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£STABLISHKD  BY  EDWABD  L.  T0UMAN5. 


THE 


POPULAR  SOIEN"OE 


MONTHLY. 


EDITED   BY   WILLIAM  JAY  Y0UMAN8 


VOL.  XXXV. 

MAY  TO  OCTOBER,    1889. 


NEW  YORK  : 
B.   APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 
1,  S,  AND  6  BOND  8TB££T. 
1889.  t^ 


y         /889  / 

3oooo w 


ComuaBT,  1889, 

bt  d.  afpletoh  and  company. 


"'■■S  ^^ ' ' 

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-  ,-- 

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-v 

\ 

THE 


POPULAR    SCIENCE 
MONTHLY. 


MAY,   1889. 


NEW  CHAPTERS  IN  THE  WABFAHE  OP  SCIENCE, 

VI.— DIABOLISM  AND  HYSTERIA. 

Bt  A5DBKW  DICKSON  WHITE.  LL.D.,  L,aD., 
BX-pmMiuEirr  ov  couckll  uhttkbsstt. 

PART   I. 

X  ihp  f<nvgoing  chapter  I  have  sketched  the  triumph  of  Rcience 

ving  the  idea  that  individual  lunatics  are  "  possessed 

—in  MHitAblishijig  the  truth  that  insanity  is  physical 

rxi]  tn  i«ubatituting  for  supiirstitious  cruelties  toward  the 

mt..  lit  mild,  kindly,  and  based  upon  ascertained  facts, 

..*   rtho  ha^l  so  long  troubled  individual  men  and 

^  became  extinct;  henceforth  his  fossil  remains  only 

.  they  may  still  be  found  in  the  sculptures  and 

..1 ._    b  of  mediaeval  churches,  in  sundry  liturgies,  and 

popolAT  forms  of  speech. 

But  another  Satan   still   lived — a  Satan  who  wrought  on  a 

rg^r  acale— who  took  possession  of  multitudes.    For,  after  this 

iuinph  of  the  scientific  method,  there  still  remained  a  class  of 

'    -  •  ^=!  which  could  not  be  treated  in  asylums,  which 

Jly  esplainfd   by  science,  and  which  therefore 

of  much  apparent  strength  to  the  supporters  of 

iii.-.-i.'^iral  view:  these  were  the  epidemics  of  " diab<^< 

n  "  which  for  so  many  centuries  aflflicted  various  parts 

Wlien  n't-'T'nr^.T    then,  to  retreat  from  their  old  position 
ani  to  iii  cases  of  insanity,  the  more  conservative  t] 

ly   referred   to  these  epidemics  as  beyond 
im&in  .  ii^e — as  clear  evidences  of  the  power  of  Satan 

the  bo«i»  of  this  view,  they  cited  from  the  Old  Testamwij 
ent  T'  '  -^  to  witchcraft,  and,  from  the  New  Testamei 

-1 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


Paul's  question  as  to  the  possible  bewitching  of  the  Galatiai 
and  Simon  the  magician's  bewitching  of  the  people  of  Samaria, 

Naturally,  such  leaders  hatl  a  large  body  of  adherents  in  thaj 
class — so  large  in  all  times— who  find  that 

"  To  follow  fooliab  precedents  nod  wink 
With  both  our  070a,  Is  euior  thaa  to  think."  * 

It  must  be  owned  that  their  case  scorned  strong.  Though 
all  human  history,  so  far  as  it  is  closely  known,  these  phenomeni 
had  appeared,  and  though  every  chissical  scholar  could  recall  tlj 
wild  orgies  of  the  priests,  priestesses,  and  devotees  of  Dionysi 
and  Cybele,  and  the  epidemic  of  wild  rage  which  took  its  naj 
from  some  of  these,  the  great  fathei's  and  doctors  of  the  Churcl 
had  left  a  complete  answer  to  any  skepticism  based  on  these  facts 
in  their  ^-lew  the  gods  of  the  heathen  were  devils — these  exampli 
then,  could  be  truisformed  into  a  powerful  argument  for  diabolii 
possession,  t 

But  it  was  more  especially  the  epidemics  of  diabolism 
medieeval  and  modern  times  which  gave  strength  to  the  theologi' 
cal  view,  and  from  these  I  shall  present  a  chain  of  topical  exam« 
plea. 

As  early  as  the  eleventh  century  we  find  clear  accounts  of  dia- 
bolical poasesainn  taking  the  form  of  epidemics  of  raving,  jump- 
ing, dancing,  and  convulsions — the  greater  number  of  the  sufferers 
being  women  and  children.    In  a  time  so  rude,  accoimts  of  thes 
manifestations  would  rarely  receive  permanent  record;  but  it 
very  significant  that  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  cent 
ury  we  hear  of  them  at  the  extremes  of  Euroi>e — in  northei 
Germany  and  in  southern  Italy.    At  various  times  during  thi 
ceutxiry  we  get  additional  glimi)ses  of  these  exhibitions,  but  it 
not  until  the  beginning  of  the  tliirteenth  c^^ntui-y  that  we  have 
renewal  of  them  on  a  large  acale.    In  1237,  at  Erfurt,  a  jumping 
disoase  and  dancing  mania  be.L-  V  '"■      '   >  ^       "    -  .hi] 

dren,  many  of  whom  died  in  coj      _  .  •  tl 

whole  region,  and  fifty  years  later  we  hear  of  it  in  Holland. 

But  it  was  the  last  quarter  of  the  fourteenth  century  that  sa^ 
its  greatest  manifestMiona.    Tliere  was  much  reason  for  thei 
[t  was  a  time  of  oppression,  famine,  and  pestilence:  the  cnisat 
fclrit,  having  run  its  course,  had  been  succec*dp*i  by  a  wild,  mystlJ 
fanaticism;  the  most  friglitftil  plague  in  human  history — thi 

*  Aj  to  emlneDt  pbyilcluKi,  flnrlln^  a  ■tuTDhllng  blodt  fai  hjritericftl  nuuiU,  mt 

artlde,  pA(^'  SAl,  eitnl  In  prerlouji  «hapty*r. 
f  A«  toUiA  MAn*<lii.  C''}rrbanlM>.  an*}  thn  ili*(«ie  "  Oorrhantlam,**  ww,  for  M( 

-.-    ■  -       ■;-,--,.-:      '     ,  ■  "    -■   "Ui 


XSW  CHAPTERS  IN  THE  WARFARE  OF  SCIENCE.     3 


►lack  death — was  depopulating  whole  regions,  reducing  cities  to 
illagi'*.  and  filling  Europe  with  that  strange  mixture  of  devotion 
\m\  t  icn  which  we  always  note  during  the  prevalence  of 

leO'.  ^     .       mics  on  a  large  scale. 

It  was  in  this  ferment  of  religious,  moral,  and  social  disease 
tht>r©  brnke  out  in  1374,  in  the  lower  Rhine  region,  the  great- 
Thaps  of  all  manifestations  of  "possession" — an  epidemic  of 
ing,  jumping,  and  wild  ra\'ing. 

cures  resorted  to  seemed  on  the  whole  to  intensify  the 

the  afflicted  continued  dancing  for  hours,  until  they  fell 

in  utter  exhaustion.    Some  declared  that  they  felt  as  if  bathed  in 

lood,  some  saw  visions,  some  prophesied* 

Into  this  mass  of  "  (lossession  "  there  was  also  clearly  poured  a 

curr  drelism  which  increased  the  disorder, 

1...   „„ ^.ute  origin  of  these  manifestations  seems  to  have 

been  the  wild  revels  of  St  John's  Day.  In  those  revels  sundry 
th«ithen  ceremonies  had  been  perpetuated,  but  imder  a  nomi- 
Christian  form:  wild  Bacchanalian  dunces  had  thus  become 
a  semi-religious  ceremoniaL  The  religious  and  social  atmosphere 
wag  propitious  to  the  development  of  the  germs  of  diabolic  influ- 
^6O0e  vitalized  in  these  orgies,  and  they  were  scattered  far  and 
^■rido  through  large  tracts  of  the  Netherlands  and  Germany,  and 
^■M||i|Uy  through  the  whole  region  of  the  Rhine.  At  Cologne 
^^^^^^  of  five  hundred  afflicted  at  once,  at  Metz  of  eleven  hun- 
dred dancers  in  the  streets,  at  Strasburg  of  yet  more  painful  mani- 
^U|||telions ;  and  from  the  greater  cities  they  spread  through  the 
^^^Plgie«  and  rural  districts. 

"^  The  gruat  majority  of  the  sufferers  were  women,  but  there 
were  many  men,  especially  of  those  whose  occupations  were  stnlen- 
tarj.  Romediee  were  tried  upon  a  great  scale — exorcisms  first, 
but  eBp»  ilgrimages  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Vitus:  the  exor- 

cisms a<  ,  hod  BO  little  that  popular  faith  in  them  grew 
■mall,  and  the  main  effect  of  the  pOgrimages  seemed  to  be  to 
inorease  the  disorder  by  subjecting  great  crowds  to  the  diabolic 
Kjoolagioiu  Yet  another  curative  means  was  seen  in  the  great 
^^^^Uant  processions — vast  crowds  of  men,  women,  and  children 
^HHB  wandered  through  the  country,  screaming,  praying,  beating 
^■^0tDf»e1ve<«  with  whips,  imploring  the  divine  mercy  and  the 
^^^kr  1  of  St^  Vitus.    Most  fearful  of  all  the  great  attempts 

^^^K'  *^'"  •^'^rsecutions  of  the  Jews.    A  feeling  had  evl- 

^^^Mt  ^  the  people  at  largo  that  the  Almighty  was 

^^^Hd  with  ^Tath  at  the  toleration  of  his  enemies,  and  might  be 
^HRpitiated  by  their  destruction :  in  the  great  cities  and  villages 
^Kf  Germany,  then,  the  Jews  were  plundered,  tortured,  and  mur- 
^B|<tred  by  tens  of  thousands.  No  doubt  that,  in  all  this,  greed  was 
^Huyi«d  with  fanaticism,  but  the  argument  of  fanaticism  was  sim^ 


THE  POPULAR  SCISNCS  MONTHLY. 


pie  and  cogent — the  dart  whicli  pierced  the  breast  of  Liraol  at  that 
time  was  winged  and  pointed  from  its  own  sacred  books :  the 
Biblical  argument  was  the  same  nsed  in  various  ages  to  promote 
persecution,  and  this  was  that  the  wrath  of  the  Almighty  was 
stirred  against  those  who  tolerated  his  enemies,  and  that  because 
of  this  toleration  the  same  curse  had  now  come  ni>oii  Europe 
which  the  prophet  Samuel  had  denounced  against  Saul  for  show- 
ing mercy  to  the  enemies  of  Jehovah. 

It  is  but  just  to  say  that  various  popes  and  kings  exerted 
themselves  to  check  these  cruelties.  Although  the  argument  of  I 
Samuel  to  Saul  was  used  with  frightful  effect  two  hundred  years 
later  by  a  most  conscientious  pope  to  spur  on  the  rulers  of  France 
in  extirpating  the  Huguenots,  the  papacy  in  the  fourteenth  cent-j 
nry  stood  for  mercy  to  the  Jews.     But  even   this  iiiterventini 

^"was  long  without  effect ;  the  tide  of  popular  superstition  had  be- 
come  too  strong  to  be  curbed  even  by  the  spiritual  and  temporal^ 
powers.* 

Against  this  overwhelming  current  science  for  many  genera- 
tions could  do  nothing.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  iifteenthi 
century  physicians  appeared  to  shun  the  whole  matter.  Occasion-| 
ally  some  more  thoughtful  man  ventured  to  ascribe  some  phosG 
of  the  disease  to  natural  causes,  but  this  was  an  unpopular  doc* 
trine,  and  evidently  dangerous  to  those  who  developed  it. 

Yet,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  cases  of  "  pos-*J 
session  "  on  a  large  scale  began  to  be  brought  within  the  scope  of 
medical  research  ;  and  the  man  who  led  in  this  evolution  of  medi- 
cal science  was  Paracelsus.  Ho  it  was  who  first  made  modernj 
Eurojjp  listen  for  a  moment  to  the  idea  that  these  diseoaes  are 
inflicted  neither  by  saints  nor  demons,  and  that  the  ''dancing 
possession  "  is  simply  a  form  of  disease,  of  which  the  cure  mayj 
be  effected  by  proper  remedies  and  regimen,  I 

^  Paracelsus  Hpfiears  to  have  escaped  any  serious  interference-*] 
it  took  some  time,  perhaps,  for  the  theological  leaders  to  under-j 
stand  that  he  had  "  let  a  new  idea  loose  upon  thn  planet" ;  butj 
tliey  soon  understoo<l  it,  and  their  course  was  simple.    For  nboutj 

I  fifty  years  the  new  idea  was  well  kept  under,  but  in  IfiGl  anothoH 
physician,  John  Wier,  of  Cleves,  having  nvi\  ...1  it,  he  was  ruinodj 
and  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  I 

•  See  WcllhMMm,  mieU  "lurmcJ,"  lo  the  "EocycIopw^U  Briunnicm,"  niul)i  «ailkm  J 

abn  tbo  rvprint  of  It  lo  tb<«  **  Itlftlory  of  larftcl/'  London,  IBAft,  p.  &40.     Oo  Itic  gm«rv| 

•ubjwjt  of  Oiv  J<?tnitniK»l  cpldwuSoi.  »w  Urwc*,  "  G«»chicLt«  t!f  r  MMlicJn,"  rol.  i,  pp.  yflUJ 

0  ivy.  ;  aXwo  nockvr**  00*117.    At  Ui  ibi*  hUtorv  'if  ^ul,  ai  a  curioup  UnilmarU  In  tlu!  gcaervU 

Mmiopauiiit  of  th«  mbloct.  •ce  **  The  Cm«  of  Saul.  shftwinK  (hat  h\»  PinorJcr  wM  a  !Ua|l 

[•£filHtaal  Pt)«a«^  >  iv  Pharp,  Loudoc  *.  '       '         n  «d 


■BanrN  AM 
>ahAll  rite 
[«1K7  Ual2r^ 


o  ppur  on  lb' 


.'  (^urtJi  aiid  Iut<iniaUuiialLi.s." 
it«  ft  au  Koxen  Ag*^* 


JiTEW  CiTAPTEBS  m  THE  WARFARE  OF  SCIENCE,     j 


In  the  following  century  the  Protestants  of  Holland  were  no 
serere  toward  Balthasar  Bekkur,  an  eminent  divine  of  the 
lod  Church,  who  doubted  some  of  the  statements  regarding 
poaee^sffion.* 

Although  the  new  idea  was  thus  resisted,  it  must  have  taken 
lu  hold  upon  thoughtful  men,  for  we  find  that  in  the  second 
lolf  of  the  same  century  the  St.  Vitus's  dance  and  forms  of  de- 
possession  akin  to  it  gradually  diminished  in  frequency 
sometimes  treated  as  diseases.    In  the  seventeenth  cent- 
',  so  far  as  the  north  of  Europe  is  concerned,  these  displays  of 
poeseasion "  on  a  great  scale  had  almost  entirely  ceased ;  here 
there  cases  appeared,  but  there  was  no  longer  the  wild  rage 
)xtending  over  great  districts  and  afflicting  thousands  of  people. 
'ei  it  was,  as  we  shall  see,  in  this  same  sev^entoenth  century — in 
le  last  expiring  throes  of  this  superstition — that  it  led  to  the 
worst  acts  of  crueUy.f 

While  this  satanic  influence  had  been  exerted  on  so  great  a 
■cale  throughout  nortliem  Europe,  a  display  strangely  like  it,  yet 
Btrangely  unlike  it,  had  been  going  on  in  Italy.  There,  too.  epi- 
of  dancing  and  jumping  seized  groups  and  communities  ; 
it  they  were  supposed  to  arise  from  a  physical  cause,  the  theory 
ig  that  the  bite  of  a  tarantula  in  some  way  pjrovoked  a  super- 
iral  intervention,  of  which  dancing  was  the  accompaniment 
cure. 
In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  Fracastoro  made  an 
^riduut  impressiou  on  the  leaders  of  Italian  opinion  by  using 
Ledical  means  in  the  cure  of  the  possessed ;  though  it  is  worthy 
^that  the  medicine  which  he  applied  successfully  was  such 
(w  know  could  not  by  any  direct  effects  of  its  own  accom- 
pHsli  any  cure — whatever  effect  it  exerted  was  wrought  upon  the 
imagination  of  the  sufferer.  This  form  of  "possession,"  then, 
paosed  out  of  the  supernatural  domain,  and  became  known  as 
"  tarantisni."  Though  it  continued  much  longer  than  the  corro- 
ding manifestations  in  northern  Europe,  by  the  beginning  of 
ko  eighteenth  century  it  had  nearly  disappeared ;  and,  though  spe- 
lifestationa  of  it  on  a  small  scale  break  out  occasionally, 
these  days,  its  main  survival  is  the  "  tarantella,"  which 
le  traveler  sees  danced  at  Naples  as  a  catchpenny  assault  upon 
'his  pnns«9.| 


*f^  Pu»«dl»itt.  »ce  "  twntec,'*  Tol.  i,  chap,  xl;    aUo  Pcttigrew,  "Sapemtitions  oon- 
with  tbc  niffiorj  tnd  Practice  of  MedicliK^  and  Surgery  "  (LondoD,  1814,  introduct- 
or;  dufncr.    Sfa  Viu't,  k**  nuiIiotUicB  given  in  rav  prerious  chapter.    For  Ilckkcr.ace  ctto- 
In  my  cl«.pi*r  4tn  "  Wiurlicnift." 
t  A«  <o  tbi4  liitaiantion  of  iriric-tpr>*ad  epidemic  in  the  Kventcentb  century,  ace  citationi 
■  fiebofc  ran  Onifenbore  tnd  In  Elocker.  ts  nboro  ;  also  Hortii. 
{  SH  Uc£^<«'«  "  SpidttDict  of  ihe  Middle  Ages,**  pp.  87-KH  -,  aldo  extracts  and  ob- 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTELT. 


