carting tbe m»- 
tallic powdor to a braas barrat, 4} Inchee long, turned 
rattinr taper within, with a view to tadlitate the 
extraction 'iif th» iii^^t lu be fomied, being 1*12 Inch 
In diameter at top, and 1*^3 inch at J indi from 
tbe bottom, and plugged at its lamr extremity with 
a utopper ii steel, tlut entera tbe barrel to the depth 
of I Inch. The inside (d the monld being now wdl 
grwMed with a little lard, and the stopper bKus fitted 
tight into the baml by aumondlng it with Uottfag 
paper <for the wer fsHlitatea lbs eitractioa al Uw 
•topper, and aUowa the eacape of wator during coo* 
pRwiaD), tha ban«l is to be set upright In a'jug at 
water, and to Iteolf to be filled with that fluid, ft to 
neit to ba Ulod qoiie fuU with tbe mod «( platlonBi, 
which, snlaidiiu to the bottom of the water, to •an 
to fill tbe barrel without oavitisa, and with mttfonn- 
ity — a ualfoTmlty to ba nadarad perfoet l^ nhes- 
quent presanri^ In order, howerer, to gnard afTeoo 
tually wainat oavitica, the baird may be waighad 
after fitUng il, and tba actnal weight of its cmtenla 
being thus aaotrtatned may be oumpared edtb that 
Weight of platinum and water whii:b tt to known by 
eetimate that the banel oagfat to ooalain. A dreu- 
lar piece o< aaft papev first, and then ot woollen elolli, 
being laid Upon the raifaee of the haml, allow tbe 
wat«r to pBM dwiBg partial BompriJua oj tba loroa 
of tbe httid with a wooden pl«g^ A drcolar plate of 
DOppirr tolhen plaoad npea tne top, and thus suSdeat 



122 



PLATINTTM. 



ooDsUt^ncy fa s)v«b to til* ooBtenfei tn iiUnw of thn 
bwrul bciDc laid horizcadAlly in » furcinii iirvm. 
Alter comprettion, whEeh 1» to bo curled to tbo 
utmost li&iib), the elujiper at tho cxtromity bcin^ 
taktin out, tliu cnko nf ptiitiniim will rjuilv hv ntimorctl 
Mring to tlio Lonictd furm of tho bwrvti and bciujf 
now M bard and linn th&t it may bo handled wit bout 
dingorof bncoldDg, it is to bo placed iipvin achunml 
fir^ and tb«n» boated to redaoH, in orcler to drive off 
molBtiiK, bum ofl C™*"> b^ ff^^^ ^*' "' ^ flnner 
dogiM of ceboaion. IIia caka ia next to bo hcatod in 
ft wind>furaACC, and for thia piirnnae it i' t" bu r:U.ic(l 
apon an earthen ataud, about 2^ indiea abuvu tbo 
giata of tba fumaea, tb« stand being ctrewn ovor with 
m \Mjtr of dean qmitzoao land, on wliieli the cako is 
to M placed, itandiay apriffht an one ai lla endd. It 
ia tbm to ba aoTe(«d with an Inverted cylindrical pot 
q( thv ooRt nSmetary craciblo wam, mting at itu 
open end on tho layer nf auid, and ciuc ia to bo token 
tbat the aidoi of ibe put do uuL toucb tlie cake. To 
pr«v«i)i th.« hliiit«<ring <if the platinum by bftat, whirh 
U tho naual defect of thU motol in it* uniiiaiiulacturcd 
state, It ia e*iMintial tn expoae the ooka to the moHt 
iotuiaQ hcAt Ihiit a wind-fumnco can bo made to 
loonva^ moTD intACiae than tlxi ptatinam can troll bu 
nqolnsd to beur utider any ■utnL-iiuuiit treatment, k> 
tbat al] ImpurillcB may bo totally drivoa off. Tho 
fnrnaco i» fed with coke, and the action of the tiro 
maintained far about twenty ntbmbea £roni tlia time 
of lighting it. Hie c&ko li now Co be removed trova 
the furoacc. and being |4accd upright upon an anvil, 
la to be atniok, wliili.' hot, upon the top, with a heavy 
hainiuur, ■<) nM at oue lieatiii); efTiK'tuiuly to cIom Lbe 
iiuiI>L If in tbia proci'sii thv riliniEiT iiliciiild bocnnie 
bent it mtut on nu aoouunt bu uauunorcd un the aide, 
by wbtob treatment It would be cracked Immediately, 
but mnitt bo atraitened by blows given upon Ibc 
extremttivs, dmlnroiiily dircctiHt, hi u to rciliica to 
a Straight line tfai; inirtit tluit i>r<ij<.'rt. Thv iti^iit of 
platinuia when cold may be rcducod by tliv pruceuea 
vt btfHthi); u.iid furifing, like any other met<^ to any 
fonn tbnt may bo required. AftST farj^ng, the lajM 
ia to be oleannrl frrm tho formEinniis eeake wtiKh 
ila BurfaoD in apt Ui cuntract iu the fire, by wnaaring 
over its auiface with a Ricjiet«n«id mlstmv ol equ^U 
part*, by nmsure, el crynollhod bonut and conunou 
■alt of tartar, which, when in fnalen. Is a ready sol- 
Tent of Hnoh irupuritita. whito it does not ad, like 
canatic potaah, upon the plntinnm iteli. It is then 
to be expo*e(] upun a }^'lat^um tmy, under an inverted 
pet; to the heat of a wind-fumaoe. The ingot may 
then be tiattMind into leaf, drawn into wire; or »iib- 
mhted to &ny of the prooeiHa of which the meat 
doctilomotalsBreEspablo. The meanspeclfto gravity 
of the metallio coko of platinum powder, whiea taken 
from the pnu, la 10 ; tluU of the Mke folly contracted 
bybpBtjbcfure f(ei;ing, is from 17 to 17*7; that after 
iatglni; iHalntit 21-2fi; and tliat of win SI'S, being 
the maximum density of this metaL 

The proocsa ol UevlUe and Ilobray diiTon entirely 
from Umt just described. It coansta in forming an 
ewily foailue alloy of lead and platinum, and then 
remoYfas the lead Iqr cupeUatlen. The pUtinum ore, 
mixed witb an eqmu weubt of galena, ia introduced 
into a email Terarbatary fumacc, where it is strongly 
heated, lilhar):e boinK added bom Udm to time, lliv 
Bulphnrof tlie galena is gradually «p«lt«d, while tho 
rethtccd lead uoitee with the pUtinam to form on 
alloy which ia liquid at the temperatnre i>f the fur- 
nace. Ills foreign metals sink to the bottom of tho 
fomaea The liquid alloy is now tvntovvd and mjb- 
tnlttad to the nrDoeM of cupeUation in the ardiuuy 
way, wheretiy Um lead b removed. The eniiie plat- 
intnn Is now reRand by fnaion al tlia t(![nprtiiturB of 
tha oxyhydroevo flame For this pur]iLite the metal 



in placed in a craeiblo made of w^-bomed Um^ i 
tliu uazile vt tbe bluwijipe b anaagod ao that 
jlame shall play around this eradbla By this me 
the mrtal i* i^itickly melted, ia which state it may 
be CMt into iuHuts. 

Pure plaliuum has a wtdte ooloor, very mocb Uk* 
that of silver, but it is inferior in loatre to ^lal laetaL 
lU moIlrAliility is far \i:ta than that of gold oreUtS', 
but Huppriur to that vl ttii. It insy be drmwa into 
wires not thicker than ths 2000tb put of aa tech. 
It b a aoft metal, and, liko iron, adnuta ol haa^ 
welded at a high temperature. A wire one-tcoth 
uf au inch support* 590 lbe. without bnalduj;. Aa a 
Doncl.uotor of heat it ranks liut w een Eold aul ailnw. 
It ondergoe* no cbontfe from the eoBOMaed. aceBi? ef 
air and moisture, and it nay ba axpoMd to the 
strongest heat of a unith'a forge without nflering 
vitbcr oudatiun or fusion. On beating a amall wira 
of it by means of galvaabni or tbe oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe, it is fueed. and afterwarda bonta willt the 
ctnisnon of iiparka. I'ljttinum is not attacked fay any 
of tbe pure add*. lU otily solTeota are efatorine sad 
nltro-muriatic add. wUdi set upon it witli greater 
difEonltv than oo gold. The raaaltiag oraace-iai 
coloorea liaoid, from which the exceM M aold uioald 
be oxpellea by cautious evapomtloi^ eootafaia tetta- 
ehloiido of plAtinum. Platinnm in a fiiidy ^vided 
state has the power of alieorbing and ooDdmslng luge 
'quantities of ^asea. By taking advautsf^ of tide 
factobomlcalaotlouinay etnnotimos bsbroaght about 
betweca gaeoi which, under ordinary rtireiiiniiaiicea 
do not react opon each othi^r. Tbna if a ubrtBM of 
oxygen and aulpfaur-dioudo be iiaMid over heated 
■pnn^ plntumin, an tho finoly divided metal is called, 
liivy uuitv to form sulphur trloslde. So if a }«t of 
hydrogen be allowed to impinge upon epoogy plat- 
inum it w soon ignited, beenuse the ptathmm fcaa 
abaorbed and condenaed on ilm own surfaca a lasge 
MDonatot Mmonberio ornm iritb which the bydn>- 
gen is bronght into waA attb oontaet that oanUo- 
atioin tak<» plJKw. 

On aocouut of its great InfaribOity, and tta powtr 
genoraily of withstanding the action of ehcatcal 
rodents, platinum ia mndk used aa a material for 
making tfumiI* to Iv used in the chemical laboratocy. 
Cn>dblt«, (•VBfK.mlliig ditbe^ Ao., an rary cfteiti 
made of pktlnum; so oIm tb« large rtilhi used for 
the oTMwration of nilpbinlo acM (wUeti aee) are 
made of thia metaL Altbougb unacted upon by *o 
many cfaemlcal reagents, platinum reses b nust m»nr- 
thaloas be oted with caro. Eadly reducible oxides 
suiilh as odde of lead, muat net M heated la thwn 
vnoela, nritlicr tuuBt tbfy be ezpoMd to llie action 
of mojst cldorine, of hot caturttc potaafa, ti aqoa 
rag{a,ftc: 

The naeftil alloys of pl&tinnm are not numeroua 
With sDver it forma a tolerably fiMsble white alloy, 
mnlleablo and brilliant when nnluhed; bnt it ecals* 
and blaekeua by workioh'. Gold, by a fo^e beat, 
n^mbinoBwlth platinom, and tho aUoys, in all pm- 
jMirtiona, ara more fusible than the latter metaL In 
Ibo pro)>ortion of 9d m. to 1 os. it fonoa a yeUowfib 
whltt!, auctile, hard nlloy: H b » alartic anar ban- 
mcring tliat it baa hfeu pr(ipo«od to u>c it f or watd- 
■pringi. Mercury, by tritumtiDn with ^nngy plat- 
liiuui, fciTuui an amalgam at iirst softt bat wLMisoon 
becomee finn. and hH bean antch need in obtaining 
mallealite platinum. A coating of platinnin can M 
^ivtu tticjpper and otbcr inetala by applying tO Ihooi 
an juiutlguo nf rpnagj plKiinum, and 5 paita of n wr 
cury: tbu latter metal is then TolatiUaod by kaaL 
Lead comblaea with platinum readfly: aad wm md 
copper in tike manner; the last mentioBed, wImb 
Added in the tnn{iortJan of 7 to 18 of platinnm asd 
1 of aluc, ana tvaai to a cniciUe under diarMa) 



PLATO. 



ISS 



I 



I 



pswdcf. UnOM Um tlOny aSi^A utifidal gold Steel 
■sifeM with fiUUiKan'lo kll propurtloos, «nd «pe- 
diDj [o Um gveportaoo of fnrn 1 to 3 par cv&t. of 
fiilfauB&, toRBi a tongh uid teiutdoiiii aUoj, mil 
•dkbted for eattiog IwMnuneiits. AtMnic onitM 
Mid; witli platiDun, uxl wm niiM employwl for 
wa ri i rin g Iks htur aietal fttublo. Ao kUot of 
ylillniiw, ifidiniD, mi4 riiodliim Is iumI for nuulng 
w rib lo, Ac. It M budsr Ibim pura pUtinom, u 
Um VMlly attaclMd bjr shcinical ra^anU, and bean 
& l^^MT taSMraUin witbmit fating. 

t^tioaiD focBM two ciiiaridm,j>Minout Maridr, 
PtCU Aod fJafMiie thioridt, PtCU Tbc Ultcr in 
aAca twed in tbo hbontur? aa a t«t lor potwlum 
•■ka; h U prodawd bjr dteolring the nwtal tat aqna 
■ifli, and ronovlBg Im nitric ku by npoated otb- 
pot rt ifla with hydrodiloria acid. Ilie oxidMof pUt- 
lOBn an tikawwa two in nnmb»r, platinoiu axittt, 
7tO, and fiatimk mdt, PtO,. Tbii metal forma a 
wy Intcmtilif MttM of M>-eallcd jUatinumpumia 
MmptMMdlf ia whidi varTEng amouab uf uuiuunb 
MB ■■**»' witli «hk(T a platinoUR «r plnfinio niiU; 
tbaa V« har« rfitniunORiu-p/atiiDoiM thl/rrid*, 2 N H c 
FtCl,; iftMiw>)u<>-fJatiin>cAZoru{(,2NH..PtCI,: 
■Bdaooa. 

PLATO, tlia dMciple of Socnt«a, Mid timncter of 
•naof tbagmtiduiMBof Orodcphuotupby. It waa 
daring tha poUlteal doclin* of AtbDn^ in the period 
44 Bpaitaa and TlMbaB aaooidenc;, and cf tbe riw 
of l^liandoniMupowtr.lluttPUlofloiirHlMd. TIm 
faw paftietUan ol oia UfowUtdl bav« bMO prMtrrod 
ai» lBt«lr«d in coaiidaaUeohfeuri^aiid iraoortaiatj-, 
wUl« tlM MOpa the; afford for aapUftoMlon, aa wdl 
at tbo (ToaA intertat atladung to thom, hu lad ba 
VUtlJ apocrjpbal additima Doing mado to thnm, 
whithw la tha fana ot Eaferaaiwvr of purviuvoutiou. 
Ba wMb w i* mppoaed. Dm aon of ArietoD and 
FigfaliuiMr, aikd wai twin at AUwo* or in tlio lalaud 
if J^taa, pnbiUr «a S7tlt IlCvr, l.u 424 or ii'. 
H« waa oripaally aaaud Ariitoclca, ofbo hi* grand- 
£ubar. Hia fatMr elainwd d«Ment from Codnu^ hia 
malfcw favst a nlalin ol Solon. Hia matona] tmclaa 
OMaa and Charmldea im« diKJpka and oompauiona 
4 8o*ntaft. Plato afipaart to Lave b«eD laatiuetod In 
^prtadiialacknecaoflbedM'.partioulariTjnMninar, 
taaJc, and MrtpnMtion by the bcit nMuitjit». Tlienainiia 
<< aaviHral o( Ui inttnictora am |[tten, but uiH uU on 
anqaaalioDod aatfaorit;. Aristo of At^o^ hia leaclwr 
fl( ijiiHiialha, ia aaiil to hare nv«o him tho namo 
«l Flato OB aocDniit tif tho broaiiKh of Ui ■houldera. 
Thm* af« othar acoomta of tho origin of thl« namo. 
Ib Ua joatb bo fe laid to ban ecaundiNl in tbo 
*—*—***■ and other samu, aad tohavo made att«mnt« 
fa tfkt, \yna, and oithjramhio poctiy. Be U aliw 
Kg ygwd b> ha«o ■oned in aotno c»tnpaig|v<, and 
bj law ba would bo UaUo to mllito^ acrvicc at tbo 
If* of Mcfatatn. Bafore bocomuig Ao<iiuli)tod with 
Ifaaalta no atpaan to ha<ro boon instract«d in th« 
doertaaa of Hwaelltua bjF Cntjriua, ami he waa pio- 
h^bhr im4 BBaoquaintod with outer oumot ijn^ua 
Ol ^Aoaophf. It waa b; eonunoa acmunta in hia 
kmtialli real that ho came direct]* ondcr tho 
lafaanoa of Socrataa, and from thta tiaio he ga«« 
UaaaU aatlrvlj to philoaophx, dratrDjiiiA It b nid, 
Ut aariy aootioal comiwdtioiu. Until tta daath of 
Sotialaa (&£. 399) bo appeaca to bare bean hia con- 
rtaat and tavoarlto popnC ITkaro an ladacid no pr»- 
cb* aeoooDta uf Id* totweounewitfa 8oorat«,but hia 
vwD wrttfaiga afford tito twstovldaieoof ita tstimaay. 
Tbedeathol Socratoa fonu tbo iMiood turaing-polnl 
in tho life of Plato Pinto waa praacnt at tho trial, 
to gaaraatoo any fine to wkidi Socimtaa 

,_ be mbja^ad. Ba ia said to bare attouMed 

^ to ufmk, Imt to haro be«a (wt down by tho judges 
B Ha waa alacnt from IDaom oo the day of SocnSeaT 



I 



death, and did not hear hi* laatoonvEnuttinna. Aftrr 
thu AvMh of Sucnit*^ P1ftti:i UTt AUk-ih, betAkliia 
hiiUHlf (intwiLhotbfirdiHciplacf SocntM to Euclid 
at Alcgara. Wbct)t<--r he miimnd to Athena l:«fora 
hia aubaequent joumeva is uuc«rtaia. Friendahip 
for rhoprlonia, or the dmiro to porfoct bimaalf In 
tnatbematica, lod him to Cyceiie, where ba epaal 
ninetlmo in etodylnc mathenuStOBundarTheodania. 
H« th«n riaitod Egypt, where he etadicd aatrooomy; 
perha.pii Aaia Minor; the Greek cittca of Ijowor Italy, 
apparently to ac<|uaiut binuelf with the doctrine and 
focial orguniutic'n of the INthagoteana; and SJdly. 
'r\\i> ordir Atiil put-pivio of Mcau joumoya arc difier- 
mtly nUted ; »<]uio at them ara qneaUoncd altogothor. 
While igmo Imvo atbributad to um adedcn, m Ibell 
highly probable, to make himaflU aeqnaintod with all 
tlvB leanuDK ci nia day by penonal vinU to it* chief 
aeate, aad bare wE^out eviJeD'oe extenti^d 1i!> tour 
by aapposed viaite to tho Htbrows, Babyloniana. 
AMyiiiuut, Petaiana, ftc, from th<i kDowlv<lgc of their 
iDalltutJoQa ceoitaiuod !u hia w^rka, olhi-ra havu fniletl 
to tind in thrji(> .iriT dintinct tnuvii of informntiim 
uoijutivdurun in hia autbeutio jouraen which might 
not have lieeo att^ed at Athon. Bis 8»t viilt to 
Sicily took plaoe when he waa aboat forty yave 
d( age. Ho onnvcrtcd Dion, tho bmther-in-law of 
DIonyBtua tbe KIder, to hia views; btit Dlonyrioi* 
acGonlins to tho cconmoiii repottt, rMonted Ua.admo- 
nitictns, tn^atod hitu aa a priaooer of war, and add 
him to the S|iiLrt»n amhnaaador PoIUa, from whooi 
he was named by the Cyrvuian Annloerla, TUa 
Ktory ii of doobtfnl anthcntidty. About ii.c. 380 
or 8SS Plato ntarocd to Atbeiia, and liegan to toadt 
in tbe gymnadtun of tbe Academy, ailuatod ouliude 
tho dty in a north-wRstnrly directfon, and abont 
€ or ij vtaditt from tliu Dipylum Cute, and in hia own 
g&rdcn at Colonita, in the immediate nelgbhoarhaod. 
Ul- appcora to Iiatl- hod a patrintODJ Mffickst fee 
hlj wants, and taught nitbont nmvneiation. Tba 
inner circio of hia diadplea, who numbered alwut 
lwiuily-df,'htv aBa«mliI«dat simple meals in his ^-ardL-n. 
Plato's tmrcbing was tntetroptod by two rnila to 
SyracoK^ tbo fint oo the BooMskm «« Btooyaiua IL, 
in order to ioatmct Um in philoeo^y; tbe aeomid 
in BlC. S6I. to raooocile Dion with Dtonytfoa. W» 
ftfforla on Itoth ocrwiiwa woe nnaocoeannl, and caa 
tbe tattor be owed hia own. aafety only to the eaniaat 
lataroewloo of Aidiytaa. Daring his absenca Ua 
place WM anppliod m aa^ of his mora intimate 
pimils, of whcm Henoudas Ponticua !■ uuihm]. With 
tbu uoeptioD the whcJe of tbe mnsJader of hia life 
was spaot at Athma in giTing mBOnetian ud con- 
pmdng hk worlm. He med B^. 347, lii tbe et^ty* 
first or eighty-fourth year of his afsi By Ui wfll 
his garden nnnained the pn>porty of Us ecCooL H« 
to Hid to bat-e died whde wiitlnj:; by othen at a 
manisee feaat. 

Plato was in penonal aprasoruicc dbliiwm^ied by 
manly beauty. Bia nina «■■ eoduwed whh Iba 
U^^ieet qaalitlHL To a creatjro Imaginatkin of tba 
EraC cedar he added logical, aoalytiMJ, and coostrae- 
tivo powaia cf eomd eminenoe. Above all he waa 
penetrated wttb tae oonvtetian of a hormoa* fn tbe 
caivoM cf bring «cblch led to the oonoeptloa of • 
Ugh ideri of life, and attppUed blm wllb tbe etiengtk 
of puTpoee coABietently to maintain it lUi be pro- 
bably owed to bia oonnectioB with Sooalea; and 
towaHs the does of hia Uf e he Is said to bare dacland 
It a happy dispmsatiaa for him wUdi bad nade htai 
a oooltfmponuy of Socraloa. One of Uie finest train 
in thechanctcrof Platoniss bia unswerving dcrotiaa 
to Us gntX teacher. After the death of Soerateo 
Uw sldv pUIeaopber eMODed a kfaid of laoped and 
ideal ehaneter aa tbe penoniflealioa of jJiHj»«|AIi»1 
wisdom in tbe teaching of his dfadple^ Tbe whole 



124 



PLATO. 



of tb* wrfdon of Vtata. wUdi kn b tba tern «( 
dlakgoc^ an iWihawni by Uiu chwwto-. Socrates 
flm Um dlM paM tium^^lKKit, while be tiiiiiiH ■ 
tmSf amam or twin mrtiaiwd. It It thm oAm « 
a^teof 4IBea%to<fiMint:dab bttmao tiworigtad 
iMchhig of SooMm aod toe eotnattnos or ilevalof^ 
■mfel Of Plata A^fM-M Piato hiraeelf tacoocensd, 
H (> by BO Beam mci— nr that thb •boald be daa«. 
Af ti« bu Aomn to [daobfy hisHcU whb tbe toacb- 
iag uf Ua Buuttr, it woald B«rve little pamoae to 
dnv ft distinction wbich li« bae not himMtt orvd 
to ■mIc. It tmjr, lurwcver, be obeurvd gane ra l l y 
thkt tliat for wUcb Fbto Menu cUedr bdatiied to 
SocrMM it tb«o«itnl ediienl parpoM wUdi dirtlii- 
goMtm alike ttie doctrine of iMtb i^iloaopben, i^ 
that the boldar apMuUtioiDa aad mxrv ilariiig met^ 
pbydcal UoralapiMBta «f tba joiat ■>it«m an hia 
own. 

The work* tt Pltto, wlud) were nnlj mpnlomcn- 
%Mt\ tn hi* onU teaddoif, have, by the tlnUful care 
of bU diadi'ln, UwD pRacn'ed intact. Tkia luu not 
prei-cnt«tl their admixture with aona of the works 
of hia c*riivr (1i»:^{ilix, uul oven of aome of a con- 
taderahily Utor ttato, which hAn rroilercd the nurle «f 
IdMittftcAlIuii one at •uuie ilidicnltr, and lut lod to 
gwajdarabto dUfenaoo of opinloa In ref^anl to loino 
treaUaea. 'Jltoae worka which ham hean. mentioned 
by AriaCutle an geiieaallj contidered aa the beat 
attMteJ, but tbla b sot alway> nuardad b; crittoi. 
The repiit«<] works of Plata eonsut oi Dialogiiea :a\A 
Iiottenk Tha latter an generally rrsanlo] m vpuri- 
oua^ though aonie of tfaem were pioWbl)- mgnjMMed 
by inunodia.t« diadplae of Plato. Ilio onler uf ootn- 
pcdllon of the Dttloeooa i« alao a matter of mnch 
irapoftwiOB and of gnu difficulty, Ariatophanea i4 
lijnantinia amnged tbstn in tnlogiea; Thraayllua, 
tha Two-Pytbagoraan, in the time of tbe KmpcTor 
Tibeiiua, b nine tctnJociet,Ba followa: l.EutbypbroQ, 
Apok^ Crito, PtuMo; 2, Cratjlui, ThaBt«tua, 
Hoi>bIatM^ I'oliticua; S, Pannautdw, PbHebii^ Oon- 
vivium (Banqurt), Pbndnu; 4, AtdUadea 1 and % 
Htpjiarehui, and AnteraH*: 6, lliMgM, Charmidea, 
Lachea, Lyids; 6, Bulhydtmni^ Protagwaa, Citirfpaa, 
Mono; 7, tifiipiju mnmr ttnil minor, Ic^ Meii«xi<niu; 
8, Clit^-jvlioti, K^jfubbc, Tinwciw, Critiiw; ». Minoi, 
liogn (Laws), LplIloDlic^ EpUtoki ^Tjctten). 'lie 
tint nttompt at a mora cntical arrautfuiuuut wan 
miult: by Sddeiennacher, «vha nitantnir a. dulKtic 
amuigament Iota three dSiblciD*, in ibe fint (^^ 
wUoll rinto'v «])cciiU dootrino of ideaa [a oontainMi 
In gpm; in tho acMHtnil the iliircrenoc Imtwoou the 
common and pltUoaophiuJ luiiteptiun of ihioga i* 
dlaledically tnateil; iti tlin thin] tiiv practivnl di^u- 
trinea of bh pbtloaopby are d«vi4op»d aud ooniDlolad, 
Brandia, wbo mbttantially igTMa with Biudeicr- 
macher, Qbaerv«d that thia nmagtanMA dooa not 
aaoaiaariiy ini]>ly & cbn;u<i1(4;!i:al order or a plan 
cmnptttcly dov«lo|Hxl In advanpo Co all Its dutaila. 
It la aaffldcot that Plato ihonld have conniTed 
tba laadlnc nointa of bla system befon adopting 
•uoh a meukod of develomng ik and lie ndjiibt at any 
tina «ndeb any part tn Ui pkn wiib fnab difcua- 
alosa ■^■■{pt*^ to ^0 dcgTM of dovdoptuent attainod 
in it. Ta* Itiadltig worka In SeUeiennacber'a <ir^ 
Bootinn an) I'ba^rui, I'rotagoraa, Pannenldaa; la Uie 
•wond, lliewtetu^ Sonbistai^ PoIiii«tu, Pbedo, aad 
PbOttbua; In the third, the Repnblicv TinuMM, and 
CMUm m prindpal, and the Leg«a aa adjuad Hlt- 
mann baa atlentoted to make out a chmnalogical 
anwuemont, and other aoliolan who differ from 
SoUwinaelwr bate attempted varioug tbooria of 
Moalrvstlva Hnngaamt. 'I'heae achemea in general 
CTOOe a d on tba aauuptiui that each cILalugne, baddei 
tialng an aitlaiio wbol*^ f onna a link In a chain. Tbio 
ia denied br Grote^ who doaa aot adult that Plato 




foUowad nyplnaIlfan>artMlD«rAbclIfe Ea«h 
^alone, accorainf to hfas^ t e p wa m ta the alate ef 
Plat^a mbd at the time H waa c wanpoae^ and i» it 
aot a iaiM a ry toaBfpoaa that inwritiBg tb a rii a l oy 
of raaaarch aod tnqairy Plato waa alnady En paai^ 
doa ol tike aolutinn ooataiuM in the oooatratilva 
dUogoea. Tb«diakubtB2oEpn:i<Mli««sandiMaBAiag 
ontoTdiScoltieabaaitadf avaloe^and tfaedialagDM 
of nseardi pcaaeat *a and In tbenaalveau The laat 
obaenratiait is tnt, but Onta'a afpc^attbiii ti it 
aecma to do acao^ joitiee btrtb to Itate and hia 
u m iii Mi ii lB haa and to joati^ tbe oomplaint tha4 
OrMa baa tnated Plato mm tlie poLat of Hew o< a 
faittariaanthartiiHKtf aphQaaopber. Tbeeridcnoaa 
of dialectic akiU inpicipaiag themindof tbelnqnlier 
by the difBcnhJaa oontalned in tba eariier dialognea 
fcr tbe aolntioos praiaatad in tba later an tfaia bypo- 
tbeda go fornothing. Tbe aMdests of Plate an sot 
poepanxl to nject tbeae eridenoea, and it la 'Jifriy 
oaie thing to aay that Itato'a plan baa not baas £•■ 
oovimd. aad another to aay that ba bad aooak Baa- 
mflil ndnpta tbe jntennediata flew tliat Plafio bad a 
dv£Lnik' plan, but tlu>t it waa ooly foUy dereioped aa 
bo prog w ea t d. 

u r«^ird &.< the mmiaeneaa of tbo Diakgnca 
attributed to Plato, tba maternuraber of than la 
gnier&lly admitted, aad m or f"**}? all of tbe dift- 
nut«d onee ha.va aaoM aaflrasea. The Panoeaidaa, 
SophIal«a, and FoUticoa an lUtputed by Socbur; the 
Mcfion by Ait ; the Legea by Zcller. Tbeae are 
dcf<a)ded by Ilcrmana. Scbfcicrmaicbcr qncatieaa 
Ibe Minor Hippiaii, tbe Ion, and tlia UcEnezaiiH^ 
though admitted by Ariatotle. Tba Dettodoeoa, 
Siayphoa, Eiysiaa. Aziochna, woto asaiBtly ragarSad 
aa epuriooa, and with them Brandb claaaca tba Uip- 
parchun. Tbea^va, and DeBnltiorta The aparioMiiaa 
of nil Uio leiUn la coDunonly ngarded aa dMoco- 
Blnted. Grota aeoepla aa genuine all that waa ad- 
mitted aa wach by lluraxylluit. 

Tbe time when Plato began to oomiwaa hia Dia* 
logaea ia nnoertain. Sana attribnta the conpoaition 
of the earlieat daaa to a period anterior to the death 
of Sooratea; otbcn^ baring rcgnid to the idaalizatioa 
of tbe chara«ter of Socntee which perradoa them 
all, bold their oommoncefflBnt to bo nbaaqnent to 
that ovftnt. (In thin view the Apoli>g)a is regarded 
Afl one of the earlioit, and It is generaUy allowed to 
rnntAin n hialodcal and aubetantlally faithful aocowit 
of iliv lirfuoM of Sucfittea. Ueberweg auppaaia that 
PlaM began to write Ua IMalognea abont tba time 
of tbo opcoiog uf tbe Academy, and tbat^ "mJttfng 
minor dialoguca, thvy wvn pmiiablv wrricttm in the 
following order: -l^luiMlruN, Biui<|uei, Protagorat, 
GiTT^iaa, Matu), Bapobliir, Ti1n.TU^ CritiA^ Ptuedo, 
Cnlylna, Tbevtetua, I'hilrhni, I^,{cs^ tbe Apologia 
he oonaiden to be earl^* tmil (nitlifuL 

llio philoaopby of t'lato. vrhetbeT ODOaidamd h 
itatJf or in coutcction witli tbo circunutMUM in 
vrhioh it aroso, muat be ngaided aa one nf the great* 
cat and noblcatelfortaaver made by the human amid 
to ovmpaaa tho pioblcm of lifo. An inptctant da- 
neat in the examinAtian oC it i« tbe metb^ of Plato'a 
toot-hing. Aa tbi> waa nearly the oppoaile of wImI 
ia miumonly (XiDaiderad eaaantial in modern method, 
unlFHi il U fully nallxed gnat injoatioe ii certain to 
bv done to hie trcatnieat of the variooa probhnDt he 

dttCIII«HM. 

After tbo ruunple of Socrataa^ Plato held tbe 
grvtot i^iiil of ].Jiil'j«u[iIiic tT'*t'Tg to be to lead tba 
mind of Iho inquijvr to the dlaoovcry of trath nthar 
than to import it dogmalieally, and for tbla tad he 
huld oral teachlog to be aupcrwr to writlngt not 
morety aa In modom praotloe lor mlatgiig npon 
and «xpliuninc a writtaa t«z^ but tai tba dinet por- 
■uit of philoacgthioal liiiwHnalinii Tbi* proforeoon 



I 

I 
I 



I 
I 



TLATO. 



1S5 



Wfpmn to hftVf datembed Iba form of hU irorba, 
MM tb»t form ia jutifitd b; LIi tuiriv«lled Hkill in 
tbmn^tMgantftDtci the philMtophicdiAJn^p^ to which 
b* impMla the chaniuuf poetry wid liram^i: rvpiv- 
■wilirifin. In Uw I'bwdrus be lavi '«ver7 v^ilnfT 
wtolTM llMlf ia «0vct intp » mouu of raoollMitioa 
far Um who alra*djr knam: if ijUMtiaaed It does not 
amgrntu; it »tUclnd H canDot dafeod UmU. Any 
^KJUuiaa tr*c«d by th» htatd is ttwW o re ft work of 
floOHMntlTClj Hello weight— u fmi^^uet roopUeotloa 
niJMMil vilo frirolity. The only l«gitinttt« Mid 
JMtiia dlfld ol Ibon^t i* ft dnvnune on tho jnrt nnd 
Ik* bMstifnl written on Urn aoul.' 

n* qi»M ri on ban hi aot h to the cotupantivQ 
•^■■tana and InoonvaoicneM of inch & mod* of 
iMtlBllUjl, bat H to the efleot it hoa hjwl «n Plikto'a 
■riliuip^ nad oooMqiwDtlj on wb»t u knuuru of hi* 
mtan. Ob* thing. bow«w, uppeuv evident, Ih&t 
1mm tMfkn m f«r who oonid dkre to tnmt tbctn- 
mItw ttt Mcb « method PUUi'> nrul tciobing, like 
lila wrHraei, afipMa to h^vs bMn chi«fly ooav«ma- 
tfcsaL Ha vm dii tt yih l wd by fliwnoy of ipwcb 
to ft J n[i w whleb hfti mfgeaM. thl« qnolity «■ nna 
at Ibft ocpjftftfttiofta of hia name. But it la rdao on 
raoonl that be aonHtiRiaa delivwvd formnl dbconnica 
cv acfttloft*. ThefokthiB naotiona lUa delivering a 
laetnz* oa iba Good in Iba Plnnii baforo an ftudl^ce 
whkh pftdoftUy dwindled ftway. Ariatotla baa pn- 
•W«td ft ferment of a lectnra on thla boIjjmiL 

Flaia baa act«d undealenadly aa Uio hiawrian of 
Mriiar Greak philoaophy. fiU writing contunllt-oty 
Md ftocante iwvounta of |>rcrioui nynU-nw and Uirir 
taftdm^ io lnMlu('i.-il not merely for hiitoni^kl inir- 

^1101 incidi'ittatlT to tbaanalyda of vbvlr ojiluluiia 
I wmr e h of tnito. Ho ftlao frealy analysod tho 
foa^ aad ba aeoaured the beat of them for want ^f 
alaar Maaa and true inakht. Bomsr and Healod aro 
•xcJodad from bia rvpoblic. Tha Inuif^iuitivo vl(» 
n«tl flOt«nd largely into Plato'a own teavhiug. Ho 
■aadfi aaa of mytha aa a maaaa of facititating tbo 
amabaaidao of Ua doetHnea; but tb« iuatrunieDt 
wch ba btM alona adaquala to tbg attainnioat of 
yUldaepUcftl o o f n i t ioa waa the method of dialectic, 
wUA be ai*; b« aaid tobatabeen tbefint toeinpluy 
awataScftlljr ia pbilooophy. In diaooaralns on thia 
■albod be vividly rvoalla tb« dmaialM roprtMnUtionc 
wt wlHoa la the Proverba of Solomoo. f^Klom £a 
tba ftBribot* of the Godhead; Um lovaof wiadom, 
Iba diatinctiaa oi tiw iateUactual man, and tha 
pialaat good lo wbMi ba ota attola. Wbvn we 
Mitf* aftar wfadom with tfaa iatMui^ of a lover ahe 
ba«Wtt»a tha tnie oooaecratioo and purification of the 
aeod. Thia aapiration implka an origlttal nlalion of 
tbt aptd to tbt aoun« of true bclajc, and lla derelop- 
mm ba tenna diakctioa. The partial eolntiona of 
tta fnblcm el hninan koAwletlge whinh hail been 
gHwt b; tba earlier ayat«ma dTGraek philuauphy 
•odad iia paradwdca] and eoatradietory mnoliuiona, 
vUA 1m («odweiI Iba aoepticiam of the Sopbiati. 
Bcaaiai eonbftted tlieaa on ethJaal munda. Phtto 
took «p tb» conUatioB, and carried tbe war, aa It 
wwi, into tbe enemy *i cftinp, by atieiDfitiiig anow oa 
bnftJv frmnda, and by ft nuer mrtlbod, theaoarch 
bMft Iba foundfttiooa of kiKnrledg«>- Hia dialeoUo 
bad to dear ila way be t we en tba aanaaaliBB) of I'rc^ 
tafforaa, wboee domna of etanal genentlon nodo 
an tUa^i aobject to iaoemnt obioiBe, and left no 
fSftl aaiMcace of which tbere coidd ba any know- 
ladn and no pcnitanant poaennlity of kiiuwlcdp) 
Italic and the Kteatio doctrine of the uncuDitiUoiml 
nl^ eC awMnoe, wlndl mad* all changu m«nly 
ab^Mnasal aad noB-ftidflent. I'talo oombatcd thcae 
qnalbaikal entesM by m UtAA analysa ci know- 
U^ <d wU^ ba diatCaeayMd tbe aubjactive ^nd 
■bfantira elemealft He alao orifisftCed tbu diatino- 



tlua of pMIotDphy bte 6m ttivft knnalMi of atUe^ 
phyuce, and dialocUei, ilUungb ttiaM nanaa wen 

Unit applied hv hin diadple Xssocratea. 

'nia ciu-iliiuili priui-ijtlo of Plato'a dialectleal ayatem 
la tba doctrine of ideal, and nnfortnnataly hi* method 
of developing hia pdndplea baa left aome room for 
dnubt or mlanndetetandlag aa to wbaE thia dnetrine 
re«lly woa. IMfferencea upon tb« nnhjfN.-t began 
oartv, and <tiirarent opiidmia am still oxpmKid by 
flritua. It doiaa not appear, howevur, tba,t tli« meaua 
of nlutfon am actually viuiting. Thia doctrine ao 
piTvarlrai tho (Tntire»yiit">m r.f 1'ln.to — di&Ioctioikethtca^ 
wid i-liyBica, cif all of wbiL-b it Is the fertUhins or 
cruatlve prinditle, that it we give a due atteatlmt to 
tta place in each we can hanly mim ■ Mbetaptially 
aMTuiate oonoeptiom of tL Ve do not, Indeed, mean 
to aay Plato liaa buccv«(]«(1 En i.]«veli)p[ng Idadoetrlne 
with perfect conaietoncy and complelcncaa, or that 
by meana of it he baa been able to erect a pcrfodlv 
hannoniaiu, uniEoriD, and Jalerdependeot ajatvm of 
etbic^ phyaica, and dialectic*. It waa tnuch to 
atbomnt tlua, and tho attempt baa oloftrlr been made. 
Notwithatan diny the rery different oondltiaaa of 
ancient &nd modem pliiluBuphy, the want of a dimutlr 
ayatiMnatio eipoaitJon, and tho veil of Blti});!tn-y tritli 
wbieli. like a vtill Rcea(«r teaebor, be baa surrounded 
bb dootrlDe. it has been made with a dJaciactnne 
which can he tmoed even now. From a «onpariaon 
of variona ntatcinenta which Plato baa made napeot* 
inu IdooK, n Uioury of them may be traoad In relation 
to the varioiiB puts of hia Rystom, mora coherent 

On than a liintilo e.ritiriiiini, whi^'ii indtta on a 
iuterprctation ol erary {uua.'me, woidd be 
willing to allow; but wliU'h, If It oantaloa Qothlnc 
but what I'lalo actoally taught, may, aa an outline 
<)f bin dno-trine, be more jnat and adaqnabi than any 
partial ii«vra ot It however Hter^y expreaaed. 

Heapocting tbe hiatorical ori^ of w» doctrine of 
ideaa Ariiito^ baa left aa intercelin^ aUtenutnt, 
which recdcni it probabto that it waa durins tbe life- 
tuuo of Sut-nrfee that It waa firat mnc«dvail Plat>\ 
he aa^B, dt^rivud fivui Crntylui^ the Ueraditftan, tbe 
doctrine that the Mmmiotia la snbjeeb to MrMttiBl 
diaa^ Tlua lie evux afterwarde ntaintj^ed, uid 
when he Unmed fram Socr^tn nf cnnccpti'iiu, whirb, 
when once rigfctlr defined, remain fur urur invari- 
fthle^ be beUeved utt ttiedr cunntcrparU muat not be 
aought in the eeunona world; but Uiat there mnat 
be other exiatenoea which were the objocte of ooa* 
eeptual oomltiQi^ and tbeae objeota be naswd Ideaa. 
Kodld cA Menuft boa alao been credited with «xei^ 
daing a connoerablo influence on thedavdopmont of 
tiia viewa. 

The phUoBopbleal senesti of tbe doctrine of Ideaa 
ia not uncertain. It was in tba human mind and in 
the analyaia of its CMiecptinna that Plato found K. 
Tlie wurd had been uinl Infittv hta time, and Ilea 
beea naed einoo toBl)[nlfy tbemoaital Image by wUob 
aa object of acnae ii reproduceil In tbe miad. lUi 
ia not Plato's Ideft. BtMib an image ia merely tbe 
ecnorele conception, Flato'a Idee ie d«rircd frnm nn 
analjiiB ot eonoeption. It repteeenta, aa UcUwied la 
the WMWS ia Aiiatotle above referred to, the im- 
ranlMle eMneat Id oonc^rtuin. Here, bowever, a 
misunderetandlDg is apt to ariao from the lerme em- 
jJuyed in mmleni pUloaoiAy. It b ooaunm now to 
anfttyxa ooneeptfcm at ootniition into (wo fllnamMi, 
tbo nniversal or invariable, and tba pattlflalir or 
varialile; tbe iarmtr la thi? <^ ee aobjeet eeaaidend 
a|«rt froa tbe mattair or object of oognitiou. This 
diitinction is ncA Ibst of tbe FlatonlD anntyeis. It 
ie not the nlatian of tbe mind to theameeptloi^ but 
tho particular oooceptlaa itael^ wbetfcer in or out of 
the mind, that ia the eubject M it In tfafa oDuoei^ 
ttoa, in eocb such conception, Plato finila an immu< 




n*ATa 



M 



Uibia cletnvnt wMoh b« nlU !t* M#a. Tlili Iw tUm- 
Cratn In mwiy ■vrayt, and iu rv'^'jirJ toa {p«*t vsrtrty 
of mbj«cUL Tlutt which (onn«, pnrhftp*^ tbo bwiton 
which tbo FIaMiuc BtruL-ttm haa bcwn te*nd, and 
whioh beat httc* to UlurtmU JU d!atiBctlr« prin- 
dpk^ ii thv COM III 0|)fMdto or ooBtrutod ooanp- 
tuoi. In th« Btatemejit that Siramiu la Urjie in 
compAriMrn with Socnt«ii, but amaH in fcnupnnaon 
wilJi Phaetlo^ we appear to riow lar^nnmi nnd utiiall- 
OMs oa purdf nlaliTe oouceptiuiu, tiiiire in Lhe («« 
CBM wa prcdieata dte one and in Ui« other eus tha 
filher of the aame tndiridTiiJ. Bat whvu «o aolmct 
tiucaa (xnic«[>liu9ui tu tbo ■crutiny of RaDH>n W« Bsd 
thnt thoy r:U)Dot be wholly relative. The eompara- 
tim iaiplio* the poaitive, (or tinl«« that* w«n tMiM- 
thinff MMolule and btunntablo Id % }k ooBoeptlaa of 
IkrgvQOM it omild not be oompand with uaaUncM or 
anylluu^ alsv. If tbo cancvptlon w«ni tnualeat in 
tbe individual mind th«cotiii>ariioii would be tranatcnt 
also, and au ubjecrt wliich ytu ounceircd of at one 
timu aa rclativclj liav^ jn cowjiU'tJi'D with auDtb«r, 
mtglit be coDcuirod of at anottior u ntlatifclv atnall 
In oompariion with the aama object; or tf the oon- 
oepttoa Tariod in differeot minda the ground at the 
ooanpariaoo would rmry in Uka manner. Uut largo- 
neai ie alwaji ixmeuired of m bearing tfao MOio ma- 
tion to ■ualjucaa, and we uean the wune thing in the 
aboTO cnmiuiriaon when we aay tliat Sinamlaa ti 
ittrgKr that SocraUw, la when w« eav that Phaedo fs 
laiger than ^mmlMB. There mutt tacnforebeaane- 
thing poettive in tlie eoncqitiatia both of latseneaa 
Atkd amallneia t^ allow of th«ir timng thna coaetantly 
oppoeed; bat tliia miitiot bo the pArticolar amount (d 
lan^pnen contninoil in .SimnilaJ^ BM^ng ho 1* large In 
the uii? ciMv aod ucall in tlio other. Hcnoe Plato 
diitiaKiilihcfl between the ooncrete quality aa eon- 
«dv«a to exiit in as object, and tbe Idea of llie 
qnaUtr. Tha fcnaar I* tnntabl*, th« tatter tramot' 
able; hut the tjiuiUty alwuya wtaTfe* v( the idea, 
uthcrwiae it would cuua tn oxiat. It DialM* no dif> 
lur«Dc« t« thin aiialj-da whether the qnalltiea weaaa- 
Jyx« tiro aiinplc or oomplex conddarad M qnaUde^ 
that fa to Mtjf wbotlicr we cua reaelve them lata 
uthirr ijuulitica or noL If wc mppoae in tlw inatanoe 
wo buvH t-tkNi that greainew and nnaUneea are re- 
eolvabk- into tbeoomBKiii qnality or ocadtbii of nxe, 
coinbiD«d with mora or le«^ ibta the Muna ebaerva- 
tion* apply to more or lev, aa have already Iic«d 
luade in n.-Kan! to maliM«B and tDiallDsai^ and It ia 
beaidea lodlf{MiuabIe ihat in the oomparieon tlieoan- 
floptioD man ahould be oombined iritb else, and not 
vltii aooiethbig eUe, otborwiee we miglri aa wdl 
comnara graatnaw wIUi denth, and — n'l*"™" with 
blaJcneai, aa with eacli other. Complex CDneeptloma 
have thui their tmiuulahle eondltioDa, aa well u 
diDEie once; but in the com of bqcIi concviitiona 
tha latitude for vkriatiom of the qualhr within the 
•cope of Hie ides maj be mry great, "nt Idea of a 
trlugle may laclode noraetoua famH^ but all theae 
awt comply with ecrt^ oooditloiu^ or Ihey wonld 
not be trian^lea. In like manner tha Ideaa of jotUca, 
virtue, Iwiutf, are InuuutaUy diitingviBhBtL wbother 
va resanl them ai liniplQ Ideai entwtng Into numor- 
■one eombinationa, whicih they dietingulah by a cam- 
ama quality, or a« cnmbioationB adnnttine of a great 
TBiisty of fomu, Ulien the word JuaUee te oom- 
tDonly und, it ii oaad in the belief tliat tlMie la n 
-oommon oonceiitlon underlying it, and this Is to a 
^eat extent uni^UMtJoaably true; but if any one 
shoold uaa Uic tertn jiistli'« without the cuiniDon 
uudcrtyin^ onniip|itluii, be would merely be dealgnat- 
iiig a coDr«pii(iD with a different underlying idea by 
the eame name, and If he eot a number of peo|ile to 
afree with him a eoofu^n would ariae from tbo 
namo being applied fee two different Ihini^. 




The caie la precleely Ibe eanw ae if a bcntkal aed 
oE mathematidane nouM eet up (ke eonee[«iaa cl a 
triangle with a break in the mlddls of one of be 
^dea, making a triangular flgwa eoiMfattBg cl tear 
lin«e, and not iadoung a epace^ and eliOBM tiBiflit fal 
calling it a trkngleu 

Thlfl ia the baala of the Platcnie apbere d Otmu 
and wMiie oonoeption may already bare beoi tonaaa 
of its ocnpe; but that ooDoqitbin would be jnadnqnate 
if we omittel another fundamental eeatditaoa of hi 
daralopnont If the qvaatloB be aiked, WlMt» ha*« 
we f oiinl tlioae idcaa^ the aaewer nadonbtadlj K !■ 
the humiui naiiid. They aie there not in tne form 
of oouordte ooDoejitinnH, but nf orc ewwr y e lemea ta 
or eonditiona el uoee eonnsptioaa Ar« tbey than 
purely aubjectire; Is the naooMity by "wiiA tbey 
ariae a neceaiqty whicb bolonga to and inherca in the 
human mind alone ? It b in li"i>'|i"'g tUa quuttoo 
that the grcatnoM of Plato'a eenceptloD (rf the tniiriaa 
of tihUuw>[]liy appoan; It ia in connoction with It 
mauily that tbo aVwcuriticii which summnd hia exp^ 
dtion ban aritoa. Hitherto there k no eeaeotiai 
diilerenee between Plato nod tha ]nod«n tAoot of 
Ideallata, between Plato, for example^ aiMl Kaat; hit 
the tmiible ia thai Plato allegoriMB hia tdeaa: In gi*w 
them life atid creatire powe^^ he aeata them «a 
thronea tn plsoea beyond the vault of heaTcn: and In 
diacnarioua more atrictly dialectical be girea them aa 
tixUtitnae independent of ticno and lancet DtTeelod 
of Che poetical ewrouDdinge, and with aUowanoe 
made for the unoertaintioe and bcaitation whidi naf 
tcry wdl Imallnwfd for in a philoeophleal tnveettgk- 
tlun, both new tu furm and unparalleled in the net* 
DOM of It* ecopo, the true dialectical derolofifnent ot 
Pkto'a vicwa on thi« anbject, we l>«:llere, amounte to 
ncthing more than the aiejrtlon of the raivenal 
truth oa ideaa aa the oonditian of intelligence^ Fla>a'e 
analyne doea not abop abort at human uit«Jligenea. 
Hu j^>f«e»et to analyu lutelltgenee aa auch, and to 
■how the oonditiona on which alone^ wbetber finite 
or tnfinlte. It Is pcaatble. Tboa he aawrta anbaattat* 
Ingly the oommuiity of intetU^unoe h e t waen Cod 
and man. That thia ia Plato'a prrtennion mn bt 
gathered from vaHona relative ataleuenta wbk£ ha 
makn regarding ideaa. While of Idea* in tiMniaelMa 
bo predicate! merriy cxletenot^ thnnigfa tba aetlvl^ 
of the Good ho gives tbem eanaation aooonUo^ to 
their determinate natnree; now of tbo Good iiiU, 
which ia bie highest idea, hu eaya we can oady nn> 
agino its aotlvity aa the activity of noind. Bat on 
what does this pretenslnn resti It cnnaot rHica 
anything higher than human knowledge; bat in what 
manner i| reata on human knowiedga is worthv <tf 
att«3itSea. Whatever maybethe UnuU of Ibe sohcn 
of famnaa knowledge^ we can conoelre of kaovwdgv 
beyond these limita We cannot, of eonraa, conceive 
in wliat such knowledge eonabts; but we can ^ntj 
well oonodve of the poadUU^ of Iu axtatence^ We 
can also in soow respects eoacetve of modes cl haew 
Indge different faom thive by which our kaenrladigs 
is conditiraied. We can ooacMve^ for eiMapt^ el 
tfaa pesalbility of knowledgv belag anumakaCid 
othenrlae than by means of seoaaoaa pmmplitmn. 
Athuujfh wholly detituto of eiperietin* in thoe 
irnttim, thors la nothing ia tbo oonaUlntion of our 
uiads that compels ua to vonfiau kaowledse to each 
sabjwAs and forma as our own s a perfmos aaa aama- 
tomed ua to: but It is different wilb regard to saeh 
oanditiocLxif knowledge as wa have been ooosklsciu. 
We fiod thnt the consdtutlcm el our niads is mm, 
that not only hjivo wo no eipeHeaos te ImaclBs 
knowledge without auch crniditinm^ bat that oar 
miuds utterly refuae to admit the po^bility of it 
under asj omeeivaUe eireamstsooea whatsoever. 
Vft can ooaedve of IntctUgencai who absU oopt tUak 



pi*ATa 



127 



I 



■f UaaglMalBUi bat not c< iirfttUJgMioMi who iltall 
tthdt «f triMslw witb four Mm, or of wMch aU th* 
ta^m an ao( •vul lo two li^t «ogloi. Now tbia 
fartkolw BOBdIaaa of hotau inUUigeooo b tbat by 
' ~ I Ike wbole uf our knowledge h Ryubtted II 
Ma a bannrav mad on]ar tbrov^lOttt tho vhoU 
I <i oar utclligcDDe. Alt tbo objecta witbia 
iBBelUeeooe, aa well the nfttunkl objects irith 
vfeddi we ere aAqaftiatBil «■ tbe concoittions that 
■fie* in DttT niiiidji n««nlin|{ th«w ol^oct>i or our rolA- 
tkna to ibem, aobmh i« ita awxy, wiJ roeilily eut«r 
talB tbe bknnony it prodnNfl, tad a]1 the tsSorta cf 
■rincc ti>rit<n>i ^iiiTknawleilgtibaTr left thou ci:niili- 
tJcm of it uadiMturbetL Now «« lount eitber rqjarJ 
tbae «MKUtk)iH m being anlvaml Uws of inwU- 
|ww to which tfae humeD mind ia compelled bo aab- 
i^t merely a« inteUigeot, or we miut mgiknl thorn %m 
J—*—"" tv the bumea adud. In the loiter uMe tbe 
^ola Iibtie vt vox knowkdgo hila Into min. tar It 
liflM m not aaivaraal conditiona of hnovled^ ire 
«mJStiam our kaowledge ebeotutelr by aomething 
eddAietaaniy aHrftniTMd peauQar tooureulv««, 
ft baeiBMB than > mere ulaaion end k drsem, uid w« 
■^ IB benww the nhieee of a modern j^biloeopher, 
Bet driftaeDy apfilied to nimkioil, men- iiiu»nu>t« 
efaaniditiae. But if tluee oaaditloaa of iDteUJKeace 
era onivvnal, it fullawa tb«t thty camnot be cn»ti.-d 
hf may iataUlfODoe, lor bi> inteUigenee can exut 
wtthoot than. Thay Ifaerafore exirt nMMeaerily, iiot 
b thenaelvea) bet in iutolliganoe. WItaii Pancal 
■piaka ol tba Uwa of u&theumtiea aa beini; ctvulvd 
Vy Ged. and K«nt ctf tbo oondltiona ol bumiLD know- 
Mge aa bciiw nirdy eobjcctivc, Uicy iwaurt limita 
to wUdi hi wMtbcr CMS ia our leaeon able torabtnlL 
HW doatiiae of rbrto baa nethlng Id eoramoo with 
thaae |«iBciplea of modem tdaaHan. It ia aUed, on 
■he OMitmy, to the ommmUo acbool of rcAlianu [t 
I «n ttbjecUve aide to the aub^cctive iUelf, nad 
kaowledce of the ooaitieution of our own 
, wtlhout which an other knowledge would be 
BiUe. Tbe moet iMtruetJva cniD|MinoQ we cmi 

tt tat Plato'* (loctri&e cf ideai^ ia the foundrtiou 

IB iribdi Sir WIIUkbi HM"ilt«" pUM hla pUlo- 
tafij, that of the Tcractty of oenacloaaBaaai Tbe 
Ant princide bi both oMce ia Tirtoally tbe aune, 
bat tt le dtSenoUy teeted and devoloped WElh Sir 
WQUaiD BaouhoD it ia merely peaive and dagmatlo. 
VklMi aoaadoaanaaa ia believed we oaaaol philoeo- 
With PUto leougbt to tbo teet of raaeon H 
■ MB acti*^ vltelidtia; and cmatLve piliiotple, 
wrrea to eiSeiul (jillaaoiifay to ita ntmoat 





lo^eal developmeot. Indued, Plato'i duc- 
4ibe weald iMiaire to tn curied further than be 
if^*«^ it. Ail tbe demtnta of oanceptima wiTuld 
be IovkI ia atriet analyaia to be e^iudly immutkble, 
amd tbo olaaMM of miit*tality would be fuotid to 
«aariat oafy In Ihalr ooraUnetiana; tliua when luiy 
BHW (oaaa^tiona afi|)a«Nd they wuuld b« due vitbur 
to tiM tkBodsBlloB ol anr akmonta or of now com- 
tiiielinaia Tbe objective oxiidnBc* of tnatt«r too 
wo uld be aa atrictly jjmied by tbe «enu.-ity of our 
tiMCBpliani ao the objeetlTa niatstise of miod, for 
oiv «aaeirtlaBa of matter M mottar are aa iiui]iitubl« 
1* IhaaMeltee to oat eonoeptioina of miod na mind. 
Aa long ea tbe aMme lone of natter la proaeated Uj 
«m ooaiwp ti oo evr ooooeption of it ii tba aaaaa; and 
K eBT «aa«9>tiaBBflf matter rary more thaa our oob- 
aqjIlMM eC Rind it ia becoute the object of ifacm 
*a>M nwac There ia tbeo » Taiyins object pre- 
owtad to oor oaoocTAfeo^ and the vanadciiH of oar 
eaaoiplkat CBrraanoad truly in tbe nalotiaika of the 
eb^ed. The oardmol paiactple of Pbto'a doctrine 
ie tho IttDJamamlel nnity of lotoBgenoa. Thar* 
b* fuJlBita dlmiitlea In deifrwa of ijit«l%eBca 




and Tnrielles in modco or media, but thete con be no 
differenoea in kind of latelligeuoe lt«<U. lu Uud or 
anKel, mtut or bvHt, wborever it truly eidata it b tho 
aarao. God cnu (^ve oitLy what he poaaame^ mad 
from tbo iutinite Being down to tbe lowmt ormaian 
whif^ boa tho faiateat flicker of ]nt»II<>ctual Ugbt 
that lii:ht ia out) in •nbataneei TUii kigioal exteii' 
Bidu f<t I'lfLto'a doctrine m&y be anppooed to mlHtata 
■gikinxt riittn'a Kri;iiiii>-nt for the iinmortelity of (ha 
buniMi aoul, biiL it will injnre it Infinitely teaa Utnn 
the drawloi; of tu arbltmry Uuu whiiA ■nwihHi.^«| 
tlio doctrine «-itb All ita ouaoquflucea. 

I!ut if i'Utri fitilu.) til entry the irtgii'al develop* 
luuut uf lita ducLritio for enoi])[b dowii tbsro waa uo 
want of boldoaaa bi an apwatd direction. Having 
diaoovered or created tbe realm uf ideoa bo aorveyod 
it thranghoub. He dc-lincd iu niort excellent f<irnw 
aa beauty, iiuUoe, and virtue, vnd b&vlu^' doue ao be 
dot«nni&i.>d what n'aa the inpmao and dotniiuuit 
wfndplD of tlia whole It la the idt-n of the Goo(L 
Tbe bannuny of iubdl^cnoe tbrmiLtboijl ita enblTO 
extent witb Eoodnaai^ tbiia b tbe bigheat attalnnient 
of Plato'a ]diilaaopby. Bcyoiii] tLia It would bo 
impoaalble to go; beyond tbb it would be iropnaalbla 
ev«a to wiah; for what coidd be coticelvoil belter 
than that tnftnitn intiJIi^oce ahoald txirreapond with 
guodoL-eat It ia wiLli (lerfect evnsiateuoy that Plato 
decUree the Idea of tbe Good bo be BBperior to that 
of Bein^, for if goodnem ia Uw Giat eooditioil of 
infinite intdli^ence it miut angnprehend Being aa 
wvU ua all otbur ideu wMvh ihut lulcUlKeneo coo- 
tuiu. We do not^ howow, onJoratand by Plato'i 
idea of the Good the Deity hitnaclf, bat only tbe 
ahatf*ot oonoeption wMdi campiebenda the neceaanry 
oondltloB of Us exlatenoe. Plato, kdoed, held tbo 
exiateoee of an infinite intolliifence vhoae highoat 
attribute waa ^ooiiniiei^ end under whoae govemment 
all tkiujpi were unit-red Fdt gucKl; but Mtldca tb« 
necewity by tbe inetaphyaicftl prooeaa for raaddag 
iho sbairaction liofore the rvality tb«re waa m reaaon 
in tho drcumitiuicoa of bia tiiDcs why ]*lato ahoold 
in bia popular diecounv dwell on the atetraci Me* 
rather than ou tbo pcivotul edatonoo of God. Than 
waa at) Dcod to prove to an Athenian aodfcnoa tba 
iTxistcnco of Deity, "nicy bad plenty of tbe neraon- 
tdiiy uf Deity; It' waa Id tbe true mncepUon of DdtT 
they ware w&nting. Bondca, Pleto oould not apoafc 
of a penonal ditini^ different from thou of the 
popnlar niythologywitboub at isioe araaaing enmity 
Bsd oppueitioo. The ephere of Drity was tlreody 
occnpied, that of ahatraction waa freo, Tba draom- 
ntanco ftlrevly alliidMl tn of I'l*to leeturing em the 
Good bo a gradually diiniiiiahia^ iiudlemce— » pkrtura 
in the Uftory of phlloeopby w<irtliv of tbe pencil of 
an nrtiat— may be taken na an illuntralioo of tho 
practical relation of Plati^'a phUoMpby to tiM droom- 
•tenoae and wanta of hia time 

The ethicsl aywtctn of I'lato waa in dtiect depend* 
vaix upiin hia dialuctioa, and will reqoin llule iUua- 
tr^tian. He bcilfevod that the Ideaa of all exiatiag 
thiaga were ori^oally OMitainrd in lloiL Ttnao 
idcaN wore OBch the pofactioit of ita kind, awl aa 
audi were viewed by God witb approval and lovo. 
God himaelf being infinitdy good waa the object of 
all imitAtinn ti> inbcUigenl betngi^ hence the «tl|i(n 
of I'lnlo bad a double foundation, tbe tmitatJoB of 
Cod and tbo rc-alitatiaa of idcoa, wUek wan In mA 
p«krtictUar tbo modela of pertectkm, 

Platu'a cuemlca] theoriM alood pmfeMedly on ft 
dlOereat foimdatioo from Ida diabcdca and etUoit 
Matter £d uot ooiiM witUn tbo scope of bia dialao- 
ticol aBalyak. Re had accepted a jwecenceived riew 
of It which excluded it frotn lUatectio] tnotment, 
oooaaqnaotly it hnd no plaoa in hb world of ideaa, 
and BD relaUoa with God, upon whom they depended. 



1S8 



PI^TO— PI.ATOFF. 



Ho oouMquo&Uy g»vo it ftn ciuk^iifv indE^peiuJeiit of 
Goii M • innnlaBi, tnaiivc, iiinrt moM witliout rjiinli* 
ties or ecmdltlaaH. To hit wuikaI tbc^nw he attri- 
IniUd only pTDtmbllity. boMing it\a,t the diftlcclkAl 
nMtaad 1^ which AlnriiR trutb coulal be ducoTcmt 
wna applu-ablc cinlv lo idiaii Mirf the di»covpT)- at 
inorsl priin-iplo*. The moat valuublu iiurl u£ PUIok 
cuH(tio)iony u iM Gnt t>rinci[)le, that God. who ib 
without eav7, pUnnttl aJl thui)^-H thut ih-ey ■honlrl be 
U Dcwly u pcuible Uko liimwif. He lint uiotle th« 
■mil dF thn world, which, hning lnt«noedi(i.ta betwwn 
Uiu aviuiiLil« luui tlie iiitcllccttutl, forma ft ooonocting 
link betwecA thcto. It U fanned at two onpoeitf? 
priDcip]«a^ the one tndivuaLJe kad imuiuLibV', Iho 
other inat«bts vid divuibl*, and th«M Ar« comfaincul 
by Ml iutermedlata |nlndj>li^ To thia •mil ho joUMtl 
tho Duilcrial body. All things worn created accord- 
ing to Lieu, which witra tha p«rf«ction of eivch kind. 
Tbui «vn7 intUviiluiJ In a niuviee, for oxamplc, {mr- 
takn of the idea of the ipedca. hut tiic individual is 
alway* infirrior to tho irJc^ The soul of man, lika 
the MHil of llio wurlil, coiudsbi »f thrnn tinrtu nr rl«- 
iDMVbi. Flato attrthubea to It nut ooly iiuiuurlality 
but pn-flxiatuaco. SoaiDtiniBa thia i> pcvdicatcd of 
tha vhfllo, DoinatinieA orly of tho eiip«rior MrL 
To th« faigboat port oi tho kiuI, whith iLu the hcMl 
M iti »m£, he givM tb» mutative powera oiid lh« 
daritM M]ipn>j)rukte to than; the intuuwdiato part of 
ths fionl, having: Itn eeot in thft heart, is dintincuiflhed 
byiK-tivrrimjiiibrj; tbr Ibirdpart, with itaxsal in tho 
buwebi, by aidniaJ nireiitiotii. VirtiJo, whioh hi ouoR' 
ttnlly oa«, bu thr«« divtlnct plu«ea. oorrMpoudiiiii to 
tb« tlu«e(oId divinon of tho aool. Tho virtno of tba 
hig^ittt la wiadoin, of tlic wM^-ind oouraec, of tbo third 
tantperoucct. Thv runAiLqud part nf the aoul *hou!<I 
fforam th« wriMnal and tw undvr tha government of 
uw latdlMftwd. Sexual lov«^ aopon^od fnxm con- 
onplacetuM^ b« regardAd aa a link hetweon the ■nuiiol 
and the intollcctual, and m coiuisliug )u ou aaptrslion 
and perpetual atridiii; aft«r the Immortal and etenuU. 
I'lftioa politicoJ treatius ar« the application of 
his ctliickl prind|>lea to aodal organ itati on. In hia 
Kvpubliu he do«* tills without any vegaxd to tho 
pTMtiohl, hia objoct oppDUvcUy bulag u> aketoh th« 
ideal of a atato whi<-h ahAalil iiervo m an •bstraC't 
Uodot of the thiiiji'S tu bu aiiucd at in xxriol cirj^anixa- 
tton ratb«r than to ihov b<;iw anTjinrtlonlor objert 
oou be practically aocomplldwd. Tno book of Lawa 
is a tort of Qotnpiomlse betirMD the (^woalative ideoi 
of rioto and tha actual atnte of aocieCy. H« boae* 
hla Republic on the princijile that the conatituUon of 
thaatatcabould oorrvapoDa with that of the loiliridoal 
in onlor to alloir tho moni aa.tan of the Indirlduol 
dnaaoepetordevelqianaiL Aa he make* three porta 
of tli« aoul, ao ha dividi-a the Btate iuto three Joaewi, 
th« ixia^ateria], tho military, and the woddiif, the 
laat of which, likv tho aeoauoiu port of the nvl, ia to 
he la comj'lL-to aubordiaotlon ta tha titter two. The 
mogiiturial clu*a i« aekvtcd froai among the middle 
chai; the youth of which ore to be carofullj trained 
tn Ktooce and virtoe. The dctoUa oie worked out 
Into a multitude of airangemcnU^ many of which 
are orhitrar)-. trrannical. or impncticBbik All art 
la excluded vrhldi doce not voiuiat k tbo imitatuni 
of the Good. Woman tMofra tlta aome edncotlon 
aa man, and partaka in thiirir gymnaatlc ozorciaea. 
Uanlage ana the iBterconne oi tha Mixea i> the 
anbjoct of very arbitrary and ouHoui iviiulatioaa. Of 
tho three tonna of |[ovKnuBSOt. monarchical, aristo- 
emtlCb aad tkmocntUo, h* *'"■■" elm limt aa beet, 
the laat aa woret. The tmo king will olwava {^wru 
better than the Uw, for lie will take oorniiiil uf lor- 
tloiLar oaaoB and dnramatoncca, but aa Ida kn^wleduv 
Ol iboM k United Uie bw la r>ot) oa nppl^-ing par- 
ttOBlar frtDdpla^ bnt It thAoId dajMod nltamotaly on 




the ]tiiig. Law* conaecrated by ciutom aboold ht 
coniiilitml ioTinlable. Itat apace will not permi t ui 
U> givu any aderiuate aMntint of Ptato'a pdltied 
thearieo, which are a mlxton of tbiogi good, bad, 
and inditTcrcnt borrowed from all the vartooa Itmtm 
at f^vemmcnland aodid orvanhtation, from theocracy 
to deuocrocy, witL original qieculolfciCM, asoellcitt b 
intention, but ofton orbitraiY and (^uaoriaal, which 
havr nevcrtheloHi been the fruitful aoome at aabat 
quHiit Kpttculatioua. 

riat^'a wnrk* were fint publiahed in LAtin, m the 
tronahitian at Ikfonitiua Fidnoa (Florence, ltS&-4lj. 
Ilie tlrat edition of the test wna by AUoi (Vcata^ 
ISIS); tho arraagDment ia that of lluMiTUaa. An 
edition waa publiibed by Johanna Oporinaa at Baael 
iulfi3f. ThulLnt ^^loil niu>k-ro li'Xt ta l>y ImmaoBd 
IkfkkfT, publtshcd in 1810-18, with the Latin vw 
aion ni 1'~inm(u, a critical oimmiintary, and nuimia 
reodiuii* ; ihu arnuL|i«nuint ia Schlei-pnnocfaer'a. Tbwe 
la on edition by StoUhuun (Letp3d& 1826)^ vith anb- 
MQuent reprodnetionl; aGrocJcand lAtiafldltioitby 
HchnRiderand Hiiwchig (Paiia, IS4&-68); Oteekl? 
lIi'niixiin(Lelp^ISM->5S). SchleiermaobB^atnao- 
l.iU'>a (hist edition, 13SIM2) ia the moat celebratad 
tiennan venson. The FTenob truuktioo of TfeUr 
Coiuitn b dialiuKuiahud by tbe excoUenoe of atyle, 
which ia a ■ptviol cborocteriatic both of author end 
tronabtor. The loot and beat Engtialt vershm ia 
by B. Jowett, M.A. (Ift71). Dlaconlwa on Pbt»'a 
works, particularly by Qerman acjiolora, and en par> 
ticular works or porta of his nratem, ore mndi too 
numenufl to cite. Thi nnmra nf mimn nf tlin Inndfng 
cntlca bun) already been tMntionad. 

Tho followers of I'Uto hare been dinded into Ibc 
old, middle, and mew oodemln; or into five adiaeti, 
tho Gnt r«preacnting tbe old, the second and thM 
the middle, and tbo fourth uid fifth the nswaendioty. 
In the first are Spenaippu^ Xenocnbte, ond Hee*- 
didee, and otheta. Tba fint fn*«rted to paDtbeistic 
prindplaa, tbe aecond to nyatkdBai, and tbe bat waa 
fthifiBy diiitirt yiuih nH oaaii aatrftnumu, Istlumiddk 
academy, of which went AiuMnloa ond Gonoade^ 
tbe foundera of the aecond and third ai:4iool, aoeptkal 
(ondeneioB began to pre vail. Tho new ocadcnj Mgaa 
with Pbilo of I.ariow, founder of the fourth ocbool: 
the fifth Bchool was foundwl by hla punl Antiocboa 
of Aacalon, wbo combined the doctrvoM of Plato 
with tboeo of AHstoilo and the Stoio. and praparad 
^e way (or neo-Pbtonbm. Tbe neo-Pbtontala allf- 
motely became the onta^oaEata of Chriationity, lu 
which among all tho lyainnM of snoiMit pliiInK>|ihy 
Fbtunlam won the tiln)UK<«t aaalugr. Platonic 
BpeonlotionB atlll continued to appear anoa; Ilie 
eorly Chriatbo fathi-rc. I>ut from the tuna of the 
aetaulidunont of the arbubiatic philoiaphr Pblooism 
(ell Into complete diacredii, and tbe pUlaaophy «f 
Aristotb waa ahnoat idantiflad with the Chiiitiaa 
leligbn, an that it beoome o aoK of theologbat offasoe 
to quntlon IL This edipae of PUtoidnB baled tfU 
thu I^enaiaaanca:, whon tt tfgnia became the fmhiw 
for etudenta of Greek Htcnitura Go pinfMB tliiiiMil'i ■ 
Plotonlob^ ond from that time the ulnlooatil^ o( 
Plato haa begun wain to eierdae lb laigftlBato 
bflncooe on bumaB tboti^it. 

PLATOFf , or Platow, hetmon of the CMMuko. 
waa bora ia tho aoBthenipiart of Buaaio about I76S-- 
C5. He eoibei^ young into tbe nililarT aarnci^ 
and In 180S and 1&07 be had tbe rank of Itenteoant- 
ffoaotal in the Busrfaa amy aeot to tbe aalMnMa «( 
I*ninia. lie waa afterwarda amplmd a^nat tbe 
Turks in Muldnria, and waa mooa • naerol at 
cATslry. WhxD the Fkwich lovkded BoBAo in ISIX 
Platoff waa agaia cnllod into actnal eerriee, and 
though ha ma defeated at Umdn>i, ami oMierd to 
retire into tbe interior, Im retamed during the iw- 



i 



PLATOON— PI.ATTPUa 



129 



tmA of Um aoem/ from Moaoow, knd, with twenty 
lacfauntB of CeMMoki, be luuiMwd Uieui lu tfai-lr 

flMit, and cvatributod KtmUj to tbe kdvuiUgca 
ymlacd over Umbl ]ii1613, titer the hittUo nf Jjofp- 
rift h* «nt«rad Fntfin:, ui<l wm at PkH* with the 
Kiuimui Aloxaader, whoai ho »wotnpud«d to Eoff- 
liad. At Loodon h* ww tb* obJMt <■£ popnlAr u- 
■imtiflo, Mu) ft BU^Btflonit nbrs wm |maented to 
fa^ In l&lfi he fiommandwl ths CMutcka dMUood 
for ibe aBomul invajtum of Fnuint, anil agnin mad* 
Ui ft|>najmoo« at Parii. Ait«r Uie nwtunitiaD of 
pMM M nttrad to Tcberkuh, on tb« riw Don, 
«fca« W died in Pcbruar/, 1818. 

PX^TOUN (Praocfa, pcbbni), a militAr; t«nn fnr- 
nwtj oaad to dadipMie » body of irwfm, luoally 
half » opmpaiir, wbo find bogvthar. It ia atill ut«d 
Ib Ifaa CKprvanon platcon rxpTciao, which inclndca the 
■aauunw ouniMOted wlUi tbe baodlinii aatf umhu 

PLATTDECTTSCII. or Low GRBHA:r. ia the Uo- 
gWMi of the North Uanuan LowlMldl^ from th« 
■ w Jii a of HolUnH to thoa* of Boadan Poland. Ila 
•Mtban limit f<>lbw> a lina drawn tbrwgb Aacbon 
<Aix-U-CUi>«Ue), Boaa, Kaaaal, Qoedliabnrg. Dca- 
Bfto. Wiltenbarv, Lubb«a. Faratenbers, Moaerile, 
Hul Tbom. Tne tiorthiim boundaiy reaebea tfa* 
Daniab fnicitiM'. llir DutclJ and Floodafa languagea 
■laD balo«v to the Low Oennan dlaleota, but b^e 
■aooialMl with hi indepeDdaal political ajalcm, and 
li*viag a litenitura of tbair own, ara reottuiml as 
^la el Unraacva. Hm Low Gonnau dialecta an 
dMloniabid tniD tha vitMan Umpa^ and from 
other Hlgta Gennan dialect*, aeooroiag U> (.irimm* 
Law (am PHILOUwr>, in that tlio tonnnr brluD^ bi 
UaSnt,lha Imttcr to hb aaoood dogreaof oonaiiniuiCal 
thmpiL The coaaonanti of tb« Low German an 
A* Mna IS thoaa of the Unaa-OoUila EngilUh, and 
Scantfnanaa languagaa; banoooneuf tnamoateiiDiile 
■■d obvioM di iU nctloM botween Low and Hijch 
Geraan, la that tbr noo dialoct hae I wharo the other 
haa «, k for cA, p for /. Tho rowda varj much in 
tfa* ^Ularent Low Genaaii diaJei.*Ui, aud caJitiot be 
takca for a diatiiKtive marL 

Catil tha RcfcmatiQn Low Ucmuui wu the 
gmnl vnltan lao^iufe of the dktriot above de- 
asftad; Iran tfaat tnoo the iMOea from the prcaa Id 
that Aalaet becamo gradaally lower, and bv the and 
«f Iha MVMtaco Ui oaot ory IM7 had oanaiid altoffethar, 
lad •««& aa a ifiokaii UBgnage, within ila lumicr 
Ikaha Bifh Gorman haa avaraJnoe been ilowlraiiper- 
ndfaig tM Low. The onl* oooaiderablo litcrury 
■awtmcnt of the fini pertod of tbo I^w Gonnaa la 
tha H'Uaod, a noon aacribed to the ninth century. 
"n* acooral pertod b alio poor in lltararjt wnrlu, a* 
tb* Ui^b (temiaB waa patroulicd b; the oourta, and 
e««D povli bora ia Low Gtrman Patricia made uae 
«f Ik la their worka. Tbo Ix>w Gevman literature 
WM thna muatly ccnfined to matkra ol imctioal and 
•wjilajr enncvni. It Btrlduni roae above euob oou- 
MUMa H rhymed cfaronklof, didactio poems, and 
Make of law. In the bigho' re^nona of epic, lyric, 
aaddnnatic poefrT the few worka bt which It cuiilJ 
h^ daim troquoatfy pvaoaacd a flavour of popular 
wit aad bunumr, Imt did not attain to the artiaUc 
•xctdlMteo of oontwnporw; High Gennao poetry. 
(If lh> rbiUMd cbroaiclM of thb rmiod w« mar neo- 
tfaw the I'landatahein Ouooik <l«a Pfaffcn frorvd 
■boBl ISIS (la Harenborg'a Hlatorla Candeiiba- 
mivia; H*ao««r, 17S4); and Da Kronicaran Saaoen 
(Brvnawiclc, Ift'ie). A»ow the Uw booka the mmit 
MUfated b the SacbaeaMegel, wUeh ocmtaba the 
■aama nf tba Lobaok, fitaoMn, Bnuuvick, and 
atbtf omUa Among dramaa are tbo Spiel van 
^ ITpdaiMUagB, aditod by EttniUlW (ISAl), and 
the TlUnphilua hf UoffmanD (ISM). Tbe lay of 
Tea. XL 



Kiminc Ermoirtkea dAt, odiUd by R<id<-Jce (lUU, b 
a ipedmeo of ibe bervio lut^ends of tUe period. The 
Kothorlanduh poem Bviuaka and tbo Eulcaii^effel 
(which Roo) ant tnolnded by nomo aa belonging to the 
cloee of this jwriod. In tbo si»t«ii]tb centurr a con- 
•Idenble ntiraber of works Apcicared In Low Geruun, 
chiefly hiatorical and theological Among thom may 
be notAd, Die PommeracJta Ohmnik of tliomaa 
Kantiow, edited by fitthmer (Stettin, I3S5}; Ibe 
C'hronik daa Tjandra Ditlimarachen of Jobium Adolfi, 
enniamed Xeocorua, vditod by Cablman (two vob., 
Kiel, 1»27). Tbe last Low CennaaBiblo was printod 
in l.tlnolmrg in 1622. 

In racent timei I^j-wGennon literatnre hoe r*oolv«d 
a new iinp<.-tiis frtita Klaua Orotb and Friu Eeater, 
but osoept a» a mvana of fllnatntiiig tb« oommon llfo 
of the ppoplc the att«nipt«d revival ban oompletely 
failed Tbo Klenlifle mltivation of tbe Low German 
dtalocta Las not nweived the attention which their 
imporiAniHi Hcmanda. Kindivrlin^e Goschichte dor 
niedciwoluiLKiuin oder aog. plattdentachcn Rpntche 
(ISOO) b axMDeBt for Ita tinw^ and haa yet iiod no 
adequats eaeoaMor. Hw grammar and lexioogr&pby 
of tho Ptattdiinbich har« nornr yet been thomnigbly 
tTCatML Of ttie can-'fully edited WbrtrrbiH^ der 
nied«rdeutscheo Spnu-iie of Kaaagart«ni (Uraifswald, 
1857) only aoino parts bare i4)pear«d. A coplona 
oatakigus of the Utoratur* oonnMbed wl^ tbe l^w 
German dialscta n givea b/ Hoflnann ron Pallura- 
taben In bia Qmiulriaa der dentachan Fhllologle 
(Bretlan. 1898). 

PLAITS, a riror In tbe United Btatea. which 
r\M:r» in tbe Rockr Moontun* by two brsDcbcn, one 
on the fmnliera of Oregon and tho otbcr aa thti troif 
tiers ot Utali, '2S0 miles aittrl, and nilkJ rwin-ctivdy 
tbe north and potith forks rit tbp riatto. I'bry tlow 
i^ant, ariil unite 400 miice fnim. tbrir xiitrcr, wbon the 
unilnl itrram, flowiiifj mwtly eaat, falb Into the 
MiMonri on tho frontier* of Iowa, 30 milea aontb of 
Council BIuBb, afu^r a oourae of about lAOO milea. 
Prindnal affiuonto, thn KIk-htim and tho Loup Fork. 
It b from 1 mile to 3 miles broad, but b so iiballow 
luid enoomborad with lalandat and has auoh a mpid 
cnrmit. that it cannot be navigated. 

PI.ATTKNHRK. S«. Bai-j^tox (L»i«or). 

PLATTSUURll, a town of tbe Uuitod States ia 
the atato of Now York, on both aldoa of the SarMiae, 
near it« month In Ciunl>rrland Kay, on the went ahote 
of Lidtt: Cbaiii|ilain, IfiO milea north of Albany. It 
has niiLriiifiuttirM of leather, machinery, woollen and 
cotton clotb ; numaroai mw aad etb« mill^ and a 
oonsld«ruhle ttado. PlatSafam;; baa been aalacted aa 
a military atatioo, and large ttMie bariadca bar* barn 
•reotod on tb" nhnrc of th" lake In fCa vldnlty. Room 
aevere fighting, both by Unil and water, took ptaoe 
here in l)il (, betweea the British and the Am«nca&B^ 
to the adrantaco of tbo latter. Pop. (1880), 62ti. 

PLATYKLMIA {• Flat- worms '1, a divfalon of tha 
clam 8oolKlJ:k, n-prvaented by tbe Toiniada or Tipo< 
wonnH, by the Tnimatoda or ' Flnkea,' aad by tbo 
I'buiarida (whirh iir«) exid Nemsrtida (whlcdi aee). 
Tfamo forme, which include both iwnuitic and aoo- 
paraaitio anlmab, ar« prhnarlly dL»lui,-ulsbed by the 
more or laee flattened aad conipre*«<r>d iiha[<c of their 
bodica. No BcgmentatioB or dirbion at the body iato 
Bf|gnH-ri ts or eoudlaa b aaan — tha appamil 4 vinoa a< 
tha body in the Tapo-wnma btlng dna not to tnm 
MlgaMatation, aa fn ordinary wornu, but to the fad 
thataacb'juint' in tbe TruImId is a eepante ofgaa* 
bm or aoflid^ and not a mare segment Tbe term 
Flatyelmia b need ba eontrediattnonoa to XtmMdaia 
— a gronp including wonu pomemlBareiuiArf bo^ea. 
See also NWATSLMTA, NurnnnA, Tats-womi, Ac 

PLATYPUS. Sea UooioraBiATA aad Oanmi^ 

BBTHQIIia. 

arr 




rr^TYIlHlNA— PLEA. 



FLATTTtniNA. Sm llAiotALU, MonxTs, 

PLAtTKN, ft town In Suconjr, in the circ1« til 
Zwickttu, in ft Iwiftutiful Talloy on the left buik of 
tb« Et«Ur, 73 miln wjLW. of brrad^n. It b walled, 
aad bM ft cftsUe, Mvenl diurchu^ ft gymnuiuin, 
nonBftlftchMLorphftn'ftnd two ether hoapltaJj; manu- 
betam of mtdiinerjr, watchM, [ihiloHojjliii&i itiitni- 
menCa, blond, leatbra', wftx>etotb, atiil scrrccni, (^aticn 
priotflaldi^ d^'e-worlu, pftp«r, spiiuiiug, ftod oihvT 
oaiiM, tad ft pibcli-ovML Bi>ttch«r, tba inventor of 
Druden poraelfttn, vnt bnm here. PUucii ia a,n 
ftodent lAuice, anil In 1 130 viae pillaged bj th« Hum* 
Ite*. I'flp. in 1880, 31,078. 

PLAUTUS, Tin'9 Maccius. one of the olrlwt 
Itotnoa comic writere, wu bom *t Simunn, in I'ln- 
bri»t ftbifut cc. 2Ui: Jiod about b.o. 18*, a* tbo 
nunagvr of ft ccmpaDy of pt&.Ton In Roma AiUiu 
Golliua tellft ua thftt for tamo tiam ho waa in ft vary 
defttitate ounditlon, ftu<l was compellHl bo cftm hw 
liraliboo'l by tnming > banit-niitl. II« miut have 
WMMMed Ml invKhftuitiblo fond of gftisty, <mcv, even 
In ft oondltion ao unfftvourftbta bo pofttijr, he i»-ctnii 
to bftVA cooipOMT'l AomecomedieA, theaucceuof -wUii:!! 
appt!«r> to b>vc enabled him to iMnimciicii a literary 
«itr«trr. Ab(>ut ISO {flftj's vr«r« ftttrtbutcd to him iu 
the time of Vftrro, liut mimy of them van IwUevod 
bj critim to be spurinu*. Vmto limltod thoio un- 
doul>tedIjr |[«nuina to tvrentjr-onc^ fttttioagh iniuiy 
other* wvn atliuitted to bftve ttroag olftlmi. About 
tw«Bt7 of them, principftUjr ontiro, likvo como down 
to DM. The DUncB &re either borniwcil from the ncr- 
■una of tho i*iocc, as Auii>lutnio (llie htubtuitl uf 
Atcmona, tnothar of Ilorculm), Curculio (Corn'Womi, 
th« nunc of n iixini:or), Euidlevit Pacudoltw, Stivhua 
(iuun« of slftvaa), BaciiJiiaeft (nftniG of two fntil fur 
onat), UanKchmi (th« Dftina of a (uur uf twins), 
Mitea Glorioaua {ths Braggutt SnUlicr), (!nptiTi (Cho 
Two Cftptlvea)^ Mvrcator {thv MervLant), Pitmulu* 
(the Cftrthaginiftn), Per«A (the Pcninn>, Truotileatii* 
(Iha I^en:«>); or from aonuetliiu;! wUi-h bitvcs tu a 
fonniltitioD of tfa* pUy, aa AuIuIbju, ClatslUrliL, 
UoKteUuru^ Fultula being utideratnod ftiie Pot or tho 
Treaaorc, the Cukut, the Ghoat). Ho took m hia 
modfla tba po«U of the now Attic comedy, but Lie 
via* cuontiftlly original, and his great popularity 
with tlio Ronuns, whioh continued after hia dcftbh, 
wftft grcfttl; due to Ida dopictiiij.' Roman uiaiuK^ri. 
Tba purity of hia languaf^c and the infinKnioiit of 
hia humour mad* hiiu aa uiuob a fa^ourito with 
icholftra ftod critics aa vith the p^opte. The Am- 
phitruo liaa bteti imitated by Moli^re in bia Aiuplii- 
tryon, And (-IhiT iuehIfiti drMnaticU have aW copi«it 
him. 'I'he Uiit of I'laiitos la very oomipt, ftud with 
froqueut lactjnm mid ioterpoUtion*, manr of tho 
Iftttor of modani Qrlj^in. Tbo tiret edition ia that of 
Vcnioe (147S). AncxcoUentMlitiuii of tbeeomediei 
of Piftutua waa wuad by ErsMti (I^pxig, 1740, two 
Tolft), Amoog modem editlont mny bo mentioned 
thftt of WoiM (Quedtinbuts, 1837-8«, tm roll. 8ro) : 
but BO iDodani editicoi con comparo with that of 
lUUchl ao far ai it baa gono. Tbvnt an: also eararad 
editiona of tlie aopftrfttfi playa. There U ftn Englioh 
trftaalatioa by Tbomton and 'U'araer (fire vol*. 
1767-74). Lraning'a Vandpm I.*hrnandd«n W«rkRn 
dco Plantiw, tn third voluuo of hb collected worlu 
(Bftrlin, 183£), nifty ftbo be aentiuned. 

PLAYFAIR, Jonx, naturftl phiiMopber and ma- 
thomattcian. tbnoldnt Kin of Jamea Playfair, tninia- 
terof Beniif^ ja Forfanblrcv waa boru thero 10th 
March, I74S. H« ivccJTod hia Mrly vducation nt 
hoBW, and at the age of fonit«en was aont to tho 
Vnivcnity of St. Andrewi to atudy (or tho church. 
Whilo atitl a »tudoDt fa* waa aokotod by Frofatftor 
>VUId« %Q lecture on ofttuml phUtwophy to tho pco- 




fesaor'a daaa dtiriag hia ahaaaoa frocn 111 haalth. and 
at tho ag« of ughtvtD bo hocftON ■ caiididau for tbo 
ehftir of mftthemiiticft la Ifftrlaehal CaUegi^ Ab«rdo«L 
On tho drftth of Ilia father in 1772 b« via tiomiiiftlod 
a> hia aiicoauor, and toitorod on hi* <liaTg« in Aug. 
1773. lo 1779 k« publiahed la the alsty-ofgh^ 
volume of the PhUcaophicftl TraaMCtlont at tbo 
Uoj 111 Society aa Baaay on the Arithnotie of Iaip<» 
■ible QuonUbea. In I7S2 he radned hia living to 
bec»m« tutor to the eona of Mr. Argoaoo ot Balth. 
In 1 1 S6 ho wftB clioaan by Adam Forgnsoo aa ainat- 
nnt nrofeMar of matbenalica in the Univoraity at 
Ediiiburt;b. In 17S7 heoomuiencwl a aeriea o( paptn 
In tbo i'tsjif.aBtliin«of tbo Hoyal SodatyoT £«tt- 
burgh. In 17^5 be published for tho mo ol has dia 
an editfoB oS the BIsmentB of Euclid, In whkk ha 
tixxl ftlgehraica] aigno to abhravial* ue damoakatn- 
ttoiu. Thia haa become ft toxt-book, and bat baoa 
froijncntly edited. Onthedeathof Dr.Hutton (1797) 
ho oommenoed the atudy of hia vrorka with a «iow to 
ft biography, but found grwit^r attractiona in tho 
n^h'ocacy of hia thvory, which led to hia Illuotratiooa 
of the Huttoniaa Theory of the Earth (1802). In 
1603 he piiblisbed hia Biography ol Hutton in tha 
Tranaaetiona of tho Sockty. In 1805 be waa ap^ 
pointed to thv cliibir of ualural ijhil<«opby, and faecaiM 
eecretaiy of the Royal Somiy of Edlnbaisb. Ia 
1807 hnwAd admitted ft memberof the Itnyftl Society 
tif Iiondcin, U> which he praoented An Aooount of tba 
Survey of SihohftlUan. In 1812 and 1816 ke pnb- 
liihod tho fint ftad aocond Toloinoi of hio OntUnao 
(il Natural I'hiloMphy. lie first volume trcatt el 
dynauiln, mechftaiGa,bydTostatici^ hydmuUo^ »eto»- 
tAtica, and pneumatics : the atcond ol wtronoiny', tba 
third, which woi to have cmbnoed optics, doctiidiy, 
and KitgtictiHm, wunerer pnbliibed. Ha alaowTala 
fur tlio »i)p|>Lement to tho ElKO'cloimdift Britannfeo 
a Dimertntion on tbo ProgHaa of Mathatnatieal and 
Pbyiiicftl Sdeuoe abtce the Bevival of Lc-tten in 
Fjurope, pibtiahcd in 13K1. 'Itiia w^wk, wbirh waa 
not rinmplet^d, bitomipted an imtm>t«d edition of 
hia lUiutratioikB of tho Hattonifta Tboory, whisb hi 
woa novrr able to oompleto. 

Id 1815 the eatobliabmeat of peace enabled biai 
to oxtond bla loienti tie inveatigatlona to tbo ContlMni. 
Ho went to Paris in eonpsny with his napbtw, to- 
veiled tbenoe to Switicrlftnd, where he omIo iaipar< 
tanlgealogioalinTeotlgftttona; be tbeu enlpred Italy 
by tho Simplon. Ho apant tbo wintv tn lUmi^ ftnd 
in ipring proooaded to Naplea, where bo made fnoh 
gccloriokl Inrertl^^ftCians. He reUinied hj Flonnea 
ftnd Qcnora, paasm^ ftlao Ihrouitb Venice Wm^ ftOd 
Pari*. In the ensuing smnmer no prqiarod ■ tmatV' 
OD Nftval Tftctica, rvfening bo tho d U covetki ti 
Clerk of Hdin, which vru pnhliahed ftfttt hk Anth. 
The olwcrvations modo on hk toar. which w«ra 
Intended for the illuatratlon of bbt worlc on the Hnt* 
tonian Thccrv, wem n«v«r utiliiad for that pvipet^ 
ftnd wore only psTtiftUy publiihetL Bo di*d of • 
Btrutgury, with which he had bectt afllictod lor oosw 
years, 19th July, 1619. Acnotdhig to JoBny, Plav> 
fftu- wftB not mors aninoat h • nfta of ideaoe thac 
plcaring in hia deportraont in society, in which, with- 
out tryitig to abine, be attracted all of either wx with 
wlioni he cam* in contaot, aa mui;h by hi* amiabls 
(]ualiti«» ao by tho iottinaio vslno and unaflooiod 
chftTftoter ol his oonrantfttioft, PIftyfsir wm e fa*- 
t\uoai contribnUn- to the Bdinbnri^ Beview, and bis 
papen in the Transactiona of tbo loaniod sociattoa 
were very nuineroiuL mid cmbrneed • gnat y nri ocy 
of BubJDcts boaldee tboea fnuBMnlod. 

PLAVING-CAKDS. So* Caul 

PLKA, in Kngtiah kw, is tba answer of ft Admi' 
aat to a plntiitia'a decJaralkw. Plaaa war* divided 
into picas of tho ciown ftod oonunoD idoftfc Tbf 



PLKADI N(l— PLEBEIANS. 



131 



faraer nUt» to cHininKl [nroMCaUooi, tlia laUer b> 
ci*a auita. A dilatory pl«a wm k p1«* in objection 
to tb« jarbdictioo of Um oonrt, or pnyfntr ivr tb« 
MfpoMtm of tbt Ktka. or in abftWniGnt «E th« d«- 
cUntino. FtnRipbtr; pkM w«rc plcM in bar of 
tba avtiocL Tb pie** lucnMirlj naeil Id dvQ pro- 
BwJingi la Ike S«Lp«rior Cuuru we nvw aapeneded 
by Um Mataunt »/ drfeiKt introduced under the 
jMliatara AcU oj 1673 and 1875. In criminal 
MtfoOB Iho prbonei'a ]i)eM ara (a) ubjecUoni bi tlio 
foMiielkn; (h Id abfttamvot: (f) fonnvrlj- twifoItUd, 
•earUtod «r |»rdgaed; («f) Um gvocrnl inos of not 
railty. 

In Sootlaod what »n callod pleu hi law bate 
•pdu ft diffaraot iManiDg. Ttipj- wnro iiiUixtiiMd 
Djr act 6 G«o. IV. c»|i. ctx. «. D, «hicU defines 
than •■ '» ■hort and cnodM noU^ drawn and Mgiwd 
bj KWinwil, of Iba ptaaa in law by wLkh tlie actios 
ar ddsoa ia tobo maintaiDod; and in tucb &at« thg 
tnatlRV of law 10 tc be atated ahatl be »et forth in 
Aptjact and ■eparatc propaaitlaita witbmtt af^auiL-nb^ 
Init MOMBfwnMd by » rafcrwoe to the autlM>riti«a 
rrfiad ml' Tb«M uwaa are sobiMDed to tb« action or 
iltfiixai, and It la ue atatator^ dnty of the lord oidl- 
aMxr, btian dmng tbe record, to nigscat any \lhm 
wbjab ba najr deoo Dacwary to be anawwrvd by 
•Itbar pntr u urder U> eibMut the caae. An new 
pleaa aiaj be ndaed after tbe doaing ot the reootd 
by a pmeaaa of enrolment, inoluding forrtjr-elgfat 
booi^ notln to thtf oMMMlte paitr, the object nf tho 
■taCBt^ ta have the wbvla eaaa ofearly iUted before 
lMHlniilii| the dehat^ haa aot been fuDy luiawered, 
Ute ctetive for an cxhatMtive Ntat«nnoat of the pleaa 
bi taw balore beipiisltig tbe action aot being anfS- 
riaiTlT ttrmrr tn aecore enifomiity of practioe. 

PtJBAlflNti ia the procoM ia Ea^llah law by 
vbiofa the ianea to be detennined in an aoUon arc 
■HOtaliMd. Tbcsa imea nay elUiec be iaauea ot 
ttm to lie drtennlMd by the oourl, or laanea of faet 
to be broBgbt before a jury. Tbe art ol pleading 
■Mrare to Lava been iotroilnced into Bnglaild by 
tM NoTBiana, do eUted Buelliod ot proi'vdure bav- 
laf been traced among the Asglo-Saiona. In fonno- 
linMapleadiaca were ddivored ar»lly, whence in old 
biw nvacb tfaej mn fre<|tMntly termed tbe for^ 
TIm fcrme of |iroc«ea bavo been frvi)ut<iitly mMllIed 
by ilAtntc, the more impijrtaDt rul«e nuw in luo in 
the Hub t'oqrt being aettled by tbe .Itidicatnre Act 
ef 1 87A ae fiiJlowa .-{a) Unleaa the defendant al tbe 
tlB* tt hb a|>pearance iball atate that he doea not 
Mqali* the dctivcry of a atotencnt of oonpUia^ tho 
BkJMUT ahaU wtthln a ifiecified tima deliver to the 
Atfendsat after hi* appearaiwe a Blabenienl of hia 
cotplaint, and tbn rcli«t or remedy to which he 
eUma ba in ntitled. Tbe defendant on hia part 
. abiA wttUn ft praeribed ttaoa deliiar to tbe plaintiff 
ft atatatMOl oi hia defeaoek ael-off, or oonntOT-elatm. 
■■d tba plaintKf aball in like manner itvlirer a atat*- 
Wmttt, o( Ma reply to aueh defences wt-PlT, or ominter- 
alilMi 8«Bh atatanaitta abaU ba aa brief aa the 
■ftluv of tbe caea will admit, otherwiM tba ex nenaaa 
caaacd by iiBneoetaary pnjiaity may be charged 
«■ iha party nalag It. (k) Every pleading niuat 
coftl^n ft atateoMnt «f the material facta on which 
the CftrtT pleading relid, bnt not Ibo uviiionca by 
which tliey an^ Ui l>e pn>ted. (r) Kwry kllcsation 
•I fact in a pleading, if not denied apadflcaUy, by 
■■eaHanr implication, or atnlcd to be not adndtted 
ift tha nweding (d tbe oppoutc [<«rty, ahall be taken 
to be aaiattted7»M»ep* aa i«ain«t an infant or peieon 
«l mamod Bind, (d| Eaeb party in anv pleading 
anat all«|«aU audi facta not appearing u the pre- 
nieaa afaJiiuji aa ba uuana to tely oo, and nuart 
nlaaall each gnanda of defence oc rmtly aa the caea 
m»j be, aa If ool laiaed on the pkadiiitfi would bo 



likely to take the opjHiwte party by ■iitprW^ or 
would raiM new iipUM of fact not luiaing out i.f tbe 
pleadinjia. (e) No pleading itbaU, except by way of 
amendment, ridae any new ground <ii claim or con- 
tain any new allegation of fact inconaUtont with the 
pteadinj^a of the muno party. (/) It nbnll not bo 
•uHieievC for a defendant to deny utfuundl) tbe facta 
alltned by the aUtement of claim, or for a plainlilf 
to (IcTiy gotiorully the f«ct« allre"^'' '■» * rfefwico by 
way oF cuutiter-cUim, but Bitcm party muit doal 
•pKifically with eiK-h uUefiUun of wLioh be doea not 
admit ^ctnitb. —If tho plaintiff doaa not deliver hia 
Btatemcnt of clnim within the preecritiod timr., thn 
dofeodant, at tbe expiration of aucb liine, may apply 
to the coort or a judge to diamiai tbe action wlui 
ouala, and the court or jndga may order the action 
Id be ditmtaied accordingly, or make ■□me other 
order whlcii tbe oourt or jud)te bWL lieetii Jiwt, l%e 
taw ralatiDg to pleading is practically the aasie la 
moat ef the United 8utea. 

Pr.GBKIANS {l'UU\ Due of the gT«at ordcfa a{ 
tb« Itiiiiinii l"^!*, Gi>rT<.ui|xi Tiding to the camnvanalty 
iu KtigUiid. Thu time at whidi the Plobeiana w«ie 
racog^ied aa a dirtinct order in the atate !■ not 
aaoertained: but they were at tint excluded from 
noarly all thn righta <if cjtiumihip. They dtfTerad 
from the CliatU* in nut beintr ubliited to cboose a 
patron, and were allowed to hold liwd by a free lllle^ 
but bad no ehara in the public domahu; tbey wan 
aliM obligad tn anrra in tho ■.rtny, but tbey were 
excluded frviu all public or pulitical privilet^ija. Tbe 
whole gurerumtrnt of tbe elate, with the enjayment 
of all it* office*, belonged esclaai*cly tu tho Petri- 
dauii, with whom the Hsbriana could noteven intar> 
marry, lids wa* iheir ooudltluu under the mon&rchy. 
Tho eiril historT,' of Itonio is Bubac>iiiiontly to n great 
extent oompoaoil of the iAragg\e» of thi- ri^bcian* to 
aaaert their claim tc tbe place in the cviiimon wealth 
to which their nnmfaen and RDcialtmpflrtanoe entitled 
tlieiu. VVhcD under Tulltis MoetUiiu the Komana oon- 
(jiumtd Alba, thry admitted tbo moat diatinguiahed 
of it* ciUaena tv the Patridan dan, while thu ifveat 
bulk of them wen added to the PkbeLana. Tba 
aame oouiae waa foUowod in other cAnriiimtM, eo that 
the nnmben of the Plebeuiiu were c»n«taiiUy aoK- 
uentliig, while they w«n fur tbe meet part of the 
MmebiM)d.aDd poeseeecdof tbe Mina«ini*n,datfT- 
tnination, and other moral onalitiea oa tba Jlominant 
cImm, tboujjh len favuurahly developed by droum- 
ttanow. 

The Plabeiaaa, like the PatricUaa, war* dinded into 
f/title*, bnt they were excluded from tbe tiiree Patn- 
dan tribei, and froua the curim, which formed tbe 
baaia of tbe govemmeutal maohtoery of the atate^ , 
Tarquiaina pYiieua luumi to hara inadu aa attempt 
to introdiiee the Plebeiana la the prlrilegea of dtJaen- 
■hip by dividing them into tribes but it waa not eno* 
ceMuL Serviu* Tulliua organixed the Plebeiana in 
tribcn, of which he conetituUd fuur for tbe dty and 
twenty-all for tlie earronDdlnff aubjeot tanibniea. 
Each tribe had a tribune or protect. They had their 
own aoclal and rvUgioua prioilesea, and were allowed 
to meet in nmilia tributa convoked by the tTJbmmi 
Thia organixation under rectigniud baada, and tha 
power of meeting, wcro ot the greete«t nnpottanocvaDd 
omtaiued, ae eiperieaoe proved, theoertn of all anb- 
aaqoant conewaJona. A armblonca nC political powar 
waa at the easia Una oonfcrred on thiira by Servlaa 
I'nlltua. He divided tbe wbule body i>f ciliz«aa Into 
fire daaaea aoeordlD|{ to the aawnnt of tbeir proparty, 
tq»ft vhidi di«diion waa fovaded tbe co m itia o*n- 
turiata or great na tl oaal aaaembly, to wbicb tha 
greater part of the lagtahrtlTa and judicial p<wer of 
UN comitia eorlata waa traaaferrad. The dtiiene, 
in tiiia aiaaiiililj. roted by oenturiai^ hut aa tba 



133 



PLEBISCrrB— PI/BaiOSAUETT8. 



I 



oquntriitn onii^r mnA the finrt rliw of cttizons had 
tbe maiorlty cif tb» wliala numbor of Mnturle^ and 
ToMd fint, it waa only ia th« cue of diScrancH 
liinon^ thfim thiit It vm aeuauir to oonmiLt tbe 
Inwar oUaau*. SoEti« of the notile Plebtiaa Lunfldes 
were aleo i»ilniitt«d Into the wiu-mitriaii ordar. To 
follow tlw entira oonne of oonccwiciiu wbtdi foUoirud 
ttia beglniiSng would demuid aji oiamin&tloQ of tb« 
moat cgiiiplic(it«<l '^cImU uf I{j]tiiAU hutory. The 
oatabliafaniciTit at tribunca itt.v. 494), the l*w of the 
twelve ubltM (B.C. 461 ISO), the Lex Coniiteiu (b.c. 
41M, which permitted InlarrouTU^; tlw odtnii^nn 
to tbe con Kit Ut« (['.a 3ftS), with tho ■aBO««i"'a admi*- 
rioD in H^c. 351 tii Lba caBKinhip, *.C S8A to the prvtor- 
Hfatp, oad B-c. SOO to ibo office* of pontlfex aad kugur, 
were the le&dicig atcpa in a mcccsnon of victoricn 
which cvi!rniii!i.tHl {rue. lfS6) iu the lii:x Hortotuiia, 
which K»VH ihe [■lalif'tuitu uf th* jiwJltlB (.lie furve of 
lav. From this tlue tbo privileece i>f the two claasc« 
may bo dJiiil to hiwro bwm equJ; the word pr>pufiu 

now li^atl to he uki) to cIougUAta tbo whulc jwople, 

and fubt waa «tm].>loy«d amMUiiiw to ii««[gii»t« tb« 
Hsnnbljr of tlio comitia eaitiiriatB» or populkrly to 
distingiiuih thn {rcDcmi mftMi of the ooinmoti people. 

PLEBISClTl!, a form of voting introduoed into 
Ftmk^o iinrl^ thn NajiolBOiik i^tn», luid namod 
ftftw tbo Jtumui pltbUvita. 8«a Eue^tiom (Politi- 
cal}. 

PLECTOGNATin, a, sub-onlcr of Tcleo^teftn 
flflbfo, diatin^itbecl by tho fnnxillAry snil Jnter- 
iDkxilliu-y bouM on eftch ■iile uf tbo Jiiw bi>bi|,- finuly 
united CogctboT by bony union. The intcnn&ullAry 
bonm form Ihe mnrciii of the tirijwr jaw, ilixI thi-y 
&ra tliua wildcreil tu tlio luuxillnriioi ; wUilut thet 
txtnce of the pali>t« rt« *I»o flnnlj joinod to tbo 
akoU. l*ho union of the bouM uf the hcud i« of a 
much more firtn and intimAte kind than in other 
Tel-eoatcan &ibes. llio bead i« <if largu Mxe. The 
ininith ia amoll, and the lipi are hardly movafalo. 
Tho oporcitla or gill-rovers ore covered and nur- 
iniindiHl hy xkin and memliraRe lo a« b) limit in a 
lery marked dotfree ibo g\\i or opercular openlnj[. 
The body Eb ^uerally of Bhortoned coufortuaticia. 
llie >kin ia usually of stout, bomy tcxtnra, and 
may ba covered by ganoid ptato^ ooatca, cir by 
dfflAohed bony tuberclM. Tbe fioa are Rmall, and 
aoliroly aoft. Th« ventraL fina may bo wantin];. 
No pyloric OBca exitt. The swimming or air bladder 
la a completfly closed eao. As ex&mplM of tbr cbivf 
flihrai included in thin group »n mar citn tho 'IViink- 
fiihee or OetraoiontidK, thv curious Ballslida.- or POe- 
fiahoi, the Globe-fjahoe {Tetraodon and Z'wcfon}, and 
the Sim-fi«hca or Urthagoriad. Sec SuH-nati and 
TxuHK-rvui. 

The Olobe-flabM; of which tbs Titraodtm PaiitaMii 
of the Cornwall coaatii, tbe T. tvriffal tu of Carolina, and 
tho r.iiiumtut of the Nile may ba died aa «ninplea, 
are rHinarkable uu accocnl of tbe power they poeeew 
of dJHWnding tho body at nnll with air, the nir being 
forced into u liu\p! ncciLlur expanxtou exWuiUu)! 
Iwn«atb the belly and o[>«nin|; from the ceaophwaa 
or guUet, Darwin »av« tba air in cwaliowvd, thm 
fonod Into tbo fiac, aud rataiuvd tborti by mnaoalar 
coBtraotion. The puaiBBlnn of thla Inflated ttc anablea 
the fiib to float on the anrfiot of the water, belly 
nnwardu — a fw-ulty bynwanx of which it may pca< 
elbly eecapv from ila enemlee which exlM lu gtisiXift 
d^^ia — vbilat tb« iplitea with which the skin ia 
omrad pf* to the fish an otlditinnal protection. 
These uoea an h^coc luiawn u ' Hu-jiorcuplueB.' 
Tbo allied cfmuii lOi-don u repn'wnt«d by varlona 
specie^ td wnicb the J). pitotJit uay icrvo m a foiniliar 
exampla Tbe fiihaa belonging to this Utter genua 
OMMlly oomr in warm or tfo^cal seaa. See alao 
OarKACtutf. 



PLEDGE, or Paww, fa * apeciee of ballmottt bi 

the deposit nr pl.-K^ing of good* an eeenri^ for 
payment of mniiRy IhhtowcI, or the futfiliMiit of 
obligation or promise. It la liiEtinsnishad, In . 
law, from a mortgage of chattels bj tti* dron 
that the legal property in tbe eh^tel mortgMad b 
In the mortgng«e, wfaureas tlie IcgaJ OWBSnUp «< 
goods pawnod remains in the paws«r,thoiish Mootd- 
ing to the defioitiao of a pawn anil pledge toe pawaea 
not only has tbe ri^bt of putsKwiiuu, but muat be in 
pcaaeaiuon. If tbu mouey Is not foid at thn time 
adpnlatod the pawn may be aold by the pawnee^ wt 
mny retain cnniigli of tho praoeeda lo pAj tlw dal 
intflctdcd to bo Hccured. Ia some c^wa taa tsmia4 
tbe da[>oiiit ruo tbo forfoltriro of thn pawn In oaMe tha 
pawnor dioce not- ftilAl tbe promise or oUlgatioa to 
guarantee which tbe pawn i* given. See Pam> 
BiioKEn. 

PLEIATES, tho daugfatcn of Atlas by Pleioa^ 
or tbe 0«;aDiiI .Ethra. I'bey wera statflni of tb« 
Hyadt^ and eev^n in numbrr. Stz of then wora 
i-EsibTe, th» asventb inrioibla. The SBrcnth is called 
by some Stenpe, by vtben Klecira. She b variously 
Raid to bare beooma IsvlBlble tkom tbana or from 
grief. The riatefa are eaid to ban mado '•^"J viU> 
thnmiDlvai from grief at tbo death of tbe Hyadei^ 
and tu bive bwn placed In the stars aa a duster 
behind Taurus. 

PLKOXASM (areck, flivntannoi, a mlnndancy), 
tn rheUiric, ia a Ggum of ipcech by which we uae mora 
woMh tbtui seem absolntely necessary to convey ovr 
moaning, in order to etpreas a thought with mora 
grnoc or greater energy; it is aomatfanen also ^ifdiad 
lo a needleai superabuudbuico of WOtda, 

PLESIOSAUKUS. a gamta tS axtlnct n||tOss 
forming the type of the onler Floiiwirin or Saur- 
opterj'gia (Owen). Of this genua upwards of twenty 
apeciea hare bern d{«cribc«L and l^c remaina of tlicaa 
reptUea occur from tbe Lias to tbe CTeUoeoni er 
Chalk rocka indnmre; tbcM forma being thosasda- 
•Lvely of Meaoeoic age. The lenvtb of the Isovest 
•pecfniens auerag* from IS to SO feet. FamUlar 
xpecioi ara the PttnofatiruM d^irhodtinu (cos PL 
LXXXIIL fig. 21) ct tbe IJas fomaUoM, tbe P. 
t^'nuof the U|iper Oolitt^ P. BemarMoiibv Chalk, 
/', mitr'-'yriJtalut, P. Uaictinrii, P. Amui&wnoadyfiLtof 
the ^^'hit1ly Lisa, P. pactiypmui, Ac hn. The remaina 
ut thi^ (.-urlouB genus were Urat brought to Ught In tha 
Lias of Lyme Regie in 182^ They w«i« first noticed 
by iJcoLn UanybMro and Sir II, I>e Ia Boche^ who 
named them Pteatotauri {pletiot, near, mutm^ limnl) 
for the reason that the genus was more neatly nUlad 
Ui the lizardn than t)io IchtAjiotaumt (wftK^ aaa), 
■nothar extuict rvpUlian form tonnd In die ^kma 
foraaation. Very perfectly pnaerrad dteletona of 
Plcsiasnari have from timo to tima baen Aaeovarad, 
and haf« been made the snbject of important menoin 
by Owen and other tiaheoatologista. Cnvier regarded 
Ibsstnii^iira nf the rlcafnaaiiniaafi'thjiBinrtainnlar, 
and its characUrrs the most anomaluus that baa beta 
discovered amid tbe mlna of a fora»r worid.' Dr. 
lluckland, writing of thlsgvnui^ describea Its anainbef* 
as uniting to tbe bead uit a lixard 'tbe tattb td a 
oeoodil^ a Bwk of esormona length, reaambliajf tbe 
body of a aerptmt, a trunk and taQ bavlag the pro- 
portions of an ordinarr qnadraped, tbe ribe of a 
cbamelrau, and tho poddlva of a wbala' So far as 
can bo asoartalned from the caicfnl aaaoBlnallan of 
the foBsUixod remains no scales, plates, ovotlMratnio- 
ture* resembling an exo- or outer alcatcton »"■<*** In 
tbe riesiosatirl. Tha bodies of tbo vettobne or Joista 
of the *pin« were flat or slightly cDoeava. arpcMMMfaig 
a alight conreiity in the middle of Um conoavity. 
The neural arvbta and sdIuos of tbe mrtelne were 
not generally ondfied to toe vertabral bodiee. Lioog 



PLETHORJL— PLEURA. 



1S3 



tnnavoM pnotnea exiitcd on Um Tertebrv. The 
tiftmt ribs of Um cbart KtionlktcJ yritii ihn ver> 
tefani bj abulia aod rfngls er m<Ii*i<lei] liwuia. Tba 
iMili>l or Back Tvtobns Bumbvrad fort j or fcw«r. 
TVaa tVMitjto tventy-fite dfinuhl wrgnienU nxJatMl; 

, andtWOMWgaJTftobneMnHnMnlJurtjlufiJrij-famlal 
or tafl MpBatta comploted Um ipbia. >'o tiiiUnct 
biOMlbuw er lUniuni wm dovoloped, nor do iteruU 
site appMH* to bATfl ejdsted; but oerUin otBlflcatldiia 
«m a«««loMd in Iba rantnl at low«r waU of Ui« 
•ibdnniWL nMta oaiiflMl piooM war* kmnacd In 
traiWMna rmn tran b«foT« LmJcww^ Mcb Nvr 
ONUuiBUif a ilii^ nediu bono ilighdy b«Dt apoa 
ilnlJ^ and ol ui other nvcrt^ji^ing bnnm, thrftt on 
<*ch side. Tho beiul wo* not cair» t)uui ^'ftb <>r 
i>i*li «< tba Unctb of tba bodj. Tbe dkIc wu u 
•tniH»tad bi aoma apedta raUlival/ to tbo boi^l^ m 
tliat of A awaa, but ta crthar apociaa nguu it wna 
pnpaatioMllj aborter. TbaUll wMr«]uUve1y thnrt, 
Uw fan Uaiba «■ oaddlaa bting abortcr thma tbo 
lifadar Danbati. ll« aaoat wm of a tu)cring form. 

, n* otUta er oye-OKTiti«a we laiKe aod wiile. The 
■th war* aban Kod ovrrad, Uia ontor nirfttce* of 
thali crovas bauifr gnwvwL Each tvotii vraa vutik 

I h aa dnoloa or dininot aoekoL Tba ey«9 do not 

; aiMar to have bc«D ■trengtbened bj a circb of 
■c Wu tic or bnnjr pUtm in tbo outor mimibran* of 

' tfaa 9j% m In IchtLyoaaorL TIm Inxct of ihu 
rtwVwr girJla wore fanned hj two W^ ooncold 
hiiaei^ tun ac^ml* or abouldDr-bUdM «f pocoliar 
CO MM I — U oM, two daTklea or oollar'bciiiea, Mid a 
ianm variaiwy rapnled aa an loletrUvlule or an 
afialvBal bank Six bnnaa cziitod in tba wrist, and 
«M« amafed in two rowa. llie nelviii woa well- 
4ov^ped; and botb fun and buid fWlw wen Ui ail 
probaUUtj indoaod witbla a meinbfMw to u to form 
OTfrnslw paddloi lika tboaa of irrlitfng Cotace^ 

Vmb ngud to tba baltlu oTuMFlailMauri It 
M19 naannalily bo lafarml tltat tbaao ivptltaa won 

'afndo and inhaUtod tba aHoarfaa of riwa and 

I ilftaBiWi wabarih orfMirmallf svimmiag out to aaa. 
I^or nit on lanil would neooMarilj bo awkwjutl 

' «Kt dUHcnlt Tba aloagatad aedc would mtv* to 
mU* than to daacry thdr pray from awooK or over 

' 1hatafa«f tiMfcadaaad recetotiiin amid which thny 

' arf^lt Ba cOBoealed in tbs baoka ol ritvn or ia eatu- 
aiiat, wfalitt tUa oatoa laogtb of nwk woitld nixyt 
tbcaa far w dily arfriny Uwir pray, wtii^ti cuiuiatcd 
frab^ily Ib inuatur part el fiabea. 

PUaasMiM ia an extinct r<^itiIo indudod In ifao 
m» ordar with tho FladoMnnu, uid dJatlsgniahod 
iUsdr b7 iu greater aim and by tba Umr head 
bMB* am a abtft uetk. Tboaa Utter raptuaa omot 
aa foaila io tba aaiddla and BHMr oolitoa oaljr. Tb« 
taatb waaa ahnjJa, ooakal in abj^M^ and «( large dae. 
Tbo aaok vactabiv wara compRaaed from befuro 
laakvank, and thai raa ii mblad thoao of the Icbthyo- 
mmrL SoBa ot tbaie Plioaanra attained a len^h of 
tnwardaof 40 feal^ for example^ Piiomtuntg ftnicAy 
Antb Tba tooth of P. grandi* from tba Kisuner- 

. Ufa «Ut of Osford ateatared about 8 iachaa or morr^ 
Ita gbiB At tbe bnae of tbe (vown being 7^ iocbes 
and fta diaawtm at the aa«>« place beUtg 3 inch** 
T baa. In aita thia tootb raaimbtaa that of tb« 
liriar apcfB whale. 

FLSTBOBA m a diaeaaa of the blood, ooaaiatlng 
«f aanbanaoa of blood or exoaM*e fulnaaa of tba 
■eobrmtao. Scientific wiilan haw diatbgolabod 
■boa Indi of plathora; tba meat impOTtaat dla- 
Ihmijii la that ba t waan an oeaaaional tormscanco of 
Iba MfTftd and a pcnDment incieaao of ila Toltune 
tayd the waata of tha ayMaiL 

rnaiiiaiil pJvthnta is canaod b^ tba *xc)tam«it 
and tMfaimom of tbe c^iiUarj vaaeela, produced by 

' high lacnpanton^ and bjr orer-iadulgnice in eating 



and drinkiaz. Pomomi constitutioaally plethorio are 
expooed to It aa well aa others. Am^iitatii^D is a 
fr«ii(iu)nt CAiiae nf plethora, aa tba di^mtiro powers 
do Dot immediatvly accommiKlato tb«iri*ulv««i tu tlia 
redueed wanta of tbe ijatem. and too mnch food ia 
liable to be taken and too miicb blood formed. I'lu- 
thoia hn* two leading caiiua — thn intmluctian Into 
till! vsaeuUr aj-slvm of too mitcli uutriuieiit, and the 
daflcieiit activity of tba aecreting organa, wbsnbjr 
tbt- tjutritive msltcria inanffidently removed from rae 
blood. A tcniioDcy to pletbontthua generally develops 
alanadvaDoedag^wiMDthe aotlvltyof tbeaeoretlve 
poven has bean ooo^orably diminisbed. Plethora ia 
nftcn confounded with obcaitj, from wbldi it ia quite 
diatinet, oU«ity beinj; cunsiiiteDt witb duflcioucy of 
blood. In lean peraona jdaibora ia laoogoiaod by a 
full, ttroag polae^ and lu^ wall-filled vaiaa. na- 
Ihura prddnoE* a dimiantion of activity uid a g raatar 
Lttuileucy to alvvp than to baalth; tbaaa ayruiitoms 
increase as it bomoua aggrsTatad, and ctiliiiiDBto in 
laaritiidc imd Tortiex\ turgid countenance, snifnaed 
eyoi, [UklpiiationB of the Dc&rt, and similar pbeao- 
meoa. Itisliabletaleadtofaverorviscaraloongaatiaa. 
Tha trcatmaot of platbom la cotirdy negating and 
ia anggeated by the eaoaea of the dJaaaie. AbatiDaaua 
and exerdaa are ila two moat important dementa, 
and thair oombinatlon depends upon tha oireaiaatanaea 
uf the individual ease. QanataUy ahatliMOoe fnm 
malt limiora, winoa, or apMti !• lacMMnanded. 

PLUURA, tho seroua mrmbrane (aoa MKHnUini) 
lining tbe 'Cavitr of the thnrax or cheat, and wbion 
alao covers the lung*. Eadi lung la Inveeted by a 
asparata pleura or portion of this mombrano; the 
atnicturo being anokcn of mttinr a* diiiibic pIc-urn- than 
an a single ui«mliT«ne. Like all aeroua ■oemtiranea, 
and as described in the artlole MzuBBAXa. eacl} 
pleura ia a completely closad or ahot aac, and doea 
not eommtuitoata with ha companiou mambraM; and 
it fnrtbor raaemblaa the ctiwr aarooe membraoaa, in 
that oaa aide or part of tha saa Utua the oootalsJag 
carity, wbilat tbe other part or fold ia reflected over 
the contiainal organs. In the thorax, thertfore, each 
[ib^ira is found to oonslat of a piirtlon lining tbe 
waUa of the choat, tliia fold being named the pUvra 
mtUtlia or farioal layer of the pleura, llie other 
foli^ refiecied upon tbe lung'a aurfaoe^ ia named In 
GontndlaUnctlon tfaecilrani mbaoiMU^ or tba rf iwrai 
layer. These two tolda iucloae a apnea known as the 
pUiavl eaeitt/, whieh la health oontalna aeraiis fluid 
in just auffioiunt ({uaatity to lubricate the lurfacua of 
the plnunn as tbay glide over one another ia tbe 
moromenU of reapirinoa. Tha abnormal Incrwaa 
of tbe fluid of tha aerona aao oonatltutea tbe eoadttion 
known aa AydratAoraa or pleural dropay, wbilat it 
may alao oontain air— aa seen in eaaM where the 
Inag baa been woiindad — canatiMtiog tba ledon 
known aa p»aimalMarax; at pm tut^ ba prmant in tha 
pleural cairity, wbcn tbe diaeaao ia known aa mi>- 
Pftmo- 

Id front the two pleural aaca kaacb one aaotbar at 
a Kiiigle {"int only, about tiia middle of tha ateraam, 
and tbcy tiMrcfore inaloee a naoe between tham 
kuuwn as the fludJnafiauai, whuA la ^faia dlridnl 
iDt«ant«Ticr,middl*,poal«riorpciitloiH. (SeeLi.KV.t 
In tbe madiaatbal apaM tike heart and other ornaa 
of the ciieat are dtoatcd, twoeptiag the lungs, wUch 
are oontalnad aa already axplaiDod, each within fta 
own pleural aao. Tbe plearft Unai tbe riha lalentUy, 
and a pcrtlon of tha atanitai or braaat bnaa la tnUL 
From tlw broaat-booa it paaaaa backwarda ev«r tha 

Kricanlium (which aee) or ^k timlamn the beait. 
om this latter point the maodiraiM b rsllsctsd 
over the frutt portian of tbe raot of mA Inag; tha 
root being tba pecctiaB of tbe lung aaar Ita mlddta 
and Loner snrtaoa, what* tha great T««el^ IjitibcLial 



134 



PLEimiST— PLiftmOBIMOHIA. 



tubM, ud other titTi)C!tnT«i ftattt tbo orgnn. A foM 
of tbfl pleun^ connlitutinit the lijamailum latum jud- 
moni*, or 'broMJ I!f;«,r»riit tA ili» lung,' puawdown- 
wudi from Uio rout > i Ibo lunj; t'j th* wfAingm or 
'mldfifl,' Mill BcrvM to roUin tho lower jNUt of the 
liuig in prupttr pusiUou. Tlio book portion vl Iho 
root of tbn (ung i* n^it oov«rad by tb« ploura, nnJ 
tluau il pttwM over the «[)tir« lung; Co the siJa 
of th« vtrtobra And riba. Mid tbut r«&ob«s the stemnm 
toA point from wliicli it itarleil Iiiferiurly the 
^MitK coren the iippor mrfnc* nf tlii iliaii)in4;m. 
The ^wx ol ibo trlettru pnijcul* abuue uito llui uuck 
ftbont on incb nbovo the bordor of tbo 6ret rib. Tlio 

Etmm of the right iii^lr; in widor, ihijrUjr. And axtonilx 
ij{bec in tlie uock Uinji tbkt of tlia left udo. TIjh 
ouMr upect bl tbo nkonibruio kd])er«i to tbo lung 
■urfMO^ Hid ftlsn to tbe {nilmoD&r/ roMols m thcnn 
le«ve the perioardiinn or heu^-Mtc. 1 1 U *Im> Attnchc^il 
to th* dllftliraffDi belowr; olwwlien St Ii but luowly 
«ca>Dwt«d to t£« ontignoiu satAtoM, 

Tha nlsm !■ iuppUod with blood-vMMoIs from the 
internal munm&ry, intorocMUl, pbreuic, uid other 
aftsrial trunk*; it* veiuB corr««{H>n<llng in nature to 
tlie MtcricK. Its Dorvoui aiipply '» derived from tbo 
plLn<iilc wid aympftthetlo nan-cii, whilnl lh« abflorbaot 
or Ivmpbalic v«moIs kk nlnu [intutrnius. 

1h« diicjum U> which thn p]riii;B am mihjcct, nm 
obidQy jAevriti/ (whic-b dm), or uitlBuimittion of tbu 
membrana; pnrumotAoittx, wllb or vitbout affusioD 
<.E Ruid into the p1ouT»l c»vily {Ajrf nrfA-u-or) ; oad 
empvtBW. //(trnjolAorm, or bJood in tbo ploarjd 
oavitf, geD9riiUy results from i^cfdeutal wounding 
of tAe inteawtftl krtorio*. IntUtnmstioa of tbo 
pleurk of Itaelf may tenniDhto in bydrothoiux or 
ompyemii, tbo iiifl>iiuuKU>ry pruducbi in Ibl^ m» In 
nthor csBo, apnoaHng in tbo form nf htoiu fluid nr 
piu reapectii'cly. On the inl^Mnad mrfaoooof the 
plAOMftdepoiltof lymph nuty beformad,i>hkbmft.y 
oaoM th* WH^allad fntlion toundt of the pbyniciiiD 
to b* huai on tiatening to tbe movements of ro- 
ipinktioc Thaw sounds ^re pnnduotHl by tbo rough- 
oiiad lorfaceB nibbing otio ng^iitut luiotbsr. 

PLEDRISY, th<9 iuflA&iiiiMluii o{ tbe pltian or 
iavecting membruio of tbo lungi. This diaouo was 
for a ton^ time confounded with pnciimoQitK with 
which it la often uaociikted. The compound diai.'aai.' 
ii «o)nctiTiini (liHiignntod plouro-pnouoiODiA. 

rieurUy i> divided into ftcato or ohroiUo. Acnto 
plvuriiy u & very cooiinoii oomplalnt, len to unon; 
childroD iJid old p«nple than in ednlta between the 
time of puberty and iild ago. It ii duo to a variety 
ol oauioa not alwaye eaay to trace, but tbe moet 
coBunon csciting nose ia cold acting upon tbo body 
while in a stale of heal and pcrapirBtinn. It ia also 
a (Octiudary alT4.-ctioEi iu vuiuua diaeaae^ u pneu- 
iiinnia, rhoiitn atimn, jcc. 

It in >o[iiotinieB prvccded byprotnonitory >yint'toni«, 
u auaoeptibiUty to ootd, loss ol appetite, kc; but tbe 
announeemeot of ita alttx-k i* gi^ricralljr auddKn, and 
in made by an acute pain in the rcfciiu of the brcaat. 
TU* pain, cotntiionly odlud a atitcb iu tbu aide, occun 
•t Mkoh initpirAtiuo, and c-bc>:lia tlm Lixikth of tbe 
patient. Tha pnin i* moft at thn IkLorol margin of 
th« diapbnkpn, but may occur at any part M tbe 
■fltoted Bide of tbo ohe&t. It ia abarp and Unobbt- 
in; , and ofton eevoro. It haa htm Mcrfbcd to various 
uausea. Copland wHigni it to the atretching of the 
infiamed fibroua layer of Lb« lueuibraue duiiug tu- 
■plndloB, Beau to tha concomitajit inflammation of 
toe intraooBtal nerree. A Rhi>rt, dry, eiippreiMod 
oongh freiiucntjy attcnda plouriay. BoniL-tiincai it la 
attended with expectotAtion duo to catarrb. Tbn 
COabiBation of tbe oougb with tbe didioulty of 
mfdntioQ* (ometimcs produce* symptoma appraacli- 
Inf tA aiphysiik Tbe local aymptoma may bo pro- 



osded or aoRnrnpaniul by f«T«r. Whllo tko faiflan- 
m&tiou totiltiiucs ile |>raj[Tna a eero- aHmtoiitoue 
eiTijtioo take* placM, and when thia develof* the 
loVrilo gyiriptoma aubeide. VHum tbe tMrnnaa !<•• 
comee conalderable tbe affected lid* k «Blemd, i 
tbe oi^'aiiB bocomo more Mid more diatdaoed aa 
orinunt of tlia fluid iocrcaaea. Double pleuriay 
when the diaoue attuoka both aide* of tbe cheat at 
the aame time in a primary form. It i* iw, bet 
inatances of a double attack in a aeooodarj lana are 
more common. 

Acute pleurtry is aeldom fatal from tbe mere 
amount of flffmooB, unleei vheo it to double, or oom- 
nlicAtcd with other diaeneea of tbe luan or ntTOnitd- 
iRg parts. It ia, howator, lialila bo daoMnoa ootD* 
plicationa. I'be acute sjmtitoina gnkentUy laat ealr 
a few davR, but the offuaion may oontuuM bimb 
Innger. ft i* Hiuotimea fata) ereo wllbont Mat* 
plicatious, but in a good atate of genrral health it 
iHUally o&da la leop^vry. The nneral fonn d 
treatmmt adt^ted tar pleoriiy b uitlpblogiatk; 
Blood -letting wae formerly freely ainploved, I'faie 
u now n-*oTti?d to with great cautaoo. Wbon it ia 
deemed uoadvimble the amiUoatloD of leeckw to 
tbe Bide ia anbetltiited. Tb* tnt nbibttka «f 
calomul, combined «rith opium aad ■atUiiMdAli; it 
thn trotuient moat relied on in acute pleuriay. 
Tbe oailDtnifl ia ouutinued till the sppfoadi Of aaliTa- 
tioD. EmellcB and pnrgittivea are tometiaHa need ae 
auxiliary rcmodica. I<or-*] treatment, auoh aa bliater- 
tng, ia often neaclcd after the acute aymptoiua hare 
auUldcd. 

Chrouio plourirr ia either prinutiTe, or the renH 
of acute pleuriay. It may either extend to tbe whole 
pleura, or be ounfiucxi to a mooro or loM olrcumacrihed 
point of It. Ita eymptoma are aimibLr to thoeo of 
acute ploariay.bnt of a l«ea dci^'eeuf liitenaity. Tlie 
pain in the side ia alight, dull, and fu^tira. It 1* 
cbielty chanu-leriz>,-<l by eSiuion, which aooiUDUlatea 
in tba pleural oavHy. and it aoon tenita Ivpradne* 
ll?lunIl^ <ulv<Tatitioiu fonnatiou^ Mill Mhor caifUe*- 
ticiu* in the aurroundinx organa. Boijde* local beat- 
lueut pur/ativM aiid diuretira are uaed In tbe caaa of 
dironjc pleuriay. If the ditnuN doce not jidd lo 
th«fio remcdiu, the liquid must be eraooated bjr tbe 
upt^riitioTi i)f fianicenl(su thomnJ. 

ri.KUnoUHACiilA, a gonoa of Ootlentantte 
luiimatH belongins to the l^beat order (Ctenopbora) 
of tbnt sub-kingdon. The nrnme Cgd^>pt haa bean 
aomrtimoa applied to thia genn^ the lamiawnf tiy«* 
of which eidat aa froe-awimmlog oijcanbaoa, poaai^ 
iiijl dear, transparent, colvurleea, apbaroldal bodiei^ 
Bomewhat reaembting a melon in ahape. aad averagf- 
iug a niarlilo in aizo. Theee beautiful lorma may be 
met wiLh iu vuit cumben aiouDd wjx maalj In the 
calm Biimnier s«>aA At the upperor oral pelt vt tha 
body tbe mouth ia dtuated, ud arovad toe external 
surface of the body, dbpoaed In staridlonal baitda 
running from pole to pole of the organiam, eij,*ht 
band-liko atnicturo^ termed ddtdpAorr^ are found. 
Theaa Blructurea, fiom the prcaSM* of which tbo 
order Ctegiophara derive* Ite luurae, ooiuist eadi of a 
tiand-like aurface bearing a number of tranaveno 
ridgea, ewih of wfaioh bean % fringe of vibratOe 
otUa. The comb-like diapcaltiaii of the dUatadridgta 
hu thua givon origio to the term Ctenophora ifrum 
(in-cli: kUit, tienot, a oomb}. 'ilin cilia or eyaUah- 
like fihuiieuta are longeet in tbe middle ea eMih 
ridpi. Two long flaz£l« tanttdM, fmUMl with 
drri or tilamenti^ atretcb away frooi a dkanher or 
■no on each aide of the body. Tbeee tentacka are 
capable of being retrncted at will within tba 
Tbe mouth opcua tnferiorly into a etomaefa, wtudh li 
ooDtinusd below into a funitat-sb^ied eavitjr, known 
aa the a^fmitdibiUum, and from the latter cavity two 



PLEURON ECTrD^E— PLE YEL. 



135 



I aylfwl «aakla h« (;It«d off, odb oq Mch Mm, to opaa 

^M thi a|Wkl pol» or •stxwBitjr of Um gkbolftr bwly, 

tot to ue cnl or naiitli polA. Tbo Infun- 

Uk sIm gi«« ori|Ja to two parajMtrie tanatt, 

wfakfa fcna blind or pockflt-tiko ku* on roch side of 

tib« MOlBMb: and to % pair o( rxKiioJ eanalt, which 

h dMdi And aabdivld* m thej proooMi towwd* th« 

i tmtar sbHu* of lb* diguiiiBL Tbean ndixl voMcla 

\ fcallj open fatto tbo (fcnopAoroJ cknala, which nndorlie 

Mm fltaaoflwra of the outer luriMO of tko body. 

TIhw an«li n* Unod by cUi^ and th« oitlN BTatcm 

of TMtfeb tbM pwteira of tho nkturcof kdrciiJktory 

^p«ntaa, by laaam at wbicli Lb« (irmlucU u[ digoa- 

•iM M« droulktod thnra^oat tba body. A rtructura 

kaowB ■> tfao rttnocyrt osiMa m tbo lower or ftpiol 

Bolfl, and fiooatrti of & dear lae filled with flutd, 

' UMd with dllMod •pltlMlUl oella. and oootiODlDg 

pwWdf fli flubomt* ot How. TTpon th« cloDooyst 

m naU a»rn u a (aafUoQ b placed. uH thin m fipUea 

■am ilaatentB to l£at Mructuir, wliicli b tfaua sup- 

, pnad to ba as orgaa of wbm, nK«t probably corrM' 

, pMwdli[ ta hinotlaD to ma orna of hoariDg, The 

gioacadn orgsaa aro dkmeaad In bandUIra nuuKs 

m Ib fotdit ODO on each wdt, b«low the ct«n'>[>horal 

oanttk. Tba ratico aystam of caaala cDrmjinniLi in 

lla baaiology to tba bilcmal diriafoa of the b>>dy (n 

ollHr AetUKwa. in wluoh daas of tha CcBlootaraita 

tiM actlar Clenopbora U oontainod. 

Of tbfljMtua Pleorabniohia th« beat Vnotmipiwte* 
aiw tba P. r^itv*. P. dentm, of tba ModlMrranean; 
P. Fltmiiisni, P. iatna, h^ 

PLKUItONECTID^ The gnmp of TelMat«ati 
Aaa iBcluiled in the lectMB AnacanthJid of that 
rdar, and rvproaantad by tba 9<Am, noimdan, Brill, 
. l^Btio^ Flaioo, &«. Um aeknUSo mudo Pltoronix- 
' Ute llkanfan onraaponda to the ptqtTUar deal^iuition 
; af *Vlat'6abei^' aMuiad to thow forma. jG man- 
tionad \a tba artkU Fluui (which vx), tbaaa Sdm 
am to ba Rgardad u /ai culy ia the anaaa that the 
jMlea of tba ooily aae tDore ouinpreaaed than in nriU> 
Oity bhaa. Tba aurfaoao which apfiiAr flat In tba 
mAn and it* aUi<« an in roalitv the luin, imd not 
tba back and belly of tbeae fitb«v a> t&AT he »oen 
bgr ■eticiag that a pectwal fin and the gill-opeDing 
'wU OB each HataurCacaof tbafiah; tbaaa flnababiK 
' pabvd tn all IWhaa, aod. togvtbar with tho glU- 
«pnlaf^ batns aiUiated one on each aide. The 
naONMctida Ue on one aid*i this aide being gcaor- 
ftUj white or oolontleM; the oppootte and upper iii<l« 
«f tbaaa fiahaa belag dark ooloured. txias donal and 
anal flaaaxiat in aU. Tba head and month ara asym- 
■aWfwl, and the pectoral fina are gvncmlly iin<K|iij>l 
laalaa: tbefeolnil finafreqnentlyaeenung^if con* 
UnatiDoa of tba anal On. Tba bod; la raually 
avntvd with ctoiefd acalaa of unaU wiao, Tba bonce 
4f Ibabead are twlated or oootorted (iuring the gtowth 
of Ibv* fiahea, ao that bcAb eyaa arc hnjught to one 
ride «l Iba bead — a •Iructura aanring to atniigtbon 
Ika Um ttat thla latter lidt raprwenW the back of 
Iba FknraaactidB. llie aide to which the eyea are 
'ttHatarUad raond h the npprrmoat or dsrU •coloured 
Mt, aad tUa nde in loiao (oa in the aolo) nay bo tho 
t%hl iUa el tba body, or tba left (aa tn the ttirbotl. 
ifa bttDobkMlegat raya number atir. The uouth ia 
aBBklL and armed wUb minute toeth. Ilia abdo- 
■daal eavlty la very Umttod in lite, tbo ortana of the 
body bidag oontabad within a aatall apaoa niidir tha 
throat, in which aitnatiOB the aam or vMd opaaa. 
3%e greater part of tbe body in theaa fiabea ia tbna 
laali up of a large ZaX dinc-Uke moaenlar talL The 
aw ia Huag-hUddor ia ahacnt tn tboea fiafaaa* wbieh 
Moatly InhaUt tba bottofD waton^ aad prefer aancly 
freoDiL Tbo food eonaiata ditafly of amall crutta- 
mmmt, aMUnao^ wonDa, or area amiuler fiahaa. Hiay 
■wla with the dark-o«lo«i«d tide uppvrmcat, and 



prnKraaa by a kind of undulaHng motion of tha entlra 

The moat tamlUtr faniu la that of tbe Ptofeuo, 
including; tha Flonaduv (/'•afaMo JUtut), Plaioe \P. 
nilgarii), and Dab (P. limanda). I'he eyoa ar* Ml 
tho riKbt aide la thla genna; the body beinic rhonblo 
in form, Tho membcn of the genua SAomEvi, repre- 
•cntcil hy tho 'l^lrbllt (R. unLn'mm) and Itrill {H. niL- 
garit^, poaaea* tho eyee on the left aidu, and teeth in 
tho threat aa wall a* jawi; tbe donal fin oonnnano- 
Ing in front nf tbo eyo& The Solaa (SoUa ntloarU}, 
IndiKkc] in the goniia Saiia, have the eye* in tho 
nglit aiilv, and the mouth twilled to the left aide. 
Terth exint in both jam, liiit only in tbe laft aide of 
each; and tbo body ia ot al in abapo. Tho Holibut 
{BippoffUntu* ivlj^aru) ia a very Urge fiah, and may 
attain a weight of SOO Ihe., and meaaureabove 7 feet 
in length. Iii thii nuoe the eyaa are plaead In tha 
light ride, and the dorsal aad anal fins bcfin Ivhind 
the eyea. One apccimen, landed U the Edinbuish 
nuirkot in 182^, and which wna captured oflt tha lola 
of Mao, iti«wurud TJ feet In len|riii, 8 faatO inoboa 
ia bruadtb, and waigbed 320 Iba. Tha tnrbotiv 
aJ though also large uhea, do not attain ao great 
dtmenaian* aa the holibut; a very large turbot may 
weidi 190 \\m., aiid meMnro 6 fvet acreaa. Tha 
holibut ia an iiihal)ltant of Northern and Oteenlud 
Kuan, and fumii tho prey of tbe dnlphina and othrr 
lUBTioB fortoa. Tho gtmum .Wrmor^inu im nearly allipd 
to tbe K'Imi. Tliii g«uua is repreeented by the H. 
lingula and Jf. linffvatiUa. Tho pectoral fini are 
very small, and the left ia occaaimutlly wanting. 
The hody la ohmgated and oval in aliipfc See also 
lUHTHTOLOOT, I'LAICX, SuLX, TuRBOT, Ao. 

POUB0PNET7M0NIA (i/naxnit) is a fonn of 
pneumonia peculiar to tbe bovine raca. It ia highlr 
ccntagioiia, and prov<a rapidly fatal. It firat maal* 
fcata itself in a morbid coadiboo of tha gmanl ijra- 
tern ; bnt lla M-At i^in tbelnngaand the plmira, where 
it anmm on abundant tnflanimatury exudstiim of thiiJc 
pIsAtio matt«-r. Tbe luu^js tw«iioie rapidly flllnl with 
this msttor, and in i ra a aa graatJy in weight. Whether 
pleuro- pneumonia ia BpedAealljr a local or g«n«ral 
diaeaae la diapotod, aa alao the manner of trealtnenL 
On tha on* band bleading and mercurial tr<'«lment, 
M in pleurisy and pneumonia, b looominended. On 
tbe other, ovacoatlng mediei^ malatalniag the 
etrmgth of the animal, and promoting the aetloa 
of tbe akin, bowel*, and kidnrys. Plcqro-pneuffionia 
is one of the diteases montioued in. the Coatagiioai 
DtseaBoa Act. 

I'l.KYKl., iGSAr^ a popular modem initmmental 
compooBT, born in Austria in 1757, atadied oamnad* 
tion under Hayda, aad after be had oomplatad Ul 
eduoation nador the meat faveurabb drennstaociL 
uoeeeded In 1786 to make a tmir Uimngh Italy ana 
rtanos^ where be waa everywheie rvcsivsd with the 
greataat favour. In 17ft7 ha aooeptod tbe appoint- 
ment of chapol-maater to Scnsburg eathedral; bat 
had not ooenpied ft lon|^ when, in eoascquanoe of tha 
revolution, tha chnrch aarrioa ceased, and tbe cathe- 
dral waa shot up. Inclined to the revolution aad 
the freedom aattdnalad from it, be bad aadaaTonrad 
to gain the frienddkip of the govenuneBt by eompoa- 
ing a hvnm on liberty, bub in 1793 waa oblvod to 
flee. liii uruce«dMl to London; becanM agau eon- 
aected wiui Haydn, and gave a eerlea ef ooneetta 
with great iocoeaa. He aoon after went back to 
France, and at a later period foni.dcd a rooaioal 
eatablishmrDt, which becuna one of Ibe meet Impor- 
tant in Europe. In 1801 he commeBced editlBg the 
Blbliotb^tie Alusicale, in which be inaerlod the beat 
works of Uie IlaUan, Gt^niian, and Francb oompoaei*. 
His own works, chiedyinstra mental pieces^ an light, 
pleasing, tad «zpreadra. Tbe earliest of than are 



PLTCA POLONICA— PLIKT, 



the }x*t. One of the inoit pomiI»r !■ ibo wclMmnwn 
0«riuMi hyuiu wLicb twin lik UAiuft. He died lit 
Fftria ia 1S31. 

FLIC A POLONtC A, » diwuwe pccnliar ta rotund 
Mid ttio iiQiiitMliatcly ntdju^uut di3tn.i:U. It ii iiiiii- 
oftUd by tho matting; ol tb« buir, wbicb bocoiuef 
■^lulmiited by A oauKOU* exudation Crom the TootM, 
thd bulbfl beccme «alM:ged, uad the faivlr «w«lU luid 
boixiniea t-Al. Flic* ia uid tu bavu KpjieAred iu 
FaUnd sUnit tho mil oF thn thirteenth century, ani! 
It Quw trrtbduully weiiriti); uut. Autliurltiea dillor tu 
la whether it U a pnmwy disfa**, ar & rtault ol 
iatemkl, [wrticuloily febrile dL«(^&*e. %^'hen it ia 
■yruptonintia it in ■u)>poited to rulieve the primjiry 
oseaw, And it Ii racouiiutuidtrd tbut It ^bould uui ho 
iaUitevd with nuUl the commonconiaDt of recovery 
by th« ffrawth of healthy h^ir undiir th« tanglwl 
mua, wbidb nuiy then ba ihaved off. The treatment 
of plica itadf, mnaiderod u an Idlopitliio diaaaae. Is 
for themrwE put otnpiric*!, uid beyond clcAnlJni>«s 
■ad Attention to diet there appeAra lo bo nothing in 
it d«termhied with oerUinty. 

PLINTH (Greel:. piint/u>$, ft brick). th« lower 
iqttare member of the biuw of n rohimn or pcdeital. 
In It wnll thu t«rui |iliijt)i in apjihcil tu two ur Ibrtw 
roim of briir-J(« which jimjeet from the lacp. 

PLINY (Caiiir l'ti.'*iu»Sic«HDUB),»mborof the 
Hintaria Natnnliit. ouTunonly onlled Piiny tKe EUUr, 
waa bom jLH. 23, at Vcruua, or murv probably Novum 
Camum fComo), to wbiofa his family batnn^d. He 
€UiM to B«ine at au u»rly ana, aad baviug m«ana at 
Ua diapoaal avulod himselE of the b«n toaob^m 
About tho age of twenty-three ho Mrvoit in a mill- 
tiry campainn in Gomuuiy, imdor L, Pooiponiiw 
Socmidua, and obtained the command of a troop of 
cavalry. Ho appvon at thia time to bavo tntvcllcd 
orer moat ftf tho frontier of Htmitay. Uiiring the 
inlvrvaki of hiH mi htary duties Ln-uiui-wtd ttie Irea- 
tiaa Db JantlfiXiiiija Equutri, aad cDinmonccd a 1U»- 
tary of iiio Uomianio War, which be lubaoquently 
(Simplrtcd in twoTity book*. Ihirin^ tha rsmaindar 
cf the reign of Nuro he lived iu retirement, and oom- 
posed an Mucotioual work, called Studioius, in three 
DOOklt containing Instructions for the training of an 
ombar. He alao wrote a gntaiixta-li-cni wcirk, untitlinl 
DnUua Serrno, Towarils thi? cUne uf tbi« rwigu he 
ma appoiutod procuntor of tho emperor in Spain. 
In 71 hia brother -in -law died, Leatine hlin lh« gnar- 
dianahip of hia nephew, tho youugnr Pliny, which ho 
lntni*t«d during hta aInennB in Spain to Virginiii* 
BnfuA He rvtunied lo Rome before A.D. 73, and 
than odcptod hia nephaw. He woa admitted among 
the iiiimt'or of the intimate [riciidK of Vo^Mydan. 
liia unpbew bwi left an account of bia Ula at tbi» 
period, which wac one of oonsunt itody. H4 niad<< 
extract* from all the boola he read, or had read to 
him, and at bia deuth Wt hia nephuw lUU volunnc* of 
these nolo. HiiNatuml HiHlury, wLitdi be ouuigiiled 
from Dmterlala aocumulatoil in thia way, woi pub- 
lialwd about 77. Bo periahed In tba eruption of 
Mount Vesnviua which overwhelmed Pompeii and 
Hvculaneum in 79. Th» only work of lliny which 
ia now extant ia hia Natural tiiatory. It ia dividvtl 
Into thtrty-Mven book*, and la, acoording to hia own 
account, a oompilation from upwarda tif 2000 vol tun«a 
It embrace trie dranain of natural biatory in tbo 
wldaat aenae^ lucIudiuK aalromuuiy, (•«ij;riiphy, and 
meteorulogy. It evan goea beyond what natural 
hiitory in any aenae would indiiiia— treating of the 
fisa art^ and buinau iustitutiona and iuvunliuni. 
He 6nit edition trf Plinj'a Natural iljatory wa« pub> 
Uabed at Venice tn H69. The adiUon of Haniouiu 
(Paria, 166S, five vols, ita) la the first erttlcal edition. 
Tbo edition of I'anckonko (I'aria, 18SIM3}, with 
a FreiicU traualaliuu, aiiid notea by eminent modem 



natundiata and erientifio men, InrlnA'ng Oa*tar, b 
of ureal value. Tba beat edili'Ai of Um l«xt ia that 
□f Silllg (Lcipdg, 1331-36, five *ok ISmo); Uwlaat 
vol. oontaiiu a ^-aluahje collation of M&S. PHny 
was tnuulated Into Kugliah by Dr. Phflamno HolUad 
(Lcndnn, 1601, two vola. folio). There is a tr«nalatioa 
it) Bohn'a CUaincal Library by Dr. Boeiook aud T. U. 
Kiley. Tttere ore numerona traaalatuiaa into fonica 
languagea. 

PLINY (CaniB Pu.-tma Caciufa SncintDDa)^ 
iFix Youni/tr, a nephuw of the former, waa bom 
A.n. 61 or e'i^ pmbably at Comum <Ccme}. Having 
lost hia father at an early age. he waa adopted by hia 
uncle, and waa caroruIlyailucatiMi He aiipbed himaalf 
early with tlio mateet aaaiduity to tba atady of elo- 
quence aad pbuow^y. and wmd a bey ot tliirteM 
yaara of age made an attempt bo write a tragedy In tbs 
Greek langvagB. In Syria, where be ws« the com- 
mander of a legion. 1m enjoyed tbe aociaCy of tbe 
philosophor Euphratei^ and aft^rwarda made hk ip- 
pearanoe in Rome aa. an advucalo with aucc«e^ filled 
several public olflc«a, and waa oonaul in a.ix 100- In 
A.U. 103 ho waa appointed propnetor or eovenior «t 
thn pmvfnM of I'ontica, whioh offioa be ail lulii till led 
fur aluiuBt two jeara to the general aatiafaction. He 
was OD" ■~>f thn loiut dirtitigiiiahed and b^A, and, we 
may aJao add, one of tho moat fortunatw ni^u of Ui 
age. He hod most of the reqniaitea for the enjoy- 
Dieut of life— he was rich, he poaeeMcd a cidtirated 
mind and a gcnaruua bsiart, and waa Corttuutlo in Ue 
friendi, Tbu time it his deaib la unknown. He wae 
twice norriad, but had no children. Aa an aother 
ho laboured with ordnnr. He attempted aerefal 
(lopartmeDta uf literature, both in jiroae and poetry. 
Of bb wricluga only a oollection of letten la tan 
books, and a panegyric on Trajan, remain. TIm 
letters are addreea&d to different friends, aone ol 
thsui Ui thu eui|i«ror, atid are on varioua aubjocta. 
They appear to have bc«u collected by the autbor 
himself, and voio probably written with a riew to 
publication. 'I'hc moat valuable among tbem ia the 
oetehriitcd cormpuudvaiie Iwlwevu Pliny and f^jaiu 
containing tbo letters regarding the peTeecutioa cf 
tho Chriatiana in hia province which have drawn 
for^aotuuiihoummcuL. llie aenlence of death aocma 
to have been paastni ujion any one admittliag hlmaelf 
a Christian, though noihinu more eooU be brooghl 
out in e\-idenoe against tbem than that tbey were in 
the habit of meotiag ou a lixe<l day before it <rM 
light aad ringing a hymn to Christ aatinil; they aiac^ 
Pliny aaya, tou£ an oath to avoid tbeflt tvbbeiy, 
aduttefy, breach of faith, and denial of a depeail. 
Pliny examined by the torture (se was the Bomaa 
niatfim) two of hia female alavea who wore CSirva- 
tlaoa, but could sot disoovn that the Christian 
religion waa anything woraa dian *a perveree and 
extravagant auperatition.' Aa tbe snperatltioo waa 
spceading, Fliny aaked the emperor'a advice aa to 
how it dtould he dealt witli. Ttu emperor'a diieo> 
tiona were that poreuna auppoeed to be Chrieliun 
wore not to be aougM for; if tbev wore aoc ne e^ and 
the chain proved, they were to be pontahed; Imt if 
tbey denied the duige, and oSersd up their prayen 
to tlie lieatlun gods, they were to be kl aloBe; 
chugaa not bearing the name of the infonnant we 
not to be received, as thoy had been. It must he 
remarked that ail ineetiugs at tnegiilar timea aad 
places and eapecLally Docturaal iaeetioff% wan odioua 
in lUiman eyre, and enough of themaalvM to aoliiecl 
tbe j>arLldpatuni m tbem to thtt interference of the 
authorities. But !t ia not clear that tbe CMetlna 
would aa yet luv* been aUo««d to iw^Mt opealy. 
His Panegyrio on l^ajan ia a >nea« onkigimDk coatidtH 
ing liltie loConnation, and fulaDowly expre aa ed. Tlie 
Lcttera and the Paa^rio were edited, togvtfaw vlth 



I 

I 



I 



^vui^ wna m 



puosAtmus— PLoTisua 



137 



ITTOXaMadMn. A htercritittledttiaDof tbel^tcn, 
wUhnola^ waa «iliba<I l>y (lierig {TJepK%, ISOOl, Mii 
ifaa «aiiipl«fa worb ol PllDy by lh« Mine (Lalpxij;, 
1W6): aftarwirdi by G. H. Sdndet (Lupiv, I&ISU 
ttdhtTiticimtVn^e.ialiiO). Th« Pan wyric «u 
•diUd by Gkrig, with noto (Lolpilg, mS}, who 
■iM MMlafccd ft work Od tb« Uf«, Mona <-bnr>ct«r, 
aod LibHmnlUpuUtuDof tlwToiiBgvFliuv. Thu 
EfifUas of PUnj hAve been tnuuUted into Engluh 
hj Jjotd Orrwy and Mr. Melmolh. 

PUOSAUBUa 8m PLniwACntm. 

PLOOE,ft town h Btariwi PoUnd, riclit buk of 
A* Tbtak, » nllM iwrth-ircat of Wwmw, on » 
b^lfaL It b wftUed, divided n(o tlM old And tlie 
■nr towi^ Mtd baa ao leM than twantyfive i^iuarrK, 
ti wUdi tmt In tba old tewn b verr re^TiUrly buUt. 
Il has ft k*»''"-"f CftUwdnl; a blahop'a pftlace, in 
wliid Ih* eonrta of ji»Lica hold Uiair mttingi; two 
■loowtiriw^ and a eooraiit, a cynagnKuv. Piuiit ual- 
h^ ft tjmMdnm, lad asml alamenUiy kIiodIs; 

■ Ihaftbu, an oq)baa aajhin, and poor-houM; and a 

■ ■■■liViiaMii tiftd^partJctdarij in akina; and aeTcral 
lM|«Un. Pm. 12,127. — ^Tb* giiTenimnit of Pluck 
iaa ■■ an* of 4200 tqaftn lulw ol ft l«vol tmd 

Mdcfately fertiU territory, irEth ft pop. of SSO.OBS, 
PXXn'iNiriJ (/■AjfliHM), tbo sjMMoatic founder of 
'If*<^Pl atoci iwn , tu bora about 203 or SDt a.d., nc- 
•omUnf toSuldaaatLyi»iM>lic,InE|,'ypC. luLiaiuUr- 
«oaiaa iritli hia pupila ftod aoqiiaintanccfl he ivvaided 
ftU nfeMOoa bt the anteo«d«ot eircuntiiUncca of hijt 
Bltf Uft ago, nativity, or iNu«Dtag«; and Paqjlivry, 
,lrfi Uagn|>b«r and moat intimaio irieu^, could l^li 
Unf on tbeae raftttcn from hia own comcnBDicft- 
H* bdd, In fact, an opinkm Minroaching to 
ipi for all tba cireumatauoea of bodily exlit- 
M a&aid of bia birtb-day boing hold In fannonr, 
■ for ft MtfttafRS «f ASMliuK, who introduced 
t partnit|MiDter to h» lactatraa to paint him from 
IMBM>7, <rauld bftT* d«leat«d tbe wiib of bin frtutid* 
[,to fn m t it bia likcoMi to poatarity. It U conj«c- 
tbftt be WM of Soman dMcant, probably a 
man. Vntil bt* d^th year, bclare w^ich 
b* bad b»eB aent to adiool, ha waa f«d fruni 
I bnaat It waa in hii twimty-vigbth yaor tb&t 
_ J imb a lo rtady pblloaophy awoke in him, llisfint 
[(Mchar Alexaadriaoa gave blin no a^ljatacliixa. He 
ben fall Into frsat damondaacy, and wa« bniujjlit by 
\ (rimd to Atuinoalua Saoori^ ft phUoaD)di<ir who wfta 
ffht Dp a i'briatlftl^ and haa wrtttoi aome worka 
JbnatiaB theology, but wbo^ nooording to Pw- 
[jftyT7 (omtroTerted by Enaelnua and Jerora*), i*- 
linraad totbe H«U«nIcfaitL Be remained whh him 
kb Uifity-mntb year. Id -Hi be jotud the 
Idoa of the Kmporor Gordian to the Eaet^ in 
In laam tbe pbilcaophr of the PenLuia and 
t-Indbna. After the death of Gonliaa be tcacbed 
I with groat difficulty, and ftnir«d at Borne 
Ua lortiaBh jear. tt woa here he anharqticntly 
Ivad ami tftOfl^t, The iaaduijj popila of Anunonliu, 
PiBtbna, wore Otigun (the Xeo-PUtonI«t), 
do^ and lA^inuK. Amroonioa taught verb- 
ally, and Ploltnva had entered into an ^reement 
with (Vigen and Harwudiia Dot to oomnlt bla doo- 
tiinea t» wrttfng. TUi agrooBMBt ma Grat broku 
htjf Hanastsi^ whn Origan cenddered himaalf re- 
rlbTMl Iron ft. FloCinua eeutiDUed atill lo obeerve 
rb for Bome time. Hia lerlans nt this time ar« 
fdmcribaii by Aradioa aa diatinsuUbed by want of 
r Rod aniMrflaity of wordk About Hi hia fri«nda 
Md kbn to pnt hia doctrinca in writinz. From 
tea tai be waa jo^ed by Porphyry (about 2Si- 
^M4) ha aoaapoaed twrniivikne boolw, wUd> war* only 
f«l into tlw kandi uf th« initiatad. During Por- 
f/kjvy» atny In Romo be oompoaad twentj-four, and 



nfter Foipbyry bad left for Sdly (S«7-2«a) other 
nine. On socotmt of tbo wea kn eaa of bia aigbi 
Plotinua loft tho MnrMtion of bb wotIcb to Porphyry. 
He waa wholly indifferent to itylo, and exdiuivvly 
oconpled with tbo mattar <]< Ui taaehing; but ba waa 
aoonilomod to think out hia idea* ao thonogUy baton 
cnmmitting ttinm to wrftfng that they nqnirod only 
literary onrrocLi'jii. Porjihyry wo* bi* literary exe- 
cutor, and biM lura-ngwi tiii work* in aix Etmeada. 
Porphyry ronridcrixl ino«e wrilteu during hii own atay 
at llnma tbn nii«t TkloAlile, but bo haa not vboervbd 
a chrunolugicnl under in th«ir arnuigemcnt. Tbo 
works of I'lctinnK were highly valued by lym^inna, 
ftlth(nu;b tbftt philDaophcrwaainnoaeaaoal'lotiniaL 
I'loUnua'a disoaurte, aa well « hia writing, waa markul 
by Buerf0 and entbuaiaam. Ke waa Ed fact a preacher, 
Eis fervour Ii nid to have inoroaaed tbo beauty of 
bi« cfluntenanec, Hia teaching aocurod tdin gmt 
t^p««b and [iii'pulariey among thooe who did not 
riMwive ChriMiiuiity. I'annta left their children to 
bia can, and hia huuM wm full of orphana of both 
aeiea totruatod to bia gnardianahip. Althougb ne- 
gloctful in bia own perum of tomporal tntereati; ha 
Rliowcd no want nf practica] abiewdncaa In looking 
after the eitutM uf bia waida. Flothina enjoyed tbo 
favour of the Bmpcror Gallianua, from whom bo ob- 
tained the rebuilding of two deetroyed bowni In the 
Ciunpan)a,witb a view to their being guvernod accord- 
tnt; tu tbo Uw-> of Plato. Vftrlooa datea ttvta 363 to 
'J7U arc ^Ton for the death of Plotinna. Ho waa 
aff{i47t«d w:thili>cajMinf tlio bowchi, fm- which heuaed 
no remedy but rubbin;;; >°d bia aaiiatanta baring 
died of the plague, tbo Itjaving oil of tbia application 
induced a relaxation of tbe thraat, which doprivcd 
him of NpL-cch. Ho n-tired to the countij hooae In 
the Ciunpaiiia of a din.'cuitd frimd named Zotbu^ 
where b« died. 

PIcrtimii waa ono of the great tniwtcra of pbiloiwiiby. 
Tlievalueof hiaByatomdepandalnunnon the intniudo 
trulh it oontaiiia thnn upua Ita hiattirii'nl lui)-urlano^ 
and ita adaptation to a oertain das of human iym- 
|iathic«. I'bo historical ralue of the tjraton^ which 
ia great both in ita anteoedenta and oODaeqncnt^ ia 
due i-iartly to Itieotrcumataneea out of whidi (t aroaa^ 
and partly to tbo gnniua and originality of ita foundor. 
It bait ita aouroo at the junction of two indepen- 
dent otreauu of thought, which, already furtuiloiuly 
unll«d, reoeived a new direction from the fodivldual 
enaraj of tbo mind of Flotimu. It ia uncertain bow 
mucS^he owed to hia Immedlato teaohcr AnKDoaina; 
but aa Lon^.'innB, who waa a coutant haarec of Am- 
nooiua and <if I >rigcn, ateadfaatly reJ4ot«d th* do»- 
tiineaof PMioua. it i» prohnbte that the latter treatod 
Ammonia^ aa be oertunly treated Plato, aooording 
to bia own indiriduality. Plotinua waa well ao- 

Jnainted with the older Utvek philosi^hy, ti-itb tbo 
uuian and tbo Eleallc acfaools, with Plato and AHa- 
totla and other foondara of ayatena, and according to 
the cclectio tendeneiea of hu day he believed tbete 
waa a fundameutal unity in tlieae varfoua ayatemft 
AanHidua, In partloalar, bald the nbatantial agi«a- 
maot of Plato and ArMlotlei It waa to Plato, bow 
ever, tbat Plotinua looked aa bia gnat aulhotiiT. 
He ballaved hinMolf a atrlot follower of Plato, and Ida 
own natan a lagitimato dovolopmont of the prind- 
tJea of titftt gnat pUloaopher; but If the ayaten of 
Flotinna la S> any reepect the d«aoendaDt U the 
philoaO]iby of PhUoy Et ia to the dcfacta of tbat philo- 
•o)>by aloue that It owua Ita eiiatcoce, FlMinni uaaa 
Plato'i tonn. tbo Good, for bia bigbot Moaralisatioat 
hat be uaea It la ft vbnUjr dUIannL and erao cppoalta^ 
MOM from Plalo. The Oood with Plato waa a ayn* 
tbsala of all Uiat la hl|{b«at and moat ateeUant In 
IntalligBnoel with Plotinui it ia an afaatraetioa (rou 
which erar; detanniftato quality ia removed; and 



138 



PLOTINCS. 



Uicro i« » onrrmprnntltnir dlfTfnncs In the «t1iical d«i- 
T«lo]iii)euUu( tWr >yiit«iii«. With rUtaUi* biirhMt 
ntUinmeDluf humuk morklityia thelnilUtluiof God 
through thn Hr.M (]i«»vurftblA by botiUB reftson, 
whicb he lia« plaoed in created thiog*; Plotinua 
deapiMS ail Imttatloo, u vt«ll m tht; thinft* ih«m*elv«ti 
which an pmpoMd to it, uid findi the |nctic&l aim 
lOf hU pbili'Ktophy in the direct union of thn hiimnn 
■plrit witli tliD ilaitj. It II from a dUferent, thoni-b 
nnnekuowlwiKed, •oun'^ Ui^t the opamUva principlo 
of the philosophy d( I'btinnii* derived. Tbcomana- 
tion theory cS eMttm philoaopliy. whi«h wm firit 
furTually cuinbinud with Greek [iLilwauphy by Fhilo, 
hiul iiincc hfl timn formnH an otnmont in vnriniia 
ccluctio iiyiit«inii, whioh luid diilui-ctivaly furnuNl ui 
AleuAdri&n school; but I'hila aud hia buoccwotb did 
tbsir work lika oompilen^ Mid it need«d & mind ivf 
orartivQ «nargy to W«ld the vlemoata thai bnnulit 
to^vther iDto oaa. Thia wu ace^nnpliihed by Plnl- 
\i\vB. Another iQilucncc, liki^witia imacknowlcdged. 
■ffectwl tbo dovelopment nt th^ tut grMit ayitem of 

Cil,-EU) pbiluvopby, llio frniwth «f Cbrlitttftnity. Plot- 
ua waa not, lik« Porphyrj", a violent uai open 
rnomy of ChrintliUiity. With regferd to It, «■ to 
oriental nlitliMojthv wid theology j^RBrallr, ha tnun- 
tained nllt-tio*. Kvi^n Eii prcrniuteriiig ifiv Rnuatim 
ha oppoaod til air heretical [irinciplca without taach- 
ing tho*C thnv hd>l in roinmon with orthodni Chri*- 
tiana. AU FlnLiiiua'a trEatiw-i iu« occaaioua]; tbey 
a.n full ol repetitions, uid hia iloctrines itre not duBl- 
oped in tbom with uny order or method, while the 
■litHinilty nf uniicratAnding thorn is enhanced by the 
iucou)pr«hni»liIi< UNturv tit thd ducLrliia ilDvIf. 

Tha hiffbnt goncraliza.tion of I'Igtinii*, whfch ha 
cftlU the Good, U ■ puro imdetcnnincd abstraction. 
It can tw dcMribed neither u being; nor not being, 
moved nor r«*ting, frrw nor noccMary. Out of Ibta 
indetimninalion ipringa a trinity which ia tha aourco 
of all atibieqiictLt boin^. The original unity, by the 
cinsi of ita energy, acnd* forth an iinaK« of ttacif, 
»« th# auu eniita raya. Thia image, which la thi* 
b«giiuimg of plutulily and tho Knircv of all dotermi- 
mtftwili nUo exiiita ah»n]utely, and ia the immetliato 
productive power of tho indetermioato unity. Turn- 
ing with an invduntary iDavemont towanta Ita oH> 
ffinal ia order to behold it, it ({wierstw apirit, which 
fa Che source of intellifcues or thon^hL Every act 
of thought directed to the uneonditioiied pradac«a a 
real ciiatmiCR, nn idea; all theae idea* differ in form, 
but are utiv lu auhatMiiMi. The aoul ia duvulvpcil out 
of the apirit as the idoa contained in it; be)n^ the 
ifnmt(li»t4; pmiliirt of thn npiHt, it hna n Mharo in nil 
idrsa, uf which it ii itaelf one. It hui, in coiitrodiif 
tlnctiun to the ajijrjt. the ponor of kHnVIiii; nut frvru 
itiolf, and thus in ioiaptig the world untt<:a the ecn- 
■U01U witl) the lnt«lUgenl. 1 be amsuoua >a tbo unage 
of the aoul aa the aoul la of tho ^irit. Hatter la 
the lowflet Donndary of b«ln^ the necaNiary oontraat 
of the gooH, and iu «o far nc^^ative and evil; but in 
Ita Nnaoeptlblllty of farm It partakea of the poaltfre 
and the g'wd, 

Tliia hierarchy of being baa tbo branty of com- 
|>lotoneaa^ but it in rattircly without evidence, aave in 
the Inaginaliun of Ita author. It dlRera from PLivto 
fat making aometbing ant«riir to tntnlligence, and 
WB*M|oeDt1y in deriving ■ntelHj'cnos from non-tni«1' 
Ugencv; udltiiriviagBoul the power wblub itdenlee 
to apirit, of lonhing out from it«>rlf, it makes the pro- 
duct anporior to tho prwiLioer. Yet thia eatraordinary 
iiyiil«in ia th» rranlt of a aevere B_vat*m of dlaliwtlo. 
I'l'itiu.ua I'L-lieipil ihal be foUowml Pinto in tnakuiB 
MTor and imjwrfoction conaiA in tnulti;ilicity and 
djviaion, and truth in umnltcity and unity. Conae- 
quBiLtly the higher he could ro in generaliiatirm, tho 
oeajer be approacbed to the eource of truth, the 




primary form of being. Now be fcaUMl tt&t th* 
conception of beinj; i(s»lf waa compUx, and above 
that eonoeptlon atood tb« nmeepUoa ot uity; bat 
oven to name unity waa to dhaolra l:^ haoM hia 
hi;(hal ffeneraliiatioD waa th« unuamahla. Bat the 
aim of FloUauiwss not meivly to know but to imtk 
thia nndcnnttd sonrea of boia^ ci wUoh wnm httag 
itielf ooiiid not be predicated. To pUMM tnlli 
upward to the end would neceaaarily lewl lh» himaB 
mind to lU aonrcn, but a aonmt abore intetUgeiMe 
could not be reached by inti-lli^-vai.-<e; boBoe aew 
methodH boil to he Innntod. Plotiiiaa appliid Ua 
dialt^-tii: to the mind and to the nature of ita tdaUcn 
to truth, and in contradiction to tbeconuBOO peelttnai 
of |NiyoLoIoi;y, that ibe mind «n only know iteeU 
in Bome dot«nmaat« atate, ha dieoovcrad that tha 
human spirit can know icaelf abaolutely, and 
negotiniL^ oU objects of oooseloiMHsn 
or meditation, whleb la ths taet* act U 
ha bold to be inoooiMtont to resell nnc 
being, which ia graaped only by inbutton. Kvlh 
aecovdingly, he held, atanda In no nesd of damoaatn* 
tion. It ia oonpnhoDdsd intnudistsly vbea the 
apirit ssea only ittdf. In this pore atae^ to wUoh 
he gave the name of eoAaay, the Absolut« Beinf 
p»ea upon Itaelf through the madtuiD of oar oprita. 
Fotpbyry recorda that Piotinna bad sooosedsd fa 
raiung hintaolf to tliia atate four llmesi wUle ha Un- 
■eU bad done eo ooly onoe. Produa goee a at^ 
further than Plotinna, and announce* that the man 
who raiac* bimaelf to thia condition fa God. Tbu 
the final oondQHi«n of a ayaum founded upon tfce 
anbtlnt uae of dialectic ia to set aaide dialectio as 
unneoeeaary and uaeleei. The a y at em of Plotinaa 
mi^ht be briefly characuiriced «a tbe aoidde of r eason, 
if that deaeripUoo wore nnt of generic rather thu 
apocific application in philoaophy. 

In virtue tif thia ■iiper-raticiii:kl method tbe Heo- 
Platonic philoaoTihy hniiime by eminence the system 
of myBticiain. In defatilt of irason it appealed to 
iuingination, to the love of th« unknown and mys- 
terious, and to itt* smUtion *o dear to ths he art ef 
ronn. l^rgod by this new principle of ritali^, it seat 
ita ahootd amMB the gulf which •enaiated the riAig 
power of Christianity from the declining canae of 
paffoniari), and planted ilsvlf vigovovaly on the other 
aide. But the penalty of evoking vnlpu aympstklm 
by this nnphiLoeopbtc method oould not i«aatn on- 
iiiiid. With myaticiam came onperatitioB, tbe bdirf 
in mngie, and Iguorant theurgtoa) preteosions. Vto- 
tinuR himtelf tBOoun^ed snch bstiafii, wfiidi aOied 
thr-maclvta by a too natural tnuiaition with hia prin- 
oiplM, 

The mjatlcinn of FloUnus bos a remarleable aaa- 
\agy with the leading doctrioss of Chriatfaaity sa 
iheae are developed in the Goe^ls and epiatlc* of 
Sts Paul and SU John; andaaNoo-riattmtcmyotieinB 
eaine into i?otnbination in aubaeqient mixnd ay s tw u s 
with Chiiatianlty, it ia important to note their points 
of diver^oe at thetr aonrcet Cbriatiaalty alErau 
that man cAnnot by his own efforts attain to direct 
commiinidn with God. hut that God can be known 
indirectly by bla worka. Neo-Platoainn rsrenss 
both the aliirmatiim and the negation. Again, wfalls 
Nro-rutoniura and Ohriatianity both affirm the po^ 
■ibility of adinoteomuiunion between God asdmao, 
Nao-Flatoidnn ettabliabea this eommtmioa Ihnogfa 
the power inhrrcnt in man to rise by ahstnotion 
to God; Cbriatiantty recc^izu ita possibility oaly 
through tbe oondeaoensbn of God in coming down 
to men, a eoadsscsubs nbich Is wboUy Inder 
pendent of faumaa effort!; and Co meet whi^ mor^ 
purificatiun ia the only posaibleor fitting prepaimtfain 
on the part of man. 

The fint ooinplete edition ot the Enneadi of Plo> 



I 



I 



PLOTTGH— PLtTRALmr. 



139 



llaM mm Iba Latin ir&iMUtioD of HftraQiiM Hcintiii 
(nenDon, 14!»2), witfa » t»alij GfMk text ftfit«ndeiL 
TbOTv b ko Oifiml «diUan hj Fr. Kr«iu«r, lu t)ire« 
volii 4lo, pabLiah«d la 1SS5; u)d aa edition hj 
g j— l a i Md UoMT (8ra, Puu, 1655). Tbcra ar« 
Inadaliana of wlwctioni of th« worka of Platimu br 
Tb««M» Tft^lor, but tlM worki of that tntuktor do 
Bot *i>J07 K hj^ npntatlDB. 

PLOUGH. Sae AoRKcr.TciuL iMTuanwr*. 

PLOUGH-UiND ii m eqmvJenl expre-fon with 
• hido nf Uad, It fa de6De«] m coniAitiIng as much 
laad ■■ Baj b« tilled in a j«ar and a day by one 
ylWfh. It la filed by 7 nd 8 WillUni III. c^p. 
»^^»( for Iba jmipcae of repalrinft lilf^hwava, kt au 
■■iiiial valoa of £50. In Scctlanil tbn ]io<w?«i>ii>ti 
«C ft plodgbvata of land b tha legal quatiGcaliun fur 
himlmy. 1m quantity aonbuiKx] in a plougligatc 
mpfimn to diSar in diff«<rwit duu-t^r*. 

FLOUOa MOXDAV, tbn next Moii<]a7 aflirr 
TWvUth Dar. On Plough ^londajr the ptoughmrn 
la Um BOttbtra part of EnslaiiJ uaed to Jran- a 
pl^yli fran door to door, aad b»g monay for lirink. 

TLOVER iChaivdrhu), a gcnui of GnJUtorml 
«v Wadtoff Birdi^ (omlac tba typa of tha family 
dundrildia. Tba bill ia aa loDg aa tba baad, or oaay 
b* Hmarwbat abait«r; it ia um^j- atraigfat, tba bwM 
fari^ wbmitr, and ll:e lip man or wa rtrongly 
■wfcaj awl panud. Um sealrila opaa at tb« bwe, 
and m d ta atad to a gmm cr iapnmatn aartandiag 
alaag oaa half of lb* bill'a LenRllL Um Iwa an long 
^d alaodar, tb« Inwtr portii^n of tha Sun bdng 
d«al l t u ta of fcMbani iTia tani ara eerarod vHb 
hawf nnal aealea. Tb» two outer toea nra ioinod by 
a web at tbair baao; tb* biader toe being oltbor wanU 
\ag, or ol raiy ro d jaa i rta f y aatOM 11m glnafd it 
trngt aad powatfol, sad tha iatatiiial aaea ai« 
atapAad. Th<M blrda an gregarioua In habita, and 
oenw tft nanby apota; bat appear to acek the aea- 
eaaata la wiator. Tba agm ara depoaltad in a bole 
t» maA ar rnval, the iM«rMaor thos of vny Inper- 
fact MBalructioB; the jotuic being able to mn abont 
aa aooo aa tbay ara hatchoiL The ileah and egga of 
lb* ploTW* ara oDnaidared m gnat diUcadea. Tht 
Mb-Cuafly Charadrfaia fa ooMlittited for the rooeptioo 
tt tba Troa Pluvera, together with the Lapwinga 
(wbidk aee}. TbaM blrJi oocur chiefly In America 
e«d Id Esrape, leTerBl •pedta baiag peculiar to tba 
letrnm coatfaMnt. Tba GoUaa PlAver {C/umutriuA 
ptmUUt it di at ribBtad tbroaghoat Bunipe, and also 
la Aiaadf It ia Iba ntoat badllar apedaa, and 
•naan l» RMoll la aprfBg aod ia aaloBui alao. The 
Anarkaa Ring Flonn {C. KnipalnatM and 0. me- 
tadi^y. WUaon'a I'lovrr (C. H't^ainttai), alao fouad id 
AaMckaeely- the Killdv {C. Voci/trut), an Amnri- 
caa ipaeiaa; and the C. ielttti^tu, or Black -bellied 
npnr ol Kvthani Eoropa aad An«ic«, an familiar 
wfliM TlM8tfltPIorer(aA«wUM>M)iaaoiiain(d 
fioM Iba aleantad lagi^ The Brit&b lUng Plover 
(C MaCfcala) fa alK> a weU-knowa member of tbli 

pvap. 

Taa (faran baw the hMi of patting tba gmtmd 
wMh tbab feat ia nrdar to attraol woraia to the aur- 
h0% aad ae to obtain tham for pniy. The oanie 
'fJBw' li dcairad , tram tha French pltititr. in nlhi- 
riea ta thaaa birda amearino; la flodai in the rainy 
waalher of apting and autama. 

PLUM iPmnmi), a ^nm of plaato fcalanfliu to 
m aalanl wdar Boaaoeo, nb-iirder AaycdNaa. 
I a doaoi apadaa ara kaowa, aD JiibaMwaff the 
'aartb laaqMnte regiona of Iba ^ba. Tbaj are 
■■all traaa m abmha, with altaraate Wvaa aad white 
fkvat« a hh a r aolhary or diapaaod la faadolai in iba 
aa&i af tha taaiaa. Tbe *"-""» gaidaa plam 
(^. dbawafMa) data sol aaein to be a aat^ of Enrope, 
aad pavbafaly waa lotrodooed ttvm Syrik It la mea- 



tinned by KowaHiImi anil Thonjilirartna, and now 
ia wrf gonerally clUtivaliML It u a roUiit tree, of 
mlildlin? atatnre, aeemingFy ailupted to every kind 
of toil, ui4iigb most floariihing when It b light and 
a little landy. Tha vani.'tio« are very numeifloa, and 
differ in culuur, t^ate, iitm, anil furtii; aoine ara not 
largvr tbaa cberriei, wblk otiion are nvarly 2 Incfaaa 
ia d'aaietar; boom an oblong or ovoid, and otbon 
perf^tty globnlar; the colour b Htber white, ^reen, 
yellow, rm1, purple, blue, or blaGki«h; tbo taate acid, 
an>teni,in>i(U(t,BWentbh,ar Brcmntie; the ennaiatenoa 
of the Scab ooriaoeoiui hard, soft, meltias, dry, or 
watoi7; all, however, bara a amootb akin, which ia 
alw-aya more or Icaa eovercd with a line whitiiib dnat, 
«A>iIy removed by mbbisg. The mmt ealeemed of 
all these varlotlee b the grucn gago, it /fei/i< Clatid*. 
(S«oG[tEENGA<jK.) The Wash in ^[ton plum Iflsimilar 
to the gTRcn gnge, but thn akin m dull ycilnw, aanun^ 
ins aa orange caat on the lide expoe«d to the aim, 
and b mora or lew mottled with crimaoo dob; tha 
tirsh b ytUfiw, limi, very awaett and laacioiia. and 
■cpixratcii frvcty from the atone. Almoat all Iba 
ijari<;tl<s vt ptuioa may be dried and converted into 
pTunoB, but Ihoee which ar? moat (ieehy, and bast 
retain their qoAlity. are prefcrT«H. Pmnca now form 
a cflcmiderable article of cammeroe, and are imported 
chiefly fram Franoe. Ploma may alno be pneerved 
in variotia mannvra, In ipirita of wine or aoga^ or 
ffinnrd into mttrmalade, jetlir*, fto. The wood of 
the pluiii-trm ia hutl, t-onipart, travaiaed with rail- 
diih veint^ and R)i»reptiblo o[ a fine poUiib. It ia 
froiinently emploj-ed by turacn and oahinct -makers 
1*1)0 nine {!'. tj,inofri) h a thorny ahmb, growinj wild 
in moat part« oi Hurope, and beariux a aniall, ruund, 
and oaariy black fniit nf an «xtmn"Iy auaten taate^ 
Tbe joico of lUia plum it frc*iucntty empli^red to 
oanunoaloate a red coloar and a«tnn£Ont Bavonr to 
winea. 

PLUXBAGO, or CnArBiTK, naoiee applied to 
aeroral varioliiw of native rArfaoa contailung from 
9S to nearly 100 wr cent, of thai eleroeaL P]i»u> 
bago haa an Inn-black or vlcel-gray celaur, a metallic 
loam^ aad pvedacca a black, •hining atieak on paper. 
The qMdfte parity of Uib mtner^ b about 1*3; It 
ia a retnarlwbly good ootuluctor of electricity. Then 
are two leadisB rarintiaa of graphite: (1.) Orgttut' 
li:rd or felitttd, wUeh b found in «iDntl ds-«ided 
tnblea In Ceyloo, Anatralla, New York SUte, Ac 
Tfaia variety b prodnced in Um cooling of molten 
iron, when part of tbe carbon riaea bo tba aorfan 
in etyatallUie foraa. (See deacriptloa of Pig-irm 
under Iboit.) (2.) Aautrfhow, which b wtlbont 07- 
atallioa atractur^ and b eoft^ than thi» cryatalliue 
rariotr. II leavea a muoh blacker atnak on paper. 
It b largely need, under tha name of Maelt IraJ, foe 
BuUdnf pcndb. Conaldorable qtiantitiea of anun^ 
pheuagn^diite are found in Ciimlwiland, near Paeaat^ 
and In tha Unl Motmtalna. 

FLUKALITT. hi •eelariaaUcal taw, dgnlflea tha 
holding by tha aame penon of two vr more benefic**. 
Pluralities trtire farbiddea by thie canon law, but tha 
biiJiope uud the pope aaauiaed tbe right af grantlns 
diapOMtlaBi to iKitd tbon. Tbey were prohibited 
by tba Ctmacib of Chaksedoa (fSI), Nleaa (TSr), 
and Lalenn (1SI5). In Eittland they wen nro< 
bibitad t^ act SI ITanry Vlll. ci^ xiil and S7 
George III. oaji. jcix. By 1 and J VKt. cap. cvi, 
aad 13 aad 14 Tlct cap. scvilt. It b aaactad that 
in fiitum; and aubjeot to Teabed rights no ^ritual 
pannn kIijJI lake awl bold together any two benefice^ 
exnrpl. in tbe caaa of ehurcbaa wltUn 9 aiUea of each 
other by tha aaanat raad, aad,^ bbihuI ▼■Im «f 
erne of wbldi doea not eseeed XI 00; that ao ^IflUial 
penon having a onra of 500 aoub aball take another 
with mm than 3000, or having a can of 3000 aods 



140 



PLCS— JPLDTO. 



Rbftll t*k« aaoUier witli more thm SOO; th«t na 
■piritunJ [>«Tson holding mnra tb»n on« nire (rf aouU 
■iudl take uid c<:inttniio to hold thurawiOi kh; utfar^r 
core or any cathedral p»f erfii«iiit -, sod that any 
admUflioD Uy ft bcnelice ta prefi'nuetit in violittioD r>f 
thin onwrtmnnt hIihI! !>• ipso /otto raiiL The? prohi- 
UtiDUii iu Rxpcct to ycfLriy vtim Mid popalntiou 4n 
subject tfl diapHiafLLiLiD la («rtAln eUM b; the Ar«li- 
bUticip of Cknticrljiiry on tho rvcoTDmond Alton of Ilia 
bishop nf tbo diticae. Tho BirU IS and 19 Vict. 
o&p. oxx^lL, BJjd '23 and 21 Viot. cap. cilU., which 
provids for tho union o( conti^iions bcneficM, cootiun 
fniihrr n^ilatinm nffrriinu plnralitic*. 

PLUS iDuirv^, iu ui^itbeiDatim, Hi^illea addition; 
Ihe g\ga })y which It is lodluateil Is + ; thu« A + II, 
which is read A plut B, denotoi that tli« quaolitj' 
A i« to be ftdded tt> the quantity B. P3iu, or tta 
■iipi +, ia al*9 tuod to indloat* • positive ni»^ittid« 
or rvlftdoo, in oppodtien to mixw - , whiah LndicaUn 
a ne^atite. 

PLUSH, a ■peda of *loth of a dtKrijilion uinilaj: 
to inlvfit, frnm which it liiflsr* nnly In th* Iwngth flf 
tho na|', wbicli in vtlvct i* cut ihort, whilo in plimli 
it la rootle lonf;, flat, and glttuay. Pluah«a are mode 
in tM great larii'ty aa velvet*, both iu textura and 
malwial. Cotbnn, wiiol, nillc, gnatji' tia.ir, Kwam' 
down. &V., are lawJ in tbi-ir laliricsilion. Tho uap 
may bo fonuod (.'ithtr in the warp or woof. tUo one 
in wliinfi it i» Vwint; douHi', there lacing a warp and 
a woof (iir tba body o( tba ototh, and a warp or a 
wiHif for the nap. Pluah fur bat« Is lai^ly manu- 
facttind ia Franco; it ii formed of & want of un- 
bIeaob«d ailk with a cotton woof and a napof drtmcd 
eOk. Prsiiiw •uppliee nearly tlie wbulo of Kurupu 
with thin fabric, Th« tnanufacture of rilk-plush for 
hat* waa fintt introdtin.'d in Rfaeniib Prunia, but Uio 
Improvenenta of a Lyoni manufacturer, J. Bl Martin. 
whij»c firtt pat'rtit wam dated in 1933, revolutioniEvd 
ths trade and tranifeiTBd ita MAt to Kranca. Tho 
inventor hinmc-lf extondcd tho manufacture by tho 
fuundinj; of new catablinbuienta to the dennrtmrtita 
of Khunt% IjcAtv, Iti^rv, Ktt-urtliw, aud Mosetle (Mpti), 
Th« ho'iH of J. B. Mar^n has thrica received the 
itccoration of tho Ijogion of Honour — in 196t'>, 1S67, 
and lb74, tho laat time on the occasion of theS'irnna 
Kifaihitiim. 

PLUTAKCH {PfcvtarrAoi). a learned and prolific 
Omkwiltor.bomatCberoniL'ainEkRotia. itaatudiod 
pbiloaopby undor AnunouiuK, a pcripatoLie nliQoao- 
pher of Altica, in a.D. B6, which I* t-hn only initicjtliaa 
of bia ag«, He appear* from Lia wrilin;.'* to haw 
viahed Italy, lectured ehcra on philoeophy, and stayed 
ioma time at Rome, whcrv h« IcrLurci) during the 
rvicn of l>oiiutian. H« in uid nu dDubtful authority 
to hare been the pKoeptor of 1'rajuL He epent bis 
]at«r yean at Cheronieat whvrc he had a priuthood 
and a tnacut«rial otHce. I'ba time of bia doath i« un- 
Imoira. Mia Pandivl Lirea of iUuatrioua Qreelu and 
Somana ia the work to wUdi hoowaa bla fame. Tho 
Uvea are written In paEn, ona Onek and on* Keman, 
foUowod by a oompanaon of tba two, which in aome 
inirtancea i« wanting, and a fiew of tb* Livea tbani- 
talvus ar« loat. In theee Livis Plutarch is aaid to 
have quoted 'IM authon, the worki of many nt whnm 
arc lc«t. Kid Live* aro chtcHy Inb-'iidvil (or the 
illiutrxtion of chanurii^r, and na he tnnkra nan of 
inridenta r<.ir Ihiti piirffooe witliout rc^putl to their 
rcbitlvo value, hJa Livis aro only partially ■eri'iceablo 
for hiatocicaL purpnaen. In the arnLn^rcmcnt of hia 
Inddenta ho doee nut alwaya follow a chronological 
ardor. Tbur eicellenoe oonatata mainly In thotr 
fidelity In bit^traphioal portraitare. A Latin coUao- 
tioo, conatating of towtalatkinB made br difTerent 
pecaonaof the aqjamte livce^waa printed In Konie 
!b two Tola. foUu iu 147U. Tba fint edition of tba 




text waa printed In Flormce hi 1£17. An cdhies 

by Brynn, with a Latin trmiwlation {complcled after 
hit di^ath by Ihi Soul), waa pnbllahed In fiva vote. 4to 
in 173». Thora ii an edition by A. Cbtnaa (PxHa, 
ISQO-IH ^<I "n^ ^y ^- Hintenin (l.«ipil^ IKSMC, 
four rob. t\ol Tberti ia a good French teanalaHon 
by Amyot. a German bwulatton by KaltwaaMr; 
there are Kngliah venioTia bjr Thomaa Kortli, Cren 
Amyob'a Krenoh (Ijoadon, 15791, called by Wharton 
' Shakapere'e atorohouae of learned hiatarT ;* by 
Evelyn, Gnrth, Cro*oh, kc, with a Ufa by bjrden 
(five vola. London, 16S3-6)i and by John and WfUam 
Langhome (all voU. London. 1770, with aareral 
»ti}i*r<.|ucnt improved (^diti'in*), Tbe banalation 
called Itrydrna was eorrocttsd and retiaed by A. H. 
Cluuiih, and publiahod in 1S&0, in flv« TOlmnae, 
Oeorga Ixing haa traoslatod and aanotalad loma of 
the Livea. rintarch'a nthM' worka am about airty 
in number : they aro generally doMvil aa MorwU», 
though some of them are narmUre. W;tt«iibadi'a 
oditiun of the Mnrtilia um j>ubii»h«d at Oxford in 
eight voU. 4to (I7b>5-18ia). PhilcnMm Holland exe- 
cuted an Euitliah tranalation of tbe Meeala <1<M)» 
and then ia alto a later trvialation by savaral tumia. 
An ^^liition of all tho worka of Plutarch, by J. Ol 
Hutleti. npiieared at Tiihingen (1791-lbl)5) iu foor- 
t^tfu villa, ^vo. Tho name Pliitarrh ia often CJoan 
to a colIocU'on of livea uf distingtuabed omil Such 
ool]l^ctioIla eiiit not mcrrly in En|[liah, bnt alao la 
French, Itidian, Riuniian, German, and Swediab. 

PLUTO, in Greek raytbology the mvmr of wealth, 
or Hauks, tbe (!od of tbe lower wor)d~ Tba fanaer 
narae grail ually snpeneded the Utter, which was mora 
oomuiiinly uaed by tho pueta. He waa the third aoa 
of Croniii and IUlC'J^ a brother at Zeua (Jupiter) and 
Poaeidun (Neptune), and to blm, on the partitlooof the 
world, fell tbe ktn^om of the afaadea. Ha narriad 
Poraophonc^ the daughter nf Demotar. Sacrifice* of 
black abeop, male and fomnlc, were ofTeml to tbeae 
deitiM. ITnderthftaiirfnocnf thccartbbcincnthroocd 
aa the ruLcr u! the dead. Aa far beneath hia haHla- 
tion aa the b«avra 1* above tbe earth, Uaa IWtMW^ 
tbe acocae to which ia by a nt* guarded Tijlilmwif: 
thither, after <leatb, innat ^1 Doan d«ac«nd. Power- 
ful, terrible, infleaiblc to prayera or Sattuy, b the 
dark-hninMl ^nd, llerarlea, bowever, ouried off hia 
<lag, tho fearful Ccrlwruo, who Ilea hefora Fhrto'a 
dreadful abode. He ridea an a ohariol drawn hy foor 
blade hone^ which baguidaa with reiiM of gold. Hia 
IiRlmelniakeathowearttrinnBibla. So aaya tbe Iliad. 
Tbe OdyMey oivea a •omawbat different Bceonnt 
It doae not exf^tly place hia hahltatloa bcDealh tlie 
earth. UlyaKs aailed from JEen with a north wind, 
pwued OTor tbe ocean, and landed near the lofty 
rooka and tbe gro^'e of Peteephone, wbete (he Clm- 
moriana dwell in avarlaating tdgbt. Uariog anired 
them he proceeded along th« ocean nntil be rcadtad 
the nocturnal darkneea, tbe abode nl Ala (Hada), 
where dwell tbe dead. But aeooading to Havod, oa 
tiie weatarm margin of the northera hvniaphar^ 
wrapped Inatemal i^***"— , aoa cleft In a eartty under 
the anrfaoe of tbe earth Inula down to the dead, 
another to Tartama, Tet bcth of thoae Bubtemknean 
abytaaa ara tDantl>MMd by him nndar the lattar nama. 
Hocaer, and &oae poeta who followed next after 
him, deaotfbad the realma of Hadea aa being nadar 
the aurfaoe at the euth, wbcrw the deaul, uke the 
tiring on earth, good and bad, dwell together, anil a 
fow cn>^nu«a of the goda alone suffer tomieata: Tar- 
tama wna a diatinct repoii. Ilul aa pbilfieophr, by 
holder eoojeoturea emoeniing the aurfaee «c the 
eaitb. Bad finally by tbe doctrine of a floatliir^ilMm^ 
did away the old Dotlona of Tortarm, and aa the belief 
of a future retTfbnlion gained ground, the realm* r4 
the dead, plaoed at fint ooder the anrfaoe of the 



I 
I 



I 



i 



PLtrrcs-PLVMoTrrH. 



141 



^vtti, and IheB bj aoBW in tbn catitr*, ir«rn iw|ieu 
nrtad l»U> Eljilom tad Tftrtann. TbiM) i-bruiire* 
had fll» sa laJiwiw on tbs ootiou entertAlu«d 
MpMtiaf tbawvcndgnof tlw lower world He net 
•Mijy giineA io oatwKrd pawer juii] ■apreai»c<r, but 
lk» voMviiUofia of bla cbwict«r wera cbuiued ; be 
baoiBa ft bciwTolnt b«ui;. wbo h*ld In hiR hund 
th* k»y% of tfae ««rtb, km blwtd the ytv with 
fruita; for froai tb« ftbjm of night mme all rit.-Kea 
«nd pl —t j. It U tb«r«fi»» not utrtMigv lliat the 
bMr •(«•, wofvondiiiic Bad«a witli n1tt1l^ ca1t»d 
Mb PuhK Bad attrfbated to him dnniintim over the 
toMaara enaoMlod in tfa* bow«b uf tlui evth. Be 
iuofh witb hia brotbtn agaiaM tho TitHM, mA 
pmlvad tram tba Qrtlope^ wbotn b» bad rricawd, 
Iha baliaet tbat bmIm 1M weanr tDvUble, which be 
laat to UaiwM ia tba war ot tbe giants aod to 
I^aaaa to ta» aicpafitkiD ig^uBt tba Gortcona, and 
wbioh aflerwardi came Into the ]iowca>icio of Meri- 
^imt, Tba Farita, wbo an uid to bu hia dau||;bt«ra, 
and CTawnn ara hw ininiiitonL Ho iudgca sTery 
«mB and MOtat deed, and to liim ara nburdliiata tbo 
ttm faimm JEaev. Minos, and Ithadamawthaa. 
BaaAai^ Hwacka, Oiphvna, and t'lvHM «titei«d 
Ui tvalma aUrv, and left tbwn antnjiiiiid; but 'Ilia- 
•aoa and Plrltbou^ wboaa objoct fa laid tn hava l«ei] 
lb* abdoctian of hla wife, be catued to bo obalned, 
Ula n gb tba format i« aaid to have t>««u sub«o>)iicHt1j' 
nlaaaid hy Hvndm. Tha wotnliip of I'Inta «aa 
« « ■■ ) > bIj iptaad atntoK t^ Omki and BoinaDa. 
Tba vj yn m, tbi boi, tba BanianML and tba plant 
aiiaafniti (BiaUea*baiT^, were aacrad In htm : oxen 
aod (oala wcra mmeiiBoed to bicn In tha ibada* of 
aifbt, aod bk |»iMU wen cmwned with vyprtm. 
B« fa rapfcatnted In gloomy tiia)tatf, bia forehead 
Aadad by bia hair, and mth a thick bcanL Ifis 
lieaoaMtimaacorera] wilbareil. He frpi]uiiDt1/ 
bia boliDot, or a crown of ebrjny, or i 
ol adiantum or nafimta. lu bU liiuitl he 
hoUe a two>forit«d aoeptra, a (taif or a key; hj Ua 
dda ia Oerbcna. H« Ii aiUicr acaMd on a thnmo of 
_ SV or In a cbarlot. 

PLl-'Tir^f, t^ ol hmoa and Demeter, waa the 
foi at riohoi. Hla mmtalagy Dhow* th* meaning i>( 
Iba allegory, wblob a Dnaly lliti. tbiit 'Ai^riciiltara 
pfod w wa waahb.' At fttat Plutos bad tb« use of 
u» ayai^ hot Zeat ttrock Un hlind bccaoae ho oon- 
bwd Ma gUta to tba good; and be tiMnoefortfa con- 
kwni tboB oqaally on tbe tpwd and tba bad. Hit 
raaidaBaa waa andar tba earth. He la wtaJc, and 
Uotpa aiUB be eoaaaa to nwrtali, b<it aviiftri^-tvd or 
wti^ ^ when ba leavea then. ForlncD i-anies bim 
fa bar anot, and ba alto (onna on« of Athena's re- 
^BOM. Be b eoenet t mae eonfoanded with Plato. 

PLtrVIOSE, oca of the montha of the l-'tench 
JUpabHean Kaleadar. Sre CALKxnaR. 

PLYSIOUTH, a w&iMirt to*-n, iminjrlpal and 
aariianeatarT buttai^ ol En^aad, in the county of 
Davaa^ on the Soand ef aattM name^ between the 
«I tbe Flym and Tiunar, aod at tbe ter> 
■ el tba Sootb Devon Baitway, 80 mUea aouth- 

. of Sseter, 44 by read and 63 bv rail. Tho 
Laitdon and South-Weeten) KaJIva* hai reci^utly 
ta w i t fat ttM «yiit«in into I'lymouth. and has er*!;!*-! a 
Mnaual itatioa at Devooport. Taken in ita lar^t 
HM^ k aMnpribndi what are oallad the 'Tbree 
Towaft' or Davoaport on the w«a^ Stonebouae In tbo 
acBiri, and FlyaKatb proper an the eaat; but aa the 
bit ■• dMcribNl aadcr lu own name, and iudud«a 
tba Mooad ia iu puliamantaiy bonmyb, tbe preeent 
■flida nfera omlr to tbo uird. Taken in thie 
iMlibliwl eeu a e^ Plymaulb coirera an area of about 
1 e^aara aille. boaoded by tbe Sooad and Catwa(«r 
Harioar on iIm acwtb, aad Hteadine from Mill Bay 
en tbe WmC bo tbe moutb cf tbe Plym on the eaat 



Tbo lite in nnnvon, und lotnowbat rn^zitd, cnnshtlng 
of a ix-utral holluv nnd two conaidetaule emiacmtsea, 
oDo on the north, fomins the eubnrh^ and the other. 
callnl the lloe, on tho south. iMd out aa a promenade 
acd mcTCKtion gn^iuiu!. Itc older {larbt of the l»wn 
consist of narrow and lrTt^:ular stniettt, devoid of 
architootura] bouuty, and often Meop and winding. 
Hilt in the nrsvi.-r ji»rt« luift enburbs many handaoma 
terracai and detachiHl viUaii have bera erec t e d . 
Among others may t>0 speoISed the nuljlo jiflo ot 
houses forming tho eaplanade and Etlloc Terrace on 
the Hoe. 1'he market- nl^ce, ncer the Orntro of the 
t»wn, ia appToaolivil bv three principal Hiitranotw, end 
though irregnlar In sham, h» %a eitont nf naa.rly 
3 acna, Tbn public buQcUiii.'H include the two pariah 
cbnrobei of St Andrew ami Chailos the Martvr ; 
Sharwett Congregatiixislcbuiiel, t)i-° litiirinn ('iithi^'llc 
cathedral : tbe eitodel, on a b'>ld boHdlanJ, Wilt 
chiefly ct limestone and granite, and flanked by 
tbriM rcgubir and two irr^ular b«tione-, the Royal 
Hotel and theatre, an ele^'ant pile of building* in 
the Gntdan style; tbe peet-offioe, on tbe model of a 
temple of Veite at TivoU In Italy; tbo (nitldbxU. 
opened In 187J, a handsome Gothi<: biiililJo?; the 
custom>hoQsn, a liu^ge and handiHiini.- granitic ntnic- 
tnre; tLe extftian^'i, the atbeuieuiti, the lueebnuios' 
institiits, the Plyinontb and Cott-mlan public library, 
contairiirif* in,000 volumes, and a oollicliiiniif original 
drawing!, prlnta, and nrticliM of ivrfif, the Grauituar, 
Fn», Natiimal, and variouj oUmt endowed tulioola; 
the Woatem College, or Ceogngadooal Tbaoln^tcal 
Seminary; tlie Pabiic I>ispan»ary, Female Peniten* 
tiary. Kye InRmary, SoatK Doian and East Corn- 
wall HuspttaL, T«c«uUy erwU'd, Ac. 

Tbu mannfacCuras include aoaph aail-dotb, bmdiaaa 
Boroaii crn)rnt, rarlbenware^ rope and twine, fto., 
and tli«ra am olao bnildlng-yams, foiiBilrlos, two 
Hug&r-reflneriea, breweries •tarch-worka, and Sax, 
aaw, and flour mills, together with limesWne quarriea. 
1^ fishsrisa, cbindy of whiting, baku, and maclcorrl, 
are very prodncttte. The trwle also. Imtb ouostEug 
and foreign, la very ImportAnt. Stoomcrs ply regn- 
larly to North America, the Cape Australia, New 
^tcaland, the Wot Indiea, Ao. Tbe parts of the 
[<or< cblafly appropriated for mereantile ablW'ing are 
Sutton Fool wid Min Bay, partioidarly Uie latter, 
when tbera are rttemivo w«t-<1[>ck«, and the largest 
Tiisaels Ue lu salvty alno^' its line pier and pontuon 
even at low a'at«r. Tbe utinit>er of veeeela tbat 
BRterod the port ta 13S2 was Hiii of 802,985 tan; 
and the number cleared 3333 of 7n.S,'>15 tnna. Unt 
riyiuuutlt owea lis celebrity not eu much bj thsM as 
to it* tmportanoa aa a p^at naval station, for wkivh 
the spadonsDoaa of ita Sound, and the deptb of watw 
rHoiued by Ita arma after TKnetratiag far Into tbe 
mMnland, render it uduilniDly luitol. The Sound, 
however, about 3 tnilos wide at eta montb, bving open 
to the soutb-weel winds^ IcA veaiielii at anchor oi- 
pnaed to tbe grealeat daaser. With the view of 
|iroU«t)Dg the anchorage from tbo heavy swaU of 
tbe Attantic, tbe stupaadoua national work, known 
by the name of tbe Plymouth BreakwaUr, waa 
uiidcrtakoD. and waa finally completed at an oKpcnae 
(if abriiit £JL000,OOO. It cotuista of a contral body 
of 1000 yards, and an anuurkant at aaahextramitr, 
of 350 yards, making the whole length only dO yarda 
abort of a mile. Tbe helgbt Is from B< ta 80 (eat, 
the top I& feet faroad, and fmn S fcei to 3 feet above 
tbe bigh-wal«r of sprlag-tldsa; and tbe oetitenta cf 
tbe whole ibbm amount to 3,974,1 IA tana of Uma- 
atone, togetbar with !^6L2,«I» oubk feet of gmnlte. 
And other stone used In paiing and facinga. On tbe 
west «i>d of tbe breakwater a lighthiiias«^ 08 feet 
above tba platfenn, and vialbla at tbe dlstaaoa of 
8 mllea, eaoept In foggy waatbar, baa baan araaleJ, 




PLYMOUTH— rSEUMATIO DESPATCH. 



Init the Mitnuicc into the Sound u guided bjr tho still 
inoro celcbrttwl E<lily«louB Uubtbonse, which •Uiirl* 
ciu a \wf;ti cluBWr ol rocJu iu the channel ufiMHits to 
ii. To defend tho port nn irnn cjukiI fntt liu been 
)>iiitt near tho litc»kMr»U;i, ami Bt, Ni'i;Uolii^ or 
L'talvu'i) IhIuii], wllhia tbe brwtltwiitnr, bdiI cod- 
tiocUd with tho sonth-wnt atioro by k rsJigc. or u 
it u cjtilal lintlge of Rodu, aaeorered at lovt-tfnber, 
haa \ieea fumiihcd with strouf; fcvtiiic&tioii^ mciuutod 
with '2^'tua Armatcong guns. 

Plvmoitth, Drigtnally * fiabtnj vUlii;|,-o, bor« uoJer 
tlie SaxdiiH ih« nAnu at TuuuwArth, wUii^h, after 
the CciLii|ii(r)iL, tma cliaajj^^d to thai of Sutt"n, ur 
S>>uthTL>nii- It badboen'aeonaiilerabla town undtr 
iu pnacut muse io 1136, when u <!hartor, coaQruiiui; 
luuld au<t grantiDE many new privilegea, wa« ooa- 
ttrrvd upuii it by llenry VI. J''roiD Eli/*b«lb H 
obtaiovd n. new cliartcr throocb tho toUeitatiuii of 
Sir Francia Draku, of whom a hui(boma nUtua ma. 
erKrt»il on thu Iluv in lt■^4; uuJ uu the IbrMtteaod 
invaaioo of tlm Armada o<)ui|>ppil »a ita <]nata to tha 
Britbli flcut, whitb bad burv iU n)Tid«Evoui, Mvaii 
ablpa and a Sy-boal. a gnater number than was fur- 
nished b; any port uxcept LciDdoiu Ueorgv III. 
with bia iiueca vijitud it in liSi>, and Itoiu^mrto 
arrii'ud hire in Uli Bt'.h'-ojJion in 1S15, PlyriioiitU 
ia govaned by a mayor, twclvij ajdeniii.>n, and tliLrlv 
ail councillori, and Kiida two uiciubci'* to the Uou»r 
uf Comuuiu. Pu]>. (Ififil] of nLuu. bar. 73,71)4; of 
pari b»r. 70.06^'. 

PLYMOUTH, a poit-town. vart of vntry, and 
•hire town nf I'lvmoutb crmnty, MitMochiiaetta, for- 
merly tbe cajiital of th« Plyuiuutb colony, and tbe 
vldart towa lit Xow England It wm Httlsd by the 
^l^nui wba srnvod ia tbo Ma}(iovn; Dommbcr 
23, IS20. It atondi on a liiii! harbour of the Mine 
aama, S8 nuilea b.h.k. uf Utstuu. Tbu priuctpid 
buildings are tbo ranirt-lu>D*ft, jiUI, nn<l nine cburchc*. 
TLo bay is apaciuiu^ but ahaUonr, aail the barbour 
aocnra^ tbaugb dilScDlt of acfiev. The town boa ooq* 
■Idanble Gomueeoa and valuable inanufacturM of 
Iron. An elcfsat hall bu bwn eroct«d far tha om 
of the Pilgrim Society, and a poiiioD of tho rock on 
wbicU the ijjluriifi* buulod baa been crectBd iu front 
«f it. ropiikcloD, 70»3. 

PLYMOUTH liKKTHUKN. a •«:* or aaaoela- 
tloa of Clirbtlsua wltiub anwo in KnKbud about 1830, 
and took tU popular doatguMlan nam tlM town of 
Plynotttb, in whicb it lint bt^an Co flouriab. Tbe 
rito of tlm body apptroni to have beau partly epOD* 
taiMouL partly due Ui tbo laboum of Jifbn Darby, 
titet a barrijitor. tbua a clergymaa of tho Cborch of 
Bnglaad, and subeMjiuntly a Dimcnt^r, the coiiit;;- 
deaoe of wboae ricw« with that of kuimi aectani!! of 
Plymoutb enppUed tba deuntolDatl'inuU baala, from 
wUdi th« wot epread Itadf with eoaililerable rapidity, 
gaining namaroin adbareots in England, oa tbe Con- 
tinent of Eatvpc, partindarly tD SwitjtorLuid, Fraiicc, 
and Italy, and in tbe Vuilud Stxtc* of America. 
Darby npaxatod frura the Cburcb of £ugluad spo- 
daUy on tbe ground of >crtip]>ea 1b regard to apoatO' 
lical aucceaMon. To tbeulogii^ viawa etrongly tln^ 
tured witb niyttielsui be united oomsnuiiauo viowa 
of cbutcb orgauixation, wUch, bownver, were anired 
■t u tbe reanlt nf a peculiar proce» of rcaauoing 
ratb«tr tbaa adupted for tb«r own aalto. He appaara 
to have held that apuatollcal auvDMBion waa tbe Irve 
foundation of chnnli orginitation. but tbat it waa 
•etnnlly loab Tba cbnrali tbereforc aa a c«pora- 
Uon had, like tbe larMlitaa •• a nation, been re jcct«l 
of Ood on aeooont of iU declcoaiaa from tbe truth. 
Tbare remabiad only the volu&taiy aHodalion of 
Cbrittlana among tboosatvai^ and in ttielr meecinge 
tba PlyvMWtbiMB fniiat upon the aqnality of all tbe 
naaltt nembcn, and tbelr ngbt bo exbort mcL 



othnr, rspecially when morad by tbe Spirit; anil 
uf U-r the opeuius Kr> toe^ ooiiai«tiog of a faymn ut 
prayer, a paoia u uinaUy suide to wait for volun- 
tary nddruaea. Darby carried on for many yean an 
active propaguidinn ia favour ol bia peculiar tbeo- 
riea, and al tinii witb au cxtraordliwry oiuaauia cf 
aUBOaaa; but what Kemtd at tint to be a raoventeBt 
great enough to threaten tbe whole orgaaiaation of 
the Cbr^Uan oburch waa woo effectually dtedteil by 
Intoma] dtaNnsioiia aswog bia followera tbamat'lveik 
Darby aoon formed a eonmgation of 700 or 80O dia- 
oiplca in Pljmontb, and baring eatabllabed aimllw 
uasuciaLionii in Liaidoii, Bxeler, and other plaoai^ be 
cominuiLct^d miacionary D|iaraUaiu on a large acale^ 
Be biinaelf frequently viuted every part of Europe, 
prculdtng at meetlngi, and preaching in Bugliah, 
Fr«Qcli, and German, while otben carried tbe pein- 
ctplea of tbe now aect to Americn and India. A 
iouraal, tbo Cbriitian Witneei^ waa alio -*-"'*-* 
In ltd itiUir<?st, to which Darby waa one of lbs dU 
ooDtriliutom. 'Ilie principal apnere of Darbr'alabonn 
on the Continent wna the Oantoa de Tama la Swit- 
zerland, wbcre be resided for a oonidotable llaMi; 
and raaiie niimcrona oonTertA Hia foltowen on tbe 
C'otitjncnt arc umially called Darbyitea. 

Tho Plymouth Brethren dtitlBctly repudiate bring 
a EDCt, and docUno the dlatinctiva doaignatioaa gins 
tbcm, cAiling ibcmaclvea rimplT Cbriatiana or Breth- 
ren; but their eeparate orKanixatioa, bowever loues 
It may be, ninkee it Impoaaible lo relieve tbeu of ibe 
neceatity of having n aepuute deaignatioiL l^y 
recogniKfi no cveed,and it would probably be baxara- 
ou> to give tbem one; but aa Ihay have ^ilH up inio 
Boction* on theological differeaoae tbay oaaool be 
r^arded aa indifferent to the eplstous bald bj then 
with wbani they UMdnte. In general their vten 
may be bold to be a compoond in varioua proporticiH 
of ('nlviniam and myiticism. Tbe point on wlndi 
tbcy fplit in Plymoittb w&ji a (!octrino regarding the 
hunuui nature of Cbriat prupo-unded by one of tbeir 
teadien called Newton, nhiLih Darby regarded ■■ a 
daogmua nror. Tbia pcvduood a tbrarfold divi- 
aion, tho adberenta of Darby and Xewton being is 
direct antagoi^aci, whOe a third parly, le n ee e nled 
by Uie celebratwl George Mllller, declined to join 
either party. Tbe Plymuntb Bretbivn profwaedly 
model tbetuaalm upon the primitive dnircli, and at 
an early atage of the movement there waa » tandew^ 
towards the adoption of the principla of coranmnfty 
of gooda. They aleo, in general, bold "JTfninri'ii 
TiovH, asd Danij ia aseeadingly mlaiit* Ia canyliv 
out the alleeorickl intcrp notation of tbe ecteinoi>ia( 
Bud other bguralire [larta of the OM Tietaiimil 
1'ho Intorpretadou of prophecy, aa filUng up is detail 
the enltre rftle of bivtory, ia another peoiliarity of 
Darby and tbo Plymnutbijta. Tbmr bajatiM adulta 
and adjniniater Ihn Mu-rBuieiil, wbion each lakaa for 
biiDwIf, eaob Sunday. At thrir neettnga tt pnaat vl 
unbnkeu ajleuoe euauea when no eee ia Dorsd to 
Epftak. They hold both dvil govenunenta and eode- 
Kaatical argani«alione to be o&der divine reprobation, 
the tonner aa ntbetaUc, the latter aa is a atate of 
apoetaar. 

I'LYMOUTH BOUKD, ao onn of Ibe aee, on 
tbe aotith-wut coMt nf Knglanrd, bntween the ooon* 
Uee ol Devon and ConwalL It b about 9 milea 
wide at ita eBtrano^ bounded by alerated land, 
which dcaMndt abruptly to the eeik It eontaisa 
Drahe laliuul, which ia fartilicd ; and £ddyitoae 
I'igbtbouaa Ilea 11 mUee below the breakwater. See 
Pltm ooth. 

PNETJMATIO DESPATCH. In our aKkle 
Atuoaphukic BaILWai we have ^ren an account iJ 
the early attempt* made to adapt tbe principle nf 
atmoeplwiiio prcpnliioa to apccial applienlioiu of tbe 



1 



PNEUMATIC DESPATOB— PNEUMATICS. 



143 



^fttm of floaTejia; gooda »oA pMwngoa by Uncs of 
ntk Altboogb Umw MtUmf^» haw hiUiarto provd 
•bortlv* in raipvct to Uh caii>eyBii«e ot |MflKU|Cen 
and 1m*tT KmK tbli nwua of pmpokioa luti be«n 
■occcarfuU/ BppUod in tbc cua of l*rg« puula, uid 
m TtTj importaot datslofuneot of it Ium t«k«t] pLKa 
in ngud to tfaa iBl«CB4l tmtMuiiatoii ot t«lv|tnuus Lb 
laiM town*. 

After varionaeipenmenUtbqptn in ISltl.A I'dcu- 

mUc I>BB|*tcb dtmpmaj fonnad in Loutluti, iuieI 

vUoh bMl worked (or waDB y««n « nor* restiictod 

l>M«[^ opviMd <M Noraoibar 7, I81I6, Iho fint poKJoo 

[ * tnUn o( ceminniticktioti for the coavtr»noe of 

IteaO wgi^ ftc, balimti lliv O^omnl PJMt-uffioe and 

tik N«cUi-W«t«n) RuliTky. £aitaii Squarv. Tkb 

I Byrt t n^ whkk !■ In two P«H i* wwkM fran • eeu- 

^ Inl aOtioD in Hotbum. Tlia kagtkof the tulie from 

• BottKNtt Ui KiMton S>|iiaM U 9084 yarda, thM batmen 

^Bdbont Hid tb« Pott-offic* t* 1653 yftnb. Bothtbo 

Vtoba «pin IbIo Um iuUob, wUofa la dtuAled At right 

^Hiflwto tham, ukd tbrau^li Lmiaa 1iav« to ho rcvcrsL-d 

, Inaatanng tbem fmm oao liiia lo tli« otbcr. U'hijt 

""ns* by ruBuiof ill* »nivuiji tniu by nieoii* of ita 

DWituB up & abort IncUna do to » tiini'table, 

■• It la Dut in coBUDaoicAtion witli tbn otbar lino 

I Jwc— da bjr snrity. Ttiu ii eSectcd in thirty 

joiiL Tka t«iba fgnua » wcliou iu ik« alup« of m 

Mnad bofi»-atioai or latter D Ijriiw on ita atnij;ht 

L II la 6 foet In width tad I leet S int^iM in 

I'-baigbl >a Um omtr*. Tb» catriage^ wUcfa »re tech- 

Vaieailly eaUad <arntn, w« of tb* auM abape aa tlia 

VMk^ Mt of » alt^lly ainnUarBra^ a 6aa^ of indi«- 

Rnibbar ianmuidinf um cnnler ao aa to ituuu it tana 

W p^bBM, but in imctico it ia not found n«c«aaary that 

pIlM fitUm ahould bo parfvctly air-t^bt Two gnt* 

tdanla of 1 In IS ooeur is oua gf the Unea, which do 

^BBi iataifara with iu warkin;. Tbcae la the olb«r 

ivmuekmAer. Tb« abu^ieal curro baa n nMlitu of 

TO Caat, Tbo atraigbt portiona of Um tnba ara tnndo 

ti laal trial, tba curved [Mrtiooa «f brickwork liaod 

vMl cenMOt, The curreuta by wliicl) Uie carnage* 

, «ra profiallad ana cnalorl by » fu> 33 foot 1} Inckea in 

I'tfaaatar, wbieb ta put to rvtation by a tteani •ngino 

i vMh • ftir of Sl-lBcfa cylindera, with SO-bcb atroke, 

'.iTMinl M that one iwralatioo of tba tatjpae glvea 

> fira of (be fan. The txmiii* an pt<^i«Ucd from tha 

k1 point by jmature, aod drauii to It by »■ 

ion. Tfa« B acM a a ry tihaagca of tba cumnt an 

I fnduaed from tba noatiiuMna workiDg of th« fan in 

no dtrediou (hraa^ Um intervention of valvea. 

Tb« nppUcation of tho prlndplo of tba pnounmtle 

I deipalcb to tbe iatcmal trauntiaaien of tolagnuiia 

[ kna bacB Deocaaltnted by the pvwtb of UMt«k^ra|ib 

* ' a^ Tho ni iM ngaiWKWod, wlMtbcT for trmna- 

m or dcUfary fa> Lraidi^o and oth«r largo cftla^ 

h»r* to bo ooUactod tr di«tribut«d tbnxic^ a ntunbvr 

«f diatriot ottoH. Tbc two prinoipa) aaMia of oolleo- 

' tioa Mkd diatrlbatioa prariona to tho intiwhMtian of 

lb* ptt—matic dca|Mtch won by maaaoiigaia or con* 

■wtjwnmm, and by t«l>igr>|ihlo oommuDJMUM) batween 

' Ibo diatiict and btukd nfficca. The roraicrmatbodwaa 

■ooaluw and tlie tatter both loal tine throogh lbs aioeu- 

' Binlatlaa of mamagan and oocaduned ao additional 

, riilc of «nor from tba noaaaily it ia*al««d uf npetl- 

HoB of thn maaaaf*. Tbe Kleotrie and InteraatioBal 

' Coaapanjr tint adaDt»d tbe pnenmaUc ayatoB on tba 

ptodple alfwdy dmicrihoil of altoniate preaaun and 

' •shntuCioa. Tiiit lyatoni. iatrodaced by Maata. 

T nil mar, Clark, and V'arley, roi|iiind a aeparate tntw 

[Wwaaa naeh pair of aUtioua, aud admittod of only 

[* ■iv'* iWpat c b at a tiina. It hu bitbarto bean 

iBOBt oaad la Gnat Britain, but a ayiMm of UfiBg 

iftaba te <ircnlb for tlw oontlauoua traniialaafaia <J 

rdaapftbehaa, by neanaef aii uaint«rrupled air-curraat 

I In otM -Ht"-*^, waa adu^tod in Uarlin by Maaan. 



Si«men« and ilalnki; in ISn<t, and introduMtl by the 
invcntiini in Loudun iu 1 ii'l). A circular ayBbom, but 
U(il «ltb a coDtiauous ciirrrait, U aluo in iimi in IVria; 
and aa tbo pnciunativ dmpAtdi baa hare been carriud 
Ui ita gKAtett devolopnent, a dcecriptloB of tha woric- 
ing uf tho Faria ayat«in wiU beat lUuitrate it* jirao 
tlcal utility, lliora an fifty itatloiui, at diatanoea of 
about a kilometn (1003 yiu-J»| a|Mrt, conneotMl by 
an imn tube int«rrupt«d at each station. The dl^ 
iiieturuf tliH tub« iaalMut 2fcoL Thcccntriil nlaliou 
ia in tba Hue ds tiroU'clIc, and t* coutiecteil ttith 
■eventceo diatrlct atatlonti, and then la a aocondary 
neC-work, beddea a direct line for facilttaliag the 
IraDamiauon of oxprcaaca. 'J'he meana of propnUinn 
ia compreaaed air, prejiared at tb« did'OrBUl atatlona. 
llio traina an lUvided Into two daaaea — ooinlbuB 
Iraina, which atop at intonucdint^ atationa, and tx- 
praaaoa, which go iliroct to their [tcstinntion. An 
uintiibua train K-avm tbe Rue do Cireuulle every quar- 
ter of an bcur, and moku the drauit, ratuming to 
the sUUon from which it atartcd in twelve ninutta. 
I'lxpreaa traina to the buaicat atatlona an intenalnted 
between ibe odtmtbua traina A eeparata box b put 
In tbe omnibus train for each atatiun with maaaagn to 
bo trananiitted, Tliia ia taken out at tbe atatloB and 
nnutber aubstitutcd with ineaMgea tot dcapat«b. a» 
that tho tralu raturos witfa aa many boxaa oS oaa- 
patchci aa were acnt out. 

VariiniA nii^ana are adapted of exhauUng or ooim' 
ureaalug air fur tbe use of tbe pneumatic d«^iat<:^. 
The attnpleat and least oxponalveiDtana of exhuittion 
yet diaoDvored ia tbe expuUos of the aUsoapherie air 
□y the dimet admiaalon of a Jet of Bteam. I'bo iqwod 
bf tho carrier la uniformly fouud to be greater aa it 
apprctwhni tha vacuum end. 

rXEU&IATICS, the adenoe of gaaetv la n bcanoh 
<it bydrodyuaniica, the aoiaiioa of fluid* ganerally. 
Tbe prindplca of lUtie raauoalMi^ tbat mbdiviaion 
of the auDJect whicb deala wilb gnaaa at net, an 
cotnpantivMy well known. It it difficult in Invea- 
tigaling tbe kinetic pb^aomena of gaaea to eliminate 
TJacoalty or internal friction, and aa ia th* kinattca 
o^fluida generally, uxpvruncnta have merely led to 
empirical rales npon which Indaed tbeorieo nay bv 
built, but tlwM uMoriea an only ueod na guidaa In 
eiperimcntcra. Viaooaity or miJecular ttidian la 
iiotioeaUe la aoUda and nntda; but when tba effncU 
of fuTOM on solid bodlaa u* btfwtigatad. the niatbe- 
matical trMtoxnt of tho nibject, tbe bodies Ixing 
regarded a» rigid, and tbenf ore aa having no iDteraal 
trietioo, leada to lawi which at^rce very c3ueely with 
ohaerration and experiment. Uuiiheobaarvednhaoo- 
mcna cf fluidi an tboae in which viaooaity id*;a a 
moat imporiant pnrt, and Ibeadeaoa la notadvaaeed 
aoougb for any but a venr inoonpleto owlbanaUoal 
traatiiwnL ^>ofcaBor Cferk Maxw>ell*a theory of 
molociilen (aee Gaa), and hia eiperioMatal InTomga- 
^ona of vlieaaily, Mr. H'Farlane'a expefUDanla on 
tba Haooiityof aoUda, %r VriUiamThomaan'atbeoriea 
of vortex motiooa and n^pMtbun, aappoited by Fkrn- 
day'a oxpctiui<nt of Ibo rotation of tbe iJaae of 
|Ki!ariKaiii.<n of Ugbt, Ac, aoil other inraatigationa in 
phyiica, wilL no doubt, lead in time to a ealUfactory 
knowledge of molecular kineUu^ Tbe aubjact baa 
Intimate r^atjooa with mapiotiain, light, boat, and 
electricity. ' At prcaont in dealing with pnwUoal 
qtieationa, tbe flow of Adda b cbannelik oentrirugeJ 
punpa and faai^ toibinaik aovw aad otbn marine 
propellet^ Ac, adBBtlfia mtu dafaod ftntiy on tbe 
great law of eooaenatioa of eneagy, and accondly 00 
the reenlte of tpedal •morinMnta. 

Gaacs at not Innamit pr— un fnaly in all din» 
tlona. They have wtdgfat, ao thai In a nMa of gM 
under grantaling fone tbe pteaeun tncraaaaa down- 
ward*. The experimental detorminatioM of tbeweight 



PNETTMOSTA--POACraNG. 



of tha fttm'M'phnro imrn^anrling tho eivrth i« fully 
eipluined iii Uio ivrtidea BABoMirtxii, AiB, Atmid- 
Bi'HrRK. It i» found thftt near tlie level of th* to* 
ewr; ■urfnco exposed to tba ftUnnvphere iiutoiiut 
k onniul pnoBon equal od 4ii avenge to tlie welgJit 
of a eotninn of tamcarj whoM buo ia thu «nrf»cc 
aind whoMi bai^ht in 30 inctlic*, or to th« wright «f a 
otiluuiu of K'atar wbutw licijilit u ubout 31 fcut. Tliia 
Is tk'O maxiinuin hi^l^bt to which wAter can bo nuaed 
in ft pump, B« WM ob«orv«iI by OuJileo. The pras- 
sunt of a gaa; tlia rclatintw IxitwoBn |iTF>eiira aiid 
volume in a giveii ([uuntHy of gtu>; the ri.<Utir:>D« 
batweoi gaiaa, vi^onn, nnd liquid*: and oibst itnpor- 
tant ph«nmnena, whii-.h unc iisuully bn^tcd of ill 
wurlcB iin {ineuuiatici, will hn founil la tba article* 
just nrfwrred to, and alw in Aiit-ruHi', I'uMi-, Maxu- 
umoi, riinsiTiti^ MnxonoLoor, MAmtn (Coktik- 
umf or TKK Statbi of). 

PNEUMONIA (Qr«elc,a dSaAase of the lung<, from 
jmimnda, lung), acuto Itiflammatiou of tho luti^ oub- 
atancA It in generally inhered in liy rattleaaDeM and 
fubrilt- ayiiif UiDUB, iucoeedetl iii a short time by ahi*er' 
irign nr ngorm 'llinia are fallowvd by acute paia in 
tUc ivfTooled side^ diatraaaed bnatliin;, a )u^ pake, 
aa iiioreaaed tamperatun of the body, adiatrened aud 
atuioiia counlonaDc«, and a livid appmnuioe of the 
•liin, due to tbe blood not being prninrly oxygeoatad. 
Th«n am abo boadaolie, vraat thint, Imb of appe- 
tibSb MT«n pmsmdon, and painful cough, which In 
a fW day* is aMompuucd by a nut ci^IixinTii; cx[i«c- 
toratioQ. Tbo baae tjf the Iimjt i« Iha |iorti«n of the 
organ which la radnt generally attacked, and ibe H^'Lc 
lun^ ia twiat u ofb^n sfEcct«d aa the IcfL I'naumo- 
nia id a dis6iuie wbidi ii drldam fiitnl tf it U detected 
lu time hud in judiL'iuii>ly iiiiuiiu;l-i]. The meat 
iiapartavt points to attend lo »r« tho follonring: — To 
keep the putieitt 'quiet lu bed in a WQU-vcutilatod 
and madaratelY-wann room, to aee that the boweU 
are gently moved, the applicatlun of liut poultJoea, 
or Id Bome inotancn a fly-bliHt«r over the alTcctcd 
part, tha administration of a simpk yH very nour- 
iahing, and in tiaiDV caac* a atiinuhxtia^ dint, and 
medletnea which tand to promute a free actiuu ut the 
■kin and tvduoa fovor. 

PO (anciently Padtut or f'ridanut), tho I.tr^Mt 
ri*er of Italy, iu ropecl bulU of its IcDf^tb and iLa 
voliinin of wator, niid hence atyled by the ItalianK 
tbo Fathm- or King cf Biven, It riava on tho con- 
finea of France ana Piedmont in Mount Vito. one nf 
tho Cottiau Aln^ and f!i.>w« rupidly va^twiLrd thniU|^-k 
E^ednHwt in theobamctorof a tnountnin torrent, till, 
after having been augmented by aovenl other moun- 
tain atnama, it reachaa Lombriaeea Here h begins 
to be a Biajortic ttrcnm, and, turning northward, 
posacs Turin. Shortly after it aaninm an eaaterly 
ooune, and reaching the coufinca of Lembordy u 
graatly augmeDted in volume by the aooaanon of tho 
Ttcino on the lefL Here, atiU continuing eaatwani, 
it fomia the bciuudary betweini Loiubat^y and the 
Kmitiaa I'rorince* t£ll about Ion, 10° 40' a., wber« it 
tnma northwanla and thon caatwards Cbroagh Lorn- 
hardy. Abnut Irm. ]]' 15' it mcota the Venetian 
frontier, after wbieh It »e[>arate« firat Veuella and 
Lomhardy and then Venotia and ibe Emilias Pro- 
vineea. It aftenrarda throwa otl aeveral branobca, 
and finally, dtviilini; '"to two principal anna, enbera 
the Adriatic by two njoiLtba abixit 13 milea diataot 
from eaoh otbOT, tho larger and northern arm taking 
the naaM of Po-di-Haealva, and the amalttirlmt nio!<t 
frequented that of the Po-di-Curov wliioii c<nil>nui» 
the bonndary-llnc between Veuetia am! the Kmillan 
ProfUieea. Ita piindpal idlluents are, on thu left, the 
Clomne, Sangene, Dor«rIU|iaria, Stors^ ]>ora-Baltea, 
Scaia, Agogna, Terdo|ii[na, llcinn ta Tcaoin, Oloua, 
fjunbro, Adda, OlUo; and Miario; on the right, the 



Vraita, Taaaro^ Scrirfa, Trebbb, Xara, Two, Panna. 
Enia, Secchia, and raciaro. Ita direct ooorae, alnmat 
due en«t^ i> 270 railce; ita total moiae; iadwflil^ 
winding:*, alKtut 450 uillea. After the fint <tO mOaa it 
begins to be navigable by small bargoa, bat ita nnri- 
gAtiiin throughi^ut mecta with nunoefona Intomf^ 
tioniL After reoi^ving the Adda iU avenwe breadth 
ia about 620 yards. Below Piacensa, which it paaaaa 
on the right abont Ion. fl' 40' K., it ia eoofined by 
artiGcial em hank men Li, whifh are aaid to have ori- 
ginated witli the ancient Btruacana, and notwilh- 
standing the immenae sums which hare been ex* 
PQCidcil upcD them, and the engineering aldQ whkk 
boa been exerted in order to render them perfectly 
aiTure, (be moat diaastrona inondationa have repeat 
odly taken plane. The omhankmenta the maw v 
bavo in one nenac added to the danger. Uta depnata 
minlo by the river are pcrpPtually teodlag I* ralae 
the Lev^ of the water. Thia makaa it naccaaaiy to 
make a corrofponding incnaae in the balgbt el the 
embankment, and the effect of theae oonhlned open- 
tioot haa been to lift the river so high above ita natu- 
ral bad that it is actually on a level with the tope of 
thu brntsea in Ujh city uf Ferranv The Po i* wall 
supplied with Gab, Inidudin^, among othera. the ahad, 
aahnon, and sturgeon. Tbo laat ia not fiahed in any 
other river of Iliuy. 

POA. See MEUKur-OBasa. 

POACHING, a tLon-k«al t«rm applied to the 
stealing of gn-mo or the entering on aoothcr'a fiahtry 
without Uave for the (mlching uf fiah. For the law 
rotating to tho pdacblng af game aee Gahi LavB. 
"With regard to private property in fiflhoriee, accord- 
ing ti^ the law cif^ lin^zLunl, thrre ran be aiich a thing 
only in Uie uaae of aiirojuoa where there ia no ebb oe 
flow, Donda wholly inclosed by a pereon'* land, and 
hJies Dordcred by the property of difforont paraooi^ 
untesa the exclusive rinit of fishing In a public river, 
that la, one in which there is ebb and flow up to the 
tidihl limit, or a portion of the aca, baa been granted 
to a perwin'e predcecaaon by K>yal fraochiae at leaat 
ai early lu thi: nngn of Henry FL Such is tlie law 
of tba Mni^a Charta, which deprived the oown of 
the light of oonforring such franchlaaa In fular^ 
although it onntinned all siich aa had not bean oon- 
lerrcd BubBc<|itcntly to the lUlc ucotioned. Wfa«n 
a person claims the prirlleg^ of an eiclualve fidwty 
in a portion of the ata or a pnblic river, it lalli apen 
him to prove hta right; but if he can prove that and 
right haa been enjoyed by hi* predeoeaaon for fiOO 
yoora tt u-Jll be an>nmo>l that it dates froo the reign 
uf Henry II., and the right vriU be admitted. 'Wban 
a peraan'a land adjolna a stream whi-.t« there ia no ebb 
and flow tbal pcr«i>n ia lutsumcd to tiaic an esdualve 
right to fish in thn «tream aa for aa his land extsiida, 
aud up to the middle of the stream; and any penon 
who cLilma the right of Hahing in that part of the 
stream, dthcr aa nn raoiuaire right against tbs pn^ 
prietor of tho land on tho bank aa waU aa all othera, 
oraa a right wblcb be eujoyi la Dommoo with olhen 
(a commou of plwary), is required to prove bla right. 
It bai bonti dnuhied whathor Lfaere can be an aida* 
sive ri);ht of Gibing belonging to one peieon ^m 
the land on the haaka of a atream balangi to another: 
yet it accnu to hava been eatablitbed that such a 
right may be acquired by a grant or detniiw inuns- 
fliately tiini the owner of the ecU, When a peraoa'a 
property adjoliu both hanks of a atrMin that petMO 
ia flf conn* MtoiMd to have the exclnaire rWrt of 
fiaUing in the whole breadth of Ihe stream. So also 
when a person's land incloaes a pond, the Bah la that 
pond belong to hiia. Where sorenl prop i tie a ia% 
onntignouB to the aame lake the ilffat of fiabing la 
that lake belonga to the proprieton, although tt b 
often a diUcult matter to nay how that right is 



i 



I 



POACHINO— POCAHONTAS. 



145 



4I<U«d Mncng Umbi, s good da*] dspradfDZ on tha 
tiU»«4 nab pnptittar. Id say CMO ill* public Inv* 
no H^ to M m ntd kit* vren wben It i» bordcnd 
M no* pan by t public i«*d. In EngUnd than ii 
BO lynial Imt ■■ to the pmpFrtT in Kalmnn fiibcrica. 
Bvw7 Miwii who hai » ri);bt tu ficli b aiiv •<.-» or 
itaHth. 



wItUfl k 



I th« rigfct to fish iar mtlmon u w«II u for 
•■7 tAar fi■l^ aabjeott of coiinK, tn tho n'giiUtiMM 
M l» W M O M And mMHU ocmUuted in tbe S»Uoun 
VIilM*7 ArL Tla law u K) poAcbtng In pri^~at« 
tAmitt U eoDtsiaad in Hui twenty-fifth MCtinn of tbc 
t^temty Act (24 and 8S Vlot, o^ xotL), where it i» 
■l«d«r«d thjtt ujr poMMt not being an angler who 
rinll taka «r d Mt ro y , or aUeiDpt to toko or dxntroy, 
may flah In any fiahMy whicli fa )nivate property, but 
not IB lead belongjiig to the dwelUnf'h&tiM of the 
•mwr of tit» 6aha«7, abaJl forfeit, in luldltion to the 
ndw of lite fiah, any aum not vxcixdiotf >£^, aud if 
the fiabary ii in Und belonfinf to the dwalUne-hotMe 
«i tt« tmatr, a pcrvno aol aa angler noUwfiilly and 
wQfnlly latin J iad dartrojing fiJih fitmi it aball be 
guilty of a nlMlatDeaoour. Suob a (Iih-poacber, 
wban (Ki^ In tbe act, may be arroBtod by anybody; 
b«t H ha aMapea to tbo highway he can only be 
led belotv jnatioca in the orditmry war. If 

in tbe act ha moat be taleen t>efi>r« a jubUos 

naaonabla tima, and chared with tbe 

Aitluagh ha nay be arreatad m the dr- 

iea mttUaaed a nh-poaohar ouiiwt ha da- 
ptirad al the fidi wUeh he nay have oaught. Angleia 
pwilng their iport durinj; the day-time on other 
' propony are mote mildly dealt with. They 
IB any drcuntilaiHaa be arreatcd, and eten 
•uaBMNied before a juatioe and conricted of 
(be eftBM an not liable to eo aerwe Mnaltlee oi 
K har paadwn. If they have been aaffiiig wltlilu 
the taad bakawing ta the dwvUing-honae of tbe 
owser of tbe fiabery tlit^y are liable to a ptmudty not 
iiiiiaallnn f1. iinl ia other dramutanoea to a penalty 
not aTraedtag £2. If found angling in another'a 
Uicnr aa anj^ar, altb-rogb bo cannot be aneetad, 
«ar ha dapdved by the owner or hit aarvaot of hia 
Mur *-t'— *****: but in thla caae be la liable to 
•ft flttir panalty. Tbe aaue law aa obtalne In 
"Kl^lailil with regard to fiaheriea and poaching nf 
SA a jtpUM alao ki Ireland, eaeejit aa to pioMtty iu 
p yi l a r-bada, for the law nlatlBg to which see OTRrBB. 
In Seotlaad the law •■ to |ffopMty in fiaherio^ aa 
«all aa Um poachisgof fiab, ia ooniiderably different 
I lav. There aaliBon are la bcui leqiecM 
(nm all other Ul Aa to property in 
Imtm fiaUngB that ia held to be originally veatod 
ia Iha OOWD, sot only for the rivara orScatUuil bat 
akn Cw the oiaata nxind ijootland, and tto penon 
aaaoediBcly la allowed to fidi for nlmoo nnma he 
MBHaw ft gnat or ebarter front tbe crowa eaablfnir 
tim ts do ao. Tbe Cad ia, bowerer, that aaarly aU 
1km graai baded propiktando pwwa aoidi rtehta 
wfch nteetioe lo the waten wUcli ate Indoaeif in, 
whiA im Ikrongli, or are oootlgnoiu to tbef r lands. 
Whan t^ right of mLnoa-fiddng ia in the baada of 
aaearal pwona fue tbe aaao ftVce; none of ihoi* 
•nnUag tlw tight eaa uas any fixed engine for 
oHfetaf aalioa, bat mnM uae tlu> not and robli-. 
naxB a>a apedal atatutea legvlatiux the aalnoa-fieh- 
lajp la tbe Tweed, Solway* iumI the river* llowbig 
hlo tbaaa, aa abo for aoow other rivet*, bat thoae 
4a nek dtf *r natarttlly frtm the law whioh ^raerally 
mralla. Aa to atbcr fiah than aalmuu tbc right cif 
iahJag for tben, aa a mienJ ralcLMonga to the 
awav of the land on uae bank*. Tha poaUuneot 
tm f^'A**^ aabaoa In Bcmland in 'any riter, atrcon^ 
taha^ walar, eatuaty, frith, wa, loch, creek, bay, or 
ebaaa of the aea, or in or npon any port of tbif aea 
wjtUa 1 mOe of tow-waUr mark,' la a fine fixed by 
Vol. XL 



act 7 and 8 Vlot. cap. xcr. at not Ifbb tb^n 10$. not 
more than £5, tiiK^lber with th« forfniture of the 
Ml taken, and tho boat, tackli;, kc, i,inpIuyod by 
the poacher, if tbo aherilf or justico think fit. Any 
one not an andcr poaching trout or any other freeh- 
wuter fish rt-ndos himaeU UaUe to > Dcnalty of JU, 
boaidcs forfeiting the fiah caaght. If he be caught 
in tbc art nl iiiing a net for poachimg anch fiah ha 
OAy bo arrcatod, but not unleM: but oven when he 
may not be arreeted bis boat and fUliini; imploroenta 
may be aeuted, imle« he b fiahinif with un auk'Ung- 
rod. A pereon. who merely angles for tnut in place* 
wheru Lo luu not ^t Iravc to fuii ran Ttcitbnr be 
anrrttod nor doprivcxl of hia fuhiiiK iinpIonienU, nor 
bt) pnniahed by any penally, but la merely liable to 
an action at law. 

PdCAUONTAS, daughter ot I'owbatan. a cele- 
btaC«d Indinn warrior in Vtrj^ijila, wna bom about 
the year iS05. Site diacovored tho warmest friend- 
fibip for the Engliah. who colonitoH Virginia when 
■ha waa about twelve years old, and wur eminently 
ttaeful lo Uio infuiil ipltlL-uiKiit. 1'iia fint n:tiiiu'knble 
ovidenoe of ihii altachmcDt wah dispiayod in 1407, 
when Ci^taia John Smith wm taken prinoncr by her 
oonntryium, and bmuKbt before FuwIiaLan that he 
nii({ht put bim to duath. Aa tbe aavage lifted hia 
club to daah out tbe braini of tha priiOBer, whoa* 
head waa laid on a ntono at bin feet, Ptviabontas 
Utrew hereelf on Sniitb'a body, and provuiled on Ler 
father to spuv bb life, Captain Smith wm« anffered 
ia return to Junotown, where he vent preaenta to 
rawhatan and h!^ ty^l^faetreea. From this time 
Pocahoataa freijuunUy viait^^ tho aettlemeDta of tha 
whitae, to whom iiha fttmiabed proTiaiona at timee 
whini ttiey were particularly needad. In lOOS Fow 
hataa faiTHed Smith to pay bim a vi^t, pramldng 
him a anpply of pmviaione, tnit deaigning to mtnp 
and deatnty hiin and bia [>artT. Pocahoataa, becook* 
ing; infomic^d oi thia plot, ventured thronch the fomet 
at miiltiixht to diacloee it to lEmith. Af t4.-r Smith 
htul Mt the ocilooy in IQ12 she fell lnt« tha hands of 
an Eoglish oxprationary party, who kept her as a 
valnabTe hostage. Dnting her detention Mr. Rolfe, 
an Eiigliohman, became attached to her, and offered 
)i*r hi« hand It waa aeoopted, and this consent of 
FowhikUii beiuji obtained, the marrl^^ was solem- 
oited In prvscnoe of tbe uncle of Pocabomtas and her 
two brotocw. Tliis event rclicveil the colony from 
tboonmityof I'uwbatan, midprtnervediteaccliotwccn 
them for unny vi'^ra. In tbe year 1414 Pocahontas 
erabarkod with her hnsband and scrsrul Indiana of 
both aeiea for Kneland, when she waa baptised, 
excbanghig her Indian name for that of Rebecoa. 
In tbe following year (1417), while about to ombail; 
at Grafceend, in oooiMuiy with her hnsband and 
an infant son, to r«riait her native land, sbe died, 
of grief, il waa >aid, at hanng discovered Smith, 
to wbnm aha was much attached, and whom ah* 
thoogfat to be dead, to be still alive. She loft on* 
SOD, who was educalad by his uncle in LoadoB. 
and whme deeoendants are vtiU «U(1 tn nxiit in tlia 
slate of Vugiola. Bncb it the roouuilit tain tlial Is 
uMually told of Pocahontas, bnt B. D. Xdll, Vnllsd 
State* consul at Dublin, in a work endtled Knglish 
C^lcmiaalioD of Jttnorio^ pubti^durd in lb7i, haa 
deprived her stoey of a gnod deal of its nmiAnoe. 
According lo him, Poeahontas in first beard vi aa 
'tmnbling whocU' in the maricet-ptaee oS ao Enj^lih 
fort, and next aa L ^htg with a Taluuleer cj^rtoin called 
Cookham. She afterwards aspsnted fioin him, and 
was betrayed by b«r and* ntonomek to Captafai 
Argall, tbe deputy-gomnor af VlrsialA. She svb- 
aeciuenlly did marry a Mr. Rolfe, sind was brought 
to Knglaad, whoiv ah* excited a good ileal of curio- 
sity, and dl«.sl while preparlug to ivtuni to Amcrina. 

21* 



146 



POCHARD— PODESTA. 



POCHABD i^ifftda), a tribe or rab-funlly of 
Anstidc or Duok% dutiD^foiBkod bj po— airing ■ bill 
•qtuIUng the hetd in leD^tb, knd of biiMtd, Rat oon- 
ftimiBtioQ. The bill la di>pn««wl nt th« tip, the apex 
ot tha gppor maiidiblo Urmiuatiiig Ln a huokod or 
curvrd prnrtuui. The liimrllM! or pUtc'Hke procnwcn 
wliith friiii(u tlie nidai ul Uie bill ub uut [irumicBiit 
01 projvL.'tiDg, uLcl ftio of ihin ttructurv. Ttm l^gs 
KN abort, Uig hiatler too bcia? naall, nuB»d on thu 
baok of the fivit, ami jtrovidcvl witli a ilinrt broad 
lobe. The t^ is geucrallj' iiLiirt aud ruimdeJ, aa 
kl«o arc U)o vring*. llio inferior larynx of the maltt 
dnolci b of Htrouii \itj-uy conrtnotioiL ThoM duck* 
InhAble the ArcMo rogloiiR, but mirnte BonlhWKrds 
in wintfrrto thecciMLt L>f Kuropeana NorthAmerica; 
Bod thciy on^n oociir in Aiia and In the lunithi^m 
liembphera abo. They are luarinu in luibit>, und 
feed upon Craataceaiia, worms, euuIIiuhh, luid iv^uiilic; 
pbnti. CCIm pJtunBgn in thic-Jt luirl di^nRo, ttiat ft tbo 
BUla Pocfaarda beiriu fn:<[i]sutlj liiHtr<jui>, Knd u*unlly 
man brilllant than the pltinuK^ of thi' i«mAlu. 

Tbo Oonunon I'oclifird {PvJujida — Bynutiyms, 
Ayihjjit or Nt/rtxa — farina) \a aim kmnwa on thn 
Dim Blnl ur B«<J-bt!Mlwl l>uck. Thiit form br^^da 
la tbt BortboriL ragloDi, wid visiU Briulu in winter, 
flybig touthwArds ia AmaricA n( th« Utt«r wmuu to 
Cfaroluia, Loniuaiuk, &c It biw oUn t>ccn f>iiiiiii in 
IndU. Id alie It Is Mnuewha.t l^ir^vr tbim t1:u (X>iu- 
inon duclo, bat nDallcr than tho Mullord. I'ha head 
ftad nsok ate crilmirixl liright cbcatniit. The vyt* 
are rvA. The flMh ia uiucb valut-d as a ■avuury 
articto of (K«, ITio Fulifptla j/tactalit, or Luii|;-Ulli.><l 
Dodc, ia another ipodua rvlAted to tho mora typical 
Pooharda. I'ha mala of tiiit latter gpeciea poaMHca 
tb« two middle featikcra of the tail greatly olmgatad 
and of nuTOW form. Tlw Sc*up roohani (F. marOa) 
poMMtM (he liaad tad oeolc of a black ootoor. boau- 
tlfuUy glamed vtth green hnea. The Tufted Pochard 
(P. m«&i/a)poa« awea a creat of f«atlivra borne uu 
tb« h«ad. Tola fom la coloured blaok, and noeseeaes 
vhiCo bam oa the wings. Tho breaet and bcUy ar« 
white, aa alan art: tlio iddca. Thn (.'anvan-tntcJird 
Duck ut North Amwifft (P. Vaiuntria) derivu* iu 
8pQci£c naiDB from lU habit ot feeding on tho Va.lU- 
ncria tpinUU, an ai]uaUa plant. Thie ip^<^** i" of 
laixer nzo than the Common Pochard. The bill in 
mora alavatad at the baae, and la narrciirer at Ita 
apwL The Cnnvaa-backad Duck atrivH In the 
United Statea from the nortbera rn^na during tlio 
xoanth of October, aud iu Nuttiuber ur DpL'diulicr 
tliey ooUeot in largn ilfH:'kw, nnd ili\i iibot I»r the tuiko 
of their Hath, nLudi ia highly uit«emed. This ft>rni 
poaMMM the forehead mi fitetHa at a dull brovcn, 
tho bock nnil lielly being white, marked tvith huhlo- 
Totia fmo black Uucm. 

POCU tltallanfor'aUttle'),at«rm(UedInmtis[c 
in mch phrase aa jxxo forte (p. f.), rather loud; 
pMO aaimaia^ with itnRie arumatlon; and so forth. 

POCOCK, KuwAKii, an orienta] critic, vtm bom 
NoTeniberS, 1604, and odwwiUd at Oxford, lits uitliie 
plMs. In 102'^ ho iras ordained [<ri^'»t, nod in lei'j 
appointoil r.hapliun to the Kn^llah fnntnry at Alnp[Hi, 
rau ai'plicd lu!ii«clf tbun* tu tbe c-ultivation of unuii- 
tal Uteralnro. He was omployed by Laud to oollk>ct 
mantuciipta and coins (or the UniTerrityof Osiford; 
and in 1638 wm invited to fill the newly founded 
Arahio profeaaoimhlp at Oxford. He euMeqaently 
utdaTtookaMOond voyage totbe£aat,widr«iiuaed 
■ome time at Conataatinople coUocting ancic-tit mann- 
Bcripta. Ho rHumed in 1040. In ld4H he wu 
appointed Hebrew prnfeaiKir at Oxford, to which tbo 
kag, then a pritonor in the lale of Wiiibt, added ttw 
rich ranonry of OhriM Chordt; and the grant waa 
eonfinned by the ParlianuHit. In IS4&-(iO be puh- 
Uihed Speeiman Biatnrw* Antbosa {4to^ repitetw at 




Oxford In ISOC). Ia 1«50 he vaadepri*sd of kii 

canonry for rrfuniRg to mthacribe the cngamnneat 
ruiuin.-d by tho Parliament. In 1061 lie pnhlfahnl 
■omi? of the writing! of Malmoniilta, iinHftr the title 
of Porta Muaii^ and awetad in Waltoa'a Folyg^ 
ftiblft. In 16M appeared hli edition of tiie Annali 
of EutyducM, in Arabic, with a Ltttin vcralon (two 
coll. 4to). Tho llostoration In ISM enabled htm to 
ncovtsr hii church prefenneot; and tbe mibb year ha 
printed an Arable translation of OTotttuT irarit on 
the Truth of Chrialianity. In 1661 bo pnbtiibrd 
Lamis-to 'I Ajam, an Arnbio poem, with a iMlm 
tnuudation and notea. He died U Oxford In 199L 
An edition of his wcftIu wai publiihod at London, in 
two t«Ir. folio, in 1740. 

POI>, in liotany, a long>>haped fruit contalnlaf 
•everal Becdm Wh«n tbe fniit on coming to matmi^ 
ufieuB lou|^tudiiially uu both aidoi^di*cto«ng the aMd* 
arraugwl in a linglD mw on one of tho aiitarta (the 
TvnlnJ, or tL-it nrxt the axi> of the plant). It b eaUed 
a Ugumt, a« in tbe p^a or boan. Sotnetiniw tha pod 
i« twi.it4.-d liko niuiailiaain the Mcdici^o^KiaMtiinae 
vnTTniforni, as to tho I>ivi-divi When the pod ia 
div'iiltHl into KvCioua by the contraotloa vi the (rait 
above and below each Med, and these tagroeati fid) 
AWAy apparately wh«n tii« fruit ta ripe, it la caDed a 
lamr.ntiaa. When it ajicna by two longitudinal valrea, 
diidoelny two rtiw« of »e»da on oppooit* niAi* tA a 
Hutrol frame called a Kplum, h la ailed a mUtjua, a 
ffimi of fniit exinn^iSan in anioe of the Crvdfatc 
A nbcirt adliuiia [auaDed a itfiVu/u. 

PuDAGKA CGrwk, lll*rally 'atrap for the foet'l, 
that Bpccicfl of cout which recurs at regular iaterrahi, 
attacking tha joinla of the foot, particnlarly «( lti« 
■rest toe^ and attended «il.h aharp pain. The pMu 
h deacribed im reeembling that produeod by laying a 
burning coal upon the Vm, or by fordng aaunae' the 
Mnt with a red hot Iron. Whan the ninenee li Tie- 
Irut tbe whole foot ia m> aonaitavc that the alighteat 
ptteaure, the lightest touch, or erm the igllarini 
occanonod by a strong draught of aif, mwtn tha 
most excrudstius (iiun. The tint atago ^ the dbeaee 
U ]jeoul!arly p.iiiilul, on account ol lb* inSanimaiioB 
bt tlLc curfaoDti of tlo jtttnO, by which the nema an 
alTcctcd. In a week, or aometinua a foctnlek^ ^ 
iRttiuiiinatiDu ■ubaidoi, Ute pain oeawa. and UM part 
KH-duiee swollen. The swelling comtaina the pradnet 
of the gouty iuBanunatioo. lympbatio mixed with 
earthy mhatanoc It gTudually aobsldai, learing 
hirre and there awellings on the foot. Tb» attacka 
UBiudly rvesroOMayear, inniiring or aatanin,aan>a> 
timos cwJn^ Mid even oftcner. As lunc ■■ they ate 
r^tiilar they are not dangerous aa nattm baa tha 
LKjHi'i of Ifarowing off the diicaae in tbe axtremitiei^ 
llio notinn that there in no remedy against tha 
pudo^^ra, au d tha t a I •«: r«u u who haa beeu oooe attat&ed 
can Dover be onred, is erroasoaa. By ahortening tha 
jioriod of ioilaniraatiiin the aeeretiom of the gonty 
matter may be promot«d, and the pain note tpeedOy 
itMuagud. In the Inteiral of the attadca. If attentloo 
is paid to the dloC and mannar of living, if the patknt 
mnlinea biiiuirUf to ininjila food, and aToids the cxdt- 
iiig enuevs uf the dt»<«a«, ita violence may be gradu- 
ally dlniinlnbed, and the dlseoM lleetf nay be end!- 
catol: whltu, by Uie neglect of tbaea preeaotloH; it 
oantiiiually beoumca aggraTated, and, oa tbe a yil i Tn 
grows waaker, lirefnilnr and rstrooedeBtt la niddt 
Btago b la «(t«i EntaL Bee Qovr. 

I'ODAl.IEIUS. R» ^EacOLaPlDl 

FODESTX <ui Italian word, derived itam the 
I^tin jwtrsfwf, powar, eq^uiFalent in Ha original maan- 
iftt; U) a bolduc of power or authority. Is aovatat of 
the Italian dtiee it ta appUed sometiDea to the cUatf 
of police, iiud aoinetimea to tha chkf aaMtrato «V 
burgcmaster. Tbe office waalirst artdbUuad &b1' 



I 



I 




POI)IEBRAI>— PODOLSK. 



M7 



I 



tvdfth coituiy by Frodaddi L In Uw piiudpol bowpi 
at lUXf, aad wm Id tlui ntddto Mtm t, much man 
fanpartMU oaa thAn it U now. Tie pDd«eU vaa 
lBtrait«d aliiuait wiUi •llrUUnial powvr, tb« nnlr 
Unitatloo beii^ Uwl tlwra wm «a wpw bvm hi* 
daddoaa.' Som e( the dugcn Ukeqr to «e1« f rom 
» MgW mdiTidoal haviog is modi power in hia 
Imdi WTtv gaax^od kg>ltut bj continltig fail autbo- 
■4(5 to ft iboct penod, ft jrcftr or hoU ft yeftr; yet It 
■w BAt ftlwaya oaqr to otforoft tbia nf^ilftUos •(■^•t 
tlM podcatlt, ftnd v^icD tha muiudpal mtmaiaeat 
bana to tottor in raaat vl the Uiinui Of lUly, tUa 
«aiM «ltNt Nrrad tm ft |«e|«iratlDQ for tb« wtftbthb- 
■wot et priDod; gwmuubt. Vmioo aai Goooft 
UMd to gortn tba iMnift wUch tiu/ litkl brought 
into aabMcticn liy ipwm i of u IEobt* bvarui^ LLiii Ui!^ 
POOZEBRAP uu KUKSTAT, Gbdilcx Boi^ko 
VOS, thft wo of licrftnt von Knutat ftnd I'odiohnut, 
one (tf Ifao greftlort and weftlthicat of the Bulii-iuiim 
Icnbaf tlwHaftritopfti^,vaaboni]nI420. Wk^a 
■ Bin jgotb bs mtuM with ftU hii 101:11 ldU> thu 
HnaritftBovoxDMi^ but diiifag tbfi reign bf Stgiontiuid 
nmatoad wltftrlirMl to tba mod«ral« jMrty. When, 
bawnrw, Um Cfttbnlicfl bad miocMdad la Mcariag tho 
daetlM cf Albert V. of Auitri* ai S^aniuid'f mo 
e^MK OB th« G«RDaA thnae (1488), Podlebnd alliid 
btaMU to tba Dtrftqniatifi itfttca in Tabor, a&d inrit«d 
(^■Iftili cf Pfdand bo beooma Ring of BohannsL 
Thtj wcn^ ta oaaaaqaauoe, !nt<olved la ft war wIUi 
Alhart, «sd aa d«aljr praaed that Ibey wvre obligod 
to itet tfcamaelvca up in tbo emMo of Tabor, ilore 
thtir TuiB aiiiiiiwiil iovrttabl*^ but Fodiobnul, by a 
Ml BOTamoot, «ff«ot«d thuir relivC and obIi(«d 
AA«t to retin npoo Pti^oo, Albort, hcnrow, itill 
MMtaftd tba title of kia;. Podu-bnd waa itow held 
fa tba hlfhwl ortaem by tlie utraquiaU, and u-na, aflcr 
Up^ tba Int Bian of tbair fauty. After th« tlmth 
itf Albot ia 1 iS9 U\m waa ehxmea regeat of Bvbcuiim 
toi IfaiaofGc* ho CMiUntiad to hold ftfUr the birth nf 
LvBdaB, AUwrt'a txwthumau* ami, early iu tbe ful- 
lavlBf ywr. Under Upa'a rwonoy Podlebrad held 
Mm wti eaaunand in atraiqairt Knof^gritx, aod after 
lipft'a doafh becaiDa hia anccauor 11444). O]j|io«i- 
ttM, bowavav, areae. and It waa nut till 1451 that b* 
*ai asincMlljr raoognlaad m ngmt. In 14S3 tL« 
jtmag Klnc Ladialaa eaa* to nttda at Precne; but 
Tadialarftd atOI coatinued to hold the icnaa of sevem- 
tonrt, a*d niled with aM«« authority tltau arar. Ha 
gfttw a Tifoivaa hnpolae to ccamwree and aurimiltun^ 
aad toftda mmI CB&raad tnaaj wIbb reguutiama tor 
tba weB-bdng of tba paopl^ Ha thua gained ao 
BOSfa popolarity and «ta«ii that on tha dnath of 
T Bilhlaa In 1467 be waa ouatimcd in the offioe of 
, and fai MmtA, 145S, wia elwitod kins by a 
a vota of tba aaanaUod atato- Ha now 
the foil foToe el hIa ialanta. In a abort 
aduK>wk)dg«d is Uara*hk Sfleaia, and 
, •• wdU aa bj tba Enpanr IiVodenek and 
Ocfiaaa olecton. Aft<a- bo liad aoeured hia 
I be devoted hia whole atteuttun to Iha biLttmal 
lafnTancat o< tba itate. Ha phoad tba carrency 
(A a pvoptf footing', tmcted aebxila and chnrcbM, 
iMd aodaftvnmd, by friendly ccnfcrence^ to tetmhiato 
la aaltooritlaaL To neel th« Mnuplatnta of tba 
. OstboUoB ho bauiibed tba Taborttea. Ptcaid- 
ffbMt aad otiher aecta from the country, and tried to 
I anaaseRMsnta with Ibe pope, lu tbia, bow^vn, 
■I iiiiaiiiKwfiil. and tn 1443 the pope nubllcly 
noad bim aa a bcnrtic, and Uien. dwagn urged 
' all a^bbeoflEis iwiacee to raodetadon and peace, 
■MnJaled him. Tlw I'^ial l^to, Budol^ 
[Ib bitMua, aoon pToduoed a rinng among tha 
(a^aadu 14MaO«mftncnMftdawaaionned 
; Bobamla. Hia tandon bavia^ baon dofiiabad 
fti RfaHSber^ the jiope rcitcratod hia exooatBinni* 



•c. 



caUon. Altar maUng an oppaal to a ganenl caaocil 
of ibe obnrob, Podlebnd nnUad the Taboritea, wftem 
he had driven Into e&Ile, defeated an anny of Silt^ian 
cnuftdon at Munabcrberg and at Frank c nubbin, tuiii a 
German amiy at Xeuenk; and in 140$ d(a|i«(«ii«d 
an army uDdcr the oommand «f hia WQ VlotoilB to 
ioriMlo Auatria, the Emperor Frodericlc baring alao 
betrayed him. Matthiaa Oorvinua, who, although 
he waa the <on-In-Iaw of Pudlebntd, and Indektvd to 
bin t<a hia relaoaa fr«m captivity when called to tha 
throne of Huaganr, hiul Idd^ chcrtHbnl drai^a on 
Bohemia, book advantwe uf ILia ciruuninUJiua to 
mako war npon hia benefacUir At tlic Invluitlan of 
the naporer be dioro Victoria out of Auatria, aad 
penetrated into Mfurarta, where be oonie to an under- 
atanding with the cliiob of tbo Ic^ne that had ixvn 
funned aeniiut rodiobmil, and mucbad against that 
prince. ]Jut the ^nttcraUliij) of Pediehvnd waa agnin 
BuuCHMfuL 111 Uli'i bi<.- Ii«fiii]ied in tlio Uitngiuian 
amiy at WilWmnw. MuLttiiau 0<irviiiiJ« «u*d for a 
truoe, wUidi waa gtnetouvly cnuitcd by PoiUebtad. 
who allowed bis ansmj to wlmdraw tnaa hia cadtfoal 
rituittion nnmoleated. In apito of thla gencroua 
treatment C(irvinua, a fnw mc-nlha lator, bad himiialf 
CTvwned at Oliuutx, by llic chiufi of chu Ivnguc, King 
of BohMaiik Podiobrad now hod rccoune to store 
enetvetic taoaaurea. In onicr to tocnn the aid «f 
tha Polea he iMaembled a diet at I'rnguii, and doolanad 
the mooenor to the throae of Poland to be hia own 
mocaHor, whila hia aona ahould only inherit tba 
hmiiy eatatea (1460). ^tie diet, with irluctanoa^ 
adopted tha jwopoal. Tbn Folcv -were thna imnwdl* 
at«]y dr»wn to hia aide; the Entpervr Fr^-derick nlao 
doclarod in hir farmij: and hia Catbolio eubiMta blao 
became reeenoSled to him. Rhnrtiy iift«r ho d<«irr)ycd 
the infautiv of tho Huugariau, and MatUiiaa Ovov 
rinna linatily flod with hia cavalry. II* thua aaw 
hiuioidf At ULat ovmpleCely acctucd in hii Idni^'dotD; 
bub no aooncr vas tbia nociintpluilici] tlian bo died 
(1471). before he bad tUne to cnrry out hie great 
acbi:!^^ for the boncfit of hii country, and otbars 
having a miioh witter aoope. Hia aonj^ Victorio aad 
Heury, rpLiimed to the rftuk of Btibenian noblea, 
and iu tlie atormy dava which aoooaedad (^ sot ren- 
der mudiaervioe to tMir coimtry. 

PODIUM. In ardiitaotnro, a long pcd«atal sap- 
porting a aorioa of oohinuuk It la cftU«d a altrfoihale 
when tbo colomtu ataad on projecting parte of IL 

PODOLSK, or Foooiu. a gonramaDt fa EvhIi^ 
benaded north by Volbynfa nortb-eaat hy Kier^eaat 
and aoubh by Kberaoo, aonLh-w«st by EMaarabU, and 
weaL by Aoatrfan (ialida; gtaataet Icoglb, north- 
wwt to WHith-eaat, 230 mHai; greatcat faeadtb. lid 
milea; area, IS,241 aqnare miles. The antfaee la 00 
tb« whole Icveb llie dimato u temperate, bcfagfaw 
both the vine aad tb* mulbsrry to maturity; and 
tbe air !a gtnenllj aalabrioua, tBoagb In aome qnar- 
t«ra cadnndcal diaaaana oecaaioaally pnnil. Tba 
aoQ iaven ntoabeocumbcroil with atcnca, but U not* 
wlUnlaa&ig cl remailu^le fortilitj, imidtKiug com, 
which, aftor atlafying tha oonannipuon. Icara about 
ooc-third of the wbi>le for export Tbo principal 
ooj* after oom ara faempy ttax, (obaood^ and bopa. 
Tbe laeadMra and paatona ai* asbaMdve, and nf 
gnat lunrianoe. rearing faimewae hards of cattla, 
wfalcb are of aa exoaUent braed, and much jiriaed in 
Germany, to whidk tbe; are ci,toD*iirly rxnwted. 
Larga quantlti«a of fine matmiii, gmircla, and rberriea 
are raJaed. and the fortata furuiafa cuM-llent ■Id]*- 
timber. Maonfactares bare tnada Uttk prograas. 
llio trade, in addition to agrfanltutal pradoes aad 
cfttll^ vuibraoea a ounaiderabla nnmber ol maU 
aitidea, and ia abnoet entlraly fa tba bands of tba 
Jewft Education is under tba aaparulandoBDa of 
tb« Univcraity of Kiev, and ia fa a miaerably neglected 




PODOPHTHAX-MATA— P<ECILE. 



■Ut«. Podolsk la divided Into twelva dlstiicti, ftud 
togcthar vrith Vnlliynui in nnrier the miliLMy poTer- 
nor of Kiev. Tbo cliicC town i* Ktuucuetz. Tfce 
govsnuiMnt ol VodoMt. has b*lriag«d to Kouib iliica 
th* BMood pftTtllloD of Puluid in 1793. Pop. (1SS2), 

PODOPHTHALMATA (■■tfOkfijed'), » diri- 
■loB of tb« grrat Cnutncoon cSbjb (lee Cbdstacba}, 
tbo membcn or ^ruup* of wliich are prinutrily diatin- 
,ptUhed by tbo poafionlon of oompoand eyes enp- 
[loiind ufion movftblo at»llw, often of grrat compa- 
mtivc lea|[tli, ftnd tarroed pedunelti. HenoBtbe eyra 
utt ■ODieUiUM ■pol(«D of u 'pedunculatwi,' a.nd tlie 
PodophthBlmftU am KinatimoB known u tho 'Stulk- 
^odOnuitAock,' in c«[itnu1i>tLnotion to tboHwith th« 
ty«t dtMlicutti of Bialkj, Bud which mn wtoordiD{{ly 
temied ' wuilo-cyed.' In the Pod^hthatm&tft, olao, 
thnvmitRd headend chest, or crphnlnthorki, Uklwnya 
incIiMtJ witbin a prtitcctmg owb or roropttce, Tlio 
^u«r^ity of tha« forroa undergo k metlunoiphoaiii, 
tb« mrliut etngv, m in tlw fuuiliar Cnbii briag 
knomi M A jo^o. This divisbn indnilM th» orden 
Stanspudn aud I>L*cajiuda, thti funaer of irhifrh is 
rapr«Mnt«H by tha 'Lociut,* '(.tl.uu,' luiil Mlpnoiiim' 
61irint[x, ivhUtit tha latter uicluduii tlii; fuuiitiiir 
Crftba. Lobatcra, ConunoD Shrimps, Hormit Crobe, 
Mid thfiirftlliM. See iJaoC]i(rBTACiULjCaAn,Lon3TKii, 
StiRtHr, ftc. 

PO£,£QOAaAi.i.Ai',ftoe1ebntvdt)ui<taii>lrvU)uiU'(; 
wtittr, WM tiio aoD of DkTid Poo. » Iaw ttudent a.t 
Boltinvin!, Uliltcd btato, who miulQ a ninnnny iiioir- 
ritif^a with aa xdTeaa. The placn mnd data of liia 
birth an diSerQudy i^ven, Gricwold, hia flnt bio- 
mpber, itatc* (bkt he wu bora %t Bjdtimon in 
jAiiu»ry, 1311. llie poet himaelf jilaced hia birth 
iu the yntr 1813, but JU tliia ha appear* to have Iktcu 
wrong. lib Ifttnst editor, Mr. iDgiaai, boHovn him 
U) hAve bucn burn at Boston on tha Ifich of Jbjiumt, 
180V. B«^tb hiB pixents died within a abort timu of 
«iMtb utbcr, IciLviug' lljri?e <:b.ildr>rii iu a itxla of oini- 
pinto doatitutiou. Edgar, the eldest attnotod by 
hia b«Aiity uid prccov-ioos intdligmM tl)«Ktt(nition 
of Mr. AJIbb, a wealthy luercliint, by whom he vnut 
adopU"! Miii ■■rouglit up. It w.ic from him thnt livi 
tovk hla middle uubv. Ha wm takoB bv bia bcuo- 
foctar and his wife to England, and placM in a icbool 
ml, Stuko-Ncwiugton, near Londou. In 1822 ho 
rvtumod to Amarico, and aft«r att«oding for winio 
timv » Mbool At Richuioud, In VirKinin, cvlorvd, 
when bo waa about aixtMin or elghloeii yean old. tbo 
Univcr»ity of l'h»rlott<-ivi!lo in tli»t at*t"', Hi^w 
he diafjlayed the inont aituuiihuiE ialenla^ but led ao 
dl8«i|«t«a k ltf« that bo wna ultunnUIy sxpcJlod by 
tbo antbontiea. On Mr. Allan nfuni^ to hononr 
•oma of bis drafts for gambling debts he qniCtiHi 
Amorica for Europe, to tako part iu the Btnig^lei of 
GroeOB for indopendnncni- What happmw) to him 
in tin year after he Ivft Aiiieriou it not known, but 
In 1S3S be reappears in SL Peloreburg, wberct It ia 
aaid, the United States' miniatcr had to interpose In 
his hehaif to save biin froon the oonsenunnoea nisult- 
iag from a dnrnken uproar to which he hod ^<^t 
eufisgied. He waa permitted to rctoni to Amcrioa, 
and on arriving thvro obtaini^ as appointment aa 
endet in the military a>mdemy at Wett Point, bat 
wna ihortly after expelled from thenca for dmnken- 
naaa and innilwrdinivtion. U« returasd to Uw booae 
of Ur. Allan, who wu itiit diapond to bafriend him, 
bulaqnarrsloiaued htrtKeeo liiui and hb beiio factor, 
who now fairly thnw him off, and ceaaed to bold any 
iutcreoarw with him from that time Soma timo 
alter he ebluted aa a pritute Boldicr, but deserted 
wbila Bomo fri(4i<Is wpm on terms tor procuilns Us 
discfaariio. Huvin;; i^ainod the prixo offorvd 1^ the 
proprietor of the Baltimore Saturday Visitor for a 




tale and pnem, he wm introdtioed to tlto notiee d Mr. 
White, who in May, liillfi, (oonded a ma^adna called 
the Soatbcm Literary Moasengor at RkAmon^ and 
appointed Poo the editor. To this magasine faooos- 
trilutod some of hit most extraardinary talei^ t«<renl- 
iag a wild and terrible Inapnation. Ho OOOliaMd 
to edit thb EUBgimiie till January, 1 ^37, when b» waa 
diamiaaed, owing to hia dianpatni habita. Daring hi* 
stay at Biohmond he married hia coudn, VirsiBia 
Clemm, a beautiful and amiabia eirl After bcin* 
diamined from the editorvhin of Ut* Riiuthcm I jlc- 
rury Meaaooger bu left Richmond, and rvmovod In 
th» ecninm of tbo name yiwr HuccpcBivoIvtO Baltbnors; 
Pbttodvlphia, and >'ew York, in which last plaoa ha 
bec&mo a coMtrihutor to iho New York Bevkimr, and 
in I6S3 put>lt»L(Ml a atory rntitled Tho Narrativa at 
Arthur Gordon I'ym. In the uune yaar ba rvtoniad 
to PhJlwlelphiA, where from May, 1&39, to Jdd«, 
1840, bo editt-d BurttTn's Gcfilletuan's M^^aainF, and 
in tlio latter ymr publiiihed a collactioo of all the 
storioa Le hud written, under tho title o( Talo* of the 
Grotesque and the Arabesque. From Mevamher, 
1840, to abont April. 18IS. be wsa odi tor a( Graham's 
Magazine, and wrote for it aoino of his cboicaat pCo> 
duutiuuB. In 1844 he remored to Kew York, Bad 
in tho year following published his wooderful poem 
of The Baven, which took the world bj Mom by tta 
weird-like and luystcrioiiB beauty. Numsroos otbor 
piooos w^ro ocmCrliiutod by him to varfana *~"t,iiiliiui 
and poiiodicala; but all the adTanta^n ol geatna 
ware InmRieient to cope with tiiA degrvdlng tnla- 
CDves of evil habits, aiid hia iiniiasifUa became ao 
gT«at that an appeal to tho publlo for peoanlai; aid 
was made on Iub behalf by one o( hii fiiandt. In 
1847 his wife ditd; he biniaoU feU Ul, and wm tended 
with the utmost solicitude by bts motber-in-Iaw. In 
] 849 ho delivored a s«iss c< IsetoNf on tbe oowd- 
tuUoD of tbe unlrene, afterwards publlahad trndcr 
the titlo of Eorolu, a Prose Poem. In 1849 he went 
to lecture in Virginia, and on bis return to New 
York passed through Boltimora, wbars he fell in with 
some acquaintance*, who tnvtbd him Co drink. He 
lust all uumnaand of biuuKlf ; waa fonnd in m state cl 
liiilplnas intoiication in the street; wsaooovefod to 
thu hospital, and died tlera on tha 7lh Ootobtr, 18W. 
A mors melanoholy oarear than that of Foa can 
scatccdy ba imagined. It is now known that the 
mi-tiioir of I'oa ^ Rofua (iriawold is the worit of a 
tuallt.'uatit eutiny, and wholly untmatwortfay : M>d 
Mr. Ingram, already menticiwd, In a ilECMb of Us 
lifir pn^tixol to an edition of his works, hsa defended 
him KKaiott the grosser charees whlcb have bean 
brangbt agaloat \£a, and lua anown that in or^nair 
life he waa fairly gentle and tractable; bnt it fii 
undeniably the case tliat be wna ttxi often tho viutim 
of Intoxiaitiiii; liiguura, to tha offoct of which bo waa 
ringulni-ly susocFpUblo. ' With » smtrfe flaai of win«,' 
accordinic to tha account of one who knew hbn. 'his 
whole natnie was rereised; the demon became upper- 
moat, and tbongh none of the usual al|;na of intoij^ 
cation were vlaihla^ hia wilt was palpably Inaaoe,* 
Amnnp his poetical pvro^ we have already allnded 
to The Itaien, and uiay mentioR, in additaoo, tbo 
singularly cbanniog and aupboi^oas lyric of The 
Bdls, and ^e poems of Ulauniia nod Annabel Leet 
The matf oempleta adMoD nf Poe'a works ii that 
already aUudea to^ by John H. Ingnun ^fo«ir vols. 
Edinbuivh. 1fl74). 

POK-blBD. Soo HojfrY BAim. 

P<XCILK (Gne\c,f>oaeiU, literally •Tari<^t<d'), 
a portico in Athens, coutaioing a pictme-goliary. 
(See PoLTOMOTiiit.] llio ptiiliisopher Zeno taught luB 
ionriam hxrt, wbenco ba was called tba Sbie {baa 
ttea, a portloo), and Ua Mkwl tba ^rie tcAooL Be* 
Zuo Md Sfoica. 



I 




POELEMBURO— POETRY. 



149 



POSIASfBUBQ, COBXXUDB, i pabber. bom t,t 
rTTlradtt In ISM^ becMiMt » pnpU of Ulocniiiert, wid 
I alUnrarda went to Bomc, wbcn tii: atudiod Itaphocl' ■ 
Id 1621 h» nComfld to Hollud. £«[ii£ 
St n dcagi^ h« ^^'^n^ Unuelf DrindpoUy 
ItoiOMll Undjc^M, In which ho cxwIIkL Kabeiu 
radonMd hla own o^inat with rwlumbutg's tnodno- 
Charlw T. iavitad fain U> England^ m«M h« 
pninUd n portnit (4 Uie Idsg and other voiks, bat 
■DOB mvnad baa»i and died kt Utraoht ta 15B0. 
SDt vcrlta nn nrc, kod ertWDMd for delicncj of 
•odA and aweatnaM <>< oalomliig; 

FOKRIO, Cablo, an lulUn atatomuD, twm at 
llUfla DacanbOTlf^ 1&03; <lk>>l at yioicncc April 
[SB, 1867. H« «■• the Mn of Giiivo^ I'ooHo, who 
than ana oemmaa ocDatuoa biounlf b; liui 
wd apparition to tha ccma tltn titmnt en<imacb- 
al tba BoorbOB Idnga of Xaples, and thtu 
' npoQ hnaaelf aentencaa of axjla^ Carlo ■b&rcd 
aanHrpwiJi vi Mi ImImt, and aoaoiD|Muiled him 
tfa tawlJunit. Oa U» rstuni to Na^la h» 
Umaatf to the Inv, and rapidly roao into 
■e* by Ua readiocM to advocalo Ui« cauae «1 
i oSmdofa. In thii waj ha huurrad tha dia- 
I oC the goTcrunant, and waa aonrml tiiava 
I aod l^ctooDed for iboctcr or Innger period*. 
' tha ttna «( tha nrUaiituMtj aantamat* of 1843 
t^m hf i paw a rl to ha natlaividng «a* << Ua paiioda of 
nonSnaaMnt, but anddanlr mw himasU paaa from 
[An TwrfMno «f s priaoner nod anmected peraou to 
I p orit fcgi of a popular patriot. He waa mwla pra- 
I <d tba NcapomaD polioa and mhiiator ci poDlia 
I, and dwrkbed th« hopo of b«ioi; able to 
g- ^ ' ■ "iea <4 Uhamr for uo KJsgdoat of tha 
I^Nnt SUUaa wUfa tba aid of iho Uomboni; who woro 
t flhaa lariih of their )«uml«ea. Tlie vmita of the 
flStfa of M>7, IS-tS, wWn tbo Idct; boiubftnled Uia 
^Icnm of Naplca from tlu.- furto, di«abu>icd biui of tkia 
and bo thno txtaigiiod bid ofliw and ntlrad 
[,hto prirato Ufe^ Eloctcd ii member of tbo new par- 
" iMl, whidi mot aooo af t«r, h« }a!ntd tho nuks 
f Ikn oppoaiUon, whh wbkb he oontioucd to act UU 
I ilfaMfiiliiiii OB the 12tb of March, 1849. Uauig 
■ad of tba iDtntion <d Mvomnient to pomoetito 
I an tiw dmtf* of conplMtjr In an nUqfod ooo- 
llflfa^i ba refiMBd to acck ufctj in flight, and after 
fAa^ nttenqitB to oonrict htm of »ata<! politiod 
by a (ffooedora bavlne aome ^pettmuoe of 
' r>^i*>>iBjaniihlWC^coadanuiedtoatiffer 

,_ jnoaaent ef Iwen^-fonr Tear*, bv a cnart 

I wrUdt ralaaad to bsM- anjtliUii; In bia de^moe. In 
"■riaon hm waa anbjoctad to tha moat borbaruua tor- 
Ktam and InUgtMta, bafaig «)m|)olled to amodato 
jwHktlMWvcBtdaBofatDdnali. An aeoount of the 
Mcntiona vhuA he and other pulitinl ptbooeta 
to andnre wiU be fbtmd in GladatoDa'a &unona 
[Tw Lalton to Lotd Abercieeii^ written tram Kapler 
Fapfdai ol which ««» aaat hj tbo Btttlrit |inrtninent 
~ I tha oDOrt ol tirtij Boropean atalo. ui 18fi& hia 
Imov wna eommiilod hj Ferdinand to tnniport*- 
, aod 1m w«B mored to Cndtx and jmt on board an 
■fficnn TiMi l with tha ohjaet of beuw ouiveyod to 
f'Soalh AnManea; but baring eonviDcad tha oratain of 
~~ v*aMaloftbaIll«saUt]roftld>pnMx«dfntr,beiu>hiucd 

llilllliUllMlllllllaiiil lliilliL allhlili iiiiiiiiniiliiiiii 

\!^ mM Btt a am. On IwtiBf tbo Unitod Kingdom ho 
|0 Piednott^ where bo «m reoetral a« a 
L^—y. In >' o<ranber, 1 840, after the annesatloa 
jaf K n plw to tfae new Kioirdom of Ittly, ho joined 
Itba nntl tntnlMrj ai miniiter without pcTtfoUo, and 
^te popolarilT, da* to hia botitical duuactor an miwh 
to tlw wuAmiaa^ wUcn ba had paaaad thiwigb, 
r falm gmt famnDca in tba now goveranant. la 
' ,1841, Poaile^ ■• rt|«wentatfTfl of Napha, waa 
«ic*^«tMleat ci Iba IfaJtan chamber of da- 



puticB, ani3 he remained ctU bia death ono of tbo chiefi 
of tbo o^netitutiniial liberal P<utr. lie waa buried 
at tbo puliltc FX)irjiafl ftt Naplra, bia native mty. In 
the yev of hh doutb nu /ivjr va lum wna pubUehed 
at KHplcf, having tbo title IX-Ila vita a da* Tanp] 
di Carlo I'ocrio : iJiaoorao rodtato dal Socio 8. Bu- 
daccUnL 

POET LAUREATK See Xjiv-kutk. 

POETRY (from p^a, tbo Greek poiiiit, a maker 
or creator, from pouJf, I make, with refurmoe 
to the croatire pewar eaaential to n poct^. Tlio 
numbcrlFM tuuroooearful attampta to define poetry 
wam va ag^nit dreumacribing within tbo oompaaa 
of A few wocda n nbjact ao Tut, ao varienbad, and 
*o ibtcrwovoD with all the noliritiea of the bamao 
>)>irit. Ilie dc-fiiiittoiu usually- ][i*en, eran U true, 
amount osl; to illuaCrationa or explanntioaiL To 
make a full expoaJtion of our TiewH on this anhjeot 
wnuld tar exceed our limiti. One of tbc chief traila 
of the poHtii'Al !■ tbut it |i^ouliiir]_v aS«>.-t* the Ima- 
gination and the (ccIIq^ Wbpn "n'c F[)c.ik of actiona 
ortbecrcAtionaof roTiiu4nHpoctic:al, thetorm implioi 
further that tber had their oriuiu i° oouceptiona in 
whiclt the inntgiDatlon and the fM<lingi were chiaf 
agcnU. Hcnoe tho univBnalitjr of poetry; bonne 
the prepondennoa of the poetioal in the langnaga 
and conL-optiona of anrijr natioai^ A cuuiniuii idea, 
the raanit of afpatfeooa or rinpl* reawuiiii;, mny b* 
ooDcdved (and aooordingly azpnaaed) by the poet in 
such a way aa to strike our fedinga with peenllar 
force; or ideas which, though elevated in themaelvaa, 
an [amiliar to all, may ro(?etTe nnw tiii|ii«a«iiiiiiiaa 
from a new and iUikJnfr way of exprosalng them. 
For inataiue^ tho preoopt to love our eaunnioa; who 
doea not fed that thia eletatrd wntoaoc ia rcDdered 
■till more atrOctog by the !llii>tiMiti'im of Mann, who 
adiis to tiju piooept, 'like tbo aandal-tree, which 
iilinla |vrfiuueOn the axe that fella itT A great 
part of poetry, in fact, ooD*i*U in a itriking cxptva- 
■iun of common idoaa. It ti grmtifyinu to find a new 
ooncention of a familiar idea praaentlng the eubjoct 
ID a light in whk-fa we had nam Titwed il Bnt if 
tbo tanEUJWo addrnaacd to feeling and imagination 
cUefly u o«en naed to cuuwy a ulaiu tdva poetically, 
cr to give a {atniUar one a d«w duuin, tbta languaga. 
on tha other band, ia oftxn the natural expnanon of 
an elevated iniaginiitiuii. which loan through MglaiM 
to wbiob our wtabea, hope^ and faith aa[di«, and 
apeaka in noti^hora boouue oommon languago fi 
inadequate to espreaa ita cooceutiona. According to 
ita aulijerta, and tba relation wUdl tha poet holda to 
hi« prodartiMM; pootry la divided bio th« poetry o* 
aubJDCtiva feeling or lyrical poetry; narrative poetry, 
including tha b^ad and the epic, that braoeb which 

E tenant! acUona aa buipening, while the poet hiniaalf 
k«pt antlnly otrf «I vi«w; dramatic poetry; didac- 
tic poetry, in wUcb the oatanaibla object of tbe poat 
ii to Inaiilcate nif>ral [ir<o6ptB,ortstMcb acme ait or 
acienco, althongh in n^Ality it ia to preaant that art 
or aciancn to view nnder ita baautifw and genanBy 
attraedTo aapeota; and aalfaiMl poatrj. (Sao tba 
aeparate artidea on tbeaa nbjedi.) 

J'artici ia the theory of poetry. Il la one of tbe 
thouriea earlieat deval^wd— nay, aatbatica grow oat 
of It. Among tha Oraaka AtirtoUa traatod U In Ua 
Peri poletik^ (baat editfon h^ Gottfr. Hwinaaa). 
Honce, to hia Are Poetlca, or tetter to the I'ieo^ 
ehowa bhnsalf hie pnptL In modiint timea it baa 
been trealod by Marc Hior. Vida, Turquato Taaao^ 
and many other Italinne; Nlc. BoQaao. JnL Can. 
ScaUgoi; Gar. Voae, L. Itarinr, ITAlcmbett, Mar- 
nenwl, Baomgartan (tlut ftmnder of natheti^). 
Saber, EngdiJMn Faol Fr. Blditar (in hta Vor- 
achule der ^>thMik). CloditH^ LaaaiAg. Klo^wtook. 
W. von Uumboldt^ Ilardar, ScfaiUer, Goelb^ tha 



POETRY— POGQIO BRACGIOLTNt 



Scfalcgeln, hrilUer, Hegel, luiil Atb«ni; in Kngllili by 
filftir, Wurdawurlb, Ciutipliell, BhcUU, nnd otbi-is. 

VTe may divide tbe liiatory of pooCrj Into two 
pnioHa tho one before tho birth of Ctuist, the other 
mtttM. The Htabrevrg nm tliR Hnt pooplo from wham 
|K«tic«l (•rodu'.'tigtu b»ve dcMended to our titavt. 
Only elwcani traoca roraun of uiy oorUw pootrv of 
the Indiaua, I'cniicLnii, Svtiium, anti Amtnuia. The 
rdigloua poetry of the Uolimwii i« of rery witdi^nt 
dfttOi and powi wa » loleiiui durtwter, ilistinct from 
tboit of tb« atJuir niitioiu of luitiquity. It ttegins 
with camaicgaaj, haxmem ftt « UtiT pudorl ot a it at- 
liko cbanMtor, then amimM tho funu uf taE-'red m>[i^b 
in the timn of Dftvld, Mi<] attains unJer Solomon 
(from lOti to £iTC) its grentert olcvittton, eiftvr wbicli 
it aimtittieii a iiruplieticAl charActer. I'lio fragmttibi 
ivhi>h have cnme dnvm to us frt>m the fluuriehiiiK 
[jcri'i'l of IndiRii poetry, >om« nnturiw b«fon< Christ, 
tin ol ma originil c^nneter khA pccoliv d«llca<7. 
Wo ii«&t MiRto to doulo uitiqutty, niul Ix-CTiina 
oocinnintitc] with pmrtry in the [iloittlo ctiinwter 
whiL-h It iu»uni{-vl ill A*in Minor kiid Grooce, tuidci' 
tho bfluoiim of the prcvoJIint; jM^tuiitrrn, which re- 
cdvM meh rich ftnii yfkrioua huan [txjiii the (jJowtng 
iiaapuntion of tSie prop!f>, (ircwlc iiootry idat a^pun 
ho diviiliKi into Uinw pcriotli: the finl of tliuwi 
luloadji from tho earlwat timaaof Gre«4.-c IaUi^ l^^r- 
>i«i Wftr. Oroek poett? iMgiiia in lljnkro miil Asia 
Uinor, and the ({rnt oktiontij opic* of KanuT, or thn 
Homiiriiiin, tli8 rhapaodJsta, the oyoUo wid Hnomio 
poutit, iudicivU) K mda diflurion of pootry at that 
time. I-}'^" po^^ toaa kttwnavl » pcciiliar cmin- 
CTc«. 'liiowcond period «xtond> from the Poraiaa 
mu- to tho tini« of Al»ltad«r tlio Great. It la lUi- 
fl-iurUhlsK peiiod ot tho dnmutic Art, and of ciilti- 
vfttod Oraak poetry in giener&l. Ilm tliinl pirriod 
ohoWB the doctino of Orotk poetry uudor the ■iict'm- 
•on of AtoXAoder, and the r«vivAl of the luunn in 
AlexAndriK. i(Sijo Gmcecb — Literature.) From the 
Grdulcs we turn t^ their imitatoni, thel[niii>kii«,wli<Di« 
iMigiwge WM not WDployed in pcratry till s Into 
poiwd. Mid who, utQ tka Mcond Punin wu-. or until 
1^* tfan* in vhiui tlioT becMne cloacly coij lii-ctvil w illi 
th* 6r«elc% made only mdo nvayit in poofry. 'rii«> 
enk of Angiutna Mid Ttberiu* vaa tbv gulden ajju nf 
tht*tr ('Mitry, aui| it thfoco declined continually until 
tho iiilroduclion nf the (Christian rc<1i^<^ii. itiid the 
imjition of the barhariaos. Afler thi^ Chrivtinn mli- 
gloo bocMn« pravalmt, wo find th^ LaiIu Iiuij^whto 
kppllad in tbo CbrUtian wornliip to a mystic religi'tus 
lioutry; and later. In the nitith, ttntb, and surtwd- 
Ing ctDtiiriai, f^mploynl hy Icamrd men iu [mdtaticina 
of thw old liuinuii ]K>etry. ('ontomporary with IbcM 
w» tritnon thu rise of Arabian pot-try. {See AEtABlAH 
LmaArcut) A peculiar poo^ epnin^ up among 
the FTeneb, In the tin^c of tho Frovcn^dour TnHL- 
badoura of the south, lutd tho Trouvtna of tha nnrtb 
iu tha elRTcnth ivntury. In Its derotlon, ralour, and 
love the ipirit of chivalry ii apparflst. [Sea Ro- 
lUimc.) Thiiromanttt^ptiRtryof thi>Franlcii(l(vUn«4i 
into mere artificial rbymuiii utun Uiv end gf tho 
twvlflh cootury. ITnder the domlolai of Francis I. 
poetiy aonewhiLt revirod; but tbo ag* of Louis XI V. 
waa the gcdden eni of Ptrach poetnr, altlutueh it 
oflon, but In Iu own manner, hnitatea tiu aacMnbi, 
and luodenuiod nnciuit mntcriak, Bhotorioal tlo- 
gnnoe and «uiy wit were ila ohi^i aim. iSm I''iu!f cx 
— Literatnrii.) TIjb modem ItjJiiui poetry apnuig 
from the Procvn^. But a portry of a natoial char- 
acter hngjLO tn Sii-ily iifl*r thu Uiirteentb nntnry, 
and flourished, pcculiaHy from lb« tima ot T)ante 
and Petnu-eh U> that of Aztoato and TaiM, in the 
thirt«rntt). ffiurtwnth, and fifbmnth oenturiea, and 
thcncD d«cUii«l into hntnbnit and imitation. (8m 
It&LI— Poetry.) The Spanish poetry appaanorigilk- 



ally tho airterot the PrDT«n(*I.botnna2liid with the 

orlontal character. The earlical Caatfllan poetry, 
proporl V so callod, belonga to tbo tUrtavnUt eeotniy: 
bnt it Wan to flnnrlih under the odmintstimtion «l 
Cbarlea L, aud docHiied under rUtlii) IV. Sinml- 
taaeoiu with it, and in connecUnn with it, flooriAeil 
tha PoTtnsunw. (S«e Sbaoi and Fowrvoxu Mctiom 
UtATOitura.) Th« GemuB poetrr, which ii dowly 
oonnectvd with the Divthcm, and bu ltd own epic 
oydo, floumhcd at variooi tiuiea, and with bmmA 
varioty of dianwiGer, but moat vigoroBtly when frm 
from the Infloeooe ot forrigii modeli. (8e« Gcuuxr 
— IJtf ratnre, MnnrtfmfABUl, and MASmucraEBS.) 
ThA ari^n af the Engliah and Soottiah poetry ia loat, 
lilte thu.t of the G«rmaa, in the dirtant period of the 
t<ardii; it waa icftned bv thr Norman French poeby. 
Hilt the Rourinhins: pcnoi] of EtigUnh jioptry lii|ilacod 
in the timoe of (^umu Klizabeth, althnngfa Cbanoar 
la eeteomed the father of modom EncUih poetry. 
The ScAndinarion poetry, oUk .1 wto oatud Dortkeni. 
proMinbi duralry poculiaily coloured by thA nortbem 
charoetm-, elnoe the thirt^mitb oentiiry, wbm the 
German Uddcnlmcb 0:'ook of hcnM)) waa tatmduced 
into Norwriy, and for«it,-n tales beeuns Ueoded with 
native aura. For furthL-r information the reader !■ 
rvferr«<l to thoaectionii on literaturo in the aiticloaoB 
dlRorent conntrifl^ and also to Warton'a Hisloiy W 
Kngliah Pnctry, Siraaondl'a Lltt^raturo dn Midi de 
I'Europi!, BontorweVa Qeachichtc dcr neuoni Poaaie 
und Botedaanklcelt. llonfuknuiT'i Haudlntch einar 
nUgmncincm Geechichta diir Pueali% and ZinUBor- 
nuinn E Gmchichte der Poeeie aller VoUcer. 

POGGIO BItACXJIOLlNL one of thio Mriy pro- 
mot«ni of cIwuuc!ilI lit«t>tur« in Italr, wia ban at 
Tcmuiuovo, between FloRnoe and Aroko, !■ IS80 
or mm. On completing hia eduoatico b« went la 
RomiT. whonr hu obtaiotil the office of writer of afw*- 
tiAicaX letters undor Boniface tX., and kept H wada 
tho Hovcn following; pontilTa. In this capadty he 
atU-niicd.lohn XXlI.ta 1411 to tho Connal of &(■• 
iit«tce, tn 1410 he iuidertt.>ok the taak of aeanlilDS 
the monasteries for andent mannacripta; In tlutaC 
St. (.lall bn diaooTVwl a oomnleta copy of QntattBaa, 
viith a part of the Atxonautics ot Valerfoa Hacm^ 
and in other religions honees wtreral «f Cicero's 
orations, and obtsincd copies of the woris of 9tliiie 
1 Italtcna, Tejcvtitis, AmniiaiinB Marccllioua, Coln- 
j mdlii, &C. tu 1418 on the Invitation aS CWrdinal 
IWufort ho v-initcd England; hot tbs haibsriSB 
of Hii} country at that period sooa led him to r»> 
turn to Rom<^ where ha nsmned hts fonser office 
of apoetoUcal aetaetary. Ihiring the diaturbnaoes 
which took ploni' muim' the pontificate of Xogealns 
TV. hu- quittvd RouiV!.aud went tvraideat Fiorencc. 
Id 1(47 he returned to Rone *&ia to enter once 
more on his n Id fiincti>in« under Iiioolas'V.,(riiic]i be 
finally reajgued in 1453 In order to mtdastaka tka 
offloe of obMieeUor ot the BspobUo of nonaotL Eb 
diedial46l>. P'0^ownaIle«tioni^qDaR«lBnDe^aDd 
iDtMrnpiimtp inoontrovBnn'; but hia actntimente an> ia 
Iftiivral liberal and manly, and fac may be docmed 
the mott elegant eonipaser in I^tin (the Uiifn^n of 
nearly all h& works) of that period, Bb wiMngi 
are nnmeroui^ and upon vartmta topica. Many are 
dlsooMlcna on moral anjuuivuto, a lew am phuuao- 
jAdcti, and wvaral coutroverelal: the remaindier are 
chioRy t^Ul«lat{on^ orationa, and lettcra, the chief 
fatdt of which ia dilltuFucai. Hia Uistoria nacen- 
tina, which eompriaee the period from 1S50 to I t6S, 
w to Iw found in the ooUcctiom of Gnorioo ana 
Mnratori. An Italian Iranalatioa of it bv hu aoa 
waa pubti«L«l at Venice ha 1470. His Uber do 
Nobilitatn ia Raid to bo 000 of tba meat finlafaod of 
Ilia wark«-, hut his Letten an at the pment day the 
ouat ioterostlnff of all Us nnains. lluiy make ns 



I 



d 



POICTIKRS— PODfTEU DOO. 



151 



with » nuiltttads of enriooi (adik of 
I «■ •hoold olbmriM Iiat* been knonut, luid 
b • «Md and iiiwtod plctnr* a tfakt ojiorh 
r<Hii« B M« kw ca , fciytlci», priming not yet baring 
b««a Inventa^ fo- not hATlDg witu inCa general nu, 
ItAlUD Kfaobn Wfdtod tbanaelFM to puUUig in 
LmIc^ aU tk« ranaliM of latimittT th>t bu «^nd 
k^na^ato (fastruOoa. Tbo whob of the mda of 
>h|Cloinnpiiblkb«dtogMbcrttl)uel,lS38. fiea 
I Wiei by 8h<fih eid (I^mpiM]. 1602). 
POlCTIEKa. 8m Pomin». 
POINI>INO. tD S<Mt<-]i Uw, a legal pneeedbg "by 
" ■ I tb« jin>|>CTtT d( m dchtor'a moraUN li tauis- 
le a* crsdlUir. It i« of two kinda, ntU and 
«1. In tbt formnr cue it ia the groniul tbot 
IMikdad, and th« cnditor m&y take patwlon of 
[■U th> gpoda an th» Und which tbo poiodbg »Sc«t«, 
f^lirtitiu Ibaaa goodi belong to tbo proprietor or 
H i ni n l of tbft Und. A taunt'* modi oauiot, how- 
Uvw, ba poinded for hii landlord^ d«bt Co n groater 
|«il(Bt tiuB the unoiiBt of the tnim's rent or ths 
I dn* to the Ull«r. No otbo ^oodN thim them 
\tt tiM owns or tba taoaot an afleotad by th« poind- 
I of tba gnond. Bifon n cTKlltcr can pdad tbo 
di of hb debtor he auut nlae hi netioti, with tho 
IaUmI of obtaining what ia called a diiffenee for 
^deay ao. In an actioa ot tbie Datnre both tenants 
iMfa mart be nnado partlce, although the con- 
!■ not k pmonal one, but itlen only U> tlio 
I the gronnd, wlucli a4x.'on!Iti{{lv m&y be lilcen 
of witltatit lint rliar^ig Chi> t«naut t" 
umaaal, and at any time, oven aftor the ori- 
MBwdar 1« dead or ranored. The action is 
(tank to a aoMrinr far kia fen-duUee, to au 
l-ntntar for toe aiTvan nf biR Jntcrrnt, and In 
■1 to bH oroditen ia d«l>u which fcFim a real 
I fir Una on the land; but !■ not oompetent to 
, Ann, or av«D to crvditon or otben in pomea' 
I «l At greuod. In pataontl poinding, wmdi is 
mtmt to aU till mm of crediton in ordfnarypcr- 
1 eblgartrw^ it ia the morahle good» and eflecU 
^irf_ th* debtor that ar« poladad. After a decree 
I r«ort to thii procaeding hii boon obtained, 
lalm ha M a landlord polodbig for 
I m«L or a aaparior for [«i-dutJ(«, tcuat tint 
_ I tbadMitor to make payment, and wait till th« 
[ 4^*'a( tbo cbam ha«« dapoe^ bmro potting tb« 
him m a la opaauoii. Platpi-faoda, IhaE la to my, 
|'V)nea, oxen, md other goodi ueed In connection 
' with ploocfaiiw operatloBi^ cannot bo poinded daring 
titm perfod oC taiage. Whim the poiodintf talua 
the goode affected by ttMi proocodin^ are ap- 
ffralead br two valuatora aproiiitcd br the cieditur, 
I and a aoednle uf the Eouui with tnelr appraitod 
i aninw h glveo to the debior, who retatna poaeeesion 
' Ifco gaod^ ontfl the data fixed bya warrant of the 
riff er other Jndgonirdinary for the ealo of tho 
^ bgr pabUo roup. The amonnt yielJpd by the 
I nftar iba dedactloD <i atcpeoaee ia banded av«r 
ria tbo a«ditor to tha aztaot of faia debt, anil If no 
rjyardaaev appear tba gooda theciaelTea arr handed 
to Ub at tkalr appraised valuoe. The term 
~bg b nln ^^died to tha ariiing of stray cattle 
tisapawfajt OP jndoanif, and ret^aiig them 
[Mlfl uan^ui— tion ia nada for the damage (kne by 
In tha caaa of no i^jraement being oome to 
tlw owner of tba cattle and that of tha 
1 aa to tba amonnt of Iha UHupijnatlijn to be 
, Ihb Bkay be fixed by the proper effleen, who 
E'^'Ql ^low to the jffoprielor of tha tadoanre a oerbua 
I on neeooat of the damage done, beddea a penalty 
iti haif h mark for aac^ of the cattio found tnapaaa- 
rta^ and tba atpenaca of keeping tim cattle during 
llhe tlma that llwy ba«o been detadned. ^BelTa Dlo- 
^— of the Law of SootUod.) 



rOlNT, In gixanMry, ta defined by EusUd, ia n 
qnantity wliich baa no part^ or wMd) is infiivirible, 
Folnta are the ends or eKtremlties of linu. If a 
point is BUppoeed to bo mjived any way, it will by ita 
mntinu ilcurriho a line. 

POINT, an iiun or aleel iustnunetit, need with 
eome rarlety In eeremi artn. Engrnvons etchrn^ 
eutteaa in wood, tc, um pointM to trace tbair dcsi^^ns 
oD the onppT, wand. Btiine, fto. 

POINT-A-FITRE; a town in Guadelnnpc, in tbo 
Wort Indies, on thn iinuth-wiat ooaat of the Grande 
Tern, nt the uimtth of the Rivibte-SalA^ the strait 
whioh separatoa Goadclmipo propor or Ornnde-TsTTO 
from Pawn Trrrn It baa a ■padouii and secnre 
harbour, defended by two foita and aoveral 'batteiiea. 
It U one of the moei Important ooimnoroial towns of 
the Autilloa The principal axporta ant aagar,apiiiti 
of mnlaswa, cocoa, caeau^ raw Udea, coffee, dye* 
u-oods, bdigo* l a nierT sd bnit% tortoUe-fth*-lls, rum, 
Ac; and the inmdpal Importa; wov«n fabric!, articlas 
in leather, OOa-fldiL, grain ud Boor. olfTo-oil, articleafn 
ntPtal, cattle, hoiase, wine, fto. Tba town waa almoob 
complotclT destroyed by 6r« Id 17S0, after widdi It 
was rebuilt in stono; but having boon again dcatroyod 
by an carthqnake in JSin, it was teboUt (n woo^ 
and WW nKoin bnnnid ilourn in July, 1871. The 
want of wuWr makes the town peculiarly liable to 
euoh ealamillea. Sinoo the last fire the town baa 
been rapidly rehni It Pop. 19,000. 

POINT BLANK, ori^nally the whit* spot in a 
target, at which an arrow or other tnianitn ia aiinnd. 
HcDCo, ia gunjKiy, to fire point-blank, to &tv at an 
oliji-ct HI nrar that the plooe loay be loTCUed In n 
■tTnt^hl liiif- with it. 

P01NT.DK.OALLE.or nimplvGam^ a fortified 
seaport towD in Ceylon, on a poalnsula on ita aouth 
etiiuit, XI miles W«at of Matnra, and 66 ailea 8.ajE. of 
Colombo. Tbo m>earance r>f Oalle from tha sea ia 
ainpularly beantifal and pictunuquo. To the rij^t ia 
tlio fort, with itit olil walla and fmrtiHcatJons jntting far 
into the (bs. In the oeutre of the town, and rwng 
a).<o<re every BonouDdlng object, are the two gable etids 
of the old churob built by tlie Duloh. Funlter on ia 
tbo quay, eiirraunded by multltodes of sano«% and 
on a lioigbt is a neat and besntifiiJ Bomas. Catbolio 
cliu>«J, while doe* to ths harliour ia the naUre town 
and bnd^o, white, bjuI ahaded by oometous trees, the 
whole backed l^ vardant hills uothed to the nunndt 
with woods, and the most laxniiant T^etaCion. Tbo 
more distant Idlla asatimo a purple hoe, and far la the 
rear rise* the lorty lammil of Adam'* Peak, 7430 feet 
high. The fort ia more than a mila in drcumferaoe^ 
oommanding the whole of the b.u'tmiir, but in ita 
turn oopunuded bya ranK" of hi!^* about 70U yards 
distant. Ontalde the town U a Budd)u«t t«mple 
wl^ iiiiliiwil fi^nree upon it The trade of tialle 
chiefly ooradsts in cnir mnc, ooooa-nut oil, airaclc, 
ohaya root, coffeu, outtun, rice, trory, rinnamoD, and 
t«rtolee<abeIl. The ontranco to tba bay ia about a 
mile wide, the soundings in it from 7| U 4^ fathema, 
I rut erndend somowlml intricato by Kmnn rockau 
T)j« outer road Is sfiacloua, and In the Inner harbonr 
shipa may Uo In pvrfoct tocuHty in 6 or &) fathoms 
alffsasl flf the town. Init only for four months in the 
j-ear. The maO ateameia oS the Peninsular and 
Oriental Omnpaay call here regnlarty. PopL 47,954. 

FOWTEK DOQ, a variety of dc|p, so named 
from their baUt of mddaaly stopping wben in the 
neigbbonrhood of game, and 'pointJsg' with the head 
in thn dimrtion in which the prejr or quarry Ilea. 
This faculty, peooUar to this bmaof dogs, renden 
them invaluable to tht aportaman in markii^ game. 
It ia undoubtedly hereditary In the Potutora, al> 
though tt as certainly lieoomes befetsr detolnped 
under training. Tlie Pointer, ganscaUy known udkIbt 



POINT OF SIGHT-POBOy. 



tlw Bdentllio ftppdlktion of Cantt acieviaru, would 
Appear tn he aearly roUted to tb« true HounflA. The 
tonu 'Spaninh' ]'oinUr, frequently empWciJ, wuuld 
Moia to Jenvto thai Spun or Wnt«ru Kiiri.'[>« wn« 
tbe nri^iLU hubiut of tkcM do^. The Poiiitwa wo 
nmiHitb abiji-t-ljiiirvi:! ddgo, i^vDoriUJ; mrirkod bUck <tad 
whhi?, like the foi-kouiLiC but occuuotiiillj eoLonred 
kllut:): tiller Lludo riie acut« Hdw of MDdcU wbich 
guides theao dagi In 'polntinf;;' ippoan to be exerted 
nntwith* tan ding thtt preTklooee of other and ev«n 
marc iiowerful wloun tbon tlw mere BCent of i^iiue; 
uid tto dog, ODC« Iwving poLnled, remiune motion- 
loai, ind reetnina hinuelf from the sligUtesC niovo- 
mcnt c<Joiil&U^ to disturb tbe samn. These doga 
huva been knuiru to eUuid 'poiiitiiig' for more tkou 
an hour at a. tlmn. 

POINT OF SKUrr. Sm. I'ltrwFmTivB. 

POISOFf. A poiaoa ia any lutiiitauirQ of which a 
•aiallauaotit; tali«n Into the etoin»cb,Riix«^witbthn 
Uood Ify wouudi, inhaled tbn>U);h the lumct, ur nh- 
■nrbed thronffh the ildD, utn produce cLaagfa in 
the bodic4 of brutes or men, delobnioiis to the 
htuitth, and evrn drstructivo to ttfc, hj ia«aiu not 
Itir(-Luiii.->1. Mtuiy puJKoiui cijjurate chi^uiically, oor- 
ruditi); ths orgsjiiiod fibre, destroj'ing thg form and 
cotinectirin r.f the parW, cxciiing powc.rfiiUr. and 
tausing iiilianirontion Dial niortilicatiDrj. 'lo this 
clata bvloui; niKiii i.if tbo iraW'Ot of the ubenil klug- 
dom; OS, l.ManyinctikUiooiidoauidult^Manciii^ 
one nE the miutt di-otniotivc pdaona, of wUoh a few 
{{raiuji produce falal eSugta. Maov prepantiona uf 
ixippin' aro al»o poUonoiiii, sa venTegru, or aootata 
of rapper, nod mauy paiiiti; aliM very add «r mlC 
*itlcU« at fiKxl <>r drink cnobcd is oopptr Te«eK 
Mabj pnrrianiitriiiis of quickailvrr, n« mrrcndve mb* 
liniato, rRil predpitalo, Slc, noma cummou prepim- 
dtuuof ikulvmuuy, ■Uuuld ako be named bore. 2. 
Strong mineral and Tegvitablo acida, when introdncod 
Into the body lu an undiluted >Utt«, aa ocmceutrntt'd 
nilphario add er oil of vitriol nitric acid or aqua- 
fortU, hjdrocUorio Add, Ao. 3. Home plonte contain 
an eitranclrpowerrul aiid mrruBivu eubatanee, u the 
wolTa milk tetifiAorbtum «fti/uy. the i^opAn* nwerrum, 
&0. 4. Of tba animid kiugi.laui, tuo cantAaridtt 
(whldi >ecj or Spanuhfiia, aa theyan ealle^ Tbe 
operntion of all th«a« poiaone i> lerT expeditious; 
whan thoj imtrr thn itontacli violent ■irlmew is (dt, 
inccMant ntnuuiiii,- and vomiUng take pUce^ with 
Dost «xcruciAtiiig painB in tba Btomacb and boiccia, 
aa if knivm urm ilrivf^n tlirimgh thrm^ thmi fi-Unw* 
InflainmaliuQ, if relief be not iprwdily obtained, aad 
this la ■ucoeodod by mortiik-atioii. Other putsous 
opento more by a povrcrful action upon the ncrvra, 
and a r^id dMtruction of their energy. 'Ibeac are 
the sedaltve or stupcf yinu pi<Ia<iua, and belung for Llj4t 
niwt part to tira vegotablo kjngdam. TbMr eflevte 
■re Mwa— , Tioleot oeadMhe, &xiiatm, darhnw or 
s|Mta before the njtu, poirerfnl uid liiTDltmtuy ma- 
tioni of the limb* and of tbe wliolo body; diatortlon 
of the oycK, angiiiBb, low of cotucionMiei^ and at laat 
apoplexy and death. To tbii dam beloDff opium, 
lai-uilock, hcnbiLoc, U^Uadonna, Ac. There i* aUo m 
similar ponaon formed by the action of the uliva on 
Ha bitter almond and the ksmel of peachea, which U 
rapidly deetntctivfl of life {pnnlo add), wbloli iliovrB 
its e£fects mthcr when thoee eubata&eM are takui 
into the atomach in great cnuutttticei or when their 
eonoentrated oil, oKidned by dlstflUlIoo, ta swal- 
lowod The tatne aubitance is found in the cherry 
UttiuL Among nlanU, thrro are many which imite 
the propeitiea of Ixith kinds, which stitnulaLe by 
Biekns tk a aharp, add lubetancei, and are ftlao anlMe- 

Snently aedatiTe^ frcoi the opciatioa of a narcotic prin> 
Iple. To Ibfoe belong ^epi»pleft>xgk>7e, the moolu- 
bood at aconite, kc Other poiaom oporate by sttd- 



donly sod entirety dtntnjiag bwbt at tlis fti ac tf ew 
neeowary to life. To tlito oLiM beunff all the IdDdi 
at iput and mt wbiab are imn^tiMt, auflooating 
vapours, as carbonic add gae, or fixad air in ocUars, 
whcro beer ii n-orkiiig, wella, ftc, faunea of tnlfHtat 
tLHil rhaixnal, air oorrupted by the reapinlfan Mlid 
panpiruli'iQ of (uany people in doaed roonM^ eeow ■ 
tratcd otiluvia t^f flowfis ia limiliir plscoa. He, Many 

CrepamtioQit of load, m acetate or ougar uf lead, oar- 
onate or «l)it«-lead, wine sweetened by tb« addttka 
of lead, are to be counted in this da», «nee tbey 
destmy the iu.-l)vity o( the abmibmt veaeela in the 
nbdumitiul catud, <:uulrscl thu bowelw, prodBOaooBelTf 
pains, aud fanally prevent the abftorptioa ol tba <hj» 
bv which thrr body is tn be nnnrisbed. Pope Ctonft 
XIV., BfcurdiuK ti> the oimiaon belief in Italy, waa 
deetroyed by a terrible poleon. called VaeqiuUa. Tba 
Indians of South Anirrics, between tt» Anwaoa asd 
tha Orinoco, apply a very powerfnl poiaoB, oallnl 
tbe n'atirali {mfih-u, to Cbe beads of tha amm with 
which tbcy sboot their gama. It doatroya life very 
ciuickly. withont corrnpting or impaitin^ any bad 
([Tiality to the llesh. 1 he no-caUcd morttid peeamu, 
or eualayk'nt, do not belong to this dasa, and are 
vciry improperly called poinnt. as, for inclaaot^ tbe 
poiiion of hydrophobic t>ee Coktaoiom. 

Kvory aubaUnce ia called an antidcte whicb oeoii- 
t>,)ract<i the elTect of a polaoo, mon eqiodally tbe 
recnodiei which belong to oacb kind at poaen n^^- 
tirtdy. Antidotes an aa TariooB as hImu. Iwy 
soniotimofl prutoct the body against Uie openlion of 
the [xtiion, som-Btinini changn this taat in midt a 
manner that it leeea ita iujurioua prcHMitiea, attd 
■otnetlmos ramoTo or ninedy ita viouul nnta. 
Tiiiin irt cMpa of mnsoning by acrid and ooire d te 
■uliatanceB we uae ue fatty, modlasinoua mhalanrTi. 
as oil, milk, ktx, which ahsalh* a&d protect Aa coMe 
of tho Btomadi and bowola against the oparation of 
the p>iiti;n, Agabist the metallic polaon^ ao^ and 
Fulphide (if polasuutn an moat efficadau% ac tlwjr 
pro vent tbe operation of the poison by combining tM 
alkali oud Hulphur with the oorrtedve partictea el Ibe 
mstil. Oil, alkaliiTu, and *<?ap are the beat uniadlw 
for tbe fiowerfiil adds. Kur lauitharidca, imiffly. 
oil, and campbor are employed. We oppoaa ia ua 
naroocio poiaone the weaker TegetsUe add^ aa vinegar, 
I'nisaic acid is nentralimd by alkalies and fre^t* 

Erecipitated oxide of iron. To arouse those puiswwd 
y opium, we use wiac^ oofieo, braady, cautpbor, && 
It was fomicily bdieved that all poiaoootM mallm 
could bs thro wn out of tbe body with tha MB^ilmtlan; 
aud benoe we find among tlw old antiootca A largo 
numbor of sweating madii^Ma Inthiaidakeriginaud 
Uic >iJf^p/iari>nicait of tho ancients, the Camooa aulA- 
ridaCe, Qie theriaoa, jta, which produced, biTwevar, 
no othar effect than Increased actJviM of Uw iMTrooa 
and eircnlatory aystom, from wbidi nllowad awaatoi 
and perh^ia as much harm aa mod Ut tbe a nff eree . 

The law sa to the sale of poisons in Great Dritain 
ta contained in the Pharmacy Act of 1668 (31 and 
Sa Victoria cap^ cxxL). It ia th«ra nniidod that 
tM) obo is to mU poisons unices bo is a pnan&aoettlkal 
cbctniat or chcntst and druggist, aa defined ia thai 
act (aee QatMXvn), and then ondy In ooalorBiE^ to 
certiUn reguUtiona. Tlw sabstaaeaa to ba ooauddcrrd 
as poisona are enumerated in tha act, and dirided 
into two daasca, the sale of which ia diSerently ref- 
lated. ThoaebelODgbigto tbeflntdaaaai*: aiacnic 
aud ita prvpai&t&ma! praanc add ; eyatudoaol polM- 
sinm and all netalUc ennidea; atrTDlwiaa and aH 
poiaonma vegetable aDuJoida and tbdr mUb; aconita 
and Ha pnpmtioas; etnetio tartar; ooncaiee tabli- 
mate: caDUaridea; aavin and ita oil; ergot of rye 
and Ita pm^aurationa Tboaeof theaeciaBdel«aare: 
oxalic acid; chlorofonn; belladonna and ita prt^ian- 



I 





POISONTNO. 



163 



tiaw: MMdtwl dD oI aboaaihi, rxaltm deprived of Ita 
proMk add; ofiliim, and all preparatlcAs cf opiom 
awl cf ponha. With rtgard to the riheunroa in- 
ciadad m bolli rtiie^ it ia suicted that wbcn *nl(I 
<hfair whobnle or Rteil, tbey iniut bear the ipecUl 
saiM <4 tba anldK and tha luune and addrCHof th« 
Mller, mod b* labelled 'jioboo.' ExopUon is mwlci 
bowvnr, to tb» caae of artictoi •xporteil from Great 
Britain by lAdoala tiadere; or cuppUod wholesale 
■• nlafl dnkn ta tha o(^ai7 way of biuiD«s% 
wfalih da not nqBin to hava tb« naniQ aitd adilrcM 
«r Ifaa aiBw affiled to tbi»m. With ngard to Ibo 
■rtUn aooantad in the firit uUn, It u saacted in 
■UWoa. Aat tb^ diall not be mu to any pcnon 
^damm la Ika aatlar, ualeaa introdnccil cj «ot&a 
ptnos «tw !• Imowa to him, ibat tli« tale of »uy of 
tbM* artkka duU bl aoUrKl ia .t book itatbg, Id a 
lofB pvmidad hj a adiMlnlc, th« divto of wOa, the 
aaaw aad addtcai of purcbawr, th« luunc and nutui- 
titj <4 tha artida aold, and the piirpo««i fur wlucli It 
i* •tetod bjr tba pucbaaor to bo required, and that 
thb cntrr ihatt ba rinad by the porduaer, and if 
h* haa bMB iDtndnoaa by taij odb, abo by hia intrrx 
diHV. Bxpoattn and raolania doalara nipplyljig 
latall Jaahi a an auaiited alao bom Clwao provMaufl; 
■id witb feipwd to nraidDea «w*»<"'''g In tham any 
at tba RibatanMa in tba finrt dao^ and nipiiUed tu 
y aiiaMta by lagallj-quallfiad apotlMcariea,aU tbat i* rv 
^drsd b Oat tbe BteOMiw iliaa be pro|Wrlr labelled, 
aad that tta tBgrHUarta of wbjob It ie compoMd Bhall 
fe* aataiad in a baok aUMg iritli lh>; iwma andnddrsM 
rf Iba panoa lo vbom it b ulil or flolivvred. B«fon> 
A* paMB| «< tba Fbannae; Act uf 1 &iS, tba only 
fmmavu MbrtaDeo, tha aata of whish wae regulated 
nj atatatc^ vaa anwio, with Kforenca to which an 
ad WM ftmtd In 1851 {U and 15 Victoria, cap. xtii.). 
Tkm Pbinaacy Aot«< IMS pnmrwm tbla aot intaet, 
tn tb« OD^ pnrUoa ooolniad in h, and not oon- 
lafaad abo in the Pbannacy Act, la one nqnlrtn^ 
tbe aiaenio to ba miicd wicli eoot ft ludiij^ In the 
froportina of 1 as. of aoot cr ( os. of iDdi^ to a 
BOUidt axocpt wbtrn the quantity sold cicwafa 10 Iba, 
^ vUdl t^K it tn&j be aold tuimiiad, provided tha 
psrobaaar nataa that it ia nut to ba uaed tor agrionl- 
•anw aad tbat bi> nvpoM oouU not be Mrred If th« 
BBanie were laiiea with the aubManoee mentionetL 

P01S0NTNO. no tiae ol poiK>ne aa maana to 
f«t rM of an emnty or rival, «r «v«n of aar iwraoo 
•iMadfnf In ooa'a way, is alvays azeupUfled In tha 
l aearJi of erinia, but there tiave b«en parioda in tha 
hialrwy ot variooa oennlrica when the pcaotioe wu 
paenliarlv pravalent Tba notlveo for leaortlntr to 
ttaia aalbod of taking lifa ara obriom: tba EadJity 
vttb wfalcta aene poiiou nay ha adniiitiitand with- 
a«t «*m leading to tba snaplcton of riolHUoc^ and tba 
dtttaahj of proTlii^ tb« fact of [•okons having been 
wmi. «rtn wbeo napicwD h*a been an>ujed. lliia 
illllnillj. bowarer, axktad only In timea prerioiia 
lo tba gnat advance which liaa been made iu 
abMikBrbwnrledgo. and waa in a oertain way oom- 
pHHiadbjtbe inordinate tendency to utiapicion tbat 
waa daveleped at oertain epochs, and wluch liaa fre- 
<]Oaatly attribatad to poSeaa the deaths of klnge and 
lAnn of tha giaat, wboi we bava avoiy reason to 
baUara, diod In a peHe(kly natoral manner. Tha 
H»MJoe of Mdaoning waa particularly common at 
MMBa^ Bod otiaer eitita ei Italy, in tba bat centnry of 
«ir«m iBtbaiatgnaofCUadiniaodNeioawonMa 

' Loonata waa nototiow aa a potaoaer, and waa 

aiid to poicw Uio ait of oonoocting poiaona to act 
with aay reunited degree of alown*** or rapidity. 
About twenty or thirty yean later Javenal deauiibea 
tba nractica as still raging in the dty, and cansing 
aJl utnM wbo were rich cixiHgh for their poaMaaiona 
to be oorctad by tludr heir* to tranbla. A Aaitbar 



proof cf tbe ([eneratity of Uia use of poison In tboea 
days {whether for admioiatani^ to ono'i self or to 
ath<^r*) in to ho ffuml in tba ringB which have b«en 
dincorercd in Uic ruiiia of Pouptdi, th« mAJoriCy c4 
wbiob oontain large ovfUim intaidMl, m wo know nr 
may naaonably infor front ooDtamporary writer*, for 
the reception of p»iV«i. The art which was so 
cnmmon in anciisiiL iLaJly waa perfected ia mudum 
Italy in the sUtoemtb and aavaotacntb nmUirlBa. 
Otio of tha moat rabtlo polmia Invented in that 
oonntry was tha ae^aa bfana, ao oalled frrim a 
wuinan named Toflania, wbo compounded it, aud who 
wan put to death by atnuigllng in 1719, after tha 
had caused tbo death of npwaida of AOO p«aons. It 
waa itill emplojod at ua commMicemant of tbo 
preaent century, and tlie Recret of its pcanpoMlioo ia. . 
porhi^M^iiot lMtev«a yiL It waa an iDoaoroaa bbOiJ 
oolaurloaa flnid, one drnp of which, admtniatered amy 
week, oatued tbe death of a peraon at the end of two 
yaare, if he wore attacked by no malady in the 
mcautimo, and rvndared every kind of nialndy, how- 
ever otherB^jso unimportant, oertainly fatoL It waa 
thus remarkably wi.-il calctibktcd bo avail snapicien, 
ainoo many of tbo*" whuiu- di-^tb waa really doa to 
it had all the a(i|vanuii;o uf havinji been oarrted ofl 
by a naCttral duatlu But not only wen tbc moat 
subtle puisuiis detisod, tbe moat ingenious means of 
applying thvin worn alio invented. Tbnii a peach 
might be vnX in two with a j[uld knife, poisouod on 
pas aids but not on tba other. The jwraon who ata 
the ona half died, while the poiMouvr might eat tba 
other onharmod. A prince of the name of SaralU 
Is aald to have poeeeaaed a key, on tbe handle of 
whidt was a nniUl point which ooold acanoty ba 
noUoed, but which wm rubbed with acrrtain paiaon, 
tbe adioti of which on Ibo blcxMl woe lure and rapid. 
>VbeiM«'ar ib* prinoa wiiibM to rid blnitclf of any 
mfflDber of fata ooort he would give him this key anil 
bid blm tiring aeOMthing fmni a ilrjiwor wbidi it 
opauk^ fal doing which the per*gn xit'iu^ tbe key in- 
eritai^ Kratebad himself with tbo pruJMtlng point 
on tbe handle, and tbe poiMn waa tboa introdoeed 
into his eyatem. From Italy the practice and tha 
art of poiaonlog ipread to otlier couutHas, but flour- 
ished nowbora mora tbaa In Franoa. The ••ooad 
ball of the rdgQ of Louis XrV. haa abundant eaaaa 
at DoiKining to iliow, in inort of which the nobility 
aud sometimea tbe nobility of tbe court were mixed 
up. The young nnblcs nttractod to Venaillea fay 
Louis diMipatol Uirir fortiinca in all aorts of gaietica 
and debaucberioi, and when they had done ao their 
only reaourcea for leoovering tfaemaelToa weragaB- 
ing aad imrigdiic for lucrative aiiiecaraa. Wbtn 
both of tbeaa faUaa other mcrthwia were adopted^ and 
henea tba Introdnation oi the ancient Botnan prac- 
tioa of hdn vdng poleoa to make away with thoaa 
wbo kept tbsm fniD diair iabaritaneoa, fron whinb 
araae the name of 'nicc«uiion powder,' wfaAob vaa 
^ven to tbe preparatjun uaol lor tba porposik At 
tbla period tbara wars waU-koowa booM wbai* 
aaai^atioaa migbl be kept and annonobaaaata taka 
pLuw to eecret, and tbekeepetaof thea* booaaoaddad 
to tbfir oocunatioaa that of fiimi»bing mean* for 
removing faaaDaitda tbat tbeir wive* were Urvd of, 
rivaU in qnat of pUoea, rich relativga, fto. Tbslr 
bade flourished; they tbemselvea ocenpiod fina 
houwa, rodii ia cnrriagee, and were attended by 
ntuDcniua SLTiauta. For a long time tbo parliament 
of Paria tuinad a daaf aar to tba daw Midi cf tba 
people tiiat tbca* potaaaa rfkodd ba faraagbt to ^w- 
tJc& At laat the cmb of Madamo de BrinviUina 
made it bupoaaibte fee- action to be delayed any 
longer. AltcrfaortrialaiKlesrcotiaatbiagBwaatoaaa 
before, till other three afcilful and weallby fcnala Bolaf 
oacni, La VoUn, 1* Vlgowonz, La FSlaat^ ana WOd 



154 



P0I&80N— POIXOCA. 



priooU^ Ij«Rfth-« oiiil GuitKinrj;, were »m»ti.-i]. During 
ttutr«xuiimuliuii it iraDspirad tti&t th«y li&d Among 
their rliftnUpcTfOQi of botksiMtcaof tba hig licet rtuilc, 
md Ui« iudf^ wore ofniicl ia prooewL I^ouis X IV. 
riii3i**ir grew ftlnrwMl st &ulliiK how liiuh lu Htnti^jn 
tome of thoaa itnpliutod in tho ch&rg^oa farougbt 
agMJiut tho rminaocn were. iin<l tbcroforc look the 
Litae out of tli« huidi of the p«rUiuxivi)t alto.^etlier, 
tuiil intnatad It to » oonmiiwIoD, rftUed tlie OLuubre 
Ardmtc, compnaoi] of mmi'bBTa wbom ha conld trost 
to inftk« nn iiidlnrreFl rcvulbtimu. Tho gliilty pcr- 
Kina b«loii{,-iii^ to tliti icuuit umIb tiieir aK»p« acruu 
thn fmntiotv M quickly u powibl^. Sine* tl»t time 
tbo |>nMit{M vE pouoain^ does mot sppur ^nis to 
havG bfloome » (fanaml one wnon^ ftny cTmi In BViuim. 
'Ilivn; doea not loem to be ntiy ovidvneo of the prev- 
oleovo of Uit pnctico &t any timo in Ifngland to uij 
i9ztnan)iiiM7 ertont, kJthoii^h th» cmm of mnrd^r 
in this, na in »]I utbcr ci>untri«a, «lw»ja conUiiii n 
certain pmfiortitm In which poiann wha the meaJiH 
and by the lounlraur. 

FOISSON, SiKeoN Dmrs. ona of the gTe«.t«<t 
of tnodom I'Ven^'h luntJiem&tLciaiis, bom in 171^1 at 
Ptthivieni, in tho (Upartitieiit ■«( Loii-et, wintered the 
Evfyle iVIytt-choirjuu ta 17SS. After quittioft it ho 
bec&mo a uember at tbe Butcau dea Lon^tudex, a 
profcaxor in the Faculty of £<ueiioM at Paria aad in 
th« j^imlo !'o!yt«(^tiniqi)o, uid in 1812 vrmn ndmiUad 
Into tlie IiuUtuti'. NapolMo, to whoin be wna a 
■teady ftdbennt, made him a noblp, and conferred 
maoT favoon on him. I)r aW gavD in hla adhesion 
to tlie ■uoeeading goFamniBii'tii, Id lli'iO he waa 
appointed a member vf the v<nuicU of the university, 
and tn 1837 wae called to the Chamharof Pcera ^ 
IiOiiifl I'hilippa. Iln dioil in 1810. lie wa* inde- 
fatigalile iii Lia acioDtifif labourii, and yot, with tho 
exception of Ilia Trait*! de M^cwddue, which fonuB « 
kind of enk in tho Liftory of that bnmeli of Bdcnce, 
be hu only pmduoed a great Dumber of separate 
paper*, alisait alwaya of uio gnateet valno, ou elco- 
tridCy, magDetinn, beat, the ulonUtlon of proba- 
bilitica Ihe analjda of infinitea, and other mal1i«- 
matical and phvriul nibJRctK. Tho papRm are 
■cat lered la the Mcmoln of the AmdeiuT, tno Journal 
de l'£oole FolTteobnlque, the Journal dee Hath^- 
matit^uce, the Annalre do CTtiiiuic ct do I'hyBi<|uo, 
and other oollectjoua. 

FOISST (Latin, Piuittevm), a town iii Fnuice, in 
tiie depsitmout of Seine-ot-Oiie. on tho left bank of 
ct the Seine, II tnilce noath-wett of Vcniaillta. It 
k a veiv dirty plac«, but tU vmddy cattle market, 
obiofly for the si^iply of tfae capital, la nid to bo tbe 
Unseat fai Fnitce; and the town ftaolf poneaae oen- 
siderable hktAHcal lnt«rc«t from the fiunous confi-r- 
(rnce or cullu'^iiy, bi.ld iu l.itSl, whirb inran its imuip, 
and in which the diffnnmoon Ix'twprii lloman C'ttlio- 
liuiNin and Frotcwtantiam vRsre dLwiinnd at irrcat 
length, but aa mi^ht hare been aniicipaied, with no 
deciNre icault. Among IheattendaoUi were Charles X. 
and Oath^rino do MMint; tbe princt|ial deliotcie 
wen Theodore Besa and the Pa[n] legate IppoUto 
d"E»tft Pm. B047. 

POITIEUS (formerly apdled roicmriui), a totra 
of S^mnce, on the Clain, fonccrly capital of tbe pro- 
vlnoe of Poiton, at preaent of the departtaent of the 
Vienna, 61 tnilce aouth-weat of Toura- The epaoe 
acenpied !■ far largvr than the actuitl popnlation 
ntjuinm, muoh of It heLny laid out in (puaena acid 
•Ton extensive onduud^ and bence mn^of the town 
ha* a deterted and lifelees appearance. The eoly 
•ccne at mndi actiritj is the markel'plaac^ which in 
eeoeral la denaely crowded. Vbv principal edifice 
if the cathedral, foooded by Hmny IL ol England 
a^inut 1 162, and built in a atyle exhibiting the tten- 
dtion from the Bomieeegme to the OoUuc Tbe 



cKleriur Li ratlwr plain, but It hM an fanpodlg fat^ 

nor. There are eevand Intenrtla Boom laialiwy 

Cicularly the imponng rafni of aa amjUlbtatt% 
^st ihruL that uf Nlnnen, and cBpahie of COaliiB- 
iag^2fifi0 npeclatot*. The manuTairtarei^ wU^ are 
not of much importance, couirt of ooane wooUen 
cloth, W'lollrn covera, hmierr, laoe, leather, nlaylng- 
cardv, and rinegw. The trade la in cjorcr, tmecciM^ 
and ealufols seeds; com. win«v becof^ flax, wax, 
honey, leather, sheep, and partienlaHy gtwe sHne. 
I'oititre ia historically eelebrated for two battle* 
fouKbt in Ita vieinlty, that tu which Charles Uartel 
defsateii the Sanu^cn iiniiT under AbdemhnwB (Oo- 
iaber IS, 782), and that between tbe French sadsr 
their kin^ John II. and the English ondor Edward 
tho Black Prince { Sec t«inV>crl»,lS&A). The Eaftiili 
anny did not exceed 1%<»W meo; tfae Preach wee 
not IcsM than 60,000; but the Enjflisb wvra •nparlor 
iu diadpliue and subunlinatioD, and oocnpoed a innea 
farounLble pnaitinn. The French van was at ooce 
routed, nad Urair oontre waa broken abncst at tbe 
£nl oDtet. Jt^L, wai made prfaonor aftat an obiti- 
Dale redstanoe, acd thcmch treated with graat «oir- 
tray by th« conqunrar, waa Hrtahird ptieaoo' la 
Londun fur four yenra, and obtl«d lo pnrehaae Ua 
freedom bv tbe ceealon of several p ro yi acee and &• 
paymcntof 3,00O.00OprrtWTi*fif gold. (See Frobnrt, 
!iv. i- oil. U.H-171, nad oh. 'IVL) Pop. of tbe town 
iu 1881. 3i:.3ia 

POITIERS, DtAXa or. See Diada or Fomns. 

PUITOU, or I'oiCTOQ, before the revoliitka <mm 
at tbe proriucca of Fiance^ In tibe western t>*rt of 
the }(Iiii;di<m, between Brittany and Anjoa on lb* 
north, I;fiTTy on tbe east, tbe AtUntto en tbe weet, 
and Angdiimoia and MaJntonge on the aooUL Tbe 
■lepartitieula u( Vieime, DeoK-Sfevrea, and Veadts 
have b««n formed out of this pmttnoe. Thladiatriot 
WM anciently inhabited by a trfbe called Pktavi, 
from whose name that of Poitaa la derind. Hennr 
II. of England aoipilied poeieeaJon of Pottoa by hb 
morriaee with Eleanor, hoiw of the laat Duke ot 
AnuitAina. Philip Avguetoa conqnerod tt. It w» 
cnird to the Gnj^luih by tfae Peace of Bretifny 
(t360^,l;ut wMtvcoveredbyChaHesV, SeePtixo 
—History. 

POl^A (Piftat Julia), a town of Iftrfa, beloDciBft 
la Uio otrde ol Trieele, In tbe Austrian Kinplctn ci 
Illyria^ remaricah]* for it* r^iniRiiui of antiquity. It 
is eaid to have bees ori({isally a Gn«k colony. 
Within itn ancient widla an eeen the nine of an 
amphitheatre, which is estimated to have been large 
enough to accommodate IS, 000 porantw. lliia sbmo- 
ture is «<iual to anything ot the sort that bee canw 
down til ua. It ia bnilt of tbe bard whita HBMStooe 
of tbe country, and conaiats of three stories^ cacb of 
which (vtntiu'iui eerentr-twa arcadea. There are no 
slain remaining, but the exterior walls are altnost 
entire. Tkere are also two templet, one ol which 
is in good pcescrvatiaa^ very deeant iii deaiji^ and 
exeoution. Pola eras most SoonsbiuK iu tltc n-'t^ 
of Sovenu, when It b sdd to have had a popolattoo 
of 8t>,l!(iL', and when it aanuned the prond title of 
UeepublicB I'olpnuiB. A triumphal areh, erected by 
Salvia Poethuma In honour of li«r husband QflgluB 
Lepldns, is in a pretty good condition, and nnder tb* 
naniL' of Porta Anrea Is used as a gH» et tbe tmm. 
The modem town of Pole hu a beautiful and aafahar- 
Ixjiur, almoet completely land-looked. Tb* principal 
modem edffio* li the eathednd, whicbdates frmn the 
ninth century. It is l^om the nelghboorbood of Pola 
tliat the Veiietian mirmr-makete obtain their sand. 
Pop. (I&HO). 25,178. 

FOLACCA. &«e PobovAUE. 

POLAOCA, or Polacbb, a vessal oaed in th* 
MediteimnMHL The masts ate usually three in 



POLAMX 



1S5 



Biimt«r, and ooculit cf aoiy one mp»r. m ttwt tb«7 
kam m toW toft nor oroM-traos. Thajr an tuually 
■iBiA wttli KtWt* Mill. 

POLAND (IViUdi, /\3Ua,iii«ui>iiR'Flnt Land;' 
liaCfa, /Uoada Bad Jbnitatia], en vxtAosivo terriuwV 
nf Ccntnl Borapa^ wUch tiUbtd for nuioy conturUs 
ma aa iodepesiHot and powcffal atato; bnt hftvintr 
UUen » pray to Intenuu dJiaeiidoiii^ waa viulenLly 
a »ii ad bj ABatel% Pnaal^ toul Bnau aa a oominon 
ipnfl, partMoMd uboos tbcM tbne powen^ wtd 
iMBvponled vi^ ttiair dutntiiloiia. la Ita gre*te«t 
[■«i|ii.iilj it ha-l Al lca«l 11,ODD,000 of inhaUtanta, 
BOid an ai<t)t af 320,000 ai|iiarainIW,»itii inunoilintiiLy 
balom tu finl jMrtUIoD on ana of about 232,000 
■[Ml II mtlia, MnuMoB from tlw frontierH of Hnn^^ai^ 
aad l^ulcar to tbn ItaTtic, anH f i-nm <}«nn any f lu- fut 
isUBwda; Ut.47*t() S6'x.; Iod. IG'to 32*1. Tbo 
Haillmj (boa boundttd (onoed ai» raat and remark- 
kUv CMBpMt Ungdom, dividad intoGrrat nnii l.itCla 
Poauid an the wwat; Haaoria and I'arjlwihiik in tho 
oaatn; Tolhnilat FodolLa, and tko Uknuoe In the 
Mrt; Bid LittawU b tho uorth-oaat. Tbe princlp&l 
nbdlvUMi VH lBt» tblr^-oiw palattnataa and rtar- 
bMjl T%CM tenlloriaa concapond lo tlia modem 
pnmiMnta td Konio, VHebak. Mo^lev, Vltoa, 
QtwlM^ Ubnk, Kl«v, Podolia, Votbvuia, Kalijh, 
XjaMl^ XiAMlMt LiiUIn, Piotmlcov, 1'Uick. liAdom, 
afadhm SvrallcC and Wanaw iii Rtuaia , Ihe pro- 
Hmom et Pni0)> bim) I'nwn, and tti« Pomcnuiitin 
^vOTUMot of K&alin in Fruaaia: and the Kin^om 
nC G&UeU la Auatria. The last tan of the Kuaaiiui 
fowcranMsta Binntioa«d oonatiUita what wm handed 
^nr to P""» t^ tba Cragraaof Viasna in 18IS u 
A« KiscdoB ot Felaad, and wlutt an nov known 
H Ika goy anu aanti of tlM'Viatabk 

Tb moat charsctcriatic fcaUm of the mifaca ia 
ha taiMixmdlj. With eiMptJan of tha CarpaUiiuw, 
ft— hH Iti aoolk-waateni hoaaAtrj, and a riHgo of 
■oja cal a aUvatlon penetwtiag into it from Sibaia, 
U anraelT noaaaoaaa m ril^l* •omndt dawrvlBg tho 
■aUM of hSu, but b tnily, aa Hs aamt fanpBia, 'flat 
land,* pnMBtiay the appeanaN of an almoat tin- 
htnkMi plain, oompoaed putly of Kentlv-warbg; alopes, 
pactlf of rieb altiirial flatx, partly of aandj tracta no 
tiamn aa to deaervv tke uiunu of deaertii, &nd portly 
of cxMoaiv* Morwaa, Tba laat, ooatrar; to tbs 
gmanl wait, oeeofy tha nurt alovatod part of th« 
■ll^OI, and eonut of a broad belt earring inegJt- 
laHf in a noitli-vaatam dlnctioo bom the Htiui.'sriun 
Irootian faite Tjm^y>ff^ utd tboDjih only fntm liriJ 
lA 600 fMt abov«aca-IaTel,fonaing part of tbo gmut 
Bnfnpaao wat«r->tied, the wabera on Uio ocio aide of 
it flMvbg north to the Baltic, while thoee ou the 
oAar Mit How eoath to th« Black 8oa. Ita prindpal 
•ItMma an the Vlatnla, with ita trihntariaa Wiopra 
and Nanw; UwWartaand Praaaa (tHIntHrlaaet the 
OdarX tba Niraeas, and the Dwina, all frtfrr^tfi^ to 
(ba IhIiqI the Baltic; and tb4 Dokaber, SonUifint;, 
nd Dalipar, wltt Ito oibutair IMpet. bdoaging to 
Iba feaA of the Black Sea. Ilia phydcal ooul}|pira> 
Ika flf tba ooontiy inakai H adnutabl}' adaptwl for 
Ifae OMntlaBB of a^coltnra^ and tho fertility of ito 
allonal tia«li la aa peat tba It hta KiiiMtiiaH been 
tanad lb* gianat; of Bnropa. Aa y«t, faowaver, 
he frodaattre powen have De*«r bvcu furly taatod; 
■H ba txpont of ptin, though lar^ are probably 
Mt a lAbe of what they ndj^t be under non fav- 
■Bfable liroiimataitoea. Next to grain and cattJe ita 
■Hrt Iiaportant ptvdnot k timber, wfaleb b Nraral 
qjHrtHa fcoH larga aad qilaoidid (onaMi Tlia 
*■*■—*■ bc3iidt ti» iwadoM metala b tiin]t«d qnao- 
Uty. Eran b aoffidont quantity, bat of iadiffarant 
HiMuhf; aad aall, aUaHy in Gaijc4&, wb«r« itt odnea 
bat* leaf baen woriccd on a very exteoaiTe acala, 
aaj an to aU ar p^ afawy^ inftihaiittlMf Owiof to 



the inland attiiation of the gnat#r part of tbo cnon* 
try, and moi« capedally to the oold whi^ln vbiL-h 
blow from Rniata on tha eaat, and from tbf- Carpa- 
this£ia on tbo aooth, tfae whtt«r of Poland is almost 
aa aevara aa tbnt of .Swodun. Thu mmmet ia abund- 
antly wana, but tbo h'cnt.'ral hiunidity of tbe aUno- 
■phoa and the mlaama of the marehea, oonjcdiwd wiA 
a oonunoB neglect of rleanlim-aa and other taoitary 
jniwaiitioEui, mnkti dUiwui? mnurtimai, under peculiar 
form*, vvry prvvaluut. Little prp swao baa beia mada 
«ithdr In manufacturoa or trade, the fomwr belag 
eliicfly coDfiBi'd to article* of primiuy nooeadty, par- 
licutarly n>ui>e wofkUon and lliion cloth, fut tlw 
woavin;; tif wbivb almoet erery fnmiEy i* imvlded 
with ita domoRtlc loom; and tbu tatter, which b 
mortly in the handa of tbo Jewa, wbo am mora 
numeron* in Fobmd than baay other part of E»ro|w^ 
iKdnfT seldom on aa extesalva acale^ though bdudug 
tbu retail of an almoat ondlaa mbCr of objeou. 
tor mapc dctailfNl infonnatian regarantt the aoU, 
climate, &nd jiroductloni of Poland, aee ibe arttclita 
on tba modem govommonta and profiaoea inentioaod 
abov<^ into wbioh it baa been divided. 

The Polo ore a Slanwlo racr, poBaemhtg fine 
phjaloal forma, and an atrang, actiT*^ ardent, am) 
dariag. Unfortvaataly, howevvr, thtae orifftnal qni^ 
litiea of tbo rao«, though praaerved to a preat extent 
by the iiritile^fxl olaMia of the nobility and gentry, 
whoto blrthriubt acoured tliem fat tba pmumMtoa of 
poraoiial frtwdom, have greatly denenerateU b tba 
iiuua of the people, who till neenUy were degraded 
U> tcorti aerfs, and bad aunk to the lerel of tkeir 
I'andition. The preraiiing nligion of the Pole* ia 
Rumaa Catholic, thoag^ it haa not been pennJtted 
to relain Ita aaoendency without a atraggle. Tha 
ttofomiation flariy U-ik dc«p root in the couatry, 
and node indi rapid proerea* that bdipitry took 
olann, and rapmeaea it Dy ligbtin; tha firea of m^ 
aecutian. Sboe the RuaebDa beoooe maeteia uey 
bava Uboored Inceaaaatly and lyBtaraatieaUy bo btro- 
dooe Uudr own relioioue eyttem, and with a ruvoem 
which aMona bo btunate that ^e roUgloiiB oonrb- 
tiona of Ibe inhafaitanta any held by a foebla tennrev 
and i^rilyjlald bo tha angin^tiona of internet. With 
■imilarwaTaad pe i ae v e ia uoe the RujKlaiia are aiming 
At the extirpatloo of the FoUab boagae by diaooon^ 
ias tbo ouitivatioo of it, and not caHy btrodueuf 
KiiDiian into tba public achoola, bat making tba 
kimwlvLlKe ^i it an eaaeatial requi^ta for oEBet. 
AniDDg the cumerone dwradatlona to whidi for8l|pi 
duniinatiou lubjccU the Pol4M^thara ianono to which 
tltoy appear mora aanaiUe thui thk attomtit to «om- 
lilete ttieit n&lfoaal deatnivtlou by tbe extirpation of 
tboir DAlivD tongne. 

IliMoi-jf. — At a very early period — il eannot now 
be Moerl&Ined how early — all the nglane to whicb 
tba name of Poland waa anbaeqaaotly axtaaded vwa 
bhabitad br Slavonic triben, the moit civilizod of 
whom, in the ninth century of our era, when tba 
Uj;bt <if hietoty bet^ru to Iw faintly abed on tlMni, 
worn thoaa oeoupjing tbu fruitful plaitu oo tbe Via- 
tnla, and called by the KuMian ohroniden I<bahai^ 
and by the PoUah Lechee. In tiie ootuae of tbM 
either tbia paofJa aa a wbola or a dividoa of tham 
cam* to be cnllad Poloo, that ia, ' Sbvenlaos of the 
plain,' and tfaeee Polea ultimately oblabed prapen- 
aoanoa over Ibe nelgbboiuriBg tttbea, and thair aams 
became w™™"*™ to a wider eirela of pooplaa than Ibat 
to which it waa Ibat applbd. Uka aU the Sbvodo 
udona tb* PvIm wan arblBally dlvldid late nutU 
aoramindtiea, and it waa bog Wora they becam* 
united Into a ptditicm! whob and obtained an Im- 
portaat place In falatory. Tbe aarlieet prfaeca meo- 
tioaed b the legendary Uatery of Poland are Lech 
and the priaooe of the familiaaof Le m ek and l'oj<ieL 



Aft«r the death of iHe lul {irince of the ULCer f&mlly 
tha Folea are aud to have el»ci«d a prinoe of tbe 
IUUII9 of PiiMt (about 842), witb whow boq Zlcmowit 
the le^cnt! acxjuirea gratttor dcfiniteneas. The fourth 
ur fifth uf the TiiiA dycMtv, Duke Miccyslaw 1., in 
1144 Imurind Dntnbrowka, (laDghtor of the Duke of 
Bokwnia, nad lulupting Cliruitiikaity fuundcKl tlici fint 
Polilli bialifif'ri'fl al Paeen. Id the previoua year he 
badhMi) coiii[K-H<-fl by tho uiargravc tJoro tuaclaiow- 
linlgv thn BiaiJirHiiuicy of the Geraiao euiporor Otto I. 
and 10 bvld hla loud lu) t. i]«L But tliu rebitiun of 
ilap«tid'(uioo waa diMolrod under hia loa Bolulaw I., 
Cbnibry, or t)ie (!r«at, who rei^eil from 992 to in2.'>, 
and wa> llie true foutiilcr ut the Kiii^rjiu of PuluuL 
Uq onite^ nndor hU swny aJl tlio Poli«b tribes, ran- 
miared Daiudg and Fomor?]]^ (tho wcfttorn ftart of 
Wcat PniHta), SQeaia, IjAiunttU, and Morutna, luid 
on the eaat advaiujed •■ fat aa Kiov. Bulieuua abu 
wu for n tiino oodn- hia rule, but wu soon lost. 
Hu damininna are aoid to haro cxtendRcC fmm the 
Saole to tLo l.>iii(.'|ivT uiid troax the' Dai>ub« to the 
Baltic In the yi'su- 1 CIJO liolealaw r«oeive<] the vwit 
of tliv JBinpnror Otto IIL, on which occmwil tbe 
Peliah arahblahoprio of GnflBen tu to>nDd«d, and ia 
1034 bo rocdfod tho crown of PalaDd in fi«f from 
tho pnpe. After bii drjUh, however, his kingdom 
bocaniD a prey to loI^tuuI wbtb uf lou^ duratiou, oud 
by npoated iiibdlmicna at Itut oomplct^ly fell to 
BUCML 'J'ho ■roTiniicix-d iwuittrii* rvcovcivd their 
tndapendtitice. SuenEa bocsuue a •eparata kingdom 
ondw » coUatvrol brandi ot tbe Flue dyaaity. Tba 
munannu Polisb prinoM won, bodd^ oontinnitUy 
inTolved in warn with Uttlr n^iehhoiin the Uor- 
nuuu, KuviLaiiii, Iiithuuuiaii!), and I'ruioiikua. At last 
Korerail, diiko <if Mamivia, one of the I'oUsh ducbl^it 
wbicb hud beon funnutl out uf tho dotniniona of 
BoUaUw, Ba]]ed in tbe aid of tbe 'i'eutonio order of 
kui^btfl agoiiut tho rnisaians, and tlicee, b«tw«uu 
123U and 14u4, rooqucred tbe whole of tbe Bnltic 
•caboord from the Udcr to tbe Unlf of Flotuid. Tho 
first kin(;<inr!erwbnni Poland i^;»i!i acq uimd import- 
auoe wna £,a<]C«law Lukl«t«k. II e inherited tbe toruue 
of Cracow in 129S, but aa tho Poles were diautblied 
with bim thoy rJoct'd in hi* plaon "WonoetUw IL, 
kin^ o[ IJuhEiuia, who ruled oi-cr Polaiid ^ur at least 
over iMuiof it) from 1300 to 1305. In the latter 
jenv I^kiotek recovered the throne by tbe iwotd, 
and aftenrardi nnlbed oxdar hli awaj botb Gre«t 
PoUnd on tbe WortA and Ltttlo Poland on the 
Uppar Vi«tnla. Hut reign lasted till 1333, wfa<?a 
be was luoceedwl by bia loii, Caninir III., who, on 
■eoount of b» wiadotn u » hsgiilAtor, and hia oxer- 
Hone in dvilijsiiig tbe interior, waa Duniftnif-d the 
GrMt. In order te aecnrs a •olid luutia for thn 
future greatnen of bis oootttr; ho deU'Tminod. if 
poniUe, to. remain at peiux with bia ncigbboura. 
With tbia view he onni>lud«ft in i:J4.1 the 'lr«aty of 
Kaliu with the Teutouiu urder, to vihich he furnial]}' 
oaded tha Uilur and thn fitiwnr \'ti<tii1a, iif which it 
WM nlr«ady in actual puwwMiou. Ho fortified tbe 
town* and frevd theiu fruin the ogipresiioiLs of tho 
nuUli^, atid by bis other measures eAve a grvut 
impctua to tho national pnapority. With Cadmiz 
the male line of the Plaata waa deatlnod to became 
exUuot. 'ilie DobUlty, to whom Ladiitlaur in 1331 
hail granted the right of asaemhlliig in a diet, anal 
hefpia to barter tbnr ▼ote* with tho eandidalu* for 
the tbro&e In eicbange for personal piivilegea, which 
could be granted thorn only At tho cxpenae of tbe 
general body of the penple. ('aidniir diod in 1370, 
and waa sucoeeded 1>y his ■Eater'it sou, LouEa of 
Hungary, with which kingdom Poluid was onitad 
till tho dL-ath at Ixiuia in 19flS. Loiria'a daughter, 
Hedwiit, waa now elected Queen of Poland, and 
alcbuugb Ladi*law, a cousiii of Cniimir IH.,, nbt^ned 



pArmimion from tbe pope to iwizc tbe crown, ehe was 
BucoeMiful in making fcond her titk^ In t36G ahe 
gave bur baud to Jogellitu, graad-dnlce of Uthoania, 
who unbracod Christianity, was baptised onder tbe 
mane of Lodiolaw {II,), and united Me grand-dnchy 
tn the crown o( Poland, After tho death of Uoiwig, 
in 1360, be waa stout to rotum to hii own o uuntry ; 
but tho Poles, conmccd of tho advaBUeea dorived 
from the union with Lithuania, nulntoined UmopeB 
the thnine, and he tbus became the founder cJt m 
Polish dynasty whicli lasted till 1572, and wbkh 
incladca tbe inllowiag seven Linut: — Ladislaw II, 
<.I)^Uon), IS86^14U4: Ladislaw UL, 1434-44; after 
an intcrrpfuum of two ycArs Casimir IV,, 1446-SS; 
Jf.bn X (Albert), 1 49-2-1 501; Afciander, 1501-4; 
Si^'imunnil L, IGOd-^f); and Sigiimund U, 154^72. 
Und«T this dyniurty PolAod gained in power and 
eitent. The Lithuanian* and Poles oombinod woe 
more powerful agnlnst tl^elr cenunon enemy the 
Teutonio knights, who were oompelled in 1464 tr 
agree to the Tresty of Thorn, by which the; oeded 
to Poland West Fniuis and Ennelond, and teoof- 
oiied the iuserainty of Poland over Bast Pnada, 
which in li'iS, with tho sanction of Poland, was 
erected bj> tbe grand -master, Albert of Bnndcnbaif. 
into a bcrodittry duchy. In l&U the family of 
1'!mU reigning in Mosovia became extinct, and the 
duchy wu united to Poland, In 1561, uader Sigit' 
miitid II., the Knigbt» of the Sword, oB order In 
Livonia sicuilur to the Teutonic order, haviBtf ap- 
pealed to iho Pole* for b*lp oeaiast the Tnrha, 
agreed to a treaty with tbo Poles By whiA the erder 
was seoulorisad and Lironia annexed to PoUnd, 
while the master of the order T«c<^Ted OoorLtnd so 
a Polish firf by way of ivimpimiiaticin. The poersr of 
Poland wss lULl further increased In the same niga 
in l!i6'J, when the union et PoUnd and T-**^™"** 
vi-;ifl couauniiuivlcd by th» odmiMion of the Lithn- 
anisn uoblus into tho PoUsb diet. On tbda oceosiesi 
Wanmw, a town ntiiated in the duchy of Moaovio. 
and Ibtu neither Fuliah nor Lithuanian, wee fixed 
ii|ion as the place where tbe common diet dunild 
meet. Tho prindpnl internal change which took 
(iloce in Fobind wm the orgonlzatlen ot TSpreuimU- 
tivo di«te. The ■vDtcio of reprtsentatire dieta doles 
in Poland frani tlio year 14(IS. Till then they hod 
bem lunimonod to meet at tbe kin^fs pleonre, and 
had no rei^uJar form, but from that year the ^ste 
met rcigulnrly, oud wore attended by two nabdoa 
(nunri'i trtratTft) frtita each district into wUcb tbe 
kingdom was divided. These nuncioe wvre reqolred 
to netivo predaa inateuctions f rum dietr ccnatitaaoti, 
sftd were not allowed to go beyond tbeon, T^ diets 
alui iacluiled nrpntsentalives Irom the towns. This 
arrsngeniDnt put for a time tbe cluef pow«r into tbe 
bonds of the great body of tho people; but it did aoi 
ctmUnne long in force. Tbe nobue graduilly sae- 
ceeded in l^anivldnj; the rtrpreeoutatives of tho tosms 
and in regiiinlne all tbnir fomiDr induenoe; oa that 
by the eiu) of uie reign uf Sigisuund I. almoal all 
the guanuiteM fur the liberty of the people had been 
done away with, 

Aftrr the extinction of tho Jsgellan droMty io 
1672 Poland become in fact wb^ tt had been la 
priiicijde ever slncv Iho vleetion of Louis of Hung^ory 
ax king, an dectivn monari-Ji}'. Ilcnry of VaJois, 
uftvrworda Henry III. vf France, was the first ef 
tbe new sedes of manarchB. He wai eleotsd In 
lfi73, and in 1A74 swore to tbe hnt Pacta OMUotM, 
A body of rimdomentol laws of the eoiMAitntion, which 
all aub«e<|u«nt kings were bound by en oath tu 
roipoct. Those oonslstod in tho moin of privilom 
granted to the nobility, hut included o pronsioo fi>r 
guoraut«tin)[ complete nli^oua liberty to aU s e ct s . 
Tbis proviBiim was made with tb* objoct o( serurlog 



A 



P0LA2ID; 



167' 



puM l m *e«B Ik* Bonu) CttboUci, vko fanned the 
iBAis body o( Um fMopH A&d tbc I>iMi(l«ti.M, caiuist- 
faif ol members of Urn I >m>k And Annoniiui Chnrcbca, 
liol duelljr vf the- mdhvrvnb of dUF«raDt Mota d Pro- 
t^Untiiin, which had mulo gmt pwgrwi is Pcdand. 
AtliMi lletirj, after m rripi «f four tuontb^ itcretly 
iDMla bii Mcapv In onlor tu Uk« pcMwrlcw of the 
tfaniw o( Fnaoe^ St«pben Bftthtvl <mm bt \S76 
«ImI«1 to RKCMd him. WfaSo he mgnod then wh 
oMc* more A •troDg |;ar«m]neiit In I'oUnd. Int«r- 
naUj Iba L-ouutry WM earn paJ^ti vol j tranquil, and 
•xMnudJj ita arma ir«r« viotoriooa. Tb« pravinrr* 
vUA had bcOB Miand (rotn FokDd b; the Cur of 
Haaeavj mn Tceovand. Altar Ub dMtb In Ifi^fi a 
8*«diah prioM waa «l«cl«4 iud«r the title i>r Sigis- 
anad Ul ^mm who bronght about thia eloc- 
tloa bad dcot M with tho hopo of tmitlDg Kureden 
mmI Pblaad, bat Sweden kwh hroke away from thi^ 
■aloa, and in coaMqcMOC* of thia a war oniiunt] 
h^ t w wD tfaa two comitriM, which waa not Rnnlty 
<ioociDd«d till the Pwea of OUva In IGSO, la which 
Fal«bd loat Livuaia and FntitfHtiiiS and waa drprivMl 
«(lfaaaitn«>)nt3raTnr KaatPnuwia. Meanwhile iji)^- 
Bnutd IIL had died In 1632, aod bad i>o«n Bnci.-oed»d 
by LadliUw IV. (1932-48), and John XL Caalmlr 
(1449-08). tTDd«r tho iMt-mcntJoned king the poli- 
tiol nodition of PoIukI became ao oomplotely 
MHnUnI tbat the free veto by whlc^ the vote of a 
riD^ dapnty of the diet might negative m propoail 
ta wUch all the otben were agreed waa naae legal. 
Oan gieal ohim of the anwcby whEdi prevailed waa 
lb* £^b» la Mi«i«tb of tbe VimSOmtB, wd their 
iqant lam of p^ticnl pivilagta. Since the 
I «( Kgiamimd III. a teactloB agahut the Pro- 
tendency bad been fai progrea^ |>arily in 
I of Uw eiffortB of tbe Jeeulta, and pwtly 
I flf lbs quKidi nmoBg the I>i«idesla tbeniMlvea. 
Tot tnnny PnteeUal eannrl^ Mpedally among 
Ihe tending f »"*'*— of the ominliy, ntutned to their 
nU Utb: and betwaca 1«06 and 1«20 the Dlnldente 
lent two-tfairdeof their chorchGa. TbeKomuiCAtho- 
Im^ who iMW felt their power, bcjgan to abridge the 
IvMegw wbkfa had t>een frvijoMitly OMtfirmed tu 
lltmm, nad nveu to subject thorn to pen»eati«n in 
vteblks tt the law. lEcligionii anil polfti«al emwee- 
lien nriianliiiir ] the reruU of tbe Cneaacln^ who in 
KM ^ae«d tbemaelvaa nnder the protMrtlou nt 
BsHn, and in 1987 Sraotenek, Siov, and the land 
enai «l Iba Dnieper wm mrendered to tbe aame 
fottm. Aftv the abdication of Julm C[uiiulr tbe 
lever nohaity eS«c4cd tbe •leoUon of Michael Wi»- 
ilBwiochi. who r«i2T)«d froen 1669 to 1674. Hie roc- 
Manr, tbe brave John SoUmIcI (IIIT4-Ifet, in th« 
r«noa of 1S8S, ooafinnod the ocoiinna which bftd )M.-t-[i 
made lo Hiieila mdnr John CoiBmir. After liU 
4eMb the thiene appeared to be at the di^»«al of 
the oD* who offand noat. The AbM PaUguu^ on 
b^aU of Lotda XIV. of Fimooe, aacrifioed large 
onmn In order to determiBa the choLm in favour of 
Ibe Frinoe Coott. VrlieB tbe Elector of Saxony, 
Angnetna IL. had managed lo awure Ida clsetloft to 
tbe tbrane in opnwtian to tho Vrmcb party (1697), 
bnnlUed hlmedt wUb Fet«r the OcMt of RiMrinEo 
IB aMiBf* to noovtr Unain fnn Sweden, and 
Felaad thai beenat* biTolvod fa the NorUtem war. 
ABcr Ibe vdctoriee of the Bwedea the Poliidi ditt, 
wUcb waa tolerably fakdlffereot lo the fate uf tbi-ir 
■Jnetive kbu^ depoaed him (Feb. U, Viti), and a 
lew mcBlfan laterelocted Staaialaw }^uxxjmki in hi* 
tootn. StnablMr contiBaed to bold tbe throne of 
I'obnd aa kag ea the Hwndiah arma rHnained In the 
aaecodaat; m b 1709, after tho defeat of Charhsa 
XIL at Pultava, Augnetua of Saxony waa reatored 
and mainteiniil ht fiuweeaiua of the throne till liia 
aJaatb in 1733. VTmm thia event took place Sunia- 



law Leucirnakl, who»o daughter had junt been mar- 
ried to Ijtiui* .\ v., vrtth the nunport of the PVench, 
made another effort U> rth-aiu tuc Ihruno of Puland, 
hot Awrtria and Runtia vcm* rleterminwd tn hare no 
oUv of Kmnce for their neighbour, and induoed th« 
principal noblea and pralatea of Poland to proclain 
Auguntue III. of Saxeoy "l^ft, although the people 
gnnenJlv wore faroonblo to the pfetoniiion« of Stan- 
ialftw. 'Tho oonfuaion in the oovntry waa now i:reat«r 
than ever. In 1717 and ITl^ under the reign of 
Auguatna IL, the rishle of the Uiandoota bad been 
■dill further eurtailei), nnd in 1733 they ware for> 
uially exoluded fr^'ui all publlo ufll^ti. Tbe meat 
violant pafalaas were thoa inilamed in all olaM«a of 
tho [lenple. After tho liitfttb of Aiiaiutna HI. hi 
1703, and tba elerticm of Count BtaniiUw Ani,iiatua 
Ponlatowwki in 1761 aa hia tuooamor, the Dlaaldenti^ 
supported by Buaaia, Denmaric, Prnann, and £i^ 
land, endeavonred at the dint of 17A6 to obtain ■ 
remedy for tfaoirgrioTancre) but lUtliuticli in 1707 a 
treaty wh condnded at the Instanco of BiLaaia, by 
which iboy were restored to a fo-iting of complete 
nquolity wilti tlie ('atholin^ the fsoAticnl opjHUttion 
UJiule til tbc-ee procecOingi by Blahop Soltyk of Cra- 
cow and Mnaaalaid of VDu bronglit aboot a civU 
wftT which plu^£^d the Und into the wildert oonfii- 
■iun, ftnd eaamsa ('^thnrine II. of Ruirain to say that 
Poland waa a eouuLry inui which tbe <hn« neigfa- 
boDiing grant powam had only to lay tboir hnnda in 
order to take out nomcthing. Uiueta took it utmn 
heiaeU to defend ttia canae cd tho DiNidenta, luid In 
order to realat her luflnenoe a eonfedaratlnn naa 
formed in Fob. I'C^ at Bar, then a Pollah town, but 
now in tho Kumian gn re runic nt of Podolia. In 
theea cIrcunnrtABoea it apptraml to tli« Aiulriau coiirt 
oppcrtto* to leenme the county of Jtipe, which had 
been pledged by Bnngaiy to Poland early in the 
fift^enth oentury. Ity thia ant it gave Boudn nnd 
Pninia, the two other gruut powece contlgnoua to 
Poland, a weloome ptet«xt for carrying into oScct 
tho loDg-meditatod partittna of tliat conntry. On 
Uu) Sth of Angnat, 177!:!, the three poweiw candudod 
a treaty among Iheinsrlvca with that ob]eet« and OO 
the ItsiU of S^itcmbcr, 1773. Poland waa compelled 
to giro ita ccoaent to the first pArtition, which had 
already actually taken place, and )>y which it loat 
6^000 aqnare milea, T^a aoqiiititionB of AnirtHa, 
whidi indnded moat of the territoriee which now 
form the Kingdom of Galicii^ amounted In all to 
27,000 square milea. Thoae vt Pnueia, tho prtocipBl 
of which was Puliih Pmaela, with the exception el 
Dandg and Tliora, had an area of 18,41fi aqunre 
mllea. And thoee of lUuaia, which Indudt'd, amMig 
oilier di*Lricte, Llvouia, amouitted lo nearly 42,004 
»<]uare mile^ What Tcinalnnl to I'obuid waa ooni* 
pletaly trader Rnaaina iafluencab A |«triotlc paity 
now bana to Inhonr for the reetomUon of PoIum 
to ite Totmer peaitlan, and nnder tho imnreeaioa 
cansed br the vevdvtloaarj praeadlnga in Fknnoa a 
rBfora of tbe ooivtitntton waa projected, aooanUng 
to which Um elective monarchy and (be free veto 
ware to be abolklted, and the third cctate to be 
received Into the natkmoi leweaeotatiim. A neir 
eonalitatloiL dated the ftd of Siay, 1791, wma aotoallj 
framed on ttuse prineipica, and recdred the nppnk* 
batioo of Pniana. IluMt% however, rejected it, and 
eepocacd the cauae of Ibi oppooanta, a mall ecotloa 
of the nobility, who had on tba 14tb of May, 179% 
concluded at Taignwla a conCedanthm agniaat IL 
Pniuia now abandoiied the eaaae of tbe MpabUo, and 
on the 4th of Janoanr, 1793^ enaaentod to a aeoond 
pBitLtion. by whicb Kaaria laodvcd oeariy Vtfi09 
•quai« a^kn (inclndlBg, among other torrltariei^ the 
crown domaina of PoUifa Uknise and Podalia, and 
the eaatora half of VoLhynia), and Pnueia 22,&00 



■quar* mltn (oombtlDs m^n); of tbo pvU now 
{anaing th« pnviaw td Poean, boddes dazis ftud 
Thorn). BiuciMi bftTcmi^ oompcUod tho indigDuit 
mambitrs of UiA diet to w^qaiooe in thin now ili>> 
tnambomisat of thdr pouutry. Tbe hemic KoAciusko 
[a tUt vitrntioa of tfTun Moma tb« head ot Cto 
eonfedentfoiL irhi>ah wm fonned at. Cncov in MatcIi, 
17W, for tti« dofeoco of tliHtr cuuntry. Tim liattlo 
of HacUwioo, Aiirii 4, 179i, tmA the relief i>f War- 
»w, which wu bcaiugcd by the Fnunao txmy, Scp- 
•omher A and 6, I'm, an ths moat glariotia dayn tn 
the Urtory of tha I'uluh nalion. But it wa* too 
laU. Witlimit fa rtru a ua , discipline, allioii, or vvhii 
omia; aurroModed by BuadaM, Praanucui, luul Auw- 
trUaa, tlia Polaa omld not but Encnitnb In the end 
After the defoftt and captmv i>f Ko«ciu»ko at &IacE> 
ianvioe on tbo 1 Olh of Qctubvr, and Uiu faU of Prnga, 
a niburb of Warsaw, on the 4Ui of Xovembw, fur- 
ther raustanctt traa bapdcaa. Tbo tliird tmd cam' 
{iIot« jiartition. of the ooantry waa nnnr ai^Tood upon 
wtweeu Ruaalai, Fmaaia, and Aiutria (.Tan. 17&5>, 
and the modo of dividing th« apoH ftxcd by a tfitle 
iraaty, minted at St. I'aterabnrg on th« 21th of Octo- 
ber, ilbZ. Runla rcccivHl ia all 4:t,m<) wjiinm 
milwi (including the dncby tit CuuHiuid, a Fulisli 
fi«f, tbo dachy of Somigallia, &c.); Prussia, 21, £00 

Snan mUea (wbir.b incln>i«l that pirt nF the ducJiy 
Maacivia in whimfi Wiinuiw wan iiitual«l>; and 
Anatria, 17,700 aqnaro milt* fini-lMilfo^ lliei town and 
llu) ):r«nt«r )iart of tbc Pulatinato of Crnoov, and 
Other poTtiona}. llie loot kin;, Stiuii.ilaw Augnntiui, 
waa compelled on tha 2£th of Xuvumbvr, ITl*^, Lu 
aign Lia own alxtioition, and to spend tbit rontainder 
of hla days iu Kuwtia in the recclpc ot a pcnaion. 
B« died At St. Pct«rt4burg tn lim To the Folei 
tiothing rcmaincrl but wounded fcallDga of natluu^ 
priilci, a bJtler bate a^nsb Rtwaiana and (iermanji, 
aad fndtleN appoali to FreDdi aid aad public syiu- 
pithy. In all Ittmia had robbed Poland ot apwiirda 
of I80,0(K> aqoara mUeaaod 4,000,000 InbabiUuU; 
Austria, of alraut 4S,00l) •qoare milvi, -nitb C,DOO,000 
Inhabitanta; PnuaiJ^ of 57,OCI0 aquare nait*, with 
2,C;50,QOO iohabttanto. 

Tiu) dunwmbared country, which now Brat i«oelT«d 
{uternol vcdor from fondga banda, cvuliuued in tbla 
condition till NovenLber, ISUS, when Knpoleon'i 
victoriM over ProMJa lod the emigrant Polea, uuder 
Di>!tibruwsld, to I'fuunt and Warsaw. By tho torma 
of the P*>at* of Til.it (July 9, IfiO?) Ibo greater part 
of thg Pnunaa PulJih proviaou was fomed Into the 
duchy of Wanaw, whidi r«cdvcd a ticrman ruler in 
(ha 'King of BaxoQV, and at the aamc tims with tba 
>'rGiich coilo a constitntioT] duillur to tb« FtaocL, by 
v)u(^ attrfilou waa aboUahod. In thii duchy much 
tna Indtod done for ths eleiatlon of tb^i maaada, but 
(bo praaaure of tbo war, conacriptioa, nud the conti- 
nontal ayatcm, prcveuicd the growth of a cound atatfl 
of proaperlcy. Tlie Poaee of Vienna (Oct. liOiH 
added WoK Calida to tbo duchy of Waraaw, and 
tbo hope aioac among tho Polca, many of whom liad 
nobly lenrvd Napolvon in bh wan agatnat Aoattla 
and in Spain, that he aerioualy fntendeil to rc*t<irc 
thanultoDal independence. HowdeluHve Ihiavipcc* 
tation WBJi fint aiiptiarm] in th« campaign of 1^12, 
wbon it wia manil»t that all that Napokon dminxl 
waa to ralae aa many troops ati pcnlble in the oonn- 
try. 'llio dianatroua tonnbation of thia canpnign 
braugfat tho dnchy to a apeady cod. Ila admtniatnk* 
tlon waa at onoe oaaumod by Ruaata, and tbo oon- 
groat at Vlnuu (in 1814-16) daddad tbo fato of tbo 
conntiy. 1. The city of Cracow, with ita territory 
(146 eqnare miieak, waa to be gmreraed by ita own 
law*, B« a froo and tndopaodoot rD|nit>Uc [k« C&a- 
cow); % the cxMnutry on the lij^t hank of tho Viitnla, 
with the cttcU) of TaRiopoia, which had been eeded 



to Roaaia by the Faaee of Vlwaa, waa reatojod 
Austria; i, th« dtdwof Kulin and HidieUtiwtlw 
city of lliora and Ita territory, ths deMitmokt of 
Poaen, with the exception of Ibe drdea fd FonrUa aad 
Peyamn, and part of the departmaot of Kaliaa, aa 
far aa iha Proout oxcludin? tbo city and cittla ct 
that name (tbeae timita w«re more exactly daflnad 
by tho buundary- treaty between Ruada and PtWHia 
of Nov. 11, 1817), wore coded to tho Ifing of Pnwda, 
who nnttMl DwuJg, Then, Euln, ain Minbrian 
with West Pnuaia, and ttea tho ranaJBdw fannad 
the gcand-duchy of Poaon; i, all the ro«t waa nidtod 
with the ItiiniiiatiKmpirB under the muueof IfaaXliq^ 
dom of Pulauil, but with a teparaW adnlntatiaHea, 
and Buch a torritorial extent as tba RoaaiaB cmpwor 
nbiiild oee fit. The Kmpcror Alecander, tlM»«torv, 
aaaumod ttie tJtlo of Ciar and King of Polaod, and 
rooeived horaagB In Wanaw. FoUnd, tbon^ thw 
divided, pTMcrved ita namo and lancoi^ah aa tho 
trcttics of Vienna locured to all Polisa who were 
•ubjecta of any of the three powera auch an organ- 
Izatioa aa tended to maintain th«u- nattonal axiat- 
cnctt. A I'ollab charter waa aooordingly Ttranmlffalad 
(Xor. ^7, liilfi), aonaiBting of 165 arUoba, wbbtfa, If 
f ui Lhf uUy exooutod, would ha*o prouotad IIm waif avo 
of Poland. The gov«mni«nt of tho ocmntry waa to 
be rested in a nittivo Pole, na tietttonaat of tbo kiag- 
duoi, uuleu una ut th« liiiperlal princol abonld ba 
SFpoiolvd viceroy. Tbia waa rondorwl nngatnry by 
the profonc*; of tho tyrannical Coaatantioo aa com- 
mand cr-in-chief. K<in&lity of telleiona aeot^ pet- 
eoiial iccurity, liberty of the pnoa, Uie entim poaeo- 
doa of all omploymenta, dvu and aulltary, in tlM 
country by Fotei^ were KBong the pmulaea cf the 
charter; and these rlghta wars to b« seeared by a 
nation*] diet compoicJ of two cbanbofs. But tliese 
prouiiMS were keipt only to the ear; ra alr ir t iona tm 
tbo pnaa, arbitrary lupritonmeut, arbitnuy and 
aniel ponllhlQOlitB, inmilta added t') injuriea, a aolemn 
loockoiy of a diet, whiuh waa not allowed lo oaecciaa 
any rwu authority; the violatktn of oroty HtUs of 
the <diar(er by a Kiitnlaa barbarian; peciuatlaa nd 
extortion pracliied by the inferior olBaeia tbnae 
wore eome of the fnturea of the llawiian goratmmBfc 
of Poland. 

Tbo lint diet aiHeinbled in 1813. and the liberty 
of tho prcnH waa aboliabed by an ac-t of 1818. An- 
other dint vrna h«Id in Ih'Jil, Init tbcoa tooatin^ war* 
rendered tuvro c'creinoiiiBa; they had no fieedom <■( 
debate, for thoM niemberB wbo darod to exprai 
ociioiout nnfialalablu to the gorcmmont were ban- 
uuied to their otatca, and uiade to pay tho tnopa 
that guankd thuui: It could not rofuao rapptks: aad 
in 1 3U an orduianoo waa uemcd Ij tbo gormuMBl 
at)oluitiint; fniMicity of debate. Tne reaonrces wars 
■quandt-Tcd tu ualiitaXn a Ruaalan aad PoUah amy, 
and Knaaian govemora practiae<l all aorta of extor- 
tion; rtato ptiaoncn won aent into Knana. and im- 
priaoned aithout trial; rei^wclabla titiaena won 
flugged, or made to work iu tho Idglnraya wllhovt 
any chiu-go being epcoUied agaiuat ttina. On the 
ditath of Alexander (Decaonlier. 16ZS) and the aecea- 
aiuu of NichoLaa a aun«|nr>cy broke o>iit in Raana, 
and, on pretanoe that it extended to Waraaw ae*«ral 
bundreu poraona won nrreatcd in Poland, and a ooin- 
miulon oonatltDted, oootrary to the prorlaiciM nf the 
ehartor, to inqulra into the alTair. Tbo only dia- 
oof «nr of thia inqoiritarial tribunal, wh that i 
aodeUee had exlated in Foland irinoe U21. In : 
a Bodety was inatltnted for the poipooe of 
orcr the oSioera of tbo army to tbo cause o7 
piaiduioe, and tho inaarrvclion of 1830 was tho raaott 
of Iu pluttinga. It appcan,nevurtbele«, Ihatit waa 
immedintalyoccaaJonad by a ahatn ooDipirM? got np 
by the lloanao police^ wbo liad tbua indaood a num- 



fkd*- 



POLAND. 



1S9 



\ hm of TOBBC men to bvtnj UmnHlra, utd iiri7wd«d 
lk> priaooi willi At vk^ma. 

> Ob tlw wtaiaf of the 29th of Xovenber, lfi:!0: k 
I jvang: dBccr enMnd the nUitar? aduwl al Wumv, 
t,aod caUad tb* math to mvul The; immadUtcly 

i to B«M<kn^ the raddcDoe dt Oxutftntiite, 

1 S adlM fram the d^. for the porpoee of Mtztn; 

on. Tbcy were joinod on the way by tho 

I td th* nniTBtsity, and forced thoir my iiLto 

lb* palaM; hot the priiwewMOoiioealed ia*«Iotbee- 

I jw by ft Hmai, imtU he ooold mak» hla eioape by 

'ft werU doer. AiKil2wr party <t cadeti and atadenli 

> ^■vadad Iha ifaaeta *'*ll^ff ^m citueoa to anna, and 

> way w«M jolaad by the^Ueh treopi. The annul 
I wIbmI with 44\000 atand of anni, and tba israi- 

\ wetfcai now baca^Da seneral. On the next mnniing 

I 40^000 trm^ aad dtiMaB vrete in aruii ond tho 

f SarfHS w«* axptDed botn Wanaw. TheadioioU- 

^tnttv* aMBcfl wat mauDoaed to maaeiTa order, and 

mfnnl ctf the moat duttn^inabed Polea wete invited 

to alt arhh H. On the IStb of December the priuce 

wae aU(iw«d to leave tbo tuighbourhood of W anaw 

with three lee^BieiitR ol FUuaian caTidry and twn 

r^gteeala of Lnlantnr vritLont oppuaition. On Ibe 

sab of Jannarj, 1831. a diet, which had mat on the 

18th ti JDaecoiwr in the pievjoua year, prQaouncod 

Ik* dipOiltfcMi of tho hotue of Romanov, df^-lariig 

>h« Ihraae of Potand la be racaut, anil at the aaiue 

time a ifDrvraine&t waaoiganiaed unilnr AdftmCxnr- 

iot^aU. Thu tar Uie buumotfon waa coiii]>lctely 

ifnl; bat h nlttmalely faUed, as wall In oonM- 

1 o< want of B&ity among thMneelvei^ aa of the 

' aupeakr atrenrth «( ^lad^ In tho battlca which 

took plaoe UMer ChloiilcM, Sknynedd, and Dwer- 

, rieU, at Itofar^ aiscaeclc Gntohow, and OMroIenka, 

,tb« Polea foig^t with bmadleaa courage; but all 

tkaimartione were unable to prweal the Runian 

, Mnaeal tVeUevich froea adraitcinff upon WnnuLW. 

, <W lb* 8th of September, 1631, this city cik|jilukU>J, 

aA» -arhkh tha nrnnanta ol tbo I'olub anny cither 

took ndigo on AMtrlaa or Pnualan terrftory, or 

. ■wJirii to tba '»»'■—<»— The final result of tbia 

\ Inaiirmilim waa only lo put tha Polea mom tarn- 

I plelaljr onder tha government of Uiuaia. I'he con- 

•dtaiMi of 1 815 wae fomiallv a1>olIih«<d, and repliuml 

by Iba a*vMUc itatoto of K^bnury H (JitiJ, Ib'ii. 

• Tha Polieh army wat dUMBded, a strong dtadol waa 

, erected lu Wanaw; the peujile were duarawd, ami 

•fiery aBort waa made to KuMiaoIxe the oountry. 

Iw PolUi emigimnta, however, did not yot givo vp 

< htfa, aad from time to Ume tried to mied new rcvolU, 

"BWap did actuaOy tahe pUoe in 1646, Ui the parte 

wUeh bad fallen to Aiutria, ProaiiB, and Craoow 

Mkh bat then km Ita hidepmdcaoe), and in ISIS 

' a fr— ia alou^ but all tbeao atteapta oamo to 

llorv aerioaa troobloa bmn in Buanan 

k 18W. A maethic at Waivw of the 

' — fwjani ot KoMii, Fraaria, and Amtrta, wUcb 

' took plaee in tha October of Uuit year, mailed the 

VeaMfT of the pattftioiu of Poland, anil produced 

I tbiou^oat the oouBlry an aadtament which mani- 

' latoa Itodf ia paltlodo oolelmtioM. Attompu 

. •«• Biada to obadt tUa esdtcniant by forou; but 

' altarwarda Prinoe Qortchahoff, tho governor in I'o- 

' Im)^ reeorted U> ooitdliatory meaaorei, and allowed 

Ibe Polee to prepare am addiaaa to tho emperor, 

Alaxander IL, pnylnf for the rcetonOaoii of their 

— ii<mal inaUoUkioa. The emperor treated thia 

■JJiam ae aeditinafc Nevertfaelam by a akaae of the 

[.tStk «C UaRb. a GOmdl el atate^ formed ol Polc^ 

wtm emlad M VarMW, alMtlvs oonadla wtra tnati- 

id Ib •n*7 eovemaeal and diatrict, and mnnld- 

fal oeondla at Waraaw and a nnmbw of the i>tber 

' mlBi i ^ al towM. Tbeae conetariona were, however. 

anb aocs tias ""■^"■i Wbeo the atatato^ ao- 



oordiag to whfdi thn iiImum wiui lo be carried out, 
wetv iJroiuulcatL'd, it vnta found tli&t th» govern- 
mental, district, and municipal couadla Lad »car«<ly 
«.Dy f<inctioaa aaaignad thnm. 'I'hi'Jr liccUJoni might 
ho caooollod by their preaidont), wIumo apuuiutnicnt 
waa in the luLodit of the SDVonuueint; and ue ooundl 
of aute, the mcmbciaot which wan to be nominated 
by tbo empcTor, waa to deliberate with doaed doon. 
I'liB pulilication of tbuea Htittubea increoaed tbo dl^ 
cvutvat, wUvb apread from Wanaw tbrougbout the 
kingdona, and oven into the andent PoUah urovinoci; 
oapedally into fjivonia, whcro a riaiaf at Vllna waa 
rinlently auppnoaed bv tlia Buaaiaa gav4:rii)i]rtit 
<AagUBt IS, 1601). l>unng the nett kw muntbe 
the agitation went oa conatantty increaalui; to a 
larso extent, in ootuatjuenoe of the violent and im- 
poUdo meaaoiea ol the RnaaliLDs. At lart the Kovera- 
mont UMvad anotliar atop in the way of eoncaliation. 
On tbo 8th of Jone^ 1862, the Gnuul-dalu Conataa- 
tine, brother of the omperw. wu appuiuted UmtleoaiiB 
of lJi« klngdam, and tlio .Maninii Vialopdalci waa 
nBBodntod with him aa head of tbo dvil KovenuiMBl, 
in whidt c^iaKiity he endeavonred to allay tha dia- 
conleot by furthering the material pronxnitv of tha 
land, fn thi* tin night have vnoccnilca bad not he 
laLon other ttcfi* wbii-h ooiikp1«t«rly oouutoraoted the 
good etfeot that, bla I'tnii oSorte might have had, and 
even raiaed the diacoLtont to a bigbor pitch than 
over. Among other obnoiinua acta bu unli^rcd a levy 
of oonaiTipta to be made, a thing which had uvl been 
done ilnco tho Crimean war; and to make mateen 
Ttonc it wa* dcU^rmincd that tlin cboiiro <•! the eon* 
■eripta Bhould not be left to lot, but ahould bo in the 
jiower of the administration, whiofa thus hoped to get 
rid of tha moat turinilent part of tho popnJataoii, and 
npecially <■( tho«K^ wliu bait figtirtd in tha raiMnt dia> 
onlorai On t!ie llrtb at Jaouarv, 18CS, tbo recruit" 
luvut took plaoe at Warsaw by niglit, and tbeparuiu 
dtaltued to aerve Ja the army a(,iiinst tbcir wul vers 
takoii to tbe oitailrl. On the Sid day of the aatne 
month a general imurretrtion broke out at numcruna 
difliiKnt points A central oommtttee waa fcnned 
at Waiaaw to direct the movem«nta of the inanr- 
geota. From the bcfpnniog of February figkting 
waa goias; on everywlivre. On Ibe 10th of MaRli 
Laagiewics, who bad defeated tha Bndaiu at Fiaa- 
kowa-i^cala fire days previfltialy, waa ^pointed by 
the oantral oontmitbee dictator aii<l geoenl of all the 
inanmat airolea; but on the IS'ih be waa ddeatsd 
and EOlad at TtigukS*, and hia troopa wwo obligad 
to aaro tbemeelvea by eroanng the mnticta of 6a- 
liohk On the I7tb ol June the cabliiela of EnKbuid, 
Fhui06h and AnitriA addrMud aeparata notee to ihti 
Ruodan govenmenti nr^? it to grant the prindpal 
detnanda of titt Polaa; Init thia attempt at n)eiliation 
failed; and the propoaal of a Kuropeau oouferenoa 
rdatlva to tba afTain of Poland. wUob waa Umo 
made^ wta rejected by Prinoe GortdiafcoA^ tba Rob* 
dan ■"'»'■'*■' (eottdn of the Prinoe Goitchakoff for- 
merly mentioned), aa an imwajTaDt«d iuterfcieDca 
with the internal affaire of KtaniL Tho war waa 
now carried on witliout meny, and with lew and leaa 
|:iroepoct of ouoeem on the pivl of tba I nw rgeBhL 
Tba Ituenana aaoocadad in wwitiiy Iba peaaanto 
againat tfidr maaten, and aecnring tCdr alX Hiay 
&rat cbwgvd thorn with tho datiBi ot rand poUo^ 
r<iiuiring them to watch the pnhUe roada aad arreot 
auapectcd penwtt^ and afterwarda pmraiaed to thoee 
who ahoala aariat in puranlng tba rabela pert of the 
landa to be oonflacatod frum Ibe amallar noUUty and 
tjia 6onr«M^t£<^ In Uanib. 1S8I. tha ifaiiic waa 
oompletely tinellad. but not till the laaatgeata bad 
bean terribly rvduood In nimihani. Many had boon 
executed ; thouaaoda bad fallau on the Sehl of battle; 
tbonaanda more had baen '""'■'"^ to Siberia; and 



POLAND. 



kfUir the m|>pmi8li)n <if tb« r«voU ■ new t>Mii1 of 
Poliib vtnim'UttH went to fW«U tho DomlMr of thi.iMi 
Already Ncai.ter«J ovof frrcigTi countriea. In iSflT n 
Uiuitod &Diiieaty vfOA piriclujiiivd in favutu of tliowi 
who hiul t.iI>nTi juirt in tho inannrrtinn. 

Since ]66i lbs policy c>f Kunjn with rupird to 
Polwid hu been direct^il tfi the oiimplete uaimilik- 
Uon of tfao two (.'•■uutriuf^ but ako to Iho improTc- 
tnmit of tho condidoili of tha pnaxant c]juu in thit 
latter vutiD-try. TLa mcMiinMaJuiit«d for iLk nt-ound 
pnrpoM vera, of course, to & lu^ extent, meivDi aa 
blnnn nguinut irfnwtory noI>lc«, T« laoMiirca of 
thii cLiia boloDK' tho ukiWD of November 1!, ISBfi, 
&bvliaLiuK (with coui^'cnuitlon In tlie csu^ of private 
ovnion) tho Mrvitudca, iiapOBta, and mono[>oliB8 with 
which 150 tovma and viUagea of Poland were linr- 
dotec^ and that of June 21, 1S70, to fn«ilitat« thu 
ecn wwt oa of tsaandM of land into private pro- 
pcrtJTt Tb« principal mcMares for the aMlmilation 
of Hnaoft and I'aliind bcloiw to the jean 1867-SS. 
Is 1867 there wu a new sdmluistrative dlvlatati of 
Foland into tea ^vommonts and ai^bty-flve clrclos; 
ttefiiuiidalarrangenifntiinl thRcmintry were hroii^ht 
Into faarmony with tbcaq of Rimia; Lbe FoliaJi coniial 
of iCate waa abuUshed; and the afT>irB (if tbe Itomiut 
Oihthulio Charoh w«r« rabordiiutvd to au Mclwa*- 
tlcil eoUege In St. Pfitnsbtuv, all diraeC istmourM 
between the pope and the Komaj) CathcUn vlngy 
being prohibitml. In 13€S the admlniitrstiv* Inoor- 
pomtion of Poland with Kuasia wna cooipletcd by 
the ukase of March 11!, which placed t)i« ollidaU af 
the PoIl^ govcmmoDla under the atitboirity of the 
diroctingaanatnof thoempim. 1'he Viccu-or or I,i>Rii' 
tuuant ci Folutd wm left with tuenly UDmiBal dutici 
to discharge. Iel this year ttino oven the nuna t>l 
Poland wwi nffiaiallr dmppnf, and rcploci^iE tiy tliat 
of Go^ eniniDiilti of the \ utuU. By a ukaJia cf tho 
8th of July, 18«9. tb* Unlreralty of Warsaw wan 
thoroughly KuMtaaixed, and about the sanio time it 
waa decreed that Uiuuinn tiiiould l:>ft th«i *»]• language 
luod ia fcboolt. Vram th!« time fortli the hittory of 
Poland is catnpletely identified v-Hh that of RtiMria. 

Au eioelli'tit work reapocting PolacLd ia liulbiim'a 
Hiitnire de I'AnnTrhio de Polognn nt dii G)^m«n]bni' 
racnt de txlte lU-publique (four vol*. Paris, 1807}. 
Sespeetiog the tint partition of PcIaBd, tee Von 
Dolun*! Dcnkwtirdigkeiton (nne vol.), L«ttrM du 
Bmitm do Vioni^iiil [PaiU, It^UH), and Mdto Itmn'a 
Tableau de la Pologue, ani7[i?nui- vt lu'ilerii^. 8c« 
alM Salraadr'! Uirt. do Polo^e, arant et sous 
J. BobleakJ (Pari^ 18S9); FleU:hcr'» HUtnry nf Po- 
land {8vo, London, 1881}; Lelewel'« Hbtuire do 
Pologna <Pari«, IS44>; OhodxVo'a Ilistotro populitlni 
de Polognc (Farif, 1S(!2]; CbcriTa Hntoire cocoplHe 
de U Pologne IParts, 1&63): and MIcldewiCB'a His* 
toira populairo do Pologno ^'aris, 1SS7). 

Poli*k ZanjfuojK-— 'The uacottiunty of tho nnrlltft 
PoUah liiatuiy tpr«ad> a deep obacunty over the ri«; 
and progrem of tho laDg&Bge. tt is of SUvonie 
origin, and i* mnro nc-aily allied to Bobemiau tlino 
any otb«r toDjpic. It dlGTora very much from ita 
eoMern aiat«r, tha Ruaaian languafo, tn the nnnaber 
ot its hard oansocHnta. Tho mtivatioa of tho Un- 
jrangs oarly tnnt with a grnat obatoolo on accovnt of 
UM adaptiuD of Cbriallanlty, according to tho Latin 
ritual; fortbe clergy, being the inoit cultivated flrder, 
took pogflcmion of the places of honour and tbo pui'lie 
oBGoei^ so that the Latin language becamo Ihs liut- 
guag* erf the atate^ and afterworo^ on aeoouul of tb« 
Rings and queens being foraignen, tbo Unguag« of 
tbo eoart, and nf all the educated clasM* also. Tb« 
kuMjiiago of the country finl reoorered lia rigfata in 
the r«lgn of Sigiunnnd, In tb« dzteenth century, 
and became in th« toiddto of that ctntury the lan- 
goaga of books; it then declined la tbe seventeenth. 



bnt floorlsfaed again dntlng tho rdgn tf Btaidalaw 
Augustus, aud ripened to » maturity of wUdi eveo 
the ■ubseqiioot political channca could doC entlnly 
deprive il. lu 1»01 a aociety for the p i ea tJ T a tien df 
tb« purity of thn 1'oluih langiiikgn vac fnrtnod at War- 
•aw, under the directlun of tbe Binhop Abbertruidi, 
and in ISOy pul>IU>hed the tirtt volume of th^irtrvas- 
actions, The KuMUans ara now ■"«*''"g every cITart 
to nipplant it by th«r own langu^u. 

Tbu PoIibIi Innguwe li alioTC aO tUoga nonarinbk 
(or ita phonetlo riehiMaiL It notidna Bine veml^ 
Ih<? Kiiuiiil cf s (irbich is nprosented ijj}, and thirty 
SvD c^odiimnnti Tho alphabet oaea is tho tmm, 
dlikcrillc marks and comUnatlons being used where 
that alphabet is defoctivfl. The number of Ibeas 
marks bud oombiitation* makes the Polish language 
as spelled appear nitioh lianher in Ui« oyea o# a 
forci^er than it is in realUy. Tho Polish languge 
is indcod sitid tn hn the very rcrefsa of hant^ and 
th« niDiit harnxmioui nf thi? Slaronio teBgiiea. 71m 
pmi'iunL'iattoa ii iiid>>iHi dlffivtiH to a foreigner, b«t 
this is solely duo ta tbe nioo gtadationa uy wbkli 
tho sounds are diKtin^iiahod. 'rho principal peculi- 
arities of itn prouiinciaUun are the following: c is 
pruDouQO(<d like U in Knglish; rA is a strong as):di*t^ 
US in Gertnsu: <t is pronounood IJlce cA in cIurJi; g 
is always bard, as in give; j, ■■ alnsidy aald. Is pro- 
jioiuicod like y; rz bos a aonnd compounded ot that 
of r and tho sound of s in tb« word azur^, sma^times 
olmoat the ssme as tlio latter sound alone: s' is 
■alluded Uk« lA, bat vciy soft; si la prcnonneed Hfae 
oursA; w bos tho sound ^ v;l ispronounoed like* in 
axure; i ha* tbo hoihb wiund, but softer. Before tlw 
tennlDation »H iha ^e in uul pronunnoed In pnpm 
namee; thus, I'lmiaiotatki is prooounced J^oAtatosth 
I'liD oonsnnantN h, p, 1, and n arv aomctimea softened 
l>y the addition of a bouiiiI Ulce that of y in ycM, the 
t and » in (Lis case sotindiug like the IlaUaa gl and 
ffn. W'hca so suuiuled tbcee oonsonants are distin- 
guished by a mark like au acute accent placed above 
or bocido tbem (!>', p', l\ n'h or by sm t fdllowliig tbcm. 
The latt«r modo of diatiaguishtng them is oaed, espe- 
cially when the sonudB in iguntion are followed by a 
TOweL 7'heconRnnnnt c'huHSoimd absolutsly pecu- 
liar to the Poliah Language: it resemlilea chat of ( 
foQowod by or oomblued with a very soft «L The 
banrd I (I ) has a somid common to the Polish with 
other Slavonic tongues: it is jnodnced W aoundiiuc 
tbe letter I wilb the (>oint of taetoqgue throws well 
back in tho mouth, and firmly y i J agilnit Aa 
pAlstc. Aninni; Uie vowels f and f are ])raaoaBOc4 
Teopertivvly like tbo French ■aini-tiaasls in and cm.' 
i has tbo sound of i in tho Engllah word {^que; and 
y haa a sound reaombling that of the Gerataa tt. The 
tonio aeeent in Palish invda la nearly alwaya ob the 
second lost syllahle. 

Tho grammatical forms of thn Poliih ant mom 
aumeraus than those of any other living Imlo-Euro- 
peUL langoago. lliere were fonnerly three ntunben, 
tbo nngulnr, dual, and plural; hut the dual haa been 
pioser«-ed only in tho iisA'jvixa dialed There are 
three gendenv miucnline, faminine, and neuter; and 
•even csutes, Uw nominative, genitivo, datsv^ aiiiiisa 
tive, vooativ^ instrumental, and locative. TbePottdi 
language thus pewcasDs all the cases of the Saaabiti 
«xcept tbo ahlatti'e. Tbe dinUnntlvoa and aog- 
n)ci)tativc« aro much mora ttumeroua in Polish thau 
oven in Italian. 'Yh» inHoctions of Ibo terfas ladl- 
rate not only persons and uuiubon without the aid 
of personal pronoons, hut also tba gendon of the 
persons spesjrin^. and the ponoas epokso ahooL 
Tbo only tense for which an auxiliary is required Is 
tho pluperfect. Beoidei the disthketfoB of oonjova- 
tioaSk there is aiulbCT aoeordla^ to which wte »n 
cUwificd as perfect aad imperfctt, according as they 



POLANU. 



I 



I 



» digit or ft haUtiul md or oTont. Thb 
I wMy «( fnflectloiia la Toiith pennita the 
■Mol iSTCnioct in the Mnictur« of fcnlcnCM to m 
gnak Ml axlmt aa it in practipinil in Ii.Atin. 

Tb« priKdlMl diklncU of Pdliab w tin? Muovlui, 
wfakta ia ipotiu in tha dtitricU round Wareaw; ihat 
ot UrU PolMid, whidi u cfajffflv Rpokcn in thn <U«- 
trlda rtnwd Pumb, Gdomh, and Kklici^ and of -whiv)) 
tfa> wrtuwi Utifuac* of Polnad la « davalopineiit'; the 
flflaiiii. ipolwa to the aut of tha Odar; tho Cnco- 
rkm, nr tbs dUIect of Little Poland; and th« Paliah- 
Ull-ti utlm, aa dutiagxiulMKi from the Uthuani&n 

vt tbc fcnuDinan of Cbe FoUah lan^ft^, after that 
bjr tba Piarlft Copezjrailcl, xaAj be recomincndod 
thaw hj HukIUco <• now editioa, Bralau, 183i>. b; 
Mnminiki (Waiww, 1S23), br Mnczkowiki (Crm- 
ww, UlS], bj Slcrodiuki {n'^annvr, lS5a), and h; 
Habdu (L«ii^er(b 1SS8>. Of dictioiiarira, ll»t hy 
BmttHka {Brail«t, 1 806), and Uba graat on* by Linde, 
H« til* inaat valuaUsi Tb« latter ia in lix (|anrf> 
val«a« CWanaw. 1&07~H: new cdltbn, 1^&S-S9). 
A 0«nbaa-pnlt*h UMid-laxiooti ww publitJiod at 
WanBw in IftSS. 

/WmA Littratvrt.—'Tha Folitb Ut«ntur« reacha 
Wak to a mora r«aoto ptriod tban that of any other 
SlMmLe lutgva^^ exoept the Uobcuiiui, and in iin- 
Bortenm far wtofimtm Um atlwr SUvoalc Utemtum, 
Bc^emian, Sar*ian, and RuuUn. Accordinf; tu 
jatintihar, aiitborof the Tolbb Bibliography, it com- 

Bwo-thlrda 0I all tliA Slavnnfo literature. l'h<! 

mMnuBOBta of the literaUuv of Poluitl (.-tiiuLit 

vkritke^ hiaborical, political, and laligimta poeme, 

MOTC MpodaUy the Wt. Tber have come down to 

]y in PolMi and partly in I^tJn, Iheae beinji: 

iy traiMlatiana of Potiah originala. Tho ntuel 
_ trd of tboae writtvn in Paluh it the Bognm- 

Aica I)iiewica,ahyinnlnhonourof the Vlrifin, which 
iIm P»liflh aoldiera were accnatomed to nng on the 
•ve rd battln. It U Baid to have beea OODipoaed by 
Ad«lberl, ucbbiahop of Pisjne, at tb» mi of the 
lantfa mitary. nod aecordls^j at the time when the 
tan Cbriatiaa Idag njgiicd in PoUuiL Tim next 
Ithiiaiy reniaina td Ute cmiDtry are ail In I Attn, and 
MMte aioatly of chiaai«d«i wiitti-n bj the ownk*. 
Tkm Htfttaat of theat data frotn the twelfth century, 
mad the miiicip«l af« tboee by Mart. Oalina (about 
IIMV Wincenty Kadlofaek (died ialSS3),and Bogu- 
BhalDa (diad lS^>,and thacbranlcteor the popeeanr) 
t imu an enMront by MarL StrMhdd or Potonua (di<d 
1» lt7V). The tint three ot toeae ara contained in 
MbWa CollM-iioa (Warww, 1761). A new edition 
of Wtncvtity KadlnbBk'e Itna geetta FriDcipiim ao 
Repini P<4uafai a|ipeu«d M wanaw la 1824, to- 
r whh Dnanma's Chnnieaa PolnBoram (of 
EfaiftaaBth cattm}. After a long period of coin- 
'«■ iaftcUvfly litcntam rerlvMl in thi! four- 

aentory widar Caatndr the Great, lli« fi>ttnc]«r 
aff the Univcrdty of Craeow. The mathotnaiical 
■ainMa baana ei^wdatly HoorUhititc, and two Pole*, 
JahattMi Ctloctti letwU (dinl 1(07) and Wujeiocb 
Brwlae»«ld (died t1»7), the latter tbe Uacher (4 
Oofetnlcua uul iha antbor of airr«ral aatrouoniical 
week*, «e(« aamac the moat dutinguiahed mon of 
tbalr Uhm tn that de|jiar4ai«ait. The prwrvue of 
rfeBhaijuo and oiltum {• ttil) man iwtioawe in the 

pt Jan DIujTon (died 14S0). antbor aiDoog 
IbiMipaf aHiatoryuf Poland, written b Latin, 
■ad in IW otaUiafaiDrnt about 1490 of tba 6n* 
PeUah priatlng-iveai at Cracow. 
Coder tba proapatmi rvi^na of the finl two Siffa- 

(fna 1507 to Ii73) Poliah waa luaed to th« 
rank n( a wrllten Iaa(n^«, and the proncr national 
UieraUim btgsn. Saenoe and KfcoUnhip ivcciviid 
■ lam ahaia id aUcntiao, and tha UtantnrH ot 





Grewje und Rome eeperfally wrre widely >t"dt<<d, 
but pnre nativo lit«raturo wu not wanting. Kic<>Ua 
R^^j (died ahont H-d^) and Jan Kochonoweki (died 
ISBI) att&ineO eminence aa poeta, the latt«r aa a 
lyrint nf the hlghett rank. Piotr Kochnnoimki, a 
yonncicr brother of the praoadtDK U tlic suthi^r of an 
odmimlJctraiMlatinDof Taaao'aJoruuIfmJJeUvered. 
Ataimg the <ith«r poeta of the Mutury wcro Bcp 
Suinynaki (dlwt 1581), an edition of whoaa worlu 
waa publiafaed by MucxlcnwiU at Poaen In 1827, and 
SzymonowicB {Sifncmidea), cdabtatod both aa tho 
author of Poli^ IJvUa, writtan after the tniuincr of 
Haocxitua, with n imtural and aaav K'^'^; '"d as a 
eompeaer of Latin odm, whliob earned fer him ibo 
title of tba Latin Pindar. An edition of hi> idylla 
(Bldanld) wai pnhlixhcd nt Leipzig in 1^37. It waa 
in the mxtventli century alm> that the firet hlatorlea 
In the Unj^uacre of the people wire written. TboeA 
were tho worka of Kfarcin and Joachim Bio1*ki, 
who Wirrn fcillowcd by Lukjuu lidnucki <1£d&~B]), 
autliur of a Hiitorv of Uio Cn>wn of Poland, pwb- 
Uahed at Cracow in 1637, and again at Wanaw in 
180*. Tbtr« waa likewiao conaidenkblo acUrity 
during thii period in the thoological 6e]d, which was 
due to the Introduction and aprvad of tlia rafomind 
Taith. CoDtnvonial worka were nuueroua, and 
triumlatinna of the Bible or part of It wen Duida by 
ichulara un both udea. The fLnrt ttanalattoa of ths 
New Teatament into Foliah waa mad* by Jan S^c- 
Incyan. and waa pnbliahed at EiMiigabav la liSl. 
It Wha intended lor I'rateatanU. For the CathoHca 
a traiulatiuii of the wltole Bllile aiaa made firat bj 
LenpolitaL, and afterward* by WujaW. Tho latter 
waa one of the moat learned theoloniana of hla time. 
Bla tranalali^n appeared at Craoow in lMi3. 
Iliif fluuriahiug pcrioi] of Poliab literature con* 

tiniln] through the whn1« a[ the aiiteeiith crcttiry 

and into the lint i{uarter of the Mveuteeolh. and waa 
followed by B period of Jeaoit mpreinixiy ajid lileiary 
decline, which laated till about tba middle of the 
oighteanth eeohoy. The dedine waa only checked 
for a lima by the cfforta of aoma jMwtrful ralnda, 
jiriiicipally of General ZaniojakL The ordinal pro- 
diictinin of thia period ara few and nnimpoctant. 
IVanalatlona.on Ciliie oUier band,ar« nuDieruua. Thua 
OroiAaaki tnuiaUted Lucan; Momtvn, ComoiUe; 
tho Jcauit Nj^rurcaawihi [1719-18111, Homer's Iliad 
and ViT^l'a Kolovuca. Hiatory waa perhaps the mrwt 
flouriabiug brancn of literature, but the biatoTiaua 
again raamtad lor liw aoitpart lo tha Latin Ian- 
gaa^aaaliteniTnciBnin. ThenainaaofKojalowici, 
author of Ibe BJatoria Litnmnia; and Ji^dmiy Wegi- 
•raki (died 1 549}, aothor of Slavonla refonnau (Am- 
atardaiD, 1 679), an axbauatiTa hiatory of the INaaidenta 
In Poland, may ba aSneted ant aa the chief. Wc;i> 
arakl alaodid gnod aervtm aa a hiatorjan of literatures 
Aftor thn luiddln of the eighta anth cantory the 
lafluaice of the French oivilbaUM WM widely fvlt in 
in I'oland. and prepared the way for the ravlval of 
letti-n. The iotrodurtkin and apread of thia influ- 
cnc« win due partly to the fact that nnmeroua 
Polea of raalf, who bad gathered about the court of 
the ex-King gtaoialaw Leaacsynaki In IiOrraiaa, had 
rekoned to thair native country with the inpreaa of 
Preneh Ideaa on them; partly to the eBc«>uraigement 
givem to Fnncli culture by King Staniilaw Angna- 
tve; but nore than all, perhapa, to the ciertiona nf 
tlie Piiiriat StaniaUw Kunanthi, who^ though Dot him- 
aell an author, waa an ardent patron of lettera and 
eupporter of the cauae of education and loamlag. 
The moat diattngalifaad anthon of thia part of the 
clahlaanth ceatarT are Adam Stanialaw > arunewicx, 
who nrodnoed a Hiatory of I'nUnd and an excellent 
tratuJatioo of Tadtut; and the poet lunacy Kraakld 
(17S4-180U the tmqueatiooad head ol I'oliih tiu-ra- 

SS9 



16S 



POLAND— POLATllZATTOir. 



tur« ddHnif hi* own tlm«. Th« dnunniic UUrnturv 
pf thii period y tunu, Ih[d^ dtlefly diatingulahcd by 
ft formik] *dh«reii«c bt tbc ]av* d tbc Ftanch 110^. 
The literwy KtivitT at Poliuid did uot och« iJUt 
lb« oTcrtbrow cl tha polEliiuJ liu]«p«ndniDs of the 
eoaatry, bat on tha eoatttry iucroiMd tad took a 
man h«fttth; direction. It ia indeed only aiaoo the 
oouutr/ lout ita lQi]ep»nd«iice th*l its literature lua 
Acqnuod > Europnaa Imnortannti. From the VMir 
1S15 tbo literarv cvnlre of Pobuul wn WUn», wiwire 
a anmber of tlio moat cDlhuaiMtic spirits of the 
coauitTf, with. Miekiarwici kt tlinir bcu, Maod*t«d 
togetMr uiid ondsKvoimd to propiiKiita tha iultuMiioc 
of reoent Enj^Uah and Goraum tituraturs In opposition 
to tbo provoiliDf Fronoh t«odeiid«i^ ud thii not- 
withaUnding tbo fuct tbnt moit of thetn, »nd indeed 
nearly aU tno i^mtal Foliah writ«ci of th« jicriod, 
alttautcly took np theit ntidcnoe in Fnuice. By 
fw Iho greatMt of tha pootaof tbo time refcnt^d to 
Are Mioltirwica, Rknrwtki, nnd ICnuioikL Adun 
MIeklowCot (1798-1353) is cLiefly i<vlebntc<l h the 
author of Kouwl W&Uonrod (St. Petenburs, i62S), 
u) opiu poam which h»d * rcmarkftblo effoot in roas- 
fug the nattoiwl ■pint ; and Pan Tadonti (Parii^ 
lft94), anotbar «plc of a thotougbly nattooal cbarac- 
Mt«r, giving a faithful pictun <rf oonunoD Ufa In 
Poland: Juliiux Slowacki (1801^-49) wu mtudty 
diatinuuiabed aa » lyriat and n dramaUs^ and wa> 
alao wo anthor of a oonsMOTible number of short 
«{d«. Zygmunt Kraaiuki(IS12-A0) wutfaoAuthor, 
among othtt works, of Nieboaka koin«Iya (tbu Infer- 
nal Oomody, 1G3T-48) and Irydioo iu Rom<-, iu boLh 
of whieh bo portrays la myatical ploturoe U19 [Mwt 
roHoaiBi of the Slavonio no«b aod poinla to the 
briphtw fntore whidi ha hAlj belioTM awaits it. 
Among tbo othor poota may ba mentionM] Anloni 
Edwara Odynioc, author of avroral ballada and hia* 
torlcaldramMfamouffotben Barbara RadziwLlldwna) 
and tranaUtiou of Byron'a Bride of Abydoa, Sir 
Waltor Scott*! Lady of the Lake, and SchUlar'a 
Juti;(frau <run Orleaoa. Kovol writing 1im boon 
mucb cultivated during tbs pnaent oontnrj among 
I'Atiih writers, a« anaong tboaA of all Other countriea. 
The prindpal writen who bara excatled in thia 
department are SkarbeV, Bcmatawicz, and Ciaj- 
kowtkl. Gnat eflorta have bmn made within the 
ptcaent conCary to rccotcr and preaorve tbo ancient 
iiopular aungi^ fahtee, provorha, Ao., of Poland that 
nava t>««n handed down by tnulition from ace to ag*^ 
Canful collcctiona of tha popular amn and baUada 
ban been publUbed by Woicioki (Waraaw, 183S), 
Wadaw (I,«nb«rg, 1833), PsuU, Lipiniki, Roger 
(Bmlan, tW3>, and otbnra. The papular legends 
have been ooUectecl and jnbliibea by Wojdcki 
(Kle^dy, two voU. Wstmv, IHST). In the drama 
the Poles have been mora aocceaaful daring the pr»- 
aent oentnry than they were ia nrevlooa pariods. 
One rante of the repKoalon of tfaeTkemch tafluaaca 
hj that of England and Gcmuiny wna the oaatint; 
off the fettor* by whirh tiukt «p<7cicanf litcralur* had 
been bound, and io the (rc«dom which tfaoy thus 
obtalBad the dramallu writen produoed works of 
grsaler anargy and troth, lite pHndpal dnmatio 
wri t w a **—■■'■* thoaa almfulr Riontioitod ara Jan 
ITapoaiBoyii Kamlnakt (di«d 1SS5), the tmnaUtor of 
SeUDar ud Catderaa; and F^vdra. the greatest of 
tha Polfak coRilc diamatists. In other d«>artmeDts 
of literature there ia»j be ineatioo«I Josuihim Lela* 
wel(1i8e-18«l), author of I>ii*je]>jI>LkI (Hlitory of 
PolaiMl: Warsaw, 1S2S), eontinuod under Uh liUe of 
Polska odn)B;^]fu slq (Ebraaaeli^ 18*3). down to 
tha and of tha avtmUof 1S30-S1; NarUitt^ author 
of a cam|iveh«Daiva and accnratv lllftorj of Ulbuania 
(WOna, 1835-il): Bandtko, Maciajowaki, Barto- 
•Hwiei!, alao biatarlaBa; SnladacM, Goludiowaki (a 



diadple of Ssballfaig), and Kraiur (a dlsdple, at 1 
iu the aaifiar part of bb tmtmr, of Hq[«l), the mia- ' 
dpal philocctpheis; Jarocki, a aoologlst; Tyntuaoa, 
an oraitbuUiipai; CaeroiakowsJd, a botaniat: aad 
Zciainar, a moIogUt. At the present day thera aia 
mora pcriomeals pabUsbsd in the FolUh laaffuaga 
than In any other SlaTonio langnsfe. In 187* mot* 
than fifty peaiodicala were publiabcd at Watm 
alonsL lo nvssian Poland tbennmbvrvf periodicala 
ta very oooaidecabla. Moat of iheu an oapoiat, 
illustrated, or agricaltnral janraala. At Poass ■ 
puhlisliod Uko leading Polisli joonkal, the organ ef 
thfl Polish dmuUea to tha Gannaa JMctatag. It la 
called tbo Duennlk pocotaskL Owiof lo loa ba^- 
ward statfl of education in Austrian Polaad tbe pari* 
odical prc» ia not ao widely devekiped IbeTe aa la 
othar parts of PoUad. Bwidw tbe periodicals peW 
lished la Polish in the districu fonmriy compBahf 
the Kingdom of Poland, a Poliah journal i« pabBdkel 
in Bwitno-land, another in Bngbiod, and a tUtd h 
the United Btat«a. Amont^ tha bait renaat works 
on tlie bistory of Polish literstura aro tbe Bistoiya 
litaratuiy poJskii'j, by Wi-uniewaki (Cntoow, tsn t<^ 
184a-£7); tbo Dxioj« liUratcry w Polsoe of KcA- 
dratowica {WUna, two roU. 1953); and the Hiatorya 
Ittoratnry poliki^j w taryia«b, by Wojddd [Wsthw. 
D«w edition, four toU. ]85»-«1). Thn bast UbUo- 
grapby of Poland Is that of Eatrab:kor (Ctaoow, 
1870). 