But,  long  before  this  form  of  "  possession  ^  Lad  begun  io  difli^ 
pear,  there  bad  arisen  new  manifosta-tions,  apparently  more  inex- 
plicable. As  the  first  great  epidemics  of  dancing  and  jumping 
Lad  their  main  origin  in  a  religious  ceremony,  so  various  new 
forma  Lad  their  principal  source  in  wLat  were  supjiosed  to  be  cra- 
ters of  religious  life — in  the  convents,  and  more  especially  in  those 
for  women. 

Out  of  many  examples  we  may  take  a  few  as  typical. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  chroniclers  assure  us  that  an  in- 
mate of  a  German  nunnery  having  been  seized  with  a  passion  for 
biting  Ler  companions,  Ler  mania  spread  until  most,  if  not  all, 
her  fellow-nuns  began  to  bite  each  other ;  and  that  this  passion 
for  biting  passed  from  convent  to  convent  into  other  parts  of 
Germany,  into  Holland,  and  even  across  the  Alps  into  Italy. 

So,  too,  in  a  French  convent,  when  a  nun  began  to  mew  like  a 
cat,  othei's  began  mewing,  and  the  desire  spread  and  was  only 
checke<i  by  severe  measures.* 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Protestant  Reformation  gave  new 
force  to  witchcraft  persecutions  in  Gennany.  The  new  Church 
endeavored  to  show  that  in  zeal  and  power  she  exceeded  the  old. 
But  in  France  infiuential  opinion  seemed  not  bo  favorable  to  these 
forms  of  diabolical  influence,  especially  after  the  publication 
Montaigne's  "  Essays,"  in  16S0,  had  spread  a  skeptical  atmosphe 
over  many  leading  minds. 

In  1588  occurred  in  France  a  case  which  indicates  the  growth 
of  this  skeptical  tendency  even  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  French 
Church.  In  that  year  Martha  Brossier,a  country  girl,  was,  it  was 
claimed,  possessed  of  the  devil.  The  young  woman  was  to  all  ap- 
pearance under  direct  satanic  influence.  She  roame<l  about,  beg- 
ging that  the  demon  might  be  cast  out  of  her,  and  her  impreca- 
tions and  blasphemies  brought  consternation  wherever  she  wont^ 
Myth-making  began  on  a  large  scale;  stories  grow  and  spread. 
The  capuchin  monks  thundered  from  the  pulpits  throughout 
France  regarding  these  proofs  of  the  power  of  Saltan,  The  alarm 
spread,  until  at  last  even  jovial,  skeptical  King  Henry  IV  was 
disquieted,  and  the  reigning  pope  was  aeked  to  take  measures 
ward  off  the  ovil, 

Fortunat-ely,  there  then  sat  in  the  episcopal  chair  of  Angers 
prelate  wLo  Lad  apparently  imbibed  sometLing  of  Montaiguc'i 
skepticism — Miron;  and,  when  the  case  was  brought  before  hit 
he  submitted  it  to  the  most  time-honored  of  sacred  tests.  He  fin 
brought  into  the  girl's  presence  two  bowls,  one  containing  hoi 
water,  the  other  ordinary  spring-water,  but  allowed  her  to  draw 

London,  2S8S,  pp.  $IS-4t5;  tJco  SUui 


86 

1 


■•TTUtloft*  In  C»rp<'nt*f*»  *•  Hcnul  PfajrioloBT," 
Wj^  **  Patboloty  o(  Ulnd.**  p.  73  lod  ioWivwinK, 
*  8m  citation  bom  Ztmnvnsun**  "  Solitade, 


tn  Oarp«ftl«r,  pp«  94,  SI4, 


THE   WARFABS  OF  SCIENCE.     7 


» 


fzilse  inference  regarding  the  contents  of  each :  the  result  was  that 
at  tho  presentation  of  the  holy  water  the  devils  were  perfectly 
calm,  but  when  tried  with  the  ordinary  water  they  threw  Martha 
into  convulsions. 

The  next  experiment  made  by  the  shrewd  bishop  was  to  simi- 
lar purpose.  Ho  commanded  loudly  that  a  book  of  exorcisms 
ahotild  be  brought,  and,  under  a  previous  arrangement,  his  attend- 
ants brought  him  a  copy  of  Virgil,  No  sooner  had  the  bishop 
begun  to  read  tho  first  line  of  the  **  ^neid  *'  than  the  devils  threw 
Martha  into  convulsions.  On  another  occasion  a  Latin  dictionary, 
which"  she  had  reason  to  believe  was  a  book  of  exorcisms,  produced 
a  similar  effect  upon  the  devils. 

Ahh'jugh  the  gc»od  bishop  was  thereby  led  to  pronounce  the 
wh«?lc  matter  a  mLxture  of  insanity  and  imposture,  tho  capuchin 
monks  denounced  this  view  as  godless.    They  insisted  that  these 

is  really  proved  tlie  presence  of  Satan,  showing  his  cunning  in 

t-ring  up  the  proofs  of  his  existence.  The  people  at  large  sided 
with  their  preachers,  and  Martha  was  taken  to  Paris,  where  vari- 
ous exorcisms  were  tried,  and  the  Parisian  mob  became  as  devoted 
to  her  as  they  had  been  twenty  years  before  to  the  murderers  of 
the  Huguenots, — as  they  became  two  centuries  later  to  Robes- 
pierre,— and  as  they  are  at  the  present  moment  to  General  Bou- 
laoger. 

But  Bishop  Miron  was  not  the  only  skeptic.  The  Cardinal  de 
Qoudi,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  charged  the  most  eminent  physicians 
of  the  city,  and  among  them  Riolan,  to  rej>ort  upon  the  case. 
V.    '  viiminatiouswere  made,  and  the  verdict  was  that  Martha 

Wii.  .  y  **  hystericfJ  impostor.  Thanks,  then,  to  medical  sci- 
ence, and  to  these  two  enlightened  ecclesiastics  who  summoned  its 
what  fifty  or  a  hundred  years  earlier  would  have  been  the 

ter  of  a  wide-spread  epidemic  of  possession  was  isolated,  and 
hindered  from  protlucing  a  national  calamity.* 

But  during  the  seventeenth  century  a  theological  reaction  set 
in,  not  only  in  France  but  in  all  parts  of  the  Christian  world,  and 
the  l)elief  in  diabolic  possession,  though  certainly  dying,  flickered 
up  hectic,  hot,  and  spiteful  through  the  whole  century.  In  1611 
wo  have  a  typical  case  at  Aix.  An  epidemic  of  possession  having 
'  bore,  GaufFridi,  a  man  of  note,  was  burned  at  the  stake 
.  iiijieof  the  trouble.  Michaelis,  one  of  the  priestly  exor- 
dste,  declared  that  he  had  driven  out  sixty-five  hundred  devils 

m  oue  of  tlie  ix»9sessed.  Similar  epidemics  occurred  in  various 
s  i>f  the  world,  f 

Twenty  years  later  a  far  more  striking  case  occurred  at  Lou- 
dun,  in  western  France,  where  a  convent  of  Ursnline  nuns  was 
•*  afQictod  by  dtunons." 

•  6m  CiltDcfl,  "U  foUtt,"  Xomt  I,  Utw  »,  c  2.  f  See  "  Dagron,"  chap.  IL 


THE  POPULAR  SCTB^CS  MONTHLY, 


TliG  convent  was  £.]led  mainly  with  ladies  of  noble  birth,  who] 
not  having  snfficiont  dower  to  secure  husbands^  had — aticordinj 
to  the  common  method  of  the  time^been  made  nuns,  without  an; 
special  regard  to  their  feelings. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  such  an  imprisonment  oj 
a  multitude  of  women  of  different  ages  would  produce  some  w( 
fal  effects.  Any  reader  of  Manzoni  s  "  Promes&i  Sposi "  with  il 
wonderful  picture  of  a  noble  lady  kejit  in  a  convent  against  hoi 
will,  may  have  some  idea  of  the  rage  and  despair  which  masi 
have  inspired  such  assemblages  in  which  pride,  pauperism,  an< 
the  suppression  of  the  instincts  of  humanity  wrought  a  fearfi 
work. 

What  this  work  was  is  to  be  seen  throughout  the  middh 
ages;  but  it  is  especially  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cent- 
uries that  wa  find  it  frequently  taking  shape  in  outbursts  ofl 
diabolic  possession.* 

In  this  case  at  Loudun,  the  usual  evidences  of  satanic  influ-. 
ence  appeared.    One  after  another  of  the  inmates  fell  into  con\nil- 
eions;  some  showed  physical  strength  apparently  supomatxiral 
some  a  keenness  of  perception  qxiite  as  surprising;  many  huwlec 
forth  blasphemies  and  obscenities. 

Near  the  convent  dwelt  a  priest — Urbain  Qrandier — noted  foi 
his  brilliancy  as  a  writer  and  preacher,  but  careless  in  his  way  oi 
living.  Several  of  the  nuns  had  evidently  conceived  a  passion  for 
him,  and  in  their  wild  rage  and  despair  dwelt  upon  his  name. 

In  the  same  city,  too,  were  sundry  ecclesiastics  and  laymen 
with  whom  Qrandier  had  been  engaged  in  various  j^elty  neigh- 
borhood quarrels,  and  some  of  these  men  held  the  main  control  of 
the  convent. 

Out  of  this  mixture  of  "  possession  **  within  the  convent  and, 
malignity  without  it,  came  a  charge  that  Grandier  had  bewitched] 
the  yonng  women. 

The  Bishop  of  Poictiei-s  took  np  the  matter.  A  trial  waai 
held,  and  it  was  noted  that,  whenever  Grandier  appeanxl,  thej 
''possessed"  screamed,  shrieked,  and  showed  every  sign  of  dia-^ 
bolic  inHuencc.  Grandier  fought  desperately,  and  appealed  to- 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  De  Sourdis.  The  archbishop  ordert 
more  careful  examination,  and,  on  separating  the  nuns  from 
other  and  from  certain  monks  who  had  been  bitt&rly  hostil 
Grandier,  such  glaring  discrepancies  were  found  in  their 
mony  that  the  whole  accusation  was  brought  to  naught. 

But  the  enemies   of   Satan  and  of   Grandier  did    not 

*  On  moiUhitftiM.  u  cfntAn  of  "  poawMinn,*^  4nd  hTSt^iHcal  epMonJa,  9m 
'*Le  MenrcUloui,**  p&g«  40  and  following:  !il«o  r-ftlmcil,  LiVouin,  Kirolihof,  ^fl 

id  oth«ni.     On  nimHar  refmltA  from  cscitemvat  at  ProlMtant  meetings  b  Scotland 
^•MRp-DCcUngs  ID  £uglaad  CDd  Aiurrica,  aoc  Boekar's  "  EHtj,**  condading  «ba|)ltl*i 


KEW  CHAPTERS  ly  TEE  TTABFARE  OF  SCIENCE,     9 


Through  their  efforts  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  appears  to  have 
had  an  old  grudge  against  Grandier,  sent  a  representative,  Lau- 
bardemont,  to  make  anotlier  investigation.  Most  frightful  scenes 
were  now  enacted;  the  whole  convent  resounded  more  loudly 
than  ever  with  shrieks,  groans^  howling,  and  curging,  until  finally 
Grandier,  though  even  in  the  agony  of  torture  he  refused  to  con- 
fess the  crimes  that  his  enemies  suggested,  was  hanged  and 
burned. 

From  this  center  the  epidemic  spread ;  multitudes  of  women 
and  men  were  affected  by  it  in  various  convents.  Several  of  the 
great  cities  of  the  south  and  west  of  France  came  under  the  same 
influence ;  the  "  possession  "  went  on  for  several  years  longer,  and 
then  gradually  died  out,  though  scattered  caaes  have  occurred 
from  that  day  to  this.* 

A  few  years  later  we  have  an  even  more  striking  example 
among  tlie  French  Protestants.  The  Huguenots,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  mountaiiis  of  the  Cevennes  to  escape  persecution, 
being  pressed  more  and  more  by  the  cruelties  of  Louia  XIV, 
began  to  show  signs  of  a  high  degree  of  religious  exaltation* 
Assembled  for  worship  in  wild  and  desert  places,  an  epidemic 
broke  out,  ascribed  by  them  to  the  Almighty,  but  by  their  oppo- 
nents to  Satan.  Men,  women,  and  children  preached  and  prophe- 
sied. Large  assombliGS  were  seized  with  trembling.  Some  under- 
went the  most  terrible  tortures  without  showing  any  signs  of 
suff'ering.  Marshal  de  Villiors,  who  was  sent  against  them,  de- 
clare<l  that  he  saw  a  town  in  which  all  the  women  and  girls,  with- 
out exception,  were  possessed  of  the  devil,  and  ran  leaping  and 
screaming  through  the  streets. 

Cases  like  this,  inexplicable  to  the  science  of  the  time,  gave 
renewed  strength  to  the  theological  view.f 

Toward  the  end  of  the  same  century  similar  manifestations 
began  to  appear  on  a  large  scale  in  America. 

Tlie  life  of  the  early  colonists  in  New  England  was  such  as  to 
give  rapid  growth  to  the  germs  of  the  doctrine  of  possession 
brought  from  the  mother-country.  Sun'ounded  by  the  dark  pine 
forests;  having  as  their  neighbors  Indians,  who  were  more  than 
suspected  of  being  children  of  Satan;  harassed  by  wild  beasts 
apparently  sent  by  the  powers  of  evil  to  torment  the  elt^ct;  with 
no  varied  literature  to  while  away  the  long  winter  evenings ; 
with  few  amusements  save  neighborhood  quarrels ;  dwelling 
intently  on  every  text  of  Scripture  wliich  supported  their  gloomy 

the  many  stAtomenta  of  (jrvudk-r's  ctse,  one  of  the  best  in  English  that  bo 
TroHope's  "Sketcfaea  frooi  French  lliator?"  (Londun,  1878).    Sec  alao  Buzin, 
••louU  XIH." 

f  Sc«  Bcnot,  "Uesmer  ot  le  Hagn^ttsme  uhnal**  (thini  ediUoa,  Parid,  1664,  pp.  05 
aTM}.). 


I 


10 


THE  POi 


SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


theology,  and  adopting  its  most  literal  interpretation — it  is  nol 
strange  that  ideas  regarding  the  darker  bide  of  nature  were  rap- 
idly developed.* 

The  fear  of  witchcraft,  thus  developed,  received  a  powerful! 
stimulus  from  the  treatises  of  learned  men.    Such  works,  coming; 
from  Europe,  which  was  at  that  time  filled  with  the  superstition,, 
acted  ptiwerfully  upon  conscientious  preachers  and  were  brought 
by  them  to  bear  upon  the  f>eople  at  large.    Naturally,  theuj 
throughout  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  find  I 
scattered  cases  of  diabolical  possession.    At  Boston,  Springfield,' 
Hartford,  Groton,  and  other  towns,  cases  occurreil,  and  here  and 
there  we  hear  of  death-sentences. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  fruit  of  I 
these  ideas  began  U>  ripen.  In  the  year  1684  Increase  Mather  pub-j 
lished  his  book,  "Remarkable  Providences,"  laying  stress  upo] 
diabolical  possession  and  witchcraft.  This  book,  having  been  senl 
over  to  England,  exercised  an  influence  there  and  came  back  wit] 
the  approval  of  no  less  a  man  than  Richard  Baxter.  By  this  it( 
power  at  home  was  increased. 