POLAR BEAU. See Biux. ' 

K)L.Mt Crt-ORDINATBS. Am MATRnATRS. 

POLAR EXPEDITIONS, S.-o Soanf Poiai 
Exi>B[>iTii:iK8 and ik>VTH ]'iiij*h Eti^iirTHwra. 

POLAitIS (tbo pole atu}, tbu itar a of tbe eoa- 
Btallatlon Ursa Minor. It la at preaent near the 
Bcctb pole, and many centuries must <:lapao bcfaro 
preosaaion win cauae tho north pole to be defined hf 
any other star. Two stars auled the po*nt«t% w 
tbe oooateUation Una Major (tha Gr«at Bear, eoB- 
ntonly cnllad the Plough), alwaya point in tha dtiwe* 
tion of tbe pols'rtar, ud emable it to be fooad 
readily. 

POLARIZATION. VThcb a paitida of a bady 
|inania>i'l prtF[>iirti*a rrlated to a <«rtain line or dlrao- 
tion iu the body, and wbeu Uie body retaining thaaa 
proportlee Is turned, so that thia dirMtim b rwsnad; 
then if, aa regards other bodiai^ tbeae p ropeftlea at 
tbe p^UcJe an rereraed, the particle, ia nfareiMa le 
theae pvopertlea. ia aald to be polarliad, aad tbe nso* 
potioB are said to eonititute a oaiticular kloa id 
polarinatinn. Tlins, wc may say that tha roCaliMl of 
a htdr about 1^ axis rotutitutaB a Uad af polariaa* 
tion, bocauM if, whll* the rotattoa continiMa, the 
direction at the axis is turned cod for end, the body 
will be rotating In the opi>oatte ditvctlaii as ragirw 
space. A oondorttng particle throogb wUch tb«« 
Is a cnnent of aloctrti^ity may be laid bo lie polaifaa^ 
because if ft wen turned round, aad If tbe uumnt 
oontinuad to &ow in tbs sama dinetlaa as rvgarda iba 
particle, its direction in space would ba luiiiKjd. 
In epeaidng of tbe state of tbe partklea of a laacnat 
aa magnetic pcjarlxatloa, we Imply that each of tbe 
amalieal parts Into which a magnet ia diriribla haa 
oartain pTr'pcrtin* ndated bo a definite dkaelkai 
thiensb the particle, oalled iU axis of macnetlsatiaB, 
and the propertisB relatad to one end of Uds aah saw 
onpoeite to tbe properties rdated to the ether and: 
the propertica which we altnbote to the partkb •■« 
of tne same Itnd aa thoee obaerred in Iba ocmpb*a 
nugBOt, and in aanuniag that lbs partiilas 
tbeaa properties, we only amert what wa esoi 
by Invaluug tbe magnet up Into aaall P^MaL Isr 
aach of Iheea Is foond to be a magnet. Saa ObUl 
Maxwdl's Electricity. 

Polariied bgh^ tensionB aad prsMttraa la aoUJ 1 



POLARIZED HEAT— POLABIZED LIGHT. 



163 



lodiei, CTJgttiiom, ooinpn«toiu, aod diitordoni, and 
nurt of ftll tbe opUcal, electrical, utd nukgiietic pro- 
pertiei of crjcUllited bodiM u» poUrixktiuiu which 
do wt Agree with the ftbove definition. Theee ve 
■lid to be 'dipolar' propertiea. The rotation of the 
pluM of polarized light bj magnetiam ia, tike ma^- 
netiRD itaelf, a onipolar property. For other phe- 
niiKna to which the term polarization hat been 
udinl, Me Galtixic BamKT, Resistaxcb. 

FOLABIZKD HEAT. Bailiant heat and light 

in bttod to be analogooa in their reflection, refrac- 

tHO, and abaoiTition. (See IUDUn05.) Maliu and 

Bcnrd ihowed that, like light, a ray of heat might 

b« polariied. (See Folakized Light,) Forbe* in 

]££( proved that heat which had panaed through 

tnnnaline wae polarized in a plane perpendicular 

u tbe axil of the crystal, (or be found that it waa 

miable to paa* thruugb a second tourmaline (the 

ualner) when the platea wera croued, although it 

nt tnnimitted in other poaitiona of the plates, la 

Ih experimenta he employed ilellimi'i multiplier 

ud thermopile to measure the intensity of the 

BKliant heat He found that tbe analogy between 

the two agents light and radiant heat it as comi>leto 

H hit experiments were capable of ihowiiij,', ana hiji 

results have been fully borne out by other ubecrvcra. 

POLASIZED LIGHT. Raya of light proceeding 

from the same Inminoos point and tn veil ing over [latlu 

of slightly different lengths, to fall upon a screen 

together 'interfere' with one another just as two 

rays of aoimd might interfere. (See IXTERrzitENCB.) 

But it is found that if a ray of light be made to pass 

thnwgh a CTjatal of Iceland-ipnr (which Cannes it to 

diride into two rays paasing through the iTystal in 

different direcUons), mnd if the two rays into which 

it diridea be made to fall on the same (lart of a 

screen no variatioa in the relative lengths of the 

paths of these lays will enable them to in terf ere with 

one another, but either of tbem may be split up into 

two interfering ray«. Experiments of this kind 

[•rove that tbe vibrations of particles of the ether 

which constitute light are motions at right angloa 

to tbe dirvction of their propagation, that is, at right 

angles to the ray, 

A lamina cut frmn a crystal of tourmaline, its 
planes being parallel to the axis of the crystal, nllnwi a 
ray cf light to paas through it: but in tnuwmitting the 
li^t it modifiea it is a peculiar way, for the light is 
BOW unable to pass through a second ami ximilar parallel 
7iUU« of tonnualine in certain relative positions of the 
two platea. If as and a'b' are linen in the two plates 
4if tourmaline parallel to the aiesoftbeoriginalcTj'Ktolji: 
wb«a A B is at right angles to a' n' the light transmitted 
bv one plate is stopped by the other; when ab in jiar- 
abel to aV the light transmitted by one [ilate is freely 
tiaiumitted by tha other. 

Xow a cmnmon ray of light exhibits the same pro- 
perties on all sides; but a ray transmitted by a plate 
of tourmaline, or indeed any reflected or refracte<i ray 
<4 light, exhiUts different properties on different liduL 
Thus, using aplate of tourmaline like that just spolcen 
of as ' an aulyzer,' we find that when aray of ordinary 
light passes through it normally tbe intcnaity of the 
transmitted tight is the same in all poaitioos of tbe 
plate; but rays which have already been reflected or 
refracted lose mors f&tensity in passing normally 
throngh th« plate in certain positions of tbe plate 
than is othan. A ray which is wholly incapable of 
[lassing throuirh a plate of tourmaline in a certain 
fAtion is aaid to he polariied ui a plane parallel to 
tbe axis ot tbe original crystal. We know that light 
vibrations are executed at right angles to the ray; 
in ordiiui^ light the vibrations are executed in all 
directions in planes at right angles to the ray; but in 
polarized tight tli0 vibrrtions are all axecutcd in one 



direction, which b ot course at right angles to the 
ray, but which is also at right angles to a certain 
plane; this plane is called the 'plane if polarizalioo.' 
Thus the polarized ray wbiib is incapable of passing 
through the tourmaline plat« consists of vibrations 
execult.-<l at right atigli.-H to the plane containing the 
axis of tbe crystal The exiil<:uce of rays having 
different propertii's on different sides was regarded 
by Newton as a dcriiivc objection to the undulatory 
theory of ligbL Iluygens, the fuuniler of the iindu- 
latory theory, was unable to account for the pheno* 
menoD. Ihe vibrations of the ether were supposed 
by Ifuygens to be longitudinal, or to be executed 
in the direction of pnijAj^ation of the light. I^ater 
eijn-rimental reMean-'hcs (see the article Light in 
Watt's DiL-tinnary of ('heniistry) and mathematical 
invi'Mti;,'atiun showed that tbe vibrations are all exe- 
cuted iu [ilanea per|M;ndicu[ar to the direction of pro- 
pa^'atiun, and reiiiove^l all difficulty in accounting for 
jHilarization. The dynamical theory shows that two 
rays wbiise plant-a "f {xilariKation are parallel to one 
aniitlivr Uiterfcru junt like uii|<itarized rays; but two 
rays whoso plaiiiai of ])'ilariiali'in are jieqientlicular to 
one anoth'T ilu Dot exhibit any phenomena of inter- 
f-.-rence whatoier may l>c their ditTvrcnce of phases 
We have (-nunciatcd the thu<)ry nf jHilarircd light 
which has hitherto lii.i:n screpted by pliVHiciata. It 
is, hiiwcver, gL-n«-rally reganlcl as iiic<'Hi|i]ule. We 
pnicood to dusCTibu sotni: '4 the pheuumetia which it 
explains. 

Light may be polarized in any of the fallowing 
ways: — I, By rflci-tiurt frrrni tlw iiurfaiT* of trans- 
[•arvnt bodies. A ray reHcctcil fri>m glass at an 
angle of Hi^' (called the '[lolariring aiigli^ ') a'ith tbe 
normal to the surface is completely pubiri/.cl in the 
jilano containing the inciil'.-iit and reHccteil rays. A 
^'liiSH surface parallel to tile Tint is in the U-Ht [initioa 
f<ir rejecting tbe jNilarixed ray. If the se^vn.l sur* 
fuce is in such a [•osition that the src-iind ]ilane of 
itiriiK-nce irootainini; tbe ray and tliu normal) is at 
right angles to the hrst plane of incidence no light ts 
n-Hccted at the second surface. Itrewiter discovered 
that tbe polarizing angle for any mt ilium is that for 
wfaiL-b the refrartvd ray is at right angles to the 
reflected ray, ami ht-uce tbi |>i>lariiing angle is the 
angle wbriso tan^<.-nt is eipial Ui the index of refrac- 
tii>ii of tbe moiliuin. MM. Itiiit and Aiago and 
others have detvnuioed tbe following table: — 





Polarlilnf 




miulilM 




ani:J' 




Antfi*. 




Sr S"" 


t1ii1|ilia(« nf liariDni 


.. W V 


Wnter. 


!.T 4S' 




.. w sr 




if 3V 


AiilimoTij kI-ih 


..•M" *V 




W J' 


Clinirimu ul lead,. , 


. 'er tr 


l(ui;kH.r>^*t>]. . , . 


i-.' tr 




..•«• r 



Few substances are capable of completely |<olarixlng 
light by rt'flii'tiun, and, as a general rule, aulatanccs 
with a high imli-x of n'fracti"« |K)lariic incompletely. 
BrewsU^r nays that it i* only tlime fliil«t.inces whose 
index of n-frai-tion is It^sii than 1'7 which (lolarize 
compli'tf-ly, th<«e not marked with an asterisk in the 
above Ubie fur instance. \\'hen the incident light is 
bright the )Hilari7.ati<in is never complete. In general 
ImnHl-s which are lioil reflectiir* {lolarize nearly all the 
light reflected, ('lean, {H.lisbe<t, niL'tallic nurfacea 
polarize very badly indeed. Brewster's rule gives 
the angle of maximum pul&rixation. Light is polar- 
ize<l more or U-hb at all angles of incidence. Tbe polar- 
ising angle fur red light in evidently slightly different 
fnim tbe angle for blue light. Light reflected io the 
same plane a nuni1)er of times tontls in all cases to 
bfcomo complctcty iHilarizcd. Iklalus' polariscope Is 
shown iu the tigiircti. A ray becomes completely 
p>ilarize<l by reflection at the glass plate or bundle of 
plates (blackened at the back) a, and proceeds vsrti' 



164 



■w' « 

POLARIZED UGHT. 



rail; to a Kcond plate, & which Is inapeodod in k 
fmuo cfttikhlo nf taming about a vertical axiX a may 
W oollecl the polomcr, n tho uutl^xer. The uiglf« 
thnugb which th» fcume of B la ttirned raay b* mca- 
■trwL Each of ths miiron ought to xaa.'k.e aa mg\n 



Fit. I. 



V\t. 2, 



a( 3£|* with the vertical, and a strong beam of ll^t 
ought b<> (ill oil a ut t-uiAi ha Allele ttikt it is rvO-HL'tnl 
VBfticnlly- If thn nhanrvrr Inoku at •< ni lu to rni.'aiva 
the rvOuvtud lK.-iki[) ho I'latb thut lui the (rutuo of b i» 
roitAt«d there are two posilioris (liiffurlDg hy 18(1") of 
iDiiiiiiiijm irBtictifin. llify *r« CO" on oithur iiJc of 
the pmiLion in which tho luiironi oro parxlttl — a pnai- 
Uou whJck kIv«8 the i7n!al«nt aniuuiil of rcfii-ctiun. 
The poloriaatioD of light by rotecliati wu diacoTend 
in 1S10 by MoIun,* (Senchcngineor offiocff.iiicxanuii- 
lug the light reflertcd from tluf windmin of the Lusem- 
baarg hy mctui* of on onalyior of Iceliuid-flpor. 

2. Sy oniinari/ re/ractum. When Uj{bt jjoni'mi 
oblinu-ely fntm onBmwlii;nj Into ftnothertb*refract««J 
ray u aion or 1«m polnriu^l, iU plani; <^f poUrintioa 
bdog pajpetidlciilar to the |>huie of fiolarii&ilun oi 
tho nflaot^d ray. The polariution of a ray la icicem- 
ptrto after nnly one rcfrairtion; for complitte poloriio- 
tlou the ray ought to friU not un •mi pluU- merely 
but on a bundle cf plotoa aS gbaa or other medium 
at the pnlariting angle. 

3. £y daiiUe r^fraetion, a property common to all 
crystal* not b«IoDj;tng to th« regular lyateoi. A ray 
of light eotcriiig Icolond-ipor, for «t*mpl>. dlvidrs 
Inte tn-o rays, which have different djrcctirin* anil 
Tclocitiv* ill [iiMnng tfarcruBh the cryalol. Huwoer 
in a certain diraeUoi^ eoIlM the optic axis of the 
orrttal of Iwlatidl-apM', therv i> no doable ra&oction. 
This MQS b panllel to a line Jotning the obtuse mtm- 
mitii of a rhomb with equal •Affr*. Any plane parallel 
to the optiu axis ia aall»d a 'prindpsi piano of the 
cryetol. Now tbe two rnyi uttully foruud by double 
retraction ore found to be completely polariurli one, 
the 'ordinary ray* (which tr«}, a polnrii^^d in the 
Dlindpol ploia*; the other, tho ' vxtraordinary my,' 
u peloiiMd In a plane at right anirlea to the principal 
plane. If ono of theoo raya might bo dcatroyod, w* 
ahould have on oxoEllent mean* of obtaining a h«ain 
of polarlaed liKht; Now it ia found that tonnnaline 
powi HM doBwe wfaaction, bot It abwrba light which 
u polatiMd in a prindpU plaook tronnnitting oitl^ 
the light which i* puWiica at right oaglee to Uua 
plaoe, nod hence the uee of this cryatal as a polarlier 
or analyw». In the Nicbi*!'! priam (which tee) one 
fli the two polarised raye ot luland-epor ia destroyed 
by internal reflection, the ulhor pewjng throng ooni- 
pUlely pDl»riio*l. 

Applying dynomlctd prtn ct plei to tho theoi; of 
poUriiation, it ia oosy to find ths notion of partiolea 



of ether when transmitting two or more ryitema ctT 
polarized wave* at tho mmt timo. Supposing a 
particle, when trui.vmittlns a polorixod wst* t4 li^t, 
to vibrate in a strai;;ht line; when It transmltt two 

Iiolorized waves (of the aatriR ware-length. Iliat ll^ of 
ights of the some colaar) it combines thmo into * 
■ingle wave:. Thus U for both polaiimd waves it 
Tibr^ss in the same line the rcanltaat waTS it polar- 
bod, tbs direction of ribration of tho pvtide rofnain- 
Ing tfas aome, but the LateaM^ of ths Kght iMing 
altered in a way which dGpendi on the phaMs of lbs 
oonstituent vibrations. Vibrations In ditfenot Ubm 
have for resultant a strolj^ht-liDe vibratioo K Ike 

Eh sees of the constituent* >n> the namo, or diSer 
y v or 180°; but in all other caaes the Kssltoot 
motion of the partii^k- is circular or elllpUc Wa tee, 
then, that two puliu'lzed mya (which must originaUy 
bare come from tho aame luminous point) may nno- 
bine to form a ray polarizod in tho tains or In » dif- 
ferent pianc, but that b gceerol, when eombined, 
they form what may be colled a ray of circularly, 
or a ray of clUptknUr, poloriied light. Than at any 
instaat in a wave of ^reoUrly polamod Ugbt the t&tt 
particles form a drcular ocrew-Une, of -which the 
dirvctien of the ray ia oita. Tho polanntion ia ' tcft- 
hondoJ* or 'right-handed' aeeorwng to the diroctlen 
of rotation of ttis partidoB about tho niu. CiicaloHy 
pulorisod light b^iavoa in muiy ways like ordinary 
tight In a wav# of rllipLicatty polarized Ugbt the 
e^ier particles form at auy Instant an elliptic screw- 
lino about the diroctinn of tfie ray as oxto. The 

(lolsriiation may, a* before, he )tti or right bonded. 
iVhen oiamined by ineaive cut aii nnalyrcr (» KiciMTe 
prism, for inatanoo) an ellipticolly puloriud rav ia 
trwismittcd with raaximum intensity in two poaaUDt 
of the anslyier, and vrith mirtimum InWaeHjr In oth« 
two [jusiLLiLinH, tiut it never disnppcara liks plane- 
polaiixcd light. 

In uniaxial crystals (sea OlTtO Axn) tboctastidty 
of the ctlinr sBRina to lie greatest (negative cryatalit 
or least (jweltive crystals] In the direcClosi of the 
prlndpol cryBtallograpbie axla, but H is sqnal in all 
directions at light uigles to tl^ axia. H ia therefore 
evident that a wave which depends for lla vcJocily 
of propagatlou on vibrations of Hher partiHea parallsl 
to tha uda of a negative cryttol will trave] bwtsr 
than one depending on rihrattotis at right angtas ts 
the axio. "rheivfore n ray of light polarind In a 
plane at right angles to the axis travd* foster than 
a ray polanisd ia a plane parallel to the axis. Kow 
when a rnr of onliruuy ligh t foils on sucb a ciyrtal It 
seta the rther jiortJclee of th« cryata] in ^bratioB in 
twophu)«at right ongloe to one another; oeioof Iheea 
tyatenu of vibraUosa ia trannuitt«d faster than the 
other, and oonteqasntly (sos UimcL&TonT TnxoaT 
OP Lioirr) Is transmitted in adifferott dirvctien. In 
biaxial cryatala the other dostJci^ la diffecwnt la 
dUTerant dirvcttons. FortheappUoauMofthslhesry 
of polariiatJon In explaining ths aetiona ol '™t"'<»J 
anil biaxial crystola, pohu-isation by reflection at ths 
surfaces of transparont media and loetala, fto., we 
mutt rofsr our nadcra to tb« artids Light U Watt's 
Dictionary of Chemistry, and to tbe tpocial ttcatiiea 
of Airy and Vcrdet. 

Thill plotee of double-rafraotlBg onstals wlion 
vipn.G<l in ;^Iarizcd li^ht ■smsliBMl «UiUt ■ aust 
brilli.-uit coloration, the obaervatiaB «t vbieb afheda 
in many casee an eoey way of determining the pesi* 
tion of the axes of the ^rstal, ftc, and Uie phesm- 
menun if tbonforo of very mat servies in ths ttady 
of crystalUne a tni ot ur s. Let a plate tl aelinite. 
^th mch thick, or a dinnor ^at« of mlea, bs plaeed 
betirrca any polailMr and aoalnsr. Tliu It amr 
be placed betwesn tWB eounMlira or two Kicbori 
prisms^ bat ws ihoU su|^ose tt placed at tbe middle 



I 



POLARIZED UOHT. 



of Ik* tiag O En Ualw' polariaKipeL Soppoae a Ld 
Tvadra k Man vl UgU wUuh It r«fl«*.-U to b, but 
wkich (iba ■iilaniti twlog >waj) if not reflected b; 
1^ Bp. 1, and -wbitii la well nfieoted by b, fig. 2. 
Nov Jot tlM Mlcuibe 1m) placnl in tHe {latb of tbo 
Ught raflected trwa A wid it wUl be totiud Uikt ii, 
<(. X i«d«<:tanae of Ute listt which poEica thmtieh 
Ika plAta. The MlaBite> therefore. Altera tb« tmIat- 
ted hiiBi Ik tocEM Why in tnuumitttng it, and tbii 
altosUDB !■ fnrUier ahoirn by tbo U^it Doing colonrad. 
Ib brti it has {trca to fone «f d)« tloU o4 white 
Ugbk tha powar erf interforciica (which toe), lo thAt 
Ibaj «(« dcatnoyed. Viowcil hv n^flcction from n tiic 
wlinMa a bri);LUj raloured; if it ia of mufonn thick* 
■aa* lb* Gulour i«ttMMMKiaU Wtr. Van, u b, 6g, I, 
to tanad into the portion 8, fig. 2, n grAduftl chugo 
fra>naooJoartohaoDaipl«EiiBiit«ry tAkeaplAOCL R4>t»- 
Una vt Iba aa law Jte merely &1t«ra tb« deptb of (>ok>ur 
witboBi -<ift^iy it* tint, and ia ooruin (.ccitioiu 
than la » coniiiMte abaenoa of oalour. \\hon the 
plata la aet of onifotBi thidcneaa ita cahmr i> nut Ibo 
nma ••avjatbara; but wbataveir may bo it« coluur kt 
^ly plM» Ib ibo pcaition of tbe aiwlyavr, dg. 1, it 
Aa^M to Iba ooBplancotarT tint out rotAtln; tlw 
aaaifiar Ibcougb a right augl* to fig. 2. A thiu 
pfata of adepjte, ground to a thin adg* ■» tliat it ia 
nally m tUa priam, abuxn a aarioa of oolound bauda 
ttuad Ufca Nvwton'a riaca. 

I» «*e*7 laMtion <i< tb« tbin plate of eetuiJto 
axBi^ two n pubuued ray in poaamg thn>U};h it 



dividea inla two r»ya polarized in plane* at right 
aoglea to od« aaothar. Let ua candder a particular 
kiod ut %ht, nd. for aumplo; tb« two raysi x and y, 
tr&v«t tbmuKh the plata vi^ different velocftiAi, and 
(>u IcBviu^ tho {.•lute tLoy differ in pliaee; let ua 
■uppcisa tbKt thoy differ in phase by bilf a waT»- 
lvii>flL]: tbuy would interfere and dcatmy eu:h other, 
only that they are poluized ia different pUnM; 
when they IaII on tbe aoalyrer each of them Urcomca 
divided into tiro, one polaraed in each a way that it 
oan be reflected, tbe other beinj deatroyed. Thua of 
the red light rofiocted by the analymr part beloaged 
U> jr And. port to y, nnil aa tbcM two «oBipooeDta 
differ in pUAae by half a wave-length if thoy hara 
e((ual Inteiuitiee they deecroy one aaothvr l%ii> no 
ncd light Appear*, and green, the coTupIoaicntAiT 
ooknir, ia the prcdDminiuit tint, 'rhia ro-iigh idcRtch 
(if the eiplanatiuu uf l\io p)ieoom«na luay iniluue 
roadora of the artidoe I.srxiircjiKSCiE and tlliUUtJt- 
TOiti Thkiby to connnlt Bpodal trcatiHC*. 

When the thin jilate baa been cut from a aniAxtaJ 
rryetAl At right >ng]o« to the uptic Axia we no l(ru);er 
And it of B uniforu cilour. Wo eoa a eyateni of 
ouluured rini^'a intcrru]<ted when the anAlrxer ia in 
Ibu ciilical fHjaiLiuUA of bgA. 1 and 2 by a black or a 
whib- croaoi. (Saa A aad B, flg. S.) With uiwoochiw 
uiatic lij^t the ring! an altonalaly bright and dark. 
With white light the a^ipearaaee b aomewbat Ilka 
Ncwton'e riug*. When tbe aaalyMr la not near ecu 
of ita critiiial podtiooa we find (JiaC there an really 



tiM> eolaorlca* croeaui but near a critical pcWttun of 
Iba Bttalyaar oim o< tbeae ouaaaa braaka up into rioK* 
aa c; th«7 oofndda ia tbe critical pgriUpoa, Tho 
riage uimi »ud Is falaidal oyatala nadar aiiaiUr cir- 
——"*"—■ are iBdicat«d In (the aualycer bei&i} in 
lhapCBtafan,flg.l)fig.i. Tbe currea aw lemnlaeatoe. 



man Om lUa nlaU is turned the wboia lyatein of 
floga tanH ia tbe aame direction; the black ctom 
mfantm brio two Inaocbes wUcb, when tbe plaiia of 



tbe optic aiea of tfae p1at« naliee 45* with the plane* 
uf poUfiaatlon In tlw Instnunent, beooma branobea 
cf hypwbalu. "Wbaii tba aaalyaer ia la tbo pnaitioii 
tig. 2 tba apftearaneaa ara tba aama aa bofera; but 
the cTuuMi aie white and tbe ccjuuis of the riagi an 
ouuipleajoiitary to what they won t>arora^ ¥ig. 4 
rcprvKcU the appearanoo in nitre, wboao optic axaa 
ATu inclined at a utull angle not exceedlBg 5* or 8*. 
\\'hon the aiee are more inclined only uuo half of 
tba figure can bo seen at once. 

OUaa la a ataM of atraia enblUta eoloratim wbea 
|4aoad botwMBkpoUriMrMidaulnar.a&dtbaawa 
can inYcatigatc tbe diatribatiaa ef the atrata throngb 
ita aubetance. UQanneAled gtaaa la (n a atate of par- 
maoent atraln. A plate of ordinary gtaaa may b« 
■traiDod br a fona applied to ita adgta by ■neana of 
a screw. The state of strain may be varied during 
tba axaailnatlon of tbe plate by polarised Ugbt. 
Tba calontiou obeerrad when bodiea at* oxaoiinad 
by polaftaed Ugbt la Iha beat test of double refiactian. 

We ahaU tuiw consider the vary remarkable phl^- 
iMitncnoD of Iba rotatioo of tba plane nf poiariuLUoa 
exbibited in quarta, a law naetallia aalti^ tbo Ngan^ 
eatBpbor,atat«li,aoa a mat aofflbar of otber oi^aiiia 
onbstaaoaa A plate of qnarta (a aaiaiial cryiital) 
cut at right angtea to tbie opUc axie exhibite, wbea 
placed betw««D aa aoalyBer and pulariiar, a syateDt 
of coloaied rioga like any other uniAzial ciyetol; but 
we find that tbe centre of the rings, inatcaJ oi baring 
a Uaokcn)ai^iabrigbtly«o(Dus«d^Rd,yelk>«,gT«eB, 
hloe^ Jbo, aooCTd ta g to tba thiclmeM tt tba platau 



POLARIZED LIGHT— POLDER. 



On. turning tb« siiii1yii<r wa Hnd each colour »pp«tir- 
Lng in it> turn, uid IboD maluDg wfty for the nvxt 
o( the oTiJitiiU'; priBiDjttic Mrico, fram tmI to viuU-t, 
or from vialct throui^h green to ml. Suppow tho 
(lUBj-ti to bo oxaminad by noiMOhrQtn&tic light — »y 
tW & pI&t«o[ nd xlbM DM bwn iatcrpoM<l butwuen 
Cbs poltttlzer knd tfaa qouts. Now let th« ftolaiiur 
Bad uuljssr (a uid B) be crtMud m in &g. 1, m tb*.t 
DO light i* refl«ct«cl fmin n, anf! let the qusrtx be 
Interpooed, we fiud Uiitt a rv<l lii;lit iii»I(ua iu appv&r- 
BDCO, Bad to destroy this light it 19 ncccMuy to tvim 
thi! Mialyn-r thmiigh a c«rt&ir ruigle. It la eriiJent 
that the plane of pal&riiuLion of the lii^lit liiu ri>t:il^-i] 
dnriag iu pawAgo tlimugh tbe qunrtz. Thci namo 
effect* ftn obtcrvcd 'rntb uiy other cionocliromsiic 
Ilgbl, but the Bn^le of rutittion u litut for red BJid 
gnftUat for vluWc liifht The' koglo of rotatluD ti 
proportioiiBl to tJio thickoswof the qunrU platu, a/ai 
it B ao3iitio& of tagikT in a tube ivith pjiine eiaaii taA» 
ta iuterpoaed Instead of thr qiinrtz, lh« bngfa of rotA- 
tion u foDtid to ba proportinnkl iointlr to tb« IsBgth 
of tb« tube Mid to the iitr«ngt)i ol tht (olutinn. Soicie 
OTTBlals ot qii&rti kXaU iho |>liu>c □( pol&rizatlon Id 
ft poBidTA ftod •.ither« r> itAt« it in s negutirc dir'^Uon, 
and hence tlio cliatinntiEin brtwrnD riirht-liaiKicrl and 
left-huideil ijiiaili; but Uie Uiina auiuuiit of rolnlluu 
ia producM)d b^ tho sanifl tUokneaa of quartz on a ny 
of ft^ren oolaiir whulticr the rotation i* positive or 
BAgaUtt). TIlb angle* of rotalinn for the differoil 
•bnpla oolvtin are iwMljr proportionnl tnvenoly to 
tho Hqukrci of tba wavo-UiD^thi; this law u approii- 
inat«ly trae for mott nibitanceii which exhibit rota- 
tiou of tho plane of potarifaliun. Tbe tint prodiicvd 
with a ([tiarti plate 3*79 tnitliRintreii tliiclc, when tfae 
•aalyzer is I&tbe poiitionof Gf(, ^.doervus [HutEcular 
notloA. It fa a purple tints which chan^^ very 
rapidly to rod or vioirt a* t)io annlj'r.rr u tiimod one 
w»5 or Uw other. It is diftin^icttetl by the nune 
'MOnilJTO or transition tint' It i* nncd b« the 
atandanl tint in measuring tba rotations pruJucr^J 
ty different iubitano««, becniiso of tti« facility mid 
coTtunty with wliicb it may bo rcuognixcil. It i* 
muoh easier to seiu tho exact moment when iii'a 
tint makes it* app^knuii^u tliui to drtvraune with 
caitaintf the time of duapjinarajice of red, yellow, 
or any other simple cjIoui. 

Faraday in 1845 made a diiooTO; which snut b« 
regarded as tho most JmportAnt of hi« aohi«v«ineDta. 
Hn discurery of ciirrcot tndnctinn miabt have be«n 
■rrived at by applying tLvrinudyuamivid priDoIplea 
to Ocntdl's reaulCa; but ia the ducovaryof the rota- 
tion of t^e plane of potarkatinn of light by mngnetifin 
he bad absolntely no pmviaua esperieDOe aucb as 
would havB led him to imnginoaoooneotjoli between 
najfiietLcni and li^-bt. Professor Clerk Maxwell's 
theory of %bt at tb« propagation of an elDctro-mag- 
actio disbirbanor iu the ctbcr was no i['>ul>l Kiig^fiiiti'd 
by Fm^ay's di«co»«ry, although fonniW on thn 
agT^eiun-ot Ixitween lb« velocity of liRliit as duter- 
miaod by Fkvau aad Foticault, and by moans of 
ab«rr*tioD and a certain ratio, a volncity, well known 
lo elttotrjdty. His explanation of Faraday's mag- 
iMto-opUo rotation la Dot quite satUIaotoTy. V^e 
ahall deectibe Fuaday*! cxperiniontB, and tben iadi- 
cat« tho direction which they bare pren to Sir Wm. 
Thomson's luvastigationa, A bar M heavy glass was 
placed between tho poles of a powerful slectro-mag- 
net; tho two pola were mn<ic h<al|i>w, aud each ot 
tbem carried a NicLol's priani; one of these priaius 
fuwd a beam of polarisod light along tilt uis of 
the bar of glaa. tho other analjied the light after it 
had pMMd Uiroagb tbe gUaa. The prism* wars first 
cnawd. No carroDt pMsod round tbe aoft iron of 
the electro- magnet, and therefore there was no ntag- 
oetic field between the potea. No li^ht was fooacl 



to pus through the analyxcr; but whrn a atmy 
curreut of electrioUy paiMwl throoab the wire nor* 
rotmdin;^ the aoft iron, and tlMnJera n mwetfut 
magnetic fiold was prodiioed between the poMt, hgbt 
wan found to ba transmitted by the analyrcr, but 
rotation of the aaBlyaer agmtn nroduowl darknias. 
Thus Fandftj'i glMB in tts Bonnal Donditlon ia naabU 
to roUto the pl»ne of ptJarizatlon of light, hat pew 
of ruUtion la girvn to It by piking it in a magnalio 
field. The aiuount nf rotation is oropotiional to the 
strength d the current and the Ltq^ of tbe path 
tTAT»nnd by the light la the glass. The dinctko 
of rolatiun is always the samo as tho direction fak 
which tho current piusc« in tbe coils of wim of tli» 
magnet. Tbe phcuoinenoa I* not so nwriced in fiiat- 
gtaas aa la Faraday's hoavy glsBs; it ia obserrBUa 
In ail transparent solids and liquida. If tba Tnrfi— i 
haa a rotatory power of ita own the total eOwt Is 
equal to the sum or dlflercuoe ot tbe natural aad 
iuiiuocd rotations, according ne tbe magoctio fona 
acts with or against tbe natural rotatory power of 
the medium. 'Fhe rotation Is greatest wfa«n tlM liav 
of nagnetla force of tho flald (which eee) are panlkl 
to tho ray, and Verdet haa shown that when the 
magnetic acUon ia oblicjue to the ray the totatioo is 
proportional to the coelns of tho angle contained 
betwoeti tbe dirvction of tbe r*y and tbe magiittk 
ni;tion or lines of force. ForadAy's law, that tha 
ditectJon of roUtion Is the same as thai of the civ- 
rent, wsa found by Verdet to be true only of dia* 
mBgnetio aobitBBcea. 7aindny Kt first altrihnted the 
observed effeeta to tbe direct actioa of the aagnet 
on the ligbt, hot he waa aftorwarda convinced Uiat 
tho rotatun Is doe to a change in tbe molecular 
•tructureof tfte nedlnui product by the aawnedaou 
Uttiioe magneto-optio r-Mation is rarely derebpid in 
crystAlsb because CTystalb'jation interferea with tnole- 
ouW displBocmenl. Hcooe alao Ui« d»T«lopmaiil cf 
this power is hindered by praamre and taToorad by 
beat 

Sir Wm. Thomson suems to hat^ no doubt that 
mngavtio pfaeuaajeaa are due to an allignmeat el 
ases of ToUtioB of a very great nnmbw of anudl 
bodios like gyroscopes. It is well known that a 
gyrownc'iia quits fn-n to mora wUI place its axis 
pamllel to tbe earth's axis of rotation. Tbomsoa Ja 
npldly buUdiog up n mBthomatlcal theory of msg^ 
nctiam on the above besia. Ho has inv«#tigat<^ th* 
rdativo motions of attached gyroeoopea One of hii 
reaulta la of great Interest In eaBaeetioD with mas- 
noto-optto rotation. If ono end of a enrd is fixed to 
the ceiling, tho iitbcr rnil being held In the band, and 
iX tbe hand be muved in » str^glit line, » plane 
polarized wave will run from the band along the 
cord Bod bade nnia. Tboauun bM ebown tint if 
inslead of a oord we have a nnlform ohain of eqvnl 
gyroaoojMa [eadi gyroaoope being attached to fla two 
ncigbbcniTB by means of equal woightlaei links), a 
strai^'ht-Uno motion of the hand sends aa bdote a 
poLarizod wave towards tbe ceiling bui IA« plami ^ 
polarijation rotaUt <u t/ie wort wfraitr**, 

POLARSt KKiricocaL, the name given to a 
method of ntBthamatical investigation. If 2 la » 
giren fixed conic section, and if S is a given «urv«v 
another curro s may he gannrated aa follom. Draw 
any t&ngent lo S* iJid twe Its 'pole' with regard to 
Z {the polo of a Uae cntttng a conk aeotloa la tba 
point of intenectioD of the two buigenta draws at 
iLe puinta in which it cob the oorre), the locna of 
ttiLs point will be tbe curve a a la caJled the 'polar 
curve' uf 3 with regard to 2. Z b cnlWd tbe 'nnzi- 
liary' eonic. It may bo ahown that the polar curve 
of one oooIq aeotbn with regnid to nnotlier is alao a 
oonio aeotion. 

rOLDEIt, a cUaa ot Bgrieultonl land* ia BeOaad 



I 



I 



POLE— POLECAT. 



167 



MMiitfBC «f Hctondva tncto r««l>iniRd hy ilrtunkica 
fevB wh>> had origiiully eoiiButvd v( l«kva or juor- 
•■i^ aod (BDflnlly Ijfais brioir the Ibv«1 of Ui« tw. 
TIm tnuMformktioD ol llie Loko of }lMr1«in into » 
ftUir ll»itrikmg illnirtrKtiim cf wlutlouibeeffeoted 
ANMgb eBMS>' a^ patient [iciMveruice. Tte umal 
■iAad otf mcadm la tbe lofnulaD d • poldv ie 
it fdwJitt Um lurtioD to b* ntiMimeA hf to embuik- 
I, Aad eoaatract a anal luiTinu ita bod anfficJenlljr 
lo wsM t canwit towuda tbe nk or rivor. 
waUr » ibtn ptuDpid into tbii caskl by mcaiu 
■rioM punning apukntn*, worked far Ui« moet 
by DCMM «C Mwl-Eailla, but not iinfrvoucntty 
> wtmta-fomwr. AiUa tba wtXM haj> bmm tlr«ia>d 
!lh*l«iMb int Into Um hands at the hutbuidujiia, 
tUa Idnd of nil !■ la general found to be tot; 
wiocliiv. Tbe poUar, howwe^ la always liabW 
Indi JBimdatioM, and a coorfaerable aooual rx- 
I k BBC— ary to uphold the appUaacei raqul- 
> eilber %0 mteat or ntCDcdy tlwM. The inunda- 
laaa tbey ar« of uklt wmtat, contributo fur 
1 part to tbe tertiiity uf the wJL 
POI^ in Mtraaony, the namo ^vcn to each cf 
I twtt pefala in whicii the aiia of the CArtJi in mip- 
laaaedloamttbeipbeTeof thebcarena. In uptu-'ric^ 
iphaiiiwinlij, iba pola of any dirle dnturii un the 
■■Baca of a aphKre ie one of tbe jxiinta in which tbt; 
l,fii|iMwliiiilai to ita plane throi^h ita centre oita the 
la lUa eenae artfonomera qioak of the palm 
A* eelifti^ Ac 

b Caapapby. either eitrefni^ of the axie ronad 

IvUch Um earth ranlTM la called a jmU, or a tfr- 

«•! nf<. Tbe nortberu ooe ia called the it^rlA 

, aaa the amtliem the loitth poU, Kacb of tboio 

la 90* dlMaat frcm ereiT part of the equator. 

iKa>nL 

[ Fife, tn pbyvea, tbe pointa of » body at which iU 
piMncUvs er npuklve eneisy b coDCBntratad. at the 
el a mapiet, tbs aotth pole of a needle, tbe 
I ^l» <4 » baltery. 

FOLK, rKBcM, or Itoi^ !d eurveying, la a msaaure 
»laining 14) feet. 

POLE, KasuuLO, cardinal, an eminent etateonaa 

I ttad aeoleaiiatic, boni in l&OO, waa the ton of 8ir 

I SUwni Pole, Wd Montacate, oounin to Jlcnry VII. 

Vj Mar|[ai«t, dauchtec of the Dulce of ClarcDca, 

^hvtbar to Edward rv. He raoeived part of hla cdu- 

I ia a Cajtbnaiaa oonrent at Sheen, near Rich- 

tBoatd, whenoe he pxaed at the a{[e of twdra to 

MafdaleB CoUes*, Oxford, where Ltnavro and Lali- 

BBODK hi> tcadicr*. Ho obtaiaad hie 

I feadhalor'B dagree at the aye of itf toen. Me eabcrad 

f ialo deac u n'a orden at an early a^e, aod had BOToral 

twxih ea confemd on him by llimry VIII., wftb 

vfcom he waa a |rr«at favourite. In 151C ho riiitod 

Italy, and fixed ua teaidoaoe at Failua, where ho 

ao^irol the fnaidahip of aoveral celebrated OHm. 

^1^ an Braanra% Bembo^ and Sadoletow Horvtumwt 

[ to bgbad to 1635; bat la oooaeqnenee of tbe »S»u 

!,«( tba divofce fran Catharine of Amgoo, withdrew 

to Faria (16211), under tb« pictrxt of continuing there 

Ua tbeelufical atudka. lia aftvrwarda went to 

' Avf^MO, aad tlmna to Italy, where he reelded 

at Padoa, eometiioea at Veoko. While 

' laytaa; tai Italy b« waa ordered by Henry to eire a 

\ jwinaratalamaat of hla o[JnIca» regawBni the cUvoroe 

ibe qnaattoa of Fa|«l aupf«a>aey, wboraopon 

Val^ after liyinff in aauia time to eacape from thia 

' aaftgafwie ta^ orew np a long and labuHoua epbtic 

(IVo eoeleaiaalieM nnitatia dafeudDOa), in wlil,;]) ho 

boldly ooadenined tbe tUvuroo aa unlawful, aad tlie 

ra jatUoa of tbe Papal aupremacy aa a breach nuwle 

' la tha nni^ of tha church. The ooaaei{ticDce of 

lUa oeaifaicl waa tbe liaa uf all hi> prefenomt in 

Flg'*T^, In ratWB for wbiob be endeavoured to form 



a party af^biet Hmu-v, which design tonnEnal«d tn 
the lioatrttotiun nf hi* brotiior, I.onl Montacuto, and 
of hia Dcod mother, then Conn Icae of SoUabury, whom 
the Tinolotirfl Henry eent to tbe acaffold. He woa 
declared a traitor by tbe Idog, and a prioe of fiO.OOO 
cMwna waa avt opon hia head. Rut tho conntcn- 
aaoe of the oourt of Rone waa extended to Pole, 
aad beaddea befnc ralaed to the dignity of cardinal, 
he WH emploved in vKrioua negotjationa He waa 
oUo apjnintM one of the three Papal lnRatea to 
the Council of Trent; aud ou the deatu of the pope, 
Paal IlL, waa all but aloctcd to fill tbe Papal chair. 
On the aoocaiinn of Mary I. bi« attAinJer was rc< 
veraed, and ha waa invited to England, wMUier he 
prveoeded In 1S54 aa legate and plenlpotentiaiy of 
the Papal aac, and where no OBdoavonnn to modorato 
the rigour of (iardiner and obbera aeainab the Re- 
fonuiira, and waa an aJroeato for leuieat meaaweaL 
and mi<ii a conecliDu of clerical abuiea aa would 
oondliate them. On tho dpaib of Cranmer, Pole, 
then for the fint Linie ordiiiued a priest, became 
ArcLblak'.ip of Canterbury, and was at the aatne time 
clcctoJ diaaoeUor of tho Uuivnaitiee of Oxford and 
t'kinHHdcei InunedSately on beooadng aiehbiahop 
be put a atop to the peraecuUon In hi* diooeac^ and 
iwt himaelf to raform the clergy, to tvbuild tha 
churulioa, and to ra-aatabll^ the andent ditclpUae. 
tie died on the IHtb Norember, 1££8, the day after 
the death of CJuecn Mary, ao that he did nollire to 
eao hia labour* for Urn n-ontiihlbihmaiit of Romanism 
rendered fruitlea^ anrl tbe PrvUstaut rcliuion again 
in the aaoondaot. He was hiined In Canterbury 
Cathedral with do other epitaph than tbe brief in> 
acripUon pfpttitma CardinaiU Poli. Cardinal PoU 
teeuu not to have been a maa of cenuaaadiag taleata, 
but be merited great eetaen for hia auldnea^ goner- 
oaily, and comparative moderation, in an age when 
pcnwculion waa deemed lawful on all ildoi 

rOLE-AXB, aa axe attached to a pole or handle 
of which the length vuriea conddetably. It arae 
fomiprty nieil by iiiotint«d aoldiara, and ia yet vamd 
in the navy for boaidint; purpuaea; iu tlie latter caae 
the back of tbe axe la f urniabed with a hook. 

POLECAT (,Mu^a ptUarivt), a apccita of car- 
nivnroua animals induiled in the family of tho Mua- 
teliUai or WeaavU, wMcb in turn farma one of tlio 
diviaioBB of the digitlgtado aection of tbe camlvorow 
order of Mammaliik Aa in the maiority of tha Uoa* 
t«lidB, the budr in tbe Polecat ia elongated, Uie Ian 
being abort, '[he mnsile, however, li ehovteaed. 
The toeth number eix inciaor^ two canlnea, dx jire- 
molara, and fourmrilara in eaob jaw. The altull pre* 
aenta a trlanipilar ahape and aumewhat flattaned oon> 
fonnation. The neok la long aad Boxible. Tbe 
ean an of nnall nae, the eyea being larga, and tha 
aenaea of anoll, h<ariDg, and eight ^Ing rery acute. 
Aa in Ike oompaalon geacTa, and aa characlorlatfc of 
tho W««hI fainily, the anal glaada of tha polecat — 
etntctnreo placod okae to tbo saae of tbe tau aecrato 
a fluid or aewMloa of highly anpleaaant odour, and 
which rennaiaa lUangraeaUy permanant whan hniag^ 
in eoatati with cSothing or othor material TMaa 
aalmala. ooropaiatlvaljr aoaDBoa la Britain, BeaMua 
in tbeir adtdt aUte (not )« to IS incbaa— the tail, 
which i* ahort, meaauring fce«n 4 to 5 tncl>ai in addi- 
t!i)iL Tbe under Doat te denae, tbe uuior and hairy 
fur being of a joUmr eoloor, and the ttpa of tho 
longer haha betag tinged of a dark-bmwn bne. Tha 
ed){ee of tbe ear* aad the fur anrroanding tbe lipa 
aro oolontw) wbita. The young, produced la i^etag, 
number bom llirco 0> fivo. Theae t'tiT^ bduml 
burrowe, lining tbe neat with dried graaaea or abnOar 
material. The food oonaiata of the anuUer Mam- 
malia, of bicda, and pmiltry — tbe Foleeat bajng aa 
invoterate deatroyer of doCMrtk CowU and of gaOMt 



166 



POLENTA— POLICR 



Like otbor in*mWra of tli" weiuel triho the J'ntwait* 
Buck the blood of tlioir vi'Ctitn*, and leave the bodiva 
and fiuah untouched. In thia w^y ibcy becomo 
•ricucdine'ly nnxiou*, from th* immonee immbiMii of 
anitnnli they ii<^«troj. 'The I*«Iecnt«, lilw the cttern, 
Bppvar cxM.'^iuuxlly to feed uE>ua CabtM, a jx)]«ca.t 
riuriag wintor li»nng tbua bc«D foand Co h&T« lUhcd 
clovcTi Itwgr-. orbi friftn > rirnr ndjoiiiing its burrnw. 
Tbe naius of ' Founmrt ' In mIbo applied Ui Uis Pule- 
ott; and its (nr, which U Imported is Iarg« qunntiUm 
from Bortbom £uropo, ii known u tbjtt of tlie 
'Fltek.' From ifiO.OUO ta ?Ol>,i]OQ af polecat flklnB 
An uinnally sold in the Luudou. fur iniurlceta alone 
Tht Scotch akin« are aid bi bo tbo lioart; and tba 
fan tm oipotteil fruui Britain to Aswrio, when 
they ars ia r«put«, to the number iil Sfi,000 annually. 
Vartooa promeneii have been adapted ia dmntng tho 
fun tw remove from tb^m t&e odour v( the aual 
Claad«, which generally imprefnatea thv fur and Qwh 
til a ercator i^r Icm degroa; (Seo PL XXXI.- 

xxxir. tiff, la.) 

POLENTA, a tind of fowl common In Italy 
aiuoD); tbc hltfiicr and louvr eIbwos alike. It coiudsti 
of A preparation of either Semolina or Indian-ooni 
meal, which, being mlzi^d with wat«r, is aIli>wod to 
boil ualil it thtckcni. It » then pgnrcd into a dtih, 
wber« it beoomea firm eiiou^fh lu bociit iuto ilioea, in 
wbieh itat4^ after being varioody seaaonad, it fa 
aaten. 

POLE (or Polar} STAU » a utar of tho wjcond 
mitgnittido, thg lut In the IM of tTtaa Minor, neat 
iho colcatial pote. See Polauis. 

POLICE ((ireek, poliitia, gnvcmmcnt, from patu, 
a city), a judicial arid cK^cittive lyiiLoin, aud an 
organixed ciriL fotca for maiaUuning order and ?□• 
tordag the lawi. There are traeua to be funnd in 
every organixad Bodety from the retaoteet anti<inlly 
of eome ayabeat of ruloe for the maintonanca of jMaco 
and ordtf. Ws nt luch traces In the MonJC laws, 
and liknwitift in thoie of the K^yptinnn. At thn luimK 
liuie, a syii>t<.-m of pulita iu tbe liuiiti^ and porticubir 
MinHH iu whioh w« uae the term < I id uut^xiRt in ancient 
tintc*. In Greece it was mixed up with the totality 
of their inititutionn In Kome not tuitil the tims of 
Auznntaa do vc find the poll'Ca hccciming a special 
Inatitution, with a numnrovw ataif of vnriinui gnwlea 
of offiovra, at the head uf whom aUiuO the yra/tcfiu 
urAin IViien the barbarians iwcpt acroaa ths Koman 
Eai|^ and obtained the maetory every trace of a 
regular >yiiteni of poUoa dlaappcsrad, and oidy wbon 
CbM-lornxgne aaoeodwd the tuon« waa there a >uc- 
ocoBful attiunpt made to re-eatabliah anything: of the 
kind. Bnt aft«r the death of Obarleniagne every- 
thing fi^ll into conf urion egain. Tlin Nurtuaai, eitat)- 
liahnd io the north of Francs, wore the br«t who 
made atringeDt police reeul*tiuuii fur thu aiMumnea 
of pnhUc tranqmllily. In t'ranc«, pr^vioua lo the 
middle of the fifteenth onitury, tho provost of Pari* 
aiid bi< lieutvuanlB were cbor^ged with maintaining 
the pe«co of the oicy and BuppntBlng vagrancy. 
About H46 the city vru divided into Bixtcen dis- 
tricta, ovor each of which a oammiaukry of police, 
wiUi a number of ofllocra umler hlui, waa jilaoed. 
In 1077 tlM privUi^ of electing tbuir own police 
tna^etratea — two for each diftrict—wu granted to 
the inhal^ituita of (he eeveral diatriota. Under Loula 
\ 1 V. thn pollco attained Ita highest mewure of par- 
fuctton aa a reprcMivo foT«^ A \uuT«n&I lystcm of 
•wpiotUffe waa ettaiiUohed, utd the tlighteat indication 
of impatience under tho yoke of oppraMion, or the 
ainallat depaurture from thu inonaich a vietn of wlint 
wu right, waa vIhIuhI with lummanr arreet and 
pnaiahment. In the time of Louia XV. it porcid- 

Cted in the general decay and domnmliEation that 
d infected Uw oUier depactiuenta of the gorem- 



mcnt In 1794 theNatlofMlCooTBitttoai 
the )K>Iics and defined ita dntiea, which e aa pHiad 
alm<;et every tlepartment of admlnletratiro govcn^ 
ment During the adminiatntion of Nuioleon L 
the city pulio) of Parin attained a hl^ ai(iM cf 
•fBelency. In 1^47, under I^ouia FhilJpf)^ ttM DBB- 
bcrof the regular policemeo. •erpr"'' (k **^, lud 
riaen to ltH)». Aa exiating at prevent tbe Frendi 
police generally it jireuiled over bv the mfnlattf tt 
tho interior; the (iBpartaieDta and camnmoee ar« 
uuddr the prefeeta, ■uVprefoota, and mairM, aanatcd 
by connmiaaarioa of police, and otlwr muaioipal aciBt*; 
Variii ii tinder the pretext of police lad Ui MawOM 
Mniatant*. 

In England, from the time of tho Baxon ldn«^ 
thani ha!u oxi«ted an orgnniaatioa of a partiuly 
voluntary character far the repteaaioo oS ctima, tfaa 
arrmt of crimiuala, and the tnainbenanoe ct good 
order. The populatioD waa divided into hlUldnd^ 
and theae into tfthlnga, or coinp&niiM of t«n he*- 
holilera with their familJea, llw chief man of tha 
hcndrnr! waa the joiUce of the peace, or tocal nu^i^ 
trste, Tor tho trial of email ca oaea; and th« head man 
of the tithing waa raapooslbl* tat good ord«r and tbe 
arTMt of criminala in hfa limitad dlatrkt Aa Aia 
■vatcRi, bnWRVrr, wm not alwayi fuuud to work well^ 
toe hiub abiirifT of the i^uuntr, !ii« d^piiUea, and the 
conatablee appoint*d by the pariahea, were cveatvally 
anhatitutod for tbe volnntary oftioen of tho earUcr 
period. But in prooeat of time thia ayatem waa alae 
lottDd ineffeotual for tbe maintenanoo of publie ptaee 
and locurity; yet no grvat Improvement wai made 
nutil Wi9, whan tba remodelling of the polio* aytimm 
of tho Kii.-trii[>oliii Ic'I the way lo tbe adopUon of a 
uniform lyiitvai for the whole oouulry. In 1S39 Sir 
Robert Peel got an act paieed 'fur improving tha 
police in and near the metropotii^' a menrar* winch 
WM at onM carried out, though It bt«ugfat down 
much invoctive on the Jiead of ica originator, and 
cauwd many prognotticatbu of eiiU It waa to enCalL 
Such prup)iMi«i,huwever, weraeoonaoen tobabeaa- 
Ifiai, and Lb* meaaure haa been a gnat maaaa el 

EmiDDtiag Doaoe and proteotfofr life and moiieKy, 
everal moajflcation^ wet« Introdnood by ni h ae V iw rt 
acta of Parliament, eepedally by 3 and 3 Vict oapa. 
zlriL and xcit. <I&39); and other citiea and barangha 
from thia tiine forward lUDcaaaivoly aoquired, by 
■oparate acU of Parliament, the nocoeaary powen to 
enable them to inntiMt^ and m aintain POliiN on tba 
model uf tlie hifUuihiUUd force. In 1S88 and 1840 
acta wer« paated providing far tb* appeintmeot of a 
county oonitabnlary, orgaoisad and maintained in 
acoordanoo with rufeo pnocrlbad by the •eoreUry of 
tlMv tor the lioEue departnient The county m^ia- 
tralM; however, were l»ft the option of taking advan* 
tage o( ihvae aeti; and aooordinirly many oeuoUea 
took no et«pR ill tbe matter. But by IV and 9Kl TloL 
cap. Iiix. (185(3)' it waa mado cwnipulsorf on tho 
magiatratoa of every county whore no polioe had jet 
been cunatitutMl to procoed therein forthwith ; and 
acoitrdinijly tliere fa now a county couetabulary foroa 
in every oouncy. which report* annually totboaectv 
lary of itale^ tQ« force beiii^' under the periodioat 
imq>ecticn of offioen appointed bv ihe crown. SooM 
auieudmenb were introduced in Ibul). 

In Sootland th* organixalion of an eSiincnt police 
in the huue tuurn* dates from lil33, when a NtattiM 
waa pBiaed BnabUng hurgtu to eatabliali a geoand 
eyetem of police, wbicb, howercr, waa niperMdod hj 
the mA 111 and II VicL rap. xxxiiL (1&50>. Hie 
ex|iebaeof the[<oiIii.-ee4tabU>hmentat here iDtrodnoed 
i» proi-idcd for by an Mao ae i nent on tho Inlwbitmta; 
and the eiipcrintendenoc of the whole ejratotn of oi* 
panditure and managenient u intrualed to oertaln 
i ODOULilaalouera daeoeu by the Inhabltanti P*yiug 



I 



rOLICINELLO -POLmANUa 



BtnL TIm raral polios ha* bvon aii:nDU«d 
tL> Uw of 18S7, wblch ii ■imitw [q iui pro- 
i to Uu £D0i*b Uw of 1856, tliorlutjof caUb> 
liiUllff ft Onin»Uh<il»Ty fan* f<ir •acb cvunly bofii({ 
mMM upon the eumnkdoDen uf aupply for the 
•saa^. H*If tlw npoBM of tli« clirfliiiig uid i>a,y 
d oo mto bUa k ilcfnty«tl bjr lutiion*! fuDiU 

I> InLuid tmriuuB to 1811 tlir pnlioo wm Id k 
(BMtibtM oGnditloo. lu tbkl y«ftr a Uw wu 
by vbicfa kibc ii&pn>v«aioiiU In deUU wore 
•tf«eta4 tint iBUi;4biiM«aUll cunHnued unnuHmlicJ. 
Ilie aft of 1830; aud ita aubset^aeRt modificatiuiui in 
1 ^48 and 1857, b»v« gmtly improved Uiie polioe. 
It b o( ft eeml-DuUtary duu«ct«r, bdtig well uinod 
■ad neaifyiag barreiiU. A ocjtain auiDbor u« 
■M—lad. Tbo sreMtar p<>rtii>u vf Ibe expenae vf 
fcai^DC «p tlw Iriili polico lonm faUa on tbe Con- 

J^ Uw tiallad SUIm Um proriilaDa tor the reprea- 
rtM *C criiDo oad tbe det«ctiun and arrcat of criiuiunla 
^ntra oofned from thoaa of (irrat Hritain. In IK57 
tlw IwgiaUtww of New Yin-k pmmk] as act fvr the 
■ihHiihwanl of « mobvpoliUQ poUco foico, which 
WW NfaMqjttMitl; nodiSod la l&OO. Tli* duties ot 
this fctvo are (eij nmcii tlio aame aa of tho Lnndoii 
aiul I 'aria fixc*M. 

rOLIC1NI£LIX>. Boo PvHC-iiiscLLO. 

POLILY OF IMSVHANOK Men Iktohaiict; 

lt>LIGSAC, JiiLCs Ai-ocarE Akhamd MjiBDt, 
ruHL-i lit, a FrvDcti atatiimwii, boni at Paria May 
II, 17S4. Ub pwvnta bein^ obliged to lean France 
at tfa« tina of tke retolntion, be went finA to Ron* 
ai^ thco a nfugo for Iba nj-aliata, aud afUr tliat 
Rpanwl to Kdinlniri^h, wborv tho Count d'Artoia, 
afterwarda Charlea X, wa* tlien mi Jinjr. In 1 303 ho 
iwbtTBod to Franoe, and took part In the oonapiracy 
at Pirlwfru and Cadoudol, and in conaequenoa of hn 
wompl ki ly in U was coELdemDcd to two ycMi' Impri* 
■oBiBCDt. He vaa Mill, howerer, delaoDed in jirUon 
altar tho Azpirj td liia Benteno^ id company with hit 
bmtbor Anuan^ who bad bom mon deeuly Impli- 
cated in Um aaine pUit; bat hoth euooooded in offvct* 
fag tbrir woape. AfUr tho renontioa he toolc part 
b tka FMctien, and raaa high in tbe favonr of Count 
■fAriaia. In ISl&hewaaaMiointadadjntant-geiieniJ 
In tba Unc, sad Mt«r«d the diainber of pocfv, but 
at tiat nfwd, like bia brvther, to lake the oath to 
tha darta-, tbauf b h« afterwards oonacnted to do so. 
In ISlf h« BMiTied MJm Campbell, a Scntch lulv, 
■ad lat«r, in 1933, be married the Marchioneai ile 
ChoiMoL la lfl20 be obtainad from tho pop^ as a 
nmtd tot his serviMt to the church, the title and 
mtma of a Bomaa prince. la 1823 b« raooMsled 
ChMranhrianil aa am ha we dor at Loudoo; but after 
the a n w i u a of Ouwlca X. epeat the greater part 
at Us tin* ia Paris. His mat attaehment to the 
nllraBoataaa egpaten dI ArchUahop Latil waa pn>- 
lablf lbs nasoo wby Ctiatl«a X. mad* him mtolster. 
JM m Uttle Uhcrty wat sllo<red to diaoov the dr- 
■naMnoM of Ihs tins, the hatnd ot the natUm waa 
dbaslsd i^ainat htiD as nnch as against the bouaa 
«( B wib on. To nnove the odiuin, be spoke out 
dMlaetly in the houa of pccn in favour ct conrtitn- 
llaaal nlc, aoU. notwitbstandii^. motioned to Ktanil 
so 14^ in royal favour that in 1P29 he wax pUc«l 
at the bead of the new minlatrir, wich tbi; f^MttUo 
■f bnbn sSsirs. The padScation with Gr««oe waa 
Us von, and tha African osnpaign his dovice. Ou 
lbs 27tb J«ly, 1(00, the batnd of the people wai 
toaaed tAopea iBMUTecthHi by theordounaoces iaaiwd 
ea the SStfa, and the dyDsaty of Charles X. wss over- 
ItarawB. Us aoeoaipknied the kin; to Cberboufg, 
and Iheo wmt to bmaville, whero he waa appi»- 
biadad and oanied finrt to St, Lo and VinocBBos, 
•ad Ibm Inpibooed la the Loxmbonts. Thsbous* 



of pHATK, uindTectHl hy hia datfenre, an<) the meech 
whioh Uartigosc luadc in hi* favour, oondeninea Iiiin 
to dvft death. He was forthwith taken to Ham with 
three of his ooUe*gucs, and there ceoumod himself 
with literature aiul tti'D cdticatjan of hie childrvn. 
By thu iimn»ly of 1 fi30 be recovered his tlberfy, sod 
flxod his residence Id EnglantL At a later period be 
rctnrncrl bi l<VaiioA. and <iic-^l at Kt. irermoin-en-lMtt 
in 1847. An older brother, who i> of ten mistaken for 
him, foUowod the saiae eonrs* io politioi, sod dltd la 
the sasH year nt PnriL 

POMGNAO. MEijrmoR ni; nbhi, snd enbae- 
■lueutly canliiial, a French tlijiloiiistiiil, waa iiesc«ndod 
frptn a diitingiiUhnl fi<,[nily of l.aj\giiediK, and bora 
in t$61. In 16^9 ho rvndcRil lii^svU coiuipiououa 
by his addKSfl in the ni-^otiMioaa with Pope Alei- 
ander VIII., rrl.itivu to the artir.!«« adoptea by the 
French der^y in 1082. In 13»3 the AbM do Foti- 
tnise wss named ambsBaadflr sxtraordinary to Poland, 
for the punMse of detaching Jubii Sobie^ from the 
league with Atiatrio, and drawinz him over to an 
allianoe with Franco. On tbu dL-ath of Sohiesld 
(ll»96) bo was employed in cniloavouring to otToct 
the dection of tbs l'rinM> of ('onti Ui thn I'aliah 
throne. Hia intrigtwa, though itcorindcd hy lur^v 
bHh«M, were, boe'ever, unaueoceaful. On bia return 
to Franco hi 1(198 ho waa haniabiid the ctiurt oo 
account nf the failDro nf thia iniieion. In 1710 he 
was Kut to take part in tLi: iH:i{i>Liatiucii at Gertruy- 
denberff, and in 1713 wa« ikp[<iint«d plenipotentiary 
to tho Codgreai of Utrecht, and wna afterwards min- 
ister to the ofHirt of Rnine. He received hia cardi- 
nal's hat in 1713. Baniabed during the rej^ency hy 
reanon of his intriguca, ho waa recalled In 1721, and 
in 1721 waa divpatchcd aa anibaawkdor to Bome^ 
which ho quilted in 1730, and spent the r«iaaiuder 
of his life in France, wbore h* dinl in 1742. Aa a 
writer PoUgnao is kaowo by bis didactic poem, in 
eight books, ag»init the Epicurean syiibim, entitled 
Auti-LDoreliui^ sen de Oeo et Natiua O'aria, I7<7), 
which has been translated Into Erullah, J'''rvnch. and 
GcriDiu]. 3ce the Hiftgire dv Cai^iaal de Foligaaek 

POLISH lll.STOKY. LANGTJACK,SBD UTK- 
RATURR S«e Polaitd. 

I'OLISlilNIi !■ tlie name givan to tha proofas 
hy whloh the surface of a niotenal Is made to aasnme 
the most hiilliant am>earanoo of which It Is oapahlsL 
Tbo dsgrse of polish or briUisacy which a eiveu sur- 
face can take on i* in general proportionable to the 
lisrdiMas of the inateral Tbe artwie to be poUihed 
must fitat be mads quiia anooth. To effect this 
various anhataneea are used, aoooiding to tbe nature 
of the article. The softer Dodien, sach as wtwd, ala> 
baatcr, Ivury, are moothed by mesas of glass-papar 
and puinioo-stoos; metals, wiu nasfy, pamias-etoM, 
and poliihing-stenea : gla«a, with sand and eraery; 
aud preciuua akMUB with eatery. When the artiue 
by theao mesas bss aoquired a nnooth and onifernt 
sucfaca, tbe polishing osgini. In the case of wood 
the snoeM Is eOsolea by rahUag with Wsadi polkb 
(which see)u la metals, t^ poliahiag-stM) or hloed- 
■torio. or by dbcs cf wood eovend over wftfa leather, 
simI oa which pulverised tripoU, ohalk, \ln-potty, 
&«., ia aprinhlcd. Inglassaadprecioosstoass, by tin- 
piitly and lead liftings; in marble, by tin-Mitty and 
tripuli^ in (-raiiice and other bard stones, by trlpoll 
aud quicklime. 

nn.18HlNG-SI.ATK, a gray or yellow shUe. 
cooiptned of uiicruacvpic infoaoria. It b ftKiad in 
Utv" quantitiea in the cosi-meaaurss of Bobsmla, 
and in Auvergne, and is used tor puUablaf f} — t 
marble, and metal*. 

roUTIANUS. AvOKtiis (the lAtinliad form of 
Atiff<lo PotizuLnat, a learned and elegant adiolBr of 
tlM fifteenth centory, burn la U&t at M«ate Paleiaa^ 



ror.mcAi, economy. 



to th« Florentine tmtitmit^ «h«noe ha derlvni] tb« 
ftppvllktion by which he b mon uiiully known thun 
tqr tbU ol Cinii, hi* tiuniiy ntimn. He wm c^lnrAted 
ftt Kloraace, whcru h^ huuu BCJ^uiri;!! grcnL jituliciuucy 
in UiB chuMia and in ll«brew: tiiid etuiIiH th« pbi- 
loMpfay of PUta imdvr Mardlio t'icino, vui tho iilii- 

Ehf of Ariatotle nnder Argyroputo. Thfi (ir«t 
iction wMch Inought liim iutu notira waa & 
I poem nn Um tonnianinnt cif Oiiilio tin' McdicL 
He iiwunuil tha «OGlMiutiCkl habit, and ac(|ULn.'tI by 
hia aocomplishmenta tho favour of I^oraaio de' M^dlcl, 
who tn^c him ttitor to bia ohttdreo, and nraciitcd 
Um with 4t cAnanry in tba oatbedrnl ot Floretics, 
In lUl he vblted Rome, and met with a tintteHut; 
recepdan from Pop« Innoeent VIII. Aft^r hU 
ntim to Flonnoa he iMtiimi with fli«tin;^iii<iic>l 
nooHa on the Latiu and (inmk UngrinifM, niirl lik«- 
viso OQ philoeophy, altnurUn; & brilliant audlenoo 
at foroi^eni a« woll an Ibdiftoa. Among the tnotl 
etteetut^ of bin writinji* are an Account of tho Coii- 
•piracy of the I'auI; a Latin tnuidfttion of U«ro<li«n; 
And a euUoctiou of Grook EpJmna; btaUlM torn* 
aiacetlaneout worlcn in proM and vena, and a ilrama 
on the Blory of Orpboa»t priiiUNl in 1 475. IIiIb latter 
]neao waa aot to miiKir, of whirh •drnce h« waa paa- 
tioiLately fond. A> a Latin writer, bo mny bo roek- 
OBod one of the fint who intrrkluccd that a^ af 
raviv«d clawical Lktiuity wliJL-h tunaa to prunmiviiL 
m faatore in modotn litimuy hisUiry. iln vnit an 
ladiiatriouaand nkiUul coUiilorof undent mnnucnptji, 
Mid ^avo ^eal amistancD to the editors In the early 
perind iJ tri-ognphy. ] Ic aliui ent^ndnl hia rcMKirclir^ 
to juriiiprtiilFiice, and contributed (irestly to thu cnr- 
raciion and Ulustratioii of the PondeoU. Uo died 
in iS«pt«aibcr, Hiii. 

POLITICAL KOONOXfY U the aeienw wbirh 
treatii of tho genara] cau«Fa afl«.-tinK tba pruduction, 
dlitnbution, and ccmsomptian of tilings having an 
Mchan^oablo value, in r«<fori:&cetolbo ulTircla ot such 
prodiifrtion, ilUtribiition, and consiimptinD npon the 
natiounJ weidtb and wclfsjv, Thts detinitiou of tiiLi 
edeiiM hu been a eubjeot of loiue dieousaiuu. &citi(ir 
defines it as 'the xaeaM whioh treats of tho OAturo, 
the prodaction, and the divtributian of wealth ;' Arcb- 
bUfavp Whately as 'calalUctIca, or tbe ii'iFim uf 
exduui^ttN;' Storch, u 'tho edoQCo of ih? natural 
Ian which det^rminA thn proKparity of natlom, that 
le to aay, their wealth uiut dviliiatiou;' Stainundt, n> 
the acionoo which hiut fur ita nhjert ' tb* phyricad 
welian uf man, n far aa it can bo tho work of gov- 
emmonti' Say. as 'the ecoDony of »odety, aadenoe 
oomtuning the rcxidta of iiiir obaervationa on the 
nperatiooa awl fnticticma uf the different narta of tho 
■Doiid body;' John Stuart Mill, aa 'the science which 
bsoM tho lam of inch nl tho pheDomona of lodAtj 
aa ariMi fmm the comtiinni opcmtinnii of mankind 
fur tliu pruducLiun of wsalUi, in >u fur aa thuw: pbs* 
noniann >n> nnt modified by the purault of any othvr 
object' The dDfinttioD ci Malthm civee it a wider 
range than Is ooiioeded to ft by M'Calloch, eirtcnding 
It to the JnvMtigatEon ol the produotloa and uouanmp- 
tioD of all that man dedna, ao uaefnl and agroeabl«^ 
accordm^; to wbiohdefitdtiCQiM'CiilIrvch Kay* it won id 
indude all olber idenoei^ ao that 'the beit eiK^ydo* 
p*di» would really be the beat treaUte on pnlitical 
MonomT.' But M'CuUoch't definition U liable to tho 
■aiM oojectioo, if taken In lu foil litenl aenae; for 
bo call* it 'theedenooof tho law* which regulate the 
prudui.-liua, diatribation, and connimpUon uf Uium 
material productawlildi have an exobaud'ealile value, 
ud whlon are cotlior noceaiary. ueafuL or agreeable.' 
Tbtfl deftnition would efldentlT, if taken in ibi full 
breadth, conipreliend a verv lar^'e porlimi of the 
encyclopedia. But IbauKh ftlalthua coniiilnnKl the 
Bci«D«e aa eomprdMndlng all tboee tliki|{« which nivn 



desire aa uerfnl or afpreeable^ yet ha mdonbtedly tn> 
tondif to limit it to certain views of tUa gn»t variety 
of aubjectai But the defialtinu bodi of Mnltfatn 
and M'Cnlloeh gcein to be loo bmad. PoUtioal 
G<^iiomy rcfim only to the coneral canaea aflectfatg 
thu produ<9tiv« faculiiei and neaoa of » satiac^ 
tDcauing: by prtiduttitt fofvUiit and swbm the eapa- 
<.-ity aii'i r«aoiim« far nrndadng things that hare an 
excbmi^alile value. Tbna the constitution of gov- 
unimoiit, tbo laws, the judicial, sotjal, and eeooocnieal 
innituCtoiif, the school^ the reli^n, inonl^ soil, 
grographi'^ position, dinuto, arte. Indeed aB the 
circiiniitanora in the chiuTKter and octiditMO <J a 
peopl^f IX f"-)* &■ thev have a ^aoanJ effect on the 
pnblic wealth; ia othir word^ the pRdaettoa, die- 
triUition, Aod eonaumption of eoiniiu>ditles *ra anh- 
JeL'Cn of Lliiii Kieuj^ It {a, accordingly, a adcnoe of 
a lofty and llboral character, not identified with that 
of pnlitfca, but Tcry nearly allied to it, and. Indeed, 
oDcof itn br&iicheii; tor a man would be but 01 quail- 
4ed to legislate for a itale who ebouJd be ignorant of 
the gsoeral Isws aOectiDg it* prodaetiv« cmfmaitj. 
lliis being the character of the sdenoe U ta not a 
little remarkable that It has not been more bonoarad 
and moro gon«rsJiy studied aa « dntinct 5cld cl 
inr|uiry; for it hu ncveMarity been studied and 
tioally applied by all Bl»t«ani«n and rulon froo 
lir^'D&ing i,>f time, Rinoe the effect of all mcsi 
thit gnrRi-nnient, iLnil all catiiei^ npon the "—****«— 
of a commuuity uiuat have been objects of oondkbv*- 
tion from the dawn of bitroan raflectian, tkoiwh tlM 
notion* of ninn may have been Ten erode, smT often 
erroneoui, upon tliia aa upon all otaer edeneaa. Men 
very early studied the human body, and ew«a fcnasd 
something like a sdonoe to accoont tor its fosctioos! 
htit correct nations of anatony an of eeonpanaively 
recent ori;^a. The adenceof dbemlatry ia still more 
recent. That of politiml eoonotny, like otbon^ has 
had its atogea of progTcea, and some of its ptofneon 
cnniider it now to be plnccd Ufmn aa firm a hasii, and 
roluuLil to a »yBtem of rulps lie completely deraoo- 
Btrated. aa that of ualronomy iilioe the tine of Kew- 
l<in : while (.then) mnniticr the present state of poUtfca] 
ccoavtoj u iat bctow a full develDpraent and denien< 
stratioti of Iti principles aa the ayetem of the nine 
muodana spbom, or perhaps Uie tboecy «f l^dio 
Brahe, so oompanftd to modem oatroaotDy. It cer- 
tainly acems to he riuftulnr. if the nJoa wbwicby a 
nation may Im mndn t<> ilihTirith nr decay are aa mil 
deSaed and as Katislsctimly dcnoaatrated aa ths 
theorems of Kwimetry, tliat they abould be ao nrely 
and eo importoctly reilucvd (o practice. Soraeeif tM 
fiindamontal doctrinM of th<m writen who have 
uooupied the fnatvit epuce in the written espoailioitt 
of Ibia sdence are not adopted by any natioo what- 
ever ooeupying a ro^otable ranit in tlte ciriUied 
world. Tlus might be aocounted for if the doetrinca 
Id queetloQ were professedly propoeed for afaanltaae- 
oils adoption br all natiai^ like titoaa ef tfia Peaea 
Kodetita; for tncn the doctrines might be theactti- 
cally true, but yet fundonientally Snapi>1icable ia the 
actiul oondiiion of the worid. But these doctrinei 
are not proposed as being rabject to thia condhhio; 
tliey are prcoaed npon evorv single peonls without 
regard to the eonduct of otliara^ and InoepeDdeatiy 
of tho policy that may be pursued 'by foralgnefK U 
is not one of the oonditiona on which they are nMin- 
mnndL^d that natioua must be prepared for tbair 
rnoiplicin l>y on entire reTohitlon in natloDal tela* 
tiotii ajul |iulttry, and that they can have placa only 
in the train of events attending a polltiMl niUeti' 
nium; their sdrnmt'^ profesa their adaptation to the 
present slate of catii>r.»I HvaUhipa and nomsinas of 
interast It follows that the practical tnth of these 
doutrioes Is not ao demDiiitraUrdy prored aa their 




I 
I 

I 



POLITICAL ECXJNOMY. 



171 



■JtmcalM aspfMNw, or thtt lb<> Ingixlabm ktr not Mt 

«rfn m tfaa; aluralil hn. In Uil* aUU) x>t ihv m>«. 

adafttliig a gnu dsal of oomption, tgnonuani. and 

MNT oa tl» pvi of tboM who ooDtrol th« meMniTM 

ol Ike diffai«ot oiTilisad njAion* of CbriBtandom, yet 

tikiir MBMvl co auiifi t u co ia njecliog tbeae dactiiuos, 

•Via m tfaoM t«» 91 tbrM ooontriM wl»rs thoy %n 

■MM* AOnHdMitlj' —Brtcd and liMwt learnedly lociil- 

eatod, praMuhi ui Mitlioritj kgainrt tbeir pra«tic»l 

vtOitT i|alt« M InpwiBg m toM of tb« proinunn 

bj* WBMB ibaj an k ttmiBouily advocated. Tbu 

■diOB^ tLk« other apMidatira BoteneM^ comnenacd 

in llMMita; and iho dbemdoD and nfuUtion af 

Umob atOl oec«|4M a grwl diat« In tfaa rcoont tna* 

lliw a «ifnin«UiiQO wUdi of iUetf ahovra tfaut K 1* 

^ ntbar » nda Mata^ >1)>m In tluiM adanoaa which 

>*« waehad aa advanoMl tUU tb« fUoaarysystooM 

t tte Int aiwealatan >r»«irw invntipo«d m matteia 

Uitorlflal corioaity, a fonaal c«nfutation of 

vUeli vtwli) ba aapcfflnoiu. UdIcm we «hoiili1 cnn- 

' Iha notiaa of mom Micacnt nmUaxn, tbnt plniiclcr 

^Vaa tba gnat aourM of aaUmuU we^tli, at a tlieory 

Ith thii Mtatea, Um fint itop In poUUcil eccwotny waa 

|:lfca th««7 of th* oonnercla] or iiMTwntil« Rjftein, 

" ' I lai^bt that a nation could rtow rich ottly by 

IfcadOiUtd that ita growing rich in thU way dapcndiid 

tim *— '"-^ ncMrod in tbe pRciutu bmUIa oa 

adjmtii^ ita aoooanta with other nattom. ?fritl)*r 

of tbaaa *t«w« b «atinly vfNlonary, for a natJm may 

I faia wmJUi hj omylRg oo «UhBF war or tmd« upon 

|«a7 adnalaeeatis toruu. It ia aavumed. Indeed, 

: all eaBiDflrcUl uohannB ar« only tboaa of aqnl- 

Ivalaat vahica. But notwilhiUndiDg thia aiinm, an 

lAidtridnal morobant or apecnlator will •ometlmra 

I hia lofi«a» by esduo^nK, or, lu othor words, 

' b«yln; and aoUbis. And m a caticn, if it vot- 

aoue very groat oowmcrciiU advanta^o— liko 

I o( tba Mriy SbniUi tiadcn vitfa ihv nat4v« 

{ABMrfoaDa, wbo ravld axdianga fron and Uu of tin 

a tDoch gK*t«r weight of gold^raay gtow 

Iwaalthy by trwls; for tlio nation niny in tbU wsy 

[igal, lor wliat ouato then ouly a Oay'i labour, what 

I voold OdM tbem, or wbat may b« worth to tbem, 

tfz, or twanty days' labour. TIm mercantile 

Kn iMd therefore eoma fouodatiim in fact and 

jriMCi ; for t^rm ons wUl probably admit tbat 

,' ywllnalar bni&i» of tiadt may b« tnoro or !<■§ 

fllTntigmiii to thoae asgaged in it, and to th« eoun- 

fWaa to wUcl) they l>oloog. and that one branch may 

man advantuvooa than another. It la mJiI, 

, that a dbaavaBtageoua trade will ooaM^ and 

I la thoBM Uamd Ihat all lh«w whkh continoo to 

I caftiad oa are pro6talile and naafuL Thia ia, at 

, aitiittintf that thvrv nay be a d i*nd* an tFg—"^tt 

''Imdi^ and tlutt mom IxaDcfaca may .be ad*aataf«oua 

vUl Ht ba tUaptttad. TIm atercantlla syrtom, tbin, 

lad MNa* foniwataon; but, like eotae other theoric* 

^«t political eoouomy, it wsa carried too far. The 

■ of aational waallh, a* appUMl to natiooa gone- 

ily, k redaced to nry oanow Umib*, if we aujipoae 

' It to rwrt wholly upon the bargaina made in foreipi 

' barter. Tba mlalaka lay in magnifying tba relative 

npacUaoa «f f<onigQ tradv ai a part of llio eaoMi 

bat aatiflMl indiiatry aad naooreea, rfnee the aaaual 

l^nM dtrivod tbeM^ ev«n la a vtrj eonmtrdal 

laDanl*7i doaa not nnully oxeoad aorae *ai7 inoooaidar- 

|iUa per Malaga tt tba lAoJa awmal prMoethn and 

loB. Bat a atUl taor* objaetiooabla part of 

I tfeauy waa feba cappodlloB that tha gain thna 

l*ad depended wholly npoo the balance received 

I gold aad advar — aocording to wtiicb notton euch a 

^■aortry aa Mexloo, a i^^t portion of tho cxporti of 

an Dcoeaurily fCiiA and lolTer, conld Be?er 

- rich. TliB Dionr It [iroduocd of the very artlclae 

tt of which aloDo oould make oUier natioaa 



rifh, the amn ileiiinc»lrably impoMiliIe It woa that 
it Hhould KKiw wealthy [ta»lf. So far, t1iw«foiv, aji 
tho theory lurorrod natiooat growth in wealth oxdu- 
•ivftly to the renripl of inch a balanco of trade, and 
mnde the j^owth in wealth proportional to tlie 
amonntof this balonots It waa entirely fandfiil. lliia 
theory wm aupnortcd in the latter fuirt of tho wvcn- 
tecnth and tariy nurt of the fcli^hteenth wntory, In 
EufjUud, hy Mr. Hun, Sir Joaiah Child, Dr. Darv- 
nant. and i^lr Jamaa Stnart; but it waa called in 
qooation at the nm« poHod by Sir WllUnm Petty, 
Sir Dudley North, Mr. Barlww. and lator by Sir 
Matthtw Peckpr anii Mr, Ilarnit. Sir Matth«w 
Decker'a Itiuayon tha Decline of Foreign Ttade waa 
liulilixlvJ in 1741, and Mr. Harria' Eaany Dpoa 
Money and Coins in 1757. Hume tiaatod of tha 
■ama n)bj«ct in hie I'otitiad Eiaayi^ pnUiabed in 
1757. So far, then, aa tlilt thaoty reatcd upon the 
notion of a mon«y balanoe m boin? tbo only aoorea 
of uational growth io wealth, it wan ably dlacnaiad 
Ixfarc the fitililicAtinn iif Smith's Wealth of Naliona. 
But Ibe pnu-lictil <)iiMtlon at tho botlom oF the theory, 
namely, tho national advaataga and diaadvnntagM 
Til parttcnlar branchea of trader and the aSest upon a 
nnlinu of a trade which keepa it always In debt to 
an'jtlicr. hnn not baen eattlril to thia day; tha eoono* 
mirta of tbe nc« icAopf, aa it la termed, maiutainitig ttutt 
all foreign tnds ia ad vantageoua to a Muntiy pnebely 
to tha degrae to which it is profitabia to thaea ongagad 
in it, and ttwroforo that the immedlata Intoreat of 
the inerebant, nndn the actual oiroumMaaoai^ la ti» 
iufatliblo criterion of the national Inbercet; wUlo 
otbon^ cd) the cnntrary, ai)d with them moet I«gial»- 
ton, pracdoally aft upon the doctrlno tiAt the iumw- 
diatv bt«r«4t of the marcbant ia not In all eaae a a 
crilorion of the ponnanent r*^"""' Intcrcrt. 8eu 
Ualakce or TsAnc 

The manufacturing aysteiD biu> becu naked ■• 
another («onaaUcal theory; but It can hardly ba 
reganJeil in thi« lieht It mppoMa that a nation 
priiiiiii>t«i> Ita Ki-altK and pmluctire capckcity by 
maiiufacturinu fur itaelf all thoee oommoditiea for 
tha manufacture of which it is adapted by its dtmato, 
aericultnral pumrita, aad the haula and cbanurter 
of ita pconlo. It ia not now dlapntod that manufao- 
lurlug will eonta-ibiito to the aggregate Talua nl 
snnuid pcodncta, m well as Bgr!<^iUun) or oommerw. 
The only queatiens are: 1. What deaoriplkina of 
nianufnctunng Industry wtU incntaM the prodnotive 
roaonross of a partloular omintry; and ± wltethsr it 
shonld be an objert of Isgialatiaa to feaiar and pro- 
mote these btanobes of tndoatiy. Theaa oppoaed to 
any sncfa b^abttiY* inberferenca namety, the adro- 
csta* if fiiiii tiaila a^niiiit that tha nalaiwal Indaa- 
try, left entirely fiee, aad open to s oompatltloa wHb 
that of other nations, will infallibly take those dan- 
De>la by which ita B^),icgatc reatiltd will he the great- 
twL I'ba fonndatiDi) of the doctrinu of the M M 
aUttt poUey was laid by Adam Smith, tiaoo wboae 
time its advDOstes bare sanuued It iipoa the prin- 
dpice 1^ which it ia mjiporteil io the Wtalth of 
Nailona. Smith raals the dwtrioit upon two propo- 
aiUoBs:— I. 'That ovary iwUridanl can Judge, Wter 
than any itateaman or lawgiver can do for him, what 
la Uw) ■dmHm of industry on wbieb be oaa b«st 
employ bis eapjial;* and 2. 'Tba alady ot Ua own 
advantage natorally, or rather neoaasarily, Uads every 
buUvidiial to pnnr that employment of cafntal 
wbi«b is moat advaatagenas to aodety.' llis doo- 
trine of fT«e-ttade r«sla wbolly upon tboae two nro- 
|ii«itione. Uur liadta will not allow ua to wmrider 
tha aiguiaDats la faroar or against thslr soundaaas 
as iIm gaUsa tS IcfUttloa la all caaHi For thssa 
the raaiier is referred to the works meationcd at tba 
end of this artjcls. It ia soffident tu tacnark bora 



172 



POLrnCAL ECON'OMT. 



that tba dwtrlae tt b«e-tn4c, long merely a theory, 
bM liMQ pncticKll^ kdopUtd in (ircAt UriUin. 

AuotLur thrwj IQ rdaljaa to njttintisl wealth wtM 
thai nf Quwntty, deuomiuuti-d Ihe ciyj-ii-ti/IuroJ iy«- 
tem — OAUUily, Ihiit a^cuhunl ia the only producltTo 
Mrt of lAboar, aiticc tiiiii oXfurAt n iiiir[vtijii (Co wit, 
tMit) aitar payiug tins l»buurtr; whcreaa, all other 
kinds only r«plM« tfaa vaIuo <it tha ataak and pay 
the wBirnt. Tbi* theory U, bow«V(ir, cnliKily ex- 
ploded; a,nil, beiidM, It Is of & kind nnt cnlciilAted to 
do luiy prticlind injury- for no natiiui would Ihluk 
of IPKislating upon Llm aiuii:iii[iti(>ti thait, bocaiuw tbo 
raJflluk' lit cuttle, luid tliu* producing hidea, ^jut, 
tccording to tlii« doctrine, a produollTO Iftbour, &Dd 
tbdt of tanning Chn hifloi nnd innking Iho lr«ibcr 
itito bIiucb wua nut prnductivo, or Mt no not gain, 
thsnfore tha two l&ttor br&uchu tiil);ht u vttSi. be 
diMODtiaiMd. 

Th<Me doctrine* rcf or to bhr> gonnrnl nxtinnal indns- 
ttj Mid Growth la WL-allh-, othvn uc [>Arti«l in 
tlwir iqipUieatioa, of which we will notloo a (tw that 
Mia adopted by tboao writors irbo Are the tacxt dis- 
poned to oonaider politiokl eoonomy % acietux. One 
of thru* doi^riiiM^ Btatcd by AiImu Smith, !«, that 
tho wiiu<M of oammoQ day labour Gually fix at the 
point M vhich they hareiy nlford the labonrer Che 
iDuni of ■ubalstvncv, tnni ul cvtitiuuiog tbe race of 
labonmni, Tbi« in C9.1l«d by the foUuwsn of Adun 
Smith tbe 'natural rate c^ wans.' It ia uiualty 
aMtunod fo tfafllr wriUnga as RetUed. Hnt it !c Dot 
prctcnilrd thnt the wagiia of Inbuur are tbs aaine 
Jo the iliffiiretit coiintrim of Kiinnpn; (in Ih-o mm- 
trary, it in emrywhvre taken fur ifiunted that they 
ar« hi^bcT in same couDtrio« than in oth'tMs. It 
would fbiUow from tht* doctiino that in thoeo couii> 
triea the oeceaaaiy expoiiaa of aapporting and ra- 
produdng tho Iuiour«n Ii En proportioo to tbo 
wagea paid in them ramctiTGl;: whorttai tbe fact 
ia quit* otherwiiw. And what enttr«ly confotve tb« 
nutius of any a iidi ' oatuiKl rate ' of wagv*, ii that 
tbo rate variea la dlSerenl kinil« of labour, in which 
the oxpoDse of nipportiiij,-, iuntnicLmg, and ropra- 
duciitg tho InbciiTinn, i» appATCdtly aqool i'lic 
v«ry statorneat of tliii cLot'triue pmupjioaea a nntu- 
ral rate of expoodlluro for Bbeltcr, clothing, and 
food, for the Ubounne damm, a luppontian which 
boa no ]>1atuiliility in tbrory, and no vappoit in fai^t. 
'Ilia doctrine of a n&ttiriil rnto of wa4[«a of the 
Labouriog eluaei ia, indeed, entirely fanciful It ia 
Tei; tnoe that the pnaeat pecnniajy interest of tbcuo 
who hire and thoaa who are hired, Ii at variance, aa 
well a* that of tbau who hny and thoee who eall ; 
and the party baviii]; tbe Krealeet adraatage In 
either oaae will, ganoralty apealdnKi um it; and, 
Manrdingly, wbere the labourers are L>oor, thriFtli-M, 
and improvident, eaving nothing, anil lieinK Dbli|{e<l 
to dtpend upon tha aamingi d the day for thuir 
food, thoy put thcnualvti vary much to the powor 
of tnrir emplnyrra. If to thin hn addinl a nnprr' 
fluity of laUiurera, aud a want of eiuployiuont for 
all, the advantaga of tbo etnpluycr« ii incroaacd, and 
tha labonrera will accordingly bo rnjncod to a Iow<^r 
and lower cnmpeniation, unUI, perhajM, at Icniftb, 
ths wag«a p«ItJ vciW iml more than eupply them with 
tho poonmt fare, and the meoncet dothio; and sc- 
commodationii. but the degree to whitib they may 
be reduced by tlio upoaliuu uf thtr»e causue will 
mriHeoLly d'Cpnud npon tlie mtitntion nS tho country, 
the deinaQil at •ucccsmive time* fur tabour, in coui> 
parlcon with the mpply of laboorers, and, moat of 
all, npon the cbnraotor of the tabonren thnnaolvM. 
To >ay that therv ia »oaM point at which these cir- 
omnatanoaa are naturaUy balauoed to all oouutriea 
and all atara of eooncauieal improrement at which 
the 'naturu ratd' ol wages la gTKtuate<l, eecma to 



he a propoeltlon too tandful and vagtia ta JaaKria 
tbe name of a theory. But each is tbe doottiu uf 

came ««nomista. 

Anutlior leading doctrine of Adam Satlth and hia 
follovruT? grows out of the state of the English poor^ 
Un-s, It in that all provision hy law for the aap- 
part of tbe poor ia useloa aod Injurioua. Thia do^ 
trine ia fortified by Malthoi's thaory of jx^jailataon. 
&ce PorVLATIOK. 

A pmpnaition dwelt upon at aoma Length bf 
Bay, aud carefully iuculc^led In many other writor* 
on the science <>f eoonarnj, is, that production ia 
nut creation ; that a fanner cannot uiake ojm. Dor 
a weaker doth, out of nothing. M'C'ulloch aaya 
laltoiir is ' the only sourc* of wealth.' I'bis ia one 
of the doctrines □[ the eoonomisb^ from which oon* 
•equenoec of some weight are dedoeed. Now aE 
will, without doubt, agroo, that without any nut*- 
rial*, or, in other worxU, without tha eortA, men 
would nut produce wealth; and ft may be eoooeded 
alau, tor tho purpoee of the argument, that tha earth, 
without Inhabitants, would ha^e no wealth. But 
irioi, being placed ii|xin earth, may produc* wealth 
by working upou ths niateriale supplied by it; and 
tho earth is itsoU sold in portimia aa a p«ut oil the 
oommnn stock of wealth, and the men ara alao 
BDmetiiiien tbi-iuKdves bought and aold, aa htbtg a 
part <i^f tho caiue stock. In general, two things 
must concur in order to tbe pradnction of vahie, 
namdy, the thing to ho wrought or naod, and a 
peraun to work or use iU To Inaiat that one or the 
other is the exdiisi*e source of value, ausnna to 
•nvour more of the obaolote raabqihyaleB of the 
achooia than of pncttcid i|iMiilatian. Tb* iMaual 
that can bo made nut of it ia a mer^ vesfcil dla* 
tinction. And one would hanQy rtpect ao trii4al a 
subtlety to ooonpy much space in a hnmdi of haow- 
lcdp> holding the rank of a adoDcab 

All writers agroe in the doctrine that aacority of 
property i* eaeuntial to the aoeuatnlation of the 
producta of labour, that ia, waalch, for no one will 
save what ho has no reaaonablo aaanraaca that he 
Khnll oMjoy; and it is alaoacreed hjall thai accutnii' 
Intiuii, that is, a stook OH oauil, b neoaaaary to tha 
pruductivoneas of labour. 

Adam Smith lays groat atreaa upon tbe diviaioa el 
labouT-, ae aoe of tbe cauaa of the great praduo- 
tlveneatof ludostry. Ilia remarks upon thia eob> 
jcct arc just, with Iho qnalificatiou, parhapa^ that ha 
ov«rc9ilimat(!a the im|iortaac« of tho prtndpla, sinoa 
he attributoa to it tbe tuipiovementa anado in raritma 
pn>BBaaea of indostry, wberoaa many of tha impfuva- 
menta ara themaetvea the canaea, ot lathv afforJ 
tbo tneana of a aeparation ot enploynianta. Any 
■DBchine ia au illustration of thia rcmatlc 

It is aaaeftad by soma of the writera om tlua 
aotanoe^ that the>« ara ao Umlta to tha beoefidal 
cflaota of tha aoemaulatloB of cajrftal upna the 
product) voncat of tbe indgiatry of a nation; or, in 
ulbar wurds, that a giren number of peeplc^ how- 
ever amall, can advaotageooaly employ any aawnat 
of capital, however grcaL hat if we aaaniaa a 
certain number of employmenta and faufi^iiaia. 
tbera 1* certainty a Unite b^nd wUiA ao ad dJ tto nd 
itock and matariab oonld be emph^ad. Tfaa pn- 
poaition may m«ian that the ingenuity of men can, 
or will, find out modea of ouijiloyiDg advantage- 
noaly any anionnt of capital that can ha aocumu- 
tulcd by them. The propoeition Ihua atnted ia at 
tca^ a theorttli-'al oih; but tbe laquirlea and laras- 
tiiratidii^ In whJi'h it leads aro oci-tainly not atarile 
ol useful rcsulta. 

All tha prodootaof luihutry an lUrUed among 
Iho poraoDi by when tba am at* raoeived and 
oo n aum ed , tbe holden of ainecuraa^ tbo aap«t«liati^ 



rOLinCAL ECONOMY— POLITICAL OFFENCES. 



173 



mad tb« laboonn^ iBclndtng En Uiis Utt«r clua nil 
tbt fadutriMia in kll profaaioos uid pntsuita. A 
(nsl fmbl«m la politic*! Monoraj ia to dtterndne 
Um moda of dutribatiim umtt ftdvontageona to tliA 
aaftkn; aad tUi pr>>b!«iii, which it very ecocnl ui*I 

af CBBipUeatAd in Its dcUiL^ bu not yet beeo 
7 mIvm. It i* TOtcraUy agreed thttt all ab*o> 
IbI* ^a&emrm, wIwUmt under the Kovcrnmont oc 
«tb«wlM ooMtkaled, h« pnjudlcj*!. Wbat dla- 
■fc rl batioo uBon^ Iha ntelnUy ctnpliijrod, or what 
*— r******* tMBOnerktiOB for the Ifthmir or Wirvicc* 
«f m r«ap«cllv* di— W WmI prvIoMfoiu, !■ the umt 
■dvsatagMdi^ la » vabjaet van llttU dutcuwrnl ti; 
lb* wviMn CB Mononr. B«l tw) quMtioii u to the 
dtohrtbotka brt we uu m mpitAliBta, who &re entitled 
te nnCI^ Mtd llio« who Uhour upon or with tbo 
■tInI. who an eotitlod lo y^gM, is > aubjcot of 
•saridnsUa ipecalatiniii In the boolu^ One doo- 
triiM is, thni wltore profits arc kigheat, aociimula- 
tioa will b« moat rapid ■, that ia, tb>f> ST«at«tr tka 
BMB vt th» amwi pnoliicta ibat og to woa* whoM 
wrifcl RppUM Uw m&tcrialfi aad Instnimenti of 
Ikboar, tbo man njid wi)l be tbo growth in w«*]th. 
Thia U aaiiiiiiiag that oathing will br aaicd hr tho 
l*b<>ar«n^ or not ao mtKib In propurtiou aa trU] be 
^Tod out of tha proGts. Tbo fini aetumptioQ cas- 
Wttt be invl^ and the aeconi) in <i neat Inn Able. 

Bocnoniata Kcnerallj Bffr«e In the definition of 
rafiu^ •• bsing detenniiwd by tbo Hnonnt of mu-ket- 
*U« tbipp for wbicb u arddo ean be mcbugod. 
Ik k aha well oeltled Uut demud detormfaiea the 
nnrfcot valoei l>ut some aasert again, or at leant 
■aam tn Impl^, that ratii* and coat ar« ayoonytntini. 
Tboj also gmendly imply, fay tbo mode of ualng 
Ibo t«m tok, tbat It i* sone definite, fliod quan- 
Uqr> Tbia naa of laagoaM tbroira great ohaaurity 
«■ Iboir ycniatinna on thia anbjocl, ainca the onat 
tt piodncuf an anide varlea from woek to wiwk 
bj tbo variatian o( the oiiae of tho materiaU auJ 
tbo wagaa; and tbo Hma Iclad and quality of artkU« 
will, at tbi aaino tiiMy oort nio producer more tluui 
•BOtbv. Tbo propoaidoD Uiat eoat r^Utca value 
la IjJd down by lb« writera with groat acJenuiity, and 
h>o«lculad at gnat length. It ia a sobjoct on wbicb 
tb«« ontafaily ia a great deal of luiprofitabla pro- 
K^jr bi tbo booka; for what arguncnt or tUiatntlon 
la MM«ai7 lo aatablirit (bo propoaition, tbat iDen will 
■ob oeotinaa bmg to prodnoa an article by which they 
loM IBOM7 1 Tbo prapaaitlan aoaua to ataiid In <|iill« 
M fiMrt Mod ol u •qxtlogy for stating it, oa of a dis- 
ypMtioD to csplun or aoppoti it. 

Rioardo'a Ibacry of rnt finda a place lii mot of 
tbo mow modem traa t iwi oo political coonooiy. 
Mahbrao and Wort lint ealled attootioD to the (act 
tbat the land bat brought into coltlTatfon paid no 
n^i, whnoupoa Ricardo fooodoil tha tlimry that 
rant reaolted fnxn tho difloroot productivpnnM r.f liif- 
fomt aott^ •opcviority at situaUeo, and other diffd- 
mtiatifig cnoaai, and tbat If thero waa no dUteronoe 
in Ibo paoductiio qoalitka of aU Ibe oarta of tho 
whob tonitory of a nation tfaoro would bo no >acb 
tbiw aa nst. Hta theory it eontroverted by Dr. 
Chalmero and otbeta, bat la ttill generaliy received 
by political eoonoouata. Tbo raaulb of lUconJa'a 
tbeory of root, wblcb la moot eotoomed by the poll- 
tkal oijijuuiBlrti «( bb icbool. It tba diniitiatioD of 
not Iron aOMiag tbo oooafcitatnt alonMOts of the coat 
of paodncfaoiL 

faadng on* what rolatoa to otnaomDlIaD (which 
tm), lb* above an aonoot tba loading ooctriuoa and 
tbeoHaa ol what la aMlIod tbo •^uco of political 
maatamty ao tMigbl hj raooat wrlten lu Britain and 
AnMih • ooinoa of whlcb Adam Sodth ia aaid, by 
{■a n iufu wa w . to bo lbs tonndor. Thore are nuuiy 
■mM truiba wbkb pMi under the nanw of poUtloal 



econt-my: Wt a largo proportim of tbt tnatiaeo Id* 
atoad of follotring in the toatatepa of Adam Sndtb, 
the true founder of the ac-lenoo, aoon to boar tho aamo 
relation to an intolligibia madical dovolopnent of 
the cAuacs ud pbenomona of noUonal growtb, wealth, 
and decline tbat alchemy do» lo nodinn ohomiitry. 
For other bnuiohea at iwUtEcal eeonomy see Burc, 
EorKTY. CvanutCT, CAriiAi, OoLONr, Cokmcxisx, 
C'owuKKCK, Ctixatiwi-rio!*, 1'orn Laws, OiutfJiT. 
Dkbtob aku Cbeditob, DKHAnu a>d Suftlt, Ex- 
ctiAMai, IiAUovu, LcTTEHv, MofuroLT, Patuit, 

rilY-MOCRATICAL ST«TltM| IlBST. VaMII^ Afr Th* 

following are aome of the prindpAl worlu 00 political 
economy: Stewiut's Inqitlry into tho l*riiiclpl«a of 
Polilicftl Eoonomy (thrN vola. London. I7<7|; Tor- 
got, Ittscberchea aur la Iltcheeae et t'Orlgbie den 
Riobevea naOotialoa (Paria, 1771); l^o Traano, D« 
I'Ontte Social CParia. 177;>: Adam Smith's Inquiry 
into the Nature and ('Aiiaca of the Wealth of Nations 
(two volsi Londrin, I'ltl; nuw nliti-uu by M'Ciillocbl; 
Sfty'aTnIt^d'£oob«>i»i« E'ulitiuuo: Siacaandi'a Noa- 
voBUX Prlnoipw d'Eoonotnio fotitiauo (two vola. 
Pari% 1818): Ricardo, On the Prindptas of PollUcal 
Economy and Taialioa (new edition, London, 1819]; 
Mallhua' Prinoiiilaa i>f I'ulltical Ifcnnoiny (Ixwdan, 
1S20): Souior'a LoctnrMon FvpnIaLtun 11831]; Homy 
Carey's PriDdplefl of Pulltlcal Economr (tbnt rolo. 
Philadcljiblik, lB37-iO); John Stuart Mill'a Prindplea 
of IMUi'^tl KconoTov (two vols. London, l&IS); Fkw 
cctt'» Moiiiuil of PoUtica] Eoofiomy (Londim, IM0|; 
^V. Stanley Jovona'i Theory of Political Eeonooiy 
(Luiiduti, 1S71}, ftc AmiiiiK the bonka af refereacfl 
on thiK BubjiKt nay bo tnonlinnBd, The Lit«raturo of 
Ptilitical EooDomy, by J. R M'Culioch (l^unden, 
isti): and I>lctianBait» do rfioonumiu politique 
(twu oola. 1'ari^ 18 S8-&a i. 

r<)I.ITIf"AI. OmSNCE3 an> Ihoao offcnooa 
L'oiuidun.-d In jurvcus to tbo safety of tbo state, or such 
uTuna aa form a viubtlion of Ibe allegianoe due l» 
a subjoct to tha raoognixad aDprama antbority iJ hia 
Qoiiutty. In the ancient tinea of the Rouau KeputUo 
oflonoM of tUa natnra wwo eonprebstulod «ad«r tb* 
name perdvtltio, ud wer* oon^dand eqnivalurt to 
■nafctog war upon tho aUte. The tens waa eom- 
mcnly appliod to oaiaa of a goneral betraying or aoi^ 
rcoderiDg an anny to tba anomy, to conapiracy agninal 
tba atate, attompu to obtain kingly power, or aiding 
in any way the commou eueray. OtfeodixB wow 
tried by two judgKo, ealkd /'rnfoaflionu I}uum- 
n'rt. and If oooneted were pot to deetb by hanging 
or by being thrown from the Tarpetan IWk; tt^ao- 
cnaoJ bad,bowoTer, tbo H^l ol app^ to the pooplsh 
in early times tbo populua, later tho comitia oan> 
turiato, as was done by Horatiua. In Lalor titnoa 
the term pcrdunllio acoma to have almost (aUon Into 
dbiuM-, atid tbu terma wtqjrtl^a, erimri* aMtfcafotu, 
rrimtn lirta, imoiiautcr, dininuia, or aitnnte wn^fCf 
latU wcic aubatitutod. All Ibooe were niilty of 
maJeMao who effocted, ddad in, or planned tne deatb 
of one bating nulilaiy' oontnand or dvU authority; 
who ioat an aniy, who excited aediilun, or w lio by 
bad ooiKluct in admtniatmtloa itnpaiivd tba dieaity 
of Ibe oLato. Under tho ampiro words or arts diva- 
■poctful to tbo empenr were inditded. In nwdOB 
tuneo tbo orinm cvoaidarod political dfencaa bavo 
varied at difforont perioda aad in differant states 
In Knglftnd tba meet aerioai political otfenoea are 
termed Itomdo (which sm), and tboac of a Ucbler 
nature^ wbicb do not aim at direct and nfvn viulenoo 
gainst tbo Lawa or tho aovenlgD, but wbkb andta 
a tncbnleni and diaooatootad afdrik vkleb woold 
likely produco violanoai are termed aediHott. (See 
Seiiiti"x.> Political offmdeia of foiolgn ooanbian ' 
are by EnxUab law net laalodad b eatndttM 
tiMtlH, and by the 33 and SI %*icL eq>. lii. (l^U 



tba ■ecroUry nT tUM tdmj If b« mm fit order »t 
iMj time a fujptivo crimiul aoctUBcl or (Hmviclcil 
of SQch crimoa tc 1» dliahar^cd from custody. la 
the UniCud St*t«e klio, ajid iu moBt uI tlte countrii^ 
nf Burapf, the itxtmilitinn treJttica do Dot UicIudR tiic 
giving up i>[ pulitk&l u Sen den, 

POLITICS, in iw widest txUal, Is bi.tli the 
icicQiTc nnd tli« art of grjvpriimcut, or llio •citni:* 
wlitxte nubject ii the r«;Ku]n,tiiiR of iniin in all liU reUi> 
tioua M we meuibcT A « >ut«, tad the up^ilimi'Uii 
of thia idsneo. In otlvar words it is tb« tboory and 
the pnutfce of obtajnins Uio cimU of cihil socJoty mi 
jfeHectly w poMJble. In cunuuon pArlAna: w« under- 
•tud 1^ th« politics of « oouDtry tb« ooune of Its 
p)venuiiei9t, more porticulsrij aa nspNta its raU> 
tlona with foreign nstions; nod the mere impnrtant 
Uiu« nliitioni sre i,»a, (or (n>tuicu, In Europeaa 
stfttM, whiuh snort w pavvurfol ui Influeuce OD e»cb 
t)tb«r), the more i^mnunetLt i* the ploco which thuy 

hutd ta the Idi-ad <xiiiTryHl by Lbe wuitl; whilst ID 
idagiionui v/htme relKtionx hi fdi'vigu M<uitt.ries are 
oompsmtu'cly unLt]i]:grtitut, tbo wcrd in oommon 
uiags la udtuniUy more Mnfliied to tbs principle* 
sad opsfvtico of the intenul govcnimeut. Politics, 
there/an^ extenihi to Bvcrrthlng trhicb is thombjoct 
cf posJtJv* Isws, fur It is liy metuu of tb«se that the 
pumns of a ■U.te or tAvH tmioD sra etfeoled. Tbs 
[ulltlcal KlAtians of men bnvc thcniorc slwsj-i been 
the enjjTOuiiif; aubject ut biatory. 

POLlZIA>rt). S«a PotiTlASOB. 

FOLK Jauh K»01, President of tha IToited 
StatoB of North Amerien from l(ll£-4t*, wu bom iu 
1795, iu tho cacmty uf MeoldeuburK, North C'ajn* 
lina. Hi« »iico«tnni, whiiim niimo wuh orlglnaklly Pul- 
look, euil|frsl«d fruiu Irelikad «iirly in tbo eighteenth 
csatury. Tbongb his father irae a fanner in moderate 
circamBt«iioe*,tbe»oD wu sent lo be oduuated »t the 
ucireruty of bu uaLivo state, whvro h» ilistinguishail 
himself by bis indostry and talent, and more esjx-d- 
dally by bis atUunmcnU iu matbi-rnktiis and tiis 
claMJra. }Ieari«rwardsBtuiili<il law iutbeufliceaf Felix 
Grundy gf Twmaas»e, » b>lsiil«d lawyer sad statei- 
man. Uewascslled totbsbu-of T«iuM«esin 1820, 
and In 18S3 became a meniber of tha I^ialative 
sssemblv of tbst >Uts. Id 1825 be bwnune a mem- 
ber of tii« Hutuo of Eoprastatativss M WaaUnffton. 
and iuimbdintely dlatinjjuished himself as a zMiloua 
democrat. I le vigorously opposed Lbs tuliuiniatmtion 
of IVcniLlciLt Adnuis; ond on tbs prsaidentahlp nf bis 
friend, (i«iieral Jaoksuu, be<:auia one of the firmest 
suppurtcn of hi* parly. In 16^7 he was appuinted 
a number cf th r^ com mittce on foreign sITaics, and En 
1S82 a member of the oumniittes of finance, when ho 
pratadsd at ths bead of tb« minority ni,-aiuert the 
renewal of tbo baok privilego. For this reason he 
mu strongly «ppo«ed by the supporten of tba bonk, 
who ttnd«a\-oured to pntvsnt Im re-eleoUon for Ten- 
aosee; but he gainsd It hy a bu^ majority. In 
1836 he vi-as tppaiOtd ipealur of Uie Hcnue of llopro- 
isaUtircs; and In tbs sanifl post, during an extra- 
orlinwy tncwting of t'oiigr***, Biininiun«l by Pre- 
sideut rail BurvD, conducted luaijclf with so much 
impartiality is to irain the approbation even of his 
oppooents, Bod obt^n a uuaniiuuuB vcit« of tluuika 
from the house. In ISST hs becwns speaker fur th« 
thini time, and reuinnl the offics till 18S9, when ha 
was eloclcj Clovcmor of ToHnoiSBS. Ha now cama 
forvard as oandi[lat« for tho office of viee-proident, 
but owin^ to a reocLiuii in. favour of the wlu^ and in 
ifppuHiUun to the dnnooratio party, abuut 18il, both 
ltm\ tbs dsctloo sad wss deprived of liis ^vemor- 
ship. H« now rrtlnd into privntv lift-, till the deino- 
iratloal oonrention, lield id Ualltiuurein 1 g-U, laHted 
him to offer liiiiiself as preetdRiit. Iu the oontsst 
which ensued ho signally defeated Ida distioiruislietl 



omtDpntitor, Clay, Durinff his pn^dency lbs ws« 
with Meiico terminated, by the aoeewosi of New 
Mcsloo and California with ita gold-fields to tbs 
United States territory, and tlM dispute with Great 
Dritsin as to (>rc)!oa was happily arrai^ed. In 18W 
he was suwet^i-d by PreddVDt Taylor, and In tbe 
conrsa of tbo aonie y«ar diad at Naahvillo. HistaUats 
vicm by no (iiciuis of tbo first order, but hs WIN a 
Koad umn of buuneo, and was gCDsraQy sstSSTWSd 
for hia inl*;:rity. 

POLK..V, a faroorite danee of reoeat tbaeib ot 
Itohcmion or Polish oriirio, Uie name bciliff darind 
fmm tba Buhtaui^kn piilhi, IimU. from tbs ludf rtsp 
that duraotaiius the dauos. or from AiUa, a Kdiab 
womao. It was introduoed at Ftac«s ilwnt 1S9S. 
and in 183B was broufrht by a partof tbs Barieal 
bdui] of th« Pragus sbAriigboiit^rs, under the losnag^ 
mcut of Pcrglor, to Vicanft, when boch the owslc 
and dance met wilb eitraordinary aooaptanOL Is 
IhIO it was reK.v.-lved with the greatest apptaoM at 
tbeUd^nThojitmiii Paris, and was soon the tavonrile 
dance at all the imbliciuid private baOs of that capl- 
taL It spread rapidly itilu every ccontryof Etmps, 
and is now common in every part of the dviliied 
world. The mnaic is written m { time, tbe first 
thrve quaters bt^lu/ uenerslly strongly acc«ntnatsd. 

POLLACK, or Pollock (Herlanyvt jmUatAiiu), 
a apccirji of Tirlnwtcna Gahes^ ioetuded ui the sab- 
order Anocvithiiii, and bdonging to lbs Gadida v 
Cod family. Tho Polladc forms a ap««iM included 
in tho genus Slorlangus, or that rvpnisentcd by tbe 
Whiting (J/ri-/an;fiu iti^rM): tbe mentbers of this 
i;enus {xMwwiu;; Ihree Ouraal fills and two anali. 
Th« Polinck i* sometimes locally known in SotAland 
by tbe nams of Lytbe. It is uearly reUted to aad 
rettembles in gennal shape tbA OMiD* aad nscs 
familiar 'Podley' (M. rai-hunaritit) or Coal-fish wbiofa 
ii caught in suuh 4|iuuiUti«s by the yuutha of every 
seaport town. The Inwcr jaw is longer tbaa the 
utijwr jaw, and the tail is foriccd, but not very deeply. 
Tbu fltrsb i>r the Pollack ia said to be infnioc only 
to the whiting. It inhabits the Atlantic Oteai^ aad 
fi ocmmoa on all tho Rritiah eoasti^ as wbH aa m 
the shores of Norway. The uortbem coasts of Britain 
Mipsar to be tho«e on wliirli thcae (isbee are moat 
abundant. The Pollacks are gREgarious in babita, 
and swim in ahuals. Tbsy are oaughl witb a vmilety of 
haJt^ but arc most frequently c^lurcd with a whits- 
ily. nr with a }>ali formod of any piece ol white rw 
or other material; those fishes medUy eddag ■<»£ 
objects I'hcy are common in uis MsditenaBcaa la 
winter. 

POLUIN (CtonqWBM Poaaaf, a spedee of Toto- 
osteaa fiahee, properly Inoluded to tbs faally of tbs 
Salmonida or iialmons. but froqnently aad pppulariy 
rrfcrred to other divisions of the ordv TMeaat^ 
This fish is sometimes popularly knows aa tbe 
' Fresh-watsr Hening.' It ia aa Iriab Bpedsa^ aad 
is fouad in Lawrh Xeagb, Longb Dcsv, sad LoQ^ 
Kme. U'he poEaa was iirat ^acilbea by Mr, W. 
Tbom;«on as a distinct and aeranU* ntedee from 
othota, occurring in Scotland at Locfamasao, aad ia 
tbe Uumborland lAk<^ The name 'poUaa* ajipcara 
to be a local appellntJoQ. Large ahoals c< these 
fishes appear on tbs ooasts of Irsland in af«iag, 
sununar, and anturaa, and tbese an osptorad by 
meana tk Beta sometlmaa la '"""—^ numbsa. u 
1834 it is related that ia a abort period, and in three 
or four draugfata of the net, 140 bnadicds of tbcae 
fishes— nunuboring 1!13 Kah to the bundiwd, or 
amounting to 17,320 fishes ia all— ware n^dily 
taken. Il^cse fishes are sold in Beth«t in tba fnJa 
state, and at tbe same time at wfaldi Insb benings 
ar« sold In tbo strwts and marksls, 1h» body e< 
the pollaa ararages generally about 9 or 10 lacbca 



POLLARD— POLLOK. 



175 



tn l^iglh. Two d(v«al fina euit, Uio hmilur donaH 
bebif maaU »ai odaltA. On« oiiU tin U nr]tn«eat*(l. 
In Voeh T.nn>pna % Uk u cau^bt callod tlio 'poiean,' 

POUJLBD, tiM DMne gives to * tr«e tbe ke»d of 
ihM twao Io{)|Mdaff ftUmt aorlOfeelfroiDtlia 
V ia order to isdaeo U to tead oub biuhj 
, vUdi an cut pmiodiokUy for ftMl, fonciiif, 
oCbcr poqxMn. Tim poU«rd kauuM ft ver/ 
■bj^ oaatnuUnc diaBgr«c*bIy with tr«M 
bftra bMB aUowod to hcuimi their naturml 
And Uuir rovnd overetuuloiring tops iu a 
^ -row ATA *«rv iajiuioiM to th* urop* of Uut 
JJAaing Sefala. Bjr •docting % UaiUnff ■hoot. Mid 
^«nttiag m^*y *fl tho oiben, the poUard, U uut too 
ay b« oDdvartad into ao otduiarjr trao. 
POLLEN, in boiany, ttia powdrrr nintt«r oon* 
^ftafawd ia Uia ontben til a plaat, cuiuutinu of inLBll 
danlopad is tbo latarior of other cella. The 
avWat fraad fa tb* aatbsr an •urroondod hj a 
KBbca-flallalar ativelo|w^ ami iritluii tbi* an prndiiccd 
a eaOt w*alnliig a gnDuUr bum, whJL-Ei ilivulc* 
, foBf adanta «tta, around whiah a membrMia b 
a^ to tfiat tbo ori(;iQal cell (tbe paroat pollen 
hMrida) baoailua naulvcd iutu fuor jiarts, cacli of 
F«i«eb ftmm a graaala of poUon. lit* four ooU* 
[' liaMawij to SncreoM, dtfltondinf tbo puont coll, and 
IBM Ita abaotptkia and diautpcarotiDc. 
•oou Um form nf jwifsct poUen gnuiia. 
riibar naada mdtod In loars or moltiploa of 
or aeparala into individual graina, wtucb by 
jl^Mpwa bacMnw mtr« yM»a. Oocae^oally Ui* parent 
I'MI ia aot completoly aihanrbod, and tracca of it an 
laetid In a vmoo«u malter mrrouniling tbo poUon 
liaa. Id OrcUdaoaoua planta ibe puUea jftaliu 
I oailad into m aMoi or polUida by meaas of visdd 

,. ttar, PoUoD gniaM vary from ,}, to f\, of an 

I iDcliiOr lev, ia iIianMtt«r. Their mont cuiniuun funn 
^li aD^aoklal, man or lui nonow at tbe oxtromitiaa 

POLLKNZA, a town of Spain, in tbo north of the 
' wl of Hajom, £6 miloa aorth-oaat of Palma. It 
good and ai^-paTed atroeta, a town-honae, boa- 
r^taL aaylnm, priaon, and prinary acboob; a fine 
[ Jamli^ oollega^ I*'^/ minoua, tbu church attaclioil 
, lo vrkkk la oao of llw beat uf the cbua iu Spaiu. 
; n* port and bay cf PoUaiua are a few mUea north- 
'. aaa^ daloadaJ by tb« caallo of Alberodx. Manufac- 
fama of iijMni and woolien tiaaacoL pbun rlttthi^ oiiar^ 
_ «oa^ aad aoap. Fofh 9400. 

I^LLIO, Caivs ABixnn, a Itotaaa of plebdaa 
badly, bora KO. 76, itt known frnm thi^ part ho took 
in Iba poUlical «><!iiU of bi> time, but utill mure by 
Ui vn^Jnga and lore of Utoratura. In tbe dril vrar 
he, tLC. 19, adhervd to Jnltua Cnaar, whom, altar 
defaaHiy Caloa Ourina lb Afrio^ be acoonpantod to 
I'banali^ and tbaa to tba African and Spaniafa wnn. 
lla waa aftorwanb appolnlad pnator, and bald tb» 
■ofanuaaat of Thitlwr Spain, wbera fao htard of 
Cmmt/t» ntordar, and fon^t, but vrithmit aticecas, 
aipuuat Sostui PomjioiiuL When Lapjdns and An- 
tooy war* reoooL-Uod, in a.o. 43, b« joined tbem with 
tbroa legkraa, and pcocaoded aa legato et the latter 
tea Traynadano GaaL At thia time ba bocaaw tbe 
friaad of VinriL Aftu obuining th« ooaenlahtp be 
I fTrw"*"*-* n niyrla and Dalmatla, and for bia 
Tlotariaa vraa hooourod vrhh a triumph ac: S9. Ho 
afUrwacda devoted meet of Ua tine to literary pfir- 
anita, but actod both aa a eenator and an advocate 
tm AJ). 4, when ha diod at bia TWoulan vilta, at tbe 
•dvaooad age of oi^ty. Hia worka, coonating of 
if tetiia^ tngadlMv aad a hlitory of the civil war in 
>a I aulauw booloL which waa mxtOi eateenaed, have all 
baattkat. BamdMwntiagwenbiniaaUhawaaasreat 
|alnn ti Utenry bmh. Ha ia wl to have foiiaded 



tbo fint public library at Kome. — CjiltS AsntTVS 
P0U.I0, auraacneil Galliu Saluniua, kid of the former, 
bocamaconsuliM'. S, HawtoUawork wbicfabaabven 
loet, drawing a omnpariaoti between the eloquanoe of 
hIa father and Cicero^ and giving tbe pn4eraiee to 
the fonner. He waa mordaiad in tbe thiKy-thiid 
year of oar eta, by Tibcrfua, who batvd him for hia 
froedom of apeoch, and alao for having married Vlp- 
aania Agrippa, whom Tiberioa bad dj vorood for Julia 
the daocbuir «f Atigiutux. 

FOLlNITZ, Kaul Li'DWiQ, Babok, a writer of 
witty and intomcing momoira, waa bom at iBsoodD, 
lU'ar Coluffoo, in 14S2. 1Ii« fjthrr'a praition na 
Riiulcter 01 atate to tba Elector of BriuidtriiburR, and 
hia own litiDiaDt aooumpliabineata procured LLlq ad- 
miaiion to eourtly ardaa; but hia itatlmncM. oitra- 
•Wanoc^ and profligacy noon brought hun into ditfi- 
Cii£ica, and rcducwTbim to the condition of a widiur 
of fortune. Ha aarved Moooialntly ia tbe Auttiiao, 
Papal, and Spamiah anniea; but failed in olttaiaine 
any lirofilabla apptuntmeaL At laot be attcactea 
the bvoorable iiodoe of E^ederiob tb* Great, who 
appoinlad lum hia taador, and aftonrarda diraotor of 
tbo theatre at Iterlin. Aftor bavin^ from inter«ated 
niutivea twice cone ovor from Catholiciatu to Cal- 
vinlnn be proclaimed himiti'lf a mtrtiiber of tb* 
Bomiah Church shortly before bit death, wblcb took 
plaoe in 1775. Among tbe litenry worka aaoribad 
to him are I.a S.UCO (pJante^ which brougbt lun 
most fAinci but which waa aftorwarda dtaoovorad to 
be a ban faced plat^'iariiiii, of th« joint production of 
LarocheloiKsauld and Mme. La Fayette, entitted La 
Princcaac do (.'ltri.-a; hi* MoiiaJn^' Iicttnt ot M^ 
motrea, «t la PcUtion de m premiera Voyage*; Etat 
abr^-^ do Saxe aoua la rb^aa d'Au|{uato III. (Traok- 
fort, 17S4); HiBtedra aacTM* da la I>uchcaN d'Han- 
ovre, ^poino de George I. (I'"odon, 1792); aod a 
pcatbumoiu WDrIc hruught out by Bruno, Mi'mairaa 
pour oervir k rHUtoire dea (jiiatn denUeta &i>uver- 
aloi lie la Maiaon do Braudoboiuig (two vola, Berlin, 
17921. 

POLLOK, RoBXiT, a Soottiah poat, waa the aca 
of a farmer la tbe pariah of Eagleihara, Eanfrawridta, 
and bom there in 1790. Ifaving ahown a dadded 
jircitilcctina for lilefary atudiak, it waa reaolred to 
educate hiiu fur the luudatry, aud accordingly, after 
att«adiiic tba tTaiveimty of Glaagow, be antvad tbe 
divinity hall of the SecoiaioaObardi, under Dr. Dick, 
and waa litx-niiFd aa a preacher by the Aaaodala Piea- 
bywry of Edluljurch la tha apilBg of 18S7. Ia aariy 
youth be bad mode vaiiona atlampta in proM ud 
rone, inoluding ihreo taleaontbo peraeoatiOMOt tho 
Covenantor^ whidi weto pnldbhed anoBymonalj. 
Juat befora raoalving hl« lioenia to P****^ ^ ^m 
oompleted Ua noam « the Couno of Time, oompri^ 
tag ten hooka In blank vctae^ and deooribtag the Ua- 
tory of th* baman rac^ aa eoppoaad to be narvaUd 
by a ealnatial bard to a wanderw from one of tba 
worldf in epace. It dlaplaya undoubtedly cooaide^ 
able forroor of langoagc, and the tribato may 
tainly b« aocordad of gntat oonicstDaaa c( pnrnoaa^ 
Mpt u aa ti in langoatfti which, if nut u^aaUo^ la at 
leut cbaato and aolamn. But It ia aacUy da6ciaiit 
in Inagiaativa power; and many ol tb* refleetiva 
pnoeaflra, whicli ongraoa a Vtrgt part of tha wotk, 
BUggcat atronoly tM Idea of aanaaca teodared Into 
bkakvataa. BTaoaaofhiawanDeatadmlranPaHok 
waa raiaed to tbe level of, and evu made to "oavgj 
A man Dialled poaitioa than Danto or MUtoa. 'nB 
aiiLhnr, bowover, Dover kvod to enjoy the homage 
which hii work eaUad forth, tlie exdtenent and 
labour of oonpoain^ h having brought on oooaunp- 
tion. Stwftly after ito publicatioa decided ay m pto ma 
of pulmonary diaaaaa bagan to manifMt tbamaalroa; 
a laoioval to Italy waaiaooouBaiidad; and th* onm^ 



P0LL0K3HAWS— P0I,O. 




nxv friondi whom his tiUonta nnd vfrtnta luu) Minirwl 
tor Um wen midy to provide the meuu for efiect* 
lag this objoct. But hift strength wm nnabla t(>nntl<M^ 
taka wi Icngtlimcc) » journey, and ho soenrdtnglj 

KiC«ed«(l no farther than SuuthainptoD, taking up 
kbodfl ftt Shirlay ComiDOD, in the neigh bourhooa 
of that tfiyin. Ht^re he [iraia^fiiUj rtpirml cin the 
ISth September, 18'i7, Jwdmuititerrpit in thechurc-li- 
y&rdirrMil1brw>k,wheT«am9uuiiiiMi<.hiui bfKii-.-rect<nl 
otot hU grava. A life of him wu published by hi* 
brother in 164>1. Mnrethan twenty cdiLionit of hia 
Cuurae of Tima have been pulilbhdd, both in this 
oonntry wid in Amoricik, 

POI.LOKSHAWS, ft burgh of barony nnd tow-n. 
SootUnd, o»iinty (.f Renfrew, lij inllM ioutb-weit of 
GliiJ^-uw, OEi thi.1 Mi'liiU; CArt, Htitl uii the GLuguw, 
Bftnrheiul, Mid Kilmnrnock I'uac^oQ iUilwuy. Tb« 
railway, ainng with tbo tramway-oar (iy«t«m, affonla 
ready coigiiuuniiiiiliui] ^iih Glaiij^w al all hourii. 
Th« lnhublt3Liit« ar« principally ampLoyeil !n th>< 
imuiufaclun: of >Mt<;n fabrics, iron tuaaiioff, Qagin- 
wing, paper-tn&klo^, dyeing, the mannfactuic of 
oarthoDwant. cfaomicala, Ac Pop (1B81), {J&I33. 

POLL-TAX. a tax levied ou all itgeitibcri uf tha 
connnimity, the very poorest exrjtpte>1, ihe iwnie a« 
oapItatioD t«. (Se» Capitation.) Tlii» lax wm 6nit 
lnvisd in En^iIaDd ia i;t77 uml i:i.SO, to tlolray the 
enwniMi if thn French war; it* cullcctloa In 13S1 
l«u to tKe tnaumactioii of Wat Tylor. Tho amount 
Myable wm tlirm grou* for «ada penon, male and 
t«Dial», Kbova fiftaon ye*n of a^ The tu wiis 
farmed out tfi tax-gathcirvni iti each county, who 
levied lb« tniiney with t^t.t rigour. The firit dU- 
OKUrwnantiiiiNl byablackmnilhin a vIUai,-e uf £h>vk, 
wbow daughter had bocn ininiltod by the coUflctor. 
The father diuhud out the niltiAn'a briun* with hi* 
haiiniicr; the by-*l*iidvni applnuJ-e-i the ocliuc, and 
exclaimcsil Uint it wan full tini« for the pot'plo to take 
voDgeaiiuu ou their opprcnnoni, 1'he mbcllinuH spirit 
■ooB apreail into the cmictiri of Kent, Il(>rtf<ir<i, Kiir- 
ra^Suattex, Norfolk, Ciiuibridg;!.', niiil Lin(.<idii, and in 
• MOrt Umo lOO.OOu in en, under tcAiIen known In his- 
tory aa Wat Tyler, Jack Stmw. H..b Carter. Ac, 
marched upon Ijiindan. Aftcr>anir?heiritB.linn the king 
(Blchanl II.) agreeil to hold a vourL-rwui-tt wjlL Tyler, 
who it taid ti> have drawn his dagger Id the kio^'e pro- 
■enoo, an act which coat him hin ]if«. lio wm ntnir.k 
down hy Walworl)i,niayoTuf London, and bin fuUowen 
diipcnwd at aoma fair wnrrla iidilr«M«il to thcui by 
th<t king, and a prauiine that ulavury ahould bo abo- 
Uahad, that there should b-a fteeitom of commerce in 
market towni witboiit toll or inipoat, and a fixed 
rent on landa iiutKtd uf the mervicea due by villalnncci 
Cogatb>vr with a fuU panlon for ull oonmmed ia tlia 
iWDg. Tbiir pretniw waa very badly kept; many at 
tha noturs wure put to death without tho form of a 
trial: tbs charttni uf oriffnachjaement were revolutd 
by rarlinmrnt, and tbo poopl* w«rs reduced to the 
aame mivvnhle coodiliOB ■» before. Tbo hearth- 
money of the r«iga ol King WUItain III. vra« vir- 
tually a pi>ll-Ui, and waa equally unpopular, though 
it IcJ to no outbre&lL 

POLI.tlX. Sc« CAilTtlR AKD PoLLtnt. 

POLLUX, Jruts, a Gr«ak aopbiit and grammar- 
ian, bom at Nanrnitiii, Kgjr>t,ahont the T*ar 135 A.n. 
H« went to Rome duriu]j uio reign vf ^areui Aure> 
Uaa, and nsJdly koquiied eo oonaldenble a rcputa- 
tloB that that emperor ^jpmntod bim one of the 
prOMfitora of hia aun Onnmudui. He wroto laTora] 
worlu^ all of which have pii>ri*bvd rxoopt hi* Oiiu- 
masUoon. dedicated to Cauuaodin^ and therefore 
pvUiibed b«fon 177. Each of the ten booto into 
which Ihia work is divided forme a aeparate treeUn 
by iUclf, and (\Jiilaii>i the moat important wor<li 
relating to certain nbjwt^ with ihort expluutioiii 



of their meaning. The word* are not airanged alph^ 
boticall;. hot we oivem with little i«BHd to rigmn 
•yft«m of anr kind, acoordin; to the eubjectt tw t ri 
nf in eaeli tcjok. Tho best edittona an tboee <tf 
Lederlln an^l Ilomati-rhnii -(Amstenbun, 1'0S)| Dia- 
dorf (Leipzig, 18211, Bckker (Berlin, 1940). 

POLO, OAHrAE-Rir., a Spaniah poet, boraet Veks- 
i::ia alxnit 1 S17. Hi* inclination for P<>«t>7 ^ Um 
in alianiloR tho profcMiiou of law, and Ida fint werin 

f laced him among the boat Spaahb poeti of Uatina. 
[is reputation waa eatabliahod by his Dku bn- 
Rioradivapa«loral romaiior-, partly m jweaeiBdptttlj 
in T'ono, intfindcrl aa a cuutiiiualion of tl>« IMana «C 
MonUmayor. lo luventlon Oil Tola ta not inferior 
to hi» prcdeccMor, whom he nrissMi in purity cC 
tttyK and in thf harmony and briUiaacy of hie veoh 
He died in 1&T2. CcnanlM exoeple the Diaoncf 
Gil Polo from hia Uit of worki eondemoed to l« 
bum«d. It ran through nine edition* in fifty yeaf\ 
and hna l«en twice tranalatrd into French mad £•(• 
linli, and oum iuto Iiatia. 

POLO. MARL-y, Ihfl celebrated Venetian trarelWf, 
waM horn about the year l'J.^6. Hhi grandfather, 
Aiidnea Polo, a paUicuui of Venlct?, and of Oalam- 
tian deaoent, haci aevara] aona, who, aocarding to the 
prevalent enstom of the republic at that time^ devoted 
ttaenuelveB to ontnmeroe— Marco, caUod It FntUt, 
to dlslingtiish bim from hia noph<.-w the Inrellan 
fettled in Conatantinople, and had aba a oommerdal 
eitabliihmeDt at Soldaya, or Soudach, on the EHick 
S«a; Ntcolo (the traveller'a father), and M>neo,afleB 
incorrccUy callol MaFfeo. 1'ho two latt«r ehMtJy 
bafoni Kfarco'e birth let oat on a mercantile ezpeA- 
tioii, vbitiiig Constantinople, Soudach, and Bokmir* 
(Bulgnr) on the Volga, the ca|ntAl of BnAni, Kha« 
nf Ki|it>^hak. After a ycar'a aojoam In thta ritj 
they trjivrllMl round ilie u'irth coeal of the C>^ 
pEan to fioVhara, where they w«re obliged to remaiB 
throe yean. At Ia#t, meetfaig with aome nmheeM 
don frrim liniagn, tlw Mognl khan of Penii^ to 
KdbiUf, or Kfiblai (which eee), the khngnii or pnBA< 
khan of the Mongobi, the brothen verv iodsM to 
aoconipftiiy thtm to Kcmcnfii, on the frootiMt ti 
< 'hina, the miniinrr midrncc of the Mnnmil empenc 
Tb«r« they were favourably received by KfibOa^ who 
eagerly qaeelloDed them l egw dfa g the mien, people^ 
forme of ;overinneDt,TnilitU7 tectio^ and idmiafam- 
tion of jurtice of Europe. The rcporla of the two 
Polua incited the khan to ««nd Lhem, accompanied 
by one of hie own noblt*i on a miwion to the popt^ 
hearing miaaivee reoueating hia hoEineu to aead bam 
100 wiae men akilled En th« aria and acieuMi, and veil 
veiaod in tnattnraof ivligidn, to inatn]ct,and if poaalbla 
convert, the MungoU to Cbri«tiaaity. In IsM the 
brothers aet out on thoir return joumej, bat hid to 
leaTc behind them their oompanion, wb« fcU ill Inr the 
way, and they antTed at Venicw in 1 Sfifl. flwy (oatxi 
the Papal ohalr vacant, ud after walUng two ycttn 
in Tain for the oltctian of a now pope, and finding 
it impoaaibla to cony out the miaaioB with whim 
Ihoy bad been Intruated, they eel out tea the Bait 
ngdn, thia time aeooiiip«iiled t>y the young Mtree. 
Thtj mMcd throngb Paleatine^ and ia Amenin wen 
oKertalcon by nnwnngera from the newly elected pen- 
tilT, Oregory X., who bruuybt them preaenta and 
lott«re for the khnn. After a joonier of three and 
a half yeats they readied the court of Kabilai, who 
re«eived them with all the pomp and QrcunataBce 
chaiactamticaf anriHontol prtontate^ Maroorapidly 
learned the language and cuitome of the Motile, 
and became a ipedal favourite of tbo khngan, wlus 
on a«««nt of the noble port and powen of ohecrra- 
tinndiaplared by the youtw Venetian, employed himoa 
variooB mlaatcwe toeevendol the nelgbboiirliie pHiiOM. 
Maroo candocted Umwlf m well on Ibeae awMinne. 



I 



I 

I 



J 



POLONAISE— POLTAKUttlA. 



■sd ^v« Ua BMter roch vivid lumtiaiia of hit 
wpm ww ot Um ooarti and peoplM ha had vliited, 
that bo namw to U^wrdbUnctiaii. Thduorthcni 
pcvflaea otf Ctdm, Worn TU bM, tlw ettjr of Luu, 
tt>«itlMaeftt<rfutaicUv«c(Nam«ra^Mid tbeprorbioe 
of KkoraM*, w«t* Tuit»d fat moMMioo I7 tui» yonag 
a^vvMnr, wbo giaanlly idmtd the Utan'i hvour k 
faaipart to UwumB MOiel uid Mcrad pUoea. H« was 
■!•» MOplogrtd to aaut iit drawtcig d;j mi idvontM? 
«f Ih* aMUvH balonging to tba court o( tho Qobb 
Jbftattji Mid aDcit afterwardf wu tuaiLe Kuveruor <u 
IM bapertoDt ciltr of Yus-tcboii. tn Eaatom Cfaioa, 
«B MiotolmeDt he hdd tnr three y«vii. He anonf 
wnW • Mongal nnay in lb »<t(»iici) i)|Kin the Kiujt- 
dan of Vmm, hmI nbwqaeotly «r«Dt <ja ui ODibaMy 
to lUuBpi, tba modtm provinc* of Sttieofl, in iLo 
•oolb «l Cochin -Cl]iii% noir ia |ii— ■iiiiii «jf tbu 
FkwBcfa. After p— tag aevcotMn y«an tn th« iter- 
Hea of tba kba^w, tbt tfafw Pom vroro oommij- 
•IcBsd to BoeeaipM^ thft eaoort of OomtTn, « Mi^n- 
BoMm |»far— tnTcUiiuF to BaeriA. Timj act ont in 
130% bwnlbd ttittogb Qhlitt, sad m{M Umingh Uie 
CUmm Sn and Indimn OowD, tzp«MDcingiiiuiiDrqua 
en tba nmgt, aad ■ntnd kt Tfthenn, 
' raudnM for aome tftOB. Rearing thnt 
khaddiedtn tbatrkbMncn, th* v mrihnl 

to raton botB^ tad Rftcbod Tri1o« in 12»5, lv»d-A 
vfth wMhib and JMnU, but so altored In »ppetnaai. 
Mad MoJdng tbar mother tongna with auch difficult/, 
that it waa long bafote thay coold ranvinoa thair 
fidaadi of Uiab UeuUtj. Uaroo Polo equipped a 
^ilaj at bia own aipoon and took nail ia tb« 
aaaal battle al Oonola ia 1S96, in nhinh tbc Vane* 
Hmm aedET Dandak) wen defeated by thu Gnnoeae 
nadar IXa^ and dorins wbidi Marco Polo waa 
Ukm priMoer. Daring lua ewtiTi^ be dictotcd to a 
fallow -ivtaMwr. RnUidaDO ot Piaa, with the aid of 
Um ia«iBOTaada be bad taktD dniiim hia ioarany*, ua 
aacwaat «( an bia tntrols, wUdi waa finfafaed in 1299. 
AAiT hi* libeimtiaB be ntonkod to Vonicat irh<i» be 
waa anpointod a mambca' of tba grand coiniicil, whicli 
pMHfoa ha baM onta Ua deatblo 1S23. Hi* book 
aa a lad an imaai— mimUod among tba acbolan of 
ifts Una: maaj, faawavar, did not hesitate t^ char- 
•atoAa h aa pu» fictian, and cveu on hi* ilenth-lie*! 
tfai Mttbor waa implared to rrtract Ua alleged falae- 
haa^ bol ba aolamalr roafflnDed all bla atatoBLsnbk 
TW lapecto of Catboba nilaalemaa^ea and ol anbae* 
ijoant travellon ooitfirnoed great part ol hit Darralive: 
aad in tba ooona of time tbs guod faiUi, talent, and 
ndafcn— and aeouncy of otaervatiaB at tba jptat 
•mfaUar bagaa to be recogolxed. Tnlninmnntn niTn 
baas maariulily carafol in hie aUtunanta; what came 
andar Ida own eyoa and what ha had on tcatimunj are 
daljr Dotod fn bla work. IthaaaowbeenaliDoatiettled 
haiiaiil doabt that bia iianativa was tint writtan and 
paMbhri in French. It waa p>uhIiabGd in l^atin and 
Italias dnriag Marm'a Ufetime. It made known to 
EonfM tba aslattnoD of many DaU<>ns of whidi tb«y 
w«a bnacrijr taitally ignonmt, anch as Japan <can«d 
by "KLa Zipaugn)^ Ac. ; o«atcd a paaaion for voyagea 
o< dbaaveiy, whioh naoltod la ike Portugaeae find- 
ing a way to ladb by doiAUng tba Capa ol Good 
ncm, and fat the Hmmtj of tba Xew Worid by 
CaTanibua, a rl(we atudent M the book. It baa gone 
tbrougfa BOioamB «ilitiana in tlio various KuroMWi 
jaagwarea; tba bMt Italian edition ia tbaC anbtled 
DllffioM di Ue«er Mann Polo Venedaaih aiHtod 
by Court Biidelli (fonr vola. 4to, Fkrcnn, 1937). 
UaoMit and axocUent editiona have bvim edited by 
O. FaMbler (two voU gvo, Paria, 16«$> and by 
ODland YtUa (Tbo Book of Sar Maico Polo, the 
VcMttai: two voli. London, 1871; 3d edition, 167S). 
POLONAISE la a PoUJi natkual danoe, whkh 
haa ba^ fanhatod, bat with muob variatioi^ 1^ «4bav 
TOk XL 



natlona; abo the tuna to whkib it ia danoad. Tk* 
PotoiutUf, in mnidc^ ia a moraniBnb of tliree crotobete 
In a Wr, dinrucUtrieed by a aaamlng iiregidarity of 
rhytiuD, prcduced by the i^mcopatioa of the hut note 
In a bar with the finit note of the fcAT fnlloiping, 
tn tba appar part or melody, wliilu the uunuftl time 
ia prtserred in the boos. MnvomonU of this eoit. 
called by tho Italiona Alia Potacca, wen once ao 
popular that ecurvrly a tdxij^]* conocrto waa written 

without aUB bcinj; tiitnxltmkl lutu tt. 

POLOTZK (audent P(lt\Mrum), a town in Runda, 
ia the goromniaDt of Vitcbilc, and 60 niilea w.k.w, 
of ttio city of that ni^mf, altiiatod on thQ right bank 
of Uie Dwlua, and both banka of tba I'olntka. It 
has some fartiflcation* of no graat Ntreniith, partica- 
larly a castle aomawbat iliUpidatcd. which waa built 
by Hte|ihenBathory, kiii){ i>f iVbui!, iu the «LAtc«iitli 
of-ntury; and nmnerous chiurh's and maniuitariM, 
but m<^ of the houaee am old and very indlfTorently 
bnilt The moat remarkable edl&coa an the old 
Jeauit convent and coUi!g«. It haa aomi trade in 
tlonr and hsmpy which in lent to Higa, mid tonutug 
ia carried on to aoiDe vxtaut. Tbu town la ona a 
tha oldaet In Rnada, hariu? beun fooadad la tba 
ninth c^nturr. A hattie took place here batwaen tha 
Kuui.tiiii iintlFT W'ittgcnatein and the Tnoich under 
i>udiuut hi 1812, in wblvb the lattor wara defoatad. 
Pot.. 12,201. 

I'OJjTAVA, ot PCMAWA, a govcmnM>nt of Rnatia, 
bonnded on tha norlb by CivnugDv, on the eaat by 
Kharkov, on the aouth by KkaU'rinoebiv and Kbaraoo, 
and oa tbi -waal by Kiev; area, 19,S66 aqnara aUIea> 
ItOMufaCiof an (OEtenalTeand aemswhat monotaiaBa 
flat, Mgbeat fat iba Borth^aaat, aod graduaOy dacdiaisg 
to tho aoutb-waat, whara tba Dnieper flowa along ita 
Boutb frontier, and directly or by Ita tributariea iba 
Buhk PIbooI, Vorakla, and Ore], reedroa Uio di^nago 
of all ita aurfac« It ia one of the moat fartile and 
beat onltivated portlona of tba Buaniui Emfdra, and 
exporta about a fourth of its wliole prodnoa of whaa^ 
oata, and baricy. The mndowa are both axtenalTe 
and luxuriant, and the breada of the iRunenM herd* 
of cattle and fiocka of abeop wfaioh gran the^v are In 
gciicml of a aoparier daaeriptleiL Tba rearing o4 
bcca i« an iiiiportaDt hranob ot rural aooneany. Both 
maBufacturaa and trade ara df very limltad extont. 
The fonnar are abnoat emfined to wooUaai^ leather. 
aaltpetre, and fcnndy; tba lattar oocaiata ddafly <d 
agriRiltura] produce, inelnding boraea and cattle, 
hBtnp, Hax, taJIow, wool, honeyl and wax. £duoitiiili, 
uuDiuiaily uudur the iiup««IaMndamM of the Ualvai^ 
aityof Kharkov, li miMrablyaa^aetod. Poltovala 
divided into fifteen distrida. Pttp. ^-US^iU 

POLTAVA, «T POLTAW A, a town of Roaaia, capital 
of the above govominaot, on tba Poltava, 44S nllaa 
8.K.W. of Moacuw. It ia wallad. defended by a dUulcl 
crowning a arnall height, wtdeh liaea ap near ita 
oeDtrv, and haa apadoua and regular atraeta; bouac* 
ganendly of wooc^ though aoma aia of atooa and 
brick. The trada, diitty In cattle, com, bemp, and 
wax, ia very cDnslderabtL'; and Ihe faira, tbree in 
number, are van iniportaot. L'lwlcr ita walla in 
170ii Peter tba Great, at the head el tb* Bnariaaa^ 
algnally dfdeatad tba Swedea, usdar Cbailaa XJI. 
A nonutDont in tba priadpal aquare co m ma mo iatoa 
the victoty; and 8 milea fnnn t^ town la the tootb 
of tbeoe wbo fell fai Uie battle^ gear wbidt Peter aet 
up a woodao cn«^ aad wUch b atill eaUed tba 
SwedUt Tomb. Pop. SS^TO, 

POLYAXDBIA. or PoLTAnsT (fran fefaa or 
po^nany, and ani^r, a maot daaotaotba euaiam of 
one woman having aeveni liiiBbaiidi al one lEnMb 
lliia ayatcm appcara to bare ito atnngfaold In Tfbat. 
in tba valleya «l the Lowar Himdayaav id the valleya 
c( Caabmarai and fartkar aouth amoiut the CuotL-i uf 



ISjwon uul tfa« Kftjan of KaJitbnr. In ihiTse t«^uiu 
ft vlfi) MneraU; boloncito tha broUien of nncfotnit;^, 
tlw daar Ixothv bi&g tbo cbkf huabaiKl &a<I tlie 
nputed (ftllier nf Um pragsny, Tb* cuatom haa !won 
fmuid prevftilluft on the Dorlt ooMt of Ceylon, unou^ 
tfa» Ndw ZeaXatiders (Ihougih then nnu-ly oboitli'te). In 
•ererjkl of the South Sw l^uid*. »»iu? niu-ta of Africa, 
■mong th« 8»porogikii CoawckR, ntid, nccorrlinc to 
Humboldt, udook die tribe* of the OriiLoco. T&tire 
mn be little doabt buB thAt ti^Ii ptMnliir rrabeia 
originAted in the dup&rity in nninhaa betivera Uib 
amua caiued hj tbe pnw.-tioa of fanolo infanUdda 
coBUDoa UDODg wild warlike tribes, who louk uixui 
wooua M an iacDmbnnM nther than u « belcouto. 
PohrHidria anolentlf «xiated in eome pails of Media 
and aanoDg the Picta. Stse Poltgamt. 

POLYAlTTHUa. a vnriaty of the ODmman prim- 
ron (PrinuUi ivlgarit), a native of tnoet pvta of 
Europe, Kroviiii)^ in woofla and Ropaca in a moiat 
dUyny anil. Th« le&vee &r« ubovutt.-, ubiimg, toothed, 
nit;i<tni, and villous btmeath. Tbo nmbel la radical, 
and }low«r-rtalk« of the length of the lcaT<«. 'I'ha 
toels of a fiiii.' polvnnthuK an?, a (rtrtinjf, crert^ ajwl 
aUatic ait'm; the tuKri i>f tlie imrolla above the calyx 
■hoold b« ■hort, well filli.'d with th« aathcra, and 
ahoald tenni&ata fluted, rather alwve the oyo or 
middle drcle. This aliould 1w rannd, of a bright 
clestr yellow, iind dUtinct frmn the graiind wlonr. 
The KToiuid coluur la moat admired when nhadod with 
a light and dark riob crimaon, reoeniblitig velvet, vrilh 
one atriiio in tlio oentre cf e*ch diviaion of tbu tlmb, 
bold and <luitiact from ihrn edging down to tKn cv, 
vdiere It should tvnnliiato in a duo polut. Thv ia\m 
ahould bo lar^ quits flat and ronDd. aa much na fa 
oonaiatentivith their p«ci(liar tje^irc, which ia circular, 
with the exc«})l!on of thn>s amall indnnturcB bctwtseri 
each division of tlio Uiub, nuulduff It out Into five or 
idilseart-tikc nct^ents, TlDeMping ihaaldretemhle 
a Inigbt gold lace, Iwid, cl««r, diaiiueL Deariy of tbe 
same coloor as the «ro and atfipot. The polyanthus 
Is propagated by dinding the root^ whitji are norm- 
nia], or by slips; and for procuring new rarieUea by 
sowitiD tbo seed of the approved eorta: The ee#d 
•hutdd be gathered abcntt uo last w^ of June, and 
In ten days afterwards sown In boxca in the open alr 
wjlh a northani oxposure. In July the plants ore Vi 
be placed in open oedi^ and nii;*t bn ah^ItHml {nim 
the sua sod watetrad fur sume lime, ^niu will nhow 
fiowon the aamo autnnui, and many In the feUmrlng 
spring. They r«|niro to lie trans planted every two 
year*. Tlie beat imi! u a light loom, with a conaidnr- 
ablw pm|Kirtion of land, a amall qiuuitjty of rotten 
dung, and a Ultlo leaf mould or p<-at earth. The 
plaalB ara vaj hardy, and seldom din •■xen in tht: 
DDicat nn^nial sesMfos. In the heat of nauuner, huw- 
awr, thcT are liable to bo destroTod by so^ls and 
slugs, and by a kbuJI red B|dder. 

POT.YBrUB, a Greelc historian, waa bnnn at 
Mvgal<i[<oli8, in Arcadia^ about 204 a.0. ULi father, 
Lycottas, was una of tho Icadors of the Ach^an 
IfCBgW^ and the coTitirlRiLtinl frigid itf I'hilojHrmon. 
Bduoated fur arms aud (wUtkal life ho was chnaeu, 
at the age of twenty-four yeare, as a member of an 
embassy to Ptolemy Epiphanca, bnt ho did not kavo 
Greeee, as the emfaAsty was abandoned. Whea the 
war befeweeti Pnseus, king of hfacedoni^ and the 
Bomana bnlM out, FolybluawM sent to the Itoman 
oonsol Marehu to inform him of thorcaolution of the 
Adwaoa to jcln him with their foreca. He remainecl 
HBft litne in th* Itoman camp, and thai returned 
with a oommlaiioM from Itlardua to onpoee tbo <)e< 
BMod nado by the oommaader Appius for more 
Mtnliary troops to be seat to Epirua. About this 
time the design of the Komaos to make all Iha free 
alataa of OnMOe dependent became evident, and 



Polybius took part in all the meeanres for 
atrvati^in nf their Independcnc*. ^liea, tl 
afbr the HubjiigatioB ot rcn>ru4, tho Romaas nsed 
Imu dingiiiad, I'olTlnas [oand himacif amoag the 1004 
hostages wbnn Uie Adwaos wera obUged to daliw 
up totha ll4Hnnafc Sa l«mtins; TirtnasL isd tatsots 
mjod gained bin fiw favour of seme of the mMt die- 
tinguuliiMl seoatora, sspedallyPaUiM and 8c^o^ the 
two BOM of Paultts .£mliius. Dm bostagea w«r» net 
dimtoied tmtil sevantMa yaan had B la paBJ,whe« 
Polybuu,whodid not wish toseoagab usdagrwlsd 
ooantry, recnaincd in Home, and entered into the 
svrvEco of Sclfjlu ^mfllanDs. lie ncoompamod Um 
on his oxpedition to Africa, and was a wi t aew at Iha 
(lc«tnicti<nn of (^arth&gn In 1 16. Directly afMr Abb 
bu w<nit to Gn-we, where the AohaaBs bad become 
involred in a war vdUt llw BoaMMia, He b nid to 
hnT« been prmeot at the cafitara of Coriath hy 
Mummiua (KS); but thta bdonUfoL On Ibeddeat 
of tho Achoeans he used all bis Infloeoce to mHjgata 
thofatoofhieoountrj-mon, Ac&aia was now oooTcrted 
into a li/imiui prorinw. Amid these metaii^oly 
oc fU TT en oea he pre a ervcd his pattiotim and dUb- 
tereatedaev. Be axecirta^ to tbo satisfa^ian «f 
both thoBomansaBd Gweks. the Jffioul toon iwilrinn 
of introducing the new form of govemmont in the 
ritiea of Greece. The people of Achaia rrwttd stat- 
us to him, one of which luul thi* inacripUoiK— *Ta 
the memory of PolyUun, whuee uuunsel, hsd h been 
follriwed, would have saved Achaia, and whocooaoSad 
it in iU Milvcniity.' Ho is brljevcd tn hnTc attwidad 
Srijiio to tilnain in II14, and to bavo been |w^a«ial at 
the (icice irf Kuuisiilia (1S3V but after the death of 
his gTttat friond and benefactor, hu rstamed ta hb 
native land, wbtrc he died in oonsequenoe of a ftU 
frcim a hone, about B.C. 122. 

PolyUuB Is the anthor of a tlstoHeal worl; trm 
the beginnlnK of the teoond Fimic war <220) to Oe 
orerthraw of Greolan IndepMideaoe (144 b.c;] li 
oonaiited of thirtyniight books, boddes two tntrodv^ 
tory books, txmtaiidiig aaketchof the Roianti Ustary 
fruin t)ie taking of Boue by ^^ Gaula. AJtbongb 
U10 affaira of Roma are the chief sabjort, oooten- 
pororr ocmireoces In other countries are alao related, 
on which aoeount Polybhis gare It the tlthi of a 
iinlvcrsal hinbriry (hiitirrio i«(AoUU)> Wa haw et 
thia ^'at work only tliu fiiat lire hooka enlir^mid 
valuable fraguieiiU <>( the ramainloi; buoka. Some 
oi thesQ fragments, as that contatoing an aaeooC ttf 
tbe Roman army, are of ronaderabM leugth. Titt 
low of tho mit in rery much to be regretted, ai^ tn 
aocuruc)- oud fidvUty of narration, and tn enent td 
politicaland mil! t.vy knowledge, Polybins issarMaed 
hynDbiaUiri.tri'.f luitiqtiity. To hint la alaa a ttllb i lte d 
Uio iutmductiou uf tUdactto politics into bbtory— 4hst 
ii^ of that maonor of writing history whiob, by bier- 
mingline views of tho omses, oocasionsi, aaa ttfocts of 
ereal^ u a nsefnl IntrodiuHiAn tA poHtfo. On the 
other hand, his style in dotitute of beauty, and Ihe 
aamtlvo iiitetruptsd by Icn^y digreadotis, which 
weaken the artistio effect Liry was uimAi indebted 
to Polybtoa after he came to tbe Beoond ^mic war. 
Cloero montlons a paitioUar work of bb on the 
Nmnaataan war. The most valuable editioas of Pidy- 
bins are those of Casauhnn (Parii, ie09), of Jac 
GionoT{us(Aniaterdaiii,l'>70,thr<.'« vola), rcpuhUabed 
by J. A. Eraeatl, with (Jasaubon's Lain translation 
and a oonuucntary (1764), nod Ibosn at Scbwdgbiit> 
aer {Lelpxi^ 17SI»}, Bekker (two vols. UU), lad L 
Utmlorf (two vola^ Lei[-eig, ISCO). Tbe Ustes7 of 
I'niyhiiu has boeo widl tranalaUd into Tf"g****' by 
Hampluti. 

PULYCARP, aooordfaig to tntdltloti. a disciple of 
the ajtoatle John, waa bom probably in Satyma abcnt 
the closo of the raign of Nero, AoconQug to a legend- 



I 



I 



i 



POLYCireOMY. 



179 



suj fngnnit ■•cribed to » writer lumed Pliutta; he 

-«as broiight up b]r ft noble ChriatiMi Iwly tuunwt 

dallUe^ and waa ooimjc rated hy St. Jaha b> Uia 

liMiiH»ilii of hifl nativv cUr. Wh«<a Ui« oout(vv«m 

^^nlt tlM Mlobntitn of Easttr bo^u to nin lii^h 

Km wntt to lionu ta ccnfcr wiUk ^nicotiM, vrh» tbon 

«::i<cci|)ied Ihat tee; nnil Uunifl^ ha did tu>t nioceed in 

v-woacilbia tbe dlff«raooM Iwtwva Uw Eactvrn «i(l 

'^bVcfUni Cburchi^ ttM ^noitionf wsre dncnHed in 

M ha iDMt ftutcftUa nuuiocr. Uuriof tbe persecntioit 

ij-'yii'W &[Mn» Aanliua lie was aruod And nn-ied 

'^t7«f<m tbo Itouuui iinicoiiant at Sm^nuL lie vtvi 

^^■iJEod lo peiila Clintt, but be ivfilied, '£I;;1ity wid 

^^tdi jMra h«v« I Bcrted bim, and be has done me 

^Evotbing but goc¥l, *nd bow ccnM I rcviio my Lnrd 

^^maA Sftvioor.' Tho p«opl« dottiiued him to tb« wild 

1^— 1^ but tha )tidj;«a oondcamed Um to tb« Buiub, 

TIKVm, bnwcvcr. acmrdfng to tbe legiend, pUjrad h«nn- 

S^^Mil 7 arugii'l him, in tlic nbape n( a ■wcUuig aktl, luid 

^BHBltiiAg * «<v«et (nfiniQre. S««bg; hti bod; to b« 

J —'■"■' aguoit tbo Hamca tbe judi,i« ordcrsd one of 

'^bAc «MeiitiMMn to mn him through with « tword, 

^^n wUta pigon anddeoUj ftcw up, and tbe Same* 

■^ im ntluAabad b; tlw blood tbat How«d from the 

•^■tuMil. Tuit(«ditioo,wfa[diprobftb|TcoatniiiiMnie 

^nralk with a mlxbnrv of fabla, hai ccea tnmod to 

Uenni aaoDunt In ene of tha worka of Hankr. P0I7- 

«3Brp b OR* of tba niofai in the calcinriar of Uw lUmiRII 

CJh^iolie Clrarch, a^ the 26tL of Jaiiiuu; luw boen 

TiMieewlid tohJupamfliy. Ue wrote eavaral letter^ 

^■ticft mm oureat in tbo oarlv diurch, but hare 

I^aQ narUMd ascapt vae adfcweua to th« Phiti|)|aAtM. 
FOLYCHROUY, a oompound x>l two Urwk 
^nrda, n^BlfTiDg •joauy eoloiuv,' U tbo name given 
fMlbe art oldaoMating worka of ■culptiimiuid nrchi* 
faetnre with dlBemnt coloun. Th« cnatoiri of [>uut> 
ia( atatoc* la a* tumlmt a* acablura itaaUj, tbo 
TmiHaii^ Avyriaiii, Egyptians, FBun^cl■lll^ Babv- 
Jf-^"— and I'ccrinna all paititod tbrir stalnaa m 
. _j coloin^ eaMdnlly in rad, and further decor* 
Ukon wftit platM of g/M. rilver, or Ivorj-, be- 
iMw Bdocnine tb<an with |wydoiu stooiei^ and chaina 
cf |oU aitd aUTcr lint mi t^i •« u-e oui jnd^ from 
Hw tare Tprflnntnf of tbe painted etatuea of Uioee 
aadesfc paor'os polyvhromv had not raadunl Uio 
dipiity of a real art; ihie It uit attaioad only aaoas 
tb* Gfetba. IVom lb* feoMina of tbo bomb a 
Uanaoloe (aee UAimoLHiii) now to bo aMO in the 

IBrilU MomuB it Ii to be UifwTi-J that a pari of 
ftil M fliUBaat wm ftdonwd with nrioua ooloura; the 
riUn of Sfauaolna waa |iaiDlod rarmiliun u well a» 
Iha Ignroi cf paiaoiiagee ait a baa-reliet wbae gmnnd 
Hyw to bare bean painlad Una. But it u up<tu 
le qncatiea whether thow tgwm m»j not hava been 
falMtA toBf aftar tbe ereettoo of (h« moaiuMDt, at 
a reUtinI; reeeDl period, aa the tumb waa not (1^ 
AondanUielj natU tha fifteenth oentury. lathe 
EuBaoal Mwram at Naiitea a maibls AjmUo, which 
npean to ba a GiMk produotian, bean fidnt tnwca 
■ oaloMf, the hah- bein^ paiutod of a soLdeo tinfieL 
tte p«lo blea draporr bong adoraed witu • lad bwd 
id with whlto nowenaa. In tha aaoM noMam 
, be aM* a atatuctta fe(«tocDtliu[ the goddeae 
I with the hair and a ncrt of the tu%fnj glldad, 
""1 an Inacrlption fuaoa duriuA the axokPation, wv 
tltat tbit lUtue bad boon pUoed In the taopla 
' I at FonpeQ bv L. CaaUiH PhorbiM br decree 
I '*—"*«"■ Lt tba Gljrptothek at Mouich a 
lof Leucot h aa baa trmcea of Ktldlnff In tbe bair, 
t (if red and arem o<Joiu- io the drapery. In tho 
epod « Grcalc art poljrcbrofno aculptuni 
'«Bt a oouplela dianga. Ijwtvad uf vmpluv* 
[ eDlcmre the acnlptora ol tbe age of r«ricl«e ii«ed 
" , «f dUaieot aoloon fitted totfctbur, and the 
of tboM aUtOiM were nuule of tat^ont 



SMtalsv and of Ivory. Thus the nude porta of the 
figuro wore in uma cmm of rurijui marble, the 
dnperiea of atreaked oajx, ibe cyai of j^td w ii'nry, 
tba ablelda and other arm* cif broiue, And ao forth. 

Polychratnj na applied in arcbilcctarv nuy ha 
dirid«il into nattirai palyi-hromv, wltjcb onoMinl* in 
tba euiploy meat of m^criala produoii^ oertain effeote 
by tbair natural edoor; and orfiftnaf fatj/cArvmih 
whidi it liiiiply the upllMdoa of ooata «f paint to 
tba rarlaui partt of tha edlftoOi whither on tli« &z- 
terior or tho interiw. Both natural and artiScial 
palydiromj, the firat having preoedanoa in pmnt of 
tiuie, were used by tba AMyrlana, Babylonbin^ 
I'crwana, Kgyptiana, and, tbrmgh thia wna a enbjeet 
«f doobt iknd even Hr-jiial up till tikc Iwginriing nf tbo 
lirceeDt cvutunr, W tbu tinwkn. Plutuvh in his 
Life of TlieBUalodee iuiurms ua that one of the 
■tela of tba (ompLe of Mlnrrva in Kuh<TA was 
ooluurcd iaffron ^ mean* ol a ca>tinK of which 
ndlk formed a ooosUCuent. We leani frum FUoy 
that oertafai part* of the walb of tbe tvmpla M 
(Hympuj were oolonred vHh an anaWooa oonipoa- 
ition, and that for aOTeral c«nturli« thoaa walls re* 
tained their yellow tint. Accnrdlng to I'auaauiaa 
tbe balusUaue surroanding tbe 01ym|rfaa Jofrfter 
of Phidina was painted blue. Tba same author alM 
tells ni tbat wm^l conrla in Athena were paialo^ 
rama grven and otlicn ml. In (onie of tbe temples 
all the vartvua purta of tba buildings wen ttetacbed 
by diUercrot tlDta, bringing ont man alskrty the 
uneot of eacb oiciubor uf architectiita. Vnttta, 
nietupea, tba bottonw uf peldiDentl^ monldingi^ oee^ 
uiooe, &0., w«r« oovered with ooaCs of Ane ptsstar 
or etucco of various eoloDn bannoDiotialy eoabiaedt 
wb«n the. mfltvrial wna ordinary atono: when in 
niariilc tbu uiluun waro a]iptivd wiUiuut auv lacdinm. 
I'L CLVIIL abowB a ffmup of objecta illnatratiRg 
pojTchnanjr aa ajrplied l»y thu Gnwks in aculptnra 
anil in arehite^M. 

Tbe Bonuun foUowhii,' tlie oxainj'Iv of tbe Gmka 
coltlTatad poI>-ahmny, but in a muub mon.' restricted 
t.Mc. We find it ani|>lflysd in staViiiry in tho bust 
ui Au.tiuoufl (iiow in the Louti«), which waa funuerljr 
ligbtlv ooloure*^ and had eyea of vracious slotMa ii- 
aertei^ lilte sewal sculptures of uo ssmo «banwt«r 
found In HsmnhuuHun and PMnpell. In the de- 
nartment of arcbitectOMl fniniiKoatj we find in the 
last named |oiti«s |aUaia and tfae buisr and oatar 
walls cf buildings painted in variom ooloun. (9ee 
PL CI.X.I Tha pillar of Ttejan at Rome was re- 
iiiikrlcttblo for tbe briUiancy and taota with which it 
u-iu> c'dlnured. In tfio pnblic and dmamental building* 
of the later P^m^T* gold deoontlons and beings of 
variegated stone appear to baY« beea vsad Inataad of 
0»era coloor« In the miildla ages patydiiuino arehl- 
leotttte waa adapUd botli by the AtaIm and the 
ByautlDee. In tbo tantb century gilded capitals 
■nd altoraating variegated laycn of stooa again 
maha tbair i^ipeannoa. One of the Unest azaaipUa 
of the Bysantina aodesiasUoal ardutectare in tbe 
polydmnw stylo is th* PalaliB* Olinpd at Palttawb 
enctod bv K&g Bobert of Sldly faL 1 132, of Ihs ia- 
lerior of wUclt we give a view (PI. CLIXV 

Un the uatabliahntsat of (iothic architactiira poly 
dkrefoy was intrwlucrd into tbo Interiuv of elmnihes 
aaoDBofth»i»enti>l part* ul a rrgnlar eystsm. lbs 
foUaga of capltab wm gildod, the gioniMi painted wtdf 
tbo nbm of aivfaea and monldinp were deeoaated irith 
gold and red or gold and Uoe^ and area tba plain 
Hurfacae of tba anhss were eoTared with a Bghtov 
tint of tbe HUM colonn; altani,alKtbafaHtradc%pal- 
I>il^ aacnunantal taljenuclee. Ac, wan paiateid on 
tba ground and gilded on tb«ir imicctiouk This 
pnettoe maJntsdnod its pisee throui{h^>ut tbe whole 
period of the middle sge^ hot In meat churches aib- 



180 



POLTCLETnS-POLTGAlfT. 



•e^ent «blt«waAIaca h«v6 tffaced oil tracM of it. 
In the period of the rrnftimnnnn punUu^ &iui gililine 
graduklly cowcil. Tho middlo-aga •calfitum in wood 
•ad atuDH wu kt Bnt, [Dd«ed, nmiKctod with naiiit- 
U)g, «t bait ia Etatacs not Intecded to stand ld tho 
npMI ftir. Btll tlin [soiyrhTumv of the iiUHldEe B^e* 
ojipean to bftw bacD ecitirQlj' dilFcrent frfini tbnt of 
Ufl GtmIu, both in UIiulou ^nd In tvAlity. lu the 
fonocr not onlj Wfire tho dr^rariM painted ^th thfl 
m*ttiat 4nd mnot vAiiod Rnlendour, briL Ibc linir luid 
n«h wvr* uudu to we&r Ckvii true wid luitural i-ul- 
oun, M nuijr be awi in tba fommia itfttuiw of the 
Ap«wtl<M Id the cbotr of Cologne Ckthodml. The 
broken light tntuonltted thrang'h pftinted windou-i 
teade^ hovmrer, voiy m&ch to t1itni.iii»li tliL> elfH-t, 
and u atEU one gn»t obstiLcIa to tho pi-ogreiw of tho 
Uate for polyohmtny. 

POLYCLETUS of Hictoii, ono of the mort coW 
brated of tho (irwik *(nil{'tcin and archft«cla. H« 
WM » nipi] tit thu Arvi^p rtatunry Agolsda^ umlcr 
wfamn Pkidlu at Uint time' wu alao Icftrning bh art. 
Uo flouiMhed nbout 45^412 mc. Aa » KulpLur be 
•tood at the hcwl nf tho nohnnUoE Argoaand SlcTnii. 
ikuil la regarded aa tbe mont awsccmful rival ul 
PfaidJai!i, tho head of tb« Atheul&n aohooL The Utter 
vadrcinHilcTcdnnKirpaaRed in hiDstiktiiMof the goAt, 
Biid I'u!yt'Ii:tua Id tcoee of mi^n. lln ciccllrd iisr- 
Ucularlji in ro prw M itllig the t^ncuful Mtitndua ul ihu 
gjnwMtiai of youth. On* of Ma ttMt cdahruK^ 
et«tn»waBtheDor]r])borua(Spcar-bcaror),a;(rathfid 
figura to which the najno of eanan or inodul tvn* 
givan, aa in it the artift had given n perfiM't reprc- 
aentatioD gf the i«1e>l of tba btiman form. Ilia atataa 
of Uera (Juno), in the bemtilo t>«twcun Argon and 
M}^ccnir, waa tiioiig-ht by 8tralx> to be equal tu 
Pbiiiina'a chryielc]>hantin(i at-ttnca of Zeua and c^ 
Athoua. Tb<a Olvuiplau QuL*ea wai aontcd on a 
tfalOBe, eroTrnod with a garland on which wera wrought 
Uw Qnoea and iiiv Uuiuai lu uuu hand she heU a 
pesMignoata, and io tlu oUiar k Ksptra Rinno>unted 
1^ a omIccnx llie head, br«Mi^ aixoi, and feat were 
<n Ivorj, and the robe which coreicd the fignic fmm 
the vniiit downwarda was «f gold. Aa an arohttnt 
ho ditlJniraiafaod hiniHlf apcciidly by the theatni and 
rotunda at Epiilauma, vhich I'aTinaniaa prnnnnnoed 
to bo tb« fini^t biiildiugc uf ttioir kind «vt.-r erected 
liy (trtTk or liomiui jutinta. i'nljcletua alao wiwte 
a trratUi* on ttie propinttiintN c>f tbo tiumaii fonn. 

PULYC0T\XEIJ0N0U8 PLANTS, in botany. 
thi!Lcmin|>plii-d tii thoao plaota of which theeiubrjrua 
have nirirc Ibuii two uotvlMDna or wml-lolxos, 

I'OJ-YCltAl'ES, tyrant <if Swno* durinir thu timo 
of thn eld«r Cynia and Pytha^oraa, The Santiana 
had till th<rn been free, but vrith thr luwiatanco of hia 
two linitbi^ra PantM[nottu and Sylunon he made him* 
tdi master of the iaUud by violvnw, and eodeaToured 
to •Mine fnpr«n« and aole power fcj trrtnj maana, 
even by the death of one of bla brothers and Ihn 
iMUiiahaient of th« other. Ilaring aecui«d abanlute 
■way, he jirucviMled to atrsngthM) Um <Aty, vsUalvd 
1000 archem, equlpned 100 galleja, and Mi/«d iijiciu 
aowral of the udi^tiLourlng ialamb^ and cviui laiiic 
toima on the mainland, lie fonned au lulimate 
alliaiioi' wiih the Egyiitian king Aaiidlk BUo-ttra- 
ordinary sucmob In all his oadertaJifnn induced 
Amaeia^ as Berodotua aaya, to admoniali hun bo arert 
gntater calamitiea byaoDievoluDtarjaacrUlot^ Foly- 
orati!-a fullowi!>l lhi> ndrioc^ and csat Ua most valuod 

i'ffwvl, a pivdoui ei^et-iMg, Into the sen, whfdi was, 
lowev^r. found a f«w days after in the maw of a fisb 

thai hnal Im^iD BOot to lum aa a prriu'nt i>ii arfniint uf 

its ramarkable alie. Tlds Induoed Amasii bo Tttnoanco 
Ua alliaaea. When be was on ths point of raakixig 
hlmieU lord of all Ionia and tho ncighbcMuinKialanda^ 
the Parnan aatrap Oniete^ who oiDaidered faimaelf 



^ 




injured by Um, treacherooaly brttcd him to Ids 
pAla>», and crucified biro (ilc. SSX). PolyontOi 
aeetna to havo had mwA taate (or learning sind tha 
art*, acid ^rvally promoted the ralinemani o( the 
SamiaiiB. Annetvon,hi> favouritv, and tbe oelsbvator 
of hii (\mi, lived at bU cnort. 

POLYCYSTINA, tho name originated by 
Ehrenbor^ and applied to a family or groop df 
Prototoa (which sec) bdndcd In the order Badfe- 
Inria nt that rnib-kingdom. Tluae erganisms, all of 
uiiiLTijwinpic or uiiuute alio, are allied to tho betbef- 
ku'.inTt Fomiiiinlfnm, whlui fonn bnge fields el l^e 
in the dctitba of cxistinn oeeans, and wkkh In past 
Agva of the i>arth'B biBtoi7 bare bean floaaobdataa Co 
fonii cbalk-rocka. Tho sbflU of tbe Polyejtdmt 
are, bowovor, cninpoeed of ailiceouB or Binty mate- 
lial; tboao of the FonuniDlfimt betn^ formod of 
calcaxeoiiti or limy mutt«r. Through holes or aper- 
tur«a l/ryraminn) in xiin ■iliceona andia, the saroode- 
matter of wbidi the priniitJvo bodlesof tbe Polyeya- 
tina are oompoaed, id protrtided la Hw htm <l 
elongated ray -like pr^n?><«ni or filaments aamed 
pitialopniiia. Tha ihetl itwlf ia CreqtMioUy p urt idcd 
with, ainnuiiii ]iniL'F«M.'«, and aeveralof the shells ol 
this group exhibit a nmarkablo ngolarity and natb^ 
matiirskl beauty of otillinn and lignn, Moti 
'of grannie* or wilid parLiclf* cua be disMVerod 
place alou;; the borders of the peeodopodla, 
tarcodc matCcT ci tho bodies of Polyeystinn ii ef a 
liruwnioh ruloiir, and ^wats to oontain yellow g^ob- 
ulnt of varioua ijxa*. It doea not gancnlly Gil Ibe 
entire ahell, but la limited to the upper partien of 
tho atractoro, and exhiUta alio a dlTMoo Into four 
partn or Inbee td equal aii& 

TLo Polycyatlna inliablt the aM-depUts, and their 
aholU n^in^ln nith tli<»o nf PomminiJara and allied 
oii:aninn> tu form the oigaaic depotdts whleb are 
continually being fonned u tha ooaan-beds. Timr 
dlatributiou lu time appears to hara been ol a mar* 
oxtcndro nature dian their prvevot or gcogrsphkal 
distribution. Tbcy am abundantly repreaeated as 
fcBJI organiuDs, but .in: uiuat fauuUaHy repraented 
Eu the deposit Imown aa tbe 'iufnaonal aartb' of 
Borbadoes, which bulonga to tfas tertiary or noeni 
period of geo]og7. They also occur la rocks of 
mMiTEaic i^e, but are wholly wanting in the fonna- 
tioii* "F the oldest or paliaoxoic period. 

POLYI)EUCES,or PoltdkckH tbe Greelc name 
of PoUu\. See Cahiob and Pdllvi. 

I'OLYCiAMY (imKifita in n man's having UMf* 
than onn trifc at the lomo time. It was eammaOi 
omoDg the barbarous nalloiu uf actiqully. with tho 
sxoeption cf the Cemlanl^ who, as Tacitus ohasrfaib 
'prope aoli bnrharoruni wpgnlia uxoribos oeatenti 
■nut.' He aayi oUewhere, h^rerer, that their cUoEa 
had the right of marrying aeveral vmun at tbe 
same tima. Asuog tlia andenc Britooa thnv «■> 
a ainrular kind <il polygamy. Any nvtnbflr of Ben 
juiied in a Kudcty tugeUier, aa waa iMtrfaapa requinta 
(or inntual di'feiioe. In ordirr to link this eodc^ 
d-iK'T they took an oqnal niimlicr of wItm in common, 
and wluitevo- duldrcn were boru wore reputed to 
beltiug to all of then^ and were aooonlingly proridsd 
for by ths whola ooraniuoity. The ancient lledes 
oompelled the dtiseoa of one prarlnee bo take aaoh 
seven witcs, and the women in another to havs each 
five fanabands, aecording as war had mad* extraicrdi- 
nary bavoc in one quarter of th«dr oooutry asMog 
the men, fir the women had boen ouried away t? 
au eucrtiy from another. Polygamy waa also p«r- 
niitted among th« ancient Greeks when neoeawt/ 
sevmud to roquire {t,a>in theeaseof thedetadnMot 
of young men from the army <t Laaedamoo, men* 
tioned by Plutaieh. It waa alao allowed saaoBg the 
Etnncana (1 Z Athen. 8). It waa also dslsadsd bf 



I 
I 




P0LYGAMY-P0LTGS0TC3. 



161 






Xw^tdn Rod Vy Fbto, wboae doctrinv «u tuChcr a 
MBMahj of wJ'VM tiMSft plunJit;. llic udent 
BdlUBiBever pnrUaed fwljgam}, tbcnigh It wu tiut 
faffUUn aiEMxag tlMta; uid Mule Ankinj la hmd* 
tioMd M tlw 6nt wbo took d» liberty of hiTiiw tvro 
wiraa. Fhm thkt tfane h beoune fnqneat fa tbe 
BoBM Bnpira tffl tb» xvigM of Thmduu'ii*, Hooci- 
ih^iaiArodhMiwIioprQmbitvd ttA.ii.393. Aftor 
lUi VilcthUp pwndtMd all hia sabJiwU l« mmy 
Mwnl wim If diqr rieasod; nor doea It aErpear 
from tba <rrl<alMlh«l oirtofj ot th« ttmca that the 
liUioiH Miada aajr oppoaitica bo tlia intrDcluctinii of 
polj^ny. Fopo (Mfcty 11.^ tn a decRtal dfttn^ 
7SC allom a man to maaj a woood vhio 'if tha 
6nt ia ia&no ati4 tDci^wbk of oonjogol fimctiiuu.' 
Wa leant frrai Gngorj ot TCnm tMt tli« MeroTin- 
Uap had aBTacal wlro^ and that Cbarlraujpie 
a gtaal nnatbtr. Luther looked npon Btarrio^ 

■ dnlodntraiciMid not aaocrAincDt, and nennittol 
lattdgiaTO ot Beaao to talte a aocond wife during 
a* BMiiw of tba firau 

FdKMRj pranilod among the Jewiah patrwoh* 
both Ewfuca and aiidcr tiic Muaaic lair. But Ibr 
■taU of uumnera had probably become i«fciriii»d in 
tfaii rtap*ct bofoio tha tituo of Cfariat, for iu Hik 
Htw Toatanent ire moat na tnco of ita prncticu. 
In the dirittian code tliore b no eipreaa law uuoa 
•faa aobjact Tbo worda o4 Chriat, howaror, in Blat 
xli. 9 laaj bo ooaatnwd by an ooay hnpUcatioo to 
•mUfait polypuDjr, for if 'whoever pultetb away 
fak wife abd mamcth aiurlfaar oomnutteUi adult«rr,' 
Im who DUfiieUi anothtj wlthont patting away tba 
ftM taao loaa callly of adDltery, bcoanae uie adultet? 
4am ool oondat to tbo rqmdJation el tbe fint wifo. 
ImI Ib antariig fato a aeoond narriige dorinc the 
li^ «data»oeof tba SnL Tbo pamagoa in St. Paula 
writbo wUdi apeaJc of marrlago always iuppoao it 
te lilmtj tbe >mk» of one noa witb me wotnan. 
Mat ao»«f» tbn nay ba^ polygamy baa boon a* 
a lii a fa J — aad lad ladToiaaUy prohlUtod lo all 
Chilatfaa eoatrita ai If OhifatiaiiUy bad expmaly 
iorWddaa IL Polynmy haa been allowed tnidar all 
Ibe raligioMa widen ban prevailed in Aaia, Hj tho 
laws «f Mobawmed 0*017 UoMulman la penuittwl 
to lian a doraUty of wivm. Hie Araba, howsTor, 
■aUota avail tbouelTw of tlda pririlcffe; and the pr»c- 
tioa b b e ooa h n gntdnaUj nnr in Turkey, Egypt, 
and an Uwaa o vanti faa that an broogbt ranch nto 
OHMBoiMtioB with woat ai n dviliiatJoa. Althood 
hitmw bj tha CoBgnM of tbe llDikM Statea in 
tten, fl b aUn pndLed to a ooTialderB,blB estont 
■matlit BforMMBitaa In tba territory of Utah. 

In Jhabodt etigbally, tha offenoo of polygamy 
«aa oBonland aa of eodraiaatieal eognlsance only, 
and aUeo^ a aUtuia of Edward I. treated it aa 
■ *TjJ*"T crinav it appaia (till to bara bean of 
•luuUfal tanporal oogniiaiiee nutQ tbo atatnte «l 
JaoMi L oap. il., eAacted that paraona guilty of 
ftolyfainy afaoald vaflnr death, aa in caan of felony; 
ffgt tbe benefit vf dcrgy waa not thereby taken 
away. By tbe ilatuto 9 Geo. IV. oa|L xxxi a. 22 
tBlygaaay ia poidBhable with liaoaponatian for acrcn 
ymn, V laqKiantnaent, In tho I'nited tiUtca o{ 
Apr"f™ the pnaiihment ii gvneraOy ImpriaontuvcLt 
inr a loogw er abortar Mclod, fin«v fte. By a oon- 
■HwiflQ of Chaiiaa V. it vaa a cm^tal criSM^ and 
hy tbe lawi el aocfanb and foodeni 8w«d.en il ia 
pu*h*d with death. Dy the PruMlan code of 1794 
fa^fgway la pnsiAablo by oonfinenent in a booaa of 
iW n i U io or fen fee at loaat ona and not moio than 
twoynan. 

Tbe ptactloeof polyfaoy fan* bean defended bj 
atjlbon m moAna tlsMn. Moattaqvbu 
^h•^ tt '- i^iiTilnally rrmf^f iwaMt t* thu itlli i mHi 
•TAiia. He liaa ako toBvtad Uwt Oe bT<«nIaillj 



in ibt ooinparative DtunbcT of each box bora in Aalat 
which ia rtrpreaentt'd to bo greatly aapcrrior on tho 
[■art tit llit^ frinalc atilei, la alto an arj^uuit^t in favour 
of tbla praetjoo; bnt there la good r«aaon for denying 
the roality o£ tbli mppoaod inequality. In the year 
1780 tbe Rer. Mr. Madan published hlsTbelypthora, 
in wLich ho alt(-mpt«d to vinijicate iMlygaoiy, and 
prripiHicd thn iotrndiictioD of lionnanii polygamy in 
uuK-of ft.-uiBle Bedu<.'tiun aa a remedy for proatilution. 
lie waa aMy aiwwiiiod by a writer in ttie Monthly 
lt<iiri«w vol! IxiiL p. 328. 

POLYGLOT (Greek, pJu* or pol<ft. many, and 
^fotla, language), a work wliirb ouEiudna the eacue 
matter in Mwal Unguagee. It ia moro particolarly 
iiacd to denote a ooi>y of wo Holy ScriptijToa in artudi 
two, three, or more tmnalaUuna an olTon, with or 
without the original Polyglota an w gnat aontloa 
for undcratandiitg tho Soipbirea, and wen early 
undertaken by tlteologiana. Tba Brat great work at 
the aort la ttie Ct<ui]j>luteaalan polyglot, preparad by 
soTeroi Icanied moD, nndor tho palranago of Cardlnd 
XinumiM. Great caro and piuna wnro taken in pro- 
curing iMrly nuuiuacriiita of the text and of the 
tnuw^tlana. It waa apVodldly pnnlol (1S14-l7),in 
si X folio Yolama^ at Alcala de IIoaaraa,c«tlod in Latin 
l't>mBlHluin,«henoethanameo(thew<orlc. Itoentafaia 
the Uebrow text of thoOld Teatammt, wiUs the Tnl- 
K>to, tba Septnagint, a literal l^tin tnuialatlon, a 
C-lialdee paa^)hra«D (whiob t« alvo acoompanled by 
A Latin tranalatleii). Another oelebrated polyglot 
i* tliat of Antwaipk called the Jleyol BibU, becauae 
I'failip ll,nf Spain Dora ]nirto{ the oeat of pulJicxtion. 
It waa oondnoted by the learned Spanlah thoologtan 
Benedict Arias Hootaaii^ wtw waa aarieted by other 
•cliittiin. It nppc«rti3 at Antwerp in irigtit folio 
tultunca OMi-7'2), ivnd, IkbIiIm the Hobiow text, 
oontaba the Lratin Vulgaut, tho S«pcuaglat (with a 
litem] LntJn tranaUtiuii), m•^ end ChaldAlc ]>araphnMa 
{TammM], alao accompanied by a Latin tnuulatioD, 
and tbo Kew Teataorant in the orighul Grtwk, with 
the Latta Vulgate, and a Syrlao tranalatlon In 
Hebrew aod Syri»c Ictv-ia (alao with a Latin trana- 
ladnn). Ktill snotv cEktirated ia the Paria polvglot, 
vxrLUlpd |>ria(.'1i>&]ly under the direction of GdI 
MifiLel lo Jay (an advocate to tho parliament, who 
oxpeodod hia whole fortune on Ibn object), by anreral 
diatingoiabed orientaliata and critKH, It anpeiutHi 
tn 1415, in tan foUo volumoi^ and contabu^ in addl- 
tloB to flw nontenta of tha Antwerp polyglot, a 
Bniao and an Araliio tiwulalioin (with Ijntin), and 
auo the Samarilan Pentateuch (a Samaritan ted^ 
with a tfMiaUtioa), and 10»wlae an AraUo tnuiala- 
Una at the New Tartament. with a Latin tranalatlon 
of tba namf Tbe London cr Walton'i polyglet, tn 
ti^R liuigua|[ei^ appear id in alx volumea fciuo; with 
two ■upplocDOIitaiy Tolnmm (Ixodon, lASt-fi?). It 
WIM conducted O&der thi.* care of Bryan Walton, 
oitorwardj Biaboo at Cheater, and cantaim all that 
ia in tho Paria polyglot, but with many additiona and 
fmprovancnta. It oontalna tha original text acnmll^g 
to earara] ooplc^ with an EtUopfeand a Pordaa tnaa- 
latioD, and tiie Latin Teraicoa of each. CromwoU 

IKktromxedtbenndataking. B^atw'a PolyriotJfoUo, 
^ndon, ISSl) givea eight raialoaa of tba Old Tartn- 
tnent and nine of tha Now, 

I'or.YGNOTUS, on« <rf the meat diatlngddied 
Greek (Alnten^ fkintiahod from 460 to 4IU b.0. He 
wiu a iiattre of tbe lalaad cf Thaeoa, iind alnna 
with Lie brother Ariatophoa waa Inatnwtod in thefr 
art b^ tb^ lather Aglaopbon. Clina^ tba oou- 
tnandar, and rival of Faridoa, Ivongbt hln to Athaia 
on the aubjngaticin of Thaaoa, and ninplnyad him 
to dnorate the Foxile, cir pabtod pocttoo at Athena. 
He waa the favourod lorcr of tha baanlifQl Elplnlc^ 
•ia(«r of Cimon. Micoo and Paawnwa aiblefl bin 




POLTGONACEvE-POLTTrasiA, 



In paintdig du PcecflV. Hia two principal pictuiva 
thm reproMntAd tho GroeliR birforo Troy; Uin iiub- 
jcct of oEut of them wm tiie nvembly ul tha chiefs 
ftfWr tb« np* of CAnandrs; of tb« oUi«r the c*;ittve 
TroiuL fomuiM, tu the midit cf wliom wu CiwMutdnk 
1 n toe JjewihE (ball) ftl Delphi he [jMn ted the Conquest 
u( Troy kiid the Re^otu uf the Dead, which are d«> 
tcritxKl by I'nuBam'ns. In a portici of tbo rorthcnaa 
thoro wvru oIk aovonX eawtlpiecce iv]a.tiiiii to the 
Trajao wtr. la the tenple of C'aator Mid PoUux vras 
* paiutiug repraentang Uift abduction ani3 marriage of 
the iIniijjIitAni of J/Rtici[i[iuii, uiil in tho propyl»a wera 
■L'M.'nU piutiuva. His wurkn wen pTobtibly vn wood. 
I'olr^otiu is repreaontcd u being the firat who 
iDMo punting iodqietidcnt of nr.nLntiin!, and gave 
lifii, mution, cbanct«r, ami tupmuua (wheiica his 
Bumame etKegrapKoi) to the cuuntenoiioe, Bldltftl 
<li«fMwitioD to the draperj^, and pfoporlion to the 
figure*, and be ia Biiid bn havxi Iwcn the firnt who 
lalioleri MradiTomts (jiiytuifi nith fcjur wluura). 
With him begnn the grand and lofty etylo in Groclc 
piunting. 

POLYGON AOE.-*:, or Poi.tooKE.B, a natural 
cirder of herbaoraua, rarely elirubby, planta, with 
altvnuitei rtlpolato or exstipulate loaves, and often 
uniMxnal flnwcm, Thn perianth i« inferior, divided, 
aud not unf reKtuuntlj ouluured; three U> uinaatMUeau 
Inaerted into the bottinn of the perianth; ovary frw, 
unuhUy formed by time carpolj^ unilocnlor, nticl 
containinf one ovnle; styles and etifinas fli|ual to 
the carpel* in uutulwi'. Tlie fruit is geuifrally a 
nut, oftMi triangtilar; anc^i! oront; nlbnman farinn- 
eeouA Some Nf«ciM priwIuM: a euoeuleat, edible 
fmlt. Thcra ure tvfnty-ninc w«U-k]unnk amtn, 
including about COO mmm^m. They or* fonmd in all 
r|iinrter« ot the globe, nnt inon eepeoially within tks 
north temperatv zone. Tliey hare Mtrfugent and 
add pmperliae; tatna are pnrgattvc, and a few are 
aeHd. Tliu root uf IlUtort (iUyyoMMin liutorUi) 
ootitAlu smcb toaaii^ some gidUo add and atnrch, 
nnd ii ft powerful «rttiBg»t. The leftves tt P. 
hjfdnpiper, often ceOed Water Pepper, a pl&nt 
^^nffif f^t^ lyt the ddea of likes and oitcihiBS In thda 
Qonatryi are lurid Gooogb to bo owd h a vesicHit. 
Vnta P. tinctoriwn, a natire of China, a blue dye, 
Boarcely inferior to indigo^ is obtained. Tba frait 
of P. ai-ieutarr, cximniouly loinwn as Enot-gnuw, 
a ComniuD weed In all parta of the world, i* uniAio 
and purgative. The £riiil ol Fat/oplfrwn cKulattun 
aud otli«r uprcTira of buckwheat is used as food. 
(t^-e BtCKWUBAT.) Tba leave* uf Rumex arrtota, 
or ConunoD .'Sorrel, and of JL anf»ttlfa, or Fii^ld 
Soml, otv add and aitrincvat; and tho roots of 
B. aqtuHevt, or Wat<r Dock, and of other Mpcciciv 
ai« need ae astringents and alterative, while thosa 
ot A aipinui, tinder th« nam* of Alonk'ii Khnluirb, 
wan formerly tuod as jpnrgaCivee. One ui thv mort 
fanpottant plants of thu 0M«r b the Khubivrb ptuiL 
(See IlHUDABn.) The CoceoMiit uri/era, or Bt-a-wdo 
Urape ol the West Indiei^ yiolik an a«tringcait 
iRilMtAnco known «• Idno. 

PdLVUON OF FORCES, a dynamical principle 
founded on lb« paraUelogram of forces, and said to 
luv« besn disoovwMl by Loibnitz. S«o Miqbakiob. 

POLYHYMNIA, or PoLmRlA. aceardlu bo the 
later Greek pueU tlie muse ol lyric song ana of elo- 
([■enon, to whom is attributed ^ Inventian of tho I yro 
aud of mlmss and pantonunics. The Oc^dan vtials 
reprwoatod hor covcloped in a tuuitle, crowned 
with a wreath of flowers, and in a mediUting poa- 
tnni. Her attributes ore tlui lyio and the plcotram. 
She ptaoM the forvfinger of her il|;ht kaiul on bar 
mouth, or holds a ktoU. 

l'0L1i1l£[{lSM is a particnlor instance ot iso- 
memm (whidi seal). PoT^rsMrinUion is a moje given 



Co the jiroccM by whtdi a cbemlcsl ooapoood la 
transformed into another having tho now p« ovnta^ 
oomposition but a diSerenl molecular veigbt: thos 
thn hydrocarlioa onylane, C^Hm, when acted on by 
•tvuii),- Milphuriv acdd, b converted into the polyoiev 
psmiiylene, C,iJ}«. 

roLVMOlLPlIISM, the proper^ poasaasgd fay 
oertnin bodies of cnrstalliiiog in two iv isur* fonoa 
cot derivable one (tvm the other. Thus memuic 
iodido Mparatee from aototaon in tables iMlooginc to 
thc^ ditnctric syiiU'in; if these ciystab are heated Ihej 
Bubliine and ouodense In forma belonging to f* 
niouooUolc RyBt«m; catboiiat* ol ealdnm askts 
colc-Bpar, which crystalliEcs In ifaombobedral 
and as nrm^tiitG, whicli ci^stallixea in trimetria tomik 

POLYNESIA <Gr«eIc, jwfw or polgt. many, and 
nStot, island), tho asme giviai by gwgrapliiin to tho 
ntuaerooB isbnds scmttrtTd over the Psdfie Ocean, 
oxUuidiu^ frum about Int. 3a' V. tu 50' •., and Iran 
Ion. 105' E. Ul 90" w. Th*- inUnds an distributed 
into muncroua groups; these groupa haw an aloo- 
gat«d form, with » genentl direction Irom nofth-west 
to Boutb-cast, and are oompoaed ol one or more larger 
l<ilaiiii» and many smaller ones. TUm groups north 
t'f tbo vijualur aro tbo Pdew lalaadi^ tba Ladrooa 
or Marinnrii! Islands, the Caroline Island^ tlM RaiUJt 
and li&tick eiiju|«, Ihu Sandwich Ltlaaid^ OObct^a 
orKiDgsniiIl'aAjrchi[islago,aodtbetialanagM, Sea A 
of the equator are Kew Irdand, Kew Hnwidei^ New 
IMtain, Fiji Ishuidj, Navigator lalaDda, Frfendly 
IsUnds, OouVa or Harrcy lalLula, the Sodff^ lalandi^ 
the Dangerous Arohipelsgo, tho Marqusaaa or Men- 
daflft bunds, n&d tho bolatod FlKalm, Dude's; and 
Eaatar Ldandsu With the ueepdao tt UawaU, lbs 
largest island of Polynesia, the most considnahk of 
them r>G^-a from '20 to <iO and lOO tnilca in drcum- 
tvna<M, whUo many du not exceed 1 ur 2 nul«M in 
length. Some of thees ialands are voloanio aad auu 
o( thoiD eor>ll!]i» in tht^Ir origin. The volcanic^ er, 
as they are callud, tho high Islands, rise to n coa- 
sidcrablo belzht above tho irrcl of the ocean; tb«y 
are of basaltic aud other igneons fonnatMna. l%a 
priodml grcinjis of these are tho Frisokdly Islands, aw 
of whidi, Tahiti, has a monntsln 10,000 ImA above 
aea-levcl; th<! i^dwich Islands, on tho tai^ert ol 
wbicb, Hawaii, are serunil uitiuot aud active craten^ 
seme of them reachlns the hetchtof 13,000 to 14,000 
foot; the Manjucsaa Uaods, Navigator Tf1«T^ and 
the GolapagoB ArohipelagOk Th« oeral or low islands 
comprise thu Carolinm and the Daageious Archi- 
pelago, whem Dxnnplps of the otoU fmn ore to he 
Lund; thu Society Islands, the Gnnbiar Islaoda, 
and numerona other gronjM^ where harrier redi*oc«nr. 
I'ho clcvaticois of these gronpa do not exoeed 500 feel. 
(Sua CoKAi.) Tho tcmpEsatnie of Polynesia, a«1t^> 
to the great predondnanoe of ooMtt, b eomporatlvriy 
mi'ilcnito. and thecUmoteia delightful and aalnbrioos; 
ttic mean aiitinal temperaturo of tho Sandwich Islands 
is 77' Fah^ of the Society Islands 70* to SO*, rni^y 
90°. The south-east tni^dcal wind genecaUy pnh 
vmIs, but DOrth-wert and south-weat winds are not 
uncuinuiun. Ilinndanrtocms and watMsnouta are 
oonunon; hunicsuie* are rarv, and varlbijtiuos digbt 
and nnfroqucnt. The soil in the vollcn and river 
OOUIMS il veiy fertile. Tho broad-fniii, lbs ooooa, 
houau^ plant^n, banyan, sngar-oaiM^ y*>^ eotloa 
plant, paper mulbany, and a spades ol eheaUnI an 
indigenous. Hie ofangD, tenon, mahn^ potato, and 
othiir fruits and ploata bara bora mirr winillj Intra- 
duoed. Hoys, dogt, and rats wen tha only quadra- 
peds fonnd «a the hbuds when Stst iMtfid; bitt 
oxe«^ horaos, afaeqs and piga bavo sow been Intro- 
duced Into Bome of tho mom im^iortant grrwps. 
Soakca and other rvptQes an cooEnod to thn Navi- 
gator IsLuids. Land birds are not uuinaraaia plGeoo^ 



i 



I 



I 



I 



I 



I 



POL YN ICES— POLYFTEKUa. 



183 



pacoqticb^ owb, Had tfMrxfrwt htdng tb« prindpftl; 
wtU dacki ftod oUisr wabar-towl ara mora abundant. 
Tortlci M* (oBfld is gr«M nvmbna in nrioa loaaii' 
Um, and bh an pUntlfnl oa tlt« couta. Sevflnl 
■pack* al wbalea, aa tiw qMno whale, tha Cape 
wlMb^ tba honpoadc, Ac, ara |i«cttliar to thoM 
mlan. 

Vm Polyneaiaaa an In penenvl a veU-formod, 
EbJ^ aotiTa^ and ialelligcBt pco|>lc TLejr connut of 
two or tbraa diffenfit raoea^ too mo«t pndomiaaut 
bdng affwnotl; i>f Hala; origla, who occupy Uia 
«aittal rad aaatMB portion of Fwjmaeia. llta^hava 
tmwk laoaa, oftaa ayaliiw aoae a , noetrila wMo— a obaf 
■ ct i ri i rt ooftanfa M iiBia n dtj artificial meao>; thooan 
u« larglafa; than ii gnat nuivty of hair and ccim- 
plaioo. Tlteir laapucti^ wfaicfa is aaid to ba allied to 
tfaa Tacala of tlto Pbuijifiuiea, u apUt np into nnm- 
mnmm Aalaota, all to a great eit«Qt iat«Ltl|^1« to 
lh» Uiabitaata of tba nma taoi acattand orar the 
Tufaoa groQjM. Thaother prinoinal net mwbb to bo 
of msro or Papuan oHgio; Ibe^ bavo tusn ftaaturta 
■Bd ooloor, and cn*p««l, niop>liJE» hair. Theaa w«ra 
libaMylhaiiataatUBnioftlicialapdi. Tfaovancon- 
flnil to tks w tam paito of PoljriMiia, aBd apoalc a 
ABinak laagaaga, uo numerova dlalecta o! vrfaicb 
cHScr wiflelj fawnii each oUiar. Hmv ar« not no IaU 
aa Out &nt-romBomed tace^ anJ are (wddodiT inferior 
!■ *i»tjtiiMH ){if, i]| Bona of tba in! and t than ia a 
favtial ntamnxton of tho two racea, and in ulben 
■O ap y awM* Caooadaa intennuctoia, indicatod by 
iJm anpla baaid and piocDiiMiioo of tlm fuaturca. 
Fagaafan, orignaUj tha pnvaletit nllgtm of all 
Iha l*oJjrtMaiai% baa Im^o to diaapp«ar Uirou^ 
tha labonn of Kofttdt aotl Anwiioan mJadoaariB^ 
Caaaibaliaiu, Infaattdde^ (attootng, ciroumdiion, the 
BM ai tho intoxicaat kawa, tlia InMitDliDit of iha 
taboo <o« tabo), am ruadJjr loaing tframad throo^ 
Iba laflaaooa of ChriitlaDllj and a Dkhw dTUk** 
tkau Tba populatloo Taiiaa oonttaually from wan, 
mSmtifn*, oocadoaal paatHtnct, and, ft uiiut be 
•ddac^ fram tka vkoi and dtacanom cominaninttvcl bj 
"ITaiiiliwiii and Americani. Some of the wcatcrn 
MmiiV aa tba Ladranai^ wendboovend b^ Magdiao 
■a aariy aa U21, tba Uacqtuaaa by Uandafta in 1&95, 
l«l it waanot niitil 1787 thai Walui^ and anbaaiiiMmtt v 
Ooak, aaulond aod daaortbed tho oblaf lalanda of tliu 
ngiob r«r fwtbcc infotoiatian isk artidea on the 
todtfblul noBpa and ialaada. 
POLVTHCICS. See EtxoatXB and Tmitca. 
1*0LYPB, PoLTPi, Ao. The Una 'Polype' haa 
mf miotutj and indiaajitunataly i^ipUo*) to 
animal forma. It haa thna been need to 
I anj animal of low organkatiura, aucb a« the 
J ooralu, and tlicir alllm; or it has been 
. to iodioale animal ^ wliidi, like the C^rlcn- 
ZoofihTtaa or Hydraaoa, and the M nlln«f«ri 
oljHM^ b<nr a dou reaambtaaea to |Jaota. WMat 
ba been alao pooolarlj applied to audi fonna aa 
Oottla-firiMa, tbongb En thia lattar eaae the 
' '■nlatadtvnn 'wolpe'haanippLaatedtbeiiaaof 
^enaral polype. The moat obvioua diaad- 
tbe icnn when need in loology, and aa 
anidoyed in tba older worka, ia that it 
baemnaad to iaclnda in cae gtoup ^pi™*!* of a 
'"Ij dJMiiiilai nabiR^ and which fnquentlj 
DO tme or atraetunl lelatioDalup whatever. 
BppUcatiooi ot the tcnn 'Poljpa' and alliecl 
I oave, iMnrcTcr, bc<D greatly altarad and im- 
for the better in the modem tennindon 
natwal bbtorjr. At unaant the tenn Peh/pr u 
to denoto anr m^ member of the cla« 
, Tefacaentod hy tho Sea Aneinonea, Oorala, 
IIIhUIm; oraiiyiDcn)tier(ciraeold)of aoDmponmd 
nim bdoBgiog to that cUm. Tba tona Poiji- 
k BOW OBplojad to derignato each momber or 



loiiid of tho oompoimd foma TnrlllAfl fta Ibe Molina' 
em cbaa Polyafinor li^ogo% rapfeaawlad hy the Sea- 
mata (/7u(m).ftv. llie name Polypidcm appllM to 
the antire ontcr framework or ildD-ajatGin of a oom- 
pound f'tm nich ai a Hydroaoaa Zotrphytv or a Mol- 
Inscmia Polyioon. The word Potypitf rofore to each 
Bopatate aoold or luuiuber of a wmpound Zoophyte 
or Hydnsottit and ij thua naed In <n»parftlon to the 
tnrm poljijiiiU eJn»dy oxphuocd. Toe foigpaiTf at a 
Ilydrosooa epeoiaDy i«Jer« to the horny or diitloilM 
skin aearetod by tbe Hydrous Sea alao CoLiSf* 

TBftATA, HTDBOKOA, ItlULLUDCA, Poi.TZOA, ftc. 

PULYraEMII»,aoo c4 TMcid^Jn, the moat fanioua 
of the Sldtlan Oydn^M*, b deaoribed aa a giant llviag 
by UmaaU Is a oav* In Mount .£tna and feeding bu 
flocka on thai mount^n. tHynea and Ua oompaolo&a 
baring been driven upon the ahon by a stomi, and 
harlng uuwaHly taken nfuge in hia cave, wen nnind 
then.' by PoiyphMiMia whan ha nttnnad home at night 
and shut up the mootb of the caTem with a large 
atone. Harug *eiaed twoof the iliangcr* he ato them 
for nppn, and the nact momlng made a breakfoat 
of two mon of than, after which ho dn>?« out Ua 
flocbi to pwtnn, and nhut up the uahaanr caftina 
by clcaing the oDtranoe of lua cave. UlyMMa that 
cantrivpd a plun fnr their eacajw. Ite Intoxicated 
the monctor with wine^ and aa toon a* be fell aalacp 
bored ont hli one eye with tha blazing end of a etake. 
Ho then tied hiniaolf and hia oompanlona ondor tba 
bntliM of the Bhecp, in which miuiaar tbay paawd 
aaftjy out in tb« inoruinii. Polypberaua waa tba 
lover of the nymph Galatoa, but the nynrah deqilaed 
hia offers, and pntfenvd Acu^ who waa lulled Ij Ua 
jnlonH riral. See OxutIA. 

POLYPHONIC, a term applied to a mnijcal 
composition in two or moro pait^ e*cb of which 
fonna aa ind^cndont tliome^ progrcaatng aimu liana 
fuily •ooonUas to tba bwa d oouateniaiiit, aa bt 
a fngtia, which la tba beat aiainple of polypbonie 
conipoijiioQaL (8eo CcutFrmtoar — Example IV.) 
ConnxMtiaiiB ooDaleting of a leading melody, with 
Bubsdiaiy parte added to ainogtbcu it, an called 
hamopkonick 

POLYPTBBUa^ a genna ot flabaa iBhaUtfaw tfaa 
NiW, Baoega!^ and otbar riean of Africa and taelodtd 
In tha Oauotd order of Hut dam. Tliay lonn typai 
of a ipedal family, the Polyptecids, and belong to 
tho group of Gttoid fiihea knoern m tlie Ooaeo- 
ptvn'ii^rlB— that in, tluMe in which the pectoral, and 
Kcnurally the vtntral fiua alao, consiit of a ceottal 
piece or dlae fonnad try tba akaleton of the limb, and 
ooTcied- wflh acalea. To Una dbe tiw fin-rava an 
attached. The scakn an ganoid, and an at aoUd 
awaroeUed toxtun^ and of rnouMdal ebape. They 
overlap each other : and are, in addition, artloiilated 
by meana of rtrocoaee which epring froio tho on^ act 
of tcalui aiul fit into depre—tom En neighbouring 
aoalaft The body la oylindrioal, and of dongated 
form. TIm bead fa acaunrbat fla tte ned. A pair of 
openingi tenned tfitatUt «siat oa tiu top of tiM 
bead, UiToagh whitui water may ba oooTered to tiw 
gUla. Hid ipindoa nay b« dated al wul by nlv- 
vlar atrnctuna, I'he pectoral finii are of ronnded 
shape. The ventral fioa an ulualed fur back on tba 
body. A allele anal fin eilrte; but the dnnal fln 
fa nmarkaUe ea being brofceo np or divided Into 
numaroQB dirtafhtd portion^ eacn oonaijllng of ft 
freat apiae with • aofk fin attecbed to Ua^lndar 
margin. No 'fokn* or potatad beaty pkiM azlit on 
the margina ot tha fina In Polyptena. The candal or 
tul fin to brtatwsrcnl, bnt fa not markedly aiyntoat- 
rical in the diif^neition of ita lobca. IRie liodiia of 
the rertebrs ara (nllr cuiBed, and aro ampblociiloal 
In foim— that Ei, concave both in fnni and belun^ 
1^0 bnnehiaalagal raya axfal In tiuaa fiahaa. Tba 



IM 



POLYPUS— POLYTI 



■Ir-bUdder U of double coufonaatioD, &nd Mcvul>t«() 
tat cuUuijur, wlulit it eanmonicalM with tba ^ilk-t 
W» tube---th« *]uieiiiiuUJc dnoL' Thlc dispouti'm 
cl pajt» rmden Uw Klr>bUdc{«r somewbit hing-iiko 
h uppunam ftcd homology. Tho uoitnd unitcts 
Opn btto tbfl caritj of the litiiud ovlduota la Polj- 
|lterai^ tiwteiu] vt tho oviduL-ta opening into tho mctora 
M la other Uiujijic! flnbo*. The PcJfptn^ fran the 
oomplctfl tavoitoicnt vt thoir badia u ganoid bmIm, 
ftra uidnd£d in the LmHonncAd gnon of their 
order. The runillur apeoiH of tho Nil« {Polypttnis 
bUdir, Fl. CL-CU.) puaiemM tUtewi dlvuaoiu in 
the multilid damJ fiii. /*. Scntffaleruii of tbe Bene- 
gil Rirur 1im twelve tiiaUftr divudatu. The formor 
&UAiQ9 HR ftrcrnge length ct tbrnti ]^ incliM. It 
ftpjicara tu inbitbdt the muddy boltuut uf tlin rivur. 
Ita flcab b oricvnied gnod for th« table. Tbe Poly 
pteri utt uukauwii m IumII urmuuNnu. 

It ma/ Inatlj be nmmrliofl that tbo young nf Polj- 
pterl have racentlj been stated tu puewea uutaide or 
tstentol gilhi in tbe joang itato, aod to lose Ihese oa 
Utalalng tbe ndolt state. In tho curioait Ijcpidiv 
rireiu or If nd-fiahos (ece Dirtfoi) eitenial branctite 
w« knomi to be oocaaioDall; clnvnlopeil; and if th«e« 
onjkns be pteemt la Fulypteri, tbe fact wUl rbow 
Hum to be sUled to the LepUodieu, and throagfa 
these Utter to Ute smphfbisa Vectebntba (GVig^ 
Newti^ ftc.), all of wbicb »««■■ eit«m>] iritU in 
MTlj life. 

POLYFtTS, in ta(>didne, & dudb given to nrell- 
falge which ftirm fhiefly in thr niiieoni iiicmbmoee, 
&ud wen ouuidered t<] niemblo tho imiiimi of tbe 
same name. Thi^e tuiaouje are oioet common la 
kho ooetrili^ the throat, the utaraa, and are more 
nrelr found la tbe atoniMh, the iiit(«tinc«, tbe 
bladder, or the external psnageof Hid ear. Pnlj- 
pusM differ much la aise^ aumber. mode of adbesloB, 
■nd tuitiuft One spodes is called muraiw, t^ft, or 
tetiei^ar ptdnttses, Moansa tiieir subetABoe ia enft, 
ipOBgy, -vesicnlar, and m it wen fiU«d «rilh white 
Mess; HOtber a railed the hard polypus, and has 
Mso dbttBgoished into the fihrons or tlr«liy tiad tbo 
■drrbona or oanoeruuB. Tbe fiiimuB pci]jr|>iua wrv of 
% denae, close texture, and of a wbluib colour; they 
ountaEn few vearcls. and do not <Ieg«B«l»ts lato «ut- 
oeOL 7^ sdirhous or etxiAatanatow ikItmsm an 
nsUr csncenmsv painful tumours irhldi discduugo 
hlood aad exhibit all tbo petholo^cal ohaiig«a of 
canoeroos affectioa^ DiSereat modes ot trsatmeat 
ainst be adopted, wooidiDg lo the wtloalar aatore 
o( the iBiisw. Among the methods of cure are 
wxtJentinij midA eoBNcte la mtbjecting tbe 'polypus 
to tb* mUco oI Bstrlagent powdeis «r sojntiou to 
•fleet tbe reeolntiBii at the tmnoiir; eauterisation, dt 
Ihft sppttcathKi of Rre aad caurtics; eecuvm, or tbe 
remoral of tbe polyuua by the knife; crlmdioit, or 
ita removiU by tbo flugereor by i>iac«ra; the tttcn, 
which cooststs ia the applicatioa (^ a wire or tfaraail 
for VbA (nipesB of dtatroyiag tbe pedicle: by liffnturr, 
wUiji ooonata In iyiag ap the boae of the tumour, 
•ad OMudiig it to foil o9 by the dflstrootloa of the 
tmriIk pMfde which nourwes it; or by the tera- 
Settr, which i> now nioet freqacmtly adopted. 

POLYSYNDETON (the (ypudt* of oiyndtftm) is 
tito nsflH giwD to a flgwe of speech by which the 
OBDjnactire particlee vt seatcnces sn aeearaulatetL 
tmitttj lo uraal cnsto]I^ dthor for the pnipoee of 
ri¥fag a greater amphaab to tbe tenna eonaected by 
OOB, M wbea BcbiDer says, 'And It waves aad 
balk and roan aad Umwc' or more ditttnctly to 
mirk the grMlual trauiltloD (ram one circauulAnce 
ersnbjeot to another; or to retard tbe toe rapid pro- 
ma « ob}eets pnaaattd: or to render ths emneo- 
WB beCw o a dlBsn&l ssnteaces^ or AfTennt parts 
«f Ibe same ssatence , mors vidUe aad diitiiict. 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. See ficou Potf ■ 

TBCUMQUB. 

roLYI'HEISM (Grooh, polu or pely^ maoy, aad 
thmt, goil), the belief in, and worehip ol » ploraUty of 
Kudu-, opposed to muDothelam, the belief in, aad war- 
ship of crae God. It ia still a matter of debate whether 
nolythei*n) i« x primary form of fauinan beliai^ 
aegeaenUidu uf nn odguiAl monotheistic >de& 
argued, on the one hand, that the sense of p 
di^MBdanoe into whidi oiest phikNW|ifaen have 
in rceolviiig the earliest el«ineau of satnnl i 
IttUog, could not, iu tbe first Insbace, iMkd 
ft DOWD of a pltimlity of gods. The tmdo6nad __ 
which he foehi to.bouwmd and abore him, tbe 
u-rii^iu tanuMsig which is bide|Modent el Ub 
wliicb in atmnger than h«, (Hd not primarily pte .__ 
ttnalf to bis mind eiatpt under a fonaof niuty. HIa 
carliwt religioo would therefon; be of a monotbelailo 
dianiictcT, Inil of a hiKlJy uuataUe nature, and emi- 
n«qitly liable, amongat r*ccs ot rode facaltlse and 
little power of abetractton, to amniae a polytheistic 
form. It was far (rem sttalaiiig the ierel 6t a dog- 
matic moQotbeiBia, a religloa whldi not only pOMiMBs 
the ooaoeption of God ns onc^ biit a oonoeptioo tbe 
aegatioa of the exhrteaoe of mure god* ttuia oaa a 
negation which b only poadhls oiler the coikotplleB 
of more eods than oae. The Up«A from tbe mssio* 
theistic idea may be exnlahied in two wayv, aecmd* 
inu as we may si^poee It to have ariaem fram inAr- 
mttyof thon^htordcficioaeyof laasaags^ Accordiajr 
to the former l)i>H>ry tlin )ik)an woolil 1m tbe reeutt uf 
the dominiuu px<?nrii(ed at nil tlm«i^ but movt of all 
la a rudi^ age, of the e«uB«eover tbe nfleotlw faml^. 
The idea of oao Supremo Boiag would be alwm 
liiil-le to be olMTumtl l>y the multi|ilkitTef tbe n»- 
Uile upnr&Uvjini ii( ikiit being oa earth. The tOler c( 
the soil, in simple tiinee, watting aoxioaily for the 
sun or T^n, wonld, oa bis joy at their airinl «v 
deepair at their appraaeh, be prone to attribate Us 
gouil (ir ill furtuuo to some individual |iowv tar 
whose benefits he must be gtatoful, or wbcae wtath 
he must propitiiito; and a wonhip oootaiaii^ ths 
clcEncnt* td prayer and t)iui1<.i);i>iii£ wonld aosa 
i^Ing up between man and tiuma supposed 
who goToned the earthly pbaaoiaoii^ ft ii 
these who aaajbe the eomptloB of tba 

idea to a defldenc^ el lascuage that the 

mankind dthar to asoend bo the coiM^i ttoa 

abstnct beliig, or. In a rude ng«, to adopt h 

to SBch a oonoeptka^ prereated man from gi< 

ITiueeD Bebg a iianM ooonoting tiwt edaleiiioe 

thay WW* ooosctcms <t as one; and tbsj w 

fore oompelled to dasiffBate him W nanaa 

thnse adA and attribates which they were 

of as many. 

W* oome now to gira a brief statement of thl 
argnments ol thow vtw uiUrm that palytbefan mm 
a primary fmn of rdtgiiius belief. Ignonal cl the 
oaturo >.if hi* owu 1ifi\ an<l uf tlio nitUire, ofwia, and 
pn^erties of otiier objects, maa at %rst ooold ssdy 
attnbute ragnely to all vUbls thlngB the same Uad 
of axtsteace sa tiiat whldi boloaged to hfanasU. TUa 
«iist«nc« ini-olved idmply the notioo of usihiiwiies ^ 
fur tbe distinction between coneciow— sod ^snow- 
altty was ai later growth. Thus febe san. moon, and 
ston wonld all be HTfng brian; aad their Jnihieite^. 
from the abeonce of aar idea of a astntat 
would im twn In the working of the matDiid 
and in all tho acddents of human H f^' . "Rufr 
would appear bcseRcrat or maliga; and heaoe Ihms 
beings wdoIi) be inrealed each with a i^ooal ebs^ 
acter. As bdne beyond human coatrol, and ee 
■ilectiiig the oonwtkn of asa, tfaey would be land 
or feared; and with the growth of tbe idea thai they 
might be propitiated or sppoased the s y »tii of poly- 



FOLTZOA.-POUACEA. 



186 



Mva «mU bs eoo^ilata. Sm Hoiotbbhm «ad 

MlTBOLOOT. 

POLTZOA (Qvmk, pebu, mur; aOn, >Dim>l), » 
Am ei HoUanaidB or Lonrar MoUokm (aov Mol- 
unu), ■nmitimM alw known bj Um nune of Brjo- 
■» {Gredc, (nun, moi^ utd joOa). Tb» fonner 
Buna bM bMQ ap^ied to thii groop In allnaica to 
tha mTariabl J cnKjwHtd aatan at iti indnilsd f oimi, 
rinlit tb* Ii^tar nams wh gi««n Erctn tiw pUat or 
moN-likB appMnnoa pnacmted I7 maaj ntomben 
d tb* daw. Um tiam Polnoa may ba dofiaed aa 
ccmpciainff Ho&naeaUa, whidi alwa ji f onn eompoimd 
adoDiaa. Ha bod; condato of an allmentarr tnct, 
ftainad wMila a aae or eell, vitb dooblo wall*. 
Ik nppar part of tba aUmentMr tract may bo pto- 
tmdad fzvm or witbdrawn into tba lac, that ia, may 
ba BTaginatod or inTagfatatod. Tbe month ia inr- 
raaadedby adrdoof hdlow tontadea proridad with 
dHa. No heart oxbta in thia claai. Tb« Flnatrs 
<r Sea-mata, ao &«qnantly caat up on oor ahorea, and 
vUdi maumblij piooaa <rf palo brown aea-weed, oxam- 
plify *Mnili«> mamben of tba gronpi Wb«n tbo aea- 
But organioa ia axaminad tlw ioawaed-like atractnra 
a leai to bo oompoood ol nnnwrona littlo doaely- 
■t edii, in eadi of whkh a Uttla aidmal wai eon- 
liiaed. Um entire atrocture ia known aa a poly 
MTMSy and tbe IndiTidnal mHitU, or Uxom, whidi 
hj tbdr Kgim^iaD make np tbe colony, an known 
Mpdyptdn Tba oompo n nd maaa ia prodnoed from 
t BD^ primitiva polvpide br » pro o eai of gemma- 
tbi «r cont i nnooa budding. Eadi oeD and ita tenant 
a the oonnterpart of ita neig^bDim, There ia an 
(Httf eatiaoeooa or calcareotu cell-wall, tbe tetocgtt, 
ndininnar, aoft,ooatractflowall,tbeciwioryit. The 
(donvt forma the eonnectiiig medlnm by meanj of 
ttia the diflForent oella an boond togiatber. On the 
KloCTit certain pocnliar proeeaea nuned atievlaria 
(« 'binf ■ bead prooeMea ) and tibracHla are found. 
IVn ■Uuuluiea exhibit independent movementa, 
nd tbdr fnnctiona are wlioUy ondetermined. The 
nmtk opening at tba npver part of eadi eell ia mr* 
xnaded I7 a drclet of hollow dilated tentadea, on 
«Udi devdrea the fnneUon of reepiration. A gullet, 
tautfa, and fateatlna ar» lamncled within the cell, 
•odd the dear flnid (p«rvM(ne jCtcwf) which filla tba 
igtajor. Hia fluid ondargoea a drcnlation in each 
cd through the movementa of tbe vibratile dlia or 
dtlieata baar-like filameata which line the endocyab 
Tlie anal opening ia aituated in doae proximity to 
tile mouth, and between the month and aniia the 
■D^ nerrooa ganslion ia aituated. A ' oolonlal ner- 
nga eyatara ' (Htlllar) Is aappoaed alao to exiat, by 
iDcana ot iriildi tbe vaiiooa memben of the oolooy 
an farooght into relatioD with eadi other. The ten- 
tadea are home nprni a itam or lopkopMort, which in 
the majority of marine Polyaoa la drcular In ahi^w, 
bet In moat of the freah-watsr forms ia hone-ahoe 
ahaped or cnaeentio in fbim {Ilippoertpiait Folysoa), 
In tlw Hip^ooepian forma a Talvnlar lid termed tbe 
epitlomt axBta, thia atmcton overiiatuing the aper- 
tora cl tba month. Tba tentadea and npper part oi 
tbe digeetiva tract can be Invaginated, tlwt la, may 
ba withdrawn into tba cell after tbe faahion of a 
glove finger throat In upon ItaeU. Tfao mnscular 
ay al e m <» thaw foams ia highly developed; the 
moadea (retaacton) which retract the animal within 
tbe oeU bdng eapedally developed. The evagina- 
tioai or protraaiao of the tentadea appean to be effected 
by drmlar fibrea wbicb an diapoaad around tbe cell, 
and particularly around the oral openine. Agizuudia 
deacribed aa bdi^ prcaent In some Fi^zoa; and the 
fonctions of a liver UTo basD ascnb«)d to cerfauu cells 
in tbe neigbbo ur bood of tbe stomach. Tfae nproduc- 
tiva organa eonalBt of ovary and teatea; male and 
^■*w*i* alamaots ^'•^—g thna ooBtained within each cell 



ol ibe eoloaiy. Tlieae give origin to fertilized ova or 
egn wbidi escapa from tbe c«lb, and develop eadi 
awigla primitive polypide or cell ; and this Utter by 
a prooaa of buddmg produces the compound colony 
td tbe Pdysobn. Each colony has thus of itself an 
unlimited power of increase by budding, and also tbe 
power at giving origin to new colonies through egga 
prodoced by a truly sexual pmcess. The mnter-oiv 
or tlatobla^$ at Polyzoa are jwculiar bodiea consist- 
ing of germinal matter inclosed between two homy 
diasB like watch-glasses placed face to face, and united 
by a ring running mond the edge of the disca. These 
atatoblaats an produced by a iiroces* of budding on 
a eivd-like structure which u attached to the stomach, 
and which is termed the fuaii-ulus. They are liber- 
ated from tbe parent body generally after its disin- 
tegration. When thus set free the discs of the 
statoblaat aepante, and a primitive polynide eacapea, 
which soon attaches Itself and deve]o|is all the features 
of the individual from which it ii[>ruDg. These bodies 
an regarded by AUman as U'iog jwculiar bods at 
gtwima, which an dL-stlned to survive the cold of 
winter, and which thus lie in a donnaot or quiescent 
stato prior to undergoing develnjiment. "Sa sexnal 
prooMs ia concerned in the iirodui.'tiiin iif atatoblasts, 
and thenfon they an not to Im ngardL-d as in any 
way oorresponding to true oni. 

The class I'olysoa is diridtxl Into two orders. The 
PAyfcKtoJonHOta possess a crcscentic lophophnre and 
an epistome. The (JyinnoloTnala or Infundilmlsta 
noaaeas a drcular lophophon anil want the ejiistume. 
llieGymnola>matoaroropreftcnt«<l hytnarine I'ulyzoa 
exclusively, with the exct.>|>tii>n of a biukIu family, that 
of tbe Patudicellc% ri'prcsentci] by the I'altidictlla 
articvlata (a apecies occurrini; in certain Irish loughs), 
and by UrwUfUa. The otbor cliit-f divisinns i>f this 
gToupare,fintly,theC'yclost'imat.%,ni>rcwntedby the 
genera Tubulipora, Iflatl'-pora, cVutii, he, In all < if 
wbicb tbe cells an tulmUr, and the ct'll-openluK tor- 
minalin position and of thosnmeiliameter asthecL-l); 
whilst tbe outer portion of thu cells is generally cal- 
careoua. Hie ChL-iIust4iiiiata jiosbom less completdy 
rectractile polyiiidus, the orifices (if the cutla being hud- 
terminal, tbe cdls nut tubular, nnil i>f fl<!sby, bnroy, or 
limy oonsistenoe. Tbe f^jKT%S<tlimrnaria,C'f{lulana, 
ScrttpoctUaria^ ScTViarut, Utmtllaria, ilietUaria, 
FluMra, Cariinlta, iltmbrattiuora, Lrfiraiia, CtUt- 
pora, EtrAara, Ac, on include)! in Uiis latter division. 
The Ctentistom&t*, In which the oriticm of tbe cdls 
are tormind and pnivide<l with friiigu-like structures 
for their closure, form the Isfit croup uf the (iymnulrp- 
mata. Tbe oella in this tlivinion aru distinct, and 
ori^'ioato from a common tulie. I'he genera Alfj/o- 
nittium, Sareofkitunt, Vuirulann, Valieria, liotrer- 
baniia, ftc, nprcsent the C'toniietomntA. 

The Pbylactolii'matous Polyioa include the fresh- 
water nib- order Lo[)h'>]M.-«, the marine IthaUlo- 
pleurea, and the marine IV-ilicellinea. The gpnua 
Lopkopkut Kpreseiits the fimt nul>-onkT; ani) other 
pnimincnt fresh -water genera an VrutateUa and 
riumattVa. 

FOMAC'E.f^ a Dtvtiinl nnlcr of plants, accnr<llng 
to siiroe botaniiita, but L'cncrally cunsideml as a <livi- 
aion of the natural »nl>:r Hosooiiv. It differs fpim 
Itosacen jirn[)er in having the tuU' of tbe calyx more 
or less globose, the ovary fleshy nnd juicy, line<l with 
a thin disc, in the adbusion i<f the iiu^iels with the 
rides of the calyx, and more or 1l-mh wiUi each otber. 
The fruit is always a pifmr, that is, it is tnaile up of 
a fleshy cdyx ailhering to flcHliy or bony ovaries 
containing a definite number of secals. Hie plants 
belon^g to tliis onler or suli-order arc jwculiarly 
distingriuhul by their ovuk-s ln-ing in iiaini and ool- 
lateral; while roaaoxiua plants, when tliey have two 
or mon ascending ovnlea, always iiave them fdaoed 



186 



POMADE— PCniBAL 



mio almTo tlw otber. Tl)«i« an aboal 200 i>p«cic« 
loond plflDlifully in Uie t«mpont« uul colder r«;;iciiu 
of tbt Dorth«m hianispbere; they nuy be nid to be 
sntinilj »b*eDt tram lEie KoullHrra hemiaptkare, Tbo 
onlar, which oonsiaU «xcltuiToly of troMuul ahrubM, 
prodooM > muaber of the fbert Irahi «( teuperau- 
flTTitrl-n. M the ^>ple, pear, quince^ ismIIm', fto. 

POMADE, PoMUADE, or roiMTitii (Latin, pomuvi, 
Kpple), II tenn orifnnally implied ta » fragnuit oiut- 
fOMil prepu«Kl wiUi lunJ ud ^ij^eo, but dow wholly 
KBtriofieil to perfiunc^ RoUd gTMsy mbctaiioM nnd 
In diowog iha hiii. In tho prepArntinn <if pom»dM 
tlw flnt obiBot of coodderatJou in tn ubLaiu tlielr 
fiitt]' bUU LD u pore ud &e«h » sut« » p«aiblc. 
liord. boef and ntunon luol, bc«f nuurow, tokI bt, 
Mid bear'* ktcmb *n the tnat«rIaU oonuiuinly «in.- 
ployvd for Uun purpoco, either RlnKly or in niixtnrM 
of two or man of tbom. Tho fat. which Hhould b« 
that of ft yonn; and health; aninuil, ia potmded in a 
inarblo itinrtar in the rold, nuLil all tbs naenibinuioH 
an o<impIcl«ly torn Munder; it In t.h«n ■iibaiiitt«d to 
the beat of a slctuu-batb iiDtil Ita fatly portion bu 
Uc()it)6ol, kjkI the olhiiminnnA Cknd jujneens msttar 
and other fuivi);u Bubelaui-m huv« comjili'tolv anb* 
tided. The lliiuid fat in then parvfiilly Kkimmml and 
pMwd tbnmgh m fiannul fUter. la tbi> itatv it lua}- 
M parfnmed at wilj ; after which, when It is Inteaded 
that the pomado ahuuld be whit«, it tniut b« ooa- 
■tantly iitirrod with a glwu or wooden apatida until 
it aolidifiM; ahould it \x wished inuu|>ftrcaC or orya- 
talliiLR It ia allciK-od to cool very Elowly withoot heiaff 
diirtiirtKd. To prevent it* becoming mnd<l a little 
bmxDtc Olid, pun benxoia, or uitrlo nthiir may \>o 
adil'cd, and to lucnoae lt> oonstiiMncy a litllo wax or 
•pennaDotL Faraada may b« porfomed by cnfleumgx), 
iaaoenUioii,OT ainiplr by adding the frapaDt oaaencea 
or wMuntlal oQm in the nqidied quantity. See PsB- 

POMBAL, SebastiIo JobK CAftVAtHO, Count cS 
Osjna, Marciub of, a calebratad TorttupUM ataUa- 
man, wna bora in 1969 at the caetlo of Soma, near 
C'olmhn, and died In 17&2. Bin father wna a cap- 
tain of arlillcry, and belonged to tho lower l^IAW <4 
the nobllitr; and tho mn, ^ter haTJng utiiiHcd law 
at CoUubra, esrved aba for aume time lu tbn anuy. 
Natun had i^ven Un oU tho qnalitioi which indi- 
cate a pcraon dtatinod for ralo : a tall and MrcDg 
frame, a vigorana cnnatitutjou, Mtninx pawdona, a 
peaetratinc judgment, and the moat captiTating 
ftddrwai Having been baniahird from Lubon on 
aeOMUtt of Kiimo youthful iinpnidenoca, ho pa«ed 
■araral y»ats at Soum di-roti-d to atudy. While 
tbai* ba marriod 'J'Rrc«a do Norcmba Almuln, a rich 
widow, and aabaequeiitly Kitunied to court, where 
hia addrOBB acquirad him ncfa high favour that in 
1739 b« waa appointed ambaaaador to Lnndim. II11: 
n«w mininti'r, Petar dl Motta, hia ciieniv, rL-rallfn) 
hiui in l"ii; hut the qoeen, who was his patruuviui, 
eent him to ^'icnna to ad as tuGdintcv butWMn the 
pope and tho iCmnrcM Maria I'hcrcaik Oarvalbo 
Lora gained saucnu eatveui, and bis ftnt wife being 
dead obtained the hand of the youthful Counters ci 
I>aUL The queen now proonred Ida nondnallcm as 
aiiiliaawnfcn to the Spaniah court; but tho lung anri 
lit mtnH-T bated htm; be was recalled, and even 
tbe bLfinatiHW of tbo queen was bsuffloicnt to ovei> 
oo]D« the avwsicot of thu king (John V.) This mon- 
anh dtod In 17G0, and throiiKh the inHnence of the 
(inaen-dowagvr Carvalho obtained from bis snocesscv 
Joacph L the pod of s^crvtary cf etsAo for foreign 
affairs. He ao«n rendcftd the fc«hk and ssomal 
king (particuLu-ly after tbe dtmtb of the queen- 
■notlier, liMk entlrolv subject to his Influenoo. 
Jomefii L f«dl in wHh tbe most daring projects of bis 
mlniitor; and the Uttcrnow prooeeded bu tbeaooom- 



plisbraant o( his fnur faronrit* iJijeils Ilia lapBt 
liuu of the Jtnuits, tbe faumOiation of tba gUjaCi 
nobles, tbe roetontian of tba piu a p act ^ el PBrtagal, 
and the abaohit« conuBaad of tba ifeaU in Uw nan* 
of the mooarcJi. Knetand, tbe Jeanil^ and tbe 
noljIlJty nioEi^'jiLjUit.Hl iii<; wvaltb of tba Komtty, 
which was wilhcut an army or a fioet, wlUiant earn- 
mcrcc or agrioultur<^ It miaired a man of bia 
cliaract«r to withstand the attacks to wbid be waa 
exposed from the InquUtion, whose aalos da ft 
hs prohibitod: fram the Jaanti^ wboan bo axpaDad 
ftnm their miinona in Patagoav; fram tbo leading 
nobles, whom b« deprived ol tbeir prinoel; foav 
■lotLs in tbe coloniOT: and fruia tbs pnla^, wboae 
puwota be abridged. Then oame ih» "'*'t™'~ ef 
Xovember 1, lT5i, whleh deetrOTed TA>mi« Car- 
valho appearad in the midst of ux gesornl despair 
aa a aavitmr. displaymg a vigoor and wolatisa 
which alone oiirbt to have oon ct UaUd bia wnwisfc 
Tb« kill)- Bubimtted {ropUdlljr to bli Arnctfen. C^- 
ralbo was now cn<at«d Connt of Oeyras^ and la 1796 
fint DUDiitor. He then removed ov«ry ooe who 
Tentai«d to obstrtiot his plan& Bnt with tbe prida 
of tho gT«tkl, whom he nnmblod, and tbe avarice 
whicii hb oiiiiinuirnial n^gtilatioiM «xair|i«nii#d, waa 
now oouuevt«d tho diaooutent of tho eunntry |)M|4i^ 
exdted by bis oitabliabmBnt «f mettopoUea. Tba 
discotttaitcd vine-droawn oomnuliUd OKoeasea in 
Opartov but Pombal vigaronaly anpiveaaed tbo lioti^ 
and passed the most oomprebenslve law* against 
trowon, which modo tbo will of tba Idu vaUd 
against Kill cnnrtitntions and privilegea. He also 
expuaed, to the astoniabment ol Kvrope^ tba ccndoot 
of the Jesuits in tbelr goTaranent in Psraffnay. In 
bis expoM of this matter A/an an oertatnly nuBjr 
Kisfenmtiooi^ and there ia no dmiht that tbe fatbtn 
rulad tbcae pivvinues much belter than tba gorcni- 
meat of Spain or I'ortu^ would have done. Car- 
valLii finally doteraiined to remove tba Jesuits 
cnticvly from tbs pervon of tbo kinff. Thay wtca 
deprived of the plaoe of oonfesoonv *« *'*'« onhnd 
(September 16, ITS?) to relira to tbeir ooaogca. 
Sovotai Foitnguoao grandeea who hod joined In 
intnguea against the minbtcr wero haniihad 
Lhibon. A cxnupb^kcy aunluat the Ufe of Iba 
who waa wounded on the ni^ht of Sspteuber^ ] ^ 
by aHasrin% delivered th» iiiini>tcr'a mortal enanita 
into bis handsL 'llvm: uiontlis after tba attompt 
Pombal anvated the Maiouja of Tavota and mi 
family, tho Jesuit Malajrriaa, and tba ant day tbo 
IhikR nf Avcam and others. Tho miniitar uti a 
loeuiber of the Buiirvme judicial tribooal condacted 
tho oKaminailiin, and after a hasty trial tbe Dnko of 
Avcira sad tbe Marquis of Tavora won broken on 
the whoel; the sons and tbe snn-in-Uiw, with tbe ser- 
tatibi of tho frimieiv were atnuigW; tlio wifoof tbs 
iiiAri|iiia wa* Iwhcoded, and a servant of tlio dnhs 
liurued. Thv minister denounced the Jcaoits to tbs 
[Kij'O aa the oantrivers of tho achome, and r>ot being 
Mc to procure immediately a bull iiemiiltjag tbe 
Ecvuior tribunals to pirxood against tbcoi, ho caosad 
some of them to be executed in prison. Uali^rid^ 
who hod prciphesied tbe death of the king, waa cen- 
clnmnod to the flames by tho Inquieitton, and bonwd 
in 1701. Fombol had alrsady nnisbed tbo wlxds 
order from tbe kbgdora by a royal decree of Scp> 
tembca- 8, 1769, and as they 'did not cMuplv with lu 
.T.«aJ»^- cMiied them bo bo aeiaed by tho onldieio 
and transported to Die States ol tbe Cnurcb. Tbsso 
proceedings gava rise to a protracted dismto wi^ 
tho pope; in 17A0 I'omhal tinnaported tbe Fifal 
nuncio beyond the fruntient, and was on tho point c( 
dissolving all connection wUb Rome wben CUauDt 
XUL died, and domant XIV.. his mooeaor, abd- 
ished tbe ordtr in 177S. Portugal was aooa after 



I 
I 



I 



TOMBORANATE— FOHONA. 



187 



I 



Inrntrcd In » Aort war wiUt Spdn, &iu) at k vubw- 
q«wH [Nriod In m atoood waTj on aocoimt of llu 
laMrt f* liMi£h^ oondact lowMdi Uttt govAnuwmt 
1%m Bartngiiea* krmjr nonvwl ut antiMLjr new 
atyanhorton, aad lb« (intffimtiana on ttio traDtiers 
wwa pirt In * btttar eoadidca. Pomfaftl vm no Uas 
aeCiTo m bia •0drta to tamroro Ibe oonntrj in am; 
ntlatioa, mad paid omMinukr mtttntian ta tbe Miboobi; 
b« kin rwKUnd toe mmnUp lew strict Jowph L 
lUad F«tnaf7 34, 1777, Msd vm mocMcM by bii 
dAOfbtar HmU L, the tutter MiefDj of PombaJ, 
wteca aba at anee dmived of Ui oIBomi TLe >tat«- 
i riaMa w aAoni ba bad iacaroarated, tMO in nam- 
Mr. wtn lalaMwd, and all Ua ra([alatiou van abol- 
Ponbal tranilatTad la the Tonng: queen & 
a of 78,000,000 onaados and a waU-ocKaniMd 
TIm nobility kft no hmu sntiM to bring 
Ua to tba ataffdd. Tba macn eauaad an txamfna- 
UdO to bo made bio tbe Irwl of liie aaunuiiu of Uie 
Ub(^ and Pombal aavad biioMU only t>y «xlubitl»g 
Hm oriKinal prooti of the compiracy, wUch bad not 
baoa nada pnbUo. He ntalned hia tltlea and hii 
lala t ait and, ivtiring into tha Ttllage of Pombal, 
dU ttiva SUi May, 1783. 

POMKORANATB {Pmntea Ortnuitvm, natund 
arder UyrtMaM). In !u wild lUte tbb la a dcua 
•ffay aknb, 8 or 10 f(«t hig'h, Ixit wbon cnltivatad 
wilb *»n, and In a faTtmnhU cUmata, it attaloii 
ifciaiili tb— dlBKaalooa. It Ii Bappoeed to bavo 
arigjaaiad in tba aoftb of Afria^ and tbanoo to haTs 
baan terodnoed into Italy. By tbo Roman* it nna 
«allad itfiia Pmmcmn, or Cartb^ylnlan apiile, and 
lb* oonatry edjacaot to Oaitlufe wia than oelabratad 
fcr Ela ptodncikML It fi tbe rimmiti of Scriptnn. 
Tte iMTOi an Ofifpoaite, laaceolat^ entire anrt 
■aoelb ; lb* Bowtn are of a brinianl nd, Ui^, au J 
ahiw^ iiwrili; the fniit, whoa outtivatad, attains tbe 
ri» of ft huft apjitcv ua hu n Ibklc ooriacaoni rinr^ 
et u wnod at lbs auounit witb tlw teeth of tbe peni*- 
*mt eatn. It la filled with a mulUUide of Bnall 
f«d ■aaw, aad tb« pulp ia nan or lav add, and 
elMMlr aaMnstniL Tlw pomefranato fa now natn- 
nuaao aa welTai eatcndvcly oAtivated througbout 
■ great put of tbe eouUi of Eonpe, for tba eaka of 
tbe Inib : and even m tboao Himrtea vrban^ lake tm 
own, tfaii don not attain peffMitiMi« the beaaty of 
tbe 8oT«fa resdera it a f«voarito onuuaeatal elinih. 
NoMtmiB vafietiot hftT* boon Dvodooed, differing 
(a tbe beaaty u( tbelj i]oiri,TS aM in tbe taata and 
^mlity of the fmiL The ponkefiaDate, In mna 
UBiatH^aoiDOtiiBcaattaiueagrcataua. Aooolingani] 
agiataibla berrce^e b mada of tha jtdca nixed with 
waMrattdaDSarorboiMy. AnollwripcdeB(P.MaiKi) 
fabafalla tba Waat lodlea a«d QoUna, wbcra it is 
ee eBMUnw need ae a hedge plant. 'Yho flovrcn and 
tMtan rery aualL 

rOHEKANIA <(?«nnan, Ponnum), a pnWnoe 
and dncby in tba nortborn part d PnuHlai boonded 
aeeth by tbe Bnltic, wtat by tba Dnehy of Mccklon- 
bvg. aoulb by tha pioriuoe of finndanbuiy, and 
wmV Wert Pnuria: afta, 18,000 aqiittr* ailaa. It 
aoMfato at » long and Mmpatativ^y narrow tnwt of 
senaliy, atrelebfag longbaOiaally etyrt to wcet. The 
noaet tt generally low and landy, and la Unad by a 
great wjiaber at logoona, aepanted from the aaa by 
' balta of land or low iandhtUa Tbe ehief of 



—..^ Ugoona era tb* Binaaoeee, the Lebaeee, and 
Iba StattinafbaS or Pommaracha-bjrfL Tie la«t 
foeina tba emboocbare of tbe Oder, aad eamtnani- 
catee iritb tbe Baltic by thne channeb— tba Peaoe, 
Sennr, and Diveivow. Owing to tbe general low- 
OMe of tbe eoaa^ wbent It ia nut protected tram tba 
wieaa by tha down* or low bUb already mcuUooed, 
anUoU mbMhaants like tboae of Holland, be- 
Along the ooart aro a few Ulanda, 



but none of them, except SliA«Q, TTfedom, and 
WoIIln, an of ipe^t extent. The interior U almoet 
a continnotM Rat. indu<!ine cxicisiiltrntile iriAnhy 
tracti^ witb n very gr.idiial inr.Iiiiatinn towards Iha 
BalUu, by whldi all ila ilnuunfp) b recuii'cd. Tha 
prindi»l rivera an tbe Odfir, Peruate, and Stolpe. 
I'he «inl <in tbe vrhot>- ia MLody and indiffcraot ; attQ 
thsrtf ant nuuiy rich alluvial tract*, parileularly atcing 
tbe banks of the riven a-ad ]ikw, produoin^ a au^ 
plot of grain for export. Much of what ia diua 
ex|>arted b of the fin cat anal ity, luiil the I'ntocmnian 
wheat ia well known in tba Ecuiliab Dinrket, whon tt 
of ton cgmnunde the Ughevt pnc9. (lax, beup, and 
tobaooo atv alao cultivated. Tba domartic aniioaia 
are nameroti^ and of tiilemhly good hreede: ttioso 
whtoh a[mear to attract loritt atlvulioii are ahetii and 
•wina. rbo forata arc at lar^o cxttiit. luul well 
anpplJcd with game llah nlao <ure abiiiiditTit. I'hu 
unly minerab of any cciiiaequeac« aru » tiitltr iron, 
a^klt, and alum. Itanufaotnree early niuili.- MitiKidt-r- 
aUe progHMi, in ooaaaqnenou of tbe inBuz of French 
refugeea on the remation of tbe edict of Xantca, 
who intrtKtijxwd the tnanufacture d wooUena and 
otbor falirira. Tba poaaeapon of tha Oder eoablaa 
the pruviitcv to earry oa a ccnaideiable trader both 
gsnnal and tranait. The prindpaL cxpnrta an corn, 
cattle, worxl, wool, wax, amber, and fiab ; the piin- 
dpal iuiptnlii nm wine, eotlon gooda, oolfoe, augnr, 
and othi;r artk'laa of ooIoxlIaI pivducw. Tbe eontn 
of mdo b t^tettin, which ranba aa one of the mnat 
important rcmiDcrctal dtice of PniHia, Pomcnutia 
aiipoani l<i ba*« htxa orij^aUy inhaUted by Gotha, 
Vandals, and 3bTee. Tbe am nentloa of it hi 
hiatory u bi 1 HO. It lone ramatned na Independent 
duL-liy, and waa of mtioh larger extent than at pre- 
auut. lu 1C37, uu the extincUim of llie dncal 
family, the electoral faooae of Unndonburg eUlmed 
poBCMion, but waa obliged ta pn way to &w«deii. 
On the death of Charlea XII. the eketortd hoiue 
i^Caln olajmed poe w e a iou. and tbe nliule wua furtually 
CMod to it except a part which reoeirod the name 
of SwnUiih I'omerflnia. lliiH [Mirt baring boon 
<»de(] to Itcntaark, woa far it girun up iu exchanfle 
for the Dueby of l4aenbar& to Pruiala, to wbJou 
tbe whab of Ponanaia now belous. For Atelnli- 
tratlTB ptupoaea it b dlrided into three ^Teramenta 
(Begimuun-besiriu)), Stottlu, Kuolbi, and SLraUtmd. 
Pop. (IftSO). 1,540,034. 

FOMON'A. among tho Romans iha gnddsM nf 
fmlt, and wife of Vertumntia, who anooccded, after 
aU tho niatic ^ode bad loner TSJnly tried to ecvure ber 
lore, in obtaining both her heart aad her band. Uer 
worship waa confined lo tbe Remans. At Rome aha 
had hor own pnflfltt^fantns/'oaKMiaJu), and waa usually 
ropmacntod with a bMkei of fruit, or with frub u 
her hoecon. Often aba abe appeared with a garland 
of tnlt, enclreliiif ber head. 

POUOXA, or TtlAiNLAXQ, tba Ingeat and moat 
pofKilouaof tho Orkney UlaiuU^opeo to the Atlantlo 
OD Iha weet and eaal, but aeiiarated by ehsnnela from 
BowM, 8hapln»h% fto, oa tba north, and fnxn Hoy, 
Bovtb ItoBMibha. Jkc, on tha sooth. Ixu^ ffom 
m>rtb-w«st to Kutb-cMt, S3 milae; extreme breadth 
aboat 15 mllee, but at the town nf Kirkwall coly 
sboatS^ mtlea; arw^ I&O aquannlloai pup. 17,141^ 
It b extremely inegalar In abap^ and on all cidea 
except tbe weet b deeply indanled b? bays aad 
rrceen, aioaaig which are Kirkwall Bay, Bcana Flow, 
Inganam Bay, Daar Bound, Holm Sonnd, aad another 
oo tba soatb-west, eotering from Hoy M<.>iith,aad 
oammmioattnc by a narrow stnut with a Inrgu and 
beautiful exnuuw callvd the Ijoth of Stenna. Tbe 
Goaet b boU and elevaU-1 oa tbe aorth-west aad 
west, where tbe oeean oAam brsaka wttb tremendw 
fury; here and in atber patta tba aetlaa of tbe walv 



hu prodnMcl bstctsI rem&rkabl« csTonu. Tha geso- 
taX sloM ia «nctwiLrd, And in tlut diroction the bcanh 
often DcoomrJi Uiw acit uuiit v. Th« interior b diver- 
■Ifi«(l with htll^ vn.l!<.-y. >vii<I liik««, hat want* tli» 
iMftuCy which woodi would give it, tlioxigEi ia wmie 
of the mare lOieltanxl Mjxila cons l-ileru lite filuitftliuns 
lutm t«oentlj Iwoa mivJe. The surfoca ia covaced 
lo gnai nut by moor and hnkth, but good putar* 
i> >lw to M found, and in the v«Uey< k (rood loamy 
son ttocvn. The jirinripAl towns flj« KirkwaJI and 
Strngnoew. Sec UEiKKET. 

I'OllIPADOUIt, JZASIKX JUtTDIXKITt PoiMOir, 
Mabuui3£ nx, the mietren ol Looii XT., tn whose 
aSectloDB gho tnccmdod Mndune da Chato&QTOox 
Shen'M bnmon thnSUth of Di:^ocmlier, I7t21,Biidivns 
the dnujthtvr ui Fnui^oii Poihsuu, wli'^in Jol jiruvc^ 
to have been equerry to the E'uke of Oj-ttAim, and 
not bnti^bMF to tha InvalidM, us frenuectly stated. 
Tha patcnutj of tlio future Csrnunta wu^ how* 
•vw, daltned by LetiunuMid Jo Tuumehem, a riot 
tormicT giSn^r&l. who spaird no puiu to givo the 
IbTclv chilli ft tirillihnt fwhionnbio cdiicatirin. and 
whii si his dtaUi left her the half of bii immciwu 
fortune. In 1741 nbo wiu married to hir coimln 
LsuoriDaiid d'EtioUo, an ugly littlo man, veho lov-cd 
tha beoaty pooioiuitely, bat in whom tint only taw 
the meaiu of obtainioft a filed [lotitioiii ia aociulT. 
Dor itmliitlon wm Brfd by tha irifsjiioua "rmttlt 
of her uivthur, and the prcphcuy at a fortuiia*teIlar, 
that she would one day beoiiiine the faroaHte of 
tlta king. Tbo rtist>-HU id'EtiolIcH was ttiirroimdcd 
by a forcat in which Liiuin X\'. uftea led tho ch»c, 
asd Modaice d'EUoUc* svixed ev«ry oi-p^irtui^ty of 
throwing hcmlf in Ids way. Sbo at last succeeded 
in attracting his attention, was forrnally prcscnttid 
Co btiii, aad soon entirely vcgrotiied his f&vonr. In 
174S fh* appeared at court undor th-i' title of Mar- 
qnlse d« PompadoDT. Ken she enjoyed the higbMt 
conxideration. but Hid tirit nt find int<Tfnr« in politt- 
od utTaJra, Htisfiril nith nppuariii;; on thu piitruuuas 
of IcanUnf; and the arta. She collected books. yAa- 
turee, and curiositica, and encouraged ttie instiliition 
oS the militarr scbiml of which Pari* du Vcrairy 
waa the IoiuiiIlt. Kut wIkju Iht charrns l-euau to 
b/Sit, and tbo ccmid only maintain her influunco with 
the ki&g by furnishing lum other cliiRcts for tha 
(fiatiflcslion of liis paanons, she tunu^d her attraUcin 
to state affalia. Slle filled tlie inoK luijMirtant oHIcM 
with her favonribea, aad oontributad bo pioduco thoee 
erllfl which afterwards praaaed so beftrily on IVnnoe. 
It ia said to have bcc-o |>riocipaUy omng to her Ihab 
Tkmnco bei^anm invnlvnl in th> war against Fied- 
eiiok n. The £u[ir«w Maria Tharesa had prt<pi- 
tiatad her favour by wrltfai^ to her with her on-n 
band, in which she called her 'dear eotuin.' 'Ilic 
burdena smd ■nffwinga wlitob this war bfuughl tx\xm 
Franc? auet be laid at her doer, ainoe she removed 
Bcmis, who was in favour of poaco, and sappUod fais 

Slooe by (^hobenl, dfectcd tlie recall of Matahal 
'Eatr^M at the taouient uf triumph, and promoted 
iocapalile generals to the command. She diod in 
1781, at tho ago of for^-foiir years, little rfigrettd 
by the kiiiK (see Louia XV.), and batnl and reviled 
1^ the nalfoiL The memoirs and letters which ap- 
peared ondcr her name an not gcnuino, but am 
attribated to the yonnger (Mhilion, 8c« the M£- 
moirea of Mad. Caujpan, and thoae of Du Hanaset. 

l>UMI*f!n, an indent dty of OamMnij, s)taat«l 
OD the Bay of r7apl««, alioat 13 mili« eoiitb-eaat 
from the city of that name, at thu mouth of the river 
Bamo (the anfjent Snnitis), and iminodiatvly at the 
foot of Mount Vesuvius. Alt aooounta i^ree in 
r«}<n»«fli[ut; It oa a \-<tty aoclvct dty,aad a tnuUtloa 
aacrihod its foundation to Horculoa. Aeooidinff to 
Strabo ft was tirvt octni|Joi by tha Uacons^ sulaa* 



quently t^ the TyirbdUau and Paliigian^ aaA 
aftrrwards by tha Samwttra, fo vImm hatui It osn- 
(.iuued tOl Iteame iato tbe poaaeaaionef tfaa "—"■■" 
It protiably iMCame from an early nariod a AoaiU- 
iog commercial town, owing to its adcaata^eoiv peai- 
tion at the muuth of the river, which was fonnarly 
nariffable for a thori distance abov« tbe dtj, lad 
wbldb raodaiad It tba port of Nola, Nnoaria, and 
aS tho rich plain watovd by the Sanuia. Bot w 
ni«Dti&Q of its name la mot with in UlbMV •Bill 
mo lt.c.,whcn a Itoman fli.-et ^:>llcllod tbcr«,aad la^^ded 
troops, who ravaged the tcrriloiy ol Nnoeria. We 
find uo aubsequent notice of It tUl tba onltceak of 
tba Social war (111 ILC.) Tho rebels wwa -Vfiftni 
in the ncinity by Kulla, who afterwards laid iDeee 
to tho town iUulf. Wlii-'thur it fell Into hia haads 
ly furcu or capitulatiun wo caonot now toll, pnbably 
the Inttcr, as it caca[icd tho fate of Stabiir, and iU 
inhabitants wciq admitted to the Roman fraaduaa, 
tbou^h lh«y bad to relluijulsh a tblnl of tbeir ataUe 
land to a colony of soldicn sent tluthor 83 KC 
llcf(iT« the close of the repihlin I'ompcii be«anM a 
faronrite retrtat of Romana of the wealthier ola^^ 
who porchaaed estates in tba vidi^ty, CSoara aaHOg 
othan ha<rtDg a villa thon^ XTndcr tlia Mtriy ^npa- 
ron it continued to ha leaorted to for tita m*w 
|nirp<ise. S«[icca pralsca ita fdeaaant aitoatiai^ and 
TacitiiB calls it A popitloDsand {lonrisfaing town. Tht 
last-menttoucd writer records a acriuna ooaSict «Uofa 
took [liaoe in the amphitbeatia beCwaen ths Fob- 
pL-iumi and the uowly-scttled ooloniati of Nocesia 
(£9 A.D.^, in caixaoc{uenoo of wUdi tha fomar wen 
ptcUUtM tnm bavfaff UMitriaal and riadintoiU 
udttUtlMU far » parlod ct tea yaan. Four yean 
lator (63 jLH.) a fcaiful earthquake nocarrcd, which 
destroyed most of the public ediiiccw and many «f 
the private bonws of the town. Tha cjtbona abu- 
dcned it for aonw ttmp, and tha Bonun wmBta era 
ointomplatad prohibitiDg its racmutroctlan. At Um 
eud of a few moatln ue work of rebuHdiDg waa 
oommenced and cairied rafrfdly forward. Tlia new 
town was not quite complrtod, however, when it «M 
nvcttnknn by tho catastmpho of 24th Aaguat, 7L 
The firalr pniiiotiitury ajtoptoui waa a denae ehowar 
of ashes thrown from tiio Unming tratarof Taawilll. 
which oovcred tho biwn with a strfttoffi abont 3 fast 
in depth, and which alloivbd Iho greater aaaAm <d 
the inhabitants to esrap*. Many of them retnnted, 
aanw doabtlea bo reaoua their valtiahlcfl; othact, 
paralyaad with fear, and not knowing whither la 
turn their at4r[is. Thi« oumlxr of skelctoua uf tboae 
who thus perished in onn-third port of the town 
already axcavnted b ^-arioaaIy alated from 400 to 
cuu. The Mhes wen followed by a ataqkadeu 
shower of rod-hot rofiiii (fiagmcnta of pnnace aleste 
of all siBes), which covered the town to a depth of 
7 U) 9 feet, and waa aueoeeded by fnA ahowen of 
aehoi; aod i^ain by rapillL No uva enmtal nawa 
to have eves reached ti>e town. The preaant nper* 
incumbent maaa b about 20 feet in tmrr^ A 
jMTtiojx of this was formsd by nhMqiteiit mqitiaait 
but the town bod been buried by tba fiist <!ataatro|iba 
and FtitircSy loat to view. A BuaU atraggUng village, 
which sprang up nn or near the spot, long sewed to 
mnintun tba euuim, bvt after tha erapticiB of ITS tbi 
site waa finally abandonad, and daring tha nidffla 
t^^ea PompcH was consigned to obUvico. In ISM 
tba gT«at Riigincwr and architect Doaisniao Foatana 
oonatruetvd a (.ubtprranean water-condoit (or eon- 
veying the water of the Sano to Tofve dflT Aninia- 
uata, ontually intcraoctine Lhit rainsv yet nn fmtbev 
eixcavatiuiu wpre made. It wiu not until 1748, when 
a peasant in sinking a well disoovered a |i^oted 
ohauber with statuea and other objecta of antiquity, 
that ajiythlug like a real la t awat in tba locality waa 



POMPEn— POltPEV. 



189 



I 



I 
I 



I 



ricitrd. CSinrle* lit, , In wham tbo dMcorcrjr of 
Uarculanmua bad ftwa]u>D«d a duau* fur further 
•xplocmtioai^ ord«nd tbo ocftntiana to be pnav- 
coted. Id IZOf tb* ■mpUtbMtra, tbutn, ud other 
parta if^M cleared ouL ITnder the Bourbotis the 
«xav»ttMiB wera cvTt«d out on a TCtr unutiaf Act^ir 
plu. SutBM ftod utieUe of voltw uon* won «ztri- 
ckt«d, whUrt tbe baitdtngs w«t« mffered to fall Into 
deoay or rovervd up a([Mii. To the abort re4gD of 
Munt (1S0S-I&> w* an indehtn] for thn «ir-itTit- 
tioD o( tbo FonuD, tb« tuwa walls, the Strvt-t uf 
ToiniM, uid Biaay pr1vat« hnoM*. Tlu political 
cliaugua ci( 1800 have lilcewias {jroduofid a beneBcial 
vBmA. Tfa« ^v«niiiient of Virtnr Ktnmannnl ban 
■■Iglir 1 £3H}9 oiuraaU)- far tLe pruovculiuu of tbe 
fldCOftTMlaoB, and » »guW plao bM been, adopted, 
MCOrdiu^' to n-iiich ifae niiaa aro ayatomjitically fx- 
plorad mad cju-efully [insurvcd. A local mtwetuu and 
Ubnr^ hAve hvtia mbWalnd. and k nilu-a; cou- 
■tnctad for the rcmovnl of thfi tUbrit. It la calcu- 
Isled that at ibe avera^ praent nic of worluDL- it 
wiD require opwaida of list; y«ara to l»y bare v^al 
of tbs dty atill reauUm covered. 

the town U buQt In tb« fono of an Irrefolar arti, 
extendiu^; fram cftrt to vrwt. The dreumfsnuiM of 
tbe valle amouitta to 29^5 vanK There ore rigbt 
nloa, io whicb tbo followiuc uamca bav6 bunu (^ren: 
Portadi EroaUno, dnlln Mu-in*, d\ SXahia, di Nocera, 
del Sanio^ dl Kola, di Capua, del Vcmutio, Towards 
An te» Ibe wall^ wtucli wltu built of lorvo imcc- 
■DADtad blodca of volcanic tiif-t aiid tnivertiti«, Lave 
beoi danolkbvd. Oateidc tbo Porto di KrooUao a 
ooBddenblasettleroeot hod ir^intng op, tertoad iWu 
Aqguetas Felix, after tbo MctUeiuocit ntnblUiedciy 
AtViMtoa^ Thn an* iocloMd irttluD the waUa b 
tmaued at ICO acres; greatwt Ivngtfa, ] milo: 
8iMtoetbTCiidtb,|inl]e. TheeKcavAtfidputlnolntlea 
pnbahl; the mMt important part of tbo town, oum- 
pridstg tbe Farum, wl-th tha oontigao>ai tMnplea and 
pabUe btiildlngt; two tbeatna vrltb lorga praticoca, 
tbe ampUtbaatn, and a oooridBiahle snmber of 
ba&dtnnie privAto dwelling*. Tho principivl utrtcts 
hare b««o callnl thij Via Dnniitiann, the Str»ln <ii 
Uarcariov della Tarme, dellw F'trtmia, ilell' Abliuu- 
dasM, d^ IHadnmoni. d«U' iLDfitrvato, StabUaa. 
IVm atreet^ bord«r«d by pavement, uo Btiutght 
and narrow, not above 21 feet bfioad, tbe naimwor 
lanaab«iiigabont]4 feet. Tbey araadmlnbly pav«d 
witb lafya polygonal blooka of lava. At intervals, 
wpadally at tbe ooreen^ are ulaced high atcpiiin^- 
(innca, IcMlioa: from one rida oi tbe paveuiucit to tbe 
olLsT, UiUodeil fi7rthnooo'r«diaiMof foot-paseengun 
in wi weatber. Tbe mgnmi have wont deep rats 
in tba canaamya, wUch^ not exceed 4^ feet In 
width. At tbe corners of the atrecta are public 
fooutoiiii, dvoorated witli thm hesui of a god, a. made, 
or timiUr ornament Tbo boiucd ore nlijtlilly cm- 
■tncMd of concrete, or bricka oi^ca^li'.iTially.eepccliiily 
tba OOmer pillars nt tufa Mwki. 'nn bn.^tv jint-'Iiy 
l^le of oouatntctiou ia accounted for by t£a cartb- 
((uake of 03. Tie nuoaroiu and vdl-pFeeer,-ed •toir- 
caaca prove that tbe bonacs must have had a eecomdj 
pwb^a a third atoiT, ilieec upper portion*, cnn- 
silting duefljr of wood, ba«^ witb a aiuKla sxL-eption, 
baen destroyad by tba rad-bot aoorls cf tbe eruption. 
The ftoBt of tba gronbd-floor of tba larger botu^-t 
waa gaoerally occupied by shop*; wticm thnrc w-ern 
Do rimpa tba aaterwalls were sluccueil oijil );i'U('raJly 
paioteo, ollea In brisbt coloura ; tba upper Hi^on 
alona bad amall window*, owing to tho absi^oe of 
SlaaL Tbo ohisf {>ec»UarltT of the babiUtitiua in the 
intenud court, which provided the surrouudiu^ oLaiii- 
b«n with ll(;ht, aj:id wua the medium of conunuulca- 
tioa bvtwean tbom. Meet of tboH Pompeian houjtea 
which batonged to tbe wealthy mldale-claaa are 




entered from tbe street by a Borraw passage {rati- 
bvlum) leading to tba court (ofrium), Kurraundod by 
a covvrvd passage, with the implurium ur rMervotr 
for rain-water In the centre. Beyond tlio atrium Is 
a Ur^e apartment opaidng on to it, tcrmt^dtJie Utbuli- 
niiTn, in which the patron receivnl his clicntx, trUii- 
acted bailomi, d;o. Tbe uttiur ]:iorti<>ii of the house 
Via devoted to tbo use of iho ffmiSy. lis ocntro 
also consisted of an o^Hni oourt incL.niid by colamni^ 
tbcnoe called tbe ptriMtyliuvt, Lba iniddli; of wliicb 
waa Utd out as a gardeiL Leyofid th« fi*riirtvl«» l»y 
■amatimn a privata nrdoo {xtfttot) surroonued by 
cnlumna. At the boclc of the peristyle were soina- 
tlniea several liuniucn-ruutuii, tvnnoil aei. RuUud 
tbcsa Kparttucnta arc fl!ti)a.t'>d the iteeping and eating 
roomi, alavcs' rooms, lutchvu, (Mllar, &u. All tba 
aportmenta ana small; tbe walls bjy sometimes 
covered with patuljngs, g>cni-ra11y of an eristic clior- 
aeter. P3. CL^- hi a view of tbo atrium of a Pom- 
pcUn bouM, and is also a fine rvpn?eentalion of orcbl- 
iectwal poljchroimy. Tho abnpa wen small, and all 
uf one character, having tho biunneat pnrt in f^'oit, 
and uae or Iwu amall obambwa Lieblud. They wcra 
ojifn to tbo street, snd eloaed by wide sUdinij that- 
Van or doors movbg in groorea cut In the stonu, In 
aome inataaoes upon an iron rail. Id front tbe abope 
had a hroadcouutcT uf uiaKoury, with litLlo stamps at tlie 
end next tho wnll for thn dlnfilny of gnoda, and a atnoll 
oven at the opponto end when tbo ortiolcs sold winw 
fund or drink. ^Nliuiy uf tlira^! connten, ouvered with 
marble, ami R(h[ii^tirii«« fitted op with «'nrtbaa vesasla 
for tbe ealo of wine, oi], ftc, an still pnserTod, 
'froH-e-rigns like thiMo of the prcaent day are rarb. 
In tbe atrecta are fre(|ueivtly amu uolioee Minted ill 
red letters, nifonioc; gooerolly tu innnlcfpal elections, 
and rocommsndicig s'^ms ^Articular peiwD as wlile 
or duumvir. Tbe Forum, lying In tne haart of the 
town, cootliits of an area or open apace surrounrloil 
hy buildliiG'ii. On ths nnrth ai^e stand* tho so-called 
Temple of Jnint^r; oci Itie west the Tueiiplv uf Veuua 
and tbe Builica; on tbe sonih iba throe tribunals or 
courts of justice; on tho cast the edifice hnilt by tbe 
priMtum lijURiBcliio, ant! colled Chatcidiciun (profanbly 
eiuploy«d >a &ti exohn [!}■»), the 1'enipl« of Mi^rcurv, 
the Coria or Senaculum, and tho Panth'^jn orTcmpla 
of Angnstos. Tho incloMd area is fttiS fuet long and 
IIB foBt broad; it Is uctved with larne aUina alsbs, 
and b bordered by a Dolouuade, The otbvr Imf)ortaut 
publio buHdln^ aro the Crcat Tborain^ tbo Great 
llicatm the h>ma]l Theatre or l^lenm, thn Temple of 
Iain, and Uie Givok Ti-uifle or TopijUe of Xqituuo 
(the most aiLQJont buililing yA, dlsRoverod), and tb? 
amphitheatre. Amnnj; tho more uitcrcstioK private 
biifldlnga sostti^^d tbnmeb tbo t^iwn ore the villa 
of XHiMuedi-s, ill tbe Strai^a del Scpolcrl; tb« bcitisu 
nf Sallnct, in tho Strada di lilrcntann; tba hoiiso of 
Paiisa, that of ApuUo, and that uf the Trat.'Iu Puet, 
In tbe Strada delle Terine; the houso of Mcloagor, 
and th»t of Uiutor and I'olliii, in the i^trada di 
Rlnrcurio; the boiuiotif tfio p'nua, in tbe StradaduIIa 
Forluna; the Louise of Marcus Lucrutius, iu tbe 
Rtrada di Stabia. Tbo houses havu nsieived tbetie 
namca from tiLacriptinns, ntatum, or paintings found 
in them. Tbe uitiiBum of Ksplee owes Its moat 
lut4irestin[; features to tbemannacriptA. coins, statues, 
puiiitio^, don]<«tio ntcnslls^ Ac, found in the pahlio 
and [irivala edifioea alim-o mcntioni^d Bee 8ir W. 
GeirsFotnpelaBa(fonrvohi,lft'24-3il);l>yer"«Poni["?il 
(ouo voL Svo, London. 13II7); Ovvrbcck's Pompaii 
(LciTnig.lSGd); Monnier's I'omp^li ct les Pompdiona 
(Pana, IKRf); and tiie great work of Maznis, I^ea 
IluiuM dc Foiop^ii (fouc vols, folio, Paris, 1S1-2-3S). 
POMPEY (Cakiub PoMi'xiUs), suruamod tbe 
Great tMn^niu}, bom n.C. lO^wna tiui sou of Oneius 
Pompeius Strabo, an able (jeneral, but bated for hia 



aev«rlLjr md vrmivcx. In K.C. 99 bn aerrwl under Ub 
bih«r la tli* uar ^alnaC the lutbs iSBm, figbtlng 
with mat diglinctioa ualU tlie geaArtl's dwtb is 
87. ror •omc yean Rubteqiiootlr thfl pMtf of M»- 
riua WW ia tlw nuiBndtuit in I talj, nod Poanrej, i»bo 
bolongod to tba »rlstocr»do party, kept in too back- 
groaoi. Am Hoa u ho Wnied, haw«ver, tlut 8ulU 
WM nbout to retum from Groeu to Italy, h« hut- 
ened iuto Picenum, wfaere Ui «at&tea Uy, and niied 
Ml army of tiavtt Ini^'nuif, tHtli which ho ntrf-oiMVoIy 
def«iiteJ llm« gcuernls of tUu oppoMto purty, wlio 
attempted ta provent U* ionclioa with SulU. That 
jancttDn wm accompluLed in 88^ and Snllft rcccivctl 
tiu) youaa •olcU«r with tho gtvatait nu-ki tif <9ti:«ni, 
■alutlnc him oi imptrator; nltbouflb be had not y«t 
rcacbsd th<i HcnatatuJ hg», b<iitig bub tWDnty-thrao 
yean old. Whi.'n tlin n»r in lt*Iy vui brciticht to 
an and roit)i>i<j won mui to SiuO.v aK^^^' ^^'> HaHao 
Bonsral, U. F^qrarna Veoto, whom bo eooB drovs 
mm tha ialaod (82>. Tbo foUowioff year bo momod 
OTttr lo A/Ho), where the Klarmn ruirty had collected 
a (qto» mnhr Cn. Uomtilus Ahenobiu'btui, wilL whom 
wai iMifned Hiarbiw. Idmg of Knmidia. At tbo h«ad 
of fivo I«glou8 Pdmpc-y catno nddcnly iif>on tbo 
mmaij and coiiijilcttly routed them, killiiiK Ijuimtiua 
and taktng Hiarbo* captn'vn. Thin dcclnivti inirri<i<ii, 
which ooGD.^ed only fuurtvun dayn, cxciu-d thu ji-aU- 
ouay oi Siula, who commanded him to dlimJsa hk 
tacitM and return to Koiue. On bii rvturu ha was 
noeiv«d by the p»n|i1e with great eDthtMUwn, and 
SalU eraotod biin v^ttb the suruuug of Majitiuit, 
which bo ooalJDtiod to bear aftarwarde, and which 
dtwendcd ta hfn iioim. Nut mnk'tit with this empty 
dtitinction. Potii|.-ey dtfUi.'uidDd a tnuui[ih,wbhibSaUia 
atfiTatrofiiml, l>iitfoAriii|; his yoiuijc rj val' I tnnriantng 
popularity, at liut cousimtcd to^ Pompoy thonforo 
entered IComc in triumpli in September, 81, bcftm 
he waa twonty-fiti-e yean of agc^ and waa tbc fint 
Komno pannitted tooo m without TUMMaifai^ a h%bcr 
di^itT tbui that of oquciitrifui rauk. Aft«r the donth 
ol Sulla in 78 new t(\JubliM liroke nut, ortauii.iniNi 
ptind])ally by the atuliiCluua prvjevU vt the wiuiul 
Lopidoi, who almod at the miprame power. Whan 
Iiefildni had rooonno to arms in 77, Pompoy took 
aa active part in tlie war againat him, and with tbo 
awatance of Utu contnl Caftdua, at laat ■i:]ix'«e<l«d ia 
oniafaiDX Uu and hj> puty. On quiet ho'us^ ru,t'jrod 
Ottnlne callod upon Pompoy t^ dinttand hv troi>|>ii, 
lia ho evaded vndnr various ptvLoxta, until Uiu pro- 
M of Serloriuw, farmcrly a general in the sorvioo 
MnriuK, loducc'd the senati!, though with reluc- 
tance, Ui Kuwl lijin to the aid of M«t^Iiu I'hia, who 
was hard |(re»M.-d by Sortoriiia in Spain. Pomfey 
Tvaiikinrd in Spain botween five and aixyvan (76-71), 
but neither \ia nor MobtUoa oould gala aay advajuta^e 
over SertMrtua, But whom the htbor waa bvachor- 
ODdy murderod by Peqiesna, hia own oHir^r, thi: war 
WM apcedily biYiugbt to a doae. Puupev euily 
defeabed Porpenia in tbo flivt linttls, and all S|.«Ju 
WM lubdoed Dy the i-urly put of 71. On hu return 
to Italy at tbo head at Ua trtxipe Pompey fmicd the 
aovila war raging. Cnamn tuul almtdy gained a 
deddve victory ov«r Spartactu, tbo robot Icador. and 
fU that Fotupey had to do waa to ciit to piftrmi tbo 
•oattarod facnticts he came up with on hia advaun 
to Rogrneu For this borlajtned th« glory of having 
Bni«hfld tbo aerrllo war, and the honour ol a KeuDu 
trinmph. Ho now bocame a candidate for tbo coa- 
Bulsbip, and the pooplo woro to charmed with tb« 
■nooewM of Uio young general, that alth<ni[;h ha waji 
not of the lantl »g», and had not hclil nny of the 
lower offloea u iho iteto, ho wu oloctod oqdhuI along 
with CraeiDa at tliA end of the year 71. The aria- 
Uttmcj I^Cfan to look up-m Fouipey with jealoiuy, 
and oeaaed to regard htm ao belonging to tbetr party. 



ae be and bb eoliea(<n« openly eourted Um peop h ■ 
CraHtia, by bb pTofDN largwm, and Pompny I7 tbo 
rcotontioa of the trfbumUp and other poiiolar 
Inatitutionj. In 67 be waa Inroatcd witb mOnmii- 
nary puw«ra by eea and land for tbrc* yeaa^ for th* 
pnrpoao of putting an and to tbo outnooo <t tbo 
piiatco who wore that maatora of the MetUUfnuMB. 
He made hia preporationi for Iho war in tbo ad of 
winter, cntcn^d upon it in the beginning of aprligi 
and 1^ the middb of munmer be uearod tbo aea rf 
the puatee, and deatroyod their atroagbolda on the 
coast of Cilido. Oror S0,000 jAnXm w«n taken 
prisoners, many of whom ho aettled at SoU fatCDkia) 
which woa beuouforvrard called Pompeiopolili Hou- 
whil* the wnr ajnunnt Mithridatra had baan oanied 
t>n with rarioiu fortune, and the Romans wen begln- 
ning to get diiL-uultnited with the aluw progreas li 
LiiuulliiB. The tribiirio, C Maniliiui, prvpoood tbat 
0)0 command ohuuld bo (Hvcn to Fompey, who wa* 
to havo ahaolnto power over the army aoil fleet in 
the Knot, and proconeolar authority over all Aaa aa 
far M Annsnia, a pn^ioaal which wax rapported by 
Ctoero in tbo famona oration Pro JASfpf Manilla. It 
wna op[)oaed by the whole Infinence of the ailatocney, 
hut carriiid ttiuDiphautly. In tbo four yean GS-4S 
ho cnnijnc^md Mithridates; TiffTana^ king of Ar- 
mi-ula; luid Autlucbue, Ung of &}-rlx At tb« mmt 
time he anbdnod the Jewish nation, takfawJoraanlm 
by ■torm aftor a three montba' rieee. He returned 
to Italy in SZ, and innnedlat«ly dhihanded hia army, 
but did not enter llome tUl the (oUowing 7^> wh«n 
ho hod tho boDoitr of a third triomplL From Aia 
(litr, when be WM forty-Bre yeom of age^ lua Mar 
\)vj{m to wajie. He was now called upoa to pby a 
pnjndii<<iit part tn the civil commotion* at the etata, 
a r6lt for which neither hia natural tnlenta nnr hb 
[iT«\-ioiM training in Uio kost Biiil«d him. The arla- 
tucrmcy still louked upon hiiii with distrust, yet he 
woa unwilling to throw in hk lot entirely wrth the 
I>opu1ar party, wiuoh liad been iteadily rising In 
(■DKor during his abaeoce^ and mrer wnidi Cwnr 
now fKMMMiwl unlimited oontral. Th* setintoy who 
bated and fcojvd Idm, roftuad to Mwtion Ue wm- 
niFM in Aao, and to main an Mdgnncnt of laada 
which be liad prumutd to his vetenun. Ponpey 
therefore reeolved to ally blmwlf <:IuBely with Cnaar, 
who promisod to obtain tho rntificatiou of his ids 
prorided Fo^>ey would oidst hbn In the aCtnlDHtaK 
ofhlseadB. tWhs^ the medlattoa of Cnaar Pompey 
became n^ooncilod to Orami*, who, in ccmooqaaOT 
of his unonaons wealth, bad » nido bfloeaoo h 
Homo. Thus was brought about the cooUtiMt cf 
these tbroc |ioivcrfuI mca, which is known in Konan 
history sa tbo tirst triamvirata, and which for m timo 
swept away all the opposition the aristocntla party 
coidd orgoalsB agidnet it. Dnting Onaai'a oonsnlship 
all his moaanret wsro oaniod. Pompoy** act* in 
Ana wore all istlGoil, and Ca^aar'a agrafiao law. 
which i>artltioned tho CompaiUau land nmoag Um 
pwnsr citvMns, itnoblod Pompoy to fulfil his uwm ic n 
to bis snldier*. In order to dghten the Muds of 
alliance Ciesar beetowed apoa Fomptj hb don^iler 
Julia in maniaj:a It wan moo mMnnt tbit tlui 
alliance wosld not ls«t lotu. While CMar liwtl 
tb<-- u<Mi few yoan i«noing fantds !n Gaul, Punpey 
was grodiwlly lo^g tlie confldoace of all partlss at 
Home; yet ho could not boar the tbou^t it being 
the aecnad man In tho eommonweahh, and he Mrqg- 

Sled hard to obtain the dictatotahip. The death of 
nlia in S4 sernred ona of tho tin wbich bound tba 
two mt'n who were soon to hocmno open and dtwUy 
nvols. In mnB(M|nence of the ■erione tumults iriiloi 
Inolte out in Itome on the death of Clodiua in tho 
beginning of A2, tbo SBiiata called in tbe aMstanoa 
of Puoipey, who WH i^polnled sole ogttnl fur thai 



POMPEY-S PILLAH— rONWCHERRY. 



101 



jmtt ukI wbo ■ncoceded in rwtoring ndcr la ths 
tbj. TIm tuoK fanpaitutfi ibito offleea were now 
SDm vflh Omu'i «oMnk^ Mtd Fonpey pcmuiuli-d 
the MfMta lo i»m * dacra* bgr wbich C«ur tvu tn 
2i*« nptba pK)iiBOM«( <«h[cb h» wu soveindr, uid 
iba conouBd ol hia AitDy. TblahftnfuedeodaoDleM 
Favrnw wonld tkrotr up lu« ofHcn, wbirh wu * (trp 
■h* Mkt would not Uk«. C'asu wm prucIiuineO 
■B vHRtj to tlM aUU^ ud Ub rival waa appolalad 
BHHfsl of Um aiiitj a tha rapnbU«. Ckw onwaad 
tha KaUiMia In 49, and in dslv dajra h« vaa nailer 
ai lUlj viUMMt atrikiag * blow. Pootpe; Bed to 
Qsvaoc^ whon be oolUcUd a Bmnanoa arm;, and 
wtltbaf iia waa followed b; Cnar h Jasoairr, 48. 
Al flnt tbtcanpaienma loZVimpe/afaToar; Cieaar 
wna npabad bclon DrrTbacUiim witb oooaidcrsbl* 
Icm; and waa oompelleu to rativat towaHi Thm~f]" 
Ib tfak Cdimtor, on tba pli^na of PhaTaaU% oaonmd 
tba doeWve utUo which made Cttnr muter of tbo 
BoHua wnld. Hin riiti fiml to Egjrpt, when he 
Iwpad to HiMt with a favouralile rvoeiitlon, aa he 
had natorad ibe yvaag kiug'i [iiih«r to bla Idiigdain. 
Tba SgjptiaB Wwiatcwt dniadioe Cnaor a rtngiMim 
If tbn Cvround U> enemjr, rauili'cd bt gel Ponipejr 
falo Ibair powv and put Htu to de»th. AooordlaKlj 
while h« waa Milina along th« imaat a boat waa sent 
Mil to hb ablp, auT be was fairited to land. Ai he 
I abeot to atep uu sbore be waa itabbed lij odo of 
famar oenturiana (29th Scptcinbor, 4d), Uia 
d wia itntok 08^ mm waa dtowa to CBaar whon 
anfrad In Hfjpi naie tlm« aftonraida. lie 
Bed lenj from tba ajghl with lean, rvwanlc*! 
toUowoa Ubeialljr, piitUlied hu tnur<tcrcn, and 
ctid orvUa twiBMiia a t«niple to Xvumtii. 
F0MPET8 PILLAK, a cclcbnted caliunn, itand- 

■ an an uBlnanoe aboat 1 SOO f ei4 to the aonth ot the 
walla of Alexandria in Esyi't- It ounebita 

I o^ bkl, duJt, bMe, and padeaUl, whbih lait rata 

L •nbatovftiaaa of amaDer blacka eeoe belonging to 

■MNHtateala. One of tbcao blodia bear* tb* 

«f m monarch of tbo tbirteentb EaypUno 

and anotbar ibat of Paammellchui L The 

Itelf^bt of the colnmn in &S feet 9 inrhn; the 

t S nMaoUtb of red gnaite, b 73 (nt Uatz, and 

I M i haofaaa in dmnmraaoa. 71w abaft it ele- 

1 nd ol good rtyla^ bat tbe oa^tal and padcatal 

I ct latmiat wnrlonanahlp, and hav« tbe appearana 

blinf flf a differeat cpoat, Tbe name ll la piipu- 

-if known br wh applied to it by iinci«ot trarellun 

■ BO anicDaUs raaaoo, An inacriptiun on tbe ba«o 
I Ibat U WM treetod tnr Pablina, ths pneleoi of 

Ib booaar «t I>iocrctiai^ imbablr to com- 

ila Ue captora of Ale ai a d i ia , and Um anp- 

oaoflbaNbelUeoofAddllmiB. OntbeBummit 

b B dranhr JcpuaJun of couidanhla die, 

1 to Bdmte the cmae of a statoe; and, intlenl, 

> iS oM pietnre of Alexandria the figure uf & miui 

lapii— utcJ aa etaodfaff on tba oolvnin. Arabic 

mtkn fltoto that It itooa in b Mm •mrouidml Inr 

I whunii^ wbetT the Ubrarjr waa oontained whkji 

nrbnriMil. 

POMPONirS MELA. S«Wai-». 

TONCB SB LEON, Jvah, one of the early 

* ' > dlMWMMn In America, acoompaaied Co- 

tm hiaaeooad exjinlitian in 14Dn, and waa 

; hy Onnde to oooqiwr the hUud of Porto Rim. 

Ibarv amaaaed mat weallb, and t«oeJri>d 

tfaa d Ht laland at tnrt ad to tba ndrth, in 

I Ibara waa * mltacDlooa fowitolnpoaaewing tbe 

' of rwit firing yoatb to the i^ed, be aaUad in 

t b> iMeat of tbaae liapp^r ihorea. AHbirarii h« 

■naUa to find tba fountafai of joulh, he oiaoo- 

Iba oDOotrj to which be gave the nama of 

1^ Poooe n^orncd to Bp^ in I&13, and waa 

Blad hf Kerdlaaod s<n-«raor of tbe lilacd of 



400 < 



SI] 



Horido, M bo callotl it, on eonditioa tlwt be iifaould 
oolonire it. In 15^1 be cmbBrkod coarly all hia 
wealth in two abipa, and pnM«aded to toko noeiiciriati 
of hi* prorince. Ha wai^ faoweror, met wiU) dttcr- 
mhied hoatility bj- the native^ wbo on oma oocaaiati 
mad* a midden attack npon tho Spaninrda, and drove 
tbcm to Ihdr ahipEL In tho orimixtt Vanec de Leon 
wia uiarttillf wouutled, aud dinl aftur lus arrival at 
Cuba in 1521. 

PONCE DE LKOX, Lon. b SpanUt lyrie poeW 
bora in 1527, probably at GnuiadB HeantotM tbe 
oTrler o! St Aui,'iiatine at tbo a^ of Rixtcvn, bccanne 
licantiate in tboology in 1S40, and doctor of divinity 
■faortly nttcnrarda At the age of thirty -four ba waa 
nppfitttod pnfMKir «t Ibeelogy^ at Salamanca, aad 
ten yean [at«r obtained the piYif«aunnibiri of aac^red 
litvrttture. At thv rvniicat of «om« fricoiu lie tram- 
latied the Song of Solomon into Cwtilias, and tbo 
manuscript ffUliog into tbe banda of some panona 
who irim nnvlmia of hia taJenta and anoccaa ue waa 
l>rtnij:bt before tlie tribunal of tbe tu^nlittlon at 
TaUadolid, In 1673, on tba durgea of Lutboraninn, 
nnd of traodatiDg the aacnd writinga oontrftfy to 
decreM of the Ccnmcil of Trent. Tbe fint ofaam 
oould not be auatained agahiat bim, but aa be could 
not deny the second be waa thrown into pricoo. At 
the md of firo yean be waa tihcrated and relnatated 
in all Ida oiHoei in the niiivendly, where. In Decem- 
ber, 1572, b« roaiimGd bia k^ctum alt«r the long 
intcrmiaalQii with the lunplc f«mark : ' Aj we Dba«Tve<l 
in onr laat diaconne.' At tb^ time of bla doath 
(23d Auffuat, 1501) he bad juit lir«ti «!ectcd head 
of bla oitlcr, and wns >!r»nng up ^I^^lUtiIlall {or it* 
rcfurm, Hia orieniu^ ]>roducLiu>D», which are not 
Bumerana, ar« chiefly of a religioua cbanctnr. Tfaer 
went Snt publiabed by Ida friend <jue*edo Bt Afadrid, 
in ISSt, nndor the title Obraa Prapriaa, y Tradnd- 
onca. Tbfly contain BBuUtloai bom Vlml, Hoinoe, 
and utiier cUaaical poeti^ and from lb« Pa*tma and 
the Ixxik nf Job, and bare bean freiinnntly reprinted. 
Among Ilia moat nc^mlar proee work* aro hia Per- 
fecta OaBadl^ Da loa Kombna de Chriato, ke. One 
of tbo bort edltlona tif hia worka ia that pnbliibed 
at Madrid, in mx voia. (18(J>i-](t). Sea Ticlcnor'a 
Ubtorv of Spaoiah LltetntuKL 

PO^CBO, a kind of doak amcb worn by the mah 
i&hafaitast* oE Chili and otbrr pnHtnf South Amerien, 
It b a vieoo of thick -ntwUiio cloth from S to 7 feet 
long and 3 to 4 fact broad, with a hole In Uu oentn 
for tha b«Bd to nam throng 

PO.VDICHKRHY (French. PondiMryY a town, 
capital of the French pmiieaauaa In HIndnatan, en 
theaartor Contnandol ooaat, dS idQm aooth byweat 
(romMafayL In to w it w y lamiTiimidod on tbe land 
sIdabrthaBritldidbArtototSontbAnot. Itataada 
on a lacdy beach, and conaiata vt two dIvWeoa mpw 
otcd by a c«naL Tho *\Vh:to Town,* nr Bnroptaa 
qnarter, cc the east, facing tb« wu, b Tai; ngoEwly 
Ud oQt^ eontaina » apadoia wnBra^ In wfakh fa Dw 
goYerament-honat^ handaoiBe plaabed bonlerarda, and 
bclweeu 400 and 600 wdl-built honata; atucooed 
white or yeOow, n«Btly wllb Mrraoea on tbdr anm- 
mita, and fnmiabod with a colomude baiow. nw 
'Black Town,' or native uiiajtcr, oo thaweat bercod 
the canal, ooatalaa about 3800 houaee or hnU of bride 
or carib, and n few pagodas. Ibi Mnrati at« famd 
and ahaded b^ pafan-trcca, but, M tmal witb UindB 
towni^ it ia filthy. A huga hainar, two chorchea, 
a ligblhouao, a pubBo llbruy, eoll og e for Earopaaa 
ebtldna,aeTml other pabUeadtool^abotaaicnran), 
and a nuat da tiM are tba ohiet edlflMa ana iaati- 
totioBB Hm lortificatiMM, formerty atrong, were 
deatroyad daring tbe war with tbo Britkh, and by 
tba Ti^ly of Faria they are not to be rebuilt, nor » 
Poodicherry to be gairiaoned by a natlvo Prcadi 



192 



PONDWEEB— PONTEVEDRA. 



tnre^ Tha (erritonrBniiind tha town hM &n area of 
107l(liwmnIlM,uidla|nTtl]r watnwdb^thsGmgM 
lUver, but in not vary forUla: toina rioa^ Iui%o, 
tobftcco, bntdl, eotton, Mid ooeok-oiiti an niaed; 
whidi, vrith gulneca or £ne «ot«ni ctotlu djod bloo, 
Isdls bHidlt«r«bl«fi^ nad cnttoo VArn, form the cbiaf 
•Kporth TIw imforu mubt cMefly t^ laoc, fuicj' 
cnod*, jenrblry, funiiture, boolu, && Tbe tndo ^ 
dedimut', tbi^ra Ixing do liiwhoiir, bnt only » rond* 
ttmid, tm wliich Uia aurf beat* »liti.uirt a« Ktrungly &■ 
At MwtrM The wttlement wh purchitaod % tlia 
Frendi frnn tbo Baji^ioor njoh in 167S. ud tnkca 
bv tlio Drituh in 1761, 1776, 1798, and I8U8. Fop. 
of thotuwu, -tS.lSS. 

POXPWJIED. Sm PoTAJfoontiK. 

FONIATOWSKI. tha ume of lu illiutrions 
Poluh fuuily descended from ui It&Han atAck. — Gin- 
•BPPl Sutxat >-nR\ (br'm 1612), belonofluK to tfai> 
old lullftii fnniily Torulli, bavins' (ottlfrd in Poliiad, 
iLftor the murHurof oJl bin houMby BAtmzi» I^dnkc 
•if FuiuA, tvulc tbo DKUte of Edolclt, uul >ft«rwuda 
that of I'oiiUtowaki, from an catnt* PonfAtow of hw 
irLfe, tlifl (iKUubtflr of A[l>«rt PonutowNkl aud Aniia 
Lwxbuka. Hii descenibnita received the title uf 
priac« in I761,~Stj>hihlaw, Couot FontnUxnld 
(l)om 197!!; clied 17i!'i), i* known for Lia cDnorclion 
with CtiarlM Xll, wLum, oftM Ibe \ia.tt\e of PuIU*a, 
hs followod iDto Turkey, mid aa whose Atnbasadnr 
*t CcautftotLiKiple lia luul tlio oddrom to involre tbc 
port* in k war with Kuui.'v K« vriul« RemarauM 
d'uD Sdgnvur PoIonaiBnirrUiiitoIrodsCharle* XH. 
par Voltidn (Eaf.'ui.', 1741).~Hia vldort loii, Stan- 
iHLAW Auaiisrus (born 1732), die fan>iirit« of Ta- 
tharino II., was clootcd king of PoianJ, uodur thv 
iuflueuoa uf RuMian bayoiMU, in 1764. Kf» St.i.mh- 
Law.—JoKEf, the nephew of Klnj; Suui-I ,u. 1 ini In 
1762, serrod witll conra^ a^ainnt th' t.n mii in 
179^ and on the acooHnon of hU undi: Ui tin- on- 
fedcratloii of Tusowili, left the lemoe witli ciioHt 
of the \xtt offioen. When the Polea attcmpb.'xl in 
1794 to driv« the HtiMiaui out t>{ tlie coimtry, ho 
aKniu juinncl tho I'oliiih cjunp ui n, voliintvtr. Koeri- 
i^ko gave biiii Uiv couiuuuid of a division, nt the 
bund of which ho dlatln^uldnod hiiiiMlf at the two 
■iogue ol Wanaw. After the wirrciKior of tbo city 
lie went to V ktma, and, rejeotinK tiie aUcn of Cathar- 
ine and Paoi, lirad tn rtttirotni<>ul on LIj rvtuni to 
PolamJ^t bta ntatoa wHir Wawow. The oreatioD 
of the Duuhy of Warsaw rokindk-d the boftm of tiw 
Poliah patriots, and Poniatownki aooopted the yAiice 
■if minuter of war in ihe new ilAto. In 1&09 ho 
coinlDandcd lbs I'ulbh army agnio«t the ■u]%rior 
Auatrfan fore* wlilch wa» wuit to occupy tho duohy, 
oocDlwUed it to rcliro, rather by ekliful mancniivm 
than hy force at amna, and n^cLrntvil into Galicia. 
In the war of 1S12, ayiitual Kunia, bo ww again at 
the bead of ihe I'litinb forom, aO'd tliHtiutfiiishcd him- 
•elf throtighoiit tlUn oheukernl campai^, Aftc^r tbo 
battle ol Lo^wu, during which NdfNtleon created 
him mankal at France, be wu ordered (October 19) 
to oover tbo retmt of the IVanch anny. The 
enemy wore nltt^dy in poeMwion of the auborba of 
LeliuiK, and had thrown li;^-ht troops ov<-r the EUUr, 
when the prinoo arrived with a few followera at i\m 
riror, tbo bridgn ov«r wliiulj bad bcwi Vloui-n op by 
the PrencK Poiilulow^ already wonnded, plunged 
with bw boiM into the itrtaun, which ewatlowed up 

oi^ *"■* "'*'"'■ ^'* ^^7 *•■ ^"^ *™"«' "» fj* 

•Xnh, and buriod with all Uk honoiini of hia rank on 
Ibe SCth. It waa aflerwarda removed to Warsaw. 
""I In 181C WM departed in tbo cathedral at Cra- 
«!L»J^? •S"«**» •'•tue of Poniatowalti wae 
•*S!^™S!.* °"T of Wfcn»w by Tborwal.lwn. 
i^^^^C^^^^^ "^ Po>rr«.DEu.aoA. a town 
« ihe«wth aide of theidandof 8t.MlQhael,^of the 



AzottA. Iti«dcfeBdedeatheeMaid«,OBthewMtby 
the CB^o of St. Bra£, wfaidk CU mOOBt IlllM» I ' 
of caaooo; and about 3 mUaa to the eeat b; the I 
CFf akoPedroandKoetodeOio^ U is built wHhoan-j 
fildemble n^fnlarity, and the hmaae have a KiLataa- 
tinl and ctieerfol aimcaranoe, but the strsefia an 
wretcbvdly pavod. Tho principal buildinga an di 
chorcheai dg^t nanuteriei^ and fonr anventa, now 
anppreoed, and a neat Eaglidi dh^d. The tar\ 
obor^ iu the roadstead ia bad, and th* huteor I 
eoatuulow that vcueI* n.-qulre to be loeided hviMi 
of email craft; but ttiU die trade U CDO^daaablaL 
is chiefly In tbt! handa of the Britiih,of whcmftooa-!] 
ridsrablc numlxrr arc hero resident, Including i 
7'h» chief eiqiorU are wheat, naiio^ and orangta; i 
ihu iuijiurbi. cutton and mk tlaanM, bardwaat^ toj 
Pop. estinialod fmm 19.000 to 20,000. 

I'ONT-A'MnifSSOX, a town of Franoc, in 
di.-]>Brtiuc(it of Mpiirth*-«t-Moeelie, 16 mile* dq 
west of Xaacy, on both aide* of the MoeeUe, h«n] 
cmaaod by a bridge. It has a fine square snneund 
by arcadca, a handaonie Oothie church dedi c al e i d 
8t.Martin; the old abbey of St- Maiy, now eoaiee ' 
Into • BtiniBary; a eoinmuiial coUem and other • 
cational inatitutLmu. 'I'bete are taamde^ j 
br eweriei^ and oil-workn, and a trade In ' 
wood, Jtc, Ii foil into the handa of tbe Genaaiw I 
Auciut. 1S70, and was evacuated in 1878. P«ft] 
tl8?I), n,£us. ' 

PONTCHARTRAIN, a lake of I.oais 
G milee north of Now Orleana, about 40 tnOa* 
trom east to weet, and neatly 25 In breadth. 
water ta gmeraUr tnm 12 to H feet deepi It < 
niiiuicatea with Lake Borffae on the east, with Laka 
Maiiiwpna on the wot, and with New Orleans oa the 
Huutb, uy Bayou St. John and a cann], and also by i 
railroad, It it BUrronnded by manhc% and the land'] 
in;; in pi-nrrallv diHioidt. 

PONTL-CORVO, a tuwn, Italy, in the provinn 
of Term di I.ar(ira, and 20 ndlci •onth-eMtef Frad- 
noue, in an iAoUL«d territory, on the left banli of t 
Garigtiano. It i* thn hw of a Uahof^ and haa li* 
castlt^ a oatbedrvl, and atx other churohea. It wie 
the capdlal of a prini^lpality cmted by Xapolooo L, 
and frooi wbidi Bemadotto b.'ul hia titin of llince 
do Pontc-Otirwv Pop. 9314. 

PONTEFRAnT, or coUoouiaUy, roKTBEt, ». 
nuuielpol and parUauieiitary borotigb, and nan 
town, Kngtanl lu the county and 34 mils* gLS.ir. i 
York, on a height near the conBnence of the 
and Cidder, with atatluna on tho Midland, Xe 
J'ZHtorn, and Lauoashlre and Toricshiie Ballwam' 
It ia wdl built, BKstly ef brick, and Maonf m 
edifices the parUh cburcb ia cooapiruoiu from ito 
elevated ute and loftj tower; thore are alao tha i»- 
tnaina of a more andent cbttrcb, and of a Neaaan 
castle, whid was the scene of the murder of Rkbanl 
IL and other atrodtlai This wae tbo Uot garrison 
to hold out for Cbarlea L, aud wae dimaDtied fan 
1049. One of the hoepMab of the town datm from 
!!axan Umim, beto); anppoeed to hare boon feosded 
by Ethelburga, the qnecu of Edwin of Northninbna. 
The cliief manafactum aro iron and btasa ^Ntiiqp^ 
cnrthenwar*, bricki, tih-a, pipes. Ac:; and there Is 
•.-'•Dcidcralilv trade iu malt, com, and liqoorioc, par> 
Uailarly in the form of the ■mall loaenga knowa 
and higihly esteemed finr csntoHea, u»d(r Os name 
of Pootefnkct cakee. There are lai^ge eolUecisi^ and 
alio exl«risi\-e gardsna ud norseriaa in Uie rldnity. 
Poj^ of the municipal borongb, 8798; parUamentafy 
borough, 15,332. It aenda two memben to Parlia* 
incnt, the Mulieat return belny that ef 120& so that 
tho Ixirringb b one of the oldest fn the Ungooai. 

PONTE VEDRA. a town in Spain. Giid^ capilal 
of a pro^lDce of the aante name, at the pofatwMre the 







PONTHIEU— PONTTNE UABSHCa 



193 



I 



ttcma, AIh%«kd Taaaa miia before tailing inU th« 
B*7af P«Bt**«dniii tba AtlMitlc. It U sarTnuDiloil 
braaoUwal); eonorta of browl, w«ll*pav«d strMta, 
and tratt-boOt iHnMicf pvalle, ud hH two dumliM. 
eoa ti Ikn * bwMtifal OolUe Btiactitn; ud u old 
VkBarfKKicnaTial^o«w«MdaBfteoait*lH>iiBn. Tbera 
»» BwaiifiXiirw k4 eoaoaT«lm,woonaiftDd«ttoD 
dolfe, holi^ iMtttMT, ftc ; tiUnff to Mtinly ewriad ML 
P<wli«iJi» WM iMVKtodlj mauA dnrisg the N^wle- 
ooie WW&, PofL ]B,6£7.— He provimM^ bonnded un 
tlMn«Uilnrra>tapLu>d<MiUMWt»tb7tb9AtUi]tIc, 
kas • IntUB mU uid s good cUnuloi pradoeca fo 
■b^idttBM aula^ 17^ wSmI k&d mOJet, lUi, fnii^ 
tad wiM, fend nan gtmai nomben of c»tU«^ An* 
1728 «[|U*n miWi pop. 431,94S. 

PUATHIKU, iin Moieat ouuuly ol FnnM^tii tha 
■■IM 111! Mil at Pie*rdie, boundMl on the auHh by 
Sm ilTcr Capche^ cm Ibo •oath bj- tbo Bml«. on tb* 
w«t by th* AtlutlQ, »Bd 00 Ibn taat by the ovuntj 
<d AitM Hkd tlw bailiwkJe of Aaiaiu. It w» Urn- 
rmaai by tbo Soouiw from th« Bonth-out to Um 
DOcth-wMt, wUob divided it into North PttDthiau 
<ar PootfaiM Prapar) ud Soalh Pootlilea, or V'Imeu. 
Thm priacif^ towns o( pDOthmi wm AbbvTillc, tha 
oftel Uontraall, Rw, St. lUaakc^ Crin-, «ilJ I» 
GMoy; Hm priadpAl towncf Vimcu wm bt. Valery. 
nw analar part of I'ontiiiao baloDgad origlDaUy to 
Ihi Abbay of St. Kii^uier and othar moDMtariai^ 
bm pHnd bto lb* hAwfa of CMinu, who bMana 
iadMaadAnt a»d batcditan towarda tfi« and uf the 
I M M esBtnnr- It p awad by aiarriag* to tha oounta 
<<A]— geo aboat ItOO, and was nva^ by Henry II. 
«<Bi«bDdialtsa. InlZSl ItnnBlnlopaMMdoii 
of Steon DaBunaitiii, ooaat of Avmalau Baiwaan 
tfaa 7«afa IS79 and 1 43S it fnanootiUy cbangad handa^ 
tb« antoDdfaic parttos balof the EngtUt lad Ftaioh 
hfan la tha btUr yaar it wai fioj^ wrartad fraa 
tkfl Si^tidi by CliarlM VII., and pledged by him to 
na^ of Bm^nody. On tha daath c? C%ariaa tha 
Bol^ In 1477. the Barvunduuu war« axpelled, and 
tba aovfity w^ ttnuiitM Ui ibu Frrmch cnwn. 

PONTIANAK, a biwn oa tba waat cnaKt of Dor- 
Mtv «a both Ma tba PoatUnalE, oapital of tha 
Dolcb ptvrfaua and tdngdom d iti nama, almoat on 
Iha aoittbnr; loa lOV* W K It baa aome trade in 
(oU-dtMi and adihte buda'-nrattN. I'op. 7O0Q, aboat 
a Ifedrd ol wbom an Chbieae. — The pro vine* axt«nda 
ilHf Iba wwt CDwt oi tba iaUod, (ram tha fron- 
flf tantim, Ut 0* 30* k. to Ut 3* k; lattl 
I tba dtolclota or alataa ol Uampawa, T.ani!jik, 
TkyaKg, Soooadaoa, t^\ aa tu ooart ar« uuuicruua 
" — '- It b watered by tba fitntaa;, PontUnak, 
iad BnaitfODi mutUer tfroama; and in ita northern 
part baa a Ur^ lake named Malnyoe or Malaju. It 
jroAwam |i^>per, aacn, rio*, rattans, augar, oil, wax, 
hrd^-naita, Jtoamidit and gold, of which laat there 
■• MTtnl rfdi aluft. Some ootton and lilk atnlTa 
an BMdo by tba Da^; and otnum, ricr, aall, tlutu, 
and Cbinaar warea are iinporteil. I'op. 337,772. — The 
UasdoiD la now Umited lo tbe delta of the rir«r 
P— Hanalr It la tnaraby and damp, and tbe tetu- 
f aim ■ ntngo from U* to 69* Fahr. — Tha rirer 
llm pwtly in I^tka Malejroe, ami portly in a itream 
flowfag mm ft BMMiatain naga oaar tha eantra oi 
Iha wind. Ik 6ewB v.s.w., in a very cfoobod amo^, 
M* Iba cUat towna of tba HBaD BtatM of SaUt, Sal- 
tobacv. Sfaitang, Sakadoa^ Sancoai, HDIouw, and 
Tayaafc. awl falla into tba ■■• aLng with tba Sin- 
paof and StnLaap, by aSna nouUM; total direct 
Ous/ee abijut 3iU inika. 

]'ONTIFKX, a priaat wbo aarved no partlcuUr 
£viaitT. Tha Koman pentifieoa fomad tba moat 
fitaaBlona among tba grnt ooUagca at friorta. Tbcir 
la a tiN l kin , liba that of all impmUtit ttattata of 
nlkloai, waa aacHbed to Nmna. Tliia king UmiMd 
Vei, XL 



tbo nnmbu- of pootlfieM to foor, aidnilva «f tba 
pomi^c^ marimu* or AM vaitA The Ognhuaa L*w 
(300 KC.) ruaad thia number to eight, or inrfudtoy 
thu nontifex maxtmua to nine, (our of whom were to 
be plebeiana. SuIU innreaaad tha aoinfaar to fiftaai, 
ana Juliua Cnaar tu laxteen. indn^ag in both thaae 
tnatanoce thu pontifcK inaxinma. Tm duty o( ibia 
dignitu^' vraa tbe Inauguratlou of tba ptieata, and 
1q eartlcT tim«s tba can of tbft mbUc raconta {anntia 
ewuMNi). lie alao anporiDtonciod tbe Mi-rod rilea of 
V'tsta. He held hia olfiae (or life, anil muld not 
leave Italy, Tha empenn aftarwanb aaanoMd tbto 
title until ^ tiaw o( Tbaodoajai, and it waa anbaa* 
quently aaatuned by tlie Chiiatian TUahop of BMn& 
The pami peiDtifirai lutd the aupntme auperintaa- 
deac* n tbe ivU^oua worahip and Ita miiditar^ 
directed tbo rellgioua aoIomnitiM, had tba cara of tba 
olrndiu', and dooded lawaoita which wecwecnneated 
with ration (benoe tbe/Ni fonti/tevn). T)i« eiter- 
oal badga of the pontiiax, at laaat on aolomn occa- 
•iona and wfaflo engaged to tha dutiea of hia offioe. 
waa a draaa boedereu wilb purple (ImgapntUxta), and 
a tapartng bat la tbe (onn of a oona, wfatcb was made 
of the a luna of mcrifioad aaimJa (l<MJit( or jratcrw). 

PONTI7ICAI4 tlw book contateing tba ^nywn 
and ritea to be oaed by the pope and Uabopa in tba 
exemea of their fanttieoa, aa oonflnnlDg, ooafarrlng 
onlcni, oonsecndng Uibop and ehoichca, ke. Soma 
writera have mainbdned that tha Baaian Pontifioal 
ia thtt weak of Pupa Ongory tbe Great, while uthen 
nttriliatii ita fnrnuttioD to Pon« CMlMiw^ who flow- 
iah«] a oviitury befon biuL The bne accoont at it 
eeems to be that which aaigna ita fint (am to 
GeJanos, wlkila it waarecastbyOrtfgoty, who made* 
oonddembl^ nomber el enenoatioaa upoa it is tbe 
way of deletiuna, modifloM^Ml■^ and nddllloaa. In 
tUa form, with a few ■afaaequent altaratlonB, and aa 
published by the aatbority nf t'loinvttt VIII., in 
16i(i, it ia us«>d at the {nneat da; thruujjhonl tba 
whale of the Woatero Choreh. 

PONTIFICATE, llw po]» beinir called imfiC 
tbe time of hia govenuoMit la called hIa pomHfcatt. 

PONTINB WABgmta (itntkn. iWadi Antfat; 
Latin. Fowtptit»a Patudn), an axtsnalTa ttaot td 
land In luly, aonth of Bomew and f«niBg tbe aootb- 
WDat iMutof tbedetwationof FVoabwoeL Xtextenda 
from Punte to Tem^ua, and baa a length of 2 1 milaa. 
with a m«Mi breadth of 7 mOea, aad au arta of 
al-oQt 80 smiare nile^ Tha origin cf choac matabea 
ia lurt in the moat remote anUqalty. It ia aaauaad 
that they were umoe oowred by tbe aea, from tbe 
circamatiince that Ilomar describee the abode of 
V'lKx, whicJi in mncoivcil b> be wbat ia now luiinni 
aa Moiilv CimUu, ai an islaniL From |diyaical eOB- 
aiderationa, bowevar. it b concluded that tbdr (etnut- 
tiati moat be aarignad M a date oonaidmbly aaUdor 
to that uanally aidOned to DoBkcr. In tbe early timaa 
of tile Ronuu) BepDiiUo Ibere wanvaoeotdfaig to Pliny, 
on the taatlmoay ef (omwr hiatortan^ tUrty-thwe 
cities dtuated ia tUs ragioo, all of which dJaappaaneJ 
at a very early )«riod. It ia doubted, boweveav 
wh«th«e thia account ta worthy of «sedil, an welt fratn 
tiw improbability of tbe tMag In ItatU, aa frcn tba 
(act that it reodTee no oonttbontloB (ran any otbar 
early hlatorian, and not even tbe naanea of any of 
tba dtJea aia pnaaa-vad. Hm marahai^ which an 
(reaenlly taiiiaaaaled aa deriving tbair nams bnn 
tbo city of SosaM Famatia, sibuatad aaBawlisn on 
tbetr borden, are foamed If taknUHrabla rtvaaoM^ 
widely lialng In tbe nai^bowlng moaataina, ran 
into the plain, when, for want at a aoddaot deell- 
vity towwda tbo aaa, Ibey pam oA Tsiy alowty, 
booona atagnaal^ and at length leaa tbomaalvaa m 
tba aaod. Tbe loaa of ao gnat a poaUoo oi lartHs 
buLd, and the onwhalaaoma vsponn, wblvb tbe eoutb 

X81 



194 



PONTOISB— PONTUa. 



wind oftca ouritd «Ten to Rome, oiu-ly ^itncXcA the 
Kttantiaa of Um Booud*, at»! Uu-j wmght to ilct-iw: 
•otuv M<bera« (ar ^vtIw0.vlI^j Uiin evEL Ap[i<uB C'Uu- 
fUuB (3L2 D-c.) probably nude tbe flnt «n«mpta it 
dnkinw thrm wben bo ouriod the Mlebv&tM Ap- 

£bui 'V^ ky thratifjli tbo inanJini. He wa* aDOooiHlM] 
t thb ftttviD^t by tbe cunsul Cethetfus (190 ttx.) 
JoUua Cft-su- fnnnod ttu gigwiti^ plan of condnctiiig 
th« TilM^r tliroiijh tlw nUMha; but ho wu prc- 
renfad by death froin Ibi vmenUou. Augn^bo* 
oonUataa hluMlf wtth underUldng nvvral cwwla. 
Vndvr th« niooeodinft empcmra tnete attsmpti to 
ItnproTft this jMUt of tli« Minntry w«re «hMiiUin«d ; 
via Um wftter or«r(1owvd, till Nero renewed Lhc 
work. Trsjaa cantinTgnd it during ten ymn iritll 
•u niuoL Hpirit ibul tbt.' wbvle tract from Tnpoati to 
T«Trkdnk wia drained, tad th« Appuui W»y WM 
cn[np1«U>ly rontnrrv). During thn polidul rtcmis 
wliicL dcitriiyixl lh« RoiuNi Empira tho-nuushoi 
KlaorovcrKd tutbelrformurdreftrycaDditiiitL Under 
the U«tbic Idng' Thi-oduric alt>sm;)la were ooco tnon 
■Bftile tit tirtiu ttu-ni, und, na it »ppawa, not without 
■acceu. But the oj.>vnttiuiM want not long panevwml 
Id, ud boetLlo nattire ioon rcmimcd bor rij^hta. 
AisoBg th« poi>M. KonifdMi Vlir. {whotJied in 1SI>3) 
WM im fint who uoruiiiLTl hinwi^lf Mritli tha drMtiing 
of til* manhM; and tie caui«J a Iai^ cuiaI to l>» 
duiE, by metuui of which the eoontry arouad Sokzo 
&nd SennonuttK rt-mnins dry «ti-ii to tbia day, 
]ht»rtiu v., ib 1417, lilccwue cauml a grMit coiud, the 
Rio MMiiiKs to ba dug, (or tiu exCensloQ of ubiob 
to tlM MB batAy ■ inile wm imitui^, when Ihii 
nndertalctng, wbkh would fasn supplied on outlet 
for aII tlio rtrcMuB, wm bsterraptN by hi* drath. 
Other kttnnipta wta* mbwaqovntiy vaadv, thoiicb 
with Uttlo NcoeM, tOl Pitu VI. coipHrcd in wo 
nadutaidng. Thla ponlifi spent Un yn-iiTs— fmm 
1778 lo 1788— in «yiit«nintic clforta for rciUimin^ 
(he DumbM, CuikLt, UBong them tfao Linca PU, 
were cut, the hftdn of thu iliffcrr^t •trpnoM, tbo Hlimo 
of wbioli filled the Mr with unvriiitlminie vkpiiiira, 
wcncleaiiBed, And thi<lini>t)f tbi* Ajiplan Wfty, wbivb 
bnd boviL abftadoaad for ccDtiiriua, wu roetorod. 
By thcae meaiu the itubinorgnvi pftrt, whi«h bad pro- 
viouslj reoehcd »buut fiO,tiOO >cn*, wu r«dueea to 
600l>. Tha •dminia.tntion of the tint e«Dpir» Ub- 
aur«<] in Uku tnKunor at tha draining of tho muihoa, 
tma IStu to lS14,wlteii tbaoperatioiuwG9«itopp«d 
through tho fall of Napoleoo, But DotwtthatBnding 
ftll thosti Inbour*, now oomnlvtwly abaadoMd^ tbo Mr 
of tbl* regloD la far from Dedug nlubHoui^ hod cbu 
VMt tract i* liltk cIm tb&n a wretotwd deaart, wtwre 
OM nectd iintliink' but A fi^w abaodcoad honaei, and 
whieh the travuUur toeka to !«■*« behind hfm m 
laat HI bo ia aUa. 

PONTOtSE, a town in Fnum, in the dspartmont 
of Seina-et-Olae, at tha conHaeiiGeof t]i« Vioanc wilb 
the Oiacv hero craaed by a handionia brid^. 111 milua 
nurth of Vataaillaa. Tha hooMW ara tolon.b1y w«li 
built, but noat i)t the atreeta an tuurow and steopi. 
Its chief edJAcM a» tha chnrob of Bt. idaAaa, tha 
public library, aad a tnagnlflecait heapJtaL It baa 
ft court of flnt rmort. and a coUagv; nwaitfactim 
of ohemJcal (imdticta, jud a tnda in torn, cattle, and 
floor. Puix.(]-s.-il). nil2. 

PONTOON, in war, .!--nol«i a aniall, light veaasl. 
made intaerally nt wtMut, ab(.'ct-in>ii, or luatber, aad 
•o conitnicted that wbcu a nuuber of them Are 
united by moMU of boama, boarda, and mpee tbey 
form a brid;^ for the yaaaagw of an army over a Tinr 
or ann of th« aea. Aa poutoona form a part of the 
equ^inent vi an anny they inttat be aa light In 
•tmetura aa ia oonalatent wiu aafe^. Tboae in nao 
on tlM ContiuBDt an«f m Hat-bDHotniad boat abapa, 
aixl made ot wood or ahMt-lron. Tha pomtoooa uaed 




in the BriHah anny ai* of tfa. Mid sj^indikBl b 

ibapc Ihuy &rv ■H iiro ^tm, Ibs Ian**, wtt hmi- 
spherical ends, being S3 faat 9 Jncbaab^ aod 9 bat 
8 iadiaa in diameter, and tba aBnllar «o^ witt agadsd 
eoda, 14 feet » laahaa loaf and 1 loot 7 iadkaa In 
diameter. The Intrrxluctioa of pn&toona propar Into 
vmrf are may be oonsidur«d to dale from tb« iijgMaanlh 
csntvy, altWuh long prvtiiM to tUa itaibr nana 
were used for tha paoaaM of rtmnnii DariM paaad 
tbe Helleejiont alnd Uanaba bj pantomi faridpiL 
KutTrm likcnviae made tbajpaasiga tn the niJlwiMat 
with hia vast army by dmllar meaoL 

PONTOPPIUaX, Enifi, tbe yonnM. ben at 
Aarhuua 24th Auguat, 16»S; died Sttth Deoenber, 
1764. After actina aa paator at dlfiennt plaoea fai 
Sdileawlg and Seuaad he baoam* praaobw to Ike 
conrt in 178S, and toon after praltMor at tliaelefj In 
Copaohagon, in 1747 Biabop of Bergen, and h ITU 
ofaaneellur of the Unirenity uf Copcohi^va. Aa a 
thechloglan ha fai-ourvd the pietism <4 SjiesBr, and 
Bome of hi* works on thia system of doctrina, c^- 
cially hia IfcUo OWiliciiipiegEl, are itill in the haada 
of the peop1«. Ula Menoia (du«« *d1b. 1742), ooa 
of the fint theological romancaa, la eepadallj vahuUe 
on the account nf ita attractive ahanotartellpn ef 
aome of Itia celebrated caDtemporariiM. Hb weaka 
on rhurcb biatory, audk in hia Anna]** BodeaiB 
IJania) (four rala. Copcmhagan, 1741-&2), nntain a 
great nuiaa of raltiaMe materiala. He alao «>rithad 
hiaUiry in Kooeral bj lua Marmora Danica (two nla 
173»-41), Gaato et VaatigU Danomm estat Dtanlam 
(throe vela. Lstpslg. 1710-41), Oilginaa Hafatoww 
(I740),andhia Dawlca Atha(aavean)lB.OaiietihacM, 
176S-81). Uia learning waa very coim|in3kanat*a: tor 
inatancB, hia CtloeKarium Norvagieum (Bai^aB, 1719) 
wu a valuable contribution to the adisoa ol bo* 
gQago, aa was hia Forao(; til HergM natnrtlge Hliiiria 
(CnixinhagcT), 1762-&I; Kwayon tbeNatom HiatetT 
of Norway, ti&iulatvd into EogUib. I/oodoD, ITw 
to natural hiatory. 

PONTUR, iu Aaia Minor <■» called (hmi the 
I'ontna Euxinua, on which it layj, tbe ouoitty 
4:xtcndi]jg from tha Halys to Coloui. lb Hn^ 
tindonrcnt at first ecndderaUe changes, and whea 
finally fixed it bordcmd in the west oo P^hh^^enK 
where tbe tUIya fonn^H thn bovundary; in the natfa 
on Galatia, Cappadocia, and Annenia Jdlnor, tha 
Aatitaurua, and Movnt PaiTadrBa being tbe book- 
darite; and in tho caat on ColchiB and Annenb^ 
fnm which it waa appanted by tha river Pbaaia. 
The cuuulry on the caat and aoulh S» mountainaat 
but along the omM there are Urgo and fertUa plate. 
According to Btnbo gteak variatiea of -if't'^TT * 
fruit were prodnoed, and game atfaonaded. th» 
oldest inhabltanta wen Hbarance and Chnlyboh A 
son of the Paniaa king Daiiua, Artebam^ nertred 
Pontua aa a aeniu^to mtrapy, with the right to tract- 
mil it aa an inliBritancv to Ua puaUmty. One of hia 
euooeeaon, Hitbridatea (about 400 itM.), aavlated the 
younger Cma, and ref oaad to pay tribute to Aito- 
xarxoa. lUi aon, Ariobattanee L (SM-837), made 
biniaalf indepcodent during the general [nrameHoB 
of the govanwrs of Aala iuDor agaiDrt 
II. Mithri<!ht<«IL (SS7-30S) tmnafcrred hb 
dom vuluatarily bo AlexantlLT. Afterw ar d * , i 
diviijoo of hia empire bi 323, it fell to AatlgaWBi, 
wbo^ having attanptod tbe death of MUbridatoik tbe 
latter fled to PaphUgonim wbara he found adbamta, 
and euooeaafully tnalnlaloed hlnieeUl Hia ammw, 
Mitkridatea IH. {S0S-S68). enlat^ bla patent 
Idnedom by ocoqueata. MElhriilntfe III. wna eoe- 
ceeded by bla nan Arlobamnea IIX, who idgnad 
from S<6 to about 244 l^c^ and he ^mii by hia aon 
Mitbridatw IV.. whnas raign sxtended to aSwot 1M 
BvO. The latterdrove led: the Ganli^ wheat varioiv 



I 




P0NTU3 EUXINUS-POONAH. 



195 



M aw h tlw Doaiw el tW thlM ccntnry b.c. invsdcd 
JU» MBav, ami fonud uinlMDanU tb«rc, and irba 
■Md« u atlMk upon Pontni ■hortlr after the aeet*- 
■ka ol UitluidAlM IV. Ha alw stUok«3 ffinope, 
bal WH mkbto to Uko it. Fluunacot L, who luc- 
•Mdsd MttfaridAtMir^udRlgnedtlU About ISA ILCL, 
■< Imtfa look MMMtoa of Sloopci, and suda It 
fab wMHim MHhridatai EotmAm, ttibu of th« 
•(labntod BlhliiMa*«^ ild«d ibe Bomuala ttw Utinl 
Fosle asd la tiM Perg&inUn war, ind n«cired fn»u 
Ibfln Pfatrp* MajW. II« wu murderod abont 121, 
Hla aoB, MitbriiUtmi tbn Gnnt, mooeeded bini. 
Ztariu bla niga th« torritory of Poutiu yrnit in- 
oiaMa br tha addidoo of tlw Ciminarian BMponu, 
ft HBall MngAw aeorly oorraapotidtng to the nnmJitm 
OfaMiL wCid) the lut king rpluntarily oeded to 
UStUuKtm. But it wu dum(f tbe nmo rsign that 
tk* kligdam of Ponttu tuclf cam* to an end. &[itb- 
"iftei cacried on blood/ wan with nmnc until 
daatb; at Iwrt 1m mbmltted tii Pom|j«y, and 
kfanaoU, &a 63, from dotpoir. Thn wortun 
wl PoBitaa waa then ann^ixed to liiltiTnia, and 
I Wlritiing pailB given nway to tlii; cUria at aome 
|af Iha adjotnins itatm. I'tuvnarm II., the treach- 
iOD ot UiUridat«a, otAainod piily Bwponu, and 
hi attvmptod to eoaqu«r aj^aln hli patenial 
I waa Tan'iiiiBlicd b; Cmar and put to drath 
Jar, who had mada hiniauU King of Boaponu, 
I kb >oa I>aj{iit re«lTed thnmgji Anton j a part 
' FoBlBik PolamoD, wtto at tbe aans time poaMowd 
I KlngdMn of BiMponu, Ann ^linnr, and C'^akbia^ 
Ua waeotmar. Aftvr Uwi daat)i ol hla widow, 
; P«lcmoQ 11. aucoNded, an King of Pontiu, 
SSl Noro took Hvapant from him, and Pontoa, 
tka nama ol Pontna PoleBumlaai^ bMame, 
tailor FoteBKio'B death, » Boman piovlnoa. When 
^|ba Ladna in 1304 again (Mujuornd Oooastantinoplu 
I iUeiiu* CuBLnenitt fgiuded anew kinsdon is PootiUj 
['wfat''li nriaaincd nntfl Mohammed II, united it in 
[1441 withht a paat ecinquoti^ 

FONTTS EUXIKUS, tbe ancient name for tho 
Blaiek Saa (which M«). AeoocdiDg to aomo ita Oreek 
baoM Eajtimaa ponUt (aignif jing katpUaUe wta) waa 
firao it cm acmont of ha beMittful acenery and 
dauitfal ooaati; aeeorfing to otbara ft waa at fint 
' Mtted Attiaot (InbeaDttuiiel on aooount of the bar- 
karoaa ebancter ol the Inhabitants aliinc ite ihgrca; 
but aa tfaMB w>n« aoftenad b; ixiniinuTd.-u intcrcoune 
lli oaAe wia Ranged to f uxfan/. 

PUNTYPOOU a marlcot town, Kngland, Id the 
aikd 1$) inil<B aootb-wcat of MooEauuth, ou 
I bfin^ of Um Soath Walea Railway. It ia inegn- 
I Eplaooiial <^pel, anil plaoea vf ¥r«r- 
^aa^ IndiMMiadonta, Fncndi, 
I tciwn'hall, a tttont; tmiLdiiig 
; la lha Italian atyle; a Baptiat tbeological cuUege, &«. 
f-n* Bamtbolara of varuehed Iron uticko known a* 
rTiMXpuoI Jaftttt ware, onoe caiiiad on hare oxten- 
ttffaly, la oonr ntiDct, and the greater poitloa of tha 
kpafmlattnit ia empIoYciI in imn-worka uid forgaa and 
[Inn-nitUa for making tJa-platc. Tbwiv li a oon- 
Mdvkble trade ken in iron and ooaL Pop. fn ln&l, 
Mil. 

PONY, a term applinl to servral aub-YariiUaa or 

, _ Maa of Horaaa, gaiMtally ol cmaJler aba tllMi the 

LtrifaMTj hiino^ nd wyai an br«d In large lloeka 

' aad h arii in nrima parte of tbo world, ebleB/ for 

I MrpOeea uf ridlo); and of liaUI«r diaiwkt amrk, 

I tVailai may be «aid to unite in tTivnifelvea the beauty, 

I BtKngth, and hnrdfakeee of their larger sd^bcvm 

Of the breada «f PouIm the boM known ud iMOt 

r^fsluad ara tha Waldi and Shetland. The head ol 

- tta Walib pooT la anwU, tha withm hisb, tbe body 

roondad and dee^ the lege flat, and tha hoofi ana 

am aBnlL The Sbetlatid pony la generally amaOar 



■ • wnncD OS UM ooain naiM 
Uyhaill,hna an Eplaoopal a 
iUp fir Baptuta, W«laju» 
ana Reaan ratbulica; a ten 



than the WoIbIi, tho ilimilden being thick and low, 
and the limha very etont and pnwcrful. Other 
broi'ds come from Icelani], Kxmoor, the New Forcat^ 
sn<) the Scotch UlghUnda. The tiaUoway Uonae 
of Scotland woro a Imod of vevy ttrong haidy poidei, 
iometbnea attaining a height ot IJJ handa. 

POODL^ a weU-knowQ a^WL-ica uf Ants, originally 
ITormMi, bot now abundant in all parte of Siiropeb 
Thero are two varietjei* but tbe coly diOerenoa 
botwMn these la In pitiut of titt, ttie one befn^ larger 
Ihiui the utiiur. Tlui body of tbe poodle ia thick and 
■hart; the bcutJ large and round; tlte «ani long and 
pendent; the tall aomcv^hal ahcirti the hair lung, 
eurlod all cfrtx the body, and genenUy of a black 
colmir or ntotted black and whit«L aomettsiaa it ia all 
wliiie. Olall doga the poodle ii the on* iriioee iittal* 
ligenoa leema noat maceptihle of dereloproont, and 
which Okhibita noat aflec-tiuu (ur ite raaater. Ita 
■cent i« gnod ; it ia fond of the water, and awima with 
great ea«^ which cautva it to be frequonttT uoployed 
in hnnling aquailc birds. It la very enaily traiaed. 

IftOLK, a acAport nnd miinicipai and parllunan- 
tary boroufh iJ Kti ■lnuJ, in tbo county oiDntMit, in 
the north jiart of l*t>-i|n If^rbour, and on a branch 
of tlie I>iiii|<ju atid 3<>uth-Wcatem Kulway. It li 
a very anciuut plaea, with nxany burrou-i and other 
early antiquitica in ita TJiuiity; hod furtifioationa, 
whiirb werti deniiiliihed in tbe time of Ctiarlea II. 
Ttie old wwn la being iorrounded by haadaoma 
auburba at a rapid ratCb Among the buildlnga ara 
an el^aat modcra pariah church, aevaral DiaaantiDg 
chajNilB, a tuwn-hail, guildhall, the wool-houM, and 
ciutom-honae. 1'he mauufaciurca oouaiit uhiofiy 
of cordage and aail-cl'ilh; then are alao pattarlai, 
large flonr-milU, and twn iron-foundrka. Tlw har- 
bour ia large anJ oumiaodioua. with esodlent uuaya 
and extnwIviiwarvliuuAM: and there an ae'eral largo 
building -vardi, and a valiiaMo plaiee and hankig 
iikhcry. The ■iiipping tradn ixcniiaidaiabla; In 1862 
thenomberol vMHsb that entered waa &l£of 76,S47 
tone : cUand. 949 of 78,280 tooi. TIm diief vtporu 
are clay for tho Rtaffoiitahin potterica, and masn* 
factureil clay eooda. Poole ntuma one member to 
I'nrliamont. Top. In 1SST, 12,310. 

POOLB, Matthcw, the well-knoam oomnUar ot 
the Byaopala CtttMoran Blbliooruia, waa hen at 
York of a good family abotrt 1624, atndiad at 
Rnmuuiud College, Cambridge^ and took orders 
In 1C82 he waa eiectad by tha Act of Unlformiljr 
from hia ckundi of St. Mi^ael-la-Qosraa ia London, 
and turned hia leisnra to good aceount by opendtng 
ten yeani ou liia Syao|Mia, which b aa attcmpl to 
eondeaae into one work tbe opiidona of nil the 
l>iblical oitica of all dmes and oonntrie* prvviona to 
hia uwn. I'he work extended to live lar^ foUe 
volumoi^ and indiottaa gnat lahonr and rcacarch aa 
wait aa no amall dagrae of learning; but it ia now of 
littlA tUMk laMr criUeiun and naeaick ba<r{og dona 
modi to mpotMda fb Poola alao wrote AanMa- 
tiona en ScripCnrc^ and took an actire part la the 
leading oontroToi^ ol hia time, eepecially thoae 
with the Sodnlaaa and Bomaa Ca^holio. Tho 
tntulerant apirit of tbe Stnarta compelled him to 
aaek an aaylum at AnwtcnJam, wlun ke died In 
1679. 

POOXAH, or Pi.f A, a city and diatrict of Bin- 
daatan, in the prraidcncy of llorohay. Ika dty, la 
a pbun about 2000 feet lOMne the am, 1 1 milea eaat- 
ward from Bombay by tha Great Indian IVninnla 
BaUway, atandi at tho janctioa of two afflveoto of 
tbe Bh^na Rirer, and wean a aooiawliat Suropeao 
aapect. It ia pretty w^ built; ita main alnet la 
wUe, and Kned witk boildinp oniam«it«d with 
palatlagi awl mytbokidail carringa; it baa nmaa- 
noa r*c~*"^, a Hlndn college^ aa ■^liiaaifag 



193 



POONA WOOD— POOR AND POORa LAWa 



OoU^ btiUt In Itfii, ft female normnl mch^l, ft 
gOiMVincnt first );ntiJ« hj^ Bchnil, s l!rilnb church, 
OoniLcil tutll, piiblid library, civil huipitaE, luscnn], 
and tMrnoka fur tuu rPhHiuouU uf iufautry sji^l unc 
of CftTalry. Tfao Europcui cantoamonta aro on the 
cost, and *ci»rfttc<rl fmnt tho city by n line of buAAr* ; 
Mill un tbe Kiutb-wcKt u tlie mlawl [ialju» of iliL* 
PdsbwiL or bead of ibe Mntirxtta c«<iif9u<vftcy, whoM 
caoiul wu Foooah. Ttiiii sution u fiuncd for 
ulnbrity, Ani) in rMnrtod ta by iniMt of thd KuiMncnii 
oRii^Hra ul Buiubay iluriu); cfie nliiy MaiM)[i. It is 
M) importHTit iniiiUry lirwt, and lino ■i>inc tnanu- 
fuctuiui of Nilvvr imd i^uld jvuilry, ouiubs, iltc<% nod 
otlier tmkll Mtiolee af fvury, ellk aii<l cotton fabrics, 
knd ftrtici«a of brwH, copper, imn, uul clay. Around 
it oro numarcnu nuiied hill fort* on iooLatod p<»lo: 
sad gtxid roAdii uounect it witb Boinhftv, Ahiue<uittgsr, 
EattArab, &c iMtgt aiid ii[i]xirtaiit works iiup|>ty 
PiMinah and Kirki with wiil^r fmni thn Mula Vnll«y, 
10 inilM abov« Poonah, Tlicuintinl rMn-fnll AVvra^ot 
S3 to S5 Ittchefl, lieinff alwiit a fourtb of the avmftge 
fall ftt llomhiy. Pop. (laHl}, l-iS.T.M.— Thi-diBtiict., 
iat Itf'BO'lo 11)*J(.; Ion. 73' 30' to 76" K., is boundt-J 
on tbe nui'tb by Uie dutrlirt uf AlimwCuit^-M-, w-ntt Ijv 
tfaq Ghaul^ Bajtoriiting il fro-m tbc Codouii, aoutli 
by Battamli, and cant by Lhc; Mizam'ii Itominionit. 
Arc^ aits B<[ucire milta. It ia »i) «Iaviitc^<l tttbli;- 
luiil, wii,t«nxl by tbe Ithkna and Iti trIbuUriM, and 
abounding in unlnt«d bdi^hts, formnriy orovmvd 
with strong fortKOMtt. iTie villages ars mostly 
0]>ra, but Roniftimn aurrt»iJid(<d by bedgea of cactiu. 
luliabiluitit diiefly Midinitta«. After Pdooidi tha 
principal ton-ua ure Serur, Paidgauu, Svl&pur. Pop. 
(1881), 000.621. 

POONA WOOD la the irood of the poOB tree 
{Ca^DfAiflltim iruijihjfNum and iJalopKyUum anffvtli- 
/aliam), a iintiia (if ludia. It is of a Uabt, porouN 
tsituTO, and i» uu«b umkI in the East Iiuues in abtp- 
building for plaoka and sparB, The CaXcntta pcvn 
is [inf«n«d to tbat of oth«r dlttrirta. 

POOP (Lfltln, puppu). Cm aftBimost and h%lMrt 
port of tlie hull la large vcmoIr: aljo a dcfik nlied 
ov«r the aftvr-part of a Kpar-dock, «unieUuiM called 
the round'tioiitr. Shtm funueriy had aevoral poops, 
ths ono abvv« tb« vtbor. Tbo tondonoy now is to 
diaponae with the poop oltrr^tber on aeoount of ths 
obstTuctioD it pRMDta lo thu abip'a pmsnas through 
oatcltittg ttio wind. 

FOOK AW POOR'S LAWa. Pewr. tn the 
apeoial senM in which we take It here, 1« a tsrm nsod 
in refercnoo tn one who lacks tbo luciMia naccsaary 
for hi* BubBi>teii(.-e^ At no peHiid in the whnl* bi*- 
toix of tbo world, and amongat no pvojdc, c«a tlivra 
be B^ to bare existed no poor. So Ving as a 
man li liable to iKcntntt dciicnilcnt on otben for 
the mean* of bii aubainlvnce, lu I-uhk in bo linble tii 
poverty, Tbo history of pauporitm pr«««ata ua with 
nuch that b intereatan;. In Egypt vbcre the 
syatem of caats^ wfatdi was aftq Va r da ao fully 
cfeveloped in Indian originated, the lower dsss«'^ aa 
far back as hUorY takea na, wer* dooBted to povoity, 
while luxury and profnaioa were roiorvod for the 
pricati aud warrioi^ wlui cot«til«tcd the upper 
cliuMca. 'j*bi> fninins uhicb arriM tiiid^t-theelKhtooulb 
dyiiaaly oli!i|j'L-d tbo Egj-p liana to aL'Il tbdr poraona 
or tbidr labour to the Idnp, by whom thcT were 
tTDOtcil AS ni<L-n] roacliines. Babylun and ftiocTeh 
pnacnt UK witli a rimllar spsctacio; «nonuoaa wealth 
amoDjtal the (p«atrand ptnary and aervituilo ammeat 
lbs bunblat clawes. In Penia the people, aeeordins 
to Haaodotua, wore dictributtd into t«a tribes, ana 
the thrae lowest of tfaoe wero in a irtato of povnty. 
Ores c o pirewnta ua with the nspeat of a arnaU nuin> 
ber of catizona with an cnonnoua ntunber of alaves. 
But evsti amougBt th* citixeoa poverty and miaury 



■noat harp oiintnd U» a gnat extent; lor alUiongh 
the hiatoriaim urv rvtieent npon this point, Ibsro la 
llttte doubt that this «m ofw o( tbs nola oMues of 
such frMtucnt emigrationa, reanlllqg ta llw aMal»- 
Uiihtnont of many oolonies atoog IM ItaUsB and 
Aaiatik-'sliOKe and elsewhero, as alao for the law that 
in Sf 'Uta permlttod the poor to expose tludr Uanla 
In KoRio, in it* carlii;r days at least, tbe oontaal 
between Iho pIchciMiB and (he j<alfidaQs jiartook 
very uucb ol tbo nntar« of a atj^^rgla between 
poTcny and ricbca. Sorrocndod by enemies, and 
almnat oomstAntly engaged in warfare, which sab- 
}ecb»l tbe cullivnlura of the aoQ to have their laadl 
and hooara f nxjufiotly pillngad, and the fmit at their 
labours all deaUoycd, many wore plonged into abfscl 
[Kiv«ny, and the sorer* laws ngardlBg dabtoia only 
•orred'to iucrfaaa their miscrT. Only the natrfnhns, 
as a inle. worn able to lond money, aua tbna the 
contest between debton and creditors was in lis 
origin idcutiral with tbat lietwaoa the plebeian* and 
tlw pntric'onii As Kotno oxtondefl, tlie nlf bclwnsi 
the poor and tbo rich bocama still wl<I«r, notwitb* 
staaalog the amriaa laws enactcl with a view to 
r«in«dy ^ia cvu. The unacttied state of tbe oeen- 
try tiAlnvnag tbs dnwnf.ill of tbe Boman Boi|!fc« 
niurt have hetnt tbe occnalun of an tacalcnlahlo 
amount of miaery. In K'l tho ptagne dasolaud tbe 
contro of l-raD<.r. In 1>97 the atarving pffsaantfy 
rnso in retxvlUoa a^ttinst tlw notJes. Frvm tOSO to 
1033 thouaauds Were cat off by famliM. Dnringtba 
middle agea the groat majoritT <rf the peopls wan 
in a iitnl<^ of hrindage to their Foudal sapetior^ who^ 
howerer, were obljgud to attead to the ntaintaftsBce 
of tho aerfa, and many boMQon, hi order to wnH 
dcatitution, aorrendored thdr fiborty and baenaw 
anrfu, 

lu all tbn coimtHes uf modem Eiiro[ie lawv ba*e 
b««D oniicud relative to tho mainteDanoo of the 
poor; hut in this articl« wo abnll ocofiiio oonelvaa 
to llritiah logialatlon on tho sobject Tbo poor 
recognised by tbo law aio the poor by Impoteoey and 
defect; the poor by oasualty; and UM poor tiy (to- 
digality and dehftucbcr^-, a1co tmncd Ui« tlw Tftles a 
poor. In Kngland, nn to the time of Henry ViU, 
as also iu all tho evntlueutal ciiuubries, tli» poor sot^ 
alsted sndrely oa prlrale bcaevoIeDoo, «na of tbdr 
ehiof rosouroos being the nmnasterieaL Bat ibe 
charity oaerdaed by these institataiifia^ howwer 
cnmniendable In certain reapwta^ had tbs radical 
defect of onoonrngiog ratbor than rapnaalng msaidl- 
dly, and when the inKtitntinoa tboBtaelves were 
■v-ejit nwny by tbo refomilug megMarBa ol HmiXJ 
VIIT., thousands of these poor dependent spoatbso 
wore thrown npt'O tho cotiBtiy at large tvt Ifccfr 
sLilidstenoe. Niimcmii* atatiitea vroro passed In the 
reign of Henry VITI. aud futluwlns teigna to pro- 
vide fur tliu poor and impotent, who app««r bun 
tbe jirvambloB of some of uicso to hare incrsased si 
tbat time to a very considorahle extent. Tbeaapes 
were prindpnlly of two cliuMa: tho sick and lanm^ 
who were iinablo to work ; and tlio idle and staidy, 
who did not choose to work. To provide in aotos 
mcaaoro for both of these in and alioot the metro- 
poll*, Kdward YI. foiinde*] thr#e royal boapdals; 
Christ's and St. Thomaa' for tbe relief of the uapo- 
tont; and Bridewell forthemmiahmontanlmpbty- 
ineiit <jl the viKOniua and idle. Bnl these weto fsr 
from suthclant to most th« reqoirenents of the kJag- 
dom at larn. Aocordingly other messona w«ra 
admtod, and after a number of fruitless experinmB 
IS Eliz. cap. EI. (laOl) pruTidvd fur tho ^ipaiiitllietit 
in overy parish of ovocvovn of tho poor, whoas chief 
duties were: lint, to imisa oompetsat mnis Cor tbo 
necessary relief of tbe poor, ImpoUn^ old, bUi4 "bA 
others who we>« poor uid not U)la to work, and then 



1 






POOR AND POOB'S LAWS. 



197 



I mtiji mmI, Mcvnflv, to fwHil* work for nob m wen 

['•t4t and oonld aoi otberwlM flod etnpIoytniOBt. For 

^ttoM puiMMs tbey lukd poiror to lory i»bM apon 

I'M* laWJUnU of the puub. lite oveneen were 

, •ppofatod, tfan* or four fw mob puiab, from Muongit 

> n* boiwaooldii, fa; tb* jiudcM, aad tho; lud to 

fk eeoJOBctioa with Um clinnrLw&r-lcu. I'tii^ 

; act of EUtabvlh, wtiioli b the back of tSw poor-Uw 

' ^fitan oC BogLi B j, cmq* into oporatloa very >low|y. 

n* toonbm «f 1640, ud th« cdvO wv dut fol- 

' lofwvd them, aewitUlad u cstAulTS ^oliotloa at 

Vm Uw. (.>iicof tlw fint MTUof CtutflM U.)Jl«tkia 

tiKui ■liog «M lo pan k Uw in IMS modU'jia^ tlia 

■tatat* of 1901, w fmr u tUe Umiu of iu appUcAti<w 

WM ceoewiwd. As hatcrt, eooh puith formed & 

■(o^ dittifett but ■■ th* sxtflotof tiio p&risbM wen 

•• varfoM, lb* jwt ipw o( tb« po«» w«ni butl]orii«d 

' t» ■ppetiit InqtaMon tor wtttoiu of p»riihic% m 

ItnTMbifi^ tQuml imI bmleta. Fhna this period 

till l&U tba a^Biiiutratioo ol rvUef wm intnut^ 

to tba diwdiwanlMw tod inapecton. lo 1793 

Flritaamt pUMd » Isw known m OBbtrCs Act, 

■■Ibaillikg Ibo Tnlontwy union of Kvcral uljacont 

pttiAm (o fiKinil luul aupport h pjor-Anuir for tlia 

T t mgO oo^ Iboae poor wbu r«()uir«i] jnrinan«ut «uo- 

«o«r, Htd thiir osffltrol waa Iniraatod to ouardtant 

Afiptjntad for tbafc pnrpoae, m w«II u for tbo lulnuo- 

t»tr»ttwi of oct^uor rvlicf. Tbu worlcini^ nt tbiaa 

l«w« WM nttandwl vritb num«rou> abuww, uielut; In 

frent put from tbo kbMiiea of my fixvd mlo ty 

vhicfa tbo ov«nc«ra ftud cibarctiwnnlau might lio 

gvidad. Tbv mocnite prcaaed ao haavily. Mid tbo 

weotkn of tae law* rogaidlng It bad oraaod ao 

anch ineoDvanloBca, that is aoiaa paiUioa tillago 

bad ta btf kbandonfti and the neiffhiMaTing pariabea 

wan^ io coasaquaDca, diKTCvJ witL tbo iniSut«naoca 

«( tbo poor o( cbaao, In addition to tb^ own. Tb^ 

I CI niatt«n tbrvatcned an aUmiat: incrauo of 

Fma Mknii, 1S32, to March, 1833. the 

' tba nUof uf Ihe |-uur bad ru«n to doao upun 

C7.«tO,000 for apopdMiun of 13,^^4,671 InbabJtanta. 

A "T""*— <"■ waa uipoint«d to iii>iulrv< lut) thcae 

a !■■■■. aitd the reoon waa the Foor Ij»w AiMuid- 

ttmt Aet of 1834, which, along with iodw more 

Mwl MUntaa. pwtkahrir tbas« of 1S(4 and m7, 

fonaa tbo LegidatioD in actual opvation at the pr«- 

aenidaj. 

Two hopovtant rvfonaa ware bitniducod bj tba 
Ml id 1BS4: tba oollaotlon ud diatribation of tba 
(iia»ar*Bo loogor fartmaled esdualMl; totho 
aMlhwIHaa. Em± lonll^ f oraia aa i«gt«g»tlou of 
ft voiltw «( pmUmo callad a naion. Eaob onioo U 
nndv ft cwmmiltao of anparrHioo, oorapoaed of ^nar- 
diana named bjr tba ralApajcn, TUa eonmittae la 
ciifttsod with fixing lb* motmt of tbo oontribuLionaL 
•ftd wUb ordaining and d t iao tln g tha dUHIiution of 
nliaf ift ibe nidooa. IIm K«owal dtraotion of the 
wbolo tyUem waa by tfala act tJaoed in tha bandi of 
Ihma ■— -— *— ^~"— . appMBtoi], paid, and Rmovablo 
bylha crown, Tbeog woi« autboriMd to nak* ruloa 
nr tba awDUBmaut of Um poor, tba ptvenunent of 
wariiboiiM% the oooduct of guftrihrny rcatrfaa. and 
aAoata; tbakaapingof Bicx««i»ta,Diakingof oootracta, 
•ad all other maHem robttiac to tba nliot of tba 
potK, TUa eoomlaiaii waa eupcraMled Id IS47 by 
tba poiW'lftw bnard, under 10 and 1 1 Victoria, «^ 
cii^ aad to this new board of oowimimjoneii^ per- 
|«tnat«d I>]P vu-iona aobeeiiuent aota, wet* tranaferrad 
ftU tbo Powra and dntjaa of tbp runner commladonan. 
Tba oCbar lafonn introduce*! bv Ihe Uwof 1SS4 waa 
fiha lafeml of all auccuur to tbe aUe-bodiad poor, 
' asaopC is worfcbowM artaUbbad on n vary rigorooa 
baift tba pctDcitila being that no ooa vriw obtatnod 
faMcbUl relict duftU be bettor piOTided fw tban the 
~i laboofW. Uw poor-law bo*rd conaisted 



of ft prealdent and tonr oeam^arfomin — namriy, 
tba Iwd-fnodoit of tba Doimdl, lord privy -aeal. 
boBM NomtMy, and chaBooUor of tba excoeqaic 
and nob other aa tba queen by lett«ra-pat«at or 
commkrion might appolat, A reiwrt of the pTO 
co^ilingv of the boara wn* to be Bubuiitted to Far- 
Uatneiit cftch year. 

FurLher logiiUtton on the aubjvct baa again takea 
plaoo,andbytbeLocftlOov«raaMiitBannlAct, 1K71, 
It ia enaotM-^rooMdlng Oft tba preamble ibat It is 
axpadlaDt to eaiioenti&t« In ono danrtmant of tbo 

Svaminont Ou auperniion of tJi« law* r«tatine to 
I pnbHo bealtb, the rvUcf of the poor, and k)cal 
Ku ve mine nt^ that a board aliaU be eatablljhed, to ba 
called the Local GoTemmont Board, and from and 
sdttr tfa« eatabliehm«<nt of auch bmird tha poor-taw 
board afaall oeaae to vxitt, atid ail {i^xircra am) ilutlee 
Tcatod in or imneaed on tbe poor-law board by tba 
aevenl nrta of FarUamont fainting to the relief of 
tbo poor, and any other aictn, or rceted in or imjioaed 
on uuu of bcr niajetty'a fnriDdpal aMmtKHM of Rts.te, 
by the cnactmenta tn tut bfiWf moHitioDvd in tbo 
tinl part of the acbediilo anncxrd to the act, *t> far 
IU mich powen and datica rcUte to Ec^-lond ; or 
i-r*tvd tu or iiupOMid on her maj^aty'a moat bonou^ 
abla privy-couBcQ by th» «nactm«nta la that babaU 
■pcvificd in tho kcoikI part of the aald aehodnlCL 
ahkll be tnnafesred to, and itnpoaed on, tbo uld 
1oc«l coTenuBent bcla^l, and exo^pt aa otborwiae 
provided fay tba act. ihaO bo sscrdaea and purfonoMl 
ny aitcb htMrd in like mannor and fonn, and oubjeol 
to the aame conditione, IJabUltlea, and inddcnto 
reapaotlvely aa luch powen Md dntlea mioht, before 
ib» paaaing of tha net, baTo bc*n annviaed and par- 
formed by tile aiitliorilite, in whom the aama wara 
tlieu Toatut m|jective1v, or aa D«ar thrrolo aa cir* 
ciini«tnn<xia lulmit. I'lia local gorenunent Ixiard, 
in tcnm uf tliia act, shall oonaiat <d a pnwdcnt to be 
appointed bj her maitiHty, and of the following tx 
eficio membara^ tlmt u to >ay, tbo loitl-prvaldMit of 
bar majHty'a moet hoBomrabla privy -counuil, all her 
majtfty'a principal aacretartea of itale for the time 
bt-iRg, the lord priry-aeal, and the chanoellar of tlM 
eicli«i|UN. Tba doty of making atid loTying tbo 
pDor-nto etill balongi^ ae before the ohani;oa uitro* 
daoed by thia aot, to tba obnichwardana nod orar^ 
■oen; and the ooDoarrenca of tho iobabitaala la not 
DooaMary. But tbo appototment of ocdlectora and 
amiataat-ovetiaera tor the better oanylng out ot 
theae objects la antborited by the faoaal acta. Ilia 
rats ia levied in advanco for a part of the year on a 
■cala adapted to tbe probablo aiigeoit^iiia of tbe 
pariib; and tba not of EU/ttt-vtb dir&ote that it 
sboidd ha i^aed by ' tuation of every inbabitftnt, 
paraoo, vioar, and othor, aftd of every oooipiar of 
land^ houac^ titbaa Innropriale, propriatlflaB of 
tltbea^ ooal adnea; or aalaablo uuerwooda la tbt 
pariah.' Aa an oecnder ft maa to tfttoabla fer aU 
landa which b« oMnfMa in tba parfab, w^wtber he b 
reaidant or not; but tha tenant and not tba knd- 
loid la conoidsrad aa tbe occupier within thia atatnla. 
After tbe paaaine of tba act ot 1834 nnloBa van 
rapidly formed in Ua aoalben, aftatarn, and central 
pafta of EnslaBd, where tha nbiuaa ot tbe prsviona 
rt%ima hadtwto moet keenly felt ; but in tbe Dor> 
them and mannfaotwing dtatricta tbo mnmuv waa 
very unfavourably raoelved, and led to nneb dla< 
iwdar. The oolDmlarion«lI1^ buwaver, notwitbalftBdlBtf 
theae diaeouragemanta, ooatianed their work, ana 
DOW, with few atoaptfau, and tham law foat oimp* 
pcauteg, theao nniona have beomw anlvenftl ul 
omr England. Tbe relief alTotdcd to tba poor aboa 
1&S4 la of two Unda; iit^loor and out-^Mr, tb* f(v 
mar given in the wotUmmm^ aad Iba fatter In tba 
pewptir'a own dwelling. Oot-door mlief la mora 



MpectiUy Kccordet) to cbHilren, Urn afCM^ uid tnvft- 
Uoa, bat in cetun cum it h miao Moorded lo tbs 
ftt)l»-bod)ed. Witb regmrd to the Uw of Mttlement 
ift A pkritb In reference to parochUl relief, *» 
SrmXMXiT. Ths poor-rat* d*fr»yi not only tba 
r~***"~"~ baitowed on pnipen^ but a cartua aviii- 
bor of oUmt expenaw; cxpeoaM of police, niftinisii- 
AiiM of toada, Ac Aa nj^anla tha reliaf of tb« poor 
•loni^ tb> tntal cipstwa datiblad Itaelf in ths thirty* 
Bva yean from It^^T to 1S71 Tbe total uuaibwaf 
nrapen in EngUDdaodWaJMosttia 1st of January, 
1888 waa 799,-ia6, ■Sowing an tncre««: of 16^2 over 
tba praoodbag yaar. 

In tbo law of tjootliiail two klnda of poor uv TW>g- 
■UMd, tb* idle and thg in/'vn. Witb Rgnrd to tbo 
fann«r Mreral ula have been puatHt (or thn punUb- 
BHmt of aturdy beggara and vagabuiiJa. Aouonling 
to nni* ot tnaM tbo punubmvDt ordalnvd to be 
inflicted wa> of a very »oi,-ere cliAMeter, Ml whipping 
and burning in lh« ««r; and by Act 157D, onp. uxiv^ 
K rapetitinn of th* crjin* waa mada puidababk witb 
dMtUL But, uxcopt aa to aoma unmir |»tiattic* kept 
npagalnat vaitAbiiDda, thcae itAtutai bave fallen latu 
total diaoM. With r«g&rd to the infirm poor, that 
iaUioac wbo (mm *0e another in (irmitiH arc unabla 
tonulntabi tboniaciTi'ea, Act ISS^, («{) xiLi.,iir(Iiiin«<l 
tildr imJatwiMOt by m tax Uvied uu tba piu-iah ; and 
by an Act 1663, cap. x\L, power wa* givro bi tbo 
ujidboldcn III landward paniliea to MM— tbenMolroa 
for tb« maintvnanc* of such of tbe poor w cannot 
fully mi^ttun tboinaelviM, tbo bnU <n whidi uhh* 
ment tbey wore entitltni to oxivrt trtrm tbe taunt. 
Otbor acta wore ■uliMrtiiiic^iilly paMod fur tbo bett«r 
ardmiDiiitratiDn of previDus n,ctx- 'llio act by widch 
Iha i«llef of tbo poor in now tuXtalnbilm^, Is 8 And V 
VicLclxxxiii. laoumdod by '^-1 and 2S Vict.c. xviU.), 
A gonenJ hiiaril. nf anpiTrviKinn i« csLkMbhoi, miiI im- 
■eamwita an impneil by tLo p&rucUJAl tHuxnla ut ths 
te^MtJve pariEibra, in oconrdAncc ivith ono or othar 
ot tlw tbrOB Tiiiiit'in aiLlLurixud by tbe alatuti^ Hy 
on* modo ous-hnlf cif thn luiii^iHmnnl U iin|.>nM^I upon 
Uia owner, aod tbe utbcr balf upon tbo teuaaU or 
ocoapaatB of all landa and herttacea wilUa tbo puiih, 
Moording to tbo annual raluo of thMft. By wotbor 
Diodn^ anc-lialf of tiin anoiincnt ia im|i»e<l odmi tba 
ownara nf tbo landa and b«HUKM In tfao wU>, and 
Iho otbor half ii impoaod upon th« wbolo [Bb«UtuiU 
of Che pulih. noootding toth«irine»ai«Hl mbatanoe 
otbor tbftn landa aim heritae«o oltuated In Orenb 
Britain or IrcUnd. lly a tbiid Diode of aMsannent, 
thcj aoKvouiunt ii impuood aa an oqunl pcroenU^ 
npon tbo annual value of all lancls and beritftf^ 
within the pariab. and iipitn tbo entimated otiiitiul 
Inuume uf llie trhule inhaoltwita of the |itLriiib from 
aionn* and siilwtanoe otbor tbut landu uud IcritiKva 
aituatcd in Gnnt Britain or Inlind. It ia in tbo 
powor of the parochial bctunl to oilo]! »nv ono oF 
tiiooo thrao tnodea of auMauieut. iiul>j«ct, bixrevtu', 
to tba appnivn.! and ratificAtion of tbo board of ci)[i«-r- 
vlaiun. Tbe properly furmt-rly veviud Ln the hvritors 
and kirk'BMilon, for behoof of th«> piior of a pAridb, 
ia ni>w adminiRtarml by thct parixbial iKia^rd of tbo 
parlib; bat chur«b (wlluvtiuua ountiniio tv bo diipOMd 
of by tbo kirk-oessloa of each parish lo ths wame 
inannor aa formerly. The reliot ia odmiuiaterod by 
thd paKK-Liiil board, which i« appoiotod by tbo rato- 
payers, th« hiin,'h ii»ii,-islratM^ and tbe idrk-aeaalou^ 
and ia aoouTddf to the oocaai'jual ai woU aa to tbo 
pormanant poor. Unlike thu Uw aa admioMend in 



I flveyearilnaaypMlabcoRatitateaaatUMBNifcttwa, 
Tba nuBiber of rosistered panpats and iMr dayad* 
acta on tbe 1 Itfa May, 1877, waa H,404, a mmiibcr 
I'fWir than that of any unmooa year; fat 1S78 •» tke 
aame iiariod it waa atUI lows, baing ifaatt 9l,(tTL 
Thia oecnaae b pauperi«D b daubtlav duo to a oea- 
•ideratda erteot to tbo E«n«ral praaportty ot Ike 
country, but it a1«i> ariaca in no Knall drgno from a 
mora carcfal di*tribuliioa al relief. In 1S90 tbo* 
wM a allSi'bt iDonaaa^ tbe nnntbar befng M,40S; 
wbile in ISA3 the onnbar van 9&.0SI. 

in Irrlnod there wen do poot^lawa till 1638. By 
1 Bud 2 Vict. cap. IvL paaaed in tbst year. Inland 
in diiidcd, for tba pi upu aw of poor-raUef, Into Hi 
nniuni of town-laoda or parwboa Each < 



workbonM^ managed by a board of {nardiana dacled 
by the ratofiayer*. hrery deotitnta pacam haa aa 



«b«olut« right to nllof, whidi h i 
vtitirely in tbo workhoiuK. In tbe firat week of 
JibDiiary, 1S8S, the tot^l iiuiiibcr of paiipen in nsxipt 
of rrlinf In uniona in lT»liuid waa \Ut//'H. 

Tbo fotbwing ia a rtatcinent of tbo total ezpas- 
ditiuo for the rcllof of tbe poor (ladlndlBg eeal el 
niAna^racnt) in Knglaod and Walea, Sootiand, aod 
Ireland, far the five ycnra ending 1882;^ 



SnciMa. SmUmj. fei^i Taw. 

1A7R . . .. £T,«n,SM. . . . £SU,7M . . . . ttU,«M. . . .O^ISMM 
ISTP.,.. T.8V.41B.... eS3,M>..., •IT.Mi.... llMMlT 

luo.... t.o»,oia.... Mi,i«4.... m.itT.... •jD*,ai 
iMi.... B.iiH,iiMi.... Mi,ui..,. au,u>.... 9jm;m 
isas.... s,aMTi.... i»it,su.... iMT,4as....u^u%«i 



by tba boiwd. The pariab 
In wbldi a ninn liaa Xmum intra ia the coo which to 
bound V> aupport bin, unlcn bo has fanned a new 
■ettlemait for Uiaaelf by nadence. A reaideBoe of 



For tbo tan yean cn^n^ 18S3 thor* ha« baao a 
slight decnaae ia the ntimherof paapera In England, 
a mueh men marked decroaae ni Sootlaud ; on ths 
other hand Imlaod'e panper roll abowe a atudy aud 
ounddemhle inereaao. 

There are medal aeta of Parliament regnlati&g 
the reuioval ol pauper? fruru any e«u) uf tbo three 
diviaiona of the United Kingdom— England, Seotlaa^ 
and Ireland- to ony otbrr of thoae. 

F(K)H'8 ItAThj ia tba name given in Dritain to 
tbe taxL-e m!«t>d fur tbu uli or aapport of tboae who 
cannot support tbemMilvae. See Pouu ahu PooB'a 
I. AW a. 

POOR'S BOLL, ui the Uw uf Scotland, fa the Itit 
of litlganta who, by maon of poverty, have the pri>-i- 
logo of ai^ng or dufonding a caae In mart r'a jorma 
poepcrw, by which tbey are exempted from tbe nay- 
nent of any oourt f(«a, and are entitled to hare thor 
ca<woonductodgrattiit<ni«lyhytheooiiaaalandageata 
ffr tbe poor. I'ha privilcn of pocn'B roll fa aHj 
accordMl to an ^)Ucant on nic producing a eerli&eate 
ni^-nnl by the minister and two oldora of the peruh 
lu whidi be neidai, letting forth hia cirauiwtanoai^ 
according to a formula annexed to the act. Tbe 
formula itatea the applicant's age, whether he (or 
she) be ronrrinl or not, the minilwr of bia duldro^ 
tba leu^lb uf hia reablcuce iu Uie pariab, the proper^ 
of which ho is poaaaawd, hia tnuje and earauga, and 
wbothor ha Imva any other lawtnit. The adraraa 
party in tbe suit tniut tw appriaed ten daya {e«vf> 
onaly of the lime and place Axed for ""l^g tbe 
declaration or atatomcnt of tbeao paitiotJan batei* 
tbo nifaUster and eldem, in order to give Ub time to 
oppose tiie application fur a certificate; and evidence 
of tbe iiitiiiiation niiut bat prmbicad to the minlater, 
under the bands uf aouie vEHcer of tbo law. After 
ho ia funiUliad witb tbo entlflcate obtained la the 
manner rtatad, the ajntUcant ia warranted in petition- 
ing the oourt for tbe benefit of tbepnor'ntK!!. Afur 
tbo pntition is ivceivad by the oourt it Ik rr-iiiitted to 
the cuunael fur tbe poor, bi nport whether the peti- 
tfonet bu a prohaluta mmm httyandi, tliat is, a good 
oanao of action. Two advocatin ar« api>ointed eecfa 
year to act exdurively aa mportete on tas proftoMw 




POPATAN— POPB. 



190 



emutm Utigamii of M)i>IiauitB, knO if tbeir repoit b« 
CftTouabk Um cue U tben ntnittod by the court to 
Iba rnnninl and t^wtt who hMvt thiu r«pon<s(, to be 

■ ■■■liiillil bv tbnn. THlB pariod far which Chi-' -irar- 
not lor Iht Mwb ti tiw pvor't roll rttoulna In (orc« 
amt meidi fev» TMm; bat » renawnd applintioa 
Ib ■llow«d to b* made. Tfanrv is no proTidOAn tor 
IMnti ttmt ootTw yo m dui g to tbkt of the puor'a n>U 
•ttMr ia EDffljtnd or Ireland. 

FOPAYaX, a dtjr of ColonbU, In a fcrtilo plain 
WStmd hj tbo t-'Mica, Mid iuat th« vtilcanooi 
I Pm«)£ mkI Sotan\ 223 milai aouth-wMt nf BoguLi. 
In b ngnlkrij built, ka* fin* vtresta, and allbnttgh 
WiKUjr4«cllMd Crcn ita fonner m^gnllicQiicc, u ttiLl 
MM f« tho ptiadftd dtim ot the npublkk It U Dm 
^~~~1 cf ft btahopnc^ baa a univoraity, a colleife, au ho>- 
'^mdother publla iitftitatiouH. lu trndo iioow 
vntfinod to acriraltaral firoilnire. It ira« 
' Ib I&3B, and altnoat oaDi[>l«leiy dertrojrod 
r Mt aartbiiaAlu w 1S3I. Pop. aboot 6500, though 
i«Mtiwabo«wSO.O(M>. 

FOF% AUUHDO, m co1*bnt«d English [wet, 
I ba» Jtmy ti, 1«8, In Iximtiard Ktreet, London, 
m Ul l awter, a liDe&'draper, ac<j|uired a ooiirider- 
I Ifl r tma. Bntfa hi* panuta vnrv ftomao Ostho- 
Bnconftvth* UrUi of bU •dq, wbu wu of vvrj 
' coMtttntloB, nudl, and roucb deformsd, the 
r«C Poperotited From baaLDcas to a auiall houaa 
**'-*'J'*, near Windaor Foraat Thn ynnug po«t 
Ima taai^ tonndandmiloat hoin«,aad at uieaeo 
|«f aiffal ma p|M«d nodar tb* oare of a Cftthdlio 
Uat, aaraed Tav«aiier, ftnm wbrm b« Iranicd Uiu 
t jluB man t a ot Latin and Orwlc Bcidk fond of raad- 
['%« fa* baeana aoquabitad at thte early period with 
lOiDbT'B vnsiaa of Hoour, and StaApi traulation 

■ Om'a Uctamoqihoae^whlch booka 6i«t tnrvMl 
Ua a M eation to po^ry. Ha araa nuxtu^nAj placHi 

I it two otiwr schooh, the line at Trfford aad tlia 

at Ujdo Park Comer, where he foncod a 

Iflaj la Iran from Ojpltnr'a llomor, tiit8riii]i«d with 

I mna a( hb own. and bad it actod by hia •chonl- 

i<Mb««. About Um twaUlb jaar b« waa takon homa 

'■md pdvua); iutnict«d b; another prieat; and to 

|,|Ub parfod la aa^nod hia carlicat prinlnl poatn tha 

klMi «a SoUtodiL Ho •nbaeqaootlT appaaan to bant 

ttw dinetor of Ida own vtadiea, in which tho 

[■JllialliiH of pootty Mcnpi«l hia chirl nttoDtion. 

|H« pattionUriy «s«rda«d biiuMlt in imitntton and 

, bnaWatioB, of whicb hia v«nioas of tho fint book of 

tta Tbebaia nod id tlw 8^>plio to Pbnon, made at 

) Ihe ng* ol fdoitoen, afloid a ramarkable ttiatimony. 

IM* waa Mztoao when he wTot« bla Paatonda, wlilcb 

I f ra a rad Urn tfaa notioa «1 anvcral amia«nt peraoni. 

I BlaOdo for SL CeoOia'a IHj ud Eany on CritidBn 

WMt hia next potfoniunoea of note^ the Utter of 

|*Udi wa« writtM) in 1709, and piibltkhrd in 1711. 

I Sa *'■'"'"* ombruOed with Ambrom Phillpa in cnn< 

I of an ironical oooiiMriaon of that wHler'a 

I naalaBya with hia own in tbo (iaardian, aad with tho 

■Hdblft oftie John Deonii^ owin^ to n Inini[jr<i)ia 

aPndun to Um nnder the name «( Appiim, in tlio 

Bmijp Mt Cntidan. The Begy oii an Ucforttumie 

Lady, which appeared In 1711, wa« followod by tho 

I of tho I«ck, gronndrd on a trifling incident in 

' • hfe. In ttiia produotion the iioet display* 

vfradty and tfae moat poUiLod wit, but 

linatliiallii powar la ohtefty wnapieoMia tn tho 

[^■fnUlB MMctdaarjof the aylpha, wrwight into it aa 

•• allarikHigfalt Cn* tb* poem flnit appeiarod without 

IL B* Mtt pahUabed llip Tenplo of Fame, alurvd 

md nniwliail Inn ChaDoar, wfaieh waa followed 

,ia ins by hia Windaor Pomt, eommeoced at kIi- 

, laiH. la tho iuno year h« pabUahed patipnMd« fora 

I IiwIbUiiii of tbe lUad, by nibacriptioii, which «-i-ra 

whll C**** ■ncoungameat; and tha fint 



volumo, containing fnur hooka, appeared in 1715 ^in 
ibi). An open bvcacb with Addlaon ptvcoded thta 
ptibUcntlon, owfai^ to an aOtged janlDusy on tho part 
of the latter, to whom a riral traotlation nf llooner, 

Eubliabed nndor the name of TiokoEl, waa attribtiUxl 
y Pope. Whether by Addiion or Tlckell. tbe rival 
T(a«tcn KMTL sank b^ora that of Pope, wbv waa 
enablod by tbo great eucccM of hia undertaking to 
take a bandiame honaa at Twickenham, to which be 
rtrmo^vd with Ua Eathar and molbfr. Ahnat tbia 
time he wrote hie Impaaaioned Epiitle from Eloiaa to 
Aholard. ooo nf the mmit rirld and linpinaalTa dl all 
amatory pocnuL In 1717 he repubUahed hia pootry 
In a quarto \oIume, to wUdl ho profisad an eJagant 
prafaoo, and in 17-JO eompleted un Iliad. In 1721 
iui nndortfif.k thn cilltAniblp of Rhakip(--re'i worka— 
a tank fur wtiiL-li ht? va» wh'.illy uufit: anil a *«^«r« 
castiKalion from Theobald laid the foundation ot a 
bating enmity bctwMn thnn. With the aaalatanm 
of BmaTQe and Fenton he alao accompllabed a trana- 
ladou of tbe Odytwy, the aubacripUon to which 
brought him a conaduitblo rim. In the mi-antim« 
he h^ fonned a friendaUp with Martha Blount, the 
dau|;)ittt' of a Catholic i^tleman near lU^a-iiiig. wbi> 
became biiintiinat«cot||ii>fantir and Gomjianiontlimii^h 
life. A K>rt of literary flirtotiim ahn cuiniuetMed 
iritb the eelelirated Lady Mary Wortley Montagi^ 
wLk^h, afl«^r much UitcrciourM and corroapocidcacc^ 
torminatm] (not MoXT±av — Lai't Mart WORtI.n) 
bi the Uttvnot mnuly. la I7S7 he Joined Swift In 
A publication of MlBOulaaiaa^ la whIcA ha imort^ a 
trcAtiac Uf tho Bathoa, or Ari of 8inkinff, illiiiArated 
by exampUa fmm tho inforior noeb of wo day. In 
1728 he BtJDtvut tbu ttine Gnt nooks of hb DuncJod, 
a mock-heroic pD«m, tho object of which waa to 
overwhclni his antaKi>i>>at« with ridicule. It la a 
finished etnmt'le of diatioa and TOraifieaUion, but dia- 
^A>i niudi irritability, DBbetaUly. and bjuatioe. 
Pprsoiud ■.itire, to which he waa firat Mteoni«^[od by 
lUihrj[> Att«rhiiiy. ap£>m\m in nirat of hia nubaaanant 
prwluctiinut. Ik-tni; particidarly ouiincrlvd with the 
Tory party he bad Mooma Ultimata with Lord Bol- 
in^brokti to whoae enggestidn tha world ia indcbtod 
for the Ewar on Kfwi, lust |nibliah*d anonymoualy 
iu 17S3, and till- nett vmu i-i'iuplaladaad avciwod by 
the author Thia work la mora dbtia^mahed by Ito 
p-«try than IbUblca. It waa followed hr Imitataooa 
of Huraoe, aooompnainl by a PriiloK^e and Eptlugne 
to tbe SatiiTs, tixi by MiyrA Kpiatbe or Jbaaya, 
which exhibit him u a eatiriit of tho lehool of BoU- 
<«n, with more niirit and poetry and eqnal caaatjcaty. 
Tbo pentma whagu In theee worka ke tiwata wUh 
moat aewrity are Lady Maiy W. Uoalagti and Lord 
Harvey. Corll, tbo bookaoUsr, baTinr publlafand 
aomo lettcri writti^o bgr Pope, tiko bttor affected great 
angor; ynt there ia aome eTideoae to countenance the 
notica that b« mntrirod tbe plot hiTneelf, in order to 
form an eaenae for tbt pnbUcation of atjnarto ToJnme 
of IsUm^ In hb own name, tor which ha took aob- 
•crintiona They arc olegant aad ■pngbtlf,althoagk 
•tuoiad and aiuficut: mt aa many th at ac t w l a t te 
opbtlaa an gtren faom thoas of hb aatmpcadaMa^ 
tbe collection la Interoatfu and raluablo. In 1712, 
at tho aaxgaation of Wi^nrton be added a fourth 
book to hia Dnndai^ latcfubd to ridicule tiaebM and 
frivoknia ttodba b vdtidilMaUabkad CoDay Olbbtr, 
tbenpeet-IanTcate. Clbbar rttaUatadtwapampUe^ 
which told aouM Indieroiia atinlea tl hm antMtabL 
and ao briUtod tbo bttm- that; b a new adi&on eC 
tbe Ehmdad, ha daooaad Theobald, ib original Iwro, 
and promoted Olbber In hb plae^ who, allbonffa a 
gnsat ooiouub, could acaraely be dee m ed a dunoa.— 
An oppreMivn aatlima beffiaa sow to ludicat* a «oan- 
mencinc dcclhui, and is tab atato e< debility ha waa 
ecoaoled by tbe aflectlonala nitantton of hb friend^ 



md pwtioDtnrly of Ijonl R^]ing^m)ce. Wben the 
Umi iCCQV U'n« a|.>{.<ruiwLin|{ hi; nlliiwcd one (•[ Kia 
lotlauUa, tbo butarlui Hoolui, hliDBelf & Cath»Uc. 
W KBd tiff ft priett, not ne eMontu], but becomiug; 
Mod won after quietlj expired, M>y 30. 1 744, a,t ttio 
age of llfty-alx. ilu wm inttured »t TwitJtunluui, 
vfaora n tii^inanicnt waa orected to him by Bubop 
Wkrbiirb^n, hia Ic^ttic. 

Both the uiockI ami puettci! charmctcr of Popa bava 
b«m Mwiled and defi^udei] wjtli jxMruUiir ftiiiinatiijii. 
V^ Mai imdble ho ■ocnut to bavo bean crjnftlly rrpfn 
to fUtter; and prone to ri^a<^>ntmc^nt ; but ntm of hi* 
graftUit woakocMM wm a diapiailioii to luiitioc in 
ordtr to wqaira mpnUtloa and itpplau»e, which Ij 
justly deduivtl iadiottivci ot littlsDCM of miod. Ha 
wu not, however, IncafAlik* of gmutrooBUid olevat«d 
Baiitinienta, and waa aa linn in hia aUacluut^nU aa 
EnipUotblo ia hli dUilciM. Ho hail nlwayE a digEutied 
K^ud to bis indepondtiniRc, whirh in one to wlinm 
mtatej, high iMti&ecUona, and the luperfluitiBii uf life, 
IDOM oapocinJly tha laiiiriaa vi tb» tabid, wera by do 
lOMDa UkdiiForent, la tb« mora reurarluhlo. Ho hu 
bwa uoiufld of meaanem towanla hla litoraiy ooftd- 
inton, but osrtftlo storioa of s nAtuce to iinp«ftch Ida 
toU.-^'rity ar« now no longap boUevad, wpM^ially na 
tiuiui'thing Uko ao Iti>IL>pO(ition to do him juaLioc, 
ollhcr u ft mat or ft man, haa b«en tnaaifnt In thoM 
who rolfttM then. A* a pnci, whilo hi* ciaim to 
loveutloa b buunilect, Iba endnavaur to net hitn witle 
fthogvtber, in coniptlniDnt ti> oertala mvtapfaynieul 
diatinctioTU ia rc;G;anl to the primary loarooa cf poetic 
feeling, ia fftctitiuiu and futile. No Kngluih writer 
h*a ourtsd furtlivr com>ctuM> of verBification, iplen- 
dour of dirbinn, and thn truly p(i«tji7Al art of vivilyin(* 
and lukiruinj; every aubjtict that h« touched. Mia 
Itftpa of the Lock, lud !Ki>iBtlQ ftom EIniita Ut Abel- 
ard, are alonv anfScicnt lo imjiearh tLo exduaive 
thaory which Wdiild ilany hiio tLe rank and notvnm of 
ft pwtt IcftvlD^' IiIh wiu bit brillkacjr, and \m uhLirn 
to Imi ranked as tbuv maybe. Of th« varioiui c>]itioti« 
of Pif]n'« wurka It I* only n«c«««»j-y U.i ineutiuii thrwc* 
of WarburtDD, Juhnaon, Warton, and BowK^a (the 
iMt in too volk 8to, ItlOO], togttber with the new 
and aa yet (ISSI) uuucituplot«d editiou by the Iter. W. 
Klwin, cootaJidng about 300 ]att«nipr«vii>URly unpub* 

lUwd. 

POPES. Pope <Gre«k, pappai, father] ia the title 
givna to iht hctui of ih» KMOftb Calhollo hWarchy ; it 
la also applinl Ity the enatem CbriatiaiiB to all priMtti, 
ftuil ia cftTly timea was j^venUi the Weet tu all biahop'. 
nirtU iabawpiVBtly it wm rvstrictod to th& BI«hor) of 
Home. Chiriug Uie apotili^lic age, and for more than 
a ceatTiry after wrarJB, thu Cliriittaa ohnnhM weiw in 
entire ImlopoudoiLoo, «o far aa tbvir govvmnimt woa 
eonoemml, of caob other. Eftcb cbnrch bad iu prca- 
bf ten or blahupo — f«r ttkSfta wen eonrertLblA Icrau 

nnd ita licaeo'Da, and upon theav fuoctionariee 
d»VQl*«d the ■iiiritiial char^ itf th« ecmgregattriD, 
But gTftdoftlly ttds >twt« uf iu»lt«n clian i;ed, and Kftve 
place to the DpiooopAl form of ^nvenomtjiit. One of 
their nntnlMir wea cJc«t*d to prtiddo ovor the college 
of inwbyton, sad to him wm given th« tpadal title 
c( Whoe. Thmgh at fint rt^ftHed only bb flnl 
fttnong nta equahi, the buliop wxin claiiuFid authority 
over oia ni-prMbjtf^ni. The cuatom of lioliling pro- 
vtocbl aynuds \i«ii»iL to pi«vaQ towarda the end of 
the eooond oenttir>-. Tbeee ftaaombUM oonaiitcd of 
the Uthope of tbe independent obunthte^ with a few 
pieelnrlon and deaoona. *A regolar ooneepon dunce,' 
aaya albbon. 'waa aetftbUebed tetweeo tbe provincial 
conndls, which mstnally commnnlcftted ftnd ft[Mwov»d 
their reapectlTe pnweedingi; xnd the CathoUc Church 
•oon ftaaiitnrd the form and aMiuired tlj« HtTvn^'tli ot 
ft greal fotrratlve r«ipiitJi&' Thii (nihopa of tbn 
thud ccQluiy ijuperefplibly oubatlluhHl fwr the lan- 



gnage of exhorUtten thftt of ocmmaftd, Ihtj ' 
tho tieccvmti of Christ, the racctMon of tha ^o»- 
ttea, and tbe rayKtfe nbatitntaa of tlie hi^tfriaat rf 

the Bilusaic law. Aa fi>nnerlj attkOlig the pwihyte w ^ 
no now amDDg tbt* biih<ni«, aonne aoqnirad pri imin' 
nnon over tbe othera. Tbe pn-einhiawe n oonPcDa 
wu ftoeotded to tbe metropolitan^ or the bUMfie of 
the ^lief oitiee of the proviiioe*^ and noxt aroeo » 
•tru^te ftmongrt tbe ntetiopolitaae th<in»rfvw fcr 
the pre-emlnoQcc. Tnm vetiooe pMu eeL bat SMce 
Mf^dftlly f mm the cirCTiawtMiae that Beine «u the 
aiiricnt capita! of ibm empire, and, ecoordiitt to trft> 
dition, tho acnne cif the lateet laboon of 8L Peter, h 
WM eaay to tvreeco that the Uehop of that dty. the 
alluiTod iijoeeiMr of Potor. would obtftta tbe rcepert, 
an>i eoon «Ulm the obedieooe, of the proriDcei. T» 
lining dinputanta appealed for dthnato JeaiJillt. ftad 
oppi\!iHH;d pftKiee for edvocacy ftnd proleotioa. Thum 
Itome CTaiiually roae tn uithoritj, end eooa olnlmd, 
aa uf right, what at fint peraonal oeofidenoe or tte 
urgency uf ciroirostancsa hacIacooidMi innneoaland 
tnaivijtial inatanoe^ tViin tba eud of the fourth 
century the Biebop of Bome waa tbe fiiwt kiaaiig tbe 
live [•ntriarclis.orBaperiorhiabopeof Chitrt0odom;biit 
hndid not at firetpoe>a» My peculiar joriadiolion org' 
pro^iudal diooocee. A pronndal aynod at Sanllcft 
in niyri&in the year 347. and adecroeof the Entpvrcr 
Vaii^timao Tit. in 445. had todocd acknowlMged 
the Iliahop of Rome a» primate, and an the leat tri- 
bunal of app^ from the other Uabope; bvt oven in 
the Wi'Ht, where alone theae odicta bad the (one cf 
law, tlic- 1111-n.iitrai of tbe popce, antO the eighth een- 
tiiry, cjfUu met wilb violent oppoatton. At flrel the 
p:\ttifn to the primacy on tbe part of tbe Bomaa eea 
WM baeod only on faanutn autnori^. Loo tbe Gnat 
<44CM6I> woe tb« fir*^ in Ms Inatraettone to hie 
legates at tbe Conncil of Kpbcaua, behl in 419, to 
riMt it on iliviito authnrity, ay appaaliag to Mitt. 
xvi, 19: 'TtuiiL nn Frlvr, and upon tUa ndi vfll I 
build my olmrch;' which bad fomwriy been iatn- 
];ir«tt-t, fi'llt-wJcig Cyprian, aa applyliuB to ftU tbe 
apmtk's, and b«nc« to all btabvpo. The Eastara 
< :hiitch alwaya mdntoil the rlaima of ^e aeo of RomB 
to Ibu lanuiacy, and tbia it wai wbieli mainly oocft- 
iiiiin«Kl th«< Kliiam that in 10(4 divided CbrirtMidcaa 
into tbu Grcvk and Boman CbvrebeL After the 
eii^htb ountury aei-eral dretunstaaces ooDtHboted to 
ogwn to tbu pd^x.-:! Uie way to aupreme control orer 
all chiirrb««. Among theaa want tbe eetaUiabing <f 
new ohurT:hca bi Cionnnny, whldi,]ihe tbo» c< Britota 
at an earUcr period, being fbnnded by their aiMea- 
arin^ were at firat aubjoct to their novrer; tbe poli- 
tical oonfmnoo, and tbo cJiange uf covmuncnt in 
lloly and IiVanoe; tbe peoodo-Iddorisa decretala, 
forced between S&O and 8S0 (which, in tboee toMe 
of i^oranoo, ooatctbnted much to Bnpport tbe oUfaae 
of the Itnman IThnrch to exirrciao au[veDM power, 
by prebeiuleil letttin and etatut^ of formar hoahcne 
of Itotse, dated bade to the firat oentorfee); the 
achiaca between the Eaaten and WBelem Cfatttdio^ 
which bound the latter atlll more oloaely to the 
popeeaa their lea<ir'ra; the B7«dfttioM of eoolerfartkftl 
rank (m« Hiuujiuiii) everywhere fntrodnoed by du 
uubitinn of tbe ropei^ iD derived ftnd grftdoelly 
d)-«ccodlDj fruni tiieiig, who hnd — wmeJ the bigbeal 
(dace; and, finally, the pereonBl euperinrity of aome 
popca over tbcir oaatempcnritft Thai, Leo tha 
Great in the tifih oontnry: Gregory L, called the 
Grant, a zealmia, gocid, and able man, in the airth 
cpntiiry: and Leo III., who crowned Charkdnagne^ 
in tbo vii;hth oentury, had obtidned for tbe I^>ftl 
title an authority which the patiiatdu of tbe £aat 
wuld not Attiun, and a^aiimt which the power <rf 
prince* nii-iuled tiltle. There wen^ iudaed, nnwotthy 
l>up4e durb£ the middle agea; bat aftor tba brilHant 



I 



I 



Fopm 



SOI 



viahwy whicb Nidu^H I. (xrbo wm flnt fatinnnly 
cnNnMd) obUliMd oret LoUmvs, kJnjf of Lomine, 
in tba ftSsir of a ^-nmo Id SSS, Mod ov«t tins Bbfaopi 
'Of TMtm and ColoeiiA, vbom h* depowd by hii 
Papii MitiMritT; maanita Uia exainpla which John 
▼UL bMl rft<;a In 6rc, of » dbpoal <tf the Imperial 
tnmm, wUen h« Donfcend oo CluriM th« Bald, tltfl 
peimat at the popee otmld raodre Iwt Itttla injur; 
nan tb« riolmcs ami comfitiaiL which pr«vi^led in 
Uw Papal aea for loon tliui a huD(lr«<j ymtt. "Daa 
oocnpC itala. due at fii»t 100^7 to the inflnencA of 
Ibo Twan counU at Borne nndW Sersiaa I1L, tMtlj 
Id the tcntli reuturj, ira* ciiDtiBiiad oj tho wlokad 
aad IteaiitkuM txromUM and polattona of Lho Infaia- 
ooi ftluuiiM Tlwodaea and Maroda (oac of whua, 
John XIL. fa t>5fi, while bn* elglitsea jem old, and 
aaotkH-, Ban«dict IX.,fnlOiIS^a bqj of twain vaan, 
•AilalMd the diipdty c{ pop«>. £veo tha aoaaaabtia 
rf mirwrt »B W tut ia 1045 three pop««, ehoeen bj 
iiMi— e at hiibery. won living togothor ia Rome did 
no* affect the authority td the P«.pal ■«. The rnHo- 
oan of the aga oonocalw) the tcariilu] of luoh thine*. 
la the mUM of all thii daritnsai a ray of lia;ht appoara 
fatfaandgBofthiBaxMUeatSjrlvMterll. (^iiU-lOO^, 
•ho waa 000(4 the moat leam«d men of Im time, and 
whoothcwaridRttardaduiainn^iriiui. lljatronbles 
■dring dtttiaff tlw dooltae ot the CaHu via^flaii djoaat; 
fa Ttiaot Md G«RQa&T oOered an extenalre ami coo- 
timaaSiy nkmag field of action to the amblttoa at 
IhaMfMa; and thtfr dignity ai>d Indopeodenoe of the 
■ctfamdpwpleef Boaet which they had often loet 
didBf lb* «Mtetitiow af faBtiona, wore ngiUiwd by 
Amb hy the eooatitutlon cf Nicbulaa II., Ju lOSV, 
■bdng tba rigjitot alection to the I'ap*! ch«ir in tbn 
Madi oCiheewdlula <ieeCovcLAvv>, u> tU> tixvliulvn 
oCthelahy. AfHrthiiamec e erionof goodrnkru. of 
gnat talABta and eioelloBt character, lat upon what 
VM ttMK the &rtt throne in Chriftnulom:— Gn^Dry 
VIL(107S-£A), who nupaawd them all tn npirit and 
In power, and who began to cany thmugh with wua- 
Arfnl pereevcnnca the praject of nnircnAl dominloo ; 
Urban U^ who wm aeverali tlmea driven frvm Bomo 
liy tha antl-popa CbnMit UL, bat who from 10S8 
to low toled with erteulve inBucEkce and oxtraiw- 
Saaty vifoar, Alexander IIL (1 15I>-51), whn durniff 
bb n^gn anrvlved two rirali^ and ov«rcaiua » Uiird, 
who livwfat tbe Kin^ of Eneland and Sootlaiul 
ta «uoaduiot)al obeiUeiioe in Mi jiioiia mattenv who 
■tftda lb* Emperor Fnderidt I. hold hl« ■tirmp, and 
•ooAmwd tha mtm «f tha vlection of popet; and 
laattetat HL 111M-1214), whoae reign nuad tiie 
ftoJ loe to the higheet decree ol power and dignity. 

What the Mpoa la earl in- tiBMa had only atlerupted 
fa poplar oreumetanoot^ tbaaa great oum, eo anm- 
fior to their age, made the ■ettleduaage by » rmW 
miaa of bold aeamrci and panonriiig eSoita. 
They oniled the «1««T ol Weatem and Oeutnl 
Europe dceely to the Papa! lee by tba introdncthm 
o4 a aaw fovm of oath, by tb<.< Iaw of oelftmy, and 
the law of fanNtitare, which broke the union 
_ fcoahopa with their tentporal prinoca, aiul undor 
pX&BoeeBt in. waa extvndea to a power of di*|nain)i 
■k p lw n ii of all the dIgnMaa and braafioaa of the 
tkanh. By mcani of their legatee and nnncioa they 
obb^ad the hWMp'a right of deddbg faeoi^eada*- 
tial and maMmoolal auln^ and the enliialve right 
«( cmraebntica; and tbey tbw made tbe popee the 
nb teutafa o< eodaiUMial dignity and power in 
m0mn tfcr fa lendon. By erentually aiaamlng the 
aala lifl^l cf ooo¥aning oouncili and naUoaa] aynoda 

beae daenea beoatna valid only by betng ratilled 
tba pope), and by mafatafasu with mon nod 
bAlnwa their daina lo fafiil&biU^, tbey at 
k obtained complete doaninion over the cborah. 
IW'the mden ol mcMika, cepecially of tba BMndioHit 



orden, th«iy mjnUd a Kpiritual army, who, hatio^t In 
their band* the Inquidliun, the ri;;)it uf hmriog coo- 
feeriouv ud of preaching, to^thor with tho publlo 
miperintcndsnce of acboolii and nnlvenitiea, became 
the moet nanftij inKtruineut of thirir policy, and oue 
of the atronsMt Bup|JoctR of tholr [H>wiir. T bo enootea 
of tbeae advaneos towarda uolitniMd iFirituid do- 
minicn gave them otmrage to atrfre abo after temporal 
power. 

But the daitna of tho p"pos to worldly ilomlnlon 
are of mach later oH^a than the biatoriaua of the 
cmirt of Itiime haTO maintained. Conatontine tha 
Oreat ^mre lti«m merely amna building* and eetatae 
io and nfor Itomo. By the giti of Pepin (aea 
Chcr<;[i— SrATts op the) thu poi>e obuiaeJ menly 
tbe AiminiuM titHf, that is, the Due nf lands Inlnuted 
to him. Id thii way ha berairw in a Rianner a taaaal 
cf the Ftnnkiab IduDt and afterwanlaof the Qennan 
cmparon,wbo ezerdeed without oppoeitlon tbe tl|^t 
c( eoven^gnty oror the Pwal dominlonn, and nntil 
the tirolftn century aiiiiTcred no eloctiun oS [icipo ta 
tnlce placu vritbutit their ratllioation. Itmuovut III. 
flrat eetabliahcd tha ruts tbM BoDW. tba >[archoi^ and 
the banKlitftry jv.Mtaa{ou cf Matildik (aea Maitiva) 
ahould da bim humage ae lord patamount, in 1108, 
and ibui vuuiehed tlw Inat thoAow at th^ fMiwer of 
the cmperon over Boow anil the \iupv. Fatoumble 
circunuitancea had already made laTenU klngdnnu tri> 
bnbuy to tba Paual eee^ England waa tbua iituated 
frnm the time of ila oonvenlon to C!hrlaUanlty, w> n-vre 
Poland and Hungary, from die devnuheentury; Bui- 
gari* and Arragon. from the l^eginning of tbe thlr- 
teenlli; and the Kininloniaf the Two Mciliea {whoae 
Nomuui king* hwl Men vnaaala of tbe pope), from 
1 296, wboa OemcDt IV. gave ft to the honae of Anjoit 
through hatred toward* the taooat of HohenataoloB. 
Etcd the Eaat wonid have fallen under the power of 
Kama If tbosnoMsaf tho Croaadea (whJAbM gtvM 
rise in tbe Weat to mnch eonfuaiea in regard to An 
ri^ta of cAisen* and private prajwrty, and thereby 
promoted the intlaenae nf tba Pope) liad been leea 
tranaitory. Znnooeat IIL dared to dcfMae and pnr- 
clalm kl^n >■■ for inetanee, John of Engiapd, and In 
threaten toe whol« world witiioxootnmiuucnticn. The 
Kmperor Otho 1 V. collnl himaeif each by the grace nf 
God and of the |>upe. Kloga were ealled aeitt ef Ae 
popt; and the foarof the tvrribla ootueqo«ao« of tba 
inUnrdict wbtch they pronounced na rican of Cbritt 
upon diaoUsdicEnt poincea and their kingdomi^ tbe 
Kl>eiliaui iplrlt of the barona, the lll-regnlated con- 
Htitatlon of Maiee, and the groat want of lawi, auh- 

{'octed the ruierx cf tlinw: timca to the authority of a 
Drd wbcae ooart waa tha cnwUe of nuidcra politica, 
and whoaa power and Inflseooe wm Imalatfble, 
becane npportad by pnbUeopfakm and by lapantl- 
tion. Itwaawlthrflaaoii,tbflll,tballh«i>B|<acyattbae 
time waa called a HUMcraoI mmmutAji. 1'hia ptieatly 
goranuneat, however, did good by aocoatomiag tba 
luds prtnoea and people to law* and Cttriatian man* 
son; and at a time when righta were ibat begiudnf 
to lie nnderatood, ila inconuatency with titie iodfr- 
pendeooe waa nut felt. 

Frasoe alone, whidi had acquired more cooeiatency 
and power than the other monanihlee of Bnropa l^ 
thembjugntionof the matvaaulaand tiMTadnrtion 
of their torritniiee under the royal goremaen^ fliat 
euooMif ally rvriatod tbe popea. In Fhil^ Ibt Fair 
Booifaoe VIIL, otia of dw boldwt ud noa( nUa 
popca, found a mtater, and hi* tu aeawoi^ dnrlsc 
thor raddenee at Aviifnon between 190T tad IS??, 
fvmidned ondar French Infloenoei Tbe Indsfiandanee 
of tho popea visil>ly a u gere d from tba iliiniiialaiiiiii 
that tbey wen now bound to a paitlenlar pelMenl 
pariy, tbot^h they coalinued to aiardaa ovar aD tba 
CbrwtiaA coontriea of tbe Woat the power wfaicb 



202 



POPES. 



thoir tuia nnA perMTAnmoe Imd obtdMiL Tbeir 
•UicDity Hiuik still lowL-r whu. I& U78, two rival 
popm apiM!art(3— tho I Ulinn l»iin VI., and » oonnt 
of Geneva, cliiweii by tlii- >''reiicJi canliiiMa, who took 
the tiiun« of Cleioent V'll, Kuru[iif wm dlvLled by 
tb^ii qujuTcl, the lultan being rapportad by Itftly, 
GsTtnAny, Kngl&ml. uuil the nOTthem Idngdninii; th« 
PtVDOb pops by France, Spain. Savoy, Lvrrktun, miiil 
SootlMtil) and tbn nchiim Inng renLoinciL 'Ilin |ii]Mic 
m]» of odB«e«, tbu ihuiitfful extortions, oiid Ibe low- 
■rtl£oH ivUcb mfst of these rital popin hbmI ^&lnst 
OMb Otber, g»vc riiw in Knglnml mii1 Biihcmia <»c« 
Hum) to inucti ouniiJiuDt, and to (lonuuidN for » 
mfmn la Cb« state of tb« fUurcb. The oouqcQ uf 
Ccnutanoa hod, indem), siiccocilod in patting ui und 
to tbfl gKAt Mhum by d(^p<llling Uith i-t the rivjils; 
bat Pom Mftrtiu V., wbu wu cbowui In 1417 Iti 
tbeir place, did not comet tbo kbtWM wbicb had 
grown up under hU prv^lccceaora, Mid vnn tho mMt 
expreaa iltcnxm for refonn, p««aL-iI by tho (Jonncil of 
BmsI, went rendered tiu^&tory by thfiartlflceBULd tfa« 
pmsowntnoe of £umao IV., who wni popo bvlwwD 
1131 and H7T. He had ^wncd the friundAhip n( 
Fnmcc in, 1438 by the Praguuttic SMctloo, which liwid 
thu ftmn'intinnrif tti«ifrw«doniaf thaUalUoui'linrch; 
and tliu ii<:^>]tiAii<iiM of Xncta 3yIritii,ftmba«Mkdor i>f 
Frodurick III., with him uul hli snooeMor, the excel - 
lent Nirholiu V., a hiand to ftnrient Uteratora, And 
tfaeprutt!ctoru( tlii;lanTii«daxUHfrritn(JmKW,elTcc:tnl 
the Concordiitof VleonalnKiS. Why the K^i^^iuiotM 
of tl]« OcraiAn cation wn« so little reniedlad by this 
InatruniL-nt. ithilc tiic iiiti'r<-iit of titc \uitm! wan CArn- 
Eully atlDtided tu, lbs Ueiman pruii;i3i, wliuiu ibe elu- 
qoenco <if the cDDtdu); negotUtur Ainw SyMm had 
biducwd tottccvpt it, first parcci^-ed when b« woicbovoD 
cwdJii»l, Mid tu 1 1^6 pope, undt-T tho n&me cf Ptus IL 
tn this Uoucord&t tLo pupes ubloJiiod the ooafina&- 
tion of tho knoatui, of thi> ric^ht of rntiffing tbu eliw 
don of pnlafaM, and many (lihcr pritih-^>n<. 

In care (or bia family ni> pupu tttat aurpnaied 
Alexander VI. (HM-1503), wbtao tntuln}; j»ud 
qaidiiicalioDB fitted him for a tt^nipor^ rather than 
aRpiritnal nilrr. )Iir auccoMor .luliiia [I. (16t)3']3>, 
OfupJojrtil ul! his puwcra Id ]iiilitic% aiid in n war with 
Vtnem, in whiob b* oamiuaDdMl hia own army, but 
waa oh%«d to floo bofgn Bayard. Fortoaatvly hr 
bin and (or hh tneoMeor, Leo X., MaximlUau I. 
WB« prerciilcd by circiunatanott, and fiuallv by death, 
bum UDittng upun hia own hnul tho I'apal antl 
imperial cruwmi, Itie vlrcuiuetanco that Auatrift, 
Tnmoe, and Spain voro fighting for Lumbardy and 
Naplet^ and thcrcforv aoveblalUrnnt'.'ly the favour 
of th« t>v\3vi, hsA CAuaetl Ui« Utter tu Hjii! am«w in 
poUticiu im^xirtaiiCQ towarda tho end lA the Clft«enth 
(Mutory: but thu apirit <jt thv tfnea waa acquirbig 
as InwiiUblo stryn^, and the policy of IjCO X. waa 
eS no avail againat it. Luthrr, Ziiiiigliua, ajid Calvin 
wwra the heraldji of on opptwitionwliic;!! tor»>itDioet 
ball of the Wett (rvm the popea, while the polii;y of 
Charl« V. waa at tha same tJiM dlmJnlBhing dielr 
pon-cr. What the ara «f ignnranw hiad allowed to 
the pop« the Council of Tnnt indeed now ratified; 
and the Sodety of the Jeauits came forward aa the 
guarda of hie throne, etnviug to craae all tmom of 
Uie ReformatJon in tlia stAtca which bad rmuuned 
Cathode, and tu rci^aiu by ciiawuua KDunK the 
beatbeo what had boon lost in Europe: yet neithi?r 
tUa new aupport, nor the policy of artfol popes each 
aa CleniMit Vn. (1S2&-S4I, whom Charl<M of Bour- 
bon, tha general of the amiAror, drove In 1S37 Into 
th« oaatla of St Ansi^o; and Paul IIL (IfiSMS), 
-who gained fcr lot family Panna and Plaoenaa; nor 
the roonldab devotion of Paul IV. (lfiS5-69); nor 
the mnderatiiin of Piua IV. I155&-65), who conda< 
•cended to grant the cap to tho Ikibtnulaa Htmitca; 



u'T the aanrl^ of Plua V. n5AS-73(. wka oOaodad 
both prinoM and people by his boll In evoa Deninl, 
worthy of Ma proviona cbanobtr aa a praod DamU- 
e4ui and furioua peraecatar ol heredo^ al^HO^ Ua 
svv«re axiaterity obudned hlaa tba hotwor of canoo- 
isation ; atiU leu the oieEul aotirity of Gragwj SSXL 
(1572-85), who gave U> the world the MBUDitoil 
calctndar iQivhoHhu): the maguaslmity and wiadnni 
nf Siitlu V. IIC^S-SO); Uto good fortuna at Clecaimt 
%in. [Aldebnutdld, lSM-1406). wh» In 15»8 added 
Forr&ra to the States of Che Chwcb; tba kainlwg of 
Urbnii VIII. {H2S-H\ wboaddMl UrUnotoUado- 
minlntia, and obliged Galileo to abjure biadeoMoeof 
the ludtiuu of the enrth round tbi) sun, — amid ra al oe 
tho old nuthonly of tho Papal (hnxMW In *nia did 
thi! <v)iirt of iliimi' employ the Uitfnace of Qregofj 
VIL am) Jtinpoent III.; even la CUbobo itnle* tbe 
distfnotlon betweeu ecdealaetlcal and political adidn 
bad been porodTed ao dearty that tbe InAiieiMe of 
tbe jiofiFa ainEi the hitter w»a now very limited. 

Slnc« ihi! middle o( the aixteanth cwntury ao Qer- 
mnn nn[>er?r had been crowned by « Pops. Tbi 
princoi who hail It-jknud biit policy witborew thnrn 
nclvea from Lin iiutborily. Tho national dnrdwa 
ol'tainod th»ir (iv>h1huii In xpitn of all oppoMtion, and 
thu P«ace of Wcetphalia. which tbe Papal aaa aevar 
acknowledgod, ^vo pubUo legaUtjr, gwuMitMd by 
all tbe |iow«n ot Kurope, to a iyatMn of tolerati'a 
wlildi wax in direct mntrnilictian to the papal doo> 
triueiL Under auob dreuniatancea tbo qoeatloa no 
longer wu how to estend tba fapti antiicirity, faol 
how to prevent ib ntter deatrwiion; and tbe vicar 
o( Chriat, who, when be b«fpui to oalt faitnaeU aerrant 
of e«rvaat», was lord of lords, wm oblJ|[ad to pUy 
the part of a mppliaiit, who cbuma Donpsnrfaa and 
toleration ntthi^ than obedie&c«b Jaaasnimt ako 
took fruui the [mpce a conaiderable part of tba 
Ni>tb(>rliuKli ; thuir bnlla were bo longer of nvaS 
bcyiiiid thi' rtaleti of the CfaoRfa wltbauC tha onaant 
of LUq mivorrniiTui, and the r«vennea troon fomgn 
LingiluutB ifTvw nnatler Bud cowUer. In F^aaoc^ 
and nooa after ia Germany, they baeaioa tbe objada 
nf rirlicnlo; and tbe exoelknt men who ocmpiod tbe 
pcoilifical chair in the ci^tecuth eenUirr, the Icauned 
Lambertiul (1740-6^ (see UcxKurcr X'lV.>,and tbe 
ndighteuod aanganelli (Clement XIV., I7i»-7t), 
were foreed to expiate tbe giiLlt of their prodeoaaaBi^ 
and •ought to obtain, by nieaaa of paliBiMCv MSda* 
■cnDidon, and periKUial merit, the esteem and iimiritif 
which the owara bml Lui|,'lJtily cUinwid. 

Sttil matn- mUf ortunie fell upon their maxman, 
l^iua VI. a776-98| aiul Pina VII. (1B0&-S3). Tbe 
flmt, ivTter a Inttcr ox{ierieni*e of the laugi— of 
kiiuwledh'*', Juat when the death of Joaepli H. had 
inopinrd him «-ith new hopes; waa witaaM of tba 
rcvulntinn whioh tore from him tbe Ft«&ch Cltupch, 
aiul deprived biin of Ilin ili.itniuiuns. Ilie olbcr waa 
forced tobn; hlq utrniiiul freedom, and tbe poasi^aa 
uf bis diminiahea atalcay by an equivooal coaeonlat 
with Booaparte In ISOl, and by mndi twtioii^ 
humiliatioQ, and loet tbem both i^ain in IwHU Ua 
vwed bis mtoration In 1$14. not to tba uooainnu* 
cation which he had pronenneed against Kapo l ae^ 
but to a ooalition of temporal prisc«e, amon^' whom 
were two heretini ^iho Knglinh and I'miedan) and a 
•chimiiiiUc (the Roadnn). Nevertbeleaa, be nut Laily 
restored tha Inquisition, tbs order of tbe Jeauita, and 
otbor rolieiooa order*, bat advaneed eUma amd prin- 
dplea entirely opiKncd to tbe ideaa and icaoloBoiii 
of ilia Uberatota. lie oppuly deolared asadast the 
toleration of tho philoeopbic acota, agauuC Bible 
sneietiefc and tranBlAtiDna of tbe Bibl& (Hae Pica 
VIL) lu the iii<mnliuie there appearad In titaFWudi 
and Usrmnn Catholic chiirchea a S|4lit of (nedoBi, 
and at) iucrcaiiug wiab (or an inlepaDdant nations 1 



FOPEa 



203 



AaiA. Tb* MUM BpUt that Bctnfttrd Piui ^11. 
■■bnted, in like tn«nii«-, hk aurocawira, Ijto XII. 
nM»-«), Pim VIII. 0829-30). »nd, «bove ftll, 
Onniy XVL (U3l-I«). The rigour with whiuti 
llw hi*-— ttoacd paoe np|MWMl anil Kti]ii)r«wcKl every 
nfofm Ib IIm dnl Klatioou of the I'ajiikl iluuiiijiuiia, 
wUA lbs mirh of Um tloM ilicUbH], cnntritnitAcl 
grwtiy to tba ootfarMk of the ravoluU'Uii of ISIS. 
wUck obtlf^ hia maeae m or Piua IX. to Hce from 
BooBa^ awl prepAivd Ihu wair fi:*- the nttftblinlimcnt nf 
» RonMO rspablic It iran only by miuuia of tho aul 
i^wdti tr* AiMris ukI Fnuicw tliRt the Mupor&l 
MM fli ue PsfMKj iraa not andnily swept a^ray. 
Tfeii powwr wm further weakencri Inr tho orenU of 
1S5B Mtd 1860^ which nmltnl ia all tU SUtM of tlie 
Qntrcb bdiif adied upoD by the Sardiiuan troupa, 
with Um •xcoptioQ of Bom^ Civit* Veccbia, antl 
emtmin diatriirta that wcra «aeti]a«cl by tho Fraoch 
nan. HortUldea aoln brok* out ia ISO'S, wbon 
GmOhUI eatand the P>|i>l Unitonr nd dofmua 
tha pmtificfti troop* M M nnt* BoWiula (October U6), 
tboqch ■ f«w d»ya taler be biraaeU wa» In tuni com- 
pbMy*HMalab«dbytb»iiDlt«H {tontlflol and Fran ch 
agalt^. Altav lb* with'irawnl uf tlio Frvni-h Iroopa 
fawn Italj 1» 1870, King \'irtor Eoinianiiel took 
B naatwriun ti Uana, aad aincs that time the pope bM 
bred Id Mdtmfoo fal tbe Vatican. 

Fnrfavi to tbe Vatican CmmcO, whlob aMemhled 
h 1870, Pi^ biMlthnity wna tbo Kibjecl of mach 
oootoovanj, bat that oonneil ecttleH the nMtter 
duflattalj in decUriag the pope Uy be infallililii. 
AoB w Jhig to tbe decnca of tbU cooncil the p«^ ha* 
not flslf tlH oAe* of in^Mtion and dirvctiou, but 
aliD Um whole falnMl of mnreme juiwer in tliadpllne 
ae well m al faith, and tliu power ia unliuiu-y and 
InnntitHtT ov«r all aad each of the paatora and uf the 
fatthfoL Tb* pope may on mffioieat gnnuiJa with- 
dimw inrfadLoIko Swn a |uutiailar Uiboa bat oansot 
Hoy the eiaaeupnoy. In vlrtne of ua office he 
dlraek power orer eacb Cathie in any particular 
IM taahop of ancb dioceee, tbong^ etUl 
ibe name power pertaining' Ui bla offloa, tuuat 
it b unjOB w{tli aii'i KiibordliiatiaD tn the 
fosm. Xl ia (utber Uu«ht by tbo Vatican CwwcU 
tbat whas tba motifT •peaka n eatWrs— (bat la, 
when h^ niing Via offioe aa paator and doctor of all 
fTiililhiM in «1rtiM of hie apnrtnlic oBtoe, ileBim m 
docadM cf faitb and mocaU to be held by tba whole 
afanch, b^ by tha dirlsa aafatanoB prooiaod to liim 
M tba aDcaeaor «l St. Petar. pnwwata that infalli- 
UBty with wbkb Chrfat waa plaaaed to iavcat hia 
dareli in the defiailioB of tbe oootriDO oo faith and 
Boora^ and tbat, thavefare^ ancb definitiana el the pupa 
aa« brelonBable in tbeir own nature, and not becanae 
of tba eoaawit of tbe drarch. TL« i>u>pe in hinuwlf 
ftl Babb Ukm other men to error; hie lufalUbility 
oOBaabvntba Holy Sfirit, which vu certain occaii'>n« 
prolacti bim Iran enw U faith and tnorala. He 
Lm no bifallibfllty in nuialy fataturical or adentiflo 
qwatloaa. In matlan of faith and monla even be 
kaa ao *»t^i***-^. and snut amploy tbe aaaio maau 
o( IbaalogKal reaearttb a» tAhat men. Ue may even 
Mr aa a private dncbir; nor ia any immuaitjr from 
mrat acoxded io bwka be niay uriut luid pnliliab. 
Kren wb«n ba apeaka vitb apoetolio nutbority be 
may err, tlw tbawjr af tba Vatican Coundl bi^ 
that Ood protacti nin from error in dafiuitiona on 
bhh and SKNrala when ha impnMa belief on the 
UalTMial Chonib. KtlanaiTH aa the power and 
*—'**M>. fg iba pope may Urn appear to bo, tt wtiuld 
ba an enw to anppuao tbat be waa ao abaoluta 
Hf ^f»—k Ha CBBoet amnl tlie ooaathotioa ol the 
ibli III H odalnai 1^ Cbtlatt Ui powar of deflaltiao 
li <freniMeTUMd bj BvaHVoaa daftnitf ona origiaaClnf 
fntB IiIb piialucuaCT^ pravioua oouncili, la. If be 




obetinately rejected an ftrUcIc of faith which hai al- 
ready ber.n propcMed by the cburcb, and to which he 
Liiii4«tf owee alleh|iaaiw actually with the dmuleat of 
the faithful, ho mi^ht bo judged and raplaced, 

Tba pope may ntndemn or prohibit booka; nay 
Toaerve tu bimaelf the (nnoiiiiatiou of a^ta^ anil 
ronj alter th« ritea of tba chnrah in matten wfaklt 
are Dot oacnlial. Freqaa&tly on micb occaajons, 
tboujb exerdaint bia eiipreme authority, he doe« not 
•peak en eoiAedm or cLiliu iiifiUIibility. To Uia 
pope boloon the eupremo iliroction of diacipUne ; he 
niuy enact lawa fur tliu whalt; elmrvb ; be can Infiict 
oonauKJ audi oa oicommnnicatloii on all ChrlHtiam^ 
■ui>l rcecTvo bj bimix-lf tlic prerogatiiv of abaalutiun 
frrrm cortoin ntiit. Ila aluuo can erect, anpiiriwe, or 
divide dioouaea, traiuLate dt deprive Mahopi^ and Uiat 
withont ofime on thmr purt, ahout'l the gooara] good 
of tlia cburdi demand It; and ho alone, alao, can 
approve nuw re!i|[iuua ordun, and exempt tbeu If lie 
deuniB It expedient from epboopal juriadlctloii. A 
[x-rio ba« ni) power to nominale hia aooccaaor, deotioo 
(whif^h at lint waa in the handa al tbe whole Itoman 
ixiniui unity, but aulMequeutly waa greatly oODtruUed 
by tbe rulera of Italy. France, Gi:nDaDy, and Spaiot 
bein^ DOW entirely in the handa of Uue eardiaaK 
(Soa CoHCUVE.) Hie canlinab are not tioUDd to 
cbooae one of tbeir own body ; a layman and areu 
a marriDd toiui may bo lawfully elected. 