In  1688  a  poor  family  in  Boston  was  aflBicted  by  demons.  Four 
children,  the  eldest  thirteen  years  of  age,  began  leaping  and  burk- 
ing like  dogs,  or  purring  like  ciits,  and  complaining  of  being 
pricked,  pinched,  and  cut  An  old  Irishwoman  was  finally  tried] 
and  executed. 

All  this  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the  mind  of  a  man  ol 
great  natural  abilities,  of  most  earnest  and  conscientious  desire  to| 
do  good  in  his  generation,  mixed  with  pride,  vanity,  ambition,  and' 
love  of  power ;  in  short,  a  tjrpical  specimen  of  the  high  ecclesias- 
tic as  he  has  so  often  afflicted  the  earth.  This  man  was  Cotton 
Mather,  the  son  of  Increase  Mather,  and  both  father  and  son  gave 
all  their  great  powers  to  deepening  and  extending  this  theologi- 
cal view  as  sanctioned  by  Scripture. 

In  lfi!*2  began  a  new  outbreak  of  possession,  which  is  one  of^ 
the  most  instructive  in  history.  The  Rev,  Samuel  Parris  was  the! 
minister  of  the  church  in  Salem,  No  pope  ever  had  higher  ideas 
of  his  own  infallibility,  no  bishop  a  greater  love  of  ceremony,  no 
inqnisitor  a  greater  passion  for  prying  and  spying.f 

Before  long  Mr.  Parris  had  much  upon  his  hands.    Many  ot 
his  hardy,  independent  parishioners  disliketl  his  ways,    Quarrelaj 
arose.    Some  of  the  leading  men  of  the  congregation  were  pit 
Against  lilm.    The  previous  minister,  George  Burroughs,  had 
(the  gt'Fms  of  troubles  and  quarrels,  and  to  these  were  now 

*  For  the  hl*fa  that  America  before  the  nigrlmB  had  bwn  oopooiatly  fdrcn 
Itlia  litcmturc  of  the  ear)/  PuritAn  p«rin<l.  nod  pfpeoiallv  the  pootn'  ol 
^tpfMctl  In  T«ter'«  **  History  of  AmcricAO  LitermtuK,**  voL  U,  p.  'It*  tl  M9. 
f  for  curiou«  c&axitplc«  of  UiU,  »«v  CpUam'i  '*  lUfiCor/  «f  Sal«m  WUcbccaft,! 


2^£W  CITAPTERS  m  TEE  WABFARE  OF  SCTEITCE,    \i 


new  complications  arising  from  the  assumptions  of  Parris»  There 
were  innumerable  wranglings  and  lawsuits ;  in  fact,  all  the  essen- 
tial causes  for  satauic  interference  which  we  saw  at  work  in  and 
about  the  monastery  at  Loudun,  and  especially  the  turmoil  of  a 
petty  village  where  there  is  no  intellectual  activity,  and  where 
mt?n  and  women  find  their  chief  substitute  for  it  in  squabbles — 
religious,  legal,  political,  social,  and  personal. 

In  this  darkened  atmosphere  thus  charged  with  the  germs  of 
disease  it  was  suddenly  discovered  that  two  young  girls  in  the 
family  of  Mr.  Parris  were  possessed  of  devils ;  they  complained  of 
being  pinched,  pricked,  and  cut,  fell  into  strange  spasms  and  mado 
strange  speeches ;  showing  all  the  signs  of  diabolic  possession  rec- 
ognized in  the  works  of  experts  or  handed  down  by  tradition. 
The  two  girls,  having  been  brought  by  Mr,  Parris  and  others  to 
tell  who  had  bewitched  them,  first  charged  an  old  Indian  woman, 
and  the  poor  old  Indian  husband  was  led  to  join  in  the  charge. 
This  at  once  afforded  new  scope  for  the  activity  of  Mr.  Parris. 
With  his  passion  for  magnifying  his  office,  he  immediately  began 
making  a  groat  stir  in  Salem  and  in  the  country  round  about. 
Two  magistrates  were  finally  summoned.  With  them  came  a 
great  crowd,  and  a  court  was  held  at  the  meeting-house.  The 
scenes  which  then  took  place  would  have  been  the  richest  of  farces 
had  they  not  led  to  events  so  tragical.  The  possessed  went  into 
spasms  at  the  approach  of  those  charged  with  witchcraft,  and 
when  the  poor  old  men  and  women  attempted  to  attest  their  inno- 
cence they  were  overwhelmed  with  outcries  by  the  possessed, 
quotations  of  Scripture  by  the  ministers,  and  denunciations  by  the 
mob.  The  mania  spread  to  other  children,  and  one  especially — 
Ann  Putnam,  a  child  of  twelve  years — showed  great  precocity  and 
played  a  striking  jiart  in  the  performances.  Two  or  three  married 
women  also,  seeing  the  great  attention  paid  to  the  afl^cted,  and 
influenced  by  that  epidemic  of  morbid  imitation  which  science 
now  recognizes  in  all  such  cases,  soon  became  similarly  afflicted, 
and  in  their  turn  mado  charges  against  varif)us  persons.  The  In- 
diftn  woman  was  flogged  by  her  master,  Mr.  Parris,  until  she  con- 
fessed relations  with  Satan ;  and  others  were  forced  or  deluded 
into  confession.  These  hysterical  confessions — the  re^mlts  of  un- 
bearable torture,  or  the  reminiscences  of  dreams,  which  had  been 
prompted  by  the  witch  legends  and  sermons  of  the  period — em- 
braced such  facts  as  flying  through  the  air  to  witch  gatherings, 
partaking  of  witi^h  sacraments,  signing  a  book  presented  by  the 
devil,  and  submitting  to  satanic  baptism. 

The  possessed  had  begun  with  charging  their  possession  upon 
poor  and  vagrant  old  women,  but  ere  long,  emboldened  by  their 
success,  they  attacked  higher  game,  struck  at  some  of  the  fore- 
most people  of  the  region,  and  did  not  cease  until  several  of  these 


\t 


MONTHLY. 


rore  condemned  to  death,  and  every  man,  woman,  and  cliild 

irought  under  a  reign  of  terror.    Many  tied  outriglit,  and  one  of 

the  foremost  citizens  of  Salem  went  constantly  armed,  and  kept 

one  of  his  horses  saddled  in  the  stable  to  dee  if  brought  undef 

accusation. 

The  hysterical  ingenuity  of  the  possessed  women  grew  with 
their  success.  They  insisted  that  they  saw  devils  prompting  the 
accused  to  defend  themselves  in  court.  Did  one  of  the  accused 
clasp  her  hands  in  despair,  the  possessed  clasped  theirs ;  did  the 
accused,  in  appealing  to  Heaven,  make  any  gesture,  the  possessed 
simultaneouyly  imitated  it ;  did  the  accused  in  weariness  drop  her 
Iiea<I,  the  possessed  dropped  theirs,  and  declared  that  the  witch 
trying  to  break  their  necks.    The  court-room  resounded  with 

►ans, shrieks, prayers, and  curses;  judges,  jury, and  people  were 
aghast,  and  even  the  accused  were  sometimes  thuH  led  to  believe 
in  their  own  guilt. 

Very  striking  in  all  these  cases  was  the  mixture  of  trickery 
with  frenzy.  In  most  of  the  madness  there  was  method.  Sundry 
witt'hos  charged  by  the  {)ossessed  had  heen  engaged  in  controversy 
with  the  Salem  church  people.  Others  of  the  accused  had  quar- 
reled with  Mr.  Parri&  Still  others  had  been  engaged  in  old  law- 
suits against  persons  more  or  loss  connected  with  the  girls.  One 
of  the  moat  fearful  charges — which  cost  the  life  of  a  noble  and 
lovely  lady — arose  undoubtedly  from  her  better  style  of  dress  and 
living.  Old  sliimboring  noighhorliood  or  personal  quarrels  bore  in 
this  way  a  strange  fruitage  of  revenge ;  for  the  cardinal  doctrine 
of  a  fanatic's  creed  is  that  his  enemies  are  the  enemies  of  Qod. 

Any  person  daring  to  hint  the  slightest  distrust  of  the  pro- 
ceedings was  in  danger  of  being  immediately  brought  under  accu- 
sation of  a  league  with  Satan.  Husbands  and  children  were  thus 
brought  to  the  gallows  for  daring  to  disbelieve  these  charges 
against  their  wives  and  their  mothers.  Some  of  the  clergy  were 
accused  for  endeavoring  to  savt?  members  of  their  churches.* 

One  poor  woman  was  charged  with  "  giving  a  look  toward  the 
great  mpeting-houso  of  Salem,  and  immediately  a  demon  entered 
tlie  house  and  tore  down  a  part  of  it."  This  cause  for  the  falling 
of  a  bit  of  poorly  nailed  wainscoting  seemed  perfectly  satisfactory 
to  Dr.  Cotton  Mather,  as  well  as  to  the  judge  and  jury,  and  she 
was  hanged,  protesting  her  innocence.  Still  another  hidy, belong- 
ing to  one  of  the  most  respected  families  of  the  region,  waa 
( *  -  -  ^  -^rith  the  crime  of  ^vitchcraft.  The  children  were  fear- 
1  ;  'te<l  whenever  she  appeared  near  them.    It  seomod  never 


NEW  CHAPTERS  m  THE  WARFARE  OF  SCIENCE,    13 


I 


to  occur  to  any  one  that  a  bitter  old  feud  between  the  Rev,  Mr. 
Purris  and  the  family  of  the  accused  might  have  prejudiced  the 
children,  and  directed  their  attention  toward  the  woman.  No  ac- 
coant  was  made  of  the  fact  that  her  life  had  been  entirely  blame- 
less; and  yet,  in  view  of  the  wretched  insufficiency  of  proof,  the 
jury  brought  in  a  verdict  of  not  guilty.  Aa  they  brought  in  this 
verdict,  all  the  children  began  to  shriek  and  scream,  until  the 
court  committed  the  monstrouij  wrong  of  causing  her  to  be  in- 
dicted anew.  In  order  to  warrant  this,  the  judge  referred  to  one 
perfectly  natural  and  harmless  expression  made  by  the  woman 
when  under  examination.  The  jury  at  last  brought  her  in  guilty. 
She  was  condemned;  and,  having  been  brought  into  the  church 
heavily  ironed,  was  solemnly  excommunicated  and  delivered  over 
to  Satan  by  the  minister.  Some  good  sense  still  prevailed,  and 
the  Governor  reprieved  her;  but  ecclesiastical  pressure  and  popu- 
lar clamor  were  too  powerfuL  The  Governor  was  induced  to  re- 
call his  reprieve,  and  she  was  executed,  protesting  her  innocence 
and  praying  for  her  enemies.* 

Another  typical  case  was  presented.  The  Rev.  Mr,  Burroughs, 
against  whom  considerable  ill  will  had  been  expressed,  and  whose 
petty  parish  quarrel  with  the  powerful  Putnam  family  had  led  to 
his  dismissal  from  his  ministry,  was  named  by  the  poHsessed  as 
one  of  those  who  plagued  them,  one  of  the  most  uifluential  among 
the  afflicted  being  Ann  Putnam,  Mr.  Burroughs  had  led  a  blame- 
less life,  the  only  thing  ever  charged  against  him  by  the  Putnams 
being  that  he  insisted  strenuously  that  his  wife  should  not  go 
about  the  parish  talking  of  her  own  family  matters.  He  was 
charged  with  afflicting  the  children,  convicted,  and  executed.  At 
the  last  moment  he  repeated  the  Lord*s  Prayer  solemnly  and 
fully,  which  it  was  supposed  that  no  sorcerer  could  do,  and  this, 
together  with  his  straiglit forward  Christian  utterances  at  the  exe- 
cution, shook  the  faith  of  many  in  the  reality  of  diabolical  pos- 
session. 

Ere  long  it  was  known  that  one  of  the  girls  had  acknowledged 
that  she  had  belied  some  persons  who  had  been  executed,  and 
especially  Mr.  Burroughs,  and  that  she  had  begged  forgiveness; 
but  this  for  a  time  availed  nothing.  Persons  who  would  not  con- 
fess were  tied  up  and  put  to  a  sort  of  torture  which  was  effective 
in  securing  new  revelations. 

In  the  case  of  Giles  Cory  the  horrors  of  the  persecution  culmi- 
nat€*d.  Seeing  that  his  doom  was  certain,  and  wishing  to  preserve 
his  family  from  attainder  and  their  property  from  confiscation, 
he  refused  to  plead.  He  was  therefore  pressed  to  death,  and, 
W  '  \s  last  agonies  his  tongue  was  pressed  out  of  his  mouth, 

1  with  his  walking-stick  thrust  it  back  again. 
Sm  Dr&ko,  "Tb«  Wlicbcri/t  Delusion  in  Ne*r  EngUnd,"  vol.  Ut,  p.  Si  «(  m?. 


TRE  POPULAE  SCIENCE  ^OITTELT. 


Everything  was  made  to  contribtxte  to  the  orthodox  view  of 
possession.  On  one  occasion,  when  a  cnrt  conveying  » '  '  r\. 
demned  persons  to  the  place  of  execution  stuck  fast  in  .'i-, 

some  of  the  possessed  declared  that  they  saw  the  devil  trying  to 
prevent  the  punishment  of  his  associates.  Confessions  of  witch- 
craft abounded ;  but  the  way  in  which  these  confessions  were  ob- 
tained is  touchingly  exhibited  in  a  statement  afterward  mad©  by 
several  women.  In  ex])laining  the  reasons  why,  when  charged 
with  afflicting  sick  persons,  they  made  a  false  confession,  they 
eaid: 

..."  By  reason  of  that  suddain  surprizal,  we  knowing  our- 
selves altogether  Innocent  of  that  Crime,  wo  were  all  exceedingly 
astonished  and  amazed,  and  consternated  and  affrighted  even  out 
of  our  Reason ;  and  our  nearest  and  dearest  Relations,  seeing  us 
in  that  dreadful  condition,  and  knowing  our  great  danger,  appre- 
hending that  there  was  no  other  way  to  save  our  lives,  ,  ,  .  out  of 
tender  .  .  .  pitty  perswaded  us  to  confess  what  we  did  confess. 
And  indeed  that  Confession,  that  it  is  said  we  made,  was  no  other 
than  what  was  suggested  to  us  by  some  G^entlemen ;  they  telling 
Ds,  that  we  were  Witches,  and  they  knew  it,  and  we  knew  it,  and 
they  knew  that  we  knew  it,  which  made  us  think  that  it  was  so ; 
d  our  understanding,  our  reason,  and  our  faculties  almost  gone, 
©were  nut  capable  of  judging  our  condition;  ufi  also  the  hard 
measures  they  used  with  us,  rendred  us  uncapable  of  making  our 
Defence,  but  said  anything  and  everything  which  they  desired, 
and  most  of  what  we  said,  was  in  eilect  a  consenting  to  what  they 
said."  •  .  .  . 

Case  after  case,  in  which  hysteria,  fanaticism,  cruelty,  injus* 
tice,  and  trickery  played  their  part,  was  followed  up  to  the  scaf- 
fold. In  a  short  time  twenty  persons  had  been  put  to  a  cruel 
death,  and  the  number  of  the  accused  grew  larger  and  larger.  The 
highest  position  and  the  noblest  character  formed  no  barrier. 
Daily  the  jmyaessetl  beciime  more  bold,  more  tricky,  and  more 
wild.  No  plea  availed  anything.  In  behalf  of  several  women, 
whose  lives  had  been  of  the  purest  and  gentlest,  petitions  were 
presented,  but  to  no  effect.  A  Scriptural  text  was  always  ready 
to  aid  in  the  repression  of  mercy :  it  was  remembered  that  **  Satiui 
himself  is  transformed  into  an  angel  of  light,"  and  above  all  re- 
sounded the  Old  Testament  injunction,  which  had  sent  such  mul- 
titudes in  Europe  to  the  torture-chamber  and  the  stake,  **  Ye  shall 
not  suffer  a  witch  to  live," 

Such  clergymen  as  Noyes,  Parris,  and  Mather,  aided  by  such 
judges  as  Stoughton  and  Hathorn,  left  nothing  undone  to  stimu- 
Iflf,    '•  ■   .   .  .   "  T"  — ",  ;  ■        "    "        ■■     ,   '  ^    ^'iH 

Ohi  -f 

*  E«c  Cftkf.  In  Drake,  rol  Ui,  ppL  Sft,  ftt  ^  aUo  voL  iU,  pp.  t^Atx  4Uo  V\Mk\n. 


KSW  CHAPTEBS  IN  TSE  WARFARE  OF  SCIENCE,    15 


» 


I 


I 


the  Invisible  World,"  thanking  Ood  for  the  triumphs  over  Satai 
thus  gained  at  Salem ;  and  his  book  received  the  approbation  of 
the  Ghovemor  of  the  Province,  the  President  of  Harvard  Colluge, 
and  various  eminent  theologians  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  America. 
But,  despite  such  efforts  as  these,  observation,  and  thought 
upon  observation,  which  form  the  beginning  of  all  true  scienceg^ 
began  a  new  order  of  things.  The  people  began  to  fall  away. 
Justice  Bratlstreet,  having  committed  thirty  or  forty  persons,  be- 
came aroused  to  the  absurdity  of  the  whole  matter;  the  minister 
of  Andover  had  the  good  sense  to  resist  the  theological  view; 
even  so  high  a  personage  as  Lady  Phips,  the  wife  of  the  Gov- 
ernor, began  to  show  lenity, 

Ea<?h  of  those  was,  in  consequence  of  this  disbelief,  char| 
with  collusion  with  Satan ;  but  such  charges  seemed  now  to  losd' 
their  force. 

In  the  midst  of  all  this  drduaion  and  terrorism  stood  Cotton 
Mather  firm  as  ever.  His  efforts  to  uphold  the  declining  supersti- 
tion were  heroic.  But  he  at  last  went  one  step  too  far.  Being 
himself  possessed  of  a  mania  for  myth-making  and  wouder-mon- 
gering,  and  having  described  a  case  of  witchcraft  with  jKJSsibly 
greater  exaggeration  than  usual,  he  was  confronted  by  Robert 
Calef.  Calef  was  a  Boston  merchant,  and  appears  to  have  united 
the  gootl  sense  of  a  man  of  business  to  considerable  shrewdness  in 

rvation,  power  in  thought,  and  love  for  truth.  He  begi 
Writing  to  Mather  and  others  to  show  the  weak  points  in  the  sys-' 
tern.  Mather,  indignant  that  a  person  so  much  his  iufcrior  dared 
dissent  from  his  opinion,  at  first  affected  to  despise  Calef;  but,  as 
Calef  pressed  him  more  and  more  closely,  Mather  denounced  him, 
calling  him  among  other  things  *'  A  Coal  from  Hell."  All  to  no 
purposa  Calef  fastened  still  more  firmly  upon  the  flanks  of  the 
great  theologian ;  thought  and  reason  now  began  to  resume  their 
sway. 

The  possessed  having  accused  certain  men  held  in  very  high 
re8X>ect,  doubts  began  to  dawn  upon  the  community  at  large. 
Here  was  the  repetition  of  that  which  set  men  thinking  under 
similar  circumstances  in  the  German  bishoprics  when  those  under 
trial  for  witchcraft  there  had  at  last,  in  their  desperation  or  mad- 
ness, charged  the  very  bishops  and  the  judges  upon  the  bench  with 
sorcery.  The  party  of  reason  grew  stronger.  The  Rev,  Mr.  Par- 
was  soon  put  upon  the  defensive,  for  some  of  the  possessed  be- 
to  i-oTifees  that  they  had  accused  people  wrongfully.  Hercu- 
efforts  were  made  by  certain  of  the  clergy  and  devout  laity 
to  support  the  declining  belief,  but  the  more  thoughtful  turned 
more  and  more  agninst  it;  jurymen  prominent  in  convictions 
solemnly  retractp<l  their  verdicts  and  publicly  crave<l  pardon  of 
Gad  and  man.     Most  striking  of  all  was  the  case  of  Justice  Sew- 


tfi 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEyCE  JfOITTELT. 


all.  A  man  of  the  highest  character^  in  view  of  what  hd  sup- 
posed tho  teachings  of  Scripture  and  the  principles  laid  down  by 
the  ^eat  English  judges,  he  had  unhesitatingly  condemned  the 
accused ;  but  reason  now  dawned  upon  him.  He  looked  back  and 
saw  the  basHlessoess  of  the  whole  proceedings,  ami  -     '  *  -lie 

stiitemeut  of  his  errors.    His  diary  contains  many  j  -vr- 

iug  deep  contrition,  and  ever  afterward,  to  the  end  of  hifl  lifft,  he 
was  wont,  on  one  day  in  the  year,  to  enter  into  solitude,  and  there 
remain  all  tlie  day  long  in  faj^ting,  prayer,  and  penit-ence. 

Chief -Justice  Stoughton  never  yielded.  To  the  last  he  lamented 
the  "evil  spirit  of  unbelief"  which  was  thwarting  the  gloriouB 
work  of  freeing  New  England  from  demona 

The  church  of  Salem  solemnly  revoked  the  excomraunicationa 
of  the  condemned  and  drove  Mr.  Parris  from  their  pastoratet 
Cotton  Mather  passed  his  last  years  in  groaning  oviy  the  decline 
of  the  faith  and  the  ingratitude  of  a  people  for  wliom  he  had  done 
so  much.  Very  significant  is  one  of  his  complaints,  since  it  showB 
the  evolution  of  a  more  scientific  mode  of  thought  abroad  aa^ 
rell  as  at  home:  he  laments  in  bis  diary  that  English  publishers 
fgiadly  printed  Calef'a  book  against  witchcraft  and  posaes^ion, 
but  would  no  longer  publish  his  own,  and  he  declares  this  " 
attack  upon  tho  glory  of  the  Lord." 


GLASS-MAKING. 
Bt  c.  hanford  hendersoh, 

THorxwoB  or  rBT«io»  aztd  obxxutrt  n  mz  riiiLAoxLrnu  icAsrAi.  Ts&nmo  school. 
H.— THE  HISTORY  OF  A  PICTURE- WINDOW. 

IN  the  reproduction  of  the  beautiful.  Art  lias  occupied  it<elf 
chiefly  with  form  and  color,  and  has  seldom  made  mord' 
lerious  demands  upon  light  than  to  ask  enough  of  it  to  reflect 
Its  achievements  in  these  two  directions  to  the  eye  of  the  ljeht»lder- 
So  keen  is  the  pleasure  derived  from  woll-adjusted  proportions 
that  our  .statuary  and  architecture  please  by  their  ap|>eal  to  this 
one  sentiment  alone.    When  color  joins  with  roprcsentfd  form,] 
our  delight  in  thes*»  harmonies  is  sufficiently  complete  to  exclude 
for  the  time  any  sense  of  doficioncy.    We  believe  ourselvee  to  boi 
quite  satisfied. 

And  yt't,  when  we  turn  from  these  clever  reprfxlucfiouB  to  the 
'veritable  nature  of  the  outward  world,  or  of  our  own  iinmaterial- 
vi^l  fancies,  our  copies  seem  poor  things  after  alL    At  bent.  Ihey 
so  inadequate  that  one  almost  feels  that  the  iv'  '  i»- 

kk«.    Tile  marble  figure  lacks  the  divine  life  thu:     _-    nd. 

made*  adorable  the  human  original,    Tho  painted  atmosphere 


OLASS^MAKiyO. 


«7 


It.  Wwrww  ronMBD.    (Sbowu  tn  proecti  of  manufftclaro  tn  ihe  foUuwing  l»a8»r»iIoo».) 


i8 


THE  POPULAR   SCISXCE  MOKTHLY. 


not  tJie  Bpiritunl  light  and  transparency  of  the  real  heaven*.    Tlife 
nireole  pnoiroling  the  sainted  hea*!  does  not  palpitate  with  tho; 
iviiig  fire  that  glows  in  every  suubeam.     Some  element  tlienj  iaj 
in  nature's  heauty  that  art  han  failed  to  catch.    It  may  he,  that 
ittemptiii^  to  give  pormaneuce  to  impressions  which  are  esson 
ially  tmnsitory,  a  rortaiu  violence  is  done  to  the  constitution  ofj 
thingH,  which  we  resent  even  while  we  wlniire.    The  heauty  is  t4 
permanent.    It  is  not  one  with  the  passing,  ever-changeful  moodsj 
of  Nature. 

We  must  not,  however,  be  too  exacting  and  demand  the  imprm-| 
sihle.    It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  pupil  will  equal  the  nin^tin' 
But  the  qtiestion  is  not  unreasonable  as  to  whether  Art  can  not 
imj)ort  into  her  work  some  of  the  life  and  the  eternal  ebb  and  floi 
which  characterize  that  world  of  beauty  which  it  in  her  provinct>1 
to  attempt  to  reprcMluce.    Form  and  color  are  large  elements,  but 
.they  do  not  make  up  nature,     Tliere  must  be  light  and  motion, 
f©lse  thf  scene  is  deftcient  in  its  cliief  rhanns.     True,  it  is  impoS' 
sible  to  realize  motion  in  very  fact :  the  strained  muscle  and  nn- 
table  poise  can  only  suggest  it.    Nor  is  it  possible,  working  witl 
[uirble  and  canrtis,  to  realize  the  life  and  light  of  the  I'eal  ether. 
This  is  sometliing  too  subtile  to  be  simulated.    But  it  may  be  bor- 
pciwed.     By  giving  expression  t<»  his  conceptions  in  translucent 
materials,  the  artist  may  so  strain  and  filter  the  sunlight  that  it 
shapes  itself  at  his  bidding  into  such  pictures  as  he  will.    And 
beholder,  s»mtt»d  on  his  bench  before  it,  or  perhaps  kneeling  in 
reverential  mood,  loses  himself  in  this  tine  vinion,  and  under  itj 
influence  sends  out  his  thoughts  over  broader  ranges  and  highei 
planes. 

I  remember  distinctly,  as  a  child,  the  keen  pleasure  I  used  t< 
get  from  a  pi<'ture- window  that  faced  me  during  afternoon  church 
It  was  a  poor  thing,  artistically — Zaccheus  on  the  bough  of  a  vei 
inadequate-looking  sycamore-tree,  with  a  passing  multitude  of  such 
dimensions  fis  to  make  tree-climbing  se'em  al)soluteIy  superfluoni 
— but  in  thu  early  winter  twilight  I  found  the  picture  very  bei 
tiful.  When  the  increasing  darkness  had  softened  the  gro\iy^  ii 
the  foreground  into  a  pleasant  harmony,  there  was  a  strip  of  si 
along  the  horizon  that  sprang  into  glowing  life.  And  in  thal^ 
of  light  1  used  to  wander  over  t)»e  Judenn  hills  in  happy  abi 
tion  until  the  music  and  the  In^ieiiiction  called  me  back  agai 
the  more  pnjsaic  life  of  an  American  city. 

It  is  this  addcil  element  in  glass  that  makes  it  so  fitting  ft! 
teriikl  for  the  uxpression  of  artistic  conceptions.     It  is  a  se 
vehicle  for  the  carriaRe  of  a  Ijeautif ul  thought.    The  maUn  ' 

'    r :  it  yyy^    " 
1  .  and  it  ! 

mnrblis  and  canvas  do  nut — large  poBsibilitiec)  in  th^  wn] 


OLASS-yfAKTI^Q. 


»9 


id  of  effective  changetibleuess.  These  considerations  are  attract- 
ig  tlie  attention  of  artistic  people,  and  probably  in  no  otlier  field 
\&  there  better  work  being  done  to-day.  It  is  true  that  the  mate- 
rial is  fragile— very  fragile — but  then  few  works  of  art  are  fash- 
ione<l  with  the  idea  of  rough  usage.  If  prot-ected  from  mere 
lechanic^vl  injury,  glass  will  outlast  many  forms  of  matter  appar- 
ently much  more  ]X)bust.  Particularly  is  it  proof  against  that 
iver-present  enemy,  the  atmosphere.  Stone  crumbles  and  decays, 
letals  cdrrodPj  and  pigments  fade,  but  glass  defies  nearly  every- 
:hing  but  fracture.  The  few  glass  ornaments  tliat  have  come 
(own  to  us  from  the  ancient  world  are  in  a  state  of  superior  pres- 
ervation. Glass  and  terra-cotta^  fragile  as  they  are,  seem  better 
daptcd  than  e\'en  tablets  of  stone  for  preserving  the  records  of 
le  past.  Clay  cylinder  from  Assyria,  depicting  the  story  of  the 
trdeu  of  Eden»  are  a  part  of  historical  record  still  ejctaut :  the 
graven  decalogue  is  no  more. 
L^  The  subject  of  picture  -  windows  is  a  very  large  one,  since 
^fcheir  fabrication  demands  the  exercise  of  such  diverse  faculties. 
H^iewcnl  from  either  the  artist's  or  the  technologist's  standpoint, 
^Dt  presents  many  features  of  interest.  In  our  nomenclature  we 
Lave  permitted  ourselves  to  fall  into  rather  careless  habits.  The 
^terms  "paint^l,"  "stained/' and  "mosaic'*  glass  are  used  indis- 
iriminately  to  designate  any  form  of  window-glass  work  which 
ivolves  color,  but  a  moment's  consideration  will  show  them  to 
far  from  synonymous.  Some  of  our  best  effects  are  produce<i 
ithout  the  use  of  either  paint  or  stnin,  and  such  windows  have 
advantage  of  a  much  greater  durability.  In  painted  glass  the 
solors  are  producwi  by  enamels  fused  to  the  surface  of  the  glass 
means  of  heat.  In  stained  glass,  a  permanent  transparent  color 
is  secured  by  the  action  of  heat  on  certain  metallic  oxides 
lied  to  the  surface  as  pigments ;  while  in  mosaic  glass,  pure 
id  simple,  the  design  is  brought  out  by  the  use  of  shaped  frag- 
of  colored  glass  bound  together  by  strips  of  doubly  grooved 


The  throe  pro^lucts,  it  will  be  seen,  are  quite  distinct.  It  fre- 
uently  happens,  and  in  the  older  examples  of  ecclesiastical  design 
is  ncjirly  always  the  caKse,  that  all  are  combiuetl  in  one  window, 
tut  at  the  present  time  there  is  a  strong  reaction  against  the  em- 
doyment  of  either  paint  or  stain,  since  they  are  not  only  less 
urable  but  also  less  brilliant  than  homogeneous  colored  glass. 
'here  is  a  decided  tendency  to  rely  entirely  upon  the  mosaic 
treatment,  and  to  limit  the  use  of  paint  to  the  representation  of 
^he  human  tigure. 

The  miinufafrtiire  of  mosaic  glass  has  attn»cte<i  the  attention  of 
ten  of  such  ingenuity  and  taste  that  it  deserves  its  rank  among 
ttt  hi\%»  arts.     It  has  attained  a  degree  of  artistic  perfection  of 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLT. 


which  the  earlier  uxamples  gave  only  sparing  promise.    In  spi 
of  tho  abiindonmexit  of  paint  and  st^iin,  tlio  m08aic  glass  Las  boo 
given  great«r  variety  aud  greattn*  depth  of  color  than  at  any  timi 
Hinco  the  KeTiaissance,     In  it-s  present  foitn,  the  mosaic  picture 
vrindow  is  a  distinctively  American  prtxluct.    It  has  been  evolved^ 
here,  and,  though  now  somewhat  t;opied  in  Europe,  it  is  here  that 
the  process  has  reached  its  greatest  extension  and  perfection,   Th 
history  of  its  mode  of  becoming  is  both  unique  and  interi>stuig 
It  is  one  that  could  not  have  l>c«u  writUin  much  earlier  to  lulvun- 
tage,  for  the  material  of  which  it  is  composed  has  only  been  gath-, 
•ring  during  recent  years.     Were  this  history  to   be  unfolded 
iDgically,  it  would  start  with  the  first  conception  which  t^haped 
itself  in  the  brain  of  the  artist,  and  from  timt  intangible  begin 
ning  it  would  be  traced  through  the  colored  sketch,  the  fuU-sizcMl 
cartoon,  the  gnwlual   replnct^ment  of  colored    [wijier  by  coloinnl 
glass,  and  so  on  to  the  complete<l  window ;  but  that  would  pre- 
jSxipjKjse  U^o  mucli.     It  would  take  ior  granted  that  the  artist  in 
ghuss  had  only  to  catch  his  tine  dreams  of  beauty,  and  that  the 
material  for  their  expression  would  be  found  at  hand  ready  for 
his  use.    But  such  is  very  far  from  being  the  case.    In  this  formj 
of  art-work  the  rt^al  stniggle  has  been  to  nuike  the  mat<^riiil  adap 
it?*»:'lf  to  the  conception  it  is  intended  to  express.    The  struggle 
however,  has  been  carried  on  so  cleverly  and  so  successfully  iha 
the  ultimate  triumph  is  the  more  enjoyable  for  the  prelude.    It 
mort'  (ronsistcnt,  therefore,  to  consider  first  the  teclinical  part 
the  liist^iry  of  a  picture-wiudoM ,  the  production  of  that  adroitly 
wrought  and  <laintily  colorwl  material  which  has  made  the  win 
low  possible;  and  then,  having  won  the  material,  to  regard  it«' 
(ub8e(|uent  disposition  in  producing  the  fine  cffertH  ^vliicli  make 
it  BO  mJmirable. 