We witijiiici a table of the popes, ftoeordln; to tba 
Ronuut !N'(iliiit.', with the dalaa of the oomTnencMncnt 
of thuir pontificatea. The oamea printed in italic* 
are tboae of anti>popea:— 



St. PrMr aj). la 

Sc Uim* ea 

m-AuaolMw. TB 

SLClWIMDtL SI 

St. BTailMm 100 

Ht AlBikiitUrl 106 

.Ht ftutu.! IIS 

et. ToiHjilioTna IS 

St. tlnliiua tM 

St. Flu I US 

Fit AuJoMua IST 

HcSolania IM 

Ht Klaaibatiaa ITT 

ML VlcMcl Ii» 

f*t Kr iili irlnoi Ml 

Hi C&IlmBat. UT 

St Crlauil tlS 

HL PnDUat>aa.„ M 

St Aiit*na iSt 

HL Pablui S6 

St. Cumdlo* tW 

St. Laiiua I. — BtnMti- 

amu IM 

Ht SUid»»L IM 

SvBUrtiulL_ 1»7 

Ht. Dl-Hijuoa IM 

8t. F^Ui I BW 

St Bnljchlauni. tTt 

St. l.~Uu m 

St HutnlllBiia.. tM 

CI»oe rhCAnt 3 nan aad 

i naiitbL} 

smantilwl tn 

SLBobiUm Iia 

Bt. HaleUadM a JIU- 

llad« Ill 

et.Brlna(erL n< 

at.Mateea aa 

MJeUeaL.. Of 

likartaa MS 

et. Mil II. (wwlhnw 

reekeaed an iLOUpjf) Ma 

SLDunamL *at 

Bt.BtH4Di SM 

St. AnaMBifau L SIS 

SL lancewtl «0S 

SLZariBeB 417 

Bt. B oo lfc H r.— AteHa* 4U 

fla. CWIwHiMi L 4It 

SCHxtaallL *n 

•LlaeLtbaOiMt 44* 

eiBDnr Ml 

lh.8lBi|JWa» *» 

st.r«uxui. 4a> 



sca«b«iiijt A.a.m 

Sl AoulaiUuII. 4M 

Bt, Brnmaetiqi 4H 

BL BoiTOladaa. lOTcaw S14 

BL Jehal SM 

81. FallilT. MA 

Bunifiuell— DtoaMTiu.. S30 

JehalL IM 

fib. AnpetaaL.. BU 

n.^fecta SM 

VictiJnft sar 

reUfltnil UC 

JohDltL Mft 

Boiadka (1.) Banaeai.... t74 

Pidaglnall STt 

n. (mtety L the Otaat IM 

SabtBlanna tat 

BMl&eallL NT 

Bk Doalfkee IV. M« 

ai. DiaaJHtt BIS 

BoaihoaV «!• 

Btoioriual «| 

(Sea vaeaat I jeaa aad 
luaatbh) 

BfreiiBM et« 

JohntV. «4« 

nwdsnal. Ml 

SkHartkl ««* 

8t. Bncmlo* I.. «M 

81. nullauua. «T 

adMtatea ATI 

Ddoiu or Damnai L fTB 

Bl. Aiaibm tn 

StLwtll 80 

ai.iiM«dwtu. fN 

JaUV •» 

CMW»-ncrd«ni*; trnt- 

^UL. MB 

BLBMriaal- BtT 

JetaavTT: Tai 

JebaVll TIB 

SMibIw 1W 

OMataatlaa im 

St.0n«Be7lI TIB 

akOMaqrUl. Ill 

M-SHEan 141 

SHibM II. (abd balMa 

«aMfra*Ma) Til 

SlephwIlL lU 

8t.Faal I.- C^iwtaMiM; 
fknyApbuiu.- Fkily, m 

StaplMatV. IfB 

Adrian I TTI 

MLialU. m 



StapliaaV a.p, ti« 

»v PriMlul I Sir 

Busacloi tl.... ftU 

TahaUoM S3T 

Owt«"llV. (37 

Bmt^uIL- KM 

8*.lwlT. MI 

BMMdlctllL— JMrfoiJuSM 

Bt.KittaoU«I. «Ii8 

Adrian II »T 

Jctm VUL na 

AdrlaallL B84 

BlattmVL Us 

VWmMU 191 

Bwilfcf Vt.rrrleueil Mil)' 
IB riavt, Brill nut in- 
dndM ftOKiuj itrn ropc« 
I^BsroiLliuaiiduUivn) IM 
StopiiaiiViL sae 

HcrawDu* 6UI 

Tliaiitiirua I [. — Srrgiui 

III 8C« 

John IJt MIS 

JieiwJlotlV. too 

L*o V era 

ClirUiiJjihcT HA 

BurmlU BM 

AbwuoIiu nt. en 

ImiAo SIS 

JohaJL SU 

t^VL DSS 

StonholTUI DM 

JCilnXL 011 

Leo VII. „ Ml 

StaphmlX. 039 

Hulnuc II., or HuUn 1 U, 0(1 

AjRpMnall MS 

3ohaX\t.—Ua VSSl.... VM 

BoiitdlotV OM 

Jolin Xlil.... DM 

BuwdHtTI... Vti 

DoiLiia or I>iKanu IL . . . . irT( 
BMMdtctTU VTi 

J*luiXV is.\ 

ffr»|nj7 v.— yeftn Jt'/... WW 

Bjlvatcrll SIB 

J.Xin XVI orXVIi HWI 

J..lmXriI. oiIVUl ...KWJ 

SargiiuIV low 

Baiiaillul VIII— tfnpDry 

*'/. IDIS 

J<>liuXVElt.QcXIX....10M 
B««wllM IX.(aqKnd>-^ 

/nfaiXX. ion 

QfiNptry VI. — £|rtow. 

!"■;« lou 

Clamant II lOtfl 

Daiiiuiu II — ilnwclwi 

JX. iMBtayiU, lu ronuus 

lli*llir<»i<i tens 

St. LmIX. iota 

TiBMr JI WiS 

Bteptiao X lOlT 

Bnvllet X. lOH 

Nlolioiull KM 

iJBUtKlVT IL— ffMM- 

Timll l«l 

Onippry VU. {UUdvbmid) 

— ClnHRct //; 10T» 

{B«« vanuul 1 rtca.) 

VIeWi 111 lOM 

CrbaDlT IPM 

fw^balU .1099 

(MmIhi U. — Onftr^ 

rrti. ma 

CftUlxtnalt Ilia 

Huiiorlaill.-ninftiK//. list 
IjiatMait H. — Amtcittut 

It.: V'riorlr. USD 

C*I«Unuj II lUl 

LiMdoalt 1144 

BacMlsalll \Ui 

AiiacUidua IV. IIM 

Adrian IV. (HidiatM 

Bnakqww, an £u^ 

Uibtiwui) ilM 

Al«wmilar lit — r>Mor 

f.iP—ifMl 1 II. : Otitic. 

tutlH.: Imnmalli. \lt9 

Lwlnalll ,. IISI 

CrtUlII IIM 

OngraxVUL IWT 

ClMMBlUL ItST 

CU««iMaIU lUl 



ImMMOtllt. jLC 110S 

HonortaalU 1!I9 

lintorjlX i:« 

Oalirtiaiia IV. 13U 

(Mo VMMlt 1 jtu ud 
7 IiiQtltha.J 

InsoemtlV IBU 

AluunduIV. 13M 

DrtMBlV. 1961 

ClwneiUlV 12*5 

[Sea Tu»nt 3 yean and 
Pnwntbt.) 

OragoryX irl 

loao«a[it T. IS70 

WriaoV V'li 

I'Axn XIX. M XX. OE 
xxr irs 

Nlclh>)aalll 13TT 

MartiD IV. 12*1 

llutiOriiuIV. ISSS 

NilLuIuIT ISM 

(Sm ta^raiil i jrmra and 
U iiiaiitttib) 

Sk CdMtluua V. 1904 

BonUkea VIIL 13U4 

BmKlicCXI MLJ3 

ClanMiit V. (fapaojr k- 
norad to ATlsncniX . . . 13DG 
(BaaTuant 3 Taan aiul 
ImcciiM) 

JohnXXIl 13U 

BniMlfcl Xlt.—XttAabu 

V.alli<mt 1S31 

CteoMntVL 1313 

Ina(«e«itVI_ 13S2 

VtbtaV.-Cltm^ VU. I90S 
Ongor; XI. (cbraas iv- 

atai«d lo Boiim;. 1370 

DrlMtnVI... «rs 

UunilAce tX. — fffiMiJHf 

X riJ. at Atieiuin ISM 

Iiuio«ntVII UfH 

On^aryXll UM 

AlMAliddl V iVlV 

joiin XXIII. ...mo 

MLninV.-CJmmt HI/. 141T 
Kiigiuiim IV.—fttiS r. 14.11 

NitliaUaV 1*« 

ra)ll[tiuIII lUS 

Pill. II UM 

faiiin 1»(H 

Kiitiia IV. i*Tt 

iNUWMltTlII liHI 

AloAiidw n Hfll 

PioallL 1A03 

JnilaalL ISO-I 

LmX. 13U 

AariMTt WW 

OlnnonlVIl 1C23 

Paul in. laSM 

jiiiii»iii. ia.w 

Hamllitt II. 1.%^S 

I'ftiil IV IS&i 

I'lualV IMS 

St. fiuiT 1S« 

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3iitiuv. uas 

Urban VII ISW 

OmnryXIV. 1800 

llUUMNltlX JJKP] 

CiMuaul VllI 19!l! 

UoXL. leus 

FmIT. lOOJ 

OratMTXT. leu 

Urban VlU WU 

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aatibBtttlX. l«:-1 

aanalX K-JQ 

ItmoomlXI l<nd 

AloBudarVIII rnso 

tnnoMiiilXlL IdSl 

CmrntXl 1700 

lumoeDtxiii ini 

li«i«4iiitXIII ITU 

ClaiiianTXII ITJO 

OtnadictXIV. 17411 

aunauiXIIE. t7M 

aeni«iitXlV. ITflB 

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LmiXEU 1S7I 



Tb« diitM In Uw abnv* Hot ara not klw^js, partf* 
caliuly in His eulier part, accaratcl; MoertaiiMd. 
Tbe legend ibotit Peter's Uaboprio at Bom* baa 
42 la 67 i> d«riviH] from thtt |iMado-«i>icni|iUa 
('lenuMitinei and Kecoffnitian^ ao aatboritjr whU 
1b now bjr manj flonjldofed (o te eDlirelj ntiLrail- 
WDithy. Tba aUenc« of tbs e|i«U» to tb* Bonuai, 
which woa written abont fiH, i> alone auSiciaDC to 
proti-v tile ivurtUlpasuina ij( tlia Wend. Linoa ia iBp- 
lv«od by »ome uTiiora to luTtt bnot tbe vicegw w rt 
of Pcl«r an wl-U iui liu ■moo o wor. 

FOFISH PLOT, an inugbary flonqilrwy vkU 
Titna Gates (which see) pieteoded to have diacoTtnd 
iu 1676, and by which he euccccded ia delading tb» 
mind of tba cation oror a n|kkm tit two nan^ iad 
caiuiiiK the dt.'&th of muiy innocent CathoUo^ Tht 
delualiin, moreover, woe foatered hj mbm ptltrinnl 
leadnrx, with a vinw to pmmntinr their own fty 
adicmua, and thfra i» nu donbt tbat not n faw dA 
oamsUosei of tbe time tended to afcaXmuuot tfao 
dolofion. Th« BoniMi Oatholici wvn particnlarl; 
hiwy with thoir nin«Liiiationi at tbe tiroe^ and were 
not withuut hopes uf i^eCntt CatboUciam rajnotated 
aa titt ruling power in England. The nlvt, it ww 
allegttd by OatM, w-na fonnGd by the Jeauita and 
Rouuui Catholica (or tba [■urpoao of Buirderinc tba 
king {Charlu It.), and «iihv*rtjng the Prat«tent 
rolifrion. After aome preliminary itepa Oalai wvit 
ta Sir Edmondburr Godfrey, a jusdoe of peaoe, and 
gave eTtdenoe before him of all the artidca ol tba 
pTototidcd coonpiracy, Amang the panooa ymifH 
WU CuleiDim, aecrutary to the DoobeH tt T«fc^ 
among whces papers wae fimnd « ewtwpoodaMS 
with tii>rn« Cathalics abroad, which coPtaineJ ojui ea 
■ioaa of great violence and indiaoretioD, but litUa to 
otKiuileDAnce the noilon of micli a ploL Id the nUst 
of the alarm created by this pntaadod ravelatiaa 
(tmlfrcy wna found diuu) in a iliteh (l)ctoher 17), and 
the cry wm uoinedlately nixed that lie had be« 
miitrlcrcd by the Papists on account of hfa takfu 
Oa,tij« s e V idc-un.', tliouf^b nothing traaaplred that ooold 
RnViatantiii.be Uut view, forlianient mat aooD aftw 
ihU event, and the tw; Hiniaea iniDiedistely benn 
to occupy thcmielfea with esuuinatJona is nesH to 
tho )>!ot. Ili-forv a w«ck had «Inpanl a bill waa 
piwacd \vr thu (-'oinmoiu to excliiiln the Cathnlki 
frfm bolli Utiuan. The Conunmu likewiae pMaed 
a naolstion, which waa aftarvtrds ntifiod by tbe 
I.«rdi, to the tSact ' that then had been and atiU 
wui u dauiuAbla and betliah plat, oontrired and carriod 
on by the I'ajiiat reouMuts, for nimtiilniiTlng the king, 
aubvertinff the goronimanl, and rooting out tba Ft»- 
testaot r^iglon.' The cocoura^nntat bdd oat to 
Oatea, who received a penaJon of £1200^ branght 
forwajd Bedloa, a notoa tU«( aod inpokor, mn 
conGimed Oatea'a ataCementa, ^tb sons addltiow of 
hli own. He aonued serersl noblenca by naoM of 
a dcsi^ to raise forcna in diflerenl wrtaot tbe Idag- 
ilom, with which tbey wei* to foln an anoy of 
20,000 or 30,000 crusailen to be landed from Spain. 
Although no arms, after tbe meet rigorona iwch, 
no nin munition, nnnionry, no cnmmlaiionB, DO iiaimii 
no letten, were diaoovered to confim the «rideiMo of 
those men, yst tbs story obtained fsaml htilvt, and 
excited a nnaral panic. To incraaae the excitement 
Bedlue puoliabed a pampbtat, entitled A DieooreiT 
of the bonjd To'^AA Plot fur burning LondoB ain 
Wectmiiirter, to., in which all tbe firas that had hi^ 
pened tat eevotal ytMt were aecribod to tbe Jeeufl^ 
McanwhOe tbe prvUmded conapLraton wen bsonj^t 
to trinJ, (.'oleman, a Jasolt named Inilaad^ Gniv^ 
and Pick<;rbK, who, it waa pntaodad, mra mpieed 
to ihoot the king, were oondeunod to dnkth on tbe 
teatimtmy of Oatea and Bedloo, and exocatod. Tbe 
pretended murderon ot Qodboy next snffotd tho 



I 




POPLAE— POPULATI ON. 



205 



HMS &*% <n Um nla iMttaiobr of Bodloa, uid one 
mHM^ whom be hftd aocuaed of hinag an tccempUiM 
fai tfa« VMiriicT, Mcd who, after mjuijr promiaiai rnxul 
thftrt, BiutUy ooofcanJ bia Kuilt. PurtbvT pruM- 
•Btkoi took plue In the foUowiag yoar, whan serar&l 
fmmat wen Mwcntod, *ad ft tww plot, uUInt the 
^mmI-IhA pU, fron Um plaon wtisre tea P*[>Bn mint- 
■■B to Et WM« Imn^ wm cot up 1<y ou« X)Mic«rfit)hI, 
m flonrietad Mdo. la IMO Vucouat St&Sord wm 
taipMcbcd bv tltft ComnciM^ cODricmnoil li? the 
l^atdm, mtti oiMBted, Doonnba- S9, m wi Mn>iiii>lii-B 
b tlw plotcA tfav t««tfaiwa J of OirtM ud tw« of bia 
•■oiteM^ Bsdloo kftiiag diM sot loog bdore^ Tbli 
VH tha tktt hwtiaoa dt bloodahed in tUa ntnn^re 
•Sftir. Bom ftfUr tlw nowriwa of Jum-* If. (10^:^1 
tiM ud CdBnctod on two imlicilBii'aU 
' pKjiUT, 1^ wai MDtMDMd tO ho whipped nn twn 
MTMl my front Ah)f{ftl« to Mcw)t*'*^t "><1 f^^i 
> to TVbnro, to ba impriacniKl for llf«, and pil- 
6>«tuoM«Tai7 jMT. BefinriSK tt' ^ Pf'pu'ti 
HaUiBi jivttj niBarIa that, 'though It via ft 
; nabftfipr inalaBoa of Um aradnlit; begottot hj 
id "[■Miiiiii and inistnkcn rvwoning, jrot tbare 
It w w drauaateftcea, and ojino of ih«m vrry aioinilAr 
h tbair aatsn, wfaidi aiplun ud furniab »a ftp^ogy 
far tfaa pubtk error, and which it U tnora importft&t 
to pedal oat and keep in mind, than to tDvaaah, aa ia 
^tb« Gvalont b modara ttinc^ acaioit Um bottonaooaa 
U([Dti7 of oar neMton, For I bid Miwudad 
! ftra hr from being aecnra froan dmilar pahlim 
ilodoai^ wb«aor«r aoch > coucumnci; of coinLid* 
■ ftDd aMtnlog probabtlittM aball agitta aHao, as 
aaftrly tba wbolv people it Eoglftitd lb tho 

?pLaB (Atmbia), a gratia o( pUnta belonging 
[ Id Um Katofal <nW BaltcaJo aw y or, acoording to aoin«, 
~ < lb* aob-ocdar AiBaata««« ftad to the tMoecia Oc' 
I of LimuBiiiu Tha apadea va inea ciua ct 
> dlnanafoou, bavtng tbeir buds usually cuvared 
I as ftroautUic ftad vbcooa aubatanoa ; th^ flomra 
1 la aataBti^ aad alwa^ i^ipeansg befor* Iho 
['JavdofUBanl of th« feaTea; ftod tbaaa ImI aUcniate, 
' 'joe triaognlar, aamto (ff dtntata, and au[^ 
. oa long DotMaa; vrbkk ftrg laon or 1«m com- 
pftrtkuftrlj towanla tbdr a&inmita, Thia 
iLMofflnnftUoil OMaaiona a pocnUar vibratM-y notiun 
^ tba kftrea when thov ara ftctod n|xiD hy tbe wiml, 
HtqMdftS; r«&arkaU« in the Aapen, which nppaars to 
P«rp*taall7 agitatad. Od aocount of their rajiid 
fpovtb poplin ftra fraqnanUy planto'l in ban lixali- 
\M^ am thaj maj ba expe<~tnl to fitmUb aa alotnat 
nhwillilii afTaab The tiiuVr of the poplar, wU^ 
rk wUta, light, and aoft, la tuod lor wiona pnipoMa, 
<b«t ia not v«fT valualJe. Abo«t twaotv apadaa an 
i.ksoam, aO ounfined la the northeni and lemperato 
laaglina of tb« cloba. Among ttie man rasarkablo 
[tf lb wo Miar b« raaotMiiedi tha Gnjr poplar {P. 
, ftlafga nreftdbig trM, of tigorova gnnrtb, 
^iWd » mMm of fintain; H Bowvn la Aprti, and tha 
an g<Banllr rip* ia Jxmm; in » favotmbU 
lloo it givwa mm 30 to 40 fe«t in ton yean: ite 
t Ea gaaentlly oaed for the aaniv porponMi aa 
' Wdtnion daal. Tha WhlM Poplar (/". *»<>>, reavui- 
I Ma tha laat in appanrftncF, thonsb it la aol ao Titj^or- 
^•■■j Iba upar atnfaoa of tha laaf ia of » darkar 
dtbaUKlwaidabctf ftbrfghl«rwbil«. Tbo 
. _ jatifol vnriatv of thia apvcJaa ia tha EgrpUaa 
r~4ba Aapan (A f rtnWs), indigianoua toBritaia 
to mooDlaiDou iltiiatloas thnagfaoat Baiopa 
[tad Aaiftf it li of a atatalj MMftranM, attttaing 
f MowUcaM to a ercat height, and m aatromol/ hard*, 
[tlit baric iiaarafcvtaBiiLig leather. Thol^bardj 
' iP. fimijnauii b a utlva of Ital^, asd now 
t oommoo in Britain ; it ia rtAdilr dutingaiabod 
I avcTj other apecioa by iti uprlgbt groirth, and 



I Um taper ahapa of ita head, fma ^Hag ita latonl 
bnuidioa cJoacly gathered roaad the itAa. Ita arood 
ia aoft and li^liti 'niUthle br pacUng caae^ bftrtowa, 
bucketa. and tho like. Tha Ulack Itnliaa Poplar 
iP. ir/mitif€ra), caUod abo tho Canadiaii Poplar, la a 
tTM (if ter/ rftiiid gmwtb, beeoniiag of timber sUa 
iu a few jeara. It I* prolitaMv cmwti for flooring, 
Ao. Laatlr, w« aliall mention tiia »»1»»m Poplar 
(/*. baUami/era), ft nativu of North America, wbere 
it ftttnlns ft beljgiht of 80 feet; bnt in Briuin ita stfttoni 
in much leia; it growa vigorously for a few ycara. It 
ia pur«ly oroamontBl. Tbo ;ouii|j( wood b of a ikli 
ohealnul colour, and the buda are larg« nad iacaaad 
in a glctlDoiiB liolum. 

I'l H'J,JIs', n kind of Gni.-!y wovnn falixic. made of 
■ilk njid wniBtcd. In U» bait popUna tho warp iaof 
ailk and the weft of wonted, a ootaUnntion which 
iiii|iArta peculiar aofCaeaa and riaaticitT to tho mate- 
rial; in tho chuapcr makca cotUiD and flax ara aiib* 
atituted for silk, which producea a oorrBmoodlng 
deterioration in llici ftppcarauoe of tha atnn. Tha 
mannfaotnn; of f"plin vt-'Li introduced into Ireland 
fromEVnncc in 1773 by L'ruU-atant rcfugeea, and Ire* 
land b still faniouH for ita production. The tana 
•poplin' b a comption of tho Froneh paptlint. 

I'OVOCATVA'KTh (Artec, pojwa. to emnke, and 
Upitl, a nicjunlaiu), o volcano in jfciico, iu the pro- 
vtoco of Puebla; Ion. >8' 83' w.; lat. 13° 3«' k. ThU 
Tolcano b oonataaUy in actioB, throwing oat imoke, 
aahea, and fire; but no great eniptloa haa hlthaito 
takea plftoe. Ita Bgura ia Lbat <if a truncated ooae^ 
with ft tarn orator, about 3 mi1«a in cimunf«r«DC* 
and 1000 leot decp^ It i* 17.7S3 feet liich, and b 
one Af tlw hlgheat mountains between tbe Bfty of 
I'anaintt and Behriii);'* Straits. 

PtU'l'V it'aparrr). Tho apwioa of Poppy ara 
berbnceoni planta, all bearing buvc, brilliaat, bnt 
fn^icFni Huwtn. The White 3'oppy (/*. tomui- 
/rrvm) ^'ii-lds tho wuU-ktiuwn D[ilum of OommOTOD. 
iSoo Oi'ii>H.) Moat of tho spwua ara natiraa of 
I>tiiv>pii^ often occurring aa wceda in flolda ftsd waate 
ploicce, and fm|u<.-ntly Etlwi n]ltint«d in gardeni for 
ontamMit. On tho CouUnrat the whito p"pr]' b 
oitonaiTely cultivated for an oil whidi b yielded bv 
the aaad^ and amploTed for ouUnafj pufpoBea bmibb 
in the aan» way aa oliTe-tdL Tbe roou of tlw poppy 
aro annual or per«tudal; tbe catjx b compoawl of 
lwob»<ix».aad tboooroUftof fonrpetab; thestamcni 
are Dameroaa^ and tbo canonla ta ene-oeUed. but 
divided intantally by aereral luiigitudloal partition^ 
and ecmtajna a miiltJtuda of aioiia 

POPULATION*. No foaling ianondMiilyaeatad 
ia tba htmaa tneast thaa tba deain of <ith^tiag. 
Tbo m«r» inetiact of propagatioa which nan baa in 
oonunoD wiUi ail othttr an i malt, aoniiraa in hb caae 
aa extender and power bora hb inl«Ue«iuftl cle*ft- 
tioB and the graataaaa of hb natorr, which b Impoa- 
Bible ia tho caae of tbe lower enimab; and when to 
tba netal aad other oomalHwaUona. the lafluaBOe «f 
whicb b paoaHar to reanMnd. w« add tbe attraotfooa 
which iraagiaatioa leoda to tlko paaaton of tore, and 
tbe power which that faculty poMcsaca of ootopenaat- 
lag for tha brevity and unccrtAinly nf llfi^ by (m^ 
jecting it with a acmbban of nalJcyand idcoUty of 
iatereat lata aaeoaading gmeratioaa, it will roadDy 
be petedted tibat, Iwwavar ftaq pa aUy celibacy ata^ 
ha aaCarood by drcuoHtaBoaa, or pmnfted by rdign 
ooB aeal, a purely vuloatary alatvoUon, uiniotl*ad 
tm by wast of incHaatl<m,'ar the atrwngth of oppoa- 
ing taataa, wiU alwayi be ao raro aa to he wholly 
inappcttdaiile in ita gcncnU effects, ao that its com- 
pliihi aliiiiiiiiiaj !»ii aaiiiiaiiil aa tliiiliaila iif aalaii 
tifiodbcoHlflaoftlwlswiafpoDuUtioB. Bntahhoo^ 
taldas naaktaMi ia the ma« too iodftidaal daaire to 
ooatfiDate to tha iaeiaaai of iLa apaciea nay ba bald 



206 



POPULATION, 



to bo uulvurul, iho Jtctiutl gKWtli of the pnput&tinn 
in noil- here entirely left to the nn«ittcd lorcc o( this 
uiuLivo. Ill respect tu tbe ),'ra,tlKt.'*ti(;i& of thin rli4iir« 
inaa an to •osw «xtaat rivuU. bccauM, ssocpt in 
HAW canuniutidM, tiurt nro f«w wicSfitlM in vUch kU 
esm hrnve the opportunity of Kritifyliig H; yet thii 
rivalry is 1«68 f«lt tb&a tba lympiLthy which >1I havs 
in common with n univonuil »L'iitimt:ii.t; mid thiuv 
mtc oommon tui well ad indivliliiivl moUv^a (oreBcour- 
B^ing jiujiulBliuii.lu u'hii-'li this ■yia|>Atby(,'ive« ^'tviiU'T 
activity. HviK^?, In alrnnct nil primitivn locietiea, 
nod ia nuvny lulvimced oue«, nnuria','-!.', a* ihi ulcuu 
o1 contribtttinc to Hit nutioteiuuLca and growth of 
popiilaitioD, has 'been ivgMxl«d, if not m » matUr of 
[Mieitive religioua oblii^ntiun, yet on |i(]|iic!hIqk » 
Ufttunl mvraj ■aii>(.-ti'JU of aluioat (.-quol wi.'Ii:bt, and 
to obriate aar obetructionfl which the or>;&nizatioii 
of aricicty irii^ht put in thn way of itn iioivunudiity, 
it Laa bo«n held to tio ft innttcr of Rbttu lulicy to 
enooiuBgo it by podtlvA Ijiwi; Bccidw Hiv oAtural 
eeatimoot jul KdventitioiM drctmutoiiM bM pwAtly 
contributed to maku the ■.'Ucoum^cineii.t of |»pul*ticiu 
ft constant object of aiute jiulli'y. Mnokind biui 
btth«tto livod in a wiMi vi chrunic wnrfaro. Con- 
tl^^ionii DAtiniUL, both barluu'nnfl ftnd dvilixnii, con- 
tiiiuo to liiiLiiitaicL, aa tiit-y have iJwayn majulolned, 
their p(nae*Moiu agtdnat «acli otlier by n ohow of 
force; Uul llvui tiluu to tioiti qui^ioai sxisa lictw«-n 
tbe nMiBt kdvMicod catioax, wbioL an only nultltd 
by oxtrcmo violuiico, uid » whutesale doetmction of 
bum-tn life. Howovur mcUnclioly thin cnndition nf 
hiunni) •oolvty jumj \», It hmt to be n:-cko[it!d with u* 
a fact, and ■■ no maona havo y«t bcon di*ooverod o( 
nraadjing it, aiich oiitlircnbA uf ilcntnictiv* vioUnioa 
nukf b« louktxl for iu tbi; ftiLure lui iu tlic part. Xow 
tfaM« an ii«v«ral «ffeoU which cbid »t«U of tblosv 
ha* opcm tbe growth of popuktion wbicb bftvo an 
obrlfius Inftuetice on stata [>olJcy. A» Imn^ tui a fttato 
of viglou^t- is ut^nual, aa luu;; e\un na it mity hv 
naortiHl to oofloi extreme cmctvoncy.ATncitive for tbe 
^nvwtb of popnbCioQ u creatad whicb ih iudepondiiiit 
of till! nsuuroe* of tha commniiity, or of thn tuQiuaii 
vt sftordlne hapfiineia or aupplyiuu luatbrUtl comfort 
t« tboH WDQ an called Into hniv^. ^Vbero wajr ia 
the qneotion numhcTn nro KtrcDctb, uid other things 
betng etiunl Ibn couitii unity which can brinR inint 
men into thi- it^M will provalL ll«avwu bplp« tbe 
atnoig battaiion, ic am acproTod maxtoiDf tnulo-crift 
with iu«D of tbe sword and riti& Uonc«, whether 
for (lefrnco or ottMck, whether fruin notivea of fuar 
and jcaJouay or umliitinn, the niimbi<n of a com- 
mnnJty Imwduv a muticr of vital ituixirtonec, and 
tlw quMtioD wbicb, from the \-a\^r Htand]>»Int of 
connnon itateniianiihip, it ut nntural to put Ih, uut 
bow many cajx lbs uuuntry support well I but how 
niaoy can it suprort ut all T But tbo utato ot vtatarv, 
wUe it niam taa inotive for cncour&giBg popnl&tlon 
beyond tbe bound* irf cnmiTmiL jinitkncc, or iri<lr«d 
of any other nartriction, pub* vary diatbct and fra- 
qii«ntly v«ry wvvre reebrjotttnu apoa tbe menus of 
ttflTvctins' too object. Soldicra on nocMmily with- 
drmwrn m»D prodadivo industry. I)uriiig all tbo 
time of tndnEuK au<l actual warforo, wbioh in thu 
caM of ctondinf aitnlee is pennaaeBl, Ibalr labour it 
prednded from oontribatine to (be fund by which 
tbe [Kipulaticin a mnintalnc^ and ant of wbir.b alnnc 
cjui njniH th>> iiieauii al iuorewJUtT It. Owin^ la IUIk 
and other drtiuDutancvB a wldJer's Ufa i*. to a con- 
■UcrablQ extent, om^ cd enforcMl colibftcv. Ami while 
b ooaaidor&ble nuiubtir uf men in tbe Bawur of life 
arc prevented from cnotributlug in tho tiroportion 
tfary would naturally do to tho growth of tbo ropula- 
tion, the flDp[>ort of theae oeUbttai f'lrms a bunkdi 
00 tbe roit of the conunnoUy wbiirh mtriL-la ita 
nejuw (if iiicraaw;. In actual war tht^ro U iu addition 



to the ordinaiy burden tbe ^nia of bnman life, hkI 
the cnomijoa oxpoBJO at wbidi war la maiutaioed, 
whil* whon the war ia over the t«nka of tbe amy 
KK ivcruiled from thoae who mnaio, and tb« nofsial 
burden \m not diminichod. When a •oldiw la IdBed 
he <XMe» to be of any tiae for pnmotlng pt y a l a ti att, 
but if ha were not re^ilaccd the canuntoaity wwild ha 
nlltivedof tbebunl«Dof koopiozbim: bntaaaoathn 
ia put in hia place the oonusanity ia weakeowl by a 
man, baa Htill tbia burden to bear, and baa bnalaai 
to pay for tbe eipttow of lulling tbo loat OMH, wfaktl 
b ooDB[dera.bla lliat nation* under theaa dRun- 
■tancoa tuufoimly proapcr and grow fn noabem aaya 
much f[>r the natural atroDg^ of the roorodnctin 
primdiila. Auulbrr co»«vd«ni4inn, bcaidot Uta ex|gen> 
daeoi BSgrnwioaor ilafanoe, ha> coaCriboled to make 
the pmnotion til iKipulatku a political ol^oet TW 
gaveminc (.'laasca art; uaually tba holden of ynnwrty, 
and deawty of [lopiilation iiureaaaa tbe value « pro- 
perty, imapectivo of Uid bappbeaa oc mlaety iit tbe 
papulation aa a wbule. That which giva nine to 

Erupcrty I* labour, and the grcoCer KM mnabeff d 
litMurfni in a community the greater will be the 
oinijunt of mrvico wbicb tbe holdew of pxapetiy will 
bu able to obtain in rcluro for tba uac of thoir pro- 
perty. 

Tbn natural aantiment in favour of lejuuductMi 
affect* not only the reUetou* and political, bat the 
aodol and oommcrcial riowi of men. Mania^ b in 
^1 conununitien imdrmhU'rlly held to be a oottdMac 
of honnnr m well u of bllaa. Social dirtjnctinn and 
iuijujuvralilc- luiuor [i rirllegaa await It, lodth* natural 
tnc«ntivoe to adopt ibia stata aro thai larKvly In- 
ocoaeed, ood in a way wbicb fa epedally attriiOtiTe to 
(be younii and iueiporicfaced. CotBtnerca addi a 
vpeculative element to the ind mwmenU to matri- 
mony. It not only hold* oat bopei whkh CBoosrace 
men to anticipate the calsnlBtlaiie of jsodeno^ bnl 
it nukkea loarna^ ilaelf oo availabia imoiir ot wUtli 
can be oonnted oo ae baTiog a dlatfatot nuccHlOa 
value. Tbo unircraal acntinMnt in faronr cf nar- 
riagn <:auiica it to lie regarded aa a aurl of oertificate 
uf cluiractvr aud h^iaTaDtee of atobflity la a ytning 
man. Eves when the act rtaolf ia bsprudoot be gaina 
by it UDoug tboM who bare iw apew loiowledea «f 
tbe circumgtanoea aprwan/ncK repntalioa forpra^ 
t-iLce, and a* It were ataals a daractsr by Batteriag 
tho cumnt projodioo. But onnmereo u itaelf only 
A i>pcoi>» of war. Ita votariee have a faith in the 
inoxhaaBtibilitr of ita reaources a* Implicit m thai 
of d^tpota In the power of tbeir legiona; but a* tbete 
con b« no commeico in that whi<£ la not piodnoed, 
cumnieroe Li n« atrictlr limited hj prodoctkici aa war 
id by tbe nauunKB of thoae at wboaa expenee it ta 
carried on. 

On a priina facie view of tbe problom of populalioD 
then It appears that while there are in tbe orjanlza- 
tiun of aucicty itaelf cunaidorablo hindrancea to the 
full daTiilojrini-nt nf tbn [lower* of raprodnctioa in- 
bcrcut in ttic buiuiui rwx, tbe prvvaillng afiiillnwiil 
of maukind, aa repreeeatod in rellffion, pMitka, todal 
uKAj^voi, and oommarcialeoiterpriaa^haabMnnnifanBly 
in favour of encouraging tbe oae of Uwae powen^ eo 
that the growth of population hai ecaae to ba oooi- 
mooly regarded a* an ludiapenaable ajgo at th» [«o>- 
pcrity of a roRiiniinity. 

The ]jolicy uf puputatiou Urn* indiooted, thoo^ 
founded on a nature aentimeut, eupporta itaelf oa ao 
many aggremvo uiov«menta— oonuueat, oomDore^ 
emigratum, that it may not inaptly oe deatgnatad ae 
tbe war policy. In proof of ita prevaleooe tbe lava 
and InantntioDa of tnooy andent naUom — ^Hbtdn^ 
Cbincan, I'ctviana, Komani^ mia>ht ba citod, hot it 
wuukl )iB uaelaM to give paitlenW inatamoea of what 
ia til but nulvonoL Evoa at the preaent day thia 



I 



I 

I 

I 



POPULATION. 



207 



ftUer b cf)bcld hj m nrt prepoodfimnce of popuUr 
■■)**". ftod b Oat iritbonl acMtiUfie aupporL It i> 
qONtiooad <nlf by « law poliUeal •ooanniuU, vrliuw 
yirwm ar* ecnmlly bmI br mintipnwnUUuD. 

Hit llButed KM uid lil|^ drtUi&tlun of Oivaca 
Snt MggMtod tb« vuw of th« ciuutiou which con- 
tmafhlmm A» dngvn of owpopMWinn, muI it wh 
MBoaf kr tniiMnt phOowpbets aiul •UtsmuD that 
tba ygablwB of pMnuiuioa began to hm eoiuidorBd in 
■D tbi M|McbL Pl»to «[i<1 Ariitntic (whn write* on 
tha •objaot like Joho Stuart MUU prupimnilnl tktsu- 
fin fiv tb« fasulMloB of populauoo, not sucb m 
«mU aaggMt thmMlvw to modom vittvn of hn- 
naaiQ', but MlBaeot to indicate a Icmir petcepUoin 
fli tba natunl tendency ot populnliuu tu oTMjiowth. 
Bat tlw ttmm wen anfavaunble fur giving mctiod 
rihcl to ■d'Ch viewK. Tb« «n*U •tutcti of firecoe 
WBTB coutkntljr *t wkr with vncb islliar wbcu thciy 
mrvaoteBgacMl la r«p«Ulug or in arganldng fordgQ 
bTMioo. Ma amy suIdD tnt um of tho nwuroe of 
OQ. Hum tbttlBgisUtorof S{iart&, thu lead- 
) ef OiMoe^ Ad ftO h» oonld, Mx-ordin^ tu Km 
_^ ^ to Moo uf agw popaUtioii, aod thL> pnltcy uu 

whale |»Uoy of Boms wu oppoicd to the foDDAtion 
tt aaf ofdi^ooa fouodod on k noa-aggnidTO tiow of 
lfa« wyntratii-n of aocioty, uid th« atat* of Uie mil- 
bed wotU during tbe niddk atp» aflordod equatly 
Httla mifia for tbo iarauitloD ol nicb oplnfauK ^Rrai 
Um pTuUcm of [«|nilatMn wm Rj<s»ted to modem 



It wa* tn an Eany on the Prtacivk of Populntion, 
MblUwd in i'W (nviwd in mitxu oditloiu from 
UOS to U26) by tiie I^ot. T. R Molthiu, aubM- 
■BHtlj pnleaaorof Mlitial economy in Uio Bart 
Uh Caspaay'i Cdlqta at Kallebury, Martford- 
Abib tbn ua ^HtioB m papulation waa fint lyitc- 
treated, and In tlut work tbo tlioiiry of 
B !■ ao stated aail demonatntrd thut tb>< 
jplaa of Malthua uuat becwftcr form tbo fonn- 
i of aavMicnoe of politlcai economy worthy of 
Mte. Tbe ■work oS MaJlbaa faaa Dcver riv«lltMl 
Bopularlly that it A<luu Smith t>u tli« W«alth 
Natioa^ and it bu bocn subjeoted to • loud and 
1 U Tbapcratfoo to which Smhb'a waa tuTtr 
Smilii wttitHrfd the prejii£oea cl b!a day, 
wbaa tbeaa wetw ovnvoOM he rawiTed wtlbout 
ihiaduemoodolIaiikB. Maltliut hu prvbvd 
faUaidaa oi pcejuiamaiopi which are tboaa of 
nalnn^ and wlilcb iiinoii u|> afnab in nch 
ttoo. Hi* o|ip(MiMrta an coneequMitly im- 
, and entn anwcw dw profflMon of poUtkal 
' Iboae who reoum hla vlewi wUkont caveat 
L hinlly y«t be rackoocd tbo maioritv. Evvn the 
■t aidutt Mdmiraa of Malthaa hwdly rcntura to 
|jbM Um with Adan Sailh: )-el Lf the intrfnslo 
, nimt tt the podiiiai dMDMWtratod, and the boavly 
1 ccApleieuMei «i the d wuMw t r atioo are to deter- 
m the tank ol a adeatUc work, thai el Halthna 
hanUy be reokotied aaooud to any other witUa 
IIIm qibere of MioBcany. To Smith, on the othor 
[i^aad, bokoiga tha hoenur nt being the pioneer of Uie 
oe, and what la uf mure Imiortaooe to hia fame, 
rlndpln bare been tuned to practical Bccoont, 
itlwd^forthemctical feco^iOtioo of Maltbua 
'!le yet bo oon^ and hie tboory atill nanalna the men 
' r of the antfinetitaUat. 

prvGadnary obaorvatioDB on whkih Ualthm 
I lbl» thwry ud often boon made by ecooomlBta, 
a, asd other wtHmv. Malthti* (luotca an 
by Dr. Fnuiklin, which mpplin in a 
'iMtflUng Mamcr the (ondaiDcotal tact on whiuh the 
l^kuiMj id popnlatiMi rtal^ that ttiere b no bound to 
p«oll6e nature of pbnta or aninuda bnt what ia 
M by their aowdu)| and iDtvrfering with oach 



other's moani ol mtw^tenm Wen the face of the 
earth vacant of other planle. It might be gradually 
■owed and oven^wcad with on« Idnrl only, u for 
inatance with foimol- and were it empty of other 
inbaUULDta, it mi);ht iu a few g^fee be replenlabed 
fmiD iiTx^ nation only, as, for inatane^ with En^Uah- 
Dieo. Malthiia aImli alinwa that in ■cvcral niinor 
ooontriae mlimtary clteclca to pupuLiliuii, muni or 
Ibm eSocUvv, have b««a In o)wr»tioa. From the 
ezperieaoe of Ain«rica he layi down tiie poaitico that 
a ponolation nnimpRdixl \ry artilicial cnT^eka might 
doutiln itaell in tweulv-fi*e vmta. Actual utatiabc^ 
aa cit«d by Maltbua biRiecIf, ajid aa givnu by eobw 
qacDt statiitB, point to a niueL aborter period, but 
tbU ia imiRAttriaL Taking a given ana, null aa 
that of flrrat Britain, Maltnoa auppceee that by the 
beat a^cultunU policy iU prodnoe mi^ht be doubled 
in twcnty-livo year*. Tbi* rate of progreadea, how- 
orcr, mulct Dot lie continued. Aaaumiug that then 
U iiu |jnif tiejd limit U> tii« tncrvOMxi futility of land 
under tbo most cfTcdive huaboadry, he aangna to 
thie incrcMod fertility aa a Umit mora farouiabla 
than cxgieridiL-e will allow, a ooDtliiuanoa without 
(UiuinutioD i>r lb« original rata of ini.maaix llitia at 
the end of the *ccoud [x-ridd uJ tweuty-fiie y«an the 
produce would be to that at the eod of tbe fint 
prriud in ratio uol of 4, but of 3 to S. Applj'ine 
tbb tu tbo whtiU earth it is obrioiu that animpedea 
popnl.itiou would iacreaae in nieoeariva peiloda In ifaa 
ratio of 1, 2, i, 8, fto., and that after n gjvw aian 
of cultivation had been reached, prodactioo would 
only inctMLM In the rmHoa <d 1, S, S^ 4, fto. In Ifab 
way th« whole area of the earth woidd loon be oora- 
pied, and further increaao, aicept in the mAriotad 
ratioof prodactico,wantd beeome tmpoealble. llteee 
facte Maltbua ffeaeralisee by taylng tliat pntblalloit 
inciMMa b. a CMmetHoal, while the nwani al anb* 
tiMeae* oolj faoraaao in an arithmetical ratio. It h 
Uila eiipefior eneigy of mprcxlnrtioa which cx]JatBB 
Buch fiMls aa have already bccu luivertcd tw io thia 
article. To thIa la due the fact, Uut in epite d the 
rarngee of war, famine, and diacaao, of the Intluonoe 
of tndea deatructivc uf life, and of artificiiiJ Uabibi 
and vicea which ivtard or kinder reprodoetioa, tba 
p>paladonof thaBMtb.aad liic«Hnl«< gndijar* 
ticnUr ooontry, ia not only mahitainaJ^ but aoolauiaa 
to III wgri^w 

Population of eounw cannot oontlnue to Increaae 
beyood tbe meana of aubeialaiwa, and ovvry actual 
iucrcaac l>cyt>ii(l actual or iatnedialely attainable 
tiMiam mtMt lewl to a dcetnictkin of life. Iu exantn- 
los,howevn-, the bearing en eoob otber of the (Mer- 
est ntioa of incnaaa of humaa Ufa ItaeU, and ol tim 
means of auiijinrtinK it, Maltbua has deduced a lav 
to tbe prucl (if wUkU a nauiderabla portion of hia 
worii b devoted. It ia upon thia law tbat the prao* 
tical importanee and value of Ida theory depcndi, and 
it b on aeeount ol It tbat It baa been ao much mb- 
teptaamtod and ■» Tbbntly aawJed. Thit law ia 
tlwt the energy ol renredoetliHi riaea abnre all tbe 
ocdbuiry aeddenb of human Ufe and the iueritable 
rcetrainla Impoaed by tbe variona orcaniiatuina of 
human eodety, ao that in all tbo vanoua countiica 
and cUmateo in which men hare lived, and under all 
the eonMitaHona by whidi tbey bav« allowed tbam* 
aelvea to be govemod. tba notaal tendency ol peps- 
btion has bMn to prcM wwUnnenaly npcm tbe neau 
vf aubaiateoou. If we take^ for esainplah tero «x* 
Inontn of gvod and bod government, aay Engl awl 
and 'l^Ir4ccy, we find under the o«m a aoope ffitn to 
thu growth uf popuUliiti which is wbouy wanting 
in ttw otber. Unt if popolatinn i^ieUd be adrandng 
in Fngl™^! and deelinuvfat Um moM oc(r1ect«d or 
miigavened parta of the Tarkbh Enpfrv, tbe caoaa 
of Ml anoa In one caee wiQ be Um ease and aocvrity 



POPtTLATIOW. 



with vriiicb tfa« rnvRiu of nbcbtcncv eaa be dsvdopod; 
thr^ onac of declino in titc other will b* tba detgitt*- 
vion of iuilustrT tlirouj;h. t!ic arliitrary einctioDa ol 
tbe agnntn of p-i.T^imnieDt, (uni the imtti-urity cf pro- 
perty iroiii tlju iiiflui!icii:Q'i!y of tho prutcrtiou an<»do<l 
to ik Asd in the ailvkncing nnd ihi; deciining stAte 
alike tho •&!»« {•hciuutEiuuuu will be fouud, pupulnLiun 

ErcMin^ up to oni) toncblng the octuftl Uiuit iJIowmI 
y tUu tcieikUB of tnibautcnce. 
But if popDlktioa ifl thus utuftlly limited by the 
moirrrf mbaiafamce, tl ciuiiKit bo jjiwotituil by tbcMi 
meftiui from gunf; furtbnr than thaae meaDs niil 
wftiTMit. Tho chuck frviu tlii! m«uu of prodnotioci 
will comp, but only aftor popul&tiiin hu aicdodod 
tbcm. It becomes then ui inqair; of gntat import- 
nun by what kind of ctccka napulatiim ia actually 
brougbt op at the nrfnt at whieh it En bi fact oirtetod. 
Tbi* inijuiry HaIuiiu oonducrta ttloag with tho proof 
of th'i! law of prcanir* of [MiriulAtiun on the mroini of 
•i]ba!at#u(w, wLicb furiue bin fuinlniuvntid puiiltuu. 
Tho ono inquiry in fact Uliuiratea lutd coubnus th« 
■ohitii'n tit tho ntbor. 

MiiltUiiB Jividca th-o check* on po|mladon toto two 
cluta, prev«ctiv« and poeltiiv, the one cooiifUng of 
thoH onoMs which pitvoit poadUo UrUw (ran Uk- 
big place, the other of thow irtijoh, b7 abbrevifttitig 
iifo, cut off actual exccnce of [wpidatioii. In n 
further antlyMs of tbeM obeclcB ha HMolvet them lato 
tluvu— vioe, miacry, and moral rotraint Tbii i» in 
fact a CKM dirlaion, aa vice and xaiatry incluita both 
pontivs aad pt«veulive cbccka. 

The proof of hii nutJn nriaitioa is bintoricd and 
■tetlittical. He addu4w« eviiLTnij frum ik t;n:bt variety 
nl BOTu«ee beorine on tbo ata-to »f ccmmunlde* from 
the lowcet to tbe bifbiut «t*(^i.- of fuaiihl orguuuUoo, 
aad includio^ the utoditig &atiuti» both in ancient 
and modom tlu», oad thu rveult U a body of proof 
tho uniforniity of vhioh could scueeljr hAve been 
Bntii'ipiitt>d pKivioui to tysbnuitid faiV6iti{atioii. It 
la abawu, for exontplo, utat In ccnintrios which, re- 
cording to eur notiani^ we might fmngine to be verj 
Inodequataly peopled, auiong tlio Americou Tudiau^ 
for Bxiunpla, or tha nomitd Iribm »[ Northtni Axin, 
the preecura of inpulatiun uj^oa the niCMU uf tub- 
riatoooe b la dearly to be traced u in the meet 
denselj- peopled eonntrice. lliu meaauro of tho 
growth cf the American IniHjuu, for ciunplo, vriu 
tho extent and productiicnrM uf their kuutiiii;- 
gnmnds. In iImm, ena when occupied only at a 
portieular Benson, they eUimed a ri^hl of property, 
and tiie violation of a ■eemlngly ucuixupiud territory 
WM to thorn k matter (4 a» aerioua Importance ta 
that of m cultivated citate in % ctvilixed country, and 
oecaAuscd wan onion; ncij^hbonrinK trlb«« junt tui 
riniiUr otii-nMchmonta du aiiiuu'; civiliii:d iiatiuiio. 
It t> thuii cjuy io •» hnn- the Induuia must have 
declined in nuaiben with the cacruncbmcnta of the 
white men, and bow rcoaonable » cauM of boatlUt; 
thcM encroMlimciite offnrded them. A aimilar procf 
in d-crived frum a rrtroapeatiYe npnlication of tbe 
Uieory to faiatoiy, vbiob is of gnat iuucpcndent value. 
Uietoriene had long been at a low tu BLCiMint for the 
■ecminftlT menhauK^blo hordm which tho cciinpora- 
lively liarreu rvdvtia of the north of Eutoim and 
Aaia bod bora able to pour duriof pratniotod periods 
of time, aa for example diaring the dodioe of Che 
Boniou Empire, niton tbe oomparaiivcly fertile KKiib, 
and hod bean led eron to conjeotura thai the nurtb 
mwt them have been more densdv peopled thoa 
now. Even Gibbon, who rejected tnls exTdanation, 
MMined to think that tbo ^^vrth of populatiun in 
these regima must bear a direct mtio to ita flenaity, 
which le*vea tbo foets of tbe ease unaooonnted for. 
Molthue finds the explanation in the wholesale ctnj- 
pation and ooneequent roritj of population ita^. 



Upon Ui priac^e tfie dnctlcH; of popnkHw mask 
in feet belnlBvenantlDtolladenid^. Wbentbe 
attractions of & loutbem eoinpafen withdtww k Isif* 
niasi of a nortbtxn populatfoB nrom Ha boosee there 
was fur a tlmo no present* to reetrstn tfie nfU 
growth of thAse who renuiDed, which wodd at eane 
rise up to •onictlitiig mure or Itm tuoar aeeorifBg In 
drciiinid.-tnci!)i, to its geoDiotricol Umi^ sad in Issp 
thou bu ordinary generation. A ttesb border liMpfred 
with the tradi Lions of former sneotasci^ vmn be 
alilu to abirt from tbe umc locality. Tboa It «M 
tbo vory fcrtiUty of tbo auutb wbicb in tlxae d^JS 
of vloluuoe Icopt the population of tbe nortb below 
ita normal limit, and so made it a anne^ of men. 
Iltcec invaunns, it Is to be nBBMBfaaed, war* ant 
mere drauia of men, but in rataml real oiigiatiaiM 
by fomUies and tribes, whiw wcrald not leave Aom 
whi> remained behind burdened with us u l— dapand- 
cntM. 

Ici r^i^ord to tbe •ubsidiiiry in<|uiry the moei strik- 
mg pobt brought out a the rarity of moral reatrant 
wid tbe uniform action, in innumerable f orotic of vice 
and misery. A ■.-ruciol tcet uf the inevitablenMB of 
tbe altomotion betwuen these cbacka it givoi bj 
Molthus from the acconnUof Oookand otbenef tbe 
South Sea Ulaada, and p«rtleQlarl<r o< Otabeite. 
litre Ihii soluLrity ikud fertility of tbe climate boo- 
itbod disGAfe, ami gnve within tbe limits of ila SRSt 
the utmcat focUiliee for iucreaao. On tke etlMr osad 
tbo pojmloua character of all tba luAMaauiag Ukula 
niado ciuigrnlion impracticable intboat ■'ar; iAd 
wnr, thaugb fmquent, wiui not ouiSEieBl to iiatiain 
population. Here woe found in full vpnatiau an 
institudou which, as an or^oidutioB of tie% wtnld 
do b(iTu>iir to the moat civilizcil cosnmanity. Amoag 
tbe bi^^er cUieee of OUbeit« there esioted eoriistiSS 
collod Ear«<rale, wbidi were joined by tbe tUU of 
both eexoB, and tho objoet of which was pnanacnom 
interconne without tbe |HQortatloo « cUUbvn. 
Wbon an Eaivooie woman waa delivered of a cUld 
a pieoo of doth difi^ied In water was affiUed to the 
noae and uunth to snlfocate it The msitnen nf the 
otinunon [«(ipbi wctv in accordance with the example 
set them uy their ■uperiots. 

'Die replies to Msltbns ooulst olmoet oxcloalnlr 
eithor in mitrepreecmtetians of wliat lie- liot atteinMed 
to prove, or in partial views «f tlio uneetton. TTbti 
fomiiir orv astonlsbingly fre«|uent,and tae most abaud 
BtatomecU have been attribnted to Maltbne Inaa 
his own day to this. One which be dtea hinoself In 
bis A[ipeudii (1517) from tbe replies utade to hbi 
work nifty eorro as an example^ 'Otbaoa, el e4on 
Mr. Malumt is the leader, regard tho vicca sad ftiBit 
of bnman nature, and their various prodacti^ fambuv 
dheaae^ aad war, as beuevolent remedies bj which 
nature bos «niiblad human Imnas to cornet the 
disonlen that would arise from tbat tvdundanee of 
popnlation wtdch the nnreetndned operation of ha 
laws would create.' Uoslikt donbte if Midtbus did 
not at fiiat hoxard bis theory as an omuAng ami 
extreme paradox; and John HiU Bnrteo mm ax- 
preeoed a view wldcfa atUI ntevdla wJth many polMeel 
eoonomists, that he fallea to ooaslder the inftosiica 
of froe trade, ' wliicb puts all tbo worid at tbe oom- 
mand of on increasing and prodnolna peoplei' 

blaltbus's theory of the ratio betweeo bnmon 
powers of reproduction and the incitaeeof the means 
ol eubfliitence hot Indeed been qneetioaoi It Is fre- 
qavntly called exaggersted by tboae wbo i«igB so 
rcaiton for doing no, but a fona of argunWDt aaed fai 
reply to it is that animal growth Is slower than vece- 
t.ible, aad that man beiog on* of tbe noet alowly- 
developed ■ni™»1^ luB growth is aBMlig tbe slawest 
of tiinoo of arganisad tttinn, awl tbai faia fatcreaee 
moat therefore be slower tuau that vi bis meaisi of 



I 

I 



I 



POPULATION. 



S09 



D oat OMB would aafflM for com human 
J vtU Mialbw com vm frown, thorn wnmld b« 
AttuimcH tanm in tbwargumatit until tb« world wu 
M> foil «4 boBuui Iwlnga tlutt tliera wtu not rwini for 
ftcofB Coraaeh of Ibom; bat ■■ each faaman being 
raq Blr M toaaj cnriM, ««di miMt b*r« • eertain Mnnuiit 
of apmm to rniw tbetn in, and if tb« growth of oarn 
ibMir to ttndtwl bjr dM an« of rwtil* luu), thftt of 
ranm baao nmt bo nndi more to. A wry con- 
BKm nods M ivplTlnj lo H4tthii« la to iMtftte one 
of hn <b«di» lo M|>uL»tioQ io diffnmit words, miiI 
cbD H » rvply to oil th«ory. Rut hy tar tim tarmt 
■iwManiM nod* of de«llii|[ wUh lullbtw'i ibeorj 
ti tfaUnaatAoaniaiiilyAdoptod by hoatUo acaaomlfltB, 
■» profoi lo Accept it m KMtntctl)- true, bat to trMt 
ft w ■ tiMnly vpecnlftti'c tnilh «( vsry maota pno- 
IImI ^ipUottioB. Two thing! we fensrallr nIM 
■pea t^ tboM who Ukt thU podtion to W4rd off Ihft 
jaot tha tAnory from s particular 
I mad ttwi*. Fiiiit,T»tiitu chd ii«vvr 
ba m affieiHtt nnwdy far ovar-popnIfttloD, fur two 
tMMWL A RMtitMiMna omignOion to on extont to 
■C«(t poptlatUHoaa Derar tales placa except nuder tii« 
ptWBvra of tb* nlaaiy rwalttog Jwm over-population. 
Aad wbiB lhs«ni%ntioo him takta pUce il dow not 
tmMtan the spring of orcr-ponubttifln, but faumtMi 
to ■farttily. TIm pr«Muiv i4 popuUtloo !• Bpeediljr 
■■HWmL and tb* hbw prooaM baa again to l>« 
MpMle^ Tim migmiaii prtMata at boFi u altcr- 
mMob o( MMnmfaMlng rakor and partial teiui. 
TraJa, 'whicfa pata all the wurld itl tba oonunand of 
an iiTaaring aad prodoctBg prniti-la,' pnaanta for tb« 
Itea at leaat a more anbatantud and aaliifaolor; 
faUrf, aad to tboao who can oonoMd frem thameeltaa 
tba troo natnrs o( the pcoblcm wbicii Malthua baa 
fo| j oaa J tUa awv aeam lo pot ha practical applica* 
lioatoao bdaAnuedlftaBoe. Tliat a iradijie country 
■i aat wboUy dipoadant upon aerlvulnin, and tli&t 
aa Joag a« Umn ara vaat tract* of fertile territory 
JlAjr pao pte d, hmB a couatrv nay nudntain a popu- 
l^n til ally in cxoeai of what ffi own agricaltiinJ 
i Mi^ t M would be able Co pnivii]e for, h certain. 
li ■• aoDcetvaUe that Mucb > conntry inay advance 



rtfD ba trafing and agTicnltniaT diatricta, and tbo 
iMsar will be nore deaaely peoided than tb« lnlt«r. 
lb nan laraonbla tnctaoee tlwt can bo f uiumI by 
Ihaae who adopt thia rcaKning nf a country in tbe 
M Bpn — J pnofiioa t« Ct«al Britain. Lmking to fbi 
■■■■g WMltb, and Baa&faotnriag and trading Fadli- 
liaa,tblTn|»oaatbit thia conntry ataiiibitu the rert 
of Ibo «ortfI In a relatlLm aoniewbat analogoiu to tbat 
of a town to th« ■orroiindiBg country, bo tbat tbey 
ab^Mi to aadgn any limit to iti population from 
Vplnltwal and even from any kind of iutMual 
tmamnm other than Ibe faiiluatt? of Ita lobabiUnta. 
Kow la giving tbia deacription of It* po*ilii.>u tbvac 
aoopcaiati haTe <wty rixwu, euntraiy to their inten- 
tlaa, tbaC tbac* ii no caae axire urgently calling for 
tba applkatioa of Alalthndao doetriaea, or mure p«r- 
aanMilly dependent oatbetn. than that of Britain. It 
b alwnya ia the town and not in the country thai 
tba weent «Tib of ovac population develop tttemaol vn, 
aad whaJeT Bf may be the raaonroea of a counianlty, 
the pmgraw of npabuloo la aqvaUy liable to pr«M 
■ran thnr actuu oovilapBMnb, 

Pbr. Ant, the norftioii hci« dMcribed. and whicli i» 
1b tT«Uty thatwhtoh BritaJo ciccnpica,ia a parilooa oua. 
Il would, of (oorsa^ be wbltTary ami abninl to limit 
(be acpw l a lif of a eounlry lilts tltla to ib a^ricul- 
IWll iMB MHH a; bat thar« i« aot thn Icaa a natural 
ff adaHon in tba ilabiltty of tbe rwouroM on wbloh 
a oeontry may rdy for tbe noet IndlmiaaaMa 
ViM, XL 



part of ita rarans of tnaintenaiiMv food raMatance. 
Finit in order (4 connw oome agricultnral reaonreea. 
Next may probably be plaoed nitniiig and otbcf in- 
dufftrlea wbicb raaton actnal material raaoarceaof the 
ommtry. TIimo are not oitly mora Uabla to failure 
than agricoltare, but are also espoaed bo variatiana 
in tbe value od the axportod prnoiicta from umilar 
dlamj'eilae elaewliwe. After tbcao roaio tnannfac- 
turaa 1 1 will in oa no special fadlitiee. Such induatriea 
are very U&Qle to fluctuatioD, and we hata freqnmt 
iiutancaa of tboir changing from one locality to 
annttiBT. Whan thry arc ntlieil on »a a mouia of 
bringitiK food from abruad lii«y come within tbe 
mogo of forelni competitian, and the further they are 
pnabed for thu mirpoae tbe wider and lite mere dlfli* 
cult of dofooo* beooras theirouter line. Laat of all 
oomei pure eommeroa, or the exchange of the pro- 
ducta of uthera. A seaboard la a permanent natural 
r*)K>»n« for eonunatoc, but thia u of itavlf only an 
auxiliary meaaa^ Wbeu It Is available for the develot^ 
iDeaL of intomal naoonee. or thi? oschango of home 
pnxluw, it ikRorda aoopa for a cnmmi!n» nt ptopor- 
tioaaba atability, but niere tndinn:t exobange uuat 
alwayi^ (n tbe nature of the eaas^ be * pcvoariow 
aoum of nvaawk Whanacommiimtydepamdiupn 
all tbeso aonrcea together it bs« the greater Bncd lo 
keep ila populatiou well within tba limit of Ita do* 
vel^ied reaonreea, ao that It may be tbe raadler la 
neat any amatgenoy. 

Bat, aeoondly, thewbole of thUaignment is rminderi 
on a c«ai[ilete mlaoonceiitloo id the scope uf tbe 
>fiilthu«tiui problem. Malthua has shown that at 
the nattiral rate of InorcMO tbo populAtion of the 
whole oarth would double every tWonty-liTe ycori at 
the oulsidB. Tliere is still fSeoty of team to tbe 
world. Why iloce it not go oo doubling T Beeauae 
uf tbe opendoa in th« popuko* diatrieU of the three 
ch^ka— vine, utaeiy, and tnond rettraint. Popola- 
tlou, as It does not s(««ad, bavtually ywid togeths 
in the populous dlkHcIa, and aubjeetad to theae 
rMtrainta. Now <rf tlteae restraints there isonaoaly 
wiiich il ia not driimble to aboliab, and that i* tno 
one whiofa Is founil nxMit rarely In operation. Moral 
mtrainte may dUter in d^ree of excellency aa well 
aa otbera, but taking the good along with iho bad, 
the qumtion la whether, even in tbe meat ciiriliied 
cwnnmunitv, tbe growth oi the popolatioo is kept at 
ita actual level by moral rettrxint of any kind, or by 
vice and Blsefj, aad whether tbe human nee aa a 
whole baa profited by ila intelligence to regulate Its 
own in cruae s, or at best aalTmi it, like tne lower 
animals, to bo twiUted by tba external for«s of 
nature. Tbcaa who take the opibnlst view of the 
<iucatinn look with coiMi]aMn(7 lo pttpulatinn rvturiM, 
and declare tbeir aatisiaction srith the actual rata of 
liHTeaae^ They perhapa go the length uf a geacnl 
inforaooe froa tba present and past condltJouof the 
]>eople, but they do not face tiw actaal details of our 
prugteaa. It Is v«n well lo atgna that beoBaaa tha 
svan^ dniatloa of hnman life baa been axtaoded, 
and the fltaadard of cooufort of tbo popniatim raised, 
we are at least In a nmgnissive position in regard to 
this problem. But the geaeral argnnsnt la not con- 
elodva, Neithar Malunts nor any ona aba haa 
aaid that all vice, dlaeaaey and mls^ ware due to 
OTer-pqpolatlop. It is oertaio thai soienoB hM (Hmi- 
nlahed other caQsn of diaoss^ and tbarefora an 
iiiereaacd dutatiaa of life does Dot prove the midga' 
tiooof this CAUse. It is idao a BOtaka to enppoao 
that a higher standard of living removea the danger 
ol ovei^popalation to a greater distance. It is fiwn 
the pr uig e of popnlatmi apoo tha litnhnqm stan- 
dard, whatarar h i^ that iha dangar aaeniM. What 
hapiwoa wfaea thia praanra oeoaia ia ant tha tbe 
slaodard ia inunediately br ar u w J . — that may be done 



210 



JAIN— PORCUPINEL 



by & cuDtiQucx] preKute — but the iinmcduitn rmulb 
arc miMiryiLTKl viock 1'hiit tki Britlnh 3.re nulijcrcU^tl 
Ui •iicL » prrnuni in no Blij^tdogrM) will bocvjtiant 
U> any one who oonMden, not tbe Mttial gmwth, bat 
Ihfl teodonoy of tha popi^&tbn to gmvf, m cxbtkited 
in tiie Nuig^lc drcutiiiiit»nr« of the esoecaivv ioruit 
tnortdlity ui lu^o Uiwnii. If oil thoM childron grew 
up popitlntioD would Inenwte npidly, aniE thi;ro 
woulil ritlicr have to bs » grekt eapauiiuii uf tbo 
mMuut uE *ubnBl«iiioe, m lawvring a[ tliu uUiular*! *it 
U«ln|[,orseT«ttterm(iTt*tUty ftmunnaduIU. llirouKli 
an Mtnoidiury conbttialion of drcumiUuoM thia 
problem lifki come tn concern Lhe I)ri(i»li porliajM aian 
tliku ajiy (rtiioi |ipo|i1q in tlto worlt!, l^iair atae baa 
b««D sUUxl, but wo have also to oonoUar tlut of 
Ittulu^ tha »eocincl suat daunly poc^leil oouutry la tho 
world {ftccordJim to •inn« atAtwta tfa* lint), ami one 
«f Ctw moat rapidly prugR«i< e tii [•optilnMoii, BriUuD 
bM boon blauMl for putting » step tt> tho wan 
by which that popuIatSon trac checkcil, and aa in the 
c-dso of Iniliit autljurity mudt fur a luii); tinio do aiiy- 
thin)! tliat in to Iw il<ina for tho gcnural gooH of tbo 
|iimj|'Il', wliilu iu Kii)ilnnil tlic iiilurfLTriico of auliiurity 
ijiL sucb a <)uc9Ctoa would not be tolunbod, wo have 
th« opportunity of ctu>Ivii)g biitfa jthaaca of the 
ijumtiun. 

'rbu appllcatlmi uf t)je prtuolplei uf Atalthus to the 
Kicnca of oconomy haa yet to be mado. MaHbua'a 
own apiJitation U chirfty liicnl. He rliacuiuea at 
cuuHidt ruble Iciif^k the bearing uf hin tliiwry upun 
thii Knglich iHMir IiLwa anil upoiiitoin*o( tho •comiLuI- 
ol []ucatiouii «f hw Uav, and b» haaaomo good obaer- 
V&tiona upoD the iotluiiUM of pnbllo opinion 4Ui tho 
erawthot populatiun, and tliD«HiMta to ue oiiUcipaUMl 
[rDm a tboruugh oduoitiun in ■ound viowa of the 
iiiibj«ct,aoutLjiumiuatiuaattllMdlllaiit oa in hu own 
day: l>ut in regard to tha gtounl priudjjk'B of tho 
•-irncc bia view may be ■ummrd up in aaying that if 
pifpulatiuu i> to M GonttuUi.-d by vice, miacry, or 
moral ruatraiot, mora] Katraint in better tban Tico or 

niinery. 

I)r. Chalmers tbomughly iidapt«<(I the prioclpk of 
Malthtu, but like Malthuahe points to a mornl rather 
than an economical conduatoa. Chalmen, in. fact, 
fonnaUj deapaira of tho eoonotntoal problem, and he 
r ariew a tho wbolo aphiN of ocononiy in orin to 
jinive that we are abut up to a moral mnady. Now 
it ia trUD that the tiuoatlou Ui ultluiat« analyaia ii ono 
ol morality, for ovcrpopiilAtion. with ita attendant 
vice and tniaery, ia the remit of a acne* of acta of 
atlSibnaaa and incoDaideration; but aa th« refonDatiua 
nml he general wc abalt have to wait v«ry Ions befora 
morality will be nifficiently advanood to en«ct iti 
and in tho mumtime tbe inuuurad people wtll bn can' 
•tantly incmuing. KaiiioiST,tb«t*foro.caiinotrv«i|{u 
hoc proper fuuutiou uf Uyh^g HO make the beat <jf 
what morality wo ion. 

It waa ono ol tha proat mnita of Johu Stuart Mill 
ai .-uL Hojiioijiixl Ibiit be law the full itnportaocn of 
Die Makhutiuti prubli-m. Mill taktw the oppo^t* 
couno with it fri>m ('halmen, and, in atHot aooord- 
anoa with hia iitilitarian principle, bringa morality 
down into tbe rvKion of uvouuiuy to mevt iu Tku 
makes Ua troatmcot of tbe question resemble that at 
the Greek philneophcn. liut it ia aufficiont to «ay 
that the morality of Mill ia not, ai»l ia tti:\n likdy 
to become^ the morality of the huuuui raoe. Like 
Mnlthua he rtUoa much H]ioa public opiniuu, but be 
•howi too mu^ diapoaltton to dictate to it. 

1'01U:KI.AIN. Seo CliiNA-WAiui and Foitikt. 

POIUJH, an cxlorinr appondago Ui a building, 
ffinuing a oove«>od appruacli to oue uf iu prindpnl 
dtwrwaya (GwUt). 

PORCIA. dau^ter of Cato of UUca. She lint 
fi^anied M. Uibolua, Cxaar'a colleitgue in the ccaiul- 



■hip (B.C. 69), by whm ih* hid Aim dlldn& 
Ilibiilna died in ■■.& 43, and in &a 45 A» maiTtad 
M- Brutua, who afterwanla bMMne tim a w a ain «f 

Oanr. She b said to have bidne«d W hoabaad to 
ooDflde tlui aecrct of the couapitncy to ber; and oo dw 
day ol ita emcutinn bor auxiaty for his »fcty waa ao 
great that she faiutod away. After the deatlt of 
Itrutus aho put an cad to ner life. Ibo ooomaa 
■torj wiw tbat her (rinods havinf moond froa b* 
the ueaoa uf *clf-dti»tnj«tioii aha effected bar pur pt— 
by swaUowiDg Ure eoala. It ia acaroely nerswaT j to 
contndict thia tale, wbieh It ia oonjectorMl oov«n O* 
fact (if her having aofocated bacaolf with tbe ftma 
of cliunvoLl. 

FORCUPIXB, a gmna of qratdrriMda belooigiw 
to the RtMl«Dt or Gnawing order of MamnaHi^ ana 
forming the type of a diatinct famQy, that id Urn 
Uytitricidje. Tdmo fomu are diatin^iiJahad by the 
peculiar nature of the body-covetfatg, which mnrfah^ 
eapedally in the back rcglMi, of baJn fpocinljT modi* 
fiutl to form tbo ao-called ^UU, or deoie^ •oUd, wfta»- 
like atructunai. Ttuato qniUa are Inteamlxod with 
briatltM oiul atUT batn, and in ■am« Amorican "pe*^ 
tbo quilla are almeet oanoealud b«Dcath tbe baiiy 
fur of the hoiiv. The Inciaor or foont teeth aaabw 
two in each jaw, aa in the generality of Bodaita, 
TlieaateeLb fprlugfriimpennanent pulfa.iothat they 
oontiuuo to grow throughout the UfcUme of tbe 
animal as in tho other nienibera of the order. The 
MTiuigemeiit of llie cuujiui! and tlw dentine or ivery 
(if tli«*e front te«Lh alao tends to pvrfacUj adapt 
them f<;r their 'Eomwinf'openttlow. (See Roomu.) 
There are four molar t«eui oil each nda of aaeh ja«r 
iu the porctipiiiea, tbeao latter toeth axbihitiiw Man* 
plicntea folding* of Ulo dentine or ivory snMnnoa 
oouuded Vy cn«mel; and the m«lar teeth In the por^ 
cuplne^ Wa the IndiMrs, continue to grow throngboat 
lifo from pcraiatent mot«. Tbe aknll eihiUli an 
infm-orbilal foramcD o( very Urgv aim. Tbn mtuile 
ia fonfrally abort and of pointed oonforaution. Ae 
lip ia divided. The ears are abort aud ruunded. Tha 
antorior f«et iioaacaa four, and tho hinder feet faf 
toee, all provided with itroag thick naUa. Tbe < 
dea or oollar-bonea are of rudlmestar; natorei 
tongue ia roughened, or, as in the Javna 
may Im iimTtded with hartiy plates or amlia 

llie 'amity llyatriddie luoludea aortva] 6UlBet 
genera. Of tboae tbe fint and oioet familiar b dat 
of I/^itru, rvprcacntcd by the Troo Pompiaea 
Of this getiTU tbe C'cnnniuD or Creatod PulOUpiuc^ 
JlyUrit rr-Mbiiu, found iu Southern Enropo wd In 
Northern Africa, la the beat known ipeaaa. Tbe 
True Ponnpinea have noB-preliienailft taOa, whicb 
may be apiny or covered with acalca or bristle 
Whi^u fully grown tbe Common Porvu)jno nwaanfi* 
nearly 2 feet in length, and anne of ita auinea exceed 
1 foot Ita general colour is a grizsled, aoafcy blaolL 
Tho upper part uf Its head and neck is fumiahed 
with tong. ugbt-colourpd hain^ capable of brine 
raiaod or dennMcd at pleaaore; and most parta m 
tho book ana ^ee an anned with spjaaa, which «a 
longeet on tbo centra of the back. In tbair nsaal 
pontion tboy lie ncariy flat ui>on tbe body, with 
thdr paints directed Mckwaidi; bat wImi tb» 
(uiinial La excited they are capable of being raised. 
This pJcvatioQ of the apinM i* effected by tM devat> 
upujeut of special skin muaclM, ooUactlrely named 
the pannintlui ntnuffu. This same nuBoa t* do- 
vcto^tcd ID the hcdpihog, ami enablaa that animal 
to mil itaclf tip in tiie wcll>knuwa fashion. The 
«piD«« ai« bauiled black and whit«, and are eitoo- 
wvoly used aa holden fur ated (ens and for paint 
bruabiA llie quilla an locacly insetted In tbe sUs, 
and luay, on boug viulmitly ebaken, baooaie detadicd 
—a drcnmstanoe which may probably bare gitra i ~ 



to th« fiord; fjiUil'^us ttKtwnmt that Uw muiui&l 
PcMtmd Uw power of Htuilly ejccdns lu <t"iJ'* 
like wrawi or lUrU at an cncmir. Arub^itk', I'ilnr, 
ftO'l Op()lM) niention llii* «« » rcriUblu fiirt, whilst 
miiUw» aMMnant wm |[rsT«If mMle of tbe porvu- 
picM Ihu it Mtoall; cwiied waMr for iu young in th« 
|iiiMiiiiiii1 boUow <{iiilla o( the tftil ' Tbrnc Knlmala 

K Mlrtilj lod a Kilitar; lilr, and inliubit burruWB 

■nriog tb« lUy, oouing forth W night 'O Mwch of 
tMd,«ychooadnMicUeAr«E ve^BUbloBbittar. Tbe 
eoMB«a ipMd«a bqulH and peaotiftbl«, bnt Btiovs ao 
dMontioti to LecoRio fiuniliar or doiacaticalacL Aa 
lifiBMt fofvi [If. JVcjao/nuri or levfumt) r ci w nbtf 
tlw C twNd PormptiM io forai, but ia lafV«''> bx^ 
i wbita qnilM on th« IaIL >*a b&lry oovcr- 



Ii^ •ziit*; And tba naiU an ■liortM', thi! ura Uiing 
1m naadad tfaaa la tlw Eonwaui tona. 

TIm paitapitkM gm&nUy liuiafalt mum or traplcal 
nflMis, ftnd are mpmentAd by distiuL-t goimra in 
boU betniaphcnaL Tho nauia ' parciijann ' itaoCf ia 
d«rfvad (tmu tbo Fraooh, and dmoi^H 'apin; pq; ' — 
B iMIsDalion mi ftltoBvtli«r InifipRipriftte^ If tho pig- 
like tarn rd tbe animals knd tbe grunting aoimd th'tj 
{oudiwe M« t»k«D inlu ooniiileratiaTi, 

Tbfl gniHia XUcmn>,iacIu(liite t<>-i»apccIei,pa«MaM 
a Imc Malv tail, whieb b tvrmitiatctl by a tuft of 
farbHoL 1^« tjiedea of this gcniia occur in lodu 
mmA oIlMrparta tif Ajua and iii the Earteni Arch!' 
pal^a Tbe dtlirrant fmriralaUi or ' Faadcvlatad 
J n c wi p i— ' la a fautiUar ipDcIo of tbw gesiia. It* 
•olottr itiiHw Ihat of the Coalman PAreapiiies tbA 
■mar fmrt» and ouK^raiilraof the limb* being nilmired 
of nduskjr hue; wbibt fpiiyUh-wbiL* nmraila hi tlio 
nedar pana, tbe iiiu«r aidva of tbo limbt, and tbe 
fruot of tii« neck and thtoat. A transTene bkek 
tiaiid Hwuli tbe hreaat above the fare kM 

m the Americaii apecM^ the Canadian or North 
AaBtrhan pDroaphe {SnUkiam dormta) b tbe bnt 
Tbe quiUa fa) tbb apedea are Hhoirt, and are 
1 aaonngM the fur. Thia •jMcIea U of *Iuw, 
JllJUlrt haUtn. Tlie enn are vbort, aiKl hiddrii bj- 
Ibe far. The tall U oamiUkntJraty abort. It U 
ahovl S feet kiR(;: of a browitiab oulour, mingled 
wbh while; the ipfaMa are attached io « vvrr aligbt 
wnnnw Id tlw anuMl, and, tron beinu bar boO at tJie 
tip irilb BUMroH niiall nvwMd po4uta or ptlcUei^ 
tniey by depcei peneti*t« veir deepljr into l^e fleob 
aflc* hartnx cnoe pierced it. Small and inriKiuficjknt 
OT tbcee defeoaive weaponi may appear, ihvj ore 
capable of cumug the death of Ao^ woItob, or 
tn aeed U nnjr animal that ■eenatjonaljr atlemfita Io 
■4m tbe porvuplne. Tbeisi|4Meor qoilb eremu^ 
and inooff tbe lodbna to onanwnt dUhmU artldce 
of iln«: tM7 dye them of vuiona eoloan. In a very 
pwunwit manner. Tbe Canada parenpin« it ptin- 
<l(Mlly fMind in the nnrtbem paria of tbe tliiilod 
WalMi and in Canada, the nMtbnrnmoKt limit ef il« 
dblribotlon belojt at latitude 67* K, «n tbe alioraa 
«f th« Uafiknma River. It is aald to be rare in 
lilrginia, bnt nnmcrtwia n> tncno part* of Kentucky. 
They feed en the barka tA variotu tivea, applet 
«ort, Ac Their fleah li nii) to be vwy unpitlatnblet 
reM^ihling flabby pork. Hioy pair abcnrt the latln- 
end of Swtember, and the fcnulo brin^ fortfa two 
pmuf In A|ifil or May. 

Tht gtam Ctnalahtt of South America poeMMM 
a dtaUnotiv* fnatura io tbe elongated pnbenMle tail, 
aii|iilH U tor no nrborral exislenceL Ibeae latter 
Awnamny tbnabetarmed'TrMFarcnplnee.' About 
di ipeeia of tbeae anlinala are iodijivnoiw to Aowrica, 
tbe nitnaa, ai In the Canadian Pormpinft bein^f of 
much Mnaller ^te than in tbe Old Wiirid forma. 
In Infth the typieal mpnin of this genua ar«ntgiaa 
Uleei» the tail mcnaerinK about lOlwibea. 

OUht qgaoa an Sj/ndAtnu and JH/aeMfi» Tba 



former Ineludea mtly tbe Mexican PomiplDC^ the 
latter oceuniDg in Weal and South Africa. 'I'be 
btidiea and talU of tho opecioa of the genua JuJn* 
codiii are more eluai;atcd than ia iieuaJ, and the taiU 
are wvenid with prickly balra. lliev avcra^^e larve 
ralbiu in lif ». IPL CLXXlI.-CLXXIlL.eg. 1&.) 

PORDKNONK, a tnwn nf Italy, in the gnvernmrnt 
an<I 40 iidlce M-K.L uf llie cilv uf Veniui, tn a |i1ain 
oa Llie Nrxwllc It bi iiurTOiLiidrd w-itb an nld wall, la 
a wtill-Liuilt, itirriij]; |>Iace; wilb two pariah and six 
aaKlllarycliiircha);atb(!UTe, hoejiltal,aQdworfc))<ins«: 
manufectum of linen, miipor iitcriiiil*. paper, and 
rlaaa; oiid a cunaiderable trade in euro anil wina^ 
Pop. Bfi72. 

l'< >KDENOyE, IL (so called from his blTth-pUce. 
rntitimrine in Friuli, bin tnie name being Oio«aniu 
AiiUniLu Livinio). or Rtuii.ru I'a Pordbrusk, a paia- 
tor cf tbe Ve^etlaD acbuol, and an early eoUobeiateiir 
and rival cf Titian, wae bom about 1161, atid »<«• 
cutnd nuuir worlu for hia native place; anniealKi for 
Motittiu, VIoHUia, and Gt'noa; but hia Knaoteet K'orka 
for Venice For tbiit city be painted the chapel of St. 
Rnr.h, and tbe ball of tbe Pr«g*di, in coiijrinction with 
Titian, with whom he alao p«inU-d in KL .Inhn'a 
church, whaaoe a oonelant rivniry edntml between 
them. He died in Ferrnra (IfilO), wbitber he had 
been Inrttftl by the Ihilce tlroole Il„ to prepare cor- 
Uxiua fur blemiab Ui|««try. Hia death wm attri* 
liuted to poiaon, Speclnionii cf bin worka are to be 
foiiud En niuny of the princif>al ^Icrica of Eatnpa. 

PliKIFKUA ('j*re Iwarinf i. a term oecaaioDaUy 
rmployrii to dLiiif,ii)ite the Furauiluifen or tbe 
Hpnngee, or bntb of thnu olaiRea nf Prntoana (wbloh 
aoe). Tbe name hoe been applied in allunan to the 
aporturea or porce which exijit In both groups of 
en^ganiMna. 'Jlio Foraminifcra tbua poeaeaa minute 
■Mrtnrea or farmnitia in their calconoua iholla, and 
toTongh thew a]«itnrea the unode mslter of tbcir 
bodies la pnilmdeil in the form of filantenUnii prn- 
coiMia U'Tva-A }iian>dajioJia, Tb* nmi" Fi>rkrnliiiteni 
i* tbi» cifuivalcnt in ita etyBKi logical renae to ForiierK, 
The ' porea' in the Spongei ore the •nulter OMrtnraa 
exiatjng in tbe epoage-natcaial, and tbieugb wUcb 
cntrenta of water ore oontinuallv being drawn. (See 
aleo PaoTOSOA and S>^>KGEf>.) i'be terra Porifen,in 
aodeni sooJogy. it may laetly be mestioneil, ii by 
no meaaa frequently uaed-, the two claaeee obore 
ntltidcd to, and wbit^h are euentiaUy and etractamllv 
dietinL't. tivUii; de^ipinted by their vwa qiedal uamn 
in the cloamfiuatiaa of the Protow*. 

JttKK, the fleah of awioe^ b one of tiwiAoal imper- 
taut aod widely u«d epedea of ulmal food. Vreah 
pork, Ibongb by ecma coDoldered a delieooy, aopedaUy 
when kilfed young, b ■ much inferior aillelo of diet 
to beef or mutton, and b much leea uaeal Tbe flesh 
of [lorh, jiarlicularty tbe ksan, la coonwr and ranker 
UisLii Utat of tbe other aiuntala chiefly used for food, 
but there ore certain adraDtara wUeh give pork a 

Elace la tbe eopply of animal niod that eon be filled 
y DO other artide. Tbe appetite of awine b«Df 
muDh more catholic than that uf tbcir daintier aei^- 
bount, the fe«din4i ef tbem oaewwra the purpesM of 
ecouumy, and ext^nde very materially tbe supply of 
fooil, IbU, it U true, ia attended with coaanerable 
daii},fis. If care iaiKittakeu that the feediuK of ewtse 
should bo wholesooM and eleaaty, their Scab beoomsa 
tainted with Jisaeisi and nalit for food. Unaampulone 
faeeeden souetlBMa take advaatsfe of their enrtitaol 
and onmieeraua ametlta Io moke them ooaaaDM Iba 
must diMpMtiag ottol, and «««n when Ibeir tewtta^c li 
not ooadocied wMi thb otter reckleaoMM of eonne* 
qucneee it b often leas careful than b coiuiiileut with 
aound aatdtory conditlaiia. 'iliflre b in fact no animal 
to the perfccUon ol whose Hash sa on nrtide of di«l 
eanfiil Attanlfao to fsvlliic b mere tB^bpoBsabla. 



POROSITT— PORPHTBT 



The nutln n!eDmmenH]a,tioii of mtIe 1i(« in iu mpe- 
riority ta otbor Itinild of animal food in tiiidcrifim.^ 
ttiB praoRn of raring. The qnality i>f hwf aniJ mnt- 
Urn u HtMiutialy cl«t«riorat«(l wbcn Ion? hvpl, «vcn 
tuid«r tht! beat mcthocla nf curini;; thxt of |Kirlc i* 
dcciilLiily ini|:ir'>vt^. auJ ubeii uf f^CHxt qualltj xii:J 
well curvcl it ilovrlnpn a Hchiipda niii) ii<<lU'Acy of f1n- 
vour In mitrlceJ uontnuit with tlio dryn-cM uid iiii>i;iul' 
1^ O'f other fA]t«d meAt. Another ivarinimebtiatiun 
of pnrlc w tli« abiiiiiUncr uul vi*ry digMtilJc quality 
of ita f«t, which tRAlcr* it r vary mitabla diirt for iH>ld 
ollmntea, but wbivb ft, on Uiu coatTXry, rather & i'w 
MlvanUt^ iu hot ones. For long boa voy&gca, Mp«- 
oinlly lnjfiw* ttin intrnductinn of ninilnm mrthn-ln of 
kr«[fiii|; fraiii mi- at, purk »■*■ by fur tho riHml cmnrnun 
knrl iLocoptab!« fitrm of unliniU tUet, iLai it Ja vCill duo 
«f tho miMt TnluAblo itenu in nnvtl atoroa. 

Th? vwinn wui ainon^ thti tinclaan animaU fnrbiddnn 
toboistvnby the McwaicUw. ti !« ■till rcKunlpil liy 
the Jews M BpwIaUy typical of tha uuoluau animals. 
Tho KgryptdMa, AnibUnM, and other nMtirn nnlinnii 
baiil ■Lmiur opiniona nt Lo the tue of iiorlc. I'Iil- brnnl- 
iiij^of airfaoUcomiDODkTnoii); the lri>ib iNriMiAiiti'y.biit 
tho chief Bourcv of tho comiuonrikl anpply of perk it 
the United Kt«t«ii, whoae pork eiporta in 18fi3 went 
vklued at £1,238,1 .'■'I. Pork peaaFMa much li-aa 
tibiin*, alhimiinoTin, unA gi>l>tinoiia nrntter thrui h>-rf 
or muttnn, but cDDi|>cnaat<x by ft* noro abundnut 
■unijly cvf f[\t. 

VoftlJSl'I'Y, thn niimo given t<'> * projinrty prw>- 
■eaM<d by all lioditw; it saiDrla iKat tilt) particlea of 
botii^s BTo net iiniiiiKliat*Ly oontlgiioiia tn <id« uiutliar, 
btti ATS Mpant«d by intervening cpacat or pora. 
Oectaln Idndd of iitano employAd in atAnc-mtora 
allow WftUr to paM Ihroneh their porei, but prevent 
th« pnMMga of anibll mlid Imrlieii nraviniuily b»M in 
•napfraaioD by the witter. Tho 'Flarentine cxpori- 
DMDt' abow«d that ^Id uitl lead allowed water to 

EtliTuuKh tlipir pores. KliUuw iiliibua of goM and 
mn fillad vith wntor, nnd Beaur«ly clo«e«l: 
wbMi thcM spborM w«r« Rtnick wHth a hammer the 
prewiirq within bcdLmi! f^at enough to force the 
mbar tlini-oijU tb«i [Him) nt tlii- meUlH, inaklni; tli« 
app«amai?D of dow on tbo (mtsido« of the tohsbIs, 
If tncMtnrc-monta nf vnlnmo nn; Vihcn, ivbmi ivnt'ir 
ancL alcdtiol are niiied Ui« vulume of tlie uiixtiirE ii 
found to ho Icm than the Rim of tbo volume* of the 
constituMitB, tlx) particjcs having 1:«<nibroU([litc1o*vr 
logttbw tiian b«for«. Bodiot expand nnd cmtraot 
Id vnlnmo with boat and culi]; tbi.'y can alio ho com- 
proaail by tho application of furcn*, no tbnt th«ir 
parti'Tlt's cauuul tw io liumvdinl« ci>utiK-t. Iron and 
pUtiniiiD whon at a hi^b bn&poratura aIIow gtecA to 
pona thmiigh them. 

Th&l the mulocnlea of bodiaa are not only lepamted 
from one anotbcr, but niw always In » rtate of mpid 
motion, is a theory which ia now gasanUy accepted 
by Batumi pliiti>)rciptii.-r«. 

PORPHYilY u a ^^uuipoucd ruck bavlni,' ■ baala 
In which th>aoth«rci:int«ioponui»o»aoonKtitiient part* 
an hnbAddod. Tho baae ia aomotimM clay-nlone, 
■aniBtima bonistotio, •omelimea compact folMpM-, 
taxle pitebRtoDe^ pevlrtoiw, and ob^iiiu. The Iiu- 
boddwl parte an oommoiiljr Idipv and (innitz; tho 
Ionn«r in noro or Um diatinct etTitala, There arc 
porphyrieo of diiTcnnib t^e». One rariety 1« fiMind 
graduating into granite and gnetta, but thia does not 
poMcaa the obanctvriitioa of tbc rock in tbo bighmt 
pwfwtloo; anotbor Is found in overlying atrat^ and 
m«oafbnnaltle to otbor rocka, which ta iIm true por- 
ptrnpr. Ila oolmir ia often led or graen, and wbtm 
pouahod it M valuabl* for omameigUl work, beinj; 
aupBrior to marble oa account of ha groat hnrdDeEe. 
Tan rock abounda in Egypt, the northern niuta of 
Baiap4 ^ Moiioo, and buath Amenca. Tben ia 




still another variety found In cmntellaB mtlk cxtfael 
vulcJunLn-s, which IB aotni-timea dlattngnUied hy the 
name nl clay-pm-p/iiir). [t aboonds in the nejgfa' 
botirbood of tho Mcditemneaii. 

FOItPRYKT {PorphMriotYnGntik phaoMpboraf 
thu N(H> rutoiiic ncliool, celebrated m an iiilaftniniit 
of (.'hrixtisAtty, ia cnJIed » l^rias knd k nalaiwinn, 
wbcuoo it is oonji'ctiired ihe^ ho waa a nallM «t a 
IVri&n o.iIon7 at liatanui, the Baahaa of So^tam 
He wait liom, an i« iiifvirm] from bia iiwn atntcmmb^ 
Abotit233 A.L). Hia DTiKinal name won Ma]cbtii,famn 
thu Syruphcenidan mA^eA, king. LongtBoa, wlxm 
piij'il hobocaaUjgawlumtlMtiUaaf Pofjlijrfii^iii* 
(ilrAtivcof thepurploeoloiU'OtnyBl roboft He ma 
culy plat-od under tho tnanhlng rf Origan, aod aAer- 
warila rtuillod undor ApoUotnoa aod Longinna Id 
Athona. At tho age &f thirty hoeaiao for thoMoeod 
time to llnino t» ]ilA«e himiplf under ibe IcMchincof 
F]i>tliiiis. Plotiniu bail depiit*^ tho taak of li 
new pupils to Amaliua. Porphyry at fint 
tbe dnatrine tan^ht him, in a trofttiao in «Rnpartct 
(ho puBitiini 'tliat tlip tiling;* privrivol by the mind 
exiHt out of thi> mind,' which hoRiibmitt'ul to Flutinnl 
for tv\'\y. Pli^tiutut faandvd it to Amelioa, who wrota 
a treatiHO in ropty to it; aod after anme fiutlMff eon- 
tritrorsy Poqihyry expreseed hiinaclf eatiafled, and 
read a miTAiitati'in in the iiohool. Tbta inotdrnt M 
Important, na tndicatinif the tekcUng <d LooglDa^ 
and poflilbly by Implication of Anraonfai^ the in- 
itnictor of I'lritiniiit. Porphyry finiabed bj eattmly 
ulnpting the opiiiiiina and oMiumng tha oonfidMitw 
of PlolinuB, whose lltvrary aatiltittuit &ud exMutcir he 
became, and Tipon whom he oierciMd ooDildentUe 
inflnenno in inducing him to cnmniit hia viawa lo 
writing. Fonifayry waa natanilly of a bypodwn- 
driacal diapoMtlcn, and tbo abatriMV lajMliin ti 
PlolinuaiQcitedinhuiiatoBdeDoylodMriabtbmgha 
of aiiioide, which Plotimit perceiving menmmaAii 
ta Iiini a change of dtuntivn, and ahmit 243 bv wort 
to Sicily. Hera ha iaaaid to have written hia traato 
a^ninrt tho Chriatiaiu^ which wm in lifteen boekfc 
It Mnn jinliHcly burned by tho Empnrar Tbeodndin^ 
aiul Ik iiuly kiKiwn from fragment* lu the aullHira 
who hftVD refuted him. Furpbyry. aa woll u Plet- 
iRtm. rr^i-n'^iErfl trhHnt aa an omimint philnaopbv; 
bet he ctuirf^tM] the L'hmtiiuia with oomiptiDg Ina 
diictriiiiw, lie marrieil, when amnawbat adwtoed la 
life, a widow with foven childrai^ and a Ivttar ta eUaat 
whieh bo adtlreeoed to hk wife. Re died about 3UI 
or Sl'«. 

'ITic pbilowinhy of Porphyry is ooroplottJy identtfiad 
with that of Plotintu, an acoovnt of wbJea baa b«cn 
aLt*ady given. (Sea FiirtixnR,) PoqAyry rapre- 
•cntcd rbicHy the rrlicioiia phaae of thia phibMophy* 
and wa neeit hero only refer ta its relation to tM 
p3puUr inyLbuIivy and tUeiiryy, which taa 
merely advon-sd to tn the life of Flotlnna. 
bat aiiciont phijmophrr* fonnd no difficulty 
ooncUinii piilyLbeiiui with the belief ia one auf 
and omnipot^it God. Tho oonc«ptloii ot 
iutolligonon of an ordn" suni^rior to man fu 
a •oltitiDn <]{ tile popnlor brlirEa, which did i 
trailiL-t thpir biijliur •iievulali'HL*. Tboa, 
had hiii dvmon, Fl.ito boUaved tho gnda to bavo bWB 
ciuktod in a manner aimilar to roan, aad Plotiirna 
and Porpbjrry joinud a belief in good and erU demom^ 
and a r*«pect at leaat for the Oreek mythology with 
tbolr philoaophical toDcta. Tboaa beUtfa hava bwa 
tha minnd of acawatiotin of Enoonaiftaaev wsia*t 
Pori-hyty, who iln-ella ou lli«m ocewdonally in Ua 
writiRc*. lin WIIuvmI. an did Plottoni^ in ettcbaBt- 
meut aa a nieuu of acquiring power ercr deraoaa and 
the afFulfl <>f th« dood : bttt be juwaya ranked phHoaaphy 
liighcT than niytbalogy, and from hia lelttsr to the 
I Egyptian prophet Aacbo It appwum that at ft later 



P0KP0I3E. 



213 



pwled of Ui Ule donbta of the popnl&r CbeologT, hoi 
of Ih* ljMurg:ioftl BoUoiM Maodatcd with it bivl 
W|>B t» pravkU irtth hia. Tbe prttcticftt UmlEaaL-H 
ol hk pkUoMwhT w«9* UMtia. B« hcM Ui&t nil 
' «M pollnto^ ud that no nutteiul tKriiico 
la b* oS««d to tbo iupreme UmL, With the 
' at rcMtTMRliig th« acniiml drairea ha »I»Uiiu«l 
fpam MilnaJ fwod, and wouU t\ni, if it had been pon- 
abl% h^r* kfartAiiMd fran ragMablo dicL He du- 
tiugakbed foOT dcgnn dt virtue — fulitir^ virtue, »r 
Ihalof tDoda(atkialaibafirUgT>d«; punfj'ing vtrLiM, 
wld«b BvU tb* aoal frw froio pamion, and by ma;uis 
of wUeb BHO wn made to naeuibla diimotui, b 
tba MeoDd mde; fat iha tUnl ^nde, which oor- 
P t^wada vitn Ibe abaortuiff davobon to phUnaonhy, 
■m boco wi M • god; hm In the foakb, which 
1 1» Ik* E M Ut ia bM« of I'lotinua, be bcooDica 
tt the goda. Be nafgnizea & hiuI in 
and Mxsoraa io Ibtnt m cartaiii (Uimunt of 
■nd reMOn. Tlie achuhuahip vf Por- 
phTfj' «M (or Ua da^ utanaira; hut It vtu entirely 
nojact |0 th« allagonciog aad m^atical tcmlencieaof 
Ifta mAoti at phiUMOphv to which h« twlongMl, and 
h» atodiad tha |>hilwa]ifteTa ot mher Mboob, not ao 
■aib lOMsvtJUB their opialoDa aa lubad his own in 
ifcaik Voryhyrr wm a volnminoue writer, but cnm- 
ftKwtiniy few ij hia worka am «xLiuit. Dio tiUca 
of aoa* of (h«m ar« auch aa tv wnvej little lu/onua- 
tiaa^amjiMut not vcncd in Noo-Ilatctiicpbilcaophy. 
BoiUBi Ua cdittirikl uork (or I'lutiikiti^ tha moat 
*'T— *— * an hja Li<n of I'luiiuiu Mill PTtha|[oni^ 
Um latt«r anppoaad to bo a IragBMnt of a Wsvr bte- 

3«( fUsaopbaiK It ia R T«r7 partial |vodactioD, 
(fvaa PrtlMfonu a much higher raiJc in the 
hhllfT of phUuaif^y tlian liu ii iiittlied tu. Au)ou|( 
hia otBor worka vm may umiiiUod, l'iindp1>aH conconi- 
blff iMaUiciUe^ » rmam6 of the Philomphy of Plot- 
Ibb% ftad ma Caw of the Nympha In the Ctdywoy, a 
•MtobKlIoB to a ajmboUoal Juterprvtatioii ot UomeT. 
&■• ia BO e<mpMa adltloa of to* axtaot woria of 
T ^gph y rj. IIm Lif« of Pjrtba^raa waa pahtishod 
■t Bene (IS30); De AhttinenUk (C«mbrid|,-e, 1665); 
A FtagmeDt on the OrgMium of ArfaluUe <Flor- 
15X1); The nigmeut on the Odymty (Komo, 
HB). 

FOBPOIHE, a geooa of niudea or CvbraM 
MawHialii^ h«lang^ag to the family Dnlpiiiniilia (Dol- 
p Mna ^ Ac) of Iwt order, llio Cotoiuvu roipolw 
(Wwiw iwiaaniii) k at onoe the moat (otnlliAr uid 
tha amalleal of the Cetaoea, and occtin pifutifully 
~ llw oomU of Britain and in tho North Sra. 'l')i- 
Oraiupiu (P. Orea) in iucludvd in the 
igamB with tho Porpoiae. Tho ume PurpoiM 
ri««d tma tb* Vnaoi p»re-poit»in,t)t 'bqe-liah,' 
. Ika tern Laa avldetitl; allniMn bo the black pig- 
totm ud ganbob ol tfaaaa forma; the Gernuw 
ft JkfccracAmm ]inaMaairn[ the nme ajj^ificanco, 
1 alao the tactv fainiliar French name of Afanonia. 
Iha I'orpuiae |*cuim tlw head ia bluul, and dui'm 
4 Mvied anteriitflr to furm a boak or roetrum, aa 
Ibe uolphina. Toetb exiat in both jaws, and a 
tm eiUta, hetng ulaoed far back on the dunal 
o. An alliod nwoea la tho /*. MeUu <«r P. Oio- 
*ff»}, tbe * Kouoa- headed ' Porpoito or 'Ca*aiiig 
[^VUe' of the Sbetiaadan, wblcfa occurs to flacky 
which eiompiifiaa ^tr«tig grt^triooM habit*. 
I latter fonna are mach largor thin tlie Cqdibiub 
and aeaaure ob an avrm;:* Irimi 20 to 
la Uagth. The head b very oaavex and 
dad The 'IVi^g Wliaka' inhabit tbe aoribeni 
, and ars hunted fur Ute aake of the oiL 'lliojr 
I aaptaiod bj driving th«n towaixia the alMce, tho 
in flock ceaaiaQr following tho exainpla of an^ 
I mermlwr which beooioea attaiMlfid. loo hollow- 
I of tbeaa lunaa are daaoibod aa belnB axooe«iin]|l]r 



idari««d: 



te^j 



[■wriaga 

kla'nai, I 



^Mdni 



loud and aolsy. Tbe torm ' Bottle -noead WUle or 
l'orpni«e' is aonirtiinoa appliod to this latter Riodeai 
the unjne nf whAl-s ixiog at oounw uiiaapplieu when 
c<.iiiHiil«rt<d with refi^moe to tbe atriot coologlcal 
poaitioD and relations of the Porpoise*. 

'i'ho OonrnidO. runioliic attain* a» average length 
of 5 foci. Thn Mtumth akin la deatitute of Lain, aave 
ill tbe ii«igLtfOurhood i>t the month in tho young 
atAte. Tlie front partioa of tho boad ia of convex 
f.inn, and imaiaaaea in the middle line the splraele or 
'lilowLuli;, funued of tho unitod Doatrila^ and pr» 
eciiting a rrvaonotJn aliap). *I1io oj-an are of small 
lint, and are ailtiatod low down on tbe hea^ aad 
behind tho |>i4ti>riar ed;;a of tho month or 'gl^w.' 
Ilio oar opviiB cluae bcbiod tho eyv, and ia of verj 
sDiall man. Tho genital apertutr* of tbo walo are 
|>Iaoed miioh anterior to tbo anna or rent, the inter- 
veiiitig apace in the fetuaJe being ol amaller aiea, and 
containing tbe toftta. Aa in all tha Cetacoa tho toil 
or caudal fin is flatlonod, and plaoed boritau lolly or 
aoroM the body, Instead ot vertically, an la &^Me. 
The muadea and tiaauea boioatb the akin are inTasted 
by a thiiJt layer of binbbor ami f aL The bonce are 
e|>on{cy in toxturt^ and Ihiiae of tlie tiiube pueatiaB no 
iuwlullat7 or marrow cavltlea. Tha nock, as in othor 
Cotacea, ia very abort, and iu vertebm are oa*i(iad 
logethoi', the luuihar part ot the spin« beiiig clon* 
gated. Tho dorval aud lumbar v«rtebn« together 
biunhor twenty-eight, tho anborior fiftoao of tluH 
btJonging to tho back, properly speaking. The akall 
haa a *Ha«k>lik«' i^pe or oootaiir, the jawa belag 

Clonijod. The tore Umba naturally project from tbe 
ly, Ihfiir flat surfsoBa baing directed upwards and 
diriwnwarda SiKnracTenboneaexint in tile wTiat, and 
the fite Ungor^ crumuiBncJng with the tliuuib iu utdor, 
poaaqaa reapoeUvoIy 2, S, ij, 9, and 2 ' phnJanp*' (which 
see) or separate bonce. Nails are wfaoQy wanting. 
The [leMoaFhaiinohboneaarerapTeeented by lunpis 
curved bony piocea^ wUcfa lie Embedded anioug Lb« 
uuaolae ana tlMuea of the abdoaiinal aurtaos o2 ib» 
body. Ko hind Hmba are developed. Tbe teeth an 
of aniall aize, and are not preoeded by milk teeth, tbeir 
vniwna being of blunted ahapa. Tb* stomach oosslsta 
of Ibre* purtions, Into the 6r>t of which the gullet 
o£)«na No cnoum oxiats, and a gall-bladder ia want- 
ii^, Tbe (ipiraclo or outer noetrU opeua into a t|Hr- 
acular cliAiiitor, whkh in turn cominiuikatoa with 
the citoTtial ojiruiu^ in tlw aknll of the aosCrila. 
Those latter openings can be dosed at will by «alvea. 
Tliu ' bluniug of the Pori>ujau ta cauaed by tho ejec- 
tion of thn air, which baa been uaed in breathing 
(tvm the oul«r apiracle; this air oominonly lifting up 
«ith it audi water oa ItM at>ove the head aad aourita 
iif tliu aciinial brfure it mmi-i to the aiirfao& Henca 
the W9it«r 'blown* by tlio Whales and potpoiaaa doM 
not vunaist, aa oouunonly iuppueed, of water talum 
into tho nouth and then footed by tbe noatrila By 
Uin tuuMcular aiiproMioiaUoa of the ei>igbittis aod 
timwr part of the windpipe to llie autt naUta aud 
hiiuler or noutli opanlnga of the nootrili^ toe air-paa* 
ssgesand aosttttsanlnmighl tofotvonaeoatiaaoaa 
tuna, and breathing can thus lio pcrfonnad independ* 
ently ot the •wnll<>u>!ii){ »t fuud er of tbe OfMBUg e( 
tbe month. Hn olfaLtory luirrm or tboao of mfl 
exid^ and the eye poawesas a thick selcmtic or ooter 
ouat. I'be lungs are But divided into hibea, and the 
hinc-Ussue Itself Is ol verr dens* stnidora. Vocal 
conia are nndovelopcd fai toe Pos p o ls sa. 

1'he food af the FoipoUea cenaula of barring and 
other flsba^ aiMiigat ahuala of wbk-h tbey pm«e very 
destmctive. Tb^ ci>ann>ntdy fallow the berriiv- 
shools,aDd(reqiwuUybeeaaHsUaadod intba purvnt 
of their pray into ^lallow wateia. Ibey gHnbo) b 
Uie wutor after tb* faahiod of tha Dolpiiin^ aod 
apvear to aziat in boeda iw * ■^l"*«»l** 



214 



PORPORA -POKSON. 



POEPORA, X100L& (called by Uw luliwa tbo 
jtalnarth trf hitrmany), wm bcm nt NftplM nbotit 
1085, fixid Htuiliud uiiilf^r SmrlatLt, wliune fuvuurili* 
pupil h" WHA. IIi« flmt (rfier«, Ariniria n Tscbo, wwi 
bnnijiht out at Vientu, 1717. In 172-2 ho b>il com- 
pciB«il fi?e o|>eraa uid mi oratnHix The Kft:(«ti muni- 
cuiu lliu>H% tvlit) wiu liii pupil fur luuia time, trftiiM- 
forrud hinnplf to ScArlatU, whiob r«nwid wimity 
b«tiTvcn tkew two miudcUiuL la 1725 Porpora wuHt 
ta Vieniuk Along wltb hli oel«1>nt(»d popil FaHnflll; 
but whilo th« auco«nof th« lin^r wnacnniplcto, the 
compnaer Uata hia Uia flowsry otylc fnilBil to ptcwa 
tbe emperor, and d!iKCiit«iite<l witLi LU r«0(!i)tluii 
nturofld to Nkplca, After profesabn^ riaita to 
Homo knd Vcnii:^ bo yicldcn) ti n prcMrang invitatiiTni 
boiu tbe ouurt ftl IlrindoD. Ue b»il alrcnrly com* 
poeeil lifty o^>unu, and wu re{;«rd«d lut witlinut a 
riTol. At Drcsdon an envanamed war of jcalcmHv a«t 
in between bim and Ha«a, wh» ha<t bithnrto rctgniH) 
■npremQ there. Th« vlototj fiitnlly rcmainwl vt'iVa 
PoTjKira, wbo was soon called to encouotor a more 
formidable ri^'ft]. In 1729 a partj in [jonilon, which 
wan dtscuntriit^'I willi IJiindBl, opetird a w.-cimd 

rrn-honi", mid c;LlInl r<ir(".'ni bi talte IW ili-reflhm 
it. l'cir]:>ura, «iij:'purt<Hl by Farinolli aad utbcr 
diatintjiiuhcd nineRn vrhnin lio had trainiM, agiviTi 
tniiuj[ihiil, uid naudiil iiftor a heary jn^nmiary ItMa 
ipivonp ihi) tlieatp©, and devgrt«d MmMlf to uraturia 
Porpora aoxr za.vv up his cagagvmeiila in Drcadoo, 
and iMtatilJfibc^l bimu^lf In fjondoo. Here his rejiu- 
tAtixii, eapc<:iully na a iiLiii(iii^'-iiJuatnr, ouutintiod lu 
be-^rcat; but fmm homo-ncknon r>r untno ntbftr 
wiotmnkaowD Lc left LDadon.and in 173$ it fnutid 
at Vonioe, whor* ha appAan to taTC remained tiil 
1745. Ono 'if iiis piipiU, wbo waa the minlrvm of 
the ambanaibir uppiiiiUid bj tha repiibHc to Vinnnn, 
took bini with ln-r Co tb« Aimtriau (ta|jlud. Etirv, 
in 1754, Kaydn, ffir the ftalio of ntttaining bis iiwtnic- 
tinni, ti«catii« hi» \»\fi. in Yi^i* be prtiald«il at Ibu 

SixluctioQ in Naples of his lart and fwUmt Opora, 
'I'rioafn di I'amillii. Iliii famn bill long bncn 
d^iiiiti;;, and uHbuiiKh be had trttioed, bealdea Cattv 
el!i and Parinvlli, many more of tha l«ading dngsn 
of the day, whoto talent* brought thorn larm nvenas, 
hs waa left to die in grwt poverty. Oniv a few at 
hm Aperoi an now knnum, and nuno of them have 
retuuied popuUrity; but he )■ rPRurditd a* the mont 
aci>nni pljjhml aiu|{iUj;-tuiuil(.T vlio Ijnii e*er uxbtni. 
H» Tcitgiotia con)p<wri lions, and especially biit eantat^iB, 
are the work* in whinb ho itibLhiia hinui;!! to must 
adv»titaf[«- H« died at Naplea in 1707. 

roitSENNA, i\T PoMKKA. Laiw, Iho king of the 
Etmriiui dty C'lunitiin, acconitng to tho l»gvDd nar- 
rated by Lit y, r<^ceived the 1'an^uina when they were 
ax[«Hfiil fMiii Rome, and aftar u vain endeaTouriair 
to cScct tlinir mtnrntinn bv negotiation, advanr«d 
with ail army to Rouiu, He would have cntorod 
tho dty with the (lying Romani had not Horatiu* 
Corlei di*piit«L the fiaanago until the brid^ waa 
bniken iluwn. Porwrnia then bcvioged Howe, and 
ft famine was produced in the dty, when another 
Roman youth, Mncliia Scsuvula, gave a rtriktnij 
proof of hia patriotiuii and dKVot4dn(«<. <S«« JMnt- 
Citm ScjiTOLA.) Por«etina waa niiw Incliaed tooepo- 
tiatioD. Ho demanded that tindr property ahould 
bereatnml to Lbn Tarqulns,aiid tliat tlio cities takt'n 
froui Lho Vcioiitea in fonaer wani idionld be giren 
niL 11m Mixmd condition wm granted; tho fint ww 
rejectml. A truce, however, was a^rwtd Upon, for 
tho sLwurity of which tbu Romans unnt tun yonng' 
men, and aw mnny prls. a« ho«tA^a to the Etrurism 
canip. I'liH lattvr found on oppirtnnfly of eficaplng 
to Kotnn by •winimiii;j over the Tiber. But th« 
eoutul Pubfio'ila convr)-«d tbem baolc again to Por- 
aonna, and wu on thia oooanon troatad witti tlie 



irrratPst indicnity by the T«r<jiiin«. 1\n*aaaa on 
reci^ivin? intelligence of It Immediately dviMOshed 
hia son Atumb to protect tho Kotnaai. Indignant it 
the. pvrfiJy of tho Tarr|aina, and reapecting tke Wtgr 
nanimrty of tho Rornana, tbe king eoparated Unwell 
frum tbe former, and conctndod peace with tlie talter 
nitbout taking avray tbrir h(*tnge«. To ratlera the 
want! of the Komaoa without ulfeoding tbctr prid* 
by a formtJ piwent, he left bebiad at hie deparinre 
hlH TCholo canjp with all it« iloreL In leraemhtaAoe 
of hia Ringnnnimity the aeaaia er«eted to toB a 
monument, and pTB*eiit«d bim with an ivorr choir 
anri w.'tiptre, a goldon orown, anil a myal roba. A 
aiibeequcnl prapositi<m from Poivenaatothe Roaaaa 
to admit the 'I'aniuina being doellaad, Pnwni 
abaudcinLiI thern, 1I>m1 in uadiatarbed friaodrfiip 
with tlia Romans, and roatoral to thani tbe taoilor^ 
of tbe Vcicntca, which they had eedad at tbe oond** 
■ion of peace. Modem critica have faetd that Ktona 
waa completely oonqner^il by Ponunna, and that tl>e 
gifts tboy an nrpraenbw) a« offorinz fnvn gratitude 
were really a tribute indicating mbjeotloa. Aram, 
the son of Porsenna. waa defeatted hj a leagne of the 
T.atin cdtlea, aft>>r whi-:h the Ro«nana arv bettered to 
hav« recQTered their iuJc|j«ndeno8. Titt eritlea who 
cive thti totes^retation to the legend do not aom* 
i>ie motive assigned to Porsenna nf restoring the 
I'arqiilna. K. <>, Mlilirr, Enitesd, mppnaea that it 
was Pomenna, and nut the Runiam, who »ipcll«d 
lh«m. Aourrding to Pliny Ponwnna foeiade the 
n<:>inauR tbo vw: of Iron, except for agricultural por- 
poais, 

POKSOX, RicTiABD,aoelflbratpd pritloanddawi- 
cal Boholar, prnfemor of Greek in the LTnivenrity ot 
Oambrid^ Me waa born December SS, 1759, at 
Etut IttiitoD, in Norfolk, when his father was derk 
of the pariah, and to bim ho waa indnbt«d for the 
flnt ndtmmiU of hii education. He renived •ome 
fiirthi^r inatrnctlon at the village anhool, and abo 
from tho vicar ot Ruatoa; after whiob be waa feat 
to Eton, through the patronage of •ome gmlleoNa 
who witncaaed and wlmtrcd his eariv i if oflcieaqr and 
indin.ttion for tho study of dasaionl liloiatiire; In 
1777 he beemne a itudent of Trinity CUtip;. Cam- 
bridge, where bo gained a prise modal, and in ITSl 
ho waft choeen to a fellowabipi Ho took the d^^ee 
(if M.A. in 17SS, and not chooeing to take ImIj 
urdvra, on account of oonai-lentluua •cniplea to regard 
to tho eignin^ of the Thitty-nino Articles, he wit 
oblig'il to relinqninh Ms fallnwahip. In 1793 be waa 
unuiimouRly plscteil (inwk prufraaor, and twoywaiM 
aft«r be lii.-„'an the pigl>t!ca>tinn of tbe Trag^lee of 
Eutiptdei^ with annotations, but eontinaedbia labonn 
onlythrongb four of those dnunaa—BeoalM^ Omb^ 
Phcenlmv, and Medea. He also asnsled te ediliBg 
tbe Uronvillo Ili;inic>r, piiblishod nt (.Oxford (1SA0, foor 
vola. 4to], and convctcd tbe tMit of the tragedJca vi 
.l-Ucbylna for a splendid edlHan, which leaiMd (mm 
the Glaagow press in foliov also printed in two vola Svo. 
IfoenjoyedLhervpuiatioDcfbeingoiieofUiebeatOnek 
Mholara and critica of the age, notwIthstaniUng which 
hevipcrieacedUttIv patrouat^adrc-uDirtaDCe partly 
nttribotable to bi« into[ii|»nit« liahita. In 1805 he 
waa appi'intnd librarian t» tlie l>>adoo Insb'tetioa, 
with a salary of £200 a year, and hia death took 

Elaoa &eptem1>er 2S, 180S, at his apartmeala in the 
011M then bdoiwing to that eatablisbnient in the 
Old.Ii^wry. His £oraBe vaa'Anukinedbf apoflcsj: 
and hia body havinit been eubjeetod to aaafionicml 
examination, it wm rtiiooTenst that his akidl vaa ente 
of tbe thickeat (but hod ever been obeerved. He 
wna the aitth<>r of I,ett«r9 to ArcbdMuon Travis, bi 
Amwcr to Ids Defonce of tbe lluea Heavenly Wit- 
neana {\19i}, Kvo), in which he is allowed to I■a^'a 
DTOvc^d that tbe received test of 1 John v. 7, 8 b 



I 

I 



PORT— POET-AU.PBINCE. 



S15 



I 
I 



I 



■Mrimu: and tJla hi* fk-kth rn>fM»ir Monk u»I 
CL J. Bloioficld, mfterwRjiU bbhop of London, pub- 
lUwd iat ArivcrurUh, or Notoi and Kmendatlont of 
tfa* QttA Foeta; aiid hw TnKta mi MiaceUftnica 
««n«litodb7th«Kov.TbmiiwKJdd(18]5). Mnny 
ei ikam an aulit* of iroaj a&d hmnour of tbe tnc«i 
ntj md peealiar kinil. which, wlUi Mhar utlalea 
al WDdl ng wHk Inj-niiiit and oitkal MmMn^ ap- 
pMBvl tn vsrioua of th« litanuy iounialR. Acute- 
D<«i of dtae ar i M PMt, aoUditjr of jtu^^eul, uuit«<l U> 
tiiU!DB« apfiUoatloo and a SbapeadmB memory, rcn- 
dawd JhoFciaor Porton » cuDiiiltrto critic ia tbc moat 
hmoaivU* aaoaa of that ■npelULion. 

FORT. The budd of Port irinfa, or OporUt vinn, 
y giTsa. tn OMmiKToe, to the produco of tbo vino- 
nmb along tb« couraa of tha Dtwro^ in I'orttigal. 
rati {■ naturally a varj rich and delicate witie^ vury- 
hf In ooloor (ram a pale roae to a deep red. The 
hwraat bala from Um beebuiing of SonUtmbor to 
Ifaa — ■''■^'* of October. Tite witm arc divided into 
twv gnat eliaati — Die viifio lit rmfjaninr. the beat 
or atport wiao^ which grows oa Ibo boi^bta and 
dopM^ aikd the m'Mlo htauM, the wine of the nUin*^ 
wUGh ia dmnk hi the oovntry. 'Hui winee for es> 
poti am very mgch mlxml, and are ■tronf^y fortifled 
with Ivaadv, partly to make tlicm eootivr ready for 
eaperit aao partly to anit thn Uu(t« of the forel^ 
■arirUa, particularly Eu^bnd; but of Ute yean 
braadM wtoca have l)wu rathnr declining In popu- 
te^jr tfaira. The tLirini; i>f the i-aHotu wfaiei con- 
ddinih^ ndofiea tht> variiiy of qnalitici of port 
MpoHUi couparcd with thiMo which an naturally 
|»wlaoe>l. A mixture called j'rrop^pa, eonaUtln^ uf 
•Uw-barrfee, moIaaaM, and ralaio jvlot b added with 
the epiril, Mpedally to the lower (jvaUtiei of the 
wine, tn girc vte uniforroity of taloar vhleh b deemed 
darirabU. "Hie wiiie b Urat placed in br)^o tnna, in 
wbfoh It nmaiiM liU vliitar, when H la racked into 
pipai^Mkdeoa'eyed to 0|mrt4. To thitt intended for 
catpeetation brandy ia adilcd whno. it, ia dFjwaited in 
11h aterea, and an additiocul i|uanLity when it b 
•Uppad. K«Denlly about a year after the vintaoe. 
Pott wince of excellent qWity am often ao hizhiy 
adnlieiatcd with levndy aa to be entirely dnniTed 
«4 Uwlr Baraar aad aroma; and the rtronger Idnde, 
■hiuh are not frrvtrievabty rained by thb adndatarv, 
lalr repan their flavour after being allowed to 
■MJow lor tmay yeaca. niien the colouring and 
extractive matter b drpoaited with a^ and forma a 
ovat, the coloor of port bceomoa a deep tawny 
Iwwwa. TIm ^^g"*** market haa always been tba 
arfaidpal mariiet for port wiae, and the nraiata of 
F'g*'-*' imiiiiiiiaiawia hav* tndod Btnra than any- 
lUn( ilM to apread Ita fiina h etb«r eatintHea, The 
iMli for titb wliu wai introdnocd lato EncUnd soon 
after the doee of the atttini^a of the Kngliu to main* 
lain a footti^ in Prance^ and it aoon bevaa tu auiwr- 
aade the Bordeanx wliwe, which, op to thb timo^ had 
nppUadtheEn^bhiBarkela, IntheaeTontceotheen- 
tnry Ka^bh eatahlithmenti were formed in Oporto 
to iBreci the nuchaae and ahlpplni; of tliu «iiiv«L 
BpanM erentnally nnited i^ a tort of cur- 
called the En^iab Kactory, which became 
lately meatw of the markcL In tlie [uUowiui; 
■■ n lOT the Maniulaof Poubal oisaolzed an aMocia- 
Mm et pndncatB to eppoea thb mooopdy of bnyen. 
Vntit IfiSS the export trade waa under tha de^otie 
mb of Ihb ooeipany. and «aa aobject l« « heavy 
naport dntj. After tbe ah.iUtioD of the company tha 
eoalrol «f the trade waa given to a ceimmlUee of 
iMla. Sbua 1605 It haa been left fKe,aad tbe wine 
whkb haa come from Portugal dnoo that date haa 
faaan of autre gannlaa nnaliiy than (onncely. 

FORT, a harbour or haveu en the aea-coaat Pm 
fart b one at which the gooda imported are szemptad 



fmtn thp payment of any cuatotM or dulio\ aa long 
aa thvy ant uot cuiiveyed Intw the interinr al tbo coun* 
try. Frtt port ia also nscd for a total escniption 
a£d franchiae which any net of marobanta enjoy for 
^cxk]* imjjortBd iuto a elate, or tboae of tbe growth 
uf the eountry exported by tbem. 

POBT, the name glveo by admiralty otder to the 
larboard or left aide of the uip (looking towards tha 
prow), aa port Ihe Ar/m— the order to loove the tiller 
■u ika t*> turn the mdrlor to tho utarlioard aide of the 
rtwnpMt. Tbia word ia lutcudud to prevent aoy 
DviiUkM liaiipealnff from the slmibriey of aotuida ia 
the v>-»rdit ararftaar^ and tarboarxL 

POUT, or PoRT-Hoij. The embmatirea or open* 
inE^t in the aide of a ihlp of war, wheialn tha 
artillary U Taiij[ed in battery upon the deck^ abovt 
and below, are calldl ;w>rt», or pari^haUt. 

GHn-rvom porta an situated in tbe ahtp'a aouater, 
aad are naod for atcm chaaei^ and alio for paadng a 
email cable or a liawMr out, to moor bead and •!«?% 
to tow a ebtp, nr to ipring upon tbe cable. 

PoTt-litU, a t»rt I'f hangins doora to abut In the 
porta at ae& They are faateoad by hlngaa to tha 
tipper edgea of (be iMwti^ eo aa to let down when tha 
cannon an drawn into the abtp, wherebj the wnt« 
b pruveuted entering the lowvr decka. 

Port-hacJcM, hnoka over tho porta, to which tlie 
port-htngee are attached. 

PORTADOWN. a market town, Ireland, in the 
county aad 9 milee Dorth-vaet of Anuach, a staUon on 
the Xfbtar Railway, on tha Bann, here croeeed by a 
hwtdaomo hrid^ Ita principal btaildinge are tbe 
rail way •etatlon, anBpiactHnt cnurcb, a Roman Cath- 
olio ohqwl, and other ptaeea of woiahln. It haa 
alio a National nnd otbar acfaooK and n bonarolant 
Modftty; Inr^ccm and floor mlUa; Btaouftetnrae of 
linen and catubrir, of atfiam-enginca and other heavy 
Ducihlnny; a nap and candtt worfc; and a briah 
trade in ooni, pork, butter, and general farm prodnoe. 
Pop. 7>i50. 

riUlTAL C!K(;iTr.ATION, tho dirtribirtion of 
venona blood colWled from the tpleen, etoonadfi, 
intecGina^ and mcaentory. tbrongliaut tbe livrr by 
the yiorta^ timk Thb peculiar drralatinn bdiatinctly 
and axoluaively cbamclarblie of Vertebrate animal^ 
no Invertebrate poaaeaahw a dtealation of Ibia kind. 
Tho blood thoa eont by us jPorUl vein to the liver 
oonrtitntoa a aooondaty dbtritntloa of blood to that 
oTjpLO, the primary diatnbutiea balDg one of punt or 
arU<rial blvod wnvey«d to the organ by the baiMitia 
an«7, and intended for tbe dun BUtntlon of the 
Uver, IIm portal blood mpplied to the Uver <xm- 
etitutea tbe chief aource ftutn which that organ by 
Ueanaof Ita )>endtar*tnirliiTv uncrrtia tha bOt. (Bee 
LiTEB.) Tbe portal rain bmncbee out and dlatrl- 
butca itaelf in the livL-r mticb after the faahion U 
ao artery, aa deacribed in the article Ltm. The 
bnmclKa of the porta] vein are peculiar in that tlivy 
ara unprovided with vatvei^ aJad tho blood nf tlio 
pt^tal \titt b flnallr ictnniad into the in/rriar tme 
ditu. 11>e portal blood derived bom the alomach, 
tplcvn, Ac, b meiaSy of lower apeolRo gravity than 
onlinary bloa£ It oantainanon water and alUinna 
and fewer red oorpoMlca. Ita clot b aba Imi firm 
than that of ordinanr blood. 

FORT-AD-PRUiCTR, capital of the Rerniblic (4 
Hnytl,OB tbe woatvraaideoi theblaod,at tbeaoutii- 
eaat eztramity nf the hay of tha mom name, laL 18* 
33* M.; Urn. Vi' 27' w. Under the r/giue of the 
Preoeh Bepubtio it received the naimi nf Pnrt-tEv 
paUicaim, It b boih in n low and unlwallby *pi>t, 
with broad but nnpand and dirty itreet^ crauiata 
chledlj ef woodeo houaaa of two atwrn, aad mmtaina 
an nngnlnly palaoi^ a eenate-boaN^ a faaadaonM 
Roman Cwnuc church, a eorton-haw^ oAil; an 



P0RTCUTXI3— PORTER. 



bogpitol, publio o1£ms, to. Tb« educatioDikl Itutita- 
ttons nra » Ivoeum, Kid leveriO other scboob. Tba 
■linkping tmue U oonaidemble, tJie chief expnrta being 
maJioguiy uii red wood, o(ifT«e, and cocoa-nuta. Tha 
trade ib chiefly with North America, EoglAnd, ftud 
Fnuice. Tha city wa* fnnndcrl in 1745, luid «rM 
cuiDEiletelj deatroyad hy >ii iiarthiiuatiu iii 17TU- It 
biia »bo aav«nd Utnaa bwo rnvii^oil by f rf«, na ia 
1701. 1343, Mod 1S67. Pvii. catituatwl «t 8£,C0O. 

FOBTCULLIS, i& turtifickUoit, la u kaBusbLtce 
of (OTcnkl Iwrgc piocea of wood, joiiiAd acrcaB otie 
another like a barTpw, and ottch pointed with iron 
at Ills Iwltvui. Th«y ore aonalinMa hung ovar tiie 
gatowfty of old fnrtificd Uiwdb, Kady Ia be lot down 
ia CIM of itur]jrii«o-, when the jjaU* caiiTiot bo Aut. 

PORTK, UnvHAN, or Suuliue I'ums, the com- 
noB tetm far Uie 'lurkikh gArcmmcnt. wliich bH 
cutvred the Ku^Uiih laitj^'UkK'^ tliruu^'h th« French, 
ami ia derivod from tha nriftntal citttom «f holding 
court at tlieyate of the mlavv, or at tho ^tc vt a citv. 
PORT. ELIZABETH, a acaport toM-n, S.iuth 
AFrioa, Cnpn C'ltloiiy, od tho weal ahoro of Al|,'o& Uay, 
Jb niilcB BuaLb-caat of Uttcuhi^n, of which it ia the 
port, it liiu Ml anenal, & fin» EplMsopallau cbuivli, 
and pliux* of w«taUp for WadflyaDa, indcpcDdimtB. 
and Ftoman Catbolica; ft huid»nmo tcwn-iuUI, cii«- 
tuin-hoiute, hoaj:>Il»l, eduntiontkl inatdtute, jail, ftc. 
Tli« pier pTojoota Into th« aea, and the port, Iwiiig 
free, ia & plue fi mat wad incr«wiii( commsrd^ 
oclivltj, and mnrt frequentftd than any othn an tbo 
aoiilh coast lA tbo culuiiy. Tlio exjiorta aiid importa 
nar-h luiioiint (g co[iAl(W».b1 r moro tbui a mlllioo 
■torline. PouL probably ftboiit 1S,000 to 20,000; by 
O0Dsiidofl&7At i:i,UI8. 

rtJKTKlt. Suo BKEWiKfl. 

PtJRTKIt, llio nn.nin of two talentwl airtera. of 
wbkh, bowvvor, tho ddur, Jjdix, waa the moat dia- 
tinfpiished. They wore Matcra of tba ooEcbnlad t»- 
veller Sir tiubort K«r Porter, sad were nativea of 
Durham. J&iio Port«r was bom Id 1774, aad mad* 
l^r firrt nauy in literature in 1803, bytbopuhlicftUon 
ft Th»ddcmJi <if Wiiraa.w, » bintciricaf ramann, which 
bocamaaxtr^iurlyi.KipuliLr.&ijd^iniciiTedbera'luiinlun 
aa ■ eouoiiwa iitto the TquIouIc ordwof St. Joachim, 
and a oonpUmeiitarj lett«r from Koaduko. A nill 
grvotor eocoera altcnood her Soottiah Ohieb, which ap- 
peared in 1809. A ricoMding cmeratloi], bowoier, 
naa not cubfinnnl Ibe venHct of their fathon od this 
work, as though well and vlgoroualywritteu in point of 
dMCfiptJon and character, it givea a very ecniueciua 
npn-Mtitatioiii ol the CDndttlcn of thir couDtry at the 
tlmn. ll«r ffnbaeqiient nurka wire the Pnator'a 
Fireiida; Duke Chriitlanof Lunebarg; Talos Round 
a Wbiter'a Hearth, In which hor nintrr, Amut Mario, 
tuuk a pari; the Field of Furtj Feotatepa, fuunilvd 
an 0. Ixndnn lagvndi and Sir Edwiird Senward'i 
Diary, publiidied laoBymouily in ISSl. In the last 
^K aba imitated bo doaely the atyle and tnAnnera of the 
^^^B period, that for aome time it waa doubted wbotbor it 
^^V waa a fic-tiiin or not. She died at Brfctol in 1S2D'.— 
V Akha IiIasia Poster wa« bom about 1781 : lo<t hor 

H (atlier nben only » few roontha old; and before the 

H WON liftean, publiabed two valiiDie* entitled AtUi-m 

H Tolea, a proooeding, bowevar, which aho oftvrwofda 

H regrettod. Th« grtMer port of her life waa upent 

H with her mother and aistisr Jane in tho uiii^bbour- 

H liuod of Iiondnn. She cwDlributed extanaively to 

H voriona peifudicala, and producecl Dumeroua noveU, 

■ wUch eoioywl oooiidermule popularity In their day. 

■ They intuivia 'llitt Iliini^ariati Brolbcn^ Don Schaa- 

■ tiao, The B»dii>D i^f Norvrmy, The Faat of »t. Mag- 

■ dalen, and Tho Kju^ht of SL John. Shv ii aI*o 
H the aotLor of Tklea ot Pity, and a volumo of pof try 
H antilled BalUd RosunMa and oth«r Poena, fibc 

■ died Jtuie £1, 1831 



PORTER, GlOBOl BiCIUBnftOX, on nnloaat 
atAtiMt, waa bora In London in 17i»2, and odu<»tiMl 
in Ibu Mercliant Tailors' ScliooL He followed hit 
fath«^a profnniiiii, tbatof a«ilgarmeidMUul,lnit waa 
ucauccoafal in buiincM. He reaoteed U> tun the 
knowledge which he bad acqufavd el oamiiwirtti al 
matten to account in a litcrvy point o( view, aad 
he Boonnlingly piibliiiioi) in lliXI a "beatlae an the 
Cultivation of iba Suuor-oane. Soheaqaaotly to 
thia bo wrote a 1'reatiM on tfte ^Ic Manufactow. 
Olid luicitbpr on the tfaniiiactare of Poreelotn oui 
(tloni, for Laniner'a Calnnet Crclopaidia. A p*ps 
ou Lift) Aiaunuice. contribut«d by bim to the Cob- 
panioD to the Alinanoo for 1631, obtained for Um, 
through Mr, Krii^ht, an appointment In oonaectka 
with the board of tnHle. 'Ilie dutiea of the effiee 
eeneiited in amuiffin; and oondauing into a oonpcB* 
dloua form the huge airar of detaebod facta and Hate- 
lni>nt« contained in the blnc-booba and jiaiUaiiMBtatJ 
Tvtuma. Thcao Viure no uitiafaotorUy esacitled hf 
Mr. Porbir, that on tlia staLiBtJcal dvpailmentol the 
board of trade being er^anixad, he vaa pUeed at Itt 
hvod ; and in lf*4l waa made one of tM aecnlafMa 
of the board, with a aalary of X150Q a year. Ilia 
great warlc ia ^o Pro^ieai of the NaCfco in ila Sodol 
and (-otnmerciol Relatione from the Ccminsnoamant 
of the NiuL-tc«nth Century to the Pr«aea>l TIOMv fint 
pubUvhed in lS3fl-38 (new ediuom, three roW, crown 
!^vo, 1617). He took a proiainent part ta tlie <atab> 
lixhment of the Statiatleal Sodety, and alto M a 
member of the Britiab Aaaociation for tho Advanoe- 
DiHot of ScJenoe. In 1850 be pmduoed, in ootinccAioa 
with Mr. Lous, the Guogmpbyof Gteat Britdn, part 
I., Kuglaud imd Waleti, iaeaed by the Sodety far 
tlie Di&uaion of Uaoful Knowledge. Hla aedatan 
lifct, howDTar, iniiireil h£a lieaith, and Indnasd a boa 
haUt of body. The atlnir of a gnat od Ui leg gave 
rlne to an inflammation irUtk tcnniwrted Ut exiit- 
eucw at Tunbridge Weill, on Sd September, IBAS. 

PORTER, Siu RuiiEBi' Krb, ou oo incut artiit and 
tT%Telier,wiutboni at Durham nboot 1775. HiamoUicr 
woa \tSl » willow with five children, and In peer 
ciroumalanoea. Bobort early manife^ed oa mttaa- 
men 1,'onius for drawtni*, ntany of bia oketcban^ made 
when he waa only ilz yean os age, being r^avfeablo 
fur ttit^r apihl;'and ia 1790 ho became a atadent 
al th« Itoyal Academy, under the aaapdnn of Boi- 
jiunin Weat. Not moK than two years hail dapaed 
ainoe his oommendng his atodlee at the Aoadeny, 
wh«n he waa employed to point ^e figurta o( Kloeaa 
and Aaron (or the oonununion-table of Sborod&cli 
Chureh. In 171^1 he preaeuted to tbe Boaaoa Calh- 
olio dtapel at Porteoa an altaNpieoa wpreeeiitfBg 
Olirin I calming the elnrm; aad ia 1798 be fave to 
St. John'* Cbllc|^ Cambridge^ on altor-pjeoe, tbe 
>ub]ootof whiuh USL Jotui pceatcfalBg Id tM wOdac- 
naaa. He wm only twenty-two whes be hegsi hfa 
)ani:e ricturo nt the atDmiittg of SerfagapatanL 
Tbuii(;ii it cunttiiiieil nearly 700 Bgnree aa lM:ge aa 
lifo, it waa Ruiahed in tea weaka; aor dU It bear 
any morka of haale, it bdnjr, both in coatped- 
tiati and cnliiurinjc, a work of bich merit. It wae 
aurc««di>tl by two oth«r pidurue of tbe aame aiafpil- 
tudc— tha Siege of Acre and the Battle of A^- 
nniirt. In 1804 he waa invited to Bowia by the 
ciii|«ror, who made bun hie hiatoricNl paiater He 
coiiseqUL'Dtly Tiait*d -St. Petmabarg, where he waa 
received with dia ti notion, and empSciyad to deoonti 
tbe admlialty ball in th« Btualan (apical. WUla 
renidtng there he gained the alfcetioBa of Um Prjn- 
cam t^brrbat»IT, and wae on the point «l marrying 
her whun a nipton with Britain oblioed bin to leave 
Utiaaia. He poBBod into SwediA to jflta the Britith 
fnrcos under Sir John Moore, whom be accompanied 
to Spaii^ aharing in the hardahipe and perils of the 



POET-nSE— PORTLAND. 



217 



wliich comM with tbo Inttle of ('omnnik 
faavfog ranulned tor »aiav Unifl In UriUiiu be 
, mat to RmbU, %ad roceivcd ttiD hand ol tbo 
SkvAMoB. With ber he rcriritod hla 
li*« ooniilnr. where, to IStS, ko oMAiiied tbe 
' gf la^btbood. From 1617 to 1820 indu> 
lf« be WW ngi^ad in tnreUuig through tbu Eut. 
[i- 1832 btt wM a«tted K.C. of Honnrer. Itelns 
ritUi oooaul to VenaiiMiU Ln I82>}--41, hi: midHnl 
OMnKM UU 1911, wiM-ti h* [iMil » vUit to Su 
H«fv be dioa. May 1. l&ti, ab-«<l 01. 
Ul worlu KM Tnvollin^ i^kotcbea in Kiueik 
(twa vcIjl 4K 1308); l^ltere fr.^ni 
■nd Spkin {Svo, lIvHtJ; Namttira tit tlie 
is BuMla 0913); l*n>vvk in OeotvU, 
and AnsiitLU(ld:f£). 
POKT- Fl UK, k*lick of > onmViiwtiblii oninpruiLinn, 
lljr t'Uniiiii: an \nv\i » iniuute. umiI to ohhvq^ 
I tnoi the alow match to the |>riiniii^ a( ordaanoe. 
Tor tlii> fnir]M'*o >t i« n""" gcncmily *npcn*d«d bj 
MTangoinenbi. VVIlb a iiliahlljr altered CQnl.> 
itim it I* u«d for ai^uaU, ■lul for firing oliargM 
min i 

POKT-GLASCOW. a antport hum in Renfpftw- 

aitaatad aa tbo wniUicni bank uf the cnlu»nr 

[•f lb« Cljdat SO ntU«a w.r.w. ftvui UImsxjw, and 

It S| firtbw op tiiAB GrwDQolL llit udeiit 

(ivUli^oM N«w«ric iainooqNinted with Pmt-titaafow. 

I whale b buUt ca a reQ:ahr pbui, the atrMta crow- 

aaob oClwr at right angtwL Tb* town>haUM, 

rt-bmae, huA [iriacni mnbine)! fomi t, fioe mis': 

E«f baildlap, with a Itario portloo and a handaiune 

[•{■irr; aBMMW Um plan* of MixiJiip the pariah chiirch 

, pad the Kfitaaninl church dDaeria apodal moitiun; 

Ljb«f« IB alao ft haadMBM) U) wn • ball and a ipmmI ouatijiBi> 

la IMS the tnagiatratM of Glafl(;i>w pur- 

13 aenaof land from Sit Itobcrt Maiwoll, 

' the «illa([« of Newark, cia winch Ui«j built bar- 

!■ and the Sn>t dry Anek in ScotlaocL The |<lac« 

[laraa inteaded to he tb« leaport ot tilaaguw. In 16ti8 

fOt a oharter from C-bailea II. to ertct Port- 

I OlaBgaw into a baronj, wHUi civil aod crtminal juria- 

' ActiA*. aad the plaaa nade npid angrtm. In the 

ISSfi^ Ibutigh tb*; buainna d the |>iac« had been 

■ tiaaa im Uw linJimi, the tnnnn^ o[ viwarb fro> 

Lmantiiag the ^wt wm aini alwut 12,000 tuna. At 

rual tfena, wban tb* tlrde waa dvciwued ao as to 

' vaaUa lam ifteaeii b> uil up to tila<i£i>or, tb« trade 

[flf Paci>()la«gi>w rafiidljr dininiibeiL It haa lecentljr 

■wbM ivrl*«d. In 1883-U tb« brv«t revenue 

«v« drawn waa annonnced hy the Harbour Tnat 

fa l)^li'i TI.ICI tiiciaAf aliiiiiitigamrfid. In thcaaine 

jt^r tbcnw beluni^od to the port eighteen aailing 

' . of 8570 bfli*. and fifiMn aUfuien, of 30S4. 

^Tfaa aiaple indttatnea are abipbuilding and marine 

iangteaenig; and thenarcmannfAotaMaof Mkll-dotta, 

, tofm^ Ac. Tbe (Uadonian Railway haa a atation at 

, '^art>01a^{i>w 'nn bargli jiiina with KilinamneJt, 

Ifalhwtli II. Dumbarton, and Renfnw iu Keiidiui,' a 

MOiWto Parliaawmt. Pop. in lt)8l, 13,-J'J-i. 

POKTICI. a Lmn. in S»<iUirm IIaIv. extendlDg 

Iw^UMGuUof Na[>lr>attlw)«i>cnf VtMuviua. It 

lb tttm 6 mUea trom the oitjr of Naplea, hnt la a 

litoMftf tff*»n to be rcalljp a anbarb of that oitf, 

I Woe eoBMeiad to it bj the intonrofting village of 

[,IL (Hetunl m Teduccfu. It b detijihtfttOj lituated, 

■ad Iron iti pmctinity to Xaplca ua many elafut 

(fllM, aad b •nrrouddtd by tine cwaUrf t tAU . It 

taMCMaa a roral tttJai'e bailt apon the lava of 1631 

hy Charlat III. llere *vte iii-i.>«iu<il ibn objecto oi 

•ft dieDTered at PontiHiii and UurcuUnsan^ now 

ftddad to the eDlIcctimu iu thi; niiiAi.-tuu at Kaplca. 

' n* palaae baa Utely been mxli? oirr to the niuiii- 

m^pmy «( Kb]»W On die culf u a Hue aiiuan, 

mow which i> the harbmti; (onued by » nkole, and 



dcfeiiiliHlbyairaalte. Here an active Uabcryucaniad 

on. l'op.lt777. 

PORTICO lltotiaa, from Latin porfirut), a con- 
tinned raa^ at ooluonu, ouromd at top In order to 
aerv« aa a alielter from tho u-eAtlR-r; aliK^ tbo ariAne 
iniJoaod by tho oolumnii at the eiitntiiL'o ut a building. 
AmoDK t^ ajicionta theae were bljiij.y oruamvuted, 
and of ^■i\t eiMnt The remaina of tho Portica nt 
Palmyra oliow it to have bcm full 4000 foct long. 
I'hore waa » fomniia portieo at Athena, called PxeiU, 
AmitDS ujuJeru purUcoiM ihoee of the gntnd fa^adw 
of tho I^Hvre and of tho groat ccpurt of thn Hoapjul 
nf ItivnliiiNAt I'aru, and uatat Greenwich HoBpltal, 

doini'e mm Lion. 

POHTIUNCUXA. S« Fr.\.vcwcaw. 

PORT JAlKSOX. SuoSii.NKT. 

POlli'LANli, aaoaport town in tiio UnitMl Stntm 
uf Aiiierii.'a, in Maine, 100 nillei a.H.t, of Huston, on 
« pduosula nt tiic woaten utremlty of Caaco Bay, 
at the ooutliem extretDtly of the Atlantic and 8L 
r<awrenoe Bailway. The ground, rWng iulo two 
height* at Ita eaat«ni and wcatera axtramltb^ fortno 
B nat^iral amphitfaeatNi and givuo tn tbo town, wUc& 
)■ IntiLt upon it, more enpccially when it i« appraadtod 
fniiu tJic ai-a, a beautiful appeafanoe. It b laid ont 
uitii omuHerabln rvgiiUrity, at l^ajct in tbo murw 
uiodern )Mjrtiotia; and the maui Btn«t, aitendiag 
along the ridge of the peniuanla eaat to wvet, ia not 
aurpa aa ed by maay In the Dnfan. Pewoftbechun-heo 
can bout of poMaaing mndi architectural merit; 
other buildliiga are tbo oourt-houae, the city hall, the 
enitom-boiMo bulldinga, uaed also for the puat-oflioe 
and (AOrt-nMina: the Attim»um, and tho ML-cLanics' 
Hali 'I'he largoat tnanuractuiing ■atablialimvnt h 
a factory iu which luouiu'divea, cart, Ac, are made; 
thera are alao ahipbuibliu-; yardfl, ^luo-wurha, pot- 
tcrica, and rojic-waik* ; and the refining rif jittmlciini 
aud ■ii|)'ar ia eubmairely oarrinl on. Tbe triuio huUi 
Enaritiiue and inland b extenaivcL The harbonr b 
one of tbo beat in tbe United Statn, ln-iii^' uf oa«y 
areooiy oapadoiia, aofn, dnwp nntnieh lor Um largnt 
veweL^ and ran^ly ulHtnittc*) with !<«, There ai* 
two Ary duckj uiJ uchur fiicilltla for the rmalr of 
veaaula Tlie value of tho importa from foreigi) 
conntrieein liiSJI «raa£l,«71,ira,thatof UieeipMto 
Iwing jC1,70S,062, both t^ thea* ainuuubt bcbig oon- 
lidombly lowor tlmn in iitoviona yvaiB. TIm gfWUr 
part of Ui« carrying' trade to and from foradgn parta 
la in Brilbh ahin, Tbo ooarting trade b eitonaivc, 
and many >'eae«la are engaged iu tlw Aaborioa, Tho 
mndpal exporto nr* timber, fiah, faeaf, bnttcr, ko. 
Portland wu ccttlcd in 1038; bat wae ncariy d^ 
•iroyed by the Indiana In 1U75. It eufTered eeveiely 
(luring the revolutionary war from a bunbardiBeiit hy 
the Brftfab fleet in 177^. The cHy b caaddered ta- 
maricaUy healthy, awl in ita imineiliale viduUythM« 
are tnany fine BMaalde aum mrr nmirta fur ita aumatoaa 
vialtnni dnring tho Maain. I'lip. in It^SO, 33,BI0l 

PORTLANI >, the chief city of Oravon. Unltad 
St&t«a, utuated on the loft bank of WiUainetta 
Kivvr, about 13 mfloe froBi it* cunllnenoe with tbe 
Colombia. The uty b tbo titnranun ol tho Nnrtfaeni 
Paritio railway ayatom, and b at the band of ahip 
nai i^-ation. having regnlar ateam oommunicatiitn «*ith 
HrituJi Columliia and Ban KraBdaock Ainoog ita 
public boUdinga are a cnurt-hooao, oaotom-bonaa^ 
nunwroui ohurohea, aovural aeaileaiie^ Ugb-elaM 
and oomnMO oclioola^ luuatlo aaylitm, &<l Thero 
are alao Iran-fouadrfea^ maehiue aliujM^ flourniill% 
l i e w oriaa, and other aianafactaring oatablialmicnia. 
Wheat, oata, flour, wool, and lumbar arv largely 
esportod Pop. (16*0), 17.677. 

FOKTLAND, InLit or, * peniamK omwaod lo 
Imve beon funneily aa ialanil, in the auota ol Smg- 
land, oounty of Donel, M lailea w^.w. ot Souh- 



218 



PORTLAND EREAKWATER-PORTOBETJLO. 





iitnptrtr. in thft T'.riti'ih Cdimricl. formtDg the wwrt- 
em liouudnry ul WoyniDiith Uay. It is jittachcJ 
to lli^ niiLiiilanil by a rlil;.'« of Bliixi),'k', colleil tlj« 
Cbisil Bank, abvut 10 milci long. It conneta oE 
nearly oae tanna nt tiaoibnne, ^nlM PortlAnt) rtone, 
which is ex|>ork:>l iu Hixiat iiunntilii^*, ami ia abi.iit 

4 niilr« long Ijj 1 ^ milo Woiid, and t»njiiant-?s tit ilii 
■outliLTn uxtramity in tho poiot called )'ortliuiil kill. 
On the iiottb aide, opposite to W'e/nioiith, in tb^ aniy 
lantliiih'-|>!»oo on ths peuiuaula, tlie rmt beiii!; *rfir- 
roanilcd by hijj^h, in«»'C!«>ib1n cliKn. Ths liuid ia 
under exe«llent vultivulicu, ur ia kept ai poatuni for 
■hcep. Fi«h abound alon^ the eout, particularly 
mnckcrel. (Int; nf tiui iiin»t prciuiiccnt otiiKlc lu tli? 
utUud ia Um uunvict prinuti, litiiatecl on tliR top of a 
hill. It ti a building v! wocid and irou, t)o an to lie 
nHSonblo. It conlaitu xbcut IfrOO convlcta, who 
nfv cliieHy employed id working tha niiarriiM. 

PORTLAND BKK-VKWATER, tbo groatpst 
work of til* Idnd in Bntaiu, ruuc irnm tbe ewt aide 
of Pottlaaid Idftnfl in a nortli-cMt direction, with a 
bend lowanla Wcvtimutli, and form* a oomploto pm- 
t«rtii.iii to an exti^nt nf C74S iu.*rv> of watiT -umiwlv, 
2107 atTcn frotii lowwnttr up to dupth of 12 le«l. 
1768 between 12 ahd 1B lani, 15H0 bctwr^on 3 and 

5 fatl]«nu, and 12l'li outflidf lie 5 f»tliota line. The 
breakwater ia b\iilt in 9 to 10 fatbouia of wat«r. It 
la fuundtid uu rubbtu itonoi, tiinBOuntod by ut aahlM' 
mporatnicturfl with a iiurajiet. 1 1 consiata of w> oe*- 
wnll Hll> funut Iti^li ffoui the hotton) of tll«Ml^ 8O0 
feet tliiL'k at Lha bMe, and narmvi'ini^ to th« aammlt. 
Iu cndr* Ivtiiclli i« 1|| inilc, couKiating uf an inuer 
braakwatar lUltO fctit in Icn^ti, and an i>utarof <>'iUU 
tout in Icng^ funning an ubtuai' an^lc, and divided 
by an opcuiun 4UU ftjct wide, tlirougU which aliina 
can paM •traii.'ht to aea with a iiortlj«rly wind. It 
b nt>l««tod by a circular fort at tho north lUO foot 
i& Bdgfat, 400 ffft in diiunctcr at the biuw, alid 
200 al tbe ■uimiilt, aU-uuIiag iu a depUi iif 60 to 70 
feet id na-wator. I'bu lower atory ia mwirved for 
■biTvai tho npptr one will rnniint foiirtcm S8-b>i) 
guia. Tbt^re u alau a L-inrular fi>rt at tbe eact 
«nd. Th« iiui«r brwakwat^r baa a riMulvny with 
aKhcJ nccmoa in wluch etom ue lodged. Toe plor 
b carried abore the Icvdof hi^h- water at mring-tidcii. 
Tho flbtira woHc haa eocnpied a pnriod of nearly 
twonty-Bvo yean, and baa coat £1,033, ilOO, etcluaiv« 
of ount-lct biDour to tho value of Probably £400,000, 
It W Goutructod of atone, iiuarrii^ by the convictii tn 
tlw iaUad of Fortlani). 

^0 fint idea of thu bniakmitoT ia du^i to John 
Harv»y, powtmaaUr, Wejuiuuth. whu urgrd it up-.>B 
tho admiralty in 1794. A cominlKlou of inquiry 
into harlKiiir* of refuge appointed in 184fi fiually 
ropoTled in itii favour, a/lcr a nuncy by Jnmcw lErii- 
dell, Cli An act of FMliament (10 aiiJ 11 Vict 
cup. xxItO wM olitainod, 11th May, 1847, and tbe 
prolimtnary woriub^n in An^at, with Itcndoll m 
ongincnr-in-cfaief. On hja dt-ath in IS5Q Iw wna aui^ 
ccodod by Mr. {afterward* Sir Jolin) Coode, who had 
hitbertu MUKid an nsideut ctttjancvr. Ilic first rtona 
waa lowt-red itito tbe aea on a aigiul from I'rinm 
Albnrt, S5tb July, 1846; tlie kat aume waa laid by 
the Prineoof Wala^ 10th Augort, 1872. Tbe work 
wu bej^D, under tbe rjporintiiD donee of the hoard 
of trade, and ItuIiJied uuder that of tlie admiralty, 
to whiiih it bad bmo trauaferrwl toina yean befwto 
ita coirjpleljun. 

POKTLAXD CE^tEXT, an artifioiftl ecmont pro- 

Ear«d by mixing: bnmcd liuiiritt^iiic with cUy, and 
cutiiix tbe mixtum. Tho mud frdoi tho delta of 
rivi^ni ia now uaually en>ployt>d; It ia mixed with 
an C(|ua) weiirlit of powdorod liinealono, the mixture 
ia driud in the air, and tbon banied in n kbof t-i-t i-n. 
When mixed with water lUi caoDMit aoun atilfcni^ 



and after a day It la tolerably hsnL Al tho and of 
a DKiiitb it fomia a aubatanco ao hard and fim aa to 
emit a uniinit when atnick. &eo CKMEm. 

PORTLAND STONE la an oolitic UnaatoBe 
ooctirrinR' In groat alnrndancB in tbe ialand of Part- 
!(iiii3, and Urgily excavated for bnSdiag pnjMBA 
It. )■ iiEcd in conaiderable quantity in tbe nMbopoUfc 
TLo finest atone U found in th» timoat rtrate. 

PORTLAND (or BABiiBaiJiO VASE. TUtbmi* 
tiful Rpcnimrn of Uroek art la a dnorary urn (oud 
in a marble ■aroopbagtu at Monte del Gtaco, near 
Rome, during tho pontiSeato of Urban VI n. (inS^ 
14). It is fprmod of m tnoaparait aobatanc* at a 
dark bine colour, and fa onuunaoted willi RUev«il 
(iKurea iu while ouanieL It ia 10 isclH» bi^ 7 in 
dlaui«ti?r at tbe broodaat part, and la fumlahod willt 
a handlo an oaeb aide. It wm placed in tho B«r> 
berini Palace, whena it rctn.iiBed till 17T0, wboBit 
woe pnrohaaea by Sir Wtlli.im llnmiltoo, from wheae 
pOBsevlaa U paatd int^ that of the Duolieaa of Fort- 
land. In 1810 the Duke of Portland gave it OB Ioa» 
to tho Britinb Museiuii, of wbicb he waa a trwlse. 
In 1^4.'i a ttitpidly inalicioua fellow, or more proliaUy 
a lunatic, who hnd ))ooa aflmltted to the mnaeuin aa 
a vinitor, dellbemtoly nnaalwd It with a atom. It 
baa betn repaired, but la not exhibitod to the pnUfc 

PUUTl.AW, a mannfacttiring villaee In Inhml, 
county of WaU-rford, and 9 mllea w.k.w. of tlie town 
of Waterford,aR tho ClodaslL IthunTenlehtmbe^ 
diapeoaaiy, reading-room. National achool, aikdadan- 
aive cotton •fartoriiM. Fop. 8774. 

PORT-LOUIS, the capital of thn idand of Hait- 
riduB, on tho DDrth-WDit euaat, beautifully ritnaied 
in a cove formed by aaericaof baaaltlo hitla, portinu 
(if which are wuudy; tbey vary la IwigU bin 105B 
to iGiit feet. Tb« stn>cta are rather natrow; Ifaef 
are laid oat at r^t auk'^cn, with baaaltk oirbatene^ 
BnilAr«^ailaroedffithnia^lflMDtaada& AtaonataiB 
atreaiu Iraveraea the town, the bonkra nl which ate 
ornamented witb planta. An open apace like a i«(» 
ooiu«e, callnl tho Chomp de Man^ lioa behind th* 
town. It ia bordered by aorcral elesant rilla*. Tbore 
is a barrack, bauor, theatre, publTo Illirarr, botanic: 
garden, and an hoapitaL Tbe town and harbour are 
protect«l by battcrioa. Pop. (ISSl), TO.UOOi, 

PORT-MAHON. SeeSlAlltHt. 

PORT -NATAL, or Dokbaii, tho only jpnrt rf tho 
oolony of Natal, eitnatod in the Bay of Fort-Nalal, 
thn principal harbour of the colony. Il laaa a botanic 
Hanfcu, burtimltural aociL-ly, tiatuntl hlatory, politi* 
LMd, and btinovob/nt ajwx^aiiou. U baa a oonuder* 
able trade. Pop. 66.S1. 

PDRTO-AI.EtntK a town In Braril, caphal ei 
till) province of liio (iraudo do Sul, near tlM na^ltt* 
woBt Kxirvmity of l.jd(« Pate* and tha oonBiience of 
tbu Cahi, Sinoa. and Gmvatahi i^-ith tbe Jacnhl, 150 
mUn v.y.w. of Rio-Grande. It is vol] and ngmlH^ 
built) but only tb« |irhiciiial atrocta are pftved. Tl 
baa eevcnl eltvant churobea, acuatom-houae^ beafrfte^ 
lyceum, In wUcb Latin, inatbeniatlai^ phUoMphy, 
and rbetorio am taught; and ratioua primair adMou; 
a harbour tiiucli riiitcd by marcbaut mwfa, and an 
Eniportant traile. Pi>|v 1^000. 

FORTOBKL.LO, a i^rliameotary becwmb of Soot- 
Innd, in the connty and 3 uileii oaat of the rity nf 
Rdinhuivh, on the Frith of Fnrtb and tbo North 
BriUah BiOIwar. It baa EvtaUialicd, Vne, ITb[(«<I 
Prgebytorian. Indepoadsat, and Roinaa Catbi^ 
chnrchrj^ thrcA tniwion atatiiina. and otiutr refieioBa 
aud charitable icatiluLioQa; an exCvUcnt toian-hall,lLBd 
Roveral academlea and acfaoola It baa exienalve 
potteries briok and tile worka, bottlo-workh Mvl a 
paper-mill. It ia mat^ frocinentnl aa a amuner 
rvtxirt fruui all parte. ^Ute beach ia well adapted fur 
bathing, Tho pmnanade ia nearly a ailt Imc^ Bi>id 



I 

1 

I 



I 



I 

I 



I 

I 




PORTO-BELtO-PORT-ROY AU 



SI 9 



ttBptw^boflt bi ISn.ftt Koostof £lD,OO0.iB ISGO 
ImI loBf Mid 23 (eet broail, with * rcxtanmtt lutd 
ft Mknn at th« M*-w*rd mkL FartobeUo itOMttt 
tb» L«tUi pnrUaairaUr; dutrict ol bonniglii. Pop. 

PORTO -SELLO, or Poniro-BKLLO, * Mtport 
l0va m Um UnlUd Sutw of Oolmnbhi, province of 
P—Mitf, OB th« Cwibbeaa Sm, 40 luJn M.n.w, of 
FaaiB^ It lua » fine bubAar, dUmvenHl h; (Vil- 
■■ba in IS^iS. TYtti town, fuiuidei] Li IMt, woa fur 
M^M tfan* Uie riral of Puiuni; hot ita unhtmltbj 
•UBkttonMd U to be pMtl.V daNrrteil, uiil it in nuiv 
* Me kod mbttKbU puwe, ijtbougb in tlD« bubuur 
Mul stbMli MiBA tndo. 

POBTO-CABKLLO, or P(nRT0-CAKni4>, » to<»D 
alV«MnHla, on the Caribbean Seft. Ill* built jiutly 
ca k muU idiuid whicb ccmratiDiatcs with the mn- 
iBtcnt by • liri(I;;e. It bm * c&pmrioux and Mfa Iwr- 
boor, «iiid A iK>[.nilta.['.ia of 7500, 

PORTO SfAruIZIO, « Mpoit tovB In IttJr. 
pnwliMe of Uuirijdo, 10 milM E.K.K. of Nico, on the 
»— Ul-»wlnn» ^M)n o< the Rulf of OcniA. It hM 
mvkbI ctoi ob ^s > Capaddn ceareiil, fwbtk MbuoU, 
ta bn^pftnL nd tlwib*. The bBrbaar !■ dafeuded 
hf • nid^ but h rtgj loeoiUBodlona and aballow. 
tt haa. bowairar * oeaddenble toadc^ e>p«cijtll]r in 
aUT«-<a1, ol *n»lkot qwUty. Pqx 0207. 

PORTONOVO; a wea/p^Kt town in HindiutaB, in 
Um CaraaOcw la ths proviaoe and 99 alitm aoutb of 
tb* lows oC PoadkbHTy, f umMctjr a larm and w«altb v 
|0W^ bnt now oonpantiv«ljr pmr and dapopulAUif, 
'iMUIaompjugftmataxtentofipaoo. Lor^o 
I iDcfanr at Mtna uitMioe fa«m th« town. 

l-HICO (i^anith, Pwrto JUra), ono of ih» 
1 We>i IncUk lilamdi, the fmirtb in idxa of ths 
AntfllM, «9rt of Hajtl and woatot tlio Virh-iii bUuila; 
laL (MUb-wert point) ir ftS* n.; Ion. «7° llf w.i 
««^ vMt naaU •ubordioate iklaiLdi^ 3(96 kiuar> 
adkiL A rang* ol loftr looantaina, eovond witb 
vao^ ran thnnsh the utaad, eaM to treat, ^venig- 
far abxit ISOO tMt in bt-igbt; ila loftioit p«*k ■■ 
3Si8 feet hitch. In the inlMicir •m «itrai«iv« iw(aci> 
■abi^ea wlikh naiDanniB hei^l* i]q>Miun.'; uiil alvnu 
lb* CMtfta traeti d 1«««1, (rrtila laod. WTtng In 
asMM placw (roni S niloa to 10 milea irid«, but in 
idhaw tlMt OMMmtaiin appTDBdi inacli doaer to tlie 
•M. Neariv tba wbola of tb* north coMt la lined 
wttb BaTf([abl« lagtxmR, aomo of xhtm 10 mtlea laas> 
■mi many of thu rivun <«n be narigatcd to the 
foot of the moutitAiiu, a dintanoe ot 5 or d niilai. 
Tlsi* aiB mimerona bnv* and creolca, dwp onungfa 
tor tew n l* of oonridernble baidca: Iwt Ui* no^ 
eawt |Ib Mibjflct to lmD«ndAua (round aeaa, which 
beat ^MMt the clifTa with gnat violenco. Only 
tbre* haibonn aj* aofo all the year iwind, nanirly, 
0«Mdcs and Horaa on tlw aouth ccut, and San 
Joan oa the ooith. TImuv aro no Bcrpcota or oUmf 
njAQo oo the island : but numeroiu lai|^ rata 
«mn do snal faijni7 U* iLc lui^iu^cane. "Hie dlinale 
b Hawai ally mora Mlubrioui thna that of tb« other 
Uawfa of the Antillea. Ootd is found in nnall 
Iuai|a and in diut, in the atfeanta fUiirtng fnini 
iba balghta. OMipw, iroo, lead, and cual bar* abo 
ban CmumI: and than an salinea or falt-ponda. 
Porte-Rioo la whnlly an agricnltnnU taland; its pro- 
dMia halM wear, rum, notaaMi^ cuffo!, cotltm, 
arraHMit looaeco, hidM; live-atock, dje- woods, Itcmm- 
Ttua, anal ttmbw, sroimil pntviakioa, rioe, Hut, Ac 
Tb axporta in 1863 ainount«d to £3,310,474; and 
Iba viaaipal of theao wvn m^r, £1.<MM9i «offai^ 
XSta^; tnbaoiA £1 53.2r« ; and uolakMa, £2S0^I «. 
Tb*lnv«'^ 't'^^'Mne yearaBKNUtted to£^Ha,IMM^ 
ft lam napartkit of whlob la ibipped froa Gnat 
BiliJn Th« eonsMread iwM^erity aflbeialaodaaffen 
wiMftlaalilj tromi arfaitrar* and appnmin buatUxk \ 



The capital of tlie nljuid la Bon Juan do Pmio-Iiini, 
Tbmti are nnmnrous oth«r Uiwns anil rlllagm, Ixit 
all of them are MauU, Tito lawe of Spain, aa admio- 
bt«red in Ctiba^ aro thoaa of Partft-Kioo. Slavery 
waa ahali«hi3d in 1873. TIja Uauil waa dbKOvernd 
bv Colnmlnw in 1193. It wm Invadud In ISOP hj 
the Spauiarda fruni Hayti. who entomiinatod tha 
nativea, ilOi),(iDOor MiOiHijolDuumbor taafowyaan. 
Pop. nSTS) 410,Sf.l »1iJi.:«; U.tal, 7SP.445. 

PORTO-KICO, Sak JvjlS na. tlie priucipai dty 
and atiHriort of thn above inland, on ila north omuic 
It itMtJa upon a amall Ulaod doanected with th* 
iiiAiutand by a Mdge, and la aurroonded by atraaf 
fortiflcationa. It has aiz churcbea and chapeda, the 
biahop'a JP*!")*! ■ military bo«pil&l, thaatra^ town- 
hoiue. jail, bonae ol eorractlon, cuatom-hmiae, anwnal. 
lie. - luiil li the aut uf the goremmeul and anperioT 
cfinrta of the Inland, nf a acid«ty of arti^ and tninw 
roua aduKiU The harbonr ia very opaciona, aad sap- 
able of aooommodatlDi; ahlpa of the largoatalaa, Pmt, 
18,132. 

PnllTO SAXI'O, a mtall Mand about 40 mil** 
nortb-uut of the ialaiiJ of Miulviri, nf whitzb it it a 
depeodaocy. Itli 6 mile* long, S.^ broad, aad pre- 
dnooa wint^ orangta and ot^jor ^ita, TwataokaL 
Ac. It a'oa far ■orne time tlio plaoe ol rtMdenoe oC 
(Julumbua, afler hij tuaxrlat,'^ bb wife harbig pro- 
perty in ttiD idnad. 

l'()ll'M'A'ntn;K, a Tillage and acaport in Wig- 
tiniahire, Soutland, on the ihtire nl the Iriib Hi^a, 
forming tb* ii*arett pc^t of Great Britain to Ireliiud, 
the diataue* ben betwaon the two Islands bdng only 
21 roitea. Ttie horhoiir wa* fumicrly aiiiall ami 
iucantvuiviit, Iwing a men liiltil lirlnrccu |in>iei.-ttnK 
rid^ea of roclc, but haa been mticb Irnpmvot^ and 
tbere la now alao a fine quay with a li|[hthouao. 
Steamboat:^ with the mait-boga and paaMngen^ uaed 
Ut pnaa nculatly betwean tbia port and DohcImkIm; 
inlreUnt^bat thia haa bavndiacontjiiciied «ito*lJ4l>, 
and the tjaca ban aiuilc Into InalgnWoance. A aub- 
nanno electric telcgn]>h bna boMi laid bctwoon the 
two vKdca. VnfL ia KSSI, 591. 

roilT-rillLLlP, Aualralla. Se« ViciOBtA. 

POKTK££» a Tillage of Scotland, in the coonty of 
InromcM. on ft tniall bay on the eaat aliare of tba 
kiland of Sltye, opeabft "^ Booay Sotdid. It baa » 
pariahchurch, aiKuwhial actiool, and a good harbonr, 
which ia rwulaiiy vicitcd W Gloafow tUataen, aad 
at whkh tbera li a cooalderabln export of eattla, 
aalmon, ft& PopL 11881;^ 893. 

IMllT KEPUBLICAIN. See Poar-ao-Paixot 

PORT-BOY AL, a fotiiAed tows on the aautb-«a»t 
eoaat of Jamaica, on the extremity of a iMtgue el 
IaiuI, titTwaing llie auuth aide of thehorbriur af Kin^ 
■toiD. Ib« faarbnur is the atation for the Bri^h ahlfn 
vf war, and it odntaina the uaral arsenal, huai>ilBl, & r. 
The bulk of iu inhabituti an pc«)ilo of eolonr. It 
baa been often damaged by eartbquafcaa. Popk 16,(KKi, 

POBT-ROTAIj, a daterelan ooovenl In Fraacob 
whiob played an important part b th» Jaaagodat 
eoBtroferay. Tbia celebrated ooavcnt waa foondvd 
in 1S04 by Matthien do MantinanoOT. Il wu 
aUiiated nrar CheTreuae (depBtsieat of Sriae-et- 
Olac), aboat IS milca eoutb-wwt of Fftrta. It wa* 
planed mdor tha rule ol 8L Benuud. Tba original 
naue ol the dl* waa Porrais or Potroii; thia waa 
tnnafanned Unit into Port-dn-mi, then iato Pori- 
RovbL Poct-Ko) al, tike many other rdlgloaa bouara, 
haa dei^iwd from lu original aeT«rity and hOea 
into Yfry dmnerata babita, when In 160S tha ahboa 
JaoipiHl)ne-iUarie-Anfi^lii]ne-AnMnld nndertook Ita 
nfonn. Tbe number ol the nana inenaaad oMwId' 
•nbly under bar rala, and la 1625 il amHHuMad t* 
eighty, llie bnlldlng had hronne hmufBcian^ and 
the iiUalubtity <d lb* aituaUoo induced tben t* aaak 



220 



POKTBOYAL— PORTSMOUTH. 



«D«tlier site. The motlKT of tb» abbcEB utidDrt<x)k 
tUo cboTKD oi tlie truidiaLiua. Slie niirdifuiorl ^nd 
|iretctitc4 to tbo niitta the huure tif C'luny, KituAleJ 
ail the extrouity at the Ji'^nbourg tjniiit J»c<]i)«« id 
Piui^ to wbioh a body of tbi: iidd* nt "aoo rvuiovwL 

ftod & new hiniAo built od * kigb«r &ii>i LL-^Uiiur 
■itoBition. Tlia tw« iiPcUf>c« iif the convont tlum 
tliviilinJ went now dlstliifuiiiUcil U Pcrt-Hoy»l Jiai 
CbiuU[M luid Port-IUiyal do Vaxia. Atout 16:1ft & 
gRrop of — witwnt literary ini:Q of ilmVIrd rcliginiu 
tend«IiciM^ mottlj tUu Rlutiven uf tlie nbbeu, took 
up tboir rMdonoo nt k hocw ciUled Lea GnuKM, 
MV!U Purt Ruyal do CliBicpa, wburo thsy dsvotad 
tll«ilMlv«loT«lJ^ODaeXi.tdd^ niiUiiikl imd litrrary 
lkboiU% the oduCftUon uf yuutb, aud tint prc{i»ra- 
Uctt of edomtianiU warka. ThcH were ngurdud 
M tonabig K joint cninmnDit/ with tbn nunii of 
VortSovit, ntnftng whom moot of tiicrn iutd nrln- 
ti vM, anil who in Ri nit mkttera foUowMi their ooudocIj. 
Among tbijBc wbo cclvctod lb» rotircmont wore An- 
toEiic Aniauld, Aniauld D'At»ll]ly, LemAltrtn! d« Kooy 
and hii ttv-o brothon, the lirat twu Iwlug bnitbi^rs, 
tb« last tlirce nephews of tbc nbbou; NicoUo, and 
■ub««]iieritl>' Pau'ul, trhiav sUtcr Jao<|UoUDe WM a 
nun of Port-Roya], These nica foimdid hsn ao 
emliiaiit «ducationa] inntttution, which flontiihcd till 
1(130, uh] bcicutic » |x)wurful ririO to the inatitutian 
of tho J««iut«, and M they iiduptud tlie vfewii of 
Janjcuiiu, wUcH went MbMuucDcly condetnnod by 
tha popc^ a fonnldalile auarrcl ciuned, in which the 
Fort-Koyaliat tuint, ilding with tlwb- mala frtenda, 
twcnme anliiBct to tha ntleDtloH pefsvouUpU «f tbo 
Jwulb), whiuh uulmiualed ui the coiaplntv mbvenkm 
of their inatitutioD. FortlkiVAl i\a Parla had, tn thft 
incjuittin<^ been growing rapidly in wcjJlh and kiflti- 
(.•uct!. It waa patnauHNl by many peraona of Itigh 
rank at tb« courtt mat oi whan made it thulr kat 
rctnat and boquMtbed thdr niMUis to it. It wu 
ondsr tha diraotlon of tkeAbb^ d» Sidnt Cymi 
(Puroiigier d« B«unnno}, whcM hostility to tfau 
Jnnlbi ted, dtiriDg the la«t Axya of IUcb«!ien, to hi* 
iln|ir[soiiiu«rit iu Fort St. Viuocritio. Duriut; the 
wa™ of tim Fiwiild th« bou»« in thp country piertfewl 
KlIbeialhiHi|>tUlity. Ita iirvtvctivn wn« muuhaouiiht 
and Its I'htircb wua ^itttte nUed with cattle and aCaroB 
depiMitetl for uicty. no that it waa compaiod to 
Nouh'it ark. 1'b« hiitnry ct tho Btniggle m which 
lb« two MirivMiU of Port-It«yaI luouvMlvely suo- 
cumbcl tv tbvLT fomiidablfi Soot la too long and too 
much Involvwi in tiiiestianaof ocdcaiaitic*! itiKipiinr 
and reiiK^iJU* cxintruM-my to b« dealt with bwre. It 
hw boon related in rlr'tidl by Itacinc, tlio most dig- 
ttngnlahud pupil of th« PortKo^olJat educntionid 
toaiauj, in his llistolrc dc Port-Royal. Tho ro<Mt 
ramAritablo incident in It waa the miracle allcgei) to 
ba*e been wroaslit upon the |icnHin of thu nieoe of 
Paaoal, and linufv bollut cd iu, nut to muutioQ othi-'n, 
by two Bnch eminoni men as Pascal and Raciop. 
'llii; ohji'it (•( tbiH iiiirni-li:, wtiii^b WM wrought by 
mean* of tk Uioru fri>nj lite crown cf uur Saiiour, wna 
tci demouatrattt tho Innooenn of the nnna of Fort- 
Itoyal. who w«'re aootued by tho Joauita of contempt 
of the holy aAicmnioiit, an acciuution the marc gricv- 
dim aj tlivac nuri* wtre (pedolly devutval lo thv wor- 
ahip oi tha holy aacnunant But this vindication 
waa an*vailing, tho Jcauita wore miniicle proof, and 
they anooeedej in jpuniiijf tlu) ear of the kiiif;. 
la 1684 Port-Rnyal da Paria waa occupiad by tlio 
pulice. The Ruua, with the exixptfon of a few who 
tModad to the tcrma of tho Jerulta, and hcncoforth 
beoftnw the (iccil&riNl cncmiVa of thoir f<xnner asoci- 
at«a, weira IniiniMined for aoine montha and then 
» nt to T'lrt-Tioya] datCbampa, which waa put tindar 
uiilitory mirvdUanw till lt9», tba loUkn bdiaviag 



with ^nat liccnae and radaDaiB. In 1969 tho twe 
hniuea woro [lormanvntly aeparated by toyal aotbo- 
ritj. Purt-lfoyat dca Cbanfia retainea t^gfa^ anna 
nnil twu-thlrds of the joint property, Po<i-Boynl do 
Pari* ton nuns and onotbinl. and waa plaoM par- 
petualty nndrr the nrrniin^tion of tho kinff. Tba 
uuiu of Puit-Royil (1(9 Ch>ni[ji( attU penaat»d in 
rrfiiung to al^ tlie Papal ediot ooDdeauung the doo- 
trinca of Jaoavniaa, and on 2&tb Oetobor, 17O0. tbn 
convent wna finally anppreaaed hy otder of OardinnI 
Nuaillcs, ill eicctitlun oI « bull of Pope CleoumL Q. 
'I'hn ntina ware <1iiiperead In di(far«nt oonvanti^ and 
tJieIr property ^veu to Port-Boyal de Paris. TUa 
convent continued in exlateuoe till the refolnliaa, 
tvlii-ii it» Ijuum waa oonvert«d into a priaon, and anl^ 
■eqitonth- (19H) bocaraatho Matwnity Hoc^taL 

FQRTRrSH, n imaU atM^n In tho north of 
In^laud. in Ibu county of Astrlffl, 6 tntlM ttotUi ei 
C'ciWaina It is Riudi rMorlsd to (or aia tintliinit . 
tiBii a wf^tl-pnitn-tud barliour, and an acUvo intar- 
course with Londonderry, Liverpool, and GUajpnv. 
Pop. US'*!!, 11!)0. 

POUT SAID, a town of Egyi*, on the Mcditer- 
nmoan, situated on ono id thoaa iiarrow bnlta oi Land 
which ■eparoto Lake Moosalob tnm tha Modit«r> 
FBJieaii. exactly at tho tennlniu ol the Sues CauL 
It wns bo^n Ainiultanooualy with tho canal In 1S&9, 
IwiniC dcsigni^l for iU tanninkl port. Tba hooaes an 
built on tbe European type, wiUl aiovJog neb, i 
of thorn being wooden cottageo, boilt of 
iiufiortod from Fr»nc*, other* being «l 
Tbor* ia bete an uutor hiurboar farBM bj two niOB 
which jut out into tha icii, eaoh torminatod Dj a 
llghtbonac having a colourvd Utihl. The on« to tha 
onat i» '.^070 yorda in length, that to tha wort £730. 
At tho outer eud lh«r distance apajt ia 760 ^arda, 
at thi! iunor 1630, They are funned of blocka of 
concrete, each 12 oulilo yard* in aiio and 22 tooa in 
wci);ht, made on tho apot, of sand eowbined with hy- 
dmulio lime. The plera Incloao an ama <d about 6U0 
ocrcA, which la dredcad ■ufficientl'r deepfor tha aoeaai- 
iu<xUtionof T«aadaoftBodarata«ay IlMoaolnlpar- 
tion ut docpeat, and admito large ocean rt Mma n ^ 
whioh thus Mil into the inner harbour and baa U 
into the canaL Cfear the entrano* to tt* fauiar 
harbour there la a very lofQ lighthouse fomwd oI 
concrete and iron, ana having n pewerfnl UghL 
This harbour la provided with quay^ wh&rrc^ and 
other accommodation ueueaaary for a Urge traffic 
Port Siud ia called aft«r Said Pacha, vioeny of £j|7pt 
fruin 18M bi 1843. Tbc popuUtion, wluch ia wj 
varim) in nattmudity, is about 1O,OO0l 

PORTSEA, Ml Lxliuid ut Southain|itonahlreh Ens- 
land, cslending from north to scrath about ft milsi^ 
and from eaat to unt ahuiit 3. Tbe island belaB0 
to the tertiary funuatioi;. It ct>)n|Kiam the bavmgli 
and seaport town of i'urtsmoiitb, the towu vi Poitasa^ 
and aevoral villai^va. Thu laud is flat, and tbe aoil in 
cener^ fertUe. The eaasta are defended by aerecai 
uotaohod furta and caatlea, tho most iniporiaut <if 
wbiob are Fort Cnmberbuid, Southsea Caatl^ and 
HilUeo. U i« connected with tlio "w'^U^id bjr a 
bridffi' at Ita north eni S«e PoMiMiorTtL 

l'OIiT.SMOl.:i'H, tha |.rind[»l sUOioo of tho 
Prituh unvy, a seaport, munidiwl and iiarlianMm- 
t&ry bonjugb of England, In Uanipahira^ on tba aoath- 
woit extremity of the island of i*ortso^ and a* tho 
tvnuiuiB of tho Ijonduo and 8uuth>W<9rlieni and the 
l^oilon, Crijihtun, and Siiuth CiwKt Railways SB 
miles s.«.W. Loudon; Int. (Koysl Naval CoUtC*) 50' 
4S'K.; Irm. I'll' 15 "R. It oontisianftbe twotownaof 
Purtainuulh prup<;r oud Porlaea (fiirTuedy eepaialod 
fratn each other by wbttC waa ndlod the MlU-^Um 
Cnwk), and of aeveml suburbs Beth towna, nniud 
together ao aa to form a f uttrcaa^ wero anrmnnded by 



I 



A^ 



PORTSMOUTH. 



S2I 



M^ waU^ lad ranpHta, uid Mtand byfonrcntcs, 
'OaaolllMandM^Dod bjr InigoJonM. TLcm doicnoea 
bkvlBg bam noderad lueMi by the modam sjwtmn 
■I fnttifioMioo. iIm nusputa biw bwn ptiUwd down, 
Ibe gktw removed, the crcd: knd moato tilled np, 
MalnwK k Tvrj laiyv *»c»iiL t])»cti, of wlili-li two fitw 
riwmUiiB fTMUMb (or mOltaiy and lutvU officon luirl 
Ml fakvs bam ttmati, togstbcr with wido roxb 
llB«d irjth trM«. Thi^irarkuBbeeneiein^tAdchiDtly 
ItJ M>ldi«n u)d criDvicU. Tb« baat stnwt b llu High 
I Btft, wklch dirideai the town into two ncnrlv «i|nnl 
: path «m1 eoabiiu the pHDd|i«l •hopi, botel^ and 
pkoMof boaiuak iBiuoldtrputsPartaMiaMantB 
> iMi ttUnctiva ^ipeMnnm thwi i'drtanimitA. but it 
hia iinpnnrad T<ny rqiiiUy in rvceot tinwa, uid ha;> 
mtwnl good lerracei, uid iui« well-bnilt open «pai.v 
oJImI 8<> Ovom'* Squkra. Tbe subiirbn connol of 
I^ndport and Kinpitan Mljnccnt to I'ortMia on the 
aanh, aad of SoulbKc*, on tbti eut «id« ct Um town 
mi PcvtMwaUi. The two fint luuncd diflrioto w* for 
th* ■Mat Hit occopjed by artuuia cAnoKtcd with the 
dod^mnL TImj ooataui, Wwcvet, loine liuidaDme 
viDaa akd rows of waU-bolH honaeiL SouthtH>tt ia one 
«l Aafimqiita Eo^iahaeft-aida naorta ItaRiiiinttDn 
<*"np"*~'' Sua Ti«wi of the uichxm^ »A iip\Uittui, 
•ad ef Um bie of Wi^t. Tlio lyuduioii. whith rx- 
liaAl dowD to Um beach, fonnii & linit |iiib1ic nnva^ 
Hob fivaad. Mid on it Uuopa from tbe iwighbonrintt 
fMluom an afton aaseicbled for fleld-daya Mid re- 
"Viawa. 8aalliaear*iitIuwitbilaadJM9«Dt<mrthworka, 
tta balteriaa ol lb« Uoipost sSdi^ and Iha tdnsulai 
Jwto bidlt oat Id tba roadataad, Dominibnd th« witraiiM 
.te p4ftmouth Uubour. A ihort lino of nQ to 
jolliaa* in ocinnoctiun «-itli tbo main linra of the 
I^eadm and Soutb-mataRi, and I>Mi<lon, Briijliton, 
ad Soath Coaat Raflwaja la In eounw of coiKtructlon. 
Tba ascient parfahea of Portanoath luid Partaca, 
-«llh Ow dirtitota of SontfcaM, Landporl, and King- 
■too, aisd llw hamhrta of MflUn, Copoor, and RiltML, 
■n aU akoatAd la the " lafauid of Portaea," wUah la 
Mpanted bom tba nainUnd by a narrow rrMlc called 
pBrtafaridn CanaL I'he laland of PartiKB in botindiH] 
' aa lb* t. Djr Laagstoo Uarbour on clif^ ». by Tui-ta- 
movA Barbour, aud on tba a. by SpiUiMd and the 
Hirfaaar CbameL 

Amoag tbe public bidlduiga Ibe mett eonapicuorw 
an tbe {loriih cbnn-b (SL Tdtmnt h UMtcet's) biillt 
•bMt 1170, the Roman C'albulic Cathedral with 
faoola adJBOBDl; tba Preabjteri&n Clmrch: the In- 
Japattdcal Cba|)d in King Stmtt; aiul iiuDiemua 
otoea nlaaea of wonblp; tba GnvemniBnt lltxiax; tha 
lam-faaD and maricet MiUdingaouaiblDed; iliv Gtmu- 
mar ftcboid. Atfctngam, thaattev boapibU, Sallora' 
lianc,Ac. 'I'begnMUKb^whicbMabaanUfuUylaidoiat 
aa tbe Poopla'a PaHc, wera pmeoted U> tbe oorpoTK- 
llMibTtbfgorarnmeolfail«73L The royal doclcyard. 
«Web baa reoeBtly bean aztandad by tba additlcm of 
WW dodca and barfna, ooren an aiwA of about 5Du 
mam, and ia bcUevad to be tbe huveat and moat 
■DMnifieant oetabiUlnneBt of the kbid in the world. 
It b laeloaod by a wall 1 1 feet Ugh, and entered by 
m lofty faterway. It tDcludea vaet atore-boinei^ coii- 
Uabig all tbe matariala roqatKte for naval arohl- 
tartot*; machina abopi^ with all modem aiFptiaiieaa; 
■ad atanaiva lUiia m Aoeka, b which the larpst 
Mpa «t tba tuvy an boilt or repaired; langta of 
ba^ihniaa f ri d enw for tbe nori-ailinlni and other 
aWriali^ and a Royal Naval CuIIegei, with aeeonuDoda- 
Uaa for «e<renty atudanta, to whom a ooinplst* navnl 
adnealion ia gfren. Outride tbe dockyard an area of 
14 acrea cootaiaa the ptn-wluuf, whore raat nmnbora 
cfgnaaaBdotbarordnance Korea are ke[>t; andtbare 
b HI arowwT witb 25,000 atanrf of aaudl arma. 

PortMBOUta baa no tnanufartiir«e of any coaae- 
tfamaa, eaovpt tbuae bninadiately cceutected with lla 



na\-a] «itAblu.i)inri)t«, And a few large brewmea. Tta 
trnilfl, IxAii ciuuti»g ami foreign, ia of conudaralilo 
eiteiTt; the fvrtiier onnalstbiK olikfly of coala from 
tlto Wokh and Nvwcastlo coal-fiuldi, cattle aod tbem 
from the [ale of ^Vi2ht and the weat of Knglimd, and 
larue cjuaotiUea of com and proi ialuoa Irum Ireland ; 
luid the latter of wine from difforent parte of tbe 
C'oQtiscnt, eggi from Franoe, and timber from tbe 
Baltia The number of veaaela entered trota foreign 
mid colonial porta, with car^ooi or in ballaat, En 1882, 
waal'iH, tnnnagn 37,684 ;cluar«d 101, tonnagv 48,576: 
In ihe coiutiittr trade, entered 1729, toniuffe 177>IS6; 
cioarad 178^, tonoae^ 2^1.7^3. The loUl value of 
the oxTKirta abroad in 1879 w«a £9255; of ini|)OtU 
from alroad £248,570. 

rortamouth la roeoltoned In tbe Saxon Chranlclo 
aa vxi^ting in 5(^1. It n]i[wan to bavo taken the i^daoe 
ii{ Porchoiter, which had bcon aeJect*^ by tba RomuM 
for a naval aUtloo, but beoame unfit f'-r that pnrpiiait 
in conaeciuoDce of the needing of tbo se^ Dniing 
th« reign of Alfn^d a fTort nf nine tihit« tittod at 
tbe port aE^-iiallv ilrftiitvil tlic linni^i, who hnd long 
Infeated tba ooaat; and iiiinieiliaivty befuta tlia Oun- 
iiueat a Lug* fleet waa etlod out her* to bitarcept 
tbe Nonnan aRnament Abont 1250 Hearr IIL 
fiaaembled an army hero for the tiiTasion of Vruter. 
In 1377 I'ortainouth waa attacked by tbe FVeucb, 
who 8uCGeed«d in buralnir a part of tbo town. Thii 
dlauter appears to hare abown tbe neooanty of fnr- 
tifving tho pla(«, and the wurlu, commeoced fay 
Kdw^ IV., have bean improvodi and oxtanded 
during anooeedbig rdgna. Of late yvan an extendve 
and flyataoMlloaeifaa of fortiScations baa bean onder 
oonatniotion for its complct* dcfcnoo. Tber oxtend 
alung a ourve of about 1 4 mile at the nnrtn aide of 
rnrtoea Iiland, oommanding the Fortabridge CaiuJ. 
A chain at hilb, known a* Portadown, dtoatcd about 
4 mll<« to the north of I'nrtamonUi, and nuining 
almoet (tfalgbt wo«t tu oant, ihua oommaodiiw ila 
front to tbe aca, are well fortUtvd with atrang lorta. 
On tho Goapott rid« the work* are Rimllar. with a 
lino of fnria extending for 4 milo. T'ho uaoal garri- 
■uu cutialaia of only three regiiiienta of foot, llio 
A<7yitf Gtt»Tf€ annk in PortOBoatb barbour in 178:!, 
drownlngneatlylOOOpanaM. Tbonnnidpal and par- 
liamentary boTOUgli iadndea the whole of tbe laland 
ori'ortaea, except aamaDfartiMi. TtaaBdatwomeni* 
bcntotbaHonaoofOnniuaDa. Pop.iol$81,]27.M9. 

PORTSMOCTH, a aeaport tnwn ot tba Ignited 
Btatn, in Beddngbaio aiunty. New Hampahim, 
■dtiiated on a paniuRita on the right bank of tba 
Piaenta^aai 3 milea above ila noutb tn tba Atlantic; 
&Q mllea north by oaat of Boaloo. Amoog tba piibHo 
cdilin-e are the churdiaa, an academy, an atliMivnia, 
with a Ubntry and good oollectioiia in uataral hiatory ; 
an aluB-bouae, tw(>marke(-liouaea,aiid aatate lonaUo 
aaylnia Tha chief indnatrial eriabliahm«Dla are a 
maehine^hopiu)dcarfiMtoi7,nwaiifactumaf boMSiy 
aud fine twiat, and a lacga atcam-faebnT tat weaving 
tbe ftnor kinik of cottim fabrlea. Ilia baiboari tba 
only one bnmadiatoly connected with tb« aea which 
the atate poaaeaaoa, ia one of the aafeat aud ntoat 
rammodkiuB in tbe I'nitod tkatta. Tbam ia bar* a 
United State* navy-yard Tbe town baa kxig beau 
notod for Ita akill in naval anbtlaetan and marltbaa 
Buten-rtae, Pop. ia 1880^ WW. 

PUiri'SMOOTIl, a Maport town and port of 
entry In tbe Uidtod Stirtea, Norfolk eoanty, Vir- 
ginia, at tbe motrtb at tba Elirabeth, &8 mlloi kak 
■{iohninnd; witb a oowt-bauae^ jail, aeveral obnrvh**, 
a bank, a theatre, » mililarj academy, and a barboiir 
allowing ehip* of tbe b e av faat btirdao to come to tba 
wharf a At Gotport, a aubnrb of Pottmnovtb, an a 
United Rtatoa navy.yard, dry dodt, and naral boe- 
pilaL Popi <ia80). L1,1WL 



2SS 



PORTSMOUTH— POBTUOAIi 



I'ORTS^rorTH, ft Unm Id tlic 1''nit«d SlaUsa, in 
Bv'uiUi [uuut^, OLlo, 82 allM acitith of Colaiuln:*, on 
tli« ()hii>; with X coiirt-hou«e, {wl, sutctbJ cliurcllFa, 
lui iivsJciuy, K li&nk, luid t-iteiuhu iruii ui&iiufHCtur«a. 

Pop. iiaao), J1.321. 

I'UltTUttAli (snncnt /.utUaiiia), & kingilom In 
tbe louLh-wvut of Ku[<>}», furining the wenL |iart uf 
the IbtiTiiMi P«iiiij«uU: IttC 3<J' C^' to H' 7' k.; Ion. 
C* li' to 9* 3U' w.; bouridcJ cut aoJ north by Spain, 
ftiii] wc»t &ni) BOiilIi by the AtLantJo; (^&t«f>t Itm^tb, 
nurilitoitxith, 346mJJe*; grentoat breadth, 140 luilea. 
It isiliiiilvd jiihiai<v«a[iruvinco>,(if which tbenMuw, 
nrciv, utd po^pulbtion are uxliibited in th« fi^Uu^lii;; 
iitlilr, oinng \t ilh tbtt I'ortu^'utue colonial puui^uiu 
ill Africa 4U]il Ajxa; — 

ninlio. S,TO7 ... l.l)H.7M 

TnM-oi-llaiitM^ 4,U1 .... »!i«.aTa 

IWn. V.»« .... 1,S77.«1 

Entrnnwl !»«,,. ..„..,.., 9.ST1 .... M'V.tTS 

AlemU>i>, V.4IB ...- 3AT,1W 

Alfura. I.BTl .... m.eS7 

IVilal eratinsai HAtH .... t,!tiltl,&M 

Aiar«. Itn — ^ii),«al 

HaMrav -■■ ■» :■• 13S.I» 

sa,eas 4.rua,iTB 

TIm pDiirJDa* bra «li*iil«1 into 31 dl*IHL-U, ajiil thnv tnlm 
'1 mum'JIm. i>f wLlch 11> *n in tbv itUn^ Mid SMO /xfw 
I (puUbiKj, of urbiDb 171 ■!• Ic Ilia iibuiJ», 

The CDlnniftl poNMnnu of Portufal coiuiUt i^f— !u 
Asi-v— lioA, Bklaette, Bwdex, Dwn&un, uid Dht, Ai\ 
in Hiniluabui, Ihliuaki\ Utd pnWMiioun in Ihi: InilLan 
Arcliipel*;,'", having tc:Kellicr mi txnm nliiDat«il al 
7&GI iHiUBn: uiilti, aud a |jo]iulatli>D ortiiuiiteii at 
iiOfifiO: in Africa— Cap* Vc^l, St. Thoniu, nuJ 
Priiicv'a lalAiuU, Bencsambia, (iiiitiea, Angnla, Bi;^' 
gmlm, Sofala, and Moxauiliiiiue, with au aggregate 
am o( 000,956 niwre milu, «ia ao tstinatoii pi>|)U- 
latiun of 2,4^4,030, The total nrea of the Portuguese 
piMimi'iii* tliervfore atnavinta to T(J 4,647 a(|uare milea, 
tba populatinn tw 3,S34,{930. Aj> a {woplo the I'nr- 
tngiiDM are luniiU lo ttalurc, tuid an g«ii«nlly la* 
lechr to tho Siittiiish in |>bvBica1 aiipeAraiLOCk 

Contia and Monnlairta. — ^uiiui^al in nut aepitntt^il 
from Bjiain. ei">[it on a (inal! part nf itn friintier, by 
natural boumlikrica. Ita aUapv la pearly that of a 
parallelognm. Th« ooastUae, of great Isngth in 
MToportion to the extent at tlu> whole surface, curve* 
frt>nt tho north in t, a.H.w. dircctian, till it roaclioa 
Cabo da Boca, the m»*\ w»t«rly |ioIiit of the peulu- 
■ut^ Hots it )>ccoiiim aauawliat irre^Iar, forma 
two bays by the interjectifiii of t1ic trmarkiiblr pro- 
muutury whii:h t«ruiinaUa iu Onjw I'lpifLel, atiil i)(uiu 
vurvea twavA in a ».i>.w. diivrLiiui till it renchus Cafie 
St. \'iDceiit, whure it ruddunLy tunii cost. Thia 
•lirartlou tt retalna lo iU l«nnfuat[(iii at the mouth d 
the Ouadiana. It U oci»aioiial)y buld, ami riaea to 
agivat height, pnrticuhirly at i'tXto da Itooa, whem 
It pnwnta » nui;,'* of i;iJJ.v cUlT«: hut ttjr the far 
crMtor part U low and marehy, and not ubfieqnentijr 
Uiwd by Htnda and r««r«, vrlii<-.h mako the itavigftUon 
danKcraiiH. It la not iicifinivtUL-d, however, nith 
barboura. The oumbdr lar^ and Hniall Id oounbed 
U twenty-cmo : hut the only one* of importance, 
either tram their excellfrncc or tha Lrailo carried i>n 
at them, are thoae of LiHbon, Oiwvrtu, Setul*!, Farv, 
Fijpimra, Avcin<, and Vuuuia, The interior is geser- 
aUymounUdnmia, a numberctfrasgesatnbclunjaicniM 
tbeeonntiy. eftliLT in wcsttaouth-irHrttureaiith-Mnitfa- 
wort dbvctioiw, ftimiiiig a euereerioii of independent 
riverbaeina, Hhfle their ramiGcAtiooa, pometratiog in 
all litrectiani, form the wat«r«liedaof nnnwnmi aub- 
•idiary nmanu, and tncluae many wild «iul beautiful 
valleya^ Tine lultieab rao^ of all u the Seira d'K»- 



ooenpy la^^ tracta in different parts of 

y. Volcanic fumialiims are verv apparent 
m. dn Caldottdo, fomuiiir a continuatiwi tA 



tivlla, n-hich may ha condiland ■■ a oon tin na HB a of 
thu cvntnil cliafn which atretehea acrow Spain betwweo 
Old and N«w Castile, uiA fattwMD Lmh uA Ertm- 
Diadiira. Near the town of Onarda it forma a forii, 
□HI! limb of which proceed* north, and anoUter aontb- 
eiwt, while the uudn chain attijaa ICa caladaatia* 
pi^-int of 7S-4 fflst about I^ ndlea WMt of tb* town oi 
(Vivilha, and ia them ci-intiniinl in a K.II.W. dlMCkioD 
Iu ibi taruiinatlou in the lufty clilTn uf (Uh da Roe^ 
I4«arl^ jiarallel to thiit cliaiu, and at no gr oat dlituice 
from It, an on tlw north the Sarra da Aleoba, aad on 
the UHitb the &«« MoradaL In the wntb-weat a 
bninch of the Suaniah Sien* Hanwd, taldac tfae 
nnma of Penagacne, «nt«ni Poiitiinl, Kad attalu one 
of the loftiest heijihta of the lunploai in SfooDt 
Garidra. At the oppoaiteextremll/tlie Sena Hon- 
cbiigue, atratching acroaa the country at a abort dia- 
tance bdiind the aontb Aot% nttatoi at ita w w t ira 
eitremltj in Mount Fota the hdybt ef 4050 feel. 
Tlie rugged nature of the eurfaoe uakea the plaiae 
bnth f«w in nuinbrr and of limited eil«iit, Imt many 
vidlcyB etjiinlly rvnuukatile for beauty and feitiljty 
oi'car. Th* chief plains are those of Almeidn and 
the Tnrra dc itragnnza, the former in tfae proTinas 
til ELciro, uiiil tb(! Utlrr in that of Troa-a^Mflotaa: 
the chid! lullt-ya, thowj of C'huvt«, VULuW, and 
Bertciros. 

Geoloyjf. — The nucleas of the monntaini is uiially 
granite, nvcrlain in the north by miuaoeon* aebiat and 
otber metunorpUic rvcka. In the aoulb, particnlariy 
in tbo Socra Monchique, primittvo IlmestaDe la "tty 
abundant. Mora nccnt limwtenea md acfakloas 
MuulabmM ' 
the country. 

in tho Hem. dn CaUlottdo, fomuiig 
thibt of Uonchiqne, The mineralogical treasone 
teem more r«m»krkable for their variety than f« 
their value, thoitgb m>iTto are and many more, il i* 
BU]ipowdt inlgbt be vrorkod to ndrauta^ Tbcy 
iiirbide ar^tifcroas Iciwl, iron, copper, cobalt, bis- 
ninth, autunony, fine luorble, elate, aalt, anltpetie, 
lithograph io stiniee, nil I ••tone*, und porcelatn ««rth. 
Sinue g^Id also is washed from tbe annida of ihe 
Douro, Uunduuro, and other streonii^ and In sencil 
•crra^ particularly thow of EatraUa and Gerec: nd 
many raluahle pi:bhlm and foclMiTstala are looai 
in a Kn*A number uf places. 

Jiutrt.—'yQ rivers of Importance take tbeir riae in 
PorUigal, and yet few countries in prDi)6rtiun lo thdr 
extent are better noptiltcd with Wgc and nat-igabte 
atreams. Hie Miuhci in the north, funuiuc the boun- 
dary between Spain and Portti^-a,l in the lower part 
of ita coiirae; the Sriurn, tint nkiTting tbe east bno- 
Lier, and CLeii punntbg iU omr«a wcat to ita raootli 
at Ooiirto; and the TngTis, alt flow east to west; Ihe 
Gaaflioua is tho only larce rircr of Porft^ which 
detiateii from tiie genenU west direottoa, and Hows 
miuuly south. In addition to theae riven fur which 
Vartngal is iadebtad to Spun, she claims as MCO- 
liarly ber own the Vom^ Mondej^ and Sado. 
Numerooa small lakM are scattered over the narfMs 
and srobaeomed in the inmrntAins. 

Ctimatt, — The cUm&tw ii gnatly modified by the 
prvximltj of the sett and the hdgfat of the mountains, 
the form«r tempering the eioeeaive beat (J nnanier 
by rcfrcahing hramai, and tlie latter making the 
ivLiUt more riifurxnts than usual in ee untri si imdsr 
the same latitude. In geneni, bowvver, winter k 
both Rbnrt and mild, and in aona ptneea neter oom- 
pltrUdy iutcrmpla the coune of vaeelatioa In eon- 
»«i|ueiic» of this iDiuiy porta uf PiMtusai enjoy the 
bonvKt of a doublo spiing. Eatty in Fetenair Tege- 
totlun is In full vlgonir ; the plant* shoot forth rapidly, 
attain maturity, and tdther wither away, np if of 
economicaJ rtUuc are gnihered and harvested. During 



PORTUOAIt 



S2.1 



Ut Jul; tile haat fa otUn eilrome, and rain 
Um wbola nmntry, pMliciiIu-ly »t iU 
»««■ lavdi Mid Bloog Um eowt, uramoi a voiy 
[(«dMd AppMiancs. Tbe dnm^ht pmenklty oon- 
IviQCi ibrongboat Au^mt ftiiil (at Into Sept«mb«r; 
[Itulai Ia«t t£aaky,*rl>>ch had ]ircrvioii«lT bewn MBmno, 
I o*<nut, »ad QOpkM* ahviran doMend. The 
. l^riuaowlM|;iiiataadtli0flBldB«CBli)l)eeoina 
MmVMd wiu Sovan and tvrdura. Winter begins 
^•t Uw end c4 Ki>v«nb«r. In the mountainou* dia- 
l^lvict* tiw loftkr auouulw obtain a covering of mow, 
1 ntMn it for a ^rvat^ or low period aetai^ng to 
•Mtndc; biit in kl] tike country aoutii of the 
and at ■ mudcratr devm&Uui, anow geuomll/ 
I away wiUiJo a laonth. DdngM of ntin, bow- 
oootiano to fall, and Tiolmt hurrirwicii and 
I are not nntmquent. At Uiii Konnn, 
hhra^ afc oclM of earbbqnakM nn MuietiiiiM f<.'1t, yurll' 
|<nlariy in tb« vicinity of ths mctropolii, whom tha 
'~ I [iradBOed by it in 1766 wct« fearful almoat 

L Vtfttmtitm. — ^Tbct« mi* ttiw rountri«a with • Tnor« 

k**iwd dec» Ibaa PortogaL Tim ntunW uf «p«da< 

i%am ban itfr"*"* to ciceeed 400D, and of theaa mora 

L 3000 un pliMiaro{«mou& Majiy of tho moon- 

I M* clotbad with fin* fomaU, chiofly of hard- 

i IMvd, aiBCUig wlucli tb« oak, buth Uie onllitaxy ipwliai, 

Lar OiMrau rafrvr, and tba eorlc-troe ot Qiurevt tuber, 

Iwn «on[itc«oua. In tin mntnl prorinooa at • 

•iBvatioD iBasoifioofit diMtnata an vory 

I Mvaleal. la tfca puutn. In the province of Aljivre, 

■Mb tbe date and the Aioeriaui aloe an not oncom- 

IVuita of MCcQoDt quality a«« Gomnxm in 

\mnrj qnatto', tltoogh it I* auly in tbe warawr and 

bett«r-*belt«r«d dittriote that toe onaiffv, lemon, and 

^To are cultivated with nicMa os an extondTO 

1 •cafek like nulherry is adinirnbly ada|it<!il to the 

foUnfttth Mod by BMouaof Etkgooadnl uf exmUcot 

rilk to obtained; and a Urge extent of country ij 

devofted to vine oullunt, cawed partly by the demaod 

for Vortognew wine* In BHt»in. Agrieidtnre, pro- 

only «o vailed, ie at • *ory low ebb, and FoctaKal 

faOi (a otdlnary yean to niie oeranU Id aulRolait 

mmal^ to meet ila own oonnunptioD. AiDong 

I a«HiMbe animali tbo linil plaoe m due to the male, 

' «l wUoh *evy Mjierior breeda have lonit been poa- 

mmai, umI am can-fully praeemd Soeip, giMUe, 

•ad ho^ are T«ry Mimerova, but little attention !■ 

faid lo tbcir imurovenienl Homed c«tlte are few, 

nod of a very uif<itiur deeori|itUin. Game b not 

Atandant. and the flalMriei en tba coast, thou^ 

Mtanlly pfMlm-iii •■, and at one tioie c»rricd on to 

gneC extent, bate taUeo off io much tUat tba 

gmlar quantity ot tbe Cab iiaad b obtabied by Im- 

pwlilinM, 

MaAn/Mt»irts, Trade, Mausg, Ae. — Maonfootnree 
an itlll of very Untiled Mnonnl^ allbougih they bare 
bo«i iocteaaiDC ri bt« yenra; bnt almoat every family 
JB BO ^ DtnButaoturinf , that k amiUiB Itedt dm** 
or hai with many ot the airtidM of pilnary neoea- 

2. Anoog the artfalM made bo aunte extant for 
nay be mentJond ansoor at Liaboo, woollen 
«latb and other WAollon rtoffa at PwtaI«gTe^ Oorilhio, 
and Tuad&u; porcBlaia at V'Ua Alegre; delft and 
ordSnan cwibwiwaro at Uabon, Oporto^ Coimbni, 
Bcj^ Gatfcmot, ftr.; prinb and Uc« at Llalwo and 
' OumXa; ooCton-twfat at Ibomac; aUlca at Bra^wt*. 
>.CiMin, Oportov lui.; eopper and tin ware at Lixbou 
i 'tad Mar plaoaa; oorha, ribUn^ embraidory, hata, 
«BflM>ti««iwy, Hne eiaqiL Jewvky and eut fanm^ giMa, 
. MM. wkkar-wwk. ud toteooo. SUp-bofldlaffatoo 
'a weUundenlood.and alarm nninbrr of vceada are 
niMatiai Iwl al Lfaibon, Ffffuetra, OfioTto, and Villa do 
Oooda. TradakaervodvecoMisMentbleatfaDuluafnim 
tbefsiamtioa jf railw»yt.rdwbkfanlwBi 1000 ailaa 



ba\« beeu fiuiahed. Tbe principal export* beaidea 
wlueare caitlir, tnirk, olive-nii, fruibt, ir»n and capper 
pyritea, bikI wckiI; tbe |iriiici))a! iui|xirta are ceradi^ 
tiiuber, Niit pm^iiiaiia, culooi&l prfxluoo, wooUon, 
cultoii, linen, and kilk tiiwuca, iron, rtfcl, nnd rariona 
oth.fq-inetalii,onal, tar. and pitcb, djea, ojiii druK^ In 
16^2 the total auouut of the exports wta £5,499,036, 
And the imjwrtB £ii,06»,i0it. 'llie bulk of tbe tndo 
it with Great BriUiu and Bruil, and the ohief 
export ta the former ie wine. The value ot the ez< 
porto tv Great Britain In U6i waa £3,t]7«.»C« ; im- 
ports of Britiib home produce, £1.960,906. The 
vnJue of ttie wine aent to tjrcat Uritain aunnally b 
over £1,000,000. CulLun f^mxli to the ralue of nearly 
jEI,OO0tO00 are annuiLlly «>i>nrUd tram Great Uritain 
to Portagal, and a caiiaulertkble araouTit in iron 
(irroi])(bt and unwroughl) atul woiillnn ytioda. The 
length of aea-doiut, with the harbixira found upon 
it, «nd the nunil>«r ot riwni, ftintiah grvM fsoiU- 
ti«a for trade, but all the other mc&Da of internal 
cummnnicatioD ar« very dofectjvo. Aoeoitnts nr« 
knpt in rvis, inilccia or llK)a rein, and oonto de itJa 
ur 1,000,000 rt-ia. Ibe laltie of the rea U *o mlnnte 
that tbe taUnila b worth oiilj about -ii. ild. Tbe 
French metric ayrt^im of wriirhta and mwuniren was 
iiitniduceil into Furtti^ betwwu ISdO and 1868. 
Tbe Tortui.'ueee lOtra was 1~012 nvoirdupois, the 
arroba was 82 Ubraa, the ouintal 4 arrobas. The 
chief linear measurte were tlie Itgoii, m* lra|;:iiD of 16 
to the degree; the n'Ma, or cominou |;«>}rnipliical 
toOe; tbe Ar-opa, or faiboiD = 7'4 feel: the ram, or 
yard, one-half of tha fonntr; and jm, or foot ^ about 
13 incbea. Kor dry measure the mafo—^ buahela; 
and fur liijuide tbe aimudo = 4^ Halloiia, were used. 

OvTmvimi, Army, *f. — ^The Cart* Coostibitional 
of Kteg Pedro IV.. gnnled 3«tb AprO. 182«. and 
nmend^ 6th July, 1K5?, b the fmidamentnl Inw of 
tbe kiuKilou. I'he orvwn ui hereditary both in the 
male nod fcmMe line, but with preferanoo of Ibo 
niala. The constitution reoogniMS four powen in 
tbe state— tbe lagislativi^ executive^ hidinal, and 
modentting. The laat, wbJdi b e)|ulr>]ent to prero- 
gUir% b vMted in the soren^ Tbvre an twv 
cbnmben^ tbe CMDsn dos Psraandtbe Uamarados 
Deputadon. Tbe two are called the Cortee Gernee. 
Tbe [mm are nomlnsted by tbe aoverelgn, who alaa 
nominntn tha prmidwit and vin-pneident of tbe 
chamber. Tbe pMngo b hereditary In the direct 
line, but BO peer can take Ida mil In the ooclee 
solem he [icaa i aiii an iDoome of X.*600, and baa takso 
an acndemieal degrsa. An income ei £22 clear 
qiialltiea an elector to voto for a member of tba 
cWober of deputiea. A deputy muat b»*e £89 per 
Minuin, A new parlianirat b oooveitad wiUioat 
interval on the diaeolution ot tbe oliL All bwi 
relating to tbe army and tmcation rnnsl cricliMte In 
the chamber t4 deputiBS. Justice b adminiateced by 
ft gnat number of inferior jodgea^ wfaoee dedKiooa 
at« aqbject to rerbiea in Hventeen dbtrict oourta. 
An appMl ooiut, with extMslve inrbdl^on, du al 
i >[iorto: and a aoprame court, with rariadkUcm over 
tlie whole kliwduni, a« LMpoo. The muUUlied 
religion b the Ronaa CathoUe; all other nllgbu 
are tolerated. It b goreiiMd br n patriarch at Lb- 
bnn,two anhbiabopeat Braitnana Bvom, and fontleca 
liinbope. Conventual eataUUimeata were w peeaaed 
by decree of SSth Mi^. 1631. Their reroBuea ww« 
applied to tbe redaaiption of the nAt).>iial debt, Tbadr 
biioka were ooUected, and form a library of 80^000 
volnmM al Llabon. There are only about 600 Pr^ 
teatanU. meetly (crfignen. Educatba b vader m 
dialinot ministry, and free from tbe auiMrvfaion of 
tbe church. It la cmnjiulsvry by law: bat the law 
b ont enforced, and the bulk of the cbildivn of the 
lower aud middla cUmm do sol attend schooL The 



Uainiiltr «< Ceteiln, Um odj om in lbs kta^itm, 
bM kboot 900 aUidMU; th» ■eeqad i y nhooh bsn 
•bool 9000, maA the primair afaoBt 1SS,000 «dM>l«n. 
V«rr fow fenuJM aUvml kaooL 

TIm nT«HW for 18S2-64 w «iUBiatad at 
aM9^W9. Uh «n«Bdlt«n ftt i7,&Ll,247. tbcwltig 
k Melt of £97l.nS. Tb9 nTcam ha* bnoi eoo- 
■tontl j deflckol f or !»««• Uum tfairty jtMn. TlMdebt 
tB 1S81 WM ^e.OOD,00a a {rM parti<» «f the 
iOA i* dM U BtUitli cradiUin. TIm umf oonuu 
of 90,000 nn oo Um pckca footing. ItiarxUoI boUi 
by WMrffptufi utd nUirtiDBnt. Tbe n*rj ntunbcTB 
tBir^-tlu«e jiUMocn Imm an boD-dadj whb 12v 
gnHk uid lixtc^Q aailin; T«aHil& 

J/ittoTfi.—OtiU uf lb* HDkllBat itetca of Enrope, 
Rsd alnuMl fortuitniHt/ (onneil, Porttigal luu naver- 
IkalaM » UiUiry ul the akoet «v»olful Kind, mud am 
apoA tlkOM witli « glory ruvly mriMWHid Tbo iri' 
latMt of Um baraio ag* oE I'ortagucao biatory docs out 
tont upon diatonctiv* wtn, but opon » long luoow- 
■kiD ol MUiaiit OBopBiibJesl dlaaonrlM. pUaiwd with 
lb* bMt InowUdga of tfa« timM, ud pnnucd tbrouph 
■ ancoaarion ol gmeniiona wllli ton tenacity ami 
naiM«w«nM neMMury bo oomuiuid raoooMi wbil* 
by tnaam of tbM« diawTsrioa and otbm dirwtly 
■llBuUted by tbrm th« wbole world wai epenad up 
to Eiuxiiiottli dvUiutiun, and a d«w e]Hicb til bjatury 
bagna of whicb thU auiftll w««t«irDi]ii)«t «tat« nf 
Ettrapn w«Jt tba pionwr. The Pbcaniciaiui, Cartbaiii' 
Biani^ aii'l Ui<><.-kM aarly traded to tbia part of tlie 
Mniuaula, »hii:Ii wmt aflarwarda conquend by tb« 
PlTTlf"' (Hon Tj'L'nitjtMIA and Bpaix.) Tha lat* 
tar Intrvduced aniuuc tbti UUiaUtauta, whg w«k a 
braiutb of tha widc-Nproad L'^It^ ib«Lr &wn dviiica- 
don; the muRtry wua acvrral ccnturica later iniin- 
tlalod by tb« Oonnaalc tribe* ((iutls, Sunvi, Vsn- 
daU — ■•• tliaaa iuurm) ami in tli« vlh'klb ventury 
(713) WM concitierpd by tb« Saraoena. {St* Maaax.) 
Vfbm the gallant Kpaniarda of Uic Chrutian idtsg- 
dflmaof CaitiJit and I^oon («p« SruK) 6iaaUy wiwtfld 
bba oountiT between ttie Mliiho anil the Doura 
faoin Moonah handa, they Tdiuwd count* or j^mrcura 
oror Ibia reginn. Ilonry tfaa Younaer of Burgundy, 
whoM granufu.tlit'r Kulwrt I., diiKe of Bur^ndy, 
WM grandaon of Ibo French k\ug Hug-h Capi-t, 
Oftma Into Spain about 1090, to acvk Lij [c>riiii:i> 
(b the wata aicaituit tbo Mwtil Aiplionno V 1,, kinjt 
o( ('ailllo and L«on, ^aru Lim tbu band vl hU 
dau{{bter, oud a|)]>oiRt4>(l bin) ( 10(^5) cuunt and Korer- 
twr of tbo (HnqueKd diaUicta, whicb compriwl tbo 
prariDoea Entn Mitihu e D(>tm<, I'nu tm Mnntm, 
aad a p«rt of Btiira, and tha barbuura of Oporto 
(Ptaim Calle), fram wbieh Portugal b aaid to hava 
oerlved ita name. Tha ocmnt realded at Uuimars«ni^ 
owod fondal aorviCM to the Caatilian kiot^a, but waa 
pcnnittfld to buld in hia own rinHt wbatoror c<in- 

JDCvta bo aboulil Diako from tbe AIoom beyond tbo 
'asoB (LI12). Henry, and rtiU more hta ara Al- 
plkUiao I., were auoccwful in Ibeir veun. Tbo latt«r 
dadaBledAlpbouw^ldngof Cacti^in 1K!T. and made 
hlmaeU hidependvnt Threatened by tbe >roan in 
\lZti, ha ^nod tbo brilliant tiotory u( Ouni|ue, aud 
waa aalutcd nn tbo fiitld King «( I'tirtiigal. 

With tbeee eveula Ixviii* the lubtory of Fortniza]. 
TbeDoMeaeonvouDd by A]pboiUKilnll43at Laroe^, 
ffom which Uicy aflcrwarda took tbcir uae, con- 
tirtiit'd liiui in tbv ruyal title, and in 1 1 SI gava to tba 
kiiig<!i>iD, wbii-h waa aoknowledued by tbe pope, 
AloKander III., a cvdv of la<n and a oonaLltution. 
Tbo erawD waa inadu hereditary in the royal famiiy 
aeoording to tli« rulca of priuoKMiitun!, but cotihl 
paia to Um collateral linea only with tba oiioMiit of 
lb«oatat«a. In tbe failure of male kein thedaaghCera 
watv to ialwcit the crown. Tbo Indepandenca of the 
Idafdan wib aotemnly dadared. 11m fonn of go*- 



mxaamA, bow«T«r, yw ff w J hy Iks CottaaeC ] 
waa by m naana wty ilifhih^ aai th» tmA 
lawa tbera pnoinlcalad war* fv tmm Maf haft 

bviolatei Alpbooan bimadf made bla Mng d— M- 
btitary to the pop«v ^u* inaJataiaed hfa >«gal Jlpatf 
ogainat tbe Klnga of CMtita and Leos, wilbj 
be waa frvqaently at war. He extended Ui <* 
iooa to tbe botdanof Ajrarra^ and look 
b 11*4. nwcaptonofXlibeo ai«T),»*>i<bn> 
ellectad by tbe aid c< aoiM EafOA Cnmitn tad 
HoMeatica; who aacandcd Ibe T«m «m «M e< Iba 
racmt brilliant anntoof Ua warCks Hfa. la 11C2 
be foouded two military ordefa, tba ordar ol Ana ta 
Tillaee near Alanteio) and tha cvder of & mtad W 
Ala. AlpboMo L £ed lias. Ha waa neeaadad by 
Sancbo I^wbabonn tlMcaomMataf Alg^vra; aad b« 
byAlpbonaan.aboiittlS12,ww»wai«i«>BHninlcatad 
and had bis kingdom pat under fntenliet by Po|» 
JIonoiriaillL SMidion.,wboaiioMededhlinlDltnt 
waa alao axcoininanlaated, aod oaaDpatlad to Wave 
tha Ungdon in 12<B. H*dM at Toledo in 13(S, 
and waa ■oooeadMl by Ua bivtltar Alpbenoa m^ 
wbooompleted tbeoonqneatof Algarvo (lUlV He 
waa •xotannumlcatad, and Portngal waa anan Ud 
ndw fartariUct by Popa lanooeat IV. in 1»7. Tbt 
inunadUta caaaa of Ua exootpmim toat ton via Iha 
repudiation of hia wife antl hia marriage to aaolbw. 
H«di««llnl279. IHony««»(12?»-13a5)oppcaedrtM 
encnadunoBta of the clergyi who ban aa ulwafaMi 
aooiitnulal«d tbapnypettyDTthecaatiayliitlMir bmA^ 
and claimed exemption fom taxatMO ; yet b« oootriaed 
to roDioJn at peaoa wUb tbe pofo. By tnnuag to »c- 
const tbe tavoutable paaltlooci the omintry nic cmb* 
merco he laid th« foundatfoo of tiho futon greatiMa t4 
I'ortugal. Uooqnally eoeonraged ngritnilture^ maan- 
fuutun!!, navigation, and euounermL Be adnAl^d 
tlio rt^iireaeatatlveo of towna to tha Cottm. B* 
lihoriLlly patroniud laamiag, and fooodod a oatnr- 
fity at Liaboo, which in 1308 h« traaafcTTtd to 
Coimbra, Br theae and otbor acta ol a wiae aad 
lienehcnit adminintratlon be earned tbe title el 
father af hit caiintri). Among bia otber epKbela tbe 
moit frpqiit'ntly apjiliod ia tlic Panntr. Him nign 
WM dirtiirbctl by war with CwtQe frntn 1295 to 
HdT, and at ditlerent porioda by dvH feiub hi Ui 
oMn family. Ili-' oniur of Uhriat, which b* iwtt- 
Lutod, olitjiiaed tbo oI^Us of tbe Templan en tba 
atiolitioD uf that onler !n 1319. Ho waa aw eaedad 
bv Alphunao IV. In oonjunctlcm with Ali^kawo IL 
of OAAtite bo defeated tbo Moon at Solodn in 194^ 
Ho rourdered Inex ds Cwtrt^ tbe wife of Ida aon 
Pedro, In 15S& (See Ietei rs Castdo.) H« wm 
aaooeoded by hia son Padm I., wbo oshonMd tba 
body of Inei, and eauaod her to bo nrowncd along 
with him inSl). Ha died !n I3S7, and w«b foc- 
owdod by Fordinand. on wboaa deattt in 1393 the 
male line of tbe Burgnsdian prinooa becama oztiaet. 
Hi* daughter Beatrioi^ wife of tbe King of OartO^ 
abould tegnUtly bate Boowedad hicu; but tbe Fue- 
tagneo* w»r« ao avana to a ooonvction with Caatile 
that John L, naturml aoa of Fedn\ giandiaMter «l 
Lh« order of Avia, waa aalated king by the oalaC^ 
He niaiotalned pnaaanlua of tbe throat bating, with 
the omstanoo of hia gooaral, Alvaio Nunoa Perrir^ 
defeatedtbeCaotUUnaat AJJnbarattalnlSSS. With 
bin begina tho natiTo line of Avia. After baitig 
ooudododaMaoa witbCaati1ain1411 tbia axoaUant 
prince turned hit ottantiua to the bnprovnDont uf 
the country. H* ruled with a wiaa moderatiOB a 
turbulent people and a haagfaty noUUty.wboaa power 
bad been Jncwaaed by tbo coaceiMnna which ba had 
been obliged (» nnake to aecure tlietr ODtHnimnee ta 
hiaaceewin to tba throne. He tranaferred the royal 
rendttnioe from Gotmbm to Liabun. In HIS bo took 
Ceota, tbe £nt 6l a aeriea of enterpriaca which. 



I 




J 



PORTUGAL. 



225 



m 



J wllk attaDipta UL Moqiieat ca tiu Aftj«an 
, nnltod in tboM R«at«x|i«ilitioosof dtttatvtry 
on wliiob tba renowa oT PartoKml mrU. Tt wa« ben 
that Hvnrj ttw Navt^^tor, iu» Uiir>] win, Iwit^n to 
form tlw plam of nuuitiine durbvery which lad to 
•ndijnVAt ruFulU. la tlila ni)fn "^i^rc foundvid thq 
fint PortugnoMi ixilonMi^ Portu fUntn |U1 S), Madein 
n«M), tlw AxwM (1433). «iid tlwM on tb« Cold 
CoHt o( GninM. John di«d of tho pla^a in 1 U3. 
Tte nlgat of hta md EdwftrtI {till HAS) m<1 hi* 
g f— J mu AlplHifwo V. unere ]«m briltUnt Uun ih»t 
«f JabD I. ; Mt Uh Utt«r WM Kun)aM«<l by tb»t of 
John n. (1461-9S), ])«rh*f« tbo kblcrt ktair that htm 
flMBpM tfas thnxM ot PortngiU. In hla reiftt bcgiM 
ft violcM ilrnggl« vitli the nobUit;, whine puwvr 
hnd fhnJjntal MoanivDi under hSa indtUgent pn- 
dMMOiL 'nic {naU of crown land* mwle b]r them 
WM* nvoltMi, Mid UiB judicul privilegea of the 
oMOtj w«tm mtrictMl by tb« sp|>ointmeot of pn>- 
jwrfniiel htJgf. Tb« kin^ ckomkI tb« pvworfol 
of Sn^uuk, tii« chief dl the cnrbnleDt noblci, 
b» bdMwded. ud fmt to death with hie own 
id b 1483 their ncit leMlor the I>ak» of Viwot 
"He exiwditiMU of diecorcf? wen continued with 
MiJov lAd with edoatUo method. The rich profile 
otf tho tnd/i with tiidncM supplied moiirt«e fur 
new eiilerpriat*L llic M:bire apiril which vbb now 
IM>« utd more eTideolly developed emoos the Por- 
!»«■ WM qiddumed by the Jews, ft^OOO of 
wben, driveo Iran CmIjIc, were rvceivrd into For- 
lOfal on the fAjmuiDt of m capitation tax, and the 
amt leeroed of thie oaUon wn tben to b« (oooil 
is TtatagaL Id 1181 Joha wnt two espotieooed 
■wa to ett«mpl to reAch bv land tho (^eet Indiei^ 
iIh coeunercLel wealth of whiah wee the finKt object 
el Id* epterprisee, Bartolonwo Dies mubled the 
of Good Hope is 1497, aitd Vaaoo de Gtmm 
~ liidUinl4if8. In l&QO Cdhn] took potMf 
of BraiU. For turtlieT deUule of Portugueae 
■oriUme eaWrpriM eee Cqloxt and Ijtdu — Portu- 
(iMM India. Tbeen diBooveries of Portugal are 
ioet^ regarded u forming >n epoch hi £nrop«<an 
ViNarjr.and are ciMnmnuly held (O bo tho itarting- 
poittt of uodera as <H w iiigiilMhit d from mediaTal hbi- 
taj. <Sm HnroKr.) C>oou^ed with Iheoe gmi 
m Portn^ had negledad Cotnrnhwi, whnM 
of Ancuica waa uuute on bdiidf ut CmUId. 
dMpvtee between tbo oavl^atora aiul 
eoloftleeeM of the two natioDi^ which Pope Aleuuidor 
VL Taiuir attenpled to eettle in I4»l W hi* ptv 
peo t ef QiM deove uotgnlng to Po«tus>] all countriee 
t0lb««Maf aliBeefdonHkalion drawn 100 laaeuM 
WHt ef the Aioree aad Cape Vcrd lalaadi^ aaa to 
apala all ba tlw west of that line. WhOe tbeee freat 
vemto wen itiU in pmtfnae John II. wm raooeeded 
by Ui oDuan TtwMf 1^ who rdgnod from USS to 
IMI. The oniMiBeete of Albur|ucniue aiul Almeida 
■ado bin HMalor ot nan»erous puaeBioiH in the 
Undi Bod matntwid of Indb, and in 1318 Lopo do 
Bww opesod n ooiBDerco with Clun^ Fmaiioel 
niled tnmt Babelmandeb to the Btraita of Malaoo^ 
■od tho pewor of Portucal had bow roaohod lu 
brighL On thii diMant ttago w«o perfonnod great 
deodiof herolMa, Mtd thie te tbo noM gloriooe period 
of Povtngoeoo hiatorr. Bnl aa in the caac of Spain 
tbero ii a dark eido (o tho picture. Tbo bitolerant 
Mft^Fj of euperrtitioa, which wae then coaunoDljr 
mrlt^T tar x^i^om leal, whibi it promplod to 
•fferie fcr the convvmoa ot the nativoe at Inidia and 
rtiawlfi. too often inapirod not merely Um ralgar 
ifaraaff ot ■dToolaren wbo nsbed to participato in 
tho advantafOi of tho new oonquooli^ bnt llkowise 
Ihdr (Uob and loeden, with a aootonipl for tho 
lafldale whlcb tcmbioed with an lontiablo oTarico 
to ptodoeo deed* of croet^ oqttally toroltisg In their 



dMaOa ftad aotoundiQg In their aHgnitude. lieboa 
becuno tho in«t important oomiiiordal d^ of Eu- 
rope; bub the wealth which oommerce aociunulal«d 
waa bafdly euffideat to meet the eiponwe of thi* 
campaaS'^ '" Africa, whoro tiie anu of £iaaDual 
were leee auccaufnl. 'Ilia King ot Congo had indeed 
allowed biniwU Lo bo baptix^ by the oiieainnaTiea 
without «b«ui no dleowoiy-ebipa thon aailed; add 
font hia two eons to Portugal to be educated; and 
the oolnny on tb« (tulnea eoMta^ from whfadk all other 
ttBtiuna wdra eicliiiled by the Poitugueeo, waa * 
sonrco of great wealth, but the «ntorpri>n< in Nortbcrti 
Africa wore unracoeotfuL The unfavourablo char- 
AciAr of the ooiinti7 preventod a rapid prcgTeee, and 
it ie hiulUy probabb that Votuco and 3pa&, joakNie 
of tho I'ortugQeeo proopoilty.aocTotly afforded aatict- 
naco to the Mnoriith prinoea In tho reign of John 
111., nun of Eioanud (]5*21-67>, the Indian diaoo- 
Tvrifw and ci:i[nni«ffce w«r« etill further estottdod; but 
the raf id aocumulation of woelUi throi^h the fmpor- 
tatioii of the predona metala, and the monopoly of 
the oommerce between Europe and India, prared 
diaadvantageoua to linma induatry. Tbo IrniuJaition 
woe introduced ui I&34, tn be eiupIo3*ed anainat tboee 
Jewa who bad adoptod the exteniaU of Chriatlanlty. 
John II. bnd recnivtHl into tbo kiogdom a great 
numbor of those whom tho intnlcrant rigour of f'cr- 
diniuid and babella had driven from Spain, but they 
wen lUll treated with «o mnch eoverlty that Emanual 
IukI at first intended to extend lo them greater indol- 
Benoo. But in the Brat tntoxieatJan of hia paaaion 
7m bli wife, the beautiful Eloonorii tistoF of Charloa 
v., the old Irin^ WAS persuaded to pvocoed with euch 
rigour againtt tlioJowHMtoretjniro themtoemhmce 
Chriatlanitj, nndvr thu jietiklty of bi-ing doprivod of 
theiroUldren and miwlv ilavt-ti. ^V'hl■lber they found 
maaiu to proTont the execution of thia cmcl order, 
or whether Emanuel foorod tho efTecta of their de- 
■pair, it ia oortain that ho allowed them twenty yean 
for their ooovcnion. TUi meaanra led a preat many 
of Ibu Jew« to oonform pahlldy to tho Ohriatian 
iiaagiM, while they eoootly adhered to their fu'Lh. 
Tho Inqtdaitloa praotlaed too meet rovoltbv cruoltlea 
oa iholr daooeoidBnta. Still more Injurious in Ita 
oonaoqneoeeo than the Inqninition wm th<t iwdmiamoQ 
«f the Jeanita into tho l(in(;duDi hv John 111.(1540), 
who rocvjvtil theoi bito hia driiniuiuna oarlier than 
any other European prince, u if Iw had b««n doMMd 
to uodenniBO the nriMperity of hi* kingdom. Ho 
artful Jeeoita gladly allowwil (lieciurtvca to lie em- 
ployed aa ptoaehere of tbe faitb in Indiot where the 
FraacisGaM had hitborlo beoo principally anpkrod. 
The edooation of bis grandaon Sehaatlan, the hdr* 
appannt to tbo throne, waa Ukuwiae Intrvatcd by 
Jokn to tho Jeonlti, the worst tutors of princee. 
Th«y inapared the yoong prince with that Riirit of 
Mgoti^ and that fanatical ambition whi^ led to bit 
deHlh. He raaolirad to reduce tho Uoon fat Africa 
(an «tt«>mi>t In which hia [towerfnl predeeeei j rs had 
alwari faued), and persevered In hla porajccta with a 
wilftu obatinaoy in oppuaatiuu lu tho rviuouatraticca 
of hla wImt oounaeUor*. In 1&7S b* loat hia Ufa in 
the battle of Alouaranlvir, and left hie thnmo to the 
duiputea of rival caodUiatca. of whom tho moot power- 
ful, Philip IL of SpMB, obtained poaMsaJen of tho 
kinEdom by tbe victory of Alcantara, and Portugal 
had the mwctttote to be anneMd to a Ungdem 
which from thia tim« waa haatonJiig iti own d«c4fio 
by a ecriea cf nnauoeeoihil wsi^ and by to mwfao 
adminiatration. The Spaniab yoke was giioToaa to 
tbe Port«gu«ee, and a tradition rapidly spnad among 
tben that their long waa not dead. As in tfaa caoe 
of the BoMiao Dmitri (aoe UnirrBKTs), a •uooemiea 
of impoatora (tour tn thia caae) appc«rvd; but the 
puwer ot FbHip waa too great to bo ahakon, and their 



«ffnrM prored abortive. Pnrtn^ onntlnued binder 
thodumiuiuuuf Spain til] l(ilO, ttiui b«c vast colonial 
poweMitinn vitrK iinit«J to th» alnuirily splnndic) im- 
qidritlviu vt hat rivkl, wliiok wan now miprvm)? KilIl 
tit ItuUa and America. The opportimtty at fouiiduig 
■D, emnuv vuch aa iba world bad uavcr •mn wm loKt 
tbrongD thB In&tnatod bigotry of l>bilip I [. The 
[>utch, wlioiD ia hi* muerablu and atiort*aljjbtcd 
rH)li«y ba shut out of LliboD, hul, owing to the Indo- 
louoo ijf thn I'ortu^cac^ been bitlicrto thn ciHrii-M 
betwren tbcim njid tlto reat uf Euioije, and tEiey iiuvr 
ileLaTiniDed lo o|icq op a direct liud« fur tbouuolvM, 
and attacked tho Portn^mo ac well m tb* Spa&iih 
pMMMioni bnth in Inilia luid Ameriov After a 
oeroa Ntrun[Ie tliey dopriviHt ih-a PortuB«e««! nf tint 
Uoluoeaa m 1Q07, of tuelr n^ttlemuDt* In Guinoai in 
1637, of MiJmva in 16+1, auA nf Cnjhn in ISSS, 
They uJ«q nciiuirLxl n-lxiviL tuJf nf Urniil, wliiti, »fter 
th« w-««t*bli*lunMit uf Portuifuw* lu(lei>PudBU<-»\ 
th«3r (Wtorvd for » pacunioiy coiup<in«kUi'D. To 
tboM lowet WB« adilod tbo rapuity nf thr .SpAninrdR, 
wha alieniLteJ tht' lini^it domiun* oJ tUd I'ortuguwo 
orown. Tbe l'>.>rtui,ni<M« nobility, euuiperated by 
thia oppmri'ia uid Ib'O cout«riiiptaouB conduct of 
Olivamt, DiniiitBT of I'hilip [V., ontcred into a con- 
apiriM:/ wliicti wiui plunuE^ ulJ rici:iit«il with j^niat 
ait, anj), l)*"!mbeT ], 1(540, pls-'c-d im th« thniii* 
John IV., duke of Bragumi, a dcaccndunt of tko old 
royal family. All tha remaining caUmiiJ [HMtardAiurut 
of Portuj^ retiiriLed b) Lrr &lIi.-(;iiiu<:o with llie i-xccp- 
tion of Couta, tvliich Sjiain Hurcoitilod in mtiuniTig. 
John XV. waa ftu<;cccded in ItliJti by Alphonto VL, 
who ooded Tatter and Bombay to Cbarloa IL of 
Kngland at adowry on fail marria^witb tho Infanta. 
Ha WM dapoaod hy. hia biothar Fsdm IL In 16(17, 
uudisr wboiu (IStli February, 1668) > b«aty of piiucti 
was concludod with Spain, which aeknowlodgod tba 
iuilcpriuli^ncc of I'nrtugal, A coinniOTCtal trvaty bad 
boon ooDcludod ndtb ^tlngluid uodar tho Snt Bra- 
g»nsaprino«;and in ITUSanewticaty VMooBoludul, 
called Llif Mi:l)ivt-]i Treaty, from um name of tlia 
Engluih ambaatador by whom It wa« «ORC-1ud«H], 
which twcurcd to Englnud tbo ndvuitii^rM of tbo 
newly -dfaoavcred ^Id-ninca in Brazil. From thia 
time tbe rvtuLiona with England conUnued to boouiue 
mon; iiittTiiato, u I'orttigiU wm no lonovr in a «cindi> 
tioQ toinaiutoin all ind«{jeudentatUtiiae in Euiopean 
poUtia. Psdto owusd to Bunmon the Cort« a/tec 
I4B7. Daring th« long riApi of John V. <17a6-fi0) 
aoina vigour wa« exsrtad in faganl to tho lorviga 
rslattooa, and wiuoChlDf was attempted for the |>ru- 
motieii of the national vrclfaro at hoone (the rMtric- 
dotia ou the jutvor of the ItinniaitiaD, and Ihc foiin> 
dalioa of aa academy of PurtuKucuB bliitory, for 
•auapJ*), bat in tfa« former caae wlihnut deuialve 
oeoMqufiiiOMi, and in (ho latter without a completion 
of the plana propoaad; while the auuptuona mnnwi- 
terj at Mafra^ and tiia dear-bought penniairiou tu 
institiito a patrianJi of I.telinn, nxbaustwd tba n- 
bourcea of tbe oouutry. tJnder hia »on and tacctwor 
Joaeph L (t'JlU-7T) the Marquia of Pombal (aee 
Pohbal), a vigorous i«fonner auob am Fortuind re- 
uuired. wlmiiuiAM*d thp gowrnmcnt. He attacked 
toe Jesuits and the ooblUty, who iluring th« proc«d- 
ing reijna bad eiwrdaed a K.-m-cl inlluenoe m tbe 
^ovenuQont, The «spci«ure of the power .of the 
Jeaulta In Parafruay, their conduct at tba tima of tho 
oarttK|Dako in LtesoD to 175fi, and tho oonafilracy 
a^ahut tho lifo of the king (1769), led to the eup- 
pnauon of the order. In 17A7 they had bexn d«- 
privod of the poet of ooufmaor* tu tbv piyal family, 
and forblddvn the ooutt. Two yean altur lUI tlie 
Jwoiti WM* bsolibed the kingilom, and thuir vatat*'* 
were eonSaoatcd. The C^jiuil uf Scbanmburg I.ippo, 
lo whose BsrrioM against Spain (17d0) I'onugal wai 



so mncb indebted. IDEswlse ntmnsd ths PsrtafBMs 
army; but fKK>n after his departoia (he sflcds of Vk 
iraproveonceita diaappented. On the amLwiuu of 
M^a Fnoejaoa laaDslla^ eldest daBghtw of Joseph, 
in 1777, Pombal lost ths iaflnaac* wbleb La ha-l 
poaaotaed for twenty-five years. To bim Portngal 
owod hor rerival (rum bar preriooa lethargy; and 
although msiiy of bis useful reffulathws did twc sor- 
vive his fall, voC the enlishtmed news which bs 
intnidurrd, and the nation^ Eeoliqg which Im avak- 
poed, wcRi cot without penDsnaot etfaeta. Daring 
the reign of Muia the powsr was b tba hands of an 
ignorant nobility and a nrt less igiMnant datgj. In 
17B2, OR tvonount of the aiokneM of tbe ({Qecn, Jmn 
<Joha) Maria J<»i, prince of BniQ tlh« title ttf tba 
jirino«-ro^al unto ISIS), was declarad tagvnt <ses 
JoHH VI.), and in 1799, bar malady having lenid- 
nntcd in a cenfinned mental alieaatioa, the {naes 
was declared regent with full regal powes^ ImI aada 
no chango In the polioy of to* gtmaaaaoL Hk 
cnnncctlona with England InveJvcd him la tbe wan 
of that powec against Fnuoe, and the Portngnaw 
tmom diatlngiiiihed thamaelvea by their valcnir in 
tbe Fcntnaular campaigna But oontmirctol iliiliim. 
the accumulating debt, and the threataaiag laogaags 
which BpaiiL was oompelled by Fkanca la adopts M 
to a peoxw with Vnae* In 1797. Tbe diisatsw nt 
tho French turns in 1709 encoimged tba ngMt lo 
nuiew hostilities in allianoe with Kngla&d SiiiT TTiisiis. 
but after General Bonaparte had eatafaliahad Us 
authority Spiun waa obliged to declare war agahnt 
Fortupd {UOl), which, however, was tenniaalad As 
same year by the Treaty of Badajos, by wlnob Por- 
tugal was <t'lilit;cd loc»>lo UiitcDZ^ with the paynwol 
of a huge mm of mnney to HpMn. Portugal m«D- 
wbile preserved a mere sbiuJavr ol indef>cndeaoa by 
tbe (.ToatOBt saerifioes, nntll at last Junot entered ^ 
coiiDtry, and tho hooae of EhaganiEa wan declared by 
NapoIooD to havs forioHad tha throne (on accoont ti 
tbo i^fiuhl of th{i princo to *<iae the Eog|U) nv 
cljandinu in hi> itumia^utia). The reigeni now tbrww 
bimaelf entirely into tbe arma of tba EagUih, aad 
Noramber 29, 1607, ombarkod fbr BrasU, Jnaot 
entered the capital tbe next day, and Portogal wm 
treated aa a oonquored country. Aa EogluSi fdree 
WML landod, and in the uortbem provbK«a mtmenos 
bodies of nntit'e troops detarmiiMd to stutain Ibi 
struggle for freedom; a junta was alao estabUabcd in 
Oporto to conduct the gavermnent. Aftersoane kvd 
fighting the docidve battle of Vimeira took place 
(Auffuat 21, l&OA^ which was foUawed bv tba Oob- 
venlion of Cjntra and the evaouatloa of the ooimtiy 
by tho French forooa. The Portnguese now took an 
active part in tba war for Spaniah indsMadtaea- 
(See Staik.) Ou the death of Maria J<dm Vl 
aaoBDdad the tbraae of Portugal and Brasll. TUs 
transfenneeof theowut of Liabon into an Amarieaa 
oulouy was followed by important oonaequuaws 
firstly, that Braiil attempted (o wEthdnn' itself from 
dapeudanea en EngUnd; and secondly, that the cU- 
ony gradually became a separate atato. In Pcrtufal, 
on lEe oontraiy, the influence of £n8)aad oontiawd, 
aad Iha ooudltion of the kingdom was not sssiinllillj 
dianged. The Peace of Pans (Msy 30, 1914) fay no 
meaoa, therefore, ODrrcapondcd to tha aipactattnu 
of tlie iiatiun, aliliuugli it bad exetted ttaelf vig- 
orously in the oommon ctaaa, and Spain avaded lbs 
rcfftitution of Olirensa. which bad been provided 
for by the CongreM of Vienna at tbe mmia bma that 
Portugal was required to restore Prendi Oulana 
to Franca^ Tho oooit of BJo Janeiro tlmafan 
oueupiod the Baada Oriental, and Portugal was In- 
volved in new uiiaandewtariH i nga with Spain. In 
I$I5 the laqutaition was aboliahad In tlw Ponagaaae 
JumintsBs; the Jaauila were refused 



I 



1 




POUTUGAL. 



227 



I 



I 



them: mtA Um Jemv ti U» iv<]iieat of tlw pope 
(1617), vsre •Uowod the maao prirQ^M whicfa tliuy 
«aj«i)p«d lo tba Bcntu sUtM. 1%* ftbMnoo of thn 
▼ievvd witb diilik* by tha nUaa; tbu 
' w«i« rliMtHrfril witb tlie EnflaasM of Mitr- 
I Banifatd, «diI the ([eDeral fooling raqulmd •uiue 
nbal ebangw [n tfa* adniiiiUtnttioo Ntd cnn- 
gf govtnmuBt A KvoluUao in t*rom 
el OMiMttiitlaiu] fcn-cnmoit wm e0eot«d witiioat 

(ISSO), uul th* Idng iofitod to rvturu 

Balon luidiDg hi Poftqn] b* Munn to ob- 
lh« «oiiMlMti(Ni wlifaib btd beott sdopWcL A 
_ >-r»Tii)aliiMi of tbo noblM tai datgj wm rig- 

Mouly iqmMed hy tbo Gortea (Pebnuoy, 181i3]i 
bat tM qoMO, ■ Bp«ii)i*b inlanbt, -who uenaMd gn«t 
IdSmbm onr hsr mb Dam Hifuel, gftloed tha oolo- 
•AofaaTcnlr^in«nta;ikMvnaiotnciBM7tuovemaiit 
waa orgBolMd; KDd tba Corlaa, bclna a*«nxiwnmi], 
iHaaotTwl Itaalf aftsra aolenn urOttM on 2*1 Juue, 
1613. hl«22BndllhwwdIuw)rolEeorFortugkl, 
aA4 procUineil Dcm I'tdro, aon of John VI., «m- 
M«^«. Bar todcpendcinco wa« raoognixad in I82S. 
Jobs Vt dlad lOtb lUnb, 183«, h%>^ iuun«a Um 
Twlbiito Iwballa Macb ranol. Bba govanad in iho 
•ana ti tha EvpoMP of Bm^ Vtm VtAm IV. of 
IVtogaL arbo gmit«d a vonatitutiun with two duun- 
bmn. naimOoi on tba Fraw^ 23(1 April, )S2d. lo 
M»^lw abdicftled in Eavoar td hit daogbtor Muia 
dft Gkri^ Ha iamiaed on ber tba eotiditian of mar- 
rjBig bBT mda bom Miguel, wbu wu IntniBtrnJ 
wilb tba jnfwwnotit a« ragvnt; bat tbo abwilutirt 
|mH7 U Portttjcal >et op Dk claim of Dom Mi^racl 
to aa taHmllod loreratgitt;, and & nrohttioB in bin 
f*«oar, aotwithatanding tha intarvtation of T^ngluid, 
s^BOad Um oo tba thraoa in 1828. In 1331 Dom 
Padro naictwd tba BnEQlw erawn, awl ivtuniiuu 
to Sofepa^ irith tba aid oi EoffUab partfanna, sue- 
adad In ovarthfowing Dam Higual, and raaturins 
lo Maria In 1833. In 1S39 a nooaaaful 
loak place Is faroar of the Kutorotion 
I nmalitntioti of 1620, and in llil2 another in 
bfonroC that of 1843. Maria diad in 185.1 U«r 
hpi b aad Fatdioand of 3aao-CobiB!|[, brotbor of Prinoa 
Albartol Britain, became nceat for her son PodnT. 
Ha ylaocd the got-onmettt on a pnrely oonatitntloiul 
ba^L wUcb waa maintnned br hb aon Padro, who 
dlad la IMl, and bjr Looi* I., wliumcoaeded bio, lod 
nio Ml tm^om. Tba abolition of aunopolk^ tha 
Rmnaot of flnaOMB, tbo formation ef^ raii«aj% 
Iha cadaalnl Kinejr of tbo oountfy, aoa aman^ 
wUcb bava <1btin|Tilihml Ua niipi. 
' ma aboliabed fat 18U; bat aeovdiiic to the 
o< noent travellera tba AMcan coloniM^ 
elbarwim naglMsbMl and 01 admiiUatem^ bnvo diara. 
giiilid lUa rapilation. A cxniiiplnwy fa Eavoar of 
■ fadmtiva npubljo vritb Spain waa diacarered and 
wwaaiil fa 187S. 

PtrlHfuat Lati^MOft aatf liieratmt. — Tke Mtara 
«f Iba bncnafa of andant Lualtaaia la not knowiL 
Voida al Orak, PhmkiMi, Iberian, Cdtic, and 
CMkaifaia* origfa an fonnd fa FoctnEneaa aa fa 
%aai«, iadkating tba nlatiana into whlcD eommaroa 
oTfloaqiwBi hftd bKMfht tba «adj iobaUtanU o( tbo 
'ONBttj. Aaait ban tboaa leml peoaliariliaa tba 
P a ft ig iun a li ona of the BdoaaBoo f&miljr of lan- 
mlannedby tba mnrtioaof tbo Lotin-apuaiLtii); 
> witb tbo fWoufe raoet. Tba Hoorith oocup*- 
baa tnrthw infMod fato il a Sandlfa obneaC 
■ tba eariy king* of Portnpd all doenmaofa wen 
WrittMk fa liatfai jodicLal aontenoGa wora writtan fa 
LaUa tiU a wmpvativoly racent time; U {a atlQ 
saed fa aeoU^ own^ and monmnflital inaoFfplionn. 
It waa Mil/ nodar AJphuaao 111. and Dioojaaa 
(Diaia) that FortugvoM b^an to ba lena^ly naed 
fa dowimati ta. Tba dH awDCW bitWMn 




and S)>ai)iah are ooiDp&rativoiy of tDndom origm, tba 
two latiKUnt^ui Ijeiaj; vary nearly alike in the tim* 
tA Alplitiniio I. ITitwe diff<ir»iic»« nrw rlue partly to 
tliv dilTamut Kphcrva of activity of tbc two poopleiL 
The relationa at Spain were with Knuioit, Italy, 
Aiutria, and Uta Lutr Couittncti; tliuae of tbe Por* 
tiiguoM woro almixt aii'luaivnly nith thi> SciaiilaRl* 
tLunwclvvai or with pouplvn tcmovod frotn European 
fiivillcation. The dlalaot ef Spanish apoken m Por- 
tiigal at tbo bogfanlng of tba BMOurehy, moreow, 
vjui ths Gfaliotan, which waa alao tbat of tha OOtnt 
of Ltuu; liul lUitt court Ral)«M{uentIy adoptad tba 
Cofltilian, which bcotno the doaniDaot lanni&M of 
Spnin, Tho divlinc of the (lalician dialect tn Hp>in 
and thefannaliuunf tbu Portitt^itiao laagn^p through 
tho fafloenoca peculiar bo th« pi^plo finiuly deter- 
mined tbaa^antien of Soaniab waA Portwueacv and 
from omiiatti dialnirta mann them dijitinirt laaguagaa. 
(fariynancli iutrmliiivil by Haniy of Burgundy and 
bin aiilta kIbu coiutitutud an element In tba formation 
of the Portnguosa lanniage, and old Fntnch wonla 
wliicb baro fadlco intodeanotiide amitill tolw fniind 
ill I'ortnifuen. The FreiiL'h t«ruu of Ut-mlilry wonj 
uitrodoead W b7 tlio Xonnuia into Eni^had, luid the 
dorioM of tba oldcat I'ortu^cao familiua aro in 
IWieb. In tnodciB tunea, ^oe tba period of tba 
Frendi revelation, tba Portaguase^ uotwllbatanding 
their Egriatmea to tba a ggwJ via deaigna of Napoleon 
and tbair doao relatiana with &u;Uail, hav« Bbown a 
atniDtf tendency ta imitata the ^encb fa evonrthing, 
and tD* langaagv baa been ccudderably "iHifttd by 
the uitroduotien of FraDeh aiywiduM and grammn- 
ticaJ furnu 

Tlis BiitoeuUi nrnluiy ia tba liliMlinT ^a of Vt»- 
tuga*ao literature, and the Royal AcademyoC Sciunnu 
baa begnn a dictionary in whicb all donUful points 
in rcgud to the languaga an referred to qxiotatuau 
fn>m the writer* of tliat age. Tharo b no datamdaad 
ortbognpby Bxoept that which Uie nilea of prliiten 
have made pnTalent fa printed booka. Boyid ediete 
and other pnblio doouiseirta wet* formerly oH»d aa 
uodala of uuguage, but tn later tlmea they were tar 
tron bifaig diatingnlahed by accuracy. 

TIm Portagoeaa laagoj^ haa by nxen* of colonha- 
tian and emhrtatlen been pretty widely ■[iraaH. It 
la apokan fa Parfagal, the Aaurea, Braail, the Fortn- 
gncae otdoaiea fa An^ Afria^ kbA *'"*^'»t and 
among tha PeitngiuM Jenn acettared ovar Kurop^ 
parwularly fa Hambuig and AmaUr d am. Tika P«s 
to^aaa powoMea tbe riduMM and iiiiiwihiwuw ctf tlko 
dinleuta founded on tho Latin ton^e. It appear* 
to have derived from French tho f naaaA toA (1m 
naaal ayllablea, and it wanta the atrang aapintioaa 
and guttonl aotindt o< the BpanUu It nan tan 
dignity than the Spnniah, bnt la aapnior to it fa 
fldiibOity. In popolor aonga II dimiaja a dalioney 
anil variety uf ei}ireadon whJoh bare made Ilia 
8pani>nla call it Uin Uagoag* *A Boarir*. It mak«a 
ma uao of aui^incutitea BBadimfanlivoa. It ia aofl 
and ■oaorooB u aonnd, bat tbe teo fnoMBt oemr- 
renoe of tba naaal do aomewbat man Hi bamoOT. 
Tba wovda are lyitomatioaUy groqpe d , «tot mD- 
atanttra hnring fa general an adjective, n vm^ imd 
an adtcrb ooffei|iaBdiug to it. I^tiu lona are 

IiraervBl in I'ortnguaee which an fiMiiul in an ntb>? 
iui;;tiai[tt fa £ur(^; but thiae, a* wull na ita other 
Latin elasMBlB. are more ndlBnl^ i^aiwed than 
alaawboiak ao that il la oft«& ertnoMty iWcidt to 
tiaoe tba doriretion oi Partttgaaee wtmfa Medial 
enwawnantu auob aa I aod a, are ln>i|ueatly eappreaaed, 
(lobr baeMnaa iliir; popnlMifaav; pmrrr.prfr (Italian 
porre). I'heilialeastoofPortu^nmililferniily ilighlly 
Iron each otlHir. Tboaa of Minho, At|[Brva, tbe jGore^ 
fa KonfKi^ and of Ooa, Xaoao, Congo^ McamUcpe, 
ami BcMol are fuithaat from the written. Ttwi" 



VOBtSUCiL. 



feral apuken on tlie cnateni aud weatvm coMita oF 
Africa, A* wdl «« in uiinn [uirU oi Inrfiji uiil Ciiylon, 
Hid wbicb Iwnn lut ituiitugy to the iitujMa fraiva 
of the Medlt«rnin«iLn, ms; be regarded u & disleot 
founded ou I'ortii^««^ Mid is omtumng n-nii'ni«- 
oenow of tlw nncleot m&rittma poirer of the iiHipli?. 
Amoniz woikii <ju llio PortugiueM bui(piiH,'u w« may 
niHitiAn Gnunmalica d& Lin^ia Part'ugu«ik por J. 
dttBoTKia (4t(i, Li*)>nn, 1M(I)i, Drigi-mda l.ingnn I*<ir- 
tngiiBZA jjor Ihir. Niuiia d« Lnlo (llo, LUbnn, 1600), 
Vvnti|:iu« lift Llngiin A»1>ica em Portug&l por I'V. 
Joilo de SciixA (RTijdl 4to, I.taboo, 1769), Diccioiuria 
dA l.ini^iii riirtu(,iii^cA yot Mo»M e SUth (twa Tab. 
amkU fuliu, Lialxiu, ItlSl}, IMcDianario d> Lingiia 
PortogDMB d« lidnkrdo Am FkHil quuto cili(ili> 
pro ttM ^M PortuffuiMea ti BnuilLuPM, refiuulitlK, 
coraectK e Bogmentad* por D. Jcwe-Mftrin d'Alin«Lda 
« Aunjo Com* d» L«oeda (two jwiis, 4to, Liabon, 
ISSS-Sd), CriUDtaaticft AjinJyticn do Lini^uii P^rtu- 

Siecn pnr D. Nufl-CK de Iivlo il'lma, I'luiit, IS.'iL), 
uokel DitLiiinnry vS Portu^'uCAC and Eiiglish (ISfjlj. 
l/Urraturf. — The (>l(l«iit monumant* nf I'ortiigiimn 
litwntoro do uol no liaok furtlior liiMi \\25, fniin 
which (Ute tht) tKii>tIcU compoalttoaa of "Egtm MiwIe 
CoeUioAttduf GoDKidMUrrDii^oi. Th«M arawiittm 

in thc! Gsliciati din!ee:t, Thia (Unlrsrt ctonrljr lyuutnliltHl 
tLo Pruii-itviU, aiid Uia Pcvvvu^al tKodn whu wen^ 
noefvfrd at tbc (wnrt of tbo kings of Portugal juirt 
minod Maimilitt-in^ thn rnctugiiCM H wftll M olhrr 
Imi^iugiN of SuutljDnL EurQ[m to their own. Tbe 
PiOT«tQal Utrnvbture In fnct for aoine tlm» ubeorbi^ 
nil tlw otfoiti directed towird* tho cultivntion of tlio 
higher ta\» of writlnc, ftiid Id Portngul, as oluwher^ 
it reliudcd the derclupineut of the nntiio lit«TStura. 
During tho twelfth and tliirtxnnth onntiirinl tho 
Portnpauiu oAtivi- litunitun: cuuld Ixjoat uf nutLiti;^ 
fa<tn tbui « ocrl I (action of populAr songs {'harrai), 
raraibrkablfi for freshnoas nnd vigour. The firat I'or- 
tn^cN ooUeotion of poetry {caiieimtiro) was made 
by Kin g IHonyKinit. It corwiiitod nf a Mlccticn of 
tbn court tavN cmuponed about bin tima by the 
I'urtnu'VKwe, Frovt^u^xl, and Gallciuji liunls. Itie 
maniuuript of tbii odlo'Ctiun, dificovorvd In tbc VaU- 
can bj Ford. Wotf, ban hrra pubtiahnd in fariii and 
LUbcHi (i8l7) luodLT Lbe titla vl CauctoDinro dal Bfv 
Dam Dinii. To |)i<in I'r^lm, munt of |{»iiTi.*Iloii, wm 
of JDioo^iU, ia attributed a Canifii/nciro do Rcnl Ci>I- 
la^ dw NobroL. Hit bolf-brothcn, Alphoiuo IV. 
and AffoiUHt Suicboa, vero Ukeiriao potta. Some of 
th» Portuguese poeta of tlua tlnM wrota in Cantilian, 
and ar« reokonvd amongi Spaniili «rili.-n. Some 
poenu no the doath of bis wife, one of wbiob U in 
Caatilian, are attributed to I't^dro I., Iniahand of Idc* 
de Caatni. Thore ia a!>o a proBtt tbruuitla of Pealro's 
rvlgo by y«mIlo )>opnx, fitun wbJch aro d«riv»d Iho 
oUef puticulaiB of bia vengnwce on the abcttora 
of the murder, tn the fiftMuth century the (Hiiirt 
waa atill lb« cvntro and aciurco of tho national litera- 
ture. ^Iia Kiiia and grandaoiu of John I. wqro pc«ta 
and patronB of the troubwlDuiii. GdlioUo, Caniliao, 
and Provenjol wen atU! cultivated aa well a» the 
oativa langnagw. Garcia de l{«aende, a po«t of auuie 
moritt who Itvvd under Emaauul, hu collcctod io a 
Caodotielro iLisboD, 1&16) th« priaoipal pontical 
worica of thi« a^'c. Boroanlim Ribciru wrute uaa* 
tonklpoana and nunancae in lEnitatioii of the Italians 
and Spanlih. S& da Mhrauda, vrhu iiiicvoedvd him in 
thwwDii; lino, tnarka the traaaltioa from the fifteenth 
to the eixt«cntb cvntiirj and tho acparation of the 
PortagiieM from tJie olbur Spauiob dialect* and from 
the Uaguage of tbc tfoabadouro. I1ib profprtim ia 
abo obMrvabla In tho proae chrouiclM mLob Mconl 
Ibo enrmit hiatwy of the day. 'llie teign of King 
John, the dboovery and conquest of QuhiH, the 
career of Priac* Hsorr, and Uw first voyage of 



Columbus an among tlw nhjeata dadt wlA hj lihl 
cbninicleni. Literature atUl OMitlnaad to bajMCraa- 
Ized by the royal fomllr. King Edward (Baartc) 
wrote a book of morals for tbe a«» of his aoa^ aad 
two wnrkM, I'ho Art of the Caralier and Hw Loyal 
CouQcUIur, ivliii:b liaire been republished in Fraaeafay 
J. J, Roiiii«tt«. There b aln a treatiae on mUHary 
art by AJphann V. The sUtaenth onAm h tim 
rlnasio en of PoftnrpeM Utentora. Pastonu poeby, 
the mo, and the cbivalric romance flootisbea la aa 
oapacud tnannnr. TbeohiDf names are Sk da AUraada, 
Antonio Fcn:ira,Camosni^ Diego Beniards«,A»dradr, 
CaniohoL, and Alrans da Oiteito. Tlidr ceapoi- 
tioDs arc dt«ting^u»bod by eleganoe and variety, bol^ 
tika nthor motlcro piutorala, exhibit ralher a tediaos 
alTeclatltfu of rustidty than a Ufe-Iike i e pr iMe nl a Hnn 
of rural life. Sh da Miranda baa atao written 
••pixtlM, soQUwts, hymiu, and other cnmpceitinu. 
In bin bymns ho fagw uniployed for the 4nt time tbs 
bend(^ca«yllabia verse, which baa bvconw the dtjef 
iitatriuuont of Fortn^rse poetry. The mmeraH 
livmnH, (mIm, otcrgies, atui auuMct* of CwnuOM an 
ti|iially diatiiitfuiabod for elegance, but are namd 
by nuineroiu wnoeils aooordug to the taste of the 
period. The principal opio and the graalc rt peai 
in tbe Portii)ru<^ae literature, aliaoal the only «■• 
whlvb baa aci^ulred a Eumpoao repatatjoo, m O* 
LusLadaa (ThB Fortu^aee> of C^noens^ vUch km 
ptnood its writer io the rank of the few great poM 
uFthe hi|{h«atclaaiwb«eeKeDinsiBniuverM]lyrCMf- 
nicod by tbe whole woHd (See Caitocxa.) Afhr 
CamocDS ss an epio writer ootniw Cortareal, who hsa 
cdebraled the dugo of Xtitt and the ahipwrack <4 
a^iulveda. like Cauiocna he shows biiasclf a ptal 
pidntor of nature. 

Tbe Portuouess rcmanM writers claim to be ths 
orit^inaton w the character of Anadi^ b«l ih* 
ijiiLDtion roroaina ondocided between thcoD nnd the 
Spimiardj. Taaeo de Lotwito, Fhuubco Uonss^ sad 
Ilixnardim Kiheiro are amnns tbe leading rotaance 
writers. Lope* de Caataabeoa baa wrillen a Libsu 
de Caballeria. Tbe drama also bvgan to be enlti- 
vatod in ths sixteenth centary. The Givt a«(«i and 
ruxlic djalogiica wen probably oonpoeed for the tm- 
tivitira of Christmas; a few rude cocqmIm also fit- 
c«4lod tbe classic periiid. S.'tda Miranda atndied aad 
imitated Plaului. Ferrmra, who fullowod his example 
compoied the fttst legnlar tragedy, Ian da Cain, 
only a few years aflar Sofonisha was ptodnesd at 
Itome by Trimino. CaoMana wmla asTatal t hsa tri al 
pit)c«a, among wbicb an Anphltryon and Selescoa 
AittM, fanai, and waudiu eu^rio*! mn far mors 
nnmorous than n$;iilar ptecca. 

Tbo chmuicW in tbe same a^e aspaadiNl into 
history. Tbe or«uU of tbeir own day In wUiA thdr 
country played so large a part afforded aapU nattv 
of inspiration for hittorians aa well as pcMla BaRV^ 
klau a roouuics writw. Is esteemed the Llvj eC Par- 
tnfpnl. Be wrote the Ulstory of tbe Cosqnast of 
Inua In a style at once etcnant, pure^ and anaigalk. 
The Cnmnmittarica of Alpbonao d' AIbiii]uer<]ue, by a 
nephew uf tlie oooc|aerur; the Chnwlt^le «l Kfog 
Manuol and of Piinos John, by Damiaa ds Goss, a 
Portuguese amboaiador; thaBbtocroftho IKacoTerj 
aud (^nquiMt of tbe Indiea^ by Lopia de Cartaaheda; 
the Chronicle of IClng Sebastian, w Disgo Bsraardo 
Ct\u, an all works of great ment. KarmtiaBS of 
voya^ are fcwtir than might have ben ezpeiMd, 
hut (hon> are a fi<w ol great ililensl — A LeMer b» 
the Ktne ri I'nrtngal on the DJsooverv of Braril, In 
Vas de Caminhs, ooiuijonioa of OabnJ; Uie Vovaffm 
of Magellan, narrated by vHne ol Us oonradM : and 
tbo Voyages «f riiito, who vinted dunik Tartar^-, 
Arabia, and othor oonntrML Thfa snrit ii uoe oi 
tbe dasiias of the ^teeuth oentory. 




POETOOAL— PORTULACBiB 



229 



Thm OMsiag d tb« w«entc«iith c«ntary {• rUitln- 
fviibid oy Dm oowd of hniUUrD epica whicb iiatur- 
■Qjr foUinnd Um w cc M i oE thn i.il'UiuL Cjiii-veda At 
GktiMv Mitriiiiiiili— ^ Mtil Brui(Uiti sro Among Uu 
■fhli l lli Witbon of UifW workiv tb« mnt ootioMble 
iHtan of vrhich ii tba nrtJooal p&triotum tboy wd- 
tD dUpky After tba l<Ni al tbe politiokl indA- 
• 0* PortogaL TUi emtury I« *tao di>ilii- 
gvirfwd hj (tmA Mrtcriosl wmpiUtiocia. It wu tbe 
fwlod cf npOM after u epoch of ^nat MtiTitv, soil 
lb* afcaoiplien of tha 'P<Ktagaam aattuDalitj (d the 
novo pomrfiU ■wnarchy of Sfiain ii*Cuntlly tuniod 
tdL ar** to the reoont pmod of its gl^ry- 1™ Mon- 
M^iULu*llaiu<16W-ie90),B«nun]o BriW« Eulofrjr 
of the Kiagi of Portueal, Fwia de Souus Eurcpa 
I'tfti^nwe (16«7>, AaU Portugueu (16«6-76), Africa 
PcetogMU (IMO), Amorica PortugusEft deft ill meaa- 
eeript). th« hiilorioal works of Nomi de fjaio, Manoel 
4e Heller end othete belong to tbi* epoch. Ajatonio 
VUr^ » Jeeutt preecher, ia one of the inmt vignrtiTm 
nroee writen of thb oenUir;. Tbe lettvn of Alco- 
unada are aleo among Its ootaUe prudn<rtloiu. But 
Iha aMiat HbHUihing vriter of all vm tke podrc 
Mac^day who oonpoecd SS43 epic pocm^ besidca 1 1 
odM aad anmeroiM dleeeruiloiu. He wrut« olilefly 
in Latin, SpaoMi, and Itellim. 

The Portugueee draina wu nearty extiiigtilehed 
ihring ttiie oenturj hy the predoinlnjuiac of tlie 
fl p anwh , to wUcb even Portugneae writera ixintri- 
Me^ Coefao ScboUo baa coUectad a number of tbe 
■faor bdifouMiB productioiia of itm lut^A MitM 
artn«nid» do Tarioe BntremeeM (CoimbrB, IRM). 

In the elghtoiDth onntnry the infltience of tbe 
yy— eh writen of tbe apt uf l^oaU XIV. wa txna- 
(iMalydoatiiutAd PortuguoBe lit«Mture that tt became 
■haoii entinlf imtlalink TraulatioDa from uid 
^— "-"-"T of the French fomtod the atajile of iti 
{■ududi la vnrj defArtniaiil, and tb« catltiu that 
n*« Uith la the Lnaind ooDdeeoendod ba oopjr the 
HanriMle and the Lutrln. SchoJanhipfai thb age 
ide giwrter urog T Mi than literalnte. Tbeacadony 
«ilbd the Arcadia wu fnnudtti in 17.17 by Antonio 
Dtatb d» Ctuxa Silva, tlio Purtaxutsa BuilcAu, and 
rther pranoteri nt the revival of leaniLiig, II liocfune 
cnfaiel hi 1779, and waa rndacod to 177d bv tbe 
Bejral Acatdamy omdoHMi of litbon. Towanbtbe 
4Mi of Hub oootury two writera Mpecred who have 
fcnned echool*, Vraitcieeo Uanoel do NsadnMoto 
n7»t-182»), an elegant ^rrirt, and BarboM da 
Bewga, who iattodsoM an affected and hjnerbaUcal 
Myle of writing, which hu been caltod, Tram the 
rfgnatm* Bhnaoo, which ho adopted, SIttanum. 

Is IW nineteenth oeotui? ttu dando adiool baa 
beok f epr a i ta il b^ the (cUowen of Mnaotl do 
Neednenlo^DatnuuoHaximMiMTaiTei^BndliUbdio 
4o Danto*. AmeUnbo de hlaoedo, a foUuwec of 
B a f howi, haa thoogfat good to rceaat tho Lu»Iad 
vmiar Ifaa title of O Orients. Amoflg othor mtKlem 
peela |inniieeiim aome olaim to originftlity may be 
amtimed Koqae^ Carvalho Horein, Hlmubbo de 
AMmiwinjM^ 7 cUdaM de Casttlho, Henofauo de 
CbmUM^ Almehia Gtmt, Joto de LemM^ Antonio 
de Secpn, and Palmeirim. Through the efFurte of 
Ihea and otliata Povtngneae Ulentura hae agahi 
lieffon li> nmine an aapert of natlT* vigour. The 
drnnn haa aba been nvired by J. B. Goimi; Plnenta 
i» Afuiar, Hndea Leal, and A. HentdanOL The 
Nitra Outn oi tho fin4 ie coMldeTed bj the Porta- 
gWH* an their Iwet dmaa. Alexante Heroolano 
■mI JUbaUo da SUta are alas writen of hlatory and 
hbterie mnanoe. Caelello Dranco ia a noveliab 
Ontoi^ among whom Jnerf Eetevfta and Coalho de 
Xag»Dift«i nukjr ba mentionediH* noneroua. 8«ieiioet 
l»im, aod poHtieal aoooony en Ukewiae wdD repra- 
e«ted. 



Art. — Thnprinclpal architawtural mnnnmente which 
Portugal pwieuaue ara duo to the Gotbe and Moon. 
There ars alao numeroas arcbltectorel rtUca of the 
Rotoan dominion, auch aa tbe roins of an amphi- 
theatre at Liabon, Ihonn of a Cnrintbian tcmplo dJedi- 
catod to IXana at Svoia, and a luund tower named 
after SertflriuB. Thecathedrabof CdmbmaDdBnn 
Mid tbo chtirch of Cedofntn at Oporto are dna to 
tbe Goth*. The chAtnanx of Pombat, Fdr% Aleo- 
baQa, fte., wunt palikoc* Inhabited by the Saraoea 
pruieML Tb&M are no native worka of any iinport- 
aoac. Although th« ait hiui ben wi:II iiatronUcd 
Portiigtieae nainten arc law aiul have uarcr formed a 
school. Nauve aculpttue Is ropreeented by a rt«tno 
of Joseph t., tho only work werlh msntioa in thii 
denartmnnt. 

IPORTI'GI'KSE MANOrWAR, tho popuUr 
name of tbe Phytalia utrieul^u, a C<el«nterale or 
ganlam, aomewbat allied to tha Meduaidm (which 
nn:) or alRUy-iiiihiBi, and includRd in thn nnicr I'by- 
•ophoriihe, uf tbu oUa* Hydiveoik The qiskusdi 
oondsU of a Urge ipindle-diaped fnttmato^art m 
'float,' A blnddcr-likc atr u e tu re, containing wftUa tt a 
aecuiid ui:, tli l- pDcamaCocyeb, and by Qteana of which 
tli6Mt f'jriuB lloat buoyaotl.v on the aurtaoe uf the 
aea. Thia float, wUdi ooDmunicata by an i^ortim 
with tbe ontor me^am, nay ntrA«itre 8 or 9 inehea 
in lecijtth, and oonaiata enantially of a modification 
or dUatatloD of the attached eitremity of the ouraoaarc 
or oomnum madinm by wUdi tbe variona parts of 
the orgaaian ate bnnnd logother. On the Iowmt 
suriaca of till* 6aat the polypitea, or a^arato aoSida 
or individuaJa of wbiob this oompound form la wo* 
pueed,arvBituated:aod long eontmctiletaataelaa and 
tifdtn 6T 'hydrticytla' arc alan found attached at 
tliia ^rtiuti. The tlual pcaseaaes a wrinlded u|ipec 
■Ruipn or croet Theae orgnahmts are nbuDdaatly 
Hiipplit^iil with thrvnd-oeDa or rnidm, atinglDg or nrti* 
citing organa with whirJi tlie laasueaof ttlT Owlen* 
t«rota urt pniTided. CI"]- CMJCin.-CT-XIV.. ««. 2-) 

Tho popuW uame uf theee organlfnia haa been 
derived fram tbe taacled RasBLblanot of tbdr fdnn 
to aalltog-ah^ The mtire atractnr* is of gLaan or 
f]«»hy oonaiaCcncy, and tolourvd white, with vtolct 
and purple hue*. Tbe Pbyaalln^ uiixily ulwund in 
warm aad tropical Maa^ and Twt fleeu of theae forma 
nay be seen I'nting on tha aarfaoe of tlie water. 
Tboy an aooietlinea driren aahore on tbe Britiah 
cvnata, /*. ftiagtM bolag tba apadea moat freqnently 
found QD onr iIuhmi Hw sffacta opaa the honaa 
aldn of the stinging pnras of tha thf«ad-oalla df Pbj- 
■alia haee been deacrihedaa being eaoeedfaiglTaeYare 
and pilnfnL The pala at fint axparieneea la mrj 
aavan^ aad its etfaeta nMnUa theas foBairlig nart 
hliateriag or eren an nante laflaiamalery aktaek. 
NnmhttMB of tha affected part, an Inaeaaed lem> 
peratvre, Ulstved surfaoesr and other eyuptome 
follow the ting of a TigisvtiB Fbjaalin. 

POUTULADBJ^ or Pitbsumib, a noturd enter 
of eKogeca, coniistiDg of suconlsnt afantbe or berbs^ 
with Mtemale or ofifiaitt satin Umna, witboot ttt' 
paltM, axillary or tendaal; WMrjnninetrkal flawvn^ 
uanally c^ihemeral aad CxpMtdbg only In brig^lsoil- 
ahlae; calyx cf two oaharenteapsla; fin petala^ aJthsr 
diatiaet or cohering in a short tnbe; etenena hypo- 
grnona or Imgnlaily lasartsd with tbs petals mto 
tbebaaeof the calyx; sevenl mudi-dividM etigmaaL 
and a dehiaoent frait with oomeiaiia aeeda f*ti"''*— * 
to a oential ptseenta. Tbe epeciea ai« found In dry 
parched plaoca. diiefly at the Cape of Good Hops 
and in ISoatb Amcrioa. Only ooe spcda* faslonp ts 
&nropet ^le dfatingniihing featun* of the plania 
an ffuoonlaocT, gay epheiaaal flowvn, bwiptdlty, 
waat of anaU, ana dull gnsa foUagak Ptriidtim 
olavna, or eomnoa pnnlaae, baa been Imown tram 



230 



POKTITMNUS— POaKN. 



time iiniiMiiioriA.1, ojitl xmni lioth gm n f«t-b(irli ntij 
Ib Bsbd, OS Kx»uut of lU cooUap And &iitJ»oorbuUc 
qiulitics. Cl^ijitania Uibrrota, » Slboruui pliuiti hb* 
vdibltt tab«i«. 

P0B.TUMXTJ5, or Vowrown, uncng tb« Kouisiu 
the god of harbotira, th« UXM U tha NfUeerta or 
PaiamoA t£ tbo Urccka. ICo l)*d ft mii^ll trnipli^ on 
tha Tiber, Kod Uio Portumnaiia wort- juarly cL-le- 
bnt«d in Ui lioQour. He Iwra u key ixi bis Land m 
uk omblom of hii ofEco. 

I>t)SKlU<1N, the (ireck Kod ff tbo scft, Mcntiticd 
!■_» tlio Koniiuu with the Tt»IUii dnity Ntjitiinvw. 
He wbs a toD of Kronen aud Bh«u, imd h«iios a 
bnitlier of Zcwt, HmIob, Hwim, HcMix. and Demnsr. 
Hd was rcj^ftrdiid u icferiar in power to Z«ii^ al- 
thuTi(;U iu HuUM' he f* «pvli«a uf » txiuftl in dJjputy. 
Eia qsukI nvidsoce wiu in Ui« deptiu of th» m» ne*r 
JR^, fn Eubo-A, wb<TO tic had * palace, uid kept 
hj« hMT)« with l)r»n,-ii bonfs and j{nlden nuwiou The 
nltrihiit«H awriliiwl and mont of th^ divLLm rvKardiDj; 
luja bow ntfetmoo to mnrino pboootnoua, Thui h« 
(■ ObUmI the outh-bolcicr or rArth^mi^omiiMnAr {ffnU' 
oeAiu), AH tlie ww sarnninda thi: coith, oiul Ui« eortb- 
■hftkcr {ti\i>rir!UhCn), as th« MTtb ia shaken bv tFte 
wavM i>f tbo ova boatiiig on tlia dioni. H« u tbo 
nilw of all othar marinfi ddtica and of all »»<<»^l« 
wlio livtt in the aea^ H« gnlhen clouda, and raiaea 
olomui, and allaya thsm. In aevoral oitUm bo ia 
rep wa apttnl aa c«nt«diiig vith aomo land divinity 
for tbo poaaaaslon of |uullciilar »^\s it land. Tbna 
ha oou tended with Alhcca fur Alitt^A (kv Mixeuta), 
with Hiink for Argoi^ with Hrlin. (th« Sun) f.ir 
Corinth, with Zeua for ^■c<n», «-ith Diiiny»ua fur 
Kazoi, tc All ihaaa «t4>riefl ^ipe&r to hi^ve ai^aon 
from thft obaervation of the tendonc; o£ tbo •«• to 
MCroadi al varioiw plann on the land. The htnae, 
and men imrtivularly the war-horML was Btond to 
Powldoti, and ono oi tbo syniboif of Ua poww. Tbo 
dedication of thi« aiiiinal li> the m^ god waa pntbablj 
tlue to tbo n-Mvinblniica ttbich the Qreoln datoctod 
botwean tbe Rwift irprin^'in^ roDvement of the horoe 
and Iba advaiico of a ukvo, or Iwlwocn tlie curro ot 
a wave about to hrmk nnd thu Rri:b al > Rpirit'^l 
Iiotm'b naek. TLie bune i» laid to baw boco crvatvd 
by PoMidOB in the conteat irlth Athfisa abore 
nfonwl to. It vrns thia goA alao who preaenled to 
P^L-ua, aa the ocuudcm nf nia Dianiasn with Th«tii^ 
th« immnrtal hor«e« Balliu and Xoiil^ua, c«l«brat«d 
in the Iliad aa tbo hotsra of Achillea, The otlier 
WtiU-knawn BjTnbol of hia mwrr '» the trident, nr 
thfee-prunged aceptre. I>uruig (he 'Pnijan war I'ot- 
atdBn w»« tb» oovutant enemy of Tnj.v. The cause 
of thb enmity waa tbo iagratieudo shown him by 
Laoinedoa, the eecond king of 'CVor, and thn buildor 
oC tho walla of the city. It is »s.id tlial liavtn^- quar- 
rolled with '/jeat^ bo n-nx or^mpcllinl iiy the lattor aa 
a punLdmiuut U> juin with Apollo in bvljnn); Laomo- 
dcn to build Troy walls, but ttiAt be first ajjmed vrith 
L.Miioirfhin Ui*t o certiiti reward ahoidd ho given 
them when tha work wna done. An tlio atipolatod 
reward waa aftcrwarda rcfuacd. Po*<^iit.*.n iwnt a aca- 
inonBt«r to raraff*! tbe plaiu arounil Troy, and tliia 
moaator waa on tlio point of devouring; l>aoniedr>n*« 
daughter wbon It wna stun by Hoiciilca. But Poa- 
■idan'e aacer waa not aatiafied with thia pnniabmant, 
and be ever after cheriabed a de«p batted againat 
the Trojana. Jitinm in aome of the oa^a^oiantM 
before lie walla of Troy he ia npreaented aa appear- 
ing among Iho couibatsata oo tbe dde of the GfoalB. 
fn the Odyaaey I'omtidfin ia deecrihoii aa thwarting 
tbe retnrt) of Ulyaaea to hia home, for bin having 
killed Polypbtmos, a aoo that had been bom to tbe 
l{od by the nymph Tbooaa. Poaoidcn waa juuried 
to AtnpbitritE, and by her waa the father of Tri- 
too, Kbode, and UcutbcMcymfl; but be bad nuoMc 



ruuR other oiripHni; by other motbera, dhrlne and 
human. By VomCt^, or Erfnya, b» waa tbt fathor 
of tho taoTM Arion, by Medna of Pegaao^ by Tbee- 
phane of lfa« nun with tbe coUen fleeec^ and hj 
other mothera of Aiit»a% Pidyphemoa, PoBw^ and 
Xolena. Tha wonhip of PeaeidOa waa comnian 
tbronghout OKeoe ana the Greek oolo n ie^ bat eapa- 
cially preralled, aa la natural, in the marititae towM. 
Tbo aolmala aacrifioad to him wan boraae and htSh, 
aomotimca alao wild boan and rama. The lathmiaa 
puata, aarl tbe I'anionia or featiral of all the 
laoiarui, calrbntted otrar Mycale, wore hdd in hla bon- 
aar. In workx of art PomidSn b r ap w —o ted with 
feetorea leaombling thoee of Zona, bat be baa not tbe 
ealm majea^ of the enpreme god, ■J*fc*"f*» ha k 
more powemdly builL When peprewntod ataadiaf 
bo always boan the trident La hia right hand and a 
dolphin in hia left, A common reprcaentatioQ ct Un 
i» an drawn in hi* dumcit orer tha aorfaoe ol tbe aea 
by MjHiocainpa fmoiuiten like honea In froat and 
&baa bchinrh or other fabdooa aoimala: and nA 
nnfreqncnth- hn i* oooompaaled by AnpUtrlU!, Tti- 
tona, N4.Tvidi, dolpbim^ fto. 

roSKN (I'oliah, Aimon). Gkaxd Prr«T or. a 
proviuco (if Pninia, bounded north by Wort Pnuvia, 
east by Poland, aouth by SUeaia, awl wmt by Bran- 
denburg; area, 11,178 aquare tnllea. The anrfoioe {* 
genanJly vflry fiat, and estonaiWyoccapJedbjIakBa 
and mwabea. A anull paction of h beloan la ti» 
bailn of the Vtatnla, wbleh merely tMMfaea ft «n the 
nortb-«Aat; all tbo reat beloaga to tha barfn of the 
( Mbt, which receivea Ita drainage through tbo Warta 
in the south and centre, and tlto Netae in tlio north. 
The soil ia for tbo moat part tS^ht and aondy. aad 
conaiderablo tauA* nra covered with beatb; but tha 
hr greater iiiut of it mther fa, or ia capable ol bring, 
bro^t unant the plaaj^ and many patta of fl are 
ooTend with a rioh allndnm or regetabk Boold, 
yfaldlng oil tbe (ir-liuary fpedea of gmn, millet, tax, 
homp, tobacco, and bopa. Tho paaturee ara eztcn- 
afvo, and feed nnroemna herda of cattle, horsey and 
Bwine; ootuuiU-rable alteDtiun la jiaid bo tbe nailii|^ 
nf ponltry, parti m lor ly go ea o ^ and alao to tbe rnertini 
of Looa Tbe mioerala, not of mveh vmmqamea, 
Inelnde boglron-sre, aattpeta«v Umeatone, aad bnfld- 
ins-«ii»i«. The manitCartinceeonaiitcliieayof woollen 
atiiffa, linen, and Ifuithpr. Tbe trade in tbeae articleii 
and Lu hocaea and iwioe it oonaidGTablo; otlnr O Ap t j rtl 
are cam, oatUev tallow, leather, heoiey, wax, gpam- 
feathers, and h<^'-lard. Tba iabaUlanla incftde a 
oiniddnraliln mlxtiiro of Qermana and Jowi, bat tbe 
trruEil luajurity ore Potca, Poaen being ana ot the 
acqniationa which I'ruaaia made by tbe diamember- 
nient of I'oloncL It u divided Into tbe two eoTen- 
nieoU of Poaoi and Itmmberg, Poaon oocupj^ag the 
north ball, and rabdiridod into dxteen divles (pefb 
1.0(16,873); and Broml^rg (pop, m7.f--ii) oou^iv 
Iho ariiitli half, aubtOviilel iaU> nine drclea. Totu 
piip. (I.Ht^O), 1,70».3»T. Aa part of Poland Poten 
waadiviOodiiitn tha pa latin alea of Pomani^ Gneaaa, 
and Inowraclaw. At the fint partition of Poluxl in 
1773 the diatriet of tbe Netre f^-U to Prruaia, and the 
rfimainder in the MMxmd partition of 1703. Betwe«a 
1S07 and ISl 5 Poeen formed part of tbo GraDd-docliy 
of Waraaw, bnt in tho latter year nrerted to Pn^fc 

POSEN, a fortifi'-d town m Fnwda,eafftal of Iba 
prot'inc^ arul guTiriiniiint of tbe nma name, on tbe 
Warta and Lcwlo, 1 19 niilca east by aoath of Berlin. 
It lies ao Inw at to be exposed to Inundattou^ par- 
ticuliirly from tho Warta^ triueh fioMB throo^ It. 
It i« dofrnded by > caatla aaatad oo a heifth^ and 
three forta; ia built with octiddetabla nntlnrlty, iM 
ia mare Temarkable for Iba nnmber toA tor A» 
aplendonr of ibi pnUio eAfieaa Of tteoa tbe not 
dasMTving of nutii-e are tbe cathedral and tbe Qtanla- 



I 



POSES pLASTiQaEa— posrrrvE philosopuy. 



I 



laim afeoKih, bolli bdonft^K *« the Bmuui CstliolEoi ; 
Ih* eU Jwdt ooUogVt £ptooopal palKc, Rouui 
Citbolitt wiawy, twn gyauuwk (oa* I'mtotttant 
Mid Mko Rmifui CfttlKilic)^ DonnAl wjui oihcr ichoaLL 
S*« ■oa—Uriwi, M*«nl btvpiula uid aiiult«blo 
iartltatloai^ ■ thiatrt, uid (obw olsfaat taantiaia ol 
tlM FtoUih oobfli^, DMtBj of whom mSde htm. Tbe 
■■owftetoiM oooiibb wlaflj o( mathliw^ wooUm 
wid Umq tiMQ*^ ridnli^ ouoo, tttUnft Mitlivwaj, 
imiImii. iMtfaar tod IntUMr irUebii Uoqunwo, 
kA ntreanaboaersraltmirerUiMd durtlUerioa. 
INmhd is Iba ■•• of u ftraUiJifeof)^ Uie midenoa of a 
f oT in dal garvmar. Mid tb* snt K importut cnurbi 
«i nluw* and kppellaiU Ju ri tdirttoa, and nuawruiu 
booBb oAml An ImporCMit fab fa bald ben aa 
MlifawJiMT'i Pay (tbo n»tiri^ of 8t John). Ikwaa 
■k oa« Uiii« ■ montxr cf tile Hantcotio Leaaue. 

FOflES PI^tBTIfJITES. <w TiHi.RArx Vitantb, 
iattatiaM of picturr* in which living pcrwiTia tako 
tb» plaoa of tbcaa dvpictod. A fnniv is madtt of 
■ ag cMQt width and hsicfat, and oorond vitb ganaa, 
hiUwl vkkk tba panona atand In thfEr nmpar attl- 
tadOt olber tnvantad by an artiat for th« occiuunn, 
«v takiaa from «elefar*t«J biaturiual pioluna. Such 
•xbibidoiM ara fwmiitDea prodnoed <m tbo atoKe. 

P(1HII>ONIUS, a Stole pbiloaophar, bora at 
Aparaoa, in Sjri^ firobabl; about 186 Ko. H> 
«adi«d at Atfceoa undar Paanioa of VOtoim, aftv 
«b«ndoathia US kaTlait*d moat of tbAMOStfifla 
bordaiBf m the Moditamiwan, and fiittUy aattlott 
aa a loacbei- at Bhodea, wfaenoa he la emilad the 
Kbodhui, Ho taught tba StoEo pbQoaopliy with 
(raal applaoa^ ma at tha aamo time a atatonntu] 
and <ma ei the Prjtanei^ and went when fiftv Yr.nn 
of aca aa an ambaMadur U> Rutne. 11i« lauat'iiiitiii- 
g ah ted Romaiu w*ra hi* aobolara, anil Clcoro him- 
aaU waa iaiUated by biin into tb« Btoio philcaophj. 
Poridooim niDored t<i finni« in 51 iLr^ ud appaan 
to ban died nc4 Umg atlrr. He wTot« many work* 
wUefa m now loat In bia phyrfcal inreatlsadonH 
ba waa mora a follower of Ariatotle than of the Slok 
achool, the tnembon of which be gnaiij axoeUed id 
tbia ri^oB of Vnawl«df:«. Baka eoUaotod the tntft- 
nwota of Peaidoiiltia'a writioga— Foddonii RoUquis, 
Ac (Lmrden, 1810). 

POSILIPPO. Soe P4C«n.n-M. 

POSITIVE EYE-PIECB, tie form of ey«-Dtooe 
snwall; tned in inienacoMa and tehncopoa. It la 
Will adapted for uaa wBli ndcroiiMtoni ila Eooua 
b«ng etilMde tha conUnatiai of hmata. It ooaaiabi 
«f two plaao-oonvw louts of aqiial boal loagth, the 
«MTis Mm tonsed Inward^ Um diatanoa aaondar 
biiiy two-tUrda of the focal kmcth of aitber. The 
fMBllM^ nf lb* combination b tfarae-Comtha of the 
(oeal Iraftb uf rither. 

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY, or PcsmTiau, waa 
tha naoie made choiee of by Anguata Comle to 
i W i p ia lB the lyaten «f phUoao|diy which he began 
la Mbliah hi 18S0, nndor tha title of Coat* da 
PUnophlo Poaltiva, in a aeriee of TotiimM, wbicli 
waa eon^ctcd in 1S49. In IBW H fimnd iU fint 
KngTiih cxpottnder and tnuxlator Id Mr. O. H. 
Lawai, In the elaa(n( chapter of faia Biographical 
Hktm of PhOcaophy. Sefore that date tt had 
baMi known fn England enly to a few mea of 
■d«»e«^ and bad rauiar been dipped into eren by 
tlMB* fow than thocmBhly ntaalared. Bat la the 
am ti Mr. Laww Umnlf It had gnlned a thocongh 
oaoTwt. He had been an arrleot atudent tt mota- 
phjTttoa or aalolof[7 Man bo tvad ComtK ' I'hilo- 
■ophy,* ba tails oa, in its old aeose as dlstlncuiabed 
Ina the Kiaaoi^ 'had nampad too manjr ft bia 
aJcfcta and day*, and had been tbo object and the 
tuUee of too great a portion of hla tqrs<ne Ufe to 



oiv^t vf itli d!itn-«[-eL-t fn>ui him' In writing Ita blitory, 
or 'that h« sliDuld aver think Hligbtingl^ of It.' 'But 
we nepoct it,' he aildi^fl. Ic miwrk tbo oompletc 
intt^llratual rcvulutiuu wbich Couiti: liuj wrcnigbt 
u^a tliu, 'as a great power that Aw turn, and no 
IcD^or u. It waa tbo unpolae to all early speciula- 
ti'in; it wiu the [lorcDt nf pofliLiTO ncicnod. It noni'- 
iakeil the iiifant miuil uf Lumuiity; ^itve it aliiaoot 
and diroctod it* fkculttM', n«<?iic>d tbn nobler pari of 
man from the dm&inioD of bruti*h itrnorancc; etirreil 
him with inaatiahlo thint ttrr kntiwledga, to alalce 
which he waa oootcnt to undiT^o fciTi*«in[|; toil. Bat 
ita otHoe bna been falfillnl; it ia no longer neneaiary 
to bnmanity, sad should be set salda. Tbe only 
ItiterMt It can ham la n hbluteal IntMwL . . . PUlo- 
sopby ia »n JmpoanEde attempt. It never baa baci 
any oortitudo: uotdt can have any.* It wae the 
Pbilceophie PoMtive whioh had chiefly helped to 
l>rit]f( Mr. Iiowee to these new and somewhat alart- 
line ooncluncina, and It wwi natural that he iboaH 
end hi* work with nome iwcoiint of the new phtlo* 
sophy which had iriven bttn thu advanced sMnd-podnt 
fiom which he had earvcjMl the whoto eourse of 
phil«wi|ihicai nnd Rciftntific thought, from hs earliest 
riae in Gtvmw duwD to the pnxont day. 

HowoTcr roudi we may dlHent from Mr. Lewa^a 
repudiation of all metaphysienl doctrinesL we can 
have no difficulty in aco q i tin g hin aa a bielily <|Ukli> 
fted expounder of th» posIttM pUlosoiihy »hicli be 
has ta enthiudaBtloallf embraced, making, of comae, 
all noccaiaarr allomraoee for the ferir4it cenl of n 
coororL 'Cotoba,' bo tfainkk, 'i> the Bacon of the 
oineleenth century.' Like Bacon lie fully sc«t the 
caaaos of the iatoUoctaal anarchy wfaioh proraik In 
the world nf mind, and alao aces the curOL ' In the 
[ireaent •tateof tbinn tha ^Mculative domain liitxim- 
[waed of two vory dfilsreot portiraSt uuDiriy, genonJ 
philcsophJcalldsMmd positive Bciencas. lie gaunt 
ideas ara powariam becauae thoy are not poeitlva, 
that is, not oortalnly known to be tme; the podtire 
sdenoes are powcslMS hecnnse they are not gsBsraL 
The new pbuosophy, wUel^ nder the titla of ^od- 
tivi!, M. Oomta proposss to oeate, and the baas of 
wliiiib lie haa Umaeu laUt Is destined to pat an and 
to this nnaiehy, by pntsntlng n dooltlna iwiifif; 
bscaass elabonted from the sdcooes, and yet pos- 
aeaain;; all tbe deaired gentridity of met^bvsiaal 
dootriuM, wiUiuut jwaap—tng tlieir vainieoeaa^ rastn- 
bility, and ina^ipUcability. This la a gigantic at- 
tempt for one itiilini^ual . hut it baa been nndcftalnn 
by one pi-«MBiiing the thew* aod «newa of a giant, 
and the r««ull b sstoundlnt;. We have no hedtattom 
in recording onr conviction that tha Coats da Phi^ 
aophie Positive is the ^frrateet wnrk of our ocntary, 
and wiQ form one of the mii/hty lamhnarki in tbe 
blslory of ofdnSca.' 

The fundamental princjpliiof Conte'a wbolesysteo^ 
and that whiofa moat broadlydistingniahait framdl 
othen^ Is 'thai Important law of mental evolnliaa 
evfaidi be has not only (beovated, but sfmBed Ustorl- 
cally. It fnmu tbe knitaae of the arvk' Thii law 
of knowlcflfco or of mind-acttoo for which nothioii 
lees than nalvsnallty bolaimed, an<I whiHi i* allnged 
to exemplify and vnify ttaslf fai tbe whole intvUec- 
tnal hlatoiy of onr raoSi Is nmr lamlliariy rafenad to 
as the law of Tbe Three Stagaa, It may be tins 
■tated in the woida of Mr. Lewes:— 'Bvery bnaoh 
of k»i>wlc<dj,-v 1 a ss es ineeamlvsly through tb«»s a t s ar n. 
iHt. the fspentotaraf cr Ictttloiis; Id. the m t ttfitf- 



•uMJorahstraot:3d,lbsmsif«Beorsdsntl(ic. Tbefint 

t* tbe neoeasaiT point oc depart 

Intelligence; the aeoond b merely n stage A tnoaf- 



' point oc departai« taken by human 



tion from the waywUml to tha poMVa; and Iha 
third is tbe ixnd sad definilo eoaiititNm in wWsb 
knowledge b abas Cnpafab «d picyiaaive dieveb|^ 



2S2 



POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY. 




iDcut In Iho tupemattfot stagw the mjnd scfiks 
oft^r raUMft; axpiien to ktiow tliB rtstnetM of tbinga 
owl their iuchJc* o( uperstiim. It F«),'Bnlc nJl vfTec-u 
u the produDtioBi of nip«nutural aceDta, whose 
iDtcrveDtionbthAeaiiirof aU thoAppftrcst AnoniUir* 
luu) irre^liu-itic*. Nktore ia Miimkted bj kuper- 
hunifui bciu(r«. Every imiisiul pbeuomeDoik la « 
Blgn of the plo&Burc or diapleamn) of lOEae bein^ 
adorcil wi^ jjropitiiitffii n» » '.kid. Thr tovfrst oiniJi- 
Uatiof tbU BtoKDit thftt »f UiHULva^e, luutioly, fi:ti<;b- 
bm. The h[{^e«t condkloD b wacq ou« bolog is 
mbAituCed for many u tbo eauw of all phooomeiut.' 

* In tho mntar>h_v>icAl >tagr. whi^h b otiiy a mndi- 
tiavUim of tho luTMcr, bul wlaiL'h U important an a, 
Uaiialtlcmiil Btngi-, t))(> suprtrnnULral ag^nU giv« plaoo 
to &1)«trmct forces i pencil ifiiid nbrtnctioiu) iiuppoMd 
to inliom in the Muimu ttuliatanoM, and cupftblo 
itieinwlvw of i-iiK^ni^eriuj; ]jlieuoai«uA. The hi);h««t 
uoadUion of thu sUga ia when all these forces are 
hroiisbt iind«r od« gcoeifti forco nnnicd Dntiim. 

'In the na«>tive stage tbe mind, ciyut-iuix.'d uf the 
fatlUty of all inquiry into cauMs vA esaeooas, applies 
itaolf to the obacn-vsitioii and daMlGeatwa o£ Inws 
which regiilato cAeets; that ia to mj', ^ invariable 
ralatioua uf «ucc«>Eiioi) and MiniULudD nbit^h nil LUinK'* 
bav to Mwh >3lh«r. The bigliMt condition of tltis 
■(•(to would be t« be ftbla to njptnent all pbcaotocna 
■a tho various ruuticnlani of ono genenl view.' 

It U not lu W uiiileniUxid, howi-VHr, that because 
sv«rj- branch of linowlwlgfl mnst pajw through th««o 
throe atactisuiobcdieiieo to tb<t lawof evolutioD, tltia 
prefKBS u one strictly ohronabjilcaL 'Some adenoea 
are more rajnd in thoir ovaluUon tbaa othera; soaua 
iniliviiEii.iliipitM through theK(!vi>bitioii>nii>rDciiiicl(ly 
thou others; noalstinutiuiui. TLo prcseut inMllectuu 
uaroby roralti from that dlffurenc*, some BdonoM 
being in Uw positive', >h>iiic in llio niipornnturnl, and 
soma in the metaphysical >tiui;(?; nnd thU is furtbor 
to bo subdivided into ludividunl dlfTereocM^ lor In a 
■cienoo which on the wbulu niiiiy iiitly he admitted 
as bein^' puajtji'e tbare will b« found wjiue cultlvAtors 
still in the raotaphprsical stage. Tlie prosont eondi- 
tioo of science exhibits three methodi hmtcad of one; 
lienoe the anarchy. To remedy the evil aQ differ- 
Moaamuat cvaae; oii« method must prsTalL Angusto 
Conto wu Ui4 first to punt <rat tho fact, and to su^- 
gMt tlie cnre, and it vrill render his name immortaL' 

AnoUiii^r fciLturo uF Comte'tt philosophy which 
Mr. Ijcwn hrincn into pmioinon^'n in hiii clB)ailir^> 
Uon of tbo juitive sdeiioua, wliidi Mr. Lewes oulu- 
gliea as both profound and Euminutu, and aC the 
same time kj aimiiln nnil xtrikiDg, that when oace it 
haa been ■ta.L«l tlii: mind ftwU loina iHffieulty incon- 
'Od^K any oihsr poMibla. llie problem to be sol v«d 
is tho dependence of tho sciences upon each other. 
Tbia depL-ndonco can only iranlt from that of the 
comMpooding: phenomena. The order of their dc- 
pandaiiM is dstenained by tfa« d«gvM of nmpiinti/ 
or gmenliti/ of tbe pbsoionunn. Tho principle, 
Lh«r«fcire, to be ndopb^a is thiJ^ we mmt commence 
with the iituiiy of tbe luoat liuiple or general phano- 
niena, and proceed Buccesdvely to the moat oomploK 
and particular. Fint of all, 'a dtttinction is to be 
made between the two rlssirs «{ tibennmi^na which 
an manifested by tmorga nit td bmtui aii<l by •tnjnn- 
imd hoditt. The pbenoawna of ^s latter are obvi- 
ottdy moi« oomplcx than those of the former; thoy 
greatly depend upon inos;gnnized bodies, while tbeaA 
in no WKy doptnd upon organised IxMiiea, OrsHu- 
ited bodies manifest all the phfloomena of tb* inor- 
ganizcd, whathar chemical or mechanical; btit they 
also manifest the phenomena named rUal, which an 
Dovor manifested by inotvnnind bodinL' Csirj-ing 
tbrangh tUa ptindpla of divtaton and distribntioo 
(ho* coMtgea finrt iho divlaioa of all ph^sin into 



tiro grand departments of hiiugania pkydoa and or- 
ganic. Then ftdluwB the divudoa of in«;^llie |)hy>lcs 
into oateatlol and terrestrial phj«ca; of l ui es fa ial 
phyucs into Bwhanles and dMmiatry; and nvit Vb» 
di%-iaioa of oiguic physlea Into physiology and aod^- 
logy. 'The pc^tive ^oaophy thwefora MaolTtn 
itself Into five fnodaiMntal viguom, of which Um hc* 
ceesion is determined by a mocmrnxj and (nvaiU)i* 
aubonliiiatii >n (oundodon a oomparloaa flf CBfrw^iawi^- 
lag pbeuonieuK. Tbe first (astnxuHDy) onaadeis tbe 
Dinst genoml, iiiaiplti, and abetrmct pliniiiiiiii Its tflil 
farthest reuiuved from humanity; they InflDenoa all 
othen, bnt are not tnlluenoed by tbnn. Til* laM 
t«ociotogy) considora the moat particular — cntnplex, 
and eoacrete plwnoniDna — those mcst directly Inter- 
ortiBg toamn; thoy depend mor« or less up*n all the 
preoedlng eliaae^ vrttfaout eseniaiiig on tlm lattv 
th« alighteet influ^noe. Between IhsM iwDuctnmas 
tbe dogreoa of speciality and of oompUcatloQ of phon e - 
mena gradually increase, according bo their IBMM- 
eivt) dcpiTiidcDcif. Sucb,' adds Mr. L«wea,*b OeaHa'a 
cliuwit] pstioiL rsKluced to its simplcat tcnns; a remarif 
able evidence of the profound and luudnova ioteDwt 
wbioh originated it A striklog proof both of the 
coiTMitDeM of this claaaification and of the trath ef 
bin gtwat law of mnital evolution is seen an the fac^ 
ihat the history of the sdenoee teswhes ua how ibej 
all deTelop«d themselves Into tl» poritjvo stagv, pt*- 
ciaely in their suiccsasivo ardor of dependcacft Al^ 
trcinnmy was tho^AVjt to beconna peaili v, aeciology it 
the liui; between tbeae extreme* have ooaoe tevrea- 
trial phyaies, chemixtiy, and biology in neeaoKn 
dovolopmcnt' 

Tboaa grand gcneraliiatians of Oomte have a 
strong foadnatlou for tlie tcdentUo ndnd by tMr 
immeoH sweepb and by raoacm of tiic Toat msus vS 
fM-ta belonging to acienoc ibielf or to ila hiilni]!, 
which they iiulnde within their scope and ndnce 
into Inminout order of dssaiEcation. But this vast- 
nesa of aweep and a|ip«renl all-dumlaancy of etand' 
point is tbe w«aknm* as mil as the strength el thk 
now phOosophy. When a strict crituwn is mdied 
to this rrttem tt discovcn in It many weac and 
ansound parta, many aCatementn of Cact in tlt« Ua- 
tory of hanum kaowledga whid> are only partially 
true, many oulmiona of facts, which, when faR»^ 
Into Tlew, impoee serioua Umitatiaui and MMTecttam 
upon assertions which at* made in too abaolate a 
fuTUt; and not only ec^hut many jMrvendnnsof facti^ 
Ixfth past and present, which, if oonsiclnrBd and 
Implied In their true meaning, muild ba foond onlte 
irrvconcilabla with the linn of damarcatioa inildk 
('omte laya down in hiir I'liroa 3tap« of Utman 
Knowledge and Thought. Is It not a &ett lor r- 
anplo, that Xfmton oontbiMd to take a thunlngWal 
or supernatural view of the origin and the uotiaaiia 
tinn uf ttie |)hysic»l universe after hi* discovery of 
the law of universal gravitatlou, just as mveb aa he 
had done before hii discovery f Is it not UMMlHr 
fact of tho snmn kind tliat I'ax^'a Ifceelimtal 
thought and oouvictioiu Uiuchiiig the system ef tba 
unirene came after Ids matfasmatloal and ataenlifie 
activity and triumphs — not befem them I And in 
our own lime, long after aBtranomyaiHl all the otiiar 
branches oif tnorgaale phytlca have oonfewcdlv arrivad 
At the paaiUve stage, is it not a significant net that 
so many of our leading physiciita ara so careful tu 
rebut the cfaargc of dogmatic atheism, and that even 
the 'ooamio philuaopliy ' Itself, based though it (s 
on the doctrine of ovotution. has still a iheiUD of ila 
own to show, however much this may difffT from what 
it c'&IU ' autbrapomoq>bic theism f Or to niw its own 
words, ' With rMpwt to the affirmatioD of a sapreow 
puwer upon which man ia dependent, oar onamis 
philosophy is aa much at nno with Chiistknity an 



POSmVE PHILOSOPHY. 



233 



tty la kt uu<- witb uliier reli^^Jem pUlotO- 
bUn.' ' ViiMt ui eni[)tutiic rabuka U this lirt gm* 
llhA to tba oTOt wcai ng MmKdmioe and (loj^niAtiQ 
i W TOgMtoB ot Gomte's bunou* generklijUitiiiii at tUe 

I JwHwrtly by ImmaB uuoco u ita vary bet uid 
' ■!■(« M ID iU *et7 6nt *nd cni^«<t! The 
Dphr at Herbttct Spstraer and John FisLe, butb 
tb» Old W«(ld Bud tbo New, still hotding qd to 
^da tlwalasT of th* fint ttvc of ■eieno«^ ftL^ougb 
Ml^ ofboldinf Ita pUce in tlie frnot liiu of pro- 
I 0«» anoBg Uw fornoDMl {jioaeen of Ituluctire pod- 

hfivaMJUMt 

Bdl viiviBK farther stricliirM of mr cwn, our 
iiinlnff MMB will only allow os to trsM * rapid 
oIUb* oC mm (rilidaai ubich Ui« ■/stem ha* called 

'Cotlh fron a numlMr of oaun«Dt wiitora in ihit 

l# uuttlfy and En America tiaco tha dat« of Mr. 

ll«<n«a 6nt iDtruOuction of Gamtd'a name to the 

] aigBib -wwldiig wnrld. In 1823 ll.-urtKt Mur- 

ptttiKibwl in two voIhium a tnv wul am- 

. tnuktioB «l the Coun da PhlliaopUe Poai- 

I H^Wt awl In tiM ume year Mr. Lnwu gara to the 
rM a much ful]«r uil! mnrn nTiHriiu! K»[in»itini> of 
tta PriAd|>lta vf Couito Uiau be IimI bad ^»£» to 

I fadnda In lui Siogi^Uoa] mrtoty of PliOMopliy. 
2n 18M appeared tbo Uatecbbm of PoaitiiTtt Il«tigi<ML, 
«r a Siuaniary BapowtioD of tbs Unironal Religion, 
in TUrtaeo SyaUntatle CoBTcraadoiu between a 
Vooan and a PrwM otf Humanity: tranalatad fron 
Cento by lUcbord Votigrtn. iIkm thrM publiea- 
I grul] J larflllatod the atody and undentandinff 
of the iHV pbUoaophy and the new rell^on grafted 
apoB it, and diffnaad a knowledge of their prindplca 
aneb mote widely than before; aod ere long the 
combined ayaten called forth an anipls reaction of 
Aaologioal, metapbytkal, and edentUio erltlclem. 

Mr. Herbert 8p«nioer ted the way in 1664 in bli 
f^mpUei, Tbe OuMifiotioti of the SciMiMa. to which 
am added B earn ne for DiMentiiig from the PhJlcHKiphy 

' e< M. Conto. In lUfi Mr. ,^bn Stuart Mill fol- 
lowed wllh«a elaborato andablecritiiiaoof August* 
Conto and PodtinHn in tbe Wcstmuuter Roicar, 
vhleh waa aftenrarda puhllsbed fat a eeparmto form, 
•nd whxli waa of eo much wtnght aa oominc (ran 
«Be e( the chief thinker* of tbe age^ that SI. Uttr^ 

I the locMDft FrcDcfa dinciple of C'ointe, fmnd it 

. BeoeaeaiT to poblnb a reply to it in lija Revne dee 
Senx Hondea of 1S87, wbi«b idao appooted in a 
■aoarato pamphlet. Tbeae eritiiinei of Hpenoer and 

t Mul are all toe more worthy «f notice and (tody, th*t 
both tbaaethinlcOTa had ooone to be currently rm^ed 
a pnMviM* t4 wibatairtlally Ibe •ameacbooiM Cointe 
UbmU. Btttthajrbadnowi«h,itaQwa{ipfarod,tobe 
regarded in that light. WiibmucLinCuailo'awrittn)^ 
to admire and apptttre of, they alao saw tooch to dia- 
lOn and ooodenux. Uuob of what waa true in th<;m 
vaa not new, and » p*M deal of what waa new in 
than waa not tnao. * Qaniidered apart fnm the que*- 
tion t4 ite truth,' ICr. 6|wnoer oleerved, ' bb ayatsm 
of poalUre phlloeofiby u a vast aahfaremeaL But 
. . . IhnereDUUDelbe inquiry, HaaheBuoceedodT A 
thinker who fear;gkniKa the ociantiiio method nnil 
'ledce eC hla agti, and whoee norganlxatlun u 

\ MM ptod Dy hii wwwwow. may ri^tly be Mid to have 
noa—aw U* tit ^acipleii But noctteors who 
llbeawlbadandknuwled^of hia^cceuntiabia 
leotgininlkin are eertahtlj not bb di*cij>!ee. How 
tfMnataad>tlMGaeBwithM,Coaitel Then) an msa 
f(!w who teooive hii doetilnea with bnt tittle reaer- 
tatirna; tbct« u* other* who regard wilb a|i|>roval 
«sriain of hie leading dootrinee. but not the rcat; 

' tbenwemaydiMingnlihuikartial adhersntL There 

■ OmHbm at Cttf to rhllnopbr. It Jobo Fhkai, ft uni wl y 
iMttw ea pUloDph/ at Banaol Vnittnttf CtSTfX 



are othera who reject all hia cliitinctire doctrince, 
and tiieaa mast be obwaed as hi* anlatpol'te. Do- 
cUntnjr hia reoisanlsatlmi of adeutidc doctrine, thaiy 
puaaoM th£* adeutillo doctnno in its prccnrtingetaM 
aa the oodudmi horitBge beaueaLhod by the past to 
the present, and their adhceiun to this sdentlflo doo- 
trine in no sense ImpUoatea thorn with M. Comt« 
In thia class itond the groal bwly of mm of scienoe, 
■uid in this clam I stand mjaalf.' Mr. Mill's cHtiqoe 
b equally dborindnating. He draws a broad line of 
denaroatton between Camto's earlier and later workt^ 
in the furmor of whi>cb be finds ni»ch to apprvire, in 
tbo Uttor vary little — so tittle tliid be rcganb auuiy 
of the speculations which tbey motain ae quito 
unworthy of t^ genhis diephiyed in the cailisr 
writings. He would fun cover them with a veil, 
theyaivsoabsiirilaDd ridifulouii- 9IiiK<ilari,v eiiuiiKh. 
however, Mr. Mill ban a good deul to say in favtiur 
or at leacA in >{iology of what must seem to ouMrt 
ittmt the incnt aVuiinl &»d ndiciilaos of all Corote'a 
crGntiaas,hisiuwreligtDD — what beoalls therdlglou 
of hnmuilty, du ci^hs of coUeotJva hunnnity ^olnn 
of as the ifrand Etrt. And these paessgei of tho 
cridqae have a double nenifieancn new, when laid 
^de l>y side with suiue otber paas^ee contained in 
hb three poethumoua Eauys on Reli^n, from whiuli 
it would almost appear aa if mill had heRnme a iti> 
eipJs of thU nvw religion iiimarlf, or at hant hail 
beecme iucliucd Ui pregnosticat^ ihM tlw uomhip of 
humanity might one day mperecde in the world the 
wonbip of Chriitt and of Ucd. 

Other eriticiinu have followed on botfa ddes of the 
Atlaotto down to the present date. In bta L«y 
SermoBS (p. 19i) PrDfeaaor Hnsley eip rsasc s himacU 
very dbparagingly of that portinn of the l^mra, ft«, 
of wlnah he b beat able Ui jud^p!. ' I f-uiuid the 
veins of ore few and far batwMo. aod tho rock so 
opt to ran to mud, that one incurred the rbk of baag 
inteliectoally etDothsnid in tiko workint;. . . , lliat 
part of Comto'a writioEo wbkb denb with the pUkh 
sophy of physical science s[)pean.'d to ma to poMMi 
Hiugitlarly little value^ and to show that be hvl but 
thn most snporfieaal and merely aeoond-hand know* 
Mfft of most tennohee of what b usually undentood 
fey Boieocei I do not mean by thb narely tfiat 
CiMDte wse behind our preant IcnowledM^or that he 
waa unaoqnainUd with tbe delaiU of the edcnoe of 
hb own day. No one ouuld justly make audi dvfepta 
cause of ramplalnt in a pmlaaopbical wtltar of the 
paat eonenUion. AVhat etrodc me was hb want of 
appruiemion of Uie great ftiatunn of aaenoe. hb 
itnugtt mhtokee a* to the marite «{ hb ntnllAa 
oontomponries, and hblodicrDnalyeTfoneoasnotiau 
about tbe part which some c4 t)i« adentifio doctrine* 
current in hi* time were dwlined to play in the 
future^' 

In hb Lertuiea on Ohriatianity and Peativitni 
(1ST1). Dr. M't'otbof Piincston College hM before 
bliD all tlicM Btricturea of Spenets', Mill, and Uujdey 
when he remarks that ' the wocld will soon be fai a 
noaitioti fah4y to estiniato 91. Comto, who baa Utaa 
been undereetunated and aa uf ten ovsscatimatod. At 
Amt Uctle apprcdat*d by the man etsa of tbntken, 
he Bcvurvd at an early stage tbs admiration of a 
sdeA few, wim dboenied ^ vigonr of hb lateUaa^ 
and saw the p«rtial truth wbbb Ua sjiannt nmilaliMil 
or who wei« anbdued by hb dogmatic snlrft and 
power of sfeortioa. Tltese men spoke n him in 
euggsnted lenns, and eompand lifan to Baeoa and 
to LcibnitK. Ilia direct inftumee has all alotig bean 
wry small, bning ooafinnl to thoao wlio had tbe 
eontnge (o r«nd tbrougb hb Moderooa nhuDSK Bal 
hb indli«it fatHaenoe, throogfa euliuat nun wko fol- 
lowed lua method and eai^t hb spirit has basn 
very great. However, lbs Lime ol ruactioa *gaJ"* 



234 



POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY— POSTE-RESTAMTB. 



hint asd hucxclaBint nrrtoQaioiu seoma to have C4ine. 
Tleae criticnnna of Mill, Aiwnrcr, tuid Hnxlsj »hovf 
that hia day t« fart •lecUiiIii);.' The UUat oritu|ua 
of Comto'a evBtcui which Las nppe&red la th« moat 
sltbor&te tna cxh>tiKtivn nf nil. It i* thnt mppliM 
m Mr, Fiake'a Outlinen of L'uniuiE: Pbilii*)iiUy, iHued 
on the Doctrb* of EvoliitiViu, with Critlylauw tiu tho 
Podlivo Philosophy. Thia work, oa iU (•rcfAco cx- 
plains, ' is IioiMiI upon InctnrM given at il.irvanl L'ni- 
vareity in IStlH wmI 1871, whidi weio dtBiKui-d to 
tnolud* only a criticism of Hm IVmIiIvu i'hilr«o[>hy.* 
La its nrvKiit much dc^obpcd form it« criciciam of 
poriUrun biu lico'imu Aul)nniinat« tr- tlmeipmiition 
ud ajatenatic prvaeiit»liun i»t L-oauiuiu — wlili:h In a 
naw naitia fnr ftlr. Herlwrt .Spcngcwr's phi!o«i>ph>', 
'baaed od Uie doctriiui vf evuhitiuu;' uia aii vuv of 
the objACia of the work m^ver lost ajj^ht of fa to 
diacriiunat^ canrfullj ajid i*xliAii8tlvif)<r, betw««n 
OMBiMiPi and poritintm — which the popuJur tcind ia 
npt to t'onfound irith each other, an mihitantially If 
not (oniiallj identical — Ibf author hoa been olili^-cJ 
to exhibit the dttforattcva lietWMn thit a|>«cilio pnri- 
tlvism of Comteand the gouuHu pomtivinn which Lc 
bolda in oomauD with all tba chief profeeson at 
phTsic*! aci«aoe, la it more «xhauative aod elaborate 
way than haa m-nt Iteaa aimed al baton, mm hy 
Mr. Siwnt'er biiDiK:ir. 'lluraoh the nal work uf 
demolikbias the undue |)TeteDakiD8 of poaldviBin bad 
alrtMdy been iir«'tl acmmpUabed by Mr. SMmcer, moat 
of wLmq ar^imatita arv hvpe raprodnova, It axnciid 
to me thai inuch ituj;bt atiU be done towiinl dearlTig 
up the dlrs confuiloQ with which in the poptdAr min-l 
Ihifl iubjcct ia aurToutidcd, and thia T r«alized thi' 
more keenly a« It waa mima Limo befuri; I had auo 
owded In gctdns «kiir of tbo ooiifualoiL myaeU. 
Aooordia^ly, on orcry proper occosJon tbo oinnions 
oharactciikUc of thn ixunliri! philrwopHy areoiU-dniKl 
critli:be(l, anil on erery uccaBliui Uiey art) pruved la 
be uLi^trly imcoiuilUble witli the opinions cbarmc- 
himtic (if Mr. Spcnocr'a philoaophy, and adopted In 
thia work. Ilia extravagant cI^jd of podtiviam to 
stand for the whola of attainable KientiQc pbdovopliy 
h, I bniat, finally db>]in*«(l nf, when it ia aoown that 
a lyateui of philuwijiliy has b*N:ii cxiiutmutcd out lA 
pumly ariimUCic malAiials, and by the «inp!oyni''nt 
i>r wcWntific methods which oj^Kvea m dirwt neuatirv 
to every aaa of the theorama of wMdi poelttvkiu in 
ludciap.' 

Aaaunnnxthe validity of the diirtinctiona tbiia fully 
pdiutecl wl by Mr. FfiM,m aurt oeue U> cvufouud 
the podtiv-iam of Comt« «tth the plLeaotncnaliam ft 
Bpeitcer, Mill, liain, and many eithor writers. In 
a wurk ao receait na Dr. M '('(lalj'ii, qeotnd above, 
tb«8a three nainos, nod th4»e of G rote^ llewei^ Buoklt^, 
and rmfi—iM Baxlay we all grooMd with Comte'a 
own aa * repTfiteutaiUvea of pmdtirinn;' and Mr. 
Iplake aduiiU llmt tliere are really platuiblo reaaonn 
why tho positive phSloaophy ahonid currently bo jv- 
ipuded aa n|v«acDtative of that whole geaca of 
contemporary thinking which repudiates the au)>- 
jedive mcthiid.' He ref <n alao to the faot thai Mr. 
LewM, Ul the lateat «ditioa «f hit Blocn^iUeal Eia- 
torjr, Ao^ atill iniunttiu that tho agrcomont between 
Uoniie and Spencer ia an agreement in fwndamentala, 
while tlie difremooeB between tlieui are non-eaaentlnl 
diffOTOnoea; and *I am not iucnpabk.' ho adds, 'of 
onderMaaiUn; aad i^mnatliiun;; with tbia tendency, 
ler dnrinf eleven yoara I oipunaed the aame Dlanaible 
error, and called nindf a poeitlvU (tfaoua^ I wan 
never a folluwer ol Conte) in the aame Drtatb in 
which I defended doctrlnea that are utterly Inoom- 
patible with potdttviam in any legitimato aanaa oC the 
word.' 

Comt«, however, haa atill iliadplw and admirar* In 
GteatBfitaia equally faithfol with Mr. ].«waa,tbougb 




inndi lam distbniiahed. The tMembig are aoma si 
the labcaA publlaatidna prooeediBg btna thia nry 
limited eohool:— An Outline of the PtaaiUve Beligicn 
of Hnmanity of A. Conto, by F. A. Barton OMT); A 
Ccnrral Vinwof PoattfriamibY A.C.,tnadat«dbyI>r. 
J. H. lirtclKM(I567); TbeUDttyof Comta'aUfeiOi) 
IXH.tT;iie, a Reply toJ.S. Mill, byDr.BridBBe:8ya- 
torn of I'oeitiro Polity, by Aag. Conte, tiwulalwl 
by Dr. !tridpi« <IB75}, TnL L eootafldu tbeG«Mnl 
Vieur ai PcMlliviam and Introdaciiwy randplea. 

If the uuQiher (if (*i>iiit«'a philueopbical diaciplca 
in Kngland ia aniall, the number <i>f tboao who ai» 
prufcaaed devotet^ t^ hia ' Religion of Iltmuudty' we 
ahunld hnarine Is still amaller. Still aa lone ago aa 
1S59 and 1860 there waa at lenct ana tiny ooomga- 
tion profosrin^ tiie new humanitariaa fi^h at Sontb 
I'^dda, WandawoTth; for we have aeeo in iboBcilMi 
Muaeum two eenuona preached Umtb by Richard 
CongTOTe, on the annlvanaiy in cauh of thoee years 
of tho Urth of Aug. (^omte. The dtlea of the ear 
moo* are, ■ Tlie Kaw Jlcllgion In ila Attitude (owarda 
the 01<V and "The Piopagatiaa of the Bdigltm of 
llainauily.' Allunon ia lude in theae eeaiUonB l> 
nthvr ooaer^ationa of the aame faith and ritual in 
I'Bria,wid Long Ialaad,Xew York; but all the las- 
guage uaed in refetwnce to the ooncUtian of the new 
vulto implioe that it had aa yet made extremely little 
wnv in a world too much oddletad to go in the old 
patha. ' I raaJ, nlher than apeelc to JOQ,' began 
Mr. CongTOTO on Wednwday. 19th Moaea Tl pWh 
.Tannary,1859J, 'uonramaUniimbexmalceeapoakiu 
diffimlt. ... 1 do not epeok to you aa a piieet m 
Lumaiuty; my ago is « bar to that. . . . Where 
tbvre are dladpl«e or m«mbe«K, then, however liatiled 
their number, ia a chui^ We have a faith, the eot- 
linos of a ritual, and ntfBdant nnmbon.' lite peou' 
liar deujnution,weinarnd4of the IMh of Janaacy, 
1819, used bv Mr. Coi^ve, ia tokeM bom Comle^ 
very cnrioiu OalDndrier Pcdtlriale, on 871^00 gdM> 
rale da f 'ommtfinoratian pnblique dn Onlle qraUna- 
liqu* do rHumaiiitd (Tarla, 18«)— 

'1/aiuvui ponT ptindpe— I'erdie |iaar Immv 
Kt I* ptofttm pool but,* 

Thia atian)^ calendar of thonowreligioaof hanaoftt 
lias thirteen months in each year, instead of the olct- 
fashioned oninber, and It Bras a place for aO the 
celebritlea of hlatoiT, d •WT ag« and conntjy, wlu^ 
in Comte's univeraalialic jnogmeat^ have any cla&n 
ioany wartohavir li«m the boiefactora of humanity. 

POSSE COMITATUS, in law, the power of the 
county or Che dtUena trbo ore emnnnmod to oarict 
an officer in anppnssiD^ a riot or eneaitinff any legal 
pTocen: the wvnd evaUaliui la often ctmlbn, aad 
/Mwe alone naed !n the same aesee. 

POSSESSED. See Duioxuc. 

P<1ST-0APTAIN". Se«C*ITArs. 

I'oSTK-ltKfiTANTE. A letter ao addiwaed it 
not Iiii«ud<.^1 to bu delivered at the reoUesoe of the 
peraoQ to whom it is addreoMd; but to b* lift at the 
wflica till called for by the prcner penoo, who ia 
oxpDcted to give eome proof uf bu MentEty, eitbvr iu 
the form of a paaapori, or is some ether way. At 
the poate rcstanto b London, a peraon calling for a 
letter ia not only required to giveancb proof, tat alao 
to state from what plooee he expeele lettere. TUa 
mode of addrvaelsg lotten i« (taquantly rtMrted lo 
in the caM of toniieta and otbora hailag an fxad 
place of raddenoa. Letters ao addramed to oae hnm 
OB the Continent, If not eoUod for there wlUin a 
oertoln Une an aaot te rotation to wvonU of tfae 
other lowna hennented ^ toatiata, and if net uaUcd 
for at any of them are returned to the wrila. tn 
thia country letters addreewd pcaf rtttanu are kept 
oao monllt, and than retuneo. In the pnvtnoal 



( 



I 
I 



noai ■ 



POSTKEN— POST-OFFICE. 




towna tiF tlui irnitwl KinKiIoRi no onn hating ^ Rxr^i 
twM>»n» ia »Uow«<l to utq bis lirtten Mldrewed 
mami I iHiiBfi to tht pott-tow* to wUcfa Ua nridooos 
Iwhli, and wkMa aiKh lotton ■«> nouTod tho offi- 
MJb •!• favbvetad to lUiver tboni. 

POSTEBH, Btan froqumlly «alled » «af/jr fiorl, 
la » laU (ftto gmmily tuM ta tlu uigla of tlw 
ttak tt m baation, or in tlutt of ti>» cartoin, or now 
> orillan, dawiwidiM ialo tbo (Ulcb, by wbicb the 
, amy aunA u tad out itDperodved by the 
f, to f«U«T« lb» woffca, males ioIUm, &e. 

!'IN(i, tnvelliBgbrmcftmof horanhircft At 
■l^iuma on tbv line of jauraey. Sucli a 
I mpp«a» to hara beau «aUbIlatiecI by pHmW 
I oo aeiM «f the main rontca in Englwid, at 
'am Mrljaa tli« nignof Edward II. It wm 
~ I an^ K govcnunarat monopoly. Am l«Uen 
vwa origiBally forvardad io tbt aamo aaaanor, the 
HOW of poat^fBoo baa eama to bo applied to tbo 
iaaliliiKiai eharginf itaelf with tlie oonvoyance and 
(Uinriag of l«U«n. 

FOOT MOIITEM ('afhir death'), a lAtin t«rm 
oaad aa In the phiaae jata* moHm axaminntioti, an 
taapectfoa BukI* of * de*d body by ntodii^al lam iu 
«rav to aatartain the eaxnm «f de>UL 

POST-NUPTIAL CONTRACTS, b Scotch law, 
«a contrarta OBbirad tntd oftor tnarrfa^ betwMn 
tka buf^'"'! and wit», tuually witli tbo view uf pnv 
lUbg for tbtt wife and cbildmn. 1'ho gaunrxl i^le 
hr wlieh aoofa oootmeta nuat bo conatnud, b that 
aflav ■ania^ tbo wifa and chlldraa eftB taka Bothtnc 
in «onpatittcin with tho crcditora of tbo buabanA 
Vet aucfa & oootract will ba bold to be vnlid eiva 
agalaat Ihom, pcvvUIed tfani it wita utade whilu Uia 
nabaod waa aolvcoti and tlie mm allotted to tbo 
tnta or childmi by vay <4 pmviKinn l* not o«ccwriv« 
h WBOBot; and ervn when it waa mvla after tbo 
CBnInMtlnH ot debt by Ifae huaband, it wQl bo odd- 
Mini valid to Uta extent of a nu>d«ate aliawat for 
ttv wff^ but Dot for lh« cblldMn. Ia AflUi Uw, 
a oonlraet of thb oitaiv ii callod a poM-snptfal avt- 
tlBDaat, and b ralld imloM let aaide by the ctatntm 
agriiat frauduIoDt «oiiT«yaoooi 13 EUl cap. v., uiai1« 
pwpetnal by 39 Slia. np. *-iaad 27 £lix. cap. it. 
c i, na4a nrpstval by S9 Biz. cap. xviiL, which 
daehn tom any eonTannee made with latent to 
d«traad o«ditota or ewer* of tlitlr ftctiona, ntlta, 
d«bta; aaooanti^ 6x., or to dvfnitid and d«c«ivs any 
yaoH^bodlMpcdttfooccorponto, wboaboU purchaao 
Iba «biaoli eeovayed. 

POST-OBIT tU>NT>. » mod* of contnctlng bvu*, 
often laaorled to by hvin and otbem wlio expect n 
aa w B— i B B to open to tbeui on tba death ofaana third 
■at^. Tfaa ecoditioo In tha btad la, that the mm 
liORmrad eliall not booxigiUa till thai pai^i death; 
and beooe^aot anlyinoanaeqaMMonf tnennoerlainty 
of tba •vant, but alao eomraiiMS In ooaaequeiMK «f 
tfaa mmrtainty of tba aoriwfnn Haalf, which nay 
be ooatiasoDt, and porbapa tmver be realised, tfaa 
oradtoor OMiaUy makw very exceUtaat terma. Uany 
•■■1 hvn flcarad in the conrta of law In whleh ths 
a«B adnneed waa not a tonth of thai atipolated to 
be repaid. 

POST-OFFICE, one of the nuet efferUve Inatni- 
manla of drilization, to be naked with tbo ait of 
prlaliag and tbo iDarincr'a ooiDpum. TIm name of 
Htf b «Id to be derived from tlw I^tin aoathi^ 
Qbead), beeanaa boraee were put at oertiin dbtaneea 
ta ti— wwrt lettan or tr*T«Il«ni We find A» finl 
rteordea poatal eyatom in tbo PoniMi KmpiM^. 
Aoeording to Xenoplioa Cyrua the Blier Dwunl 
ooarien^ witb aaJ db d boraee; to stand ready at dU- 
lenal atatlona ihrDvcboot Uw empire, dtoatad ooa 
day*! Joanwy fma aach other, la order to reeelre 
npurU from the pneinoee vritbout delay. In tba 



timRtif JuIiiB <*D-aar tbn eenrice of cmirien in the 
paitaof the Roeuiui domiuiuna onder hi* |fuvenim«Dt 
waa ao wall oi^nircd that of two iHton whick ha 
WToto fioiD IlriLw'n to I'lcoro at llomis tba one 
mscbfld iia deaUnation in Iwinty-rii, and the atber in 
twenty ■ eight dayi. Suchaervl«a,bowever, were only 
esUbUdted by eoTammanta or paiaBoa in autbori^ 
for their own uao. Private penooa, fa tbeir Int«r- 
cotine with one another, bad to employ alavee to 
convey ttivlr U-tt«ra to tbdr deatinatiaD, or to trwt 
to tha chance of finding aomc person who waa eoln^ 
to the pl«f« to «bi<;b Ibe l«tl«r wm addrvMC^ and 
wAi willing to undt-rtake the dutlvury of it. Uenoc 
we moet vilh fn'<]»<.-iit roTnpIiuntii in tbo latteni 
which ha.v« oomo dnnn to mt iivui ancient tlme^ of 
the long dt^Iaya in trknamiation. The emperor Dio- 
oletian, at th« end <)l the third oeatory, appears to 
ban boeo tba fiiat to aatabliah a poatu isfrtem for 
the benoSt of prirato penon*, bnt wo cannot tdl 
how long tfaia eyatcm retnained in o|jecati(iii. At 
liiter datoe Thaodoric the Un^nt, Charlomafrne, and 
otbon who p u e uu e mJ for a nborter or lonyvr time 
i>.xt<!nMVe dominion^ had vell-flrganited aornMa for 
roiuciiuiiioaliua with all parte of their empire, but It 
[« uidy at a oomparatively tato period that w« find 
the be^iaaine of iLr modem poatal sy>Um intended 
for the nae cC the whole Mmrannity. 

The fin4 tntcvB u( a poetnl ityttvui in ED(,'lAud a» 
obeerTod In tbo atatntoi of Edwd III.; yet tito 
nippaeition w not well founded that from thJirt time 
the port waa eatablbdmd aa a pnUIo Inatitothm. Ed- 
ward rV. placed poat-houaea at intarvab of 20 milea; 
nnd in the north n military pott waa eatabliihed, to 
oummunictUa a« qnicUy aa pomlblo wHth tbo anay 
during tba Sootllah war. Thia InstUutloD waa, In- 
deed, autboriacd by the rcicuing king : but it waa 
probably owing to tbo Idn^ bratber Itti.-bar\l, who 
oomnua^ tlio array. At what time nnd ondar 
what oondittona the public were able to arail thon- 
aalvea ot It w« have no oartaln knowladga. That 
thb poit, aeTortltelGn, waa for a long tiraa vary 
limttf^l, nnd but partially lurd, b obrioDi from the 
fot-t tbjit, not long LefuTB the rctgn ot Cbariea I., 
mercbanta, tradeetnen, and pinfeiwional men in the 
whole kiiigdom reeortod to Mi aemiu mean of ma- 
Teyaane, or employed eiprem moMagera, at graal 
expense, to cany their cnrreapoodenoe. The Ui^ 
verutiea and ntinapal diiea had their own rneta^ 
nnaoagen who poifcnaod long Jouraeyi^ riding or 
walking, and retimed with the anawera to tlw) 
lettora. Tn Ihia manner the poet waa ocodueted In 
Scotland till a Rinrh later period. In 1343 a poet 
•xiated by which lettcm wtn eairtod from London 
to EdinbiiTgh vtthin (our daya; bnt thb rate ef 
Innaportotion, extraordinarily rapid for that period, 
lantoil but a elKirt time. After Camdsa, who waa 
much smf>loycd by EUmbeth in her Seottlah aflaba, 
Thomas Kaodolpb (In 1681) held thfl plaee of poat- 
naatar-gemoral of EBgland. Jamea L aet on <aoC| 
under ue aaiMcinlcodeQoe of Mattiiaw da QnaateT. 
a syrtem fcr f orwanUag letlen latanHad for foivigD 
lan'da. Hitherto thia had been dona by privato per- 
Bona. 1'be foreign marehaola aettled is London 
prewrved lung after the pririlairM beloogcliv to the 
pUee of pwtomaUr (or foreign bttattb In lOS 
Ckariaa I., by a proelamation, forbade letten to bo 
aeal ont of tbo Iclngdotn except lliroagh the po^ 
oAoai la IttSJI be eotahlUMd a ayatan of poeto for 
En^Bod wd Soothod, whldi waa ocmduitad aeeord- 
ing to Bewaad JadleionB rcnlatloaiii All ptirato 
ai^ looal p«b were ahoMabed, and the ineocoeaf Ibe 
poat-oOeaa waa olaiaad by the king. Thb InatitB- 
tioB wan aadm- tba direction of Thomaa Withcilaga, 
who waa remorad la IMO, on aaooaat ot antocitiua 
abuaea. To hfan aoooeeded PfaQlp Boriamachy, who 



236 



POST-OFFICE. 



WM ondor thn imniKliAta f^nntml «f tho MMrmtuy of 
■bite. T^«M) uTuisiPiueiuU HuITc^red duriu}' tlio oivil 
tvan muiy impoTt&ut intcmiptld&B, or were almvft 
entirclj i^nnihOiU^ Yrt n-ti iiivinPT wu |iuMic tnui- 
qaillity miUircd than a cuuimiuiDa wit* appoiutcd, 
ttod » postal lyaUm kmuig«d, UDiI«r til* dirwUint of 
th« attonujr-gtDoral, Edjnunil I'ridcanx, which bo- 
CMne ao nrmtable tlut thn potta l'wi1<I luiw ba Iwued 
fnr £10,000, wbOe Ixforo lh« nwpott of tlieu had 
coat ^400. Th« lena* attll niM* to Lug* proflta 
th&t ih« eommoa oaund] of London looked npoa lutn 
with jealons ctml. In ICd3 « penny port WM net 
ii[] in ttM melropotia. During the goTeniBaont of 
Willum III. neta of Pftrliaiuont wurv puaoil which 
KifaLiMwl tho Imtetual iwatul « ynteni uf Sct^tluid ; ami. 
bf tlw ninth net o( l^uora Anno, tbo pcstAl nystom of 
EnglMid WM MTuigal <in an imi>n>vi;(] fihutm^, fn 
which, with vuioui modlGtsatiuna irom timv to time, 
indMcI, it contlnned tUI the ntdkal cbnn(e of our 
own (i«y, for which w« kre munly indebted to the 
whniniblB sicKcity *nci poncvering l«baii» of Mr. 
(nft«rwMiilc Sir) RowUnil Kill. That ((ent1«man gave 
dM fttBt iotinmiioD U h'n -plaD In n jminplikt la tho 
janrl837. Thcrcw^inc* th<ir«inIiuddawn,Miidtbe 
iMCbt and. figurm mIiIucm, were aU convbiciu^' to the 
thinking portion uf tti« Britlib public. Iln jiUialy 
abowed, on general princi|>1c, thnt our ucNt>oflioe 
nyatem wu nt once cMttly uid inclIiL-lent ; Uutt It hod 
fallon, jnutty fniiu tlia abuwa of fnnbing privilcj^ 
(aaa Fa.v.<iKiN'o LEiritiu) and partly ttom impolitic 
char^ on t-ayable latten^ into a itate of decrepl- 
tnde; tlint tbe outlay, for tixa oouvenicnca it gavo to 
the iaditiJual auliject, waa cnonominly gf^i^t, wliito 
the njtuma to tha stata wan duiprupurtiuiialaly 
■malL The nvenirv (rint uf each letter, for all tlin- 
tnacM in Britain, Mr. Hill ahowcd, wm then about 
0]<t Tbopoat-otEcccbargeaatLlint time wereresu- 
latfid by Uie following tariff: — Vot a ajngle ahocA 
letter lent 15 ullea and under, 4d.; 15 to 20; fiti.; 
SO to 30, 6d.; 30 to £0, loL; &0 to tO, StL; 60 to 
120, erf.; 120tol"0. lOii.: 170 ta 2Sfl. IW.; 280 to 
SUO, U.; 300 to 100. 1*. Id For overy 100 mitea 
beyond, or partiona thereof, Id. mos*.* The teeolu 
of theae chargea Mr. Hill tbui sunuDed an:— 'From 
1S15 to 1S20 th» annual groae roronua ol the potit- 
office dcpnrtiDciit waa £3,190,597; from 18S3 to 1837 
it amntiiitvil to £'Z.2il,i2l. The poalllro IncrMUO in 
MTL-nteiai ycArs woa £(r(i.S27, avora^ng only £Si7$ 
yearly, or liltk mom than aao and ane-nalf per 
thooaand; nitlwi^fh In tlieM ■eventMD y«ai« tb« 
InmcM et popalnUon hnd b««o Sfi per conL, or 2S0 
per tbomand, and the advance in trade, indiivtiy, 
int«IU^Dc« — in ihort, of eYery apeclea uf matcriaL 
and lutellwTtual activity— waa atiU gmter.' 

&[r. liill loon had tlks happinoM to ii-ct Lbe Uv^ 
JAturo to adopt hia magniBoant plaa. In ita prind|)al 
fcalum at l«ut — that of a luuforra penny poatage 
r<ir all inland Iwraa tirttan and paokata not exceed- 
ing a cvrtain weight, comnendiig at ( o«. By 2 
luul .t Victoria, cap. UL, paaaM) Augnrt i7.1&3fi,tl]e 
great i>rUK-i[ila wm aJnptoiI. and the Tjorda of the 
l^Minry were empowered to take Lite nvcvaaary 
rtepa, Aomrdincly, on the lldtU November follow- 
ing, their loniiilii|.ii iitnic-d a minuto reducing the 
poata^ of all iriliuid Iximn Inttcn, !ce^ to 4d. aa a 
pnUminary alopL On the lOtb January. 1S40, the 
nidloiin nte of Id. per t oa. for prepaid lottcn cuuu 
Into opoalioa 

) The aniallcrt ahMt, IT mt tn two. wat cliui^ad tluuMo 
pert^ab Tb« uidnun or • doU or a htll, or btim oiw'i ad 
draia, tf aaianto— la abort, anythlBf, hewwer Knall— nu4« 
Ue JMtM cMttalnlnc 11 donbia MMb ka*a tovMUcMJon of 
anapMtad loHwa lock plan In a reooB IM apart for Umi bua- 
B«a Tb* ManAne wacked by fa»-lt|kl, tkat ef 4aj baiag 
vnlntaL 



"Wliile the coat of letter oorrva^ailaiiea baa ban 
Ihui n.-<(luoc<l, thu rajiidity of ita trananladoa haa 
Ixwn likewise much quiok^ed. Palsur'a raaQ-eoaeta 
■yetem, the great boaat of the latWr portion of tkr 
|Mwt oeatury, ttilC kqit Kdinburgfa awi Gla^ow ■( 
thi«e days' diitanca from Londca ; tbsy W9 ixnr. 
tiumlta to tha powen of rtMBO, iMC&ad in ha 
than a aixth part of that tioM. Both thcaa cirGitm- 
■tanoea, tog«rthe< with tlw gnat derelopment of 
cammarov wbioti baa taken plane in reoeot yeaw. 
have bad. m might han btao expactad, tha affect of 
tj>iinuDd(i(uly incTvadnr ttio work done by the port- 
olEco depaitmeut in tliu country. In 1889 the Mai 
niimlier of letter* cnuvoyad through the 
wa* uftitnatod at about 76,000,000; in 18il the 
l»:r ttad inoniaaed to SO&.000;ODa Ib IMS it bad 
rvAclied ),-J8l,0O0,l}O0. The revenne. at eonne, fell 
for a period; bgt in 1843 it had alrvady lea e h u j 
£],;>71^,H5, while tbit higbeat r«venu« that bad prt- 
viuiuly bceu obtained from tbe departoical waa caly 
£-AM0,OO<>, whid) wna the ravenaa for 1S39L TIm 
net mrenue in that year woa £1,059,^09. Tn 1SA3 
the gnsa rereniie oa the new syaton orertook that 
i*)iicU WM yielded on the old, and it it Mill goine m 
iiiciMMing. Tha net revenue exceeded Uw liIpMal 
tlint bnd t>eoa obtained on tha old ayataiB fer the 
Hrat Urae in 18&6, wb«n It waa £l,6«0,33». la 
ISSZ-^S the postal reoeiplaaokonnted to £7,740^000, 
thaexpMu!itnrvtn£4,463,O00t Uiua leaving a aarrdna 
TQvenueof X^,'27r,»O0. Tbe ceotipta on aooenaAflf 
tbe tdesraphe amauntod to £1,7&0^000 while tlie cx- 
■■.-iiiiitiirc WM £1,1 1^000, the surpIoB reveom bdog 
thna £32.000. 

Mincu tha great poat^ reform of Sir Rowland HQJ 
many important iinproveneula iiave bera siadc with 
pcgaid to the maoivenwiBt of the poart-offiov bu a h aa. 
'I'bfl first o( tfauM improreineDta waa tbe Intndnotiaa 
of poatt^-atanipa on the 6tb of May. ISlO. Brfen 
tliia prepaid ietteia were diatioguiah«<d by a nd 
mark, which continued to be tiaed for aome little 
timo after the introduction of poslafeatainp^ oatll 
tbia mode of paying tho carriaoa of lelten in ad- 
vance bt<cann univenaL Aaouicr great to^co** 
mcnt wa* lbs adoption of pottat cwriagea on mil' 
v>aya, by wbinb the doliTery of lettan waa greatly 
aecelaimted, Tbeao carriwea are 6tled up with a 
nc(>worfc on the outaUe, whldi may be let down on 
approaching atatlona in socfa a tuuincr aa to receive 
letter-baga which are dropped into it while tbe train 
ia tcuvalEing at full aneed. la the ioaide they are 
fitted up wilb ptgeon-liolei marked with tim naOMi 
of different town^ and the aorting of tbe lettan 
inay thua proceed during the traaait. SenwtiBUa 
Inga am made up for atationa on thn line, and are 
tbniwu out aa tbe train pa w ee . 

Tbe ratea of peetage catabliabnd oa tbe Ifnh »f 
February, 1&40, continued in optrration till the iMi 
of (hrtolitir, 1871, when the prcaent rate wat mtta- 
duced, namely, for evary letter not eaoewling I oa. 
ld.\ above 1 ei^ but not above 2 oa, 1|<1; and id. 
addiUonal for every 2 oa. or fractjoa of 3 oa. up to 
12 oi. ^Alien a letter eneeeda 12 ox. in wdght, it ie 
cbug(4 at the rate of one penny per oo. on the 
wtMile wdght. Latten not pnpald or liifafllciantly 
prniatd, are charged double poetagn or double the 
delioleney on delivery. Iledinscled lettera ai« 
abarg«d additional poatage at the pn-paM rate; bat 
lettcrt addreaaed to oAcen, aoldivra, or aeaoMn vb 
■crrice abroad, and aUo in certain oaaea to thcae at 
buine, are Te><lim:tai without any addtUooal ekargc 
No Idtvr oan be convejed by poat if it ia *»<<«« than 
1 foot 6 inobee la length, 9 iacbea in width, and 
6 iui^iea in depth, nulcaa it prococda from, or il am 
to, ona of tha govennnent olK«ea. When epedai 



aecnrity la reqolnd for tho dttlTery of a lett«»^ the 



.^ 



\ 



i 
I 



I 
I 




POST-OFFICE. 



237 



I btitr mmj b« nglrtarad f or « f «« ut iit. in 4uliliUDii 
to Um Mtagu, wbicb cnmblv* it to bv traced, h *acli 

KO iBtowhoM faaatU It piuiw mint gi re » rtcript 
tL In raturt) tlw poat-oflioe uad«rt*kca, undEr 

bK oooditiMM, to BOAk* good tlw rtdum nf tb« 
[ bttw up to £2, wben it or iU ccnt«nti an ImL An 
' ■ ■wpK w w i ^ letter lopiwaed to eonlftiB eotn m tttDnt 
' tttiat of ymliw may btt ohwrgad dgbtpmca on dali- 
jVvtjt. Tbe [xaUaffiM now klao cartlfiM tb* jwttlnff of 
^ ft Mttv oa iMjBteDt of |cA Aaj Dwwip«p«r pnblUocd 
I'M inlarali net ncMdliiB ssvan iUj«, Mid ngiatercil 
l<a> tkfl GmeriJ tloat-allioo in Lftodoo, niiiY be aent li; 
liMlt to mf part of tfa« United Kinauom for one 
1 Ml^iwy, ptvrided it !• printed on a abeet or ibwU 
Yli PWar VDftJtelMd. Th« pcMtaga muit be pnq^d, 

_ba Bkpertniut eitber be without any wramMr 

IjA al^or naveoue wfaii;fai« opvnat both duiI*, ao tunl 
Itfw P^Mf tna^ cuily ba removed for iimpoctiaii. 
[Vi» tf" iDiut niDtdin no wrltiag ciUjer va tlip 

" ! or Ibe outaiilu except tbn xlfireui. l'iick<iU rif 
Mfara may Im inaiil« up aiitl aant at tb« nto of 

tfor avarr 2 ox. or fnctloa o( the aame ftp to 1 1 
baTood vbicb iM paclctt can ba convoyisi lo 
' rfa* awcb fi«ck>4a must not vxcced 2 foot in Icagtfa, 
I bjr I foot la wUtb aud dv|>4b. Buok-i-Mt paokcta aro 
S at Uw aaiaa rat«. but Ibty tanat not axeeed S 
. hmlfht iKir be more tbaa 1 8 inchu in l«ag;tfa, 
baa fat bnadtb, bj incbca in deptb. llw paokata 
■oajp ratitalaboakiv papvr, or pantumut, with or witb- 
aoc writliiy or printiaff upon tbotn, provided there Is 
latrtbing fn tha ahape of a iirivatc Inttnr; and Bia[ia, 
fplialah ftc, if nut in glaM irsan*; and if iu a ooim' 
ribe eo*ar latwt bv op«D at boib esda, Imvius tbe 
^|*dw(B and thdr eonlcBti open to inapactioD. Al- 
^lkoa(k book-packela mnat oontain notbing of the 
MBtai* of a pnrato lelt«r, dnmlan *^dh ara wholly 
fm fai gnat part printed ot litboKrapbatl tnay be aeat 
' book>M>t dtber magly or in packcta, and la ordi- 
boak-packnta an rntry i* iiUowctt on the Brat 
' of a book HtatiDii by wboRi it bw l>c«n aoot. 
any otber privut« oumnnmioatlon it fotin<) in tbt; 
[(y cfc et ft will be taken oat and forwarded to Urn 
m written on tb« packet^ double letter poati^ 
lAarged for it; luid if it fa written in aucb a 
■r that It cannot be aqnratcd from Ibe packet, 
iwkolewiU befonranlcd at tiMiamerate^ 6inoe 
fO poai-carde baring a bolftiMiny >tiunp printed 
I t bwa bave been iMued by Uie {wetal aathoritiee, 
■na of coavvyia; any oonmniplcation, wbetber 
or priJrted. thM tbe eander doea not object 
lonva npsn to vanr, Slnca 1883 pajoela m»j be 
■eat by poet Iietureeo any placea In the United Kinr- 
Ami at the followlnfr firqiald rate :^not ezoeedinf 
1 lb. iaweiffht.S'i; betiroon 1 IK and 3 Ibe.fM;; 
bMweon S Um. and ."l Ifaa., Dd.; between S Iba. and 
Iba., la No parvel may exceed 3 feet 6 [Dohea ta 
, or with leagtb and girth coabiBad, Bum tinaa 
I leeL Poatage atampa for Id, 2d., U., 9<t., Ml, !(.. 
. M., it. and over may be i»ed tor reoeipta ami 
other purpoaea ioatead o( Inland Revenue 
—^ -, and alao for tbo pavmeut of inland tal^raiaa. 
ia forbidden tu forarBnl nny indecent boolc, card, 
'ansraTint oc otber artidev or any letter, packet, 
papar, Ac, baring thereon any words, marlu, Ac, ot 
■B iMkcont, obieene, libHInoa or offcnriva oha>aGt«r. 
Other departmenU under tbe management of the 
f t o ffl ca in Great HHulii are tbe rooney-oider de- 
partnMOt, tbe ■arings-banJi departmant, annultii's 
and Itfe aMnmnoe department, and telegraph dqurt- 
menL Fur t^ aaTitij^-bBiik department aee BaJtU, 
and for tbe anmtitiM mn'l life aaanrance departOMBt 
ne Foai^omci IVKiKAMto. The money-eeder 
4le|Mrtment waa annexed to tbe poat-nHicc in 16JI8. 
Hhe ratea wen then fised at OdL for all ■'luia not ex- 
aaadbg it, and 1*^ U. for nil euma eiceeding £3 and 



not e x oeeffln g £5. In 1 840 t3i«M ntaa wei« rednced 
to id, and 6aL napBetlvaly. Tbe preaent ratta are 
'■id. for aoma under I 'It., 3d. for auina of lOi. and 
under £'^ and an additional jwnny for every punud 
H>r fraction of a puuud up tu £10, wktch cciata la. 
A new kind of money-ordeta have eome into uie in 
IS61. in tbe ahape of tranafetable poatal note* for 
fixMl Huma. foriuini,' n kind ttt umalt ourrenoy. Hie 
amannla nf and cbar^^ on cbeee antet arc: If. and 
U. 6d., charge id.; tU. 64., fit., and 7a 6if., charge 
Id.; lux.. ]->i. 6d., ISi., 17«. td., and SOr, chanra 
2il. Tho total value of money-ordeia uwMd u 
1 n2-m wa. £S7,597,88S. Tbare an now money- 
vrder couvcntieu with moat foreign coontrlea and 
with all the coloolea. 

Tbo teltgrapb linea of tlie United Kingdom bavo 
bwrn worked by the piret-offioe alnoe Fubraary. 1 S70. 
An act paNMd in IH^f antfaoriivd tbe m>frtor-poaL 
gvnoral to buy up nil the linea already to axiatenea^ 
to make exteaeioni and iuprovemenla aa oooaaion 
rvi)uirvd, and to work tbein aa part of the poet-offloe 
buslneaa. A aecond paaaod In 1869 gave tbe gorem- 
meut a monopoly In teleRrmphbg with certain raeer. 
vationa in favour of r>ilw»j«, ueeepapen, and per- 
eons puaaeaaing w ronttna private telognphs. 'i'he 
total number ct telegraph oSioea at tbo time when 
the bosfaiasa wae token over by the state waa 
21)93; at the md of Maicb, 1879, It waa HU. 
The total lotii:tb uf pottal bcl^rmh lines at tho 
end of March, l»S:i, waa :l7,103 mllM, and i:i'Z.t&a 
milca of wirca (includinj; linea rented by privnte 
peranns). Tbo rata is I«. for a measage of twenty 
words (tbe addrem of Kndcr and raedrer not bejn;; 
eounted), and 9d, addltdonal for erery fire words, oi' 
evory group not exracding fira words aluve that 
number. 

By act T and 6 William TV., and 1 Viuturia, cap. 
jExxiiL, the poatnuutergenaml baa tbe exclusive privt- 
Isge of transmittiuij letters with the fuUowlnif exoep- 
ti"ii>; IvtUn sent and dsliTwrod by a privnto friend; 
letten s«pt by snecUl meMcngers on tho raivate 
aflaira uf lbs sender or receiver; vrila, &o., laautng 
from tbe oourto of justice ; letters sent ont of the 
kingdom by privato veaaels; conuaunicaliona bnn 
ownen ot voaseb or of their eargoca aent gratis: 
ndricea of goods aent by carriers to oe dellvored with 
the goods fratia. Sonin pnmons at* altogether pr<^ 
hfbited fmm carrying lett«r« even fcr Butoing, uucm 
tba Isttora ara nob aa are allowed In the previona 
eacaptiaBa. Among tfacae ao pnhlbHed are cairien^ 
ownen, and masten of vaaaeb pasaiug iron plaee to 
place In the British domlniuat, and pawagiH by 
ancb Twels. 

Larceny in relation to the piet-uirire is a serloaa 
oReno^ and pitniihod with prD|»rtioiuil severity. 
Every peteun employed uador tbe puat-offioe wba^ 
eoBlrary to hla dn^, opana or detalna n lattar, or la 
aooeaao r y to ita opoaiag or dotontion, ie guilty of a 
nisdemeantmr, and is Uable to be ponisbed by Bna 
or Uaprisetunent, or both. If he embeale^ aacrete^ 
or deetroy a U-tte* he ia guilty of fektny, and ia 
liable to penal sarvitailo for not mora than aercn, nor 
l<v than file yeaia. If the letter eeatoin any chaltol 
or valuable article he n^ aVM b« I illllhinilllll to 
penal acr^itede lor llfft KqnaUv HW* ponlah* 
meala may be inflictod on tboae who eommll tbtf U 
on tbe poal-oflU)e,or kaowlnely receive arikilaa atolen 
frcm tbe poat-omoei and who are not In Ito aorviea. 
Any peiwin who fmndnlantly retalna er wUfnllj 
aecretea, keepive*' detalna a letter that oogllt to have 
bean daH Tared to anotber pereon, or neglecSs or lefwea 
to give np radi a letter, m guilty of a iiilnliiiiniiiiiiii 
puniahablewitb fine and impriaonment. Telegrajphia 
dvpatchee are pot nearly on the aama looting aa 
letton^ but attiaea aent tfarongfa tbe book-poet are 



S88 



POST-OPPIOE. 



nn * miMwttBt diEforent footing. Any poat-oWco 
«»)|i]o}'«* etBtwulJn^, swrvttiJt-, or (1u«tro7Eng ftu 
utl:Eo ol til* Uttor daMtipUoa ii only eaXlty of a 
minlooiMaoarpiiiil^ubU by fine or impruonmont or 
botli. A117 dmMr ot bh« pMt-u(Boa who gmntii or 
Imum t. money-onler witli s fraudultfut liiWut U 
gniltf of felony, uid ia IiaMq to ponnl scrTitnda for 
nat tnoirtt than aevcn, nnr leea thttn five ycar>, or 
imprimjiiiaeut for atiy tvriu uivb extwcdiiig tluraa 
yonni. ')"1ki bwrt wuice of informBtiou with rwgiw'ii 
lu Uie Brilinb puttodiM u tbe Britiib Portal G^c 
InUraatiun&l pnetAse vrju fiist provldeil for bv Ibe 
f^orammeataf fircat HriUin in ] li:iO, Hihen dtnrjo I. 
m conDecllMi with I^juu XI tT. of li'iaim wUibliiliHl 
n poiL livtwunn LoiLilaDand I'nrii. I'nutfJ coilTeri- 
t-lutui Mv uuw ill i-xinltjiioe 'bvlwvun Grcut Britkia uid 
ftlinoit every obber oanntry Sn the nrorld. 'Che rnttts 
for fonrien, m also for ouloutiU, lottur*, uru iff cjunu 
highor tbu for Inlwd l«tten, and tbe regulutions 
n^udlog then) arc in m^aj catca diffemnt. In 
noBDl y«*n ou imincnw utride b«a tieen tkken in the 
impravMiMnt of pmttl tvjuiiiiUTiIi.'atb.iu beCwueii dif- 
lorent couutriM bv the fomtation of the iuterniitio'iiid 
poitol union. The fint concern hcM with thin 
obj«ct EDOt at ViLTta in IHG&, but kdjuurncd till 187* 
without nffvctlfig knj-thiug. Ia the tiitt«r yeatr It 
met nipun at Bern, uid couduilod iu littiiigi in 
Ootolwr, ]H7*. The congrvM (UDRiated of repTMen- 
bttires of oil the Buropeui eictM, bceltlw Egypt nnd 
the United Stat*^ M)d dnw up » oon'entloa wblob 
was io (oim tb« bMia of lii« nnios tined b^ nad 
wUoli Aftenwdi nceintd the mtlfioatloii of the dif ■ 
ferant government*. Tbe convention cMn« into 
furce on tbo lut of JnJy, 197S, for nil tho ooiintci** 
roproivut^ at tbu oou^'ne* exuept Fnuico, wbii:b did 
not j<da the union Ult the lat at J&nuAry, IH7G. 
Af-conliriv to the rrsoliitiont fiiiTjudied lit thjjouu- 
Ttntiuu all thn nUtn bntwecru tvhicli it il ocilictnrlrd 

form a iiln;,'le iKMt.1l tiiniu>ry, li»v{%' n imifnnn 
cluuye far tbe lottor^ buok-jwet packets, ■ani|jlei, 
iw., paaalng between tbeeeveral itat«af -wLioh it In 
oompoMd. Sinoo ita foandatloo, bowinr, tba union 
hu been jnined hy variotia other staten in other 
parte of the nurld, aumi:! cif which h*<re acoeded to it 
on tbe xnine temu sa the it*tee ot wliloh it waa 
orisioally fcrmod. while othera ban doos to nadw m 
Ujiaer aoftle ot ohargML Tba conntriea and plaeei 

btlODgiOff to tbe union Und«r tbe lower UriU ore, 

beddea all the countriaa ia BiiTDp«^ UiiMin in Aata, 
Turkey iu Aab, F«nla, Eeypt, AIgitii% tho Aiora^ 
Mndeint, ^fkrocov the ftp'uiah poMowiona on the 
north coMt vt Africa, I'nni^ IVipoli, Canad*, New- 
foiindlnnd, tfao United Slate* of Americu, Mnniueaaa 
lalamU, and Tahiti. I'hoaa under the blcber tariO 
U« Aiho, Brltiah ImUa, Ceylon, Hong-Konf, with 
ill* dtiof porta in China open to fivelgn oommere^ 
I^buan. tlte Straita Sottlcmenta, Japan, tbe Philip* 
ube lalanda^ ManritiiM, with the Msycliallva. &c., 
Sfiiudbar. Gambia, Gold Coait, Lacoa, Liberia, &iem 
Iiwm, the Bermndaa, Jamidc^ Brltlah f^uiana, 
Hondnrai^ Ecuador, Mexion, T^iiudKL Brwl, Prni, 
tliu ArgentiiM Republic; Urugaj, TaoMtwU, oud 
the Dsalflh, Dotch, F^oneh, F«atngatt», aad Spea- 
i«h colonies nnd d^peadtnc^at, cjocpl tinea alreatly 
mentioned lu undnr the lower tarlET. Uutalde ut 
the postal nnion thoro iU]| rvmuii tbe Aiiitraliaa 
CotcWM, Cape Colony, and Xatnl, Ac. The rat«e 
in the (7&it«d Kingdom for thiugs uddiuised to cuun- 
trica undt^r tbe lower taritT nni for prepaid lettt^n, 
'2\ti. per 4 »£-■ poatoarda Id., buok-padtutt, asmplce, 
fto, ^d. per i oz., newspapen l<f. per 4 nx. each. 
Tlie ratee for cnnntrica nndortho higher taiiff are, for 
lettora. td, per ^ uc, poct-carda l^d., book-pacVoti^ 
paltema, lut. lii, pn 2 vs. ; uwwtjiApun Id. por 
i as, each. Higher nttea are choreed for tnnitni*- 



■inn iiVi BriadiaL Double poatags la dials*! tm 
itrtter* not prepaid addn»«d to outUtKi* tndv tbe 
lower tariff, and a rate a hall higher thaa tba otA- 
nary rate for thoae addreawd to ooontriea tuider Oa 
liigber tariff. Artidex aanl by the book, newMMi, 
or pattern poet ore not aent at all unlcaa mpai^ or 
if iuaffidently prepaid. For eii-ery 300 aaotiut 
railu* of •ea-cafriego an additional nAn, net ewerd- 
iag li;ilf tliB ordinary rat*; may hm imnnaail Ae 
niHxiukiiin wdyht of artlelea Uutt WMj M oonveyed 
by the boak-poat ii dxod by tlu enTmUM ■* IlKm 
graminea (2^ Ibe.), and tbe naxiaiium for the Mmpte 
I»'«t at 2S(> ),Tanune» (H lb.). Forngiateied leUen 
there ut an extra ebarge o( 3^, and In o«as of lei^ 
the loaa ia mads good to the acndcr up to £2. Each 
pwbd ftdmlniatrntlan in the union retail tbe 
ohaigM originally levied within iU beoudarici. A 
e o n grsM of plonipotentlariM of tlw oouotiki eoapss- 
iag tbe union ia to meet at leaat iwoe In thus* yeae^ 
to oonaulor the working of the ayalem, and inlradnoe 
any iniiirnvenivDt>i that may be thought seoeMary. 
In iSyi the uiiinber (if lettere that p«a*ad tfirw i gh 
tlio poet in idl the countriee of Eotops sieasiM 
3500 mtlliona, boridea which tiiere wore ftbont SM 
iniliioci Hjuiipli.-*, &c., wid ISftO million ocwspaptn; 
making n U'laX of nearly 6000 mlUioiiB of anideft 

Till! cjirlieib postal system ia Fraoee that had aay 
degree of pernmnen«e waa established by tbe Ulii- 
venity of ParijL (Vum the end of the ttilrlmiilh 
century tbia inndtutiou nuuDtuned cour i sw ; who at 
certain tlnus took diarge of letters and moBsy for 
the atudaata oatlecCed In that dty from almost all 
porta of Europe^ Louie XL eeUhluhed for Ida ovv 
UM mounted mewangvra, and byan edict of JuM 11^ 
14d4, instituted poet atatious at interrals of llaagnss 
on the chief roods of Fraooe. This systein was om- 
tinit«il under the following reign, and ultimately 
pdvaUi persons began to make uae of the royal 
courit^n fur tlie tmumiMtcm at their owd eonmaaoA- 
cnoo. n.Lid the journeys of thoae oouriets, whicn had 
hithtrto tiiUen place only when the wanta of the 
vuurt rcrjuirod, now bscuaa periodtcaL Daring the 
rdga of Louii XIFL. 16I0-:iu, the I'reiu^ tjtbmt 
of poata Rceited a wore regular fonn frora Uie ealab- 
liahmsot of a ccmtroller-geoera] of poatai Thsy, a« 
««U as tbe poftmattan named hi 1630, rsoeivM tha 
reveone, till at IiniAth the mlnlaler Lonvuti; in tha 
rcigii of Louia XIV., farmed out the posts lo a 
cvrtuiu I'ntii], and cntnmittod to him the fegalattoa 
or the pual;!;:^. In 166S, wbou the post was lannsd 
out for the third time, tho rerenue amonnteJ i« 
1,400,000 franc*, and lu IU95, when it waa sold by 
auction uncoaditionnlly, to 2,000,000 tmuM, In 
1733 this revenue atuoiuited to 3,000,000, princ^ially 
because tb« regeot^ In 1719 had aboUshed tbe aoa- 
demioal eouiiers (od which aooount the nnivem^ at 
Paris liad anugned to it, from the reveone of tha 
tw»t-offic«, 300,004 francs yearly, which was paid to 
It till the beginning of the nirolutloB). In 1738 ths 
post establi»hRirnt was taken under royal min^t 
meat, in order that the )iorenunent nugbl find oot 
tho true inconui The r«rait of this was an tnarsaai 
of tbe sum nt which it waa farmed out. Id IJfif^ 
when it waa leaaed for the twetity.third tioko, thi.' 
•nm pidd amounted to 10,SOO,000 franco. At the 
vxpiratioa of tha laat loose in 17I>1, when tba aiab- 
liihmoDt rerertod to tbe king, it prodneed a olaar 
inmnie of mure thau 11,000,000 franca. 

'I'liR prristi tl n'forrii introduced Into Knglwl by ^ 
Ituu'likud Hill viim to •omoeiteot adopted In fHnn 
by the deonw of the Hth of Anguol, ISI^ wbkh 
came into operation on tho lat of Januarr, ISIK. 
Tfao charge for a aangte letter was then reduoed to 
■2'.< i-enlimes {id.). In raipuct of efaeapaasi of letter- 
eania^ Francs is atiU behind other oouairie^ and 



I 



POST-OFFICR. 



239 



b npfnl j«an ba* •van raoad«d. I» 1871 lfa« pcaUl 
n»m won t^tod OBfr-fonrth, sod dow iUbiI at 2S 
•mbM (Sl«L) lor pnpBld 1«tten not exoas^K 10 
eiBiBM (ft IHU* ftbon I OK.) in weight; 40 oentiiDei 
(mL) for letten kbova 10 gTMomci, but acA »bova 
10 gnHUDM) 70 ceatlmf (or Vaum abuve 20 
mniDMt but not ^mvo £0 mmoMs; »ai eo forth. 
tU^Mr ntM ftro ehM^t^ ivMO the ktten 4n not 
mpaU, but tbo rale of iluuble portagB [n aiMb cmm 
hM Bot bMo »Jo(>CMi Tbe rtvdt of tbsM hlfh ratM 
b tfart who* ta Gn*t Britain it l«tt«fi >n uuhuBt 
Mat tbnagb the poNt^tltios for Mch o( tlio 1nliftbi> 
tn*^ Daly 16 are aa Muit in Fnuiu«. Duniig tim 
iBtw rt nMBt of Pari* hy tlin U«iiiuui IroofM iu 
lS70~ri upcriDMaU VR« and* with InllwHU m 
»f M of ""— """■*'rg vith tho proTiaoaa. In 
tfaia w»j 3,600^000 latlan an muiI to Lbvo hoan for- 
w«rd«cl ahOo tb« rf^iv lM(t«d The ftttcmpU to cou< 
«i7 inMlK0«iM fraa Toun, «h«n tbe eo'^nuaent 
«H this lanifMnril}' oatabUabcd, to Faria b; m«Ma 
L«l MRtot^gMn^ WOK IcM anccEMfuI. Of 200 
[Mos th»t w«« l«t «ff only Mveuty-tliTM are aaid 
brr* MKbed tUr dflaiuutU]& Tbo; cairiod 
i<Mffiil[*Hi phobynftUeaUj ndnoed of SO,000 to 
COlOW wwda fat leaKlb. 

In Garmasf Um flnt poat «M aatablUwd la TttoI 
> Iba lalfar hnlf ol tiw fiftoeoth eontOFT. by Bo««r L, 
o( Than. Tula, sad Valaaarina. Ilia aon 
)d aaotber favin Bn—a l a toVtwuu iu ICltf, 
. tk» Willi of Um Btnpwror Maximilian I. In 1S23 
port WM aifahHahcn between Vlnnna and Xura- 
|W]^ wbara tba dirt nt; on aeoosnt of the war with 
r&iljmMi 1 1. ; bat it oc aa ad with the war. Charica V. 
^ waa anximia to baTe newa aa quickly aa poadbtc^ on 
taeoovit of tfa« Taatnoa (4 nU atntea, and oaapad 
I of Tliun and Tuia to MtabUah a pamMaan t 
.'-pat btm the Nctbcrbmik tlirongli LiJgo. 
[IHraa^ Sfin, and KiieliiliviKai, tlmjngh Wilrt«ni- 
^llot^ Aafibnrs, and Tyrol to Italy. la 1545 Lmo- 
' waa a{ipaialiad poatntaalcr-geDnral of tb« cinpira 
tba daatfa c4 Ouriea V. tbo menibera of the 
unwiQing ta allow a S|nnnh>N«tlMr- 
I port (aiwb waa that tatabUalud by diarlea Y.> 
thalr tarritorka: y*t Fordinand L ooafirmied 
[Iieuaard In IMS. In I£D& ha wMappdntad poat- 
[■aata^-ganaral of tba emplrw. In ofqMafUon to (h« 
I wiahca of tha mombacsi but aavcnl of tliaiii having 
^alnady aataUiabad porta ia thair dominiona nfuacd 
I aafcwnriadgo tiM fiaduaiva privikgca olaintod by 
laiparlal poat. In Kl 5 Lamor^ of l^xk waa 
aaOy laUoBvi with tha intperial port aa aa iapa- 
' H, Ferdinand 1 1, ostokded tua grant ao aa to 
it dMoctid to tha niecea «f Laawnl, and a 
[aagalar port now wtal arary waak bora tba Imporial 
^•Mrt^ and alao tttm. Bamo, Vcnioo, Milan, Mantn^ 
Aa, to Juifitntg, and tbonoe to BriMaala and bade. 
Th» part RMainad aa long aa tba aBtpira aiiatni, uoe 
~ fta many Ql-dafined anl uDwioldy InatitnticRi*, in 
dab ptlTato or petty Inlaiett wm allowed to ataad 
tba way of the pabtic welfaro. Tbe port waa 
Uy mada a rccubu- poiat in th« WaMlmpitut*- 
, Iba atlpnlattotia botwccn tbe vicotvra aiid tbe 
lor tba Imperial dlf^ty. Tha imperial 
wara teatrieted, and tha emperor hitnaelf ex- 
d tlw Thurn and Tuda port fram aavaiml at hia 
f'4<ntalo4H la a oauatry wbera ao many amall tani- 
I had tbtir owB poata it waa natural thai tboy 
fabnwlit nmabi b a rvry bad onndition. and it isonir 
1 in tamtt tiraea tliat they bate been tputtly improvad, 
[Mora a ^wci aOy in conaaquaaoa of Uw ganarai adcw- 
ttiM tl tba AurtrcMSamnn eompact,by wUcb tna 
[ialanBlkoal poata were plaoed tmdar ona tytuan tit 
MMVaOMatk ZmpadinMata to tha ftea davunaaieot 
! Iba pMal ^atan itill onatiauad tna tba cwam- 
tbal b Hoaw, Kaaau, b tbu atatea of tba 



Baxon-KmnrtitiB Uuc, HuheaxoUeru, Woldock, ft&, 
tlie poal waa left to Ihs hu<i«a of Tburn anil 'I'azia aa 
a fi^. In soma other atataa tbe Thnru ac<] Tasia 
port waa founded opoo a r«gtilar oonpact. In 1B$T, 
howover, tlio Thum anJ Tiuii* svstrm has abohahcd, 
and a unituna nvt4 uf 1 si]U.)rgn>"^^'n or 3 luvaana 
(about Id. i for a singlfi letter waa IimmI for tha whole 
of North Ccrmany. Slnca the leoeat eatabliahmont 
cif tbe Gemian Empir« a unifonn poata) and tel«- 
cnkpbic ayatam boa bean organixad for tha whole of 
Gfflmuuiy, and tbe paiafng «( p«atal lawa b now 
esdualTely an imperial matter. Tht aapnms admin- 
iatratioD naidoe Id tba ompcror. IJaranaand liV'iir- 
temborg atill latain tlia maimffenHiDl of tlmir poat^ 
bowever, and oaa make ubat arnui^oiniritD thoy 
plooao with regard to thair intTual couununjcAtiaaa, 
or to thnir own immadiata intcnuuraa with nciitb- 
buurinu atatea not bdonglng to tim «iuplr«. i'oatal 
treatiea unlw Ccnnaoy to tba Auatro-Hoagarian 
monarcby And Lnxombui^. Is ioma roapeeta tha 
Omnan poalal ayatcm afltonla greater fadlitiea lo tha 

EubUi) ituta are granted by tboae of other ocnntriaa. 
I any penon wubaa lo commonicata aomathbg to 
all tbe port-offioM of a certain line (for example, an 
incjuiry after an imfHUtant paropl), an opou paptT 
may be aaat by mall, which ia read and forwardad by 
all tba reapectiva pvatmaatan. A receipt for tha do- 
lirery of any letter purportinjf tn enntain aparileaUr 
aum luay alwaya be bail, uiJ tliiit vun b pMd If Ibe 
laltar la loat in tbe rrgiilAr toutvp of traospartatfon. 
If the Lettar. kowerer, ahoold arrive b good erder, 
and no money ba found In it, the goremmont would 
not be aiiawviTabla b oousequenca cf auch a laccipt. 
But if a, man goaa to tba poat-oHloa with an open 
Ivtter, and b c l oart a ocrtab mm tbareia b the p»- 
Boatw of tba pottmartar, tita teoelpt of tba gorem- 
munt Euakeo him liable, rt all avanta, [or Ibe aafi: 
tranapoTtation uf tbe monay. To Garaiany la abn 
due the introil»oti<v of poat-carda, whbb were fint 
propoaed by Pnuaia at a poatal oonfecenee held at 
Karlsnibe in 196S. A ajgnal proof of tba aoorgy of 
the manaeement of tbe pert-uffiee b (Sermaay waa 
glren dimnr tho Fnueo-Ganoan war of 1870-71, b 
tb» esUblLihinent ol tbe field-port, by which Iho 
troopa in the tielii waraanablad locomniunicatewiUi 
Iboir frveoda al boma with aa much legularity aa if 
tboy bad been itaUcffledbtowu of Gannaoy. Lai^ 
quantitaea of tettan wore dnpatchod by tlus poat at 
one time; on tbe 141haf January, 1871, for eiamplu, 
207 letter-bagi """t^'wlng 160,000 letlen. 

Tba pMtal ayrtam of Italy anaa b Pladmnat. 
Until ISOl Uw traoMniaBinn of lottofa waa in tha 
handa of the ocannumaa or private panaMU^ who ware 
authorbed by tbe atata to dmrga for tbe aervica a 
Boa which rariud aooording to cbenmatanoaa In 
tba year ouolioDad the porta were farwkod out try 
Kmmanad PhOIbarty dulta flf Savuy, to a puatmartar 
caDamL. nU anangamant oontiaaad till 1007, wba* 
Doka Victor Aaadsna IL added tbe praaoeda of tbe 
port-oflbe la tbe rerenna of Iba alata^ an bdamnlty 
Mtog paid to tba pnatmaalar, wbn had tba farming 
of them. Vnm 1710 dowawanls Uh pcrt-cfflee waa 
adndnltfared dlractly by tbe atala. In IftlS the 
eyatem of Fiedmont waa ceoagaaiMd, and aiaoo tin? 
oniBcatacoof Italy it baa baenaxtandad tothewlKila 



aatUart mantiai ef Iha irtiTilWia I of a 

poatMtffica in tbe Urittah eobnlaa of Nertb America 
ooemi ia the Geneial Court BeeordaodUaaaachnattta 
of mit, whara we Bad Um toOowbg eatry-— 'It ia 
ordered tbat notba ba Bivaa tbat Bichard I'air 
baolia, hia bnaae b Beartoavbtbapboeappoinladfur 
allleUara wbldi are bruncM from Myaiiu tba aaa^or 
are to baaaot tbUhar, wfakb ata to U left witb bin; 
aad he ia to tale caiv thai tbey are to be delirendor 



240 



POST-OFFICB— POTAMOGETOX, 



— ita ca orf fa wtollie Ji»etioB»; mm) h« if BUowed f or 
•««fT MUr 1(1, and anst answer aO uiacftR^^M 
tbrw^ji bb own iusIm* in ddi kiad, pnHdad Uut 
■oaubaoompdUdtoliATtaghbowii ktUn eicept 
IM BloM*.* Id 1<72 Goramor Lontjwtt of New 
Yon inatitDtwI 'a pwt to goe tnoolUr* btun Now 
Vovli to BooUa ud bulc; md In IftSS ■ poat-ofBee 
«M MUUUied in reniuvlr»nu bv thi-- oo!rbr»U<d 
WUlian Pan. Id 1 MH Tlouia« ?f e'al wu B{>p<jbled 
bj ]«U«m-[Mtant [mtinuUr^flneraJ, wlib autborily 
w onot pcM-oOioM Uu«ii(rboal tba Anoriam edonicK ; 
taA lb* BMiu yav « poit-aSioe wai etUMlnhad in 
Kew York. In 1999 tli« pn«ul iTitom wm orifui* 
bod by m Sootchmaii, namod l>nitaan CmdpImIL la 
tbo ainy put of tli« lut ccutury th« mQ wm eon- 
rojod twVM B iDDuth in ftn^A-coacbM bMWMB Boa- 
hm, K«w York, and I'hUftdelphi*; and from New 
York to Alba&jr by a (oot'poat osco a montli. A 
{roMnl poat-offluo wu «tB!ilMi«d ]n Virginia to 
1733, with a iob-AlRcft in «ach coniiLy. Tbe ocle- 
braled Ben-iaiain Franklin wan B]>{>atnU«l poatmiuiter 
at I'blladelphla In 17.^7, and iii 1753 poftmattcr- 
ICiRMral to to* American mloalei; on offioe which he 
continnad to hold till 1774, when bo waa diamiucd 
liy Iha BritUh ([oTcmnirat. NnniMiniiB InnranTo- 
inanlM w«ra mad* duriug' Ijis mana^ui«Dt. Tliv ful- 
InwLti^ arv tho principal povtsl nguUtions in tbo 
IJninn »m revliiM] nndi^r act of March S, I8<'3. All 
lOkil nmtler la divided lulu four claaasa. Tbe finl 
daaa infiliidw lottoni, poat-«anl«, and luijrthirgcloaad 
Dfainal iiiapection, or ccmtainiDg writiuii nob allowed 
na an oMomuuilroent to printed nattor: pMtafe, 
'I MBta «ach half m. or fractioo tbcndf ; poat-canjs, 
I rnnt i reglirtarAd liitt'Mii, 10 oonta in aadllii^n to 
piMtauu. Socood daw uuitt^ Inoludeo all newaiinpL-nt. 
IMrlcNllcah^ or matt«ir oxcluslTelj In print, and isniied 
at •tafaxt iiilciTTnlii, ita fra(|i)critly na four Umm a yr-xr 
frnm a Itriiiwii ofhoe of publicstiau: poalaRv, 'i (Ktita 
\>vT lb (ir /ractJun tliureor. Mail mattiirdf thn tbln) 
uhuut iucludua booki^ tranaicat nen'Mpuji^rw nnd [>c-r- 
lodtoala. dnmlan^ and other matter wholly in ^>riiit, 
lo|{al and oommercla] papen fttttd oiit ui wntin^, 
proai(-ah«Bta uul oatiy occompan.vlni^ the aama: post- 
ago, 1 OODt for Mtcli 2 un. <iT fraotluiiAl piLrt tbvreiif 
fnuuiiiimipt uiian-iinpafiiiKl hy |iroo(-Rht*tii charged 
Ir-ltBT wri^Uti: limit of wei|{fat, 4 Dw. t^ach uackaije. 
Tb« fourth cl&sa embracea tDerehandiw and all matter 
not Indwied in thn oibrt thrM rlnnwi whtdi ia not 
Ualilo to ininro the mail lanttnr; iioatafp!^ 1 oent 

Kr OS. or haotlou thereof; lluiit of n-eli'UL, i llja. 
vpaynKnt of pcatan by Htani|)B for all clawcH of 
matter la roqulrMl. 'fho fr«o dolivory of mail matter 
nt tho TwidvDOoa of the people dealTiiig It la required 
by law In every rity of ^OOO or mora popiibtinn. 
and nay b« ertabliibod at eveiy plaeo not uihabiU'd 
by 1«M than 'id.UDU. 

In niiiaC of the Sntilti American repiihlii^ ttic 
unatal ayMtcm ia oa yet for fruin being woUoTKaaiwd. 
This ia abnoat oi|tiBlly true of BraxQ; but a aoioc- 
what h<M«r staW of tnatten provafla in Cluli and 
Bolivia, In Aaia the pcatal aerrloe ia canted on fnr 
tho rmait part by nganolaa nf Europ«aa itat«a. V.ug- 
land baa poot-ofBoca in ilong-koaff and Shanghai, 
bsildao ita Indian dn<nininn«; Kranca In lleyruti in 
lU«n-Ho^ and Saigia\ iu Cochin •China ; in Chan- 
<hmagi«o, IVndinhA-v, and Carical b) India. Be- 
twaon ItuBiia and Cliuia tboi* b a post Mrved by 
Manilla. In the r««t of Cbi&a there la no Mat*] 
ayati-iii in tlic iiwdrni aritau of the phraat^ although 
a bmly of cuurimoxiiU tor th» tmrpoiwof conveying 
pivaniinont doapatukeo to the uiffcr<?nt parta oi the 
ouipiiv. Japan haa rwurtly Introduced a postal 
■arvioa betwoen Yokobana and Nangaaaki In 
Afric* Umtd an tho begfainlnga of a poatal covattita- 
tk« la Iffiypt, an alao (linoo Novombar, 1S71) in 




HoTDOoo. A pnstol ay a ton baa alao Iw^ aM 
the Freneb In Algeria. 

POST-OFFICE INStniAKCE. TUa 
ncnt of tho ncat-offio^ tlw daliaarf wUA 
tbe JMuing of government «— »t«l— ■■ wall m if 
Uf o^aawraooa poBoles. ««a fint hJly w— iail te 
IMS. AnnnWa% aithv faiinagali or 
the anmant of £50,payahja haX-jeaalj,! 
luoathlj' alloirann* to tfaa aa wo n t of £4, Sl 4A, 
oiav bo purduBod for any pataon of tan yaaan td t 
and wwnrda Tbo nun payaUa lor wm 
monthly allowanc« variaa of ooorae with the i 
of tho annuity or allowanco, and tbo a^^ and tfa* aas 
cf tbo ponon on whow Ufo it ic to ho paid. I Mw twwi 
anaidtiea may be piircbaaed dtber by » rincle pay- 
ment or by periodeal payBSBtt ImiilMllit al la> 
time when the aonoity b oownaa nyafala. By pafjing 
hiicbcr pnaaiuinn tho p«n«B on wnoaa Ufa ibo aanoily 
dejienda may aoaora tliia icpMment to Ua or bv 
repraaenl^voe of all the nrwnmuna pdd up bo hb or 
bar death, if that event aboold take placm bEfoac !&■ 
annuity beoomoo doe, A aioular providaii la made 
with regard to aoMlily alloWBaoee. PoUda of 
inauranoe for auma not hm than £30, nor dmiw I 
£100, may ho iiwnod to any peraon be t wo ot Iha i ^ 
of riatoen and alily, and tbo premtuma may bo nU 
by yearly, kaU-yoarly, qoartorty, Bonthly, or Mrt- 
nigbtly inatalmcirta, providod that so panuDt he 
IcKa loan 2t. AnniiiUisa and inauranco poUrina iMmf 
bo obtained from aay poot-offim th f o n gho M t tM 
kingdom, tho noetmaatdr of whicb b antMdaad to 
iwuu tfaom. In 1682 thb dapaitnaat iHnod SU 
fnaiiraura pnlirica, the aum aanarod by wbidl vna 
£SHii; 7»D iuimedUte aniiuitliiB, iiiiiiiaiiallin a 
total annual {layment of £13,43&: and 31 daCtmd 
anouiltca to tho value of £bil. Complcta tabki of 
the preroEuma paya>ilv in thU department aa« ttid 
liy tliti cov(rniin«iiit priuto^ Moaara. Kyre aad ^Ot- 
lun-oodi:, for !ii'J., and may b« nan witbovt cbn* 
at nnv of the liionJ poat^lSoaa, Conanlt aba A* 
Britiiih P<Htal (imde. 

POST-OrFlCE SAVINGS-BANKS. Sao »*«. 

POSTULAlli (fnqn pvttilo, to domaad), ia ma- 
thcmatio^ a prohlun wUch it b aaU-ovldant can bo 
aolvod; na, fur euuu]'Ie, to draw a line about » piint 
80 tbnt evory part of tho lino ahall ho at an e<inal 
diatanco frvtu tbo pi>inL 

POSTUI.ATIUN, In omoa law, an appa*! to an 
eoelniaaAlcal superior to remove a<tisability by wUcli 
any on* who Itna been apgiolntnl tu a benefice b JVO- 
vouUxI fn>ra a(.'ct.-)>tiiiK it. Tlio t^rm waa fortnoriy 
alaa a|i[ilied to tba nathod by whicb a biabop waa 
traiiafcmd bum ono ace to ftimtho. Tbo oanon law 
doclared that a prnnn oner vlocted oould Doi be 
eleetod affaln; aou whoa an «l«ctaral collide dwnNd 
the bbbop of another aee to fill a vaoancy bi tbeir 
own aoe, they pctitionod tha biahop to make tbe 
duuiKc^ and if he cooacated ho waa tranalatod. No 
poatnla^onoonld bo madouoloac thoolBalaral eoIWge 
ware uaanimoiu, while in the caae of an elaadea a 
maioHty wna anffiricnL 

POSTCr.KS, in the eodadiMtloa] aanoe cf tba 
word, tbo attitudes aaauinod in worshiiis aapacialiy ia 
{irayor. Amoiw tbo early Chriadana kaeeilaf ietes 
to have bocn tbe ordinary uuature in prayer, axotpk 
in Eaatar-tlnie and on Snadays, whon tiMoa eaoagod 
in tbii axerdio stood, to syntbolia^ U b mia, Iba 
rwirrectkai of Christ. In tbe ordlnatton «f anV 
deaeows deaoona, and pricata in tho KLOuaa Oatholia 
Cbarcb tbo Moatrato attttoda ia aaaiimnd by Iboae 
undergoing toa ortUnaBoa. Intbeaamaobnrobi 
pToatratloB b aoceoCbnti aba nqvlrad «f 
that ia. ^uae aDbjactad to penance^ 

Ptn'AMOGRTON, a gania of ^ta befenging 
to the natnial order Nsiadaoea. It haa a parieol 



I 



I 



I 



POTASH. 



2H 



■ttwo; ■ fom^pcfatoJ psriuith, four «pmil« Mitfavn, 

fwrowbi^aDdfourmpnortiiiiM. AUthvmdca 

|,H« naku-filftati, «ik1 ofta pnaeot u bewillful bd 

•ppMnsM ia clew itMaina And pontb m Um (oci 

^■O ta tbc aek. Tber protect tlie ipkwn of (uJi, snJ 
ibMbMr lanoMntbU aquute ftoimftla, itbiltf tlicir 
^■Mcto ttd KMk kffcffd food to w«tar-fairda. (Brit. 

FUTA3H, or Potamu, darivM Ibi uamo fmm 

aalka, mad ih« pou (oallsd ywCarf Jttff^M) In «>hkih the 

Szivunn from whidi it ii obtuaod ia bojlad down. 

• of ito old aunea ««» c^TrtciUe atto/i, in kllu- 

to ibi bdag derived from the iiMdnerKtion li 

««i|etaU«; wft </ torfw, fnWD the foci tliat creun 

i of Uflar U eaelMr woroo of potash; and oUiatJ of 

'■wim^ fraat Iti having beat known to toim the bMt 

I of Uiat Btlt I'ha |>raMM •mployal fu the art* fiit 

[«Uai&btg potaab b the foUowiiif;:— The lo; of vage- 

ItahteaaunianUzeil with quicklime and boiled down 

|fc hOB poCi^ and the rmmIuuiu i(;iiil«d) the ■ubatanoo 

tadnff aftav ignitioB >■ ixtiiuuon |iota*h. Thnae 

_,- ' wbiob an derived from ptaata growing nmcto 

lam anh vaUr }1«ld thla allcall la gnatcat puHty. 
1 1I«ba«aou ragvtablca jriald more thaA trem : ia tm^ 
['the bntochcN jield more th>D the bodjr, tho amall 
Iferaadwa aore than the laiye, and tlie lenvM moat 
f^ att. On* thoumd ponsda of the following J9gc- 
^ li h laa fielded aaUnc matter ia tho following order; — 

WamwMd... Ttf 

Buia* «t HBi Bower, ,Sf|l 

S«alkiarT<>rk*)F vfaaM, IM 

Vliui bMlkcbaa ......in 

r*™,. ii« 

•n. n 

mniitMj, Mt 

»Mh. m 

mm, IM 

fir. in 

oS, HI 

BeSfc »llf 

Ai|«. - - « 

n* alhaU arim frain rarinna nlta esialing in the 

[awgatabla juicea^ which liav« bwa deoompoeod by 

I ifeia actictk of fire. To prepan th« potaah ui a atate 

M parftct iKiriiy, from Um inpui* artiolo bearing 

/ttda ikaioe in conuncrctL oammon polaah ia iMulud 

I'with twiuw ilB weight at qalckUme for & few houn 

ki aboodaaeo of wat«r— the |«»eipitat« ia teparmted, 

and tfaa llnnid ia hoilcd doirD to tho coMirtcnoo of 

m ayrKp: alter which an «qual WIc of atrong ^co- 

[;kal ia added, and the mixture ia allowed to aUad 

tbna In a dned veseL Soma aolid mattar 

1 flallaot at tba boCtMn of the Tcaael, above which 

year » ■tratnin at watery limior ttiDlainiag 

aalta In eolntion; while the mlcohnl ocrai|)ie8 

top^ and ia coloured daric led. Thla last ia 

~ from tho Hnid below by docantatiai), and 

I ov^^urabtd lo dtTneaa in a ailver baain. The dry 

■halwtoa (■ bvdrale el polMtb, or oauatic potwifa, 

^XHO. It ia aulld, wtdte, and aatTwiely oauatie. 

!■ miinil* quastitaca it etuarm Ibi porplo of violata 

■•d oabbage la gnxn, reddntod Bttnua to puiplc. 

^WkI yvUuw tnnoario to nddiib-bruwn. It rnptdly 

* humidity from tha air, and bocomoa aonu- 

It la fndble at a bnt of 300*, and ia voUtil- 

at low ifinitioo. It b tiaed in anrgery undor 

I of uqiu infrrDMlUt or iopK* raiuHcvM, In 

_' It ia *«ry oatenaively employed, both In 

iona and aa an afcent In analyaia. It ia the 

\ of Um oomnuin auti ■aip% fur whJiift putpoee, 

t*«r, it ia nnt iwod in iU pure (tatn. fotiah is 

I ip aa mf a r tored from the aabea of mariiw planta. 

r pliala ara burned ia laqro beats, and the raldue, 

ad Jttlm, ia rvpeatwdl^ KnvinUd wilh water; from 

I aohiuan the potaan ia ubIaiBed by evaporatioaL 

I qiaioea alao yield thie lubMaaoe, whldi ia Uk«- 

wiM ohiahiod to laiga quantity fraia tha minonl 



dnprwita of SUuufiirtli, DOT Klagdcborg'. lite namo 

txptuh i* aptvlimt not uuly to tbnt •ubttanoe to whidi 
t proporiy beloDgi^ naoiol/. oiidc of potaaiium, but 
uko, and moT« naqnently in oommeroo, to tb« car- 
bonate of tho aamo met*!. 

Dnvrnpoaititm of Potath, — If a thin piece of wild 
hydmta of potaah be placed Wtween two diaca of 
[ilatiniitn, oonnocbMl with the extririailii:* of a vultaio 
appaxaliu of 300 double plntot, 4 iticbBe aqiuLre, it 
wlU aoon undergo fnaloi), oxygon wil) eopwata at the 
poaitire anrfaoi^ and amall metallic globolea will 
appear at the negative aarfaoe, which are the baata 
ai patuli, and are c^ed by Sir U. H^iy, who dia- 
ooverod the fact in 1807, fMtauiim. OUinr and mora 
ooQvcniont methods bave been devised for ubtnttUag 
thla metal. Tlwt iDveotod by Mcnieuriliay-Luaaa 
nod Tbi^nard cniMltta In heating putaal) to whitaneaa 
m a gun-barral. in conUtct with tomingi of iroa. 
the air being eio]nde<l ; the pnUuwittm b libentted 
and o^octa in tb« cohl extTuoiily of the tube. The 
pfooeas of Bmanar, aa improved by Uaivacn and 
Doan^ oondwU in oaloJning crude tarter (add Ur- 
trate of potaadun) ia a oorered veaoe) ao long aa 
T^MUia are eircn off. The ntaaa, widch contains n 
mixtuta nf <£arDnal and carlionato of putanritun, is 
now introduced Into an iron bottle oooneeted hy n 
■baft irtm tube a few tachci in length wUb a twooiw. 
Thn rcoeiror oouisla of two ptctaa of wroBght<ir<ak 
12 inches long and R inclKs wida, olaapad together 
K aa to form a shallow bus j lach deep. The reoeivar 
ia open at both anda. On heatiag the if«a bottU to 
a high pcrint fumes of potassium begin to qvear at 
the mouth of the tube; the roooirer i> now adjusted 
to the tube^ and in it the dmuI la oondwDsed. Dur- 
lag tba epparaticai fumoa of carbonic oxido nr« arolva^ 
whicb aro vccy liable to comhino witb tlu potamhun 
and ao to (otin a very axplooira aubatanco. To guard 
against tho formation of this compound, tha iron 
tube oonnecUng tho bottle witb the rec«iver most be 
kopb very h(A. As aoon a« a suRicicnt quantity of 
potassium has eondmsed the receiver Is removed, 
plungod beneath tbo aurfaee of ncttfiad naphtha, anu 
when qoile cold tho potaarinn ia mnovod. As thus 
nhteined Ibe metal ia not pure; It must be af^ain dis- 
tilled. Potaaalum Is poea aas ed of tfaa following pro- 
pertiia: — It ia Ughtar than watar, Ita apocific gravity 
being only 0*80, At eomakon tampcnturcs it is aolld, 
aoft, and eMily mooUed by the fiagera. At UO' it 
fasee, and at a beat a little b«Jow r«dn«ai it riara in 
vapenr. It la opaque, ^\'h«n frothly cut its oofarar 
ia bright iHver-wbite; but it becomes taralabetl on a 
moDwnt'a espoeurs tt> the air. To provrvc it do> 
ehangod it must bo leapt id mdikII rinU umlvr naphtha 
or oQ d copaiba. It oomlncta eleetricity, like the 
eamnonmeula. When thrown upon watur it deoora- 
twees that liquid with evnlution of hydrogen, which 
hums with n pale violet flatna, owbg to the priaiinca 
in it of potash vapour. Tbe water baoomw a solu- 
tion of potash. What Bodamtalr beated ia the air 
it inflMica, burnt with * led U^tt, and Ibrowa off 
alkalina fomea. Flaoed h tUorine^ tc buns wHb 
gloat briUIanoT. On all flnidi Mntaiolng mvdi 
watar, exyg«n, or ohlorloe H roadOy aota. It eon- 
binea with oxygen in three proportions. Ilie prolog 
idt <K^I is obtained by tho aotloo of dry air, frso 
from carWak acU upon tha metal la tafat alleva 
Whan potaaalDB ba»a In open air, or in ozyno ga^ 
K ia coavertod fatte an orange-coloured auM^tie, 
whicb ia tbe ftrarklt of potawiiuni. It may alao be 
fiMined by eobdncting asyipm gaa over potash at a 
red heat. It baa tba formnfai KiO.. The Intorme- 
■liate ozide^ K^O^ hsa nol been obtain**] in a iwr- 
fcctly pnro stato. Tba attnrtloo of chlorine lor 
putamiam la nneh atm^vr than that cf otygn 
for this itfatnL OUorid* at potamtma (KG} haa ■ 

SM 



nlln* aod bttt«r tMte, Iodide ot potMaium (K I) !■ 
fomwd with tbs omliiioa of liglit, whoo potMciuoi 
il buMl io OomUct vnlh iodioc. It tnta readily 
when be*ted, mod !a valutiUied ml > Umpenture 
baloir r«dn«n. It c)I*wlvei In itrDne ii.lcnho]L tad 
tbo lolaUaiL, wboa ^oatXy cvansratoX yidti' ituikU 
oaUmrlua t^ubir, crjntal* nf initLda of pfilAAAlunu ]{y 
the aid of a UtLlu Lo&t auljitiiir uiiiteH tvanlHy with 
putauiuni, and (onni a tidphitlf of tbii metal; and 
Bu miivh Lvat ia evolved at thu moment of cumbiua- 
tian that tfce mau IwcontM InoandeKeut It haa a 
ted colour, ttxtta before tbo tompcnrture of iffnitioo, 
and aasiuaa a crystallioe tantiini in cooling. It has 
th» fonaula KiS. Olhet *ulpliiJo> of potawium are 
kneirii. Photpkide of potaMiitm may bo fonaed in 
like manner by t!ic action nf j jotnoniutn on phoapbanii, 
with tbe aid uf a modeniUi LuaU Charoual, whlub 
bM b«ao fltronely heatad in contact with potaaiiiim, 
afferveaee* in water, rendering it alkaliai\ though 
the charcoal may be ptrrio-ojly exposed to a temper- 
aturo at wlifcli putaMluni is vola.lLlii«d, H«nre thvra 
ia nrobably ^ coOLpotiiid uf tbo two fonnvJ by a 
iMDla attraction, 

CarbonaU at poUuiuui. This ia the ptari-aahft 
of cotnincK*. It u obtained by b«ating tha mide 
potaah in a re%in'bcrAUpry funiacQ, wid >Liiriu^- it 
Ktekly for some time at a white lieaL From ths 
prwl«niniuica of lii« aJkali iu it it id doli<)ur«c«nt ; 
It ejcposod to tho air, it Kocin attnwtn its iri.'ight of 
wat«r, whicli bt tha quantity mHoniu-y l-jr iU oom- 
plate Bolatioo. Ita taato is acrid; it changea tho 
ngetablo oolAun to green, and combinn with nil*. 
Theae ^laraaten arv »a diatinctly olkalino that thoy 
formerly led Xo the o]:<lii[on that the potaib waa in 
neon in the salt, and hcnco it wu termed a lub- 
earbonate; now, however, it i« Icnovm that it ia a 
normal carbouat«, and tbuL ita formula ii KgCO). 
It ia decoRippiKHi by aeidx, carbonio add being dia- 
cnntfvd wLui oflcrveaccoce. 

Bt-rarbaniUt of pnUunium nay ba oMained by 
•qtodng a eolution of the carbonate to the i^ for 
waw titn«^ oarbonlc add bdn; imbibed fmn tbe 
atmoiphere, aiid cryitala being deposit«d: or it i« 
fomed ronre dim^tiy by pawdng a airruit of oar- 
bonio add icaa tbroutih a tolution of the cArhonate 
of Buob a strsngth that nyatala form apDntanooudy. 
They are mtieh naro aaluble in hot water than the 
normal carbutiaV- — the water takiog up Gvc-eixtba 
of ita KtugU; but if the temperatiiTe be that of 
boQlng water, part of the carbouio acid ia driven off 
fa tbs gtaaam state. The taate of this salt ia rntm 
mild than that of the pearl-oahM; tbouab itill allca- 
line, it baa no camtidty, tiiit it change* toe vegetable 
ooluure Lo a i;rven. It contains juit <louU» the 
ouantity of carbonie add in tho carbonate of potaa- 
smin, and ha* Utc fonnuia K II UU» It ia much uacd 
for lunUcJiial purjmee. 

Sit'iUt of fotatnwn, nUrt, or laltpftre, ia a nhlto, 
tnnalaoenl, or transparent salt, nraally oryetalIi>«d 
In dlatlnot lix-iided nriama with dihedral smamite. 
Ita taate ia penBtratioK; but the cold produced by 
placing tho salt t« dlnolv* in the mouth ia »udl W 
at fint to prodominats ovor the add. tJeven part* 
of watvr duwilve two of nitre at tlie tcnipeniLure 
of 60°, but bniliDg water diaaolvee Its own weight 
Ite ooEi*titiicQU ar« nearly aqoal wetghta of nitric 
add and potaah. lU forraula is KNO> On being 
cxpoacd to a gtntlp boat It fuies; and in this rtato 
bemg po'Ureil into moiilda, ao aa to form little round 
cak«« or balla, it li called tal prantUa or vrsttal 
mmrmt. Nitn powerfully proniotce the combniUon 
of Inflammable aabntanco*. Wo or three parU mixed 
with one of charcoal, and m( on fire, burn rapidly; 
nlttogan and carbonic add gaa are given out; and a 
«mftll portion of tha lattor (■ ivtuned by tha alkallaa 



reriduum, which waa fofnwHj called ttj/tna 1/ niln. 
Tbreo parts of nitro, two of carbonata of potMh. and 
ona of Rulphui^ mlxad logetber, fonn tbo pidtt* 
fuiminani, a amall quantity of which, laid on a fti*- 
>hnv«I, and bold oror tho fire till it b«gloa to ^>el^ 
explodes with a loud, ahaip aulB*. &(ixod with tnl- 

;hur and charcoal it foTmi Quntyjvd^ (which eee). 
'iiTM- parte of nitr^ one of aulpnur, and one of fine 
■aw-diHt, welt mixe^ oonaljtute tho poiedtr tfffiuiim. 
If a bil of baae oopper be folded up and eorvod with 
thJB powder in a walnut >beU, and the powder be ect 
on fire with a taper, it will detonata rapidly, and 
fuse the metal inU> > gltibule of aulphidie^ without 
buroiug the shell, Tho matea* of nitre are aa (nl- 
lowe:— It is found ready formed in tho East Indiai^ 
in Hpain, in the Klngdon of Nicies; and it abondi 
in tlio limeatuno cavee of the weatem and aoolb- 
wcsUm sCaUn ot America, in which lait-meotleoed 
aituationa it ia rarely fo<und ready formod, bot u 
obtained from tbo nitrate of Utne by dooompoaiig it 
with carbonate of potaasium. Large qoantitiea ef 
■o-called Chili ■altpi.tre or nitrate of eodlmD are apw 
imported, from t^ouiJi ^Ucerica. Far tka g i Mt or part 
of the nitrate mudo tisc of i* prodncod by a eembtoa- 
tion of circtimntoncca which tend to comtiaae and 
eondcnee uitrio add. ThU acid appears to be pro- 
duoed in all altaaUons wbw« animaJ mattom ai« oon- 
pletoly deeomneeod with aocca of air, and o< pr^er 
■uhxtanocawitJi whichitcanrraiinr coinhinR. GrMinii 
frvquently trodden by oatt!i>. nnd impregnated with 
ih^r excrement, or tbo walls of iohanited plaoeo 
where putrid an iinal vapours abound, snob aaalan^ttf- 
houaai, drains or the Uk^ afford nitre by long ospoe- 
ure to the air. Artificial nitre beda are made hj an 
attcnttcin to the circumitaaoes in which tho nit 
is produced by nature. Dry ditdiee aro dug; and 
cokcivd with sheds, apco at the sides, to 1cc«p oO tho 
nun: thno are filled with auiinal BuLotanees el all 
lunda, and occoalonally watered, and tomod op bou 
timo to ttmo to aocvkrate the nroceea by tiifiiorfin 
the turfaoei to which tha air has acceea When a 
eortaia portiao of nitrate is formed, the pmu— 
appears to go on mora quickly; but a oertalB qnaati^ 
•Lopa it oltogelhtT, yet after this cewHao tko Butt^ 
rials will CO on to furnish mnro, if what ia lonoed be 
extracted by liidviatiuiL After a tuooe^oo d msny 
months, mora or toes, aoccrdlng to tbo aMangMBMit 
of tho operation, in which tho action of a rcgtdar 
airrent of fresh air i* of the greatest imporlanoe, 
nitre is found in the niasa. If the beds ocotainod 
mnob vegetable matter a ocnuddctabla portion ol lbs 
nitrous salt will be cotumon saltpetre; but if <4ber- 
wias, the add will, for the moat part, be combined 
with calcareous earth, to extract Um saltpotre fran 
which a number of largo cailts are prepared, with a 
cock at the bottom of each, and a ooanti^ of straw 
withici to provcul its beiug slonxid up; into Iheso 
the matter is pnt, togother with wood-aaba^oithor 
strewed at top or adtkd daring tbe filling. BoiUag 
water Is then poured on, and suflared to Maud lor 
Nuiuc time, aft«T which it ia drawn off, and 000 
water added in tho same manner, as long as aiw 
saline matter is obtidncd. The weak brine is beato4 
and passed through other tubs, until it boocmsa of 
considerable strength; it ts ihnii carrind to the bodlsr. 
It contains nitre and other salts^ tho principal oae of 
vbid) Is common salt. It b a property of nitre In bo 
much more solublo in hot Chan in cold water, aa has 
been soon abovn; but common aalt ia vcsy weaih as 
soluble in «*ld as tn hot water. Wbanever, tberera^ 
CTaporatlon la earilod by bciltog to ft cottaia point, 
mncb of tho common call will UXl to tbo bottcsn for 
want of water to hold it in solution, though tbe nitr« 
will r«muiij lu lulutiou. The coamuo salt thos 
Riiporatod ta taken out with a peiioralod India: '^^ * 



I 




POTASH— POTATa 



243 



mbaO quantity nf Uib fluid ia onnlod from ti me to titni^ 
Itul ttB ODOceiitntioB inu b« luiowii by tlie nitra 
wfakh orjnrtaUlMi is it, WtMn Uw fiuid ia sotncIenUr 
ftTUMnt«d it ia tekeo out and ooolcd^ and a grr«t part 
ei tJM Dibv Bipafalaa in CTTitala, whil* Uia miL»(uin;[ 
aomnMa aalt ooatiBaea diMotved, beoauM equally avlu- 
bla ts «dU « 1b bot vitcr, Snbwqiuat anpontiwa 
of Ite niiihii wiU ae^ante sura aftn ia ua aanw 
■aaiur. BTtbeaoggertiooof LaToUaramiuilirfEaplar 
pbawMadoj^ffd; ndvcitisUMonidaiiitNbopowdar, 
■■d »Mihiim it tirioo with watar. Thif nltn. whieb 
h caUed mt/y o/ fA^ ;tr(f boiUiyf, cont&Ina aonu <«m- 
inaa laJ^ from whirb it on*; W purified b; aoltition 
h a aBatt qnantitv at n-aUr, uul lulKniuciit evnpo- 
fMfam; tba ovitau Ihua iiIUuuqiI am luuvii lew cuu- 
Inwitnattnl wHa eoauBon salt tbaa be(or«. Tbc ujtj «/ 
•dbv ar* rariooL Baaidw bang «Daplo;*<I in Lh« 
cMBporitioa a( Smim, «nd for tb« parpaa«a of mcUl- 
hircT. i* Mi*M to pranwto tbo omDbunion of autpbur 
in fabricating Nlpbaiio add. It i» iincd in Uio art 
ol d^iaMg; it ia added to oamtnnti inll for prrannring 
Boat, to wbldi it |civ«a a rvd hne; it !« iimoribed ia 
■odidaa aa »oDoliag fabrif iiga and diuKttc ; and Mm* 
tan rawnvaadod it; tidzad witb vinegar, aa » verj 
poworful nnedjr for iIm aoa-actu-vjr. 

aUpfcate of imtMdBB) (K,SO,) b lonuad hj adil- 
lag dOntod aolt^Bric add to n wlutios of ewbonata 
€i frUaoh. sntil tbe acid and alluli&e piopartiea are 
■awtraliird ]t cryitalUna In iJx-aidMl |ntena, wiUi 
fyrtuidal tMrtntBatiooa^ and raqoiiwa for ita aduUoD 
Mventeeo parta of «rat«r M 40*, nod five parta at 213*. 
lu taato ia bitter. 

Bi-mdpialt of potaanom (EHSO,) ia Hio aalt 
atler tbe doaomfwaiti'M] of nitro by tnl- 
I( oontaina twim lli« qoamtity of add 
!■ Ifea H^bata, bai a vary uur tut«, and rMldena 
Viptablo eoloun, and it tnoro toluhle than lb« anl- 

tf l raw m of potaamnm (K|(>(V <> mluhte in 
water, and by crajxintiun aSorda priankutia ccyvlab, 
wbicb H* not cbaagad by e)rooaTira to tlw air. 

CUortf* of potiaaiim (EClOi) may b« fonnod by 
wa d rin g chlonns an It b lomod into a aolntion oIe 
potak Wbea tbo tololioa ia •atmated It nwy b« 
iWaiMaUd gently, and tbo finl OTttala praduccd 
•w ba tba nit In qoaatioo. Tbm ara Maiog, hcxa- 
bafal liBiliM^ or riMOboidal pUbn. Ita taatc U 
eaoUnc and dlaagraaablo;. Spadfle grarity, 2. Sii- 
•a^ parta of water at 60', aod two Mid a half of 
tTfltin «ataT, dlMolvo on* of it Tbe purart oxjtita 
la obtaiaad from thia aalt br aipoang it to a gaaUe 
b^at. Ita cfloeta npon iiuMiiDable mbataiMM an 
M17 powotfaL Two gnda% nibbed bbo a powder 
fat a moftar. and nin^od with one Erala of Bulphor, 
givo a b>ad detoaatlon wboa rtrock npos an anril 
wttb a baanwr. Pire gnisa of the adt, mixed in 

tbo maaoer with 2) of t^armal, will lio infiamod 

by atnw triturati^ia. If a litti* auear bo mixed 
«m htlfllB wticht of the powdvvd cblociMk and a 
Hul* •bong aoiiiluuie add paored on it, a anddea 
MMDOOiatko will eomaL If to 1 grain of tba aalt La 
a Bonv wo add 1 grain of pbwpb«ni8, and oommnal- 
aala to to a ill^ trttnraUon, it will detonata with 
gnat vioUboa, and attended wltb aonw baxatd to tbe 
rfratntbejetaof bamingphoaphonia. Chlorate 
lb la ileoooDpoaed by Uie actde, aoeompaniod 
I iba airolatiaa of a deaae yeJlowIah-groen nponr, 
wfeMi acta wttb groat energy on inflammable eub- 
itaneaa In tbb way a lifcbt nuiy be caaily obtainod 
at any tfmo by idacuig a few graiiu «f tbo aalt on a 
pieee rf f*|Mr, anvoiag a little oil ef turpantfaie on 
than, and thM aeolng a drop of atrong aolphnrio 
add; tbe efl will be tmniedialely Inflamod, and will 
kindla tbo paper. Tn matoh-bettia^ onoe oomnca 
tar pfDeorfng ligbt, a mixtun conilaltng of augar. 



liko that abovD dcecribed, axcrpt the preaenee of a 
little mudlago to form the oouLpoand into a Jpaat^ 
waa apriad ow w^fAmr matcliaa, whieb won luppod 
into a bottie ocntainiag a pcwtion of ntronj aulnbnric 
aod, retainod by Gbrns of umiaalhuj or apun Hlaa. 