To  describe  every  variety  of  glass  utilized  in  n  nio.^Hic  picture- 
window  would  be  to  describe  nearly  every  form  of  ghuss  kno 
in  the  fiat.  In  such  a  window,  be  it  remembered,  the  entire  pi 
nre,  except  the  exposed  portions  of  the  figure,  is  brought  out  b 
the  use  of  shape<l  fragments  of  colore*!  glass ;  and  one  can  rea<Hly| 
ingine  that,  ns  all  possible  Hubjects  are  chosen  for  such  repro- 
•ntation,  all  possible  shades  and  combinations  and  effects  are 
needed  in  the  glass  employed.  Draperies,  vegetation,  architecture, 
:y,  earth,  air,  and  wattT,  are  all  HUccoKsfnlly  de[ii('tcd  without 
le  use  of  either  paint  or  stain.  Such  windows,  except  the 
portions,  are  true  mosaics,  and  of  the  most  brilliant  kind. 

To  atrccomplish  these  wondurs  tli*'  gliiss  lm«  b< .  i  in 

the  colors  (tf  the  sjicctrutu,  and  hn.s  undergone  a  '  i  l 

ont  transformations,    Tlie  sha|x»s  have  been  no  lew  varied 
ko  colors.    Tlie  KO-callod  "j 
,twA  gitk  .hu^cU  After,  ti 


QLASS-MAKiyO, 


SI 


added  miraeDsely  to  the  brilliancy  of  modern  deaiguB,  and  have 
been  particularly  effoctivo  when  introduced  as  a  setting  or  frame- 
work to  a  picture-window.  They  are  imported  for  the  most  part 
from  Germany,  The  greater  part  of  the  flat  glass  used,  however, 
is  made  in  the  immediutt?  neighborhood  of  New  Yoi*k,  undor  the 
dire^H  supervision  of  the  art-workers  who  are  to  utilize  it.  I  ha<l 
recently  the  pleasure  of  going  through  such  a  factory  in  Brookl3m, 
probably  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  this  country,  and  it  was  a  veri- 
table chromatic  treat  to  visit  the  store-rooms,  for  some  five  hun- 
dred different  color  combinations  were  recognized  in  stoi^k.  The 
mosaic  ateliers  of  the  Vatican  contain,  it  is  true,  not  loss  than 
twenty-six  thousand  different  tints;  but  these,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, are  simply  opa^iue  enamels,  while  the  glass  mentioned  is 
all  easily  translucent,  and  much  of  it  is  clearly  transparent. 

In  the  manufacture  of  this  glass  the  materials  employed  are 
much  the  same  as  in  ordinary  sheet  and  phite  glass.  It  is  a  double 
silit^te  of  lime  and  soda,  the  coloring  l}eing  due  to  the  addition  of 
metallic  oxides  which  are  soluble  in   the  fusctd  glass.    The  mat 


In  TBS  Qtuju-Aanr.    Bklbotuio  the  Olam  faox  Ttu  Suikta. 

rials  needed  for  the  basis  are»  as  l>efore,  sand,  limestone,  and 

alkali.    They  are  mixed  in  the  proper  proi>ortions — that  is  to  say, 

►ut  thirty  parts  of  lime  and  forty  of  soda  to  every  hundn^d 

of  Sixnd — and  are  fused  in  fire-clay  cnicihles  in  the  customary 

•nace,    Tlie  coloring  jnatt^a*  is  added  at  different  stages  of 

!oss,  according  U)  the  nature  of  the  material. 

The  mineral  world  has  been  pretty  thoroughly  ransiu';ke<l  to 


2z  THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 

obtain  the  needetl  colors,  aiid  additioaB  to  tUo  list  are  con8tantl; 
leing  mwle  us  the  result  of  further  experimentation.    Takiniif  thaj 
jlurs  up  in  the  order  of  the  spectruiu,  the  violet  shades  are  gen- 
erally produced  from  mnnganese  or  from  very  small  quantities  oi 
cobalt;  the  deep  blues,  indigos,  purple  blues,  and  normal  bluo»,] 
from  varying  proportions  of  I'-obalt ;  poacock-blue  from  copper  ;■ 
the  finest  greens  from  copper  and  chromium;  and  tbo  dull  sea- 
water  tint  from  ferrous  oxide,.     The  oxide  of  copper  gives  axu 
emerald  green.     The  yellows  come  from  a  variety  of  sources :  th( 
8»«M(]uioxide  of  uranium  gives  a  fine  fluorescent  yellow  ;  the  oxide] 
of  lejwi  a  pale  yellow,  and  the  oxide  of  silver,  ajiplied  as  a  pigmenl 
to  the  surface  of  the  glass,  a  permanent  yellow  stain.    The  higbei 
oxide  of  iron  givi^s  an  orange  color,  but,  as  it  has  a  strong  tend 
ency  to  become  reduced,  it  ia  necessary  during  the  maui])ulatiuii 
of  the  glass  to  keep  some  oxidizing  agent  present,  such  as  man- 
panic  oxide.    In  the  reds  a  numl)er  of  excellent  shades  are  readil; 
»1)lainable.    Maugnnese  furnishes  a  variety  of  pinkish  iikIs  an< 
pinks  ;  copi>er,  in  its  lower  oxide,  the  fine  blood-red  of  Bohemii 
glass ;  and  gold,  the  deepest  and  most  brilliant  of  all  reds,  the  well- 
known  ruby  glass.    This  list,  however,  is  but  a  fragment.    It  beai 
to  tlie  complete  ari'ay  of  color  at  the  command  of  the  glass-worker] 
much  th"  same  ndation  that  an  inventory  of  crude  pigments  would 
bear  to  the  lino  distinctions  housed  ill  an  artist's  color-box.    It 
only  inten<led  to  give  some  little  idea  of  the  mineral  bases  utilized; 
f(*r  their  color  effect.    The  line  gradations  of  color,  and  the  rich] 
and  delicate  tones,  are  the  result  of  no  such  elementary  chromat- 
ics.   Many  substances  have  joined  their  forces  t-o  produce  these  fim 
ivsulls.    In  many  cases  th4*y  have  been  obtained  only  after  loi 
experinienbition.  and  have  a  corresponding  value  in  the  eye*  ofj 
th^ir  discoverers.     The  miignificent  window  designi'*!  by  Mr.  Jolui] 
Lh  Fargo,  which  now  faces  the  chancel  in  Trinity  Church,  Boston, 
owes  the  brilliancy  of  its  peacock  hues  to  the  combined  forces  oi 
ime  seventeen  ingredients.    This  is  an  extreme  instance  of  com- 
de.xity,  but  it  fairly  represents  the  present  tendency  to  secui^ 
multitude  of  effects  even  at  the  expenditure  of  a  multitm 
ag^'uts. 

In  addition  to  these  metallic  compounds  a  nnmber  of 
subjitances  are  used  to  produce  either  colors  or  unique  efFecl 
little  cttrl>ona(^eoiis  matter  yields  an  amber  lint  of  very  agr 
hue,  while  the  opalescence  n(»w  so  much  in  vogue  ami  so  ji 
idmirtMl  results  fmiii  the  presence  of  oxide  of  tin,  ai>ienic,  or 
'or  from  native  minerals,  such  as  lluorite  or  the  cryolite 
ported  in  such  large  Quantifies  from  Greenland.    The  em 


alviut  ton  years  agOi  by  Mr.  John  La  Fiu'ge  nnd  Mr, 


OLASS-AtAKING. 


83 


Tiffany.  The  idea  is  due  to  Mr.  Tiffany,  aud  suggested  itself  in 
the  most  accidental  manner.  His  own  collotrtion  of  ylass  iiiclmled 
several  Venetiiin  Trine-glasses  ina<le  of  thin  opalescrent  glass,  as 
well  as  several  of  thin  transparent  ruby  of  the  quality  used  in 
ordinary  coloreii  window  glass.  As  a  painter  he  was  natui'allyj 
keenly  alive  to  all  color  effects,  and  could  not  fail  to  be  impressoi 
with  the  contrast  presented  by  the  two  glasses.  The  opalescent 
affonled  such  varying  and  beautiful  effects,  and  seemed  to  possess 
so  many  advantages  over  the  ordinary  transpaT*ent  glass,  that  the 
idea  flashed  u])on  him  that  if  the  ruby  glass  could  l>e  made  us**  of 
in  windows,  why  could  not  the  opalescent  as  well  ?  He  decidc<l  at 
any  rate  to  attimipt  its  introtluction.  After  long  and  careful  ex- 
IM'rinienting  he  suoceefled  in  obtaining  a  suflicient  quantity  of 
gla^4S  ft»r  the  construction  of  a  window.  Thert*  were  so  many  dif- 
ticultii?i;  to  be  ovorcomo,  however,  that  for  a  time  it  seemed  doubt- 
ful whether  the  glass  could  ever  be  largely  ijitroduced.  That 
ifuestion  has  now  been  so  far  set  at  rest  that  tlio  glass  may  be  said 
to  enjoy  too  great  a  i)opularity  for  its  own  good.  Its  reputation 
haa  boon  somewhat  injure<l  at  the  hands  of  enthusiastic  glass- w«»rk- 
glass  sinnei*s,"  Mr.  Tiffany  cfllls  them — whose  taste  in  this 


direction  appwirs  to  have  suffered  chromatic  aberration.  It  is  the 
apparent  ambition  of  these  peojde  to  combine  the  greatest  number 
of  colors  in  the  smallest  possible  space,  and  the  results  have  been 
unhappy  to  such  a  degree  as  tn  fright^m  more  soln'r-mimlwl  lovers 
<if  boAuty  from  p^iths  so  seemingly  dangerous.  This  unfortunate 
trmae,  however,  may  soon  be  expected  to  spend  itself,  and  the 
reiilly  artistic  work  in  ojuilescent  glass  will  suffer  no  permanent 
damage  from  the  nightmares  in  color  which  now  disfigure  many 
even  of  our  better-class  tenements  and  hotels. 

But  t}»e  glass-worker  lias  only  begun  his  work  when  he  has 
the  molten  "metal  "  simmering  in  his  crucibles.  It  must  undergo 
many  subsequent  manipulations  before  it  is  available  for  the  pur- 
pose of  art.  8ome  nf  these,  from  a  technical  [Mjint  of  view,  seetn 
retrogressional.  It  has  been  found  that  the  rich  color  effects  in 
glass  of  the  middle  ages  are  largely  due  to  the  imperfectirms  in 
the  material.  It^  lack  of  liomogeiieousness.  its  unequal  thickness. 
and  uneven  surfaces  contribute  largely  t<i  its  beauty.  The  nn«l- 
eni  product  is  too  uniform  to  l»e  brilliant  :  it  transmits  tlie  light 
with  too  great  regularity.  Intentional  imj>erfe<'tions  are,  therefore, 
introduced  into  the  process:  and  tlie  products, in  conse<juence, are 
much  more  siUisfactory  to  the  artist.  This  work  of  in<iividual- 
ixing  the  pro<luct  has  now  l>een  so  far  systematizetl  that  several 
special  brands  of  art  glass  are  recognized  in  the  ouirkets.  The  so- 
csillefl  antique     '  i  br>th  white  and  colors,  is  made  pneiHely 

like  the  ordinal  ■  window  glass,  except  that  the  surface  <tf 

the  glass  is  made  full  of  minute  blow-holes,  which  produce  almost 


THE  POPULAR  SCiKNCS  MONTHLY, 

an  ttventurino  effect,  and  add  groatly  to  its  brilliancy.  In  tli* 
iCatlu'drul  ^lasa  tli<^  surface  Ls  renderwl  wavy  and  uneven,  »o  thai 
^li«  transniission  of  light  shall  be  con*eHpoiidiugly  irreg'ular.  \\ 
tlie  fliwh  glass  ordinary  slieets  are  covered  with  a  thin  plating 
colored  glass,  a  process  which  permits  a  very  delicate  folor  tone, 
and  nuiterially  docrwkies  the  expense,  where  a  costly  glass,  nuchj 
as  ruby,  ib  neede*!  to  give  the  color.  But  in  mosaic  work  it 
now  generally  jjreferrod  that  the  glass  shall  not  be  at  all  trans-j 
parent,  since  the  effect  is  much  richer.  The  most  of  the  glaaa  i! 
therefore  cast,  the  process  being  a  repetition  in  miniature  of  thi 


bi  THE  fAutTixe  Rooa.    Taj  AnTUT  latiko  ik  nu  UtAi'^r, 

casting  of  rough  plate.  The  pots  containing  the  molten  colored 
lass  always  remain,  however,  in  the  furnace,  and  the  "metal "  ia 
ipped  out  in  small  iron  laflles.     It  is  poured  at  once  on  a  little 

coating  table,  and  is  smoothed  out  by  means  of  an  iron  roller.. 

The  small  sheets  thus  obtained  are  rea^lily  handled,  and  permit 

the  use  of  the  convenient  rod  le<?r.     In  this,  the  annulling  procesa 

requires  from  three  to  six  liours.  and  at  \\w  i>riii  nf  tliut  tiint-  Uin 

sheets  are  ready  for  use. 

In  CJise  more  tlmn  one  color  ia  to  appear  m  the  ^x\\\w  shn  t 

effe<'t  is  obtain*^!  by  mixing  U>gether  several  masaeit  (if  differ*; 

colorecl  and  still  plastic  glass  on  the  casting  tabic,  by  means 

^copper  inatrumont  not  unlike  a  plast^-rer'tt  trowel.    In  this 
e€«  or  even  four  colors  arc*  conibiinxl  in  the  s*ime  piece  of  g] 

and,  though  the  rutmlta  are  always  more  or  lc«i$  experimo 


Ui() 


OLASS-MAKmO. 


«5 


artists  have  learned  to  adapt  them  to  their  picturo-windows  as 
well  na  to  their  geometrical  designs.  The  workmen  have  attain* 
no  little  skill  in  the  art  uf  mixing.  They  have  learned  t-o  redu< 
the  accidental  element  in  this  apparently  hit-or-miss  process  to  a 
minimum,  and  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  to  secure  predeter- 
mined combinations.  The  mixture  of  bine  and  white  translucent 
glass  in  pailirular  is  made  to  represent  sky  etl'ects  as  naturally  as 
if  the  colors  had  been  laid  on  by  {in  artist's  brush.  It  is  true  that 
this  combination  is  prone  to  represent  an  August  sky ;  but  this  is 
not  t^  be  regretted,  since  at  no  other  season  of  the  year  are  the 
heAvens  mort;  beautiful. 

By  this  moile  of  manufacture  the  glass  has  an  unequal  thick- 
ness anil  consequent  varying  depth  of  color  tliat  well  adapt  it  for 
art  purjKJses.    For  certain  uses,  however,  particularly  for  lirapery, 
ithe  differences  in  color  tone  are  stil]  not  sufficiently  great,  and 
other  devices  must  be  resorted  to,     A  si>e('ial  product,  known  as 
drapery  glHss,  has  of  recent  years  been  added  to  the  alremly  ex- 
tended list,  and  protluces  a  most  excellent  effect.    While  the  sheet 
(of  ghiss  on  the  casting  table  is  still  sufficiently  hot  to  be  plastic,  it 
-is  seized  by  suitable  tools,  and  rumpled  up  until  it  looks  like  a 
piece  of  crumpled  cloth.    It  is  permitted  to  cool  in  this  condition, 
land,  when  intrcnluced  into  a  picture-window,  presents  a  luminous 
[jBuhatittite  scarcely  less  natural  than  i^eal  drapery.  ■  One  is  almost 
[tempted  to  run  his  hand  over  the  folds  to  try  their  texture. 

It  is  by  prtx^esses  so  ]>ainstaking  and  so  ingenious  as  these  that 
lihe  material  for  our  picture-window  is  won.  The  mdustry  is  still 
a  comparatively  new  one,  yet  so  marked  are  the  improvements 
'witnessed  by  the  |>assiug  years  that  tlie  artist  is  now  almost  un- 
restricted in  making  the  design  of  I»is  window.  Should  it  contain 
any  effects  not  expressible  in  materials  alreatly  at  hand,  the  de- 
ficiency is  only  an  incentive  for  further  effort,  and  the  needed 
[material  is  pretty  sure  to  he  speedily  forthcoming. 

So  murh  for  the  body  of  our  window :  the  soul  of  it  comes  hj\ 
[a  less  visible  process. 

In  some  quiet  moment,  under  the  influence  of  a  strong  senti- 

Jroent,  or  ui  the  face  of  an  inspiring  vision,  a  suggestion  of  beauty 

is  evolved  in  the  artist  mind.    Why  it  comes  in  one  brain  rather 

in  another  it  would  be  difficult  to  say.     Whether  it  is  the 

dt  of  some  subtile  chemical  reaction  in  the  gray  and  the  white, 

►r  the  incomprehensible  force  that  has  caused  this  reaction,  it 

leieems  almost  useless  to  inquire.     But  in  some  way  or  other  the 

vision  comes,  and  finds  lodgment  under  a  hospitable  r(x>f.     It  is 

l^ntertaiued  and  communed  with  until  it  takes  definite  shape,  and 

)the  conception  is  committed  to  paper.    It  is  at  first  little  more 

thttn  a  suggestion,  a  small  colored  sketch.     If  this  prove  satisfac- 

V  it  becomes  the  nucleus  of  a  window,  and  undergoes  its  first 


THIS  POPULAM  SCIEXCE  MOXTffLY. 


metainorphosiH,  oulargeDieiit.     From  th«  beginuiug  of  ita  caraei 

until  finally,  after  months  or  yoars,  thu  picture  is  in  place  and  the] 
bright  sunlight  illumines  it,  tho  different  steps  in  the  traiisforma-i 
tioa  involve  never-<;easiug  care  and  thought.  At  any  step  a  failurQ] 
of  attt*ntion  might  mean  a  total  failure  of  the  work.  To  followl 
this  little  Hketch  in  its  growth  toward  a  window,  will  be  to  watcl 
its  fortunes  under  many  different  hands  and  under  widely  varyiaj 
circumstancf?s. 

As  the  Tiffany  Glass  Company  of  New  York  has  been  particu- 
larly successful  in  adapting  the  mosaic  treatment  to  picture-win-] 
dows,  their  studios  furnish  typical    ilhistrations  of  tho  seven 
steps.    Ordinarily  the  artist  simply  furnishes  the  small  tolore( 
sk*>t»'h,  anil  from  this  germ  the  window  is  evolvecL    OccasionaH; 
he  QurjA  a  step  further,  and  supplies  a  cartoon  in  black  and  wliit< 
of  the  natural  size.    It  is  only  in  rare  instances  that  he  does  thi 
full-sized  sheet  in  colors.    Not  unfrequently  the  suggestion  for 
window  is  taken   from  some  celchi-ated   painting  or  engraving^ 
The  Tiffany  Company  recently  reproduced  Gustave  Dora's  famoui 
picture,  "  Christ  leaving  the  PriBtorium,"  for  a  cliurcb  memorial 
window,  the  entire  piece  being  executed  in  pure  mosaic,  with  thi 
exception  of  the  faces  and  hands.     The  dimensions  of  this  trul; 
magnificent  work  of  art  are  twenty  by  thirty  feet.     It  is  the  mosi 
ambitious  window  ever  attempted  in  America,  and,  indeed,  tiw 
largest  opalescent  piece  in  the  world.     In  many  cases,  however, 
the  eaggewtion  comes  from  humbler  sources,     A  very  beautiful 
window  designed  by  Mr.  K  P.  Hjierry — "  Faith,  Hopi»,  and  Charity  *' 
— and  recently  completc-d  as  a  memorial  window  for  tlie  Unit; 
Church  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  sprang  from  a  thought  suggested  b; 
a  Christmas  card.    Where  the  design  for  a  window  is  ordered  am 
paid  for  by  the  [>urchaser  of  the  ^vindow,  it  is  of  course  impr»ssiblo] 
to  secure  a  duplicate ;  but  where  a  picture  that  is  aln-ady  comnioi 
property  is  reproduced,  the  work  may  be  several  timeji  re])oated. 
Thus  "  The  Good  Shepherd,"  a  very  satisfactory  figure  <:»f  th< 
Christ   taken   from   the    well-known   ]iaiijting    by   Frederick   J. 
Shields,  has  beeii  repro<iuced  in  glass  thre<i  times,  aiul  nowaiiorac 
many  clmrches  in  different  parts  of  tl»e  country.    It  is  too 

fnl  a  conception  to  be  r»n»dere<l  any  less  pleasing  by  this  re] 
lion.    In  all  catii'S  the  patterns  and  other  ni»e<led  guides  are 
serviMb  i«r  that,  kIiouIiI  the  oircasion  arise,  a  picture-wind 
extHTutei]  may  be  rwulily  duplicjited.    A  window  has  ji 
'1   ftir  tlie   Buffalo  Cathtnlral,  to  take  the  placi 
.....   liestroyod  by  fire.     It  \s  a  very  close  duplicat 

ligiual  work.    But  while  the  success  in  reproducing 

ilrtvtdy  ext/iiit  \\m  Inm  very  mnrkc*l,  .-t 

iv*nI   from    modern   pictures  dcjiiigneil   <  i  _   _      _ 
iu  tfla«ti.    Mauy  of  tlieso  are  exceedinirlv  buuutifal.  and 


-jifAimr&. 


a7 


the  bought  of  some  of  the  best  artists  of  the  modem  American 

LOOL 

The  enlargement  of  the  colored  sketch  to  natural  size  is  accom- 
plished by  women  artists,  who  work  standing  before  large  sheets 
of  heavy  brown  paper  tacked  against  the  walla  of  the  studio. 
While  this  mode  of  procedure  would  in  any  case  be  necessit-uted  by 
the  Uirge  size  of  the  cartoons,  it  has  the  indejjendent  value  of  per- 


i/ry, 


M'^ 


Is    TUK    Dr.I'MMATI.HU'Ruul 


TtlKAnnu   TKK    I.CAl'P. 


mitting  the  progress  of  the  work  to  be  checked  at  all  stages  by 
loug-rango  scrutiny.  As  much  of  the  enlargement  as  possible  is 
done  raechanicallyp  but  at  best  there  remains  much  free-hand 
work  rcfiuiring  g(jnnine  artistic  feeling.  Indeed,  throughout  the 
entire  process,  ti-ue  artists  are  needed  in  the  most  mwhanirul  por- 
tions to  make  the  success  of  the  adventure  complete.  When  the 
enlargement  is  finished,  the  cartoon  is  divided  up  by  heavy  black 
linMH  so  dispf>sed  as  to  represent  the  doubly  >^rooved  lead  needed 
to  hold  the  fragments  of  colored  glass  together.  Sketch  and  car- 
toon are  now  taken  to  the  glass  store-room^  and  appropriate  glass 
frrr  the  window  is  select^ni  and  laid  aside.  If  suitable  material  is 
not  found  iu  stock,  it  is  ordered  in  such  quantity  that  the  discov- 
ery of  right  effects  may  reasonably  be  expected.  As  the  accidental 
clement,  in  spite  of  all  the  skill  on  the  part  of  the  glass-worker,  is 
nocwsaril}'' large,  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  ton  <»f  glass  must 
h&  !5t»Arched  over  to  find  a  few  pounds  of  just  the  right  sort.  In 
some  ca5w»s  sevenil  months  pjiss  before  appropriate  material  con 
be  selected. 


tS 


TUIE  POPITLAR   SCIE^TVE  MONTHLY. 


Tht  search  for  material  ended,  the  work  of  conntruction  may' 
begin.    Two  duplicate  copies  of  tho  ciirtoon  are  first  made.     One 
operation  suflices  to  accomplish  this.    The  cartoon  is  laid  on  9^\ 
large  table,  an<i  beneath  it  are  two  sheets  of  similar  paper  and  two 
sheets  of  ordinary  black  transfer  paper  arranged  aiti'rnately.     By 
parsing  a  small  revolving  wheel  over  the  outlines  of  tlie  cartoi^u, 
the  tracings  are  quickly  and  accurately  made.    Each  s})acHt  iw  then 
nnniberetl  correspondingly  on  l>oth  tratrings,  and  one  of  them  is 
cut  up  to  make  patterns  for  the  glass-cutter.    An  ingenious  <li»-, 
secting  instrument  is  used  for  this  purpose.     It  connists  of  a  pair 
of  double-odgeti  shears,  which,  in  cutting,  removes  a  Btriji  of  paperj 
just  the  width  of  the  lead  which  will  separate  the  fragments  of] 
gla^s  when  they  are  finally  bound  together.     In  this  way  each 
pattern  is  protnsely  the  size  required.    When  the  glass  is  ready  to] 
bo  put  together  in  the  window,  there  is  veiy  little  coaxing  to 
done  to  get  it  into  place. 

The  picture-window  has  now  reached  the  most  critical  stage  in| 
its  development.    The  pajwr  patterns  are  to  find  suitable  couuter- 
parts  in  glass,  and  upon  the  nicety  with  whidi  tliis  substitution 
accomplished  depends  the  effect  of  the  entire  work.     Nothing  w 
left  undone  that  will  assist  the  glass-cutter  in  forming  correct] 
color-judgments.     Throughout  the  entire  process,  and  here  par-' 
ticulnrly,  the  work  progresses  under  precusely  those  conditions 
that  are  be«t  calculated  to  make  .surprises  nnd  incongruities  im- 
}>ossible  when  the  whole  shall  be  completed.     A  slieet  of  plain 
glass,  the  size  of  the  cartoon,  is  laid  over  the  undissected  tracing. 
Outlines  of  the  intended  lead  hands  are  then  paint-ed  on  the  clear- 
glass  in  black  lines  of  corresponding  width.    On  the  model  thaal 
preparwl  the  paper  patterns  are  stiick  by  means  of  a  little  wax.! 
It  is  now  rea<Iy  to  be  taken  to  the  figure-nM>m,  where  it  is  placed 
directly  in  front  of  h  large  window,  and  the  slow  work  of  snl)sti- 
tuting  colored  glass  for  paper  begins.    The  position  in  which  tbdj 
completed  windoAV  is  to  be  placed  must  constantly  be  borne  in 
mind,  and  the  treatment  adopted  l»e  made  t^  cimform  ti-)  the  re- 
quirements of  light  and  neighborhood.    A  window  that  will  be 
effective  when  seen  against  a  clear  northern  sky  will  probably  bej 
somewhat  dull  if  turned  to  some  other  {Hjint  of  the  compass  and 
Been  against  a  dark  Uickground  of  brick  walls  and  shatlows.  while 
a  window  that  would  be  a  delight  under  these  more  somber  con- 
ditiuiLS  would  be  insupportably  glaring  against  the  stronger  ligliLi 

^naideration  must  also  l>e  paid  to  whether  the  window  is  to  be| 

m  commonly  at  long  or  short  range,  and  to  tliM  irt.nt'Mil  co] 

tone  of  neighboring  windows  and  walls. 

pi.    .    •  ,    :• 


repfwted  trials  until  just  the  right  effect  is  secured.    When 


OLASS-MAICmG, 

Lt  has  been  selected  and  sha|>ed.  it  i»  also  held  to  the  sheet 
of  clear  xlass  by  m*^ans  of  a  littltj  wax,  and  another  paper  putttirn 
is  removed,  to  be  similarly  replactnl  by  glaas.  In  this  manner  the 
removal  and  replm^ment  g:,o  on  step  by  step  until  the  entire  work 
is  done,  MPhe  colored  sketch  and  the  enlarged  cartoon  are  always 
kept  in  sight,  so  that  the  spirit  of  the  picture  may  be  realized  as 
completely  as  possible.  The  workmen  who  thus  select  and  cut  the 
glass  have  acquired  a  surprising  skill  in  adapting  its  accidental 
variations  to  the  needed  expression  of  the  thought.  In  many  causes 
they  entered  the  studio  as  boys,  and  have  been  slowly  trained  to 
fH^rform  this  diflicult  work  with  much  nicety  of  judgment.  In 
mosaic  glass  of  purely  geometrical  design,  the  requirements  of 


t^LiiKJuaa  Jonm  or  L&ao  Limm. 


color  harmony  alone  need  attention;  but  in  the  picture-window, 
in  addition  to  this,  a  very  appreciative  eye  is  needed  to  seize  upon 
just  the  right  c(»mbinations  to  bring  out  the  dra|)eries  and  the 
background  and  the  sky.  It  is  frequently  im|)ossible  to  secure 
the  detiired  effect  with  one  thickness  of  glass,  and  the  custom  of 
doubling  the  glass  is  becoming  more  prevalent  each  j'ear.  This 
practice  gives  both  better  drawing  and  deeper  color.  In  the 
mAtter  of  draperies,  particularly,  the  method  leavt«  little  to  bo 
decnrfid.  In  the  win<low  representing  "  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity," 
the  draperies  of  the  thret^  figures  were  executed  in  white  o}>aliiscent 
gla^ss,  and  the  dainty  sha<i«\M  desire<l — pale  green,  pink,  and  yellow 
— secured  by  placing  back  of  this,  fragments  of  plain  glass  of  the 


1<5 


THE  POPVZAR  SCIENCE  MONTFTL 


proper  color.    The  effect  could  scarcely  have  been  more  delicate, 
yet  the  color  tonus  werp  full  and  strung. 

In  anotlier  window,  the  design  of  Mr.  Will  H.  Low,  the  dra- 
peries of  a  seated  figure  were  executed  in  a  vivid  blue.  The  sketch 
called  for  a  rich  purple,  and  any  one  passing  through  the  studio' 
at  this  stage  of  progress  would  have  been  inclined  to  resent  the 
seeming  liberties  t^aken  by  the  workmen.  The  artist's  intentions 
evidently  were  only  half  carried  out.  But,  while  one  stands  pon- 
dering over  the  excessive  amount  of  assurance  possessed  by  people 
I  if  a  certain  class,  one  of  their  number  has  quietly  slipped  a  ])iece 
of  ruby  glass  back  of  the  draperies,  and  at  once  the  ^i\'id  blue 
vanishes  to  give  place  to  a  magiiitieent  puq)le  as  much  finer  than 
the  artist's  paper-color  as  the  sunshine  is  better  than  gas-light. 

In  this  plan  of  doubling  the  glass  the  colorist  has  in  his  ik>8- 
session  a  device  of  immense  eiTectiveness.    The  entire  color  toni 
of  a  window  can  readily  be  changed,  even  after  it  is  completed' 
and  in  place. 

When  the  window  is  well  under  way,  the  preparation  of  the; 
flosh  portions  of  the  picture  begins.    These  are  cut  from  white! 
opalescent  glass,  and  must  be  painted  with  no  inconsiderable  skill. 
In  the  early  days  of  mosjiic  glass  the  painting  was  done  almost  in 
monochi'orae^a  light  reddish  brown  being  a  favorite  tint.    It  had^l 
however,  the  disadvantage  of  giving  a  statue-like  sameness  to  all 
the  figures.    Had  the  taste  continued,  our  windows  would  have 
become  an  assemblage  of  rather  monotonous  blonde  typos.     But 
to-day  there  is  gi-eat  variety  in  this  respect,  and  the  painting  of 
the  fai^e  and  other  exy)osed  portions  of  the  figure  is  made  to  con- 
form v»*ry  strictly  to  the  chariu^U»r  of  tlie  whole  picture.    In  ecclo- 
siiistical  designs  done  in  medisevol  style,  the  painting  is  executed 
in  a  pinkish-brown  monochrome  on  transparent  antique  glaaa. 
The  etTe<;t  is  so  very  Elizal)ethan  that  il   is  hard  to  bt^lieve  the 
work  a  modem  product,  unless  one  has  seen  it  in  pnxiess  of  ev< 
lutiou.     For  the  saints  and  Madonnas  of  the  early  masters,  the^ 
high  cheek-boui*  and  other  characteristics  of  fnature  an^  repi-o- 
duced  with  remarkable  fid»*lity.     But,  while  these  products  ar9l 
highly  interesting,  they  are  in  point  of  beauty  far  ercoUed  by| 
motiern  types.    To  the  production  of  these  nearly  the  whole  rangej 
of  mineral  paint  luu^  contributed.     (;>no  of  the  finest  examples  of 
the  modern  sc1hx»1  of  painting  or»  glass  is  to  be  found  in  the  facol 
of  "  The  Good  Shepherd."  in  which  ne^irly  every  possible  color  hasi 
^  •  distance  ont*  is  not  conscious  of  any  particular 

<         .  tt'ted  by  the  intense  life  and  love  shown  in 

f;ici%    Riither  bold  expedients  are  often  employed  to  secure 


green  borvkrins  b<»th  eyelids. 


GLASS-MAKING. 