Pluwidt of potamitim tia« a sharp CaJitR, is dvli- 
owaeaBti very aolublc in water, and not eaady cryi- 

POTASariTM. SeoForuB. 

POTAl'O (iWaiMim tMh«rtnm\ a plant belonglitt 
to the uatunl order SolanaoeaF. Manltind owe (lui 
inTAloahlo eaculent to the temperate reglonaof waat- 
cm Stiith Aniorica, whorti it atlll grawa wild, and 
where it wstM cultivated lonir nrevloiia ia ita introdno* 
ticio Into Europe. The wuu plaut urawH cUefly In 
■te«p rocky districts near the ee^ and produeca only 
■mall, taNtrliiia, watory tuben; bot, on the otbnr 
bauil, hu Hwmt'UnelliDg flowere; and altbougb tbe 
itowera of tbe modum L-ultlvated plant are aoentleM, 
Cluuua, tbe firet Kuropoau who mentions tbe potato, 
deacxilnng in IGOl the flrrt ctdtivatod potntoen in 
Bdgium, prabea the «v««t hovU of their blovoma- 
The potato wna introduced into £im)po for the firat 
time by thr^ i^pnninrdii nftrr th« conqneot of Vtxv, by 
wbom Jt waa Hjjreiul uvu the Netberlantli, Bunpindy, 
and Italy before the middle of the aiitoentb contury. 
In Germany it ia fint beard of ai a rarity in tbe 
time of Oharlca V. Sir John Hawkini wan tho firrt 
tn introdooe tbe plant into Ireland I156&). Sir 
l''rmnda Drake was the R*>it Engliihioau who bronght 
the plant from tht: New Wr-M; but Sir Walter 
Kalekh, who hrougbt it from Virginia, naa tbe firel 
to moko it well known in EnKland. Although tbe 
potato wa* tolerably widely diirtribnted on tbo eon- 
tinent of Europe licfon; that dat«, it stoma to have 
been cultivates! more aa an article of curioaity than 
aa an article of food, and Ireland ia aaid to have been 
the oonntry in wbicb it wm Bnt cnltivatad on a laig* 
ecalo aa a moana of mhaiabenoe. Aeenrding to Alex- 
ander von Humboldt it wm fiiet *o cnlUvaled In 
]-:ng1and in Laucaaliire In 1084, and In Gfrmany in 
S«3iony in 1717. In the oonmi of the dcbtoenth 
oentury It became a favontito article of food nlth 
the poorer daaea in Germany; but in Framw there 
oxiatad ao violeob a pcoiadiea againet it that it did 
not oome Into use nntll the reypi of Levis XVL, 
towards tbe otoao of the olgbteeatb centiii7, mainly 
in amoqitcaca of tfa« affoiU «f Panncntier, who bad 
Icamod bo appredate tbe adTantajtra of the plant 
while a priacuer ia Genuany. I4ow iLe potato h 
almoat BniTenally cnltlvaied wilbln tbo tropic^ and 
bo lat. 04' «. in Swedon; and it aeooM to be adapted 
to all enoeurea and almost every ami. Tha potato 
baa added ■"""■"■ to tbe popoIaUoB of Bur(^>e, ami 
till tba diasaaa appeared bad rendond bminaa far 
leaa frequent 

Tbe potato tuber ts tbe nni l er gi o un d alem of tbe 
plant, roQoded or oUong, almoat always white intes^ 
nally, bnt dlAering in diSereM varieti«B in tho oolour 
of tbe aldl^ whlcii la of Tartona mlxturea of bnwi^ 
pnTple, red, yellow, and whltai The stetna are ai^o- 
iar, haibaceooi, and Iniai 1| to S feet Ugh. The 
teavaa are pinnate, Dompeead of Are or aevan laaooe- 
late oval leaOeta^ baviiu- leaaer coea betwoea tbem. 
Tbe Bowera an pretty lam, naiaaf««i% aod d ispo ned 
in eorymbe upon losig peduadea, wUcib are Jnawted 
oppoalte to ibe anperwr leavaa; iMir eolour is violet 
bluiib. nddiafa, or wMtiah. Tbo fruit ia eS noderalo 
site, and raddisb-hiuim when ripe. The potato aao> 
oeeds beat in a light sandy loam eootaUdiqr a oertafa 
pcopottioo of TCgetaUe matter, llio nsnal mode ef 
planting ia by cutting tbe tubet* In pleeea, reeervbg 
one eye or bud to eaa pleea, aod oovoing tbeee wilb 
earth. It itaed bo bt a mot* eertaio erop tfaaa aay 
ocbor, having UHla In low fnat stoma «r batX m 



M4 



«VHI tma tnng drmigbta aroonttDu«d nlnn. Tt U 
b«aiJe>,of bba viirimu fMm cnpB, plaotvd Iat««t, nixt 
thai einaAeoodopporttinHynf clonining the ^timL 
TbB V*rioticc of tlio putiitu ure vp-ry uticii^riiuB, tiiflur' 
Ing in the time □( ripening, in th*ir fitrm. Mzn, cnl>iii]r, 
nad qoftllty; and ia gvtionkl every <Ii«trii;t baa its 
peenltar or fsvonrita com, uid tbeir ujuni» bre qnit« 
«ri)itTM7 or locaL In 18<2 161 varlctli.-* of the 
potato wens vnnmeimled aa lutvin^ benn preriatuty 
or M Mug aiill cultivued In Eiuope^ &tid tin; lUMit 
of tlmu in (Ircat Britain. Ton yc&n later tbo 
bumlMr hail dwimUcxl down cnnKiilcm'hly. At thn 
tntter data Uiere were cultirated in Britain only 
a f«w of the «uly nhltA-aUnned vari«ttea, a nlU 
•DwUsr niimbor of tbe late coaim whita lorbi, one 
nd {tha Orkney), one blue (tba Jenav), ftnii one 
gardm nd (Ibe fortyfold), abilc all tbe fino old CeM 
aorta, such aa the York^liirq reds, Davoii^ttirtt ri'de, 
Perth reds, bloc Ann*, buFfs, &c.. hiul ti^ilall^ dir^.i'- 
p«ared, loaviajt Itchiiid tliom unly tbe reminiiucnct) 
of wbat > ricbly-fisvoureii mmlly iHiitAto r«aUy was. 
Some variclioi dr^fcn'^mte and otbtjM improvo by 
reini>val &> ati»ther diatrleb Xew ones uv readily 
[irociirod Itv sovrin^' the sMrdN, whit^h, v/itb cihrv, will 
prodnoc tubora tih<> tbird ynnr, anil » full crop tha 
Riurtli. In Mlditiiiu tc toe umuil culiniiry xuk* of 
potatooe, bnad may be nutda by mixlDg with then 
K neftrlr equal pnrtion of wbeat-flonr; and also a 
tdnd of cbneae by rrdudng thrra ta tlin conxtxtsntn 
of putft adiiiut; au iiiuul ifuiuitily of vurO, and vitli 
K tit^a aalc and aotno otber io^radionti mixing Ihc 
whola logefther atirl frjmiiiit; it in fnoulHa. Alixrbol 
ia vary extensively diatilliMl from tbe iiotato in 
Kvrop*. Starch may b* mado by the «!mpl« procvas 
of temping them in water antl thoroughly waabing 
tbo pulp, whi^n the atanih aettia to the hnttnR) in a 
donae aodimntit. Thi* starch is not only tued fiir llie 
aame nurpoao* aa that prr.'jinrcvl from whoat, but also 
H A iltt, wliicli dna not putrrfy like tltM produoed 
from animal aobatancea, and boa no diiagreenbli; 
BmeU. Y«a*t may alM tw prvpand from tbe potato, 
aad «vai tbe aeed-veaaeta may ba omiiloyod aa a picklo. 
Like all plant* thikt are extennvely enltivnted, 
and undtir very diHcrent drcnroatnncva of »<iiL, i;1i- 
mat*, and artiAoial tr«atiuoBt, potatoua are «>xtrenD«ly 
anbject to disvaae. Of soma of thcao diwuca onn- 
psntdrely tittle ia known, ovfng to tiu wnnt of 
carvful ot«orTutluixa and tbo linifted lcnowledg« of 
organic cbcniiatry at the time nboD they apnow«d. 
The tnoti furinidablo of ibe diaeaaca to which Ibo 
potato vraa liablo before tbe nppearanoe of the dry 
and wet rat and the potato murnin, or what ii 
naually apolcen of aa the potato dinoaae, were curl 
and arah. Tbe piioolpal feature of the former of 
these two diaoBAoa, that froo which it gets it« nuop, 
in tbu oiirling of tbe aboots aoon nlipt thrir fint 
appeinuKw. After Uiiv ayiuptom biu niiuit/eaLHl 
icwif tbe shoot* male* Ultla rrogrum, and twnietinioe 
diaappcnr altogether. Tbe plaata affected by It pro- 
<hioe no bnbera, or only a few minute one*, which are 
Lard uid unfit for fuod. The diaesae waa fiiet g«De> 
roily noticed in ibo y«ar 1784, and wai extnowly 

{rcraknt in England towarda tbo end of laitoontury. 
t ia attributed to the gnulual weakening of Lbo 
plant by oonslant propaifation from cuttings Instead 
of from MNid. The acab ia a diseaOT whidt attnclcg 
tlie tuben, wbich bceome covered with brown apola 
on tbe oulaide, while nndemealli the Bkio in a fungua 
csdled Tttbrrfinia fubit*. 'Vbe first detailed dmcrip- 
tion of the diseaae known aa drv-rc4 m to bo found 
to n meanolr published by Mtutliie at Monlcb in 
1843. Tbe diacaac had boon prevalcot in Qcnnany 
a[noaI830,coiiimttttii|; groni ravaj^m tbora^ oapeciall j 
In ^e KUth. It ia vburacterbiod by a luin]«nin2 uC 
iha tiawM^ wbiob ara completely gorged with ujo»- 



lium (tbe nvetative part of funfl), vblcb b 
very oloaely compaetod. and whioi nt leagtb bust* 
forth in tbe fom of little white ciudiioo-mbaped tnfi* 
InadL'd will) fmi.-tiA cation. 1'bi- whole tuber aon*- 
timm Iwtriiinoiiiuj lurd mi to makr it diSicDlt to bnak 
It e^-cn wilb rvpeated blows of a hammer. It it 
consUmtiy aooompaniMt by & fungna, called by Mar 
tiuB FutUporiun toiani. In the diarrste called wd-rtl 
the iHiiato is affected mneb in tbe aaaaa way aa by 
the dry-rot; but the tubera, butead of beoomiiig hard 
and dry. are soft. The ftmgaa itUofa ta ptMMt m 
wet-rot, allhougb diffrrcnt in i^ipeaiaooo from tbat 
which acoutnpanio dry-rat, is yet auppoaed U> be tb* 
same plant, which In oilfercBt atagea of deTtlopment 
ia rvforrcd to tha gooom £f>orolnehvm, Dan^JiKm, 
Fiuariam at PvrUpoHum, and Peiiala. Tbe petMa 
uuirnitj, mr [lotulu diswae par aetUme*. waa ftnt 
tle«rved in n lorioiis form in Qteat Britain In llieyear 
l^<r>, though there were ell^t ladicntioaa of Hon* 
or twa yeiun bcfot*. In the year 1844 it vaa taeal 
dimutroim in AmaricA, and it appears to have bean 
kcQWQ fur oitee un tbe weateni oeaat of that ooall- 
nunt TTsually tbe fint dgn of dhi ww ta tba M p wr 
noco of brown patobcs upon tha hAaliM aad Mtw. 
1 ti Home ntrly varietjca uf pol«to^ andi aa the aA< 
top, there doex not appeftr In many Insbutoea to ba 
any prorious diaoaao of the lonva: but thru in tliMt 
cMt» the tuben are not diseued ti I the prerakoea 
of the diaeaae la other later varietiea, and inaaand 
aa the tuben are merely nndergronnd *boots, it doa* 
not socm vary Rupriiing that tnougb tbe lc»vea bkd 
prri«liurl before tbe aeaaon in which those d other 
rariHtica were first nttavked, the tubers shouM aftar- 
wards becomo so. Tbo tint apnta indicativaof diataM 
appear upon tbe leavea tuvarda tbe eemmtsoencH 
of autumn, and when carefolly wuiniud are found 
to bo surrounded by a ring of • nnler oelonr than tbe 
body of the apota, and the whnle of ibis outer ring 
Ii fnwled vritb n fu»i,MH ui11i->l tbe Botrytit la/oCaiu, 
wbieb la a oonslaat nccumuuiiinent of the dtseaat, If 
not Ita causa. If Iha weather be dry tba |ih^[|im of 
thediscaao iaatow, but if araoBtwarmdarniperTcn* 
it will be fniind on carefully examining tba bnrwn 
speclta at diSunrnt hours of the day tlu4 tbe id««U 
spmsde with grMtmpiitity, daatraytBg all bcfote tt,ar 
oonvefting the icnen aells into bruwn. Tbe aeparata 
apota Boon become oonlluent: the evU extsBda to tha 
atera^ and if the weather bo favoumble to ita pro- 
grvea the whole becwmcs in a few day* oarna|d er 
putrid. The name poiasltic fungus that La found oa 
pntatoea a^cctcd by the potato mnrrain ba« ban 
found also witlun the bcrriee of diseaaed tomaloca 
and on tbe le«vea of a few Solanad*, but nut on 
plant* of any other funtlj. Of tbe plana adopted 
for niligatiiig tha potato diaeaag^ or pr«vcBtu« ta 
from aflfxting the tuben, tbe moat approved ia that 
of puUiug up the stalka by tbe toot u auen as tba 
firiL rumour of Its approach U beard. If lb* laa^-n 
ore alrvady epottcd before this i* dune, it ta nvdy 
efTectual. But few formera c«n be prevailed tlpcn 
to pull up tbo haulm* a* aooo a* tbe di *e» *e aoni- 
feats itauf ia neigbboiiriog locolilisik booavaa in 
tbe fint place thdr crane may in a great meaaun 
escape, and lliey would be greatly diminished in 
weight if this plan wen nrwtrtwl to; and in the 
cosond place tbe etaroh-miUs alway* afford a mnrki-t 
fo4- diaeiued potatoea, afaioe the dltoiw docs not aMtot 
the quality of tbo atorcb that m^ be obtained from 
the tuben. Otiier plana are tbes«fbre HMMie com- 
monly adopted. Tkt muat ■nocaaaful of tbeae ta that 
reoommeBded by Mr. Ueyar and Mr. D« Lombor, 
which Gonaata in laying down tbo patato-atalk* on 
each aide of thodril^ and coverint; lbs whole of them 
up with eaith except the very tip* of tli* builm. 
A* a moau c< fortifying potatee* agalut attack* of 



{ 



POT ATO- FU3 EL* IL— POTENTI AI* 



£«5 



I 



lb* dbMM, it b ti^ taoM Uiecrltto ftoJ ctiltlvktora 
Uwo^ uM^abU to »rai>d bU uodno fi>rciii9 of thu 
«np bjr tM ffdl Mid ftbunrfnnt kppHcAtion of un- 

limBJtl 111 mMDOKA. 

PUTATO-rUSEL-OIL, » dlnenekbly nnolUiiB 
UfBid obuiscd Ja the jJcotiolic fsnosittation of poto- 
Ik CMiiisti ctiieHj of ethylie uid lunylla aIoo- 
ncckOr Um laMer. 8m FIwkl-oii. 
r£MIClN, tincnoKT Ai^iANnnovint, tlw 
tBWlM ol tbe favourilett of tbu Etupmu CuLb- 
I IL, bom near Smoknak, In 17:16; diod !□ B«s- 
Mralii* in 179]. He i>*a dMconded frmn mi (uicicDt 
Poliah fatmly, and wbiln itUl young obtiLiti«I ui 
^■ignej 1b tlM hrave-purdi. Soon aitcr thi.' u«tn- 
MOO V CitbwiiM h« attneud th* attention of liis 
■ovmign, wbo a})!^!)!^! him co1on*I anil guntlnmnn 
(rf tho chaaibar. In tlia war i^iiut t!i<.' Tuckn in 
1771-72 ba aamd under Roraaaxeff, ami ai:iiuitti;<l 
hiiBiilf 10 -wall that b« waa rwarded with tba rank 
«f Uaatenaat'gMicral. Hoaa after bo gained the 
astfr* emfldeooo of Catbarine, and b«ttaiiii^ bur 
■vowd EavirariU^ Fnon 1774, after b« had moa- 
apd to mnibnt tba brotlwn Orloff, bis cbirf rival* 
tot Mue Uvuur <■( the «ai]irea^ till bi« ilcatb, a pctifKl 
af mora thaa iftMan j'ean, ba «x*>n:lw<l a VioundleM 
■WBT orerCatbariiK aod ibo dntioiee of tbe vapirc. 
Ib 1733 ba tnppnMed tfa« nominally independent 
Uiaaala of tba CriiMi^ aiul umexed it la Buaaia. 
Tbi^ bowarar, waa not afloctod without rmirtaiioa, 
(u ovencKM wbieb PctwnVlw rtaortvd wltiionl aarupls 
la iba moat tanpdftiryiBiwiii'ai. laordertauetus 
bia craM^iKal be Iboi crcatod a lat^ger army than 
BiMiia bad bitborto ponewed. In 1767, bafna da- 
■bnoa of axpclUDs tb« Tarka from Eoivpa, ha wmi 
Bp a new war, in tba ooonc of wbich, at dio haad of 
tbe maia baly of tbe Itiwna& armv, bo took DcaaboR 
byatannp7ttS>. In tbe foUowug yaar (1789) be 
took Bmhmt, bat H tba BnBaoei of nunia wen by 
tUa tioka eitbauatad Catbaona waa deairoua dF 
ytmtn PotcBikm, bowavar, wia raaolvad on onn> 
((uerlHjc Coaetantlnople, and ledatvd tba pmpwal to 
bbCr OB sagotiatiotM wilb tba antsny. SeetnK bit 
y/i»9» dkrcMrded ba ataTtcd for St Pctcntboj^, 
beBdnc by '&» prwence to win over Uie etnprcaa to 
hk alda plan^ 17fll);but Catbarina took advan- 
tagaaC bin dapartura from tba accna ofactJan Co tend 
plenaffT powatB to Prtnee Ropnia, "nUa, after once 
fflion danaling tbe Ttirba, dictated a |)#«ce. tbe |ir»- 
Hninariaa c< which l>r «igncil. MmnnhiU be wa« 
■Blartarned by CatbaiiiMi vilb uptcDdid fottivnla nod 
loadod with ctfu, but bearioe <A tbe etapa that bad 
boMi taken at tba atat of wir, ba at onca repairad 
tUtbw, Towioa to undo tba work of Ida anbetitnta. 
Ha nacbed Jaaqr, but afterwarda aef out frum 
Umbo* to NieeUiiifl, with wbat objact is not known, 
and died on bia jonraey thither. Hie body wu 
canfad to Cberacn, wbota tbe em|ntaa BL|)piTD|iriatetl 
100,000 roubka fnr tba erocti«a of a iDoniuiaat to 
Um, which WM aevar oonpletol Attarwaida, tbe 
Paul oanaed tba oorfae of bia moiba'a 
to ba takeo from lla ooSiL and thrown 
dit«h of tbe fntiifloatioB. Tba Emparor 
Alaaander at laot awarded bta bonaa n daeant bsrial. 
SaMated even U> diaj^iut with (onaui pleaann, Po- 
fembin dmiod Litawlf aothing, and aatniM araiy 
paafas whim bj a prodigal waato of tba mooay of 
Iba itala, and a wanloa 1*011600 of tba llvaa of 
utherm Tbooicfa tbe aaipRaa daaied bint BotUng, 
and tba eama of money wbiob ibo aipended on him 
wo w ikd all belief, rtill ba waa aw a a eaougb to 
•fpranriato to bina^ tfaa cMon inttvitad to Ua 
nr Olw HU^MMi; ud even to urge ordera oa tbe 
toMMmr, In tba OMna of tba enpHoe, ui order to 
rfA^dn fur hionaU tba monoy whidi wm naoeaaary 
laqifjyiag tbe wa&ti of tba aUtOw FotemklB nlao 



arito 

th* 




■ufTvred blmoelf t« be pnrohaaad by fonin poifm 
While poaaaaaad of iacndibla vaaUb, andthnwtaig 
avrny tbe Utjaat tODia at eb« gaaii&g tabic, or in tbe 
j^rsti&catiao of Mt wldina, be did not |ny tba blUaof 
tbiwe who fuminlKsl hi* ordinary auppliaa, Tboaa 
tndaamon consitiorad thctDKeNce ruined who rradvad 
ordcra U> (nmUb gMidB to Fot«mkin. 

POTENTIAL, a fiutc-tiuo which baa bccrii of luar- 
TcUouK ptrnnr tn dorulnning tba tnathwnatical tboorlea 
of gravitation, tlevtriaty, majinetlRn, fluid motion, 
thfl conduotioa ot boat, ita. It wis finl tbtrodoeMl 
for gravitatiim by Laplaoo, bot the naota waa finl 
giwa to it by (Sreen in bia eany On tbe Apptiaati«n 
u( Mntbemallcal Analyids to EI«utricily. Qreen 
may bo laid to bare cmtod tbo theory of potnitbtl 
M \tii now bat e it. Ilia work waa na^loctod till l&M, 
luiJ hiJare that time moat of ita important Uiaotenui 
hnd boon n-dJaoovered by TboawM, Gana^ and 
otben. Thoroaon broogbt Greon'e OMar befora tba 
world, and employed the princi^e to andving a bu^ 
number of dlffieult problanui Tbe mutual potantUl 
energy nf tvo nptwag bodim in any nlative poaidoo 
ia tba amount of work obtainablo Irrnn their muttial 
repuiuoa by alluwiuK them to aeparate tn an iuitait« 
dietancB aaiJDd«r. Ttis notantial at any point, due to 
any attracting or rapolUng body, or diatributiao «i 
nuUtor {qvaatitlei of electriolly, ma^etiMS, hc^ 
entar into f onunlfB tikaqoantitieaof ordinary matter), 
ia tba mutnal potontta] «oergy between it and a unit 
of naCtar placad at ibat point. It ii convenienl to 
ebugs tlw dgn for attractloni, ao that tba grarltatlaa 
pAtontialatanvpoii)t,dnctoanymaM, btbocpiantity 
cif work requmd to remore unit at matter from 
that point to aa Infiullo dbtance. Tbo Importanoe 
of thia function in electricity ia now ncknowtcdnd 
to be too kjrrat for it to be i^nnred tiy ct en nnmntlie- 
Rxatical puynciata, and w« auall give a few oeotMouy 
deflniUona and eiplanatlaaB, Ilia 'poteutUl' ataay 

Kint in tbe neighbourhood of or within an alootrifled 
dy iatboqiiMititynf work that would bo reijuired to 
bring a unit of pmltiv* electricity from an Infinlto dl^ 
tanoe to that point, if tbe Riven dutribiition of cln-lri- 
oHyremftin unAitcrcd. The 'difference of potential' 
between two polnta ia therefore tba qnantity of work 
required to move a unit ot alaottkttj from one pafait 
to tbe otber, Thia difference of potmtial batwavn 
two polnta baa alas been oalled tbe 'aleetroDwtiva 
foroe' between tbem; It baa been deaoflied tmon 
raguolr aa that wbich tendi to prodnca a traaafvr- 
CBoe of deetrioity frum one point to tbe other. (See 
Ohm's Law.) Contact, tbe DUtlena of magneto aBd 
of currcnta of electricity, Jbc, cr mto dillennioea of 

K«nUal, and give riio to the flow of elaetricity, 
ere la, of ooucse^ a unit difference of potcBtla] (er 
ibero ia an action of unit clectmmotlva foroo) betwaaB 
two Doinla, if a unit nf work u spent in trwnafeniag 
a unit qtutnlity of clcvtricily Tram one jioint to the 
otbcr. Ibe 'potential of a point' la an «xpnariaa 
ia common naa-, it meani tba diffatDca of poMBlU 
(the eleotromotivo force) between tba iioJnt tmA tba 
earth. A aurfaea at every pointotwbkb tbe poteo- 
lial baa tba aama vahia laeaUcdno'a'itiipoientUoBV 
fnci!.' At any point on aoeb B milaoe tbe forae 
which would act npon an drctritled partieia ia nor- 
mal to the «urfaM; in fact all 'linee 01 furea' (whieb 
•oa) ont aucb a anrfaee nonnally. Wben a cnireot 
b raniag aloBg a vrit% or olbo-oondnotor tbe potan- 
ttal varka from point to point, and it ta aucb that the 
dlfferanoe of potential between A and B U to tbo <Uf • 
feranea of potonUal between C add D aa tba r—Miaea 
bvtwera A and B ii to Om rmtataam between C and 
D. Tbii la mately a dednctlca fmm Obm'i law; ft 
ia the prindple of tba Wheatotonc'a btidgOL Sea 
Envott'a Natural FfaUooophy, IVxnaon and Tait, 
CUrk UaxweU'a Eleotridty. 



: 



POTENTIAI. ENEROT— POTOOKL 



POTENTIAL ENTniaT, that part of the energy 
of A ■/■teni of bodica which i* ijiin to thuir mljitive 
i>o»tiiiti, jiDiI whkdi ksqaal Uj thu work wLicli woiilil 
bo doao by tlw viricnii forow acti&g on the ayatcia 
if the bodJM were to Ti«M to thom. Hebnhnllx 
ckUmI tbia ' tlw Kum nf tur tcnoiauis' Thomaun called 
It 'Btationl 9n«rS7' (^''^ ^nu 'euergy' wu Gnt uavd 
t^ Young', in & scicntiiic >oni4, to doncte power to 
da warlc); but ItankiDC's canif^ 'potunlUJ uiergy/ 
■ignificMlt of the eo«r^ which thi; ayiteiu liaa Lho 
pawn to Aoqain^ but whi^h it i* not ptmrnumd of, la 
that wUeh km been uoivwully ftdoptud. If » atoao 
ia At a cert&ln height nbovo ih« ewth'e surface the 
])otfnti>l (energy of the sjratem consisting of tlieoarth 
and atuiiB, ia virtue of tfao (oroo of iirxvity, ii tho 
work wUcli might be dotie by tbe (alUuc of Ui« atonu 
lo ib* nufac* of tho earth. This work l> aait^ 
definite in amoant, tha waight of tb« atotis luid itn 
diatanoo from theearth hdttg known. Bee FHiHO[ri.t: 
or nu CoxKUVATioH or Exkbui. 

POTENTIAL MOOD, that raoo.1 of a verb 
which expraaea aa action, eveut, or drcomatance mn 
maralj' puMibla. In KoglUb thU mood la funned hy 
moam of tho anxiltar; nay. lu Saaeloit tfaer* U 
an infteoted nood baariajf thia uudo, anit havin|> the 
fnnctlnn atatcd, 

POTENTILLA, a. gmi» of pUnta of tb« nataral 
ardor Roaauctr, with a concave calyx four to five 
parted, four to five peUda, numfcroaa atamena, a late- 
nJ or ncjirly tonnioai slj'Ie, and Bower* whjto or 
Telluw, ■oldom twL Tho princiiial ■pod™ nro: — !, 
P. irytant, vt oro^i^n^ duquefol^ a wjumion Brltloh 
plan^ with largo bri^iht yellow flowcn. It ia aoine- 
tinea wed aa a fcbrifnj^, — 2. /', tormealiUa, which 
baa aatHngeut routs, fraquently luad {or Liniiiti;^ iu 
the Faroe laleii, and in tho Orlinoyi and Ilc<brldi]«i. 
Thay alao yield a red dyo. In Klllaniey thoy aro 
gtnu) to pf^B. — 3. P. aiuerina, whotto loavea ar« 
greoddy devoarad by ^eeae, and •ometimea uwd aa 
pot-herbe, and wboes roota are used both by boga 
and men. Two s^-ociee are u«cd iu Siberia aa iubsti- 
tnUa foi tea, luid acveral of tbcm make handaoine 
gardonplania. 

POrmZA. a province In tlio KioEdotn of Italy, 
in Naplea, boandod on tho north by l-'ogripa, on the 
eaat by Ilari and Leooe, oa lEic «out)i by the tiulf of 
Taranto and the provinoe of Cooetixa, and on the 
west by tho Medltaranwa and tho provijico of Sid- 
amo. It oomaponda pt«tty ckutelr with the andcat 
Lucaauk, whlnh, buwvvur, eit«ndi'd ti> tlie w«at ooaat 
thronghout ib whojo longtii. The chief prodnctintu 
of tbe proviQce are uiai:!);, bemp, wiue, ailk, raitoQ. 
Potonza forma tho whole of tbe departcaent {Mtmpar- 
tunfnUi UmifniaU). Artak of tha pruvincr, 4122 
aquare milrj; jwip in 1881, 524,4t.'.. 

f'OTKNZA. a town in Italy, Naples, capital of 
tbe provinoe oE aame nacne, on a bill of tbe Apon- 
ninea 8fi nilea mjlk. of Kaplee, It ia near the aite 
ei tbo ancient l'ot«ntia, from wbich iL hae ita oaiuu. 
It ii walled, aud uu tho whole very indifTerontly 
bnilt, but containa a number of handaotne bntldiBKii, 
amon^ otticra a line r.ithodral in ttio Itotio style. 
i'otontn is the Ke t>t a biihop, and poeaoMM a civil 
and a criminal cxiiirl, a aemiuary, and ruyal oollc^i. 
It has aiiflvrvd much from earthquakea. Tbe muat 
dlaaatrvoa a( mxat times was that of IS&7. Pop. 
a8«l), 17,878. 

POl'mEIC RoBIBI JostPB, a celi-bTati^d Praicb 
ioriat, born at OrleaiUL January 9, UiCS; ilied tb«re 
Uarch 2, 1 772. Ula dljreat of the maxijBB and prin- 
oiplea of the Boman law contained in JiiatinUn*N 
pandocta under tbe title of Paodectaa Juatlniann) iu 
novnin Ordinsm digtatai, waa morn highly oAmnavd 
ia foreign countrioi tliaa at home. Of hia pro- 
foiond knowledge of tbe droit wulamier wa have a 



proof in hia IntroducHoa h la Contone d^rieH^ 
and tha oomnientary which aocompanlea IL Hi* 
different trvatlaea on nriouspolnts of legal edaiKw 
are in tbe Ugbaat eMMB. Tbe SfAwhidi b a san. 
of fonndation for tho Mian, ia hb Tr*tt< dsi OUI- 
gstiona, which, aa ia alao the caae with tha reaL dl» 
plays a melhodioal mind, and Is diattnguUiea for 
clcartieea profundtcy, and precision, and for ita faich 
bvie of mcirnlity, which wim in acoorrtaaoe wilb the 
cLarafter of liia life. Potkiiir waa appointed |in>- 
f«Mor of Freodi law at the UnlvvTaity of OHeau^ 
and appropriated the salary attached to lua oAee for 
premiutna to hia moat iaduatrioBS pupils. A slalae 
waN civcUhI to him in euo <d the piiikdpal public 
places of Orleana in 1R&9. The beat of the oUw 
edltiona of hia wurki (ezcluaive of the Paadecbi) i* 
that of 17;7-7a (three vola. 4to). Of thia edldoa 
tl)(>rt> have lH>«in nitmcroiu r»impt— skma ia varioai 
fomiv, Tbo latcat ia that of BugncC (Fari^ ten *da. 
8vo, 18<.v )S). 

FOT!^ tho ancient Phaaia, a fortified town in the 
RuBidan goremment of Eutais in Tranacaoceaia, 
aituated at tha mouth of the Rion on tho eaatem 
ouut of the Black Sea, Sine* the erection of aztan- 
aivo harbour worla and tba opening of n railway to 
IMflis this town has bacome a plaoa of no anaU im- 
poitanoe in tlie trade with Paraia. Pop. S023. 

POTMSTAXkacoatMBietalfbRBed bythrnwinf 
lumps of eoppar into red-hot molten iMd. A^a. a 
kind of atoined glaaa in which tbe ooloura are tnoar- 
purat«d with the subatanoe by being added wIuIb 
the gUm 1* in a state of foslOD. 

PUTOCKI, the name of an andent Palish bnily, 
tbe eradie of whldi was the oastle ol Potok in the 
fonner woywodediip of Cracow, and wUcb atill liaa 
liLTga poaaa M o ma in Galida and tbe Ukraine; The 
followW AN among the moat disliagtdabed membea 
of ttie family:— 

1. CouirT^AMinjtwFXux.tbeoonuBaadeFof tb« 
Folish artilliiry, acted an importaat part In the 
tTonblu of 1768. He adhered pertinactootly to the 
old coniilttutioa of Poland, and eiertod bia inBoenc* 
againat the conatilution of May 8^ 1791. (See 
FoLAHD.> Potoeki so far forgot his daty to bis 
oonntry as to form oonniotianB with P"— t*^ nd in 
May, 1702, joined with Bzewosld and Bnoichi la 
tho docLaratioD at TarKOwiei againat the coDStttstiou 
lit! then uulled bluueU with Uis Kuaaian army, and 
waa one of the Uadera of the diet of Grodno, which 
aboliabcd the conntitiition, and subacribed the act 
fcrr the partition of ilie cotuitry. (SeePuiUATOWiKi.) 
He waa thought to aapira to the crown, and reoefaed 
soi'onLl important appoistmenta from Oatharisa 11. 
lie died In 1803. 

•2. CoiNT Iqkacy, hilt couain, bora 1751, Oranl' 
mAmhid of Lithuania, united with Ualaobowsk^ 
KoloQtay, and other patriuta In suppoit of the eua- 
■titution of May :t, ItUl. H« alao pnewed tha 
declaration nf thn king in favoiir of it, and io 17PS 
want lo Berlin fur tiie purpase of iuductng the 
PruaaLui court to proteot the Pcuee from Kuaria. Whan 
tho KiiMiivn tTO^ took poteemtw of tbo aeaMT 
Fotocki Hed to Dreaden, and waa deprived of hn 
eetAMa. In 179-1 he totumed to Wanaw to oogage 
in tho attempt of Knwiuako, and waa wpourtfd 
general and member of theiuprcme national cooadl 
Aftor the captun: of Wanaw he renu^ned In iIm 
dcy, tnia.ticig t<> tbe cajiitntation condoded with 
SuvarToA, but tiu wna nrreatcd ia December, and 
confined as a et&to priaoner ia Ruaeia nntU be vaa 
released by Paul in 1 7»G. In I SOS he again cflgaged 
in public aSairt, and morted himaeif io aSad tba 
abolition of sertdon^ and to ptromota the progres s uf 
education among the pee^Sk Be died in ISM). 

a. CouKT Stavisuw Roanu. brotl«r of tb* r*o- 



I 

1 

I 

I 

I 



POTOMAC— POTSDAM. 



247 



ndiv. bom la us?; dl«d In 18^1. HawujJwftya 
fkttUal to Um mam of hli unfntanste oounlrj. 
H« ditiiciiisbed hiniMlf grMtlj br Ui •loqii«nc« Id 
tlw vMioui diei* which were held MtWMn 17BS uid 
IT9t. WhMI tb« king BcrttHml to tbs Confadantiim 
•( Twfowiei, ud b^ ibU fulie rtep coiwumin»t«d 
llw rain of PoUod. Couol I'otock) r^dnd Into Aua- 
bi*; bat be vu Mrmled tbcn uid im)iriiioncd in « 
ItrttVM. Ob being reatoiwl to liberty, Uiort) being 
OD bom qI hcfTrliit tlna ckaiiw of hi* coMntryn)«D, 
hs Tvnnd Id Mi Mt&ta. sad dav<itod hicnwU to the 
tfiwhf^ utd ftft*. He eontlnnod Ia live in retlre- 
vaeat UII Oo ovatJoD of th« Onndduchy of Wat- 
'!■ 1S07, when bo rrttim«(l to hii i»tivocouQtry, 
^■td M pnudant of the rouucil of eduottion ftppUvd 
[iinreiiiittini;!}' to the {iromotion ot intellecttul 
Ivnltara unouu hi* (vIlow-coiintiTtDea. Wb«[i N*- 
I E»T« out that b« in«ditst«d ths ratontinu of 
iCMil kjncdom of Pol&nd, PotooWi'a uUeat u,d 
wen c»Ued into kctton b/ bim; and the 
I 4* ^*dt pftT* to the count tt wartn tribnto of 
I oo tUtoecMioo. In 181S Cuuul Potocid wua 
1 atlalBbor for sodHlasticnl %0tin uid public 
D, Mad was aftenrud* cboMO president of 
H« wu tbo Mithor of n work on do- 
, lod of n FoUah trviilation of WlnokeLmknn's 

4, Oooyr J«ir, «R« of the moat (tintin^iishod fif 

Slavonie hiatoriana, bom at Pikow In the Uknuuo In 

,17ei: iU«d in FoUnd In 1819. At an oarlj ag« b» 

IJbfBMd Um raolotioa of elMbriog op tho ouourity 

f MMi naicd od Slavento htetosr, uid pr«par«d him- 

|«K fioc WTjIng ool thia naolutioo bj * oooraa of 

atodba, and bjr trmrolling ovor the landa 

piad by Slavonie uationa. He also invvllud 

fvely In othor pvU of Europe and In Kgyp^ 

•van viaitod Chio^ Hi* Daoajf remarkable 

I kn: Voyte* ■> Tttrqw* ot m agjfbt fait n 

l>17Si (Wamw, 17S3): t>u^ anr lliiatoira oniTenclte 

t«t radtoKhea aw la 8artiuUi« (Waraaw, five tvW 

7-1788); Uiatolr* prlmitlv* dm pMiplaa d* la Ituaaie 

' 01. Pctanburg, 1S4>2); Tnf(nmX» htatoriquM «t 

' Xfognf hKpica cur la ScytU^ la Sarmjitie, et lea 

nlavca (Bruoaru^k, fuor vols, 17fi<]); Clirouirinp4, 

rateoln* «t roclwirclHa pour aortir k Vbiatmra du 

•^tatm \m pnplH aUn* (Warvw, 1763); Vojase tie 

"~ ~ i, wUh ragnvtuaoBaopperoontaliilnt; the 

of PrUlwiU (HMnWg. 1795); llittoirc 

govranofaenta do Vnlfayni*, da PodoUa, et da 

I (St, Petcnbarar, l&Ol-S). All ttieae works 

, I paitkniUriY raluablD aa collactioni of tnatcrinla. 

, Bii othtt woriti arc ali. like tboae dlod, irritton in 
A lif« of Jan Pvtock) waa puliliaUnl in 
[FotMiat CraoowlnIg49. 

POTOMAC, a river of North AmerioB, wbich liaea 
ik Ac Alleghany Mounlaina, and foma through ll« 
^«hela omnao Cb« bmiadar; botwoen Marjland and 
! Vfagibia, Waat and £Mt It pawaa 8hapbardatown, 
iQ«arg«lown, W'arfunston. jUanndrim aad ath«r 
falHH^ wid flow* Into Chesapeake Bay, bettreoi Point 
\ Look^ovt awl SniiVl Point It ia noarly 10 mllaa 
I ak tli month nd li at Aksaodrik, 290 milM 
^boB tbo oocntt. The tertninatlon of the tido-waCer 
jla Above SOU mile* from the aea, and Ute rirer U navi- 
Kgpfala for tb* largaat ahip* throngb aoarly tb^t dia- 
\ tanoB. Ila jiin<-UoQ with the Sbetuabdoah at Uarpvr'a 
, Vmrj ii rasaritkbly piccureaqiie. Tb* river k 1 
fathona de«p at its month, fi at St. Geor^'a lalaod, 
I jl aA Swan'a Point, and thence to Aleiandna. Above 
tWarfdMtoa than ar« a«<aral falla which obetrwt 
'm BftvlptdoK The total loagtb of the rirv h 
rHOaukei 

PCrrOSI, a dty of Bolivia, la the proTlaca of the 
WW noi*, lat ly* SO* R. ; loti. er 24' w. U «-» 
iMilliI ia 1$|7 i the roynl mint wae oaUbliahcd In 



1982, and tho populattim lacreasod ao rapldl; that 
Id 1611 it ainouoted to 150,000, many of whom w«re 
danbtleoi miinyoa or Indiana drags*^ thiLber by the 
aystom of forced labour callod miUt. TLe prcMnt 
popolatlon ia onlv abnnt 11,000, Tb* tDouutaiu of 
Fotoai ie 14.037 feet hljih ; and the city atanda om a 
plain more than IS.OOD fcflt above the Mi^al whU^ ele- 
vation the atmoaphnrc Li ao nre as bi c*nae estenme 
difficulty in broUiIijjfevanadtbnxtlvea. mtefaaoDB 
mine* faer« wl>fi) diwomod by Dtage Hnalc^ an 
ladino peaunt, when purtuing wild gnata. ArHrin^ 
at a atoep place he lAi<t hold >,i » snintl n)jnib to pre- 
vent bimaslf from falling, but tb» aiirub being uoLablv 
to nipTwrt hia weight wua lorn up by the roota, and 
diaoloaed to the hunter e rieb mas* of silver, Itunjw 
of whidi adhpc«l to tbe earth that come away with 
ths plant. Not long aftorwanla ilie <)u(.y)very tma 
made known, and tho fixet mine waa opened In ISiS. 
From the time ot the first dlacoYory to 1S03 theee 
&iineBaapp1ied1,09Q,500,OOOpb«tre% or £237,353,334 
at«rliiig, wbith paid thi* royal duClFa; and Ibia only 
icduO«a silver. If tlie ^'gld and itnugglvd rootaia 
were Induded the imoiint would be much grcator. 
Tbe number of minee worked was fumiirrly 300 * in 
] SOS only nina^HMven. The mines are aUll worked, 
althoueh their yield la very muoh Ices than It tonmriy 
vaa Tbey ore now eurpa»ed In productiveness by 
those of OcRO de Faeco in Pom. llie buika of 
PotoM and Omro hare the eicluaiv* privikge of 
buyins the rold and silver obtained frvm them. 

POT-POuKRI (Frencb) si^ihea the aanie as 
oUi podridn (whicJi aco). IL lUao nignilka ■ veeeoL 
ooatalniug flowen ur planta, and more gEnerally ai^ 
•ort of medley. 

POTSDAM, a town in Pnuria, capital of the 
government of ttie same name, and the aeoond royal 
reaidonce of tho kingdom, 17 miln aoutb-weat of 
Berlin, on the Uavct which Is here cnxeed by a 
bridj:« 600 feet in length, and eapaada into a Uke, 
with finely-WDodod ■]o[)iiig hankx It c<nuiata of 
the AltabJlt or Old Town, u( an l*land fonnod oa 
the south and south-wsst by the Havel and the 
north and west by a canal, and of tho Keusladt cr 
Kew Tuwn, induding KieU, Friedrichsladt, IJntofa 
Kevinr, anil a^vfiral suburbe. Tbe dillereut oarta 
communicate with esrah other by bridn^ ana the 
whole forms one ot tiie handaomeat and most rego- 
larty bnQt towns in Germnny. Of tbe Miuara the 
most deeerving of notice uo the Old Market, with 
an obelisk of whito and red marble 75 foot high 
and baste of tiie groat elector and the fin* three 
kinga of FruMia, the WillMlmaplata and Ike Laat- 
gailen, laid out in beautiful walks axid atlonied with 
pavUiona, ita^es^ and founlaiue. The principal edi- 
hocs ors the Garrison Church, oontainiuij: tbe tomla 
of WtUiam I. and Frederick the liuai ; tbo }JikoU 
Chutch, Uie French Cbunrb, built after the modaj of 
the Pantbsott at Home; the towo-hoase; end the 
royal palaoa. Educational and beaovoloBt institn- 
tlona are nainenniii The nunuiaetmeo Include oil 
the oedlaanr tlssnas of weo^ Bnei^ cotton^ and sOk, 
leather and hwquerwarek moohlnsm oortbnwnn, 
ebemhial psodoot^ wax-doch, chooolato, vinigir, 
tobaoeoi «. There b alao » govemMMat manuiae- 
tory of anna. Potadam is the aoa of a blabnp, has 
a provincial, high, and naiBeroua other ixmrta and 
offioei^ and nveral litenuy and other aocletisa. 
Imipsdiatoly to the weat, onieide tbe ilrandsabiug 
Gate (a tHnmpbal aneh in the atyla of IVaian'a), 
commence tbe gnidene of tbe Palace of Sans Soooi, 
laid out, under the diraction of Frederick tbe Great, 
In still Flench formal taato, with alien cut Iwdgaa, 
statuaa, baaina^ &c Tbe palace ite«ll atanda at tba 
cktnmily of a braad avenue, crowning tlia aoannh 
of a auaoernhm ot tetiMca; it bae a fine HitmaiK 



246 



POTSDAM— PorreRT. 



M il ft low InOdlni;, by no raeuim hnndtom*, vid 
eaifdamlllff of oolico intm tb« istdrMtiu); amocU- 
llau conneotod with iL In tba Mtcnc ncighbonrhno) 
li Ibe New PkIaci!, » vut bricW building aintainuig 
SOO apMimwtU, Mid •KhlbLliu;' uiuvh ^stiuly iiu>g- 
niflatnoi^ «r»etod br Ftsdariulc at iho end of tho 
Bwen Ye«ra' «r«r, in r qnrit nf tirnvmln, ta etinw 
th»t luH rerannea warn sat exliauated. TLura ia > 
third pftliwe in Um eat^roM of the town called th« 
Morbid VmIium, at th* I'alttca of lbs Holy Lake. 
Poladiuii wa« an unimportant place till tho gnat 
cioL'tor lelectvd it na a place ol rciiiileiice uml ouilt 
Uif myal pftlac* in tbo town (IW0-"3). Improvo- 
iscnta bAve been made io h by nearly i^l tlie kings 
cfPruaaUk The moat (UMlnjpiiuiedDatiTenfrotsdAiii 
ia tbd culebraU'd at«tMnian and philolngut, Karl 
W'tlboliu vgn Huinbbldl. Fop. in 1S80, 1^,447. 

PO'rSDAA'I. a town in the United Htatcs, in the 
aUt« of New Yurk, o-uuly uf St. La-wreaM^ 11 mile* 
S-il.t. ol Canbin aitd 10 riUl-« from lb« rlv«r St. 
Lavronott. It biu agvcral MW-mitls «mpl«y«d in 
preparing luoibar f»r tho Nenr York und Ucutton 
markcta, niimoroLLS fuundrie*, macbiii«- shops, ntttiiu- 
f acluriea u( (nniitiiroiuidBgricuUuraiiinpIomanta, kc. 
l'«ii>. nt tUa Uiwcialii]\ 7774. 

POTSTONK {Upu oTfarii). n »pwi« <^ tale 
oont&liiinK an udmlxtiini uf obloHte. Ita colour 1* 
grecu of vaiiiius Bliiujir*; it i> yri'ojiy aiid «i)ft, but 
oeconwa hard un boJDg exposed to tho air. It 
dflrivM the naino of powtone from iu capability of 
being mada into vuo*, £&, by turning— a purpose 
to which it il i>ft«ii applic'l. It WM well known 
to tho aiioienta, wlio obtained it from quMriea in 
Um laland of Slphiioa <now Slpbasto), ons of tbe 
Cyclailoil and in Upper I'^pt. It is now q^arriod 
bi tlx Valua in SfitcrliuKl, in Norway, Sweilon, 
OmnUnd, and the ueij;hbourlii>od ut Huilaou* Uav. 

Pim'KIl, Joiix. primnto of aU England, bofu 
ia 1074, wfta the aou ot a linen draper of W»k*fieW, 
in Vorkabiro, in lb* gnuiunAr-iicbool of wliicb town 
b« reocii'od tb« T^dlmenta uf n dawical oduoAlion. 
H« then beoaine & member ot Ualvemlty CuUeM, 
Oxford, Mid to 1994 (ctloir of Lincoln Cullcgo. In 
Iltl>7 h« printod an edition of Lycxiphn^n. Soon 
aft«r dOf'T-I't') appeu-vd bii Anba-ubiKia GrKcn, or 
the Aiiti(|uiiie« ul Greece, tu tno voU. 6vo^ irhlcb 
ban gniio Uirniigyi many cditioni^ and was lonf india- 
|>eaubl<.- lu the danicU attidonL In 1706 be oeotma 
cljupl.iiii U> (Jiitwn Auiiv, on wbif^h occaaJou he gnulu- 
at^diM iJoctorin ]>ivinity. In ITOShowasapgiointod 
rc^us prnfiTAinr n( divinity at tJxtord, in 1715 was 
mued to the >«e of Oxf unl, Bud in 1737 wm appointed 
Arcblnabup of Cnntorbiiry. Ho died In 1747. Ilia 
works, btaidiN thoM eiciumcrxtud, arc A DiscontM 
on Obnroh Cofomawut il7<>7l, an edition of Clomrms 
AlevandrinuH fl714>. and tlivological wurka, printed 
tuertlier, iu tiim vols. 8va (Oxford, I7G3). 

TOTa' £ I!. Pa L- L, a paintOT of Mifaiial*. bora at Enk- 
huiaen in lloltAnd in I4^2,wm theioaof Pctor Potter, 
a painter, fivni whom he re«eired hi* liivt inatruciiDU, 
but to whom hti hiina«If waa Krafttly eupertur. As 
«arty sa his 6(U)eutb yoor he had sxecubed & work 
which wai unii«n*lly admired; and after he settled 
st tho llaffue he was unable to satufy iba demand 
for Ilia worksL Uf* department was the paintlnc of 
Milmala and landscapm but b« wm more nutTmi- 
Isrljr eaocceaf ul in the former: tho latter were desired 
meitily to uSord an upjicirlunity (or exhibiting nnitnala 
InditferantuUitudiniAndcircuwiitaiiote. Hisoolontiug' 
is uncwDiinonly bcilliont, aod Uia separata parts are 
moal dsHcstsly audited, yut wltbont any ifipssrance 
of stidneis ur msanerinn. JUia pieces were (pnerally 
ot a uniall nte; bat there ia onn lii the BHUeiUD dF 
tlie liable, wbluh orlgfnaUy bvlunj[ed to the Prinoe 
el OiwiJ^ nqircssaliag » mao aad cattle, with a 



Indl hi the forefTouad as Ifg* » Uf*- It is wall 
known aa Paol Potter's BoIL His walks were always 
oc«itpicdin<itudy: rli n1 r- rr ntm r^ his fan ij bi hiiMM 
diaUily BkuU-heJ. U« died LB 1664, at Iha ife «l 
twentynkiia years^ at AnMtenlaiD, whan b* had 
been naidtntE two yean. Hk m(i«v1iv» an Ml 
leas eateemed than Us |islntfai|^ His eaUaat (teosi 
coiudiand a rery high prices 

rOrrER'9 clay. See Cl»T. 

POTTERY. The art of foruinff vaaaels or ntan- 
^Is of any sort of clay, fcnoaded wi^ water sjid har- 
dened in Itie f re. ia of bigb aBtii|uity, and we fiad 
mention of cutheowora in the Mosaic writiap. The 
Greeks at an early period had poUerka at Samo^ 
Athens, and Corinth. IXtnuratoa, lalbar ^ 1'ar- 
nuiniua Priacu*. ia anid to have iaatructcd tfac 
Etntscons and Bmnans ia this art. of which the 
Etruean rases sbnw tba great parfectioo. (See 
ETftdEtA and Vasx.) Glaicd eartbenwara was Ibbk 
■tippoacd to ho of no older date than tbe taa£ 
eentury of our era, and to have flivt origliuted «>fth 
the Arabs in Spain; but the diaoovery of ria»d 
bricks io tho ruins of Ilahylnn, of eoameDed tilna 
and gtaxcd cuHiiia in otber ancient citie% proved that 
thi* ia not tbe (race. The Araha, bowevwr, are eR> 
titled to tbo cwlit of hnring iattoduced Uw aasav 
factum into modem EurepOL The Italians ariai GM 
lo have become acquainted wttfa thia kind of wn, 
aa it waa manii fact ii rod ia llie Islaiid of Majorat 
and bcDce they gave it tho name of m^jolu^ The 
arc ol making It was leameil by them in tbc (ifttsnth 
cvntury, when they aet np tbuir first inanufacUjiry at 
Kaeiua. In Italy tho art waa imnrovod, and a B«w 
kind of ghae vat Invented, pnibably by Loea dalla 
Robbia, Aa the Italians b:Ml become aeipiaiiitod 
with Uie glaurd ware iu &lajoic«, and beuce givea 
it the name of inajobca, ao the French derived tbeir 
Gret knowledge uf II from the Italian tnaaufactocy 
at Facnsa, and on that account ijave it tbr. name of 
/alntor. About tbe middle of the alxtceath eentwy 
tbo msnufaclory of Itcroard Falisiy at Salstas ^ 
Frutoe beoams famous on acocwnt of the bcaolihl 
(rlaze and rich omameiita by which it4 preduds vcsc 
durtinguiidied. A little later the Dutch t>«gan to 
■nanulactiireat Delft tbe mure solid but leas beautifaj 
ware that lakos Its name from that tows. The 
pri&cif>al improper ctf tbe pott«r*4 art in this eoenlry 
wiu J'eiah U'i.-4l):priH>d in the lant century. A varisti 
uf ituDHnrare takes ita name fn^m hint. PoraaUio 
or cbinnwan firat boeame known b EitRi[M afaoal 
the end of the aixteenth cenlary throngli Um ItuLA, 
who brought it fruui tbe EimI. For further pattien- 
tan rejarding tbo history of pottery see I'uMSKa 
and CaiXAWABi. 

Though the variiwu kinds nf pottery aad pctvolsia 
differ freta each ulber in the detail* of their tBaaa- 
factnre, yet tbm* are certain geuersl priadfdaB swl 
prooases whii^ are oommoa to thea aU. ^Ila fim 
operations are oonnectsd with the preuiralion of Uw 
potter's poatiL which conaaate of t?ro £0er«nt faigrad- 
ivDta, an eartay suletaooo, which is the day propw; 
and a silidoua auhatance, which ii necessary to ia> 
crease tbe firmueai cf ihe war^ aiMl render it lea 
liable to shrink and crack on esposnre to heat. Eacb 
of these ingredients b firat prepared sepantoly, aflar 
which the two are Inoonior^wi together and underxtt 
aotne further procnsea before the eompuund malorU 
is n;ady for tha potter. Ilie cirtb* substance or 
day ia Rnt tbrnwu into a cyUndricnl or conioal vca- 
Ml. in which rovolvna an aprig bl abaft artud with 
a niimhor of kntres so amaged thst tbo flat shies of 
tboir Madnt are in the Une ol a miiral eorro. Tbaie 
are ska Qicd kiu^es on tbo d'les of tbe uvlinder. 
airangod in tho same way as those on Una n t olvi 
Bhaft, bat with tbeir edges turtMd in tbe 



\ 



i 




rOTTKUY. 



219 



I 



thM b, nprard*. TV rMull of lb« •ctlon 
Uiia nuKbino w tn hrinff tb* nU; to an wttran* 
< of cuinmlDiitioi). wlal« at tlw now lim* tbo 
! movprncnt of the kaivn,opentliif UkeftKTOW, 
foKM tlM cUf downward* till it makM iU Mcape b; 
an aperture at tbe bottoai of tho 
oylinwr. It b tbco oonrevMl to a 
rwt, wlwre It ia miswt irith water 
•nd well Mimd till it ia rcducod tu 
aualfonnpAp. Ila agitator ooonata 
<4 a nvalvinc v«tical riiaft, from 
wUeb proom it riyht aikglM tm 
«r four vBrtial aeriea of afokm, tba 
oxtnaittM «( vhidt an joined bv 
Twtiaal faan. Wlm tlw mixture 
hu htm efanriMMl hj tbii machipfc 
«ilbd a Wiiii^cr, till it haa aoqnired 
aum rthi ag Uk« tbn coculatcaioa of 
a^am, it ia nin off Umiojch a sot of 
wlrt^ ffuua, Mtd lilk nevca into da- 
twBa, wbcre U ii dUut«d with waler 
la ■ atandard dmvmtf. Tb« otiHr 
i B f K dfant of the pottvr'a material fti 
anally poaDd flinty or flbt-powthr, 
«i ft ii oalleil. The froeo^tm bjr 
which tba flint nodutoi an radnood 
la powder m the fuljowiiig:— Tbeij 
an fin* waabod^ thoa heated red- 
he^ and thrown into water to make 
tkm brittle and deetrojr thcdr tnus- 
Idmmj. Tbo^ are aait pouaded tn 
ft MnBpiiir-aull natO the; are nduoed to a eoane 
pmrdcr, which it brougiht k* tbe reqtunU degree of 
UMBBH lijF grinding ia a mill between maeeea of 
eltert. Thi* OnopowderieKileeqiiently treated Enuch 
ia the eeiBe waj m tbo clay, ao that at the eiid at 
Iba wparala tjoatment there ars two litjoora in ecpa- 
mte Hto af detenu. Tbeee liquon are auw miied 
la Mcb awHorv that the dry BlDt-nowder bean to 
tbe day the prmortkio of ooe-Biitli or oae-Eftb, or 
**es nun, aflonffding to the iiuality of tba day and 
thv fraotioe of tba mauitfacuirer. lie mlxtura ia 
then roa Into kog riMllow troufba rnUed aljp-fa'/aa, 
■adonuatb which iaanartai>g«m«Dtof flaeeinteadcd 
te pnmole evaporatMO. l^ore rcmaitu attor eva> 
pontinn a nnlfonn laelutk maet, wkldi la cut bto 
rabical lump«.aad tntarfamd ia thia foUDtoadamp 
(■Uar. where tbo ItuaiN are pUod one above anothsr, 
mad allowed to tvoMa for ecreral montlu. During 
tUa tliDa a praean of fermentation or dI«lii(«i;rMba 
goa Ml, by which tba paate beeomaa fiacr in ^rala 
aad BOt ao apt to crack in tho baking. Hut erea 
after thla proceea Uia Int^redlenta cotnpuatog the puta 
are not thoagbt to lie iuiiaMtely eooogh isoorpented 
laietber nor auflicienUy fine In teztont aatit aaotbar 
o^iantioa bai been nnder^one. Iliia is called Jap- 
/muff or meiffina, and ia perfurnMd in thia way:— 
A werfcmaa takea each lump in en oc a adon In both 



made ta tDmlDE, or what ia technically called lArwimiv 
t1i«in nil the wbaeL Thi* in ui apporntiu rcaEinkling 
an ordiiiary taming -la tho, cxcxipt that the aurraoe 
of the chadt la horixontal lnal«ad of Tertioal. Tlie 
dtuck b in fact a revolving t&bli\ in tbe oratro cl 



ntL 



which a pleoe of day b placed, wbkb the potter 
begiua to ahape with hia hauda. Tho rulary luotiuu 
of tiie table givae the cUy a drcular form, and it la 
gradually wrmigbt up to tbe tnteoded ihape. fig. 1 
abcwa the dlHercnt ntagoa of an eartbwwara veaeel 
wrought ou the whed. It u then dctadted ftom 
tho tevolving UUe and dried, after whidi it ia 
tAkcn to a lathe and poUabed with a tool. It b 
at thia atage of the manufacture that the handlea 
and other ajModagce are SttMl on, which ia dooe by 
BMaaa of a thin paate called «fif>. The artidee are 
BOW removed to a room, ia which they an laid oa 
ahelvea and dried mere thoroaghly at a temperatan 
of 30'toM'Kahr. When they have raacbed a ataga 
whidi ia called the pram atate they are again taken 
to a turalng-latbe, on wbiob tbey art taoro truly 
»lui{>Dd, M well M amootbcd and tniniahad. Wbco 
tbo arliclM arc not of a dietUar form, and aocordingly 
oonnot be thrown vr turned, tlwy are dlbar pnMaeo 
or cut In monlda In tbe former case the mua aaad 
ia of tbe muuo oonaiatcnee aa that uaed on IIh wheel, 
and tho moolda into which they an pceMed ai« made 
of Fkria plarter. Ia the latter caae aioulda of tbe 
Hina aort are used, but they are alwayi kept thar- 
oughly dry, ao aa to have great ahaoTbeat power, aad 
the day mixture ia poured into them io tboeoodlliaD 
of alip. By tbe afaiorptiai of tbo wsur hi the parte 



haad^ and by m mddeo twbt breaka It aenm; then naxt tbe atould a enat b gradually formed of tbe 



•Mkn tba two halvoa together ia a dUfereat dlreo- 
Uom, and daehee the maai down on a board. TUa 
he repeala a»ore than a eeore of timea, after whkb 
the pnata ia ready to be ebamd lata tba Toatela which 
it 1* intended to toake. lltla final fooeeaa ef iacur- 
poration and ootoniinutinn U eomettmao perfeened 
not ia tbi: war dcscrilwd, but by a machine nmibtr 

Hlhat by wludi the day ia fint operated on— that 
the ammgeBMBt of fixed aad revdvinc 
\ thia machine isnacd the clay ie paaacd 
throogh It eereral tlswe before the operatloo b re- 
pirded aa oamplota. Tbo aame object b actaetlmaa 
effected in yvt other weja both ia thu oouatrj and 
ahraaft^ 

la ataking eartbaaware vemcla. If they are ef a dr- 
calarfomia the fint oponlloa after the jjaala haa been 



abapa of tbe awwild, aad of greater or loaa thidrwimv 
aooordbv to tbe Ume that the liquid b allowed to 
maaiB. The moulds are then revneed, and tbe 
exceaa of liqnld b allowed to ran ouL Pleeea are 
alwaya cMt In Uiia way in halrae^ which are after- 
wards carefally ioinad tonthar. It ia Kviilcnt that 
this method is unlj auitable for hoUnw artidaa 

When ahaped and dried the artidea in the handa 
of the pcUer are ready for the kiln, in whiefc thoy 
are berted until they actpiiie a auffldcnt diqgree of 
hardaeaa for uea, Toe pasta ef wfalcfc tbe earthen- 
wan beotnpeaadblhoaooavttted ialowbat beallad 
Mafwe or Awcnit. While uadetyoiag thb prnnem of 
baking the artidea are Indreed in larg« vameli, 
ealled tagftn or trffymn, to protect tbom ftvm the 
8f« aad amdce, and to distrihuto the beat mow vai- 




250 



POTTEST. 



(onn!;. Th« t^ggtm an madn of bftkod fire-clny, 
uid an gluud ijit«raallj. Thvy huva no tid. but »n 
jtOad up In thB Idln thon oan aaotfaer, to that tb« 
bottom of oD«Mrv«a HA lid for tlM OH below. Th« 
cnvion bvtwMia the dilTorent tAggan ftro oanfollf 
eloMd witk Mft oUy, wid tha top ugpn- in each pllo 
«r Amm^ is eoTcrvd with kb nniMlwd ou^ Utamed 
In the uuiu wny. Wlitiii k kiln le &U»d It majr con- 
tra from forty -elijlit tu fifty bungs, each made up 
of Mghtoca or uinetwn naggw* I'ig. 2 U a •itliou 
of a loiters kila of two ttoHu*. V ir an tho labi^ra- 




toHea, in tb« hwwmmk of vkicb an locn tho pU«a 
or bung! of laggon, aooio of which arc iboirn iu 
■actJon to diacavor the arrangeroont of iho vbmmU 
inddo; so an ttw fumaoee, ooothe Bma, ind ft 
doon. In order to indicate the p r c iyra ia of the 
bakias anniDbor nfciipmlledu^^dltjaniatioiliiaed 
bto tbe kilu in an unbalLed fagger, and an takon 
out hj the attadant at fliod iatamda an Um baldnf 
goM <Mu Aeoording to Um appearanee of tba watohea 
ike attMulant inoruiMca or moderatta the boat, and 
wbra the laet walcb It of the proper colour he crtul- 
oallj allowt the fin to bo lowered, and fituUf te 
gs 006. The whole firinr laMa fran Eortj to for^- 
two boun^ during tlio 6nt part ol mUdi pereod 
the Icilna are heated to a oontparatively mnilemte 
tompentui^ but during tbe Utter part the boat ia 
mam mucih RMtcr. AlUt the Idlna have be>CD 
kUowed to OOM to; ilowly. tlio articlca an taken ool, 
and if tbej an not to be printed, that ie to raoaire 



a onlflnred dfenjfn. ■osMtlmM abo «h«B ibj M* 
to be priciC«<l. are iDamnnted iniomo gUsing atota* 
called !}{a:t crram, a «itriJiaUa eotn p o ai tioi^ whic^ 
after tbe vunela have baea a Neoad tllM ■oh j aaM 
to heat, is ccoTorted Into a eoatiiip of gl"^ <Akb 
reiiiiore the veMela imporateabU to water. Tbne 
kinds of glnte are used hi BtalfonhihIi«— one for 
coBiinon pipeolajr or oream-ooloured wenv aneth>r 
for UkA tiner pipeclay wan. and » thini for the win 
which is to tie omamentod bj paintine with the 
pondl. Vorioua compocltioni an tmad to Bakfac 
tboM. In the glaxe-Uln tbe vweeli an aw nyd & 
Uw MUM w»y •■ ia tb* faiKuit kilo ; onW tbeaeggw* 
containing vcaaela oovered with one kind of glan an 
put in dillenint parte of the kiln from thoee corend 
wllb another kind of gUs*. elitoi dtffennt kinde of 
glaze require different tomporatima. The walchM 
oaed in baking tho k'"'^ ^ uidicate the prognea 
]nade, an pyroQietrLa biUa, coated with a nrjr 
f DBlblo ImuI enamDl, and at tbe vaiioa* itagea tbwt 
an oon^tand in colour with the halla reaerred fram 
thaooTTeapandinicetageeai the previoua baking. I'kt 
firing laata about fourtoeu ttoun^ aftor wbicb the 
UMDporatun ia r«dnetd very ilowl;, atiebt aidditieaa 
of fuel belBgn*d«topnTentatootapldlonof haafc 

The precedtog proeaae u e an aU tbal an neeowaiy 
to coiii;ilnt« a pUiin nartheniran iiaiil, bat verj m- 
qacntly the VMwla an adomod with pnolod dea^pa 
or paintinga. Two methodi an adopted la ptteliBg 
on eartiteoware—preaa- prill ting, which ia daw oa 
Clio buqiin; and h;at-priiitinK, done on the glasa. For 
tlie fint method ent^ravin^ii ore Gist omeoted Os 
copper, in which the tinea an out fnitf deap. Tba 
ooionring matter, miied with bdled oil, ia thcfi 
applied to the plat*^ which is meanwliilo Itopl boL 
lie Burfaoe of the engnvlng la then robbed deaw, 
ao aa to leave tho colouring matter onlj in tbe Bbm 
of the ongraring, and in order that ttie eokrur nay 
not tpniad and coofuio the liaci o( the dtiig^ tb* 
oil, which eMvea ai a vebicla for It, must ba vnttj 
tbidc and im. When thU fa done a aboet of tbiA 
paper called pottery tiwae, which ie previoraly Hltir* 
atud in a eolulioo o{ eoap and «at«r. Is laid on Cbe 
surface of the engraving, and tkb on beiug taken nO 
carries with it the ooloiind dMJ^ When the anper- 
fluotu parts of thn sheet of paper have been cat off 
It is transfomd to tbe b<MiiM, and well nibbe^ to 
Diako the imprtnloB rink Into the wmn. Tbe nHlcl* 
is then immened in water, and tbe paper wjpad off 
wUh a apooiga. Lutlj, tbe bnpreaston ia freed fiom 
oil In the hardening kilns, and tbe veaeel Ie giaaed. 
Por bat-printing an cn^ravtn^ ia fint mada, ai for 
preaa- printings on eopi>cr. but in this oasa the Uoea 
an not made eo deep. Tbe linee of th« on g i a v h n; 
an filled with pan Uiiseod>ofl, wbfcb is taken off bj 
■beet* of » fiexible pnparatlon of iflan, by BMaai of 
which It Is applied to tne ghued ewrface of tits « 
I'intily-ii'roiuid colour is then dilated on. and the «■ 
is rendy to bo ftrsd in thn enamel kiln. 

All the uumeruua varieties of earthenwan an 
nude in the manner just deaertbec^ with only elig^ 
modJCicstioos in the natun of the Ingredientaef Ihalr 
oompositiua or the proccnee of manufactun. In 
want oooBtrles a qiedea of narthnnwan TTiirlt an 
taade which remain porona, and when SDed with water 
pmiDote ovaporstion through tbe body al tho w«n^ 
and thus keep the water vool. In ^wla tbese an 
called alearaaai, probably from thn town ct Alci^ 
nr,rA, v)h«n tboy an largely made, and Hue name ia 
tb<! one by which they are known in thia CDuntiy. 
Ihrir Llscuit Is said to ooiitala a good deal of granubr 
Boa salt, to the eipulaloB of which in the baking Uw 
poroMty of tho ware is largely dne. Stonewan may 
be fanned vi the ctsja which an used tor other vos- 
•o\». witi) the addition of dUTercst eorta of aand, and 



i 
{ 



poTTEnY— porra 



Sol 



^MiMlinM of cMDuL A grul«r degree of beatt !■ 
appbfd tbu la tbe ceae ot ardlnan Mxtbcnwar* 
■u tU» hw Ui« iffed of inn— Ing ui itrtivtili sad 
■alfaU^ of the nwterUl, ud wbw warn* flairiiv nb- 
•lataaMiaa(liiatl,of nrodudng tludtUteof eeml-liuiDii 
•Uib la tbe diatugsbUag quality of ctonewan-. 
n> ^ — r lanuaAj laed wu iavuublj conunoii vlt. 
Wbctt IIm fsruM IimI utind et ita greoteet hekt a 
■pMotit; of ttb mtaUoco wm tbrowa in, end the 
«ih uHitg in vwour MivelaMd the hot w*, ui'l 
hjr tha ODnbiaUtoii of fa ilkall witb tbe lilicluua 
HitklM on tbe aorf aee of the wtn, prodnc«d « par- 
feet ritnficstiaa. lnatc«d of thh % mixtura of Cnr- 
nU itooe, flint, and othsr ingTHUnntji Hnji recently 
mote bleine, A kiud of >ciiii vitriiii^d warv, flnt 
aude bj Tfftdgymoi, ufcee ita name from Urn. It 
b Bttde of two Affennt Idnda of paetea^ both vary 
ptoaHceoMtoadnutof aJlkindtcindaedowiaaioiiu 
Wag wivugbt la them, uid afterwuda attached lo 
the MtMa^ Thia wkre u lackpbble of taking on ft 
■yr&riftl ^aao; but bjr a proceB caQed amciiniip, 
wUA b euoplr baklag at a hitth heat ha aagsvn 
floated iBbmudlj with » oalt glut, aoqaira n n- 
maakabb taatre. NatoTallf it ia of a CToam colour, 
but maj have aaj other oolanr imparteit to it b; 
laaaaa of aMtalUo axid«a and ochrvs. 

Fonchum or chbiawiirD, wliich ia the moit Woutif iil 
and expenjivo of all earthen w-arct^ ia fnnned nnir 
fcvca anrlUacwna miiMirala of eitr«Dna delicacf, unit«tl 
with wkaou* eutha capable of coauauninttng to 
Aam a oartaia d^reo of tmulnooacj br meant of 
thrir eitrifleattaiL Parcelun la of t*ro Itinila, ban) 
and tender. Doth oauaut, like oLtier enrthmwanrH. 
of two parte—* paato which form* the bixniit, &□<! n 
iTift Hk Uecnit of hard poroclam ia compoeed of 
tooUo or china elajr.aatitMaaeewbuib i& (ireat Brltua 
ia tooad to greateet abuodaaoo in Uomnatt. and ot 
dsMSipoaed fibpar, to which ia added at the mauu- 
fiMlevr of SkvTM a amaU proportioa of Bougrlral 
^aUL Tbe gbuw eonaiata of a falapar rock reduced 
lo a TC>7 fine poirder, and mixed with wat«r, ao aa 
t» fcan a milky lltiuid, into whioh tbe artidea are 
Appad after uadcrsuin^ a praliiatoar; baking wfalcfa 
b flaoagb l» ta^te ibeni pcrf ectl; di; and anlhckntlT 
aoBd liO bear baadling. Tender por«xilaui biacutt w 
Mafal^ oeaipoeed of a vitreoua frit, tbat la, a oonpo- 
rftion made up of eewal iamdieota diStftog at olt- 
fareat manufactories bat uwaja including a large 

rportien of oiHeiaaBaaad or ground IlicU, all bolcoil 
a furaaoe together till tbej are balf-fiia«d, aifl 
tbtt ivdaoed to tlie eoadltion of powder. Tbe glau 
of teader pereatala b a apeoiallj prepand apeefea of 
glaaa groond fiae, and made into a lujukl by mixing 
wllb wato-. To thia frit b added a Mrtaia (|tuuitit7 
eC wUla mad or boae-aah. Tint prooeaoa employed 
to mMwIartartog ponalato warn of both kindi are 
very muBh tho aamo aa Ummo uaed for other kinda of 
^vHMmtan, but thej all teqidra mucb more delicacT 
and oara. TIm bboidt paato «vea of l»nl [>ur<.-vlaiii 
baa m littto taaadlyeomparad vlth thai cf tha ordi- 
iiai i laiiiiMie of aartheoware, that it cannot witbmit 
dUeallr be abided oa the wlwel, and monlda an 
aanaqwotlyBaTC freqniDil.T uaod. B aaldea tUa tbo 
1i aiialafaanjr of tha ware when baked lereab the 
■Hglilaal kw la the bbcnit, lo that eren if the parte 
vara aqoaUj tanacfoua with that of ordinary eaitbca- 
WU9, BOCJi mora aUll wvold bo rvquired in tha 
veilaaaaahl^ Henee it happeiu that while a pnnd 
weriuaaa at tbo Skrrea porcelain maauracioiTy will 
aaka ao more than fmm fiftcan to twonljr platea to 
a day, a workman ui an Kn^tbh puttrry, with tbe 
neMaaae ti two boya, will make in the aame tiiM 
Uran 1000 t« 1200. The paMo of tender poreelain 
i^dn ta etill kea tmaakiam, eo that tha wheel cannot 
ha Med tw It at an, aad a Uttle mnoilBge of gum 



or black «aap mu*t be added to It befuiv It can be 
wcrkad even in tnouEda During tbe bokin^, too, it 
bccomae ao aoft that OToiy |iart of an artiula mmW 
ot it moat ba aupportad. £aoh artiols tu poroelaLa 
mutt be placed in the lijln in a aeparala naffgtr, and 
the anggim mnnt bo prepared with more care than 
tboee ot oidinaiy oaruwowart^ aad of apodal matc- 
riaU Taader tMioelala leodvea two ooate of tbo 
glaae, whidi ia tuaed in the upper part nf th« kiln at 
the aaiDO timn that tlie hbiiuit is b«knl in the la«-or. 
Metallie oxldo* inL'orpi>raled vritb gome fiinUe 
Sux, auch aa borax, ftint, Ac, are uaad for paloting 
on porcdain. I'\<r ^'''^'''g t^* S"^^ >* >n"^d with 
qiiickiiKirr and a llux, wliicb giva it the a[>|>aanuica 
of a blmk du»L Tbe ooluura are mUed witli ee»«u- 
tlal oUa and turpeatine, and i^jpUed by mca&j of a 
can)el'a>li*dr bnuh. lUfore baiag applied a ground* 
cnlmir b dusted on ibe aurface of the piece to ba 
painted, wfakh b pnrioualy oovored with a nnlfona 
ccal of boiled oil, If any parta are to bo kept fna 
of tbo ground -ooloar, tbey are protocbed by what b 
called a itmcU (uaually a miitureof nee-pliik, eugar, 
and water). After the colour baa been duated mi 
the veaatl b boated, that tbo oil and ooloar auy be 
hardened, and ia then immoriDd in water, that the - 
ittMtdl may ba washed off. It b then ready for the 
hands of tlio painter. ^Vheu tha painting ta fiaisfaoil 
ttic TceanI) are bakod in a pociiliar kind of orcna 
called mi^M, which are alao uaed for fixlug the 
prints Gguree on the slaxo of aloDaware. Tbeae 
(iveaa an of an (Along uapa, and have aemidivalar 
ronfa with openiiiga in them to allow of tbo eaoape 
uf tbu va{NH\.>iia uiatten of iJie coloun and the eaaea- 
tial vih with whlob they are mixed. Hie atticlea 
are acconlinirly not incloaed in aaggera, but when tbe 
mufflui are charged, their raimtha are ooroied with 
fin^-lilc*, ihc rhioka round whioh are carefully doaod 
wiLh clay. Ity tb« oparatioB of Ihe fomaoi DMOt of 
tho oolnuni employod Id pdntiw poroelain become 
quite dilFcremt, and tbe chaiwe wUdi lakea place in 
th*in i« uiuiilly througb a eerlaa of tlnta, ao Uial tbe 
proper tint will not be obtained nolmi the bakiDg b 
stopped preclaelr at tha proper time. Tha parte that 
have boeo hnuliad with ue gilding luUture hate 
the colour of gold after tha baking, but muit be bnr- 
ubhedbelaaatlieyaeciuiiethcroqainteluatre, WhOo 
the colouttoa pcnelMn are being fixed In the mnffleo 
tlie articlea^ eopcdally the lat^ one^ ate apt to 
crack by a loo audden tncreaaa or lowering of U»e 
beat Thb rUk, added to that of ruasfag tbe oc^outa 
byaa amrin tha anonnt of the baking bo banndor- 
gooa^ makee tbe execution of a paintiag in poreelaiu 
a veiy iBfBcull matter; yat many of the palndnga 
with whlcb aueh artidea an adorned an ganidae 
works of art. In the lataniatloaal Eriitbftkia at 
IxmdoB to 1871 Boma apeeimeas of poroolain waru 
exIiiUtod wbh dosigaa etdud on tbea by meana cf 
lluorlo acfd. The etching b dons hafora gla>ii% and 
tbe Unes nay previously bo lillod ia with goM or 
HUBD Mdour in eoameL ficolptarca an aomeUnea 
•xnciibxl }>y cnHting to Boalib to rattoos Uoda cf 
MircvLuu, called rtatnary ponalato, fariaa, Oaoaca, 

The name of hot-caat poroelain b given n AoMrica 
to a mUk-wbite translooeot kind of glaaa auub by 
melting vyolile, aDei^ or para aaod and oxide cf dno 
toKetbar, and pouring the adxtun tolo moaUa. 

Tha Md seat nf the maaufaetura af all l^ida «f 
oaclhaawara In Great liritain b Staffardahire, a dia- 
trict h) Um north-wmt of whlcfa, bating aa area of 
1<I aquare niili-a, sun by tlw name of * The Fottatba' 
Is IWl tho total Taloe of eartbnn and cbiba wan 
oxporto d from tbe Uulted Kius<k>iii waa £i,l»0,Hft. 

FOWO {ffainrdixui, a nous of Laantoadea er 
T«w«-Maak«y«, inhabiting udagaacat. TLbfccmb 



S52 



POTTSVTLLB— POULTRY. 



in Imgth. 'I'hc tAJl in cntnpAriLttvety nbort. 'I'he 
mtiwii Eiaino lor the PciLUi is * Auipon^nc' (S*« 
LbMDK, (jVAlnBUllAltA.) I'otto ia sIki Bnun* for Xhn 
C&eottpla or kmksjou [wbtvli wio]. 

PtllTSVILLK, a town In the rnitod Statea, in 
ScLiuylkill couiit;, Feun>>liraiiiu, 93 luilcs norCh-wcHt 
«f Philtt'i"l(ihi« in the rntitiv nf tlio grrat unl-liracitc 
ooal-li'Old, at tl)c ti-ruiiuution of ihv Si-tiu^lkUl c.'iiual, 
Mill of tliii l*bliardul[ihift and Rolling nnd the Scbu vl- 
Idll V»llcjr KMltravK. 1 1 ..i'ciipii.-» ft very ]iunturai((t]o 
■ita initiiediat«ly luxive Liia fiurge wLer« llie Sehuyl- 
kill brvuka thruii^'b Sbur^i AlcMintain, nnd tbouijb nt 
modeni orlgtD, baving »\tmng intti cxUtenco in L-on- 
Mi]ncnii» of the dwmicry of ltd viduaUe mlnendB. in 
now a KTsO-builL, nl-irriii;^- \i\ace. Tba mk&ufactiitinj; 
MtlblkhlDCuts iiicLudo bliut furnacva, f'n'gea, fuun- 
drin, rnlling mill*, uttuun-on^nnn and itijichine fiu:- 
ktriea. Tbo oaul pruduut «if Sfhuvlkill uuuiity for 
1BS9 VM 7,(t03,&87 tons. The I'ottnvillD Co!li«ri«M 
have two vortioal ibafbi 1610 fc«t dvcp—tbv dwfwit 
ehofUi lu AmcricA. Pap. i3.3Si. 

roTWALl.KKS, or I'OTWALLoriBS tput-botkn), 

Kiraciiui nho, in cortaia KnglUh horouglM, aach m 
Id SaruiB, bcfon th« R«furiu jVct of 18:12, qualiSed 
aa loUn in parlUmeutiLry vtectioai by cookiuj their 
own food in the npm kir vithia th« boiindiB of tbc 
boiuu^t^ fi^ wliicb lluiy voted. 

ro'lY, Ton, or PoTHi, a fort In KuaBia, Traaa- 
CaiKajiia, in tfao govonuoaal of Kntaia, aiar tho 
iTKniLh of tlu Rin^ on the Murt ahore o( tha Blftdc 
Sea, 5^ mik-s iv.&W. of tha town of KutAia. It ia in 
thi! form of an oblong, flaakod by large Cowerii and 
thotiub tbe harbour b both Insecure and too aballow 
loadmU lafgaveaaolsicarriciion aconridcrabla bado, 
exporting ninn, htincy, wnt, nilk, nkina, Ac 'I'hi: 
atwiinr-ni uf tlie Cuiiiuierc:u md Ni4ti){atiun Ci'iiipHny 
of Southern Ituaaa touch hero odo« a roriiii^fht. 
Pep. 1309. 

I'OUDItEITK, tbo name givon to a {x^'wany 
nannra obtabtad from ordure. Tbo tsn-ttcr i* iTiit 
Inbi the 8nl of aierieaof lar|;e ebnllow tanki nn dif- 
fetent levcla, tlie bnA b&in^' tLe bigkeat. Alter being 
aUomd to romnin in thia lint t.-ink timg cnnugb for 
the more aolid and lieavy jjarta to niuk tu the bultom, 
the nnra Uiiuid povtlou oro run off lato the aeoottd, 
where an«r a certain period of repoeo another deposit 
ia fanned. Tbiii ia cuutiiiucd until the matter ruchca 
the Jaat tank, frc^in whii-h the liquid, iii>w olnuMt 
eomplelcly deprived ot atitid patttdca, u ponnittcd to 
run off Into a i^lionnel, by wbirli it ia convoyed to 
aome brook or ri«M. Tbo solid deiiuiita that remain 
un then vritbdravna and tntnaferrvd to preparad 

Cud, wbem liuty Temain till they heooiao per- 
y di7, which doM not happen till after the upae 
of aome ycajv. At the end of thia time tbo anbatonco 
ia in a prcijier condition for use. It i* puUvrulent, 
uf a brourn vijluur, and almoit inodorous. It ceittaiui 
on an average about S3 per cent, of water, and 26 per 
ecut^ of fixed aal^ It ia lur^i^ly nnulo in IVanrr., 
and ia in doniaiid tu all c|uiutGni, Ixdii^ found giarti- 
eularly oaeTul for cmnlsBi. Its olficacy, weifjbt for 
weiglit, ia live timea that of cow dang. In preparing 
tbe }N>W(lor tbffTB ia m Tory coi»idemble waatn of 
luaWrial, and dilTcTont ex[iMllenla have been dovia«d 
for Bocurlng tbo ofiAcacy without incnrrlug the waatc 
One of tbcee i« the convomnn of tho materUI into 
what ia called animal black (noir animaliaf). In 
thia caM> the matUtr on JU arrival at tbo pinoo nf 
maanfacAnro ia mixed with an equal quantity of car- 
banlied earth, which allowa & freavar qiiiuitity nf 
liijuid conatitttenta to berAtainMT In tbo pruceMof 
drylnjj further quantitiua of on'lura arn hiI<!<-H, till the 
earthy portion u only ODe-fourih lA tbe ^>'L(.lIe, £y 
thii pnwoa tws or three SMmtba auUiue for dr>-iDg. 




rOlTOFKKRrSIE, a dty U the ttat* ef New 
York. UnltL-d Suteai ritiut^ OB tb« awt buk of 
tliu HudiMiu liivcr, 76inlleanorthof New Yoricdty. 
It ia built nti a plateaa about '20O toct abo«a lfai> 
riier, and tlie alu^ie leidiug thereto I« laid out with 
Bomo ra^UHty, haa many shade trVM, wd ia very 
attracUvR in npiK^nuii^ The eaatcts and wcelein 
extremea ot ibe nty are connected by an eC riant 
trsruway K.vstem. Itlaknawaa«tfae"Chyof Scfcoeli,' 
anil ia Dolod for its fnatitutiona of '— "'"g Vmht 
4'olle^ tbo Uni eetakllsb«d and larpat eolloga for 
woiuQQ in tbe wurld, ja located here, alio Rinlnian 
Itiiaineai CoUece, two miiitarr aefaooK and Bev«n] 
•umiQarica for UQtb aexea. The priscipil vmavtaa- 
tured are itt mowings naebtna^ aboea, £)*■> poMeyt 
irnti, Mi'l (lye'ituiTa. PengUuepaie ia oonnectad by 
railroad with New York, AJbeoy, and tb« wtam 
atatea. It wan aettleil by tbe iJutch at the eloae o( 
tbo Mv«iU»ntb L-«i>lury; tbe fint aubataotia) boild* 
ing wna «rKteii alxiiit ITil/i. The place waateupor- 
arily occupied an thi; capilid of the atate ehortly afttr 
tbe orgnnixatlan ot tbe govi!nuDeut.&ivd waatboi 
of the Corn ootioQ of 1 78S, nt wbicb tbe fadetkl ( 
atitution waa adopti^ Pop. tu 1S.S0, <10,S07. 
I'OULPK, 8« OcTOMJS. 
POCLTICES. See CxTKrLjLiiun, 
POULTRY, a ^ncral namo fut all bird* brad 
tbe table, or kept Uyr their egga- The birda moat 
ciimmoDly iiiiilud«l under tbia doa^cnalwo are ttm 
fowl !u the r<Mtr!oted aenao of the torm (aee Ooca 
Mid Fuwl), the peafowl, tbo guinea-fowl, tbe turkey, 

SLMiM-, and duck. It ia unneceiaary liere to go inia 
L'taUa cuuL-rrroiuit tbuae birdi^ aa separate articiaa 
wUI ba found on each of them. There ia one reanatk, 
boworur, which wo laay now make aa bearisg on the 
({ualiliciations of the moot Important oouumuit cl ^u 
[iuullry-yard, tbe domeatio fowl, that taer* ii one 
great diflnrenoe botwaen the varieties of tUa bird, 
namely, that aome are dJapoeed by eonatltutica Ip 
ointtnne laying throuj^bout tiie whole aeaaon wiUiaat 
tittins; while ulhon oJter havinv Ud front twtJae 
to flCteca oggt ait obctinately, naa Men ta take tlwir 
chief plramro is thia function, nad the ceoaenauit 
ones of nuning and reitriii^. The fofwer tanctice 
are ohvloualy (he beat where tkare ia a lai^ e demand 
for eggs; and tha Uttor, when tbe prindjial dsmaad 
ia for fowU fof the tabl& Of the nine vaiietiaa of 
the domitttie fowl which are moat oommnnly k(pt in 
Kiigland, >jx mny be dojoed a* fowla wbkh ait, and 
three >■ fowl* which do not ait, except raivly. The 
fanner are the Malay fowl, the Cochin China fowl, 
tbe Dorking and itaiub-varieltoik tbo Game fowl and 
it<cab-v]uioti<a,the Lark-created fowl, and the Ban- 
tam; and the latter, the Spankh fowl, and the Ham- 
InTf and PoUab fowli, with Umir itib-TariatiM. 

The accominodatioa given to the poultry itock ia 
tbe fiirnfitsading i> uaiially iiidiiTL-nvt In diaraotea, 
tuid liuiiud in eitoot. But if ponltry are to be kepi 
at all, tbey tthoukl be kept ao aa to tuni them U lb* 
l«»t accritint. 'Ilicy ahoiild have k lofty spaciiiaa 
houM, with a yani and abnl attoicbed. The bocias 
■bould be moderately warm, well lighted, aad per- 
fectly dry. Where tho nyjiiiaite decree of warortb 
ouiBot be otbcrwiac obtatbcd, it inigbt be advantaoa- 
ou» to beat tbe houM by a ayatem vt flue* er by 
heated air. Tliere ate La comtaon prwiioa two ways 
of fitting up tbc interior of the poiiltiy-bouM; The 
one is tufonu box a along Lbu walla toaerva ^aeatt 
for tl>« fLiwU; tbe other to ba«e abelrea along tbe 
walls mcnly, on wbiuh Inaketa to form the D«ito nay 
be put. Theie lioxea and the Bbelvca may be f^«ned 
uf wood; hut for the farm-ateading lli«y aie bcttee 
when CDualmcted of amonthly poliabed ftsgetoDae er 
alatea. llic uanal arraniteinent ia to bare for tbe 
larger fowla a tow (4 boiea 3 fa«t high, S Isat dmp. 






I 



I 



J 



POULTRY— POUND. 



253 



aad S C*«* wida iMntI to tha Boor, but ntitod kborc it 
faj • Btep 8 Incbe* in beigbt; »nA on the top of tixeme 
iirgm buM to lwT« o(K^ two^ or thrve titn v{ uaal\»i 
haim, gnanll; 15 i&dm bt widtL, hoight, and 
oik The top of th« lowest boxca, projcctfn^ 

! 9 mlhtm bejond the lier »bora, (anna a gwiK*'*? ^ 
Irart of tbo Hooad row of owta; and gangwajB m« 
lofaj for tho olbon, oitliff bv "f""; tht liari- 
HBlkl dJvtaiou wider, or bj Mlifine m board carried 
kif braclieta. To praveat tbo rtraw tram being dnwii 
onl of tJtcaa boi-neatt, a batten 3 b'shaa bigh and 
9 tiMliee Udek, rounded on tbo upper vlgt, is Lud 
tiaag Iba front Ui fona a atepL It u not Heed per- 
■DMitly, ea h baa to be rmaoTad to admit of the 
■ta beug wHbed out When aholvoa neieljr are 
■doftod iSaj an pUoed from 18 loebea tn 2 feet 
•MTl It H a deoiiled improTeoaeal oq Ltii* plan bo 
jjaea tbe noiti ttot cloae to tfaa vail, but at nicb a 
dbtaaoe tma it ae to lotve a p»nago between them 
lad the walL Tbe ilda of the uetta next the luuaaee 
k tkea lenned of lattioe-work or wint-nettiaK, made 
Id OMft like e door. Thin uTuigontnnt, b«iiiEi^ 
iMdtaf to kee|> Ibe neat* iw««t, atiil «'liaittin)( vt 

] iWr MlDf man tmQy cleaoaed, allowH ibe fuwld to 
ke Mt and tbe %gp to be withdrawn without ^tiiii^' 
iata tbe boaie. 

Tin duor of tb« poBltry-bDUM abunld be ftmncd of 
■owoth flags or ilatM^ with perfectly eloae Jolntti. It 
rfwold otl^ nnk towanlt tbc ccatre, in which cue 

, IbuielKMild be an eye there oanununicating with thm 

, dkahii ar rise fraa all Mm to the ocntre, in whiob 
M Aen ehoold be ft mnoothly cut water channel 
KBBd the walla, but abnnt a foot from them. Iliia 
bat Eonn adnita of readier clesiuinii. I'be front of 
ibe ai«f> leuilnff to the favt row of boiee ihould be 
«t ifce aame Muoeth fla^ whidi fenu the floor, and 

. abenld not 1m rertloal, but ineliiied. The itbirting 

. mad the walk whore there are no nota nfaould be 
watinuatkn of thia itooe frantinc. and inr.lincd 
«1bo, 11m walU dtoeld be udo^iIIiIv plutered Biub 
with tbo •kirtJnK. ^e baat furm t4 the roof is the 
bafpar ahape, with a vratilator at the apex. Proper 
.reeetenuMt be proWdod, either by balldlitt; In nxuMod 
** lUena between wall and wall, or by ere«^iiigTertLcal 
eeale or pillan in the centre of the afMrtmoDt, and 

. ntbg In ihem fnmee for Che noeUk 

Tht Imhim abeuld be well lighted by ooe or more 
aUdtag wlndowiv « by mof-ligbK. If roof-light* are 
Adopted it is neceaaary lo pravide the isMaa of 
■daiitting air soar tbo Boor of tlM apartiueni. Be- 
*dn tbo doer foe the attendant, it ii uenal to make 
MBaU aoealng for the fowla, eloonil liy » sliding 

' l l wttej. Tfaia openini; is KeaenUly mode at the 

' kaMd of about S feet above the Ooor, and la reaebed 
Vf Inidfawd aienipniy* er tadden outiido and ttudde. 
The yard for the poultry hao only this peculiarity, 
Ibat it is ■umjuaded by a low wall, Bunuounled bf 
n Bnling or lettioe fcoMa of wood or inm-wire. 

If it can be avoided tori^ys and geese had butter 
■at ooRipy at nlgbt the tame booeo with bene and 
dndc^ M tfaay era s|>t to be eroea and nlschisvouB, 

' «^MlaUy to dtttng btnU A low raago of stnall 
Icnl-home, each iuat \*tft enmigh to admit a parent 
Urd tad hor beood, lo be shut u\i scpwately at nisbt, 
wB be found estiiatiolj usofnl during the breedus 
tmmu, and wlU |«vvent many deaths and eo-eaUoa 
■ead en ti tauag the young. A very small pcod is 
MOdent lor the thrifty reariiit; of both neeee and 
dada. It abonid be vary carefully constnicted with 
(Booth etosslyjodnted atonee, end sbould \m provided 
wkh a n>pj>MF p^ an 9v«ti)ow, sad a waAte pfpe^ 
the last to admit of its bring emptied and cleansed. 
It may be r«Burli«l in generAl that ths gnnil 
raqnme (or saocsos in the resrloit uf |>oultry is 
WMehfuI attentioa. aatiriag industry, and a eboaful 



iletemii nation to make the moat of the meaas at 
hand. 

Powlsarwsiibjeat toaonoyanrtrnfroRi many iniwcU. 
They ate often oovotikI with Lice, •waniuiiz with 
flitnsand hiign, and the spiHi^r-dy {OmilAomj^ia arisu- 
fai'ia) iflidi.'s luuuiiff*! tlie fcottheie. ClaenlincsB in 
their dwelltngB is tbo bo«C Rocnrity against wioh 
visiton. Tfas (pipos are oecasloned by a worm cnlled 
Ptuciola tmfluatu, wliieh, if not attended to, slwayii 
proves fatal to cUickciis^ tt in, hownur, mil difficult 
to remedv on ita fint appnuuiRP, oithnr by tulmlnis- 
lering £psgiii laJts mixed wttli tlie FikkI, or In doses 
of two scntpIcB; nr if tlis barley and oatt on wUch 
they are fciii bo mited with urine imitsini df »'«tw, 
feeding tti<ini thm thrvo or four tim« a dnj will be 
found eiiually uflkaduus. AuntHer iiucccsaf ul nuaady 
is to take a ptnion feather mvI strip It, exoeptlng 
1 ( inoh at the estremity, thmit it gently down the 
bird's throat, turning it nwnd and drawing It out, 
ontUalltkeironnaaTaextTacted. Soaie ganMheapers 
are very expert in the operation, thus relieneg 
phniuuuibi and pouiridgos halebed under hens from 
the jrajie'Worm. 

POllfCE (a cofTuptioD of pvmiet), gam Baadaradi 
or lome other iubeUnce pounded and rifted vorj 
line, Ici roh on pi^r in order to pnvrnt ink from 
ijireadiuit on It. The best jjounce for this purpose la 
ground cuttle -fiah bone. Pounoo is also the tsfn 
Kpptiod to cbarooal dust inclosed inapiceeof muslin, 
or senna other open stulT, to be passed over Inilea 
pricked In a wonc, in order to marie the Uoos or 
dt«ig&s OB pafter, rilk, kc, placed undemeath. wfaidi 
are to bo afterwards Bnienod with a pen and ink. a 
needle^ or the like; or to any other colouiing matter 
prepared and used In a stmiur manner. 

POUND, in English law. an inclosed plaoe for 
kee]>in|; cattle which liave strayed on another oun's 
^■rauud, iuilL tbcy arv replevml or redeemed, A 
nonind may be cither overt or eoverL A fwand overt 
la 0UL> built ljy llie lord (if tbo muter for the use uf 
himself and hi* tnnanU. A pnond overt is thus a 
oommon pound, bu t a common pound may also belong 
to a parltfa or village, sa well as a lordship. A pound 
eovert is a clooo plsea for the exchudve use of the 
person ra whose ground It lies. When oatUa sve 
put Into an overt or oontntoa pound tlM^r owner is 
Dound to feed then, and do notice need be given tiim 
of hie havii^ to do this; but when tbey are put into 
any other open |ilBoe than a oommeo pound tlie ownor 
Li iwt bound lo feed them, unleni be receive notice 
to do so. When they are put Intoa private or oovatt 
[•ound it foils to tbe person ini[H>unding them to feed 
them, but be b entitled to oharge tbe owner of the 
cattle the east of keying them fat ee ttUog with him 
for the amount of damagas Co be paid. As attempt 
to relnao frnm a pound cattle lawfully impounded is 
pnniakablD, Mvorxiing to t and 7 VicL cap. ku., by 
a floe not exceeding £5, with coets. In Scotland, Uw 
aiuiBg of BtiaT cattle, and keeping tbem until 
damagea a» paid b oalled poinding of eattle. 8ae 
PoDttmto. 

POUKD, U EogUab wtigbt of two different deno- 
minalJooe,oroinfi^t«aBdln>y. The pound avuirdn- 
poi«ocmtaina70<Klgrains,aQdtBdivii)odlBtol6 ounces; 
and the pound iroy coBtains 57M grainL and is 
divided into 13 ounces. In the ulif apotbe eg t ai f 
weight tiis pound troy was used, but in tha netaad 
weigble and msasures o< the UriUsh phanaaeoMsia 
tiie pound avotrdnpoia is adopled. For the use of tlw 
pound avtMnpois In natural pMkanphy, see Pouxn 
Avotuwroa.— AwNcJ is also tbo highert n>onetary 
denuminatioQ used in Britbh aoeouulit being equal 
to 20 ahillfai^ The name liae origins tad from tbe 
fact that the pound bi silver coins was equal to oue 
pound weight of Aamlsfd olvw. 



254 



POUNDAGE— POnSSIN. 



l'OUNDAGB,aniinpudfor every piunJ ntcrliiig. 
Tbui^ lb«r« wiu formerly k auWdy uf Vi |ieUM m 
tb« pouad pud uadvr ^ia aaam to tha tiing oa tba 
tkIda of bll exports and impcirt*. A poitndagii of 1 ». 
!■ »Il«w«d ft dwrill for » writ of ^en firuu i^r nil 
rums leviod nnt exooedins £100^ and 4ii. for «very 
mm of OHO pound over km abov« tbftt unoant. A 
penkLtj' of £-10 may b« impDtied if more in exacted. 
A |Kiiiiulaga waa formeTly ulluwed bIhu for wriLa ot 
capias ad mtufacwndum, Iiiit it wsm Kliolijihitrl \iy 
5 and i Vlot. uap. sinili. a. 3. 

POtnn> AVOIRUUrOia, Ibo unit «( ni*M 
commonly cniployRH in KaglAod. It ia tlio uiiaa 
at quautity of matter (an indicated by tba inertia 
of ajiitl«r) of a c«n«[a pk-ce of metal kept in tlio 
cxch«|uar obunbors. TIlq uw of tb>a pound an a 
unit of tantm, in natiirU philcianphy, ia gradiiaJly 
dyiii'i; out iu fitvour of tliu )[ramnio Ithv loosa of a 
cubic oeDtimeCro of w&ter). Tho weight of ft pound 
of matter of any kind at London, iu vacuo, is com- 
monty employed by cnKinecnt aa a unit i>f fnrcn, axid 
Is called liy Vmtvmon Tboiuaun aiid Tail ' the gnvi* 
tBti'oa unit of fi'n-e.' 

I'OUWUEVILLE, FBABCOta CujLliLEfl Urotita 
liAVKBTT, well known by bia work on Clrccoo, wm 
bora in 17T0 at Mvrlnmult, la tko <Ie|>iutuie[U of 
Orno, Kta^Jivd iiiodicuis, accompajiivd tha oxpoditlcn 
to Egypt and Syria, and after a tour to OonntikTiCin- 
0]ile and Cinifro w.oa aout liy Na[Hi1«]n aa general to 
AH I'naha at JanisKy and in 1812 ar>point>.'d conaul- 
II4:neral at Patna. Ho wa* a nictnuor of tbe Aoa- 
(ii>my uf InBoripUona and the Mudicin&l Aettdemy, 
au<t Si-A at Paria ia 183d. An uaily aa 1801 be 
ntailo biniHjf Icnowii I>y n lliiuirtntinn i>n tbo riagne, 
ttt obiterved by him iu Eicyf^ ^"■^ Syria (Do Yehn 
Ad«ao-Nervo«a) -. than appoarod bia Voyage en Monfe, 
Ik Conatantinriiilc ct co Alijanio, ftc <thrca vota. 
Paria, 180S), with tiiwt; next Ida Voyago en Grboe, 
»v«oCivtM,yuei,etEV>n>(i>< vain. Paris, 1S2D-22; 
■Lh printed in tbe Univen Pittorcaqae) ; and, lastly, 
lA Ortoo, Histoira et Deaaripttoa (Paris, 183!^. 
Auothflr work, which waf pubUabad ten yun bsfoTQ 
the last, and even guined tnorn popularity than any 
of the prMKdiij';, wud Uia Hi>U>irD de bi Itd^f^^Eratiuii 
da UGr^ 1740-1$24 (four vols. Parii, 1624). It 
oont^ns numy VV> *°^ >* ^'^ too fftvounble to tbc 
GiMki^ but Btiu BKHnta vkluibte nmteilals vrhldi 
■UT yot be titnied to good ftCcount. 

POUBSUIVAKT. or Phiwhivaut, in honOdry. 
tbe lowest order of oflicen at tztaa. llie pounuiv- 
nnW an, prepcrly, iktt«ndanta en the benfds, when 
they manoal public oetemonica. l*btsre are now four 
poiuvuiraDts, the Bouge Croix, Um Blue Manila, the 
Kong* Dn^con, and the Portcidlia. Tbe &nt two are 
of «a but uncertaia date^ mid the liuit two were 
lutltated by Henry VU^ the Raug« l>ragnn on the 
day l)cfore bia coronation, aiid tbe PoctculUa at a 
. «uli^H|URnt pRrind. Tbo ICou^ DragOQ wae namnl 

^^H (rum tbe eiwiipi of bU oucestor Cadwal*dyr, and tbe 

^^f I'ortAiillia from one cf bia own badj^^e. 

^^^ I'UUSmif, Umfaii, • very cnuuoot landacftpo- 

W pdnter, tlte ecui of n FivnchniKi, bat bora In Bune 

^^^ in mis. Hia rool name was Dn^et; but b« !■ eon- 

^^ft mtiiily known either by the nune (Iven at the liettd 

^^H <if lluii iirtidc, or by tiiat of Ls Ouaspn. His dst«r 

^^m waH the wife of Nfcolaa Poimiii. Tbe diipoaltioa 
^^H wbivb h« early ebowsd for paintia; eanaed fajin to be 

^^^ placed under hts b(>otluir-in-law, whoee Hnmaine ho 

W aammed; aud being a lover of thu cuuntry luid iu 

I epurts be dovotad blmeelf to rui&l sketvhna, and 

I twcame one of the ([reatmt maotera of landacnpo 

I U|joa record. He proottaed hie art with griwt dia- 

I tbictioa tn varioua parta uf Italy, but cb9e:By in 

I Jlflni«, where be li(«d a lifu iif culibacy, and beely 

^^_ Oxpeaded hi* gnbu in bo«pIlablii attcnttooe to bit 



f Hen Ji, M well ua OB tbe plcMorea ot tba Inbla i 
thevliiugK. 1I« woiV>h] withexttvDMoelerily,! 
nothing cna exceed tJie bvanty of Ua ecenefy^ 
tbo prvciiilan of hli penpactlve. Hq 
rxot'llcd in the tepnaent«tio<i oS laad-atana^' 
wbi<>h evvry treo sterna i^taUd, and oraj leaf ta 
motion. In lua %UTes he was leia happy, and they 
were frequently auppUed by Nleohu. Caspar Pooam 
died, according to D'Argennlle, io 1675, asd !>■ 
others in IGftIt; but the former date is ptefa w ed. 
He en^nired el^t of his own landaoapM. 

roussiK KicoLAs, hiatoricU and laodacaM 
painter, wu descended from a aoblo bat poor family, 
and bom nl Aadelya in Karmandy tn 1693 et 1&94. 
He firet studied la his naciv* place, and tfaoa at 
Parii, ondor maiten of little nurit; but W nadc 
iwtontiihing prognmL He had already acquired oon- 
■iilcmblv ivjiutatinu when. In Ifili, ba «wnt to Italy 
for tbc pucpose of improving UmMlf in his art. At 
liatao Mnnni the poet, with whom be had beeeme 
acquainted and contracted a fHendabip ai Paiia, 
iuepired him wttli a tiate for tbe Italian poei^ in 
whom Pounin found rich materials for tbe subjeda 
of hix pMTitingv. After tbe death of Marlnl (IGSS) 
lie wus ItiH witliout paLruua(,-e, and obUg«d tft mQ 
bia producliotia ac wry low prima. He CTwrtitior^^ 
aovertbaleM, iudefatiguila Id the study of geemetry, 
pcnpectlv^ aroUteeture, anatomy, and otb«r BctsB rM 
iw4:eaaary fur a painter, and ia tbe practice of tea 
art. Ui) coTivnnatii^n, hia walica, bia readinga w ort 
also olmoat always connected wHh it. In bi* ficvna 
he oopled antlquee; Ite modelled itatues and nOA 
with great skill and he might liave become an eud- 
Icnt acnlpiar. Iu bia land«^>ee be fottond natnre; 
they usually rvprvovuc pblns with BUcnUoeBt ndna 
AU hiaworki show much atody; nothing ii inbo- 
diiccd withont a purptMe, or merely as on aftsr- 
tboi^iL for n oonaidetable lliue be tired in ivtlx* 
poor dnannrtanrw^ and wis at Iwt reduced toastaie 
of destiltttion by an itlnoH brought on by bis eioM- 
nve laboon. He was now, however, taken cww of by 
a Frenchman, Jacques Diigfast (the &tber ot Gaacar 
Ponatdn), who received him Into bis boua^ and tended 
litm till hie rt.'covcry. In 1G30 Poiwn inarriBd tbc 
dx-uglitiir of hia benRfactor. About ^is t 
ullain liu^.'sn to imptov«. He found liberal 
in CiLrdlnal Barberlnl <to whom he had been i 
mctidid by Klu-iui. but who had boon hitbertoi 
to abovr tiim any f.tvmir on aoommt of has 
frum Italy), and iu the Cavalien daaiano del Pone, 
far whom be painted the oaUhnrtnd Sevan Sacra 
ments. Tha» works likewiie njaed him oel^riQ 
in ^fraooe; and Cardinal KJcheltev, at the suggaatioB 
of Deinoyon, invited him to Paris to paint tC pmt 
gallery of the Z/wTre. Louis XIIL appoiBtMl kna 
hia first painter, wltha pensionofSOOOUvten. Pa«n- 
kin arrived in Paris in lli'lO, and oxecnted nnmooua 
wcirka, particularly hUtorica] piaoas fnnn tba Otd 
Tcitamcnt, and a repetitlus of Ut Saven SaovnsiU, 
but wai mudi banwed by hia OMmlca. Tbe pointer 
Jacques Fou<]uiirca had bcon onpkijed Io T 
tbe gallery with views of the piindpa] dl 
Fninoo, and tbe architect Urrder had i 
with onutuicnt. Pousain found himself onder the 
nocnuLtv of bt^noing his undertaking^ with tha 
removal of their labouni. Be also had to oOQteud 
with the whole kImoI of Smoa Voaat, who ' 
Icctcd by the qncen: and hia 
luxtly appreciate by the rrench, who ', 
brilliuiil aud abuwy, than by the umwo ooeraet 
of the Italians. Jiu artist who loved quivl, and ha>.t 
been all his life devoted to his art, oenld n(4 be ooo- 
loitcd in Buch a ailuatloD, and ha aoun dc>leinniai»l 
to leJtvo Vmi'. In 3«pt«n^Mr, 1043, wbilo mo ployed 
on carlwna of tbe Laboun of Bcroules for the t^ery 



POWBLL-POZZnOLt 



I 



I 



of tt« Ijovm, b* ivtanwd to Bona, which ha oerar 
^■b voilUd. Hv diod than in 160S. AUiiungti 
Look XIV. kllowctl him to nUia bis po«t kod pen- 
doo. Jct bo Drcvcr bM^kmo lifh; hiit diAiiiC<.'nMt«d.iMMi 
wirft bim iMglMb tti* cpiiortunity «i aoquiritig 
wwUb: ht kbMTid man for tamo tfaui for nu&oy. 
Pall at rmmntUm tor bh« andenti, he Mpired to 
ik» loftj id«*I wbicli be obMrvcd !□ them. Hia 
^ftwiiui ia ram&rkitblj correct; hia i»ni|KaiLian juili- 
ajsu, dlgnUed, aod aobln. Bit inwliua *a» ricb; 
Miil;la grand aadb«ro(a Hfa e ip mu bn Approach ca 
that el lUplMid, And bs hM been called tb« lUphM-I 
4d Kmmb. Hia nwrita worn doa fa> hla own efforla. 
ffii only pupa waa hia brotlwr-ln-law GMpai-, nbo 
haoHDa dutinffidahad aa a Undacapc-ptkintw. Fenaaiii 
had Mndkd ua worlca of TiUikn, but hia liOcr pro- 
daoMwM M« inCarior In ODlonrinc to bU «ulier, auioe 
ht paid laM aMntion m be adranoed Id U o to tlila 
ttiadi of tba arti and man to th« d«aign. I'Muain 
baa baea cenrarvd for a too atudiad anaiij^ameDti, 
aad a too graat pwj f>w>dty to aplaodea; too miioli 
aaifomiHy io tba atlibudat, air. and axprcaaioii of lus 
fifona; as «xoe«i*e folacaa in ths Armpory, and ton 
nail |»opaatioDa In Us figurea— faults which niay 
bav* boan owing to lua cloaa imitation ot tbo oncianta. 
But aotwitbatasdiiig tluM taulti Fuaaatn may Im 
Wi ffwd wllb tba gr att et Italian maatoa. Among 
Ida neat caWnalod worka are the Sereo SaLTsjueut*, 
tfaa Daltin^ tba Daath of Oormnnirua, th« Cnptara 
it Jaruaalm, lb« Plvue of iba f hilixiinea, Bahcoca, 
Iba Adoltaran, tba Infant Hoaet, and Moaca bring- 

aWator f nxa the Hoch , tbo Wonhip of tha Qotd«a 
I, John Banticiag in tba Wilderneai, tc, aiid 
may flna laaoaoapaa. BaUori baa writt«a hia Ufa 
k Italian. CbUaau, PoUly, and Clandtna Btdla have 
•B|nkre>l nan; of hia worka. 

POWELIi, BadkH, a dhrtia^i>b«d tbealu)^c«l 
writvr, w u tli« aldtat aon of 15ad«a Powell, of L^iiff- 
ton, Kent, and waa ban ob the 22d ot Aognat, I'dti. 
Ura pinad high matbamatical hationraat Uxford.and 
<n 1927 waa atocted Savtlian profcanr of gaontetry 
Ib Ibak anlvanity. He never Mid anj living In the 
aftonfa, bat daliverod oocMional diaooiuaca. Aa a 
■baoloci^ writer ba i« not«d lot tb» boldnaw with 
wbkklMCondacta tb«* in*t«li)rattonc4 reliipaa* tnith, 
ad^ting viawa of Scrlptund InteiprMaUon which 
OMBy n^ard aa in tbo higfaatt degree Itataradox and 
laMtoAaariaii. Ilia pincinal wwrka ai«— The Con* 
aactlMi of Natural and Dlflne Trutb (U2S): Eaiaya 
«n tba Spbit of tbo Indoctivt FUloaopby. tbanBie:r 
«l Worbk. and tbo HtOoaophj of Cnatian (1&&&): 
Cluiatianit; without Judafann (IS57); and The Order 
cd Natora oonaiderad »itb Bcfaraaoa to tbo Claims 
<i Barelatioo (lSe«)w H« ii alao tba author of the 
an» Ob tbe Study of tiM Bvidenaea ol (^triatlanity 
it Um wall-kaawn Eaaaya and Bavtewa. Ha baa 
Miaalau writtaa aavarel fHfm oa tba tbaar; of 
B^M, a mbJMt to wUc^ ha paid coaaidsnUa attan- 
tioo. Ha died ia Landoa on llth June, tSfia 

I'OWKB, in law. Ja an authority whicfa one man 
fitaa to aaetber Co do oertain tbmga whicb tbo want 
««aU Bot ba otborwiae entitled to do: and ft la 
MBiertntaa a reawratioa wbkh a paanon tnakM in a 

laayaaoa for himaalf to do bodo acta, aa to malco 
or lb* Uke; tboa, jm w m ' ofaUon*tg, an loatra- 
■ant or doad wbareby a poncni la antborlicd to oet 
hr BSMbcr, dtbar genarally or in a epedlk: tiaaaao- 
lioB. A power i> (n^'BD by will or daed. 

POWF.R LOOMS arf dHienby wateror ataaoL 
end ara now luiivcsaally iatroduood into cotton and 
vndlen nanulactotiaa. Se« Wbatikq. 

POWKIU), HniM, an American aculpicr, tba aim 
ol a ta/TDa-, ami the ai^htli of a fauUly ctf nine, 
waa bora at WoMLitock, VcriDODt, 39tb July, ISOS. 
H« wcMTad BB alaaontaiy adncatloD at a free distrkt 



acbool, and on Iba mnoTftl of th« fBtnily to Ohio waa 
employed auooeMirBly in a hotel rvadius-rouiu, a pro- 
duce itorev and aa assialant to a olock-inakcr. Form- 
tag the aettuaintaneo of a Gorman acitlptor Imi eoon 
laamcd to prodtica plnator biiata of enoiiilurakle merit. 
Ho waa tutMcqueutly ajipoiiitcd <Hr«('t'^r of the wai- 
worfc department of tho WMtAra Muacuni <A Citt' 
cinnati^ an offico which ba held for Kvon yeaia. In 
1835 bo reanlrod to depend (or auppart upon hia 
UUiura aa a iculptor, aud ropalr«d to Waahingtoo, 
where ho waa for somo time protrtably amployad fai 
Dunlrliing hiiKtM of distin^iUned man. With the 
tinicieeila ilcriied from Lheio effurla, and tiia aid of 
Mr. if. Loo£wortb of Ciudunall, lie waa auablad to 
carry oat hia lonf -ctisriahac) dcairo to viait Itily. Li 
the following year he eatatiliilictl bimmU at Florence 
wbure^ with the exoepLi'^n of ovcaiiuiial rijota to 
Rome, bo rodtlcd until hia death, wbich took plaea 
27th June, 1873. Uia aUtao nf F.v^ which cxcitod 
tbo warm admiration of Tborwaldncn, waa produced 
in 1638; oeit year waa modelled tlie Btilt more popn- 
lar Creak Slave, of which oix nipiea in nurbla^ and 
innnniiTTable eoata, are in cxiatanoa. Among Ilia 
other worka the meal notable aro— The Piafaer Boy, 
of wliich three marble copiea war* taken; Pruaaipine^ 
II Tmmavto, California, Anwrica (tba lart for Sydan* 
ham Cryetal Pdaoe); and atatnea of WaibinfftoD for 
tbe atate of Lonialana, of Calhoun for South Oaro- 
tin^and of Wabiter for Boaton; tocothar with buata 
of Jackson. Adama, Everett, Van Bnrcn, and otbor 
diatlnguiabed Americana. 

POWBRS OF KUKGPB, Onur, a term of oo- 
dam diplomacy, by which are cow maant Britaii^ 
Fnuwe, Anatna, Gennaoy, Italy, and Kumi^ 

P0YN1NG'8 LAW. or aUtiite of I>rDgbeda, bb 
act of Farliamcnt, poaari] in 1 165, « berebr all gen^ 
ral atatutca hafoie then miule in EiiRland wen 
declared ot force la IrvUiuL 3<io IitELAKu— Hiatoay, 

POZOBLANOO, A tcwn in Si«in, AndiJuala, in 
tbe proiinoo of Owdova, and 96 mitaa north of tba 
dty of that name. It bai ra^ar and pavad straeti^ 
an hoapttal for the dek, a fonndUng boi|dGal, a cbab 
of Latiii, levcral primary ichoolB, a towB-bonae, a 
fl«ah-iDark«t,achiirch,anilaaTaralbBnnitagaa. Tboia 
arc wooUea^ eartbaaware, and eboootate uumnfaclo- 
rlea, dye-worka, eoap-worki, fioor-BiUkk aad oti-niHa: 
but the greateet^porUon of tba iDbaUtaota are em- 
ployed in agricalture and aa lauletaera. Fop. 10,0211. 

POZZOLANA, or VaaoohAMA, ia a kind of aab- 
itaDoa tamed of volcanie aafaaa Wben miMd wMi 
a amall portion of lime it <|idckly haidena, and tbln 
{nduratiun takea place eren under watar. Tlii* alu- 
gular propavty of baoorainff petrified wiuUr water 
rendaiB it pecnliariy valnwle aa n euaent is Iba 
erecAioa of molm and other bttUdlngB la natWBie 
pituationa. It ia nocb uaad in Italy aa a aubatitato 
for mortar, and haa raotivad ita nama from Foctuoli, 
tbe pott from wbidi It h aUpped 

POZZUOLI, tbe ancianl PvUoli a bowo of Sentb- 
ara Italy, milea WAV. of the dty of Kaple^ on the 
ncrth-eaateni ihore of (be Bay of Bake tOolfo di 
PoatuoU). tbe north -wmtan poctloa of tba Bay ol 
Nai^ea. Tbe eoait forma a natarel barboar, wUcfa 
b wall abeltond; and aa a^r« Mnng ia oanfed en. 
Tba town la the eea of a Uabo]\ haa a d*il ooort, 
and tber* am maaofactorica of eoap. Tbera are » 
calfaadral, two pariab chnrchaa, Acl ; but PomeU 
ia chiefly mtertating for Ita Dtuaeroua BMimotiala of 
daado ^ea. The catbedral atanda on tba aila of 
a tomplo of AoguMoa, and in eaie of tba UUcnl 
walla aiz Ccrinthlan -"'*—"- «( tbo otd tampb ait 
pnaerved. At tbe waalem astraadty ef tbo town 
a narruw atraet l^da to tba Sarwanm or tampla of 
Bcrapia, aa Egyptian god Invokcci by tbe prleelB to 
■nataia tbe beulag Tlnuea of tba Bilnaal watan rrf 



256 



puac hatttz— pradt. 



bj fortjf -cl(;lit iii^iBHive niarlilo nnd gruiitc coltuntu, 
ftnd with fortv*t1ir«e Bm&ll chniub^n mdjoinli)|[. The 
portk-o n«t«d on tix CoriDtbinn oolumui (thnM of 
wblcb eiiLI renudn). In the ocntr« oE the comrt rtoad 
^circular teui|ile,iiirHii]t)ded b; » periaCjlc of sixUrFQ 
Carintliuui piUui^ The lowsr porcEcm* af the ruins 
m under wUer. Thi bus portioa of the central 
eehuQW hvft been bcrod by riieU-fidi, which fAct 
klong irilh other* hftve lod »in« eminent geolo(pvta to 
tnajntain tli«t tbnm bikvs been h«rn irtriking chaOKo* 
in thv level ot the vouL Ou tbe euiinciiiM behind 
the tnwQ nuidfl ihB ntDQd ampbtth«fttre, reetlng^ on 
three Kcric* of ftrchea wtucb <rcre rniTTouncIed bjr an 
axtoTud court. The two priitoi|i»l •ntnuicia wen 
MdonMJ with criiule oaloimadea; About 2S.000 ipM.- 
tohm could have found luxxrEnmodatioii. Tbe nretia, 
'which was 358 foct long by 147 foct broail, could ho 
laid uiuEer vater bj meana of » conduit wlien nava] 
ecimbaUw«cot4b«npr«i«nt»d. The oaJebratod gladi- 
■£or-combat» |;ot up b; Pfora during Uut n^of 1^- 
d*tei^ kinf of Anneiua, took plaocliero. The othrr 
objecA* of istcTMt are the ruins of tb» temples of Xeji- 
taoe mkI o( the Nynphi; and tha Solfatats, a baU- 
nxtlact yolcnno star the Utvn, from tha enter of 
wliich vapntirs and sulphumMjua f^maea uauend, and on 
tbe Bi-dcii of whi<:h umiill bmokf> hnre their loiirce, 
(be Baliiie Hutvrv of vrliicli tm n»cd m a rvmcdy for 
cntaDCoiu dlBoaaea. At a abort distance inhuid, 
bounded by cfaeatuut and vine-clad Lille, lies the 
oehsbratcd Jjalce Avemtu. Sn Avxa^fitit. 

Po;uuoll w«B fuimded by the Gr«clui of ConuD 
about 5i0 u.c., and wm called bf tbem Dloa-KnJiia. 
It obtiun«d ita J.atin name l'uU«li ritbor from ita 
uuDieruua wcrlli or from tbs BteDcb arliing from the 
minemi weUs In the aeljItbourhcKMi It wae indebted 
for iti impoftanoi to ita oxcallont bnrbour, which 
irat protected hj an ext«n«ve mole, tn vbiirb Call- 
gala attaditfd a ItuiitlEij; bridge extending a« far aa 
Bafas, a diattuiM of ,2 milei. Kitenaive remithia of 
the mole attll cxial. PuteoU was tbe chief emporinm 
for the cnminer«e with Alexandria and tbe greater 
Mit of Spain. Hen St. Paul landed oa hii way to 
Roma. II Wii ooloniied hv Uie Itoraani in 194 it.r., 
and agiain under Au^ii»ltja,'Nero, and VcAposian. It 
WM tikiiii luid pluiiiliTRd bv Alaric in 410 A.ti., bjr 
GeiiSL-ric iu 4SS, and by TutUaiii GI5. It waa rebuilt 
by tlia Eyzantine Gn^eki^ buL lullered M*erely from 
CATthqiiake* and TolcAnia rription^ nnd baa never 
alnoe attaineil its aiicteul iiupurtaooe. Pop. of tbe 
modero town. 11,751. 

PRACHATITZ, a town in Bobemin, circle of 
Pndiln, on th« Ziwnybacb. '12 mtli^a w.x.w. of Ihid- 
weia. It i* walled, ia an anderl pla«, with iimrrow, 
glnomy stroota; haa a fine ohuroh, a town-houw of a 
venerable and majeatio appearanve, a courthouae, 
BiipaHorG«rmao school, hatracka, and hri<ipltal. Thu 
atAple maonfacturc ia brandy. Pop. (IS.SU), ISltS. 

PRADBB^ a town in France^ dcjiarUiiont of Py- 
rfti^ee-OrieBtalea, rifht bank of the Tel, In a rich 
and vdxlant vallej, 24 miles tv,8.w. of Perpignan. 
It hna a lirgn anil haiida mo r.hiirfh, a tainrt of fint 
reaurt, a cuuiuiuniJ <vill*rt2«, a eeouwUry eoolesiaatieid 
ichool, and on hospital; manufactures oi wooUsn 
dotb, moleskins, Icai^cr, and paper; and a trade in 
com, fniit, wine-, Hai, hemp, bonwa, mulea, cattle^ 
Gna woul, Ao. Pop, S134. 

PRADIER, J&un, a atatuaiy, bom at Geneva 
btlTM.'vrent to Paris in 180P,'and Mudied dc«i^ 
nndcT Moynier, and statuary in the studio of Lomot. 
In 1813 he gMnod the prizn of the Academy for a 
baaB-r*U«t of PhilocU^tv* and IHyenK This work 
procured him a^miuiou into tbe French Academy at 
Home, litre he developed his tal«nt* by studying 
tbe antique, and ivtunieia to Paris with two atatnea, 



one of a ilAcchante and the other of a son of NiohcL 
In IS'Jl he wvat a seaond tine bo Romc^ where be 
remained till 1823, and brousbt back a beaotiihl 
statue of Psyche, whkih Iw hau made ooit of part vt 
the shaft of an andent maihia pQlar found at TilL 
From thb period he worked ooiwtairtly at Faria, md 
produMkI a ffreat ni^mbor of Isiyer aiM nunor acdp- 
tuns, incluiUng a Venus, s inott lovdy grmp of tis 
Three Oiams, a model of Jean Juqaea TTfui—. 
after which the ca«ting at Qaneva tutf heeu madt; 
and Cypsuimn* with hie goat and a hon tjma . He 
wan adinittt^l to the Institute Ln 1&'27, and aftcr- 
w&nrU executed, nmon^ other WOiks, ft PrMMthCtt^ 
a Faiiii anri Hiii-irbiuiti-, n PhidiuL the h«M relisfa « 
the podimaut of the chamber of deputies tbe ^Ieg» 
rical figures of LtUe and Stnaburg Id tie Place ik 
la CoBoorda at Pnri^ the Indaetry in fmnt of the 
ezcJiang^ the Flora, which be himself r^vded 
as one at Ua most niooeesful works, tbe T««l«« 
Colossal VictoriM on the monument of K^xisM 
in the lintel d<« InvaiidrA, the At&lanta in the 
cxhibllion of Ififil, and blie Sapplio, which was eih^ 
bJted in ISfiZ. In the aanw T«ar, wlule taklag a 
walk near Paris, he was suddsuy soind iritfa JTlnTi. 
and expired, liie execution of his works nnki him 
a eeuljitOT of the first cIom, hut hin oonception fa bj 
no means free from dafiKta, and tbore is, aocoedia; 
to Vbn eolder critics of England, • decided merrtri 
doosnees in his styleL He has the merit ef 
formed aavsral distingniilied pupSik 

PKADT, DoaiMi<ji;t DunuK dk, onee 
of MediUn, and a well-known political wrher, ban 
In 17li0 at Allanchcs, in iho old province of Anreisn^ 
early wioptcd tho cc«l<3ia*Cical life, and at thai 
break ot tho refnlution was gmnd**icar to Ifaa 
diaal do la Ruchefouonul^ archhiahop of ~ 
The cler^ of KorTnandy sent him to th« oaastttaaat 
oascnihly, in which be voted in the tntArents of the 
clnricvil and royaliit parties. On tho ckmng of the 
convention he fled to Hamburg, where^ fn ItW. hs 
puhlishcd anonymonaly the lint and most fatoooa e( 
tiia writing*, Antidote au Ijnn^ris de Rastadt, snd 
soon after La J'rino eC sa Noutraliti, ia which fat 
ceoeured the coalition of the Enropean pevrett lar 
making peace with Frant«, niged a new war spinal 
the Pmnch Ilepublic, and prnphcned ila OTecUmw. 
After the IStli Brumoire be returtied to Ftanoe end 
waa presented by Dutoc to tho 'Snt oounl, who w» 
to pleased with his talenla tbst he tnada him lin* 
a1ltl^n^■T. On the emperur's ooronaUon in 1S04 be 
n>cel>ed a ptveent of 50,000 bMics, and waa tnade a 
baron and Biithop of Poitirra^ and in IMS ArcUxshap 
of Mechlin and oRicer of the I^egion of Honour, ana 
was pre*ent«d with a seound prtueut of 60,000 franca 
In 1 81 2 bo WW inlnistoii unth an important miaeioo to 
Wancaw, in which hn failed, and was deprivod of his 
oflSoe ualRKtcer, n.ud ordered to his dkMXM. On tha 
approach of tho allien to 1 'arts be procoeded thither to 
take [lart in tha ncgiitiationa aa to its capitwiaticw. 
The proviidonal goveramenl made blm obasi<»lh>T ef 
tho Legion ef Hononr. During tho Hundred Days he 
liTod on his otato in ADV«rgii«. After NapoLpoB.'s 
bncubmeut to St. Hehtna lie shi>we<i binseu ^raia 
in Paris, and publhdied his Hi»t<}ire da I'Ambamda 
dans le Grand Dnob^ do VAmnvic, in which be gave 
full acopB to his hatred of hia former peotector. 
About thia time the King of the Netherlands pur- 
chased his right to tbe archbishopric for an uuvity 
of 10,(}00 francA, and hU oflioe of prand-chaaoeltor 
waabeatowdi by the BuurbonsonManlialMacdonalili 
Thue donriTed of all hi* nff^'CHi, and reductid to the 
simple Abb4 de Pradt, aflvr iNxue fmllleee attempts 
to gain inAuence nith the Boorbooa he abjund 
legitimacy, and began to writo in dcieoeo ti ceustl- 
tutional fanadom a^ against the abases at tt» JuHJ 



I 



J 



PRAED— PB.ETOR. 



m 



—» Dew oner, wbicli pmcurcd htm BDmo d^jfTve of 
popolar fauwk. H« wm twice prowcuted fur Uis too 
IfM •qRwrioB ot Ui Idraa, bat on both occadotu 
iMqnittod. Amooe bb olber writing! not KlrckHy 

"noiad ai«hiBP«nuUl«»deUPiiianiicaAiif[lmiM 
, Du Coagrte d* TIeiuM, L«* QuMn Ckw 
I Conffrti do Cirlsbad, And Du Jatuittana 
AMte «» HodMne. H» died in 1814. 

PRAKD, WiMTHRor Maokwoxts, a oelebrat«I 
■DtlMr Bad potitiobn. wm bom in 1902. H« w» 
•dnniad mt Etao, wfaera In 1820 he bMHDs ons of 
tte prtadpAl eootribtitora to & mmxiiM pnbliihed 
tkara adlnl The Etuiii»u. From Eton b* went to 
^rii^^ CoJIcgCi, C*(uiil>r{ilg«, wbon io ] S23 h* (AAaiurA 
ikm «h—ewUof'» priM far «n Ent;Ii«h pMm entiilwl 
^iTlTtli^ and tbe foUowinf yeir tb« aurw prixe for 
M\iiUwr «atitM Atb«ia Oil Um pabllcatiim of 
KaUfi QuartvHjr ICi^ulno ha baeuno odo of tfao 
cUm sMtributor* to it, both In pinM uid verve, 
■any af hia poem* diaul&yinjf a rare degreo of exc«I- 
kDCifL In I8'J9 Mr. l<nod wu ndlod to tiia bar. 
tmd la IS^ and 183] wm rctunwd for St. Gdthmiui 
tm FftduBMnt, wlwro ks took a pnadBaBt part ia 
"fr— *^ tba pawiag of tlia ntona bilL Uo aat 
Mwaaqnently aa member for Tircat Tannaalb, arul 
•Aannrdi for AylMbury. Jh iu>l«l ft!i»u fur a diurt 
tiiaa aa aacrataty to the board of control, otid bacauie 
altfaMtair raoordcr «{ Uanutaplo and depot; bi^- 
ilairard lor tba Cniveraty ol Caubriil|[a. In tba 
«M« af a pTOzdiliv canar ba vaa pronataraly out 
rS in Joly, 1830, 3k eaUeetioa at lua pooma, whieb 
ace miadtT of a light and ate^aiit cbaraoler, wai pab- 
fadiodatkow York ill ISM; but a far Bkon oomplvla 
wBtkmbthat of I^indnn, 1S61. 

PREFECT, tli€ title o< Twkma funetionirica af 
atiant Baom. Ot these the moat Inuwrtaat vaa the 
fra/tttui arh' or vrii^ or wanl^ ot the i^ty, urigi- 
oalljr callad cMto* wMk Tha Banw prajtctua urM 
dAaa not aeon to have been need tiD after the time of 
tbe dsc<viD*in. During tba Im^lj period and tbe early 
yr*n i4 the repuUic um emttM ailw exerdatd iritbui 
tha eh jr aO the powm of the diiof o< Uw itate ia his 
abmmmt ha coarok«d t^c aeoate, held the ooccitia, 
and an any a at c ig e u py mij^t taka roch neaniree a* 
bathongbtpcvpir. Whan tba office of ftrtor m4a">^ 
(laa TuMB) waa ioetttatad the waraeoahip of tba 
dtf waa awalkwed up in It; bnt tbe oonaertative 
afuit ef tba RcaaaD* itUl Inilaoad tbruj to aptMiiiL 
anaaally a praftttv urfii for tli« tima during wbicb 
tka oomiili «er« abecnt from the <dty to oclebralo 
tkaFarinLAtliua (See FsniTAt.) This f uutloiiaiy 
had neiUMr the pcnrv of ooavolang the aanat* aor 
tha rigbt of apealdng fai it, and the title bacana a 
■flaal diallBctkni eonfened by tbe oooaol on youos 
Ban vt ilhutrioiu hmJUfa, Under Au^wtui^ boir- 
arar, tbe oAoe cnuKd to b« a «inDcim. The prtr- 
ftttma wr6i waa a pennanant ma^^rate whom tba 
Mcperor lotaatad with all the powera neccaaary to 
""*»>**"' paaoa and order in tbe dty. Ue had onder 
Unaaort of poKoeoallnl mtliUs atationarii; and the 
|WU a ol the oflioe were fradually eo ht eitended 
ihni ab ImI thara wae no appeal mm Us aeutaDoe 
Mtocpi to tbe en^Mmr, whereas the prafufu urU 
waa empowereil to bear a|ifiealt from the aenleDoe of 
nny other dty Ufiitntea, and even from tfauee uf 
tba (orBDora ti ptovincw. The ara/Mur pratorio 
wia tba oAoCT frb* aeiiniaDdaa tbe troopa who 
mifded the em p t a o t 'a pema. (Bee PunouAva.) 
na offiea waa ftnl butituted by Auguabui^ and waa 
B& itet only nUitary, osd bad mnpantii cly littlu 
tnflnanoa attaehed to it; bat onder Tibcriiu it btcaoM 
lA uueb g r ta t er importaaer, aod tbe power u( theaa 
pw rfec ta beoBOM only aacond Ui thnt of ibo ntnpenm. 
Pntn the ttoa o( Sevenn to that uf Diodetiaa they 
bad tba ■OMristandoBoB of aU tba deMrtmenti of 

Vui.XL 



tb« itate— tbe palafe, tbe army, tbe (utuiom, and 
the law; they auo had a court In whioh they decided 
caaea. The offloa wm not olwaya ctmfliwa to mili- 
tary ottoen^ acd woa filled on aoTeral oecaaiooa by 
dietlnffubhed JKrlala. In a<]diti«n to thne funcUnn* 
ariea thero wuro the praftett* nfoartiin, wbo waa 
char^l with tbe ragtuaUoa of tbe wut/.-r mpply of 
the dty; the prt^toLva ararii, who hvl diar^-n of 
lbs jHibllc tieaauiy; tbe prafrdta iVyi7iint, who coin' 
niiuiiJt>i tho aigbt-watch; with oumo otbm of laM 
iaportancc 

PILSUUNIRE, Id ¥.a%\\A law, a name ^rax 
to a kind of olTetioe of the natuio of a L-untenipl 
egainut tbe king (or nnaaa) and the govnnininot, 
nod li (0 called from the opeaing wotde uf Ibu writ 
prcpantoty to the proaecntion of the off onoa— f>iv 
mtmrrt or pntrnfuirt fada* A, B. tCanee A. Dw to 
be forewanivd iliat bo appear before ua, &c.} The 
flnt itatiite of pnemunire waa darfaj the r^ga af 
Edward 1. to repreM the Papal encroaclunettia on 
tbe righ taof thecrawn, and MToal •abaoqnant atatntae 
before the RetonoaUon nvatly eitauded tba number 
of penal acta usdor tUa tlUcv and by bUII labor aUtutM 
actsof averymiaccIlaacoDinatiirirhAr^^hcenra&derad 
liable to the penaltiea <Jl pramiutiirc, mi knowingly and 
wilfully aolemniiilig, aMrtellMg, or baioff praaaat at 
any marttaga forUddaii by tka Royal Uarriaf^ Act; 
MBortiag liy preadiisg, teaching, oradriaoilly apoak- 
ing that any person other than aocordinjf to the njita 
of aetUeiiMQt and union haa any riffkt to tbe Lhcone, 
or that the aorcntgn and Parliamont canoot maka 
lawH tolimitthedeacent of thociviwn: fn nairrt Ihil 
both or eitbcr uf tbe Houaaa of Parlianient bave or 
haa A kgislatlve authority wiUinut tho torarelgn; 
andaoon. Tbe puBJahiaeBt ia lorfeiHae and tmpriaoB- 
ment dnrlng the aovenian'a pleaaure. Many ol the 
Btatutea are now r^ieJe^ and invaeoutiooa awn 
pramuain ara unkaard of in our tliueai tba laat 
took place dariac tba roiirn of Charloa IL 

PR.'ENKSTIL Sco pALUTftnrA. 

PK^roit, a aUe gtren oristnally by the andeat 
Ronuuia to the oouaula ae Leaden of the armiei of Iha 
iitat<v Aooording to Ury the oHioe waa t aatilulad 
in 364 nc, when the oanaulahip waa dirided between 
the piatridaiia and plebeian^ and it waa given ta the 
former aa an fademniSoatioD; it wna not bold fay a 
plebeian until 330. tha prsler waa a kind of third 
4MiauI; be waa called the coUe^;aa of tbe ouomla, 
•lid WM jqipointad in tlia ocnjutia oeaturiata wlib 
tbe tame auapina. In the alacnca af tbe eonaiila 
from Rone he extteleed tbefr fnnotlou in the dty, 
Ifaa aanaML nod the oomilia. Ha waa a ourule macu- 
bate^ and had tba ImMrfaiiD, al^ioagh rabject to tbe 
ctnaub,ai>dwaaat(UM«dby«zUctoti. Orfgiaallytba 
pmt«r waa a ommuI of the pracadln{ jrear, and after 
the admiadonof plobeiaoato tfao office tt waa mint for 
aama tinae altenudaly by tbe natridan and i»li*b«an 
ceaanl of the fonner year. In itA s.0. another mafia- 
tracy, that of pnttor ptrtaruuu, waa iaatituted for tba 

Krpoae of actUiag oimtea between foref^era aad 
Iweea foreiigncn and dtbena; aad la litalini-tion 
from him who Ulad tUa offioe tbe oth« fundionary 
waa termed pnKor artaatu. After election the tiro 
praTton detemnaed their office* by lut. Ilia pratur 
urbanoB waa the first in poaitloo. an<1 wm apedalty 
apolLBB <d aa tbe pnrtor; ha wna the «hi«f inn^patmta 
for tba adnlalatratkw <rf joatfa)^ and oouU not remain 
Bkora than tan daye bom Boma. To the edida ot 
tba a ucu M rf re pwa tui a tbe Roman law fa aaid to owe 
in a great mcwure ita developmeot an J impivieoaBt. 
So MB( aa the powar at 'Bjoum wna ouahned to Italy 
there were ooly two jicwtoia, bat «a tbe aubjngation 
of 9idly and SanJiaia, aad their formation lalo nro* 
vlncaa In i37, pmtun wan appoiated for taelr 
goremuuiat; Md the aama Ihlac took plaaa oa Ae 



S58 



PR,BT0RIAN8— I^^ 



oonqnert of ^>^il Under BulU thr numbor o£ 
pncum naa nuMd to eight; unilcr Julius Ciwiir tlia 
Btinber roao gradnAQy ta Buteca. Thg Dumber 
vuicd from nmiit twelve tn ttixtCRn tlurirg tho 
eroiure. Under the ejnperan lUcir power was c.in- 
■Iderably rwluood, but Uie office ouQtiniied to exLtt 
to ft Utemriod 

PR.-ETORrANS. In tlio lirriM of the TCiiiil.lii: 
the cokorg jinrtoria w:u a btxly uf troojna seli-ctHl 
to gnaril thn pcnnn of tba OouiUMider (Id old Latin, 
orator) witilu in aLti v« serrica But Awwtiu tutab- 
llahad » BtAndliip body-gUArd, cousiBbuig t£ three 
oohorta, Cftllod pnrtoriam. TEuit number wai niter* 
wvtlN inorcftaea to ntnn, and », body cf hnrso wu 
finally adJud. lu urder to avoid tbe ap(«»nuicc of 
doapotum Aii^uatDs Btationad only thr*e nf thtM 
oohorbt in thu ntv Aiiil dutrienied the retuaiudt^r iu 
adjacent town*, 'rilxiriu*, bowwer, under proLoncH 
of latrcdudng a stricter dincipline amnn^ them, 
aoMinblcd tlicm all in Roue, wbet« a vLraiiKly forti- 
fied camp {axMtra praloria, or joTwforiniM, or ynr- 
torium] wa« saiJ}[iK>d tluio. Tb«ir number waa 
taoreaaBd by TitelUuB Bo siiftaen oobosta of lOOD 
mm each. Their term of aervico was orifpuuUy 
Bxnd ab twelve yoa", biit wa« nft^rwiirdR eitendw) 
to siitMD. They m<ctvnl double pay; tlio private 
WDiv conddi'rvd oqnal la ntik to tho oonturioiu of 
tho regular army, And when llury had aerv«d tb«tr 
lime each reoeivt'd 20,00ft aortcnM (over jC1C0}. 
TTndsr tb» Ltter eupvruru, piuticularly fnim tbe time 
of CommKliu; (hoy often dqxMed and inurd«ied tbe 
enpertfrs, And raiACil tbrir favourites, or even (aa in 
tba came of Didiua Juliiuiun) the bigheat bidder, to 
tbo tbraoe of the Gvean. TbvLr commaader {prw- 
fictiiM prcBiorw) became the most importuit offloer in 
thA Btkte. (See PaATKcr.) The tl^^to^ian ffuardt 
were aboUdiod by Conataji line tb« Great in 312, tbeir 
wmp (Eaatnyed, and thmw who hat! nnt perished In 
dw Mttte bMween that emperor and Mu»ntiiu were 
drafted mta the regubu- Icgioni. 

PEAOMATIC 3ANCTI0M, a public and •olenm 
deone nlattug to church affairs pnmoanced by the 
heed of the IcgtalatnrtL diating^uiahed from the uinple 
locript, which waa a declaratian of law in anaw^r to 
a queatioQ pri't^uuded on Iwbalf of an iniiividuid. 
In Eamputiu bittory ?si-er&i impoitant treatlu are 
adled pragmatic Nitiotirinit. ]. Tlio onlioonoo li 
aiioiXr* VII. lA Fniuoo, di;tn-n up at l!our™« in 1 i.tS 
wnformiilily to i-b" cleireie* of tbo CoiiuuU of Btui-I, 
and uu tvLicb ru»l Urn liberties of tbs Calliciui Cburcb. 
!i. ThcdccTM of the (ic^rmun Diet at JllAiiixiu 1439, 
which aanctionod tbo «uue docnwa aa Hum oouncLl. 
Jioth limited tbe I'apal power, but were altered by 
nibeequeat ouoootdtti*. S. The uutmmeDt by which 
the Gcniutii emperor, Ch&rlee VI., being wlthunt 
male ianic^ endcavoorod to secure the ■no.'ewiou to 
hia female dcwictxlatitK. It wui in aooordanoe with 
this ifutruuieni that he settled bis d*niini"iii on his 
dingfater Haru Hianoa. He indnoed moat of the 
Xnropcui aoveraiinu be guarantee it; but Cbarltu 
Albert, elector « Bavaria, the next heir to bis 
dominion^ refnsed; thb oused tho Anstrian war 
el &uoc«eidoD after the death of the emperor in 1740. 
In the Peacvof lAjiuan (1745) Uavsdaackuowlwli-vil 
the pragmatie sauuUun. i. Charles III. of Spain. 
wbso he ceded the throoe of Maples to his ttini sod 
M>d bis mocesson in I7S6, called tbe law of euccca- 
eion which he prepared for this bnuich of his family 
aanrtio jrrmriuttim. 

FRAGUE (BDhemlan, Pivhai German, />tW0; 
Latin, i'fxifpa et Har^rvdumt, tho capital of Bobe* 
■nia, tttu tho centre of tbe kinifdnni, on both ^es 
of the Moldan, here crossed by seven bridges; 163 
mUes north-west of Vienna, with which and with 
Dresden it is connected by rjulu-ay. Its nie is a 



regular ba&iu, mit la two by the river, frrSB 
buks of ivhicb tho housea rise la BuooMsbn, tis 
spon tier, tilt they arc terminated utd tncUaesd by 
hiiia of coiuidi^nibU hcighL When viewed fnmi Ih* 
old brid^'v DO city in tbe empire siints^Ne Prague ia 
the grandeur oE its appsaraaos. !■• bridge ttaslt 
of mat hiatnrical interest, was erected between ISfil 
ntid 1!>07, cunaiaU of 10 anzhei^ and la defended bj 
u strong tower at each end^ tbe bsttrsesM nra 
adorned with groups of aUtuary. Tbe town wai 
fi^rmerly inclosed by a wall and fone^ bnt ihev 
dafeucce hate been now deuioUsbed, and ifaoir silM 
i.rnoiipied by privnte liuildings, a piibllo park.teari', 
he. Prauue L-ouaints of five qnartcn : the AitHadt 
JosephsU^t, and Neustadt an U» right, and Kletn- 
BUte and Uiwlscluii on tbe lof*. bank. Outbids tht 
lino ol tba old waUs lie the sulnubs KknUiMDtbnl, 
Smiehaw, and the dtadol Wyscbebrad. lite AilMadt 
and Josepbatadt lie atuug the right bank tewaidi 
tbs nortli. l'l)« xtreeti of Ibe Altstxlt at* naimw, 
but this bciuu tbi: principal seat of trade and Iml- 
nata, and the special quarter oocimled by the Jcwfc 
contains soma uf tbe l>cat ahop^ besidce nunefeas 
churcbea, rcc^limiiuititsi and Klucatiartal eatebliil^ 
lucuti. Tbe N«u*Uult iiivluse* tbe Altatadt oa ihs 
north uuC, east, and louth-cest. Though newer than 
the other, it is still very aneJent, hiiting been beilt 
by the Emperor Charles IV. in VHS. It is nut Iha 
scone of so much activity as tbe Altstedt, but iti 
sUvets are wider. On tbe opposite side the Klein- 
Beitti forma the aristooratic quarter, the ehoaen nheds 
of tlio Itubctiiiari Dubl(«, and tbe site df eeswil 
nniarlutbia palaces. Tlin Hr^Uchin, to the w««t 
and south of tlie KIcinstll«, occupies the rids ol a 
steep bOl, is of less ostent, and contsins far fevw 
housea th&n any of the «tb«r quarters, but perfaue 
anrpssses them all in intetvwt, in cana^n«aice of the 
pubUo edificee which it ouuleinih Tbe prlDcipal 
publia edifices nre the old cBStle. or palnee of the 
Bohemian kings, situated in tbe RradscUn { tht 
cathedral, also in tbe Hndi^cbin. a GotUo etnetnt 
somewhat sbapdoss from having nevar b«ti too- 

[ileted, and much dilapidated by tlie injuriea whidi 
t sustained from tbe bsUs of Frederick tike Grset 
during tbe Seven Y«iua' war; tbe OementtatiiB, tbs 
iKtat of the theolnpical and jibilosophice] facaltMS si 
the unlvcrniLy aiid tlio CaruIijiiiiD, lievoted Id tbe 
r^tciiltiea of Irivr mill iniMlii-Inx; llie Thelnkirahsk a 
(^tbio diurdi, bi«tork-nliy iutvcntiag na the pUo* 
where tba Bobemiim estates made George Podfalbnd 
their king, and to some stiU mure intereeUns ae ooa- 
tnining the grave of tbo celebrated astrooonor Tyebe 
Brobs, who spent hu last yean at Pngoe; tbs 
paUoa of Wallenstein, originaUr a Btmciare of great 
lusgmliceoG^ bub now much dilapidafed : tbe Alls 
lijithaua <iJd townhnll), an imgular Gotue ediloe 
of the Jilwenlh century, with a donjon bssianth in 
which the Em[;«ror Wenul IV. was confined far 
lift<«n weeks; tho chief synagogue of the Jrwi^ 
pmbably am ancient in date as tM end of the terelfth 
otintury; the military bosfrftAl, wltiek b ft Urn Mid 
maguifiuent edi£oe, origiually eteded by the Jesnile 
ax a college; the theatre, the open-house, ttie na- 
tional munnnn, museum of netiunl bistocr, pictnrs 
gallery, tba remarkable atone bridge eg dxleen 
archM, OTOCted by Charles IV, tn 13S7, and orna- 
mented with twcnty-ci^'ht itatiic*, Acl llie maan- 
f»clnreB oaniilit of ^vld and silvw smbroUocy, nlfc, 
woblien, cotton, and lines goed^ balUa% luti^ 
leather, paper, soap, nfincd sum, vinegnr, liqaenn^ 
refined salt, quiUa, sugar of lead, iteeriae and talknr 
caadlea, machines, muslml end mtheMiftticnl metra' 
mont^ firo-ams, poroelaln, fine and buttatjaa Jew- 
dry. Tho tntde is of ^reat impcrlaoee; Pn^fuc^ 
owmg to Its aentral poution, its ritoaUMi OB the 



I 



I 



n the J 



PRAIRIAL-PIUM. 



fiS9 



I 



KoUkO, wfalch wcum it & tnn cataua&icatiiMi vitli 
tk» Kibe, aad to it* fkdlitiM c4 tntutpntt hy rowU 
and nwlw>7, Mof; tbe grtsai eiilr«|i6L fur all Lho 
tnAc i>r tb« IdagdaBL II hjwi *1k> Mvar.U important 
tun, particularly one for wool, wbicb Imu icveu 
4*7% aad daring -arhkfa a (Teat ammint ol budotda 
li dcna; tbrt of St. Wui<wtlatu, tliv uld [lAtroa Nuut 
«< Bobamla: awt tlut of St John Nrpamnk, though 
ibtM two an radur r«U|iioaa (cvtivula than fain, 
and ara mora tnwded irlth d«vote<B than doalon. 

Pngoa ia eoa of tbo oliicat tatnu in the Inagdwn, 
•ad ii ■uppoaad lo have bopn fnunileil in 7'1'1 hy the 
DoAtm JUibuMi, bvt Its liiMury dots not iKwoiue 
ia^MltaBt till tbo tntddla nf tbo fonitoenth ccntnry. 
Ib 1S4S Ctuu-Iu ] V. fcjiinilnl thn iinivcmity, thn tirtt 
wfakk Ovnnaay poMoavi], aud it acpii aciiuirvU «udi 
■libtity thnofk tlw toacUn^ of nioh noaloui reo- 
•mi ^ IIuM and JerouM tbat it waa nMorted to 
Iran aU qvaxten of Ktuope, and i* aaid to havo bad 
at CO* lino over 20,000 atudfliU*. In ouowqueDC*, 
hw w, «( qoaiMls betwmn tlio Bi>b«iiuaii and 
iaidga itDdaBt^ and tbo dednoD of tho vmprmr 
fa fa y u r of tba tanner, aetfiral tbouNand fcin.-i|[n 
laaAan and rtndcnta lefC tb« unlvtinttj, wljjcb 1«H 
lo Iba (nandaCioa of th* Laipdg, lDgi>1aUdt, Ko«- 
Utk, and CiftODW CiBivcnitiai. H 'wan attended in 
a noanl 7«ar bj 1!<00 andeuti^ who are imtmL-tiH] 
by liO profwBon and otbar teacban^ and baa an 
ashnilvfl libfmiy. a fin* obmmtorj, anatomical and 
Biakfld TOainim, botaid«a] farden, ft<\ In 1 tit 
ftafM «M laheB b; Ibo HundlM and almuat de< 
alm«^ bat aftv tbdr anbodHicin to tb« wnpaior in 
1 W Ilia town mw roboilt. It sulfcrad ao'^ntly In 
Hm TURy Y«ar^ var, and lo 1620 a battla Traa 
fowbt at tbo Wbit« Mountaiu in Ibe nelgbbour- 
booi^ In wbkh lb* Kloctor-palatiim Fmlorick V. 
WW dWeaiad bf (ba Eaiparor Ferdiuand IL, and 
wpdtod to naoBBM hla crova. In 1431 tbe dtj 
waa oiptttPad bjr th« Saxooa, wbo wan driven out 
s fcw maatim latai bjr WaUanalaia. In 1742 ii ma 
irinn bj tka Ft«nob and BavaiiaBi^ and two yma* 
lats- cuitoUted to Praderieklbe GraaL Aftertba 
Sana Yaai^ war lb« city Butde rapid stride^ and 
fi q py od paaoa and pK«p«rity onlil ]$f8, vrhva th» 
Aattrfan fonrament eaoaed it to ba bomharrled ftir 
two day% ovfaut lo tbe nrarirfd d m i HK tatin dwDona- 
trafiooa «idtod br tba amtt p g i ot Um BfaurMda 
Ciamraw wltbin ita wwUt. Imag tba Anatio- 
Praaaian war In IMS tbe dtj vaa oecupled br the 
rnaalani^ and b«* tba trcnty ol peaca waa iijtcied 
on tba S3d Ansiurt. Fop. ]<I3,323, about threa- 
Itlha of ■mtumi an Ctedm Tba trada ia almoat 
■rilnhp In tba handi ctf Gannaaa and J«wa. 

FRJUBIAL. Sm CalkmoaB. 

FRAISIB (Frandi. 'oMadow'), tba naoH gtvan to 
iha «aat natunl ueadowi or pUn ctf tba MiMia- 
liffi nUey. ooeapTteK tbe vtateni part of OUo, 
nearir tba wbola of Ibu atatca of Tn^ana, lUinoii, 
and Iowa, tho aoatbem put of Ml<ibigat), tbo nor- 
Ihtfn part of Ulaainiri, and paKioaa ol Eaoaaa and 
KttnAm, In niiicb. Mar th« aoridj— «f 97* and 
100' «^ tbay pwlnally uua Into arid and dawrt 
TbtottghoDt tUi iiBmanut tonHcnT tbe dif • 
of kral an anfiotsnl to prodaea a itaady 
taw ol tbe livars, but not eo rapid aa to obrtrad 
tbair narigation, thua •ncnring a ayatxin of awy 
I nt w oB M n nfa n tlnB betwaen all aecUuiia uf tbo ooon- 
Ifj, lanvpMMd ia ImportnaM by any iliBllar lya- 
Mn to tba world. Hieio ta a mat aamaneea in tba 
fmkarea ot tba lopof[nifby, tna Tsgetable prodac> 
tlo8% tbo aeil, and Ewloi^oal (eaturaa. Ibe onifaoe 
ia tetead bj wtnum vUeb caDBMBoa in ibnort 
bff tftla dapKMfam of the bub prairie^ and 
Ifawhi Badaand TnCayatd mdiialiy iiitiwaelu|tdaptlt, 
batVMa Tattlnl valla « ttnaatoo* or iHhtmrt 




tlmWKb Ib« bcrizmUl etrata of wblcb tlw convnt 
haa in past tlraee made Ifii duuuLsL Wbat ue called 
bottom landa Ue bctwcon the rocky UiifTi and tbe 
■Lnam, and attain in aome place* a widtb nf 6 to 
8 miles; but tbcy ar« often wantlnit eiitir«ly, Uw 
fatofla on each rido Doming cloae np to tbo river 
baiika, (In tbe Hpixtr MJauMtppi tbo bottom landa 
ara ^[ettondly welt wcxided, but ^oii|[ tba atata of 
&li»wuri ibey epnnul out bito wiile ojieoplalna. On 
the baad-vratcn of tho lllini>ia and the Wibub, and 
Mutb and wcat of l>ake Michigan tbo prafriae aio 
very l«rel and ■muolb, and are toraiei] flat. Kbw- 
where tbe avrfaoe ie uDdolating and broken by the 
depiBMiani of tbe itream^ and are known aa roUiag 
prairiea; aome of tbo hlfhcat nreUa reaob an dera- 
tion cif 1500 feet abore Uio aea let'eL Tbe deimeaioaa 
wbcra there uro no atrvatDB are ofCoa 50 feet 
bolow tbe moan lo^cl, aod i& tbe bottom tbe aoil li 
wet andnuLnby, fanning almoat impa— ble awalea or 
■louifba. In thcae placea the grasa growi rery rank 
and tall, but upon tbe upper and Snor surface tbe 
natora) growth ia finer, and th« nod ttciiK And cloacly 
interwovTO. A great variety of flowering planti^ 
nioatly varlooB apeolea of (ha haliantbold Ouapoaita^ 
an intanpofaed among tbe graaaea. Troea ar« aoma- 
tltnca met with In aoattered greupa called ero^-e■. nt 
along the lacHoratioauiB, oraocaauiually onliiw rucky 
rltlgw. Tba aoU b nnnarkable for Ita 6aely oom* 
minutod condition; it ia geacraUy fico tnm atoui^ 
thongb to aome loealitiea bottlden are nut with. In 
the ewalea, and in eomo of tbe bottom landi, tbo rich 
blacJc vagatablo numld ia very devp, but on the npfwr 
p««filtn its deptb ie uanally faom 1 to 2 fwt. Tbeanb- 
sell ii almoat InTariably an argillaceoua luaai, moTD or 
leaa mixed la ite lower pottbue with nuii] aud occa- 
■lonal pebblea. Water ia generally foaml in tbo eandy 
atrmbtun 1G to SOfeet below tbe aurfaoe. 'Ibo nader- 
Idng rooka an aoft, aadiiDnitary etrata, cafadolly 
uialca and impure Umcatonie^ wfaleb dieJutegtata 
readOy and enuabla Into aofl on expeaoM. Bawtli 
tbe pndrlait north^roat of tbe Olkia, are axtaaifve 
cml'fieldi^ witb dvposita of iron, Icail, &c Tb^ 
*Mt plalaa^ cxiveriiit; an »rt*tit 400,001) Miuan nlte^ 
formerly fed vaat bsfda of biaona (bnOalDea), doer, 
wild turkrya, ptair{abelu^ piairie dcg^aqnirreli^ ftc; 
but tbeae ara vintJy ■*■'-<" j"**-^ in nnmlien now, 
«r bare altofitfaer vanUiod. Bemalna of aadent 
mot m da. fortifioatieoit and dtieo abow tbat thoy wen, 
at aome remote period, in!uihit»d by mom civiliied 
raoca than tboaa lutuid by Uie Kuropean diacuvcieta. 
Immenee tmcta are now cvlttvatod, and produoo laisa 
cTopaot wboat and maixe with little ouUay oS laboor 
on the part of the faimcr. Ibe aame daea of fandi 
in Britub America are alao called pnuricM^ aa tboaa 
between tbe Booky MeantalM and Manitoba. 

PH^IKTE IX>G. Swi Makmot. 

PRAKRIT, eertain Bfatdu dialocti, which ae- 
([nired greater [womUienoe aa the older Sanekrit 
plied eradually oat nt naa. Tbem dialecta lint 
oaauaed a Utenrjr pontko in tbo SMukril draaaa, 
wbera female dwrBclera^ both Ugb and low, ara ln> 
tmdnoed aa apeaUag Frikrlt, biatead of tbe Saue- 
krit need by kiag^ aoblemon, and prioata. 1W 
nKxlem longuca of India bare apning tram tfca 
i*r&Ant jiMl aa the Runiaiice lausuA^tca bate aprang 
nmnodUtely ftocn tbe old lUIiau dialarii^ and not 
frnm tbe literary Uttln. 

PRAM. Cufiiaruf HrauKHn, an admired poet 
and mieceUanooua wrllvr, wae bcm In nitt.aCLefti^ 
in tbe Guldbrandadalon, >iV>rir3y. lie ff'Tilttil at 
Copenbagen, and gained much by bJa bitsnooiM 
wi^ Ewald, HaoaeL and otbenL In 17H1, u a 
menbar of tite lariailtNnal and eomBMrctal ooUegn 
of Copenhagen, be andertaok Hvsral toar^ the re- 
Bulti of which ware pabUabed Lt tbe CooumkM 




26tJ 



PRASE-PRAYER. 



JourDftI, fiiUDiIcd by him in 1781!. la ISIS he wM 
duicbarged frnm bin office with mn inaiKnifJcant pen- 
•ion, Aod Id 1S19 acoeptf-'l tbc ofBoe c^ collector of 
cuBtomj o& tbo uliijid vt St. ThoaiaM, when ia 1821 
he (rll ■ liirtim to tfan climate. Hla writingB, whinh 
Ara □uinerotia and etubnice s grcEit viiri«ly of «ub- 
jtn'U, bnth in poUric'sJ Wid ojitural «cieT)<in, diiplay 
miiob imliittty and very e«leiiaive ftwiuimmeuts. 
Among Ilia |i<i«bic»I pruduclloDa &ra Keroiito an 
Erich, which ill 1779 ^iund the pri«c of the Sorirlj" 
cif B^ilte-lrttcoi; HtJu-lcnddrr, the niual i»ia(in» Nur* 
wvgiiUL lieruic povm, in Qfteeu c^auloH, vquuUy rv- 
m&rluble (iir iu plan, (wnlonta, mid f(>rm', his 
Satirical xad Coiuh: Ta!r«. wliidi, with a «cJection ot 
hU i>Detiiii, mm imbliiJiL-d at CopunluQen in 1824. 
Boitditf the Comnicrtrlal Journal olmuljr tnsntioned, 
)i« (ouDdtrd ftjiothcr, Cftll«i1 tho Minrrvft, which wm 
of cmendat Knirc in dilTufling infuniuitiun in the 
Scnniliun^'iiui kiii;{duitiii. 

PRASE, a dikrk l«ek-gTve& varioly of qnactz, tho 
oolonr of which i» dne to nn Admixture of horn- 
fclendoL 

PRATER, th« most fucous {>ronit>n«de of VteniiEi. 
8ott Vikss/l. 

PRATICiUK. k term xitnd to ijgnify* kind of 
limiti^d (|unriu)tiii6, whicli the mptiuii iif a v&smI is 
hold to havs [^rromi^d whdii he hs* mnvinprd thn 
MtthoritiM of titm port that bb ahip i> irvc frvia 
iafoctioiu diMMsaa, 

PRATO, ft town in Tuitvaiij', II miles nurth-viCBt 
of Florvnce^ in a firrtilo pliun, on tb-a right tuLTtk of 
the Biaetiilo. It ia Hurruimd-ud by uiciiMil w&ll«, Ltu 
enburba, uid ie ft w-oU-built, cheerful dim ktug plftic«. 
It hiLA ft rriiiit 'if juiiticin ftnd iwivimLi public oltiGCii: 
ft lieckuliful cfttlimlral, be^u by NiiMJu Fiuuio, ftiid 
mmplcted ft(t«r Uf doripia la 1420 with » fa^e, 
forniiluiic m beuitifnl i^>eaim«n of Italian Gothic; 
oevAml oUi«r chnrohM, mnnantaiiea, BiumeHeii, ftn old 
fioitk^ on ondciit pi^iHvriuio (PbIhoo Frctoriu), now 
oonv«rt«d Into a priAon; a ooUm or ecdealaiAlcal 
■emlnftr;, Cftllod ftft«r ita fouDdcr OicogniD^ and 
■ilontttd with a finH Itklian frnnt; n piiblLi; librmiy, ft 
theatrOk ^>^ uveral hotpdtalii; ftnrl Mli:>i»ivi! inuiu- 
iMTtUM <yt wooUflo, Gottoo, silk, and mizf^l goocle, 
•trftw bati, pftpcr, unil ftrticlcs in broM. PopL Doc 

PRAWN (/'ii/nrninn), n gnrra* of CnuUCMUw be- 
hmekig to thu liighcat urdcr, Dcoapodo, of that cUm, 
twd incltul'od in the eeatitia Alftcnin {'lonstoUed') 
nf the nrrli-r. Tlio initvr piur uf ftiitienuu- pueiteait ft 
larjja nuivable {dati: nf aval or triftrmilor sham. In 
tba sptdftl family of the Pmwos {PaJiananida) tli« 
Iwkk or 'rortram,* which projects in front ol tlio 
earopMc, Is larg«, tmithnl, and of compKWcd nluipCL 
Tbft fa«t on of ttout ouulunuAtion, uid do not pa** 
MM boMl qipwDilftgM, 'J'b« Prawni tbemaelvee pos- 
«H Inner ontMiair, tcrmianting in tluco lilamtiKaoB 
pToee oBM . 'Hifl firat and neoond nofn of tegs are 
two-fiug«red or 'cheUto,' Uw wcoiia pair bdng mudi 
IftTgor than th* fint. Il* b»ak ia spM^ally long and 
comprcMod. Th« Common Pntwn {P. trmitvs) is 
tlie uiu»b fftuuUar opMnes^ and rcseiiibloi the moro 
famlliftT Skrimpa in gtvwral ftppMuanoe. LSIca the 
latter fonaa. pnwna tn touad in graat qunntiiica 
OB aandy eaoata. wheneo they are fiahcd hy nebt, and 
largely ti»uspiirt«d in the city fiah-niftrkcta. When 
btiilcd th« Prawim br-c^mo of ft pale pink colnnr, and 
an btj^y iMtwiDiDd oa tablo dcUcacica in tlua and in 
otlior ahi^ea. 

Tbo Common Prawn attaiaa an avera^ lenxtb of 
trooi S to fi indiM, I'hn tail ia broad Mid Hat, ftod 
ita toctninal pLatea ore frinsvd with long hain. Tho 
celonr la Uj^t-gnjr Bpottad with purple. The eoro- 
pMe ia more tneinhraaou* tliaa cakareona, and hecoa 
■ppoftiv aluiaal Iranipareot whvu tho ■"'■"-l ia in iba 




wator. The Idle of ^Mgbt and llampahira oMtb 
form the chief aoarro nf ptftwn supfdy to the Lutului 
n)ark«L Vftriuui other apeoEea ftnd Tftriatioa of ih* 
Prawn g«au8 occur ou the Britiih eoaata. Of Uum 
the P. S^iiUla, J', Jyarliii, and P. tenant arc famiiBi 
(onua. Several truiiictd niicriea attftin ft vciy laigi 
ai^y. (I'l. lav.-l.V., bg. 17.) 

PRAXITELES, one of tho grmtort aonlptoB rf 
Grccco. Mc vu a dtiicn, if not a native, fil Athea^ 
ftnd piMbikhly flouriAbiid about 364 &.a U» ud Ui 
oiutempiirary Scrupaii >Uud ftt the li««d aS tha lakr 
Attic school, ao calW in ouitrvUntiDction to tlw 
cnrlier Attic achool of Pludiax. Without tMaaj^ 
to rival Pbidioe tn hii BubUme im^ 
divine niftjiwty, Praiiitelv cboao ftabjocla 
drmiuidcxl ft diaplfty of the human form, 
tbo foRiolr tifnirc Pliny (HlaL Xat. lib. xtxvL o.^ fft 
givca a lilt u( hia principal works. Tbe finest ia oil 
to hnve been the Cnidiaa Aphrodltft (Venna), rton 
faowMthofinttorepreaanlnaked. Aooordin^ to Ita- 
ditfon tho oelebrated conrteun Phrym (i 
aerred aa a model for it. Aphrodit* 
ftMitvd with ft RHiilmg cnuntvnftnc«; the righfe 
held tome droiiery, wbjuh fell over a v. 
beadde her, iudicaiing that eho bad jnat Wt 
ftbuut Co «nCer the bath. Tbe atotoe woe 
br the Cnidiom^ who valued it ao hiuhly thai] 
rofuavd to port wUh it to King Ktconedet, 
offered to pay oS their bMTy pnblie dabi if they 
complied. It woa afterwanla carried to CooatMtlt' 
nople, where it periihed by fire in tlw tine of JoMi- 
ofaii. Th« KWtip of Nlobo now in exlataaocb whU 
ia a](o ftttributod to Scepaa, acona to bavs baea the 
prndootion li dilfarcnt timea. lib tiro •totnoi e( 
Eru« (Cupid) wvre alao c(ilebrat«d. One of tha^ 
u-bicb WM planed in tho trmnle of Kraa atn«fii^ 
and ft (taluo of a aatyr, wluch woa called vcrAoMaf 
(Uie far-famed), were ocnaldored hy Prmnbelc^ ae- 
ourdiim to PauBiuiia<, aa hia RaeaC worka. An nai- 
loat copy of the lattor wu diaoovend In n-vfUaot 
th* Emperor Antoniana. AmoDj hia worica «■• 
alio atntae* of Apollo, Dionyaoa, Demcter, Ac, ia 
marble and In brooia, which ftarvad aa modela tu alH^ 
weding: ortiata. 

PlCf\ YKlt. Nothing procJaima mere oenaiateally 
and uiiivenally tbe ounnection between man and Itw 
Maker than the fact thftt in every tluw ood jAmm 
men h»w fait tbmr depvudenoo on n Ingber Befe^ 
and hare arnight hia aatirtanee in praynr. Even tbi 
heathen, who call Upon > t^*ud lliat cftiiool Bave, aboa' 
ihrmby thdir acknowledgmeDt that tbey bft'e neow- 
ftitica which they eannot ntiafy, uid that tbey 
believe that there ia aome One who ean mppljr their 
nocda. Tho Bcrtplnrca tantly aaatime that prayer 
waa oAered to Cton from the l)eginning of tha wari<l; 
thcro wwe aoorifioea from the time of Aba^ and 
whar* thoninm nerlbcee there muat also bai« beaa 
aacrifidal nrnyera. And olchoiigh we do not read 
that men l>e|[an to coll upon th« name of tbo Lord 
vntU altar Selh wsa bom, we are fotUdden by all 
oommeBtfttora to connect ihia statement with the 
orip'n of prayer. It ia not, however, until tbe tinia 
of Abraham that player come* flrat diatinctly into 
aoticct. Bia devont taiiii prompted him m bnlld 
an altar wherever be remained, and to ah npea 
dad. He ¥raa donlitleM ft priest within hi* own 
lamily and liouiebold, and tbey p«rtid]at«d in bie 
sorricai and obtained tbe bmefit of bia IsterMaalonft 
Aa the aitar Atipcon to hare bc«n canndtnd tbe 
B|iecia] jilacd fur prayer in the patrtarchnl oge^aowaa 
tbv tabemairl* under tbe Hosue covenaat nntU tbe 
temple wa> built, which woe tailed lb* bona* <i 
pmyef. >Vom tbo time of tbe detticotiaa of Solo 
mon'a temple ttie Jews ajmeiar to bavo gono-tfaera 
to pray, and to haro toinaa tbeiir faeea townidi It if 



i 



PRAYER— PRE- AD AMITEa 



£61 



lh«7 ■wen jurevmtcal ttam going Ibuv; ftnd tbw cm- 
Man pravaUt Muong the Jew* M tbo prawaiC tliu*, 
mm daw Um riaikr siatom UDoag tiw Msbammtd- 
Ui^ «bo torn tbilr teoM -toward* tfae Mcred KMba 
al Meec& On vzunininff tfae diaranrter of the \myetm 
w umtom d in tb» Old ^mUravnt wa find ttat, trlitL 
tba ai cep tfan of aunj of the Pulnn, tbiy were 
fctnetenOj pelHieai for t«&jKiral objeete. Ttda fa 
•nileo to tb» parpoeu for which tlio tuttoricAl boelta 
«t tba Jvwiah Scriptai* w«m written, m iho Moesoc 
ewcaaat pled^vd God to vonfur temporal benefit* on 
bli pMfin vben thajr caUed npon him. We find aIm 
tfcat a great number of them are ii>t«rce«Kiry: thus 
m faawt Abraham tBUroediae tar Ixit, Mom* fnt tlie 
people^ *■""■* for the peo]He and fur Saul, Davitl 
for Ui Mtiaa, EUtkn for the dead child, and so oa 
Whan wa eema to New TeatameBt Un«e w» meet 
far the fM tinw with ajnorattea eetablahcd a« 
iilieee for the pnbUo wonhip (3 God, and for reading 
■iawoed. 'nwlBadeniDreU]eion— tbepri«ata,acrib(«, 
and Ph ari a ««n wa r e no longer the faithful aorvanta 
»< God tfae; coioo vnn. Christ want among the 
pMpla doiiv |ood — beaUnic the rick and bcetowtog 
rwgfTwan et dna; and the nay fact that bo cxcr- 
dnd dMaa power eauacd the ponple to wonihtp him 
mi lo bgaaiA fafan in tenu bu11«i] ouly tu u JWlue 
bafaf; Ua dlMlfilea pnj blm to lavo them from a 
Moem (roin 'whioh no mortal power could dcliTcr 
UtfSk HiHa the way wia prcpami for tbu tntpfirtatit 
anw e wDoem ent aiada hy our Lonl (owarda the oloee 
•4 Ua Binietn, that praysr riumld ba offwad to God 
in Ua name in order to inaan an anawcr. Hcn«- 
fnrward Jaaua Chrut became to the Cbrietlan what 
tba temple wae to the Jew: he wa» tb« embodbnent 
of OodL fflviac a definite object thonibj for the faith 
«l Dta tmilUnt to reet urxm; he waa alao the prtiiii- 
dntioa nr th* rina of tlie wurld, and throu^^h kb 
Uood all tlint beUero Ln him bnra teoim to tbo 
VMbar. Tbo poetare of lbs body in praror is left 
ttndecwled in Saripttire; both etaniling uid knoeliitg 
mm mentioned, and Chrirt adoi'l«>l both puaturea. 
Se abn ia tba qnoatioo about lortna of ptnyer lift 
imaetlTid Br fiving Ua dtadplei a form of prayar 
Chriat haptted that then are tineB wheo theaa an 
imeful: bat h« never maant that the b<« nttenuira 
cf the aoul'a want* dkould bo oitirotjr Uultad by for- 
■alawioK 

Afainat the leetimony and experience et ao many 
^(ea uf mankind th* objectioaa of a amall tnlnwdty 
Bny be of litUe importanca, yet tboy murt not pea* 
■paati c a d . Sooh obJeeUona are nnaaUy reaolvabte 
into two pKipaaiUem—1. that U Ood haa toreotdainad 
aQ eranla no pr^w ran alter hU will: and 3, that If 
Ood b omaiaoiBnt It ia uaeiea to inform him of our 
vnols. In answer to the fint objeetlan we nay aalc, 
Why h*a (ioA put in im the stroog inatinct to prar 
to lum if after all he intend* to haolk it, and if, with 
all eor faith and eanMetaeM^ we cannot t^iange the 
ovdsr of his proridancB 1 Baddaa, wa know so Utt)« 
about the way in which God aoU that it is abaurd for 
ns U> ptaacribe c«rutn limitattoo* to him In his mode* 
etf action. It is tnw that God chaogea not; tt i* also 
cnw that he bear* prayer: each ef llwaa atalemaaita 
i> iaespUcable to a*, and we cannot reconale then. 
The Buet reaaonaUe method o4 ezprearinf the doe- 
Irin* of wayer ia to su that It is not n eauM of 
God'aarttona. bat noon m ion on which heactfc Itii 
a distinct duty nl Ibe crenlnre, looked for and waited 
bw by the Creator before he praoeed* to grant the 
nqavt, He ■> radOy fonacea Uie prayw m tba 
Mid aftlMaiDff prayed tor, and the one la^ pnmnily 
•paakfaig, the coacUtJon on wbtcb the other ii gnnted. 
inyer ia not at all tatended to aopereede wmk. 
H hKMse praying and worUii^ are aBpplementary to 
■ each othitr. The seooud objection foUowa in the 



I 



I 



same groove. It is certain by God's own revrlstina 
of bimeelf that be ia amnisciatiit: aiui it ix al*ii certain 
that be roquires men to petition him a* well a* to 
oHor him a pure Hrrlee of adoration. How to it- 
ooocile thcae two oppoaite, or apparently oppoalc, 
fmclM, that a beneficent God know-R tiiir want* before 
we oan name then^ nod fa loriog enough to satisfy 
then vithont YuAng aaked to do aok nnd yet minirea 
us to put ttiaee wants beforo him in prayer, and to 
auk hiu to satUy them, ia a qaertion that we oannul 
answer. They an taota that depend for their ex- 
plaaatian ca mystetias of Ood'a nature which he haa 
cfaoaen to remain myateric*. But it is quite as oer- 
taia that be haa impcaad the law of prayer as that it 
is tlint he has reveaJed himself to be onmlsoiait; and 
while it vontd be very illogical to accept the rerela- 
tion as tiMe and lo reject the law an fabw, it would 
alao be folly to accept both aa true uud yet tu refuse 
to act on the law because we cannot reooncOe It with 
the rerelatiun. 

It baa boon rnggcstod by Kniio thinkm that the 
efTwrt vi prajer in pun^y aulijectiie, and that its only 
result is to produce a atrooger feeUiig of dependano* 
in ttio nupgilitu^t. It UI true that prayer doea taat- 
cise a ■iiliju.-tiva influmce^ and thia is doabtleiw a 
part uf the work which It Is lut^niled to du, bnt It Is 
not alL For why ahould God onconraga ua lo pray 
for our ilaily brr-ail if be dons not intentl to give as 
an aiiawet to our pnyen T iJoea not be that gives 
Spiritual tUhtgs give temporal things also I Ihit the 
Btrongeat objectJoa to tba theofy may bo dmwn from 
the fact that intcrccasory nrayer fer the bodily and 
■piriLual welfkni u( utlicra u must alroiiffly urged by 
example and precept In the Old and T'l iii Taetailienr 
It would bo the menet mockery to pretend to nay 
fnr others if the only i:1fntTt was to be in outMlTes. 
It is dishonouring Uod to mppoae him capaUe «f 
ccontriof it this mocdcsry by tba cxbottatuma of lua 
holy word. It may be also added that tho admis- 
■ioa of ruch a sabjecUTe eAact ia also an siTiiihaiim. 
to no suiall extent, thai prayer Is not a mere ftctloa 
but a great nalily; for no moral (rood oould be 
expected to result, or would rteult, from the oonsiant 
use of what, if It is not a leaHty, must be mme 
feOchtem. 

Prayef for the doad ia n pnctJot reje4ed by Vn- 
testanta as bavins no aaiybu nl warrant, but wUeh 
pcevalla in the Scoan OalboUe, Greek, and other 
eaaten Uburcbe*. The custom eeems to have ex- 
isted in moat of tba aadsnt rollgiana, aspedaUy in 
thsMof Indl^OMDa^MHlEcypt. lie doctrine smI 
pnctioe eaae to tba OwImmi Cbuidi through tbo 
Jews a Haocabeaa xiL tt, UF). Tbose who defend 
tbin umm naiutain that the efflcney of pn^yer far 
the paidoD of the ains ef the departed fa dearir 
intimabtd by Christ's leaddiv In Um Gospels. He 
Bars that 'wbosoeear speaksth against the Holy 
Ofaoal it ahalt not be forgiven Um. ueilber in thb 
world nor In tho world to eene' tMattbew liL K\ 
wbcnoo by only eadading from fornveneaa in the 
world to otme the sin against tbe Uoly Obuet lie 
may be nadafwlood to Imply that lea effonoss may 
be forgirea. The lint of the Chrletiao fathora who 
mmtiona pnyc*- for tbo dead is TcttutUan; bat ha 
apcnlEi of the usaee aa well-knewn and lo»^ letab- 
liabed In tbs ehtmli ; iveh ptnyen an fnqtMBlly 
altnded to by 8t Jobs Cht y sostcan. C;n11 of Jeni- 
salem, and Si. AnfttsMne. In the burml scririce cf 
the first Book of Ceaameo Prayer ol the EnglUh 
Cfanrch acme ptnyen for the dead appeareit but they 
were deleted Iran the second book, and are not found 
in the subeeqoe nt rev iifoos. 

PBJE-ADAMITXS Ifrom the Latin ynw, betcn), 
tboee supposed inliabttants of the earth prior lo lb* 
crenHoo of Adam, llw lefeaulai; Iradil&ua of the 



S6S 



ntEBEOTJ— PRECTEDKWCB. 



G*at speak nf natloBfl knd eniFJiva exi«tuiK boforv 
AiWit'd cmatinn, aii'l nf » Una of klngii who rul«"l 
ovur thvm. la modero timM tha irabjwt «-u taken 
up by Iiuuc de Is P«]fTferev vho, [n • week pablUheil 
in 14.'6, imuntftincKl that the .lewe ir«rra t1i« deoMud- 
nntu of Adnm, uiil thn (.idniilni thmn nf n Ion',' 
luilcrior crvutidii, fvQcdmjt hia opiuiatu od R^miuix 
V. IS-14. The tcnn pn-Adomltio u nmetlD)<% 
b.|>pKm1 to rcmnin* of human art diacoTorcd Id jxici' 
i.ituiH which np]war tatiBdliwutatotMnf an a^ bayund 
\hv licclu which ixrii'turaf <iluoiiolo(r7 udgns to tb« 
crckation of Admn, 

FILKBKN I >, n yearly iitiTiCind ptud fmm tho funtli 
of Ml eoolodaatic&l dctablUtiiDBut, •« of ■ isiLhednd 
or oglltgUto cdiurah. Frtbeiulary U th« pemm who 
luw » prebend, A dmpla praboad haa no mora than 
tho rei-BDtie which ia asditncil fnr ita nipport; bnt if 
th« |ireb«riil ha> » jurisdtcliiin iuiueK>Hl, ttie [irrlwii- 
dary u styled a diynitartj. Frehenduies, M audi, 
h&vn nn imm of tin\iU; iind themfore ft pniband «id 
> iiann'tiial bvcEGci; ate Dot tnoompn.tihle pronutioiu. 
— Tbt pirhtndi'^ Hail b the Mat uf th« pmbvudary 
in tb« ufaurrl], into which ho is iaduotod by thn doan 
and chapter. 

I'RErEDRNCE, Ito ortlor in whidi lofto luid 
woman frillriw ravh other In a ttitte procession or on 
other pjljlic ncs-uioua. In Eitgland tho otdor of p»t- 
oeden<« fli.-pcjiili portlv on tba statiitM KI Henry 
VILI. cap> X., &nd 1 Will. »ad Mary, iiap. i.: uu tho 
lattan patant 9, 10, aod 14 Jac; 1.; and partly on 
aacd«Dt \auffi wid otaibliahed raalom. yueatioD* 
aiiBiiig on Duittera of iirecedenoe de|i«nd{n{ ua uaa^e 
ftn budly canaidcn>d as dofiaitely aettlod, and aro in 
a great nteaaarD laft to thadiaoration of tb«offio*re of 
vnu. The following are the dagreee of pneedecce 
■B reoognited by ^igliab law: — 

faU« aj Fnctdena amoivf ile>%. 

Th* Sovtrdrn. 

Tha Princa of Whim. 

Beam ot Ilia ttoTamin. 

flnwdnna at Uia Mtnarttpi, 

Bratban 6f Um Hai anipi. 

UootvoTUia SnrarNKti. 

Tha 8af«f«lgn^ brnUian* nr iMtr^mm^ 

Tli* Arel)1ii<Tiop o( (.'■nlertiur]', Prlinaui of all ^"ylfi^i 

Tba [,i>M H;kIi (.laiiFBllur, Ot Lord Ka«|nr. baiiif a hunu. 

Hi* AcrlihMhop Df York. Pnoula of En^UodL 

Tha jiraMnl ArutiUtJioii of Amw^b, hf Iha lri*A Cbnrah 

AoloriSSB. 
Tha Arulilaihapef OnbUu. 
Til* IjmiI Hinli I'nMDtBr. \ 

Thn r^ird E'rciilniL of Um PtIt^ CoauaO. 1 Bdtic of Uw 
Tho Lord I'nrj e4«L |d«(n«4rbafDn*. 

Tha I^dftl mi Cliambarlaln. J 

Tba LM>d HI«tL Oooalabla. 
Tha Bkri Hai>lu1. 
na L«(d HIdi AdiDltaL 
na Lorl Btaward of Hot U«]art;'« 

ll«naalMl(L 
Tbn Lord Chunbalahi ol Bar imaatj'* 

DaeaabeitL 
Dnkai. 
■Maat BU d dvkaa of tba teral bMiL 

Dakar el IMI MOB. 

Sari*. 

Vaanfar *ona ofihUua of ftjti Uood. 

HarqoUaa' aldort nno. 

DokiB^ jvn^ger aona. 

VtMOUBtm 

BarWo^dalaDm 

HanitUHtf jouaiiaraMNL 

BlalionB uf London. Dothan, and Winahuiar. 

All akbar EkfUA bltb^M Mcotiliuc (o aeuliulty of eonM- 

•latkn. 
Th» wamn i K Bidwpef Haath, folloir«d t.r thaoUigr liiab 

bUwpi igiaUm In UM. asaDrdlnf M wnlartlf of atom- 

uMiun. 
Banrtarla* of Stntai baiiif baram. 
BarniM. 

Th* ^idvVcraf th* Donaa of CkMomona. 
ONDmuaioucn ortba OrMt Baal. 
Trnwiiiut iif ih» Qaaon'i HonMhold. 

CaiDpti«Il«i or tha QoMd'a Heoa^ioU, 



Jkboaa ftU pAina 
nf their dintD; 
1( liuloa, mhm* 
oil dillo^ Ao. 



Maatar ofUia Hotaai 

Vu.T<1iaiutietlKi]i or Uio Q<Man'* nooMfeold. 

8<^nvurtM of Stat« balvr Uia twik at bann. 

VianmoU' cldot aona. 

Karli' ifoontan sons. 

lUrona' alilot aona 

KniffbU of tba Gutw. 

Prt>r OouaolHnra. 

The Chuuwlkoi of iba Order <f tba GaiMT. 

Tha Chutoalloi of (ha Bxuhaqnw 

Tha CbAsoaDor of the Dvfar ol LancMter. 

Tiia Ijoid Chiaf JuiUaaaf thaQumn^ Baoeh. 

The Maater of tha tlolU 

Tlia lioni <~hi<if JiikUaaof Ctmuiiaa Plaaa 

The Ifrd Chiof ILmm of tha KTitfia^iwr. 

tford* JuauoB* et Un Cciurt of Ap;aal la Chanoacj. 

Ti<i»€liaiiaBll«n. 

Jodyaa and Buom nf IbaColfftb* Jads* «f tWOontrf 
Proluta hu rank aiul prHwIaao* aritli tbflB IfiinrllM 10 
til* ilAi* vT lim ■|>|ioliitii]uiv Wbao ritdag ta tba hi] 
Ofiiiit cif riiTotm wid U&tniDQiiial CWiia« ha raalB alto 
the Chlaf Biroo). 

Rtiii;'>** Huiitioi-tlj^ Rorat froada tv tba BomatfB la foncA 
in aiwn war). 

Tbaiu ntiT TUiuipir Kiiilk 

lUMna' yottiigar aouu 

RiRinata. 

KniidiW Bnnnareta (nM nuuTa Y>t the Bemtlcn ta >■— I 

Ki>lit)i(a Oraud Ctoaks of ll.> Balh. 

Knight* GMiad l^raasa ol tho Utar of ladia. 

KuttftitaofSV PatrK>k. 

KniKbt* Grand Okm** at HI. Ulciual aad Si, Olim. 

KnljCht* dmimandMa of Uia Balb. 

Knight* CuniinaiiiJaiii iir Uia Hlar ul lodl*. 

KmiitiTj Cum in Hide r> of St. Mi'Jiaal and St. OfOti* 

KnlcKt* Hanlmio™. 

Compiulaoi of th* Ualh. 

Cnmjiau l»n> or Ibe &'.Ar (4 Indfs. 

Caialicn and UompanloiM of BV Mlohael aad Bi i 

indMt aoru of tha 70iui(<T aona of pa***^ 

Uoronata' aldaat asoa 

Eldart *oii« of Kntghta of tha Oartor. 

Uaaoant** alnJcei aoda. 

BldBt »u ol Knlshta of the Oath, anJ of 8L HJohwd ud 

St. UaatK*. 
EU«t KID* of Kalghtj Doi^halorii 
BatvotU' jrounnt h>u*> 
Tout^fBt Kiiu of Kiilglita ofUia G attar. 
Toulicar Ban* of boanarala. 
ToBDfar aeu of RniRhl* tt tha Both. 
Toaojai aoa* of Knishta Bachalof*. 
Mtuvttm. 

dhatlaiuan antiltnl ui tK«r amu. 
aimtnon, OoRUtui at Ia«, and oBMta of (ta oiair ■■( 

oary, 
OltUana, 
But|aN*,te, 

TiiMt ^ PrwMfaia ostoiv IfMatn. 

[KatrioJ woman and viduwn u* anUtlaa] U> tba Mtaa o&k 
among Mch itthar a* tbalr hiubaadi would raapootinJf bata 
boTue aiuoos thaoMaln* unlaw auofa tank U mmdif pi od» 
aLaiudorirflliilali and nanatrial women (o She aeve Hik m 
thair alda)t hrothcn wonld bear dnrinc <ho Uwh ef I 
tothoiiL] 

"nieQnaaL 

Tbe PiMMa of Val«. 

1*tltlo**aa*. daoshton of tha Soianrnpi 

FdnooMrand iatiumm. wl*«i of tbm Soreealfa'a ■ 

OtoDd-dauihtar* at tha 3aTard|ii. 

Wine of tba tt^teralfB'* gtawtorrM 

aiitoiB ciT til* aoratatgn. 

Wins Of th* HoeweiCD't brolbar^ 

Avnle of tha Boi«<«nl(t>. 

WltM of tha SotttaJiii^ uaela*. 

DuB b wiW. 

Wna ol the eldnt loni of dokoi of lOT^ tdaod. 
Dougbten ot dnktm of 10701 blood. 
MatnhiooeMi* 

Tin* of tba aldaat aon* of Aikea 

IJwtiCbtim of diLkaa. 

QpwitWBBa, 

Win of tba jmut^m aoiu of dmkaa ot rojal blood. 

VTImb of tb* aided (odi at marqeiaea. 

Diknsbton of aiaif nbaa. 

WlTa* of Iba reoBlW •*<>* o( dttkfk 

Vboouutaan*. 

Witm of the *lil«*t BRttBof aado. 

Dangblon of aetb. 

WiMB of the jmrncir BDBfl cf ■nvui^ 

ftuonaaia. 

Wiraa of the eMoBt Booa «r TtaaOBala. 

Dsoxbtoi* of TlBDaneta. 

Wivw of the jrottnfBt aona of «*«la. 



PRECEDENT— PRECESSION OF THE EQOIKOXES. 



S68 



wiTw or A«*td«t mi c« tenM 

UaMbUn of bwoNft. 

mrm et Knl^la of (h* OBrtn. 
Wtrm of imiawiH. 
VlTsi of ih* joonft* KBa of riMoanl* 
Win* e( lb* )«an(K mim of tArouk 

Vl*«ie< buotHU 

Wiw Of Kkl^uOnad Ctomm of tlia Otder o( Ih* Bttti. 

VlT*a( KnJcbtBaimnd Ciimhs of BL Utduul uiil iii. 

Wra a' Kalibu C«nMiuuidm of ths Ordar nf tb« BaiIl 
«)*w «r KkifbU Comiiuiuletm of St. Uwluwl wJ &. 

Oaaf*. 
W)«« «( Kaltkt* tedMlais. 
WWa «f OMapuitaa of iba BatlL 
Wifw 4f CivftUnt ud OgnpMiMik* «< BL UkhMl ud 

Mt-Oorm. 
Vl«« of ifit aUlaM am if Uis joanEn tocM of peen. 
M«|btMl of Um TOoupi m» of |>Hn. 
W>TOT «f IIM fMait «DM of UtonatL 
ItambNn Of b«mBMt. 

Wtna of tha iM«M MO* or Eaifli ta of tba Oular. 
ITH)»lllofKaiafctij9fth»G«n«r. 
VW« rf Mm oUM miu of Wiuania. 
DMiUaw e( buuwMs 

WiTB of lb iM«t •(»■ cf Enlahla of tba BbUl 
DHtfhtan «( KMtfkli ar (b( Blktb. 
WlTM irf lb* lUnt Ma> of EbI|1iU Bululan. 
DamheM or KaJilm BulMlen. 
Wlrw of Um Toadgw uaa of baroMU. 
«t«« or«BBlni m4 ifMlMnM. 
WiTM rfoilliwii, ban I I, An 

B7 tbo Mta of Uniou at SoutlMiil ftad Ircluid Uh 
pjcidauaa bt ui; gives degree td Uia peerage bu 
Mtn flrtkUMlMd H foUom: — 1. Trcn of Eu[,-luJ- 
I of ScoUaad: 3. Prnm ^f (inint BriUini 1 
i^«f ImlMid; £. Peon of Um Xruited Kingdom 
of Iralud OMtwl aabMcaent to Uh 
IMhl 

PRBOKDKFIT, fai Inr, a jndioU] decMan -which 
Mr*a M * ral« tot tutor* deteimiiutlou In rfmlUr 
w aBakimi amm. Pnoodosti, ttricdy ipMldni?, 
4n fafa^ig m tribntiAk only when tbtY n» in the 
fom of aiotua] dedilani of tbo point la qaortiou; 
; b tanned an eztfajndicUl aptaion—tha opinion 
prnQOuBoed irhcro it was nut caUecl for to 
ba imw — (9U1 )iBT« acthonty aa]y from th« 
rof Um judKCMtdDutaanprnooilwit Wldlv 
tbo ]«^dpl«i of equltj ranninad unsettled it wm 
oewiderMl hj manf tlioc |in)e«d«DtB wan tMpi^c«U» 
in ttai bnnch of law, aa it* -wtry oanw 11 inn J to 
thai aadi «aae aliauld ba gjoveraad hy Um 
I oplako of ita iadiridnal nMrita. ThU nip- 
■ EiM now, bowcivT, been rcfotod, and |tr«o»> 
I an of ■• much MiUioritjr in coorts of eijnitj aa 
In IboM 9t oomiDoa law. Foctbi of proceedlite to be 
EoOowod in iisuljw canta an alao termod preeadaQtit 
PRECENTOR (Latin, prtr, before, and tantor, 
rfagary, la ancieal rallgioua (oundaUmia, tlio officud 
to n ofaaiA*, wba4lMr caitlMdnl or eoUogUta^ who led 
ika ibgUB of the cboir or oofwregnliaG. It waa bfa 
prarinoa to beebi the vena, wUlat tbe peoiJe joinnd 
vitb tarn «l tM ckMo, a matliod whtdi was uften 
varied in tbo Mina avrvM* wHb antblMnlo oar iUt«^ 
DMe paalmodjr. Ha nuked gnantfy, nUliough not 
taAttnaOr, nnt to tbe deaa; but In nodem ontko- 
dni f™"^**"— be ie twoaUr a mbor canon, and in 
I bee Iwt iDucb oi bia pnccdBiice^ He b 
l^bowever, eveiywben the oondnotor o( the dioral 
and aupaHnteadAnt of tbe cboLr. lu tbe 
\ Chnrab it waa formorly tba liabh of Um 
' tD npalr to rhnn'U lialf an hour before tbe 
enina, and nad to tbe peopb aevenl pan- 
I of fionptam When tbe minialcr enland tbe 
ilor nvo onl a nabs, and led llie unag. 
tbe beglmibv of last oaatoij he ceased bjr 
dt fiiM either to nad tbo Scifatw* or to 
tta pMln. Bat bia d««k, wbioh is sCMinllv 
fcaaalb tbe p«iipil, b >Ult cbUwI tb«ile«ten (f 
ttUfmt). that b, nuting-dotk. Tbe waotbe of tbo 
pranstoT reading eneb line of tbe [■aini pnTiou to 



singiiig it b atUI kept ii|i b aomo of Uie runi dbtricta 
ofSooUand. 

PRECEPTORY. in ntedionU bbtonr, n nllgleue 
hooae of tbe KnJirhtn TempUn, nboniiute to tbe 
temple or priadpal home of ttie at^tr in Iiondnn. It 
was ondtir Uie ^vonrnientof onnof tbo inorii eniiii«iit 
knights, whom tbe gmid-nuuU>' created and stjled 
I'rtteijder TtnpU. It nnuUf stood on a buukv or 
eatate beloo^g to Ihi^ order, on wbicb waa ateo • 
cfaunh and otbiT nrotmiary baildinga: Of Ibeee pn- 
ceptories nxUwd ar« eaid to ba-n beloojjed to tba 
Tsmpbin to England. 

PRECESSION OP TIIE EQUINOXES, a alow 
motion cA tbe eijuinoctial lin«^ or line of interaeotion 
ot the eqvDtor and ecliptic^ wUob cansee tbe p««ltions 
oocoplM by (ha snn at tbe eqvfawx (Uie oqniDoctial 
polnta) bo more backn-.-urd or weatward at tbe roeao 
nt« d fiO'lfi" per j-car. Tlii> aweei^Bg romd in the 
hiuTens of Uie equiautrtial Uoe iodlcatea a motiom o( 
the axu of rotation of tbu earth, snob that it deaeribes 
drdia roond the puloa of tbe ecliptic In 25,791 ftut*. 
Natation (ntoatio, a nodding) b a alDiilar, but inndi 
■BftUar motion of the axis, wboea period b abont 
ninaleen yoan. The axiii, tbercfore, follows a sinoaus 
Mlfa, instnul of a, air\a, ttbout the pob of tbo ecUptia 
Nutation causes the eqainoclini points to be altar- 
natnly in advanoo and behind iheir laena plaw dna to 
ptvecMion bj d'ST*. At praaent tbe venal eqnluoe- 
tial point b in tbe xodiacal sign Piacea, and it b 
movliigtowanb the rign Aqnarlaa. 

Sir William Tboosoo has dovLted a mecbaalcsl 
iUuatntias of preoesdoo. An ordinary 'J4-incb modal 
of tlie earth, the aoolJicni part* of wbicb are cot 
away, b KirpporlfKl on a nirot at the ceatrei At tbe 
north pole tbeni b a OMu abaft which b not fixed In 
beoriDga, but menly nM against tbe inner ddo of 
a rinK alM^iit 9 tnohca in diameter. The diaauMr of 
the ring iubt«iiib aa angle of 47' at lbs centn td U» 
globe To eanae the sWt to lean against the ring 
tbe giobe b made top-heavy. The nag b fixed. 
Whan the glob* b rotated tbe nhalt mlb ronod the 
rinc, and its motion b oppo«t« to tbe ralstiou n[ tl*e 
globe. If tbe abaft w«i« made eo small that it 
moved ronnd ii4n*b part of the cncumfereooe 
dnr{n|[ about S36 ratetiaaa of tbe glob^ thb illnsln> 
tton of tbe earth's preeeastonal rotation would be 
perfect. To np nae at aotntio* as wall, it woold ba 
nooesaary to have abont 13S0 stnnoittbs in the rinf. 
Tbe edipUc b le pr e s en t ed by a plane Lbrou:b the 
ocntn of tbe globe parallel to the ting. Wbeo aa 
wdinary top spiaa, It may be noticed that althoogb 
one point of the axb <H mtation b on tbe groow^ 
and may be bnmoTabla, aU other pojnta in Uie axb 
have a draolar motlno. It b abo to be notkad 
that tho ntatlao of tho axb itaelf b in Ibe aaoa 
dirMTbirm as the rcistioa ot tbe top aboat tba aslt. 
Tie lup'a motion b Mid to be one of 'podtive pn- 
oeedonat rotatloo.' Now, if the point of support of 
a ratatiag body be o^MV ils eaan* of gnvrty, H b 
found that the precewjan b 'asgatlva^' or tba rota- 
tion of tbe axb itMlf b oppeaUa to tba ntaliaa of the 
lop about iu axb. la iMt, the atb of a body aop* 
poitted in inch a way that bcfon rotation it b in 
unstable equiUhriom b capable of taidng a positive; 
aiHl the ails of a stable body b eapabb ol taking a 
negative preoeMooal nlation. Now pr sowa fan of 
the axb ol the top b doe te tba action of a empla 
aneb aa would tesid, if th* body had no r»Ution, to 
nKnre it from ib pceitim of eqalllbrium; a couple 
produced by \hf a-Ptght of the t<i[> wImiq it* aiia b 
not qolt* vertical. Tho effect of a ooaple on a 
rotating body b well known la dynamki^ md may 
b« alwued experhDeotaUy witb a gyneoope. Iw 
«rapb b Bnmorfcally eqoal to tba m omen t of ao* 
aentum which it tcnda to pcodwe In Ibe body 1b • 



PRECEaaiOy op the EQITINOXES— PRE1>E9T1KATI0H 



umt of tini*. Wkea a couple Jbrta upon ft body ftlT«a^7 
in roUtion iC« ctToct mity be cttlculiOuij in th<_' f-llow- 
ing waj. Let* lino Iv drawn irnm n point in tbn 
body, r«pnwattn){ the pn-viouJi iMlalioii, iii micb u 
w»j thftt it ia panllc] to (Lo axia «{ ruUtioo, aad im 
Ifin^h is muncricAlIy i^uaI to Ibc hoof's moment of 
muuitniluin ; bot let thin letigth ba manmired ia * 
dinctioD ngarded u p:>KiUv«(tuiey«attheextreiu{tj' 
of the line ougbt to mm tho body rotating in 4 diroc- 
tloa agaiaft the hantUcf Awntdb}. Iii^t k^otbl^^ lion 
b* drftws from tlle uniB point in the nsme ma.iinFr, 
pualjal to tfa« ada of tho ooupK nail ]»t iU leogtli 
be nunsrioally equal to the oonple. Complot* tlie 
urallekf^m of irbli^b tbeoe are Ihe aidai^ asd the 
matfoaal will ru{ire*out the new cirmimatancea of tlic 
body'a roUtiaa »t tho enil of b Kncoml. Now tbti 
iirUi rtvtatca alwat an nxi* which t« inclined tn the 
MBptic, BO lliut, Hxtqit nt tL« c^c|uiuoiei>, tiiio-halt of 
lb K[niUii in jilwnyji niiova and thu utheir balf Iwluw 
the iK<1i[itic. Tlia stin attracts tb» «arth, not aa a 
wholo, iL ia to be rcmiunbcjied, bat oa conaiatlng of an 
liiCiDito number of particle*; and bM»u»e of ita being 
Dearer, ■ i|U>ntity of matter on the eiu-th in mon) 
attracted tuw,iirda tbc aun duricj; tho d^y than at 
nisht. Eoncc, aa ifac earth hoa ao «<|u.atorial pm- 
tuberancy, and ts on«-balf of tbia (irattiberanco ia 
more iittr»i:t«d towardu the iiiiu than the othjsr; luid 
aa thaie htilvai are on upponitu Kulvt ol thu i^cliptii^ 
tba attntctioQ of tho aun on tbo e&rtli ta not to be 
npreaaoted mrrely by a forvv acting in a lino through 
Ute earth'a c«DtrB, but by ntch a force and a oouplo. 
Th»ooBpI« tvoda to turn ihu earth, ao that Itaoquatvr 
nu^ bo ID ^M plana of tho ecliptic, and altboogli ita 
amount varies periodically, Lring greotoat at the 
•olaticM and xeru at Um eqitiiiuxii, the direotlon in 
which it t«nda to turn th« oarth U alwaya the sAinQ. 
We Gad that tbo proooation duo to tUa oonpla is 
■Ugatlve; rlewed fram beyond the nnrth pole the 
mkb turai 00 ita axJa atraioat the banda of a watch, 
but iiim ada la ttaslf moriny very alowly with the 
haoda of * w*leh. Tho moon oxorta &u attnurtive 

iorce on tb« oartli through thn contra nf gravity, and 
atao a couple teudlnif to turn Ibe 0(|unt<iriai parU of 
Iha earth into the plane of the moon'd orblL 'iixe 
noon a m-bit mnkn an utglt of only about 6' with 
the edipltc, and tbcrRfore tho grncml t^mdcncyol 
tbo coujjlea of the aun and uiioii h thu ■luiic. The 
iDooD'a couple ia zero twico duriiic the moolh (when 
the moon ia at thn nndca of her orbit), and it roacboa 
k maiiuium value twico in tha month. The 'retrtf 
cnaaion of th« moon' a oodea* (whicli aee), wlilcli la 
UM to tho mutiun of tho mnon. about tlie CAith bofng 
a prooeaalanal rotation, b a cban>;L- in the ponition d 
tho noctca, the whole period ur tiiuL> 'if dencribiii]^ tliu 
orbit being abont tunntoitn ynoriL 'IIiiir tliorp 1* a 
periodio variation in the cioou'a couple, whuoc pcrit>U 
is •boot nlnefasen yoan. We Me thon that, leaving 
ODt of aooount tho acb'onaof planeta, tho phenomeiiciu 
callod preoeaaian of the cqiitnaini ii inade up of: 1. 
A conical motion at tlio earth'a axw In apace, whoau 
partod ia 20,791 jrean. 2. A variatMn In the Telocity 
at thia motioii, wboao period ia liaU a year. 3. A 
noddinff of tbo asia noarty to and from tbo polo of 
the iK'liptlo, wboao period ia balf a month. 4. A 
nnch graver nodding, whose period is about uinetoon 
ftan. 

Oteen'a Theorem (Uie 'potential' tbaoTRn) dioni 
bow to oalcDlate the ooD|Hen dne to the attraction! 
«| tho ran and moon, from penduluaa otMcnatioiia at 
D ainall number of pLaoaa on tha cArth. Thn pr» 
babla orrar In thla ealculataou ta certainly aut gtvatcr 
than Q-OOS. Tba Mgnlar velodty of the eortb Is 
kaown, and the amount ol proovnion haa boen cam- 
fuUy obaerved. FVam tbeae data the moment of 
insrtu of t^e earth about ita polar axia haa been oal- 



culated. We know tho meaa drooty of tlia 
^from 5 to 6 timm that of water) from Cnvaodiaht 
and nthcr experimcnLa; but tbc^o are aa beflnlla 
uuiii1»r of wayn in whtrh the matter of tlw eaatt 
mi^ht be arranged with regard Go denaltj to gt*« Ifca 
calculated mcrtiicnt of inerthk It it, bowoWifo^ai 
that if from any of the lawa of variatioD ol daB^T 
whioh have be«D auggoated, and whidi la* dafaa tu 
any probability {Laputoe'a b the moat probable^ «* 
colculati^ thn moninnt of incrtLa, togaroinr tho anftli 
aa a prrfcrctly rigid body, we gvt K remit wllleh b 
within 5 per cent, of the actual moment ol inertia 
cnloulated bom pnoemhm, while the reault frMii 
Laplaoe'e law a^reea with thia amotmt within Q-i pet 
o«nt. But if we do orit auppooo the earth to be li0d 
we get an enormoua diMToponoy. In fact the cnal- 
ence of a eonciilerahle auanttey of flidd tnaid* Iha 
earth would caitae preoeadon to havo a oMDpan«My 
abort period, and any dogrco of viaood^ in Ihe Sdd 
betwoon perfoet ricidtty and perfect Butdity wooU 
eauae a T^tid aufadJenee of all tbo rotatocj motiaK. 
Sir WilUam Tbomaon, to whom Uiroe tndopendral 
Kolnttona of tha prolilcm of the ri^dily uf tho cattb 
are duo, illuatrat)!* the Iiiflitenoa at internal flakt 
matter on rotation by means at oxporiiBOOts with 
boiled aiid nnboilcvl egg*, vcaaeb of water, efl. tveade, _ 
and iiuirt ■imiliu'ly ■uapended bj wirot, fte. ■ 

PRECIOUS STONES, So* Gstta. 1 

PRBCIFITATE. In cliomiatry thia aaoM b ap- 
pliovl to a aolid body prodtioed by the mutual aetlen 
flf twn or more Uijiuilii; Lhua if aulpfaurio acid bt 
addvd to an aqueoua Biilittjnn of barium chloride, 
barium aulphato ta produced, and being inaaltiUo hi 
tlio nw-tintntA pneaent it procipitatflii or dnica M a 
■cDlid to the battum of the liquid in tbo veaaeL So 
aijajn, if a tolation of potaiwium iodide ha aiUad to ■ 
a aoluticn of lead chloride, a reactioo takoa plaea f 
mniltiiiK in tha forroatUm of h;ad iodido and potaa- 
tiuni chtcirido, and inaimuob as tho fomer «f thma 
bodice is, under the circiunataooea, a aoUd. h is pre- 
ciJ>itAt>^J. As a genorai rule it mmv be taid don 
tiiat if it u pcHwible to produce a aolid aubetaoce by 
tlir Bctign of two Uquidii ou una anotbeo-, that aoUd 
-n-iU Im produced wbon thoae liqutda an aun^ and 
that thcn-foKt a procipilato will be formed. 

fUKCOGNITUW. in Scotch law, ia aa oxamioa- 
tiuu by t)ia jiid|;«-ordiiiary or juaUceaof poaoa^ BMBlly 
ounductcd under the aaparinteDdoDoe of tho pao- 
curator- fiscal, wlicro any crime haa boea oonunitud, 
in order that the facta cuuuectod with the uffniot 
may be ascartainod, and full iufortnatton givm to the 
publlo praaecntor to enable bim to i»«pare tba Ubt) 
and carry on the proaecution. In wis limaitliallnii 
Uio witneaaea are not usually put upon o*)ri, and 
tj] ay nrnat bo maaibwd aeporat^y ; mn-wtboaeaaad, 
or any penoa on fail behalf, allowed to ba pia- 
ami while it is going oa. The arcmad caaaot ifts 
witaeasee hi exciupatJoD, nor ia ha allowod lo sao a 
copy of tho precoinutinR after it ia taken- Thoae who 
know anytlunjc of thu fact ujay be coupelled to onma 
forward; the magistraio otfidating at th« pneognt- 
tloa grants a warraot to amumon them, wbicb, if noi 
compb'ed wilh, will bt foUowod by awartautafiaaprl- 
aoiunent. If the aocuaed make a reasooabla nggw- 
tiun ad tu the |irourioty of preoognoacing a pavtinlar 
indi I idual, tbo j udg»«i am 1 nator may cito and otammr 
the poraon named aa likely to eatablish the InDoeeDa* 
of the accnacd. The pracognltlon sbimld bo rodoeod 
into wntiiij;, aad signed by tha witaoaML ^1m dnty 
of conducliog prooognition now bdoaDB to ahorfff^ 
uagiatratea 3 burglw, and juatioea of the peaoa 

PAGDESTINATIOX, in tfaooloey, tho tormnsed 
to dcnoto Iho docrac of Uod. whereby the elect an 
foreoTdained (o aalvalion. Tbouli^^iaoa have genar- 
ijly forebomo to use Ihe word prodoettnatian with 



I 



I 



PKBDICABLES— PR£FET. 



265 



tWDMl to the raJMtod, anng nude*)] tb« wonl rmrcn 
tmtKm, u 'it ia wlck«d to My U)M OoJ \m pndM- 
tiOMtcd BiiirUiuif bot good ' (nvfaa oat dioera Denm 
allquid aiai bonam pnrdaitinM»— St. Au^UtiBA). 
Hm tbaOTf of |a«deMiimtian reprewnl* Uod'akb«olute 
«fll a» Ji UnwiJ iif tb* «t«nul deatlay of nun. not 
aeooHInf to tha fmlainwii chusctor o( those ^om 
iat» li ■» iHtamhuttt, but *ccon]ing t» tioil's own 
Aiiem. Thia (loetrinu hs« licpn tfaa (>i'c»i«n of tu»ny 
di^Mtia and (Hintmv«nti«< in thi'' «Lurt'h In all t-gea. 
Ob At otui lidii. it luu bocn obacrtoJ that it ta itn- 
pniJbia to neondlo It witb cmr fi}«aa at tho jiutioo 
aadgoodnam of God, tint it make* GuJ tlie autliur 
, doitnija moral diatinctaon, and raodefa all oar 
: oMlea, Os tbe oi^ aidk^ it m coottodod 
f GedTa kBMri»d|:« ta infinite uul aiiohaB|i«able 
b* nnat ha'** bKnTi) crerytLiDi; fitiui «temlty; !f 
«a alluw tbv attribulo of proadanco tho Idea of a 
dNTM anM bo b«Un«d alao, (or h«w cah an action 
t to b) «OBM ta pMM be foreotmn i( it ia not deter- 
1 aitbef to do nr to ruHor H' ]f Uod b Infio- 
> ft caiuiot bo concrivcd that bo ironld Inive 
I Bt rudofn, and havo no plan. I'be fint gr«At 
4aw of tkeaa oppoailo viewa wore FeUgiua anit 
TIm fann*r bald tbo docreaa of Ood an 
to tho divino knowleiiKii of hamao 
«banctar; that then waa a poadbility of good in 
naa'a antan, and tbat tba cboio« of ■^Ivatlon Ur la 
aan'a wilL AngnrtJn* nuintainad that Go<r>i dncreca 
«w« abaoluto, and uiilepondeiit of all prior human 
oonditMna; that apart from dirine gnoe there is no 
poaibilitj of gnod in bumaa natnn, and that afaio)* 
iba fall nwui'a arill Ha* do powirr of cliaiiM^ ^'bc 
■ntrai of Ao^i'xuUiM vraa adopt«d fa I>29 b; tbv 
UmuoI of Annaio aa tho mlo of onhodoi; bi the 
WoMara Obnrcb. It forma ono of tbo paonliar char- 
•riflrialks ol the Calrmiatio thaoloEj. Tha qnaation 
aa to God'a nvovlng oaoaa in olection, whether ft la 
hia aoTCToigD wtU or bia EonnRbt of tho obandBr of 
ths chcwiD nn«, i« feft ondodded by tbo Auclicnii 
Cburdi, and aLm by tlio Roman Catbolio Church 
dnoe tho Reformation. 

rUEDlCABLES. In tboK a^Btana of logic 
whidi fowul tfaok tbaory of definition and dlvidou 
«■ tba Bckolaatie and ArMotelian optniona that tbmry 
nan (dt both pracwaaa oa tho acbeme of the predi- 
cnblM. Pndieafaloa aro tenna affirmable, aa predi- 
^to^ of otbar termiL t'tirtbar, tb« identical altinna- 
tion of afngulan being De^lertod, all pradia»bl«a an 
aald to he eanunoB tarm^ All the eonunon terma 
wfeidk aro affinnatively predkabl* of othora, mual 
lnq«act,withTmpMt totbombjoctof tba pmpoaitioo, 
ma w othar of flve tblnga. The pRdicabka an there- 
fan ev»; gouuv i|wdcat difference, property, and 
accidaat. TIm fuat two name the higher and loirrr 
olaaBH of the tUnga rlaaniftrd' a gonna Indndea mnrv 
thaKQMapaciea. Tlia oUter three axpreM the attri- 
bolaa on which tho claaailicatioo ia footdad, 

PKKl)I<.'A'l'K,tjiTa9mncATioHovm.6eaQnAS- 
nncATiox or thi PaxDicAnL 

PRB-EXISTENCE. DoCTUiti! or. Some phlle- 
ao|>b«n bare maiotaincd that Lb« aoul of <■««■/ indl- 
VMod man baa an pxiatcooa praWoua tn that «f hi' 

'y, Thia opinlun waa Terr pravalunt iu ibo Snat, 
aoanatUag like a belief ol U la impllad la tha 
I wliich arane of tha Jews pat to our Sarioiir 
Ibe blind nuub«I)id thia nuw ain, or hia 
bat he waa Iturii IiIIdO* ibe ubvfoua Infer- 
I bdog, that if tt waa the man who had riaoad, 
Itltaal bare l<ocn to aoma pre exutont ittate befors 
ha be^une an itiliabitaot of thia world. 'Ibe aame 
cfbdm vaa hdd by aeraral Qnok phUoaoobafa, 
man aapodallv by tha Pythaganaa^ BmpeoocUa, 
aal alao 1^ I*ialo liitnaalE, nnMB wo ar» to eoaalder 
the view* atatod 1^ (Jm- laat to be aa allegory, ratbo 





tbitn a aobcr ■latemanb of belief. A aimilar doctrine 
baa found aunie oountauanoa in Cbriatlan tlmaa 
amoai; tbow] who wnro anxioua to explain bow the 
Moul hocomca united to tbo body, but could not 
divine any more planaiLIe bypotbeaia than that all 
m)u1j wure created before the world, and that oacfa baa 
ita proper body allotted to it at Um time of Urth. In 
fAvonr of thi* thcnrv appeal IB made to tbeao |>eoaUar 
■Bimtiona which am lumetiuna rai*«d by ai|^ta or 
■OQud^ which we fwl oGiiHcioiiH of faat-int; bad a 
former familiarity with, thouRU rraaon would per- 
aiiado na we had accn tbein tir ibe lint ttme. The 
lIoctHne ia supported by Ibe lati-at aciliool of Uennan 
phtloaotAiy, baadod by tho yount^ Kichts. 

PB£F£T, the title of aa im|;<prtant political (uue- 
tEonarf in EVancA, Pnvlouatothottmeof Henry II. 
tbo olfioeia who wero asnt round to the provinoea t>i 
enperlateud tfu debaila of adrntnlstnUion oa bolialf 
of the aorereign were called ntaUraiinrtqvtUt. That 
kinic eatabliahod tbero In 1561 aa perpetual ovefaaua 
in all the pra*lnoea^ and undor LonU Xlfl. in 163S 
thoy tMcivod tho nama of intnd'ititt. Tboy were 
boiutd to unconditional obedlonoe to tha TninfMar\ 
and could bo reraUod at aiiy time. Tu tboir func- 
tluiia Wlcinged tha proportinnil aaacmnBUt of t«ioi^ 
tho lavyiog of eoldiar* and their mnoval, tha pao- 
cnring of aopplSea for the anay and tha toyal maga- 
linoa; the konphgig ot road*, bridgca^ and publie odi< 
fioaelil repair; thaoaraof thBootnnMmoonoainaof tho 
diatrieta, the regnJatioa of the trade In com from oixe 
provinoe to aDother, ft& It was often au^catod to i»- 
troduoe.lnateadof tbeaeaiugle funct)'i>i>riR«,inrcatnl 
with Knrh arbitrary powon, an adminiatntjini \iy 
public Ixxlica, a part ol wboae memberaftt leaat ahoulil 
iM dioaen by the provtncea themaalvaai But thn waa 
noTor dona; and tha office of latenHUnta fomaineil 
till til* rovDlntJmt, and tho almaea of their authority 
contributed nut n llllle to produoa thb ealaatrofaba. 
Itwtiathcrofnnoneaf tho Gntdologiof tha national 
i-ouvouUuu lo abolkh tbeao otfioaa, and inatewl of 
them to oroct in each department a gmeral adaUnJa- 
tiation, wboae membcn were ohoaen bj tha dtlMiui 
A dirwtory of the dopartment waa pennaaent; a 
ooonoU, on the other hand, waa to meet ore*? year 
to fix the axponditimi of the departniant, to andlt 
aoconnta, and to exeadaa adagno of logialatiTe power 
uvcr tbo affaini of tho daiMitiaeilt A aimilar roga- 
latiiinwaaintrmlaocd in the diatricto and single towaa 
Bat by thia orvaniiatluai tbo power of the govanunaat 
waa much veakeaied, and tha authoritica et the 
dapartmaaita oftaai came forward in ojiea opm o dtion 
to tba ndidatry. It waa thnrHfoio one of tna firai 
ofterstiona of Xnpoteon to reatore tba intaodanfai— 
not howevar, under thia odioua aama^ but under tba 
appellation of jtrifcU, Thia waa aocampUabed bgr 
the law of Fdxraary 17, ISOO (SB Plof. year VIlU, 
by whioh then waa aatablUted tor eadi dapartnuHib 
a prtfet (to be appoiatad and dtaniaaed at pleaawe 
by tiie lint oonaul), a oooacU of tba f ra l ac t i ii u, oao' 
awtb^ of three to fi ve wembaray aod a geaetal eeanoQ 
of the dapartiDeat. Tba laat, alao, anointed tw tba 
Bnt coiMU,waa taaawmbla oncaa year todlatabitta 
the f]uoU of the departmental taxea amoag th* dla- 
tritrU (otmni^toMKitta or under-ptefeetum), to fix 
the axpciiaw of tba departmeDl, to daoUe on remoo- 
atraaoea laapeotloc flxoaarfve taxatiaa, and to andll 
tho acoounto of tba prMala raapoeliBg the dapaal- 
nwntal tmaaiiry. Ifait it aaema that tbeae >waaeit* 
giiUnax tU diparttnnU, aa well aa tbo coaafifa <r«r«- 
renJ^aan^wan ladtlr auScred to fall iato diawe. 
Tha prtfata an intmalod with the whole orgaaiaaUoa 
and raaoagemeat of tba polio* ■■ubiiahaienia: but 
the poniahnant ot oITencoa againat tho polln rega- 
laliona beloitoa to naiticulaa eoarta net onder thair 
oootroL Within tbi* aphere of action tho pr^fatt an 



36G 



PREGXANCT— PREHOTTE. 



am-biKikud; the ama-pr&fta, who nre appointed by 
Ih^rn. ftod who Htikni] kt tlici hevl vt Lcie diBtricta, 
arc cntirr-Jy nibjact to thair commAiuia; ftniJ thn 
ftutliOTitio* pE th« cmnintijMi^ na vnll oa tlie juiti-ce* 
ni the peace, cftQ Mt ao llnlta to their Mlivltj'. In 
tinn« rif lumuH the; c»n call out ths uillilarjr, or 
jiniviiionnlLy di^tam a iitat* of riitgw, I'hn oonrU 
biivc uu L«i;iu)uuiDO of Viay matter vrhiub bai alrvoidy 
boon (lecid^tl by an act of preffrotaro farrBi of the 
prfhlji, or poiinnit of tbc i>rcfectHn>l, oven though 
tbe ofticMir* niuy liavs extowlDd their puwvm until 
that act baa b»en votdsd by tho ooiDpetunt ituthcri- 
tic*. B^ mama of tho pr^fcCs the miolstrr can oxcrt 
a ifTMkt influcnoe, ni>t m^rrly im public, hut ai.iii on 
nrivkto affain. How tLe nJminiitratii^a of |ipiial 
jaatlo(<, tho vIvotioDi, IktL, wDr« managed by tliem 
(Mooniing to tko porpMca of tho nainittora, u notori- 
rata. The powrr of the pn-fRU, b>nw«vttr, ouuie*, at 
leaat by law, u toon •■ a l«^ i'uut«at uium napcot- 
ing ft aubjact of ftdnhdatntion, for he mtut nte 
nwhcBDM bo thft conrL ftppninKid for tho pnrpftae, 
the oouneil «! tin? ppefoirlur««, €>f which bo ia t!iu 
pnridont, but In which he bo* only a casting voto. 
Uudor tho nofgeaancv of this court fall all i]iiipnt«« 
napeettng tba tiuc&tioil of tiarticular iDdiridnalii, ro- 
xpoctin;; iiontnkcla foraupplin, enh'ai;uiiioDt.H with the 
ata^bc for liiiiUlirig, tli« indptnnillrAtlnii of tlioso who 
h«ve bvl to k'iva up acythin; to Ibo public, or lutvo 
been tn}ure<l by tbo coutneton for troblfo building 
together witli itijiirioa auatalned u war, cont«ata 
raapactine any of tiii> [mhlic dnmnJnii, Ac I'lio np- 
I)«Wa aciuoal Sta decuiona [arriUt) lie to the council 
ef at&t«. 

rKRlNATfCTY.tboitateof afomalo whn ia with 
ohEhL I'rvgnancy begins at the moment of oiMuwp- 
tion, uid ovMOi with that of birth. Burlng pms- 
tuuioT the vital Mtidtjr, eap»dalljr of tba womb, 
wbico pmbahly roccivea ft f«w d»ya hft«r ooooeption 
tba f«ciuidiitod rniclo, inamaaea. Tho pvriodical 
diaehargo of blood Cfjuten, hnt the i,-«!n>:U of the wnmb 
become eiil»r]fod, iiiore charpnl with lilotjj, longer 
and atraightar. Ita oellular aiibttaupo beoomea nifter 
and mors apongy, th« odoa tUckor, the ca^Hty wid«r. 
It loeaa the pear ahape which It haa when not im- 
nicniat«d, and boMmoa raoro globular. It uuks 
nunnjf tba two Grat luoutds ot fnj^mncy lower into 
Uie polvJR, but aftorwardo rttee and becomes lar^ger, 
nntil in tlie aishth month tho bottom of It can bo 
felt externally in tho re^on of the iCMnncb. In the 
tiiiilh iHioith it niiikx »g»iu aomewiiat. In thwa 
chacimi of the wcimit tlia omhryo (which »:*} dovalmia 
iUall until it haa raadkod In the fortieth week a aam- 
etoDt dagTM of Boatiirlty to be able to lire aepambo 
from the mother, when the hirth tolcea jtlaca, and 

Imjfnauay Ja at on end. }tut the vital nottvity ia 
nonMod in the state of pre^rnaiicy, not only In the 
mmK but in tho wholo body with haalthy and 
vtmimta women, I*re^;nant women nre holder, mars 
tnno[)oiidBiit, wore entdrprisiuK, ilrunipic tlian bofure, 
and ratain thsae quBJitioa whien they an mothen. 
They an more rarely i^^^ by ccntagieoa dJBoaaea; 
■Mnaujiiptaan kchcckcd during pregnancy, but nudcea 
tba more rapid prog m aa altaa' iti eompletion, Hva- 
terio womao fe«I onan mtoommoal; well during tUi 
pniod; tiie g:<mty are freed Irani their attacln; aomo 
iwootno uncommonly fat. On the other hand, this 
atale ia with muiy, particularly with feeble^ alvldy, 
dellot*, too j'ouDK or too old women, often aoooui- 
pantod by a ^roat many complainta which dopond 
Upon the altered *tat<- of the synUna of tlie venavla 
and nerran. The stotnui^b parti-cii'arlr often auffora; 
banoe nauaoa, vomilinK, a morbid loalluBg of or 
cntvinc for partieulai diahaa, wMdi wan tUl then 
hdlffareat. Pregnant women often aofler alao by 
WlAdvtag poina, particularlr ia the teeth, and by 



eangfaing. Moob foeUnatioa exists in tbo twdy le 
iniUmmatioii and a heated attte ef tba blood; tb* 

Yoininf tho feet and the pMteriurs are awelled. The 
niechoiileal |ire«4iir«> of tiie wmiib, thui changed in 
situation and form, not unfreqnently aauaae itngv 
UHt4<^ in tliodiiu-.hargeaof UienrinaandaxtfMiMMa 
AU thcsB cIiiuiKM norTa aaajgaa of paegnnaey. Other 
eljiTu) are the gradual and ngolar changea ohtmtxtiA 
at tho opening of the womb by internal examinatiee: 
alw) the ntatc of the hreaata, whiob heooOM laigtt 
durin([ pref^naiicy, and in which a mllkj aahataneo 
c<>IIoctA, hut pitrtiniilarly the ekange of oolonr roand 
the iiipp'c; lantty, the motion of tba clitld fdt by tba 
gnnthi^r in tba seoaud half of th« period d4 pragnaBcy, 
and the |ierc«ptioD of difTrrent parte of the forte* 
by oitDrnal and internal examination. It ia venr 
important to determine the fad of pregnaaoy at an 
oorly iita^e; but it ts rery difficult in aoBe raso^ 
parl4onlArly In the first half of the period, becMaa 
then an a amnberof diaeMe* of the nbdocDan wbleb 
are attended with alinllar eymptomL FragUHMy 
ita^lf is subject to ft number of doviationa bom Ihe 
ordinary miinM. The riilce bud down to praren* 
injury t» tho embryo, anil to preaerve the beaWi ■' 
the tnothcr, have referenoo principally to air, soar 
lahmeot, and excroiaa; to tbo natniml denraa isd 
pTDtnTTintnnvl longingB (the latter mint be graUfied 
with much caution); to the paaifoaa, whieb Baft ba 
oaraddly rcetndned : to cha imiginatjen, boeaow te 
whole Dcrvoii* Myntcin may eaailv b e ooate orer* 
excilod; to tho proprr allowance of aleap, and Iba 
diapoeiUou of the druM, wblcb mnat not prev aMnr 
the abdoman or the brcaaL AU injurioB fnm tmr- 
ftrTi'ma nr mnchiuiiRal caoaea are to bo eaitfuUj 
avoided, «■ falb^ liftiujf, blowa, ItnL, bacMiae tbay 
may easay oooaaton abortiooA I>iidag pngnaon 
can ought alio to be taken that the bavaala an n 
after the birth of the diUd to nouriih it. It ia a 
miataken i<lca that aborUuna tako pUoo much mot* 
freqnaotly amoog the Ugher cliawM. Tbo poanr 
claaeea Id populoua cjllea an quite aa liable to Ibcim 
In the ooontry, where a parer air keepe the body 
alt^i^ether in a lUDra viKuruuB atata, abartlana mear 
ion freqnenlly. The ndvicoof «xp€ria»i»d fowali 
friends daring the whole period of pregnancy is ef 
course of the greateat value; yet in alnoat all oood- 
tiiea certain prejudlcM exist raapectlngtlilalmporlani 
state in a female's life, and tbo advlee of a physician 
cannot be diipenaed with. The Intamal exaaUaa- 
IJona ineiitiunMl above are oompatatlrely nra In 
Britain an>I Uie Unlt*d SUtoa; but la rramoe, Oar 
many, and Italy, if not tbreagboat the Europeab 
continent, they belong to Um regular eimtaa of med- 
cal attendance In the atate of pregaaney. 

PKKGNANOY, Couckxlumxt of. It ia aouicted 
by 2<aud2&'VIi.-t.ca|>. i.'.<lS11) thai ererr paeon who 
shall, by any secroC diiipoeitica of the oaad body <f 
a child, whether such child died faef ora^ at, or after 
ita birtli, endaavonr to couoeiJ the bjrtb tberea^ 
shall be gull^ of a mladeneBaour pnnlahatto with 
Imprfsonnioat not exeeeding two years, with or wi^- 
out hard labour. If the woman gave notioe to the 
putative father of the ohUd during Bar atate of prag* 
nancy, tbora la no eaaa agidnat bar. A alroMg ««• 
can be made out egainal the mother If aha baa mad* 
nil pntpBmtiona far herdetirerj', nor provided eloih^ 
fur the chilli. 

PKEHNITE, a hydratod uUcato of aluminium 
and cAlchim, corittining shoot 45 per cent of aiUeo,. 
2S <if uliimina, with 'IS of lime, and email amoonla 
of [>otB«1i, oxldp of iron, fto. It bi>lo»gB to tra^ioeka 
and aienito, in which it is foond to the form ef vdaa 
and geodm. It is found in Smith AfricK, from 
wbcuoe it waa 6rtt brought by Oolooel I^ehDj 
Sootbuid, and In nrnay other ptaoaa. 



I 



I 




PRELATE— PKESBVTKRIAKS. 



267 




I 



I 



brfaa wbo aianaM jnrbdiction in tlwir nwu IUllnl^. 
TbsM WOT* odgiiiaUy mly the bjibopa, Br«bbblt(>|», 
pabianfa^ tad Uw popoi Tlw cudliiala and legfttM, 
kbfaotB nd prions aIk obUhMd corUin prirOe^ of 
iyirffcUw by gimnt or yrwmsiatiati. In tba Gvmuui 
nvin^ pwfiow to ttw Mouuittdoa* ot 1908, « 
HBtar ol U^ aealMJMtld^ iA» bflld Immadtotely 
tt Ih* OBpenr, had «lio » Monlar jniudictiion, Mid 
bvprloiaeljr dignity, witn » Mkt mid voica 
Tm t«nD pnbUa la ottem. used moviy 
I hifbor di^turio* of tho diurcli. 
^ LD rouMc, A abort intriMlurtorT atmin 
I prindpai movenwnt, perfDrmaa on the 
ft. •ma int«id«d to pnpftn Iba car for 
; fft to follow. It nay ooneiM of & serin 
i cfaordu wbrti itie inbmtiiin U aimnly 
attaution ut ui oui)i«Dc«, ur to flu a 
r with (li« k«y ia wUoli tbs pleca U written, 
a it ia geDcnwlly im[iTOiriaML It i», bow- 
' oompawd of part of tha leading tbenie, 

. variad towarda lb» doaa, and la not left 

lavaitaocD of mdividnal parfamuia, b«t it 
I oompoaer or arTan|«r tdmuU. 
3. S«e Loaio. 
FRBMONSntATENSIANS, or Norrsbttkea. 
• wHrio aa ordtr, fonndcid Id tbs Knmch biahopric of 
Iaob DJ Kwbeii, a cuuuit) of Xantftn in (Uevca,wlut, 
by tfao sttitArity and leal wblcb lie mauiferted aa 
AnhbUbop ef Magdaborg bi 1127 acquired tho boa- 
inr ol eanoalaatiun. lo tb« for««t of Coaey, in a 
mmi a w paiatad out to Uu, aa he aafii, by Heaven 
1h4 m^itM, pratum ■wiutralMHi; tbeuca tlw name 
«{ Um ofder), ba mllMted M* Urat dtwiptaa (1120), 
aad sa*a tbam the ml* of St. AnKiutine with aoma 
iiMMnnal ri^mir. The Premonatrat^nalana therefore 
nrwrfrtnr Ibemaalree aa r<^alar cauoD^ tbon^ by 
thair «oastttutioa Uwy an actually monluL Ulieir 
adw increaa ed rafriiily; acMraral nnuosriaa ware 
laMhhad with the aaou? rigid mtea — at Bnt in tba 
adghboariiood of tbs iDMiaat^rlaa, finiD wlioae tev< 
fUMa th«y wore •api:K>rt«d, but aubacyjucntly at a 
dManoa from them, to avoJd tha dangeni of inttr- 
BWiiiaiiiiitalioil. Tbo abbot of the original monaatcry 
Pr^Bontrt, near Cotiar, waa gsoanl, and with tbi«e 
otfaw abbota fomml Itio great ooaadl of tlui fatbon 
rf Am ocdar. The ords' vaa faitroduoed into iloglan:! 
te IKS^aad Ita memboawne there raftnlarly knuwu 
aa Ike White Canoiui. Ikfiirn t!iu ItofnrmatJm tbey 
lad SOOO aiOBMetcriea, aiuumi; whicL woe &00 nun- 
loatty In Germany, the NetberlaDda, Franrc, 
\, and the Dorth of Europe; but tli« Refor- 
I dindniabad thia number by mora than one* 
Mf fa the aUteotth eentwir. Iha «ioiiaet«ri« in 
apb attaiBptad ta raviva tbdr diadpUna In 1678 
by uniting in a atrict obMrraace of their nilta, bnt 
they rvtuaiaed In coatmnnian wilb Iboaa of the cori- 
Mon obaenraooft, la 1636 ihla oommuDlon uf aQ the 
iwalirini of both Idada waa cooSmod by new 
niiirtm Id the etgUeentb century the order hwi 
•e bauBsa fn Italy; ia France it bad forty-two nioa- 
i; the unniierlei bad all disappeared. It now 
a o( a few h«n«ce in I'olaud and the Auatriui 
, eipeqally in BobuDia, whuro it baa at fragiio 
me of Ita handsomest and rii^urt laooasteries, 

P&E^ZLAU', «r PeE9(zu>w, a town, Prassla, on 
tba Udter, where it itmea from the north axtremity 
of I^a Ucker, &7 miles north by eaat of Berlin. It 
t) dMdad In Um river Into an old and a new town, 
ia dafesded by twv f orta, it wcU built, aad haa among 
lis ImiMtnas a luuMlwimc tiothic church and a gym- 
saiiinm. Ito Imlc ia chiefly in grain, oUtlc^ anil 
to U eeo. la 1906 a l*raaaiaB oen» under Prlaoe 
Hehsnlohn aBireBdeiwl here after Iha battle e( Jsna, 
1^ one), 1£,7S1. 



PREPOSITION (from primtUiu, plaead befon). 
a part of speech which ia uacd to abuw the relation 
of one object to another, and derirea Ita name from 
Ita being nnially pUoed beforv the ward wUdi at- 
preeaee the object nf th« relation, in anna langnara 
tbU relation la oftnn mpreMcd by cbangce of the 
tenntnatiua <oaa«a) without tbe use of a prapodtlon. 

PB£SBURO. See PBBWBuiia. 

PRK3BY1'ERIAN& Ihv term Fn«b^t«mn 
cornea fram tbe Qtieek jwuftutfroa, whtob amnifiiiB 
older, aiid 1* applied to that body of Cliriatiana who 
bold that there is no ardor in tbo ehurch as oatab- 
liahed by Cbriat and hiii aponliot sujvrior ba that of 
preebytwa, and who Teat church )(uireniiut?nl lu pjeO' 
Dyter1es.araawolallonaofinin)i<tcraajid Tilling elder*, 
poasBsind all of aqnal powon^ without any snneriarity 
aoMnc them, cjtlirr in office or in order. Tbe IVea- 
byterunabelievnthat the authority of their ndatston 
to pnvoh the gospel, to adminiater tbo sacranmtsot 
bafiliBm and Vae Lord's si]pp<-r, aril Ui feed tha Hook 
of Christ, IK derived from the Holy lihoat by the 
tmpcelUcu iif the hands of tbe prasbytory; and tbey 
oppoae the Indep«itd«a( soheaoa d tbe ooauuon righte 
of Chrietiatia by tha save atfamenti which arc aaed 
for that purpoae bj the EjAwopaHaas. They afflnn 
that all mlnUtat% being ninhMudora of Clmst, are 
oqan] by tbsir conuntadoa ; that the worda pcaabylar 
{prttbutertM) and blahnp {rpUiopot) are mtonynMiua 
and iuUircbai^[eable Uiraia: aw) thai I^lacy Man 
gradually established upon tbe prfmitive ptaetloo of 
""H"g the modatator, or epeoUcer of tbe pn^>ylcry. 
a permaaoat ofBcer. ThMC poeiUooa they maintain 
BgMast the Bpiaconaliaoa by the folIo«riu|r argumeuta: 
— Th«y eheerve that tbo apoatlea planted abuiebMi 
by wjainiag biahopa sad deaoona In every ctty; llmt 
the ndniatera, wh» In one ptaMge am eaUsd Mshopa^ 
are la another sly led pmebytttt; tiiat wo aowhcrs 
read fa the New TManMot at biah<v«, prasbyton, 
and daaeona in aay one churebi aad that tharefotv 
we an under the necewity of oonebdiiw Uabcp end 
presbyter to be two aamee for the aame wurcb oolosr. 
TbM identity of Uie oSicv of bUwP aad presbyter 
befag tbua eetabltabed. It foUowa taat the preebr- 
tonto la the higbeat pennaoeat office fa the c^unli, 
aad that etarj futhfal pastor la sawiisinr to tha 
apoatlea fa anfythfas fa whMi tfa» wen to ha«a 
aav sneBMnri. In Ue apostoUo onoe ihsra wen 
indeed loany thinga pecnllar end extnordinar* : sudt 
aa their imnedisto oil by Chriat, their inlaliitnttly, 
their being witnssea of our Lord's i«aarr«ction, and 
their uBllailtod Jnilsdlotlon over the wbala cfaMtck. 
^ese powers ana pfivilecaa ooald not ba eeavayed 
by tha faipaaltloa « haada to any wioo u aeoie; bat ae 
rulen ana ofltoe-beaten fa partionUr obuidieB we 
bare tha oonfeMdoa of tha 'my ehiofeat apoatlea' 
I'eter and John, that thoy were nothing more tlian 
protiyfnn or pailora. Thia being tbe caae, the dia- 
puto which haa been so wannly agltalad ooocamiag 
the validity of PrasbyleriaD ordiaadon inv tosa ba 
decided ; for If the ceresnoay eif ardlaadOB ba al aU 
iwnnllsl. it la obvfons that awNi aaeieBnoy pesfennad 
by pna^ien nnM ba ralid. aa there b ao Ugbor 
order tt ooolosiaBtleB In tbe choreh by whom It oaa 
be petforawd. AouonUngly we Bad that Tinethr 
hiiiwfH though eald to be a Uabop, waa onlained b^ 
the fayiv V ^ ^ handa of a preabytery. At that 
ostlfaMfaiti bdeed, Paul preokled, but he coald p««- 
dde only aa prwaw inltrftrt*; for wa hare ssea, thai, 
sa penasaetit offiosn m tiM chordt, the uMsUea 
thomlrsa wars no non tbaa prssbybers. If tbe 
kpenile^ haada mra knpoaed for aa; ethar pnpaaik 
It raosl have been to nommunirato ttoa* dkuvnuta 
or niraadoMs gifts of the Holy Splrtt wUdi wan 
than ao brefioRii, bnt whicb no ntoden praabyta- or 
bUiop would scarcely pnlond to (five. 



268 



PRESBYTERIANS. 



l'h« fint rnwbytcrUin ctitii«h In nti^dem time* wu 
ftinindMl ia Gviieva bv Julm Cutviii about liiil: luul 
tho coMtituOon tinil ftoctrinen were tbi'nce intrn«iua-.l, 
withioiDBnuKllficiitiutit, into SciitlanJ by J»ku Knox 
about IfiSO, Uuni^li tha Prcabvteriui mut not letrftU.? 
ncoafni'Ml m the nuLionftl reiij^ioa until 159'J. For 
■uttny * oontury after thin data there was a tvontintial 
Ktru|n.'Ii: in SwiUuikI kutwctm EpLieupucy luii] Pi-otiby- 
teriautiin. t'he (ornie^. wliich w.ta [>atrflniEcd by tltci 
ooiirt, WM iJiuJuniituuiL ill lOOfj: but wan iiti|M-rw?ilcil 
by tho lattr.r, to wliicji tho gtvat body of Uie peojilB 
wwv Mtaclicd, ia ICSS. At (be ro«ulutloa «t IflO^O 
Kpifioapocy Again obtuaod the iMcendoncy, which it 
IcMt in 16^0, ivhrn l'rf9byU--rianL(in vr** littallv eatab- 
Ikhed in ScuUaJid ; and by tbn Ttnuty of Union in 
1707 it wiu agreed on tb« part of KaKlttad nnd Soot< 
lonii ttuit tlubt tnna of church ^vnramnit ehU) bo 
the duty fcirm of coclenwilica] goVRmmi-nt in Hixit- 
laiuL«^Th« coiuti lilt ion ut tlie ScvU^li CUurub, «ud 
with cortoin auini|>urtaiit oiodificstloiii of the Prra- 
bjttflaa Church gnncrtlly, w w* fnllowi;— Tho kirk- 
•ewJuD I* tho toirait ouurt, and i» CDntpasMl of the 
parooUal tD[nIit«r, <k ■nitiiatt'nt. if mon than ouo, 
and of Uy oldon, tb* number of whom vtiica in dif- 
(arant |>^bhsi UiaininiBter, oritonirrr miuiitcr. whtrre 
tliere «*• mcuro tllan ono, ia jirmidcnt or rjioJeratiir. 
'Ilii* 4»urt exnrciaM th« raligiirai diaoiplinn of tb* 
pttn«llii Ifut »i appeal way b« made horn iU doclnoui 
to iba imebjtAry, tho ooiirt next in dit^nity. <6m 
KntK-tiSBlUOH.) The preMbytrry, fi-om whioh thorn 
i* » power of npppn] t(> tho aynod, ia cmnpoHid of the 
lulniatvn of It uuitiber of imiLltKUOUl poriahuH, with 
an older froni cacli. A Jnod'^rator, who muBt be a 
ffliniittcr, ia choncn every b«lf v«ar. A [trabytcry 
mtMsU Keiiorally odoo a njonth, tiut it muit at te«>l 
me«t oooe » year, uiJ It UMy liol<l mwtliiip on 
«pocul ocaudoiu {pro rt natd meetingi). Thia oourl 
t«kca young men on trial aa ciuididntm fur Itconiin; 
onlaliu prMentcea to vM^iUt liviuu*; bu the power 
of litliiig in jndgmidkt on bny of itn mcmbfin, Jtad 
can defKWO Ui am; and liM th« (Mineral MupFrinttrudc'iiLi! 
of rali^ion and oduoatioD witlifa) lu bound*. 'I'lm 
•yiioil, u'hicb nwobi twira a yc»r, ia foruud of ttio 
mlniJteni and olden of two or more pnabytaHei. 
A modoratcV', who miwt b« a minister, la cboMa e.% 
OTOij meeting. Tho (it-nnrnl AaMOtnbly ia Ui« bi^eat 
tooleabutiQal oonrt, ita dwaslona htAng taproiDC. (Se« 
AHKII1U.T, Obxksau) BeaJdea tba EataUUied 
CSinreh there aro tbrao otbor importA&t i^igioui 
bodiea wbuM coniiUliitiun ia strictly PrcAjtenan, 
bat who, from dlfforent priuoiple*, dMiUne bolns 
connectwd witb, or rccciimig any amolDiDBnta fraia 
Cba state. Tlude ara raijwctively the KrM, the 
Unilvd IVrabytcrian, and the Reformed Preaby- 
tarian CliutiiliGa ^aoo mmataie articlaa on tlwaa sub- 
jt«tt>. 

Praa^ytorianinu boa never flonriBhod rouoh in Eng- 
land. In 1S72 ft praalfytery waa fomned at Wanda- 
wortli in Surrtiy by uiinLaCcn* of Ivcinilon and ita 
n<isbbourbou<l, wbu bitd iMpanilcd fnim the An- 
gtioan Church, and acveral other praabytetiea were 
aoon formed, notwithatandjn^ tba extreme hoatilltj 
tA Queen JOliiabelh. Anattcmpt waamiwlotorendcr 
tbo Eatabllabad Church preebyterlan In Iha leign of 
Cborlca I.; and Utia object waa signally promobM by 
tlte bnMKia AMembly of Diriniuiai Weatmlnatar. In 
1449 pnabyteiy waa aaurtioiied by Parlianxont, but 
it waa never Mnerally ailopiod, or ragvlariy orpui- 
bad, sxoopt in London and Laocsahir*. About 2000 
{though aomo roalricL the number to 800) Praal^* 
terian cleivy wero rjocfd from thetr cone In oon- 
aaqwBDce oT the Act of Untfonnity in 16<3. tTnder 
Iba inAuenoa of va<sh thiitlteta aa Milton, Kir Iuao 
Kawton. Looke, and I'ricatlcy, the inure iiilclliL^ent 
BMonbcn of the Pirabykirian ChurUi were drawn 



towards Sodnlanfaa or tTnitanawin. to aaoti aa 
extent that the name rroebTteriaaia Bn^and benim 

«ynoii\-nioua witb TJnitarian; and many old «ndow- 
tuFDfs Ibe It^acicB ut Frwbyti«riai», are enjoyed bjr 
the Unitaruu£ at tho proeont day. Many dim^ea u 
coTmni-ttoa with the variona Proabjtetian bodloi b 
ScntLuid MB BciLttered tbroughont Kngland. — Tb 
Pre<1)>'toriaxi Church In Irvlandoriginatedwoo^ tfat 
(wttloincnt of eomo Scottiili eolooiaU in Ulat«r la tfat 
rnjgn of Jamna J. 'ilio menbeia wera aoC Icatttw 
abimt luuLtera of cbiirch polity, for aoma oi tfaa m» 
tun rwwjvcd ordination fmm vam hand* of a baabo]^ 



and the poople oonfonnod without acnple to •cmeof 
the M««moniea of the EstabUihed Cbnreh. tit* 
minlaten were admitted at first to tba privikgcn and 
emolumanta of their Bpiconialian bretArm. In tb* 
rrign of Charles I., and dunni; the athnlnlrtnliim of 
1 Aud, the int«T««t» of the Iriab Preabv teciaaa mfcnd 
(.iiuaiiiembty; the atatuttaof the eolleg* at IMiUih 
authorizing tho adminion to ita priTil^« and boft- 
oura, wore rrmodcUcd; their eoof ohIob iMOgabad b 
ISIo wae act aside, and chcLr miniaten wen eJMleJ 
from thcJr chargea.for nonconfomiity. During the 
Pntoctorate thoy were n^pda taiaed to the atatns «f 
mini>t«nt of tho Kational Church. When Charlan IL 
utb^mptt'd to force Prelacy upon tiw Seotoh, maoT 
of thctin took refiicn in tho notth of Iretaod, whica 
ev-ti tho cauao of rrubytertaniam in that eoaatir a 
froab impnlst\ This was not dlminiabad bjr dM w- 
ceaelon of Williaoi of Oranm to the Britin oowo, 
for ha bad been eduoatod in Holland to a dedded pn^ 
fcrenoe for the doouioea and dladpUne of PieibyMt 
laniniL NardidanlBcquenlavanta tend tolaaaoUi 
reepect for the adhcnmt* of that ayatem in lirJand; 
for wheujamea II. lauded there ttie Pn»byteriani 
mllied aiMund th« standard of the Froteetaat dtam- 
pion, and by their momorable defence of LoodiB- 
(lorry, aa well n« the aanatance they rendwed •* tba 
batUaof theBojma^ia^Dlyccatributed toUwimna 
of his anna. Aa a teat ec Ui cnttltudo be donMal 
Miv sum ^i\ea fur the support of Ukeir ninlatet^ 
lieac« knovn aa Ibiciuin lionum. Ilii* aom waa 
Npentedly ancmonted nntil it reached the (am at £19 
a year for eaoi mlnlBter. Tlis act of I8tf9, bowflrer, 
which diaoatabUahed tho Iriah Chtirc^ pcovidad ako 
for tlio diacontinnance of thta sum. Ulu tbair 
brelhrtni In En8)*>>d, the Irish Pratnrteriana riiewvi 
during the d^toentb century a aadded laaiiif 
toward! Arianiicin or Unitarianinn. In ISSO a 
aeparation took place fmrn the Ariana, wbo then 
fonued tho Beniouftrant Synod of Ulster. Tn 
yearn lator a union waa eflacted of the Piwhylnrian 
Cbiimli, fnmiing the Synoit of Uh>ter, and the Seoea> 
aiou Chtirdi in Ireland, an oflsfaoot of the St ui labai 
Churvb of Scotland.— TbePreabytariaa Chanli u< tb* 
UniCod States Is undoubtedly to be rackonod aa a 
daugbtsr of the Church of Scotland Praabvteaiaaa 
in large uutnben beran to emigni« from Gotland 
and tbt north of Ireland to tiie American ir^wp*— 
Bi eariy aa 1689, and they quleldy znanif osted n db- 
poaitlco bo reprodnos their peealiB- iaatltDll«M tn 
their new homea. There wen asrwal oborebM 
eatablisbod iMforc tho close of the oentnry. Ibe 
chnrch of Itehoboah in Maryland datoa frow lOfO, 
and the chun-b uu Elitabeth Biv«r in Tinfista ia 
believed to have had ui early an exiateooii. fa 17A5 
or 170'6 a presbytery was GnC formed in FhSadelpbt^ 
and in 171Q a aynod ooniposed of four presbytsfioa 
waa fonned. Ths body nnidly incrvaaed by nmaoi 
of cm^rantsnot omlymnnacoUand and Irelaad,btit 
from Wale^ fVanoe, Holland, uid Swttwdand. The 
otiiiswituaoo «M that tba cbuitb aom bona te a*- 
•unto a rather hetenigeneoua character, and the har- 
mony of ita operatlona waa pcopertionately dimiokhMl. 
The <nd«teaoo of two dlscbwt partios could be daarly 




PBEscxrr— pREScorr. 



269 



I 

I 



iMQfniMd : tboae who mm more icolona for ortbo- 
dosf, for m ngfal adbarMuw to PnibytcrUa rule. Mid 
few • llMt«v^y-«di)CBU)d miniatiy wai* caOod Om 
old iid« : wUb tfacM of Ibe mtw Mt looked npua 
de|MltitrM from oeeleslMtin] nrder witb man (or- 
b tmf nc^ mad wot \am particular in ra(D«ct to olhM 
^naMnatlni loc Um niniatTjr prOTideu tbey ocnJd 
Bftvft TJdww of gmabia nlo^. Vlnkst dJManiloiii 
and at iMty in l7'll, llio ■yncxi wm rmt 
; Ibo old dd« oonatttiitinff tlia S vnocl of PblU- 
, and tti« iw« widt the Synod of New York: 
bBtMT«liMaL7«uibt«rtb«]rv«r»«nitwL InKKS 
a Gmci bI A itembty wm imtitated, compoMd of Uio 
hnr tyooia of Nvw Tack and New Jene^, Fhiln* 
iMphi*, VlrgbU, ukJ tU CaroUikM. In 1801 » plra 
el vika ba t wcTO the Amoriaui Pmbyteriui Chtirch 
aad CoagregaUoBkluta waa formeil, vritfa a view to 
pmwU dtaKTMOBuit between the two deQoiuiua- 
tuNH^aadiuMcrtliiagmDgcmDiit niUDGrous churthea 
mt AmBdad in the iUUe of New York and Ohio. 
lb 1886 maoihtt divi>iau br«ke out in tiic diiirt-h, 
which WM Kjilit up intntwodiatjiici and irid*p«<iili^iit 
wrttow, hoown m the Uld School uid >'«w Sohoot 
riMtijIiiiliiii. lUi wu followf^ tn iHi by Mother 
twnioa. BcildM tlw CumbcrtAcd PrvabjteriMU (a 
■iMMiaw fracD the main bndY dating front tho he^n- 
alBe«(ttwpnMataeDtur)->, ibcrcDuatiatiu} United 
I Bonemoa ebnrcbM oooaected with the various 




ihaiaaihialliHiiiif Fnab^^criaaa is ScotlitiuL 

PRBSOOT. a maDnfactnriiig and muket toa,-ii In 
F"g*n~'^. emuit; of Lanoaater, 8 uQea eaot of Liver- 
pod. It ii long and atnfslia;, and nandi prinei- 
paO^ npon a aaliatrattiin u om], aeroral minoa of 
wUch are excavated to ita ▼erjr edg& Praacot haa 
loaf baea notad for the mandartora of mttoh-tootit 
waEA'tBorttatata, and handa The dnwiofr of pin- 
«ba arlginated hero^ aiul null fika of nipMlor 
anaDeooaaniiuuk, and «ported in laija qoautUiea. 
Tha ethw manufactnna aro eoaiaa eatthenware, 
gU«-ba(Ua% od and tvpa taaldaf. Tliere an alao 
mtaaneiy, aiul Mveral bntweriw. A raUwajr paw a 
ihrmwh tho (own to cunii«(.-( Lirerpool with St. 
HiMi a and Wigaa by a dlrvd »ute. Pop. Sfi4& 
' COTT, WiLLUM UiCKUMfl^ a noted Amo- 
hiatoriaii, waa bora tn Salem, Maaiacfaaaatta, 
Hay, 17». H(a fatber. Wlltlun Pre^ott. 
l&wjor of sowidnstlv atauding, and tho son 
<tf Colonel WilUan Pnacott, who commanded Ibn 
Anerieaa forcM at the hatUe of Buakcrs HilL 
Young Pnaoott oontinawl at SatBU UU tlie tw<^lfth 
Tear of hii ace, when liii father remored to BoMob. 
In 1611 ha eaimd Hiu-Mud ('olloge, ami fCiadoaCed 
in 1 611. In the iMt y^^r vS hta mIIc;^ life a claM> 
malT plavfutly thtcw a mut of broad nt Itim, which 
Mtnck hun on the eye, oompletely depriviaf; him of 
Ita van lor avar aftarwarda. Kncadre oaa ol the 
•jre Cor atwdr bceoght on a rheumatic inflani> 
which left Um eatirely blind for atnrenl 
and raodered the eye loo initablo to be am- 
tHojmi in reading forHTcral yean. Subaaqneotly 
t» waa able la hm it for many btmni a ilar, lint it 
•eaatnally became ao weak, that duriDji tile lattvr 
half of hk life ha coold md cnlj for a few momcnu 
a* a tlma^ nod Maid acaroely aeo to write at alL llo 
had early teaolvcd to devote blmaelf to a litcruy life, 
aitdaDOB after laavIoK ooilefe wocaedcd vn Ei'impe, 
and ap«Bt two yean ia tnralUiaf thfouvh England, 
Ptaaoa, and Italy. He than ntnnad to hia aalavo 
co nn by, where lie maniei], and aei htmaeU aavdu- 
eoaly to literary laboar. 1'be earllcet fniita of thi> 
wan contribtitivM to the North Ainericaa Review, 
prtnctpally on Italian and French lileratore, but the 
Mihject Mr which hia inclinnlioo aitd abiUlisa more 
H MoactaUy fitted hint waa btatory, and he oi^csordingly 
■ auaolad for hb fint attempt the relcu uf Fwdlnand 



nod lanbella of Spain. » work on which wm publuhrd 
in three voluutee, at Uoaton, on tha (Ihrirtmaa-day of 
18a7(lnitdatadlB38), nndc^r thf titluof the Hlalory 
of the Rcl^ of Ferdinand and laabulla the Catbolia 
Tlie lUMMa whtdi thin achieved wna nniat dtvitivc, 
It wna reoeircd with the uttnoat enthiudoain both iu 
Amirrioa and Europe; U waa rapidly traoalaled Into 
Preneh, ^taaUi, aJid QwBiaii ; and iu author wan 
elected a member of the Boyal Aeadeaiy n( Madrid. 
The {Kipnlarity of the work eantinuM uDditniciahed. 
ati la evinced by the aoinoroaa editiuna tbmugh 
wiiich it hu paned. 

Mr. I'rcacwtt'a next work wee the Hlatotr of the 
Cosqueat of Mexico, with a Pteliminanr View of 
the Ancdeot Mexlno CivQi'ivtaoii, and the life nf 
the Coaqaaror Hernando Cortes, whivh apjwarat In 
three volume* in ISO, and waa received with an ci|uaL 
d«liree of favour to that which had gn>ii>UMl hia Ilia- 
tory of Fvdinaod and Iiiabella. In 18-17 appcnred, 
in three Tolstnci^ the Hirtiiry of the CoaqiMat of 
PerD, with a Preliuiiiiary View uf the Oivilicatinn of 
the Inc*4 like hia jireviiiiia writing* a work of atcr- 

UnRmoriL 

A iDM« extended work waa now contempUted by 
Hr. Preecotl, and tbe U istury cf the Kejgn of Ptiitip 
H., which ho did not liio to oompktc^ wm com- 
mcnucd. Tbia he intended ihould M » dk^ ^<wiTf^ 
and no naSu nor expeaae were apwed by him ta 
nriider wo reaiilt ootnmanaurato with the nadtc* 
biking. In oonnnctioB Hkawiae with the meat eatea> 
uve proporatioui made by himarff. be i«oelT«d the 
moAt liberal oo-operation friHD all qnarteni, pubUc 
a»il private. Everywhere both pohlic and prirale 
ontlectiona were thrown open to bb InapectitKi. In 
185S the Ktat two voluin«a of tho htng^eipeeted 
vork appeared mider tha title of the Hialory of tha 
Beign of Phiiin 11., King of Spain, and proved, on 
eumLontiaa, uat the antidpaliooa of tho oiitiHe 
regarding tt bad neither been ovtntrafnaa nor 
fUiietfry. Like the former wrilinga of Piaacotlt thit 
bhrtorv diaplaya the aame clear and ludd atyl*^ the 
Mine unportiallty and rcaearch, and the aame |4ct«- 
reaqoenaM and Eaadnating Intoreat of namtivai 

la IS&S Sfr. Preaoott puUiabed an aditfon et 
Robertaoo'a HietoiT of the Reign of CbariM V., with 
ootea and mpidMneDt, ivntaining an account of the 
einpcrafi life after hh abdicaUon. In the end tl 
l!>^A appeared tbe thiril rolume of the Uialor; of 
Philip II. ; but the earthly c*raer of it* author wm 
now almoet oompletad. In the eonunaiMaBaBt of the 
laat-mentiaood year he had baea vlaited by a aU^ 
■trofce of paralyib^ but tUa had jialded to tha «fl«la 
of hb phnioiana^ and be aeenod to have reooeond 
hlo uenal boaltfa and aparita. On the 2.Hth vl January, 
1859, howevv, be wm voddenly aebml with apoplexy, 
and expired la about aa hour and a half aftcnranU. 
Ho left a widow aad three cbildrm, two mhw and a 
daoghter. 

lite labouraof Preaoott afford a reouvlcahle tnirtjum 
of tba mmmi of iodamilafabi indtatiy and putaerer- 
aaoa carrfad out in tba face of what might othcnvbe 
apiiear alneat Inaonnouatable obataclea Piwdudad 
by Ui aSktioa of partial btindowa ttmn oonnnlttng 
pfnooally tbe autharitiea from whioh ha dnw hit 
matcriala, he wm in the praclke of eaadng tbera to be 
rMd aloud to hia by another. H ia Bn* reader knew, 
however, no lancuaga but Eogliah. Tbe hiatorian 
' tani^t him,' u he uya, ' to pnaouaoa tha CaatUian, 
Buited. I mapoclt modi nMre to aiv anr than to that 
of a E>p!Uiiaid. I cannot eren call to niad vitbonl 
a >niili- the tediooa houta in which, aea t ed nadar aomo 
old treea la ny coinlij tmidasee, wa punRHid our 
ilow and melandtoly way over pagca wludi aSonled 
no glimmaring of light to Um, nud fnin> whidi the 
light came dimly atrugEUng to ue through a half 



270 



PIUBSCRlPnoW. 



Intxlligtbl* rocA^iiIivry. . . . \Vlipn wa bjtd tc^ed our 
wity Umnitfli scvcu (jaart-d* I found I could aiubnitaDi] 
the book tMiuiiuu'i Hictorr) when reiw) ii,buut two- 
lbinl< u fut M ordiauy EngUali.' Ho Kftrrwarda 
obUineil the mtvuws of h mdor utguainUcl with 
Mveral of tbs oaatineiital Un^iuign. Prcitcott'n 
inodfl ttt compodtlon ma ss follows. HU sM-roUry 
firat read to him all tlie books LrDiitin^ ou ihe gvavr^] 
subject, lii« huUniaiL ilictatiRg ocraiiidn.il mrmoramlB 
M ue nkdinit wcut on. The ]4iiu of iho wurk wm 
then elutehsd, a diviaion tou cb&T>t«rH made, &iid 
Ihc ivuthcirilifa for tbo tofio of too fimt cliapUr 
gitliercJ tiTj^ethor and mta to him cwt^dilly wliile 
no dIotAt«<iJ Qoteis of their conteuU. \V1ien the huum 
of Hum DotM wu road imd ro-rcad to hitu he ut 
dov& to write, naine forthujnirposnft writing instru- 
aacBt ootislititii; vl a frnme of thv «Uv uf a >liQe4 
of (juuto letter-pnpier trnvenicd by u roaay bnai 
wirH M thors wun to bo lince oq the [>a^, Mul witli 
m sheet o£ enrboiUitcd pnper, mich b« in vn^il for 
gatdjis dupUcatM^ pMled on the rovcrw! aide. With 
u iTQiy orag»ta stjrina be tnteed ra[>idly but rather 
fUesfb^ ^ oharaoten botweon Ui« wirr;* on the 
OHtbooated aliee^ making indelible miuka on the 
white pan below. Hb mcretary copied the inanii- 
•dipt M fut H it WU wnttov. and whes tbv chnptei 
was finithed it wu lead to bins aevcral timaa, oare- 
fully tevi«vd, and again copied berora being aeot to 
tbo printer, lie (oiuid Hilt wridng-ouo bia btwt 
fajend Id bia lonely honn, and with it he wn>to nearly 
all that he sent tnCo the world for UiQ lut forty yeare 
of hia life. A life of tbia ^^rvat Littoi-iaji, and umiable 
and purv-mindnd miui, vriw writton by lii> friorid 
George Tiukuur, and pulliaLvd in ISd. Hli cuutri- 
fantiona to the magozinee have been collacted and 
publialied, uiidtir tbu til-lo of Ilioeraphical and Criti- 
cal Kaau^-k, in America and in ESngland (Svvr Yurk, 
13J5; London. I61II). 

PRKaCRIPl'K^M, in law, la a riglit or latle 
noqulred by n*e and tiiiii*, oa <*hFu u lunn can abiiw 
DO Otb«r title to wbat ho cUuns than Lbnt ho, and 
th«M nnder whom he diuma, have imrwraori-aiiji 
Died io ecijoy it. The objeot of preacri|iliun la lo 
■ecQre the title to proporty to htm who ht» bad the 
poM uwi op of it for ths term fixed by the law, and 
to prevent any one from diatiirbing bia pouoielon 
aftor Burli term haa expired. The law of prcecriptlon 
t* cot iiif'iidcd to piiniah the Indolence of pmprie- 
ton; itvnly iaterpreU their allenoc Mconaentt pre- 
mming that a man who segleota to osaert hia right 
for a long aericaof ynua givea it upt In the Bngliah 
low tho t«nn jvft^i-iption is applied (inly to faioor* 
[lOireid hercdilamenU, ua a ri^-lJt of way, a uomuon, 
ftc, A {ircacription It dittln^ialiod from a caatem 
by tbia, tknt ciiatom ia pnrpecly a Incal naa^T, and 
not anuexod to a p«noi^ aucu aa a tiuitou iu a 
mmor, tliat load ihall deaoeod to the ynvngeat aon; 
but pnaoiptioo ia montly a panonal saan; a> that 
a ceitiun man and hin ancoitoni, or thoM wdom eetale 
be hath, have uan!, Unie out uf mind, to have com- 
man of posture in aticb a doee; (or this la a iiaage 
MiDoxed to tbo pcraon of the owner of tbia eataUi. 
By the law of Knglond a prescri|>tian muit hate 
euat«>d from time uhv<re>.>f the luonKiry of man ia 
not to tho contrary, which is to bo imdcntood Dot 
merely of living memory, but ot memory by meana 
of nooida or other written meinoriala; and, there- 
fore, where them ia nny proof of the orioinal oc txnn- 
nuneammit uf ajijihinu, it caunot beeUuned by pn> 
■ariptioB; nnleaa, ladoed, the commencentaot wore 
before the reign nf Ricliard I., for then it iacotuldored 
bo have exiated imiuemuriallv, <>ti an equitable con< 
atrui^tion of tho atatute of VcdmlntHvr, 1. wtu<.'h 
limited that time fur a writ of H^ht. Thia cantinned 
to be the rule at commou law tiU the )|>Maiog of the 



■tatute 2 and 8 William IV. ean. IxxL, wWeb i«w 
visits that no right of couunon aball be da fee t wl efw 
thirty years' enjoyment, udaftM-MX^yontbeiisM 
ia deem ed abaolute and iiidefeaafl>le,timlBH had hjr oon- 
■cntoragmrmnnt. Jnclatmaofrigblofway.af walai 
courae, and ritiiitor caaementa, the perioda are twaflA;^ 
and forty yetir*. Claima to tho um of light lo tt>' 
(i welt in){-h OHM or building enjoyoil for twenty Jtarn 
are iadHfcMiljie, iinliBU afaown t» nave been by OcosetL 

By thu law of Suutland preacription baa a mnch 
wider operation tlian by tbo law of England, Mipplyii| 
thn plftco of the atotiitc of limitations ot that ajitlBi 
It not only proteota indivlduala frttm actiona wfcicfi 
otti«r piutiet mlsht have brought against them had 
the lapaa of time not token place, bat la pobm 
inatanoea crea-tca a ixieitlve title to propntj, Hia 
preecriplinn by whkli a right oJ prvper^ can b» 
eatabUshed U that of forty yean. Wlutevar ad««na 
ri^-bt is not rut off by the other qiecial pnso^tleM 
nf ahoTtcr (icrioda ia destroyed by the long |«Mcri^ 
tioii, aa this ia called. To craals a title to real te» 
perty, the long proacription must be both poinl** 
and negative. Tlie party holdiaK the proMrty DDK 
by himself, or Ihoae through whom be hol^ have 
been forty yean ia unchallenj^od poeacMon, aod be 
able to show an iufeftment or aeriesof inraTtawata— 
tbia is oalled poeltiva prsicriptltiB. Hw "'■'■'—* 
aod thoae whom he n;preaenlia must have been fcety 
vears without an oattnniblo title, and mtart., by oot 
leifally challenging it, have tacitly aoqnleaced in th* 
poiuesioT's titlu— thia is called the ne^ive i««acfip- 
tiun. I*reai-ri|iti<in ia intenuptnl by aa aettoa raiatd 
in nr»tn[-r'U'nt court, -iml in idnpeptled by the m fat e i it y 
uf ariy pcnuu uhu could cliaiUun^'o the o^poelnf t%ltt; 
in Iho tint cue a new period of forty y«m kaa ifn 
to mn, and io the seoond the yearn of the minarity 
ate not counted in making up the forty. The otbir 
and shorter preacdptioM (eallad the l o a oc r praecrip- 
tiuna)areufolli>wa: — Tho vicennial or twenty yean' 
prvsoriptiun, uipUcable to hologmpb writing* net 
attc»t«d with tM Vflita] aoleiunhiea of 3cottbli wrila; 
the dcoenni&l nr ten yeara' preaorlpCioa, appllcabts te 
actions agaiiisl toton and curators; the aeptemiiai 
or seven years' pr«*«Tiptinn, apptioilile to actaana 
agaitnt caulioMiri: the eexeainial or six years' pre- 
Kviptioa, applicabla to bills of exchange or pranb- 
sory notes; the quinquennia] or five yean* pntaip- 
tion cuts 00 all right of action on r«bal contracti^ 
and oneais of rent lo an agricultnnl lease; the tri- 
ennial or three yearn' preMriptba, whk^ cat* off 
claiuM for ordinary merchaatsT aeconnta^ SBmaU' 
wage*, rent due on a verbal leaae^ and for service 
randered by attonieya, eurgeons, artiSoets, ft& By 
Scotch Uv also, but not by EngUtb. a ridanktal pn- 
acription applies lo crime*, no proatcntkni btteg cam- 
petent afttrr a pcri'id of twenty yesrm. 

PRUSOBtrTION, iu medicine, Is the fonn. iritb 
directions, in which a medicine or mcdidnea are 
ordtfed or prescribed by a medical man. In Ene- 
btnd both preac'riptiooa and directiona are naaally 
written In Latin ; in Scotland the directioaa are 
generally given in English. In pn*cribing the pl»- 
■icLan may, from the luitnre of the case, uea aa om- 
cinal or eiteinporaiiemia preparatkn. Ottdnal pte- 
panttiona are those for which fonualn have head 
introduced into the national pharmoci^puuiaa and 
which are eujipuecl, therefore, to be kirjit reiuy for 
aaebyaUreapectabledi^Maringcbsmista, lafofUMr 
times piescriptioiu wgre much m>on oomplicalwd ihn 
they are now, and ceftainly the slmpUdty nur hs 
n^i'arded SB a sign of Increased medic*! iaomadga 
mid of greater confidenoe in the action of mejicmsa. 
Some peraons even contend Uiat there ahonld he no 
iutermixtun of medldnea, but that one oaily ehonld 
bo given with a certain definite object, and allowed 



I 



I 



PJIESKNTATION— PRESERVED PEOVlSIONa 



xn 



I 



I 



I 

I 



to miiMttB DaeinhinMMK] bjr ttw an u aioa ol otbeni. 
nkv fcowcTer, woaU nubcrwUjr mtor ferw with Ui« 
wll cfa o cy of praetica] nwdlciiw, tX ImwI in tks preMut 
Mate vi gar kiKnri*de«. Tbs BOTonl mcdii^ lub- 
■IMIBM which niAy b««ontaiD^cl in k pKucri^tion ue 
dirtingviabad by nwdfcal wriUm hy luuoea tudi^Uva 
of tb* affi«« wbidt oMib of tbcia pairfomw Tbew 
m — 1. Tbt ion*, which ia the i>riBd[ial or aoM 
waive lafmUent. S. llie o^/uion^ or th»l vMdi 
■ iStMded to jnuDliiUt the action uf llie kania; ua 
**"■*"'* of avntia mdilocl to infunoD of icinnA in the 
ordbauT hlaek <bBii|^ 3. Tbu eomrtUt, JntcadcNl 
to wrfiBt> m idlfy. or control ita actiim ; thua,the&[]dl- 
tfoo of wrtraict of hjraaoramna to the componnd «x> 
Inet of ooJocyntfa raulm tba purgatlvM actioo of 
tkt lattv macL lev ^pLii», jet oot leas ellLeKduuiL 
i. Th« tBtifient, or Ih&t wbkib fire* tbe vAoU > ooui- 
■mrfiowa or ^rvnablo form, and whicb, onnaaquentiy, 
fd*oa tbo praamptiom ita pocnliw cbatnctor, m 
Uwt of dnuqlit, nuzton, pUU ik<. To thoao certain 
OWlfamtol vrilota add a fifth, tie in/trBWaliwDi, 
«Udt la bbo aBhstARca •mploviKl to iiiiit« romodlM 
«Udi do not mix with «k^ oUi«r or with the oxd- 
•ba^ mefa h jwlk of mggt and mndla^*^ emplojed 
m Um pnpantkn of Maalakma, Id ^oaaing the 
fono of » pr«acriptifln it ahould b« boraa in miad 
Uwt oolotiuBa aod emuUiuiu gviwmlly act with mi^n 
MfWnty sad npiditjr than powden difioaod through 
water; and tbeae again than the eomi-aolid and mcJui 
hwmaof medldae w pt ea ua tad bj alaetnariea, boluaca, 
and pOla, On tlMae mattara the taste and wlabea of 
tha patiaM afaoBld not be diannnlad. The taate of 
■aaaaoaa taadicinba ahnuld he dbgniaed aa much aa 
poadila bj tba judicium ■election of an appropriate 
aoRectiM or eKiipJant; tfaoa tbt dlsaereeablo ftavoui 
«( BtoMD lalt may Ln a great nrnaaara ba eovaRd bjr 
dfaMTing it 1b neppcfBkint-WBter, that of aloee by 
UfBOQO^ that ctt caator-ctl and ood-Uvw oiJ auil 
nape (ha bjr craoga vloa or water oontalaing a bitter 
tnetara : tba btttaciMaa of all bitter eubataacee ta con- 
eeale d by ■ trong ooflce or tea. 

rBJSSENTATION aicau the aomtnatioa of one 
«r aevenl candkUtoa to a vaoant ofBce, aa in the 
eaaaefapatroalaacburch. Praaatatioo ia property 
ajiK'fcliU iDeielf a pnapcwd, but wfacn given I7 the 
Inw Deta» cannot bo r»}«cted exeept Ml eauaa ahown. 
The faiveititaie or induction, however, balmga to the 
poMHi or body before whom the pc«aentation ia laid. 
In ewJ«daall<ial beooficea the iianni rule ia that if the 
patron faita to pnaeat whhin all montka after a 
vacaaey haa been latiiBaled tohhn, tbajtucEnofufinn 
Cakaa ^aee; hi other word^ the patron loece hi* riftht, 
wUcfa in wmaaqueBCs devolvea on the party beior* 
wboin the pnvBntaligo ahoold have bean laid, «> the 
bUivp under Epiaoupaey, and tbs pftabjtety ondar 
haabrterian ism. 

nillSE.NTMKNX ia law, u property apeakfaw 
tte ootioe taken bj a grand- jar; of nnr offenno^ front 
tkair eern have leJee cr ohaerralion, wltkoW any Ull 
cf InffietniaBt bring laid before tfaain at the enlt of 
the crown; ea the jw uea utui eat of a auiaaaoa^ a libel, 
or the Uke, upon whU^ the oSoer of the oovrt Boat 
aftarwaida fmao an Indictiaoat before the party pre- 
aiMed can he put bo anewar lt« The term b aliiu 
naeJ lo include inijuidtian* of ofliee; and indicttnuiitJ 
by a gTBUiI-jory ; or to riorvM the fuffmal notice 
taken In oopyhiuld conrta w the deatha of teoaata. 
eorrenden aad admittaucea taken out of court, and 
riaiJTar cirvuBwtanoea, 

PRRSEKVED PROVISIONS, Puntnvn. The 

rof bH dead otgaoiud matter wkUk eontafaia 

I k^ al ordinary tenqMraterea, to tindery 

■*— *'^* dhaaga^ oc ia other worda^ the *aii»ua vvqv 

table and aaunal prodoota, when deptfved of life, 

decay. (Sm I>ioina«iniinr, PrnutrAcnoit.t Whea 




theao pndaota are auch aa are eraployed for food, it 
of couiae beoamea a matter of oonaiderablo imparl- 
mice to ainnteract ttiii tcndooo* to deoompoaition, 
bv whicb the artiulea are speedily rendered ueeleaa. 
FmHa Intended for coofectiotiary are pneerred in 
four differout wave — 1. Id theformoE jiun,inwtiich 
the fruit is Imilod. w4th Eiom one ludf tu about equal 
Ua weij[ht of Bujar. 2. In the form of jelly, in 
wbloh tho jnloe only ia preaarvcd, by \xins carcfony 
atrtuncd fii)in thn aolid portinna of tho fniit, and 
lioilod with a Uurd to a half it* weight of eugtir. 
3. By candying, wbicb oonilita la tak^ the fiidu 
whole or in piaeea, and beiliag then is a clear aynni 
pTDTioualy preaerved. Tboy ahaorb the ajrun, whkli 
M then cryetallixed by the actiou of a penile heat. 
1. By atewlng tbem Id a weak ayrap of aogar aw! 
water till they becemo aofl but nut broken, and 
transforniig with the syrap to jan^ adding pale 
bnuidy (t[ual iu quantity to the ayrup. In tlJa way 
at^ne fruiti, aucb aa chonriei^ peadiei^ and plnmoaro 
preacrvod. Si7vrral Icinda of vagetabLoi^ aa cabhagaa, 
aiountl>cn, cauUtlawcru, oniona, are prawrred by 
plddiog. (See Pigklbb.) Bat to preeacve large 
quantinaiol vegotabU nd aBlaul pmaacta lor food- 
purpoaea, ao aa to he need h nearly aa poaaibia aa if 
tbey were in the freah atate, tboy murt tic cdthar 
dealvcated, or aealed la air-tight oaaea. With veg»- 
tablaa, which contain bo lar^ an araeiml of water fai 
proportion to th«tr iKilid anil nutritioua material, the 

ErocCia of dntng is pucuUarly applicable^ and aaanaa 
kdy to bo iargAy employed aa tho means of (ur- 
niahuig bosh ngetabia food for abipa in a cooipaet 
and portable form, when, iu addition to deaiocatioii, 
comprBWon b aleu eauployed. Vegetablea and) aa 
nhhage, beaD^ peaae, panolpa, sliced carrota, Brua- 
aala annnitai apinacfa, potatoea, Ac; and fniita audi 
oa applet, pean, An., are prmerired by reaorlng all 
tho Qioiature EnMB tbani, by drying either la a vaoumn 
or by meana of haoted air, which rvducea their bnik 
in many caaea more than on* half, lliey ars then 
anbanitted lo the action of powerful prcme*, which, 
bealdea again rednciag their btdk oooaioerably, make* 
then la« liable la auaorb noiacura from the atmo- 
Bphere. Wbeo TogetaUea thna prepared are immcrud 
in water for eome time they ewell op^ beoooM acf t 
and tender, and rasome to a great estsnt the appear^ 
ance, colour, and flarour proper to than la tbair 
freah atate. It Is etatad that 1 coblo yaid of these 
dried and eompi'fid vegetables comtaina aa much 
aa 10,004 rationa, and that tbey are of better flavour 
and much cheaper litan the vegalablss preaamd la 
canitfen. The actioa of an derated temparatore^ 
•uch aa la eonployed in ouokingfood, muat be regarded 
rather as a rntardor than aa a perfect preventive cf 
witrefactioB. When beat is combined with drynaaa 
it aeta mnch more perfectly aa a pnaervative. Thia 
it eMtnpltfied iu tna prooeaaaa emnloyBd originally 
by the Indiana of North and Soutli America. See 
Jdjjo Bof and Puducav. 

The preaerratiaa of articlea ti food by the appH- 
cattcn of cold ia the rinpiaot of all known matlioda, 
and in siKh cJlmatca as North Aracfica, Biwala, ftc. 
It ta largely tafcea adrantage of. CaUle and pMllry 
are killed at the eofDHMaeement of faoat, allowed to 
IwintDo fmt«B througlKKit, and in thia condiUcai ate 
bruesht to the matketa of Mnatre«l, Archaagd^ and 
8l Peterebnif ; fafa are traatod in the aains way. 
FrorlaieBS thna prtaerved only rwinire the nreoan- 
ticn of being gradaallv Uiaarcd before nae Inr l aiBier - 
sion In eold water, lleef and game have been ant 
to Great BHtaln from Amtrica In aany jastaaeaa In 
capital condition. In Great Hrilain iea^ aa ia wdl 
known, ia largely iiaed to pack aahaon and flab gen- 
erally in anmmor tliso^ 
Ube of the niuft vslaiHiva giathwla of ptwrbg 



PRESERVED PEOVIBIONS— PRESa 



motMhw U hy tiuiir imjirw^stloa wltfa Hit, bat it 
H aUo th» note (>«midou* wx) uophJloMphicAl. 
tlnwnbr Umd^ of which Hath Is ocrapcMd, ceuiaU 
Brislj «t tha Oblnul ftlbnmJiMtU prind[ja kncnrD u 
Ar^ In « coaciLl*l«d or •emi'aolid i»DdhI»Q, pcr- 
inMt«il Id »11 lUrMrttoau b7 » fluid ooOfOMd Tt&rtiv 
nf blood, uul partly of rabMuioM Mcralftd from it 
lliu fluid, whicJi coDititiitcA newly tlirw-qturbn^ 
by ircight, of ail frvah meat, h cimtpiMHl of albtuiKti 
io th* adnbla coiiiliUon, tliv solubk ndb of tha 
M«od, til* cryitNlUiftbla aatmftl prindplta IcMktinfi 
ud kmtiaiiM, hotio AOd butyne mdia, tha phoa- 
phkte* af potuh, liuign«d«L and lime, and k gtiMll 

Siuuility ol oommon ml^-th* who]* b^ntC diMvlvod 
I ■ wftUry fluid. Oy tbs pnotm of taltlti; all thcM 
itnpcrUnt mbrtinoM an washed mit in tho brine, 
anu tn oounM; of time nnLhing Is left but Itanl flbriiit 
which alTorda Utile iionrubuidnt to tb* kiinua body. 
A obuge la tha gMlrio (uicflk u.d ooUBMiaootlv ua 
thai of tho prodncU of tli« djgcaUve pnocm, tintit 
h* rwArdad ai^ an Ineritabla mnlt of the lonf-cnu- 
liniied tun of aaltod tneat; And if, darinz digntioii, 
ibo Hubatanow PBoiary to tb« tnaaformation of 
that mciu of food be tnkoa from otbi'r parts of tbo 
ntgtaatmf ChcM> parb miut Imo their nortiial t^n- 
•litioD. 

^ FiomthoBboT'BolqvctlDiM Ou pntnutS pnumr 
tioi by exdurion from the action of atmoapbcric air 
ia fTMv ftod h yearly aaauiuliif; mora ua|iortajH» and 
b«lnginin<alarj[olypr>cdM(l. Th* actJou of tha atmov- 
|ih«T« may be pnventod in dilforeiit ways; h bycorcr- 
in; tho wtidu with inelt«d fat, tramenbig^ thorn ia 
itAH^e, glyceriooi wmIc vinqar, 4itd aovanl other 
Urguidi, but fnna ana cmoao or othar tbaot motboda 
bavo all faOod ptMtloally. Sardiiwi ud othtr mialt 
fldi bara boon prcaerrcd In oU in largv qiuntltlM 
with aiiOOMii, but thopr)nd[ilo, Ibougb wtund, ia From 
iim oxpauive tiuLure of tlia material inapplionblo to 
ftaiidcam in larpi built. The moat porftct method, 
and that wUicb L« now moot geneTally raartwl to, 
ia the incliMum of tha food In air-tight eaaea Emm 
whiob the air i« tbra •tpelled; npon tho parfaetioii 
«f tha alrHUEdndln; procoM dopaad* anUrdy tho 
prMM-vatioQ of the uticlaL "Hm fiiat aoooeavrul 
■bttacnpl to pnaarve htah meat waa made by M. 
Appart, » Fpniohman, who raoeivad, in 131 0, a pri» 
of 1S,0{}0 bmtx odared by Iba Board of Arta and 
Manufactiirea in I'ariA Tbe following rear his eol- 
leogue M. Dnrant lixik out a patent for iho pro* 
ocoa In tida country. "nUa paloot waa purahMe<l 
for £1000 by Mevn. Dotdiin. Hall, A tiambia, vho 
al onoo ediecled a fnU tnpntvemeot in Apport'a 
tnatbod by subatituling Un caalcton for tbo gh« 
Miaa foroiorly used. Tba plan now gmwally adopted 
U, irith aomo modifloaUooa, >a fuUuwi:— Tho pm- 
vlakiw of whatevor Idnd art padced into a tin 
eyliudor, and tbe inberatioea GUad in with water or 
other aiiprnprlatv fluid, aa gravy in tho cswo of Heah' 
food. Tbe lid, which ia perforated with a tBiall ^pw- 
tun or pbi-hole, ia ooldorad (•refnlly down. The 
aaaoa are then act in a wnler bath in which iDariate 
of UiM la diwilved, and heat ia aniUad until the 
whole boSlk, ud the air ii eipalled taroo^ tbe pia- 
bolM. Thcae holee an then h«rmetkally dMod, 
and the canialer and ibi eonletila are once mora mb* 
jeoted to tha opetnthni of bent until the pKwUuM 
are perfectly cooked. Whoa it baa bcoooa eool the 
enubtar it coated oTor with paint and remored to 
ihe nrovtag tuoo^ an aiMMtroent the tcmporature of 
wUn faaa been ruaed to the dagroe of teuparature 
owat raToarahle to d e ec ai paritina. U Oe t^entlea 
bu been amwifuiy y a ifcj t iu ^ the eaia of the 
imiMan, UtA in aone ualaacee the akiea wilt bare 
fhUen In to aonte extent from the outwud pnemire 
•( the nb-. If, after tbe talenal of eone dayn, ihe 



ends are fonnd to have ba%ad out, k h a _ 

aign that Uie amtonta have not beoi peifeeUjri 

or that the oaae haa not bean properij 8oUs«d: Ib* 
libented itaaae cmubifi tha ontwMd preMttei Ihah 
cawi khinild be reieeted or aobRiHtod ag^ to Aa 
prooraa. Nut only aaay bcfled bcd v Mbm fae bk- 
■H-rrod in this way, bot with a little men obk m^ 
nuMta nlau. An improTefnetit on thk pinmai ^ 
been elfootod bv introdndug into tho oi^a^ a 
Bm&ll fjunntity of sul|>hit( of w>da. whic^ 
afcaiitTiiion of any tracea of free oxygen i 
lurk in the caaoL 

Eiperlioaota were lint made ia Anattalia to aUp 
freah jotota of beof and mutton, eummiHlad by » 
freodrif; mlxtitre.'.or in some way treated I7 ' 
cai eulritions, to beer a thrao mnntbs' voj'nfe 
warui climataa: but ibe ratalta were not comii 
profitable. I n rooont year^ however, the ozpecinatt 
hiu been revived in Antorioa, and with noa« neeui; 
sjid in I8SD a oargo uf fr««h meat frm AnMidk 
prcacrvod by an inprovod pnceN^ wa« landed b 
good oondition in IiondoD. The making up of meal 
for exportation in caniater* is now moat •xlanaliWy 
carrieil on in Amwlra, and it n in rniiwii— tm 
inuuly of tbo incTMaed activity of thia braiieh el 
trade tUore that tbe importa into Oreafc IkitMn d 
beef an d other kinds of meat prawrred oUmtwim than 
by salting have increaaod from 171,373 cwt. in Ibli. 
to Mt^ibl cut. in lU-i. In 187» tbe value id this 
import was j;i,fitf3,S*iO. lli^ monafacture of a am- 
onntmtcd oxtmict of meat upon n plan ■nugaetid by the 
unlelmited chomirt Liobls is now canied on nta- 
dtely, It la chielly uicd by int^da and childien, 
and for making sntij^a. Only U11-- Icmi parti* ol lh» 
meat are o»ct], and ibb is ■nbiecied to boiUng cntA 
all but tbe fibrin in dimolved, Tbo Uqald fel Ihca 
conrcntrated until It haa tbe oooavteBCT of a BtM 
pMlv. in which atata it la eaatly preao-ved. Banral 
anthdHtJeshiive Utoly ex prtaaed tbo atroBgWt doubt* 
aa to the nourishing propertloa ol extraeta of tneat 
obtained fav Uiia as wdl aa by other prweaaea ; birt 
It oan bardl^ be doabled that they hare aonw Tain- 
able properties an foDC^ and the demand fiv this it 
ateadJIy tncraa^g. 

PRBSS, Ck>KBscTKKr or thk. See Cosutonw 

or TRR I'aXBB. 

PRESS, LtasatT or ths, the liberty of anaay 
cituten to print whatantr Ixt cbonMa, whieh at the 
aauM time iloea not prevent hi* bciiMainenaMe In 
justice for the abuw of thIa liberty. To main th* 
liberty of the preaa real two tbinga are eaamllal: 
I, that tlko laws against ita liccntiouMieaa aboaU be 
precata and dear; £, Ihat they should Mdy panU 
what la really injurloua to tho publio waUwik Tb> 
Uwa tor pnniAiiig abuaaa of tbe prvi an giamJly 
direotsd ngainat attacks upon the govanuneot «r Ito 
officers, upon the renntatioa of individuals^ and *4>ea 
gnni momk and i«digiaa. The latitude aUowod be 
Um ureaa of eouiie wDl vary nitb iiliiiiiiimaw 
A diacuvkia will be permitted in Prmala wUA 
would be puniahed in Austria. Dtoouarioaa of a»> 
taia religioua topica an ooaaldefod In one aga Um> 
pbemona, while asother age aa>iMDi than laaoaML 
Aa to ebarna affcctiag tba <^araetar of govennaia 
and indiridnak we may obaerre that the firav a 
govarnioeab la tha kaa aaaAtve It is, and the 1^ 
auultiTa an tba people irtw live under it Vo paode 
are ao fodiReraat to hafag pabikly apoken af aa the 
Britaih, whilat tbe Priualu cade nntUaina B»aiiy ban 
agalnat verbal ofbacae. Aa the hhatty of 
oaqtMitioaed, and printing only girc* 
and drealatba to what might be freely 
(oow^Mpera, for inatance, take tbe niaoe of 
and oonvenatlona in iba forwna of the petty 
cf uliqultyK the right of printtng reau on the 



I 



I 



u 



PRESS— PRESSBFRO. 



278 



•^■tnct froandi U Ibe rigbt ol m|wt^c}l; oni) It miglit 
Mnu itrftBga to m aui imto^UAlDted with lUBtory 
thttt printing abonld b« Bobjvctcd to ft pr«<rioiui ccn- 
•onIup,aa it uu)Buineibktc«,«ny loorB tfaui ■jifkIuiik'i 
and tttMt Uw lib«*tj of Itn prtaa •houltl be txfnt^j 
nvrUad for in Um coootittitioai of moat frM >Wm. 
Bnt vheB w« look to hJMUiry w« find the nrigjn of 
tUiV M of tamitj otlwr l«|[uUlive asotiialini, in pcriuda 
«fc«B pn Bt ic^ nligion, uid Inrlivjdual rigliia wr« 
MiftlMd^ InMnauifEled. It U ca>7 liaco mou'* 
vl>wa ol tba taM Units a gttvtnuoAUt h&vc bemmo 
f<Mr»f t&ftt tlw Kbert; of Ibe pra« b«a boon rcr<>^- 
^bad M > "Kl>t; nod to EngUnd wt *rn piutiirularry 
hJobxd fwr lbs wtabUihmcDt uf tlii* priucipiL-, iLt 
of w auiT otkgr bnlvariu of frwdom. ilinugh tbe 
Wiafciiiliiili pneeded facr in tbc artuul Rnjnjmnut 
el Ifaa Ubwtj of Ui« jirvB. Wbi-n ws cuniiclvr tba 
pllwrtcKl «ihiet o( lb» ceuBordtip, It i« uo mure defea- 
Al« on that groDnd thiui on tb« ground of sbitmcl 
■l^li, Ib iriwt tinrn and ooantnM hftva moimU Mid 
miffioa, and tlw raiuit^km ot IndlvldMb, b««n mora 
owtifo u ilT atlKlrad tfaroti^ Uw pnn thu in tboeo 
ia wUoh tM MBwnlkip wia MtebUthAdf Wc u« 
t»r fiMD eauMartiq: the libertj of ttte prcaa m tritb- 
oot avU ow—quwKM; but th« cmtaoraUp doM not 
fnvot IbM* WMj « w| i>cBw^ .whg» H dntroyi tbs 
■o^MdMi b«Mfiti of ta muhaekled mm. Bnt 
Mw libvty of tb« ("VM^ ["opvljr oooddend, u nut 
l» b* tiMbed ■■ M mo* quMtian of political oxf*- 
dtfBo;. Libartj of MSMtaaeo tod Ubo^ of tbouicbt 
urn ri^to BBpattor In trnportHtoo to uiy objecb wUch 
faU under tha b«ttd of «p*£ency. Repr«Mnt«tivo 
jrawnnKota wa mnptT fonni witbnut tho libnrtjr of 
Urn fnm . Tlw tm diKUMion of all potitiokl mea- 
Mn% aad a( iht duvMMr of pnblio offioon, ia of 
■Mb SMM wiwHMMe tbia tiM bMdont of di^bato 
1b lig^ri^T* M— nMJML A paribmBt would be a 
oooipindTtljr Biun eliMit npoa » gowmnwDt wcr« 
il BM Corlba tibertr of the pn«i In btO, it nUsht 
cady faa atade an inntnimcnt for mfatdiir opiiMa* 
riva noKmraa; (inoe a (^ovanuoBut would fiiia little 
dkScolty in gtinfaic orer s majority of auoh a body 
by tbe aiotiw of aaUtlon and ararica, wera it not 
[or Iba oontrol ax«rd*ed over ti^gtalativa hodica hy a 
lm»pnm. Wltbout thU |nit>ti(-itT of dixnmian in 
haUiltin UMmbliaa would be of Uttlc avail. Thia 
mttf la Iba fraat aafi^uard of all other*: and two 
n«nA djrnaattca ba*e been proatrated in a ■trugK'^ 
with thia fonaldabla power. PoUgnao'a Rapart) 
which eauacd Um roTaIul.ioB ot IMO, will arw ba 
lunkorabla in tbe hiati^ry at lh« liberty of llw prov, 
aa prwring tike AAcuItj or iiuj'iaiibility of ■ miiii»< 
tar'a roUag fai appaution to public opinion la • eoun- 
try wtteia the prcw i* f roo. 

In Kwglaad the libarty of the praai^ loon after 
lliliillmt WM introdnotd, wm regulated bjr lh« king'* 
laDolaniattoBi^ nrobibittocu, chartara of IloanaoL fte:, 
■atfuOy bytbeoouitof Siat-«hamW. TbeLonK 
Firihamt after Ibdr niptar* with Charlea I. 
■aManad the tana powar. Tbe fovenmcat of 
Chariea IL Imitalad ueir aAnanoM^ aod the prtn 
dU not Tvally baeont free tUI the exptratloB of the 
MatalM MaltirUng tt In 1(93, aft^r which it waa 
law* in mtraint of it, 



loattd faopoMible to poM new 
Mid It bm lanalned tn* ewe 



Booa <Ci»onKur or) w aoeoaBk ia given of the 
nfnlatkaa of vartooa oonotriea fm raitrieliag priat- 
in( *ad the lale of printed matter. Wbera the 
■ovanuaant baa tlw Mmplata onotrol of oHIwr no 
Bberty of the praea mdaCa. In other eonotiiei the 
prlndpal nJae for the regnlatioa of Iba prem are: 
1, that all ptm n » noat have a litruaa; tha nrinten 
OKHi oftok give high accurity for tbair loyal baha- 
alirar, asd eomatlmee aren take an oath; S, the nanie 
and jlaea of naidnioe of tha printer nut be niio- 



tloaed on the tkla-pagfl or on the Iwt loaf. Thia ia 
the case io Great Britain and on tho eoDtinent of 
KuropCL The printer must keep a Hat of all that ha 
prinlii, and in miiuu ■tah.-a muat aend eopiea to the 
ga*enuDeiit twfora publicatimi. In Fnuica, if a 
work ii fmiDd illegnl, a erinitoal proooM b inatitutc'l, 
and tha books are not allnwad to be aold until Um 
dedilon la giv«n. Ooverument oc«ij not pmaocuta 
Immadialaly, but can at any time. I!y Kngliah Uw 
the publiahem uf uewipnpera miut. undt^r a jMnaliy 
of £'J0, enter into n reecgnlzanoo or t>ODd of £100 or 
iSOO, tf^dthor with aiirctim to nay iiny tine that 
msy be itiHicted on iiim for publntiiiii; a btaaphen- 
in» cr i«ditiatia libel Befurw publloiwtion be nntrt 
nl>o Htato tho correct title of the ncmpafnir, togeliwr 
with tho luiimn of the |>rintAr, ptiliEUhrr, asil, under 
certMn roaarvatiuoa, tbuae of thi' |>roprieti.>ra. lu 
the United States thera la no rwlraint upon tho 
liberty of firintlng. Any ntan can print and eircn- 
Ulc whatever he chixnci^ and ia only anawernUe If 
the matter Itedf la UI«uaL What publicaUona mn 
ponMiabla in tha tTidtaa Stataa wfQ depand in aona 
meaamtt upon the drcnmttaaeea ot the paitienlar 
■tate in w\iicb tbey appear. Id tiie •l*T«-faaldiB( 
*tat«« piibti»tioiM of a twndanry t« oidt* ooinm»- 
tiona »mitng tbo blacks werv liable to punbhoMnL 

PKK.SS, F'ltiirTINi). See PiilimjiO. 

PRESSBURG, OT PwMiMiao (Magyar, Poamf; 
Slarnnic, Prttburft), a town lo the waot of Hungary, 
capiLal <4 tho county of it* own name, 35 siQea eoat 
of Vienna, on the left hank of the Oaaabe, which 
her* dividea into eeireral branches, and ia CTttaeed by 
a beidga of boaU. 'Ilin lito of tho town ia remarkabty 
itne^ being in thu form of a leinlclrcle, bounded on 
tha aotitb by tbe Daanba, from the banks of wMoh 
it gnkdnally aaccndi to the w«*t and nuith t<rwBrda 
ramidcnLiona of tito Carpithiana; while an eatanelve 
plain, ooverod with gardens, Tineyarda, nwadows, 
and ovra-fielda, fonna ita boundary nn the eaat. In 
tha town itself there is not n>iich to attract attrn* 
tion. Tho fortifications have been dismantled, and 
the streela are for the moat part narrow and steep, 
and only partially paved. Tla houses^ bowaeer, an 
solidly (Riilt of briok or stona, and of two or tbroe 
Blrjri<»; and edtno of tbemjpartJcnlarly in the soIh 
nrbs, ai« very handsomo. The edifioos moat dtfV- 
ing of ni>ti«e are^ the royal palace, on a height which 
ofcrlcHik* tho town, a building onoe of great magni- 
fieenea^ and sUU rivb In blstortoal raoellaotiaiis^ Dnt 
aeddsntaUy burned In 1811. and not atnea np^rnd; 
tha T>andha«s, or UaU of the Diet, in whkb the 
chatnberaof Uie Mngdnm used to meet, a pl.ttn ntrac- 
tura: the catbednl, n luua Oothic pUJs with a lofty 
steeple^ and less remarkabla aa a choreh than as tlm 
plafie where tha kings of Unagary were fonnarly 
crownad; the Capuchin, Francucan, and TTrsuUna 
naonastsrlea^ each with a handaonw eirarch attached; 
tbe Jeauit dliurch, a Byn«aague, tha town-housi^ the- 
atra, bishop's paliM^ orphan hospital, and haindta. 
The nutaufactnrva oonsMt of voollenih aiUa^ feathar, 
and tobaooo. The trade, particularly tranall, and 
ehlcfly In eoni, Is crtsnslTo. Oatalda tha town u tim 
arti6cial mound called tho Coronatioa Hill (Ki«B> 
nngahfigelX to wUch tbe newly-ciowned kinp cf 
Ilungatyueed torlde In grand prooemlonand bnad- 
Isb tha award a( 8t StaBkn Unranb tbs north, sonth, 
east, and weat, lignifyng thereby tiiat tbey nndcr- 
took to ilefeml the kingitum fztaa dan'^er, come bMn 
which <iiiarl«T It miffbt. I*reaabarg ii a pl^ of wjr 
great aathjiuty, and is said to hare acquired aotna 
Unporlaaea even befors the ooantry was sabjogatod 
by the Romana, It ia oerialn that Diske Wmtiakw 
pnnanasad a caatle hers hk tbe ninth oen tni y. In 
15<1, when the Tnrha eaptwad Bnda, It baaame the 
capital of Hongary, and retamed tha bonaar till tha 



PEKSS^AJTO— PRESTOK. 



Eaporor JoMpb tl. nrtgrad it to Boda Th« pvacc 
by which Aiutrlit C6d«d VoIm to Fnaoe luiil ihc 
l^nl to Bkvvi* WM concluded hera ia 1805. Fop. 
(1*80), 48,2(i*, fully id.m* th»n half of whom »«■ 
C«nimiia. GvrniMi ii the prevalent laajfu^ict, tbc 
Magyar Mag cultivftt«d only in the upf>«r drelM at 
Kciety. — The cnuuty, &reft aJioiit I'i&U •uu&ni miJci^ 
U LraTonMcl by tuut ot ths ('arpBthiAn diitin in ithn 
north, but in oiQ«c directioiu U flat luid lulerably 
fvrtUa, tbou^ in soTonl quart«TB covered with 
tnanbci. It U wtttcral by tliR Dkniilm, Murch, 
yVattg, Mi<l Dudw'ui^, mil yialili com, excellent wina, 
And abuudkoce of wood. I'op. 314, N7. 

PBESS'GANG. thu name ^ven in England to a, 
detacbmenl of ■ekm«n who (nader the ocminnDd of 
n davkI officer) wcro raipoworrd, in time of wkr, to 
tn]» any nafkrinK taon uid oblige them io lorvD on 
boBrd ths Idns'a uiir>a. 

PRESSURB. When a body rests on the f^und, 
at the mrfnoo ■rpamtirif; it frcnn tha ground there 
are twu «qual aiiil up{K>iiit« force* actinia, Ibe weight 
of tlie body acliog downwardji, and an equal apwacd 
fciroo, which may be called tbo rcfiistanM of the 
ground. Two ccjuid and a[)[itutt« furcei «f thia kind 
niftril>ut«il ovrr nn ar«a iu« called & preMure, lud 
dividing eitbor of the forcu by tha aiva givoa the 
mean preaiun pernnit area. It la cuatamary to call 
tli« pcwun Axiatlng at any ctom lection of a rod, 
or wire, or rope, which forot* toad to aulw longer, 
a 'pull,' and to call the prcuure at a croB waddaa of 
a rod or boam or colomn, which the forocs tend to 
make Bhortor, a 'pnuh.' Thua we ha*« the 'intcnvity 
of a puiU,' or of a pull, par unit arom At any little 
Int«riac« leparatiug two (mall iionLi>n» of a niMl of 
flnid, or of a aolid and a fluid, there is a premm 
whom directlaQ at any ncdnl ii normal to thn intor- 
face; the iatenuty ct thia [ireMure ia it* amount pur 
nnit at«a. 

PRE3TER JOHN (Phikt or Pkisbttsb Johb). 

In the middle Bgea it was rcportol by tni,TiillRrii thxt 
there wai a Cbc^tiaii jirSuw wlio ruignod in iLo 
interior of Alia under thii name, an-i the tame story 
VH alao knnwQ to the CruHftders. Albert of Aix 
and Otbo of FrciaiiigcD apeiOc vf hiin in the twelfth 
cmtnry ; lEnbruquia, la tbe thirteeuth cetitury, 
nttributea the name of Prcttrr JcJtn to a Ncstorian 
prince^ Ung or TTn^h Khan, who hod reigned in 
Kankonun ovcf two Mongul tribes, and pamhed in 
a war agMnat Genahi* Khan, abov^i half a cvotiiry 
before t£e time of Itis journey. Other tiavellcn of 
the thirteenth cvntnry also mention thia pcnnnage, 
and Giovanni di MonCeeorvitin, bUtiop of Cambaln, 
la aud to have converted (ISOii) a priace vf hia houiu 
toCbriitiaoity. Who tbit Treater John waa it Is not 
CM/ to dedde; the auppoeJUon that be wae the Dalai 
Luna, «c one al the chief prieeta of the Iianaiten, doca 
not agree with the poaJtion aaaigncd to hJa rcaidenu» 
by the trarellcrs, nor doea any of the rtymologtcal 
eaplaoatlcma which have betin prop^tied sevm aatia- 
factonr. The meet lodicrouB miiilake on tliis aubjert 
wna that mode by the I'ortugucae in tbo fifteenth 
t'l-iitury, who picked ap a itory of a ChriatiaD ptince 
ia the iulorinr ot Africa, whoao name waa Ogas, and 
who waa in fott the negua (king) of Abyaeinia> In 
oonaequcnco of the roaeanblanoc of the nanies Offon 
and Cny JUtat they ttmnaferred the ttimne of FreeCer 
John fnm Aaia to AMcm, and gmvo the name to the 
Atnmintaa prince. 

PRESTO (Italian), quEck, uaeil in muuc to dudg- 
oate a faster rate of movement than la indicated by 
atltffro. Pntto a$tai denotea very qtdck, and pm- 
tiifi/no the hkheat degree of qolelaieaaL 

PKKSTON, a manufoctoring and market town, a 
manJdpal and parliamsntajT boroo^ of £nj|buid, in 
Laaca«bii*, 28 mllea nortb-eaat vl LlvtrpoM, agno' 



ably rituatcd en a beijiht alnvs Ae right m 
bank of the lUbble, near the hMd «< lie fw y , ad 
on the London and Nortb-weMen and otbat nB> 
waja It ronaiata of tea jpcriadpal and • grwl aoh 
bcr of minor atroeta. The boveee w« aloMMt al 
auhxtantialty buHt ot brick, and Uie tows ia en Oc 
whole well laid out. The environa of the tova 
exhibit much picttidni; vxam, and are adorned vltb 
nuiuerou* handiome villa* and publie walka a&dpa*k& 
The aedeataBticaJ ediAc«a tnelude twelv* dlinchi^ 
beeides Roman Catholic and riimliiig cbayda 
Among the former Cbriat Chnrch ie admiivd for Iha 
parity at ite Noraum archltectuiv : and the pacU 
cbnrui, v^ch hoa been rebuilt in the ilaiiiiiiliil 
style of the (ourteenth century, with a apire IH feet 
high, ia also a fine building. Amaag the other pliMa 
of wonhip shtiuld bo mcntionod ose of Un Ko^H 
Catholic chitpc La. which bat abaurotifiilqxK^aadnaka 
aa the miral eplcudid pLaoe uf worabip in Preafao. Tim 
(liber more important buildings are the towa-faaU, a 
handsome nUmv cdifioe in the Gothic atyla^ eteclad 
in IHiir, with a lofty deck tower; ootut-bonae; wcU 
situated, and built ia tbe Doric atyle; a new infir 
mary, til's houie of cnrrectian, the cuetotB-hoHlt 
ei>rii'«xL'haii|-H, new gaa-offioei^ l^rS* ^"^ bsadnaia 
market- ah L'd, extcnalve barrwiln, wovkhoas^ iheata^ 
and aaaamhly- rooms, Tho ritor ia a|ianiied byde 
bridgee, two of tbem roUwav htidgea, one ot whU 
cunt JEiU.OUO. A railway atatiun Eaa boon reonlly 
buHt at a oust of about £200.000. Tbe aobolMlk 
and litcrtiry catabliahmenta include a free mmtmar- 
nrliinil- ths lituit-fiuit, commercial or middk^ and 
vuTLuiLK imLiuiud jiuil itifaiil achuulHi the liilieran aid 
PbiLotophical Iniititutiiin, prai-ideH wllb a Uoawy 
and mujieum; the Httrriii Instilute of IJtecatwi^ 
Art, Science and Technical Instruction (fcnoeriytlu 
MriihanirH* Innlitiitc, and now greatly enlaiyad]; 
tha p'rev Public Library and Mnaeun^ in the OraeiaB 
>tyli^ (ROW ill oiurae nf erection), &«. Tba lom li 
!iu|j;itlL-d with water from rMcrvcan* aitaatwd oaac 
Lotigridge, 17 or 18 mllee to the mrth Met ti Rw 
t'jn, oapablo of starinu 306 milliom of |p'"— ■. and 
fiirmed ol a cost of aoout £S0O,OO0. (M the anrth 
side of tbe town are two beautiful pubUo padn, Um 
one iO acras in extent, tbe iithcr IS ai lee. and on the 
uortb liile 111 the luwu i* the Moor Pwt, wlndi iam 
aa area of l>0 acrca. 

'Ilie original Htaple raaniifacture of the town waa 
linon, which iaattll woven to ■nine extent, bat haa been 
L-ompIelelyeolipeedby tbe cotton luanufacture, which, 
h»t introduced in 1777, now emptoya a very Urga 
number of mills for spinning and weaving. Vam 
are also aerenl iteaiu utwmilU. Other branchea of 
niauufacture ara carried oa in numeroua nuiciiiaa- 
shops on an extcnaive acole, iron and hraa fonn- 
dne«,r)ulwayoarTiagework%breweriea^iBalt-hoiiia^ 
rvperie^ taaneriee, &c. Some akipptiw tcade la alM 
carried on, though greatly obetructed by tbe e«adl> 
tiiin of tile Ribbie. But ia l$8f plana weiv fararndtj 
dpprared by the monldpal corporation for the deap 
uiuuji and the divenion of Iks river for ft oaaWa 
put cf l(a courae, aod the Eormatioa ni » dodt o( 40 
aerta, beaidea two graving docks and k tinber poaid 
of S5 acres, with Uie neoeaaaiy approacbea, bwdm^ 
gates, ftc, and it waa iutcnded to oomntnioeopentiana 
Unrtbwitli. 

Preatoa dntca ita fonndaUoa (rcta a ven cuty 
period, and ia eiud to hare riaea ea tha 4k» <■ 
Ribcheater, the Rom mi RigodiuKiiii, aitnatad bocrA 
1 1 milea further op tbe rtvar. Ita unu^ '■fg^""! 
Pricat'a-town, it owed to the numbor <f vh^o^ 
hooaea which it eontained. Ita hfalocy Mtwatt few 
erenta ot iutureat. About MO it waa m Sasui aaUl» 
meat; in 1323 it erma taium and bnrsad down by 
Robert Bniee; ia 830 Ita Srat pwiah chanb waa 



PRESTONPANS— rilfi VOST.PAnADOtu 



S7S 



hi tt» mat «1«0 wsr H wpcntaod tbo Itoyalfat 
, wd PiB wi d MTinly dnri&g tba ooDUnt, bkv- 
twki Mptund b; tbs rMlUmcnUriuik, 
I lh« UUflr ocfriaa were bowled hy H'ruiuwell 
in tlM t^mUJod of I'l'l Jt WM OC01|ri«l 
Iiy tW JkoobiM foraoik wbo enctcd bArricAilea uid 
smJi a ban iiihliiiin. bnl were ultliiMt«lv obUgvd 
la nmAdw at diKntioB: in tb>l «f ]?tfi tb* liigh* 

, I bj tb« Preti^tuUir, palmed tlirou]{b 

I both oa tli«Lr luftrcb to Leowui aod on twdr 
It bccftma ■ borauj^h bj prmriptioii, but 
Ibr roofirinatuiii nr cxteiudoa of iU prtvi- 
Ug^ bjr iK> hwcr UiAO fuurUrii n)j»l L'hartcrB — tbe 
Ant bom Kanr^ II., uidl tbe lut froin t'luiFlaB II. 
It ntarns two maaibvn to PkrliuiwDt, miiI h j^v- 
«fDAd bj k rokjer, tiarm ether ftldannen, ud 3d 
vjQBcillarB. Pof^ ef tnuoidpal bormigb (1^^1)> 
M,U7; ot pariuiDeiiUrjr bocvtigh. 93,7''^0. 

rBK9TUNPA>*S, k aouJl town in Scotland, In 
tbfl oouit; nf liailiJuftoB, dmt lh« aovlli ■bora ot 
tba Hrtb (^ F<wUj, wbiwD it pOM««aM ft Miudl bor- 
boor. Hwn i* > •taliao an tbc North BritUh Rail- 
Wkj oe a iwc ting it wilb EAiuhnrsk, 8^ milo* dlatuit. 
1^ I»indp«l pubUo woT^ an thow of th« PrealoD- 
UnAK« CaaX amcI Inm C-a, a itottery, Roap-wofka, 
Mll-worki, Mid a brcworj-. In tlie iiutuediahi Tlrnuity 
Wkal'JBKbtt-t*t^l4 , 174S)tIi<'''k"i'iii*)>at''lcii]wIiich 
Ite UlgUamdvi, bcMnl bf Priti'^ Chiirlm, ■i|{ti.>ll;y 
dA*l«d <b* rojr^ trwifw wiiimijuniud bjr Sir John 
Cm*. Ptptt (I8S1), 0573. 

FRESlAlITION. in Uw. U the tsUng of » fut 
or (mptunUun m true bcfurc fl ie >bown or oertainly 
fawwa to be uk PrcaumptiAiu bra either jurit, or 
twrw (f tie jurt. "Hm fint«UJiui(M j'kru !• * prc«i>m|i- 
llua MrtAhlijibAd in I«w Ult the contnuy be proved. 
Iliw ft penoo who fau Uie puMcMtoo of guoda Li 
tn be the owner, or s maa is aMdined to 
onlCM the caatr«rjr be jitovcii. The 
prwuwfAio/WH el tUjurt la lh«t uliere luw or cua- 
Md ■rtftbUahee tlie Inith of anv [xiint on a prmmip* 
Mea tbftt cftBBOt bo overccimo bjr cuotrArjr eridenrc, 
•■ tbm iicwaniptida of iDcapkaty ia ft minor with 
gaardlftDft to ftet without their euneeuU Preeump- 
ttou an Mlspt«d from tb* amwily o( ftiriviog xt 
MBA amdudon n other In meet cftMe where the 
•videaee la ffaBsrftl or inccncltuive. Tbua where * 
Bftiaua hftj 'lUftf^wftred and haa not tieen h«Md of, 
WM Uw «U1 ia avaand pnauine that ho ii etill eiivo, 
■•1^ ftllcr ft upae ol tine contiderftbljr esoeedine 
lb* ardiaftrf dnratiau of buman life; bal if there be 
•rUaoea of hta coeitiDaana UDeiplaiaotl atomoa from 
hwse,aBd o( the noa-ieoeipt of bitdU|[enee ooflOemiuK 
Urn tar ft padod ot aevea f«*rt, the preemnptioit <rf 
liCa ri«eri. 

PRETKNDER. See Charlk* Edwakd Sttau-, 
and SrCAKT (James Ei>wa]i1) 1''ka5cib>. 

PRKTTLES rNbEKMENTtS. or KCriML-TAlRU, 
ta I'kvacb hiabir}, the iuudo g\fta to tbcoe [irieeta 
wbo^ ae tbo ««« of Uie flnt revolution, tofuMi] to 
tab* tba oath to be [althfol to Uio oation. tbe Uw, 
aad Ibe Uu, and to nipport the nnutitulion which 
aboald ha naiaod bj tbo Nktidnal AaMmbly and 
bj the kiDs. Mnat of the old proLOoa and 
I nfuaed to wn tbia oath, and otiicn, elected 
paopla^ wen at aaoa put lata their pUoea. 
) MO-jvriag olergjr fomtftd on* <4 th* nuat power- 
of cippaaag rnrabllenniam in fVance; tbejr 
tho war En La^ end^; many of tlietii in the 

I pmlaidftl dlatriela RHiaed the people to petty 

fcwdu, (n whidb tboaa aodwlifttici wbo took the 
«i«th were driven out ol Iba cburcbM^ boated (ram 
tbeir |;Miab»a with <t«n the churcbee often adcod, 
jwd aadi blood waa abed. Tbe greater iiuuitier of 
•ban MiIffralrad,aadpabUBbBdBxociiiunDni cations aud 
«baqpaa(bereejr, particuJftriy front Kaglaod, agajnat 



those who h»] Riibmitted to tho new ordor of thln^ 
Tbo Nutiotiftl ConveutlouupjHiaed tliea^ attacks by (be 
iteverait tuaatiirw. Several hundred* of tbe refrac 
tury clergy were put to doath in the prituija of Paris 
oil tbo ^d and 3do(8*plaober, 1792; Carrier drowaed 
f;fty-elt[lit at one tiiciu nt Niuitm, and a law waa 
paaaed condeumint; tbem en mat**. The mncordat 
of 1801, in whiah Napoleon Bought to n&ko tha 
^urch a sufipcirt; to Ills power, restored Uic old oon- 
nectinn with Hums 

PRE\'ESA, a fortified town of European Tarkey, 
in tbe iMtfl^f-li" ef Janina, on the ocrlhera side of tbe 
Golf of Arta^ 18 miles touth-wcet from Art*. N«ar 
tho town are found the mina of Actium anj Nico- 
poEs. In 14S1 the Tematian admiral MnmiinI Uiok 
frotii the Turki Santa Hftum, Prevesa, Butrinto^ 
Parfft, Arta, and Voinitca, and tbiu rendered ^'^enloe 
Doiatteaa of the AmbraclM UuLf. In 1707 these 
places wDrooed«d to tho French Repiiblic, and when 
tbo bttur bcvanie invoIve<l In a war with Turlc^, 
All pUflljB of Janina, took Prevesa by etorm <I7fi8)^ 
[itllA^'cd Lbe city, luid put to death the greater part 
of the itinle ^opiilatluu. Prereea again aufTered by 
tbo rebellluu of A ll , whose son throw himself tcto the 
citftdel, ftnd tbti* subjecU^d it to a litng blockade, la 
I.H'2!i it *u0cred by an eartb-iitulcb Pop. rarioualy 
eatiuiitod at from 4000 to SOtfO. 

PRfiVtvST D'EXILES. AirrotM Fujurvouk a 
l-'rencU writer, bom in 1SD7, attidi^d with tha 
Jeauila, aud eut^Ted ibe ordor, wliiiih, however, ha 
soon (luittod for the tDlHlary servioe, DiaaatMed 
with Uie ■Uiwneas of proinotian bo agidn joined tba 
Jeaiiita, but after a abort time onoe more retnnted 
to the career of arms, and seri^ with reputation. 
Uimppointed love next cutiiuhI him to aeiunie the 
habit of tbe BeuwUctiuM of St. Maur. and he reUrwd 
to SL Gennun dee PnHi, where he found ooosolftticni 
in otDiiy. His rcatlcae tf inpi-r anon led bim to iepa> 
rito biiueelF fniui the BeEieili<.-tfues, aod io 173S bo 
went to Holland. M«ni he publiibnd his MAuoJreo 
dun HoBUue do Qualit<^, and aft^-rwards went over 
to Kngland. In 1734 be retomed to Fmnce^ and 
Mvu aqipdlntad ajinoner and aacntary to tbe Priooa 
of CoDtL The cbnunllor d*ApieaHaQ alao selectad 
biiQ toBuportrtcnd thv Histotr«{r<n£imIedae Voyana. 
As be waa one da^ walking ia &t foreat of CbaoUlly 
be wae attacked tjy a stroke of apnpteiy. Hating; 
beea found In a state of toaraudbility by some pea- 
saats the publia odicer moosdad la opsn tbs bod; 
of tho lupiKier.! dcei-ai«d, wbeo ha ofMied bb ens; 
liut the wound waa tnortal. Tliia event oceumd la 
1743. Beaidia the a-orks already mcntionext are Ui 
Hiatolra da M. CleveUod, Hl)>toire tlu i:beirftlier 
dca Grieux ci de Manon Learaut, with sorcral utbor 
romanoes, a literary jovniat called Poor et Contr^ 
and Banoroiu trauBlBtlous from EauUtb. His selett 
woiba wars publiabod tu Parti ia 1788, lod agaiB ta 
1810-18. 

PRfiVOST-PARADOLi Locnt* Akatou; a 
Fraach writer and mambar of the Acadeaiy, was 
bom at Pari*, Ancust 8, ISStf. Ha was oduoatad 
at the Col!^-e BourUn aad tba Kcnla Nonaala. Od 
ImtIi^ tbe httter in 1851 ba deealad hisMalf to 
Utcrary punuita^ and tbe ssina jaar his Aoga od 
Benardin ds St. Plem pUned tbe prlaa f «r ebxpicBos 
elvan bjr tba FYmkA Acadeaif. Inl858 beoblaicmd 
the diatr of Fkvncb lileratora in tbe faenlty id Aix, 
but soon reeigncd. and naxt year baeane ana of tba 
cdtton of tbe Juumal dss Ddbatu Ba aialalalnad 
bis coanectiMi with this Mmt to tbo last, aad eof>- 
trlbulad to U a Urge nunber of artiolea djatingniahad 
by vigour, beauty of style, biting irony, and Laea 
uttt«. As a lover of ooaalitntioBsl govammsal tba 
eminire cattie freqaontly under tha lash of bis pan, 
aaditwaaarticica cootlibulad byUm tolboCauniv 



178 



PttEVOSra THEORY— pmcK. 



dn Pimukcho that c«ii»r6 Uio tnppivwion dI thkt 
pAjter in 1866. On tho kccrsninn nf the Olliiier 
mlnictry in 1 S70 lie *i:ce|>ted office uniter tbe lTU|>*<rUl 
eovcmmcnt, ftod vrcnt u unbuMdcr to the ITuiKMl 
SUM; but aoon kiter hia Arriv&l pnt <u) end t^ hin 
(MTU lifo^hia niiud beinj;, it. in Iwlievi^l, uuliin^n] br 
tho non-a of thn ilnnlarktioii of wju" hy Frano* agsJoat 
FrunLik, uu] by tua roU ruecptioD bytho AiDBricuu, 
whom ho ajttxptictetily louml were man Gonnui 
th&ii Frcnc)) in Ibcir ajTiiifitthiiiTiL He wrute Eludos 
»UT I'M MDmliitc* Fiui^b, (jiini do t'HUt. IJnivor- 
BoUe, Lft Pmiix KouT>elIe, Du R^le de U FunlUe 
dtoi rfiducMlon, Ac 

PBKVOSrfi rUKORY. See Hr^r ExrnA^r.r.^. 

PREVOT. Covta Pebv-Jtalio. ftororal olH™™ 
boro ths nftmo of pririt la FnuKW pruvious to Uio 
nriiluti^D. Tho j^mnii tn-^(i5( de Pionrt, with two 
(ICiiuUt^, rxoruKHl jun>(li(.'l,inn in the roynl {inlnoti 
and boosvhotH; tbu prii6l dtt murchnmU ut Pims 
Kod Lyooi WM tbo first msgutrnto cf tbo city. Tlio 
prittt dt Priru, iM gtivcrnor nf thn rhtUtUt, warn tho 
ohiaf judicift] ufliwr, btoiil i>[ the kutfllitB of the town 
«nd iU d(>ppnd«iiit t*rrit<»ry, Jind of tbe ri-omtf lA 
Fvia, Mid WW tbo ^»J'i of the uuivorslty. llio 
frtr^t dn mari-haux de Pranre, who were icttorod 
for K timo audor the nfuiie of ri)uri pHtitaitt, yitrvi 
gnudiwu uf the puldic: |irBci>, and ^leroiMtl ft n>th«<r 
Bununftry justice ovkt va^lioiidi^ rDbben, gipile*, 
ftnd diitiirboraof tha public p«ivc«. The noblM, knd 
moRtof theoHiocrmf e4>v^rnm*^nt,«i?Tenrit»m«nii1]lu 
to titeir juruidipljon, which w»« to biully aiEminiiitRrMl 
(for tho jfiviu vivr* not juriat*) that iho (.buiLvlloni 
L'Hftpitol wid D'A^MMOuraMrictcd tho Ir Authority 
by the crdlnwoM of IMi uid 1731, and in 17U0 it 
wu ratirely abuliabod. But Nnpuleoii found tli&t 
tb« ordtnary conrta nnra iiinnffidoni to mnlntaln the 
■tilot ooatn;! which he duairinl oter publio order. 
By tho hiw of March 3^ IdlO, concerning priaand of 
»tkt^, hfl ret-eived the powor of coiifiidiii; dnDKBroui 
):mi»i>, without trial, in thoM jniHns. In ISOQ 
tho foundation bad alrouly been Wd for th« ciTMtiMi 
of tfjciiul tribunals, which the new cnmiiia] orgnni- 
ution of \SOi c<-ii>tirEiivii, with tihw devalopaMat^ 
In thrto »]>c(:in] tribuJiKls tlio jirwidcst of tha eonrt 
of uaiEei, with four oouDctUon and threo tnilttary 
mon, wore to judge vagr^ota for all Diotuiuruf L-riiuce; 
and ui caau (if rolwllirin, Brmnd Kiniig^iiii?, cnuntxr- 
foltlng, and murder, by utiuiberm, th-o trialwaa to be 
vrithuut jury and iu a giuDmary form. 1'ba Inperhvl 
dcci«e of Ann'l 6, INOH, widod to Ifao above ■pociSed 
ai.'ta that of bavio]; bunie arm* antntt Napolonn 
ainco S'n[it««Dbw 1, 1804. Vor the trial ot nuumilnv, 
by on impecfal decree of October 13, 1810, roiiri de 
dauatut won «atablUh«d ia thirty-nix dticfi, and 
fimrt yriidlaitt d<* dmiantt tu ai^ht citiia: the lalbrr 
had a 'jpand-priwU for pmidBiit, with eight aniataDt 
jud|;<.ii, and InoMSiofuiiMdnmigglingnaid oHginal 
jiiriadictioD, and pntcMdad without pry. All them 
extmnrdinary triliunaK together With tho military 
cnnutiinjoiu, wera abuluhiH) by the charter of 181 i 
(art. 03), with a prevbd for th« rMtontion of the 
etmrt jMrdilatf*. aliould it be found neceaaaiy. By 
iiitf law of DBOotDbor '20, tBlA, thn >i«ciiU critniniil 
ccuru wen ro ee U bllahed fur twu y<iar«, lindvr the 
nam« of tvun pririt^rt. One of them oourta wu 
erected in r^ch dcpartro«nt, coiuisling of a jurut aa 

Cldenl, a uiiUtikry uflioer aa prirU, and iav.t mcm- 
of tba mart of tho firit instanoe In th* district. 
Their Jnriadidioo rwembl»d that of the apvcial 
oiinlMl ODtirta ixmatltuled In ISO!, and their proocd- 
vn WW mactly tb« ■amoi. They wero not renewed, 
and Iharafora tacitly axpirad in ISIS. 

PRIAM, the lait Kinji of Troy, wa« the kni of 
LMtDodna ud Sti]rmo or PUda, and called, la hU 
Mrliv Jtkn, Podarta (the awift -footed); but wbon 



H«rciilai took Troy, and ]wRlUn«iI HeibM to n»- 
Bomoncof the priaaoria at bcrown prt««,eh»BeUclaA 
h»r brother Podarcea, and gar* bar nnl tiir him. 
Oa thia acixnmt bo wu ever aft«r called Priam tthe 
lUnsomed). Wbm a youth b« uaiAed viik Um 
Phrvgiana agiiust Iha Auiaiona, and went ae aula^ 
sodur to the Thnu-.lAnfl. Attar tho daatk ef hie fathar 
he reined in Tmy. By hb first wif«, Ariab«v dan^ 
t«r of MenMia, he bod .'Baoua. He af lerwnrda nna 
Ariabe to Hyrtaciu, and mafried Hecaba, hf nam 
ho hod, aeoordingto Horoer, ntnetem cUldraci, aaenf 
whom Hector, Faiii^ Cmaa, I^odiech Petrew^ 
Canandra, Ddphobua; H*l«an% Pimmna, roini^ 
Antiphni, lltppnnfHie, Polydurua, and l^oilaa wm« 
the HKiit dintinguiabod. By four oJOcubliMe be aJao 
bad thirty e»na and four danjjhtflra. Ilia aaaie haa 
been rendered famoua by the tra^oa) fate tt hiniaaW 
and bia family, bmught on by bis blind lore for ha 
■uu PariM; for H-hi*ii he waa exCtemalreU tlwOeaaln 
demanded of him the reatoratioa nt avkn, irfae bad 
been carried away by Paria, and ea bia nfnMl te 
^vo ber up tbvy ruoilv war aKninat IVny, tooh and 
devtmyed the city, ofbrr a «i«se of t«n year^ kb 
aim Uector having alnady felleo before hia eyaa 
When the Gr«elct entered the dty the M otaa 
anncd himself to Bcrk AtMh in tha U&dat of tlw 
RtiRmyi but thn prayers of Hccuha jprerailad nfxw 
bun to take abetter at tho altar of Z«a*. Hen he 
taw hia nn PoUtea fall by tha hand of PyirhM; aad 
iiTiahlo to mntain hiin»i;ff, he hurled hi* jareliD at 
ttis youthful warrior, who dr«f[ged the old man by 
the liair to ibo altar, and plunged a ewurd luio hit 
brcoKt. 

PUIAPITS, oTiKinallyagodr^thefieldaiaLenp- 
aaaiui, a town of Myiiia, silTiated in a rich win* aoua< 
try. AphmiJitS h>7i> him ^l Dt<>ny*us wben tha 
latter woa rcturriing from India, but woa onwilliaj 
to acfc&owl«(lga htoi on anpuut of bia dcfdnnity. 
Othera)[iveluiiaadlireivntor[jii»; but faewaealwaya 
god of the fields, the psvtevtor of gftrdcDa; beee, eeati^ 
and iiherp. The earlier Greek pocte. aucb ae Hb«» 
and Heaod, do not ntentinn thia divinity, and it waa 
only In later timea that he waa honuured with A*tiia 
won«bip. Ho wu roprtaented with homa attd p»l'a 
dorn, and lar^e eeznal porta^ havine in hia Up all 
kiiida of truila; iu hia hand be bvld a anckle, and 
usually a horn nf plenty. Ills wnnhlp npraad fnn 
Lampsnoua over Grvece to Kmno^ Re b cmddand 
by nytboloelati to repnseut tbe productive poww ef 
nature 

1'UH:K. Se- Valvk 

PRICE, RicKABD, a dbtinstdahed natbemaddaa ! 
and atatifticol writer. Ue was bom at Trnton, In' 
(Jlivmorganahirc, in 1723, iukI waa educat«J at Tal* 
fp^th, iu hia uaLiva county. On tbe death of hia 
father, an intolerant Diaaentbt]; divine^ who etHMKlj 
dioUlted bis eea'a libeimlity of sentimant, Bkhatd 
fouDd blmaelf eo poorly provided for ibat, wiabiog to 
complete hia educalruii in LoDdi>a, he •nu ooaDpafied 
to (la ncKt of tha jnurnay na foot. He obtatosd 
odmiiuinn to a Pmabvterian academy in Lnndon, utd 
after four yean' atnJy eoxagwd biinaclf as chaplain 
to > Mr. Stnutfleld, with whom be Urad thirteen 
yooni, and who on bia death loft him sovw froftKtj. 
By the death of an uncle In 17fi7 bia draunateiMM* 
were furtbcr improved, and he waa enaUed tu arry 
out a matrimonial engacmnent ha bad liornied with 
a Min Bluudell. He wen bcvaine paator of a Kco- 
confocndat eongngation, of Aiim or eeaii-Atian 
principle*, at IladiDey, wbai* he coalinued ea laog 
IU be lived. He oammeBoed hia Uterarr eai»er is 
I7S8 by lua Review of the principal DtffieuHiai III 
Itforala |8vo), which waa followed by Four Diaantk- 
tiona on the ImjHtrtanw) of ('hristianity, tbe Nature 
uf HiatoticalEriacDC«,aodUbKla«k4cOTer,evoV 



PRICHARD— PRI EST. 



877 



I 



In ITtt barvcdvcd Um diplonui of D.D. frmn Um 
Valtw^j id Otiacow. In 1771 appeared bit Ob- 
MiialJUM oo BawvloDanr PaymoiU and Annuitlea 
0n), vUob wtabliabad hk cbM*cl«r aa a malbMna- 
tkal c*knlft(or. Tiii> wh followed hj lii* rampila- 
tiaa aad pabQcatloD of lb« oalebnk-d Northampton 
MertaUljr Tabloi^ and (.char raluabla warlu reUliag 
to lifa ■MWinfiB aad anouitin. He next piibliolicS 
an ApMt to the Public uo the Sobject of the Na- 
ttooal D«bt: aiul <Iuriii(,' tbe cootert wttb the North 
ft win an ooloniM advocated tlioir caoM in Obterva- 
tioM Ml Civd Liberty (1776, Svo), Additj«ul OliMr- 
lintfon^ acd a SuppLoment, Theaa tracta pruvuVed 
lb* laiBMdvermcma of a number ot «rril«n on the 
oppMito Mm o( the qoertioD, and axpoawl Lim lo 
HB0 «Uoi|d7, but they alao procinvd dIid r vote of 
ibftaia (rccD the eorpcntion of London praafltited in 
■ pdd box. He engaged in an epictolaiy eorrMpond- 
etwi wilfa bb Iriend Dr. Joee^ Prlutlej, od thu 
■ibjaoia iif materialJAn and ntttadir, the eubetanw 

VUcb area laid btfoa-e tbe pubuo in an octani 
hi 1778. Wl»«n Pitt linuune prime-ninliter 

Soaaiihed Vr, Fnce U bia ediviiKi for the redilc- 
Mea of tbe »■*<■—*> debl^ and tbe eetabliahment of 
Um finking fund wae tbe rcault of hla rooomnieiKb- 
tios. At tbo iMniniencaaiMit of tbe Oenr'h revolii- 
tfaa tn a evnnut) (pubUlbed fai 1789) On the Ixire iif 
Country, Im vxrinly «xprcaMd hli delight at thu 
•BiaACipetioK of the French |x«pl*>. 'I*bia (li»cuiinH> 
produeed Burke'a Rcflectioui, in n-hlch |}r. I'Hto 
«v eeeerely treated. Ho diuil April 19, 1701. 
Bendan many paitere !n tbo I'Vasiuirtlona of tbe 
Kojnt Sodety, of «-liich be w«e « fnllnw, bo pub- 
lubad 8ei B» o m un tbe Chrictiau doctHue, na reoctrod 
by Um differrDt Ueneoiioatioiu «f CbriatUae (Svo), 
nod eeveral aiiwk aennona and pcjitieal |iani|dilotB. 

PBICRABD, Jakes Cdwua, a dintin^ubed 
«lJkMlo(Mt wne bom at Buaa, In llenforibhire, ia 
ITBI^ or a ywu kter aooordln^ to other authoritiM, 
•Buttad ■Mdicitwi, aad took the degree at M.D. at 
Edinbar&b. On Ibia occuon he cbine for bin theida 
tbe pbyMcal bblorj of nanViud, a eubject which he 
■Aerwarda mad* bk McoUar atiuly. He comineaeed 
pnollen aa n ncdieaj nan at Kriatnl, and in 1810 
te rt iwd Ibe appatatmeat of pbjtncian to tbe Clifton 
Dbnewwy and St Peter'a UoepitaL In 1^13 he 
IwUkbed Ida ifreat work, RoaaaraMa into tfao Phy- 
■ioal HMory of Hankioii wUcb, originally iaeucd 
in ona ealuiM^ iraa ia the third editjon, complelcd 
In 184», Bxtatided to five. It U regarded aa the 
■Madwd o( ethnoloirloa] treatieea. In 16(3 ap- 
Ua Kitonl Ulitary M Han, wblub baa beta 
tad Into both VVencb and Qerraan. He alao 
pmdooed aaveml aiooc worka on tbe aubjoct of 
Ma m h g j, baatdaa MOinenNia papen oontrlbuted lo the 
miiab Aaodatioa and other Mamed Kxtictice. In 
bla cwa peofuaaion the drirMiia of the nervooa nj atetn 
and the varioua pluaea of inasnity engaged > laipi 
akare ol hit attention, awl be pabllahed triitbea on 
tbe djpaaaee of the Kervoiia 8yi*eiD; onlnaantly; and 
on Um IKBensnt Forma ol Inanoily in relation to 
JsriafmdeBM^ In 184^ be waaappolnted oueof tbe 
iiiaiiiiiiMioiiiiii of litoaoy, and ia eonaaqMBoe rcmored 
itam BriaUtl to Loaded where be oooilniied lo reaide 
dl hit life. He died on 22d Deoembct, 

[CKLT FEAB, Opm(ia tvtjiarit, natural order 
tbe ladian if. Tbe Oponttn Is n flaaby 
■ttd aaoenknt plant, deaticate of loavca, oovered with 
fiaeia d i at alcUale ifaBea, and oonaieting of flatbened 
jolnti fcia t r te J nim each othv. The Bovera are 
laim. yaUow, haTinc nunwraai petak and 



IB, They are aoooeeiMd by a puipliab and 
ediUe prrifutni frait, wbicb ia aometfnMa iniported 
lalo tbe lIHtuh nuufceL It ia a native of the tropiosl 




Tutrta of AiTiericeL, wbnioe it baa been intmduced into 
EiitT»pij, Mauritiun, Ambia, Syria, and Chioa, 

PEIDEAUX, HLnriiHKT. a learaod EagUab 
dinnti, horn nt I'lui^tow. in Cornwall, in 1848, waa 
educated at OiT'ird, and wUile at thu unWeriUy pnb- 
lUbed tbe atioitnt laaortptbiifl from tb« Amndol 
marbLea, under tho title of Marraora Oxiniumia. 
[•rird-chknci^llnr Ftuch, carl rif Nnttinj^bAm, gave 
bim a prebend In Norwich caUiedrat, and i.urd Xi'rtb 
bestowed 00 blm Uie rectory of Kl.'ulen. which, on 
taking tlie degree of D.D., he exvbaojp.'d for tbe 
beoefioe of Boham, (n Norfolk. He waa lubaaquently 
|ironiut«d li^ tbe an^hdcstconry of Suffolk, and bt 
1703 miidn Ilnui of Norwii^h. Him death touk place 
November 1, I72i. BiwiJoi bU irrvat work, entitled 
the Old and KcwTeatAioent connected in the Hintorr 
r>f the ■Ten'* and mlghboaring Nationi, nf which 
thvtv we many edttlow, be wm th« atithiir vf tbe 
[.Ife of Blnbammed {Svo), tbe Original and Right of 
Tilbo* (Sra), £cclaiiiutic«l 'l>acte |8ro), &c 

I'lUKCit), a towii iu Bpain, Anilaluna, in abeainti* 
f[i1 plain watervd by tbe Saladu, S(i uiiI'm eimtb-eaat 
of Cordova, It u well built, and hai an aadoot 
caatle, built by the 1{on)an.-i, and enlarged by the 
Mcmtb; an old GuUiic church, three euppreeaeJ oon- 
ventt, a nunnery, and a f<iii»(1!ing henpitjil. Priigo 
WM oncQ fasii>nii for iU aitk man iif act urea, DOW 
reduc^ to iMifDifiaanee. Mjcoel Lopa^ the aenlp- 
tur, waa bum hen. Pop. lli,974. 

PKIICST (Hebrw. fftUa.- Greek, Swrtu.,- lAtfa, 
tattrdtn). The Engliah afordprual, like tbe German 
j/rietur and the Frendi jirHrt, ia aimplya contracted 
form of tbe word prttbsUr. (See PliaKTTIHlAimir.) 
En ila rnuxt general aif^niBcatian the title waa i^pUed 
to tdioee wRiofn who » ere ealled br choice or birth to 
intulcate and expound roligioua dogmaa, to perform 
raligiona rit<e, and to fulfil is other way* tbe fuae- 
liocu of a [oediator between tbe wonhlppera and tb» 
Iteinf worvblpped. Amonc tbe ancient pagan natlona 
all that w» dI(,-iiifiod and r«niTAltl«, that deeervwd 
n.4i[MKl and olH-dipnce, that atoixl nearer lo tbo 
Divinity tluui tlie cuMniou luaas of mnrtaU, waa 
aaBocUt«d with the idea of the prieetly office. Tbo 
patrloreb (if the primitive world waa at onco tbe Idnj" 
anil tbo priert of hi« family ; and when ttw atate waa 
developed from the family tbe loyal and prieatlr 
dijpkity atiU eoatinued for a long time to be united 
in tbe aame panoo. But tbeae odBoea became eepar- 
at«d fat tbco* aMea Ot anti()uity which owed tbcir 
OxIatOQOe to tbe Moaadenoy of liogle heroes or con- 
qnoring tribei; nnd by the ride of tbe rveal dJfniqr 
and KTcret^ty • MnrdaUd order, wUa in anu 
(yjuntnt* wae electivo, in other* bcreiditary, grew np^ 
and liy the reputation of eoperW wiadom and aecret 
i-uiuiuuuioci with tbe fpida (wlneoce tbe prieata were 
also honoured aa mafidane and (AyriciaM), iaapfrad 
thi; niind with awe. In Uio etatca of Weatom Ajd% 
iu £|rypt| GreecB, and Roue, Um prieeta were Iber^ 
fore publlo oounoQlan and initnunente of gorera* 
ment. Tbeir etigiaal offce waa to bring down divine 
thing* to tbe oonceptian of men, and lo aole«nniie 
tbe public worablp of tbe godi by aacrificea, pra*rr% 
and reLigioiv pomp (myeterio*). InMroction aoJ tbe 
intetpfetatloa of symbolical doctrinee oeaaed to bo ft 
part of thdrolBoowheo tbe mytldcnl religiouaantaBi 
came to an end; and when Ibe P^ela, riMtondani^ 
and pbOoeopber* aMunied lb* one* of Interpntem 
of tb« myllia, tbe lol* borineaa ef tbe pvieeti beenino 
the ptrfonaaaeo et tba rallglou ritat. In aacred 
biiitavy Ibe patriarchal order fumialiea an example 
of the family prieatbood. Abrsham, laaac, and Jacob 
pcrfonn pruatly acta, and 'draw near to tbo Lotd' 
{lien. dL 8; avtU. S3; nnl SS; xzxUL S^ H ftkn 
doea Job (L A). InetaiwM of tbo oiuob of tbe wioitly 
and tviooely dignity are found in ^»^**^—^^^ mid 



S?8 



PBIESTl 



Jatbra; th« Arab shmldi to thU hour luiEb^* in hia ' 
pcmni tine ciril nnd r»li^nna liivulaliip. 

The I^liitAlo printhuoo wm ths mhcntanc* of the 
KM of AnroD, of the tribe of I^vi. Tb« onier of 
tha ntiuftR ulaoA botwnon ihc bt^b-prioAt oa tbe ono 
luuin atid Ibn Lnvila on the utber. (Sm HliiH- 
moT aod Lxvn-cs.) Thi> eetewuny of tbelr oou«e- 
ontfoabdowribedinExoduiiixtv.andLtiviiicuf viii. 
Tbs drW8 thsj won dnriog their mini-itrAtions coii- 
unted of linen drawer*, with a dosQ- fitting caaaodc 
alao of linen, wliito, but with k ralcod diamond or 
ohen-boftnl pMtern oa it. TU« caNsock, wliicb do- 
■OOldMS nmny t^ the fM^ wu ^then<d round tho 
body with a prdic of nertiilc-wurk, into whidi blue. 
purple, anii •orlet wera intermingled witb white, 
aod workvd !□ th« forrn of flowere. On tb«!r li«a>if 
tbej won cikp* ftlBo of fiao linen, and In the form of 
ft mp-ahaped lilowrcr. In al!l thalr miniMtratinna t1i4 
pHetM w«r« barefooted, fnim the aokiiowljjdmfJ iin- 
pmpriety of sntoring ucrvd pUcea v]tb ahuN oa tba 
feet — ■ cDKtoin which pmvwl* jt» the Ewt at the 
pr»flnt day. Befcire thej "nterpd the t»bemac)fl 
they wa»h<>d their baiida and fi«t, and during the 
Uitje of tbvir mini^tntioQ tboy partook of no tvina 
or atroD^ drink, lliey were not to niovira for the 
dead exoFiit in thu caaa of a latbor, cuutbi-r, ton, 
dmiKhtcr, brotbpr, of niiitar tif a rirgin). 'I'hny wnin 
forbiilden to marry aa uochiLite or foroiin> womiui, 
one who had beao dlvoroad, or tlic wtdi>w of any but 
a prieat. Tbeir dttef dutiot wor« to watoh over tlio 
Are on. tbe altar of bnmt-olTerinfr*, and to keep it 
burning oon tiuuaUy both by day aiLil ui)j]it alter It had 
been lint kindled frnm bc&von. Thoy fad the golden 
lamp nutsjdo tha rcil with oil. 'I'hny hrui to ofIt:r a 
lamb tiiuniiiJi; and oieciint;, and two laiiiba oa the 
rialiliatti, «it>-U aon]iii(ianicii] witha nwtt-offerilig and 
a driiik-oETcriiiL' ut the duorof the tabomacle. tIhq 
wore fliKttd duUea wkldi nerer vuibi, but their chid! 
fuDctbm WM tbeir baing always at their pot to do 
ib» |lri«at'a ofRce for any guilty, penitent, rejoicing', 
or thankful lararlibx 'I'ho worahippor might rtomo 
at any hour. Ai the pL-oplc ■tarteil on ench day'* 
miircb, d tiring th« wsnil>^rl>ii^ i>r tb^ 1«ni^llt«a, tbe 
prieaU *i.>und<id an alnnu with loog lilvtir tnimpoto. 
They bleated the penple at erflry aolemn mMtiiij 
and at evrry regular dally MiCcifii.w. They bad, 
fiirth'OT, the tiuk <if Inatnicting tha panpln in the 
law »f tivd, aiid were tbe guardiaiu Uiercof. They 
blciiaed the anny before tbe begtiudng of an action, 
ami Hiine df thrm arcTD to have taktio part io the 
li|{hliiiK. Fuuc-tiun* auoh a* these necewarily Uwk 
Up tba gToatfrf part uf their time, and accordiigly a 
diitiact proviaion luul to be made for them. Tbii 
cuoslelod v1 onu'tciith (>f tbe tilhei which Ibe pMiple 
puiJ to tbu LeviUn, or 1 per cent, uf tbe whole pro- 
duo* of tho coimtTy; of a irpocijd titbu «rery third 
year; of the rvdcraptionniijauy, paid at the fixed 
ntt of 6 iheliet* a h#ad for the lirat-boni of man nr 
tvcaatj of the rcdcmptirin-ntoney in like mannor paid 
for men or thing* upecinlly deiHcated to the Irfird; of 
npml, cattio, captive*, kc, taken In war; of tbe abow- 
liread, the ttceb of the burnt -otToriu^ jieacO'DfTerinira, 
traapan ofToringa, and in p4trti 1:11 tar tho hnsT*.<ihiiiiI<i(ir 
and the wav«-bro»al; uf lui umlelinL-d ainouaL of tliu 
Rrat-fruJte of com, wine, and aiL On thuir settleiueiit 
in Canaan the prieatly ordor had thiti«cn cittea allot- 
ted tO' them, with paaturoa (or their llucka. These 
provbiona were ohnrjoualy lutandod to aecure th« 
reli^n of tb* laraoUtM from tbe dangivn of a cante of 
pauper prltAa, needy and dependent; bat the pri«at« 
ware, on lEie ntber Imud, ta far as puMLblo removed 
fnun th« conditioii of a wealthy order. I'ho earticut 
blalorical Uaoe of any divielun oi the priesthood, and 
oomapondinc cyolo ol enrvicea, belongn to the time 
of David, "nie order waa then diridmf into twenty- 



four eottneis each af wbkh wm ta lorts la 
for one week, while tbe fnilber aMlgament nf 
■orvioaa duHn}; tbe w«ek waa detan&inod by ' 
the dBScendaota of Ithamar, aon vt A. 
ooiirtca only were ivwigneit, but to tboMof Ul 
Elaaxar kiiu-QU went alluUo'i The dividon Am 
Instituted inut (vmfimied by Solomon, and ooattaped 
to be roco^Lzed aa the typical numbec of tlM ptfaet' 
hood. On the return from the captirity tiian m* 
found but four couraoa out of the twcaty-fov^ eatk 
oaotniniog in itnmd numbera about IO0O. fw ef 
tlieve tbu tweutyfour coureea wer« raooHatitaitil, 
bearing tha FUno oamea as befbr^ >ad so c W B da n rf 
till thn deitructtnn of JeniaAlrm. 

In tlio New TwtaniPDt the name glvas to Iba 
mtnisten of the Chdi-tiBa religion ia p i 'asli ri «r*a 
(elder), whiph do«« not nnplv the «i«rilotal chanctn, 
a* d(ic« tbe term kiertm; and it ia held by the 
niajoTltyot Froteatant! thnt tbe 1. l^a of a cgn a tcratod 
priftBtbood Invested n-itb eaccnlotal fuacCJeai ii 
roivufrnant to Chrietianlty. Tbe apoatlea dalrasd Be 
pnntly fuDi-tiuna; tbcIr Ungmafe ia alwaya paatoral; 
aniiiiiatry wna r<icogniii>d and imditdtad, but noWberw 
a priesthood; that was coo<.-«ntmt«d ia Christ, "ntssa 
ObrUtlaiu^ bowever, like Che Roman Catbole^ 
Greoki. &&, who look upon tbe oacbarirt as a saot- 
tic'it, have a lyiitom of pri^Ahood. Tbe priest fa Ibe 
ordinary miuiuivr of tbe eucharlst, of baptism, p«B- 
anco, and eitrome unction; and by th« BcmU 
(Tbnrv-h ha ix Ti^An\cd tm the oflicial witaaM sf tts 
celebratioa of niarriafp!, the coatractin;; parties bslaf 
oantdd«T«d by moJem divin>M to be tlMiBssl*aa ha 
miniirtoTS. To bim b ntRcially intnisted tbe balme- 
tion of the people and Che dlrectkn of tb^ apMlBal 
aflaira. The order of priesthood is caaf«m>l hj a 
hiahcin, ontinarily anintiHl by two or mare pri^^a, all 
of wliom iuipuee liaudi uu tbe caiKlidale for boly 
otdsn. The priceta of tba Chnrob of Bona ai» 
bound to a lite uf oelibacy. In tb« Oresit Cbmcb 
the prioitbood may bg owftrrad oa mnted mw, 
but no one is allowed to marry after oediiiartciv er 
inarvY a aenmd time abonlJ bis 6r«t wife dte. In 
tbe Aogli'^n tta wvU as other refonaed Epfaoofial 
ohiircbi'4 tho t«nn priest Is iiaad to dasigaato iba 
Koond order of clergy, blsbona laaklaf (int. Ik la 
tiie duty of the prioat to celebrate th« aacraatenl of 
the Tjord'* supper; to ptnnounea tha fnnna of absDln> 
tlun in the inuminK aiiil ersaias prayer. En tbeeoaa- 
munioQ servico, and ia U19 ol^ for tba rlsiteliaa, 
of the sick; and to prracb, which oBioe is, bewwn^ 
extended occaaionaUy by apeda] Uconsa to daaeoaa. 

A* it U oonstdered by many that tbe Jswlsfa priest- 
hood was mndulled ia some lacaiora opoa that cl 
Kgypt, it may be serviceable to ante aereral facta 
connected witb the tatter. Tha sacerdotal ordar io 
Egypt constituted tb* higbsst of tb« tour pria^pl 
cosies into which tbe kmgdom was ditidccL Tb« 
priesU w«re the prbdpsl oonfldentlal and reapeiuIUo 
advncn of tbe kine; they assisted him io the iwr- 
formance of his oublia duties, and explained to liini 
from the aacnd Dooka tbosa leneas wbi^h wne laid 
down for bli eoadoct Tb«j were eudtiw«d with 
I.Tnda by the kinffs, and seam to ba*« had a poblie 
uiaiiitei:aiK-Q bc^des. Each delly bad seven] priHU 
and a high-pHest; tbe minor priests wen mridaJ 
into variriuH gradn* having distinct ofiioea, as wsU aa 
tbe acribea and prints of the Idncs. llie aama oSoe 
descended from father to son, but was sooMtimes 
cbangod. Thoy eajoyod important prinlvni^ wbkb 
were extended to tbetr whole family. Titn mtm 
exempt fn>tu tam. Wine wia flowed to men la 
■trict modnrutinn, and, as wall as aaimal food of all 
kitxla, WW abstained from dtirinf tbeir nw Bwrpn 
and protracted fasts. Each grade of the p|lea>i iHM 
distinzuiahod by its peculiar coatmaa. Tits high* 



1 



A 



PRIESTLEY. 



279 



p r l MM , «^ MMQg elh«r vfficiU JuUm, AiMfnlod Iho 
UB^ «T»a » "-"Ht iDMla of »a «ntir« laofuutl-nkin, 
M ad tb« ■Muardi whoo «ngMg«d In priwtly dutiW. 
11w ondw-ilnwM of ]3ii«Bt8 of all oraan were mada 
dl linen, *>m1 Umj w«ra not ftllmrad to irckr woollru 
in • tamclo. Bwidw tbeir i«Iu[ioiu ftmettona, tho 
p ri —ti fidSIM ths oAom of jtwCj^ ud letri«l»t<v8, 
■id tfaa hwi forBiar put of tbiif ncrcd books eoald 
«ilj b* adrnt n iitowd t>j maabtn at that order, tjec 
Bunuji, I>Btnn, Haol 

PRIESTIJKY, Jt>mvH. tM omlncDt pht]f«opber 
aad Uviae, wu bom ISth March, 1783 (oJn.), at 
rUdboMd, new LMda. Hut fu.lher wm » olotbier, 
44 tlw Cklviaislic jMnuMkiD, in wU^ bo wu alaa 
fakSMlf bro u g h t ap nndsr tbo pratacUcD of ui kunt, 
<mko, ftfhr ba bad attainml a Rapectablo drgT«o of 
B l Mrit a l MonircnMlt in •event Bcbcwla of the iivi{;b- 
bonibooci foaQjr fttaodd him at th« DiaaMiting aca- 
dan>7 at I>ar«atrj, witb a viow to tho mitiiftii;. Ho 
ipiBl Ibrao ymn at tbia kIimI, wbeo ba beoama 
aaqnalai«il wfib the writing* of Dr. Hartloy. whidi 
BMMa A great itii)irT!auaa upon bin miiiili anil ho naa 
gndaaUj lad Into a partiality lor AHaBiwn. On 
vaiKiw tin acad na y 1b I76S ha aoMptad an tavHa- 
noa to Doeasu nlniMrof Needhaa Market, in Suf- 
tiDU; wb«o ho had to Uto h bert he ooutd o& an 
araraga wlarj of £30 a year. After a roildonco of 
thr«« yean b« ODdcrtooh the cbarj^ of a eon^ragation 
at Naatwlcb, in Cbeabire, tc which be jnined a Kbool. 
Uara bii rmatation incraaMd, and in 1701 be wa> 
havKad hj the tnut awof tho DlMmtlns acadamy at 
WanfaKtoii t« oeeupy tho pnt of tutor of laa^uaeca 
■Bd balks l«lt«n OBdtf Dr. Aiken. At Warringtnn 
Ua poJitiral optalooa ware manlfoKtad in an Eatay on 
Qwranunaat. He pabliibed nn Kuay on a Coiirva 
ci Liberal EdaeaUoa, and hi* uMful Chart of Blc»- 
Vftif. Ha alw priparad aomB achoel-book^ and 
■vn «nt« Mfna poetry. tl*re h« mMttied a MIm 
WOkfaaoa, a lady of graat talent and amlabOlty. 
A *Wt to London baring fetrodaocd him to Dn. 
ffViBklta, WalauD, and Price, be waa cnnunrsged to 
oDBtpoaea Ilbtoryof Elaotrictty,wblcbfli«tappeai«d 
[a 1707, and prveorad bim an adminion into the 
Bmral Sodety; he bad pra*loiuly obtained the title 
Of Deolorof Lamfrom theUcivfrtitj^iif Kdinbuijh. 
In the aMna year haaooeptcdan invitation to biKnni* 
■lalMar, a a aalary of /lOO a year, of the MiU Hill 
ckaail at Lea di . what* hie relieioui opinimu became 
dacadadly Sodnian, At }jKt\», owing to bti dwelling 
beinf near a brvwerr, hia attcmtion waa lirit drawn 
I* tba propartlee of 'fixed air' (cailKmio add gai); 
nod aboot tfali tfana he complDtod hii Uietoiy and 
Pi—* Stata of l>iwaovcrica relating to \ ini^iD, 
I^b^ and Celoata. In 1771 heafrreed to accom- 
pny O^rtatn Cook on bia eeocMid voyage la the 
■HaJly of avtroDocnai; but be had the deep morti- 
fieatidBof baTinfi Ua appodntmeat cancelled, ea the 
Baard vt Longitude ofajectad to bia Ihaotogy. Aftar 
a i Wd ea oa a( rix years at Leeda he aoooptad an 
hellakiaB fkom Um Ead of Sbalburae, aflerwartli 
KatqnlB 4d LaMdowsc^ to raide vtitii him aa a 
wmJawion in the acminal capacity of librarian, with 
a ntafT "^ £^^'^- '^^bUe foradng a part of tho ertab> 
fc h aw a t of tbia DoUenas, ha oeoupbd Utnnlf In 
Mkotifie parauit^ aad in IT73 cava to the PbOoao- 
phkal "Kanaacliaoa a paper on the diffnent Idnda n( 
fir, which obtained tbe prise of Copley'a gold medal. 
Li 1774 he diMOvarad oxygao or 'daphlngiatlcatod 
air,* aa ba caUad t^ a remit wbkJi vaa t^uakly fol- 
lo««d by other [mportanl dlaeorarfca^ fOcJi aa nunoa 
gi^ aitma oddo gaa, avlpbnnma oxlda gaa, fioorio 
■dd gaa, Boiiatic gM, nnunoBiaeal gaa^ £a, aa waU 
aa tha pnroaiatie apparatoa now u coimnon naa. 
BjrtinaoaxpMlalM maybeeaid to have been atmoet 
tM iist to randw ofaaBistty a preciBe adeooa. Ho 



bavelled throagh Fhwoe, nollaad, Bel^um. and 
GtmitMaj, and i^do many new fnt-nila. The raiinian 
chemlsta and natbematiniana t'^lr) him ho wna the 
only pbfloaopher of atanding known to tK«m vbo 
b^lwvod in Uhriatianity, Tn I77S he pubUabed hia 
ExaminAtion af the Doctrine of Common Sanaa, aa 
held by V>n. Held, Beattio, and (lawald, and eoon 
after publiahed tho trvatiae of Hartley, He bad 
already dnclarml himaeU a believer In the doctrine of 
phil^Miipliiml Eieccority, and in a diaaertatioo anncRni 
to hli edition of Hartlny expraaed aome doubta of 
the inunateriaUty of the aentieut priuolpla in man. 
1'hia doctrine bo atiU n^oia forcibly aupportod in bia 
DiaquiailioDB on Matt«r and Spirit (1777); and the 
obtoqay which thov worki brought tin kiiu pruducinv 
a coolneas in bia patron, the ooonection was diwolvn 
In 1730, tbe doctor taUiDlng aa annoity of Xl&O per 
annum by original agraamenL Ho neat remored to 
Blnninrum, where oa beeame oooe inor« rotnlatar 
of a EBwenttng oongregattoti, and oocapied himaolf 
on bia Hietory of the Cormptiona of ChriiituDity. 
and History of tbe Karly Opiniona concertun^ ■feeua 
Christ In oontioijtion with Dr. Uarwin, Meesn^ 
Watt, Boultoo, Wedgwood, and other famona mm 
b« founded the now oolebrated Lonaf Sodety, wlkicji 
rendered Birmingham for tbe time of ita eiiateaoa 
almoet tba intenectoal oontre of KngUnd. His Fami- 
liar Letter to tba lahabiUnts of Birmingham waa 
written in support of the cUums at the Dia^U^ra fur 
s repeal of the test acta. The era of the French 
revolution added to tba vmal anlmoidly of thaological 
diqiute. The aitairenary of tbe eavtnra of the 
Baatilla bring oclctiraUtl at BInnbigbaiii. a muh 
aaeembled, and althuugfa Dr. Priestley waa not pre- 
sent, proceeded to hla bonse, whioli, with his library, 
manuscripts, and atqsaralua, fell a pray to tba flamaa. 
The ontraga waa oonnta&aaood by toe many azetda- 
lug both lay and olsrioal influanoa, and tha [mi earn- 
penaatlan which ba obtaliiad IsU abort of nia real 
loase* by at>»iit C3O00, aoeording to hla own aatlmata. 
On 1 st Aociiat, 1974, Birmingham made soma amaada 
for tbe wrong dnne to her grealeat dtixen, by the 
erwtius of a mar1>le statue of lura in (rout of the 
town-ludl. On quitting Blnnla^nm ba waa dioseo 
to sDcoeed hia friend Ifr. Prleo aa prarident el tha 
Diarnting e^lego at lladcney, where be mnsiiml 
some time In the coltlvation ol hia nlniti^o purauitji. 
nnlQ finally goaded by party enmity to wtnV an 
a«yliim in the United Statai^ which ha reacjiml in 
1794, and took up his raddenoa at Northumiiarland, 
In PeanaylraalL In Amorica ha dedicated hia whola 
time to fcia atmnabWHad pwraniia, nnta aaavara Ulnaaa 
Uid tha fouodntioa of a debility in hia digestiva 
orgaaei aitd a giadoal decay fullowod, widd) termln- 
at«d fcIa edataooa, Febniary 0. 1841, in ble ae*snty- 
first year. Ha had eompoaed not long before hta 
Jdus and Socrates Compared. Dr. Prteathy waa 
an ardent oontruTenaialiat, chiefly in conaetiueaoe of 
axtnoaa elropHdty and opsn i i u M of oliaracter; but 
ni> man fdt Itaa onimcaity towarda Ida ofipooanta 
than he did, and many who eatartabwd the atroDgest 
antijAthy to his opinkfM war* convartad Into trioKla 
by his gmtlcnias and orhanity in petaoaal Inter- 
ooane. Aa a man of adaoea ba slanda high bi tba 
walk of invention aad discovery, and to few baa 

tncomatic chaoiiatry bean ao much indebted. Oa 
ia osm —<"'*»'*- Ua lesaar ct ai la his Cavonrita 
idaooa wara ■opwJctaJ, and Ui gnat diaeoTarlaa to 
a couUmUa extent aaddtBlaL Had ba Umftad 
bia field of etndy to a tenth of Ite actual dluanaioia^ 
and devoied «n uaanefgiea to thaaxploraliosi of that 
snallsr araik bia work would ptvbaUy haea stiU 
aeomad fanltr in many ways lo tba eaaet ctWa of 
our ^a. Distributing hia powaia ao O'idalT aa Im 
did the faslts wore naoeawrUy noBtaraoik Bat this 



PUILUKI— PRniATB. 



ahould Jatfttrd nolliiikfc (roin the honcmr i\iie U> tbc 
•iniMt nioneer. As » iueUi[ib}«I(TiMi Ua «<1udiLitiou 
vl Hartl«j'i thvjrj ot MKcialioD, hii worki upon 
philiOBCpphlcft) atoeaaty tad opon nuit«TinIiam, will 
always iDKiirc attentkiD. AAalLraluj^'iiu Dr. Prit-nt' 
ley. who (nlioft'ocl his c>m victioiu wlierever tliey If"! 
biin, paravd through nil chmgo. from (.'ftlviaUm to 
ft Unitarian lyBtcm in baqu mGUure hia awn; but 
to tbe lut rcmniTii-il ■ lu^aloua t-pjioMT of infidelity. 
Ot bla theoli^ical natX ixintrDVuniAl praditrtinna, 
thoae meet cacenUy ewt^cmtid aro Lii liwtituut of 
}{ftturftl and ll«voalcd Koligion, and Irettera to a 
PbiliMophlcoi Unbclievnr, Hit mLw> wruta m&ny 
worki (if pmctical iliriiiity. Hi* works uouuDt t/3 
abnat ■otfcnty vnlumiw or Cnicta In octavo. See his 
Life, t>v bimocIC and bia ton. 

PRIXjUKI, or PbIloukt, a town «f Kiiwia, in the 
govsminent of Poltara autl 120 tnitea dortli-wwH. ot 
tbi> dty <if that namo, dtuatmi on the Tldaia. It ii 
a poorly-buUt uDd dirty town, hut hac thrC'c impnrtnnt 
anaual fiura, aud a cuuuiJeTable trade in com, cnttlo, 
aattpotre, tohaecn. and brandy. Popi 19^978. 

PRIM, JuA-M, MAR4Vtt DEwa CaaTtuxFD«,CouHT 
i)B Ritaa, Fk'ld-Dianbal and Gnuidce ot Spain, pon 
of I'ablo Prim, a coluncl of liJautry, wu tiuru at 
Reiiu, in Ciitalotiia, 6th December, 1S14. 11a wax 
de*titied for lb« luw, but ou tbe wutbrcak of the cnvi] 
n-ar which fuUoWfd tbe death of Terdbiaud VII. 
(2flth MfjitcmJHT, isa.'i) be JLiued lh« Toliititccra who 
bad takeu up nriui in tlii.' cAMto ai thn infant ijarau 
iKabeLla. In a abort time lili akiU and valour 
olitokiod for bim the command of a company, and in 
1^37 he iru appolntad a ooUmcI in the rrgiilar arm/, 
Wh<o tho civil war tmninated In I33tl Prim turned 
bia attRHtion to politica, bacaffl* an aotlvo drputy 
In aaveral iiarliamraU^ and omaizod aaveral politiutd 
dobs. When Quaes Maria Cbriatina qttltled Spain 
be alliod hi(ijfi.-I[ with the Frogresiatii party, and 
vigorously opgraaed Espartero, whi> had asaumed tb« 
regenoy. 8th May, 1811. Takiog part in the ininr- 
roction at Sguragau in 1 942, bnt l«ing nnaucoca^ul, 
hfl w*a obllgMd U> take mtufff !n FnuiL-v, wL#r« b« 
MtadMd biiualf to Quocn Maria Cbnsiina. Th« 
amneaty cf the following year permittee! hi* return, 
and b« waa ohoaen deputy U> Lhi: Cartel by B&ru?- 
looa. In tha Ihtayof tliat yeAr be pUoed bim*«lf 
at the hoail of an inaumvlionary inoTctocut njtruiiat 
Eapartero at lienn, and on btiafc dUIocI^i-d from 
that XowD flrd to Parcclona, whorti ho Kiicc>;ed«l in 
railing the inhnbitiuiti in hii favciiir. Oti the diium- 
full ul ibti Eapartero uiiuUlry Prim woa appoinUi] 
by tho quota a brigadicr-^oneraL Khortiy aftor- 
Wknh he wna oy^ktcd ('oiirit de RiriiMt, ^nd wna 
intrusted wlLli the gxivcrijunblp of Hadrid (18-13). 
Od the o^cii*ion nf a demwralii: rising at DaTC(<loiiA 
bo wna >cnt to ru>tor« order, but with little auceaw. 
Tbe revolt taan hegaii bi attain wida pruportiontt 
Mid Priiu wLut aociuiMl of dilalorineM and mamiaied 
from ble onmniuiiL ItritatDd &t tbia diagracs, ho 
joined acouapiracy wlioce obJL-cCa wor« the ovvrthrow 
of Uic ^venmienl nud the mnniuiHi nation of \af vaex, 
pre«id«nt of the coudcU. lo November, 1844, be 
waa brought to trial for hi* ahare id tho baulked 
conai^raoj, waa eanrlcted and aentcBced to tlx yeai^ 
teclusloQ In a forbr«aa, a Motenca whldi wae nroktrd 
by tbe (luonn in Juiuary, \m. For ar vend yon 
he livw! ■ iort of pelirud lifu, but in 1853 lie olleted 
his iPTvicca to tbe eultan, r«ceiTed a command, and 
cngitrihittnd to tile early gncocwws of Uie Turka 
agaiuit the RuaEiAiu on Uic Dxiubc. Od Uia n--Luro 
to Hfiidn hn found O'DoiiiiiiII juid the chief* of the 
liberal uniun at tho head of affair*, and eagerly 
kagnod bimaeilf with Ihi-m. In 1M7 he waa pro- 
moted to tbe rank of lirut^niuit-grnerAl, and in 18£i9 
Via laiaed to tb« aenate^ In the following y«ar, war 



hiLvinK brolccn out between Spain and MafoooOy 
WM appointed to tbe commjuid of tbe IWorvn. 
bravery acd pr uaaa oa of mind at (.'••till'-io tm dw 
New-Yoara iiayof 18W tumad what might hate 
Ix^n a tfttal rout Into a vieton for fipala, aad k 
w« rcrwordcd witb the tiUeof MaraaMOl OaatBlafoa 
The deciaive defeat of tb« Hoot* Jt G«wd-«l-Ra« m 
the 23d Ma.rQh led to a treaty of pewe. Abovt tba 
end of ISTiI he waa appMnted Co ooMBiand tbe 
Hpaniah cuDtinictmt, which, alung with otbcaa Iran 
£Dg:laod and l^^ance, waa a«nt out to Haxleo to 
enforco the claimi of indemnity which tba aobiadB 
of thrK aUU-a ha<l a^aiimt that eou&trr, bat aMW 
with tbe Eiiglisli he withdrew bia foMM wb^ tt 
bvcfLiuo appari'nt that the Prench wem detfiwlBld 
to found an empire there. In January, 1864^ be 
headed a military Dpriaiog againat tba govomtal 
of O'Dount^ll; but tbe inaumcticin waa neeiday n^ 
preaaed. and he, with many uf hia foQowanv "• 
cvrap'-lled to take refuKe is PortugaL Sono bAv 
wards be came to London, whora be Uved (or aMOa 
ttmelnoomparativaaecluiiiw- The moTcment b ea ded 
by Senwui aod Topele to drf*e Qu«en leabejla tnm 
the throne had bla ensrgMio mpport. He reivned 
Ui Spain, and materiaUy contributed to tha auCMaa 
of hia party. On tbe dethrooeuent of the ^oaoi ik 
September, 1B09. he waa aiipolntad miaiatttr of wm; 
and exerted himself to Ihtd a auitoblo ewidjdata far 
tho SitnriiHh crown. 'I'biH woa at Uit fotUld Ib tbe 
pencin of .A.niadeo, duke of Aoita, acBOOd BOO d tha 
KLog of Italy. On tba evening of Lh« S8tli DaoHa- 
bor, 1S70, Manhal Prira waa abot by aaiM rf M M ba 
waa prooeeding in hiacarria^o from the Cect« to tbe 
niiniiilry of war; and on the SOth, tbo day wfacB tbe 
young king laaiied at Cartiugena, Uw voteran aolcUtr 
and Btateaman died of bia wanndi. 

PRIMAGE ta tbe allowaiu» nods hy dil|ip«a 
to the maator of a Tcaael, or more oommoinly to tbe 
owner or chartarer, for the troubts of loadiiig aad 
unloading cargo. It ia naually combined la tba bfll 
of Uding with average (aea AvKKAOK). bolb bdB( 
i-*tlmat«d at a certain rats per cent, on the 
of frvisht. , 

I'KiMATK, in the early Cbrlatiao Oamk 
title aaaunied by Uie bishop of the cnpital of a pnv- 
vinc-e, and bencn cquiraJent to metnpolilan. In 
Africa the title belonged to the Uab(^ wlio had bam 
longiMt ordained. In other porta <4 ChriatvodoBi an 
attrmpt waa ntade to diatin^itb betwMn pritaataa 
and nietriipoliUui lu early aa tbo MBth or laolh 
cieutury, for ouu of the captCulariaa of tba aariy 
I'Vonch hinga ordains that no netropolitan ahaQ 
awunie Uie titk of primnta iinleea he has ft joat clahD 
to thnL bouunr; and in the eleTenth century tbe 
pnpea exprvsaly res«rv*>d the title only for the lead- 
ing mctrvpolitacj in differait ooftntiua, and «kdw 
voirnxi to iitbontinatfl th« otliar nMnpolitaiM is 
them. TLo rcaiataniRO to thia arraitgeawot «a^ 
however, ao general ind emphatic thai tbo dignity 
of primate temalood IJtilu uore than • bomtnaJ uw, 
entitling the huldcr of it ni^rvly to preoodcaea M 
public nccxxione. In Franco tbe Archbubop ol Lyooa 
waa appointed priniato of the Gaula by Ofwon VIL 
In lOTtt. In the Gonnao Empin tlu Arubiabop of 
Salxburg was primate. In Hungary tba priaucy 
belonga to tbe Arcbbiahop of Gran (in Preaborg); 
In Spain to that of Toledo. In I'olaad tho priuHte 
waa an importanl political functionary. Tm oAea 
belonged of right to tbe Papal Ugnte, who waa pn- 
■idenl of the eenate and conaor of Ifca long. Ho 
governed tJie etato during an inUaregnuBi, had m 
court, guards, and a tuarwutl cf tbo palaei^ and h 
genendenjc^edtboblgbeatprivUegM. latbaCbnrA 
of Biiglond both the arcbbiahops atiU rcSain tho titla 
at pnmate, the Aiobbiabop c{ Canterbury belnf die* 



I 



I 




PRIMATES— PRIMOaSNITUBK. 



SSI 



tilfaUwd H lb* primato of all EikImii! Bnd tha 
AflUrfibop of York u the priniAU a( Eue'l&ud. la 
Um PmcaUot Epuoofttl Church of IniUo<I the Arch- 
bubop ol Armacb ia nrunat* am tonactly wbca the 
tfaardi wu wtMilUhcKL 

PBtUATES, th« uma civen by Linnipiu to lua 
ttebil onlcr or gtvtf d tho Mnminnlin, which 
■■5»AmI tbo Bala (Cktrofitrra), Uie Quulnunautt ut 
A^m, itim'ktyt, Lttnura, wid Man i/Umniut), Mnri> 
tmnAljr Um aame rrb&ftUa <m «x|>Uuncd in the 
■rtideiLK»rB,Mo?tKgT. A<^)bMb<*niiat'dtdiarlnila 
lb* ordna Dimaaa am! ijuadniDuuiA oiiljr, tlivt \i\w- 
lac Man, UoDkcva, Ancs, and I^miin in onit grnt 
divlrfoD i^iarantrnimil ov a ocvtalu auiouut of duw 
■tnctvnl rMMftfatoiHCL TlioLiinwMicvdBrPlriinatGa 
T'"H4*^ f*""'"^'^ pAMMBing naila or utu/vicuiaU 
fofm^ witb 'fniDt IveUi (ai((rrj>, i; Ituiianc^ 1.' 
PBIUATIOCIO, FBA-SL-tscD, a painter o( the 
^yplyt— acbool, born at BoJot^ in 1 IVO, reooimd 
inatmctMii frcm Innuocnno da Immol^ and 
bia atudlM under Giullo Homnnn, In 
I with NTOial of tlw pii(>ili of t]i« lattn lie 
; tbe Palajoo dal Tb, la fklantua, fmui Giulioa 
Tbrau|;h the recoinmenJatlon at I'rtdcrick, 
of Montiu, l*ritiuiti<icia wa» taken into tbn 
I of Fnuid* I. of France la 1 5$1. Hi* arrival 
nMeuoo In France makdi an opoch Jd Frenob 
To bia ioflueacc woro i>wiuK not onljr numoroiia 
tagt In freteo and «nitlu m atnooo wblcb tha 
ca ua aJ to be eaecuted, bui Hveral branobw 
pabt tn g, ta, tot inatane^ ananel {Minting, and 
mgOM fnr tapeatry, arera carried U> rreaC {>e«tRction 
JtbruQgh bia exeitiulu. Francia icut bim lo Italy to 
I anti<juB iiUtiim, of wblcb ha inada a rtapact* 
caUeotiou, and cauaed aunwroaa caita to be 
On the dMth of Roaao^ the njal painter, 
ioauecwoded bim in hia poat, and Frui^ IL 
ilnteil bin) in 1559 aaperinlendont of the royal 
dinn He fnnuibcd tbe dcaigna of Mvcral archi- 
ItMtonu worka, amuni; tbcm of tbc toitiba of Praiicia 
fl aad Ilaiiry II. IIU worlia at FouUtuubleau, bow- 
r, mined Um mon rvputation. He wai awiatad 
!■ labovn by aeren] of bia oonntrj-men, of whom 
Jodal Abbatfwaa tbr tiMjat diatiiijfiiiaLed. PH- 
' tdisd in UTO, Tfm worLa whlcrh bntixMiutod 
l^aoca an* nubW and f rrvr, in uoint of dcai^ 
. Iboaa wUch be axacuted tn Gituio's uhooL u> 
I pMt worka be often violated natur*. 
PBIME, in tbe Boman Catholic Cbttrch one «f 
' oaoo toa l boua, tbe Brat ut tboae beloDj^int; to 
r day m op|WMd to thoaa of tb« nijbt, and abM 
vice to tba breviary which falla to ho ncr- 
I'lwwad at that time. Tba name of prime la denied 
tfrom tfa* I^ttn prima (tbnl la, prima Aow, fIraC 
[Jyost), Iwcauae prim* be^.'Lii* with ranriae, or nitbcr 
6nt boor of tbe day according to (1m eattem 
la of rackouDg, namaly, C o'cbK:k. Tbe eervice 
' fdma la faj aoma aaid to ba in conimaanaratian of 
>^0ar Lord** mwaranee before Pontlni Pilate, and by 
Tstban of Ui raatiRactiMi. In tbe ritual of the 
Cbnrcbanna poftionaof tbaaarricoof |>riin« 
rated witli that t4 raalina. 
CONDUCTOR, that part of an eleotrla 
ne frotn ii'hii;h ii{>iu'L>< ftr<i iiiniiilly taknn. In 
I acdinary jJale aluctric macbiae il ia an inaulated 
h^ady, whld) satben poaitive electfidty from tbe 
ritma)] claai plate by meais of a row of points. 
PRIME HINIBTER, or Pbehiiib. &« Uik 
DU. 

PRIUE Nl^MKHn, a cumber wbicb can be 
TdvUed exactly by o miin)>eT except EttcU and unity. 
Bw Noxans (Tiutonr or). 

P&raiP>G, tbo entrance of water e^^ray along 
villi rtaam faito the eyllndar of an enuine. It alwaya 
grant aiiDoyaooa, Tlw naa of tnnddy water. 



iututlidviit steam- ruoiu, o&r«l«a«ly oonatmctM l^uoa 
and pipoB, kc, in tho boiler, ^vtt rise to priming, 
SnpcTboatinc: thr tUinm ia ono remedy. 

PHIMOGENITUKE, tbe rifa-bt of the ddeat aa» 
And tboae who derive tbroosh bim t<> sucoeod to the 
propcny of tbe aneector. Tbia right, though In a 
inncliliE^ aeiiM. iMma andently to bare preTailad 
only among tbo Jvwa. Thofir«t-bom in the patri- 
nrcbnl ago* hait a loporiority orer bia l>reLbrpn, and 
in t!i4 alaena) of tbc futber waa prleei of the fatiifly. 
Among tlio J ova bo bad a double portiim of the 
iiilicritance; in tbc aatne manner aa by tbe lavra of 
>{cuiry I. in England die etdeat aon bad tbe cajotal 
foo or principal feud of hb father'i ppa ia a t iona, and 
no other pre- c mill cnoo^ aod >■ tba ddect dau^itar 
hod tlic prindfuil fflan^an when the eatate dewended 
in cv|«nciuuy. Tlie ' inaolcnt jirer«jgallve of primo- 
gunituro,' aa Cibbon douoaunatca it, woa unknown 
among tfao Romane; tl>e two saxea wore placed on a 
juat tertd; all Ibe aona and all Lbe dauKbtora wtn 
eutitled to ao equal portion of the patrimonial aetata^ 
Tiie Qnelta, tbe Britoiw, tbe Saxonn the Cnnei^ &«., 
divided tbe laaila equally, aome ainong all tba chD- 
dr«a at large, aome among the maloa omy. Tb« caual 
diviaion of the patrimaniM catatn among tbe cbildrcn 
ixcvrtiiinly tbenioatobvloiui and uaLuraluay. Wben 
tbe emperon began loeraate honorary fcuda or titlai 
of n<itiil!ty it waa found ncccaaary, in orHirr to pre- 
aarvo their dignity, to make tbttii impartible, and, 
in coiuw{ii«iice, dcaceiidlble to tb-> vldtfnl auu alono, 
This example waa fnrtbor cntnTctd by tbc iDconvon- 
ieocca lliat attended the ajilitling of cataUs, namely, 
tbe dividoD of tbe military eenicra, tlie tnullitndca 
of infant tenants Incapable of performing any duty, 
the oonaeqncDt wekkcoing of tbe atrengtb el tbe 
kingdom, and the ladudng yonoger mob to take m 
wiLb the btiaineaa and Idleneseof a country life inalead 
of being aorvicmbin to tbcmiolvea and tne public by 
(rngngiiig in mercantile, military, dvil, or oodeaiaatical 
cmplr-ymcnta. Tboae rc30ai;a oocaaianed an almoot 
liital (.'Lange In tbe nature of feudal Inbarltancaa; ao 
tba>t tho ddnt ton began, univvnaUy, to aucosed to 
tbe whole of the landa In all military tcnurea. 

In tbU condillun tbe feudal orinatittttio& waa eatab- 
]l*b*M) in Kngbuid by William tba (Tnnijiiaror. IWfora 
tbe conqutat the dwcnt of lands waa to ail tbe auis 
alike. Seoagasitatee in England freqnanllydeaoetidod 
to all tho acna aqnally till thi; time of Henry I U. 
wlieD, in imitaLiim ol buada in cbivalry, tbur bad 
almost eDLirely falleu Into tbo ri^'ht of SBeeawtim by 
juimogcnlture, oxccpt in Kent, where they gloriad til 
tbo prcarrvatioo of tbeir ancient gav«lkii»l totiure. of 
which a ptindpal branch wtM tbe JDint inheritance ol 
all lbe sons, and except In soma partkular roanon and 
townships wboro tholr looal cuatoma coutinDed tho 
dracent soakeUiaeito al],aoBMliiMs to tha youafMl sea 
only, or in other nmo aingidar ipelhodi of aoccswicii 
TIm right of prlawgsnltuo, whidi ealb tba ahbal 
bom to Uw crown, waa not latroduoed Into Franca 
till very late; It waa unknown to tbe bra and aeoond 
race of Idnga. lie four sane of t'lotia •liarad the 
kingdom euuall* amunu tbviiuel<e«, IViau vt I.«uis 
le Debonnuia aid tbu same: and It waa not till tba 
race of Hugh Capet aaccnitod the throne that Um 
prerogative of aiicouiuuu Id the crown waa apfaofri- 
ated to tbe flrat-tHim. Tba figbt of paiOMfenitw* 
ia now aboliabed in Franoe and Belgiini, but it piv 
valla in aoBM degree in moat otbar natloaa of Ennm. 
Tbo rulaopcfatca aa follows: — ^Vbefl a panes dM 
iotceUte, loavinc real aolate, hia ddtat eon k ealitled 
by lawtothe wbolei if tba other bsotben and drton 
are not providod for out of the MEsonaUty Ib^ an 
left dtaliiuto. If the oldest aoa ia dead, but baa left 
an eldisl auu, the latter auocaeda to tbe whole ul ifao 
[oopovty. If tbe wbole male litw la *■!— -t-^ tbon 



dn dangbtvn succeed— not in the atuno yn.j, hov- 
■vtr, bnt jointly, except in the c&m of tbc nronrt, to 
which the elduet niccceda. In the United Stfttu no 
dJjUnctinn of agv or aei !■ mode to tha deeoent nf 
estota to liticiu draccndonti. Tfaou^h primogoiii- 
tnitt and the prehKUM d ioaIm u« bow tbiu uni- 
vBiMtU? givon up tu that countrf, yel In loine it.iti.-s 
tbay nmuned in full firrr, an^l in othnrn modific.i' 
Hod* oI ttiutu ixititiiiued (ur ft \<mg period. Sa« 
Land (PiioraHTr im). 

TRIM RUSK {J'rimitla; B«t«rd order Prinm]*. 
cea-), ti KBDiu (it baauttfut Icivr Alpine plant*. Same 
M« auoDg the eulicM dowun In nprinij:, u th« 
romisoa pniDroM, tho oxiip, and eovnUpi nod taroriU 
•.ra ca1t4Vated in gnrdetm H omwtientikl nUntfl. Ttinr 
routa ni« pvrennid : the learea abnnat almiyi rodicftl; 
»nd tho flowere supported on a nal(«il »tvn), &nd luu- 
bUydUpoocdinatArt of imbol. The calyx is ttibulAr; 
(he cDmU* funnel- aha jicd, and ilindcd at the nuntmit 
Into iire eqniU Ioht4; the RtameiM fiva !u nunibc^r; 
the rtylo tisglv; and the rapaule oval, c>a«-CGllad, and 
oont&iiii^ uumeniu MBdH attached to a rentnl pla- 
centik Tho varieties of tlw CMunion primrose (/*. 
rttlffaru) which have ariflco fr»m cultivation are rtrj- 
tiDineroLe. Tho P. aitrimttt, n mtivu of tho Alpina 
t«Et°'iB of Italy, S«'itxerUnd, and Germany, i> tho 
» wdl-known favutiritc with the flori«t; and th« 
CbinHD pnninss (/'. &Vnmni) ia a favourito grocn- 
bouM and wIq(]i>w plant. 

P1UM1TLACE.-E, or rsiHWoKn, a nntural order 
of gamoprtaliiiia rxogenn, cmi»i»iliis of anriDal anii 
herbacBoiia, almoat abrubby nlantji, with uaually 
radical, but wmettmM whotlvd and opposite ur 
■ItcmAto loaves; flowon on radical scapes and in, 
limb«h^ or varionaly amneis) in th<D axils of the 
IsaVM; regular pcnintnit nve-cleft calyx, iiiferinr 
Of hftlf-xHfmrior; hypogynoiia, regular Cdrolla, with 
sUuiivu* oijual to the DuiBber of its KCf^cnts Iiuerted 
upon it; one atylc and c»pitat« ictigma: And a capsul* 
openlnjj with VHjves and containinj;; nuincmuR )w!tat« 
Wtds, Many casvi of anomalous structure occur in 
the <krder. ll)it fiptvim are common in th« northern 
aud ooldorparta of tlic?j{lD))E,Kiinc Lim*« growing among 
the sQom of li>[ty in on a talus, 1'Ley are ram wfthln 
the tropic*. oct:iirring only nu tho Bca-shoro orolgratod 
boights. They powMi few economical propitrtieM; 
bat tho catIt and modevt apMarautta of the pHmras« 
and oownlip in our fielda and thi» gay appearanc* of 
otheni in our i;nn]triii niiiVo llictii jfcncnl favotiritcii, 

PKIMUM M01iILl-:,lnthert(ileinaiaaBtrunam7, 
the ninth nr lii^hrst ijiliire of tlio hcAveua, whoM 
centra ii tlut of tlit! world, and in carapnriiion of 
whirh tho nuth ii but n point. This the ancients 
supposed tt) liontain all other iphcrca within it, and 
to ^ve n)otitin to ibetn, turning iteelf, and all of thorn, 
({uite n:iuiid iu Iwvcity'fou.r boura, 

PKIXCK (Latin, prin<yji«, from pflmut, fint, and 
Capw, I tAke'l, litvnUly ono who holds ths linC place. 
In Htdcnt Rome tbs title of pritteept ttrvatut wim 
riven to the lomline senator, Uieono wfaoeenauie w^ji 
fint ]u*cribed on the album or list, and who had tha 
right to rctoiO his vote fint This rank mas can- 
fnrcd by the censors, and was a hi};lvly coveted 
honour. From thn time of Augnxtos tb» title was 
always assunipd by tho emperor*, u-hvncv ftrao the 
castom of bvstowiag it generally on tho b«nds of 
■tatM. The title of print^pt jmtiiCiiti4 was one 
granted an,der the Ruiniui Republio to one of the 
noblest members of the equestrian order, but slnoe 
ft was bestowed by Uw equitcs on Caius and Lucius 
Crmv, gtuidsQOS of Angnstn^ always conferred on 
the probable socc«asar to the tmporljit ae-il. Tci this 
may bo aaorihed the origin of the proatlco of spoftk- 
tngof the sons ofBo*erd]£:ns by that tilk. In modem 
thne« tbs title of prince {at prlnooas) Is ^ran to all 



sovereigns gvncrally, M WoD as to tlwlr aons aifl 
danghtors and their neanat relatioaa. In Enginwl the 
title b alio nppUod, In strict heraldic langoag^ as a 
mode of addram to dukes, mar^uita^ asJ earls, but it 
is not generally so nsed. Ia OetmAsy tberv Is ■ class 
of saverejgn% ranking next below ths duka^ wIm 
bear the title of prince {Fiirtl) as a spedfic dcdnuk- 
tion. The mnmbers of royal families are there callsd 
Prirufn iiutcad of Piirtt-n, to diotmguisb tbm froai 
the class to whom ths latter title moc« peniUariy 
belnngn. On the f 'ontinont there ore many uwuM 
families not immoiliivtely couiioctcd with any iwgn- 
iug liouse (tbnt la, not priit'.-«s of ths blood) irtto bear 
the title of prince, and in Franoe soveml prlneea ol 
this nature wore created by the ftm NapMSOa In 
Eniflutd the only case in which the title Is a teni- 
torUl one ia thnt of tho Prince of Wslss. 

PRINCli EDWAIil) ISf-AND, a pforhwe la 
the Domitiion of Cuuado, Id the south of the Gidf i>f 
SL LawreDce, and east of Cap» Itrsboa; 1st. 46* 53* 
to 47' T K.; Ion. 62° to 61' 27' w.; washed by tl>« 
Cnlf on the north, and separated bv NcrthtmlNriaDd 
Strait from New Brunswick OB the eaat and Nova 
Scotia on thi? south; greatest length, from cast to west, 
about 130 miles; hrendth, varyl^j (rosn 4 toSlnOea; 
area, abunt 'J134 sqoarv miles, ov 1,$45,7S0 aeres^ of 
which over 1,000,(100 are under caltivatioo. tits 
cout-line presents a remarkable ancoeesiao of laise 
bays and projeotlni; headlands. Of tho latter tlw nost 
prominent are North Caps on the nortfa-wast, W«t 
Cape on the M>uth-wc*t, and East Cspe on tlto aoctb- 
eaut; the lai^est hays are those ol Rschmcnd on 
the north-west, E^mont on tho eontb-wcst RIIU- 
bnrnngh on tha sontb, and Cardigan oo toe east. 
The siirfai^e nndntstm j;>^Titly, nowlMre iffiqg M falgli 
uji tu beuouie niouutaiuouiN, ur unkinf SO low as to 
form a munotooons Hnt. At oaa tune tba whole 
island was covered with a dense forest of beech, 
m.apls, fir, and othnr tmai, a greftt p«rt of wbidi sttll 
remains. Tbe whole isliuid Is etuliiently s^esltunl 
and pastoral. The soU cooaists gcDor^ly of a light 
roddbh Irukm , sometimes Aporoiw-.hing to a stivog clay, 
but more fiiH|utnt!y of a light und sandy texbur& The 
prevaUlng iuokUar*ddUlitJui>!stons,faatalargepart 
of tha fmfaot b evidently alluviaL No suDwab o( 
the least oonaei|iiefiea hare yet been discovered, and 
oven limeHtone and }-y|euni appear to be wnoting. Tie 
climate is much milder than tliatof the adjoining coo- 
tinenti and the air, generally free from tlw fogs wUcb 
spread along the worse of Cape Breton and Non 
Scotia, is remarkably salubrions. Wlnier, liiongb 
longer uid ooliinr than that of England, is free fran 
Its damp uuu'kulesome chlllj: and sumnwr, willMttt 
being oppraseively hot. Is eminently fitted to pnaoU 
the gnmi'th and mivttirity of all the ordinary cseealfc 
Diiruig the greater |i(irt of July, August, aad Se{^ 
tciuber tlio ihtimiometer during the hotter boon of 
the day seldom varies mora than from 7S* to 80" Pahr., 
while the ni^'ht air is soft, wholeanna, and hpee* 
able. Tho fuvourite livestock is sheep^ which M« 
not subject to nit, and though small In ^e, give tmt- 
tan nf rich navoiir. The hsbcries aloo^ tha oosai are 
very productive, the value of tho fish oaoght in 18&S 
bring over X^TO.OOO. Tbe most valuable tlam Id tbe 
oat<£ is tho lolMter, followed by tbe maekw^ aid, 
horrb^ and bake. The manufaotitrsa an eUeltj 
confined to linen and Bannsls for doBMStio use; thve 
are also several tanncnm^ and sbip-boilding Is car- 
ried ua to a cuuslJrrable extent. Tbe exports oog- 
sift of timber, agricultural proddcs^ and Uva-atack; 
the imports of dry coudit, harilwaie, onrdage, Imn, ft& 
The o3pit.ll is ('hul'tltvtuwn, which has a popsdatiaa 
(if ] 0,000, Aud Is being oonneeted with all um pifa- 
cipal towns in tbe island by nilway. ti* pwilii: 
atfulrs of the island are administered or a lieatenaat- 



PMSCE OF WALES-PIUXCIPATO-CITRiV. 



S8S 



gamcwir SMnhBtod It tli« cmwn. vrho ftppninta an 
•nsMlva WBHil «t bIu membem. There it aHaa a 
teUBtin MmBofl of ttiirt«eii %dA k houM <tf >m»iinlilj 
a thirty iDerinbcra, both choMn by the poopl*. Wba 
dbeoTwed Frincv Edward Itlaad It not accunxt«ly 
kasm, bat Cabot is anmeMd to b*ve aoen It im- 
iMdiafed* iiflor b« had (UaMyrend NcwfoiindLkniL 
Chi^fUn slna It llta nania of 8L John, by which 
ft aomiiiiwg "Umg to ba dealgnaied, and MX)unit«>ly 
hiilf botb imituOion >nd eitont. ICwMi/tcr- 
wda faclnitod bj th« Frrtii^h in their Tut and 
awfaBacH tw ri tor j of New France, ami in 1643 wu 
■iiilij a« ft fmidftl tvnnrs to a Slour Doublet, a 
iVaMfa naval offlocr. I.ittte fmtirew wm nude in 
aMtlli^ tlM Wand till after tho )>«aL-e of Utrecht in 
ITIfi, wban it* fertilitjr allurrd £T«-at numben of 
*— jt— ifffja Oapa Bratcn. It wm token bjr th« 
Briikh In I74S, raHaT«a l^ the Pbaca nf Alx-la- 
CbaiMlla^ reUken, and Snally annoxed to Britain in 
1758. In 1878 it wu adtoittod into th« Dominion 
of Canada, roji. (ISai], 108,891. 

PRIXCE OF WALES, the title of the bdr-appa- 
rent of tbe llritiih Ihr^no, Ertt LvnifnTed br KdwactI 
L aa bia aoa (aftcrwanli idlinuTl ID, at tb« timn oF 
hie ooBOMat of the Priudiialitj of Walca. AixxirJ- 
lag to IM w«U-knowa traditidn Edward L pmnlsed 
to flvo tfca Wtlab ft prinoa bnrn in their own land, 
WM oaftbla to apeak a word of Kngliah. I'hia pro- 
niao WM v«rj •Mlaract<vy to thooe to whom It was 
nada^ bat ww on« of tboM keft to the ear but broken 
to Uh aenae, for t^lward futfiUod it by appointini 
hia infant aon Edward, who waa bom in Wale^ and 
ooold not apeak * woril of any langiiage. But the 
tratk Bivpeftn to be that the title wm nut bcrtowed 
Bpoa lUwvd of Cumannn till 13011 or 1301, teren* 
tMB jMra after the c<>iiuiii-<l <if \V*l<ta, and •Iil«en 
after tb* birth ol Prinoo KdwaM. IMward 1 1 1, waa 
rntnt Ptinet of Walei^ but tbe tKl« haa been con- 
femd on ftU tbe male heara-apparont to the Knglish 
(and aftvrwturla the BHlIali} tbrunp frum Edwanl 
tbe Black Priace, aon of Kdwanl III. The boir- 
•ppnrent la raada Princ* of Walo* and Karl of Cheater 
^ Bpceial creation and inrutitutv, or by proclani»- 
tiaa, bat ao tb« king'a «lde«t mr ia by inberltanoe 
Dvka el OomwaU, without any new creation. Tho 
tU» «C D«k« of CvnwftU woe fijnt conferred on 
Kdward tbe Black PHnce, aa eldest mm of the liin^ 
in 11137. Aa boir tn the cmirn of ttcotland the Prince 
at Waleabeare i^beiitleeof Prinoeand Blf^-eteward 
rf Seotlaod, Dnbaof Koth«fty,Earlof OaiTl<lt,Bai«>n 
at Btrnhmw, and Lord of tho l*leat in virtue of an 
■elef ttaSeotlUiPkrliacKTctof I4A9. llie title of 
Bail o( DobUn wia beetuwed upon the preeeot Prlnoe 
of Waka on Svplraiber 10, 1819, vben It waa alao 
ai>dBln«d that that ^ni^ahonld b«looie tn bint and hia 
haba, hinge ol tbe tfaited Kfagdom of Great Britain 
and Irwid, for ever. A aUtoM of tho order of 
lh» Otfter, datad 180S, dedarei that tho Prince of 
Wftlaa efaftO, h boob a« he reeeivea Ihia title, t«>rome 
S knight of the Garter. Tb* arma of the IViiioe 
ol Wnlaa ira tho royal wm. nitb the addition ot n 
hbd al throe pointo argent, and any other adilition 
that may be Mi^>ted by tbe tUffenuit hoIJora of the 
title, llino the preeent Prince cf Wale* beaie «i« 
eortowf, tbe eanttflbooQ of th* bonae of Suony, Tho 
Mboo el Vftlm baa ako a badf^ ODDilstfnf of a 
Bhme of thrM wUI« oatrieh leftthm. with the motto 
lek dUm (I evve), aaid, but on fjoaatlriaaljlR autho- 
rity, to h*«« been adopted by the Black Frine* from 
apcJHcaofBohamtawbamlnatowatCrtey. Anothor 
aHomt am that whm Kdwatd I., accordinz to the 
feadttkn uroady uentlaaa^ prw en ted bia tufaat eon 
to th* WoUi M tbulk wtt«« prliw^ bo oaod tho 
voeda BUk di/n (Hill fa yoor maa), bom which tho 
(natnt OMtla la eomiptod. Tb* ooaaort of tba 



Prince of Wnlce [a cojled Prlncow of Walee, b>it 
wbon the Boverci;n has no 8>>n thia title ii bestowed 
npoii tho »ld«t danghter. To eoinpaaa or cDR*|<irt» 
the dtAth nf the Prinoe of Wales ia aa much bi)rb 
tr««Kiu M to conspire the death of the king, aa b ftleo 
tho violiition of ti^o cliMtitv ^t hi* cnneort. 

I"ltrNf?K UF WALKS 'island. .S«o POA-fO. 

PRINCE RUPEBT'3 DKOPS, pi.-«-a of (-taM 
whieh have bc*n wxifed very mdiionly frnm the 
mcltod etato by having been dropped into water. If 
we imagine an e^ loiifi^thoned la the direction (A ite 
axia BO tbat it haannecoaU rr>uri<Ird nn<l,I>iit alragUiy 
tail tanvring gradnatiy to a point, «-« iihaU have ft 
masnined intaf^o of one of tiieee dropeu lliey ar« 
caU»d lartrvf^ batatvjve* (Dutch taani by tbe Frooch; 
we fttao cidl them Dutch teare entnctimca. The out- 
•id* of the dn^ of molted glnaa ia Inatantanooualy 
aiilldified by tho water, whiie the liudde ooob gradn- 
ally, BO that the outAiiJe ahcll Ja a«ta>l npoD by vory 
graat ■trraaea diia to cnntractiim of tho internal par* 
tiont when cooliiiti. In fact the dmp i> kept in a 
etato of m:«Mive atrain bv atrenoi in uTislable oqul- 
librlnm; and if this oqiiilibriiim ia dMtroyed by 
acmtcbtn^ the utirfai^ with a diamond, or Iweakinf ' 
off tbe tip of tbe tail, tlie atralned partlclaa are Tfo< 
loatly raloaaod, and the tmisa ia insUntly pulvoriiod. 
Meat ia produced during the pnlvcrii-Atinn of tho 
dn>ii. Thii explanation ap]>liee to tlie falling out rf 
the bot^'m oi the very thick Baak of anaiinealod . 
blown ^IftH called the 'Bolopia Soak,' when iti aw 
faco ia acratchod. We boc, thirn, thftt glaa* artinleft i 
— arUclea of any brittle niaWrial— .4>ii};ht to be cooled 
varyelowtyfr^m the melted Btato. Tbe prr«««B of elow 
oooline to which n^ article* are aubjocted ia called 
anDealing. To annMJ glaaa It la f^aond in a lar^ 
(untacw whlc^ haa neftriy a it)d.|;eat at one end and 
a lower tnnporfttura than 100* t*. at the othar; aftrr 
the glaai haa been pawed vary slowly fruu the beat<?d 
to the ooo! ond it ia able to withitaitd i-uddm cban^rft 
uf t«rufK>mltira; &c, without fraHiin*. 

PKINCE S BIETAL. orPiimvit EurziiT's MrrA^ 
a roittnre of copncr and rinc In imitatloa of gold. 

PRINCETON, a amall towu uf Uie CnltedStatca, 
in Meroer ominty. New Jaraey, 40 tnllee nnrth-eaat 
ol Phlladdnhia, and near tba New Jersey Railway 
and tha Delawaro and Raritaa CanaL It U the aeat 
ol tho Prineetoo CoDei^, one of the firet literary 
inetitntiane in tha oanotry, fonnded by tho Prrsby* 
teriana at Elizabetbtown in 17 14, and removed hither 
,ln 17S7. The town ccntaim wrnal chnndiei^ a baDk, 
and a oalobrated theological amninary of the Praa- 
bytmian ChoTch. A brtlla waa fought here is 1777 
between tbe AnMsiean tUMkr Wa^ingtoa and (he 
BritUi nader Colooel Mawbood, In which tbs Uttar 
wcM defeated. Pop.<l&§Q), »209. 

PRTNCIPAT^ in oiminal law, «dther tbe actna] 
perpetrator of Uie crlmo, or 'we wbo la pr w ent, or | 
io the immediate vicinity, aiding and abettJag Ibt 
perpetratiinL See Aoonaaint. 1 

PRINOlPAl,, tbe name glvon to tbe haada ef lb* 
SenttlBb oalvanhluB, and of lorenl cullegea in tho 
En^iah imfTtraitiaa. By the Act of Union In 1707 
principala^ ae well aa otbcra I«>riu{- ollloo in any of 
ibo fonr mlTervitlea of %utUii'l, were m<]oirr<) to 
iahacribo to ibo Weatmfaiater C uufw oi o n of Faith; 
but thia enactnuBt haa ttaea boea repealecL 

PRINCIPAL Aim AGENT, a deelgnaUcn In law. 
under which are chmwd tbe vu-joui annatioBa wblcb 
oeour between mcrcanlJle aitetita and their eaiploTera, 
ai to tho oxiou of their datlea and reapoDBibwtlea; 
Sao Aaor, Bnom, Yuma. 

PRINCIPATO-CITRA a>id PHTKCIPATO. 
ULTRA, oaUed alao by tba new daalgnattou r>f 
Sabme and Ardlino re^ectively, ^o ij oor la oaa In 
tba Kin|;daai of Italy. Tbe tortoor, LmoMdiBitel/ 



H 



raiNCIPLE or THE CONSERVATION OP ENEHOT. 



touth cf the otli«r, And botinilcil wnt uid muUi 'bj 
the ModitorrsnoMi, uid naat by FciUnis, hoB nn krc* 
of 2117 «quiu« uiU-<, Ml ImiiuLir cuut'liii« juttiat; 
out into MvonLl botJ proiD onto Hen, oaA iQcli^ing t!io 
IJfty ti( SAlcmci; on interior much brcikcn by Hunifi- 
cat{(ijH uf the Ajientiitiiv; ■ dnc climntc, a very rortile 
soil, ujo^iriwut Ivnttta, aud valiiiibl« tumiy »ad 
ftncUuvy GakiuricA Fop. ia leel, ^N.tl'il. —TUi: 
l&tter. with AA areft of 14(1:: ti^uare mllen, ia moun- 
tMHOii*, h-iit liiM d(«|>, fcilik', Auil wiill-i.'nlliviil'-il 
valley*, in wliiiib tiMUts, tilivcn, luiil winn htb tUo 
chkl crof* Poll. {18S1), 31i3,-2i3. Thu vhi«t Wwm 
of Priacipato-Citira vo Sftlcrno, iho capiul Ifroxn 
whiali it bu liciai rc-nunixL), Sviki, Bn>l i'o^MLi; of 
PriuiijiHUr-lTlint, Avullini), tlin L'a[iiUil (from wliicb 
It hnji Iwun rH'iialikuil), aiid Arinlux 

PlilNCIPLE OF THE CONSERVATION OF 
BXEllt; Y, ft general <leniiiL uf tlie jxmhiIjIo cxtitcQOc 
of k pccprLiml luciticin. Wben ft tiixly bi lu iiiotiuD 
H bu power U> <\u wgrlc whcD bvuig brouglit to ract: 
fUnwrgy U audio Imj 'kiuetUi.' The kinotia onerzy 
of ft bfKly, (1) duo to it« niation ma repnaioiitLil by 
tbe tnoliuu (if its contra «f gravity, and (2] duo to 
its mnti'On of rutatiuii iil)orut ouy ftxia, may be culon- 
Ittted — tlint U, W4 caa oftlcuUte tlw amoiut of 
aeehanicftl work which it bu power to do, if ivn 
know tbe form Uid density of the btxly and :b> 
mationa. But in dutermjuiii^- itii kiuetio euen^-y iluu 
to tlie aolecukr inriEiblo motiona which va know 
to niBt, but wltli^h wc am unable to mriLinLrc a« 
noticina, wa are fi.>n;e(l lu depi-ud upon tins det«r> 
miuaLiuna of experiniontal |ib>*ilcUt(k Thiu heat 1« 
ItDOwn to be a uioIecuUr kin«Uc energy, and Joulo 
bu dctormitiod how innch nitKhiuiiaU work ia cijni- 
Tftleat to ft octtwD quantity uf bnat; an tliftt bckt 
may bo uieaMired, juirt a> if it ven a, vi>ili1« kinetic 
vnargy, io uniu of work. Tho oaemy wbiob a ays- 
Ion of bcKlio* pouosMM in virtue at Its co&HgimtlaD 
ii cilled iu '[Nitotitiftl energy;' it ia tb^ uaotuit of 
wm^ wlucb tbo eyftvoi it «a]»»blo of doiiig by cbau- 
giag its OODflfuratbn. ']'httii when ft atone ia A fnct 
•bim th* KinftCA uf the ciltIIi it cun do a corlain 
neMUTsble amoant nf vnrk in falling, in virtui at 
tht forM of iumvity; and tbia ug-nror to do worlc ia 
bi« if the Htouu la at a l«a hd;tiL Gunpowder con- 
taina, itt ft dnmittant form, an iuimenM atoro fif enoTgy 
— -that ia, ib haa |iow«r to do an immiaiaa atnnunt tit 
wnrk. I'hia enecf^ U paaaaaatd by ft in a anmlJ com- 
puu, in virtue of lu diemlcal couatitatlon, The 
arivln^-wd^lit of a dock, when wound op, baa potun- 
tJal GDorgy iu lirtue uf iU p«itiDri; vtheo it baa run 
tiowu it uan no [ongor drive the dock. If water baa 
po^er to fall it bna potential onar^^, and toay, in 
laUiug to a lon-cr lard, drive milU or other madiin- 
eryi Uie height throuKb wbioli it may fall la toch- 
alcally calloil ita 'bead.' In on alr-gtin titer* la a 
etoi* of potential energy Ui tbo funu of couiproMod 
air; Ed a wound-up vaich, in the fom of a b«nt 
eprlne; in a diargcd Loydm-jar, in the form of a 
diatriliution of eltN:tHdty; in a voltoji: batbrry, in a 
chemical arran^meDt: in a labourer ruuly for work, 
la the form nf n proper enjiply cf fiiod. To all tht-M 
diinnaiit ennj^ica the nnnia potential enmo ia given. 
\Vbon the f»rc«« acting io a eyalem of bMlea are all 
known the notootial «iergy of the lyatani nay bo 
meaeurcd. But ia rlctertninlng the molccnW pot«n- 
tial energy of a Ixtty, wbellier exiitiiLK in the fumu 
of alrain, nu^ctiani, Utcnt boat, or vJoctrldty, ko., 
«ra must depend upon tbe exporimentnl dotormiua- 
tlona of equiralaita givn by jihyvidita. II tbe atone 
nfcmK] lo above wero to fall freely towuda tbe 
oarth potential eaeivy would lie Imt by it, but an 
e(|ui talent amonnt of kinetic enortjy would be Ks^uod, 
and at every {oatant tlio anm cf Ita kinetic and pnt^n- 
tial wMTSiM b tbe muub, TLiu \thun a projoctila 



is diacharpcd vertically npwarda it pomaWBOpolw 
Lial energy at the beginning. It* enaergj ia aD mifk — 
tliat ia, due to ibi motion. Bnt aa b rlaM It iDMa 
kiotitic and j^ua in cm^ uitalent amoont of pot oati al 
onurg}'. iiA<) u it taHa again it loeaa potoatial and gaiai 
au. ti{uivali.iit arooiint nf kinetic eoergT, and the nm 
of the kinetii: and putentLiI enn^jiM b uvaya tbe ma» 
to long aa tUere in uo friction. Wb«ii a peodohns 
oacillatos, tbo onorgy oHginally siven to the bob, 
wb<:thcr in thn kinr^tic form by piojeetfag it frotn IH 
lowtrst poutiun, or in Uie pot«ttiaI fom by drawing 
It aaide from the vortlcml and then latting it fall, n 
oaatinually trajurfatmed and retnuufocmed every 
quarter oadllation. We mlfbt repeat Oaao ofaav^ 
v&tioua fur the eeciUationa of any elaettc body, 
tbe biLlanno-apring of a watch, a tiiniag-foric, Ac, 
a-gtiin)tng that there (a perfect elaatlolty, elai m 
slioiUd Lare Io take Into acooont the boat Am to 
uu'leciilar friction. So long: » there ia no &icfciaa 
or vijtco*ity, ao long aa boat or electricity or aucae 
form of moltwular energy ia not supposed to be creatsd, 
itM fact juot atatod may bo eaeily prored by djaami- 
cnl prind]iles, and indeed if we aaenBMi that in any 
material aystHm not acted upon by estanial tones 
the foTco acting botwoon any two poiata b In ibt 
lino jViining them, and dcpcnda only on tfaelr ^ntmn 
aAuniler, and not on thutr inotiona at the time, we 
have dynamical proof that the auoi of tbe potentbl 
and kineticennpeaof the syatcn will alwayamuin 
tbe oame. This la the principle of oonservatian of 
4fuergy, tbe must [uijKirtaut priucipto of n:M}dera pbl- 
lono-phy. ']'homiu>ii aiul 'i'ait it-tta it aa follows: — 
'If a ayattui uf budioa, K>veu eitber at roat or in 
motion, be influenced by no forces fn>m without, the 
eum I'! the kinetic energies of all ita parte ia aag- 
mcntwl in any time by an amount ecpud bo tbe wbcla 
work doQ* in thai tUue by tbe mutual fonea, vUA 
we may imagine as acting betweoa its pobta 
WhMi the lines in whloh thai* fomaa act reauiB ail 
unchanKcd io length tbe forose do no work, tad the 
euro of tbe kinctle energies ramaina oonstaat. I£ 
OIL the other hand, one of tlieee lines varies in length 
during the Tnotinn, the mutiia! foTce in It will do 
work, or will nmaume u'ork, according at tb* ■^'-'Tl"t 
varies with or sgaiiutt tkem.' We have rery strong 
roamiia for bdJcving that eoer^ must M eitliar 
jHitctitinl or kiuttic, and tbst the above aaaumptieoa 
iM to forces ubicb ntv known to be tme la tlie oaat 
of attractiun of bodioa at a diataao* are tras pw 
ally; yet we con only aaj with nvard to tbe foOow- 
iug goaeral alatament of our pnndple that H bee 
bei^n proved by •xperlment to.bo tnw wiihfai the 
limite of oboervadoaal man ia raann vlien vutfj 
taktu the form* of heat, magneUna, eleetridty, Ac, 
Slid that no kuowu fs<4 diasgreca with H. 'The 
tot.lI onivgy of any body «r ayaCom of boAes la a 
quiuitity whidi can nettnor be incressod aor dinl' 
nished by any mutual aetlon of these bodiei^ tboc^ 
it may m tranafomurd into uiy of the fonus ct wbiob 
energy fs aiuoeptible.' Newton was not aware of 
heat bdag a fonu of enor^ry, but on the nptnaitMBi 
uf no loes of mccIiAiiii-ikl energy by frkitlaB he, in a 
aclioljum to hia third law nl notion, ominidated our 
jiriudiile with groat ctearaee^ Tbe lewliag datsa la 
tbt history of the snbject are given la tb« nrtide 

JoUl:lt'il IllECIIANICAL K4UITALK»T or BUT. Ib 
January, 14-13, Joule showed that medutnical WoA 
can bo convertKl into aa equlvaleut of beat by fint 
convta^in); it into induction currents of alactiU^: 
•0 that current etectridty is a form of tmetgy wm- 
iact to tbe principle uf oouBorraiiaa. Rs was tfam 
lol to tbo ertabliuinieat of the principle In dMnic^ 
autiou. The experiineutol rerilicslioii of the tnfn- 
dpie in ita gcntiraLity, and the earlioit ragg«atieB* 
of many of its aiipticntion^ bolong to Joola. Jovle'e 



PRINCrPLE OF THE CONSERVATION OF KNERGY-PIUNTERS. 