3» 


[  The  manner  of  painting  the  flesh  portions  is  not  without  inter- 
test.  The  pieces  of  opalescent  glass  are  mount43d  in  rough  frames 
mefort*  a  window,  and  nearly  all  other  light  is  cut  off.  In  this  way 
[tliH  artist  can  eee  his  work  under  precisely  the  same  conditions 
fthttt  will  prevail  when  the  window  is  put  in  place,  and  he  can  paint 
[t<j  corre??ix>udinKly  Rood  advantage.  The  colors  are  put  on  rather 
[heavy  to  allow  for  firing,  and  for  the  distance  at  wliich  the  faces 
krill  commonly  be  8e«»n.  In  many  cases  the  paint  is  put  on  solidly, 
and  is  then  picked  off  vnih  a  sharp  instrument,  giving  much  the 
effect  of  an  etching.  It  looks  a  little  eerie,  on  going  into  such  a 
[jstudio,  to  see  a  gn>iip  of  heads  and  handstand  other  severed  mem- 
bers of  the  anatomy  staring  at  one  in  luminous  characters.  The 
|»ainting  must  !)e  done  in  inst-alluients,  as  it  is  necessary  to  fire  the 
L^dass  from  two  to  four  times.  Each  firing  rtH(uiros  about  an  hour 
mnd  u  half,  and  six  hours  more  for  the  kiln  to  cool  down.  Before 
[the  liwjt  firing  the  flesh  portions  are  tuken  to  the  figure-room  and 
[ifiven  pltfcce  iu  the  otherwise  eompleteti  i>icture.  In  this  way  the 
[artist  can  judge  of  the  final  colors  needed  to  bring  them  into  per- 
[fect  harmony  with  the  general  color  tone  of  the  picture. 

It  is  by  the  expenditure  of  such  care  and  labor  that  the  soul 
wind  body  of  our  i>icture- window  are  brought  together;  but,  before 
the  union  is  ma^le  permanent,  the  window  undergoes  a  searching 
Iftrt  scrutiny,  and  any  changes  are  suggested  that  would  add  to  its 
tljeauty  ami  harmony.  In  some  cases  all  the  combinations  have 
[proved  so  fortunate  that  very  few  changes  are  needed ;  but  the 
Praae  is  not  always  so  easily  disjKised  of.  It  happens  at  times  that 
rjKjrtions  of  the  glass  must  be  recut  several  times  before  the  de- 
i«in>d  effect  is  secured  ;  or,  even  after  the  inndow  is  completed,  the 
discovery  is  sometimes  made  that  a  different  background  would 
.Jufcve  been  more  effective  in  bringing  out  the  figure.  Such  was 
Itho  case  in  a  Jeanne  d*Arc  window  designed  by  Mr.  Frank  D. 
piillet.  The  substitution  of  a  light  for  a  dark  sky  brought  the 
fiigure  into  much  finer  relief. 

When,  finally,  the  effect  is  considered  satisfactory,  the  frag- 
nnentB  of  colored  glass  ai'e  removed  one  by  one  from  the  sheet  of 
icle^r  glass,  a7id  are  skillfully  bound  together  by  means  of  strips 
p>f  doubly  grooved  lead.  This  requires  some  very  nice  soldering. 
rWlien  it  is  complete<l  the  lead  is  tinned  in  order  to  protect  it  from 
[the  atniosphert!.  The  sptu^es  betwcf-n  the  glass  and  the  lead  are 
khen  filled  with  a  composition  of  putty  and  lead,  which  Bets  very 
TJgidly,  and  serves  tlie  double  purpose  of  making  the  window  per- 
tfectly  water-tight  and  of  jireventing  any  looseness  on  the  part  of 
ithe  fragments  of  glass.  Tltere  remains  only  the  provision  of  a 
l^bng,  iron-l)Ound  frame,  and  the  picture-window,  after  a  devel- 
PPhent  covering  many  months,  is  ready  to  be  jmt  in  place.  The 
pnaterialB  for  its  manufacture  have  been  gathered  from  many 


THE  CONVICT-JSLAND    OF  BJiAZIL. 


35 


and  the  skill  of  many  hands  and  brains  has  unit^  to 
>riug  them  into  suitable  community.    The  functions  of  artist  and 
irtisan  have  been  fxiIlilletL    Now  they  give  place  to  the  oflice  of 
le  critic. 

The  result  of  this  co-operative  labor  is  much  more  than  mere 

[ecoration.     It  is  a  work  of  art  whose  capacity  for  deep  and  bean- 

iful  expression  we  ore  only  beginning  to  realize.    Standing  before 

ich  a  picture-window,  one  feels  anew  the  spiritual  element  in  all 

•auty.    The  thought  that  has  fastened  itself  to  a  sunbeam  seems 

singtdarly  alive  and  pervasive. 

To  one  who  is  familiar  only  with  the  chromatic  efforts  of  the 

glass  sinners  "  tliis  praise  may  seem  extravagant ;  but,  as  we  love 

►ainting  in  spite  of  some  pretty  poor  chromos,  and  statuary  in 

le  face  of  popular  domestic  groups  turned  out  by  the  gross,  so  is 

jx>s3ibIo  to  warmly  admire  the  window  of  real  merit  while  we 

[eplore  its  imhappy  imitator.    At  its  best  one  can  imagine  few 

objects  more  beautifuL    The  varying  light  and  the  purity  of  color 

art  work  of  this  character  are  a  source  of  lively  pleasure.    They 

to  a  sentiment  which,  when  present  at  all,  is  apt  to  be  a 

inant  one.    Those  wlio  entertain  it  turn  away  regretfully  from 

beautiful  and  so  luminous  a  picture. 


-***- 


THE  CONVICT-ISLAND  OF  BRAZIL— FERNANDO  DE 

NORONHA. 

Bt  JOHN  C.  BRANNEE,  Ph.  D. 

*HE  island  of  Fernando  de  Noronha*  is  in  the  South  Atlantic 

Ocean,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  south  of  the  equator, 

kbout  two  hundred  miles  northeast  of  Cape  St.  Roque,  and  near 

the  track  of  vessels  plying  between  European  ports  and  those  of 

louih  Amirricii  lying  south  of  the  cape.    It  belongs  to  Brazil,  and 

i;i8  long  been  used  by  that  Government  for  a  penal  colony.    In 

I87«,when  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Geological  Survey  of  Brazil, 

visited  tliifl  island  for  the  purpose  of  studyincf  its  natural  history 

kml  -c  it.    It  was  no  part  of  my  official  duty  to  criticise  the 

..>...».i(in  of  the  aflFairs  of  tlie  island  as  a  prison,  yet  it  was 

lut  Dutural  tliat  I  should  take  a  deep  interest  in  this  administra- 

t  nld  inform  myself,  whenever  occasion  offered,  regard- 

ii-„  —  ....Luuds  employed  in  dealing  with  a  class  of  persons  so 

DflW  to  me.     The  commandant  and  other  officers  spoke  freely 

henever  they  addressed  me  in  regard  to  administrative  meas- 


Tbe  noiM  is  kIbo  crrtmeouslj  written— Fcriuju  dc  Lorocltii,  Fcrnlo  tie  NoronhA,  Fer^ 
^onmbft,  Fcrdinftado  tiorooha,  Fcnuod  de  la  Kugne,  clc 


H 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


ures,  wliile  from  the  prisoners  themselves  I  learned  much  of 
operation  and  results  of  these  measures. 

It  will  throw  some  light  upon  the  character  of  the  inhahitani 
of  Fernando  de  Noronha  to  know  how  crime  is  looked  upon 
the  common  people  in  Brazil,  and  I  can  not  better  show  this  thaj 
by  relating  a  bit  of  j.»er9onal  experience. 

I  had  the  misfortune  at  one  time  to  wound  a  Brazilian  laborei 
— in  his  di^fnity.  Ho  thereupon  threatened  to  take  uiy  life,  an* 
was  by  no  means  careful  to  keep  his  resolutions  to  himself. 
the  carrying  out  of  such  a  determination  upon  his  part  woult 
have  caused  me  much  inconvenience,  I  called  upon  him  in  persoi 
with  the  purpose,  if  possible,  of  dissuading  him.  1  found  tlint 
did  not  look  upon  the  condition  of  a  criminal  with  dread  at  all 
He  told  me  frankly  that,  if  he  should  succeed  in  carrying  out 
designs,  he  knew  perfectly  well  what  hia  career  would  ba  " 
present/* said  he,  '*  I  am  obliged  to  work  for  a  living;  if  I  am  seni 
to  jail,  my  living  ^vill  be  furnished  me,  and  1  shall  have  nothing 
do.  If  you  are  dead,  there  will  be  no  one  to  appear  against  me 
the  courts  as  my  accuser,  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  less  I  shall 
"be  set  free,  well  rested,  and  with  the  reputation  in  the  comnn 
of  being  a  man  of  courage/* 

In  this  case  I  saw  to  it  that  he  had  the  opportunity  of  enjo; 
the  coveted  otium  cum  dignifale  in  jail  without  having  to  commil 
a  crime.  But  in  a  country  where  wrong-doing  sets  so  lightly  upoi 
the  conscience,  and  where  it  so  frequently  goes  altogether  unpun- 
ished, the  criminal  class  is  large,  as  we  should  expect,  thougl 
through  a  lax  administration  of  the  laws  but  a  small  part  of 
ever  roaches  Fernando.  I  refer  to  this  phase  of  the  subject 
cause,  In  order  to  understand  the  class  of  people  inhabiting  I 
nando  de  Noronha,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  sou: 
of  supply. 

The  convict-island  is  visited  once  a  month  by  a  small  steamer 
from  Pemambuco.     On  one  of  the  vessels  I  took  pnssage,  fui 
nished  with  the  usual  and  indispensable  official  letters  of  iuti 
duction  from  the  President  of  the  Province  of  Pemambuco ; 
after  a  voyage  of  two  and  a  half  days,  anchored  in  front  of  th^ 
village  in  which  the  commandant  or  governor  of  the  island  liv< 
Arrived  at  the  anchoring-ground — for  there  is  no  wharf  or  piei 
and  no  small  l^oats  are  allowed  on  the  island— I  could  see  ^tv  - 
boach  about  seventy-five  half-naked  men  tugging  at  a  hu  , 
Mtoried  raft,  trying  to  get  it  int<3  the  water.      When  thi» 
launched,  a  large  cable  was  secured  on  shore,  and  the  groat 
was  paddled  slowly  in  our  direction,  telling  out  the  cab] 
lid  of  which  was  (inally  made  fast  tct  the  stonmer. 
]>eTfional  baggage,  five  or  six  newly  arrived  convict*^ 
fhoir  guards,  and  myself  and  servant,  were  placed  on  tho  U] 


TEE  CONVICT-ISLAND   OF  BRAZIL, 


35 


story  of  this  peculiar  craft,  and  it  was  then  drawn  in  near  the 
shore  hy  means  of  the  cable.  When  we  struck  bottom  1  was^ 
taken  ou  the  wet,  slippery,  naked  back  of  a  convict,  who  waded' 
aahore  and  deposited  me  on  the  dry  beach.  Everybody  and  every- 
thing landed  from  the  raft,  I  was  escorted  by  a  man  who  took 
me  in  charge,  and  whom  I  afterward  found  to  be  a  convict  directed 
by  the  commandant  to  look  after  all  persons  and  all  things  laud- 
ing, and  escorted  up  the  very  sleep  hill,  through  the  well-pavcHl 
streets  of  the  village,  to  the  house  of  the  commandant,  closely  fol- 
lowed by  the  newly  arrived  cx>nvicts  under  guard. 

The  nummandant  I  found  to  be  a  very  aged  man,  an  officer  in 
the  regular  Brazilian  army.  His  thin  gray  hair  was  cut  close  to 
his  angular  head,  and  his  mustache  was  white  with  age  and  yellow 
with  tobacco-smoke.  He  received  me  indifferently  for  a  Brazil- 
ian, for,  though  he  placed  the  island  itself  and  everything  and 
everybody  on  it  at  my  orders,  in  true  Brazilian  style,  I  could  see 
that  there  was  a  coolness  beneath  his  politeness.  I  afterward 
found  that  this  was  due  to  a  suspicion  that  I  had  been  sent  hero 
by  the  Government  upon  some  secret  mission.  This  impression 
removed,  he  became  heartily  kind  to  me,  and  did  all  in  his  power 
to  aid  me  in  my  work.  Ho  gave  me  a  room  in  the  official  resi- 
dence, the  seat  of  honor  at  his  bountifuUy  served  table,  and  a 
motley  crew  of  convicts  for  servants,  while  the  slender  resources 
of  the  island  were  in  reality  placed  at  my  disposaL 

At  the  house  of  the  commandant  certiiin  ones  of  the  convicts 
were  admitted  freely  and  treated  with  more  or  less  indulgence. 
The  chief  amusement  of  the  othcers  of  the  garrison  and  their 
^  wives  was  to  assemble  duriug  the  evening  around  the  big  table 
■in  the  reception-room  in  the  official  residence,  and  there  to  play 
Hjdna  On  such  occasions  (and  this  game  was  played  every  evon- 
Ving  during  my  stay  save  two)  there  were  from  one  to  five  privi- 
k^^  convicts  standing  about  the  room  as  lookers-on,  and  some  of 
them  were  even  invited  t^  take,  and  did  take,  part  in  the  game. 
At  meal-time  they  frequently  dropped  into  the  dining-room,  and 
gently  encouraged  the  old  governor  to  scold  them  while  at  his 
meal*  Some  of  them,  being  ready  conversationalists,  were  permit- 
tod  to  talk  freely,  and  were  even  asked,  before  the  meal  was  over, 
to  t*ike  places  at  the  great  dining-tnble;  and,  though  they  always 
sat  below  the  wine,  were  generally  given  some  sweetmeats  or  a 
cup  of  coffee  at  the  end  of  the  meal. 

the  convicts  thus  specially  privileged  about  the  house 

1,  handsome  Italian,  apparently  a  man  of  education.    He 

poke,  besides  his  native  language,  Spanish, German,  some  English, 

"  <'tly.     I  askcKl  his  story  of  the  son  of 
>'ld  me  the  personal  history  of  many 
icfld  men,  and  le^truod  that  he  had  killed  live  persons  in  lesfti 


TBS  POPULAR  SCIBITCS  MOXTHZT, 

thAn  five  minutes,  inclnding  the  young  lawly  to  whom  ho  was 

because  she  had  followe<i  the  advice  of  her  father  and 
loCher,  and  had  broken  off  the  match  upon  the  morning  of  thej 
day  on  which  they  were  to  be  married.    As  the  narrator  ended 
the  Htory,  which  was  told  in  all  its  dreadful  details,  he  remarked^ 
**  And  SQ  you  see  he  was  almost  justified." 

This  instance,  which  is  simply  an  example  out  of  a  great  many] 
a  more  or  less  similar  nature,  is  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  | 
lufitrating  one  of  the  most  deplorable  facts  connected  with  the 
[ministration  of  the  affairs  of  the  island — that  is,  the  inevitable 
luence  upon  its  inhabitants  of  familiarity  with  crime.     Thisi 
roung  man,  neither  a  criminal  nor  an  executive  oftieer,  had  come,i 
constant  contact  with  criminals,  to  look  upon  crime  with  pity 
some  cases,  and  with  actual  approval  in  others. 
It  is  not  my  purpose  to  repent  here  in  detail  the  stories  of  the' 
ivps  of  these  people,  for  those  stories  are  sensational  to  the  last 
sgree,  and  shotild  be  looked  upon  simply  as  so  many  facts  in  a| 
social  study.     But,  while  some  of  the  convicts  were  indulged, 
Llicrs  were  treated  with  unnecessary  severity,  which  nirrgod  into 
lelty.    This  unequal  justice,  or  rather  the  disproportionate  pun* 
•nt  meted  out  to  offenders,  and  over  which  the  oflScers  in 
•ge  had  full  jurisdiction,  was,  in  itself,  demoralizing  to  the 
sat  body  of  convicts,  and  held  out  no  hope  or  encouragement  to 
any  one  to  be  anjrthing  short  of  the  most  abandoned  criminaL    No 
effort  was  made  to  fit  the  punishment  to  the  crime.    Flogging  was 
the  one  reme/iy  for  everything,  and,  as  it  always  took  place  in  the 
presence  of  the  assembled  prisoners,  this  became  a  new  element  of 
legradation  to  the  entire  community.    A  convict  having  stolen  a 
pig,  was  sent  for  and  floggcMi.    The  very  next  morning  the  com- 
manrlant  was  culled  to  tlie  front  door,  and  there  on  the  veranrla 
stood  a  man  horribly  mangled  by  an  assassin,    **  What  lien's  ull 
this  mean  ?  "  said  the  commandant.    "  Fnlano  has  killed  me,"  aoid 
the  convict.   "  Away  with  you  to  the  hospital '' ;  and,  turning  to  an 
officer,  he  continued,  "and  bring  Fulauo  here  to  me."   And  Fulano 
was  brought  and  flogged.*    The  influence  of  such  a  system  of 
t:     'it  upon  the  less  depraved  classes  of  criminals  may  readily 
,1j-  \\^\. 