285 



htmk lua bMB txttadtd If Holnliolti, Mkycr, rUn- 

[Ubo^ mnd 'Hwwno. HKioihrOt* (1847) fonnrla tlio 

of tbmiMvdyiuinica oa Nowton'i ptiEii:i)i]c, 

IcawhtthtwumMMMciftioj — (1) tbn) ptrpottml 

[ SMNioa !• ImiKMBbl^ uid (2} tht aMunptioni ngud' 

I itf Cnvia nrvB sborn^ Ona of tbaaa MontnipUaiui 

I k MMOgbr for Um dm toUcm frvtu tlit> ottivr. But 

■ay Jd^mI objoclian nd^t bs tntda to cither of 

bflM mmrnilitm*, uid Utej onlr give va; whnn 

0[ipoMil b^ tbe f&cia ditc o w r ed ^ Joula. For 

iutuioa, W«bor'« bvpotbad* of tho mutuiU action of 

> Mnvsti, whidt raccivc* » prc*t tunount of authority 

^'bon upolnMBt, reqniru* tlie MJniUaion of tniitu:^! 

I IwtMMU awriDi; quAiitiliMof eluclriL-ity wbkli 

|;an not coilrtwt with tha sacoad axiom, and frvm 

' wUdi, tbcrefot^ m ferjietiuj motUiD tai^ht ho 

tibtaiacd: but hm Joidea UcU detamine Um truth 

of Iks kxiotn, Kiid b«Dca Wobar'i FMulta marvl/ 

riww tbttt dwitrimtj' dow not omalit of two nta <» 

nrtldH. vitTMua ud imI&gqi, u ha lud aMurasd. 

Tb* tbooty of «B«ny eonlempUtM Ita oonMiratitru, 

lonaalian, Hiaauwpfttiaii. In tha u-ticlo rxii> 

trrvAL Honov tbew priodplM L«*e boat eiiuuci- 

■ted. It foUowt tram th«B thtt aa aiiwgj is con- 

' MiDtlT In ft auta of tnuutfonnftti«n tbn* u » coomont 

' JlflnniHoB o( tmerjn tu Ui« final tuKiutablo form 

L «f luufanBtT dUlDaad hnA; aa<i tb*t thib wUI go on 

I H bag M UW tnuufmmatioiui oocar, tULtU tha wholo 

lB«o el tbs tmirarM haa taken thia 6Dal form. 

' n* uv of diatpatioQ ol «MiBy> dlaooverad bv 

' TboaaoH, wimni to b« tb* UMat compUt* and moat 

I CP"*^ ■tataownt of th» wbolo theory of mwsj. 

[ W» woetBda with iome fnrlher lUnatratlou of the 

'pluiulA of cntunnaUotL Whei) in perihalion a 

[ fllaniirirrriniiliil iiimmji i» ti >■! iinl itiikiDBticoiHr|;y 

I ■ pmimt, bat at every |«rt of the orbit tha warn of 

dwas OBogiea ta the tame. In the cam ot a oomtit 

, Bovlig Id a panbollo orbit tboaomof tbo kinctii; 

and potential energiee at any time ia <<qual to the 

fuHBtlail aMigy u an infinite diitonco from th« nun, 

. Aa tktt oomet neadea from the mm ita vrWity aiiJ 

UbsCm energj gel Ua* and Um. In theaa caaaa we 

tn manly eoooenied with Kowton'a law; w« aataina 

tiinl than la m oonvsnloa of kinetki ener^ into 

baal hy frtetieo. When elaatio bodJa cMkla tli«ru it 

m loaa of vlatble Idnatic encrvj in tbe ayabcio , thi» 1 imi 

li laaraly a tmidanuatloa uito tumm ot vibntivn of 

timbodyaodrntobaat Soma ol tbalOB fa dna to the 

libndoBS fiyen op to the air, and eommanfcatM aa 

•Dvnd; tbe oner^ of all tbcM vibrationa ie eventually 

canvBriad fnto beat, (hnm^ imparfeot elaalldty and 

TlwoAyoffliatflR^iBgtodiaa Wo may meotioD tba 

«aBT«nioa of wonhairiad work into heat by friction 

la tba experimeDte cd Romford uul •TudIb. Kinetic 

mtmgy ia oonretted into haat by friction between 

ordiDaryBtatterand lbs intentalUr ether; PTofeaMri 

Stawait and Tail boated a dlao by rotating it rajndly 

la a iraonom. Frcaael, in bia hypotbatical deduL- 

tiotM by dyamical pnadnlea of the (Mtariaatinn u( 

Iteht by raSectioa and refraction, amuoed the law 

«l conacTTatlea of kioatie anorgy, and arrived at law* 

^rUd are jnatified by ezperini«nt. 11i« direct r«la- 

tlona batwaea mach&iilral work and beat are further 

rtf«i«d to in the artide TitxajfODTHAMlts. When 

any two bodlaa ai« in cantact a certain ilvfiiUto dif- 

fereaea of alectrto potential !■ enublijilieil batwaea 

tb«aa; tliia differaaoa deneod* (imply on tbe natara 

of tbe iKxIin. Tbe booioa attraet eadt otbar mot* 

tbaa they did bcfora, and tbia in virtna of thotr 

ckarno of elactricity. Uon work haa to be done 

In taking them aaandar than wa* e^nad In letting 

tban eofn* together, and tbb work ^>paan ia tbe 

pomtkl fofiB af aajiuate diaigaa of ebatrtetty. In 

tba dactHa naehia^ contact between a robber and a 

pectloa of » plate of gl^ creatca a leiiaratluB of alec- 



tridti««,and when thn niliber And pUto are rvmovad 
tmta OHO auotlicr tb« ■(.'(■arato chATgea TTtay be OOl- 
IcL-ted. Tiie electropliorue gi»«« ua another good 
inctanco of tbo convvnion of mechanical work into 
potential energy of «!fiaral«(I ett^(AHdtica. (Sco also 
FoTurriAu) Tbuuutuu, lu tbe Ilakvrian Ixicture 
(1854), atatoa that the pn'tiury cause of all iriciiuii 
ia a Bcpantioo of eleetrkutiva. A niatbeniattcnl 
inveetigaUoa ahowi na that the potential vncrgy of 
a char^ of alectricily U proiwirtional tn the aqiiarr 
of the quantity of electricity in the charK», and thu* 
the upvrimaiilal law— tli« ht^at evolved by an eloc- 
trie dlaehargo depends on the iqaaro of tbe charge — 
tu-ixirda wiLii the princijiln <■( mnoervation of energy. 
tleaiicim wbo cars tu iwa liiMv tlie great eipcrimcntal 
UwB of |ihj^ia Mxotd «ltU tbo theory of vnaigy 
onght to rr«'l c&rtfully thr tint two diaptera of 
Tait a ThDrmod^niuiiin. \Va give a abort liaLol tlia 
moat intercatlng exatiiplea, linvu'a Uw for tbo 
capacity of » Leydon-iar: Thomaon'a no -liquid 
tne<^>anlcal galvanic oell; Karaday'a and lliomaoD'a 
lavra of electralylic action; tho a*.*tiuiu of mugneta 
oa one anotkerL Araga'a rotating ooppor diac; tha 
mutual action of ntngneta and onrroBta of electricity; 
magnctizntion by cnmnia; Saabaek'a dlacovory and 
TbuuiBon'a devolopnaetit by Ibo lawn of en«rgy, aa 
experimentally rarified by L« Roax. Tfaomaon and 
Holmholta ahowed indepeoilently Ami yarada/a 
lawa of indnotiou may be iimnedlateljr dedaead bum 
Oer«t«d'B maulle by mean* of tbe Uwa af energy. 
Appliraitinua of thia ktnil are avvry day indicawg 
bow to oD-twdinate aome newly diMorend fact, and 
even ooracionaUy to predioC the raaolt of a porfaetly 
novel enMirimental arrangement, 

rRIN'rERS. I*AW R«MTi((o TiK Varioua n>- 
■triutive tneaauree having; r«f«Tcuoe to the ri|;hu of 
printon aro at prceoni in force. A printer haa no 
rii;iit to puLli^i any vt^rk he baa In bia b^nia; but 
ho has ihv [over nt rvtaiiiinc tbo priatad ahenbi untU 
the priM ni bia labmir be fortbooniing. He statute 
3UCicu. III. cap. bai^. (amr^dcdby lilGeo. IlLcaii. 
Ix*., and i and J Vict c^ sii.), entitled An Act 
for Stippreaiing Seditioua aud TrMeonable fraetloea, 
prarldM, ia oraar to auppnaa aeditioua pablicalloni^ 
that erary typa-fomider and printing -preaa maker 
muBt, before conuncnaing bn•tneai^ give notica to Uia 
(iterk of the pe a ce for tka dlatrict In ulilub tbe nme 
la lo bo carried on. and obtain Cram him a cvrtifleats 
of regiatiation, failing which be b liable In a panalty 
of £iO. Such peraona miHt aleo nndar tha aani« 
peoahy kaap, and produoe to any Joalloe on hia 
wrHtn dioiand, a atatamat is writing of tha pur- 
ohaa t w <4 thdr tvpee or prceMa llic aanM penalty 
i> alsu incurred by any peraon (exoeiit the tjtioen'a 
printera and the prliiien at the unlvvreltj pr«eaca of 
Oxford and Cambrii1^-o) wbo titce a pnntin^-prcaa 
or typea without having tlic fact duly re^iterod by 
iha cI*tI( of tbe peaoa Tlie printer muat also write 
tb» uMue uiid raaideaoa of bia employer on one copy 
of any book or paper be prinle, rvt^b^ tbIa copy 
fur Hx montha after it ban bmo priutad, and pnxlac- 
Ing it when required to do ao by any juatice of tbe 
peace; otherwiao bo b liable in m panalty of £30. 
Every prlntar whs ahall nlnt a book or paper without 
bavii^ hie nama or rmoenea oo tha fint or laat leaf 
thveof riiaU, by act S and 8 Tict. cap. ni a. S, forfeit 
XSioraveryeop^prlBted. Certain p«|>«raaie«iciiipted 
frvm the opaiatm o( tbwe art\ auch aa Mpen prititad 
for tbe uaa af ParttaineBt 1^ ita anUMwity, or hy 
autbciity of any public board or oOoer, or law pro- 
oaadlnga, bankrupta' billi^ r«n^^ eacuritiea fur 
moacy, poUcka of Inauraace^ Icttoia of atterary. 
deeda of agraeaMB^ bUla of lading, IroiicMaoM nl 
M^raviaga, advoKiaerDeata of tradeameo or of eatei^ 
Ao. 



2S6 



rRINTEKS" INK— PBINTINQ. 



PRINTEHS' INK. Saolm. 

PHI N T [NU, in ft g«iiaTsI MBM^ I* tb« art of ■Uin|>- 
liitf imprenioeu gf Ei)(urc», diuncU<n>, or lutton, witb 
luk, upon pitper, reUutn, idlk, eir any similAr subsUnce; 
ui • mora piwtdcul&r mum it u Uie tcnu k[>plit-ij U> 
thkt tit by wbicfa, witl> ainglo movaMn IrtCacn or 
typ«a, saj plvc« of liti.*rary oaiapodtioa » tniufumd 
to pkpOT. I'rinUQf, io Its extended mom, thoa eni- 
bniccn iho taking (if iiit[>rc»nmi* of woot) and cn[>[>):r- 
{tjftteengrsviii^, tiLhoKtiplui, and cvi-n the decoralidu 
of oalloow; bui Uielaut two eubJeuU iiro tnutvd luidvr 
CALIW-l'IllHTlHa Mid LlTlKHiUAl'llT. uid w* iholl 
hiara caaaider miuiilj prinUng in lu miwt oonimnn 
inesiiui^', that In, tif/i/r/rajJij/, or Ibfl Mt of printiuff 
najKir with movahlo iDC<t»[ typos, togelber wilb [irint' 
lua fivin wuod blcKuka and eagTKveuplatca. 

Tlin rudimutta oE tl>i> Mrt iren uadixibtedly kcnwn 
to the Mic[«itit«. It wax pnioU»ml Id tbe Bust from 
t, very suijr pgriod. It ia evidcut from uudwiayMl 
britilu which hftve boon fouDd, having \'ftrioiu nym- 
bolical and bieraglyphic QlinracteUt iuiprciMvd u^icin 
ttiam, that a nida kind of jiriiitiiig wna krinwn to th* 
AMyrlauK. lu a|ij>lic«tivii, Wwuvcr, txiuld only be 
vibMDoly limited, the impre«ili>n bultiK taken from 
the block. StiLl thia atyle of printiug 1» thut umkI by 
Uie OhJneae up lo tlio pressnt day. At what time 
It wna intn>duo«H] It i> Iui|ioMib1« Ui d«t«Tiuiii«; Ui« 
CbtncM Utotneelna claim an antiftiiity for It long 
bc^iio tlic! CMinmDnoement of tlie (^hrUtiiui ant, Nid 
It in denied by nuDe, evoo cif tliu L'^irintian writuw, 
tbat It VM fiilly e«tAbIIshcd lu Cliba early lu tL« 
t«ntb oectury, nearly 10» yean before printing waa 
euntempl&lcd in Kuro|ia. I'ho I'hineae metbod of 
printing, wLti:]i Laa n-uuiui«l unaltend (or tigtit, la 
M foUowa: 1'hn work ictiHidoiI lo be printod Ii tran- 
nribed ufivu thin, tnciafiorcnt paper; each written 
abeetUgluMl, with italaoe downward, u[iDna*mnotb 
block of wood; the eoj^ver cuta tliu wuud uway in 
all thoee parts upon whloli be flndu nutiilng tmced, 
and thn* leaves thr LiatiscnbMl parts rr-rtdy for prinC- 
injf. TliUB thrrc muit lio as many biiw:kii as thorie 
are pa^rea iu a txiok, and thi^se bliH^kn are uut of tlie 
least use Lii pmitiu^ any other work. Tho syiUilD, 
bowever, has one lulvAnUgc^ btit qo other, in oom- 
IDO& with Btcreutypc. tbat by it impreesiona of a work 
may be thruwn off just as r«t(ulrML Varimu attempts 
liave been ntiiKle to intn>duoe priotitif: from movable 
typea Into China, but without being attended by any 
lUtinaato ■aeoeaa. llie ancient Buujiuih tirade uac uf 
■netol atampa, with cliaractcra cn^^mTiHi in n-liof, to 
mark their arUolee of trade and cvuiiuuruu; and 
CImto, in his work Do Natnra Dmiruni, has a passage 
frwD which I'oland iuia^'nrs tbo moilciTia bari; taken 
the blot of priutinu- <^'iuero ordera the lypea to be 
made of metal, sod calls them foruuM liUrttrvtn, tlie 
very wordx need by the finrt priutera. In Virpla 
tiuii', ta:iii^ brauda with lettorn wi>re uil->I for marking 
caltld, &a, witli tlie owner's uatno. 

lilock-printijig in Kurope, with aingle jiif«os of 
wood, nan be traced back aa far aa the thirtocntli 
uentury. I'he inLroducLiun of jiEaytng-canb eaurly 
in tb« fourteen t)j cvutviry fs sii|i|iosed to hare vf^eu 
an impetita to itie art of wood-enKraving. From 
iblFle Affuies tlie profe«wtra of the art came to 
OigraTe hiatoricul or liiblioal Bubjecta, ■unw with a 
Col or explanatina eubjoioed, otbera without a t«xi 
U( Hm former of these the oldest and meet oclcbratud 
extant ia the Siwcoliun Humanai B&IvatiotUa; of the 
lattvr, Uie lliblia Paupenitn. |S«« a deacription and 
[ftC-similca of both In Haroi:'i Biblio(;rapby.) llieac 
books of Imagfla, aa tlioy wt-nr calli^d, may be cud- 
Hid«ted as the earliest attempu at book-priniin? In 
Europe; sod although there ia little tiknlihmM) tlut 
the practice oi the art was derived trom China, 
tboy resembled Chinese books in eaie -tyntrnl point, 



each Itof being printed from dngle Uoda o( wood 
The great discovery was yet to be made, wbkfa was 
to cuaDcirate the art from its fiied tbialdom, sod 
eire It a pliability and power beyond all pnrkna eoo- 
ocptkin— the discovery, namely, ej the pntetieafaOity 
and utility of adopting fnera&u type*. 

It Is a matter td much diapsCe to who«D b doe the 
merit of making this, in Ita rMoIts, nnparalkled dia- 
crifLTy. Nor. aft«r all that has been wrtttea an the 
subject, can a very distinct or latiafact^ry eenda- 
ulun be attahied. Many claims have b««B addooed, 
but tho real question seems to lie betVMO tboM ei 
LaiironiK Ciwtnr nf IloArlem and John GobenbOTg 
or Geiwlltdsdi uf Mainz, alt others beln^ grauDdlas* 
or puerile. The a<]To<rat«s fnr llaarlim main tarn, 
chiofty m the authority of Hadrian Junius, who 
Hourishcd about 100 years after the introduction u( 
t)ja art, that Coster as early as lUO not only prac 
tisod the ait of cutting on woodeo Ubte*, bat made 
impre^ons with movable types of wood, and after- 
ward* of lead and tin. Dul no undoubted s pec i msa 
of his wi-ii'k ttas cmne down t^ lis, and his daiuM have 
l>oun pretty iBtUfactorilv refuted (see OooTIB). Hm 
best tW can be said of blm Is that bo WM la all ]m>- 
bability an In^^nious wood-engravtv, wbo carri«d tba 
practice o( his ait to a bijcher state of perfection than 
those uf bis euut«[ii[>urari>«, arid wbo even went so tar 
as tn am ploy separate wooden types in the eooelnielinn 
of broadndes for alphabets, brcvianea^ kc Totiutea- 
beric, siooording lo the ajMniou of the most munenma 
and oouipetcnt judceit twlooge the credit d having 
tlrct employed meriiltle mtital typce ia the prodoetioa 
of books — of baving,lnshort, been the first taatqipLutt 
Che audent, tedious, and expensive method of maWMJ 
tmiiicriptioa by lotter-preH printing, Untmbsvg 
was a native ot Mainz, but his early life wh apvnt 
itt Strsaburg, and it ta doubtful whether it was tn 
the former or latter city tbat he fint {irosecutcd his 
art. (Sea Gvtbbaebo.) The probaUUty Is tbat be 
fir^ eonooived the idea of hia hivention. and made a 
few expcrimenta of it at Straaburg, but it vras at 
Mains where he Br«t bmugbt the art Into psactleal 
tiM. Gstnibeig loft Stnuburg for Mains in IHJI, 
ud from ttutt period may be dated the MmmcDC*- 
ment of the art of printing, althmg^ it haa been 
proved that movable letters in wooden Uocka muat 
have bora uaad aariier than 1442. In 1149 Gutaa- 
berg eonneoted kimaelf with a rfoh dtiaea In Maina, 
unmtd Johann Fust or Faust, vrbo advanced the 
mpilal nec«uiary to pmwcute Lhs InutnM of pirint> 
iug, Soon after (piububly iu 14^1 Feter Schoffcr, 
who afterwards became Fust's soD-in-law, waa taken 
into cnpartnorahip, and to bim brlong* tbo merit of 
inventing nuitricas for cutitig types, each Individnal 
type faaviut; hitherto been cut in wood or metaL 
This discovery is one of the meet inralaabla ia the 
histury of nrinttng, and so much did It faciiitate the 
art tbat ScWffer, lief me his death, which ia supposed 
ti) hnve taken plaoe about 1492, printed upwards of 
fifty worka. The eldcat work of any oonsidenble 
■iic printed in Mainx witli cast Ictteira, by Gut«i- 
brrK, Fust, and Sohdffer, finlsbsd about 1 tiS, la Out- 
enbcrg's Latin Bjblo, wUcb is called the Forty-two 
lini^ Kible, becaoMtliamT full column it haa fof^- 
two lines, or the Matailnie Bible, fn>[u a cef>y Iwving 
IwfE) disooveced in the library of (.Tardinai Uaaniix 
in Paria. Fust bavtnjt aepamted from GiMnbog 
in llfhfi, and obtained tne printing-preoa for bis own 
use, undertook, in connection with Pet£r Bchofler, 
grsatcc typceraphical worica, in whic^ the art waa 
oarried to b^her perfeciloti. Fust was partleularl; 
engaged In t£o printing of tlve Ladn and Gvnam 
IJihlc^ the first oopies fif whirh, lir*ring date, wet* 
pnuted in 14SS. Fuit i* said to have died of tba 
]>laguo bt 14M at Faris (aee Faun), upon wUtdt 



I 




PRINTING. 



I 



' StUfftr oontinQod Uie pnnUng biMiMM alone 

WUL Attct tha MjiAntino of Gntonberg and 

Yvak i1m toRDv bad fauiM idmum lo jnucurv a qbw 
friBUng-pw, kod had itiuck o9 nuuiy worlu, of 
wkU taa BoM nniriatbU k tbo Astroloncal ftsd 
llMlical CUendsr {In folio, I(£7), oonridflrad th« Gnt 
kawira work printed whh Um dau uiooxed. 

In Ha tba cit; of &UtiU wu takm a&d Mck»d 
bj Adulphus, ootiiit of KtaitM, and tbu drcumstMioe 
iaMiJ Ui liAva wdonofodUiOMitebllahmeiituf Ftut 
ud SckoflcT ibaC wayvt tlulr wocknuoivvNobligod 
lowio^ aoiplujuuuiittliawbtra. Tbeyaooordiagly w«ra 
dip«nd Into dlfloKikt coimttie^ ud corrlod with 
1MB tfao ksowMga tboj hkd acquired nndor tbair 
fbrnMT omplajora. Prom thU period printing mado 
fnpU pioy— thnnpliuut Europd. In U05 w« find 
works priatod at Nafiloii mad in 11S7 8w«rn]inui 
and Paiuurti, two of Lb* moat colabntod aDd axtoa- 
rf«« old friaioK, wUblklwd tiHouotrof at Bomo. 
In lies wo find printinf at Vcnloo ud Uikn; ia 
1170 at Pan^ T^'uramherg, and V«TOna; and b; 1173 
tho art had beooms known in all Umi impnrUnt citim 
nf ihm CanUacoU In HW it bail reacbiKl Cuustan- 
tuopU, ud by Uio tuitldU et mtxt. ctntuiy bod 
extended to fUudo and Amorieo. Of ito rm and 
|irup«B in £nglaod and Scotlonil we «LaIl come to 
■poMt Immodlaioly. 

At Ibo inroBtits of printing Um eharact«r of trps 
■BploTcdwattliooUaatbicarOerakaii. TIi<r /.^>n,jn 
tj'f* wao firat ioltodnoad bj 8w«jnlioiin nati PuutuU 
■A Know in 1407, and tb« Italic by Aldtw ManuUni 
nboot 15O0. Scbdffor, in kia edition of Cicero's Bo 
(MfteUfc pndueet tor tlM Gnt tamo ioanc Greek char- 
oettf. fMolf exMvtod; bat tbo earliat ooaipI«t« 
>o ok worii wns a gnunmar of tkat lansuago priotod 
ot klUu la 1474. Tbe FoototouoL vUek onmnd 
in lUS, WBO tbo fint vorii [iribtod b the Hebraw 
ch afn eto f, and the cariieat known Polyglot Bible— 
Hebnw, Arabw, Cbaldak, Greek, Latin— Uuad 
bom the proM of Goooo in 1616. Id the tvlj bia- 
lory ol tbe art of printing tbe moat leuruod men 
««« proud to act aa oomotoTi of tbe proM, and not 
iuifr«|iieaU]r tbeir naou irai ottocbou to tho titlo- 
pwe aliar wUb tbat of tbo printer. 

Tbo roodor who bao not etudled BlbBeorai^; ma; 
bono not hm tniwiUing to Iron o Enr of tbe marla 
wUdidkUugBUwd our esMket printed booka. Witb 
rogird to tbeir fonno tboy wore geoemUy oltber Urge 
or ooD foUoot or at hoot qoactoo— tbe Leewr auo 
w« nrt in uee. The Uovee waro witbodt nmolaf 
titK 4lreetiaa-wo>d, noinber o( pagoi, or dlrWou 
into pomgni^ Tbe cbancter itaelf WM a nulo 
old Gotbie miied witb Sccretarj, designed oo pui^ 
pOM Ui imitate tbe bandwiiting of Uims times; tbo 
words wore giriated eo olooe to one ouutlior that lliej 
vera dWcnlt and todiooi to bo toad oron bj tboeo 
who were used to nanuscnpta and to tUt metbo^ 
ODd oAoa led tbe JBoMenliTo roador Into miitaJwa. 
no ortbagrapdj wis varioos and often arbitrar;, 
dhregirding metbod. Wonli wore lubjooted to bw 
((luui abbrevinLiooi, wbkb Ui timo Krvw k> numeniua 
and diflicalt to b« uridsntood tiiAt ibere was a oec«o- 
eit; of writing a book to load) tbe amuwr o( nii^tig 
tboBL Psriooi were dlstingvisbed bj no otbv points 
tbnn tbe double or auigle one, that fa^ the colon and 
foil-point; but a littlo after tbers wae sa oUbjiae 
ettoM iutruduoed, ibva /, whi(^ aniwered tbe par- 
MM «l our oettina. Ho cnphni IsMoti were used to 
DS^ eeBtoace or lor proper nuoee c( BMB or places. 
Bbakn won left for tfao plaoeo o< tttlo^ initial letloTL 
and otber oraameirti la order to b«vo tben nippUeu 
hj Iba ilhnntBatia^ w^oeo iagenioa act, tboo^ la 
vofoo before, and at tbat timc^ did not loag eorviTe 
tlio msstorlj imptoveBtenla mside bjr tbo pnnten ki 
tills Wmncb of Uwlr arL Tbese oraamoDls wore 



oxqnlidt«l7 fino, and cnrioniily rorfcgitted wttb tbe 
nioot bcautifal colaurv, and even witb gold and aUver; 
the niargins, likewise, wrre froqacntly cbaigod with 
a varioty of figiirce of stunta, birds, bcMta, naoostenL 
Hnwon^ ftc, wbich bad eometiiBea relatii^n to the 
cattUsnii <if tbe [iii,'e, though often dodo al all: aucb 
enibeUUImiCDts wgro Tory oostljr; but fnr those nbo 
could not aSord a great price there were infociv 
omanienti^ which eould bo done at • much eaalEr 
rate Tli« name uf llie }iriijt«r, place of bis rcstdeneei 
tc, were either wholly noglo«tod or put at the end 
^ tbe book. Bot without some ploua ejaculation or 
dosolog7. Ilia data «a«HkawiBe omitted or lavohod 
in eome crsanped, oireumstantia] period, or dso prinlod 
either at full lecfgth or by numeral loClcn, ana soma- 
tlmeapaKlrone aud partly theother; thus, oiufAoeMMt 
CCCC an /ixxiitl, Ac, but all O'f them at the end of tbe 
book, 'ilii^r* waa no vadcty nf cbaracten, no iatei^ 
mixtureot Bomao and Italia — these are uf Uterlnvoi- 
tioa: pages mraoantlaaodlaaGothic latter of the MBia 
•iio throoghout Two or throe hoadred cojiiea wero 
at fint esteemed a large impresadon, though, npon tho 
«uovUT«genkenls reoetvod from the le«m^, ths num* 
ben looEMMd In proportion. About U7t)B]pbabctical 
tables oi the Unt wcrds of each chapter were iotro- 
duoed as a guide to tbe Under. Catdi-words (now 
geaarally sbolished} were flrstueed at Vonlcoby Vlnde- 
linc de Spira. The oamo and place of tho inreator 
■•f (ipiAtuiiM b tJniibUut; it n))|«Ani tbej were in- 
kortnl into an eiljI-i'jD uf Tisrencv printed at Milan In 
1170 by Anthony Zona. In an adition of Daldl 
Loctum super Codic, &c, printed at Venioe l^ Jobs 
de Colonia and Jk>. de MAutb^n de Gberretzem, bbba 
1471; iu folio, lite ■igiuturc* are not istrodaced till 
tbemiddleoCUM book, and then continued througboQb 
AbU Bmaseribsa the fint use uf signatorai to John 
Koolhof at Cologne in 1472. Tboy w«ra need at 
Paris in l47d, and by Carton in 1430. 

The art of prinliag wu fint introduced into England 
by ^Villioni Caxbun, who esUhlisbed a prea* io West- 
miiiiUir Aiibey aame time between 1471 and 1174, 
Caxton's claim to be considered (be eerliost printer 
in EngUad biB been ■atisfactorilT proved notwitfa- 
stsndi n gthedlaooveryaboutl6<OefaDookpiirportliig 
la have been prlnlol at Oxford In tbo year ItSe. 
This book is a sniall tbin quarto, * copy of whidi is 
in the {mMic library at Cunbritqe, bearins tbe fol- 
lowing title: 'EsposidoSaBatlJaranliailnSiBbalim 
ApoetolonimadPapsmLaitreatiuBL ImprtasaOaovii, 
et fidta Anno Doniini M.COCC.LXVIIl— XVll. 
die Deoenbrk' The prioler o( this book Is ndd to 
harobeean«d«TtekCor»ellia,afardgnar,wfaofaraagbt 
bis ^pes from Haarlem; and those writen wbe bsT* 
siIrtK^ted tliecauM of IjaarenooOoeteree tbe inventor 
of printing have generally ptououneed Corsellis to be 
the Introducer of the art into EagUnd. BntDr.Coa- 
ycrs hliddlsloa hi his treatise on the orkin of Bngliih 
printing bae dearfy demonstratod that too data "'"^^ 
to the -Expoelelo must be anbtaki^for tbe book 
Itself bears uneqaivocal marks of bdoBjlag la a •<»•• 
what later period. Not bo mention outer matters of 
a tockokal nature wbich go to pmra this It may ho 
enough to asy tbat liijnaturtt an osod in distiagtdsh- 
log tbe shaeta of tbe work— a ciraunstanoe which does 
not charactoriae any other book with so eariy a date 
saHM.sig o a ta tos not having been adapted fey aevotal 
yean later. From tbat tM« also tiu eleven yoon 
lifter we hare ao pnduetloa from uy Oxford proi^ 
auJ it is difBctdt to '"■■jH"* bow ao long a oeaatfoa 
of tbe Oxford prem sbould bnvo laknn ^aoe euppoeiqg 
tbo above dale to b»v« been oorrset Thm only ntlii> 
fMtorj way of aoeoontiBg (or tbe matter ii by aNDm- 
iag an X to havo been oiaittod dmmgb auatah* la 
the fauirint of tbe Bxpoeide^ and that Ita Irua data 
waa hLOCCCLXXVUL (1«7t^ findlar btaooum- 



dMWOT«I)ynftinm.nanirfiinth««<u1jti!Htnr}ro(thniu-t. 
There U » Bible bI Au^rabut^ of tho date 1 449 uwIcbiI 
of 14^4, the two lul dgurini bettij; truupoied. There 
ii ft Bibk dAMd Fatm. 1443, ftnother Ljona^ 144fi, 
•nd « thin] UmcI, UTiO, although it in rcll known 
tbkt priiiUiii; wm nut ptiu.'tiitf<l at an; of tlie*e |iUvui 
till considerably l&bcr. Ko«UinS, who ])iinio'l at 
Col'igtio ikfioiit tlm beginning of the niitcnth wntiiry, 
might ha pliccfj IwforB even (JutenbcrK, for ona of 
Ua books 1< dated 'mjio M.CCCC (1400 instwl of 
1500), ft C being omittod; UidtliacokbrstodXiclioIai 
Jftnion, who [irintod At Venice hotween the yu^n 
1470 aud HHV. hu a work (the IW-or PuuUarum') 
datwl M.CCCr.LXL iaslwul of M.C'CCC.JJCXI,', 
ftQ X being omiUci!. 

liut even tbf.UKh the data nf th* Exposiclo were 
oorroct (of whicli tbure jm tittle UkeliLoifd), auil 
Uiough, by lomosin^iiar incident, oiio liltte book 
vere printt^H in Oxford MOTeral yoATit nvlitr thiui 
any in Wnntmiiiattr Abboj, Hill! Willimo Caxtoa 
■Dual «ver b« couxideriHi a« tL« rattier of EnglUti 
^rpoKKbphy, not only m having b«cti ibo lirat who 
•UcasMfully eMabIiiih«d the art in thia couutry, but 
M having, by Lla ioAruiiig', applivatii^i, aud iugcu- 
lUty, dcm* much toward* it* inipr(i»«iiM«nt and extci)' 
don. Be wa* btirn in tiio wvold of Kent about 
ths year 1412, and would appear to bave received 
ft good educAtidi) — a cin.'»in»Linc«of uniuual occur- 
fttnm in these dnya, eiceiit among the titled and 
wealthy. ' 1 am buundeu, lie lays, ' to pmy fiw my 
father and mother, that in tny youth sont roe to 
■oliiHil, by which, by the aiifloiancc of Gml, I gnt my 
li<riii|{, I liii[M! truly.' Whra about Gfteeo bf waa 
put appr«utioe to WilUam Largc^ a msroor of JjVB- 
don, and artcrward* mayor, The term mtrixr vnu 
given at thin time tri KHncrnl miircbanU, Inuiing in 
all kluJa uE dill ^uihIh, buoka uicludcd. After bo 
bad HOTVciI h\M ajiprenticcahip Caxtoa bwotnw S 
frooman of the coiu|iiuiy of mcrccra and ft dtiun of 
Ijondati. Komti iiiil»ic<]Ucnt yean he upcnt in trainl- 
UujI ill variiiua <.MUiilrira <ju tbu L-viitlueiit of KurU|Mt. 
In 14C4 be wu appointed vnbaiMudur to ibo court 
of the IJiike of lliirgundy. It wm nt tho re<|\i«t of 
the DuclioiHi nf Bur){ai)<nr that hu liuiabod fall traoa- 
latioa of tba Hlatury of Troy. Purlag bis residence 
tn tb« Low Countrioe ho anguirod or poif«ct«d Ui 
Icnowled^e of tlie 1^'rench liui^im^, gained aouit 
knDwledi^a uf the FIvmlBh, iuibilwd a taate fur Utera- 
tuM, and n.t great tmulili; nnd sxpcna* made bimaelf 
maaler ol the arl of [mutiny-. It ii oonjectorcd 
that ho consulted Z«li and (Jlpu nf the Colonie prcAi 
(whr> bad learned tlic art at MaJiii:) and CoUrJ 
Mauiuii of Itnigea lu to the uiaturiala ncecfsary for 
hie oilioo, H« i« fiuppo««d to have retum^.'d to LIm 
native canntry about 1471. but wa hare no aofount 
of hia tyt>cvraphical laboun till 1 474, thu ilalc altixcd 
to the Uauie of Cheia, wbicb ■■ gi-uaraDy cuiuidered 
the lint boob printed by Caxtoo, though Mr. DUmUu 
thinks that tliu ItomanMi tit Jason was printed before 
iL Cftitnn was UidifatlgaUe in cultivating hb art. 
Til* produotiona of bis praas auiniut io lUty-four. 
For ft oatnlogu* of tbca. and of the productknu of 
other early ptintcni, we refor to the llov, Dr. Dib- 
diu'a TypO}fr^ihIca] Aotiuuillea, or to Dr. Watt's 
BiHiotbocs Ib-itannica. liealdM the laboui neoea- 
sarily ait^M^livd to bis pruis, ha trftnalatad Tuioni 
works; ttmoDi; ethers, ^'IrsH's ^^eld from the 
French, publUhod with the title The Bvvuyel of tbc 
Hiatoryea of Traye, and /IJiop'e l-'ablas, a oopy bf 
wbicb is hi the fiodl«4ao LIbmry. He ineiiiB to have 
been peridesed about the langitago be should use In 
Ui tnuMlfttioBi; for while smne adviaod him to use 
old and bomc^ tanna, otlien^ 'honest and great 
derki^' he addi^ ' havo been with me, and desired me 
to write tbo most curious terms I eould find — and 



thni, bntwitt plain, mde, and enrloo^ T sIftBiS 
nbasbud.' In 14S0 he published his Cbnnlda and 
his Description of Brit:iin, wUdi w«n both Tsry 
popular, baring be-ra rcprintcl foor titncs la ths 
tiftM^iibh, and icvL-n times In the aiitc«nlh oentai^. 
AuiuuK otbi'r books which be iiubllsbod wm* two 
editions of ChBD«tr'a Talefc and it spoalm w«Il lor 
tbn dincriniinnLion of the father of English pritttinCi 
that ha >pBuis Ui[(lily to haxe adinlrtid and aoptva- 
at«d the father of Eoglicih poetry. Caston died Ifl 
141^0-01, and was bnriod in tbc puitb ehardi of __ 
Margaret, \V<»tTntniter. Cftxton dlatln^olafaed tUT 
buolu of bii ^iriiitiu^ by a particular deTic% oonsut* 
ing of the initial letters of his nam*, «-ith » cjpbsr 
botwecn, whiub ■coo fmtclike to stand for sevtat 
four, and to r^fer bo tho Aral year of his priatla( _ 
Eiiglund. His Rnt p«rfonnanc«a were very r 
tho uhiiractan resembling tbose of English m 
•criptA before the ComiiiesL Moat nf his lettan < 
ji]iu«l t(i)(etlii>r J the leaves were rarely noinbered, 
tho pogM nmitfT. At the baginiiing cf the cfaaptsn 
hu only priutcd, an the evstoin tben wai^ a smsl 
letter, to intimaU' what the InltUl or capital Isttar 
sbuuLd be, loaving that to bo made by the ■''"—'"**-" 
wbo wrote it with a pen, with red, blue, or green ink. 

Canton's two moat tUstlnguIibwl sae aw oct ww* 
Wynkln do Wordo and Richard Pynson. Tb* Car- 
tnor, a native of the Unkcdnm of Iximdne, aemd 
onder Caxton, anrl s.f Icr tbe dr^.itfa of hia mastar au^ 
oessfully praolls^l the art of printing on hh own 
acooonL The bonks which he printed an TCry 
numcfotia, and disjilay a rapid improYcmant In tM 
typuyrsjiblc art. Me di«d In l&iit. Pjimn wsa 
a antive of Nommndy, and it is supposed that 
be also scrvnd undur C'ftxton. The fint book «C 
hia which In known with a dots, statca that It waa 
printed 'the V day Juyl. the Tore of onro lordgod. 
ni.cooclxxixiti. by me lUcharrie Pynsotiat tboTnn* 
pic-barre of londoci.' Uow long he exorcised the 
art, or when be ilied, in not exactly kn own. Hie 
works whiL'h be priut«>l are neltlwr so nomeroas aor 
BO beautiful as tbuao of Wynkin de Woido. Ha VM 
the tSrst print^^r, hnwerer, who intredueod the fU»- 
uum letter into England. To Wynkin de WorOe 
and Pynson suoceod a long lirt of ancient tyuun- 
phcra. inta which wo caonirt entsr here. Tarn 
various works and clumotehstta will be found dnlr 
mMrdiHl aud honoured in I>r. Dibdin*B ^tcadid edi- 
tion of Amos and Ilarbort's Typognphical Antiqni* 
ties. Before the middle of the sIxteentL anitniT 
printing had reached a Bourtabing eoadltloa la Bn{- 
laud, In tho reign cif Uonry VII. and his soo- 
cesHir, Hnglish printers, wb are tobl, had baoome ' so 
skilful, as to prml books as weD as any beyund the 
Boas.' 

Tho art of printing is faid to have been intradoerd 
into Btiotlimd shortly aft«r Caxlon's day by Flemish 
priests, who flod tbltber to avoid tb« pereocutloaa at 
home. Ho book, bowovor, is known to axiBt as 
tiaring bei-n printed in Soitland before tho T**T 
1500. The firat STOttiah printer* of wbcoa we bare 
any suthcntlc acoounl wore Walter Chapman, a msr- 
ohant in Kdinburgh, and Andrew Millar, a woslanaa, 
wbi\ in Donseqnen.ce of a patent fmon Jamce IT., 
eiUblisbed a press at Kdlnburgh in lSi>7, that Is, 
fully thirty yoaia afttr Caxton nad aettlod in Loo* 
don, 'In ISOfi,' *ays Dr. Jrring, ' they an known 
to have printed varimu |AtupbLel^ a onQR^ieoi of 
which may be found in the AAnxtXi* UHmrf.' 
The fint volume of the Brertariiun AberdoaaBn 
Issued from their pre« in 1509; the seccnd in I51(L 
Of this very rare book a complete and wall-pnoesved 
ocpy belouga to t))« library of the l.Tni<rendty of Edin- 
burgh. The establishment of priutiag- piw aas tn the 
other principal towns of SccUiuid cannot bs ao aaalf 



PRINTIKa 




I 



Katti^a Fkltliful AdnwDltiaa nnto Ibe Pm- 
of GotTa TmuUis In EngUnd wm, If «« majr 
endlc tb* dtU-pMfro, printod »t Kalytw or Eel«\ 
nb work MppMred Id 1541. Alwrdeen, the lut of 
ft wdnrtLtf, eoiiM not bout of * priirtiJi^prwB tm 
m maeh Uter period. In tin oolophos of ft paeia 
<18U> oa tbe «lBfttk of Biahop FocM. Edwird Rft- 
bfts fltjloft kiniMU 'Uantr prinlfr, tkf jirtt in Aber- 
4tme.' Abont tbo uino ^cu (ICJf>) we fin'l l>o<ika 
pifabed in GlMgmr. In 15:td Thnmn* Dntidion 
pdnt«d, 'in tbe Fry«ra's Wlude,' Ediubunfb. tbe 
Chrrnkkft U Seotiiai, hj Bovtluiu, ftnd la ISIO 
tt« vockl of Sir Dftvid UniWy. Uobert Lcpmrig 
~ wxtem^-nij boUi ftt Bdiubuivb ftwl Si. Aud- 
TlkoniM Vwitf«Ul«r «m ftDoUM- oU Soottbh 
; wbo braogbt out, ia ISSfi, Cftlvia's Iiud- 
; In 15S9, TuMcr'o Poontoof Good HiudModrj; 
Md b 1SS7 Um UmbodoIocIo of King JftciM VX 

b bier dftj* ScvUukI Lm diiUnguuhod IImU Irj 
lb> dtaii ftod bcftotv at fU tvpogrftpbioftl wodoo- 
ttou. RnddLmftn. wbo flouriibed ftt Bduibaijli 
dncnifc tbe finrt hklf ol tin last Mctniy, wfti on* of 
Iba naat Itwiwd |irliiUn vbkk any oonatcy baa 
pndnoad. Tbo irorlu wbicb h< edited ftod prtiit«4 
ftra muMTOBa, and tbojr aro all rantftrkftble for tb«ir 
■CMXJT. Editibwgh cKi boaat ol manj otber tn>* 
•gnffcMft who baw «x«rt«d theauftlvn m cw fully 
Ib «nadUfaiE ihB ftit ; nor ba« GUsgow Iwen bohind 
kt Ihfa Iftbonr of lorn. In Uric, in Rwl>«rt uid 
Andrew Foolia, In Iba Diuuauia, and Dtbera, tUo l>tt«r 
eitj baa ntxhioad printcn wboae worka are alike 
embnlM for ibeir vle^ftnoe and tuccaney, 

tl waft loog afier Ui«t iarattiun that printing «rfta 
iotroduMd into Ireland. In ISM Uia Common 
Ptaj«r araa printed in l>DbUn, bv Hiunphrvj PowwL 
4tav blade letter, and tbla b the eftrllwt twoM 
^vdnctioBoC the Uitb preea. The oatkgii Ubrftry 
nfttaliigne afforda bat on« picc« priutod then ao early 
■ft 9na 191S. liMle«d, unlit as far down as 1700 
my Ceir books wtm |>rint«>d in Imland. AMcrmon 
Gftorgft Faulkner, wbo lived in Uil' lul cuiitar^*, luajr 
ba condd ar ad aa tbe fatbar of Iriab tyyogt%aitj. At 
Um III we n t day tbe p w a w of IhibUa ana toiaft of 
lh*ic<DvlDOWim>daoQ veir nnt wosk. 

Ji'ftWfte of LOUr-pnu rriiUiitp.—Jn order to giro 
afnB fteeoont of Ictter-prMa printing it trauld bo 
I I a Mar y to b^cin wiUi a de«:ri]7t)oiu of tbe oper*- 
tkn of typft-foDDdins; bnt to aToid ftxtaodfaig tbe 
praftEot artide to nadn* Umiti, ire rofar tbo reader 
for infonDBlton un that Hibiect to our nedal article 
Trra-ruuKntxo. It la vaffioleat lor tm reader al 
p t wuil to kaov that every letter, point, and mark 
need In printin; la oast (witb one or tfro exoeptioiM) 
Ut ft dutilMt twly or alatk, and that for t)ie um iff 
tbe printer nomtviniof tbisa typea are ploood in (wUa 
«r bevea^ hi order. In a eaae. Id aocb a way tbai any 
IftttOT or poiat may ba found witb tbe grofttert oon- 
eenJOBiee. 

Tbeae rra ata aiv tnounted ea a atand or franco ao 
chat tboy nwT Lie before the pemn wbo b to eelea 
tbe t>p«^ aiH tbe little eeUa or bosca are ao arranged 
ibat tboae fmtatnina tbe typea moat fr«ini^tly iiaed 
■ball be >aarea t to the worfcmao, wbo b lecbutvijly 
■t^ed ft ceayeetter. Aft will b* MftOy oonocivod, tbe 
■M of the Deoea aro nade Iftrger or ftBiftller accord- 
iftf ne the typea wbJcb tliey conUIn are more or lee* 
benvently retjnired. 

Tbe ^n>«ft woabt of ibc lettera of tba ■Iphftbat, of 
■Uah UMTB are three Unda— 

Lftfge d^iflab, A B C O E F G H I J K L M K 
O P Q B 8 T n V W X Y Z. 

Bmall e^ltalak ABODaroBUKLHROrQBH 

TDVWXtX. 

l^wcr cae^ ftbodefgbijklniDopqrat 
tl * w s « L 
Vm. XL 



TIi« above &n Rocniui Icttl^T1l: we bars the aame 
In Italic, biit in it lonall capitola are rv*. 

I^nrsv enpitala, A B C b S P U I J K L M 19 
OPQRSTVYWX rZ. 

Lower coac, abedt/fflUjiitMnopqritU 
vw X ys. 

Boaidea tbeao tbvr« are many Tiiri«tiee of letter 
nud, such as Old Ecpliab, ami inutattoos of mm- 
ecript lettei^ tbe mctttinn ot which oonld oblj bs 
mrviccable to tbe practical printer. A roUcitinQ of 
tyiivt, aucb aa b peonwary in ordinary drouini>Lnaci« 
for carrvin? on the printintr of a work, la caUmI a 
fintortnnU (frtim the i''r»nch/i>n(';, a caning). A 
(ootiB muat cuiitain nut unly a HafGdcnt nnmbc of 
lettere, pointe, and ligvm, bnt lilcowiie typee to fill 
ap apaeci, and otbei pecvliariUee. 

TypM are of varioaa risen, tfao fotlowiog h<mg 
tboee oommonlj to me among llritiah princr-m Jor 
ngtdar book wo«k:— Englbb, Pica, Small Flea, 
Laae Vtixaar, BonrMoIa, Brovitir, Miaioti. NonpftraD, 
Fea^ SIftmond. Of tlieee variouft riMa we mM g|lrft 
■peetauil% by printing » portion of the Luni 
Prajw. 

Our Father, which art in hea- 

PICA. 

Our Father, which art in Iieaven, 

BMALb PI<:a. 

Our Father, which art ia heaven, Hallo- 

laKo ruiMxn. 

Our Father, wtiicli art in heaven. Hallowed 

BODMIOIH. 

Our Father, wUoh art ia heaven, Hallowed be 

asiriBK. 
Onr Father, which art in bcaven, HaDowod be thy 

Mtmoir. 
Our Father, which art in lieavnn. TTalkwad belby name. 

noerrAunt. 
Oof Fattiw, eblct an la b«a*«B, Hallowed be iby aamiL lliy 

ItABI. 

Oa rulM, «t>)«k art la ftMrta, tiB&wW btlbfetaw. nj »■■•*« 

DUUOWD. 



Tbe aiie of type vaed ta printinit tbb artleb b 
brevier. 

Citopoainff. — ^Wben a work b to be printed ead 
tilt aire of type and fmgo detennioeil upou, tbe cam 
b given to uo ecmpoeltar, wbo plaoee it before htta 
on the Okoa, and lifts out the tj^ in pvoper order, 
nladuc tbem in a little frame of metal wbirb bs 
bolda fai bb left hand. Thu little frame b called 
tbe ooODpo^tf atiok ; one of ita audi b tnarabl*, an 
that by neaoa of a eeraw it may be fixed at a dla- 
tance froBi the otber equal to tbu braa^lh of the 
l-ttKv. Wbenone Une of typee bae been put iaU> the 
flick, the eoBpodter eoDtunea An pr*eei>of afttinc 
until tbo Btiw will not ooBveafaidly bold uonL 
Tl>«9e are now careftdly ellpped out end lUded on to 
a long flat Iwerd witb a Udgt^ and tlw mntm p eec — 
b ODwnncd until one or more pogee baa baea eoan* 
plsted. Any caw eedng fcr the finrt ttac a eom* 
poritor al bb caae must bo itrwk witb •atonlahnent 
at the r^ndi^ witb which the experienoed workmaa 
lif ta the typea frtm their reepeotlT* bosce aftd pUoM 
them In the atkk, while a the laiBft tiaift ee few 
«m>ra arc cvnuoiUoi). In <inler to prevcikt tbe cca* 
puaitor from taming tbe type the wrungway, or ta 



1 



pnTflot the letter from bcLig I»v«rte<I, it notcb or 
nick is cut ou tlio muuc siile of each aurt of t^|>«^ 
whifh guiiirs bim to pikce H right. 

Wlien » wbolo i«(^ has boea oompowd, or Kt, u 
it 1* t«cluicaUy c)ul«d, tbo worlcmnn nlnda the trjMia 
tocetber b; taring a rortt muuil tham. This Is dona 
wnil« the types are on tha Icdgotl board fortnarljr 
apoVca of, uid wtiiuli is nvamlly caUed u gaJlcy. Iii 
Homo cftHe it bccomeB neoeiaary tb&t the author 
■honld an: an in)|irvitai<m or proi'f ai scv^Tal iiagr» 
bvfota tlu))' am tiod up, m order that if anything U 
to tn H^wl or robtnct^d tlio wuifxiitor uuiy be 
HtTod tbe trouble of ODtying aad rotyiog tho pages; 
bat whoD the neneuaiy oornx-'tiiins liavc lircn made 
the tyjicTi an> tied in la^fi*, aa lormcrlj mentluDBd. 
A aiitliinaiit numbtrr of page* bnviug been conif>ci»ed 
in ordor to [viat ooo liiic nt a abMC, an inipmsuoo 
ftova Ihem is token and mbniittffll dni to the insjmo- 
tion of a oorreotor, u-hu, by uduuttf fixaiUiJuuLEuii and 
oanparinn vHb tbo copy, {.'ndcavoura to detect and 
point ont bjr mar^al refcrcnoco all the crrora that 
tb* OOmiiOBJlor tiiajf liavo coitimi'lUxi. Tbia ts called 
the firnt roadiiig cif th» jiroof; ani] wbi^u Ibi* etaa- 
foaitor lia« tiuuu over hut page, utd miMlei Cbti uooM- 
Hary altoraliuuB, a Hoond UDpraalikn u taken. eaU«d 
tho rtritr, which u aba inspected b; tbe mrrector. 
AcL-unlinjc to circumatanoon tvn nr tnni* reiiaBa are 
iaiu\t>: Mid nb^n llu> comrctoi- il Httlifiod the IhI 
reviai} ii scut to th« author to receive Ma oorreotiinia, 
which Mug attvndcd to hj Iba oMnpotltar, and 
exauiiued by the oomsotar, tha cnmpiHttor'a work in 
defltnni) fit for prsM. See CoBBHcrjoM or the 

The pa£f« nf a ahfwt or Half ahmt, after having 
ticca coropuBed and lied vp, are traaufBrrtJil to a larife 
table of imn plnrn-d finite smooth. I'his table Ib fur- 
oisbed with dniwurt coDtatuiojt /umifurv, that ia, 
inatcriala fo'r fixing tbc psfee in thepositiatiii nxiuErcii 
for pniitlng. couaiatiuv vt n-edgea^ oaUed qvoin$; pLcuun 
of wood or metal, sailed n^tt, k,^, Uia lua of wliicb 
we ahull t-mi>nntly deacribe. 

The cuiupuMtur baviDg laid down the |iag«i nf nne 
aide of tbe aheat on the tiiblo Ui (iTTpi-r onlor, |)rit- 
•whU to adjust tboiii finidy ia a rectangular triune 
of Iron, oalliMl a duttt, and the proceaa of Sxing Che 
pafiea la called 'dretunnft tbechaK;.' The chaee being 
iilitn>d ■!> an to hifgird the fimn, the next object la to 
l(mi> chu \'%giv% at a proper dictance from toob ethor, 
la order that a njfular mar^n nay be obUuaed. 
Tbfi pngce are kept at the jiiupvr diiLiQcea fruin each 
other bji mean* rd rvctaiigiilar pieces of metal, called 
gvUert ot ftuta-itUCii, planed between them; and 
another apodea of fnmitiiK^ oalled rtgUtt, la placed 
in tbi^ eramnt of tbe chaaiL so aa to give tbo work to 
be priijtvil. a proper maignt aft«r it la btiund. The 
interior portion of the form bctUK now Qulahcd, the 
outer odgea ate next adjusted, by pla<-in^ aide eticha 
and foot aticka to Uicon, and tbc wliulo is finnly 
•ecured within Uie choae, after hviug proiwrly ad- 

C«d, by dri^'ing In wooden wedges or fwdiaa. Tlils 
pTuoeM te called litcldug np, but hcforo it ta dono 
cum ii taken that all tbe type* idiall have their faoca 
of oue height, which is insured by plaotng over th»iu 
n Sat piece of H-ood, and atriUDg It down with a 
woAd«& nallct. 

The ocin]]3iuiitor ratrnt arrange the pagca and fii 
tlieni in tbe chaae, iii such order that when the 
intpreaaicn is takL^n off. and tbe ahoot folded, tho 
nam* will follnw each othor in proper order. Thons 
Was '*''* aidea in a idieet^ muI dght or pcrhapa 
aixty-fonr pagea on OMdi ride^ aome conaidenUon la 
required to la; down the pa^oa properly. On cxam- 
lofaig a printed ahaet iiuout, eontaining aixteen or 
thirty-aix pagea, tbia erill af^tear at fitet «gbt a very 
Intricate matter, and H must be owned that whoce 



the pajfea an mmarana liftibaat Ibe ■mugainaat 
of the pogee (called tmpod&g) require^ erea haa tbe 
moat esparienoad OMnpmdtnm, can and eannderation. 
Tho proceaa of inpoaing is, however, buxj upon a 
aimple law, wbleh, It ^pUed, cannot faQ to guard 
l^alcal uiistakea in tbe arrangement of the pafea 
In a work like the pneaant it wooM be oeanpaeMf 
out of place to enter into very minntedetalla leaps ulim 
this or any other bran^ of tba proceaa; but in «Hw 
that tbe reader may aee that there iaategnlara j a U M 
(IT law obaemsd in laying down the page^ wa wiD 
aubjoio plana of tlte paffea of a abeet of Bvo^ ISmi^ 
and Igmo; that fa. <a aboeta DooaiBting of afarteea, 
twenty-four, and thirty-six pMeo. It nmat be pe»- 
mised, howei-L-r, lb:it the sheet being painted OH both 
aides, that side which Pontaina the fint p^e li lh« 
Rhcet ia called ttto onter forro, and the other b oalled 
the inner fonn. In intpaaing the p>);ee are oS eawaa 
laid down in ttoslLTons tbe reroree of tfaooe they will 
take when printed. 

A Shfrt of Canmom Ortam. 
Otilw Form. lunar Pons, 



B 


B 




1 

A 


ID 



BI 1 1 V \ I 9 1 1 n I w I 



K 



u 



u 



A Shttl of Ttotlra. 
Ontar Form. looMS Venn, 



QQ 



S 01 



QSQ 



□QQQQQBQ 
lllQEin^QQ 

A SSuet qf Eijhlteiu, viA Oni Stfitrntm. 
{>bUi Porm. 



01 




IE 



es 



ss 






Ul 



□□□□ 

InridT .fonn. 

nnrinn 

IbJ I 9 I I ^sj I M 1 1 i I 

□ □□□□ 



A liltlo attcntioa to the longaitig examples wiU 



PRHTTIKO. 



291 



I Aom Ihftt line order (olUnred to tbe fint u utity 
;«ttwUd la tlw mora <»iii{ilex fonra. It will bo 
Bwhad that (1m pagv so two t^ WOk muI that the 
' aonboi et tbMO pftgM mm kMm) tc»«ther tiw^jt 
aaakm ooa mcra thui the number «f UM [Wgw ooo- 
buwd b th« Aft. llivra Iwing mut; uiMtii In 
WOW work*, ic would became a aikttM* at gn»i em- 
' tamaaneat for tbe pemut who fokU them la be lal- 
<ll^M"g Clw tHunlwr Dt the p^v that Bbould b« Ifao 
[\4nt b) onbr whila pUdiv tbem togethor; in nnli!*' 
to ebHu« wUdi, lettan («dled dgiuliirM) on plsoed 
«l tb* bottow (4 tha lo«lla; pi^ of cuh aheot, a for 
th« fint, B for ttM ■Mond, O for the tttird, »od ho no 
tkroo^tha whoU alphabet, and if that be exhausted 
• MMM atpbabrt ii mnumaoti. Tinu, bjr iuer«l,v 
V^MnC M w i^Bafian the collator k« at once the 
Bro u w tdaea which th« alieet ahoaUl occupy in the 
boML Tba«avalthel«ttenof th« alphabet fur tb!a 
ntrpow i* now bdog tuf om i aA by figvra^ wpodall; 
n txbaatn worin, eaob ibaat baring a noaMutive 
moibCT, 1, 2, 3, &« 

Aa ipadflcd bt tha htitorj of tb« aft, priaUng waa 
bat pariocnwd bjr taldug inprgHiau Crotn aoUd 
Uai9t% prialiB^ mm morablo tjrpa bebf a later 
hmatJao, asd dKktadljr a vaat impcovoaeitt In 
Buira innlfwn tuDM a Und of juaoUoa of tbs two hai 
pruved of tha crcatMt advantago^ Mfwcially to Miofl 
fliMia el pnbUaatoB. We r«fec to the iaviuitifm fif 
Mtnti^fi prialug. Of thia htaoch of tli« art U will 
anlj M aaoet^krjr for a* ta glvn a bripf ootlinn hnm, 
■a a detailed aeootuit wiU be fuoud under mit uticio 
SnMtarm Vvmitta. 

Vi\in Um cooipoattnr hae act an a p^e and tied 
il, ae [onuerly dmribed, it in fixed into a niiaU cfaaae 
or inw hsina, afl«r baviaf bean duly *»ft'"'nM aod 
■enaete j . A mould of gypenin or pUateraf Paria fa 
HVwi of tba pag«^ and a caattng td the whole paae is 
f*~" fo tjpa metal, Ui« caai Mbg one loUd pute, 
Iba plalee atanwary to eomplete a (ami ars locked 
ia a ch*Mi in a way almllar lo tbe movulik type 
wyv aad aent to pns^ tba after procea* with both 
MUf tbeaame. 

B«rora wa dlnaiea tbe oonildflntlon of the duty of 
tba eoDpoettor, we mtut adnrt to a part of bia buti- 
oaa whicb foUowa that af tin [B w man. Wbaa tbs 
^nrntaaK baa pvliitad off lU tba Inaprcarfma that tm 
to te tahaB mo a fom of nwvabM tjpc^ tbe cbaM 
Il aaislad baefc to the «aiiwd«g room, and the com- 
fadtot nadoea tbe woric that waa foniMirly done, bv 
dbtriboting all tbe trpei, or putdng Ui«iu Into thuir 
reifaotiva eelb ia tba eaea Aa mndi accuracy is 
m^lnd Id the openClen of dietributing aa in that 
ot eeapoKag, far if a ^pe be put into a wrong bo^ 
■■ amir aiwt an iiMirily ba oafDmlttad Id ooupodaK 
agab Cran Ibe aame oaiw. Any oonfuaioB that may 
«1H in tba aBMnblage of types, atUiiff from aoa> 
dent «a aafdeaRMae^ c n ua M great txoubk^ aad tbe 
typM tbas dlMfiaagad era called Pit. 

A cDOpoahor ovgbt to bo bttiiaBtely oosnnaat 
irflh o«tbecnpby, oapedally tn dletrlbnUeo, ea tmn 
oamdUad ia ifwliag wiU throw tba whola oaae Into 
fl», TIm ODtopadtor dwnld alao ba wall ranwl in 
Iha nl« of pttBonutloa, aa tbta la Tety oornnooly 
fJ K i J bjr Iha aatbor in Ua »aaiiacripl» or mom- 
■iBMa aaly partiaDy attotded to. Many peraon* 
wadd ha apt to lau^oa tbat eomuueUon mwt aeeaa- 
MrSy be p om u mia ot • great deal ol InforaMtloB, 
liMB tbafr attootiT* penual of worfca gotog tbroagh 
tfalfr hand* on e\-ery variety of aubjeot. Ae writer 
of tfaia article baa had wmeroaB opportiuld«« of 
eoBpactBg tba inteUigaaca a( wc u pO Mto ta with that 
of w abiu e u engaged In other hrandbca of ioduatty, 
aod fnm elwamiticai be baa no haeltatloB In eayi^ 
that oanpoaiton are aborg avenge; yat tbie aritea 
B>4 ep amcb tron their peewal of woilta i^a eagaged 



in w4tin{; or compoeliigi ea bom prirata leading; (ot 
whiln vng;agiiid at tho caao their attention ie eo Btadi 
biltmi lip with tbe machanioal part of tbe pmccM, 
that Uic train of thought of the author can be little 
altondod to; to that a biatorical work may be aot op 
from bReinaiiig to end by a uompusitor, wlio at tba 
teimiuaUoo could not abow uudi iatimaoy ragonling 
the Bubjaot of whiob H troatad. 

Aa before obMrved, when theform bu baendraaed 
and fiuiebed by the oamptnLUir. il i* tout to the prcw 
mail, wbo fixea the ohaee in hi* pnaw and adjiut* it, 
HO that a unifotm and dietincC impreaalon may ba 
taken off. 

Grmptaijig XtaekineM.—^veni attempta bavo been 
mado to cxpodil« tba work of the oompoiiibar by 
calling in the aitl of maohinary, Tbeee attempt! 
have hitherto bean only portially Rictfeaaf lU. A largo 
purUun of tbe oompoolUv'a work oonnlria, aa baa bom 
ozplaiiied, in Domctlag the laador'a and the author'! 
prooK in anaoeing the typea in pagei, in impodog 
tbeee fpa hi lornii, and m drvadng tlM foRna far 
prMB— aU which pracoNae an, in tiMir natore, and 
from their variety, beyond tba range ot machinery. 
In that MTtioB of Ue work again wUoh doM oomu 
witliin Utls r&ngo — namely, the procesMS of '<mm- 
pming' and afterwaribt ' durtributing' thu type* — ao 
mudi of mitid m letiutred, that tbe macbiue, bow- 
eTer excellent In itaelf. can never be ncarded m 
anything dao than a Mp, certainly not ai a wMi- 
lutf. Foroniaponngnow«]Miieni, however, where Iba 
work iaof tbeplaIutMtdcecription,aDd!peadbot Um 
6rit conaequaooG, aa alao for a large proportion td 
buok-worlc, it ia very tiroliati1« Uiat macbinm naj 
yet be extuudvaly a»etL TIm main featuma of tboea 
whtob have yat bwn oontrived are tba eamo In aUnoet 
all eaaoa, and can ba very readily onderetood. In 
tbeir working tha tjpea are not UfBed as by the 
fiagen of Iba oompoutor, bat aro drooped, Hon- 
nntal cbaanela, ra p waM t t i ng tbe boxca of the oidiiiBry 
caac, ooDt^u each a iropply of a pArtirulnr type, 
ranged or iirt no in a n>ir in witnu order pt-culiar to 
tbe machioo. Kacb of tlieae chaoii«li ia provided 
with an apparftlus by which, on a simplo touch of tba 
finger of tbe operator or oth«rwi»e, a tyiie nan ba 
Ubaaated from the end of the row, wbeii it iiuuieili- 
ately dasceada through a parpendicnlar or sloping' 
obanael to a oouunon oatlet, and dn^ into poeition 
in a coatrivaucie capiivalent to the oompealBoi'a 
'atick.' Thia contrivanoe variea In dlSerenl mft> 
cblnee, but In none of tbem la tbe oparatlan of 
'spacdng out tha lineh' ev ""'""if it of unifcnn 
breadth, aooonplUbcH, thia requiring to be dona bj 
baniL 

It win be aeen from tbl> gaoenl ikatdi that tba 
gain in macfaine ovor band oonpoiing Uei aolely la 
tbe difleronoa in time between tba h^'of tlte ooaa- 
poaitor InvelUng lo dlflefant bono, picking up a 
type^ and olarfag it in proper podtSon in hia stldc, 
and travdUDg U aad rinply ton«<>liig tbe Uberstlng 
eoatrivanoa^ Uieao eztamally being in ganeral rimSar 
to the keys of a piano-f<^rta. One of the main draw 
badca to this gain is the neceadty for prerbmaly* 
tanglag tbe typ«a ia order In tba aopply-duaMK 
an uptvatlon whldi, wbca parfbcmed 1^ band, vtrta< 
ally anKNOita lo a pralinunary cow poring done fai tho 
ordinary nuuiaar In rowaof aeperate latteta. Variooa 
oontflTsiioas have boon brongfat forward to eoaUa 
Uwdistrihatkaito ba made direct Into tba cemperfng- 
madiine ■*■""**■. but no «M of thesa baa proved 
Itself anllnly efBdmit. 

JfenUnHR <t^ Primtinff. —Tbe mecbaniam oT leltor- 
pram priatbi^ at first of tbe slmpleat poadUe Uad* 
tu» made nmarkabla ad'ancea Ui raoent yean, having , 
raasl«ad tbe attantion of soma of tba bit Inreaton 
aad MMbaafa. Tbraa matbods have been (oUowad 



lor fibbdnliig tha fanptv«don -which prodiima thtr 
printfld aheetk llio brat aud aimiilut !■ by tko 
oiivjuini Mgninat Muh othnr of two ll»t *iirfac«s, iino 
cfttrylu^- tlio lype-lonn unl tbu other tbc blank sb«et 
U> b« priDt*d. Of thli mode figa. 1 and a ol PL 
I'iiXI -CI.X JI. ivre' L'irtin|ile«. The iie'»i)ff i" 
bj thu ntabinu of > cyliiiiler iibuv« m table wUch 
tr»Tttl« h»ckwiin)a iwd forwiu-dx, Md which ia in 
ocsLliMt with thu cylinder ia aidvKi)cute>, but fnw la 
nCunLing; the tAhl« Id thU cue atrriiM th« type* 
while tho cylinder hringit xabt conUict with thoiu tho 
bLttiik abDot. Figa. S-Q nra niamgilna of thii mndo. 
The third aod soost roM'utly adi)pt<.-d uictliud u iLv 
DOBtoct of two cjrh'Ddera conaUcitly revolvliig in tho 
wUDfi dircoUon, »nn rArrying thp t/po-^urfactt on ita 
circuiufenniiw, hoO th» oth«r bringing' against it a 
coutinuoua wab of paper vbldi b utcnrardi aevcnd 
into Khc«u. Pi^ 7 of tha p\at» aod the fllnetratjon 
on p I2tt0 are examplM of Uua olaae. The Snt iDodn 
fajM iMon dealgiutM the ^ilatcn principle, the leaoEid 
the cylintltr, ud tho third la coming to be known u 
the rotary. 

The Uand-prat. — It may he wnll to eivti, in <xm- 
nectinn nnth tbe hau'l-pivw, tLedutAilsat thi- prui'«n 
of luakiiii; rva^iiy uid princtii}; a fo'nn of tjpoe, a pro- 
ewi oonmon ta all i/iiu;hitiRi<, with crrtiin ohvintia 
DkoAflcationa. Thu jntj^er to ha {>niil(nl ti dtunpod 
with dun water brfure It U 8ub3u>.-U'd tu the action 
•C the pree^ in vrdur that it may bo Boftaned, and 
tbni aocanunodale itaelf tu the turfacc of the typea. 
A few ahnct* arv dipped in a tmagb of water uid 
laid ujHin a hoanl, a fow dry fhaeU ar« Wd over 
fbeee, and thtiu a fuw wet once, and u on until tho 
whole arp pili>d up in a heapi. Th«j are then ]iTit 
Inbl a ouiuiniin ni'ri-w-prrM in order that thii wntur 
ma; bo premFd luiifnrmly thrmtgh them, 'f'hn ilc^rnii 
at daiDplnir wlU depend ou the nature of thu paper 
and other circonutancoa whi-ch cxporlBoee alone can 
tegiilfcte. The prMsroaQ fliat laya tha Innor form 
on tho pii?M and printa ooo copy. whlA {■ called a 
prett retire: thin he takoe to tho pcnon appointed to 
renao it, atid while the teriaiiMi ia being dinie securM 
the form on the table el tlte prcas; Ulcea the abepa 
afterwardu dcecdbed ai nooonary Co produce a tuu- 
iorm impreMioD over all tho pagea; tiiM thn nntntH, 
whioh make snail huU'i iii tha paper Uiat eu&ble biui 
to caiMB the D^«s to fall pTadaety nn the hitck of 
•aoli other when the aeoond aklo «f tho paiwr ia 
priatod ; and eoti his trialut, as tron frame filled In 
wHh Micv, hinged ao that It can bo folded upon the 
Uank aneat to cDrer It ovar, oic«pt the pwrta to be 
printed. W]u'n the revlie la oorrectod he proceeJa to 
IdIe the aurf aoo uf tho typm by nteAnfi of a roller, lays 
Ob them a blank Bhl^«lt «if pik|«r, and placca the two 
'Ondcr the platen, the downward xiueeixe of which 
oanaea tha ink on the typea t^ adhere tu tbe pnper, 
SBmI the latter ii then withdrawn. After one ciilfl (f 
the paper la thus printed to thn rciiuin»l nnmtirr tho 
preMman lift* the forai ult the pren, woalm thv ink 
off tha fade of tha typo with lye. and rlaaua it with 
water. ITe thm nrocccda in a eimilor manner with 
the outer form, tbua oumjiklin;; Uid ihocb. Thi< 
procam ii continued aheet after ^eet till the work la 
eonplete. 

Td« firat impnwiao oMiJned fe gesondly very 
Im^ijlar in dept h eome part* of il may be heary 
■DODgh to go thronjA tbe paper. whUe othera can 
■oarcoly bo aeoa. This ia Bpodally tn» of the fltvt 
lupnaion from atert- otypo platee, and ariaoa from tbe 
laol that bi-'ilhtT Die pUtea themaelvea^ the blncka of 
wood on which tbny are placed to bring th*^iu up to 
type-heiffht, nor the blanket lued to laAeD tho impnw- 
U(Ui on Ue trpea, are of equal thiokneae thronghniitt 
uur are eren the planed faoea of the Iron earriage and 
platen perfootly flat. Tho plan advptod for rcmedyiDg 



thia drfeet, caDed maitvv rtadi/, forma perkape the 
moat fmpvtant part of tiio pnnman'i duty, and la 
Boor work and Id wooilouts (whcro it aerrco an addi- 
tlimnl purpoiv) it ofti'n taiea hia utmcwt aldlL Tlte 
prooeae ia commonoed in the eaae of alereotypa platea 
by pladng pieaea of thick pkpor batwesn tba pUla wd 
the block, to bear up tha parte vbich are vary low. 
Wben thi« boa benn done a« completely aa can he 
jud^d from the appooranoe of the lint faopr^aika, 
a Bocond impNeeloD la taki^ to show the reanJt and to 
);uidcinfiirthi'r un<frr/aj(i'n{f, aaitiacalled. When tbe 
imnreaiRan hu thui been brought to a roogb ettnallty 
Il u wnnewbat aiuiUar to the fint Impr c wIa D obtaioad 
from a form of morable typae, and tba mode ol pro- 
codum ia cbiuigni. Pulling a abeet from the fora, 
tha pTnwnan bya it on a cult ins-board in a good light, 
with Ita bottom or roui^h aide nppermtwl, ao that tht 
impmeaicm may be eociiy Bocn. Hetbrn withaahaqi- 
poLiitixI knitn cota away the parta of tho paper Ihiat 
ore to'i ht'ovily Impreeaed, and paataa [daoee eo tboaa 
parta whiciL are too light ^e aheet being finlAad 
(now called a siuUtDt), in no placed in Uw prat m 
to be (!iactly above the typM when aheeta are bcteg 
priutoJ. Awcond iibe«t fora akvUtnn in now nolloa, 
ahowlng tho progrvw that baa been made, and it it 
trpatoil In mwnUely tiie aamo maiui«r- lie "'"'*'* 
of time* which Utia la r«peated defends maialy «pas 
the gxuUtcg of the work which it u intendMl to pre- 
dnoo, varying from one to three, four, or eres lia 
ahMta, the roniit lieing that tbe ImpTeaaion ia per- 
fectly ret^'ilai*, and ai]pt'<*'"({ the tv|jcs to get an 
Oiiiial aiRonnt of iuk, the printed anoet ahoWB bttt 
one ahade vt colour. 

Making ready woodcuts aa already Indfeatrt, 
aervea another jnirpoae, and requiroe moro aIdD and 
caro. Oil ;;U[iciuii! at an ongraTlng, ^y a landacape 
view. It will be euun that aomo pMta of H ara U^ 
and open, such aa clonda and obiocta in tba dtotiiiWL 
while oihen are heavy and black, aa Bgorva aas 
biiildinga in the foragrotmd. Tho amount of piu m uw 
nccwanry to bring up tiieae latter parta wvuld U 
very much too great for tho former, malchig them 
coar*# and blurred; bealdQa that, with an atjual 
imprceridu it would be impouHbte to give thi nioa 
CTadfttionnof abade ohaemble In a flrat-daaa engrar- 
ui}[. It waa formerly attempted to meet the requtr*- 
nienta of tha nuw by making tho sngravwd aurhoc 
of unequal hagtjt, tbrve [inrta bebiK lower iridbh 
were wuhed printed light, the edgea en otheii gradn- 
ally alupins away till they quito dia^tpeared. It la 
now found, howevnr, that tha aame reauH ean be 
more effldw^y obtained in the maliLig raady. A 
ahcot la pulled from tbe blook to be wtvked, aad «a 
thu back of it ia fixed bv Ute comen aercral layen 
of paper, varving from three to aix, aooording to the 
varii-tv uf Uk'tit and Hbade Id tbe aubjeet Tbe work- 
man then proModa to cut away tht layon of paper 
fiiiui ci-rtikin [i.ut*. taking out one, tw<^ threo^ or man 
Inyera aa he wiabea them mode mure iir l«aa Uafafc. 
Tbl§ akelet<in picture ooaatitutea an or«r/av, and wliea 
fiuiaheid it is plac«d in tho aame way aa the alctletaii 
thn jthL-ot next pnllnl will obvionaly hara otore or 
lew preaaure aoootdJng as tbe layen of papts have 
been mora or le« aatinly est aw»y. TliJa, Dowsrar, 
is gcneraUy vgit far fron nJfideai, aad to eoniplela 
Ute making ready aheeta an auoeeaafTely polled and 
aingly oat out In a almUar uamtar untu the daidnd 
reaull la obtuncd. An examinatino ef Km* el tba 
liner illiiatrntod work* which are oonstaatly ianlag 
froiu the pn-ie will abow «-ith what auoeeaa tU> H 
done. 

In former timea tho ink waa put upon tta tjrpea 
by moana of two atoSed leather balla on wfaldi aena 
ink waa aprvod, a prooeaa which baa boen ahtHulonad 
bwn Ita extreme tadiouanaaa. Inataad of the balla 



I 



k J 



PRINTlNa. 



SOS 



an darthvivQsr !• now to gsoenl um. ThU Toiler 
dorim tottliiticsty tmn » oovcriuf; u( a oompoatti'm 
111 trtarln Uld gliMk The Ink i» spread apoD (ui tna 
taUe, frain wfakli a put {■ Ukcn on W tbc roller and 
■pnwl on tb* fom ol tjpca "v«rj tinui tbe carriage 
otf tb* |it«a It dmro <nil. A* dl*i<k)D of Ubmip 
fftttM slBuist stwy pfooon of art, to to thia it U 
CoODd advMUgOOU to bftv« tn'o wuTkjn>Mi enga^od 
M tlw Miaa t^M at on* una^ tti« oim di»tritiabiig 
Ife bk on tb* tn>«. whib tbe «tti«r !■ «Bcag«d in 
pnlHag tba hn p rwileiM. 

'Hw |iif aacl bj tintenbeay was of a tctt nid« 
dsao^itka^ and wuuld appear to hava be«D little 
bttUr than a dweaf-Mw, 71i« pnanin wm ob- 
labiad bom a avnr, init u tldi kbcw mut 1iav« 
tuttam down with n dead pnQ, there VM groat danger 
fif iai'irinit the typCK Th* fint improvaOMnt on 
Ibis ocHm mwu to hav« Iwod th« otHuitniciticia of 
tba riba or tramvfty, on vhich the oanlacu irai nin, 
•nabting the trpe-form to appruBcb and withdraw 
rapidly from tba InpTMsing inifacs^ Other nocowi- 
tiwwon aftvraroM, chiefly that of obtainloK a raptd 
mooU ul tha platfiB fram th« lypa without tho screw 
nqniiiag to be tuned tonitd igaiB: but it wnii not 
tiU the yeer IftSO that it waa met by tlii^ invculiuu 
o( WUIem JaonOQO Blaeu, a native ol Anuterdtun. 
The peenliarity of thb praei was that tbo caniago 
hokSn^' Ibp font! wm wound bcluw the point of 
p^vura, wliirb woi giTDD by a handle atlAcbad to 
m Wflvw banKins on a beam. Charka Mahgn, the 
(hM Mil e< StHtbope. wh the antbar of the next 
neat bafiMtmitmt m friatbiMnmta, ahout 18D0. 
He daeiied a eerice cd leveii, wsidi be ^)ptied to tho 
eld agrew-pnee. "RMee loven broofht down tho 
piatHt with gitally Iccivaaed rapUIty, and what wia 
uf etill greater Inpurt^ioe, M»kveit«d at the proper 
■>Tmtnt that motMNi inio pnaure. Tho prceaufe 
WM audw gnat conlrolt ana oipalib of caay adjiut- 
iL Tb« prai wae of [ran, and not of wood, aa 
I the eeae with all previoudy oonatmcted preaaca, 
1 It aiUUted a Dcunber of cootrlvancee of the 
I character for fadlitatfaLfc the work vt 
la 1813 John Rathiren, a printer of 
^ patented a preN on the levor prludple, 
t eevent decided nsprovenwnt^ 
ke Clofambian Pkm, famnted In 1814 by G. 
Cljmer, Philadelphia, waa iotrodnoed Inte thIa ooun- 
tn In 1818. In thia pnea tiie pcrwor b obtalnod 
aoUj by a wyaUaa of levet^ withcral the interventian 
■ilbar of Borewa or iadined pUiMA It la rvputed to 
powerful of baAd-proaeea^ the worfcmao 
ahle to null with it a b«avy form with coid- 
ive eaee. It b, howervr, defective in dunbility, 
I of iteparta bdng liable to break even altbougb 
■etured with the mBtcat can. 
The AlhkMi preaa (Tl C1.X1.-CLXIL tig. 1) la 
ill imjmned lonn oombinei tho eeeottial raqoiBlca 
of a leliitlim pnae ijnnil. tauy ]iull, and duraUli^ 
h a bish defrefr The lmpr««iiun b ifi^^va by meane 
of what ta odled a konclue-Joi&L In their normal 
ooodttion the two parte cf thb joint lie at a alight 
anfile to eadi other. Wbca Ib^ ate bcvoght Into 
Une their entife lentfh b flooaaqtiallr hmMM^ 
aad to that extent ttMj ■• made to dapn— the 
plate n . Thn return ef the Blateo b efloc^ ly a 
atraig heUoal epring Enelaeed in the onitral epcqibt 
protactlaa eeen In l£» caoravlng. 

Hie great Uboarnqnued to work the band-preait 
etna in ita meat Impawed tem, aa abu ttw- Klowneaa 
of the pjoo w ^ two warkmen not twang abla to throw 
oA mofw than 220 hnpreealoaa an huur, rradered ft 
il^iable that aciao mare expadltloaa and easy method 
«f lafclag Impreaidona fnn ^pea ahonU beohfadned; 
end «e are now aboat to dnw the randv'e nWnttifln 
to thiF piogrgee and preaent atatw of the attompto 



that have been made to rapenede the hand-pren by 
the sp{ili»tioD nf machiDery, 

Printing iTorAtiMf. — 8o early a> the year 171*0 
Mr. NinhoUcio took ont kttare- patent for printiag 
by machiutiry. Hia plan oonebted in funning the 
types with a tapering body or atalk, In order that 
tocy might be pUoed on the nrfaoe of a cytisdw, 
and l(c[it onmpact Uke the Tonaaoiis of an an^ 
Thcae typea heug placed on the aurface of a^thtdsr, 
be djetmnted the Ink by mean* at ttiilTed roflere or 
ImMihei. Hb prtattfay-naehino never bceaaa araU- 
ahle In prartlo% yet be deaerrea the cttAiX of bdng 
the Gnt who aoggaaled the apE>lica4iun of cylindere 
and inkinz-TaQeia. About Uat yuan lolMcqiMint to 
thb period one KlJuIir, a i^rliitcr in Sitxoay, turned 
hb attentloa to tho improTemcDt of the printing- 
pnae, with a riaw riiinflj to ar<^lerato It* cneratlm 
By nnmenraa 7X]}eriininilal trtala, and irith the aarfet- 
anee of another Geman named Bauer, ho at Ia«t 
prodnoed a maclnno for printing, which, with niudi- 
flcationi anil impravementiv etandi^ both with reafMct 
to ingenuity uf medianhan and hnportanco of appU- 
catiun. la the first nok of tbe uanumenta of bomiA 
Jiit'lligcDCc ISdag uuiubiuerfid in all hb aj^ilic*- 
tiimii to tbo printen and capitaliata of hia native 
ouuutry for aaalataoce to hring bb eoheme lut<> (i))er- 
ation, he came to London fa 1804. Then he waa 
for a conudcrahlr time rvnrivod with eijtial oeldneaa^ 
until he met with Mr. Bviolcy, wbo hail the a^aei^ 
to peroetre ami tbe bMldnen* to adupt the ywnit 
the faige^oua Haxno. Mr. l^oiuley and hb eopaitav 
Mr. Taylor (a nrintiH); oiimfiany in which the caW 
brated Woudfali had till a ahort Ume prevtona h^ 
a abare) made n am rw !• attempta to btbv tbe machine 
into operation, and ultimately auooeedea fat oomplet- 
ing a model, the action of which ao aatbfiod Kir, 
Waher, proprietor of the Tiioee newapaper, that an 
B g ietnwt wu entvtd Into to «rMt twa t"''>*t 
to print that jounaL Thaee madiinea were acoenl- 
ingly erected, but ao eecret eraa tbe matter kept that 
Itic )>u1)Ue kiiew nothing conoemlng It ontll, «a tbe 
:^th ^A XoTcmU-r, 1^1 1, the reader of tbe Tbnea 
WM infermcd that he held in hb band a paper printed 
by Riaijiiiuvy nuived by Uie power of atoam. llib 
U tvtuiiionly aoppoead to be tha flrat epedmm ef 
printiiigoxocotea by (team machinery; bntamaeUlM 
wae act to u-ork in April, 1811, and 3000 Aeelief 
kiguatuni II uf tbe Annii«J Ufvtater for 1810 were 
prUtC«d by it. ThU waa undaiuiitsdly the fint Wert: 
priatod by machinery. The machine we an now 
apoaking of waa only caMble of nrlnting the abeet 
un one aide, and the diatnbutaon of ink waa mwiiniJ. 
tbe Inklng-rDllare being covered with leather inMeM 
of Ibe w poi M cft flC ^oe ad tnado fcnm e ib 
aDnded to. Tlun faapecflMitiooa wen reetUe^ and 
improred "*"*■'"■- wore offered fat aale hy Ucamm, 
Denaloy ft Col in 1817. Thb machhie perbrmed ita 
wwk my well, and ahltongh it baa girea place to 
mntWaeaef a mora nmpla eeaetnwUoB in the nteota 
dotoil, jet the leadtaig nbidplea are foUowed In Ibe 
oonatrantion of tbe mannlnae of Dud>m date. 

In %. 5 cf tiw plat* we have given a rlew of 
Uw cranaiy pcrfectis^ cylindnr machine need in 
moot book oBoea. It la iDo*ed by a (teamnmipna^ 
the power being eommunksted by a belt iieidng 
Riand a pulley [lacnd b tbe op^rito aide cf Uw 
■a*hliwi nen that l ef K a ai i t a d m nor vfaw. The 
i»jh4n* reqnbM the ilTtiiairii «f two boyi^ one 
to dafiver tbe dmete to ha prbte^ aad tbe otbca' to 
receive them after the fanpieariaa Tbe feeding boy 
bringe the edge of cadi abaat ef Uaak paper betweoa 
two ayateme of andlMa tapen at a point where tbey 
epan to raoeive it; at a given inataot tbeen olnee, 
grip Ibe abeet, and carry it Into the inaohJDr, Tbe 
andlBM t^oa are adj&M«d ao aa to lie upon tha ahaet 



on ttioae jiarta only that arc not to Im hMI Ml I7 

ibe typ«M.or in DthvrwordAtlio tapM toooh on^ tbi 
Riai^nx ftfiYl the divixiniu brtwc*D thn pftgcs. in orripr 
thftb ilicy ma.y bolt) tbn pApn' dnrinK the whola uf 
Its piugresi tlmiugh tha mtteLiue. The uw of tlicK 
twamkmaof t&piaiitoIltatpthoHlinct initapropor 
poiitiao during tiin piTOMM^ Mid tbua to iniiiire ui 
aoonntte regitfer oc Llio exact pladng bade to back 
o< tbo pag«i on botli ildaa of Ura ibovt. The most 
nmnlnont part* of the tDachiiic an two laigo cyUn- 
aem am) two int^im^HilAte amaller <!Tlln<]ec«, mund 
vrliich the a^ifUitiiH of tapea irhic-h w« liav« spoken uf 
abom paiu, nni) cjury with thi^ni thn shnnt* of pB.pnr 
to be {jriiited. Tliunv fuur cyUuJinv rovotvo upon 
ues Bopportcd bj the framework of tfaft nadutu. 
Tba QM (if the- inUirniccIJnt« c^ltndcn ia to effect the 
tumiaK of tbc ahcut, ao that aftvr an imunadoti liu 
been riven on one Bid« by one of the duub e^rHndon, 
thft oUier aido majr receive an impMidun hy pusin^ 
roon^ tha nthrr tnaja cylinder. Whon thn ahni't 
atrlvts ai the bottom of tbo fint main cylinder it 
oeam Into oontaot with tfao i^jrm of tjp«a lyln^ m-^-u 
the caning Tbs theet barine thns r«ccivcd on 
Smpnsiian, and ticing ittill heUf between the Iwn 
ayiit«nii of tagieii, la carried upwarda over the fint 
ittt^rm-cdinta (.'ylinder, then ondur tho second intcr- 
medintu rylinricT, and ovt-r a conAidcralilc portion of 
the upper [Kirl vt the iieoincl maiu. cylinder, prui'ifpd- 
iog round and onder whit^h it ivxitviw an imjuvminn 
frcm the aecacid fonn aucn to tbo tctt, about to paw 
under thia cylinder. 'Vhn aboeC being now {»lnt(^d 
on both aidea, mutt be freed by the tapn, and fi.ir 
thia purpoao tho two «yiit«in« *epar>t« and jiunuu 
dtfTorent louto to the puiut whirv they wiuueucvd 
their joint notion. The printed ebeet U then receiTed 
by an attendant boy on a table in tho clear apace in 
the oantra of the machine. 

Having now eontddeied the dmple yet inffontous 
■tiTituT in vducli Uie two ajitcms of tapea are adjuated 
in enler to preeure an aocurate reei^ter, a prilnt of 
tho higheat iinpoitKiioQ, wo ehal] noit draw the 
roadw^a attontion to the carria^ before aUoded to, 
on which the two forms uf typm are laid. 

Tho carriace correeponcU in otflco to Uia table of 
Ui« coaimon Wid-pcMB, beiujt tbo bed or table npou 
which the fomui of type are laid. The oparatlon of 
the machioe n^titree that it ehcu]d have an alter- 
nating hnriznntkl mnLion., whiob i* obtained by 
niuuutiiiK Et npon eaatora or wlieela that move upon 
two roils or ^das flnnlj fixed to the frame of tbe 
inu^hinr. 'Iliia reciprocating notioo of the oairiage 
ia dTttctiHl l>r a piiiiou ttiruitig in an endleaa rack 
below, thu t»uth of thu ]^nion acting 00 the teeth of 
tbe upper part of tho rack to drive it forwnrd, and 
^oin on the U-eth nf tl)6 tinder jinrt li^ c&iise it 
to retlini. ThiH part of the appiiratus cikDtiut lie 
npreavnted In thn vngravio^, hut thia ii of tho !•«■ 
OOHMjnence^ a« It ia a couuivauce well known Cu 
ever; mechanic aa being one of the aimpUet and 
moat elfectiva metkoda of convcrtine a continuoiia 
dmilar motion iolo a ractilinoar Mt«matinff one. 
The rack appnrattu is cnnnectod to the carria^ by 
a aimplu arrangetni^nt cif levers. Tbo Car>i^[e thus 
moviuK alternately backwardii and [orwardi carriea 
the two fonns of typoa (which are aocurely fixed 
upon it at a prnpnr diatanoe) alternately midor tbt> 
main cyliuilcn. whkih give the iraprcMon. The 
adjii*tm>-iit of tliQ two fnmii upon tho cAniagc muat 
bo properly made, cthorwiau the rei;iater wilt lie 
dettroyed. It should be notad that abont one-baU 
of the dlatuctvr of each of tbo main (^linden i* 
iwliicvd about half an Inch to alliiw of the fm 
return »f tbe lype-fvnu, which otbvrwiae would priut 
both going and coming. 

BjDomcana the loaat important or loaet iagciuinia 



doputawnt nf tbe printbu BBcUBe b Um appantv 
tcr ftgpWitffg and diActbutbig the litk, p ei lo i Mu J 
by nwAiiu of follcM ooTered with an etaatic conpoai- 
tinn ol tratde and glne, formerly alliulcd to, of whicli 
therv U a eet at eaohend of the machine, ouocapmid- 
ing with the two tablaa and the two forma of trpM. 
I'roin thri ink itiirt nt dtber extroiaity fif the mackme, 
in which a metal roller la ooadnnally reTolviag, a 
vibrtLiitig rollur deliven 00 tbo table » reflvlaied 
quantity of inli each time it arrim at oitlMr ead of 
tne maobini'. Thi* ink ia diUrihutcd nnon tho taUe 
by meana of rollera which an- mured wboUy hy (rie- 
tinn, and ia taken from tbe table and detlvend to tbs 
typee by tbe fomiahlng roUcn^ dew to tha aMn 
cyltnden, each tJme the form of ^pea paaMS wniiler 
uem. Hacliinoa audi aa tbo one deacribod wfll 
throw oS 1000 to ISClO aheete per hoar, priatad i^cb 
both ridoL 

Several macbince harniR tlie aame general eoa> 
atniotlou, but Inq>roved and aiUpted for apecial po^ 
jHwee, hsx9 bcea coiutnictmL, and an la geMnl 
use. The one repraaenbed in tig. A, CL t'LXl.- 
t'LXll., is ft Ftrendi contrivance, and prodooo* a 
much liner qnality of work than the fonuar. Ila 
cyllDdein are amaller in diameter, and make tw« 
rovclatioQS for each aboet printod, provinon bd^ 
mnflo hy nli^htly raiiing them alternately to allow «f 
UiB return uf tbe typea. Ko tapes are naed; laalaad 
of ihnm a not of metal 6ofan in » lomt ta dhal 
opvninK in the fint cylinder npcn and grasp tbe ritaat 
li«ld out for tbem by the attrondant en the loft; an>l 
t.hi^y, aft«r tbe aheet has been printed 00 tbe oee 
atdfl, open and doUror it to a aunitnr aot of grippen 
on the aeoond cylinder; whioh atcaiu, wbea It is pv- 
fected or printed on tlie aeooikd side, open amd llmnr 
it to the attendant on tha rigfbt. One vahalile 
foatuni of thia mai^hinn hi that Et alEowa of a 'art iM 
sheet' being used, that ia, of n abwt ffulng lUe iha 
nuwthine so that it aludl f«ll between the aeeeol 
cylinder and the aheet juat printed at the first. Ia 
order to roeoive the ink which to soaw oxttat m a im 
off from th<! firat printiid idde, and which wooM etbai^ 
wise acciumilate mi tbe aurfsL-c uf tbe cylinder and 
smear all alll;^oee«ling abeeta. Tbe attucdanCi who 
work tlu* sot-off sheet are not sfaown in tbo oB^ravinf . 

The maohinM abown in (ies. 3 and 4 are rasmllallj 
of the same □lasa aa the laitt, but have onlr ooe 
cylinder Thny an tiaed maioly for niim-"1luiw>a> or 
'jobMog' prititiiie, tb(nii;li bi>tli ar* mutable ol ^vio^ 
very i;oad book-work, the ehoel inthaloaaelui«iligto 
\]v 'tum^* or put thivingh again to print the sewmit 
sido. The Rtnchino ilujwu iu 6^;. 3 i» oonfftroctod on 
a priueiple which. In B[«ciatty uicorin^ a stea dy 
par&lM action of the tabic, cantbiucH ease of rao*«- 
mcnt with freedom from UnblliLy to ahaka. 

Macbince on a plan similar to the perfe«tiog 
arrangement jtiat dcecribed areoonatructod for aewa- 
papen of tbe smaller siie and moderate cfavalatksk 
Thcjr am ontde with two or four eyUndere, aasb e< 
whidt ptialM a copy of one sldo of a ]>*fM>r at eadi 
travel of tbe type-t^^do, two or tour boys bainc 
employed to feed rimiiltaaMOUBly. In thia wi^ an 
piintod ICOO, 200<^ or SOOO copies Mr hour. This 
preooi has to be repeated to pnnt the seoood aide. 

The enonnons increase In (1m drcnlatiea ol tha 
Tlmw newapg^r.demssiUDg aooEreapoodbit ia cr — a 
in the «Tic«d of productioD, a farther tm i aoT aa wal 
WM nuuiE in May, lS4fi, by the adoptkA of a aew 
mac-liEne oonstrueted by Apph^atb, which threw tM 
10,000 impreaioiu per hour. Thhi maofabe was a 
vertical oylindOT 6& indies bronid, on wfalch tbe typa 
waa tiivil, Rorroonded by eight other cylinders, wh 
about 13 lixhoe dkHHtflfi and ooverwl with doth, 
round which tho paper was led by tapao, each papar 
or ImpreaBioB cyliiMer having a feeding appuatas 



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I 



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I 



PRtNTINO. 



205 



and two hajw Ivndi&a:. Tli« inlc-nilbn wm alio 

vntlcKl, ■faiiuU tli« Jtr^ cylinder, on which th«y 

Ittttribnted the ink. Thii IasI wm tn ft TertiL-al 

alfaador. 11i« type w«l warn tho oniinwy kini), uiil 
• fcna WM dUwI oan portfoaoE tho km> cylinder. 
'^bamtHeof tbetjpe tarxDtd ^jMiMoaot AytXj^a, 
Kaad, tht MguluiW t^ tb« imprcMimi wu olitkincd 
L liTMBtlaf ilipa cfpkpar od tbo impmiina pylinclun. 
1 F«W mfrrhhiT, ho««T«r, of iUh ouiwtructiun liav« 
fbMBnttdc,&foRnidable rival hftvliig ^ipeucd, mule 
hf Ue«a«. Hik; * (^>, nl New Vork, which hu brrn 
latroducnl laLu muiy nennpajier uffioia in Uiii ixiui]* 
I17. It ucdW'Tlw Typ* B^volrini,' Fart Prtntiiig 
UmMue,' M>d ii Dutda with (nun two U- ton impmi' 
lojrlladin. AhoriuiDtil^liiulcrof »bu»t 6( fret 
FIb diwoilw b nonotoil on » ituJt wilh >u)irj|)iule 
■a; iboat oo»«xth of tbo drcmnlcreiiM o( 
IUb «^udar ecnatilatM Um bed of tho jmn, which 
i>adae(edlot«oeiv«Ui« (on&of type*; the renuundor 
k mmi m » cylisdriiaJ diatributtos tftbk. Tb« di*- 
BWtar ol Un i^Usdrr ii Ian tluui tbftC of th« form of 
I tjpw, Ib aidv thfet the diitrlbntln; jMitfon of it mny 
p«M Um itofiniMioo cylindcra without louobiug. The 
iitk i* conuinal in b foiiiilAin |iliic*d twiieath thn 
busv cyliiulrr. fruui which it i* taken by ■ ductor 
routr, and trudwrcd by a tUmtlBg dlftributln^ 
^mUsr to tl)R cylindriod dictribotiiig tabl«; tho focn- 
i'tiia rallar receives a idow and continnauji rotary 
LMOtidB to OHiy up ihfl Ink trotu thu fuuiitaliL The 
\huflt nlndff hiiag pat in notton, th« (am of 

rktBcmoB ii is wncctamaa CMrricd bo each of Um 
irr mtmpiftAtt^ bmimntal impwwiinn cylbulcn, 
I'Mnaaad tt ftfvt ^ataooea Kround it, to ^ve the 
r|B(nM«i to Kx ahceti, on* ialroducod by each 
faifnari^ ejhitAet. The Hy aad feed boarda oi tvro 
aC th* JBnprMJon L-jliu<l«n m« ainuUr to Uuiaa on 
(hs wall-kmnm douhU-cylindar onm; oa tha other 
[ tvar tlM abeet i* f c<l in mIow and thrown out ahovo. 
' yh» ihaela arv taken directJy faun tha faed-biMid 
' boa iiBO* attaolMd to oarb hnp i 'BMloii cylinder. 
itaraiB am two etf Iha [mpnsioa oyUndtn Acre 
Fan two Uldog roUen, which vibrata on the dirtri- 
I fentfa( nrfiaoB while failuDg a npply of ink, and at 
i'thop(0|Mr tioM ar«oavaed toriaaby a oun, lo aa to 
l< paa «m th* form, whm thay ifaiD fall to the di>- 
l trttntiae aurf ace. K«ch pa^ ia tocked up npnn a 
[ Jetachwd aegmcDt »( the large cylinder, called fay the 
, •aBpoutora a ' tortl*,' an<l thta oonatitntee the bad 
) ud Aaaa Ilia column- ruloa run panIM with the 
I ol tha nliDder, and an oaaaegnently atraij^ht; 
I while Aa baad^ aidvertiidng, and daab rulea ara ia the 
, fom of Hmnanta ol a oircU. A gwai aertion ot tha 
•ahsm-mlai would pnaeot the fom oi m vniet 
with the Binall Mkd pointing to the WDtn of the 
cylindrr, ao aa tA Nml the typ«« n<*r tho lop; for tha 
fyp^ bcinjf prallel InateM nf rwUntini; frnm tha 
^'•antoa^ it l> obvloua that if tbe cvlumu-nilea wen 
I alao parallel, tbay moat aland apart at lb* top, do 
) BUMer bcw tifkt they were preMod together at th« 
i'laaa: bat wUh Ihcee wedg^ahamd ouluinn-ralea, 
^«linafabildd(rwntati»b«dor't(irtIe* bytonpMa 
> fenrfadiM it MarrabaioDg tbair trnfOt, and alidliy 
m pebalad gmoivaa cnt cr c a a w i aa in the faoc cd tha 
bed, tbs >Moe in Ibe imiovaa betwean the culumn- 
nlaa bafav ftOad wkh tUdliv HoAa of metal ac«ar- 
^Uahr fitted, tbe ootar nnfaoa l«v«l with tbe nt&M 
. af the bed, the code next the enhuna-nilea being cut 
aMOiT BBda mcat h to recalva a projeotlon on the eldaa 
•f tlw Coofoea, and acrews at the and aad rfda of 
aadi paya to lock them tdfcthv, tha ^pea af» a« 
aecnre on thii eyllndea- m iaty oao be <n the old flat 
ML A very 1mb« auuUne v|ioa thb prinofpl* wae 
■Mde lor toB Tfanaa Baa-apapar by Whilwortb of 
Maadwalar, »d pat in opmtton In July, I8&9. It 
had ten iiDpcuadoii rullan, and oonaofiuoutly rcqnirad 



tea men to fcc^l in tho papat It thraw off at tho 
rate of 1^,000 irapreaaloDa per hour. 

I{«ptatcd attt'Dipto have b«en niMle hj variooa 
inrcatan to oonitnict a nkachine which wouD prist 
from the ooutlnuuna roll or web in wlilcb paper b 
•applied by the pi^er-makine machinn^. EiperimAnta 
wrro condDrtiv) RurccMivrly by Niriiiilaoo, StMUwM 
Sir ICon-buid Hill, Api^li^K^atli, and ntbara, bat tao 
dUBcultfwe Silt Uiu Liuu [iroved inanraonBlaUa. 
ThcM^ hovrover, have at length been wbolly over- 
ootii)!, and the rceult U tho oaiiatmctioD of a elaaa of 
niAdiioee wbioh po aiiiaa tha merit of beii^ at onoa 
*lti]|Jer, nivre oxpedltioait of producing belter work, 
and being mora eoouomical in raqoiriag laa aotpen- 
<liture of T— "'"I loboar than any prevtooa coDtriv- 
anco: In all rmddna printing eepiunit* aheeta tbelr 
speed wac govemed by tho dexterity of the layer-eo, 
and thirty to thirty-twa thecta prr minute waa tha 
utniual that he ooold feed in. To pmdnoe latga 
numbora It waa neoeaiary to moltlply tho impTtaiiiin 
cyliodera, aa in tlia Moa mAdiinca alnady maotiDJtedi 
biit when four or aiz etylindani are rcMbed tha oom- 

iilicaliotiB Iwctiine varjr great The alopuMgea are 
roqneot, Um waste enmnive, and the riak of acddcoit 
to the macbba and natoriat very formidable; nor*- 
over, the expenae of wuridn; tlwiu: macbinca is rcry 
great. A maolUM voridiig from the ruU ia ii(de< 
pendoDt of wanwal dexteiHy, and ft rogolatod aolelj 
ly the nediaaical tpparatBa. 

Tlie first machine cm this priacdple that eatabUibod 
itadf in the priuliDg-offiee waa the 'Bullock,' aa 
Aniericwi ooBtriranoa. It waa, howaTsr, apaadUj 
cclipatd by thu 'Walter Pnaa,' a machine iurtaitoa 
and conatnclod on tha pranbaa at tho Loudon 
Tfmea. Thnoweroabortly followed by tbe' Vtclory- 
{% 7, PL CLXL-CI,XI1.>, which doUvtn tho 
nmmpapt^ fo]d»d for the trade; the ' Preaionlan,' 
and the ' Xortbumbtian,' whldi la adaftod to print 
frion luoTablc typca am well a« tram atereotype caala 
^-•U the olbera being able to print only from the 
lattar, Thb featan of tho 'Northumfanaa' is, for 
annpafut al oanpanttToly aodarata drenUtloa, 
ol graal eccDMiito unpoctanioa. Baaldai Iheae tha 
' Ifoo' and Am 'Marirmnl,' a fVandi doabla^yHndar 
pravioudy in gcnoral »^, ha^e Imth baan allared to 
woik oa tha web pUn, thu* diattnatlj previa^ tta 
auperiority. Aa much from ita attcin and ooaneetloo 
>« from its inlrinaic muiti^ Um 'Walter' baa ooma 
more prMsilnently before tho poUic than ita oonpeti* 
ton^ aad mmy he taken aa the type of tbe daaa, "Tba 
woodcnt on nait page will give a good notion ol ita 
^ananl appaannoa. Ia it 'a web nf paper, ■"»)f*»j 
acme fiSOo ihaeb of the Tbaaai all wound oa oae 
reel, ia placed behind, and whan pciatfaig Bamaiweie 
the imytT ruoa ooBtiaaooilT through tha prea^ paaa> 
ii^ firat over aome wat roUavB wblcfa damp It, water 
ooothmally oodng oat thrcragb fohb of dotb (ran a 
anpplyrvteinadta^da the rwlei^ and which rapidiy 
of ravDJntian farem oakward. Fran theaa roUBn It 
guea upward to wkaia tha atareotyp* olataa fonndag 
tha four pag« of eaa ride et a abart ec tha paper tn 
faataaed «b a cflindar Jaat bm anongh to take a 
•boct Ui go rnaod it. Agninat that ^Ibder there b 
another identical in iba. |iiiaaiaaln(^ a aolt aorfaoe, 
whicdi pnaaaa ligbtly agMat the loitaoe of tbetyp«^ 
end between tame tha ahaat paaN^tBldng up aa 
tmprtaalna bi IIb oouraa. It b than carried dawn- 
wtnda nmad another laive cylinder coreml irith 
eloth, tbs " aet-off" on wbiob b talwo off by aavther 
cylinder In contact with H, aad that again by a nbbv 
in a fadiioB that b both aim|da aad effoctira. Um 
wob of p^Mr, atiO nmntwg on, pamaa be t w e en the 
aeoood typo^oTered toiler and baooaalaipart; taking 
the Impnaricm on ita other 4daof the rokalalag foor 
|iaga*; aad thai done, it rona on hetweea two Mota 




twtwwiii two Boto <tt numlDg tapM, until It I* cauglit 
hy A pair of small roUtai wuch an driven nt k 
ginat^r aptatl tli«i tho rest of th» tDu:liiii«. "Tbeaa 
iiatitmliatuly t?ar tbc ihucU i^ukrt whore they huve 
Iwett all Init (.-ut, nad tlie tap«« lead on what la now 
» ciirn{)lotii|;i' ^-riuU-il Dctr^itpcT tipao inclined piMie, 
at tlin ti>[) of which tbny carrj it (Innti xa nau-tllBUng 
tnuu^ wliiub iuutm in ■uvli wuu tliut U (l«Iiv«n u 
p^iCT practwljr ftt Mdi end of Ita obi^rt awfaig co to 
tb* ftos of Mikotlter eel of ronning lit[ie>i, which carry 
it iloH'nwurdij on thrii ouU-T faco by the more fun* 
(if coiitact »« they ma, Dctore«iii tlieu- tapes a frame 
aviDga bHkwiidi and forward^ cfttcbing up one 
doliverad p^ar at evapr motiaa, tad flJng^og H down 
on a hoara, behind which a bojr ^u t«> watch and 
ndjimt th* dieota aa thvy tili.' i*hr< nuuJiini:' piiiii[>« 
up it« ova Ink from a tank bonentb thu fioor, prv- 
paratAiy ta the diatribnti&D by tha inking nillenL 
Two hoyt and the roan wiio atUndi it fitmuh all tho 
mannat lalnur lequirrd for the wotltin^ cif the 
machine. At tlie ScgUman oSiw. wblcb ubvh two 
Walter proMcfl, tho Friday'! daily iaano and tho 
we«klv iKRie are pnntcil nn tkn nuiw day, whm 
80 DuioK of ^per are priDtol nil in titltL- mare thui 
fonr hoan. A slightly modified form o( the Walter 
machine was moMMifuUy MujibvL-d at Vienna for 
printing tho cataloguoa of the Kxhibition of 1873. 
Thia waa tha fint liutanoe iu which it was uied on 
tfa,« Contlooot, and tba oatalogua u the flnt book 
|irtnt«d fr«ao a oontbnunu roll of paptr. Tbo inven- 
tion of the WaJtcc inadiine ia due naloly to the 
oomluDMl iDgenuity of Mr. WMt^r, clilof propriator: 
Mr. HaoduMid, niuugvr; and Ur. Calvorly, chief 
angiaMt td the TImea newapapor. Tho AiqwrimenLa, 
EnvaationB, oombirialioiu, and l«8ta oocupied frviu 
19B& toISSSginwhic^ jaaroiwm.^diiriBW.-u linUhi'-l. 
Slnoe 1809 four of tbcH bave hvva hi upcratiuu iu 
dw Tiawi ofii«i^ by moau of wbiah tbat paper baa 



tMwn n-holly printed In lew than hall Lbi- 
oualy owu{iici!, with vne-fiftb Uw DOinbOT of hamb 
Tvqnircd fur tha Hoo nuahioca, a t«duetian in tite 
nuraber uf inkiiig-i^llen and bliuiketa, Icaa ink, and 
a Iraa waat« of papor. 

IHtUcn Priitttny-matkina. — Tha wddnw M thln 
dmL-ribed bare been of the cyUnd«r elaaa aad of Ika 
cniUouie of that claaa — tba rotary. It only nonaani 
to notice tbo platan or flat-curtaoe pri u tLn|{- m a Abwi 
Thia wna contrired aoon after the introductioa vt tba 
cylinder, and bad fur ita aim tb« prodnctioa of week 
e<|ual in ijiiality to that pmdncod by the bandjwcM^ 
aadataarachgTQatiwfpeed. It baa aat i itn ad dJB ii w r 
Hliapea In the hands of dUanat nakan, bok m 
uiannfactDTvd in this ronntry reqiiirea two puf^na 
to lay tin <ir fond in thr- (laner, and two to take it c^ 
cadi' pair piududnir at ton rat« of 1000 to 1200 
impNMona «adi honi. It is coutruOod opoa iba 
■ama principlM m the band-prcoit au far aa tba moda 
of takinj; tlic i m p te aa ion ia mtucerned, but ia dladll- 
k-uiahcd ixvm that prwa In that it auto m a t l o allj Inka 
tho form, runs In the caiiiag*^ bring* down Am 
platan and rtooren it, and nun out Um CMrlife, tha 
tTuipan bi^fi lifted by attandanlMt who mooT* Iba 
afa«et and ruplacc It with anotbor, and tba two 
down tbo tyiuiian, Ittavia^ tha machiaa to go tfaiwogb 
ita tnntiona over again. The gTMl inpCOTaOMBU 
r«c<»nt.ly made on cylindm ma^inaa, aaparially «f 
tbo 'Frcnvh' claH; having mada tbam (3a{i«bM of 
prndodiig work of the Biuat quality, th« ptatea la 
(gradually disappearing. 

The plat«Dm»thod iaalioaasdinthaaniaU jobbing 
machinvs, wlucb an td qnUa ncant introdactlea. 
'lliey are aomotlmea wofkod by a traadle: tbey por- 
iona the wholo of Um opctatioD of printing; tb« 
n.tt''ndant having abnply bo lay tba pap^ tn be 
prinivd Co a gauji*, and remove ibe priiMod AaH, 
wbilb ke«pi&s the treadla io isdUoii. 8m fL fg. & 



I 

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PRINTTNG— PEIOR. 



2B7 



I 



J, — ThM pri&t«l alMtta an eonv«v«d 
t <ka pnB w iiii«nto» to Uw wanhonMi H«r« 
ttn an Int of tU bimg on Ion; horisonUl polco, 
■nd oKpcMMl lo thekir (or aoma Uui«,fiir tho purpMo 
of Axng ttw ink ■• WoU u (or sxtrarling tlu; ntoia- 
tan Cnoi Um p^at. nton dry ihvy uu ulaoed 
dRd|T bat w a u t aMota of liigUj glaaea |>ut«D«u<d, 
aM ttaaauMaalad to T«n gTMl pnaaoro in • Bramob 
fmm, bj wbl^ Mwam um imignnMi oooMquent on 
Um ftafivaBioo of Ua typea b SBtlnJy removed, and 
iba winMO of the pafiar (enerally uDoothod down. 
ftftir ououDg from tiw Bnmah prcH tti« ^Mta *r« 
*™"'*— *, pafoiJIad up, and fioklly fanadod o<rer to the 
bookllh d cti, It wtU be obvitma that very mwA of 
tba ■ppaamwa of tba cotnpk-tod Tolome dqwndi 
■poo Ilia caicfiil manner in nhkh Ibe waraboadaff 
ia dooa, H Wur profeaaedly tli« jfni^tinp part of tli» 
wboJa i i T ocaw at Icltar-pnaa printlii;. Band-kbonr 
baa now to aovo «)rtebt giren pUoe to machinery in 
tbia <I«[i*rtmenl «i tbe work. Wb«r* ibia U tfao oua 
tb« the e t a at* pa aao d wta^w between twv bijjbly- 
poBabad ojUndan << diilM Iron bMtod by Bteam. 
tbaa at mea diyiag tha pajtar and ink, and giving » 
•nay iSgk ' Rnith.' 

Otfpirfltie Primtiaff. — In our articto EnQBAvnta 
• wihmta acoonnt baa bean Eiveu of the procaaa by 
wWdb antrtaeta ate engraved upon platca of ooppar 
<r ataal Tba proocaa of printing (nan ibcni, ttaougb 
in aoaae teapacta analogcnia to tbat of lettor-prcM 
■Jalulbig, jet In many eaMsilial partictilan diifon 
mm It. WUlalnletter-pnaaprintutij it Litlian>M«/ 
■Brfeeai el tbo ^rpoa wbidi gin tbo improaaion, In 
onpfi^rplata printing it la the boDow tcoojierl-oat tince 
tbat porfonn Uiat Mtx. 

Tb* workman having pnvloualy damped and pre- 
pared Iba paper, wbicb la of a aoft Uhtuotu tvx^ire, 
plnoB tbe pUle or engnTing from whiob the ini|irc*- 
afaoa are to be tnkcn on a anall aLove <a- beatvr witb 
wfaioh ba ia anppUed. After being anffldently warm 
•» nariat the ink tn finding ila way into tbo fine incix^d 
Qne^bedanbetlw whole anrtaca of the plate with ink 
1 of FrBokfort Uack and boilKl t^ of the 
r of tUok paate. Tlta Ink bdag wall nibbad 
InAa ttw Une^ b« proooeda to dean th* plat* by 
wlpfag oA the ink from the niaed snrCace, taking 
ca>« not to wipe any or it ovt of the Uoaa, and jiuUch- 
ing the marina with whiting. When folly raady be 
laiyi tb* plnu npon the flat taUo el a inlUag pwaa, 
wranglit nr band, and plaoea over H Ibe |4eoe of 
pMMT which i* lo reoaire tb* Impneilan j Umb W 
ooagiBg tb* pceaa Into action, be inonw tie Ubu 
nloBg betwven two tnotal roUora, thereby nbiMtiiif 
tiM plnta to m ibarp priauiin.' wbicb tfanwa tn« ink 
ban Um lullaw Unee on U> tho [i*(Mir, and thni pro- 
rioMe tb* InnraMlm d»alr«d. The upper mvtal rollvr 
faeoTered with iwvOTlthiakiiaMaa of aoft hbidcating 
apactnlly mnnnfaotnied (or Ihia wupoaa^ By tbia 
manna Um paper ia furoed down Into the engraved 
mta with a firm wft pnaraM^ and tb* plat* Uadf 
H praaarved from ininry. Tbio pwca^ of inking, ftc^ 
la fnawiliiJ aa already deacribed for each impraMon 
nqnifwd; eooaeqoeDtly the operatloo la alow. 

JWu • amaU weU-eogtavM plato a wuckmaa wiU 
andooa 200 impreaalona in a day, Aa the plate 
laaaaf b iSaa, and aa tbo quality ol the engraTiiu 
la of a tugbor dMcripiioo, th* Damb«T prodnoad 



Many large engraving each aa Ihcna 
dialribeted by tba Art tTfiiona. oaonut be prodnofd 
motm t»fUlr than foor each hour, and aooie even 
alfll Baoee aMwIy. Skam machinery baa not jret 
h*ia tmo^t to bear npua the pjoowa ol wpperphte 
printing and bdeed, from th* uton of ua opet*- 
Ueo* peftormod liy tlM woalanai^ they do not appear 
Uudr to be MooaarfuQjF aooempHahed by any maolia- 
aloaf appantn^ 




Tbs prooeaa nf finiahinx is eionMHugly aimple, ooa- 
itatlng cUeBy In plwiiug the moiat printed tmpn^ 
■ioaa between amocth obeurbent null-boarda, nod 
dubjocting tbcm there to a aUght pnsaatue. Wlwa 
i«ti«Tod uiey are examined, olMoeo if newary, ibd 
are then ready for aal*. 

PRn^TING, LirH<KiiLU>Hi& 9e« LirsooiiArHT. 

I'ltlNTTNCi, NA.TDKK. See XAnmi-Pumso. 

PRIOR wiu the tills fannoriy given to the bead 
of » anudi ini>nw--tary, Ui which the dMignatiaa cf 
priory waa u|iplii.-d. The prior ranked next in por- 
tion to tb« ftl'Ux. Similarly the term jiriaretM waB 
aiiplied to Ibo hvMl of a frinale convent. The tjtlo 
of i/raad prior waa given to tb* oommandaiibi of tlu 
{.Tsnd nmitary priorie* of the tndert of St. Jolm of 
Jonualem, of Malta, and of tb* TampUra. 

I'UIOI^ Mjittk«w, an Kn^Hah ooet and diplnma- 
tlit, bum in 1614, at Wjmbvnie, in Donetahirv, vr 
at WUibnm, in Middleaai. Hii father dying when 
be WM yoiLQ^. bo was broogbt up by an undk vbn 
kiTpt l)ic Rutnrot^r Tavom at Charing Croai^ and waa 
by tiiin iiFiit to Weatndnater BobooL Ue earty lu- 
biboi a ftrang taat* for daarical Ul«ratnrBk nod 
attraotad th* notiee of the F'.arl of lAvact, tbrongb 
wliuae good officea he wna enabled to enter, in 
1692, St. Jolui'a Cot]t«a, Cambridge, where ba md- 
Dated aa B^ in ImC miI waa anortly after cMaea 
fellow. At ooUege he oontract«d an Intimacy with 
Ctiarlea Munlafgii, afterwards Earl of Halilai, in 
oonoert with whom, in 1637, ho oompoaed ibe Coun- 
try Mooae and City Mooie— a parody on Dryden'a 
Hind and Panther. In 1S90 he was Introduoed at 
ooort by the Karl uf Uoreet, at w)ji«u rveomaiendi^ 
tiun be waa appointed ■Ecratary to thn Ki^tlah ptetd- 

Etontlariee at tb* Hague. With tbia peat he nlao 
Id the till* of gaUnun of Um klnc'a bad-dmrn- 
her. In 1R»5 ba prewnted an ode lo iCing WOliatn, 
ua Uie dvalh uf Qneeo Mary, and aouu aflrr die- 
played bia humoroua vein ia a paroily on Boilean'a 
ode on the taking ci Nauiur, when it waa ivcaptured 
by WiUiam. In l(ti)7 be wae nominated aocratary 
to the mmwlmiimete who oonctudad the Penoo c( 
Bywldc, aod on hla return (ram that employinent 
waamadaaocNiary totho Lord-liantanatttef Inland. 
He waa afterwarda am n taij to the KmI* of IN)C^ 
land and Jer*ey, wiotwlvehr antbnaaadon lo Fhuum 
At Ingtb ba waa oiad* VDwr-aeontary of atata^ and 
while hohUag Ihnt offie* waa aant to Ftanee to anA* 
in tiie {Mrlilbn faeatf. In 1701 ho entered Partia- 
BMOt, and Id th* aame year aoooaeded Loeke aa a 
TrmmMTnrr at the beud of tradi^ but aoon aftdr 
joined the Tory parly. At the beginning of iba 
rci|{n at Anne be published a ruluma of r"*"™, aad 
took KTOio abaro to the Kaamiaer. In 1711, wh*u 
the Torioa luinln obtained the aaeendoney, he waa 
empk>yed la necveUy negodadng at Paris the lonna 
of the Troaty c< Utra«At. H* rvnainad m Prance^ 
wiUi the appointnMnt of ambaMador, and after tba 
depaitur* of the Duke of Shremlmry, in 1713, pnb- 
Udy aamiTiad that character. On the accearion td 
Geicsge 1^ in th" following year, wImo Um WUp 
were one* idmv In power, raor waa recalled nod 
OTwalaad bafon tb* prfvy-«a«molI in reapcet lo Ua 
ahnn In nagotlatlng th* Tranty of Utiecfat, a«d 
trtated with peal 'V*'"'i ^'■Bg kepk in onatody on 
a charg* of Ugh tw aaon for two ycwa, allhoagb 
nltimataly dlacharged wilbeut trial Being wUbont 
anr (voinalan for hla deaUntng r«an^ exoopt Ua 
follomtlpj 1m agun appUad blMeff to poetry ; and 
having finuhed hi* StMnon, be pabUahed Ua poMD* 
by tuhacriptian. The pnbUentton bring UbanUy 
aooooraged by party nal, pnduoed a eondderafal* 
■am, whKh wa* douUad by the bri of Oiiord, at 
wbcwe aeat lb* an Ibor died, after a Uiwuii^ lUwH, in 
1721, la thefifty-elghthyaaruf hia^t*. Be waaLiit«ri«d 




raisciAinrs— PBisoy discifltke. 




in W«atiaIiarUirAbtM7,cnd«rBnirjiiui»ciit,forwlucb 
' iMt piecu of banuB vuttty,' m hn KtjUm ft in hu 
will, lie left the auni ol £i(H). Pruic aeeaiM to bftre 
miulo 1iU wny hr irit sad cocul <iualitini, r»th«r than 
by mvra] «r ])obUcn] VBiiowmonla «f » wpcrior order. 
He la Mid to kftTtt fthraji ratftlned s tMte for oomne 
intnooons kBd groM eojoTBienU. Aa k po«t, hia 
rvpntatlon hna dccllntd of Iftto y^n, th* bumov 
in wUdi be prind|MU<r tsotU bong overloDlc«d oo 
ocecFiuit of tbe chuiLctM of bis MTiou imfonnucas, 
whi«b, kllhniiKb, aa in bu SolaoiDit, and Henry utd 
Knima, upWaUtl Mid correct fn diirHnii, hannoniona 
Iq vcniG cation, md ooptouii iit pK-iIvuI uunk'^ry, foil 
in moving ei^iar the feelin^i or tho Itacj. The great 
Ht of Prior oonawU in telling a utory with n lii^^rae 
of povtioJ ease anil vivacity, wbicb, jxrhAtM, MilLiiLg 
adds Lb Fontaine, bu never been eseelled. Bit 
Aimn, n pieoe of pliiloaojihieel pleAMkntrr. cibitnln a 
felioitoiiB vein, of bntiiour; anil frur bin lisIiUr pieooi 
belt DOW diMy rv»L A Jlintorv cf the Tranane- 
tioDi of hia Own Timtm, (xnii|>ilcd from bia MSS., 
erattkina little from bin pem, ldA if of imall vnlno. 
Hla pocma tieto publiabcd in 1733. In Ume vola. 
ira, and are alan to ba fnund In »I1 tb« ■tanda.nl 
ooUcetlona of EryliBb poetry, 

PRrSCIAKT]^ A oelcl>rntciI Ttoman ^nuntnjuiati, 
wb'> liTcd in tho tatlcr b^If uf thv liflb (x-iitur)' iif 
our era, luid at n-bom littla saorv U kmTin-n than that 
be wua bom nt CaiaarcA, tauRrbt {''ainnuu' nt Coti- 
Btnntlnaplo In the time uf Jiutiuiau, and m-mte 
I nric'ita wnrks, of wliidi wvoral mrt atill extuit. Pro- 
foundtjt dDRTonntit with tbe LAtfai nnd Grcolc bui- 
gongBt, u) wuU M wltb tbe inveatlgatloiu of prevEou* 
mnunnriiLns, bo -n-M cn&blod to enbsr better ttum 
hi* pir«dr«pnknr9 into U>r gmminntical peculiMJtifA nf 
LU« Latiii Lf.iui,'iiv. IIu arTaa(i:ed bla obeervaliuui 
tipon tbi* Hil'joct in It woik ondtled Commtntarlo' 
ram f^ammatiHiniin lib, xvii. TioM work, mic- 
MBJdvwly abriirlgii! hy xrvrr*! wril^irn, fnnn»d the 
luwiii of ixittrnc4ioo in Latin up to Iba fifttwntb con- 
tun-. It coDtaliu auinerouB quotatioiia froin l^utln 
nutbon now lost. It is tbo hat ti«atiee on the eub- 
jact bccpMatbed to ua by ftnti^mty, and it fnmiabed 
tbe autferinla for iii<i*t of Uie Latlii g^txnunxTa ovoi- 
piled «t tbe revlvnl of Ictten, hu gone tbronich 
niAny editioni^ anri mny atill be coonilted with proot 

T'RIHCn.LUN, tk« founder of » Gnoatk: aect in 
Spnin, Icnawn aa PrlacdlUanUta, In tbe middle of tbe 
fouitb century, ffuned ovw by hie eloqumoB oven 
■ome H>ho[« U> Eia syateni, oomjioundcd of dualiam, 
tbo theory of emanationa, and aatrology, and n«em- 
liling Ttirj tniiRh tho dixrUina of tbe Mudobntana. 
He hkught that tbu aoul wan of tbe aamo vabitance 
na tiod, and admittod an ovil principle aa author 
iif tho wurld, without, liowcviir, n-JKiliiig Iho Old 
Teatament, whiuh he interpreted atlii^rioally. He 
wu excoiniDunlcated by a tyaod at CBear-Aunuta 
(Saragoaaa) in 3SU, but managed, bj neana at brib- 
ery, to grt tbo HrdnifiB KVencd, and nhligcd bi« 
chinf cn<!my, Piibop lUiadoa, of Ononnbu, to take 
Hlgh^ Tbo blabop, however, aneoeeded In gaining 
civpr Mkxiu;u*, Ibe uaurper al TreToa, to bia aide, 
tiail tliii* olitHiiind th" condc-mnatitin i>f the Pmcil* 
Uanisti, aa n-etl a» of tbt-ir Iradcr, wlii>, in ipite of 
aa appual to Maxlni'os, was executed at TreTea in 
88K. This is »ud to have been tho first inataoce in 
which a borctic yum piiniabed with death, and waa 
proU'jitoil ugaluit by Maitln of Twira, Ainliniae, and 
otJicr biahop*. The aect maintained itaolf in ttio 
face of ncreeoatiQn, and ptrhap* tbo more auooiMvfully 
that lying and divimuUtian were re^^arded as lawful 
Dieana of propagating it 

PRISM, ia gMmotiT. a aolid figuro wbich misfat 
be leneratad 1^ tbe metim of a line kept panuel 
%a iUtH, otM utremity cf lb beiqg carried roond a 



nKtiUnear figon. A 'rigbl ptfan* b a aoBl flgm 
bounded bj two nuaUel equal and aindlar onda, aa4 
by a nuMber ef plane (ao« whkb are at right aariea 
to the eoda. In optks a prlsn !a any portfoa S a 
medlom lying be^iroea two plane £ao« whUi an 
not nanaUeL Priama of glaaa ok alwaya tnie mo- 
meCncal priBBH^ tbeir aectlooa being triu^ei^ eiUMr 
r^bt-aagied, •qoUateral, or bnewla. lliotwolaMw 
undt an mialljr employed in the piiamatie daoen- 
podtlon of light. Tbe r%ht-an^ed prim la oaed aa 




a rvfleclnr. The figim dtows a sLua patam i 
in tbe usual way uu a ataad wb^rh baa thtve Ja 
Wc have abo ' priainalic lonew^' 'double-inigc prkn,* 
' Xtcbnrn pri«in.' ' inrvrting priam,' * liquid pfjon* of 
vari<m» kijuin, ftc. 

PRISON msCIPLINK. The true and eolj 
real object of puuiahmont is tbe prvronticni of cilBa. 
There fa, of ooumo, a great latitude of ehotoe lb ibt 
meani whidi may be adopted for the atlalnmentef 
thla objact — a latStnde to be Umited by a joet ragaid 
to tbo ritfbta inavparable from human natoro. bow- 
over depmrod, by a correet riew of the tnie powor 
of aodety over ita membera, and by a wfae eaninala 
of tbe jnxiliabl* ctTnrt of tho meana anplayod. Ia 
moat atjpM uf tlie world nivn aeem to have iiiiB(ti»at 
tlielr r^htfid power orcr theJr feDownca abaouMly 
itulimitcd, and hare inflicted naniahmciit upon IM 
violabora of tbe law apparently without f«ganl to 
nay other ocorideratiou than ibetr own pleaaonaad 
(Jba d^ree of goilt they have attributed to lb* oAb- 
d«T. Acting with thut apprchonaion of their own 
unrwtricted jiowcr, they have, at tbe aame ttm^ 
exhibited the moat narrow aoqiiaJntaaoa wtth tba 
almoat infinite variety of locaai of pnniahmaal. 
Thay havo ooaGned tbcmaelrc* very nnch to tho 
efTecta of pbyalcal aiifferiu;;, aa If that weav the aula 
tonedy wbidb could be odvaatageoialy applied to 
moral dopnvityi a depravity often imsTaaea, if not 
canacd, by Uic teiujitaliiinB bu wfaicli phyaical aoffei^ 
tug haa itaelf exposed men. It haa happened toc^ 
in thia, aa in to many other bunma pontuta, that tha 
end baa been forgotten in attention to the anaaa; 
and the obji-ct bae appeared to be ratluir aoOMlhr to 
baraaa and oppnci the subjoeta of piiniabaimf, uaa 
either to detor others fnim tbe eomniiKlaa of crfnM^ 
or to anteiid the bablta cf tbe gnllqr 
None would bo prevented frau the 



I 




PBISON DISCIPLIXE. 



299 



orfana by paiHMM wUeh wtn unlmovm. And in tlxt 
•itiwma c]apt««Aaa> of pvsry phyiical and mrntiit 
auftlitx, it were ftbauiO to ftx{i«ct onj reforms tioii of 
IM tBif'«tuiut« inbjccta of human uveritj. In all 

r< MMd utJMii of which wc b*ve itny rocnrrl, from 
BINl nefioed pvo{ile of kncii-^t tunc* to tba ittuit 
driUaad of s mars modani en, bftv» radi «iti«in«a 
of MTCiity fawa nwd in tL« pu^abmait «i crbninftU 
M }asUj la deMTW Um kppeUfttioil of att^y. 
Tcrtura is wary hm-HMn vanetj; chalius "tHpea; 
nlitarr oocifiBMint in dkrlmeM, dMnpDNa, and idlfl> 
nrnt; proadtonoat crovrding of offondcn of cvcnr 
<!«(»• of goilt Id tho Mme losthMnuih peatll«ntUl. 
Barrow raiolU: inaofficknt and unwliulcwmo fuod ; 
filth; BbMH ot tLa hody, and lucknmi of Uw noul — 
in M»ui of Uta evQi wUdi baru, in uvon,- ago. Iwun 
wnBtBuljr, cnnleMly, ot Igncmctiy Infilcl«d upm Iht- 
nohion of law; and what ia Kunw, th«j bav* bwn 
Inflktod npva tbuae who have rioUlod no law; upon 
many who havo boen |voved luuMcnt aftor MtJImaa 
tha lUliation of ■onw or all of the UU ouuiwntad 
Ib lUa atmckia* catalogue, anil upon toanj whcaa 
fanwiluinu alone baa oxpoaed them to the v«ngcanc« 
of an wtuall}- inpnidait ovditor. SocleCr bai^ on- 
qiwationablj, a ri^ht to pnnbb the offcndcn againat 
tea lawi, and i^caiuat than of Qod ; but baa U, unilcr 
aoy orcoaMtanoe^ a rigbi to luBict aucb Bofferiag 
•a w« bam BBiDed t Ha* it a ri^t to trifle with or 
eadaagarthe beallh, the intcilnrt, or the remaining 
Mioe^lcB of any, evau tbe wont, ot ita inemU.-n( 
It n qal f BO BMtaphyiiuJ •xamlnatloD of titv 
i Bi w a on wUdi tfaa jnat and a ecBwary powrvr of 
•ockty in fomded, to Hiamr la the nejipitivc. All 
feci that tha pmiMr adafitatioo of tbe nmna to th« 
Imt end cf pimiJinuaib ought to be cDiiatantly knpt 
IB view. A •trikiiv Uluab^tion of the truth of Ihi* 
ranark niay bo fotmd In tha vnlTcnal outcry of 
horror and todignation which waa heard ttnoonwut 
Ibo dvilisod wotld when Howard diaolBaad tho 
Blaay araywlun mfrered by the prfioDor ; in tho 
pdhjr CMMOOwaeaa with which tbc^e who cii.ii:m«1 
BOBtrol ov«r fnaotiK aniraraally ahninlt from Um 
dbeloaatc of the atroeitita eonusittcd osder thctr 
mtbocity, or at beat allowod by their nagUgeBoe; 
•ad fB tha Iminediata foiButlion of aaaodaliooa to 
immota tha oecoaary refonn in the canatmction 
aed govonuneiit of (>rviuns. FVoin tlw year 1777. 
«han Boward'a work on th« atale o( tha prtaona in 
Kaglafid and Walra waa 5rM jmbljiibed, may Im 
datad tbe uH^-iu uf Uis ittiJy of the beat ayatara of 
petaeo diadnliiMk lliaro wer«i indeed, prorlous noblo 
T*— of attestioB to than wltt irera liek and in 
|«baa. but it then boMBie a aal^Mt of ganeral in- 
hTaat. Tlw efTect of Chriatianity in aofteaing the 
ehaiactar, and amaliotating tha oondttiDiL cf man, 
bad ban pereeptlUa evsB in tbe troatnwnt of tbe 
flotpalt; «w frontliw In time there hod arUcn in tbe 
wand IBM diatingoiahad for tha kindnow thoy eihi- 
Uled to thoaa to whom Idndnan waa afaiKat nn- 
k>own. The Banna of CWIo Botruaavo, ClauditB 
BarnarcL and St Vincent do Paul, ought never to 
ba fnc^gnttsn among Ukmi who liava ahown tortiry 
la tbe i.'a|iUire. Uut Howard dcwrrvr* ■till [greater 
Tanrraiion for hia p m rntniag |>hllanthru)>y and 
antin daeotton to Ikia nohla object, llu) iphare of 
Ui axRtlona waa not limited tolininunediate naifih- 
boorlMad, bat axtandad ftrat thioagbont hb oattTe 
land, afterward! to adjonlu Idngdam^ and «»• 
bnoad at length tha vhok of Eii»i>a. 

NothJna; man waa aecaaiaiy than to wjtneaa the 
■tal« of aniect nimaj axiatiBg la iwiMinik iu otdar to 

Calf* tM BaeMwy nmady Id naay caacai Thai 
■vita itiilmf tnna crowded and Blthy nvrau^ and 
froM want of amtlitMn of Mr, oould ba pravantad 
only by a batter ocoatraction of Iba bidUingai while 



thoan nriainz hvnn tbn cxn<'tinn of foaa hud Um 
]iriiioufv, and fruui the aalo uf ti4|uani by the ofBoen^ 
miild he r«^i(Nliod only by a new ayatam of diaol|jline, 
M«4iy of tho ideiA thorvfon;, which liava boon Binoa 
aiTted xtpaa fn tha eomtmotiiMi and Dovenunfnt of 
■■niooa, were auggealed by Howard, wuUe experienoe 
bM pmduood aotDo improvomenla in hia iilam^ It 
cannot Ik aaid lliat nay r^olar lyataai of priUD 
dIadfiUua wu lntT>-xluc«d by Howard; nor naa It 
own yet lican uarrinnl to the [MsfocUon which iitay 
reaannalily bo eiportacl, but tha pNgraaa atrsndy 
made affunla ihi hivitttrt enoounsaoiant. It would 
not be easy to trara thia progrwa with OTirmea^ 
aangning to ea^'h labourer in tho eaoM hia duo ahan 
of merit; nor ia it noceaaafy, for there ia no grant 
difficulty in diaooTeiinjt the ganeral remedio for tha 
rnrioua evila of impriflonmeat. Tbe wonrial ra^iil- 
Kttra m a priwm are obvionaly aacaritr of oonatmotion 
nod beahnlntw of altnatian; and in ita maainmcol, 
dMdflealloii, ovml^t, labour, and fairtniotioB. It 
fi in ttia proTioni arranganakti foraHiiiring Uuae 
advanta^ea, and in tha practical apniKatioa of Iheaa 
general pHndpIca, that the dlfficnlttea lie; lad ao 
nunarow u« theaa difflnilUoe that groat divataitlea 
of feeling and npininn haro arf»en. and very few bare 
been found to agree In tbe dctaila fur canying into 
affect a genera] mtem. Tlio «ery Brat attempt Id 
Engluid to intiednea a pnctical raform in tho cea- 
BtncCfoa and aanagBBient of priaona failed for wank 
of ouanimily In the oomnUaalonen appointed by Par- 
llainont aa to tho location of tho new oatablialnnaiit. 
though Howard faianelf wm om of the board. By 
a law MBcd In 16SS inipccton of priaona wen ap- 
pointed, and ainee 1839 no new pruon ean be naed 
till Miticti'mnd by tho ^nvvrnnunt. An art of IftU 
('2S autlL'i* Vict. uap.L-xavi.) 00 naolidated and amended 
tbe law in nlatloD to tha maintenanooy gorenmiaal, 
ditciplino, antaifcmcnt) and rebuiUbif of uriaoub 
Tbii act nholiabea diatfawitioni bttwean ^ and bouia 
of carr<Mlioti. Cap. Ikxxir. of the aame act rt^Uten 
Soottiah priauua. 

At thi* YOTT tJma when Howaid waa dai-nting 
cTcry i<i>wer of liia mind and body to tbe diaoorcry 
and dWooun of the avih of tBpriacnim«i^ the 
Sodrty of Frianda in Phlladdnhi^ acting on tbe 
prind]ilis of the viae and bcoicrolrnt founder of thdr 
aort, w«i<B i-iulMkvourinii to aboUah the iiae of aome of 
tha cruol and tnjudicioua nods of puniahaMit than 
prKtiaod (mdi aa tbe pillory, the aoonrge^ ftc), and 
to anfaithnta tor them, aa wall aa for capital |iaidah- 
mant, the mOder and, aa they believed It would 
praTo^ men •SendMia meaanN of aolitat^ taiBrtM- 
ment withont oecupatian or intercourse with any 
pemoB. In pnrauaneeef thIa achaae tha priaon la 
Walatrt Stnat, PbOadaliMt, wm built, and otben 
on the nne priadple wen fpeedOy enacted la allMr 
parti of the ITnitied KtatA^ among wUdi may ba 
mentioned more e^iedally tba calebratod priaon at 
Aubom, in tha atafea of New York. The aoUtan 

3 '■ten of Impriaonment waa hen carried out with 
le uUooat rigour, the pTia[)ni>n bai^ oonfiacd in 
arpande oclla; only 7 fart long by 3) feci in breadth, 
and 7 f(wt Inbetgbt. While uunured luooeuf tlieae 
tbe iaiuate waa nerot allowad for • noBHint to i|bIi 
the edi, to hold ialeronarea with any one, or even tn 
aee Iha atteBdant warder. The aopply of food and 
water, and tha rouotral of nhuo, were aaaotad tgr 
u>i d «U M»ry, without the Inberventica aprMraaUy ef 
anyhntfian agml SadtaeoBmef dUdplinanfvnd 
in tbemd entincnlly uiiaailahhs and had to be abaa- 
donad, owing to tho diaaatiouB ooaaH)nenoea wUdi 
In miBy loataoooi owned Tbe health of ibe prl- 
mmtn wm freqiMitlj frnfanhly in)unid, InAanity 
iuprrronad in many caaei^ aawl In a priaim in the 
atate uf Uaiae, when tbe oalla won ranatruoud la 



soo 



PRISOH DISCIPLINE— PRISREND. 



thn form of pibt, with ui iron gmting ftt the top in 
tli< furmof » trk^dugr, »BVcrHil of th-o prisoacn cam- 
mltt«d ■oiciita to «c»pe frmn ti)« borrora uf their 
siluAtuin. Tlia ioUtu^ ijct^m bavtug thuH, in & 
grtAt mtAmiTt, prored & failiuv in Americn, the 
bventiou of tocii legU&ton waa ikgaiii wt ou tlio 
ncla to d«via« mrm vqnftllj •ITectnikl meuia of nun- 
uhueut witbout ratbobjoctluuftlile adjunct*, wicl thti 
aeoond gmt expeiimont In pH^on diBciiiUne — thft 
tHeatgyit/txa — waaacroHinglyiiuitituUNL Tho prln- 
cip^ oitjiblishinaal when thia ayaUaa wm cBm'4iil 
out to it» uttuuKt vxtoul was the puiiit«iitiM7 of Siur 
Sin^ in tho etsJus of Now York. Tbo prisonvn won 
ntill, kat nt Aiibura, cnnlineij tn ■cp&rittc cell* (liirjng 
tbo nighl, tmt ui the duvtiuw wera conducted out 
hi lar^^v' moms wh^rnlboy workod togvthar, butwitb- 
out being: ftllnwRd to cac-JinngQ a riciglo irord, or m 
miicLiua ain^'le ;^!uic«,wtUi wijr of their oorapuiiotui. 
Throu^koiit tb«< Hbiil« jwriud lliot ih«y wurki-J 
toj^tbor in their coriimou coiunnrtinvat, ae wall aa 
rl!iriiij;&Ediift<!r tbfdrrutn rob) their ooiliiittiissyiitcni 
of Fi-puk-Lml dUeara waa tiddly nuuibuoad. An; 
ti.inji|i'n'««iin of thiwa tii!«> w» foUnwsd \)J tlu) 
iiuiii«iltale ill li !<-■(! iiu of corporal pnnitbrneiit in tbQ 
i>liape of whi]>pUib', sud tbb penolt}' wu etjuAUy 
incumttl bj the priioner (petkkiiig to one of hi« 
fetluw-pnaonen^ or to * ■IrHngor Tuntiag tb* prinoD. 
Tu liinirv the offloncy and promptittule i:4 tha ptu- 
isluuoBt, tho bnmblMt ofhccr in charge of tho pri> 
■uDei* had necesanrily to !« intnif^tixi with that jiovcr 
of AdniiDintcriuj; it, aiiil uu a|i]»iU waa hJIuwihI to 
tlM priflonum agaliut th« acta of any olHoial. ijuch 
an irrcipoiiaiblu nutliority niurt doubtlMi, is many 
iMtftDOMi hftva bMn Ibtblc to be gtodslj kbnied, and 
■» mnch Tnore ao from the impoasibiHty of arriving 
nt thn tnith cif nny charge bmtight againat an ofRcsr 
of ttio jiriaoa bi the caaa vt au Iuviwii]tattou being 
mado. It has also been argued that tha reftrainta 
Itii)KMed tULJer the idl<--ut H/>l0in mtut, in the **u.d, 
|in>ve aa injurioiu to tho miud* of thoto eubjcctod to 
it aa the M>[iiic<ju«DQea rrjtiilting from iaolatcd con- 
finement utnW tU« aoliUiry ayntettK But ijcrtinps 
ooaol thw LD'.iat efTei'tunl «.rttiiiii'nta %'iuniit tlii^ itili'iit 
inotbod ia to b« fcuud iii tho fact, that vvcu under 
the moM rigid r«>tmin^ tnoh aa that maintained in 
Ihn piaon of Bing ^g, enforced by tbc^ pmnipt 
it[i{itication of acvcrs corpdml nL.vitiai^icnt, it ww 
found lupoMiUe to prevent tbv prijiuncra excbiuiKUiii 
vommonicationa vitb wkU oUur by mcaaa of sunia. 
Thia oirtmnutaiice waa •Irikinffly avinotd by thi.- di*- 
coveryof the aogiiaintance of tha priKmara witli taicta 
•nppOMd to bo qiilta bwyoud tli«[r pinadblv kaowled)^ 
— u ImpoMililu ia il efiectunUy to dcbv men by 
. nalriDltvs •nactnunta from the exerdae of OD^ foenl^ 
or the iadajnnce of un^ propcunt^ to which tWy 
■re pTniD|>tMr by tha iuatincta of tbeir natura. FVam 
a wuwiwuaawB of its oomporallvo ineffloaoy tho 
ailoot ayitan hiu in eonaoqtMDC* vndcrgona a con- 
•iderable inodiGeaticn in Atncrioau priacinn. 

The lliiid gmot Impruveiucut iu priiou dindpliiw^ 
tho laboursjitem— ia what ianow gooonllj pnznied 
in thii> Miuntry. with tho combination, in esrtoin ca«M, 
of the Moorato ayitvni. Nolhing conld lie mora 
dvmar^iaing than tba old syataa oi EmprhiorimviJl, 
undur wliiob nambcra of mm wan hardml to^uthcr, 
it mijjlit be for montlia, without orcupation of BJiy 
kind, and cxpoMd to all tha (xirru)>tiii){ iuflueEicru oX 
90 promiacnuun and ilRgradad a aociety. Can it be 
wondrnwl at that a uiaa aubjocted to tiicJi uvll coni- 
munioaUona, tho dongsr o( wbJch would bu intinituly 
JOCnMed In proportion In hi« jmith, cuicrgiMl frum 
priaOBattbe term of MuMotcnca a hudvnml i^ininnJ, 
vrith bU gotid aapirationa and iut«utii>iia of rcfonu, 
which hfi might ot^ervriau bavv cfaoriahcd. compktoly 
•xtliid-uiahtNl. It baa accordingly been tho object oi 



modern legiilaton to keep tha prfaana i aetlndj 
employed, butli for the bmefidal rMalM^ noraltyaad 
phyaioilly, to the parti«a ocoupied, and alao with tba 
viov at rcndtiring priaoasn to a oertaln oxtoai mU- 
mppoitiiit^, by the value obtaiood fraa tba ^ndoea 
of their labour. The Utto- pomaa haa mom «mc- 
'•d out In ODUtinanta] paboa^ bat 



(liAlly be«n foUowed 

ndther tbcre oior In Britain can ita suoooa b* i^ to 

have bean very great. In the latter ooiuitry. ladMd, 
thi; view takon al prijnn labonr ia not ao muofa that 
of an Qxpnlieot by which tho dobt incurred fay tbe 
priaouur to^ucl^ty muy bo DijuidaLed, bat oaaayafaBB 
of penal exvrtiuD to act aa a warning in detatrioc 
titlivcH from tho oiinimiasion of crimeL Tbe fin> 
crx|H'riuii'ut in Ihv Uiat-ni'in tinned dfreottoo was tbe 
ipxtitiition of tbti trrJxl-niiU, whicb ouonata oC a huge 
rylitidncAl wheel, ttunvd by ^a trea^og of lb* 

Iiriiiuncm. A atriiug objc<:^ioD to ihia mode tt nn* 
iihujt-rit waa the fact Uut an et^u^ degraO otf lapont 
ww> thus appartloned to eaob piriaonar, without any 
ragtttd bo uie dlveidtloB in tho amoant ctf yw im a l 
atrength poaaaaacxl by each. It hai aeDacdiB(ly baa 
gWDcrally abandoned in the pcmit^ntiarie^ and niper- 
aided by tba crank, which conaista of a amall arhaa l . 
reeembllag tbo pMldlo-whocl of a atcanboat, and 
rcvoMng in a box parttv fillod with gimnL Tha 
wheel ia kept in niution by the turning ef a Itaadla 
on the outalda by the priaoner, thn labonr nerforaMd 
by him oonaistiDg in the eontinnuna ahovoUiag op cf 
tho gravel, which la thrown up by the wbael !■ tba 
aame manner as water ia tlirowu i^ from tho paAilr* 
of a st«atner. 8uch an oc-copation may anggeat itaelf 
to the reader M bearing a oaulderalile immblmm 
to the tabonn of SliTpbtu la nliario m y t h ology. 
Many plaualdo argnmenta baTo been oi^ed agafBat 
thia metbed al punfafanwnt, fbuodod prindpaUy on 
the nadennMa of tha tuk porformod, and the faa- 
policy of employing a priaoner in merdy affletin 
labour. It naveetbaleBa Mmtinou to be the ajataai 
moat gomraDy adopted in Britiafa priaooi^ ami i> 
atatod to have practically a meat banadal effoet is 
iucr^odng the odiooaneas of a priaon, and iiM|iirlBg a 
n'hi'ltariiDc ilrcad cf committoLK any act by wbkh an 
diiagrt'eable a punulty may be Incurred, i^ the act 
ol ]>!65 ItAfd labour ta to conaiat of wock at Hr 
trtjui-whof!, cranb. CApMan, atona-brtakia|v *>* '■Kb 
other like ile^cripUun of bodily labour aa joalioea In 
■ecdoD, with the approval of the aecretary td ebrta^ 
may appoint. 

rniSlLXElLS OF Vt\R ar« Mraena cafAnnd 
from the eiiemj' iu time u( war. Id aoctsit tisa 
prlaoaan of war bei'-iune the alnvei of tlwir captor^ 
and even yet It ia a rocogniaed principle meog 
tiuttona that all the inbabltanta of a ranqnikied town, 
state, or nation booome the abeolnte laroperty of the 
I it:tor« ; though it ia hardly naoeancy to aay that the 
priuvipie ia now no longor aoted vpen by oivQlMd 
nataona. Whcnahoetlla afmyenbnv a oenntry ncm- 
mtnbntanta are uanallv left immoleated. ao far at 
leait aa their pciacmal liberty la oaDiOumed. lie 
oombotanta who hare laid dawn th^ ansa baecna 
priaoners of war, and their penoaa ant at Iba eatin 
dUpoaal of the onnquertira. He ncaclioe ia to keep 
them in oonfinement tOl the tannbaatlon ol tha war, 
or ustO a mutual exduuige of prfaonen betwaen the 
warrinir Ktatra jrivca thcin their liberty. Tboy are 
oummunly trvatcd in a aouiewli&t simUar uuuuMr la 
ordinary prlaouera, only they are not geoerally aal^ 
jwUid to penal labonr. (S«e Paboix) lolSllabont 
.'^0,000 FroiK-Jimen were priaonenof war la r 
nliUt^ about liJ.OuO Engliah wore in Fraachj 

rKlSUKND, or I'KaauiM, a town of 
Turkey, in Albania, on the rl|^ bank of tha ', 
i otB ntilee from its cen6aa&e« with the ZMi. It 
ia tha roatdenoo of a paahat and tbo aaat «f a Oivek 



1 



I 



I 



I 




PRISTINA— PRTVT-COUWCIL. 



301 



Ckthalid bfxbofv. Amnne to 
ifurt]r-twoTuo«quea,onaC»tDolic 
Mod fiio nrmli churrb^ai. It luw conii'larkblR muiti- 
hLHttnaof lirv-knna, wliicli w muob ccl«bnil«d; wid 
a bis« tni&B with the adjuoat ooBntiy, md with 
■UUT of Uw l«rga town* b AlbMUK Roilic«B«, uifl 
amW Pop. ibout 26,000. 

FRlSTt^A, or ^tKtK^l^A. ■ town of Turkey in 

£nrep», kbmit 100 uiIm nvrtbcuC of Scutari. It 

the mklenoe of ft pailw. and the an of a (ilroBk 

uul L-uutkiiM m ■timlwr of baail*oinc nicMiriDe^ 

[HTf"—. batb*, ui<1 ottiar biiil'linBX Pop. 1€,OI>0. 

PRITZWALK, ft town iii Pnitnia, In th« goveru- 

. and 66 mUt* aortk-wMt of Barlin, on the luft 

: of (be TmdbiU. It i* wmll»d; hw threo gktM, 

Pk nvUriant dnirah, boapitol; nianufacturea uf wmI- 

flin aad Uimd doth, a tabaoco-faotory, and a bnwvty, 

IPtao. UfiaOk604I. 

I PRITAB (t*tEn, Pritatiua Cattrum), a. tnwit In 

rTkBM*^ eultal of thu ili!]ivtinpiit Ar<l<k;bv. at tbv 

[JniMtioB « thrao amill stniana, and iodoaed by an 

I of nig^rd nnil mid hQl«t 21 milos south- 

ol Valenoe. It bus » iiTcfnrtars, with a Kiw 

IpBilt xlioiniiig; ecFUrthoiue, hM|j|ta1, and prtMn; a 

I «Durt of fint naort, ao B^cultaral aociot^r, and a oom- 

ooUam; niaiiiifactiire* of blanlccta and other 

l*«)llaB atxma, nOt UirMxl and juu. lottber, and 

' fanady; and a tnwlo in lilk.cattlB, leattwr, ooali, Ac 

It waa <«0e a pUm <4 gnat ■tnofth and importaac^ 

and ft kind of raUTing-poliit for Protcatantim. Ita 

JnhftWtairta vara batcbcnd, ita houan baned, and 

Ifti lortUeatttiM mad brU>a Papliits: tU losdvr Id 

ilkli atroci^waa LoBii XUL Pqi. »sa. 

PRIVATE EB, a naael of var oinud and equipped 

' private fDdi*idnab to aeiM or plnoder tfio ahipa 

nj. Bnob a tcmmI nniat ba Kosniwd hy 

: and under a lattar at manuo, olberwlH 

b ft pint«L Hifl fint ttMok %o th« pnotue of 

■Ivalo pnadarisg opon «ta ao anlrenal In aarUer 

waa 1^ eoBfiaing tko riffbl to tfaoae wbo 

IndkttenofmarqveorofMpriaala. ThoMWf-re 

1 apoQ the petition at a aubjeet wlui oumpbuurd 

\at lainaliM dooa him by ao«n« fordgn prtiitw ur kiiV 

' , and thiaj enpowerad tbo party to obtain aatia- 

bj aaUng the goodi of any rabject ef ilia 

pilliMdlnf ilftte. It doea aot aaaio to have been oon- 

laldarad neo ia a ai y lo be provided witb bttan at 

\ lapriwla nil tbe tointeentli o«nlary, and do auntlon 

I b made of tbem In inatiM prior to that Una. Tko 

I ^acllea of graatba *""—'■■''"■ to pnvataen did 

l.aot baoome geaetid bilors the end of tbe At—iith 

Tba ftnt Inatam fa whkli thcfr aid ap- 

i pMH is bar* baan ooutdwad importaal to earryla^ 

I an war waa In tbe oeatcat between Spain and bar 

' hnrnJledproriBOMof theLowOoiuitrle^ wliicbbe^fan 

la 1849. In 1970 tbn I'nnce of On»gQ, lo tbe hope 

«f ntJuMAag hi* impot-crUied Baancea br aaliing 

CB taa noasy aeat from Spalu to the Neaetl«nd% 

I hapi d c o nma ai o na to naay of hia adharenlt Rotber- 

[Uac them to ombe agatnat the aUpe of Spaiii. A 

•otiridtfable fleet waa equipped, and IneruHUg daQy 

. In tMUeban they aocn became IdrriMc by tboEr d^r«- 

datioaa, not only on tli« nMnnx-rce of Spain and the 

Kathcriaoda, but on Ibat of Uictr own and uUior 

mntriaa na French, bofrcror, were probably the 

to aoad out la oendderabta aambera theae 

■Boanr>* of the ae^ Tbeir code exbilnfai the moit 

aartxiit r«ffulatloua eoaewnlua pr{*ate«n^ aad thcfr 

aaritima uwa ban alwm bMO tba moat lavere 

■gabMt tba eonmerce of nmtrala. In 1&8S the 

people of Dieppe Sited wit uiii«tevn vbipa aiwl ni 

hrleaatiaei^ In eooaaqoanoa of haviaB feerivad a 

eaamiarfoa to attach aararal Dntch Htoa at mat 

fenrdtoi rataraing tratn Spain. Spain and Ki^flBad. 

abeatly after the depradttbaa cominitted under the 



ooBuabriona of tbe Prisoo of Otanfe^ baued ogm- 
miaaioiia to Bi*nt anmbara of printaart. Tbn eip«- 
ditiont lA Drake and Fratnaher are add to hare 
been of ibia nalnre. llie Dntch war (or iude]iei>- 
daooe, which began In 1699, did aot end till 1046. 
In that loag oonteat the um of privateen baeame 
familiar, and remained ao for a long time In all 
warn iM^tn-twii maritime omntrba. The evib auflered 
from tbDm. and tbe oomplMnte of neuttala, bacaina 
ao great ttiat vanoin axpodiont* were rcaorted to 
for checking their ex<xaMa. In im, by a treaty 
oondndad bstween Uio Ijnital Statea a America 
and PruariB,tt was provliiad ttiat naitbar of the oan< 
tracttog powera ahonld grant or iaaue any eoiniubalon 
to any private armed Tinairla etnpowetlBS them to 
take or deatroy trading voaela. It waa not till 18£ii 
that tbe Eunmeaa powan mutually agreod to abgliab 
thti praetioa m piivatacring. 

I'ltIVET(£viiiertt)n), a irenua uf pl&nte of the 
natural order OJeian In tbe LinniHu> ayntem Utan< 
dria Mono^nia. The calyx b short, tubular, aud 
foa r- toothed ; tiiii cwrolla fn&oel-ahaped. fuur-F-arlite; 
the rtamrnn. two in uumlter, are Minted on the tube 
of tbo OoroJla, and the atyle in voryiihuft; tbo flmvaTa 
MV mall, whitv, and dlapuaed in terminal itaiiiclea; 
ahrnfaa with oppoalte lea*ei; betrice luoally email 
and fjjobular. I'he Cominoo Prirot (/., x-v/i/an] U a 
native of EurofM, oonmioB In bodgea and woudit; Ui<r 
leaveaareeIliptioo-]anoeaUte,«Bwe,udBn>i'"Ui; tbi- 
flowera iltfhtly odorona, white at fint but aoon 
cLanffing to a r«ddisb -brown: and thn bcrrlc* dark 
pnrnh, appmubing black. Tlii* *pcciea U mucb 
uaeu in Kardeiui for omameutal had|[«a and for abol- 
ter. Tbe wood b hard, and naod by tamon and 
ahoomakora for ii'g*. A nne-colnuniil pirntcnt b 
obtained fmni tli« pnip of the Inrriua, wnich are 
aleo u»k1, witb tbe addition of alum, to dye wool 
and rilk of a durable gncn. The berrlai tvualn 
upon the ahniba till aprin^ 

PKIVLLEGE (Latin, pririU;fiutn ^primta Irx, a 
private law), a particular beoe^ciol oKcmptiun from 
tbe goDural rulee of law. Thi« exemption may be 
eltbvr rtat or prrtomtl. real, wben it atta<Jiea to any 
nlaoe; penoiiaJ. wb<ni !i uiaubce to peraona, ae am- 
liawadow,iDamberaofPiiriiannnt,cbrgyBwa,iawyer», 
aod othen. Formerly reliciooa hooaea aad eartaia 
Ucalitbe confencd the ptivikge of (leedom from 
amat upon thoae entering than, and more leeenUy 
many plaoai txiatod whica privUcsed tboao wilfatn 
tbem frotn arrmt in civil eutta. Thne aov tto longer 
osiaL At Dreaeul^ buwever, ao arreat can be made 
in tbe royal preeaace, nor witbin tba varg* of the 
Palaoo of Waatmlaater, aor at any plaoa where the 
aoTcreign rceidea, or tbe judgea are jwUdally dttine. 
Peracnial uzemptiaa front amat b goaraalMd to all 
anltora, oomneL or other penruu attnndiBg any court 
of record upon baalaan: or tu an arUur under a rule 
of tU ri pri nt. 

PRIVy-CBAMBBB. OttaiMim or m OK- 
etni of the royal bouwdmld of England, InatiUitad bf 
IIonryVIL Their dutieo are toMaad the mnnlpi; 
but their appoiubnent b amr nanij honoraiT, ao 
aerrioap bab^ reqoired of them, aor aalary or fee 
granted them. Then an alao loor gentlemen aah««« 
of tile ptlry-dumbert wheat cttea b ta wait hi tba 
proaaace chaaiber, attend oa tht wronisa'a pnaoi^ 
and note afiaira nadar the hwd-dHHabariaui and riM- 
diamberlain. 

PRIVY-C017NCIL (reenKu* rtgu, printmm 
Mtutli'im), a emncP of atatn held by the Itritiab 
auvrreign and tuuacillora, to ooncBrt nulten (□* Um 
public eervtoe^ and for tbe honour aad tnfety of iha 
raalB. Uatil tbe riae of tba eabiant Iha waak 
naMariUe aad Inlloential adviaeia of the crown to 
atan aSaiis were the membn uf tbe privy^mHKnL 



soo 



PRISON DISCtPLDOt-PRISBENl). 



iL« ttiTm of pita, witli ko iron gmHn^ kt tbn top in 
the f UTtD of a trftp-door, itov«nkl of tbo priaoDcn cum- 
mltted uIgM« to HCftpa from tha honoiv of Ouii 
dhwdm. Tb« nlltary ifrtcin having Uiio, In « 
m*t BWMiuv, proved R [&i]nr« In Anurfctt, die 
ihtcdUod at sociiil K-^uUton «ru agafai Kt on tbe 
rack to dariM wrm •■jiuJl^ •Qoctnnl nouu of tmn- 
iihiaect without Bitcb objectioaablo adjimcti, mna tia 
aeoond ^rait experiment In prlion dtadpline— the 
■Oeiit aytitaa — vai accofdingl^ iD*littit«d. Thu prin- 
cipal aatmMtattniBtit vili«r« this ayatam wu cairiad 
out tu tin utiDDHt vxtvat won th/e )>viu(vutiary of Siim 
^ii^g In tba aCAte of Xew York. 'His priBonera wen 
"till, •• at Aubum, coa5ned to MpAntlc ntlla dnring 
the nigbt, bnt ia tlw d^yttina were conducted out 
to Urge looiui wfawetlwy worked tofetlier. batwith- 
nat beln^ kllowed to oxobtitige a aiaelo «in4, or ao 
much u ■ dngle glaaoe, with aar oi ttkoi cotnp«oi«u. 
lltraaghDut the whole perioa tliat tbey worked 
togotbdr ia thdr conmoo coinpwtBieat, u will m 
duiioj> and aft«T tbdr retm to their ceU^ till! •jrvt«n 
uf ■epolchisl eOeiKa wma rigidljr nainliuiwd. An' 
tnUMgraesioB ct thaaa rate* wee fallowed by t' 
ininiMiatA inBictionof corporal puniehiBat u 
fitftpo of whlppU^ and thie penalty waa eqr 
incunvO bjr iM priauner epokkiuK (^ ■>'>« 
fellow-prieoMn^ or lo a stnstgvt v»itiug th* 
T'> laeure Lbe effioae^ and prutuptitude of ' 
lahueMt, tke humUnt offioer 1b ckMgv ' ' 
iNiucRbMl BeaBwarily to bo intnjwtDd wi< 
of adtniniatwing it, and no »puual wr ■ ' 

the pciaoDen i^daat tbe acta of anr 
KO bmpmrible antlMwi^ murt dor 
iiMrtanawi, b^re beoo liable to be |[r 
•onuMth mora •olnoi Um it: :'< 
at tbe tntih of any cbaip> < ' 
of the prim Id the am «i j 
made. It haa aUo baea »Mfr 
impcaMl (ukW tba aOoal »' 
liTava a» injurioiM to th* n 
It a* the conaequeiMee f 
flnemeBl mder the «i' 
one of Um moet effecta' 

loetlwd i* to be («i' 

tbe raoM HfU iwf >* o nmmH tM oow 

ihe prijon of PI- ^^ eiJ. lb« ddaf jii- 

BppIiicAtlfit ' ' ^ ;Uaf barvo, and oil 

(oQiul 1b>|' > tf'otl^B'' two priiy-r 

•.otnmnBti < ^i"^ 'O' '^ eovereij^i man it 

ThIldKi.- .-vers for aatfonjos Kadaoreeaaa 

eoeervAf i >■'■ tlioCowrtgf t^KMii'a Battdi, 

mipi<-'-i •xjindllor eat^jred ocrtaia 

— eu lin -'wmn] iecimty, but tbcH 

fiatricf ""w aKwnrt » pHvy- 

ur tb ' f'-'^'tuv a« oSotea 

ans 

B -■ of ^TVAt aaliquhy: 

»J - ■riL.'iiially owwnirtod 

'. and its acta, 
if the greatatt 

^J^wmaa the t»b<i -Adwin- 

'^ „ rf tk» 0«v-rt ■• ;:n,{ 

,J lb* I.W17 ,^ 

^ .vi^mnwiit ■: — i_ - V -:.i«»d 

^T Mtijr 'Wiiiidl immstnl at pefaoaa itwiia b; 

^ %r^: t" »'l"«' with in mattvn of gOT W M B ft 

\ ' I Tio the Sratcb privy- 

I riLiAfa prirj-miBcil, 

^f*i-a .. '-^ .1 ■ ' no no other or 

tMar powm yibmSa^Uk 

t^Md wtU>t1 , , , -il.«tb« 

liv virtito of the n v^i iruvj^AUf e, mxuI iatkpaadcatlr 




nodan IwltUtcn tv k«B|, 
employed, both f<» Uie ba»elB 

pbyairally, to tha pattin <k-, ■ - 

viow of nrnderinfi priawp- 

eiippertin^ by the valir 

of thetr labour. Tb« . 

dally boon foUowei* 

tMhur th«« nor ' 

have batn vary r 

tlio view t*k«i> ( 

of on exiMsdv 

prlaoiwrlo', 

of paaal r 

nthcnt f 

ex|-.rir' 

ItffOt' 



i?. 



to 
rvnd 

.i-.irt 

.:- ■= .,r 

. itriLuu ; Init 

irtL- '"it of the 

■i<'cy even 

may tako 

- — toeil 

i'^ial 



iinder regtlatw 

•^ii WW that tAH 

' ^r the trnMuiT «d| 

'>ate eoBtrifatc&ni eq^ 

lae total ntimated vrmi 

r«»l»ed to iKnem iInw ktwI 

. Mlmbixtratlca to « waukittM of 

lappointod for that purpoMu Ztw«, 

'fjated in tlie nnt ntataoea to aU tfaa 

•■iciotiea eaiatins at that tlae for tha bJ 

odocation, Bamaly, tha Briddi and Kvld 

Society, (oWKted wider tbe patnnaM «f Q 

aad tbe NaUooal Society, art on foot at a 

br the Chordi of Baclaad: but tbey aim 

diat«ly d«fwtad btnn tlui taitcmtioo, i« 

a^rt other echoob wb«a nccial c&nnnri 

dered tbifr afflUatioB to Uw aodeCJM- m 

matcly came to thia that aU Kbaoli 4« 

which the Bibb WW daUy read (mm tha j 

Vvrafon. Iha Urgelr Idcscmmj mmbor 

wfaieh tbia proanect of tbtSm aid gave riae I 

oinacqtMmt aaodof partlcQlBrBra in tb«a 

((•Id vi the i^DvemnoU craUMo aee that ' 

rri'pcriy appliad, noeaeutaled tiw appal 

' I tors of acbonK Tbwe were ^pctel 

■ "obiBct, lmw*nr, to tbo veto of tl 

'. and of the adnaatfaa *MM..j| it 

.r::bea, wfth regard to thiM aff 

i ■.'"■■f x-hoob; bit oo erfiool ww 

[lit anbmJt to im» wt »fB 

'-^ n of adtoola Wore Kw 

Um bwdU r ' n to be *.tn.^f p^ 

aaomit of i Khotboa. He api 

of pupa-tea. . .«nuDeBi,Ba« 

themartar:' ' « iutnicted 

of a pro^ > r ;he earn 

ooonea,w^-> ■■»*«, 

for tbo mj>. . j the a 

ai-hoob. It Ma« aiiu ntralci- : , ^ 

ll5J0) to finut a ■boQ ilI. .j 

tracdien. Pupil>t«aciben wen to mttb m 

tjoealup of fi«w yewi^ and to bo pdd £19 fc 

jKv, to be iBcnaaod nufa foUowii^ y^ V 

orertbeprcoediDtfoiM. ToamiUa papH^J 

oanpleta the tnunbr iwoaa my to qvAh 

bcteacben after fiaMdnc their mtmia 

Quoeo'a Kbolatahip oftfio nine of £S0 i 

tutod, wbicfa WM 10 be giTfn on their m 

■wmal aobool, and at the coocIibdmi cd tbaii 

tbeta the sormal acbool waa to i«eri*« a 

mcawy, which waa to i«ry aoondiBC to the 

time tbe itadac had attandedtbaect ' 

Slant waa to be allowed antMuIly to < 



302 



PIUVT-COTJNCILi. 



The uumberof privy-o<nmeil!o» I« indcrmiic; tbi*y 
on Aondiuit^d by th« lavcml^ at ploafure, and no 
pfttent or gnat is docmmi^, hnt th«y muit ^(^ 
lutiml-boni aitbiecta. The Iwt of privy -council] or* 
acm Mnbraoa*, baaidea th« membcni vt Iho r^yal 
bndlyond tha m«mbera of the cabinet, the? Arch- 
biahoM (if Cant«rhiiiry And V'urk, the ItLtlinp i>f 
LoDilim, tiic i^Tvat otFti^Bn vt sUit-?, Um lunl-cliancellor 
and jndg«B of tbe ooort of uqglty, tbo clilof ]ustic«8 
of IM coorta of aoaunoii law, tbe ccdMiaMical atid 
admlnlty JudgM^ and th« jndga adrMat«, MTcral »( 
the puiane jaugoa, the apailuir of tb« Houaa of Cum- 
maa*, tha ambamdora, aomv of tha ndidatan fiMil- 
potvDtJary and jrovernon of oolonlM, tha eammaiul*r- 
in chief, tiiD mutcr-genoral ai tb« otdnaQM, the &yt 
lord irf tlic wlmiralty; and mnnctimca other Dvnouii 
who lill or ha.\9 Bllod raspcnsiblo offioca under Uia 
crown. It li only on vary extniordlnary oeoatlAnii 
that »11 the ineDibvra Attend the council, and U i* not 
now ii»iul for nny niomlwr tn nttond iinlaM fipedally 
niuiiiuDtitKl. The utti-uiIuiTO iif nt loiwt *U tuemlMtni 
u necoaary to conoLitutc) a cuundL The cuuncU fa 
anmmnncd on a iintira of forty-four houn, and is 
never held without the pmurnco of a >iK:rBtary of 
atata; tha jiudor ooundllor dcUven hSt uplniun tint, 
and tSio Rovcrcign when prosent last Formerly it 
ytaa dii»(i)ved hy tbo death of th« unvcrtign: but by 
U Anno, csji. vU^ It u not duwlviid till >ix muuthi 
afti^r tho demiao of tbo ctowd, nnleai Koner detar- 
iniuod by the tnicccmor. Privy-cotindllon aro by 
their oatQ botmd U> advUe tha enwn withnnt par- 
tiality, affefti-iii, ut dix-ad; to kaap itaccunBul iWL'ivt, 
to avoid iMmi|itioii, and U> maixt in tha oxocDtion of 
wbal it ihvtv revulvvd. The coimoQ. haa power to 
biqnire iiiUi all ollanoca against (^vonunent, and 
mmmit lb« olfcndcni to take tbcir trial in tome court 
of Ijiw. II t;>iiii<it take cu[;[iixaiiL'u ill matten nt 
prriporty bAlonditg toEiilij<H4a in (irnitt llritun; liut 
fai colonial and mariLime cauwa ariainjf out ut tbo 
kin^otn, and in cnam of liiniu;y and Idiiiry ovmi 
wbati involviiii; property, thv luivy-wiindl tnny toto 
oognbaneo, babe the court o] aitpcoL Tho oonadl 
koaalatcd in it«ap|)^IIativc fuucliuna by 'the judidal 
oommitiiw of the privy-coitndl,' <xn)i>titntad \rf S and 
4 \V11L IV, oap. ill Tliin wnnnulloe now «i»u(t« 
of tha kcopur of the groat seal, iha cbief jtiadocn, ttie 
Buutor of tho mlln. Ihc rlii^f bftron, and other grtat 
judidal offit*™, witb aiiyotbur two [jirivy-omincllliira 
who may l>o nominated by tliu Buvorpii^n; and It 
po — wai tlie Kamo powtn fur cnfonHng iti docraasai 
tiu Court of Clianoery, the Court nf (jucrn'ii Ilcnch, 
Ac. Fonoorly a pnvy-flonndllor vnjuyed corlain 
pr1*ileg«a In iMpoet of porannnl wcumy, but th««e 
ara BOW alKiIUbed, and any offence Atfainrt a pn%-y- 
mundUor etonds upon the lamo footing as ofTi-nrm 
■gaintt any otbi-r individual. 

The court of privy-cooodl In of jfrnat anliqnitv: 
tbs novemitient of ^fluid was vrlKiuidiy condaotvd 
br tbe eoverdfn uid priry-ooundl, and ita ttctn, 
Wicker ordera or proclainnlima^ wen of tbe i^rcAlrat 
auUiority. Now, however, tbo iwrtjon of the privy- 
cotiudl known aa the cabinet (rco Brctaijc — Adintn- 
irtratkdt of tha Govemnieal) ts the uobL imt>oTt»ut 
brand) of the govammant, forming in fact the cse- 
outive (^Terement of the kini;dom. In Scotland 
the pdvy-coundl oonidated of pcnaiu duaen by 
tiio king to adriM «ith in mattcrfl of goTenun«nt 
and police; but by an ant of jVnnc Ihp l^t«Ji privy- 
cynindl waa ataorbed in tbe UritUli privy-voundl, 
which is by that act dodared to have no other or 
hlj^wr powcn than were poa wa atd bj tbo Eiiglii<h 
privy-ooundl at tixa time oi tbe Dnion. 

<Mf«r« in emairit aiv onluni iaraed by the ■ovote^n, 
by and with the advice of tho prlTy-ootuidl, oilber 
by Tlrtne of tbo ro\at jirerogaUvo, and ind(.-[ic^cntly 



of any act of ParUanent, or by vlrtne td ancfa ac^ 
autborizUig the lemvlgii la oonncdl to modify « 
difpente with certain otatotory provisiou which It 
may ha dcpnird nipcdicrnt in particnhu' ooDJnudai>a 
to alter or Kux{i«iid. U'hen a pamuHiao ia to b 
gUtea to a particular individual, ft ii vnal to gnat 
it hy liccnte; but ordera in oonadl am d a 
Ifcneral nature, and oontain diepenaattona or pr 
Uun* exten ding to a whole bnoeb of commaro*. 

PRIVY CtnTNCIL, CoMJCtrntB or, on Ktnxa- 
TiDK, a cotnmittea appointed ia Britain ia 1839 for 
ailmiiiiiiUriiii; the grantN which It bad beoi tb* 
praictiL'e tif the ^ovBniiiivul tu make fur wmc timv 
previoualy, with a view to meet Uie edncadimal wanta 
of the country. Ia 1833 the oducatianal deMltaUoa 
nf tho nation became ao apparent, and lli» iamttd- 
ency of thu voluntary aginiL-iM that bad tutbetto 
eniated to apply any effectual nimadj to tba gnvinii 
ovil Ml dearly dcmonatntcd, that the Mata waa 
impdlcNl by tho necewntiea of ttie caae to take mae 
oliara bi tiie odueatjon of the pea{4e. To thla and 
Email parliamoutary graata w«re made, and ««« 
distrihiitnd by the trcnmrr nader Kgalatioau imed 
in 1»33, tbe chief uf which waa that no applieatktt 
abould be eutrrtainod by tb? tr^wniry anlo* a Mm 
were nueed by private eontrihutiua equal, at Uaat, 
to ono-half of the total estimated expoadltaia. Id 
1S31I it waa reaolved tolncmae theae graata, iatraat- 
Ing thdr admlaistnitjon to a committee of the jvivj- 
coaadt appointed for that puipoee. It wisoolyont- 
tf tnplated in the first inirtanoe to aid the two gieai 
■ocietiea esiiting at that time for the proaoootioo of 
educatiDii, aunelj, iho llrituh and Foreign Sc&ujI 
Sodcty, fonad^ undvr tbe patronaji* o( Ooorge III., 
and tb« National Society, act on foot at a later dale 
by thu Chun.'^h <if England; bat they almoat iatiae- 
diatoly departed from thi* intention, nwcdviag In 
oeaict other edio-L-la where niedal dranaataaow Uo- 
dcrcil tbetr alTiltation to Una todetiea; and il ulti- 
mately came to thia that aO achnok were aided ia 
which the Bible waa daily read fron tbe AnAodHd 
Verdoa. Tbe laigely lnai«aaed anmbor at aABoh 
which thia proauect of slate aid gave rue to^ aad tk* 
coaaequeot need of partioutar care in the adnihiieli^ 
tion of the (rovcroiueut ([ranta. to see that tbeaa 
properly applied, neceadtated Um appdntaa 
ina])cctor* uf ech<xil«. Thcee mm appointod by .__ 
quiTin, Kubioet, however, to tbe veto of the CaiBdi 
of Eoglanit and of the education coouoitteea of Dl^ 
■entliigcfaiirobfe, with ngtad to thcM appointad for 
thdr rcepoctirc nchiMib : but ao fdiool ma to reodvc 
aid which did not mbmit to tpapectJon. Grmnti 
jjjven fur the erection of scbook were nguUtcd by 
tho number of children to bo odncata^ aad IH 
amniinl nt private cnntnbntion*. Tbe appotataieal 
of pu[iil-tR>diera, paid by Koocnunaat, aa well to aid 
tbe mwter aa to bo tbemadvea Inatnioted, b tme 
of a progranuna drawn op by tlw eouBtta* t^ 
icoundl,waa thefint step tucea towards graatfagald 
for the malntmaoce in addition to the erectiood 
•diooU, It was also roaolred alxnit tbo aaow tilM 
(184fi) to cmnt a small allowaaoo to dcaerda; 
Uncben. Pupil-teacbm were to aerre ao anpRB- 
ticeshlp of Ave yenn, and to be pnid £10 for tbe flr4 
year, to bo increased each foUowiag year by £2, l<k. 
over tbo preoedinf; one. To enable pupil -teadMn to 
com|ilete the training neoessaty to qualify them to 
he ti-jtrhcn aftor finb^ing tbdr apnrentjpadvij^ tbe 
Queen's sdivlanbip of the value ol £20 waa insli- 
tuiod, wlilcli wu to be given on thdr aaterinc a 
u«niial Rcbool, and at the condudm oS Utefr toalnBf 
tbcrv the Dormd sdiool waa to reodve a grant <h 
money, which was to vary aeooidiag to the leoglhef 
tbao the student hsd atteaded the school. A fortlMK 
grant was to be allowed anaaal^ to doljr : 



I 

I 

I 




I 



I 




PBIVY-PUBSE-PBOBABILISTS. 



SOS 



__j ooe g( wtiich 
ft'flHiBilla ftan tho Donnal 
aduiol, ukI the ftmonnt of this gnai wm m>d« por- 
tiaUj lirpcDilent opoD tha ffrado ct tb« c«itilic»l«, 

n«i npilftticiH uiplled also to ScotUad. 

Is Uta ft Mviwd oodo WM iamied in {luntuutoe of 
,tt» NMHtkma of th» royal oommiMioii kppdnted 
.to faqoM farto tiM lUto «f prteoftry tdowtioa. In 
twnw d lUi eod« all psTnuota iran thoiwotaith to 
1w aada la tlw (ana of okfiftatkn fruiU, * sjatou 
pMtiftQT Mkm(«d aovw yoftn Iwfura, the luni [jsvAbfe 
tor «ftcn ^ild to b* 12k, snHort tn a dixliii-ti'on of 
^ id. lot «va>y child who AiUxl iii rmuIIiik; ui] 
iAsilvdadiutiMuforthiMewbofaUed mwHtla^ftnd 
avttlmietfai. By Ihk coda alaa all iiftynx^iit* cam* 
thraugh Uw OMiugan. This ntumI ood* did not 
apotjr lo8ootl«Bd. 

nince tke p^wiii}- of Uio Educatiun Act* of 1870 
kod 187'J, far En^luid vid SmtUod rMfMctinilr, 
prioMry puUio edaoaUon in Uiew two countriM J» 
, mow otitiraly tvgnUted by Umm acta (RMBiUTAiX— 
Xdoeadoii), the miimoM ndmimaCrativtt body bdng 
■til^ ttuwevar, tlie oonimitfaM of pnvj-onancU on 
«ditcatioti, 

PBIVY-PUKSE, Eku-sb or thk, an officor of 
At loyal hooMhold of (ireat Britiun, whnne fimction 
it ia to take chaiya at tba parnMnt of tha private 
Bipunw^ liM'ltKliiik' cluuiUos, q\ tha ■orvrdgu. H« 
baa nooDBiivl Kker nay official or honaoboldeiiMDM*, 
aad ti iadepeaHiMt uE tho n^at oBiecfa of th« hou*e- 

Md. 

I'KIVY-SEAL(pn'MfumrtV>//irm),>w?al>i>iicDd«i 

by Ibc Britiafa ■nvtrelgii (onich gr^nta or tiling 9>a tint 

^(vwankio|MMBUMgT««tMw]; aod aomstima iu«d 

[;fa tUafii c( Im eODBsqtiatae, which do not require to 

EM the gnat aaal, aa to diacbarga a reoc^niaaaco^ 
bt, &C. ; but mo writ which tvUtaa to tiM oomiDao 
law oa aa« the privy-Mai. Since tha tlnie of n«lity 
VIII. tiM) |irivj-Be«I hft* bocn tha warrant of tho 
Iefi;»]ity cjgraiita from tbovrown, and tfa« autkurity fur 
ualotd-ehaikoalkvtoafixtbacraalMaL Sufihgnuitd 
an tanned latten-patat. Tbo offioor who baa tbo 
■anody of tha niTjr-«eal waa andantlj callod cleric 
t4 Iho i«ivy>««al, aft«rwanb guwdJaB dd ccivy-wal, 
and now h« b tmSM lotd pnTyaaaL and u Im fifth 
, makaffinrctf ilaet^haTiBKaiMCttMMUyaHat In 
Uw cahbet Tho lord prioy-BeaT aanat Dot put tbo 
•Ml in any grant witfaont good warrant; nor with 
wamnt If it bo UiinBt tho Uw or ineoav«Bicait 
wWiotit firrt acqtiMiting Ae BOTarel^n therewith. 
Sy tha Act 11 and 12 VicL cap. Usui (18-18) it waa 
ptovidtd that wananta tmder tha royal aign-maaual, 
fcmradbythoattonwy-Koicndaiidtolicltoc'ltenun). 
Mtaag iorth tha tanor and aBoct of the letten-paiant 
ia ba pwaiad, addraaaed to tha lord-chaocdlnr. and 
nOBtdMiniad by ooo ol the priudpal aaciataiMa c^ 
Blala^ abould ba a aitlBdMit aotbovity for the prli-y- 
■mI befav affixed; wd that the ain-muntnl niigBod. 
BCMiW r etoBed, abd aealed, sbMiul be anlRcietit w&r^ 
lant to the loTd-ehaikoeltoc to pa* ]eU«r>-pat«nt 
■nder tbo gnmb araL la Scotlaad the privy-aHl ia 
Had lu aathnaBraMiiy royal ^ruita at uaigiiable or 
ponoul rigbia. 

PRIZE. By the tana prba la generally aitdar> 
■tood anything ca|i<in«d In virtno of the rigbla of 
war O'luw MuV P ropar ty o^toitd on land la 
DwaUy catled baatf, and ia getuvally diapoaed o< at 
OBM by the ooBimaiMliQg mural, or r—erved for the 
diya J ti hla aovcrvlKti, <who b aoouatOBWd to beatow 
, Mid diaOribatv it acoarding to hia dlKTvtloo. Ia 
Britain by 3 aad 4 Vict, capk Ixv. the jurtadicUon hi 
natlen « bouty oJ war ia veated In the iodge of the 
pria* eoort (who b alao jvdf* of the admiralty eonn) 
•a » refervaoe by tba ■ovanijn; otbarwiae it u rc^- 



UtM l>y 2 and 3 WUL IT. «p. M., which enaoti 
that hU c^itiuM ahall he dbp ea rf of aa the crown 
rfiall ilirort. l!>(«crt«T« entitled to prizo-tnonuy do 
nut receive any, tuid a («itifieil list of Iho pcrsoDe 
entitled to aban In c^torea oiiul be ttannnittaii 
to Obohaa Hoqntal by the oommandiuK olSoer. In 
aome caaea the priu monay to paid aftor the soldier a 
deoeaae without probate or adDiiniatnitiHiii. In rr^pnl 
to maritime capturva a rory (HlT(>rent munoi hw buon 
puieiMd by nil nationa fn modem tituea frou that 
which obtains In caaea of capturca on land. The 
right of belliearcnta Ui mtitiim the property <i their 
anamiaa on the aaa ia adiuitU-'d, aa well aa tlia riglit 
to pvermt any frauda or vioUUona ot the law uf 
natlm on the port of neutrala. But thcae rigbta am 
United, and moat he ao exerciacd aa not to ntlrediGh 
upun the independeiicv oc rik'hta of otlit^r oAtldiia. 
It ia aooordingly aettled aa a principle of tb« law of 
netiuna that ovary beUigiireDt hae a nzbt to establish 
tribunals of prixs^ to examine Into all mari time cap- 
luree. and to decide jadidally upon tbvir TsUdity; 
and likewioe that tbo oourta of vrim of tho cafrtvre 
have oidnnivc iuriadictlan otot all tnnttera relating 
to capture* made uxidfx Uw authority of Ihcir soto- 
r«ic^, mid the court* of other nations hsv* no juris- 
diction or authority to iniiiUn into, irr to adjudicate 
upon them. Tho rentenoo of a court of competent 
juriadii.'ti'iD (moo pronounced b ouucliiriii; Mi'lhind- 
lag on all nathns. Quentions of navid pHxe-ninnQy 
in Euflaod are adju^oUed by \iui uHirta at admir- 
alty. The 27 and 28 TfatL c^ sxv. {IMi), enactt 
pvrmaneutly with amendmenta, anch proviriona con- 
i<rroii>([ naval priio as bad prcrionaly been nenaUy 
pAMcd at tho bi.f;inniii|: of a war. Erery ridp taken 
as priEo, and without bnaldng of bulk, most in teem 
of (hie act bo dolivercJ up to the marshal of tha 
oourt, and tlia oapton must bring the ikiip's papers 
into lbs te^rtry of the court; tbeae proviNiuns do not 
^^y, howover, to ships of war taken as itriuk If 
the court dedds that the eaptnre is a I«gal oiiio, tlic 
price is ihea soU^ and the prucewli are divided 
amongst the eapten^ both oS<«» and naa, la pfo- 
poitions TBiyiflff aooording to the rank of eaclL If 
the price be a snip of war the slate grnnta a ocrt^n 
allowance pvr i;iiu, which allowance b dlatributed In 
the laiiw manner, 

PRI/K COUirr, an English tribunal esbtinc 
''^J by a|iecial cammiadon cmder the gratt seal 
durinff war, and aa long as the liUsatlooa cunneeted 
with It eontinve. TUa oonrt, beiusa idi«diofttinc 
ntMO aoMtkinB rolating to captinaL pdn^ and booty, 
abo adindicatee opsn qnestioos of nteroatiaoal Uw. 
Tboce is an appeal tram tfab oMiri lo the <{nean I* 
wuncO. ne judge In the eoort of admiralty prwidee 
in tha nUa eoiirt> 

ritOA, ■ puoilior kUd of asllli^-hoat wed by tha 
nativ'ee and olao tlie pirates of the Eaatam Anld> 

£la|[o. ItbstraoMly shapedihariDgooasidequlla 
^ oo a Una with the stem and stern, while the 
othtf side b curved In the nsnal way. In ardor to 
he<«p it ftvro n|ieetUDg, In aonssqaenre of thb pemU* 
arity in its fonnatiaii, a frame earryioK e weight b 
phmd to windward, and thb baUooes m boat when 
oikder sail It cwriea a lifnd of hig-aail, and is 
equally sharp at stam and stora, aa sa to sail cillier 
way withook twnUg. The omal dbnensioiie of tho 
proa are abont 90 feeckinf by 3 Cert wlda 

PROBABILISTS, thoas philcKiphen who nab- 
tain that oertaioty is impeaaiblck and that we mail 
be aatiified with what b probahU. Thb eras tha 
doettlnu of tbo New Academy, (MtlevUrty ot Arce- 
silouB and Cameadesu Thn Utl-aie nt Une d pUkao- 
nber distlngabbed three prlndpal dsgrwe of proba' 
Ullly, HOoraUg las repreamtoUoa might be prebaUa 
when ODDddned by ttasif alnne; prohnhb and mln- 



pMobsd tAea MBpued whh otlicn; or thlidlj, 
probobU iiiiiiiiTiMKiwd and in ftll iMpttda onfiimad. 
In huriUb pmoaMlMfai ara thoso who Ic^ch tKsit iq 
ovr Mtiona w» noit lolkw irliat M«ma V> u* U'mI 
fvobaUy rf^it, bacaBao ia qwitioni of morklity 
iJ4anaikttntav6Mrt*iiitjitiiottolwattaiacd. Ammtg 
tka JaauiU UMra wen Kitiw wbo teught tb»t m mui 
may follow what ia prolwbljr riehtt or whM haa b««n 
<ledtli)d to bo M by toKbos ol autborhy. altliQUgb 
le lUf nol be the noat imbably ri^t, or nwr utt 
•««m pmbabla to Mmiwlf. It ia thia vutw thai iWcal 
in hia ttuaoat Provincial Lettan bald* up to ridicnlB. 
Stte Jtaum. 

FBOBABILmr, Ib a^ebn, tha matbemiticnl 
i&raatlgRUDii of chanooe. If aa ev^nt maj happen 
u a w%j» and fail in ft waja, aod all tbcao waja m« 
v<|tull7 likely to oomr, Uw prabcUUty of its ba^^on- 

ln« » if^-J* »ad th« prohabUttT of ita faaing b 

1 - Tbia it tbc dcAnrtioa of probabilitj givto in 

nuUhiMnatiaU treatiM*. It ia oTident that aa 'cer- 
tainty' may Iw roprtnrailod by unity, it tbc pmb»' 
bllity cif an ev^nt'* ba{ii><*iiing Is p, tha probaUlity 
of ita failing is 1 - p. whvn tbo probability of tbc 
hAppenio^ of an event is to tbe prnbohillty of ft« 
Mluj( aa a to 6, tb« fact is «i{irM««d in po]niIar Ian- 
gaagm thua — tba ' odda' am a to i for tko oTont, or 
6 to a affainH tbtt entit. It tliere are thrvc wcntd 
■neb Cbat aa* nmt lutppan, and only one can bap- 
pea, aotl auppoac tbe Crat civnt can happen in a wayi^ 
tha aeonud in b wajra, and tha third in e waya, And 
that all tbeae ways are aqually likely to oooor, then 
it ia aridont tbat tbc probability of tbi lu^jpaniiig 



Examplu: Suppvae tbat 3 white balls. 



of tbe finl etent ia 
b + e 

4 blitck balls, and E red balls an thirrwn pminia- 
eooiialy into a l«s, and a peraon draws out one of 
Ibem; tbe proUbillty that this wOl be white ia f\ 
or i, tba probability thnt it will b« blade la ■j\ or 
^ U« probnliility tbat it will be rod ia ^i- ^"^ '^P* 
poao two halU to be drawn out The number of paJn 
that con bo fumicd out of 12 tbings (we PSRUirTA- 
TI(>N!< Arffi ('i»iaiSATiiiM>) U <t(l; the ti umber of pur* 
tliat vmti In) fonui-il out of 3 white balbi 1* 3, and 
tberafora tbe pmbabUity of drawing two whitu bnlla 
ia ^1 or i',. Kimiltiriy tha probability of drftvinp 
two blade bulla \a -ff or ^i two red batla, H or ^j; 
a wblt« and a black, }{ or ,*, ; a blaok and a red, 
II or )t; a tvd and a wbito, IJ or ^V Tbu sum of 
these bIx pohabllitles ia unity. 'I'he probnbility nf 
two iudependeot or of two dependent oTcnla b^tpen- 
log togetbor, aometamea calloil the obanooa of oom- 
nouod eventa, k tte«ted of Id wurka on this subji>c4. 
\Ve eball mcDtiao a faw of the more important pto- 
blama. I. Paacat'a problfim -n-aa: A and li play » 
«it of games, in whiob A'a ohanoe of winning a aiuKle 
nme la p, and B's ohanm Is q; reqaired tbe proba- 
mli^ of A'a winning n games oat of m + n. 2. A 
ba^ CDotains 100 tjclc«ta, which am markixl with tha 
nvmben 0, 1, 2. &«., 99 reaiwulit-ely; a tlt'lift i> 
dnwn and replkoed; leqnlred the probability tbat 
aftnr Gre drawings the sum of the numtiitni dnwn 
ia SlHi, 3. 'rhen- are two uma, one contitinitig 7 
wbjtfi and 3 bluok balli, tbe other S whit* and 
1 black ball; a wbito ball faa* been dnvn; what ia 
tbe prohabiltty that It hna eome from the ftist um ? 
4. A bog coutaLios S bnUs, and it ii knovru that e&rh 
liail is Mthar black nr whito; a wbitn bn!l hiw he>-n 
drawn and repLM«d; what is tbe probability th^Lt 
another drawing will give ft white boUl 6. The pio> 
lability tliftt a certain peiKm spc&ks the truth is p, 
and Uie prab«billty that another penun spuaka the 



trath k f , thf4e two petsnne *p** ■& nwlfliy k < 
■tateBMBtiwhatinthuprofaabOityDfiUtfUtlit 6-Snp- 
poM that certain argnmaBta are logically sooad, and 
that tbe probnbaitiss o( tbe tratk cf tbairnsiNetiee 
premieee an kaefn; repaired the pcohnUUt^ of tha 
tnith of the ooaduaioo. Tbe tkaon <d prtAmtOHm 
is va^ «xteniim Tha simpler pronloas ■*« weifcsd 
out Id Todhnnier'a Algebra, bat further nienaoe 
must be Biada to Boole's Laws of Tbowbt aaA V* 
M'orgau'a Fonnal I^c, and to varJoM apedal 
nvaJufn OB tbe anbieot. 

PROBATE, Corwr or, aa EngUJi trflMaal t^A- 
]iah«d by act of ParlinaMBt In l&ii. to whi'-h all the 
powvni that had been prarlowly exerdsod by the 
TrpnltiriifTti-^l couria jn the gnuiting of probates of 
wfDs and lett«ra of Mlnunktration were trsnsfirred 
This oouri was merged u tbe Sapreaie Cmit bjr the 
.ludinatnn Ad of la7«, by which lU ji faae tf oa ww 
aailjcned to a Probate, Dimra nad AA n trah y 
Dliirion. Tbe foaetioos ot thk btaadi arw c en Ja nB 
entiiety to dochUng on the nDtbealid^ of wiOa ead 
upon Um) praper pecsow to whom MlniBkttnlloB k 
to be cDDimittsd wbea no will eziato. U » pHty 
disB loaring « will It nnat be prodoflad and mified 
at the regittiy bi London or the diitriet regklrles of 
tfao court ia variomi parts tbroagbont the Idagdea, m» 
that all oonoenad maybe oonvt^ed of ileaiithealicity. 
If its auUieaticity, aftec tbe examination of wilnoMH^ 
in di;tDonAtr«U'd the will k then rsgkt er wd. and tl>e 
orij^nal dejxj«ite<I in tbo cottA The not at eonit b^> 
wUch tbe «iU k proved k tenned prob*!* of wflL 
Ontbuotberbaud, If the party ^eainteaUteapiiUnlfaa 
mnst be mnde to tbe court to appoint one o( the nest 
of kin as administrator of the perMoal estnto of the 
deoeaaed ; thk k done by ttie coitrt by grantiiig what 
k tonued a letter of adjninistmtioo. In canea wbve 
a peraon dice in one of the dktrlots, lenvinir psnonnl 
propM-t* iinilcr i'liio, tbe judge of tbe oonaty emit 
of UiD ^rtrirt biw jiu-iwiii^on should any oonGntiaa 
arise, hut his deriaion may be appealed frvm to thk 
division of the Supreme Court Tbn pnctiee «( the 
court is tbrown open to tbe whole legal pro fs rfntw 
anil ito proooeding* are otherwise a w ai i la tod la tbe 
courts cl caramon law. 

PROBOSCIDEA, tbe t«rai n^iUed In reosnt sye- 
tnms of Matomalian clasufication to denote aoi order 
of tbe olasa iododins' the Etepbanta alone, wind 
are distinguished, as implied by thk name, by th« 
poauadon of the cbarsctorktlc y roboeeie or tnmk. 
'llik order k occnsionolly gronped as a mbdlTkiaaot 
the larger order of UugtJata tir H(«^ed QuaidnipeA^ 
or ma> be treated as an eatii«ly i^sttaot and sepatate 
gTDDp. But two 'n*'^'"g spedce — die Indian aaJ 
African — of iElepbanta are lutnwn; tbe Probnadde^ 
howerer, lni:1ude the foanl and extinct HainiBOthi^ 
MastodoDLS, and Dainotheriuni. 8<» also JtiMnuon, 
Mammalia, Aa 

PR0B08CIB, the term applied to tbe bnger or 
aborter fleiible muacular organ fnrmcd bv tbe Am- 
gated nose of sevaral mammals. AUbougfa aena fat a 
modified degree in the Taplra, fcc, the totm k mors 
generally restricted, und applied to indicate the fea- 
Ibl9 'tninV of the Elephants, thk atructni* baring 
bc«i in on probnlnUty aleu pMsessed by the aztfam 
Manimotba (which sec), Mnetodoat (wUdi mt), and 
I >ciuuth(Tiun:i. One of tbo Qnftdrumana or Monlwri. 
the IVihosinii Monkey (wUch see^, or Kalian, abu 
pusBcaaes an elongated neee, thk fonn being fovnd in 
Borneo. The proboeck of (be elipliaDt exbllatt a 
bi^hly-complioatod roiismlar aln tc tw A and k Ibmed 
cnu-ntiidly nf a inodilicatiua of tbe muadea of tbe neee 
njid Ii|ja. Two tkratpr muscles arise, ooe on ewinds, 
fmm bhoTft Che nank; a seoond pair ot rftyr ts sers 
take origin from the pranaxllLe, had a third pair at 
laaralamliottffitudinmliamadumn»«linKiimmb<am 



i 

I 



I 



I 



PROBOSCIS MONKEY— PBOOACCUa 



305 



tte boiUl aiul m*iill»Tj hoaea. In *dilit!oD to theM 
HIM ■■III I tiro mtuck*^ bomologaoa wttb thoM of 
otwrfofni^ the probcadi po ww » U>rg» ngmber of 
fartifario ud ipMi] auralu i tniWuK i^ th» fifami of 
theae Utt«r extending fram the n*Ml pamgo to th« 
Inner aurfacQ of Uid akin. Mid tcnitingbv thoirkction to 
k«p tba Bostrili paMot uid opeo. TL« eonlcal tube, 
4 or ft fMk 111 Uaph, ttiiu fonDttd, is ■Jonntsd, uptr- 
1^, and traaoied, knrl hinnel-Bhkped »t it» nc« 
•xtiHuiijr; kooouive >urface mntuning tlisopmlan 
of tlM SOTtrih. Th* fn« oitremlty Is pnrldod wttb 
a iD»nbl« fiiu«r-Uu >pp«ndig«, bjr mMuu of which 
the ■™*"*^ M>jMto mftjr be reidlly pieketl np. In- 
tvnall^ tk« |«ob<MKb axfaOnti tb» slnictDro of a 
iliiiililii twin mwiMiUHiiniin ill IliniiimliHi Tbw»tuboi 
an aontfannd vpwaids to tin tnw or bonynoMrili of 
tfaatknll; but befon their nnion with th« booj stmc- 
tona tba bnhM an mrTMl, and th« noatrila an guardeal 
■t tUi point by an vliuttic vairo of caKila^oux 
■MariaL Tba qm of thi* valrular ttni'CCnre fai to 
pravaot fioldsaad otfaermibstancea fram entering the 
trtM wl paaaagM; tb* valva bwDg ordlnirlly kogit 
cb iwd b7 iBiiBcular action or it* mm elHtiinty, l^ut 
Uiag MdOy opeaad at the vUl of tha animal Tke 
■nsclaa of which the proboada is cJucfly 

hi onable the stracture to bRnuuii)nil>tniand 
fat avary ooacdvable mauner. It thus pvrloroM 
tba fdaotiaai of an arm and hand; it is an or^an ct 
lanak and 0( adMll, and mny Iw »>'-'I an a pr>n-rrfii1 
waapno. Tim proboMla is cunvex or maDdeii on ita 
wxr nvfao% Hid flutad along its breadth, Um lower 
Mib bdag iMra or Imb flattanad. 

PBOB06CI8 MONKKY (Aviftj^j tarnU»< or 
■aiafis), agaaus ol Qtiadrumana or Munkeyi, iod-nded 
Id tba Oatarhina •rction of Hut or<lor, ami cIoM<ly 
rdatad to the pnus SKumo^'itbocus of Asia. The 
Prohnrti Honkay or Kabau ia a native of HoniM>, 
and ia dMknMlwd by the elMigalciJ one, givinir a 
pacoliariy Indkrona appaanaoa lo tbeae fociu; \>y 
the ihortenMl tbnniba, and sloontad tail. The noao 
ia eapahJe of being dilated, and tho n-taU afierturca 
ofMB banaath tha tmnawhat cuired point; th« ean 
w« at aatall dio; tbo taoa aod palms are of a leaden 
ytOtrm eoloiir; the hair on tha rides of the h^ad maS 
sack la kac^rt; the nppor |>art> uf ibe back and bead 
aa» aolo nwd of a diaatnat brawn, the deles of the 
bee and ibouldaa 'imiag yellow. The gvnatal bmly- 
«ola«r If a aaiMly red; ue tall ii dark above^ but of 
a Ught yoUow ooltmr beoealb. The malea poasees 
praninant caniDa taetb, and tba naine 'Kafaao' baa 
M4B applied to thwc focM fi«ai fta reetmbliice to 
tbdr 07. Thaat naokeya ai» aibonal In babita, 
and ^^aar to freqaaot thennghbonrfaood of ttreama 
and ntota, om^ngating In Inxipa, (SaaPL VI.-VIl. 

PBOEITS, Ma*cv8 AcnRuvB, ana of the sbleet 
of tte Boman aapattn, was bom at Sirmiuni in 
PaUMtiia in tba year 232. His tathor MaximnB, 
aftar having asrrwl with dlstiaciion as a oentmloB, 
waa pronoted U> the nok of tif bane, and died kaiiag 
bol a "ntj atnall fortune to hia dnldron. At a vary 
early age Harcns attracted tbenotinof the Emperor 
VaWian, who at odcc oonfemd apcD bim the (rffioe 
of trfbona, an act which was folly jortified by tha 
iUU and bravery he displayed in Ihe wan in which 
be waa thwJtar engi^ed. Ha waa soon nlaoad at 
the ImmI of a legion, and tbobrillbiicyof hueondact 
la the AfriCTB, Pendan, Aratiian, and Ocrmanio 
eifll|Migni brought htm into still more pruuluent 
notice. Ha was noB>hisiad gnremnf of «ll toB Hjunan 
provlaeaa Id Aria by tbe Emoeror Tacitus, and waa 
b wwimiiad el tha Svrfaa Wfau when, in Hi, 
FWfaam^ who raeeeaded Us brotiMr Tadtus, waa 
aaidsnd. Sad waa tbe favour In which Probns 
waa bald bv senate aad peopK as weQ as by his eol- 
Toi. U. 



diora, that he wna fmrnodiately proclaimed empomr 
by univenaJ content, Uia chief struggle during Us 
r«Ign was to goaid Ihefrantlenaf the empire sgainat 
the bubariaiia. He drove back tbe Franks, Bar* 
gnndians, Atemanni. and Vasdals, who had Invaded 
tJaul; aud once tuoro, hi 277 ami 273, M«itred the 
frontier wall which (biillt between the Itanoba and 
tba Rhiaa) Hnanted Uie I>«eDauui fields of the 
Bomana from tne free Oennaaa Ha also freod the 
laodaioathor the Danub^Egypt (whi'-h the African 
Blaounvsehad im-adad), and the East from devaatat* 
iaa banmriac hor^c*; laotly he eipellvl tbe Goths 
and Alaos fn^in Aela Minor, drove back tho pillaging 
IsauriAiis, conclixlrd an advantageous peace with tb« 
IVndaTU, and gained the enperiority over the rebel 
Satunilnus and tbu rival empurora Procnlu* and 
Bonosus. With re^^ord to thr' intomal mndiUan of 
the empiro, he gave nnw dignity to the senate^ and 
with tho view of giving a popnlatfon to tbe deaolate 
frontier provinces, gave HttMiMiila to larga waawa 
of NrbwiMi^ ae wall as to 100,000 Baatantn In 
Thnre a iiisaaiiia, homver, which, tho'.igh well 
jueaot, waa dearly no 1«« dangeroos than was tlie 
adoisrion of 10,000 bartiariuii mlo tba legiona. He 
paid particular attention to ■crieaKara, abolished aa 
ancient law which, aiming only at the adrnntage of 
Italy, pruhiblled the culture of the oUr* and viae in 
the I'nWHatpba prorliiM^ aad thqi fntn>rliaoed the 
culture r<f tlt<^ oUve into Provence, anil of tho vino 
intu Omil. Rhine, uid Pannooia. He kept his bu!- 
dicre nctlvcly vTij;<1oyad Ib pnblle worn, as tbe 
making of roads and dn^nfng of manhiL Irrit&iod, 
hciwever, at being ohaiged with oecnpations wbicfa 
tbey doomed degntding, they took advanla^ of the 
opportunity afforded by Ua pneanee anrnDg th«n 
while dniung tiia ewampa about ffinnium in 2!*S to 
rise in inanrrectioB and —■'"'••"' btm. A akilful 
miliiaiy leader, and * ■falewniw with i1ew« m d»- 
vated as tbey ware Just, Probus talted la gnat 
talmts some of the fairest virtnea. He wu ona of 
the few Roman emperanwhodid hcmnur to bamanity. 

PROBUS, MARcrn Valkrivh, a •rell-knoaD p^m- 
marian, bom at Bcrytus In Syria, lived in the first 
oentnr^ of nnr eira mdcr Van miUI tbe tioM of 
I>omitian, and wrote several workup Including Bchdia 
on T«>renoe and Virgil, which haee lieen loot. A 
work entitled Instftulienum Qmmmaticanim Libri 
I>no, and a treatise oa Roman Stenopnphy, Iwar bis 
anUM^ bnt beluov to a later period. 

PROOACCINI, the name of a funlly of artists 
of tbe iixteeDth ocntnry from Boloen^ — 1. Eaooui 
Paooamnn, bom in 1 A'iD, waa the haad of a •ebiad 
of painting which be founded al Milan on rimllar 

CrincijiUa to that of the Carai-.-i nt Itolonm, bat with 
MS snoeeML His works, oxiKting at Bologna aad 
Panna, are net remarkable for talent, bat esbibit an 
iniluatry and cava whi^ aeooided arilb the manomsm 
of Ids oantemporariat, and maitp hltn tn irreat mjucet 
aa n teacher. — 3. Cuollo PBOcucnM, son and 
Bipolar of thio fonnar, bom in liti, waa the noit 
distingtMied artist of this ecbod. HeproAednMiiA 
by ■tadjrliv tbe sefaool ol tbe Oataed, and ideated 
•pedady Comglo and Pannegiuko for Ub aiodth. 
The fmitatloB of Ibaa in ietaa of Ui r-'»t'!y b 
equally obviooa and snocassfoL Re is very nnaqns^ 
however, and not iinfrequently betraya a Idad of 
fiighiln«M and forgetfoIiioH in nature. His beat 
vorka are tn the dmrehca and nlleir of Moan. 
Among othen inay be neatiaaed a luulotina and 
Oiild u tbe eborch of Santa Haria del Carmine, aad 
a Homage of the Kings in the Brera. He died at 
Milan in 1629. — 3. Grtruo Oeu be rsm- APcnn.brotber 
of tha foniMr, boni in IMS, likowiv strom to equal 
tba acbocd c< tbe CaraoH, and toi^k (or hit model 
Coirtslcv wboB ke bnitaiod with so nticb sna«m 

Ml 



806 



PBOCEDtmE— PKOCLAMATTOir. 



that tvnnl of bis plcttiro, thouKb far (nni mdiiDg 
tba sntos Uid harmuny of that gTc«t mMtor, hftve 
often been kscribcd to hha. This hui bcrn llio <nwe 
npedoUj with intbiuvt pL-tnriM of tlia Fall. IIU 
works axe to b^ met iviLh la aumy gaOitrim. Tli« 
exact j'c^rof his dt-At'h in ni^t kno'Aiii, hut it mppOMd 
to bav« lieen, liku that of hit brother, ia 1628. 

PROCEDimE, Civu,, i» tUe method of procMd- 
lug in 0. dvil suit throDghont its varioos ilo^a. In 
EngUnd, wliiMi mIrMs im mn^iit by Iaw tat ft oivil 
injiiry, Uie iujurcd part;^ liriu^ an artiim ag&fiut 
the party wbom bo ivlliig"'* ba* don* tlio injury, Tbia 
action bu mny liriii;; ciILlt on tht raic, lu a ge&enil 
kction, vrht^re tht.' kw hu |<mviiled no spedfio remedy 
lor the violcuue duuc; cr ir^» o iloiwle, under vhitui 
bt Mclu rcdnsEB cither by tbe eKpreaa WOidi of tho 
StAtntc, or by implication. Action qui (ant, or popular 
acUou, ia auck aa ia ^ivea bj &cU of Farliuoent, 
whicb crakte » forfviture and iin;iii«e n [lenalty fur 
tha scgleot of aam? duty. Tb<; person wbu ntiaca 
uia(itloni>t«emed tbe/)fi3iiuur, and h« Agrainiit whom 
tbo fiction Li broiig:ht tbo tUfemtaiU. It la nsiial 
hnforc the aiiit ia oaciiinciic;L'd fur tba ptMntifTa 
attorney to ai.'i|ttCLJut tb* dcfi-ndaut by lettwr with ibe 
demand of his clioct, and atato that unlaea coojplii'd 
with ipgul proccedingn will be institntod. Should 
tUia Jiot hiive tbo diiiii^rl cHcct, tlio action ia begun 
M a rulu by Iiiauiiic iiu<diwt tbti dcduiUut a writ of 
tummoni, wbicb ia a judicial writ praoocdiug tram 
t)io K>i]rt wbir.b talcca cogniubni:e nf the octi^ com- 
nuuidiut,' liim to vatifr an appeartu^et la the court, 
ftiUog which an appcanuico wQl be *pt«iwd for him 
hj tha plaindff. (Soa Noh-atpulhahox.) When 
All appeanuioe haa been ontorad botii portlea to tlie 
•iiit ar« now aald to 1w tn eonrf, and judgment may 
Ik prorfwilcd with. Tbo nnit atngs ia tha pltadingt 
or tbo abitvuiL'Qla iu lo^'a) furniuf tlte caiueof arCtiou 
or ground of defence brought forward by the reapeo- 
tiv« aidea. They begin by the |>lidutitf delivering 
•a isnmmcni to tho dnfoadAiit eaUod a dMbm/ton, 
ooBtkioIng tbc aubjnot-mMtar of th» Mtnploint or 
ground of action, aiul rM^niring Um to pleM or put 
la hi* amawer, whiol) he must do witbln a certain 
nnntber of daya Among otbor ploM tbo dcfsndant 
inay plead tbo etatiite of limitatJnna. Penonal 
Bclloua fur LruspBHH ur dubt ou ainiple ountnut muat 
be commenced within aix yejwa after Uw csoae of 
aotEuH, and actiuna of aaaauJt, muuce, or Unpriaun- 
ment within four yenn after the oomsileBton of tba 
injnry. Ai-tiniiaon billa uf axchange^fttbjrut'ya' frva, 
and a damand fur rent on a parnU lanao, oa well aa 
in luntiora coQODtL'tvd with mi-rvoutUe at'cuuuta oiul 
trade, muat be within eii yeira. An action for tbo 
naarttj of land muat Ik> hmiiKbt within tvi-nty 
yean trom Uw Une at whicb it inij^ht Cnt have b«n 
raiaadL Xo arreoiv of r«Bt or of iutareat in napoct 
of any luni of money diargad apoa or payable out 
at land or rent, or in r««pecl of any legacy, la recor- 
arablo aftor tho eapiialJou uf aix yuan fruin tbc due 
data. It ia prouded, with ivganl to plradingn, by 
the Common Law Frooadnre Aotof 1SJ2 that where 
th(> pajtii.-!! arv ^nwd ae to tho qncsliun of fiu.-t to 
be decidecl b«twevn tbeui, th»y may, by couaeut and 
order of a judge, procM'd to trial without formal 
pleading, like next Btago of procedure after the 
plaadiHga is the laiu/, which may be either on mattor 
of law, when it ia called a demurrrr — the ■Utoment 
of facta being admitted, but the law oriaiug npun 
ihoae facta aa atated by the oppoeite party being 
dnnlcd - or on matter of taii, wbero the fact only ia 
disputed. A dciniuTpr is d<:taTniined br the judgia 
aftor brating argiuoant on tuth atdea^ but an iaaue 
of faot bM to be Inveitagated bcfon a jnry, and thia 
fa danomfiutadl iHal 6y jwy. {Bee Jurt and Jdrt 
ThUU.) After the judge haa aunuued up to the 



jury the urdia follows and then tlie jtidgmnt of the 
court. There are certain caaea, however, in whkk 
jud^fment may be auapended and a new trial granted 
where there baa been any defect in the trial; but if 
the judgment ia not euapended, appealed efain^ «r 
rovoEMi:!, then folhyWB the £aal seaga of tba pRMSid- 
Iij|^, ttio rimUiun or enforcement ol tbo egiteae e , 
whirb brin^ the aiiit to a cvncliuton. 

PKOC'KSSION, RsLici'Oija, a solemn march of tfce 
olernj and people, attended witti religioui c e rim o a i es , 
prayer^ dnging, ftc, around tbc altan and diBtdtM, 
or In Uie atroeti^ for the p n rpoee of ntuntlng tlttsha 
for auuie divine bUsalng, or avartinc aoae calamity, 
&C, Tba praoticeof hmdiageudi proeeidiw fa oea- 
ally aaiil (ii ha^e been introduced into the OhttallaB 
cburcb in the rai;^ uf Conataiitiue. The moat oele- 
brated proceaslona wblvb now take placa ia the Ro- 
man Catholic CJhurch are tbnse of tha eocharist on 
Uorpua ('briiti day, anil diiriti([ the week in which it 
occurs They owe their origia to John XXIL Hia 
procciialune in honour of St. Mark and tboae on Caa- 
dlrroaa and Palm Sunday are eald le have been ball- 
ttitcdhyUrcgorylbcCitrat. Relwiaiiaproeeaaiauare 
tiut belli In PniteetantcouRtriea. Inrtanoea of ealefcra- 
tiona of tbia natare are to lie found among tba Jewa 
in tbe Old Tcataineiit, and aa a part of tba lymboU- 
cal worahip of uiiture tbuy were in oae anxmg tbe 
andent beathena; tiiua thuy fonood aoluoa proa*- 
aicina about the fields, whieh bod beeo aomd, ood 
Bprinklod them with holy water to tncw— e tbeir (v- 
tility, aihd to defend them, from injuriea. Tba Eceti- 
vtda in honour of Baochn*, Cere*, IKana, and other 
divini^ee, ammg the Greeka and Romuib mn nl- 
emnixed with prooenlMia, In vhldt tha faaacM fl( tbe 
coda were borne about ; and auaiter ritea afe atiU 
foand amon^ mnit haatboa*. Among tba Bnddhiata 
theae cereiuuuiala are eepvclally bapoelBg. Iheno- 
oeasion which accompanira tbo E mp t lXC ol Coiaa 
when be gm» to offer aacrlfi'Cea to ao Idcd fa eOMM 
great pagwla ta oneof the moat gorgeous daacri^tioa. 

I'lUHJKSSIONJUU • wrrlce-beok ol tbe Boman 
Catholic Choncb, oontainlng Um prayen to ba «M 
and the faymna to ba auoe at Afferent elagaa is laK* 
givus proecationa Seme of the prwoaari on all tit aadeet 
date are v«ry rare, and bjgoly valued by book- 
fanden. Among tho rareet ia that need by tbe aee 
of York, and nrintcd in a reiuni form in 1530. 

PROt'ESSlON 01' THE HOLY GHOST. See 
GiioBi (Hocr). 

I'UOCIDA (andc-nUy, Piochyto}, aa island ia 
Italy, Naplm, lying nearly midway be t ween the 
ialaud of iKliIa and the coast of tbe irotlnoe uf 
Xaploa. It is about S miloe long, nortb-eaat to south' 
woat, anil little more than 1 mile braoid. T1»e prin- 
cipal mIucu of the inland ii Prvcida, or Caatallo di 
Procioa, which atanda ou tba aouth -east ooaat, 12 mOaa 
w.a.w. <rf Naples. It is fortified, has a good harbeoc 
and a oonalilerahle tnde. There is a palaoe ea Ibe 
ialaiid which xaa o».-aaiijiially used aa a raddemoe bf 
tho former king* of Naples. On featinda tbo women 
aamime tbn Oronk coetnme, oonsialdne of a red uppet 
gnxmiHii with guld eiubroidery. It la Ironi thia Isl- 
and that (iiovaani da Procida, tha reputed artriastar 
of tha masaacn known by tbe name of tbe wiHan 
Veepen^ takes Us name. Pep. ol tbe Island^ abeai 
12,OI>0, 

I'UOCIDA, Giofaxn oa. See Siaiuji Via- 

I-KRS. 

PROCLAUATION, Rot auk pnblio notiaa 
by tbo ftiTcroign of a country to hb subjeeta^ <* 
iag aciy matter which be thinks fit to give 
aL^uL It may ounaivt either of an aPthuiitalJTa 
acnouDcetatnt of eomc gnat ornnt affeetitig tbo state, 
of the declaration of tho cierciaa of aomo royal |ire- 
rtifpktive (aa iu the anuuuuning, prorugatUHi, and 



I 



i 



,oo«kfl^H 

va actleeH 
horhattTa^ 




PBOCLUa— PROCOPIDS. 



M7 



I 



diMoIntioa of P>HIUB«nt], ta of Um lDt«ntlon of the 
duwB ta aaforav Mm* Uw timt Iim rmuunod dw 
■■■■L A nyal prDckmaUon inn«t b« i»ae<t under 
tb* Gnrt BmI. a lUtuU- of Htniy Vltl. rnkkiag 
mjAl pnii'lamatiom of fHiniLl vaSJdity witb ncta of 
PwlUiopat WM Repealed by 1 Edwvd VI. cap. ui. 
Aei 1 WiU. tad Umrj, cap. IL, denial the crown tbe 
ptnnr </ aoHMiMliBg or dkpM&aiag with may exiatisE 
law of ftoamntatiaa. Hraoa it fallow* Uut voyai 
IWMbntloiM u« odI; tiuditiK «b«a tbny (to uut 
iiicting Uwa or tend to crtablub now 



I 



PROCLUS, ft i>]j]Iu«opb€r of tb« Xeo-PUUnOc 
■c^ml, bom «t Dywutluin lo 412; dl«d Ht Athena 
Id 455. He i* otuUy callod Lh« Ljdui, beoaiuo bit 
panate obibs b«n X«ntbui in I^jcUl He noeived 
Ui Unt adaeatlra Kt AIi^xsji>b-lA (rum itia famoua 
P«rip«Mia 01]nii|)iixknu xhv older, »uil wmplirtvd 
It u thnmigUi lA Atlitnt mder tjyruniM, vbo ulti- 
nkB&dj ^ipoiBM Um Ua aueoeMor, ^ad uikIgt Uie 
gairianna «l Aad^dganla, whn biu) ari)iiiT«d from 
MT fatlur Plutax^M tb« dtictriii^ of the oq>liie ami 
<mMrt» mjMatlM aad Aa tutit«d tbeurt^ic icknca, 
that h» WM fuiiliar wttli all hraadkea ol [>bilr4upiiy 
and. Iheolqgy. Aa a tnarhtr at AthBns tin waa vrxy 
aoeoHafuL Hb ayatani aimed at tb« wiilvat cum- 
lOft Benoa b« not only and>»voured to 
Into a itarit wlioUi aO Uia pbUoaopbical achnmca 
Cfaat bad baaoliaadad down from fonnor agaa (ona 
of hia wnfai, now loat, waa derotvd to ahomng tbe 
atfiMmoit aubwrting bctwaon Oipbnu, Plato, and 
Pjrtkanna); but mad« ft a makim that a phlloao- 
pbar NMold eu)ti«4cn alsi> nil religiuu* by beccimlug 
uif naad with tbeinpirit. KoUowiua out tbta maiim 
fa* otCDpoaod faynna ia kniour of Uw pM:aD dnitia 
at GcMO^ dafendod and laterprettd tb« popular 
■■Ttlia HnidiBg tbam, and avan obaecTod tbo rilca 
W M t w wMi Uwlr wonbip, and oaonderod btni- 
■aU aa booMind bjr tluir apadat prolectioa It wu 
probably in OMiannMEBae ol thia adherence to the 
ancMDt raligtnn lit Uivave In oppoatUon to the d»croca 
ul Um anparofa wbo vvn aoyr ChriitiaB. that Fra- 
da waa wpalled to withdraw hlmaelf for a time 
fKNB Albena. He travelled for a year lO Asia, and 
took adrantaga of hia Mjoom tM« bi rtniiy the 
•aciouB raliglma of ita inhabltaati. AH of tbetn bo 
bdd in rtTamua, ahhowb ba atUl ooatinnad to be 
nan paaoUarir atucbed to tha religion <>t aadeat 
Oreeoek. On hiaretam to Athoni^ wlicrn ha tmuinod 
UU Ua daatl^ ba re-opened bin acbool, liit he now 
p a ri b m ad hia nliffiona sarvicea In aaorvt, and r«- 
aatid aaitalii of bm dootriac* for the miNb intimata 
and (laalad o( Ua diadptca. By Ua pore mocala and 
raliKiow vlawa ba (av* Ua adiMia tbe Idea that ha 
bad {atlmate istafooiiaa with goda and dataoni; and 
cavld worie odraclM. In bii wrWan baproleaaea 
to nton ta Plato, and to Mag dowuNeo-Plataniam 
fma the miaty balgfala to whk^ it waa raiaod by 
FIotiBOB, He aJao dalsw lo rwembla Plato in anp- 
porthif UidectriiuabyBn ubrokeachainof reaaon- 
in^ a matbod that a»d bettt altogethar negleoted 
W tba prvTloos Nao-Platouiata Bat tbao protau- 
■ooa an dM bome oot by tbe worlca &f Ii)h that hare 
MHM down lo na The ki^:i<al ouuueetiun uf hia 
deelrlitaa ia only apparaot, und aa for tbe doctrioM 
tbawlTaa^ tbey ate eovally onlntelligibla with tboae 
<f Ua pradaeamota. A Ufa or iMher vologj of Pro- 
dna waa written by Harinoa, one of hia aofaolara^ and 
hia •oeoeaaor in tbe achool at Atfaeaa. Hia estaot 
worka iaclnda a Slwtck of Aatrmotny, Id wbJeh be 
gal* a ibiirt view at tba antanu otf Hipparchua, 
Aftatarcbna, and Ptolemy; llie 'llieaki«yo( PUto^ 
PrlK^tlaa of Theology, Prindplea td I^loaophy, a 
_ CcanBMiitaiy oa tbe Worka and Daya <4 Ueatod, 
■ Life U Honar, &c. The beat cdhfen of bit worka 



ia by Victor Coninn inx n]M. Fatbt, 1820-27)l 8e*e- 
rad of bt* vurka were traiuUt«d Into Eogliah by 
Tbomaa Taylor, 'the Plato&Iat.' 

PllOCOSSUL AXD rK0I'B,i5T0R. The ad- 
mtniirtratiaQ of tbe Riimaii pniriacea waa uriftiniUy 
iutnisted to pneturv, but at a Ut«r p«rio<l to proprai- 
tora. that la, r-ratoia wboae term of ot&e* had ax- 
piini, aad *till later alto ta pTooonaoli, or eoDiula 
wktMo l«niL of office bad expJndL The &nt oonaul 
who bitd hia period of offlca prolongad, and reeolvad 
tbo title of pnconaul, waa Q. PnbliBua Fbilo la EA 
3'J7. 1'hia wu done in order that he might hava 
the opportunity uf coucludlng a campaign that b* bad 
■noeeMifaliy Iwffuo In Lower iLtty. Aftor the Ro- 
oian Entpin aad been extended over many ooos- 
Crlea tb waa prorided by a law of C. SemproainB 
UraoohOB that, at th« cmnilar and prsvUiHal atmiiia, 
the acnate alwuld dUtribuio thu [iraviucve iuw two 
oonaulat and tlx pnetorial prorlnoea, lor which tbe oon- 
■ula and practora ahould caat Ida or dlrtde them among 
tJionuolvoa by agreemant, a few dan nfLer tlmir 
entrance ujioa office, after Ibe explratbD of tbe term 
of which tbciy became tho got^mon of tba proviacaa 
;Ul»tiO'i to tbcm. Buch at IcAit wm the amng»- 
mcnt till fiu iLC, but in that year it waa pro- 
tided by a d««r«e of tlie aeaata that no oonani Of 
praitor abuuld eater on the goremnwnt of a pnrfaion 
till fire yoan had elapabd from the cloee of bia oon- 
aulablo or prattonbip. Aa tbo Humau rule waa 
Qxtanaed tba nomber of prvtorial proTinoaa iucrcaaed, 
for iiaoe thera wero nerer mora than two oenaub 
them oonld not be more than two proeaneuli, nnleaa 
the term of oBBoe of tbe lattev wura tiroiouged over 
more than «o* yaar, or (wbich wae eUU mom ranly 
tba «■■•) ■<»• penon ware i^p«^t«d proeonnl VM 
bad not pnvicniy held the oAoe <d oanmL Tb* 
dutiea of theae pfl^aBtndal magiatratea were the ad* 
Duuietiation of juaUco, tb« mpecriatoD of other afTain 
of the prortnoe, and the oanmand of the troopa 
which were elaUoaed la iL They were aasUlcd In 
their dntfaa by qnwatora and Imtaa. Within thirty 
daya after bia retom to Bone la* praviomal goranwr 
waa bound to make a tepoct of the acta of hfafoMn- 
meab and of tbe rtate of the prorinee. Tb* Lax 
Julia in 81 KO. fiirtfasr ntquiml that ac<vy of bia 
report (ratHmef ) aboold be dopcelted fat each of tb* 
two chief dtiea of hia pnflnce. If hahadparsdltad 
any acta of injnatica or eppreMbn he oonld be ink' 
pcaciicd therefor; aa for eslortiaa (ru rcpdiaMftr), 
peculation or embenlement of tba pablk meae^ 
(pccidaiiu), or for abuam in ragaid to tba anoy ^m- 
Bw» wi^t4iati4). N otwithataading tfaeaa pcacantMiM 
Um pniriooea were aubjected to Tariooa oppreadooa 
and exactions. Prom tbe line of A«cwtu tba 
govcramanl of soma of the tmriiMe^ all those that 
reqnired tbe mainteaaoce of aa amy, was taken oat 
ot tbe lianda of th* pamon an b and proprwlor% sad 
iDtmatad to legat«a who gowenad under tha imm» 
diate directiw of the empam; 8oe pRondcK. 

PB0C0PID8, AvDunr, tba fiUiea or tho Or«a, 
a oalelaatad HiMaita ddef of tbe fifteenth rcntary. 
He aiiooeadwd Ziska in 1124 oa commander of tb* 
TahotiMi^ and beeama tha dread of tha iRMipa of tb* 
Empeiw Sigismnad. He mads Umadf maaUr of a 
large part <^ Bohemia, and imTaged llofari% Aus- 
tria, and Sileala. h 1433 ba amand with « laro* 
f oUowiag at the CouBoa of Baaat ud denandad, bi 
the name of th* llnaiilM^ tba ntatm of tha maaasn 
of tbe deny, liberty for lbs ntnlalen of rellglo^ 
and tb* r^bt of tbe lai^ to ba«« tb* aacTamant of 
th« Lord'i sapper admiuxbered to than as wall as 
tbe alergy. Aa tha aeetfan of the Hnnllaa lad by 
Piaconiua wet* ooi nlb6»d with Iha e u n u eaaloiia 
mad* by tb* oooDdl war was rasamod, bat Proooplna 
waakiUodaotnafber InabatUafonsbt at BvbmiMi* 



A 



308 



PROCOPnJS— PKOOURATOE-nSCAL. 



brod (1131). In tho wkms battlo p«rubv<I knottior 
I'rncopiiui, the LittU, whfi wm tbn hciut of uuitber 
•cdaon at tbe lIuraitc-« -.-alllpt} the Orpbaoa, and waa 
united with the Greftt Piucoiiloain til h{a«at«rprinni 
after 1427. 

PROi:C)rnJS or Cj»Aiit&, » Gmelc hirtoriaB, 
> nftlive of Cn-iaien, in PitI<«tioe, whsre ho i» anp- 
p<iii»d to havo bpiin Ixim nlKint SCO A.ti. Having 
I'ome to Const&nliQoplc to [mctiw ukn ftdvocutu lav 
Attracted the Dotic««f Belinrius, vha anpoiDted blm 
Ilia More tftry, in which CAjiocity bo attciiacdhiro in hi* 
axpeditioiiia, n( which bowrotn tbo hiBtory. Altec lir 
rt!turn«J to CuUKtauttiioijla, a Uttic bofwe 512. be vtm 
appointed by the Emptiror Jnstinion & vcaator uid 
Aflnnvnrdn {rifiS) iircfrclnf thn city. Hnia «iippaaed 
U> Imve ilicO at CuiistAiitiiiiiple aliuut CUS' A.n. His 
worka Me a History of hi> Own Tlmos, lo «igbt 
book*, tho firnt two relating to tho Pennjin war the 
two [oIlEin-iDf; to the war nith thn ViuiiIjiIm, aQd the 
reoi^niiig four lo the OoLhiv war ; atid a lUiUiry of 
tba Ediiiws built or ropurod by Juiliiiiiin. A Iciod 
^( BCAnJalniiH nhninirla of tho nonrt of JiiatiniAn, 
including a juumL dujjtading ucomiit of the pt-nKiuiil 
hlatoiy of tb* mnperor, th» KniprMB ThwxJora, and 
atimn, Kui sntitlM JlJioodota, Lu bwin attriLmtoil 
to htm by warn* wrjtera. The b«at «ditioii of bU 
mtrka k that of Dludorf (Bonn, throe vols. 1S33-J5). 

PI1.0CRI9, daOKhtor of Krechtheiui, and -Kito of 
Oepbaloa. Sm CirfiALCB. 

PROCRUSTES Clho Stwtchw"), a Mlehrafcd 
robbor of andoat Orcok l«^end, nliono bcii ia atill 
prDYOrbtaDy arioken of. The mnruiter pinoed hi* 
gaMta Id Uie bod, and tbeu if tliey wurc too Hbort, 
iiadar pntsnco of fitting the bed to tbo occripanti h« 
■tratcbed the Inttrr till bi; dit'd. If i^ia picjit wiut 
tall Proonulei rwlucrd, hiui ttJ tie pro]:«r (liiiipiiiiiiiiiii 
1^ outting and clipping. Theseus flnaJly Buncd hint 
na be b»d aerved othom 

PROCTElt, Bbtam Wallkb. an English poet and 
pnMo writer, bom about 178B; died In London, Oc- 
tober i, lili. He vaa ediicat«l at Harravr, vrliere 
bo was tJic Bchool-fflliow of Bymn and FeeU After 
fiaiihing bin m-hool otbicatiin he became am articled 
clvrk to a aiiliiritur at Caloe, in WOttbln. Sabvo- 
quoDtly he stiidJc4 law la LoodoB, and In 1631 wu 
caJled to thn bar m a member of Gmy'a Inn. For 
some tiitie fan h(.-1it tho oftice of a oontmianiottRr of 
lunacy, but r««igned It In 1800. BU first a)ip«']krai»<e 
In literature was in 1S19, wbeu ha published a Tolucnc, 
entitled Itnmatio Sccrcs lim! other 1''>rma. Thn 
aathor appeared before the publia in tbia work utuIi-t 
the Dnondcmytn of Hiiri? Comwal], wbich be aftir- 
wara nCaincd. Tliia wit tmhj was well roecivcd 

S' tb« erlticti, and Charlee Lamb aoid with regard to 
a dramatio scvnca, that had he fouiid thttu lii an 
anonymoua ti]B.iiuHTipt nmonc lh« Garrink papnri in 
the British Mtiamim, bo would have hai) no livrita- 
tion in givine Ibem a place in hia Rpedmem of Fiag- 
Uah DnaatiG Poota wlio livrd about tho time of 
Shalapare. Thia waa followed by A SIdlinn Storj' 
and Mardaa Colonna. In 1S21 he produced a tra- 
gedy, Mirandola, which waa pcrfonued with cicat 
•nooen at Oovont Uardon. 1'he pontical wnrka of 
Procter, which were Kiveii to the world afl*r Miran- 
doli^ won the Flood in TbeKaly, and £ni;lUh Soo(.-a 
■ad ctbor Eltnall Poeniti. Ilia pmsc wnrka inclDfio 
Effigiea Poetim, or the Portraita nf tbo Britiah 
Poeta, a Life of Kilninnd Keau, a volume of Kannya 
aad Talea, and a Memoir of Charles Lamb. Tha 
laat-neatloned work, which vm pnhlwhod in 1B6(^, 
and is tho laet that Procter wrotv, ia pcrliaEa the 
moat intereaUna of all hia pTW wntlsBe. It la the 
wndc of ooa who tfaoroogb^ sadontooa Lamb, and 
who waa nna of hla moat intiniate (rienda dnrlng the 
laat aeYent«CD or cightovu jeata of hia life. An a 



port FrocbT doe* not tako a vn^r Ugb rank In &ig> 
liah litcratMro; but be was iwvartlwMi a tn»a po^ 
diatlngnUied aa audi for an intollectnal redaMHal 
and ^raoe. whirth cKcibnl tbe admiratiuB of hia bntbtr 
poela, if thc-y <liJ uot amt the popular taxts. 

PROCTQR (from tho Ijititi proturat<)r), aperaoa 
wlio in tht i^iri'I rviiuticAl and a^bniraJty cc^irti in 
ICngland perforuui the duti(« o( an aMM-o^y "r wilid- 
tor. SiuL-e tbi^ nbclitlon nf tba greater part of tbe 
jarlBdiction of the ccdemaatical oourta prooton have 
l>rrn Ailmittftd to praetiao in the Coorta of Equity 
ntid Cunimon Law, aa well aa in tha Probata and 
Dl vorce Courta, to which tha mani functiooa id tba 
ecdedaatical eourta wen aaaicned. In tha Kn gikh 
nniveniitlea the prvM.-ton are tin> oSoan cboaeB ddb 
amoDj; the maateta of arta^ to anperiDlaad tha aebel- 
utlo ezordNi^ to vdonx tha lUtutai^ and to pr»- 
ni-rvc the niibUo peace. The nams el pneton fi alao 
pven to tberepreaentatlTeBof thafatnriorolcfsjand 
ihe eliaptera of cathedtula in convoeatioB. 

PKOCURATDR, among tb« Bomana, an agetil, 
an oTonteer of an eatate; at a latar period (ba tkk 
of a proviudal oHicer hfetior to tbo tvnnat faee 
t'i(OTi.'(CKaDdP»ooomui.),whomani^edtheiwenn& 
In a'imo of the anaUl provlnma, or lo a part of a large 
provjncfi, tbo priMnirator dlecbarfred the offioo id a 
governor, and had the power nf piiniiibtnj? capjlallj. 
as waa tiie oaae with Poatiui PtUte In Jadff^ wbi^ 
waa attached to the province of Syritk 

/'reeurtifep or protto''. in monutoriet, la tbe eon- 
rcntMftl to whom ia intrtuted tha oaio of tha tem- 
poral concvm*. 

PronmUor di Sa* Vomi waa tba tltla of tbe chlaf 
offloBneraanatorelntbaTaoatiaBlUpaUia Baridea 
tho nine actual prttcurtit-wi, from among vhcn tho 
doftt) waa clioaen, tbure were aJao many titular MO- 
curatora, who paid a great amn for thk tit]*, wnkh 
wai mnich coveted 6y tbe Tetwlion patrioaua on 
acconnt of tba rank it confomd. 

PKOCURATOR-FISnAL, b Scotland, an dRcer 
ai^tointod to act aa the public [^roaacutor in ctlBiinal 
caaea before the aheriiT. mariatrateat or jnaticoa ef tha 
[inacn hclnnging to thi^ir diatriet. It la onl j when 
tbe public intoreat ia concerned that h* O^fU to 
orlguiato a prooeoutlan; and when complalBt h mbA* 
bj a perean in a case in whi'^h it ia more tba |ift>aCa 
iDtaroi.t of tbe c«mptnina.nt than tbe puhlio intneat 
tliat la at atake It Ia the duty uf the procurator- Aval 
mcri^ly to give bia DOBOnmaoe to tba pnwcuttos, 
nnri not tii in&titittA tbe proceedtnga. Ffo may, bow- 
crer, act aa the cmuplalnant'a agent; but evvn wfaaai 
lie '1»<4 «■>, if ho only givea hb co wuma oo^ bo la not 
liaMo to nn action for malidom piueamtluiL Vboo 
infoimntion »f a crime coromiltM vttbia a pnWBt*- 
tin--GK-a]'H dittrict baa keen laid before him, it ia bia 
budueaa to MCartain the truth of tha cbaiga^ to oblafai 
from the abeiiff, or jnatic* of tfaa peaea, or aenn 
other magistrate a warrant for lbs jqpfiteboMlaa ot 
tba BOcuaad, and to eaa that tbo warrant b eanicd 
out, and in goaaral to da whateror elae la naoaancy 
to protect the innocent, and hare the gnQtv petwo 
brought to juatlce. All prcoagnillona or pr^imlnafy 
eianilnattona of wltneaaea are taken tnrltin) before 
tho ahorilf or abcriff-aabatitnto of Ifaa dutrict. The 
procurator-fiacal baa aian, In oonJunMloti with tha 
Micriff, todUdiaigethedutleooraeenoer bmaUng 
invratig^tEona witb ri^ard to pKiwona who are an^ 
prcU-d to baTa met Uietr death from rUeoee, or 
oibor than natural conaca. Tbe pmcwalon-Baeal of 
countica aro aooountnblo to the crown ominael for tbe 
way in whioh thoy diacbarge tbeir dntim, and in 
owes of dUGoulty it la their duly to ocanvmlaBM 
with tho crown-agent is order tiut tbej i*^ b«r« 
the advice of tbe crown eouaBd. All finca impeaad 
1^ court ara payable to tha pinourater<fiaad, who 



I 
I 



I 




PRODtJCTIOJf— PFOCfEESSION. 



809 



nort Hooat ftn- th«ra to tbo exchequer la cues 
irbkk h*T« becD reported to tbo erowD-cou&Ml, ftud 
!■ Bifc ar e—M to tbe oooat; kod Bheriff. 

PBODDCnON, Cowi or, a pkr»*» t»«d lo poU- 

rlfnl oenuxBr. lut iilwiijw in tlie auna mum hybb by 

Ftb* iUDtt writer. According to MiU'a attlinkte kn»- 

«4 tbo ooal of producUon of Hiy article, tlie 

nts wUeb nowwrily ttoUr into Uio dt'tcrmino- 

I tt H we (be qiwntiiy of labour cxpeoilod ui>oii 

) anide^ tbe ira(m of that labour, and tbe pn^itits 

' tbe prodnocr; or aiaoa tbe w^m of labour am the 

I of iu qitaiiUty »» well iia of ita valno, tUa 

rckioetiU maybe roiluocd to tbe two, wa(,'ai 

pntbL Tbe clumcat of wages include, hnw- 

r, aot IBCrtJ; tbe Kintinnl |>*itl in wngna bj » pro- 

F4naer to bW own nvrkiDcn, but aiao tbo tnwea (>a>d 

[-to all tbe workmeo wbo bave been ravaged in tbe 

of tbo rair nuitefial amplojrwl bjr bim, 

Ibo atato in wbicli it u fatiod in nature to thai 

rjs wUdi it oooea into bis baada, and tbe w»gt» |Mid 

[to tk» naken of the mawbtw tbat he luoi^ or talber 

I thstpropottScn of than wae«« that corrMpooda to 

Ibe IBM Cor «U^ tbe macbinw an emplaj-ed in the 

pradoadoB at tbo aitiola la qoMtioo. fiaaidea tlif«e 

MMMniy dcoMiita lo tbe ooat of prodnotiOD, Mill 

■irthM othiT twO| butao and taj extra ooat oock- 

riooed bj a acanrity value of aomo of tba reqaUdt^a 

of pcoductioi^ which oocudonally farm alamenta in 

Un wbok ooot UQl. villi tvru rwert-attana, oxdudca 

iMik from the eoat ef prodactlon. 'BoDt,' be aaya, 

L'ia bol an dcncat in the coat of production of tbo 

[«CTnmnHily wbkh jielila it, eioept in tbo cmws 

(ntbar cMicdvabIa tban aotuallj exbtlue) In vbli-b 

[ It rcralia from, and ra pr aa uitta , a eearcity ralno. But 

rbeo land capabla of yielding rent in agriculture ia 

I •pfditnl to aonaa oUior purpne, tbe reut wbJch it 

I'vonld bare yiddod la an eleoiont in tbo ooet of pro- 

I of toe oommodftj which it ii rnipioyed to 

||wo dtt ce' (Frinctplei of PoL Kcon., Uxik iii. cb. vi. 

FRCETUS. In tabuloiu biEtory, twin brother of 
Acrtrin*, kine of Ar|:(«. The* qiiarrttlcd with each 
<«tber In tbeu nuitber'a wuidV Atriaiiu bauinhcd 
fnm Aigna. He 0*4 to lobatea ur Aiu- 
^■Maoai, Idiqc rf Lyda, marriod bia liitort and by 
^he aid ooaquored tbe city of Tiryna. In ArraUa, 
vhora be founded a miall kioji^duiu. Ut-rc I)«UerD- 
cIkm look refuge with him. Ilia daugbtani. tbe 
Pixitidi^ waodeml about thruuvb Argoua aad Ar- 
oadiit havlac baoooia mad, eiUiur on aixoiut of their 
«a a l M p t of Um n^yaterioa of llaocbu^ or of tbor 
' duUoa of the atataa of HIik. Aooarding to laur 
tafitiona tktf imvifaMd tbaraaelTos oowt, and wan- 
imi tbrov|di tba Mldawitb wild lowing: tbe aama 
tnaij acfaed tlM other women of Argna alwL IVo 
cl the dauj-btcra cf i'nBtoa wen: cured by Uebunpui^ 
who raoeivml oao al tbaio in marrijga. Ovid rolatea 
that Pntaa eijwUed hie brother AcrUua tnm. Ua 
ItlacdaaB. aad that Peneni^ tbe grandauo of AcrUn^ 
rercBfed bia daatb by cfajaumg Pro:tua into atooe 
by ibowiBg bin Ilia lioad of Jteduaa. 

TKOFANE, an epitbat ^i^Ued in ancient timea 
^ aninltialad peraous who wck not alluv«d to be 
, pnaeot at Uio Mcnd aerrioeM, particularly Uaoae of 
^ IMaMIr and Baocbqa, but wen obliged to rcmaui 
woMia «< tba tonpliu Tbo BomaH naad the word 
I ta a wfakraeaae, applying it lo tbe Tkioua bgeaenL 
I IVhaB evarytbiog waa prepared for tbe aacrifioc^ the 
friai l eacUmed^ Profmt aami mrralt. Tba woed 
ynm aftonrarda naad by Cbriatiana ia oontrsdiatinc- 
tloa (ron aaovd^ aa prifant litcrmturo. 
PROKE88RD. 8a> Jncrm. 
PROKI':.SSIilN,Ui« act of taking the von by the 
innnbor of a leligiooa order after tbe noviliate ia 
finirfied. See IdovAsnc Vowk. 



PROFESSOR waa tbe name glvoo in the time of 
tba Itomoo emperon to a publiv- fActicr. more eepe- 
cialiy to ane wbo tangbt iftiuriiuar ani] rbct<iri«. 
5ui:b tearbere wen apftolnUxl with fiind iialiiriaa in 
Bomo and othtm of the mora important eitieo of tbo 
empire, IIjo name, taken from tbe lAtin verb nre- 
/ter^ denoloa tbat they publicly made tbemaelvee 
known aa engand in the pursuit of their partkailar 
art, and In asDudnoai oi leac h ing tt In the onl- 
TdTftliiM of moro modem, tlmea h ia tbe tiUa giran to 
tboao aalaricd teaoben wbo are apimnbod to deliver 
Icctuna in the four fnculLlea. Tboae appoinled to 
dbtinct diMra are in Geniuuiy uaually ealied ordlaar; 

Eirofcason, in contmdiadnction to extraordinaiy pro- 
canon, who aro ap)iaiiilcd lo thia rank aftar they 
hare aotively empluyed tbemaelvee for eonie yewa ae 
Doonta (Miflatri LegeotM}, and aaUafiad tlie ul- 
veraity teadian aa to their quaIi6catioiia. Beotolly 
tbe t^cbcra of many gyntnaaiums and cAher mpetior 
tndning eatabUahroente^ aa eonaarvatoriaa of nnialfi; 
Ac, bnvo aanuned tbo title of profceaor. It baa avMi 
b«.giin to doaoaod much loner than thla, aad we new 
otttn hear of profeaaoni uf daooiog, cookery, tbt. 

rKOt'ir.K, in g<n»rti1, tba view of aa object from 
one of ita chief aide*^ at whieh nam or len of the 
othviida la bidden trom tbe eye; ta particular, tbe 
enatoor of the human faco «i>wod from one ride. 
TIm tralb) of cbaractor are often eipreaacd with 
peculiar itreni^th iu tbe profile. Only where great 
aymmetry exin^ eoanaetad with the prepondenuioa 
of the intcUecteal over the aaoaual, tnll the pmfila 
apjiear finer than the front faoe. Aa the profUe inA- 
ciatve mors particularly the icwllcctual coaractorof 
man, it ia natural that in cbildron it abould be inaig- 
nilicjuit. in 1.916 I'mfcator lUnmenhach receivod 
from the Kini; of Bavaria a akuU of an anojeol 
Cireck, fniind in a tomb of Magna Oiwcla. It mmy 
be cooiidcnd an a model of the antiinio Greek pro- 
file, in rnpci-t ai bckiitiful fona. Tbo noao ia oan< 
ufOi-O iu a i>tr>i;<ht line with the forehead, aod Ihoa 
would contradict the theory tbat Uta profile exUUtad 
in worka of aocieDt Urock art waa not an imitatlan 
of nature, bnt merely a style adoiited aHiitiarily Iu 
varicrua adioula. 

PBUFITS, the nina that a perwn makea by 
carrying on any fmduetien, er engaging ht any biul- 
noB, MardiaDta in keei^g their Umka cfUo make 
a diatinctlcm bctwoen the iotoreat oa tbe capital 
onployed in their builaaM and tbe profita uf their 
bnoneaa, even tboagb tba oapllal Ifaey employ may 
be all their own. rroftto in that eaaa an eatimaled 
only after the inlereet on their capital haa been 
dedaeted at a fixed rate from the dear retnma of tba 
btiameaa 

PROGNB. VnotnnL S« PniioKxui, 

PBOGRBSSION, in algebra, a aerio of qnantiUea, 
each «f wfaJdi ii obtained frcn the tmo befom it 
aceordiogtoaoeitaianilo^ Thaaonaatltloiln'arilh- 
metkal progremien' loeraaas or dedreaaa by a earn- 
moa dieorano^ aa I, S, & 7, V, Ac, whan the eoanmen 
diffaranoo b 3; or 90^ ST, ii. SI, A&, where the eom- 
men difloBHO ia -3. If a la the flirt tennel aa 
aritbmelica] progrearieo, i the alh term, 4 the oon- 
tnon difftrenc^ we have tbe following law^ which 
enable all problema to be eolved}— 

i = «♦£•- I> d. 

Seniofatmna= ^ <t + >>= ^ {>>+(•- 1)'}- 

QuanlitloB are in gooma ti fcal jaiiinmrfuu whin tba 
ratio of each to tbe nreoedfag number la oonataal, aa 
1, 2, 4, 8, 18, &c., wbere the eomroon ratio ia 2, or 
1> ia 1< iVi 'tc. wbpnt tbn oaaunoo rath* la ); «» a, 
sr, aH, ar*. Itc, where tbe nJio ia r. If a la the 
firot term oif a geometrical progriarina, r tbe aoB- 



no 



PROHIBITIVE SYSTEM— PROLETARtt 



moa ntio, tad 1 the nth torm, we hvn I x: « r* * >, 

utd tbe mm of n tenoa b Miiud to ~r — f~ ■ or 
rt-a "^"^ 

c -1* 

TbMe qnftntitifli, A, By C, vn wud to be In har- 
moqjmI pwgwion irtien A;C::A-B:B-C, and 
■BJ noniMr of qoMltftlw an uid to b« Id bannonicnJ 
progTMBcn whan •tot tiiree co&M)uaU*e qoaatitiee 
nn in hannonlc&l prognadon. It la taey to praro 
Ikat Um recipmcala of quMititio* in h»nnonic*l pro 
gnauon arm in arithtnetic pragreMion, and it b by 
BMaa oi i^i« thourvin that all problema an aolved. 

PROHIBITIVE SYSTEM, in politic*] economy, 
the fixtoriDg cif certain indiittriea En ft muntry, by 
bBpfmnn-ju all jiiiKliicUuf tlivw iudustrim imported 
into tbe country inch « duty u pracdc^y amounta 
to the prcihibitioa of thcM importa. Sc* Fnzi 

PROJECTILES. When m body la thmwn vertl- 
cttOy npwuda or dowowatda ita motioa cc<atiiiucs to 
bo KctilineM-. (See MlOBAinOH,) Tf tbmwn hr>ri< 
umtally, tho bofty wfl] Booto in a curved pHth, liL-cnoM 
it ratiun* itnciiangsd fleaTlDg out of account th« naoxt- 
%iK^ of the Mr) ila hoTizonUl VQltxaty, but it falla 
(uter and f uter towuda the mond. When in veuti- 
gfttod by dynainica tlio curved pkth ia found to bo ■ 
porsbolji. A body pmieirtBcI obliijiinlj hat tmtiAlIy 
ft mrtaia horiiontkl ii^louity Mid * wrtaiu v«rtiaJ 
Tolocity. NoTT it rotftina its horizontftl Telocity 
onr.ban^nl, but iU vrrtical velncity ia Altered hy tbn 
(ora> ut grktity, «u<l wu aj^tuii linil tixB miTved palb 
which it toWnvra to bo a pontliols. WiUi a giveo 
velocity tho ^^intcat nuiKO i> obtoiaed hy projecting 
tt an angle of 45~ with tixb verttctd. We hftve aup- 
poaed the air to oHer an rcaiatauco to tba motion of 
tiia prajeotil'i, but in gnimcry thia mdibuicn im of 
rwj groat luipurttkuw, becftuu of Uio exctwdiogly 
gnil Telocity of » bullet, and indetnl in practtoe the 
ftboTo thoory !« m^t of very much nee. The p»lh of 
the bullot is ftlwaji within the panboJft of tho thoo- 
reticftl projectile, and henoc tho natga la much IcH. 
For ei»ai[ilei, wL«a tho velocity ia 2000 feet per 
•econd, tbe FMiituire ol tbe air i> ftboat 100 tlmM 
the weight of tho balL and the oreatert ransoi whioli 
acoording to theory ahonld ba Ss mDaa, la leaa than 
Imilo. 

PROJE0TION,inperwpective,deiiateBthnappn>r- 
■aiWorrMpTeaeiitaCh>iiolftuubji.<ct ou tLepunpc^-tivc 
plaMh (Baa PlBSriOnTE.) Tho torm projeetian ia 
alee npnued to tho Tftrinun mctbab whirli bivve \ti.vn 
adopttJ fur rcjin'Kculiiig tbe ■iirfiu.'« of Llio iphirrQ 
opttn a plnnQ Hiirfnne, an in map-raaidn^'. They uv 
deauHbod in the arliclo Kf AT. 

PROLAPSUS ANI. tho pjotnwlon of th* Riit at 
the fuDdaiDODti. Tliia ia Dio«t coinoion iu cbililrvu 
and Bgod pcraoni^ but nay bappeD at any ngv. It in 
«(tan the roault of i(taitilu£ m waouatioo, and not 
bdraqncctly appoan ia aonaectioQ with pilos. ^\'b«n 
Muh a priitruii'iD taikea placo tbo bet thing In do ia 
to W«di tho }iarta and tbea rcplaca tliem with the 
flsgna, which should fint be oslod, If thid ia done 
ttl CUM, and tho patient oontinuea In a horituutal 
poatnra for aamc houn artf.rward*, prabnlily nothing 
•lae will be neo wwa ry; but If tba gut mnuot be 
ntunied in tUl way, or oontiauo to fidl again after 
being no retnniod, anrg^cal aid ahoiild be eniiRht. 
Pctwms liablu to tbia acddeat ahonld be oarcful bo 
n^ulat* Lbcij bdwulaao aa to proTe&t oootiyanMa and 
ouoaMtuent atndabg. Rogvlar bathing of the parta 
with cold water may also Im f oiud uaeful, aa abo oold 
iDJecHnna into tho bowol. A wataU quantity uf a 
weak aaliition of ■iilpbato of iron (1 grain of thn aul* 
phate to I oe. of nun or ^atHled wator) b vftui 
twcauoendod for iojeotioii la thb maaikor. 



PROLAPSrs UTEIO. 'blOkg don of O* 

wombt'or *be«rJRgdows,'a«iiimflBaffMliaBiaMBg 
woiDca who have bom biye familfai^ MWdaTlj wkm 
they have got op too aooo aftw coaUMnienl^ nd^ 
h ance moat conunoB among mmea ol Ibo kwer 
who arc (dien obliged to neglect thaiBMlTM la 
drcmmctAuoea. Ii b not, bowerer, by any a 
confiD«-l to ibom^ DOT avon to womon who u«« 
children, wjmvtimao oeoarrlng Ln vlisfM^ nod la 
rare cuoi in Infanta. ' It b oot nacomiaaaly tiM 
ns«u!t of atnuning in cotuequenoo o( ooiwtipatyNL 
What randiira the fallinfi down ol Uia weanb pcaaihb 
b a genenl laxity ol the pan* aopportiu h, atther 
oil the ligaoMatH which ought Co nfMuild U or a€ the 
T^[tnal caoaL Tbe falling down may be ct taaboa 
degreoa, tivm the allghteat downwara diapUomanl 
to aooh ft deaoent m OMSca ozteiaal protnuiea of tb* 
womK In the latter caae it b caOod perfect, and in 
the formor imperfect proUpaoa. French a mgw a n a 
dbtltiKuUli three degraeo of the aflactlan. Uia fiert 
b when tba womb dooa not doacanJ lower than 
6 csntamHren (2) tnchea) ahera tbe nlTnr ocliet; 
the aeorrnd wheo the itriJico of the wnmb nay b» aa«n 
at tbe vulva whiln it* lija are di>t>^iKl«l; tba Ibtrd 
when thero b actual protmaioo. In the flrrt t«i> 
ceaaa the symptcma are Iain gmTo tbaa In tbe tbM. 
Lraooirfaea and a eenaatio&of fnlaaMorweirt^ aeof 
a body falling bntween the great Upa of the Tnb^ 
are then the princii'iU indlcatlMlB of tbe affeetlan. 
Yet tho ^neral beidth b aaid to anSer men vbn 
tho prolapaiia i» Klij;ht than when it Teaobea tbe third 
degnw^ Is tliis laat Btaga the mownia metnloana of 
the vagina] canal, which than coTwe the prolapaad 
part of tbe womb, become wrinkled and ueer^e^ 
tho lijiB of tho nt^rine oritice are partly ep^ and 
■umiitunte nrflvotcil, tbe orifico itaelf beeooae nkar* 
ateil, and there ia an abundant lancurihea. Tht 
bladder and tb I' rectum deacend aloog with tbe wenb, 
and there is alwaya more or leaa dimcalty in eracn* 
ntia^ ttieir ountejita. n*hun the falling down oaee 
bc^na it always tonda to iacraaaa^ nalHi Dkaaoi tn 
taken to prnvontit. In all cuee of tluB affecttoo tfte 
fint requuilo for cure b |m>laDged rert la the hori- 
aontal pualtioo. Whan the caae b mild, and arbaa 
from laxity In tho walb of the TagiaB] cbbbI, oeU 
injections repeated night and momlBf wlD aone U maa 
be euotij^-b to nwtoro tbe toDO of the mnoona meCBhtaaa 
of tbe canal, and enable it to anppoft tbe wooh. 
From half a pint to a pint of water may be Enjeetad 
on each oceaalon, and the tnjcctioa ahonld be mnde 
Tcry Kloti'ly by moan* of an ebatio botUcL Whan 
tlu) litiiplF rold Injeotione are not eno>agfa, aa 
iojectiouiA aro BometlmM naovted to wImi tlien 
ooagestim or inflammation of the F«rt& WluQ the 
woitih protrudes it mndt be restored to lEa pedtlcai. 
3oiiir7liiu*!B llib b impoanble, and no ranedy renuuna 
bat to remove the onvaii albogetber. Whiea it Ina 
bcvn reatorvd to Ita puoe it must be retafaed than 
by mechanical meana, such aa a peaaary or a milHilM 
and hniiilagc. 

PIlULEaOMEXA (Grock), prellmtoary obaarw 
tinna, aerviag aa an IntrodnoUra to a wotk, to which 
tbey are protixed, and eontaining hiatorical, eritkal, 
&C., illiiatratiniia of ita conbenia, language^ form, Jt£. 

PROLKTAItll. the name whldi waa given to 
thoee Roman dtisens whoi in the daHifieatba ol 
thdr meana by Sorrina Tullina, atooal la tbe dxth 
clav^ pooManng lee* than IGOO Mat*, or nothing at 
alL They were areraftvrwanladiatlDgulahed by the 
name of mpiu tnui, apparently be«aaae ImTtna too 
little moans to be taxed on It, they were tnxeaoBly 
by htad. The term has been revived In modem 
timeaas adasignatiun oj the lowtet daaoef tbeoeoB' 
monity: bw; more frequently tlie ooDeedn appdla* 
tioa proletariat b nse«L 




PROLOGUB— PKOMINENCEa. 



311 



» 



I 



» 



PUOLOUUK, in dnunntic poetry, mi addma to 
tbaMldkOMvkich prw«<Ius tbi* [^Ipw Ctwlf. It nuLy 
b»«Mbwbi|vawor vcnc, &iid U uauslly proncaacod 
bj «W pama. Among the luiriimta, thn pluycr who 
daliwnd lUt addrew wm allied the pra/ajm, anO 

WM vanDr Moridttvd m » ptreon of the draoia. 
Tte^ Ib 4a AinbittyoD of PluKu Usrouiy Appcnni 
u pmfeco^ FralogoM M»n«tiDua nUtd to the 
drama HmI^ and aerv* to expUIa lo tlie au(liMii.-» 
■ooM cireu a gt Jt nco* of tlio uTtinn, wimatinm to the 
sitofttioB in whidi tbe Kutbur or ttctor ctoiuU lo the 
poblic, ABd Bc-metimea b&re no unmedlate oonnMtlMl 
with rithcr of thnui jx-ntonn or nlbjflcta. From the 
efalqgiM to Aa You Liko It, it appear* lo hava beeo 
tB> oortou In SbMlaptm't tiaio fvr tho prolosnv to 
b« apokoB bj cpb* of tllt acton who took ft loiule 
part, and tlw c^Lwue hf onv who took ■ nud* part 
FKOMKTHSII^ a 'Titan, *oa uf lauetua and 
C^jBUBi, » dkOiblOT of Ooooinu; ..fiachylua mikea 
HHnii^ ApoUodonw Asia, bis motlter. H« wm thB 
faratber of Atlai^ Metiastjii^ awl Bpbnethciui, and 
Aa fatlfr of DviMaUiotL His nama mMiw 'fon- 
tbougfat,' M tbst of hii bntbar EpiBwtb«ii8 dgniflfla 
* allsstbMubt.* Ounninff and fertlte fo ftxpedienta 
bo opposed ZeUB, th« fuundcr of Lbc ueW race uf tlie 
goda, «rhnn be bad at fint mpported. Zaua^ who 
da w ih t d jiogr BKutali, dotvnDtaed to «stirpat« tbom. 
aaa create a new nix. But I'rotnFthetu rrevccted 
Un^ bj etoetlj beetowbg ou mea Lha bra wLich 
had fam ooa wal ad by Zmw;, anil tcncbinK th«iii tbn 
lUtt. To piulab tbia off«noe Zeua acnt down Pnn- 
dont, who brought all kinds of dlMaaee tnto the 
world. 11a cauaed Ptumctlmu biuiMlf tu bo oliained 
by Hephovtu* on a rook of the CaiicoKiia {tha eaatcm 
ejAranlU of tbe world, socordini; lu the nutiuas v( 
ths MrtHr Greeks), whura hii liver, whiich wu 
rCMnred ermy nif;ht, waa boni by a vulture or aa 
e^gla. But tVoniiilliaiu, knowinj that froni Io'> race 
wJttld (priag a man (Heraclee), whoy after haring 
etteoonterod iimutni-ralla banlthip^ would deliver 
hfaa from hb chaina, niirtrwl with heroic finaneea; 
be was oven aoi^oaintod with the fntore bte (rf Zcui^ 
wblcb VIS aaknown to the god hiMself. When th« 
hredatibls enemy of Zeiu, gonarsted by hineelf and 
Tb*tn^ abcmU anMsr, than Prouiothons waa to find 
» tamhwUoa of Us •ufferinfit. Zeua must tbnu be 
neoodlad to him, bccacM hb fall anHd only b« 
pmvMtfld by tbc ci-'uniKle of I'rcimethoaa. These 
ai« wvUoatly two traditiona nnited bv jfiachyltw. 
Tbs enisB ol Zeas'e soger ^talnit nortaiit and dettr- 
■tMlloa to dMtmjr tim, it Um nUtad bjr Heriod. 
Ilw godi mes attenptad loi&alu en sgiMuent with 
nan at Heeoae (aflenratds Biojon), the object ol 
wtaieb was t» dot««ain» what bonotm the goda 
abanld enjoy, and wbst dotka men ihonld owe tncm 
for their protecthm. Pmaelheas appealed for nan, 
that Ibe god* adahl not impoas too bordaaaovM 
daths apoo them fa ntam for tbelr protediDn. A 
Indl was braag^t as an oS«rint,fn)m wUet the gods 
«•» to select wbu pertkn they dwes for tbelr abara. 
After H was cat up IViiii«th<nu formed two besM; 
in the one be pUc«d the fi>g»h and the tat antraui, 
vmppsd In the sUn of the ball, and oorered wUh the 
tkm^A (eowidared the went piaea); in the athtr 
pOa be placed the bonca artfully conoiialed lo tba fat 
Taas, wliinllil im) iim through the triok, oboeo for the 
gadih and adeetad the fat, in which be waa Indignant 
to ffad only the bonea Iloelod adds that from that 
tinw it *■"""■ Um cuttoro to offer to the goda haat* 
wtthoot tmb. In Luoiaa'e dialogae, called l*rMn»> 
thsv% ProaMtbena is aecased not only of this divinm 
el tbe fleab, sad of stealing the fire, but also e( harbg 
tnnladiaan. Aeoording lo ApoDodons b* nnnea 
maat «l <1m snd wat«, and bwtowed oo Um ir*, by 
fclndUng dry wood at the sun. Plato relates that 



the gods had made the race* of onimala from earth 
aod firs, but that th>-y Uft to Prouj«theus and liis 
hmthor Epimothciu (the hiuband of Pandora^, to 
arranM the proportion in which those materials 
fibuuld bo sangned to aaeb. Epimetheua had di» 
trilmted the best powers aacng the hratlonal animal^ 
aod Pnnnetliens, tiiat nisn might not be loft aha- 
gather belpteee, obtained for tbetn by stealth froa 
Hciilueatua and Atliuna (ho arte of fir*. Othori, poets 
na wall aa pTiilnonphpni, barn morliliod Ihb raythns, 
ifecciirduiit tu tbelr pafticular object. 

PBOMIXENCKS, CowCRBD. In total mIIims 
of the sun immense promuuneei^ ttntcd of a drlicate 
wan-red, ahow thamaelves psst the nooo'ii limha. 
Some of than are more than 80,000 n>D«e in biiKbt 
From qisctnsoo|de ohearration of the ectipea of 
VHCS it waa Riippoaed that these prnmioeoces ooo- 
tinted of glowing hydrggen. Locltyor, in 1S0O, had 
snggested a meaai of observing the promlneneH a> 
any time, bat he did not get the nse ot propor tnatm- 
menls till 1868. In that yMr, aftM- tbs sdlpas^ 
T nnlrjnr (In I nndrmj mil Ti n sir n [In Tndls^ ilisrw T nrn d 
indapandontty thst the proanfaieaese may be vlawad 
In a telcaoipe with a ejiootrosoope attscbed which hsa 
a wide alit. It Iiiw lioen founa that the proinineMNa 
are detached olevattona of hydrogen, a thick oanttna- 
oas st ra tu m of wlu'dk sanaandi the sun. Tho r^id 
obanges which take place fn these pronuncaoes are 
<ror^ >UrLliii|T when we comdder theb- anoiiDons iln. 
11)o following description of a ehange o( form waa 
obMTvod by Profsssor Toong. ' It [a promiDoaea 
of bydrogenj had remaned, with veiy little charu;e, 
wnc« the [iraoodiag noon — a lung, low, <|uiet-loukuv 
ctnud, not very dnise or briUiiuit, nor in any way 
remarkable except for its sixe. It was made ap 
mostly of ftlamenti naarW horizontal, and floated 
above the chromosphere [see Scx] wiih its lower 
snrbkoe at a height of annM 15,000 mtlae, bat waa 
connootod to it, as It usually the case, by thrao or 
four vertical cdlurona brighter and more active than 
the taet. LocJcyev oompares soch masses to a banyan 
grove. Id length It mcasuras S' 35', and in alevsMon 
about 2* to its upper siirfaoo— thst Is, sinee at the 
sun's dittaaco 1" eonali -150 miles nearly. It wm 
aboat 100,000 miWlong by M.flno high. At 13-30^ 
when I was L-allrd oway for a few Biinutee, tbsra 
was no indication of What was about to happen, 
eioept that eo« oS tbo connsctbig stcme at tho south- 
ern extnmitv of tha dond bad grown oanndet^dT 
brighter, and was oortoasly bent to one ride; snu 
Bsar tha base of another, at tha aortbem end. a little 
brUlianl tamp ha<l dirvelnped itself, ihapcd l£kt? a 
sammer thuiid«r-h^ul. . . . What wu my nurtiraB^ 
then, on ntanlag in less than half an bour'dt IrfiC). 
to find tltat in ths msantime tho whole thing had 
been Ulerally blovn to ahreda by sunu! iaoonecdvahla 
vfnA from heneatlL lu plaii! uf the cjidsk dood 
I had left, tha sir, if I may nse Um espNsriea, was 
fined with Bylac ctOns-a vum of debukad vwtleal 
fulfom ftlaaeal^ sadi froB lO' to 30- h»e t7 S* or 
8' wld<^ br^hler and eleair toeetber wh«f« lbs Blllsi* 
)sMi f ocioeriy stood, sad npMly ssoendii^ wbiB I 
fiiat looked aome of thorn had alroady reaobed a bilgbt 
of aaariy 4' (1OO.OO0 nllM), and wUla I watcCed 
them tbey rose with a motina alnwet peree pli hie to 
the ey«^ untQ In tea mlaates the appermeet were 
mof* than MOiOOO nlki ■)»*« tba Bidar ■arfaosi .. . 
At tha tliwanll rose they gntdoolly fa.dc.) away Ilka 
adi«dringlAoad,and at I'lSooly afrw filmy w&m 
with some brighter atreamen low down near tba 
cbronoqtbere, rvmafawd lo nark the plseo. Bat ba 
thameamrhaeaeUtHs'tbandar-head' befnm slladad 
let had grown and davaloeed woodttrfully. Into a 
mass ol rcJHng and sver'AaaAg ttsme, to ^laafc 
aeoording to i^iptanaoca. lint It waa cm w ih J 




PBOBnsB— fbofaoam5a. 



down, oa il won, along tlio nclar «Hrfiu:e: Utor it 
Ttmn uliijoflt t>ymmldaUy CO.ODO iuIIini Su kelKbt; tlisn 
ICa Bummit w&i dmtm oul into long filai&imts and 
thr^-odA. which wr-rn miMit curinmilv rolled bcLokwivrilii 
and ibiwiiwikniB liki; tlie vottttcH ol an loaia capiUkl; 
Mul fitiolly it (uded away, and by 2'30 luut vtuUabad 
Uko tbo atbor.' 

l'KUMli>C, an engagement entcrnrl inln by onn 
liantoa U> pDrfuitii UT uirt jwrfurai ■omn p&rticular 
thing. When thwa U a mutual promise betvioDn 
two twtiei it b tsnacd a cuatroct. A [.iramicc tniky 
either be verbal or writtun. A verbiO |)Miuiae i* in 
Xluf-lAud caUcd a promiiiu by jiarulu, uid a wrlttcu 
jxntniefi U in tnchniol liui|;iliiga thnm cb]]«1 a 
Qovonwil. By £cii:li<h law no pramka i* biniUu); 
mlonitwad mods faraeonsldcraltimi, but by Scotch 
law it !■ alviiyit binding whatlier a co&aideration waa 
givciu or uot. 1'ha law of SootUad makiw a disduc- 
^DQ Iwtwcvn a promiae and an olfer, the fnraier 
being an cogageruvtit of such a ualiire tli&t tbo pra- 
minr thinkN it unnuomaary tn ntciim thv consent of 
Uw pnrtun tu wbum tbo |iiTi(iitiH; i* ttiadc, while tbe 
latter is ua Bnttageuuml clupeadeitt on the anent of 
tho other parly. A pr«niii>o is binding from tho 
tint, but ui ol!ar in not binditig aalil it ui accept«), 
and if iji.-t f>rvvjoiiNly iicoejHvd may be at auy tiiue 
withdrawn. In ordinary cawa aa oilar, unleas with- 
drawn, may aUo b^ ac«cpt«d at any time; but with 
mercanUlo tratiuictioiu a differvnt rula in obacrved. 
An ofl«r to buy or *eU muft be aoc«(Jt^iil by tbe 
I^vnwn to whom it ia tnado wichotrt nndno doky, and 
whila III) cbangfi haa takeo iilacm in the market dit- 
sdviuita^ot-ua to the cifferer, otherwian he ia uu lou^^er 
tnund. WhoD annlTcir ia ]IiailB,aiKl It iaitatod that 
an auawia" ia expvi'tcd by return of pout, the oiTurvr 
i» Dtit bound after the arrif^ of that p»t without an 
accentaucu^ If the anawcr ia exjKvbed from abroad 
it ia hclil to be by raturn of )i«t if it ia acnt by the 
fmi u&il imckitt, i:ri:n liunigh [irivAto Bhipa iiwy 
have Mulfd |in:viuu»ly. lu case of a promiac to 
marry, wlUofa ia a mutual promini?, tiitii-vr party, as la 
my woU lEiiown,ii]ay tnofor dauiaf^a in csso of tbo 
non-fulfilment at It. 

PHUMIsaOKV NOTE. See Box OF KxoEASiaB. 

I'KONOUN, a part of ^trndb which imembiM the 
noun in bviiiit used to dcngaato m paion, animal, or 
Ihiuir, but wbldi diflen from a notin in that It neither 
tl«&i,iiaCoa iU object like a ccmuiuu coutL, in virtue 
iif tile qunlitie* which it powMwics, nor, liko a proper 
iMiim, alwaya ileaiiiaat«a tbo nnw obj(.-ct, but deaijc- 
oatM difierant objocta Mcordine to Ihti citvumstancMi 
in wbicli it ia iiacd. A promotin, in fact, baa no 
oonnototiun mid no fixed denutation. Tbe Brat por- 
■onal pionouni^ /, we, denote tbi pemon speaJdni; vr 
thow rB p at aen ted byUtapemnipcakiBg; thatecond, 
Utfu, jnhi, denote ue person or peraona opolcen to; 
and the ihird penoniLl pruuouua, Xr, *ite, U, ihcy, tho 
peBoa CV peiwna or thingg annkon about. Demon- 
Btrattro proDonna are tbcca wiiicb rvlate Co a prcunt 
•abjoctt aa CAi^ tKat; relative refer Co some snbjeut 
pi«noualy monliutiod, aa vita, vkieh; Iaterrti(ntiva 
rafar to lome unknown •objcet; pnwiwtYt Indicate 
p oaaMnoo, aa mine. Am. Pronouna compoonded with 
»*y or MtUt* (oa m}f*r{f, ynttrtci/, yovrtdttt) are usu- 
ally called reflexive or reflective, but are aa oft«n 
inlmuiTe aa nScKivo, One in aacli a phraao m 'Ono 
woald think ao-and-ao' may be callad as indefinlta 
pnnoDn. In Enzliab the fann «(« is of eompantlvely 
noeot edg^n. It doei uot once otxw in SpcnMir. 
nor In the original (lAH) oditiou of tho Authiirixcd 
Vonion of tho Dible, ibouitk It U now Lu b« found 
In I.otIl xxr. S; and it is not mentioned by tho 
grammariaa Alexander till (UnS). It occiira but 
•aldom in Sbakapen^ nod Lbe fint (traiomarian 
who recojfnizea It la Julio WolLEs in 10^3. la 



mnet laugtuKca there ore certain aiMMMliM ' 
(if attputiuu tu tb« us>» of Ui« pronoucn. It la a 
gouoral practioo wiih aovcrcigna in all fonnal decs* 
mcnta or prodiLmatinna to maka nae of the fint 
perrHin plural iueLciul o( tbe aingular, and the aane 
ia tbe oaao nitb e>i)tora of ncwapaptm and •*«■ lo a 
largv extent with autbora Moat modem laagai^ 
have droj>|i6>l tho aingnlar ci the ■Moed pafMoal 
pnmmin in o/dlaar7 ioaal intcroouiM. In KagHak 
and FrvDch the plaralof thaaeocmd perwmal pnmmB 
in ci^i^rnlly uubsticuted, and die ■'"g"'*' la now 
riwi:r>*«i aJmoHt excluslT«lyMtbomodaaf : 
tbo DuLby. In Eotfliah it ia still aomefana 
aim in oLerated atyte, and wa« formmiy frecpilUy 
uM.'d in addroaing inferiun, aa ts ootniDOii ki Skak- 
BpcTd. In Kr«n^ It ia aometJaiei wad banram 
intimate friends. The Germans naa io ocdinarr 
interoonnHtbo plural of tbo thfad penoa (aw) bnMad 
of tbe aeeinid person eingnku^, wblck b raaarwd ior 
tbe DoLty, intimate fricodav iiiferit>r*, and cUldnB. 
In Italian thn ordtnary mDde of addmat ia tb«r fani- 
nine of lbe tliird iwrwinol pronoun ((tta), vkkb h 
token to be equivalent to addraaaing vrw; pMSlB aa 
'your oxcelloncc' (fw»(ra tretiUiua). 

I'KONrBA H«. Jcino. 

PKONUNCIAMENTO, b Spain and tbo Aaaeri- 
cau republici wbw« Spanish is ipolna, a prodamatica 
Againat the exitting' Eovemmeti^ intended to aerre aa 
a aitfual of nn olt, "fiitae riainjii am uioelly tba Wvrk 
of discontented officers, and li^ace af« in the main 
of % miliiary cbaracteri but tbej aonMttmai ariginats 
witb civil boili(« or imUvidnal towns and oommanea. 
'Ilie word anilrtpronujiaamoUa, that la, cwunhir- 
proclamation, alao occiim. 

PROOF. See EviPMOl. 

PROOF IMPRESSION. Sea CoBUcnoa or 

THl PAKaS. 

I'ROOF PLANie, a small, thin, nutalBo &e iam- 
Inted no a long atetn of glaa or vulcaaita. A Aargt 
of olcctrid^ may be carried on it from oew place to 
aaotber. CMilamb employed it In his experinMan 
on tho distribution df alactridty on ooadncton. 
When it ia laid agftinM tlie aurfnoo whosa etaetne 
denaity we wish lu nieaaure:, it fonna, aa it wen^ a 
part of the nrface^ and lakea the charge dna to As 
area wfait^ it ootos; this enlarge may now b« canM 
away toanelectrometerandterted. Conlootb IsraMi- 
Catvd tbe action uf tbe proof plane. See alao Cluk 
Waiwnll'a Wectricitv, enct. 223. 

PK0P^:D£UTIC3 ipnfpaidtvi, to pnpnn to 
Inatructltw), a t«rm first used by tba Ctfrmana to 
indicate tbe kiiowlcdgu which u neoeasary or oarful 
far nnderatanding or practiaing as art or witeowi, 
or whldi unfolds its unture and extent moA Um 
mothod of learning it. It is applied, Iherefora^ not 
only to spea'al intriMloctinae to particular Inuttfces 
of study, but alao to auxillanr adaaioe^ '"gl'^ vUlo- 
logy, kc, and tho euoycloparato viam of paHutdar 
brucbea of sdenoe which fadlitato an iuii^bt Into 
tho nlationa of the parts. Such a aiirrry can be 
presealod only by one who has atudled a adoaca ia 
all it! rndficadoH. Tba term prepodntfiea la aAaa 
of coone m«r«ly ralativo: tbns phflolo^ bdoogfl to 
tbo prcpaxlcutice of biatary, while il isitailf tbamifa 
•bidy of a oertain olsaa of achoIaTa. Tbe tena, bow- 
over, in its oommpu use is gcn<:raUy raMotad to the 
bodr of knowledge and of mica neoemarj for the 
etuay of ><>ui« particulnrsoiL-oco — rules wbkb onigi- 
nata iit the n|i[>li(a[,inn iif the gmiend lawaef iwJilliw 
or art tg a pnrtictiUr deputuicnt. Tims W* Asd In 
tbe cataluguea of l(>ctnres Co b« deUrend io OiRMn 
univoreitioa medical pru|«idontiai, Ae., e aimn m a l o d. 

PROPAGANDA, anameganiftaltyglva to these 
inatitutiona by whlcli Clirlstiaaity la |iiiM«4tBl<i1 in 
heathen nwotiica, more puticiilarly to Utoae whlcb 



PBOPAGATION OF TLANTS— FROPHETS. 



S13 




I 



tn the Hvantcmtli century, nml 
lltat aMted hy the Psixtl court W tlia 
I of ttB own powor am] thf Cktbolic »Udnn 
kOMB who vcTc not CbrwUkiu or Cktbolio. 
tt it callad tba nw^rrvvutio t/< jTitpQiraiKlaJiiit (•od«t7 
bt r**ry**g ^b f&ith), ud wm found«d by 
Ongorj XV, ia IflSS. It coiim«U d eighteen rar- 
jijIfeaU Mid aDow Papttl niinlatan and ofikcnt of iha 
«□«([«, Mtd Its object la to arranga and direct ftll 
BMaaona laUtiii^ to tbo cxt«tiaioD of tho Cathotio 
Cuth and tfae astirpntinn cf herctioL OnnaKted 
whfa lUt b llw wtif^num *in irminitnum d* jtrojiO' 
$MMb;U«, iartltabKl 1>j- Ur1<«fi VIK. (IrJS?) for tha 
<^«atfaB of mlwlonarir* The i9oni:TV)(StkiJi tcHiuarlj- 
met OBM a mak in praaeoM ctf tiM pop^ bat now 
it lanli only OMW a tnanth, "Hicra an^ hawevcr, 
MiiHjiiinnpficmiiiiiltiitiiiiiiiiiiini tliniiiiiiiri n 
of tb«flaa|nfatiaiL Csararti to tfaa CathoUo CkDroh 
wlwhatveoiiwtoBaineara uutmcted and supported 
bjr tbam. BUiaf« and otbar datgy wbo luiv« !»«& 
v^dfed H* alao rcM-tvcd and lupporttKl, Tb« 
luuB PnpafaBda bu a ftQ« poliiM uid a prlctini;- 
pra^ etIobralM for the ntimcrDus works wUch iiuu>^ 
Emm iL TlMiiian breri*riai and miaul* nra lent U> 
■11 IwriK, TLv effort* u[ Ibe J)r0j<*i,-aiid* arw dirwled 
tcnnb tlw wbob of tfas dtunb tn jxili^'ut t n^idt-^iura 
ia gttD«al,bat noNMrtioalarlT to tbci nnnt'atbolic 
parta of NoKtbam Europa, aad, aboTe all, Eariand 
■ad OfnoMny. AH tbe omuitrim of tb» Mtto an 
dlvidad bj H into proTincw, Id dosa oonneetum 
wtlb it MMid tbo •einiiuina) or cnllirtfta of Um Jo«n!t.i. 
mck ■■ tha CoUngiiuti Gcnniuiic.-uiu and Calloiriuin 
BaaBaricum In Bama, and th» CoUogiuin fIvlTvtic-iini 
In ^lao. TLt gnat majority of tJi« laemben of 
tba pcopagaada an JesalM ■nd Franriacaia. Tha 
mnaiia of ocmmttnfcatinn batw«an tba blahopa and 
Iha propuaada aia tba an!hhiiilio|«, or wbcra thiTv 
an no anAUibopa the poimauent uuuvii or vpeciidly 
afpotntad Papaf dcJegatca. Bcporta rclatiog to tba 
wlwlaBddof opatatlouauf llM<»ncTe|[aUoQar» |wri- 
BdJ ca BydinwB bpco a waifana plm. Is cLd timo of 
tba Fraaeh nvointioa aeavl aodottai^ wIwm object 
«ra« tba ptafM^tkm of donoeratkal pradplea, wera 
c«U«d pr o pogm f dat. Fropagaada baa tbarafota rama 
to rigmfy any Idad of i&atTlutioa for malrfng pmao* 
lyta. 

PBOPAGATION OF PLANTS. Tlie moat 
aamtaoa ln«lliod ft ptnpagatlug {lUuito U of txumm 
bv ttctr aeML Tbeiv are vtbw waja, bonver, by 
wUtth planta an prop^cated naturally. SonM for 
anaaipl^ tLra«r off numera from their ataiiM which 
craap aloBK tha ground, and Ihaae nmneia taka root 
at taa bv^ auT aaad vp new planti^ wfaloh may bo 
■apwUd mm tbo panot plana by eatdng tbraneh 
th* nnaetaL Olhan throw off anclcera from tac 
root, and now 'phuita ara prodnoed by tham la the 
«— vay aa whoa tbey pnoeod from tbo ateius. 
Tha oemiaaoaat anificiiu nMtboda of propagating 
plaala an bnddiag, laycrla^ tha Taiiooa fomia td 
fiafttng, ii>d uding i narddnK or grmftiog bv approad), 
proMgalhw br offaata and by alipa— all of whkh 
HMcumfa ara naacribod la aqwrato articiea. Sono 
plaala (aa tba potato) are propagated by dividing ibo 
tabata or undrngrouad ataima, Meh '•««' or laal-bud 
tt whiak atadi «p a now plaaL A lov aro pnwn- 
fNtod W flaUnp af tha Imtm, wUeh an dthw 
oNaiaad by allp^ing 00 the petiole fron tba parank 
plaut, or by tailing fr^piwnta of the fladir porta of 
tba katva tbamaalToi^ aa nay be dooo [a tue oaaa of 
iha bagoniaa axtd gkndnliiL 

raOPEK XAMSa Sao Kum. 

PBOPERTTrR,SEZTanAiiaaui:ii,ai:^tinat«^ 
roaC bora la Umbria, near tbo borders of Etnma. 
littla li kaowB of bv lifa. 71m data of hia birth 
haa l>eeo varionaly gfTtm bctwoen iJ and W a.0. 




Tlio Isttvr diitf i«, bowi'viT, i'xtr«iii8ly Improbable, 
Aftor tbe end ri the civil ttot be found a patron at 
liami) in Mirtyniut. tbrr/iigb whom ho obtainad tha 
favour □( Uic ctnyierat. Ho a|)|H^ara to bavo been tho 
boaam friend of Ovid, to have lived moatly ia Bomo^ 
in tho enjoymonta of loro and poetry, and to hava 
died tbcTo in the prime of lifa (about IS tcmo b.o.) 
Ho did not puioFB the Dutaral oaao aiid gnu» of 
Ovid and t'lbiilUio, but in diitiagulsbad for bis art 
and iBROvlty and tbo brtlUancy of hl> atyl& Ho 
la partloularly bapjty Id hia deacriptira of heralo 
anMica. Wa liava four booka of hu deglca. Hw 
but of ttio fourth book la th« mont highly aatoamod, 
au'l i» uft4:n ciiltcd the 'queen of electee;* y«t it b 
not wholly tree from tbe naual fault of tbo author — 
a rtraining after i:iriginality of •-jpnMai'Oti. Love ia 
tho anbioot of maor of hit olvgiaa, but not a aoblo, 
epjritaal Iova vhiou, Indeed, we mnat not look for 
In any Bomaa coot of that ng^ allbongh all wan 
not M> ontinily aliandoncd m l*ii>perUua to lioaatloaa 
doiisiptioDR. There an abo In tho fourth \>Ouk 
Buverol pocma whiob, nltlioiagh written in tha elcglu 
meaflurr, )'et, bum tbeir subjoct^ bdong to the 
daM of didactic and narrative poema. iTc mkkis 
a ili«{iUy of hia learning when bo tiandlea *ubjeota 
of mytholoj^, Bod tfaenrfon affccla our foellnga 
low. In genRrnl he fmitataa tbo Urocian rirciac 
poela, particularly CaUbnadtna the AlouuidrUn. 
Tho elegloa of Fropertlua ar« uauiJly publlabed with 
tho poaou of Tibnllua and Catulluii lite bf«t cditiona 
am BroekbulMm (Anuterdam, 1703 and 17-.'7, llo)^ 
Vulpius (Padun, 1755, two voK], Bunnann and 
fUotvn (Cbwht, 1780^ iUt), and Haupl (Lelpdg^ 
ISM). Theio are largo critini oditioas, vrllh a 
c'JinmeDtary, by Laolunaon (I.eipcig, ISIG, and 
Berlin, 1829), and by Herb-Vry (Halle, 1B4S-45). 

I'ItOPHKTS,amr>ngUi(> I(ebrowii,bi^rndloacb«t« 
■vnt by Gvd U> declare bit p^jpwKn to hia peonlo. 
'I'ha nrditiu-y Hebrew wnrd for ■ pmpbet i* ad&A^ 
whiuh by tbe majority of Dlblii's] orltloa fa Iniorpreted 
aa ' tha one who poura fortb or aaaoaiici&' aaiBalT, 
tbe doclarationa of God. llero are two other woraa 
need in the Old TeatamenI «• appeltatlona of pntpbeta. 
Tboao aro ivA and duwk, both of which libarally 
algaify aoor, and aro aalformJy oo tianalatod ia tho 
AotiuriBod Vordoo of tha Scrlptarea. 11» wtird 
ro^ which only ooenra tea ttnua^ la ■arm timea 
aopUad la Samwil. It haa bean mada a subjoot of 
diapato whether theae wonla denoted aeparatia clawra 
of pronheti, and If eo^ what la Ibe oUm that eadi of 
them oeaotea) b«t it aoema nwat likely that all tho 
threo woodi wva nsad aa deaignatioiii df the aanM 
oLu^ bat applied to then In virtue of diRcroot aUii' 
btilaa poMCBcd abko by all la tbe Septaagint tho 
word fUUAi ia alwaya rendond ftvpUUt, and in tbn 
Aolborixsd \' ntmaa pr^fJkL The litaral aignlficatinn 
uf (Ida word ia 'ooo wbo apeaki for another;' bat 
tho word waa geaetally nara ■■ mcaalag 'oae who 
■peaka for a god;' anil it ia in thb aeoiao of tbe word 
that it b aralied to the Hebrew propheta, wbo woao 
III graaraJ llie naaNagera of Goo, both ■• roTaaltag 
and aa 0RMMii>diiig his wilL la one ooacioa aceap* 
tation of Uie wonT iU aenae haa become nanvwed b) 
that of a ' foretaUar of ^itun avaate,' and thi* rnatric- 
tioa of tbo meanio^ wbidi aatoratlr raralt"! fma 
oae of tha cMof functlooBof tha proplieta u mrpalera 
of tbe wOl of God with ngard to the future, had 
alntody lakan placo in the ItrrvJc word b«£aro it waa 
inlroduoed Into Engllah. But the widar aooeptatloa 
■tin ranaiaa ddo by ride «rith thb ainuwar ona, 
otheraito H oonld not rmbnca all thooe to wbon 
tbe tann la uaually applied. In Kx. viL 1, where It 
fa a^ that Aaron ahall bo the pr <] hot "f Moaoic 
tbe word Beanu lo mean aisiplT 'apokeaman.' 

Mooia ia tbe first wbo fa referred to aa a prophet 




314 



PROPHETS. 



In tb» veu&l wnae of Oie t«rm (T>ont. xviti. 1S>. 
Aioong those wlin in otluT parts of the Old TcatA- 
nipat ftra apolceD ot m having or uUiiniug propbetic 
po-wera m tfarw proptieUtieea — Debonth < Jadg. iv. i}, 
Hnldfth {2 Kinga xxii. 14), kod Ncindinfa fNeb. vi. 14). 
In the N«<r TottMnont « tira{>listHs caHfJ Annii i% 
[iieatioQediiiLukeU.36; 'virvinswiiiclniiiJ prcfhwy' 
ftro ipoken. of in Acu xid. 1'; and in liav. it. 2u ia 
lUeiiLJonL*)! A woniikii, JcxchiA, who allied hereulX & 
ppnpliuUBa. 

I>TOEn the time of SuQU«l fraqusot mentiMt ia 
mmda <rf » body of man bearing tbe evn«nU nama i>t 
prophet^ ftllhoiigh wa l)ftTC tin rnuaa U) hillAva th&t 
lh«T weru &I1 ■jwcLtllv i-nllod fui tho uicaxeiigcn of 
(loil. Tlwty wcTo nurnilmm of thn »r:lKn>lii of tbe 
proplietti, iu wbidi >uuu); tuuu of idl tli« tril)«a wer« 
uiBLruct«<] in llie luw, and Hiiiiareutly also iu >ai;rt!(l 
poetry luid iiiriiiii?T ftir B.11 i\w prtiph«iti«»l mitlio™ of 
tUa Ijilile writu iu puctr;, Mid vu muiy vccuiti<.iiiii t)ie 
m«uibcn of tiia lohoulii of tb« propbets ore apokcn of 
M piayiug OQ mnainkl Lustrumcuts. Tho firxt schoul 
of this njttiim appi-Jint to hnm licpn pot up iiy Hainu«l 
atBMUftli. Otlipr* wt-re kfUrrwBriU fonaedal Betlipl, 
iTsdcb^^ GilgKl, Knd elaGwb«r«. The mcmbcra of thout 
Mhaeb AK uauklly epnknn of coll^-ctivo^y m the pra- 
phciic order Mnonj^ tba Jewi. 1'ha circxtmti»act! to 
which tlte in»tltiitlon vt Ibii ord«iir wim iid dniibt duo 
M>u tba dccleiuicti of tb« pnostho-xl in tb^i time of 
Ktunnel, And ib oh)(H=t wm to utrcngtlien the Att&ch- 
luent of th« JewR to tlieir raligitiu, (rum u-hiu-h they 
Viiwl in a |;mat Tiioa«iir« fftllmi Airay, (ted to maLntiiin 
thftt religion purt). £Voni 2 Kia}^ iv, S3, wLora tLu 
hoabuid of the ShuD&mJto vomiui ^vbo b^d lost her 
»i>ii by siinatruko rqimeuts to hvr tlie iiaelcasnom of 
viuting tbe man of ftoij tbun, Iwcauaa it waa neither 
new moon nor SublMtb. it would tvesa thxt the 
pnphota woro in tho habit of holding WMkly And 
monthly tneclingj, 'J'h^ prtjpbotio omet KVia* U> 
hnro cojitinuud in cxietviKHt donn to tha olow of tho 
Old TeMtAiaicnt canon. ']'h« npnc.ryidiitl hooka of the 
Maci.'stK.-<.-a Biid Ivtvltiiutlirus Bpr^Ak ol It lui tixtLrii:tv 

It baa bitfin RMtnl iili«rndy th^t to b«i n niemlMir of 
tbe proplwtic onlrr did not Iid^Iv tuiy divine oU to 
aarre u a laoncnKcr of God to hia ))cnpl«: but there 
lire a few who aro mi.'uli'jiii.<d by uaiiie and ar« ).>ro> 
looted to iifl u ncti Tig in thi*'(Mpm:ity, divincly-tniipircHt 
■eera, who iu au eagievial niaJinor pitrilied and vxalU^iI 
tho religion and morality of their nation, defended 
tbe Moaaia theocracy agniniit tho rncroacliniobt of 
the kiai^ and thu laxity of the prienbi, and fDratold 
tb» fnta of (oatea, with wnmlngH, d^uuuclatioiu^ and 
oonaolatory prnphercica. Of tbi»a dirina mcaengom 
■ixteon are thi» wrllera of book* thnt are admitted 
into tbn Old Testament cauoru ruur of ttiuo, Iimiali, 
Jorcmiab, Kxokiel, tuiil flanicl, are nHunJlT ca.l1nH th^ 
groat prophvta, aud thu reuiiuniui; Ivelve, Uonua, 
Joel, Amoi, Obodlah, Jonah, Mirah, Nohnm, H&< 
bakknk, Zcphaniah, Tla^gxi, /^irbarinb, Malarhi, 
are called tbe tiiiiior jirD|j}irta. 'fliHc ouinDt with 
oertainty b« amuiged In chrumdvificul ordvr. and dif- 
ferent arrangvmontfl bare bv^u given br IhoM vha 
liave att«Tiiptod In dn no. 'I'hny TijiLy, bowamr, b* 
4U>id«d into four );roU|-« in such a uianueT aa to |{ive 
w « partial olmniologit-al ftn-ani,-<<mcnt. First, there 
are threa prophota who belonged to tho Kingdom of 
larael as (UatinL't from tbat of Judab — Uoaci^ Amoa, 
■loDoh; i^cindly, thor* ar« dj^ht pro^iheta ol tha 
Kinsd'im of .Indati — ,Toel, Tsaiah, Jereiniah, Obo- 
diah, Mk&fa, Xahnni, Habakkuk. Zephaniivh: tlilrdly, 
turo prophet* nf tho cafitivity^Ef«kid uud Daniel; 
and Tomlbly, three profJieti nf the return — flaggai, 
ZaoharinI), and MidachL To tbe first group bdom^ 
alao Elijah and Kliaba, tba two great prophets, wt^ 
are Dot Uis authora ct any hooka is the ennon. In 
«a<>b of tbeae foor groupa the propbeta are nauied in 



chronological order aMwrdins to oat 
It ifl nut itiilik(>[y that the ntajority of tboM ( 
prophetd pn"ire*d«>d from tho achuola of the pcopbe% 
but fmm thu nature of their minion it waa sot iH Bii 
aary ihnt they should do m>: and tiim duiantion of 
Aiiiiii, ' t wae no pmj^t, neither waa I ft ptoplM^a 
■on' (chap. vLi.I4yiaoommnnlv,ai)dDodoabt con aetlj 
undovtuod aa meanlu]; that Q« did not bekdg to 1 
prophetic order. 

It baa already been atated that it waa one of tke 
nbligntiona erf the prophetic callbg to defend tbe 
Mo«a4e thoucraoy imd the purity of t«ti^oa agumk^ 
the laxity of tba prinata, who^ bon^ owpfeJ nutell ' 
wilb reli^nii* ntca, verft i^ to emggiaale tlM 
impartaoee of mere uiitwanl olwrvanco of tbe lavi,' 
in oppMeillon to which tbo projihcta oonataatly n 
tun, ai all exalted moral teachen mtui; ow 
eminent valno only of eaaentiah^ ajneerity td 
aud upright urn of coudaot, ¥ntn thiecir 
■oma havo drawn tho cmdnaigii tbat tbere WW i 
anta^Tiiom hrtween tha nronhetie onler gounjlj ' 
and the prioitlicKid aa auoh; tint thia infeitiBet bM 
hwD jurtly <ibi«>t't*d to aa unwartantmL It waa lo 
be oxp»ctodl that tho repnwchea and exborteUnw 
of tbs pniilieta would be oa mudt addnawd to a 
desenerate »nd tuurrow prieethwnd as to » dagenen fc 
people; Hie pabiotiani which utmnKiy obaraelefiaca 
all the Hebnrv prophets waa dueely c«iineoted wiUi 
tbe!r reli^onfl zeal, llio Jowidi pMnb briir iba 
clioaen of Gin) ami Ihc iinniedSate luiiecta M tbe 
dix-iun niler nil the nattau> huetile to the Jewv wete 
uecMuarlly the enviuiee of God. Tb^ ndffht be hip 
instnimonta in punishing and dlsdpIiaiDg tbe Jewilk 
pon|ilr, but Vtii-y wi-re not tho conedona and vilUw 
uutrunienla, anil tba Jew* could be allowed to fall 
under theii power only la eoiweqQetioe et Hub owa 
wickodncM ind aportaay. Honoe it ia tba oaotanb 
cry of the pmphetd tliat tbe people Bhetild tniB to 
rightcounicae In onler to bo dcIiTered tron tbe handi 
of their enemiea. 

The predictive powera of tbe prepheti bare heea 
the oeoaion of mnch cnutntraniy. The aiMiiW of tbe 
pvupbeta to foeetel (lie future traeunlvetaally believed 
u by the Jew^ and In one paiaage el tbe Old TeMft- 
mcnt ia made a negative teat of the jmrtncat of a 
fiennn'a daiin to be a prophet. In l>eat. xriiL 83 
ti-e rMid, ' When a ptupfiet Kpeaketh In the naaM of 
the Lonl. if tho tbing follow not, nor oeme to nwi^ 
that ia tho thing whieli the liord hath imA ipokBt 
bat the prophet bath >))uken it pneuinptaooaljr, tboa 
■bait not be afraid of Idiu.' On the otbar band, tbe 
Jswi a» exprMBly warned in the bcgianiiig ei tfaa 
thirtoetilh ehapter of Um aame book agataul laklBg 
the ctMucidenue uf an event with a ptvdictioB of a 
I>ropbet aa In itfelf evideoee of tho tnutworthiaaa 
of tbe prophet. The main contromijes witfa Rsud 
to thia prediotlTe power turn nftOB tvD potats — mt, 
tho renfity of the power, which ia by aome altoeallMr 
denied; and leaiitilty, the roferanoe of the nropnedea. 
NumvTvua work* have been written vdla the ••!■ 
object cf confuting tbe firat ctaaa of objeoton fal erdv 
to do which niecwifully three thiaga raoai be eatal^ 
ILabed: fint, the fad of oortain piedlctioiia baTtqg 
been made at a period wfaranteeMaB* toUwenUi 
to which thov relate aa to main it hkcrediUe that thoat 
erenta conld hare been t or ea uc n by any meee faanaa 
auiadty: aeoondly, that the eventa did aotoaOj lalte 
place M foretold; andthirdly,thattluaoorTM|ieodMBt 
of tbe event with the prciliction cannot rnaaanablj he 
eet down aa a mere eoincidene& With regard to Ibe 
refereooe of the proph'ociea the chief oootrovengr fa 
oonnected with the body ef pndietioai icattsred 
through all the prophettoal wrltfi^ of the Old Teeia- 
ineot aunpoaed to nlale to tha Meanah. With nW 
tion to theae prophedea three diffetent poeitiaoa are 



PROPHETS— PBOPO RTIoy. 



315 



lalcaBapbyttifTrattDtaclionliinf BibtlcaJ criticM. Thn» 
who imj \o tli« pcopliQU tha pow«r of furvteUuig 
futon cTcau kltogwtur BBoB— rfly imj klao tb* 
re(cr«noe of the [vophfldH In qneaUoo to Olirirt m 
tb« Uaauh, bol refer all tha paaagaa wUd H« 
■o p pwad to polst to tb* oominc MeoriMi to Urtorini 
«TMli vbltB lin|»aa«d si tk« tima that tho propbe- 
dlBWan ■Itoiau. Annthi-r M-linoi of critifn, whilA 
•AniUiBy Aa rdftrwnmt of at l«a«t Kiuie of Cliu |<r«- 
•i^CW to mob UrtoiiM] **«Dti^ «nUnd that tliw i* 
not Aa oal; bMring of tha pRrpfaadn, which ha%-<; 
tbna ft tloaUa nlarraoe^ finrtt to theae arcnts of tba 
Hbm «( tlM praphete, ud aeoond] v, to tha Haaaiah. 
T%» tUrd aehool, linalljr, bold tibat oann but Uiii 
Manhalo iiatvtpreutioB la pennlwiL>k>. Tbu unturv 
■od axtent of the MmtromaiM that bare been waged 
em tbk sabjaci m>r bo in •oni« mManra gaugad br 
IIm divWona whicii ciitt biii':'dk evnunaotatora witb 
■aMnl to ana of tba principal of tba Ba-oalled Head- 

^^^^» [ ^^ M^Hlf^^if^^ t.Tn> fitt ir.t.1itnl i-liftjitjif nt TuLJaK, Tba 

wtdaat Jaws nadantiml thucbaptaraarelatinKtntba 
Uaatfahfbatiiimodonit.inji.-itbaJawibMvel'Murur'.-^I 
toabftndoB thb ri«w, an J tbuir chief expooiton ( Jatchl, 
Abaoaxra, l.ipmnnn. ke.) rrtn it Ca thn I«riw;IUi*b 
peeflr. Ainonjf (^hnitiuii it w>a tuitvenall)' appti^ 
to Chriit aa Iho Maailab antil tba tim« of Orotiw, 
wks mainlaiDad that it ought to bo midantood ^a 
Janntah. F.ichhoni,Iloaanniail«r,Kaater.aiid othoia 
iciUowtbi!modeTiiJ«wiihiBto»T«tatlan. BcJmitqmui, 
BwaU, wid VIeak tUmk that tha Idaal landRbh 
paepla li finred !a It Koobd and othan mpfly ft 
to tha (odJ; portiaii cf the laraoUtlih peopla. I>e 
'W«tti^ Qaauaui^ Scbcnkcl, and otb«ra bet[ov« it to 
niar to tbo ooopbtFtiotl body. CHher cammctitatoni 
laks It to Iptat to Kliv Tuiab, Hnakiah, Um bouM 
at VwiA, or baUb blnuclf. And lastly, the Mead- 
Alfe Ja to t p ttto U op ia adnptod by a laivo nitmbor of 
BIMfcal iliiMrt^ amoDg tha cUaf in whom are 
Mhhiam Badiika, Tbolook, and Sti«r. 

*****—• aabject uf cantrorony with reference to 
Iha Habcaw propbtU an ttwro nai eagcw of God lathe 
aUtofawhioDtbayworawlulonoaiTiiigaiid ntlaritig 
thalf dlvl&a iwfDittniii ffa tf inoi ^ooordiaff to tba 
AlawariaH Java aad tha Montanlata <aee Mon- 
bVD^ ttaj WW* ia a atalo of acatoar Id both caiva, 
ttwl m to asT, thar loat all iadlvfdDM eonadoimeM, 
fame wl fauapaaaaat volition, and bccamo manly 
■aailTa taatrameata of tha iintto ■nirit. When the 
oMna a|iiril eotera a human body, rach tb«(iruta 
hM, tha fauun DndantaadliiK mart taVe Ita dc^jar- 
tor^ Cor lha mortal and tba imtnortal caDnt^t dwcU 
toga th ai . TUa Tfev waa »lao thivt of thn hoatban, 
b«t wao njactad br tha aarly ChriatiaDM, who ccni- 
■Idarad that tba Babraw nrophata apoko In a calm 
■ad aobar Male «l tha nnaeaitaafng, and wan by 
Ui ilmiiaalaiiiii diatlngulabad from baathen aoAtb- 
B^aaa What appean to bo tbo proraittDjt modem 
'vlaw OB tbo aobjoct ui that in tniuiy, or p*rliapa in 
■cat oaaaa, tba divine coinuiutJ'.-ataon or impalM 
ainw to lha prt^ihata whilo ia thalr ordiuiy walrtiig 
ataK Imt that at otboa- Umaa thaj warn raeaivad la 
tba bam of draama «r vlalotia whUe tha propbato wara 
fa • Uid d tnuea or ccataay. It foUowa from thta 
that tha pnpheta waald not Boemaarily aodoraland 
Una foil impnt of what had been reraded to them, 
•van wfaaa tbay bad nooverad from tb« tranoa in 
wfaU thay waca tomporatily plangvd, and bigaa to 
Bxaaiaa tbdr Taflcatlve facnltiaa on tho dhino oom- 
miinValliina 

Bnidca tba paopbota o( tbo Old Taatammt, pr^ 
pbda and pataoaia claiming to bo ptopfaota oomr in 
tha anriy biatoiy o( the t^biiatias Cbnrch. I'hna tba 
Acto of tha Apoatlaa reoorda two appaanacaa of a 
pio^Aet naswa AgaUa^ wbu on the Ant oooaaioo 
iMaUikl a faadna {Aota xL SS), and on tha aaeood 



ocrjuiian wameil Paul of btii dangar fak fefaf op to 
Jeniaalem (AcU xii. 10). Thar* m alao hi fta 
New Toetamcnt the pr<:>pbet«aaoa alraady mootioDad. 
The gfft of pmpbocy in likowlfle mantloaed aa ooa of 
the Chriitian gntcea in Horn, xil 6; 1 Cor. xU. IQ; 
xiv. 37, S9. About tbe middle of (be eecoad ovntvry 
the llootaniata oapooiallr bonrtod of thair prophMa 
l.\!nnUvniu^ Maxiimlla, Piisdlla^ ha.), who pKMWd 
U) Ui Mileoted aa tb« tutnuncnta of tfa« Hoty BfMt 
to gulda tba ohnrch and to prapan It for tho aeoand 
cominjr of Chriat In modera timet rellKieiu f aaatlee 
bare fi^uattly pratooded to be jiropbeta withool 
Iviug abl« to demonttnte their claima to the title. 
The ii^VRntiwiLtb crntury In particular waa fruitful 
In propbtt) Olid pruphet«aae% and even In (he be^n- 
ning ol tbe el|;btc«ntb oeatoiy tha propheto of tlui 
Canomaa «icited a taoipotaiy attention. Hey were 
callad ia Eoglnod tha 'flraacli propheta.' Tbe aub- 
}ec1a of their propbeoleB wen the nppearanwof auti- 
ohrijt, judgmonta i^ainit the dty of liondoo, Ik. 
Tb«y wvra oondomnod, aa falao propheto and dia- 
turb«taaf thapubl[opcam,to finaaandtothepfllonr. 

Thfl foHowtog are a few of the prindpal worki 
na tho Ilobraw nrnphi^ta:— Lowth, iic ^»ct% Foeal 
Hehreonim {OxI.ml, 1S2I), tniii«liit«l by Grogory 
(London, 1S35); Davlaon, DUooiiraea on Propoaey 
(Oxford, 1S3B}: Eichhom, Dia babrUadian Pnpbelan 
(afiUingcn, ]81(i)i Knrtbrl, I>er rrnOhellamiia der 
Hebritor (BnaiUn, 1637); Haf ouuin, Weiaaaping imd 
ErftUldQj; Im altov und neuen Teatament (NSrdlin- 
■an. IMl): Hanntonbar^ Ohriitolorv of Uie Old 
Teetament, tnoibtod (Ttdinbnrgh. 1&51}: Lee, In- 
■pb^tloDof Holy S(-riplrire (Loadoi^ 1867); Piiacv, 
Tho Minor Pnif>hata(Oif<inl. ISO); R. Payne SmitJi, 
McMtianic Int«rprvtaUna of tbe ProphwUia of laalab 
(Oxfimi, ISli'J): Davl.lar.n, Introdnctlon W tlia Old 
Tcatanieat (Loodiin, 186^); Stanlmr, Lacturaa on tbe 
Jewish Cbnivh (Londan, iSflS). Sta alao Iba wtlcia 
I'rophdt in H(nitb'« PiiHiooary of tba Blbtot froB 
wbirh thf Imllc of nur uifmination ■• taken. 

rnoi'OLIS. 8(Mt lint 

PROP0NTI3 (IK) railed by tba aadoDti boon 
hatnff bafore the I'ontuii Rnrintu or Black Saa), the 
ae« Tying between the Xgnaa and tba lllaeh Sm« 
and oonaactad wittt thaan by Uw llolleapaat and tbe 
Thmctaa Boaporua; now enltad, tram tna largeat of 
Ita lalnndi, tbe Se» oi Hamian. 

PBOFORTIOX. tho ofjnality of two ntioa. Ba- 
did'a doGnitioni of mtio and pmportion ara abown 
to aoeori with tbe luun! liuiple alf«bnla deAnltiOBa, 
and tbe fifth book of Euclid, whlnb waa dsrotad to 
latio and proportion, i« now vnimrvoded by a law oaay 
algeliralc nntpoKtiou. Ratio, in algebr^ ia expraaed 
M a qoouoDt or fraction. Pn^wrtioo la expraaaad 
by tho aqoality of two fmeti0u; in abort, by an 
ordinary eqnatinn. Tbna tbe proportion n li to 6 aa 
c la to (f ma; be expremed In tb« torma *;b.:e:d, 

or m:b -^ f.d, or r s-,, or, aa algabra tvaebaa, 

»d = eb, Tbaiva hava at aaoa a moat fanportaat 
{■TOMrty; ff lour qnaalMon an pfoportinnal^ tba 
prodoct of tba o « tr oroaa la oqon] to tbe jvodiMt of 
the maana. We we alau that tt a : i : ; c : < then 
o : c: : i : (it aod ao on, aacli changoa la MnacamaBl 
being poaaible baoanaa of Dm eqaalitv nd^^ eft. 
Quantitiea a,t,e,d, An- are aald to be m oootinned 
pmpoKlon when a:b::b:f.:t:dy A^ In thla oaaa 
a c = &*, and b it taid to ba a ' maau* bvtwaan ■ and 

a /a\> 
e. It ia oaay to ifaow that - = {i) , and the nX\a 

of « to< iauLd tobe^tba 'dnplicato' ratio of a tofi. 
the aub^Qplicate mtio ol « to & In al^-abm, when 



Alaoa 



. tba ratio of <t to & la aald to be 



PROPOSITION— FRosEcrmopr. 



qnADtlliM an in coDtloiicJ prnportion, they an nid 
to (arm % geometrical progrctBtuu. 

PROPOSITION. Kbo lyooio— JudgBMrtita. 

PROPU.-ETOIt. Sm PnwoifBOl. 

PEOPVL and Its darivatlTBB. Propyl (C.Hr) is 
tbe third TTulirle of the aorin CbHm + i- It dcMw 
not exut in, tbo fmt atstv, but enterv into tho oom* 
petition of a lu^ «eriv*« ol iuporunt compounds. 

Pnpj/l aleoKoHC-Ji,OH), Then are tmi Alcohols 
of this luuna — tho norrjud alrohoi, obtain cd from fitael* 
on, kDil the uo-alcoliolf wluuli nuy bo otitnlned from 
otliyl blcohol, l^t^rirativvt of tbcee tico alwhivls nre 

aad Uo-prapyl chloridt, Ac The difTcrcnTC ti«tw«en 
tbo two aerie* is gtaenUy sLawu ti; ntcb funnuLa 
M tlioso— 



OEr-CIIr-ClI,OH. 



lo-alfAhoL 

cn,-onon-cni. 



By npLacing port of the hjrdraReii in ammuniA bj 

tbe ndida propyl vro nbtAin |>roj)>/fa»itie N -j „' " 

which la k Krongly alkjblJDe liquid. Tvo propyl wLdu 

«n Icaown, oMccly, ntrmal or N-! x,^ ' ^ 
andM«.orN{g;AcH^ l^^ 

PILOPYT.vEA'{Gr»k), In Grwk Mcblteotani the 
cntnnL-otoa temple. The tens wu employed pcrtiea- 
larly in spettking of tlie superb vutibulds or portiooe* 
C'fDiIt lilting to the Aefo^Kilia or citailel of Athent, 
which formcil ona iif the principal oriin.ini'nt< of the 
dty. Tbid inainiiCiwilt u-ork, of the Duric order, 
WU constructed by Poricln (nc. 437-433) aft«r tbe 
dssifftia of Mnciiiclct, one cS tbe moat colobntod 
arcbilf cU of bu im{b. Pauaaniu laya it wmi cnvered 
with wblt6 niftrble, remarkable fur tlie sEw of the 
blocks utd the buuCy of tbe workmuiahip. Etu&rt, 
ia his Antiqiutiei of Atbeua; Le Roy, in his Kuini 
of Grspce; and the Travels of Anncliiufia tbs 
Toimnr, mention the rcHos of the propybniL 

PBOROCATloy OP Pahlumk-it, the CMitinn- 
anew of rarlianxTiit from on.«i Nmiitin to snotber, aa 
adjoumuiecit la a coiitintiauco'uf tb« mmlod fnm ona 
day to anotbiir, or for a longer period. Prorc^llon 
determinoi thn s^Minn; but adjoununent, thoug'h for 
a fortnifjcbt, mcnth, Ac, doe* not. After a proroga* 
tlon any lilll whitib baa prevlonaly penfil liotin bouaea, 
or otthsr bouHu, without rscelvug lbs rsy&l aaactioo 
or tbe coBcumncc of the other bonne, mvutt be taken 
up dc miro. I'arliuiucut ia iirom^ej by the i^untn 
id pcntnn, nr by hr.t mmnitiuiioncni, lipiwled by the 
lura-chaDcellar; or it uiuy be done simply by pro- 
clamation. 

I'lHLSfKNIVM. in Grwk and Rcmiui thealrM, 
the place bef ciie tho aoine where the nctora anptmrtid, 
corT««poDding to what we call tbe stsfe. Tbu fmnt 
parted it, where tbokctors stood, was called in Qreek 
lii^(uia or arriliaa, and in Latin pu/^idtm, and w^ 
coltiurwl red by bcitiK apriukled with CTOCua-wnlBr, 
fortbesaliei^ tbo porfiiiEio. It was aomewbat hl^lier 
than tbe orcheotra, wbicb wu in front of it The 
placd bftbind tlic acriic, wfacru the acton ilrsMitd 
and undrtiaa^ii, km callL-d yn'tUi-tnitim. Pnijectluji 
wi&gi on each udo oC tba protcculoiD were called 

PROSCRIPnoy. in KmnM history, a m.^lo of 
eetting nd of vniiTolea, l^t rv4urC«d to by Sulla In 
82 B^,, and imitated mora than once aftorward« in 
the Ktonny years that closed tbe republic It liter- 
ally algnifiefi 'a vrriting before,' and comuinnly meant 
an advertiMTUK^nt or announaenivnt of artidas to Im 
■old. Uut Sulbk applied it to liats of uuas* wbiuh 
ha ported up in public placss, with the pranlu of a 
retrard to any penon wito should kill any of thnao 
named in tbe Ibta, and tbe tbniat of death to Ihont 



who should aid or ahelbsr waij tA tbsm. Tho 
named were aald to be proscribed. Their pirmi^ 
waa DonfiacatiKt and retained by fiuUa, or JlstlJDtthJ 
amon^ his fricuda, aud ib^Er ohildrao w«r* de d arsd 
incapable of honoura. Tbu moit notorioua unaeibi- 
tioD after that of Sulla (in which thonaands of the 
noblest cif Rome periabed) waa that lA tbe MeoDd 
triumvirate— An touy, Ootavina Cwaar, and Ijefidna 
(0.(7. 13), in which Ciccm was among tboee who Lnk 
their Uvea, 

PROSE (generally derived from proraa (oratjo). 
tlio roMon (A which will bo given ia the eonna d 
the article). The Irao duncter o( nwe can be 
ckarly cnnceired only bj oonslderiiig it la s«lM>aii 
to poetry. Their i£flerenee lies in the MMBtinl 
diffcntnoo of certain state* of th* mind and tidbn 
The two chitf statM of the inwatd man amy ne 
called the lAinA^niriuid tbe poeftnZatate^ aad defend 
upon the prediimiaance of tbe ondentaodia^ or th* 
imagination and foetinn. If w« think ^in the aar- 
rower B«nac of tho word) we combine id«M aceocdiiif 
tu the lawv of rnuoii; and proae^ which Is the Ua- 
gnage of rtiImt thought, la characterised br tbe 
abatractnvxa and genenlity of praoisloB befemgjny to 
Idess tkat occupy the underBtancUii^. Frca^ ia th* 
moot ctiniinon acceptation of tbe word, is osed in ocsi- 
trndiatinctian to metrical oompoaitton. Hie external 
funu naturally strikes Otst, and tn the maAj stacss 
of aodety strikM moat; banc* tba term Ff^sb imih, 
aa wo have alnady rtated, u genemlly derived foocn 
proriuf, prbr-Ki oralio (proDTesaive apeedb), oppoaad 
to i-«r«r, wliicb is derivea bvta vemu (tvnwdX 
returning always to tbe selected metre. TbeGceelm 
eallnl prmc ho ptioi Ittj/ot, whiob the Ronans tiana- 
Uted prdetlrit oratio; aud Sl~ Etrouond MNnpana 
prose writ<--r8 to inodect pedaatriajia. I'raaa waa alaa 
called by the Roniana orafi'o f>lu/a (free spa e dt)^ li. 
op|»<»ition to anttm rincia (bound spMch) or vtns^ 
wbii-b i> Wind by riiyUiuiikral law*. Front what has 
been aaid of tho dlfleruuoe batwavn fnm and povCiy 
it i4<-l'?M' tbftt pootry murt he tnndiMrtierdevtlaiMd 
than proac Btrong pcnoual f et-Ung natmaSy demai>da 
rhytlimlcal e>pT«Hlon, and lu tbe early staM ef 
sodoty nidi is tbe eidy motive that is '»fnrV ei 
lending to litorary pr>K[nottoa. Oratco^, It ta tnu^ 
adecta a prose vchide; but there is tUs dtfletesMa 
between oratory and poptry, that the orator rather 
govaFiiB his feeUngi and dtrvcta then towards a 
practical objec1r~that of ludtine hla bcaiera to bobm 
reauluLion — than alluwa biiuHclf tu be awayed bj 
thmn; whrreas tbe post allowa hiniadf to b* wrayad 
aofaraaiaeanisiBtentwithUtevaryexpreadaB. Vmb* 
ever tbe understanding predomlnatee, M it daea hi 
oratory, proee is the natural rdiide: and allhvngfa 
it ic the 0^ that biatflriea, tnwa, and philoaopldcal 
luajdms wera fint eoaveyed in verve with the Gtceka 
and many otbor nationj^ this may bo explained 
partly by the fact that verse liad ostabliahed itaalC 
aa tbe re^Lar UtAnuy medium, and partly by tiam, 
that in these early times dvUlsatlon wss not saffi- 
ctottUy far advanced for tbe purely [ntellectoal •» be 
prednrainant over the anuitional intarest exosfit la 
tlie one ceae of ontury. Pliuy aayi that Pberenda 
of Scyroe (a coDt«m|>orary of Cyruai ftivt furmrsd the 
Greek prose Ijkreanm jurimtit eondert insiiiHil); but 
perbap* he waa only the firvt who wrote cm plnlo- 
•oipbi CO- mythological aubjeota in pma*. Flna pmse 
is amon;; the latest sttsdnmvnts both of "^ttwg rad 
indt^'lduli, and it would appear that with meat 
natfonn clasocal prooe writers are fewer than riamiral 
ppntt 

PROSKCUTIOX. CRnaSAL. Tb«n k an faapec^ . 
tant dilferemce, according to English aad SeeKtfc ls«y 
in the mcthixl of originating a orimina] pc 
By the law of Englaind ther* fa do public ; 



PROSELYTE— PROTAGORAa 



317 



irboiedntjr H w to ia«tittit« proc«ediD« in n criminBl 

f <—umiuu in ill OMM wb«r« th« pnoUo intvmt ia 

■iriilj floaoanud; whita hy Uiff Uw cf Scedvxl tlut 

ftamStm !• MifeMd to tli« lord-ftdrMBl* and hU 

■■drtairti, Ifaft MvocalM-deputa Mid tUs tin>ount«n< 

flpeil ef b«n^ ftfld ocraDtJM^ Tber* ii ladovd k 

nfcUo proMcntcr in Esgluiil, the atiomey-gaiwTal; 

nt hapraHoutwcnljIntkecMitof jHiIitfc&l aHencea 

•Bd auDM of pMntiv niamiitj. In otfa«r cmm it 

h hft to Uw priv&ta partiM mar« lmiti«(U«t«Iy eon- 

—H i d to faMitnte nimbal prooMdiiiiia. Tli« nsult 

of lUfl Ii thftt BUJijr crinluria «• allowtd to ga tnt 

lawnlj bimi want ti » praaecobn', Cor tli« ioovitabla 

k^ wd Uh further nakm oooDected with private 

[■mwatiuUuii *n wo ereat u In Hunt omm to wilw«ij{li, 

^villi IhoM wbe knAw wh*t t1i» low and risk Tt, Ihe 

I d pibltc t|uril or ravonga^ or wbatonr otiian 

Ithav may iw that maj Indue* a pM«on to «it«r on 

[■MO IB andartaUnf. Fot in tbv fint place tba 

1 ntut ba o(nuliict«d Id th« tirrt ii»Unc« 

t VImU; al tfaa prweontor'* own anieiiM^ and although 

Fb tka oaaa of moat rrlmoa an aUowaao* la made to 

^iLa praaecDtor by tha oounty in trbicli the trial li3iva 

, tfaia allovraaee ia uanally fnuml to boar htit a 

ptvporUco to the vbolo oxuoom that Uie pro- 

w aaoaaaaritjr laeon. And in 11m aaeoiul plaea, 

I Hbm «ftBk of Um proaeeator not obtaUog a T«rdiet, 

l>rtloh ia nn olton tb« case, ho la liable to an aotion 

LiC dania^aa tor falaa impnBuoiiiL-nt or malicioua pro- 

aod tli«a« ta m grant obuioo of hi* being 

1 to pay ■ ecQiIderabta lum on tbia acoouc L 

■leb cwaa tha odslnal piva«cntor ia iiiiie«d 

1 to ftvardict in bia favour if he can abow that 

liwllhitrd pToeeediinga in bi> pmnscntian ondei* 

tFiMWiabIg aad booMi beU«f tbnt ho waa aocuains 

ttfwfillty ptnon; but it ia a dilHcult mattor toeon- 

>viaea ft Jnry at Uie rcaaonahloncaa of auob a Mief 

[ vb«i an iBBooent ponon liat bo«n dtafgvd with a 

t«fai8^ or even <Ae iriM baa not baaD eonohuirely 

[jWored to be ndlty. Tbia rtato of uattots baa kng 

■ MB ngardadaa nnaa t i rf ae to ry, bnt nothing baa nt 

%«■ MM to remedy it. The abwnc* of a pttblio 

prBMaurlai fa Engbuid waa originally dne to tba 

oraad vhich the bifUah entertained of the libertlea 

I td the aabjeet beifn invaded by the omwn if nir.han 

rififlnMiimt were puoed at ila diapoaal; but now that 

Kdl w on lor ttwh dread ii twnond, tfae oj^un la 

J froukd that the beat way to ranedy it it to 

'inalnt mcli an ofBon a« exi«U in Scotland. Fnr 

i' Uanoatlaa wiOk regard to th« proeeditre In criminal 

-VRaaeatloBBMethearticlaoADTOCATiorrtiKCitowN. 

yinr, Puustsa; and with apMial Tvfcnmcc to Scot- 

[,^■4 Puoosinnov and pRocraATOK'FiacAi^ 

\ EvOSELYTB (Greek, a atraoget or twwcMDar), 

hb nHgkn, W wbo Icavea one reUgioa for the pro> 

I'li^ea of aiMlber; In general, b« who cbangea bla 

, tdlgiaoa party or any olber party. Tbe Jawa had 

' two elaaaca of pnaelytae, namoly, tha ' pmietvtni of 

Um gato,' aa tbey wen tannMl; and tbo 'proMsIytoi 

of i^teoaaneH^' or <4 tbe eorenanL Budt at leaat 

b tbe diatiMtian nada by tba Talnndlo nbbia, moat 

I fcOir by Maimonidee; bat modem ecbolan entertun 

1' douto aa to whether thk waa not rather a thooreliGal 

' diTWen Bottt mftde b praeUoe In Ibe predae form 

in wlucb tba rabbia r ap r eaawtad it tn baro eiiatod. 

It ia, however, admitted that bi New Teatament 

ifttanynMtberewarepraoelyteeof twodc^reee, 

[•ttbsigh it caiMMt be accwatoly datennEnad how 

Ittay were dkllngniabed. Aooording to the rsbhia 

ttw pceaalytH of tbe gato ware theea who reoouiaed 

Idoutry and wonUpped the only tm God afloonllng 

to tha (ao-caUed) aerett lawa af tba ehtldren of Noah, 

witbuot •nb}«ctinc IbemedTea to dmuaclrioa aud 

tba other ogwuparA of the Mnalc Uw. Tber were 

Mlty nJiitted to the court of iho temple, ana Mood 



at ibe door of the bner temi^e, whcuoo Ihoir name. 
Tliey hiul the right of dwelling in tbe land nl Ivael, 
but only in luburbe luid Ttllagea. Tba proaelytee of 
rightcoiianoM were pi^rsone who bad been fully con- 
tctLrI ham pKi^iimii tu Jmlaisui. bad been circDin* 
eis«d, and bound th^maolvve to ohwirve tbe Moaato 
law. Before their dreumdaton tbcy were <.-iaminvd 
rMpecUng tiui ground* ol tbelr conversion; after 
theV circuiiidBiiia they recdved bMitinn, lieiti^ 
Imtoeraod with thnir whole body in n ctaleni full of 
wator, on a fuatival, Ia tbe preeenoe of three judgaa. 
Tbia h^ttbm, knomi imder tbe name of proa«yCe 
b/^itm^ waa repoated in the eatt> of those children 
of m prt»ii]yte who had a h<?albm mother. Boya 
under tw«lve and eirU under thirtoon could not 
borome proaclytca without lli'> consent of tboir par- 
ent*, or, in email of tiifit rcfunBl. tbe aiil of tbe m^gia- 
tratca. By the ba»tisui emry one waa cooaidend 
aa bora anew, eo that hia parenta were oo tongar 
regarded aa nioh, and aiavea tbu* bafitixcd vera aet 
froe. Raiipirtittg the antiquity of Jcwiih prcedyle 
bajitlam there line benn niiich oontrovenr. The 
rabble tau^'ht tlwt the pr?K'1.'rto of rigbtoonBn«aa 
reooivorj from hcAven a nvwncid aiid a new eeaentlal 
fonu. Tbe Moeuv Uwa, luurMivcr, oiclndod atme 
penoOB trocn tbe prinleg^m nf prnwlvt^s, nanxUmp* 
ur ever, aemetimea for ft oertoln periiKi (Dout. xxiU. 
1-5). 

PROSBRPnt'E, tbe Latin name of Penctpbonr. 
9m TkiuxviiokL. 

PROSODY (Grool, proKdia). tbe pari of gnm- 
mar that treata ot quantity, aooent, aad tbe law* of 
verwficatiaD. S»o RuTm, llnmiM. and Vkhsk. 

PROSOPOPCKIA. See PxxwufiricATrosi. 

FB06SNITZ, » tows in Auetria, Moravto, In the 
drde of and 11 mtlea aA.w. of the town of t)liaUtc, 
on tbe RvBua. it boa three cfaiirdM*, an hoipitol, 
and monaataiy of the brothora of charity; nteanve 
mannfactwree of wooUan and Unen olo^ ca wl nMr a 
and oottoo (oodi^ in all of which ft eairita en u 
important tnde; minMeoua diatiUaiiea of brandy nod 
kmoIkl and cne of tbe largest cotn-markeia In itgn- 
■rta. Pop. (1880). 18.«17. 

PRUSTYIjI^ a tma imhI in arohhecrtonv de6aed 
by ttwilt Ml ' a potiico in wliicb the columna alft&d 
in advance of trie ImUdlng to which thsy beloi^.' 
Tbe tenn amptti-fmntitU ia need when than b meb 
a portico attoohod to ft building both lo front and 
bcnin'L 

PROTAOOBAS, a Greciaa phBoaopber, bom at 
Abd«tft, ia Thmee, apparently about 460 B.C. He 
wa* the firat to aaaume the title of Sonfcial, and to 
tooeb for pay, ft pnMUoe which Plato iatotna proved 
very reBiiiMtfttive to bim. He tanght pttiMipftUy 
atAtheaa. WbeB,aboat l45,ftnnjBbM-of Athcabaa 
leJt the dU to join in fonndfng tbe now oolcaj of 
Tburium, P[Tita<p)r«a drew ep a oonatitotiofi for the 
lliariaAa, and he ia canJBcttirod liy aucne to hare 
aocxdnpaaied the ooloniata. At any rate be waa 
ahaeat from Albeaa for n munber of yean aafaaaqneni 
to tbia. During part of Ua abaenae he darelt b 
Sicily, when be aewred mat ttaae. He l et on Md 
to AtbsM befera 430 aa laOl B^.ho waaaccoied 
of athdam, for bcf^naing one of hi* work* ( feri TbcOn 
•~4kooerafng Um nod<) with tim wonla, 'BeepMt- 
tng Ibe ipd», I am nnalde to know wbetber (hey eiJst 
or do net aidft.* Foe thb be ia eaid by eeoM to have 
been baalabed; otbera only nention that the work 
in which the etoletnent oeoitt* waa pubUdy burned. 
Be aeente to have died eoon after, perbapa ia the 
mno year. R« vaa lbs atttbor of a large aumber 
of worka, all of which are bat. Tha two maet lin- 
portant of them wero the one afacady laeatieAed, 
aiid another entitled Tnilb (AliHbaat. Odo of the 
dlalognee of Plato bean the title Prot^forai^ and 



318 



PROTECTION— PaOT^TAtrnSM. 



froc it interesUng liiibniuitioii ii (krivud rvgudtng 
bis mode of teMhvag. 

PROTECTION, in politicfcl eoonomy, ft mcthM of 
encountffiug iniliiiittica ia a cvuntrj', by impaaiD^ oa 
Xb9 producia it tlicae iuduclrica tniia uUier cuuulrlw, 
wboa UD|>ortcd, a tnx Hulfidont to protect tho homo 
MwdUMtta «g>uut the compctitinn <•( fnmign onr*. 
This pnotico ii generally iwnilcDuted by Eii(;liaii 
politii^ MNmoo^ta oa turicUiuj; a ooiup&rativ^ly 
unftU unmbcr of prodacen nt tha eipcnio of th« 
^raat tDou of cnrnnimi^ who, dd lu^ooiiiit of th« 
protection, bAve to pay niure (ur tlii- prutected articles 
they want than tliny nvuld otliariviiie hnrn to dQ, 
ULd a» (.'iKxiuTOjHn^ oertwn iiulustriw o«ily by witli- 
dnirtn? the pcoiple from o(h«n for irt^ehthaoomitry 
19 bi-il. r ikiI.t{iU:tl by cuttuim. Sea FRtt-ruDK. 

PHOTECTOR,stitI«coiit<;nmI oaHwral cKcubiu 
in tbti history of Bnfbuid on thaw Bp|ioiat«d to act u 
regenta, gotiomtly during- tbo mluunty of the kiug. 
Thu«a un wbom it won conferred wi^« the l^arl of 
Pembroke^ la 121ft dariuj; the minnfity of Huory 
m.; Humphry, duke of Gloucntw <U22-47|, dur- 
Inf tiu tDinority of Henry VI.; lUchard, duko of 
York, Feb. H54 to Fth. U5S, wid Nmv. 1*:>5 to 
Feb. 14C6-, Kichftrd, duka of G1ou(.-e«t<-r, la 1J83, 
bcfors tlio death of Uis yotuig priiiuoa bin nephcwe. 
Bad bla own ftcoeidoD to the throne; lutd tho l>tike 
of SoLiitract (Jau. I.M7 to Oct. 1&48), daring th« 
nunority of h^l\rnr<J VI. On the 12th «f DsDWober, 
l<tS3, tbc titlti of lord'protoctor vnt b«atowed upon 
CtdiiiwaU, aa head of tho Comitionwiidtti of Enelwid, 
by the con ncil, cuin riMvd uiaiiily of his principal offioera, 
wbii:b (lion held tb« chief power. IMoro hU tWtb 
bo appointed bis ton Richard lila BmortwDr, but ha 
nngtied tbo title uid offiao a ycnr tiler (April 2'2, 
1669). 

PROTEID^ a nuna nppliMl to a prn'ip "f "ub- 
■tan«cH n-LIcb form tb« cbitf ptirt «f tlia [dtrojjfrniu» 
rDttCL'rial of plonU (uid uniniali. 'I'bc pruUiidi as a ctiua 
ntry ciwily nndergo cbkuge: they ar« nut crystallix* 
uble, Aud hcoop it ii vory difficult to obtnin tbsoi in 
a ptira oondltioa, Pioteidi contiun tha cleneutt 
carbon, byilrogon, oxygen, »ulpbur, and nitrogen, and 
reiy gcnnrally pho«]>hnmR. I'he sulphur emtn tn an 
unuiiJIa^iMl utiitL', ili« jihotpbonia pri>biLbIy aa a phv«- 
(ibato. Tho pntVAdt havo Ix-un divMi»l by Uoppe- 
Scylcr into the f oUowlRg claMoa : — 

\l.) Aflivmiat. Soliilile in -n-atar. Undor tliia 
dan an inoltided vgg-aUiuinln and ■vruiu-Blbiuuui. 

(%) ^ubittini. Iiualnblo in water; aolublo in very 
dilute aclda and olkaliea, aiao iti dilute aiiliitiniis of 
■odium chloridi' nud other aalta. In thii idam an 
included inj'ain, a nibitanre prepiared from fr«sh 
muavli;; tflobidiu, pivparod titxix frcah blood-Mnim; 
fihHBOg«n, a BubBtanoa which cloaelr reteinbSugliibu- 
lin; and vitoIlLn, nhicb u prLiMrod from the yolk of 
bena' eKg"- 

J3.> Verii'ed Mlumtnt. laaotubla in water and in 
Inn ohlotldo aolutlat^ bat dlasoIvAd hj dilute adda 
and alkalioA Tbii claaa includes tba two aabataacca 
acid-idbuniin, obtaiucd by addtnij a Koall cniaotity 
of dilute hydrochloric ot acetic acid to egg-albanun. 
hc&tiD^ Ibc liijuid to 70* and neutraliting tba Hqoid; 
andn1knJi-aIbiiniia,invpiin>il bytntatntgeog^buniio 
with idlculi, bealius, a:id acutndiiing wittiacld. 

(4.) Fihrin. Insolnble Is water; wllh diSimlty 
eolubln in dilute arida and in alkali<«, and in neatr&l 
■^ine aoluliona. Fibrin mmy bo prvparod by atining 
freeb blood with a t«'ig; Jl bai a JUiuueiitoua ttruo- 
ttm, and ia very elutic 

^5.) Coas/iil^ted t*nitid, VtmnA by heating 
egg or aerum albumin; it la Inaohible In water, dilute 
aoda, alkalica, and noutral nJilM ■olutlaiM. 

(i.) Amyloid. Thi> subataaca leaMnbloi eosgu- 
lated albumin la it< iasokblllty, but ^Stn from it 



in comjilrtely recUtiiig the acClou of gaatrlo jntoet It 
ia dopoiitod la the liver In curtain di a aa c ea. 

{7.) J'eptona. Tbcee axihotanoMt, into which the 
other prolcid* arc CDUTeitod by the aftioo vl the 
gMtrio juioe cr pancreatic Buid, are cbar»ct«iaad 
by thmr exOaDU aolnbility and ready diffuaibOity. 
Sao the aitiole FmoinB. 

In the proceaa of dlgaation it la protiable ttat 
iindignted protejda an oouvertod Into pa p tcoa a ; 
but na yet we poeacaa do very definite knowladge 
oonceruing the mutual relatlona of tba Tuioai pro- 
tdd bodiet, 

PROl'ESILAUS, one of the Graeian benM* at 
Troy, woa the luu of Ipbiduit, Ung ol Pbylac*. Is 
llioBAaly, and of Ai)tyDch>a. lie ia (aid not to bare 
ori^naliy t-:imr that OAme, but to have teocirnl it 
bucauae no- waa the firat ut the Greelca wbu leaped 
asbore on their landing before Thiy. It ia said that 
bo VIM immediately IdUod by a Trojan warrior, 
acconiing to aom-a by Iloctor. When hia death 
buoaiuti known to bit wife, LaodantlA, ahe la aaid to 
bnve begged the goda to allow bcr to wav jwa nilh 
bim once more for only three houn, Tl^ gnatad 
her requeat; and when at Uie end at the alleMed 
time Proteailaaa died for the a««aDd time^ i ..j-<^»j» 
died with him. Thia forma tbo subject of ose of 
Wordaivorlh'a fineat i>oema Hla torob vaa noM 
!EIa-ua, on tho Thmcian CheraoDeaa. He waa bco- 
o;iro(l » a horo after hia death. A. tnspLe waa ereetad 
to him at Iii> tcnub, aad funeral gaiMB wen bdd In 
bia honour at Pbylaee. 

PUUTEST, a ■olcmn declaration of opuan, een- 
moldy aj^tut ■nmo act, partjcularly a formal aad 
aulemn declanuion, in wntiug, of diaaent from tl>e 
proceodb^ of a legialattTO b<3y, aa a pNtrnt of tba 
linia io I'wUameat, or a like declaratioo of ditnt 
by a ininurity of any body ag^nat tlie iiiiiuwwllime 
of tbo majority. In commetoe^ a lomal fltniiratinr. 
□ladu by a notary public, under Hand and aeal, at the 
requeat of the payee or bolder of a bill of nekange, 
for iioa-aooe>ptaaco or non-paj'mcnt of the aama, pc»- 
testing agnbut tba dravrer and otltera eoneemad br 
the exchange, ohargeit danuye^ and Intereal. llda 
protett ia written en a copy of the bill of sx^aogi^ 
and notice ia (nvcn to the drawer and imJuiaaii «{ 
tho same, by which they become liable to pAj the 
amount of tbo bill, with ehargei, dam^^ aad intetaA 
(See Bill or Exchanob.] A proteat ia alao a writr 
ing, attested beforv a notary public, a juMioe ef the 
paaoa^ or* consnl in forcigii pcirta, drawn by a mMter 
of a veaaol. stating the itet'riity of a rnya^ bj wliicb 
the ahip haa luflrreil, a^d ibawini^ that the damage 
waa not owing to tho ntglect or auacundnatof tba 
mwtcr. 

I'lUITESTANTISM, tn the Chriatiaa Cbudt, • 
genotal name fur the doclriuea which aroae in oppe^ 
tion to Itonaa Catboliciani. Tbia nama^ lifca mta^ 
othera in hiilory, owes its origin to a drcamataneeecai- 
paratit cly indgnifioanL It origiuted in Gennaoy. 
when tbneemembcn of tba empire wIm were attacked 
to the Bcformation pnrtaitod (April 19, lS3>)t brfore 
the anembled prineei, llf*'^'' ^^ (oUowiac reaolre 
of the dirt atSpir^: 'That, imtil a general ooancil 
shriiild Ih! held, further inoovatioDa in enr leeiMlii >l 
aSain iliuuld be avoided; tba mam dkonhl not be 
any fuftber abthUsbed, nor Its odobratkKi ba prmnted 
in tb<iee places whither tbo new doetrina haid sltealY 
(prcad; no inflammatory aemionaabniild bepreacfaea; 
and no vituperative writiaga be priuted.' Tbe pio- 
tmting mamben wcra the doctora John cf Sanoy 
and Georse of lirandcnhurg. Princes Broest aoa 
Francii of Bruiiswick-Liinaburg, Pliilip, landyimre 
of lloaac, and Wolfgang pfinoa of Anbalt, togstilFr 
with fourteen imperial eitie^ tlie ctdaf of which 
were Straabnrg^ NtUnbeif, Ulm, and CoaManee. 1b 



PROTEDS-PROTOCOL. 



3X9 



tanm^eaeo <d thii {notMtation they w*r« ullid 
i'rolatamU. and moon ailt^tcd tbia mune thcBuuJvea. 
Th* wocd PratNUnt wm ftfMnrmria aalnpUd *Im> In 
other couKtriei. In mi, on tha xcuaaa o( tho ter- 
**■**"■'*' eeUbntion of the beginning oE the Ger- 
mMiraf<>nnatioa,tlMpru«uuif,iivei7iiuBut ]ini1iiblu<l 
(JniM 90, IftlT) tba fiinhor UM of tha tarm I'rotmt- 
aat Id Um oouutrj'i " bdni; obwleba w»l uiuaeuiia^t 
dOM lbs PntaBtaste did not Jtaj loaatr pmCeat, »txi 
ordand bs word tnut^ttical to m aabatitulad for iL 
H« miDlivleaB sneta which faav* apning up Mnong 
tb« Ncedan from CKthoUdtun rinoo Iba Uui« uf the 
RitfofiutMa, «ik1 which uv rampfflbeadod under tho 
UDwt nf IVoCeatMit^ all Agr«tt (bmrcver diHorcnt 
tfaotr upiuiuiu on aooM importaot poinb nwy 1^1 ^ 
nivctiae botua Mthoritj In i&4lti.'Ts at rellinan, 
Uog the H0J7 Scriptortt aa tbo solo mlo nf th>.ir 
tahk mimI life, mi aidbdring to fsrtic-iilar rmnla only 
am aapnariagUM omtTfetlciiM iu uhkh all tbuir uwm- 
bmagno. lEva wben tlwj diflw the.T are bfuin din- 
tfncolalied frosn Mcb otter nrfher bf fMnt ahodaa Uutn 
bj bold Unea of daOMrakUon. Bee RiirouiArtON. 

PR0TBU8, acoonUng to tfa« uM Gretinn tuyUiu- 
logyi • deifiod mortal » wothMTiDi; nad woaiiur- 
irakfaic old Bu af iba a**, who fod tho Uocka <««A]a) 
of FMaidaii (Stpbaafo) Id the fgeui Boa, and wu 
•aid tnr wastWring mavtiMn t4 md biaaoli nith Lit 
mutairet, and to alevp at mid-day, tometimcR on the 
daMrt Uaad at Phara^ near tho weatom mouth ni 
the Nilo, aad aoaMttnaa on tho ai>paaita *ii]« of thv 
Wrilirirmiiinain, In flarpalliiia (tha inriilnni % iinmirnl, 
naCraiaaadBhodea. Hepruphaaiaduuly whvn 
allad hjr foree and ait. He tried erarj meau Co 
r Ihoae who ecxMnltod him, and ehangod himwlf, 
after the nunner uf the acHk goda, into eterjr abajiB, 
into b«Htai tjvea, ao(l ovea into flro and wa(«r. Uut 
wboover boldlj bald faim fact toaadiaasabanTaalod 
whatarar ha wkhed to know, wharUur niit. prflaant, 
01 fntiu«L Thaa Slomilaua nupriaod lum (OdjaM^, 
i*. Ul). ud oampeDad him lo aid Um bj hla prnphe- 
cfaa aad hia eoooad. Botocr calla Prutoua BK}rptiu], 
dther in the literal Mnae or Ut rigoify that he ELvod 
fai the salghbwiriiMKl vt the rtTer i^uptna. Later 
wihara rtpmaanlad Protna aa a Icin; in the time of 
the lYoian war, whc^ eilhar bj dlvino alcUl or by an 
Mtfnt nnaiigii of tba onuunenta of hia head, ooold 
aaaiiMi vaftom fonni. Aooonllaff to other aoouuuta, 
whidt, pwhap^ VirgU had in view, Pntooa waa a 
dUfiad locveivr of I'allcDe^ a peninsula of EmaUtia 
<« M acedo nia . DUtarlwd hj the proRifpcj of hia 
aoo^ ha want. Id the time of Beraotea, under the aaa 
to BgJ^ and in that tmfretinamtad part of tba aaa 
\uft tha ae^Hialrea of Ua maater Poandte, who liad 
nvao hia the wondeifal powtr of prophaa^^nK. The 
lalar mnlits made bbn an emblem of primoval matte r, 
and be U thna npneented in tbe twvnty-foarth OrT>bio 
brnn. Tbli nMtrtal-bom aea-god now became a eon 
of PoeeidOo and Pbtnuoo, or ^ old Ooeauua hiniaeU 
•ad TetbyaL I^amathe waa bia wife, bj wliotn he 
bad maaj aeoa and du|^ta*, whoaa nataea are dif- 
hranllr gitaik Am one who haatD* oba^^ bla 
priadplaB ii^ from tiua old aa a g od, called a Pntem, 
PBOTEUSL a roaaricafale smoa of AmphiUao 
Vartebrttaa alHad to ibe AaoMl^ Sliei^ Ao, aad 
isoloded in Ibe ocdor o( Urodela or 'Tallad Am- 
|ihibi& The IVoteua further balonga to iJie aerHon 
Ampblpneoata or ParaanlfavaiKUata (wkiob avo) of 
that ndar, ia whicb tha gOla, powa m td by aU Am- 
{iMUa in aarlj lif a, an retained thronghoat the entira 
LiMimr of tbe ainiiiaLi, la adilitluo to tbo lirnea with 
which thojrare alao latterly provided llie I'roteui, 
therofon, rapwacata one of tbe typjeal Amphibia, 
and fareathea bjr both gflis and lon^ tfarougbooi fta 
wlultexiaUaoe. neoeanimala aracou6ned loatary 
luuited portion of tba eartli'a aDrfaoe, balag fraid 



only in the watcre of c«rta!n auhtwraneao cavea 
in Central aud Suulbtm Eiinific — M, for example^ 
in the cavna of Umitral Anitria, lUyrio, and IJk1< 
uintiik 'i'ho animal it><rlf ia abuut I'i iiiobee loti^, 
lie body la eloDgatul, altrndar, and aomeH-bat e,vlin- 
drical, Bud avera(,'ea ahoiit 1 inch or jf «f an inch in 
tlijiiniitar. It ia of a pale fl«ah lint — tbe ahaeoos of 
coluur beUiK tbu neeeaaary rMult of Ita Don-expoatire 
to light The tail ia broad and campnaaed. Tba 
Itmba are of very vr»k ciinittruetioii, tbe front lege 
iKamnmina tbna, and the hiiulsr Uinha only two toe*. 
rbtee pa&a of brlj^t r«d or scarlet braoohiit' or gUla 
project from tba branchial clofta on each itde of the 
nocV, tho liright colonr of thiMc «Ktemal |^U oon- 
Lraatlng atrungly wilb the utiienriMi culuurloea body. 
Two aeriea of amaU teeth esiit in the upper and in 
tbo lower jaw, Tba oyea areoC raiUmeDtaryiiBtim^ 
and heintf completely onvored hy tbe atun aiw not 
fuuutioiiiilly uivful. I'ha Pr<>tieu* I* cmlnaitly 
aquatic in its halnu, and tbcra u liltlo doubt that 
the cxtvmal gUla conttitnto tho chief ng«nta in reapi- 
ratiim, tho eIoii|pitcd hinga nilh wbicb it In provided 
btdiitf of very rudimentary atraetuni. It ewiniH 
t^aaily; and in dry aaaaoM, or whao tbe M-atcr of 
the cavea heeonea dried up, the t^oteiia in laid to 
liury ilaelf iu the luud, u/ttTthi.' fiwUiuD uf tlio Afri- 
C9U1 and American Lopidoniiroaa or Mud-li*h«« (•*• 
Dii-xoi): and in tbe latter caae the breatUaj; would 
bectimc aerial, and be carried on by the lungs. 

The aitiijla fullj-ihitined ipeciea ahore dcecribed 
in tho i'ii}ttut or Unporhihon dnyinii* (VL XV,- 
XVL fitf. U) ; but a few praaumud variatiBa of thia 
^odea urs baen alao notacC OooaaionaUyotiD of theae 
varietioa baa been deacribed aa a diatioct ■P^t^ under 
tbe dealgnationaf PnUvd xmttJkattictia. The akin bi 
all iaamootb,aBdDatlD*e«ledbyaoalworhardatni0* 
turaa. Theeavaaof Ad«labar^iDtheI>uofayofCanilola 
are amonfi the be«t-lau)wn haunta of tbia alngvlar 
form. The red blood oornuads of the Proteoa, It may 
laatly be noted, are tha largeat of any known Verte- 
brate ^^i'pft', jnst aa tboaa of the Uuak-daer (which 
ace) ■!« tba ainaUeeL They areoval in ilta{>e, nudeated, 
and meaaure each about tjilh of aa Ineb in diametar. 
The ndbbodooipOBDloa of man average aVntbof an 
inch, thoae of the mawive Kli^pliant .ri,ith,aiid thoM 
of the Whole n!>n>'>of » Jo^^ fak diameter. It will 
be readily eeen fnwa tbeae maaaaramenta bow at—Hy 
tba blood enrputdoa of tha Pioteua aurpaaa tboee of 
the lar^r animali in rizo. 

PKUTOCOL (irum the Greek f>r«oa, fint, and 
koQa, glua), originaUy, bi legal Inatramenta, the firat 
ihaet gluad to tha aoqwa or «rlindar raoad which 
the tnatrunient* wer« rolled On It were tlated tbe 
date at whii:b tba Inatnunent waa dr&wn upv Ibo 
Bamea of tbo pcrauna who drew it up, and a nambar 
of other jnitkulan, which a >r red to identify the daou> 
tnonL Tbe word kaa alnoe aoquired a railety of otbar 
aigui0catiumj^ tbe origin uf which it ia not in all oaaee 
eaay to dlaopver. In the language of diplomacy it 
ii^ifiea aometitDaa Iba rough draught or tha original 
oopy of aay Inatnunaat, and aoateumoa Iba mlnalaa 
of tbo dallMTatiana >nd ntoceedinga of a oongraei^ 
die^ or eoufemoc In Franca the tarai la applied 
(n a book oontaintaic the pnaorfbad foiBMilaa for 
InatnuiUBta aocompanying oettaia traaaaotioo^ and 
alma lo the foraiulary |aiiiililii|i Ibe manner in 
wliieb Boranigna priooM^ aod heaaa of d^artmoata 
bLduU addrm tboaa la when thay write. In Boot- 
land a book waa (onawty kept mdor tba nana el 
protooul by erery notary, for the JnaerUnn ot eofdee 
of all tha Inattumenta be adgbt ha*« oec Mt on to 
draw up. Tbeee protoeok ware bteaded lo aerro 
aa reeoiraa of -*■'-", and when they ware regularly 
kept wore allowad to aupply Ibe ptaee of kwt docu* 
mcnta; bat tbey eaUon war* a» kept 



320 



PEOTOGtENES—PROTOPLASM. 



PBOTOGEKGS, a Gnok piuutor, coDtomp«arjr 
vrith ApeUai, bora ti (.'auDiia in Ciu-U. ]Ie Soar- 
whed betWMD 833 and SOO B.C. SevcnU maater- 
ptsMC of his ATfl mrattintttMl, piLrtlnilkrly » picturv 
of Iklyioft, « mj'thion.l hen, mU to havu been tbe 
founder of the city At tbkt Dtxan in the TM«ad of 
Khotlcs. In thi> picture » tiound wa« re)ire*ODCcd 
pkntiQ^, luid tritli fmtli t>n liin mouth. I'liiiy rolntcx 
Uint tf>r a l<jui; liuiu llic pikiutur van iuiaVIo tu latlsfy 
blmaeU In tha exccation of the froth; but that at 
laat,in a fit of &np-j-, Its tlirnw theaponge witL wbicli 
b» lusd to wipB (jU Ilia oiiIuiirB va Lha painting, and 
tbiu WMd,ili]ntany proJuccvt a natural reprwentatloD 
oE it. lliiB pUtun) Mvi^d thv dtyof RhodM wh«n it 
'WMbc«icgi»l by iK-riietriui PolioroBtM, who nfrfti tied 
from lualiiiih' bis attnrk oa tb« wedtsrt p«rt of tba 
dty becauio tho pioturo M-aa placed tbn*. tod ha 
fcarod tA injitnt it During tb* lioga Proto^ne*. 
who lived outfliJe tliu wiilla at tho bowD in Iho niidat 
. of tiia b^Dingi^rx. Ia wild Ut liave b«an apMrfally cian<d 
for by I>Binotriii*, who frequently viiittd him and 
attentirttly watch« J the pm^-rcM iif hia wnrka, wbicb 
tbe pointer cORtinii-^d ucidisiiu'bail auiid all tbe dlu 
ciS thft siege;, I'mUtgRnm in luid to haVA lived in 
wmparative obscurity at Rbode* titl tbe 'liftielb ye«r 
of hu aCB, vfam tda murita vrure mode knoira to bin 
foUmr-dtiznu tfarougb a viwt of bbo equally or eveu 
more diitiiiKutabed painter Apelleo. Tb* manner in 
whJcb thL> twij gnat arti>u lutrodttood UuniMlnM to 
one anotbor formi tha aubject of a oe]«bmted rtory, 
whirh will )« fi^und in our article on Ai'XiXKA. TJic 
niDann wliicb Apellea took to let tho Rhuduuia under- 
■tand how groat a palntar they bad amongHt tb«a 
waa to offer Protogoasa th« cnunnooi turn of 60 tal- 
enta for each ol Ua worka, which tho painter binwclf 
bad been in tbo habit of MlUng for very luafgnincant 
voaia. Tbn BhodianN thne enlightened. It i» aiUd, 
BOW wUied to buy back the pictitrva from Apellee, 
in Older Uint Lhey wight krcp Ihi^m nmnng Lbotii> 
■dvca, and Apellm refuiied U> part with tfiuin except 
on getting an advance on the pnca that bo had hlni- 
Mlf p^d. It wiM probably after this Tisit of Apclles 
to Rfaodea that Protogenc* went lo Atbnu^ wlwrc he 
executed one of bia fineH plL'tun* in tbe Propyla-a. 
In tho timo of Cioero it was atill in thnt city, bnt 
CaMina eanied it to Itonx?, and placed tt in. tho 
Ttsnple of Peace in wliidi it waa burned duriiLj; the 
reign of C<nii modtiB. (Juintilian re>e(irda that I'rotCH 
gaoea wae remarkhihle almre all pniutvni of tbe beet 
period for t^« cartful finish of hin ploturee. 

PROTOPIiASlI {]»i.U.t, first or primitive; fiauo, 
I muutd), tbe name applied to tbe eleneDtary or 
primitiTB organic oonipouod of olbumlnouB natUK, 
which enten into the coniiosition of organixcd tiaiaoa 
of all kinds. The tami ia more enecially lucd lo 
denute the aubatance — tndiBLiti;;uiJi>ble from the 
primiura baae «f tho tieeaw in higher forma — of 
whioh the bodiee et tbe lowcet aniuinla or Protceaa 
(which see) and the lower planti or PreCopAyta are 
wholly oompoaed, ThebodyoFan Anueba, theUiiug 
portioD of tbo Foramiuifenjua aoiinalGulo, or the 
or^aniam onnatitntine one of Um low Confcrvoid 
planta, tbua cuDiiiida umply of a microaoopic pgtrticle 
of lui albitminnua jeUy-likff matter. This Diatt«r fai 
known an j^otiatatm, and tho namna faroKir and 
hivpiaars^ hat« alae been applied to it, aad have been, 
therefora, naod ayaonyniouAly with the firat-men* 
tioned term. It ia to ho dearly uot«<l, that no 
appredable difference either i>f ehemieal or mlcro- 
eeopiua] kind ia to bo perocived between the prnto- 
pbam of the lower formn of lifo and that out of 
which Iha tiaaum of the hi^hcit anitnala aro olabo* 
tate^ and of which in their primitive or erubrj-oolo 
alata tbey were entirely oompoaed. Thia proto- 
ptann, thenfore, eatoia into the intimate compod- 



tjoa and fonnatii^n of anlntal and phnt iSmnm el 
ertuy Idnd It forma Uw iadispeiNable m adia ro , aa 
It wero, and at Erst atgbt, for the preaence and aaai- 
feetation nf vitality. The tiaauva uf the faiffbMt 
plant or animal form may be oofwidared eimply aa 
oonatiting of elaboratod pnitoplaaii^ equally aa tbe 
body of the lower aninalcnle or plaat W MJa t i of that 
anhatanoe in a mora primitire and mtJflarent i a tcd 
ttate. Tbe differaooe, In abort, b e tw een the proto- 
plasm of rliSorcnt otnulama i> ooi one of kfaM, hot 
merely one of the d^ree to wblc^ thrangh fvo- 
ooaaea of develi^iment, it haa booome elaborated and 
oiwdMd. 

The reec^nition of thb onlvenaUty of a pn)t<»- 
plasmie beata or itratum In living ornniniiafoaDdad 
a moat important era in biological Bcieno& And 
henoo tbe term 'pbyaical bona of life,' ■ottiiHiei 
Applied to thia eubatance, haa ariieiii from a woeap 
tiou that proUipbam, in eome mofa lotiBMto maiUMr 
than might be gvnenilly canoeiTed, ia mlalad lo Ibe 
myetcriKiui RMeublaga of aotione aad pr oeewee to 
niiirli thu tcrma fMn^ or rftoJ are ^nad. Aa we 
aliall hecnafter tiotica, howovar, ttie reJatioM o( pro- 
loplaxm to vital or living foroe are inaaeptible of dit- 
forant and more feulble explanation than ie Involved 
in tbe above Idea, which fonned the germ of a tbeovy 
of vital action attaining a bighcdebiity nf lata nan. 
Id. tta diemioil oumpodtion pnitoplaam exbifaila 
carbon. hydrot'<.'u, oxygen, aad nitrogaa onltad to 
form one of a group of praztmate eooMsada to 
which Mulder gave tha name of 'protame* com- 
pnnnda. Tbeee oompounda, it muit be ramamfaend, 
arv eaeentlaQy of an n/6u>niu<>u( nature^ and Iba 
chemical oompedtion of the varied fonna of tU* 
profiplaamio material la woaderfnllj' oonetan^ al- 
tbou;^ tbe reaulU of ita orvanimtioa and dtrelop- 
ment mav, aa already atatmi, vary in Uw giaatmi 
degree. The other con»tant pLyvicnl niiiidiniTa or 
ohnractcini aiihilnt<^d by protnplaam may bo anaamed 
tip by Rtatiiig Ibnt thia et^Mtaaea uo-Ipnime nmtrac- 
tlon when clectria currenia aia tent through it ; and 
f urlfaor, that at a teniperatareof bnm '1 0' to &ir (Cen- 
tigrade; ml' to 128' Fabr.) ft coagidAteeor ondngeee 
the chaugee implied nndarthe term ' lieat-aUfrania^' 
That proloplaam, however maeh In mere cfaenknl 
ehatacben it may toaemble other forma of albvm^ 
dillen widi;ly from Iheae anhatabeea In He reUHei 
to life and vitality, cannot be (pMstieaed. It Una 
diffen from mere albumen, not only In lb poww ef 
eibibitiagoantracttlity,a»d iu ita poaeataing toepnm 
of independent growth, but alao, and move alraadj, 
in tho (act that ol itadf (aa aeon in many anfmaleuaa) 
a minute fragment of pnytofdann may eunetihita a 
complcta Itviog being. And nicb a minute ar^aimn, 
deittitiite of all definite or appri-cinhln cvgamaattoi^ 
nia}' live, nouriab ibwif, T«produce itBelf, and, in aborl, 
perform all the funotlona of vltalily aa perfectly, an 
far aa its own immediate life ia ootucaroad, aa tb* 
bigbeat animal or plant 

The next poiul. Hiut naturally piieaiiu U Itaeilf for 
detcnniniition La aa to tbe relatione ia which thif 
protoplaam stand* to lifo and vital force, or in wfatch 
it bMMmea eo marvellouily aaeoriaied with vital 
pnifierllaa. A vi«w, enunciated by Uajd«7, and aqp- 
ported by many eminent hiologiat^ amioad that 
life waa n property of thia pntoplaaa or nnadt 
nrbalaueoL They held thai aa II waa noywa tto n- 
ably piovad that Hfn was invariably (oond to be 
ateociatrd with i>Tfit4>|>laam It might reaaonably be 
oonolndcd that life or vitality reaolted from Iha 
oombination of tbe cbemioal olementaof tlae pnl*- 
plaMii and in virtua of anv other phjtiea] or phjiie^ 
obumloal oonditione which teaulteu fnm tltat eem- 
bina-tioo. Suoh a theory ma^ thorefora ba tennad a 
purely pAyricoJ theory of life, w ojipodtion lo a aeeaid 



PROTOPLASM— PEOT020 A. 



321 



I 



^ whieli reoriraa tba aami of th« theorj nf * I 

TUvMecodtlteoiyarTMHr nuunuiiutlist, 
■ Ibt iBitTWMHty oi m prota^liimio bub f or 
IMbc ban it b iMnrtlKlMi mora pUlmofiUettl to 
ooDOMe tbM, SraUj, life ia not n mere prnpcrtr <if 
|iiiiIi|i1mii. tkM, wcoDdly, u it«Mmot he dvtvniiJjiiKl 
irlMlMr Tilalit; or tlw fonnaticin of prntoplum pre- 
omI* Mch oCb«r in iviiiit of tinni^ it in m»ra rr«iv>n*hle 
to «anc)ode thai life |ircaxlai iX» Banxxlic liAaiii, and 
a>j ttHKifora M jnstly be Mnimed to be the Ktuftl 
<MM «l nntoplMiD faratMUn; and thftts thirtlly, 
(inn neftur dtemlcftl nor pbyiiMl ecienM hw beui 
able to dMDoaatrkta tba natan cl or to jprodnea any 
•DpnMeh to th« Hvfaag or viUl fonee cuwaotefbtlo 
of IItIu beian ndi Joiqm cmumI be Miamiid to bo 
of phjOMl enjilii or to depend tor tbeir Inuiguntloii 
or mMDt»nuM« na PvmIt physloal ooadWopi. 

TboH o)>pe«iag tlwnieiir* to K Mrtaia «mt itiU 
prenlont eod In erietapo Ilk modmi Uologgr, tbo 
qne ett oo ol Um evolution c( Uvliif bdnp iiiiMiMiie 
■a fairtmahi raUtkm to the •volntlon of llfie UnB, 
havbs tfaenfore Rcm^d to etlnmhto tbo progniei of 
Ibf mt-swntionod cr ph^c«l by|x>th«ii. The onn- 
neitt whkb hae bMO itaed tn mip[>ort uf UjIb pb7ah«l 
Ibcoe^ haa been illuiitratni) hy mich motaphnn aa the 
foUowia^ Water, it la usaed, oonaiata vf two jpuMO, 
tkjdiugw and oxjr^WL If tbeaa giaea be tbcnfoie 
O Mfthh >ai l ia eartaiii ptoportioiiB tbey farm water, 
and aU tbo prapartlea of wator, exhlhitod oador ita 
fluid, Kna«oi», or eoUd atattt^ are rimpl; inld to 
* reaolt tiom the propertka of the oomponent parts 
of tiM water.' It ia honor nrgrd thitt tu wc do not 
aaa^BO tltat a eoiDethlng oaUed 'a(|uoBitT ' entorad Into 
■■id took p caaiwioB of the mMr, and direoted tho 
okDMoa of III propotio^ eo Mttbar am wa antitled 
to Hnnwthat awmtetbtiv tamed ' lilt,' ' vital forccv* 
or ' ■ilalitf ' ia Jofaennt In and dlracta tbo oponttaona 
nf Bving betn^a. 

nil arpuaeBt, howenr, ia not macepUKIe <A atrict 
pndkal or «mt lomcal andicatiac to tbe merita of 
tha 4^imlng tbeonia, n* waafmiimta of Uie pro- 
dKtkn of wator bj bftngfa^ oiycen and bTdcopa 
•anlbv, aad tba prodnctkra of ritality by the 
MHMI of protojJaaiino element*^ i« not > strict nar- 
•llaliaai, if It may iDdeed be (IcpidliI a pandJalimi 
at alL Tbt emaoti of water oamfaiiie wHfa one 
ii W be r In Tirlna of tbe aaoarlaiDcd lava of chemical 
aflbd^r, aod w« require no new force ^or aqooaiW) 
to aeeoant eftlwr for the toroMiixM of wafcer or for 
tbaesUbitioBorftoproperlba. iBtbaoHaofpreto- 
plam wa have brariaUly to Manna tbe eiMenca 
*d aoma ad dHi ctial force or proMrty wtJcb men die- 
nikal or pbyBcal Uwe and oooiutloot can nvlther pro- 
dveeBDrezphlD. jLpntopla«BfaeomponiKlmigbtbe 
artlSdaOy ntawdMtaicd Id tbe laboratory of the die- 
odat by fordn? iu drmente together, but would aucb 
noonpmiBd eihiUt tba phanoDawaud actJoaecfcar- 
netertHtB of the btuullMi piece of /trMjr ptotaplaan T 
Tba rcpiT ia an obvtona Bontlve ; and h Ib oxaotly tbia 
aperadMd •mnetbing which tbe vHaliat torma ufo or 
vital Corce that dofinea tbe dead Iran the llrlng pro- 
tophm. Wot«mlre,lnahort,teeiIalaMeandopora- 
tfcm nf new and IndapeiMlcnt owidMewa and toroM to 
maliF Ute pn>tu]iliiain Fhv in tbo seoaa that a*«n tba 
|.iw««t of^aalm Uvm, einee tbe Ugbeet art a( tin cb»- 
ndat ean Danr attain to tbe tnannbotura of Uriitj 
tmiepUMk. Aad if the fneea or coadidon^ in 
rirtaa of whleh protoiilMm livot, are tnoiplieebU by, 
and witbnut tbe ImnDdary of clieuiicnl or pbyalaal 
Bdanee,tban k ii illogical either todeny tbeir adateatoo 
or to nfoM to aMripi to them aqy iwofBitioa or place 
cr ttame in tbe cate^nry of opfvating iaRttoaoea in the 
llvfni; or^-uiUni. ' Vitality ' baa thui a deAnfta atatua; 
the ' ai(UMity ' of tb« jihyrieal thacrirt baa no ■tatoa 
alaU. 

Vat. XL 



Lifo IK tbiio to bo rlnwod oertAinly not aa a ment 
■luallty or pmporty of cirutuplaam bat aa an Independent 
prindple Inveeting tne sarcoda nattor with all tho 
wondrons aottona which wa know Urtog natter to 
puatLML Modern sdence may Indeed be unable yet 
to detotmlne the reUtlotu of thb IMag prindpla or 
vital foroo, and thia InaUllty to axpUn tbeaa rala- 
tiooahaa hccn pnt forwitrd hy the tihyal^datl aa anotet 
k^atnat the lojpcal nature uf th« tboory of vital foroa. 
But il U not too much to aay that the mtaot naton of 
life may remain to u« a« mQcfa a isTitery in ail fntan 
timeaaithMlia^nfmmthelar hackpaat; anditmiut 
not be forgottun that idanoe b by no moana alwava 
eqaal to the full disoovary of new flalde of thon^t 
or even to tbo duo appreoUtloa of aach aa have boea 
dhoavarod. EleetriatyandmafDotlnDbAvabeaBOMD- 
IHUntlveW reoaotly atudled, bat the full appredatloD 
ofthwaRTCtohMyaktobeattoiiwd. Bocauob there- 
fore, we at* tmaUe to ndtiea Ute lalatloaa of vital 
force to mathematieal acoomoy, a&d beoauMweoaii&at 
even primarily dotoradne tbaearelationi^ w* are not 00 
that aooDust cotJtlod to aMumo tbo non-oxlftcnoe of 
the foree. And hence the i]iioirtion at preeent ataoda 
•a inrolvins apeculaiirjne &di1 refleMK'lt«a not ooly 
nf the dOMwet kind, but mch an Inul »■ fmtn tbe 
blown am GnlM into tbo dunuuu gf the Infinite and 
aiifaunrabl& 

Wbal^^ really ia we therrtoro in the preeent atato 
nf ntir ImowtiidifD cannot t«tl, and wo may n«trer be 

3aal to tbe caik of tbo full and perfnA uluddatioo 
the intlinato oaooea and oonditlaDa of viul a<iioti; 
Init emough will already hava boon aaid U> »Jiow that 
Um catiaaa of vital action ar* not [mmly iihyrioal, and 
that ha oendltiona are not enBoeptible of eiplanatlaa 
aooording to ordinary ohemioo -pfavvlca] or mathe- 
matical lawa. Protoplaem thua vicwol Imf-nanca the 
inaoparable and faivaiwJe tatdimn (ur the ezbfbitiou 
of vitality, In no aonae can wo iaaume that medban 
to reprviatt vitality tbKlf. See alao OBOAnunOM, 
PiutTOtOA, Aa 

FROTORKIS, a Rnas of (oaril Urda, repreaeDtwl 
by a dngla i^eoiea, ue iVoMrwii (Utruittmt. found 
in tbe KoooM oeUHB of Olarta fa Switeerlasd. Tliia 
bird ia tha oldaet foenl repraatntatlve of tbn order of 
InBeeaDna{whlefaaae) ur Pvrcbini; Btnk. It appear* 
to have neat OMriy roermblcd ezIaUn^ Idrb ia die 
mmI atneture. Tbt //obyomU Uiltapiciu of tbo 
Lopdew clay (Lower Rocene) of Bbepney la anutber 
eariy foarll fnnu of tho tnaea»nr«o, tUa tatter blid 
bduraicat m.-'ftrly nlliod to the EingfidMO. 

PROTO// IA (Urtwk, pret^, fint; cdoa, an animal), 
the aanBeaapUed totha loweat anb-klDgdomar ptltnaiy 
divWon Of the aabnat world, TUa eroop b npra- 
aented by mch forma aa tho Inftuarial AotealealMi 
Spoagc^ Foramiaifera, and alllnl nrgtgiiaBiM, ke. 
wlUOn tbe lindti nl ibk divWoa n graal nnnber 
of ofyaidnDo a^tt* I br n w r l y JPc h iJed, wbleh tba 
bopravenentof UologionI aouDOa, aad oapeeiaQy tba 
advanoe of mlcnaeo^eal reaearah, abowed wara not 
entitled to be etraotorally daanfled with tbe Pn>- 
toaoa. Aa Uw gnwp at pr — i l ilMid^ ho w ever . It 
■till titoladea aerenl Carma cr even Ibnhed graapa 
of mttaimoM, <vi™**ny iha exaet aatur« of vrfaich 
natanliata are by no wiimi acreed Thia latter fact 
la to be viewed ebsply aa Uia remit of the i^mat 
diOknlty expcrfenoed b definkely dcd^nf tbo «aot 
animal or plant natnra of many organlanL And 
imdnif that it ia tn tbo lower oanfinea of tbe "^Iw*! 
aiid plant world* that the tvn> freat Un^oao of 
llring nature atwse IneenalUy Into <m» aoMhar; and 
fot^ber, that Uolojrioal •cbnea li aa y«t tmaftnal to 
the taak of definitely aopanlln^ mtitmrnU fran pfauittL 
It b not ewprWnr timl many of tbe Frotoaoa and 
Proto^yta are regarded h baLongins to a nntttal 
grwind, tatber than aa finding a daBnlto place In 

as9 



PROTOZOA. 



dtlivr the wilinal or tbo pliutt wtald Indnod. n 
hopetaM ftnd ooafaMDK ban tti« tuk of uepaniing tfaa 
lowor MiimkJj from tho lower pliuils bMn omaJdenn], 
lllttt PnifoDKir Hnickal hwi propnaod Ui cnnatitiitu a 
tlilixl kiut^iMu ur (livivJuii, iiit^niicduLU) iii uAtum 
bcrt^rooD the uiimol and pliutt wr^rlda, luid Jnk> which 
%\i tvrgamimii ccinccming tho potitiim or nstuto of 
wliidi miy (limitt cnuld bo cntectojned might In 
teniiKjrarily depotitod w oXtuai&vi. 'For ftuob an 
inltinnRdiAte dl^-iflion, parUtdng of the nature of 'a, 
biobi^tal No Miiti'ft LoDil,' im ItiLiiny ti^mi* it, thn 
luuuu uf liiynum I'mlitf intra wan iiruponad. But tiiD 
BclKime hiui not met witt the itpDtoTiil o( lutuntUvtl 
l,i:uiiriiU]', nncu the further ludE of aB|>u«tiiie oat 
and arriuigiiig tbodeiuMQBof this int«mediAlAki&c- 
dnrn wuuld form n labour of gni&ter difficulty than 
that iaclgdod in tho trying to HBUgn or^onhsmi &t 
oneo ftod dtnply to either oniiDAl or nlant wiwH. 
The difficulty, iii otlit-r won]*, nt Rnl uoijli:, is niui- 
ply di>iili|«-d l>y thn udoptjon of lli>cke]*i pbui. 

BvariDij tlivmi cutixijurn^iijaa 'ut mind, u ftbK>lut«Iy 
nnrfiiirj to the du&r nodfinbuiding of the limit* of 
tho mb-Idng>di:<m PnttosoA, the chatw^n or cldcC 
chbrm^tRriitim tit Ihn group may finlly lio (iniiinnr- 
aImI, Nu dt-fiiiitc- or iiynitivi- duim-tcr* ctui bu ifivvn 
of this suVklujjiluiu. Wu tUliiir <liatiii(nil>h iu 
inrlmted momben hy their nontivo feiitOTM, that 
in, lij Uunr want ut tim dafinito choraeben which 
othar ntb-klDCdonu pusMW. Tho fint diontcter niuy 
therefore bo statod to coiuiat in tho ontin abitnct o/ 
a Mrtitut tyaina and t^ orf/atu o/ tfnte. No ncrfi^t 
di'jttiiit agtScm ia •pMJaliawl or (liSerenLiateu. No 
tyramrtri/ ut doHntto plan lS body-atruotoie van 1m 
ascvrtaiuod to cxi«t In Profioaoa, ftad tbcn i* thua lut 
aLt«r w&uc ai the etementaty or aeg^nental f>aila t<i 
be disoerned in otlE^r aiuiual fonua. Ko body-cai ity 
or internal ipaoo ciiNta. Thn Iio^iea nf I'rtitoxna am 
oompuaed of aaalbuminoiM nibaCwuN^ termed tareudt 
or jittteplatm (dm I*kotdplaiih}, thU nutter oilictliig 
is tlila icroup of uuiinals in !la sfrnplart aud iuu«t 
friaiitivo QDudltiou. In the bodiaii^tDoBt Proton* • 
nlniite tolid porttdc. banned tbo nvdevs («oa NucLlvs) 
laa^ be dJaovmi^l, aud tlio micli^Da may in Its turn 
fnouantly ooutaio a uualW pftrtiole kiiow^ aa tho 
HMMoJuf, Tho fundlDiiBofUianaclGUBiinil nucleolus 
bSTO boon oonaiilorGd to bo clnady nlntcl with oor- 
tain fomiB of thp rc^iruduc-tivo |iriMMBea in IboM 
fcirtnx. tlrprciducti'm uik«* plaoa gwwwlly by aaaxaal 
tnvthudii, auch an fittion (>r ifaDpla iliTuion ot tlio 
boilJr-BiibBtanoa, end by gtmnatian at budding; but 
io aomo caaea (fur examiilc^ (irrgttrinida) phcm(nni<na 
duaidy imitating tbiMe >BBt) in thn acxuu rcpriHliic- 
tioo aud ovular dttvelopuiecit of Lii;ber foront Lave 
b««s obwrvod. 

The rrotocoa Wt^ with very fow cxociitinna, aoaatif 
In their haUta, and ooour iu both frcah and aalt 
wnton; ths Gregarinlda, &o., althoogh paraaldo at 
ooo itae^ l)un(r><liuUiB in other atagoi of their oxiat- 
eaoa. They an u«iially rd miniito and mleroBcopio 
Am, the Sponma uid a fuw uthur orgaoiania proasn^ 
lag tbo moat niioiliar oicnf ticna to thla rule. 

Thonatiirnfif thi- pn-rtojilajinni-' siilistrunViOf which 
the bodii;a ut tha PiuUiout ikK cunipuacd, ban alreailj 
beanoonaidanMlin the article era rnotOFlAMa. Kothiog 
more need Ibereforo bo eaid ol dua inib«t>ac«^ or 
of ib reLntiona to tho living mr \-Hal force, sara to 
TOmoik that it forma a typical olbuniinous oumpound, 
gEDcrally u>n.i.f|tiid in it« nntiim; and oonaiata of an 
atbuminoua \mim», oontaliiintc oil-|ilo1nilM and jnlnate 
■olid partlclis or ffranulu, in addltioiL to tho brtter- 
detiacd uurituA. It poaaoaaca inherent power* of 
growth aud cuutTw-'tility, and nay ovinoc of itaelf all 
tiio fun«li«ns and chanKteriatlca aoaoolated with tbe 
pDaeeaaion of life, and tbo maiatooann of tho vitnl 
•tat«. Many of tbo IVotoeoa are nothing nioro thast 



mvn nunuto ipodn of lUt pifAnpbaa, whJdi nay 

tbua oonktitnto vltbout farther eUbonttlon » tnwtttd 
(ic-rk'ct liking bcjn^' of Inwly kind. It is prohahU^ aa 
■tatncl in the artii^lc! na Photopi^ahh, that this aob- 
aUnoe ncta as a univvraal iu««Uuiu or baai* tot the 
exhlUtion of that peonlior forco or eondilioa, mI 
r.xpltoablo acooiding to chemicail or phnioal larn^ 
oiiil to which w« giro thi: mono of riUu/orfr or life. 

The Protoioa moTe about Id varioua waja. Ix«»- 
motiaa Jta.y thai b« naifonuad fay aimiile oontnMtkBs 
oF the ptotc^jiiaamia not^oi^ or liy the orteMlaa fron 
these bodlea (^ praloaaalioaa of thaaaroodo aaMaBoa 
<Mon In Amteoa, &&>, loinwn aa pmidofoiia. Io 
other eaaei, such aa in Infoaoria, atattncmt* anew- 
0]t«d by means of minute rtbratUe 6]atnllOl^ vUdi, 
from tbuir ruscublauco to miniaturo eycJasbca^ ban 
t»ou tormod rtiia. llicao dlis oocur ia voy waaj 
other eroujts of thn animal world, and tbojappav Io 
bb enduwiTJ with the |iowur of independent WBtMetL 
Thxy thus move frmlv with a waving motian, tha 
microKopo bdii||( uoallo Ui dctemtino aayatt«rtanil 
apparatna or means whereby their moreraeata an 
oiecuted. OccaoonaUy, aa in som* iDlnsoria. tbe 
numerous nlia may be ixpLuaMl by a aongle W^ 
buih-like sp|>eii(lji^i?, ki>un*u lu a jCr^jwUma, and by 
muaua of thit uovoaionta of this attuctors th« littk 
organinnflpTOpdUKiiiwelrcaUirnnghthewater. the 
currcfflta created by the cilia are m((uently uaed to 
attnut fwrlpitrtii-U-a to the month or oral apertoi^ 
in addition to tho function of Incomotinn. 

'I'bn I'ratmuia may ho primarily tJivitlrd by the 
abeeucv or [irvacmoe of a mouth or mral H)iortnrr into 
two main or primary divisions. The first of those 
incliulus thosu Pt\>t-Jitaa which ar« deatitute of • dl^ 
tiuct utouth, aji<J this group bae been acootdtec^ 
bxaied Aalinnattx at AtlomtUou* VnA^txM*. Thoaseaiul 
primary division, or Stamala, includes thone inwhiob 
a distinct apeatnn for the reoepttoo ot food 
\'&riouR nmiiDBiiiaita of tiie groopi inehided 
theae beads wlO be found detalbd In i 



soologleali 

on softor oombfailiig two gmqa. audi aa the Bhfa»- 
poda and fipouoa, to form ooa daa^ whieh another 
authority wonlddncidc should ho kept aa distinct and 
mora definite divisiona And ia addition tbe task of 
tbo dassifior is reudend the more diSicnlt by tbeoott 
iddaration of the p3aoe and position, retatlTe to tn» 
Piotocoan organiamx, of thoao problemAtioal form^ 
ooocaralns' the true naturr of which aooWical ■"*—"» 
can affuid no deliuilo iufiAuatlon. nie stmplaat 
claa8lfica.tian dividea the Protoioft Into tour ddsf 
cliMscs. Vhotv^ivtlMOrtffarinidttf/ChitopoAtf^pvn- 
gidHjtiad In/tuoria. Thn fitvt time uftheaeww fall 
uuder the Aatumatous diviitiuu, aa not poveselns » 
distinct mouth; the Infusoria or higher cUaa of itaslf 
coniititut4R2 thn Ktnraatoua group, as ponatsaing a 
defuiito and aperture. 

Claae I. OmaHnida fLatin, ^rrgarxn*. oocwTring in 
namben). The membcn ot this group, first d«&nod 
by Unfonr, an defined aa parulQo Protoui^ deeti- 
tut« of n month, and which do not poaacaa the powtr 
of omitting fwdopodia or procoaeoe of tbe body^anb- 
stance^ as seen in the next daaa, that of the Bhtao- 
poda. Tho typical genua Qregnruia repnoenta ^3m 
cIsjM. The Gmffarios* oocnr as tnjnuio |)ara«ita^ 
inhabiting the alimeuUiy caual of cettato iaaeds 
(for exaiuplo, CodcroDoh) and other Annuloaa, bat 
occnmng in VcrtebratM alsa Tho body of a typscaJ 
(in^arina nnght bo described aa ootiaiaUi^af a InUe 
fuaiform or aotnewhat ovoid maaa of protoplam, 
bonoded by an Ul-defined wnll or «tT«lapa-nam- 
brstto. Tho protoplasm ia gnumlw in ita chanMtes^ 
and usually oontuna a nuclcna and nncledna. Ifi 
ootual alie theao organisms vary bvm that of the 
bcadof aanal] pdn toj inch in length, or vvmmoKk 
The body-anbatanoe may be uniform and ondiTidtd 




i. DSfibrm. i. FhrtfUi or Pi^nucaMa nu «t wu. 1-1. Tnbiu vlam of Tdellk- S. CunpaaUil*. 1. 
KTsMUimm. SI HMubir. la. ZotAlMikiitiua »■ Qt*3^ith. M. f wMSalnm. U. HMUlMik I 




TUTSclTn 




Ti^^r;:;^^^^^^^::^^. j-j^ s.s£2^ .-,»u »»-«52=x 



PROTOZOA. 



sss 



• 



hinder, or It m»f pnaont Ot* Appcwancc of 

tBtcnudljr dirklM ia vkriona wkya; miiI od 

tfcew a|)p«anu)UM, h will W Lreteutly uoUced, k 
eludftaUiaii ol the groap bj Sbeu Iim been (tHUidod 
OrcMiinarilj oa« cxtronii^ of Um bod; in«7 be pro- 
iMad with hookad i»wiciw, by hmoon of nriiicb 
libwe orxaaiama can atuoh tlitUDaelvM U> the dlfiev- 
tiva tnet of tbur harta. 2fD tnooi of digutiva, 
cirvulfttory, or Dcrrmu oentrea can be peraelved. 
Nutritiim i> rScnted by Uie riniile fanbibitkia of 
tbo fluJdfl of tb<^ hoaU. The Ormuriiitt appeer to 
be able to effect ccrtaiD ilow, ill-d«uied tnovenaato 
ti thcdr eolourieas bodlea. 

aon telcee place After » method which 
appear to hnitate doaijy ihit [iree— i of trie 

_piiuatf H it Dccun iu tbi> iuijuvgnated ^[gt of 

M^wanhnala. TwoGiegarinwmajrtbuibeobeerved 
to onebeee, or tbo dut^oe to bo daacribod aiaj taka 
ptaoe^ ia eoine epedoc, in a angle and lu>liTi<lu&] 
Oiwarina. Aod aronnd the two Gregarlsa.', i>r tbo 
ringM Greganna, aa tbe caae ma; bo, a cytt or wall 
•ooo <teTelapa. The maai then beoomea molnoiilnM^ 
and of « ipDerlaal form. Tbe Dndeua and nuoleolus 
next diaappaar, aod the cxntcnte or Interior of tba 
mi beootae ditided ftod utibHividod (very macfa after 
ue baUait at ^o aegmenlalioit i>f ibo >ulk Iii iHo 

Eof hJefaar aalmaU imUl U>i> rotim nmM within 
ent £ bvakao sp inlo a ffr««i Dumba of uijiate 
ifiiMleahagied bodies, to vhkh tbe name of ptttuta- 
~ " f it giveB. ThacjfA nest ruiiturea or bwate, 
. the naendaBAvlcell« cocapo. If tticy obtain a 
' luUtat, lucb H aiaoasst water, tsuy appear 
. to deralo^ Into tittle aniixbaU inasMa of proto- 
pUmi, iMawanag tbe power of aliootiiig out tbeir 
twdiee into proeeaMa, and otberwiie reaonbliti^ tbe 
SUmpodoas orgnfama bereafter to be deaenbed 
aadartbeBaiiutaf Jhue&z. A few additional cbaaga^ 
mainly devotMl to thn ooitaoliilatbrin of the body, and 
tu tbe aw n iHiption g( tbe niiitiuo form, enlScea to 
Aaageencb paeoidoQaTloella into a yonng Greguina. 
Thnae gaining aduittaoce, dllier before or after their 
fOeatknaricQW etate^ to tbe bodice of tbeir charac- 
lefMa b»ta, repeat the atningu rcpnMluctive b!>- 
tonr thai fibcMilewd. 

"nw GrMBfiwe thiu ovfnoe^ each la ita matnre 
atructere, too form and chanKten of a Nimple oeU, 
end the doTelopineutal jiroeeM b tbeee fonna beate 
a atroog analogv, if not a ttill more intJOMrte relation. 
to that of tbe oenlopnent cf the tnie inpregnatcd 
«• of otliar anlBtak. 

VarioiN cpacieaol tbeae aiUnaU are kncnm. Tbe 
O n y w in a of tbe CaamoB Karthworm b a famiUar 
ifadM^aad O. •murtefu.and Q. ^•rn.rWt, 0. SiAoldU 
■n ako knowiL Q. giffaidra d Uiv Ltibster attain* a 
ewnparalJTety largo bm; and ita pacradoaitirioolbM 
■re noeetSngly Itko Ama-bi^ and give off eaeb two 
daln ch ad proccaae^ whleb loan abont iadaaBdently 
etf the paendoDariodU itoelf. Btein haa divided tbo 
elaaa Gngarinlda Into tbe (a) U<mocgstidta, or tbote 
witbodt coDstrktiont or internal paitltloiu or aepta: 
t&) Greffttriuariir, tbone with tbe bodr divided into 
two pu«tiuo>; and ^r) DidimVJfkgdtr, Iboee with the 
kxly divided into three part^ M if oie Grmriiift 
bvsi ew^ of tha other two Motlaiu had coaliaaeii 
thmm ofgaalaBW bare been rariMialy regained aa 
bml AiimtMAa. M veeetable fonna, aiul I7 Ha»kcl 
aa Ammhn dsgaoaialed tor a paraiitlc lUe. 

Oartata pceallar Uttla boodapbaTieBl or oval bodiaa, 
kacvn aa Ptantpamiai, found on and wltbln tbe 
boA« o( iaba% are g«xie»Uy regarded m being tnoel 
nearly lelated to tba moBibetm of tbe nraaaat Him. 
and aa being identical with free pMUimiBvieeUB of 
Gregnrins (Ueborictibn). Br BalbtaBl tbey are 
nganled rattwr aa plant-orgMdma. Sec alao Paba- 



CTUei II. iU^jiodft ('niot-foot«d'). Tbe Rhiso- 
podoUR Protnnu am rlnfiiiKil wi thim; doUlute of a 
mooth, and which [iiiui^^a tbo puwur uf euJttIng 
procetsee of tbetr body -Bubet&occ, Urmcd pKudvpvdiA. 
lliia latter power haa gained for tbnm die di«tijicti\'« 
teroL of ' Root-footed* ProtcMoa. 'llieae fonna rnxj 
be rither dmple or oonpound. The Ajcteba (PL 
I'LXHI.-i'LaIV. fig. SU), an orgaaiim oomnunfen 
nllmirfreih wntvr pond^andditoheaiauybeaslectad 
u a rerj' familiar fop rea un tative of tlua nUm. II m- 
irta as a luianMooplo mma of protoplaaai, irbidi, when 
placed oader the mienaoope^ exuUla nuioua mavo- 
menla of ita nratAplnamie body. It may tkn bo aaiB 
to pmh ite boJy out into Aiger-like proeeeMih or 
pttuili/pmiii, .tnd by mean* of thoM to move aboot, 
ur to ^-nap ptuUcK-a it food. TlteM pro c eMW cm be 
iieuatly jirulruiivid from any portion of ite body, *Bd 
an: frrcly jninhnil nut, juul ae freely withdrawn asain 
iut'i, or lueryed with tlie genera) aamNle- matter of tbe 
body. Ii thus contiiuyuly etitwea alteration* of the 
«hap« of ita body, nod imn tbia fa^ received ita 
former name of jVetrwaninialcute; tUa latttT tuna 
being, bowerer, diaaaided for ita preaent name of 
Avi'An, WitUo the lody of the Aintrba a nndeue 
aad muQeoloi ate aaually to be peroelred, aad eertala 
dear mmota, lemed etnUrttetiU rttklm. VOtj alw be 
Rr)tlce<L Tieae Rpaoaa an ■□ named fron tbeir 
exhibiting rhydttnual tnoveoaenta of eoattnetloBBad 
dilation, teeembling thna tbenovaoualaof adrenla- 
tory origan ur heart; aad the (nnctiott tS dtatribating 
fliiUl throiijibniDt thn protoplaannc Imlr lua been 
thi:vrotic»Uy M>!i;u'.'d to tbtne voalcleii, allhuo)^ tba 
aotoal deanouitriUioiiL cif the fimcliDQ h^ not beeo 
attained. 

"nie pmtopbuun of tbo Aanrh^'a body ethibite a 
differentiatfon into layen*. tb« •>utvr and firmer layer 
befaig termed tha <do*a/v, and the iiuier and mist 
Suid one the tnttoMre. Tha nuiJriu anit contractile 
vodclea ani oootsinod within the enduunt, the 
fiotoaare malaly giriag origin bo the panidopodlat 
Food eeiaed by ueaaa of the paeodopodlat preeemea 
in c-ngiilfnl wiUiin tbe aoft «an»de boly and liv any 
iHjnioii iJ ita BuHaoet no diatiact tnoiilh l«<luK ionnd, 
llie apt^urea by wUch food ia taken in eloet im 
imnvodiately aft«r tbe intOMuae^tioa of the nutrt- 
menL A clear ajiace foraM aitmad e«ch food-|iar> 
tide iift<>r it haa been received faito tbe aaroode-body, 
and the pwtide^ if digortiblev ie aivwly diatolved: tba 
ciearnaete left fer a abort tiaw after tite digeation 
of food fat Ibia wa* being termed J^mJ-ranMOa. It 
li needloM to rtmanc that the lempofwy food-vaeaeles 
are not to be canfoanifed with the MvmanMit ecm- 
traotile Teatolat^ which latter fortn delinlta ntrta of 
tbe Dfganimlwa of tha Amuiba. H ta ttwUfnl 
wbellNr <r not any definite oater cntlde or man- 
bnuuna enTclepe rarroitaik and inreata tbe ecteaara 
of tbe AoMshaa bo^. EffoU taaMara and ladigea- 
tible prmleoU are mnply ejaeted fma tbe body by 
any part *J ita •artaoa; a tcmporaiy vent being thna 
(orned liuUarly io the ten^otary BumtlL In aome 
oaa«e a certain portion of tbo faody, named tbe nibw 
rr^ioa, baa been aaid to be more definitely aerigfiod 
Io tbe fttootioa of ejecting eOale mattva. Mo tracea 
oC a iMmaa oantre or «■ imaocy oigaaa axlat, and 
iMcanothn la effeeCed bjrtfae paeadopodlal fikaenta. 

Beprodurtiun may be obaerred liy a almple pcooem 
of JUuitMf whereby aa Aawaba nay rimpiy divide 
into two pertiooa, eaeh of which beDoaae a diatinsi 
and aeurate *«<"**if^ift^ or a dn^e n^n^'^^^^ ^ ^ n n 
may detach Hedf from tbe par«nt-bMly, aad by a 
prtcima of gmwth develon into a inatnre AmmbaL 
A fJ ii itw a ol generation allied to that deaaribed la 
GregariBaalaoaocanln Amofaaaad MialUaa. Tha 
body Ibaa beoomee cyatifarta, and aagntentalim or 
divfaiom ol ita interna] portiun pmdnce* Utile maaaa 



p 



OOnMpondlojt to paeudon&vtootltL-, whti^li devi*li>[> 
Into AmsDhK on ti»ilr liberation l>y the ropton of 
tbn piiront-ryitt. It is, howovor, to hfl *!«• hone in 
ininil tliat nrvcnd olhec PmtouiA, Mid »Ih> biEbrr 
aiilmkl«,uid(rv«iisev«rallQir«rplAiitaJii their d«vel<up- 
mcnt produce Annibdd mHsw. ThtM huibbo*, how- 
aver, tkCie simply Anurb^fubr, and have no rclatinn 
to the true and defiiiite kuiiualuule whloLi bam just 
been deecribed. 

Such ij » dcwcriptioo of « typjosl momlKr of tho 
oUm Ilhuopodo. l'b« claMlficktldTi «( this froup Is 
geiier»Uy arrnDg«d so na to [nclu'de either two or 
IhrsB oraeni; hut AUthoriUca imcli ju SctiiiltiMi and 
D'Orhigny hav« t^reintly eitvndcd in number the lab- 
diviBi^nsof the giMup. SchuItM daasifl« theRbiiD- 
pods into two chinf rlivisioa», «1th tulidiTiriona »» 
fuUows: — 

A. A'lida or Nftk«d RkIu)|>odB. Example, Arairba. 

B. Testarra or Blielieid fornit. '1. Monolhalu&is — 
8rogle-ch»mtippBc3 Kfiramini(erji> 2. rolTtlinlnini* 
— Mauy-chMiilx^n^d F<'niitiiiiifera. (a) Htlifriilta: 
■uiiionte of ehcll &rr&ugtid iu a cunvAluLo Rdrica. (&) 
Jmtt4oitUa. Kgmmt* onsngcd b a etrnisht lino, 
(c) SoroHea: Kegmcota arnng«d in on irregtuhir 
iii»DD«r. 

Thr iiiniplpr mode of itmuieing ths claea B.hizap<jds 
ia to dlvida It into thrrc at four ordrni, Thr fiirt 
onJcr, Mititra, in of lomowhnt prorwiimal nm! tem- 
porary natiim, mid was propoMQ by H» elul na tliu 
ujuue of ■ dimiun inelndin^ o«rt»in low organisms 
of ttoabtfnl n&tare, the bodicaof nhith arc ofimpuncd 
of atmctarclcM protuplanu, and which gioncaS no 
Doclm or ouotroctils vtadcW H* pSMtdopodU fur- 
ther exist as ddlooto !nterlAdl>B'fiUia«st& No shell 
or tut is dovolopcd, and the body, alch[>ngh oapalilu 
of changing its iihufic, u in Amirhn, is mostly cir- 
cular urspberical Uifonn. Hfrproduction bxlcH pliuv 
UHiiAlly by fimlon. All Monera ore bilutbitouu of 
thesFo, 

Tba »«oand order, thotnf tho Jiiibru, iiidDili.'^ the 
genus Anuibft uul its allivi, which aio distinguished 
by their bodies bninz unprotcotcd by a hard tt«t or 
shell, or thoy inuy bo iuvintnl by a mc^uibranooa 
etivulope or mrajMicv, which may (ba Id D^uoio) ha 
strwugtbeaed by having p«r(jclut of sbnd UDDoddod 
in it. The ptoudopodin in tliis erder on abort and 
blunt, and do not unite with OMh oUiflr. A DBdeua 
and conlmctile roiiclca or* praMnt Of lb* gmna 
Amaba aenral dlstinot aywAot bnva bMn dcw^bed. 
Amt^a ndwta and A. prinMjw an two EamiUar 
forma; taiA In tho sorcodc of J. fnlim^ota of Auer- 
boch starch gTauid(.-n hnvo burn discovi!ml. In tho 
gonus IHfiuijin, ti which 7), protri/armU Hjay be 
aslootod BB uu exoinplo, an oval cunpaco e:iidt8, tho 
paeodopodia liolng iirLlnnliKl from ita iippRr or ter- 
minal aporturo, and thcsu funuii thus irmrp alwut 
un thoir {wDtidopodia bearing ths <ar»p«c« iipjwr- 
nuMit. la thd j[«iiu ArctOa the csLnpoce is hemi- 
apli«rleal la Ak^ and Its mor^n may bear apSnoua 
proceaaea. Th* aportnre through which the paenilo- 
podJA oto vniiltcd in Arc*Ua wdiita OO the flat snrfm.'e 
of thu hemiflpherieAJ earut»e& ArctUa, luttminaia 
la a fqPiiHsr speciee ol this nantsi In /*iun/'A<if;us 
(BoiW) no cnrsfiac* exists, but the boily-en««lo[)e 
la of firm nature, and allowi Uia psoudopodia to w 
pTotradedframoneeKtremltyotthobodyonly. Tfaia 
onimolculo {P. nuttabHit) undetBoea grabt <^iau{[e« 
in form, frnm itx bnhit of throwing its soft sar- 
oodo-body around all oHoota with which it comes 
in contact, ns if to swaUow or engulf them. The 
gonns ActinntfJiryt contains tfco fMnilior 'Sun Animal- 
cule! ' {A. siV), so named from the nutiatiiig m*nnpr 
in which tho pavnddpodla ax^ \i\vva ufl from the 
aphoricid body, which avwngm i^Vi^ °l ^ ii"^ti !» 
mamoter. The mder Ama-tea hoe thus boon divided 



Into hro wb'Otd w a AwuMma, bdo^qg Umm} in 
which t^ body la nakad. aa is Jm/Aa; and Jn(^ 
lino, in which <as in t^^^vgia, Ac;), tko body i» ooo- 
t&iood within a campooe. 

Tho Fijramini/era form tb« third osrler of Hw 
clan RhiKopoda. In tbeae oniaokma tba body li 
icd1:l^ed within a ealfOffouM or fisty ahatl or tat 
'lli<- tarcKd" ul ibu Vxly U not divhrihie into cdoaare 
pjid ondoKorc, ui in Amirbea, and no nuclei or odd- 
troetilii veaiclee ore prennL Tbe pamdopodla are 
elniinted and interlace with aad otb«r. and froo 
thiBlatt^T fort Dr. Uarpcoter baa applied the name 
Jirlitulomi to the group. Tbeae orgwnfaiaa am Dur> 
in<.-, luid an.- founa distributed fai all aeas, aad oified- 
oily in the ocGons of tropical regions. la nooeca 
HR/t'boiin Chcstt orsaniiims form a thick layir of 
orirsuic defKisit, wblih trndd, om inpast ages, to con- 
MEldate Into a <^ oik- formation. Tho tean Penmin- 
i/mt is derived from the pnaeace In IIm abaU-walla 
of minnlc aperture* or /orossuw, thtoagib wWdi Aa 
DMudopodlaarepratmdffd. Tbaaarcodo-iBattarnftba 
bodies of tfaoao orgaslania apptan to be of a nwrv 
primitiT* kind Uuta in other Pntocoa; and b nay 
In: rod or ydlowiili tD colour. Thronch Uw nel- 
work-llho ocinfonnstlon of tho partidopoifia a ' erdoi 
ds' vr circulation of gnnoles is carried uu. Tliendb 
—Mitl ronaeqnently the Utirtff portion also ol Ibt 
bodica of Foraiuluifcm — exhibit a divinoo attotwia 
grtiupe — -tho WvfithaJnmia or ' sJn^^HoliBiiifaera^' 
otid tbe Potythalamia or 'many-obambetvd' lanm. 
The raany-ohambered forma ore origlnaUT and at 
first sitiglo-chaaiberod, and ore pmdinioil ny a piw 
CUES nf hadding or gemmation, wlticb, aoowdhg la 
it* dirocticn, may ^tvelop Torions sbapea of ■aiL 
By bndding in a straight lino a abell emh aa tet 
of Noilotnrui is produi^l. And similarly B 
■ej^'menU ore added lo th« •hell in a ^irol i 
we have produced nntitHoid or trorA«>Kl alialls; ' 
those of a more im-gular form, as in GlMgaii 
(flg. 23), or Tfitttiaria (fig. 21). The Tonoaa loedl 
or chamhcn of a compound shell CMnzDmieala witil 
eaoh otiier by aparturoa; ao aa to nodar (be aafoodi 
or Uvins mattar oonHnnona througlKMit. In «na 
forms a ijntr-m of branching tuba boa been detected 
in tho wrdls »( tli>- iholl, tlj'e fu'rK'tli>n of these tubsa 
beinp suppoecJ to bo that of brinnnng th* parte of 
tho shell and aarcodo int<^ closer relation. In aame 
fonns the shell may ^nitilj be arcnacmus, or nan- 
poaed of partldee of aand nnitod by a tnatnbiane, as 
already aaen in iTiJtuiniL In othcn tbo aboil la aaU 
to bci poroollanrni* or opaqno-wbite, and not parfontod 
fnr the pseudopodjo, which (as in MHiaUi), or* fin*- 
trudod fiom onu estnnnlty only. Tho ritnoae bmIs 
an transparent and glossy, and uumaooa fotamba 
oxist in uioir woIIa. 

As already remarlced th« Foraminifbta am elaail- 
fled In various ways. I)r. Carpentv dividaa thaoi 
into tho ImptrforoUi, In wUuh the ahdb are me*' 
hranona or oalcareou and iaperforaita, tba p aa u d n - 
[lodia being emittad froot one oxtivmi^ only, llda 
group indudca the familioa Grotnida (WuhiiHinhas- 
on* shcIlN), MilloHda (with ponwIlanMia aballat, aod 
Lituotida (with arcDaccous nhclU). Tbe Ptrfot^a, 
or second ktoiii\ indtulm thnw; Ffwamtoifer* in 
which tbo abell ts vitreous, or rmrety areaaueava^aad 
perfoFMed for the protnuiaB tA the paniA^ndlb 

Of Mtmoth/dofiuna forms Lngfita, Qromta, A 
iraia, ftc, may bo selectod aa exanndea; tbe 
iJialamia txdii;! rept**ented by JVodMsrvo, l> 
inna ffig. 22), UlMtirnna (fig. 23), 7iuf wfaru iBg, 24 
PattftonfUa, .Vumniu/tb-j, to. 

The Rtutiaiaria forras the fourtli and conehnSBt 
order of tba BhlmpodonB olaaa. Tbeae OTfini«iaa 
poBoas abell& leeta, or apinea of rilioeoiM « flinty 
matter, and their peeudfrpodla appear aa radtarint 




.ii\ 




PROTOZOA. 



325 



» 



I 



lilirnillli yrtaeh suinctiiiiM intcrUce. Aa octosuc 
■■d owlonrG fttv gnnoralJy to bo (IwUngnuliod in the 
Mreoi]»-DUtter o( tbcir UxUm. Tbti AraiUh'umtra 
of J. Uullv him tfae &nt hmQ]' or (^roup of tbu 
trAer, the ilielb of thcao orguurau eonrirttiig of k 
fnunework of baUow RUioimia apinei^ which emit 
■OBM of tfac paondopodUh Thwa larnm are all toAr- 
iD% and otf Bueraaeopii; dam, baisjc fooad floadng oo 
thfl Kuface of Uui oMAo ID. )mrga iiBmben. Aeah- 
UniwJni UmcttJala U a f&mOW axmniple of thk 
divtiicn. Thoy ^it«Kr to ponwa no loooaiotira 
po|miL Tbv wcowJ lUdiolamu ;rroiip, that of the 
yiafcmJfnIKrfg uf Huxtvy, tncliuiua fonus which 
may ba nin|«1« or ixiiii).iuuiiij in ■tnictunx Tboy anv 
aljundaBt in nci^ atuu, ami (Id ntit |>tHW*a gnat or 
•oj power cl nujUuu. Tbur uxi fuuwl duatiiw nvat 
I)h MDfMa of th« water, au In alxa van from 1 faii-h 
to inch imjtlW dlmniaiouL Tho body couhhU uf 
fanbcddad !a wUcfa luv n untnbM of cvllular 
mA of wklch euuiatd of ua outer roenibnuitt 
uwiailllim grantUar matter imd a nocleiu. Tho 
aairnila naUor ttacif nirronnfli .% large inntir cniitv 
Ho eootnulilo veiicU'a vzirt. Tki; aiiob 
A ol ft aUDbtr of di:Ucat« Bpicula, or of 
UIm an«ii(;eiii(nit of Mlid^jtu Kjiincfl. 
SpAaroouttm jnatctatam ii a faLniiliar funu ; no aima ia 
TMotrMa nw^Mfo. In CW<^/4(rra, tbu thiid 
typical 9«aa% a tmH^mnt, brittttk iBidfma dbtcI- 
eptt aaWa. All Iba menlMn. of tUi group are 
narfno. 

TIm /'ofjfcyitiiMi ai« diaccnwd Bnd«r tba article 
oi that oaiM. Tbey ponaM baaBliful regular di«Ua 
*— p"*^ oif ffist. Uciiomna (flg. 2G) and /'aii>- 
qrrtu an typical genua. 

AuivAni* (fig. 31) !■ ao aoomalowa Conn, pcMani- 

aUy of Protoauaa kbod, ooDttatbig ol • nMi cs nnoila 

ol tuda&iMd Conn, akd having tnbaddsd vttfain 

flyi naM Uttk oak««ow bodkalmowD m wec rfft fa, 

lattor an KHtLstliBai otiitad 1o fonn apborlcal 

teUDCd co<tctpkatt. TbMM ooMoUtlUi havo 

bMB ItcowDi na attacbiiiff tbeuaelvca to Tttnad- 

•belli. Carpenter baUana that ])«thjblua 

ttirif b a twlioMotaiy form of a oompoimd Fonunl- 

BlbCi nu cooo^tha ara allemd by Oat1«r to ba 

itDDply unfaillniar cAlcaroooB AJgK, or anft-wveda of a 

\tm lypa of organuatJon; tfaa Doconaphana bnng tb« 

■MfaiigU ur apov-caMB «f tboao torn*. In tUa t1«W 

tfa« MKwiHton of tliMfl bodiai witli Bathybhn ia ra- 

^rded aa tnenly of aeddaotal Idnd or nattira. 

CUm IlL Spmiffida. TLla oioupindudaa tha apoogca, 
tb* axaflt naturo of wUcu waa for long • Muda 
to BataniBrtL b«t whldi by alnoat mdnnu oon- 
■nl «• DOW tttoladad in Iho aQima) world. Saraml 
aoflKiritlei, bowever, lUll i^ipaM to tUnk tliat tbeaa 
dcgHBiiim art axm oMwIy alliad to tha vagatable 
Htiylji^ hut a rwicw nf thdr Ufo-biitoiy dearly 
Aon thdr truly animal ruturo. Tho pnamt daaa 
B»y ba dafiaad aa incliidiiig orgaaiBBB ocmpoaed of 
MHwria hmHia ar mrtkUa not poMMBlag adlaffiwt 
BMuth. and whleb form comwnuid otaaaca. TUi 
BMM b Keocrally au{i]>urtcd oiUnet hy a altetotua of 
bomy fiu*^ or by on* of limy or flinty •picnla. 
Awl tho anltro orgoninn b p«vf v>ratpil bramtmnof 
canala opanlag en lbs rarfaecw A opon^ li tha«- 
tbra to M riawed aa a oompoand aigaaHm lalbar 
Uum aa a aingle anhnal fbna; and In tba mtliitioa, 
aa wall aa tha doyokipmeat and rapaodoction of tfaia 
diH maoy hMratbg lailuiM ■» to ba noUd. Boa 

C9aM IV. It[fiuona. "nie numben of tUa daa 
aM ao naaiad btxn tbair ooeorring ha bloalgiia of 
animal and ngi't*^ ■o'^*'*'*''^ hmn bean axpcaad 
lu tho air. lley form thA Ugbcat otga&bna at tha 
_ PkotoBOft. They ara dafioad aa poMoiabg a monlh, 
■ «Qd • radfanantary digaativa carlty. 1%my do not 




{-MMMia tbo pnwM nf Ainitting paendopodja; and looo- 
inutioo i> p«rf urxDod by tuFanii of vibntltU cUiA. Ttu^ 
ara all of minot* aixa, and tiM BarcoiIa>iDatUr<tf tbair 
bodiee b diTiaible into three layer*. niiiatraUona 
of this data may be found In the plal4 flf^ 18, 14, 
15, 19,17, 18, 1», 30, 21, Ac. The ohiaf faatiuaa In 
Cho tnorpbolaey cf tba gnop may ba aaen in each a 
foim m tba niaiitar (4^ 17) or 'Trumpet- Animal- 
onle;* or tn VortJoelhe, ZooUuunnhtm (tig. 18), and 
other atalkod formi^ fto. Tho body b compoaed 
axtetnallr of a traiwparvnt bIcjib or pellicle, naokad 
thu eviitU or oiUiaiiw Utyrr, ultlila which a layer 
of firm Barcode oxieta known aa tho ydmiMyma of 
thn Iwdy f>r cortical lai/rr. 'Vho third oc eentriJ layer 
ia acift, uiO tif itiun lluii) cmialattnei^ ami u iiajumI 
the Jiymt-miiu or abdominal lagw. Tha cuticle b 
fringod by vibratilo dlia, by raraaa of which loM>- 
QLotioD ia cfFiicted, and carranta cntalad in the watai 
fur Uio pu^ivaeof drawiuK fuud-partlelea Uiwarda the 
mouth. Tfau latter aperture opeoa into tho cutido, 
and U coDtinaod into a gulletlike ttiV, which, bow- 
omr, doea nob lead into any Btomath, but liuiply 
mergea Into the |[en«ral pn>ti>bbaui uf th« deutral 
part of the body. Tba eortical layer oontuna the 
DBclana and ooBtrmcCila vcrfdea. Tha nndaoa li 
geaerallT oloogatod, and po«eaaee a nodeoloa either 
attachad to Ito aztannl aaifaoa, or toabaddad in Ua 
BubetaBoiL 1h» fanotiona ot this eonlnotila realehn 
are thought (aa In JmoAn) ta Iw thtiae of a dreabr 
Viry appatatua, and aa if In en|>port ol thu rbv, 
tabular caoab have bean traoed pea^g (rem thee* 
Tcoideafatto the Intamil parti c<Uwbo%. Whether 
or net these vealclaB iMimmanlcat« with tha extenul 
madinn, or what b Um nator* of Hm Buid circnlatad 
by tham, arc polnta atill ondalarmitwiL The food* 
partloleai vwapt into the mouth, paati duwn tbe guQrtt 
and are iodiscrimlnalaly lodgad In tha MMnlpro- 
topbin ol tha body, Anond ench fooa pMtfcle t 
dear ipaoo or vaenola terma, ae in Jmrntm^ nnd the 
prcMKce cf Ibiaa raen^aa Ud Khrvti)M:re to mppoae 
Lbit tliuae anlmaloulea pcaaea w J a number of at«n- 
•cba or Agaatlve aaca — a baliaf which lad him to 
DMuo thb cbaa Priggattriea. It haa, howarer, boai 
definitely aaeertalBed that no dlgeatlre mum axbi 
and that the food racnolea ara nimly of temperaiy 
duralian and natura, and that food may be, and 1% 
dig<eat»d by any pottico of the mroede-Dody, Indl- 
geatihla nattan in acona caaw appear to ba szpdlad 
by an aperture planed near to the month. 

The nrndeia b viewad »■ cnrrvapoiKling to tbo ovacy 
or fannla genaratlfa appacatua, and Uh muleohM aa • 
(Mtueviuilawgaik Ita|«odoetloii(ujbe«flenedby 
fiadoB «r tbaflt divUon of thie body-enhetanoe, 1^ 
gemmathx^ of bwddtim ; or by pniei— »a uitiaffom to 
•nmal gwmitiaB la higher anlroala. A fvoceaa of 
eott/ngaliim haa ben olaerTad to ooenr in aomo fonaa 
(for *'f"«r'* IWoatcMHta), In whkh tranafarenee ef 
tha micfaMitakea place bat w a ea two forma; adaTaly 
raaoteC g*nne inewidlng witUn tha twdiaaof tha 
onofaintug tabuimiaL ^eae g«ma bdng Uhar* 
ated darel^ fado adak lafvoti^ In vthen a pto- 
cam of caryitartBa eecwra; tha aafanaloaUa beeoenitiB 

rlika {aa In &rtganaa and AnoAii), and a tHfV 
of tba nadra or ba4y-eDnlaitt taking placib 
The rapture of tba <iy*-llka paianti g^rea erion I* 
tha litUa particlae or germa thw i t a la a Jn oa^ and 
lh« Utter develop fai torn lato adnU anlmaleulcn, 
Thb pnmoa b wetl leeo tn the alallnd Torttoelhi^ 

Tbeae forma M« cUmMed In thrw adera. In tha 
fttat of thcae^ named CHiala, and which iadndm tha 
great bulk of Infuaoriao forms tha vfbratile ollla 
ai« diipoeed more or baa pboluvlly ont iba ovlar 
laver of tha body. Sane are abo pcvridad with 
jointed brbtlea or atyba, v with Uttie booked pro- 
cauaui termed mncimi. Of thb group tha frav 



■wiiunmigi'a>iam<rrti[in,ar81i|i]icr-Anunal<nile; fiur- 
tarui, AtfuiUra, thtf ■talked Vmiiftlite; EpUtyiit; Utd 
CarcFirtivin; thv Sttntvr, wmvCiiiiM frao, ■omotimv* 
Kttouhciil: uid tniuiy othcn auybe Mt«d uesam- 
ploL II luuit aiito bo motmiberMl tliat tb« Bituubvr 
of knni<i-ii Kpocioa ia very gnat. 1'lia Pinstllata, 
toradng tliu itMond cvdcr, are rlintiiiyijAM by lli« 
ptMBMsion of tiisa^atod luh-Uka appeniiftTOS or jta- 
grita. althdiigfa dlift Diky kiwi tn: ilEviilripi;il Kxun- 
pW of tliifl group are lecn in Prranrmn (with one 
fluyvlluiu). in Anltotttma (w!lU two), mA lo Utter- 
omitttit s.n<t Plrurvjinaa (with both fia^ella and 
cilinl. ThclivitDrtlct,flr.'''ui-^oi-ia,iii(HRtta^Uh«(1Arita 
Eueiutwra pusBuaaiu),' nuli&tirj); tub«a prcivulMl at Uivlr 
fiw onila «riUi HLictorial iHntn, and wUoh r-an tm m> 
tra«Cci) or jinitniilril. Tho oxAct nature of thcM 
BU'Cturial (onna {vf v/bich Acincta in Uio lypu) biui 
Dot tieeri, as yet, tboTOughly ■Ji'tt'rniiiiect S<Mn<i 
obaoneni titiak. tbv Suctoml Iufii#'>riAiii eimply 
repraaent tmudtiundl trtAfea in tbc dcveJujnncnt iif 
outer memben of tiio cImw — HiLok a« FurCirYf/tr. 

fioftiluea miliaf'tM t fig. UI ^ ia pmhnbl j- nil I nliMorian 
«11!>.><I Ui till! FIiiK»llftU. It ia the <9tUM) of tbo dif- 
fuse lumiuoaity or pfaoapluKveceiioa of tbo M*, ud ia 
noticAd in the Aitidcti I^'ocmroA utd I'HoerBOitKB- 
ctmnL 

Tba Dftture of tbu ori^'ln and devdopmcDt of lotn- 
•oria havtt long f<hrtnod Fiibjucts of ostnimB intctot 
to the biologiat. Aaox|iljuiinil in thn utiicUi OrJir-ltn- 

TtOS (SpoMTaKBOU§) HUitiL- auUiiirtUoi ur AhiaffenetijU 

IwUava that themB f^nn* inny b« HiMjDtajicnniil; pT<^> 
dneed bom tba putidot or autttvr of the UTgiud« 
InftadonB In irtaleh they »» found ; or, In other vonla, 
without tb« pro4iiit«iLc« of uHronl organiam^ of 
gurmt, or of eggl. Thia boUof can«tUnt«a the doo- 
tttasotipentaiuotttgentration; nnd recent luppoiten 
«t this theoty iraiild aocm to mnintaia that them 
orfpuuiBB may apptm even in infiutions of inorganic 
matter, which have not in any wny ticon exposed 
ti) till Mr. 'I'hri lliogvncsiiitii or I'nnniiiTmati-fibi, im 
tin; ountnry, buliiive that these Iiifunuriu agipoikr in 
infotiona of anv kind aa the reault of tb« ^hvoIoii- 
nunt of tbdr conna or egei which uo home by the 
■bnotphore in latvc qua^Uea, gain aao«m to infn- 
atono, and Iticrcin Mcome dertiloned into adult ani- 
molciilna. They alao maiutMO Uuit in caaaa when 
air ii p«tf>Ktly eioladod, tbcMigerau may oHfiually 
have been cootainod in the tBRuioo, ud that heat 
docs not Hcatmy the gonni^ tboao befaig of a low 
dcvrev of vit«Jity. The qntatJon [>n«en1a Toy many 
difficult potnta, and very many olabomte eipenmeota 
an itill being cnrriod on by both partisa This mudi 
ia oniain, howeror, that whether or not 'apontaniyniii 
guwtation ' bo actually proved to occur, then can La 
no doubt that in ordinary miiM thoM aninuilcnlm am 
prodaoed frots jtwnut hunio lu thu air, oiua: the exist- 
ence of theso gortni hai been duly eetahllahflcl, and 
LheEr development into Inrii»oria fairly trarcd. 

The mlaaatatoyy of Ilia Proto/ria f(jJTiM a vnry 
[nt«mtuijf aubject. Only the Funtmli^en, Radlo- 
laria, and Spon^da arc rfpr««0DtMl m foaaUl^ theaa 
gronpa alan« ponwumng hard iitru(4ur«« capabU of 
prMervation. Tho Foraciinifora occur tn all llic 
bikliferona rodu tnai the Laurentlaa fonnatlons to 
(he praaont day. Of foaail Foraminifora the moat 
faxnciua ia thu Koiofin Canadrntf, nr ' T)awn of I^ife 
Aiiiuiali-iilri,' wLioL njijiedni to Litve beeu a {^gantto 
ForaminifiT, occurring in roef-liku innwim to the 
Lanr«ntiikn rockixif L'anadA. ''['he XntDmnlitca (whirji 
ace) WFin iiWIaiyceitiuctForaiiiiiiifcrBDf tlit^ Kaiiiu* 
lolc i«riod. Tlw g«nus i\fiiioin 1* also plentifully 
Npraented in a foHil rtate in tbo Eouene limMlonM 
of the I'orii baain. I'be Iiowtir ISiltuiaa (ormationa 
of Ituiaia vi:>ntAin •pcciea of tbe^ genera Sotatia and 
TtJtularia (eoe tig. 24). Fmvliaa ocirnra In the car- 



booiferaua Umeetonea of the Sfflrthora Alp*. Ra«ia 
the Uiutwl St>b«ii, Ac. Ilie chalk or cretaiceaaa nock* 
cf the Moaozoic period, and partlcnlaHy tha whit* 
chalk, well Been In the Bouth-taat of England, !■ larfdy 
omipuaed of Farainlnif'^n>ns mmaitM. Tbo Olofcj- 

?3rinR (fig. 23} of tho oxuiltng aaA-boda, Rolatia, and 
extvians are all ropreeentad In the dialk nda. 
Tho oppargreeiuanda of thecrataoeooi Byvtem contain 
the reouina tii a gigantic Foramintf er, which poaeteeed 
an orenacouna oheU, and wbicb ia nained Pirioari^ 

The BadlolaHa, roproMnbxl by tbo PoljoyatiDa 
(which too), ocoar in Ucaoxoit, but putioolatly la 
Tcrtiuy formationa, as In the ' Infuaorial earth ' of 
Barbadoea The Spongida are donbtfully represented 
u fcinila by horny mingM. Tlo ealntrwotu or lim* 
(tpon^ fint ^)pear in Sunrian raoka, and attain tbn 
uisximnin fat the Meaoauo fiinaationii^ wUlal th«y 
are fow In number in the preonit day. The tOkimu 
or flmty ipongca fint appenr la the MewMofe kAm, 
and were doroloped In greateat (ilcmty In tbo cUk 
aystum. Tbeao latter eitst in oonparaliTe plM>^ in 
tli« prewnit dny. The Infuoria ai« not known toocoor 
in a fuNsjl Rtatc. 

In n. CLXHL-CLXIV., containing fflnatnttona 
of Ute Bub-kingdom ProUiiuo. u int ii tioood abovo, there 
analaaaeretM finmaof Oxltut'Tabc auimala,b(lang- 
fatg to the dan Hydraaoa, to wUch a brief nrfannor 
may in tho prawnt isirtance be mado. Tlf. 1 lepce- 
Mnbi a form <i ocoanlc HydKHGoa, Dijihye* at fwpt, 
h«loQgLiig to the Bydrocoal order, CalycocboridK, In 
thta fdrrn we find a oonplo of lai^ iiiilm aliaiBil Mcto- 
tatjita ur swinuning-lMUi; and an oloogatod i x u wea ar r 
or oommon oanneoting nedlmo, Imtring the littk 

■njnnmU or JloijfpUr*. (Sm POLTPI.) lllM OrOMMC 

fa highly oontncttlo, through the preeenoe ot muacBlar 
filiK*. £aoh of the polypitea b protootod by a dell- 
cat* (lany numbniw known aa (ba AyrfrvfiMiuB 
OT'bmcL' Fig.2MpraHAUtb«Ph]natiaor'PMii- 
^OM man-of-war,' dcacrtbod in tbo article FosTV- 
c.r.y^r. M AN-nr-WA& (whfdi aae). In figa. S, t, and S 
(lifli-n^at vii-vH uf au ot^tanisn belonging to Hat orA^ 
I'hyBophoridw are gi*«h. Thin orgammi ui knom ■• 
tbo Vddla, aud ia nearly alliod to tbo Pbynliib TU 
l>ody ooudata of a Rattened rhonbcldaHpn^aaMtealarr 
or ' floatt' bearing on ItM upper turf aoa an olevaM var> 
tical cTMi, plocou diagonally. A ahigle large polypita 
laaitualedontldafiattoneddleoiand lanamjcciinl 
In porftloti. Bud nfroductive bodlaa tonoed ynutUt- 
&'<& ta^yoffOMOarvt am alto attAchod tberela No 
nocbocalyoea or awimnilng-beUa exiit; and nnn aeton a 
tentaolee ore attached around the tBargina of the dlac 
VtltUa aramgea about 2 incbca in length and 1) inch 
in height. It ia conipnie^l of a transparent atibalanoe, 
culiiunxl blue, and fluaU uo the eiuface of the acL 
biiing driven along by tho wind acting on tbo votlcal 
crcet ■■ on a aaU. 

Fig. B r^roeaata Gunjkut tdaria (magnified), one rf 
tho Uydroid Zoophytea belonging to Ue order Cin- 
pnnulanr1>, tlio marabera nf wbi^ group an aiii^y 
related ut the more (amIlUr SartnWldn er *&a^(ba,* 
The ]>olypltea with their tentadce ate aeen fa tba 
llgiiTi?, and alao one of the ^oanpAom or nprodndive 
IfwUce fa) Ete attadied oondltltML Fig. T i mw wia 
the Hydra or eonunon Freah-water Polype (nM> 
nifictI)~tho oTsanlam which foraM the type of Uu 
nntim clan Bydroxoa. lliiii uiimol, of minnto du, 
inhabit* freeb-water poola and ditehei, and ooaAM 
of a tuhular hody, attached geiMnlly to a^oadt 
plants by one oitranity, and paneadng a meofli 
anrruundcd by twitarlo at the other. The ptotaber- 
ancee eeen on the ddea of the Bgnn mtv toe np^ 
dnctive bodiea. 

Fig. 8 rqgea en ta it/tvffointiUa^ one of tba Oym- 
no^btbahnata or Naked-eyed Mednidd* (wldeb tee) 
or i^y-firfiM. In thia gmm, bekogtng to ll» Hydro- 



i 



I 

I 



I 




I 



BOftl orAtT &[edn«li!i>9 m- Oiwiopborm, tba uMbrtUa or 
awtooiljs if q>fa«Heatl [a dupe, ftD<) tiie t«oUc)M 
a* MTUpd in (oar idubIbaI group*. In fig. > 
J«n(Mi,a«oiniBoogeiiiuof Mediiii(l»,i>r«jiTC«e&ted^ 
aa nBW«d froiB below. Id. fig. 10 Oeryoma^ » geoxia 
of Mcdurida^ !■ depleted; uia form powBeAg ft 
liwiiniTiiiliil nubmlk tad ui olonnliM pediiiMlo 
«l tSTenelj Matotl ih^pc, wilh four U|m, An klltod 
tona (TiaroMu) bnpranntod in &i;- 11. TLi^ (.'untui 
Smrtia, of wbioh & fummifiro b » fMitillu- i(fM>i-i4M, in 
npRMnied ia fiit IS. l%b gmtu wim pu««ww mi 
■unfcraUs of bemispherlca] aluuie, and four hivHiiaI 
UatocW. The ocelli or ejt» alao Dumber four, aad 
tba padanela la of ahnpla oonfonnatum, oyliiiilriai! 
and ■«*— <^* In tlib gecuf, and u KprvwiiU-d in 
the tgan, HednM-Ulw Moldt m» be prodnoed hy 
ft laooMi of ^NHMritott cr bnddiiig mm the mATginikl 
cnnlf^ teotftdei^ or ride* ef the pedondo. 

P&OTKACTOB. Anln>tmmeDtfarlnylardoim 
ftBd HMHoriftc inglee oo p^xir with Mxnaaey and 
cfaif tch, and Dj wnick bb« tuc at tbe linn of cnnnlji 
b VNIMneded. It ia ol varloui furma— aemlolreuUr 
rsctaagular, or drcoW. Th« moat oonvraJont kind 
of prntntctor la pcrha|n thnt in the form, of n cir- 
colar didt of traaaluoait bum. 

Wi^ bora ftt BaniifOD. Jasoarr IS, 1600: diad (Lira 
Jtuauy \9, 1805. H« waa th« aon r>f poor pw«nl^ 
«W WW nnabla to pay for tda e<luc*tIcio, but bjr 
tfaa laAwiiaa ot aoow psraona who bad romarkvd tb« 
bo/a abflitk^ li« waa enabled to attmd gifttulbmalr 
tta odlagft «t hli tutiTe town. Bdon ouapletlnf 
Ui OMUM faa waa obti)^->t to aadt mom ntaftna «f 
mtxiag Ua 1n«ad, ami tin oottirad & ptintai'a oSoe 
ift BaMftjop, where be ultimately beoame a eompeai- 
Itr. Id iU> qnalitjr ba rnadd ^ romu) ci Fniaoa, 
and nne bt Ibo po«t nf r««der. Both aa coniindtw 
aod aft roftdar be toot foD ndvaatace of tba oppar- 
mfdaa ba Had ct Increnaiiif bla kaowMgo, nd 
EkBed by prirate Mdlea tbe finguaitaqr 
tbai eamo hi Ui way in tba ordinacy 
I of Ua oewpatiML In tbii way be mado con* 
' ~ I Uftpditk ftoqnlrcmenla, and hla fintt pobtl- 
~ ) ft pfaiUogieftl Creatiao entitled Bw&i do 
i tf<n<ra la liafi^cd to an edition nf Itai^T'ii 
I pelmltib Jea languea, wUob waa printed in 
liST by ft flm of BiBym, dF wUdi PnoAion. at 
Ibal tlma bad aa«t« aham In the managemeot. In 
1838 be bad cnofeiTEd on him bv the AoaJtmy of 
Tt 1—111.1 1 1 II tbe jKKtiim Stmrd, wbko yielded him an 
Inona of 1500 fnutea for three jtmi% and tbna fur- 
oMbed him with the in»ana of cootinidnf hia aUidirs 
and Uttnaj Ubotua. In ISS9 he pub&hed a Oi»- 
«om tar fat oAAradnn <lu dinutadu^ together wiUi ft 
anr nniaii ol Ui former iiawy. PoUlicftl eeooomy 
aav badBflM Ua cfalaf iCody, ftod In IfiW appeared 
Ui Canoaa work, bitifcift om the title-p^p the qtiee- 
tion: Qo'eHt-ra qua lapcopriAit {A^'bat in pronrtyOt 
to wblcb the Am Mge of tbe tisatuie containa the 
•Bnrar.'C'MllaTol'tlllatbeft). The princlpa] tbeaea 
ttfa ^aJntained br him are that Ulunr Is tb* aole 
fan gnmod ei iMSridnal Doaaewm, aiud that dl 
kbav ought te be rewarded egoally. lUa ftnt 
fciiilliii wna folb>w«t fn 1S41 and 1«43 hy two 
pftopUcIa in Ibe aame atnun. The anund of tkcsn, 
eatluedATertfaMRMotaiuproprletiuro*, waa writU-n 
in ft mote aggnHlve and neftactng leyle thn nay 
ot bfi pferloM pvbUeatlooik Thepnblie proaecftton 
at BtanntCTi deemed It aeiiMftiy to take tbe mftUcr 
np^ and ba wna aomiBoaad to appear befan* Ibein 
■ad aaewer lo Ihi ehM^MofmiMngan attack open 
fnymtj, kuMu is h^red agalnib the ge*«niiB«»t 
nod eennl aadiona o< tbe pe^e, and of conuBdMhiB 
eStesaa afafaHt ralMaa. He naa hinmlf girvti an 
■MMtns and dramftoo aoeosnt ol tbv prvouedlnj^ in 




cnnnection witfa this trial, of tbe horror which Ua 
name and pieatnoe ln*p!n.il unnnK all olnaMft ef tba 
pwplflitlM nopclae excited hy hb InotfoiMlfe araiear- 
nnoe and behavionr whoa ho ctood np to tpotk lor 
himaelf, and the myatificatjon which bo raiiioJ by 
Ida ftbotiuw defeooe In proeecutun, Jndgvi, and tu 

rry, vbamtamsdaTordict in tliiaform: 'ThtsmaD 
In ft i^tMW« of idewi initonnaQliId to the vulvar; we 
eauiiut condeino liiui al nuuliiin ; and who ■rUl 
annwnr for bia c7d]>nblHtv!' Ue wna aoootdlngly 
ftoqoittcd. In 1613 Proudbon trndortook the nuu- 
B([ement of a system of Ctanapotta on tbe RhAne and 
SftAue. But ho aUll coutintted to pnUUi at intent 
raim. In this rory yoar appoand hia btefttlie J>e Ift 
rnfation de I'ordre dans 1 humanity a pTMBaaJ ^t- 
trni of polillcal or;-nuizatiuQ; and in 1816 Us Coo- 
tradircinns A^niuiihiun-t, In wblcb tbe proposals ol 
Utopian rvtormura and tbs doctrlnaa et V-tf^Mi 
poUtloal eoonomlsta are Tlgoronalj comhatad. After 
tb« rtvolotlan oS Pebniary, 1848, be began ths pnb* 
licfttinn of a ionmal at ['aria csJled Le lUpHseutaDt 
<Iu peuple, whkh, bowuvor, was spesdPy igpursasid. 
But he had by this time acqnlred so much popft- 
larity that he waa deded the rvpreoentative ei the 
Selns in tbe oonBtiUMSil sasembly. In ths aannnbly 
ha had llttie snecesi, and be ibemfore showvd aa 
bmA aamfliiity an «var fai tryiiif to make known 
and extend his idc&s thron^h ttio press. Ue pub- 
lUbed aeniral pampbleLa (Le Druit au trarail. Las 
Maltbnsleai^ I>^noiutratioa du aochlieme^ Id^ 
rJvolnlioDDairaB), and started cbreo ioimala in sneec*- 
rfon, Lc Penple, La Votx 4n PeopK and 1^ Piinple 
de 18S<I. lu I849hebe8antoerKaiiiieab»iikuti.>liir 
the name of Baoqae dn People, with thv ul'Jwt of 
alwUdnns iateceat, sscorins: the free drcolation of 
bOh^ aiw nfinnfiiirnflT puttiiu' ftn end to osfiitel. 
This projcd, howsTer, never came to anytldag, for 
the piojoctor, before a» could get Ui airaagementi 
eompleto^ was ftocaaed of some oSecee a^aiBst the 
pnm la«% and eoadenuied to three jaan^ fanpriann- 
ment He retunied the advanosa that had beoi 
made to bhn OD aeooont of tbo bank, and tkan MOgjhl 
to save UmseU by flight, bnt be waa nlttnateljr ua- 
tuT«d and detain^ for the term of his sentenon. fa 
th«fin4 jrmraf bin impriwaimcnt (1849) he manled, 
and In spite of bis hostility to the cbnrdi vndcnrail 
tbe i^ligiam otnaumf on the oceaaloft, and aftet^ 
wards had all his diUdrgn bifrtlaed. Daring the 
ocnmo <if his imprjaonment (which was tight) be pab> 
Ushed vuioos wo^: Conieslons d'nn r^Wolntiaa- 
nalro (181D): AcCea del*R«fahitlDn (184?); Inb>r«t 
et principat (1S49»; Qratidt^ dn crMit (IS&O), tbe 
laat two a reanm^ of discnftdons he had bad whh 
Basdat on the sabjeet of Intereet, be malnlaiainc that 
there on^bt te be no sitch thins; and La BdrMstian 
so<!Ule<K^rsitr«»parleeoftpd'ElaC(18S3)- In 1853 
be waa libented, aad be then entered a^pda Into prl- 
\»U> lif«. Hp oootiiiiMd to be a penllflc writer, aod 
mibtiahod dnriog tbe last years oif bis bfc, Maaod 
da iB«cnUtew h U Bouae (ItUd); De U jnstlee 
dKalftIW<«<atlMLeCdans r^^OSU); t«a«n« 
et la paix (18M); IMorie da TEmpM (IMl): Lai 
majonls Utt^nina (18CS). SsTecal works of Us 
ham also been pabUihed poatbMmwisly , antosig Uwm 
I>n primnpe de I'art (ISW); l>s la ospMiUjpalitiqM 
des daises oavrfoea <1905>; llitoie de la ProfnUtd 
(IMS), n* pobUcfttion at hk oorrHpondenoe was 
benn In 1874. 

PRODT, SAiren, ft Astii^nished painter fai watv 
coloun^ waa bora fa FtnwKitb en iTtb HwHisiiftliw, 
17S3, aad from hia eaiUml dtOdhood aiulhalad ft 
■tecided tiirn for drawing, bnt the noly Isaaoaa he 
ever rec«iiied were a f«w from a diftwlag-msafar tn 
his nativ* town. In ISOl he made tbe aoqoaifttftaee 
of Briltdo, the cclebrstinl arc-hltectarnl ntiqaftiy. 



S2S 



PnOVEN^AL P0KT8. 



u'bo eniuloyMl tUiD Id vlaldng th« rural dictricts of 
UnglawJ xo auk* tla l bebm, wouli woro GnbTavcd Id 
tlw B«MlO« of Sni^ud. Th* favonr with whvch 
IheM d»w!tiHt irere reoelved iodnoeil him inlSofj lu 
take op his ivtidmce tiiIx>iidoQ. In ISIF ha «'iiuU»J 
the CoutinoQt for tbo tint timo, and frp(|UCDUjr tptio 
taiamed thither, tbe reault nf thim <^xnusialu being 
K VMI akva of boMlliful walur-tvuluur Jrawtoga, wbk£ 
bim at Um Im«I i>f thi> licjartmnnt of *rt. 
' OOadjA toon «ip«ciAll>' of tbv uioiiiuiientj vt 
evkl uttbltecttire throughout VTAiica, i:«rniiu)y, 
and Ital?, IViut alao directed his Attantioii to 
litbuj^pby, snd nublinhod Msiter&l ndnitniblB oollcc* 
dutu) uC lit^uK'raV"^ «ketvb«t. He i» Wuiwiao tb* 
antbor of tliati on Li^ht and Shadow sad the 
Young .Stiidt-nt'i Drawing Bttok, booki of iutractiAQ 
ui Art. Sbij/tly alUx tho ■Bcmiioa of Qdmh Vio- 
toria bs wu appoiated 'pftiater ia mMr^ixilDan to 
tb« qtiooD,' Mid ft fcTW yaan oftcvwuda i*o«i7ad & 
ainuJAr ftppotuttuent from Prince Albert. Thrmt^- 
ont life bia bodily ki^Lb waa extn*i[i(*1y deUi»t<!, hut 
ho pcMMHod gretit buov&ucf of epirits, and wu iu 
ercry wny a tafet aminhle and worthy mKO- He 
di«il at ll'AiutK.-r'krall iu Ffbruary, I&62. 

lMi()VKNf;AJj rOBTS WW* romaaHc povto or 
vbivaErr in tho twelfth Mill thirttwnth c«aturin In 
the BouUi af l<>an» Mid in the adjotninr parte {>( 
Spain. Thii Iiuigua^ kuuwu ■■ Pruvun^d waa tiiat 
one of tbo ICiihuukw laaguogi* which wiu Diu-li<wt 
(oimed. Mid wUidi li Icaat rencVMl trum their uoai- 
moa panmt, the Lntin ol th» Tolfar. The doot^ll 
within which Uii« liuignaoft waa apokon cxtAoded 
over the wliale of thu huUi aI Frwoe, an for im tbo 
Loire, and C'atalonla and Valencia iu Spain. It 
WM callc<l the Uittgut dot from iti affiiioativs ik 
(deriTcd friim the lAtia kor), to diatbifrnMh it from 
the I&LUfUii^c i>f Nurtliuru Praiio.- or lanyiu iTuui, and 
it acquired tho oume at I'mvaufal from the district 
(Provencal in which it woa 6ntt cultivated as a lil- 
ovy micdiiim. It waa nJan ■ometinLGs cikUod Ltiu- 
ouriae^ frotn the tvkiou when* it waa upolccu with 
the grwitMt purity. Sontbera Fmnce, already 
rtSaod by colooiM from Grccc«. au'i by ita ridnity 
to the P-™"*"', favoiinid with a tnlldcx chmatc and 
a {rear garanuDent, was, until the ehveoth eeatury, 
ttir ia HTBiioe of the oonh ia drillatioD, and ita 
UapufB wa« diBtin^iUh^til for doMDHi^ tmdmiiB^ 
aweetnM^ wid oopiuunDou. Tba lanicuaiie, the ont- 
ti*atioD ao^iiirvd by the noblw through their Inter- 
oouiK witii the £wt, putiooUrly with the |iovtieal 
Anibs,aa Im^glaatloB ftwakauad, and an uiidi^Tstand- 
ing enlaivod py tnvel »od adventiuv, a ixiuliuiUl- 
nurit, and the wcidtb prodnoed by ooauD«n]« — «U 
utMe cirvuiu>uuc<.-a L<c>uLnbui>.-d tc fatter gtolnt asd 
topodmoopoctiy. The poet aant; (4 war aad advea- 
titrf«, religion luiil lovi^ Mid fciuud ancMiragamczit 
and ap{daiia<.-, particularly frum Ibe ladlet^ wlio w«f« 
ooIubniU^ in his v«n»ee. The Vfrgia Mary waa a 
frcquout mibjoct of their pnuao. Tho Uata for pootiT 
become general unnng thi^ nobin luul rnltivatnl 
daaaea In Fiovenov, and the prinutu, porti^nilartv 
Bayaoad Bereaeviiu ILL (lltid-8l] aad IV. 
0^09 iZ), f^kvnurod tho poetical art. In their 
court, lit that Unio the tanat rofin-ed and n>!endid in 
Europe, tt waa ciutijiuary to cuUeet a drus of nvhitt 
poete, coUod Troubadoura (ZtaUan, tnnvtort), » name 
CMTeapondlni; to th<;i Nrtrman-I'rcneb Tnmiret or 
Trouveura. At tiuiL-a ihu chivalrana feativala of 
ProTMioo WDDi dinturbed by tlie noiae of anua In 
Hma privat« feudu brtwoca powurful Luvna, or 
van tnteOTUpted by the attaoka of the Konnaiu or 
Moon; but the inroada ut Ibcae |dujuleren on tblu 
cout wore neitheir frequaat DOT deatraeU*«i Somo- 
timoa the deaire of adventnrea, or the cry uf war in 
tbnfgs oonntrlea, somnionad the fcnlgbtfl of Pro'veuoe 




to the battlea of the othor Enropean nattooai TUtm, 
for iaatoaoevia tbawaraof Kina Alf onao VL of Cw- 
tile whh tfaa JAoan, nun kn&lita of tha aottth d 
Franca fongbt under tb* UMbMb Cid and aided in 
conqi^ionug Toledo, br which meaoa tbay eaiaa into 
duae connection with AraUaa civflUatinfc The 
Cnuade^ to which tho 2nA trnpolsa «u olteB la 
the aonth of France, at C^ennoct, is \Qltb, aj Fope 
Urhnn VIl^ and wbiidt hwl an deciaiva an indn^B* 
ou thu wbolu of Europe, vrvn alao felt la rroeMce, 
A Binglo war took place upon the ha{9J 4aUl ttf 
Prowenoo, whirb wo* fatal to the proaperity ot thai 
oonnlrj, and to the poBtiy of the Troafcadoniii^ which 
naver recoTored frcna the effactaof IL TfaiawMtfae 
iajqitibnu eniaade a^ainit tba Albigwn^ In tin 
be^nnln^ f4 the Uiirtecnth c«ntaf7, whan the — '~' 
fjunily 'jf thp couDtaot Toulooao wia rained 
wliiolo load fiUad with aoaaaa at cnalty and 
ihed. 

Daring thia whole period conrte^ and gallMilry 
were nowhere ao fully developed ^ in Provenoe; aod 
we DKxl not be ntrpnaod when wa ana tba Enpam 
Frederick BarbaroMa la Garmaav and Kiu KUiBid 
Cknat dc Ui>n la Bn^nad fevMaa; Ihd Fkovencal 
knighta to tboir oonria (» raoaleo HMtrocttm bia 
them In the iia^taa and oeraotoaica ot cUvalij. Pro- 
veniw waa the aative land of tho oomta ot lore; nd 
butadca tho inferior courta of thia load, oa aaamaa 
OM tho cartlca of ^le vleootuita ai»d baroaa, tbar* 
w«M tour atatlonaty ootuta of lora at fletnCn, ai 
Baaugqy, at Aii, and at AvigoatL Tli* rml eeait 
in ProTonoo, at Arlca, waa fr^ Uia tiiDea «t Boao L 
(S79>, fur almoat two ocrnturio^ the tbektra of the 
fineet diivolry. tho oontto of a imnaatio life. 1!^ 
noacDibly of kni^ta and Troahadonrs, of Joa^ean 
{mmi^iana wbo ocoompaniod the IVoubadoon), with 
tliL'ir Mooriab atorytoUua and bnBaana, of lafiM 
octini; as ju^ra* or pailiea In i ia tt ew a( oooiteiy, 
cihibita a ^'littarlag picture of a mltihfn^ nof^ lui 
luniHotw life. Ine knight of IVivanaa ila<<4ai) 
hiiDH^If to the aerrioe of bi» lady-love ia tnia poalM 
eamuet, and mode the danoa aad the apat of the 
tUt-yard tho great buinaa of hit life. Each barm, 
a •oTerewn in hb own tar ri t o r y , inritml Um nelgb- 
bourlag nd|[fata to hla outla to take part la tooin^ 
laaota aad to oostond In aonp . at a time wtkoa tba 
knifhta of titrmanT and Nnrthcrn Franco vara 
ebaJloDk'ing each otlicr to deadly combat. Tfcan 
nui^t be eeen tba joyous oompulaa of laAas mhI 
knTriitB aader fraj^iant olirn grovo^ apoo tha aam- 
cllod mttBiiowA, Kportint; from one holiday to aaothw; 
(hiTV tlif' ^.klbuit ktiii'ht- limke hia lanco on the 
Mhivld of hi* maid; antagoniat; there tba priaoiB 
sat in the oirde cf Isdiea. listei^Bg atrioasly to tba 
HoagB of the kni^ts octttondtav la rfaynea napaflt* 
ing tbo laws of lovo, uid at the doao of the ocnleel 
prononncing her aentunoe (orWH ifaaioMr^ noa 
the Ufo of tbo Piovenfals wua lyrical fai tbo U^ast 
dttfroe; and If it degaasratod in later ttntea to Tdap- 
tnoTuneM and limntioii*n(i« thia wim owfofr to tbi 
w-oiit uf a rtruni; iccirstr principle. Their pootiy wa 
neotdearlly lyrical, the uxprcodon of thair feaUiga 
and pOMiODA Even do«u and foila arero tmftr- 
■catmi merely tbroiigh the medium and in tha fotv of 
feelings. StKil a poetry oould never be mors Ibna a 
cautniMl Improvisatory •ffoaios. It was aeeasaatlly 
anperlidal: ttootdd bcof Tain* only with the aooaoa- 
paniment of ntuaie, and waa not anited to ba pa- 
KTved in writing. With the Troahadour hiiMrlf 
hiaaoa^Uv-odauddivd. With ro^raid to tbyaa ^id k> 
the modem melrvM tho PrOTon^lii claim not oalyiba 
merit of liaviuif tint uuule uae of them, bat alao of 
having fiicd tbo ftirm whioh rhyme aad ma^ 
BBftuned ia tbo roaiaatic poetry. Ia tbair ifemwd 
metre tbej Iutb soldom gone beyood Um lUDfls 



I 



I 



I 
I 



d 



rROVEN(;AL POETS— rKOVBNOB. 



329 



iMiibfc^ which tbejr cxclunfiMl, auMly in Uhqm fwt 
of Uw «•(«• upon whkb Hum ia an atrMn, tor lh« 
tl B clw ^ pyrrUohlai^ ud »posdH; m> that if their 
^■■a (viaaJly ol ten tyUkblM) only liad the omuta 
mmI tb* fi&ftl <y tUbI« ai^ dently *cc«nt<Ml, th67 cand 
Quia about tba mcaaura of tbo othr.r Hyllnblaa, But 
dtOT wan ratj fond of «MnpUcM»d thiroMt. W« 
■ad In tbiir Mwui ut oaljth* bum diyiM n- 
futad tbron^ « ku Mriaa of vwaoa, «r the aaiott 
ibf DMd word ratonujig at thv md of arary other 
awM^ Vit ■aiioaaly iBtwtwiDed i]iym«a, la tanlnu 
Hid othv mo^tt, dutinctly poiot ont tiie pAttorn at 
Patnraft'i omooc ami wtnncta. An » apccimeo of 
Uw PtoTCogal Bauafkca idiunL mkI of ttwib- matrea, 
w*Bl»*tlMl«UowlcttaUiun«»«lrv«iit«of Wmiua 
de Sb GRfocT, wiUi (to tnnslation, taken fn»a 
Bcaeoe'a traiuution ai Si«iiiDnili:— . 

'B* ■ flMj Id ilaoi cnop da ptixn 

B plaf nd qauil aim l« tauil»r 
Drii aoMfa qoa fkD mmtli 

LoralMn par lo bcantfa 
S (U Ml 4uaa la^ aaa aUpfato 
ItedM • pavalb* Iknaate: 

■ pkl m'«a Boa eonici 
Qmh *«]r r« canpanliw nofata 
QlTaltMn ak M*ala anualx ' 

Tha hMalihU qvias •MlKhH flU ««1I, 
Wkai ftoiBM* and Uana an ■mwing; 

Aad H plMiw taj haul to batr ihamU . 
Of tba blrda' itiact ohanu flDwUi( 

la Uba •Gfcattif aDpil ; 
Aad I toi*« Id laa, all Madtatad afoanil, 
hvlUaaa and tenU on tba martial (ruuuil ; 

Aad ar vUt Itad* M tMd 
Tb ai^ OB tW laral ptilM barakdt 
ear halcUa KDl BUadCMvarfaMad. 

Wliat we hftw Mt oi the [)oetrr ul the Tnmladcrtin an 
H^l of caPtmtloo {tenttma oTjoa partia), in which 
aaaa dlnwtod poi&t nnuUj t«laUni( tn luvn waa dia- 
Oiaad ia altaraaba atn^ibaa by diSamit niliLBtrvU; 
■rtfaw»; n i wti »laodctbera w ioaMa uim iqnpolilicri«id 
nUflooa iDbjecti (lineMlu — lo «dl«d am betn^ aeoi' 
pMM to th* Mfvioe of a nMt«r); and muueniun 
iOMdl ann^ {tlkamaa»), war aan^ annti;* nf paaliiral 
Hkand low \toiJa*,lait,p<utourMu),taoniiiigtoagt 
mmI aansadaa (01160^4 and $trtnada), rUroavtftM, 
aod r«t*iM(M. the iMtor dkUngniahed by artifidal 
bnidwia. Uw po«try of the Tronfaadotui^ aa in the 
aoone of tirae it became mece oonunoQ, waa desnuleil, 
art imfreqitcatly, to men ballad einriiif, and waa 
■lyaaed to aiuoh mookcar, of whl^ tho noblnr 
•iBf[an often faitlerty caniplain. Tlw Mo'^-njihita of 
tba TtDdbadouni fumich u« with a gf^Uir variety 
vl aiaiter than their poetry, which, thnFUj^ all ita 

Cda, tnma oontiBuimy upon the eaiiM mbjeala. 
worluof NiMtradamnBiBdCnacnnb«giiarew«II 
eraethy of hdng rad, and iritb thaoj tba ceitkal 
wtnela eC Ulllat, tma the oullediaB e< Sk Pklayft. 
I tl Iha moat lemaricafale IWibadoon «e»B the 
in the vao of the mykl and trriMaly 
I VniUaiD IX., count of Poituv aud l>i)hieol 
AtpSMae, equally famoua at a poet and a vairior 
(ban 1071). He waa fi.UawcaJ bythc fortdjaprinoca 
■■d laedi^ who j^adty aaw the exotio plant of gallant 
Mtrjr tnaaplantad to tbelr oonria— the Empemr 
Fndanek Baibiuaai^ Rofftr of Nnlee, Riehafd 
Oonr da Xiao, with Uilanooi mtnatfol Blonikl. who 
I alao FiDvenfal veraca, aod wlt<\ aocunlm;; 
lo tradition, diaoovered tlia priann o( hia kii^ by 
I ef hia barp; the kinj^ Al/uciao and Peter ft 
Am^oa, aad a rait munber ofpriaeeB and eounta 
Id Bpaaa, IiVMkix^ and Italy. Tba moat raaowned 
nl l£e iwt of mom than SiOO TWibadonn wboae 
Bamee and poema ha*e been preatrved. are Seedallo 



of M&Qtua, oelebnled for Ua chlrahmw «x|ilollaand 
the pninca nf Dante; I'oira Cardinal, dieluiftiialied 
for hU relicioua and noral airveutea, and aLw aathn 
of tho oofy PrtfTMical fable; GdUem Ffgnlenu, 
(Mmpoaer of a airv^nCc full of fiery dtK^Iamation 
againit thn lUimUh ace; Amaut Dontel, the moat 
famouol theanthonof Benaoaea^ and the fanradaeer 
of til* meagnre eallod tba aaxtiiie (becrowwd fran the 
Italian); Pona do Cuidoil^ Peire Vidal, Oaaeebn 
Faidit, and other actuoia of cruaadiof aoogi; Pey> 
tola, the happy aa weD as anfortiuiate eerraot of the 
■iaterof the IJauphin of AQvorgno, wife of the Bam 
of Mcrctcnr; Ilcrtrand de Itnm, wh» ta connected 
with tho romantic advoaturaa of Richard Cwor da 
Lion: Aniald de UaravlgUa, who waa dovotod to 
tho noble lady Da Beraoia, an eminent TVoubadmtt 
and valiant knight, wboae motto waa * A Dien mon 
Ante, lua vie au ml, mon eanjr anx dameii^ rbonnavr 
pour mol*— See Sisuioodi, Do la llttdralnw du mldi do 
I'Eumpc: Dies, Die I'oeaio dcrTrnnhadocni (Zwkkan, 
18^7)1 and Lebennnd Wcrkc derTranbadDun (ie'J9); 
GalvaJai'e Qea w l atlu ml aoUa nueaia d«' TroTadcvl 
CModanm US9), and Fiore di etoria letteraiia e 
ObnUemae* ddhLoociUnia (MUaa, lS4iI); tib Bem- 
mel, De la tancue et d« La po^iaie prorenfalea (Brw- 
aela, 18U); Hit< y FonlaaiLU, Do loe I'toradorea on 
Eapofia (Baraelaoa, 1801). Them la, aa yet, ao ool- 
locAive editloa of tita woiks of the ProTen9al poeli; 
hot asMag the aaloctlww may bo uiLtiti'ined Baynou 
ard CktAx da« pn>fa3o>t nriginnlni dn IVixiIiadaan 
(Paria, iix Tola. Uli!-Slt; Malm, Die Wirrke der 
Tioubadonra (Berlin. ISffi); and Uodlchte dar Tnn- 
badoun <Bedin, ISAO fg.): Briuclunder, Blumanlaae 
•III dini Wnricen dar Troubadoora (Halle, 1849). 

PROVENCE, ooe of tbo dd utovinoea cl Vnac% 
tyin^ In the KMtb-eaBteni part a the eottatry, on the 
M<xlil«nmD«an, bonaded on tbo north by Daiiphintf 
aad VanaMa, m flw aart by FMmoot, and on the 
weat by Ijtnfikadna. TIm eapKal waa AJi, aod the 
jvoTiDoe waa dirided Into XJpi«r and Lowrr Pro- 
Tenm. The departmente of tba Montha of tba 
Rhune, tho Lqwot Alpe, and ttw Var, with a part of 
thai of Vaucluae, have been fonned from It Greek 
M'lonHa were founded ben at an eariy period (eee 
M A Mwatjw) ;" aad the Rotnana bavins oooquered all 
the Boutb-eart of Gaol <a.c lX4-i:m gave It tba 
name of Prmncw GMa, or daptj Pnrimcim (tlio 
proTtncc), whenoe tti later name waa derirad. Even 
afl«T tbo teat J Gaul had been Ecdooed by Onear lo 
the CMudition of a R'unaa provlnoe, Ifae name of Pro- 
vinda itlll remained in eoamon vat aa a dmifnallaB 
■if that poirtion of Gaul, whicli. in the dIvWoB of that 
pcut of the empire made under Augaatm^ waa oiled 
Gallia Narbooeisla. Ia the fint baU of the lUlb 
eentaiT the VidgMha obtained paaaeanon ot a larg* 
part of Gaa) on the won of the lUua^ and the Bar- 
gondtaoaof tiieportii«un tbeeaatdidoof IfaoBbcM^ 
Rom tbo Lain of Geeie** to the I>anuMWL n* 
Boaao tmttoty fai tUe quarter, and with it Iba 
nama of Pnviaida, were ttnuinatrictcd to tba diatriot 
lying betereen tho DonuMo, the Alpi^ and tba Had" 
leii a mau . AbeqUTOeventhiarwpnaatwaaeiiatfbaJ 
fram the Bomaaa by the TUgotb^ who noatnad to 
piMMaiow of it till early to the foUowiatf oantonr, 
when tbn w«9« oUi^ad to raaign It to Tleedoaie, 
kfaff ol m OetroBotlM^ to ratnni for tba aariitanca 
bo bad Rodand Umid againal Cknli, Ung of the 
Kriinka. 1,em than thirty yenia after (abont 63*) 
the Oitnvutba were in their turn eonqnccod by the 
Kranka, and ttM ProWnola or IVovaoco tncnqmrated 
with tbo tl-*«*num,m of (ho Utter. In the pwHtfona 
which took place onder the acna of Leoli tbo Debon- 
nalre Proeeaee ieO fint to Lotiiain^ and oeit to 
Cliariea the Bald. On tbe dntb of I>mia tba .Scam* 
{t19) it beoame a part ol tbe RorgniMliaa 



'■'■f*—' c< AdM. Tka oooati of Aria, hiwv*cr, 
wte hiU tlw gi m tw part of Tnttt&at, ud irefe 
faaiM abe aUed ootaOm of PRrrence, avra Mily 
■B{hUT dapMtcUBt on tk» BatguidiMi Ung*. Tbe 
nm« hoe M til* ootmtB c< P roTBUca bMsme estfDCt 
with Bcitmid ILia I09S. For Mone time tfter hu 
dnUk <lO»a-llOO> Um lud w» gortraMl bj B«r- 
tupf » owtbir, BtitrjB«tNw —J for » f«w j^»ii lo^v 
(llOQ-lS)b7faiiibtvGarbcfse^ In 1112 tba tcni- 
torr «M Mipdnd fcy B«7B0ad Bwwig w taB, oauBt 
of BMioaba^ br iD«nug« with Doaoe, dangbkr of 
O w b f ga. Pliny hM reign p«tof Ptotww (wfaidi 
imr inaladed raanrbat man than tbe dbtrfet 
Indond bjr Um DanoMk ttw BboM^ the MA, «ad tlM 
Alfa) «M ctalBfld bgr tt» Coo* cf TbolooMMtbe 
Infaaribnm <tf Ua gauimolbK, daofbtitr of ona <tf 
tba jnnioaa oauta a< Proraoeo; and la 1125 a 
tntatj'ma wcliidotl bstwaoa tba two oounti^ ua»d' 
ing to wUdi tbe Ooant of TaalmiM r ee el Ta d Um 
RMuUflB of Vo1«iir, Ois, Onnn, aad "VwfhaJn; aai] 
tba C«uit oC Banabu noorad Pronmee prapar 
(wUob tben. and tiU 1365, Indaded Nk») and tba 
ODBii^ of ForoUiinver, tbat it, tbe dntriot Iminedi* 
sttljtotbeiKirtbud w«ataf tbaDnmni In 11M 
RaTBtood Bcnogarioi n,. gntiiidBonof tba fiivt «f tbat 
nama, died wJtheut male bane, and the pcaaeMkB ef 
Frorenoe wm anttertod by tbe Count of Toalouae 
and Alfooao IL ol AmgtM, who bolongad to aaptbor 
bfiAcfa ct the vnmU of Boraeloaa duu that which 
bad hkherto rnled Provence. Ibe Kln^ of Amgon 
waa aooceMf ul, and gave liia nawl; ao|uin-'i icrrilorr 
to bii bratbrr R«]nDaitd B«ra^sriiu III., who 
ratalsed tt till hia death In 1181. Prvvcooe then 
paaaad to Saochd^ aaotbar bmtber <i Alfonse, and In 
118S to > win of AlfunM of tbe aame nioDa, iibo, on 
Ilia fatbcr'a death in 1 1B6^ aaninied tbe titJe of Al- 
(vnav IL Alfooso IL «» auccveded la 1300 hy 
KannoDd Banogarina IV., with whom in 134E tba 
male lime of tba bonaa of tjiarclriiin, <ini1«r whnae 
IMtrooago Frovcoftd poctrjbad attuned ita trcatcat 
perfection, died ouL Beatnoe, tbe daugrfauir of Itay- 
mond, inberited Proreaoa on her falht.'rii di'atb. and 
an her muriaga in the {Mginnin^ nt tli« foltnwing 
rear to Charlea of Anjini, Irotlier vf Um Fivnob laaa 
Ijouit IX., and af terwarda Kinff of Sldljr, tbs land 
paaaed to Out bonse, with which it ranained tall 
Juanua L at Naploi in 1382 appinntod Ijouia of 
Anjon, hrcrtbar of Iba Frenvh idon Charlea V., her 
h«ir. Tlw cuunta who followed Louis of Asjoa won 
I,attia II. (13B1-III7J, Ixniio 111.(1417-31), Ren4( 
tbe Oool, duke of Lorraine (1431-80), and Charlea 
III., ocmnt uf Maine (1480-8L). hy the Inrt oonnt 
the t«in tor)' waa bequeathed to Loni» X I. i>f Franco, 
hy whom it ww unitod ta tba Fkeneh ctowtl 

PUOVKKIIS art; the flower of pnpiitar wit and 
the trcaaurea of popular wi*dnm ; tbsy uivo tbo 
reanlt of experience In a form mada impremfve hy 
riijmi^ alUtoration, panJklixm, a pointed turn, or 
a eompariaon drawn fimii thi' tnrnt oritinnry f>nnr-ji 
and ooc nr renoea uf liln, wliicb, l>y llir force of aoBoi.-ia- 
tioD, inakea tbetr ofleet rtran; and pennaniml Pro- 
vorhit may be uui^nmiii^, lively, gravo, or even 
Buhlmm; their goneral charaoter ia natvtU, Tbe 
baMt of uivEi at tlte preaent day to eommonlcate ao 
iuu«b with each other hy VTiting. which, cxdtiiip 
tlv fcFlin^ lew thnn oonvciaatton, IrivlJi to a Icffi 
iuiiiiLit<:d iumIu of «i[ir(.-auim, anil tha diipuntlun to 
avoid what i* common, tijiringliig from tlie pride of 
lutellMrtual cullivoliuu incidunt to an advaacvd itago 
of aodety, attd varlons caiuet connected with thi? 
pngreai of driliisatian, make prova-ba t-very d:t^ 
more nnfaahlonahlb wHh the mrat dvilbvd Kuropeaa 
nation*, partloulorly In thla vouutr^, whore tbo nae 
of a proTerb (except it bo ana of a foreign nation) la 
eonald«red almoat vnlgar; and the aune oontoinpt f«r 



flppoaedto ■ 

nd'ao^^H 

aia-epebSH 



tbaae fmfa «( tba ariiaiaa hM ^nad to 

Aaothar f«aaa« for piai wb a gttig ant U fttktaa 
cnaj bc^ that Ifae better a uiw ' i 't ali ie tbe bmxv laile 
it be c onw; and what fa tnba fa ralgar, and wbaa fa 
ralgir ii iaakgiBt. Tfaoa a polilie apaakar oeoU 
not nae the fnmeb, ' 'IViit cap and lip la maajr a 
d^' at kMt sot wftbont mamm apdcvjr foe lla ttifa- 
naai^ aliboqgb tba ney tritaaaat in iUa, aa iaaa* 
otbn (aaas (lacli m ofloa qaottd 'rmia), asDm 
marit; and even this bofM^ KOfHfc toAcnatmUf 
baa cJtan led to car* and tbe^fhtfalnaM Fftmite 
cAon aavo Uav i*Trl*^ttitiia Inr praaHititiiF a abrfldnff 
image; aad manj a ledvn baa ptobaU<r t>«en aopw 
aedcd by tba TtmA adages 'Om ipooafal ol ban; 
attraeto aue* Uaa than abaadrai biarelaoff viaagar.' 
So tbar may b« oAn need wahoOeot to pofal Of 
ooBwlmion at a diaeonnea A period ob tba ""T'r* 
of mea wbo atrire heycad tboir e^Mdtj, nUAM he 
well doaed by tha Arabian aajing wmch Bi»^ 
baidt mentlona, ' If God p ury eaee t£e deatrwctfoii et 
as iBt be givea bar «iiis>t' asd As •nalty d bnaaa 
raoohttiooa oonid hacdljr ba ael in » iferaagw Hgbt 
than hrtbie Portugneae proT w b, 'Hell fa paved with 
good ntoatlwa '—a proirrb wbidi, antQ It baa 
beoone bnfUar, ta awfolly imprarir*. Xt raqnina 
aldll to apply jvoverb* ak^aaUy and jadieioaily fa 
ooinmoa lite. Aa to tbe geoisal worth ctf p awei ti^ 
we wmdd aav with one of their mtmbar, Vm* 
vox Dti. Yet tbaea are maB^ dii«etly 
otiter% and thej moat ahrayi be raeetved raak 
talis; tbey are geneial viewa tt tbiaga, and ' 
without an exceptloo.* Frowfaa are plain 
In tbdr virw, aa ia tiia eya of Um law, aO aro'eqvt. 
llwy take OMtdxanoe of tba Ttrtaei^ aad vloea, aad 
foUioa of aD claaae^ witboat reapect of pcnooa Hm^ 
piem the object tA whkli thay aim, ud tUa in fact 
glree them ctureacy, and nakee tbam what tbey 
an. Botleaa epeaka of happy axpnarion^ 

'Qiii. |iar la ptmspt cflM d*UB h1 i^iiili— I. 
licTionaNiit qoolqna io(* taombai aa n«l— al.* 

Sndi a phraae ia Ifapoleoa'a, 'Tbara fa bat oat itap 
from tho autsttme to the ridicalolll^* wfaicb tnav he 
atmoat aald to have beooOM a p roverb^ aa la tbe eaae 
with many oUrar aiiifJona atcwie out la ttfff 

awDactai or uoaoadiog fruin ^ w mpi w hoca paneaL 
The proverb la noarly related to ibo moUok ayiD- 
hoi, device, aenUincv, arologno, fabl^ Ac; aad 
tho limit cannot alwaya be eanly drswn. Bmfc* 
hardt fflraa na the fiJlowing aa Arabia prarerba: 
Tbe w^f waa aaked, 'For what art thou taUoving 
tboae poor little abeepf He repUodL ' The doat opeo 
which they Uvad la good for my poor little efca.' 
And thla: ons man aald to uotber, 'Oalave, I nan 
bought thee^' 'That i* thy btiainoaa,' rm^ied he. 
' But wilt thoa mn awayf 'That i* my liiirfiiei.' 
replied he. Theao having at ou» a narmtii-e timr- 
actor, and a oondaa potated ea pri mioo, partaka «( 
the nature of tbo apologoo and the pravabi. Oer- 
tun lalUea of pupblar hnmoor, ludlcnraa pennoifi^ 
tiodj, ftc, whiob are frequently repeated, are aome- 
timoe called proverbai as, ' What a duat wa kick np, 
am tbe tly Kud to the oart-wbod.' Provarfaa ben^ 
tilt- ■.•IlKjiriii;; of popular feeling and axpeffeDoe oftw 
aervsb of counw, to kcvp alire the raodOaolicti of 
peooUar viovm u>d cu.itiTni.4, and a ecUocttoo of tbe 
aayinga of diflereDt natiuna wuidd fonn aa exceed' 
lagly oaefal aad iaberaetinff work. Unrrkbardt col- 
loctad at Cairo a onmbcr m Arabic prwvrbo, wbiob 
have beon puhliabed In a qnarto TolnDW, nnd«r iha 
titio AiaMc Prararba, <x tbe Maanera and Coatoai 
of the Modom Rgypttana (T^mdon, 1830). TIm pn> 
rerfaa of Meldai^ a fainoua Per^n aotbor, were 
traoilatod from the Arabic by Edward Foooc^ bet 
the tcmnalatioD remained in maniucript in tlie Bod- 



I 



PROVERBS— PRO VTTHtNCE, 



331 



I 



hUB Ubnry at OxfunI till IT73, wfat-n *uid« fms- 
BMali w«n pnblblwd hy Albeit ftehultcnik M Lou- 
don, nsdor Um tit)* SpedniMi praratbomm MaUuU, 
•X ranoooa PoeokuoK. Tlie ooUectlona of Bnf[li>li 
■sd Scobih provvrtw an numerciu: we may in«r«ly 
mdfT BkTA AUab Rutuay'a, uid Hondcnon'e. 
A oaflertloB of Wekh preverta was pnliUihtd by 
me XiebelM HyD Id the rixtecoiLli tviitury. A cwm- 
pnluwdra polyglot mDmUoo ot provwrha by Wsnrfar, 
htfm to be pnblUied at Ldpdg in 18S3. S«« 
Ttndt'a P»ow b e and tlulr Lenons. 

FBOVBRltH, ODo of the auonical booka of Um 
0(d l^ataiD«nt. It ilorim iU Hvbrvtr iMni«^ aa 
with Ibe J«wi>h wriKn, fr<^m lU Ant word 
tho plural of flUhJW, vhich litcriklly ngnifiM 
bat b appIiiM alikd t^ a ilnrk [trnphrtir 
vttanmoe^ • panble, iliiiI b {jruvcrli. 'nm iMiiiiii<-ti 
titl* tt IM book taoaz the andtmt CbrutUn fathen 
WM U jDoaatYtot lofJiia, 'tbo aU-virtnoiM wiMicna' 
ne bocji U oaaallj m tbs main aacribed to Salomtm, 
tit aocnrdanm with the Bupent»tptiIoaa In chap. L I ; 
X. 1; 1ST, 1, which, if not writtwk by Solomon him- 
•elf ia« thefint twnof them may have betn>, at leaM 
nrjircwal thi? tra>Iitioual viewa of die Mident Jewlah 
chtin^li. (.'tun. XII. atui nral. an by the aaaM 
MBtbority Monbed to Atpir and King Lenmel, bat 
BO {■Cormatloo la given rektlre to the dat« of these 
pormm*, or ■• to who they were. Sui-h is the tradi- 
tLaal Jewinh beiief, biit niodcrn crittcMin h>« fm- 
qoentiy eome to a differetit cuuiduiion. AccoitliuK 
to many modem Biblical crttica the boolc of ProTcrtM 
ebould Dd broken np into eevcral [oirtinna, written by 
dUemit aotbarn, Mid at diffFrant timea, and IwaUy 
oaUectad Into • abigle book at tDiue period tubaequeut 
10 ibe irtuiu from the cantirity. All aecm to be 
ai^ned that mum part cl Uu: book i« to he aacribol 
to SoloCDMi, but there I* graat dlnrally <>f Kpliilun mm 
to bow hife fata dan ta. Boiih ittrlbutt; In him the 
g wate r portion of the prevM4e oootalned iu dup. x.- 
xifi. 16^ and a conndcrabtc nnmlvr of thoeo In chapi 
UT^niz. And of thoae attributed to Soloooa the 
tum» y dillanntiv given. S«me are tboojglit to 
bftn been oc^ioed from wntteo docomoDta^ otbcn 
toadilioaa ol the wlae Uns'a aayinge current 
[ tb* pa<wlei "nam, ebap. t-tx. are werj eom- 
. Mpfraeea br the acfaool nfmrad to not to hAvo 
heaa wiMeD by Selomoo. Bnt thnee who am* in 
tUa fatal differ widdy from onti another on eolfailieral 
ocuatiiKU. While Kichhoro and Ewald maintain 
Unt it la iIm) eompudition uf a nnslo writer, aooord- 
Ing to Bertheau aevciral auth'm bail a hand in it. 
Davidaia thiaka that Iu lli<< uutiu it i> the jmnluct 
vl ana mind, bat that th«i« ai* aevoial portions lntn>> 
daead fram other •oureet, as ebj^^ vL 1-lft; ix. 7-10. 
aikd( mafataiw tUa to tw the oldeA pwt of Pro- 
rerb^ while DarktaoD aeee in it evident marks of a 
data later than tiia aeotioa eitan<£n|[ from Aa;p. x.~ 
xmH. K, and Ewald plaoea It at a dme mnch later 
than that MCilbed to H tnr I>aTtdBaa. With reaped 
t« the main collection of proverta lonnd in enaph 
■.-xztt 10, wUle there li a gnater dtaporiUm to 
coalorTD to the ancleot IndhloB of tbefr anHionhip, 
there la alao a wide departure from it Davidean, 
wfaOe be Bttrftmtee the graaler number of the Myingi 
to Solonn^ nrfaie eome of thnn to oral and othcti 
to wrfttan aoorces: and bo thinki that the oompOor 
cnllaet fa ii mlaed with Boknon'a tha ptovcrha 
> pooplML and aome alao of Ua own. Hitdf , 
; maintaiDa that they bear enridenoe of haeliu 
baeBlbeoompoailiimof aebgie writer; while BcrthoW 
wfttM that ik&j auMt have imoeeded bvm Tarlona 
aoocoi^ aad tluZl maiqr of them Goot^n {nLemal evid* 
enoa that IbeyMw not SolotDon*B. WiUi Teaattl to the 
other two ooBtrnntoTS to Provetba named n tba book 
itHll, A^r and Lemnet, nothing wbatanr ta kaowB; 



Ilhbi 



and In the cMe of I^miiel It in «*(m mtiiriMrtnil Uul 
tbo name l» not that uf a real puiKwaj;*, but merely 
a evmboUoal name for SoJooioB, for It ta thought 
unlutely that the Jews would expremly boiTow any 
of Uieir pr*>vnrhi from a furoi^ kiutob, whidi most 
have been tho caw if the pruvut text ta ntalned, 
deMrihtDg l-rcninel aa n Ung, and the pctaoo ao 
named ia takr-n u a rral poion diftennt fmm my 
of the JewUi kings. Ilie ceoionioiiy of thu tnok of 
Prorerba to i^neHOted ai a nibjeot of dlepnle Id tba 
Tateind. acme haring objaetad to reedre the book a« 
canonical on acconnt of the eontr^iotionB U con- 
talna. It nltbuntely found ica place, bowerer, In all 
the Jewish lists of the sacred writinijni, and its claim 
to n place there ta held to bo ooafirnLvd by the (re- 
qnenrnr with which it ta quoted and referred to in the 
N'rw Tfelaiiient. It ta a«l|pwd by tb» Jews to the 
third division of tbo Old T«M«8i*nt,by then termed 
Ketbnbtm, or, in tin Unguage of Jerome and tba 
early Chrbrtiniui, Haf,-iagrapba or Sacred Writingi^ 
and ooraplie a different position in the different Itsla 
of thoae wridogv. 

PROV1DENCR. a dty and port of tha United 
St&bjti, in Rb<Ml« laiaiid.of 'whloh » to Ihe htglA place, 
on bnth idd«a of the I'roridence or Seekonlc, hare 
uii im iJ by two bri^ETca. at the heail of N'arracaxwt 
Bay, 411 miles s.&w. of Boaton, with which and with 
New York city It is connected by lailiray. It k one 
of tbo capital* ot Rlioda Islaiifi, Kowport bejiu[ tlie 
oilivr. It oontoina » great number of iiiM btdldinn 
particularly la the eaaCem dliialoD; but ta eo tM 
whole iirognlarly and indifferently boilt, eoosicttng 
fur tha meet pert of wooden hoHsee. One of the 
bualeet, and at the lame tfaue meet attractive parte 
of the town, ia at the common tenninns of tbo rail- 
way -iitntinnK, th« iinililinpi >tf whirb. ti'it excelled by 
aiiv la tbe ITnited States, are ranged alunf,' three 
eiifes of a beantifnl dieet of vaber of an elllpiic t riu, 
abont 1 mile In dxcnit. commnnJBaling with the bay, 
and baring Ha banks laid out ao as to form an eonal- 
kntpromenadeb TTie eednriaetleel edlBcee aie nunwf 
voMf and tKPie of them handMUm. Other bitildl&ffi 
and obieota deaerrlng of notiea) Me ti>e Stale Hooae^ 
built ci brick ; Dexter Aajtlnm for the poor, * plain 
ai)'] Hubttautlsl brick bullilluc, sititatnl within an in- 
doeure of 40 acrot: Brown Univenity; Butler Boe- 
pital for the inNane, a splendid and rkUy-endownd 
eetablisbincmt : the Athenvrutt; tha IlViands' Yearly 
Mectine Hoarding -echool, pc^mlarlT known aa the 
ijuakor <'otkigv ; a fine range of buDdJuga ddeSy 
occDpied with public offlees, and harfaig a naaoaic 
ball In tbe n[i|«r alory; the arcade, inteoded only 
for retail tnde,u one ^ the neat bea^ttlftd bnildiags 
In the eountrr. and hM iM bent eraaBmnted wlib 
nuyilve granUe eoliinB% each of a atngta block 23 
feet high ; the stnte priaon ; and a now and de^-ant 
theatitk C«uunnnication with tbe Tariuiw (|iiartcn 
of Ihe elty and with the li^bboarhig towoe ta kept 
Bp hf tnniray am. Uamtfactuiw hsee nam 
greet progresa, and employ not only the larce MKNUt 
of water-power (uvtaLed by the Pawbediet 1^% 
hat anmetm Mcain-tagiDea. Tbe prindpal pnbUa 
works are floor and aaw mllli. mills for aawtng 
and noluhing marble : ootton and wodlen factortm^ 
founortaa, staun-enffhM and boiler f actorifi^ mediina- 
sbapa; prinUug, b ba dib g . ealsoderlug, and dye- 
worka, <& Other artlcka BiaBufaetarad ar* jewefry, 
moakeli^ oaaBcn, asd oaBBoa-faalla. leather, fnralturf^ 
■erttagea, aerewi^ naib^ indi^mbber dtoca^ small- 
ware^ kx. It hiM a safe and eommodtaue baibonr, 
tbeagbittaaDmewhatdiaeDhafBeogn. Itafordga 
trade ta email, but tbe coe atin g trade ta iaiporLuil, 
and a eoealdsrable numbw of r eew ta are empl'ijod 
In tha cod and other fisheiiaa. Protidsnee wm rint 
settled fai tbe 7«ar IlM, and inoorporatad in IM9. 



PROVINCK— PB.UD'HOMMES. 



During fta t^riy eiii«t<;nc« it imffftred tnuch fmm tb« 
nv^^oj thtr LicliiuiH, in vrbat ia csUl-iI King Pliililf's 
mr. In 1501 » cftnflngratloa lalil a lArf,'ri [mrt of it 
ID aaboa, uid In 1S15 » ■ovore golo rnirivd thu tido 
12 (e«t ftbove iu uauftl level, by which SOU bulliUugs 
wer« tliniwu ilowu, uid * gn«t anunuit ttt projMirt; 

WTW d^-.trr.vnd. I'ui^ [IWiCIJ, 104,857. 

PKOVIKCE fprvnn^), amoDiE tha Bumauu, a 
district a( caoqiiend Monnr, governed b^ a pix>- 
rtinmi] or propmtor, Mid okUod therefore procinria 
<xmni!arU or pnrtaria. But Uiia iwiu« wm anljr 
applkd to l»ad« lylns boToud the boundarlw of 
Italy. Tbe flnt Banum provinM wu Sidly, which 
booune ane in Ifll B.CX, aftar the ounoluAioa of the 
fint Pimic wv. ^am Ura tinw of Aiigu»tua tb«y 
w«re divUod into tba provbuiia tauUwia or popularts 
(the people's provinoen) mA tbeprovineitsinpeitiioria: 
(fiut empiTur'a pTavincca). The KtU^r uom|mscd 
thow Wbloh mra BMBt expoaed to hoatila inrotui*, 
Bod ^ ■dndnletnUoa d srtiich was Uft catinly to 
tha fiiBpenrntiiW the jiroteiiM of iiniuiiiic the Miuit« 
aod peuple llir trouMu of iiiaua4,'Ui^ them, but iii 
iwdi^ to keeji th* unnv in hi» own band*. Th"y 
wvK diffoivat Bocordiujj to viretuiurtwwM. Under 
the emi^n) the lu-civiuods wen anoh bettac gcrenisd 
th«n Xhny liiw! it-eu uniler tlie npublicL One naeon 
of thia waa thut thi- emrirjiin Wiirr mom diMpoaed to 
pay rvfi^ard to Ui« Mnuiihuiita of tba provtncM than 
the mfiiibliuui couru had been, for too Utter vroro 
Ur(;rly «ini[.iwd of mt:a who bad tbeniMlTca pro- 
fitcd ur who hi>ped to profit by the uune kiod uf 
QudwbniDJstratloii with wlileb the guveroon wore 
charfcd, and vnn thorcfore always ^llJa^ if pomblo 
to oonnive at ntdi offence*. In wlditinn tn ttiia tliu 
proviccia] Kuveraon under ttua <uu|;4r« t«otdv«d Ibuid 
cnlarin, which Imsaood thn totuptattoo to nmrt Ut 
iiliigal exactions to iuduioBi^ thcmselivs for tbo 
expOBMs that they naoeMMiUy ineurred In solldtint; 
tlie office thatwa* an Indwpeusnble cuudltiuu of their 
g«vmionhlp. Importaiit ohanges wero made in tho 
admiaUratiink of the nrovliuMM by Diodotian and 
Ooantontine at the end of the tbird and lnf^nniR^ 
of tL« fouitb ceulTiry. The uiiwt iiui-iitniit lA tb-^ru 
wsa the wtlbdnwal of tho military cummaDd from 
the rovemora and the intrniitiiig nf it to RpMriaEly 
apTHjiiibed aQicera. Beo Pacwxiltsui and Proi-B-OWB, 

In modern ilrui« the tnra bM been ^jiUed to 
ooIoDlee cr to depcodont covntdoi at a diiUaoB from 
tba iDotropoUs, or to tho dlflbrcnt diviaiona of the 
Idngilnnn ttwif. Tboa tho Low Countriea IkIoui^'uik 
to AuNtria and Spain won otylod fronnca. llio 
difforent uovvnimeiita Into whiui Fnmoe Via divided 
proTiotu to the roTolntioa w«i« also called prorfaieea. 
Ulw name hoe •omrtimc* been retained by inde- 
peodant atatee. Thua the Ref mUic of Holland, af tar 
it bad throwQ oS the Spaaish yoke, was called the 
United Provineaa; and uie Argentine BepiibUe vaed 
to ha oallwl the United PnoTinoea ol the nata. In 
tiifi tauiju luw the term la applied to tba iar^idii:lii>n 
of sit ar«bbi>ih(ip. In tlin Itoiaan C'nthnlic Cbureh It is 
also given to the territorial diTinonfl of an ccclcslaa' 
tical order auch as the Fnuioacana, ^ well aa to tbone 
of tbe Prtifiajfiuib. 

PKOVINS. a town in Franco, in tho doportmont 
of ijcinC'ct'.MariU', 30 milca cast of Mclun. It ii 
auRvuutli^d by waILi flanhed with lowen^ and gener^ 
ally well built, 'lltp prindpal edifloee are a large 
tower, comnionly callud Cii.-«i\r'e Towor; and t£o 
church of St. Qulrloco, a lareo and haadaome ctnut- 
tu» with a dOEoe nirmouoted by a belfry. Provina 
is an ancient town, being noentinned in n cnpitolaiy 
of Charleuagoe in 80S. In the fortress, which furuod 
the nudana a lbs town, the sons of Louis le IMbos- 
iieirc imnrisoood their brother Charles in order to 
exidude him from the •uuceanon. In the middle 



a;^.-c Important (aln^ wUch were freqneoted by 
tradcffs from aO parts at France an veil as fonin 
ouiintriia, iTRre held henL The tnanafactuMa rmibt 
of liuBpy-wolaoy, loathei; bricks. liiin% aod afirita 
distilled from boet-root and sorgbum; and tbwe b 
a considerable tndo in com and floor for the Paiii 
market, wool, leather, and roses caQod p reiias , wbacb 
have been oiiltivate'l from time immomorial within 
tho district. Near it an strong cbalybeate spdnyk 
Pop. (1381), 7723. 

PROVOST (from prapo*il*i»), ia tba Seoltiah 
burghs, tho title Df thn chioJ iiumiilrate, ociTTMPend- 
ing to tho Kui^lhih mayor. Th<; proToat* of £dfai- 
burgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Perth bare tba litis 
of lunl.provDst: while ttbo provost of Edanbu^ li 
further called the ri^t hanoniable, and tfae piuveet 
of Glasgow tho hononrablo. The heads of seTsnl 
of the coUegee in tho Univonitiee of Oxford aed 
Cambridge are ah» styled provoela. In ecdeabaUcal 
law a piuTOet Is the ahief *fignitaiy of a oatludnl « 
cullcetate chnrch. See also Ihikvur. 

PftOVOSTMAIU^HAL. in the arxay.laanoffietf 
of th* nuib of a captain, who takea oogBiiaaoe <£ 
offences afialnst disdpliue, unler* the arre rt and the 
punlshmont of deeerters and other oflsodm aoeord- 
ing to the sonteniv nf tho omtrt-taaitlaL He has 
alao a jMwcrof inlUctin^ Bummnry puniahsieBt OMler 
the Mutiny Act. Ttuj pruvMt-manbal fai the navy 
luB Bomcwhat analogous fimctione. 

I'ltVUENTIUa, AiiHELirR CIlbmmiis, one o4 th* 
early Christian poaba, bora al Oalagurria la Spain Is 
S«3 A.D. ; died afiar tfae beginning of tba Crth asatoy, 
nnotisea first as an advocate^ and afterwards raes W 
be a governor. In bis latter yean ba *>*~"f nan 
retired, and mmpoaed a K'^a' number oi seoigB or 
brams, partly Tit fatnily nan, and jiortly in nabs 
of tho uuLrtyn, or on aimihkr subjects of a reugieBS 
RAture. His vetoes display the cbaraoteriatlis « tha 
time, but vcmtab many beautiful thoughts IW 
beat edition Is that of Obbari« (TUbtagtn. 18i3). 

PKITD'liOMAtt::^, {.'OKSKiLB Di, ooortaof cea- 
ciliation in Franca fur ilcddin^ small diipotss b» 
twL-eu wurkiiii<ii u^d enipl»vpn. The first oomds 
called by this name iu Paris were fonaed fa IIM. 
in tbn rrign of Philippe lo IIcI, when twon^-feor 
prwC hiimitits were up[>ointcd to osaul tho proved, 
of the luurcbaDta !a letUiug dlspntes be t ween the 
morchante and manufacturets who attended tha Itfai 
and markete of the town. In 1464 Lotds XL p«^ 
iiiitted the buTghanof Lyooa to choeee a prmfiommt, 
whoso functloDa wore simiUr to Umbo of P«rl& A 
stiU more smcacDt institution ol the •ansUndodMd 
ha Uaraelllea and other maiitine towtta for enfnn^ 
the fiddng wulations of the port and eettlii^ ifi^ 
putM among tm fwhora. Ata later period a triboaal 
of tiii* kind exlMod at Lyons for jodging (ha diipitsa 
bafewean the rfUt mannfitetiinn and tbair wdkbhb. 
It was saspcoded hgr tfae tawa whidt swept aw^ aU 
privats privileges st the rorolntiao; but Inoanv^* 
euc«o having boon oocaslcoed by its aboUttoa, b was 
reuouslltutod in 1S03. Sinular tribiuala weto estafa- 
liahed ia otlicr towna, and kws psMsd at 'vaiiciBi 
timoa to re);ulnte them. After tho twolotkiB «f 
lajg.ai which ptmodseronty-five towna badooaarib 
do prod' hommca, the whole legislation on thia aobjiet 
was reviwd. By the law pa«ed S7ib May. lUfl^aU 
the patrons and workers of industrial lafariltsbiasals 
within tho drelo of joritdictian of tha oouBcIt of 
prad'hammes were m^e eligible as decton^ a nattoa 
and a workiu^-inan must preside altenmlaly lia- 
Uiroo EiKifitiu in the electoral eoUagsa, Tbo dista 
o£ ccnriliatum most oonslst of two taemlMn, one a 
patrgm and ena a worker; aod foor of each cIms md- 
stituta the geiwnd ouimciL In June, IBM, a law 
eras psasod, whiadt, with aomo cnodifioatioai^ is atill 



PEUNES— PRITNING. 



m 



I 



I 



hfcn& Tte patnu and tb« wfctncn an (onMd 
fato Mpwliu •laclonl coQegaa, th« Utter fndiidiii^ 
*■*— "|[— ~ awl (Granen, a*oIi to elect mi <H|tuU number 
of pnid'hamBM*i UtJf tb« numlMr ar« re-elected 
■rsn thiw j^an, thm ratnbig nunban bduE* re- 
aUffUa. lYka el«clMS an cooTOkod b]r the nn^fet. 
Tht gmtni ooandl, bedidea IIm pnaidoott and vice- 
pwdaia ti la wumomi of mfial DUiiban ol ntron* 
nd ■ udtBB . Aa ' jadgBoata of tlio ooniKU aniac 
bi rigaad bj' A* pmLdatt and iMretArjr- Ths Jnria- 
dUba «< tna <M>ancila la tamtmry and wtthmit appeal 
for maa» nndw SOO Ennca; abova that mm an ap^wil 
Uh to ttia ttflMsala ef oonmere«i 'A'bNi a Jwli^eul 
ii (iTen far nan thaa SOO tniua, lniu»diat« sMcni- 
lion widkool lacnri tj may Im otdercd iro to tbat 
MDOoot. A wappmsmtary law of Hit Hay, 1804. 
•B tfcfl dUo^iUBaof ttnadlide prad'homnua prorldca 
lor Um pMfomuiwe by the tnoubarBof tkMa oonmcih 
e( tkmr dotiaa. Ily Um law of 18f>a tl>« prcriclntta 
and Ttoo-praaident* of thu cociacib *I« [■niiriu.>uiiiiM 
«« ^Mwlad by the amperar (aow by the exenitiTs 
pvirar), and need not bolottf tocitharof thoelawaa 
hvat which the otfaer memMn am cboaan. Thu !■ 
tbeiaoata ir ioo i fDiwwrBtloooDUieUwof 1&53. TL>>ro 
««• 102 ooomIU do pnidlioiiimeB in F^uico in 1S7S. 

PRUNES, &» Iti-IL 

PRUNING ia the Beveting of portioiw of the 
Man, branebeo^ ihoola, leaver or roota at a pUot for 
Iba pupoaa of raaoTln^ •Kcnaonl or nnwofitabla 
mvlh% aad rendering the tap mcro ooDonefn to 
the DBltlUoa of the valoaUe f«ila of the uUnt. 
tm^Lfi ti MpaclaUy neoaaaafy to troca wUon ara 
nbjected to aitificul tnatment. For exaisplu, the 
laaaihia are fne lo point In all diroctiona, but wben 
ttalned aoalMt a wall tbay an Undted to a flat 
lHndi|dianoal curfaoo, on whldi the whole natuml 
devwimnl vt the tree oaanot bo di^ooed without 
cnmdtaf, Allhoi^ If the aoQ to good, the root 
■%bl rnifMnmAr rmiriah tbo ■opeivuDna growth, 
tba toa w a and nooto ooold sot be duly expoaed to 
the light Tha fanuedtote effect of pnialag is to 
ra duu e llw growth «i a plant in as far aa it dnpenda 
OB the au>i>uiit 

«( Miage duly ^ 

tgaemi la th« y Pia. L 

l|^; botaeby 
ladHMMM |mu>" 
lB(tba|«tuUrt 
hare not only a 
|i»a<ii ahar<r iif 
aa|^ bat aiw k:l< 
lar «xpca(d to 
ifaa %M, iU Dl- 
ttaaato effect ia 
toprodm alar- 
ger and atraofsr 

Th« tttdeticy 
of Mp to flow in 
toa w aatd qwut- 
litylatothepacu . 
iiunedtokly ad- 

Jainliv ^"o 
|y tuw 
mlet- 



prtm an 
a l nital mBmit' 
•dooww to the 
gwdaotf of ooo- 
~ the di- 
of tha 
«f a 
plauL for 
•nd 4^ and H to 
md <f. 





In Gg. 1 there ar« (wo ihonta, a 
red to hnra two others »l the 
To huure this the npH^'ht leading 



N 



■hoot is pTTuiod off In winter at r. The upward Sow 
of ^o Aftj) th«« diverted will be excrtid on tha 
immediately adjoining part*, .nd tba tliiM buda 
imin«diately below ttie aaetlon wUI almoat nrtainly 
puah into ahoote, the njipeimoat eapplytng the npiigbt 
leader, tli« other two the aide ahoolii^ wluofa wlU toid 
La Ibe dbadioa of tlie dottod Unee. By ctitting at ff 
the tbraa lowart biida an the npright stem uigbt 
have been dewloped in like nuuincr. 

To tr&in planea by pranlng, bowew, reqnlm 
ex|N»uiDce and judgneat. Suppoao it ta waatod to 
fnrm a Iiead at a, fig. % 
with a dean Mem from the 
Pig. £ gron&d Up to It, how ahould 
wapHKMedl Tbemtwtobvi* 
ouBway Buijbt acvm to \», 
' after praalng at a, to nt oft 

atOQOe all the branchea from 
6 to I, and thb luu altcn bcwn 
doDO in nicli vnam. Jlut thia 
to onrhwldag the fact that 
the paHa above ground h*T« 
an important iBnctioo lo 
perform In the Douriabmeat 
of the pliul. The aaotod- 
Ing tap from the loot ta only 
fit for nnoTuhiog the plant 
wfam It haa UBoiedrgona tba 
orfpanle diangH dw ta tba 
■ctioB of *ar and Ugbb exer* 
t*d upon it in lb [lawge 
tbtuni^ the raactdar ayabMB 
of tba IcAVoa, and the noCi 
themaittvce ar« noariahedf 
Ulce other parta of the plant, 
by tbo letumlng flow o( 
aap tbni prepanJ Oo thr 
brauobea between 1 and f 
then would be a greater Bg* 
gregate breadth of fidlaM 
than between i and a. If 
on all Uiu abwla betweeo 6 and a there ahnold be 
lis leaTae, sod only iwen^-fivo between t and a, by 
catting oA all the aboots between b and i tha eirilra 
plant would be deprived of (our-liftha of iU maann 
of growth. So aerara a rriviiUan wndd ■srinval* 
i^aok tba dtrobinuat of the roMU; and tlioujfli 
ttie bodi bdow « ndght frv<;ly appruprUte all the 
a«p diTLTtcd by the eiciiion, It would be veay 
UiuiUd In amount But If tha plant ia ta a !>oaltfay 
gTDwi&g state it may be deprived c< a modirale per- 
tioa of it« foli^^ wtthout tnlay; and when tha 
dafideney haa b»m made ROod by a new eKpa«dan 
of foUige en the mudnlag parts, aaoOer portloa 
may bo ent efl, and ao en. Thui In fig. S we may 
out off the lower loand) datm to the item at i, and 
thu two iieit aboola may have their |>oui1b pandwd 
off at < and d, TUa will •fivart patCef tbaBowql 
iap from theeo aboola Into the npikbi Mnt nnd lln 
renutnEnj; lateral*, ki that thatr bn^a wfll aayand 
iiion?ni|ii<IIv. Tli» two «howla »*n|y»d el » and W <nay 
then b« cut off at <■ and /. Thm wtt |«*nMv be 
enough for uneaaaaiw. with Iba ft w n Mw><l|F<MMlt 
the tope ol one or two waneeW tbay m i*l»*<WW tan 
T[|{<»vtuly. IiiUMant«M^««Mn*eiMBtAehe«ty 
made have been baaM b.« « ae« fumf^ «l iChw 

uun, or in eaiU wtntM^ the maawMv 4iwti MU ^ 
ent o^ after trtMt the HMbi diMv > mU ta thie «MMa 

B«anboMlye«dMbHfWM*«lN«* VWaiMkr 
naatn tha nptt|nit alan ahatv • aMjr W alh^wd la 

lemala during &« fM MwMm ^^|■wylt»n^ aaa) U 
cutoff (a aotmnn when tte Mtoga M«^mtMd« 
haa l.«K)nedt«el«<«d. Tn U>* wnMar a <Ma alM 
(or mwfai «wd May Ym 4tt«H«t br MUtcm 
pntainc «iDa Ifaa uMril gnnttb wnld ba^e db- 



S34 



I'RimiNG— PBTISSIA. 



trihutoi] the VCHX] in k TMla^ «CMIII|Mn*t[v*^ HM- 
Imi linuic.hc;!. fhmt or loiMd timb g cut alMt be 
pruduuBii wiUi llui aid ol prrgaint; In n variety of 
wayv, m b; beading the eenbal abuut wbeu .vouu^, 
or b; divoriuu th« prinoipal growUi inb;) n iiatiirnll}- 
dtroT^ttnt limb. 

Tlie pro}>ur ttiue fur pniuLnK vnrlvn ttUcurditLi; to 
the nnturo "f tho plnnt uid th>a objoct to bo pta- 
nwiteJ. Itcciilriniui trees ahoiild Dot gcntcrnlly ho 
pnuiiod in »pring, h Uie notiro drcalfttion of tho uj* 
win ctttue tnem to b9 impovn^Wl and often to die 
tram blaedin^. A Uttlo pnuiiaij; may bo poiformod 
in Eoaaaer, fur th« pur)i^e nf K-ciirinf & iarettr 
ezpoaon tu Lifbt; but auLumu <.>r wiiiWr & gutterMij 
tho bast Msunn for eitoiuivn pruning. I'moing in 
Spring not aiily wenltetui Uio pUnt, l^t in liablo to 
Mtet the <ttialily of Uw H*p wid iuduLt- diicvw. Tbia 
probkblj ariiuia fn.ini th« iKp fluwiuj; from the roiit 
m ipRMw quKulity tbna can bt conTsitoil fur the 
porpOM* of uutriticm, I'ninliif tn A&tunui prodncun 
rigoroiu ihoota, mul tha «ww» of vjgonr •utuutiiacs 
nquira to bo abalod. For this purpow Mtminor 
prauiuK U b«wt iulD]jt«d. When n plant !■ cut in 
ButiUDii tu u ^Hvcii tonn, tlie tiprJKht abonta will 
nAturiklly tint^iw the otbcra, and allrr tbu fonu in 
■nmmifr. Suxumer pruning in hunt (utaptad to clindc 
thii overgrowth, am it [■ lina liable th»U Nutuiuu 
pnming to incruBD tha flow f>f up ta tbe iinm«dlftte 
Yidnitjr of tiio point «f oxdnon. If iu aunuuvr tlto 
parU arB nduidoil to an «i|nid f|uatit>ty of elfioieDt 
loli^aei, thdr growth iiill pruWbly c<oiitiuu4 eigual. 

H-Jut-prvHin'j cciiuiiita in shorUinin^ the roots of a 
plant. Its ilnm^diutii uffLvt in to reduce th« i»i|iply 
of uoiiriahmt'jit, unj by chcckiu^' Lhc ra{>idlty cjf 
gTowth, it ha* H-itliln rcrtnln limit* a tt-odt'iioy to 
proniulu the dc-vcVj'iiicQt nf Ulrunnm-buda. >\'hcD 
roots arc InjaroJ by triinnj'lantatioi), it is genurally 
better to cat the bruised ttr Uceralvd parts clean oil, 
M tho young nxpts an thereby enoonnged to push 
from tho aciuod poitiui. ^\'Loa root-pmnin; is umiI 
to chccic dxiimivc vtKour it miLut ii'fit bo dtmo tn a 
greater «xt«nt tbau vriQ just snfiiw for tlw iiuuiedlate 



paqxific. AsinthocBMofbnndMt.llbbMla'ttil 
extr.naive pninina ahonld be effected bj eligaa Hu 
1>mL time fur Tout-pninliig for fnat- tiM i is imitiDdi- 
attily all'jr tho Icavos hare fallen in antunin, ot M<jn 
th« san has begun to flow actirely In qoing. Taking 
up fnut-treoi vrai; eeound year and replanting tbcn 
ID now reoomniended by good authoritiMaspMEnUs 
to roi-l- pruning. 

t'Kt'liUiU, a dIsagncAble and sevflf* HtUng 
affecUng the sidn, Wonging to the cIms ol disass w 
ealM papular, oooalstlcig of tha nlaratiaa ot "^"^^ 
papdiB tir pointa upon ttui vurface. It ooeun BMt 
frequently in spring or •uramcr, and is onBHaly 
ccauxectea with derangvnnciit of th« digestiw omna. 
The tnatindit cnnxintu in daaring tha bowels Dj s 
ooolioe apuriuQt and the tise <i the wnrm bsllit er 
in oWUnate cmcs of the mlpbnceUad bath. A miB^ 
called pruriffo itnSi» is aometimM ooonartad «U 
chnoio discaso of dw TiKsn^ Thla fona tt ths 
diM«se alona ts dangerous and mav be iocunUs^ 

PRUSSIA. (German, PrrtMemJ French, Pnuae). 
KiKai>OK or. tfie leading etato nf the Cicrman Bnpin^ 
coiD|>rinug Ino greater part of North Germany, fonss 
a tolerably compact t«rntory extcodfaig from la& IB* 6 
tofi&'SS'X.audlDn.fi'CO'toSS'lS'l. it is bounded 
unnlh by l^rxnco, Bavaria, Aaxoay, Bobemii^ sol 
Austrian SUoua; west by France, the NethahaJk 
and Belgfiuri; north by I>enmark and the Baltie; 
north-ciast and cast by Ituana. The teogth el Frtm- 
■is is 700 miles from oast to wosC, and ureadth 470 
iulli.4 north to touth. Aft«r the war of 1100 IVian* 
Annexed the Kingdom of Haoomr, Seetont Hessui, 
Ihinhy of Nuuu. frco city of Frankfor^ Dacky ol 
Sclilenni^j-Hulilein, portion* ol Bavana (Caulsdos^ 
Ounfelti^ and Orb), and portlaaa ol the Graad-dadiy 
ot Heason (LandgrsTlato nf Hu— n Hoalwtg. .Ant 
Homlmrg, and Ant Mistenheim); thna leorivtog H 
acciMiuu at '27,S10 square milea ul area and I^SS&TH 
of pupulatJotL The names, nma, and pofinlatiM 
lacconling to th« census ol l&ao) of the pwiri neM 



iiiUi whicJi tho Ungdom is dirided 
foUuwltig table: — 



Ba m itn m U timlaintd in fO^ 



«»' 



i<rita 



inlfcs 



hstPnuds K'^alobn^OuinUniMit.. 

WaMPnHNfft Dtniie. UarMiiwanlMr 

BnpidanbiiiT BoiUa(Cil)p>.l'M»lNiii. Fraukflut,,... 

fmaanaU SmiUii, Kc«Ua, atnlcund 

FMki. PoMn, Bnimljas •...«.■>•. 

ttMMa BfBilBii, UwilU. Oppaln 

Bsratr Ha|ilabarj, Manabuif . l{tA)rl.,......t<. •- 

BeUa>wlji-II»M«iu (la- 

dadinf Dnclij' vf I^uoa - 

boi|*> tictil(s*l[i 

Hsnixar... Bunomr. JlildmhviDi, LUnaburg, Stade^ Os- 

nabiuck. .\uilch 

TTaMnhalia... HUiwuu. MinJcn, Ajnibna 

Uta^HsHau KasKJ. Wi«>»4(n 

nbinaland Kobloni, DIlMaLlurT. XAlii, Trim, AaoImb... 

iiohsasoiifltfn . , • - — -■■••■•>«.. 

Total - 

PojFulAthm In ISTft 



Area— «iii*» aUlab 
H.ST7 
II.MO 

11. «» 

ii.iau 

I».&M 



7,ai» 



:.foo 
s,in 

10,414 
441 



l,4«MM 

I,M«,«M 

LOTxaff 
<.or.M9 
IstMor 



ur.iw 
t.iM^ias 

3,043,443 
1,U1.3:« 

4.074.400 
•T.4M 



U4,A0* 



U.T4)^4M 



I mwssb ■ . . - 

*TIia DucL} iif I-aiianbiiTg wni luuiiaed la Schlaivig-lliiMein on tha laiof Julr, IHTQL 



l.ue,»T 



The atrerace density of the jiopAilation tn over lUl to 
the EuKli*nxiuarv lullo; tho luerwiae olnc* the cen*uf 
of ISi^ is abd'ut 5'£i per wnt. The cITect vt the 
Ifnknco-rrcriiKin war in pcrccptiblu In a alight difTcr- 
«Tico in tii<-' ratio of inun-iiBi; tit t'ue two soxos. 'IltC 
Inuresse ot piipulatioD is niucb ji''«Bt«r in the iciwa 
tfano in the country diitricte. The total iiuLMiliLtiun 
cf the tea htmst totms ol the kingdom in 1890 «» 
t,Sf7,0fil\ anlncrvase of 315,712 since 18Tfi. Umit- 
Oog minor eeots, I'rassa bad in ISiO, 17,645,508 
FnlMtMLts to &,3«0,283 CathoUoa. 



Prussia is naturally dlridcd into two great Mctioia^ 
the ono of which, bv inucfa the huvec of Ue bnvt 
Iwlon^ni to tlie great Kuropean pUfii, and BMy he 
called the Frnaaian plain, vbilo Hu other b Hip 
anuth-west betonga to the Germnn pla t eau, and may 
be called Uie F^narfon table-land. It will bo weU to 
tnuit them sepamt^y in describing their geogropbicsl 
foaturcL 

pHnHHtAN PLAni.~Tlie «ho1« of narthen and 
eastern I'rnssia, from Uollond on the wast to Bnili 
on the cut, may bs described generally as a test plui^ 



FBTTSSIA. 



S3B 



eooidanbly «l«y»tod iD dM KiDtb and KRith-wwl, and 
thnoa ilMcandl&ff at flnt npUUjr, hkI kfl«nmrdi vary 
mdoall^, toVMda tbtt BdUe tuul tb« Gennui Ooml 
na lofbett mmtDtte arm on Ilia HUtliam frantiMa of 
a O Mi% wtwra thn HMvengvUrgii and tho Sodvtta fofin 
IfcB bomdarj bttUMb it ud BohcBrdft utd MonTi^ 
and Mod Borthwds wvonl ntoMnlJutw wliicJi, 
wllfauot ■**^*»'"g • r«ry lof^ bai^lt, form wild anil 
luokotic wtmiy, aTonjrtng Jbovt S220 fuut In heijiht, 
bal levMin; norUiwudi to *a wtnifo ai COO fiMt; 
alUr ■mhidk tft« nufaoo loaca ita hUl; chknctor, ami 
bigiiw to fonn cxtonnva pLuna. In Um aonth-wcaC, 
A* only otbar qwtar whfeh can be euuidered momi- 
liliicQi, iftmificatiofu of the lliiiriiiguti fonrt and 
«4 ths Han appear, anil mror a oonMdcnMe iwrtiim 
of lb* aouUMTD part of tibe prorinoa of Saxony, but 
hm tba ararag* bslglit do« not exeeed 1000 feat, 
■■d aaon dimioialiaa to loaa than fiOO feet. Tho largo 
t^aat orteBding betaraen Uw aoiihoFn font of thaae 
m aamttin diatilcta and tbe ahmw of tha BJtio doaa 
not paWBP t tba appeaniioo ot a tnouototioiu flat 
twt tbooffli faiMTafly Inw oni tame, henthj and 
awanjij. Is often finoljr tlivM«ili«l, and oTm rtcli in 
aoonai of ninl baautj. Vhimntely, bowa*ci'. In 
mnmeUa^ tti« aboraa of tba Baltic and Korth Sea, 
w Mwnl lartl bactmca ao low that lam tneta are 
mwad from laundMioii only by low Mud-lillla or baoka 
of giBTol wbich Um wavva bava thrown np. Bahlnd 
ttaM UUa and baaka sateoaiTe la^joona, m tho BoltJo 
oeaat callod Haifa, hav« been formad, oooununloatini; 
wtib tli4! aca b/ barrow uutlnts, and giving to tho 
abuni ono of iU cbanu4erutJo (vnturem. Tba wfaolo 
eaaat i> flat and vninMxwtliifC- Very f«w undula- 
tfoaa occur to bnak ita nuootonj; no bold eUSa 
afipear, and tbe witter ahaJlowa an tniu-h tbat good 
urltMin an) extnTuiul j rue. The tmly l^ixe >;ul/ U 
that ol Daaxlf, witfaln wbioh tk« t"W'n uf ibo aniua 
naoM poaaeaaea by far tha moat favqnoutod pott. On 
tha Baltic ooatt an> tha bUnda of Wollin, riednni, 
Bflgoa, Palunom, Alara, &<■., and in tha North Saa 
an Iba Korth Friaian InLuhI* and the Eaat VtUitax 

mmd lnh*.—Tb* whnl* of tliia nortloo of 
l^mrfati mottaKhy belong to the baaina of tho 
BUlia 8a« and tba Xorlb 8m. Tbe principal rivar 
•Uak dniu it ta tho Elbe, which, autaring froin 
fta borth of Saaony, travrrvoi it by a aarica of 
■ ania r ha bla baada, nialnty tn a x.ir.w. dltoctloi^ and 
BtMdly, aftor paiajny through Uanovar, «nt«n the 
NflctB Sea betwwn that provinc* and IloUaan. Tho 
<:hiaf affloeala wUiJi >dn the Elbe heiwean Saxony 
and llMiovar are tha Black Klatvr, tbu Hulde, lb« 
Saale <wbich reoeivaa tho White Elcler), aod tha 
HanL Tha Weaer, with iU tribHtary the Atler, an>l 
the Kma, ara the principal riven wert of tlie Kibe. 
Tha ahara of dralaagv taoaivad by tba Baltio ia 
oeanyed 1g it by a onmber of Uf^ and faulo- 
paidaat atreaaw. Of thoe, oommeodnf with the 
aartem bonndary of tho baiin oi the Elba, the muat 
hn portant ia tho Oikr, the only large river which nn 

*dmd wboHy PnudaCf daoa fu coantc. with 
D aC ilB ocmmeneMunl an a OMtv nHwuiUun 
Un wholly within Ito tarrltory, which it tra- 

oireuitaiualy ft«j. tv Kji.w., rwMvbg the 
Malapaaa^ BattaA tad abore all tba Waita, anf- 
nantad by the Nrtxc; and the NeJate cf 8il«ai^ the 
Baber, and the Neaeo of UorUb^ and aolarijig tba 
Baltic by ibe roomwdacba HalL Next in Import- 
«Mt to tba Odet, and ootamuikatfaig with It by a 
aaal bMwcen the Braaand tho Nataotit Bbo Viatnlaor 
Wctdaal, of whuae ooarw only the lower part bcJoogs 
to Praaria, whleh K autet* tma Koadan Polaid, 
flow* in a nottbaiB diractloo without raoaivlnc aay 
htraa afllaent, and throw* off two large bnuichaa 
which eatvr Iba FVbche Hail, while the nialn abeam 



MtttiiHiM Ua couree past Dauis to tba gnU of tbat 
nana. BetwoRc thn Oder and vtatnlaainiinbBr of 
nii^l alrauiui, amoQ][ wliiL'h Iba Rcga, Fill aaiilw, 
Wij.pBr. SUiIfe, l>u|«>w, and Laba may be mentioned, 
carry tbvtr watera directly to the aea, and thua form 
innAll iu'di^pendeat baaina. To ths eaat of tba Viatula 
thu fint river of importance ka tha FawaTga^ and 
after it, iFtill fitrthnr cut, the I*reK(!l, with ita triba- 
Ury AUc. The loal ri*«r on the e*M ia Uie metnen 
or M«aiel, wUcb ha« only a anall port of ita kwar 
c«iur»u in Pnuai^ but penebtntang fnr inbt ftaada^ 
forma one cif ita important navigable vulleta. Lakaa 
abound InalmoateTary ptovlitocwbatBicmMpadaUjr 
in thoaa ei Pniaria proper, indtiduig Eaal ana W«t 
I'niaain, and of I'oniorAnia anil Braadcnbnig. ^Ae 
bu)I« In}[D(nti such aa the Pumiuuriaciie Half, li^rticbc 
Hw, and Curiache Uaff, with many othen irf a 
^^m<Uf doacripliofi lining tba eoa*t, liave been alrvaily 
refierred to. tlie inland laLca are tar too nnmetoua to 
admit of cpeelfieo^iHL InEaatI^aariaaloMll$h»Ta 
been ooontad, tbotigh tbair aAoit individually b ao 
■mall that the wboU aitft oomplad by tbem la act 
mure than SSOaqnarerailca. Went PniBBiamOBtaM 
Inland lakaa, Pomenuiia 6S, Ilnndrnhnrg lai; tlicre 
u« alao many in rvaau and in Schteaw^-Holabfln. 
Many of tbcaa lakaa an well aupplied with fiah, bat 
genentUy poaaeaa few attra ct jo m ^ eithar in tbamadvdi 
or in tbe aoanrry amiind tham. 

Otei^tt), — Tortinry strata preeaQ over almoat tbe 
whole of the level pi.rtion of Pmiaia. In tha nooa- 
taiuoua diatricU ut tho eaatom part of the noaarehy 
the loftior autnmita an> onmpowd uf granite, gncbi^ 
mion Bcblat, porphyry, diotUe, ft«. "nieM at* moat 
largely developM tn tlko Bumntalna of Bitcaia, and even 
in aomo of lie flatter parta, and are alao aeen in tbe 
circla of Schleunnger, in the Saxon government of 
£rf urt. In the BrtwIiMi, fonning part of tba Harx, and 
in iaolatod iftota in tho vicinity of the town o( 
ll«lla. llvtauinrpbic rocka, cluy-nlotc, ami l im c e tome 
axtgad aLong the frontiera of AuKtrUn SUeala Into 
tba Cppor Sikria of Pnurfa aa fur a^ tbe Odai; and 
alao a<nlh of the BkMagabu^ in tho diatdeti of 
SebwMilnitz and Waldenlmrg, and weat to tbe ^/aiim. 
Boeka of tbe »me fonaation oocupy a canaUaraUo 
part of the llatliT diatiicti of Pntanan Saxonv, laon 
capedaUy in the vidaity of Alagdebnrg, ana along 
the banka of the Ohre: Seooadary fotnatiDBa, 0MB- 
pnaed of mooataln UoMafana and tba variona atiata 
of tte catboniforotiB aysbcm. oecnr In SQaaii^ dtleSy 
in two looalitii* in I'piwr Sileaia along tbe fkeotkn 
of Onoow and Roaaian Poland, and among tba 
Dounlalua bi tbe oonn^ of Glati, and towarda tha 
lUaaengebirge. Bodca atiU higher in tbe aariea, and 
Inclnding the Dew red aandatoae aad otban, aBltr 
rruiuiaa Siharia from Pobuid on the aaat, and axtead 
waab to tbe Oder near Knpfatx, and to a oontidefaMa 
diatanoa inland Tboyalaoaocupy anoitoodv* tiMi 
la tbe ntvivtnoe of Sax<«iy. onvwing part of tbe tcr> 
raoca of Uiu lliuringian foroat, and atrct'^hiag aloog 
tha omrtbitni and oaatem foot uf the Han to the 
banka of ll>e Saa]i\ Ehrtcr. and Elbd. (."balk and te 
accooipacyiiiK U.-da incur in many dittcrent localitJeih 
tnoiw aapedally on tba north iMiii of tlto Han, and 
in aOea^ both fai ito hluher diatriola and on tba 
franban of Poland. Cbalfc alao appeara near laD> 
wradaw, in the provinoa of Poaait, near TemiiUa, 
and Pretulow, in the goranunent of Putadafn, near 
Gutakow, In the ooveranent of StraleaDd, and laetlj 
in tbe ialand of RUgna, when It fonna tbo naHmtlo 
diffa of tHubboakamnMr aad Ariuma. 

dunale.— "na above dea orft ed portiua of PioHia, 
•xtcndfaig over ff* of lat and about IS* of lo«., aad 
coorirting in one dbacAka of lofty raoaniabiB, aad 
ta another of low Mala atntching along an Inland ae^ 
and inchjaing between tbem large Uacta of uada- 



Ifttlng Und, must nocMnAril; prcwnt cmiciilcnible 
divenitiua cif dtiniitc- At Krfiut, in UiL f>U° &U' N.. 
und kHout !)00 fp«t fttwv« th« M>, the temperat'ara 
i>{ thq year is C2° 1': «f winUr 34° uid of mnuner 
71' 20' F»hr. At Berlin, in Int. fiS* 30' K.. hit »t « 
inufJi lower Isvel, only \R0 feet, tbe uniiiiikl tt'jii]>«r- 
fttora ia the vwy euno, thuugh botb tbe eEtroniv* nf 
wiDtor nld and nimmar faoAt u* KnncwbRt erckter. 
At StntlBuod, fn lab Bi* W R., but at & levul ntb«r 
ujDd«r M lowt, lbs t*nipcrataro td tbn year is SI" 43'; 
o< wint«i'32°?0', widof iimiim«r88'aO'F«hr. Tha 
nTenge of m sambcr of pluuM lituiited bctwwu the 
Ugfaart and Iow«et Utituden givei a mesn axmuol 
teiaparfttnn of 52* Ftthr. At Berlin from LE9 to 160 
d»« of tfaa jeKr am rminj, from .IS to 84 □bacuied 
wiu mitt, and IT Monny. On the oooit oS the Baltlo 
tho ttoraij (1a;b amount to thirty, the grvalcr p«rt 
(if tbcjn in miminrr: and thai niULatity of Tain ia a.Un 
randi incnMwJ. LvhL rain ulln iu SiU-nia and tbu 
autMii provlnMa. The prcvaiUof,' wiuda ore west 
Mil Mmtb-WMt. 

PatrasuK TABl.B'UiKn.— The Mynth-wcstcni divi- 
don of IVuaaia, oi>Tiii*l'iu|[ of the gninter j>art of 
WMtph&li&, tbe BbcaiBli province, and Hceecn- 
Kaaau, diHeni k> niich fnm the eiwt«ra cKvinion 
a«, iu [UAuy respwrt^ to iitracnt a atrikins ountraat 
to H. All th» niixtntivItiuiLi [larta of uw former 
are aitaatiKl on iM aouthDrn and vestvm fmn- 
ttsrik »>d on noedfn; frnm th«m \ang tracU nrn 
Wftnd«r*d over in whlih nuLhiuK that l-uu bu c^t-d 
a mnnntain !■ to ho iinrn. 'I'hc proawit diviiiitin of 
ihti tuounnity is iriuirh more findy diveraifiwL Ita 
monnU^ne, t^nngh far l«a e1«vated than tfaoas on 
th^frnrLtimofKilon^arauot confined toftparticular 
locality, but «tr«tcb noroai tbe eauntrj in all dirw?- 
tlooi, and form manmia v&Uoya, one of ti'Ui<:!i, tbiit 
of the Rhino, here occnfiim no HianiBidorablc portion 
of tho wboln mirface, and in pnint nf fertility wid 
beauty ia not nirpAwod by any ctbor valley in 
£iirap«. Tnwnnls thn nnrtfa of the Ithino valbiy a 
nonntain rai];>L' uf uiudcrali! I'ltvuitiiiii, fiinuinf; a 
con tin nation cif the Weetrrgeblrge, »tr«tche« acnMa 
till- yvvrmiiicuta of Minden ud Mttiwter. To tbv 
«auUi of It that of the TentobarBDr-Wald evt^nda in 
a north-wect din<ctdo&, and OMr^elofield attaina Its 
kiftieat height, not exotorling 1 03D foot. 'I'hiii ia auc^ 
ceoded, to th« ecmth, by a Ikw ivDjie, known t^ tbe 
name of tbo Hoar or Hoaratnui^r. tbe hif^oat polDt 
of vrbloh b HciirMly 700 foot. Itda range, eommeno- 
ing bvtui'pii lirilon and Stadthn^, atretcJuM woat 
aoroH tii« north of the guvemmeat of Araibeni. In 
tbe dlnr(.-tJoD uid along both banks of the tSlohne 
and Ituhr, preeentlnf to bath rivcn^ anrl tin h«t)i 
adMt biit iMrticidarly on thu nouth, a nuiuber uf Ixitd 
and TomntitiD precijiiraL fjtill fiirtlmr Bouth the 
Sauerlanilor SiidcrbuiJ Monntaina ajipwr. Toward* 
tbo eofft, whcro they t*ks the namo of the itoih- 
Ia««r or Itolhhaar, they attain tbiur higiiMt eleratiuu. 
wfiiuli, in the Aitvnh«]^, ia 3635 toot, and Id aevwol 
■•Iher Hummlte exveedi 2000 feet. The bit room 
on the eaat or H«ht lank of the RMne, u tho Weab- 
erwold, which roachca tlio height of 2000 feet A 
part of thia range, forming ill woftom tenulDatton, 
■trotobea alnn^ tiie builca of the lUiine, and prcMnta 
thft ranorkablo Rummito known hy the uaine of the 
Slebciigeblise. Da thn loft liank nf tbe Ithine, and 
oo (ba aootoera part of the Itlionjib province, the 
principa] motmbUns aro the Eifelf^blri^ whioh ham 
their ereotcat breodtb between AnderiMdt and Bonn, 
Rtrotdi Fruiu tbo lUiine wcatward for about 45 miloa, 
an<l, Dir-ii^h generally low, attain the hcai^t of ICfO 
feut; and the KundarUck, occupying a lu^ apace 
between tbe MoaeUaand the Nabc, and attiunine, 
in the loflieal lumKiita of tbo Idmrald and Doch- 
wald, thn recpogtlve beighta of 22l!0 and ICOO feet. 



Rirtn. — By far tbo greater part of thii portlaa of 
the Pmseian moiMnhy bolungi V> the haaln oC Iba 
lUiinc, -which, entering it on tbr iinitb-eaat, barenea 
it in ait.K.w,iBn.>(7tii'u,aiidefitf5r*II>illaod totbaBortb 
ofClerea. Itlhuareceivcaalor^partoftlMdzniaag* 
of tho region diroctly, and la, DKreover, oacmeolad 
within it by nmnorDua atreoou^ of trhiclt toe BoeA 
Iinponuit are, on the right bonk, tbe Lobn, tbe SS^, 
the Wipper or Wnppar, tho Rnbr with iti tribnUi; 
Iicnnc, the Kmaehcr. and the Ujipe; and oo the 
Iieft the Nalio, tbe Mueelle »Hth ita tribntaiy Saar, 
and the Erf t. In thenonh*waat acooaidwablaifaea 
bvlongine to tbo bniin of the RUno b dndued ^A* 
Maaa or M(>aae,aad iu trlbntorlea the Rmt and Ktan 
The leat of the drainage, fonnini; a momO pottioc 
from tho north and oaati ia idiaral by tba Enu and 
tho W<«n'. Thoro i< not a (ingle Uke datttvin^of 
notioo for ita magnitude. Thr miat remarkable h 
L^achenee, tv^Riut fi uillfi from Andcraach, ooca* 
pying, appiuvntly, tho crater i<f an extJnct vafcaeot 
and, tiiotigh nf Kmall extent, obare SI4 foot iaep. 

(ie*Jogy.~lu thia part of Pi-uwln lbet« ate M 
]irlinltlre mcks of granite, sneio*, and mica abi* 
Itii F««vatling rovIcK, pnrtitnuarly in tbo eootb, an 
vdcaido, and conaiat chiefly of boaolt, aogfto, per- 
])hyry, aikd similar volc&mo prodocia of thfl lettiarj 
pnriotl. The aeoondary famiaticTn, and moo* m\m 
oially mountain limoalnm and tlw orerlyfaff Mnta 
of the cart>onlf«raui BjtUaa, are iMpAj 6tmlof»i ta 
tho Eiurtli, iu tho obde of TocUonbw^ in Urn gann' 
meot of Miinatar, at the nnrtb-wartem foot of Iba 
Saui3^1iuid|:ebii]^ along tbe Robr, l«tMe«D Anaberff 
and l>Uaa(ddorf ba tbe Vfnt, at the nortiiein foot a 
tlio Kifcl, near Aicbv-Ohapellc^ and in tbe oootl^ to 
the goverament of Trovea, nortKulai^ in Iba nef^ 
bouAiood of SaaibMlok. The New Bed B wnto oo^ 
with its oecnrnpaBTtng rocln and foMil^ oeeapfM a 
cowaderohle wt of the higher diatricta in the govon- 
nwDt of Minden, and oloo oocnra on porta of tlw Sif<j, 
and along tho MnanllR and Saor. in tho goveimMnt 
of Trevea. Liai aiid (Julite are found St the lM>tb 
among tbe bills which lie betwewn tbe Vr'eaer isd 
the frantien of Eaaoror. Th« ^alk fonnitioa hia 
Its largDBt dat^ofuneab in W4aqilutUa,niaT« antMlaUy 
on tbo western ude of tbe Teulobutxer-Wah^ in tbi 
SanerlandgehirgM, bvtwawi tbe ]luhr and tbe Lipp«v 
and more partially in the uovenunent of Mttaitar, 

t^imoC.— WttlUn the aaine ranges of latirad^ aai 
at nf.arly e-^nal hoighia above tbe a(*-Ieval.Uw dbnaU 
of thi: « putrm in anperior bo that of the eaatafndSviBon 
<.if tbt: lui/Daruhy. Tbe mean ozukulI teniMmtlw U 
atnnt 1° higher, the vrlnterla milder, and ^vmunv 
(Tnjrr, and thn rangnof the thcnnoBMtor baocntdinriy 
canfiii«I within narrower Umlto. Tbe fall <i run, 
however, la greater, RueraglnK 20 inuhes fa) the wen 
and only 1 5 invhea in Sibab and the oaatere proviacsa 
'i'hlv howovM', cannot bo conaid«r«d a iUaadfatit^ii 
aa the br^^ (]uantity of the we>t«m b by w> mean* 
ta snows i^id only tend* to make v«|[vMtiaa man 
lomrbsL 

Tlie prininpal pbyidiial fnatnira of the two mat 
dJvUona of Vae mo»an;liy haru uuw been ooosiaiMd 
aepomtely, but it will not bo advisable to folkiw thr 
same ooans in flomnihrring its indnstnal rvacMMaa 
IkiUi liooanse Iba nwnt imimrtaut atotialaca iiJaliin 
to tbne ore often ao lumped taeethsr that it b soMml* 
Txmibla to sqwnt* tmn. sad the awns brndai n 
indtuitry are c<>mmnn to both dtviaioOh 

A'jricullurt, — The land in Pnuab b much Mb- 
divided, oapedallj In the mora popotons disMob^ 
»ma]) fansi of S or 4 acns beiiq toe raoK sobiimd 
holding. The pnmMsnrs of bnded w t^ i eity saiMal 
to nsatly 5^000,000, and Ihe BsmMtra i^ajrf b 
agrionUoie to sboat 1 2,000^000, sbowinf a vsryWi* 
proponiua of proprieton. The whole BUDirdiy 1* 



I 



I 
i 



PRUSSIA, 



sar 



rftutod iMtwwn Ikt ptnSUk at btltad* ud«r which 
•U Ik* ardfaiv7 eereui an autljr iiiiliiiiil. Mid th«ra 
Is aoOlBtf in tho ele* ktioo o< the nirfua^ •Xo«pC lo » 
Inr parbcular lac»Uttc% lo unfit it (or gawnl enllt- 
fatloB. In Um iuor« Kratheni portJoDs, arvD thougb 
mIt to • Umltod oxtoBt, tfc* ^nt thrivM irdl, ^d 
jiiUi aooM wioe* of go^ repaUL The arkbto And 
garim laikd la about f>0 par oeuL of Iha whole, 
■Mdmra ud pauwM 16^ p«r cmtU, wooda SSI par 
eMttq ixBfmdiictiv« tcrrlterj, 8'& par cmtt. The nuil 
hdiadoitU mteUai^ fttim U^t Mad% alraoac ouriud 
tgr ■!>« wind, lo tlw ntosb obdurate daji^ bnt ba* 
Ww mbdlTldad into tlw thm dJMM* ot whHd land, 
lUlifclMMjJiiMintMy qnalitT, and aandy or rtony land. 
Tat wham Uad, mdi la in mMt caaes nmantahly 
pndaeliv^ ia r«md dtJclty iu the frnwao proTtnoea 
DMT the frantfan of Poland, and a1»ii|{ tlie baaka of 
Um Uenal and Piapt, till tho wut u approached, 
wfaoa tba aandj adD hagina lo pnvaiL, in ihn pidtIdcv 
«C Poawi, In tSa goraronaont of Brotlau, oa the cart 
bask ol tlia Odar, and MosTvlly Uuvusb'-ut Sllnin, 
batwa an like 0dm and ue mouutaiiu. In Bnadrii- 
bf f tb« wbaat land oecnn onlir in ianlbUd »P^^ 
«ll£ Ike e a cep U oa cf a rich contiiiiiaua tract i*laob 
•ztnda alraif tba Odar truui FVaukrurt inki tba norib 
of th» goncBBMil di Fotadam, Tlw aaino tract, 
apnadiif ant into » broad aonak oaau|ilaa a larsa 
p wlfa a vl PasMranla. both axtaaifing uorth to the 
«at*«ailtj of tba lal* cf RAgiu ana wort to tho 
rinaalaii frantiar. In tko prorlBC* of Saxony the 
wkaal land oonna cUdI j In tba aoMlwni part of the 
manmaab of HMdabnrg, vlwra a plain, known bjr 
UM DavM of tho MagdohttiiKeT B5td«, b coiiMdered 
tk« rkbaal a&il beat ooUivatM in the monarcbj, and 
alao oocnpla a eaiiafat«ratile part cf tho fovammant 
o( Bffwt. In Waatpbklia it U-mm tttc Moiithem part 
«( tba ymauuMNil of Mindsn, vbera the Warinuser 
BMfl b «ebfanrt«d, and «Kt<adi tbnnieb part ol tiia 
yt fa mt eal ol Ainaber|^ partlcalailjr in the vUJni- 
tte of SOat and Uellwag. Still laara productiv* 
ttMla ara favnd in tka northern half of tfw Rbaniah 
fimluet, bt t wa en AlJc-k-Uu^MUa and Bonn, aa far 
M tkr (nmllera ef Um NetfaarlaiMH and In tba «»thera 
dlatrida of Ifae Mvamtnenl of TVvvM, alcnw tba banlca 
of the 8aar. The loava vf middllDK qiuUty pnvaU 
la Iha foraniBMnt of BroinbeqE, tho nortbam pan 
of SUtMs eaBorally thraudkoat tbo provinca of 
TkiilaiiliiiiH. in tka oaaUtslkalf of tha g w r om moDt 
of H*i«»b«% Ike aortb of liacdeburs. tbo aaatam 

Et of UiBdM, the «lub cf Iba forgnuMnl of 
laatar, and la«*lj, in tba aonwtiBeat of ODbkai& 
Tkm aaadj and atonj land of faama qnaUtf b fpoad 
b laifa ouollBiMmB nata In the gVYWUMBta cf Omi- 
btaiHJi and Kudgibei)^ wiiai^ for the moat part, it 
bma tha iMvliMn boundaf; of Ike heaTj wheat land. 
B ptarvaDi bi Un Kovenunenla of I>aBclg and Marira- 
waeder, gmmtUj along tba akoraa of tba Haltic. along 
Aa (roBllaa of BUobU, partiwJnriy In tba •outbont 
aadeaMeradlatTleln. In Uw Intariar of the provinee 
of BcaMbaborg, tot^ tboogb tba vorj heart af tb« 
maamAr and in tho onTtnno cf lb oapilal, tko aotl 
kilrmp decidedly to this daai, w™"*^"^ of Ihi»m« 
taatta of and wbkh apread cat like a mm, wbUo 
aamdoaal paicboa ol m>dHliiis or otbo fertile wheat 
ha4, fbe ap and appear like Idanda In the midrt of it 
Koran almUar tracu mkiMrwa in tha weatonidiviBiaav 
of lb« BWwaKhy. Beddea otnall otretdMa in tbo 
Hii H iiiiiieiJ of MindeB, and a largo tiaot in the weat 
of ktOaeter, tbo aaady and atony ffround foma the 

wUdi 

wry 

letaHle 

and eooifab natara of the aoEL Similar eroimd ooran 
In the goeonnenla of O^ofoo and CoUeut, and on 
tba plaMant wkidi reeob lo tha WeatanraM. The 
Tou XL 



dtJfemit aoUa above Juariba^ and the oxtaat of the 
dirtricta over wbJcfa tiny optaad, famirii oa with aa 
eaay nuaiia of aawrt^niiv 1^ aatura of lu diff«niit 
producteL On the fitrt aoQ, aa Ite name indieato^ 
wheal ia the nrovaiUiu' ciop^ and alloraataa ckudy 
with hay and Deaaa. The yenriy prodoee of wben^ 
aflor aatiafytng the homa oeosninptJMt, leavea on m 
averse a ooDeidarable aurplus for oxport. Tbo pro- 
dtioe of rym, barlay, and oata la tbroa timaa aa enah 
aa that of wheat, but tha eoneomption of tb«oe undi 
of (tain bains '" kmoUt la*Tei coly abont the aaioa 

auantity for astpott, Aimilmp wy ioiportaat orom 
le oultnra of wbleblainoaoorlHaextenBire inemey 
dlitriot, b that of potatooa. Of theae * mat propM^ 
tica an oooawnatl by the diatilbriaa alona, Homp 
and flax onalaovcry iin|mrtant cropa, moraeapMiallj 
lhcfoniMr,whIcbfutiUah«abufeBUpidIeetortbeboaM 
masnfaotiuva, thourii n bu^ quantity itill nqdra 
to bo imporkd. Tobaceo abo, to the oxtont of abov* 
'J0,O(]D,W01lHL,iaanaitallyiaiaed. Aniae and cnntinin 
tir« cultivated on a bnn aeala, parttoolarly In Saxony 
imd Braii[Ianbnf(. OQ planta an also important 
olijocte of cultnro, both for tbair oil and for thdr ae*i. 
The latter, partinlariy Uoaeed, tonDs an intportaat 
artl^ of «x[M)rt frooi Eaetara l*niMiB, wbtle aimoat 
equally lam *i'pvt* of olovor end otbor hay aeedi 
tako jdam Iron Bnndanbvig and Ika Rhantahpiw- 
abo tha ooltan of the 



vbioe. To the Utter i 

vfaiabdtMlyo 

vineyard b Utba gOTotimuBtid Oo^hm and ! 

Thocnltare,on a anallar aeab, b oanled on in tka 

Sorenmente of Oologne and A]i-b>Chap^a^ aod abo 
iSaxaBy,lttaiiiIenhurg,Poeen,aadSilwk Baet-root 
b cultivoled to a gnat extenv and a Lafge ptoportiaB 
of it ia need In the inannfaDturo of eogar. In lalaing 
theae variuua crojia tho ajatcni of ^^riouHara pniaoo^ 
though much inprovnl in recent timea^ ia mU very 
diieMive, and nut oitlyfalb far abort of that oommoB 
in tha beat cxiltJTatea dlatrida of oar own ooontry, 
but la eutjieaaed by many of tboao on the CoatinenL 
The aame noaric appUca to the bneda of dotnaatis 
^nimalo. in which mat improrement ttHl reqnlrM 
to he BtiaUv, Uiuugu mach hae br«n doeie by tha 
goTemnwot, more eeperially in Ibn cnae of Iwnt^ 
by tka •alaUUmieat of breedfi« etwb in diOmat 
bonUtfei^ and coi a gMMfal fkuL. CoBlderiM 
the large oxtont cf ■ea-coaa C the nrt munbor « 
lakaa, and tba narmlMr ae wall aa magnitude of tka 
riven wUch Praarin pcvtaM, lit tiberiai cauwt 
(ail to prove as inpartut wiDca of iwveWM. Tka 
whaleprodnoekaabaaaaeliBatad at aboot £1,000,000 
eterUag, of which UtUe more tkan a fourth la obtained 
from iSoaea. 

MiitenU. — 1%«ae Include anoiig nwtab oOrar, 
iroo, load^ ooi>]ieT, iLdc, cobalt, arsooicL anttmoay, 
and mdmsatMee : »*^^ amanif other *""*■■»!* eakk 
alum, ooppena, ooal, UgDhe, reodng ebtob gypeniB, 
nilhtone^ UnMctone, and eavenl ▼arietlM of axMlbal 
buildiog *totie>, Tbo ulvcr, found rnily Id (-oBflMlliin 
with oopfBt, la workad cldcfly la Uio diatrict of 
M^urf*^ in ibe pcorlnoo of Baxooy, and mw* 
Mitially in oomo IniaHttaa ta Veitphalk and at 
TMnowitx in Upper BQeeia. Tha prodnee kaa Cora 
lung time been gradually dhnlnliUaglnl alfll aononato 
lo woirt OB»-iista«alk of Ike wkob prodoee of BnrM. 
Iron la ruy go— ally dMf nia J ; oomerlafiMindlntka 
three looiMM aboTo DMntiMMd fur aQver; lead §• 
found in SUada. Ike Rbenlah pravioM, Weetphalia, 
and Saxony; nne b Ike eame IncoJItits, esaef^ 
Saxeny; eobalt b Weetphalb and Saxony; BMnk 



foBod bial tka 



In SUnia; antinony aad tnaagaMoo i 
in oonndanbla tj^titiaa. Salt la loBod In aM IM 
ptwineoi axoeplPniaab pivper. Poetn, Bnadanboi^ 
nd aOaria, but the qnaati^ oMafnad hlb far Aort 
of tka I iMoiiiin^iiiii. and roqalrea to be eapylitaled 



9SS 



TBUBBIA. 



ij )B|Mttt Ina EWglMil. Sp^io, and PortugaL 
Attber b fooad b Ui^ qiw&tttiM tioag the ihoc«« 
«f tk» Baltic, ud alio abbtinad tv di^giiic at wmw 
dfatUMc Inlsod. Ctnl ii foaad ia Upp«r ud Lowar 
SBctia. fn tb» pnmoen of Saxony aad Hasow. bat 
above all, in Wtatjibalu and the {iraTlBee at tha 
Bbuw. Tim niaea at tht Kuhr-DUacldorf £atrict, 
iTinji Ib both Uw but tiro pmvttms, axw lk« nmst 
pcMticUva in the kiaicdoBi, cxiatributlnit about half 
tb» tatira ptodnoo. Tboae of tba rirar Saar. ta tfaa 
Booth-wart angla of tbo Itbcoiab ftoriBCML Umi^ 
laM «ztanBi«<^ ara next ia iwoductivciMM, ana vipplj 
aboat a tixtb ot tba flBlinprodoML C«l b expwied 
la SoalbeiB Gamaaj, naooa, aad Switurlaad. 
Mora tbaaniaa-Untiiaof Uiecoal rabcil inliennanj 
b Um Drodnoa ol the PniaaUn mincA Tbo produc- 
tioa at ooal to FrsMia hai inai aw d n^ldl^ and 
ncctty •teadOy from abaut 1840, tba gnmtb haviitg 
baaocbBcked oaljr in tbe tbiae jreant 1872-74. In 
tba yeata ISS^fl tb« avanee aaaiial production 
vaa £»01,718 tana; in tba j-vaia UtS-llt, 3,817,11)0 
lona; in tba yeaca 1S52-S0. K,£71,070 tniM: in the 
rear 1671,32,848,286 toM; In l&7(,3],SW),il><3 Ua^; 
and In 18S1, 43,780,000 tcma. LiKnita b itUJ mora 
widalj* tUffoaod. bat tba prfncipaT badi ara in tha 
pnrinca al SaxoBT od tbe Saal«^ tbe Uulda, and tba 
iQwtir Bode; aad la Braadenburg on the Oder and 
abevbara. '[!)• laoat importaat bada of iron o«« are 
in the circle of Sicirm Im Wuatphalia), in tba ptv 
TJnon of the IUiln«, on tbe Lahn In Uena-NaHan, 
jLud in l'p|wr Silema. llic following table giTca tba 
mala (xtrtJcidara for the jear 1881 regarding tbe 
miiiiaic operatioaa uf PruaiU for the fire aiinerab 
which rank next in icnpartance after coal;^ 



Fi»*u« 



LHalH — 

InaoH--- 
■a* (a*,... 
Lea4<M.. 
C«ffaton, 



i%ii:.oi» ....iii.uu.uo 

llBOa,OSD .... 1.S31.1M 

e6e,lM .... MT.900 

H*;M0 .... fUi^BtO 

915,400 .... tas,ooo 



Manu/mtam. — Th™e have mode great pograai^ 
and an not oonSiioJ to mtij uaitteular dbtrieta, bnt 
ffcnerall; diSuaed over all ua proviooea. At the 
bead of the ordinar7 tiKoea rtaodt linen, which, 
acoordiag fao Uia induetTial oenana taken in 1875, then 
ooonpiad 90,2X6 penooa. Of tbaae, however, only 
a nuU prcportJcoi ware anplojed In factoriea and 
rimilxr nuuiufartnrlni; Htabliahmenta; tbe gnat TXtv 
joriCj eit the luume Iw^iug duuiiailic, uicl uiuj' uacd mi 
aubaldiary to otbor emidoyiiionta. Unly 990 eatab- 
llilUMBti«ini>lo;adioaretliaa&vcper>oui Inalmoet 
all tbeaa domeotlc looms only ^o^da al a ooaraer de- 
aoiptioa are made. SiWiA, i!it»[tilDnbnrg, and Weat- 
pbaUa ara tbe provlncvi ia which tbk braru^ of in> 
diutry ia chieBy developed. Tbe linen manufavtun^ 
are expotted to differauE ooontiioe. Tha tienie next 
In inportanoa i> ootton, the manufacttire of which 
baa tta ebbd aeat un tbe Rhine, particularly in the 
Bd^bowbood ol DUBMldorf, hut ia alao flariiad on 
In n onwidnable extent in Sil^nio, paiticalarijr in 
tbagavamingDt of Dreslau, and nlaa in the pr«innoa 
ffC Braadeobur^ It aaiploy(.-d at the aame <lAt« 
60,657 penHoa. Tba wooUen, like the Uncn manu- 
facture, ia carried on to a lar^ extent domestioally, 
cliiaHy in the f^vemmcnt of liumhiiinen, wheni tlic 
jiruuiiilj-y wiwve eiiou;;h of cuorae wiiuUriiii tit atipply 
their own wantt; but the manufacturi.*, properly ao 
called, boa ita chief aeata in iirutdcobarg and the 
Rhanlah proriuoe. Silk and velvet employed 65,0141 
panou, niaiuly la tbe govanuaeiit ot XKUMldort 
Tba greater part of tbe rccoaindcr are at BerLic. In 
coBnaotloD wltb tbe above tinauirs, aji<l [iropiuly 
fecmiog bvancbea of tbe aauie man nf act urea, vut 



qoaalitba ef yvm, ««ala^ aad 
■pan. Tbe 6at OMMiawB to ba ip^ iMtty I7 
hand, tbe flax-nUb tbrao^nrt tba ■Kaaaob^ bmk- 
bailBg oidr niaa^-eaih IW nanbv t£ pnaoaa ^^ 
pkryadbitbbb(aaehe(iBdBM(TvaaSt5«7. 1W 
ironted b ^iaAf, lad tbe cottta a tii al y , apu by 
macfaiaary. 7W Eomer baa ba nriadpal acat ia the 
pnniiioe cd Ih ■iwUiiTiaiH laie^iaTlj m tba gmara- 
meat uf FmBUarliaad uMr k in tbe Rhine prmtMa 
TbeeoUoB«Ubai«MttaM4 eUdjr fa tba h^a el 
tba BhiM^aod taafurc liab^ exteat toSdrali 
Tba wbob aambarof peranw aaaJuy e d in tha taartib 
bkdHtrfai b 187$ wna 441.»68. bat to tb« a oee- 
adar^li addMon aboald ba nade (or tba fnaA 
aomber <d pcnooa ew rioTed fai MaanbJaH^ fata»- 
fiebb, and dye-wotbaL na aaaairfattwraa in hnM 
rank next in in^laiMaoh and fa WIS miflojwA 
3I8.9&S petaona. exchiriva ct tbeaa anlswed fa the 
mifcififr of mAduneiTi vho tumlbtni ftl^MOl £b 
1876 diera were ICO nannfaetecba of vraBg^ bm. 
ampkiyiBg 1»,001 pataoaa; 78S of ca* ban, M d w - 
lag' 68,W8 peraoM; SI of atad, aBplojrfag BfiVi 
poaou; ana SS of xioc, employing fiS4fi patasaa la 
inn and atad wan tbe linA place b^eap ta tbt 
Bhfaa pwr la ee and tbe \Vc»t|ifaaUaa covemiBaal «f 
AnibefK. Aineng particnlar localitiw inay ba apaci- 
&ed Solbtgea Eor Ha Bna aawa aad beob^ Ab-la- 
Cbapella aad Barteebeid. Attena and laerkfaa tor 
noedlcB aad nb^ Baiwarfwdd and Hapa ft"* bdn 
and Tarioot noBilar Idadi af bardwara. Intbaaaaa 
localities alaotbta»-wai^iadiidii»g'wtrearidthi»Hfn 
are made on a vfry extanai** aeala. Borifa baa bag 
been fan>ed for fta fine eaatliiiES a»aay td wUcb, 
wbetbar aa articba of omaiaent or utility, ara ^unr 
pBMoiI. In onnnectioa with tbaae nay ba inaaliiBeJ 
type •founding wliich, aa well ae panting, foena h 
importaat braiMb of Induatryia Daetin. Ibe lnth« 
mauufaetnra u abo baportan^ and fad u Jaa, taaddi- 
tion to ordinary batbar, tba fiav nrielba of ni 
and white cordoTan, and partbment, Pottvy fa all 
ita vaiietiet fonu an Ia4iataiit bnai^ of fadartiy. 
For porcelain and the Soer Idndaaf wan Bcrlfa tad 
St. Mattia. near Trier, are the moat oe b faa led 
looaUttea; axoeUflnt >iotir«are of a taove oommca 
deaurlptlcni b tnada exteoaively in tba oaoth of tfa 
prorince of Saxony, m Liognita, aad to tba Bhwhh 
prtirinoe. Cunrniao pottery b made in all the pr» 
iiiiix«,tuore MpedallT tn tboaaof tba aaat aodawAra 
One el ita tnoet eefgbcatad looalitiaa b Baadia. 
lilaaadoea not rank highaaa PntBlaa maaafacCon. 
Tbe principal localiliea are tbe i;o*erniDanta «f tmt, 
MSuden, and Oppeln. Tlie mtmt impgrtaat papw 
milla are in .Sileaa, Saxony, nad Wcatphalia; Mt the 
■(iialitj of the p^Mr b atill far inlaiiar to that laadi 
in Great BHlaiu, France, and flwitaadand, 0«bw 
DMUiufsctnree caoried on to ntch an actant aa to be 
of national iapcrtanou. are beot-root auuar, eboc u lrt» 
obioory, eheiidoal prudutrta, and tobaooa Of tlMH 
the taat b the moat important, and b catried oa b 
very exteajdve faatorioi in tlie Rhenbh pmefaioe^ ia 
Brandotburg^ and Saxony. It employed fa 1871, 
(S,K48 petacaa. Tbe laat tDaaubctitrea daaervfac ■' 
Dotico ara beer aad ^rita, tba rwiaitm[:*kae< arni^ 
b lnimense,aad oi^ht with peat adfantaca be any 
nnicbdlmlnbbad. TbegraateMnnaibaref dbtfUnbi 
is ia the Rhine previaoa, Oioagb Siloaia baa abe ■ 
rrxy iarga nninb<H'. Taking' the whole mar Bnliibb 
uaed in producjoc tbe qifrit at 100, potatoea tona 7£. 
barley 12; tya 10, aad wheat about 1 par oast Tla 
whole prodnoe amoimti to about 80,000,000 galbn 
Of the breweri«a tbe Bblno pnMaoa baa abote oaa- 
fourth, Wertpbolia and Silaoa each oov^xth. and 
Saxony one-eigbch. TbeproduoebBboat316.00(l;iM4 
imperJal galloiu. Spukliog wfaea are mnda 
Cooinu and elae where. 



I 



I 




PRUSSIA. 



Trad* mmd OaimMne. — Tbe priDctpal cv|iort« d1 
Viimit M« gntn, llkx, Uiimw(( ruK, tumii^ and 
cIo*«r f*A, timtxir, liiii*, gjpMim, Uii«a Mid IlD«a 
Vftm, bnailr, wal, c«nliQnwar«, wvol, woollen doth. 
htmimj, tmi altx; the prlndpk] imports cotbm tnd 
eottea ^riit, ookaUI |irodao«, jiftrticularly raw sugiu- 
for raflaiag, pdUkIi, irnii, taw hiilo, •wina, liomntpi, 
nit, Ac Tm ««t«blliihiii(.-iic uf Ike Zulhcrvin, t> 
^nw B Itm tBttfehuigii of oammumoAtion betwt>«n 
Iha (hSmnt MMcs bftlonghig to it, maHc tt lUHii-nlt 
to ifwdf/ Iha «s«ct MnauDt ut tnuJa which «wh 
■Ut* pawwii i i^ but lliwra cuuiot be » doubt tliKt that 
at Fnn^ h verr •stouiie. llu Gvnnui cuitomi 
and eMnnwrdftl iiiikiD, the n^nteiutaoA of which wna 
■Hwwd imtil 1877 by the Omtj ooncltnied X BorUn, 
mi Stb Jwly, ]S97, bvtwMn tfao JXorth Gmuti Cod- 
(•dMkttoD umI BavuU, Wurtonborg, Badaa, ud 
H«Me, bf Uw Ukirtj'tbinl a.rlJd* of the Coiutitii> 
tion of tb« ■iii[iiro, WM, with tha •lOvptioD of wim* 
•tn»]l t«rr{tc«i««. naJv ou-viitimriTo with tbo froQtivn 
td ibm mpira, uid the feilenl ooondl of titt Znll- 
Tiriia WW nargnd in tba federal council uf the 
MDptrB. Both frani tbc natura of tha country and 
the mtnbw of mvJgaUe rtKWua wlUuh inteiwct it, 
il nioyB gnat nktanl faciUtiM, and theas hare been 
rtrj gnatl; extended both \ry oammon roada, canala, 
jkml nilwkja. IIm laat node of c<ianinanic«don haa 
»inmdy nada graat progre«& Fnuiki bad «a the 
10th of May. 1883, 93611 EneUah nQ« of nOway 
baloajitBg to Iba ttate; l&M milM belonging to 

Sttrata ct»iapairf>i^ bat unJar lUta mamaKPuienti and 
IM nOaa ownad and tnaiMi^ by jirivato con' 
yaoiM^ nutUac a total of I3,4U ailM. All Uicm 
W€M Ib MMvalioa aad olben were then in eourte of 
Cdaatinrlliiai The |)rlTat« linoa under guvonuuent 
■lanagainant werv mrtly ooutructwt with nMin«y 
deriw from state loaaa or •ubvenUuiu. All the 
Bdm c< Umwvw, HeaM^ and Naoaau are now owned 
by th» atat«. and the whole <4 the ndlwayi of Pni«t» 
will by and by become national prupurty. The ex> 
lenal <iomQiBBicaHon» of I'rviMia an mun dufcctiv* 
IImi) ha latecnal, the Baltic, noLwitbataiidiiig ila long 
Una of eoaal^ '"^K ""'^ *" '■*'*'>^ ■"■• defiokat Id 
foed harbeon. lie principal porte cdF Fruiaia an 
Boir Ucnal PiUan. Kdnlgabcrg, Danzig. Cotberg, 
SwinanUidei, SletUn^ Wolgaat^ Stnlauud, Kiel, and 
Ilanabwg on the Baltic; and Alton*. Ilarbnig, 
OMBtaaHUxle, Leer, aiid Emden on the Xortb Son. 
Iha nenhaot navy a< Pni^a In lS8fi eonriited of 
XO&S VMaeb^ of 4I»),&48 torn ragialrr, of vhkh 2VS. 
<tf it,74S totia feeiitar, were ileainem Among tha 
fcmlv* *«■»!■ wbkb tnda to Piuaalan porta the 
iBonaga of tireat Britain is about one-third more 
than that 111 aiiy other DAtinn. TItc wcoix! plaoo U 
uccn|iled by the Dulcl^ and the third by thn iJ^nea. 
In Himt tif the poru of Pruvln thin- building b 
tiBTied OB with activity. Stettin buihis about one- 
thM of the wbnte. 

CWatV ITe^Ate, «Mf Sfttuura. See GcaMJUtT. 

Oamnwtml, — rraaala b » nMiutrahy hereditary Id 
Iha mala Hm^ and from tho abaonen of recognUed 
eenali tn littnal chedu waa. prerimuly to the Euiupeao 
ivralullonary maTenvant in 1848, In theory abaulitt«k 
The pnaent coaalltiition waa miietly framed by the 
Mrarananl, wfth the aid of tbeeonititnant aaaemblr, 
fa IMS, aiail MwOalmed Slat Jaooary. IS&a It hiia 
been nwdifiad by royal deoeea, of which no fewwr 
ban thirteen ha*« been iMOVd betwe en April, 18M, 
and April, 1878. The Ung, whooe functlom are 
both sxeeiitive and l«iNlktive, attiJna majority at 
Iha «p of eighUan. Ho ia weiiated by a Dounol of 
mtnlHwa aMeluad by royal decree. A repreaanla- 
liva ■aanuy oo a ywe d cf two cbamben auna the 
leglalativeMlhdrt^wlUitheking. ThaMaaentaftba 
U^ and of both cfaaubea la neooNary to all Law^ 



f'inikcciftl proJMla and caliniAtca ar« first aubmilted 
to the lower chamber, and miut either bo a o eep t ed 
without amendnwDt or rejected by the hJeber. Baob 
bniaob vf the legiatatuM has the right of proporing 
Uw& The ujippt ehurhin- or Houae nf I.ntda (Her- 
reiibaua), aa ujudilied by dci-ree uf Oct. 12, 18&f, ti 
ODRipoeod of prinoee etf the blood of the nignlng and 
former aovemgn fanitiea of fall ag«y the heads « the 
mvdUtixad prineip*lltlM, dxteen fai nomher; the ter- 
ritorial nriliilitj created by the king, ab»ut fifty in 
nuiuber ; life peon, cboMin 1>y the king fram the 
iMg* Ijiiidownen, mauiifaeturera, and eminent men 
uf the country; oighl titled nobtamas elected by 
r6^idDCit Iniid.riwnera of all degree^ repreaentativee oif 
tiju uriiktmitipt, lieada of chapten^ and burgnnaatea 
of Wwiu with mure than SOlOOO iohabitanla, metn- 
bara awDinaled by tho king for lif ^ or for a reatrictod 
period, of whom the number i* not limited, 'tlie 
■eooua chamber or tlonae of Deputiea ( llaua d«r Ab< 
^{«ordnet«u), unoo the cnlatgement of tho kingdom, 
oonnblaof 432ni«niberL The primary auaUHoatton of 
oleetom ia baaed on taJtatloD, and ia Ibe aame aa for 
municipal otoctiana. The nnmBiyalectonu* divided 
iiilo ^re« clai ee. aocurdug to ttw amount of tfadr 
Usailon. The fint divUioa ooDiiita of tboae who pay 
the higbeat taxation, the aaeond who nay tho modium, 
and the third of tboae who pay the law<«t amoimta ; 
and the Diunben Id each di«iiion are detemJavd by 
tho total amoont of taxation, which ia equally din- 
tribut«d between the three dividona. Thn indirect 
electon (rrwidiler) elect the direct elactura (Wabl- 
minner), who chooae the repreeentatlvea. The depu- 
tiea on chooen for tbrte yean^ and the new membcn 
tnuat be elected trlthin ax montha of the diaaolution 
of the ehamher. The chamben are regularly con- 
voked each Nomnnber. Mrmber* aeoepUng offiea 
muabberfr-dected. Momberv o( the eeeoM cttanbcr 
rMfldra 2<1 marka IXI | a day, aMOpluoa of iHilt^ k 
obUgatvrr. A leual iiujorlty of iMoban mart ba 
praaont when a nieolution i> decided on. 

/Vmmc«.— The catimaten of pnblin rerenne and 
expenditure aabmitted by the guremment to the 
cbMnbeta are now alwaji mule to balance *9cfa 
uther, but tbe actual expcodilun haa in iveent yean 
ueually beoi nnder the retcnnc^ btoh fai time of war, 
though there waa a deficit in 1875, 1676. and 1877. 
In 1<j;2 the earphM amounted to £^1&8,<KIQ. Till 
1978 the Fruaatan financial year waa the mme aa 
the dvil year, but at that date a inancial year waa 
adofitcd, ondidg oa in Ibia eoualry on the Slit of 
Klarch. The revenue and expeadUura tor Ibe yeer 
1^3-Sl wen encJi eertmated at an amount eqwJ to 
£&4,1S-2.81M. The total debt oa tbe 31M of Mareh, 
1883, waa £103,984.071. A lat^ part of the debt haa 
beea Incnrred tor tbe ououtrttctMui of nilwaya and 
la a proSt-beariog Ineeatonnt. The atate railway 
debt amouoted at the date above me n tiooed to a 
Utile 01W i:2a.239,0l>0. 

JnHa. — ^TUa la adodnirtered in moat of the pro- 
vince* aooording to a general code or Ijwdnebt 
eaubUahod in 1791, but In the greater part uf the 
BhiiM pruvinee aocordiag to the Fnnch onda^ rab- 
jed, however, to oertain uinili&catiaiui For eeoh 
Lvde a lupreane eonrt aita at UsfUn. the one called 
the Gchetina Oberttlbuud, wtdch judgei in thv lait 
reeort wbenvw tbe Laikdreofat ia In force : and the 
other, called the BhciniKfae RevtaloQaund' Koaaa- 
tiuBshof, whIcA be* aindlar juriadlctioii in all ca^et 
decided aeoording to tbe Freoefl cuile. Over eadt 
proviDoe a mperfor nsptal cowl, eallad Oborian- 
Jeagericht. preaidi^ with a power of nvlewlng all 
caaee decided within It; and in each goverament Ia 
an ObervtffaAl, puMcminc a right of revtevlng tbe 
eaaoa deaded witUn the gonrament ia the oonrk of 
primary reaorl llMae Laat tourta oonaiat of a vaat 



SM 



PRUSSIA. 



UBobn vf tottti iuriwllctioaii^ withlii wMoh jiwtloo u 
idd to it for tbo mot put ftdininiHUiwI ohmi^lr, 
expeditjouily, luul [itirel.T, br judgM chiefly ^pointed 
by the cn>wn, but jiartiy li^so by itrivatA putiM in 
pa—MMOn of certain [intrinionuO nrriitiL 

Jldiffion. — TLuuk'L thu rci^iiUii; fuuiily In Prolea- 
tMtt tfasn is no exclusive religious eHlftbliBbmcnt. 
Tl» prilldple* of reU(,'iiiii« tub- mi inn ure pmfrai»i-(!, 
Hu] pnwnui uf oU dpuuininutiutui «» alilui cU((ibla 
for public emplojiutiiit, lujil p-xannn tbo eaiQD civil 
righu. Ths «t»t«, bowovor, distiactty rocogntrot 
tba tvo grct«t bodlM of ProttttanM uid lumui 
Oatbiolici, uut oaly protootliie tb«m In tbelt twpoc- 
tiwti riphtu luiil prqicfUw, but Erectly Interfwinc in 
ihcir i^airt, laoru c«i>eciuily in r^ora to ^o appuict- 
ment lutii pftymont cit thair mJnlatera, uid to thdr 
MBvral nuUM^snwDt. Tha PrcitoatMite «r« go*em«d 
by oonsbtorisa, at tho h«&d of which mm n)t)oririt«Q- 
d«Dta The ItoiDftD CutboUu tre goveniad by two 
«r«bbuhop« had *U blaliiipft. 

&lucatia7K — Pmiwia bu tftk«a tbe le»(I of Kitnvpe 
Iiitii«eat«blj«biii('i)t ■>[ noomplttVByibmLoInatiuiiAl 
sdnutlaD, uid luu eucoe«dM not only in pincinc an 
exodlcDt eouTM of elementary {ndtruL-Ucm within 
the nttch of the ^rekt body of th* ]wop!e, but In 
tndndni;, and wbtm that fmU. to compolling, tbem 
to fvooivo it. The {!onK[)iieDoo is that ft in cxcup- 
tiniul, eBpmftlly in tbo wtMc-m fmviavta, tu nit«t 
with nn tntUvidniil Ihut cajinnt Imih n^iul and wrlla. 
In th* eaatani provlui've, Foitnu. Eut tmd West 
PruMin, and to « lou oxtcot In Slleal*, the state of 
ollAini U not niiite m Mttiafoctoir Tbli happy c«ault 
baa been obtained Tirat by ntabtbhing on odefiniit* 
nnmbar of ■cbooEn In at] parte of the nLonanhy, anil 
then eoforviui; attandanoe by a Uw, which proWdM 
that every child fran the af« at tive ycam cotiipli-tc, 
nnln* twrlificd to be reoetviug e auitablo oducntion 
at hiimc or In a private ivminary, mutt be in attend- 
ance at a nAtional Mhool, until the coune ut iutnuc- 
tion therein providiMl boa bnen received. Ilie edura- 
tlciDol biBUtutloiA uf rnuala an tUvided into olovon 
clBMM,iitdadiii|! technical Bchooli and thetiiifveraitlM. 
PniMla boa ten anlvcnitiea— Bfrlin, Bmin, Brcdoo, 
QAtUnKen, Greifairald, HoUe, Kiel. KiiDigabeTg, 
Marburg, and MUD«t4>r. AJl |.irivste oe welt oa 
public educational eetabliehmenta are placed under 
iheiuperlntendeneecf the Mlniater of Public Icitnio- 
tioiL and oil public teochen ore retpuxlMl oa •crvanta 
of tiwaUtcL 

Armjf and ffarn. Si-e Cihmjibt. 

PtopU.—'Vh.B fiLT greater part of the jhmi|>Io an 
Oennana, but iu »?v«ral qiuutars tho LithiionUu 
ODd SlaroalAn utocks pirepoQd«rat«. 'I'liiu, iu tbo 
Ti«Tth-eMt camrd' (if Ulo monarchy, between the 
Poiuo, AuipiTaj), Guldapp, IVvgnl, and the Initer and 
Metnel, IjUiuaDlaQ la ipolcen, road, written, and 
twugbL Hie Stavei occupy the aoutb porta of (lum- 
bdnneD. R6i)igiber(^ and Marion worder, the are«t«r 
pMt of Poaeu, and no luounciderabta put of Slleeio. 
JP^eneh am fotind chiefly iu the w«et port ci the 
noDorchy, but portly alto in tha province of Bran- 
daobnTu, where tUoy ore domudonte of the Firvuuli 
Fnrteatonte who fo'ind ou oaylun here tcum the 
tyranny of Louia XIV. 

I/ittaiy. — 1'he Kingdrmi of Prturfo, wbioli, in the 
e^iMnd liilf of the Dttiftvciitfa oeatiify,asd b«for« tbe 
ru-fonuftUim of tlie U^rnian Etupire^ poaeoaMd tho 
Buat pownful orsaaiKatiou a&d wielded the gfroatevt 
•D^ uort compact tnititarv atrcngth of any elate in 
Sumpc^ data only fmni tbc IjcginniDg of the eight- 
ee&^ century. Tbo aui*cetlimt bistory of the growth 
of thia atate into a kin^om ii dif ided, bj the natnnl 
order o< the oiroumetoncei from whico » » derived, 
inU) two broncbea. tim more iniportoitt ot thmm 
loUtiwa the rise ol the Electorate of Briuid*abnr]^, 



which forniod tho onrlens of the tntiUA Uafdm, Mi 
contained the print'iple of unity and tha smna of 
ritol aisoaizntion Trbich diractod ita growui. Thr 
ntber nod lee* unp^rtont bnneh relotee tu thtt pt»- 
nnoe of ProHo, wlitdi iucidentoUy irave ita name 
to the Iduirdvut, and which tn on* directiaD deter- 
mined he oxtomal relatioaa. 

During the notithera infmtioo of tfa* Tenteoio 
locai uu the decline of t£* Bomnn Bmirfc the 
nortbvm part of Uermanv tm far woat aa IIM SXba, 
and iucludiD^ ^e inoduni braudeDbotib WM< 
by pt-'iple of SlftToalo race, niien the dia 
Kiupinr uf Charlemuna mode wav in tbe Btnth^ 
tnry for a Cf^muui lun^nin military tnorchce 
catabliih<.-<l for tho defence of the thntlenk Bn»- 
denburg;, whioh hod boon ocmqaand bj ChmlaBigBe 
In 78^ was erected into a morgmviate by Hemy L 
{tho Fowler), king of Gennaoy, ba U24 Otto i 
founded the Uehoprioa of Brwidaabur; uid Hani- 
burg. Albert the Bear, who roceivod Bnadaboa 
naafi«iFfrvim the KnipMorIjothairB(11841,oJUMlii«w 
Uia SUvtinina Wena^ nod took in 1157 the UOeer 
MorgraTe of Bmiideobnrg, H« alio bsM lb«4p^ 
of orohchuDberlaln of tbo empire vhfeh taaimea 
the electoral 4%nity. He bqgnn the cnleohellrw 
of tbe country with Qennon Imadmnbv which «»• 
onotinucd under his laccMKH*. Hie ilj iiiil.i oca- 
tinned to hear rule tilt IHSO, and dnifnf thiapslod 
German ciiUixation wm f^mdually evtwkded In 
I'omerania, Saxony, Bran<l«n,burg, and Sileafo. After 
ita extisctioD thmi followed a period of ■avcfcy. 
Brandenburg t^ll ob a Upaed fief to the cmpite, and 
Loiiia ut Pevana gtire it to hia aou. It oontataad 
in tha Itavorion hnnuB for three oaocaedre ^edmlei 
or reiiTua, and during: tbli p«riod It waa nnaed m 
one c4 the principalities tn which the electorate voi 
rcatricted hj the (intd.n Hull (i:t5tl>. It waa mir 
aeijueDtly ceded to tbo buiwe of Limnibnrg, and 
Charlea IV., tho fint imperial nprcacntntiTe cf tUt 
buuac, gara It BoeceaeivDly to bu acna WiacMlaoa 
(I37S) and Sigimnnnd (I37S}. Si^Bund aold the 
New March to tl» Tentonfc kBwbU la 140^ and 
twloe mortgaged the EteetOfBl iuuidi for hie debM. 
On ttte iecondoccoflion, after ho hod beoMDe enpenr, 
hn nscciriid fmm Frederick, thn Imrgrave td rfftn- 
btrrti, a loon of 400,000 guld flurino, for wUe& Ae 
latter held Bruadenbuig in pawn for aome yeara 
llic enpcror that fonniily agreed to c«dc tbe ekc- 
tumte in lii|mdation of hia debt, and Frederick, le 
whom the esoluuii:« woe aooeptaUe,WB* duly iBTaatod 
in it at the Diet of Ccostonc* la 1117, twa yaua 
after John Hiu hod bcfis faimed by tbo decne «f 
the cuuniil naaeuiblod at the came plnoo. Sl^bBBDll 
WM not awar* that he bod aold th« nnntaa << tbi 
empire to a hooM who ihoold becema the cfaamplew 
of a a«ed aimUor to that tor which Hua onnarad, 
but to thig reoxdl^ thrangli aany rvmarkofab vkW- 
tuilre, the oooree of evente flsally tended. 

The buTKian who bad oequmd tha alactanl Sg- 
oity in thia meroenary tnanner ma tlw dmrinititl 
of Conrad of UohenaoUero, a cadet of a SnaUiB 
house, who bod roceivod in 1200 tbe appalamunt ef 
imperial bur^rars of XUmlwr^, wbkh had faeMte* 
horoditory in hia faniily. Thn older fcroocA d the 
funily cantinned to bold a onudl territory •orodb^ 
lug tbe anoeetral eaatle of HobanicillM^ of vUtt 
they traoed Uuiir lordridp bock to tha Una of Chw- 
lemngno, till 1851, when they ocdvd H to I^naia 
and were reci^nieeil na nrinces ol tho blood. 

The territory wbloli Frederick had acqolivd ha>1 
r«Iapc»d under lbs intpeiial rulers Into a coadiUdo at 
dianrdor and lawlceeneeo. The feudal ooUIitybul 
made thamaelvea saarly indapemtant. Aa fai otfa« 
parte of QanDony they Dad covcnvd tbe eomtfram 
with their stron^iold^ whidi ware llttla beHw thaa 




PRUSSIA. 



S41 



the ftbodM of Kbben. Fredotlck protoeuri ttu 
town* han UwirdapradatiaiM^Mid gnonaDj reduced 
thofa- cmaIm. B«fta« lili jiiiiiifci— o( tlw alaotont* 
b« lu>d wqulnd two nnAll taniloriM h I^sBoomU, 
AiMbMch,4M>dB>ireiitl^th>>eoina«qo«itnaioo<>fwbiiA 
with Um Klngdcon of PriHidft mlMeqacntlv g»T« ri»« 
to bnponaal evvoU. Fkvdefiok dlvidtd Ub poMW 
rioo* BiiMag hia ■oma : tlio Moond, Fndorick, mooMdod 
to tiM atocio wito ^ Mui wat m giw m tly rvunibcil thd t«r~ 
riloriM IwloBtfaig toll. FMariuk II.,vLi')«ucL<ti.'i1pil 
hta iMlMr 1b 14H^ KmI wfao mw ninuaQiKl tho Iron- 
tooUwd, fai bommr of hif military nroiTMi, exU-aded 
Um pMMHkioi cf hla ftunUj bv poUc; u well u bj 
*tJMiT. Us rc^rduMod tbo New March from tb* 
Tmtcado kniohb^ to irhaiD H bad bocn sold liy tb« 
KnipMar 8)(Enimd In 1 170 b* kbdldsMd in fAvonr 
of M> bnOer Albert IIU onrtuuMd AebillM, who, 
fajȣHnt)raniiiuiioa{//aiMt^jefa), prvfMMd tbairaj 
!■ Ml fmpoftjuit ravpect for lfa« futuro gr —tnwi of 
hta booM. In vor aitida GnaiiAKy (wa mbdlvliini 
oo tlM istamol divUcma and govanmant of tbe 
enpiiv) wa h*va noUood tbe pnTal«mna, aven in tha 
Irgw Mb of Um comdnv of tba putitioa of Inbarl- 
tuww HDOif boin at Uka dogtw m % omm of poll- 
tkal dlTtaion, wUdi, Erom tbo ftdaral conctitatirin 
of Ifae enpire nod tbo qiu«i-uid«[»u(lanca uf it* 
pfovad k loiiroe of wekkueaa not uuly to tbe 
wbkb adoneod it, but Im tha otira etaCB. 
rMtlos bMl been iDtroduoed in tb« Ilobaiuwl- 
Qoa of Bnad«aiburg bjr Ita ronntlar. T)ie Hati» 
pnvldwl fnr tba undirlrlvd d««o«nt of thu 
I la «onaectloB with the afectont*. Aiubacb 
I EbUrantb vara peradttad to go to aefMnto hcin, 
Dot mton Ihau two. A bendilary aucCT—ion 
Ibna Mcnred, whicb, fa) th* flact<i»tb>g itata of 
'Gaman bouMa, etcntiwllf made the Lowe of 
_' aa adaqnata rival tc th« bnp«rik] Ana- 
, whila the ciivuraataiica tbat tho h«ro- 
Al«7 i ioaaia riuu a of tba (orawr lajr oblafly vritbln, 
wUb uiaae of tbo Uttar laj cfaiafljr witbout tbo 
Uiaila of Oennaoy proper, finally ttunod tbo acale 
In favoiirof tba mora raoaDtly foraied imvit-r. Allwrt 
naigaad tbo acttta admituattatioD of ui« govvnuDent 
to U> aoB Jobs Cloero la It7«. He di«d in 1 4.se, 
Joba Lwiaaaooaadadial40V br Ida >ua Joachim I., 
who radnaed tba laat atmigbolda of Ida rscalcltrant 
ooUli^. Ha fcnmdad tba fint aniTonlty n tba 
alwtoila. tba« of r^aDUort-on-Oiler, in ]S06; and 
ha aMabliiilwd ■ anMana legal tribtinal (KainiiMr- 
gart^ at BatUn. Ha aaalooaly o{.[.»«<I tba B«f«^ 
■Mrtfcny wUch daHDH bia reiga R<rvsd rapidly bi bia 
dc rm iaio a a. In ISIO ba cKpollMl Um Jews tmm bia 
larritoty. lib aoa Jaaohim IL, wbo auooaadad la 
l&33v anbracad tbe Rafbrmatiao, and -rrtrVT'ihttl 
LutbanaipiB bi 103fr. Thia Map alao axarebad na 
Inportant iafliMnoa on tbe icgtmm «f tbo bcmoei. 
Joaddm Mauirad tbe title of Ilactcr fron tbo valour 
ba dlaplajad In tbe ISuiJab caifDpaljnia aa imparial 
ffmanlifdam. 11* ocxafltcated tho (.'atboUfl bUraprioa 
of Bnadanbuf^ Bnvelbare; and Loboa, and appliod 
tbcir favunaa lo Um andowmant «f adtoola. Id 
isar ba a^nad wltb Duka Radaridi «f LhndU a 
bmaUfawr imloD (ZibvarivOdarung), by vbdeb tbo 
ratanlan <tf tba p rin d p alitlaa of Uwniti. Brieg, and 
M*ob]«a vaa arcnred to tbe UubeuzfJlen) bouae. Htc 
Sntea Yean' war and tbe iMviuiaitiKn nf Sfla4a by 
Vtt dw k k XL of PniBNa wara lb* ultimata reauha 
«f Ibia ■gneaant Ha alao aeqolrad a titU to tba 
IlwdiT cf Pnaate, wbicb will ba nftatwarda aUuiM 
lix Jobn Gaocge aiKcneded in IS7I. lie aibntnia- 
tamd bb atataa wltii a rkw to nliwe tbera ol liiuQ> 
eial embniraBmanta entailed by tbo nofuM axpan- 
dllvre cf bia father Hy wiJoooiiiig tba Uolclk wbo 
w«« drivao bun thair emnlry w paiaae nti pn, Im 
oDirtnbntad totb* ladutiUpn^onty of Ua ooaiilrr. 



Wnn 



JoMbim Ftederidc, who aiuoacd«d In 199S, married 
(lOOS) bia BOO John SigianHud to thoda«^Ur of 
F^wderiok All'art, duha of Pmnria. Ha effactod in 
IflOa with bia oouain Oaorga Aadatiok of Anabacb, 
on tba baafa of tba HanagOMti of 1177, tba Houae- 
traaly of Qara, which waa nftarwarda ocmaidcred tbo 
(uodaiiMatal Inw nf the family. He waa ■ooMwled 
In 1(08 by Jobn Siclairiiuid, wbo unltad tba XKidiy 
nf PniHria to tba aloctcnta In 1Q18, and bna|M 
Braudenbnrs into eontaet with Poland 

Wo iball bengivaaaeparataouttbiaaf tba lilatoay 
of lUa provinaa to tbo pwBt of juoctioo. Tbu oooot 
tanltory betwem tba Vlrtnla and tbe Niemen «■« 
aarly occupied by a LiUinaaiaa roiee ealled Franiao^ 
whom tbe kin)|s and demr of Polaod had long 
andoaTDond to coavnt to Cluiatianlty. Fn4)ably 
tb* wilbniln taken wgi« not alwaya of tbe nxiat for> 
beaHnc kind, and tba I'raaatani ratnmad tbe atlcn- 
tfeoi btatowed on tbam by famada c* tba FttHah 
territory. wUob avontaally bocMm ao alanninjE tbat 
tbe Polos called in tbo Teatnnic knishta of St. Geoga 
tn help them gainst Llicic hvaUien Doigbboura. 
Havtng obt^nod on babalf of tbaii- order a met 
from too ompator of oil tbo Baltic lanA tfaay uonld 
«cini|nar. tba ToBtovte fcidjchtB began n war of «on- 
qnaat in I8SL onder tbe& general, HoraUB m» 
Balolc Tba oonqnoat was eoni|i)otaa is 1389. Tlw 
Tentonle kni^ta nanovod tbelr bcad-qnartcia favn 
Venice to Marienburff. Tikej did much to dvfUia 
tbe aonntiT and !utradaee tbo panoefnl arte of agri- 
oultnie and eooUDeroe, Tbey raadwd tbair gieaUal 
prcopority about 1100, when fifty-flvo walled oMaa 
and for^ffgfat oaatlea, with a largo ngrinillDnl 
[nfnalalJom, ovmed tbelr away. Their rule, howcvar. 
waa attanded wHb tba diaadvantam of a deapotk 
olignrcby. Tba Litbiwniaaa uahwl witb tba Foha 
agninat tbom, and tbqr '"*** dafaatod by Jagellon 
in tb«bittl«<f THiBeoberg, 19tb Jnly, Hia In- 
tamnl dlMBnilani foUowod tltalr dafeat, and tb^ 
power gndoallv deollBad nntU tba oonqvaata of tbo 
Fnleaoompelled tbem in 1W4 toaoeeda tOtboTreoty 
of Tbom,l>y wblch Weet Praada wm oaded entiralV 
to Poland, and East Praasin beM by tba gmxT- 
maatcr aa a flaf of tfaa PoUab oKwn. Tbo Teutonlo 
□nlET nrrw aoogbt tbo pao t aotbic uf tbo Oennan 
prlnoaa by alaoUag adosM of tba great bonaaa to the 
mad>maatanb^ lininmvaAlMtofBrandmibai^ 
Eolmbaeb, a nephew ofSiglanuid. Uiv of FolaD^ 
wao cboosa mnd-uaaler, and irtstalled in iS\% Ha 
rafoaad to do boinage to tba King of Poland, who 
dadarad war on bin in 1519. It waa tetmtoatod 
by a four yoan' trrifle in ] HI tbrougb tbe mediatlan 
of tbo ampwor and tbe King of Uungaiy. In l&M 
Albert oworo ailaglanae lo ue empire^ aad took bJa 
sont In tba IHvt «f NtbnbarK oa an aeJesiaatbnl 
prinoo. Ob tbo tamfantian e4 Um tna* wlib Folaad 
in mi, Albert, wbo bod tnbnedl the RtkKmOiaa, 
nagotialad a treaty wttb Ua ondsv by wbkb bo 
nooanead tba eac l wlaatloal profaorioo ud roealaod 
tb« mvwtitnn of tba King of Pbbnd ai btfadilncy 
Dnbaof Plnuooa under tba PoIUi cnwa, wtth Iba d^ 
of soaeeasloa lo all the pnwiialtM of ibo Taafante 
ord«. Albert IwndadtbnUnivM^ of KflngriMqi 
and folablMbad aebooli tbrm^beat Ua dudiy. Hfi 
Bon FWderidc Albert aueoeedad fall 66S. HeMCMne 
hopelaady liinailc, aixl hk itate* had to be adnMnia- 
tend by a rceancy, whicfa frcm 1 Vffl wna oendoctod 
by bfa aon-in-law. the Kloclor Jobs &lgl8Biind,wbooa 
giUKUather had, aa already meoUoDed, acnulred the 
oo-onfoafbnaitt of the duchy. On bis death in 1018 
tbe dncAiy wh noHed wttb Brandenbtug. 

Abont tbe aame timo anotlur ImportaDt neaawrtM 
of t«rnlJ«;r « >• gained by tho matt «lc«tor. Jobs 
WilUajn, duke of JnUefo, Clbva^ and BetK Oonni 
of La Marck and KaTonaborg, and Lord of Bif i 



•kin, died wiUvrat hnie In 1409. Thtn wcro 
nameroiH clninumt* to the aiiccMaloii, aznong whom, 
In *irtui! <i( lib wifv, wu John Sigiunuoil. By Uio 
Treaty ot Xftnten (1914) Clbm, L* MatOi, aiid 
BaTOuborg; beinj; half tbe suooeoBiou, vr«n< lUMii^eil 
to BrandanDuis. llttu wm laid thn fDiin ration nl 
tl]« Bhlne provinee, whkh brouglil tbo fulum Iduij- 
dotn in ocntaot with FntiiMk Jobs Sletnaaad agi^ 
ehongoil the rcHgictD oE his itAbe b; renonndng the 
XiUthonm for the ('alvinirtic lamfenlon. He waa 
•iiCM«d«d In mis by bis won Gourde Williani. TUai 
terrible cri>U in ^a oS&lre of Ciomiany, iho Thirty 
Yaan' vtr, hjwl now Mrrivtd. Goar^ Williani wm 
tUMqo&l to the occaaitin, HU coulioucHi varillntluo 
bvtwMD the twn ;>*rii<>a probalily contribuMd to 
jjntnot the WW, and braugbt :^1 the cvib of tniiJUtry 
oocijp»li04i Hid oxBctiun upon liii nvrn Ktntoa from 
botb aides, each of vrhum alUviiAU'ly tfv&ieil him 
M m «ncmy. At fi»t ho kdoptcd the eidu >.•( h'u 
bretiier-lii-Uw Otuttaviu AdoIphtiK, but vm toca 
BW^yed f roiD Et by ki* tuiniater Uunnb 8chwaneobai% 
aOatholiciuidpurtlBBnof thehmiMof Awtria. £vaD 
vbU« lio ronuncd st poacc witli the ompeior, TUly aail 
W&lleiutela trnrenM hi« ntAtc* luid kvlod oontHUi- 
tirin« fwm them un>ip&riii|j]y. 3Iaiiefel<l unA GuaLMVi 
Adolphua (XMupjcd thtan in trim, uid h« was com- 
[lelli-d tu i!(.-d« to tho ktter lh« fortrvuBp* of Sfxindou 
andKUfltrio. HaafCenvftr(Utnakth<.-Hi<ii!o(Uutil*viu, 
Init on his deittii mAde y<iu:t nlLli thtr I'mperor, nsd 
agiunnxposed hi>stkta« to tho tnciirKinni MidexscniMis 
of tbv Swodlsh gentirals, who tnvvraed therm at thuir 
plosann, and r«maiiiod in occupoitlon of them at his 
doftth in Ifiift. ThiK n cri«i» which in the hnnd* 
ut Ik buM uid ikilful Jeadnr might hnvB ntiuli.' tli« 
foituD* of the rising st»l«^ brought it to the brink 
at rain. At his duth wbota tncti of raimtry M-crc 
depopnlktAd, knienltKim wm neelecCcd, triulc^ Mid 
conunoce abandonrd. tt i> ranly tbit micb oppur- 
tunities nr« Icit with imgiunlty, bnt fortune did nat 
yet abandon the botuo <if Braudcnburg. Frvilerick 
Wiiliain, unn of th^ pre^odicg, inmani*>i the (Jrwit 
EIecti>r, And wbo may ba regudod m tbo viriii*! 
founder of the Pnadan atonwoky, arorted the |ini- 
gKM of calamity, and soon j[»ve a praeperuns turn to 
tfacatfunnT th'Ratiita^ Throush thajoaliiiiiy r>F(1nnnt 
SchihiLrzviiborv lio had |MMeu lain youth fiu" fruui the 
court, and had been trained to anna In the camp of 
Kmdorick lleory,prinaoof Orangft. A fullor account 
than we oan here give of hit rciffn wil! be found in 
cor UoffiKihical wtlole uider his name. He becaa 
by ooDCJa^ng a treaty of nmttality with Swodon, 
by which he fn«d the dn't^ratc fmtn boAtile cxcti- 
palioa. The Rhino pn»-iiii.-e he cIbmbiI by nminl 
toix». At the Peace of Weetphalla UOIS^ ^^ was 
Gooipclled to oede Wect Ponwrania and the Island 
of UilgtrQ to Hwedeti, luul received in exchange the 
bLaljuprica uf HalbeoratAdt, KUnden, anil Kaiumiu, 
with thn TOTCTilonnf the Archhhbopirlcof Magdeburg 
tuid the ioriifliiiw ut Lara and KletteabuT^. By tlie 
TKaLieatkE Vchlau (IQtb September, I6&;) and Oltva 
(23d May, lri<jU>l'iw»ecMnnl thi^r«c-)i,iiiliou by Poland 
and Swodtii of the independence of Pnusia, ami WH 
recoffniied m M>vcreign by the ITlunaa Matoi at 
KiitdipibvrK in 1663. Beture «eciuing the IndeDCod- 
«nc»of ivimia be b>d, throngb theeagendMOt war, 
tnuts(viT«dhiR«llui(innce(nnaPolsDdloSwodoB. He 
Allied blmeelf with tbe emperor and Holland afainst 
Franco and Sweden (1678), and conducted the war 
with nsmiukAlda vigour snd micccigi, bnt triu ci-iin> 
p«|]«il by the weakoeM uf tbu eiupi-n^r to uiivktf i>r»M) 
on dlHadvaLtiMlMlil tonus by the Trvaty o{ St. (Ger- 
main ea ] Aye (SiKb June-, 1 *\'9). 11ic Silniau priooi- 
palitJai fell vacant during bii rei^^ but the euiuonM' 
refoaed tn reoognlw his revenioaary treaty -nj|lit, 
Mid appropriated them to himadf h osoheatad flelB. 



Circnnwtaii«M only nennltted TrtOtMt WIDlim 
pratMt. Ko forined a standing army, and la __ 
tu iMuvide for Ita m^ntenanoa he vinlatod the la^M 
and the fcndal pri>-i]sges of his subjecU, de|Nt*ed 
the octiitoi nf KnuidcoibniY and Pnaaia of tba li^ 
of iiniulbi; Buppliei^ and redooed tbdr fcma to a 
nullity. He thus fonnded the dcspatk) power wtdd 
BO loBfdiBtiapuahcr! iha PruMlan moaarcby. Prid- 
eriokwiUiau towards the eloeo of his roi^ activdj 
Interested blm*elf Ln thu conlcmplatMl rspMiilkai M 
the Piinoe of Omngo to KngJMicL He had p«uMt«ed 
his BUpport to William, and nugaged to relsaae Mar- 
shal Hcbunbors, who wu in bis Berriee, wbenevcr 
William should require him to aid in the eirpeditkA. 
Kiwifrlrk William dind 29th April, 1(188, and wm 
■uocecdcd byhiason Frederick, the third eleolarfl< 
tlut niune, iuid tlie actual fimnder ia 1701 «t tbe 
Pnimian moiiirchy. The tiirm had now ootne when 
thu prudonw and foieei^t wbleh bad Arertsd 
energies of a moesMioa of able nilai^ Uuwb ' 
mplod at a mamentoiu eri^ bj one ioMpaM 
«nu to meet ita natural raward. The Gnat ~ 
bad steadSy directed Us efforta fco tbfl 
of the power of his stately axkl to tbo placfa(r "^ tbe 
central power upon an indepeodeDt fbettac, Nonl- 
nally eubjtet to the Gcmuut Empire fur lae balk c( 
hi» poweadonB, tbe wealcnoM of tbe nntral jnwsr 
of the entire wa* btnngfat bo familiarly within tbe 
range of his own obeorvatkin and experieaoc^ thai tt 
did not raquire fab asgadty to anticipate Ibo ptoba* 
bility uf iu decline or extiDction. In a fadseu alee> 
Uyo monarchy where the ocntral Dower wm atnmg, 
the ambition of tbe miwe powetfoi Bwaibem el the 
ofrnfedention might be expected to turn no tbe bo|ie 
of necurlng tbe re*«nnon of tbe mprwrne powsr, and 
nothinL' -wonld be done wtlbont a ■tnng eoBBMr* 
iii(.tir(r to weaken It When In nob « MaU tbe 
central pownr is weak, tbe peesaMJOB of it implies 
dane«r, which tboee who have moat to tisk wQl ooco* 
moi^yhetDcetcauttoiiEofenciinntering. 'llMMraigth 
of tbe cenlm] power of tbe German £mpii« had 
como to depend almost (entirely uwa thepersonal hi- 
bcredttaiy poMeaicos of its holder. Wimd this is 
the coatt the risk Is greatly increoaed by a tranafer 
of power. The probable enmity or oppadtion of aa 
exdoded claimant, who, h the hrir of tbe former 
bolder, would Lma^e his rigbt to bo preferable, and 
tiie rcliictanco of the pnrtiiuuis of the old power to 
cliangn tboir Blli'i;ianop wiiulJ at least hare 
rucliuued u'itb. Iu tuch cirriinnCanora tbe am' 
of the mere powerful houacs will aatimUy tend 
inHqicnilcnce. and this may explain bow tbe alaolirt 
■uccwriiin ountiuuird ahuoet without iateRvptbxi la 
tbe line of Austria, whiefa had beoomo by far tbe 
most powerful of tbe Gufmtm boune ia respect to 
tbo exlrnt <rf lid lierediUUT' {XWesalMUl, while the 
central power itself, m reprcMnted bjr the dirt^ in 
which the inthieacoof Austria was panKDOiiat,bvauna 
miiiinily weakor. The final renniKlatloa by Aortria 
heiaelf ot tite Imperial powor, to(;«tber wllb tfia 
abeorptioD of many ol the weaker slataa by tbe 
atronger, though brvui^ht about by external ereats 
of the mott Tiolent kind, wu not an uiaatwal bPM 
of the internal orgaalutloo of the enfliaitaelf. But 
of tbe Gannan at a t w^ with tbe exocptiaa of Austria 
bemlf, none bad been idoi« svoeeMnil In eztaodhg 
ita power than die EWtont* of BnutdBslinrff. Ik 
puasMsions lay more within the natural limits of At 
empire than those of the imperial bouse, and tbey 
biut t«cn DonaoUilated ns far as their ntnatlcn Klmit- 
lod bv tbe Gnat Elector into a bamosvaeous body. 
Tbe iJrctorate had tbns hcMBM a kla&daa la all bol 
bmame. It wm arJsiuK IcingdcoawiuinadediBiBg 
empire, and it wm natoral to wish that lbs bbhm 
and milk of the stale >bould correBpood with in 



I 




I 
I 



k. 



pBraatA. 



343 



mMua ukI powor. TUi iru the unbltinn of th« junr 
•lack*, ftod Im fmuxl Immm b> Kra>tilv it. Amonif 
lk« Cni ads of Ui» ihctorwaro b^ join t>tf< Cnui'l 
AUiuK* agafaHl Vtaneov In whlcti, Ijlcn IJi (ftlhor, 
be vu ia^MDMd bjr KUgioiu u well u by poUtLtttl 
viewi^ ud to do all in bin pawn fat forward tbe 
mt wpdw «f Um Princs of Onng^ who wh hb 
*m^ oa EkglMtd. 

Sooa liter th« tennfaatiiw of the flrat w o( the 
Gnad AUkitM (I'mm of K^awkl:. U'Jl) tbo .^Irc- 
tor onttrtd into a lr«Uy -with tba eiii)>(iror, hy which 
fa« ntodvad pinnMob to iMuuto tbv title >A kiQir 
is ooDBOoliao with hii «z-Oanauk priacipAlttjr ed 
PniMfa. By tUa tn^l^, c»I)cd tbe Tnaly at tbo 
Crown, bo ongagcd to nppoit Anatrift tn tb* dfot, 
to gin him mctcnl rot« in favour of th« ompoior'a 
ow, and to nwktelB for tho Mjrrioe «f tbe «na|>u« 
Ml army of 10,000 men. TbtMi ontuUtitiTw, for Ui« 
fulfiltDOit of wbi«h tb*r« oi>ulil bu ni) t,ni«nuilco, 
ahow H cicuty tbo wi'nknen of tb« emperor u thu 
ambttioD of thia ele«tnr FWiarick imiiMdikbely pro- 
ooedod to Kuai)[abery, wd croirarwl hhnaoU King of 
Pmaaift od thr IStb of Jaonir^ 1701. Tbe accvn<] 
Gnnd AlliaBco waa oomdadM «g«fawt Fnuco in 
Sactanbvr vt tbe nmo rear. In ipfte of Ibo exor- 
booa d< the emperor, the Blector of Boraria aod 
eibw Gemuui piinooa joinod tbe French aUiane^ 
but tbe oew Klntrilciiii ct Praaiia aided with Anotria 
and BnglaDd, and th« I'maiiaii tnMtfM diating^iiabed 
tbenaelrea by tbe aide of the Euf-liafa at Blenbeini, 
BandBen Ondeoanlc^ ami ^fnlI)lu{1l■>i Fred«ckk 
dM in ma. Hli eon. FroOorick William L, u 
MUbBiy aad ignorant, bat weU-neaDinf d«no^ 
fOVcniedPnuna till 1740. Hiarrignwaaontbewhele 
peaceful, aod aa be did not negloct the material prea- 
perity ot bia nib}ect«, tbe ownntTT gnw matJy in 
pomJatioe, induatrjr, and w«alth. His ymtaoaj en- 
aUodhhn to fill tbe public treMary witbonloTifirwdnff 
Uweoontrr. Hia<Ug<pa«iaa WMfor mOllwydrU^ 
and ho had a paitknlar atanla for cnltivatiu; aeorpa 
ei laU aoldien. He arentto warwitb CbarlM Xlf, 
and acqaired part of ruiaeranla, wiih Strttiu, fn^ni 
Swedaa. He save a OaUona and lokcwana aadat- 
•Boa to Hm smpemr tn tbe war of the Polish Sac- 
Mai«& Ho left at bia death a |>m<|iFTi>ua oattutrr, 
awaDaapplied tr ea a m y, aad an army of 70,040 man 
la Ua aneowaor. Fnderiek WUliaB baa 8«|vlr*d 
ib> gnatarpart of Ua nnown (mn bia treatment of 
Ua aon. TlW kinr waa a rery aUiti Calvinirt, and 
awdaOTOOiwd fa> bring up bia family with the luuet 
•mpalaoa attealton to tbatr retinloiN prindplaa, Int 
ha waa fa^arant, or ralber boMlle to learnta^ and 
ho mpeaed fai hi* aoa'a odacatioB hi leave out tbe 
atudy of the riaaiinil langoagea, biatoiT, and litera- 
tim. Wedatiek, who had aDqnlrvd aooM Eterary 
taatca, waa aa nadt oppoaad to his father'a plana aa 
he waa arena to tbe atrictnoM of thi: diacijiline to 
wbiab be waa8ab>ected. Having failed in an attempt 
to laa*« tbe eoonti^, ba waa bnnlabed from court 
Bfa father triad to naduce him to rannnnce tlio aao- 
utaalt», a&d bat foe tbe intarlemioe of tbe empanir, 
wonid ptobaUy ba«e |wt htm to death. I<Ved^k 
Q., awwuntd the Gnat, wbu auoceedud to tbt: crown 
tm tba death ot hie father in }7it<, waa in many 
t eape ti a a ountnet te liia Lntbana and OalriaiBlic 
aacaaton. Tbe Ugot^ of hia father had. by a nata- 
nl wc tlo>, driven han to indiff«r«kM KM aoapti- 
dam In ra^ai. HIa literary taatea had broiuht 
him Into intonale and ayiniMlheth) retatiena with tbo 
phflewpblc Ubanlimoil Fratace. Dnria; bia exile 
Cma eotut be patreolnd saholan and oorranoDdad 
with Voltaire. Tbe KnperorCbarteaVl. died ontha 
aotb of October, 1710, and left bia hereditary poa- 
k i—iuna to bia daoffbter Tbcnae, and witb than the 
I fKUrfas prindpaUOc^ whkb bad Uen appropriated 



mder pralaat of tbo Great EboCor. Ths toNfelH 
which the Buooeaakoi of Maria Tberoaa waa Ukely to 
oirannn afforded Fradaridt tbe of^ortamty of en- 
furdng hia chlm. B^ had been preparincr for war 
from u)e time of hla aooeeaion, witbont harlnr dȣ- 
nitdy fixed on any object but ttie aci(uiaition of gloiy 
( ' I ja utisraccifiR de mlr man no«n dana laa gmsattaa'— • 
Letter to Jordan). Ee iaradad SDeeta wtlbont eata- 
mony, and then made {wopoaala od allhuwa to Uaria 
I'hcrcaa, wbidi weca leje^ed arith iadunatioa. Tbe 
firet sncaiuitaT of bia tivopa with the Anatriana bad 
very imi-orlant reeolta, for ft abowed tbe derialve 
auiwriority of tbo Pnwian dJadpUna and drill. In 
tbn miitticr of rapidity of lirin); their adrantaga 
appean to bare licen tbrn ae |[reat aa in the modem 
battle of Sadowa. Frederick waa pervnaded to floe 
ook a pioUmiaary defeat of bia calvarv, and leankad 
at Tjowen that hi* troop* had gained Ibo battle of 
M;.ll<nti, 10th April, 1741. At the pamadoD of 
£u^laad Maria Tfaeraan oatored faito atvotiotioiw 
with bim. tiBt failed in Goming to an nadaratandine, 
nud Kmlrrick, in a aeorct traaty witb France, btb 
J aoe, 1 7 4 1 , an-eded to the leafoo fanned aninat her 
by the Treaty ot Kyupfaaaoug. atlpalaaiif tor » 
reoognition of Ida right to Lowar SUent. Byntrtnt y 
begun at Bradan, June 11, and eonohidedatBeriln, 
Jvif 38, 1742, i^ederidc obtahMd from llaria 
Tbcrcaa, on conation of stutrality, tho ciicn, with 
the euMptlon of aomo apecilicd diatrlota, of both 
Upper aud Luwer Sileaia, and of Glats. Taldag 
alarm at c«Ttain tnatlai condudad by Haria Tbwrte^ 
wfaidi aoomcd to threaten an attcniTit to rooonqaar 
aOada, Freden'clc entcmt into an alliance witb tbe 
Bni perur Cliarlea VIL (the Kl««:Uir <J fiararia, who 
had hern uiuuiimoody lihuaaii at the Diet of l^ank* 
furt. January, 174S>, who bad been driven faon Ua 
dotninlona by tba Anatriana, and whom Frederldt 
undertook with the Hdata&ee of Fhinoe and Bwaden 
to rwtora, It WW aeoelly f^nUtad that Bavaria 
waa to have Bohemia and Pnaaia Sileaia, Tbia 
treaty, called Tbe Unionel Frankfort, waa aigaed by 
the emperor, the bln^, and otbar (terman ntnoai^ 
22d May, 1744. In Angnat Froderk^ invaded D»' 
benda, and oomBKBoed what la ealled the Seeowd 
Silaian war. Pr^oe aoneadered to him oa ICIh 
Beptomber, but Hl-aupparted by the alliaa^ whom bo 
bad fcrmeriy daaertwIL bo waa oompoUed to ntnat 
before the Anatriana and Saxooa. Tba TTalen ol 
Pranltfort waa oppoaad by the Quadruple Alllanea, 
indnding Aoalria, Great Britain, tbe Nathcriaada, 
and Pnland and Sawny. In 17l.''i Fmlorldc (."ained 
vtetorfaa over the Anatriana at Mri«^an, Jane f. and 
at Sorr Beptaanber SO, bat tbe death of tbe £«• 
peior (Aarba VIL <Jaaiiary 20) bad broken no tba 
allianoe, aad the fitgUah mlulatry eserted laen- 
adrea to raatoca paaee. Maria Tborwa waa in- 
willing to come to tarma, Int the continnBd awir w ai 
of the King of Pruaaia, wbo bad invaded aad oen- 
quered Saxony, octnpeDed bar to Uatea ta the leaDoa- 
atraacaa of her alum. Pcaoo waa oondnded at 
Uiadan, 16tb Doceanber. 17Ul Baiony paid a onb- 
aidy to Praaata^ and Aaatrla ooafinBad tba OMdon of 
Said% wbkh waa gnanntaed by Great Britain. 
rivdetkk a(fcnairiade«l FkaMla [., tba hnaband of 
Maria llMna^ aa enperor. nwderick aeqdred 
Eaat fUaalaad by tbe death of tbe bat sriaea In 
1744. Tbo war of Bnooowion waa eoBtumed hy 
France tUl iha oBOchadcn at tbe Treaty of Aia-la- 
Cbapell& October IB, 174a It waa followed by the 
SoMa Yaaia' war, npna whkb the militarr fame ol 
Fredwtok nainly teata. The Treaty o( Sitadn 
bad araaaed in the mind ti Uaria Thwwa a faaUac 
of raaeotoMnt agaiaat Ortat Britain, no ateady 
•appurt wbiefa that nower bad lent bar In tba da/eara 
of her tlmaa waa oaarly porehaaed In her eyea by 



S44 



PRUSSIA. 



Im >^ o rtffclfl t wtaln DM DMB put on mv n tc^wq 
fa Ute minritfT of nfliwi Ha irmtiHiTT Coami 
Kanitc, httd Esmed tbv aAm* << obUbv Twkw 
■Dd AiMri^ tbt cmgrfnf priaefpabh ^latvmr 
■gifaM Pnadb Wv WM pending on M) AsMrfau 
qaairton Iwlwaeu Pnmen anJ Engfitwl. BmrfkWM 
sowtod \>j Wtb aUii^ Mad Um EnprMB ElbaUth 
■ad* an alBnM irfa Gfwl Biftil> for tb> impoM 
«f faedvlif OM «f the llbenl nbiidiu wUck ft had 
Imoobm the cneton «( thaX power to S'*'^ *° '**' 
alBf^ bat witlt tba fattcntka o( turai^ aniMt ber 
«b«B At mr begn. A mm* tlBaan wm tinuSf 
tecdrtoM hitwiM TTimIi tiiit liTrii, pi-IHint 
i« th> <mi» <d »Bjag g n m *a morewMat eo the pit 
«< Frae^ egilnit «uEar for the iwinl cd Oe A w 
tri«B ddn OB aileii&. PhmU me is the newi- 
tin* pro^Mrinc Ibrod^ the Isterralof maoe. Mid 
Fndnidc wh ^UardiM. to naiatein H. He alto «rai 
eollok^fa]rlK<UiPniioe«MlEi«knd. Kotnap««t- 
lay lb* podbOitj of aa alUuee betiraen Aaatri^ 
■kd Knaoik and b«ii« treeled with too Ultie een- 
BBcBj bf the lattv, he ckeee the KnffiMb alHitDO*. 
Hb trwtr o( DentnlUT «Kh Eaglend (I«th Jura- 
W7, 17IW) okfaled KMnte to pnH with man 
eOeot Ut aOiiaoe ^» the Fmbcb eoort AnuMg 
other enteodiw proiac tj bie echeBM embreoed the 
putWoa of TnmU. Auetito ww to t»r« SOeik 
ud Glatt; BoHie, Ceariaad; P6ha± Pnad*; 
Sumy, Uagdeba^: mm) Swodra, Foncmiift. 
noDOO ooocli^ed K trealv at BeutnUtT Uid mntnel 
gmnatoee witli A-iotriftln May, VSn. Befort tbe 
■dmMi of bia kdrcneiiiB wen matnnd Fk«d«ick 
rofolred to eatidpAto them. lie wrote to Georae 
n.: 'ItiibeUertowtlcirwtatliMitobeaiitktpMled.' 
In Angnrt, 17M, be iandad Bazoajr, entefed Diw 
d«D OB 7tb September, sod pnbliihod the doapfttdee 
which prond the e^ktoneo of the eoheme ta pert]- 
tioa FnuuA Bngjud now oponly ratcnd into » 
delmlve oUIuoe witlt Fraderid^ ud mbddbed 
hiBL The ftUiee, vhooo pIabs hed beea dtecorered. 
Auetri* and lli« empire^ n«nce, Riieu% end flwedvn 
pnpand (or tnimedleto koetfUtSee. Tlie Diet, do 
the oonpWtit ol the Eloctor of Sosony, decUred 
PioderioK gml^ of ■ breech of tho LAwifriad^ or 
pfoe of toB empire, end nwited n threefold oon- 
tbgrat of trow egKlnet Um, Intt the Ncathorn 
Suta prottotod eguuat the dedBioc, entd U»d tbeir 
tioopo to KcgUad for the hMum of IftimU. 
The «oei*l eourae of evente of thia war iriU be 
BoratnUysotlcod in na article on the Sn'SxYXAlta' 
Wjul, Tht ImmenM foraei which hie oseraiea were 
■U* to briag into the fleld rednoed Froderielc to 
(he m«t«*t (Iraite, Mid f»Te opportnnjly for the 
deTelopiiwDt cf tht- bi^b (lualitio* of Ktratoeic gmtioBi 
Biond dnmieB^ adiI putrlvtlu devotiom, vraim Imto 
pluwd hie nuDO ejooti^ the world'e boroos. "Towa^ 
the olnao nf the ku the Eoarllab cel»Det b^an 
to drew off from the Pruadeo aJlienoe, but tixn dsath 
of the £mpr<M Slheabeth, January fi, nt% broke 
np the aUianee wainat Pniada, and the Peua of 
Hnhertaborg, l&tE Fobninry, 17 fi^, cnntirmml thn 
Treaty of Berlin, According to FrtHlrricV* calcula- 
tloa SM,OCK} aen had poriabad in a war which (allod 
1& offedine eoy tafTftorial diangei Ite moral ntmlt 
wae that PniMia wee dcfw mnnlod aa one of the 
graat power* of Europe. The S«v«a Ye*r«^ war waa 
oorbuoly brought xtfou Pnusia by the conduct of 
Fredatiok hlnuelf at the begiTtning of hia rei^ 
which liad arouaed Lbe reacntnient of Marw Theraw; 
bat Uic dan^r hning av«rt*it, It was now to bo iMii>n 
whul itn^ituwion hiui b««D niAiie ou Krvderick by the 
leeam he had teeeived against encaurnglng ■gmulTe 
dongoa. Daring the war Frederick bad declarad 
that the indepenoenoe of the Polish Hepublic depended 
on Iha power of the Houae of Bfandvuburif. Cath> 



II. had 



rK 



tlndos Polaikd aad teritad ti 
•tick. Tb* PolM. <m the ether hMtd. 
to «Joct a m/ricrafpi fcoae hfa hwee. Bol K 
could set afford to eaeantar the faialfllty of 
bo tberofoi* oatewl into * treaty wllh CM Ilw I ll 
n., At^ 1704, for Rgalatiag the aSaiB4« IWend, 
aadpuchag Staiddaoa FeoiatowaU on the I hi M^, 
wU^ wae eOeetod hyBBafaa ud Fraariaa aw 
The np«d adnaco ot BimU fn bar war with tht 
Tm^ ■iibeennently aiuuwil the j ial w r (d l*wi ^i 
aa of other powera, aad btooj^ ri«di«lck into toa- 
Unmob with the Bapant JoMph XL Two latw 
riem took plaM at S'eta^ fa SOarin, ia AapM. 
17B», and KeMtadl. fa Umn^ m geptoabfr, im. 
and h eeana |wiilMlile. althoosh aot hu i l tfaa dUw m 
the nAjec^ thai the termi of tiie petthioa of f eland 
wv« diacMMed at theae intcrrtewa. JimnedutalT 
after the fawt of ifaen enne dkbrMi of Pblwd, <d 
whkA AnatiiaB trcopa had alnad / taken p o w idaa, 
w«r« dedaiad rsoited to tha Kfagdon ef Bm- 

5TJ. About the eeme tirna A» VrsttiMam, m a 
TOlcqapreto»^riolntedtheboi»diie^ewl fa »aded 
tiM tvritoriM ot the rmMia. NeontiatiaM ww 
th«a entered fnto with Rnala en vbm donfaln a^ 
jeot of pcKo with Turkey aad the partMea H 
Poland. The intrigo** ot the vancMia powvn (B- 
ngod in thii Iraaaictionbdoaenwira pr^wtytethe 
hirtory of Poland. Raain lad Pmnta lukda a aipa- 
nOo treaty, 17th F<Awnary, 17TS, aad oo 6th AogM^ 
1773, the tarm* cf th» partidoa were arranged tn a 
triple treaty beCweca the thi«o pow^n. Prodi 
eblafaed all PcMorania, «xe«p« Daadg aad ila taii- 
lory, and a pcrtioB of Great Pdaad ea te nd to g fron 
thaNawMansh toFardaoaodSoBtsonthe'Vialnk 
and to th« river KeUe, togvtbar with the gwa hr 
part of Weotem or Poliah Piuala. Tba min <f 

Wetl PruMia with the kii^dom was of the | 

Impertaneo, aa H had hitherto bn>k«i the oenMaiit- 
cation betwMn tb« paaae«kinB of the &aw laMtM^ 
in a nwat awkward way. The Barariaa wavtmim, 
thiDwn open by the axtinetioa of tbo direca Sa^ 
indnovd a war between Awtria and PnMda b 177S 
and 177B. la the oegotlatlou for tbo MtHaateat of 
thiaqiiM«)analTeacboo,13UiHay,in0, thaaana- 
ation of Aaabach and Baireoth to Prwani^ at (be 
oxtinotlon of tbe &eot Uii«, waa proridod for. A 
league called the Ftuataobuai wa* (onood by Fkid- 
orick to uphold the trnna of tlie I'oaoe of T«a- 
ebon, loto whiiA GeorKn III. entend aa Elector it 
Hanover. Frederidc <£ed I'th Augwt, I'Ml 7h* 
latter pact of hia ralgn had beea on the whob oae 
of p«A«c and of gr(«t growth and proeptai^ ea the 
tiart of Pnuuia. Fur hi* private chancter eco the 
liioifrapldcal uoUco ubcIm' hia naake. The eariy dan- 
gera of hia rtaga had ted to one pecoliarity IB hh 
Tiew«; which titoiled to rertanl the derelofOiail of 
the oonntry*! naourcae. U« had an aveiWMi to good 
rvada aa a maana of opening sp the coim lr y to wi 
enemy. Wm other neosomioal projecta wata aaA 
n« in the ofonion of tbe day wer« bait ad^itod for 
proruotlDg the Indnstrlal proepnity of tba kJaedoB. 
lo rcligioD be oetablhhod oompleto tolemticw, beiag 
iniiifTcroDt to the enlaiaaa held by hii mbjeoei n- 
garding it. The londrtcht, or PraadaB oode M 
Uwi, though not piihliabed darinji tbe relga of l^ed- 
orick, waa iiroparwd by hia uhancellor, Crant Kamer. 
Ftodaride waa ncoeedad by Ua aacbow fVadMick 
William II. In 17S7 be ntertatad the Prinee d 
OrancB, l>y an >rm«l ioterrentioB, in the atadthot- 
dunlii|>of HuHnud, and in 178S oMiolodod a dafrn- 
bIvb alllanoe with Knglaad and HoIUad, known a« 
the Triple Ailianco. I'he oonunencenent of F»de- 
riok William'* reign had been hailMl l>y hia aobjeota 
in bupe cf aooia nlaxadoa of the daepotisni of tbeir 



I 




PRCrSSIA. 



l»lno«h b«l than bepaa mn doomed to dlsappoint- 
BMBt Tb* lUBgiofiM^rt Mil the Uenaar«<tk:^ 
(■Mieil io 17S8^ abmrad that iotoli^nuMe wm ^nia Kt 
pvndl tanattanlnwUdi il liwl )i«<>iimUx*d. lli* 
9tttin <i Torksj oocadoood Mrioui dUTarenota bo- 
tWMB AiutrtA aad l*ruMi*, wliich on tba MSOMaloD 
df Laopuld I. hiwl nnrt; rraulted In war bat won 
paaewMy ^rrnngf.! hj tba CcmwDtioik OC Bddwn* 
t»A, AnpuE &, IIW. All syM were now turned on 
tbfl |)ra|[taM of tha Pnneh rerolutioa. Fraderiiik 
WfltuA amMuUf •i«tod hiiDMlE in tbo muim of 
Lonii XVL, and cm S7th Aiiipiit, 17B1, b« iaued, 
la cMijaiKftioD with the cmpervr, the laiuoua decU- 
ntioa of Pilnttz, nunmoniEig the Karopcan powcn 
to kiattiil. Ttio [irinrijiAliLiRt of Anabach and Ibu- 
rmth wn, towards tlw clow of tbu jou, lit(Kjr{>o- 
rmtcd with PnmiBt balrig o«l«d to tha oravm by the 
nutrgnm. In 1792, w«r hmvinj; alnady bvon (ic 
cbuvd lij Um FVctich witbnritjiia Bgaiixt the ompirQ, 
tb* PnMiMui, utii]«r ili« l)uko v( ItruiMviok, faivadMl 
Fnue*. Tb«<rw«nd«fe*todb]rK«UanunAtVBliiiy 
<n 20tb B«]>tonber. Jt*]oaqr of Anatfu, Mid dii- 
aMMBOOta wfth Uut power about tbo allitin of 
mTMikaad Pobitd, aoon todooad Preditrick William 
to wflbdnw fr<an nctiv* oo-oparUioB ia tbu war i^f 
whkb ba bod bats tba pttiM norar, notwitliitundlnr 
th»t ba h*d jnat «aaeKiilad » tnatj villi £ui;Laad 
lor tba proMontinn nf tbr> war. What n-nudimd of 
PeUod after tb« lart partition had ftUen almost 
eaaBplataly nodw Ruwian InHuenoe. Tb« att^injitd 
of a patnotfe pattjr in Poland to throw olT tbc y«ko 
lonaed tba pcetaxt of a iww paititinn. An uixicr- 
■<MnHiig waa oome to by the parttUunlntr powers on 
<th Jamiaiy, ITVS, and twolva days altw a PrUMun 
umf estend (ircal I'nliuiii A dscUratioo, diar- 
fiiig Iba iiihabiLuib of JJamtK witb botdln^ i«*olu> 
tbmaiT orinlofts and Mit«rtaiiiiiig imMendly ftwtlnsB 
to Fobad folknnd <?4lh Ttabnuir). "The dty wu 
MotifcsHad and tahm, 8tb April. A pradatuatloD or 
fMtsat was ako bsaed on S&ih Miirdi to tba iabaUt- 
■Bli of tba Pilatiutaa of P'aen, Gnaaan. KaUn, 
ttwad% Laatodtitt, lUva, Plotak, and aoma otbor 
Jhlriot^ fakohKlii^ tba towns of Hamis and "ntoni, 
Ibat tbsy wars beiM«fortb to ooDtlder Uissaselvas as 
Prasiaa aabfacta. By tbs Tnaity of Gtodno^ rigaed 
9Mb SaptemW, 17»:i, the RapnbUe of Polaad c*dad 
Ibe tnorrlncr* alrvKly sciiaed te PioHa. Um tbiid 
partAion of Poland. lUtb NovsndNr, 179^ (ollowad 
lb* aappaariOB of tba iaaamctln MuAaa by Koa- 
diika Praada obtabiod the pwtloaa of th* Palati- 
of RaTs and Flotxk oot praTiously uomplei]^ 
of Masovis, Podlacbia, Troko, and CracoTia. 
I Wanaw. Tbia dirtributwa waa modifiad 
■II7 tbnngh Ota KwoImbIo vara. On 
1, ITWt, Pradariok William anltrdy ahaa- 
I ocalition, and dgnad thn Pesco of llsaol 
with tbe F^voob BepuUic By Uih tnaty Prussia 
offirad banalf m swdLslor for tbe arincaa of tba 
, tbu eocroaching 00 tba ptivflagaa — agntd 
I Oannaa oonrtitatian Io tba oroparc c A Una 
Mnlnllty wbkb abonld mm Noitb Gannaay 
n Intaaioa waa alipulaled (ot. In tba crista of 
tbs ercntfid campaign of 1796 this trsacbaroos piJicy 
was carrisd sUll further. A new Ibe of nautnUty 
waa fomad. and tba stat«e looluded in It wan 
fadneed to witfadraw tbair aiifport from tha fmpafial 
anUea, whUe hj m aacnt treaty FmleTick WOlUm 
Bgiaad to allow tba Ftwrcb to adranoa tboir fr-jntlvr 
ta tba Bblaa, oonpaaaatiaa fcr Umaalf and oihvr 
Mdalar priaeea betaf provided by tbe secularitatloQ 
of itfifbalaathal ^njk^mm in Gemiany. Thus wm 
a n i ki ft ipd tba policT of Napolaon in fotadog tba 
Onteovatkn of tfao BUaei by tbia irfM:^ 8m«>T. 
anane otbnr powsn^ WW ladaoM to wtthdtav h« Bup- 
peat mu tba tjafir*, Trodarick WUllaco, waca out 




with dubancbary. died oa 16th Noremher of tba y«ar 
(1707) foUowtng theae diagraoaful traoaaotioaii Hh 
su(x«aaar, Frodaridc WQliain IIL, rauined »M priad- 
pal adtisarsof his fsthsr, bub onBof hia Gtal acta waa 
U\ ropual the intolermnt edicts paaaad la tbe Ut« nidii. 
Ho ofintiniied his father's policy in reganl to Fiaaoa, 
and oourtod tha Franch directorate^ who showed 
mora dsferano* to thsir ttpm eareuy Austria thsn to 
ebdr ttuefcUng ally; but when tbs Paaoe of LoaATiUa 
(1SU1) axtcndsd Iba Fiaaeb territory to tbe RUno, 
Pmaaia was indemnified by 41 IS aquare milea eeded 
to hor at tho eipmse of tbo empifSL In 1604 ProMa 
reoo^ixed Kapoleoa as aaiparor of FmoMk tlw 
Emperor of GermaDy taking at the aamo ttnw Ifaa 
title of Kmnnror of Aostria. Doriaf the aama Tear 
Frvdonek William aU«mp*«d to oaJotiata batwaaa 
Franca aad Rnnla, and n* raaialaan aautral ia tba 
oaanpai^ wfafob «aded in the orertbrow of Aaatrla 
at Anrterlits, December, 1S06. Napole«B had, buw- 
erer. In 1804, oAmdad bis prida by matching his 
troopo, in spite of rouooatranes^ agalast the Aus- 
triaiM throoffh the Pruaaiaa territory cf Aasbach and 
Baireulh. He waa preparing to join tha alUea whan 
tbe Tlctofy of Napolean eali np ated him. Thm ooo* 
qaoor new oompallad faha to aoosjpt of Hanover In 
esAan^ for Anabaob, Balrvutb, Chve^ and ynf- 
ohttol ceded to Franc* and Bavaria. Predniok 
Willlaa) now oeciipJBrt 1-I*oov«r, which by a patent 
b* dadarad aaaexed to Pruuia In vtrtiio of oesaloo 
by the Emperor of Fiasoi^ to whom it balBngad by 
H-.'ht of oonqneat Thia atop ombr^lod hfn in war 
with Great BrIlalD and Swadoo. The twAlos of 
Pmsaia were aow tuned against herMlL and by lb* 
forroatlcit of tbe Confadoration of tha Kbine, wfajeh 
lr>i Ui tbe diasolutiaD of the empitv^ Prtiaala alao waa 
iiHilatad in Germany. Kapolcoo inilMd auggaated te 
Fr«d«rick WUUem tbe foonstlpa of a riral aasocia* 
tlrai, and ATett off«nd to aupport him in aman^ag 
tbe luipcoial orowa; but he thwarted his dlorta Io 
fona tba new alUaaoe, and tbreataiiad the prinoea 
wbo waia aoUdted to join Ik A still iDon fugraat 
ojtu aeisioa of contempt filled up tbt! inrs«ni« of tiw 
aDQorano* of th* iVuanan court. Is bb pPifotiaHona 
for pntoe whb Easland Nanolaon offered to isstoaa 
HaiwTar. lalbabUadnaaaQf tbebidlgnatigaaicilad 
hy Ihia laault all oooaklorationa of pradeooe war* 
fovgottan, and Praaal^ wbldi had haalUleH Io 
onoountar Franea wItb B a gU n d aad Aiutria aa 
allifoi, DOW rceoli-ed to nab upon the dangar alonfc 
[lrr previous tervivesaatlona, in taet, depivad bar 
of thn tio[n ut sllijua anwog bv OanDau nsfgfaboon^ 
aad it Is luowa that Napotooii, srsing bar iaoUtioa^ 
badd*liberalclyprovol[«dbertolwr«v«tbiow. Tba 
Prairiaa army waa inunedlaielj ^aoad <n a mr 
footiaii. Pskco WM made with Swaden, and aago- 
tiatlons op«nnl witb Rnglaad, but tba d^x^ of 
Hanover was delayed till tbe reealt of tbe caapaiga 
abouM show whatbsr PrvHta waa atrong eaoogfa to 
oonlend single-handed wHb Fraaoab If aba pratad 
atroag it was to ba kqnt; It w a a l L It war to oe ««• 
ebaaged foe EagUah aubddtoft Tba Pnurian umj 
amounted to lfiO,000 bml. II had Uh pmatita 
faiberited From tbe wan of Pkedoick IL, and waa 
ODtnmaaded by tba Duka of Brunswick, whna* npa- 
toUtn dated bum tb* 8«T«a Taacti' war; but it bad 
aaan little acrrioa^ aad had to eopa vltb tbe Tdarana 
of Maraga mai AaatelUta led by Napoleoa la p«- 
aoo. Tbe Ftanah emperor too^ aided ny Iba eoraa- 
gnta of tb* CoaCedvatfoa of tha ItbIn^ woe aUa to 
bring a nnmerioal e o p eri or l ty of fotco Into tb* field. 
Ibe KmMror of Russia had promlasd bia aid to 
Pmash^ bat it ODuld iif4 arrivs fn tinm. BtiU tba 
Pmaaiaas wer« aabipiioe and eatbaaiaatfa, Tbe 
war patty was headi.'d by tbe yoolbfnl ((iisaa, ^rho 
inspirsd the tnx'ii* with a cbiralrio denttoa. Bttt 



346 



PRUSSLA. 



tb» ntiglo hftttic af Jean. {Jotia amd Ancratiklt, f ouaht 
tiae fjuiie <iny, 11th October, ISOi), iiisy ba rvKu>l«M:l 
H MM btrtllv) dMhvd thiwi delusiro liogKn, and laid 
Mm Muitlry nroflnte «t the fec4 of tho oonquemr. 
Before decidipg tbe lkt« of Pru3iii& N>p>l«)D pualiud 
on to moot ttw kdvAOofaig RuaHinn*, nnd it won only 
■A tha PuM of Tilalt, oonclnded Lietwacn hiu vid 
tbeBaiparorAlexMuleriii June, 1807 (alfned 7th-&tb 
JxAy) tuil ha condaacaiided to make known bia tomw 
to hia former n-IK-. rniwin wiu ilinmcmlicml, nnd 
vujt nfuvd m n IdnjtikiDi culy a.1 tlie tuUsroesiiiou uf 
ib« Kujei&n emperor. Her poeaesslotu ir«A at tho 
Klt«, iucludioff Hauorcr, hiui to be ceded to tlin 
King-ilocn (if W^phniin, fnrmHl for Jerunut Bonik* 
purtv. The Onnd-duuby of Wimuw, and Uie dnds 
of KotbuB in LiubtiiL wen trwiiforrod tA Saxony, 
wbldi w&« nuMd to* kuigdora. Damig wju(r«storeiI 
to iiidvpeudeoo^ or nUwr t« dcjienilijuce un Frmuoe. 
EmI PrvmU irae iaBignod to Buaab. All ibat wm 
l«fl to FniMU of her Poliati Accoiiiition* vraa Kriao- 
land Mid part of the diatricfc of N«txc, A wu' mclcm- 
iiilv uf 1 JD.OOO.OOO fnnoe waa imposed un ihn uitiU- 
lottid kiii;;doiii, and the fortrwHa of Clogau. Kualrin, 
and i^tcttin veiv Ia b« delfrerad ovr-r to Krvnrli gar- 
riauua luauiliuuvd at the cxpm^Mi uf PniiBiw aa «ocii- 
litT for iu payni«nt> Frederick Willliun was further 
obugod to cngaga not t« kvcp on foot an anuy of 
mora than 4^,l>lJfl repilar troopa during the next ten 
yetn. The porta of Fnia^ were cloaed agaiusl 
Knclond. 

ThcH mcaanra wouM tueia. u far ai human pru- 
dence oonld foreaee, to be tbe motA cReotual tltat 
Lvidd bo deriwd for tho humiliation of a kingdoiii. 
In thoirvcnt thojprovad that, hii>w*tror ofton otwRjion 
wmf lUBcevd, it cnu nover aateljr be relied vu. TLo 
bIMor; of Aiifltria proMitta mora ftaqnoat instanoas 
of ncoicTf in-m diaaatci- than that of PruMia. Wc 
havi) now rcichrd the aeoond butanes iii PruKuan 
hiatory, and it ui one which, taken in it« entire mag- 
tiiludc, IB pcrliapa unpn-mlleled in the hisbiry of tho 
world. The hcipwa of the I'muiiui*, oveu when the 
blow WB« ttcuuC wvn not crushod bj dlNuUr; and 
tho anticijAtioD which BlitrhiT, after the battle of 
Jeua, expivned iu bin pTufcuaiuuul iiit.'Lkphor, 'thai 
now more «nliglit«u(>d priniipW wonld put tli«ir fiiot 
iDto tbv atirrup,' did nut pmv« a vmh unv. llie verjr 
iDMnra which seemed most eSectualiy to bar tlie 
recovery of Frnana, the ratrictluu of hor anny till 
her loat poMOMona ehonSd accnatom thi^macldu to 
new masten, waa the meaiu of makinj; her the i;rvni- 
eat military power in Europe. Butdk St«i&, to whom 
tho adainiatratfon of tho Iciaedcon waa committed, 
bq^ to prepare it fur meetuig tordfpi exactiuna 
by liit«nuu improvemsnu. The natioMl oriala was 
takaa adTantua of to sweep away obitmctuxna 
which would othenriae bt.vc lon^ K«iated the hatid 
of the rufuruier. Feudal uiagei wvra j^liabed, and 
tbe tale and tranvfer of land mad* entirely free. 
Lfl'cal xdf-govenmient waa aooorded to thu t«wtu, 
tiTid ancient reetrit^iona on trade wero avrept away. 
I'he oi!ik.*« of Kta.ui wMv llkewlae rwdMinad, aiul 
adapted to pmctical nquircmente, la tb» midrt of 
thea* rcfnnna the jcaloimy of Napoloon ootnpeUod 
Baim Rt«in to rvaii^n faia ptiat (N'oveinber, ISUfi). 
Hla work wn* mrried on by Ijaron Uaidenberg. A 

filan of wndirii: the army roetricdon waa formud by 
■ eneral Hchamtinnt. Young men entered thcatmy, 
and after acquiring: the aeoeaeary drill returned into 
privato lifv, Iraving their pla«ee vacant for otheriL 
llib (»|ieration un* cvuducbed w quicUy that It came 
to %bt only io 1813. Such wai ihs genD of tlks 
l^maaian Landwchr. During the ItDwiian cwupaign 
uf l!jl2, Pnuaia, like otiier (iBmi.iu itxtoa, waa eom* 
F«U«d to follow in the train of the military deepot, 
who at thia time coauDaBdcd the tvKinrces of nearly 




all Europe. In mnte of tbe most oUeqoloV bA*- 
viour «b« waa attll tr«at«l aa a CDruqoered cDaajr, 
and military nutctiona won bMly made oa hm tai^ 
ritory. A treaty wai eondodra, lith. FiibnMtj, 
1812, by which Pru«i* engi^ad to aappaft Vtaam 
with hoT anna, and waa ptromiaed. In emit «i mttfitm, 
am adtUdon of territory. Whm lb* Jlai a Tu wa tw 
minaCton of the HumJab euDpaisD waa na^ed, it 
waa the Pnuaian {jonnal York who, by the Caava- 
tinn of Tanreagan, ooncluded SOth Denaahar, 1812, 
with the Rui^att ganetal IMeUtaeb, aot tha aunpla 
of defecAloa to the Oarmana. Oo Sd Ythnarj Aa 
king isaued a gcntnl call to ama, aad lAO^OOO IMS 
wore found to lie at once diapMabJa. A t**"^ *^ 
Boaria waa ecmeluded on STth Febnai;. ft aaaa 
nndortook to provide 81X000 men for dw war, aoda- 
aire of earriMtna; and Kuaua eng^cd for the noto- 
ratiun o< all the dom&don* ol Pniaaia eoccapt Hano- 
rer. To tbe PnualaB daelaratitm of war the Aanch 
minister replied by a Uatory of the Pnarian fmt- 
diea fram tfio lime ol the levolutitm. Tbe doouaaBt 
waa keen, but tU-timad, and little alcslatad to 
itimfainji the hostility of Ftuhu^ wUob cai tbe part 
nf France hod not l>e«n without proronrtlon. Of 
the nuL-uBediiiK caiii|ui|,-ii, in which Borcaie wai 
leagued acaiuBt the (^ipntwor, Uta partictilais for 
which we nave space have been given in tbe bMcwy 
of Kranoe. The namea «t Blncfav.To-k, OneiSMMH. 
and Billow will r^LSkU tbe part taken in it by Fiuaaa 
Fr^i'Tick Willinm III. u perwia waa pw e ui i l al 
IfUUcn and Leipzig;. At the Coui,-reflB o( Titrntm 
IlanoTcr returned io England. Pruaaa dDmaadad 
tbe whnlo of Saxony ia compcnaation for the Dnchy 
nf Wanutw, on the plra that Saxcmr liad been meet 
oppoaud to tbe ^fiivml ooose. Thla demaad wai 
opposed by Austria, Fnuior, and Bn^and, aod aaaily 
lad to a renewal of w.-u-. The oongreea waa dikaibed 
by the return of NapoltKni, and in the catoiialgB <i 
18IS PmasiA. along with Kngliuid, bore the nut of 
tbu fiijbt e-t LiifTi/ and Waterloo. On ibe tesOMp- 
tl iin of tlie ooDf^-vM I'nuaia raceired neatly tba same 
torritodos aa alio poaacesod up W\ bar recoit tafoU- 
tjona In the wars yet to lie ootlcsd. 

After tfa« rMtoration Fredenok WiUiam m. leaned 
to the daapodc ooiincila of Anatria and RtiMi% and 
did not OBTTT out the refunnintf policy of hla eonn- 
cmorsindWmtlty.StclnandHwdeobng'. Hejokwd 
the liidy Allianisi% Sei)t«mber 26, 18I& andeoBliMMd 
a atanrh adhurcnt of it till death. Tne edminiatra* 
liuu of affain, thuuuh despotic^ waa vlfocona, and «a 
the whole auaoeaifuL Corapolaory edncatlon wai 
made a fundaaMobd prinoipta of tbe aBate in Hit. 
Normal aolwola and ftymaaala wen endowed. A 
liberal meroantOe tarllT waa oetablkbed In ISO, bat 
waa afterwards supcncdod by Che prot«ctire policy 
of the Znllverein. An attempS bo heal the diriaioBi 
of the Proleataut churchwaa Dagnn inlB17. On the 
aiat of Octohnr tba king, who waa a Calt-iniaC, took 
ttieeammuntoa in the Luthinan Churvh, and tba lem 
Gtrangelical was benceJorward need offiistally in place 
of tite party deeignatlonit Uaaauresofooamon wen, 
hwavor, uacd to bring about tba aBresBwat whtcii 
fonatrated Uicir own encL By a coaoerdat with the 
pope in 1&31 a Ituuiin Catholic hierarchy, headed by 
two arcbbiabopa and aii bi«bof«, waa eatabliabed and 
OTOvided with a fiaed eadowaivot from tbe stale. 
Ft^derick WUltatn died 7th June, ISIO. Be ww 
succ««)dcd by Frttloridc William IV. As oows 
jninoo a aentinicntal admirer cf Eagliah l iwtituti ona, 
tbe uL-w kiu)f waa expected to grant a oonatitutioa to 
his Bubjecta, bat ha nfoaad the demand of Us states 
to thia cffoit in 1841. In 1847 be took the enlie» 



I 
I 



PRUSSU- 



347 



I 



H Ml It i^ipetrad u if PnimUa pfttriot- 

t aad ]ojaity wimiM alonn tw cTokod Inr it But 

ft MkOD bteama manifnt Uia.t m wide divanjty of 
int B W»i« mtMmi, and th».t » vplrit of aliviutian knit 
hoiUlitj hftd ■pruBg up b Dlwe m edua and cIub. The 
flaoDtr; had btaa iomtaabtf n^ldlv in vealth and 
(CMfMitjr; nub and railway* >iad bean atnatractod, 
and mvWatiaB daralinml. But tba vxtmnaa wUoli 
■II cat) to* pnaparity udnoe* bad attsoded Its pro- 
fima. WhoD Ui« drwd ol F^endi levasian had nb- 
rfdod tbecruwacd be«b of Germany, wbonnco 1 815 
kMl nl|pod with a Upiied d«vatioQ tothc fMiiid|iUa 
of dlria* lybX vnAodlod Id the Holj AUIanoe, began 
l« b«l tbatr thmwi tnmbla baoMth tbem. Ttie 
■■Mil 11 MM« bsfan ba aecura themielvM bj accod- 

atba rafMiM dnwaded by the mlddla dawM. 
daagvr iitl ri |i rt »d fntn FnLDcu had at th« Mm* 
Una awiuwDad a dMira for tbo rcrival of GcnbMi 
uallf , and Pruana waa looked to to Itmd in tbU itioirfr- 
bmbL H ily tia from all tba minor atatea uKlt«d 
at BcallB In March tv urg« tlw gramtiag of a oouiti- 
tatliMi ind tba fonnation of a d«fflnalra leapie with 
tlM other atata^ whan tba twwa of Ibe f^H of Prtnce 
Mctterakb at Viutna daianniiiad Ibe king to jiotd. 
Dot it waa too lata, tiwuitaMioa had alrvady iWicud 
flStb). It waa crowiMd with noeai^ after a liliwdj 
itraggk. Ih* king diamiaMd hia mhiiatcrt, and 
graa Led a liberal ooMlitiitioTi. The PolcBnttfaaaama 
tiam nmAltd uklaat Fnndm wbldi LimI vLolabed her 
•aglfMMDt at tba Con^rMi of Vienna ta guTcro tb em 
M IB ladafCBdaDt atat«. 'Iln-y wrrR j>iit lU^nn hy 
Caraa at PMan in April and Mii?, 1S4S. A uuLiunal 
■w Ku bly mat on 22d May, but it pror»d larbnlant 
and lacapablai and iu deliberatiom vf n inflacnood 
bj tba naba whkh mntinuad tl» w«k of a^tation 
fat tba caMtal. Malh-n warn contiatulljr growing 
wona until on fith l)ae«mber tbv Idng Aaaolrod tba 
■MMBb^ fai ■ procUnmion gnnling a ooaititutlott, 
wUA fonaed Ibe baab of that wfaicb at prMrnt 
•xkta. A uw pariiamarrt waa aaaambkd, by whlah 
Ma datnOa wan dabentad. (Sea tba proMdliic tee- 
tioB — Coaatitatiiio and CoTenineDt.) In tba tne«D- 
tiaia two ofipoaita DuvenKinta for tmioD were agitating' 
G^taany. Tba proktariat oontcmplatad tM ovcr- 
thrcpw d tlirtiMa and tba ftRBtBttDa «f a guDoal 
npnbtjR 7%ie ooOMTvativo "r'^i'tl^ vbbed to »• 
Mlabli*h a fadaral onfain more or Leaa analogooa to 
tba old G«nnan Bmpira. WItb tbia laat pwty tba 
pqralj Gamanic cbarMtOT of P^wain bad grart migbt 
m oonqiarad wHb tbo oonpoalta cbaraeter of tba 
Atatrian bnparc, anil when a n-i-naentaU^oaaaamblf 
ol Iba diffannt sUUb mrt at >'rankfort it ooadndad 
Iti oocifertaeaa on the b««d*bip of tba anpba bj 
cOmbu m banditary cmwn to tbo Kliv of Prania. 
Bnl tbB PVankfort aMCmbljr bad DCit auooeadnl in 
\impuiag Ttapact aunciaDt to mako ita oS«r valid. 
Tbo alarma wfaicb had bduoad tb« prixi(x« to anid 
Ibair dapotlaa to the —Binbly ia 1848 had bagun to 
abrid^ tad when tba Garaan IHkamdba aaw tikat 
that* waa napfia tbay bardanad tbaJr beurta, dia- 
Buaad tbair Ubanl aiiniitcn, and bwaa to aorum 
aonriing to tba prindpW of tbe lioly Aliiaac*^ 
Tbo Kiag of Pr«Mla d«cliaed tbe praS«r«d crown, 
and b> w wall aa tka Etnperor of Anatria withdraw 
tliafc J aprtWa tnm tbe aaMmbly. Among tbe afTaln 
Mkn — (»»—'>*■ of b; tbe Fnakfurt aMemfalr waa 
■ ravoU ol tba Dnobiaa of Ikhlaawig and Hdatcfai 
ajpinal Dnouf^ which waaallend to hava viohlad 
tbdaamiatitBtfaMialpriTUegeiaaQwRuanitateB. Tbo 
King i4 Praaria intarratiad in Ihii qoarrel at tbo 
luUikM of tba Gcnnanic Confederation in lSt8-4V. 
After anaae aoTara G^bLiiig a trcatr of pcac* waa oon- 
dadad on !d Julv, 1950, by which tht rl^ of Dm- 
naefc to tba dnoiea waa adcnowledffad, wfaila Hot- 
rooofitlsad aa a tncmber ol tbe Gormania 




BundorConfodaimtion. Tbo dticbiea rvvoJt«d againal 
tbfa aettlcmcat, and the matter waa rofarred, at tha 
inatanoe <if the Emp«ror >'i^iolai^ to tho mat 
[lowanL By the Treaty nf I^ndMi. 8tb &fay, 1853^ 
to wkicb eutrland, Pnuiiw, Aiutrio, RuMa, aaa 
Pmasla were partioa, tbe Dubo of AnfnatanbniK 
baring rclini^uiabed, on aatiafaetion. bia cUm to tba 
duehiea, Prinoa Cbriatlaa of Bcblecwfg-Uolitain, 
aftorwudi Chiiatian IX. of Demaaifc, waa recoy- 
oiiad aa bair to Ibe DaaJih ctovb, tbe tntagrity of 
tbe Damah nutnarohx mu reoogaiBod. bot tbo figbta 
uf the Gennanic Confederatim orer Holatoln and 
Lauenbarg aa meiiibora tif iho Bund war* rwwvad. 
Tba broaUng up of tbe aainuibly at Frankfort waa 
followed by TaruniB Intrignea on the part of Piuaiia 
and Aiiftrin to gnin tba toenAenoj in the Gannania 
Casfed'.'r»ii{>ii, which ondad in naodag tbo Band, 
trUcb bwl cxutfd without power rinoe 181S, to iti 
previuua t4ate of iio^U-nce. (Stt CieRUaKT — H£»- 
torj.) IViieaia r«main«d neutraJ during theCrinwao 
war, but waa oat of die aignatoriaa of tba Tfaatj of 
Pari^ SOtb Harcai, 1854L IiilS57Pnualaloat Kenf- 
chfttel, wbieb bad vobuitarily ><doed tbe SniM Con- 
fedaration in 1848, and waa, tbroagb tba interrentjao 
of tbegnat pomci (treaty eignedniParfBSStb Ma;, 
1S57), pcmiittad to ralalo iU new atl<-i,'iaace. In tba 
ontnnntof thiafoartbeklDgWM Miir^d »itb anotilex;, 
and tbagovennnantderotvMonbiiibrDtber Wulittm, 
who waa named repnit In October. IflSS. Frederick 
^miiamdiodSlat January. 1941 , and waa eoeoaaded 
hf bi* brother William. Ilia new kin^ tbowad • 
mapualtloQ to abaolutbim, whiiJi gave bw paofia ooti- 
ddaraUv nneaalnMa, In 1963 Fnueta, aaoaadof tbt 
ZoUvandn, eondudedn libetnl eoDnwidBl iiinli Mllh 
Finnoe. In ISfiS and 18SS a Icngtlieaed diniuta 
oecunwd betwaen Ibe cbamban and tbe inlnwlij 
undvr tb* direction of ODant Bfamard:, Tba Una, 
who look tba part of tbe lMt«r, daide4 ^roogh hla 
miniater, tba iigbtol Iba pacfJa la oontral tba finan* 
cU expendllure through their re^ceaentatlTCa On 
tba complatnt of tba Fodenl DIol thai Dannaik bad 
not obeerrad thn Tn»ty of 185% Anatria aivl ProMia 
reaolved fc act that tmtj aaide. and tbe Piuauni^ 
nndcr Genend Wnngel, eotarecl Scbleawlg on Slat 
January, 1844. Iba olber powen which had ban 
partiaa to tbe tna^ did aotintarroaB^ and Denmaik 
waa oTetpewtndL By tba IVealr of Vienna ttgned 
Oct. ao, mi, VMimarfc gave np Scblaewi^ BoUoIb^ 
part of Jutland, nod Laatabui|;. DUtmncn having 
ariaeo between tbe two power* aa to tbe adnlnlatra- 
tion of tb* conqu«rrd pn>vinc«a^ a ccoTcnttuii waa 
*igD*d at Gaalcin, 1 1tb Anguat, ISCSl Praiwia par* 
fkaaed the dabua ot Analifa orer Uw Duchy of Laimi- 
borg (or 2|^00,000 Danlab ddlai^ ind It waa agrMd 
that Scblaawig^aad Holatein AemU ha adminfalared 
aepMalaly by Pmaia and Amrtria raepediTely, with- 
oat prejudice to tba right* *f oilber party. In a 
dcapalctt to tho Briliab dtpbnatio agent* abroad 
Earl Buaaell aiproMed Ua r^ret that aD rfgfabL 
wbetberoMornew, had been troodHi nndar foot, and 
rlolaoot aad coamtart had bees aada Iba onlr b««a 
on «Ut& tba diAdIng pewwa bad mtMbhti tbb 
oonTentloa. SiStrrviirea aa la tbe Seal Jtapcaal ef 
tba dnobMa were nnt allayed by tba oooTeDboa, bat 
became mora [nevaacnable. Pnaaln, which bad 
deleradnwl on appnfrlating tbant, wUed to bojr 
oot Anattia, but tbe Utter wonld not oada bar datant 
for Bten^. In eapport of tbe PoUcT of anaopriatloa 
tbe PnHaiao lawyan held that tba d^a cd tba 
t>ulM of Aognatanbaig bad been dofvrred by tb* 
Treaty of IflUtolboaeof th« Kingof I>enmariE,aad 
that tba Uttw, la when the eok M.verrignty <d tba 
dueUoa raaldwl, bad owl«l tbem U tbo Tivaty «f 14M 
to tbe two poweca, Tb* datma uf PnuniB were tbaa 
aabiualdi^ly rcatad on oooqaen. Atalria nppactod 




tbo cliumof thn Ihilio al Aiigrmtimlmr^, the »oa at 
tbe •liiku whu liBil uimia tlu> c«a«iuD vF ISA'2; tuid ibe 
Fr&nkrort diet, wbldi had pioolAlnied the ligfac of tfao 
(Iiiohic^ to diii|MMo of tiicmiMlrcs, tinnlly ilrclil«H in 
fkvouT'uf AivLria. In viowof ftqii»ml, whit^Couut 
Blanurok hod alrvady ddtcnuioecl to forue upon Aus- 
tria. • man treaty hnd bcon ms'lo it-ith Italy (ftv- 
mtiij Mskaowledgci) liiLh IMnrch>, which by hn 
B flg iBMiva prapKntttunii liiwl coui|>uUuiI AiuUu to 
bwCMM her u-mMDontB. TbEs tncroM* wm com- 
pUimd of by PniMUL, HtJ a circular wm wldrtwed 
(*i4th March, IKtifi) ta tho minnr lUtM demiuiiUiig & 
dcciiiiun fia lo thvlr r«ii<]iict iti tli« rvrot of rnitwia 
lirinc iittnckvc] hy AiiiitriL Hevtrnterm of tbo tixtrt 
eeceued tixun tb» Buud aiui si JeJ ivilb PruitiU: ut]ii-re 
referred to tho eleventh article of tba Act of Federa- 
tion, wbit^h |irohihitmlnrb«twMnith«itMm'b«Taof th« 
Duiul, nnil [in>vi']«0 fur tbe pacific MtUvmcnt of ttwor 
differancM. Ou tlie !ith of May the Diet of Fraak- 
fartei»nTni>n«d rmmifwiDAooordanoewitii this article, 
to gire a fomuJ dectaralian that her inbrntjona war* 
peaceful. Qeneral Qableiut, tlie Aurtriao governor 
of HolftoiD, harLDg nitimioQ<ad a tnettiag of the 
cetatoe for tlth .liiTf^ I'niFv>).i ijoclArod the Conven- 
tion of Gaatcin vinUteil. The: Pruiunan tniopa tii 
8ahlMwigapa«wd tfaefn»ilIeruDt1ie,*tthiuiilil!cit>Fi««d 
tho nwotuiE held on the 1 1th. Tho AiislriiuiB hanni; 
eraonatedHobttf'o, fh^nnraj MantmlTcI, tbo rniiaUii 
d'ovvroor of Bch!t«wif-, procUiuicc! Uio pruvialuonl 

fiyvBTvinMit MtabHxh^ In H->Ut«.-Iu ■!»<:« 3epteiub«<r, 
86J!k abolivbed, anij a7i;>i<int<xl a proaidnDt for the 
admltititTatlon of tim alTaiT-aof Nitb itiiclilu. Austria 
pTOtcatcd mid d^■1aa)llJod of thti ilivt tlw muliiUiation 
of tbo Fcdciral nrrny. (>n tba nth the dlot, by a 
maj'irlty uf volcv, dk-vluvd tLat FruisCa had brvkcn 
tbo treaty, and on tbo 11th ordered tho mobiljzAtinn 
fif the urmy, Tlic *Mne day the Frumian rcfiMwrnU 
ntlvo rk-clnnd tbc couftMlrntttoD at ah cad, and vrith- 
draw from tho diet. The foUowing day (Ititb Juno) 
tho PnmLjiU truu))a entored Saxonr and Hanorer. 
'I'he M-tf cARipni^ whlcli Niraed b known aa tine 
So<r«a Weeks* war. Before cntvriag on it tho £in- 

rrar of AuitrU lamed a war tniuiifcsto to bin people, 
which ha solomnly prut«*t{^d of^'iunat the tUKnipu- 
loiui ambition of I'niuia. Tho I'mnlaii foroee w«re 
dlridedlntothrveuuuDannictt) tbu fint, nnder Prince 
nadwick Charlea, ooonplcd Saxony; the Moond, 
nndar tho crown prince, advancod to the frontier of 
tiitnia; and tbe tbini, cnllcd thn nrmy of the KLbo, 
tipL-raH^l on tho right of the firrt. The whole movo- 
mcDta wero dinctcd by the cbiuf of the atajf, Count 
von Mnltke- 'I'bu Anntrinnii wrm cnmnianili'd by 
Coont Uancdck, ubn ilinlrilmti-d bia forcea slang the 
Saxon and^lndan fmntiitnuf Doh«>QiIaandMotav{a. 
Thu Pruiaiaii txuopN Lad been rvoenlly aimed with 
a newweiqioo, the ne^e-gnn (ZUndnadelgewohr). 
They wer* bettor led and roiniuanded than the Aiu- 
triani^ but thoir itocwivn ■ncoi'Mi wafl chiefly doe to 
thia deadly wcupuu. Il had boon luied for the firrt 
tin* In tho U£t Uanifch war. (>n '^^kl June the firat 
Praanan army crowed the Bohemian frontier, aod 
nasLday oocu]iiud Reicbenborg. On tho SSib anvere 
etfilggle took place with tbe Anitrians and Satnim 
at MUnchcngrllta, after wljich tbe Auntriaiii r»tir<.<d 
to Gitachin. In tho mcantiim? tha crown prince waa 
advancing from SUeeia thiuuub the nwiina of tho 
Sudeliftn Mountains. His troops enterca the Anotrlan 
territory on tho S2d at lli^ncrt and Lanil»hut, from 
which they advarii-nl la Naohod and 1Vant«iiau. 
Aft4« uniiiii fighting on the 2Tth and 29th, in whiiji 
tbe A)iitrinua BuiitaiDod coQFiderable leasee, they ad- 
vanced on tba 'JVCti, atUI fighting, bo SkaliU. On the 
SOth tb"^ crown prince effccbnl a junction whh Prince 
Frederick CharW' Tbn third army had alio croaaed 
boiu Saxony into Bobeioia, aud after on enoomtar 



witb tho enemy at Hunerwaaaer, near "niTTiaa, bad 
j'lined the first ajmy. Uitachio waa taken by Priacn 
Frederick Charlee on tbe 2Mh, and 0«n«al Beaadek 
tell hack on KonigcnUi. Hsra wm loo^t «• 34 
July the decisive battle e< Sadowa, ao called {rent a 
viUage near Kcinigsrittx whom tbe chief attack at the 
PniNtans waa niMa. The Aaatriam^ aftar as ehiti- 
oate realBtaM^ wen oeopletely defeated; Iha dediEvi 
pniut cS the combat being the advanoa of the c»wn 
princB, who«a army formed tbe left viiag al the Praa- 
mant>, on their riitbt, fun aa they had rocewodad ia 
chocking the attack of the Ffuanao ri^t aad eeati* 
upon thia [Kuitiuo. In oonaequenca of thla Vtecne 
the Emperor of Anatiia ceded Venetia la F>aaee 
with a view to rell«v« blnaelf of the Italian war, aad 
the SmpoDT of tho French bdagrapbed to tba Kla( 
of Pnuaiaolliriti^ bin mediation. BrentaaUy a treaty 
of peace w«n oii^ued at Piagu* on 33d Anffnat The 
Emperor of Austria aetaed to tiw ndon oT tha Luoi- 
bwdo- Venetian Kinmom with thaKtegdom of Italy, 
the debt duLT^ cm Uio LomlMrdo-TeAeltaB Ktogdow 
by tbe 'iVMty of Zurich being taken ovar W Italy. 
Tlio emperor tMugeiMi the dinolutioDol tbe Oemao 
Kund, and Moamted to a itew fannatfam of Geraany 
bi wliich the Imperial stote ol Anatrla ilMald take 
no part, lleactwi tiireoognij#annrtbi»moan£ed«T- 
BCT to be citablliihod by Pruwla north of tba Mab, 
and to ^Mtrmit the «tatoe aontb of the Main to faCB a 
uiiiuu, twinrcHu vrliich and tks northern oonf^deracj 
tho terma of n^^rveniRnt wero aftorwarda to ba deter- 
mined. He traiufeired to tho King of Praada the 
rights be had aorjulred in tim buobles of ScUeatrigaad 
Hokbcinby the Vienna Treaty of OcL 80, 1 8«.irilh 
tho undffntaiiding that the pcopk of North Scfal^rarlg; 
If they cxpt«andthrir wish byafree vote to be nalt<d 
to Denmark AavM be eednd to that kinfdon. The 
Emperor of An«tria agreed to rectvitira territorial 
chongce about to be luude l>)' the JU&c oI FriHia 
in North Gcmany, but at hit reqwat 1^ Kiag of 
PruJBiia agreed bo leate the Kingdom of Sascay hslact: 
the war contrllmtlon of Saxony aad ila poaHiea ta 
tho ycrth Ocnnao Conf«<lemtion were to ba left tt 
the deddoo of PnmfL After deductions, on aceoaal 
of the thmv of Schleewig Holstein and tbe maiatea- 
ancn • if th« lYnmaa anqy of oceapatian op tiD the fle» 
clu«i<in uf tha peace, the war contributioB of Anrtda 
waaflxedat 2u,OOu,OuoPruBftiandoUai«. AlldvatlM 
between tho pwti<Mnnt invalidated by tho dinolntiaB 
of the Bnndwore U* cue tin uo iu force, bat tbe cmnanc 
and oommenilallreaUee to be revised. AnbccdEnate 
campaign ap^^et Ilanorcr, Bavaria, and othar oefacc 
atJtti« iii'rlririi^d ill the ccnfcdoratina, had boeo ecB* 
dtiL'tail by the PruaatanswithcorapleLesaooeaB. AftB 
Ui« war Fruiia Incorporated Hanovo^H aw O iMil, 
MaasoiU, Heao-Hombun, Schleawic, HolMaii^ Lmb- 
f^nbiirg, Heaae-DarrnKbuTt north of the Main, aad iba 
principality of Huhvnzi.'llrm, which already bdoaged 
to tbe royal faxnlly. Thus was Uid tho barfs a a 
■troDg German state, which, by the natoral principle 
of abentptioo f oeterMi by heredHac^ dcacent, oSend 
the pnruMpect of a soletton of Oennan anlty by a 
prooce? csactly tha nvetaQ of that to whldi the Ari- 
■iiin of licrmany into independsnt pnodpalitio* was 
duo. 

(In inth July tbe King of Frusla favilad the 
Stat^-K nf yoTth Cicmany to form a saw e oBf edwa- 
tion. 'Jite terms on which the eonfedenfeleft tmt to 
be tormtid wrrc cjnimunicatMl by Praada lo the 
ditfrrmit xtntca <in 4th Angiut. Hiej wwa eoi offeo- 
aiv« and defensive alllaoee: muttnl gnararrtat (4 
iate^ty of domlnloni; a federal eonsthntioi^ wUt 
a cnmmon parliament; tbe troops of all tha alalM 
to be under the sa{veme cummand of the Klag it 
Praada; the etatea to send plenipotentlarfea to B«Ud 
to draw vp a oonaticution to be subunltted to tbe 



I 



4 



( 




PRITSSIA— PRUSSIC ACID. 



S49 



taummrum pMHiwi ,* ■ ttio prelitninArv treaty to be ralM 
Ibr m JMT, MiliM nipanaded bj % («d«r»l couatitutlon. 
Tbu toMlj WM dgBM hy the olfldnnt itatM bvtwMn 
lMAagBitaBdXIMOotolMr,th«lulrinutttrabaliif 
tiwIofSuofij. ItwMultiin«l«Ijio(iMdii7t^'oD<^- 
taf atatM — I'mniis S>ioot, M«cU«nlMig>Sd]w«rin, 
Suw-WataurEiMuch, Ouoilrajs, Bue- Mrt nlngw 
■id M ' i^fcw jfc—Mtj 64XB Altonbrirs, S*i*^obw^ 
0«tlu^ AnhkH, Bdhwuaburs-BadalrtMlL Scbwan- 
bnra-SoDtltnhMWMi, Wftldeek-PyrmoDt) luniM (elder 
UMl^ouBfcrUB*), Sciluumbiuv-Lip|>e,Lippe, LBb«ck, 
Bnmok, HuBbitrg;H«M(for turrit ory north of Mnin). 
Ttta Kortb Gtnata pwliMncn t met oti 24tb I'chtuMy, 
18ST. nMflooitltiitlaavBiafoRDedoattMbwMt-ftlia 
PiilM|wmiw>li^th»KlaKO<fnad»h»riiiftMjin?- 
MmA ol tfai eaahimatiaa, tiia riglil of rtpmnting 
teb di[dcaiu>tic rdatioM mntlof dacliiriiig wmr amA peaae. 
Tba pftriiunenl wm dlawlved bj tha Idag In pones 
on 17tb A[^. A rao>Dstitution of tho ZMyvnio 
wu ligned Mlh July, 1667. Ttia julnnay of Franoe 
WM ilra^j sxcilAd bj the kuooom of Pmarik (n Uiq 
war and tn* fomwtiaD of ■ powmfnl oanfederscjr, 
wUA timatoiwd to ftbwicb Im wfaob of Gvmuuiy 
hi an ^acdra naioB, uid tha £m|Mror Nipol«st 
look oecMioa to object to tbo Prawdkc pmaou maia- 
Imiamd nnoa 1R]5 in I.tlxraIl^llrK, Mid entcml into 
BOpitiAUoM vrilh tlie Kiiiii i.^ HoII&dJ to (•urchoH 
IhttarindMlltjr. Thli[>r<->JMtwMDppD6edbyl'n«djL 
and m i«mbm of th<' t«'i> [•omn benmo so Mnunu 
lliat war mmod inmuxwbt. In tluoo Hmi mitTi butiw 
a coofanoDO ol tke mat powen took placo tn London 
froB 7th to 11th May. 1U7. Tbo powon uraad to 
guantite* tha noutnlitj of Lnxembiug, the Pruauan 
nrrfaun waa u> b« wiUulniwn and llw fortreM to bo 
diHDMitM. Tb«Mn«afamMrTKltoaUsytbeB([lt»- 
Hon and noMTa tha t™*"*^'*^ danger of war. 

Tho Spuklih thrma having beoooia vaoant thntugfa 
Iha cxpulaiMi at Qtwen baoetU Prisoe LaoDoId of 
BohnmoUnm oooantcd, en tha [mipoaal of OMiial 
Filni^ to boooi&a a caitdidato for tt Thu affordod a 
nawanbjaetof jnalotuytaPnuioe.MidkftcrpcmiLplary 
4annna on tho part cf tliu Frvarli cuiijrrur uut ouly 
tbtt PtlMa Lwpold'i cacdidAturc abQiild bo nith- 
diawB, which WM doo« by biiaMlf ponooally. but 
thai lb« Ktii X "f fnumv la bead of the homc^ abouVt 
pladff* hlniaeU uot to penult any futura candlduure 
of t£t mmtt Und, war waa dacLiiwl by tho Kmporor 
of tba Ftneh apthut PniMla on tho Ifith nt July, 
1870. Tlw oveuti of the war and the tenw of the 
P«not «( TflnallU*. 3«th FebniAry, 1571, wIQ be 
ffload in mr article rauico-GitiiLUf Was. On iha 
ImtitaHan of the North Garautn parliament, npported 
bj tha South Oemun Oatea, (ho Kia^ of FrtiaaU 
awiini 111 at VstwuIIm un IRth Jatinary, 1S7I. tbo titlu 
olEamtorof G«rmany. (ScvGekkami.) PnuaUbM 
rfoM MoooM tha laaung atate of tbo new Gcnnan 
Knfdra. Blaoe tba adopUon by tba Benan CathoUc 
Chnr^ of tha dootriiMof FimI InlalUUlitr a atvare 
condict, known Bi tht AwftMbsiin^ or hntlEi of dvll- 
lallaB, haa been eanled on hj the myrenman^ am- 
nned bf tte najority of tho obnaoef^ Miainal the 
UhnaoBtaiw puty. Zn 1673 » Sdieol tuptctlan 
BUI waa paiad, intnuting tha npM-riifoD of all 
adiiralinnal loatiiutioaa, public or [irivale, tu tho 
etat«. In 1673 Dr. FallC the ninlater of woimhlp^ 
broaght in UlU of ooetcaiMtloal law, apptying both 
to the E^anfalkal and CathoUa Cbnniim, mtHBg 
the •doentlan of the daTQ) oDdtr atriet eeolml of Ihe 
■tata, and Hmiluw the right of the ■nperior dargy 
todiiBlHthebnJtovdfaiatea. TbeaeblQawerepeMcd 
by tba ffcamhw^. and after they bad beotono law 
*«re earriad oat with mat eaeT]gy. The reeiitanrn 
of the clergy, aad tbe iuteifeeieiMw of tbo poM who 
h wi ed an eooyoUcal Utter declaring thelawakiTalU, 
cnlj lad to ua pnafng of atiU nroD^r 



By COM) act luaMd tn 1S7G, tha payment of tha atato 
ooatribntion to the rerenoea of tba clergy wm made 
(xmdilional on thdr acluMwled^ng lb* wvareignty 
of tbe state; by another, tho artfcloa of tba eooatttn- 
tiriQ fixing tbe rulHtioas of the Roman Catbolio 
ChuRh tn the Utah) were modlBed: a third! pipelled 
Roman CathoUc orden; and a fourth placed dwnuui- 
agenwBl of tbe ravennee of tbe Roraan Catholle ooo- 
gTOgatlnns in the handa of an eloctiTe body. 

PRUSSIAN BIATK. See Btoa (Paosaujr). 

PRUSSIU ACID, called alK>Aydroc-waaw«>r<vaM- 
Aydrte ocmI (UCK). This add waa discoTeroa by 
Hoheele In I'HS, bot Aret prepared tn the pore state 
t>y Gay-Luaaac iu 1811. Araordinffto Hoofer <Hia* 
tnira do ChitiiMi) it wna known to the iBpptlan crieata, 
who mnuloyud it lut potioaing tba bouMad wno hnd 
lUvdged the raysterieoL Pnuala add is obt^ted hy 
tUstilSng with water the kam^ of Utter afanutds^ 
DeadiMt Korieota, pinme, ehcrriea, and qaimooe: the 
bleesom of penohes, aloe^ Ac; the leavea of the 
beech, d>erry, latuwl; and various parts of Other 
plants. '\lm aci<l dnt» nut exiirt readr fnrnnad, or 
ouly in very suiall t(uantUy, iu tlieae subetaneei^ bat 
b produced by nfemualaUn action (rendend po«i- 
ble by tho water) of a aubatanoe caDed **"""^, mfea 
the Muygdnltne of the plant, which ivMilta in tho 
fonuatluu of gluocae and hjdroeyanio add. Fun 
pnii^aaid is pnpand by paadngnftnam cd dry 
sulpbaretted hydrogn over dry eyanlde of nkeroury 
he^ed in a guM taibe^ whidi Is connected with a 
waU'-oooled rMwtver. nis prow ii extremdy dan- 
»nnB,aa Aa raponr of tba pore add inataotly pro- 
duoea death when fnlialciL 

An aqueous aulutiuu uf pninic add may be pr^ 
pared by asvenl processes. Tbo foUowing are oom- 
mooly onployed: (1.) Ten parte of farTDeyanUe of 
potawalnin (yellow pniadate of potash) are hosted fn 
n tvloit with throe «t lour pivta of eiUphurie add. 
fflntad with its mm Tolunie of water, Tbe retort 
is provided with a rooeiver. The liquid which col- 
let in the nxdver contains bydrocjinic acid die* 
solreal Id water. In this proooM a eooslant stream 
of cold water must ooollniie to circulate through the 
enndenring apiiarBtut; it is also advisable to fOk n 
liltlu water into the receiver belora beginning tbe 
pmotas. <2.) Four parte of eyanido of potasdun wa 
placed in a wall atoppsnd beCtlo, and a solntlon of 
Vporta of laitarie add in 80 partt of water is added. 
The bottle is shaken several tia>ea, and sei aaida in 
a cold place for twelve boors, at the oxpfiy of which 
time tbe aqneons aolntiett of hydreeysido acid, oon- 
tainlng ahont Sf per oent, may be pound off from 
the s(i£d tartrate of pc4asslnm. 

Pure anbydnTM bydrocyanJc add b • WiinwrlnM 
Uquid, whidi aolidifiM nt -HfCtofbathaiycryntnln. 
The nedfto gmvItT of tlte Ikrttid k abont 0-7 ; it boils 
at 28 'fi; it dlseotvas In all propcrtioos In watsr, 
forming a Uqnid which itxldeM Iftmna paper but 
sUgbtly. Tbe mhydrona add burae with a very pal* 
Tiuet flnme^ pnondng water and oarbon dfriride. 
One drop of Oe oonoanttatad add, er the inhalation 
of tbe s m a l leat aponitt ol Uw vapour of tbe mtao add. 
cauaee Instant death. When dSnted htrgoiy with 
air and inhaled the vapow caoece an initatim In the 
throat, gt Jdin— , and hsadaebs. Althoc^ so reiy 
poisonouB a rabatanoe, hydioeyaiilo add ii wnd In 
n Moddanbla extent In medi ci n e in dfhiU aonaona 
•oluticn. Ti>s pwyata t icn of the phamaoopana oco- 
tains about 3 par oanb of traa add. Hydracyaaie 
sold quickly undsrgoea daooinpadUoa, giving oA 
aouuoaia. and leaving a brows rsainoaa sabatanoe. 
Tbo aqueooe soIdUooi lUtowlM dowly daoomposas, 
giving rise to tbe formation, among other proatwtB, 
of formate of wM»(<'»iBm. TUa dtaoayodtun taken 
place man qiddtly tba nwra trvonddtba aolatias 




raUStUC ACID— PBUTH. 



■■!« in tfaa vlatiaa cf k bmU nmmirj \4 ■ niiwil 
KJd. AHolki Bid tha dwnf orftfcn. •zpcnn to 
Uyfat alw qoMuM tkb Mifaa: hMM aalotfaM rf thta 
Mid lAkk it !■ nqalmd to kaep eoMlut Aoold be 
v«7 dOnt^ and ibottld b* prwwud !■ bottlM umM 
U duk gtfta, k«i« fai diwod mpboMda ^As brdiv- 
•ftnie Md W Hcfc R dMdl/ jKMaon, It U not nnfre- 
qiuaUj CBiiagml Cor ainhul par|nna. A rMdjr 
Kid aoconto ■Mtbod lor itj detoctMi b thenfors 

Hw pnMSMirf tiiu aod in « Bqnid au; bo ■bom- 
tifacd bf ttM tMutmg tMte:— 

(L) AUtdaCernK»«il[)fa«lc,vU<^liMandMfaM 
pwtU otidBtiati, b add*! to lh« mpeMed Uqal^ 
wUch fa tbea nodcnd Mra^T alluUiM wtlh cMHtfe 
•odA or |iata«h. If oa now aaiiag aiowi of hj^bo- 
dilorie add » de«p bine t***^***^ roDBaine oMtie- 
Md?Kl in the liqirid, hjrdnxTaiue add wm pnMot bk 
tin orifiiuJ Ikpiid. 

J 2.) A dmp or tiro of tbe eo T *cled liqpid, aculi- 
I tritb m drafi o< b jdroddoric mH, b pboed fa » 
mnQ fautn, onr which is iimrtad mMbw bwiB 
whh B dnp of jdow aalphfab of KWDoiunBt on to 
iBiMr4irooOTex aidcL Tite kwer Imib b TCrjr feotl; 
wn oe d for a qiurtar of an bovr or ao; tbe apper 
baoin b bov ramore d . and von cantionalT wannid 
vntil tba jrellnr oolonr of th« hiyvii «oiitaLi«d in ft 
haadbapponred. WLcd Ihia liijiui] Ua> becuBie quite 
cold thai* b added to it one drop of m sotutiw) of 
lenle vUoilde: \t a de«p Uoud-rtd ootovr b prwlnoed, 
tba orignal liquid contained the pobonooa acil 
Tbcae teola aerre alao to detent tbe pnaeoM o< n e;an- 
Idei Sboold it be iiiniiwaij ta tat tbe oontenta cd 
ft atoisadi tar bydroejraab add, tbe matter moet be 
mixed with tartaric acid to daddadlj add raactkm, 
planed in a retort oaittnoailcd wilb a nmd ooaden<iBg 
apparatoa and noaret rontaining a Uule wat«T, aiul 
bMt applied. To the liquid wUcb eoltocla in the 
receiver tbe foregofaiff terte may be applied. 

'nMaaHaprDdDcadliTtbanpUHemantnfthebjrdro- 
nn ia hjdroeyaiuo add bj metab are called cymwle*. 
Of tbeea but- ■'^ luown. Ojanlda of iiiiramliiiii 
b the moet oommoo : it is a white bodr. which may 
be prodnoed bjr tlusiiirBCt cnmbinattonalitBelenMola; 
It ii nrj pulacmQtu. If tyivniile vt mercury be heated 
to low rodnem a ga> u evolved, vrbicb kunia with a 
vidat flame. ThU gae ta ealled fyenai^'n. t'yaacfea 
b a gaa at ordinary teopentarea^ hating a pung^ 
odour nmowbat r iM e m b fi ng that of hTdiOOyaaie ociil. 
It may be ooodenaed to a Uqnid and iroMd to a eoUd. 
It Gombinea with many adtb, alao with tiie hoJogeiu, 
to fcinn welt-defined salts. 

A eeriea of ealta la known whkb diSeta from the 
oyanldae already nwntiaiMd In oontaJoIng oxyn^o; 
they are eaDed «yan«(M. Cy9nieatid(ECiiO) m^y 
be fnodneed in many ways; thiu If a •olntion at 
cyanide of pnteMiuRi Im Kiitimiltnt to electrolyais, 
vnsato of pntaMiam i» fanued at tbe poeitive pole. 
Tba add iUelf i* a thin, oglourloe* ll((iUo, wbiob retl- 
dena titmai rtrongly; it acta Tory qniokly upon the 
■kin, prodndntf punfnl btisteca. 

In addition to tba cyanide* and cyanatca then yiA 
rmndna anotlier nriee of aalla ooanected with the 
wid nndar diacuBdon whiidi merita our attentioa. 
Theae aalta are Iba^ttrMronHlMand tb^/rrrieymidrt. 
The fcmcyaoidea have the eaneral formula M«FeC»N4 
or M.FaC5(— Cy being Ute aymbol often need to 
doNiKiiato toe compound tadiale (lyBnaMn. llAfiuTi- 
cyanldae Iiave tba general formula MiFeCyt — in each 
fat *'"™ H denotn a numovalent lueul. 

Femeyaiiii* f>/ fotamum, ibo uiott UiUReliiiit uf 
th« lerro^anidM^ naa the formula K,¥f)Cy,, and la 
gfuwallj KDOwa by Uia narac i>f yrBaw prvttiaU of 
tt {b prepaivd by beating toother nltro- 



animal matter, eocfa aa lildB^ boeiik ald^ 

old leatbar. Ac, with pMri-aehoa <oa r hoBat« 

of potaamm) and inn-fiUnp, lixtrtotbiff tba fiaed 

mam whh watv, fiberiag; and •npontttaf. 

nie fbOowiag table abowe tbe anMNmii «f 1 

oootataed in dUf««at Idnde nf animal matter:^ 



1 



U* ^BW «( ben asatain 



BLgfaltnim. 



oUva-halr.. 



dMfeeal bewban. 




It U IT part 
UVdI7 
10 to 14 
letalT 
It WIT 

■ la I* 
IT 

4(0 B 

aw T 

tiB 7 

I wis 

Fhm S to 5 ewta. ot peaH-Mhea tat neHed b ' 
ndtahle inn tmmI, and whan baated to bt|d*nd- 
iMi^ the atdmal maUer, in tbe praportloa M about 
ISS parte to ervy 100 paito of pamd-aBh, fa addid. 
alkns with « to 8 per cent, <t Ino bi tbe littf* i ' 
filings OF Ktnitfay aralva. (lombaitiUe 
•*vl*ed En 1"):^ quantity, and the mat 

BBBty. Haati^ b oentlnwd. tba UBaa in tba ' 

being alined antQ the whole beoonMa neariy Ikdd. 
After one or two boun tbe aand-Baid aabetonoa i* 
ladled o«t Into oull east-lnin dbbe^ where it h 
aOowod to oeoL DntJ&f tUs praccai part «( tbi 
carbon of the animal matter r«a<1a upon tbe adtr^ 
gen to form cyanogen, while another part deoridbm 
tbe peari-aah, whfa tbe produotion of potaariom, wfaicb 
thn nnitea with tfae cyaaonn to form potaaainm cjran- 
M& The faaed ma«a, or 'metal,' aa it ia toduakally 
callad, b bow fctolcea Into pteoea, wlUdt are thtowB 
ioto largo Iron pana^ wbare Uey are digwted In wstn 
aa <|uickly bb pomibte; tbe aauoona duid i> then m 
ctf into er^oratlB; pam^ where it la boiled davs 
until it atlaina a gravity <rf Vtt, when it ia run bto 
cryatallizing pana^ in wbieb a enida aalt b depodted. 
I>atiiw thb opention tbe eyanideof potaaaiQm and thi 
iron aaHa in the ' nketal' are bionghk into doaiw on- 
taoteo that tbnieaot aponaaeaaotber, tbapeedott 
fi tbfa naetfaa Mag (aiToeyaidde of potaMina. Il 
would not ba pemfhle for thia aetioB to take plaoi at 
tbe high temperature tt tbe mdiing-pota, IminiMii al 
that t*mpetnt«ire farrocyanid* lA |-rtaTtrliiiii ndlva 
deconnxmlion. Tfaa cnide nalt obtaioBd by tba Am 
oiyBtaQliaUaa b redimolTod In wat«r, and tba aola 
tiea rwi «E frotn any aedimentary matter Into caet- 
iroD cryrtalludag veeaeK when large cryatab ot pan 
foirocyaalde ai« gtadnally formed. 

Ferreeyaaide of pbtaasiiun oryatalllixe with three 
moleculea of water (K,KoOyi ■*■ SHiO), in Um, 
lemon-yellow, tmncaled pyrvnida belonginff to w 
quadratto •yatom. Tbfa aalt b inodoiouB; it baa a 
BweetiBh laat«^ a ocutnl roactioi^ and b sol pe^acn- 
owk By the acticin of ttir\Mw\it^ aganta upon feno- 
cyanide of potaaaiiun one atom of jiiitamliiai may \m 
removed. A new aalt having the fonnula K«Fe^» 
and tbe tuxae ferricyaniiU of potamiwn, or rtd pnu- 
riau o/ Jiecaaa, fa tiioa produced. Fcrn^Taaide 4d 
potaaainm b OBually prmand by r a w i ng c^deriDt 
either over dry powdmd fenvcyniude cr tbroogb a 
aalutioD of tho aaine aalt in water, Tbia aalt fonsB 
Latige, hlond-rcd, priamatie cryatal^ belonging to the 
tcunoelimo ■yaleni. Aa oxiditing agento nmwt 
f«rn> into ferricyanidi^ ma, ounvenely, do radnoblg 
at,'cnta tntiafunD Icrri- into famcymlde of nolaansoL 

Tluee two aalu may be diatlngniabea by thtir 
action on iron aolM Purrocyanidc eivee a d««p Uc* 
|iroci|ntatc writb iinito-ealta of Iron, but not w^ pt^ 
•alia. Ferricyaalde givw a Bmilar ptvoIpltBto with 
per-ealta only. 

PRUTU, a river of Europe, wbich riaea on tbe 
eaatcm wl* of tba Caipathkn Moontaini^ bt Ibe 



^ 



I'BY.VNE--PSAL>IODT. 



351 



WnMt MMI of OalkU; flonri drruitonaly CMt put 
(^vwiwibi, thvi) n.H. ii.,f onniog the txnaniliuj botweoa 
Mdlibvlft M>1 tb« RiuitM Bo v »r nm » n t it Benar- 
aiU^iadftfu<r aoo(in«o(iiia«tluuiS00iii3w«BMn 
Um Vaaiiho on the left, »bciHt 13 Tntlc* h^low OhImi. 
It* priuciutl alRa«nta ftre, rm Uie rij^lil, Ute Cixnzurmz, 
Ehui, tkoa Kkffarlal; and on tbe left tbv Tchugor, 
Bari^rlk, and LuuduiL 

PRY NNK. WiLUAH, A l«arn6cl U»\er uul Anti- 
quary, WkB iHim at Swmiiiride, lu BouientiUliin.-, in 
WO. anil w» pl^cnd »t Oiial Collagv, Oxfonl, wlinn- 
' Baotelor of Art* iu IftSO. Hu then 
to Ltii(»lD*B lun to study thu itw, and 
I bamatcr, boiuJiM-, aud rmdvr of that locwty. 
Hia sttendaooa nnin tlw leotuTM ol I>r. Praaton, a 
dUingiifakad Pnritui, ■trmgly Utacbed him to that 
met, Md ba twgan lo writ« aa early aa liSl!7, attackini; 
^Itw driiJungofhcalthi^ lore-lock)!, I'tipBrT. and Armin* 
^^■Unt, whrnt ba decnwd tbo cnunmtlM t>f tlia age^ 
^■pittS W pabUriMd Ui work a^alDsb tbeatritti 
^^Blfatttou^ MliHad HictrioMMtix, which, although 
I HiTMWii by Arcfabdihop Abbot'a chajdain, yot, in 
W PonaBi|aaaw of ■onw rvBectloDB upon feoajd* acrtora 
that mra ODOitmod to ba lot-oUod at Uio i)u«ai 1«ho 
had acted ia n paMonl after tbo pabticatinn of tho 
worii), brou(;ht a iiruocntiuD upon tbe author iu tbo 
iHar-cbunbor, wbicb coiiiiJ«EiineiJ hiiu to a Sue of 
££000, to bo «xp«lled the Uoivcniity of (^>xford and 
Unoob'i Ian, ta b« degraded fn»n lii» j.nifcMton of 
Iha l*w, to ttaod twice in tbo |ulWy, luaui(,' an ear 
mtit thDB, and to ranuin aprlaoiMr for Ufe; IVvnoe 
ototlntMd wHtimi aKafiwt fVobey In prlMii, until, for 
m ft vfaokftt piaoe. catltlcd Kem from Ipnrfch, he waa 
P mfal ttauaetd by thu Star-c-Jwrabcr in 1837 to a fine 
et ££00D, tolow tbe remaindorof hlaean in tho pillo^, 
■ad to be brasdad In MKih cibeek. -with the letten S. L. 
(acdiljoua tibellar). TUi •MktaoM wh aln exeeutad, 
and bo «•• maoTcd for impriMonrat to Oufiurraa 
CaaUo, and afterwaida to to* Umd of Jeraey. Hia 
wfiiit WM Sol, bcnrever, la h» rabdned, And ho coai- 
tmiMd to write until the tneetllic of PariUmrut in 
1 M^ wbeo, beinffcboaao nnmoMitati'va for Newport, 
in OorDwaU, tba Boom at CVmmona ianod u order 
Cor Ua nl«ML Ha catered Londoa, with other mat- 
Unn, la trtniaphaat prooMeioB, and petltioaed tbo 
Cunincaa Cor dunagaa aninat lua proancntoni. On 
the iaapeaieluaent <d Luid be wm «iii)j1uiy«l ** diicf 
w— agar of the pr w i ui tioB. and when the PuUaiuent 
vktoriniM vna apfMnnted io 1647 one of the 
totbu ITuivendty of Oxford, irbcra ha laboured 
oonaly to advaooa tbe onaae ol Praabyterianiam. 
Hewaaalwfai 1647 mcrfatodneordwctf Bath. He 
warady oppoaed the IndcpMkdenta when they Acqoirod 
aawawdwirjf, and ukxI all bla inflaeaoe to {irodnoa an 
a c oo at pa wU tion with tho kinf[, bohuoteof tm ro au i bar a 
who were exdoded aad laprlaoDod oa that 1000081 in 
IWO. WMi Ua oChar •Bonided tnctabera befcanmed 
bin aaat la 1859^ aad Aiplayed ao modt aaal fur Uia 
Kafatatfaia that Oennnl Moak waa oMigod to cbock 
Ua taD|wtaadly. He aat In tbe Healinit Parliament 
lllWQ) aa BMnbcr (or Bath, and on the ReHturRliua 
waa appointed to tbo olfiea of chief kovrpor of the 
reoofda In tbe Tower. He oeoupied hia Ut«r year* 
in writlnga oooDccted with hi* oBoe la tbe Tower, 
■od Inkbad Ua lifo at hia ehamben ia Uneola'a laa 
la lUV. Pryane tna a maa of oilaiwliii leandiic 
and bdefatJEable IndwtiT, bvt deSokrat la JndgBaenl. 
Hli worki^ of wbiob Wm baa rivan a aMagan, 
amooal to forty rolamaa, (oUa aad qvarto, tbe tnoat 
Talaabla el wbhA la Ua CoUection of Recorda (three 
«nla.foBo). 

FBTTAMEITM, kbt towa-hall la a Oreok itatih 
It me looked oa aa tha oOotel home ot the rtat^ and 
waaketttupfikeaprrrateraaidnice. AtAUMaaforolglt 
aahaaaadiin and dliiena returning {ran enbaama 



were entertiiaed there. Thm; too the prytaaea (tbeaa 
aenatotv wIm toeHdnl in tuin) beld tneir meetingai 
and lived at the pnbUo espenae during tfae tUrty-fiea 
or tlkiity-aix dajr* <tf tbair pnaidaoy. He Ubnty 
of eatins is the Prytanoum waa one of tbe h{gb«at 
marka of honour, and waa cmiferred only on, tboaa 
who had dnae important earrloe to tbe atate. 

PBZEMYSIi, a royal town of Avitrian Galida, 
on the river Saa, SI nii1<a weal of I^mberg. It 
haa two uicient catbednila and aereral doLiteni; a 
trnda in wood, lantb«r, and linen, and two com- 
millii pRonyil waa fouudud in tbe eighth oectory 
by tbe PoUah prinoe PnomyaUw, and called after 
lui nemo. Tbe miaa of the anciont reatdential caalla 
are on a n<!i;;lilKnir7ne hill. Pop, ilH6U), T2,311L 

PSALMANAZAR, Gbqboi; the aaautncJ nant 
of a mnn of letlfrra, »ho ta ebtedr known aa a Uler- 
arj imjioaUir. Hs waa bom of Catholic patent^ 
hi the iu<itb of France, to 1079. Hia motfaar, balas 
atiaadoaed by her buaband, eenC her boo to a aehow 
kept by FTaaciacan frian: and ho waa afterwarda 
placed in a ooUego of tiie Jriuita. Ho tlicn etadlad 
among tbe Dondnlcana, aud batrinu Gnlabed bia etln- 
oatloa aobad u » ptivat* tutor. LaaTlng hb •hoa- 
ttoOkkeenn^tdinaoMTiJ adrutaTM: andatlcn^ 
having ituW from a rburtfa, where it bnd bum dnii- 
cated, the babtt of a pii^^ni. be roved alxiul in that 
charactar, anbeiatlng cm charity. Ha afttrwarda 
beeame a ooRimon vagrant, and thea aerrant to the 
kee|)cro(at*«am, wbcva huuae be left dandoetinely, 
and, ranewing Ida wandartnc node of Uf<^ be oon- 
odvvd tbe project of p-"*i— ■"gi»f—"M te be a Japan- 
eoe oonrtrt to Chriitljuilty, wha bad lonnd hia way 
lo EuTMio. Aa ba did not find Ibla oKJwine vaty pn^ 
fitablo, be adoptad the cbaracter of a beatbMi natire 
of the Uand as Fumoaa, and In order to rapport Ida 
prrtendtfu he oontrived a new laogaa^i^ wUiA bs 
caOad tb« FiannoMa. At Ihio tmo be IweaiM 
aoqn^atad with a d er g y m aa aamed luMi, wbo, 00a- 
cciving bo could turn the inpiMttire to good aeooa&t, 
pennailed the iiivt«nded FomuMan to atiSer lillnaelf 
to be omrarted to the Obarcfa of Kngland; aad Iha 
doTfyinaB aad bla now diiolplo went to LoadoB, 
where tbe latlnr wta pr weal o i l lo BlAop Cotoplon 
and olhor% and the fonow waa rewarded lor Ua seal 
with cJiiirch )«efennaat, nMlnamuar had the 
effrvnterj to trandate tfae Cbareb Catechiam Into 
bia jHvly-lnveutod Furmoaau langnage; and be pnb- 
Uthed a llMtory of Formoaa (1701), wUdt panad 
throogh aevoral ediUona. In the naaatiaw no waa 
eeot to aCudy at Oxford; and a oontrciT«m was car* 
rlad en betwaaa hia patrona and Dr. HaUey, Dr. 
Mead, and aotne other Leaa eredulona pemoaa, who 
lelnaed lo admit bk pretemJone. The Inpoataire at 
leoBtb baoaiae dearly maoifeat; and tM calprit, 
delated by thoao whom be bad doceivcd, waa obbged 
to teiy « the exetvba of bk literary abUlUaa for bta 
•nppuft. He arltled in Looduo, where he itaided 
inuiT T<*'>'*, and wu Fni|<loved by tho hookaellan, 
particuUrly about 1730, in' tbe early pari of tbe 
rnivcnal Ukbwy, pnbliihed iu 17<7. Towaida tbe 
rioaa of hia life be drew ep an antoUognqtblcal 
Menx^r, fai wbiefa be B j iprB M ee nineb oontrition for 
the deoeptionB whliA be bad aUowad blotaeU to prae- 
tiaa. Hia death took ptaoe in 1763. Dr. Jofanaon, 
wlw la early lifa Iwcaue aoatuuntad with Faaiman- 
aaar, alwayo apoke with klgli raqwot of Ua taleata 
and aeqwlrnnawlii AswagaOtiNdMntdabKlnNa 
ba had avflr nat, be proDouwed the hmottor Pni- 
""""»'■ lo he the moat nnlTenally banted and 
acoonpHabed. 

PSALMODY, the art of writbw or w^po ri ^ 
dtriae byauM or eoagiL !Ilie nae of paafaDodgr waa 
eoBUBOo'la the early diuich, by whl<A it appcare l« 
bara baao borrawvd frxjtn tho Jewiab aynagogne wor> 



•hip. Tliu CJini|K)aitIoii hn3 pertamiancb at peulmudy 
^pwLra to hnvn hnvn |inu:ti»«Kl aait! «ucoiirKg*i] ia 
GenuMi) , France, Mad tbo LowCountriw bofora it wm 
tntroducej l&io Bntkln. Mostof thooldmftlodieBiunr 
■uii£ in tko Mrdce of tha mroehM ohurdiM were Mt 
by Uanasa munidMu. InVtADOopaalmodv wh popu* 
UriztKt kt tha R«fuiiDBdcm by cLemeot Muot otid 
Olndft Ooildhn«l, tbo fanner of whom tnuulat«d the 
FMtbuof Dftvid in vcrw, wbilc thn latter net them 
to innala It Joe* nob, tiowavor, appear tlukt p>^m- 
ringbtg at firat gained sdmlidou iuio public wiMubip; 
but it wu A long limo oanfiotxl tn family dcvotloi^ 
espRCtaUy nni'inif the ninmriiHl, LtithM", who WM ft 
({uchI iiiuKJuKU, is kiiowri to have rrguliirly praetlaBd 

Klmcxly with hin friimilii cwrjovoiiiiig nfU'r eiippor. 
e fint Eiigtisb vendvo of tbo FwUiui of Duvid, 
whiob apwikml Huou itEtcr tliat of the French, was 
mad*) in th« rwign of H»iiry VIII., by TLnmiu St^ni- 
Loli], gmxa of tbv nboi to tb&l munarch, imd 
John Hopkins a aohoolmaatar, auiIlt'^d hy Wiltiam 
Wtultynghsfti, an Eiigliab divine of coimiilurabLe 
Uaming. It ww oftirwiirdu aapenedod by the vnr- 
■ton of Nokuui TiLtr, ilm povt lanntato, aiid Dr. 
m^olu Brady. Tb« early refonnen ol Scotland 
uiid gnwt attention to psalmixly. In John Knox's 
^adter the metrical Pulm* wvn! ainuigivl far ami 
Id ohurohw with four-part lianuuuy. SLuruhold and 
Hopkins' ranrion of tbo Psalmi wiu tirtt used in 
Sootlaiid, anil wan afti-rvrnnl.i iiiipi-rntHlrii !rj tlit vitt- 
■iuu uow iu UBO, [duuded im tliat «f i'rimciii lloiai, 
provfl«tof KtoD,anivniberof CromwvU'8£Ov<.^nunetit. 
Aitioag modom cullectiooaof [«almody wo may tn«n- 
tluQ that luiDwn aa Uymna Andeut and Mudura, 
vitcntivcly usL-d in tb« Cburcb of England. 

Pi^ALKfHi, IklUK or, anti of tha canniiical boofca 
of tbo Old Twlameat, coLtoiuiu),- tbti liliir;:iL-al ct>l- 
loction of bymna uaed by the Jews in tha temple 
iervic«. TIto andont denenntinn of tliiH Ixxtlc ia 
vnluiowa. Tbs preBoat Hebrew name ia (cAiIfim, 
praiH*. Tbo Suptna^nt vcririon caJla it ptalna, 
from which our worrl pBoliD >■ darired. Each jiitdm 
Id the ooHeotiiiu, w-iiK a few exoepdons, haa a vartl- 
«uIwnp«icription, and tbaa* an gowraUj beUvvod 
to be genuine. 'L'bo titl«a of the palnu in thane 
mperaoriptiana are variciua; lehtUm Kpp&sB only to 
Pm]m CUV. Many of th««ii are anUtled limplir 
prayi-n. MaichU, inotniction, mithtam, momoruu, 
and numoroiu other titlea are \u«d. The ohTonoIoey 
of the iVdnw vt much diaputcd. realm xc, anti- 
mnd by MoMe, 1« generally >n]p;ii}«xl to Im tlm oldest 
PEObablyoDly » few of the otLun arv uldur Uian the 
time of DsTid, though thoro ia evidence That oldar 
ooUectJocia have been iiacd by the linit r.nllrctora Sumo 
are u late aa the return fnuu the cajitivity; and aome 
oritica aaiign othera to Uie age of the MBCcab«efl. 
Hitzig, L«uigerk«, and Jurtiu Olahaueca usi^ the 
jneaber part of the Peolma to the Maocabean period. 
To ibia opinion there axe iniiipcrable objectlona, lb 
ia vvident from biatory thnt ttic .Maocnboaa *V\ oot- 
witbatanding thu warlike patriotiam diaplayed in it, 
was one of rapidly jirevailing d^olenaioD, in which 
the general nuHt «f the people waa becoming aecn- 
larised, and tbs imitntion of lb«[r b^dUIo ocigaboun 
vae ondennining their nttAchmoot to thuir sndent 
faith; while thoec who still dung tu it duvvliipcd a 
narrow and ■t'^il'a bii;otry, wbicb grew into tha oiid- 
]««• and luniiinhdvaa formaUtiee of the PburiM-«>. 
It la not to Buoh on age we should look (or the nobleet 
and pumt amiratione of Uebroir devotion. There 
ia an andimt oiriiion uf the Paalms into lite Uxika, 
dlrtingulalied by the doxologlea at thi! (-iid of Puiima 
aHi^ \xdL, Ixzxix., and evi., which many oitiiB look 
upon M inilicMing five diatinot ooUeouow. Thoee 
who take thia view place tbeee eoUectioiia is chiono- 
logical otder aa they atand, and auma o( them con* 



aliJer the [Mutlcular peaUna in eadi coUecttan It 
lialonging' tn tbn p^od nf tha particular oeUectiau. 
Tbo firvt twv ouUcctiona, accurdUitf to then, ooatale 
all thu Paalms of David. Thb new ia evldeittly diffi- 
cult or impoarible to prove: for what te ta holder a 
later ooUector from introdnniitf an earlier laelB 
which had been omittod fruu a [ireTtoea ooUectkst 
The mggiwtlMi that the faidiin mpenciibed with iho 
name of David in the later eoUectiooa weie wriMcB 
by deacendantavf David la mure ingrrnioua Ihaa plau- 
alble. The age of woie of tbo pe.'Cnu ia indicated by 
aUnatcmi^ of othon by the langn^c employtNL 

The rbytlittiioil form of the Hebraw jioetry k » 
□nmpletely het that it baa beendoabted if it had 
any; bnl thnrr ia a ]iortical atracbore in the dvpcai- 
tion ai the matter mure iinpvriahaUe than men una. 
and wliii:h eten traaalalioa caiiBOt dartniy. The 
8««timente are arranged la iiniie anaweiing ta mA 
other, or eaoh Hntiment reoeiTea a dmbla uj,|inmdia. 
Thia method of eampoaitlan try elzoiibe iM aMi- 
atrophe la the moat univcraal charactMiatie ef Hebrew 
pootrr. AnothDr charactoriatic frequently exonpli- 
tied ill tbi.' Faalma b the anUphoual atructuieb Tlam 
1j no doubt that many of the paalras are oommoMd 
to be *vx>^ in pnrbi. It ia evident fratn the tteatasM 
oi tbo mliiitct that in miuiy oi them m prineipel |Mtt 
la aaaigned to tbn otrciiitlng prieaL and a mboedlnala 
or responsiro one to the people. In othen two defai 
appear tn rmfonii to eadt other; or aome |iriBcipal 
penHiuaHo uLher than the |*rieetr— the king or anaDa 
anroetsfol warrior — takee th* li-ading part. %aiat 
may have even a more complex dramatic chataeter: 
but there ia oonaidcralte dllftcalty In determiung 
the cxtout to which thia form of OMHtnoction (.irevajli 
in the t'anlniH, aa well aa in aaoertaining the true fcna 
of particular ]saalm>. It b ha)d]y poMdUa ie tell 
bow much of the conjectural realonrtiim eSeeied by 
crittca ia doe to a true inaight into the origiuJ natme 
of the oompotiUim, and how mccb ia eupenddad by 
the planaiblfl ingenuity of the critic It i« evideBt 
thnt ahuoat any lively \Maxi uf a deaaiplive aod 
Darrative order would bmr partial dramatiiinK> nod 
the lupondro itrtieture of Hebrew paeti7 b kMntnal 
to the writets of poetry el every apeolee, asd Is net 
Id Itaelf an ovideuue of a dramatic intention, ^Jt^'i^t^ 
thia form of cnmponition naturally Innda itacU Ie 
reaponslve alniiiiig or n-ntaUun, and may either have 
originated it or have oiifliuued in it. 

1>Avjd, who Amngod the temple mnaic, not only 
appointed from tha Levltea a nnmbv nl mngets ana 
mualolaaa, but alao coupceed (or the diviue weiri^ 
sacred eongs, which sorred aa a nodal for masj 
othen. Several nf the neahna that bear lua imbu 
an) iiol, Indeed, writben by bim, but ooly cumpoaed 
in bia manner, and therefora odled by bis name. 
8evcnty-«na^ in pertiotilar, are aacrihed to hiiu, but 
■ome of tiitte ate eridently of a later datCL ( 'n ih# 
other hand, ^e conteuta and atyle ul aome which do 
not boar hi* namii, and thn BUiiunEcriptiana of which 
have porba)M b<nm ]uat< ahow min to have beat the 
author. To his timee belong meet ri the paalma 
attributed to Aaaph, Heman, imd Ethan or Jedulhna. 
Twidvc pmIdw bear Arapb'a uuno, vt whkfa levenl 
ahow ttacea of a later origlH. Aanpli, am of Bet»- 
thiah, waa a Levite, and (1 Chron. xvL 6) the fint 
of tho chief tnunnana appointed by llarid ftie Iha 
diviue wonldp. The uaiue of Hetnan la atlaehed 
to one emly fFanlm UxxvUL) Heman, euriHUiitd 
the Ecrafaite, •ecme to have been a 1^%-ite, aed b 
named among the chief aingent of David. Some ef 
ihe paalma were compoaed by Solomon, who; aeocrd- 
ing to the Flivt Book of Kinga (iv. 33) wrote a 'thev- 
aand and live a<ius«,' but wtioae name la aHixed, b 
uur coUectioti. to two only (Paalma IxxiL aad autrii.)^ 
and eif tbeee the first aeema father to have beOD writ- 



\ 



\ 



I 



rS ALTER -PSKOV. 



ass 



tm for Solomno Oaa bv liim. But, on the other 

OHM othc!!*, cf unknown authnra, may Iw lib; 

vc Kt l«>aat of Ilia tiiti«, Anil rrfrt to evcnt« 

_^ niga — tin oonwomticn of the tcmplo, fte. 

^%e ontaiMi that wnne pMlmi we of tlie timn of 

8 « Moe l , add written hj Um propliet biuuwlf. u auit- 

fviUA b* no hlatorkol tevtiiocny, but ii not IiaproD- 

nbkb MoM at th<a> W nuknowo snthon Mcm to 

Inter dnt«; aotnA leir npMrcnllj bclnng to the 

1 14 tb« kingi faBiDBdifttc].v ntooMdiiifi Solumoa, 

li to the noorafnl dn^ ot the ItchrloaUh ckp- 

IMC^ umI pf cho ntnrn, eapocbll; thene ucnded 'for 
the nca of Konh,' tDoat «l which are prolifth); by 
the anme eatbor. Of Uterdnta nbo nr« probnblir 
Ihsee ^led 'eongB nf the dcgreoa,' which wnn* tinv« 
'Id tha ntura from Babjlun, otbera to the 
, jSptmuf^ to JcrajnlcED and the temple, and 
I olMn eoppoeo to havo bran anng on tho rtcp* 
I t«nplK Our (xillnliiiii cuiudMe a 1£0 pMlnis, 
Mcripu vc not oil Duinbcred nllke. The 
, It nul Vulgate tmita finlms ix. uad x., nnd 
dr. nik^ cr, wItUe they divide I^nlm* civi. and 
nlvB, Into two. ao that their number dUTen (ii iDiue 
ramcli fron tnat of the Engliili tnuiaUtioo. 

The PmIhu nie Irric poems chieHT odee, nnd 
aUMtOe, tihafite at lOjlbc (Sm I^wthV Hebrew 
Pvttwy.) Moat of tfavm are Id the fonu of pnyer, 
{fa «r end vhh pmyar; nnd, wbcthor they 
WHiiflalwt lMnfii>tiirtf''H, or wneolatiwi. luv 
ive of the Jee p wi trurt to Qod. They nre 
MMMB the hjche* and nlliDMat afforta «C poetnr; 
■ad tM boly ogla of nreUtioo, ^ iniiiiring belief 
to tba Matanl tnis Go^ eprcndi otct them a brtsht 
tfUaSoar, and filla them with deep fervour. Tbvy 
■net not be oompnred with the otliinr lyric nmluc- 
I «/ the aodeDt world; they are altotietner the 
growth of the Holy Laoil, wbero the voice 
llfTelatioo reeountkd moet londlr, and waa pre- 
rvad the nwat purely. Many of usfr aOiuioiB an 
Malorleal, and naat m explained by hintory; but it 
WDold b* pilnE loo fat to attempt to oxpUin erery- 
Ma^ hietariculy; ainoa it in aridont tlUt mw\> le 
— tliho rienl. aoBw, tbonifa n ■nallor poriiou. alle- 
gorical, and iBDcb pn)|ibetlc«], refcfrini; to the f ntnie 
ratbar tiuM to tiMt part. 8om«, on aceouot ot their 
loG^ allotiooa^ an leaa inativctiTe to ua; bat nuiat of 
thMn era tieh in tneounpauait, eooaolatloo, filial 
tnul, jeyfot omliikDco in God, aridnosa at hniDUity 
aad paU«nca, and are well S'lkfitcd for Uie incred 
■aq^a of Cbnctiiuu. It utAy bu added that the oot- 
leetlaa In the Old TetUoeat by no meant eontalua 
U» wbola InMoro ot Hebrew paahna. Kot only are 
moai of Solomon'a aanft lent, bat there are many 
ottien nuoliOMd in the Old Taatainent which ara 
not in o aiMbU cal oollaction. 

PSALTER, a ooOectioB of the Pulmi ; alao a 
l«f* Gha|ilet or reaaty, eouAiUnc of 1£0 beadi, the 
nnmbar ot the l*ka!ni8 in the PwJlcr. 

PBALTKKY, or Fn*i.iT*iM». a attiogwl fawtru- 
nunt nmch ueed by the ancivnt Hebrvwi^ nd by 
Ibain eaUed lutti. We know but tittle uf the andent 
form of thia inatniOMnt, but lia*o reaeoo to couolude 
that h raaenbled that of onr linra The paaUary 
DOW ia naa b a flat faubancot, in tho f otm of a tt»- 
pealion. or a Maa^ traneated at top. It ia etrting 
with thirtavn wiraeordL toned in nnuooaeroctavaiS 
and mounted en two bnds«a. It la pe rf onwad on a 
BlHtran. wbanoe it ia oaually tmnked amcoiK tha 
laMnunaetB of TMrniMion. 

raAMMETlCHL'H, or raAimrncRrH, the Oraek 
term of th* KLiyiitian runietnc, a tdng ut Egypt 
brioBfrinc to tho eevcnth centnty ac Hi* fsubar 
wna klaic nf Salt, hut waa driven from tha tfarone 
and elafai by the /Kthlujijiuii. who held EfTypt aub* 
lod fiirflftv yean during the lattnr part of Iheelffbtb 
V*n. il. 



and the bf^nning of the aOYenth Natiay BA 
PBamnictichua managed to eaeape to Syria, when ha 
rnnajoed till tha Athlopiana areraaxpeJled. Ou hla 
Tvtura lio WM made one vt tba twdva kinga who 
relfined eimQltaneoualy In Sfnit for Atteon yearsaftflr 
tlie expulriuo of the vKtUopten dynaaty; batbaJDf 
suepaeted by the other tdsoi of ainUng at aoJa aovor^ 

S&Cy h* WM driven into Mnlahment, wbca ha took 
nfo In the tnarahy diatileta botderbif eo tha ma. 
Here he ancoeaded in oblwning tho anpport of wune 
lonio and Carian nwroenariea, with whcee aid b* 
defeated the vthar Unga tn a battle fonght at Mon- 
emphia, on Ibo aaat aide of X.alco Maiaotla, after 
which he aotoally bccanoe the eole king of Egypt 
(671 or 670 ac) Ha fixed lA nddenoe at Sda, and 
b hen» ineotioiied aa tha (bundor of tha Bahio 
dynaaty. The Greek merMBoriea, to whom ha owed 
Ino tfamne, were rewarded with aettlemenbi on tha 
eiutrrD (Peluriac) Unnch of the NUe. By tho favour 
which he thiM i^ovad to fordn aoldios bo greatly 
offended the miUtatr daat in Egypt, « ooBMamhla 
namlnr of whom m^mtcd In oonaeqneneB to jfitU* 
oplA. To protacrt idmaetf agalnat the enmity of tUa 
clan be aaeva to hav* bonad UmatU all m man 
cloeely to the prieatly daa, whom ba gntlfiad by 
ILo erection of religions edtficra. The moat tmpor- 
tani of theea are aovtlieni propyl»a of the temple of 
Phthah fidcntiflad by the Graaki with Haphurtna) 
at M<«phiis and a cplendid anla or «Kirt with a 
partico found it f or tha hnUtatloD of Ai<i*,in front cf 
tho tompla Ha wngad wan with ^vrut tuid Fb»- 
nida, and took Jwtna (A^dod) a/l«r a urge of 
lw«nty-nlna yeanL The clam ti tnletpretan owed 
ita origin to hta aendinv a number of Kgyptian <UI- 
divn to learn tho Grefdc langu^p aoKKig tha Qrodo^ 
whom he had at:tU'.-d In the euustiT* Be dM a.0. 
617 or 616. 

I'BMU^ or IrsjiBA (r«yra), an bland of Turlcty, 
Ln the Gmciiui Ardupeluot 7 milta notth-wmt ot 
Hda, about SJ niU* In length, and a« many fn 
brvadth. It coiuiata aluaeal entirely of a rock, thinly 
covcTw] in Boma plama with a vegotabia mould. 

PSKUDO, a Greek word ayaonymoai with fabo, 
apniioa^ or lying, and ofton oaed In thb lania aa a 

Kfix to other worda In moat modem bagoagea. 
n« we epeak of a pttwdofrvplut, a faba or lying 
I'mpbrt : a nK«do^aoMi|iA(v, a talaa or only wouhT 
be philueopbar; ftc Soottliim loo » work bearing 
a faliw ttaine, or any other than that ot the anthor, 
U wud to ba ptntdonjfmomt. In the aame aenaa aba 
we apply the tenn to indtvidoab who bnve attempted 
to ttciacnify otbofe by Mealy i— mtng their name, 
ana apeiJc of a pKwta-Dtwtttruu, a powb-JfetnatMa, 
or Kptntdi^Iiiaorr. 

FSEUDOHORPII, a ndneral whldi baa ti»e form, 
not of the anbatanc* of which h a<liinlly canuat*, 
bnfc of oome other aubataiMa which haa wholly er 
partly Aaaniaand. 

PSKOV. » gavarament of Itninda, hoonded north 

KSt Petenborg, oorth-eaat by Kovguced, eaat by 
er, aonth-caat by flnwlenak, aoeth by Titebak, 
went by Uvoola; area, 10,960 aqiiara uDaa. Tho 
anrfMO towirda the ai7Uth>«aat b rather fllente^ 
betog' travened by the Valdai BiUa, but rinkn gradu- 
aQj down near the oentrok haring ealy a ymtb akpe 
towarda the north and mmt. Immeaaa anmben cf 
Uocka cf grmilo Ua eenHared In all quartora. Tbo 
whole gottnmal bohMigB to the baria of the Baltic 
the Sonlh Dwfna, wUeh draba tho aonth-eart, carnr- 
togitawBtFnintotbcGuUof Bigi^ and Hm VeUkala, 
Cbelon, and Lovat, with other emaD trDintariea, 
ewtytng the net of the dntoaga into tha Golf of 
FtnUmL The aoil b tbrtm^Mot of poor qaalitv, aixl 
can only be made to yield tolanUe nvf* by henvj' 
maDuriog. Ulieal b aeldovi grown, and the pri)i> 



S54 



PSKOV— PSYCHOLOOY. 



oipBl cnm ant (ukU and biu1«<F', which arc nuMil In 
ensridanUv quMititic*, to a* to l^kvo • surpttu for 
export. A ouuafdunble axtoot of ^roujid ie aown 
with h(3mp htkI Am. ForraU also am ertun-tivf; but 
tbo wood in not (>( the licst i^iulilv, and ikuk ia Holdciiu 
mat with. Vluv U vory prevalent, and funuahea the 
moftDi of muiiifactiiriDg Lar^ i^tustiti'Da of piUji. 
The on Ijr other manufacture of iinjibrbuice ia leather, 
Pskov ia diviiiixl iutu eight ditlrk-ta. I'up. ^1882}, 
SSO.S'ti. 

PSKOV, gr Plebkot, a town, Ruarfa, Mi(iEta] of 
tlw above ^rcmmso^ ua the rieht bniilc of tho 
Velik&iji, wLicb. h«re reoeivM the PTenkovat 1 QS milw 
aaw. uf St. pL-t«r«tRu«. It U wallud, flanked with 
tow«ra, all in a vary dilnpidatml titat<>, na am aito 
muay ot th« fauuiMa. It oanauta of tliu Krcinlin, tliu 
C^ntxikl oity, the flrtat dty, and » cunaidcraMo 
aaburh. All tho privata hoium mail the far gr«at«T 
part uf tb« publJu vditic«a are i>f wood. I'bc Hwtt 
ouildin^ &ra Id the Krvnlin. Amon^ othen Att tbc 
CttthodMl, ct Tory littl« afctilloctural iui>rit, liut 
gaigeotulv decorated; and thti palacn nf Ibn antricnt 
prinoea oi Pskov, nuwr MVupiMl liy ttio arcbbieliuix 
Tb» DombDr of churchos amounca ta thirty, but luoni 
than a thini cf thRin am in di»Tuii\ llio prindfiil 
Bliuitifticture ia Ruuiiui iHatiier; and lber« la a txia- 
■idHrablci tradn in bmnp, fl&x, tallow, bldea.fto,, with 
Karra and uthur loaports on Cho Gulf of Finland. 
FbIcot la th« Me of an arohbi>bo|\ luid pMacM«« a 
theological aeminary, & Bible tuciety, and a well- 
monagod faoapilal. It ia aaid to have bncn fouQiiod 
by tha Prlnoew Olga tiiwarda the uud oi the teatb 
OBHtiiry. Pop. ]e,2fi7. 

PSOltOSPERMliE, See Paiusitis and Peu- 

TOOOA. 

PSYCHE (Gn^V. tbe aoul), ft lovely maiden, oelo- 
bratod on account of tbo bcandful itory raapootlng 
her, in which «be U tn be ooiiaidcrcd an aJlogori- 
oal pcrioniflcftUon ot tbe tumiui sooL AptUDius 
aakm bet thu daughter of a kin;, and relate* her 
blrtOlT tbua: Paychc, whcwo two elder ^tera were 
of moderate boaaty, was no lovHy that abe wa> taken 
for Veuu* korcelf, aud inmi daml only to aitDTe her 
as a godi^Mi, not to lore her. Thia excited tbe 
jcAlmiay of Vcrqii, who, to revenge herself, ordered 
Cnpid to innpiru kf^r witb Invn for anme amtempliblo 
wrsUih. Dut Cuj^ild full [u luve wLib bt^r blniM-ir. 
Meanwhile bor fnllier, desiring to too hia daDgbl-:r 
married, ooiMulted the oracle of ApoUn, which octm- 
mandwl that Piy<^b» ibould be lunwyal with (uiiera! 
rltea to the nmimit of a mn-iiutain, luid tbere bo luf t, 
fur sbo WHS duBbiutiU to be tbo bride of a dntnctive 
noiiBtor in tbe form of a dragon, ftLArad by gods mad 
tniTn. Witb sorTow wiu the oracle obeyed, and 
FiyL'be wua loft tioim un tbo de»BTt lock, when surl- 
d«uly Ze[ibyr boven arouud her, geatly nlaet and 
tMiuporta her to ■ beautiful {HtUot of th* {^ of 
lore, who rimts her every night imKen «nd unkoowti, 
leftvtnu hsr agab at tbo approach uf day. Farfect 
bappllMU vnmHii bav« been tha lot of Ps>-cb«, If, 
obedient to tho wvning of htr lovor, >ho had Dover 
bn'n ctininu to know him better. But by the arUficca 
tit hot j<<!diiu« BiRljers, whom ebe bad admitted U> viaii 
liar contniry to Uio commandi of Cupid, ebe was 
peninadcil thitt die held a miinnter in her arms, anrj 
ouriuaity tritiui]iLi;iL Aa be alcut she enteiwl wiUi 
a Ijunn to oxaiiiine liim, and oisoovared tho mutt 
beatitiiul of the Kod<; in her joy and avtonishmont 
ab« let a drop of UB heatod cdl fall upon his iboaldeia. 
Cufdd awoko, and having reproncbod the aahmished 
^ycbe for her euspiciona Rod. After having tried 
fai rain to throw lienelf Into a river, aha wandered 
bic oM olaUc to all tbe tcmplot, sMfcing atar yv rtietB 
her belovbd, till iibe camo to m tem^ of Vanua. 
Here iMf^an, her aeveceet lulIariDgii. Veaoa kejit her 



near her [<en(>n, tr«at«d her aa a slatv, and inpafM 
upnn b«r tho eevemt and moot tr^^ng taaka. P^rdke 
waald bftve hudIc nnder the burden had not Oopid. 
vrbo Atilt tenderly bveal hoi; aeorvtly iwlllad bw la 
her labouni. But in tbe last danmotu talk hap— I 
upon biir, to deecend to the realm of abaidowi^ and 
briu^ away Froaatpfna'a box of ooamettoi; Aa afanost 
pQriabod. 8he Bucceed«l indeed in tht advaatan; 
IpEit haling opcnol tho Inx a deadly vapour iaaed 
frimi it, and iihe lunk tifeleas to tto aarth. Capid 
ubw appeared, and the toodi of Ua anow iwlinii 
ber to lifb Venos was finally raeoDdled; by Jata- 
trr'n command Fayohe bemma immortal, and «ia for 
tivor luiitod with h«r beloved. Her aarriaga wae 
celobTatitrl witb great feetivitiea, and bar miviow 
•uhm threw tbemielvta from a praoipko. Baptiael 
haa given a moat beautiful repreacntatliMt «f Ibe 
marriaoe In the Farsadna at Roiae. 

PSYCHOLOGY (Gmlt, ftufke or jmgtkt, ifae 
■oul, and iosot, word, deotrioe), that dcpAitment ot 
]<hiLi.i*(i)ihy which has specially to do wiUt tha ofaes- 
vatinn of the slatiai and actinna cf the human mind. 
'Ilie di%iHUn of phtlocupby iulo varluws branebca ■■ 
at ones natural and conveDlentt bat It li to hi 
rc^rettod thnt phlloaophors theniaelTM donotalvaji 
atteud to the DatnreM Uie distiiKtionaai wlnehaadi 
a division depends. Tbm oan bo no ahaolata Dm 
drawn iopluliMophy batwesa obaarvalaea and na- 
•oning, 'nierc cannot he one dopartnent of pUI»- 
■opbv frum which ubaervation >■ excluded, and 
anotfaor from which n^aminlng is oxoladetL Whsa 
wc fiiat enter ou phil<»»pbLcal inquiry wa are aliaady 
in peaieerion of abodvbf facts bearing on tbe mbjeel 
of our investigation; bat whcu wa iMgin Tii liiiisnii jii 
tbeee facta we lind tlunn inmffideob and itnsaljsfar 
tory, becau»G tbuy liave b<«ii oi^ected without method 
or doaign. Wo bav«i, tharcfors, to boj^ again ki 
reoolloct 0iir facts by a tnethiMlical pmocas of inqairy 
ipccially dirrct^ to tbo (olution of tbo qaeetioM 
which h&va su^eated tlMmiel<raa to oa in mir (tv- 
lim!naayteeioinna,and aa saw queatiooa arise in lb* 
couraa of oar inveatigatiaa n«w p r ocesase of lm]Kiiy 
have to be eat on foot with a view to their elncida- 
tton. It iitothlaasthodloAlproceaiofiaveMigatinc 
facta that tho term psyohology propetly *fViBt»- 
Thora are stagea of phucan^ical invccttgatMa ia 
wliii;h we may engage In leogtbeoed |aiiuwaia el 
roaeonin^audiuduL-ttaBfroBfactaabaadyaaMCtaiBd 
or aammed. '11i<3w prooeaMa are aaamonly calM 
wstaphyaical or ont('l<>^'i\.-aJ; but aa the metaphysical 
prooeena are f ouuded on obaervatioa, ao the methodl- 
oil piooeseoe of inveetigatiaD implied in payelioki|y 
are aireoted by reaaoaing, and aa the obeervatkn ol 
faots tends to tbe diaoovery of lawn, wldofa la itatlf a 
Rpocioa of olian-ration, piycbology not only <~ 
methodbutaduiitainductton. Tha£stiDe>fa»bati 



it and other moTo abatrusa braochoe ot philoaanhy is, 
tlicrrforc, one not of kind but of dogtve. Than 
pbiloaopbical itrooesaea wbicb are mainly dirtetad to 
obaerTotloQ, and Immediate indoction fron obenrva- 
tion, coEDpreh ending tho diatinction and cUaiificatiittt 
of the Tnrioiui acrica of obearvcd fact^ that Im, fJ 
uienlal state*, pronaaee, and poweta, are praperij 
called paycboli^cal; tbooe procew which oarTTOol 
to their completion the linta of nsaaoaing alnady 
btfguu upon asBuiued facta, aad whicb, liy mbjec^ufi 
tbs facts to a more eaarcfaing aualvsla, aim at Matur- 
ing a more njhaustiro knowledge of theaa, anil 
drawing trotn than more vxtandad infataoeai^ are 
properiy called metapbyaical or oatologioal TbMt 
jirnniissrs. it is evident mutually react npoa earh 
oUm, and the peydwlc^lcal proceea cannot be h>I<l 
to be conplata till it baa received the final nvWon 
of tbe metapbyaical. Thiu, Ptato deeoribaa tha 
iDotbod of phtloaopliiiod invesilgatiuu, whiuh h« calls 



i 



I 



I 
I 




PSYCnOLOGY-PTEKlCHTHYS. 



39« 



I 



^hlwtfwJ, M tb* prooMi of MOBodlog from pKrti- 
ralM* to f«MnkK uid of rodeanDillDg from tho 
gennnl to Ibe pM^ouUr. 

Tlw ootB|il«iB OMCbod of phllMOphy b, bow*\er, 
■objort lo tUi dntwbwik tbot tb« lubioct ia iiMX- 
huMtible^ aaA that the Kosnnin^ to which phlloao- 
pUcol fmtiM UTo riM an en<llia& Henco too coo- 
«wdna> o< vvUoiw anil biv&k« in th« pf ooMi M of 
iwwlnfc that cmdnBiaai urn j ba roviicd md facta 
wvaiift c u ; bat the Datum of Uibm dlTistooa mart be 
dMriy uadaratood, or tbe/ will Inovitkbl; pramot* 
. oonnHon. 

_ the rel|[B of tbv •cliulMtiu jiliiluoopbv r«a- 
: aad dlMlBMion were curled to Buch ui eittent, 
and (Trawn not with mcli ■ nnltiplicity of •ubtWtic* 
)U)d nslinnneiiU, that the facta wfira ovMrbanlflnMl, 
^Martmi, ufanpraamlMl, loat li^ht of, and oontn- 
dieted till the rary tnekohig of words b«came doubt- 
foL In theae cfamfnrtafioee DoecaitM locaUed tb* 
attantlco at bewildered thioken (o the ynvom ot 
o\ mt m li ian and rv-ertabliidwd per^olos;. At pn- 
Mat ft aomewhat diffomot danger appoara to attend 
tUkaocifajr, ami ita pajrcholDKual ^rtninilwnrk, aftar 
Mlag bajlt ovv and buriwl, b now bvirif uivlvr- 
Biaet^ and threa tm cd wit^ hcing iwept away as an 

itfeo to ft pmfoaoder Mieoce. 

idftBgarpvoeeedftfromaaobaol whidi, tlmugfa 
at Umi of ita eKpomota; Am«Um to ttaelf 
cxdueivdjr the title ot paycliologieal,Mid lepndiatea, 
ae ft thlftf entinly ^lart fram peycliology, ail «on- 
DMtioo with tiMlajMl]r4(ft. We have ibuwu tliat even 
aft ft bnmch of |>hiiOMDpb]r payobolcigy cannot be it\i|»- 
|WMd ftltogethar U ftxeuKM litdiwtinL Much mora 
il pajiiKilocT k etMted tnto as iDdmendeat adeiiM 
nut fakdncBOD be inclnded fai iL Toe definitloa ol 
nrcfaology then lonat be ttie oheemtiM) ot and 
uwwtfco froiD EWDiftl phencnauk What te thii 
but ft defiattim of philoaopby* and what in this case 
la the tDoaaing of the repuilUUuu «( iii«ta|)hviice I 
Il wtftlnly doei aot UMaa that thtae payoboioguta 
wteh to limit the nu^e of induction from fact*. 
lUt ii an iatantetftUoa whidi Uiey would by wt 
■MBOB admit, and which. In fact, their own prooedure 
■ham that they do not admowledgOi Then mmaui 
only ooe other admlMJble Inteqwetattoti. that by 
■leUfihnlcs Ihty mean inductioii which they do nut 
tflce, aad by psychology indnrtton which tbey do like. 
Il woftld be vet; nab to deny that mneh falee indac- 
tioft baa fOM uodw the aame of mct&physlce, but it 
dees ftot Meat a rery pnaSmag mi-W ut tm^fte^ 
bitm Eadoetlaa to cfaaofe tte name nf Ute proeeH, 

Bat the IneoBvenleDoe td pnttln;; tbcir inntftphyticft 
ftftdo the title of paycholagy, and thiu deatn; ~ 
the diatfaketicn whidi tbe iubuductiaii of p 
ae ft braadt of pbOueopby waa inlonded to 

i* Mt the only d»re« af^iiwt tUa achooL It 

ta ihum by the wiatio pranlDenea it givea to » par- 
tioklar daaa of qoMUoBS of deatmyii^ ano^cr woU 
uitdaiatood ^atinctioii, that between |ihj>ioWy and 
fwyehok^y. The phyabo-paycfaological probUn, to 
which the Alti attflntlon of this nchool ia directed 
beloftga In Ite oaaDiilele tnaton-til neither ia [aytfto* 
isfj mr to fttjmdSogy, but to phUcftOphy, whldi 
leeaivee ftftd eotobiBOi the nftulta of tfao aoTanl 
■daacci^ and the phyiloleeleal part of thia problem 
deea set beloftg to pa^cfa<iogy at all. That phyilo- 
Iqgtoal aftd paychalagiraJ pbMHoniana at« bltocM In 
fact, and that ooDaoqneuUy no almoltita dividioij line 
ima be diawn between them la tme; but tbe rcftson 
«i teBtag two acfaBoea ia that tbe pbanomMift at far 
M iliUhtiililialilii aiaji liii 1111111111 nail If, iiatud 
rfeoMwW UneeU wKh what iadeadydlitiacubh- 
ahU in Uaowa depart»eBt, the parcholo^iat hMtowa 
Us whole atlentiMi vpon the diriding Um^ lie obti- 
caoJy DcglactB ble duty. U may be iodenl, and per- 



hap« b ocatandnl, that than b 00 dbtincUon at alL 
Hut thIa Doatontaoii coo ^y be aatablUied by tact. 
As far as the phyaUiIociat ftdvanoea hie tine the 
paychologiat mtMt medk TtMn it, howe«<er, at 
praea a t a elcftr domain mto whieh phyaiology oamoi 
adTftoee^ and any ^>p«rent adranoe <u phyalole^, <r 
eveo of pbyaioo-peyohulafy, Into this daoan b 
merely illiiMiry. I'hyiio1»gy can only tell tta of 
tbinp which aecompaay mentftl vlfttee or ptoe ea ae^ 
or tbe exhibition of montai poweia; It can tdl oa 
Dotliiui; alxiut thceo atftbM, prooMac^ or powers 
UuTiniwIniL Hiia la the diinukln of paychology, and 
lutu it therv Is do pn*|ici.t of |Ji; ilolqcy e?er peo^ 
tracing. Tbe enstence of ft dcfts tofty explain tha 
tnUMniiannn of seaafttion, Ibe oontaa of the nrrre the 
direotian at trvwonimlan, the muiiou of the nerve 
the apeed of ttnnamiialon, bnt neither nerve nor 
brain eiptaina the fact of tonefttion. Supposo we 
lemra that mnaarj ia always attended with a prace^ 
of pbyaieal ftcthn^ or with a penaaaenl modlBcaHoa 
of aome partioulftT atnicture of the bnin, bow doaa 
this help lis to fiplain the phenomenon <ti metiMCjl 
or if we \eam that tbe acquirEil habits of an animal 
effect phyaiaal luodULcftllona which are Crftosmitted 
to iiiiiftailhm coiaratiaB^ and become in them tbe 
baaea or escil&g OMwe of faiatinet^ how doea ihb 
enable us to unduatftnd InaUnet aa a (act of taming 
neaat Id tbeae oftxa w« only learn that tbe pbeu^ 
monft flf Kiiiaiiimamea are attended with oeitain dr- 
cnmstsnoe% the eoBnectiaB of which with these 
phpucimeoa !■ to ua mystertooe and iuexpUcabte. 

V^'bon then we obeirvft phanaaeaa which an 
b^ood the range of pbya^aal eiptaafttkm, when w* 
cfttl tbeae phfB fn iwia mental, *"« aattlbe tben to aa 
a^ont called mind, we do not necessarily igiMfo the 
SModatlcin between mtortftl and i)hyaical pbcaoinBi^ 
but weeatftbliahftadeiueel thelomarwhichreaAaa 
beyond, and la to its own sphere ladaneadant of the 
latter; that >ci*>Dci.>, wbivb, UIco phydolosy, fa onlt 
ft bruob vt the univerNd actraoe^ philosophy, b 

'ARMTOAX. 8eo Qnoini. 
Pl'EUlOHTHYS (' winged -Bsh'), ft genu of 
extinct fisbee botoogiag to the enler G a noid el , and 
included la the sub-order Oetraooatel ot that dlfUon. 
Tbta genu waa first dimoviDred in the Old Bed &nd- 
■CntMi [nrtnatiiina Iiy the latn llnsh Miller io 18SS. 
Ilio head and froiit hulf uf tbu tiody weie uotwd 
by lai^e canoid plates, thsee platea oeoalating of bona 
ooftled wiUthftrdavenaOML The phteaef Ibe tmnk 
fonned ft taicUsr.likft sUUd, or bach-plate and a 
hfnaaC-plate^ theae plate* bvlni; aniculated together 
ftt tbe rfdea or uarsins of llm body. The wveral 
idatce investing tbo body wm joined by sutiu«. 
^10 Under part of the body and tail were oorseed 
by gftntM plates of anallar aise, and these regtona cf 
the body aiay tberefor* hftva been endowed with a 
gr^ degree of flexilnlity. A onftll and sdngle doraal 
or baek fin eilM^d, ibo lail-tiu bemg uneqa^y-lulnj 
ot beterooercal. A ueir of veutrals and a pair of 
peotoTftl fina wen alio reptearated. The peoloni 
lina wes« penttiarly derelaped, their oonfonnatioa 
■Mag rise lo the adeotifle name of the gsaraa. 
They oooaiated mA of ftstrmg wfkiam pn«HB eaaf 
poaed of two aa gantt b^ and eowed by tabamdar or 
■mftll naoid aodea la rateral form these flaa are 
MNRowhat wiv-Ulcet and mm their mode of attaeb- 
meat to the body miiit hftTo been cHMbto cf a certain 
range ot DM4loa; bal their oUaf oOoa waa rnhahly 
that of aiding tbeae fiaheatoahuflbftloag'tbeaaBdj 
bottom or bed if k<t diY at htw-wnter' (Owen>. 
Luconiotiai waa ehAefly aiwatrved by the eaaibl aad 
donal fiaa. The anaom^pbMng of Iba head seems 
to faftTo been artifulalod by mrene of ft merablo joint 
\fi the trooh-baddor, this mode of artiroIaUtai bsing 



«» 



PTERODACTYI^PTOLEM Y. 



Men In tba flxbtl&g T j e ji M a rt a n a or Boo; Mkc of tha 
North Amcricui lakM. 4 

Tfaeae fuduM an kbMoInUly ronfinii] to th«> Dornn iui 
or OldBadSaoilBlcam rockii,Bsdiurcfotini] in i{rcnti9il 
rimaduMN in tboea formbttaoi In tbe oorth m Scot- 
Und. The tncwt fMnttUr apcdc* i* the PUricAthgt 
ViUrri— nunwl kfter tb« diacavenr of tLc genni, 
wlio wroUi (4 bb dleoovery as barlui' lotd b>n ' od» 
et Uk nuwc extrurdiaary ' oreiaiilamfl of th« DortmiAn 
■yateni. And ' ^ne in which l^Mnftrek voiild bvte mnnt 
dBllgfal^iL' OtliMT HpociM mrv tlie P. comurm, /*. /hIua, 
P. major, &(!., th«MB«*««lap«dnb«Ii]sdi'^i>Eui*li"d 
and tv'.'L>;,'ULc«d }3y tho proportiou of ue bneklon, of 
tbo pactoral fiIH^ and of the talL Tb« jtm In all ara 
of unall Nxe, U)'] powBW conDitmt dtniCiclei or ru(li< 
mmUifj IcbUi. (S^ in. LXXXIll. fig. fi.) 

PTERODACTYL ('wlDged-fiiucor'}, a reaiark&blo 
g«nns of citinct Re^li^fomdng Ue typical ruunpla 
of ths foMol atdrr PtonMunnik TboM forma wi-m 
dMLqniUied vljirflj by th» vaomom eloasailm n{ 
As flitb or outGrmost finger, vbkh aorvcd for tho 
•ttaeliinmt of a pataniura {whdch soc) or flyisg-mcm- 
brUU^ hy tnviioi of u-Lii^h theae fi>rma ooiiLd anppirb 
HmowlvM in th^ a!r, much after tho fajbion of our 
oxiiUng bate. No outor akolvtou of icalos, &«., lovnti 
fio ban (Men dovelniMd. Tba dctaal vertehna ara 
(irocoaEoin, or hoUcpw in front and ronrex b«IilDd, 
th* fttmt rib* erf ttta fanuik wumaing dcnVla b««da. 
Thu cervical or AHik vcrtapna mra of havt aEio, 
thorn of the pelvis belag czoee^ag'ly amalL llie 
lireaat-boDc va» broiu), aud, aa in birdi, bore a median 
ridgB or keel for the attwJiniQnt of tho nootoral or 
binaC muBolef, wbidi are used hi (U),-lit. The «t«mal 
ribi vrera onifiad. Ilia jawa wcro olon^ntcd, and pro- 
Tided with bwth, a«t in aiitoli or aockata. I'bo head 
Etaalf waa of relativoly laiX" i!"*- Tba ajv waa pro- 
tavtad and atrevBthcasd by puaitwlnga row of tmny 
plattw is iti outer or adcrotic ccuL Tb« boaoa ol th« 
aboaldar-girdU ccRuiaUd of a ahonlder-bUd* »r 
■capula. and of larRD ooraooid bonoa, which, aa in bird*. 
wen attached dirKtly to Uifl bruuft-booe. No ooUar- 
bonaaorubividcaappearlohava'boandoveloped. Tbc 
boiMi of the fnt«-ann wan oloogated, th« (ni(«nnivt 
finger, ma alivady mentloDttd, b^Iuff axi-MdvcIy davvl- 
OpM In this reip^ct, and dawl«H, wUkit tho othor 
dig^ vtn iximUhcA with claw-like umIh. Tlio 
nomber of phalacf;i.-« |which aec) in the ftia^n is 
prapaariva trou tli«^ first to th? fourtli, thin hi>ing ■ 
tnatvadly ivp'^lLui chnmvtOT. llie «Ion|(atad fijuvr 
^are aupport ta a Miii^-mt^mbroDC^ whlcb aztenoed 
a3ung the aide* uf iLu IxxJy to the comnaratiToly 
nuidi aiid W(Mk hind iLnilia, and may havo aliui 
atrctched bctwcvn Uia Imul tiuibt au<l aliurt taO. 
The boQ« w«re pnmmaiif. aa in blrdfl, Ibat ia, were 
hciDow, and wcro filled with air isst'-nil of mntadning 
matrow; a diipmutiuo of itnicture ailsiiLed to rcndor 
Iho bodyliubt for flvios. That tb«au r«i>tika jxia- 
aeoed powcta of tligbt flnaln^ons to oxistiof; bata 
Kt-L'UB moat probable; the pnta^iim of tha bata dtlf<-r- 
inj; from that uf tba PtcrtHbu-'t^la iu btang aiippjrUM] 
by fouf cl(iaMt«d fin|[on and not by one digit only. 
It b »bM> to M bamo in mind that the Ptorodactyla 
wera troa rvptiJaa and not allied in any inUmata 
rtractural poioto to the bata. The PUrudiutylji may 
nbo havo been abla to avrlm aa well aa to 6y. Ths 
ouiy liviiiK r^pliU wbioh can support itivlf In tba air 
■■ tbo flying limrd [Ihtiro idmiuI uf tbo Eiut«ni 
Arcbip«bivo; and ercn Lliia fumi caijudtjfj/ in tlio truo 
•atUK of tb« wonl, but moroly aupporti itwU by ita 
pata^inn in ita a^riaJ lcap« frton troa to tKC 

Tii« PberndactvU w i-xcloairely oonfiiied to the 
&[«aoMJc rooka, b'tdnji fouud bom ^« Lowm- Liaa to 
the MiddJa Cretaeeona rocka iscludTo. Tlia Utho- 
(Tuphlfi alatea of Soleaholen in BaTazia, b«kn^g to 
th« Upper Oolitic ajatam, an tapacuUy nch in 



Ftcrodactyl mmivina. ftfoat of tbrat ant of MmO Or 
mudurato lim; mm i>p«cimBa, liowever, btma the 
Cri-tftOMUH nu'Lii, must hare meanuml mora than 
30 foot in oxpanaa of vrmg frvm tip to tip^ FuniEiar 
epeeia^ amoDgvt manr, ar« tha /*. crAaanMfn*, P, 
loTtffiroMru, P. longtcdiitm, P. bmiro^rit P. n-^i«, 
Buo. (Sm aba PrexoaauKiA. Km PL 1.JCXXIV. 
and LXXXVI.) 

PTEBOMTS. 8oa 8401BUI. 

I'TEIlOl'Tn.4; PnftnrDS. Sae Kjuaxo Baz. 

PTEFOPOnA. Sm MorXMCa. 

PTKUOSAU'KIA, an extinct onbr of ivptlla^ 
rapreaanttsd by tba Ptcrodaotyla (whkb aee), and 
by tho ecnan Rampharbjmehiu and PitBorpbodm. 
Iliia groun, h nontiooed in tho article I*TCTiai>jt<m, 
u oupcctnlly noted aa oontaininjf fonua wbiirb pu»- 
oeaaed the power of filght, th« outenDoat difit or 
ficgor of the band bung greatly elongated ao aa to 
vnjifKirt n palai/ium IwbiiUi (m) or flying memhnne. 
Mr. .Si<fl«v jdiu'es the IVTuMuirta ja a •poeU daa 
ttb&t of the Oniitboeauria) owing to tbm atodUea- 
tiona for flight r^d>nrin§ them diScrant boaa Other 
grou{Mi of utinct repljlaL. Tba Ptti l— oiia an 
Mtntiued to the Heaoaoio rocka. Dlmotpbodon pa^ 
aoMM Urge, daip, front toctb, and bdwU, laneat- 
■hapoil hinder teeth. Ibunphorbyndnat baa do ImI^ 
In tho fruiit [tortion of cither jaw, b«l pMeeMa 
hlndxr tmitb in both jawa. 1^ hiont porthm el lb* 
jaw* in the latter fotm may thvrefure have futaacda 
Urd-llke be«k. In PtArodaetyliu the jawa ara fxOy 
pmvided with teeth, atl of nhich are of oloogalni 
and alendor ahapoL I>im(irpbuilan w repraaanttd br 
the 2>. mocranint from the Low«r Xm of Dmcc. 
Speeba of tUa form ahow a aknll of ft laAm ia 
length and an expauae of wing of aboot 4 (cot. IV 
tail waa prabably abort, whiM in Rampbo dijntlMt 
U was long, ellfl^ and alender. JZampAarAyneAiM b«fi- 
eavdta, H. Oemmmgi, and R. itiiiutcri, all from iIm 
lltfangnpbio alataa of Solanhofon (Upper OoUta), 
rvpreaeut apooica of tbia genua. 

PT0LEMAICSY8TKM,theiyBteinofartraMiV 
by wfaidi Ptolemy ondaavoiuod to eiplaia cehrtiii 
motiana. Hie earai u tbe fised oentro of tba at 
vene; a vaat aphore, the 'prfcDum luobOe,* eanbaall 
the oeloatial bodicB, und rotatM oncv a day; the im 
and nioon travel in crocntric drdca roaind the earth, 
atid thia accounts fur ilia annual motion of the aan^ 
and the monthly mntinn nf tlio moon; aaoh pliaii 
inovea lU a oiroubr path, termed ila epicydo, abooft 
a pftin% aad thb pobt trareb I& an eceenttie eiHa 
ronnd tho eon; all motiona in aacfa order of <drda 
being deacribed unlfamJy, thb ekjJalnad tba lemad 
pull^ the piVfreiwIoDS, Btatloaa, and retneradalHH 
of the planets. Erery ttew oatronomical obaarTatlaa 
reqtiircd a now contrivanco on thia a^-atem, and al 
length the neo—ary oycBo and epicjclio aomUnatiana 
beoune exoeadvoly ontubrouii Copondcoatm^lbtf 
tho d^ly motioos of th« eon and itan m* m^T t" 
Iioront, and that the eaitb tuma on Its aaa, 

PTOLEMAia aw Acre. 

PTOLEMY (ProLBataioa). tho aaau o( • Iba ef 
Oiwoo-Xgyptian kiagii,who acoceeded, oatlwdiTWoa 
of the em]iire of Aleaander Ibe Greal, to tho partiiw 
of hb donilnkwa of whidi Egypt waa the bead. Tbm 
namo Ptolemy, thoi^ tho oDDunoo, waa not tba oicb- 
idve namo of the kuira of thb dynaatj, nd tb*y an 
better disllngubhed oy the anmaaae Ijiyidr, 'fram 
Ptolamsnia Lagua, tho founder of tha dynaaty, alia 
suTDBioed Sotor. 

Ptdlkut L, callod Sater, the S*vloar, was by Uitb 
a Macedonian. Ifbnotberwia Andaoii^ thamlttraH 
o£ Pliilip. Hb father b commonly laoutod k> bava 
been Lsfua, a Maoedotdan of bunMe rartb: but tha 
dbtinotion with which Ptolamy wn neeinid at ewrl 
has led aooae to attribnte to him a higher oristik 



i 



I 



I 



PTOLEltfY. 



557 




I 



_ to LiulMi tw WM bora about ac. 367, but 

l a piwlt io n «l bia b«>iiig » ppn of I'hiHp it must 

ham beco Mue yean lM«r. Puilntiy «»* uii« uf the 

iariin»rt fafandi ol AJennder, ud w«a iM&lsbed by 

FUUp lor tb« p*rt ht took in tho intrigu* for the 

nanun of tlw firinc* witb tha dugbtar of Pixodo- 

ciL H* WIS raodlsd on line MCMrion of Aluunder. 

B« attaidw) tha Idic en Us axpeditjcm to Axia, but 

doM met ^ifear at firat to liav« held an/ importMit 

"—■'"*■* In U.C. 330 ba wa^ adiniited iiito tb« 

boJys^ard, and from lUa time bo bef^ns to appear 

In bnportaiil traiuactioiia. In 330 h« waa wnt witb 

a ditacbnMuU to apuAhead ItMatm, and Ln tbi! redno- 

tioo of Swliaaa ■• commamM una of tha ebitrf 

diriilaas octbo annj. Ihniiiff tbo Indian ounpoigtu 

[oUih naplofodTB tho nKwl importaat 

and iiiili iiuiiiiTinil bistielf ^ilca for valour 

capacity aa a generaL Ha cootlaued on tenna 

itlaiala trirn<l«1ii|> with Alcxauder, and at thv 

ol Siiiu h« VIM hMKinmd irith a crown of 

and obtaiucd iu marriiK.i! Artacania, dxter of 

nt, Ilo wxninjajiMHl Alnxaoditr la Ua Uxt 

p^gn in B.C. 334. Oa tin death of A]«uwder 

bv attMted UnweOf to tho par^ of PenUoca^ aad 

aecwad for bimaalf tha govanuoMit of Egypt Ona 

of Ilia fint acb on aaainqlng tbo gorarnmant «raa to 

Kt to (leath CloooMDM, tli« nwdver^vnonl of tri- 
t«^ vhe had admlrifatofod Iho pcovlnoe andtr 
Alnaadtf, and had Mnaaad vaat traaaniaa bj arbi- 
bw7 niaaiia. llda naaanra waa aocaptabla to the 
bnHaa^ and tooded to aatablUi the ndopandmioa 
•TTMnny. Ho then praoaodad to alzaiigthai him- 
nH kl hla ptrwDmenl, and ooDotndad * wnatt league 
vrith AntiiMtar agaioat Perdlocaa. In 6.c. S22 ho 
—n— H fiytwM to hh tl nmfwrlnf ui, AVboUWar brok* 
oat In aa 331 Perdioau hhoaoU mwdied apiinit 
PVilatay. H« reaehtd PalnslatD with a nimieroai 
amy, but WW npulwd io hla early attonpto to tont 
tho (MdlioDa of Flolcmy, and pnubed In n rondt at 
bb own aoldlem. In tha arrangananta mado after 
Um daath of rcrdtccaa Ptolemy ntainad Kgypti.ba 
w ih M q i w ntly atraogtlMned htntMir by a maMnKnUl 
anion with Kurydk<^ dangbtvf ot AntipBtw. In the 
filknrtOK yaar <ILC. 324) ha leited tba Mtrnpy of 
Phosida and Octla-Syrta, which had been aaaiRued 
to Ijaomadon. Oa the daath of Antlpator [■.& 319) 
Ptolemy naltod witb CaaHuder and Antigooui 
agaiaat EmocBfla, and on tha defcnt of Bumeiiea by 
Astifanoa he joined Caaaander aiMl LyaunachuB 
agabal tha latter. AnUgcaiaa iorndnH Syria bi 31S, 
otwtaa Fhaukla, and 1m alegv to Tjn, which bo 
loak tn Sli. PtelaB^, who waa naater «t th« ae* 
M tta mna tfaDe, occnpfad Cypn^ and aUemptod 
to gain over the Oivek «ftieiL Cypma nrolled in 
SlC and Ptolaarf prooeadod thitlwr hi petaon, and 
redufltd tha whob idmnd. In SIS ha Inradad Palea- 
tin*. and with Salcntcva deleatod DenetrirM. ann of 
AatigoawB^ at Gaza; bat when Anttgoaua advanced 
fadD^yrU to tha ralW ot hb Ml 1m ntbad into 
tfn^ ^ *■''• 31 1 n nnocal panea waa affectod, but 
it waa twt of koK onralton. It waa bfoltcn by 
Ptot«ny la Sia On tba plea that Ant^ntoa had 
BoC withdrawn hii gBirlaooa fron Airin li^or ha 
a fiwt to ClUdft, which Mdtmd nna el tha 
the ooaal, bat withdrew oi the approach of 
ina. In a.& 309 Ptolamy invaded Lyci^ and 
■amoral dlle^ bat Damctrioa haTing coma to tha 
rafie/ td HnHonnaMu^ which ho waa nedeglng, ha 
irithdmw to Myndna. In SOS bo invaded Oneoe, 
and penclaimed himaotf a* a libnntor; but ha tnada 
little prr y ai^ asd bat mi; garriaoDcd Cvrialh and 

■ Siena, Whfch ha laat Butoe yean later, hs Mtonad 

■ to^ypt. Hi* brother at tha tanw lima raeoT«t«l 

■ Cyrana, which had Ihrown off tha yoika of Ptolemy. 

■ Anligotnn now toaolved to wroet Cypnia fium 




Ptolemy (R.r. 307), who ad\-<UKed to ita rdicf with 
a [Kiwcrfa] fleet. The Eypttaoa were totally defeat^l 
at Salamla, and Cypraa fell Into tha banda of th* 
rictgr, who Hramea tho titla of Idsf . llda Muuupk 
waa follnwcd hy Ptolemy B.0; 306. An^onai now 
advajiccd a^-aiuat E^pt thnn^[h Syria with a powor^ 
f ol anny, anpportoa by a fleet nndar tha commaiMl 
of Dematrina. PtoUmy fortified tho paaagei of tha 
Nilcv which Antigoaua waa enable to foKO^ and waa 
compelled to rvtlre. Neit rear Ptolemy ooatoBtad 
hinuolf with aaaiatiog the Rhodlans agalnat I>eroa< 
trim. It waa from the Bhodlana on thia eeeaalen 
that he acqaind hk ennuuns of Sotar. In SOS a 
loAgue waa fomiM agaiiut Antigoauah indndinB 
.SoUucmi, I^nimacfaua, and Caaaandar, along with 
Ptoteuy. Ptolemy did not take a Tory active part 
la tho league; ho advaneed into Cdde-Sytia, but 
baling alarmed by a talae rvpnri that Antigonoa had 
won tbo battle of Ipmia br nttrvO to Euvpt- The 
defeat and de*th at Aatigaaaa In thla battle i»latd 
Seleucua to a pcolUon of gnat power, and a diapoU 
•luiund betwean him and Ftolemv for the pcMaeaiica 
of Cutla-Syiia and Pbtsnlcia, wfakfa wen olttmataly 
aoqulrod fy Sdnraa. Ptolemy now eatared Into 
alltaaM wnb Liyaiiaachiu and Demetartn^ Ma re- 
ndTod at hb oonit Pyrrhna of Rpcinia, gave him hla 
atop-daagbtor Anttgoae fai uamoire, aud aMlsted 
hJn is Tteamiag Ma throne. In U96 Ptolen^ 
reeovcred Cypnia, whidi bacamo a normauMtt depcB- 
daooy of Kgyp^ In 267 ha joined hi a league with 
Lyamaobui rad Seleoooa agaiDit Daatetrhi^ who^ 
aftnr lonng aO hia [inanrnainma in Aala, bad baeome 
king of M*Cl.-It«nu^ and waa niahinr mat pn^ai>- 
tlona fur an euUra expedition. Ptolemy aauatod 
tho alliee with a fleet, ana the war againat DeroeLrina 
waa rooccarfnL Ptolemy had two aone by Euydiee^ 
bnt ha detemined to beatow Ihe crown oo Ptolao^ 
FUhdelphn^ » yomgar aoQ by Ua favoarito wiM 
Banoloa. Ha anoowtoed Ida own f t tiMwn t, and 
canaod him to bo procMmad aa hi* ancciwrr, h 
B.e.1*S5. Ho died two yean after, iLaSSSL Ptolemy 
{■ r^Kiuded aa the moat prudent of tha aneewMon of 
Alvzander. Hii intenial adminiatntim of Bgypt 
waa enlightened and enceeai f nl. Ba rai ea d Aiesao- 
drift to tbo hlyhcal rank In ootnmoreial pm^-ritv. 
lie rounded in that dty a colony of Jewa, to wbotn 
tha apodal plaoe token br Alexandria tn fnlieeqaeiit 
ttmee in phUoaofthy aata Utantnie, aa woU aa In 
politica, WM in grant aaarare due. He waa also an 
vminont patroo of Htantore, aclnKe, and art, and 
founded tne Ubm; and aiuarara ol Aleiwidrla. He 
himaalf wrote n narTatlra of Um win ef Alwmdw, 
which ia need aa an authority by Arrlan. 

PniLKNT II. IPkOadel^nMi waa bon in Coa, B.C 
309. Bii tutora wen FhUetua of Cue and Zen> 
odotOB, (ram wbon be taoelrad n carahd adnca- 
tloo. He waa raiaed to the throM^ aa already men- 
tioned, during tba Ulatlma el Ua bther. Ufa rafgn 
waa gmaJlj pmedid. Ufa hatf-breUw Magat, 
who goTwnM <7i«na, made himaalf fadepadai on 
the fifath of tii* father, invaded EeTpt, and ma^tt 
alUaooe with Aotieahaa IL, Ui^ ^Syria. Ptolaony 
at Ingtb adEnowlede«d hia independenfla^ and 
betrothed to Um the iufant dang fato r «f bla eon 
Ptolemy. Oyrena waa anbaeqnenlu reonlted with 
the noBarchy by the aaniam ol oil aoo Ptolemy 
with Bereniue, Angbter of Magaa. PtahaqF aent a 
fleet to mrfat tha Athaniaaa igBlnA Aadgmna 
GoaahM. He condnded • maty with Roue aflet 
Ihedefcat of Pyrriina, and ooutiiiuMl faithful to hit 
alUanoe durinc the Carthagfailaa war. Tben waa a 
ohrcnlc bat nnemitfal war eaniad on daring Ua 
teign with Syiifc Towarda the cloae of hia reign ft 
waa tarminatod by the marrt^aof Ptola^y'a dangh- 
terBennlce toAntkxbuallL EHbar by the treaty 



358 



PTOLEMY. 



or ia tha ocnirae of the ww Ptoletn)' aci^aJrod Cxl»- 
Sjrritt and I'hraucuL He wm »1bo, in g^Dcntl, mi 
hnatUo lonna with Hacedooik. But tii« chief au« 
of Ptolmijr wu dli«ot«(l to tlte Intcnul adminlBtn- 
tJOD of hia Idagtlotn snd die eneonragctBcnt of com- 
naeiM. llo okiried hut knoa into Kttuopia, aad 
foundod the foftrCM of Ptolemab to protect the trade 
In olepbuti^ wUdi w«rv brought bvm thcM nglooa 
to E0pt for mritke purfxiMa, Ho fonndod Aiiiiiio6 
(on the riia of Suet) to pntMA Uie aatig&tioii of the 
Rod Sea, and Deranloa, on the Bed S«a eoMt, mder 
the PetiiiuBiIa »f Jjopte {Raa Benua) ; from tW Utti^ 
|4a» he funued a roiwl to Copt<« on the Nile, Ijy whicb 
tbi eannm and the oetunurM of India and Arabia 
OootiDiMd for VM to paN to Alaiandria. The cLicf 
glory uf Phlladdtihut wm hb muoifiorac* aa a pattOD 
of sclwioc and llteratniCk He lalaad the iiutitutifliu 
fonnded b; hi> father to the UgliMt de^r^! of eplen- 
duur. Ha atmnd no pattu to fill tha library at A]«iviui* 
drla with all the tnftcuree of andcat literature. Uko 
hfi fatboF he aaaociated on faralUu temu with the 
learned men who fromienVd hie oonrt. Ainoug the 
•fcUteotutal wwlu <il mrnt erccU-d during his ivigD 
w«ra the Ufl^ttioniM- un th^ Ulaad ut Phuue, tlie Ales* 
•cdrlao Mumun, luid tii« royal biuTiag-plaoe^ to 
vUch he removed the romataa «l Alvxaotder aor] 
throe of hii fal^or. He founded mmiaroaa dtiee and 
oolnnica tint ooly In Kgjpt, but In Byria iDd CQiob. 
It la no diipara^otDent to eay that tha aduma* of 
Ptolemy were malnljoaleolabed lopraiDCite the proa- 
poity of hia Gredk aobjecto, aemng the Egyptian* 
mre not opprtaaed, and Onelc dvilicadon waa the 
Uflieat knowD to him. He ia >uppwwd to have been 
tho patna of Hanetlu) ia his Cmck rendering of 
Enptian hirtorv, mod tbcro ia a traditioD tliat it wa> 
at DM instance tJuit the Serentr made their tnuula- 
tinn <.f the Old TeatMDonL Dat4iic hIa nin tbo 
diiiuinion of Egypt extended into Ethiopia, Atiibta, 
and Libjn, and eminaccd the provincea of Fhcenleia 
and Code-Syria, bendM oxtomure tincts 3n Aida 
Minor and the ialandt of tho Meditcrrancaii. In hia 
private life there vete many cueewco. He put tti 
death aome oS hJa near rvlativca, and be violated Ike 
religitnia printnplea of the Gradn in relation to aiar- 
fia^ by tnairyine bla alater Aralnoe, the iviilow (4 
LoraimachDa, and hia hctiIot. It waa in n-iiiljuu u> 
ber he aaumed ibn iiinuuna of I'hiladi^IiihuK, l)i> 
c^ed uaay of bin cilir* aTtnr her, erwlcil n li.-iii]>lo 
to her mtmnry, and caused divine bonoura tu he paid 
to ber. Pt-'h:iny Hini in 217. H',- wa» •uccecdud 
hy Ptolemy III., liL* mux by hia Brat wife Anitioi', 
daogbter of LydniacbiM- 

X^LBMT UL, auttiamod Evfryeta, vae early 
tOgtfjBA in an important war. Antioobui III. of 

Srria had put aaray liis irlfe Laodloe to many Ber«- 
eo, dnuebter of Ptolaaiy XL On the doatli of 
PUindelf£tu he put away BcroDioo and rcaCorcd 
LaodJCBL Tho reaontinent of lAodine, boworer, waa 
not appoaaed, and ahe aacriGced to her ravenge her 
buiband, her riral, and tbeir infant boo. Ftedetuy 
toelc up arms too late to aaro bia tdrtor, but vitb a 
view to avenge ber be invkdcd Syria, and advanced 
without oppoeitioii to Aatlodi, when ba turned hta 
anna eartward, subdued Uoopotamia, Babylonia, 
and Susiana, and advanced to the conlinM of India. 
Ho waa rocalled to Ei^ypt by {ntcIUi^enra! uf MdiUooa 
liavine broken out in hia abannce, and he brooEbt 
with mm the atatuea of j^yptiao goda wbidi bd 
boon oairled oS by Cambyiea, whiah he reatered to 
thair rcapectivo t(im|>lc*, and thoe earned tho title of 
Knergetea (benefactor) fma hb a-abjocta. I'he HccU 
of Ptolemy Lad at the aame lime anbdued the coatla 
bS Aaia Uinur, and carried bia anus to tbe Ilelles- 
pent and la the onaat of llirace. Mli-r Itolcmja 
rvtnra tu £gypt, the date el which ia uuocrUiui, 



Stkaeoi, aoa of AatiadM, leeev aw d a otNuiderahb 
pottian of Ida lathef** doaialflM^ aapMidly of Ok 
eaalem jawviaeea. whOa th* maaitfaaa ra^oaa and 
pari of Syria fenained to the iiMft ta e( PtoUssiy. 
Ftolemy Bwda OM o( Antfodna Hierax. tbo yotncir 
breOer d Mencnat *o jmaBOto divinta ia 8yri^ 
aappoTtbig hin m wan aonat hia famthcf; and 
tbaa pmantiiw Sdeoona from exteodiag hii «•- 
qoHlB, .AntioobM waa at hasth totally defwt-d, 
and oowprilad to take tafag* in Egypt Pielmj 
took aema part in the aSain of Ureeoe fCBerally, at 
vnM tbo poUcy of Egypt, againat the rolen of Haor- 
donia. He DulntaiBedMaodly idationiwithltdaii^ 
bat dwliBad tlH aaditanaa of tbo Baaaai fa hk war 
with SyriaL Ia the latter part of bla nlfs ha nadc 
war with th« EtUopbaa, and e rt tftdad ha dmniin 
b the aonlh of Egypt rto>«y vantbraad Ibe 
riatiMtage of titerUore, and added laaply t» the 
library dC Alosandruk Lilce hia peiedeeeMot* be via 
the patron of acbolara, and ItJa oouit waa the nanrt 
of the mart diatinguahad mm cl hb day. In lu* 
rci^ the Gratco-^Tptfu Ungdnn attained iti Ufh- 
od prcenerity at hoiDe^and ilawidol doailiiao ahnaii 
He eiblblM alao ntora than hk prajanawow U At 
fcelin^of a nativoEgyptiBa king, and by Uafeoovay 
of their aacrod titaauiaa reoaDed to Ua anlifaeli toe 
jfloriee of Ibeir andent hiatofj. Ho abo nmmti 
aikd eolarg^d the Egyptian templM, and dadiealcd 
now ahrinea to the nattonal goda. He died in nc. 
222. 

Ptolkmt IV., aunamed /^Sapfflor; waa m»- 
pected, though protiahly withooi grrand, ol pobaalaf 
bia fMhcr, vfaam he auoceeded, ud Ibe biymiag rf 
bia reign waa tnaiked by atrocioaa ertews. He |at 
to deatb his motbcr BercDke, lot brother Magaa, and 
bia ancle F-y-**""*™. and, ^ving himaelf m to 
indolenoe and aenaaal gntUntloa, abandcoed Ibe 
cans of aUte to Ua mtekter Sorifaiv, hit adriitrh 
theae and other ertmea. With thia vidooa nigu 
began thadacUnaofttiekia^dgini. Booaad fnMo hi* 
IcthaiY7 by tbo loM of Ua Syrian poweado na , wfcleh 
had liccu ^imdually wreeted from hint by Aalaxhaa 
tha Great, IHolamy pat himaelf et the bead of a lam 
army and comi^ctMy defeated Antlodnia at BacU^ 
in B.O. 217. By thla tktory ha t«00T«nd Cab- 
Syria, but bcin-^ too indolent to ponae Uaaaeeoa 
till RTHs^ililr m^uifl jH-aoeand retamedlofaiapleaaBm. 
Oil bia tvturn b« began to pctwcnte the J««« of 
Aleundria, havlag; It la maa, bean otfendad at the 
refusal oi the high-pricat to aiteiit bin to the ane- 
biary in the tetupte of Jemaalem. A revolt of Ibe 
native £i;yptiaiij at the same period led to a pav 
lnLct«detrugglo,aadcauaedBHMhblooddud. Ptolemy 
married hie meter AniaoS^ and near the doae «( bk 
r«i):n, with the ■■iatanre of Soaifaiia^ pot her to 
death. He then gave bimsolf op more eomfMdy 
to dobau^eiy, which probably shortened Ua career 
and died B.^. l!i>S. PbUopator contianed fa geanal 
the policy of liia anoealon. Ue potnmiaed litsa- 
tan, and dedicated a temple to Hocper aaa lUHaitt. 
Dnriog the Carthadnian war he aippUed the Robmbi 
with oom. He pnded himself la DuihIiBg laU^ >* 
tuniBual eixe, one of which is aaid to have had FoitT 
bankaof oara. 

Ptolsht V. (anmamed EptpSaiui], the aoa aid 
suooeaor of Ptolemy TT^ was under five yean old 
at hia fatber'e death. Agathotila^ bratbar «f Iba 
kte king'a ouatreaa, aaauned the lelaa d go««B- 
meat, and kept the deaUi of the Idng aeeaet la ordtr 
to aaaura bla pouer. Uo and hi* aiitar. with tbeir 
aopportem, were, bovevo', put to death in a cc^Milar 
luKurrectiou, wbuo Soeiblw^ tba eon of tlte lata 
mioiftcr, attempted to make hiaaeW autatnr of tfce 
king'a pcrviunndol the goremuent; bid had Id^tta 
pUuu tu Hejioleuiua, m popular aoldier, who bad bUle 



i 



I 



J 



PTOLEMV. 



35d 



adintaMnlin opacity. InUirMcirci]iiut4D0Mniil[p 
«f llaMdeoaad AntJochni III. <tba GrMt} of Sjrriit 
ttmMmei to dbponcM Ptolemy, nnddiTld* his doml- 
Bkiu. PUUp begin to reduco the <>rdwlM sad tli« 
dticflof ThncowfaMib bolAngivl to Kn-pt, whiln Anti- 
ockiM invaded C(Blr*8vriB. ItisUoi) of relying on 
ttw latwrasl nwonw ot the IdDsdom to npel thia 
(Unnr, Uw nndiaiii of tb» Totme kfn^ took tbo 
(•Ul atep of placing bmi iinrl<ir we pntMtinn nf 
Bonw. tIm eh«fK« waa gladly atOL-pted br that 
pvwnfol lad onfty *t«W, >ui^ rtiili{> and Antiochm 
mt« ceauBBadad to iMtore tb«b ooociiiuata. Anti- 
oehna h^d alnadj wreetcd frani Ptolony nearlr all 
Ui Sjiian |iiiMiMiiiiia, m wall •• ttiu nlics held l>y 
tba Jvyptiaa Uso io Lrc^ and Cilicto. To avoii] 
J Unwitl wtth Uia RomaiM, la agroi'd, b.c. 
IM, te (ive PMeatj bli dMi^fatsr Claopatra Id mar- 
ria^ Wttlt tba Syrian cm*inMa aa bar downr. Thn 
auuriatfo took jriaov u B.ix 169-192, aail in the 
inSetral ol peace EgTpt bewail t« raoorar pnepeHty 
ttadtr tba fedmiaiMAtiaR of Ariot'UiMiiaa. 8«v«ral 
nvalli^ bow«v«r, look plac. aiut in bx. 108 ib waa 
dalanninad to deotan Ptul«uiy of ace. Durins the 
war bi l waiG Aatiodna and tba Ronuma Ptolemy 
eaatinoad in strict aUlaaoe with the latter, but at th« 
oooduaion of tbe war Antiocliiu (till beld potaeaaUiD 
«< Oala-Syrb and Ffaceaicia. AtUrr tb« death «( 
AiialBiBa o ai tba gorcmiunt of Egypt waa ebiofly 
MBdnMed by Polyoratei^ who eaDouraMd tba kin^ 
l» ^ra UauaU op to drftauAary. PtcSamy wm out 
<M bf fnkna, wUla ba wm pnpaiiiig to laoovar 
3y>U tram Selennu^ iIm neocaaor «< Anli- 

, a.a 181. Mearly ^ ^* toniga poauaaloDa 

' Egypt wero ponnaiMntly loat durUtg tba nnfor- 

nate Eitlnnrity of thia rvign. 

ProLon ^'1. <*uniauied PkBomttor) waa alao a 
ehQd al tba da«tb of hU Utber. Bla tnottwr Clao- 
faln^ wbo awnawd tbe ncnncy, maintaiDod pcaoo 
■adpnaarradistaiaal ImiqalDitybyaa atda admitiu- 
mtuo: bat tbo mioUv^n who in)cc««d«d after her 
tinalb (BX. 173) pruvobed a war wHh Antiocboa 
SpMtaiMi, and wa» totally defeatod near Potuslniiii 
AflHocfaaa adraooad to Mampbii and took FtoAamj 
prisaiar (aa 170). Upon tUa biefdoDt tbe brotber 
id Ftolony ttimiH Miuaalf te ba proolaitaed UBg al 
Alaianrfria, ttndM tba tiUa of Fto[nnir KnargaUa 1 1. 
Antiodw baakigod AkxamlrU, but tbe iuttfrvoDLim 
of Ih* Bo— aa eauaed Um to retire. Ha recatab- 
bUdiad FIdonMtoraA kini; at Mptni>hiit, and returned 
to Sjrfk. Afbo' bii witbalnn-n! I'hilumotnr cams tn 
as aiiibailaintliM wjlb bb brc^bar. He a([T«ed to 
BMny bh rirtar Cbopttr^ wd to rdgn jmatl v witb 
Jfaatylea. In cnaaaqMiMa of tbia rrcmirilmtinn 
AalioAna aitafai Invaded Kgyiit, aod ndraaced to 
Akaaodria, bat en Um pamoptory deniMiO of tbo 
»JM..«- ba afafai retirtd to bia own doadniona, B.C 
iA irtaafiiitiiiiaiinf hinlrrriiilbiitnfiniirtrhinlhrii, 
aod PbOamalov beii^ axpeHril fn>iii Aleiaiidria 
Mpaltad to Rohm &V. Ift4- Ily thn mtonnntl'in nf 
tba Bomma ba ww rvplaeed, but atfrted to crccl 
Cytaae into a acptkrato kingdom for EavT]{eUa, w liu 
aOarwarda pennadad tba Romana to grant bim 
Oypfaa alaa Tbia oecaaicMMd loag dlipataa aad 
BMtiMieoa, bat PbUemattf finaUy latalnad C^rpn^ 
wIlM b» Mended b>y fctce of arma. In tba diapato 
balwaan I^ataliioa EMar aod AUxutder Ralaa (or tba 
paai^aa rf SyrW FbOeoMtor aupportad the laUor, 
tad in mxL 150 g»n Um bla danjpiier ClMpatn In 
nufifafa; but Alaundtr bating rapaid Ui alliaaca 
wllfa Irearbary, be ooaxJndad peaee witb Danetrina, 
Kaf* CIsnpotnt to Um, and oooqaand Syria on hta 
bafaalf. Ba diad in UtHaagainat Alexander, in which 
tba laUerwaadd(atod,ltcHB. In Iho latrr part o< 
bia nriga be ibmrad an oBeigy o( wUch be dkl nut at 
ftnt appaar ca|»b1«, aad ba la geaarally |wid>i<il for 



thcwiEldnoaaaadmodaratimof Uacbancter. I>Bria( 
Ilia reigu a ireat ndgtatlon of Jewa, rauacd t>y factiena 
in ihw own coUDtry, took plan frnni Faloatine into 

F^i.EUT Til. (nimamed Everj/tta and also 
Fkyifan) wna King of Cyrena Kt Ui« deatb ol bia 
brother. Cneopatna eanwd bar infant aoa to ba 
crowned; but Ptolemy invaded Egypt, and by tho 
int^rwDtlob of the Ranaaa h wm »gn»i that ba 
iitiuuld marry CloufiAtn and bo racoguud M king. 
ImtrnwliAtcIr aftnr the mafriago be put Ua nephew 
to death. &i> ttlgn wm one of tyranny and Mood* 
■htd, and by hia vielaaoa ha drova tha dtlaeu of 
Alexandria to exilft thenuwtrM in great a nm b ai fc 
He dirorced Cleojxktra iii order to inarry bardaugbltr 
by PbUametor. wbo boro tbo aaina aanw. Ha wm 
compelled at length to ftoa from tba indignatlMi d bla 
mbjocta, and eacaped to Cypnn B.C. ISO. Hero be 
penwlnUed furtbor atrocitfoi^ bat Cleopatm haTine 
tnadB botwlf mpopular by applying to Syria for aid 
againat hfm ba wm iMtond tothethrMMof BgTpt 
B.0. 127. Ha aftarararda lotcrrcDod in tba aflain «t 
Srrin, banuna rwnndLad to bb aiator Olaopatn, 
Whoec Kin to liimacU ba bad barbamuty moidand, 
and died B.C. 117 in peaeeabia poiBBwIan il tba thwoa 
uf Bgypt This BxiDirtor wm net only a patooD of 
Uu^ralure, bnt bimirlf tbe antknr of a ooomdanabLa 
wurk on natural hivt^iry. 

Ptolehv VIII. (Bumanned SttUr !l^ and alao 
f&iioaular^LathffTVt, aiul PkHaMfAiu) wm tba kiB 
of tbo laat Ftolaray bv bla nii.'Ga Cleopatra. H« wa« 
alinady married to bla >l*l«r Cleopatra at Ibe tiroa 
of hia aeoaarioD. Hla motbar oonpaUad him to 
dirorce her and marry bia yoongM- nrter Silena, to 
■pito of hia oreferenoa for Cleopatn^ and Cor ten 
yeara aba ceannood to away tbe covamnMal, altboui^ 
ibe and bar aoa ware CraqiMnl^ oppnaad b pcUey. 
Hho at IcQgtb aoouaad Un of aonyrlag agalait liar 
life, and ba wm eonpellud to Sm, t.0. 147. For 
dgMaoB jnaia ba eontlotted to bold Cypma m an 
noepcndant Idngdom. During tbia period h« took 
part in tba wan of Brria, and in nc. 103 defeated 
Aloxnnder Jannwua, lung of Joda^a, aad nada him* 
adf natatar of tba ooaata of Palaetine. Mb mother 
t b arawpca manAad agiyinfft bim wilb an Army, and 
ba finally re ti red to Cyimu. During anbacqaent 
wan tli«y wcra eonatantly oppoaed to each otb«r. 
Af l«r tbe'daath of Cla^ntra f *.c. 00) bo wm noaUod 
fti Kgypt, wbich bo govamod tUl bb daalb in ax. BI. 
Tbeba nrvoltcd anil bald oat againat Um for Ihroo 
yc-an. Ho wm anooetdad by Ua daaghtar Claof«tra. 

ProLKar DC (otberwiM called .itoaiMttr I.) 
waa the youngeat aon of Ptolemy Vll. l^ bb nboe 
Clbopain. On tho death of bb bthor hb bmUmw 
wbhud to plaoa bim on tba throno, bat failing In tlib 
aba acnt him to Cyprus where tlueo yeara after ba 
amamed Uie title of king. On tba axpobidn of 
Ptulcmy VllL he WM recaliod by hb aotber, and 
■hiUHl V-itb l>er tbe tbrana el Sgyptt altboogfa ba 
ap[wan to bare bad Uttla powar, Tbo vkjenoa of 
bis motbar at leagth cauaed bim to See; bnt baiag 
pHnmi^ad to robim, and aoapactinff bar of de ai gna 
againat bia lif^i, b» caaaad bar too* aanaiJnatod, 
Alter reifrning a year ba wm aspclbd by aa iaaur- 
rac^oa of bb people and aoHlafa. w1m> laeaUad bb 
brotlMr. Ho WM killed tn faaltla at Cyprua XC 
81-40. 

Piouur X (or Ptebmg Jlnondfr //,>, aon of 
tba praoediDg, wm Bnailiwtad king of Egypl by 
Snlla on tbe dmlb 0< Ptohny VIII. ; but the Egm- 
tbaa having alraady pboad (lenpatn Barenioe, the 
daoghlar of that Uag, on tbe tbroie, it wm aRnngMl 
that be abonld many bar and admit bar ta a fitut 
aoraRiffDty. NlaalMn daye after tba matrlan ho 
canMd Jiar to ba amaminatod, npon wUcb tbe Alax> 



»Dilrinfifl rose in iBmirrectlan, dngged him to m 
KyiiinuBJ^UD, Mifl put him bo drath Kc. 80. 

I'lOLEMT XI. {Aalettt — «imiiuiii'>l Neii4 Dumijtut), 
00 iUuintimkto Bciii of Ptolemy VIIE., luccocilvd 
Ptolemy X., with whom tlio Icgitiamto nc« of thu 
Icigiilai becMUo extinct. TIm CKrly part of hia 
rriga ap|i«iuv to bftvo be«Q ^UoguIsDva by do poli- 
ticu tranuotioQB of importance. In vic« aod dc- 
bftDohoiT hn «pi>c>u« tn hnvi! rivtt])t.'(t the worst at 
fau prMQcenon. To pmcum tlie ralificiilioa of liis 
title, whloli wu Iihij <i«Uye<l, bo g»va iinm«iti>« 
britsw M tbo Ronuuui, uid tho ijpproiiivu laiM liu 
WM tbtu coinp«Ued to tmpoaii <»a»ed bia «xpiilslon 
^ tbi; Aloximdrikiis in 0.€. CS, llu rapMivd to 
Hums to pmcim bia rartonitinBt, miiI wb«ii the 
AlexftD^ilaiu Boit deputiea UK^iuit Llm Lv unuvutl 
tbiom to bo wi^laid ud miinlitrcJ. In (wiuin|iMii(oe 
of thia ft rtrong oppoaitton wiw «xcjt«d to bia fi"'*"! 
and b» wl^divw to Bfilmiui in ilinKuat, but in b.o. 
K A. Cubiuitii, pTDOoniul of Syria, by tfaa infiiMncc 
of I'onpKyft&dAbribcdf 10,000 UJonU^WM indncod 
to Katoro biin. Tbc Egyt>tiati«, who bud pl«cecl 
Bcmloe, the dauf(ht«r ol PtoUmiy, on tb« tliruriui, 
mm defoatod, uid Ftolony pot Bovdicb to doath. 
During th« rest of his reign Sgjpt iVM oocupicil by 
tba HoDiaim, and the roTemia collect^ to ilufnvy liis 
(ibligationii to thenj, lie dlsd B.C. 5]. 

PrOLEur XII. {AuStUt), UD of the pr«C!rdinc, 
rei-^iett jointly vdtb hU siBter OlM>p*.tr& till B.C. i&, 
wbrn U]>i)uj>alrgk wua expelled, and raiting on iinuy in 
Syria Invadorl I'-JCypt. It wna at tbiii timo tfant i'oinpOT 



landed In Ef^ri'i ufi«r hU dvfuikt, and wu 
lUtod by Potliinua Mid AchiUM^ tlM nimitcn of 
Ptolemy. On tlio arrital of Caur Cleojialra hy Iht 
dkanm aoquiiwl an lucenduiflr ov«r biin, wbii^h 
made It nmiil/Mt tlmt bu would dedds her dispute 
with Ptolony in her fnvoor. llicnupon Patuaiu 
raiaed an fnanrraction againat OcMir. Ptolemy pat 
hiauelf at tbo head of tba insmvoDti*, wu dofiMted 
by Caatu*. and droinied In atti.'in(iting to maka hia 
eao^M in a.c. 48 or 47. 

Ptmi.cmy X 111 i^Aulda), the ymingist aon of 
Ptoleuiy XI., wtui docland kinii by Cieaar iu con- 
)un«tioa with Cltrnpatra in elc. 17. Hq wu marriod 
to bia dator, but bning ontr a boy poiceaaod no more 
than Uh name of hiuIiiuuL or king. He waa put to 
death by aeopn-tra. In jlc. 43. Sm Dr. Smith* Dio- 
ticinary of Grc«fc and Roioan Biography and Mytho- 
logy. 

FrOLKUY (GLAnmoa pTOTiM«Da>, the eele- 
brnUHl lutrotiotnflr luid gDograph-OT. Neitbrrtho timo 
nur pU^.'e of hia birtb, uurauy of Ihecvviilaof hi* life, 
leknown. UoappaantahaTareBided InAlexiuiilna, 
wbero 1m made aabronominal obaorratjoa* in ISi), b.ii<I 
bawaaallre tullll. Ho wu tbBfiratayntvraatk-writflr 
(in Qreek aatrouoiuy wbo«e works ar« now extant; but 
hia artmiomical Uboors an chieEy baaed on thoao 
<^ Htpparohn* (»m UiPPAHOBtm), who lived about 
1H)A yCBTB bcfons biui, and wboae i:aIculaUoua be 
adjiut«d to bia own time; Ptolomy'a grot utrono' 
mical work ia entitled Mi^nJft Synttuia t>^ Aavrono- 
miia, and ia more commnnly knowo by the Arabic 
UUa Aliua)raat It oonlalna an «i(>o«llion of the 
avataa ^ uo world, of ttaa ordar and rvvolutiooa of 
the haaTonly bodlaa^ » trMtba on roctilineiU and 
■pbcrical ontritlugy, aud a cuuiulcto dnecripUun of the 
aaLruiKiniJcal inntruments luea by th« Grvaka. Ilia 
Hjratvm, founded on the apparent Dxneiaents o( the 
bflttMnlj bodlca^ and whloh ia atlU known by hia 
dhiwl waa only mpersoded by that of Copemicna. 
Hta Geography (GvOgrapbike HuphEgfaii) ia a wnrk 
of equal blatuiical iuiportauoe. As an authority it 
aainbainad ila ground till tho commoooaiuent of 
nuuitiBie diaooveiy ta the tifKxmth contniy. It oon- 
taiaa little deacriptlvv iofonnation, but ^v«a a com- 



pleto liat of namea of plaoaib vfth ^mr 
aud lalitudea aa r«ctdved in bit tfna. Hm U d ia Jw 
am gnnn^ly liaanl on aocurmlo obacmtlaat; bat At 
luneituduK, finjDiK-l (>u a falaa aaanmptioB of ne 
extent frtda eaat to w«t of tlM known wodd, «Uth 
he made much groator than tbfi r«*li^, an m 
inaocoralo. Thia oocaBoned the afror ta tba oal- 
cnlatioea o( Odumlnu and hia eoot— >ponriHi aa tn 
the diatk&oa wast of Gnnipo of tlM aaatom Aom vt 
India, which thoy made too abort, and oowqowt l y 
to t]ie eaj-ly anppcNitkin ttiat AiBsrieft «w Ia£a. 
TIl' ohiuf uiithorlcy EoUovad by Ptolemy in Ui ga» 
gnphy ia Alarinna of Tyre. 

'I here are numerooa other wwki of Ptolmya 
extuut, aniDug which may b* mmlianod a dttoaa- 
loKlcal ca.ta]oguo of the kinp of Perda, Qneea, and 
Rom«, which baa bcon found valnabU to hMariaa; 
a trentiao on Mm theory of Ibe tauakol acnl^ taw 
■atralociual tr ^a th w , and aovwal other wnab 4a 
nabbematica, aatronomy, optia, ami ofber adaaa^ 
The bert aditton of the Aloue«at la by Halm (Paci« 
two vols. 4to, )8ia-I8). of the Geography, by Prtar 
I(<°rtiiia [folin. Antwerp, 1424) i there arc two tvU.«J 
miacelluicuus works of Ptulemy pubUshad by Halma 
(ISltf-ilO), 

rUBEIlTY, the period in botb wain wd taiab 
mu-kcd by thu fundional dcTcloptntait of tha MOB' 
ative sntem, nud by a correepottding n iti la aa lor 
procroatlou. This period w marked in botb noB nd 
Htrman by oertAin cbarairtrriatlc adgna. In tha uala 
puberty la senerally attained between tba afe of 
fourt««n and rixteaa ywra in tempanta cliw a l a a ; 
and althotigb thu poriod may be rsMoed at aaaatUer 
iwe in warm rcyioBB, yet, aa will praeeiitly bamtlDaii 
cUinatia oouditiona do not ajjpear to affoct tba nale 
io so promlnont or markad a demo aa tfaa lenale 
Previously to tlw attainnent of Uto ac* dwilpwl by 
natuie aa that «£ which tho fourstira fuMlfaaa 
aanuiM their fuuDtioniil kotivity, tba phyricol powon 
have been appropriated to tba untritiaa of tba &>■» 
This (net is in .'tccordanM with a well-kiMnra and 
renantuiblt: hkw of pbj-iiiiili^. wbenby the ptroocSBta ctf 
uutritioD aud repioil miction are found to bo aatitbsfr 
cal to «w:b othor^in olbor words, the repvodnctit* 
ener^Mi of the body am oppoaed toths numtiv^aad 
act lui an important dratu upon th» pbyitcal and 
niitritivo powi^n. No law soeiiDS more ilaailj —tab- 
llsbed Mum this, and therefore tt £a that w» find tlw 
eenentive instincta Umltod or natruaad lartil a 
period whm tbo natrition and growth of the bdtic 
hiia been duly advanced. 

In man tbu uocurrvnoe of puberty la narJEed I7 a 
YAricd and general cbango in tho aatira phynal 
nmntitntion of the individual. The body aUafaa. 
wiUdn a oumparaiively abort period, a lar^ nIaliTs 
Increase in At*. The form aoqulrea greator (■!•■• 
and aiami&a. The laiynx particularly onlarp^ ud 
the voioe attaina tho deeper pitob of the naaaly eatoBa. 
Tbo ddn and pubis beoooio cuvsred with uir, and 
the onUn aaxuu ayatoin racdvcs an nnwoatad stimu- 
hw, the tcflto* seareting tbe aendnal fluid di oi a BlBr- 
istic uf f iiU aexnni viitour. Aa Ume pwra tbo tkoiigea 
than innii^irateii beoome movo and mot* intaosUad, 
tbe full meumptlon of tho form and oiiikl of the man 
oumplcting tba more marked pcrtod nt pmborty. Tbe 
male thus bucuniea aeiually perfoet He aonal 

Enwom in maji are retained to a much lator mriod of 
h than in woman. Instancen are on record in wlikb 
tboy ban been ntolned till the ago of 100— aa la 
tbo well-known coae of old Parr. But in ordinary 
cwu the virilo powen of iDan viaildy dea«aao after 
tbo a^e of fifty or alxty years; tbe eneiKiw of dadtn- 
iu^ yaan bsbig, aa in duldhood, withdraws fron the 
reproductive^ and avdn d«irot«d to tho nutiititn In- 
tereata of Iba IndividnaL 



I 
I 



I 



I 



y 




PUBERTY-PCBLIC HEALTH ACTTa. 



361 



tlM 



wonuft tho perioil of {mbcrty ia much man 
rtknt tbka in man, far tlia rcAion that cbuitira 
'm inucU itnwtvr Wltcnt W« Uiervby iiiduw-l. anil 
flHtoiu importojit j II III III— in ooimoction witb tbo 
~ iBstineta uo Oima for tbo Sn>t timi: hnragbt to 
Iparfactkw. Inthef«muJi!,t.li(ir«rort^w«find 
«poab of irabartj eciiuiii«ncv« ia U<mp«ntto 
mm tba t&irtociith to Hm tixtvaiMi yotn. 
!■ soUbla tiiMt in femalM puberty nuty b« 
' at a Biucli MrUar i^ or 11M7 n grvatly 

ig ntfa«r vpoa tiullTidual eoiutitutloit wtd 
hM Bdl M j DMoUftiitlBa than npoo couHi of a Bior« 
gMMwal kmo. It afifwm m a rula to ba attained at an 
(■lUsr period ia tropical *l'""t— . to thoaa doUeaUlv 
nortoml, and la (lie ishablUDla o( toma, u oppow.-il 
tA tbe Ulfed ar counti-y naJdents. At thia puriod, 
wad mora laai-kMlly thiui ia tiian, tlia ftinalo fonii 
aoqnirca a fulneac aad roundaew oi vbanKimvUio 
klad. Hit fanasta cmiar^ dapoattloua of fat taking 
aUea ia tbe munmM and on tli« pubea, aad over Ui« 
Dodj- gmfaUj. Tlu iDt«nial organa «l gttDBiaticB 
alao auan^ ud tltelr f naetlomal parfectloa in iromaa 
ii naffcad bjr tba noil ttaaqnivMal of t^ dgu of 
pobortf, kttatlT, tlia ^paaraaea of nnuiruatiom 
Iwitkit aee), iw the eaiammial ducAmrft. This laUsr 
1 of a flow of Mood fnm Ibe intanial g«iieva- 
I Vfaat; but aa axplainad in tho artidaa Mm* 
BAflOir, OVAIT, anJ Omy, tbia •anniineotu flow 
r«Dt7totwnga(deda«syiDptoiitalictJ tba true and 
•laapw procon gf vtvlatian, or tba dlKJuw^B of o*a 
Qr«cgamnilw«TaK7. TbooccarTeBoeof ovalatJon, 
oc la otbcr worda ttu produetloD of ora, llabla aad 
r«adjrforfactiltaiiaD,aiidaolodovdopaiww bfiag 
la tw nual aaaaatlaJ and aignlfioant dga of tbo fall 
allaliiiiiMil at oom vt puberty ami oj! the true fonale 
fOMitiTa fuuitiawL 

Pubert}' ill both man Mid wacnaa mayba tatardad 
«r adna«ad by t&diridual uecullariUM of cosatita- 
ticn, and, •• alrmdr maarked. by tbe sanmuidin; 
cjirmnrtancwa of lifet Ki^garding tbe tnllueiKa of 
dliaata H baa bean aigued tbat wcomo, like plaata, 
sUala Butority ac oBMt b tropieal cltantaK Tba 
nal facia ol iho caaa appear to ba (•• doonatntMl 
by "hlr. RtAtatom of UaadMstcr, u bla Eaaaya oa 
UctutmatuB, &«., 1861) that fa laiaMtate dimatei 
Iba occtnraa«a of pnbnty ia extendea ovar a longer 
nagw of agM^ or aariaa u yean, than la tropkal cli- 
matee; althM^ <vrim« parHtu, the itdtaUlanU of 
warn Kgiooa attain to taatoHty at aa eariiflr as* 
thaa tlwaa of cold latttodci^ Tm maj, tt «nnno,ti» 
partly dn* to tba gcural iBfiMBes of heat and food in 
<b(arnuoiD( an earlier dendopBaeat of all Ibe pliyeiaJ 
faBcttoo^ in wbicfa davatopmeat tbe geaentiva orgaiia 
wpold of WOTM readily partldpais. TIm average 
pslod of pabarty aad tbe avan^ of aarly dataa «• 
■baa (oaad ta aihiUt ao jtrj mat Aftereooe ia tbe 
iabafaHaau of oold and «nuTn diaatiea. Baeepttaaal 
tartaaaaa accnr la wUcb dviliiiag or olbcr HilniaM 
■17 lAart tbe appearaaoo of noMrty. Notably k 
lae caaa of Uiihlij feiaalea ptiMrty ia attained uai* 
loimly at a p«nod almat two yean befoo* lla occor- 
teoea ia Buropeaai; ibe avoigv period ia tba Hladn 
tanuJa at wtnbb jmberty ocean bds^ tbirteen y<ai% 
and tbat la tbe Britbb fnaale foarteoa yean deroi 
HMwtha A latgar propoetioa of tbe Sirt awaatra^ 
dana vt Aaiatio wonan oocon ia tbe eaiUur ytan of 
At period OTw wUdi pabarty raajra in Uritiah 
VOBiea, aa baa Iwea deany abami by a t«lfie drawn 
ap by Ur. Robertoo. It i* fartbar atated Ibat tba 
lof DeuHnn aad tba Waat Indian laUsda 
dw tenmefatare of wUeh eovntriai U 
tbat of ladi^ do not attaia pab«1y 
' Ihaa tba paaamla of England. Tba caaaa of 
early pubertleB la tba Hiadaa aad otbcr ea*lora 




DAtMna ia nmbaUy to be found ia tiu eextud babitn 
and latra uf nutrri^ of tbeae Datlooa, togmher with 
heraditory inflaanoaa dependent upon thoe nutniu^ 
TiM oeaatiou of tbeoatauwnUI fluw. aud the atoii- 
paga of tba geaaradva fancdona ia woman, |fui«raliy 
occur aboot lb« forty-fiftb yaar of iifr; thn nptttnttn 
fi>r procreatioB In woman ceaalng aiont datiiiitdy and 
regularly, aad at a inucb earlier peHud, ibaa In isaii. 
Caaee are rare In which chOdnm have beoa beni by 
moltiore viucrding fifty ycnm iif nge. 

I'l'KI.II.'ANI, farmcra of llie public revenue ia 
tbe Udiniui itaie. Tbe revemua derlTod from tiw 
tnt'ut^ of ffiKA^ oonatrka wan aold or lat for a 
P-m-ilhI by thn ocuMr* ui RoBie to the lii^oet bidder. 
I'bo nlo waa gi-nerally made fur a /ajtmm or period 
of fit c yean. The ooiidiUoea of tba aalo were gentr> 
ally determined by law, but wore aoBHtiiBea modlSoil 
on partiealar oocaMooa. The tttbaa of Bidly, esoK|.t 
tboeeuf wlae, oQ,aBd saidan prodaoa, were by aouatoui 
introduoed by Hlan not tola in Borne bat In Sidly. 
The faimen of tba taTcnna belonged to tba woaHhieet 
rlaaaia, and during tba later' p«inod of tbe repnUie 
wet« genendly of tba oqooitri&n order, Tbey wm 
iw|a!nd to gin eeeurity to tbe alatv for tbe price at 
which tfaaypttwhaaed aay braaeb of tbo roreaue. aad 
for tbia parpoee tbey geooally nidted ia eorapuiiea, 
raoognlaed by the atata, and called aortj, wliicfa oirideil 
tba Yaa tun into abarea (sorftt). Tbo eoatiael with 
tba Mate «aa mada in taa name of oaa larpoaalbla 
Indivtdoal, eaDed mtanrrut, aad tbe baaiaeae manager 
of tba ooanaay wm called Mitjrwtrr. Tba attf^rr 
rcaided at Roma aad eonwpoaded with tbe aganta 
ia tbe proviacM. Nobs but Boataa dtiaeai eonld 
be a member uf a cioBi[May of publlcaui, aad nugia- 
tiatea aad govemora of p rov in eae ware exdnded 
trota ihaa. Tbe aotual work of eoUectioa waa 
oondattad by aa Inferior daH of aerranta of tba 
confaay, who night dtbar be free^ot or alaiwa, 
*'■""■ or prariaoiak. Tb tUa daaa bdoaig matt 
of tba pubBMaa montioa'd in tbe New Tcvtamcnt. 

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. lt«ido gratirml and 
particular aola againat nubaacea lb« oeneeity lar 
MMd BMrnna for protaotiag tbabeahbof tawne 
baa gtraa aaaaden to apedal lagialatiaa. Aa art 
kaown aa tbe Public Health Act, ISIS, waa paaasd 
la tbat yMU* (11 and I'i %'ict cnn. Ixiii.), aftpotntiaK 
a geaeial board of bcaltb, witn i>u1)oniiaat« loeu 
boarda tfaron^iaat tba ooniUry, with power to leiry 
ratea aad ragutala mattera coaweraiag tbe pnUk 
bealth. Tbia act baa bean aaearal Uaaea aiaewM, 
particularly by tbe PabUo H«lllb AO, UlS. TUa 
act. Uke tbe act of 1848, doM Ml apply to Sootlaad 
or iK'laad, nor to the atetrDpolii^ except aa rvaida 
apodal proviuona. ITader ita intradwltary fvawoaa 
aanttary diatricta are divided Into ubaa and raral, 
tba Conaor bofaw Ibiilad by tbe aaidtM/ JflriaOaUM 
af«orpoiatfaaa,uqnmnMateoaimHBkiian^aDdkad 
board*; Ibe Utter by that of boank of mrdlaaa 
Part 3 ooaaiila nf what an epeotally tannaa aaailaiy 
provlalotia It ia dirUed ialo tba bOBib of.— 1. 
•eweraga and drainage; 2, watcr^iraeti^priTiaavAa: 
3,acaTOiigiiiga]MldaaaafaiKi I, watarmpply; 8.iig»- 
latlra of ecUar dweUiaga ud lodglag-bawai; t, aid- 
aanoca: 7, otfeaaiTa iradaa: », aoaouad Bwal, fea,; 
», bifectiona diaeaaea aad bo^itala; IS, ptaraailon 
of epidamka; 11, BMMtuarlaik BaA baaJ Jadudaa 
tbe oerre^ioadiBg alataloty ragalatko^ Irgalhar 
witb tbe peaalHea by which they are to bo eaKaeed. 
I'att I oontaiuB ander aevetai boMla tba law oa each 
mattera of local govamaiaat aa an Wy tadfaaoUy 
ooaneotad vilblbtroeatMiiof pabUebaallh. Thaaa 
baada an:—!, Begalatloaa witb ruard to highwajre 
aad atreet^ inchiding tbe power for widaoii^ faa- 
pr<MbM[,pa*in(,aDdbgbUBgtbmi; 3;p«Ula plsaaan- 
givaada;:!. laarkewnd alaii^tarh«iMi; I, polka 



462 



PUBLIC. HOUSKS—PfEBLA. 



nnUtfoii«. Part 5 raUtoa to tlw gvunl powvn 
HW tnelhofli of whicb Incmt anlhoritim m*; avail 
tlwiMdvei. It Ocfinea their jiuwer to eater into 
oontneti^ to purchuw Unilit, tu lutva reooiira* to &r> 
Mtrntion, to mftk« >i»I uJtw by«-liini^ to appoint 
oHioi-rit, including the raolicnl ntficcr of hi-alth, nud 
it rvgulatva tlip mods «t outiilucllng Uieir bunijieB. 
I'art ti ralntu tn pDWsni of nting Mid bOTTOwUiK, 
wi<l cDutMiw ftill iirovimoiu for Uio ■■iiwiiiiiil of 
zttneriU dbtriA ntca, private linprowmRRt nvtai, itni) 
higbwav ralu. Th« vxpcOMa of ruml uuLliorEtim 
ftn dcAlt witli by « (tlvkion fntd gmiDrnl Miii Bpwntil 
hmda, tha furuicr Wuj^' i>aj''ab1o from a common 
fund. Mid til* latter imng a epoclal cliarge on each 
crontrihiitiiry jilnty, hAh lirin^ i-haiveable on tlie 

Cnc'DttiM. Ijurruwiiit; puivcn am denned and rc^pi- 
tad, asd due provistva ia inade for ati<Uta. I'art 7 
rolatM chicBy to tb« proaooutiun of olleann, the r«- 
covery Mnd ajipliakliori of prnaltirn, s.nr1 th" •nrvir-n 
of nctJt««. r«rt 8 ilL-fliiei tlip powot* «f tht- I^cnl 
Govvniment Boni'd in Lb« idtonlion of oruaa and 
ttnion rf dutrict o!ii>r«MM by provisional ordore wid 
utbonriac, induiliiii; tbe |iou-pr to inroit nirnJ aiithcir> 
itina witli all or anmo nf the putvum jfi'uitvd to urban 
siitboridca. Any urhui or rural district! toay ba 
united either fnr the nnrpow of procuring a eoniman 
Bu|)ply (if wntcr, or of carrjing into effect a oonnnon 
■rdtvin of H>w«r(i^, or for any olber ptiipoB«a of th« 
ttdt. i >litncti> niay ba united for th« purpoao of np- 
jMiinliug » iiKiri.' competent oHiccr of health. I'ort 
aaiiitnry auDjuriliv* am Lijiutilut«d under tUa boad, 
and tlj<dr iuri<Ktictioo and pow«ra delined Part I* 
M)M (urtb tne powcn poaeaaed by the IjooI Govcm- 
tnont Board upon dn*nlB ot the looal anthorltica, 
and tbo provimona for the kcoi L-ry of eipeuaee cao- 
Mii|tii^at upan siii^i ddfaiilt, anrl tlio ]mw«r of th« 
Buaird lo alc«r and n![)cal local iMit«, and to Kttlc 
dltltireiieea oonaequBBt upon the trauKfer of power* 
and duties ot the varloua local autliontin. Part 10 
CMiMSta ot a ooUacAiaii of provl^ua not included 
under tti* pr«*jaiu hcadi. Various Mvisg clauaca 
relating to navigalian and water rigliti^ and to oct^ 
tain axMDiptiuna uf a looal uatur«i brlof tlw aet tu a 
uloao. Tb« acbodulaa ooatain, among otlwr thlngai 
minptcte ndca for tho cincticin of local bnarda. Snp- 
plvtui'ntnry arU for [acUitatie^ the impruveuienti of 
tliM dw»l!iti}^ of Um working clawca lu large towtta, 
anil f>eui|>uwiw tooa] autboritiaa to acquire^ cmatruo^ 
and nuklntiilu [t ftrr ritmrrtrrlra Trnm itaiftl In IS7^ 
and IsfiJ. 

I-UIILK-HOUSES. 3a* Ixic UTD Xvukkkhb, 
and Licayau'o Acn. 

PUBLIi: STOCKS OS FUNDS. Sot Pctob. 

rUBMUK SYKl'S, ao called bocaoaa a natim 
of Syria, waa carritd aa a alave to Rome when a 
raar* boy, but waa fortitiiftt« In BMctbic with a kind 
maMar, wbo^ p erecit iii g hia talaola, gara him a good 
ednoatino, and afterward* tet him (nek HI* talent 
waa partkiilariy diapla,>Td in writing rh'mi, ur fams, 
at a tlnw wbon tbat apocMS of drania waa moat In 
fiaWin : and JaUua Cwsar, with whom bo waa oan- 
tempecmrj, |iti:forrcd bin to all bi« compettlora. 
iiiB larow wen iatwifmBad witb norat a ml e n eee, 
n «allo«tiaiii>{ wUefa ii itMad by 8*. Jtnaa to bar* 
haaii nado and uaed by tba BanutH m a Hhool>book, 
A. Duntbur of tfaeae apotfaegtns, forating the only 
fragtoanta of bia woaka aliU axtant, liava baao pnb- 
llafied in wimia noUoetuna of Latin antbon nadv 
tha title c< PnbUi Syil Seatoalte^ 

PUCK (Old SwadWi, jmJ*,- iMbtndte imK m •^ 
doHMB, awoid aoniTalaak to Iriik pvca, WaUt wwno, 
aa tmpy. In nwdfaeral nyAeloay a cdabaatad ulfT, 
'i1m BMRy waadararoC dw al^ht; ' h« waa alee known 
by tba nantea of Itobia 4iaMlfdlow. Friar Kuah, PD|;, 
A«, la Bagland; and ia Qenuay by thai of Knnsbt 



Rapnelit, ahbough ia both ooontriai ha b bat kaowft 
by bia dealgnaUoD of Puck. Under the latlOT ^fid- 
lalion bia oharacter and attribatca are leprawnted 
In Shalcapeni'a MIdauuiroer X^-lit'a I>rBam. Ha vaa 
cbivf of the frrwMMV or-donuatic lairioiv ■■^ """"T 
UHtti arr toKi of hie nocturnal explcila. 

pLU'KL ER-HUa KAU, HRMi*niI.tTitwMHns- 
Ki'-ii, riiiKrrui-.aGariDantnvcUeraiid aotbor, wa* 
bom at Miifkau. Saxony, 30th October, 1786. After 
hnving atudJi-'d law at I^tripElg fci>ta moi t^ 1S03 be 
■■nt'-rvd thti amiy. wtiicli lie auon aft«r ([uitted wiUi 
theronkdf c-Aptain, and travallod in Italy and Ptaace^ 
lu li^lSbu vutvred tbcRmHiaaaervicaaa major, and 
rubefiquGotlj waa appolntwl an ald-de^oamp to PHaea 
I'harloe Augaabm c^ Snio-Wpimar. ilariag greatly 
diitln^iabad biniioU in the Nether tonda be noeived 
the rank of licuionaat-oolonel, and lat«r on waa 
appointed civil and militan govemor of Bragm 
On the onncliinon of paace he retirad to baa aaWM 
and devoted hbnaelf to literature and borttmdtun; 
ho also tnTcUad » good deal Is 1822 bi waa 
created a priooc by the King of PmanjL Ha tra- 
velled in France aiul Enj^land in Ih'iii, and aola^- 
niicntly ipeut aev^ral yean bav«lUng In Aaia and 
-Urictk Sonio timo aftor Ida rotani ba aold lu» 
eatatea at Miukitti and panard hi* time In varfnna 
parti 0<GcniiiLiiy And Itidr. In lS93bawaad(c«ed 
a member of [hv I'ruisiaQ Jfmtnkv»m,at Cbambar of 
Poem. He waa on the staff ot tbo King of Pnwwi 
during Uie war of 1868, though then In hia elgbty-fim 
year; audbedltid Fob, 4.]8i1. Hia writings, wbidi 
are niimnmuii, nro of a lively and original iIc*(Tri|itiDB; 
itmuQi; tLuui bia k-ttenfrom Englaad, tranalatadnnfa- 
tho title, 'lliie Tour of a German Hlnoe <thrM T«la 
liondcn, ISltl), aCtractad ooaaidenbla attcatiae fran 
iU familiar pfctora* and TeTelatkma ot arirtoeratic 
life. Ottierwvrkso<Uaar«Brlele«{BeaVeatartMaan 
(AEunicb and Stutt'^'art, 1^1). Banilaan'a yurlaWw 
WaLtgaUit (lb. 183S), Semilano in Africa Ok 188«K 
Aua Mefavnwd Alia fiaich (ib. lUt\ and OJaBaok- 
kdir (Berlin. 1846-48). 

PUUDINQSTONB, the name pven faj (enlMjIrta 
to aooo^omaratacompoaad of nKiadad fra^ome o( 
dliTerent aorta ontbadded in a nUaaaaa nudifa (Ubr 
fruit In a plum-pnddlag). TliepoddlagitaiMaabMnd 
among etiatifiad rocka, whcm tii«y ooear in bad*, 
maaaca, rcuw, and bonlden of gmtrr ur IwH Mtt. 
Th« puddini^tonea may furtn rvtucled b[U% awl 
aoBMtimaa even mountaiua, as in the Vaagaa 

PU1>I)I.1M; KIKN.VR Sclnoii. 

PUD8KY, a town aail tuwnibip, EnglaB^ in Uw 
Weat Biding of Yorkabire, on iba beow of a hdtj 
acdtri^ abora Iho Taliay of tbe Airft 6 adba wat 
of liMda. It baa reoenUj Inweaaul tnm a tarwatr 
tend handeta tu a coondenble town ; and kaa a 
epadou* and aWgaaC modam dumb, with an ambai- 
tm and r^— "*■■* ttnrar; aevatnl dlwf ting plaea 
ol worehip; epadooa boatd and other MboolB; mt~ 
cbaaica' iaatituto, Ac WooUas and wwalad pkana* 
factuna aiw oitetiBiraly casried on, and tbasa b aba 
a lar;^ maanhcture of boota and ahoea Tbara an 
many tmilding-BloDa (juarrMa In Iha Tidnity. Pofi. 
of land boaridiBtrictOe^iy. l^SOa 

Pl'EBLA, La, a de|ttitBieat of thm MeucM On- 
federation ; boonded Knth I7 the PadA^ aad 
ruttiKled on other «deo bj Vara Orua aad 

ana, 13,043 eqfoara m3ea. Ite oentm m int 

by Ibe Cor^Uera nf Anafanais b whlcb b tha *ol< 
caao at Popocataprtl A» higheat ■wiirtain in Marfoa 
HaprindFalritartotiMKaaea. HMaoll.lil«iaiiB 
com, maiae, and Irait-trcca. CoUoa^«a|aiL aad altar 
ttoplealpndaallaaaalsoaiioeaadwafl; HMth«aan 
baoiba dlrw-ainaa aad qnasrba vt ancallsntViaUa. 
TV nrinciiial towaa are La PneU^ Tirmin. aad 
Tahaacan. Ptop^ (18M). n«,4«^ 



I 



I 



I 
I 



PCTEBLA— PUKENDORF. 



3G3 



ima OCX 

mmmmn 



PUEBLA, L&. the ca|)lul of tho aJont dfpMt- 
HflMt i> ftMl7 8itu*t«d on ft declirity, 74 milM MM.M. 
nl U«iifK\ next to which it ii tho ui^cat city in the 
coaMwalJaB. It hu m'd«, rcfruUr, Mid weU-pftr«d 
■ tw it^ mpplM with iMt-pfttht; hooMi MD«nUj 
Orw maim Ugh, with fl*t roofa: Urge uia elmnt 
••laani^ In the prlnoipMl one of irhldi la idtuatea the 
nthedral, a Dui^lfioeot etrutrture. In all tberv are 
MTmU^-two reUglou dificce, iBdudin^ forty-threo 
Urge <^iiichc^ naa^ c( thmi hisbi; deootatMt; and 
abant 100 towen tuiug above Uie bmiaea Iniiiart a 
cfaMacbvittio featnn to th« dtr. Tb«t« are alaa 
M*w«l eoQegei, acadoDui, achoou, alme-hotiM^ aiul 
bMphab. 'nflprfndpalmanufiMtanBMiudatofglaB*, 
oaiUtOBware, aiid eoapt PiwbU me buOt by the 
Spanknii b 15S3. It wh tvtapoiwU; wxanmtni 
lolhaFNBah,iiteniiid«f|mtu»«(e«oftbTwmonth>' 
dBntfoL b Hay, ISSS. Pop. (1882), 65,000. 

FUBRPBRAI. KKVKR, a dii»Ma pocoliar to 
woata In efaUiIbud; it u aUo callnl f>wn>rnii fwW- 
lotiiiM, bedof u tptlammatory affection of the jped- 
tnnran. It li fmitia&tiy eompUcetod vllh inllam- 
nalian of tha womb aad Jte appendwee, aod in far 
fran bifag eitlwr a eiuiple or un*ai7fiia malady, m 
it wmnmm Ik* moet dlvoae typ« and ranna, ud b 
cnn et toad th« noit fatal dumw* to which woomq 
la ttia itate an liaUet Prom carafu) obterratioiiB 
of the djaeaee, made durfa; a Icni; period of y«an, it 
faH eome to be gaDonUy eoniidarad efademiti, utd 

nam of er'tAtam baa been addooad to tthoir 

la alao eonlagioaBL It k ooaaeqitantly much 
HEn prevalent hi lytng-la boapltala than in prirata 
l^ractlM. The aynptnna and cuincterialie feature* 
at the dlaaaie vary vvry much, aeora-ding tn the dr- 
cnmataMtaa that occaaiMi it and inStientw ita courao. 
II nanaUr attaelu th« patimit alwot the Uiird <]ay 
aftav dalmry, and la geuatmlly 'preoedod «r attended 
bf Mmriag and tielmeaa or Totnitliig, and b marked 
tf oafD [o tba belly, which la aometlmea very ex- 
tandij tboMfa ta otbw earn* It Ja at fltrt enOaaA to 
ana ^ot n* abdonan rttf aoea beeomaa awallad 
a«d taoac^ acid the l«naion rapidly increaecM. The 
indaa b baqoent, email, and iibarT<; the akin hot; tlie 
waitae oitber dean or whita ana dry: tho patioot 
tUnty; aba vondta fraqnenllr and the milk and 
naoally art olatrurted. Tlkeaa aymptome often 
very acutely, but thuy may alea apfffaaA 
ty. But wbettier tlie early eymptana oaoN 
If er alowly, tboy aoon increaae; (ho beUj 
aa large aa Mom delivenr, and b oftaoi ao 

thai tfan weigtitot ilrabcd-«lothaaaao acaroely 
bt >(Mlur«d ; tbu patient abo leela moch JmId vha 
ahe turaa; the rtaptration baotnnaa dtmoalt; and 
WwaHiiic a con^ eome* oo, whi^ i^gravatae tLv 
dakaaa; or it ao{Hani froon the &ct to be attended 
with nis b u* ilde aa a prominent symptom. 
BiiiiwlUHW the patieot haa a great bdiiution to 
befell, which ahreya give* pain. The haw«U ere 
eitlwr nntivi?, or the patlrat pmi^ Uliuiia or iWk* 
culoured fweea. Hhm aymptoma are mora or kaa 
amiM, aweadbE to tb* extent to which the perito- 
MOn b alTecied. ... In fatal oaaca tbe aareUing 
and tanatoo of tba b«Dy iiwreaaa, tbe vomiilog cm- 
tbnM^ tba pdaa baoomna nvy frequent and itn^piW. 
Tba patient baa iimiifiwHim, ahmibcr and eomrtiiaea 
delfariain, bat ahe in» tcmab aenaifak- to tbo LmI' 
(GanlfaHv'a M«diaal THctinury). Tbe diaeaaa ra- 
qoiraapaaatpiandaUIfiil ttaalmeal. Thatnatmen^ 
IWwTat . rarlaa aooordiag to the tonn of the diaoaac^ 
and even in tbe bibhi form ▼arlooa and eftenraoodte 

if tTEatmeot are reenmnumdad by offonat 
ptrnldaaB. Th» truth seemi to be that tw rvry 
deinita biowledga dtbcr of the patbology v tbe 
tnataant of thb malady Iim aa yet beam attained. 
tArga and fx«|aent faleedlnca are aflen ratortad to^ 





bat aomo think that laaa rlak will aeem* frem the 
ratimial adoption of other nieaaHJta,aaadne i »co at aa 
bo calomel and oirfuni, oonjidned tn tbe more aalhcole 
raaae arltb camplior, and tu (erebtothlaala atabcoca- 
tiomi or fomcotatioiu, &c. 

PUKRTO-CABET.Ul, or Pokto-Cabxi.la, a for- 
ta&ed maritime town cf Vifiieiurla, in the province uf 
CWab»bo, on «n ialanil (Xknnnct^d with tho nuunlanil 
by a bridfio, lu the Gtdf ot Triato, 22 milaa north by 
weat of Valencia. It la well bnitt, haa a enuaodkwa 
harbour, and tlumgh very unhcalthT carrieaon aocei* 
dderalile trada, cbiRfly with tha Weat India laUnda 
andEurope. Pop.il^fl). V>M5. 

PUERTO-DE- LA-CRUZ.I>E-OROTATA, a •*•- 
fcitt town in ti)o 1'nnkry IhImk^U, nn the aonth onaat 
of tb« Inland of Tenoriffe. It liaa uaved and dean 
Btraeta; Ave aquarea, b ona cl whkh b a pretty 
alamoda; a town-lioaae, a priaon, an lioepitat, twa 
chnrcbea, and two iKhanlK, Agricaltnre and ivarins 
■tUcwanna are thv otii«l occupntiona It waadeobna 
a fraa port b ISSt. Tha anchoraga b bad. Win*, 
bmady, almooda, oaddneal, difc, banila, are axpovtad; 
and angar, eoffee^ indiKo, oooo^ bide^ atavea, oil, lie^ 
&0., Importad. Pon..t£14. 

PrERTO-DE-SA>TA.MARIA, a rfty of Spain, 
in Andnliuia, In the tim^-ince ami 7 miles narth-«aat 
of CeiltK, on tba rigut bank cf the (iuadaleta, faera 
cnwad by a bridge of boata oear lU moutb In tha 
Bay of Cadis. I'ke houaee an gaaanlly boOt like 
tboM et that dty, bat a» mora epodona, and hav^ 
much axtaroal deoovatloa iu gbua and iiuntiii);, uiJ 
tiia atnata ar* raun-ally bnmd and well parod. It 
haa a prvtty tbcatrc; a buU-rin;, -when was glfen 
tba enuid bolt-flfflit to the Ihdce of WelUnglaa 
dcacnbod by Lord Bymn; five prxxneoadaii one of 
theni planted with orango and otbartTDaa; infantry and 
cavalry bamdca; a cnatom-houae, a goud adtfioe acar 
tberaue; aooiut-lionaa;anarlah«barGtiblheG«lUc 
atyle; Jw^ Afrlmltnrabtliaehtnf oerupatloa.b«ai- 
wMtioo tharewiththa pnparation of nine aad ftquaan 
for enortatbo. Then ar« two anap mrumfactorb*. 
two of bate, one of atard^ COe of whito-lead, ae«an 
ot liquourL five taaoariei^ and fiMir putterie*. Tbia 
b ooe of tM three great towna of win* aiport, and 
ilvala Jwaaud Baa Looar; ami iti vidnity toCadb, 
the centra of eicobanga b farmuabla to buiuat. 
TIm priodpal aitidca ot impart are wood and inn, 
chleOy for caalta. Stemn-bcMda pir regulwly b etwae n 
the Puerto aod Cadir. Pop. yi.i25. 

I'UKKTOl-BINCEPK, aa ioland dty of Cuba, 
capital of the oentnldcpartnMiit,aiid SSSmlWaoatb 
liy aait of Havanaa. Fhim Ite inland poelUon and 
want of water carriage tba trade of tbia pbce bean 
no jiMt proportioi) to lite anmber of ita faihabitanta. 
Ita produce, cblefly eugar and tobaoot^ b ahipped 
throngb the Bay « Noo^rltai^ 40 mOea aorth-oaat. 
Iff whkh abo it reodvaa its foreign aappBaa. It b 
the aeat of tbe Ba|;n«me oowt of juMiee for alt tbr 
Spaoldi oolooba u AsMafa^ Fopi of ita Juriadic- 
tioQ. i%99i. 

ITKKTO REAU a aeaport, Riuiin. Andahub, 
In tlio prvtTiiKe and 7 miloa eaat <d ('adui. It baa 
■tntij^bt and rather broad atreeta; aev>>ral »'{uar««. In 
one of whidi ttand the lowu-bowe, priaon, and pubtic 
graaary. It abo haa a church, aereral acboola, an 
oratory, a poor-botue, a taoli\ uud alip; and maeti 
fednne of ooarae 1<"m«, laatlwr, pottery, vannlcaUi, 
and atarcfa. Pepi 10,691 

PUKRTO BICO. Sea Pono Bto& 

PU/ENDORF, Saill-u, Bamtt \ov, one of the^ 
6iwt asd graatcat axpxoodan et natunil law, pnbU- 
data^ aad hJatorfan* of Germany, waa bont Jamury 
8th, 18SS. Bear Cbamnlti, b the ErageUrge, b tbt 
village wlwre hia father waa a Ltitbrran MvaoliDC 
After haTlng atadicd ■! thir adimi of (>rtmBia, b* 



36i 



PU FEMJORT— POG AT-SCH EK. 



3eil to tlie ITnlvendt; ol Ldpug, tvbtire he 
^•tDdinl tbeolngy Mid U«r, uid nfterwAT^ In 1057 to 
Jeuft, wti<rre liu grouadiHl himself in tlio Cvtesiui 
phlloacpky and la natheroivtics. Botnv UDkbl« to 
pracuro * aitufttioo iu Lis Dutive eoiuitiy,lio aooepted 
idI85S tli«|i1ac«of tutor ill th« hoaw ol dw 3wMiah 
Habajundor B.t tlie CuiLtU cuort, and repidrod with 
faia pupil to Copenhagen; but a war breftUnj nut 
betwoon Dr-niiiiulL and Sweden, he wa« knerted, 
with Lbs irboli! fnmily of Uio Svnxliali iinibaMUkdiir. 
Id thU ultuatiou, wltieii ountuiu«d tor vij^kt luoutlui, 
boctnplovodhimMlf in studying tbaworkaaf Grotiiu 
iMii ilobli)!| on Inw iLii'i ^iii'iMTinicnt. Tbo rcmilt I'F 
hiu luliouni >p[Hiiir«d «t tba Haf{uo iu 160(1 in atrark 
BDtitlvd EltmeutA Jurisprudwtbe oniienoUs. The 
learned aloctor of th« palatinatti, Charles Louia, to 
wbom it W1W drdicaled, wm ao much pleoccd with 
tbin work thut bo (auDiJ«d for tbo autUwr In Iflfll nt 
Hvidi'lbng a profunraldp of the kw of naturo and 
of uuttona, tho fint in (!«muuiy. Hnm he tftu^ht 
till ItiTO, and in addition to hi* profoaoriuJ dutit-s 
wmto ill* work L>s Statn Bal Publics Gvmnautcx'. 
wbivb ho publivbvil ia 1647 tmdor tha [Mtttidoiiyni of 
Sovnriuua Motainbano,. and whirh, from th« hardy 
vay in whicli aome <4 tho glaring imperfectiona at 
the Orrtnuiic ooniititiiticin ara axpoaad, raawd a per- 
fect Btoriu u( ouiitruvcri)'. Partly with k vivw t» 
mcapo tho anpleaaant oaueqnenoeB wbiah ft nvel*- 
tiiin <if tb>n uitliurahip of the work lui^'bt oocaaion, 
Pufendorf u-i^Piitud In 1670 tbc |)csl of prof'Swor cif 
OBtnTTd law la tlie ualveirity at Lnnd. i^durvd liLu 
by Cliarlca XT. of Swedso. Ho thcro wrote bii work 
on n&tural law (lie Jure Nature ct Gentiiun, l.narl, 
1673), which Mipenoded tb« former, and ia cbarao 
toriMd by pempioultf, method, and aouad reawwing; 
noon after appeared the nnitller oampeDdiom, or 
rathcrfthstnctof theiiboTAwnrkCI^cOIKdo Romints 
ct Civi^ Lund, tS73), which haa paserd through 
inn u aiemble edltlona and bean tr&calatecl Into aercrnl 
lMvasgs& Pufcndorf in tbcao works doTiat»d still 
further than Grotjna from the nchobutia ronttrod 
' of pbiloaophizing, and ocniee({(wntiy excited vjolont 
oppoA&m. Howavw iMeNnt opiolem nuiy be 
teepcctinz tbeao -worka of PnfeDdori, it ie not to 
be deuicir that ba made on epoch in the biatury of 
natural Iaw, He bad a more diaUuft CDnc«i>tIuii 
than Gruiius of a encnoo which. indonadeuUy of 
positive Uw or thcolo^, ahoiild detcrmbe the rule* 
of right notrly by tbc laws uf rvaaou. HIa Uw of 
natui-u u-iu a pliilrisn]ihi>i^ momlity attlllnf; t\w 
mutiiol rvlutiunit of jiuticu bctwocu men, and which 
ettU remained dopcndont on ibe ChriatiaQ morality. 
With GrtAiiis ho Inid tho rmnitntJon uf law in the 
•od^ Iiutiut.'t, wbitb ia oaarly nlliod to the Cbriatian 
pvecept of lore of r^ir ovlgbbour, and with Hobbw 
na duriTcd Uw from the etate of fallen naturo. Some 
jeata aftarwarda Pnfendorf went ti> .Stturkboltn, 
whei« ha waa i^pt^ted aectetnry uf etato, royal 
waawAlor, and hittorlograntier. ThAm hn wrote in 
Latin the Hiatory of Sweaen frnm tlie Camfrntj^ nf 
Gustavua Adolphna in Gwmany to the AlxUc&Lian 
n( Qn^en Chriatlna (De Rebna Bneelda, K70}, and 
the Uiatury of Cbarlea GuRta-vuB (De Seboa a Canlo 
Gtutavo geMte, two Toll, folio, 109611, and in Gennaa 
Ida KinleituDgi.iu'GtM^iobtddurvociieluiiatea Bcdebe 
imd Sta«tan (1633, three volii), nibaeqarattj eon* 
ilniud by OeUenachlafccr, and tnjuUled by Mar- 
ttnibiv hito Freucfa. Theaa works aa mneh iscraased 
hEa repntAtion that in 1686 henceiTod from Frederick 
William, elector of Brandeabmg^ an invitaliaa to 
Iktlin aa ouunaelloi-, Uatariognpfaer, and judge of 
the aupreme oonrt of jndjoatnTa^ with ^e uaff^ to 
writs tlia lite of that juine^ which be Gniahed lutdtt 
the reigu of hia eon Frederick III. In 1690 he waa 
mmlaprivyooiuuiillarof tbeElectnrol DrantlnnbiaTK, 



and in ISQI waa created b*ron by ChailM XL, Uag 
of Sweden. Tba worka of Pufcndorf, omrwiae 
valuable, have tie miafurtune to be written ia amy 
bold and unloteteadn; atyU Hs diad at Batlia in 
lUi'l. 

PLrFF-ADDKR iViprtv er CtotSo aritUnA, a 
■erpent fooml at lite Cape of Good Hope aad in 
^uthem Africa geDenlly, and included in tlw Tinc^ 
id;e or Viper family. It* p(^lar name la dennd 
from the fact tliAt it pnoeaita the power of pofli^ 
out or dlatendlnt; the upper part <4 the ludt wbtu 
MtaUd or alarmed. Aa in all ether VilMiU* a 
pnimm ik[iparatna eiiiitA, ihia form bclag apadally 
dreadwl ou oL-ciiuitt of ita )uKfaly Tenooioaa onpartiea 
The head U short, flat, and vary hraod. It attain* 
a length of 4 or 6 feet. THa body in aoiaeapeciiBeBa 
m»- artra^ a man'a arm in tbickncM. Toe tail it 
ta|ieriii([. 'lite coluur U darkeat on the upper parta^ 
and ia of a brown tint, mivrked with patcfaa nf 
dukcr brown and white. A band er Xnpa et nA- 
[I»h ciilnur cxiata between the eyea. The PutT-addw 
ibi'lly iuhabltn aandy tncta. A dictinct demafcalioa 
bctw«s:n the head and neck la to be |<eK«ei*»4 Aa 
In other Vtpcrina Snakes, no pita axlat in the d&m 
o( the face, and the upper jaw beara two caaaMcBlated 
or p^irrotatnd poiwin-fanga only, and ia deethnte rf 
trug or ordinary t«<.-th. Several apedea cr varittfaf 
of this form eilat In South Africw Tba Bcqe^un 
uaa the I'niKiu of Una make for tba poipaae tt rea 
dering their arrowavenomoua. TTiePnfl-adderlawid 
to bo rMtdily deatrojed by tba Juice or oil of tobaootL 

PUFF DIRD8. SoaBAIon*. 

PUyt'lN (Prattrftda «t AUa orrti'rti). a geav><4 
Natatorial Blrda, inuliidcd id the Alcdda! oc Auk 
f uully, and tliua behmglng to the llrevi|i«unate wotMa 
flftbaoider, Tba Puffin avenges about 18 taenia 
leiwth. It la the oontmoiuat of the Britbb Akidv, 
and appear* on oar co^ta in AjirQ and &[ay to breed, 
dep&rtln; aoutbwarda to Spain, luly, and Seutbvti 
£urt>pe about AunieL The PnBia occnn on the 
northom ooaata of Kurope and en Ibe uaa 1 em nie U 
the North American eostinaat. Tbe beak o< Umm 
birds ia of Largo siao and rincolarly conniwaai It 
ia dl^oply fnrrawad by thna moraa oo each ridt tt 
the mandible. The coloun M the beak also add h/ 
Ita dngnlar appeannc*; lUa atnicinre beinaioolaaMil 
bluisb-^ray at ita bun, oraoge-nd in tba iiuadl«^ aa>l 
bright red at the tip. The body is abort, atoutt aad 
roundvd These buds excaralA bnrraw* in aandy 
uTouod, eaeb depositing a alivia agg of widta eobnr. 
They are able to bite and KnUdi seventy by maaaa 
oftboirbUU. llie Puffins Bwtm and din wttkgna 
vase; their food oonsieting of the amaller Baboa, aad 
chiody the young of tho ■prst< and borruiga. Tba; 
are caucht and th^ flouli nlted for food by tb> 
inbahitants of tbs Orkney and Shetland laUndi. 
The PoHins cccta around tbe Isle of Wight aad oS 
tkt! otuut of Angleaea fat great nwnben^ but tbc^ aic 
very evntvally to be met with rxmnd all the Britiib 
ooaata The appcaranco of the btU ia tbeas fcirda baa 
gained for them the popolar nani<9 of ' ( 'ou Iter- net* ' 
and '»ca-l'an\)tB.' (Shown in l^ite <X1I.-<.*UII. 
6g. U.) 

PUGATSOHEF, JtttxuAS, the bob of a Coe- 
aodt, bora at Simowcisk, a rillaec on tbe Xtan, bi 
1726, played for a slMirt time an important faii ia 
KuBua. War and robbery were tbe employnsBlB id 
hie youth, aad be bscuM tbe lodar of a n a dato rj 
band, llo afterwards entered tba Prusaian Barrlae 
during the Seven Yeart^ was", then joined the Ana- 
triana, served against tbe 'I'nHci^ and was presant 
at the nags cd Bender (1770). Retnoiaf lo bb 
native oeuntty, be attempted to sew tba sBsdi of 
rebrflion among hia eonnUymea. but was aooa ar r ta J 
and confined at Knaan. Ha\-ing made his 



I 

I 

I 
I 

I 



I 
I 



PtTCET SOUNI>— PUU.EY. 



365 



I 



h» WM Jnjned hj amam iuUrm Rfdritii, and «u 
OHOWMni by faia penona] n«enilil»iMx to l)i« ULcJ; 
i!ff J oni|>anir, I*iiUt III., to BttMDpt to pan 
hlwilf vff fur UiNt uDpwn'. Tfa« iimnvctiaii bqpui 
te lk« nUdlaof Ancw^ 17~3,«faeii k nuuklfeeto waa 
iWMd ia th« BUBO oi tb» pMu^ Prtor. TlMuumbor 
of Ua iDUtnrm, wfaluh wm at firat only nine, hiul 
fc icwrwd b S«|itoait>er to S04. H« was enryvlien 
Mncd br hk ootuti^niBn and tba paMuttr;. to whom 
■0 imnWd deliTemiM fmm their opprcmouL Hi* 
lam wa incr««««d by &0O ilca«ri«n from tba gar- 
rfn of Jahkal bim] many Boakolnldana (which aw), 
tad be Mck Mvcra) foctPMii^ pcirctiaiag the neat 
ifcrniHin OBtltlcBi Hli ana; naw amaiintcd ia 
Ifl^WO nan, and Wm gaiuini^ Btrmgtli bj the cMf 
— ai a u o( BaaUdn, 'Wotiaku, Tartu^ ftc. Ho cap* 
toivd Kjmd, tha old capital of tint empinv ami paitaM 
thaVolga. H«wa«ath)tigth<ie(eat«aat thcniitmLiit 
that iicaeow wu thmbrnml, bcUaypd h_v bia fol- 
lifwrn to Suwimff, and <Jun« Id, IT'S) ««cirut«0, 
iDCaUMT vitb the other rebel leaden, at Moaoaw— 
dM fliilf ioataBM of capita] pmuahmml in tho nfga 
of CatkariiiK. With hia dcatu tenntnat«d a robolUoii 
whoeh CMt inore thnn lOO.OOU Uvea. 

PITGET SCiUND, an «tci»iv« inlat on the w«rt 
DoaM of North AnicricA, in Waabingtoa territnry. 
Ik ia mt«n]icr<ed wttb nutufrrooa iaieta, and fonna 
th* Kntb portioo of Admtrotiy Inlott wbloh Minuiia- 
i«lc 1 ii OB tba north with tb« Pitdflc thmgfa 8«a 
Jtian de Tttm Btnlt. 

Pl'GILISM. Sm Boxnta. 

Pt'OlN, Araomx Nokiuhokii Wklzt, aoa of 
Aifiataa Foiiin, wua bora in 1811, nad uudor tho 
taMnaeliOH of hla father, combiaed with m uattro 
•nthaaiaam, aftrlr diaplayed wonderful akin and 
f mHIIj linlalliiaBtlnn ■iiihlluiiiialaiiiiii— iiiilmiiiiiiin 
■>tM of Ui Brat amfiloTBMDta waa ntftiag ai aMlatant 
to Iba Ori«T«i fa pidnnBg tho arcbJtwtaral daplaja 
W tba Mrfomanoaa at IVivont (Jardan and Hot 
ktajortj^ Tbaatra. Hia taata for Octhio art was 
■axt tuTDad to aoooont in darienlng the fumitnre for 
WTindaor Caatla, aikd In auppJyfns Mcaan. Kundell 
and Bridgo with designs (or molufira) plat*. An odo 
of tba naulto, pobapa, of hla ardoal entbuaiaaBi for 
awdb>vHlMt,Mb«(nM«ooBY«tla l&34toCatbo- 
UdMD. aad davolMl hinuMlf tbetiMlaith to tho fUna- 
IntiuD aad revival <4 (lotliic arcfaltectnn in connae* 
lioB witbtlio ItiMaitJiChiircJL IlJa traattwa oo Gotbic 
Funiitura aad Iron Work appeartd in \iZ6, and 
attraetod ttaaiderable Utcatlon. In tbo following 
yaar bo gnra to tho world a work eotillod Gbntiaata, 
or k ParaUal botweoi th* Nobla BdUota of tbft 
■lb and FthooBtb Ceattnriei Md rimflv 
_ I of tbo PreMOt Day. te wfaleb ba oiprcawd 
tneAaiinsd tfnna hia viawa a* to tho praaenl 
I of ocdtataatlcal arcbitectura. Othar mrkn of 
PaclawanTba Thi* PrindnlMot Fodntedor Chrla- 
tiHi .AnbitoMBra, pubUabad in 1811; An Apologr 
tar tba Bavffal ti ChriitlaB Architectnro (in 1»43); 
and a magBiflaant cbrcMeo-litbugnphki wnrV, The 
GloiBiv of EgdasiaatiQul Omamnit, pnUiabed in 
1M4. jfeaBtbaa U> tnlonta a* a practical architod 
wwo actirelr omi^oy^ tbuujib it ia oantewbat 
mnarkabia that Uiojw«i«alnMMt«xr1uBl*oIf doTOt^l 
Ip Iba oooatnwtion of Bonuui Calholie ulacaa of 
««tiU|h H* WM ■nployed by Sir ObarM Barrjr 
fat Iba bbtnal daenruioo oF tlw booaaa of Parlia- 
mmt, and waa conoL-cted with >lr. Hanhnaa of 
Bbninghaai in tba manofacturv vt the iu uo w b o J 
CotUo brBBi-worb, bcaidaa having a ihare In tba 
iiiBiiaf^ lia^ of stained glaaa la tbo aans town. 
liaWarl/ bta IntaUeci ga*o war, o*ertaduid by tho 
hMMaaal BxclUnant and labrar to wUcb it waa 
•■bjaalad, and ba vaa obUfed I* 1m Mnorad to a 
lunaik a^lam. Bo tempomtljr raoovorsd, bsi vdy 



tat a rary abort tine, uvd expired at Ram>^t« on 
14th Reiauniber, 18:>'2. 

PirUlM, AitHUHTtiN, • dixtinindabed aKbiteOtund 
dj«uf[1ttamaji, waa btim in I7A9 In Franco, but aottlod 
early In life in tiondoo, wbcro for masy yoan he 
act«<l ai luwiNtanC tii Itio Mnliriitibd ardiltecC Xaah. 
Hb ofterwarda aoppoitad hinMalX by aieouling archi- 
t«lund drawlnn for ongnMn^ and mad* tha draw- 
ing of tho bnildinica in Acfconaan'a Meroeoam of 
Jjondon, Errt ptIb1iabI^d in 180&. He waa alao tha 
artial BicipluveJ on a Soriea of Viewa in lalingtOD 
and Pentonvillo, with Ilo»cription« hy FL W. Brayloy. 
After tbia be bcfpui to ^votu hU atleutlon to tnocU' 
ktbI aiehlteotore, and TmbUahod ttotwooa 1621 aad 
1SS8 a work hi two voluRioi^ ootitled Bpedme n a of 
GoiUo Aroldtoct^ira aelcctod froa varmio AncMOl 
Kilifioea in England. A woib wbb tban undertakon 
by him in ronjunction with the eelebratcd John 
llrittoti, ajid Airbitcrtunkl Illiuttrationi of the Build- 
in)^ of London uwl« ita Bnt appearnnoa In 18^4, 
and waa eomplctod In two quarto volunwa, Hia 
«hl«f prodoctioB, in which Mr. Krittnn alao eo-oiwr- 
atait, waa SpecniHena of the Architectural Anliiuitiea 
of Xonnaady, pnbUabod batwoon 1835 «i<i 183S 
T1i« laat wonca of Mr, Pb^ war* dtewings for a 
pitMiivtion entitled I'arii and ita Earinaa DlqilayBd, 
»&<1 Uultiic OnuunoiU aelccted from varioua Build> 
btga in Enflaod and Frnacet He waa aidoil In tbo 
laat by bb aon ABgoatia PBgtn. He died on leth 
BMcniher.'.lGSS. 

Pl'LCI, LTiitil, au Ibdian ynt, bant al Florcnc* 
in 1431, waa tho joaagn^ at thnM brotben dtaUn* 
Ifuldwd for Aoir talmta and leantnjt. Of iho dr 
ounBtanoM of hla Ufa wa know nothing bnt that ho 
lived on torma of intimar* with Lorenio do' Mnlict 
and PoUziaaa Hia boruaqna epio poem D Mur- 
|[aot« UagftonilB which be relatea tbo adTonturo* 
and njixm of Biaaldo and tho giaal btorgaot^ la 
aald to haro boon writton at tho mggwttco of 
T^oronao'a motbor, and to havg be«n road aa an ontor- 
tainment at tabia niiapo«B,lntwenty-aIchtoaiilo^ 
H a cIOTor parody on tho chivalroiu rotnanoM of tba 
Oarloringian pcrind, which, indented by tba Fr^iA 
Trouv^n*. had bew Irottatoii by aRveral of tbo 
ItaUna poatii SaaMtn»% bowrrBr, forgottlaf tbo 
oxpraaaobjaot ti hia VDik, tbo poet daUron Uaiialf 
of paM^M of gRot p»thoa, in wbtcb lie afaon him- 
aelf to ba poiaaned u g«nuiao puotla feoltng. On« 
featnn of Uda poem U tba akhfal IntKDductiou of 
many of tbo luoaa id&oma, widoh hmiahaa w with 
ooo of Iba iBioat vahublo auoRiea for gidnlBg a know- 
ladg«a(tba«BriyTiiMandiala«4a. Pnlct eaniot baaa- 
a eamariMB wub Aiiaato and IWwo; ba cannot ba 
dealea to pnaaam faney, but he wanta taate and Jud^ 
raent Hm nizluTo of the grave, ktfty, and iMavl 
with tbo naao and bnrlwuwt, wliich m oAintrira (<■ 
modern taite, waa hi accutdaoeo wttb tba apirjt of 
hia ago. Thia work of Fold's waa tranililad lnt» 
£offli«h by liord llyroD. Pnld died in 1487 orli8& 
— Hia briillMr RpufaBno waa tbo anlbor of tamo 
•Itglaa and abort poobb. — Aambw* bRAbar. Lru, 
wrota berok epMlai^ a paatotal rananoe (Drirdro 
d'Aniorc), and an opwi ranaaoa^ probably the fiiat in 
ItalloB (11 Cfriffo CUraao^ 

PTTLCINELLO. Sm Fingsanuxk 

PT;U^KY, a ■webaaini powtr. It eoBrfrti of a 
(iraular diae of wood oc mrtal, wbfoh baa freodun 
to tarn ahnut an alia |iaaalng tfarani^ ita oontro; il 
baa a irrwio touixl lu odo* to provvnt a ourd from 
■lipping «& If tbo adaMnmoftod br abaaai, » 
la la aaj wav S'od bi qiasi^ tta pulley u aald to ha 
* ftxad.' A fixed pnliey menly ohaBgaa tbe dimtion 
of a pdH in a ooni. It invoa an BMobanlcal ailvaBfautv. 
The poUoya h 1>L CX5a II. and CXM v., nsa. 1 0. 1 3. 
and IW, tig. 13 on tbe right-baml tide. K^ 1i Uw Liai 



366 



PCLMONAJUA— PULQUB. 



to th« Hgfat, tiff. IS tlta ttir«e b}»v«, km kU fixed 
puUtjr*. All the (ithwr pulley* Bhuwn are niirv&ltte 
— tliftt H, thuie »\ni an aut fixed. In fig. 11 a 
wvi^'lit i» Buii]>(in>l<sl fi¥im the luila of ths pnllcjr; 
4if thta wc'i^'hi hxid ltii> u-tifjlit of Ulu pulley itaeU 
(intt-hnlf Is ■u|iptirto(] by the txjuu, omil only nne- 
k»U by t!iv biuid; bcuce n Mingle iDorftl)le ]>tiUey 
bu a inechuilcal Mtvuttagtt*k:f. Inotoul of piiUing 
dirc4;tfy iipwiutLi witli tb« buid, H b cuatouiAry Ui 
bttre tba canl pwuing round ft fix>d pulley, iia in 
fl|f. 13, to lli&t tbo pcivfur intty be m dowiiw:u\l jiull. 
Bt ODtiiliinlng A mimbcTof movahle pultfty* a m^t^b&nt- 
ou nlvftntn^ may ho niiUinfii, tlc|icrijiling on the 
■node of combiiiBitiiJii. NBijlprtirijt friction, Ibo me- 
ctuuiIciU Mlvontflge may be «aJ<;ul4t<Hl /ruu tbe prin- 
ciple of 'virtual voloeitic*;' but friction it uHUAlly 
Tcty eonnilenkblci in tliir pnllny. ami if jt hiw to bv 
taken hito Ncoouot In L-nlmiUtion siiirciiil vxiwriiuentii 
iwut "bm made va suit thu cane In biutiL Tbc prin- 
dplftof 'irirtoal velocitif«' nmf 'Cijual wnrku' in th*t 
ma power ■.pplicul Ui > tnocbino mullinlifcl \iy thn 
dutuice tbruugh which the pulut t>r nppUunUon 
mwca in a cvrtain time in thu dLrection of til's puwcr, 
Ib «f|iml to the resittanoo ororcoroe by the mftchino 
multiplied by Ibe direct diHtancc tbnm(ih which it i» 
oTonxim*, Tbat ia, th« work tlone by th« pow«r i* 
•qual to tbo wgrk done a^nst tlio rtKJiitiuicD or 
vralglit. Applying thin ]irinciplci to liji. 14, where 
Iho thrtM niuvabia pullejs uti neimrate, uiil bnve 
B^Mindtt Rtrtngii, nacli itring bniog nttitrhnd at rmn 
aod Ut a beuui, puMtini; ruund a puUey, aud bviui; 
Attached at the -atbcrtiiid to & seoond ;mUey, wo find 
that if wc tafco bnlf the tnm nf th« wri^ht Aud hot- 
lorn pulley wa bava the (iiill in tha buttom rtriiiK: 
add tkls poll to lb« weli;lit <A tbc uvxt pulley, and 
toko bnlf for the pull is tho naxt itring; and §o od. 
In fig. Ifi » block cnntAiniiig tfatr« ptilluya i* fixed 
to the boAln; a uxu-nUe blut^Ic coutiuuiu); Ihn-e pul- 
iajs nnperta tho wrei^bt; a Ktrine panwA rounil all 
tbo pulleys, uiid end biung attadied to tb« >iied block, 
and at ti» <>th«r the power la MpHad. It U rvidnnt 
tJut when tie powr moTM tlinraKb t inoiic* the 
blooka approaeh oadi other hy the datancaot 1 iaob, 
•ad honoe the meobaoicol advantage ia ^x. In every 
ciiaa of thi*, which is tbc rnoxt nnnninn, ctimbinatian 
of pulley*, the puwrr ia vttuid Uj tbe «utu uf the 
wvight and of the roovAble block dlridod by tvrioo 
the nnmbor ot pulleys in tbr moviililn hlrick. In 
these pxniDpli^ wr hfkvc mppnaul tliu ntnuKbt p»rta 
nS iim strinye to bu pnndlul to oue another, and that 
BO work i* done ftginiiiRt friction. When tha cords 
ara not aenBibly pu-nlld tlin incchnnind twivantage 
may atUl be calLidmlml by applyiiii,' the priudplo of 
virtual velordtlm. Tbe amount of work lo>t in fric- 
tion and in bundins the >triiur can only bu dutoctnloed 
iroin snodal oxpenmeutB. The work loet in friction 
ia nearly proportional to tho weight lifted. 

PUI.MON ARI A, or PuLMoairuu, a tonn applied 
to irroupi of ur^iuiiKme wLioh breathe air direcUy 
from tho atniuapherc, and respire by maana of Inn^- 
■acs or analogous organo. Tim I'litmnnixria or I'll!- 
niosiu7 Araclinidau funu the Lii{he*t divixioa of 
tha d&n Arachnido, and are rvpreacnted by Spidcra 
and Scorpion*. Tbty breathe by lung-ioctt, ctu;h 
of which cnnBinta nt an invohitinn of the akin nr 
lutetfuinent, oiiiititutidi: a a»c-iike «ivity in the 
«<lc of the body, aud to i«'hich air is admitted by 
A[H-rtnrTia known m ttifftrutin or gpirai'ln, Tho rinl- 
itiiiiiary nam uuutaiu a aumbor of delicate plale-iike 
■tractar«a or tmntlf'r, doady aet together like tlie 
leairea of a Imok, which nrra to mpport the ruiuG> 
cntlotu of tbe minute blood- v—ne la. and bo imcnaie 
the ttMjiiratory area. Iti tbe S|>idera, Ac, IrocAeis 
or bmatbiug tubcii aimilar to tlioso <d icMota may btt 
eosjolned with ths puUnonary mm. 



The term Pulmonarbk !a abo appb'ed tA indteaie 
one of tbe two main wib-clawf into which the cl>« 
of GaHtcrcpodii^ua UdltUK* (ue OAStEnorotu aad 
Moi.[xe((-Ai itfdirided. The nam* PulMO-lTaiMnyiA 
is BuuietimtB alao uaed sjnoBfmoutijr wHb ^dton- 
aris. In thfux I'ulmoaary Qaaleropoda, iwpiwnlul 
by the tiimilji and Slugi, rt^ilratlott ia perferanad I9 
mejiaa at luti^-Baca, Tbeaa aacs ar« formed by a 
(uldin^ or inflection of the 'mantle' (whkfc tee), 
H-hlph thua forma a kind of ohamber, to whick air ii 
adiuitu>d by a epedal aperture whidi caa ha ofMoad 
or doaed at the will of tha utmaL TUa dnnlm 
ia nsually plarol towarda th« back or dofwt mdm) 
of the animal, it« aperture opening (aa m Slupl en 
tlie ri;;ht eldu of tbe body near tbo neck. The net 
and walls of tbii ehaoiMr are riehly auppUed wift 
capHInrv Iilood-vtw^lx, into which the lileod deatlnod 
for uunfieatiuii ia aeut. The B«ir of tho chainlirr 
conaJBli of a kind of muscolarilM/iA/'a^fliur 'midriS,' 
bv nicaru of whirii the air can be axptilia^ «r Ibii 
diinciutiriuB ai the ebamb«r onlar^ ao aa ta adatit a 
frmh KUpply of the aerating medium. See alao Uoi^ 
LtiHOA, Ld.vo, ka, 

PITLMONAKY CONSUMPTION'. See Co5- 

aCKITtOS. 

PULd PENASG. See Pmairi. 

FtTLPIT (Latin, pvlpitwm), the elevated i&fAonre 
or deak in a ohnrch from whidi the preacJier k woat 
to deliver hiH diwourte and oondnct other relipoa* 
eiercUee- The tarro waa alao applied to tbe move- 
ablo deak from which dlapuuata proooimeed their 
dlasertatjona and antliora tvdtad their worka; and in 
tbo ancient lUinian Uicatwa it deaignatod tha biM 
part of the etage, when the actor* peifotmed Amt 
paitii. Tbe antfio or ptUpitutm of the oarly Oiai^am 
^>pciin to have iMiea applied to • different Iwpm* 
from that for which the modem pulpit ia tued; it 
woa tbe plaeo from wUcb Mtta of the aerriD* were 
ning or recited, and ma argfi ewmgh to oeidiifa 
several cban ten. TUi nee of i^ howarer, WM gnda- 
ally flopafwdcd, aa H came to be aonsaeied a eoe- 
veiiieiit place from whtofa the minister ml^A daHw 
his homily. Tho pulpiLa of St. Lotvun foor ddk 
Mont and St. ('Imicnte at llonu are annMaed la bt 
tbo oldest now exuitiug. Tbe ptdpit wm Img 
reifanled as au archit^i.'tural feature of the boilcBi^ 
Donstracted Bomotirnvs uf marble, b«t ofteacr td lb 
same mMetJal as the building itself; and it favqiBSBlly 
exhibited great elabonteaxeaa of atraicttmk As ■ 
work of art me of tbe most oeldmted polfsts is that 
in St. Gedula'fl at Brumtls; it I> mwle <tf oak, elabe- 
ratety carved, and la auppivted by fignrca rafnsMr 
ii]g Adam and B«e eipMlod from paradias Sloes 
polfiite ueed te b* common in the oonrts and einhtw 
of rcliipouB Iwiues, and onder the afipeUatfoa d 
prraeKuiff-sntsu they were alao need for preaehag 
in the open mr, of which Paul's Craw fumidwa a 
fnmons example. 

PULQUE, or Octu, a farourite diiiA cf Ibe 
Mezioanfl, extracted from tho mafusj, or Jfm 
iVr-j-KVPUi, At the moment of efllensosDOS Ih* 
lluwcr-staUc is out out, and the juioodeatiBed Iv fan) 
the frrUt fiowt into tbe cavity thna foRMd, ud w 
tfJscn oat two or throe times a day for lour or fin 
Diuntha. The aap in thie state is called epwnwirf 
(huui-y-wateir), aud when flowed to fermeot digfattj 
forma an agroeablo <lriuk. Tho aativc^ bowarcr. 
nrefer it nftfr undei|;otng a further proeam of 
fermeotaliun, in wUeh state It is acod, slid has a 
pittrid Idnd of smell. When allownl to fenoMit 1^ 
more it tuma into vinegar, and when lioiled dove 
becumea ayrxip. Pulque bramly is made of It; ■b<1 
when wolcr aud angnr an mixed with the a^, and 
the whole allnwnd to Earment a few boura, the drink 
is called lepae/tt. 



PULSE— PITMP. 



VtTiJBE, ft geaeni l^nn hf>pli<Nl to tbo pod» or 
Mcijs of WoniLitoaB plants, auiii nd pc— »! , bcMu^ IcD- 
tDa, fto. Good pulM U verj nntriUonB, Uum^ not 
mn lodlnat. 

PULSE tfrom the Latin IHi^tiK, ft bMtfDg, & bknr), 
tb* motka of an mrtecy, cwnrirtjng of iu *lt«ra«l« 
vxpftMioa ftod ODotracUoD, which tn pn«ti*i« ia can- 
mamti m m hMfing Thii motioD ia ■aoQjprt la tiie 
hiwtk whkh ta the etatn of thfl fttt«riftl aystem, ftnd 
(ran ft b pni|MSftted lLruai;)i kU tbe miiiut««t 
bft whw <i< UM ■iMriw. la thaw whioh lio imimo- 
4latoly nndor tbs ildn it cnn be felt with the Shiiot, 
ftft k tlie can wtA tba nditl artery, tha [jiila&tioQ of 
wfaidi fa very perceptible ftt tbe wriat. (Sco llLOOti 
ftiul Hkaht.) Thn (tntii nf the palui ia tliercfore an 
indicfttioa of the Klion of the hemrt Mid the whole 
Mteriftt eyaten, end of Ibe eoadlUeo <d tbe blood end 
Ifae pltyiicftl fancttons la genenL The ciTciimttanoae 
%m n Bteradad to in tlie pulee Hti dtlwr Hie niuaber 
of pnlitlwi which Iftke pUce in ft given Hm^ ftsd 
Uh nfalarity or InegvUnty of their occwnno«^ or 
tbe duunoter of encfa palution. In the foenMr t»m 
tfai PbIw ie mM i6 be (luick or alow ftecctdlag to the 
■nur fli potofttloBi In ft ginoi intervnl; npihr or 
lnwBkr,ftitbe7o«urftt*(iiiftl ctrnncqaftl Islarrftb. 
In the lititnr ceee it t* ■troog or week, hard or eoft, 
fnU or uiuJl, &r. It U eileoied by the age, eex, etiii 
lemparuncBt of tbe todividuJ, ftod by ftcddentel 
il im mi tft n r ee . fta ■leef^ food, eierdee. beet, tuu 'Vbe 
Dolaa fa meet npjd in cUldbood, mftkbg ftum 100 to 
llO benU la ft minute, and fa regoUr. and rftttier eclt 
asdawU. In youth it iamichlaei rapid, nuking not 
be ban aine^ beata & iDinutc. At this jieriod It fa 
teynlftt, AeB(, tftthei euf t thui hard, mwleratcl > full. 
Ib nfttu* age the awubv of beeta i« about anventy- 
Cn pv adnata and tbe fulee k nq^ilv, aUvD;, or 
■todante, ftnetaatlnff between hard and lof t, betireen 
(oUandnuall. In old age the nunherof beateMOln 
to eijrty. Tlw pules b ecnnotinee Itngolar, itKOft 
bat eUrv, hfttt^ rftther fall thAD mnftlL In the fenule 
aex it fa more rapid, •nfbo', ami unalW than in the 
OftUl In ihe aaiij^Eue temperwneat <ao called) It fa 
^tdokw, fuUer, aofter; In tba ebolerio^ elower, baidcr, 
etoMigeri in tbe phlegnftttc, aloww, weaker, eofter, 
Ailler; in the BtelaDohaiy, alow, bard, aud tbvag. A 
vefotable diet tuakea it alow, weak. fall, eoft; a meat 
mC ifdMai •piiitnoiM liquor*, make it quick and 
Imm. In a pnn^ clear air it ia tjnick: In damp, 
impon alr.itor aad hugxiid. SuJJen agitation and 
*Meal ftmiwtt imJc* H rafid aod bregular; w 
oakai N qnkk and riroas: loag-ooatlined gnet 
laagiM afad aoft Tbe pabo b, therefore^ a highly 
inportaal JaJbiaHon of the etato of tbe ayatem. A 
darlatloo Itmb tba Ffgolor yaUn nl an indivirloai 
inAaUi ft dbotdend elate. \Vhen the irritability of 
iba lyitaai b ao babbtaBed u to nrodnee (ever or 
in^.wMwafiM. |ii» pafatt b aeoelcratea. If the action 
«! tbe nerTOOB nratem fa iiregnlar, or nndoly beight- 
tmei, tba pnba Mooraea beqnent and tnegubr, ai la 
llw MM of crarapa and • diacaaed irritation b Um 
«bdonen,fteaDw«me, A<--, and in hrpodumdriaaJ ami 
bntaficM peiaoaa. In caee uf tuechauical olwtruo- 
tfaoa to tba dralatloo, aa In dropey of tbe pericar- 
diui, peljrpaa in tba heart or In the great arteriei^ 
the ptibn fa itregnlar and inlermpted. It fa doabl- 
M iHwtbw BippcwraUM bad any kaowleibe of tbe 
pnlatL Soea amr Ue tine, bowtrer, p^idelaaa, 
aapecaklly tboee of tbe Aleicftadrian eehool, were 
aUentive to It. Arefaeoa of Gafpadixia Mpl&in^d 
the pttiaatieo aa a noUon oeeaaumed by a natural 
and involantAry azlandaa of tbo warmtb belonging 
to tba heart and artariei^ by which their own ntetioa 
b OGcaafanod; and AthMueoe of CtUda bad given 
tba Ma* exnlanatiea baforo blm. lie deacrlbea tbe 
•acma kfaoa ^ pube ounnected with ditlerent dJa- 



enttn. Galen WTnt« ae\-en1 worica oil tba pabe. 
¥vt »t}vvnl cvnturiea a/Lor ttkc doctrine of pubation 
mnininf)d cnTirh an hie hod left ittiawaa ^e caae, 
ludecd, wiUi many brani-bea of medleal eobaceL Hm 
damoaatnUone «[ the circnlatlon of tha Uood by 
Harray and of the irritaluUty of tiM iniwcalar flhni 
by Huln', threw new light on thfa aobjeeL The 
feeling of tbe puba b tbe prindpal oxandnatioa 
which Cblneee phyiiciftiu make of Uga atata of tbclr 
pAtieab^ and tb«y dbcriminato it4 dilferent alat« 
with a minuteneaa facadering on abaunlily. 

PULTAWA. See PotrAVA, 

PULTUSK, a town of KuMlan Polnad, in the 
govcnuaeut of IjotazA, norUj oii the right bank aaul 
partly on an laUnd of uw >farew, 33 milia H.X.BL ef 
Wanaw. It haa three ehurchee, ft aynagogua, a ooo- 
■not ci tbe Siatara of Meroy with ftn ho^bU, aovenJ 
old monaeteiie^ a gynoaamn, *nrt ^ caatlc; a diatil* 
lety, and aome geDatalbada. The Saxooa weM ben 
dafoabed by Cbariaa XU la 1703, and tba Siwiau 
by the rrencta in ISOff. Pop. 7989. 

FU&IA, or ComUB (Fdu or leopardut €tmeolar\ 
a apcdee of Oaral>'ora, liinit»<l in lU diatrlbutica Im 
tbo American amtlnvut, and inhabiting Brasil, Fai»- 

Cay, tiuiaaa, Mexico, and tha Unitad Statea. It 
■ aometunea been termed the 'Amerkea Lien,' but 
it haanuna the ganaml appaaranoeand eonfomatlon 
cf an Old Worn lioneaiL Ila cottnir b a naifonn 
fawn or rcdiliab-iirciwii, without apota or markiBga 
ut auy kituL It tuay attain a loigta of 9 (eel, Inclo- 
aive of the tail. In habita it is atoalthy and oow< 
ardly, and ecldMU or nci-er o|icii1y attacfca man. At 
Ibe aame time it fa much ditsaded la Ibi native regiona 
from ita iiMidloua mode of attack aad from tta ra^afme 
on domoetic aaiimala. The early aettlen id vbm 
IToitcd Sutca loat aomcroua cUldren and oven adulta 
from tbe fttUcka of ibeoe animala. Tba Puna 
a{fMati la kill many victims la a hcnl of dkoep or 
cattle bafan ft begin to feed. It climba trwa wltb 
bdlity. and fa excMidinglr tithe and aetirat nakiiw 
bounds and kapa of oituiuIeraUo uilent. Tfab ajnT 
mal ^jiean^ Dotwitiiatandii^ ita femcioaa dfapoaitloa, 
to be m aome caaae onaoeptiUe of a UA OQgree of 
dotaeatlcatieiL It fa aald to beeome loadly attached 
to fta nuMbr; and it fa related that Koau the actor 
tbna poeaaaeed a pama, named 'Tom,* which followod 
him like a dog [a tbe nwat crowded awemhly. 

Tha fur of thaae aaima:* fa tUdi and oloady aet, 
and fa Ugfataat on tbe outer aapecta of the Umba and 
on tbe belly, wbilat tit» Iveeat generally eypeeaaliaa 
a while oouKi£ Tba ywag Puna may abow (aiat 
atrlpea on tha (aoa and ftuiki^ but ibeae marfciaga 
totally (Baappaar in tbo adult The femalea are of 
aoanewbat ■matlrr ioxb llun tbe male ■-'■"^l* ' 

PUHICE, a varicly uf folapathfa b*B found only 
bi Tolouie regiona. It onntalna aboot W par o«i. of 
ailie^ with alumim^ iron, lima, aoda, fco. It b of a 
whllfah-gmy oiJoar; eomeUmaa ft fa yeBow-b m w n or 
•von Uftdc It b very poroue and abo flfannia ba 
•tnictnr^ and ita apedfic giarfty b leaa than tbat of 
water, BO that it awima In that fluid. Ita estmaio 
rougbneaa makea It very naefol foe pollahlugi In tha 
eblld etata it fa used to polfab woo^ puU, Ac; aad 
when pulvorfaod aa a pel iahing powder lor glaa^ bon^ 
Ivnry, marble^ metftl% &c. fte paraloe Mane fa enp* 
poeed to ba pradoofd by tba aetba of a^aaoua vapow 
or gaaoa on auteriab ataUed by vokaaia baac A 
varioy of pumioe which preaeela a leaa ftbaona or 
tumel>ed appearand fa c^fad oAeiefM*. 

PUMP, a oootrivanoa (or reinig Bqnida or for 
rvmvbg gaan from vamefai <Sea Aia, AnioaniUK, 
BTDnoRAnca.) Tba ppemtlnii and tbe eoaatnietinn 
cjf the ab-pvmp ara oxplainad in n aepamte artklr. 
"Pieta aee three kiada ct iniuum Ib oonunon nee fue 
rafainjf n-ater, nf all of wbkb there are vartooa m«di- 



PTTMP. 



ficRttiiMi TheKimplntiLtidmmtmmiiioopnmputlio 
ordiriury suL-tiuii jintiip. It i> ol srent MitiL^nitj, iU 
Invi^iil.ion heinir iMcvibed tu CtMibiiiB of AWtaiidrlii, 
wLo ll'uriahoa ftbout Z60 a.v. Fig. 1 Hhcwi tliv 
iDMt oomuon cenatnetion. 'I'hU jinmn confirtn of 
» h'OUow matal cylinder, irbich cantuiiia a Mutou 
•tuRod ao u to mova np or down \a the cylindiitr 
omQ; and yet be Kir-tij;ht Thu pintoa u pulled sad 
pnuod up and dawn by ntcAnH a( the rndt. lerer, ami 
DAnttlc. *1inwii in tlio fiL,-i]ri:-. In tbo fiiHlvii tli>?iv >t * 
vttlvo H-Ltch (ijicnii ufiwunli", »nd nt tho buttom of Ihn 
ay Uniltr tlioni u iUK)llii.-r vulve, iilno upniinii Q^wanLt, 
which eottn tlie orifice ot a tabo fixed to tbe botttna 
of tb» cgrlioder, uid raacihing to Uio wcU bom wb«aca 

J--, 



-I 



-y-.-J-/ 



'--I 



ths water ia to bo drswa This Cnb« is oatnronnly 
oiled the tutlioa tuljc, and thr> cylimfrr the lindy vt 
tliB pnmp. At fint when iiir piat<iu ia ii.t tfa« Inttuin 
nf tlis oyllndfiT tliera eao bo no air, nr at hsMt vary 
littla, belwoca it and tbn bottom viJv«, far u the 
piaton tumm puidted dmm tho t>lro in it would nllnw 
thi' air tu oHttape fnftt«wl of cotoprcvillg it. ^liCD 
tt is dnwn up tba premm of tba air afanti the T&lve, 
Mid th«iT it ft partial TKcnum pmdticeil in the body 
of the cylinder and the «action tube when the pMon 
arrives at tbe top^ But tba lir in Uw cylinder and 
■nctjoik tubo bung rary much ranfiodt its p«aurfl 
will be greatly Icm than that of tho oiternal atmo- 
•phera OD tho uirfaGe of tbe wat«t tn tbe well; tbere- 
far* tho w&t«r will ho pmaod up th» suctioD tube. 
A n-petilivu (if the optumtioa cooica cnator rarofao- 
tloD of tlie air, aud at length water aUa the body ol 
tbe pumpv aftor which time a voluHu of watar {■ lifted 



at orery Mmko <S|na] to tbe risa of » DyGsder < 

\1a0t1 ia tbn BeL-tiooftl KKA of th* BOBII^ asd WBIB 

Mght is tbn pUy of tho pailan. buaB^ tfa* dm 
EtTvko tho water nwrely pMMa tbrangb tbe jbttm, 
and U not lifted, and baoce tim nmp h aald 60 W 
aini^lD-actiug. Althoagfa tbe b<dght of ih* palM 
above tba water Burfaoe in kbe well lauak Btt« 
exceed 23 ftwt, the wat«r, after n a wng tfavooA lb* 
ptaton TaJm, may eridoatly be lifted to any Mtti 
wc plcaaei. 

I'be "lifting pump,' tDce tbo aactioa p«n|^ baa t»e 
valve* and » plutoo, both oponing up w a rJa; hit tlw 
valve in tlip cylinder iBrteaa of toing placed al th* 
bittom nf tho cylindn- ia placed In tba body d il, 
aci) al tbe heiglit •rheie the water ia iuteoded to fat 
delivered. Tho bottom of tbe pump b tfanail bl» 
tho well aoanMdorabteway.ABdlf tbepbtoniiaap- 
pfarwl tn ba at tbe bottom, it ia plain tbal aa Ha talw 
opcna upwania th«re will be no obaitfucticM be tbe 
water lUiag bt. tho cjliiider to ite heigbt in the w<£; 
for by tba prladplea of hydrootatica wat«r wfH alwan 
endeavour to oome to a Icvi^ Now when tbe nirtaa 
is drawn up Its Talva wiLI abat, and the water !■ tb« 
'Cylinder will bo lifted up; tbe nl«« la tbe barrel nB 
be openoil. aad tbo water wfQ pan ihrM^ H lai 
aauvit tnurn ae the valre opoM npwwdl]— aiMbv 
atroke of th« jOMiati repeals the aatne pneeai^ asd la 
tbia way tbe water h nu»i 



Fij. z 



ftvmthewcU: buttbsbwht 
to which it inav be naM b 
2^ not En tbIa sa tn tba anctiee 
]-utnp limited toSJorUfMt 
In tbs'fareapiiinp'lbeib- 
t- >n haa no val*^ bat Iben k 
a valve openiag upwarda at 
tt>n top of tbe soctaoe jipt, 
and there ia atiotbv Talve al 
tlui bottom of the cyUate 
i.jwniui* mitwarda into tt* 
piiwwbicji ociiTejn tbawalw 
from tba poinn, Wfean tki 
piatnn ia raiaea tbe an rt j i - 
pipe I'aUe ofvua, and a partial 
racuum being produced, tin 
water ii fmncd Irr tba al- 
nu«|ibese Into Ibe punp te 
the priadple of tbe ao«t>«e 
pampt But wbsB the B ht ae 
Idi preaoed down the ralae d 
the auction pipe afauta, tb* 
valve wtikh h»da into tlw 
ejovtioB i>9pe opeoi^ aa4 lb* 
wobir la forced up tbe tafaa, 

Whoa tbe |>iBton ia nuvd 

— ~ - —• M^»iB tbe ejection valve ibnti 

Pone riicK), anti tbe suction valvs cfoft 

The BamapreoMBfanpeali^ 

aad tbe watn- Is thrown out at evety deacenl << fta 

piitoi^ tho -lisohai^ tbenfofe la not coastaaL 

It ia frr.^nrntly roquiied that th« dlMhaigej 
tbe pump ahoold bo ODatimiaaa, and this ii sfle 

fixing to the lo^ of tbe ednction ; 
an a& vessel (flg. 3). TUa air ' 
ODnatets of a box Aii,ia<bsbcMcarf 
wbteh thea«ii» valve at op«singup- 
warda into tbe bOix. Tbia valve oovtn 
th^Uipof tbeeducUooplpeiK Atub^ 
M, b fastened iato the ti^ of the bet, 
reaobbtg nearly to the bcitonofltfll 
riMS out of the box, and ia feiMlibid 
with a atopHXidc Tf tfae atnp each be 
abut, aod the water be SBat by tbe ac 
tioa of the pump into tbe air tiii1.1I 
cannot rettim. in ixnumiuenoo of tlie ahuttitu; ol tht 
valve c; and Wcauae of the apao* ooonpied by tbt 



Vit-i. 






PUMP— PtnfCir AND JUIJT. 



se9 



I 



I 



I 



c 



F!«-«. 



(b* atr In tbo boi !• tionprt m ti, ttad will 
llwiwfw «uTt a pr«HUT« <>■ ths mtier Is tbf aii 
TiMiL If the wkVr fill thrM-fTiurtlui of tii« box, 
Iben Ifae mt will bo comnrcaiixl wi aa to cicrt four 
Hmtm Um imnuf* tk^b It did wliU« lb« boi or air 
Mad nmdiml ■apt? o( water, and will, Uitnlore^ 
aeontdiiig to the Uv of Mariottc, foreo the water Dp 
thB tubn ■, and tli« mult will bt) thut > contiuuuus 
)*t wSU iafuo (roni tbif upper oiiflc« of tiiat tube. 
Tba fra-cB^iM (which Ma) ccmtm of two foraac 

Kmpa, woriclAg into one oomnuii air vomi plaeca 
twrni ttjrDQ, and frotu 
which tb' 'jioutinK [Jpt for 
dnvtiag Uj« water proceedi. 
'UottU^actbg' pnmiM on 
«K*a fl(D|iloy«J- for baua&- 
bold pOfpcMa. TbaycraMiat 
«l * pan|i bairel vr {6g. i), 
wtthEoara]MiiiiigaiiilL a a' 
■ a*. Tha ofmmgt a and a* 
atK In ooananieatian with 
Um ■gctHio tab« c; a' and it 
ara In comiBUoicatiaD wilfa 
Um ojection tube tf. Ilto 
foor openings ar« fitted wJlh 
foor valroi o]mutig all ia tbo 
naw dlraetloo. that ia from 
ri^ la loA, wbenoo It fol- 
low* that a and ■* »rt at 
metiaa valvo. aMl a' and n 
ai eJHTtioa valvca, and fion- 
■c^ucatly in whatever dl- 
raetioB the ^rton m«]r ha 
DMnlaC tbaMctioQ a»d aj«c- 
tim of water are taldng 
pboaatthaaameliiBe. Thu 
f^eln pQnu> nnil In thn navv 
la an opri^t barrel, Uinrach 
whMi Iftbwa etmiif on a 
tb^n era dnwn by meana 
ol wbada or druma, In coo- 
atant waeetmioa, carryiof tbo wator to a ooatinail 
atrwHD Mora tbcfn. Tbuj- are eiupluyeil otdjr when 
* lar^ga qiuntitT <if water ia to bv niaed, and i&iwt 
b« witrknl ranidlj. 

Cvntrifu^nl paBi[ia an now mlvenatlj omplojcd 
wb«i«*«r tbo lift ia not too F*^ ^'■■■l ^ <iuanii^ 
*M water ■• anuuderafaleu Tbo principla ot their 
aotiaa ia that whoa a laaai ol matter I* aci In rota- 
doa ibi paitfola taod to ^ oA trim Iba colrt tt 
rolartoB. A wheal, abapcd like an ordiitatj bn, has 
(■■agai laadjntf tram Ita centiw to Ila dmnnlerencc; 
Kbnada to rotat* T«ry rajijdl; in a oaalne; ita dr- 
caBfaraBM fitninmnlniTw witb a Aei&ray pips, and 
Ik aa&tn wkh a pipe l^diDg to the wator whkh ia 
to ba punpod "FlMn b a cuoatant flow from oanlra 
tu drciunMMMa of tba wbael; tha w«t«r fram tbo 
weQ U Midted ap to the cmtre of the wbed, lad 
laavaa the olrcuEaKKiKie bj the aduotion pipe. 

PUUI'EKXICKKl^tbe name given toaooana 
Ivowa brand made in Waatpbnlia (mon capvnally 
la tba dlrtricla ol Uanater and OanabrUck) from 
unb^tod rye. It ia baked in hrge aqvaro lonvca, 
wbJiA often wvigh a* mndb aa BO Iba^ Iti V^V 
nMvhctnre dei^iida apm tbo traatiBcnt « tba 
doBgk wUcb uuK ooBlaln neltber naM nor laann, 
and alao on the ntanaffenent ol Im oren, In wh)«b 
the batch mnst reuuao mei twelve to fourbean boata. 
Puinpenilckfll 1* mrvly an article of oomnera^tfaoiiith 
aa » naticaial pmloct ft la (raqiwtitlr aont to tontm 
annlriaa to preaeota. It poaiawM an agrateble 
, ttiilng man the arMOa peculiar to the b»n of 

KTSt, or Poupioji ((NmirMto Pipt), n wpt- 
nf gnord, or aq^aah, diatln]pil>bad Iroia suet 
Tot. XL 



PMtlraclioD PaBip. 




i'ari«tfM of the Utt«r by the roonded fcrnn ot the 
fmit, whioh aamgtimca grown to an eo'inDi'uB ibai 
It baa hiiind, btiaobiug; and proatiaM atetiu, vUdi 
la good acH will eover aa e^Mlt part of an acra^ 
The trolt b eabaemed inferior to moat Tarietls of 
the aqnaib, boL aotwltlutaiidiiDi, it !■ rerr eommonl; 
ctiltivated, both in Eai«i>e and America. 

VXjy, a play opou wonla, ibc »it of wbidt depaodi 
oa a naifimblance botwocn two wonla ot dUIerait and 
perhapa ecutnuT atgwlficntlnn^ vr on the nae o< the 
aame word In dUlereal hdms; aa in the wd-lmown 
•tury of ttio man who, bdnff leqneeted to make m 
rnin, aakcd for e Hubjoot, and waa told to take tba 
kiua, uyM wbiub be replied that the Ung waa 09 
aubject The Gteaka and BanoBi aoinetinMi uaad 
puna even In aeriona (UflceuieM; bnt the modorai 
rcvtrict them to litiUt oonvenatJoii, devine, eymbola, 
reboMea, m'lttoea, tio. 

PUNl^U, an intoidaaking bevan^ mtch atoi* 
iimhI formerlY than in the praenb day; the rarfoaa 
Li;i[nKlienb of which it beompoeed aieijiiriti^ water, 
Lenon-jidoe, and sugar, witb occaaionally aa tuWtfcin 
of aome iploc, aa DaCmeg or atnaamon. Tbeio are 
usually nuKod in the requiaite propurUcOM ia a large 
cUoa bvwl made for the pnipow— henoa called the 
pnucb-bvwL Hut mcst uaual form of the beverage 
la ocenponnded aa foUowa:— Sciueese the juke out of 
three or four leaoona into a ju^, adding thereto the 
p«al ol <mn temoa out in elicn, VI oc at Jmnp-Migar, 
and i\ pinia ef boiling water; inftiae tide mixture 
for half an hour, then pnnr Into the pmdi-bowl, and 
add of run and brandy rather Itet than a mu t of each. 
Variotlaa ef punch are oUled after their pcioeipal 
bixradUnt, gu, ioed, milk, uiaaso, raapbaTy, tea, 
wine, ttc FuMb was introduced into thb fioioitov 
from India, and b ao called from the Hiadn panels 
five, ttbicli Lt ll>e nanal number of the lugradlenln. 

rU^CH, a tool uaed for making hola* in wood, 
innllfable dhiUI, or otbcr mateiiab, by cnltiug out 
the piece; and it b tlnw diatiaguiabad hem the drilL 
It oaaaot be appUed to eaat-fawn oe btonn, being la 
that CUB liable to break er prodnoe a fagged edga. 
Bealdoa the ifanjJa hand-tocJ there b alao a pnad^ig 
macbioe. ^%e ni%t*hinff conaiala ot a alrong fnm^ 
■t tlt« front of wfaiob is a broad elide, moved verU* 
cally up aud down by aa ecevatrie flxod on ttia and 
of n abaft paaring kaigOiirit^ tbnmgh tba foesM; 00 
tbb abaft then b a large wfaee^ which reodvea 
BoUoa from a pUoD on aaatbw abaft carrying tba 
flj-wfaad and drlTivfoll^a. I^ paneboi in 
fixed la the lows OM of the nrtical aUdbg jAeo% 
nud hmmed lately mdar tbera b filed a pleoe of aleel 
calM the dba, iririoh hM boba U K to oonwpoad 
to the pnBclica. Tba plnte in which boter are to be 
punched is fastened upon a tnTeUIng table in fnat 
of tlM machine; and tbe alide being up, aud the aur* 
lae» of tbe table k*d with that of the diaa^ the part 
wbsn tba boles an to be pudiMl b plnrad betwea 
tba pnaobea and ibe dle^ ao that when tba machlna 
b set in motioa tbe pnndiee are fbraad through the 
plate by the action of tbe eoeeabrk, and Ibe pieoci 
driven out fall tbrwurii tba bolei In tbe diaa. 

PUNCH A>1} JUDY, n wtOknown ponpet- 
ahnw frcaucntly eihibilcd in tbe (Irccta. The 
show ot 'Punch and Judy' b much Dwre raeeat Is 
Iti orlgb than the KaapoUlaa FuacbfnJb. <8<« 
PuaouuriLLo.) lit* eartbat aocoant «f tb* advea* 
tnrea of Punch and fab wifie Judy b toand In a ballad 
the date o( which doaa not apfiaar to be anterior to 
17>fl. Tbb aomnt b pratty daaaljr adhered to la 
the rrpiteMlillw w« an acewtoaiad to aea In cor 
ilreete. Th* AowembodUa a dwaaattr tragedy, fc3- 
lowed by » avpnaatoral retribntliM), the wbcie of 
erbkbbtrantediBnbieadlytarcfcal maUMT. Poaeb 
hinudf b rafaeamted aa thort and lUok-aet, wf lb aa 

KM 



d70 



PUNCHEOX—PUXISmiENT. 



fanin"'" ImiDp apon Us back, & wide moatb, long 
tibia, mhI hooked nose, and wouiDg ft tlu«s<pomtM 
C^ Uis wifo Judj, who m in noma rtapocbi hia 
Qounbereart, aoil Ida ao|[ Toby, m« ImportftDt obarso- 
taiB in th^perfqnawiPB. 

PUNCEUION, ft ti<|md raeMma of atpftdt; con- 
taining anB-Uilrd of » tun, or 84 gmllana. 

PCrXCHIXELLO (from aileitt^h), an luOIui 
nuak. Tho Abbato Qftliani a«riv« the utmc from 
ftdiahMiea but hnmnioTia p>>n«4nt from Knrcnti), who 
bad reonvod it (abuut tho loiiliUe of tbe aevcutwmtb 
eentury) fium bis bdngioK clitck«'iu {pukintlU} to 
maricct in Xs]ilus, and wLo, aft«r Ua doHtb, waa 
pentoDAteil In tbo ptippel-abawa of the Sftn Cftrlioo 
tlieatre, firr the amiuemont of the people^ to whom 
h« wan wvll-kuown. Accortling to imatbar ftccount, ft 
comrMinv "f acton, which wettt to Acnm nt tho timo 
of the viiitatjv, waa attacki^ hj the gicikaaute (wilb 
whom tbe Tintago in a toarada of frntlvi^) with a 
aoBy of jol^M and ^b«a, ta wUoh n cortMO Fuocio 
d'AnirJtn amuB^ tlie pcaaanta attnotod aottoe b>- hU 
cainiLsJ Luiuuur iidiI gtotesqne appMnmw, bring 
biiiirhcol hofMm nnrl b«bind Tba ptayvra hail to 
yiotd U> him; and when the coututt waaovcr tlwy 
(lutertnititil to take »dvaatac« of tbe tal«nt of Paoola 
d'Aiiiullo, iLad pcretiadcd him to ioia thotr ooinpftny. 
Iln BppcMcd an tho Rbogu in a wbito nAm, and largo^ 
full itlurt, wLCh hag hulr, and ttouQ beoano fuch a 
favourito of tb* Neapcrlitan^ that bis miuk waa 
retained aftor his denth: iui<l bin micccMor. to rc- 
iwniblo him the moro, cIicwh a miwlc with a latig black 
now. From bb name wa« formed, oocurdiuti to 
NaafioUtftn ctutom, PvletniHo. I'orliajw, bowovor, 
thia made wiw only a nuxlitii.-iitii'rn at nn dIiIlt <Hii% 
wblub ■uma have d«riv«d frum tb« aucitmL Alrilaaie 
fabtdv (wbldi •••), ftod have that^bt that tboy dia- 
oorered tha grot«aqwi fintra of ronch on uidctit 
vnaoa. Thla maiie u vttlTtbfl delight of tiie NeajMi- 

litftDB. 

PTTNCTtTATION, tho art of eimdoylnj certain 
AgM, bj mc&DK of which Ibe parta of^a diai^une are 
ocmnocti'd or Riipantod, m tba mouhi rwjtdmt, and tlio 
vlvvatLLin, deprtniiuu, or xupeiudun of tlie voice iodi- 
oitod. PuucluadoD eervee boUi to reader the roeanln); 
iatoUIgiUc, and to aid the oral delivory. A fullf 
deveh^d Njrtoui of nunctuation ia poculuir to tlio 
modem IftujnuwM of Europe. Tbe Rumana were, Iu> 
dec^ acqoftijitod with the term, but with them It had 
ft totally <tiffea«nt d^niflcation. llioir point*, m well 
a* tboee of tbe Oreeki^ were almoet entinly oratorica], 
that is, oooBned to the delivery and pronundatlou of 
the worda; and there woro oftoi oo polnta, or at moat 
only ono at the cad of a aentence, or pMutea wore iodi- 
oImI hj braaldng ap tho matlvr luUi liua or |>iui»- 
graph* (utirAoi). Modem |)iii]ctii3U(iii,whii;hi«. fir tho 
nioat part, gmuuuiticstl, u of a later origin, anti the in- 
vention baa been attributed to tbo Alexandrian sram- 
mariau AjiRto[>haU(M, who liouriabod in the aecmd 
oentury, after whom it wa« improred by Kuooeeding 
i^raiaoiarianiL But as no partioularrales were followed 
iu tlui use of lh«ae ifijfna, pimctuaUun was «xc««)iii|jly 
uncertain until the cud nf tiw lif twnth century, whe^o 
the learned Veaetlau {iciuton, the Manutii, incrutacd 
Aa number of tho alfiis, and estabUdwd aome fixed 
mlaa for their i^lication, Th«e were m jgtsae- 
rally adopted that, wo tna; onnridnr thpio iw the 
larentora of tbe [ii«wiit method of puuttuatiou ; and 
although modern gnmtnariaua have Introduoed oomii 
iin|nx»vemeDti^ nothing hat itnmc particular rtdca havu 
been added iilaL« that time 'Jlio priniapal pnioU 
naed io Kngiinh oompo«itluu are tbe amnM {,), ftmi- 
colon {;), colon (:). ptricd or fuU Oop (.i, nete nf 
inUrrofftUion(t), not£»/exf^lamationaradniinUit>n{'.), 
doA {~), mad parent/utit { ). Of thcMtbefint four 
are {^runmiitical pdiit* indicatiiig the leojith nod 



cbamctsr of tha pMsea ta ba mnde In roadlnc Hm 
ochcn are mainly rtaetoricftl cr ajmtacttcfti aide ref^- 
lating the modnbttiim of tho tmoo ratlin tfaas iu 
BuapentliMi, but the Dot«c of Iot«rro([attoa or adna^ 
atioa ma; take the plao* of any pout of tlw furau 
claM^ aocoa<£ae to the straeture cS the e cntan er, and 
the daab partalcaa of hotA. dwraoterialaoL No mWa 
for puuctuattoD can be laid down tltst will meet nvrj 
case, tho stractnrs of Mntoaooa baiag as Ta«ion. la 
Konrral it may ba aniil tbftt the fomma xaafka tW 
■utaU«Btt,TViiuiatiaddivisiuii inftaetttwnoe^aepaiatin 
the seTqiml mombors of a eefiea, also tlie anbocdiBate 
claoaea from Iha tuun rlaiiw. and tlu Ukfti lb 
tenUeolan Indtofttea a longer panae thftn the waua% 
but leqoirea another member or meaibet* to cooflele 
the aeoao. Tbo coUm donotoa a etill loti|{«r JtKKt, 
and may he infcrt^^ when a tncaaber of » aaoteftM' ■■ 
oomplote in itaftf, but ia followed by aome »Ai;*i— ..I 
remark or lUuatratlon of the eobjaot. Hie |v*d 
in^icntvs the end of an oMortin aaiH— cay aad h 
also UHd after oontiftctodwnnlii, after hcadfatg^tilia 
of booing &«., and generally after Roouui namer a k 
Tbe noU ofinltm^itim ia placed at the old of aa 
iuteno^tury avntcuocr tho Spaniah plaoa It brfo* 
aa well aa after nich a sentenoe. The wee t^ etdt- 
wuUioH or odnMrofion ia phKed at the end tt aodi 
wotdji or claoMa aa Indicsta otrong etBOtioa. 1W 
dotA la cmplo7«d whara a ientcnoe hnaka <^ ahnplly 
and tha mbjeet ta changed; where tbe aeoaa ■■ ana- 
ponded, and ia continued after a i^rt mlemptbA; 
wbenro there i* an nnexpcctecl or npigrammatlo bm 
In tbe seaUnieut; after a aerlea of claiaea lewliag %a 
an imitartaDtcancliLdon;atidlaoortftlBcaMaloladl 
rnlo ui clli]im'^ lljo jKUm/iiraM hkdoeca a wold or 
pbnuio introduced into tbe bodj of a T*"'wwrr. witit 
whic^ it baa no grammatical oonnocliaiL Iliae 
poinla do not indicato all the paosoe to be takan te 
roading. 'I'bore are many caac« in which a pan** 
idiould bo innde wb«re there It no point) bat the dia- 
dduratlon ol tliin lubject belooga to clocatiotL 

I'UNDIT, See PjurenT. 

I'LiNJi: (from I'ti^ti, ['bsnJciaBa), aa epttbaC ori- 
ginally (^nonyuiou* with i'Aamcwn, bat ^ ciliria 
usage equivalent to Carthaginian, Carthagtt bai^ • 
rhoBninaii colony, — Funk imri, wan wi^ed beCarera 
Home and Carthage^ Tho firvt of thoaa wara IvolLa 
out In B.C. 20 1, and was not bruuitht to a liiiiiiliniliai 
till 1I.C. SU; tbo Mocmd lasted from &c S18 la &c 
202; and the third; which ended with thedeatnulkn 
of CaTthaee,froniB.c.14StaB.c.l4T. (3a«a«rartid« 
ou Koxx, C'axruAox, Hasicib&l.) — Pmie/mUk {.tt* 
Pwniea), amon^ th« Bomaaa ft provariilal iinmadiii 
for foithlfltaneM. 

PC^lSH^tENT, a Icrm dmved, thnwb tiir 
I-'ronch pvitir, from the Latin pmiiirt, wUohia enS' 
nectcd with jMmit, satiafDctioi^ oon^HUtkuL Dri- 
giually it aignified pain ioiUotod oo or caKlunid li; a 
poraon aa ft satiifactloii or atonemeot by him foe piatM 
ofTeftoe whloh ha had oonuniitod; it embodledt in ClElr 
the Idea of retaliatlaD, and tbia appear* to have hoM 
the eorlicai nation of potdafament whi(& moot naticeo 
of whioh WB have any record ncMeaaed. It icam 
amoDgrt tho oorlv Grvohs; tho Bonana raoognlaed it 
In the law* of the Twelve Table*: and it waa lb« 
ptbk(:[|il« uf Uie well-knawb ptovinon of the Mcoak 
law, 'an oy* Tor an oye,' ftc (E«hL ud. 34>. TU> 
view lA imnivlimeut, binroror. which nakee it aMnt; 
equivalent to vengeano^ has bec^ aiipereoded aome 
ChriAtian nations by ooa which accurda better wfth 
tbo Bpirit of Cfarittianity, which is that the fnfrr 
end 04 puulahment is not ao much to nnoge pw^ a> 
to prevent fotore otfcooea. Itk tUa oeontiy pw^- 
mcat by doath ia calltd tapkal iNnifahment; othrr 
modea of pnnlahnient are aallad sffwaitniji. Tie 
latter vaiy In aeratlty acootdlng to Iha irrffn""' 



I 




PUNJAB, 



871 



Mignltud* of ibo oSaicc Th« erinua (or whkb 
cifiul Muiiiluncnk ii bow inflicted l»ve bean ndnoed 
to lfc« raUmriq^ Bamel}', tw— nn, murder, ■tlOBpt bO 
■MDdar.aoOMBpaiiM wllb actuAl injury lo ttwpanoa; 
lb* Inntiof at MUiflp or ■!!]]«, with dugor to 
buniaa Uf^ uul uwl«r£Cne(l draumtaaoea; finer, 
MXtatfmniai wftb acto omduseriBg Ufo; tnu^Urr, 
aggnmtod by omgl^ ov vIciUdo* to u lauKU: mb- 
bwy, ^KimTiUcd b; pcnoaol tIoIbiioo; hcldiiig out 
itiit llcutB, with the Int ^T itfftn of »— '■**ff tiu lUp- 
viMck of kBT voMcl i& Ji*trDM; and lutTy, khIoiii;. 
SitmoM of tlaath maT be oumtnulod hy tho lOvvrclKn 
Imo penal HrvUude (or life. Secundary twnbhmiMit* 
an M two Idadt, fap^gtaeamwH irilh or without hanl 
lolnar, far a grater or la* {Mriod. lunl ttm inaii:ti.iii 
of Ibm of varjriiv PTil""^tt (or wrtain 6t tlw niiiwr 
otfnweik 

rCNJAR, more |fop«rljr Tasjis (tho '^*r« 
RWrri ' ), Ml utendre temtorj in thu aorth'W—t of 
Uiwloatan, tonatAj uaAer th» dondniuo of tho Sikht, 
but ■hK« Fcbrvary. 1811^, atUcbod to the PlWdeaojr 
<rf Bengal, in iJritUfa Ilidi^ and m called from ttil 
poiitluD. bciciK iotcraected b/ the ladua and the four 
mat n-nn wlikb mitte to poor thair iral«n faitn IL 
TImwv ora to rgolity fin riran beddn the India, but 
the Qlai bflftnf Diich nullar than the others leVDa 
to have bMfl neglecled when the name waa glveiL 
SoOM anthnritiw, bovrenr, Ww oat th* Indoa ae oao 
of ihetive, aod talwintheBinilnatAaiL TLepnWDt 
UaotansiB-goTeRuinliip ol the Panjal\ howerert la 
kfger than the Paojab proper, and ia bounded oo tlie 
wwl Iw Afghanirtan, mini wlikb H ia wrparatMl by 
Um jii>fcim«» mill other nountalu; on tue north by 
Kirinfr; oo the oaat by the North-weot Proviaoea, 
the Gaitfea running a UTfgo poitioo cS Um iMiondary; 
and m uie south by ICaJiiulaaMk The area, exclanra 
at native ataten, b \09,m aqnn* milaa; the pop., 
MODnUig toUHoORMuf l&Sl, IM50,437: indnriTi! 
«1 native atMci^ the area ia 142,440 aqnare mOai; and 
1hepo^2^;rla,12a• IV Paniab b tbndad into the 
t«t dirtriotia of Ambala, Atnrilaar. DdU. Detajal; 
Hlaur, Jallandar, L^hnr, MulLtn, feabavnr, Mkd 
Kawal|iuuli, Lahoc te tho a[ituL 

MmmI J)€»eriflitm, — lie exfaemenorthani portion 
li rsMlmd mooDtalnoiH by ^wi^ or ctfaela of the 
gieat Hbnalaya ayaten; Ivt wUb tfa«w axneptkoa 
th* nirfaoe b for the moat part an axieMive plain, 
gradDally •toning ftom the ourlh-eaal tu the Koth* 
Wtet, In the dliectiiiB of th« eix rirvre by whfa^ It b 
eo abaadanUy trrigatod. Tbcee rim« (pKcowAng 
famwMttoeart) an the Indai, tlie Jhilaai (aadent, 
Mifia^ia), Obeaab (aadont, Actnitt»), the ICavi 
(Mdant, BrdrooUti, the Biaa (aaeleiit, //jn-ioiu), 
and Um Satlej (aodent. /Tcfwirw). The Jhibun and 
Cbonab onite thdr waten^ aikd then are joined by 
the Bari, the united atnam ia then augBtcoted by the 
Saiki, which baa [mfloaaly reoeircd the Dlae. The 
o wWn i l watva of theae riven funn the Panjoad, 
whM ialu a» lodna sen- Jlitha&kot. Tbti Tiv<.'r< 
Panjab dMda It bla five dirtnctL or d»aU 
lea between two rlvenl namely, the 8ind-8ae«r 
betwewi the Udna and JUhu ; the Jeeh Doab, 
smMtt tbaJhOain and Cbenah : the fUdnaDoab^be- 
«wa«a the Cbattab and Ravi ; tJM Bari or Haaj* Ikinb, 
between the Bari and IUm; aud the Jalhuidar I>uab, 
faatwecB the filaa and SaUcj. Of Uieae the ftnt la 
by br Ibe taiswt Irat abo ^ no* atarlle and leaal 
»al»hi>i< , alM»rflB|g fitli hf jiliMHw ^^A *«ff-} 

•kctlvilta^ failananad here and thn« wllb iMi mbI 
fertile ndUya. The eeeoad doab b anrt^ level, attd 
doKribedbyBvnMM 'aitsUewMlsodmderwoMl,' 
the nbode el ahephonb, aud eeaatily Irdnted; the 
Hechna Doab b bue and negleclnd, thoon aneapt- 

H n4aaf Ughciiltl«atIca;theBariDaab^tboiiKhbw«. 

■ haa a Urge nrfaoa iind<r eultivatkdi, aoT fa the 



nvDvi popiilou iumI Important of all, cvnCainiag tha 
targe taiwna of Amritaar, Uultan, and Labor; wUk 
Ibe JaUaiadar Doab b highly cnlcivalml, well people^ 
and esoellad in ditnato mm pmductaana by no pn^ 
vinoe b Iiulia. Thm Silcha allowed aboort the whole 
oountiy to fall into a state ot eztreaM neglect. 

Otclofp, Soit, omt Ciimatt, — The upper legiaaM doee 
to the Himalaya ^iriaant oocadoual bade of oompaet 
Umeatonn, noaatcoe, gypeum, and red day, and eon- 
ttlaisg «U hot buMchanatiUo beda of aall, partkolariy 
that moontain chain apecially tcitaed the 'aaHnngi^* 
in the nnrtb-weet. Gold b found In the beda of the 
Indoe and Chaub. Iron, [duinfaacts aatlmooy. idaia, 
and sulphnr are found in the hiU oouabry: altra la 
ohtoiuod abunilantly in the altnviol plalnl^ a&d eoal- 
bedaexbtuntheMtoreMtbwakaflheladnib The 
■oil of the bval ooortcy Tulea renaAHbly bun atiC 
clay nod leaai to mm, laised «Mi earn other la 
vanabU) nnpoeiiaB% and with visgctaUe n>aU«r; 
baddea whieb, carbonate and aulphale of anda are 
amMtioue nnxed with it in men quantitiQa aa to 
Koder the land almort wvrthleea. The ellmata b 
hot anddiy,andUltlaraiii(hU%«eept!ntlieUghar 
ooantry, and under the faflianm of tlw ■•^>uth*wert 
moneooa. The wiotere are eool even lu a KuniMiu 
the teBperatare ivylag from H' to 7A* Fihr^ MMon 
hi^Mr; wborcaa in auminar the hc*t b exceaalve^ aad 
mere ntinwidve av«i than in IIm moat aoltry parta 

VtgttabU iVedttrtuajL— The ladlcanatu vcgetatba 
of the Fanjab baara a cloae leanwihUnme to that bi 
the plain of^tba Gaagea; bat aa ita natwal raaoeieea 
hav«beenbntlitilaiDpK>vc^thiecnlM*ated produota 
of tJMtwocoanlHaaadniltafnocoaaparbem. Accord- 
ng to Baraoi * the *nU iii»|ily repan the bbcun for 
Buch b Ha atienstb that a crop of wheat, before yield- 
bg Ita grain, b twkw mowed down aa fodder for 
c«UJe,aod theDeariv]mduQiDganabiaidMitbarT«t' 
The principal grain cmpe are wheat and bariay, cl 
eiM)elJantqualtty,buiAwlMiatandn>niet,pBaao^Tetqii^ 
and muatard:anaAiiiii, and other oQMdaaraoztaD- 
airt-ly pMan, I'nrain cairola^ coioti^ ewwinlMfa^ 
and imlcwa are rabed in targe qnantHiaa. Tlmooiw 
of indigo and angar an very n«h, and both artlnba 
an plratifully exported. The teUu«o plnnt nlm 
grewa IninrlaDtly, tiydally abairt UuUii, aod 
opium hu bMB gro«n pretty ftxlcoaively. Ammw 
the bntta an the dato^ •'"■gvv ^i *b^ oppK "i*^ 
bany, baaaia, nad uugo; but tbaan omtt only In ft 
eoltivatod Mai^ and near the lowiM. Large treea 
are acaroe^ and axtamdve Irwcle may be paaaed with- 
oat iMrth^ anything larver than nlirlritf noada^ 
canel-lbota^ iad otoar buaha; far wUcn maaon 
wDod-ful b Toy anre^ btiag nommnnly replaced 
by cow-dmg, 

JmtmaiM. — The aookifly of the Panjab b rlebw and 
more varied than Ita botany. Tig«a of eBcrwona 
aia* abeond la Mm frnj^aa, aor an Uoaa by any 
manaa mwonnHn; banidei which Iheiw are great iMint> 
ben of pBotbtn and laoparda, wild ntai bywuu^ 
lynxv, jacknl^ nad wolvi^ with toata, aartfa^ 
atonta^ «. The pl^a abe are covered with herda 
of wud bonce, nylohaai, ami liuf!al«M; iWr, aiita- 
looaa, and ^oat^ ttuUi Uaohanil wliito. alneod lu the 
wudar ngioBa: apm of vsrlooa Un^ an o^mn^ aa 
well aa b^ IndnAnc tbe hug* aad Wdaoai vampbw. 
Iflfphanto an MraeUnne nml aa faaaala of hnnlan, 
bat amlaa and anae an In iar awn ootn a wnaaa. 
Among the tiirda an found anslen and vidtunM^ 
hawlu, aigplea, many rarMea oTpanota, pn-fanrl, 
and jungio-fowb^ partrtdgn and qtiaOi^ wabo^fowl 
of many klnd^ berma, caaM^ and pelbwn^ with 
don^ pigeoaih H»d many vt the maiOtr VUk, tm- 
ciodiBCtM&idMoreaMnBBlghlli^inU Theiivwe 
abooad wUh alHfileci; vcacnew eafpeala are oon* 



S72 



PUNJAB. 



BioD, eapMlolly the (M>lim-cle-car«Ilo. Tbe Btlkironu 
bluivw ntuATkBljIy -ncU, &«! Inks ve plocitiful, pro- 
dnoiag gnut <)ii»iitili(<« of 6d» ljon«iy. 

A^f^ i?i'(*i, i-c — The pQpulaliim of the PmiJii1> 
U oompOMd ni vjuionii ntoca, th« chief of whivli kk 
tba Jata,CnlliiK, Kiijputa, tuiJ Fatiuu. The ptbvmI- 
Id2 relliJioDS mo MfrbwanowdaniwD and Hmduiiai, 
the lAttur of which oouota amoiu ita adfaennta tho 
beteroditx Mct of th« SiUia. Th« Jkta form the bntk nf 
Ike o^cultiiTal petauitfy: th« CaUkb «n * postor&l 
pcojilc, Mldictcd to * niiuning life, uid mv dcacrilKd 
■Bwl and AUilciic,w{lhhiuiiWiin.e, upon ouuulfliuuii.'cii, 
blu« ejvt, and LI^Li liair. Tba peopio luilwd, gonv- 
ntly. xn in f-hvaical rc^Mcto suparior to ihoM of 
ilitiitiiaUii, fttid t>iUi«fnlI u active u the MahnttM^ 
haviiu; bLouI, waU-nmnded lUubi^ and au active, 
BnoBtalcarriagVipailloalarlfthe'MttaridaNOi. The 
nvRiMi too ore elcfaallj abapod and nry attm(!tiv«i; 
their voBluiue ombraoca tmiuKni aud eitr>i>nUiatuiljr 
high conical capa, Thsmalp attira oi>n«uUof a/n^rt 
or witcf tiirbaa, a clom- fitting; jiickvtv i^oA huvn 
bullcj trfmsita tiAiall^ termlnaUnii at the knee, with 
a scarf throwu orer the thoul-dcr, either with a eoloured 
trimmed bnrdnr or cnnvicling of a gaudy •ctilourvd 
•haw]; the mt ut the dnMt Li invariably white, ddi] 
kept for the moat put very oleao. Th« hair la worn 
long, and gathi-rcd up into d ImAt at thccrotm. Tlie 
Bikha an nlnidat exchiaivaly n niilllary and anriciil- 
Cural people, — ItatUamua iailwd fruiu vraut of Icuow- 
ladgav hot ntdthu* anvogc nor cruel, bcin^, on thd 
CtMr band, frWik, f^iL-i-mm, nml lin-ly. I'hn Sikh 
■oldter U, R)9U«rally upeiikin^-, Ltava ■ouitiLiuini eveii 
to daapvtmtloD, actir«, c!i(^><tfiil, and merry — withuiit 
poliah, but deatftnto adtlicr of nncurity nor attach- 
Dienl. I'he Alkh merchaut or fanner, if he l>e a ^in Ai, 
diffvra little iu cbaractvr from ib9 soldier, axoept that 
b« is laaa iiraninimg and boutoraua ITe lUao woan 
uo^ ud cun UM tbem irramptlv wid with sff«t 
when required; aiid xa rvf[arda chaiactnr, he ia na 
IntrlKvinff, ToraatUu, iiiHiinLEtiu^', aud lutful aa tuiy uf 
tbu low«r Hnwmt of Hindu i. 

The Ndigirm of the Bikha la a hobcrotlox fonii of 
the Hiudu failU. I'hti nutiaa uf a auptMUd deity, 
who ia both creator and pn>bM't(jr,MiT'adeath« p<Mtry 
of Naual auil hU fellow bnrda, wiio are loolwu upon 
aa tha exponeots uf the natfoool creed; and byttina 
an dianted at daily noniMsa to that deity who is 
deaoEnated hy vjuioiia popular name* of tho liindu 

Sod VlabDU. The euntcnLH; of olhi^r Uiudu dt:tti«a 
I not dispntod, but no di tine bonoura arc publicly 
pwd to any of thi-m. An imjutrtATil dia^D'Ction b»- 
tween thv Siklu aiid the utlier Hindtui ia thei^aenoe 
of cacta, and conHqu«ntly uf most of tb* rcatralnta 
iDhersnt in tbat iaaulution. The Sikhs do not rofoso 
to eat or lo IntennaiTy with other Hliidua who have 
becumo conrarta t<) their form of rclipou, hut Uiey 
del noti oitcntl thn Kinw libonJity to KfobamRindaiiii, 
mainvt wh'.'ui ihiy bare always exhihitvd tnvat tia- 
tteuJIiifllilily. llieflefibotUieoow id tha only article 
of aniiijal foi>) [irniiibit«d by their failh, and wu this 
head Uieir prvjuditr* arc atronsvr eron tiuui thMo el 
Hiodim of the urthodox BnuuuaDical penmaidoiL 
Smoking ia prohihitod, but butvt, opJUB, Idid splritu- 
Dua tiquonaro fnccly uind; and it oaa b«sn ssid that 
no ncvuf iievple iu India ia inure Qof.'nuiUy demoral- 
imd than tlut of the Panjab. Aa lo the otbar pro- 
vincca of India miMionAiy work la oarried on here 
■IbOl In 1&72 there wi^ro fourteen native oniainn] 
iainiat«rs, and th« nuudwr of native ChriatiiuiH 
auHiuitti.-d to 1&70, nf whom 707 ««r« commuoicaote. 
Lar'jiiase and Sdueation. — The language nf tlin 
Panjali ia a jargdn of Tarinns too^'utta: fur whUi? a 
diaWt nf llindtivtaui !■ iijKikeii la the larjji'r towiio, 
the rural p<i(iii]at.lon use the Jatakl. sprung fium a 
eosiiatenot and iheoiigioal langnageof th«coaDtry, 



and All the aontbem frontier there Is a oanrfdenUs 
adiniiturc uf Hindhi. Since the oonntey oaase Voder 
Britiah ruici ^teniNitary «ducatioa haa no<a*<sd amch 
atteDtioQ. In tho yaar onding Slat Kaivli, IBSl, 
tlicrci wtu-R I74X gnvcmment soboola, with fl3,8M 
(nipibi on the niUa and ail averag« daily attmdaooeef 
7'2,finl, boeidw 341 govvrninttni aidml acbnoli^ with 
1t),&71 pupils oa the rolLi tuid an avcragv dail; 
attfodauoe of VJ,354 ; making a total of Sui>9 ioM- 
tutioDs willi 110,427 pupila The edncatiooal insti 
ttitiDnn include a uoII'R^b with 103 atodanta in 18C1. 
>'utwitb*taudini,- the prot:rvaa that oduoatieu b 
mokinc, it Ia atUl very far behind. oapselnOy in lb* 
ooao of gill*. 

JHoni^artiirei and TraiU. — The *"»'"'*"*"'*■» 
tndustTy of the Panjab ia far more ext«Rn» ana 
important than ita ogricnlturv, though it ia eUsfty 
crinfined to thn htrt:er towna. Amritaar, I^bor, 
Multan, and Shiijabad are dlaiingiuahad for Ihdr 
silk and cotton fabrica; and the aillia of MuUan, 
callvd htu, and diielly n»c"I for acarfa, p uwia a ■ 
etrenpth of textum and Williaacyof oolonr for whicti 
thoy arc much prisod in tho Indian marketa. Thr 
ahawl* of I^ahnr, tno. Tank only anxiiMl to thea* of 
Ksiahmir. lirucodva, titauca, and «ar|iot« tWUmMiiy 
tbo Persian are obo manufactured io ths oa{iBu. 
It) tho east nf tho Panjah, about llobso and HhIi- 
iarpur, whito cnttoo gooda are preoareil of a a ti oa ^ ar 
atid more durable t«xtur«, as woU aa ohoaper; tMB 
tboAo of liritiiih TuanufactTiro. Swords and fti » nt— 
nf nil urirU, B^d of an i^xccllr-.nt ((uality, w«re nadar 
the tJildi dyaaaty uuule in great (lUAntitiea at I^hca: 

Thu Panjab eujoys from Ita podtioD an eiteasiK* 
tnuuit-trade with Cabnl. Bokhan, Kandahar, fte. 
OB wtll iM a tnnru diriH:t one for the itinpoa^ ol it* 
produce aud the supply uf its uit<-rim] wania. 71w 
import ooDiprise sugar, n>ioM, and othtr groeolsi, 
djre-stulb and cotton, wooilL-n and sflk fahrio^lHtib 
and metallic ntauaila, cutlery, prcciouB stoaai^ Iwkt, 
gliiaa Biid cochineal, oMafivtidai, aalfloireT, trod) an 
dried b-uita, wool, borva, Ac; Tba cxporta—panl; 
of homo produce, partly in trnnait — c>imprise pain. 
fffitc, hidci, wcxil. Bilk oad mttou fabric», carpoU teui 
■bawls, raw silk and vuttun. Indigo, uA»cm, bM, 
bardwart^ horsea, and vari (|uantlti«a of hawW Ua 
trade of thA Panjab [s facilitated by uprardi d 
'2j(l0 miliA of uavigaUe livera and lUUU milea ti 
mil way. 

Corminwnt and Bgnnue, — ^Ttn gOWaaMOt mdiV 
the Sikha originally eandsted of a aort af nfiditl^ 
or foderation ol tirdart or ddofs, aO bol^^ iad^ 
pendent away and adminiateriui^ tlift lawa fa Umb 
own diatriots; but these at length, throogfa lb* iWag 
power of Kunjit Singh, bconma sabcKmBala to ths 
uaharajali, under wIu)bi tliey became feudal dde^ 
paying hiui an allotted portioB of Ifae Lax or ttthnlt 
cdUocted within Uia respective diatrfcts. Aa a anal 
rule the produce of tbe land wad equally dnUsI 
bdtwHO tha ohlof aitd tho famw, the fn|iGSl fcr 
grain bdug paid in hind— tbat for sugar-caaaa^UMtoa 
fto., in oisb. The chief, liowomer, nam la^id w 
that extent; and in no oonstry, poring wa* thi 
rsot, or cultivator, tnatod wiU> luorv indakvna 
Commerce, im tho other hand, was not a Dttw i» 
poded by tho heavy duties levisd on goods t^ tb> 
■irdais of tho district* throng wUoh tb«y fimi: 
and owingtathiadTi!ain*taaon,asireUaalatheli^ 
diiitiirlied state at Ibe Phnjab^ mueb of tba trs* 
fn<]ii Iliuduatan to Cabal and TurlcasCaa wm W 
ritxl by othur and luogvr rDut««. The gnvannMt 
under the liritinh rule resonblea tbat already ao laif 
fliULiug iu the otlutr dirtrida of ibe BoBgal I^mt 
diincy, and th* rovoBtMs aro gathowl on a rinlfar 
ayxttdn. (See Ivuu — BevoutM and RipeialitnKi 
The moat important Item of revenue is tbe l^ah 



PUKJAB— PUrA. 



373 



wblefc jkUi BpmHa of £2,000,000 KUrVine; next to 
' ' I ocNDw th« tax oD MUt, which ^iixhIikW upwutU 
tOO.OOO; ti)« rovcuue U alxi pitrtl/ dtiriwd fn«n 
tt dutiea an apirita and Uni^ji^ ilutiw on atunpa; 
TIm tax on toll ii Uuvt mpMi per mauDd. or 
K'-uutld.pcrlb. TbotoUlnvtBiMnnoaiiUtoKlMnt 
44.mD,000; Uuexpendltnn taaboiitX4,100,(H}a 

jln»>( onrf /"o/irt-.— The •jtot oI Eunjit Singh con- 
■uted ot 27,i>0a infkntry, of WliDin IS.uOO w«ra clad 
in Mmaur; 27,000 eavftli'jr, About 700 ^acM «f ftrtU- 
lai7. aii4 100 dvphimU. Tho inlUUry tone MUb- 
UalMd Irr tha An^lo-Indian goirnmrm eompnuem 
■iMut Sd,000 BritMh uid DftUva boopB. with ninety- 
Mtra Uil-giiM •wIchIv* of > hrft fraatwr foivc, 
■iiB h i liiK umHi of 12.0au, nUdi U djo plwnl 
oodtr tbo ocdtn of the lientotiut-p^vcTnar. Tbe 
poHc* fnm uabttwl to ba In Biuost offvctira oDOdlUoa. 
It Dombun kbotit 20,400 an, divided into two divi- 
tiaat, U)< Tnai-SMleJ utd tb* CS«-£bUej ; &S pa- 
crab «f Ih* DMB lot iiobmnruuiuu, SB Mr oanL 
HiBdtia, utd 17 pM- MDt aikhn 

lERMorr'— Itit &kbi qipwr to occopv the Rwgm- 
(lUatl locality of tlw udabt JinAr. Itia rftnjab 
WM iu n.'mot« uitlciuily (bo bccuo of •omo of Alex- 
uidor the Ur**t'* mtmt arduona osplotti duHng hia 
apodltioB a^miiut PonM. About ^n, {120 it vm 
ovwiBB b; tbo tiwmi ci MAhmond of iIIi&xda, 
■Iwao mccaaaon bdd Ibo vnaOry tor iimulj '20u 
nu^ lafclng Ijdiar tbo awt of tbalr corariiinent. 
It aiterwMda piuawd by oowiiiert into uo lutuli of 
Uobammcd, aultui of Gbur, after whoee death the 
OKWtrjr wu ntloil b^ a aiioxaaioa of turbuleat and 
XoBUtioaa cUefa, prini^i|«ll]r Alghttia, tiil at length 
kt 1919 Bab«r, tbe founder of the Mo^ul Eiujiin!, 
katkw obt^nad poaRwon of th« TCiinti7, oaoended 
Iha twoM^ and oatabUabad the Tfnorian dfnaa^, 
wlwae awa^ pravaiW for about two oeiitnriea. In 
17U Ahnod Shah Duranl oTcrran the Paujab with 
an Afghan ana;, and iji ITM Lh« territory w«a for- 
■kklljr ceded to fatia hj tho Mogul ampeior. At 
laogUi, ia 1748, tbe SUuia ornran th« oountry oaat 
of Uw JhilaiD,MtabliahiB|f nillilai7 poaU in that dU- 
tricL lb* Daranlaa djnUa^, hMfever, mainUiuml 

kaaoendeni^ in the aoath-a artr n portion UU 180U, 

W on the mtpnUoa of Bbah Shojah. the hit of 
bA^^an Idnn BnnjU Sbigib, a fllkk of tha tribe 
7«(% wHMiibed Ua power orw tbo grsator part 
'ha Panjab^ includmg the hiU-atatM. In 1818 
fanownad cblaftaln atomted MuJian and took 
Fcahawar— in tha foIkrwiDf tmt woooeritic Kaah- 
lalr and tbe Denjat weat of tha htaoM; and thua 
In tan jaara b« auccaodod hi ftalrliililnf hia power 
u«ar tha wbob ooaatry of Vb» Ive Hnn, to whidi 
WW a ftw wa nk added, hr the ooBaocata of bia vai^ 
Oholab Singh, lAdakh or Mitldle Til»^ ma.i Ihd- 
tiataa or Little Tibet. Hi* righl to all tbe lerrito- 
riea ba tbna poaanaml «a both aldaa of th* ladoa waa 
•elcnowMBvl ^S the Biitlah Bonrameal 
, wai in 1U8 lOaaflt Stagh dfe^ haTlns 
i bf war and phnder, no leaa than £10,000,000 
J of tnaam and noraU* propart;, and loav- 

a Iha DDoatty b a itato of exhanrtton ami dinonlor. 
•on, Kharak Stngfa^ ijaicUy aucnwdod, but dietl 
of a deoline a fvw maobha >ftar Ida (Atbar, oa which 
8b«« Blnffh, a aatvml aun of tbe gnat RuDjH, 
aaoMd tha aovanfanty, bat waa aaaadaated ISih 
ffl apunbe r, ISti. Uhnfip fiingfa. a ndaor, the aon 
«f lh« fOTBior Btthanjab, Kbumlc Singh, aneoaadad 
wilbottt oppoatttoo, havbg tltrra Slngl^ Uie aejihew 
(if <AolaU for h» v'ukr or prima minlHar; bvt 
IntrifDBB and dvfl dlatarhaaoea Bow Cram tine to 
tisM Aatoactod the ooantrf, and from the cloae of 
1S43 to Iha period of iU aanaxatkn to Brftbh In& 
the go— n uB em «m In abajanoe, or, what ia wofaa^ 
in die baada of m Ipaaiaai bloodthint;, impadouit 



■tariiiC< 



nnfl Insnbordinato anoT- At lenctb it beeaHA maal* 
feat thftt tho Silcha of tli« Panjab wore preparing for 
Ml irmptioa into tbe torritoiiae pivtaeted \j the 
Briiub OD the <-Ait of tha Satlej. In tha end ef 
Decentbrr. 1^45, the Hikh fonsea paaaed tite SatleJ 
ioto the tcrritorivtt ptvt^.H.-uiI b; the Britiali, with a 
moat fcomldable tr&io of artiliorj, but they foand 
tlienaeltea orirnp1<^f -Ir warat«rl after tbe hara-fon^ 
aatbna of Femushali, AUwat, aod Sobraoo. Labor 
and other MatioDa worv aftarwuda oocufrfed by 
BritU) trMpB: the Jallaailar Poab, betwam tha 
Satlcj and llina, u-ua permiuu^ntly oedod to tho Bril* 
tab; and the Duminuiii of Kaabmir, and tbo other 
provinoea of tha UiEnalnya, waa vwAed in the Bajaih 
Ghol&b Singh. In 1S4B a ODoapitaoy brtwaeo aeva- 
r^ diaafletAed cUatli and tha AlgluiH iwaltod la 
further boatlUUaa Bgafaiet tha Brituh, Unhan being 
tbe oeatm of tbdrt^wrationa. Tha bidecirira battle 
of ChilliaDwalU waa followed by tho capMra of 
Mnltan in JannuT, anil the victory of Gujwat !■ 
Fabnuuy, 1648, ainoe which poHod ttiR former terri- 
toriea of the Mahanjah Dhulii> Ubiah Lave tonnad 
anfDtep«lpaitoftlieBr{tiah£uivlnli>thaEaaL In 
1919 it waa fonnod into a uew Ueutonant-fovemor- 
ahip. 

Pl'NEAH. aa iramanee fan uaed In India and 
oUier hot countriea for ventUatiiif nomn It oonairtB 
of a movable fianw ot wood covered with eaavaa and 
aiMMndad tnm tha oailine- It u pulled bae h wardi 
and forwarda by meao* of a cuni, and thua gmibn a 
ourrant cf air In tha uamnacL 

PUNO; a town of Peru, c^iud of the department 
of tbo (am*) njUDo, aa the wreal abocs of Laka TitJi'aM^ 
12,S70 fevt alMn-e aua- level, and 90 ndlae eaat by eautli 
of Araqoipa. It oooriata of two p or tiu M^ iMh of 
ehaerfol anieanBoa, and with attaigh^ well-pavad 
atroeta; and haa two <hur(ihaa, a ooUot^, and an b(W- 
pItaL The aJnaa to which Itowod iU ori^Hn nra now 
abandooad. Pop. 6000.— Tbe d«]Artnient grvwt 
jntetoea and I>Brl«y, but k parikularlj diatitt- 
eni^ad by Uu* extent and richnee* of ha p ea lai aa. 
Ita prindpal crporti are the wool of the aheap, Uam^ 
alpMn, and ricoA^ and aome eaacatilU baric tnm tba 
vallay of Carabaya. Pop. SSS.SBf. 

FUNT, an Anglo-Saxon tarin atlO in nee for an 
oblong flat-bottoned boat need for fiahing and afasoi* 
ing in ehallow wab«n; it li alao vaad in caallttng and 
rapairing abiiia. The rooat eoootton node of propat- 
aiun la t^ pi^Uiig with a pole afptiaat tba bottom of 
tbe river, ftc..a p ro cw i whtcb la bonce callad p m rt lBEi 

I'Ul'A, the nana apntiod to tha aeowd au^ In 
tha nMtamonihoria of tneota. Tkb ata«o baa alao 
been named taa nynM (*Urii *ee) or rAryaafa* period 
of danlopmaol In tha tyi^cal Complcta or Bol»- 
nwtabolio Inaect^ oxempUtiMl by IWtloi. ButterflK 
Fllel^ fto^ the papa al<^ fa markad by rpUeeoeaeo 
■ad net, and taw tw w an f a oanfaat to tba praml* 
ing and actira larval ataga. Tha pupa nay ba 
Inrioeed wlthbi a oaaa or Mooea, h ia fiatknffiaa aikd 
Motha, or may aimply remain qmaKont wiUlia tha 
bardaiH-d larval «i.iu. whivh thoa a9*M aa a pop** 
caao. Uarintr tbo pupa Maga the aloMnta « Ifaa 
tarval furra ar« being rtmo^led Into that ef tha 
•Mi^a or perfuct inaoct, which in doe tUaa emei yea 
front the pupa oaaei The tlna in which an Imaat 
may ranaia In the pupa rtaga variaa rery giaally 
throttebont the dlffentnl gnwiM <J Ibmc*^ and nay 
axteod from a few buuni or daya to weefca, mnwlhs 
oraveayeanL 

Tba pane of tho BaniMalaboBa Inaad% or thoaa 
wlucb uadergo an InooapUta ■atiiaoryhnale lauch 
an <Sraaahoii|>ee^ Loenrti^ Bo^ fta), are aaden and 
tteely morug; and differ fimn tha perfect taaic^ 
wUm tbey roeamUa in fof^ ehtafl; a ibt ahwoi 
or rodiSMalary nature of the wtn^ lliaae lalW 



pcrrL— PURCHASE m the army. 



■trnctum h tb» pwa state «f nvmlmctabijlic 
buacta may gouBmltT m peratived t^ be in eautwe 
of formfttian, ths poied ioMct or Uva^^i aLutu UJiig 
oharMtericcd Dimply bj ths Call d«vvlo|iTnfint of th« 
wiagi. Sue alaci £5T<MiOL0OT, I:ciiECTA, Nimfd. 

I'UI'll.. StyiETK. 

PUPPET-SHOW^. Ono of the mort cnmrnon 
cUaea of puppeU are called, In Frencb, rtfirwnntttrM 
(frcratnorwiiool, biiffoan,MFrtocbHDppae»). These 
«i« iina^M of tbo hiimnD figme morcd hv wircn or 
direada cia a «ta^, ukI miulobiiicifomi lit-tlsitraiaan, 
iSm dEalogn* of whicli la carrluJ od by the i>««on !n 
eoppealmwit, who movM tlie fi^nuL la th« com- 
mem ctewt paCarminc* of Piin>ftb luid Joily, how 
vnr, tbe psrfonue*' [>uta Mb ftn^n Lc the %ar«a, 
PoDpet-fliowi voro oommoD unoiis the CreelcB (who 
cftlled them nrurotpa^ta), fivnn wbom Urn RomAns 
ne^Y«d them. XeiiLijittni, ArUtntle, (5eU£a«, Hor»cn, 
Knd othrrn miintiiiii tlit-ni. Such tfibibltluiia^ vhlch 
ancoiilmu^iivj N>H'lii]'li'-ri niitl the iLti Oil ilea tcO, n^itu- 
nJly pa«0'.i I'lr^ u-!. v/.n .im lit-cTOrti of jirrf'-ntir.n in 
dilfisrcnt (ig('s. mid L"itj:i tii.w uxhiliiLkuu of pu.[ipctA 
' mn Gamnum in aoTnn coiintriM which dicpbiy gn*t 
tneoh&nlui] iu),fuuity, viiulv tb« poor baudl-iisgui boy 
in the street etill turns his iiutrumcnt, and plreB to one 
fir two fi^irM on a baani licfum him a few riiDpI« 
matJDiul niiJi hii fiH-4. Cliickc for tho pmuatitH cift«0 
dbplAy moraUc ]^<uppvtt<, tuid il Li not uiifretjtiCDt in 
Gcmuuiy to find on ando&t town cloeka jiapiveta 
which moTe whmevcr Uie clix:k rtrikn. In 1674 
Ihora waa a pup^iet operft at PariH, which met with 
pent np[>Unsc. At pr«f«nt there are two thetitrw 
ax FuiH fur puppet -ahowii, anil th«y itiU ccntinoo to 
ba parfnnncd In acveml large cities of Italy. In 
GsRnany, alao, excellent pupp^t-afaotra are ■oicutuuai 
•am, bnt they are th«ni liiuiUy ernr ■tntionnry, aniJ 
uv not by iitiy meMui ao iuui.*h pntrwiizuJ an m Itnlv. 

PURANAij. Sea Sahnxkit Ijaixjiai^k ami LV 

TKRATtrKK. 

PURBECK. IsLB or, a diatrict In Eo^Uod, fMin- 
iag th« aonth-cwrt wigle of DflrMtohirc, and conaJating 
«( ft penfauoU nuToiLnded by tlia aca on the aon^ 
vtd oaat, and ao aeparated tnm tlie in^nlaud on Uia 
north by Poo]« harboor and th« FroniQ, and on the 
nortli-weat by a rtYulot Galled LnclEfnnl 1 aUc, an to 
ho con&pctcd ivith it by oojy a vott unrmn' isthmiu. 
It cialxiDt I'Jniili!! long hy imllMibroad: i« tnkv«ri>«ul 
from vi^tt to pMt by a obalky rtiljit> tHvidiiie it into 
two pftrtfl— » noitheni, ooretvd oiletly with be^h, 
and a aoutlicm. whidi u gwicnvlly fertile. Tbo pro- 
vailiog rouk b limeatone, onu ki'iHl cif uhkh, hving 
aiuMptiblootagood poli^th. thouKfa 'I'-'tldent indiira- 
blUty mtder expovuro to tbo air, tahoa the natno of 
Pnrbeek tnnrhlo. 

FURBECK BKDa 8»>e GEotooT. 

PURl'KIjli, IIkhk), Ml eminent Kn^-lbih inudcal 
oompowr, wan thu aoa of a tnunciiui of the chnpcl- 
myal, who, djing In lG(i4, li*(l him an oqihan in hit 
sixth year. ]{o u'Aj* iH.luiitli.\! nl unv&rlj affi acho- 
itatar In tliu kiiiff's cbapcl. whero ba etadtsd musfo 
under ohoir-nuuitvr i'rmk and hta ■nooMnor Palham 
Hunphny, and ufltrvrarda undue Dr. Blow. InlS7A, 
when only «aghto«n yeani old, h« was wade oreuilat 
of Wi>«tni1nat«r Abbey, and aix yean aftcrwaroawaa 
appointed to fill die eame offloe at the di^wl-rojal, 
8t. Jatnojt'. Kmrn thia ptiriod his fame aeraia to 
hara Increaaed mpiiUy, hii anthenu and rhurch Riniiio 
in general Wing popular in all tbo caChL-dtsb of tbo 
klng^dooi; nor went his ODinpotitlaDB lor the atago 
and mudo-iwims Igb mttrneifiil His ponlna eta- 
biaead every epeciea d oompoahlon wiLh t<(|ujd fad- 
Uty: and vnth rcapaot to onambor inu^k, nil prior 
prodnotiflma soam to have been at once totally super- 
tided. Of hii namarout CMnp«aitions bis oeUbratod 



To Dram mid JnbihUo appear to have been co i peati J 
for the nlobratioa of St. CociU&'e Day, 1894. M 
his fnatranoBtal mono a coDectioB km pnhUAed 
two yaora after his deoeoac^ containing aba III faor 
pnrta, for two rtoUni, tenor and base. Many of Me 
a/>Dga wero pnbliahed after his death nndv the title 
of Urpbeus Uritamucna. Ye Twieo Ten llnndrei 
l>oitiM,coDtahM)d In thb oolle.^i'iu. in ooQBidat«d tta 
finest fievo of rodtatlve la tbo Ungnaj^; while !& 
muaic in King Artiinr has mainlafaiiw Its populaifty 
un'liminisheil till oar own dar. In 1KV&, tho year 
d{ bis ilealh, he net to mnaic UondiK^ and tbe Pn»- 
phetoaa, an opora nitorod hy Diyden bom Beaamant 
and lletobor; and h« was toe author oS a vast 
variety of oat^ea^ romda, ^tMB, tDC, iu)( Urn t- 
niarkid^le f<T their melody than far thair «hi^ 
huBMur, and ori^oatity. All bia work* have Ma 
coUoctad by Vinoent Norcllo, who faaned a oonplaca 
edition at thmn In aixty-two parts, under tbe tilia of 
riirwll'a SacMid Miinic; (Lnndon, 1.S^».36). Porccll 
died in 1G95, and was boriod in WeaUninst«r Abbey. 
The qtitaph on his tamlatone ii aeeribad to Diydn. 

PtJRCH AS, Saupki^ an En^iah divioe, wae ban 
In 1 977, at 'rh.ixtfld, in Pjmcx, and edocaled at C^m- 
bridirc. In 1^13 Im pubUabed an lonnrtaBt mvak 
entitled Purehaa hia PD^rioMCv, or Rolatiooa of the 
World and the Religions ohHrvcd in all Ania and 
Places. Tbo fourth edition of this wotlc, puUsdiad 
In 1626, oontatna niunenns important additiao^ and 
la £eiierany sold aa die fifth TDlnme of Ida rcbiI 
Krcat work, namdy llakloyt's Poathnmna, or PnrAia 
bia Pilgrimn, puliliahed lu four vola, fulio, in 1€S£. 
Tbcoo works, with llahluyt's Voyacea, tt<d the wai 
to other collections of tbe aame Idad, and ban been 
much Tahi«d and oteemed. Tha dlffenBea batwean 
tbo in-u hooka b that tho fint b a ooanjalatiMi Id 
Pnrchas' a own bui^nage^ whentas tha aeoond b a ool- 
loction of narratives mitten by vsrioiift antboi^ np- 
plotnMitcd and nlibed by Porchso. Tbe whf^ Ste 
volumes an ([enenUly knon-n as I*urchas's PlIgTim* 
He abo wrote Miaroccamos. or the Histovy fd ytn, 
a Series of Moditntionn on Man as aU Asm and fe 
all RtaHoni (Svu), iho King's Tower and TriUBfbal 
Arch of Loudun, a aennoa. I*arohaa waa nottref 
St. Martin's In intdgate^ and ohnlain to Abbot, 
nrcbhishop of Oanterhury, and was Uchly aats^Md 
furhinlMLrtiiii;;ftDd piety. Hcdicd in LondoatnlOSS. 

PUIIUIIASI'i, in Uw, the aci]airui^ ol land with 
moDoy, by tle<.-d or ajjirvmeuty and not by Amtuiit cr 
tight of inheritance. PuroAoK la also a nan* (jiTtB 
to any aort of mechanical power ctnplogred fa lauoBf 
or tomnving Iteavy bo diea. 

PURCHASE m THE AR&nr. a ayrtoBi, aw 
aboUahod, by which mom than half tiia fimt a[^CBt- 
meata and siibucincnt [iromntJon of oSoera naed la 
heeffected. The prioee of commbaionawasw fined es 
follows:— £450 lor a eoraetcy or nuigaty; £T0O hr 
a lieutenancy; £1800 for a captaincy; £3SM ftv 
K majority; and i^lSOO for a licntenant-oaltatfaj. 
whieh wu the bighrat rank thai ooold ba ijitaiacd 
by pnrobaBa. An oOosr wUda; la ratin feat the 
sorrieo ndght aell his eoBiminlon for tho prtee aBtod 
to tlie rank he occupitd. When a sapetior oSetf 
'aiild out' tb« ni>xt officer Infvrior to him nd^t for- 
diase protnotjon ts tbe tank of the fooner by ataely 
payteg the ^UffentDoa between tbe priow of thsfr 
reapective oomtnladoBB. ^Dw rank tt Iha eseead 
might be roachod in the aama maiUMr by Ids a«t 
inferior, and so on down to tba ans)ga. Kit uuoiaib- 
sion could Im ptmhaaed by one oAoer onlen anothir 
ofliccr TacatodUaoemsdadoobyilaaala. Tbofefn- 
lation priooa won not, Ixnrarar, alwaya adb«ad ^ 
our the method beta apecUied fuUowed; and in tUi 
way com^lBBtlona anaa wUeb freqoeDtJy nBrMJaBcJ 
no small ^fBcoIlics in the carrying out of Ilia syrirm. 




PUBOATIVEii— PITBGATOEY. 



S7fi 






Tb* •j'lten of purchsM datM fnun the find tnr- 
BwUcd « ft ■tanmog ■Any. An Kt wna pauod ui 
1S6S,aiKl«r Ibe rci^ of Kdwvd VT., prohiUling 
th» Mb of conmuMJani; in 16h:i » rajr»l wamuit 
nrdnaad Hm paynwit ci 1«; in tba poond on tho 
■amadcr (4 ft eoamUiIao, bat ft f«w jcftn nbM- 
^HBllr ftU jiftTlunta war« interdulMl. Tbepnrchue 
M oMmiftBnaiwaa leRftlbsd to 1702. «u-iuua mUio 
lIoHft bslng ftftarwKnlB Impowd. lli* Drastic* of 
wWh^ iwtnnibdiwt ibove rapilBtlait pmN hftring 
hooaoM Tavy pnvftlgal, twoocanmialoiu of isqntrr — 
MM Ia 17SS Md ftaolber in I7S3 — traro appointod to 
r<Mt on Um mattar, ftod In 1809 oTer-Tt^latlnn 
pcMH won insda pesaL n<oml9i0to 1870iio(ewer 
tban flicbt nywi eommiaiaoft mn ftpncrfntcd in eos- 
Dortkn with tlift pnidiftM mUin, ftiMl on July 2fltb, 
1871, ty* Bjiteiii wfta abdiahed by njol wAmot. 
Vy tk« BogulkAm of tl>a I^oroai A!c1, j»Mod \n the 
Iftttar you-, ft ia norided that antr officer balding a 
aftlaaweccmmiadoiiin tbefttmyonHor- 1. l.S71,ii^I 
b« antHlxl U> Konpmniiaa n t«*pect ol audi wm- 
adakn. Itbaabaancalndsiadthat«b(rat^8,000^00u 
will ba nqolnd t«aatiafyall clauMforoooipanaatJoo 
aader tUt aet By an act paand in 1876 an offioer 
is paratitfcnl to raodT* loatwy for axohaiigiDg hia 
CO Mllaa faiD wilb another of rauj rank. 

PtTBOATIVES an nwdldaca naod (or the pur* 
tjoae of producing tha eractiation of tba boweb. 
TfaM* i nw UdnM nay aot ia throo diffarast waya on 
tba ftUaantary oytftT: Snt, by atlmalatJiig the ntua- 
cnlir fibcM of O* JaUattoee. vbence th«lr petiataltie 
iBAtlaa la aagnmlcd, and tiio cooUnta of the bowela 
qukUy and oompletrly dinckot^Hl. 'lliU kinil ft 
artioo h of the greateat Lmportauoe in many tamw uT 
feior, aftd may ba prodnood by prepantlAna td jaUiv 
atana, Ac, \u onrabinatino with calonal, and au^ 
awriliariM aa manna and othar mOd laxatiTaa 8o- 
oaodly, Uity ■*/ aok bj atEmnhllBg tin nhaloDt 
»«aaa l l aa m to nodiioa an Incroaatd' diaehaiya of 
rnnm flaida. BauD* piosativa^ anofa aa tiM andUtx 
aad aodftic pow dat a, Ibo Boatato at potaab, mlpbala of 
BMCHrf% ftad Bany TefctabU porfatfToa, of whir.h 
ri at ar imi It tka SMiat powarfnl, codm under thia bead; 
and tbay an axtmndy ttacfnl ia inflammatory favar. 
dnpay, aud othar diaaaaea ot thia kind. 11m third 
Um of actiin la tba ftopDcnlfttlaD of the biliary aad 
ffawatia aeoratiaBa, Thia ia affoetnally dune by 
■Mtvutialaooanbinad with draalic, and awan tnauoaiul 
tnOd pnifatlTea, b nodarate doaaa. aueh aa tlia ooat- 
biaaHoo ot amidl doaaa of ealomal or Hh autosHftl 
p«U with tba astnct of eoloeysth. or tha ooanponnd 
rfaabarb ftU, ftc In all dirotdo ilnaita pwyatira 
■laybaiaad with oooaidarabla anoocMt bat tb«7 aniat 
ba eoBtbnad in lunj eaan for a long Period, aod 
nqvlN tha froateat attcotioai not only to th« Datnrft 
of tba porgati** aa^oyed, but to Ita «Aect on the 
at(«la or alnoa aacrelioiUL, tn caaea of wnona not 
Ittvattda BBlfeclBg timii oooitipatioB, tLe Mat ear* k 
llkaly to bt focud In a tiuafu at diet; for enrnple, 
ft graAor <piaBtity of BDcb vegalablea aa boiled carnrta, 
tBnJpi^ paiHdp% ft<i, alao ftppUa ftad raijova ttim 
Uada af fmh, aiay proAaeo tjM daatrad aleamtbin. 
It bornrar, porcfttlt* nedloisea ar«oeoaab»ally uatd 
bv tboaa in ordiaarv baahh, amaa, l^iaam aal ta, caator- 
ml, cr Bont other wDplo pvtgfttii^ will anawerbvttsr 
thaa aay qioaek mamcbfc 

A Aoaaaoa aUaaUefttkii of ntrgalirea la the fol- 
ionri^^I.) loHrfMn or Mild OtJuvties, auch aa 
maiaiai caaria pul|\ fcunaiind^ pnaea, boaey, phoa- 
tibata of aeda; caater, almond and ollro oOa; ripe 
fmit. (2.) Saime or OmUi^ Laxttitu, ancb aa Kpaom 
•all, CUuMr'a aalt, pbonjihate of aod^ SaUlilz pow- 
tbm, Ar. (a) Jrti'if CadtaHir*, DOOMdooalhr itvid, 

£ tunic ftftd M tiMcl u tt each aa riiahaab, eaanfc 
(lJ/>rai(te0rFJa(faf CbUUrCM^BodiaB 



ft 



jaUp, aoaaanrany, gambeoe, crotoa-on, cnlocyntli, and 
olaterinm. •£.) JVrKvr»<rfpKr^iiliiTi,aach aa odouial. 
blue pill, qiiic Iwltvitr with cl^alk, he, 

PURliATORY, aocuntins to Uie dogma of the 
Boniaii Catbolio Cborcli, ia tho tiiti>naa>1iat« «tat« 
bctwecB death and final doom, in wbieb the aiMila ol 
tha rightooua eipiatav through temporary anSeriiib 
tba ama cvuunStled b thia life, and ara reBdaroa 
auffidotttly |nire to vojoy thn hnp]>inBa« of facaf en. 
It AntM D»t appear to mts been made au article of 
f^tb until tAO tenth ocntury, when, acoording to 
Moahoim, * the clergy, ffntjing thoaeaupentitious irt- 
Ton admirably ad^itad to ineraaae their authority and 
pronote tludr Inteavat, aaed eTwy method to aagmaut 
tboa: and by Uib maat pcliutie diaconMH ftccen- 
paniad with moaatroaa laiUaa and Gctitiotu m ir ade^ 
tboy laboured to qataJbUrfi tlia doottifto o( nnisatoiy, 
and ftlao to make It appear that they baa ft mlgfa^ 
inflottUM in that fotioldabli? re^Hcin.' The Cnaadl of 
lYant dncraod it aa an artida of faitb that 'them ia 
a piirt;aU>ry or place of tonneot after thia Uf e, fur the 
cxpiatiou of the afaiB of good n«a which are not 
aul&cicntly pnmd hers; and that the aonla there 
detnined aa« bsMied by the maaaea, pnnreia, almi^ and 
otbar mod wrka of the Ufbw.' Th» doctrioe the 
CatboQea bcAd tobo oonflntMd Mtk by the taatinooy 
of Serfptareandbyapoitolietraditiaa. Theaa>eaUed 
teatimoay of Scriiibire la Um Tavoeet and ntoat mei^fn 
tlMt could poaaiblybetalnatofoBndadoctriiMiqNNk. 
A aia^e paange from the anooypbal book of Mae- 
I oabeea (3 Maoo, xii. .1$) b all they can dte to prore 
that It waa held by the Jew*, aod Ibla oody Men to 
[•rayon for the daad. In the ^aw Teetantent tba 
Uotpola fundah only one bnt (Matt. xU. 3S), than 
which Dothinf ean be more Tvgne aa Bnp{Mirting aadi 
a Tiew; tlw ^datica fnraiib two, 1 Cor. iii. Ifi and 
lPetariiL19; but it iadifiicnlt toaoabywbatoanoa 
of Ifiterpnlfttioa ibeycan be made to pm* tlw doc 
trine of purgatory. WitbragacdtoaiicaloUctndillon 
nut evao bMVoaa nuwrt for the dootrina be fonttd; 
it waa tadnown to the CbrirtUa Cbitrdi dnriag the 
fint A* centurina. Ilia oonneptio&a of tba fatbaa 
regardlBg a pur^-aturl&l fin were ao varied and coo* 
tnifictory that tbey aamr took abape in a dogmfc 
AngistiDa baa impudll y deoiod tboentoaevof po^ 
pdory. 'Let no on^ ho mj%, 'daealra blmMlt; 
thero are only two plana (for aoole); no lUrd plac* 
exiata.' Ha ewiraaiea btmaalf In ainUar tema ia 
other puUduiWDtka. AggaatJae neTarthalBm waa 
the flnA who adranoed aa an hypotheala the poml- 
bility of tba axiatcnca of a Mrgatodal fire ia Iba 
inlnrral betwaan death aad the noanoctioa. 9oA, 
however, waa the eatlmattoa tn whkb all tbe ayfan 
of tfala sraat BIB wan bald that what ho had mbAt 
ooojoctared waa eoon looked upon aa aa indlapalftbla 
truth. Grepvy tha (]i«at nra it a fu rther oxtanalaB; 
and later ou It waa, aa wo have aeen, made aa aitlde 
of faith Ww^wg SB tbe wbala churoh. Sinaa that 
time OeOitiMllodoctrlBahu been that tbe Boula of 
tbe faithhd idum Qod HidmB p«n estw imraadiataly 
Into pmUaa; tboae nw nava not raedtad omo^ 
togotterwfth thoaa wIm ar* defiled t7m«thrdai^ 
gu tebefl; while thoeewbc^ihoogfa fan atate of gmee, 
ara yat diarged arfth oevtala tn^uritle^ or alna not 
odBcleatly eapialad In tUa Ue, moat be purified by 
ft aojoora bi p B rg Bto c y prior to tbeCi aolraaae into 
beBV«n. Sottli only anlter In proportlMi to tbe great- 
nww cd their oflaaeai^ both ta napeel to intanaity aad 
doratiaa. TVfc aBBatiaM. Iww»e> , can be inittgwtaJ 
■od the aoate may em be liberated by maaaee and 
prayeta offoed la their behalf by the liviag. Tha 
pofM haa alao tbe power of grantfag indnlganaaB to 
the fdtbful. wUeh ban tbe effect of AortMdi« the 
daratioB of tlw ■aSaringa ot a aonl In pwgnlory. 
Tba ftbuaaa to wUcb thia dogma gai« riaa bi reapaet 



37(j 



PURIFICATION— PURl TANS. 



to the tiio ot loAviBvaaot wu, !t b K«U known, no* 
of the tmm«diiit« caiuoe which pr«ciplt&tc<l tb« K«for- 
rantion in Gcnnnmy. The doctrine wm rcjnct*^ by 
nil the rf-farmenol thciiit«mlliccRturT, luid cnrlitr 
liy tUa Wiilil«ti«« wid oLlier avvtu. TL«yteekChiirch 
has novcr hold this doctrine, thnii^li it ftdmiU tbo 

3^to one of prnjer tor the dmid. NcAiidi^r oon- 
vt« Uint tlio »ourtit of tbo cIotlrinB i>( iiurKalory ti 
to be sought for In tbo uictcnt F«i^iui doctriDa of a 
pnrifjinfT otaSMgntiaii wHdi to Id pnceils the 
notory « OrnivB, and oonsuine overythinf ibst wu 
imfiure. Fioin the Peraiaua it iwMiid witb modific*- 
tiona to tha Jvam, uid from tbntn found itx wny into 
tho ethical ■pemhttiuiui of tho Clirutiiui«. 

Btddwi tho incnncluBiTcntiM of tbo texts of Scrip- 
ture cited in iiiriport of a [mi'gtil'jiT. ai>'! Lb«i inncpii- 
oability to tbo Jiretritu! fit ihu xo-callvd loftiniony of 
tbo fivtben, which ft>r the mwA pu-t rcf^n rmlj to 
prayer for the doiwl and the ductrtuo of LimbuH, it 
may be kjrgtiRd th:it hkrip-tiirv in gdiwnd Kpnthn nf 
dcpMt«<l iouIb |[oIdi;, Inimudiutelj »l deotb, to m Gsed 
■tftto of hApplness or misery, and givca na no td«« of 
pmgKfeary, (Son Im. Ivii. 2; Ivor, xir, 13; Lnkc xvi 
9S; 2 Cw. V. S.) MorvoTBr if Cliriit died far iw and 
ndmnwd us from sin and all its coDM^iuoncvt, then 
th« idw ot fnrtlMC moritoriuiu nffning inpliad in 
thii doetrlno detrMtt from thn nerteotlMi of Chriat'* 
work. It BeeiDii wry sLtshj^b njio, U Midi mSerinKa 
•wait tbowj who wv to Ixx flnidly MV«d, and if it is 
poariblt! through tho iuxtraiuLiitAlity of th« Uriag to 
nldc&Co thcM mflcrin^ti, that na im^ndon of sluer 
tho ovil or il4 romody it nixL- in ^ny p«t of tho Hew 
Tnstunsnt. 

PUHIFICATION, a Jewish lite, thtvueh the 
porfomuico of which an iBmellte, coromontally un- 
oloan, vna rrjulmitt'il bi tho privilcgot of rrligiou* 
(xininLuiiluii, lunt throujib nncleonnifML The ground 
di-indit iu purificEitioDi traa water; bot varioos and 
touictiiues very oUbonrto cenmoufea went obaerrcd 
RocnrHing to tho nAturo of tho iinol(«nn(iM frinn 
which tho [icnMni wu lo b« purilivd. I'ho taint of 
undeanaen was removed la eome caaoe by liiiinla 
ahlntion of the peraon (Lev. xr. 16), in other* by 
nblutinn of tha dothea (Lor. xi. S(p~40). Iltghor 
dogrw* of onolMumBn requb»d amoujt vUi«r tHuga 
a probatioaity intvrval of giwtor or Ion extent and 
offeringB of atoncmont, u in tha ca*o of men baring 
Uanea <Lev. xv. 1-I&1, in the 'ciutoia uf woincn.' 
(Lev. zr. 18-30), mod In tha uucIiMUULeM of child- 
birth (Lov. xii.) Tbo bvhcat dagrco of nnclaannoaa 
was c«nnM)t»d with death, death heinjf the penally 
ill Kin. Tha method of purtfving pemuiu who had 
oontraL-tod Bniot«*uine« through (xiutact with a dead 
body !• detailed in Numben xlx. In rejiafd to Icp- 
ruy, thia diaeaae being ngardcd by the Behrewa ad 
n bring dcatli, and aa cenaegnaptly occadoning the 
wunit type of tinch-'annna, Ibe prooexa of purif^cntinn 
wu tho moit elaborate of all, and Is fuQy deactlbed 
Lev. xlv. 1-32. The eeratnooica to be obaorrad In 
tbs |Hirifi<ati<in of a bonao or a irannent infected 
wHh lefnosy wptv IrleiiLii-'al with the lint «taga t>f 
the proovcdings ueod for the leper (Lev. xlr. 33-fi3|. 
Ulc neoeaaity of pari6catioa waa oxtondod after tbo 
captivity to a variety of unautboiriied caaea, auch lu 
the wanhing of cu(« and pota, Ao., referred to In 
Hark vii. 4. Difforvnt bma that noticad above waa 
the purificuUoD performed In the eottaeoratioti of 
pHi^xtai, an') that to bo underyone by ptoaelytea at 
ba^itimu. licaidiM thraw hhlutioo waa ueoeaary |nfi)r 
to iho porfoTumni.'v uf (p«-*ial rvlt;^oua acta. Funfi- 
cation waa not pocnilinr to the JewUh aatioii; it iraa 
obserrad am-in^t tho (Irccka, l'«nlaua, and utht^r 
natiotti^ TIiu JL-wSsh rite, howover, pmnounl this 
dlitincttvB fcjitoro, that it waa of an expUtocy natnro. 
' The Juw aluno waa longbt by tba uea of explMory 



offering* to <!i«o«rD to ita full extont the onfinMlMiD 
butwi-oQ the outward ngn and tfao inward foant of 
impnritv.' 

PintlFICATlON OF THE BLESSED VJR- 
GIN MAKY, FkMT or ntK, olM alao 'tha fiaaae 
of tbo pnaeotatioin of tbe child JtMui.' A featlnJ 
held on the Ud of Fefamary In c f an nM rn ar atiflB of 
the day on «hii-h Mary catered tha tctapk^ ' whn 
the day* of her pcirification, according to tha law J 
Moaea, wore awompUalied,' thsr« to praaeat the fa- 
font Jeauj to tbe Lord, and ofler tha aaerifioa of a 
pair of tortlc dovm rtniuirrd by the law (]-nke xiii 
24). Tbo inatituUan of the intival datoa frooi a 
very remote period of the Cbriatlaa Cburdi, It ww 
introdnoad Into die Boman Cbtirdi in \9t In Pom 
Gelaaiua, and it waa aonght to aabatituta it f or ta* 
paean f«aUval of the Lupercalla, celebnttadfn hooev 
of Pan. the god «d ahepherda. In the aalabr a l fc i of 
the Catholic fcatival it i« the pnt«tiee for caob <( th« 
Itmceuioniata to carry a lifted taper, whid agai- 
6m, aoourdlui; to the tut^rpretotton of tha ajatin^ 
tbe light nhicb Jcaua came to bring into tbe wofU 

PUKITANK. in the KnglUi Cbatch, a aact vha 
prufiMiMfd to fullow the puK Word ttt Qod, In m» 
n'tion to Lraditiona, bnman roaatitntiotui, and aittMr 
autboritica. llicRefonnntionlnEoKlanilwaabnnigbt 
about in a manner qu!t« differeot fmtD that k 
which it look ]>la(.-« in other uountriea. A p^ir*!.' 
pmonal nITair of Ilenrr VIH. waa the luunnlu-.* 
oocaalon of iba cttanye wbich from a Calholki oovnoy 
ooLvatftd Englatid into a Protaatant om Oeomtaf 
at a time whan tJui natimt waa acatccly lipa for lb* 
chansa, and nndor the ttecnlior dmimatanoaa nadar 
wbli^ It did ooonr, the Eetonuation waa not eo ttm- 
ploto aa it mi^ht othnrwiao haro bean. Tbe oaaaa- 
i)ticnceof thU woa tbat tfao more ail vanoad rti o r«wft 
wore diaaatiafiod M-itfa what tbey oonxidanid the b^ 
petfootnea of tbe cbange, and witb tbe rrtealbB h 
the reformed Churrh of England oS mooh that aav- 
onradoff'nthnlidini. Thiiii>ar^eoi)tfmwdtocra«h 
nunbCTt and in iniporlnui'i?, ondlBtlwRinoiQvan 
Ellzabetb tbo Prot<atanU were dlvldM fatto Im 
partaofl, thoan who wore in favoar o{ adhering to tb* 
libiEgy citabliakcd in tbe rewn of Kdwan^ and Hvm 
whowtsbi'<l to iiilrodnoeaauapJer, and, aa tbvyc«n- 
•idend it, a purer form nS <mreli covenunant aod 
wonthip, Itie latbv wore termed PtirilaM, aod 
inauy i]f tbo diitiiiKiuidicd deivy favxmrad tbMe 
viewa. llie queen, bowever, and a ma|ori^ el the 
dergy prefenxd tbo Epiacopal form of LiiiiimiMil, 
and were attAcbod to many forma and caraaoaiwa 
inmn. wlitdi the Puritana hnkcd with areniaau Tb> 
flgoroni maaanrea followed by the dominant pany 
to compd conformity only aervod lo n*Htfifr In 
Pnrltanloal party, and to puah them into man 
derided oppoaition to the c«nim<ifiia]a of lUtina vet' 
ahip. In 15611 thn I'aritan* n«olr«Ml ibat dot; 
requlT«d tbem to hveak off frum the cborck, and 
aatomble aa thoy boat could by tberaaelTea. lo «W 
riiip riod in their mm way; tbey olao Lmd aaidalbe 
EukIUIi lituisy. and adopted tba Chnwnt mrnof 
buok. Tbey objected fnrlber to ti>e Uenftby, ■ 
not authuriscd ^ Scripture, to kneellag at Ibc ■■> 
rwDcnl^ uaing tha aiga of tbo oroaa in ^at^irti, 
bowing at the name o* Jwua, wearing tbe eurflioB 
and otoar rettmenta ia dirtait aarvloe, ka. la point 
of dootrina tiiere was as yet no dtflerenee belwea 
tho Pmrtlana and Conformkta; tbe fomiar, bwaaaw , 
aa waa natntal for a i«neeut«d pai^, m-f-**'—^ 
that overy man bad a itatonJ ri^^bt to jnigt for Um- 
•df, without being aohject to the lawa of tha d*i1 
nia^atrate, or the docnea of eoundl^ tiiarAm, or 
■ynoda. Towardi tba aaid of EUiabetb'a re^ a 
party aroao which were fint Ibr m/Jt^m^K^ ^id lb« i 
for overthrowing, the reoeired opUooa eoDeanfafj 



piniN I AH— puhples. 



377 



pradMtliuUioii, p«iMT«nuiee, (rafr-will, «>fTeet«d gr»c», 
■ad ttw sxMat vi Cliriit'i ndsnptiuu. Thg cltirgjr 
«f the dntroh begta to Imb tomidn ArtnfaiftnUm, 
wUle the PtulfaMia ftdbend rigDRXuly lo tbe ■>Bt«ni 
«l CklvlB, aad aQ CftlTiniite, wfa«Ah«r Kpiooopal or 
riMtijitiiiiiii. irsn caU«d dottrinai PurUaiu. The 
umim mt timUoA ta »U wbA wa« renukrlublj 
fltriet in thnr tnonla, and •erera ia nuuiner*. 
EUnbvtfa tr«»t«d tb« furituia with nvftt ri^nr 
dating tho wbd* li bar nfga ; bMble* um oidinuT 
ooorta of tba Uabopi^ she anoted the oout at blgli 
eominiaiaD, whkb auniendcdMid dqtrivoi] Ibe rcfmc- 
toj of tboir tiring W tha dBtsrmiiMticia uf thnm 
naUBfarfDoen^ fmrnoM Dpoa tha oukon Uw; befora 
tUf «o«t Hw priunor «u obUMd to vmrvr qnas* 
Mom pnk to hia nadar udh ; if ho ivfomd tf> *w«v 
b* WW fcayilt w iwl tor omtcinpt, and if Im took tba 
oalli ha «u flOBvioled upon hb o-nn coafeakn. 
Dnriiif tb« rdgn of Jasim I., from whom tbii Ptui- 
tMM had erpoctcd mor* indulgnncr., they were treated 
«rfth gTwtw Mvaritj, aivl mauy ot tb«oi Vft tba 
UngilQaiand ntlnd to Ilulkud. wbenoe ihe^ «iiu- 
gnMd to Aneriaa fai 16S0. AU who oppnwd tb« 
■rbftnuy maximi of bia govenunenb w«n looked 
nfnn hy Jmtam aad tba oourt a* /'mribim*, and thwi 
w«c* ciulad Puritmu in ttet«v vbo, unitiiif; witb tb« 
ehmrtk Puftaaa fai oppndtf on to the tjnanloal fcin- 
dplaa of th« Stuart ayaaatj, fornwd ft Bugoritjr in 
tM oatkiti. Tb« Kiiocoai <if tbo tint wa^maton to 
Anwric who «at»liliihod tha colony of N«w Ply- 
noMh, laduad grtaA nuikbaii of I^irltana to tnnt 
to tba aama qiutrtar for iwlM, and Iho nav mlnny 
til T>faMiiiliii«i Hi Bay wita fiiunitiHt by thrm in liI2^. 
Tba eolmj of X«w Uavou wu abxi f'^uded by Puri- 
laaa who flad from tha pcrecmiiomi of I au<1, ami tba 
opfircaaioiu of th» Sta« Oiuiibrr uirl thn bigb mm- 
mbrinn oonita. 'L'bongh tbero wrera abadea uf diSar- 
am ta Uhm fogtUni to Aunrias they acraed In 
OMBl Dolirta of doetrine and AadpUiK, and moat d 
Ihair daacamrlaata in Naw Kaglaud, of which thar 
ODBMat • principal part of tba pwtilatioa, tlill 
dttnih with foRduM iha ■"***'" and tha mtmorj 
<f tbair Pnritaa fatbcm. Tba Pnritajia ware aftcr- 
warda pravantHl frotn ratiriac to Amarica, and nuuij 
of tb«aB roDoaed faato BoJIaad, whfl« othera tvmaluad 
at boma aad flnallj pnUad down tha throm and the 
attar, which looi: perasentioaa had imdarMl an odi- 
ooa to th«BL (Saa Cromwxll, HaWDUI, Ptv, Ac) 
It was tba naion of tbe tfana klnda of Furitans 
■hoT»MBBtiane i which »Te tha ParUamaBt the 
rkUMf to tha dril war wbkb followed. The IVca- 
hgrtaiMn partv waa at flnb tbe meal powerful, but 
toa ladepOBittnta, aBung whom were Cratavtll, 
XQtea, «., ftnally aoqaind the aaoeiuieBcy; and It 
*M thla party, moat of whom were repabUcana la 
politica aa w«ll aa in cborch diadplintv tKat befaaadad 
the king and aboliabad royalty, Aftar the laatora* 
Ite of Charlea IL, the ae( of imiforuily (l«ft!l) 
eawhded bam tbe ootmnnko of tha cborch all who 
wh aad to obaorte the ritoe aad rabacribe the doe- 
trkM of the Church of £i«laad; mmI boia that 
tlaa the bjjdb of »oiuor[farmiM$ wia applied to endi 
raenaaBto ee, for laataoe^ Pt««byt«riana^ Indtpan- 
danta, Qaakcrs fto. See HoMCtnirOBiana, and 
BnidUip— Chnrch. For a «oinplrte Uatofy of tbe 
RvilaH the reader amy oooaalt NeaJ'a Ulrtory of 
Hm PnritiM (fettmla.8To^ 178S-S6, eflaa reprinted). 
PURXIAIL a town of HindiMlaa, la Bengal, 
prorlaoa al Bebar, oanltal of the diitriot of the mom 
aaneh 190 atDea aorta by weat of CUouttiL eonaUu 
ti the bowa pnpcr aadT a aerice of Mngpln^ lub- 
iirh& Tha town todoece a qiaoa of about S miles 
aqoate, much of i^ bowerer, oceuffad by plaotatinna, 
ffanlena, and open pUcaa The beat pari, rilnated 
€>n i1m kft bank uf tha Little Knal, ooufati of three 



parallvl atreeta, oDe of tbeni ahmt half a mile Inns, 
wiidet tolemhly rtnigbt, and linud wiili biiuatewlik'li 
an (eSHmUy w^ btdlt and tied. AmocK the laha- 
hitanle are a anulwr of wiea!thy c»]iitalisu engaged 
in banking. I'm, 10,057. 

PURPLE. The colour to which the aodeata 
applied tiie nani« pimU wm either datli^ or violet 
and raaa -ooloii red, aod we* one of tiie laoet oeatly 
dyea with wbicb tbey ware aoqnaintad. Thc^ ob- 
tained tLdr purple dyee pwtly from plants and 
partly frcmi sov««a] Idoda of ibBD-fiih. ae the &m- 
ciaitm, aiiil the tnorrx or purpura. In modoit tiiata 
a ritnilu' purplo matter liaa bevu found In aaveral 
other ahell-baL It la a vlaooiu juice eonbdned in a 
llttia ponch or bag, lyii^; naoraUy betweoi tbe heart 
and brer. Tha rnlnnr of the juice rnrie^ being In 
aome poipUi^ rt<d, in ticL<-r« \<a\tt yvltow or orange 
eolotmd. B^aotmir f uond that tba jiuee taken fn«i 
one of theeo ahell-fiah, on being applied to llneo, 
chained in tbo oourna of a few aecouili trtiui yellow 
to ereea, bln^ and finally to puipliah red. The juice 
of ttig aM-faaJt) found by tte Spaniaide ia Fan), 
and wad for dyeing, p««e«nta aimilar pb enna wa. 
Ooobineal la noA tiaed for punile dyea by Ibe 
modama. The andenta attribotmi the diaoovaiT of 
purplv to the Fhoaddane. The atnry cf ita havlai; 
Iteen dbwoverocl by a dog biting a pniple-fiah, anil 
tbita -'-in^lg bia luoiith, ia well known. Tbe pnr|ila 
tiah waa found not only on tba Ptwrnidaa ooa^ but 
in aU other parte of the Meditenaiwaii, w that the 
nee of It to dyeliur eame to he eoaunon with athot 
nationa; btit tba Phnniciana eic»ll«d in the beauty 
and ivnnatiiinon of tbclr ooliiiiring. Tba ^yrlana 
excclloi partindarly to the briubt red and violet 
■hade, 'i'bey dyed tbe fioeat «roola of tbta eoleor, 
luually twiot^ and then gave an artilidal brilUaiMiy 
to tba atufl. But aa the oolooriag fluid oould only 
be hid to very mall quaathiea mm tlie ikell-fiah, 
twrplo^yed gnnnenle wereiedcooadof alnoatprks- 
iem value (cmnp. J«r. x. 9; Ewk. siiiL 8 ; Itan. v. 7>. 
Tbe reeeat diamvery of purple ooloun fmn ooal-tor 
BULkea an Important epoch la the hlitoiy of tbe dye. 

PURPLE GKACKLK See Caow-Buomitit). 

PUIiPLK OK CASSIUS, a mple aulwtanoe 
uaed to auaw eitieot to the arte, d iac oveied by Dr. 
CaaduB at Leyden to 1M3. Thie KLbataaae la vn- 
bably aa ooode of gold eoatatoinc MaaQ qaaittiliae 
of oiideof tto; It m prepared byaadiag pratoddoride 
«f tin, along with a llUto pcvchloride, to a aolution 
of chloride of goH when It ia thrown dowa ta tba 
form of a dark pnrplfr'^oloared praciritaiei I'urple 
uf CaBiua, ralxod with borax and ^ipUed to tha au^ 
faeo of ehioik Inpane a beaotlful nae-ptok er riob 
purple eobor, aooordtog to tba qnanti^ oaployed. 
It ia alao need (or ooloiiring red llohcmian ^Ma. 

PDBFLB8, Thb, or PuuvmA, a dlaa^ to which 
tbe aurfaca of tba bo>ly 1» oa«at«d with apaekaor 
patcbea of a dark porple or livid colour, tha amptt'v 
bdag acoooipataled witb great debility, and f reqntully 
a draree of ferae. The apeeke or palchoa are tbe 
reenlt of extravaeetioB tmn the ■tinvto rasA bv 
aeath the eotlde, aad reaeaible tite petacbtoi eeea to 
bad typhna fevnr, or tbe i(<uta in caata of aaa actirry. 
1'h» wont foam of tbia di»r^ ia tha pe iy arw A<mnr> 
rluidiem, or bleeding pwpon^ to wlileb tlie Mood ia 
oftea offsaed to large qnaotitlea from tha anrfaoe, 
givtag fiae to gnat proatoatfon of atrangth, and fMie- 
EaQy taminaUng fatally. Tbb diaaMw ia \twmiuA to 
BO agw or aax, Init wonMo, aad alan baya bafbrt the 
att« of poberty. are note Uahk to it than otben^ 
unedalty tboae of detioato eonatitutinaa wbo Uve to 
ocild damp boiBea. Thatrrafwrat dapenda ^HHitlally 
i>n tha baldt of bo<ly and Um i^ and etnagtb «f 
the patient Moderate Uoed-lattlng la ree—ii— lad 
to nuwt caaee at tha eanMeaoaBUM; toU Ibe &mtm 



n7S 



PITKPLES— PUTREFACTION. 



may b« ramoretl wtthoiit It, and care lAinild bo tekcn 
nut to raort to it if there k evldeon ol aniniib or 
ot deficient cjmi's of tbo Uood. In lat«r stng«« of 
tti* tilweMC Kcntld l&XKtirei should bo wiminutoiod, 
aUo •mill doM* cJ tbe nilDenil n«i(l> fi«quently 
ra|)«ated, combined with doeoction □( PinnriaA iaak; 
and TThan ^rphoid tym^caa* *|ip«nr tha Miutitatinn. 
nbould be Nu>TKirt«d l>y ineaiu u( wina and other 
■tirauluntK. »or dirt dnrtog th« |irof{nM of tho 
uialftdy milk, in ooninnAioo vritb ncm nnd foriiucs- 
•nu uticlefl, duaiild be AQawed, alM frmli Tq[etabtai 
ftnd f niita. Animal food aliould be used rery iihu- 

PUBFLES, Cut CooiOi, or Pz?rKiicoiLV, a dim«o 
nffeotiug the eus of wheat, prodiiecd by a mintitd 
free or nnn-para«itic Numatund »rorm (*.'« NKKarxi> 
mia), olliisd to tho woU-known Vinegar Eels, and 
t«nii»d the Tj/Unektia or Viltrw Irilii-i, or 'Wheat 
F4I.' lltia duuMB vaa fint described durinv Die 
liwt oeotury by NMKibain. The Infected gwna of 
wb«at appear at fint to aanmw a dark-gmn oolour, 
wtuoh »ao daspent to * black. The gnloi alter in 
•hape^ and booome roondtd and furrowed on thtAr 
eJttetnal ourfaco. Tho hunk* opon, atu) the diMuwd 
xnins ars found tu cuulaiii nu uutrinwnt or flour, 
but to bv fiUod with a motvt subetiDce of whhe col- 
our and of cottony condstonoo. If this sittMtanoo 
bo nitnuitted to nicRMCOpic nKaminntion thv chnnm- 
tuTiKtia Nemati^l wonu abovu alluded tu uiAy be 
■•cen. Tlwn fonns appear to eater tba graia in 
Manh, and to aKoeud into tho yoonc plant and reach 
the aeoda or ovulea. Thoy then depoait their ova 
and dl^ tlio ymine bvlng dOTvlojred Id about oiKht 
or ten dayi. In Uiair early atato tho young Wbrios 
in»y nuoHUre ^gd of an inch in length arul alwut 
l/nth of an inch la diatneter. Wlmn fully grown 
tlier mar attiUn a length of i Inch anil a^itb of an 
\nm In dlanioter. A nngle gnun of wbuat may ooa- 
tain 60,000 yoBiig Tibrioa, 'i'b* ritiUitv of Uieae 
funaa aeeme to roaemUo that ol tb« Kotifera or 
* WLmI Animalottlea,* In that they may be dcrioated 
or dried, and restored again on tho appllraticm of 
nudatmemanv tirar* in iiiii;citiuiii>n, and, according ti> 
Bauer and fienvluw, Uiroufibout a period of «U or 
M7«a yaant No abM^nto remedy for thla dlseaao U 
knomi, but acftldio; or boiling watw baa been naoer- 
ttttned to Idll them NumnloidJi. 

PUBSE, KBums the IVirka, the aum of 500 | Jartrea, 
or £i,10«.M9tling, InPerfialbo pumu iaSOtonans, 
w£28,4<.7A, thft Ut\nun being worth 9*.3|iJ, aterling. 

PTTBSEK, In the navy, an offioer appobtod by 
the lord* of the admiralty to take cbargo of the pro- 
viaiau and alopa of a ahiti of war, and to loe that 
they were cftrifullr diitributod to tho oflioen a&d 
crew according to the prliit«d tuval ioiLrtiction. He 
lind vurv littln to dn with mnnoy luiittiira bryond 
]>a^'inlI tor ihort aUowuncc, He wiu allowed one- 
cwhth for waste on all proi-isiana embarked, and 
additional on all proviriona saved; for which he paid 
the crew. The dcaignatiaa is bow diacardad for that 
of par/mattfT. 

PITllSIuVNB iPoHulaen dennta, nat<iral order 
Portnliicaicow}, a plant lald to hara come originally 
from India, but now nlmcet nnivotiaUr duhiaea 
thimi^ the driUzed world. The cteeM diTide from 
the UM into aereral proetrat« branobei^ which an 
clothed witii aaNnl»,miw)otb,and wedm^hapMl leaven; 
tlie flowara are email, yellow, and axUbry. The whole 
plant la racculent Fonaezly it was uultlvated na a 

rt-berb for mlarlii, gaminhiogv, and pickling, and it 
rtill eniiifrliuM^a <:iuplt>vod for thoac putpoeea. 
J'lniSVIIVANT. Sie PoUBsoPTJJtT. 
I'USEYISM. Sec Thactabiamwji. 
I'U^tUKIN. Ai-BXAKDBB, Count of Beiigejciitoh, 
ou eminent Itiuiian poot, wna bom at St. Fttte ia l m g 



til 1799, and nweivedhiaflntedacedfaain thel^oem 
aiZar«kojfl-S«lo. Ho »«yearlTbesao writing »»o»«, 
nnd in hi« fonrtccnth yrar pabUibed n poem entitled 
HceollectioM of Zarskuje-Sela The very favoonUe 
leoeplion given to it ao overjoyed him thai ha abaa- 
donod all other etndica aad Uved Ear poetry atoM. 
Afterwards, fcowover, coi relundnf to SLPetcnlnrfc 
he took the wiser ooutae of ginng mnch of bb Una 
to the study of hlfltoiy and t£e ancient daMca. ^I^ 
the s^t <n youth, and Inspired by the bee niritf^ 
the ancicnta, be wrote an Ode on Freedom, wUdi M^ 
to bin biuiisliinent rrom the capiUhl in 1620, Ob ttia 
acoeadoD of t)ii> Kniperor Nioholaa la 18SS be was 
iwtorod to favour, nod the ai^nlntaont of imperial 
hiBtoriognpher waa oanforred npon him. ffis hcM 
worics are Russia and Ljnd mills, an epie la dx cesba; 
tho Mountain Pri*i?ner, a frr»h and vigorons ^ietm* 
of the predatory habits of tbcCauoaaJaamoiw tniB e wi; 
&n<^ above all, the FountAin of BaktduMMnL Moa- 
tion may aleo be niwlo of hi* portraitiire of a Tomg 
libertine, under the name of £ug«ne Onecta. His 
dramatic peam, Boris Godnnov, is an ezcuknt and 
lively picture of the manneni of that period. One sf 
hij) greatfvt dnfocta i* a manifest and often alairiih 
iuiilA^ou of Byron. Hedied Ln 1837, bis d>rath bemg 
occasioned br a wound he reeeirud In a ducL 

PtTTEAtiX (l-fttin, PvMi),^ town of Fnuwe. b 
the dtrparttnfint of the Sdne, on the left haok of the 
St ine, 6 BiHea weaC of Parli. It has naniifaciuna id 
printed enllooas, dyo-works, w««r«tad and ailk miQ^ 
and plnMK-r-kitna. AlmiMt all the granad fa th« 
m^i^hlHiuriKHxl is laid tnit in lutcben^ardaa^ or 
tiuiployed in nMng roees, tho loavna nf wMoh an 
Mold Ui the Parisian perfumer*. Pop. M^^l), 19,BM. 

PIJTEUU, the ancient name for PoxiaalL See 
roaroi-t. 

PUTNP.V, a vUU^ and pimKh of EngUvl, (a the 
county of Surrey, on iL« rl^-1n bank of the ThaaiMi 
o^vpcaiU; Fulhain, with which it ia oooaected hnr a 
brid|,'«. Aniuug its buildings are three idmrchca, 
ODD of thorn with a rvstoml ancfent tower; seveml 
dtMioritinc obapfli, and ondovcd sehoala for the soai 
o{ watt^nuMi. Putney b perhapa beet known aa the 
heMl-((uart«rs nf the rowing world. Ciibboa tiie 
hhitorian wm bom boro. Pop. (l^'^i). 13,33&. 

PDTRGF ACTION la a phenomenon due, aa M. 
Paaleur bai Utaly demonatratsd, to the p nam ai of 
aninudnilca, which cauao a simtlar alteratiea ftt 
putrvsdble matter to that produced by as in the 1 
whioh ve hreAtb& Tbees antmalmlra are devele 
in the midst of tho matter, deeompMinc aad 
orgwdxine it, and generatiag In the pi t w esa a great 
number « gaaea and Uqnid pgrodncte u a noe* or Um 
putrid odonr. Before punvfaedon seta la ergaab 
iiixttera first undergo an uomerin modifteatlaBof thifr 
jmRiadiatfi actire principlea raoarkable for Iti vini- 
lucce. It is In thhi state that dead bodies are tamid- 
able, and that pricka rae«ived whilst Jlmar^tng tlm 
are mortal. Pntrefaetion takes a Mtlrin tilH la 
dedara itwdf, aouurdbg to the cirenmataaesa eC lan- 
peraton, S». In the moat favourable divaBitlaaea* 
It will take at least twenty-Four boan bafon iht 
T^enonenon bt^ins to show itself by exttrmal elgaa 
Futiefaoticn la prevented by the aidtidon nf all att; 
or by tiio action of labeaeo ookL whi<b etataa en 
oi^oeedtothedoveloinientof theaalmaiatiha, Iht 
gaace gaerated in ptooam of pntrcf aetioa an c 
add, dtrmneo, oarburetted aadsdpbaretted hy 
vapour of water, i"""-"* aod ammuniaod ^_ 
pounds^ ko. Them pntrefa^ve e£9avia an f orlb 
moet part eaidly devootpaeed, and rcBDlwd into new 
andoomparativdy InBoeuoa* oampoonda, by a>aaiM«< 
ddarine; benoe the impottanee of that body aa a 
pou-crfnl nnd rapidly actlag dirinfeetant Tie moai 
eSective anll-pulrofiRlives or antiae|4u an eettala 



pumr— PYCNOGOsuiL 



379 



Vlad* o( mM, annr, almhnl, CArboIic acrii!, brcaaote, 
mad guicnUj urttatomr atUwr alMOTti* or i»[qotm 
wmm of tki mofatm ud «Mn iolo mw ohsUoa- 
Uam with the arfftolo nktter. 8«e DscoHrosmov 
m m! Fimi MTATioy. 

PUTTY, > kind ot pMto, oorapoundsd of wbitlne 
and llMMd-oU, bcMeo tentlMr to tbo «oniiM«Qn at 
stUdtdomh. It if lusa by gUfien [ortlie tnnpMe 
•< fiztaf iliMt* e{ j;1mb b lue fnunes of wiiulowa, 
Ae., mad mlao by PHatws for fllUag ap holoa in tho 
tnttMOe Uktj nt Moot to inint. Ai it baoomca rcry 
hordwbdaitiltlMitisBonMtbiiMfoiuul MlTaatageons 
wbere HnM dwTM of ulutiGiljr is raqiiirMi am in 
kuga pattM Ih^ to cootrftct uul eipiuul throngb 
•hiM M i of (MDpantuiA to mk ibe uutty wltfa fiao 
RuwTiB tallow ia the prcpoitiao of 1 put at tbo 
UU cf to 1 2 at tfao fanaar. 

PUTTY-POWDER, MnlwUiiM eoudrtiug of tho 
pvatUad tla. 'Wbeii tla ii OMltod la an open toi- 
aal to Mrtaoe aooo boeoiBGO cototmI with » my 
p u wda t, which u ao ondo of tbc mctaL II Um MtX 
U eontbiiMd th« oulour cl tb« powdor fptiaaHy 
and at lut tooonw ycDow. ThU Mun b 
«B tiB, Rwl aAtt bdng alt'twcl to o«d li 
ndoeed lo a vccy ftae powder. lu Ihia >lala it is 
much trmploysd la pouhlag (iMi and oth«T h*td 
■ubatADow. It laaboimdaaaedDiiriiieiiiattvfor 
whUerlaH^ tho white eaaiaeU of porcohkin, ftc. 

PITY, «■ Put -»t- Vklat, Le, • town ol Praaoe, the 
npital ol tho dapartnont of U»uto-I^a(r«, 370 nUm 
mA& ol Piria^ ptcturnqfiKlT ntoatod «o the Muth 
altft (4 UooBt Anig, oa vUoh ft riwo In the form 
at AD amphitheatre bctweeii iho Uonio imd tha 
DolaixDD. OrertaCTiing tb* bocara \» a vartical nick 
of *r«loado broom ovwiK-d with a ooloaal btonu 
Mahw <f thaVb^ mado f rcmicanD^m tahoD at Sobaa- 
lafol, aad oo a ooaical rock of bawllic tufa, rising 
•knptlj tron Om Bona to Uw bd^t of 2«5 foet, b 
an aaoioBt BaaaBwqna chaeel, amroaohod by a itair 
partly oat ia the Rwk. The tatonor o( tho town ia by 
ao DMaoa [Tniiwiiwln(i', Tha tttemU ara nanuw, aad 
hi thafr vfvm part ao ataop aa to bo iaaccva»iUo to 
Gairtacan Tho priadpal ooUoao are a hoary Komao- 
oaituo oalhedtai oti a oowmittdliic bdgbt; the largo 
ehnrch of Si. Laoroat, hi which tba L'onatabls Ihi 
Quw t Uu b buiM; the tbeatrt^ In an andont oeio- 
■ml bnUiBnf, f^ed to liavo boon a teiaplo ot 
Wl— ; m largo aad haDdsoBM aemhkar;; a new m«- 
^^^Bfeu<^ and aomc iiitimaliiiit Bmnan romaini. IIk 
^^Hnlaatarai ara cUidy Im, tullt; and Uuudc, 
^n&dMT.&e. Pop. (18SI), IV^ 
I PaY-UBDOMK,ad«|)a«tnMiito<l'kaiiee,beaod- 
■ vdioi tba north by Alller.vw tho wort by Oranaa and 
ijvniam, oB tho onath by Caotal and Haulo-Lobo^ 
aad on tho eaat by Lofra; aroo, 3070 aanara n&M, 

§lt aoulitB at an ntearfTo nadnlatlag valUy, flanlwd 
aart Mil waat by k^ ramiflcaMotM of tbo Cmanaa. 
Ihi ■monta i i ia, aitaatad dUaflj In tho waatt totm two 
crmpa — odo In the north f o nrt tl i ; ai nndod Tol- 
caaie aamm, {aoatnlly cnUad Mtmtt-Damm, ot which 
Um ealsbralid Foy-da-lMma^ 4805 fast, ia tho oul- 
■Inartiig point {aeo CirsKXn); tfaa othar oooaiata at 
kltr pmk» atUd Uonli-DDria, ol whldi tho cnlnl- 
, ■Mi^: ^1, Pnydft-Saai?, 623S fMt, fa tba lofUaat 
b iwiaiiisiii m tba tntarior ot I^anca. Many of the 
I mlon of tbaaa oxtlaot voleanoaa ara aa well nuLrhwl 
' m tboaa ol voicanoM now axbllns, and tho ftraaim 
ol Um which Bowod fron tbom can bo traced for 
milea In tlie lonror lo^itiea the vma ia cnltivatad, 
and lam aiimtltlaa ol whaal, bamp^ and flni aro 
(lown; in too U^nr loealitba m awl oala an tha 
paindpal craps; bol tho tnaat ranablo tvodoeta an 
oUainod ban tho Ibraata, partfenlarly uo cbaatnu^ 
wUdi fnnnaaafanportaatariiotool food. Thotoftior 
moontain dljtri«li alwand with pnatura, which ara 



veniant ainioat to tbo moimtain aonuniti^ and (fed 
vaat vutnlwn (if c»tlJa aiid sbeap^ Acoordtag to a 
gOMnl cstiiuala tho wholosorfiKo ot tba dopartmoDt 
uty bo thiu diridod— anblo land, naaiiy oao-halt; 
waate, oiio>fourtli; wood, ralber mora tkanono-taoth. 
In thew dbtricta tho wild boor and doar aro wA 
moommon, and oaglaa and odior iaigo bUi ol n<ay 
aro often aoen. Gam« b muneroait Tbo adtkeniu of 
tho department ara not of much iuportanco; ccal. 
bowwvar, b worVacl bo advantam in aoaoral pboe^ 
Minonl sprinKa. both oold MM thonal, aio tot; 
nnmcooua 1^ prlndMl uaonfutnna aia lunpaa 
ctotii, ribbon^ camlei, bambasna^ aatiat lac^ canK 
cutlMTT, 4<t Pop. (18HL 5««,0»J. 

PUZZOI.AHA. Sao ronoLum and CEimnB. 

PY.£MIA (Greek, fwon, pu^ and Aomm, Mood), 
a dlaeaaa doo lo tbo paaaanoa in tho Uood of tho 
prindpal alcounta of pus, or other anbaalthy aoera- 
tlom oanbCinff <d daootnparinc »tiii»fc1 naHof. "Dtt 
potaonoQe matttf niaT bo intKiaaMd throogfa an aloer 
or wonac^ or through an imperfoctly doaad vein or a 
anooua mendfrano. Two variatiaaol thoDaladyarv 
dhUngwMiied: onUa pyRinia and dkroiiio pyiwilfc 
TtM fonner of ikma ntu iti omom rtry tifMj, 
bcgiaaing witli a violott fit of fevor and ddvaringa 
ol graa t w or IwiatooaJty, ffoltoffod by other favoriah 
fll»aldMaaiDodiaiactcr,attoDdadby groat praMra^ 
tJoo, aad temfnatnts blaDy at a potiod raiy iii{ fran 
a fow hours to ofght or Ion days man [ta tint appov 
anoai Aeuto pywmia roaultiiig tram an Inipmtanl 
nsglcal opwTBlwH b slmavt alwaya fataL II vfulmt 
ahlx'eriiiga orertafce tho patient twenty-fonr or toity- 
nt;bl livtm ikftrr acooucbenMHit, or aftor an oparatico^ 
a fatal tormination to tbo nahuly may ho oxpectmL 
Chnndo pyuuln b ntidi Icaa aanow; It oontlnnoi 
aenni tnonth^ and tha patbot b Ukaly to raeoror, 
onlomtho loaion which comos the Ncrs ti on and tbo 
abmcptioaof Uwns b ant ItaoU of avwy mhw* 
charaetor. Clu««w pysnia resnlb frnm tho ahaarp' 
tiun ol the fpnmle* and the liquid olraaonto of tbn 
uua oonaaquoBt opon bai] suMKiratiau rosultioK 
uom a burn, ia abaocosea thruoni ognEcaUaai^ wUlo 
tuawmn, ko. It b aanotiBcad ny a daw ountbuoua 
faror with tatenaitlont fits and nootnnud sweaty 
with or witbont oolUqaalivo i&arThica. If Uio pcdaoa 
Laa altered tbo syatenn from an open aovo, nhrato ol 
■Utct aboiiid bo nppUad, foUowad by faiiwntaitfoaa 
and poutticoa, Tbo boweb ibonid bo hapt mm bj 
piari;ativc«, and aaltne dianiihta th^roH bo adaiinl^ 
t*.ivd daily. StimnlaDta and KnaH dooes of oploB 
ihoiild bo naod protty fraaly, la ocdor to oomtinwl 
tho otato of ocrvoM depraarion ineidant on tba dboM(^ 
and Butritloaa food wold he taken. 

PYCNOGOXUM, a sonns of AumJoio aadnals, 
soBMtitnao indnded m aa erdar (PodoaoDBtn) of tbo 
lowor AnduUa, ami at othar tiaMS cbadAod with 
tho lower CrtMtacoana. Theaa fono^ uipularly 
knows hy tho nana of 'Ban fjpidm^' an all nwiiBa 
and of auU ilsib and wbt oftWr lo ftoe orgsirii— 
f* aa patMba mwa fldui^ ^wb% sad otbor Barins 
Ebraia. Tho body b ihort and thiok, Ibo sight Umbs 
being looser than the bodv, and romarifaMo ■■ ««■- 
intnJnf pralcagatlona at taa dffMtlvo syatom. Um 
UMjlh bear* » nairol naniUbba pnnridad with dutm 
or pinoaf^Uks cJawi^ and abo ■•"'**''— two i»«fllMy 
palpL In tho lauab a pair of ialss Isgi^ oaidi um- 
rifltW of rix jdnti^ eibt behind thana palpi, and am 
uaed tor earring the ora or tggL Tha bead b pf»- 
loBcad and not proviiled with appeDdaiMay the tbomx 
orOMatoonalrtfaigoffuarargaieDta.aii'l thaabdomaa 
b ndiakealary. llw oyea nvaiher foor, and ai* 
plaood on tbo ei«t icjnt of the thorax. Tbo wns 
are dbtlnct. No wwdalload brcalhing or^HM oahri^ 
and It b doaUfaf tf a bawt b d*»okipod. Tbo 
eomnoa Britbh spookn b /y iwjawini ttwwifc lib 



3S0 



PYGMALION— PTRAMm. 



not annuntu^ And b (duiiiI an our cna>U at luw-nator 
□lAnL crkwliug ou ae&-wi!«ii ur beueacb Mrrnvt. I'. 
V'WTM u uiatlm Bpttciaa, wluLrt f. Balawirun 
Mtftehtt Itself pansitUmlly to wb^lca. 

PTGUALION, * prince at Cypna, who, dlignated 
witfa tb« <l«l)«tuilwri« of his oouBtTTwcniMn, took mi 
STMdiHi to tho MX. AecordlDgtoOridtMot X.S43], 
bAvtiig made a retn&1« sUttie nf ivikry b« tm m 
cncbuitn) liy iU bc»utj that lie fall jii luve with hia 
o«rn vnrk, and mtnsted Vcnna k> nniloir it with 
lite. Hut prsyar WM gnmtud; tbo vutuo Ih.iiiui U> 
bnsthe and liv« before bis eyes, and in bla embRMw. 
It beckoie bia wife, bv whom he had I'*pliiM, tlie 
ioanAnT (if tliB aly of the aaiue uuiue. GiUH-rl'ii 
•Inma of PygniaJloo and <HlatoA t« roimdRil on thU 
atof^, Anfitbur PygnalivD, Kiagof TfruuiulSidoii, 
wiut limthor lA DiJn. 

I'YOXry (Great pas/mawt, duarfiihj. The Pjtf- 
ndo w«n a fnbuleua iiativu of dn-iufj. who wora Mid 
Vi Uva near the aearcea nf th« Nilr, or, acoordlti^ to 
■ome^iii India. Homer nicnlioan Uiuui m threatened 
with dc-nth xtu\ i)n«tnicti<ia br the cranea (II. iH. 3). 
L«t«r writcis nni mote ininitto in their accounta 
Fllny MTB that their towni and hauiea were hafit ef 
•eg4holls; and oceonUi^ to PhikiatratuB they cut 
^Mm their cnm, aa one woidd fell a tni«^ with axua. 
The Utter also ii|K.-aks uf an army of Pyitudea wliicii 
•ttadnd Hereul«3 while a1i«|)liig aft«r lila atrufD^Io 
with Anbena 'I'boyninde ttuch propanttiona for the 
atoanlt aa if tlioy were to attack a dty. Hut tlie 
li«n\ (in awakiu^, lati),'h«d at the Utile warriun. 
wnppvd them up in bia iiiyn-ekin, and carried thorn 
to hnr}-athRui. 

PYLAUKa, m^m gf StrophluJ, king of Pliodn, and 
Aiuudbia, the aistw of Ai[aineaioon. oelobrated for 
the frioidihip wliich DxirtM botweto him and OrHtea, 
He asdated Onetea In murdcHnf; hIa motlter Cly 
tirinaaatr% and alio acc(iui(>»nled lilia tu th«< Tauric 
ChonwaeaoB. He flventviUly married Electra, the 
•iatcr of his friend. Soo OnbuTEs. 

PYIiORUS. Bee 3TO»i*rH. 

PYLOS, a town of aucleut Gn-coe, in the avuth' 
wwt flf Ueasenia, va a [iromuutory at the aorlb 
«Btraii<« to what ia noir c^Icd the liay of Naviuuux 
The Inbabitanb^ after oflering a bravs reaktanoe lo 
the Hpartana (n the aecoad Meaaeclao war, were 
obliged to <|iiit it v,-ith the rent of the Mcsaeaiana, 
and the town vraji Ijud in min*. 1'Eii* or anr>tlK^ 
town of the aauie name vraa fuuudud by Ni.-I»u3 and 
govtmwi liy Noator luid hi» d^vivndauU, 

FYM, John, a parUauieatarioii in the rei$n of 
Charles I., vai dcaonnded of a food family in Honi- 
enotahire, whnre ho was born in lG9-t. Ue traa 
educated at Pembroke Colleso, Oxford, wbenoe ha 
nuaoved to oo* of the Inns of Court, and was called 
to Ibo bar. He waa varly elected iDianb«r of ParUa- 
menl lor Tkrlatock in thit reign of Jaiaes I., and 
took a DTominenl [lart in the uupcncfament ul the 
Dukoof Bnckinghom in 1<:!26. In 1430, with sereral 
other eoamonen and lunl*. he held a gIom com- 
^Mwdeiioe wllii tho oomini>aione(a sent tu l^ndoti 
hV the Boottiah CoT4mant«n; and when Parliaiuctit, 
wdch bod nift aaramblad sinca 1629, met again In 
\tiKf, Pym was one of its moat aeti^» and leadiits 
ncuben. It was not> bowevw, till the nMscting il 
the Long Pariianwnl, towards the latter pvt of the 
■aimyoar.tbatlie eame most prvnuDeatly to theCnnit. 
Foastaad of (.Tcat oIoqueDce, he made a vi^nms «Dd 
•ffeotiTa qwecb na aoon m Parliameat had opened, 
in which hu dwelt at length npoo the grieranoes d 
the natido widt mapact to parliamentary privflegos 
and dvil and ruli^oui liberty. Ha did not, howerer, 
stop har^ hut a few days later fallowed op hMi|>e«di 
bv oriikd^inf forward a cfaargoof hijih treaaon against 
toe Earl ei SUallard, luimo mhiirter nS Cbarida L; 



&ud hi the iiupcachmrat which foDowed, and 'tUA 
miilU«I in th« dnth of fttraffurd, be took tbo leadiBC 
part InI94lB motiua wascarriod bytbaofpcaaliDB 
party to tuhoiiit a remunstnoce to the kli% expariai 
tho defects of his administratioii stnoe asmiAu ^ 
throna, and it waa tbo aeal aud earoestnasa of Fyia 
ill this matter whioh led Charles into tbe inpradnt 
ueatnreof gtrfngtothe Parlianwot tn petsontesdie 
him and other four memlxn. Pna MnDoaudy 

raed erer)' overiure of peace, and at last bostili- 
DomoienoMl by tho bretJdne out of tbe civil *« 
in Angrost, 1C<3. Clarendoii tuatca that Charles L, 
foding the neooarity of gotnlaff at any eost ■■ cMay 
at Mice K) iuipUioable and so skilful, offered to Pym 
tbe pcAt of cbnnci'llor of the eschequer. We are nut 
told what rvply ho made to this offer; bat witbon 
beiug quite ou rimlcut in lua speech, be still OB- 
tiuuixi the determined op[>oiu>at of Umi Idn^ Some 
time beforn his death he dtvw up a deCesies of Ui 
ormdiuct, which learea It doubtful wbat part bo woiU 
have lakca had he MvtA imtU hctftiiitjea oesamsaesd. 
In Nov«inb«r, 1643, he was appointed BentaBsiit li 
the ordnaocv^ and died Deoember S of the wiita 
year. He was botied <*ritb great pcup in W«t> 
minatcr Abbey, bia Imdy being carried by tix awm- 
lieni rd the HoQKe of CommoRa. The character mA 
life uf Pym have be«n earioualy judged by hia ooo- 
t«mpnTaries aooanUng to their ^ympathiaa. B? sobs 
hold in tha highest admiratiaii aaA eateong he waa 
luvuHeil by othsca of having often beea srtaated tfj 
penonal animosity, and of avan bavfog aoeaptad 
monoT from privato indirldula and tha lung himisH 

J'VjiAr.l.-i. See Mora. 

PVRA)ILD, in geonwtry, is a aolld hariag any 
plane figure for Its ume, and trianglea for Its ddsi; 
all terminatiiig in one oommoB point or to«dl If 
the base ol the pyramid is a regnbv fignre, the aoUd 
Ul called a rtgular pynnud, which Ui«b tak«a far- 
Ucular names aecordlng to tho nnabor ci Its ddn, 
aa triawjiiiar, aqwtrt, }teit«g«»cU, &«., tho aaue a* 
the priiio. (See Pkimv.) If a perpendicular fmiD ia 
i<.TtL-x faUs on Uie Oi^atK of the base, the aalid ii 
«mc4l A risht pynonid, but if not it ia ofrfifac Tba 
[principal properties of tlie pynunid may be alalal 
na fulluwn: — I. Every pycwnid taone-thiniof apiain 
id ei)ual hose and altitude. S. I'yTsmldB of e^asl 
basos and altitndta ace equal to «acn otfaar. wbsth* 
Um) ligure of their bsaea he iimflar or diadaOsr. 
S. Any BMlioa uf a pyramid parallel lo Ita bnao wfll 
be almilar to the am, and thtw> area* wiD b« la 
each other as the K{Tiares of thuir dirtaaosa fran (he 
vcrt«x. 4. I'vmmids, wht^n tbefr bases mtv atfaal. 
are> tu eacli otfiei as their altitudes; asd wboi BMir 
altitudes are oqaal, they are to eat^ otb«r m Vtm 
bases; sad ithm aetther their bsM* nor tfasfr wUt- 
tndes are equal, they are to ttn^ other la the oom- 
ponnd ratio of their Bas es sad altitodaa ThaaoUA^ 
of a pyramid i* {onnd b^ muttiptyinf ita l«as tn Ito 
penpeadicular altitude, and taldog ooe-lfainl ol Um 
product. Fnutwn of a pyramid is the aoUd fosmsd 
by cuttinz ofT tlie uppn- part of a pyrsaid by a H^ 
ticin parallel to ita base, 

PYKAMID (Greek. puramU), Id weUtecttBCk a 
ooloMal sbnctnre of masonry baring a tvetaiigtdar 
base and f one triangular ttdea tcnninatin|E in a irf^frti 
used by the andsnts tn Tartoos parts oc tha wvilu 
•itiuT for sepwlclms or for nligwos porpoaea The 
deriration of the tena is uakaovrn. Some dcdre it 
from thu Greek pur (Bre), beoaa#e tho Cora ef the 
pyramid Is like a flame; others from pm» (wbtat. 
grain); while oUion >^Hn assign to it an FmHiiii 
origin. Aoocffdiaf to Qerodotna the EgytAuaa wm>- 
stdared the i^ranudal feem as an embloa of hamaii 
Ufa. Ths broad base was signUcant of tho b^aaiofi 
and iu termiuatioD In a point of the sad of o«v sairt- 




I 



■nMlnAsprnMrtaUU; (or whloh fmmd tlwy made 
on of Ikli ftpm in tlwir tcptilchreiL 11m moat it- 
nwritahlw ^jmaJd* are thoac at Egjrpt Mid Nubjk uui 
Umh* of M«iioci. Tli« EgyptlMi [lynuuld* arc Iatc*-, 
qiwltBB)fBlBr. uiil hollow, baTin^r b bmad bnw, oon- 
ttMttn^ indDally tawand* the to[^ aomctimm tcnni- 
ma&tg IB * pofati, MMnetiniM iii > plana Mtcfaoe, anil 
tiiA «C krf* block* of rw) or aycuiUo gMOlla^ or of 
kaid nlowvodt stonB. The fuur ii<lu an ao plftdxl 
M to fw* Ibe four oanlinAl pduti^ and tn-o uf them 
wsnmailT larver than the otW twix Invcati;{atii>iia 
oondBctod wiu & view of d«t«nniniiig tlio duractor 
of llwM tuvctoMa maJca it appear Out tbtry date 
fron tha pafiod of Cb« third Ajiutatj ta the twelfth 
<«r 3500-3000 B.O.), after which none ware buSt. 
wrfc pjianild waa ooniiMiioed o*«r a aqmlchnl 
nfcawhrt «uanled b tlie roelc, anil ttia n-ork went 
OB (iBiiiig tba lifetJmo of the kiuf; for ivhouu it ww 
inteifad. A low narrow pawnga <ra« kopt n[«<n aa 
the tfet* (4 etoae wtn otliloi), lu order tlul acooaa 
ht be obtained to theoentnl chamber framwitb- 
aad whea ti» monafcb died tbo work oeoaod, 
the laai lafen were then fi&uJied off and the 
paaaaite doaed up. The anglea fortnvd by tlie rwoB' 
aioa of eaob iOMrior layer wen filled up with anull 
ntonai aad berelted oB, eo an to ^re a antooth Bloning 
enrfaca to Ibe aldet. The atunni naed vancil in 
tUaksMe from 3 feei to i fo«t, and tbo meobaakal 
•IdU nqidBite to qnanj th«aa And to ralae them to 
mA gittat boigbla and adjiiat tbem in their pn^ier 
pUeae eaottnuee a matter of unlTetaal aatonlabmenL 
No I nd faa t t on «f the tnecbanlcal owibrt*iuic«a need 
for thai pnipeea ba« been left, tbowh thai they poa- 
Kneed aoob can hardly be doubted. The (act that 
an nlnoat fabuloua nnmbercj Ubooren were engaged 
Id eaeetfaa tbMe pynunlda did oat leaaan tb* nacea- 
ittj far tne employiiMnt ol entain mncfainai. The 
now BludfaiA all fo Middle Kgypt. ace 
. Intofi** gn>aF<,«mtaInint[ in alt abuut fgrty 
The dlftriA In which the pyramlda atan<l 
above Dadiur, and ertanda bf Sakkata and 
InBisUa alone tbe we»t«im margin of the valley of 
Iho Nile tor about 60 or 70 tnllea, tbe lort or Guefa 
gravp Mac bvt a few aOn shorn C^ro. Tbe imtip 
H Gto^ in tbe neicjibonrfaood of the andcnt Mem- 
le tbe uoat remariuJtlft It ccowiaU of nine 
, and oomfrieaa tbe three inoet celebrated 
■la «l tbe Und tn triatence, namely, the 
Bid t4 ChfTii^ called the Or«at rnsaaid; that 
tOephien, ami tliat of SJyctrinue— iLe but uadi 
Iler than either of the two 6n>t. Accomflnf to 
Ilcradotns tbn Gnat Pyramid waa bnilt bj Cbaoea. 
It took 100,000 men wotkfaif (or ten yean to naaJie 
a cnnaeway 3O0O feet loog, to facilitate the tranepor- 
tation of tbo atone from tbe Turah quarriae; and 
tbe aaaie nmiber of rmr fee twenty yean nam 
to eontpleto tbe nyraald IImU. Herodotna fnrlber 
daaeribca the mcUMd of bmlding by atep^ and nuatng 
ibe atoncn frtm layer to layer by nachlneiL and Anally 
' ~ ' [ tbe etlemal peillon (kom Ibe top downu 
I <nlla the IniiLIrr uf tUt pytamld Cbanbee 
yee, aiul by Manetbo and Eratoalbaiwa fa* 
SnpUn. Tin Utter naBve corraapmdi to 
J dedpnared (ran the UerofclypUa upon annw 
I dleeoverad by Colonel Vyae In hia inportanl in- 
loftldapyrwnidinlKU. The pyramid at 
eeoven an anaef nofethanlSacreaiaocord- 
OoUHl Vy«e hi bi^bt ia 490 teat l> bieh^ 
t ia 7U feet e^nnn, end tbo angle U wbicb the 
•Una elope SI* £0*. WUkfawon )0nn tbe tuveeut 
belsbt ae «tt) teat, lb h«lcl>t when entiro 480 feat 
SInehM. llw ontar caalBK of mall eboaaa baa been 
Hi— ml. and the ap f ^nrance tba ifdeB ww pienent ia 
Ibalc^ aaeriaoef aaeendingatopa. By iMae ttcpe, 
whldi ■—"■»*— SOS, tb* eaceat ia nude EomparatiTely 



bdng 



May, though tba loweroaen an I feet 10 iadMi U^ 

Tht oratent of aolld Baaenry bnt been (atimatoont 
82,1 11,000 cuIhc fe«t. Tbe only liaittMtoe la on the 
Eborlli (aoe. 49 feet above tbe baee, thougfa the niaenary 
about it baa bcsn ao mutii braken away that tbo 
diiru reachee nearly ap to iL A paaaoge 3 U-r:t 
1 1 icchea high and 3 foot 6^ lochee wide ctin>iut.-ta 
from the antranoodown a«I«fi«at anangleef 3$'4r, 
u distaoDa D< d20 (ect lOIndiM^to IheoriRinalaepul- 
chral ohamber. oommonly known aa the anbuimuieone 
apartuienl ; it ia carried, redaced in dJUMiuaioni^ 
beyonil tliia ■ diatanco of 83 feet iacltoe into the 
rock, though for what purpoee renatna a matter of 
eonjecture. Tbe acpuldtnl chamber ia 4ii (eot lon^ 
by S7 foet wide^ and 114 feet bwfa. I'Vom Um 
ontannoo pnaace another bnucbea «I and leaJa to 
•areml otner |iaiiiM.in and chambaVL One of tbe 
Utter, known an toe ^unn'i eham^, it aitaatod 
aboot tbe nmtra of tbe pyrxmiiT, 67 feet above tbn 
bnee; It haa a Krgiued tvot, and meeaurea 17 fevt 
broad by IS feet ft Incben Inn^ ud SO feet I Lichca 
high. Tbe other, oiled tbe W«<A«>Aar,iar«Kikad 
by an nfUhoot from the flneen'a nawaffe, l&O feet 
luns. lU dUnena lone are 31 feet 3 fucW loi^ by 
l7lDet 1 inch wid«^ and I» feet 1 inch hi^fk The 
chamber ia lined with red grnnito highly pAHahed, 
nnffU atonea reaching from the floor to tbe cdling, 
and tbe eelllne Itaelf b formnd of nli>e larce aUle of 
puUahnd gnalto axtonding ^m wnll t^ ttaII. He 
oi4y eant«nta of the anartnuwt ia a au^miitagna of 
red granite; wbhsb, jnughig by lU diraenaiiuu^ nmat 
have been tntroduoed whra tbe building waa piv 
eacding. It la aoppoaod to bavo eoataineu n wnraca 
coffin with tbe tnammy of tbe king;, and that tbeae 
long ainoe dlaappcared when tbe pvnuuiili »-ne Brat 
opened and plundered. Tbe oacond pynuijitl, bnllt 
by Snphia it. or Cepbnnt ataoda on a bigber dn- 
vation than tbe Great Pjnmtd. Jto original dbnco- 
aiona w«re 707 feet 9 UMbaa aqnare^ and 4Sf feaC 
3 inches hl^rb: but tlinae now etnad 690 feet » in^M 
and 4 17 foet 4 inchea reepectivaly, with an aogla (er 
tta (Inpo of 53* SO*. Part of Ihe outer caaina of tbe 
pynuld la etUl preee r vedL TUa pyramid Imb two 
cntfonceat and lot f iagw to wucfa tfary piapeo- 
tirolT give aocMi Uad to tba aaato aayalehml chMn- 
bcr. in wbicb b depeeltod a gradto aanophacna. It 
wan raocbad with great dilGadly by ilalMaJ baUlS. 
Batsoni found in it a Cufic Inacriplion rnoonlinf tbe 
viift of Ibe Calif Alads Othman Ban-Tnan(, and 
tbo op«>liie by biro of the pyramid to llftfi an. 
Tbm only renudna met with were thoea of a butt, 
Tbe third pynuid, bmlt by UeukarJ or Xyeorhni^ 
b only 8£4 feet S Inchea unare and 903 (eel blfb. 
It olao waa explored by C«*umI Vyae in 1837. He 
diacxn-Died eevenl ehambera; en* os which cratainiNl 
a ikrvoplingni and a maauny caea bearing the oame 
of King Ueakar^ iDd alao a body, auppoaed to be 
that of aa Arabt. no two Utter an now in the 
BrftUt Mnamnn, bol unfortoantely the aaromibagnn 
waa leal by tbe aliddDS of tbe vatool in whlob It wan 
bdng traaaported to tida eoantry, Thie pyramid b 
thn beat cia Mt ru cted of tba thr«e; it waa originally 
OMad half-way up wHh black gronlto. lie alz 
nuUer pym^di wMch cmupUto tba Gia^ Kmp 
am nanooeed to f nna tba tombe ol aonw of tbe rcla- 
tivce of tbe Idnga who eooatrarted tbe Imxer naei^ 
and are of nnch bifaaior inteaeet to Ibe three abo«e 
■willPBadi Of tbe other grenfa gf erranuda that 
at Abwdr ooataina fire: another at Sauamcentalna 
ederen, one with a doorway inlaid with pomUin 
tUee and baviiv n imral name; and a third group 
at Dadhor eontaiaa nva. Other pjranldi an at 
Mcfdnn and EUahnn, aad tbara an two at BialuBn. 
Tbe pyiamidi of XnUa a» vary HBanoa; a otagle 
group north of Oabal Backal ocanpriaaa mt iaM> 



as2 



PYRAMOS— PVTIEXEES. 



than 120. In AmvtU tbo Bin NEiuruiI or Tnn-i>r 
of IMu* WM • kiuiof Btvp-Hkaped pyrnniM, bnilt of 
Inl'Gka at dUfonnt ealonni. It wm erecUd by N'obu- 
dutdnetEar, &od dodJi^ateil to the pLuoeU. its hdgbt 
mw 2S6 fwt Md iU drcutufenuc* 72SQ fMt. 'ilw 
Mt^dUbe b Batylon, of wbieli tho niiiu u« Mill 
to be aMB, vu another mmunidtcal atrastora nt the 
Mma motLHofa. Bujns of pjmtaids ara to be found 
at BenaroN in In^ and in nth*r |>iurt« of tba H>ri. 
The singular moDuuimtA of 1I10 aD\;IuuE liihabltauU, 
fonitd in Merieo, are aiaa called pyramidB. Th«T 
are built of hrick, diqxncd in lA]rcni alberDotiiig witb 
olay or of a mlxtura uf clay and pebblo^ iriUi a 
ooiitliie of Bloos overiald nitu a pUatering of llmo, 
ft&d tarn ridea an fornifid Into tomcM, m in that <it 
OhiOlnl& {vhitiih aee). Ilie tvrn pyraniida of TeoU- 
bnacao an vdiwidt-rvd to be uf tbo ei|i[btli oonUiry. 
Thoy wv dtuaiud la tho c«ntre of tb« ploia uf 
Otumlka, to the nortli-caat of tho city of MexJon, and 
aru c^ed Tcupwtivcly the houcoa uf tho San and 
Uoon. Butli cvtuiaC of fnur termeea or atat[«a; tb« 
hd^t of ^0 'Edom of the Sim' la 180 fwit, ud of 
the 'HooM of th4 Kioon' 111 futt Another rentark- 
abl« mouuiueut of thia kind in tha pyramid of 
PapiuitliL near Vera Crur, wlduii had b»«n carefully 
coiiMMlcd by tLo saparBtitioua feoatatioo cf ibg 
Indiana until AoddRintAllydUooTaTed abnnt aocntmy 
ago. It ia <xnurtruol«d id large liluoica of h«wn pur- 
phyiy c«niant«d wltb otoHar, and era^nrad In relief 
witb IntituDenbk) fieurta. ptucipally of aerpcnta and 
nlllgatori; LIka tho otbera bcfora inentiatied, Ibt 
aidca arv formed into turracva, the wall above each 
of wldch oontAiiut wiiuirD nich)w, 376 in nombcr, 
htbtg, aa la nippuaed, iutvndcd Co nprcaeat tbo 
oonuncn year and tho JnUtrcalary data at tho t«niil- 
oatioD cS each rydc. It ia aboat flO feat high, and 
baa a baae 80 feet broad. (See Mkxido, A.<rnQut- 
TTEB or.) Cvmtiara Lepatua^ Uebec dan Btiu der 
Pyramidc n, and Vyac'a ChieraUaaiiciuTiedanat Ciinth 
Id 1837 |thr«« voU. LMidon, 1S37 tet).) 

PYKAMUS Aso THISBE, an uniortunate pair 
of derotcd loTonv ^^r <" ''><> atory goca, r««idod ia 
Babylou, and beJnff prercnted by the enmity aub- 
aUtbig b«tw«en thedr rcapeodva parenta from meeting 
opoaly, want in tbe haUt of aocmtly oonversbiff witb 
Mch other through an opeaing is tlie wall, na their 
honaea adjMiiod. Havit^ af^reed one day to nnwt at 
the tomb of Niniw, llibbe, who was the tint at the 
rnidesTDiu, waa aurpriaed by » liuneaa and took to 
flight. Ia bar baslA ebe drc^ped ber gannent, which 
Ibo Uoacaa atdaing covered vitit bloody having* inime- 
diatnly before Iculad an ox. Meanwhile I'yramit* 
ftppeMv on the aoene^ and eondudlng from, the blood- 
beamcared rabc thiit hia mi«tt«M taaoinon,lietakfla 
hie on-n life. Tbidlie rctumln^ iioon aftcrwarda, and 
finding the I>i)dy of her lovtrr djisa in. lilco manner by 
her ovm hand. A favouriw mode of cxprmtlva lii 
Uw Biiddla agca In rcfcRmee to » oouple unfoftoaato 
fn loTft vaa to enll them fyramna and TUahe. Tho 
aloiy appean in OvJd'a Metaioorphoaea, and we ba*o 
» carictAuN of it in Sbakapero'a Midniiimior N]^t*a 
Draam. 

PYRENEES (Spanwh, Piriat<m; iMia, Pyre»tn 
Xonttij, a liJty mountain chain fonuUiK the buua- 
daiy bvcwvcn Fnnea and Spun, and stntabtng 
aareaa tfaa whole of th« iatbama which connecta tha 
^anlab p^adnaula with the reat of the Ear(n)«an eon- 
toMnt, and n)iiiU nith ooa extivnd^ on tue MuU- 
tcmtnean Sea, aiid with the otboc on tha Atlantjo 
OocMi. Ita length, from I'ape C'reux, north of the 
GnU of Boaaa, lo tiie Puiiit ot Fitj^icr, near Vu^of 
terrabla, la nnarly S70 miloa; and ita breadth near 
tho centre, whera it la tC^atett, acacvely ezcoeda a 
third of tha length, or yO miles. Though tha chain 
Ihua defined tcrminatoe at twooppcaite aiiaa, it caaout 



he Mid to1io)*olftt«d.alnr« totbewnt it kobrtooalt 
cuatinurd acruM tho north of Spain by tbe Cantabriaa 
Motuitoini. Tbe direction of the chain ia kac to 
w.M.w. It doca not, boweTor, lie in tba aaraa alniglA 
lin^ bat rather conniiU of two Utte*, which torn 
parnM ridsM about '.>0 milea distant inn eaib 
otlter, except near tbe oeatnt wfasra they beant 
unitol by means of a ronarkabla rartangniar dkiv. 
in which aumo nC the lotlieat aonunita are boad 
Beth on the north and eoutii ridea Bimemaa br aa al iw 
are thrown off, goner«Uy at right anglaa to tha prit- 
cipAl axis, and aubaide iftfndly as thoy rueda mm 
it, funning rarinua tnnsrersev but tatt few lw%itif 
dlnal, Tal&ya. TIm <^idn riaea both Irtm tho mm 
and west towarda tha oantn; and, in aconrdaneawltk 
a genera] mie which bolda In rv^ard totbeEarOfiaB 
vluiin> widcb He in the <Uru<.'tIuii of tbe ««|nataT, thm 
doscvot on the eonth side U mnch nwre abmirt thai 
on tho north. Owing (o thta the south haa moA 
fewef lalcca than tho north alope, bat far wirpMwi it 
ia tbe boldneaa and snodaur of Ita sconacy. A* 
already obsarvad, tb« uftiaat •amnila at lbs tbab 
are near Ita oontw. Ita eulnlnallng poin^ UaU^ 
delta, sitaated there, haa tbo heljjht of 11,131 feet, 
and a great number of peaks In tfaa aaaia localitr 
exceod SfiCK) fret. To tbo «aat of tbo centre tbecfa^ 
lowcn ao rapidly that Its avenge helffaBaooB beoMMa 
little more than 2U00 feet. 1^ the weak tbe bM^ 
diminithes mnoh more gradoally, and many pMki 
bav« bei^ta Tanriag fram £000 to 7O00 ml, aof 
e*en 8000 feoL The prindpal paaaea In Iha T 
furutMl by the meeting of valleys from < 
of tho aii*, take ia the east part of tbi* dtain tha 
uunu of Cola, and toward* tbo c«ntT^ that of PeaK. 
No fewer than BOTte^-flva are counted, of «Ueb 
twonty-eicfat may ba croaacd on banArndt^ aftd asmn 
in whenled carriage*. Themoet freqnenbad aretbvt 
uf Fertua and La Percbe in the eaat, and SL Jeaa 
Pinl duFortin the wraL The tHtdeo* of tbechaaav 
erid«ut1y granite, which, with tho primitiro aahfMi 
which oTorlie It, cvoatitiitos tho loltisat rrinniH 
with the cic«ptfnn of Mont Perda (II.IOS fcati, 
Marbore lUi,l)^0 fiwt), and soone huge wJjaeRd 
maiate which are formod oC eunnitain Hmwtr— 
Tb* granito, ' bowtvor, soldota fonns oaatfiBDoaa 
rtdgea along tha prindpal mtit, \mi rather affaam 
in a number of reeaarludile protubemncea aitniMM to 
tbo north of it. Above u>e micAoeaos adiU sad 
i)rbuitire Itmeatcne, wbleb oooir In oonnectioB with 
it, lie largtiy-deTflloped atnla of argjllneeooa acUM 
anil trannition limMtcne, forming two gnat halU 
pamtlol to tbe primitive chain, mm on tbo nerth aad 
tbo uther vn the aonth side. AboTo those aeecadaty 
TocliB appear, of which by far tba aoat «»'■«■«' b 
tbo mountain limeatDiw, which occnptca tbo g,iiaitii 

Iiart of the aoadi slope, hot on tbe nortli nda attatv 
Ittle etevatioD, bedng there almost euiirvly o^n&oed 
to tha lowsr hai^rts at tha bottom of the prindpal 
chain. Abofo (he monntain limeatono the priacipl 
jncks are Jura Bmealooa and trap. Tbm "'"i**-- id 
tbenaal aprtngi ejdathig in the Pywnaaa aeena td 
indicato the pnacmce of Tolcaaic agenti^ bvl bamlt 
and otlmr rocks of ignooaa cririn are vary ranL Hm 
utn«««ls of the oha& Ineluda inn, owper, lead, due, 
manganea& aotunony, and oobalt. Tmtrs it do niina 
cither of nlTor or gold, but patticira of tbo laUir an 
found in deporUaeut Ari^ge, and in the strmam of 
sKveral other dtatrictsL The only minerad wUA hm 
hitberto bent worked to mach advantage b Ira 
Min<trnl nprinpi, both cold and tharmal. an atan*- 
uu^ and much freuuentod by vbiltoiB. Tlw lint rf 
vegetaticqi on the jnrrDtMes ia aboot 600 feet Ughar 
than on the Alps. Ibe itodoJaiidrPB% whick in Ifce 
latter are not &and higher Chan 5000 fco^ ate bsn 
found at £600 feet, awl alpine plants an lauad ea 



PYRfeNfiES—PYRTDnm. 



3S3 



tba InlUcat mimRuU banlsrlne lui tlw ngloa of par- 
|i«buJ niuw. In tbv Vyntuva Uiia !■ foioHl unlr ob 
lbs aoith itopa, wtwra it doM not. as Id the A]|m, 
Bom ft wowy KOM, ths bw«r limit of whlcb looka u 
if tnoed out bj *n ktiniial batmratkl atmight !>□•; 
but, tm the caatnry, furnu luge bolXAd ibimw^ tba 
fauB of wliidi b ofton couoooiod by tlM iDOimbiliMi la 
boot of Utent. Ttiit maknu it (iiHiotilt to fix tbe 
•nvw-line witb proriuun, liuL aooonlinjt to tfae maat 
aocimt* vrtimaw It I* 9K'l) (eni, nr newly tluit vf 
Mcnut CainicDiL GUdcn an not aninenni is tha 
PyiEBfiH^ kad bMee Uio torrents aiuI riven whicli 
riM Id Uw chain »ra M chlwfly by ■prin^.-a. Tlioae 
Ml Um aoath aiii* flmr tntnuds th* Kbro, and ara 
oHiietl by II to tbe MecliturnuMBa ; tboao oa the 
urlh aidn flow partly to ths MediUmDMD, uid 
pttrtly lo tb* Allantic; Um mternilMil boivMa the 
two Mw being aoi formvd tbnraghoQt by th* oentnl 
tUgtt bat OUT vrortwafil aa fv aa CotWrM, «h«n 
11m water-lbM dwasM lla diteoUoa, and la cnrrlc^l 
tuwHiward by a htBucb whidi ultimately linka with 
Um CevenoM. Tbo lar,^ rivar of tb» ditto, and 
ttM only GOO <d inpoiuaoo whlsfa pnatrtm Ita asac 
thraubMit ita whola eoona, fnoa ita Mnrco to ita 
maotbiia UwOaramM!;. la iei|>aciof avevago hcfght 
aad iaa« tlw I'yi«a«ea U noiiuwtloaaUy tfs Mocnd 
lamuitaia cbala vi Ewvptt bat ita cnlaiBatliu pofartt 
Maladetia, boa only the tbiid filaoe; tb« &nl halMw* 

S[ to Slunt Blanc, and tlm aH-uml tu tlw Cerro <le 
olhacva la tbo Slorra Xornda lu tbi* »outh of Spain, 
vhieh is Marly SOD fbotliiglier than Ualodnta. (But 
aM the Mtiola CJkVOJiact.) Cimtnrj to tbe gdwral 
mla IImI tba lufticrt •uauuita of mauntaia cbHiw an 
tanA ta th« Unv of tbo prindMl aii^ Malailatta, 
TmuiK (11,277 Utl\. and Mont Purda. lb« tb>e« eul- 
Btlnatlnj[ poiati of tine Pyreaccn^ are dtuatcd oa tha 
aoatfa aloM^ 

PYItKNEI^, Puce or niK, oondnded bttwam 
Prance and S[wia by Maxarin and Da Haro, on tba 
IbIb of Ffaeaunia, IB tlw rirer Bidaana, cw tlw 
bcnlm (it tha two caoatrtw^ 7tb Novaodnr, IU9. 
By thia ttvaty 8|iafn enlpd to Tnaoo BaaadUna, 
wtib tbe foct r eai ef Porplgnan, CtnSum, and a Mtt 
af tba Cecxlagae, ao that the FyniMM have alnoe 
lotmrd the bouadary «f th« two Idncdama- and in 
tba Nvlborlaudi, Artvif, aud port of I uuiden, Bain- 
aol\, and LBxeinbv){v *itb tba fortUad tovna of 
Atn», HMdia,GraToliiM%LaDdrai)yjQiMaBi>y,Tbian- 
villc. Mnnlmoily, Maneabni;^, and PUlipraralo. la 
1615 Fnuoe waa bbUjfad bo cede tha twalaat-nawwrl 
Icctnnsa to tha Kincdnm of tbo NatbaHaodB. 

PTBEN'fiKS-BASUBS, a d«f)arta»nt of V^anea. 
ia tha K)utb-«r<at, boonded on tba nortfa by Qmn and 
lABdoa, on tba wuat by tha Bay at Bbicay and Spain, 
«B tha aooth by Uie PymaM, aod on tba,caat by 
tlw d«faitinaDt Haulct-Pyrdn^oa: ana, 2M8 ■quara 
nflai. It ooaaiaU of tbo loFwwr alop« at tba Pyra- 
BB^ wfdoh asbMid frau tha aoDtb iritb a toMral 
aloM wstli-irait. TIm auifooe ii fiady diTsniilod 
and tftn vary pMnraaqna. Tba rmoeaa abuttjaj; 
In Iba depaitmant on tha aoutb, and nmalnina long 
•xmaad wftb mow. prvdaM nddaa c<ianf«aof torn* 
pantonv *^ "^ do«B Mid wiuda, wbkfa aftea 
prove vtrr iajnrtona to veBetataon after tha aaaann 
haa tar adVaaoad. Ifm aoll (a caaenlly bdiflatvat, 
and tba ranednaaa of tha larfaoo ia rtry uafarour- 
aUa la cdtfvatUn. Not modi 1cm than ono-baU of 
tha wbolo iarffaca k waate, and little mora than ana- 
mih arable. Tba noat oaluabU produda ars fur* 
Bidwd by tba extcnri*a ioraata which dotha tha 
■n w at ain ataape; bat good wheat, tnaiae, and flas, 
Iba 1m« ftuniahlng th* material cf lb* fine Bfan 
Baaai^ an grown in tbe m«rv faTouKd looalitJafc 
Mfawab ata of Uttla oonaiKiuiiaoa. Tlw capital Ii 
ran. Ptop. (1881), IH3M. 



PyneNfiBS-H AUTBS, a d>partm«it of Vnuicp, 
In the wHith, bmoidad oa tha north by Oara, tm 
tha woat by Bawea 'Pyrfatoa, on tba lonth by tbo 
Pyraneea Moamtaiia^ aad on tlia eut by Uauto- 
tiamma; araa, 1748 aqaara mUea It ia covered ia 
the sontli wbb aena el tbe lofticet niaiaUs of the 
I'yrtoeea, and oven aear ita eenue tbe PIc-do-UiA- 
do-Biifum rEna Ui tba hulgfat of 9M7 fcok Tb« 
aociwry l> often very mngnifieMit. Tba dimale la 
Tcry varbble, and uw anrfam, imrlly frum tba la- 
different naturo of tbe K>(], h^it rtitl more (ram iU 
ruggednna, ia ill adapted for cullivactoa. LilUeiann) 
thao ona>&fth of tha whole la arabK aod vl thia tbe 
larf^or part occtue on the beautiful plafai uf BigorTK 
The rlne k putially ouldvatad on tba lover uopo^ 
but tlw principal auurco nf r«veaiie ia tbe exteaaive 
fonata. Tbe paatnna are exoelkait, and rear hoiaae 
well adapted tot tight aavaliy, aolea, aMoi; boned 
mltic, and awine. The Uat ftnuab the know hama 
of Uayoon-. J>ap. lltiSl), 23t!^47i. 

PYKfiN&ES-ORlENTALES, a departaMat af 
France, la tha aouib-aait, boundod an the north by 
Andc^ on tbe nortb-weat by ArUge:. on the aoutb- 
west and MNtb by B|«in, and ou tbo raac by 
tha Otdf of Lyon*; araa, 159 J k^oju* nulca. Cm 
tbe aootb and weat It ia hainnwd ia by tba cbafai nf 
tba Fyraoeea, and bavecaod by rainifieatianB tonniatf 
(laralCe] rall^^ which atiatdt tma weat lo eaM, aad 
aeod tbeir waU-n tu the Medilarranean by tba Agty, 
Tot, aod Toch. I'ha oUmala ia on tba wfanle axoaV 
lont, thoagfa tbe wiada are vary iaoonatant, often 
•uitilmly aaeeeedinf each other, and blowing with 
equnl violenae Emn oppoaito dinctiona. Meariy a 
half vt tba wbda anrfaca ia woata, and tba aiabla 
[KirtlMb wUdi Ja Itm Ibnn a fourth, la by no wmo 
natonlly fertUa. Aatoniabbf; ranlt^ bomvw, aiv 
prodaoed by trrigatioo, paittcubrly on the lower 
groonda wbapi it can bo moat ■occoaftdly applied, 
aad heavy cropo of com and naixe, and laztifiaat 
ooUinM of laearae^ ate obtained. By awaaa of Iba 
lattar lam nanbon «f Uva-etodc ar* Ta a ta ta rn a d . 
Tba vba fa onltlvalad to mw aatent, aiidjpiodaeai^ 
amoi^ other wiaea of geodaatae, that of RooflloB. 
Tha o&ly isoportaat ti&aral ia iron, arhidi le oaten- 
lively i*t*lt*^ and aoannfaolnnd. Tlw cafdtal ia 
Partdgaaa. Po« il«*lj, ioe,is6a. 

PYBEBLIOMETES, an totrunnt for nnaar- 
faig tba fatMnty of tha beat af tbe ana. Alballav, 
carcnlar VMael of silrer, baring one iUa coated with 
lampblack, ooataiBlag narcniT or water, and bavins 
a tbanwnetar lot Into tt, ia IM pyilwHoaMbw of >1. 
Pouillet Soppoee the apparatna to bare tbe laia- 
peralnra I of the a la k wpbai e; let tt Jndicabe t' after 
flva ■tluDtee' aspcsara of tba bbukeaed aide to tha 
olaar dqr, tba faatranent bafag b Ibe ehada; lat T 
be tha tompor a t nt a after flva nhrateir axpoaufa of 
Iba bbdeeaed M» to tbo dfaac* raya of tfao eon, and 
T* Iba ladicatlon after aaotber fiva aUnntM hi Uw 
■hadh Hw toial affael E of the bub li glvaa by— 



B = T-r-f 



I _f +T -T 



T - r la the apparent akration of taiDMratata after 



fin iBlBalei of direct aua, aiid 



l-r-t-^'-T. 
T 



i«Uw 



laaaft radiation dnriiig that fiv« ntlnntea. Fran R 
may ha caleulatod tlio quantity of brat rtvoivod by 
the nam la tha otdlnair beat tmlta, by taUag lata 
aoeonat tbe epedfie heala of ttw aOvcr and mer cuiy ; 
tbo area *d the aipoanl BBrfaoe la tcaonn, aad tbaa 
tba beatlag dlTeal uf the aua on a given area may ba 
i l a Mfin lnad. 

FYICIIUNE (C,H,>'t, a aiohile Uqnid, boOiag al 
117*, obtum-d by the dbtUUtian of varioiw «gaide 
iuljetaseee, enoh aa peat, ban<^ ooal aqdnha. &«. 



384 



PTRITES-rrBOTECnNT. 



Pyriiittto bu ui ktkatine i«Mtio&, and fomu talta 
with antiiii 

I'YItlTKS. 31. niun« givta Iti minairalozy to rnrioii* 
metallic (ul[ihi<Jc«, diiully to tbe ■ulpUiiW of m^ipef 
anil Iron, tyrlbea U iM^faly wod m • niiroa of ml- 
pliur in tlie manufkctura of valphuric tuad. Beo tbe 
MtiMM C'ltfi'sM, Troh, nnil St'LrwL-K. 

PYRITZ, iu uucieus lu*a o( PniseU, In th« 
g-ivcmment of Suittin, aod 24 mtlon louthoMt of tha 
lovtn of t)int nunr, on ui fttMncnt of tho I'liin. Tbe 
tnvni wn«a iibifcof g^rMbt KtrPiiKUi uiiii«r tli« Wtsadu, 
by wliuui five Llgh Uyann auwlln^' ou the towD-wiIli 
woro built. PyriU bju mtctaI cotiru nad pul>liu 
ntlii-ai, two ciLurcJbos, ft town-Latiih^, fcud ttiK<i boa- 
piLala; & liafatry, &Qd n tmdo in cultln. Ncgu* it is » 
(oimtain. in whiuh ia 1124 Utlio of IJamborg ia wud 
tn bttTC lia|3tLz45d 7000 I'omcraiiiui*. Fop. ^123. 

PYliMKNT. See Wai.drck ahd I'thmunt. 

ryUifUNT, n. toiaimted watcnnx-pUco trf 
Pniwi*, 111 the IMiicipalily of \V»lit*i:k aucl I'yr- 
nioiit.capitftlo[ llio diitrict.m ftbcnullful rnllvy at tbo 
foot of * nuLg« of lincly-wocxlcil hilU, on tlixt left bonk 
of tbt?Hiiiiiirr,.'i4mi]aia9.w.of Hotutver. ItlaauuBJl 
biitn L'll-ljullt |)1am, vith MVprnl lin** promraiiulc*, adi) 
co&alst* of au open Biiuaro mil! > Iud^ (tn.'i-t tintH] 
vitb linden trecA. Tt cont/dni a poUci^ in n-hi«b thu 
Priuoi- uf WKldtfck luxl rvTUioiil rmiilnt iluriug tbv 
watviiog aoMcin ; and a v«ry cotnp!ot« bathing mtab- 
lisbineiiit, wblcb ia mneb fraqnnuted, partimlarly by 
tbe aritttMRwy of (iormuiy: troia IV.OQD U> 1^00(1 
vlaltom reitirt Litber auiiTially. Hw water i» clixly- 
beat*, pOMewnng valuablit mediciiut propcrtioi; It in 
■trunKly im)irv)runli.Hl willi oarbtmio add gaa, and 
jiru.luc<^d An (yKbibLrnlin^ and ovon iotoxicMilig effect. 
AUiut 6fF,iHiO lioUlco of water •« nnitiiBllir exported. 
<.>nn (if tliu citriiJiiitip* of tbe ]>l*cc ia tbe ItiiUKtUuble 
ur i.iu' uruttv, wbiob «inlta vap«ran rimllar In uature 
and effect to thaso of tho Grolt<i d«l Can's in Italy. 
TLe balblng MtablUbmant hwi tba ciiiui .icrompAnJ- 
amtopl tiiMitn;. ball-nxiim, Ac. Pop. (1891), 1101. 

FYEOLIGKKOUS ACID, aa impure ac-tic acid 
obtained by the dittillaCion of wood. Tho wood is 
healed Is large Iroti uyliiidcn oonnected witb a ncriii 
of ccodnwtng vanela IIm liquid wUch cuUecln in 
tfacae va wal i ia cvmpoMd of tor, watvr, wood-fjurit 
or meUtylio aleabel, aeetie acid, ka. The watonr 
liquid u icparatod and rediatiUcd, whca tbe -waad- 
■pirit fMMaca over Gnt, and tbe [lyToillgDeoiu add nt 
a later atave of tbe diitQlatioiL For tbe nwtbod of 
ptnUrbg nil onde uld see Tinhub. 

PxKOKBTKB, an instnuaant FormaaauHtig Urn- 
peraturaa bigber tbaa tho tHiiliug-jioiiit of in«rr\]ry 
fSSO" C'O Itignault niid other curuiul expcnmentvra 
employed, tbe expannoa of air and vapoora in mea- 
euring hljh teinpcrfctur«a. 'ITicw prrumeten can 
ooly beeoiployicd iu a laboratorr; foruae in amann' 
factory ten* acmraLo mnthodit of meMumnent bave 
to be employed. Iu Wcd)n>'ood'a pyienwtar (17SS) 
It tnta auumcd that dry claj, when expoicd to beat, 
contracted rt^ularly, and the innirunutnt waa con* 
Rtructcd gn tbic prindpio; but it ia sow known 
to be untnutwortby. An inatnunenl in which cbc 
eipa&flion of a uicfaJ bar (generally of plAtiniitn) 
«» magnilinil 1>y mcaoi of uvers L>e olluu b(wu 
employiMi tv uiciwora tbe temperstare of a furnace. 
Morveau, Bronjfniart, and Daniull inrrntnl irurtni- 
mcnte oa this prindlile. The tbunmi-dccLrio law of 
PmfctaiDr 'i'xit iD.iy Im iiacid to calculate the tainuera- 
tore to wtiicb a jtuictEon uf copper hnd iron lua emno 
itubjcctfid, tbe oluotric cuirenC produoed heiav mea- 
Rurad by « gal^-anonetor. The author has In tbia 
way bseii. akie to nieaaurs high temperatUTM with 
cotuddcmbla accnracy, Mr. Swmena ncMani tetn- 
peraturce by obaerriae ^e Lncreawd eleebrfo redat- 
aaoe of a pUtlnum wire irb«n it beeot&M heated. 



Two ooils ot tbo aame kM of wbv ai* pnpanA] 

a* to hare tuyul reetatancoa at the aame 1eiB|: 

TbeEr eada are oonnected by pretty Ifing tbid oofiper 
wir««, and tbe current froni a oinrtatit hatt4«y (m»- 
ing ihron^h them b maa aw re d by moaiM cl a |b1*k- 
nometor. Oneof thaooflala kept at aknamMnjiei- 
ature, tbe oiber haa the tomperature «rU^ «« want 
to iDMauni. I'be law dlaoovMed by Mr, giimana 

B = > v'T+3T + r 

whore K ia the rcaiatanoe at the aluoluU ten^watara 
T, and where a, ^ and 7 are oo'tain unmben, — ""-* 
Lb« tuiiiperaliue to be cafcuhited. Fonflbk detw 
mln^d the follnwins tamperatttree by loaene «f an 

air tbecmomoUr. Tbey curKspoad to the atacea of 
iucandeeoence of a metal bar. 

IndplaotrMl-liaal...^ CSTa 

Dull red,. i«i.... ;00" 

C-berrrrML, IKW 

Iluk anngat IKNT 

wiiiid. ^ imr 

Dmoling «hito ASfMT 

PYBOPnORUS, a ume appliod to ontain aob- 
atoncca wbicb lake Gre when cxpUBcil to tba ^, 
Tbe uioat oonmion pyrofbonw ooiubta ol finely- 
divided metallic lead or ma, pcodoood by heatlag 
the tartnte of theee mctala in a gbw tobe in a atraatt 
of oual-gaaorcl hydrofren, wber«by tbe salt iadeeooi- 
poecd, and tbe inetAl is left In the tobe in • vaty 
liaoly-dividod aUte. Tho tiibo b lealad «Wle ttM 
witb ooal-gan. < >n br«nking oprn tlio tube and ihak- 
Lug ita cODleule into the air, or into a jar of oxygen, 
the paiticlM of tbe metal are oxidised, with eim- 
tion of best and U^bt. 

PVROSOMA, a genui of TunlcAtA or AacMfiaa 
MciUuM* (mo MoixDtiOA&ud Tcxicata) fonniaf the 
typo of the family Pyroetnnidjn, and Inclnded aOMnc 
tuii frec-awiiiunint; or oceaoLo raomben of tho l^mi' 
cuto clan. Pymioma ia a nminiiMii organiaBi, aod 
oousiala of an elongated cylindrical tuW deaed al 
one extmaitj', uii formed by tbe apsieiffi^t^ ti as 
iimnonee nmnher of zoiiida or individuabi Tie 
brancbiiij aprrlurraopcnexleniallT, the atrial orificH 
'ipenlng Iu th«i interior of the (n'tiitder, Hh naiM 
Pytoaoma ('fire-body') ia derived from the brllllanl 
pboaphoreecent lieht emitted hj tbeec fonm, tht 
Pyruaomir at nixbt apptariag eMch aa » glowiog 
lainl:>4<iit mua of fliLinc. Tbey chiefly ooonr ewfm- 
laing oa tbe aurface <4 tbe ocean in wann Intitndii 
^veral Bpedeaare known, of which Pgntemia aUmt- 
fiVum, P. c2rr/ant of the Ueditenaneaii, and/*, pi^po*- 
trum, niao fnand in tbe Utter *«a, are the meat 
fikinilior. Sec aUo PHOSrBoasBCUtCK (Asiaxi.). 

PVROTKCHNT, tbe tenn applied to thecvimi^- 
tion, atnicturo, and nac of artibo^ fire-wosks. Hm 
inETc'iienta nsv nitrs, ndpfaur, and cbarooal, ti^tettwi 
wtth tiliu^ of iruo, ateel, copper, iIim^ aad raiiB, cm- 
pbor, lycopodiom, ttc Gunpowdor le need cathev ia 
^rraa, half cmabc<^ or finely grmud, acounUng lo 
tbe desired effecL Tlie propartaona of the iiiiterlila 
differ very roach in different fire-work^ and tb* 
titmoat care and prccaotJob at« neoeeeary when work- 
ing thrm into a idatn fit for nte, and then In the rab- 
!uj;. Tlie louKer tbe Irvn-Gling^ tiw b rig b t a r nd 
and white epnrks tbey give. Steol-flHDfa hhI (wt- 
iron boringB oootain carbon, and gfre a mon le tlTiant 
tire witb wary radiatffma, Ooppcr-fiHnga giv* flame 
a greentab tint, tboee o( afno « uw bloe ootonr; tbe 
Bulphurot of antimony gtvoi ■ lav gieanlah Uae lfc« 
xinc, but with nmeh anoke; amber, teain, and oom- 
laoQ ealt (which moat be TCcy dry) gire & yolbiw fire. 
Lampblack ptodaoei a very red oolonr with fiva- 
powder, and a pink widi nibn In esoaaa Ii aareaa 
for maldDg gdoen Aowece; jellaw mtneeoaa aaod 
aerTee for the aame purpoee. Vardlgiia imfUHte a 



I 



I 



I 



I 



|mJib-W«« gT««n- Camphor produce* a tery wkit« 
tsBM, with aramitU pcnraui, irhicli muk th* bod 
«imU of tbe other ingndjenli; bMuoJn utd atuMX uti 
ftUo mod on aoeoiuit of tbdr vmiUile odour. Tj^im- 
podhtEO, wUeh k ofbto used ui the in&inifiivturv vt 
•Uga-Ugfatalac harta wtth r roM ootour 4Dd » nug- 
nificwt Imml For full iiifoRnKtion m to tbo «Mi- 
ouB twooBW in Um mknufacLura of &r«*iroHn aaa 
l>r. Urv'f PicUonMT of Art* luid Muiu/jtcturee, kc. 

PYBOXYLIC SFFRIT, k eaaaaoa natuio (or 
w wUwB o kboh^ or «w>dq>«rit. Be« AlrrHTU 

PTBRHA. 8m I>iincu.io)r. 

F7BIUIIC DAKC^ m« of tlw mort Cuiuiaa 
ww^duoM al iBliqnitr. It wu duiotd to tlia 
tmai o( Ab flnt<^ lad its time wm rorj qnjek knd 
Hcht, M iBK J ba weu from Ibu u>turv of tb« Pvrrlilo 
fooi, (3w Bhttul) In th« Doric bUIm ft vu 
M nncli perforaod for the punioM of militarj 
WiIbIb( M for ■nwraicot. Wa levra from P1»U) 
that Us aim wv to rntreaant tha rap4d motiona o( 
(oUicn ftTofdiag uimim w Vimn, diitiiig vovx or 
froB thi tsBctDy. In th« om-Dcrta ttato* it wm 
Bordjr ft nimetic dauc*, utd frequently p w lomod 
far iraiiMo. It wu iiitrodnoad into tfa* Komm pob- 
b CMDM bt Juliua CiMW, and wb* dnucod hj the 



I tit toe l«*dinff famlUoi In VU1& uid Bithynl^ 
In Iko aKNtatuaoiu <natricti of llicMaljr and Miu«- 
•Ionia a dam oallad tho Roaialka, which i« mppoMiH 
to b« a ■odem ndio o( iho PjrtUc danw, ia pvr- 
ktmad at Iho prcantt day b; men anood wtth tnoa- 
hats and awotda. 

PYKKHtC KOOT.nrVraiuiiciiu-* S«eRii»T»i». 

PVRHHO tGr^k /'uirA'tn). a Grodan pbOoaotibcr 
•f Elia^ foondar ot tha PTnhonian or anoant awtitj- 
«al acboo^ flMmhod abont 310 B.ct, aad waa probably 
bom aboat Oe lOlat Oijmin^ In U* youth he 
BtadM tba art of {Minting, but was fr\j leu to apply 
Mf llf to pUloaophj bjr tite writinga at Democrltua. 
Wa ham from IMoGana* Laartiua that ha aooom- 
paaiad hla maatar, Anaaanhna, to India, in tba train 
flf Akmdar tha QraaL l>aring tUa Joumer ha 
bacHM Mqufated with the doctHoca of the Btab- 
■MBi^ MM0f and otbar aaatam pbUoaophorab Hia 
doabto e u aca» iilmf podtiTa biowHdn (or hi* aeepti* 

aww ati aagtbcnad aa he proceaded la hiaatniue^ 
at knftb bo Game to luitd oil linowlcdgo Di>i»r< 
lain, and ODiindvtnd virtue aloDn aa ralnaliin. In all 
jh | wt aa bb aaawer to bia o|iponeuta wma, ' VVbatyou 
aajr may, or najr i»l, be true*. I caouot daddo;' and 
b* lantfbt ia Ua achool that tnith could nol b« 
■rt*iiH^. and that wa meat be content to aaa^iend 
o«r JndMwnt on aO aabjeota. Ha i^ent a (raat part 
dd bb alia fai aoUtoda, aw) by abataioing from all 
da<<dad opinlona oanoereins iDcral and tthyBtoal nhe- 
Bkan% ha andaavoured b> attain a atato of traDqoiUity 
•at to ba affaolad by fear, ioy, or aoctmr. Ha bora 
pafam vttb graat fottitndik aad tto dancer 
. dlabirb bia aqnanitnlty. In diapulallon he waa 
1 for acntencna of argument and daamoaa 
Hla oountryMMn Juada him hisb-prieat, 
and •Moptod all ptailoaopbcra fmtn the pajymait of 
taxHi Pyrrbo died in the nincUcth ynr of hia ^o. 
The Atbanlana anwted a statue Ju Itoaoiir tit bin>, 
and Ua «o«ntiyatan tatMd a monumait to lua memorv. 
Hla Maplkim ta enirilT aaconnted far. H« aany 
bacaana aeqnaloted with the tyatoru ot Dtflnoeriina. 
who haU that *je*fA thn Immodiato wUdmibU of 
bodlaa (abxBi) nolliin^ waa nal, auJ that all pereep- 
tion waa aubjaettva. Ha waa conflimad In tbeae 
liewi by tbo dodrinea of Soeratea, to wham, In hia 
ritmnrU^, ba bore a great raaamblancai. Oioera man* 
itooa bim espnmly acHMia lbs dladpjaa of SoaraM% 
and hla aooptkUm ia allied to tha Inny of Oal pbi- 
hHtcife«. bed by hia tomperainent and his usuaar 



flCluvnaga. 



of life to eatcom >n iinUitcTruptod IranqniOity tba 
great object of aJI phOoaupby, IwUevIn); that notblog 
tcDdod 10 mudi to deatny tbie quiet u tb« inter- 
Rtinablo diaiwtoa of tba aobools of the Uofputiiti^ 
and tbat uncertaintT waa increaaed by their cootm- 
liuus, W di'ti^iTDiivwl to aaak In some olb«r way the 
peace wbicb he doapalred of finding in dogmatical 
philoanphy. Thia (nade him a acq>tie. Pyirho left 
iu> writiofia. Uia friend and adiolar, Tlioan, firat 
wrote on the aubject of acepticijim, Init Itii writings 
are loat. It u only from the worloi of bis Isivr fol- 
lowers, particularly Seztna Ea|ilTlcaa, that w« kam 
tba priiK-iplrai of bii echixA, or tattor tbair an-h ••[ 
thinking, by wbieb tbey atrara rather to overthrow 
other pnuoaoifUenl atnctitna than tu bidld up one e( 
thdr own. A Aapodtfaa to dout>t ia oAaa caDad, 
from tliispbIlL>t»iili('r, Z'yrrAonMnt. 

PVKIUIL'S. Kink' of Epira*. waa bora about 319 
B.C. He wfln the son cf .rKaddea, who traeed hia 
deaoent fmni Py rrliua, son of Achillea; he was also coa- 
oectad with the royal family of Macodon, aad aiaiua 
to have been early poaseaaed of tba desba lo lirsl 
tha axplolts of tba eoDaaaram who aprang frooi tbat 
hooae. Hia (atbar haTbg been dapoaad by bis sub- 
jocta, Pyrrbna waa brongnt at the ag» of two ycara 
to Olauoiaa^ king of tbo Taalantlan^ who educated 
him with b» own ohUdnn. Ton yaan latar OkncdM 
marcbod into Epirua at the bead of an army, and 
placed Pyrrbna on tltn throaa. In tba ooorae of four 
or Bva yean tha young Idw waa aipalled, and wtot 
to tha omut of Antlninii^ Idng of Syria, wbani ha 
bocauB the friend cf hla aon, Dametrius PolionxLei^ 
wbotn he aooompaoled oil the fatal campaign dcaed by 
the battle ot Ipaua (301 B.c.>, In whMi Antlgenua (^ 
aad hla anpr ma dafcated. Pyrrbna, wbo had longbl 
with gnat ixvrtrf fat the bMtla^ then croce e dwf to 
Egypt aanhoatage Cor Demetrins, and thata married 
A&timtM^ dm^ter of (^aaa Bara^oa. With tba 
aid of Ploleny Sotta- he reoorand hia Ungdao (SVfl). 
acmcing to abara tbo sovereignty with Naopitolaniiia, 
wlio bad been king nnoe tdi axpulaioa. Pyrrbus 
aotm attar had hb collaagoa pot to death, and ana- 
oaadad by hb daring coiir^% albbili^, umI ganar- 
oaity in niDiQg tba admiratlnn cf bb eoldien and 
paopla. He aaade an attempt to ootMuar Maeedooii^ 
■sd did obtsdn a Aan o( tba thnna wtth Lyitenchnih 
bst in IM WM drintn oni of the oonntry aftar a raiga 
of aenn months. He thereupon retained to Rpirai^ 
where ha relgnad quietly for aeversl Tear*: but la 
230 ho pamad over iaio Scmthara luly at the bead 
of a lam army to amiit the TarcntiiuM, at tbcer 
reqoaet, in their war ag^aat the Bomaaa. 71w firat 
hatib la which the Homan legion met the Oreak 
phalanx wu foufibt near Hrnnctoat on the Sirb; and 
Uiaocaiaulhl. Valerlna I^rlnnswaadrfealad by Pyr> 
rbw^ whoaa atenhaala played an important part In 
tha oonftfct. Tm lorn the victory oniailed upon bin 
wna, however, voy wvw«t aod ba made pcwotab 
of paaea to the amati^ whioh wwa taJMiod, calady 
in ocoacqueaca of tha nbited i^paal of tbo old can* 
ear Apfdua Ctaudina I^rAaa dvancad apaa Roma, 
fanl finding hb enetnlea atill nawUllig to tfaal, and 
oonalderii^ himaaU too weak ta attack the city, ba 
ratamed, after hating appwehed witlnn 24 milea 
of H, to Tarantam, wbern ha wlalared. 1'hara ba 
raeel<«d lb* lamoBB aBbaHT. b«id«l by CUh Tabt^ 
einav aaat to iMgotlBla tor HM ralaaaa at Oa BMnan 

iiriuMn. (8ec FAfiklcnra.) In S79 he agabi de- 
rated tha KumaB^ owbr V. Dedoa Mua and P. 
Solpbin SawrrioL Ha loat ao baanly b tha battle 
that he waa ^bd to >ooepl tha offend true^ and 
naaaed with hia army Into Sioly, wbaro fur two ycata 
Do ambted the Ureaka against the Carthi^pnbna. 
At fim ha met wllh brflUaat aoecami but hb attack 
upon LUybcom having tailad, ha bat popularity 



with the GrMlu, aod rctu»c<I W Italy ia the 
■utumn u( ITU. TUe war wm reuewed, ami cndoj 
In th« roDowing ^ear witli tfa« tai»l cUlMt of Pyrrhna 
by tbo Bvmuui under Curiui DvBtotiu, ucar Bnav 
TSBtum. H« TCiiched Epirua vltb a nnall nemnvit 
of hia oooo •)iK'Lirlid firmy. Nothiug d&uuted by his 
loMM, hm AgBJu invaAoii M.viTitnnii^ anH liociUDe it* 
kinit u Hi».'otic] lima. He altcrvfardii turuvtl bu unaa 
agaiuKt SparU, but wris driven from before tha walU 
of Ihitt city. Id » tii^cbt ii>tt«clc he im^lc u»:id Argon 
ho wiu Rtuiinad and dixnountBd by a tita Uirowit by 
» wraua bom tbo hwue-top, uuf txtkir rec<0|pdz«d 
bj blis Mtan/a Ktldlon wu quickly dnpAtchod, 
S72B.a 

PYTHAGORAS, n Qredftn jihilosoiJier, founder 
of th« It«UiLQ Mihool. Aooordlnj! to ihv noct r««eivi»l 
opinion, ho mm & native of Suaa». Uia fftlhcr, 
MneMUcba*, Wka m mnrchiuit |nr»b«bly of IVni ot 
•oma otlirr Phm-ijiiuisii city], wbu tnuled (u ohuiuh, 
wbvn be received tbo riglibt of citiieaahip, uid sit' 
tlftdvith hi* funily. Tba jCKof I'ythA^fM'B hirtb 
it aucertAui; prubkbly it took place about 5S4 ot 
59<t B.C. His blotory Is mingled wltb Eoauy IaMm. 
Hq rucvivod hii fint instructioD frvm Crwplulus in 
liU n&Uvo city. He then went to the tubuid cJ SoyrcA, 
and >t'aA a Hctiolar of Ph«i«oydes till tl]« d«Atb of the 
UtUr; athnr* niaLi^ tiim «l*a ft uhoUw of IImIm and 
AuiutioMidw. lainbllcbiu aayi that Pythagoraa, 
during his joaratij to Kjcypt, ipeBt aomo tima in 
I'hirnicia in intoroouna tritb the aoccowun of Mcm- 
obna, and otber (risctB of ttio roiintrr, liy vrbotn ht 
was ittitiatod into tbvir luynUu-icit, luid tliat bo tn- 
relbd tbrongll Tarlona [-Aria of Syris in order to 
tneomo acQaainted witli thr miui iiiijM>rtiuit religious 
nNBgaa aoa doctiin**. But Itun aouutuit ia bluidod 
vita many fftbolovB droamstaaoM. Pythsgonu is 
a^ to hsTo basD, nooanmsBdcd by Polycntca. king 
ct BunoH, to th« %y|iUitii \dag Amnjda. In Kgypt 
li« was probably iiUtiatod into tbo loystvrios of tot 
prieata, and becaine ocijnaJnted with Uie whole mnge 
of Kgyiitiui k-Amiii^'. IIo ran&lued in Iir«uil)tiiit uid 
Tb»bn tw«mty-tw« ypwn {TU7-!i2r<), nnd wnji irtdll in 
Exypt when that wtiutry wiu cv:u|tirr(.i1 by C'luuliyM-n, 
LQia many otbsr of tbo ntftes in tluit kingduuia lie 
waa cftrried captive to Bahjlon, where he enjoyod 
tho intorooonw of th« Pondan and C3ia]dr*n Magi ; 
and Is anld to bnvo tnvelled •• f ar u India, und 
vUlod lbs Gynaoeopbiits. After bli return he 
monad ■ school at Samos, in which bo tanght bis 
ttwttlnsK Id m aynilKiUc form, ia imitation ot the 
Egyptisna, Tradition, moreover, niates that lie 
weal to Deloa, and ncoavad from tho priestess The- 
mUtocIoa ntoriu laazlns, vhli± he comDmnicatcd to 
tda duici]il(« under ^e narae of dieiiu prrctpl*. Be 
also visited <.^rot4l, wbnro tho nrinrta of Cybrlnj took 
him to tbo <xvanis uf Ida, In v^ob Jupiter bad been 
endled. H&re be met Eptmanldei^ who boeatad of 
Itaving iat«roourac «ilb goos and tbo gift of piopbecj, 
and whom ba initiated into tho aacred myKtoriea of 
tbo Greeks, Ftoin Crete be Is said to bave gone to 
Spiuia and Klis, and from tbence to PUiaa, when^ 
fafiiig lukoil by King hoon what was his [irof«n>icin, 
he ntpliod tbat lio waa a pbUoiopber (or lover of 
wisdom), dsoUriim ihnt tbo biom of sage (toplun) 
belonged solely to tho IMvinity. "With ausnented 
knowledgo he Rtncnod hone, wber* Im now founded 
a ptLUoa^thtoal school wttb graat suoceas. His doc* 
bruios seemed dirlne oradcf ; and tbsMcnd obeciuity 
in wbidi ha had tbe art of vdltng tbota attracted a 
gnat number uf diiK.-i)>lcs. Ho roaolred, novertholeai^ 
to Ujtto SanifH. I'Hbpr to avoid the pvbUo offices COO* 
ferrod upon biin or tbo tyranny of Polycntcs, aad 
went to bla^Tuk Gnecia. Ha e\'entually ei^ttied at 
Cmtona, attr*cMi, as Grote eappueca, by the role- 
btity of tbat dty lor tbe cnltivatioo of tbo art of 




medioiaa. From nil tontUtlaM h nwy bt eeadnM 
that ho laid d&im to sopematml poww^ nnd bit 
oztraflTiiioary <|nalitMa runed cnrs gitat munben ta 
enter uilo bia veewiL His adbennta bdooMd la tb* 
Qoblo and wetJtby olnsiwi Thnw h ondrsa •< tfane 
wcro formed into a aeloct fratemitT ^* osdo; wUcb 
bus boen fre[|UDDtly oocnpared witb tbo stiU mm 
fcuuuuH ordvr founded by Loyola in inod<?Tii timw. 
The members vera bound by a row to PytbaKoru ami 
each other, for the nurposo of cultivattng tbo nliglMs 
ritM and aaootjc oWntaaoes ot their insataT, and cf 
atudyiog bla mtem of philoeobby. Tbey tbo* fecmid 
at onco a pbilasopblcal sebool and a> rcUstooa oricr, 
wbicb in time asaumed tbe ebarsioter and Bietriisd tba 
iufluenoe of a pdltical asaociatioo alao^ This iaSs- 
onoo, wldcb bocame v«y conidiorablM, waa floostaallr 
oxortod in tbo intsrcsl of the arittocrattc party. The 
democratic party [periiaps, alao, at tinted, an nofmndly 
ArietoeratioVactioii) reacted wainatttM growing poww 
{if tbs otdsr. At Um bead cf this oppointicm pai^ b 
Urotona was Cyion, a ricb and respectable dtJai^ 
whuoe enmity Pylfavoras bad esdtod by refosag to 
r«>oeive him among Ms scbolanu In revet^ Cyloe 
one* attstckod tbv booso of MHo, where a nuntbsr d 
P)-tbagnreans were assonbled, snrroaBdad it wttb 
bJA pertiesna, and aei h on fin. Forty p««oM p«- 
iahad, and but few escaped. I'ytbagoma waa f soh 
bly not in tbe lunuo. Other astbadttan Mt dm 
tUs event long after tbe de«b of Pjrtha(Dni4 vba^ 
they any, »-«■ simply baniabcd bgr Cykm to 1* 
pnnium. He fled to tho I^icriaaa, and when 
rcruvvd to recc3ve bim, to Melapootom, wber% ^ 
Ing to traditJan, be pciidiDd from want of snstauasi^ 
eighty Tf.-ir« of age (aboat COS n-R.) His edulatt 
■re said to bave pokMl Um divine bonoan aiW Urn 
death. Be Is said to bn*e Maertvd tbnt hb eod 
had alnady lived in sevsnl bodiee, aokoag tOmi 
thoae d[ Knpborbiis, a Trojan hero, of a oouitexan, sikd 
a poor fisbonnan. In iwblio be appenred in lbs 
oriental eostame, In a long wblte roiM, with « flewlnc 
t<oard, and. as same i^, with a crowK of goU an 1» 
ti<uul. Hia axUmar, waa grav^ oomman^ng, and 
ilitfiiiriaJ. Ho abataini^d. It U related, frMn aU ani- 
mal food, and limited blnaeolf to TegstaHsib not, bow- 
over, citing boaa^ To show bis rni|>ec> for marrisg* 
lie tank a wife at Orotoni^ by whom, »""™g aercfal 
cMIdnii, he bad two eooa^ TelaseH and Mneeaubni^ 
who were hie sdiolars aad pinosmnia. TbM P>A»- 
gmn left KBj works is toinobaUB «D the testimony 
of tb« andenta. The Golden Senteocm^ ejctaat nnds 
bis name, wblch nay bo ooosidered h a abort sIkUe- 
m«nt of his popular doetriaea, appesf Co hare fasse 
ootnposed by later hands. Lllce those of the Elgrptiaa 
pri«>i«, bia doctrines were of two Linda, paWc aeil 
decivt. His poblic lostroctioa oonaiated vl pnetical 
diaoonrae^ ia which he nconusended vfitae isd dii- 
Bosdod from ttoe^ wttb n particalar rtf ensMo to lbs 
Tarioua rslaUcsia of ma&knd, mtA se these of bv 
bands and wives, pwonta and cbildfvt, dttnsaa aaJ 
magisttMea, &«. His bearers at tboH leetm BWt 
not be confoimdMl with tbo tneinben of bis socisky, 
whom he subjected to a nparata dlseipliB^ and not 
UIl after Ions iastnclion and seven csaaiaalin 
ulmltted to aU lbs mystaiea of bis sanrt daotalBBa 
Thoee scbolan were roMiired to practisa tba grsatsst 
parity and Hmptidty of mannenL Ha iaqMsed i^oa 
them, It la said, but on no good muAati^f m sOmk* 
of two to five yoai^ aooccding to liiminilaiiiw <lbs 
PytbagoKian silenee). For a time tba rtisniplia wan 
only hearera. "nie wdl- kn owm ' Ho said ao' (m^» 
qoAo — ifte dtxil) waa suBklsnt anthority, witbowt 
say poof, He alooa who bad passed tfaroMfb lbs 
oMwmtod series ot sevate trials was ailowod Id faaar 
the word ot tbe niastv in bia tni mediate pissuac^ 
Wbower was terrified by tbedil&cultiv mlgbt with- 



I 





PYTHAGORAS, 



887 



ttnw witliotit oppoaitioii, uid hb cootributioiu to tlit 
oamoMio atock «r«i« mpaid, m tomb wmi erected to 
Un a> if 1m won dead. Mid hs mm m mora thonaht 
«!. To Uw iMmbBn at tli* Mcnt Kxivty tlui do«- 
ferine* ««fO Bot delinred, u to othen^ nndcr the 
■naalt of unagM kikI ^mbo!*, Init anvcUecL Tbirna 
iwiUi pnkmhkj nlftt«d to rcligioiu and political 
■ibl wt fc It WM nqnutttt, howavcr, to talcs kd oath 
«f wiimiij The pnnib onuUI now !iitenngat« and 
malia objecUuDm. I'hey wen talleJ, bj wny of dia- 
iIdvUoq, Pylhayorratu, Aa acpoo na hi* dIaci|ilM batl 
mMAmm&aoA progrMi in gMDotry tfaoy wen Istn- 
dnoad to the rtudy d luttu^ to tha InvMtlcadMi af 
fiiiiiliiaMilal prittdplei^ and to tba kBowI«4B* of Ood 
OlbanL MOOraiiW to tbinr fa^fantlnTia wnA capacdtiQa. 
««• li wt nwt diti nondi. MeoonlDi^ or pornlca, and 
aftcnnnb cmplayed eitber in matuwlng thu afTnin 
nf (ha sMMty, or avnt abroad to Incnkata and l<riiig 
into practlm tha prindpleaof phQoKph; and govvra* 
DMiit 111 tbe other Graoian dUciL Aooordlnf to tha 
aooooala o( lat«r miten^ Um uoda of lirin? at tha 
f^tbagonao adiool at Oratooa wan Uie fiiltowing: 

Uv«d tagatbir In a public boildinz, la parf«ct bar- 
■DOBj, aa it one fiaiflj. Each momiiig it was dedded 
bow tha daj abmild be nient, aod ovonr areniiiK a 
raolaw waa made ot all that had twen <latie. The/ 
MM brfoca the aun, in aider to wunhip it: vanaa 
ban HocBcr ani] other |>oela wcro thco naUA, or 
■wde waa fntcmluced, to nmae tbs mantal powen, 
audfittbaafortbadnllaol tboday. Savwu boon 
««a than apenl in a wio u i atadv. A nanaa foUoired 
lac iwreatton, in which a aiilitAry vrxvn waa naualty 
falun, to tadulga ia ouDt<iiii|iUiiiia; » cuuvomtiua 
than took |4aoe. Bafor* dinoar varlooa lamnastic 
axodaoi ncro rerforiDed. Tho eommca menl oua- 
prlndpally ol bread, honey, and water. The 
tdtt M tbo da; waa dorotad to publio and 
JoBwrio aftali^ oonTsnaticn, batbtag, and reli|0oiM 
pCrfonuBaoe^ After the deatrtictiaB of the aaaocJa- 
tioii, and tha fli^it of Itia acholaia from Lower Ilalj, 
I>;da aod AroUppui deoaed It necieaiary to collect 
iMdoctrisMoltMir maaMrlanarataouUic tivatiso, 
and i ftmt r r t tbatn frcaa obliTion; bot tbo greatcrt 
aatiuijr waa nererthelBw reoommrpiled. 

Aaaons tha authorHlaa for tbo doctrinca of Pytba- 
f«na or hia immadiata foUowvra tli« indicaliotu fur- 
nUiad bj AiiatoUa ara tha ouA IraMtant. Of atill 
■ler ralM for onr loowladgo of tha PytbMonan 
■tan woold U tbo fragoMota (oolUotad by BOckb) 
Iha w«tfcotP m olaa».aceBttBq>oraijrcl6oQ«6w, 
In MBB Ibelr aothentld^ wen aaanred. All other 
fMCtndad philoao[ihical wriiinea or fn^nwnla of 
wrttings by ancient I'ythi^paraana ara •pariona. Tha 
«mt«nu of the fiagmeBti nttrfbalod to PhUolaua 
harnHHkifa in many tMMOla with tha teadmony of 
Amk^i^ aikd civ<^ beodai^ a ninidi nuK* oouTote 
c oD ca p bwi ol VM a y atam; ^et tbare li mingUd with 
tftaa tmMh that la of later oricb. FbtoawIArii- 
lolla BMsi to hara had no kiiowlede« of any otber 
than onl ntteraam at PliUnlaua. Only thvir utata- 
nMnM^ aod In part tfacao of the earlier JlrWtiitoUani^ 
but ao iMor onaw an truitvorthy. Union tba SlUo- 
naab otya that Plato botuht at a bifb prioa a aoall 
booh, on which ba bunded Ina dial<]gaa Uliuaoa; bat 
it U doahcfnl wImI work k meau I— probably a irark 
«f Aichytaa tha Pylh^DKao. Ht-nnippia aayi that 
beok waa written by I'hilnUiw. Under theae 
It il [inpcaaiUle Ui dtacrinuBnta with 
any dagiva of accumcjr betwaoB tba doctrlnea of tbo 
maalar awl tb «; of hM acliolBn. FythyBW rwai- 
biad tba philot. 'pbeta of ths lonlo oAonl, who goder' 
took to aolve, by manna (A a lingla nrbnordlal pHn- 
aipla, Un problam of the origin ana eonttitirtioa of 
tha oivann h a wb<4c. HI* pceJIkction for 




DiAtheniatical stoAM \tA hitn to trace the origin a( 
all tliin(,-a to Dombec, bii theory being eaggeatod, at 
at oil aranta oonfinoad, by tha oba«r*atioaa( variooa 
naomiaal mlatlani cr ankloevM to them to tba pbo* 
tinmcna erf the tinimaa. Nutnben are In hia vlaw 
the fint and moat oaMutial uf tliiii([at Tbay an, m 
U nvTf, tha modd aooordioE to which tbe worid k 
formed b all fArta. The odd oombon are linllwl 
and pcHcct; the even onlbnlbed and imperfect The 
monad or unity ia tha aouroo of all nninben. Tba 
ifywl ia, aooording to the Intar PythagonandoetrinaiL 
imperfeot and pMrive^ and th« oanaa ot b ew a ae and 
di>aflon. The triad, componndad ti tba noaad and 
dyad, partakoa of tlM natura of both. TIm teOodl or 
nambar fcnir, ia in tbe bighat dagrea p ar fnct. 1^ 
(fenict which oontabta the nnn of toBH four ntunbera, 
luij U Uierefora called tttrMti/^ oeaoptahenda aU 
m ndoal unil arithnciUcat proportiona, and donol aa tha 
■yabomof the world. Tbe real meanlDji of tbc Pylhi^ 
gorean doctrine of QumlKia la not well udentood: 
nuttbcn w«n probably in thie ayitem tha i^mboUoal 
er ailagorical reprvaentattona of th« firat prindplea or 
fonni cf aatnra. Aa Pythagoras oould not exprav 
afaalraet Uoaa la dniple luigaaga, bo worn to nnm 
nada nw of nnmbenv ** gMmaton do of a diagnnri, 
to aadat the oomimlunBdon of hia adiolar^ He pcr- 
ocdved aotne analoglea between nunilnra and the 
attrflnrtM of ^b* dl^M imdantandiiig, and mad* Iho 
farmer tbo aymboli of the latter. Aa tba nmnbera 
pTDoead ttam the monad or uilty, undergo rariooa 
oombfaiaUonii and In ibeir piograM iwanw now fto- 
partlea, aa ba ragnrdad tha pnta and dmpla aaNooa of 
the Uedty aa the ooRunnn fiuroo of all the fornu ot u^ 
tur^ wtodi, aooording to their Tarioua inixUfiaitkiu^ 
poaMOi dUToreat pro]Mrtica. Fythagona la nlao aald 
tohava inTantod the •bacoi.theBaaeaUBd IbaPitAo- 
fforeoMtabU. NexttomuDban^amdobdooffadtotba 
pnwatoiy aurdaea ot tba FythagorMO adkooltby 
whloh tba mind waa eleratad above tba doainka of 
paaion, and fitted for oootcnpIatioiL Pjrthagoraa 
cooddarad mtida not only H aa art to be Jndged of 
yj3 tba ear, but aa a aetaooa to ba raduead to natba- 
auMcnIinn»liM>»dwlatloni,aadaDiadtoa itr o i io « i y . 
Traditica makea Um tfae lanotor of a nudoal in- 
itrament (Pylhagoteaa lyw^ oftedbw f aai Pvlkaffora), 
whldi, aftor hk death, waa eomnd in ba«, anal 
pn:8grTad in the Tempk cf Ben at Sanwa. The 
jm-ontion of tbo haraMnlo oumo or monocbord, an 
inatnunent of a dngle iliing, which acrvad for the 
maaaorament «f inuatcal loterrak, haa dw bwa 
aasrihad to Urn by aodenl and modon •mttma. 
There k ako a edebrated atory of hk baring dkei 
vensit tbe Bitofametical lekliona of the miadoa] aeale 
by ttlwerrliig koddatally the vatioQa aonnda pt«- 
duccd by hamananeC #Er«>aat wdghto atrikfng *ftB 
an anvi^ and ti Mp dhi g bj rtdnga weighia equal to 
tboM! uf the dUerent hnmnuni Tboaa who retaOod 
chk atecy navar took Che tronbla of r«rif ving tba 
entrimcot, or they would have tmud that tmmaum 
dlnerfag In wdgfct rtriUng oe the aaina nnril na 
man prodooo U^atm hEgliar or lower in cslcfa than tin 
dllferasl daupen front ooe ball Ha DsUevtd that 
tha beavaaly iplurea In whdch the plaaata nan^ 
lUridlng the etbar in tbalr eovat^ prodneed tonai^ 
and that tha tooaa moai ba dilTcrail aemnSag to 
tbdr dta, relod^, and dktanoo. That Ibeao rob- 
tloon «nn In eoeond, thai theae lonca prodoeed tba 
BMBt p«afect baraiQay (nuiaie of the aphana), Iw 
naoiHBrii(y bdleve^ in saaaequaace ef lik Botkna <{ 
tbe mnmna perfec^oo of Iho nniveno. TUa har> 
aaany.nowenrtwa do not hoar, dtber hecaoM we bm 
been necnatomed to it tram the in^ and bar* nenr 
bad the opportunity of eontnating k with dOba^ or 
booNaa tlM aouad la ao loud an to eicead onr eai*d- 
tica for hearing. Ocomatry, which ba had lanraad 



388 



PYTHAaOIUS-PYTHRAa 



to EgTpt, btt radnoad more ibut any of hla predocoa- 
•on hnil ccntnmnonkrie* tn the fiirm of & rogalor 
■denc«. Accunliag t<i IiLi uotioii tLe ^^FQincitrionl 
point wiM siinpl^, tb» lirw doiahle, th» wa thrMfold, 
and aolidi quftanipEc ; and in thii wmy kIm ho applied 
ttie doctricie of numhen. tit the ^metrSo&l theo- 
TBtaa wbicli krv Mcribod to him t-lio followiu^' ara tb« 
inwt vmp.irt»nti— Thn thrno anglwi of a triangls *IO 
toycllier oquol to two right bukIc*, ftnd in » right- 
Milled triangle the squarQ ol the hypoBbennas 1* 
eauaJ to tbr siim if tlir nnaiT* of tbo two udea. 
Thi» Iftrt U ittill called tlic PythoQitrtan thtorent <«]■<> 
mn'jittrr matltttcoi]. though it la doublTul wljetlicr 
Pythftgoru diacovorcd it, tn lutronomy ho tanght 
tli« following: — Agreeably to thn arithmcliVal hviH>- 
theai* then am ten ticovcaly ipliert^ of wbich imio 
an ritiiblti to us, naiutily, the sphere of the fixed 
Stan, tbn ncvm spticrnt of the eoTon pUneta (includ- 
ing the sun and luoau), and the Hpbeio nf the «*ith. 
TIiB t«i>tb njihew, -called by him Anttcfathon (anti* 
oanh), is invisibli?, hut noc«)»an- to the |>(>Tfoctiim 
of the hannniiy of natuw, rincjs tho dtcad v tbo pcr- 
fe«tiua of Ihf- ntimcricftl hnruiiinj. By tliix anti- 
earth he nipUioa the edlpeea of the duimh. In the 
middle gf the uaivene !■ the cculrnJ £ro, the princi[il* 
of wuinth tad Utt. The otrtli in one of the nlnncta 
moving around the aphere of lirv, and acoonling to 
the later t'ytlingiintaiM rovpUiDgOD ItaownaxiB alea. 
The aLoiDirphera of the earth ii a gran immovnhlo 
Buaa, but the ethtrr la puiY.tli^Ai', always in metiaD,ntid 
the region of aU >liiiii>-niiil inmiortal naturae. Thedi*- 
tan(x« of tli« mrioiiiiL lirivi'nly vphenn {nun the earth 
eorrwpuQd to the prupurtivue of the musicid Male, 
Hii moon and stan arc godi, or inhsUted tnr gcda. 
His diadplce I'hilolnni, Archytaa, Kcphaiitiii.OcclInM, 
TlnueoB, ouried thcso iin«;ijlalioi)n farther. Phi- 
lolsn Id partioulu- diftJngulahed hlmeelf by his 
■ilmtoiiiicw ■fstem. *(Vith natheniatics wen Also 
eonnected the aatunJ adenoea. With r«a|W<rt to 
pUlusopby Fytbagoras taught that trao knowledge 
UBbraced those subjocta whidi are fa their tiaCura 
tnuoatable, et«mal, and indeatmctible, and l-I which 
alone it caui be rniperly predicatixi that thoy pkUL 
Be who detfftes htiueeli to Ibis study is a pMlwpher. 
The object of phlloaDphy Is by oonteniplation to 
render the bnman mind similar to the dtvine, nnd 
make it fib to cater the anctnhly of the gocla. For 
thia pnrpoae it In uei-eeury to iuvoke in prayer the 
a sri a t anoa of the divinity and good dxincna Con- 
templatire wiadem caimot he fully attained without 
entire ahatrartiun from oonunon thiuga, without 
aotin tranquillity, and freedom of mLud. Hence 
the neoeasity of fnucdin^ a aodety sepuate from the 
irorld for oontemplatluu aii>) dtutly. The theoretical 
philoeophy of Pylbagura?, which tmila of iiature and 
its origin, wa* anvrlnped in the tnoet profound obaou- 
rity, and we Imuw nothing of it but what may be 
eoDjcotured from dnglo InCiuatioHB of tho andi^nt^ 
In the oploini) of Pythagone Ood in tho univcraal 
■pint, diliused in all directioiks from the centrev the 
■onra of all animal life; the actual and Inward canM 
of all motion, in aubalaaoe elmllar to light, tho finit 

Erinciple <if the universe, incapahle of euSerlng, 
ivislblp, ladetfnictiblo, and to bo comprehended w 
the mind alone. To the Divinity there wen sabor- 
dinate, ac<»rding to the notiotis of thu Pytbagoreana. 
three Idnda of hitclli);nnm— goda, tbnmons, ana 
faorota, einanatlosu of ih« cupreme God, -vsryiog in 
dignity and perfection iu proportion aa they were 
more or leaa removed fn^m their »onrc«. The hrrota 
be believed to be clothed with a body of mbtihi 
matter. Ileaidae tiiese three tdndi then was a fonrtb 
—the human mtuL likewin an emamatioa of tits 
IHvinity. As Ood is onet and Ute origin of all 
rarletj, he wee represented aa a momi^ awl the 



subordinate spirit* as atunbeis detfred fmn ad 
contained in nki^. ThuathanumbenofFyiiiagmi 
rMembled tba ideas of Plab\«K»ptinethac tiMy an 
onntainod in the thing* thenudTea. TFlw n sgi ui ct 
the air the Pythagoreans thooajit filled with ^ittli, 
damc>nI^ and beroee, who woe the eama of health 
or ndoicas to moo and animala, and by BMaae li 
dreams and other hind* of divinatiooa imparted thh 
knowledge of future oveots. The soul, aceo>rAng to 
him, ITU likewtM n number, and by nombcn ft bA 
haa p''rp':[iti<'>R, as I'hilolaiia aat*, of the world; it u 
an FDianation of the central nie, and oaaaaqtmitly 
always in mollOD and IndtstrucClblK Of ma» the 
Pythagamans beliered, at least tho later, that naee 
he oonaisted nf an elementary nature, of a dttiaeor 
raUvoal priuoiple^ he was a laietoooem; that his aod 
waa a BuU-mevliig ptinolple, and oocdft*d of Iktai 
olomcnts— Iteaeon, an emnaatios of Ifce osatral fir*-. 
and IcteJligenoe aod FMsiau; the first being diitiBt- 
tlve of man, the two bat beli^ common to man and 
bnitos; that tho somatiTe soul (fAinnot) parjabs^ bot 
that the rational mind (pJirtnes, nowl is fmBMOtaL 
bf-'cauM it has its origin in an immortal aooroe; that 
the latter, when freed from the fetten of tbe body, 
aMimaa an ethereal nbicle^ and pusees to tbe habi- 
tations of the dead, where it remains till it rdsras 
to tbe world to dwell in aome other bnman or animal 
body. Bouk under the dominion of sensoality dtbcr 
poBsod into tbe bodies of animals, or were cwt dews 
to Tartarus to meet with explalloa or aoudigB pm- 
iaimicat llii.- pura were eaaibed to Ug^ar medBi 
of life; and at last attnined to inonrponal TrlT*i— ~. 
babg merged In the sounw from wtucb ft jmeeeded. 
Thia doottiac of the tranamlgradon of eoou (xatum- 
payohons), wbidi wm originally Kgyplian, and odq- 
nected with the idea of Ube reward and poobbnwvt 
of knmao actions, was tbe chief cause why iW 
Pytbifomni killed do animali. His mocalitv 
Pythagovas taught in nymliolic 'r'»nima and a*i'*h'n 
proec pts in oonnectlon with Uia oontenplalls* ikiwi. 
Virtue was regarded as a harmony cf tba soul, a 
oonformity with or an a|^in>xim&tion to God; tiS- 
restraint, nncerity, and purity nf heart were aapcirbllv 
commended; and aonsdenUousnem and npcigklMai 
would seem to ham bean tbe eharaoloriitlea ef the 
earlier Fythngoreaaa The Pyth^orean eUlaaafdiy 
had a great influenoe on the Platonic. la latartham 
itwasroTlvedaiHlIotermiiigleHlwilJh Keo-FkCoiiBD. 
See GcBchichta der PythagoraiBcbei] PhOasnibfe, by 
ItittcTi Ix^wcn'a Dii»nphical Iliatorj of FhOoaotihy; 
Gnit«'a Hiatory of Gieeoe; Ao. 

PYTHEAS, a uti«« of tbe GK«k oolony ef 
Maaolta, now the Frendi Maneillee, hi anpfMaed to 
bare Ifrod abont the time of Alaixandtc the Onat 
or a little later, aod aoquiied great aeUlwil7 aa a 
narlgstor, thongh the ioasof his worin, and ibesfcon 
and amb^uoias noooonts funiisbed by otbsn^ speci- 
ally Strabo and PUoy, make It rerj mlScalt to deleft 
mine tbeextentof Uamerita Two [iciocinal myme 
ara ascribed to bim. In tho one he aaileo alsag na 
weat coast of Kumpe, entered tbe KngHdl riawri, 
landed, and tnivcUed to suine dtrtaaoe in Hritaia, 
and tbian oontinuing hi* oourae northward, after tii 
days' nil ncrtb of Britain. oiriTod at Tbule, wber^ 
diwJnc the sammer solstioo, tbe nn aercr (fisapiMsra 
Thia description eaema lo nuJcu Halo identical with 
loeland. Ije was [weventcd fnna proooadlsg fiutbar, 
apparently by dense fen, whid^ is llw fklmlinif 
spirit of tuB age^ be bas described to a Bumaar srfcicfc 
lus been allowed to throw too moch discn:dit m hie 
general ilatement. He says that at fhule tbaii was 
neither land, air, nor 8e% but soiMlUag compewndtd 
>4 them all— a moUoscoiu sabstanen to whui wrth. 
sea, and Hie whole uoiverw were sa s pe n dedL His 
second voya^ procce<.1cid, Ulce bli lirtf, aloa^tb* ««*t 



1>YTHIAN GAMBS-PYX. 



389 



soHtafEurDfMkA&dtboBthroagbtLoEDKUaiiCh&niHl 
iala tbe ti«nMUi Oodmi ; bul tnictMul of altorwardu 
fffrt i n d n g nortliinud lia appetuv to liiav« oTuannl 
vnt to tfaa ODMt (it Thaiauk, and found hit \ray Inut 
Uw BkltK whon be proomdod u far m * rivtr wbiob 
Im caUad Tuhub (whicb caauut In iinntiliadl. uul on 
tlw banks of whicb unbcr wm found. PyUicM h»d 
tlw Rpotktim of b«faig k BwmI in»them*UciMi, uul 
knld lotumdctenDiaedlMsiin'ameridlftiiaJiItU'l^ 
at MjknBtllM M Iba rammer solitioa bjr biimoji of a 

rVTHIAlf OAMES^ mm ut the torn )Fe>t Gn^- 
daa K«aM^ iMtitotad In mil; tlraw lo honour nf 
ABollot tlw conqtumr of tiio Python. Tbtty wvre 
otubrsled in the ndghboarhiml of Delphi (foniMrlr 
ollod FTtbo), in tht CriM»ui fioldB, which fcr Ihu 
poioon oontdnod » faippodrom* or rwx'ooniw: a. 
atadtaiD of 1000 f«ct in length; Mid * thttatn% in 
wfUdi Ibo muftic^ conteata took place. AooardinK 
to tb« |>cipu!>r m^riliolu^pciJ lecaad the Pyth!»a 
GainM wmn iaatitutwl bv ApoUo bimsGlf. Thn; 
nem to hav* ban orfglnaUf onlj a nnudcal contest, 
whicb eoanMcd fn tinging a bj^rua to tlie aocutuponi- 
matt of the cHhaia, in praiia tJ the I'j-t^iiiui giid. 
Until about cm a.0. mj wtn nndor tbe nun* 
•eMMBt of Iha Delphlana, and t4Xik plaoa at tha and 
at avaiy eiehth year; but aft«t that data thajr won 
oonJa rt ed bj tba Ainpfaictjcaia, and w«ra oolabratad 
at tka and of arei; foortli >-ear, and prlna wora 
addad fcr flnta-ptayin;, atUetlo aparti^ asd bono 
and chariot racing. Ev-cntoallT oootoala in tragedy 
and other kiwi* of poetry, p^ntinf^ aculpture^ and 
blstorical aanvUvao wera IntrDduoML At first Uu> 
prim v«rv nlTar «r gold, bat aftarwarda they ran- 
Artad of the huir«l wreath and tt>o symbolio palia- 
bnUMk TIm aUluai of tha victon were, bcMden, 
■ w e t id in tha CViMMui plain. Tbey eoobUiDed to 
ba oclebnted, it i> believed, until tue end of tbc 
loorth ocntnry of onr eta, 

PYTHON, a iruioa of SerpenU incloded in tbo 
faoilr Boldat. Tfala famQy belooga to the nb-ordec 
of Ocubrina Bnaka^ and to the Ittnocoooa or Uarm- 
lan MdioB ol that anb-indtf, in the mambera of 
wbicb tha uppn Jaw b jirovided with aoUtl teetb 
only, fangi aiad « pcdaoa a;j)^>&iaLua beins abaont. 
Tba Pythoai hiioag ozclamwlr to tha Old World, 
and am very nearly relaked to the Boa% whicb oocnr 
in both bcBuspbanK They ara •erpentsof eaonnona 
rfai^ tha typical gcavM Pythoo, the apvcin of wUcb 
poMMi tMU in tha I&KnnaxUlary bono^ '^"S (o*>i>^ 
cUefl^ in India aod In tba ialaada of tba Bartem 
Aniupelam TImm nakaa nay poiMM awr* than 
4<M> TertaDm, aod fnqoantly attain a logtb «< 
14 or 40 Im^ altbooffa theaa dtmanalona ara tome- 
IIbh (TMtly axoaeded. The tail ia Mnioently pna- 
hiMiflliy andpoaMaMta tw« ron ol platai at ibi iind«r 
wubM. Tba labial plat«« are ifwply (ndanted or 
pltBtd A ndimootary polna and tnoaa et Under 
Bmba eilat fa tbo PyUwna, Ibeae Mmctana tonui- 
nattng ertMuHy In a kind of boolced elaw. 'l'h<i 
bead ia of triangnlar oaafonaatJon, and eioeada iho 
naek la tbldOMM. Ilia month ia ulrcmi^y Uijp!, 
and tbe gaoe very wida 

Althown deaUlute of aar TeBOmoM qnalltlca, 
kbwa naM ara matty dreaded on aooooat of tboir 
MMmooa itnagtt, wUck ia braoriit into roc|uiaition 
In tik* Oaptota of their pr«y. Aided by their pra* 
hanaOa taOa and nidimentary hinder Uniba, the 
PyOoM napend tltemaalvia bota tha btancbea of 
tM^ fnatnlly In the neishbaartMed af walar, and 
Ue Ib wait raaar to pounoa i^on aobkala wbkb ootna 
Id drink. Tba body 1« than wooad round tbe -«ktin, 
vUok la thna araalMd Into • ibapclaa taaaa \n the 
powarfal eooatiictbis f aide of tba nalca. Storiaa of 
tha hnife bulk of wbicfa thtac eerpcala are aUe to 




awaHvw have ban bom tbna t« tfrna drcnlated, and 
altboui;h there may be good xaaaon to doubt tha 
capaMily of lh« I&r^cet pytboo to nraltow the bndy 
of an. BQiinal tbc uie of a buffalo, tbure can Dorer- 
th«k« be no doubt tlut a eo*t or aheep can laadily 
be dlufneed of. A voriciy of circumataneca aadtt m 
the dc^otitiMi of prey orf rclativdy tarrv balk by 
tbs Pythcnw. Tbtia, firrtlv, tbe body of the victim u 
prinutftly eruafacd Into a a^apelow pliant ma« by tba 
aarprnt itacJf. Then, aeeoncUy, ita oody ia aaid to be 
oneared ovtx by the fflutinoua at Tiedd aaliva of the 
taakc. Ml aa to lubrieata tbe maia ami a«*i«t ita 
ili>i;|i)UtloD. Tbe teetb of tbow aorponU am idniply 
oooical racurred itructunat whidi, whilat uacltM lor 
maatiaatfaa, will tnd to ix and ntala Uie prey In 
tba nonth, and prvvenb ita wreca during the muvo- 
mcnta ol Bwallowlnc. And uaily, tbe mandiblea or 
jawa may, thrfineh tbe Ioom and diajointad amaga- 
nmt of tbe aquamoaal aud quadrate banee, be very 
widely •<paTated from tbe akoll, ao aa to Iai;g«ly 
incraae tw abo of the mouth front above duwnwwda; 
whiUt tba halTea of the lower Jaw being bat locaaly 
cunnected by elaatle IlMDMati^ tha cavity «f th« 
mouth can tuna ba greatly aalaraad bam Mm to aide 
■lao. The tbnwt ia alao aieeadinfiy dlatnalUe, aad 
frao a eonriclemtlon at tbe torigotag point* it ia 
eaay t« ooooeiTo how tbe bodleaaf even laDrga animal* 
m^ ba alowly and gradually awaUowed. 

Trma obicrvatloiu on a female python (PytAoa ^'rvi- 
tatii) krat in Fnuvce, ena wbioh wen di^Mailad on 
the E>th May, 1841, wera batdiad after fifty-ai dam 
of incnbatiaa, tba yoong being moatly free bom tM 
einia on Ibe So July, wbflat tlw 1a«t appeared en tba 
7tb of that montb. Only night out of &ften agfi, 
bowavar, came to maturity, ^m motbar took na 
nonrUupant during the ei^ba period el fnoDbatiun, 
but drank water on the twentieth day, and fliat ata 
on the 8d of July. Tba temporature of tbe molbei'a 
body while iDCnbating roae to 7U* Fahr., tba tarn- 
paratOTD «t tbe tagn bcin^ about SO' ouly. Tba 
young drank water od oomlsg from the abaU, hit 
did D(it eat ontil after they had cart or eauvlated 
thdr fimt akin, an event which occnrrad be t ween 11m 
tenth and foiutaentb day of their axJatenoai A 
famala pythob el tba nacm P. aafia daporitad ag|i 
in the reptile hoaaaelllia Londea Zoological Socda^ 
in Janaarr, lUS, aod daring the incubatory perfoa, 
wbea, as u tbe taahicai of tCne anakea, tba body ef 
tba tenale b oaOad vf> aieond tha wm, tba hast id 
tbe pytboo'e body *» fowkd to ba ircm 6* lo W 
gnater than the tampentora of tbe male, whfa^ waa 
oontainad wftUn Ibe anna oaga. 

The game Pythoa centaina nriooa apecJa^ tha 
beA known of which are the Itoyal rytboo (PytXa* 
nyitu), tbe Weat African Python fi>. teUr), aad tba 
BatlooUtad Pytboo (/>. rrtirulatm). A Suutb Afri- 
CMt epedaa, d meribad by ]>r. Smith, la known andar 
tbe dfatomljim of Pflkom .VauUmaiM. FoeiU recnalaa 
of a auaia alUed to Ibe Fy tboMaad BoaHMCMlrictar^ 
and wliJob attained a lei^ftb cd about IS feat, oocnr 
in tbe Itcodon clay of Sbapp^ {Ijower Eooanajl 
Thia form ia namcil the Pmlttopku MMtptnu^and Ihit 
noariyalUed P. tij^mu of tbe (Middle) Eocaiw beda 
vt BrackfcahiH murt bara attahad a langtb of 
aaorly^foei. 

FYX (Omk, puxi$. a box).-!. Tba cnakota in 
whocb the ladina of aniHi^afc *«*>** kept their tewalry. 
Tbey were made of gol^ rilwr, Ivoiy, aio lber at' 
paan, toctciaa-ahsUl Au, nd wact oftaa fiaaly mw- 
nntad with aetilpbn« 2. na aaoad taaaal aaad la 
tbaCalbcdbtCbQri^laeoalalD tbaboal, lancient 
timaa it aoaoatiBaa bad tbe farm of a dove, and waa au»- 
posdad above tba altar. UwaiLbowaTar,ganerallyaf 
a rectangolar abap<^ and freonently made of gold or 
ailsor, or u( a baaor metal plaled with tbaaa. Tfaaf 



3dO 



PVX-QUADRILLB. 



Mw nnw cytinilrica], ottp or baU Bbxpe^ witb » ctoo*- 
Bumaouated cover of tnu suo9 materiKL They m« 
f nqacntly delicately cbaeod uid inlaid^ 

rVX, Tkui. or TiiK, tbe ofK«uJ mado of Meer> 
taining bj mjgfct »nd Hwy if tliu |;l<1(1 and silver 
•cdiw Imum fvm th« Hint an of tbe nUnilard weight 
■nd iineDMi; 71m trial takot ita namo from tbo 
lilst prxM AT Mrang; beua, two in Domber, one tat 
fold ansa one For ^rei- coiu*. Wh] wUch conUin trial 
[Jat«<iri<tatiduilpiro« having tbe^inct percnntniini 
of alloy to raoidcr ikiaa Kturliiig gold luid itllwr, also 
other pieeos of the exactwclghtaof the Berenl dena- 
miiiAtioibii Lif nriiw. Tb« invcvtigittioD t*ke9 place by 
a jury of KoliUmitlui snntmimed by Iho Ioid><ihjji> 
wUoT. A fowooliu an takMi frvm ««ck day's mt>lt- 
ing, wrapped in paper, and pnt into ono cr other of 
tlw boxea. From timi? to tinia natao of thoM An 
b«tad by tit* Ulut authotiliea tlititMelrw for their 



own g^iiduMe aod aatUfaction; but tlw cAMil trU 
ttkRa iilace l«M fraqnantly. For theae a difislta 
number ti piecea ara taktai bom «aah box, Bod afW 
belli; tatAi carefully welghwl, an cavt ista ia^ctti 
thcM Ingots are tMted with riMfoiM aieeaaaj to lirt 
if tho KiatAl corrMpond with uo atoiing pMMA. If 
tlw ooiua an found to be oemct within A» taall 
'moody' (aea Coixaob) or mai^ of wm alhrMd 
to Urn MiRt-ma«lvr, tho tort b aeoepiad M eondarif*; 
and the antboritifa of tha Mlot relieved fram ali 
reaponrfWlity. By 33 and 31 Vict cap x. (1870) Uw 
trial of the pjrx ia ordor«d bo bt held enoe a ynr, aiipi 
tbe qneen In coundl !■ empowccttd to faraa orAna >* 
tit the tuade of holding it Tko place when the 
nii'Kiii E ti^ mnkn thn bn>t ia held b geaaraUy QM' 
aaathx' Bkll; ajid tbo Uial pieces and ■Uad af dwaif b ti 
nre now Ir&uKrerred Irum tbeouabMly of tbeKxcbaqwr 
to that of tba Board of I'nKla. 



I 



Q. 




Q, the aeventomth letter In the EnclIMi alph&l»t, 
and cue erf the routes. Tho ancient Latinn Lad not 
tliia Ictttn", but wrote ailicut, toeuniur, nnt obli<iuut, 
bfvuntter; and after It waa iBtroduued udods lliu 
RomaaM, it was conaidorod by somt^ not as a tetter, 
hut a character exprcaaing two laltem: hcnon nome 
wrote ^a, oaret. ^id, wwle otben preferred mi^, 
ewrtt, mid. The Omks bad not the letter. The 
I>ntln f is i^irobably bonowad bam tin Phaaddaa and 
Hebrew ^ i,lta[Jt). It maybe oonaiderod as amper- 
floona chnriKier; and in French and Spuiish. wbit.-b 
hnvt no tr, it has been retained In the alphabet only 
to exproiu this Kannd. In the article* ou tbe letter* 
O, If, and K wo bavo tondicd upon the eeju aBiaity 
of tbe aAfiinite and gutturuL tirrtiiidt, Tho tuutui uf 
Vu is that of tho guttural it, with tho conionaiit w 
having either ita Kngli«h or (!cmuui lound. (^tt, il^ 
1^ or V an InterchangeaUo aonailn, aa niAy be w^n 
br oomparing the Sanslcrit itiu, tho liittin qui*, tlio 
E ng U ah «A^ sad tha Gvnnan itfxt (o^-vlfaor. That 
tb« iotind becune cbanirt-tt in lAtin itnulf la erident 
by the derivation of in^ni/inHi fnim roUrt, eMAo and 
titc'\duin (niin UMjiwr^. (j, ui n I^man nomoral, xig- 
nlfied COO; whb a dash over it, 500,000. Q, as on 
abbreviation, etaniis for Tu^jfer, r^wrtvt, qMii^uen- 
no^ ^iK (AM in tbo fantoiiH H. /'. ^. H., ifiuttii* pnpti- 
/uMfu^ Jl/jmatiiiM, tlie Ruiuun iraate uid p»>|i1c], i/ttcd, 
Ac; ii- Tl\, for 7110 tmf^re (ia which time); Q VJJi^ 
for luirinaiia: Qli.,quaMor rfipublic^r, tiun^Etor of tbo 
republic, kc 

l^UADI, a Teutonic tribe wlioae andrnt territory 
wns on the Dnnnhp, exteodfaie to Ofl Thelaa on the 
east and to the CarpatUaa Honntafaia en ths north. 
They learned tboiuelvea with tfaetr powerf nl ni^i^h- 
boim tbe Marcomariiii, niul wagwl dertraotfve wan 
with the Bomaoi, j^^rticulurly under M&rcui Aun-1- 
iiia. They cease to h<! hr'jin) of in tbe lifth cmtiiry. 
having probably uiigr»Lod fortlicr wiat witii the 
Buevi 

QUATRAGESDIA. a Latin word ri^ytng 
fortieth, and uaed to denote tho forty day* of fwt 
{Lent) pTcoedlng Easter. Qn&dmif^-iMiuia Suodny U 
tbe Ent Sunday in Lrcnt See Lest. 

qiJADRANT, an inrtrumont wbiob nscd to bo 
«m|doyed by utiananerB In detemtctng altitudes. 
It ooniaated of a braa* limb, the quarter of tbe olr- 
onmferaoee oS a eire1«^ divided into 90*. KhuKn 
attached to a atrolsbt rod, or In better batruuiL'uta 



a teleaoqM^ enabled a heavenly body to be mol 
I'hs piano of Ifae qaadra&t aud the i-laae of meliaa 
nf the taletoope eoindded whfa the luendiao. The 
ansle which the Hue c< ligbt of tho teheoope laedi 
with a Tortiul lino at tho plaee of obtervatko «m 
mearaied on Ui« iinAdrantAl Itmh. The ae» (4 
mounuenMiiit, or tbe readiugi; of a vertical ttne ea tha 
Utnb, W3S canfully d'-tirrminnl in the fixed lutai- 
mcntii: in movable Iiutnimcttti a plumb-line wat 
nacd to maTk the zero during; an obecrratloo. The 
difficulty cd conetffucting an accurate inetnnoeer^ nd 
of eorreetln; obaerratlone^ led to tbe fatt redu cOen ef 
linibe wtddi are complete dreamfnnmoee of cifcl*^ 
■o that nt pTraont the quadrant ia not in nae Vbc 
ttiuTable quadrant tiaed to be eioploye'l at aea, bat 
Itii place ii now supplied by the fvxtaut (whit^ tK\. 

(QUADRANT KLJ;CIia>&t KTKl^an inMnvMi 
ounatnicted by Sir WiUiaffl Tbetnaon to mcMOfc 
with groat aooomoy small charges of eleotrictty. 
is of very girat itnportnnco to telmraplue an|^B« 
and cxpcriini^ntnl phviricixta. See KLBnoun^ 

gtTADRATE BdNK. The bone developed 
Iic[<t!lM and Itlrds, by mesne of. whlob the ~ 
jiLw u articdatvd or joined to the slcuD. Tbo 
)ftw of theee forms ia thua not artieulated directly or 
of itecif to ^e skull, as in Hamnals; and in Ba|» 
tiloB and Itirda each half of the lower jaw la oant- 
pceed of a number of distinct pieces, ooovntlng It 
into a bone of compound nature. Ia Manmall, on 
tho contrary, the lowr jnw oonrist* suaply of two 
hnlres nhic^h arc united tngether at the i^rinphyalt In 
fniut. the ot •iuadmun or ^nadnUe toiu, wkUi 
thns forms a characteristio stm c t uni of Birds and 
Itimtiles, OMTBspooda hi Mamtnala to one of the 
little bmies or auiUvry vniclti uf the tntemal ear, 
uaiuod Ibu mallfta. See Ear. 

tATAJ>lLVTIi;; KtirATIONa See BQO»no». 

tJITADICATl'KI^ In antronoroy the nooa va 
plnnct U aaid to bu iu (puulrkturo wheo Hi longitvds 
differs from that of the sun bv 94*. 

<JUAI) KILLS, adaaoeof I'Vcachorigin.batnov 
popular in moat dvilized oonntriea nf the globe^ and 
whldi eODsiste genemlly nf five mnseoutiTW fiKOKes 
or danoa tDOvemento, duioed by foor seta of oo^ile^ 
each forming the side of a S)|tiare. It wee origiaalt/ 
danced by four oouplee; hence pivliaUy Ita nm^ 

QUADRILLE, a game at earda, pbyed, ■> Hi 
name implies, by four person^ It la played with a 



( 



► 



pack at fortr rxriin, th« dgbt, nlov, and t«n uf cAch 
Kdit batn^f IhrowD MJdv. llio dohl is cdmU by dk- 
tributiafT the carda to ^eh pUjrtf Uma *t a tlafl 
for tvo rooBiis, ud foor for otw mm^ conaMndng 
witli tfao rtirAf hnnd pUy«r-^ttM «M«r bend. It ia 
b(« *iiDply to rat bttvoen th« doab wiUmntihoffliiig. 
Hm ihUc aad ordor of the evdi uAfn tmmpt are m 
foBmn: lat, Ace of apiiclM^ which, vrLfttour be th« 
■oil, fa ftlwAjra nnlnil ■■ th« b«at trump onl, 
oOlod fMcf*t/e; 2(1. tUt whl«h would b« ths 
card if Um Boit wer« not tntinpa (th« aeren If 
nd and the two if Yi»ck): tfaia U chlk-d maMOr; Sd, 
MO* of ciuta, wliicti, whatever b« tha tntmp rait, 
a>w>pi naJa m tbg third best card, and Is called 
btuio; Ml, pmto, the Ma «t tmnpa, if the lult ii rod, 
U bUok thm can be no pooto. After thi*, if the nut 
la nit «>■>• Una, quean, kakvev two, thieOb four, Bv% 
KM. <lowert); if black, k^, qmeD, kaaTe, aerea, elx, 
Kve, fomr, three (loweat), For miU im( fnin;-* Uio 
nuik aail order are: lt«d autte, king. c(tiooti. kTiavo, 
aee^ two^ thrM, four, Rni. ds, aereo (lomat); bUdc 
•nlto^ Uag; qoeom, Imare, ■ereo, dz, five, four, threap 
twv^oweel^. It will thnaboaaenthitlberedauita 
h*Ta eae Immp toora than the black, the fonner 
hAnng twehe and the lait«r «nlj deven. The three 
bert trump oarde, namcl v, ■t'«dill«. mauDIc, and batto. 
an flitted auiladarea, or ahortly naU, and h»ra the pri> 
vilagethat Uie bolder fa not boiuid to follow imit with 
th^wbaotnuBpaara bid, except when the cord ld<l 
ia a aupoiw nat, which fareaa a lownr one if there 
ia no oUmt tnnnp In the hand. The cards being deeit 
end eMnuD«d. the alder hand, U be Snda Ua band 
weak, m»j pau, that la, decUne to lead; tbe eeoond 
player amy do the aame^ and ao on all Ttnud; in thia 
caan the aJdar haod mnat lead, ohooainr whfoh init 
aball be tmafa (which, of oooTM^ win be that in which 
be ftode be fa atronmtX and card* are laid and taken 
■ &)ffdnai7eud nuM. Ha ma;, lioireTn', lutk 
Mutdiaf alooe^ In wUdt caaa he at ooee coannencea 
tbe pme by naming liiinnaaad playlncacard; ta 
tUa caat be haa lo tafca dx tiioka bofon be oonitta 
gane; if be aaeoeada he obt^u the whole of the 
but If be faib be pajra the whota of the 
!• naj open tbe came fat a dlffenat wa; 
b7*ia1das lea**' {to bavo » partaer), wUA li doM 
by nainlnc hfa tnmp nit and caUing (or Ua paitoor, 
tbeplArerwhoboldathekingalanjrantt.uattrainni, 
which be cboaaoa to nam*. The player who holds 
tbfa card tb«n knows that ha fa the partnar duM«n, 
bal naot not rereal thia fact eroept throoi^ hu plajr. 
^ "Mr two plajrera of ooune know they a™ 
iK and rvolate ttieir {day aoeordbglr. Tb<> 
. wbo boMa ua king moat play It wbea nfa turn 

•mvaL TheplanririioaikBl«arefaaaUedri<mAr<^ 
(0r ia Knglkh oMtre^ and ha and Ui ' Uand' (partner) 



• tbfaca 
gam: 
wbafa 




win tbe game if thvy tako mx trioka. the gnina being 
divided, and if they do not auoveed in tlda tb^ divide 
thstoeeca. 'When six Weka an taken Vydtber party 
Iha nave nay be cantlnned if tfie winner or wfiaxft 
ahocud ehooeo to andertakn all tbe ten tncka, which 
fa eaOod role. If It is unrlertakea and not obtained 
thapartlea ar« nbjeot to (orMta. 

TiLU gome fa OMMiticated by a anmher of eooAtioBa 
which oftoi modify the anonary mode of playing. 
Quadrille wis very popular and mhlooable la Eof- 
land abont the beginning of the oantuy, hvt fa now 
almoat forgoilen. L'hamirt, the game eelebratcd by 
Pope in hut Rape <il the Lode, fa amewtittly the eame 
game, bnt pla yed by throe p*noB» Inateail of four. 

QuAPHIVTUU (Latin, fwaUur, four, and via, 
way), the name given by the schoolman of the middle 
ages to tbe fuur mathematical braadM* ef itady, 
arittmcUc, muiic geometry, and aatroaoaiy, fa ooo- 
tradiMinction to the Triviun, wbloh coartataJ of tbs 
tfaroe remaining brancfaea tanght In Iha medinTal 
tchoole, aad which oovdatad « nanmar, ihatnrb^ 
and <H alerting the whaU ecv^nMadisff what was 
oallad the serm Ubrral arte. 

QUADHIfMANA (■fouMianded'}, tba aane 
appUed bj (^l\-i«^ to denota tbe order of Mammalia 
tvpraaented by tbe Lomun^ Uonkey^ and Afw^ 
from the fact that tiieae farms ame m |iemfaBlng 
tho kaUux vt graat to«^ covstntcted ao aa to he capa- 
ble of mpoaing tbe other diglta of tho feet, loatead of 
being nuaad pacallal iritb tho otber tose, and ad- 
apted lor aimposibig the foot en the grand. TUs 
ounvetaiea d the feet into 'hand-like' organa aa it 
areo^ pneented to CnvieKa mJnd ao differant and 
remarkable a st r u ctare fawn tbe diapoaitkin of the 
feet and toesot man. that he stparat^d nian aa a aolo 
and allele gonna to repraeDt t£e dtatinct and ififwe- 
iag order of Bimatta or 'two-handed' Mammalia 
At mflBtlond fa tlie artkk Maioiaui, tha daail- 
cation of the bij^bcat Mammab hat varied rety «oa- 
sldentUy at variuni periodaof aetaatlfleUatory. Tbe 
PrmMa of Linniena thus lodndod in one grvat 
dtvWut not only man and all t juadnimana, but alao 
tba Cbeboptena or Dale; whilnL in HMr* recent sya- 
tamaof aBniu[aawnt the term I'rinatn la applied to 
InitTitT tin Ugboil order of Mammala, i«(>naent«d 
by man, Apm^ aad X4aatr% bat exdnd^ the Bals. 
^klaUeranangenaatre«dveaoaaat«naBeefreaa a 
ooaddnntlon ef tbs ponly aastomkal or iCntclnraf 
nlatiaaa saJsting between nan aad tba Apea. And 
In moden sonlogy tbe Prfmatca an etnamenly aab- 
diviilei.) Into two f^tvat groope ee follows; thta rlimj 
fication, if wo omit tha Sr^ family {l/vmimidrr\ in- 
chidinjr man <aod re pruwia Ung toe evder Biii^aa 
ef nt)i«r amBgeraiote), maiaiiillitii nedDoUy tba 
vuivua diriaions «l tha grea t oidar Qnadiumana. 



Oaon— PRIMATEa 

Bab-atd« L — AxreacrumKL 



' L— Ooanma (aOnuu), 



KLtfMa-Kaa. 



' IL^flnOAD.^ iDttlodM.. 



m -Caaiox. 



Sab-IVralhr I. MnMwMattnrUv.o* 
lUaipa-ar 



1*««*«-^ {?SS|ia-. 







Mat>4Maijl. 
8et>AiaU)tl 



labfteUjt. A^eliMt 



I Ha 
[Cysoephebw, 

*'""^'jo*a«, 

(CaHlUinB, 



ia> If «a>n|fc 



ivMvlkakva 
tflamfew. 
1 TiMniaMM 

HowMc^ MnnVeye. 

Ma 



392 



^ >C '_^ 

QUADRUMANA— quadruple: 



VubOj it.— Lshdmik 



FmoiIj' VI. — CuEiMiiinnA . 



Siib«i4n n.— LKMTffOnnA <Loirar &i«i> 

SuthtuiLOT 1. Iitidriti^a Okloi Indfi*. 

Sab-bmiiy 2. IdnohM GfflHm 



aqb-fuiUja. HjttitMtta Gea«n 

Satu&mOj 4. Batasiimtt Oaasn 



Indri*. 


Todifa. 


LBnuir, 




Ha{uJ«ianr, 


k Tni> LvBKn. 


La]il lemur. 




i-NjiiUiJ^b™, 




Ijorti, 


Corisuid fllm 


Peradktfcw 


LovniK 


Jktvioailia^ 




taiPimgiltni. 
GalagD, 


Qal^M. 


'IWii n»— Ttniwi. 





Ab linilU^ to tha Apa^ Monlteya, Acd Lcman, tlio 
of the order (jnwlr\iiRNi> txiniiLit in thn 
doD of tbe linllux ur gnxt ton from thu uUio' 
to^ and Id Ita (jower of Iving oppccad to tho other 
tOM. BO M to ooovcrt the fixit into ft pnhendio luttui. 
Tha poUcx or timmb taay hm w&ntine (*■ in CUoAuj), 
OP very abwrt <m in SfnMw;>»t4fciM); Init wLen tlev*!- 
op«d tho thumb ia &Uo opponbl* Co tbo oChor djgita 
of thn hftnd, ftiid tho animals thm bKamo truly 
tftiadi-atnanoiu or 'four-banded.* The oollor-bonea 
Arc fully developed. The t«ata niunber two, th» 
miuiiiiiiiiry-gliuida bciug prriorai in posltioii, tiut u, 
placed on the brMct. 'i'lie rlaoentn (which *m) la 
deddualo and duwoidal. Tbc pnshcuHile Btmcturo 
of Hm groat toee b piwent •*«» ia fJuadrumaiM (m, 
for «ijuiiplc tho BabcKinii), wbi«b arc purely tcrrva- 
tml ill hai-iiU, anil wbicb natk on all taun. The 
baiul thiia Uin>u(;kuut all tlin QuatkuiUBUA la the 
pnbwiaiio organ, wikilirt the foot, howww pNboiwiln 
the; may be, ani aLw iumI for loootsotuii. The 
tens auadniinaaa ia ihenfora to be Mrfctly asad In 
aooordanco with tbo i(l«ia of what coiutitiit«a th* 
(lofinitton of the won! ' foot.' Thiw if flwcn'm (infiiiL- 
li'jn of ih ' fuul,' that it b ' an extruniity iu y-hlvh tins 
hallux fonnB tba fularoin i& stMuUng or walkiii^,' ia 
g)(vc|it«d, tbvDDoaa alone CubtMid U> ixiMCMnpnir 
of feet, GiDcu tlie fiwt of apM do not fall witbin thii 
definition. Anatomically, the feet of ap«« agree more 
doeeljr with inao'a feet than with bia baiuU; and the 
lunde of apw ahulLarly reoembl* man'i handa more 
maariy than his fnvt 3o that the name '<^a(lTu- 
naiia,' fonr-batidcfl, Ti«ir«d vith refercnee to the 
atnieturo iui<l fuuL-tiuu of the Umba, i^ erruneous. 
aincn both man iLriH B.pMi poMM* bat two banda and 
two feet. It luiiibt, tbnrvfure, \m moru cwrert to 
regard the i^uadmnLana aa Mam mala provided viih 
four woll-dovolopFd Umba, the digits of which poMeas 
naila. Theae Iitnba may nerrn for ctbnbiiip or for 
walking, and poaBea tba haJItix aud uuucnJly the 
boUm oppoaabl* to the ether di^ti. T«Gth of three 
nndl, fndaon^ canino^ and tnolan arc i]vvcti>ix4l, 
aod an adM>t«d for aa herhii-orona or iiuprtitunioB 
Setary. Tlw bod^ !• ooveiod trith hair. TbelncUar 
teeth are ffenerally prownt to the DQmh<r of four, 
and tba truenolan totheniimberof dxinea>cb jaw. 
Aa lileutioiii.'d lu the K.rtl(^l«a LtMltlUl, MaMMALTA, 
Max, Munhktm, Ac. (wtiioh aaa), tho Qnadnunaiia 
may bv arrau^-uU through the form of tbo noatriU 
aci J lJiroiii,-h their gec^rrmphical diatribntion into thrt-e 
T«rj diatiuct group*, aooordtnif to Owen'* ayatcni of 
eUMtficatlaiL The llirrptirMna poRHss currod nos- 
trtli, and the lecond ihgit of the hindlimb baa a 
elaw. Tfaeio forma are reprewrntcd by tbe Leman, 
and by th« Aye-j>je, uiii are chieBy foond in Mada- 
gaacar, tu Wixtcro Africa, asd the Eaatom Archi- 
pdaga The famOlea Lanitrida, Tartida, acd C/tei- 
remyida reprc«ent tbia mop. Tbe Platyrhina ox 
bruod-uoicd mookera do no-t ponna* oppoiBliIa 
thunnba, auil generally have prebminle UUi. llieao 
frnmii, nproKtitcd by the family Ctlnda, am oonfined 
to America 'Ilie CaXarAimi, or Old World Moukrya, 
have ohliqu* atalrilii. Tlia tboinb » prcMiit, nvo JQ 
«ne tnatanc^— CUo6tit, aod Ia alwayi oppoeable. Tbe 



0*nu<: Clialramja— A7«-Afe ef Hadaffwo*'. 

tail ia not prcbcnailo, and may be abwenl. TIm Ab- 
thropoid Apoi aiid ntkor meonben of tiM Cmfly 
Simtaiia nrpreaent ibia laat gia*l(h SaoalKtartk^ 
Max, fto. 

QUADRUTED, « Mme Mpolartj ^flied ta 
tbooe higher v«rtehcat« aoinuJa which poMMi fear 
dev«'lojiL<d llmlia. Thla iLamei, In fact, ia popularly. 
but not BdontificaUy eynoaymoo" with the tem 
Mammalia (which aoo), the hlgneat dassof Vertebtata, 
provided with a baity body-coverins; wmrm Ueod; 
naii>ni>clBat«Lir^ blood oorpuaclM: mndtwoocdptUl 
ooiidylca. Aa, however, uertain M am m a t t do not 
pameMfintr1imbi,bnt(«aeeiilntfaeVrbaI«a.I>ngmf:p. 
ftc) b&vo only the forfi-limba deraloped, tbe aene 
'qiisiinipod' iiinnpplinihln tolhnrlaaianairhrlfi: and 
Man hiuiMilf, elthoujifa pOMe«tnc (<w Unab^ <r«dd 
□ot. 6vtm in a popuUr aeaaa bo tonnod 'qiadra- 
pciiai; but 'bipedaJ.' The name, wbilBt thawf ar e 
iiirhI in a popular "ifnrr to indicate faniliar taeor- 
b«n of the chua l^umnalla, haa no value or rigid- 
fieanoe in a edeotlfla or technical aap«ct. CeiMis 
Iow«r Vortabrab^ aa^ for cianiple, Lisardi^ Oneo- 
dilca, Proga, &c., might, ao far ■■ tbe etiict etymo- 
\ogy ot the term la ooneeraed, be aim tamad ' qnad- 
rupodal' animals. 

i^UADKUI'LE AND QUINTUPLE AIJJ- 
AlfCB. The natoral but ondtie inflaaaoa wUdi 
TCnropcan atatnt have mntually esereiaed opoD eacii 
uthi-T baa ul times prodoced slUanoEs tnoce cOHfili- 
rjU«d than any whidi hiatory olaowhara f«oard% and 
whidi could Iw prvdocvd only br a oombiaation ef 
rariona intereata. AUlanixa of this aatiira tiMBialii 
th« euatenm of jnwerfu] Jntemata and oomtn- 
intvriMta, to tni»> which to thuir origin ia one tt ttie 
chiof purpcwo* of luitcry. The fint quadruple alK- 
ance, m called from the oiuuber ol the oootacdBg 
parties, was tbo allianc* which waa eoaelnded Oetobei 
2S, 1836, bntwocn tlw Staies^Gotienl (HdlaaJt, 
Dootaark, the Duke of Biunewidc-Iinaeiimg, end 
the SSMtor of Brandenburg. The aeocad wai een- 
oladed at London, Auguat 2, 1718, between Oreal 
Britain, Kance^ and Aiiatrla, and was oatlad qna«]< 
niple became acceded to by Holland, Fehnary 16, 
1719. The object of thJa loagna was to forea Spain 
to content to the I'eaoc of Utncht It oontiiraed la 
be ao called oven after the Didai of Savoy and Bpaie 
had Joined tiie alUanoe. Tbe qoadruplo alHaiKa ttf 
Anrtria. Rneaia, Great Britain, and PrnMta,atCbaii' 
mont, Morrb 1, LSI 4, originated from their ooaltticBi, 
wbluk had vfTucLMl the dlaMlutloD of the VnoA 
Empira. After effecting fu object it becana tbe 
baaia of the KuropeaLn pdliticAt syatem which pr«- 
Tkiled with litllc effectual opponlioo until IWt, 
harijig b»en onafirmed by the CungreM el Thwin. 
the Holy Allianoc, aod the CongroH of AIk4>> 
(.rhapdle, in Octolwr and November, 181 S. wban the 
>Uiai»» became, in a eat^ tvapectt qdaliqde. M 
Fraooe joined tbe cnion profeeaedly for the mafotan- 
anco of p«aee in Eurc^, England joined the Ihna 
other powTja for the OTeothrow of Napoleoa; tat 
whi:u the allianca bocamo obrioualr ditvctod 
thonationnl independenoa which had beanc 
profoMcd object, and rellgioH aopUitij < 



I 



I 



QU.€STOR— QUAIL. 



wftb political to cUcalv* tbs iwopk, uid thx riclit 
ol Mmeil iatarforenc* vm boltUy pvonoiuii.'cd, uio io 
wmnX ittHiDCW cwried Into dKct, Eoy Uad lutn- 
" r Npwmlcd iDon and mon from the other powers 
inence of its cotutitutiorul nyctom, until ftt 
^ftiULU>£ proclaimed tbi: princt^ of non- 

QU.£8T0B, tlw Utie given to two gUnm of 
tDMgiab&tM uf utdent Rumc, tita rpucttorts patrieidii 
uhI tb« qnitttcrf Hiiuiei. Tho tanan oad thelc 
orisiB in th« ttioe of the kia^^ &ntt at fint vert 
Kipolnt*d only At critical tinio*. but nf Ccr tho tstab- 
tHbUMat of tb« republic thejt wurv vlncta] aniiulJ]/ 
b« tfaa coriM, on proeDtatloD of tl» concuU Tlwj 
dkftppew bm hiitoir in 386 B.C, u tlwir fouctiuiM 
w«n tfsnaferred to th« "raamviri CMpiUlei. lltejr 
w«n twoja number. Mid it wm tbvlr 01117 ^ ooiulut^ 
Um pnoecuUtm* of ponons MCOMd of tnordar or any 
•tlwr cafitft] offenec^ and to carry tb« fftotonoe into 
CXMOtioiL — Th« qaailortM dattici, iwimUj called 
qmatan nmpljr, won iotraatBd with tlia cbai^ of tha 

Cblic tnavury. Tb» vSco mvbw to haw m«b firrt 
ilittitvd by ValerioB PaUloola, and theyderiYad the 
tfUhtt of tUuiri daabtUm fron (heir bolng elected 
1^ Uw eeatnriea. Tha ofBca oould at fint b« hald 
only by palrMaaa ontU 421 B.e., wLon tlw mimbCT, 
wmdi iiM tanamty Imbo twi\ was dnublod. and ple- 
faafaoa baeaina aligiUe. Their dutira oun»i*t«d in 
TitiMnfl the BDoeMuuj najmanta from the public tt«m- 
Bwy and (•oaiviae km pobllo i»votiii«^ k«e|rfa]| a 
«o«r«e« Moottnt of bott b ibair tabnki pahUoB; uay 
NgiaCeTed and asacted all fine*, proridad proper 
aomDuuodatiou fur foreif,ii ambaMilDri and for aurli 
pamoagaa am wn oaoiMOtod with tbo rapobUo liy 
tfai of pnbUe boif:itBility; aod took chargn of tfa« 
(vMnb ud mcaoBMUa of Ulnatrinua miMi who were 
lalarMd at tbo publio azpanaa. Tlw aumbor waa 
f Qrtbar liKnmma to ijgkt afkr Uu ontbnak of the 
flm Ponie war, rod a qwtatar Bc«otnpuii«d «aieh 
eonaul at the ImwI of an army. At firat they liwl 
aalr to nparlntMtd the aale c4 the Inuty, L-ut tre 
fipo that they rabaaqiMiitly had tho clargQ of the 
(«ada cf tba anny, beoomi^ in fact it^ paymaaton. 
"Dm two qaaatora wbo foauled at Rome wera dirtin- 
gaiAed 1:7 Ura eailfaat vw^ami, Aa pniTloaa after 

C'lnoi waaaddM to tho Roman tsmtory the muit- 
ef qVBvton waa andn Inofoaaed, til] uider SulU 
it >aach«d twonty, and in Iha tine of JiaUoa V^mr 
farty. Any pcraon holditig tho oSioa of <tu«Mtor hail 
■ risbt lo a tent in the aenatev mJwa oxdodod by 
Iba naxt eaaaora. 

(Jt'AGOA <^o«wl3M(i#v>a),aapedeaof theHoraa 
, naady alllod to tba mare funitiar Kobna, and 
oo the Bat iteppea nr pUini of SoatiHm 
Tba Qnagfa ii atriped hke tho Zebra, bnt 
das not piMcai baadt on the limha. Tho coloor ia 
• dark or bladdab-browo on the head, neck, aiul 
aboobkn, titm baok and hind araartan balng of a 
flghMr beown, wUlat the cronp la of a rHMt gi»y. 
!« todir puH of the body an whita, tha upper 
naita of Iha h«a and bdl babf markad In wbltJuh 
Un. TbaQiHsgniiof ■mallDriiaa than the Zefar», 
aad In gMiaral oeatorBiation beaia a eloacr reaem- 
Uanea to the Ba«*e than the bater fonn. The eaia 
ara ifaort, tho bead baing nJati*«ly aiaalL Tba 
taQ ia tufted. Theaa animali appoar to tw orcsarfcHia 
In habtta: tha hnda whleh InkaUl tha CaSrarian 
platna nambaring eaeb aevcraj btndnda of Imlf- 
TJTtnah "Ria barda aS Qnasgaa ara eaU to minglo 
fadiaortelnatelT with the ZtEn hardn Tbn Qnaggaa 
M» Mtink Bboble, and dcgaat tu tbab iiiOT««MBli. 
Thatr food appenn to oeoewt of gnuaee and Mim«a 
ehmha. lliey ara tamed witboot dlttadtr, hut 
dMMadoktloa aopean to alter their dbpoaitiiw and 
to mdv iham doll and lea actfva In liiaUta. TL* 



1>iitch onloniirta vtira aaid to be In the habit of 
keepiug luumEgaa alonji with their cattla; and tba 
(piaaw defoded tha cnCtla (ma tha attack of 
hymua and other CaniiTon^ by ttampUng on tha 
invadent and olberwiae injnriDg them. Ittt Bune 
'oiiaesa' la derivad from tha cry of the animal, 
which may noat aaariy ba aspraaed by the word 
CMta-ay. Tba P-wfrir- ^ and KaSn ertoam tba 
fleahoflbe Qoifma aa ffood palatable food^ awl tbaae 
imtliml« ar« on the wma acoooat tmramittlBgly pin-- 
ned by tho lioa. It will brwd wHh th« oootDea 
boru; and a inix«d noe of thla idad, poMiwing grant 
txnuty of funu, and retahitng in a gnat drnw the 
cfaancterittlo markinga of Uie quaggy anted la 
England aoaia yean auce. The qoaisa hae raaalvad 
a variety of nunae from aothon: Ane PaniMBt 
terma It the fuodla, and Mauon tha optmgAa. It 
abould be ranarltod that Edwanla baa ml ela k era U 
for the female Mbn. Tha Dnuw, Peatai, or Bar> 
chell'e Zebn {£. ^vdleUt). ^ipaara to aland Into^ 
mediately batwaen tba Quagga and Zebra. See aba 
Zebra. 

QUAIL (aturnix), a gMiw of Baaorial lUi^ 
indadod in tho family of tba FttrAnliH or Partrldgaa 
(which aee). llio qaiula reaeanble the IaU«7 Urda In 
geuernl form, but want the red eyebrow or «p>ro nhnve 
and beJiind tba eyea aooa in tha rartridgea; whibt the 
bill U naked at ita baao, of dendor abapc^ ecsofta anpa- 
riDrly,aDdoiirT«dtawaidailati]X Um tairi an daatl- 
tateofepun. Tlietidllaafaart. Tbawfaigi an> mmdad, 
tba flnl qoill-foather being of equal leiwtb with the 
real. Tan true quaili are inhabltanta of the Eaatan 
Hetnie|ibere and AuiUiilia esdnalvely — tbe Ameri- 
can (jiiail, to be pTMcntly meatknad, belonging to a 
different goDua frooi tbo rammon nenbef* « the 
grm^ Ine tne quoU enjoya a very wlda gaogm- 
phienl diatribttlion. It thua occma in North Afriea, 
India, ud CUiu. It ia fovnd in mwj Euvpoan 
coanbTj and alao in tbe eonth of Siberia dlher ae an 
annual viaitar, or Mnnaneut reaideut. In Italy, 
Spain, and Fectugal Ihaaa Urda Uma ap|>car to be 
penaaoant raatdaota, largo nombeia in addttioo arriv- 
ing is tiMae eauntrlee In aprtag frotn Xorth Africa 
aM the aoatiiu Large qaantitiea of qaaik are kOlod 
daring tbla annnjJ Darlbwatd fligbt on tha Meditar- 
raaenn abona. Ia Britain the qaaUa ara not ao 
abundantly ripwaaalad aa In Traao* aad aa othar 
portiona of tba Ontfaxnt. Tbe Londoa aiafiet ia 
RUpfilkd cbieBy from F^mnoe. In Britain thcae blrda 
arrive early In May, and depart aoutbwanb la Oot» 
her. Tbe laalea arrira tm, aad aiafca known their 
proaenoe bv a tbrice-repealod wbaalla. I1iey nay 
•otnetlmea be 1ar«d and cnptnred bj tbe •fcilful Imt- 
tatloB of the do<« of the fnala. 

Tha CoBunoo or Europaan Quail (fVomur dadjr- 
fteo«dM4) attaloa aa atvrage length of afcoot B iacfaaa. 
Tba featbeta cd tha bead ar^ldack, edged with a 
raity brown. t1>a hinder part of tba neck and crown 
of tba head ara dMdad I7 along pa)a-yaIlow Uoa; 
lbs breaat la of ytllowUi-nd, •poHad with Uadc; 
tba acapulara and featbera ol tha back ara marked 
with a pala yellow line Io tbdr takUk aad with 
fcmgbouB imd bladdih ban oa thdr Alan Tba 
tnalea largely aneeed tha feiaalaa la anialMr; and 
the aongiKitea of Iha aexee ara qnila dlathkoi. TboH 
bfrda ara alleg«d to ba polyganioua la faaUta, but tbla 
ttataiDaetiBaatbenKaidaaaadcnbtfbL Inanaka 
aaaiattbatiauJaBln tha eara and uphrlwliic ef tha 
jonng. Hie Beah la atora joiey and deUaata than 
that of the partridge. Tbo neat ia KUla elae than a 
hole leratebed ta wa ground. Fivid Ax to twdre, 
or area foarteea aggi^ of aa oOy (tMn nloor, an 
depoaitad ; the lanar numbar preri^ng oa tha Con- 
tlaooli wUIat In Britain aix or eight ara tbe nanal 
oonben oootabod b a 'be«y' of qoaOa. llieaB 



QUAIL— QUAKERS. 



biril« hnvo also bc«t notod on a^couutof thctr jmcrnA- I 
etotw pioaUvittn*, and ' [piail-fi^htd ' wnv inaolgwl 
in aa kinaaeineiits b_v tin? ancient CI rMkaudRonoiu, 
jnit M combat* if t)ii* nature mfTard ajDnsmunt to 
tho modsra CliiticM, and io tomv porta of modHnn 
Italy. Tha fijffatlnj; quatii are gmierftUy armed witli 
artlflclal 'apuni.' tSler tbe fa«bioQ nf tigtitins atetm. 
Tb* lood ooiuiiit" nf (TTAiaii anil imda, iiurL'U and 
wonnii; 'but for the tabU (iimiU nrn prindpiUy f«l nn 
Lwnp wed. (PL CXLVJ.-CXLVII. fij-. ll.y 

Tho (luuh Uavo bwni mid in Oaliloo by Ha»«l- 
<|utBt,and dIaputM bare arSaen rq;nrding thetook^Jaal 
pcwition of t!ic uuttil of the lanelitea; HuMlquiat 
maintBining iu Idmtily with a Kpocim of T«tnui or 
Onwae, wlitcli Lo caIli-<] Tttiva Jtraiitarvm, wliilnt 
Ooltrapl SyltM Ff-^ipirda the scriptural quj^ a« simply 
th« moilnm an'l ci~>ninin[i ijiisji juat decoribed. 

<.>tl».'r ■|<«'iea uf true (|iiaU«, diatiaffuialied by dtf- 
famoee In tJie toogoe and otwa, on OHcribed under 
tlw names «f Oatvrnix ttitUi*, <7. ^throryndta, O. 
Penlak, and C. Atyoondak. Tba bwt-uiMitJnnad 
•pedea la tbe Bock Quail uf DuUmn or Diiiocan, and 
which is diBdngolahed bj tbe praoenoe of aumeroua 
tiiuTow trauTBrae black ban «n tha broaat. I'hr 
vouri); of tliia apeolca want thtae bara, and aho vary 
KTVuitly In the marldnga of the back-pluiiiiag«. Tlie 
^cab of tlic Rodi Qnau ia wliit«; and by the natives 
of ita diittiirta thU Mpociea in uacd for iiiiivil-fi^htt. 

Th« Vlrgiulao, Marylmd, or Aini-rli^aii Ljuail or 
Partritlj^ {OHyx VirT/iniatiftt), an It la varioualy 
termed, ia tLoluil«d in the anb-fami)y OdonCnphorina^ 
together irich another B|wds known oa the Callfor- 
(lian Qiiail {0. or Lophiu-tyz Cali/ornictu), and dia- 
tinfpisbod by the pcnwuaion of a aeait of cnrvnd 
featheia borne on the t«[> uf the Ltad. Tho Vinjiidan 
Quail poaaeaaaa a ahort; hi^hlv archod bill, and Urge 
naked ncatrila. Tha taraiia ia amnoth, the latcntl 
loea of unequal ilxe^ ud the toO ia of modentv 
length. No«|>ano]>en»texiata. Thiahird taaVnit 
9 inekea long and 1 ( In. eitcnt, uaually welKhiiif; from 
7 to 9 OK. Th« hill ia blacJc; a lliiu ov«r tbe eye, ilon-n 
the neck aod wbulc vhiii hnng pure whitv, bordorwl 
by a band of black, which deaccnda and forma a 
oraaoont on tho ihro^t: tho ove la dark hai«l; aroivn, 
docIe, and upfnr giart of tlio InMwt, red brown; addea 
of the n«ck ■i>utt«I with wIiHe and blaek on a nd- 
diah brcwn ground; book. Bca{iulara, and leaeor 
covcrta, rod brown, mixed with aah, and minntclj 
tnarki^ wltb bUck; v>iit|^ plain and duaky; lower 

Ert of Uio brcaHt and bellv whitlab. markeid irltb 
wk arrow bcada; tail aah, apottad whh roddiah 
brown. Tbe American Qnail la oommon thronghnnt 
North Aincrir«t and oztooda in ita dlntributiou aa 
far aoulb ax Hondiiraa. Tlin Amvrioan Quni] arpwiv 
to dllTer from ita a^ffntorj nelchboura of the old 
world In bdnp locally distribntod; a fact well known 
to Amorinaii aportiimca, who arc in tho liabit of 
tuning out pain of tlieaa birda, when an nnnauolly 
•*•«« wlntvr bae deatn>y«d tbe cweja la tlie neigb- 
bonHwod. Tho fomale oonstmcta her neat in >lny, 
and lays about f!ft«(!n nr twouty n^gn, wbirb am pnr. 
fectly white. WUiou iaof opinion that the comukiiu 
idea, that qnaUa oocaaiooally lay In ea«b otker'a ncsta, 
ia comet, 'ilie food of the qnail ia compoeed of 
gnin, aSMK Inaecta, Ac., btidcwhcat and lodinn- 
corn iwinr tiM fiavtnirite artli-lM. The flnh Li veiv 
«d>tte BBO tender, nnd ia untH]nall«d in duUcacy by 
ny otbar aicmbw of ita order in AmerieiL 

Tbe Andaluttan Quail (7\inii'z laehjidrmnti*) 
l)«Ion)^ to thr nuh-fumiiy TNimiMiur, and rc|iree>«ita 
tho nrilv nieiubet of that t[nnip fiiund in SuruM; It 
i* a natit-c of both Ijnropean and African ahoica of 
the Mtriliterraoi-an, nii>l »p[waia to tra uf mlgratoiy 
baluL*. Tb« bill ia nearly ■Lrali;!)!, and of nodarat* 
length, the Up ot tbe upper maudiUe orerluuiglng 



tile lower one. Tho noatrila an aitnated In • grwae 
wbioti runs Iwyond tho middio of the biH The tana 
are atont ; tho toca elongtatcd and fra« at th«ir baaea; 
wings abort: ^d the tail ia luddea by tbe doant 
foat^aia. The food conaiata of te*Aa and i BMB t r ; 
nnd theae btrdK ar« wild to be polygiuiMaa in babfta 
QCAK.ER3, or Faix.tc*, a aooiotT td Obia- 
tiana which took to tiao In Enjfa n o abont tbe 
raid'llo of the aeventeeotb eoatiBT. 0«acg» Fax, ft 
nativo of Drayton. In LaleeatsnUre, WM tbe &nt 
miniater whoa« pteacUng WM hiatj wmant * ! in onf 
Tfaiclng the peqde of theae religioaB Ttewa adfeb 
diatinguiah no aocdety. He was bean in tba y«r 
Mi24,mtu\ mmmenoiHl hia mioiaterial labman in 1M7. 
ho'ian then in the- tw«nty-third y«ar of bla aga. Tl* 
timea In whJ<^ ho nppcAivd were Umes ol graaC 
aodal and religimu agiUUon in England, the titat* 
of CrauwvU and tbe ConimoawmtUi. I'ha |«iiBa- 
plee of rdlj^ona toleration w«re n^tber ■iiJiiitanJ 
nor practiH«i1, and Vot immediately fall uadm p**- 
ctiUon. Hin lif tt iraa for a latif tfano littl« b m m tbw 
a piliirimo^ fiMin priaon to pnaiai. But pcaMntion, 
as UBual, mndo faim tha object of pabUo a W aa t te a, 
and (^nlintod the aympatfalea of naay In bl« eaaaai. 
Hi* miuionary Ufo esteoided orer forty yaMi^ ia tbe 
ooiiraeof which he travelled rapottealhr or«r all Stag- 
land and Spstkad, beddea vbilinK (he ContiDaBt, 
and perfnnning a mtelonary tour tuntag tba lafaal 
oolomea uf America. After making maltitudea at 
ooDverta be ofgai^aed thnn into a nfaurdi, wUd) 
became ooa of tba megmtsed aecU ot ChrMa^ty. 
Among tbe eniin«it Ddnbtan of Iba aociety w may 
notice Oeoiv* Fox. William Venn, Robert Bavcky, 
(roorgv Wbitebead, Stir|ilien Orja]]^ Isaac Pcnabetoa, 
John Crook, Tbomaa Story, Ac. The infwit wkJ*^ 
WBB soon nbjccted to tlio rijniura of a eeircR) pene> 
cuUon. aometimea withunt um pie i tt tt el law, and 
nl cither Umca under cover of legal ananlnaaal^ 
triads dther ia Bcman CatboUe Uibm or riaoa tbe 
IMuiniation i^alnat ncnconfMiniata. The aari^ m 
Qaakara wan marked a« a peculiar poi^il« by tbar fl 
teatimoi^ against eatliL a paM nunMiy, HAm, H 
and other ecdeelaattoal dntuida: tbnr twi a< Iba ■ 
idngnlar pvonouna when addraarinc cnty one far- ^ 
eon ; their rafuaol to titke off tlie bal aa a mmfB- 
ment to men; and the faithful maiataaaac* of tbav 
roligloiia naotiaga. Oaom Fos waa oaa cf A* 
fint who waa imprfaenod. In 1650 ba waa anabnad 
lirforo ti«-o iurtioca in DtrbyWre, and on bb otbert- 
In^' tiioae about him to trvmble at tho Word of God, 
ono of the justifca deridinirly gave btm and bk 



friRnHa the appellation of QitaJcert, frhlcfa 
liovu generally applied (o thoni by the worid, tboogb 
tlwy tbemaalviai; aa wdU aa thw ■oe w eao a ^ bat« 
adapted tiaa name of FriniU, The <nol«Me d 
paraeeutian only tended fee ecoflnn tba fallb aad 
atreagttian the bond of union among tbe tnaoiban ft 
thfl rising audoty. Ita aimbt«n bnldly jiiaaulipl 
tbeir doctrinM both publicly and privalvly, and woe 
not dateiTod from tboir goapel bboun by lbs Bevamt 
punialimanta. Tba maouMta, with ana aoeoail, mAad 
u) atiangtbenlag eadi otbar'a fahfa, anouvragiM aQ 
to oonttnne ateadfaat to tbe reUgJon tbay bad 
eapowysd, and to endure with paliimca actul cvm 
chncrfiilnrHi lli«i loioi of ther eataUa, imMiatmsnl, 
iliiM, wliippiiij-, t«niabuieBl, end aran daatb ha^, 
ntlier tban reBooaoa thalr |«indplaa at rtoblalbalr 
teatimoBioa. Tba apirit of intolcranea whiift caoaad 
Iho aocietv ao mni'h auffcrinc In Knriand navad Bs 
baneful Influence bo Aaiaricai and pnidooea tM aa- 
tural nanlta tbara abo; but in naHbarooontiy odoU 
it abaka tba oonatancy of the acfferen nor iadat* 
tbem to nlinquiab tbe^r conformity to wbi^ tbqr 
regardad aa duty, lliair patient aubodaaiaa to<' 
wnaga lalUeted on tbeo, tba blagrity and 



I 



QVAKBRa. 



S95 



■of tlwir Htm; their {iiobhy. tad the fMkCMbla 
iplaa whkh th«^ IwM, not ontjr wrmiffat «onvio- 
tion CO tb« mlndi of lOMay, Ukd tbns ftddM to tbair 
vuBbva, hut alto had RfaTinmbloiaftiigncv on Uiom 
in Mitfaariir, who uv t&»t Mveritj terrti nthftr to 
inoRaa* And Mt*bliih the Kiciuty than to amat ita 
[■mii^ yroin thaa« caua«>, >a wbU m thn ilifTuJiinn 
q( Bon Ubanl utd enlighteDwl views oa the «ulijc«t 
jJiUcliMW Ubattj>, acta mn aaocxwIvelT [mibmkI bv 
BfettUi PvluniMi^ reUttting IfTtcnda from tb« 
1 ■ndar which tbvj niflered, ami toteniUag 
■kkU of wonhJp. muriaic^ ^c^ and ftUowins 
lb«B k ft comt at juMlce to n^a an t&rauiea in 
plttMol taldof an oath in th(^ ibmMl -wny. The Mine 

IvrcniMa^ m th»t at pmcol tbay niffer bo other 
■ikitittaii [0 th«t eonntry than th» occMlona) dia- 
Imlnb of thtfir property lo aatiif j demaiKli nuula in 
lian of mniUrj •^rvloM, whldi tile; oaimot w a aa t m- 
tfaody pay. In Great Britain thv^ataod oa tbemne 
foMloff at otbar poopl* in mpect of thmrlUbUitjr to. 
fuj mNk-iat«^ and tha modc^ uf duputlug Uu> 
rmtif of the nt& 7l« finrt hManda that irrat to 
An a ri an wmn two feoiala mlnlrtow, who landod at 
BawlM About th« TMT ]«U. Olhen oooaaioiiaUjr 
vUCed thai eoontrir at mhaMjuent pcrioda; and • 
Bmnhar of pencu* baring embnuwd tKo fmndpleo of 
tho •ntiwty, Oooivo Fox w«Dt ortt in 1S72, aad 
Mltlod tMrtu^ of diwniUBO for the cure ot the [wor 
aad the pKaervatkn of gooA order in the church. 
At thia pariod then; wen ineelingi of VHandb in 
moat of tba «il>wd«a along th« a«n-oo«t ban Maa*- 
obumtu M for •until aa the CareUnaa. b IftSS 
WiUiam t'can urlTtd In the river U<Jftwai« with m 
larvc niitntirr «f hit braUuvi, «riK> foanded tbo dty 
u( Pkibutclphu, and aetUed lliaiiieelm there or in 
the Mtjacmt oounilee; and in oadi eiirrimlTr rear 
Ibnr nniMben wtn inmenad by new •nigntnte nom 
tba Kwtbar oouatry, uatU th^r fonned n bf^o and 
iwriHiUe oolMnr. HoM of toe kDotent (ainllioM in 
PUhdolphfa Mid ita vldnitr tnoe their origin lo 
Ibaa eettlera, uid toutr of the noblcit Inrtitado^ 
of Ukat dijr own thmr ru« to Uie Ubcnlitj and bono- 
vdeiMe of tbe Society of Frioada. la the ooune ot 
dae it was (onnd Out the aocictj h*d to & fTMl 
eatoat loot ita noweiful [Dflnoioe aa a pnwdjrtisbg 
aganL "n* qnii to eai of ita wotmhlp^ and erao aheo- 
Inte aU»ei of ea«>« of ita iiioetiaga, deprived of the 
•nUnnlBff InllcMitt of ncied ntiaic, which hae to 
•ftaa BMiderDd invaluable aervioe to the ChriaUon 
clmrah in all aoaa^ made tha Qoalcer aw o m b lJea 
naattnttfve to tie nuuMea and even to tha yomig of 
Ihdr owD ewBBii iBlty . The want of a dUlanct ctef- 
«•! order to think, writir, niid fi-eak for thaoo, and 
oaaaaqaenlly the want of an eztMiriTa dennodna- 
tlwal Htantm baa daeolced the {jropagation ot 
thdr ikamh. AnoUMr cMiae haa alao operated In 
Iha HMta diraettnn. Fox made hia coQvwta dueflj 
aouAg the rxiral popnUUon; Ibajr were q>rwd aimovt 
aU ovur England ; their property wbi 1b laad and 
raal Mteta, or aid) peracnal effMta aa WW* aot Ukaly 
io Cacapo the notice of the tax-^atlum^ and wwe 
Mdly eabjeeted to ■■ramint aad dbliaJnt Ttm 
Qoaar waa bound oo prtadple lomirt Iha payawat 
ol tithaa^ and did ao; rcxatii» and loee were hM ooa- 
•Uat portion. In the UpM uf two oeatniiea thin 
f itadaood a inat^od eS«c4 on the aeoi. It drove tbeni 
into the oltfei^ eonpelliag tbem to ioveat their ca|>- 
Ital lo diHeraA waya, and to wmng^rt a ehaan id 
tltrir hahlta and ntode nf lifi:. Numbeia of Uwm, 
owing to tlicir fnignlitr fkiid pruiUnoe, aotjutred enor* 
nova wealtli, with whldi came ^lr^^1^1^^l1^ and irrhl 
ppeillnrii Thc^ bvcame the imndatn and rinle of 
' loa and atatenncn ; Ihcv fuuiid Uieinaelvee Mtting 
I by aide with tiw dfgnitwiM of tha ohunt^ who 



luul eeata in the Hoom of Lords, and parddpatcd in 
national legblation. Thia waa eertainly a mat 
change linca the dart when a hiraUnB' ui JteAiMid 
wae an abotoination, and the cburdM* of tha Eatab- 
Uahnent were derided a« ■(eapl»-boinaft Deea rt iona 
fram their ranka bocamo nuneroni^ and what waa 
wballir nnaaddpatod, Uia dea«atiui« went over to the 
once ubnoxtons Ei^aeopal Choruh. Great wvaltb 
and reoognbed position operated Ukawieo agninet the 
diacuiliDa of tho (■■It. originaUr thia dtaefplino 

bad bean a dtiiytj ttrin^nt ; Uutb- dwelling* were 

■ubjeoted to a dcnddllary viutnlino, anil <ifri-nilirr» 
wen made to fael at onoe and cuiptiaticallv that 
tbovhad violated rule and fbrfdtod the food opinion of 
thuEr brttliren. Thoae Uviag in eplnndid maaranDa 
mwt be endued with an etdnent gift of ChrMan 
maoloMH to bo able to roodva cnoh a vlclt with 
beooming' bnnuHty and rabnuMioa, and Ihoae who 
adinlniater eui^h an act of dbolpUiM niaat have an 
BM uia ne a fpiiio aa oztraordfawiy In order to do it 
with cmphMK anil effect. The e«uaqn»ee of thii 
chanp: uf [nntiiin haa b«en a decline of the ancient 
diaciplina, and a relaxattou of tbo watchfolneM wfairli 
tha Frianda couatbought tbvmMitvee bound to main* 
tain ow aadi other. At>out the year 18ST tbia 
pe«oetnl aaot vhfdi had exi^tred ao Imm> without cmd 
or oonlenico began to be (Eetracted by dogmatic 
debate. About that ttme Kliaa HlcH ■ native of 
tba atata of New York, a man ot uneannutk depth 
and atreogth of mind, aa wall aa force of tiiaraeter, 
p«at natural eloaaaiKit, sad uwwnrving ractitodo of 
Ufa, ereated a adum bi tbo eodety by pirenulgatliiir 
i^iBiona danying the nlracoloui oeooeptloD, divinltf, 
and atoDemeal of Cbriet, and alao Ibe autbcntici^ 
and diviiw aotborl^ of tli* ftolptnraa. AbunI half 
the ted in America fcUowred Weln, and lutv« efatoe 
been known ai tba raololto Friaada; their opiniona 
ara npvdiatad br tha feat of lb* aaot, who may be 
lookaa npon ■ w» Oitbodai FHendi. The echin 
eraatad inmanaa wtdlenit in the bodj la Gruat 
Britain aa waU aa In Anerlea, and a movenwnt waa 
bagnn in CaTonr of a higher educattoii, ol a nvnl 
oUeely allied to tbat of the evangelical party, and of 
n itlaitaitioti in the fonaaUty of tho aodoty. "no* 
novesMBt, wlkitb wm beaded by Joaopb John 
Oaraey, of Norwich, waa rtreonoualy oppoaed by a 
body of Quakan In Ameriea, and the twult wae a 
dIvUon anong dia Octhedex Fkiondi theanelva^ 
and tba artgin of a nnw aect, known aa Wtllauilei^ 
from tha name of their foundec John Wilbur. Thia 
aeot ia noted for tbo etrictDtaa with which they ad* 
here to the tmditioaa and pocuUaritiee of ibe eodety. 
8one aU|^ tadkMtiuia of tbaok>gleal dUfraaen 
Inva aleo ebown tbamaalrea anong ttw ibigUA 
Qoakera. Tba eodety, ea a wbolg^le new aamDaad 
to have axeecAed IHO.OOO nenbefe; tbe nnnber at 
iveeeni fa aatfanatod at lltO.OOO, ahoot tbna-fouttfaa 
of whom bek»g to the Uailed Statea. 

Tn altecnpting to give a viaw of tbelr lealinaalaa 
and doetriaei^ tna Uaiu oecaaaarily prwtribed In aa 
enoy ob ifdln foeUd aaytbing nora than a bttef 
Aati^ Tba aocie^, or imlber what we have cnllad 
tbe flttbodo* eaotimi of it, beUevoe that, osdar tin 
goapal dlmaBaatlu^ all war* and flgfatbei aia etaletly 
forbidden; tha porfHre injuDotiaa of Jeeua CbrfN, 
' [jovo your encmiei^ hlcaa titem that rarae you, do 
Bood to them tbat hate you, and pray (or then whidb 
MpilahiDy «N you and pwia iii la yen,* antlnly 
prachiribig tha liianlgUM* of tbeaa mallgaant m«> 
aiatia fhan which ooty eaeh oonteata ean a»e. Inay 
alao apptubend that tbe ex pren oomnaod of oar 
Lord and hie apoatla Janea, ' Bwaar not at all,' pro* 
hiUta tbe Ohrlattaa bom tbe mo of fwlkial aa wpII 
m otbar oalbi. awl tbat in all thins* hie wwl ahouU 
ba yea and nay, ' (or witatwevrr ia more than tU* 



898 



QUAKERa 



oonwth tii cril. An iTmnu Oiriat decl^ntd tn hin 
dlKijilM, ibnt without LiiD tbej oould do ngtbini;, 
and u h« «Iodo ia the Head and Governor t>f IiIh 
fliiarcb, tho socic^j bcliov«a th&t k Bptciftl oil and 
qnali Stat ion fmm bint, by tha iniliinnoM of bii 
S|itril MI ihu loul are uec«Miivt; to cututitut^ a tru« 
miniiitor of tho g&spcl ; and thai m bt ooniRUUidad 
bi* riinrijiW 'I'VHyyri Ji»vc n^crivul, frae^ givc^' 
KJ tliB fiutUfiil miniiti^r of Cbrut cannot mnke mer- 
cbiuid!«e u( the gUi reivlved, doc duiUue tbu exerdw 
of it bnviiuc ho may not tic campcnHitod by a potrtL- 
n(*rr remu^. Owing; tit their tlwtii^ that tlin mti, 
minialry uf the oomuuiiltjr ia wotdI]' tho ur](tui liy 
which ' ths Spirit 8p«aka to ttw oburobee,' wouibd, of 
eaursc, tiuty puiicipato in thu offioo of paUicteaohiiig, 
edifying apfcfich bang cotuidtrttd a auffldent anthni- 
ttoaCkm Dl ft r«UgIous teaeber. It being geuerally 
admitlod that the baptiam of water and a partidpa- 
tioa In tho outward cupper are but the mm» of thftt 
aaentuU bi^iLlaia of tho Holv KhoBt which our I»nl 
Jmin Chriat instituted, aad of the oomiuunlun of 
■ainla to wb'oh be alltuln nhui ho dvdarvd to tbv 
apoitlc John to the I{«relatiiHi, 'Behold, I *tnnd at 
lA6 dwoT uud kuock; if any nuui hear my voL-c and 
Cpm tUa door, I will romn io ami mip witb biut, And 
be with UK ;' aud a« tliu Bptritual baptixiD uud com- 
tDunioa &re not depuiilt^nt on the outward ntoa — th« 
•DOcty do«« not oiiuktcr theas •■ oocMaary, but 
priMM OIL i'ji liunnbon a inhillliMioo to th« «ff«K7ti:lAl 
op«nitl«b of the Holy Spirit, by which the obedient 
tool li broncht to ths living expc:ricni» of tho Rub- 
stanoo of whidi thcw MmruoniM arc but the cxt^-r- 
nal ■ymboU. Am early aa 1727 they (roc!y cenanrBil 
the CrVifiic iu slaves ao a practice uvitliur voainiuud- 
ablo Dor allowod, and the oiTorta of tho eodcty hnd a 
grrat inifioeiiot: in brining about UiiUr riimncijiatiiiti, 
Aa simplidty imd ^iKvity iu droaa aod deiLitniioiir 
ara oaiuanaut ^titli the Chridtlan character, the m- 
detY teoonuuetLda il« members to ot«M-ve pLtinnet* 
in OuHr appani. and th« furoituro nf thoir housM, 
an kdhitvnootDllieuMoithoBiDgnilarpntnDiuui'tboo 
and thou.' whcD addroniiif only one paraoa, and the 
disuae «f the cuatoanary aalutationa and tokens of 
obatsanoe. lU cotidnci in Ihiam rmpacla ariaai from 
the apimbciiiiiius tli».t Itia contrary practiitii or'np- 
Dated in the prl<U of ths hunua heajt, and have a 
Uruieac^y to fortor that handittneu Mid edf-coDooit 
which it ia so much the buamow of tlic f 'briatiaa to 
mortify and subdue. The Friends vbjeut to hulls, 
gaminK-placea, horso-raooa, aud thcatrcia: to tndiil- 
ging in UDiiic, eopedally what is gcnenlly GAltod 
■ ac red music, and deuonnoe oratorios and parforai- 
■nose of that nator* aa oasaotiaUy * profanation; 
tb«y object alao to th« roadia; of pUys, romanoti, 
novalB, ftnd othor pemfdona booki^ and to tha v^n 
cnatocn of wearinfe looaming and all extravagant 
Mpanaaa oanDoalM with tha burinl of tiio d«ud. 
They do not nae the ordinary nainee of Uw days and 
tb« iDontha« as thoy are derived from pa^ui aounm^ 
bntdeaigQato them by thdrsaoibcrs. The dnotrinea 
td the ao«etr may be itatvd La a firw vvrds; in doinf 
whluh it wi]] be pnper to obserre that Ita nembaa 
prefer the iieo of luoh tonna aa are to 1m found in 
tlio Holy Bcriptarea. 'Iliuy Iwliova in Cod, tlio 
Father : In Jesus Christ, his b^lovLnl and only b«- 
Mtssa Son; and in tho Holy GhiMt, Comforter or 
Spirit of Truth, one trne and linag God, bleaMd for 
«Tcr. TtiAt these ar« the boly Thieo that ban 
record in bravnn ; to wit, the Father, the Wonl, nad 
Uw Uoty Ghost, and that thoo three tn one. That 
in Um fulncBs of time our XmtA and Savionr Jcsns 
Oiriat took flcah, was miicciiMl by the Holy GhiMt, 
and bom of the Vtrtpa .Mary at lt<ithl«bein in Judea; 
tlkal be waa cmdrivd under Fontaas Pilate, volun- 
tarily foiKuderiot; hinuelf to the ignomtniouB death 



eif the rrf««, and anffrred for onr aaos, lite jnat for Ifce 
unjust, that h« mlubt briiifi us to OoA; tbareby 
beoaroiD([ ths one, groat, uni venal offering and ateo^ 
niPBt for all mankind llcnco ' h« is the profitlfe- 
tinn for otir Kins, and nnt for ocn only, but for the 
bins of tho whole world;' and ae «««h indiridnal 
vjbmita to tho poiver of tho Holy Spirit, renewiac 
■LnH ehan^'ng the heart, his post tnnagrMidoM m 
(r«Iy fur^ren and blotted out for Christ's aalu, and 
be oomee fully to partake of th* b««ia£tN t£ that 
redemption which was pnichaacd f or tw by the 
rnniins, and sufferings, and death ot the •dofsbla 
Sou u? God. Iu eipresMDg themstrlvca ooaoeraiag 
this 1,'lorIouB display of the lovn nf (rod to CsIUn 
man, they mclada a full belief in thv deity and Bsa- 
hood ol Jcsaa Christ; in bia mincnlooa birth, hoty 
lifts iiilt,'lity miradea, death. l es ufi we thMi . and asom- 
eion into glory in the hsnvraa, whne lie is at ths 
right band of God, as our Reiieemer, MsdiaKr, awl 
Advocate with the Father, and whanee he shaU 
oome to judgo th« world In rigl>laotianess ak titt 
^«t and final day d jndgmeot. Aa the whole 
human raoc is naturally faUen, deffenaraUk nd 
»[iiritually dc-ad, of thomaelTea tttteHj ineajwhle of 
ilriing anytliinc thnt wilt tatid to their aalvatkn, so 
the sodety iK^iwcs that all have need, and at* tta 
obJwtK of that redemptlan which ia frsely DOatd 
fur their acceptance through Jcens Chriat oar Lard. 
'I'hat ' ths grsos of Gnd, which bringeth salvation, 
luilh appeandiuitoaiZmm; teaching na,thal, deny- 
iiii; ungodlineas and worldly lusta, wa ahoiild lin 
•uhcrly, rigfateonaly, and godly in this pMaeait worid;' 
and that obedienae Io tta die&atM b eatntially 
neoeseaiT to enable aa to paiaavsra in th# wwlc of 
pun) and nndofiled r«llgion, and finallj to rnodve the 
■:nd of our faith, even tlu> aalvation of oar eanla 
'i'bxt then sludi be a ranimcttoin, both of the juit 
and tha uujuft, according to tba daeUntuo of ov 
blcavjd XxjTil, ' The honr is ooniog^ in tha wUdi all 
that orci in Uin grsTcs shall hear hia ymec, and diafl 
oumo forth; they that hare dene (toed onto the 
raourreotfon ot )ile, and they that haw done nilaHki 
tilt resurrection of d amBatioo,' — and that, aiOODrdlBg 
to llic tnAimouy of the aposUe Paul, * II b aewtt a 
natural body, aud raised a apbitoal body.' Ahbooffh 
Krimda do not call the Holy Seriptune tha Word of 
God, but apply this epithet eutlutively to the LbH 
Juua Chrut,'yet they heliere that theae saetai 
writiugt are the Mwdt of God, written by boly mo, 
as they were moved by the Holy Ghost; IhM thn 
are riro6ta)>li! fr>r diictrine, for leprea f , tor oonadtte, 
fur hiBtxuirliun tu HghteottSBsa^tbal the nan of Gad 
may be perfoct, thoroughly fnnhJkad mto all foot 
worka; ud that tfacnr are able to aanlte wfaa viib» 
salvation through faith which la in Cblat Jeaa. 
They also hold them to be tha moat aatheatiG nd 
paefnct declaration of Christian futh, and iba oolyfil 
outward Judge and standard In all lallgletH oanBa- 
veralee; and that whatevar, otbar la Aootrtna v 
practice^ any prafcas or do, thonirb under paictaaea cf 
tho goidaaoa of the Holy Spint, if it be eoativy 
to or Inoonatatent with the tcathncay ot tba Holy 
Scriptures, it is to be esteemed a delusion and eater. 
Tho KidetT ia govamed by its own coda of Asa- 
pliue, which is enacted and auppurteJ by meetiap 
of four defieea for diadplina — namely, prcparalfia, 
monthly, qnartedy, and y**tij akratniA The p»- 
parative digest and prepaic the huaiaeaa fv the 
monthly mectingi^ In wbtah tha exeeuilvw power h 
prindpany lodgod, eubject, howavar, te Ota iwririn 
and control of the <iuarterlT tnaetbigB. TVaa ara 
uauslly ootnpoeed of several iDoathly ■wiatliim. wUd 
are aceountabte to the quarteriy, and orvr whkh is 
cxerdaaaitajurisdictianandcara. ThayaariyuiMlti^ 
oompriaca a number of qnarteriy maetmga, whieh an 



QUAKING GRASa-QUANTinCATION. 



I 



■abiwdinvtv xod acoountalil* to It, m)<] iDhjici to ita 
Mi(i«r(t>ionuKl<lir«otJaii. Ilautliorityia pamuaunt, 
KM it poMMMi titt aoJ« power to m&ka or Amend the 
diidpliiiik For furtli«r LnforiDAtioQ aea 8ew«ll'a and 
(ioarii's Hirtoriw nf tho {JaiLkom, tr. Vox'n Journal, 
Buv]»j''t Apolofr, EvAn'4 £i[Kaitioo, Gurac;'* 1?«- 
coluritiea. ft& 

QUAKI^JG GRASS {Briaa), » gcniu of gnMM 
tnlTrminjT to tba triba Fcatudnm. It u known bj 
ik noM, tkne>rlbbed kIuum uid il» gnml U»i- 
■hHMd, cotiatu, hivat, braod, ftwnloM^ lower palM, 
both of whirb hkro » mMnbisDons bordrr. Tba 
npeciai «r* (cw, mud ara moatty oonfined to RuropB. 
0ru» «Mmn«, » nMivg of ^ouUiem Eurot)«. Um 
fcMU long cod (;«&araUv mltivited u k gfttdca 
ummmI OB MOMint of Ha luge knd hMidjomo droop- 
fagiBl k el« U , BrvavutUaitiitfivoiypoeiftecaam'm 
' \,m§ 9VUHUJ. It !■ » pcNuiiftl i^jutt, with toftvd, 
noU; tta* sbou never cxcMda IS indiM in 

and !■ naiultj aliorter; it b«*ni At tli« liaac 

n Bombar ol darlc-etMB Imvcb. "Hie •plkslrtu atv 
ovnM^ Amagcd in a ]eoM> pADiclc, uch containio^ 
•ibaat mnn floreta, the lomat of wbicli ai* aomc- 
tfaiaei lanjer IhAn tba gloniei. Ttt«an apUielciA baru 
ft mrplUi coknjr, and are aoapandad bf vary alcador, 
wtry vtalki^ on wbicli (Jioy swing freely, Cremblias 
At erary breei& It flowera In tbe ftnd ot Jnn«, abS 
h rifte by tlra middlu of July. It la of aome am&U 
•CricultunI valiio. Iloraoa, oowa, and abaep tvlU est 
ll. wd it ia well vnii«d to poor aoUa, wbvtoer tAiuly 
ar bcftvy; aay Attempt to au1«h the uD with niABnre 
b fatBl to tiiia oraaa. It ia found in Brit«in at alti- 
(ndaa of ISOO taat abore acA-lcvd. Atidtbor (pediai, 
flrim minor, modi aaiAller in all ita porU, with luany 
uiABgnlw apUMlati, Alao oontn in lUa utmti;, but 
it ia very tm, miiI of no agricaltanl vAfaia. 

QCASTIFICATION OP THE PREDICATR, 
In loele; the aw of aume word or worda to Itiilicau 
wkauer the pndicate of » prMMaltiaa la dbtributc<! 
or Dot, that ia, whathar or not ail the obiacia nf whMi 
thm pmdicAt* may be A«*rtod at* alas objecta of which 
thcaubjectiBAj (in AffifBtatlTe pnopaalliona) be aaaarlad 
or tja Bcgatifa propoailiMiB} «wiued. Thui^ when we 
i^, Soma nwo ara lo^dau, wa do noi know fma the 
farn vltba paopoaiQan wli«tlier we iDAy not apply tlie 
pwdtcAti loglokna lo any who Are not oea. trat if we 
•inaalify tha pndkAl« and sat, Some mon are all 
lo^oianaL we at onoe ahow tliat uiia applicatioci cannot 
beiBada. FhnoqiHt And Lambert In tbe Laat oentory 
■MMtad the tp«nMa>tlnB of tbo pr•di<•l^ but 81r 
WULiam Manultca waa tha Grit to gire aotbrie^ to 
Um doctrine Vr the bnpoitaaoa that ha attncbed U> H. 
Be ODoaldared It •• iaTolvinu A oouplat* revolution 
in formal logic. Ilko theory of tha noccaaty for tbo 
(loantiScatiaA ed tbe pc<dioate in lo^cii^ analyiu ia 
baaed en the view tLat every prapoailion b aa equs- 
tioa faetweaa tbe aubjeot and the predicate, Althoujrb 
ia nefAtiTe propoaitioae tUa equtMrn coanirta only in 
the tenna b^ng eqaallr exdnriTa of one Auethtt. On 
tbia view bt oonlwded ttwt the Dvnbw of propoai- 
tioaal fomaraoBgdiedbTloridAaaahooMbe be w aed 
Iron fonr loaifhit(WUeh MoaalgDated and aymboUted 
in tha folLowing T TH Hi nfT "^ 

I, TMe-loul a Ar*. Eiuupl*— All ]r* are alt r>. 
1. Takf renMI s An. . Ail X** «n UBM Y'a. 

S. Pwu-totaldpi. „ f<nna X* an all Y's 

1. FHU^'Ultal s tri. ,. buna X* ua mom Y^ 

t.TM»4otal>Ax4. Bnnipte^An; X !• sm aaj T. 
C TM»fMtlal = AVI. Atiy X U no* tome T. 

T. htil-totalEiUJi. „ Sana X b wx any T. 

A.hrUpM1lBt= tfti. HaaaXltnotMOMT. 

It wiD be aaen that in the lymbola used by Sir VUUab 
HamnUairiiidliAtwAfniiiiAiliiii. NiMm,aTlim. AiUiitil 



butloo, I Indl«tnt>ntl»ii, and the pflJiBeB of A and I 
00 the rijcfat or Ivft of ibe symm el afflnaaliiNi w 
oegAlion shows wbethor it ia tbe anbiect or piliilhair 
thnt ia dialribnt«d or uiulbtnbutcd. Ainaaft the 
nuiDcmtii chaogna in tbe theory of fdimal locin that 
Sir WiUiam HAinilton points out at iceviutily fol- 
lowing ttie adoption of a quAntilied predicAta the 
moat unportant an the raduetkiD of tne mavefrieo 
of prDpradtianii from three apecice to one (aee Looio^ 
Convenloo), the nduetion of all the ptoenl laws of 
categorinUayUofistnatoaabelecAnon,Andtheabrt^a' 
tion of ^1 tho >ir>RciB] Uwa of eTllogiam — a mauifinta- 
tion that fifciuv ^M au uneaiential vuiatioo in tyllnglitio 
form, aoJ Uiat the practtee of redudnj; the •ylloEiitna 
fn>mtb«otberfi^LrcatothafirrtiaeoaBeqiiHitlyAhiiinl, 
and A large increaaeof tbe munber of iagitimate uoailA 
Aa to tbe fttst of tbeea lAaagsa ensuinf vo the adop- 
tion of A qoaotlfiad precUcate it needa but tbe allj^teet 
onneidcratioa tosAft howit oomMAboottfor if all projw- 
ajtiona mc reduivil to oqnatiaaa between aui>joct and 
predicate it iaobvimialy amatterel tndlBerenoe which 
term of the e(|BAtioa ba plaoad ftnt, whether we sar, 
Atl men are eeoM aniawUs, or Some ammab are all 
meu. Tim ifagla caBda tlal Sir WiUiAm HAmilt4Ni 
•ubstitutce for All tlM 2«natal and apedal law* of tbe 
eyllogiam is tbe fdlowinff: — ^What wotso rebtiwi of 
subject and predieate stthalats between dtbor of two 
lorrna and a oofomon third Una, with which one at 
loaatiapoaidvalv related; that relatkmaubsiata between 
tbe two tenns tboawslves. With regard to this canoa 
it reqnlrea lo ba sxplafBed that a partial rdatina of 
OOLO term to anollier and a negative retatian of uoe 
torm to anothor ate conaldMed aa reepectleely erotee 
than A tijtal and an affinnatiTa relation. Thus, in a 
^Uo^laffi with premlwB of this nature, Some oaeful 
animals are all horsesv Any htnae is nut any camiTotoua 
aniical, inr William Hamilton would say that the 
Bubjeci uf tbe f!nt preiidsebeanauitiiU and tbow* 
furu a wune rtilation to tbe predicate which ia tha 
coiniDDa third tana with which the aobjeet of the flnl 
and predieate ot the second preralae an oonparvd than 
the pradloate of the seoeod premlsa does, umJ that in 
the second pmaiaa tbe predicate bean a nesatixe and 
therefore worae relation lo the aubject; wlwncp itwnnld 
follow that the subJeiA of the conclusion (which is the 
aabjset of the ftnt pranlse) imiM bear to tbo predieate 
a partiAl relaiioB, and the two tema of the coneluaiaa 
a iN^tive relation lo one aDiitber,tbe oooclnsimi beioff 
in the fccm, Some useful it"*rrf^" are sot any o«iu- 
Tonms ewiaiils. Tha towa»tial nature oi diflerenoM 
of fignra wlddi Sir William Hamilton aaya ia abown 
at oiice by ^uaiitifyins tha pcedicate ia an obviooa 
oomllar; Iron tbo Im* that any peopoeitioti wjih a 
quantised predicate caa ba stated indlfrerently with 
either term ftnt. Finally, the incraaae of the nnmber 
of moods b niaiiif«alty a neoeaaary eonsiqaance of the 
liii cn aa u iJ propceitional fonaa 

Tbti decline cf tbe auanttficatloB of tiM pndSeato 
vaa attacked Imnedialeiy after It bad bean anuulatal 
by Sir William Hamillon,aa it haa often been attaehed 
suios; and it has never beea generally adoptad in Um 
ezposltieB of faniul login. The nrfneifal gnand ea 
wUeU i* ia attodtad ia that it ia baaed ctt a CMn^eto 
mtaunderataading cf the true natore of a peopontiaii. 
A propoaitieB, it Is mU, it Ib na semte an eqeatioa 
betwMB two tatau, bat is a fans of wordi ■■artliig 
crdenjlitt that thasttl>)sct peaHatsa tha attrlbntea 
axpteesedpy the predioate. It doea not t~M~i- ■■«-• 
thins abeat the whole ninnb« of obfaeta to «U«li the 
preduBte may be applied, bat merely whether eartate 
atttifanteadonrdonotbeleaf totheaubiack, Aaeottl- 
inffly when anv tona of wurda doea indkatc aaythlt^t 
about the wbole nncibw of objeeta lo whidi the p>«- 
dicMto nay ba applied it ia in reality a ceapnoad ef 
tWDpnpoaillaoa. Ttnm.ihinirnrrialrliiii. rtHnnnllaKiral 



SdS 



QCAJJTiri CATION— QUARRY. 



triduglm an aE «qd»ffal«r triaoglM^ )■ coBipoindetl 
oftlwtvrt^ AlIeqimftterMtdii^jMi»oqiiIaiWBUr,a)id 
AUGquUngulartriAngrlnaraeqtillUcru; andtliepra- 
fMiitian, Some nea »xa all lo^ciMU, of the two, Sniii« 
men BTie tngidnni, uid All ln^cinnx nrn Tn«n, 'Vhrm 
yritix rVii^Bril to ncKntivu [>ru]iciulj,uii8, ia wtiioli tbn 
ivedioata la pjuti&I, tbe tAUaapt to eatahUah them m 
•It fadcpcndcQl clan of pirojiomtiou is mor* camplntAl; 
Uloaoiy tban it b to inak« aifJnnatlnt propodtiona 
with a UitaX f n^cale a aepaiate daaa. A formula 
mcb &■, Any maa la not BaiiLo animal, ia not a |>radi- 
cationat aJ^inainnuohBa it doe«nivt myuhRttiPT tbo 
attribtitca eTprwud by tha prKUalu l>el<jij([ ur <Iu cot 
balODjf to ibe fubjwt, aiKl all the neaclug tbat tlte 
fomiala haa ia duo to the fact that it implldttjr donlca 
aomcthing of the predtoatft, ttiat it U ftidmil acontortM 
And uuubviuiis viu.y of luiyiii;;' tliiit Sdiuh luiituiilH arv 
tuit men. With a portj-partial negatlvo propcdUau 
■uoh aa, Some fiiiropotuu aro not iotdo moo, tbo com 
la «*eu wonKi. By no mampulaliuiii ia it rxMiible to 
dsrive auy infomiaUoii wliat«ver fr»iii thh formula. 
Tho objoccion, thoa, to Sir Willlau UamilUm'a addi- 
tfoiia to affirmative propoaltiomi in that they oxproaa 
loii muoh, mid to kin additiucui t» negative piupoaitirjns 
that they <<iprewi too littl». Tbe iatt«r nhjscti'm ia 
decidvdly tho moru MriuuB, and hcnoo tho cIms o( 
pTDpoaitlons to which It apjiliea are rojectod even by 
wxue ui linttic who MJinit tbu atftnofttivit pru[HnUi<iii(t 
«f Sir WilHam lliuiiiltrin ixito tHuir sTiiti'm. Fur tho 
ti>Uj-t'jtalftllIniiative)jrcipuaitiuuth<i plotL ia miulo tliat 
erary definition ia an enmple of it If we d^ne nian 
aa a rational animal wc mean not only that all men 
an> ratlonnl anlmala but tlint ama aro nit ths rational 
aaimals tliat exist. But it It quMtionablo whether 
thia is ft oomet Mcouat oS n definition. When wo 
doGne a word all tb*t we avert m th»t the word ami 
ita delinltioii meaui the «ma thin|r, from wlitEh it 
m iwa a rily (ollowa tbat tbe; muat M mjjpUcnt<1o to 
the •sine objei-ta. For the |iajtt>toital Alliniiative 
prupoattioD again it ia pleaded that H la tlie only 
adequate oonverao of tno tmivenaL afllntULtivD of 
tiiimurf legie. ^Mien wo oonvut All Ic^idana are 
men into Some nu-ii ure lo^^ana we realHr meftn, it 
ti oeMrted, tbat Same mon are all logldana. lint 
tliEi alao U qnestioiiable. It may be oonteodwl that 
when we obtain tbe ptopodtlan Seme men are logi- 
ctana by conv^raioQ from All logiciaaa are men wo 
mean by tbat nnty wfaat wa say, and althongh it ia 
tiie ooae that tbU jvoiwaitloD, U reoourerted, wnuld 
onlj jriva Somo l<^oLaaa are men. tbasdoaa not matter 

firactically, frir nnce it ia already adnutted that AU 
iigiciaiia arc laea |utherwiie Some mm are logiciaua 
cnuld not have kwm obtained by Oi)4t*«nrfi»i btm that 
prDpantioo) tfaorti can be no oo(»on for reeonverting 
In that form. A )>Mter one nl^t be made ont for 
IliCMeaJditioualairinnativepropoaitionaof Sir William 
Ttamiltou if it crnitd be aliown that any pmotioal 
atl\-anta(:e in loj^O could be derived from their adop- 
tion; but there la no propoaition that CMi be made 
that cannot be dealt with under the present logioa] 
fonna^ and tbo nimplificntion of tbe thoory of logie 
that iaaaid to KBult from thuir adoption iinot apparent 
from Uic exiLni|ile wc have given above of tlie ap^> 
catiiin of ttin nuw tbwiry to a partie>i7ar caao— DOt 
ajiparcut, thai, ia to >ay, if to auuplily ia to londer 
more enaOy Intollifcible. 

It woold lalce up too mach apaoe to ep into all the 
detaila of the working out at tho llainiftoaian thcnry 
of tbe quanti&oatlon of the pr«dlL-at«; we tburvfore 
rcrcr thg reader to the £aay on tho >'cw Analytic of 
l^o^col Korma, bv T. B. IJayriM; Appendix IL, an- 
nesed tu Hir Wullam Hautltan'a iHacaMdoMi, and 
tbe Appendioee to hia Leoturea on Loatc; Spoldinn'i 
artfele on Loffle In the Eocyclopwlia Bntannfca (6lh 
td.);andMiUiK»*ininationo<Ilamiltoo'al'hihi>ophy. 



QU AKAXTtN^ tbe period during which a Mf. 
coining from a port aitapected of eouta^on, or barait 
a ooaUgioiu tlckneaa on board, ia forl<adden intar- 
ceoiso with tho plnco whore afao arriveak The tens 
ia derived from the IbtliAn (^uiTrxuilwa, ft spftoe of 
forty days, bL-tnuiie uri^'ioally tbat wna ttie find 
period for all ahipa under inch drcumatanfl^ B« 
ibo time of a ahip'a detention is itow rerj mfaxia, 
aooordinR to tho eidgencio of the caae. Bj tha 
4 Geo. IV. o. IxxviiL, masbi^n of veesehi liable to tpiar- 
actino are boand to boiat tha yellow flag on Bteetiai; 
other vMurla at aoa, or l)ein|; within 2 leia^ea el ih* 
Unit*d Kingdom; they must auawer interrogatcaw 
made toaaoertain the*Latoof tbeJr abi|w; Mwraiapt 
not cooooftl the fact ct thwr bavin; toudwd U an 
infected plaoe; they moat not refoae to ooovey tbelf 
vrtael to tbe phu» appointed for quarantine; thef 
must not quit th^ veaada during tbe peried »i 
qiininntine^ nor allow any other petwA to mdt ibam. 
NouooDipliiuice with tbe terms of the «ct aonjet** (be 
otTmder to heavy penaltiea. IVranna arriving in any 
iufeoled veaeel. or going •m U<:in] and qurttinit rl 
before dtaehoi^od fram qu«ranlln«v ftc^ liable to nz 
montha' impnioniuent and a penalty of £300. 

QTJARLES, Francim, an Kngliah pocrt, iMm in 
Ifi9S, near RumCord in Eaa^x, wu eduoaied at Cam- 
bridge, and anterfld at Lincoln'! Inn. He wa* lor 
aumc (jmo cupbearer to Eliiabotb, awMm of Bobaai^ 
but in 1 5'21 wont to l>ubiin, where Be became nnder* 
■ecretary to ArohUibop Uaaber. He waa dritea 
from Iraland, with tbe loM of hia property, by th« 
rebellion of l<itl, and waa appMnted curanologrr fa> 
tlie dty of London. At tbe eommeocement tjl the 
dvQ wars be wrote » work entitled tbe Loyal Coe- 
voit, which Cftvo offence to tbe Pariiunont: Bad whia 
ho af terwarda joined tbe king at Oxford Ua frnpa:^ 
woa aequeetnitod, and hia booka ftnd BI^ plnn- 
dared. He waa k> much alTcctod by hie loaaca, that 
[jfrief Ia eopiicecd bo have hastened bis death in 1614 
iH the worka nf Qnarlcii, in proaeaad vatee, tbe mnt 
cclobraiud iji hiji Embleuia, a act of deamna in [eintt) 
iltuatmted by veceea. A gmc part of Mem an bar- 
rowed from the Embloma cl Uermaouu Hnrev bat 
the venee are hia own, and in the midat ca mndi 
tabe taate and oonoejt oontaln fn^^aent bniMa el 
faaoy nnd atroltH of patlioa. Ilia Knchiridfa* b • 
collection of brief caaayi and afdiorinn^ in vigmni 
and oocuiunally ekqnent langnngeL 

tjUAItEV.an open excavation made for olMlDlBg 
■tone, SDch na granite, marble, aaadatoM^ Hmm>m» 
and alatee; ao called, aoenriling to moat aBlfcerilfa^ 
fnun tbe fact that tbe atuun are amally aqwed 
(old French, ouorrf) for bnildinz puiptwei, tboo^ 
othora derive tbe name fnm the £nn earra^, ftMOK 
At ft Ttrj eftriy period tbe BaadBtoci« rocka in lb* 
mountaina of Siladch, atretchine lUong tbe bftnka ef 
the Nile, wofoextenavelyqitajned by the Bgyptian^ 
M material for tbe walla of tbelr tempka: ibeeUfaki 
and (tfttUM whldi adoniad thoee templea nre foaad 
of KTanito hewn trom the quarrica in Um ialaftdt af 
Phus and Elcphantbe^ and partlcolarly bora Ike 
Immense exoavationa in tbe mountain temocn naar 
Syene. The Orccka obtained tbe maletiabi ol tbair 
Uneet tomplca and acnlp4nre frtim tbe ijiiaiiiw «t 
Mount P«lt«Ucnl^ near Albeoa, and tbe Maadi nl 
tbe AnUpeUgo; la Onee* ftM la Aaik tOnor m 
abnndanoo of a grceniah-wbite afioae waa dog bun 
the earth fur the ordinary puniuaoa of anJutettnrti 
Aadeot Borne, aa w« learn troip Vitntviuft, «a( 
chiefly ImUt of the calcareona atme obtaiaed bam 
tho I'tftvertiue quarttea; when tlie dty waa rttnit 
after ile deatnictioa by fire in Nerw'e r^dn, tiw 
botuaa ware eonatractad of tbe Albaa and OaiUaa 
■toDO. For ee u l p t nt e d woHc the iwd atooe faum Ae 
quarriea near tbe L«ke of Bolacna waa gencntUy 



\ 



I 



» 




Tb» Camf» qnaniM^ on tiw nortli-WMt almw cf tb» 
Apwiiiii>w> baw lona twcn (luaouB for itio £a» whltv 
iufU« wbkh th«j jioU, uid whJch U u ixtonBtraty 
uMd for aUtiuuy. In Um Britith I«]m i> foand 
abaadaocB of >nrj Idnd of ■4on« wlucit cnn In u*od 
Willi »d*UlaK« ta utdiElAatuM. Gnnito u <il>tain«l 
inm l)w qtuniM of Camwall, AberdMO, and Wick- 
lav; Mndaton* fran Hum in Iba sicinity of Edin* 
btti^jk, Cilaigaw, aiul Newoartle; limeatanB from tlie 
KincitoB quantes la tb» ble of FottLuid, Swiuiwiob, 
in tba lata of Pnrbcclc. nnd thoM is tha adglibour- 
bouJ of Bath; alatea from tho qiiairiet of Algylit- 
■hire and North Walea; ami iivLrl>la bom tboM of 
Uvrby, Davoo, KHknuiy, and (Iftlwuy. 

Hm ftnt «p«nt»an in qiuuryini; ii th« nmaral of 
Ika haad of vegoUblo mould by tho iftaids; Iha beda 
fai—dhtaly boaeatb, which gaoandly oooabt of 
■ to aa of Mt iafniar quality, an brokn op Ij blaat- 
fiif<whtehBoo)arotherwi«e; tboatooea forimporUnl 
buUlBf pwpoaaa are oaually found al a good dis- 
tanoo mIow tho «aifac«, In tho caw of onatntiflod 
roelca, mcb ao ennito, wUuitaio^ &«, vtCMi an 
meat frKpently dota<lied from tho maaa by bUatUw, 
« t^^^Oi^ by vrlkidt much valuable alooo b mwt«0, 
and o dUforont method i> mnplojed wben«*er it i* 
tDUBd poodUe. Thia la frcqacotly the caae with 
MOM alntUad roduv nich u mDditaB& from which 
blocka aro icparatod by band-toola alouo. Small 
bolao ft few lochea aannder aro cut aloag a oertaio 
Infth at rode. Into which atoel wodcca aro fnaertcd. 
nim an drivon In by hoavr bammora nntil tlw 
■kratOB b cut tbnogb. Tbo largo blocka aeoeaMkry 
fbr nwounental panM«ea aro obtained genrnkUy la 
Ibii wny, Bafoco th^ lenro the qoany they aro 
mfawed M ManyH poaaiU* toft roctangnUr 
tha IrrteaUr parte mo knocked off br * tool 
n keveL tal al ooo oad and poEnted «l tho 
oIlMfc Fowocnl «na«a «« tvnnloyea for lifting or 
tomiaf tlM baavler hlooka. Whno tbv water Imm 
the woridn^ cannot bndnwn niT by « vpbotia a aleam 
«n|tno and tet of puui|ia are oLeulutuy uooeMiry in 
a many ct ny txteak 

VQBcriM boleeg to tho owner cS the Uad« in which 
liny aro wtnalad, and oo peraon can work a tinury 
«r noiovo the mateftab^ unleM ko doif «<ee hb rij[hc 
fran the vwnar fay 1mm or oUier I«c*l tltbu 

(^UAKT, aa Ibvtbh uennra of oaMdiy, bedof 
Iho fourth part of & jplln^ or 8 |[U]a. Tiia ordinary 
quart buttle, howover, b made to oontaln ouly from 
frtoSgiila. 

QUAKI'AN AGtTE. 8<« Aoint. 

QUABTEB, the name of two KuKliah meaanra, 
OMof woicbt and the other of capouUy. Thefimb 
tho lourlh put of a hundred -wniriu, or ii Ibii Tba 
•aaoad cmtahu H buaheb of 4 pecka. It b nnoortalB 
wfaotiMr h b Un fowtb part « eoine laag liaas Sa- 
vmd M eean r fcor whether tba word boonnectod with 
a Jrfahm of h nd kaowa by the nine naBia 

QUABTEB. la hetnUrv. b appUed to the paru 
or ttoMbeto cS Uio fint divbion of a oeat tlial b 
qnartetod, or divided into fonr qoaiton. Soo Hui- 
ALDRT. 

QUABTER, Utat part ttf a abip'a nde which lien 
towiuib th*aleni,<vwfaliA b«MD|iroh*iu)ed botwoea 
ifaa aft-noat end of the main ehauu and the aidee of 
tha ilMBt where It b luiiiiiiiilail by tho qnartu^ 
piaeaa — On tJU fuarttr, implioa the poaitim of an 
obiert eaen betwrra aft and abeam. 

tjXTAKTER-DAVS, Uio dayo »ht(i> becin ibo 
f otv qoarten of the year: namely, the 2Sth of March, 
Of Laidy-day: tha 34th of Jane, or Midnuainer-tlaT; 
tbo SMh of SeplMnbv, or Mkiharhnae day; and tho 
Sfitb of D iiaaber, «v ChibtiBa^dqr. In £b{UikI 
aod Iialand ft b nraaUr eootoacled be t watn landlord 
■ a«d teoant that not aliaold be jiaid, and that henna 



may bo ontorod or loft oa thaao daya. if da arrww^ 
ment of thu kind baa been eomo to rant nn only be 
claimed oooe a year. In Scotland there ara two lecal 
term dars, AVldtoonday (IStb Mivy) and Martinmaa 
{11th Norembcr), on which, if no ODntrary agrvc* 
ment b mada, nnta are iKgaUy docL Tbeto are alao 
two ooavendonal tmaa, Oandlomna {3d Fobnary) 
anri I-MiiHM (lat jLagoU), on which rcnta are fra- 
il uontly paid. 

<jrA£TKB-DECK, the upper dedc of a veeeel 
nitcadiog from tho naln-nuut to the poop^ or whon 
then b tut poop, from the mainmaat b) the ttaro. 
On ehipa of the rujal navy the ouarter-dedc b a»d 
aa a parado by tho offioon, ana when the 'wtf'ii 
wiahca to addnoi the cnw, or eoafer a natk of ^a- 
tlnction, tho men an sunmaned aft on tho quartor- 
deck. 

gCA£T£BING. in bsrahlry, b di«-tdmg a coat 
iati) fonr or more noArteni or quartering by parti»)t, 
cou|iiiiK, &<-'■. that la, h<t [wrpeiidicuLw umI liuriEuulBl 
Un«o, &«. So* llaaALotiT. 

QVABTKR-UASl'ER, in (he amy, an officer 
who attanda la the qnartcn for the aoldlsrs, thdr 
pruriinone, fuet forage, lu. Tlwro b a quarter- 
tourtor on tbo ataff of each rogimoit, in which bo 
hoUb tho relative mnk of Uevtonant. TIm dUoo b 
almoet alwaya given to aa experbooad old Bargaant, 
whg^ if he ecrrea thirty yean in all, indnding tan ae 
qnartor-maate^ ooay iwUro with the hmiamry nak 
of aptain. Hb pay b from St. to 11a. M, a day in 
tba cavalry, and from 6a. fld. to lOi. a day In the 
ibfautrr, aoootdinf to length of oorvico^ 

({UABTER-hfASTEI^ tn the navy, b a petty 
olllcor, wbo^ bealdeo havbif diaifo cf the atowafio ot 
bnllan and peorfaioiH^ oouiu' of npei, Ao, attaokdi 
to tbo ateeria^ of the ^pi He ta aypoJalod by tkt 
captain, and r«oelT«o frnm £36, 10*. io £41 a yoae'. 

gUAlCTKiafASTKK«EinERAIv»«t<i'«A«« 
(if hish rank in the linuy. Bb departaoBt b charged 
with all ortlora relating to tbe marcfaiBg, cmbarktnt:, 
div«uibarkinx, biUethif;, qnartoring, and cnnluniuu 
of troopi^ eooampingnta aad flanp oqutpafc Altaobol 
to ovary fartgada b a dtftaly-iaaMant quar1aiBaal«r- 
genceal, who recdvea over tin a year, b m U m bb 
ordinary pay; tbe quartannaelor genem^ who b 
attached to a whole amy nadar » aoawtiiMfer-la- 
ohiof, and wbo ta alwaw a geaaral officer, roorfrai 
aboal .£^2 a year in aoditioH Io hb regimental pay. 
There b a parmaaanl qoartennaatar-snaral bavlq^ 
aa oMea at tbo Home Coard^ aad who baa, baddaa 
bb pay aa a goaeral officer, a yearly allowance of 
about £1334. It b hb duty to euperlnlaad aD the 
mcivMueata of the anny, to organbe aapadtkua, 
campM of inatniction, and aa oo. 

tJUAKTKK&IAi>Ti{K-»KIU;KA>iT, b a aon- 
oDmmimidod officer who acta aa ealrianl to Ibe 
quartep-maator. IntbeartnioryhiadAilypayasMntnb 
to U 2d^ in the oaTaby 3a. lOd, and U M. la Uw 
lufantrr. 

qr ARTER-SKSSIONS, fak Engtead, a tribaaal 
beld by two or mmw Jnatino of tho paaea (one nf 
irhom mnat be of tho qmmmX in avaiy eooBty aad 
Aviabn of ecanly oneo otonr quart** of a yaar. 
Under tbo I WilL IV'. <^bi.,tfa(aoBe«k)twbi the 
•overal ommlleev ridlaga, and dlvirioae an reqabod 
to be bdd ia tfw am waA atlar tba iSlh of Daoen* 
ber. in tbo Ent week after tba Slat of ICarch, ta Iho 
fina week after tba "iiUx of June, and la th* firat 
wMk aftor tho lllh of Ltctohor; celled otbwwioa the 
Kpiphany, Eaetar, TrinitT, anil Iitiebaatmaa iwrf o oa. 
Hal by a later atatote tbo jiuUcei may direct Iho 
E«ater aawMOtt to bo held any liiao between tho 7tfa 
of Manib and tba 3Sd of ABdl.ao aa not toiatarfen 
with the apriac aMbea. tlw joriedJcCba of lb«a 
cMuti^ •ripatSj ooatood to aiatten loodiiag tha 




wo 



QrAETER-STATF— QUARTZ. 



bmiA of the poiM only.hubMBmduAlIycxtenilud 
totbcnm^ler miadAincanonMaitaft^loiur*, but wit}i 
tnsnjr exccptian*; thnro i« ftlun an ititonaivn jiuiadic- 
tkm in matters relatiug to tbc •cltU-oient of tbit poor, 
hi^wava, ocniTictiDa of Tagnuito, bartao^ly, Ac, in 
mott of which cm« mi i^Ppeftl Uei ta tbc Uctirt of 
QuM&'« Bench. Tlw jndcai of quiirtvr^wsiiQnii iii 
th9 ODuntlM on ftU unpala; they j;«u<nnlly vbuusc a 
duinnaii from among thomMlrn to preside, ui offico 
of great hanniir Miii onnairJerahlR rc*[Hiiiiiiliility. In 
boronglui qunrWr-uaiiiutii am uoo' bc-ld by Uie n»- 
oocdns, who an bairbisn, wlio an aptwloted by tliv 
hone weentarj.Mitd raodve » miaU uiary o\it of tfac 
borougli fund. In Micl<llM«]cbarnatoni«rtiap|iniiitril 
for the triaJ, uJ^priaunoTa, and inave Lbe Utle ut aaiut- 
aat judgva. 

TnScotUnd thenars ttIioc<nirt8of(|niirtcr-scMionfi 
hdd hf tbs juatJoea of penoo foor times a. yemr nt Ukt 
raantv town*. The tlmaa of mmbUig are tbe fint 
TugwujTi of Uareh, May, and AuenaC, snd tbt last 
Tueadaj of October. At th«M UMtinga tha jnattcca 
bave the power of rerlewiDj; theaeutencwproiKniDct^ 
at tha apacial and pattj ■•adona^ vrhea the seoteiioe 
b of • nature aubject tc review. Such caaoi aa fall 
to he tried by tbe English coarta of qnaiter-aeuEoDa, 
aroin SuoUand diapoecd of ID tbeali«rtfF oaurtaof Uiu 
oountv. 

Ql^ARTEIt- STAFF, no old Ea^lub weapan 
formed of a atout pole of hcarj vood, about 6 feet 
long, loaded with iroa at hoUi enda. It waa graaped 
by one hand in tka mklilln, and \>y the other between 
the middle aud the end. lu CLu attack the latUir 
band ahiftod fn^m one qnartor of tlio stofl to the 
other, giring thn wraiion a rapid circnlar motion, luid 
great aldll waa oft«n altovrn iu dealing or waiding uS 
ulowv deU Twed with the loaded enda. 

QTTABTET. or Qi'abtsr (Italian, tpuirtallo, 
dfminiitiYe of four), a miisical oompotritinn ftir four 
inatroinvnte, geticu'iUly atringod istlnuncnla ItbaC ia, 
two viollDB, ono viola or tenor riolin, and odo violon- 
cello); also a cciinpualtion for four voicoi^ with ur 
witboiit aooompiuiitiiniit All tlin parta are MliffiUi, 
that !e l« eay, «adi ii iudiuMmsnble to the just por- 
fomanoa of the pieocL la laatrumental qiiartela 
Uajnbi opened a uw patii. Hoaart, Beethoron, the 
two BotDDern, Bpohr, Rica, Onalow, Feaka follownd. 

QUAItT^, the name of a weU-kuown mineml 
•pedM. which (urpasKs all othere in tha oztont of 
iu diabibub'oo. It ia alao ono of the moot eompro- 
henalve in tbe varierif It embraoea^ which an eqio- 
daDy ntuneroua a> raafittote colour, huCre^ and f rootutv, 
Fura quarts or rock-crrital eonaiita of auhydrooi 
allle^ oiOt*. it eocura In diatinct oiyatald^ or in cryn- 
lallme aggncation. 

The omtau of quarts are, for the moat part, rega- 
Ur aU-adad priama, tennisMed at oaa or both of 
Ihair •xtreoMea by dx-akfed ifnunlda, the faoea 
cf which ccneapoad to the aidoo o( the priam, and 
■noet under aa angle of 141* 40*. tt lODMidiiun 
bappema that tbe pnm intervening between the two 
pTTMnfcb ia very ahotty or even extinct; in which 
oaao tli« term beoonaa the dodecabedran, with iaoa- 
mIw triangular fao«; In tha dx-mimi prhn with 
pynuBklal Inmlnatlaa^ «• often o h aarrB Iks aoHd 
ngtai^ (itnatod betWMa the priam and (he pytasnid, 
traced by rharobutdal planoa. The alternate faon 
of the priMD are atriated fkOriaoutaOy. The pchnary 
(acta b a ibomboid of 91* 15' aad 85' 45' pandkl to 
vboaa plaaca clearagea may be obtained, aa alao to 
tha plutaa of the dodecahedron, with iaoacelea tri* 



tha plutaa of the dodecahedron, 
■Dgdar faoa^ which might aba bo regarded aa tha 
nriaan fenn ol the apeciea; bal tha fonDtr flgnn 
n pMentid on aoomnt of its dmplkdty. Lottre 
vttneoi^ indiatng in acne rarictiea to reatoooa; col- 
MirioM when pui«, but often exhibiting rariooa ool- 



oun from admixtnn of metallle oxidoa; anieag ttta 
l)righu»tc61oanai!OTloIat-b}ne,nae-i«4chii»-hro«ii, 
and applc-grpcn. Btmak wbit«; tranapaimt, ban*' 
luoent. fivqUHUtly up»iu«r, but never, |ierh^i^ nalev 
ot-'caaloDcd by atbor Hunanb; hardnoB bi t waw Ud- 
ii[iftr aod Kfiinolk; apociGc gravity, 3'89. The cty^ 
taJi often pTHMmt maclea, and toRtetinHa wa ofaavea 
larger oiyetala, apftareoUv made up of tanQMiaraUe 
amallcr one^ all of wliich arc ao ^gro galo d tfaaS 
Uicir Rimilnr focea cmnade aa roapmta diicftiim. 
Iitip]aiil«il globulea, renifurm aud atalactilJc riiapea, 
are other modea of ocotureiioa with oamponod tmI*- 
lice of thia apociea. Tbeao have amooth, fmiiilafeed, 
niid diuay mrfacea; compoeitiaD (msaha&Ual) obI- 
uniuar, c4len impolpablo, and fraqneBUy a aaeoad 
time QompeacNl into graanW or ctuwod lamaUar 
maflMv, 1'be maMd'vo rarietiea prtasat a gnumlar er 
culoRiiiar, anil aft«n an impalpahla oucauuailiei^ in 
wkiiili 0U8 the fracture beooBMa omkdMldal aod 
splintery. Somelimea a aocond Donpaahlaa pw d ne w 
indiatinct granular or thick lamellar maaaaa Certda 
very thlu culumiiar oouipoaitiuna, if cut n> aa&wrJUta, 
pataUel to tlio libraa, abaw an o|ialn*nnnt light. We 
navo pamdooiorpliona oryataK alao^ of thia efneM^ 
In the ahape of cnba^ oetahednaa, and eviioa othv 
forma derivod from lluor, oalcarooun apar, gypaa^ 
ftc, bemdea which quarts oocun in gloholar and 
tuberma mMWii^ fomed in vealcular earitie^ and 
alao in platoa and pehblaa. 

The principal variettoa of nnartu, which ant hnova 
by diittinct nAme^ ore tbe foIlDwing: 1, rotk-crytttl; 
2, Mpurlif ^uarU: 3, j/tU^w qrmrtt; i, a«««Ujr*l; i, 
aiderite or blu* qiutrti; A, ruie quorti; 7, miUkji gaarty 
S, irued quartz; G, roaaaioa jimuti; ID, fU {j/natft 
ipmrU; II, jfiW; IS, Aonufoae; 1% Lfdia» itam; 
14, jfoaWoMt [mimming lUm^! t$, jCmmM gnvtij 
III, radittmg qvarUi 17, eWmfony; 18, e ondim: 
\9,ehrv»af*a*t: Z^,a^aU, The name roak-«i3«tol b 
aj^eu to tnneparen t sod ool onrkaa cryatab^ and BHT* 
fiartioiilarly to thnae of a large abe. SoMfcy qoarta 
Lxinttataof thuec cryBLkb and rrjnl illjiii iiiaawii iiliiili 
are traoalQcent andnf a hrawn colour. VaUow qoarti, 
aomettmea called also JSoAretura or SeoUvti Scyw, ip 
tranaparent. aad of varioos ebadea of yaUow,— Amc- 
thyat, alto in orrstnla, aad for the nkoat part aoady 
tranajiareot, ia <A ctcit shade of violeA. ffidarita^ aa 
blue quarti, b nei'er ui regular ctyatab^ hot wauy 
compaot, and of an anua-DliH eoloat. Bon qiaita 
ia oMifined to tnuuluocnt mnmre variatia^ of adsfr 
cat« roee^ed colcntr. ^liiky qoarti b alao mavivi^ 
having aa nneveB fnoture, b tranaloocnt, aad cf a 
milk-whito oolovr. Irised ^nartx amfantooB mh 
crystalliiod varietiea aa exhibit ia pfVhfTf, at er 
beneath the aurface, the culoun of tbe rainin*. 
Common nuarts dilTvra from mU'Kj qoarta aimidy la 
being deatrtnte of tbe miilty wbtteoeas of that raaetr. 
or fa Itaving ao inferior dt^jiM of whitens^ aoi 
more of a vitnooa hiatnt. Fat or greaay quart* dif- 
fers from ooaomon qvarta menly in loatre, wkM^ 
Instead of l>eiag idltooui^ haa the appeanaee of haT> 
Ing been immciard i» oil Flint 1>m » mora cooipati 
texture thui oooiinoa quarti, ia dull, only Tisiialiiiaid 
oa the «dga% of a brownish colour, and Inala wiife 
a ooneboMa! Aaetare. Homstone doaelT : 
flint, from which it can Bcaroely be distttgnbhed i 
in ita con^oidal ftaetuia, which ia nnch h^ < 
tmct. When KoUdng the fibveaol vooditboalM 
woeditMM-. LydiaD atOM, Mnetitaaa ibIIbJ jttB% 
slojc, differs from flmt <Ueljr ia bavinf a maAm 
ooloar, lom tiaaalucency, and a tractane anoMahat 
abty; lAanbbfl it b often called toMasfik. neal- 
atone oemuta of a doBcato tiamo of ndmita trj»h, 
vwible only oader a powerful maenificr. Owc^ la 
tha cavitiea it ceotaina H aonuttmaa will Bo^ mi 
water. F^bnma quarts "—*•*- of 



I 




QUABTZ. 



401 






wbiah m In dbtlDot, jMrdle] wmcntion^ BadUt- 
iog qnutt !■ Uk» fibroas qoau^, vxcopt that Ihv 
Atecs <tlTanF« fiMn ft cotnmnn centre, miiI mKnnblo 
tha ndii o( ft drda. itiat«*d of beinj; parallel. Cb>l- 
titioaj iadnAm thtmm TkHvtim g( ndiftttng qiiMts 
vhm the diJtfaua of Out iodividntkU bncooKS k 
■meh dhpfatohid ■■ to rander tiuan nurly or »lta- 
ylhir uapftlpftbl*; ito winMrri gUMnlly ofTn a tnuin- 
nxQlftiy oc atAhctitkal martmotf wnd th« Iimtro (in 
fmUj-tvokoB aurf&ce* Ij fe«ble, Cftincliui <liffen 
boo alulMdaoy merely in b&vtes * hlAfxt-red ooiavr. 
CTn/tBtUMinlMiinuiMf chftlccdopy inmninisition, 
that Um IndiTidnMb of wMch it u made 
to b* giftlH InMend ot thttm; it* wloor 
bon eilda of nickeL AgiM fanpll«fl 
ti two or more «[ tfae fthov* nurieties 
iJ *li I toiMbar Id iBtitnsto onion; or It nay b« 
smBm toftriBgU vftrivtjr, provided It offen dlflennt 
maSoam In tbo «a» modmona. 

^fcoiffcttaac^ wBJch hay* form Brlyb»MiiiictuJed 
mdw qvftrtt, awl which are mliturea only of tUi 
BiaMnrwllliotli«rip*ei«,ara th« foIloninK: 1, rat '« 
tfw; S, mta»turiiu; i, prati: 4, pJoftna; 5, Acjwfrojw; 
•, WMk^lMt; 7, CompoMtiJ* hytanlA; 8, jiojtpn- (raj; 
brwtm, tlriptd, and (iorr«Iatn); 9, i<t*per agate; 10, 
JfoeiUiftHw,- lI.l'rMu-Aojf offtitf. Cat'a oj-B conalrtB 
«lfelHFftKntquutatriT«raedb;MCMdingIrdnlicftt« 
pftnUol flfana of aabeataa; wti«n cut rn cabvrKun jt 
«i¥MlWt^ ao ita |w Hloa b altaawd ^'ilh n<«|k«ct to tlw 
«n ft p«ailUr play of Ucbt upon iu loilftM, nwm- 
huag tha ebaacMUll^ ofUcbt aMu In the m of ft <»(. 
Avaatnrine b qnarta {ienetrat«d bj anuul goJdiB- 
oolDuradapaqgl^of mifa. I*r>flaiji<{i)arbip«Batralad 
by grwB Sbraa of bombletiile. wblcb artt ottos aonuUl 
■1 to MCftpa dotoetioB by tba naiked ey», and their 
pRMDoe la only diaooranUe bom Ihe srtxit rolour 
tbay fmpftt^ PlMoiia b a variaty cl ehakcdooy, ooJ- 
o—i d Uah m n, and faaf Id|{ y«Uow ft>d wUto ipotft 
HdMrOM la tOuwbe a variety of cbaloedoDT, but 
ealai m ahjgnm aarth, aod oocaiionally dottau with 
mlmto portioni td nd jaapar. bon-ltuit eooidrta of 
mftitt, tBtandii^ed thnn^wot wttb oxMo oC tmk 
Tho CflnpeatolU hyacinth la « red ntlely of ln»- 
flifll, fai raoalar alx-ndad priauM^wHh pyramidal «rtr^ 
antM^ waKa oenm liiuiodaM Id ffypnuc Janor 
dMan troa the two last Vftrietlca u Mfaw uawre, 
■ad la ooBtolnliig raiiable nropottiona of ^y. i;«d 
and farowB jaaper rimply ailada to tho colour of tbe 
OM P po ai id. Striped Jaaper appeal* to oonUIa a 
ln|n poclioD of clay, and ladistlofiilahedoaBoooiiiit 
■Mpad daliiwfttiaaa. Poroelun jaaper b ro- 
1 aa idUdooa elate alt«rad by bent, and b foniail 
vUalty cf ooftl-mlnefL Tnoeo vftrietlea whlcli 
In roaaded tnnatra and wfaidi, from tho 
layan ol whadi tboy caneUt, appcor to 
be^ fanned In ofMB apaoaa, are called ijm^^a 
Miptr, Jaamr i^ato oonuta of thcM varwUM of 
Jaap* b wUeb aevenil ooloon an BO anaacad ea to 
pRMDeo aa afioeahli aieoL Mocha atOB Bepeleta 
«f apto oMitelaing ^ipearaaoea of ngetaMo 81*- 
aHMi^ wbidi luTo beoa occarioood tiiRpagb tbo lafU- 
toaliaa of boa and laanganeae thnngh Ua crevfoM. 
VeBne-b^agatoOOD^laof fiuartc inveraed by deU- 
oaira hatr-«h^a<l «ryvUIa of tmy kind Qoarte b 
bfaalMe befon tho Uowpipe. It b <Se*ol*od by 
Boda eaeOy, aad with mrreaoanoe. Two pleeea 
nbbad tofetber emit an eaipyrotanatlc odoar aod 
ft pbcayliorracMit li^hL Crrilola of nnarti may be 
ebtafawd fioni a aolution of dlca in liydrolluoric add, 
or k potMh dilotad wllb water. Tba Sold Iimb 
wfakh cryatab e( thb qwdea an fonaed, Id Modn aad 
o4bar aatatal caritfea of neia, baa been obeerved to 
b« cUeijr WB«af . 

With naped to the diatrfbatloB of qoartz (which 
wtt hare reaurlud aboTo to be the (Doat aboa- 
Tot. XI. 




dant tnllMnl kacrwD^ It may bo aaid that oommoa 
qtuRi enton lato tho rvgiuar mixture of varioua 
rocka. ot E^nntto, gnaio, mioa ilalc, topfti look, fto. 
Id otfaere It ocoun In alligle eryatala and la ei^oi^ 
m», f«ff invtaiM io poqihyry, and b tnqiMally not 
with Io dw TBAcnlar oarltleo of amysdafoldal rocka. 
In tJaeee Liet rttnadaoa In partiiMlar era found tlia 
fineat rarietfaa oS diftloedony, cftroellan, of Janor 
and Wita. Honiataao fonsa globolea aud irrt^uW 
vehu tn coinpaot Umeetooe; aod fUnt oocnre In a 
■linUar manner, bat dbpoaed through Taet bode of 
chalk. <i}tiartx alao oocora in rocks of which U dOM 
not form n regular Ingrcdicul,; wjuietlnMe in naana 
that are open m tbdrmtorior, and lined with eratab 
of enotmcnia um. II alao exIiU In bedi hy itoeU, 
M in quarta-roclt, and aome vaHetlee of aandMoBe. 
Stripou jMper au<l flliity nUto form abo paitlcnlar 
bada. The varieliaa pnM aud chaleedoay, aa wait 
as amethyat, arc oAon toond to bade of IniD orei 
River annil, and that of eslnuive plalaa, when 11 la 
»on»etimee eo fine aa to drift before the wind, are 
foimad cUidj of qoarta. CommoD quarts, and 
oeroml other nriettei^ aia •pread all am the eertl^ 
but certain rarieti«ft en confined to a few localllira. 
Tho fioeet and largvet rock-oryatBla an found in th« 
Alpa of Salilnirg, tho TttoI, Swltxerlacd, I>aQphInT, 
fiodmoDt, aod Sarny; iJao fai the lals of Madigaaoar, 
Ceytoa, aod BradL Above 100 yean ago a gnat 
CftW^ Unad villi thaae ory « * ab waa opanftd in Zinkon, 
whieo ftfTordad 1000 owto. of ndc-eiyetal, and at that 
eaily period eold for noariy i.700O. One cr>-etal 
wdffhed 8 cwta.; otbete htnn 4 to S cwfa. Hie Alpa 
fnralsh the haadeoniuit ■pedmcm of smoky qoarta. 
TUs Tuto^ ha! of late Icvn brouchl In iatfe tm- 
tale aad eryataUlas mewta from Kon Scotia. Tha 
yellow qoarta ceiDee bran Biaall and BohaaJfc A 
txricty, latecinediato between dte aBKiky and the 
ycUow, oooun at Calnwonn, io Sootland. AnMrthnte 
of rarions colonn ar« brougbl boin BrftuL but Ihoee 
of the flaeet ooloun ocinie from Ceylon, indta, aod 
Fandft. A Tuietr intennediato Iwtween amatlml 
aad ■Bolpyquaita la found la Siberia Aaicthyit uao 
afaomda ui TraoBylraiua and Hangarr. Few loeall* 
tba of thb beaatifnl varie^ ara known In Noitfa 
Aiaerioft. KovftSoctfaaffotdalt to llndtedqaatiUty; 
and a apot near BrbtoL la Bbodo lalaa^ doMma 
to be niMilioDad for tl>o Aae ajtUilM ft baa prodneetl. 
Ilcoc qoarta oocnn at Babenetein, In Bav^a, and 
la Slbena; but no looallty prodneae In ao great par> 
fectloo ae tbat at Paris. In Maine. PiMa oosMi 
from the miaiag dbtrict nf ikhwartaoBharK la Sas- 
ony, and from UonbertaD^ In P^**^ UmnA ftn^H* 
blue chaloedooy, WMuetlmei In poeadoinovpboaa ory^ 
tala, oocnn at Tneityan, in Tranaylriinla : tha 
aUlacUUo ahapoe aro foond in [celand ami the Faroe 
Talande to amymlalald, at Multcoborg and Loben In 
OarlntUa; alao In BmciuT, .So <laa£ and OomwaU. 
CamaUn b branghC bom AiaUa, ukll^ SnrinaaB, 
aad SIbola. Cbijae|g a aa axfato at KoMBUta la 
^loaift, and at NewteM to VarmoaL At thia Uet> 
nmrtlaited locality an taaoA omaU priiautfe crjMila 
of qnaiti, deeply Hagad by odda ot idekeL Ohal- 
oedooy and caniellao are oooaaiaaally foond, oonatl- 
tntlag T<try handaocM watoa, near DearfkId in %Iae> 
aacboaetto, and al SowUibury In Ccnneciknit; thet' 
an abo bnTO^ bom Kova Seotia— In each of wUa 
plaeea ttey occur to Iru^ rbana b fonnd la Mer^ 
via and In l^varift i^tnt b coounon in KvlandL 
FtftBcv, Poland, and Spain. Hmatune b aUiadaot 
fn many oousbiaa. TUnly rinto focaa bed^ aad 
occnn la Mbbtei fa BidMal% SOidbt Sanay, IIm 
Weetero Statoe of the United Stataa, and to tba 
C^Badaa. Fibrona qaarts b found to tba Ilarti: 
eel'e eye in CcTkn aad the eoaat of Malabar; and 
aTaatarineat theCapedeOat,toBpaia. HeUotrspa 

MM 



402 



QTrAETZ— QITATERNTONS. 



TTM fonneHy brooaht from Etbiripta, tmt in now 

feucnll^ ohtklu^l m>in BuchariK, train T^rtury, and 
iWria. Ifm-fliut, or ferru^oiu quuti, is bvqiraat 
tn the iranctoiM vcinii nf ■Saxony', Bnfaemia, Tlang*r]r, 
TnuiiylvKoiK, fto, Tlii? Compute 11a Eyaciuth oconra 
Dpar fTi>niiK.isiij1lii, in Spun. Stripo"! jii^pi-r ia found 
ia Sibvrio, at Gnui^lutvm in Saxony, at Irybridgo 
in IreTonabire ; the brown Egyptuui JMjier oomw 
from tho bnnha (4 thv Nile; thu r«d varietr from 
BudcD, aJiD fruiD the towD oi Uaugui, near BoaioD, 

Several vuaotics of quarti are at iDiportant iua 
in the uHa and mitniifnctiirc^ uid liavo lone been 
emplojrwl fur {lurpcora of Jecoratioa ami utility by 
Du>i)ki»il. Tbit MioisDl« i^vd«d rook-oirital a* 
petrified water; tbey «it«eiDed tt narticuIiu'lT for 
the f»bricftLton of vtuuu, oipecUlly wnen it onuld be 
pTDoum] Is larg* uier««. Soob «a» tlu two cu^i 
which Nvro d«hoa W i^iMxs wbeii ho ncwlvod the 
D«n ftf the revolt wHicb CAiiMd hia niin, nns of 
which h»d coat him * aum etjuaJ to £67S. At pn- 
NBUt it i* «t«emiv] not only for oupa, urna, dban- 
dellen, but fur nvak, «pertav1«-[[l>H«a, and opl4oal 
iulmmmta. Amethyst t«kw a fine poUah, and ia 
naeh emplnyed in jewelry. Ita oolour, whoa daric 
bluc^ ia well ndnptcil to that of goM, in which mrbk) 
It b alway* f^i. The andenta were luitch in thu 
baUt of enuring upon tidi variety of qijartz, Tfao 
nae ouartu ia cut into vimcs ami inim, und when of 
A dellcat« culunr, and Creo (rum flawn, ia biKldy 
«atwm«d. Th» yelLow auarti ia one ot the moat 
InqMnE atonoa employed for watfib kkU, having 
almoat entirely supplantMl the carneUan, which woa 
fiicitiwly »o iiJiidi tiL votiio; it id called f<>jM£ by 
tliD ji-wcUeri, CluJcBcloiiy rccpivm a high noUih, 
exhilitiau u tlik'bt defiTee uf iiui^tuuaity. TU« au- 
cienta have left na many boaiitiful specimons of thta 
variety of ijtiartx, vrtxinght into catncoa uid cupa. 
Tbay obtained it frum the rc(;ioa of the NusamuiiM, 
in Africa, and from the envimtiB of I'hcbea, in 
Eifypt, llii^ JapatiMe cut an imniMue quuutity uf 
carnaliau into the form of the fntjt of the olivn, 
which they perforate, to bo worn aa b«ada. The 
MnuUoiia wnlch ore wld at Bombay an faronght 
from theprovinceof Gnxorat,in Indiasand the En^t 
jiiewr* come from the (tidf of Cambay. lApiil^krica 
<iialiu){uL>li two varlelien •>( cuTtivUaa, uuiii^ly, th<>«e 
huving a palo -colour with a tinge of yaUuw, and 
tbo«e of a livcJy and deep-rcil colour. The lout 
are tbe tiioat rare, aiid the muat highly eateemixl, 
alwt, on winiint of their bmuty. The Japnneaa 
are MJd (o po»4iM the art of bd^htening the colour 
of the pale carnelliuia. What is called ieKiU eartu- 
UoH, m aimply chalcedony, Tito cameliott waa muoh 
to TOgtw among the Komana; and the modema 
wmtm numeroua ipedmena of aaolunt workmaubip 
In thla atone. The eardonyx (an intennixture of 
cba]«c«ii>ny oiid romnlian, the ooloiin facGng gradu- 
ally togothcr, and not arranjied in distinct linee) waa 
alao In high Mctiuiutlon, in early times, and atlll cod- 
tiiuea to bo employed in jeiyvlry. The onyx, or 
banded ocnti', iriiiiii rxhiliit* two, thrre, or mnrn 
oohran, diRpUMid in |iftrsllel lines, miiiititutei] tlin 
nuNt vilnalile materitd for the oxcrcLse of the glyptio 
ut, OB the workman wnii nnablcd t'- moke nae <if the 
dilTeTeiit ooloim lu TcjirMeiLt hia oubject in a natural 
uLanner; fi:<r exainpli-, while and red were devcted 
to the roprowtatioD of human fiuah, whtl« bloclc, 
gTMn, yellow, Aa., were appropriated to dn^wiy and 
other oDJecta. The onyx, aa well aa the heliotrope 
and aj[atUed Wcwm), arn kImi rot into tbin plnlra fnr 
various kinda of inlaid work. The moat important 
applicationc d thia apedea to naef nl puspOMi dqwnd 
npou iU being oonmoeed of aHic^ Qtiartsenttn into 
the comjiodt^ of glaais both white and oolotnwd. 



In the mantifactnrc of pomlatn it Ia added In tbt 
■t«te of an impalpable powder, and fonna part d 
tb» pMte: it i> alao uaed in otbar kinda of penary. 
Qaorts ia naod aa a flni in tba mttSof at aavaal 
Idnda of on:!, porticuUrly Iboee oC ooppar, aad In 
other Diiitallurgtcal pi<weaaaa. The oae of flint te 
gun-locks ii wall knowiL ToucbatoDS ia a kind d 
utuminoiu onarta. 

QUASSIA is the product of plaota of the notoral 
order SimarutMoeH; they are all inteneely bitter.and 
are native* of tropical America, India, or AttleL 
Quauia dmara, fticeoiding to lercral anthnriHaa. fa 
not the trcv which yielda the i|iiBwiia chipa of ibe 
dru{;:giata, thcso licin^ obtained fnrni Picrtrma nrrriiai 
LLnd. The wood of this tree Is bluer and (onic^ oM 
aomotimca uaodaaambetitataforhopa, Tbaaqnaeoi 
inftmirin of the bark git's, by pmper treaiment, «BaIl 
wtdbo, u|>ai|ue prinnn, wluL-h have an InteoMly Utter 
taate. This subetance Ea called qwurin, and pnifalUy 
hAM tho coRiponition (\tl„i>t. AHboog)) bug* mao* 
titid uf igiiauiu wimhI werci formerly exported nem 
Surinam, an Informant of Liindley'satatad that ba did 
not hear of a aingla Kbipmeitt dariBS Mb Twi tbit 
he reoided In that ptac^. The bark ol tha root d 
Simamlia anara la aeiit to Europe for medjrfaal pw 
pnam. Tho limber of thi* tree ia described oa nam- 
blinit white pine In ((uality and oolvor, 

(JUATKKNIONS, the name given h; Sir WiDitm 
namillon tu a method of mothemaUcal mwtiplfaa 
diavoi ervd and developed by bim. It b tacrt bnya^ 
ant ia its applications to phj-sicx, Mpiicially Ira OTW- 
i(iLp-a]ihy, <->pUca, kiaumAtice, and decCro-I^BaBBka 
Thii cali.'uluii ia einiueuUy aimple and nalnnl in it* 
treotiDODt of problania. ^^oo Ilamiltoa'a l/ectnrw 
and Elementa; aoe alio the treaiiaea of Tait and Kd- 
lond and Tait.) The uoet itriUng peooliarin ef tt* 
■calculus ia that multiplication is not geoetailjr e^ 
mutative; that is, fr is iu general di^rent fran rf, 
r and q being nuatemiona. It nay be add tkol cna- 
tcmioDs iociudee oil Che nocesdal aWemila micb 
have been made to repreeaat the imagbuay bd« d 
algdira tj — 1. This factor indicatea a cbanga in 
direction, through one tight aa^b^ of a Un^ and ws 
s^ that the e i p i — t ju u a + h^~l rwpreaaata a pdat 
whoee oo-ordinates ace a and fc. Kow Hanultoa mw 
that to enable bis calculua to deal with tpaoe laAf- 
fi-n^Dlly in all directions be oonl>l doI indicata aa; 
one direction in s|]Aoe by real numbcn, and he nas 
imafc'iuu-y expressioos to indicata evtery diivodon; lua 
method ia therdon indepandant of May aajfaaad 
dirrctimna in space, and tohea ila rdercnca lines adshr 
from tho data of the problam to wblcb It la wipM. 
In fault, wboo using quatamioiui, wv deal wu mo- 
metrical linia la wo dad wltb tbam fn oar tbongwa 
and hence Thr nJmpHfilrynnil dlmntufan nf Ibji mrlhsd 
of inveaUgation. 

Any expresdon, aa A ^ denoting a lino ia dine- 
tian as well aa iu length, oontaine Imgdidtly thraa 
numbera; and all linos par«UoI and mjnal to tba int 
depend in the nmo way on tba latns thiva namben. 
Ilcnoe all equal and panlkl Unea may be iwprssarttd 
by a oommon ■ymboi, and this symbol oootaloa Ibrot 
distinct numben, In thia aante a lina ia callad a 
rixlor, since by tt we paa from one extr ai nity A Id 
the other B; tt i% in fact, an imtnimoBt whkih ew- 
riea A bo B, and a rector iaosed to iodicatteadefiails 
troaslatioa in apace. We find Itiat two voeton ar< 
oomponnded aa two nlodUM ot two tofcao an enm- 
iMunded in moohanica, and olao that any veefeor nay 
tie roanlrcd into three oompcoenbi, panlld SMfMct- 
Ively to any three gl'en neo-ponllal veatan not b 
the aam« piano. Hamilton employ* la UimncI nhr- 
cocc a aeries of three mutnal^ prnpoodicnlar adt 
veotota. demoted by i,J, ondifc. Wbat baa jnat faeea 



I 



i 



I 



I 

I 

I 



**Id with Rpkrd to t cdnn etttUe* ft gn»l number 
nf difficult g*(in»tric>l iirohlniM to 1m aolrtd rwadity ; 
t« hwtiniwii, pneh jiratileiiw m ar* friven m uxBrdvw 
f> BadHB CM(Deti7. When two vecton ue panll«l, 
ihalff mllo b ninplT ^ ntio of their longths; thx 
b^ <■« nikj be obtainn] from Um otbor bj the ui« nf 
tW iBBtraseat, ttn onllnftry nuiuerloal mulUpUer. 
Bat eaaaldw the iaatramcnt whidt duncwtbeTMtar 
OA loLa tb« vector OH; wc nhnU find tbt OA miut 
be nibiKted to fuur diatjiiict apentioui Ixtfore ft cut 
be chac^'vd tnto Olt; mi Incrvaao or ditnimtCiciD hi 
leijtbh mhI tben tfav tuniiiig of it bom tto prctcot 
ainMkB to thai «< Uw line O a Ta ipedfj this 
matfaoiriktidiuis Icdow that thra« 
I reqnired. 'lliiu the rmdo of tn-n roctcim, 
I aolt^lier miulred ifi vhiMgo una i-i-ctor iulo 
aneUMT, ia g«uni dcpenda upua tour iliiitiDct uum- 
beni,wbaioetb«iuioaqDBl«niinii. Th^ordir in which 
tli«we two dietlnct opwutUine ii pcrfcmwd it imnuttv- 
rUL Tht atrak&hift fKtcr, or that whioh perfonu 
tbo firat flfwratiiMk te cnlled tba ttntor, and tb« tuninff 
(■Elcr ie CKllcd the n»rwor. Here we hkVM icguxlaa 
• qaetamloB u the produfll of » t«nK>r wad » vweor, 
bvt it may alao be ngaided ai th« Eum of a numori- 
enl qoamtitjr and a rector; the numerical f|Qantity ia 
nOftA » Motor. The p*oof i^ thin }>ropert7, •« given 
bj TaU^ ii vwj mnpU. Kn<<H-n profivttiee a? the 
iMwan, Tcnon^ Mklv^ and vcclora of pnxtueta and 
qnotUnli of VMton may ha lnle>iiKt«l la a vmC 
annbor of v»y», and it ia in thb that wo iliMovar 
the great power of th« calcnluiL 

QUATRE-BRASt a vULut of Bal«iDia, tn the 
praviBM of South Bnbaat, SO mllee as.!, of Bnu- 
a^A, aitnated aA the iDtenecUoo of th« main iymt\» 
between Brawela w>d Cbsricrrai, and fnnn Nivrllt) to 
Vaamr. It ia famoga fur tli« l*il1i' diu^ht herv 
(Ulh Jvon, 181S) betwMU) ttiu Knrli«h tinder Wol- 
Utti^toa asd tha French under Sty. It w^ Nafkolcon'a 
fUtt at tba opnlnt of the campalp) ol 1815 to fi([ht 
tba amka of Uw aUlea dngly, aa he fett hlmaclf 
wtabk to oof« with their oombisod foroc* At tht 
kMd of an am; of 120,000 racm, snp|Hjrtcd hy SiO 
■suML ha made a rapid narah into Bwgfum, croMiiic 
ua SaoAra alnwat bofor* tha allln were awara in 
hla DMTflnventa, Hla army wia dl\-ided into three 
cot^; the right wins, tafiOO atroux, being under 
liixKuJij; the i:*iiU>»,af 38,000 mem, under the mnperor 
hiniaelf;aBdthelaflwla([.el49,000,iuidarNejr. Tb« 
Pmriaaa and aii^Mi nador Bltlohsr and WaUlBgtoB 
1^ betw««) tha French and Brunala. With tba 
li^A wfaig and centre of Ua army N^wleon fnrionaljr 
attadtvd lb* Praadana, whix, after a aevere ■IngBtfl^ 
ntirad vpeo Wavro (16th June). On the aaina daj 
Kej attotk««l Wellington at tjnatre itra*. I'ba 
Enyliah, S-^,0OO ilruag, ropolaed Ney, and tnaln- 
taimd ibeir poaition, thoa^n) at a treaMadooa loaa. 
Tha Oaka «c Bnuwwick fdl in tha aetioa. Tba 
KngUA gooctal bearing of the retroKrade movonenE 
of tba Praaaiana foD back <m tbo ITlh on Wabtrloo, 
whvra tha dedaire faatUo w^ f tmgbt «n the followtng 
day. 

Ql'AVER. See Hoanr. 

iiV AY. a landing-pUc* along a lta» at coa«t or • 
ritar bank, or ruond a harbour, and havin;; )> -u and 
rin^ ftaqoaatly alao cnaaa and atora-buutiea, for tha 
toaf«Mianoa of BMvehant ahi|«, Tb^ are nanallj 
conilnHtnd of efiriML Iwt eoowtinMa of wood *"^ iron, 
or «vas ol fiaoinefc Tba laat material 1^ howafac; 
far (ron balnc aa acn a eiiiical fiii% aa tba maJBtaiiaMa 
ti •.goay of tni iMUniciic li Tety fixpenatve. 

QUBBEC, & dly in tba l>onbfoo ol Canada, 
cn|4Ul ef the prorince uf the aame nan>e, and third 
oity in the I>gaili^(>o 1q |)o]nt of |K>|iaUtl»ii, altn- 
■tod on a |tro(ni>oU>ry nuir the cuuflacnoe of the 
St. Lawianes and the St. ' fhartea, tormiuathig 



nhrwrtly in Caf>« DUmon^ wUch haa a Ikelght of 
838 feet, and on the law huik* beloir tlie rocks along 
tha mantin cif Ixith (treaiai. It !■ 400 niilea fmin 
tha mouth of the St. Lawrence, and 140 miles north- 
east of UontavaL It ia diridad into tha npper and 
lowKT towns. Hie former, placed on the enrnndt of 
the promontory, la atrongty torttfted; tba dtadeL 
ooDDpying tba higfaart aUratUin of the town, and hara 
upon the St. Z^awranoe, baa aa ac«a of -iO aorea; and 
tha whole porilion Ii ao alrong by nature^ and wfaer^ 
•Tor in tha leartdagraeainoaied haa baas aootrangth- 
eaed by lonildaae work* arecUd an tba moat 
iqiprored prindpla^ that It la joatly daaned all but 
imprc^ableL On the aame plain with tfte apper 
town, to the nut, liei the nutititb of St. John, anil to 
thoDOuth-wvalhroihfi Plain* of Abraham. Tbe lower 
town Ut9 undur the cliffH, aluag the St, I^wvenoo and 
Iha St. ('Iiarla; and ailjoinitix to it on the wcat,oti a 
Hut CO the tsUer utreun, lio tlie luburh of St. RotJKi. 
Tba towOB are ainnect(;d by thr«e Lnitta; and two 
gatc^ in addition, lead out from Ui« upp^rr town 
towanli the Ptaina of Abraham. The itit^ta ut 
(juebeo are moetly narrow, irregnlar, and fre>|uently 
Bt«oi.>, eacepting In tbe eubnrb^ widch ar« modnm, 
and bnilt upon a mora ivgtUar plan. I'ha houaaa tn 
prindpallv uf st<)uc or brick, two or three atorics high, 
thaiigh H'mv wwidrn ntnictitrsa rtiD eilit; and toair 
leofi^ gmentlly of a high i>ilch. Imparting a <|naiat 
and antique appearance to tne d^, are moally CO verad 
with tinned iron or with alun^e. An abondant sup- 
ply of water is obtained from Lake St Charles^ jnat 
aliove the Fall of Lerelto, t mOes distant Tha lower 
town ia the gnat aeatof burinesB. The baaltaof both 
riven are liaed with warelkotiica. and with wbarfi 
jnttijy about SCO feet out into tbe atream, along wUoh 
tba largatt veaaab can Ua. Tba Uda of tba rivar 
immadialalT bdow tha town, wfaara it k 2100 yarda 
wld^ aflonU atoellent andurage for aUpa of largB 
toonivn. Oppoilto OaiM Diamond tbe breadth of ^e 
river u only 13U yaru. ThawlDlarlntjuobwiiM 
ecren aa in tbe centra of Buailft, aad the nimnwr is 
as wafwi aa in the amith of Italy. The mean Icm- 
pmatwa la winter h 10*. and in ainuBar M* Fhbr. 
TIm great majority (more than fi*a*dxtbs) of the 
iahautaata ara Bomaa CathoUav oUeity French 
Canadiaw. 

The prindnal bnildiam ta rwroact of architectuM^ 
are tbe rarbament buUifinga, tne llonian Catholic 
catbedrat *b« FntaataDtoathadral, tha Seoloh ¥tf 
«bun^ Other importaat atnctafaaaod faMtiluliaae 
are the HAtel Dismmnneey and ''■"T^f^ fonadad ia 
]63<; the Utmliae eonveot, aa axteMl?a aatabUab- 
■aunt for tba edneataoo of famaiea, fatndad b 1SI1[ 
three Itomaa Catholic «oIlegc% namely, I^val llai- 
Ttnihr, with facnUiea of law, medkJne. an.l arto ; tbo 
OraiM SeouoarY. and tha Minor Seminary; Uorria 
CoUcga, IavbI S'onaal and Uodei Scfaoel, Qnebee 
High School; the gcoeral aad tba ikarlna bo^kltala, 
tbe lunatic aaylnm at Dcanfort, tbe eichMiM public 
library, mnsenna of the litccarj and hlator ical society, 
which poaaeaaa Taluafala reeorai of tha realm, and * 
large cuUection of UMcneal maanacripU; tha Advo- 
catea' Library, Md the Board of Trade. OnthePUna 
ol Abraham a eoluma 40 feet Ugh baa beaa eieetoj 
to tba iiMm or y cf Oaaaral Wolfe; and Ea tba apfMr 
town a handaoma obdU^ on a granhe rwdeeial, of a 
total height of 65 leek, hM been eracted to the iofait 
mamory of both tlie oomaiaadani, Wolfe and Hoat- 
eain, who felt at the taking o( Qucbae. 

gl^baflding fa tbo oUn — -i«»»*»fK .. i iiy fatdaatiy 
of Qnebeai "nun ara alaa maaufacHnaa af Iroa- 
'TiTllngjI. aaoUnsry, rtset, ontlHj. nalk, laatbar, 
Biuny laatnniwati^ P*P*> ladla-nwbar prnK refiat 
tofaaaoa,fta Qntbaa li tba eUaf aaat of the Caaadiaa 
wtntor trade In tlmbtr. Aa tba lafta coma daws tba 



404 



QUKBEC-QTraEN ASXE'S BOCNTT. 



tiffir th<*7 »n> cMIcctcil into whAt arc c»11mI rovu, 
and tccnrccl bj* booina (ncKirc<l itti/ng the bMiIca, the 
ttmbvrbtlng puily ftitokt, portly »fjTUHnrl, aoconllt)!;; 
to UiB riH or [bU of ths titJoa. Thaw covca oitoud 
ftlmett eontiniiniiHlj alonf: tha l»(t ti&nk of Dm .SL 
Lkwroiice fur u <IUl»iJi't: of li liiiint it))r.>v(i ILa Uiwn, 
tnd tborv at corUin wumcniii may bo wrao a mui* nf 
bgl of tfolwr nearly 6 oiilci Id l«li4tb, uO af » 
hraadth fw^ing from ISQ ta WO jfum Then are 
kIm extMuivo timber luiil <tc«]-u«nDg ntAblinbrumtB 
Dtmr tho town, on tbo ri;[ht bank of the St. I Awreticc. 
Tha prlndpa] importa of Qusbeo fti« oottoa, wuolloci, 
«Ilc, ftndliDangDMi; fron, atiia], indhudwin; ooali, 
■pices, and aalt. The prindpai «xporCa beaiiloa tim* 
bur are fail and fith-ujl, aalitu, graiD, fniit, an<l hiaiea. 
Tho total ralno of the ini]Mirt« in 1881-82 was 
£e«7,11l^; that (i exnorta £l,60-t,nOS: an<l the t(>b>l 
amoutit of duly collecleii auiimnted to £170, 1611. 
11m total nnmlN-r of vfwela ragtat«r«d Iwlon^'itii- t» 
Quebec in ISiZ waa b79 of 102,&3>> toon, of which 
142 of 11,140 tuna wen ■leam««. Qnebco rvttinut 
tbrr« in«iDbera to tba Hotiao of Commona of tho 
Dtiminion, miA thrira to the prYivincial Irgialatiirtk 

(juebvv waa fuuudet] iii ItlOS by Cliaiu|Jaiii, uoa- 
gni>har to tha King of Fraiico, on tlia Blt« ui an 
Indian village callwT f^tadAcniin. In 1629 it came 
i[ito tlic hands of tliu Kn|{lisli, but waa reatorod m 
1633 lo tb« Frvncb. Il naa forUfied In 1090. In 
tint Tear tb« Eogliah nHsmplod to noooqnor it, but 
■affand ■ diiaatniua dofut, and It ratnainod in tiia 
poaaaadro of tha PivriL-h till 1750, whun II f^ll IijI>j 
tha liaiida ot tha Dritioh, in connaigiionc* of Wolfe's 
tunow vlot«r.V on tti« pl^ni of Atirulinra. At Out 
tlim Um popiilatlfm waa aatimat^d at V-000 b, mm. 
The only aoriona attempt maito upnn it ainco the 
British pnacaainn waa fotmallj ratilieil in 17flS, wna 
by tbe Ainariooo nvolutlonlata on Lioo. 31, 1775, 
when MontgomerT tbo American general In«t hla life 
hi tho attack. In'Maj and J unl^ 1 84.1, it waa vi*)t#d 
mtfa two calunitoua Groi, which daatioywl about 1 400 
faouaM, btdudlng tbe entira rabtirb of St. Roche, &nd 
renilered noariy a third of the [ohaUtanta of the catjr 
liouidnM. I'np. in 1881, Qi,it«. 

QUKREC\ P»ovi5(JB OF. Se« Cakapa. 

cjirEI>AH, or KBnPAK, a vnuU atate on the weat 
coast i>f the Malay Peninaiila, lying immodiatirly to 
thn north of I'rovincv Wallealcjr, and oiAeatAiatg bo 
tha TalHvlie Itiv«r, liil. 7' M. Thi) iiaii]« aloulftea an 
inclomro for catching elephants. It ia a waU-«,-ooJcd 
ami moiintaindna cnnntry. Them am nntacx\<MK 
rivim which am for tba moit part na»ii;alile. TTie 
olimat* ia waim but healthy. The agrioultund pro- 
ducU an rice and Mpi>cr, bat ttio chid wcallQ of 
Uia atale ecaulBtB;in lu ivory and tin. Thdcapital ia 
« town of lh« aama name, with a populatiun of ISODO. 
Thn ialind of Iianliavn ii deprndent on (jaedali, and 
ia *ery populous a:iJ wull cultivated, 

yUELtLI>'BUHG,atDwninthePnMdaiigoTern- 
cncmt of MaedetMurg, nrovincc of Saxon)-, aitiiated at 
the foot ot tha Hars MonDtauM, X5 milva aonth-wait 
of the town of Magdebcuv. BeiMcaelrardiM it baa 
a towD-houae^ orpbanage, lour hoefdtaliv and an iiuti- 
btite for juvenile nffendera. On an aminaneo aborn 
the town [* an old oa*tle^ oac« th« nddemee of tbe 
a b bw iw of Quedliaburg; who, sa prinoeaaaa of the 
MDpIra, had a roto in tbe did One of thrm ww tbo 
nlMnaa of tbe King of Saxony, and mother of the 
oaMwatad Hanhal Saie. Tlw manufacturea «t 
QnedUnbofg aio wvoUom gooda, b*ot<foot mgar, 
leather, chankala, beer, inm aad btaa fotmdln^ ft«. 
It haa alao nunteroua milla and dlatilleriea. It haa a 
tnwio in grain, cattlo, bain, and Moallant aatuagva. 
Tbe poH Klopatock wai bom herv. Pop. la ItiSO, 
18,437. 

QUKEN (Aaglo-IJaxan. cwa, a wifo}, Um wlfo ot 



a king. In Br^tun die qucn !• dtlter nMHt-nuM 
or m^y wife of the ttignlnj IdnA, irfto is la gentn] 
(iinlnu whero exprdiBilj oiemptacT by ljiir( apon tha 
■ami! fnotin({ with oilier tabjectit being to all intnt* 
the king's ■ubject. and not blaennal; vrqmam^nytmi, 
rognant. or ac-v«r«i^ who holiia tba crawD ia lur 
own right, and hrw th« »anu) powofi^ {nwrragatlna, and 
dutiei as if abe liad bovri a ]dus («ew ButTXHr). and 
vhoaa hnsband ii a lobject, and maj ba gnlllj tt 
high treaaoti agatnat heri or •pi*em-dmtafitr, wiiam li 
the king, who enjoya inoat of tha prirQegea viUefa 
belongod to her aa qoMB-oonaort. It U trvaam to 
oompiM or Imif^ne tiw death of tbe fiueaa-eanaart, 
aad to Tiolata or defile her pe>«oa not only nnden 
the peiaon oomiall^ig tbe act guilt' of tuaaui^ but 
the quixm bonalf, it consenting. If tbe traaan Ix 
aoeiiaed of trenann ake ia (wbother ooiuart ordowager) 
tried by the Hoiiac of Feeta. Quran CaroHne wa« 
procaedod wainat by a bill of paina and panahiwt 
Bofon the uw a qneen-coaaort naa » dfffmat ptai- 
Unn with reference to her huahaad Cnan any mImt 
woTDAD, Har civil righto and aUlltioa aro not laerged 
in thoM of her hiiaband, and aha ia in fai^ ia moat 
n«pM.-ta, con»ldM*J not aa a fme ourrr/, bnt aa a 
frmt Kit. A (jTiseD-dowagw enjoya amat of tb« 
pririlcgca that Ivdnngnd toherB«{iao«i.«o(iaan: hot 
it ia not Ireaaon to compan or imaging ber ifcalfa v 
to violate ber cJiastity, becaoae no danger to tba foe- 
coanon it thereby iacomiL If ibe laanieaaaabjart 
aho atlU retains ber royal dignity, but no maa can 
tnurry her without a njiecial licenae from tbe oown, 
OIL pain of forfaitiag hi* landa and gooda. Ityact ef 
Parliatneat 1 and S Ticc cap. U., Decetnber SS. 1^. 
tbe qaeen haa gtaaled to her, la rsCnm (or tbe mt- 
reader of the crown laada to ParKaauat, an aaanal 
■llowanoa of £S35,<iO0 for tha support of the toyal 
botuahold and dignity. (Seo Ckows luitm and 
0[va IJWT.] In PruMh, Swndao, BdgiaiiK sa^ 
F'nocei, tbe aucoeeaton being ooafiowi to tha male Ua% 
thvrv ooo be no qgeea regnaab (S«o SuiC Li«.) 
Ia Spain aad Portugal feoulaa are now rHrfffr' to 
tiM Ihrone. 

(jUKKN ANNK9 IH)ITNTV, a fund mOad to 
tlie incroaae of the Inootnua of the poorar oariy of 
tbe Cliureb of En^aod, and to aid l a oumlf fc ia 
rebnildingparaonageabygraatfagadTaaoeaafiaiwy. 
in rtrtne of a rayal charier ocmGnDed by S and 3 Anm^ 
cap. il., by wUefa tbe first-fnilta (tbe wfaol* Inoanw 
of aa incambeney for Aa Gnl year aftar a aav ap- 
tnintmont) and the tentha (a tenth of tlka anawl 
incMne of errry Inciuubeucy), wUdi beruna the Rafor- 
matlan had benn palii tn tba mm. bat had been 
aauoxcd to the ervwn by Henry vUL, wart airigaid 
to a otwpoiatioa crested by tha act aad latnabed wlA 
the duty of adminiatarii^ iJui fond for tba p m poae 
montkitied. 11m IiTinga that wara to baaafit by tbt 
bounty weia aU thoas aoC wntnHfHag £50 a year, aad 
thcae were from that tlma oxempfead ftem tba pay- 
ment fi the dura by which Utf fund ia luiinitiiaii 
Variona ai:ti have liooe linen passed tvgnlating the 
management of this food. The oocporatioA that 
adniiuiaten tbo fond haa aalbotity to make rules fix 
ita dintributioD. TTiir prinripal niiiis that II h>a iislaii 
llsbed ar*, that uo aom o*«r CSOO ia to b« gianteJ 
for the augmentation of any ringW ItHag; aad that 
the graota are to be made in the lirat aialaiiia to tiaaa 
livings not rxceedini^ £10 a year, tbm ho tiiaaa not 
exceeding £20 a year, and so on aa long aa tboa M* 
any Uvinga under £50 a yoar. Tbo taiaa aUottad for 
tbe jnupcae of iacreaslag tha Uriaga are laid oat in 
land, which b annexed to tha Urings for erar. Bol 
whoa any nrirata bonafaotor adTaaoea C2M hr tba 
aunneDtatiua of a paiticQlar living tb copentte 
adds to that olbcr iWi, pntlded the liYii^ to «t 
above £45 ia yearty valoa. 



QUEEN CUABLOTTES ISLANDS, w. group 
' I k tbv North PwUc OflMa, off th« cout of 
of Brituh CttlambU, Durth vS Vim- 

im'a Man J. ItooiwuUaf tvro Lugwaod •«r«ral 
■aaUm Uftode. Tlu iioHlMTiiiitoal of tb« two lu^er 
UaDdi ii ctiiod Qnbftm kUod sad tbe louthantinaat 
Uonabj laUad. Tbe neftteat Ungtb of tho tno 
lug<4t»r u about 160 milw, and tbe gnktnt hniadtb 
foftlNiwctluniblwd) about 70 mllM. TbuolItoaU 
it uoilknt Tlw bliJida an oonnA with ma^fl- 
iMBt ionatM, ajid u« neb ia mineniU. Golil-bcariuK 
qvatte of ricfa quality bv Lmoi ruundiasdoopperMid 
IfOi ona and a fios roia of autkntdto coal alto axitt. 
Oa Um ooatt an> numcroiu o^kt tiutabla for har- 
faoon. QotoD CbAtlottfl's Idluirk wen fint aeeti by 
Captain Cook about 1770, a&d wvr* txkon iMMMtwiun 
ol bjr Dison in 1787 in uamo of xho Brixisb crown. 
Tb«7 were mado a nart ot liritUh Columbia od the 
fomaiion of that tMoay In 1&S6. 

gUKKN CilAILLCnTB SOLTXD, a obannol la 
tba Nuttb Pacific Ooewi, tepwatititC VaocouTar'B 
Iilaod fmn tlu maloland of Britufa ArooricA on tho 
■orlli, and forming th« comtu«nceiueul at a lung 
aetiea of inlcla oontannod along tho cortb and *»*t of 
that ItlaiuL Ci^i* Cantlou, fta nortb-coit limit, b in 
lat.6t'iars.:loti.l2r«-S0-w. The nar^on 
U daagatooa from tbo Virgin and Paorl Rodu, iba 
pr«*alcuoe ol torn, and Ibe violimoD und tnvgubuity 
flftbatldvk 

QUEEN'S BENCH (or Kikoh Eisch). Cocht 
OF. a Kf*rato court fonru-rlj- oxititing in Englaud, 

" ' L WM coaMdored at Uie moot dinot tn con—of to 

I awtm rqpt <r naot oourt tttaUlahed In tba Xor- 

a. ptriod. oad £vidad into aovml braaebM for tiw 
trfo] ol Affinal kinda of pleao. In Uiit oour^ wliich 
it DOW kifiridonof Uw Hifb Couriuf JiHtiaa<»«ated 
lijr 36 and 37 VicL Ga|i. liH (1373), tha tovoraipi 
woo, by a ficttoo, tnpMard to {ircoido in Mraon, ami 
tha writi af« acoonungtj tnoido ratnr&able *b«(ora 
Um kin^ for qtiMnl wbcnvor be maj' bo In Englantl,' 
boGMiM Ih eonit »nQ«rt v fuHowed tha liln^ to dlf- 
bnat pwrU «t tlu ktBgitoni, o&d woa onca bald. In 
tha twa*ly-4nt y«ar of Edward L, at Boxbtngb in 
Seoiland; bat for nan/ ototqilai lU olCttaBt bav* 
bMB bold In Wettmiutar Ball, and tha Ung mw 
pnridta at ita litttDga. Sir Edwotd OoIm oojra if ba 
Mm pmrnot ttOl juttke oobld b« odminlrtervd onlj 
bjp 0H juatkoa in tbe aonw manner at whn be 
la aiaant; aad Sir WilUam Bbdtatoiia taj^ whan 
Jam* U. «t tbare be wot told bv the Juatioea that 
be iiHut not gin Itia opinion. "Dw (Jueou't Bench 
witiala <i ona oliIsMnjilloa and Br* puisne jaatioet^ 
Tlwthrmcourtaof WMtmJniterHaU - Kintr't B«Bcb, 
CemoBim tlma, and Escbtqaer— at tius ttme wben 
tlun- won <ioiM>itnltd out of tbo umAi rtjfi*. bod 
JniudiallciB of ■<t->i-»* Undi of actlani, tha King'a 
Madi hnvloK oognlaanot of orimlul anlta, tho Com- 
mn Flaaaofaniti betwooB party aad party napaetiag 
Icnd-lltltB aad on oonlncta, and tho Eschoqniv in 
matttti of raTaiuie. Tbcov amru have alto a jurit* 
iBcttan b rapect to tbo p(ira> 41, and not ntting 
wholly M> tba Idnd rf acUon. Evonr oi», lor 
tlMlawo*, boa imtadiotloa of anile in which Ita o«m 
■ttotntyt or eoOM otbtr of it« offiona on paiti«a, 
nad ihroogh tbit right of juritdiction in nlatioD to 
tha iMcado tlia Quoon't Banob boa drawn to iUalf 
«yiw»nco of Mtiaaa of alnwat oU dMcripdoiti in 
whA tfa* protttiingi an at oMnoMin Uw, oxcept 
ml aodoH: DOT doaa tUl owcpUon mueb abridge 
It* JnriaAotfen, tot titla to landi Is Eogland b tctad 
la If*"* inlU between tbe partita to a real or 
eitppcaad loato of tbo land* in diipulo. Hdt genoral 
jiirwUudoa waa aoquirod upou too pviadplo that no 
oUHrecKut eonld bring btfon it a pvnoo inpciaeood 
by the Hoeta't flench; and in rA9[icct U> erary ouch 



penoa, tberafon^ tuila niott be bruui:hL agalntt him 
In that oouit, or tbore would bo a failure of joaUco 
aa long aa he ohould tltiM oOBtlnii* bo ba inpraouA 
A dofoadotit bang acooidinglr onoe aoreatcd tod 
im]»riagaed, In as action bro^iot betoto tbli ootut^ 
might, wbilo to la oodody, ba n*d In any dvil actica 
in tbo tamo ooort. By tildnc one atop farther tbe 

turuitktlDn waa made MDont tnauobaot&m^naauly, 
'S adopting tbe licuon tbot the defendant waa 
impriooDed by tbo courL Tbo great mum of tbe 
jirocbt botinan of tbu oonrt whkh filb tbe r«p(»tt 
of ibi prooeedingt b btougbt uuder iU (x^ciiiauce by 
Utb fiction. The deportment of tb* Qnaon '« IWich 
that takoa oogautance of criminal ottet b ealled tbo 
cmwn ddu or crown oflloe^ aad that whloh ads In 
civil oauaet the plea dd*. Tlie Qnoen'a Dtodi baa 
alto nporvUoa of all the inferior eoorta of eonnwa 
Iaw throngbont the kingdom, from all vhleh a writ 
tif ciTur lies to tide oourt^ and fnon any of which it 
may at lU own pitaturt renuve any cata by a writ 
of cert ioraW, m it may atoii the jnwtaa of a cate In 
any Inferior court by a writ of prolubitioiL It may 
oloa punbih niogittratet and offioera of jnatloc for 
wllfid and ooiTupt aliiMCM of their antborily; and in 
order Iw detonnina the title tiy wbtob any pcnca 
holdi aoHM dvIl oflloi^ baaehite. or Ubartr. nuy, by 
a writ of f«n MormMb^ domond of any oUimant to 
taoh ottioo <.iriiriviltq{u by what antbority be tOpports 
bb claim. Tklt tpM^ee of tu|Mr<ri^on hat In tome 
catet beaa axtondad to otbtir than aril nnd judicial 
oHioen, m ia tbe caae mentioned by Noy, when the 
court Iwued a MOMfomat to tha ffithop of Exon lo 
allow the eaortd unotioit and baptbotal oU to tho 
Mo^a of a oert^ pori^ to wbtua they bad btcn 
dented by luin. Thb power of lapervbioB b tr*- 
qumtly exardted by ordering officon of corporatloiw 
to dbeharge the dullm benmbent upon tbent. 
Aaotlier Inpartant writ Ittnod by thie court U that 
of JkaAtat torftu, by whioh It pcoleob the liborty 
uf the Bubieol. Aa » dlvWea of tbe High Court of 
Juitbt tbe Qneaa'a BoDch exu r d ete the taoH fuao- 
tione at it Ad wbaa It wot an lodepeadant oooil 
By tbo 3llfa aecUoB ef tho act above died Ibere are 
oMgned to tUa dlvidoa aQ otutat aad matlara dril 
aad criminal peatUag la tha Ooart of Queen't Beach 
at tbe oomataaoMaaat at Ibt act (Novamber i, Wt\ 
and all ooueea aod matt<ca dril and obninal whha 
would ba*a been wHbin the exdntira oognbaaoa 
of tha Coui of Qneeo't Bench la tha etwdta of 
lU original Jorbdlctlati if tbe art had not faaaed. 
There wat fonneriy an appaot from thb court to tbe 
Kxcbaqaer Chamber, and tbanoe to the Route of 
Lordly Vt writ of error; but thb b now aboUebod. 
Sat BvnuEHi Cousr or Judkutcib. 

QCfERNS- CM)LLR6B, Cambridge, waa foonded 
la 144^ by Illar);iu«l of AbIov, quoea of Henry Vt^ 
aadngaJnto Ufi^ by Klbabeth.qnaeacf Kdwoird IV. 
It euutiau of » pmldwt and tblrtoen foundation 
fellow*. Tbe lactar retain theb bUowihlpa anooo- 
ditiottolly for taven yean from election; bat no 
fellow «aa retaia hb feUowikfp (or bmw* thaa oae 
year after hb lattltutLon lo a ooQage Uiiag the net 
anaaal rolua of wbbb b aboTc £tOO. A fallow of 
the ooUoga who holdt a prdeMorehip in the nnivttdly 
or tbe omoe of poUlo onUor may fotaln fab fellow* 
ibb at Icng at be oootlauee to bold inch offloe; aad 
Followt boldiag certain ulRoei witUa tha ooUt(a ha«« 
^wctal privllent la reqnol of Ibe laadre of thdr 
fellewaUpa. A fixed (ropnrtiiiB of the iwraaaee of 
tbe fiaUi«a b paM to a acbohudilp foa^ wUcb b 
dJatributad byiaegotamlag body aaioag thaaeheltta. 
lu IS-Sa Uie number of auholon wot 22. aad tiwir 
Mipvndt ranged from £30 bo £70. 3ii of tha 
trbolawbljpe an ce a fcnaJ alter aiamUiatbtv, and ata 
upon to all penoaa md* niaalaM yoam of a(a iriw 



406 



QUEEN'S COLLECE-QUEEN-S COUimr. 



b*v« not oomntaiuvil muldunc* in th« tmtvnnilty aX 
ibv' tiiDu cf tliv ujAiuliintltin. Tbirrv oiv nine ckurvti 
lividiTn in the ^-iU at tbt' <»llei,-<^ uict oa» in that of 
Uiu |>rt^iiiMit, who miMt nominate to it ono nf the 
al^'ht KL-ninr dirioM. Tbeni wra in juldition fuur 
«xbtbtlivij« nNned aiter tbelr (aiinilera, and tbe pre- 
aideot duiribatu £L3Q per ftnnnm in gmta to 
dMcrving iituilcntii of limited mtuuin. T)ir collr^i: 
bnililEiiKi &r« aiiiouLj Ititi miat iiiti:re>tiii|; in tha 
onlvsnitj, and incJudo four criurti of miiiUl rhf. 
Tha gallory ot tba imwiJccta lod^ U dO fwt long 
ami hitn ttirM quaint odtrl wmdowa. In « tower In 
tli« Piuiju-coutt art) tba nx.iiu* inhabiltid by £numua 
(l&Otf). John Kiabnr, 1'h(>iDiuiruiler,an[lUp.PeMnK>i] 
wen nvinbvri ut tliv ooU«ifti. 

QUKBIN a COLLI-;*;]-;. Oiford, wu founded in 
13^0 by lttif*>rt KylMfinld, nhspliiin t™ ^hilippa^ 
qtwvn tu Edward III., atid it i» ttvm her that it jfett 
Its itani«. Tha BuUequcnt foiindationa of John 
MichuL, Sir FranctM llrid^iiiao, and Lwly Margaret 
HiingiiTf-Mn) nRm ratuuliiiatixil intn ana trtth that of 
Eulatiuld in 1858; and thu 0«llei;e, uud«r «latQt«i 
fntmed by tho Oxford Uoiveraity Comntiaaioavra Id 
1881& now cfinaiiitR of apmvoirt, frnm 11 lo ]<S fRllnimi, 
abonl '1& •cholani, and two Uilile-olcrlu. Tlio nt-Lular- 
•blpa an of tba anmiAl value of £80, and are iMiiAb1i> 
for fira yaara; cacdidatua must be nodcr tunotcoii 
yean of age. 'I1ie Ilible-clerkabipai, vrbidi ak nlao 
t«nnbl« Tut five yeaia, ar« of tbo annual valuH uf £S(), 
and tb^ boldm oocumr rooma n<nt-fr««. Six of 
ttm HbalaniU|M a» ouud EtclnfiL-ld aoholanhlpa, 
and an b» ba awftnled, la oaae auitahle cudldatea 
«0(rth«mMtTM,toiiativcaof Cumherlaiidand Wc«t> 
mandand. Hina J* alao a acholarabip caUed the 
JodrsU Kcbu]jui1U[i, of tk« annuiil value of £SD, and 
tonabla tor four years; and a conaiderablo nambET 
nf other rxhihiLiiiMii. Thooollega|>rMeflita to twenty- 
throo churcb'lJviD)^ 

gL^h:NS0ULLF.RKS,In1an(!. Th«Mi»Jl^(M 
arc (JiriM! in nuinK-r, siluatod al Bclfaat, Ooric, Mkd 
Ualway, am) neie cbartered in IS49 in ptmnaaoa of 
an a«t tpif Parliament paawd in IS4S (8 and 9 Viet, 
nap. IxvL), eaabUns the quG«n to endow new collegee 
fur the advancement of loamiDj; in Irrland, and 
granting £100, OUU ont of the cinuHtlidntcil fund fur 
ataUianlDK nod furuiiliuiij ib« wuui^ Tbe l'oUvko* 
W«ra opaosd In October, 1bS>.>. llwy are at prca«Dt 
te^alad by the chartora of 1 S63. Tho conxtitntion 
of eauh ooUJega ia tbe anine. The corporBto body of 
«ach ooUege onuleU ot the prwldont and profawora, 
■ad th« pmoral ptranimsiit and administration on: 
VMted in a ootmDll eonaiating of the preaiilcnt and 
dx menben, elected b^ the prufeaaura from among 
tbaniMlvwL Tba elocUve mamban of ooondl bold 
oftoa for three yvani, thu two aenlor onea rettrinir 
erer; year, and a now election tAhing place to tiU 
the vacanoica Thcru i« an apixml fmm the dtx'Uiona 
of tbe cnnnuil to tbe visitor, wba ia apjiciititoil by tbe 
orown by aitpi- manual. £«ery vtudeut albiudiuL' 
any ol tbo collegM muit dwell «-ith hia parent or 
giianiian, nr aoma naar relation, or In 1'K.ljjing-hotiaiiii 
apiirored by tll» Council uf tbe oijUoiiv. 0vaiui of 
NaUatUMi are app^t«d, and are ruqulred, among 
other tbinga, to make proriaion for aooaring to tbe 
■tudenta tbe locona of due attcndanco upon aii^ 
rvligiouB InBtnii'tiun mod dlvbiu worablp na niay be 
■Hiprowiil by tfao partnts and ivoognised by the 
aeSm aotboritioai and Htndcnto habitually sagloct- 
tnc dirine wondup and nJi^nui inatrurtion are 
liabU to evpHUon. The fMsina of tbu (Juuena 
OoUegW txtenda from October to Jiinu. In their 
fint iBldon the atodeate in art* attitty l-ingLUti, (>nM-k, 
liOtin, a BMxImiii laoKUage, and luathciuatiai. lu 
tlio aeooaid xaaion logT-, nnturnl hintorj, luid two of 
ttia following, \ix.: — Urcek (*e<<und courae), LiLtiu 



[taoond conraat, a roodvm Ungoae* (aeoond omtraat. 
audmiilljcmiitimiiMxKulooiUM). In tiie tttbd avHlcn 
tboy atudy tbe EngUifa laaguf^ and Uloitait; 
motaphyncfl, or hiMorr, «r polftiaJ «eo«e«y: 
cfaenuatry; xoology, or botany. Stodanta wbo an 
preparing to compete for imlrenitf booonn a» 
allowed to nibstituta any two oottiMa o( lectarca 
>|iecific«lly d«tKn«l for honour I'an-rlldatfa for two 
uf tbo <xiuniea xb>;ii« sut doarn for atwly in tbe tfaint 
Roanion. 'Itin number of atudeata ■Tt*Tni*hlC daring 
tbu acaaiou of 18S2-S3 waa Ml. 

Btudenta d tbe Queen's CoUegna In Inbui watf 
obtain dt^roea in arti; mnlidne^ and law CrMH tM 
Koyal Univsndtj of iKland bv obaarvtng tbe eooBe 
uf Htudtea preacribed by that body, ftad paving the 
requisite exatiiinatiuu. Tbla tuUTeraitT waa foooded 
in puniiiAOr» of the proviaiona ol tba V^xwoBtj 
Ediionlidu (Irvland) Acrt, 1S79, and baa now aupv- 
Kdbd Mm QuMn'a f [,iv«n)t]r In Inland, It baBg 

Enivtdcd that tbo cprwiuatM and atndenta c< Iba 
liter univenity ahall have Miwilai- rank in tba new 
uttivenlty. The Boyal UnlmdCr oorpuratlm oao- 
BistB of a cbaooeUor, a senate, tad gtrndoalea. Hh 
goTcmroent is veatcd in a senate oonaislfng af a 
cbancellur, and aenatoia (the lattor not to> aKwaJ 
thiity-dlx lu Dumbart, with power to grant all aseh 
do^rccfl or other diatinedona as can b« cautarwi by 
any niiivcniity of tbe United Kingdam, evocft in 
tboolu^. Tbo churtvr givea power to grant aurlL 
dogroea to all mala and fcmalp atadoata wbo (hall 
have matricnlatod ia tbe univenity, and pasMd the 
reqntslte examlnatloQa nreaarlb«d by tba ■"■ft, ami 
provides (liuL no rcaidcDM in any OuI1m% me afc- 
tmdnnoo at loctnrei, uraay other ootuaa cf iMtmcttca 
In the uuIvotsUy, sbaU be obMgalory ud any cawlidat* 
for a dogroc, oUior than a dagroe In nusjidse sr 
anrgnry, the tinirerwty in thta respect resamUiM 
that of London. Tbs act 44 and i& Vict. cap. K 
proridM for tb« pajmunt of £*20,0(X) a jtar ont «< the 
aurpliiH funds uf th(< Itisb Church fur the put pt— of 
Uio iinivonity, wbich hut ita w«t in EaHalort Tenaoa, 
I>ublin. 

QXTEEX-S COUNSEL, tn England, Un^tat 
appointed coimaot to the crown, and called witUn 
thi! liar. 'I'hity hare prcoedcnoa over all otlsar 
baniator* eiuept SDch aa hare patnota of pnnsdnei 
ontitUng thaa to nok abova ill tpuea'm oooiwl, cr 
to rank wllb tbem in order of seniority. Thejr at« 
appointed by patent fram the ovwn on tba aonioa* 
tlou of tbe lurd-dianceUor. They cannot be on- 
ployod aninst the crovni witboat ipocUl Hiii lit 
but thia Tiocnio ia olwayn ^rantotl (on paymeiit of a 
fw) unleaa tiie crown itadf deairea to rebtin tbe odod- 
■•1 on tba OM* with nfmow to whlcb tba aptUoa- 
tJim is nadv. Ia thia raapeet thaT Tiasnirls tba 
advoeati /«r> of tbe Itomaiug, who, howorw, vndcr 
thu empire wi-rvatill njurB restricted In thair iwa rtfa ^ 
not Iwing nllowf-il to ntne at all iu any i. imi lajl ■ Vil 
mibject and lubjuoL By 13 and 11 Vi<A. caa ^ir. 
cjueen's eaonael are onabled to act as Jodgaa mwtttu 
when named in tba eonunlaaloa. It Is tbe lalaliHsliail 
etiquette of tbe pnraaaian that no qnaot'a eooMl 
couductB 1^ ease wUhont tbe sMlsfsiifo of n fukr 
GounaeL Tbe pnlevlo&al tohea of queen'a ooaaad 
ar« of ailk inabaad of atoff like thove of ordtaary 
bartlatenv and faenee tbe pbraae ' to roni w tba lilk 
gown,' or 'to take dik,' la often lased in the Msaa al 
' to be raised to tbe rank of qnean'a ootuueL' Tbi 
firat tn be appointed to tbe iwik of qiio«n'a nwiwil 
Kaa Sir Francia 13a«oa in ISSO. Furtneriy «dsib*s 
ooanaol rocarad s snail salary, but tbii is no KiVEr 
tliaoaaOk ^^ 

QUEEN'S C0UNT7, au bOand ooaatv ia In- 
land Ib tbe provlnco of L«iiMt«r, b«uuM ea tha 
nortn-west and uortb by Kbig's Coontjr, esnt b>f 



QUEENSraURY— QUEENSLAND. 



407 



Kildara and » d«>t«ieb«d fxvtion of King'i Couutv, 
Mmtk-«Ht br Callow, Mutt by EiUcvDay, and nuth- 
VMl hy Tlppanry; wm, fl6l luinun mild*, or 
ttl,85< »BNa. The Kirface u fceocriLllv liat, ruiujf 
Is Uw Boftb-WOTt inU> tho SUevv-Bloom Mount^iu, 
vkow Ugbeal nmmit, Anlcsin, ii 1731 f««t ftbo*« 
■M-]«TeL Id the •nntb-eftat Mn Lhe r>;>iut HtlU, 
CMMtflting ctiiHIj' of k seritn nf iaulatcil 0:iiiauuc««. 
^M fint ■(« ixnnpoaed |vriiinipally of BHtdftono, and 
m pan of the Moood vf tha antluadte ooal-meanmi, 
wuob M« aitaulrely worked In the aanth. Iraa, 
tafftr, asd naogaiicaa ant fouod, hut iiul workntL 
I^MMnoa abaoDdi, and in « few place* mju-blii in 
gbtaiiMd. Tbv aoU b furtHo vxwpt whsra ban 
coour, but thiM arc prMty Diimeroiu townds tSit 
MDtn of tfaa oonntjr. I'riucipal rivara, tha Banow 
and Hon, both of wbiob rian in tfao Sli«ve*Slooni 
Mouitaloii Tbara li oolj ens lake In the coont;, 
Loagta Anaagti, leofth about 1 mile. Agrlcultun fa 
Dot MMtalljr io an unprocing itaLe, dnunaga in par- 
ticolar baiag matb wanted. Tttv priodpal <a«pe ore 
Mta, bariay, potskwm tumlpa, aod auuigvl-wiuxel, 
whkk b l&U owond rM^iMtiroly 2S,90I; lfi,7l7; 
1S,9U; IS;67% and 2008 acrtx. Tb« total arcs 
■unlar cmcm in Utat j«ar wu 140,534 acrea. The 
BBOiIwr r<f Mfiicoltural bonn in tlwt yoar waa 690V; 
cattle (8,1M; rfu«[^ TO,&:jn; anfl nig^ 39,834. 
I^iadnal towna, Uoonlmelllali, MaTyburooch, anil 
Poctarlingtm. Qnaea'a County ratama two loaiDban 
lo Parilaa wnt Pop. (1811), 1&3,1I30; (ISai), 73,124. 

QUKENSFERliY, two plaoca in Scotland.— 
1 (5aNil!A). A r<>v»l tnu^ and auport town In the 
omaty of IitiUib)cnw, 8 mllaa wc«t bv north of l^din- 
bw^ oo the aouth atda of th« Firth of Forth, U a 
point wfaare tba lattar mddonly narrows to a width 
al about 3 milca. and almoat aa niddeiily again 
«naf>d« to a brandtli of naariy 4 miloL Tbm tprry at 
tiui point WM at ow line the prlDctntl muua of 
comoninfctfcw between Edinbutyh and the north of 
BootlauL A railway bridga to q«a the Ftrih «l 
forth fa*t« waa bcgua In the autnmn oC 1878. Pop. 
lOM.— S iSorA). A viUaca In the ccmnh of Fife, 
f Bilaa a.Ai. o< Dimfeni^ne, oa the north mliore ol 
Um Kith of Forth, oppoatle Bonth QawDaTarry. 
It la fra<|aeat«d fur auiuiatr and aw hathJag quar- 
ts!. Pop. 340. 

QUKENSLAND, an Awtnliao colony, eatab- 
liriwdlnl8£9,nDrthof NewSmth Wain. Tbo lioo 
arUdk wparatea it from Kew Suvth Wa!« bcgtoJ on 
tbe floaat at tha rirtr Tweod, in Ut. ^fi' lu h.; fol- 
low* Ikla itnaa to ita aouttv, than atrikca oo tbo 
DoBanaipM^ and kavlnff reachad on the Dtunoreaqna 
the SMh parattal of l»Mtad<b the bouidarr Una nma 
dua wwt to tba L41at inaridian taat of Qraaawid^ 
wUA la tha liattof South Autnlia, then dna north 
t» lat. 24'. th«D due weal, along the north end of 
.South AiutnJia, to 138* >., wUeb MtaUel fonni Ita 
waMani bovadarir Berth to the Guu of Caipentnrin. 
It thna toma tba north-eMl portian of *»i***tu, 
and baa an am of about 0aS.S24 aquare mtlta, 
or 437,«<S,S80 acne, of whieb In 18S2 about 
ttiMdflWt balonglnff to the orown w«r« liiwd. It 
fa «Tid«d into twi'l ve Wj^* dlatriola, naoMly, Morston 
(ognpriainff Kaet and Waal Uorotoci), Dariing Downa, 
Pu ni u lt. Port Carti«, Manuu«. LdchWdt, ICen- 
nady, Uhcbetl, Warrtfo, Gn(Dry, Bnrito^ and Cook. 
n* dtalrtoti in tha aoulh-eaat, where tha population 
la amlnlj OoUadad, ara anbdivided into aiii^ler di^ 
triolB. Tmrarda tbo weot a lari^ portUMi of the aur. 
fact ii iry and bamn, but towula th« aaat, and for 
a long atntofa along tba ooaat, bonndleaa plains 
admlnbly adapted fur abeep-walki^ and lofty rutgea 
of UI^ mMnJIy waO inradad and lataiaectod V 
fortilo nlleysi fonn tba psorailing faatvna of tlio 
coonSn. AJoBK tha oout, and ■—^'^g the nrnnhnf 



Isaa Islands that skirt it, ara baota on which cotton 
of ozc«llunt quality M>d an altnoat nnlimlted quantity 
may hf grovm, Tba ^todpal rimi ara the Bria- 
bArj«, Lkp Burnett, the Ttoneer. the Fitaroy, and the 
ituniokin flowing into tho I'scific, and the Kiindon 
and MitdicU into the Gvlf of CaqxnUfia. Some of 
t1tea« streams arc navi^ble far a oQDBidcrahle dis- 
tAuce iulaud. Tb» coast Is indBotetl with numv 
noble baya^ having capxJou* natural borboan^ which 
bnv« alnndy been brought into practleal nne aa tfae 
oDtlota lor VM prodnoe ol the adjMont dlatriota, A 
Imv« part of tho surfaco oonsista of rich graosy dowsJ 
w«U »o[)plied with water. He oUntate b healtfar, 
and tho teinpontun eontparatively «<(uaU«b In 
ISdl the U^^iart reading A tha thcnnnnotor waa 
10^* Fabr. in the shade, snd the lowtat 34'. Hh«et>- 
faraiitjff is the ctdsl indaatrr, but oattle thrive well 
alao. In 13SS the nnnbar of sbeop In the ooiony 
was 1%043,8D3, and of honied cattle 4,089,715. Tbe 
soil and elinuta am wrtl nulcd for the ]irodiKtioD of 
all the onltaaty cereals, na well as mnUo^ tobaooov 
coffee, flogar, c»ltao, and other plasla. Tha anly 
c«r<!iwl cro^ grown to any oonsidonble axtont a 
tu&ia!, which ID 18S8 oovered 4S,480 msrtB, or abont 
h^ the total area under eoltirailon. Tba nast 
crop in point of importance is mii^. All kinds of 
acnii-trapioal and Kngtish fniiti an abundantly 
grown. Gold, tiii, and oopper are tbe principal 
mlnsrals, Ixit ooal and plumbago are also foiinil in 
Urge onantitiak llie goid-Aokls eoTor an aggregate 
arcaoi7000ai]. milasithaslnnnlferaaBoautittyiseatl- 
iiiatod to occupy an area of S^ aq. mlle% and aoane 
part* are Tvry rich in tin. The coal-niuaiuf oe CToppwl 
out on tbo surface o*er aocns 24,000 >q. iniln. In the 
north penrl-Gsklng is now being acttvdr canied on. 
Tbo maoulactnres are luiimpoitanL Tha principal 
manufactoriaa are Bugsr*niilhL ateam aaw-mlUs, aoao^ 
woriu, ud disUlicriea. Tben k alao a conridsnUe 
munber of ootton nna In the colony. At the end of 
1882 than wera 847 nllae of laflwaT open. IlkarBars 
two prindpal Unso, one In tba aoau proceeding weat 
from Brisbane^ with a branoh to tbo sontban froaUor, 
and another in the north running weat fnan Bock- 
hampton. Then were on Doc 81, 13S!2, 6344 miles 
of tolBaruli Uoe. The number of tetters trananitled 
throngh tbe port-ottea In 1882 was 5,9ft2,61«^ and of 
Bflitspapon and book-packeta 6,60i,83*> Edneatiaa 
is fiM in the state schools, foes being abolidied. 
There b no etate vbur^ oMh reUgiona daiMBfctft- 
tloD bedng entirety salf'Supporting. Tb« f<lB(i|Ml 
importa tS the eokNuy are llaan aod drapaij, flour 
and brswl. Iron and s4iee1 boot a and sfaosiL tea, nlritL 
bnidwnrm —"*■'"— j. stationory, wino^ &c; and the 
pcindpal czpcrtii^ wool (in 1883, to tho ralaa of 
£l,32I>,0IO),gaU (in 1882, Io the value of fAZS.OU), 
tin (Talne ia8SL»94, In I88XK engar 1£I&2,108, bi 
1882), taJlow, prsaaftad and Mlted maata, eathta, 
wood, bfaka, ud akina. Tbe raino of tba IMnl 
fanporta In 188S wm £4,318,403, and of tbe nqurt^ 
i3,fi34,452. Hm total vahie of Briliah borne pno- 
dooo ioported In 1883 wns £1,413,045, and «f tbo 
exportn to tba (Tnltad Klngdon £1.84UeT4. Tim 
st^e article of export to UM ITaitcd Kiugdm la 
wiHil, tbe raliM of whidi tn 1833 wss i:i.US7,81l; 
tbe next in value beioff tallow, ieS4,314-, and pn- 
serred meat, £44,448. AdntyofSperMnLlacliaitid 
on importB of yaraL woran fahritai mannfacMrad 
lentbor, salted beef aiJ pork, and paper and alationy ; 
attddatleaatatliernrteaoasenMotberaftielaa. 'Om 
total tonnaga of Jdppliig antared and dsnrad at tba 
■•oru «f ytiasiUnd, cMwlra of tba eoaating tradiL 
In 1832. waa 1,880,^. In 1882-S3 tbe rereoue of 
tba oolooy was £2,l89t8S9, and tbe etpendltan 
£3,317.675; debt tn 1883, £1M>S,3M. 
Tbe UrU aettlauent of QneenaUikd took place in 




QUEEN'S METAL^-QUERfiTARO. 



1 



IHSS, wbm tha UtrlbWT wm ocod m » place at tnza- 
portaliaD for ODDvietih wbo oo&tliLiMd to bo imA Hum 
tID IS3». In 1843 the country wm opOMcl to fm> 
■rttier^ Bad In I>eoenber, ISM, it wm orxknlxod m 
s vpvkt* colony. Tbo goramnwot of th« eolimy la 
rmlM la » eoviTnor, who ia iha quMa'a npicMnU- 
Hn, tad ft fwlijunHat of two hoiiMa, the legU»tIvB 
oonndl ftnd the lagi*Utlv« ■wnmhljr. ^Hw MuncU 
euuUbi of thlrtjr-Rino mtraben appobted bj th« 
Cifiwa for Ufv, null llie uMmUj of flftj-live mem- 
ben tiaeUi hy th« poopte for five TOftn, ftuil rupra> 
■cntinff (arty- two eloctond lUatnotM. TIm firat 
PftrlUoMDt mat in Mtnr, I860, The 0ft|)iU] of thu 
oalonr 1> BrUbui« Populfttion in IfiSl, 'ilS,!);!&, 
pwnely. 12&.32S mftlM, ud MH^-JOO fonulea. 
QUEEN'S METAL. Sm. BfUTAXin* MrrAr- 
(jOKEN'S TCIHACOO-PIPK, the iinuio p^t'"' 
Ittrly y^ren t« a fiirniwo in London, Bituntcd In tbe 
nunh-vnjt roraer of the tobMoo trftrdionsM belong- 
Idji to the Loiidau dttcJu. It ia k callnl bccuiMi it 
to ttMd fur bnndatf hU nvto of ooatmbftDil krtielM 
that kft«« been eeued by the aatam-baoH ofilcen^ 
bat e«poei>Uy IvbMoa. ManyklDctsof tMu«,tLorw- 
vnr, szwpMd en Moonnt of the dknger of « oon- 
flagrfttion thnmg^ the mcnjm of the bumluff leavce 
et the cbimney, which tt 'u nlmoit hnpoadblft to pra- 
TS&b The Hoea from tke tnlmeeo-piM itro puirdiaaed 
at ft high price for mftOura by ({ftrdenen and land- 
(iwni'n in llie nslgbbonrhood, md era ftlao In Krvftt 
ilamftnd (or ftnnp-iiuJdnK uid other cbotnical niann- 

QUEENSTOWN, fwmeriy Cowiof Cork, « tnari- 
litDfl town of Irclftnd, and >n itnporx&ot naival Ktaiinn, 
b the oonnty, ud » luUw Kiutb-wcat of Cork. f>u th« 
•onth ddeof Groat iBland. which U ritiiftt^d ir Cork 
harbour, and riaea abni|>Uy from this wnLer'a odg« to 
a oonridarabiA el«Talion. The etroeta rfae abew o&« 
anothw, uai preeeBt a Jfsrj pictiimqiu appaaranc*; 
tber aro wide, oJcftn, and well paved; and ne heuaea 
In ue principal iitT»>i* an moady Ui^ of iloaak and 
waUbnllt tt buBhnadK>awKpboraaldon!h.and 
n •plmdid Roman CUholio catliedraj, MliiDated to 
ceet £S0D,OQU is in oouno of erectiao. Cove baa 
little trade and no nanufaetarM^ being aljnoat aaldy 
de]^deot on tiia mllitafy aad naval aatablialunenta 
In ita ricinln*, and on tb* Bnniaroiu rUtora atbncted 
by tbe finpiW bewity of tbeplao*, and by Ita dellKbt- 
fnl cUmftte. In hnnour of her M»f««ty'e Tiait to Cove 
in 1 ml?, tlMi Dftine of the place was ilusged lo Qacia)*- 
town. l'op.(]SSl), SJAi. 

qiTENTlK, St., a town !n FVanc*. tn tbe dapart- 
meatof Aiana^ on ft belgbt above tbo SoaiDf^ 87 nilaa 
oortb<eftrt of Paiia. It b an aadant ptaM, and from 
Iti poritioa on Um ftonHen bet«««B nance and tbe 
Lffir Oountriea figoree moefa In hlatonr. In 1357 n 
Uttl* waa fmi^t onder tta wBlK la whkfa tlw n«H& 
wv« ripally defeated by the Spaalarda lol a body 
«f Bognah lariHaifaia, and the t^wn wa* afbwwftrda 
takaaaiKl aadcad. In ISOI the fcrtifiatloiH arare 
eoBvarted into a pnbUc walk. In Uctober, 1S70; tbe 
town waa nwnpaed by tbe Genoani^ who retained 
it till the IfilbJanuaiy, 1871, when tbayweMdrivwi 
ant by the FnoA, hit only f«r f-jur daya, for It 
waa leeoverad by tfaam aftar a battle on tbe IM) of 
Janonrv. Tbe town U wall bnOt, aiwl baa among ita 
edificM a Natntifnl Ootbie eatbednl, a G<4hk lawn. 
beqaev *^b n tower and an H«ad% (oenwd by eigbt 
piUarad ardiaa: a«Mui4cFiiae,tbaatn^[BflaBai7,ud 
•avvtal beaintBla. TheatiftleiaaDnlaetBraaneottna 
and wooUan (oada; and the trade bidiMfaiL fin adili. 
UOB to tbeae^ eon. ftuft, flax, aagar, and Banoric*. 
Tbe envitvoie are oorered with bltaclifielda. roih in 
IS31. I&.SSS. 

grRRAlU), Joami MAin; a FTvacfa bil.Ko- 
graphar, bora at Kenne^ Deeaanbec 25, irsi; died 



ftt Parfo, December 8, 18CS. From Um we otf lea ha 
waa mnnaoted witli tbe bo«k-tndaw In 1817 be 
cane to Paria^ and aftarwaida tnvallad prof aamnaSy 
over Fn»A Bofl^aad, and Ilalr. FMd IS19-U 
he waaattacbedtoawetl-kaownfinn in Vleaaa,and 
whUe amployed then bo prepared Ifae fli^ part tt 
bin great work lift France Uttteire. in which be rina 
a Lvaaplnle bibUu)jr>pby of Wanoc: for tbe •rifhtoAlb 
and the begioidng ot tbe nfaetepnUi oeutun', ecan- 
prinng not inarely Botioaa of SVenA writan, bot ab 
of all tboao forebn autbon wfaoM vorka bad bean 
raprintfd or trandbtcd m Fnno& Tba whole wert 
waa published in ten Tolnmea betereno 1827 aad 
ISIS. In 1830 tbe aathor reoalTod from tbe oiia liii i 
Guizot an annual ■id>v«atian of lOMfanastoaanUa 
him to continue the work. Among Iba Other waria 
of Qu(^nu*l are La litt^rabm frMigalae oonlanpca^ 
aln^ which waa intended to oofflpleta tba fomar, oot 
of which Qttdrard lunuKlf prapand only tba fint tn 
volniuaanSSD-UI; Buptuvberien litidrairaa d^vctMea 
<16«5-6e): Aivbivea d'Urtobe Utt«fnii<e, intnodad le 
fonn a monthly aopplflment to La France UttAaJnt 
but atopped for want of anbacriben aflec two TnlaaaB 
bod apncftiad (ISSS-fifl). 

QUERCITRON, In dyeing, tfaa bitaraal bncfc ef 
the (lua-fut (mrterw, a apeciaB of oak; it yidda b 
edouT, which ii ycUow, by infnaion In wal«r, aad by 
the rommnn tnordanta stvca ft benuanent dyw Vy 
exhaniUiiz thu bark nth akobol, rmnoiing tannic 
add, and evaporattng, a pale yalktw oayntalliM body 
in nbtftined, calW i|iu!rcitrin, to whlob Iha J B tw la 
ChIIuC^ baa been giren. 

QUERfiTABO, one of tbo >tai'« of tbe Me>i«D 
CobfedBratlon. bounded on tbe nortb by tbe depart- 
lucnt of San Lub 1'otM), on tbe weat by GunaiaaK 
oti tba «nutb-w«st by Mechoncan, tn tba aoaA and 
eaat by Mexico, and on the north'Oaat by VasnOn; 
aK*,8S()7ixi<iaremika. It fonna putu tbaoHilnl 
plateau of tie QtirdiUen, p r aaa nt Jng a nay nfgti 
mriaea^ tnwaned by mountain qma and lofty bafj^ 
aoBMliBiaa ban and aometlBM corand wttk bnM. 
Ita riY«re are few. and alnaal all of fnaigBttCBNt 
dtRienrii-int. Ilie moat impottftat vageCable pradaet 
ia etttin. whldi ia niied in latm qnanlirlan; aad 
together with uttln fonu tiw OM wwdlk rf tta 
slate. Tbe mineral^ onoe faraom^ ana now eonpsn- 
tirdy nn important, tboqgb n um e r o^ tnlnea an atin 
oonn'ted, moatly of aUver. BAannfactaraa bnve mada 
eonaldenblfl |innfma, and many wcoltan and eottn 
fftbrica an woven from mauaiala pecdnoed wttfeAa 
the state; tbe latter from a meciaa of cnltua mntk 
need in tbe manofaetnn of bbah^ta, abnwK *»i 
raboeaafnUndof nraffianerabortdaaka). La^o; 
aoan, and luudwan an alao mnnirf antaind. Q u aa W wa 
entered tbe ooafedecallea In 1834. Pop. SOMM- 

QUER^ABO, n Qity In Maslao, o^iAal <f Ike 
dqiaftmant of the aarae name^ on a plataan SMS iM 
fttm-e eeft-levet, 110 mflea BOitb-weat cf MgiJa^M 
tbe aidea and eummit ef aeveml eanv«iging bilk 11 
oomiala of tbe dly pnpar and onbwin, aapnrnraJ by 
aamall atnan, and peeaeafean aff wanna at anaa 
fanpeanng aitd faitimnmiiL Anwag tba pnblfe adl> 
ftoea partknlarnotio* b dn« tn tbe naindpad otenfeL 
a w ag nift c wl and li^-deeofnted a biittni ni, and 
oontaining n aplan^d attar of pan ailwt and a 
DoUe nqnedaett about S tnilee long, ^mnning a plain, 

a tnnnfll in tba eppodtn UU^ bffaigbg n Mpiena 
anpjily of eanUent wnMr (hmb • Artanen «l tf aAn. 
lie tftftnnf netarae, tben^ f^^J ''**"~^ fcelndi 

oonaidBrftble qnentitMe of woolkn and ootftan geod^ 
borae coren, artkleo hi leatbar, dffWa. aoan pafK 
fte. Ita trade, after tnlfafiag mock boBthnnaantUad 
atato of tbe govemtncatl^ bin begna to r*vi*c Tba 
pcwoa between Mesleo and tba TnitaJ Stnlea wai 



I 




qUKRN— QUEVSDO-VILLEGAS. 



409 



ntilM boro by tfaa Mvdcu Coagnm is 1848. 
QoMAin -WBi UM krt town la which MuriutliAii of 
AoMriA tMk nfote (MArch IS, 1S67). Wh«n tiw 
town fall into th« btDdi of tfa* rvpablicuu on Um 
Ulb gf Uu fDOnrlng, MMtmlllMi wm mado pri- 
a«Mr, ad bkfliie mn. ooidMimod to d«ath t^ » 
oooacil of war, w»m «x«cuto] on the I&tb uf Juae. 
Pop. S7.W0. 



Tha word wu In AoglD-Saxon norom, in Old High 
Grnma fwrnw or tuctm, la the MoMo-Oothlc of 
ITlpUlufMini, nod ia ao dnubt d«riT«d from tho 
AaASutM cyrron (Old High (>«nnikn quom, 
noawn G«rat*0 ixAm), to turn, ani! liotKi) cun- 
•Mtod with tAnnt, Ths BliniilcHt and mnat priml- 
tivi fonn of the nuara b that in wiich n lnrg« atoiM 
whh n oarity in tno u[fier nuface ■■ naed to oontain 
tha oorn, wbidi bponiided nther than smuid with 
» nanll ttone. Tm omct fotm o( the hand-mill U 
that whlofa !■ ao fraqaentl; nkcntJon«d in the UJble, 
aad ia often dcaodbed tn Jewiah and other andeiit 
writan. It combud of two atooaa (Uia □])]]«; and 
tha BatlMr nllUtono) ctmilar b thair ihaiie, and 
whh tha oppoitaf irfaw oanfnUj cut nnonth. 
Tbe lower ttona vm fa*t«aad Inbo tba f.Tound or 
floor, whila the nppnr wm movablo. and «>u]d b« 
liftad off or tDnmt luund m occorion roquind. 
Fwthar tD^narenantB wore faatcninf n handle of 
wood or trao to the uppn pPhtoney to annUa it to 
b* tnnad nond with gnaUr aaaa; maldntg i^ bolo in 
the tniddlv of tba upper itone to feed th« mlQ. H a» 
to di^HOM with the noca«jtjrof Uftfns thftitOM oSti 
and cottlBf the nnooth mrfnocs not narixonta], hot 
with • downwnrd indinkUou towarde Um dmatattar- 
•ncf^aoaabolattlwtlwrruuoutiQoraeMlIy, Hand- 
iidDs of tUi dMOtiptioD are tued in FnleotiDe to tlu 
[wcnent daT. 

QUB9ALTENAK60. a tvwn in Central Amorioi, 
te tba Maia of Ouatomala, tlS tnilea ir.a.v. of the 
tdWB «i Qontfloala, and c&fJtal of LLe dffi^rtaieut at 
tba naw name^ It ranlia twKt to the capital. It 
ban MovUr and paved itrevta, and bouaoi which are 
well, tmrii Mmwfaat landfally, bnUt; and a larp 
and Iwpoain dmreh, with a riehljr-deoaraled tronl; 
and •mml other Bohatantial adifioea; and an axtao* 
aiva tnda In wheat, caeao, ngar, and woollen and 
ccUoB (abrioL Ito dimate ia remarlcahlT health?. 
Feb about W,0O0. 

QUESNAY, Fkakvoib, a French phjaldan of 
Mraoa eiiibeiiie% b«t dilafly notad u a writer on poU- 
tioal eeoBOBir, wae bon at Montfort-l'Amautjr. hi 
tha department of fieinn-el-Oiee, ia 1^91^ nod died 
at Vonailka in 1774. Hb fathv wae a lanuer, and 
Im aeqalivd the niAiuoti of lill profcaaloD under n 
covstrr Burgeon; afur mUA, going b> the bmIto- 
poU^ bn ptnnad fala rtndiea further thn«. Aft«r 
navtoff {Maeed aa n maater In antger; be tetaUiilied 
bteacU at Mwiba, wfanrt Ua mooea in treatiDg 
voBdi brmvfat bin tmdar tba notioa of.Marabal do 
VoaJBMi who re«aamend*d bin to the Qae«n Mario 
T i Tiinah In 1731 he aecompaided th* Duica de 
TTQerol aa awseoa to Paria. Here ba wna appofaitad 
aoTgMO in ormnarr to tba Idng, and In 1737 waa 
appointed eecretMT to an aeadaniy or eodriy that 
had joa* been aq;nuaed for tiM ImpraTanient of anr- 
gery. In 1714, bnvlag been dUUed l^ npantad 
attaeki ol gmt Iron y arf u t nd ag ■urgienl opantCkoi^ 
be book the denw of .M.D.. and obubied the dtua- 
tioa et pfaysitjan to Uad&me do Fompndour, the 
i ni a to — of I^iia XV., and through bar tnteceat 
Vinmr |>h;ricun to the king. Amid tba intrignaa 
d • UoenboQB eovil he obaervcd a atmplicttjt of 
OHMBcniAd ftffMrent ^tdntarealadneea vLicb funued 



a ftrone contmut with tl>o chantctcn of tbo«» aroosd 
hiu. Toward* the Utter part of hi» Uf« be beouH 
the founder of the politlcnl a*cl of tiw aoononriila. 
He wu the author of v»riana anivical and madienl 
worka; aevvral artielM in the BiM|7WapMe (Pennknk 
Oreina, to.), In whloh be ot^oonda hia aeoDCinical 
«iowa; and tract* ou politica, mclndJDg a treatiee «■ 
tko Phnincratio •yilem (Phjakicmtin, 1768, 8vo>. 

QUESNEL. PjisqtriXR (Pjuicbmii;s), a theologian 
Ukd not^lfft, boTn at Paris In 163(; died n% Amatcr- 
datn, Deoemhrr 2. 1719. He hociuno a member of 
the onW of the Palben of the Oratoir lo 1657, at 
tLat time a groat nunery of Janaenlnik Almnat 
immadlatoljr £• aat iboot tba oompoaition d a Dum- 
ber of devoticoal woria; bat the fint Important work 
pnbliabed hj him waa R^findona inanlM aor te 
noaTena Teatnment, eooalatlBff of soow tbn|^ oa 
■ome of tba moat benntiJol mMJma of the waiiaaH^fc 
Thia word rendered him oeiebnled, but broagnt hint 
under the an^cdon of the dnireb on aooounl of ita 
JanecniatZc tatiSaiMfaa. Thia fueling wu incnwod 
by bn edition of tba worka of Ijta the Grant that Ih 
Mil>li»hed in 1E(7S| and in wltidi lu? indulged la m at 
medoanof aipnadon. In \''.^l h» fctind ft uvla* 
able to quit Parian ud ntirvl fur & time to Orienn. 
In IflSfi be waa TTtltl^ bo aeek aafetj by lanvinf 
Freucb territory altogettirer. Ha went to BraaillL 
wher«AnuaMwaBtlMnraridliig,and haraheappliad 
hbnt^ to the oontinnation of Ua work on tba Now 
Tutament, which was puhtlibed entfra to 16SS--94. 
In Uiie aame leading poUda of Vopnj ware frodjr 
queatioDed. Boaniat and NoidlleB, areliUBbap of 
Pida, ratbar approved of tba book; but tb« Jmdb^ 
cUefly out of ^Ite to the tattor, laboured to pfoosn 
a oondemnatiau of it; and havtnc gftmcd the ear of 
Louie XIV. by hie Comfoaar Lcbdlier, obfadn«d 
tbiuugb bla menu^ tnm Pope Cleineat XL, a tmll 
ennd^uilng 101 of QoMBil'i pcoporitlcan h h«ratienL 
Tbia ball, tba aotocfoua Unlgeutoa {promnlgated at 
Boom Bap taa ba r 8, 1713), not cab atimd up (be 
JanawJafa, but nwoke btttar A ii mw rni nm b tba boaoaa 
of tlie Gallican Church, aa to the recognition or aan- 
recpgnition of it, the ajiprorere taking the naeaa of 
Coaatitutiooiata or AEoeptaata^ aad the oppoana that 
of *rr*""*^ gltoB to then baaaoaa iMy appaalad 
fnMa the pop« and bit boll to a KMxnl oonadL 
Maaatfata QneaDcl bad bean oom p allad b> flea fnun 
Bdgjiun alao (170% and having eaoaped to HelUad 
be naided f or the mat of Ua Hfa at AmatordMn, 
when he founded oevoral Jaaaeniat cburdiea. 

gUBVKIiO-VILLt'.aA.S. I>ov FbxMcuco D^a 
Spufah poi-t and ptoae writvr, waa Wn at Madrid 
in 15»0LaadBtudiedatAkaUdaUeoaMk B«Uaa 
tba nncunb laagn^ea hia ooaiaa of abaStm eairqajaad 
theology, roedidna, and phfloaofdiy, >a bawaa uawQl- 
ing to d«vot« bliaaetf Go any pMeHdonal ptmnlt 
Be comUaM) axeeadvo 't™ 'ig witb maJi wit aad 
great originality. InoooeeqncBOTof adBel,bi«falah 
hi* ■dvemry fell, he fle<l to lUly, wfa«M bia eerrioea 
gabod bkn tba oonSdonce and bfndaklp of tba Chifca 
of Onaa, vioeroy of Kaplan, AAar bavbg vUlad 
Garmany and Fraooa Qu«*«do ntomed to Snala, 
aad oQ aeeoant of Ua ooaneotiona with the doka, 
tban b ^hg™^ be waa arwtaJ and ojufiDn] to hi* 
eauta^ LaTocreda Jnaa, (or tbraa yean (1*I!K>-U). 
After Ua Ubaratiea be traveled IbtM^ Spab to 
radon Ua betJtfa, faspeirad by bla oonfin e m ent, anal 
■fisrwardi Und for aoBM yaaia b wHraMt co hia 
ealato^wban baaooapiad UnaaU b writbg poUtleal 
■atira^ borieaqae poeoa, and pamphleta, whi<b ob- 
tained BO extraordinary degna of mittxtam. The firat 
Bibtrtar, tbe Count of OlTvana, reaolied to attach 
him bo bimaalf, and oflerad him aovtral high pcau 
Irat Qoeredo wooM only aooepi tba olBeaal aacavtaty 
to tbe Idng (18SS>. bi IMl (aooordinff lo oAbma 



1699) he exposed Uneelf to the vnth of Otlvarez, 
by canain^ gnni^ staiDua h« hitd eompowd, dopiHing 
tU inffrringii at the pei^l* Mod the »biiiiai of the 
Donrninuut, t<i fall mtoer the eyei uf thv kiui;, aiA 
fur thia he vu confined till th« fill of the tniDJstry 
in 1648, ia t, dwiROon nf the tny*! ronvcnt of St 
Murk da IicoD. By thia iKctincl imprinoninctit bin 
huiiltlii V'va t'omtiletelj- shattered, and ho di«d ftbout 
two ytnkn after hia rclcur, Soptctnbor 9. 1(!15. His 
worb oTi- vnrioiiN in Hirir r.Iiiu-*i;t(!r. His htimorottn 
productiunii HTo (liitin^niiiiliHl for pUyfuLuem, wit, 
and invention. Hia proee works kk moatly effodona 
of hnmoiir and wtire. His Viaiou (Savfioa) bure 
been tru»Ut«d Into mow KuropeAn Ungaagee (Rag- 
Uah, by L'Eatnnn) t hia Vids del Omn Tkcftllo is ■ 
comic romftntx ca the tort, called hf th« Spaniiirila 
mcarttto. He alito tr»uw)(U«fI Ihn Knrhiridinn r>i 
£pict«tuii Itilni Sjianiah. Hia worka havi; b«ii frt- 
■inentlyrenH nt^d . 

QUiBEkON, li pCTiinaola on tb« wott«ni coaet of 
Fnac«, In the donartment nf Morhihan, cont«ining 
ft market-town of tbc hhuic miuie anti Buveral limnlvbi. 
'I'hr p!«i» nnrai jtii coLabrity to the Arh^fiX of » noftll 
a.nuy of Cliviuuif and ifinigrtfa which tuolc pinco horc 
in 17^0. On the 27th of June In that yeu a body 
of ISOO to 15(hO ^tnign^, uod^r the ciKUiniiuid of tho 
C'oant d'Horrilly, luidod on this oourt and tonk pna> 
B««tion of thw pedinntla, wh«r« they won aftvnrardt 
ioinod by tsvitnd thoound royaliitta And Chonana. 
Thn odvnnoc of tho rcpiiMic*ii f"rcca under Hncbe 
coinpeUed thocn to eonlino Iheniwlvc" to thin eornrr 
of bind, under tb« protection of Fort Peutliiwvro and 
the English nquadron by which tho ^migr^s had boon 
brought ovFT. Jnly IB d'Hc-rriily att"-tii['U«l a iii>rti<% 
in wnltih be fsU. Ou Uio 17ch a rotnti>rreiuFnl of 
im^t^ liuid«d, under command of SombreuU. On 
tliu '^Iit tbu fon vna tnken by the rcpubticuiB, whc 

GnetiMtiNl ln^l thn pnniimiiln; and on the 2Sd Som* 
Buil Humndocwl, wiUi 4000 men, after » br*w 
NBbtnnoe. The yoany Sombrentl (tw«DtT-«[^t 
jwu* old), whoae {t.ther and brother perlahM luder 
the guillotine during thn mvolntion, and ahonb 200 
of w* rcyaliita, wero abut. In 1829 n chapel wna 
ortot«d hero, coQtaining a marble moDumunt, onui- 
ment*d with hrwarislicf* hy Itftrid 'J'j\ngOT», to tho 
motnorv ui tbo iadf^iv who fell on this occaoion. 
titricK (or QinrcH) GRASS. See CoDca- 

OKAa«>. 

QUICK (orQl7iCKBBT)in-:r)r.I'". among gmrfonenV 
denote* all live hmlges, of whaUosTer aorta of plant* 
Umt are compose)!, to distlngi.diih them from dead 
liMsee, but in a ftridor sooac tho term iff restricted 
to taiMa planted with hawthorn. 

QiriCKLIME. Se« LtUK. 

QUICKSILVER. 3-e MmttTHT. 

QUI£TISU, n reli^'ioui moromont of tlu cloeo 
of the HVDnl«cnlb and beginning of the eJfbtecnth 
centariea. Ha name u denred from the Latin yinn, 
reat, bemnae perfect rnet or tranquillity of anul wns 
conaidered hy the ndhertmte nf the movement aa the 
giXMtt end of liie. Thiiee wbo cmbrsiccil Quictintn 
were called Quiftutt, and aomatimee ItrtyehatCt, a 
t«nn derived from the Greek of tbo Bame d^niflca- 
lioD. Tho earemontal and hierarehloal apdrlt of aome 
nonaatto orders, c«pe<cially of the JMuita and Domi- 
nicejia, bad in the ■evcntncntb cvntiiry almiwt «>n> 
verted raltgion amoiijj the rathidiua into a mrrw 
nmbanlcal aerrio*. The rvpctiCi-Lin uf tarm» of prayer 
tram the brevfaty and on the roeary, foating, con- 
teMioQ, frequenl pUgrimagea, inTocationj M thn 
molfasr of (rod and of snlnta, aliiu|[lvliiK> the puTttmae 
of hduliieuoea, and, in a word, the mtnato obecm- 
tion of external fonna, c&me to be viewed m real 
piety. I'ion* niinda,diB|.io«u<l to a mor* eameat devo- 
tEaa. turned with anlonr to tnynticlen^ wUob afforded 



rcfugo and spirjttnl aUnwnt to tb» nam feallBB opnl. 
when all relieiMi aavned to hava beoome petttfied is 
the forma of rllaal ofaterTaneea. The Spiritiial GvUa 
(flulda Spiittnale), a work pnUiNhea at Boma in 
1 675, by Miohael MoUan* a Bpaniafa prieM. auwwed 
thia want With an enthnaiaam wUoh aMO gaiaad 
favour to hia pioua faoeiea HoUlioa apok* cf the trail- 
quiltity of B aoul abeorbed Id the lUtr, whidi, dsd 
to all other tbouglila and ledbffit ^u diatvilnd hj 
DO entward ftrente, had peroepdn et nothts^ b«t tb 
fveaenoe of Ood. In abadienoe to hia fnatrvetieiia 
tba devout bow annght loUly tU« traaquIIUty td aonl, 
and ao oiKNxitiou would hjkve be«D nado (o tb«tB 
but far toe daagctr that the devotioDal OMadaa 
enjoined by the church and the mooMtif erden woold 
app«ar anporfliioiu. Uolinoa waa ebllgod to abjmv 
hb erroHv and tensliiBted hb lit* In daily aeu of 
peDiince In ft Dominican eonv«Bt In BomeL tHr 
died Id 1Q96.) Rut thia violenoe by no maana pr^ 
TODtcd tbo dtfTuaiun of Qulettam. Tba Spiritual 
(inide waa aamriy atndiad, and produced a namb« 
of almHar woAi ta Gennaay and France, wbcre the 
way had alrendy been pren«rod for ita nsceptioa by 
tlie work* of Buurijnion, Tolreta, and tbo FMita. 
Aa early a^ the {ourt«eiitli cenbtry than waa s body 
of monks called Ilctynhiurta, who apent their wbele 
tima in prayer and mBditaLtun. (See HBrrCTUnt.) 
The moat cclrbrutoJ prvmoter of Qolvtinn 1b Aame 
woa a heauUful and rich widow, a faraurlta at tba 
onrtof lioiiia XIV,, Joanna Marift Boovior de la 
Motte Guyon, who, under the name of Madame 
Guyoo, la celebrated aa an uuJaU« corthoafaM of 
more imagination than jadgmmL Her axanpla, bar 
prayimi, her works, replete with nnctiaa, aad At 
ciertiunaof fa»r coufeaaor Idooonbe. gained ber »dlw 
r«uta enough to excita tho attration of tbo ei er p. 
There wore, indeed, itrong reaaona for baliarbif a 
young woman enxf wbo huglaad lunalf tba pne- 
nont woman of the Apooalypae (xii 2), and WDO^ is 
ber own account ef her life, says that Am waa oAaa 
tilled with luch an overflowing of grace tbftt bIm wm 
literally on the pmnt of bunting and th&t it hacama 
necotaary to lueaen bar dotbea, upuo wbicb that fill- 
nesi of graoe was pourvd out apon Iboao who did ber 
this aervIcA Laoomhe WM thrown Into priacn at 
Pari^ and died in conBnemest in 1702; bat M^f™' 
Guyou hereelf, altar aahort bm« ii Oi a DBn t,wmaraatorwd 
to liberty, and had tb« bonoor of batoc aDowad to 
take part in the praynrs of &[adam« da Hafatooo 
at St. Pyr, The cuntroveny tberefuvo eaumad at an 
«nd, when Pdnetoo tbtnigfat he diaoovsrod In Wf*«»- 
Cnyon a kindred spirit and boouna tba adncala ef 
ber and her writinei In his £^>Ueatioa dea tlaxiiBat 
d«a SeOttts aur U Vie intdrwore (1897). TIh mx» 
don of eo ^atiugBiahed a man. wltoae worica oC devo- 
tion had been raeetved in France with iiilhaiianil. 
gre new weight to QutL>tism, sod aa ovftortiuuty to 
■aanet, tho champion of tb« French UmmJmUm ^ to 
Inflict dingniCD on bia envied rival BooRWt Mtaload, 
in HflC, a Papal brief which toDdenmad twaDty- 
tIirT.-e puaitiuiu from Fi^aelon'a book aa ecroBaons; 
but the hnmility with which he submittad, and wUeb 
waa admired vrva in Rome itaelf, deprind bJa iS^ 
roles of the fniit^ of tbelr vktory; and ft was tba 
change in tho apLHt of the times and not Tinlninr 
thim&'h Mndatno fiayoo (who died 1717) nadvwvat 
another abort {ropriaunnient^-thaA s'*daallT hoW 
Quietism In oblivlML It bad oavar farmed aaool: 
but for eome yean it continnMl tn ba the ndijeet ef 
worka of dovoUon and Che peculiar opiuon of a fwrtr 
amonjr the piou& fVom FJneloo's hod^ In whim 
Quictiam la moat oloarly dwcribad^ wa laws that ft 
WM a barmlcM enthodiaan, adMtted only tc ubwb* 
at a fanciful and axsggenlaa turn of thaikb" 
Tmth and falsehood aia atraagriy Ueoded In It; 



I 



I 



QTHLLIMANB— QUINALT. 



411 



I 



r«<iafrc<i pan lore, which, witboat few or ha\te, in<llf- 
brait Id hcKven or hall, ia dirnct^nl «rith ontirt aolF* 
daolal to Ood, nwrel; becnun' ha willit il. The flcab 
ntwt bt RMrtiAMl, »v8r5 worldlj- foeliog' baAlahed, 
■U aeotdaice in mir own mcriU by good irorka 
kbaadooM^ and tbc Kntl b* truisfcmd to * mmIto 
Mate ia wUd> lt« own MtlvHy eeMM ud Oou alone 
wvtfci fa it Tbb aUto. whicA onitM tlui toul asaea- 
Hal^ with God, la tranquillity, or itiMMutnt tntcmsl 
pm«r (tlia pgrowfiwit directiim timwrli Gml), in 
wUcfa nothing b 4l«di«d, nothing nalied fr«m OikI, 
bot^ entinlj nat^vd to him, ilio •nul u cont«Qtcil 
wftB tha par* cant«inpl*tion of hid heinif. lUivIjr 
i> tbaa preeeptn of CJuiolMui can b« put la practii^?, 
bManaa tbey oomport neither with tha want* of 
bmm Baton imw tha donandi ol oar MeUl ficniditton, 
Umj ham narartbalMa frequentlj reappeared in tlie 
m y a UuMu a of later Mota. 'ilia tann haa alao bara 
appUad to tba r«I!j[ioiu doUodb of tfao Indian Brah- 
man, whoaa objact b to attalD a rtat« of bolincw hy 
the daatnietioa of all oorporaal and inttfllcctual actl- 
ritj, and thua to beoome incornonitiHl with iirahnui. 
S«« Mad ama Odtod's Life hy henelf. 

QPIIJ.IMAyE. a tovm in Eaatam Africa, in the 
PwtufUMi tw T J t oi ' j of Moaunluqna, about IS tailua 
aboTo Iha aratb ef a river of tha aama name (tha 
noithan braitdi of tha Zambed), It ooenpiea mi 
uikiabhy nanh; and oonaiata of aoma nibitaDttal 
Wkfc bonc^ and mtinaroiui hnta formed of ncda, and 
thate fc cd with eoana gran. It carriea on a oonaiclar- 
abia taida In irorr, torViiaa-Rhall, rhlnooaroa borne, 
Uppopotannia teatb, wax, tobaoa\ rico. Ae. Pop. 
SSOOl or, tnclnditis the ntrroundicff tliittrioL about 

QUILLOTA, a town in Chili. In tbo provinoe of 
Aooacagoa, lo a beautiful and fertile valley, 23 milea 
awih -aaat of Valparaiao, vhit^ Is aapplied by it with 
IntlM and ngatabl«a. Tb« oopfMr-ainei in tlio 
Hdaltj an r<vvded aa tb« ridiaat la ChUL The 
lowB waa foQiKlecl in 17311, and hai rinee aoflorod 
wTaratr on dilTtrniut occ^ona tratn eaitbijiiakea, par- 
ticolarh' In 1$2<I. Pop. abnat 8000. 

QUltXS. The prindpal uh ci auIDi to atOl for 
eiaUm pmi, although they hare been eo largnlj 
■ap a r aadfd bv utool and otharaietala for thia f^uqic*-. 
Tha beat qntila for pena an theae of tha iKan, biit 
gooaa qalDa an tha meat eomtnonly naed. Ctovr- 
qi^Daanvaad fcrflaa wrlthg and peB-aad-lnk dnw- 
big. In mwfmniag qnllU for being made into peua 
the oaaeMal paooM ia lo deaiuw Uiom liuide and 
ontaldaglaMtjrntatterwithwhiobthay araiiiipna- 
na i ad, aad whieh, if not nrnorad. prerenta the ink 
Iron iowing tn^j. Tha l>atch wan Uia (int tu 
dtworar a laatbod of 4ob« lUa, wbiefa oonaiatod in 
buijlag Iha 4{titU aada of tb* feaUien for a few 
••MOdi b hot dulera or aahan Verjr fine aand at a 
M wpanrtwa of about IfO" Fahr. ta now naed imtead. 
Aftar beiag takan out of the aaad-bath the qnili* an 
Una^y rubbed with a ploce of flannel, wbiob make* 
ibtm whlta aad traaapannt A joIIdw tint It fODif>- 
tiBW glTCB lo quUb b^ diroing them for a ahnrt 
tiDw la (hlDta hjdnwbloric add, and altarward* drj- 
faw thrat tborouchl;. |S«a Po.) Q^lfa^ taataad 
»f MJag naad whw* forMoa, an now ftamaitljr cot 
np to aMka HO-niba. th^ an alao naed lur making 
braAei^ artUkial Boaren^ &atta|j*e botae-halr work, 
and a auabar of other aitlolci^ and the fe«th«r-«idi 
ha*i«<va baan woraa bUo Him tfaauea. 

QXnVTtKQ, a ntalhod of avwliw two olaeaa el 
^Ik, ttatn, or atafl oa each other, with wsol or oat* 
lea batwMD Htna, hy anorUns them all orer b Ibe 
hrmal AiwHrord&mopdwM'k.orln flownta. lie 
MOW B waeaa bo glnn to tha ataff m> woried. 

qiTTMPEB. or VriMfo- Coanmi*, a town in 
Fraooa, apital nf the depaitmenl of naiathr^ 4 mllaa 



aouth-eaat of Br«at, at the cOBfluenca of the Od«t and 
Kir, and at thn hcjul nf thi) ttiliiarf into which tbeM 
unaU ■IreatDB fl»w. It oM)>i>(ii •.4 au nlil sn<t ■ ii«w 
town, the fonner with walU dankcd by towers, but 
very poorly built; and the l»tb-r rontainin^ a num- 
ber of good nnuutionji. Tha prindpal edilioia are a 
fine Guttiio oathedral (bagua b the thlrtoeotb oentiirj, 
and only eompleled witUn the last ftw yean), wiu 
a rirhlyacnlptaied portal becwaon two neaire 
t'>w-«n; tb« runs of a Cordelier ehtmh and dobler; 
thd r<:-liog«, whidi fomatly balongad to the Jeaulte: 
tha prcfocturo, military hotpltal, tfatatre, ftc The 
manufai^liirM are delfl and earthenware^ leather, and 
conla),'e: and at tho harbour, formed by two qnaya 
along tho (Mot, and aoc — ihla ti> reMala of 900 toiML 
a Iat^d trade in carrir^I on in aalt, wlnca, oaal, and 
maiiuiv (wh^-h are iiii{H>rtedl, iuid);raiii,floUr,eartheil- 
warn, and Gah (wlildi an exportndl. Tha Mrdia* 
fiwberr forma aa important oorapation. Pop. 1&,3M. 

QuIN, jAMn, an aralDnit Baptiah actor, born b 
tfOBdoD 111 1098, waa Iho aoo of an Iriih barrialar, 
and waa adncated in Dublin. Hia father had mar* 
ried a luppoacid widow, whoaa buabaad, after a long 
abacDCQ, rcturaeil aad dalmad bw; on wkUh aoeooU 
Quin, who was tho otbprinj' of the ootknaoUoi^ waa 
deemed illegitimate, and npon hia f alher'adealh b 1710 
WM left wiUioat a lortone. Thb lutarrsptlom of hli 
pmspecte pravaatad bim from being adaqnatdy adn- 
cfttod for aprofeMian, and in 1714 he had reconrae 
to the Dublin Mtnge, aoii In a year after K^mred an 
eogagaOMot at I>rury Lan« 'Rwatre. In 1717 be 
qoitlod Dniry Lane for the thcatn b Lboob'a-Ina< 
Pleldf^ where be remained aeventaea yaar^ aad 
erwlually acqulnd celebrity fa diaractan of mve^ 
dlgnifiac^ and anntontioiu tngady, aa fat Catd^ Zanga, 
aiu Ooriolanu* lin Thotnaoa'a tragedy of that nanw), 
and in thoae tj etr«ng, aareaatlc^ oooie bunanr, aj 
FftlitAfl V'.ln.<Do, and Sir JahD Bmtc la 178S ha 
rcmoTod with the aama oonpaay ta Covairt Oardn, 
bnt In 1735 waa fadaoad to J«ta that of BleatwooJ 
at Dmiy Laae, on auch lema aa no adar had pm* 
vioualy raoalved ; aad be ntaloed tbe pevemiaeaoa 
until the appeannee of Garrick b 1741. In 1747 
be was aagaged at Coraat Garden with GanidE: bat 
the new actor obtabad so great a ihara of altentloB 
B> gradually to bdnoo Qnfa to ralin aa a prnfwaional 
actor, although he oooadonaUy paifonned eubsa- 
qoontly for the bcmafit of Us fricaaa. B3s last par 
fonnaaoo wm Faktafl (1753), b which ohararter h« 
t* auppcaed never to have been exoelled. He sur- 
vived his ntrvat aereral year*, which be (peat cUsAy 
at Bath, when hIa ftuid of aneodote and pobtad 
M--Da« made hiia mndi anugbt after. Q^^l^ *!>" *''** 
convivial and too food of Stm bottle^ waa ollen caaraa 
aud •luarrelsome on than oooashns, whU lad to two 
or three hostile sneonatefi^ one of which pro\-ed fstal 
to hia antagonist. He was etberwiae manly, aeoslbli^ 
and geoeroas; and lua dvUvcrance of 'niaauria. 
althmi^ tban imkaowB to him, (ram an amrt by a 
present of £1<M, Is naeh to Us benoor. He had aa 
Impodng neoeno^ an eipi tmin «y% aad a ttody- 
toned and mapathetio voioa. Ba dbd at DaUi on 
tb« Slst o< /aaoaiT, 1764, Sftad aovaaty -three. Ov 
rtdt, onea Us rlral aad aftsrwardi Us Msod, wnto 
the eritaph for lus monamenl b Bath Cathaaal 

QUfNAl.T, PaiLim, tho m>wt dUbguiabad of 
VtmA open writen^ bom at PaHa b 1635; died 
than fa 1488. Befan tba twantMb year of hb aga 
ha hraight out soma pUy^ B»l foraerenl ycaraofin- 
tiniwd to wilta with aoooM (or thi! »l»^. Hia aoc- 
cesi^ bowover, oitly nndared him a mark tor Ui* 
sndn of BoUsan, who attackod him with so naeh 
bftSemeasaatohaTsfabred hlsownfaine. Qidnaall 
tben abaadooad tngady, whah ba felt nut lo be kk 
prorbo*! aod ixatuanUug UmaeU witb LnQy labovnd 



f»r Uw ujKra. In tlui lyrio ilennitment af poctrv 
lie cliaptjiy«d mcb t*l«Dte u to M placwd kbove sJI 
bis compctiton, uid to b« nak*d by the beet juiJgvi 
kinong th« mo«t diitingnlidied men of the tgt of 
Lotdi XIV. Then !■ authiag la the French but- 
fpOMfit man dolicaH tvodar, »od iuget^oiu tbam tb« 
tarn of hit MDgi ud love dialoguct. BoflMn Mid 
the other cnunMn of Qoinftult MlrilmtM tho anoceu 
of Ilia pieoM •olelj' to tbe merit of Lully's music; 
whidi, liaw>r«r, in now f<ir^tt«n, while (Jiiinniilt'ii 
vuM^ U alwa^H nod with (jleunurc His Aruii clu ivud 
hia AljB MS iBMter-piewH In their kind In l«(ll 
(^nault nuuried Uici wMow of a ricli incri'linnt, nnd 
the lurtuue tliAt bsobtuned with bcr, tu^thur with > 
peo^on tlut was granted him & few ytan laUr bj 
tho Idiig and th« nuna he nenvod from Lully f •v 
hu libretto)^ rcudDriKl bin circunutjaiMa wwjr- In 
IH'O he wu iMbnicted Into tba Fresoh Aeademy. 
BaaldoB hu thoaiHcal pi»«!B, he was the author of 
a*r«nd oofAnii-inid pocnu of lTtll'> n^hir. Hia works 
wera {jubtiobi^J in 17^9 And in 1778, in (tro vohimea, 
wilb a life prefixed. AneUItioD, ulUiiwelected worka 
Kppaared in 1S2J. 

(JOINCE ICj/donia rtilDorU), n low twrtnotw tr«c 
belciuglag to the natur*! ardor Ruhaccjb, nainud &ftet 
tha aucimt town of Cyduo, lu L^te, ftviu which 
plac« it wna Miid to bavg bwa bLraducod into tho 
other [>arls of Knroiie; 1-iut it ftppRon U^ (frow wild 
ID Weatom Asia and aome uf tLe Di.>ighU>tiri[j(; part* 
of EiiropB. It Is now cuUlvitti.-il chn>ti|,'|]'»iit Kurrnie 
and iu uumy {lurta gf ibc Ignited Stnti:i for the rbJcq 
of ita fniit, whioh, though bard and AUdLerti when 
pltickcil frocD the trMi,becoio«a«xos]lent when boUed 
and coicn with angar, nr praaaivad in nynip, or matlo 
littcj ninmiiLUde. Qubcea whea uiixed ^^ith other 
(rsit in cxwltory cciiumunlort* A plauant tliLvaur; 
and a wion inB.y l« made fnm thdr juico, mixdi] 
with migiLr iu tliit pnijiortton of oub <]1uu1 to tho 
pound, and f«nneBte<l, Th« Icavcaof tb<(f|iiin«i-trft(! 
an all«nu>te and entire: the Bowenare huici^ wbitr, 
aomatinMawitha Miuhof roi«; and the fruit isaonie- 
what near^bapod, yuliowiah, and colb^ny, iutenially 
taattiaiag flra oaiUlaglaona e«Ua. in mu-Ji of whioh 
tha aaoda ar« arranifed in two aerioa U> tbo niuuber 
of toght and upward*, and oovarad with » mocUagin- 
oua aubaULUCB. Tliui oharKtor of tho noownnu aooda 
U the principal ulrcucoitjuioe Id Jta atructuifl whieb 
dlatitiziiljhfw tho qvituc* from Uie appto and p«ar. 
The nud ouulAina luuuitliio etlior, to wliicb tta pocu- 
Iiur fr»iin.Qon w dim. 

QUINCY, tb« name of two towna and Beren.! 
vlUagee in the I'nUn) iMau-m. — I. A town in Ad&in* 
Oiunty, Illinuia, ij>u the k'ft hunk of the Ikl iuiiwif ipi, 
105 milca dirvct, and 170 by tlie river, north-wuet of 
Sl Louii. It llaa vuriuuit ouuiafacltiring aetahliah- 
raanti^ iaclndiiif tobaocu manofactorii^, found rin*. 
maahin»ahopa, aaw and flour uUUa, and an aitcuaive 
and ta{£dlf iDiraMiDg tmds. Large Diunbera of 
bog* Br« paokBd beni Th« haroo is oae of Uw beat 
ataanhoat landhi];:! Ed the MloaEwIppL Pop. (1 8S0K 
S7,2«8.— 2. A town in Norfolk cuiuity. Maawchnaetli^ 
on Braintr<« or Cjutiiry liny, a branch (if IkMton har- 
bour, about 7 ndlea auuth by ««wt of UiwUia. It hn^ 
varioua maaufacturee : but the moat linporbint ami 
Incrative omploymont U tho working of the t|uitrriua, 
which funiiab the well-known Ijninj^ Kranitn, of 
wUoh Mine of the inwA edifioee In the Uultetl Statoa 
■TO eoostmctod. Tli« fiabwriM ataa are important, 
and a cooidderable niunlier of voaacli are fittod out 
in tho building-yaida. (Jiiiii» numbers aatnn« it* 
nativea Um two prendanta, iloDn Adama and John 
Qt^DOT Adama, father and eon. Pop. 10.570. 

(JUlNOY, JuHMii, an American writer bora at 
Beaton, Febmary 4, 1772; dinl July .1. 18'il. Htr 
waa educated for tiw Law, but proferrod tbe Bph«re of 



poUUim In ISOfi be waa returned to Ccngna fa tha 
intereaUof tba Kedcral party, which doifa; tba wkal* 
of hiacaroor In Congraai^ sitending to 1M3^ waab 
a hopelew minority. After hia retirement froon Coo- 
gitiss he WBB dootod a manbv of tba iauM of fbe 
Wialatnnt of Maanchnaetla, tad eentinaad lo hold 
tUi poalliott tUl I83I, when ba lost Ua ylaoa b ft a 
aeaate> but waa rctarnad to the honae of iDunnti 
tivca, of which ho waa deeted wpnka. Tu TOt, 
howerer, he only retained for on* year. Tna IMt 
to leiS be waa Freridaat ol Harvard CoUeg*. Wt 
pr^cipal worke are Memoir of Joaiah Qabifff, juw^ 
of M aaianhuMtts; History of Harvsrd Unlmrfiy; 
Munidul Uiriury uf tliu Town and City of Boatoo 
during Two Centuriea; life of John Quuicy Adaaw 
QUIKKT, Edqu, a rrenoh pbUooofiber, poet, hi>- 
tnrian, and potitidan, bom at Bourg-oa-B rc ea ^ In O* 
department uf Ain, Feb. 17, 1AD3; died Mavefa XT, 
1S75. Hia oarly etudiea were elaska, naodera ba- 
gnaeoa, Utlor;, and bw; and b oonaeedoo with tbew 
sttioiea he aeema to hare written a aomber d JonBlIa 
work* that were naver piihllnhed. Hia fiisl pnbBiAMl 
work waa a tiandation of HenWa Ideeo aor Pbilo- 
aophie der Gcachlcbte dcr ManaiUiait, to wtdA he 
pTcBteO an iutniductiun (183S). A T«ar or two alM 
lb« publication of thia firit work be went to Gar- 
many to atodyphilolograt the TJtdnratjtd HaiiU- 
ber^, and here ha oompoaed two other wwka *t a 
aemi-phlloaophical natiii-o. In 1SS8 he a oj OMfirf 
a aolentiflc oomniaainn tn the Mureas and afbr hit 
rrturo publiahed I>e U GriHw modenw at da bh 
rapportaavM t'antl<iuitd<I8S0). Daring Ida ataaua 
tlie revolution of July had taken pbee^ aad as hit 
rnCiim ho taatilied hia joy, and expraaaed hia atna^ 
demwxalia viewa b a mnnbar of political bcodmMB. 
At the euno time ha ooatribotea to the Baroa da 
Vvi\x Mimduaaacricaof poemaandaitioteaflf aaOB 
purely literary caat, and all diittngutabed bj tbe 
cxc«il«noe of their atyle (1831-39). Daring ttk 
period ha alao wrote a ramarkaUa poetaoal wolc, 
AhasvJnu^ oeiuiurd by aoma aa doady, attd bj 
othera aa dao dull, in wiiich he PTe f eaa e a to siva Uw 
hirtory of Ibe worid, of God in tiia world, na faaSy 
(d doubb b tbe world. Thia waa finiihad dnfaga 
jouniey be made to Italy in 188S-SS, after tbe death 
of bit father, and waa pnbUabed In tbe bttar 7«ar. 
To the aame period belotig otbar two cfoca, KafmeoB 
(1HS6) and rromi^hte (liSi), b which alao ha gave 
oxpTtMHim to hia democratic Idea& la 1839 be pat^ 
lioLcd iu two volumea, under the title of AlU—yne 
et ItaJtc, a aeloetlaB of hit oontributtona to tiie Bow 
dtaiDciJi Mondea. In thcaameyearhavaaanpefaWd 

timfeiaor of foreign litaratuio at Lyoni^ mere bit 
twturaa, which conCabed the finit akat«b of Ua tnw 
tiao I>u gibia dea nU^ona {184S), attcaetcd big* 
Eiurnhm of faearcra. ^ 18-11, b Bptla odUi fn- 
nuuDM^I republi'L-auiAm, L« received from ViUanaia, 
theo minbter of Louia I'bnimwi, tba ebair «( aoatfawn 
Utoatnro b tba CoU^ da CiMoai Eert^iaeaapart 
with hia two friaada Mkbriet and Mloklewics, bt 
made It hia mttabm to inapire bia audience with Iha 
lova of political and rdigiuua liborty. Ha d«li*er*d 
a oourae of lectvrM oo or father agaiaat tbe JtnUa, 
which were received with atorma of applanae en the 
one aide, aad of di^nnncintion on tba otbar. In IMI 
Ibt bctnraa wvru pul>li*l)ed aoder the title of Lia 
Jeeiiltea,b the same volmna with a wmbir of beCana 
of Michdeta having the aaate drift, aad ttda Tolaxae 
excited aa mnch attcntioo aa the lectarae lliaiiiaaliw 
had done when orally delivered. It pawed through 
nmnsttnia editbna b Prmcb, and waa liiiiilalei 
inloaevaml Ennqieao language*. Tbe lectutM dai> 
*«r«d by him b anbaequeot ooojaea were m a riMOa* 
■train, and b Deoambar, 1816, Ua daw-man «■ 
cjoaod by the g oren im an^ aad waa not itcpoaad ifii 




QUnONB-QinNTANA. 



413 



Urn nwohOkm of 18111. In tti« Mwnta of tkb 
ivtvlatfen Qafaot lutd t«kgn %a fti-tivu t<art. Ho 
mm Mmfatod c»)iti«l ot tba 11th U-gioD cf tha 
nMi"~*' gnftH, Mid •cixn »fter wHeI«otMd a DiinnbcT 
of tb« BAticmal ■Ninroblj hv tb» dqiHtioant of Aln, 
wbUk n-«lMt«d him u tbcir reppMratntWit in the 
l^Uallra tmacMy ia :>fay. 1&1». Alter Iho «I«c- 
Ifae of VaftAtaa m preddent of tho French npuhtic 
QnfaMt waa aiOad w tlu dMraa of Iha 9tb at Janu- 
«T, 1851 Hb «dle, whldi luted tfU after the 
w»al nti oo<rf IS70(iinon1iartfita»dtotAlteadvanta^ 
of the aiiiii««l|' «( the Uth of Anguiit, I.'iSh), •anie< 
whet MBhitlarad hk itiirit, Imt ripennl bla talent^ 
«ad tW auMtOiW imrVa which Le prvMluced diuIo|{ 
tilit pvlod l]kdnd» some of hW best Amonf llwiii 
wn Uw Moond TtdouM of Um It«ToliitioDi d'Ibdia 
awn. the ant rohone of whldi had b««D pnUbhed 
in MIS: Lh EKOkvei <1SM); Mivraix d« Scbto- 
AldefBBda 085*)- Tbwo ui{iear«(t during hia rcalJ- 
MM •• fab fin* pUee of exQo, BniMeU; bob bi I8&a 
IwTiBOTed to Sviturland, whare h« pwhioed Harlta 
TmAimint (IMO); L'UiM<4n d« U c«nj>a^« do 
1815 (186S); L> lUvatutloo (IWi): Ia Civ*tifln 
08TO)i- AA«r hh ntnra to Ptance he vaa elected 
bj the dapartiDMit of tlia Boinn ■ mnnil^r ot Iho 
■■rtimil M M mMy, when ha took hu K«t on tho 
mwtrmut hfk Two nnuritaUe woriu w«re publiabed 
tif hia dnrb; thU last poriod of hia lif«^ L« K^pub- 
Baoa^ ooctdllkwi da la T4g6ainMou da 1a Franoe 
(U73), Mid L'fvmH BovTvan (itlTi). An edltloa of 
Ui fioulete wosln vai bagSB In I8&6. 

gUININE ((VHmNi^V. * white. cryalalHne mb- 
ateneiu iDodorooi^ very UttHr, awl poaaMaad of anrked 
•od-fabrila propwtiai. It k obtalbed Ilttt ibo bark 
a( H*M«1 moe el the order CudraMMtt (which ace; 
H* alM 1U», PuonAJI). (Quinine forma a lai|[« 
Hfics «f well-marked nlb^ the UMt important of 
vUck ■■ the nllihete. SvtJAaU o/ ^ vininit hai the 
f<XBab 3(VB«>i((VH^Ot: It erTaUUixce in acalo 
or In loB* Bedble Beeilai; H !■ wc; Ugbt, ha* a iNttvf- 
tMte^ aad offloreaeea quickly In the nir. Quiaiiia alau 
fcem ■ nriM of darivatiTe prodoota, in which Uh 
hydnftn ia pwtly rafdaoed hy ntrtooa ndidca. Tbo 
pmpoiuaft td qnintao rariee In varkxu dnchona barki 
frniD 0*3 to ahoot 3*3 par cent Ila oorapoeitiuD wh 
fim <Ie>taviBiMd by UeUg b 1888. 

gUlNOA. Sea OHnDIONCH. 

giriNQtTAGEaiMA, nuMof the SuBde; bsfore 
I.rf»t, faeaaaae fiftj daja bifora Baaler. The aama 
WM fermerij iciiea aUn to Pcwleooe^ M fHUInu fifty 
deya after Eaet«^, but in tUsoaMil wia dialin^bfrd 
ee ^imTve^MMMpefi-AWuL 

QUINH Y, tba eenmoo nesw for i-ynanrht tmuU- 
lan4 or bmnlMtM; hrilaHimatioo of the throat The 
■BOW faae gradually bwo compted thn>u,;h tho 
Tradl^ (m Um Grvok and I-atln fynaitchl tn kyn- 
amdj. Tbo oUaM fono in whicit it appear* lu £□«• 
liah ll updmaMef; U then beoonua t^vUzry, and fliulfy 
yVMiV- t^ InflwDinaUott b foaersUy Tuhercd in 
uy a adbf tt MeerinaM In the pert. The Tcn» ii 
kMhjUid aheted fa tone; thenain gradvally beoomea 
WT eafera, atootiBg alniK tat eotiraa of tbo Eoa- 
^e l i b n tube towanb tbo ew. There b often nrall' 
hV of the gbads of the neck, utd for the taoA pact 
len of a»«thc^ thirrt, bendacbe, and a coniderabla 
tkgrae oJ gennal f e*<ar. On looking Iota tlM be^ 
pwt «( the ■Nvtfa, tbe taorik nmb, and otmb tho 
■oftydatoanMoatobemallaaHid vmouIm-. The 



I b geoanll^ foul and funed. In 
llaB b oooaidcrably fanpeded, amd sweDovInif 
b elnwye dlAndt and palntal, eo much M that in 
MOM caaa obI; ftold aUaHato can be taken by tho 
patla4. The iafleninatiaa of tlio Uueat marter. 
miBBto aJlbee la raeolntlan or enppanMbn. Wbaa 
Ifae laMar b Um owe tbe patleat't aufferhiga are 



gBBarsUv •cffraratad, and the diSeall^ o( braathiag 
and awallpwing Incrnued; but wbaa toe natter pi^ 
duced by the enppvratloo ia dbdtamd almaat Inuae- 
•)i>t« relief aoij mi'iil rrooracy feflow. The nt<el 
fm^nsnt cavaa iif thii affectioB fa cold, pradnoail by 
eudiJvn vIdMiiudei of weather, or fuddeo ohaagae of 
tompetntnre, as by pareoni enddeoly ooialog dbI of 
a healed room into » cold night atnu^ilierb Bat h 
a great many eaeea It will be foaod that the paUent 
hee been paedbpoead to the iSaaaea^ owing t« bb 
digeadTeorgana DefaigiBabadatata pcevfaudy; and 
penoniwlM) hare tong been anbfact to thtaoomplaiDt 
on tbe aligbteat evpoaurv to cold have eiiooeeded by 
attention to the state of thiiir lUimach and bowela bi 
kcndng free cf the dbfaw. 

Thie rliifieao fa one diftcnlt to naoacet iiiil<aa the 
catlent beaean at the oomaMBeemant; and at-en then 
in poreone mibject to the oomplaint h will often ma 
Ita coutee ia apite of the moat active treatnunt. In 
mo«t caaee, bowerer, it ptonpt meaenre* are taken 
■D attack may be arreated, or at laaat mitwated. 
Tbo beat tnalmeut for thb piii|icee fa to admtnbter 
a doae of icane otntDg nnrgatlTeh awl to follow thai 
almeat immediately with an eswlle. 0''>*r«Ttf or 
light itininlatjnz linimenta ahoold be applied bo ibe 
ibroat during the eouiae of the dbeaae, ewl flannel 
Aonld ooiHUiitly be worn round the neclc. Garglea 
are aometunea naei^ bat the gargling ia apt to prc^ 
dooa Irritation, and tbe boat local remedy b tbe 
labalaUon of the (team of warm water. Tbe baat 
metiiod of doing thb b to fill a baata or bowl with 
wane water, or Tinegar and water, to place U on tbe 
oeulre of a towel, and to gather du the eada of tbe 
lon-cl round tbo faoc^ and lo keep the moath tmn eo 
ae to alluw tho ibeain to aaoend mto It Tbe bow^ 
•hdiild be kept gently open, and a degree of penjdra* 
tion kept op until tbe dwMae beglm to give way; 
and the diet aheuld be light, oonibtiagof anow-no^ 
sogn, or loelaad bkm^ with pleo^ of £hMBt drfnka. 

(JlIINTAIN, an apparatua need in a mililary 
BporLor eierdte by men on horaebadc, taratatly ptn^ 
Used bi England to try tbe ngfUty of tha oonntij- 
youth. The qnialain wan an upright poet with a 
cT<^-b«r on the top of it, tnniing ninDii on a pimL 
To ona ead of Ibe bar wee aaapeaded a baff of aaai^ 
the otbar «td wai broad ana flat Tha MtaMiiaB 
had to Tide titt at dM flat and with hb bnoe^ aod 
endeavour to >trike ft aiul \mm oa before the b^ of 
auid could vhirl round and atrlko Um on tbe back. 

QUINTAL, BD old Fiwui welgb^ equal to 100 
Uvreo, or 108 Iba. aTofadnpob my SMrtjr. Ibe 
fHMlol md»rifu b 100 kOograounea^ or 220 Um. 
avo bd e p otk 

QUIKTAKA, bLurciL Joai, eoa of tbe mcM 
celebmtad <tf nodara £kiaafah noehk bom at Hadrtd 
in 1772;atudfad at Ocrdoraand Salamanca, aad thea 
touk np hb Ttxidenoe In the collage of ndvocetee. 
Here be filled In enccf ton the offloea of Aacal agent 
tn the junta of trade, theaferleal cmmt; fanernl eeov- 
iMTj to the central junta, actlag eacmtaiT to the 
Idiiv, and aeeretary to tbe departauat tor toe Intw- 
pretadon of tordga toognea. At tha tbne d tlw 
firet raling cortea ha waa elected nMalier of tto 
Bupreoiecoaac junta. Almnat all the pnolanatfaoa 
and maolfcetoee In the wu of lodepasdenoe were 
com|ioaod by Um, and ha abo wrote aa«bi otpalrl- 
otio nocma, eatitlod Odaa a Eipda iJbn (1808). 
He edited Um iatunal Vwfa^da da CkadM^ Llletn. 
ture, y Artee, and foanded the Sanaaario I'atrlnlloo, 
wld^ Ttgoroaaly attadfcad tha aK*BAiDC7 of Bona- 
parte. After the rcBtnealion be wia aoafl ii ed In a 
fortnei^ and fital obtained hb freedom fai 1810, whan 
be waa repleoed la bb fwBMrr aAed% and alee iianaiil 
preaUeat of tbo newly-fotmad geoaral direKoraUp 
of atodba. lo 1833, bowerer.be was Igatn deprftM 



of b]] public eDi[itoymeut, tad Uv«i] retired on lila 
property in the atuatry tul 1S23. whan parminioiL 
VTM s^veti him to mtiim to Madrid. An>nthcr poli- 
lical chungA in 1@33 bitntj{bi ]iUn uucc inure uu tbn 
■t>);o of public liri\ and h« wu jUkEaed raeaiber uf tlie 
cuuiicil ui KtiLt«. After tbo creetion at tbo tirvt 
obftmbar he was eteat«l ih Mtnatar, was r«pettt«dty 
McrvtMjr to tli« cluuubur, Lcc&iue sUo tulor to tlw 
qneaa, snil wtu nuuod prvaidnnt of tb« oownoil of 
rtuOi'W. H« la am: ot tbc K-w writvn of luodvni 
SpAkn who hu e«nied for biniMU & Europ«Aa taina, 
bi* pocticnJ, critical, anii bi>tnric'*l work* licirig bold 
in tfiB kii;h«t citim»ttun, niA only iii Hpoin, bill ktan 
to foralga eauiitri«», Kin lint lyno odu, puUi^bed In 
ITfrS, ud ODtitUd Od» a Mar, Utruitod gcoor&l 
fttteatkifi. Hi* \ioeta» are durtingmshixl by the anlis:- 
Uua uf aultjacts lifrttrii^; din-ctly on tbu uitrmU uf 
bunuuity and ot bin cotmtry, by a pbUoaophlcal t«a- 
dbncy, a patriotio apirit^ adiI « vi^roua niuily atylc 
As a h!«tcirian, ur ratlicr liic>gr«i>bcr, he biu nuKln 
bJniMlf well VnowTj by bbi VldiM d« EspuTtolva 
C«l«brcK, whjck k<-ldc a plac« io iho front isok of 
rlMrfrnl Spjuiiib cirooc Ilia romplcto worki form 
the Dinetceiilb VDlume of the Bibliotecs do aiitor«a 
MpAflotiw (Mikdrid, 1853). 

QUINTESSENCE (from vKfnW nmit'o, tbc Bfth 
•Monoe, by wbIobthftP>thn^irc(uin muont tbc uther), 
in cheaniittry, tbe c(>Dcentfsted rxtnu.-t uf the virtut^ 
of a aubitjuKKi; hnnoc, in g^Donl, tho piirmt, boat, or 
hltthett iitat« uf a qtuJity. 

yUlNTHT, or QutSTBiT (Italian, quinutto), a 
Ti)C4kl or inatniRic-iital «oiii[H>ailiou iu Gre part*, iu 
which eacb purt ia obUgiit«, and perfarsiBd by a 
*\Df^]i> Tolix or ioBtruiuent. 

UUrNTILIA>'US, Maecl's Faqiuk. a BatDAH 
rhcloricinn, hfim at Calngurria (CdJahorm) in Spain, 
prubably Ixrlurcea Sb aud 40 A.D.; died, it u. «up- 
poseid, about 119. At ui early a^ be was brougbt to 
Kume, wLore bo altvnJod the lootura of Doiuitiua 
Afer. Ue aft«rwanda ravkit^d Spain, and on coming 
to Bome a wcoad timv (about A.D. 49) bugsn to prKO- 
tiM aa an iflTOCAtC) and sulMeauentty beoune a 
taaebar of ifaetorici Sumo of Uic moat eminoDt 
Bomaiu wrrrv fain pupilH, and thw ICmpnror Domitiaii 
be rt g we d ou bini tbe cvuaidnr diuuity. I>urii3g the 
niga ot that emperor Quintiluut uroto Us exrolleal 
-vrark. Do lontitulaone Orfttoriik, which contains a 
■yatem of rlietaric in twelve Ixraki; it cihitnta him 
M a practised matter, a mou of Uate and t«leiiti^ and 
a worthy imitator of Cicero, The tenth book, wthUh 
oontaina liin oplniorui nf (ireck and Itoinan writem, in 
particulaH)' uiUtuiiLlu)' mid biiportant far tbo biitury 
of litamtuim, anrl in ohiirunlRrlied no leaa by )tcutl^ 
umi than ao|{«noy of rewuuing. Tbtn on alio a 
conaiderablfl number of rbetorlcal epeeobea (lUftama- 
linnet) attrilmbod to him, but they are not cooaidorod 
geDuiuA A tjaatiM^ D« Orabonbna fixa de C'auai* 
corrupt* Eloquentin, la oft«a pubUihed with hie 
■worki, but i> alao UMibed ta Tadtni and to other 
writers. The beet editdooi of Quistiliaa at* thoac of 
Bumiann (I<eyd<m, 1720, two vole. 4to>, CapperoDier 
(Parii. i;S(s foL). Gesoar (G&tUugeo. ITSU, two Tola. 
4to), Kpolding and Zumpi (I<eipn& I7&S-1829, five 
voW), and Itiinnell (I^psiff, 1854). Tbera ara alaci 
•neolal editloiu of tbe tuuth book, aiuoug which atc 
ttiOM of Bonncll [Ldpdg. Ibil] and KrUger (Lcip- 
dg, llj4]>. 

dVINTUPLK ALLIANCE. See Qoadedtlb 
Alliaki-k. 

QUINTUS CALABER, or BarhH^n. a G»«k 

Clbu tiiui; and pboe of whoac birth tn uncertain. 
kiirnwJM iu« doHvL-d fiijiu tbe dutcovery of hi> 
po«ni iu CaJAbria (iii a t-onvnut at ntrnntny, and his 
nuinttoii of yui> ma u th« place of hia n:aid«WB. He 
probably floiuiahod io tbo fonnh century aji. Uls 



poan,PanJei pomeoa II ranerfl (SappleaMat to Homari, 
U a contiuuatian of tbe Iliad, U vrhicb Homer ia 
indeed imitated, but by no BMBI aqnaHed fat mce 
and aim^ilidty. A mtieal editleo of tUa wocs. by 
lychaen, with rrmu-ks by Heyoe (Straabvr^ 1W7J, 
wna pufaUaliAd at ibu expenae of the liipoDt Soc^. 
Koehl/e editian (Leipzig. 1&&SI U tbe late«, 

tiUINTUS CUlCriUa S*e CttKnua. 

QUIRIS (Frenob, aAitr), twenty-fuor ibeetl of 
pa^Kr. Twenty quiwe mako a rram. 

<^UIRI>rUS, among tha Roniaua, a aarsaaM of 
liooniilna nftrtr be bad boen ralaed to tbe nak d a 
divinity; and at a UtiT period of Mara and Siaat, 
atitnetliuea alao of Auffxiatiu {m Viqpl'a GeonK^ 
iii. 27;. It ia mppoeed to have bees derived fnu 
the Knbine vonl quirit or etorU, which ia laid to kkVB 
aili'iilGeU a tpear, and flgimttvely a eoldier. The 
lenna Quiriaaiia, a feadval in hmMUr of BoaDaloa, 
))cld nnnnally on tbe IMh ilay before tlw KalwiJii U 
Mvch, &c:n>rdtuf( t» the Human waj of ecnaHaf, 
that i^the 17tb of Febrnary; and <ivirimalia, Obe id 
tbo Boven hllla of Rome; aro of the aamt ori^o. Tb* 
hill ia auppooed to have obtained its nam* irooi tka 
fact that a temple waa erected on It dodloalcd ta 

QUIRITES, oriirfnally the inbabitanta of Cot-, 
ont of tbo principAl of the Salune towua, and beam 
tbr Eiame uf tbat portion of tbe Sabiuea vIm at an 
finrly pnriod joined with the BomaiML Alter Ihi* 
union tbe u&me was asntmed alaos wttib that ef 
Homani aa a general appellation of (be two peof^ 
but (juiri(«a euno to be i^pUail to th«in la tfaelr dvil 
oapad^, while Romani wae ^iplicd to tbcm in tbeir 
pooidoal and military oapadty. On thia aeoounl K 
was regarded by the aoldicta aa a peut iudiguity tu 
be addreeant oa QuiillM, and Jnliiu C»ear ia aald on 
one ocoaaiou to iiave quelled a riung matiny amanc 
bia troopa merely by iwiag thia word in the apeecb 
in wbiob he haraugiied them. 

CJUI TAM ACTION8, in EngUab law, popokr 
actions on pc-nid atatutee, partly at the ault of tim 
crown aod portly at tbat of an iaforuKir. Tbey are 
to called fn-m tbe word) * Qni tarn pro domiaA r^tal, 
qiinm pro ae ipoo aeqiutiir' (Who auea botit on ItchaJf 
(if tbt! <(nmo and ou his own babalf). — (Wbartuo* 
Law Lexicon.) 

CjUlT-CLAIM, in Uw, dpMaa a relcaae of asy 
action Ibal one jK-non bee afaiMl another. It ag- 
nifles also a quitting of a cUtu or title to laoda, Ac; 

QUITO^ tha capttal of Eeoador, in araviae do A* 
nurt aide of tha volcano of PIcihiccha, Bft40 feetabet* 
tbp levitl rd the ae«, 170 miiaa V.K.L of GaajBqqjI, a 
little to tbo aontb of the equator. Ita street^ arilb 
oxoeptlon of four which meet in the lam eeatnl 
square, are luurow, uneven, badly paved, and ex- 
tremely dirty; and the bousea^ built for tlte meet part 
with son-dried bricki^ and thatched with tbo leans 
of tbe niffuey or dtawquero (Agave AmtriMma), 
poasesa no arohJtecturaf merit. Tbo akora i anort— l 
public buildiaga and eatsbUduoanta are tba oaUiadra^ 
soveral other drarcbea and ooDvente; the towb-bomi; 
coort-honae, presideiit'e palaaa^ two ooUace^ oaa tif 
tbi^m uocupying part of Uie extesssve aikd ^f***!— »- 
building of tha old Jemut college^ but both aaitt 
very indifTereiit usuagemant; toe Vfiaooptl palat. 
(iTphnji adytum, and bas|rftaL TIm aauaaetUMm esa- 
sibt chiefly of woollen and ootton goods, wiuoh.tho«gb 
coskTse, are aubetantial and In ooanderable demand; 
Isoe, hosiery, and oonfectlooery, tbe last tn Uch 
rapiitv, and of cloaks^ ai a t tosw u s, and a misty cf 
other iirticles made from Ae btat kind of oaoatc^one 
oblalued from tha Sif^oiM tltutiat; and the tiada in 
corn aad other apkraUnral ptodnoa, aeot to Gvaya- 
uml in ezchaage tor in£|Oi Inm, and slael, arU le 
Pom in exchangu lor urine, brandy, oil, and diflenBl 



I 



I 



I 



I 

I 





QUITRKNT— B. 



416 



OMtabi, b *«c]r •st«naiT«^ The Importa tram ftbrox] 
iacfaiil* all kadi of Eorofwui tiamuM and hkrdwwv. 
Befora the ■rriral of the tbwnlAnU in South America 
QmIBO WU the Ckpit^ o( > Kin],'duiii. '>f tba same il&uio, 
whicfa WM oonqiiend br liiiiiyiiii-<.'Ap»c, tb« twelfth 
tiKK«( Pero. It WH taken by tbo SiomiAnU !□ 1531, 
ud Innvponted M » dtjr by ni&rlea V. In I.'ill. 
It rrawiiMN] with Fani till I71S, wli«ii it fcU U> Now 
Gruwd^ In ISIS It becsmo ons nf tha toiiriu of tlio 
Rip«IAo «( CotombU, fto J in 1S31 vi Ecuador. It 
b« npMtodl; mtf«r»d moch from cArtb4u«k£«. Id 
I1h*M 1797 40,000 penvn* iwc citiniatod to b»vc 
peri Awi Pop. Mtinutrd *t about SO.OOOi 

QtnT-KE:vT, ia law, a (ouUl rent pajablo by tbo 
tenant* at mort manon, wheraby the tenant go«« 
t^tdi and (th (nm all otiittr tenioea. Anciently thia 

CjMaal WW «all«d wbttvnnt, becauw It w>« [laii] 
df w coio, and to diatingidat it (rom rent-corn. 
QITOIN (Fttaieh, (win. Ijatin, ruM(M, a wodgel, a 
■conical wurd tnt m vedge; in artillcrv, tb« wtKlye 
Mi ld to eUralA aod deprM* a oaimon or other pleoe 
of csdDaiM*; in prinUng, the wadgaauMd to fix pagve 
«f tna wftUn the chai. In architeotun the t«nn 
fi andiad to auy eit«mal angle, but capedally to the 
anAlay oonraca ol rtoaa projaotiag bafond tho piano 
•imoa of the wall at tha oonwr of a buIMliijj; aod 
■ptillainjdwlgwttd nitis quoins 
w<lU0rr8. agama MOBawbat naembling the Uirow- 
^^ ti tha dacua tmuaig tha andanta; only tba dUctu 
SSiau,whIktbeau(^tbrio|r-ih)4>ed. iSeeDtsccit.) 
TW <iuo<tj an mtaa at motal, uaBaUy iroo, aod an 



pompantirdy thlok at tba lomr tigt ol tfaa rioft 
but ahaip aaougli at tho ontae edsa to itick in a«n 

day whca properly throws. Id aixe tbey vary from 
S to 9^ Lucliea, The game ia |ilayeit oa a ground 
froiD ] S t^ 24 yarda in langtb, at aacb end of which 
a pill called a bob ii fixed in tho ground to aam for a 
mi%rk. The object af tlie ^aine felotbrowtha<|aodta 
frum una end of the ground lo the other ao ae to 
make tbetn atick iii Uia ground aa naar tha hob aa 
poMible. Tlie bwt thot, callad ft ibgar, la wKbd tha 
qnoit aurrouivda tho boh. Tba pkyin are divided 
into aidea, and each player haa two qo^ti, which be 
dcliven in moocaaiuti. The wianlns aida oonnla oua 
for each quoit ibnt ft has nearar ua hob than tba 
nuamrt of tho loaing nido, uid if it haa a ringar it 
count* two f(ir iL I'he rule* na to tha du of tba 
quoit, the diBtauot bfitwaan tlte bolia, and other p«r> 
ticutara, vary with differant duba. 

tJUOUUM. a term oaad in eonnniHian^ of which 
the (iriE(in it the Latin aspnaaioa, aaorton aauM A. B. 
tMt twtmut (ut whom A. R ahaD m oaa^ ilgnifyiag 
<nigisaUy oactam lodividnnl^ moag Hvml pMaona 
inveated with power, wHkont whom the othan coold 
not proceed in the bneiaeea Tbua among the juatioea 
of tba p«wce it waa cwtomary to name MMna Mnlneot 
iitr knowladga and pnulanoe to bo of tba quonnn; 
but all jnatloM are now gaaarally of the qunram. In 
legtalatfve and Mtnitar MaemblJaa a quotum is auch 
a number of mnnboTa aa ia cots]JctMit to traiiaact 
buaineai. 

QUO WARRAXTa Sea Qom'a Beitcft. 



% tbo ei^tMBth letter of tbo EsgUili alpbabd; 
by gmnuarfaBB a Uqoid. {.Se* L.) Thk 
it prononiioed in Yariena laogui^uB, aod in 
1 loataaeea avao in tha aama laagnage^ ia dilfar- 
ant wnyn Tha neat natural moda, at leaat that 
irfaloh k note agnaaUa to tba ear, and moat oomauia 
in the Tufont langnaco^ ii by on eqdration, wldlat 
tha tongoe touchy the roof of the manlh with a 
tnnniana motloD, — tha pfonnnofa n lon of tha EaoUab 
r ak tba baginnlng of a ijllabli, •• rMork Tbh 
tnnaloM ntotkw of the loogiK maltea tb« pnmun- 
dtHon ol r mora dUBoolt than tbat of any othar 
letlar In tha alphabet, oo that it ia the lart wUcb 
ddldna leara; and if the toogua ia too thick, or ia 
ina t l oeely }oJuad to the lower part of the mouth, 
they do Bot laara it at all. ladeod, tba eoiukl of r 
la aatinly wanting ia aoina laapagea, aa in Chiaaea 
md Ifaa Magiiacea el aocM IndiMi triben. <8c« L.] 
AsotlMr pnondalioa of tha latter r Ib prodooed by 
af^ylag Um OTula to tha poatarior |iart of the toDvuo 
Ma OHMfag It to librato di«ttu«tlv. Tbii is what 
OBtHutei tba Nortlmntbtrtand ban-, the $kr sound 
in Annbla, and tha r fraaanrfof the people ctf Pro- 
Tenoa and the ParUana. By tba Engliab tbo lattar 
•■ la dbtlMily prenonnoed only iriiaB It bm^Be ■ wed 
or lyllabla, and not nhraya iml Aft«- toeal TDweb 
tt ia beard when pmaoanoad by tbetn oo^y as a 
aUght lupadimeiit to the eiuianan of tha breath in 
omaeniMoee of tha Up of tbe tu^ue bviue broutjht 
near toe roof ot tha uaimtli, bat not aUowod to touch 
lt| and after tha vowel a In Bueh words aa /tr, /WthiTi 
Ac, and « in eora. It ia icaroely baanl al aU. Ua 
tramulona motiaB (tf tbli lattar piodooei^ la frtiiMlH 
irakUy.aonooBKaintyMtohaprMadiiigarlulawfag 
tba mm, ao that r u tnwpoaed oftaaar than any 




other lottor: (o hunt ia EiiglUL Is bvniUH InGoRDaBi 
Ar«nn and Born (tbe Scotch 6krM) both In dannan 
algidfy a well; ao there are tba Latin eento and cren, 
DTo sod pot; tha UraaJc krainom and inrfcoa, aad 
imunMnUo other nasiw. As tbe pronundataan of r 
difian from that of I only by the trvmakna maCka 
rtf thatoi^fna, tola natitral that eOher of tbeaarfuoU 
nflcn take the plaoa of the other. [For •ocw ranarica 
reapacCitv both leUaea aaa tha latter L.) The fn- 
aondatifla of tba lattar s ia atao mnoh allied to that 
of r, aa the tongaeisinthaBaiiia puutien, oalyallow> 
ing the air to paa* otot the point instead of -ViMMg 
it. Henoe alao tbe frsquenl altematioa of lha« 
two latton; a^ ia Latin, artna, with tha andeot 
ItomaoaaarMi: ant, andcatly oaa; plmrim*, anciently 
ptuiima; komag and Aonot, arioM and Br6ar; kart. In 
Canaan JIaa$; wa^v 1* Oarman war; tba Qannan 
AaAr, in tTtphilsfl JBaoi, and In TnaA roseate fte. 
Tha .^fiolie dlalaet In Grade anbaUtnted r Corn finU 
t, as AoHter lor Aoafaa, kipfor tot hippo^ eiartai lor 
MHVf WL Tba R of tbs Bomans was (ktlvad fron tbe 
P (ric) at tha Graaka. It is tba r«ak of the Pbml- 
cjana and Samaritaoa, formed thos, ^ and ^. — Aa a 
Bocnan nomcral it ngufiad 80^ aeoordiog to the vena, 

(ModnU •Ubit UW R. ai qals BaoMTabM: 

with a dadi over it SO.O'iO. With the Gns^^ p 
with the acrcnt oror it atgnllMd 100; with tha aaine 
al^ under It It was lOO.uOO. Tha Uelmw rea4 (-,) 
dnotad aOO, and (s) 200,000. K on aadant mdale 
dfBUM Aanaaa^reilasv rrfia, rtMittitot, Aoaaa, itp- 
fluaw, Aa; P. K^ ftoputof JtaaMNMt; R. P., nw 
pMiea; R C. rwrn^uat, Ac. R, In Buninnatie 
works, sigaiAss rare, aod tha dillareu degia u i of 
rarity are indica t ad by one, twc^ thiaa, Ac It wm 



416 



BAABE— RABBL 



Um nark of wAdm itmdc at Orl'^iuw, vkI pnrioosly 
of tiioM wbioh prooMdod from thu miat of Villi>- 
nfltivA'U-K-Avl^Don. B aUDda, In modtni timm, for 
rtx or rmt'nn, 

BAABB, or KAgr-QTOB, m town In Huucary, 
MpltAl of tli« county of tb« Muna iiMn«, at the con- 
fliMD'ce of the BMtb &nd ItAbnitx witb tha Uknubc^ 
67 milet w.m.w. Ilmln. It itniKU in % tiniiutiful plain, 
■bnoat miirouudvi] bj tbnw riv>>ra, kuJ k tbrnuvan- 
ta(«oTwl7Bit,u»t«il both for dflfoDca and oomniDrcM]. It 
lllhoKC'if A lUnnM) OMhollo tiinhnp, anil biMUi rpiN- 
oopal palace, diuotwuL aeiulDary, twro luoiixitrriM, a 
rojral acadcmj, ([ymnaiium, and rnvfirnl otbi>r scbnoln. 
Its innnnfnctanM an vooUco dutb, cutlvry. indtidinL; 
■wnr<l.% iinit tobacco; andtbereUaeoiufdeTatilt: tmk-. 
RsAb WM a plao« of aaiii* hnDortancu uinlt-r tbc 
Romani, ami makd a &gan boui in tb* early wan 
of Hnngivy imd thoxo <<t «titl mem modem tfmcB. 
1^ ibc mil at June, 180&, the Archduke Johu of 
Austria and tl)o I'alatina of Hungarj wnr«> <l«f«<iitcH 
b«t« by tb« French uiulor Eugtoo Boauhnnuiii. A 

Cm&ny Boman ooiu baTe been fouud hero. 
(ISRH). 20,981. 

ttAAl'TK, a town in Hallnnil, mi«of thnnmttirit 
Ib tba lirovluDO <jf OverijaM)!, 9 uiiliw Hc;uta■l^a■rt uf 
ZwoUe; with a veokly cattle and annual hone mar- 
koU. r^t'. C7t'S. 

RAA8AY, or Rahav, ho Iiilnnd In Srotljuiti, tme 
of the luucr Holiri'IiM. lu tli« county vf lavemsee, 
between Skyo and tbo miunland, about ISmiloe loD^ 
nortlt U> tiMlb, and "i milco broad at the wideit p*rt. 
It may be ounaideraJ aa ruruiliift a aiuyle ridge uf 
unequal height, in lu noiitlierD or hlshaat end arer- 
a^ag lOQO fuot, culminaUng oa the ut-topped eml- 
amoeof T>uii Can,1A(iDfaei,o& thewmth-eMtcoaet. 
The weat nde of tbo iaiaiid is auffiolenblj nninbereil- 
lug; OB. the wwt It is otbarwiM; here are nnmoraiiii 
acaltered famu, each lurrcunilecl with it« cultivalinl 
tract; and the whole divcrnlind liy tawtiring rock*, 
(otnidable cMi, and patvbee ot brtvitiWMxI On a 
latn dlff, beetUos over tbe >«•» Id tha northern part 
of tlie Mut oo«t, rtandi the pictuTea^ne-lookittf OMtle 
of BrocheL Fneebone of tae fineet qvality aMmde 
In tide Uand, m dose elao UmevUme and • valuable 
Idnd of graait*. 1h» banliis fidklog wai at one time 
carried en hert te a fiTeat extent, particularly In the 
Soond of Itaaeay, the narrow t^tannel which iKparate) 
the iidandlmi^itudiually from Kkva. I'liptl^^'lf ^7^- 

RABAT, a maritiiDa town In Vlarocvo, in the pn>- 
Hkm of Fat, on tb« Atlaoticv at Um month of tbo 
Bmgrebh and eppodts Salle<^ flS mUee ir«Bi of Me- 
qniaea. It ii nuronnded with a wall lUnked by 
ntunerauB toweia, and haa a eitadal and beMerlei. 
Hie etreeti an fleepaad laeoBveotaot, but Ibe ham* 
ReaeraUy bar* a rtepadable ^ipeaniMev aiMlBan»«f 
tb«ai are wall built It baa aone maanfectana 
(caipeti^ weoUeM^ cotUm^ and leather) and eaamAw 
able tnda. Vetmcrly the iUm of tbe plratea ef 
SaDee wvra bdll on ue lUpa '"t™r"ig to ude placn. 
bntiwwibeMljTaadBeomrtnMted here are a Idnd 
of lUfb of Uttle dtangfat wed Id eoaeey paewimaii 
and macriiaodb* aooi Ae dimaraw nu at tbe 
aeutb of tbe Bmapeb. In Noveathtt, 1851, itwaa 
beaabarded by a Fnneh aqnatbva, under Bew 
admiral I>abounlien. I'op. S^OOC^ Hl>vti"g » cno- 
iidenhle w op ettloJi of Jewn 

RABBt a title el haDour »ma^ Ae Hebrew^ 
tetnd faooi a not eif&ifying 'araob' or 'grmA,' 
and baca eenen i cading to the Latto e»^wlw (Eng- 
U*^ BMrin-X bvea tbe root «ej), bavtas (be mbm 
m aa idn g. Joba auraMlj atatee that tbe word mm 
eqafvaleat to ' %m£tr' tOreeb, did^ttmtM, nadend 
ta tbe Aalberiaed Vwwn -akaator:' Join L SS). 
Tbaee et» two otber tonne of Ibe tilie, rtUoml and 
i H i a s tbe fliat of wfakb b IvuBd bi tbe New T«*- 



tameut. AH of tbeae are aba fooad wilbont tbe 
final eyllabte (rah, rMm, raUm), and the • at tbe 
end may either be regarded aa a len^tboabig of Ibe 
worde wltbont any particnlar meaning, or aa tbe 
girouaiulnal alBz liieaiLillJC 'my;* but in any caae tl 
come practically to be aa oeMintial part of tbe titk. 
I'ho form rabhan wail considered the moat boaonr- 
ulilu, and WM uiily ]i|i;>li(.i] to eeveo PWaoBa BahU 
wui also looked upon vi n higher tUla than rabi 1 1 
ia mppMsd that tfab tftle finrt came bito nee >t th* 

KricK! hnmediately preoediag the birth of CbrvL 
the Ume uf our Lord it wm salted geDenlty la 
ell relioioni faieohore, and hence eumetiiDM lo Cwiit 
LimMlt Now tbe term rabbi 1b ap^M to regolwiy 
Avpointod taac^utra of Tabaudle JndalHB. Bbn 
IdSI theee bare in France been iaiaried by tbs AM. 
Thotr ^utioi are not only to give lastrueUon in tb* 
Talmnd, but alao to draw np drade of mairiace and 
(ill orc«, to Maminc butcihon^ and to giro tbeb opiaiai 
ne to what is lognl and what ia ill^al In the Jew- 
ish ritunl. 

The nnme of BAbbiuical langruwe Ii treqncnUy 
f^teu to that form of Hebrew in mieh the Jewfc^ 
RchnUn and thooliwiana of the middle agiea earn- 
poeed thulr wurka Grammaticatly it diSer* but Uttlt 
from the ani-jinit Evbrow, oltboufib Uur« an a few 
AnunaJD fonoR. lint the Tooabulaiy ia amemmAj 
conaideraUT difTorent, eince words bad to ba Eaaad 
tor many objecte ud Ideaa that ai« not irwwttnnwT 
in tha Seriptnrae. To muct thin want the labU- 
nio&l vritcm !n many cams attatJied new 
itifft U) Hcbmr words already in uac^ in otbcr i 
mado now derivatiTse accotdin^; to the' grammatial 
lawa of tbe langua^re frc^in old Hebrew loota^ and 
finally borrowed from tbe Arafaic many woedi thai 
had already aoquired a tedutical wneo ia that lea- 
CUBf^ Vor tbe aorjntntion of thia langiuuie Ihwe 
hai-u b«&n gnuuuuue and lexicons, Ac, |>r«|iarwl by 
(VUarim, Keland, Hardt. Tydwn, Buitorf (Ijeii- 
cim Cboldaioum, TalnudlcDm et BabUnicvaa ; Baeel, 
163»; new edition by FlacbBr,LeipitB.16M,^). sad 
othors, and the labour of tba study fa maid I? the 
richDcn of tbo rubbsaical Uteratiut^ wbidi >■*; be 
learned partlcnlarly from tba worha of Bnr tor^Bar- 
tolpocfua, and WoU: Anionfc tbe nutbon dmtag tte 
moat tionrfahinjr period of tbe middle agea Aba 
Ezra, Pand Eimohi <who died aboot 1S40), bai 
(KpiTcially Kliaa Lertta, are ctlehrated aa gianiua- 
rians^ DaridKimcbiwaaalsotbe aatboref aHehnw 
lexicon, wUob low fHalwrd a diwiffal wp tali aa. 
Of later ecbolMS tbe priac^ are Meyicr HaUeel 
fHaiamab) of Tnledo, bi tbe *-y..^l«.g of Um tbfr- 
teeatb century: Menudiem de Leomioaad Bola a w n 
Herd, whoee laboon supsas tboas of all tba p<«- 
oetSng in extent and tbnm^bBea& Among; the 
coaametitatara oa Um Old Teetament Ute Boitt eoa- 
flDioBiMW at* Aben Bn%a Isainad |Uloki(iBt, bat 
obamre witter? Solemon Jarou, a poor Uasuii^ and 
akootacnn writer (died about 11S0): Joae^ KlmeU 
(flenriibcd about 1160), one of tbe BKak laaraed 
«t tba Jawi, and bis soo David Eimcb^iArmdyBMa- 
tieaed aa a ftaakoiarian, SdaiflKdiktca, Vgxi TVa 
Genoa (before 1870), aod Isaac Artiarijanel (beiwe 
liW). MaiuHMiidM endeaTooml to b)<] tbe fatai^ 
pw Uti c B of tbe bely writbige of bie nation bj yU* 
eaetUeo-lheolocicBl daeoidtkM; anoaf Iba BM7 



ecnDeabalac% he aad BaacbJ ware Ibe aiaal 
gtiijibcd. Tbe above-mentioaed LeH Bee OeNsa 
and li^naa of Mablbaaaen (I9t») wrute bi dsfinei 
ot their fahb. Ia nnct to tbe (TORiafbjr ef ibe 
adddfe agca Moasi Bitacbia of KatisbMi <ba(ste 
IIST), Bcnjanbi of ISsdda (died afaout 1173); mI 
PMbol of AvkwB (about IftSO), readered 
aarrioa W the diaiiititliM of tbiir tvavda. 
aatie^ Bkcwise Mtraxxny, pbilMoyby, < 




I 

I 



I 



I 



daa, wen •tM>1iml wilh ^rcat krbUty by tbo Jews, 
— p pc i tllj in the •dMoU of Uu Anth* in Spain ; but 
u l»w of tbalr KlentiSo worka aiv printed, w« miut 
be ntiffivd with vtfsrrlDg to tile oftDOfflod Mklmo- 
nlda^ vhn, u a ^loMftbcr, mingled tho notioiu 
of ArkiutU Mnl PIaUi with the trahola kod tha 
lUnnd, but wb<\ in hi* mi^ilical wotlu (AfihoriNial, 
sad De RccimiiM Suiitaita). thmrad hiinsaU > fot- 
lovcr d Oslen. 

KABBIT ('^•U cuniaJnit, m goaam of Rodent 
Mamnab, indtMM In tli« family Lcporidw, tA wUdi 
0D«p abo bdloBK tbo Hana (whicfa bd») uu! Calling 
awvi or PUcM (Xotnmy*). Tlua rkmiljr ii dirtin- 
Ibf iti ■torabon HMMBOng twoamnll iticiion 
tippOT JBw in adifitioo to til* two ardliMiT 
, thni tuUnf! foar faubon fa tlio unmr urn 
two En tli« lowrr jaw, whitrt no eanluM en*t in dUser 
fcaw. Tbe prvtnoUn nombn- alx In tti* nppar and 
Ma 1b Um kw*r jkw, and thr niobn tsiit to tb« 
munlnr «I u in web j»w. Ths latter two kinib of 
tsMh wa d«>titiitc of r<K>t^ Mid the claridw or ooU»r> 
boM* tn of nKUnmluj natara. Tbo front foot 
pMMOi fin and tlw falwler faa*« onlj four tova. wliilat 
til* hind bga csewd the Ian Hmba in lineth. Tbo 
tafl b abort %oA tnet, and tbo two orbato or oyv 
onritic* of the ricull oantmnnlcate hj an )>]>ortitTa 
in tbo Mptun or pvtlUon wLick dirlilua them. Tli« 
OMmwa Rabbit diflara from tho Han br ita «n«i^ 
■b ■■■llw rise, hj tbo atinrtor car* of uniform brown 
eaCiNv.iadbjIhoabDrtcrlimba. Tint Hare paw bmh 
a nddor fnr, aad Cloator ralallvo leiKtb of ear*, wUek 
•»■ tipped wilb Uaek. Tlia bind Ic^ in tbo Haro 
wo propum eaaily kmgcr than in tbe Uafabib^ and tlio 
sjaaanlMCcrand mun prominmil Uiau in d« klCcr 
■■imaL llw nbUt'ii fiu- in lu oativa atsto to of a 
wmHf aaifonn brovni colour, whOat (mdor domeati- 
eatf OB Ifaa eebor toay heooBe pure whlta, pars black, 
pfaUU, gray, and otber huea. Tho toxton of tiio 
nv abo daona rnidgr domaa ri eatto a . Tho BabUt 
to a aative of all tcnipcrAto dimatu. but doaa not 
oeear nalire in AnUnlia. It it wiid to bar* bMm 
fltigiBaUy latiwlnc«>d from SpoXn Into the oooabrba 
of Earopo In which It b bow (onad. BabUla Id a 
vOd atata ai« narod in 'warren*,' the beat ritna^ 
doM lor which are aandy uwture* and hUl-alopM. 
Tka bd^boarfaood of mnlpivtra«a appoara to bo 
faveored bv thoae an in niii, a* tboy fvod rMdOyontbe 
barw of thea* plaata, witb the raralt of taapaitliv 
to tbrir fleah a deUrate anona and flaroor. The 
bamnra wfafdi Ibaae fonoa excavate an irragolarly 
diipoawl, aiid eoiBiiMiabato (mlj witfa eaiA other. 
Tmaj are uliwueljr ptvlttt^ md besta to bned wbea 
afaoat riz BkaaUie oU. Tbey may bned dx or aairen 
timca a year, pTodudng fram fiTatoaenoor eight at 
a biitb. Tba partnrieot rabbit ^rpean to excavate 
a apecial bunow or toimel for haraatf la whjoh to 

Eve Urtb to and rftoHtf bar jwogeay, tbe aeat 
ling liaod by down ptudied fran Iter own body. 
VIm yonna ar« halrlaea wfaaa bom, aod have tbor 

2iaolaee4 The vveiopeaabaM the tanlli or twelfth 
y. TbaeeantiwiUlecd cm tender grawi and hwfay^ 
aad MMnetiHtM dn great damai^ to yeuag tnea by 
atrippfng them of tbelr bark~a pfooaM fe wbfdi they 
an BvaUr aaabted by th^ abaiis ehbdUlcev tBdeor 
toML The rabbit aeeaio to bare so liking or aodal 
tHiiag for the nMrlr-alUad han>, and H only rarely 
banwna that a hybrid ptoseny of tbe two ipedei fa 
l<rodiwed In auch oaieB, aith oae or two exoiptloDa, 
Um lather of tbe bybviib baa invariably been a rabUt 
aad tbe molher a bare. Tbaee animab gram eioecd- 
fagly taoM and dcmertkated, and may exUljEt BO amaO 
dqine o< latelUffBwe. Their aaab b f otUddan to be 
aalea bjr the lam boUi of Hoaoa and Heltaumed. 
1%ey are anand by duga, fanvta, or o^Im, or may lie 
•bnL IlabUla are mlnoct to certala dheaaBi, mA 
Tok XL 



as tot — induced pmhably by damp aikd wel — para* 
Rtin worau, aod a kind of madneaa. 

Aa to tbv Inw with regard to rabbit% it b men- 
tioned la the artide Guu I^ws tfaat the nwaor or 
occupier of land may catch aod kill lahbita on hb 
own gmuiad witboat a game certificate, but aJtbuugfa 
thia ri(^ beloi^:* to aa ooeopler, yet be cannot 
tmoAr Ua right to Mtmia, una the laBdlord may 
merro the tight Aitirely by an expreaa aMpulaHon 
in Iba teouil'ii tnue. Id Iralaad no mmeoettiSeato 
U reifuiriHl fvr Bbwtliig r»bUta^ whetber ^ qwrlv 
man riM>ot on hb own groonda (or grutwAi oeanpied 
fay him) or not' kit hi England aod Bootlaad a 
ImoiBO b b) Uia InLUr caee roquinMl. 

XABELAIS, rHA>vc»<S a humnrona and aatlriflBl 
TWnoh writer, aotliM of Gargantim and Paategnul, 
wae bora at dunon, in TouralQe, about H9& lor 
acnordbir to oAhera, but apparmtly Inai probably, 
aboat I4S3). Be wu the ego of oo apotlncary, or 
aconrding ta waane of aa innkeeper. Rabdab, by 
the deeire of U* father, enteeed tbe Fnncbcaa crder 
at Fonlenay-le-Oomta^ in PoAtoo, whan he reoaind 
the prieathood about 1511; bgt the alweBee of all 
true leaml&g boob dbguited hba with thb realdenoe, 
and hb aaUrical humour, aod aome yonthfni is- 
diwT^tioni, no Irai than liii ad-diction tu iirafane 
Ktudioi^ drew ajnu him tbu bau«d of tbe monks. He 
was about to be prooeeded aeaiaat by tbe nperior d 
tba BMBaetaty, when bo mado hb cacapeL Shortly 
after, thnni^ the Inflnenoe of powerftd Mrnde, he 
obtained the permbadoo of Clemeat VU. toenter the 
Benedictine order (about 1523); but In noloBglfaBe 
he (|aitted thb brotberhnnl alto, and began te ba> 
T<!ne tbe oauntry nnder the babit of a aecnUr prbiL 
Hb Uomphen save foond It ^ffleolt to foUow hfaa 
doriag thb neriod of hb life, bat It seem* that In Us 
wanderinga he CBHivated all the adeaeaa of the day, 
and ea pecMnypUlolonr, with •adduHjr.Hid that Lu thin 
he sxUUted powen of MqaMtim aadi •■ few have 
poaaeaaed before or alace. In 15S0 be WM enrolled 
aa bacbrlor in tbe facnltT of mcdidne at Hen^iellbr, 
aod tnwa 11131 he piactlMd aa a phyiloian with auc- 
oea^ atthoagb U was not tfll Uay 22, IfiS?, that ba 
obtained tbe dtyree of doctor. In IKS he went to 
Lyan% where be poUbhed edMeua of H^lMicntea 
and Oalea, remarkable for thafr aeenraey, and the 
ftnt gennol hb Gargaatoa (1512or 1B3S), of wUdi, 
aaoonUng to hb own aeeoont, moc* ooplae wan eold 
la two nuMlha than uf the Bible In nine yean. Thb 
fint ^edmn «f tbe power of Rabelab in the etyle 
that haa readaed Um baoui hai all tbe groteMjua 
huBMur, anOBBliaf avcn to boHboiwiT, and tha 
variety of laarveUoua adveotnrm of fab later worim 
of the Uod. bat waata Uw delicate raOIery, tbe ei» 
talaed alkmj, and pnleaiMl pUloaophy, whlofc meal 
rtadcnta el Babelala And la the sabaoquant rendoaa 
of Uarganta^ and atiU more in the three laat hoohn 
of FaatagnieL The fliet past of Pantagnel a|^ 
peand ondar the aaagnauaatio peeodonym of Aloo- 
Mbaa Naabr. within aytar or ao after tbe fint woHc, 
bearing tbe aame of Goigaataa, and Ha anocea* wae 
audi tsat It poaed tbroosfa three editieae In one 
jMT. Sotm aft^r ha niufcatkm he aceonpaaie^ 
Bobahly aa ptijndcian. Jeaa da Belky, on an om- 
baMBy to BoaocLwlwrc he maaiBed alx'iBMrilia. On 
hb return to Trmw be waat Bral to Parb, aum- 
DXNMd IbcTB, It b nid, by King Frmseb Umaalf ; but 
not long after he b toBBfl agala at Lyon^ when tiw 
Oargaatnav ae we now hare It, flrat lav tbe light fa 
IfiSS. In 1SS0 be was agata at Rene, aad m thb 
oeoaalaa be obtained fnmi the pope ebaolutkia for 
the violation of bto BeBaMle vi>««,aBd iwhrten H 
bold beMfieea. It wm la virtue of thia ;Twh»lnB 
that be waa enabled to enioy a nnbend gi antod to 
hi tlie abbey of Salat Uaar* 



hin by Jean du Bellay ' 



«18 



RABIES— OACINB. 



(Im-Fimm^ It was on hu rotiim from tliii mfooad 
Tuit to Borne tlinl lio tonk Iba dci^rco of doctor at 
MontpeUiw, at the date atnittdy mentlonnl. In tba 
Tear following he in kaown to have been practiiriiiff 
bla art Kb Puriii, but bin Inrif nf mnd'crin^ had not 
jet oeawd, wid Im pW-e vi abodu tar thu iiuit i;itcUl 
or nlm TSVb woa oa unsettled ae. It bad buba darijig 
•BJ erorioDi [uirt of his lift'. In 1648 Iw wu 
probaldy In Paris, wlion tbn third Ixnk of Ua Fui- 
tiigra«l appoarod. In tlila book ihv fuitastln] and 
trivial »d*cncuna that crowd tba prBriaiu obm gm 
pUce in A entot ncMurc to r^uUr di■rH:^tAtioIll^ in 
whii'h alt tliH great mond and ■oclal quatium uf llio 
day Bra diwunnl with the fftlety utd Irony pvcullar 
to lUbdttlB, and with n RNdom thik miMd tJio 
■Bipiclon fif ttiL- cl«i^, wha «tide*rciin«d to luive It 
tnppraned. Tbe ftiwur of Uie Itluj; wkiiu^ tLe 
mo pnbUcfttiDii of Ihia book, but It wds with moro 
difBonltj that a license wvi ohtAJtu^d fnr tho fourth 
boolt bom tlie nort Wiug (Ht-Tiry II.), wbn b^d rue- 
oeeded HVandji (□ 1547. A iuiitUat«J vdiUouof thia 
book appeared «um;ptitiou«Iy at ImKU la 1647. 
Tba Iii;aasc to publlih wim not obtaUied tQl 16(0, 
wad it WM only in ISIiS that a i-omplcfe and aulhGO- 
tio udiliun of tho book n^iifared. On tho Sth of 
Jauuarjr, 15S1 (IRT^O, acctirviic^ hi the inoiti; uf nwk- 
omaa of tho tiioo), BJtbtUia wu iurtallcd In thu cura 
ot Meudon, which ho had had besttiwf^d <>d him hy 
hb former patnni Jean dn BdIIm, MkI hnm he immui 
duwH; to bave reilded duriu)^ tlw nuiniudi^r of bla 
lif«. He t> Mid by good authoritioR to h&vo died at 
Parii, April S. 1653; hut AuUiina le Roy. oni; of thii 
noeoMora of BsbelaU in tho ctire uf MfuiIuii, wid 
l!baf«foni ono wbo may he sujjpoood to tavy bad 
aeoeaa to ducumonii rcforring to Rabelais novr loat, 

SUcM bis AtAtb OS Uto M ].'i£?. Iln l«ft at hia 
uth the whole »f the fifth book uf Piuita^rual in 
manoacript. A mixth book waa intended to be adilod, 
but thcro ia only ft fragment of it indicating its sub- 
jectj Lea Noooadc Panurfnc lUliwlua waji una i>F the 
fliwt to give flwdbllity and finiidj L<i tbe yul rude and 
bank laagtuigv of hia country. BoQ&au odld bim 
Ia Itaiton tn iiuuquf, and Itouwrati, Ic gfniil iivtUrf 
Aanfiiu. He woa a oonadDDtioua Ifacfacr of lili 
people, and It waa bia pleaauN to lustmut tlie chil- 
uieii of bit pariih in mowI t&nik. Uia hcuio wob 
ths nsort of tbe lokraed ; his piirw woa olwiLya open 
to the needy; and bia medical kkill waa eini)luy(;a iu 
tbc nen-iiro of hie pariah. lILi work cannot now be 
Mwily unduntood without & glaaary and oonunoa- 
tarv. Among tbe bott cditiona of the <}br^antu& 
kna Paitt»gruel may bo m«utlot]»d thit of he Du- 
^st, with eagravinga by Picard (AmstnTdam, 1711); 
tba Varioruiu editlou, wbicb la thu iniot vulumiuoiut 
{Paris, 1623-36); a splendid edition, lllustrAted by 
Onstnve Uori, published at I'nria in ISiiS; « one- 
volume edition by Ijoiii* Ban^ <1S64). I'be laal 
mlome of a fine edltJon of tiie complete works vt 
Rnbeljua io five volnmte, with notca, and a glonary 
bj Marty-Laveaui, appruni at Pane in ISIS. 

RABIES, the nunc {(iven to a diaeoae with which 
dogi, hoiseB, cati, wolvea, and otber uUmala u« 
nttaokod. and to which, indeed, all Mimikja &ra said 
to hi.- Usbk'. A bite fTDiQ uiinii rnliid animab iuducsa 
hydrophobia hi man. S<a.- the krtide Hturdphobia, 
wbtn an account of the eymptoisa of rahios in tbe 
dog Is giren. 

RACEKIE, In botauy, a fonn of infloTMoenee in 
which tho primary &2i* ia elongated, and bean flowers 
placed on pedioelaof awu'ly^^ual loni^. lli«infl»- 
t moi a c* Is oaotrip«t&l or indufinitu. A nuianve differs 
ban » apike only in tho flowers being attdkixl, 
toatnnd of being BeHile. ExBB^dsi ocoor in tho 
Qomnt, labuniiim, barbeny, Ac 

RACSBU Maiiiiwu»ua n oalebnted French 



(nv^MSHi^ waa bora at Munf, a Tillsge cf tbe esatob 
of Argovia, In 1831, of Jewiab pMwnla, and fnaa ber 
earlicat yean was acawtemed h* tbe codnnaoa ef 
groat bwdsbipuid peantT. Her pnpm name wai 
Kliaa Felix. Her onginaf occupation waa afngfaf U 
the atrecta of Lyoni with her anter dnpbja, whowtail 
by tba naowi of Sanh. Having attracted the Ktiea 
of M.Obflroi^ director of tbe ConscrratoinofSacnd 
Miudc. abe waa plac«d at finl in hi* own instftatka: 
but Wtieo abe loet her rotce, aa tiie ^i aooa aftv, 
was dnmigh Us reoummendatioD plaeed nadsr tbe 
chkrgt of M. St Aulafaa, a prol sa aar of rfo ct ke. 
At bnt abo iravo few indicationsal Ilia pmnn vfcAcfc 
abe afterwiu^lii ilivplayed; but waa taken n hand 
by tiiv- coK-bratud M. Samsoo. and aftar a otMiaa ct 
instruotino at tbe CaDsapqteiia mada ber ditnt la 
1 837, at the ag« of tdicUan, on the alage of the Oyn- 
aaan. Sbo attracted au spc«ial atte^Joa hera; bat 
ha^-ing been tran^nad in Jiuo of tbe foUtwbic 
yraz to the boards of tha TKAtrc Krani;aii, took tk« 
I'arixi.in pnhlic by lAfmo by the "'"■■"J-** maii^ 
in wliiih ubi) iiij]ii,-nii>iuitvd the HnBii<< ursatiws tt 
Radoe anil Coruuille. Her Tcptrtation was tpasdO; 
oatabliahed an the firet tragic actnaa of ber day; IM 
by 1 HI abo waa in the rcoeipt of a aalary of 60^000 
franve, or fSlOO, with time montk^ leaveof ahaenec. 
Th« eaaw yaaruia vtrilod England for tlie fint lime, 
and was received with titegreateetnUhnslaflm. Ba 
rmown oontinited to incrvaee, and for naqy Jew* 
•be tcignad Bspremo at tba ThUtra Fnafah, maldag 
also exconianB to the provincial bowni cl Ftaaee^ M 
Bt^Igimn, and other plaoea, from whldi abe laapid 
guldflii barveHtn. Latterly she cro«ad the Atlaatie 
to AnH'rio, biit wbra tbm eangbt a aantre cold, 
whichtonninatvd inaoonsuMpClon. After amtfgtbv 
u-itli t>i<:i di» Wu for some tlnu), and viatting dilHmt 
luciUitiLti iu aciu-ch of health, she cxpd[«d at t'aoaet, 
on tbe aboraa nf Prorence^ en the 3d of Jaansry, 
1858. Id recording the history of Racbcl it ia paiufsl 
tn rRtli-ct that m much rigour and splendour of geniu* 
vbould have hevu united with a chaiact«r efaigulari; 
devoid botb of moial prlnciptc and womanly virttxa 
A ^rwping' and avaridoun spirit, reatfained by so 
(•.■L-lingi of bonmw or [inipnety, and eumblbed with 
a Si\TiM and unloiniii; txinrxir. fnriiui & praounBit 
foatnn iu tbe portrait of Madlle. Itachcl. It amn 
bo added alio that ber moral depoftaMOl was Itr 
from cuirect, as waa unequivocaUr aatahlMiad by 
tbo fact of her baing the mother of aevoral nalani 
children. One redwmiair point, Imwotot, oogfat wt 
to be forgotten, and that is the naweariad nttoUlm 
which abe baatowod on ber own wlationi^ aiid ttv 
munUioant noonelty displayed by liar towards her 
pareula and brotbera and sIsborK 

EACmE,a town in tho Uutad States, in lUctae 
connty, Wiscotisin, on tbe wuat «hon of l^lce 
Midufpui, 18 mHea aouth of ICIwankloL }la tiwte 
Is coiuidenble. It baa a fine harbour, oifiabk ef 
admitting tcsboIs dmwttig IS feet of water. It has 
iron-foiuidriia^ manufactum of machineafy md agif 
niltural impleinenls; tanneries, and AooNaSIiL and 
all tbe cairiagee of the Badno and M fa eJ ^ ^ BdB- 
way are mado boro. I>o^ (1880), M.031. 

RACINE, Jkan BAmnc, a^stiqcniabBd Frenrh 
dramiLlirt, bora at La Fertrf-ldllaD n Picaniy (now 
in tbo dopartmont of AJsim), Doearabar 31, l€g9: 
died at J'aria April 21, 1699l Havlnc httm Ut an 
orphui at the age of four, he waa brou^t no fint 
by bis mnU<raaI grandfather, and aft«rwardia by Ua 
Brandmotlur and aunt, bulb rfgid JanaensMk *t 
Port- Royal -dea-Cham pa, the seat of tbe faaicraa aabMl 
of Furt-BoyaL At tbe age of ten be was aent la 
tho College of Beaovaia, and eabwHinaiitly to tba 
Port-Koy^ InsUtntioD, wbeie^ under tba can d 
Lancelot and LemalatfiL be beoaiaa a ^>» > n fifi f ini a ^ 



« 



i 




RACINK-EAC KET3. 




GrccUo. At tki agf d( afaolMBlH I«ft tbc Port- 

Boyttl, m4 hefn ti» Madjr «f pUlMapkv ftt tbo 

OolUg* d'lUrcciurt. WbOQ Ui coane at tbu ooUeire 

WM ooiD|dctad 1m wm taken In hmml b; wq uncfe, 

who liitroduMd hin into tli« worU, and eocoiinieed 

Um to iMd ft Ufo of ffkfetr. I'o thLi p^mt bolnnj 

bterav; affort^ *u ola talleit NympltM de 

wbiefa ko on mw wd in koiiour of lli« ■dug's 

■lul (or wUcn lie mu rEwwdKl by Chape- 

t&m the (UcpenMT of tbe royal hotutty; anJ 

tVb ooiaodia^ nnw Imt, wrilMo for aa »ctr«w wLu 

bad dunoed Uim. AWut ths lamo titn* ko bMatne 

Intiinau with La FudIaIiks. auil thii Inti: 

tmr from **«"**«g to uako hU lito num 

that tbaae «tf bia tvUtaon* who took moat biercat in 

Ilia, aod wba bad dwlined him f w tbe dinrdi, befiaii 

to ba imUwr aaxiooa about hit proepcd a . In the 

hope of waaning him frooi hia dlMipatkm, aod turn- 

la| Ue tfaooKhla ^ain in a nutre anriniM direction, 

tbaj aaat Uui la Kfll to live with an unclv, R. P. 

Seonb a caua-nnlar and Tiearceaeral of tho 

oalbadra] at Vtt* (depaittnanl Gani], wbatc intlu- 

^^JMH H waa expected wnuld mffica for procorins him 

^^BjimAoe. In tliU ImI jiattivalaT they wer« dliap* 

^^^Bled; and at tbo «ad of ibont two ycan^ daring 

iiUata BmIim had baea vainly endeaTonrinj: to ataiiy 

allMla«j, ha lettumed to Pada and the workL In 

U4> ha waa p ro eaatad at court, aud abuut the »ame 

line nade the aeqitalBlaoao of Boileaa and MoU^ 

and begaa to vrtta for tbe stagix. lUt Knt tragwly, 

Iba IMbahl*^ or Lee Mne wiaemli^ eraa Drat pvr- 

lomad by MoHfav'e tivupa at tbe Falak-Royal In 

1044, aa waa alto hii aaxt, Akxandn, fat iWi. Bat 

iha (act of Ua derothiff falmaaU to tbe drama ^ nnt 

difMivo him of all chaooe of ecdedairticaljnefennent, 

for In lCff7 bo reodvad tba pslofy of ufdaay, and 

^^Darwaido tba Uviafi «f SaintHJaoqin de k Fortf 

^^H Saint- NIooIm da Ob%, Tba drana, ho««T«r, 

^^HHfaoad for nany yaara to be bb aole nriwia ooca- 

■ patioa. BiaSnt tWDtTaeodleaKweiiiarelytaatativa 

g ptMM^ centaiaiDg bat few fndioatkiDa of tba autbM'a 

wamalfe Kenioo. Hie fiiat maeler-ptiice wa« Andn^ 

■Wi|(M^ wbkih on it* porfonnaiuw id 1667 protluoed 

ft pnifmni iiapnadoB and exdtcd wall'awrltwl 

■ilmliirinw. It waa broag;fat oiii at the lUtd de 

BearrBf^B^BaeiiMhaviiig in tbe meantime quarrelled 

with MoUkra. Th« aabeoqnent wariu of Kadne ai« 

all naoter-plOGca. Ihe '""—■<'■'- anvoaaMr of 



Awbtanaaao waa a eemcd^ (Badaa'o eoly extant 
eoCMdyX 1x0 riaiikai^ a witty and deli([htful Inl- 
latkn of tbo Wmtpt of ArutotiuiMa. It amarvd 
b tM$, Bad waa at firvt rather coldli' raoatn^bafav 
bdofl d aarad oaly by tbe laii£bt«r of the ktag. Urn 
uit pioccowctfn l{ritMUiicu«tl<l^t»); IWrfnli»(lS70>, 
ootopoood at the minoat uf HenrioUa of England, 
wki bad alee iavitod ComeUle Iv write a draua uo 
tbu nsu nbjact; Baiasol (1678); Jilithridata (I«73|; 
IpUg^la il674),etiiMend bj Voltaira tbo grc**ot 
work that tba FkoBcfa itam baa pawluoad; Phi-OrB 
( I «7r), the iMt piao* tbat Haciao pradiMad expivuly 
fcr tbe tbcativ. Little ii tatowa of tbe prirate life 
fltf Badae during tU» period, abnoat all bia oorre* 
i fn ada rn oa h*v)ag baeo loot or rather burned from a 
too p(oM ra^oct for Ua nmnoty. Hllbarta bo wh 
imunlo^bnt for ainnJ yean (from 1«70} he kept 

Xft f iai aia with an adnaa aacned Cbampnoih^ 
aa pavfarsnanflo <f tbo part of Ilwmkieo Id 
AndroBBoae bo had wiueami with raptaro. In 
KTSbadMalMdaMatiBthanBuibAoadMay. In 
167fi be waa Bomiaated by Colbert a royal coondUor 
and Ireaaiiffir of ^aaoe tar tbe mmmf goTcrmnenl 
<4 Uealiao (Booihouiak), but he never aotwad w 
tbo dntiM of Ua ettoe. Hia wlOfaiwd baa the 
ibaatre te 1877 waa |iait]y dtw to ehagrin at the 
OMW— of a boolile party u( lhc«trical vrilke who oot 



up for b«lnf floe vitm. and applaoded one Pradoi^ ft 
writer now nor«r hrard of, at the expense of Bacina; 
and pMily to fnolingi* nf nmanio for hi* paxL lif«^ 
h«>lt!bteni>d uv doubt by remlidaoeiioee of bia early 
eflucnlJoD, which inilucod hln to think of beuoailag 
a I lartliiiHiiu) nwnk, tVom thia imrpose be waa 
Itimed )i^ tiis friendly who penuaded htm to marrr. 
Soon afuir (I^ITS) be waa amolnted, along wiA 
Boilmio, hiftoriogrqihK to tba kugt whom be areoon- 
paoied In hia campaign to Ftandora. After a mtenca 
uf twelve y«ari Raciae,at thie*aUdUtiuauf Tttadnma 
da MajnteaoB. added two other pivce* to tbe Ibt 
of hia draautic wocfca— Eotbvr (li}3tf) and Atbalie 
(1«»1). tba latter of which ii often apoki^ of by 
VrooBb critice aa the muat perfect of hia worfca. Tbe^ 
wen bo4h iatcsdad for tbe pQplb of Saint-Cyr, tlw 
iortitutloa (oiindod by Srladuna da M*'"**n"^ llie 
death of Uaclne i» aaid to have been baetcned by t^iiei 
at lootng the favour of tho Idi^ )!• waa buried at 
hli mm doiire at Fort- Boyal, at the fwt of tba gra*a 
of uoo cvf bia fomwr maston, M. HamoiL Aftar tba 
dcotmctioo ef tba abbey of Port-Boya] In 170» hh 
reuuiina were ivroorad to Paria, and depeoitad in tba 
cbnrdi of St. CtlflBoa^D-Hont. Aa a dramatlat 
Badno la unudly cooildarad tba nadel of tho claa- 
aical or national tra^o dnuna of tbe French, and in 
•oatimaliim kia puwcra In tlun fueld it U tK-«Boar^ for 
tho critic to take Into account tbe atifl oonvontKoial 
reatnuata to wfaldi that dnana li lubjectad. What 
Radne achiered within theoa llmite la estraardlnaiy. 
It baa been objected to bun thikl he haa iotrudaoM 
ton mnfth W*o into U> fiaeei^ and that bo baa twpra- 
•vutcd bia tragie prinoeaeea and bareioea too auaorp* 
iihl« at the paMioe. To tbia ha wa* led partly by 
bie oarn diMMahion, and partly by tba dMuiMtar of 
Ua ^e. He wrote ao a nenchman and foe Ktoach* 
nan of the old type, In whan hofoiam and gallaaby 
wva oomUaad; and no olbar Fnodi port hu mo> 
c aaded In daptoting with o» mudt truth and laador- 
iiiao.iiii1iii|iiiaolin liiiiiililiiiiiiimitiiHuiiiil liieiiUfiil 
Tsraea, the (eelh^ of a dallcale aad hMi-atladad 
cUvalry, and of a mita and artbtot lovi\ BeJdea Ua 
dtanua IWim ta Uw anthor of a nnmber of rMnglng 
epigraua, aume odea aud bymai^ an ft b dd gni o a t of 
tba hiotaiy of Pott-Royal. lettMib iod aoiM UMorieal 
bacraMBto OD tbe oam^algao of Loota XTV. Aawu 
hia lettera are two wiitten fo reply to a work m 
NIoele of tbe Fott-Royal, «ititUd Loo Vlai>»aali« 
(1M4I. In which iba aotbor faitterlydoDoitDoeB poala 
aad itill more dramatic writata. The tooe ef ihao 
letten ia aeverdy aanMotki and aatonlly caand 
groat diMoa to Ui old Mnda and naataa Oalt) 
oaa of tba lactan wia tmbUabad at tbe tbka ttaj 
wtre writtca BoUeau ba?lng pofaitcd oat to &a«fna 
thiit be waa oaly boldiog np to ridicule a number of 
oxoolleiit men, who wore already peraeoutad bv tba 
JMuit« the latter {wid-natnredry onp|«oia tba 
■eooad letter, iridcb aooordtagty did aot wpaar tU 
aftar hM death. Afts- Ua ratfieBeal Jlrom Iha 
theoAee Bacine traad It oMy to raeookdla Miaaelf 
with hto old trieoda. Amuog the odMooa of lb* 
(Kuvrea po^tlaBH of Badaa oaa of the beat la that 
pnbliabed ot Tari* in three voliuaea betwaea 1S4] 
and 1S<>3. wlifcfa fe regarded as a aiarTel of lype> 
graphy. Aa exoiUeot aditioa of tbe (£aTiaa onoa* 
plilea of Raoiao wai pahUabad b itght vola oMava 
betwoen 160&-7S b Hacbetla'a eiAaettoa of Iba 
Oranda fcrtTaina da la FhuDoe. It ia noeoeded fay 
aa adaurabla eoaay vn Bacbe and hia tune by Patd 
H^nard. Another oarvful eUitiou ia Ihat of Loanm 
(1876, Cva Tab 16d»). 

BACING. 9oa Uonaa-BAcniL 

RACK. SeoToaroaa. 

KACKKTS, or lUogoiii, a game plared b a 
prepared court, open or tleec^ with a naall naid ball 



«so 



KAOKKTS-RACOOK. 



Mill n kind nf biLt The Imt la slmut 2 font in 
laQfftti, Alvout Lwci-tbinla dt whkb fonu tli« «bnft ur 
huidlo, tlio rcmunder botng an ond tnune on which 
b itghUy ttrrrtchod ft net-woric of rat-gut Tho pMt 
of the aliait br which the bnt in held m covera) with 
iMktiMT and ribbed, to vnnble the (ihtyer bo gnmp k 
Snnly. It ia fram ihi* bat art] tho net-work, which 
la its priiwipihl f«iktiim, that the game drrivM its 
nun* (Itali&ii, ratchrlta, tor r((iVA<([<i, lui ul<l diiitin- 
utivo ol rtte, Latin nnd Italian, a net; (Vfuch, 
roTtKlTc). The d<Mo, diat iv, roofod court, i» now 
enumlly preferred for i<la%in(f Ln. It is ui oblonff 
rMtanguiar ■pnoe, aiid wLeu of full ttim«iuaoiM !■ 
80 faet long, 40 foot bmad, and hoa wnlU 40 fMi 
high. The playera atauil r^eiii;; one of the namnr 
wan*, whjob ia oaUcd tho frcnt wall. The opporite 
one i> thn liack irnll, which, at thn bnlght of 14 fiwt 
fnnn the ^runad, ii bn>k«a by a ifallurylntvndwl f(ir 
the vmyin, markar, and Bpcotatora. The walla ue 
eorered with aonae fine Mmont fitted to give a per* 
fecit/ amootb and hani tiirfaoo. In thk coimtrjr 
tiuyy w uRunllj' |i«iiiit«d black, the balli uaed beinj; 
whito. In India it ii th« rovorse. The bert material 
for the floor ia a«phnlt, and the playere wear gnttA' 
nercha ahoea, to prwuil tinm (nan idippin^; and 
fnim injairing th* floor. The lighUnif of the poiirt 
•buGild U.' fr«m above, uid the window* ought Xo be 
protected by a wire nntting. The (lo^r of thu tntiH 
u in the hack wall; it iH lurulu uf tuuiu lianl -nuixl, 
aad ouRht to ft Ibo njimtni; with Rirat ninety, anil 
when ehut W be ))vrfi:<.tl3- ftush n-iih the aurnce of 
the wall The floor is divided in the fint place by 
a line <-AllaI the *bnrt lino drawn tjreadthwan acrcaa 
it at the diiLaaca uf two-fifth* of the length of the 
euiift (in a court of tho diioeukma above stated, 
SS (eet) from tho hack wall, The analler ana thna 
formed, that bounded on one aide hr the hftck wall, 
i* •iibdivirlod into two areua of oiuul hLui by a line 
drawu from the middle of the baolc wall to the thon 
line, parallel to the aide walte. Theeo arc called 
napcctiiTFlr thu rijfht and tho left hand mmor*, the 
former Iwiiii; thiit aa the riuht band of a penun 
ho]fina to the front walL In the area on the alhvr 
aide of the ahnrt line two etill smallor areaa are 
tnarked oS bt the ootneni eontignona to that line 
Tbaae are called the aerHoe apooea, and ore formed 
by drawing n line of 8 foot 6 [nchee in toUGrth from 
iiuih of ^e aide walla parallel to thfl other two walk 
at ft diKtance of 8 feet 6 inohea from the ahort line^ 
and then from the extien^ty <A each of theae llnee 
another llnu parailcl to the aide wall* and extending 
to tho shore line. Two borlsontal litiee are dniwn 
acmw tho fnoit wall, one 2 feet 2 incbee, and the 
other, the ont line, 7 font 9 indiaa above the floor. 
The surface between the floor and tho lower of theae 
lion ia oo^-srad with wood, which aorraa w a aoond- 
Ing-lMard to enable the plaj-cra to know when it ia 
atnick by the hnll. 

'llie gajiui iitttv be played ehher dngle or douhli^ 
that l«, with cither one or two ponona on each 8id& 
It ia dwridcvl by lot which iride gnea in lintt, and 
when there ii only one player on eaelj kiiIi; tbe fint 
player oasumM which etdo of tho ouurt he pleaaaa 
(lunallj the right), while the other itands in the 
Opponte COTTier. llie grot player then begin* to 
fSTM, in doing which \m iiiu«t have one foot in the 
aanice epaee uf Li* nide. ServiDg oju ni ta in atriking 
the bull with tho bat ao aa to tnake it strike the 
front wall aljove tho cut Hue without pr«vioiisIy 
atriltingany other part of tlsit cniirt, nnd thonrebniind 
into the oppoaite ooraer bey"ud tliu «burt liuw. In 
rebonniiiug Ervm tho fnnt wall It dooa bot matk-r 
whether ^e hall ttrikca rithcr of tho aido walla or 
not befoK it lifbta on the flour in the opposite cnmer 
of the court If the ball ia properly eetrad the 



iwoond player mnnt atrike it before it hu mads a 
*««i.iud lioiiud, lo iLat it atrike* the front wall aboa* 
tho b')ard; but in mtamii^ the ball in tUa maaaw 
the pla<>-cr may !f he Ukea first make it rtcJk* Mat 
of tbe'ndo walla. The player to wboin n ball It 
•erved doe« not require to wait till tb« ball hai 
bounded from the floor befor* h« reUiraa It E« 
inay if be likeo return It before it toncbea tha flocr 
Such a atroke ia called a volley. Tbo htH beiof 
tbiia ntcimed by the aecond player, the fint playv 
rvtunu the bull In th« same way, and this gosa on 
DTitil either player falK which may happen b tbea 
waya, either XJy the ball liriii^ made t« bit the 
aotinding- board, or being strode Into the roof er 
gallery, or later than the Rrst bound. If it la tin 
fint pUyor who faila, hii hand ii oot, and it ia tlva 
the turn of tbo aecond player to eeoTtt. If it b the 
aewnd pbiyor, then the firat eooree ooe (an aoa^ aad 
tba first oootitmee to mtvs^ bat gfMt to tbe oppeott 
rido of the ooarC The aerrer'e und la alao pnt eit 
in ■erring if he cauaea the ball bo atrike any otiwr 
part of the cnnrt before H atrike* th* b>imt wall; if 
tho boll atrik« the enrver (er in foar-hnndoJ mdieta 
bia partner) before boondliig twiee: cr U the marsr 
luakee two eucoeaajve faults in th« other flcBdJtffa 
of serving, namnir, that the hall ahoald etrilw afacn 
ihu out line ami relmund so sa to fall in the ifjf^mibt 
coTDLT Iwyond tlie abort line. It U, boweva; opa 
to the eecood player to take m ball imiwopcrlv aerwed 
in tbnao last two particulars if be plMMoe, ana in nss 
of his iaing so the aoe muat be pinjred ooL In 
genemi fiftMn ta gamei 'Whan there aro two playan 
on each aide the acrrcf and the one to wbe«n he 
aemsa stand at the eo m ma n cemept of tlw ga4De or a 
aervlee as in dncle raoketa, and tbo other two pUy«a 
Btand in n lino behind the aurvBr, the Inttct'a partnar 
being next the bade wall The order In wUeh tba 
playera eerve II liiat, one who bdonge to the nda 
that gnlna the lot; then wben be b pat est eee of 
tbo enerny, next the oneiny'a partner, and laMly Oa 
fimtaervec'a partner. Tho reason of tbia arrai^einBrt 
[a that the aide going In first baa the dianee of wott' 
ing fint^tilood. The othnr detuk of the gaine mat 
ho derived from the nilea dmwn vp by tlu dtStfOtt _ 
racket clufaa. (Supplement to toe KwgttA Oyda* H 
pa-Hin.) ^ 

UAOOOX or lUco(K>5 (Pnegon), n gartoa of Cv 
nii.'oroiu Mammalia, fnclndad in tbe I'laatigrada 
(which aee) aoctiuii of the order and in the Uraite 
or U«ar family. The monihaTii nf tlus gvana |s3«Baa 
nx io<ii*on, two taalnea, cicht pcvmolar^ mm bar 
molars In oacb }aw, and the groop ia wtU «m- 
ulificd in tbo OomnioD ItAcooa iPmcpo* lolsr) of 
North America, which derivce its ^xinl^ mnne ti 
Uibrr ('a washer') fttim iu baHt of wuUug Its 

f>roy before eating it^ or of holding the food ia tk 
nm pBwa and iiMkhig it violently baekwnrda and 
forwvds in the waUtr ao as to moiBt«a and antnnte 
It M thoroogUy aa posalbla. In sixo tbe nooco. or 
naopodl, as U ia aometimn termed, averages n fuz, anl 
in outvrard appearand*) anil form sooiewhat rtaetnhlea 
llut anSmsL The genoral body-ookwr b a suety cr 
blB(.'Iu£h-t-ray. and the fur oonsista of a done set el 
undrr Imirn, with Inr^r outer hafn, tbe latter bilag 
marlcrd black and wiiite. The npper part ul tbe bead 
and tho portioD aoraa the eyes ara cohntred daak 
bnwn; and tho fur acroai the knee- jointe pneaoti 
darker cotonra than tbe nat of the body. Tba tail 
ia short and bushy: it is eoloured dark gray, sad 
marked by five or aix hiaek rings. Very rsrdy the 
for of Uiia animal nuty be developed vl a pui* wUu 
colour. Theae anitMli^ alliwn^ typicaUv on- 
Toron^ yet ee«u to feed Imv^ly npon, and indc^ 
to prater, vegetalJe matters. The diet is amaiwRNa 
Iu facti but In its native lUte it app«an tonbrirt 




RADOLIFFE— BAKETZKY. 



«21 



I 



I 

I 



I 



mwa lyflT— cnbi^ tad nuutno uiuiiaIi, uhI, m 
■frwiVr mnarknl, ll b fond of auriulure «&d wfttw. 
Hm (iiMiBiB auu, IToMA-fdr, or * Vubiiv-BMr,' 
la ^^KB to Um ncDott for the muxw nMon m tlutt 
ImSwItil by tb* ifMific name Itttor, Thane ■nlmnli 
■ppHr fa bo aUefly Boetaninl in haUU, uid pan tbo 
dkvlakleeiL TlMyMvnindilyuniad.ftiuliiiny become 
*«rj familiw, hm wbiLit nnilirr dniacaUotUoa ma; 
Mak nleobcJio rtimiilnnUi and Uuuoi* to » btigo 
lillMl Tlw ncDOlW M« gmUjr Buotoil in Nnrth 
Aaerte tnr miiin of dogvt wbicb force llw animal 
to t*k« rang* la k tree, irlMDce it is dulod^ed by 
duubing. Jukd tbe Mibtl«ty mud <:u»niu^ dixpbtjrod 
1^ UmM finhwriTT la tboir BDdc3.i-our* to cecnpe uiTe 
beooQM <iaile proverbial— uurctolvus sodi u * ' alj 
'oooa,' * wlta tm m 'coon,* fauliofttiiic tbaoa quaUtiM, 
■iwliiaiii. ladfad, to tfaoea <Iiapl«jr«d by oar own fox. 
Tba nmw ve bora (renonlly fu Mkr, uul unmber 
twoorUavoKtftUnfa. i:S«« n XXXllL-XXXIV. 

Tba Afoao or Crab-eatlns ItMooa (P. mntW- 
k Eomd fortimr ■outh tm tb* Anu'rican 



wUiwt tbu the Rlmvo tpedM. It b |Ctfn>3raUr 
tacgK Ihu tbo Comaon Kaoooo, llw tw briag 
Aettet, of • gnyfah yellow li&t, tad nurkod with 
■ix black ringa. He for ia blneldah gray, Untcd 
with yeUow eolonr, and of variable lli[bbi aad ibadae 
OMT tbo dlflonal rogioM of the bidy. The ay«a are 
■onaooded bv dark brown jiatdica, which ran into 
Ibe oar^ and tennioate In a patch on Iha tu^ ut 
the baad. AlthouKb daacaniaatod Uie 'C'nb-eaunu' 
Bawoa laud Uioa rcMonbliag Um apamma — whidi 
•M — of that name), thla form doea not appear to 
be B|Mi«iaUy addicted to a emaUeeiu) dietary. In any 
grvater dvgreo at lewt, than the ootntnon ajioola^ 
The Wak or Paudab (AUurttt /ulfftia} of India 
^jwoo Ift npc«Mnal In that ooiuktry tbo Amarican 
fMoou; the Wah btloBiciD^ to the tuM fMoily m 
ibe latter fotms. 

KAIm;LIKFK, A.<»i, a ju/vrVint of MOie refntta- 
tkai, waa bom iu Loiulun tu \7M. Her naidco 
uoie waa WmiL Hlie Bwjrled at the age of twenty- 
Ihree Ur. WiUiatn RadcUffe, a ttcHknt of law, 
aad afl«nnrA editor and )>ro{»ietor of the English 
GhTOOlde Dttwip^ier. Her dni ttovti, pobUabed io 
17e», WM Uu) Caalca of Athlin and UnabayDa, a 
H%UaDd BtoTT. It bad Utile aveeM^ but pwhano 
M BHMsh M k diMrvod. Tba SMUan naaiu», pUD- 
Uibed In 17M^ i> mipcrior to the formar, and the 
Maamaee ol Ibe Fonet (17«1) k a atUt faitber 
■dvBBOc. H« maatoi^pivM k oooddered to be tbo 
MyMttka vi Udolpbo (I'M), whloh wm long T«ry 
p(^alar, tbongh aelaaaa to be eeen nnw-aHlaya. The 
laat of bar aowa pubUi^ed dtBring bcr life wu llw 
IlaKaa {1797). A tntfanuKNU ramanco, Uaatoo da 
BbmdaTlIle, waa etfitvO by T. K. Taltoard bt 1S20, 
fiagatb« with aome poHleal (ilece& Anotb«r work 
eS bare waa a Jourvcy thruueh llolUnd, &c She 
died in Looduo in 1623. Mm. ItaaaUTD'a aorela 
«m at Qoe time Terr popular, and bo a eartain 
«xla>l thnr daavrad it. She had a ootuidarable 
power Ed the dMcr i fti on of totamrj, and know bow 
to atdle and mabuia the corlodty of ber leadm 
'baaowbc op tb* aool with imaginary bomnt and 
nafctag tM wb creep and tbo nerve* tbriU with 
land Mpaa and lean;' Dot her lAantctcn are utterly 
iadfU, tbo world hi wUeh tbey taore k tiM«Hy 
uaiual, and tlw omelnrfos of her rt orfca^ wbon aU 
I wiadroM etfacta are (onnd to ban bent bimighk 
i by akonle and even pvetiU iiM*ai^ k lame and 
I in Ibe higbeol dagreo. 
CLIFFY Joa», • oelebmted nodfaal pne- 
lilfaBtf. bum bt isn) at Wak^eU, b TorUdreL 
Ua waa edooatcd at the Cniveiwty of Oifucd, wbare 
behxikbbdep«ootM.AIn]071 Hating atodlal 



meiikiDe, and talcen the degne of bCB. fat lfi79, be 
began In praotiae at Oifoid, wbve bo co n ti nn ed np 
tia ItfSf. fio then ranom to X/oodon. and aooo 
*»'^'"« Toiy popular In hk profowtoiD. In ISM ha 
becnioe pl^ociaa to the Priiweaa Anne of Drnniark, 
and he wna frequently oonmlted by King William 
after hk aoiMwiun. Tnb imtroonee naturally weuied 
btm a lucrativQ practioD among tha nobility and 
njipcr ranka of aodcty. Ho attended ifueen Harjr 
In ISUl when ahe waa attacked bj tba 8maU-pox,bnl 
waa unable to aave bar. He waa ntW roogb and 
blunt in hk mannara, and Icat the good gnoea of 
Anne, and ako i J King WUUan, by iSi plata-tipeak- 
lii({. Iu 1714, wbeo Une queen wne M-iinl with her 
but Ulnen, he waa aoat for, but nithrr conld not, 
being ill himaeU, or would not come. Tlik gare rke 
to great ill-feeung lowarda him. Hi; di^ Nov. I, 
1714. Dr. Baddflte left £40,000 to tU Unlrerrity 
ot Oicfofd for tbo fotindatlcpa of a pubBe Ubnwy of 
medkal and pbUoaophioal ackaeea. See nest artlokh 

RADCLIFFE LIBRAKV, a library foimded in 
connfKtlon with Oxford l^niTonuty out of (und* daa* 
tfa»ed tor Qk puipooe by Dr. John KadcUffe. It we« 
forntallT opened on tba IStb of AfA, 1749. The 
worka bel«oging to U ar« chktlT In tbo natural 
iwjcncca and medicine. Tboee referrlnc to nabural 
adonue have been tranafertod to the library ot tba 
Bairendty muaeutn. Tbo boildtne atacted bv the 
lUdolifle tniateea for tba reooiicCan of the Dooka 
fonnb^ the library k now uaed aa a raadindTCMD 
in oonneetkn with the Dodletan Xibntiy. It waa 
dadgsod by Oibbi^ and k circular fai facm, and aur- 
mootiled by a high done. The runaioder ot tbe 
f unda beqoeatbed ht Dr. RadoUffo k otOl in tba 
banda of troatee^ wbo gnat a yonrly allowaiioD ot 
£SQO tar Aa aalta ot making additiana to tba aolleo- 
tloa. Botwoeat 17M and 1700 a vataubla body «t 
oriental MSS. waa aoquJr«d by tbe t raat aa of tba 
Ubmry (ram tbe Fraier and Sato ooOaotioiK Anong 
thoMt A W. TOO Schli^el diaoonnd a Sanakitt hO. 
which bedeaoril»la«'unii(ueIn8aaalaklitetatar%' 
bearing tbe date 1409-7, alxtf-Bve year* neriier 
tbmi tiat of the moat Ancient MS. at Taria It 
J"***"'"" almoat all the poem 8rl Bbteanta Parian. 

RADCLIFFB OBSEBVATOll^ an ofaeerra- 
lory at Oiford In ooonection with tiw naiv ei y ty , 
foiMKled bi 1772 by Uie BaddWe truataea. 

BADETZKY, Joatra WsmmuAin. Covirr. an 
Anetrian fidd-maiahal, waa bant ou the 2d Jannary, 
17M, at ^lAnita, in uobemk, joined a Hnagarlan 
icifiineotof borae in 1784, took part In tbe oanpaligna 
of l7d»-89 agafatat tbo Tnrka. and of I7»3-»5 tn tbe 
Low CouDtrieo and on tbe lUiine. In 17H be wee 

and In 17» attained tbe rank of eokaeL in IMO 
ba reoatrod tba eoaaoaad of Ar^doko Albaaf a legi- 
meot ef euinwdan, and bt thk euadiy dtatb^BlriMd 
biraeaU graaUy at tba bollk e( Hobenliaden. On 
the ra cnmm a n o mu eot *d boeUUtleeh after tbo paaoa^ 
bo fmeeeded m UHtJor-gaaefat to Italy, whar^ undar 
Dnvidovii^ bo ponotnad aignal aenieoh Dvlu 
tbe canpaien of 1809 bo bueame IJeuNiianl Aald* 
rnanbal, and Mrred at tbe battle o( Wagrani, vbn*. 
aa ako in tbe Tottaat cl tbo Aoatrian annr, ba dk- 
played diatiagniabed marit After tbo Pwm of 
oonoobrOnn be wim roade cbicf of tbe ouartermaatcf* 
ganorafa atalt, and a member <4 tbe alate emmcA-ef - 
wai^ b iibixh bu aot hlawdf aelivaly to w«rii Is 
iMrgankfog tbe Aoatrian amy. On tba tnat np- 
tuTo of Anatria with Fraaoe be af^ look tbe S*M, 
and waa wounded at tbe baUk ot Leipdg. In 1921 
bo reealTed tbo appoinlaant of "—"—"■**" at tbo 
toctiuaaoC OlmOla. Ibe ooaanoHooa la Italy foUow- 
fag tba naeb nvobitiaa of 1830 oalkd Vim L> that 
oo nntr y, wbo(« a puat part ol bk aabaoquent lUe 




42S 



RADIATA— RADIATION. 



v&BspraL Iq 1836 he via <iT9»te4 fieH-runnluL 

00 tb« brcftkiDK out of thft Insurroction U Milato nn 
tlw tSUi Mifcui, ISIS, lie niwiitatiied n fight for 
WToral days Id tb« sbM^ts, and t!]»u retreated with 
hia forcM to VaronK Ob tno Sardinua ]dng Cbftrics 
Albert tftking the &e\d IlAdebiky nwiimRit thn nlTmi- 
kivo, aalvtmu^ to Mantua, crusnej the Miudo, took 
the lines <■( CurtAtone, uul miirchcK) up tbo rivor. 
Tbo inmfiiduiicv of the fane ut liu actaniwr] com- 
[mI1l><) him ti IilU hib-'k on MahEiu, wbOe Pcflchi^a 
uitl ibc li'.'i(,'bt.* oj Kivoli fell into the biuide cf tbn 
waaaj, whii effected tbmr p*ctiif[c ncmw the Adigo. 
^w dtuatlon of Kadetxky woa for the niomviit 
BXtranely czitkal, but by taking tbo heights of Sona 
Mtd SoiambcAmpa^A, mkI onfitfiying Uom! of Vun- 
toua, lie obeb-uvtvd lint) wIihiilv uf tlii' Snnliiiidiiii 
MTOM tiis Mlndo. Ha waa now lu a ixMLtloii tii 
offer bftttlo^ and gained on thn 'Jfith July the victory 

01 Cnatoua, wbidi oiuQpellt.-d Cbftrlus Albert ta 
retreat to Milan, and then evacuat* tiie vlty aflC'r 
a abort ooateaU Thromh hn onnrsTtic talouta 
lUdetxky thuit pniiemd Lonhoidy to Anntria. An 
wmtstioe hanaff be«n concluded with Sru-tUiiia be 
■usb ocottpiod niniMlf with the h1<H:k»ili> of the 
n*f>lted «lty of Venioe, but faurnKl from it in lllan;1i, 
1349, on the reaumptloa of hoetlUdn with Obarlea 
Albert He aucmblMl hia army at Paria, croned 
the Ticino, find nftnT tho prDlbniniiry niirniuR" at 
Vigevano and Moctatu galiied »u dt-cidud a tiutury 
orer the Piedmontoeo army at Novora, on iSi March, 
that th«ir king abdicatail in fnvmir of hi* non VJctnr 
Bmnianiiel, and » treaty >rii> cuucluded which wrund 
fiir thn proaant the Atwtriiui snpiemaoy la Italy. 
Veniue aurrundcred to Radeltky in Auirust of the 
aune yoit. Hla eocrgi«s wet* then dflvnted Ut con- 
•rlidatfng and atrengthenijig tiia Auitrinii jiuwur in 
North Italy, an undcctakinn in which hi« vigour and 
alillic}' Mt-tv emiiion^y diajJayeil. Hononn B,nd 
rewarda of all Idncla were now ■hovreroit nnrni him. 
lie took lip hli tnaidenoe at Milan, and diod thnv 
on tbo Gib January, ISSS. 

SADIATA, f*no of <^l^^'cr■« four grcwt enb-king- 
dcma or divituuiiH (if th« uidinal Icinjfilain, the utlier 
fniir Itfing- the Articalata (or Annuloeal, MoUuaca, 
and ^'o^t'-■tItnUl. llie Eadi»to animaL^ according to 
Cuvior, cUamcterisedtnobfetbytlHirratiiid or racial 
eymTix'try, iiK-ludcJ all the Prut(ii<ia <vrhii^ atw^ and 
anch forum lu .t/i! now tiirmi^l ( Vidirnt^'rnta (Ujdnf, 
Zoo(>byt(«, 3L«-aui:iuuuu«, Comlji, tic), tut^thur with 
tbo titar-dahoe, Sea-urchins, Sca-cncumbera, Tftpe- 
womu, &0., now inolui1i~il in the aub-kingdotn KlIiui- 
noa DC Anuuluidu. In ntldiLum to theee gitmp* the 
MoUoacAO oIau rolyaoa Iwblch we) was erraDeoualy 
{Deluded by Cnvier in Ua Badiata gnii|i. 

In madHn aoologr, and aa Uie atnictnre or mor- 
pbology of animal fWioa oame to be Iwttcrr uutlcr- 
atond, it waa avm that Ou'laf'a great Badiate group 
miut be divided into levertkl ot&«r dlTixioDa, oinoe 
tha included radiate forma tn roaoy napeda were 
found to b« of Ti;ry diasuuilar lundi^ and such aa 
oonld not nAttindly or wwcaably ba allowwl to 
ftp|>ear related in the syatttm of eloadfieation. Accnrd- 
ingly ttk« Proloioa vn-tt first diiiti&ctly aejHiralcd 
out frmiL tbo Iiorliata to form a ■iilvkibgdnm of 
tbenuelvea. And in due time thn itJ^w of Cudcn- 
tmto •fdnula waa founded by Frey una Lencklutrt 
to ludode thoae fonua which poeecM an imperfectly 
nedalised digeative ayaten^ wbilut the Rcbinoxoa or 
Annulcida rimtlarly ahaDrbed tlie Star-fisb««, their 
■llioa, ftod the Soolodda or Tape-womu, Ac 

The Rchinoooa, perhana, of the three groups into 
which Uiu CuvIhtuui RadlaU have been iliridod pro- 
•Bnt tho tniMt a»Uafact<wy aopeannce wbeu regardwl 
Mwurdiu),' t" morphological jaws and id ntatioB to the 
dear etructaral^Mnitiea of Italodnded forma. Indeod 



by aciiDO natiindifta the grwip EcUnosoa la regatM 
aa a ' refu j^e (or ChR deatltute * in tiiat tlw --'—*- 
included io this anb-kingilon) tixti no dinnified «d 
durimilar. But to thia nbwnation we mlfbt rtfly 
that 'rv'fuj.'oi for the dMtltute' are very owMMn 
and useful Initttotlons in totAofpcai cl awta wtj iio; m 
that if the aoimala inrliidrd in the Kfhinoao* (with 
the exoepUoD of the ulaaa EchinodemMta) are dia- 
■imlUr, tbeu the Bub-tdngdoin baa its me hud vate 
aa bringing together animals widdi woold not t» A 
home in any of the other anb-kiagdona of Ibe animl 
world- And we inl^'ht furthm' naintain tliat tb* 
lilchinoioa ore rebtted by oertaJn eharacten^ wfaddi, 
if not of very |»viniDcat UBd, an yaC set man bde- 
finitit th&D are pMseaed by eome groapa in e«b* mA- 
kiii^di'iua. In any caae, therefore, we af« jnatifiid 
in rccouni^ing the Echinmoa oiUmt ■• m iBtMiwi «f 
ituclf or M a bntnob of Annnloaa until at laaM Mat 
naturalijrt prDpoaee a betby or more reliable Kitea* 
for the clnmficattoD of tb«e« fnrma. 

nADIATION.uDo way io which abody^vsoat 
heat. Hbat may eltlur be lailiated or coadgctwL 
\Vhcn we feel the heat of the ann or the beAt of a fin 
WD are nude Mndble of radiant heat The anaa^ 
tioDii produced when we take hold of a laot poker er 
a froaty pump handle are due to the onndncticB vt 
heat. In U<]uida and gaece heat i> eidd to bo eanitd 
from one port of the Ui^uid or n» to another by 
uouvM-tian, but convection la, when properly euo- 
ridunid, nmply condnctim. 

Thi- ■■lii'nriRirnA of nulinnt bent arc iilenticftl wilb 
thist- ul lii{lit, and tbe laine bypotbeaia aa la anjpn 
and mode of propagation will aerv* (or both Hgbt 
and boat. (Sod t'KOCL&ionr Thbori.') la tbe 
aolar apeelmm we find that the violet portioB haa a 
very amoll heating value, and that the beating power 
Ik tnnat int«nae aome distance below tlw red, wfaaie 
the siH-clmm is InrUblfi. If ve omuMiT lk« sfliMli 
of o jiEtii^il of re}"* a* It oomea tram tlia aoa, tbay 
urv n-nultaiit elTeota of a gnat number of acta of 
vibraiiuna in the aupp^eed elber, whidt avtai at vib*- 
tiona do nnt naturally interfere with rme am^Ottt, 
and each 1(4 may be Li>uceived of aa actantt indepep- 
dently of all the others. The velocity of appraedl 
bring tbe boiikl and tbo number of vibntuoa par 
secmd belne mflTerent, tbe wavu-tuvths will he 
difft.-Knt, and the dilTi^rcnt physlcad effeeta an dee 
■nloly to difipronnva of wavc-lvngth of tbe several 
•et4 of raya 

When a pendl of the mn's rays CniTeieM a glaa 
prinn. entering tho gloas from air, the sets el aya 
ore mote Iwnt towarda the perpeoilienlar to tb* Mr- 
face of the prism as tbeir wave-lenutli is smaDv; 
and tbe ■ams will be true when the prlan is «>ade 
ii other snfastaarm, *Ricb aa rodfeidt, wbidi ate 
deiiner than air, an tl^ we tuay call rays of sbonsr 
wave-lougth raya of greater relnaglbllity, and nyt 
of lunger ware-iengtb wa,j% of um reEnBgihiUty. 
This differenee of bending enables na bj naana <i 
prianu of diOenat materials to aepanto a peacil of 
rays Into tta oompaiHat seta, aad «• aui esamlBs 
these sflpafatBly wboi they an spread oat into what 
la called a apectratn. 

If a pbotogmphle plabs be exposed tn tbe solar 
apectnun we obtain a pictare of the ehatnfcal sAecM 
on salts of rflrer, far the plats^ on htiag devebiped, 
will have sUver deported meet lUckly wbeav Iba 
chemiral artion wan gieataat. Our eye eaa Jui||ie tt 
the (Mut of the vpfctnun whidi b bngliteal, wu hf 
noonaof a linear tbemo-BultlpUer we eaa lay dne* 
a currv exhibituig the beat intenal^ in moving fnnn 
one Bud of tbo upectrura to the otbsT. It wfll bs 
teun tlial the uiitximom of chemical nctann h pre- 
ducod by aets of rays which vlfaMta mora onicUy 
than those which give the max&Dum of Ugnt, ai 



RADIATION, 



423 



IfaMa tfilD bkvt m tLatlat wKve-lflDgtli tbftn tho eeti 
of n^ wUeh h»T« the grt«tMt bM^ing «Boct. For 
WMnma lo bt fiven bdow, io order to gel aectmte 
naiilu la Um ebor« eiperimeot the nuUrlal at 
vUA the priam u oomposod sbtnild be diffcreat 
<AflD we eiuniiM) for light or diemiokJ eoticm from 
Ifaet ct the prim whkh in ohhI wlien we esMiUQe 
for heftt. IC il fouid that Id order Co Uy tbe dtnple 
mt» (4 tmy9 berida one uiother, ead with m little 
orcrbwfaf u poalble, the beam of Ilgfat ihoold 
eoae Dim r bmtdw altt, and tbe parity 01 mir q>ec- 
tnim wiQ deneMl on the ttiinnnoi and [lerfoctioQ of 
the beuB of li{:hc iiicEdent an tho prUiu. Sue Srzc- 

No nbateaoe b perfocUv tUatfaormiCi that K 
eeecy Wibetaiiee throogb whl^ih beat la niUaled 
•Imrai MBu ol the mL When e aliDiile Ht of 
tajK that b a iet <rf raye havisff ell the aatne wkto- 
Ingtl^ ia rmtUated tfarooKti a ntMiutn, if we mppoee 
the amliuin epUt Into tbia equal filnu the fraottoo 
ef the total quantity of beat entstltig any film which 
la abeorbed (^ that film fa oonatant tT all the filmn, 
but differait ■nbalaDco have a diflerenm of chuicit 
Be to the nim of abaontion for rayi at diflerant r«- 
fnuisiUlity. Some vibtationi in a mind been will 
be ueorbed at once, and the rabt of abeorplioQ of 
the refaalhder may be bo liuw Umt after the bamn 
baa peMMl thrmiEti a thin plate '4 the eafaetatice, 
paariag ft through addidonal thiefcaeNea will not 
■ntwiably affect It. 'ile boain la this eaao la aald 
to tkave been lifted by the firvt plate. Ifry air ab- 
■erfaa rery (nw of the aan's rey*, out the 
vxperfawatii ut Dr. TyndaD on moiat ^ 
afamr that a damp atmoaphan baa a 
powet&l tbflticncc nn the beatins oHeeta 
ol the aim. The brat of tbe ran baa been 
aifled ill pnaaim tbiongfatbe atow^aie, 
«ik1 when it nndin na inMan lo [mm 
thiai^ air wtthoat any loMi loaaying 
td a body that It i* nun or l«« diattwi^ 
ink we aboBld i^wdfy the aouroe of heal 
with which wo bAVe eJipwiaMatod. Com- 
mon glaaa allowa moat of tbe min'a heat 
to pnaa freely, bat It will Intenept aoit 
of the haat bom ft ftra. Inlbaeanaofft 
man-haoM the tim'e rays paM ftcal; 
woogh tbe jriaai^ and are coowrted to 
ntyetSliHrMraiicIUUtyagiJiiattbofioor 
wnllit ftcq nod the glaaa trill not penult 
Ihia beat to be rafaled tbroogh It, ao 
that the imliie of the bot-liuuMi !■ main- 
taiiMd et > lil|^ temperature. Vi'bon a 
budy iataroepto ndiut beat it becu:ti<-< 
hantad, and these Tlhratloni whkh It ^l 
eertn an the nbtatlona which it will |> • ■ 
duni when radieUitf aa a beatnl bwly. 
Thl« in tbe (nae i>f Il0it la tba fouudatlon 
ol ftll apaetnJ aualyaia. By meana of the Tibntkna 
ftbaorbcd or proHiKVil by the ililterctit chonioal ele- 
nenla tfaaw eUnwcU are detected in their ooaapoundi. 
Bodlea which abeocb all or aaftthr all tha baU vtbm- 
tiena Inm a given aouroa are aau to be adlatbamld 
to tlut Uml of beat 

It haa bithMtw been Imptaaible to determloe tbe 
vekdty of ianUbb boat mys, but thoaa n ja whkli 
gita both li^ and beat effect* hare a nlodty of 
aknt 190,000 mika per amond, and It la all bol 
evtaln timt thfa la alao the velodiy of afaecum 
baaL 

Whan h«at ia radlHod throttgh a medhim wfakb 
doa nol afcaorb il, tbe fnteii^ty at an* point ia in- 
varaaly pmoctioBal to the aqoare of tne dktaan of 
that potart frnn the heated body. 

All bodiM fxtiala beat eoatfanuoaly, and al Ibe 
aatna time aheueb beat wfafeb ia being ra dia t ed bon 



surroDndiag bodies, k> that there la a oonatant tea- 
deooy to arrive at equality of temperature. Nowtoa'a 
law of cooling atatea that llU waU at kiAitA a l<ad]f 
lata heat it proportional to tht difertru:t bttmtn iht 
ttmptratvrt af Ut tttrfiut and that of tSt indanre. 
It ia found, however, that thi« law ia not oiactly 
followed, atul tbe eiperimcnta of M>I. DnluR): end 
Petit on tho velocity of cooling of a tlLcrmoaiL't«r io 
vaouo abow that for great variations of temperaiura 
tbe law ia not nMrly tniP. Thvy fmind that when 
the body waa 20(1' C. to excan (^ the Indomre tbe 
ratn of ooollttg wm 7'40" C^ pee ndoota, but at 100* 
C. tho rate waa 2'30* C. per mfamte^ and not 370* 
C, aa Newton'fl law wonid aappoae It to be. 

Ncwton'a law u a uaefnl approrimatJon wlien the 
axnaa of tempcratare do«a not amaad a few da gi am 

Tbo tbeoiy wUdi aunoaai a ennataiil Intenuitt* 
of beat among bodiea By ntBatlon waa nailed by 
Pvevoet, ita mittinr, like Huorg tf nnnaUt eyiwWrJiwa 
of ttn^rraturt. AcmnUng lo this tlwcf? a body 
which remaiaa at OLinatant tempcratan Just tadlatea 
ta miic-h brat to nimintiding bodiea aa it reoeirea 
(rom thoe IndioL A body riaea la tenperatura 
wlien it e^jKorlw tuonr than It radlataiu and It falb fai 
t^mporaturu wfaon it ladiatee man than II abnoffak 
Thii inihJMt haa been very completely inreatfgatad 
bv Prufu^r Balfour 8Uiwiui ajid utheri, and vnrr 
important rcenlta luve been obtained. Bee Hnar, 
KASLinoit or. 

Uarit heat may be reflected, and follows tha lam 
of rcfioctian of light IVo mirrors of poliabed btaw 



h^'i 



(tbe mimn Aonld fca panboQe, bat tboae of a ^Aa- 
rieal form araeaaler to namtfacture, and will m mmm 
all pniotieal paipoaM) ita plaaad with tbeb axaa la 
tbe aane atr^lbt Um b Um pvitfam abown in the 
fignn, a^ at any ooavnlent dtrtaooe aporl Aa 
Iron ball healed loAJlradnili placed faooetocni 
and airfeaeef pbuvbwna tntbaathar. TbacooB 
e( tbe ran of beak b bdkaled tr> dotted llHi^ and 
U fa petfonaing the eipwliaeal ib* feci baea bean 
accnratriy deteradDed the |4aea of pbgapbaraa will 
be i^led by Iba heat ladlatad tnin the hot baD Hid 
Tvfleoted by tbe minvrrn. 

Protaaaor Forbaa baa ozpeAnentally dm ou a t i a led 
that all Undi of heal mny be pelatbed aa Hgbi la 
polariiod. He need two pUlaa of loonnaUne tnt 
|im«1IbJ to the aai* of the cryatal, and be looad thai 
moat of tha beat waa afaeortod when the poeltioa <d 
the flrtfi waa ioeb that tbe asea of tbe cryitala erara 



«S4 



RADICLES— RADNOR 



M rl^it angl«i to nne another. ITe aUo lued pUtca 
«f mic»>plit Vy hMit for huvspcriuicuUun |>oUri3^iv- 
tion by rttlxmttiaa and raflastloiL Hti fuuoJ Uia.i the 
tnk* plftt«a, ftltbau^ noftrly o[iiwi|uo to light, AlJnwcd 
ft ImS^ portion oC hmt to piuu, luiit if tbu »>*■ nuJca 
B proper knt(lii with tixo ■urfncci Uioati whicb psu 
throQfh »n ootuiderftltly polarized. Thc«c may b« 
uial^xed by a Mcond plAto nf niiciL, nml it in foittnl 
that giHii;^ this MFCuDd plats tiio muuc iuolin»liuii ut 
tits Imits luid luruluK It round, u in tbo «UM of kb« 
abnikr infitramcnt Inr light <«ea PuLAKUKU LlQnr), 
tba nuuimum tTAn>nii»iii» ol raja thnragh th<^ (tppiv- 
ratua oocura wturn Uio pl»l«a uf luicft ara jjikndlDl, 
and ttw oiiiiniuni wfasn th« movablo plate biv 1wcni 
tonod tluou^ k right ttnzlc. 

ProfMMT Farb«t proved the dioalM- poluixatkn 
and depoluixatiatL vt heat, and tb« turning of th« 
plaoe « polariiadoa by Bolatiuaa of fugw ud otiior 
MbMwioM haa al«o been dvmonstnkted. 

£iperuueiita ou mluuib hcut liave l«os very much 
btdUt>Uid bytlit' thi.'niici-inulttp!ic7<iiccTFi mHO-ELBC- 
TRiorrr), but tiwu wliii ilua liuiuuiutjut hettt iiuUca- 
tiotu «n givm alowly oompuvd vHk th» qvkkaMB 
br wbi'Ch the «yfl Jaajre* ol Uw pwwiicd or alMocoe 
ofUgbt. 

RAD T CLE9, a iiiun« Arm in chemlatry to oertalu 
^upa of olomcatH whit£ ramain mtiti.-d throa^houl 
many rbacUons. RiuiiclM ikrc tombtiniRH knovm in 
tbo free statu; thuit tfiu gruup (.-ii11f<1 crauu^'cu (CN) 
in a wvlt-knomi gm; IL aLhi ont<;ra into tji" r>rDiii- 
Uou of B laiv« uuuiUtr of ouaipuuiuIiL On tLo uther 
hand, thflre ara aiany railiclca which havii detot bei^u 
isolated; Uitia tho ffrmip iini mini Din (Nll^) it unly 
Ieiuiwo iu oo-iubiualiuu -witli utbor vtcmeuta- Soo 
OHZMUmir, 

RADIOLARTA. Sm PoLYCTanitA and Pao- 

TOCOA. 

BADISH {Eaphumu latirui; natural order, Cm- 
df«ne}, a woU-kuu^ii Mcolcot root, ttnivenuUly ciii- 
tiratod io tampM«t« olhnatM^ and w>od ua a mlIih), &i: 
The plant waa ortginallj brouifbt fmni Chiiui luA 
Prroia, but lioa b(«u euIUvAtnd iu Kumpo from tiuv 
imiucmoriul 

RA1>ISH, On, or. Tbo roota oii'^l foods of radiiOi 
yield, bj dUlillatiuu witla water, n lailltv lii^nid, (roni 
which an ctaential oil may tw pre<}Mkr«d by n^ilEm- 
Uon, whioh !• i»lgu£»ai, heavier than water, and 
OGutalns Bulplmr. 

ltAI>IU8, in g«OtDMry. Se« DrjiKCTlE, 

RADIUS, Uia bona at tho foro limb of vcrtebrats 
animal*, wblob, as In man, whea tiw arm ia nifanatcd 
or lidd dat, vritb the palm npwarda, Ilea Co the thumb 
aide oE the limb. 'I'hu tudtt ia tli«refoi« termed the 
radial aide of the Umh, in conLnulijitinRtiantn tliau/naj- 
oT oppodt* udo^ ao Hamad from Iho ulua ur ni;it;bbour- 
in^ twDo, which, with the raditu, anutitotca tho fow 
arm. In man the nbliua In a icag, cyiiridriial bone, 
U-ni'in^' a nt.ck aud rounded htait al lln upper puftiim, 
till* licnd n.rbiculatingwith tbvu^iui and by aaynvvUl 
joint nitli tbo hamerut or bun« of tba nppor ana. It 
is broadened at its iuwur (wrisl ur carpal) oitrDmily, 
and its portcrior ■rirfacn in grixived fur th« rocvptioo 
and paaMtfe of tba huduu* uf laoeclos. At tha carpal 
axtiwnity it artlcolatea with the nlna. The upper cjul 
of the nullim tnma, in tbo motacjks of tbe utn-toTB, 
on tliG iloublu aurtnipc atfcndod by tho prrot inrfaoa 
u( tbo hiimeriw and the aUjfbtly ctip-Ukc deprairicA 
of the ulun. At it« lowur ond tho radlua niUtu 
round tbo lower end of tho olaa. Jn tbo actiuii of 
ttipimUion, UM above defined, the radiu* lie* parallel 
with th« ulua, tbo ]oirtir extremity of tbo tailtua 
lying to tbo outac aida of the adghboaring bono, lo 
praaofHXK where th« palm la Cuned downwanh. the 
nutioa toma aboTft oo ita own axia and arutind the 
nloa below, and oruaung the latter bone aa nh«a the 



hand and arm bang downwarda with the palm tunwd 
bankwardi; 

The radina b aim;* w p raeant^d in tha forMin 
of Vortebistoa abore fidho^ in which lattc* fooaa it 
■a difficult or inpantible NBliafactarilT to datanulBB 
its »]j«Bentatire. InUrda, hDwe«er,u whkfaOMi*^ 
mcntB of pronation and aapinatiam wooU rtodar tht 
fun; timha inotfiriirDt m winga, the raAoa la tmA 
tonaUer than the ulna, and b anbardlaate fat Hadant 
opnont to that bona. It l» very tbait and flat is 
Catoooaai, and ii oMified in Slroiia nt eadi and t» 
th«Hlna. In the Ftog and Oamel the ndiiu la MHT- 
etitly tlie Kole reprBaantali*a of the bonaaflf tba ion- 
umi ; nncl in llata and Ruminants generally it tonni 
Uiu atmuvt aulo fruppurt of the fwv-arm. In Iha 
dog. clefibont, and Un^^atM gensally, the ncnaal 
poeitjnn of tbe niliii* in a criMiCTl pnntion wit^ 
retfard to thu ulnat a« cocn in prvnativn in taan. In 
A p«b; Slothi^ fto, IDO vamenli u praantion and i^ifaa- 
tion are alao performed. 

ItADrUS \^CTOR ApnntinapMeiaqMciM 
if w* kuuw iU duiUuoe Eraaa a fixed point aad Ifa* 
an^lca which Ita dincttoB £»ts tUa pciak aiaba 
wiib two fixed directiouL We may sappoM a^ 
curce wbaterer Be being traced by one ea tr e ndty a 
a atraigbt Hue wboea other extremity la fixed aa4 
wbosu It-ngtb and dircctkn vary; each ■ line ii at 
ftiiy imitAint the nvliiia vci^r nl tbo point tj ttt 
curve which it ia tnit'liig at tUat inilAot. 

In tha caee of » oirole. whoQ tbe centre ia t hw 
M tba fixed pedal or origin, the radioa vecUr b of 
i-cdtstant length, and the length of the ourre but— 
auy two pointa inHtfiuea tbe angle tamed IbtwoKti 
in doKxibing that curves but if any otber Mint u 
choeen for oHefu tbe radii vect«t«e (or atSennl 

E Dints will not be cjiuoL Wben a point is specUeJ 
y tbe length and djrMtion of its mdjoa vector it i* 
aald to be ghOD La polar co-ordiiintaa. In tivaliBe 
<|iiestiocLS 01 analytieai gcometiy by the llM'^h1^^ of 
[kjW co-ordinatee the origin (as inslaoocd afaove b 
the nun ol tbe drde] may Iw oftaa cfaoeaa eo as te 
■liiupUfy tb>< jiroblpm, and tin obaiacttr of the m» 
tlon may be such that it b more easily dealt wtta ti^ 
the ]>r>lar method than by the OartaeUn raelfaoe. 
'fbiit is tiotnbJy tho cnae in donliag with qowtfana ■• 
to tbe [laCha of bodiea a«ted on by eenfanl faniL 
Thv «krth moves in an orbit which Is i|ipiiiiliasliilj 
an ollipae, in one focna of wbtcfa the ana la riloatid. 
The rarlh* path b oonadved of a* having boca tEKed 
by tbe oKtramlty of a right line vl variable Icngtb 
revolving nbont tho nin'a centrD, which is laiam as a 
fixed pcnnt, aul in MtrnnoDir tbo radius vector of 
any point «f an orbit b the linn fruis that pgfat tn 
tlie (vntm of force round wbiob the otMt Is ihreiiiftwd 
Svt) Matiicuatigs— Polar Co-ocdinatea. 

BADXOR, or lU[>HORf«tR% an inlniHl eoostr to 
Smooth Wales, boundnl nortfa by MooatgntBennUnt 
aud Sbropahiie, east and Hiuth*«aiit by Hetilanudn^ 
snuib and soutli-wflBt by Bnoknoduh^ and wwi 
by CardigaiMbiTa. The area is S7S,A£ll nora^ of 
which en 1863 Ufl^S8 acm were wmIht cBlUmtfoa. 
llw lurfaoe ttunxoghunt b billy, in soow pm 
Dpproaciiing to monntsinous, tlia Ughest wtnmit ti 
the Knvit of Ifjulnor leaehiiig an ewrallMi uf 2IS3 
feet above sea-lerel. Tka pcindpol portjoa ol Bad- 
nantdre b ooo^xwd of tbe strata formiaic tfav Silii- 
rian syatnn^ but on tbo west and DDcth-««t al^ ti 
the eonnty the oppvr Iteda at tbo oldor racial oiB* 
jioaing tho Caialinaii syBtem, make tbcir afpaunmcm, 
tty«iiite and nomhyry ocRiir in many parts; and a 
uoaree amyttdaluulal trap m met with. Then an 
asTvral mwUdaal mlneru springi^ eome of wtnch Me 
in good rapnte. Oala and wheat are tbe jrine^ 
uropa. But tbe chief depaodenoB el tbe unMS t* 
ou ths slo<di reared oo the pa*(an<ljasd and oetu- 



1 



I 
I 

I 



I 



I 



ICADKOB^RAFFLESIA ARXOLDI. 



425 



■UM-liAd, whici) Rot oaiy lapport large nambere of 
Awft biU, tn Um mon i^Ileml pwl*, c*tt.le of ftQ 
Mftk TIm oom an ptbtdpiliy of tb« HerafonlBhiTe 
bcOTi Tb« (lrwigbt-lwn> is gtaml vaa ii nilivr 
■Dull, but CAjNtlile nf (Bdnring mat latine. Tb« 
uHgioa] Webb |)unlM an rtiO Dnd in v» tnouu- 
taiiw. l^Tg* tfoantitiM nf lirltt«r m* tnwl>. Tlie 
asdrat (oicaU uf Radnonhint, which wen uf Ki>At 
•iteot, ItaTe loof slBoa dtaappoand. IIm tnannfae- 
MVM ara Wtfliag. llw duof maaufacturo is flannel. 
Jfcna flf IIm ri*ara ai« na«i|pihlc Ths cminly 
mnvaa ma okambw h> Parli«iii<»it, aiul one U 
mimiuJ for Vmw Badaor in ooDJnactioa willi oihcr 
pfawM. Pop. (tS61), 2.1,&2K. 

BADXOfC, Ntw, a pMllaiaeiiUnr borong]] and 
•mall market towa in South Walai^ bi tba oo&Dty of 
lUiiaDT. The towB, on a plain to Um Vals of Had- 
DOT, 60 miloi K.M.W. of Brubot, and 3| mile* runtb- 
wMt o4 tba vOlac* of Old Badnor, haa a pupulatJoii 
td only about S04. Tha bonu^ ia an af^cultund 
diatrict, with a cirmiDfertauyi nf atwnt IW milua, aod 
a populatkMi of 2iyu. Ilia bunni^'ha that iuii[« «ith 
II in lataming a membar to i'arliament an VmtaUyt, 
Kirfgblon, g— "fc'— . Frartdgaa; and Rliayadar. 

tLADOtifrngormtBuail tnRoniaii Polaod. fonned 
in IMS, aad eo«finmI to Ita praaent liuiits ia 1^07. 
It i» bouodpd on lh« nartb bj tbo gnvwrunent of 
Vnww, 00 lb« nortbeaat by that *4 Slcdktt, w 
tha Mai by that of UiiUln, ud by GaUda and the 
gMnnntSDt «f Kklala on the •outfa ; atM^ *^^ 
a ndlia. Tlia aoil k gnwnJN leitila, fant tathw 
te the aontlMrn parttu "fix memdam, wbloli 
an ana of nearly 300 aqoan ndlaa, pa>aduco 
70,000 tooa of hay aunnally. Tha corn 
CXtrpa gixiwa are wtital, rye, bailey, Inivkwlitiat, 
and bay, Tba prliu^iiial iDanufacCuna ars woolleiw. 
taaibar, and oil. then U al>o a ooniidarable nuiu- 
bw (rf brewarba. Pan. {UiiO}, Q2(,OiO. 

JIADOU, a toini is Buviaii Tolaad, on tha Ba- 
U nOaa •ontk of Wanaw, capital of tfaa 
_ n<nt of tba aaa>a name. It baa a cbnrcb and 

odDvcat belongi&ft to Um fift«e]iUi century; maaa- 
CaotorM of ti^ oQ, viiio|;ar, and Ivather; and two 
anaoal t>!T«. Fop. (IMO), 12,0S1. 

IL\L/.I\V'II.I^ tha nanw of an andent tatnily. 
oaa of tha nwait (auona in Poland, and ori|,'iually 
daacwndad bvn Narunnn^ gTaad-dnJca of IJibiiantL 
Anmv iti nuit ^sUugnhibed nwmbtm an: — 1. 
NlOHAB Um Blank, ton of John tfaa Bearded, and 
palatiaa of WUn^ King 8^;i«nnDd AuguaLua, who 
ewad mnch la hb Hrrlooa, Iwld bim In tb* highnt 
■rtaa m . and gnva bim the eonunaud. In 1952, in tbtt 
war ai iba PoIm tn^lmt tJia Foliah knigbu^ Ha 
alan wmnaoJwl m tha war agaiaat llunia in 1S61, 
Wbao aB>ba««dor to tha OMut of Charlea V. ha 
gar* dw a t tattlioo to tba inlanMta d Ua eoantry, 
^■d faa*in| bacnua a ocoTort to iba Ksformatioa, 
dy tapooaed Ua caoa^ and abowed hie eniighl- 
I fetaroit in it by procuring a ttanalation of Um 
into tha Pobdi tcaigua. Ua diad In Ifi4t7, 
f aeraral aona, who^ iaMead of miking is lua 
., Waal back to Popamy. Oeoim aichloibop of 
OraoDFW, bUwp of WUna, and a oandiDalf «■■ tba 
HMMl wal tiu i and wuft tnK<:Md anwoB Ibna.— 2. 
CnuainniKB IL, of a dlSennt Una, mlotaiy i^orer- 
onraf lilbiiaaia and palatine of Wilii% baloagtag to 
tba PnltatanI Cbnrcf^ waa tba anamy of KW 
aiglnnad m^ who, aftar pniniains bfan aavwd 
<tv«B app<ABtitt8nto, bad bcatowad tMi on fliiifahfc 
Id tha tame way aa in < icrmaoy during tba Tbir^ 
Yean' war the IVibntiuiU weta apnreiaed dnilag 
tba pmnUDWt of SJgitmuud. C. RadiJwiU, after 
tba OMtb ot Sfeiaraond, la '\iS3, nndartook their 
iiimat at the l7at of Wanaw, and with aaA bim>> 
aaai Ibnl ba oblabed oompleU lol«»tiua for tfaoai. 



Enjoying; the ooofldeiMa of Wladlalaw IV. ba oom- 
m&nricd in the war againat Unaaia, and randend 
iiof-irtant aorrica bo bia king and ooontry. Ha dieil 
in lOtO.— S, Bocrauiw, Prinoa Radxiwtn, aom of 
Prinoa Jaanaa and Sophia Elizabeth, maignnoa d 
Unuidanbnig, waa goveni<ir in Pruaiia, 16S7-fW, and 
rimdorad impartnat aerrloca to ft both by bia aomln* 
lairation ami endownienta to nnlraraitJaa and aoboob. 
—i. CUAKLw, Princs BaddwiU. palatine d WilaA 
and j^ranil-oainniandcir ol I.ithtiani^ poaaoaed nf an 
ioDumi! uf I.SUO.OOO doUan. lu ba own and liii 
eountry'a aerrlov bp roMnuinad 6000 aoldiaw at tiia 
awn flipenac: and fully aware tbat notUnff good to 
Poland oonld coma from Rnoal^ be wai Ute enemy 
of Cuutoryaki and the Buaaiaua, and an adberant of 
tho Baxon party, Uo waa an aidant Mpptctir of 
tba aonfedontion nf har, and waa aovml Uaaa 
obliged to exile biiuktdf. Ue apeat tfaa parioda ot 
Ida aalle in TVoricey, Italy, Goimaay. and Vnatm, 
For tbiea yoan ho took part ia tfaa Ubonri of tbo 
onnatitnent diet at Waraaw, bnl died in ITSti, bafora 
lite new oonaUtation waa oompktely drawn up and 
promuleatod {May 3, 1791). 

KAE'BURN, Sib He^kt, a «wy amtnaat povtnlt* 
painter, waa bom at Stockhridga, near Eonbnrgfa, 
Slanh 4, 17SC. At tba age of iftaen ha waa bound 
■ppiviitica to a gnldnnith in Kdinbmgb. On tba 
expiration of bis apprvuticokldp be baeama pnfaa- 
aioeuklly a peilrail-paiiit«ri and with tba new of 
improrinff tn bb art ho repaired to London, aod 
aftwwacda apent two yeaia in Italy, diligenUv laigBral 
iu itndylng tbo gnat maatera; be ratnmeJf In 1787, 
and ««tabUibad Uaaalf in Edinburgh. Utrabamn 
nw; to Um bead of lua proftaaion in SooAlaod— an 
emiawioe whiob nu artiat pr«BUiD«] bo dimiba wttfa 
bim daring tho renwiaiior of bi* Ufo, The noet 
inter lating of kia «-oriis aiv a aerica of haU-lanctb 
pootraita of bia Iit«Tarir and idenUfio MndM, wUoh 
M p^bed aolely for hie own private gndCeaUoiL 
In IdSa, wbM Staff G««g« XV. viaiiwl Soottand. 
Kaabum waa intlgttta«V and uipointad portrait- 
painber tobiamajcaty forBcotlaniL Hedidnutloog 
aurrtva tboaa bmnira, aa he died tn 1833. 

BAFFLE, a game of chaooe, in which aovenl 
panona aaeb dapeait part of tfaa ralua nf a thing for 
the i^hanco of gaJidng ll 

ItAKFl.K.S.Sia'I'iiHiiAfiSTAMFomD.adMliigubhed 
naturalirt, the auu of a captain In the Waat India trade, 
waa bora at ae%otf Jainaioa, In 1781. In 1810 ba 
waa ^ipoitttod agent uf the ^ovDntor-gaaeral to tfaa 
Malay statoa; and tho fc^wiqg year, on tba radu^ 
tkm M Jara by tfaa Britiah, be waa nominatad Uea> 
tananvgorenar of tfaa iaUJnd. In thia eaciadtj ba 
oofttiaood till the ialand «aagi*«n np la tba DabA 
in 1810^ wtkenbe ivtnmed toBngtanJ wiUi^aatan 
dva oolleetfam of tba proda t dona, ouatBia^ Aa, of tha 
Faatrrn AnUpolago, Tba yaar following amoarad 
Ua lUatarv af Jara (aeooBd adIUoa, ISitif. Ilavinc 
baan nonunaled to tha UeKtaaant-gDvaraurililp of 
Fort MatUKNti^ tba aaat o( goranuMnrt of tba 
than BriUab iiwaiamiona of Ueaoeoten, ta tba fafauMl 
of 8aniatr% ba want out la 1818 to fiU 1^ iwaL 
llerabeiainadiedBuaydbgraeafal abuaea. In I8S9 
b« laid tba (onadatioa of a IHaaary iutitntion ecu* 
elating of a coDoga for tba a nco im ymart <4 Aiwla* 
ChfaeaelilafBlan. IntbafoOawlngyMr ha«»baAad 
for Karofpai but a Gra breaking aai bi tba Mf Um 
▼«Md waa deaUvyod at aea, Um crew aaid paNNagma 
mtiag tbafe Um wiUi dlOnhr in lb* hatta. Ha 
diadtalSM, 

RAFFLBBU. ARKOLDL TUa glganUe Howar 
waa dBOvnaad b tba latarior of Suinotra. Ufa para- 
■hie on a ipaeiaa of Cfaaon Tbe wliole plant aMna 
to oooaiat ot Ultla alaa bajond the lowar and raak 
It iaAodooi^ and tba faoala llawara an uaknaara. 



426 



RAFFLESTACE.f^-RAOLAN. 



Tlie poriimth conniti of » venbicow Inhc cTDimcd 
with » nog, and divided a.t the ninimit Into live 
•qoil lobM. Tb9 ctoinnu in very maavnat. TIig 
iMD, wbioh hanUjr iIrm nbov« the not, la fleshy, asd 
eixrered with very large, obtiiM, Imbricated bntctiu The 
dininc1«r of thn Howpr in Z f<«t. and aoino of it* PCLrbi 
Bra i kdi ill tMoLuew. It in mmU« of cooUuiiiijt 
12 fdnta of fluid In lea cup. Th« flowar le said Mtuo- 
liiDM to h»v« K weight of 1 1 Wm. ThepUnl is nunod 
after it* tira duonvenn. Sir Thoniuw RafEi!* and Dr. 
Arnold, who came upva It whil« luftklng ao excunion 
into the iiLhirinr of Sumatra. 

RAfKJ.ESlACW.-K, or I'atmawosts, a nntund 
order vf thiau'vut, uteniitaa luiii vtalklMM, and cun- 
nitiiiK mnn'Ij- of linnrniphroditij or dI«Mlon< flowvn; 
grriwm^ immttilintcly tmm the unrfacn of branchei, 
auil iuuncrard Mumnit iciUm. Their princtpidcbarao- 
terurtini a-rt » «iij>i>rior, glolkote, or ramjiMiDlate peil- 
koUi,with6ve-part4<dlimb; numvratu dudact uiUivn 
adhering by the boM; InfBrior.ono-cel led ovary; anlcal 
BtylM OB Dnnioroua aa lh« placenta, and run togciliL-r 
withUu>ca1nnin,lTnt prciJRctinghfiydnd it; andafmit 
in Ui>^ fonn of an uidwbi>veiit pcriuor^i with nuuilMtrloni 
wods. Th« kabUati at tbv Rpeutet &r« the Eaat Indi«a, 
where they grow on tho Htems of Cisiri, nnd South 
Amcrii:*, where they grow on the bmnchcs of Icgn- 
minuiiK plant*. One of the iiieoiet, Ba^tna fMttma, 
b emptovrd tn Java u n powerful rtyptia Sa0ftia 
Hor^elai, ftaflfnct ('ummin^i, Ra^<»ta BorltutKaii 
pcea m e aiaiiliLr prDgm-ti an. The nrdac hw been luunod 
m bonnur of Sir SUmford BafflM. 

BAFN, Kaiil CiiitiiinAff, > Duiih BchnUr &nd 
kreho>olo|^et, bom at Bnkeabarg^ on the laUncl of 
l''iinoD, in 1796; died at Coxreahagen in 1&04. He 
firvt ntnctieil Inw. but tiltimntnly dnvotrd tiimsr-lf 
ewtliHitvlv to the hitVJTy luid puutry of cuiciunt 
Seandinavi^ Id1h21 hGmiBappointAilsiib'lll>rarian 
to the Unircnity o( Oopcohat^. In 182^ be ww 
(be Kcnns of inrtitutiiig the ArcbKoloi^'ical Society 
of tlie north, the princi[VAl object c< which wim tb^ 
|Hiblicatiou of the hitlicrto tininibliabed wurku <if thr: 
anctiTut lit'-rature of the northem natlona. Aa Mcr«- 
tary of tlii* voulviy be bad tbo cdiUug of all the worlu 
that it publiibcfL Among the wiirkatha.t be haaslven 
to tho woild aro a Oaoish vmioii i>( the tnytbleal 
Kid romantic Ht;^ nf tho north; KriknmiQ, or. The 
Elegy of the L't-1(-l<r>tc<I Pintle, BaKunr LodbroK; 
Fcnuldar-St-gur Nordrlaada, a completfl ooUccUon 
of tbo tnvthico-hiiittvrical and r<>mantac MgM of tho 
tiorth; the Fin-j'ingak'-S&f:*, in the Icelauilia loit, 
with a tnumlation into I>au!»b and the lancuagu of 
the Farbe Jatuida. In hie nusnifioent work ontitlad 
Aatinultatee Araericanw ( I SK7) he baa provol beyond 
ft doubt that the anciratSciuidiuavlana Lad dlaoaver«d 
America in the tontboenttiry.iuid between HMoleveoth 
and fourtfoiitL cuutuHte Lad at varioiH times formed 
Hettlemeuta along a large exb^nt of oooM In North 
AiDcric*, pnncipally in MneiMchnaetU and liboda 
leland. He vrtm aUn the antbiv of a largn miinlH'T 
oC valuable momoirs on the tnterimtattuu ui tbo 
BoandinAvian mn««. 

KAFT, a iwft of floeit frmosd hy a body of planks 
or piece* of timber foal^ncit t'lgvUier ride by ndo to 
aa to bo eanvDy»t down rivera, acroea harboura, kc, 
man comiDodioualy than if they were eepanUod. 
The terra !» aim applied in n lew tocbniotl Mue to 
any rough floating *lnictur«, mich aa thoae olt«s 
Ibnao d Jnc aaea at ablpwrKk of tHtmla, planb^ tu. 

BAFTKB8|tDbnading,Bre plooea of timber, whiAb, 
•tan iling b V peln on UiB nUng piece, meet in an angi e 
kt t(it\ anil form thti roof oS a buildbig. 

RAGGED SCHOOIA birtitirtinna nnportad by 
TOtnntary eontributlona for tbn eiluottinn of neglected 
diildren and the conjin]urnt pri^vuntion of juvenile 
crime. The idea of furmiug inch ■chonla wu due 



to the nlebntod Portamouth eobUar, J^Iib Von^ 
wboaboat IJHie bc^an to take In the ringed <UdlW 

of the diatrii.'t in wbji^h be lived nwl tonch tbemwhib 
ho wu at work. Tliia he oontinaed till hk death b 
1839. The mcccM of tho plan eanaed ft niimbcr ti 
more inflncatial penuni to lake the matter up. tni 
in 1 S3S a ragged Sundsy-acboal wa> opened in Ixmdia. 
In 1811 the lint foedine-acbool,ia which tbo ohOdtw 
are not only ediioatod bat kept and fed for tho iay, 
waa aUrtett by Sheriff Walaoo in Aberdeen. In IStS 
a similar wbool waa opened Ijy Dr. Bobectaon cf Ne« 
Gnyfrtan in the Vennal at Bdinfaor^ Bst what 
SATO a greater ImpMas Utan ftBythinf ebe to tha rigged 
ochool achcme waa Dr. anthiiit'a Ploft tot "BaftaJ 
Sobooh. publiibed in 1647. It bad an Innwiie 
eirculaUun, ami waa followed by the eztMudes ti tbt 
ayatem to ont; ootuiderable briwn in tho Ictngdnm. 
The nam* ragged ecboola wiu iinA ado|4ed in 16U, 
wben the Ha^^ School Union waa ferateiL At 
that tbne there were twenty achoola, irith 300 nlmf 
tai7 bcacbf^ra nnd abont 2000 acholaia. Then are 
abundant iitatiatic* to abow the beneficial natoie tt 
the worklotf of ra^^d ooboola In plaoae whofo tha 
ByalemiawulorgaiiiMd. Atftcoafniwneaonnlcnna- 
tory and industrial achoobi held in Edlabargfa hi Hi?, 
lars, Mr. Smith, governor of the EdinbnKii priam. 
aUted that when the Original iU^cd Imbutnal 
School waa oataUiahod in that eity ( lsi7> the nomber 
of children nndcr fourteen yean of age oommittad ta 
priaun waa 200, or 5^ per cent, of all tboac eoaauttcd, 
but that rinoe tlukt date the number baa gndnally 
grown leas, and in 1&7S had fallen to ST. orlUtle not* 
ttmn i pf r Mnt. of all thna oommitb^ to pria'nL 

KAQLAX, FmHor Jamb Uksrt Haiaiaat, 
LiiRi\ WBK Lbci yiningeet aon of Henry, fifth Dnke 
of Beatifurt, anil bora on the SOtb SepMnbar, 17IS. 
Ho ontcTvd the armv in 1804; waa ntlndwd ^ IMf 
to the Lion. l»Lr Arthur Paget'a embaaa^ ta ToAtp, 
and thv muuc year aerved on Sir Arthur Weltaalvf'a 
Ktolf in the expedition to CopeshagML Sobeeqanl 
to this be waa appointed ono of hie aidea-da-cMBp 
by the IsttAr, a»il aftcrwarda military aecretaiy— 
an offioe which he filled through the wbnle of the 
Penlnaubir eampalgn. H« wm aliRbtly wwuid ed al 
the battle at Buaacn^ and greatly dktiBgaiibod Urn- 
anif at the capture of Badajoa. In 16Ii he aclcd Cot 
a abort time aa secretary to tfaa onbMay at Peiia, 
and waa tnlniater pl«nipot«nUarv than fniiD January 
to March, 181S. At Watertno ha loat hlarij^ani, 
and reoedved aaliie(|UBoUy the appuinttnenl of aide- 
de-camp to tbe priiio regent, tho dignity of K.C^IL, 
md BOrenL fnrci^Q or<len of merit. From ISlfl to 
1619 be actod na tteavtinj to the aabASny at Paria-, 
and from 1819 to 1853 aa military anmlwy to the 
Puke of Wellington durins the latter'a tennre e( the 
pofU d maater-genetal of ue ordnaaee (ISl^-ST) and 
eanunander-tn- chief (ieS7~B2). He attended the 
Duke of WoUington at Uw Coscrtaaea of Vleon* and 
Vcnmo, nnd in 183B aooompaiMd Um to 8t. PMhv 
burg uu hia mlaalaii to ooafifttalato the Evpanv 
Nidioliis on hie accoaaiMi. In IBSS ho waa made 
ninater-goDorml of the ordnance, and in October id 
tbo Mune year waa elevated to tba Houae ot Fana 
by the title of Baron RagUu. On Uie Invaldac oat 
of the Buman war ho reoeivod the mppoataaat d 
oommanderof tbeforcei^ and proceeded in thatcafft- 
cjty to INukey. 'He bicUonta of tho campaign ai* 
well known. TluoB^^nt that ervotful period 1^4 
Itaglan displayed peat peraooal bnTory. if not aU- 
tiry gtmiuB, and RmdemI himself itiuveraally beloved 
thrattghout the armv by hia amiable Mid c&octiiatan 
temper. Tledif&otut pcNitioninwU^bewtaplaoM 
ai 111 Mill till il liiiilHiitiiiiiiy iiif llmimiiiiilwailal iiiniJliw 
arrsDiremrataL over whkh ha had litDo or no mMMI, 
hampered and impeded hia movomanta; ami In ealt- 



{ 



nalitig hia ftMlitlM, u <lu)>layod in this conJuiicturo, 
k li tttcemuj tn inkke Iai^o »U«wuiido lor Umm 
llhlWlMUiii !■ Thti diaMtrouB repuUe of the ftUiea 
ia iMr stuck od ttw Itodun, 16Ui Jnii*, 1955, M«ina 
ta 1»T« wdslwd liMvilr oa bb >[nriti, and tfao ducwn 
ndec whkh be vm lidranring at th« tfroe — a mild 
form of dwl cf fc w— from t£»t <)ftt« ii^nmlt y Mggnk- 
<«t*d; Mid ha expiiwl in tbn camp Wfori! SrMctopol 
on Um 39tb of tlie otme inuutti. Lurd EaelaD loar- 
sMm 16U tfao Hon. Emily lIikrrictWvllMlsy Polo, 
wee of the Ihike nf Wi-Uinj^UiD. and Iclt by ber one 
Mm Mill two dauvliten. Hia iillllw^ Hin, tbe Hud. 
UsM- A/tltur williwD Fiterajr Somnwt, wu killed 
1b udb in the &rA Paajab ounpaign while Kervinj 
OS tli« VUII of Lord Gough. 

RAOMAN HULL, called alto Iksimoiit'a Roll, 
fran a cormpUoD of ths nuuta of tbn kgaU B^-nc- 
mnBdu dt Vlcci, wlno it ia aald niado tap ihJa roll 
aa m reat-roU a( booc&cM in the rdga of Alaxandtf 
EIL, A.tk 1275, after hstinj; Kumtnonnd all iha bsnit- 
Ao«d «l«i)[yiiwi) of Sooiland aud requirad them U> 
ifin nadar Mtb tba trua value ol tb«tt bancBoea, in 
aeeordaBce wHb which thejr nvni afterwards taxed by 
RooM^ Tbe Roll anbaaqtumtly falling into the hamto 
ot Kdmwd I. of Englaiid waa by him uaad aa an iiutra- 
nnt bj wU«h all too oubilitT and gantry wfaoae nainea 
Mwwarad there vcre ofttnpetled to do Urn homaM in 
lbs oourae of hia ptiM iw tbroui(b SootUod In 1296. 
Tba docutDvnt wu dalivaiad bade to tha Scotdi along 
witk oib«r raoccda aad manliiMirt* fa 1S29 fa lemui 
et the Pcaoa ol Noitiuunplon. It la bow depoaltoil 
la tbo Towar of London, and eonaiata ol four largv 
roUa of pMvhiiiewt, formad by Btitchliig to(tether 
tblity-fiv« noaller pteeaa. It liaa been pubUabad Id 
Prjuia'ii Recnrda ia an aliri<I|^I fnnn, and aim for 
tb« lU^iulyiio (^iib tn IS.tl, in Uio intmlitctinn to 
tba latter o« whicli will be (mind Uu) Tariom coojw 
t nim -wmt of thaa, however, oondodve— that bare 
been admioed ngardinj; the ctytnolorr of tha torm 
ragmam. TIm original inatniBtanla of nnntngo undar 
the aeaU ot ttM (Nirtfai^ of whieb tba Botfnaa Roll 
uar be regarded a« a rcocrd, bare aH pcrlihcd. 

BAGS^ worn fraf^menta or ahieda of tostilo f abrici. 
TtMffH, Talnelcaa tbongh they may be for moat pur> 
pOML m y«t of great tuportaDoa la tbe arte, partj- 
culany In panar-makiQe. (8«a Fahii.) Bnjdn tha 
tap ObUerted in the I. idtcd Kia^dntn, tho Article ia 
iinptirtad fan large qaanliti^o from varioiu (urai|{n coon- 
trice. Lionn rai^ fta [upcr arc iiDporiml pnndpally 
tnat Pnuma, Hninbun;, rniux, Amttria, and Ruau 
Woollen ra^ are alto Imported In oonal^rabla qoan- 
Utka bom tha ooan t bieal of Knrapa^ «hiafly horn 
Hamburg aad DieBwu. Foreign rage are naeb 
eoamr u texture aad of a dirtier a]>pearaiioe tkaa 
the EogUdi; but bang almoat exdoaitalr linen they 
are more vahuibb^ more eapecially naoe tan IntroHac- 
tioa ot Iba raotnei of bwUag ua nifie ia ley, and 
aftarvarda blaacbiag tham with oM ori na ^ Wbieh 
makan tbem eaitable for the naaafaceare of fine 
|iaf>er. Woolkn r^i^ not being available tta paper, 
are rooeb uaed for maoere; but thooa of a looaa 
tostura^ aad not too taoA worn, are nnnvciled br 
laaaaa of machinery, and mixed up with good weo^ 
io lofiD what ia Imowii aa atoddw, wllb widch obcap 
wooIImi gooda an made; while ue nafnae ia piilfwr> 
bed aad dyed rarlona ouloxtre, to form tbe floek oaed 
by p^er-etidiMre for their flock-papeta, Cooaidai^ 
aola jnaotitiee of ^^^ geaenlly' of a^ad oottaft 
and bien, ara alao imported from INvkey, Egypt, 
India, AuatnKa, aad Japan. Thm eiteaaiv* naa to 
which ee{iarta graaa aad otber matmab ara bow pat 
for tba maaufaetant of paper hat ■wwrfally ateoM 
tha tag trade. For wampla, tha Talna of nga lor 
paper-nakiag imparted in 1601 waaXSS8,Tl^*gitaMl 
ITSM^ tbe value of eaparto aad ether matariala; 



while in 18-42 tbu value at tbe former import fdl to 
i:Slk3.3tU, acdthat^ thu latter had riaea to £1,281,103. 
Tlie import ri wnoilcn raga fur 1882 wae rained at 
£«20,«ll). 'I'ho I'Nited State* oompeteaelowily with 
Great Britain for tbu |HiidiBsa uf oootincntal rBCi,and 
even t-ntaini the Kn(;luh market, as fai abown by the 
latvo auKntitica aiiitually exported to that country. 

BArinBA, a NaajKiit t<>wu uf Aiutrim DalmaUa, 
on a penlnaula la tba Adriatic, at the mouth of the 
raHoy ot Ombl^ It war formerly a republii^ with a 
territoiy of (00 aquare milea, and 80,000 Inhabituuta. 
It ia aarroiisded by old wiillt fliuikod with tuwcn 
•nd baatioBi, bat puaiiuwai little atmigth. The 
botuea are bwlt «t exceUont rtone, many of them 
with faaiwfaftme baleonloa, The mon remarkable 
edifioHi nm thf> cathedral, Iha chandi and convent of 
the Fmacivratis, the dmrch aad oonrent of the 
Jeaoitii, the (<inner ooniidered tbe flneet baQdlng Id 
lU^rua^ and the latter now uaed aa a military boa- 
pitN; U»! )p)VDmar'ii polaoo, an anciamt ■tructare in 
the Floivutiae ttrli', with Hue arcadn and arcbed 
windows; the caatom'b'nue: the Op«n Pia, a Uad 
of houaent mfn^o for rxnng frmaln*; aad varioua 
otbnr <Jtarit&Ii1c iontttutiima. DnUido tbe torn) are 
two ext«>n»1v« «nl>utl«. In o«te nt which ia a large and 
weU-auppliod baxaar, ami noar it ia tlie lanarettOL 
Tbe mannfecturwi, of little imnortanoe, ooudnt cfaleAf 
at iOk and wouOea gouda. aad utdEnnry aud morueoo 
laatbar; bat the trade with Italy and tbe Levant le 
cirtaLrivt^ and ha« tbe ailTaniaM of two good bar- 
t^iita. RagQM li the eee of a Uahcfs *ha rcddenee 
u( a goTomor, aad tha aaat cf aareral Important 
oottrta and f>u)i1j<- offloea. It it of very ear^ oriipii, 
aad la in]]>|jiiwi.>d to have been founded by GteeL* in 
<5«. It fell tmdar the power of the Bomana. then 
under that of ttie Greek ctuporoni, aad finally aaetr l ed 
Ita indepenilanoe^ which it ■nomafulty tnaliilained, 
both walnit the Turin and thu VonctiaQi. lu moat 
fiottHafdnjf period w»« from H27-iO, and it pre- 
iwrvnl it» liberty hy the paymaai of a tribute tn the 
Vurio. In IfO« It wa> tafcen poaaeadoa of by tbe 
French, aad lu 1810 waa {noorponted with tbe 
gorenimcnt of Ulyri*. In 18H It waa glrcn to 
Auatria. It baa roptwtadly aoBeied mach from 
eartbqnakai, more eapedallT that ef 1IHI7, by wbiob 
greet part of ft wae laid u mhai BoacoHdi, tbe 
matfacmatidan, waa born ben^and Uea butted la tha 
catbodnL Pop. (ISAO). ;wa. 

RAGUSA, a town of Sicily, tn Um ptrtrlnc* of 
Woto, tf rnOea w.a.w. of ByraRM, on tbe right bnak 
of therirerof Uanarae. Iteamainaaovenlehnrvhea 
and coareoti^ oooaidetahle ntannfactarea of rilh ataB^ 
aad a trade la oom, wtae, M, bjiaw, and rnnlaa. It 
la m iyoaeJ Io Hand near the aho of tba andaat 
Hybla Hmm. Pop. (IMl), »,1S3. 

KAllU,thcbrm(if acwioai l eg en d In tbe Btftbo. 
lo^y uf iImi Hiiwlui, who la enppowd I* be the eauae 
of (be eoUpeee of the mm. and Btoan. Be played a 
oooipdaioaa part In tbe war whkfa the Dlnaraa or 
d0monB,fa ooaJniMtloa with tbe Uahyii^ waged Bgalnat 
the Adlljaa or pida. Thamotivaof tbewar waa tbe 
pomaarion of the a m r ift i or bem^v of fanmortallty. 
Tlw goda iheaaaclraa had need of thla beverage, aad 
ta order to procnre It Ihey aet tbemaelvaa to rfaant 
tha Ma, wUd> tbey exeonbed la tbe foUowiag larfiloa. 
Having taken vp Mount Maadata, they eadivleil Ik 
with tbe wrpent VtaiU, aidng It w a oord, aad that 
Ibe godi taking one end and tbe deBMna tbe other, 
they a^iUed thmaatwa moal enetgetiaaUy la beat- 
falg the ooMn. Aa eoea aa tba amrita appeared a 
lanifiil eoalant iinaiiid be t ween the goda and the 
demnna lar ila pommakm. Tba enottet reanheri bi 
the defeat of tbe bNer. atnoiMc whom wm Riba. 
Rftbii, however, almiUted a god that be abw might 
drink of the beverage; but Ibe aon aad moot wit- 



428 



RAHWAY— RAILWAVa 



HAfvixl thn fruii], kiirl iVnoitDced birr), ttuil itt thai Tsrr 
uiuuumL tite ucirita tuuob«d hu Up* Vidlmii ■Lruuk 
otf hla bead. Tlia bud of RAbn, hoireTor, havtii^ 
bwoma immortol throo^ touching tfao unrita, roM, 
nya tba UkliibblrmU^ in aKtabLuica like tbe ■onuoit 
of K uiouiitslii Into tlie lir, jit'^l'V f<^K^ at Ibu wma 
tilD* ■ torribto cry, From tfuit titno tho hokd of 
lUbn bM manifatctl fui iniiJiuiitilo hatro) triwitnU 
Ibaamt and uuHiu,aaJ It u m> vtlocltt tuiievuur tbeut 
tb»t OKnai? tli« eaUpm of tliMe nrba. 

RAHWA Y. B town ol the Uaitod SiaJM. ia Unioo 
eaaMy, Htw Jenaj, SS mllu cartb-Mot ill Trenton; 
with MTMi cbnTcliii^ u acatiemj, M fenukia iiiatitiit«; 
ktaniiaty, kfUnlillRrj', k napcr-Euitory, uiil naminnu* 
ftour, fpuU auJ mw tiiiliJ*. Pufik (ISaOt, 'J4.'S. 

ILAIBOLIXI, PuA.scBiico, nsnAllT civUed Fnn- 
CMCO Pnuiria, a fAEiioiiii ItAlinn hiiiUirirJi] [tatntm', 
ngMikd M tbu lics'l uf llm Uriliyutae Kibuol, wiui 
bmi Hi Bulo^ft abaut tha iiUddl« of the fifteenth 
ecntar^. Iln vm at fint int«ndiMl for a gcrldsmith, 
and distill L,-uial)i«l himaclf bjr tlie cxcfIIcufd nf bis 
woriunaiiHliiji. ll«ezecat«clauutu)wrof luunt bi-auti- 
ful mi^Ub, atid wa> ia conw^uencD appuiatcJ lapor- 
tntcudeut of tbe ntint at liolLigno. An a painter be 
woa the aubolar of Marco ZupjHj, wLiuu bn bouu rar- 
pnui'd: I'arugino alun sn]Mium to have bad coniiida9> 
abltt influcoiM uu kim, but Uttii; raurv it known of 
the drcanaUnoM of Ua lU o than that bla achool at 
Bologna was Dununoadv attatukd, and that ba died 
there !ii ISSSi. He wai mgbly eatMined by lEapbnvI, 
who In 1518 iolmtwl Mm mlh tho iiuproveiuiail at 
Ue Sl CkciUa. Ho oxcaUad particalarlT in Ma- 
tlonnoa, and executed a number of lulmirablc fmuuxt* 
in tho church ol St, Ciecilb at Bulogua, but bin moat 
famoua wor): U a Kt. Subantiaa in tb* nburoh of 
Delia Miaurivcirdia In the «aine city. Tliroe worka 
of hia ara ia the National Gallery, ono o( which, tlie 
VitKin anil Two ADt;i;la wocpintc over tlie Iload Budy 
of Cbmt, it of nm powor, and ono of tho moat pre- 
cEow ia the »illect4nn. llalboitni badaton, Glaootno, 
wbo studied under him, aud accjuii^ canndcrablc 
cde'irity- 

RAIL (SiMtm), a pmuM of Grallatunal or Wadiae 
Binli, (ormlnc tbe typuof niUritiact family OUIlidai) 
of tljut or<.kr. Tbu ItailR }xi-weS9 liill.t uf luoderattf 
Icngtb, tmjt longer iwiiallj tiinri tlio hrail, and of 
m wodge-abMie and compmacd fcimi. Tbo nuatrile 
SN plaood la groovea ou tbe n^tpn curfaoo of Clie 
nuuiiuble on euah nido, and tbo Dostrila theinsclvM 
open tbruti^b tbu Uill. Tbit \af^ ore »li(iTicr titan in 
tb* gviierallty i<f W&diug Bliilu, tliu tooi, howoTer, 
baiSK vwjr loag, aod proridod with daws w tudla tJ 
«0BdidsrMle Wigth. llie wingaaroof modcnfaaise, 
an>l the neck i« ihort, thv hmi being amidL Tbe 
tail ti Khurt, aud tbe body proeanta gmeraUy a some- 
what oompreeaed {vna. Am a group tbe Bai1«, whilrt 
included in tbe UraUatoHal order, pr^ent many 

EiinU of af&iiliee to tbo Kaaorial or Gallinacouuii 
irdiL Tbey genenlly InhaUb awantpy placM, the 
fuod oonaiitingaf v^atabteaodaalnBalmatbtr. Tbe 
neat ii aaiially placed on the ground aoiid wdgea and 
njoda, and oonaiata of dried grams* woven togi>>thi--r, 
I'ba yoaoa are antopba^oui, that U, can fMHrtbeiu- 
advaa aaa nm about aud Ewim wtmerer they &tc 
batohad. The Conuaon or Water Rail {Balliu 
«9«io(«w>— ahMra in Plato CL.-CLI. fig. 3— 
poaaeana a aleader eloiigat«d bin, butb mandiblaa 
cdng Hliffhtly cnrvod, and thuir mvgina liiflecC«d 
beyutiJ Ibe amtriiii. He Land KaU, sa n^mel ta 
tho i:oni.iTak« <cV«tr pnUtuu}, ako Included in 
tliii fauiily, l3co Cwsn-CBAKE.) The tbmal in the 
CominaD Rati ia wliitiah, tho udea of the head, brasat, 
b«lly. and oock being of a laadeoi ookmr; tho oppar 
pluiiia(i« l» raddfab- brawn. wIUi daap blaek In tbe 
■niddk, the aldw bdng black, atclpod with tranawae 



whito baixlii; tbu loww ta!I<c»Terta am wblbt^ tbi 
KU reddlaU and biown, and tbo feet of a brown 6aih- 
oolour. Tbo "young posaaa tha phuiiag« of ^ 
middle of tbe b«Dy of a bravniah-red eolonr, the 
abdomen avoeraUy being hlacltali, tmt withoat tb» 
white mandnga. The malea an gcuemlly the lai^tT, 
and tho auxca ^poar to bo of aitnilar plaBtagai Tbt 
('omraon Rail occiin all througboot Korape; bnl it 
b ntticb luM plentiful in Briti£i than fonnerty. It 
U fotLod ntoat abnadaotly in tbe vwampa of Hwhai. 
Trmee, aad Gennany; it ia aaid alao to OBCor to 
Japan. These btrda do not appear tA be mlgTatm 
in hahit^ lik« tbou- allies the Crakca. Tho Bail b 
a tbj bird, and la little konwn to ordinary obaomn^ 
eliivdy va ac-oouct of Its roUrinR habiUi Tbe egj* 
an? yoUowiflh-wbitA, narked wi^ hrowa fpota; aaJ 
thii young, whnn first batched, an oovetwd with i 
black duwu. Tike ficsb is voiy palatable. 

RAILWAYS, roads suae by pladng- Ibaa ef 
smootb Aud jMnUIel bata between one place and 
Buotbcr, in oracr to diminish tbo rrsiatanca to tna*' 
port of wbeded <r«bkles^ vbi<.-b ar? run upon tbo 
ban or ndk, and to auibU tbecD to be drawn at 
higher vdocitii^. The tMoeai^ lor raflwaya <cigfe> 
alod in the TajmreuLcnta of the coal-traffic of Korlh. 
unnbeilatMUilra, wbare tbe first laHways, tonned on 
tfaa idnn of laaking a distinct sutfaoD and tadc Iv 
tbe wheels, were oonatructed. In 1S7S, near Kew- 
ca«t1c-on-lVn<t, tbo c«ats ware oodveyed (nxn the 
niitiB to tbe bnnks of the river, 'I^ lavlog nib of 
tiiiilKir vxacUy ttruiifbt cuid parallel; and bmkyorts 
W{tre made, with fuur roliers fitting those f^^ 
whi:n:liy Ui<: oarriaga Has made so easy that <xib 
bunie would <liaw 4 or 5 chaldion* at ooaL' "Hw 
rapid wear oS Umbar l«d to the struotnre of CHtim 
nula 100 yran afterwards, aboot 177tf.toKiilaoetha 
wooden anea; aad being liniited ia width they were 
foi'iiicd with a oontiauoigs flaoga or lodge «a ihtar 
innur edge, to kiiop the wbei^ cm the track Tb« 
roadu were then caIIM 'tram-roads,* bai^g beta 
fint laid dmrn, it wim said, hy (intraat, from whase 
namo, omlttlnff the first syUabl«^ tbe word Is said to 
have baaa danved. 

The leading objection to this mtasB — the does 
fanioui tnai-road— was that tbe rau was Bsihlata be 
oofnrod with duet cr gravel. JeoKip^ in ITW, to 
obftato tbac disadvantaffoi, laid demi at Loogb- 
boroiigfa caei-lToa 'cdgB-nZb^' frara wUcb tbe gsi&ic 
ledges were ramoved and applied raoad Ibe edga m 
the wbeek, forming Haagw^ the nil bcdnc olmlsd 
■nAtdently tu allow tbe desoeodiag fianga to dear 
tb* grovnd. This oppean to bare been the first 
8TBt«m of rails Iwl oa cast-iron chairs aod on alsepen: 
tie chain (au called bacnuse they aappart ttM tail) 
being placed at tbort bltorrals, bjkI the sleMto* (in 
called bocause tbey ara supposed to real mdiaCaihed 
In the gHiond) oaiudsting of atooe blocb plaeed 
under tbochuiiL Bat tboraila^baviag beenbuborto 
of osst-iron, proved to bo Uabla to ftaoturo QBdar the 
loaded WHgEons and the locomotive enranea by whiiih 
they wectt dtawu, and accurdlagly, In 1830^ Mr. Bu* 
knnsbaw latrodnnMl Uiit '(iah>b*Uy' rail, which wm 
uf rolled wnnid'ht-IrvD, similar ia form aad node cf 
sopport to Ji-flsop's rill, but rolled in oontiaMna 
lengths, aaibmdng a number of apau^ with s Uffa B hi g 
edf{vB or flanges on tho under sidk TUs bm W 
rail grew into favour, aad wm adopted ia tbe ona- 
stnctioa of the UTurpoot and MancbfsAer Rallvay, 
which was opened la 18Z6. Tho rail weighed O ttn. 
per yard length, and was laid in caaUiraa ehsii^ 
spiked down to sqnnrfi atnn« blocks at distaaoos 3 lest 
qatn. (Tor the application of steam to r^way\ ■• 

ZiOLWOTTVE EydtXK.) 

TJU J'ermanent ir<fjr,— As in aQ roads, tbs Gnt 
eoaaideration b the use to which a rsilwav b to be 



RATLWAtft 



4X9 



i 



■jifdM, amd th« weigbt <m Uw wb«cl* Uut km to ran 
Qtmt VL A wy oanunoiQ miiUk* U Ui owka thd mad 
■ Ihit [i. Ib» praniMiMit wsj, m it ia nlMI, In di*- 
tJDCtloa from tbo tenponrj rail* iwed b; the con- 
Mradon in nuking th« tomI— too irciak. lliis wu 
Iwnly tba onm witfa Atnnlaan roub. On* ol tboir 
>wBart tono* of nil ovn^ited (^f s flat bar half aa 
indi thick ipJlMd dft«& ta locgitii'luiikl limbcn. In 
tba procw of nmniig tbo IraiiM the imn wu cnrred, 
tb* wftkmt loooewoii, and tbo mtU ot tlia ban tnnied 
«|S ud w«n known by tba h&iim of ' makW heada.' 
Oiiariiiiiinj tbojr fiiorced tba bottoma of tfao car- 
riafea and injarad paaaengcta, and it iraa ao Dtionm- 
aioa tbto^ to li«iu- ]Tfi«ir TUfrri BjNMnilato aa to wblch 
Haa tlioy ahould go bv, a» abowltig fonrwt snakw' 



t^o seat oonaidtiratiaa ia that the road ahonli] be 
tbonrnghly «w1) dnJiwd, that all nin-wat«r falUiig 
on tlw Imo may havo facility to ma oS tli« mrfac* 
wftbont aoaldn; in, odiI that all nmcinz water orMn- 
inr th« Una maj be proviiiMl with culVerta to Dan 
WLow it Tbo ato nw ia or aubatraciun ibonki bo 
boddeil oa at Iwwt 12 ladua ia depth of [mooa atonn 
at ftaval, eooititutinf tho ballaat, without any day 
«r <tt«r nalArial fo li thai may mak« an imp^vlona 
bod. In many nlacaa natiual bkllant in not to ba 
bnd, and when olay oxiata tbe prooKm of burainjc ibe 
day la rowrtod to. Tba rallB ahoald bo atlff both 
atrttnaJly and lalandly, ao Ibnt Qiay aboald neitbnr 
riald to tiM Itmfaea of tbo «ngfa»a and tba tnda, nor 
to tbo heavy load* can-led ou tbe vboelf, uid uia- 
minod by th« tmiU at tbo polnta whoio Urn wbeala 
mil orer then ia enooaMioa. Tbo earlieat raOa mads 
ia Bnglaod woa carafnlly mannhcturod of |Dad 
toafb unc, and WM oalmlabKl toatand Um waarand 
lMr«< 100,000 tralna of ICO ton «ad bden bebg 
warn oaL In 1SA7 tha aabatitHtlai of Meel for Inn 
tnmghl a gnat cbai^ in railtraya, giving aboot a 
rfz iGbm grantor andoisnco In rtajwct of wear, and 
a oemidcvablo incMaae la tbe power of rawting 
■bmlaa and Jan. 

Tbo ganaral appeanDos of tba ordinary double 
Una of rail*— tba mp /tn< and tbe dtum line — ot aa 
raUway la abown by flg. S. II CLXVL, la 
tbe arrow* ladkMla tbe ruvnae (Urootiona 
traiaa. Tb« joJata of tbo raila alw> are ticked 
Flica. 4 and 5 re pi aaa u t la [<bui aud vIcTattoa^ 
an an onlatgad acalo, a portion of the raO, di<>wia)t 
ta fact two nila a, a'. Hating in tbo nut- iron 
cbttini AA, on the wood aUoponi eei tbo «oda at tbu 
raUa a/v ualt«d by taro 'nb-platio' Hd, tbo lu*«n- 
•ion ol Mr. W. B. Adama, placad one on Mcfa Mm, 
and bnlteil togeUwr. Tb* raila are kercd in tbo 
cbaini by the oak koya t c Fig. 6 iliowa tbo MCtioDal 
fonuof tbo rail. Via. 7 and i Indicate tbe moUivd of 
canirine tbe rails, and drilling tbo bolea f«r tko tnoaila 
or apikee to faatea dowa the chairs on tbo ale^ien. 
Mr. Urcarea' motbod of wgy ortinff tbe rail* on eaab- 
iron Bl*«porB In tbo lam cf lv*arto<l pr>u U idiowii by 
6g. 9; thU plaa baa biwn eoMidcrably nacO in J^vpe 
and India, beint; of a more dun^e luaberial than 
tinbar. Fig. 10 ahnwa a aperiM of foot'rai] In eec- 
iho, Bwcb uaod In America and on tbe Cootinaot of 
Bnopa. Fig: II abowa the bridga-tafl. kaown alao 
M Ibe Branel rail, hoTiug been introdaccd by tbo 
late Mr. L K. HnimiL 

O w ge vf Hoy.— Tbe gaoge or BwaaarD of a rail- 
way b taken an tbo dletanoo ^art of tba Dppor eur^ 
tacea or tfoada of the two nUt forming a Uae of talla 
or way. Ia Eoglaad tbara aro two ganm^ knowa 
aa tbe 'narrow gauge,' 4 foot S| Incibea wmo, awl tbe 
*bnad gnng*,' 7 foet between Ina tnOa. Hm namw 
- h tba '***'^*' gaago of Oroat BritMa, baring baen 
enidovod by tlu oUor Stopheoaon for tbe UTonxwl 
ft and MaDchoatoc Kailway, and thereupon adaptod ter 



other lloM, with a few exoeptCoaB, the moat Impo/tant 
of whidi it tbe bruail gauge, 7 f««t, introdui'cil by 
tbe youDgor Bronol on tba < treat Wextcm Bnilway. 
lie iooDOvenienooe of the break of gnoge at tha 
jn&ctioaa of the narrow and ths fanad gaafl«>> par- 
ticularly with mpcct tn tbe ooat ami dolay of 
tranaferring p am en gnra and good^ bsve^ howaver, 
within tbe laat fow yenis been felt to ao<^ a cariooa 
degree that It hka boaa daddnd to extend tbe narrow 
gauge over tho wbolo of the ttrcat \V(«t«ni ^yatetn, 
and gradnally to oliminaio the bruad (ia<i|[u of way. 
7be other OKceptlosal ganj^ bar* altwidy bean 
reduced to a lauformity with tbe narrow gaogft 
Tho nogo of rwlwaya in Ireland fe uniformly 5 feel 
3 in^ea, bdng 5^ inch«a wider than tho Engliab 
gauBOi gjTi&C Bore room for tbe conatraotian of tbo 
rdUng atock. Tho Mnropoan gauffe is for the meet 

r-t UM aamo aa the tlitgliah; Imt tne Spanish gauge 
wider, befog S feet ft laiAea^ and oonet i tn t ing a 
break of gnuga wHli Frano^ oo mn ieirially Inooa- 
Tonieut. trat niMMaed to be politically expedient. 
Tho sauge of rnilwaye in India alau is S fnt f> iocbca. 
The AmerioaD gsugo ia varloaa^ horn 4 Teat H| j mA m 
to C foel — mHaf tbe gaagee varying abaat aa Inch, 
and they UrtaidMagn nDiac stock, whkih, of odohh^ 
ninn ti^t aad locM, but taey Unnder tbrongh It. 
The Knsliah natioiial or Stepfaanaoo'e gauge b pcae- 
ticallyolsufBckat width. In Caet certain oagliiMnk 
being ot optaiiin that errea the namw nnge fa wider 
than la really needful, have ooaatrticted mm ot still 
narrower gangea — S feet incbea, 3 feet 3|| tncJiea or 
1 metre, S foot, and even 3 feet wide. Tbe feaU of 
baSe wUeh ban been perfomed on socb narrow 
Banuea bar* bean ODexpectcdh oonaideraMa. It 
has, aowerer, baen am^dy proved that the balance of 
eeonoay elalmed for tba narrowar gangee bea been 
oretn^ad, and that any amtarial deriallon fracn tba 
ordanary gauge la not wturranted by tbe cotnmerclel 
results ot pnctice. 

AoaCc— Ragineeia codcaTottr as to plan tbo worka 
of a railway that tbo earth to be excaTated trcm tha 
hilly gronnd aball be etHial to ibo eatbaoknwnt on the 
valUs* — aSeetlngare-dlatlibutiaoof materia] ntlior 
than its reenoval, and arrlring at tbe doeind nwit 
by the eimpiait mean* and In the most eooaonioal 
aiaiiBitr. A •LnuKht and hnruoulal Uae ta tbe etan> 
dard ot parCoctloai; si»<l the ptoper basin sm of tha 
angbiesr ia layiBg out a railway la to fanrmaolie tb* 
enginoerfsff and financial conditlona of tha prolilam, 
» aa tu yldd tbe groaloal return in pruportinai to Iba 
uaaiey oxpondod-, and that whilst the nQwn may 
beasiUiicr i)aile atnigbl Bcrquile loveLltahould net 
he axooKlvely oostly la eoMtnetloa te orisr to ba 
tnm tma ae\-ora corvea and tCcon gradimli^ nor 
oaoeadvaly oboai^ naldng a beat y line and Inourring 
bcavy woHdng axpoaaa, There le a wbe dlaoredoa 
to be eterdaed in tayioc mt Iba tonio of a new twO- 
wbt; neither, on tbe oao oxtnaa, to dfrert It hither 
ana tbitber toavoid erery difficulty iwembeaceaeory 
eligible district on tho muto; nor, on the other 
exttcne, to tarry it with abwluU dirartaaafc aa iba 
Kmrwr^ir of Uuwta wiUrd trhm he laid out tbemoto 
of the St. Potanbnrg and Uoaww KaHway aa tba 
nsp of Itaaiii^ by ataana of a ralsr and a paacH, 
drawing a malbanatioaUy atraighl Una batwaaa tba 
twoomttals. 

BarUnMrim.—'nm aaithworka of a railway an Iba 
fonwlaticm and support of tlw wbule anpentrartw^ 
and m and) abaula no nnliormly flm, and earrfully 
coMdend erith ro^eel to Mklafitl, [ anpa r a U pa, 
foroi, and dniaaca: of liberal widlli, aaqr IbImI 
slopes, ample baUnat, Iharaagfa drafaiaaa. Fig. U 
PL CLX V, dwtva in tranarcrae eeetkn tha erdtaaiy 
lamatiiai ef a cutting iu aarth; Ibd fcRoaUca,- 
bral a a, 33 feet wide, la bounded by tbe dile dfiloa 



430 



RAILWAYS. 



bb. for oafryin? off thp nin-w)>V<r or mrltod mow 
(mm Che bollAift. Be^rnid Uic aido ilnuiui tlic Blujiua 
amend to thn natnr^J ■urfaroe ot the gruuBd at tha 
nts ol 1 foot five to 2 fcvt faorixontal, or, brivfly, 
I to 3. Upon the formAtinn-lAVGl thn hoUart (^ e to 
depoMtad it EmiI iu drptli, ;iuil aliuiit 'iS feet wid« at 
the tori, Iwtng Kn wiilo 1ti fitct lu t" nxtond 4 foot an 
«aoli 11^ iKyoud the ouli;niiu*t raiLi. The alMpen 
And chain an buried iu tht b&Uast: the raile also 
%zti iiartM\y covrnd with thi! bttUiut. with tli« oir«[>- 
t£ou at '2 uT i inches which ramain a.hova th« 1)alhwt, 
K th»t tbo ndb mftj' reuudu dMic of nm^'el or other 
supcirfidAl obatnietiaiu, ud hivo • dctf trsy for tha 
wheetH. 1'hc total iridtb of the cutting at the biiw 
*itt \» 42 f(«t. Embukmanta ara tha rwaiwe of 
cnilingik being elovatad oivN the nu&oe of tbe 
sronod, whikt cuttings m maik below. The; aro. 
u genend outlin*^ accciding to tig. 2, being n^i!»t<^ 
br the nuim gvmeni dluieiudunt m vuttluxK nra. 
TImh dimoiidoiM art for tha furrow gvige liuiw. 
For broad gaii^ litMA the oattings nad embaoloDAnW 
ajn> wider. In liuth gaugM a clotu' ■paot^ S fact widts, 
i* .'kUnwad b«tw«aD two linaa of nJb. Cuttlac* ar« 
aa deap aa ttvm 50 lo 109 fcot below tlis lorfaoa. and 
fiiubaiikniaiiUi an simihu-ljr iw high nhovti the aur- 
face. Tha Loiuldn uiil Uinningbam Kailwa; had 
ii|iw>uili of 1 lf,OOD,OflO ciibio yard! of ascavation, and 
1^600.040 of axcavation in the original eotinurtcn, 
fit cbm 800,000 imblo yards of aaith-work ]»=r nai»', 
Tho haavicat cutting on tha Itna {• at Triui,-, '2\ tuQci 
lonff, avamifiiiK 40 feet deep, thn grontmt 'l^>th Ix-intr 
60 (Mt The Wiudibur^'h (.-uttiiij;, od Ibu E(Liii1juri;h 
and Glaigaw Kailway, u i milea long, and frnm -^ 
to BO faet deeji, thniu^h moIiH wbinatonan>ch ; it ia »uc- 
caededbyao vmbaukuuuit 1^ milaa long and AO foot 
bigh, foUowad In Imiaadlata luoooMlm bj a rtMio 
viaduct half a mila Itmg and 80 faat high. In tha 
foniiii.tiau of tho ftimuiiii nriad way over Chat UoM^oa 
tbc LiiL-miul tind Miuicbcatvr Baflway, 670,000 
cnUa yard* of peat wcru ooiuoime^l in forming 
377,000 cubic y^rda.of ctnbaiikiucut. LarK«i ijuau- 
titiu of amhuikinaiat euik in tha nioas; and when 
the eiiipiuMir. after a miinth'n rigonnui ofieratioiu, 
bad inad« np hb '■"■"■*—. the ^t|taieDt work dona 
WM often Ecfa than at the baginniiig of tha tnoatii. 
Cbftt Moia MMM 4 milea aoroM; cattle oould not atiuiil 
on It, and « bar of ttuD would rink In It. Tbe ndl- 
way waa made tci float on tb« bog; Mid il mwat bo 
allowed tliat the mactering of Ih^ dtuatiaii, U[i|)r«'- 
i.-«k'iili.>J At Uie tlmc^ aflonlad an auaijatiiical i>nnf 
of thai admii-nbla •df-reliaooe wUoh never coLtvui- 
plated failure. 

Tunar.U.—lti pasinn^ thraogh the conaocative cut- 
tiui;B of a nulMav Iravellen umially oonaldn tliab 
thcaa through nick miwt hava boan daqwntta imdwr- 
takingi^ very much inore vxpeuiTD Hun cuttings 
OaooA clay. 1'h«ir ralative ODStai howerar, do not 
gr ea t l y diffvr; fur nut only doea the vertical rock- 
cutting roijuirs loat oicavntirii than the wiiio yawning 
euth-cuttuig of the >anm depth, witi) vxtvodcd itlopci^ 
but when it i« executed the rock>(nittinj{ is not liable 
to tha axpeoalTa allpa whlc-Ji aumattuim ovartalce tha 
other. It il utual to prefer cutting at any depth leu 
than 60 feet below the mirfitro of the graunid; for 
greater deplha it ia usuAlly cbt-ajx-r Ui tuiinel. The 
hiatory nf Uio Kilaby tiinn*!, on tbe Ixindon and 
North -Wettcni Kailway,i«ii]teit«tint;i thvcugineer'a 
ddlberat« opioion waa that tbe line ou^ht to pan 
through the town of Nurthampton, an airangcment 
which would, if tMomtinl, havn vaaUy cnfaonoad tha 
eommarcial |>ruiverit.y of the town. The iahnbHantia 
bowairer, oppoaed the pnjitt. and R)U«eded In dia- 
tortiog the Uno tia the KiUby tunnel — wlJcti, if tho 
MOJeotad plan had liei;ji uloptml, would niit have 
MSB raqfutfed— to a point 6 milea off. It woa not 



then Mintlderad that ranwayi ooold muan oda mail 
Olid atage cooehai; tiiey were re|r*rdad m, $m« 
declared to be, 'but itnoky mihatitulca tor canak' 
The ttuuuil ■« 140 feet bclo'w the cuilaoe. It la 1 nib 
3 fuiionga long, 30 feet wide^ and 80 (acc biglK mi 
baa two wida air-abafla, SO fact in diamater, deaeeW- 
ing fniin the aiirfam^ to admit light aa well aa air, t» 
ennblv thL- eiiginb--dri>'eni to ix the nlli tma and la 
end III thii tunnel Tha tunnel oast WM^ £SWJMi, 
or £12& jier yiud running. The funoua Box tone^ 
on theGreJit Weatem Railway, waa auotlter ttiJEcnll 
and expwuu'va work, placed 70 (ael baknr tiim sv 
faee; It is 1] milea long, and it has daraa nlrabsila 
The tunnel under tlie &found, at Ediotmr^ ea Ik 
Ediiilmrf;b and Gla^now lialloay, ia fortuTd isca- 
larly. 28 feel in diameter. Fig. S, IMata CLXV,li 
an elevation of oo« end ctf the tnitnel, and fi^ 4 k a 
iKictiuu, ahuwiug tbe drcalax arch at the **™'"J. boil 
of bridi, 8 feet in thickness with tita caoBtarfwl 
under ground, on wbicb tbe tunnel and Ha Hui«j» 
cmnbent load may be conceived to float— tbe Uaasd 
b«atii{ ill fnct ail acL-iimiilatiaa of kwaa aarth aki 
rabbiiah <I(i|HuiitiHl in tbo vallay which ■■rp(**tT' thi 
new towu vf Edinburgh from the old, OQ a boggj 
SCO. 

llu) longeat Kngliah railway toniMl ia the 8twl 
Sdga t*i TT"*l i on the Liondj^n and Nortli'Wartin 
Rafltray from Liverpool and Maaebcater to TTwTflni 
tiald and tha north, its laagtb bwng 3 nUea lad 60 
Tarda. The next longest ia «t woodbcod, ea tk« 
Mnauheater, Sheffield, and LlnaJnahira BaOway, I 
DiUuM oud CO feet long. 

Tho undofground •y«t«m of nnwnya—lks UeMo- 
politan and the District lioilwiua— whi<li haa beM 
fur ■ereral yeani tu uixiratiun la Loudon, b a ninsrir 
aUa ^iplI«»tion of tho tunnel, wbaraby Uaas td nail- 
way an carried through tbe mativvotii bio tbe bean 
of the city, and droolata on enonnon daily tnib 
between the dty and tbe western distrhfta 'Dat 
length of tbe combinod sjratom ia apmrdi <t V i 
nearly thrco'fourtha of which is nnd 

llnd'jtt and Viadartt. — The gene 
an ordinary brii-k or atona bric&a la niaiiamti) ty 
fig. fi, VUix CLXV., ahowioit a bridgo ov«r or andv 
a railway. If ocroaa a ctittiog, over a nulwoy, iW 
fuuitdatiuna are Ltid in stem on tb* ooUd aabail 
eanh, aa indicatoH by ilntbeil Unea on the left cl lbs 
figure; if undur tbe railway. In ooBtinnotiim ol aa 
rmbonkmen^ tlie fonadatiana ar« bttOt vf mm* 
from the aulid gnjund, a* indicated oo the rtgnl d 
tbe tlguio. Manv bridgea have been bnlH ol uiahcr 
and of cast-iron; Dut tbeae aiatariala — th«fo(tn«br 
want of dnrablUty, tbe tattar on oeooiunt of ita fariiUe- 
neas and nncartunty— have generally baea man- 
aedud by wronght'iroi], forming plate-girdor bo«e>- 
There ore many stone viadncta of gnat luelb. Iht 
Tiodiut orer tho AlnHod toIIoj, on tbe GdfBbmgh 
and Olaagow lUilway, ia T'JU y»d> loof. or aaaii; 
half a mile, bavin^,' thirty-six a«meotal arebis, 
eotih 7S feet spaa, 'l'h» ICnIbum Viadnet, en th* 
oania railway (ropmicntcd In lig. A), oonlalBa ei^t 
■egmantal archn, 5U ferl alWO. Tbe BaUochmyl* 
Yiadnct, uvcr Ui« rljcr Ayr, on tho Glasgow and 
Soutb-Wostcm Itailway, spooi tbu riter by a sc^ 
circular arch of 1 SO feet span— tbe largeet apaa «f 
railway moaonry in thti country, or probably any- 
where—with six BBialkn: archr* of &0 feet apoii, 
shown iu figs. 7 and S, tbe elevation and pUo. ula 
only other utone bridge of gTWtOt IBKI M tba MB- 
nkou-rood bridge over the De6 at CaMtAT, SOOJ 
apoa 

Tbe CoQgletoa Ttaduc4, on tbo 
Jlirtnini^'hftin RaUway, la perhap* the Icngaat in Big- 
liuid: it ia uf atono, 1028 yards, or mora than half a 
mile'long, and 100 feet Ugh; U cost fllS^OOOkar 



RAILWAYS. 



4S1 



I 



I 



I 



<U1 ptr fMd nm. lliv AvoaVtwlitcLoittvin^ 
bnd aaHwmy, Is of brick, UI'J yatda loof, St UmI 
hIA, with tAtntn AnJin of 60 (mI r)mii: it oo«t 
£14,000, or £60 per jtmiI mu. llie ItriUonia IVibn- 
Iv BiiJev, acTOM Uw M«iiai Siraita. u 4tH yftrds, ur 
BOfq thfto a third of * milu In leagfth. and 102 fcot 
hJ^; it CMt £600,000^ or 'Cdri mr >anl ran. Vu 
IIh dlfftrant liiie* entarina Londan thant ara mora 
tlMu U nQa* of brick viMucto la the ftppraaobei to 
iMiiiIiii At Mftnchcatvr and tAitot lu^t dtita uid 
•OWBi tbera u« tuilM of nmilAr worlu, oxtendlnf 
«A«u M far M tba «;« caa nach. Tberw are at Iinat 
80 milw of Tiaddcta la Uw UalUd Kingdom. 

Tke laM Sir WiUiam Taiifaaini vna tho pioneer 
tot th* introdncdoa of railway briit^M Qoiutnictcd 
«f wnnghl-non plat«« riv«tt*a togvUier. Tho fint 
wnogfai-iroD tabolar girdor-lnidgv comtiuotad bjr 
falai, VH «c«ct«d for thn jiurpoie of eu77fai2 tb 
^nMkbnni aod BoIUm Roilmi^r over Ihs lJee£ and 
lirwpool (.^uuU. Tlw apui of tb« hridf* la 00 ImI; 
tb«« ar« tlu«« longitudinal girders, botwevo which 
tb* pktlBtM of the brideu tt coiutmctcd, to oarry 
two BMs of rMl, on« line between eot^ two sintera. 
Tir^i ^nler omuubi nf a rvctangolar-oellBlu- top, 
«oaipoaed of plate*; two vectfoJ ndo plate*, and a 
liMtan eoaabtfng of two platw J liieh tnlok ifrotted 
together. Tba ecllnlar form of the top wm adopted, 
am that whidi waa fotuul to Iw tho atixmg««t form for 
nabtlnfi tho ODiDprMfive ■Imin, tcndinu to rupturu 
Irf bncUDf or doubliit(r up th<< ptatu; whilst the 
euople plate form of the lower mombcr of the girder 
waa beat adapted to rmuI the tetuule ■tntin to which 
It ia rabject. 

Ilie comparative ceonomj t4 the wrought-iron 
l^rdar^ildge aa compared with a CMt-imo Wdm of 
«Ml ma and elrBnirth, b eien^litied in the bridge 
wiUeh ha« jnat Spmi Botfoed It ooittalu 30 tou of 
vnraght-lruu, which eort £000} whereai ft cwA-iron 
bridge lor tb« utue ntaatjon would bare ooet half na 
a»M) a(;aln, noil would have contained in the aggre- 
^to tbtve tttnoi u much metal. 

Asuogtt the oarUeit, and eti'II the moat ramark- 
AUe of wrangbt-iroB milwaj bridgca, tho llntonnia 
Bridn owme ct a the {aland of Anirleeaa with tb« 
mMJ u tu A «l Walei. Tbia btidge waa dadciwd bjr 
JL Btafhaeon lo cany tho Cbmter iM Holy* 
' Baihra; aeroM the Memi Stmili^ and i> repre- 
d Ib Flate XX^IL It oonaiata of two wnugbt- 
tnba '— Uterallj, roctan^olar boxe»— with opan 
Mda hid dda by aide, thnugb awdi of wUi& (1m 
tnine |«a^ on ft Una <d raU laid oatbe floor of the 
tabce. Tm tnbaft ccet cm two ahutracnta at the 
Bade, and en time iutenrndiate piera^ on which 
tb«7 ara eoppottod at a dear height of 100 feet 
ftboTc high watsr-Ieml. Each tube ia 14 teat wide, 
and 3« feet Ik bdsbt fauide, at the central nortleo, 
and b I61S feel lb length, wUdi b cearidenUv 
mora tbaa a <iiurier of > milc^ The two middle 
apMH mmwiiii MO feel between the plera, and the 
tw» ildft epftM an ^0 feel tV total length of 
tlwbric^ieI842f««t,ororwathirHof amil^. Ite 
— oww mober of rireta naed in the conatraetioo 
ol thn bridge UBounted lo S,OOO^OoO. Tbe Uttal 
wei^t ol iron oaMnined anomled to abont 10,000 




Mvn reoantlj the ginlne of wivucht-Ina bcld^ 
hnn bean ooortmoted of httiee-wwk, Inalwid of 
eonHimow pUtea^ m In the bidfM wUoli hm bc«n 
denccibed; and It b thongbl that equal atoei^ b 
e4italned with tea malanal. For iUnetnticM of 
laQway btUgM of the Ggbolv and the laltiee fonn 
ti MoMncnoa. mo aitkb Bbuml and Platan 
XXVL and XJLVIL 

AWmw— The great theatiea of tbe opentlom 
'> to tka banafer tfvai ploeu to jdaee of per- 




Moa and gwida^pndiainary and mhacqtieat to Iha 
ttucpoti, M wall M at certain e|>acha bi lt« progieaiV 
an the etatiotia. Stattona an aitber 'terminal' or 
* inteimedi^e.' The vaatbuildlnge and their depend- 
enciea whidi oonatitute a chief terminal ataAMO of 
a groat line of rmilway eonabt [triDiartlj of three db- 
tinet department*— 1. The p aiw i i g Dr atation, mpfn- 
printed to the embedunent and diacabarlcment of 
tho ineaeiiiieia, and other objecta of trafSc^ ae noall 
parcda ud mail% whidi an tarried by the auna 
traina. i. The goods rtatloa. vhidi b appropriated 
Vi tht< reecptita and cmhailcB)cnt« anil the dlaeaibark- 
lamt and diachai^ge^ c4 gooda and Uve-atock trana- 
mttted by lailway. 3. liie loootDotliw, camage^ and 
waggon depbta, where tba enginea and the carn^ 
•tuck repoac, are clcatiedt examined, and repauao. 
At maoy intermediate ataUooa tbe aane arrange* 
meata, on a nnaUer icale, an mada; in aD of thea 
tfien ta at leaat acoo naiio da ti oa for the pawe m ger and 
thajcoods traf6& 

1^ avlectlou of tntt^nnedlate aCatlona, tbdr nan* 
bor, Bituatioji, and arrangemetit, b intnanoed mainly 
by the OAturc, cst<:flt, and oocapBtim of the local 
popdatini) ; and tbe fint atep aboiild l>e to get a good 
mail or all the pUcea wltUn tbe aonne of the railway, 
and to mark u[k>d it tbe pgpabtioa uf each place 
from the laul parliunentary oenaua. Than u »0 
doubt that tbe greater tbe Diiiiit«r of atation^ the 
mure the tiavalling increaam; for it b foend thai 

r' ck and cheap tranalt fay railway not only Inoreiaae 
esbling tsi&t, but aotnally cveatea tnffle when 
none waa lo be found bofore. lu an eu^oMing 
point of view, every effort ahoald bo made to ■cccie 
for a tcmunna or other boportaat itatktn, and foe 
staticna ganecallj, a pe^tko on tbe nrfaoe, rather 
than on an embaaksuM^ or a viadoct, or bi a cuttiBg. 
yacQitlM of aoeaa* In all directlana from the a«f 
ruundiag dbtrleti^ with nod roada In the caae of 
pMTin-er traffic and good water and railway oom- 
niuuIoMioD fur good* dapoti^ are obvioiuly iiuuapena* 
able For aafety and regnlarj^ than ahould be an 
oninteRtQitad now alcng the line of nllway, by 
avefdlflf ihirp owTM and a oomplioalion of over- 
hridgaa in the vfainity of a lam aiotioci. 

The St. Panena {Euatou Koad) terminal atatfon 
of the Midland Railway b add to be tba iMgM ta 
eiiaUmoa. Tbti platfnrmj an corcrod hy a roof with 
a apui of SIO feet. Rbig-a Crim atatioo b anolber 
meat extodve uelnfiDUtaB nation. It waa boUt 
origiitaUy f or the OM of tha Oraal Noffthara Baaw^ 
only, bni via aflerwardi nodilSed and axtandod In 
the gooda d^artmaakt, to aeoMnmodala tfaalraileef 
the MidiaiiditaOwfty, -wiidih, by an axtenaien aaraaa 
the country fran Xiawaatar atatioa to Hitdiia aladoa. 
on tho (inat Nortbera Uno, foiiiul an entry fnlo 
London by Klng'aCroa^ faidepeodent^ of tbe Im<^ 
don and Kotth-w«at«ni ronta, Tbe wfaob alalicn, 
for naMtager and goadi tnAe, and for tbe fwpatm 
at tne loooaM>ttTe dojnitBen^ eoeand M aow of 
ground, aa otuinaBy Ud out; and oontalned ISi nilai 
gf linai of ra£ It hm litm bean gnatly anwaad. 

HnntlBgdon Matkn, on Iha Grant Kerlham BaD- 
way, b caw of the principal farttnaediale autbna 
en the Una. Tba atalaan-yanb are boanded by a 
road al ooa end and a clTer ai th» othar, and tbe 
platf oma an naoeiarily uppo aed. Tbe wala Una 
b kept entbdy Ina of tnra-iablea, which ara placed 
oady on Bi^nff^ The atatim b 760 yarda ia lenyth, 
or nearly ( aule betwaeo tbe extnma polnta of the 
Bwitchei^ and than an S4M> yanb of lUins, aiagi* 
Uu, «r khotA S mOaa of ildlac ta aU, baaldaa tha np 
and down Ibfou^i Unaa 

Tba oritaaiy atatbaa an thb Ibe an, with a wba 
eeenony, caaMneled io n Bfwwun odaU a graal espan- 
aion til baOo. They an 700 ta 800 yarda In bagth 



4SS 



EAILWAYS. 



bnCireen sstrcrmo poinU, nr nearlr ( mQc, sad Uwy 
coaUin about 'MiO vards at hidings, smgio tine, cc 
inoT* tlutn 4 miln total Irngtlu 

ExUnl of Sidlnffw. — Tlw iaeraMuitt trftlEo of the 
oldar ndlwaTe hu led necesBuJl^ to » greator un 
of tbn ado li&ea, *n incrsaaa of siding nxun, wid na 
•lUnaEon of alatlona. Hie dirtribiitioii of fidbiR 
acoommodadoD on thu Xiondoa ftnd North- WeMero 
Railway, u it tnd«UA In 1853, ia Jnatractira On 
the nsftin lino nf thn ■niithcm divuinti, fmm l.nnd(in 
to BirTiiiii;;liiuu, 113 mUos ttiera wriv in all &S mUea 
of sidbg, idngU llov; Mkd on the total Iflngtb of lin», 
315 nui*M, there were 68 mike of ndiag. liagle linu: 
In the ptofiprtloii of about b&lf the whole kngtb for 
the bnuik, and above a fotirtb for the whola divbioa, 
or 1 DiiliB of aidinpi, KiDfilo Han, to 3} niltM of rail- 
way. For tho totiil Itnplh of railwuy, 6-15 mtle*, 
IliKO is 1 mile ij{ Hiding. bihhIb line, to C^ aD«a of 
railway, the stationii aTRraging about 4 niflea Aiwrt. 
The great prepamtiou tor uo aorominodation uf the 
traffic tbns forcibly Indicated by the pnpottion of 
■idbig room, Muggeata the great magnthtoo of the 
buabeaa done. 

lotwiwtiit AatMnu.—Lorainotivo etatiou ^tuld 
^K dtuatod at or near tha principal tennlnaa of the 
railway, imflidMitly d«u- to a Xiii^ town to insofa 
tb« fncility for iihUiiniiig' maicriaU and workmoo ; and 
■iitnciMntlv f w "IT to bv oI<»r of the buavy load tnxo* 
wiLh wUidi such large eetAbliahmente In alt large 
towns ore knrilnned. 

llic luooukntlveilation of the UancfaeatM-, SbnnJnld, 
and Linoolnahire Railway Is wlected for flliiatrntiou. 
It ti attuatod at Gorton, ahnat 2 milM from Man- 

chaetor. the tint p«iU0Q Whi^re the raiiwa.)- anil thn 

laadtukeUicsAiue lareL The lolal t|uiuttUy of land 
pttrdiaaed 1* noarly 30 acree, about of whloh are 
ocoiipled by the worksbope and atcn-yard; tho 
rcmamdar la used for tho roiutmctloa of reservoir* 
for sun>lylof[ the works with water, and fw Drocting 
ootto^ QpOD it for th« work-people in the orrmpnny'ii 
Mrvle«. 

l%eMock-p1an<fi^.l,l'1.1JLXVI.]ibowithr.^>rtun->J 
Hiran^iuent and rolalive poaitious of the ii)iti|.n, vm- 
togas, rteervoira, 4«. The rvMmin o aro calciUatol 
to h^ld a muntit'a oonsnmptlon of wntfr, and arc 
'lapiilie^ froiD th^ adjotBing canal, the w>tcr puung 
Arou^b filtrr-lieih in its coiinw frnm the ciuud to 
tho mwrvnlrs. Thwit reei-r>oini, frwni tht-lr oIoTatvd 
positinD, >ii|)ply the water directly Into the tender* 
upon tha railway, anil throughunt the w(irksbo|«, the 
canal betug ul a ntfllcitintly high Ibt«1 to supply tliona. 
The iKittagM b are 140 In number, airanKcd in four 
blocks. The plan of the works Is niArly sqoaro, the 
ottranoca belnf placed towanls tho cottj^ua on the 
eaat side of the works; and adjoining are the offlcM 
and general atoms A. 

Ttu! eneino-boutCi or abed for m^tam oo duty, r, 
U * rotunda of l.'iO feet in diameter inriilc-, and i» 
capable of holding ■(•vvnteen dh^^km with thrJr 
tenders, Wring thn rutnuMw and «xlt lluea clear, 
He adrantagfl of this amuigfmmt (shown moro iu 
detail In fig. 2) ovrr Uio mlinary polyifoaal nngiiie- 
Imusn ia in the absence of pillars for luppoitlng the 
rrwf, of which then ar» twdw for a twelve-aided 
polygon; in this building there ia bat one otduinm at 
the centre. To the Itft of the entnuice is a fumaes 
for holding live fiinl, from wbiob the englnea an 
lighted; and tliero are two Unee of raUa acron 1^ 
neutral tum-tablo, on ana of which tbfi engines enter, 
and on the other depart. Between tlie rails at eadi 
radiaUni; line a pit is oonstmcted to afford acoees 
btlow the engine* for inspection, llie roof la of 
WTonght-lron, annBoantsd by a louvre for ventiln.tion, 
which y glased bo admit light freely. To the left of 
the rotunda are the workshops^ with stationary oogine- 



hooso and bodtr. IV fittfav sad tool shop eoBtalnt^ 
In tbe Uodc if la ISO feet ^ SO feet, and cei^taiai 
nearly the whole of the toola Tlte aaithi^-ahep It 
leontiguons to the fitttng-efanp, in tbe same block, and 
of equal dlmeusiuos; It ountains sixteen smiths' Stm, 
dgfat on each side. Next to Ibia ia (ha boSar-efacfib 
of the same siic, with eight auHliar fire^ and fonr 
fimt fr>r heating l>ot1er-p!atas, and a fudishiog and 
abearitig niatrlilne. Next to tbeae ia the ecvctitt^ 
shop, 1AI> feet long by 60 foot wide, containing niat 
traiwvrnio linm of rails, each to hold twa caging 
•n Diit cii(htaeneagineaiiMy be faoowd ben at eoea 
lliLTv hiv intvaUIagaaaea tattbtibop, whiefa travaaa 
it for its fall length, and capabla of u ting any ca^ 
anil moving it to any port fd tba abopb 

To the left are the carriai^ and w a ggo n riup t, 
the waggona baing on tbe ground floor, uid lb* or- 
riagea abor^ to which elevation they arc laisMl Ibj 
a Mf>aoUDg woiiD-hoist, worked by tbe statausaij 
engine, Theae ibopa an 320 f^t 'by 70 Icet, aul 
can raodve fifty waggons and thirty -cigbt canisgw: 
and attaobod to them an tbe Ufting-room and Iht 
trinmung and saddlery reran. The lioes of raO b 
tbe engtine and waggon shnna are aervBd by a tra- 
verur, for means of Dnmmunication with tbe eitciMl 
linear Boridea these buUdtnga, there are In tba Uod 
/ a nidnt-abop and a abed for locouotirea ia imtnt, 
140 feet by iO; alK) a oolM^bed g. 100 ImI by 4(^ 
so oonatraoled that tbe coke waggncM stand oa oit 
aide, whilst the locoinotivM approaoh and nedn 
their cliaige of fuel en tbe iitber sidrt, tbe enka bsog 
auawured Into bmkota nn tbn interrening platfona. 

There are four lines of rails ltit» tiw mm, wUdk 
with the tnni-tablM and tbe armiMiiHBt eS lUa^ 
extemiilly, are shown in the plan, Sg. 1- tht laiyr 
detail ptan, lig. 2, diowii the rotunda with its cenlal 
turn-table, and the di« urgbog tinra of talL 

BnHdUi and tfrornitjf.— Tbe OM «f «vllcbH lal 
crDenngs w to tann a link of eoaninnnleatloD belwan 
one line of rails and another, of ti4ddi naay m 
rajuired at and atviit rtulway trtations and at jtae- 
tiona, as caemplitied in the illuatratkHH fig. 8l Titiy 
are usually eonstrueted with ordinary raiU f^ » 
oarrled in caat-bon diaiia apftod dcnrn to alea^ 
Tho switr.h-rail* are movable, and ate werhea ^j 
Toda, to which hi-avy wdgbia are attached, the foK- 
tioD of the wdghta b^ing tn rotain tbe nointa bicM 
poatJon. and to act m a telf-netine aajnaltnaDt b 
Kstorins them to ft - their normal poaitlao — iftv 
having been sbiftvd fur the pssssge of a trun. 

When only one of the teTrninaT rails I* movable It 
is etUled a single switch, and is uaed only on ddip 
or branch lines of rail; tbe double awJtdM Mag 
iDorK porf«(t tu action, are adopted on tbe main Ibfc 
and, lui n general rule, awitcbee on tba niafa Has *n 
ordered to be laid with tbe polnta Id tbe dbeethn tl 
the traffic ao Uiat paaaltic tr^iB ouj twi out ^ tbt 
points and not into them. ' Kariag-poial a ,' oa Haf 
are termed, aie anob aa aie laid oo the nuln line lac- 
lag at pointing towards tbe regular advandog tiaiaa 
Many accidrois have b«en caused to traina by laoBg- 
pciinta improperly srit nr out of order tiimi]^ the InIB 
unexpectedly into a sidinji, with tbe impcaatUlItf (f 
polling up Id tbne to prevent a cotfialoo, at thtevbg 
tba train off the rails altoc:etbcr, prodaciDg wfcai b 
called 'denulroent' in moJcni rrulway parlance. Ss 
dangerons are facing-points felt to he, partlmlarif 
eo hlgb-epeed llne^ that on aome raQwaya they ■* 
abaolntely forbadden at all except terminal ataifaat 
and at intemMsdinte etationa where everr tnda il 
ordered to atop^ In some dtuatinns thia rule caa edy 
bo followed by aaorificfaig ahnplioit'ir and iucreMfct 
the number of backiug-palnta^ DuB it bo dcatbl AbI* 
n!ah«a the rlak of acdoent. 

Turn-Uibln. — Tbeao are ot two olaaaaa- -(or liasl>( 



K A I I. W A Y S . 



l-LAIi: I'ISVII 




rtlMPIl'ilTK ( AI(III.M3r. - nUST ^.-SkluMl I'l.ASS. 



fi — n T B 11 





.vi.i, /:i.,„i,.,„ .\..i,..; ,.,.! /.. .1 :. 



■A 



:iR^*f 



^^^^ 



-^ 



^Kg^ 




irjsi^ 



I A'lTI.K "AliU'IV 
.•il.li f!i ..in.- 



r-t-^ 





;E:.i 

, " 4. 









1. 1_ 



.' ' I -. . .. 



RAn>WAYa 



«» 



oftiriagca anil WKggmii, uid tm turning on^o* antl 
imnSen to|C«tli«r. yur the cAirjitin stock Ibey an 
13 to 14 fwt in dianwtw, aufBdently l&n;a toncvlv* 
MnnaienUy nbickw of which tb« wb««lii no 8 to 
10 teak apMt betwiMD the ooitraiL Tum-tkblM ordl- 
o«ril]r 1MM an of «ut-iraik oanrlitg two tranavone 
ham €< laili, aaA nvolv« npon & eentnl pivot and 
Bonloi] Tollm nckr the (iimunl«r«nccv vUoh are 
■ p h aM and turn u^nn • tiut-iniD baae beddad in 
•Mnaal, or oa a bu3t fotiodauooi. 

XW turning cnciDc* aod t«ndw« togetliu-, and 
tka RpanM&ff ma ateattiij (ormsrly eznerlmroad 
of inflMipliac tham to bs turnet) aa mull tablM^ 
tan-teUaa M lest long or thcroliy an rnnind 

Trm¥irttrf. — Theae are a convetdoat >untltut« for 
tnn-tablei, paiticalarljr for worldne a number of 
IMntUel lines of nuln. A traiDfaar is auniyty a low 
ractaagular Imat-, uiiulc* wHIi two omfaang raila, to 
raerin ewriagoa or yrKgons, and movaljle i» tolltti 
atmtm the line* of rail, mi m to roc«iv« tha OHnfaco 
frOM a^j oma llaa of rati aoil Je]HBit it on any other. 

W a l tr t ran**. — Watar-cranea am er«otad at con- 
vwbut tpota for daUvoring wntvr la tha locomotirn*. 
Tha tqnifffat cotuiQa la ftnaly erect«cl, and cootaina 
(to niipH-pipo, which aBomda wJIbin it from lh« 
gfoaaa. 1^ horiumtal mrnibnr i* in dim-t aiiu- 
BOoioatloQ wUh t]ie niii'lyijiiv niUiiii thf- iviluuia; 
nmMBf freely, ao aa to be anriDf; out of ILa way 
vlian But in nmr. It ii Riiflii'ii-ntly long t<^ reacli 
aver tlw tniddla u( the liue of taiH "iid biu attached 
V* It a laathwn bm* to dir«ot the oumat of wai«r 
iolo the tendor. 

giffitaU.—By eommoii entiMnI railway ectnfianiM 
iMra arrived at the adoption nf iha Mmapboni aignal 
for ragulaling the iiiotiiuimiU of Iralnti but the 
«iwiipaiiiaa do not all work It by tba nine code. One 
■BDaCBr uaca It to j(iva two ■<;"»>■ and aaolhar to 
^v« tbiaa; a thini wfll have an aiixiliary or dittADt 
dgml, placad at SOO or <l>0 Tarda from the itadoD. 
to art w a npfiattD^ iii;nal, hla nd;;bboan {vatbapa 
pnCerrtaf to tue it only tut a i^aulioii. The aeuia- 
flMCa ia |Mriect in the ntnplidly of iu form and Itii 
BfltfoB, eooiMlna of a plain, flat board or 'ann,' 
bjr one of its oitromitlaa to an alovatad peal 
■dud. To ilgnal danger, or, in facit to forbid 
;a of an engine or train, tbo arm u turned 
out, pcnwndicuiar to the poet; when lb* 
free for tbe paaumc it the ttnin th« am la 
tnnwd down Into a diajrooal pcaitian, aay at 45*, or 
a tnlbee Ian angle, with the puat. It ia now unitor- 
aally agraeil that tbe mJatt innchiMl of working the 
a^uk of a rmOwiiy I* what ia colled the block aya- 
ms, neoording to which an interval of apac^ 
namely, the diaUn<oe between two rii.'nal-busaB, la 
alway»kof4 between two train* on the umo tine. TIib 
■gnalnan at «■• dgnal-box doea not aiipud a ttnin 
tt paa urtU bn baa nedrad intimatioQ aj telapa^b 
that tba previeo* tnin baa paaaed tbo neit boi 
ia ailiaiK-A Utbcr caoMiutial elemeata of aeourity 
ooaalat inaoleardeJbiitionaf tbodutieaof the attend- 
■nl to tbo ilgnal^ their atrict enfiimnment, the aaleo- 
tioB of tba DKtat anllnble men, tbdr adequate remune- 
ration, and penvidias then with oonvenient, warm, 
waU-fitted ledip^ with amplo window -apaee, within 
wUA Iboy nay kaep a oonalant watch over the line 
wilbont asfoanra to weather. At juoctiona, when 
tbo eigml-BMUi worka the pointa in connectioi) with 
th« wgnali^ hia lodge or box ebould Lo raited aoma 
beL|bt above the nifac*, to giro him parfaoC B^cr- 
■rtaoB in avery direetioa. Tbia iiet^M him ont of the 
Wtiyof fovipa, and be ia leM likely to be diatmded 
in tbo dMofaar^ of hie diitia« A riadlar praoavtioa 
ia of iervioe at bQ otbw Inpottent dnal-atatfona, 
*T0B whan painta may not ba WMiuhl m """"^t" 
withrinaln 
Tm. XL 



At night it b needful to npely the pboa of eeua- 
pbora 1^ btrga aad powwfnl fampa, with nOectoia, 
ca)Mhtile of nbowinf light* of dilfereni eolontOL Um- 
ally a red light la naed aa tlie equivalent rf the 
atraight-out wiaapbura, aud a white of the tncliiml 
•emaphora. Hkey are chaagtd cither by revolving 
the lamp on Its axta, (o praaent a diHorajit Ada with 
a diflereutlyculoured ^aa^oc by retaiiiiag the laanp 
ita a fixture, and ilidlag diBBranlly*ooloured glaaoi 
in befan the liKhL 

It ia easily undentood that the ragnlatien of the 
tnuffio at the junetiooa of naift Unea and bnachae 
ia oaa of the toMt imi-ortaat fimctioBi of tba igaal- 
ling appnratua. Aa the number of junctiona inoMeed 
wi^ the axtendon aad moltlplicaUaa of railwmya, it 
beonme apparent nut oaly that dlatinot algiuli mart 
be given for diatinci Unea, but that aonM UmI o( «•• 
oer^ed a^inn miuC be acvurrd Iwtwean rignnk and 
fwitdwa, which might otherwlaa bo iwiltwUnf; tba 
atenabt tor exan^lB^ loL^ ba opaii for tba paaua 
of n train to a paftieular Una of nfla wMi iSa 
■witcboa ntight inadvertcotlj be cloaed bo that line^ 
Aoddonta, ^deed, hnv* happeanl from aoob oontimnr 
aedon of the ligiMla and awitebM; hence the lignala 
and ttarir rolattn ■witebw or poinU wen ooane c te^ 
•o that tbay woald more siniultaneeualy, tboogfa 
It wna found tliat ocraaionnlly the ewitobea moved 
and the ngnala did aot, or r*c< nr*l, SabaeiiBcatly 
they were tntorlodwd In aucb a aaaaer tut tba 
movemeut of n iignal to the poaition of aafiaty ooidd 
not be comtnonced until aftnr the neceeaary move* 
meat of the awitclie* waa oum|ilolinl, and that, on the 
ocntnry, the movflnenC of tbo nrltcbM ooold UPt ba 
commenced until after all tba aigaala eoBCoraed witb 
them had been eet fully to danger. The inlcelookbig 
of algnala and nitcbea waa int appBed at Eaat Bat- 
fold JnnetioB ia IMS. lliii ayatMu la Dowgoaanlty 
practiiod. >'or the working of an iintinat7 donble 
inaction — Uiat U, of the janciioo of two double linea 
of way, nine levera an nquind, name ly — op awltdi 
lever, down awitch lever, np main dlMaot rfgnal, 
up main junction «gnal, np branch dialanl rignal, 
ilowii Dijiiu juuellun nitnat, down braoeb jtuwtfoo 
rigsal, doi^n diatant ligmd. The ban ndtal of tltMi 
functioDa eullioie to im|>r«aa one with a aenaa of tba 
high date at urgauitatiiiD lo which th<t laaiiagaaiaul 
of gnat railway aratema baa arrived. 

Varriagta and n'mrtfoiw. — ^Tbe carri^»4l«ck ooof 
priaaa alt vehialei eoooacned la tbo oaBveyaooa at 
IHMiamiiiiiiiil lliiiii linm«gii. ami nf [iiliiln laiilajiM 
and boiai^ the vebietoa to csrry the latter uaoaUjr 
being attached to and rvu aa part of the paae^nr 
train In which their owae« an oooveyed. Vtta 
waggon^toek ooiapriata the vehiclce eeoploved In tba 
unnveyaaoa oi mardiandiae, mineral if and Li ve-etock. 

Tba AwMoalioD of canAagea into thne «r mcva 
daaaaa it daained to aieet the variona n<| al rom>B>i 
of the travelling |iabUc, aome proferrinc aeoluafci^ 
eaeo, luxury, hirfa apeed; othen pnfertiBg aocii.*ty, 
if tolerable, and economy, with maderat* comfort 
Mid moderate Iptld; otnen looking tn econiimy 
■imply. VtK the aake of unifanolty externally, anil 
in many ef tba detail^ oarrii^ea an aanaUy made 
of the Mine azbwwl linctfa. wMth, aad bdgbt, aad 
aoitably la the liitariar. Tba aadn- weriu of tba 
ttock may tiiua be Identicnt in cooatraction, and a 
oaiformity of wtuking and wearing parte ia thua 
aeound, whlt^ b conducive to ecoaomy of mabatea* 
anea. 

Tba waftimn Nwik ahoold ba aa aaarty «td<om aa 
pewbte. uniformity cf w^goaa la mon baportanfe 
than that af eanfagei^ aa tbair total BuadwraM ooat 
an much gtu a t a i, and tba aaparrUoa witb wUcfc 
thajr Ma tavwuad li Uh nbuta; baridoi, tba «oal 
of ""'it*"""* la leM Ibaa wbon man* varlotiaa of 



4U 



RAILWAYS. 



wagKoiw eiiHt on tho aamo line. Bat wbatcvcr m»y^ 
I)* Xh» appw works, th» unijiv wuiks ft Lba whole 
«f tltowa^Tp'ii-rttKk should iMootirvly unifunn. One 
of tba in^ftttint en^JDoering' erili tlwt bftvo be«a 
Inflicted upon rsilwsj Guinp«UiiM b*a Arisen fram the 
imt of u-ntngKninnt or oosaultation lietivnAT) the 
oSeera of difTerait tiatrn. In onk-r t^ tvnnder thu 
qoMtiaii, ooniiDon to kU, u to tUo beat pUa and 
fioaitni<Alon of vahidM to be iw«l by thrm. Tbo 
reaalt tuM )>cen thskt ■orcml corajiMiicR have built 
hIkmm «f ibjok tuuiuited U> wurk ounjututly tbu 
tmfiic of tfaoir own uid othor linos. The di%'emt7 
i>f prnotico ia no ilotiiit [tartly ocramnni^rl hy tlin 
grinrin{[ wwita of traibu aad th« tFadnal iacrvxto in 
c^jmdty Mid tonnagv of tbv oanTniK sUxdt, faiimrriiiK 
onftvinaabla vtraetond ftlt«ntioDi of plan. Aaonjfit 
the eartj oontHbutore tn tfao prodaetfon of tho nil- 
way woggou wore t» Im fuond ths gnat c&rrien^ 
bbnr wmta, roAd-eonti*oUirii taiatttn, traitdara, 
vhmtimirhta, lalemeii, B^Aden, tiniber merduoto, 
■ad othon, -vIioM oocapAtiooa and opinJen^ it may 
ho iioagincd, give birili to a wido <liv«mty of prao- 
Uc«L 

Flivt-olaa uiTow-][ftuue c&rrtacM arc oornmonW 
diTidod tmuv«wl7 into thrc« oompaitarata, each 
6 feet Icin^ and vrcJI lined with matifnna. In «aah 
<M)iu{KirtiLiFut thora art! aix aeuU, aud thiov are in all 
anat* fnr «iglit««n p— cngpra. In nitnti inxtnuces tbe 
•eiit-|iartiLiuui or ubow-n>taandii<]wtiiK.-d wit1i,uud 
tlie wliolu M-idth of Uia ooropttrtmeut tbrnwii o{t«u to 
TWCaivB foar on aach aide, or twenty-four luusengera 
ia eoo «aiTiag«^ Saloon-carrii^aa Laving no voia- 
paiimanto ar* gottine into um, as on alao ilaepiDg' 
can fitted ap with b«da. 

SMond-daaa camagoa are amally divided Into foar 
oompartiDenb^ luilding eight pumettgtm tacb, or 
thirty-two (ler c*niau«L T1i»y are now cualiioiiod 
and comfortable inouj^h. 

lltint-claM ciuTii^Mi do not differ very mnch bma 
aecnnd-dAHN, cii-cpt that tlicy arc more frDquoutly 
vnou»biuii»d, and olUi^'i^tber more homely. 

Tli« «MPt of a fint-dan carriaga boLdJsg aightno 
MMcbgoia. for tbo iunaw>gaage, it about £340: and 
boldinjc thirty-two paaaengeti^ tor tbe braad-gaage, 
abntit JE640. A DaiTow-gaiige open gooda-w^gon 
eovta jC80, and a broad-nnsa opaa wubob ooata 
4140. See Plata CIJCVIL 

Sxttnt (/ AiAatyt.— ate rapidity with wUc^h 
laJiway ccrmmoaicatlon baa baon extended ma^ be 
eatlmated txna tbe fact that in 1S43 then woe 
little more than 21)110 ipil«e of railway open la the 
Unikcd King>li>n>, -wbilat at the end uf tbe year 1832 
the tutal leiti^i apoa amounted to 18|457 mQu^ 
■bowlcj; an average addition ol aboot 450 mUe* per 
year. The dnnand for railway oootnunloatloB ia far 
from bcin){ aatiatied eren now. Aa traffic increaaca 
new poTtioiu of liBsa baoome neeeaiBiy in ecetaln 
iMftUdoa for tbe oonveyaDoe et pamvantit or favt 
traffic, iodepoDdsiitly of gooda or bIow tralfic. Many 
dlttricta atiil without railwaya arc in n-nnt (if liranch 
linea. The number of juUea added in 1SS3 waa 
232. 

The total leagtb of railway open at the cad of 
l&yi waa diatributed between the Uirce aoctiona of 
the United ICingdom aa foUowa:— 

bllaail an-l WaJ**,. U,«S1 idUm. 

■oMland, l;HO ., 

'""an^ ■ «,«■> .. 

Ultle mon than half of thia, howerer, conaiata of a 
double line of way; tbe mat ooDaiBU of a ainiile line 
of way. Making due alluwancn for the triple and 
qaadrtiTilg portiona of MTeral ct tbe great line*, aud 
for aidlDg accommedaticiQ, whicb ia exteuaiva, it ia 



■iitiii>nU>d that there are upwatda of S0,000 mBoi i4 
*iiit(lo li&o way In the kingdno. Hm 1S>000 odh* 
of railway 1« tbe pn>pefty o( about SOD oonnaDiet, 
Iml, aa many of tlie euialler lioee ate leeaed to te 
worknd by largar lina^ the number of working com- 
|ianiea ii not umch more than a third of that nnm- 
b«r. Tht ttreateel mileage worked by any ooa eon 
[lany ia that of tlie Great Weatcrn Railway, which 
wurka more than 2200 milea of railway. The 
Kfaurtmi iodepenilent Uat» are tbe Ryda Plar tai 
tbe Torbay and Brixham, each at tbtn «nlj S aHm 
in k-ngth. 

Vajiilal of Raiitpayi. — The total anumnt td oapflal 
raised far the oonstrwitiDn ol railway* waa la 1S93 
very nearly £i'UT,90Ci,0ua atarlin;', of which thcra 
waa raiaed — 

Piu [b>glUI> Rallwaf*. £«M,IH.M». m £U.fT« bb mllemn. 
„ Scetnh fUllnan, VT.TM.IM, or S*,1B7 ,. 

.. lri>h KaXIwar*. S«.M«.«0. er 14^03 „ 

,. UtiiJAl KiiicJ«iii.£:nT.5»t,Ma, or £41,400 ^ 

8howln(f that the avera^ for tbe whola td the 
I'nited Kingdom waa £41,100 per loila open. In 
i85li the avcnti^o otmt <lid uot exceed £3&,000 per 
mile, aiid the rise in aiA ainoe that year per laik cf 
railway fordUy polnta to tbe expeaditBre of raewl 
yean in perfectiag tbo railwajr ayatcnL 

The following ia an apprautnate analyria at th* 
avrraj.'e (.\at of tbe railwar* exiating is IsSS :— 

Law an'l paillatnentnry axpanaN tfS.MO e» e 

Lxnil ami) mini)>miiatian. T.OM •■ M 

Work* of «onniacU'»] aad MaUeua cna- 

pieia. n*n ^ H 

LoMmotlveaoitcanrlacatMk. 1;M4 „ t 

InterHtDn Moek, dutnanta, bonOM^ 4M- 
dandibem<apltat,MMitina)Hi« a.MO . U 

From thia etatcment it appears that tba coat o( bad 
and compeniation waa £7000 per milib « OM^flb 
of the entire ccaL Ont of £316^000,000 oT aaftel. 
then, £60,000,000 were atiaortied In chargai lor Im 
and compensation. 

KaHuitg Lf^MtUiim. — With MgaM to the pnti*- 
mentary expenioi Atii^ Parlianieal bejan te If^falile 
for railwaya, a multitude of lawa have been plaead 
upon the ftatute-book which wQ] eartaialy aMile 
the wander if tbej fail to be tbe adalratfan M latan 
gcinnrationa. The Londcn and Nortb-WeateiB Rail- 
way aluue la re^la(>.-d by niMiHy 200 different acta' 
Not only arc the itatulca o'lmeroua— they an in«- 
Goncilable in principle and detalL Bevcral diflanni 
eelect conunitteea haye at varicua tinK« deliberate^ 
reported e'e'eiiist thn pneribility of nulotainlng oaaj» 
tition betweeti railwa>-«. and to tUa priodple Partb- 
mcnt hna aa oflea aaaented Y«l tha pnelieal opar- 
aliuu (jf tbe lawa which have reoeived legUalln 
•auctloD hu been thronghout and at tbe uiDe Une 
to DCifBtii-e thia prindple byaltnoat hmriably allow- 
ing Mimpciition to be obtauad vherefer It haa beat 
aougbt. \Vhatevermay have been the affect lor Ifaa 
time, the oumpetilioo which Parttamcnl [iirilM 
baa generally been terminated by oombini^ion. Aa 
Mr. Stqhbanaon pat It — 'When eumbiiiatioD la pee- 
dble, cnmpetitioc ii iatpcaalhle.* 

The exp on aee, direct and Jaddeittat ot e bl a li rf ag » 
act of ParUantent have been la naoy eaaa WMnwoi^ 
and ganemlly an eiocaaive. Than an thtaa paztta 
leapwudUe tor anoh extra vaganoe—FariiaaMBt Unit 
tbe railway com paaiea, and tha land-ownera. In 18IS 
it waa diewa by a returo of Mr. Hadfiald — whM 
waa, however, far (rooi complete — that tha anoBal 
eipend«d hy exiatlng railway companie* in obtaiilM 
tbeactaol Parliament br which thee are looor pU i a taQ 
wii no Icai, in parLiamentarr, legal, and ett ftUiw i iB | 



I 
I 




RAILWAYSL 



435 



aesta, tluut £14,000.000 sterling ! The Adhereoce to 
BaelflM and expenaiTe fomu by pkrliamentAir com- 
mittees in whftt are called the atanding orders, or 
gmeral regnUtions for the ohservMice of promotcn 
at nihray bills on the one part, and the itching for 
oppoaition of railwny companies to resist fancied 
laroftds on vested rights and supposed injurious com- 
fltitiaa on the other pai-t, have been amongst the 
(Uef Knrcea of excessive expenditure. Mr. Stephcu- 
nn mentions an instance showing how Parliament 
Ihb entailed expense upon railway companies by the 
■ystem complained of. The Trent Valley Itailway 
wa^ under other titles, originally proposed in Ifi'.iQ. 
It wt*, however, thrown out by the standing- orders 
ccmmitteo in consequence of a bam of the value of' 
£10, which was afaown upon the j^neral plan, not 
haTing been exhibited upon an enlarfred sheet. In 
1840 the line again went before I'arlianicnt. It was 
Opposed by the Urand Junction Railway Company, 
BOW part of the I^ondim and North -Western. No 
leai than 4S0 allegationH were made a^^ainst it before 
tbestanding-ordera sub- committee, which wascn^'aged 
twenty-two days in consiilcring those objections. 
Vltey ultimately reported that fmir or five of the 
Allegations were prove«l, but the committee never- 
thelesa allowed the bill to proceol. It wan rend a 
Moond time, and then went into committee, by whom 
It waa under consideration for sixty-three days, and 
ultimately Farliameot was prorogued Iwfore the 
nport could be made. Such were the delays and 
consequent expenses which the fomu of the house 
occasioned in tJiis case, that it may be doubted if the 
ultimate cost of constructii^ the whole line was very 
mo^ more than the amount expended in obUdning 
pennlanon from Parliament to make it. 

'Once the greatest obstacles to railway enterprise,' 
wya a writer in the Edinburgh Iteview, 'owners of 
aatatfls have of late years beenamon^^t its chief pro- 
moters. . . , When it became known that railway 
companiea commonly paid for laud and compensation 
anma raiying from £4000 to £8000 per mile; that 
men wc9« indemnified for supposed injury to their 
property by sums so inordinate that the greater part 
has beui known to be returned by the heir as con- 
Mscooe-money; that in one case £120,000 was given 
for land said to be worth about £5000; when it was 
limited abroad that large l>onuies, in the shape of 
iweference-sfaarea and the like, were granted to bny 
vB oppontion; when it came to be an established iact 
tliat ertatea are greatly enhanced in value by the 
pnudmity of railways, it i* not surprising that country 
gantlemen should nave become active supporters of 
■dmnes to which they were once the bitterest ene- 
mies.' The Eastern Counties Bailwav had, np to 
1846, paid not leia than £809.050 for land and com- 
jMoaation, equal to about £12,000 per mile. The 
float of toe land purchased by the original London 
and BInningfaam and Great Western Railway Com- 
paalea aveisged sot leas than £6300 per mile. 

But tlie moat conspicuous example in recent times, 
wllidi orenhadows aU others, of excessive expenditure 
Ib partiamwitary litintion, as well as in land and 
flompsBialJon, is supplied In the history of the Ureat 
IFoitham Bail way Company. llie pn-liminary 
ipcawi of anrveys^ notices to landowners, Ac, com- 
moioed in 1844, sod the bill waa introduced into the 
House el Commons in 1S45, when it was opposed by 
tba Xiondon and North- Western, the Eastern Conn- 
Cic% aad the Blidland Bulways. It waa further 
cmpeaed raocearirely by two other schemes, called 
the LoadoD and York and the Direct Northern. The 
umUat laated eighty-two days before the House of 
CoanmoD^more Siaa half the time haviog been con- 
■omadbjoppcaitiontotheUU. The bill was allowed 
to atUMl anr till next jttt <184S), wben It began. 



before the oommittee of the House of Lords, where 
it left oS in the Lower House in the year 1845, on 
account of the magnitude of the case. The bill waa 
before the Up|>er House between three and four 
weeks, and in the some year (1846) it waa granted. 
The promoters of the rival projects were bought off, 
and all their ex[)eD»es i>aid, including the coats of the 
opposition of the neighbouring lines alreaiiy named, 
before the Urcat Northern bill was passed; and the 
'preliminary expenses,' oompriaing the whole expen- 
diture of every kind up to the passing of the bill, 
waa £f^90,:]5.~i, or more than half a million sterling, 
incurred at the end of two years of litigation. Sub- 
setjuently to the pMhiog of the act an additional anm 
of £172,722 was ex[«nilcd for 'law and engineering 
expenses in Parliament' to 31st December, 1857, 
which was Kjient almost wholly in obtaining leave 
fnim Parliament to moke various alterations. Thua 
it would appear that a sum-total of £763,077 was 
spent aa parliamentary charges for obtaining leave 
to construct 24S miles, being at the rate of £311fi 
per mile. 

During the same {leriod the payments made by 
the Groat Koribern Railway Conijmny fur 'land and 
coniiiennaticin' amounted to £1,901,371, or nearly 
two milUonH sterling, at the rote of £7700 per mil& 
The parliamentary and land and compeuHation charges 
tojjether made a Bum of £2,664,448, or £10,875 per 
mile of the origimd line, llie total payments on 
capital account were £11,299,300, and of this amount 
those itoma constituto the formidable pro[ii>rtion of 
23J [ler cent., being nearly one-fourth of the capital 
forestalled liefore tlie grotmd waa broken. 

The particulars of the Peebles Railway may next 
l>e (juoted, in contraiit to those of other lines, as a 
perfect example of economical construction and legi- 
timate cxjienditurc. The railway is a single line, 
ISj miles in length, from Peebles Htation to the point 
of junctii>n with the North British Railway at l-^- 
liank station, 8 miles from Edinburgh. 1'here was 
no iip])08ition to the project in any quarter, and the 
Innd-owners agreed to give the buid required at 
tbirty-five years' purchase of the agricultural valuer 
the value and severance damage being fixed by arbi- 
tration. Nor did the turnpike-road trustees make 
any ciMm for damages. I'ho act was passed in July, 
18.')3, and the actual cost of obtaining it waa only 
£CSO, no fees to counsel having been found neces- 
sary. The total ]iar]iamentary expenses up to the 
obtaining of the act was £1569, but further expenses 
were incurred in 1857 io applying for power to raise 
new capitiil. The cliargus for land and compensation 
amounted to £21,222, or £1131 per mile. Seven 
stotions with ajiproaches, including Peebles station, 
averaging one for every 2J miles, were built at an 
avemgc cost of about £1200 each. The works were 
constructed for about £3600 per mite, and the loco- 
motive and carrj'Iag stock coat about £1000 ]«r mUe. 
The railway was opened in July, 1855, two years 
after the passing of the acL The total cost at the 
cud of 1858 omotmted to £6688 per mUe. 

PoMimger Traffic. — The total number of passengen 
conveyed in 1362 was about 654,838,000, equivalent 
to above 18 journeys each for the whole population; 
but this number does not include the repeated jour- 
neya of season-ticket holders, of whom there were 
599,568 in 1682. I'ho rapid increase of such traffic 
may be conceived when it is known that only twelve 
years before (in 1870) the total number of paaaengera 
conveyed was only 336,000,000. The great increase 
is supplied for the most part by third-claas passen- 
gers, to whom increased fimilitiea have been extended. 
I'bis is appannt from the following comparative 
statement of the number of first, second, and third 
cImb passengers in 1970 and 1882:— 




BAILWATS. 



487 



I 



ttfuAti man tlwn •evto-iutomtiia vt the total nille- 
lof ttMUBgdeuiiMiddnnrjrurl^iiot nocli luidn 
-fifUw ct the toUl ncaipta. Some of tb« pro- 
tIbcU 1!im«, howovvf; at* kLao vaat oonuDctcial oon- 
etna, drawiuK prinmly renuiuea. Thus tli« N^ortk- 
KMien, wboM net- work qmMb over tb* rich rainoni 
afatrict of Uw nottb>CMt of EagUnd, b^d 1508 mOta 
of tailw*T eoMtmctod in 19&% wliilc i U ttriM* ncciptB 
aiaoaataaUi £i,7ii.i$l. Tho'kbeofrailvftT^— Uia 
Land«i and North- WflMera—npnoentad bj ft length 
of ins taiko opCD for mAc^ eomod In tho OMine of 
Um twelve rooallu vadlng Dooemlw SI, 1SS2, Uw 
•oofiDOiM nambor of (12,1 45,000 pMMmgan^ wing 
nur}; a haU mora lluu tba total populalloa of tli« 
iroited Kingdom. The oionbcr of inllM run by tb« 
tndni of tb* Lviiiluu auil North-W««lMti Ibulway 
la tbe TWr im WM 36,999,603— in otlier wordi^ a 
'**—*■■" at nutn Iban 12i timet that of the moon 
fraoi tbe eartb, or my aqnal to 77 ntLirn jourtw^ft 
to aad from tb* noon. Tbo gra* racaipta of the 
I<owloa Mid Kortb*WMt«r(i Iti 1873 from (i^Mwaifpr 
tnlSio anMxintod to £3,W1Jii<}, and from good* tralfic 
ia£&flH,&ih Tbirtolal lOTenue In tbo jcar cndioa: 
I>M«fnbor31,lSS2,WM£l»,S34,701,ara»tvM7nnicb 
oufaff tbo natfowal tooouw of Bclgtnnn A atiU blgh»r 
nSbmff tfaia Iba of tb* London and NartbWtirtqni 
fa now woriud bj tba Qnat WMtcrn, which at the 
MmI ti IBS2 bad 2239 inilM ogien, ami eamaH iu that 
jtmr n ravtnw of £7,810.461. Hvtt of lb» EngUili 
■nrriufal Ubm aftor tbe XurttiEacteni an tho 
UDOMbin and YorkahiiA which bail a roTcnno of 
XS,S0a,fl97 in 1882, and Uw UaacbwUr, Sbcfllald, 
mhI LoDwlnihiro, with n iwvonno of £1,9M,38fi. 
!%• two gnat SoottiA Iba an th« CaledoaSan and 
ib« North Britkh—tba iarmm with 687 mlka opon. 
and an iacomo of £i;«B».429, tba htUr witb 997 
mxim, and £:i.SAB,\M of {ihxmml 

Id tbe ITuitod Stau«, tba Vjgndo^ or flanco-raH 
«w the foot-rail, »■ it liaii Uwn ileaignaled, trpiliad 
in Bg- l(^ Fl*** CI'XVI., i> aliuoat unlnotMJly OMd 
tor railwaji, rarjiag in weigbt from 47 Ibo. to '0 Iba. 
par liMal jMi, on a few of ttta laadins lima to 80 Iba. 
per tard, on UMTOw^gHgo llooa t'lillv ti(J per cant. 
ot too laagth ia bud with nili of &ti Itia. ji«r yaiil. 
n« hit railway adiicvomctit b tbo cuiwtructiou 
of tha Ncrtbom PadSo KaUwar, whtoh maktw a line 
of 1919 mOca aeroM 0m ooBtUMtt^ betpween I^e 
Soparior and tba IVifio Ooaaa at tba dty of I'ort- 
bmd, In tba rtato of Ot«g«a. Tbs oScial drinnr of 
Iba Iwt ipika waa parfoniad «n tbo 8th Seplemher, 
iSS3. Am t» tbo oogiaaariog cf tbo liue, tbe wia« 
nauaa wait adapted of middng tba Una cha^ly at 
fioL In a wilikmcH er daoart, when there wan no 
halAartoni^ almoat all tbo brtdgaa ware eonatnclod 
cd Umber, aome of tbeaiv (hrougfa Ibo Bocky Houn- 
taiiw ailraonHnnri^ bt^ Ona aodi brid|m to i» 
(Mt high and 4W faat long, oav n vallay with Moop 

dd» Illionly wtdcenosglifarftitaChUn^MHl 
In ctomfais It, tho depth aocou troDcndaiMi In ooo- 
■tmettng tba Una^ Uaata uf anormviw prwportionB w«n 
p«( in. In ona btHaooo tan Una of gunpowder won 
and at oDoa b tho Um of a cliff, which bnniKlit 
down 140,000 oubic yarda of mole 

With nprd to Iba wvgtit and oiunber of traiaa 
run aa axamlnatbm of tha dovdopnieut of tbe txaOie 
of tba Laadeo nd Kortli-Wtit«ru Kailway, for 
•aainpb^ ihowa na that in tha earlier atagea of daval* 
ofOMBilt whilat yet tbe lioe waa free and nnbiirdaaed 
wUbbn^Mm,tlwnwnbarof tfalna waa freely Incraaaad 
to w Jn ot tti* growing traffic^ wHb a huuI imenm»e 
in thflb volght, but that mfaoeoBsnlly. aa tbe Una 
bccaaa crowded wiUi iraina, and tbe drculatbm of 
IraMa eabarraaMd, tbe number of traioe waa nrach 
aon dowLy iacnaaad, whU*t cwaidmablo addiilooa 
wm* nnda to Ibttr watght, ao much to, that tha 



whole lialD' weight. Indicatins tba gMHtd maemtuda 
of tbo traffic^ baa faMtnaaed In an aoceleratlns ntfo 
ainoa 1848. llea*llme the prvwuro oxertod npoB 
the naonma of tbo railway by the mixing of alow 
with faat tnina baa driToa tbe London nnd Nortb- 
Wtntem Railway Company lo tbo «zpodt«tt of 
woHdng tbe majority of Uieir alow or gooda tonina 
daring tba night, whna Ibe road laeomparaUvoty dear. 
TboB, fiou) a atatement of tha nwnbw of trana that 
pnnied one at tbelr atntiana on Iha mun Una, wn find 
that nearly half tbo whole onmbar of gooda Iraina 
ware nm betwaen midnight and S aJL, and thai tiM 
luij«at perioda of tba twanty>foar boon wan aHar 
mid-day and after midnight,ao equally and uinviddnUy 
waa tbo tralFia diitrihuted o*er tbo day and al^t — 
tbe atupendoua machine being In oanmaaa opentiei^ 
working doable toniB. 

The nombar of trmn* tbnt entw nnd toavn bob* 
of tbe great atalicai in Iho eoone of a day ia almoat 
Incndibla; for aaampla, on IStb Angoat, 1870. CSS 
traini ootarvd and loft tho CnaBon SttoK rtatiuo i<f 
tlie Sonth-Eaatani Railway between <I X.U. and mid- 
night, carryLnic about 40,000 paaaangera. Again, tha 
Uetropolitan ]>Utrict KaUway, having a terminal 
etatiau in llio city qI very limited aooommndatloB, 
with but tbreo liuta c{ rail, seadi ont tad raorini 
at tbe aluLitJU ItiO trkitia daily. 

Jiailv»f 3prnU and Pcr/ttTHumea. — tf an ^t^-* 
and tender, wdcUnc toKvtber 3'2 tona, and exartlnt 
nglren tnclir* loroo, takoa aay forty loaded c nr ria^e^ 
woigfainr SSO tona, at 20 muea per boor on a latal, 
the loai£ which It oonld laka if It onclod tbe aaaM 
Inwtlvo foroe at higher qiaa^ woold ha only aa 
foU0««:~ 

Oa aLbtku 



tommi 



At « mll«a par boar, to 
.. » .. .. M 

« W .. II ,. . ItN ., 

..»,.. IB M ..HI „ 

.. M .. . It .. ^ U „ 

-I9h >•. t W.I 

Tbo inflneooo of eradleala alao la varr important 
If an ongina and lendar, weighing togetbar Si locia, 
1:«ca|>aUe(itdnwingaiwufaiuim train of aay firty.^ 
loaded cami^ti, wilgfaiiB 490 looi^ at CO milea per 
bonr on a letd, it would oniydrnw the following loada 
at the aame apocd on tbo faUowfag Incliaaa: — 

A* W Htvm raa Bonu 



T^*l, M«anl«Ni,m«l>Ux4«ltni 


luaUiM^iiaace. a 




„ 


MO „ 


„ 1 la uo, aa 




„ 


nt » 


„ 1 la IM, n 




** 


•*• w 


,. 1 la IM. ao 




u 


ua .. 


iia n,ia 




*. 


I» . 


1 1n te. It 






M . 


IM *0. t 




.a 


•• - 


1 ta M, • 






" .. 


.. ] In ae, 1 




., 


« - 


„ ] to n. nil 




,. 


nU » 



It ii ben abown tbat on an lacHna of 1 in SO tha 
en^Qs wonld only be cafMUa of laUu up thna kndod 
earrlagea, abont 24 (otM wdffh^ and thai 0* 1 fa 10 Ita 
whole rawer tn tbia pactloalar eaaa wonkt ba afaaorhad 
in pulliaf np Ua own waigbL Bonoa tba nrfmn 
bIlpurtaoe^ in tha earlr it^"* c' ">U*V *>Pin(aeik 
of oonatructing tbo jprndknla aa nearly loird aa WM 
practicable; aa tbay ahag r bed, acceeding to ihe&r 
ateepseae, lam proportiooa of the powar of tbe Ugbk 
angutoa of the time In — ~— ^t^t bUa; and Ihal 
w^cb would oUicTwiae appoar nnwamatabla-lfaa 
otally ooMtnetion of the uilv railwara by eipenafio 
luoiialliB^ Hndiwb^ brfc^viv and cotoaga to apcroxi* 
natelotedeiidanlad baiiMttal atandaid— ia aband- 
antly explained bylhaiiafntowBl uiuumIIj ofneBfaUr 
oipMyitig tba UmiLed power of tba ewyiw Ihao 
flinatriKted. Tbia waa Cba fbrnd-point of te i 



438 



RjULWAYS. 



BtepbBtuon; b& niAintainMl tha miparioritj of 'flftt' 
graiUmLt, ftiiil Lba Miuud poMcy (if tucuiriug a lAige 
fipnnilitiir* in conntriictinii, io nrdar U> avoid nthitr- 
'vrue l)««vy incliuvi nnd tuttvy eipcnsvf, Tha rvUnh! 
gndient of tha LiTerpool and M&iichMt«r RallwAy 
WM lixo^ at 1 in OOO, vii(«])ting of CQur*o tbo inovit- 
kbln inclines at RainhiU nununiC, fur working which 
■paoUl provwioD WM mwle. Tluit ot ibe next (freot 
lins, tho London uul Birmin^haiu, wm fixed U 1 in 
880; Mid it i* well known at wliiit crmt ovon thin 
gradient, tbotitfli wmnidwrjbly >ilFC[Mr th*ii the Lirer- 
pool Mid Muicbeeter, wim obbiLnc!. It w»a tho 
object of Mr. Stcphcnaou to moke this rulw>7 u 
mectiAnkkllv pnifoct as pouible, rocludng the eP^' 
ientu (u the iniuiuium oonaiitoot with tho cvufonua- 
tioD of tbe country. On tba Groat Westom Railway, 
ono of tlid rftrlinat madft linos^ thfi ruling inclination 
ia 1 in 1^20 fur Lh« |rre*t«r pftri of tte way. Mr. 
Jo««ph Loc-l(» initu>t«>d tba iiviAam of cbeaply-oon- 
vtmctcd r»i]wayti. m tbo facilitioa tor in c r< aii ng tba 
power of locorootivci bac&ma belter uodemUxHl; be 
conBtructed Uuca vrith Iciuj;, ateop gradjoabi, eomo of 
th«tn 1 in 7(1, I in 72, 1 in 8a 'l1io (trot Nnrtburti 
Bail WAV, ufL'<niiMniti<'eIy rewutortKiiijboQiDatruoted 
on ft nuing eraiU«it <i( 1 In 'iOO: and in g«D«ral tha 
nwf* raoentiy mftda linos have tho stcopMt grftdicntft. 
Following thiu tho variaUa niriace of the ootuitry, 
thin ityiitcm beoama known ■■ ths ' imdidatlng lyBtani,' 
and it hu oveD baan daamed pnfonkbk to the lyateia 
of porfnet or apprnximoto levelii, Tieiny «ii|ipo^^ to 
afTonl lireatbiiig iiit(^rvul>. ub wbm tliuTuughly utidor- 
BtiNid in r-nanh -dri Hnp, wbm tha hcmta were euei) 
by 'gt-'tling the Kliouldcr off the collar' gDing down- 
kUl.' The nmHagy is not sound; mi englno onver 
tires, and Jta [lOiHcr doca uut nooeuarily fliK^uatu 
liko horwa' [»wcr. 

Miles run bi/ TVai'nJ and Hailing Sladr. — The totid 
nllcAgo of trains far Ore&t Britain sad Ii-ulauil in 
1882 waaoafuUowB:— 

Kogiaiul ud Vtim, tlT,3DB,1>ie uitss. 

BoalUiul, 39,1)41, MS „ 

iMiand, li,s%&as „ 

UniMd Kmcdfin, KMWS.IW 

This extrftordlnary pcrrorniuioe of trnins in a singlo 
7«K to aqaivole&t to tha running of a railway trun 
Dm lCI;OOOtiin«a round the world. Tha mllin;; stock 
Mqoired to do this woric mnsiiitail of 1 4,] iH looomo- 
tivaa«ad'4S2,001<nurriaeesandwiiigjcoii>; and tha cost 
lor ItKonotivo power and carryini; stock amounLed 
to lOjd. per mllo nin tiy traina Thic tt'tal oxficudi- 
tiire rif all kinds per truu-inilo suiuuutml tu 31^. 
■• ncnJiiBt thfl cms* Tvotipts, u'blcU aiuountad to 

Working Spt<dt of Pmteiyjtr TVninj.— Hie average 
Bpecrd of expnaa trains, incliitliiijj; stuppuijea, varies 
from Sd to 4! mileti per buur, nnd of parlinmaotary 
trjuns, rtnpping at sJl tha statluiiB, the nvorag« spcad, 
Including stc^psgiM, varies from 17 to 'il mllM per 
hear. liiei^MdBef ordinary tnuni«ar« in t-ru^litite 
batwaan thoaa of axpreas aud parlinint-ntary trains, 
depandsnt on tha favqwiiicy of the 8loppa(e<L 

If the delayi Ineurrad by Moppagea be allowed for 
in hriugiog up express trains and in gstting up tbs 
speed, for which fonr minnt«s i»r stuppntie nmy bo 
■llt^wpd, sad sUti the tiuiu sUadIng at stslictu^ ttie 
avonga spoad, whilo rtuwlng with itteain on, would 
vary from 43 to 4S macs per hour. The averaga (nil 
■p«M on the Great Nartham Kailway (aarrow gauge) 
to 47 nilaa par boor, and a spaed of 62 miles per hosr 
to baqocDthp nin. Ihuinf periods of active eompcti- 
Hon the trams on the <\niiX Woslnrn Railway (broad 

Ekngo) bsve been run ula ipeed of 65 raUm par bour, 
at such a high ([pnxl can only be run, «ilb any pre- 
tensioD to safety, aa the beat parts i^ the Unos, frea 



of enrvea, and with tha mad is fint-rata oidvr. Tha 
average piacLl(« tu Hpeeds of passenger (niaa appsan 
to Im thfl uirio nn ths brood aikd tM norraw gaogo. 

WorlMg SftwU of OsMb TVasM.— Ilw ordlasiy 
averagtt progren of EMda bafata, tedndtag all dsMa- 
tions, variea from 10 to 18 milsa per bour ovar bag 
diitwiL'BN. The ordinary nirtual itHad while mnniiifT 
varies from 16 to 2fi suica p«r hour: 20 mile* per 
honr il a common running spood. The very toife 
g-iodii traJKc of thn Lonrtnn and Nortb-Wratcni lAd 
Great Northern Railway* is aonductod at higher Ihse 
Bvenca speeds In ordar to olear tha paasangar lasfie 
— 15 to 20 mQea per hour, ischidiiic rtopp«geih asd 
frequiently at a running ijpeed of 90 to SS aOei p» 
hour, or occasiuoaUy -tO uues per honr whan tba stcf- 
pagoa ore long. 

A gDods ADgine, workingot foil pa>war, axerta a Ine- 
Uto fcine of 10,000 to 12,U00 IfaK, or about 6 loas |nil 
ua the train; so that a pull of S tons fro— U» aagi ns 
rufflccs to dnw bdihul it 1000 tooa on a IrveL 

A tracdva foroe of 1 or 1 2 Iba. to oapoble of dnvtag 
1 ton on a level at 10 uUea per bonr. AtSOuilasMr 
bour tha raquirod tractire feme to aboot 45 lbs. lar 
1 ton of greea weight 

XastMty Atridmtt. — Every year a BUtDbar of saof- 
daati^ attended with lues of Ufe or bodily lajrur, take 
place on the roilwan. 1'hat tfasy can b«i albogctW 
avnidfd so one will moiutain so long u hatiuuutT ia 
weak and tiabln to error ; but those beet i]iialified to 
Judge bave no badtatkxi ia Mying that they may bt 
greotiy dlmialabed. In foet they bavo dinini^ 
consittorably sicca 1847, the proportion of pawiinin 
killed from canata beyond tbsu own ODOttel fcl Ifat 
throe yean 1847-40 being 1 bt 4,782,1M of the (Mil 
number carriod; and in 1876, I fn 10,802,821 It 
Hhouid lie statrd also that the nomber of peasaagcr 
j'lumeys on wUoh this j-Mij^ii^Hjtn )g baoea des* act 
inolade those of season tioket-boldaia. In 1676 tbas 
wars eatimated at 101,000,000, and U IImh ««• 
taken into aooaunt tbo proMrtloa ^««d mall be 
redooed to lln 16,800,000. The compamllHlysBsIl 
aotnbsr of llvoe Chat are Lost on tho nulwajs^ iadsal 
in tho midst of sodl an eDonaoos tnHk^ ia a fact 
tint Ktya a ffTcat deal for tha genatol |p>od nisnagl 
ruetil i<f the linasv and proves that on tbe wbolo lh«* 
is no kind of vehicle aafer thut tho railway cacrUfa. 
As to the cansM cf tho acddente a general rariew 
shows that tbe chief ore want of caiw or mJrtnH" rf 
offloaia or •ervanta, sioua or ia ccmUaalfaa «M 
defcoUvo Kgaal and point arraagamoati^ and «■! 
of bdsjgrapma oominiiniration or of a syitem (f 
socuring faitervoto of ipMc betwMii trainSL Totbssi 
most be added deteotlvo regtdationa, or drfacMn 
discipline, tfony weathar, dsfactivo 
for tratHc, defeotivo oonatructwo^ fnsnlBrlnnl 
power, Ac. 

Am the liest meaas of pnrgnttns aeddsali boa 
der(M:tive>i|in>nUii% the board of tiade'a IiMpeettn 
of railways itrongly adrooate tho ado^itnui (4 ths 
blM^k system of weridng tbe siffosK alnady if 
ocribod in tbe parograpli on ilgnato; and there to do 
doubt that this system oosdnces vary saateri^ le 
tbo safety of a liDl^, and inmirea gradU Trmiififiif 
into tho mtrn whoMt daty It b to woalc tba ttsSs 
tudeted tho uietmpolitoa lines aad olhar ttasa tf 
crowded trofbc could not be worked arialy a dsr 
vrithont each a sntoin. Durlnx (fV ^* tal«y H'" 
apporstiu !■ of mrartimalila otility la r»ni l nii« lia 
writh the use of r<%-«igiials, wliiub arv fixed la tts 
tnU« and discharged with a loud report by the eo^ 
in pasaing nvcr them. As a fortbar meoiK of ansd- 
ing aocidanta the interlocking of sigBido aad peMt 
ftlraady deaoribed, bse been of eaaential aarrioe. h 
the preseDt cocditioa of mitwars, witfa juBciMBi*! 
great and oonstant trafBc, oiid trains otmdninfl) 



I 



J 



RAILWAYS- KAIMOXDL 



I 



croHang «wfa other in kll ilintcticiiu, the U((tud-mrii 
cwdld not In aom* camb wwk atJviy fur * single liuur 
without tfa« pfotoction ot >ucb appuiLtua; wbilo they 
»n eoftbled b^ ita aid to go on wnrking from y«ni to 
jw wftbout aMudent inlbamoat ditlixmJtwtuatioiui, 
H, Cor isatoQiw, »X the Charing Croaa Mid Cannoa 
eintt lUtiou of tfa« 8oiitli-£Mt«n RaiIwav. I'cr- 
UA InltM are alao ln<Uapiitablf protncitivD uf ufrty 
~ untkins traffic and in oompenaatinK fur iinavviil. 

I imguUiiuH. With tbo UKiud amount of hnik- 

pQW«r a train at Cv miluu per huur may not Ik 
Bd«ltUal>OOorl20Ujarda. An UUtaatUMOnt 
: ia not of ootirM what U wanted ; on Uio sen* 

/, a tiingth of ISOyardaappoani tobeUieaboitoat 
iloiinblv tpatx wiUiin wblidi n tnlD at 50 cr CO mQca 
par hour •tuwli] b« stopped ■» that tbo pncna of 
nlMihtttiM riuNald not he aoencopiknisil bv tfac ruk 
of aaptagin ovacrfdiiui each ulhor or of vtuleim Ui 
tk> pBHB^^en; and l£li ha* been acconplislied by 
mwna «( M*atnl snlemi of bmk^ in which the 
bnkii^ actiatb applied to «aehcarnagn. BjmeaaH 
<4 liw Wtatfaebauae brake, a ooatioooiu brako ot 
Ala kind wUw has tbo furtbor advanta^ of bung 
fi*it-*mM'* <w aelf^appljing when the couplln^ra of 
tlto oairia^aa h^ipett to Jtire w»j, it luu b«eo aaoor- 
talnod that a train ruunlnc at 00 ntUca an hoar 
«aa be aafel; and raruialy nrangbt to rot in Im 
too TnnLa. Some interMting remtlta w«ra 
■t Dj experlnwnta with brakea ivmIb on Vtie 
BriifhtuD, aotl South CmkI nuiwajr. lla 
cnMl faninrtanl of tluao waa that the )ircabert i«- 
tatdalioQ of a train ii proJuoftd wh«a tbo wheoli are 
rovolring, but at a rab* loa tbaii that wbli-h WouM 
iwilNiiiil wttbthomovMntntuftho train; and time 
aa aoon m tho whc«b bcifin to aUd tlM train ^Uea 
oowarik with diminiah«d resManM, and tJMnfon 
gam fartbor than A would hare do&o if thoj had 
nmlliTTri ilowly (o rarolTt^ altkoaeli H ia Inoiigbt ta 

iwhUnnrfuirtor tino. A perfe<'t brako ahoiild 
glf pvavaat alndding, and ahuuld therefore 

n oA Initial jxaoMtro willi a contrivanoo 

for ihaadUy ndodnc the pmnn ao u M*«r mtitaly 
loalau llw NvolutMa of Um wted tiU tho train u 
liTvagbt tr» a ataadatin. 

Iw Koooal aJu^iai uf a nlmplo motbod of coat- 
mnnlaatloa bacvreen tha guard and ibo driver ot a 
ttnin In nwtioa ia a daaidetalnm. Thera are variotu 
plaaa tor aocatoplUiing tUa obviuua and aufficienl 
•novgk, but It would appear that, to inMiiiv ttveif 
adopMoa by alt railway ooin|MDiae, lagiaiativa inter- 
Cennea moat bo tovoked 

Jbthaaj* of tin Wmrtd. —After tbe bttoducliaa of 
nflwaya bto Britain other oounlrioa wai* ant loog la 
CaUnwinc llo oxMula, tbo flnt of tlw BlUOpMU atateo 
wMah cooatroctad a ounpkta eyslom el Unoa bd&f 
Bakhnn. Enropo la now Ua««inied by raDwaya in 
■n wreetieoa; aiid oven mkIi a hadcward ooontry aa 
'hikqriHa two or three abort liaea opened fortnSic 
and an exteaaive net-work pro)eotod and parUy in 
Of tho ooaatrieaof Aoa Hindustan b 
/one thai poaawNO nul way* ot any napiitude, 
I IWfcoy In Aaia and tha ttlandi ot Java and 
O»jion have aba avail«d ihoAaelvea of tho aervioc* 
nt the IuodbkiUtc^ Tho Ilritbh ootoniaa in AiutnJU 
and Kuw Zeataad: tbe Cajie Colooy and Natal in 
Africa; Canada, Mow finuawlck, and NovaSootia in 
N. America aD now poaMaa Ihair Unaa a< ndlwaf. Tho 
Meat railway coattractBd in the U. States waa opanad 
in 1937, and that eountiy now poaeoaea a srcator 
lanith ol Um than any liam itato hi the wurid. like 
Unwed StatM raitwaya ba*e b««n oonvUuctoi] at 
linull Inw cspeoea than tbu«> fd tho ITnitnl King- 
don, wMch Indeed ha«e oo*l far atoro p<ir mile than 
Utnaa of any oonalry ; but tbe tenner are inferior in 
■Oiaity of aeDBtraotlon. In tho rata at whklt tialna 



are mn upon them. In their imlMingi anil ai'coauao- 
datioo, aud ta tluilr aaoagsBont and ocyaniaaticai 
^-sDeraily. Thuyaronual^dDgia lioaa^and aregen- 
^rall^ without fencea. EncUeh enterpriae and capital 
bare hail ■ gn»t ihare in thu oonatnictioo ot Um rail- 
ways ot tbe world, and many forei^ railwaya are to a 
groat aitent owned and managed by EogliahnMin. 

Tbe total niUaage ot railwaya open and workiag 
la tlie dlSonnt parts at the Dritiah Empire at tbo 
end d 19B2 waa aa tuUowa:— 

United lLlBSdo& ,,, IMiTBU<a 

rtj*a. li^T 

<:*Tln> ITS 

ttoiiiinhiii orCanida, . HH 

Jamaica. K 

Britlali OoUna. H 

TiiiudBd. 3S 

if** SoaUi WaJ*a^ f«> 
VietoiB. 1J47 
HenUt AnaliaUa,... tM 
QoMMand. 0W___ 

TaraMata, 171 

Nawbalaad. 1117 

UpeCoJoalsi, IWT 

llMirlUia. U 

TataJDfOoloalalbBplnk — 9MT*«ai)«i 

Total In UriUab Enkplro, «J,iai mOea 

Wo compile tmm official stMiTcoa tba fuUowIng 
tabular uompariaon ot tbo nilwayi ia the prindpat 
eoBntrioa of the world in 1866 and 1882:— 



0«wti7. 



Lokfth al nan**]* < 

ri>rtn>L 



toH.ai.uH. »mU.i 



Bditem, ait 

OrMtBiMain. MM 

BwluMlaul,.. Itt 

OennanT MM 

DaoaJuk. U 

Vnatm, S.4M 

NMbtfUod^. 1» 

Aaara-BancaiT, l,tsa 

Italjr »W 

Si^n, tT6 

Hwatei. 

Pei 

R» 

RiMia la tnmpt, .... tt» 

Tnikar in BttioM (IBiS}, — 

Notwar. 4S 

Onao^... — 

TotalKatofM...... 

VniMd aUMi. I«,SU 

DanlnioDar Canada,. — 

Maztaa. — 

C.AmwinaW.lDJk^ — 

noatli Aowdia, — 

Bntkhtiulla.- U* 

J>n(t)atah), — 

»mtth AMtalBlllllhX — 

KfjiK. - 

AaiUabnria- 



.... MM --.. 


4- 


.... ULn4 .... 


e-s 


.... Law . .. 


IT 


.... «,«> .... 


»B 


.... LlOB .... 


ITS 


... ia.*M .... 


lit 


.... UMS .... 


M- 


.. t%XH .... 


»T 


.... CBW .... 


»1 


.... 4.m ,... 


41- 


.... iM» .... 


M- 


.. . l.ooa ,.,. 


M- 


«n .... 


>ft 


.... li^Ma .... 


U»1 


m .... 


M« 


•n .... 


IV- 


M .... 


4Mt- 


n,M ■■■■ ni,M>t 


■^ 


.... Uf,TlT . . 


K- 


.... Tjao . , 


Ml- 


.... ■.«» 


a»' 


.... i.eH . . 


aao' 


.... lAi* .- 


W1-S 


.... IMIT .. . 


ar 


.... Km .... 


1*' 


. . aM 


ttta 


.... I.IS7 


(0« 


Ml 


■!»■ 


.... Kvn 


»•■ 



Tba atoia doei not InalaJa lallwuy M aiiaa ■fan a m Am al 
Biiior rtat*. TlNtotelmllMca*(UMtB»«af»e(U*MtM 
u> tSffit wa* la roaad naabaalH.MO BwUift ndka. 



Aico AxTOHKK aaaallw onUad 

as aa ■agravar ol Bafdnafa 

Mcwaa in UTS or 14M. UMIe 



HAIMONDI. Maim 
.Marcanttin, fantooa 
worka, waa bon at Bologna I 
inoro b known of Ui Uf o than that he i 
RalboUnL In 160B be |«r>oewU>>) ta Vanka^ «han 
be eUEimvad JUbiil Oftnrr > lih .4 Mary, and Ub 
BDdPamioaalChrlai. Atwnt ISlObewealaBsM^ 
whara ho at flist ennlayed UsmU tn eafmrtag allar 
DOrer'a w»od-«uli. nut wm ahartly altar m^itfti 
hv fiapbaol to naka a^iavlnga a( Ua waab^ wd 
thua (Ito tbaa a Bunpaan tinAtim, m P tf lnl 
tfirao bin. In lU* he wH awaflali h mmniML 
Tha uauai ooabna of tW eofiaren al hla Itoaena 



440 



RAIM— RAINBOW. 



to onpv not from th» cmmplotMl pirtnrw but the 
(LnutfliU, anil one ot tlie movt Importuil BorrloM 
wUra be raulend wu tfw pcipfltutiiic In thb w«y 
of A grcftC nuiBb«r of dudriu ftod drwtghMt vUdi 
Raptutcl either never catnpletad st kU, or producwl 
in a luuuli altered fwiu. After Bi^hMtl'a ae«tli be 
flagmrod After Uinlio Romutov Bu^BUi,aiid otlwra. 
IlAving tatgruved Kiine pUtca •ft<f liccntjou* dr^w- 
fnga of tbe former utii^ he was caat into priMm by 
Fopa CleiiMnt VU., and tb* bnprwdaoa wera •□]>• 
pEMnd. He TTii aooQ aftwmrdi^ bamrm, not oiuy 
nieaaed, but token ania tbe |)roteetl(MB of tha pop« 
himaelf, [roiu wlimii Iib also raeeirad amploTinent. 
In 1(27, on tb« taking «f Itnmn by ttia S^Kutluxii, bo 
loat all hia moaiu, and ruturovd in poverty Ui lux 
DAtive town. 'Wliat aft«nrardfl became of him la 
dslmown. MkIthU aay* that b« w»a inurd«r«d. 

SAIN, tnthir dropping lliraugh tho almuapbttcv. 
A BUM of kir In the aUncapbera alvays contaiiu 
aonw Aqneons vapnur, and if this ur it cooled bvluwr 
K oartAin tompcaAtiiro, oltinl tbo ilcw-point (vkirii 
depenilaan llw amount of vapour praml), tbe itti'iur 
will oondciue lata dn^ of wtUm. Thla oooUds may 
tic due to mdiftUon «f heat to colder rcgi»n», or {•> 
■niirturu i>ith Qnlder nuwen of air. When air riaea 
In Che aliuuapbbTv to «uldar n^knM, or cornea in eoif 
tai:t with a oold part of the saitn, or pamM frnm 
cqtutorial to |k>lfu- piuia nf the earth, ita tnoutiire 
tenda to ouodeiue iiiLu nuu. lu cuiiBidering tli« 
prubab1«i rainfall of a pbMO w* aro conowiiad with 
he lAtitudc, iu cIcvatioD abova tlie toL, id pividmity 
to tke »<:*, Uie Iftwa afFeoting its ■ewicmJ wifttlmu, 
Ihe prevuling winilit nnd the configuratioo of the 
■urrDunding nirfiioe. Ilnmbalilt eeUmabcw the aver* 
a^iv deptba of min fHllInK annuallv In UUtudes 0", 
Itf*, W, and fiU" at i'S, &0, -M. MLci 17 ioi^M rMpM> 
tivoly, low InUtiidca having in gttDcml * heav/ nan- 
fall twcauK ul the ^TMtw wvaponUion la tropical 
rogion*, and tho cMiaecpHint frmtation of nin whm 
UiE clauiUdtLc to evaporktiun j^t cx>IdeT in Uiu bibber 
Kj^iima of the al(tio«fiber«. llunno bIwi wimhi tJnw- 
Ing from the vijualor an gvoenlly mobtv ami wluda 
blovring to the erpiator a» ^nanuly dry. Tho pre- 
aence of foraU leuda to iiiorMM the ttiinfiJI (ano 
MvnosoLOOT), and the nun furtlu-T tni:i>urage> 
T^vtatiea, ao thkt a fureet reKton Umd* U> bHcmne 
toon and more covered with tcgetatLuo, and an arid 
r«ig;ia& remain! arid. Tbo influenoe of the waannB 
on ndnfall in |>r(.-tty regular in the Irupica. Qier the 
ucean the aklue are clear whore tho trade-wind* an 
blowing steadily, and heary tain falla by day Iu tho 
■one of cabna; on l&nd th«ra b a ncfutar altt^rrutioa 
of diy and wet waaoiia. In the trofncal winter tho 
■^7 !■ <deMV In lliHng it heooniea mnjat, and in >uid- 
aur (bha nm eomiDS to the zwiitlO tbw raiuy aeaiaoa 
eeta In. 1'owarda the ecjuator, where there im m con- 
BideraUe interval belwn-ji tie twopaMageaol the 
•Oil acmei the nenith, there are two i^uy aeeaona. 
Ib monaoon leglcnu, bowevtir. the alternation of dry 
and wel aeaaons deponda on ibe wiada. Beyond (he 
tru}rfcB wo have variahio winds and Tariable rainfaU. 
Tho air ii very dn in tho Britiah lalea during an 
eoiit n-ind, eepMlally la inin;. The @:n]atmt annua] 
raiiilnll hithorto obaorved atnmt to be on the Kbaaia 
IlilU, where it i» SOD tnchea, 600 faUing here during 
the tMivva luuntha' oontinoanc* of the aouth •westerly 
monaooDA. Buchan pva tbe (oUowing ertimatwt of 
the rainfall in oertoin tropioal plftoaa: — 



8in^pe*& sr 

Cmmb n 

Bt. BmmU Its 

SiwnLfOM. ... (T 

COTMU* IU 

PfnoMbiiea ., . , IM 
RkiJ«4>cln> 1!> 



Qeoigelowa. lOOIncbM. 

BmUHom. Tl „ 

SI. DwniDfe .. ..107 „ 

Bahunu. M „ 

TcraCnu 199 „ 

OmoL M „ 

UuMtbao... ....190 .. 



t>bldniiiu«irUwlUaiitic iU 



In Europe tha rainfall ia greateat tmraida thm wwL 
At Cutuiltra it ta 123 fodiea; tt ■ven^ioa SO tnebei 
in France, and in the plains of Gemao; aad TTmIi 
iit incbre. In tho Britiab lalea it ia vtrr tariaUa^ 
beinK 2S4 incbo in Skye, 183 incfaea in Scnthwwta, 
CiunberianJ. aud varyliw fran 20 to 2S lnch« in Ibe 
M>t«n pana of Eo^^aBd. 

The frann of water known a« rain ta geiiefally 
•xoeedingly pore ; )t oootalna audi gaaea aa may be 
derived frmn the atmoeiibere— ovygeoi, idtrogra, and 
earbonie add— pa r tic k e of eegaioe natter, ^^ in 
towai, of dual. Rain-water aervei^ to a oertaia 
oitefit, aa a mcaaurv of (he purity of the at mn a p b ar c; 
that collartod in large town* often ooaitaiafaif eoi- 
ddetable quantillea ot auJ^iliuiie and byilredilsrio 
add*. For a mora detailed deaerffitleo « tba -r»i> 
oua Imnnritiee of ralii'Watar see Um artlole Wixn. 

RAINBOW. Newton fint pnpvrir cxpUsol 
tho foratatloB of the rafaibow, by abonliif it to ba 
doe to the unequal nfraagibOity of ttleni«»l*ry ma. 
A rainbow appean aa a lai of baoda of coloor wUtfe 
i:radnate faito one aaotbar, and we can imopne Hcfc 
of tbeae divided fauo vwt 8b« baoda, aanb tbatl ' 
difTcrenoc in colour between on* of theae tUa i 
and its odfihbouria rery amoll, and may hei 
aa oecurring ptr laltum Iu |{(ifiie fratn ooo bnd to 
another. Ono such band may bo coaaUerad w fm- 
ducod by a Bet of nindropa lying ou tba mibeB d 




a circular eone wbooe vertex fa th« eye of tba tfto- 
tatoc, and whoa* axia ia the liao prodooed thnnfh 
the ay* of tbo apeotator tnxn tba oentro cf tba anB. 
Suppoee a nudrop i & i* (flf. 1) to be reodvlBg |w^ 
altd ray* of homoganami U|^t eomiag lo tba dine- 
tionflL SiipiMaetf, theaBg:leof inddefkoeof any ray, 
a» tho axia o! »l, O" the angle of refracticm, and p the 
index ill refraction for the particiilar light Tba 
deviation for oaeh of tbe refractloBt at i and i' ia 
d-f.andfortherellectionat Altisv-Sr. Ibate- 
fon total deriaLlon, 



D = » + trt-«r)- 
8in.l = ^aiB.r 



:8! 



SeeOpnca 

It ia at onoo fonnd from tbeeo two eqwAtoo^ bf 
tntuini of the diiTerentiol caJculua^ tbat tlM>« (i <na 
aniiie "f int^Jdeuoe auch that tbe aoMisIng **J aabaa 
with the inddent my a ([teator aii^ than that b^ 
dnded by any other pair of tm/Offaf and I nd^l 

nya. Thia happcna when dn. f ■• V '^'* ■ ^ '* 
aleo found that a anuU beam fat tbe aeighbaaTlMod c/ 
t will oonrarge to a foctu at A, aoowUl onam 
at I' ill It nearly parsllnl beam. TUa beam will ba 
the brightnt el all thuae rvflectnl bom the baek tl 
the drop, and la tbat from which tba eja will : 



I 



( 



i 



KAIN-OAUOB— RAJPUTASA. 



Ml 



ied ita naiticulxr colour. If ir««iimloj 
_ht, ;• will be BUgbllj diffnrvtit, mud tb« 
VjA tfavogb the niadrop wUl ha aligbtly diRorcDt. 
Wbu > Mam of AoUr IJgbt falU upon • un»U «reft 
ot tba drop U I it i* Hntrated by rafnwtioii, «ad th* 

Mpukted «rt* oT r»^ 1mU« St «Botil«r KluU UM t', 

Um KBgle uf dl««*ipi>M of «aj tiro eolotin bciaj 
mmI to tiM angla rabteaded by thoM coloura la ihe 
mabow M Um «7s of tl» •pectabor. 

Um ladicn for rvd kad violet ni;i ftuiu air into 
Wttat ar* -in"* •"■! 'iVi ■"d It u «««y culcalacing the 
■BglM Ribtiatdod at Uw obMrver's «ye by «trai^t 
Um bom Um brigfaust pviou trf Uum cobura to Ui« 





> the bow. Tbej are fuiiiid bu be ti* 7 fur 
■d 10* 17' for tba vial«t 
W fomuitoo c4 Itw Mooddacj bow ii ozpUInM) 
in » nmilar mmaavr. la this mm tbo rm undcm 
tWA nfleckioaa, m reprcMotml itk fig. 2. In tba 
Moundary bow tlie coluura oocnr Ld iuTsrtMl ordar — 
tbat ia, UM nd U Doarwt to tb^ oratre^ 

Balnbvin are alao produewl by tbe nin bMiUh^ An 
tba ipray of rvandm. A bmk«n rainbiiw uxiaUy 
noatn frosi tba field not hnitg fiUod with falliog rain, 
but il will also happen wban the lusia im-ioiblu froai 
pMt of tba fidd. Sm rarkiDBori'a Optito. 

KAIN-OAUGR, or I'Mi^inHrmi, an inalnimecit 
wfcloh mauurea tba deptb ul Um aunual niufall at 
uj jLet of obaon-MiwL In lie oommoiMit form it 
oowaMa oi a eylindno vmaal doaod at Um bop bjr a 
fntmel-ahapcd lid, throoK^ a bnla in tba enttta of 
wlaicb tlM rain falls. A Darraw glaw tuts, rUtnic 
notable Um *«h1 from near tha bottam, ahowa by 
tba height of tha water in U the height of tho water 
tn tba naaol Itaelf. A vet^ aiinple rain-yaugi^ ami 
tna wUdi aoawora all pra«ttc»l purpoiM^ OdMiato of 
» ovpptr (nonal. the aranol wboaa opcnbig la ozac4ly 
10 ifun Incbctu Thia fonnel allowi the rain to 
faaa into a botU^ and tho quanUty of rain cat^cht i» 
aacartaiond by multiplying the wd)^t in oonoaa by 
O'lTS, which ^vee the dapih in iuvhaa. Aa a rain* 
pnga it aaarar tba grround, it Is fonnd to Indicate a 
g i wal er ralnfalL Thia m partly duo to the cold rain- 
stitpa getting latser In faUinji tbrousb tba rerymoiat 
»ir umt tba ground, and pnrUy to the greater oceui^ 
eoM of eddiaa abovt tbo gMige at gnatar bcEgbta. 
Hence when Um rainfall at two ^tacra in to bo com' 
pond, tha eaama ouj;ht to bv ■iiuiUrly aiCuatad. 

RAOnr LAKE, a laka in Britiah North America, 
tMf —B Lalun Superior and Wiunip^, and fonaiot; 
tmii el Uw boundary between the pcwataaiuna of Great 
Itritain and the Initod Ktatoi. It liea IIM fe«t 
above iea-keal, b about 40 miloa Inog bj 15 miUa 
bvoad, RcaiTea the watera of nmaaraua imall lakea 
from the OMt and nnrth^Mt, and anptiaa llaell by 
Rainy Itivar, about M milts lung, into tba I.Aka of 
UmWm)^ 

RAJSIZIS art dried irapoa. There are two maUioda 
«4 lirjiaf Ihem. Ooa u by cutting tbo etalka of tba 



bonehcat hbobU v thoae ooatalnlnf tbo tatai gtapei^ 
haUthrengh wuo r^and aUowingrtham boohrink 
and dry tiMO the *ine by tha beat M 11m ann. Tba 
other moUiod is by pluoktug the gnpeo tram tba 
atalk^ and dipping tLem in a hoSiiig lya ei wood- 
aaha and quiddiiiM^ after vhicb tboy arc dried, and 
expcMcd bo the sun uuoo faunUca of lajdcct<wciri( Cor 
about a fortnight Thoa* prepared hy tha former 
prooeea are esUod paiftnc (/ cAe fan or miMeata)% and 
am much finer thu tho Laeiat, tbo term applied la 
tho aUiem V«/tntia raiaina are pniau«d by steapiag 
tbom in IkiUIuk water, to which a lye of riiie ftiaiM 
iiM boon adJ«d. <Vi'ntAran raiiinH or t wa mf an 
obtained from a ramarkably BoaU rartety of pani^ 
eallad the ftlaob Onriatb, which i* peodiar to tba 
Vitvmk iiUndR. RaUaa are imported fai lam qnaa- 
tiiica fniui tL« Kincb at Etaropa, and llkurlie fnm 
y-^yi'l, iunyma, and Damaacua Tbooe from Aaiatio 
larkev am oalted StUamu. 1'hr igiuuititv of raiaina 
imported into Grant Britain in IS'^Swaa 548.911 cot, 
valne, £1,037,820; and Um <iuautity of oomnla 

i,<K>2,i02cwt: »a]iifl, i;i,xii,a;ii. 

RAI7.KN, or lUecUkXH, the name given by Iba 
Huiii.iu'lana to Mveral Slavonic trit>aa profe«ang tba 
Crvek faith, and acaltorad over SorVfa, Slaraola, 
I.>owor Ifitngary, Moldarfa, and Walaohik 

ILAJAH, or lUii, ibo hereAtary prineaa of tba 
Uindoi, whov beiora tba cabjagatioa of tba ooonti; 
bjr tha Hoguli^ Rormwd the varknia oonntrleB oJT 
Hlnduatan, ni thay still eoDtlnae to do in mkiw 
inatancea, though thoy are ga&anQy dependent 4a 
tho Knropoaaa. Thay formariy belonged to the carta 
of Eaahattiyaa, or nEliinry taata, but the UUa may 
now ba bold by a nenbar ot aay oaaba. A snperior 
UUa to Uiat of rajah b mahamjah (gt'^i king), 
leaarvcd tumiorlT for theae ktngi of Inilia who had 
others under tbofr aorereigDty. 

RjiJMAHAL, a town in Hinduataa, pcovtaee of 
Itangnl, on Um GanM^ SS milea w.ii.w. of Hnr> 
shidabad, and 203 auUa Jf.v.w. o( Calciitta by raO- 
way. Ite adtBotafoooa poilclon early ralaad it to 
tui{>ort*n(«, and it waa lo^g tba aokmnriedgad csfAal 
of Uie I'<titgal and Bahar twovinom. The ramontal of 
tho Uritiah oourta td JoMoa to Bhagalpnr has aert- 
oualy afTsctod ila preaperity, aad cnoaad it to amuDM 
a doll and deaertod lypaatnnoa; bat it ia atOl a larn 
town, with DO fewer Umu twelve market- plaeea, tha 
reifl sins of a aplandld palaca^ and an imporfatn t tvniwt 
trade. It waa taken iibiiiiiIcb of by tbo BriUA In 
1 763, and ceded to the EMt India Company bf Skit 
AluminlTSS. Pop. aboat 90.000. 

BAJhtAUENDRI, a town in Hindi)ataii,caBltai of 
the Godn\-ari diatrict, and aoat of tho priadpai e«w^ 
is on the east bank of tha OodnTari, Joat abova fti 
i«lKli vision into two arms, to miloe from Um eea, and 
eS mOos noftb-OMt eS Haanlipatnm; lat 16' SV K.; 
Ion. 81' H' B. It etandi on elevated iroOBd, and 
ooMlalacl » (otatdMl •mot baU amila b kmclh, 
and naoy ttanow laoea rannlng fnam It ea wmt 
sido, tba whole lined by mean bouMs d mud and 
titM^ laten^Mraad with aoine Isrgv dweUinga rf Zamift- 
daiit who an chiefly Brahmaaa. At ita nartham and 
Is tJ"* fttrf rrmtainiaff tbo iMrrackiulicKuta^ jaiL and 
magariae^ and gan^ened br two oompantM of a 
nattra nginant MdmrnnMoaaa ata taw and poor In 
both tha toira nad dlstriet; but bar* in aa m mota 
moaqven, atlMUBg their lenner wealth and Munben. 
I'ap. 088IKHKS- 

SAJPUTANA. a laiv* p»«lnoe of Imli^ In 
tba wart part of HinduMia propoi; axtanding ran 
tba Jaauu aad Chnnhal Blvor% wee* to Siad aad 
Bbawaipur, and cotnuUng tha grintar part «l llw 
Indian beaart. It fa ouldivldod Into a mimbw oi 
aUtaa, which art aubridlar? to tba BriUah. and «■»• 
pciaed ondcr tho aaran foUowlag aaslataiit polillcal 



442 



KAK£— EAXOCZT MABCH. 



tgmeim : ^njmr, Jftipnr. Mftnrar, IlariAti, tlnMnm 

Stfttea a^enuf, Alwor, mk) Simhi; tocher with tbc 
liritiah ilicLHctn of AJoiir arid Mkirwiif*. Tb« Uyiai 
arcft of tb« Dstiro BteUw Lt 12^,750 Knglub wjitAru 
mile*; or inclniltnx the Britiab (fiatriota of AJmir 
sod MurvrMTK, 132, 461 «qiure miln, Tlio irikbft- 
ikjalu xail rkjalu »ra su[rn:ui« lu tWIr owti Ktatoi, 
and Mttla diipubn among tbemaolvoi in cuuria of 
their own. A icnwt portion ft %h« snrtiux <•{ ICaj- 
puUBft u dflwr^ tad port of it wiiollj deatituto of 
inhabitantc, -wator, and Tegctation. 'rh« wbute of 
the xdl ia muiLrluibly i^iu«, oonUining muiy aklt 
jprhigs &ni) ult lakoa, and mucb of the woll-wkter 
i» bcMkuli. lo BiKny pluu* it L) covered with tlio 
illllil ftnd othor pncldy ihrubK, but txctpt In the 
lully pirta the twritory in iLlm>>«l (l^ititiit« of trow. 
l'fa» K*j|jut utico 11 Mi-il to bo A bnjich of ibc 
KihetriyM, ono of the four gtvat cutea into whidi 
til* Uiiidtuw«r«ortgin&U}r divided. Thej an «m«d- 
tiaUj^inilitarFpeopln, and many of their imntitntioiiii 
baar » atroiiK nariubltum t« Ujo fL-udal cuKtonu 
wUeb provultd in Eoro^Kt ia tbo imddl« b^M^ Tliay 
ham Ukevriin boon ntilf^hntti^il fnr their flbJTalrotiR 
■piiit.ao unlike llip effeminacy and Juiilicity of miuiy 
of lh» oclifntal DatiuiiH; hub th«<y am also uiifortun* 
Bt»1y opm to oD« or two rovoltin; charge wlucb it 
1> ttnpoBriblo even for Uidr EreAtMtt admirera to 
dstij. Tbi! darkeit cif tliess ia Vm {iractim of fcmalu 
infantiditc, which, at oQo l^'mo wna horribly prevaJi>nt, 
awl baa only of Lat« ycara bcon ropprwaail by tha 
pMKrtnl aid of Britiah inflnenoe. The pnf^iM nw 
of oj^oni hn« likewiaa in many cmm producod a 
tamcntabla [iFtrrEaratitm in their phjiltol ani9 mam! 
ttate. Not wlthstan dins tUoeo aeriuus iJrawbfK-k« tbe 
Rkjpnt cbuw^r coafauns mach that la noblo and 
eenoroiti^ and etatriiiamts the bcnrlidal efTnta whii:li 
naoa almdj renlted Iruiu their ooamH.-tiou with 
Britain, ft mueh giciihJi iiupTovement may ^arraut- 
ahly be looked ror fa the coune of time. Th<? Hoj- 
pnta b»cam«fli»t ooB.n<irt*(I with thn llritinh govprn- 
mnit Riidcr tho jtaroraunhip of the Mnniiiia cif 
Wellaaley, In the beslanlnc of die preaent centuiy. 
Pop. of native state* {II^^IV 10.2II8.S92. 

UAKK, a term applied to ths dorintion of tbo 
miurla fr>jlii lbs v«rLical litle of |Hj«itlr.>u, recltuui^ 
from tbo kevl forwurd or nit; alau applied to tbo pro- 
ioction of the npprr parta of a Khip, at both end*, 
Wjond the t^Ktrvuiitifa of Uio kool. 

11AK.K. an Implemont of bu«1>audry, conaisttoc 
of a bar at vrood or iron baring woidca or iron toctn 
buened Into It, and nttndied to n long hkndlo. llio 
irooden mkoa are oaod prindpally In the 6e]da for 
i»Mng togatber or collecting bay, atnw, t(o. Iron 
ntkci an indiipeauahle Lu ^rtrdciiH, for moothiiig 
tlio nufaoo of the stdl and the tlko. Kokea an aomo- 
timoa adapted to aa to In drawn liy hm««. In Ens* 
land an Emplcmeut raJIrd the dl-rait, baviug a tn> 
angular tranio for a hiLudle and curved tvetta, b much 
mea in hay-ficldi. 

KAKINli, UiR act of cannonading a ahip on the 
tUrm or Iji^^ai], am tbnt the baUa raUfre the whole 
length of tim dockn, which la one of the moet dang«r- 
ona incidcnta that r-an happon in a naval action. 
Tlila ia fpsqufrntly callnl raking /ore and aft, and i* 
alinllar to what ia termed by enf^ucwn mfi'ailm'j. 

RAKOCZY, a famous priucoly family, now oxtintrt 
hi the male line, which for aoma time ruled the nrin- 
dpality of SiL'buubilr^en or Tranaylvacin, auil by 
maintaining Uii> civil and rriigioua riKlita of thn 
InhahlLinta made ibwlf eqoally aarvlDeablc to them 
and fonnidablf to tbo hooM « AtiMria. Tho flrat 
ptinoeof the name was RiniiDiTiND Dakikxy, who 
obtaliMd the govenuumt in IftoS, but resigned it 
in 1408 la favonr of Gafariol Uothorl — GxoiiaB, aon 
U tiM lotmer, waa^ aft«r the death of Batbori and 



Bothlen Gabor. raitortd to hb pHndpalltT in 142R, 
leaded with tbe 3w«daa doriiw tbo TUrty Yean' 
war, and in 1646 obtained for thoae of hJa aabjaMi 
who, like hiin>elf, bad «mbf«ead Proteebutiam, a 
peaoe whioh (rave then bade mora than tdatAy 
charcbee that had beaa m ei hi d from dtau, Mai 
numcrun* loat privllegea. — He died in 1C4S, and 
wu aiiL-ueeded by hia aon, OtOKSB II., who, MUBg 
In hia altMnpt to bo dacted to the tbrooe of Polan£ 
Taoant thioiigh tha death of Oaabnlr V.. «ata>ad late 
an alilanoe with the Siredea, and invadad Polatid 
at the head of a large army: but ma ami^Maly 
defentod by tho Polw. aided \q the Aaatiiaoa^ na Ja^ 
16, 1657. AlxUcating in 10S8, In coaaaeciDenoa of Um 
action of tho I'ortc, he ahortly aft«nraHa ooottleed 
to rogain hie authority, but waa aeoii Soraad fe«n hii 
potitcoa, and died in IMO; Bk eon Fbavcib wm 
implioated in a plot agafaHt tha lippwfil gonn> 
meat of Aiatria, and hut for the int«natle> of hla 
mnther woilM have pMd for hia CWBplidqf with 
bin life. In the bdter yean at hia lUa, erUdt temu- 
iiatcd In 147«, be eompOad a book nt prayan^ OfO- 
cium Bacocnaoiuii^ whicb ditidned k wide idmila- 
tinn. — Fsamc» LioroLD RuuKST, ||H>kca of SmAmd- 
burgen, and eon of tbe pneeediDg. after Iha Kaperor 
Iiw^ld L had rabdned it in 169», Uvad aa a pmate 
man on hie own eatafits, bnt baring. In iii ttwyiiwca 
of fruitlan negotiation with Louie XIV. of fnm», 
boeo arreetod. was thrown into priMO. Hv nnaie hi* 
eac^H in 1701, and, heat iqwn revenge for lb* eea- 
tenoe of condemnation whkii bad ben panad ipoa 
him, determined lo frea Honnrj fram Aaatrias 
•lomination. He waa aoon at Uie bead of 100,000 
matuontenta, and na Ibe enpecw. Id oo a wqaaona id 
the Spaniah war of Snccemion, waa unaUo to faring 
any cffoctiml foeoo acainit him, pillaged the gnahv 
part uf HuuK'^y '^"ff Montvia, took many fiiitiMaa^ 
ikudmitlikiily iulv4nt.«d alinoet to the gates cfVImifc 
Li:o|Mjld would uuw gliully bare mado poMt^ hat 
Lxuld not make op hi* mind to agrwe to Rakocn'a 
Rtiptilntiona — to contort Hungary Into an deetf** 
monanhy, to gi*« tnll toleration to all forana of raB- 
gion, to conflnn Rakociy himadf aa Prntee of Sa- 
l>Knblin;<Tn, anil to reaUn to him and hia followcra 
all tbe buxU »f tbt-ir fathera. Tbe rioiocy at lUrt- 
horough and Princo EogaM at Blenbaioi etuMad the 
rnijK-ror to hrinz a greater force agnintct BafcoiST, 
wbu bad not yet neen able entirely lo oanqner TVan* 
•ylvaniik During tbe preparatiDoa tbe emperor Aed 
in 1709. bat Ua aon and mocnaor, Joanai I, aoe- 
oGcdod, by the mediation of Ilalktnd and Wliglaial, 
in making peace with the iiialcooteBla. Rafceoty 
refoeed to aoc«di^ and Autria own wnd M; tbe war 
with renewed vigour gained naay rignal aovantana. 
Rakooty'B loicier good faetnue appeared to have W- 
aaken him. An attempt lo engagn tbo Torka in hia 
catiM fuled : Uie pl^oe bwan to rage amraig hia 
troo^w: a vIhIi to Poland, where be euleavaured te 
gain PetfT the Great, alao failed: end tba HoBgulu^ 
taking adianta^ of hia abeence, condoded a eepa- 
rata peace, and Rakocay waa glad lo eoaie to any 
ttmu. He retired to Ftmnoe, aad aftcrwarda lo 
Koamclia, where he died in 178S. He kft Memotre* 
«iir lea Revolntiona de Uongii^ which di^aplay msch 
tal<?nt, 

RAKOCZY MAKCa, a rimple y«t itirrln^ march 
by an nnkmvwn omnpoaer, aad a verr favooriU one 
witli thp arniv of Franda RallDcay U. In the war 
of 184$ and JS4» it waa adt^l by the Hagran 
aa tbcir natiwial march, and \m aaid to have baa aa 
inapiritioFr an efl«ot upon ih«m aa that eierdaatt in 
llio MareeiHaiao on the French. Like that one B 
aliui waa oppoaed by tJie govemaient, the Auatriaat 
bavinp made vsrloua attempts toauppnaa IL Awvtk 
para|duaac of tho march waa made in 18S< anl la 



I 



t 



RALEIGH. 



448 



I 




lUk (enn H fa mart geaerallr koowa in GcmHty 

BALKK.;]!. R dtjr in tbo Unitod SUtw, capital 
«f Konb Cuvlink, 135 milea aa.w. of Rlcbnumd ia 
Tit;fliiia, au Iba North CBroliaa Contrml KMltmy. 
Il fa ngnlwljr and tiMAlji Uld oat, contalni'iiy k lar^ 
■■d mr ■aMll«r wiuitm; and baa a stote-hooM, « 
■Hrif* fnaJU •mctam after tba modal at tha Pu^ 
thtfW. 166 fnct Umg. DO fort wtdn. muI nirToiiailed 

br naMive 0)Iqiiiiii of (jraAitr, b\ fact (liAmi^tcr, and 

n ttH hitfli, iJid tun&ountfd by a bmutiful doow; 
a eoort-hoiiaa, jail, goyenor't lunua, a tboUm^ a 
market^ dmr^ua of variituB (tecniftLnatiaPi^ aenral 
acndaoifai aad acbaola, a daaf aad dtuob itmtttutioD, 
thraa baaing two lonndriM^ a cairiago f«ctnrjr, and a 
' bU «n>da. Pep. (16A0), 0265. 

IGH, ar Kalkir, Bib WiLLTIB, a diitin- 
warrior, atatcnaan, and writer in the reiena 
~ ith and Jamaa L, waa tiia aaoond aon a a 
lof aadnit family in I>araoaliln, Ht waa 
IfiSS in that conDt;. aad waa aant to Orial 
, Osfonl, wher« faia prvficfasnr gav« a Ugh 
I ot hU catndtjT. llU activ* dfapodUoo and 
I ardonr lad him, at tb« wgo ot ■BTcstaan, to 
body of gcDtlvnan volosteen lalaed to awfat 
t^a yrcDch IVntcrtanta. Ha anbaadoaatly aooom- 
panled the tanrm imt uodBT Gwwral Ncnia to aanat 
tha Datch, aad afterwarda aoeou^wnfad bla half* 
bmbar. Sir Humibrs^r Gilbart, la a Tojrafs to Xow- 
foukdlaad. On hia return in 1580 ba diatJiignfahed 
hllialf at Iba Iriih rebdliDn, and waa rawaraed lor 
Ua MrrkMa by a oonaldtrabla aatat* In Ifaland. Bfa 
bTOor at emirt waa adraaeod by a waU-knorwii act 
c4 fallaatty. Tbe qnecn, in a mlk amaaK a crowd 
ol floottieta, having coma to a >pot in which tbu poth 
waa obatracted by uir*, ItalMgh iintnndi»t4i!y took 
•tf Ua iJafa phidt cloak and apread it on tL<.- i:rvund 
lor a foot-doth. Ia 15S< hia acdva di*|Ki«lilon wu 
mairihaiad la a adtaaw tor tha dlaoovvy aud a«ttl«K 
aaat of tlwaa parta of Noitb *"*"** not abvady 
ilodby CbriatiaaMatea. Bybkiatanrtfaa 
a rery «rt«n«fve patent foe tlUa pmtnae; 
_^ tfaa batp of fricDda two aht|M wora nttad 

oA Aaaa vtaaata luTiog caniod boiaa earaoai that 
aold wall,* iteaad npadmiaof BOTan VMidi tollBwad, 
Bodar Oa ccmiaand of Sir Rkbajd OreaTQl^ Ra< 
lalg^'a fciaaman. The Utl<Tr cnUirnrfai latminatHl 
ia tk* aattlamant of Vjrv-iniii, ao oauod In honour ot 
Quaao E3iaabeCh. To thin eiMdidoa la a!ao due, it 
ia laid, tha introducUdn of ti'>n*<xs> aad tho potalo- 
plaat into Eoroiie. In tba moantiiiMi ha waa hooonred 
witb kaiffbUnod, aad rawardod by aavand hionittva 
^aa^ iaoludiBK a laige ahan ol tba forfaitad Iriab 
aalalBb H« waa ana of the eooBoU to whan tba 
cooaldaralioo of tha haat anaiia of ofipoaliig tbo Span* 
fah armada wu ibtrualBd, and waa aaeiw tba sum- 
bar ot roluateen who joined tfaa EajtIbE flact with 
■b%a of their own. In Ifi&tl b« accompaniod the 
•spaUad King of Portnaal in hi* atlompt U> rrinstAto 
biBwIf, for wU(^ aarvNa he rweivMl avvaral addi- 
ttaaal BDBtfci d tvrom and wnolamaat; for althowb 
land <l glcry, ba waa abooat wptally ao of gain. On 
hia ntwni fn>m PortujpJ be vinted Ireland, and con* 
traotad an intimacy with S[«fiaar, who c«lebrat«d 
8lr Walter aadar Ibo lilla of tba Shaphatd of tha 
Ooaaa, and to hia Faary Qnaen prefixed a latter to 
Uia tttpiaaalorr of Ita plan and deiiin. Tbe UUer, 
iBntnrn^lnbDdiieadlbapoeltoKlinbatb. lalSSS 
ha eaaBundad an axpadition with a view of attack- 
ing Paoamii; but waa retailed by tha ()ua«a, and 
aooo alUr inmirred h«r diapkaauN by an amoor witb 
cma of hor mai'lr of bononr. tba daoffhter of Sir 
NkbolMlbrodtmortoa. Althoveh ha nada tba boat 
rapantfao ta hia power, by nanyiag that la^, ba 
waa impriaaaad for aome m«Dtb^ and baalabad tba 



wiib 



qnna'a prvaanea. To recover faronr be pUnned aa 
expedtliun lo Qidaaa, ht which ha aiLl}arkad in Fab' 
roary, 1595^ ^^ raaebad thoOrinooo; bat waaobti^red 
by mckocat and oantmry wCnda to ratwn, after hav- 
ing dune little mora than take a (ormal pCMaaaOQ of 
the ttiUDLry in tbo name of F^iMlintb. In IftM br 
bad ao fitr rvipiitiod favont that he bad a naval OOD- 
maad onUer the Eari of Enei, with «h<i«n a diffa*^ 
enoa enanad that laid tba foaadat i on of a laaHag 
entmty botwoea them. Sir Walter waa anbaaqoaatly 
folly ractored to the good graoei of BUiabeU^ who 
Doinlaalod him to tba gotaramant of 'anay. Ha 
wltnuMad the rnia of nfa antagDafa^ tbe Sad of 
Kmcx, whoaa exeoatian be urgod, sad petaanally 
viewed from a window in tha armoury. 1 no epeody 
death of the qnoaik which this very catasbopba 
bafltoaed, pot a period to hfa pfoanatity, Jaaiea L. 
whom, with aome other emtrtiert^ be aoogbt to Knail 
Id bfa power of intmltidng tba Scoita into Eaglaad, 
liaaatad that altempt, and diallked him as tba uteaty 
of Ua friend the Eari of Eaa«L Ahlnoagb iMdrad 
with (iitvrDsl dvilitv at court, bo waa deprivad of 
hia poat of obtain of tha gnarda^ and eridaatly £a- 
oountaoanead. Thb tnatmant prayed npoa Ua VA 
spirit; aad a coD«|draoy bavfaig baea forvad for ttia 
porpoaa of pladng opon Uui throno the I^y Araballa 
Stuart, Sir Waller waa accused of participating b% 
U by Lord Cohhsai, to whose Idle propoaal* be bad 
givaa ear withoal improving tboai. Ho wsa broggbt 
to Mai in Movember, IflOS, and by the baae anboerrl- 
anoe of Ifaa jnoy waa dsdand gnOty oC kJ^ trtaaon, 
e*aa (a tba nupriao of tba attorDay'gmtrsl Coks 
bimacil^ who declared that he bad only charg«d hfaa 
with ralapriaian of trcaaon. Ralcdgh waa rqirievad, 
ai:(l oomaiiltod to the Towar, wber* bin wife, at her 
namcat aoliintation, waa allowed lo rEside with him, 
and what* Ua yeungest seo wan bora. Though bfa 
catatBa ta gtBcnl wan DRHmd lo Ud, tba lapadtj 
of Ibe Ung'a odidon, iLa hfaauda Oaar, aflamnii 
Dnks ot SoiBMset, eaiiod oa bfa laBBer of Sbaibona^ 
npoa a Aaw tomid la Halaigk'a prior wanyanes 
of it to hia aoB. II waa not until Janoary, lOlfl, 
afUr twolro yoanT oonfiaament, that ho ohtainad hia 
llbvratioD, during wfaMi tntarval ba eoniioaed tba 
giaatsr part of kia wocki^ and aapeciaUy hfa Rfatory 
of tbe Worid. lU WM oely tsfaaacd at Uat by tiia 
ad vanoe of a large anm of money bo the new lavomite 
VnUera, and to ntrian hia brakan fottnnaa ba 
planned anollwraxpaditigaloAateriGa. Baoblataad 
a patent under tba gnat aeal feirmakiagaaatUa w am 
in Ontana; hot, in otder lo retain a power over blax, 
tba fclog did not grant him a pardon for the aeBtaaoa 
naad opoa him for bfa atlsged t w aao a . How far 
Boltfgh KBowfngly deeafrad tha court by Ua nun- 
aaiilariiiiia cf rich d ia oorariaa and gold ninaa It fa 
impoadbls now to aaiailalii. bnt baring reached tbe 
Oriaooa^ he deapatcbed a portloB of bfa forea to attaok 
tba aov apMi^ aattlanait of St. Tbanii^ wfaieh 
waa o^itored with tba Uaa of hfa eMeot aea. Tba 
azpadad plonder, bowovor, provsd of UUto ralas; 
aad Sir WalMr. aftar bHu k TatailHiiiftiil t» 
indnos Ua capbdM ta attack ollMr Bpaaiah ■sMls- 
menta, arrited at Flymoalh bi Joly, 1S18. Ia Ihe 
mssattaw tba Spanlah ambaawdor had aradaoad 
anch aa iflaet upon JacMSt wbo waa aaa l ua g lbs 
hand of tbe lafanU for Ua ana Cbarfaa, that Bfldgb 
waa anealei l and oo mm i tt a d >o tha Towar. JaBosud 
raaaca lo ba o B e nd ad witii tha oondnct of llaleMt 
againai a powar In andty with Umaair, aad adgiit 
bsTs triad UiB for thfa mw atfmsat bnt wfib Us 
lumal maanwaaa aad poafUoiiBtty J at a rai faaJ la azs- 
cnte him on Ua former amteaoa. Bafaig browrht 
hafaraUwOoartofKlng'alWtMih,UiploaofaalaBpUad 
pardon by bfa anbaatiuent wwaiaand waa ovamusd} 
and tba dooa of death bainf |B««a^wsd agalaal 



4H 



IlALl^ENTANDO— HAMB01jn.LKT. 



faim. H WH carriod into vie<nitiun t1i«i fulluwinji rUy 
(October 2». l61S), in 0)4 Tilvx Yud. His bchAv- 
iour At titc KCAlTiilri WM cAlm; und *ft«r ftildrvming 
tlia pcotilc At iKimc IcnKth in )m nwu jiutilioaliuit, 
Iw twclved lb« itrokv of denth witli pcrft^-t cooi- 
pocarai As * politidMi uid public chAnctor K^lei^b 
u doubtlunn ii]iFn to niiiclL MiintJtilverBion; biit in 
«xt«alo( {.'iL;i»citv and tij^urof miutl ba likd few 
equally avvu Id mi ago of gre&t men. Hb vrlttngii 
an UD a Tarietj d to^ci^ poetical, militaf t, maritime, 
gttHgtvi'hiuU, pollGlail, and Uatorical. Mart of hU 
mlacallaiKKtuB |>iaoea haTv OMtucd t« bo intcKetiD);, 
Irat fail Hiatory of ths Worid i* onn of Iho (msI apoci* 
meua d the EngUah of hli day, beluK at ohm tbe style 
cf tba atataaman ant) ths adioUr. Tho compoH ai tba 
work did not admit folncM of nur»tivo, bnt ho i« 
oftot an aout* and ••I'.K|uviit rvnai^nor <iii kiibiric*! 
•mrta. The bwt «>]itioii ia that of OldjB (1736, 
tvo ToU. folio). V>f hill miiMMUaneoaa worka an odi- 
tion by I>r. Binh wui publiahcd in ITiS, in twro 
vohunea octnro. Llvea o{ Baletgh have b«^«n writ- 
tan by WilUain Oldyi, Arthur Cajlej (1&04), Mn. 
A. T. Thomaon (ISSO), P. F. 1>tler (IS33I, J. A. Kb 
John, and Edward Edwarda (Ixitb two vola, I8B3). 

RAJil.KNTANnO. aim KiT*i»r.*jiDO, or Lkkt- 
aKDO (Italian), in uiiuic, iudicatoa tbat tbo tlniQ of 
the paaaaga over which h it writlen ia to be gradu- 
allvNUrded. 

RAM, ■ atoam chip of eiimoHinarj atiagth and 
talldU;. and prmOed bgp powarinl en|iMi^ iwed m 
an inattiuiunt oC war. Tu diatincdv* abameter ii 
ilerind from the beak at ita pr«w. TUi b«alc eoa- 
riaU of a aolid ur nnrly adUd pjec« <4 irco, ur wwid 
wmod with iron, fixed to tha fwow below the water 
Um; It ia flat uukmeuh, Md tapen towarda ita 
iHrtnr axtreaitjr aaarlj to * polaL The naaal Hadf 
laotbarwiM oautractad Ukt th* ordloarj' iron-dada, 
ud Bv iltiMr have its batbaiT bwda d aw l w or in 
nrohlu torreta. The beak ia iwualljf «tiMlnw4*d 
aa an indepeudeBt adjonol to the abip, so tbmt in the 
•veut of anj eurioua ooUUon it may be left boried in 
be hoatile vwael, or if carriod oS in ooj other way 
Otaj iu» ooeaaioii any injnry to the tcmcI itMif. 
The moden Iren-clnd mn waa fint need dnring the 
latodvawarinAiMriA. In 1»W the raai Mwrimn, 
hlcaglm to th* ConMantaa^ daa tr ^yd wtlh Um 
■ihtBit aaae aevaral of the Federal waode> Tuatla 
Ijliif in the llampteD RoAda. See Ibom-clam, 

BAM. BATTtiuio. 6eo BaTnuiM-BAM. 

BAMA1>A>'. the nbth Donth la. Uw MtAamne- 
^BTear. It iaderetad lo batiBC and abatliMMe. 
Vtam autflaa to auiaek tor the thirtT' dajra of ila 
dontiM the HohaiunedaBe partake ol no kind of 
nmriebnot. &tn«, Makii^ BBaldaft battlast 
■nd wH other bodOy onjornanl^ an ahwhitalr iator- 
~ It a phna Uohaanudan paaM la the atreet 



mm vabaliovar having a agar ia hi> aawlli ha oarnea 
hli haad to Ua aioath that theiw vm ha no powd- 
hUtjr «f • partlde el the Hkoke aaRdac Bui 
nhMiaiii the iBB ffiaqipeare indar tba ho^oo all 
twih rii B ti e M b reaMrod. moA an inunediate iiaJain|,hl 
Ii aa^ i^en the daadi. The «af^ ai* fillad, and 
Ike rmb freqMBil; eoatkim thrDO^oal tfca whole 
BighL Tha WAaiiimadatt m»lk b^ loMr there 
h nn ftiad prrind at wlilrh ffaiadaa itf ■ ma, aiid whai 
II hMfa Jaifcy tta low bill iliji iif ■rikwewii 
IW<Ao«Twoaof(babatli|»itieQlBr|jti7fac. In 
lUi mm a— p ll— b aada b bTonr of Ihoao to 
vfaan tt woald prava raaSx Injarioa^ ancli aa asnnv 
pegnaal wMDen, and etkctm. At the larmiBalka o( 
fto aMatth a great laaM takaa Blao^Qatled htwam. 
nl all bb«Br«aaa«laraparM«iihi«a4^ dnta; 

""'^ Jl" '*^ ' I' " '" " 

m^nmmm. n* laaaM te the al 
Mirth It^ahn m a fMl % A^ fa fc 



mwtTed hia Bnt rerela&nt. The prindpal p —igea 
in the Koran rererrinK totbefaot of It atn a d a n ace to 
be found in ihe aacond Sunh. 

I^AMAYA^'A. See Kaubkut Lacoumi aid 
LiT>iUTt:KK, 

RA^IBERG, JoHASa HsixRicn, diclkwnUMd 
for hla paic'lQgs and etdiinca, wa« bont la 1747 Id 
Hanover. He fir*l ebowed hJa tatsot by drawinfi 
of Boenee in Lb« Hartx Moimtuna. Tbcae diawi^ 
beoaaie known to the King of Kagland, his aorcrdca 
u Elector of Haoorar, who indnood blin ta ombi to 
l^ndon, whnre be provided for him. He ranaised 
Utene niue yean, uid petfectcd bimwll nnder Bff- 
ndda. Mnrphj, Itart'itAui, and other eagi**aia«C 
the fint rank in Euf^luid, enitTaved disffiagad U. 
In ]T»H the Idutc unt him to Italjr, wknoa ba ta- 
tumt^ to llouuvvr, where ho wn> appointed palatK 
to tho ooort. FfTW painten and doaiguen hM« pr^ 
duced so many worlcs aa he has; hat thai rapUity 
prevented the full dcvdapmeBt of bia talent. Bam- 
berg diattngiiiahed hinueUi particiiUrly in Ui« bnmer- 
oos aaricattire. The dnwisga u> tti* inj^^mfitziit 
edttioa el WLdaod'a works are all by liirn; eoaie bt 
etohedUaadf. 

KAHBOITILIiRT. a town of France, in the da- 
p(Lrtu>«at ot SciBO-et-Oiae. iu a be«ntifiil nOajr nat 
the eiienain fovMt of aamo nama, 27 mQei eaoth- 
weat of I'arii. It has good booac^ and ngalar, 
epadoua, well-dcanad stieeta, bat 11 on the wbel^ a 
dnll plaoe; remarkaUa only for ita cnt t eaa , ioof tte 
nsUJwcaof tba kmga of Fraaoo, and a die paA, b 
which the fint modd farm in PtwK* ma aatuHAad: 
and for ite ahee|j4ald. which waa tba fint de^ d 
Merino dieep bnnigbt to Franca hom Sfwn hf 
Napoloon. From tbi* flodt have mfna^ the pan 
TMo and the mixed nctm of diMfi, nkkh oanatitoti 
one et tho greatest soureta of wvaltb in tfao eoaaftr. 
Shortly aftar Um hnatent of Faria, on Oct «. W«, 
a eoaaba took place iwre between tba FHnck ad 
Gennanat in which the (oraer were vaMdebed, Mil 
tbe town rcnained tatbehandaoC the Garmoaa tiD 
tho oonduain of peace. Pop. (IMl). SIM, 

BAMBOUTI.1.KT, CAmtaaM. llaaHnn la; 
«Beo< tbenMwttewuwfcaMewiQiDeoaltbaaD'rMtawrt 
«mi iu j , «aa bam at Bone of HaHan porsnta b 
IH4. and edocatad with gnat car* by kw mthac 
la ItCO, when eolj twelve yean old, aha ■■ilsil 
Cauriaa d'Aitttnaaa, aen of tbe kEarqfoia de Kan- 
faoniUe^ to wfaoea 1^ and eatatea he au ocaeded ea 
tbe d(Kih ef Ike hater in 1611. VThca tka maniab* 
^^aarad as the FtawA eMBt iba waa mwh ibadad 
at tbe flagrant oenaptica of BMaacss reagaiag Iba^ 
and as her nfined tasiM did not panit bertodwtva 
aay ea ju yiiw a t fnm tbe ipb cC way t la ii wheaaaw 
hlad la tbe LewTre Ae eoac d red Aaidca «d matbH 
a aeleet ibda for beraeU. Her high rank, oaajdaad 
to her pMMwJ — ril«. nude tbe axecuticA of htr 
doagn n o s tnarari vah aasjr watlsr. Ska asoasd tb* 
faiaoaa H«MI doBaMMlM to bo eomtMtsd aAw 
pUaa «f bar ew% ad aaoa had tka MikiatfiaB d 
beiMlf tiia eaain of aeae of tba aaaat Uialri- 
■eawkia taifaet botbef gwdaa aad n^la 
thaibfldoaL PaadweMdgiMfat^bqthaafM 
aQ fwiMal peiteadBD^ Mm^m d* 

tb«a ttkann seayeaa, dwtfaed la beooMi 
Her aSihilib, gwwidty. aad da«o«ad 
la b» friaada Biada bar the idd of alBMt d aba 
aajoyed bta-SOCMft. Tbe writen cd tba pviad, la^ 
an anaatnMias in Iba a^ewMM d bv bnaaii^ wMh 
any bo ttacad to tbe Cact that sMoag bar otter asdk 
As pnMiwsl tbatd r iiihullia, tbe tone hU 
o( th» ande^ d tba tMa. ■^- 1 1 1 h i ■ i MilM 1 

wUh Ua aristocncy d Urtb; tba 



I 

I 



I 



Md 

d 



RAJtEAU— RAMESES. 



MS 



letUn thtm m«t on tanu of perfect eqtwUt; with 
lb« fcigLeil DobleawD In the luii), lo o|uitablf did 
■b* iKwJw bar ptttrmug* of Irttimi. i-'<>t mora ttm 
flffy jfsn tbu aafoft mtiuiiod <i|<cti. duHng wUch 
period more thu> ooe feneratfon of ilintiii^iiiiiliAil men 
fi«)aaiile(l iL At fint It wa* Malljerbe uiil Rucan, 
Mlow«d by Uttt illiiatrioiiBcirotoof 6nam rtpritt <rhi> 
vuuliIbatM M much tu tli« fonuAtiou of llw Frenub 
'"-r-'C* ""* tut« — CoeUr, Samzto, Gcmrut, PaCru. 
***'-"'. Segnux, <ii-*Wii. Vi'iiliirc, »iid CoivciUo; Mid 
AuDj tba gBDoraliua wbo Hlled up tha mtwrcciMua 
batva^ OmikUIo and MoUtre, Softmn, Skhit-Evra- 
■tooi^ BoDMnd^ Lft RochofanctnU, toA othen. 
Kor waa tbe reputatioD cif ttte lIAUl dn (tambonillcl 
Biacfa Ibm for Um iUuitrioui wutui^u wlio fmiiieiit^d 
U tban for Um mtn; cooiideriiig wo ni€«t wltli inch 
BBBMi w thoaa of MadomolBello do .S<!iidifr7. Modft- 
^^jpgiaBlle ColLrnjr, aflrrward* oelaboLud m tbe Coin- 
^^^■M da la Smn, aiid who, with tbe Han^tdsa de 
^^^WA InMiiml tbo Maxitiin of La Rochfitoucauld. 
la ttw ludft of tha cirvio of dUtineuubnd woman, 
tDMtoioaa alike fur ht^r un^^tar bvautj' and fmilClMa 
psM of nanner, and wlorad bv all who know li«r, 
HMa* lladeiiMri»el1« Buurbon-Cood^ batter kaown 
aAetwarda ■■ tbe Ducbeaie de LoDgnertlle, the hero- 
ine of Um Fronde. It baa be«ii thoagbt by •ome 
tbat the PrrfdanMe Ridicutea of Moli&n waa Mined 
•t e ap e at u Mm of tbe folblca of lUa ■f>aidt>; but 
MoHlm htaMlf pmttated agaliHt the ntppMitien that 
be mint to ndeot on » circle which bo affirmcH bad 
aretr daioa to reapect. The bMel oxerdied a bene* 
ftdallntaMMeaawell Dpon tbe laaguweaa upon tbe 
maBoera vi the tinM; aod the name of the UarqniM 
da Rambonlllet U Inaeparablj aaaAdated with tbe 
anaala of ooe of tbe muat liu|iorlaiit periuda of PreocL 
IHeeatora and Fnncfa aoclaty. 'J'hn dacltning vnura 
nf tbe tuantiiee won darkened by trooUe, oocaaloned 
paillTbf tbanmoral or death of Bomeof herdeoreat 
aifam, aod partlj by oth^r i.-aii»«; but bar mIoh 
Mfil imdoM open, and it vna only oftor h« daatb, 
vhkb took plaioe in IM5, UiAt it wm cloaod See 
Iteedem'i H6iioJre pour aervir i Ibirtuire de la 
mvim polie an Franc* pendant le dix-eeptlbDie 
rf> el i; and Conaui't JvunoandeMadonacdeLtiiiKiie- 
ilUa. fta 

U, Jtax FmiUFrMt au able French Ihmr^ 
fat tb* BckoM uf Donak^ ami a Dative of Diioo, 
I born In 1999. Hariufi at an early a^ actfuinjd 
HOB aklll In Biiiala he joined a itrolUnf coinpuiy of 
parfemieii, by wheee aaeiatanoe a miuinl ontort^- 
moot of hie OMnpCBtioa waa nprcacntcd nt Avignon, 
In the elsbteentb year of hia ane. Me waa afcer- 
mdi weeinted otsaimt in Clcnnont C'iilbe{lTal, 
KpfBaA nuaaelf to the ituvly of bti« pHni-ipb-4 of hia 
MuliuMlon, and in lTi'2 printed the fitsL-fniiU of hia 
bneetjgatiott in a treatlee, eotltM Traits <]« VUtr- 
Boalfc Foot yean nttnr appenred his Nouvmo 
Bpttme de Hiudque Tbtorique, which wa« followed 
^ bM Qfofeation Hannoniiiuo. In 17SU he pub- 
Ikbwd bii oalcbnted IMMartaUoa eur le rHucl|M de 
rBanaenie, in which he redneee bannony to one 
•Ingjo priuriplc — Uie InndauNntal bo^ on which bo 

Caa all the mt to depend. Thia work pieeumi 
an iavitatioa from ue oonit to euperianod the 
epna at Parii. He pooeaacd a ^reat ficUity in 
edapliai word* lo mnaic, and piqned hiniaeU ao much 
npca tbM talent tbat be ia wd to fan«« declared he 
wonldaet a I>iitcb Keoette If H waa nqnliv) of Uin. 
Wt mwiniag thaoraltcal verba an, Bemarka on the 
DaaoaMntica cS the PTindptee of Hanneny ; Re- 
ply Id a Letter tl is. Eulcr (bnth printed ui 1702); 
On the lartboUve Low d Mwdo In Man * 1751); 
On tbe Miatakea of the Encydopwdia with Reapeot 
%a Bloaia (UU); and a Praotical Code of Muno 
(1T40). He wae alao tbe anlbor of aia operaa, Hip- 



palyto ct Aricie, Caelor ot PoUnx. DaidaBne, Samacn, 
f yKnudluu, and Zortiaatcr, bcaidca a n«at variety of 
buMa and other uiinur plMwa. Loob XV. aduww 
ledoed hia morite by the grant of a patent of noUU^i 
and theordcr of StMichneL Itameaadiodat Taiia 
in 1764. 

ItAMEK, or Chixbiv Grjuul See Boaiiuinu. 
RAMESKS, or Bamsb lia Egyptian, ' the ChiM 
of tbe 8am'), tbe name gireo to aevend Ecjptiaa 
kings, eepedally of the nineteenth and twrnucth 
dyiiaatiea A king uf tbla nanM ta BOOMttimra lueii- 
tloneil aa l«Ionging to the eighteenth dynarty. anJ aa 
baviuK reigned about 1500 B.c^ but bii prc^r name 
was Ranteat and he doca not aeem Bo hare raJgnad 
iadepandeatbr.— BanasB L waa Ibe fiial king ol tb« 
ninetoanth dyaaaty. and wm not auog too mnet 
retHurkabU of tbe ■arfea.^BjtliaMi H, madnn al 
tbe pt«eadinr, and aon of Beli (lbs Selhea of Hn- 
natho), waa Uio tldrd king of tbe nineteenth dynaal|y, 
and reigned from 1388 to 1332 >.a Ho waa odd «( 
the moot notable of all tbe kin^ of Eirypt, and li 
identified by many atudenia o( Eftyplian liistury wtth 
thaSeeoatriaorUreekwritara. (±W Snoarittn ) 1I» 
ftivt acbioveineut waa tbe redaotian of Etbinpia to 
subjection, which he aoeempUabBd la the beginning 
of hie reign when he wm ttiU very young : but the 
graat event ol hi* reign waa hia war with tbe Khib^ 
euppewd to bo tbe Bitt!t4aL He defcMed • eoa- 
fedandoQ among wbotn the Khiu won Iho ebM la 
a great battle near Uie Kii<l'-iihi>n (Orontca) in Syria, 
and in a aubaoqnmt ita^tc at the war took Jenisalem 
and other plaoee. Hv (ottUied the anat of Egypt by 
erecting a great wall from PaliMinm to H^opoU^ 
and ho alao e(inatnict<!d forte at llaroopolit and 
'I'lmiB. In bla reign I'baliM roM to great nugnl- 
fioenoe. In thla «ity he erected the epJendM temple 
known aa the Rhameoriom, with a sitting atatnc d 
hlmaetf dxty feet hiriL He Ii ■iipf.^ieMrl ti have 
been tbe Ung who chiefly opmeaaBd the UeWewa, 
and tbe tilbar al Idenephlbat midar wbou the 
ezodno took plaee.— BAican IIL, the Bbanttnlnifeaa 
nf llerodobia, belonged to tbe twantietb ^ma«^, 
and waa alao a king of eome note, ecme of wbcae 
adilnremanto omu le hare bean Moibod to Soaoo t rifc 
HSi reign laefeod fnm isa« lo Hi* vx., during wbfeh 
period lie had lo withatand many invoidoin of tbe 
aumnindlug natfoniL but be wai nnifuriuly vm-oeaaful 
in war, and actiTe m groat Badettakin^-B in titno of 
peace. At Mcdiaet-Abu be built a nagnifioent 
temple in nmmory of hia warlike aohieTanunta lu 
Nubia uid Sjria, — Ten otbur klnes of tbe name of 
Hanmce arc OMintionad as having belonged to the 
twoBticAh dyoaaty, hnt none of then ia fif any great 
ImportanoeL Hie laat of tbem le auppoeed to baee 
completed bii relga about 1000 ywa before tbe 
Chriatian em, 

RAKESES, a city of Egypt, Rtppoaed to bo tbe 
•anie aa Raaroaca, omit i4 the treeanre-eitiaa built for 
I'Uaranih by Uie cbildrvu of laracl during tb«dr band- 
og In EgypL It waa bom tUa pout Uttt tbe 
lanulitea ect out in their exodoe from Egypt; and 
ita geogmphical ptedtion ia Iberefon of zreat mleraal 
aa delennlnInK tbA ronU towanb tte Bed Sen. 
Varioiw ooajooMnabnn boon nude latoita locality. 
Sonne bare enppoeed it to be In tbe aelghbourbood 
of On or Holiupnlia; otbote eoawwbere boot Old 
Cairo or aadent Babylon — and tbe latter lo tba old 
Jewiib traditiaa; bat Dr. BeUaaon pben ft In 
Wady TeumilU, aoDewbero townr^ tbe eaat end of 
that valley; and Or. Lepaini thlnlia he haa foond Ita 
aito at Abno Keahcyi^ or Kaah«1\ in that tegino. 
Tbe oonjeoture, buwever, which eeema to bare the 
grcttteet degree of pnfaabiUty attaching to it ia that 
wbicfa pUc*« it in tbe DeJabbonriiood of Menpfaiik 
It ia argued in soppoft OC Ibia view tint 



446 



BAMILLI£S-EAUPANT. 



moat luvg bean near the ca^^tal or r«idcnc« of 
Plutrftoh At the time i:( the cuodua, to adiaU of tlw 
frequent bU^^vielWll nud iuimedUta ooramuokaliana 
wb)cb took [iluw httvmna l'}iB.raob tad Mo«m. On 
tlw kit ocwMian Mmei wu aent for ftt nudnlght, 
and not only did tha Interview Uke ploM before the 
nuniing, knpwrally immedutuEVi but tl]« d«p«rturc 
fttao from UMneM* befora dMjugtit (Kxod. xi],4S}. 
Hoaes must thw«fore tuiv« been near Ht luuuL llic 
oonelwrivraMi, hxrmt/nr, of tku «^ui)uat, mu«t 
dapend npcm ttie idiMtUfication of PhMMh'a re«<tetiov 
will) Sf(rni|jliia. Bot Itsi thiB thoM {■ tUe tmliuumy 
of ll^nxliitiif, IHodonia, *nd all th« uirient hLatoriiuia, 
who npKMot Memjiliia m tlia capiUl frmn tlic 
MTlJaat tlniM down to the rcIgn of the PtAbmitM, 
It U pMnliln, howovM, th*C Phira-ih may ha*« hul 
a U-mpnrvv icsidcnco abewborr, and that ho innv 
bavo beoaUiijfo at tfas tlroeol hla intcrviawa with 
UooML bat tbe likolih'^ of thta i» deniod. 

RAMTIjLIKSi a vilUvi! of l^li^um, pmvinM nf 
Bimhant, 13 niU«a north itf Kutuiir and 26 anutb-ewA 
of BniMda. Od May 33, 170^, the Duko of Uarl- 
borough ealned hercaMignal vii^nr ovnr the French 
nndor flunihal VilltfroL and the Duke of Bararia. 
I'be niimhai wer* about 60,000 on cai-h aide; the 
Iina iif tb« aUiiw wu 1000 Dtcu, that nf tho frrach 
1S,UOO, The cauHquenee of thi.i luvttle, the moat 
iinjiiirtant in Iho war of ths BfiuuLih Suuceadon, wsa 
thi? iiuiiMdiate ovBCuatioR of Klandcna by tho Kivnch, 

ItAMMER fa a cyliudiioal Uuck of wood noorly 
littiugtho boraof aeaiuu3(i,MidfMt«Mdoaavoadaii 
Btair, at on a aUff nana woll wrved with apan yam. 
It ia naud to dritv tea obar)^ of a canDm home, nr 
to tba innvrmnrt ruurt of It. The lopv-rainmun are 
moit {uneral io ahipt of war. 

RAMUOUUN ItuY, ao Indian rajah, who dia- 
tinguiahrd binuclf by hia liler&ry attammaita, and 
bb comTGnion from the ancient Hindu laith tu a 

rsleaof UnitariAnimn, Ar rather A rianimn^ wh Uiru 
III tho raar I'TlS, at Burdwait, in tha provhiM of 
IlengnL Tha Unit alameota uf hIa ediiratloo b« re- 
iwivcd under the patanal roof, whan ha alao acquired 
a kuowledye of the I'ernan languam. Ho wa» 
aftorwarda aent to I'atiia to loam Arabic; and herev 
throu):ch tho mndtuni of traniilablnna of Arivtolls and 
Eudid, ht- atudi«d lu^io and ma^euiatics. When ha 
had completed tboao atudloa ha went to Catcntta 
to learn Saimkrit, tbo aaored langua^'e of the 
Hindu aLTiptiirui, tia: knowlnign of which wan in- 
diEpoDiahb to hla caat« aud pruftwik-u lu a Brah- 
man. Aboat 1301 or liOd ho became poMeeaad, by 
tho death of Ida tathi^r and of an r:li\<!t and jOMagrr 
liiothor, of the whuli? Family pnipvrlv, whiob ia aaiil 
ta hsvo beca Very miMiIdarabla, u« now quitted 
Burdwau, aud finvd hia reaidaaoe at Munhidahad, 
whara bis UMOaton hod ohiefly lEred. Bhortly after 
hi* aetUeoiant at (Jiia idace bo eommeiii^d hi> lit«- 
tary caraer fay the publication oS a work in tho Tor- 
■iaa laopiairev with a pmtaee ta Arabic, which ho 
mbUiImI, Affaiiiat tha Idalatrr of All Nationa. The 
bwdom with which ha animadTnted on their reafi«o- 
tiva ayateina ifave great umbra^ boUi to tho Moham- 
BwdMW and the Bliulua, and creatod him *o many 
—?■***■ that ho found it nccoaaai^ to f«rDOve lu 
Cialeatb^ where he again took up hia rmdcmca in 
tba year 1814. Two yean prartooaly to llila period 
ho DM bagna to cludy the Eng'liah lanf^aga; but he 
did not then ajtply to it with miiob aiMniir or noccaa 
Being aome J^ura after njipuintml ilirwan, or chief 
nalivD officar in tha oolioction of tba reTanuea, and 
the dutlea of hia ofBca affoiding him f raquant oppc^ 
bmlty of tnixinf with Bn^Uab aodety, and of reodiuz 
Engluh documeBla, ha appliod to it with iucreaAod 
attention, and vary aoon quatifoed binuclf to apnak 
and write It with oooaldmble facility, oon^ctncwt, 



and aUgaooa. He BfterwaHi atu^lad tha Lalln, 
Gre^ and Hebrew laaipuffMi A carelul atodv <4 
tha aaerad vrilinga of tha Hfatdai had ooDrtuad hfan 
that the pmnuline notiona leapeciiag the noltlpU- 
city uf duiliea, and the mpentitlaaa darotian to the 
iJoentlona and inhuman cotton* eomwatad with 
them, w«r« groanded upon a graaa pomrakM (4 
thalr Riixion. Theaa oigbal reoeada Mi pa ar rf to 
him to luculoata a eyaUtn nf para Ttiafam, wfaieh 
maintaiaed the wdateace of one Ood, iofnlta b hia 
[>6rf(»tfoiis and denial in hia dnratfsB: aad that it 
requirud from ita pnfaaaota a mental rather than a 
corporoal wonUpv aeoempaotpd by atrict aad caoBi' 
(Jary virtue. Having eubraoed tbaae vlawa of the 
Hindu theology and morala. ha t>ec«M asiloai la 
rofmnn the craed and practioa of hll ouuutrjBi^ 
and detennfaiod to de*ot« hia taleota and hia Cortana 
to tbla importa&t and fasaounfalo nadartakiag. Hi_ 
trnoslatod tho Vodont^ a compcsditim cd tba 
trinea contained in the Vedu or ancient ntetad I 
of the Hindua, from tha Sanekrit into tbe 
and Uinduatoni langaagca, and diiLnbut*"! tha i 
latinn natuitoiulir, lliia ha afterward* nU 
in EitfUah. fur tlie purpoae of pcoriiig to Ua Koro- 
paan maoda ' that tha auparatitJona pmelieai wliid 
defunn the Hindu mli;po(i, baw notUng to do with 
Hie pure e^t uf lu dlctataa.' But, as migbt be 
expectod, hia bcnovolent oondnct and aeal tor tfaa 
socid of hia fsUowman expoaad him to maaypanon^ 
bcoo> enleneea. He bad, nerothaleM, tha patifio^ 
tionof wit«awtoelh6b«Maqalc0actaqIhhlabaaw. 
From thepenualof the New Teatament ta Us ' 
and unintermpted naeardaea IdIu religious truti^'j 
foand <hB aayi) tho doctrioes of Christ tnoa* o' 
dndvc to moral prindplaa, ud betwr adapted 
the uae of raHooal behtn thaa aay other whU bad 
com« to hia Icnowledga. Aa tho moat Ukdv tnatbod 
of ncquinng a oorraot knowledge of lb«M oocbiBa^ 
ho dotonnined apcn a canfnl pemaal of tlM JewlA 
and Chriatian Smiptana in their ori^rinal laiignagMi 
From this undertutlna he ruaa with a full ooovk&n 
that tho Christian roli;non ia trua and divtab la 
15*20 he accordingly published a work entitled Iha 
Precepto of Jo>ua the liutdo to Featee aod H^i|i- 
naaa, oonsistlDg dii«t1y cf a salsctMHi tS mani pn- 
cepU tmta the Kvao^ioliala. In. tUa imdartahiin he 
was tioreraed by the coiuriderMloa tha Uatadnl 
and some other pssssgea at« Uablo to tha doabM aA 
divpntoi of ftcc-thinkrm and anti-Chrisliani^ *aptet- 
ally inlnMruloua tvlaUuna, which an mneh leaa wob- 
dotful than the fsbricatod tales ba»d«d down to the 
nativi:* of Aria, and would conaojoeBtly be aj>t at 
b«at to carry little ireii[lit witb tbein. KafflBBahta 
Itoy, in hit diwlriital vi>?w», wai a UtiltBtiM^ M^^ 
howo\-er, tho prc-cziHtcnco and auperaag^B Hffutj 
of Christ, and oouiderisff Iha docbrina td the 
l>iniey aa a spedea of pdytheiflB, objectionable in 
it<elf, and calculated to pravvnt the adoptiao of what 
be ooo^dedned the Christian faith by tiM nattvaa at 
Htndnstan. In IS8S Ranmohua Roy rlidted Kng- 
land, in tha charaetar of ambaaaador fram the King 
of I>elhi, and while there was eaisod wiUi a fbrsr, 
which proved fatal. Me died at Stapletoa Qrettt 
tbo reeidenoo of l>r. Lant Uarpenter, near Briatel, 
on the 27tfa September of t1i.it year. Whim in A* 
extremltiea of oeath he went tbruuuh the ritee of iha 
Brahmanical reli^on, is ordn tiiat bis cUlAw 
ndght not 1oai! their property and rnitc. Por tta 
aame mauu he waa privately uitermt at Staplatea 
(irovo, inatoad nf a Christian oamaleiy. OonpHa 
Review of the Laboui^ Oi^nioos, and Chsraeb* «l 
Rajah Kammobun Itor, by Lani Car|ieitt«r LLA 
RAMPANT, in brraldry. a teen appUod to a 
linn, leopard, or other bonat, that staiios on hll 
bind legi, and rears up Us fora leel, the oat danMl 



BAMPABT— BAMSDEN. 



447 



ahovt lb* OtW in tli« [MMton of climlnng, ahiMiritig 
U> hos ta profile tmlj. If tbe boid i* m turnwl m 
to p«a«aA » Imtl view at Ow &we wbOa lli« !>(>**'■'« 
i<Liiwhi vsnaina Uw uim U fa mIM mapaai* 
0mtbnli Bid fmoaiU-ngraminM if tba li«ad is tani««l 
ao M to lOAk bMfcnnlL Cbti»<«r-ranipant b nun- 
pwnt tomnfa tiM wUBtar, Um mpauta of the imhmI 
AliilwlB. Ra m f oM ii dtflfrot (nwa tofioU, to which 
Um bMwt i««iiu ■princinf forward. 
RAMI'AKT. Sm FoRTincATKni. 
RAMrtlUiaiVNUHUa. Soo IVnoAAtiEU. 
RAldSAY, Aujui, Mxb to Boni* tba mart dk- 
tIngvUMd luiMNig the Bwdera Soottlsh poets, wss 
bonitm th« IStb of October, IfiM, st I,ondhilIs, in 
L«iurkshl». Hii fsth«r wss sum rin tun (tent fif 
Lord Uopetmut's BBJiMi lti«n, uid lus udvUici^ Alloa 
Ileww, ws< tk« dwgblir <rf • gvoUsmui In D«ti7- 
ihira. All the edaoftUaB wbUi Allu over reeetnd 
VM St his nsU>e |ittriati aobixil m Cmwrunlmuir, 
wfasra it is pmbahla hs mN«l]r w«Dt Uirough Um 
otauDon iwitioa gf iortnictioti to In b*d U sooh 
iiMliiiilii Tba dMUi oT hfa bther In «srij Ufa 
pnYvUod Um, it fa to be nitpoMKl, Cram ncsjviug 
siijlhinji lifc^ A Ubcnl tdwrsiann mmA fcfood Kiln to 
Mw, wUle jet s Taotli, % mssas of UvcUhood in th« 
Sorttiih CBpitsL Then b* bflCUM bouiul as sn sp- 
pw ntto to s tfi^nakrr — aa ocntluUtoti which the 
^^^BMtar part tA his U(igta|>hen an vei; soiious to 
^^■Mnrdab fmni s ioricr, bat with what d«m of 
^^^Mtln w« luwnr aoL AIIab himaelt, It would aaai 



■ WH Bot aahanad of Ua tnde, but oontiBnod In It 
' kag aftor hfa sppraalioeitiip h»l vvaaed ; nor did hs 
sbsndoa it far tbs moTv tiongeiii^ {iiinniit nf hoolc- 
salllaf; luitO ke had held lor some time a luune io 
Ilia pootlal world. Hw exact period when he rani- 
nenosd hookselling w« canont aaccrtsin; bat ho is 
said to latv* iMen Ibe finrf who eaUbtinhcd a cicala* 

aUbnty ta Scotlud. The iltniry was oiuauive, 
eoattoned lo «det till a ccmpanttivcl; rawnt 
patiod. Ufa lint sbop, as w« laam from th^ imprint 
^ sana •( Ua booka, was ' at tba liKn uf the Mer- 
car7, mioaito to Xlddry'a Wynd:' but Id I7M b« 
rsiM*«l to a boots at the east eoil of iho LudieA- 
bootbi^ and inilrad of UcEreurv, adoptad fee hfa sign 
Ibe beads of IVn Jtmaan and Dnuninomd tA Haw- 
Ibaodan. la ItSO be pahlfabed a ooUaetJon of Ua 
peamik la ooa volwaa quarto, whicb wea ao Ubmllr 
aoftacribed fer, that be fa aald to baT« cleared bj it 
400 piinoaB. Tbe greatwr part of tbe pieoee fat tble 
BoOeotian had pnirioosljr appoand at diffenot periods 
la Ibe fofm of aheets oo- huf-ahoeta; and ao popular 
bad tbair aulbor baooma, that It was quite cnalacnMT 
foe tba good paopla of Kdiaboigb to aaod tbair ddt 
Aon with eappera for Allan Banaay'e laatpiaea. In 
im tba am Yolnni of Tbm Tta-TaUe HlMolUny, 
» CoUectMo of Hnit;^'* apprared, whicb waa aooo fol- 
lowed by a socuod aud third toIiuim. Ibe iwid 
nia el Uda oooplLatloD toduoed Faiaaay to pubnab 
■aelfaw, aatilM lie Eve^gnMB, being a CeAaction 
«< fioota Pocnas wnto by tlw Iwrnlcna before IMO, 
wbkb waa amally saenwsfaL Bis next pabltcntlon 
ee t abUa h ad ti» ttana upon a aore asd laatiiia laata. 
In 173& appeand Tbe Gentla abepherd— tbe beet 
pastoral perbapa in an; buuu^eh Ita anooeaa was 
Bnatantaaeops and unpmcadantod ; wditiaa fallowed 
•fitloa wltb great tvpliiU; and It waa not loog till 
It waa known bjr evMjr uw of poctrr, and— what 
hearwilii a Ugtar popiUaritj— till tt bad lakeo a 
nlnoo on the sbelt of alaioot otctt coUaKo in Scot- 
land. In 173-^ a nnooDd quarto viJiiid^ uf 1>i« povtns 
appeand ; and in 1 730 hfa Thirty Falilca, which cod- 
cmded hfa pabUo poettoal laboun. 'ilie Kablea are 
Wldailbiedly tba Lest of Bsmssy's leaser pnxltio- 
Uonn Among tbem stands Tbs Uook and Um 
HUIv'b mi»i a Btoy wbhA, altboagh pn^ooaly 



told by Dunbar, wmild. of ftoelf, aa a ecnpelent 
Jnd^ baa remarked, \m Ramaay'a pawpart to iomef^ 
talily as a ivniii: ywU Ba waa now at tba bdgbt 
nf bts cotebritj: tii« aonuaintaaee waa ooorled Df 
raanr Hii11iiu""b"l ladivldnalii and bl* shop was 
tbo oommoo tasoK of tbe literary cbanoUrs and 
wila of Kdinborgh. in 1736 be took a prlndpal 
pari In tb« eroctian of a tlieatn! in Oarabber'a Clua^ 
by whicb ha ean>e w oMwiderabU pocuidnry Iom; 
md it ii nnuclMd by bfa Ungraphan, that thfa waa 
pT*ifp tbe only u^ortunate pnjaot la wbleh be 
ever waa engaged. In 1743 his wife died, to wbou 
be bad been married afaoTv thirty veaie; and soon 
after this, wjib the Idea of feUegnisWag bb iben 
be built a hooae on tbe north dde of Caatla-biU. fa 
ntber a whintacal style of architMrtnoe. Hem be 
mat the bat twdfa yean "f hi> life in a nalm and 
piaaaaat aianser; allboogfa he iliJ uol give apbia 
abep until withlu thrMtycoraof hfa deooaaaL Hadled 
at Gdiuhurgh on tli« 7th January, 17fi8,MndBeTaity- 
two; and waa Iniried In OtayUata* Cburofayaid, 
where a nwaooifnt to hfa BsoMry fa areeted. 
Anotber mooumoalt araetod in IStS, stands in Pfia- 
coi' Htreet Gaidena. Hfa wm AlUn. lo<rn I70B, 
(lied 178f, beaane famous a* a [XTtrsit-paialar, 
having atttdled In Italy under SoUnena and Imp*- 
riali la 1767 be was appointad priuL-lptl painter 
to Oaorge TTI. His portraita are faithful, and free 
from aSectatian. He was ahm tha author of ■nreral 
Ucumy bRH^nnab pnllfabed under Ibe Utle e< the 
InTflaUgator. 

RAMSAY, A)it>Mrw MicHUty better knewn by 
Iho name of tbe C'hnvaliar IlamaaT, wa* bum in Ayr, 
fai 1 880. He was the eon of a baker in opulent dr- 
cumstanccs, who was able to giro him a rood sdncn- 
tiiin. After ii^icodiag some time at tbe Uni*«nlttaa 
of Edtoboiyb and St. Andrews^ 1m want to Leydea, 
tba ajdrenuy «< wbbh waa at (hat Una Ibe conBoa 
R«art ef tbe Uteeary yonib of Hrottand, In ITK be 
ti>purt>d ta <.?iunlini_T, on a «tnt to tha eelefcsatcd 
WdcImi, who recoived him Into his hotwe as aa bt> 
nuOa of tbe famOy, and by wbom be waa p«»aadad 
to embraea tba CUbolic fahh. Fteelen'i hdhHoae 
procarad hbn tbe piuosptonlap to tbo Daha of Obb- 
(Mo-Tfaleny and tbe Friaoe of TufoauK Ha waa 
aftatwatda eng^ad to eaptrlntaad tbe ednoatloa of 
friaoe Cbariaa Edward Stnail aad hfa bnilbar 
Henry, afterwards Cardinal York, and for tbk par> 
pose bo r«mo*ad from raris to RMna in 1734. Latar 
in life he viaitad hfa native country, and offend U 
aettla a bandaeme aaanlty an Ua ralaltona, wbIA 
tboy refused to aeoept, on the giauad ef Ua having 
naonaoad tba Protoatant tattk Ho died wUb 
nddtag with the trntXy of Manhal Turrone. at 8t 
Gannaui-ca-Layf^ en tbe 6th Mav, 1743. Tba 
CbevaUer Kanway, during hfa life, DnbUabBd asvaral 
woric^ wlilcb give bfan a reapoctahie place both la 
i'lenoh aad EngUeb Utsraeui% Tba ^laf of ttase 
are a life of VlaeoanB Tonaa^ a LUia of MaaloB, 
the Travela of CVraa, and a laige worii en Ibe PHa- 
dpUa ef Netnnd aad B*e«led BeUgiaB. 

RAMSDEK, JMai, an eadnank aieehaalat aad 
ocitldan, waa bore at Halifax In YorkaUra la 173&. 
Uo wM tbe acn ef an innkaecer, and after tooetriag 
a fair edocatlaa waa appnalttad to a doth-worfcar. 
Subsa q u eat l y be apptted htmeiU to «agn*la|k and 
In tba eoaras cd bfa Biaplo]raanl ImHng to aagtara 
eororal malbmnalJ^l laaliuiaanta, laanyoMietnielad 
them hitiiself He lusiiiod a dangblsr cf HoUoauL 
the celpliratfd optloiaa, aad ooeaad • abe« la tba 
Haymaifcet, wbwea be nnuivea to Pleeaduy, wben 
ho remained until hfa death ta l«Mk 
obtainad n preanmai fraa tba board of ha^HaJe flar 
tbe Inrentiaaaf a madilae fer tbedl^Mon of nmtfae* 
matioal hMtraaiaahk Us also baproTad tba «»• 



448 



BAUBBY-RAIIC& 



■ImcUoo td th» theoduUU, tbc p j rn meter [or BUMur- 
ing tfa* dUaUUan o( Ijodiaa b/ hoat, tka buvoalcr 
Cor oMHOiiar dM balgfat of nomtami, ftc; klaotliv 
nfnolinc Bumaetar tod maiit liutranwDt «nd 
■luMlTUit. H« m»d« pT«»t tntgirttTeiueiitj in Hkdt«j'a 
qDiub»Dt Bud witsat, ndadag tho tiraiU of error 
mm S' to 20*; utd praeond o patont for Ki ■mwiidwl 
aqiufioriaL BuDMaB, wlio «u duami ft ttttaw ol 
ttw Bofal Sedet/ in ITM, and of tbs ImpMi»l 
AoMlMiiy of St PoUwbura in 1 7M, wm diatiiignnhad 
dufaf tM wbolo of hl> liu Vf ui Mtthuiinic atten- 
tioo to hia own profeaBion: and Mwb ma hii repala- 
tim Uiut hU iiutniincnU wcto Iwjwlwn from crcir 
put of Hurope, aod nfUiaalalT k> obtiUo the ltd- 
umoBt of ao ord«T waa dMBMd * Ufb favour. So 
aaHy m 17SS no fowor tbma 9Bi aertanta and ortenU 
bad iaaucd finai Ramaden'a workabiop. He reaei*pd 
Uw CofA»y mcdAl from tiw Boyal Society In 1795 In 
tMOgaitiott of Ifao imporUaot of hit variou tavon- 
tiooft He died Kovember 5. 1800, at Bri^too. 

RAMSEY, a market hivm uid ■eapi>r1> EogUod, 
on tbe uarth>caiit roant nt the 1«I» of MaD, on a 
■paeloua \my of it* uuue, 17 nuloi Hjr.i. of Douglaa. 
It haa wide atnete lined wHK Bae bonaei; then an 
■ranirrniM pliwMw of wurdiip, a oowt-liouae, an de^atit 
iron paer, formiag a drlightfol pmmcnaila, Ac It 
b « f&rourite naurt of twuruta aud pl«ature M.>el:en, 
KDd haa rogulu aitaa commu&icatioa with Li7«rpoal. 

Ben. (laei). W15. 

KAMSOATK nucikpurt and market- lown of En|i- 
Innil, in the ooiint; cf Kvot, 67 mllM eaat hy huul 
of Lufukin, with which il i« connoctMl by nilvar. 
Tbe older partd occupy a natiiriU b»tlow ^r Tftlkr m 
the duUk ciilT* tbat line thla put u[ tkr cuiul, wtiils 
the newer portinrM oceapy the higher craand on 
rfthor ^de. Mauy of tho houMi an -rerrhuidaoiiifi^ 
aom* baiBg airaBced la slneti^ terraeea, or oreaoenL^ 
wliile otboca an drtaelMd villaa. Tlw placea of re- 
crtatioii and naort oomprlae a theaCre, aoveral libm- 
rfe^ and bath*. It bM a pnrlflh church in tho et^r]y 
Kni;Itab atjrle, with a loftv t<>wcr tuxd mpm ; a fine 
Rtman Catholic church, placM of wonhlp fur Bajt- 
tilt*; IndopntdoQta, MotbodictB. ftc; a dispoasary, 
Ceneral tnHrntary, ■aamoa'i ho«pttal, aod a titerarj 
and Bcii'-iililio iiiMliidtiuu. Thero Ja a magnlfioeal 
hotel, a (iiithic^ ttnictiirw. with « towM- 100 fwet hioh- 
Tbu ijikritour ia furmiiil by plura, and noarlr circuliir, 
camprufiu); an area of i& aorea, and Induiilni; a dry 
d>ioh And a pntcnt slip for tho repair of reaacla. Tho 
east pier in nmrly 3()00 fcwt lo«i^, and tbe weit pirr 
1500 r«0t, both built of Portland and Purbeck at«a« 
and sranitci tbe oMnoco to cba harbour Is SiO foot 
wida. Ship-building anil rnpo-makiaz arc carried 
on; ^«9<e ia nomu Irsda In ooal aod timber, and a 
oonnilorablc liabery. liamsgate was a member of 
the cinque porta, and attached bo Sandwich; it la 
now a orjrponiu V>vu with a laig;a added area fmon 
at. IjawroocB, and also a [)»|iular watmag-pl»oe, lu 
wUcb tattor circumxtanni It chlofly owm iu rooont 
rapjd advanoenttuiL Pop. {ia»l), 22,483. 

KAM US, Fmn, > phtliwipbcr iif tho aixteenth 
e«ntury, waa a native of France. Ho went to Paria 
atxiat 152^ wbeu be wm but eight ymn old, and 



became a tackey (a tbe CoDege ol Xavam. Sadi 

WM bia attrng radtBation for '■— ~'*c. ^"^ ^ ' 
ooly devoted to itody all tbt ttme be ooold s 
the day. hot alao a iwrt of tho BiffaL Atteri 
ing a oounr of phfloaopby be waa admittod to I 
cWree of M.A^ on wbkb nccadon be mntMtad J 
inUUbillCyoCAriftotlb Hiaopbiiawenteii 
ofmitlMi; tak pBhifcaHnaa weroiimbttllal mA 
ordend to be boned beCon tbo Itoyal Goaaga of 
Camhray, and he waa ooauoMKled to abalain from 
taaoUDsbkdootrfiMainlS-lS. HaHng oUalaad the 
patttMiagii of the Catitiiial De Ixmia*. tba fB^Hti- 
tloD of lecinrii^ wm withdrawn in 1&47, and b 
l&SI be WM appointed rayal profeaaor of rbetoric 
nod philoaoftbv at i'arb. ilia apirit of fr«* i 
nltfmatdy lea Urn to baoooM a PntoataaL 
chai^ obliged him to flee fran hii^ but in '. 
he waa raatored to bb dtalr. la tba iiiwiiii 
St. Bartbolomew'a (1572} Kamus waa ooa of the 
vlctlma. Hb worki^ relating: to grammar, logic, 
m»lbe«nftttc% kc^ ore nuDipruua. 

Raama atleTnpt«<l a ripfrvm in acioix* aDalogooa 
to that effected by Lutbcr and Calvio in rUsmb. 
Hia kws poneptlon eoabled him t»doteet tba dmti 
of achoIaaticiaBi and enpoao ita mutliliiwiiMi By 
tliveatiQi Arialotte nf nu cloak of infallihility, m 
rvnderra a u«w pliiloouphy poMlblo, and pnpiml 
man's minda for Its rompCton bj th* totrodDelka <f 
a bnttRr nii^tbod. Uis do cto i Ka wc9« widaly ^ffnaad. 
France, England, and partkniarlj Scotland wen (d 
of Banbta. Ub lodo was iBtndoood bito tbe JJti 
TsnitT of Gbigow By Aadnw Malnlia, and uadt 
conMaaafale pragrMB in the tiennan oaiMnitbh 

BANA. BMlPtea. 

RANCfi, AiuiAx» Jka!« li Boutuiluss in; 
oeleb»t«l as the funndor of tl>e reformed otdv ol 
La Trappc was bora at Parla, January 9, 16% 
wbcrc be was alio adncaled. At ifao a^gp of UtirtMi 
he wrolo a Cotnmontary on tba Odea of Aaaons^ 
which WM aftorwanb pnblisbod. Aflar bavfag 
>n^uatoil with diitinctioa at the SocbonM^ be em- 
braced the aodeabatloal pnleasioii, aod liefate bog 
was prafoTod to no faww than six bcuoGooa, wUa 
tbe ooiTupt practtoa of tho time allowod falm 
■imultaueuuxly. Reaiding at Paris, and in 
nf a Ia.rg« annnal inrome from bb sevenl 
in addition to a omnndvrable fortune left bin by I 
father, be was unable to withstand tbe allareraeab 
of tho capita], and gav« himself up to a life of dbsi- 
patiim. In 1&5T, noworer, a marked change iaok 
place Id hb character. He oeasod to appear at coait, 
and dctartaiaod to sator tba dobtcm. H« diapsMd 
of bu estate of Vfm, near Toon; anplying the pea- 
coeds to ndigitius |>urp(aei^ and oniuttod all bb 
bonefioea exoept tbe pnory of Boologne aod tbe 
abbey of Ia Trapped lUttiing to the lutar place ia 
1661^ he Iwgan tboae refianns which have rtodsred 
Ilia luHiu famous. (8te La TnAiY&) He puaad 
thirty-thron yiam in tbii rptuvmnat, durii^ whMi 
ho wrote a number of works; mostly of aa asoetb 
obsraiiler. In Dnuaequeiioo o( hia gmwing infimitia* 
hs nsignsd his cbargn of tho abboy in 1499; and died 
on Ootober 27, 170D; 



Iw 



END OF VOL. XL 



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