*  I  usidertook  to  witaew  «  flogf^nj;  once,  bat,  as  I  did  not  get  through  il  with  credit  to 
If,  the  lens  wit]  of  that  occwion  tb«  better.    I  was  infomii'iJ  by  one  of  lUc  ofBcora  lk»t, 
-•efrloftp  Itcfor^,  tjtii?  ooniria  bad  bc<?D  fO  severely  floggwl  that  hi'  hail  died  of  hla  (fij.irir*, 
^  ■"?  fopte  it  b  latcn^sdof  to  read  ardctc  179.  sf*Ttir'ii  10,  '■' 

*  .1.    iL  Lo  oj  follows:  "From  thi^  time  forth  flft:viTi!:  li^ri 

tad  ail  other  cntel  puiusbnifmlM  afo  ivtKillalied.**    ll  should  be  a<! 

dnce  mv  riMi  ta  Fomaodo  de  Nnrooha,  the  Minister  of  Jufidcu 'i:    ;  ,  — ., 

[C-  t  corporal  frunisbmcot  of  tho  ronrictd  slivald  cca»i% 

..,.,.. ^„- —The"  ProMcdinqs  of  iUr  Royal  <ieoffraphlcjiI  Sodoej-*" '—  ■■•^'-  *=* 
tahkt  aa  arUolc  apoo  Pvraaado  U/  a  {^tluiuao  nUu  vUllad  tliat  {rlaoc  i  m 


THS  COirVTCT'ISLAND  OF  BRAZIL, 


37 


The  amusetnents  of  the  inhabitants  were  cock-fighting  and 
kino.  I  suggested  to  the  commandant  that  cock-fighting  was  a 
degrading  pastime  for  his  prothjes  ( I  did  not  mention  kino, 
because  that  was  the  favorite  amusement  in  his  own  house). 
His  reply  was  :  "  I  know  it  isn't  go<jd ;  hut  then —  " 

Often  in  private  conversation  these  men  would  discourse  to  me 
upon  the  moral  and  social  condition  of  their  companions.  On 
such  occasions  I  frec|nently  heard  such  expressions  as  these :  '*  You 
must  look  out  for  Fulano,"  "  Some  people  have  no  consciences." 
"Tlie  Lord  deliver  us  from  a  con^•ictI"  '*  These  convicts  are  a 
set.  I  tell  you  I " 

Society  was  as  varied  among  these  men  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
Vorld.  There  were  all  classes  and  grades,  though  they  all  met  on 
the  common  level  of  crime.  Social  distinctions  among  them  were 
based  upon  money  first,  and  second,  other  things  being  equal,  upon 
the  nature  of  the  crime  committed,  certain  crimes  being  regarded 
as  indicative  of  courageous  manhood. 

While  about  my  work  one  day,  my  attention  was  attracted  by 
a  young  man  who  was  posing  near  by  and  disdainfully  watching 
me.  Ho  was  not  more  than  twenty  years  of  age,  good-looking, 
and  well  dressed.  A  tine  felt  hat  sat  jauntily  uiK>n  the  side  of  his 
head,  and  he  wore  a  blue  cloak,  the  bright  red  lining  of  which  he 
[displayed  to  good  advantage  by  tossing  it  back  over  his  shoulder. 

^w  that  he  was  a  type,  drew  him  into  conversation,  and  finally 

ced  him  for  what  he  was  sent  to  Fernando,  Bridling  up  and 
throwing  back  his  shoulders,  he  struck  his  left  breast  with  his 
right  hand  closed,  as  if  upon  a  dagger,  and  exclaimed  proudly, 
"  Mor-r-rte  I  "  (murder). 

Many  of  the  prisoners  were  known  among  themselves  by  what 
|6eeme*l  to  be  very  odd  names,  and  I  learned  that  they  were  nick- 
'nameit  taken  from  some  circumstance  connected  with  the  crimes 
they  were  expiating.  Sometimes  there  was  a  ghastly  sort  of 
humor  alK:)ut  these  names.  One,  who  had  murdered  a  priest,  waa 
called **OPa(/rf,"  the  priest;  another,  who  had  murdered  a  maa 
for  hiu  money  and  had  found  but  half  a  paiaca  ujK>n  him,  was 
called  **  Meia  Pafaca,"  half  a  pataca,  about  sixteen  cents ;  another, 
for  a  similar  reason,  was  called  **Qtiairo  Vintens"  four  cents. 

These  are  simply  instances  of  how  the  minds  of  these  people 
dwelt  constantly  upon  crime,  how  they  admired  crime,  and  conse- 


U  there  spoken  of  M  "  almost  unique  in  !ta  excellence,"  and  a  oonTict  of  serontc«n 
t>taii'ling  is  called  '*  our  dear  old  gtuJe.'*  The  j^at  number  of  verbal  erron  in  tho 
srtfrlo  l(*a'l  one  to  conclude  tUnt  its  autlior  knows  little  or  nothing  of  the  Portuguese  Ian- 
gua^,  witliowl  the  Paay  command  of  which  he  could  get  no  clear  insight  into  the  working 
L4(f  the  convict  uratem.  H*t  «>tatei!  aIf>o  that  one  of  the  priMncrs  waa  flogged  during  hbi 
fUlt.  Flogging  cqotinuQit,  Ihurvfore,  In  epitc  of  the  order  of  the  Uiniiter  of  Justio»; 
ta  187V  and  rcfcrrDd  to  a)>ore. 


38 


THE  POPULAR  SCTEKCS  MOITTniT, 


qttently  gravitated  toward  it.  About  their  work  in  shop  or  field, 
the  daily  bread  of  their  niinds  was  to  think  and  talk  of  crime  m\ 
every  ahai)e  that  diseased  minds  and  perverted  natui-es  can  con- 
jure it  up.  One  would  entertain  his  companions  by  detailiniy 
them  the  story  of  some  crime  committed  by  himself,  or  of  which] 
ho  had  knowledge,  while  every  one  liHtened  attentively,  like  soj 
many  experts.  The  story  ended,  criticism  l)egan.  and  each  om 
would  indicate  what  he  considered  the  weak  points  in  the  plan 
and  its  execution,  and  would  suggest  improvements  here  and  there., 
One  story  always  led  to  another,  and,  as  might  bo  expected,  minds] 
accustomed  to  this  highly  seasoned  food  soon  rejected  all  other. 

The  total  population  of  the  islaud  at  the  time  of  my  visit  wj 
tj,50:i»  abont  seven  hundred  of  whom  were  not  criminals^  but  iboj 
wives  and  children  of  convicts  who  were,  by  necessity  or  choicej 
accompanying  husbands  or  parents  in  their  exile  and  imprison*] 
ment.     As  already  stated,  the  great  majointy  of  the  convicts  had 
been  stiut  hero  for  murder,  and  belonged  to  a  low,  brutal  type  of  j 
men.    The  general  tendency  of  this  intermingling  of  the  innocent 
with  the  criminal,  and  of  the  less  depraved  of  the  convicts  with 
the  worst,  is  to  reduce  all  to  a  common  level,  and  that  level  the 
lowest. 

In  the  ordiiiary  experience  of  life  a  man  seldom  or  never  sinks 
BO  low  that  there  is  no  hope  for  him,  hope  both  subjective  and  ob- 
jective, but  of  the  worst  of  these  convicts  this  is  not  true.  The  only 
priest  of  the  island,  after  years  of  labor,  went  through  his  sacrod 
duties  in  a  perfunctory  manner,  for,  as  he  gave  me  to  understand, 
ho  had  long  since  come  to  realize  that  the  seed  he  sowed  fell  into 
the  fire.  Speaking  to  him  one  day  regarding  the  peculiar  charm 
of  the  place,  he  replied:  "Ah  me!  I  can't  see  these  things  now, 
for  though  it  is.  externally,  all  that  you  see  and  say  of  it,  this 
quiet,  this  s*>clusion,  this  beautiful  and  bountiful  nature  aro 
tume<i  by  man  into  a  stifling,  suffocating  hole — a  stench  in  the 
nostrils  of  Gtxl." 

But  fortunately  the  attractiveness,  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
nature  as  seen  in  the  delightful  landscapes,  the  tropical  vegetation, 
the  peculiar  fauna  and  flora,  the  majesty  of  the  ocean,  the  violeni-o 
of  the  tempests,  the  charming  caprice  of  clouds  and  sunshine,  pro- 
vent  one  from  broo<iing  too  long  over  these  dark  pictures  of  hu- 
man depravity,  while  the  convicts  themselves  not  infrequently 
come  like  quaint  figures  in  the  foregrounds  of  beautiful  picturos. 
But  to  see  this  beauty  one  must  look  through  the  eyos  of  a  lover 
of  nature. 

For  the  true-hearted  naturalist  there  is  no  such  thing  a 
*    '     '    Mo  those  who  see  but  little  or 
>■  .  ^le  ii3  landscA|>es,  in  forostn  ; 

ofaoYo  all  to  the  iguoniut,  Ftiruaudo  de  ^ 


THE  COyVJCT-ISLAITD    OF  BRAZIL. 


39 


a  lonely,  desolate,  and  forbidding  place,  A  phrase  in  common  use 
among  the  iuliabitanta  of  that  island  expresses  better  than  any- 
thing else  could  tho  general  feeling  of  tho  prisoners  iu  regard  to 
their  isolation  and  separation  from  all  that  is  interesting  and 
attractive  to  them  on  earth.  For  them,  and  in  their  minds,  the 
earth  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which — that  inhabited  by 
themselves — is  known  as  Fernando,  the  other  part  is  known  and 
usually  spoken  of  as  "  the  world/'  This  term  was  in  constant  use,, 
and  I  fretiuently  heard  among  them  such  expressions  as  these:' 
••  When  I  was  in  the  world,"  "  This  came  from  the  world," 

It  is  often  asked  whether  there  was  not  great  danger  in  trust- 
ing one's  self  with  men  so  many  of  whom  were  known  to  be  des- 
perate characters.  This  question  can  not  be  answered  for  every 
one  at  the  same  time,  because  whether  there  would  be  dangler 
would  depend  almost  entirely  upon  how  one  conducted  himself. 
The  commandant  was  so  solicitous  regarding  my  personal  safety, 
when  I  first  began  my  work  on  the  island,  that  he  wished  to  send 
an  escort  of  soldiers  with  me  in  order  to  secure  me  against  pos- 
sible danger,  and  it  W£is  with  difficulty  that  1  persuaded  him  to 
►w  me  to  dispense  with  such  cumbersome  attendance. 

ten  working  in  parts  of  the  island  remote  from  the  village  I 
sometimes  found  it  necessary  to  puss  the  night  in  the  huts  of  tho 
convicts.  At  such  times  I  was  never  treated  otherwise  than  with 
reBpect  by  them,  and  I  never  had  the  least  reason  to  feel  disturbed 
about  my  personal  security.  One  day,  when  alone  in  my  room  in 
the  house  of  the  commandant,  a  tall  mulatto  came  to  the  door  and 
handed  me  a  begging  letter,  written  in  very  poor  Portuguese,  In 
this  letter  he  called  himself  my  "afflicted  fellow-countryman,'' 
Addressing  him  in  English,  I  found  that  he  had  been  an  Ameri- 
can sailor,  and  was  here  for  murder.  As  he  seemed  eager  to 
be  in  my  service,  I  employed  him ;  but,  when  I  informed  the 
commandant  of  tho  arrangement,  he  endeavored  to  dissuade  me 
from  having  him  about  me.  assuring  me  that  he  was  the  most  un- 
conscionable, incorrigible  criminal  in  the  entire  settlement.  In 
spite  of  these  protests,  I  took  my  "  fellow-countryman"  with  me, 
and  for  three  days  his  services  gave  entire  satisfaction.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  he  was  discharged  for  the  only  impolitene^ 
shown  me  during  my  stay  upon  the  island. 

Abandoned  and  unscrupulous  as  so  many  of  the  convicts  were, 
I  found  them  susceptible  to  tho  ameliorating  influences  of  fair 
wages  and  reasonable  treatment — a  susceptibility  due  to  some  ex- 
it -■  "V;p3,  to  the  general  absence  of  considerate  treatment  in 
>t  lives — and  when  I  left  Fernando  some  of  those  whom 


h 


uifestod  their  good-will  toward  me  in  a  way  of 

morning  upon  which  the  ste^imer  was  to  sail 

collections  and  baggage  had  all,  as  I  thoughtj,J 


40 


rns  POPULAR  scisycs  Moyrffir. 


bo^n  placed  on  board,  "wlion,  previous  to  my  taking  leave  of  tlw 
^4)fficers  and  their  families,  I  was  called  to  the  door  by  a  visitor — 
one  of  my  convicts.     Ho  stood  barefooted  and  untxjvered,  his 
wari>od,  reddish*brown  hat  hold  in  his  left  hand  behind  hinij  hiaj 
.coarse  shirt  of  dirly  cotton  cloth  hung,  in  the  customary  f 
outside  his  coarse  trousers,  and  those  wore  rolled  half-wa} 
bare^  brown  legs.    He  laid  his  right  forearm  across  his  forehead] 
like  a  timid  child,  and  when  asked,  **  And  what  is  it,  Feliciano  ? 
lie  said  :  "  My  patron,  pardon  me,  eh  ?  but  it  is  all  I  have.    Hei 
are  some  squashes  I  have  brought  for  your  lordship  to  take  back] 
to  the  world  with  you,"  and  he  pointed  with  his  leather  hat  towan 
six  enormous  sfjuushes  that  lay  upon  the  floor  of  the  veranda,  aa< 
which  he  had  brought  during  the  night  from  a  distant  part  of  th< 
island.    My  embarrassment  may  be  realized  in  some  degree  whei 
I  say  that  I  knew  that,  excepting  only  the  clothes  he  Avore,  thi 

squaslies  were  the  sum  totixl  of  that  poor  fellow's  earthly  pos- 
Bessious.    I  knew,  too,  how  serious  an  ofiFense  it  would  be  to  decline] 
his  present,  so  there  was  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  accept  it  anc 
take  his  squashes  "  btwk  to  the  world  "  with  me.    If  tho  > 
had  ended  here,  it  would  have  caused  me  no  serious  inconvi-i 
but,  before  the  steamer  sailetl,  a  whole  wagon-load  of  squasheii  hadl 
accumulated  on  the  floor  of  the  veranda,  and  all  of  thorn  had  toj 
^te  acc^^pted  and  taken  away. 

When  the  time  for  my  embarkation  had  arrived,  the  officersj 
of  the  station  accompanied  me  to  the  beach,  where  they  bade  mo 
farewell  in  that  affectionate  and  touching  manner  so  character- 
istic of  Brazilian  gentlemen.  After  these  had  withdrawn,  there 
camo  about  me  seven  men  with  rough  clothing — what  there  was 
of  it — rough,  hard  hands,  and  hard  faces.  Thoy  stood  uncoveredj 
and,  without  speaking  a  word,  one  after  another  held  out  to  me  a 
tliick,  horuy  right  baud.  One  of  them  then  stooped  and  took  me 
on  his  back»  and,  wading  oiit  to  the  great  raft,  left  me  to  be  trana*] 
.ferred  to  th*-    ■  '*.    That  afternoon  I  saw  this  lofty,  beautifulj 

'but  sin-curst'  mdo  sink  slowly  into  the  ocean;  and  the  Itist] 

sight  I  had  of  it  was  when,  as  tlie  sun  went  down,  it  touched  wit] 
crimson  and  gold  a  cloud-banner  that  streamed  away  like  u  pea- 
it  from  the  summit  of  its  majestic  peak,* 

*  In  flew  of  wh&(  I  hftve  BftM  of  the  moral  condition  of  the  oonrtets  ooafloed  <m  tUiJ 
llanJ,  it  i«  but  jufl  that  I  should  add  that  in  the  year  folloirin!;  my  ri^it,  that  ia,  la  1877 
le  Ira[>erial  GuTenimcnt  of  Braidl  apfioiated  a  commiflsion  for  ihv  purfrtw*  tif  ctaboniting 
rtgt^wxi  for  the  country.     Tbt*  Trenldcnt  of  the  Province  of  !  '  bi:lil  out' 

t4^iUtir«  Aascinbly  of  thai  prorinee  the  hope  Uiat  Fernando  •-■.  uoultl  noil 

be  uvprtooki'd  l>y  llita  cornmisaion.     Said  b«>,  **  The  gr«vc  isoeial,  coouornic,  and  iiiumI  t|0ie9-: 
Uons  here  invoWcd  will  be  settled."     It  is  to  be  hoped,  too,  that  the  transfur  of  this  |«iia)j 
colony  from  the  Deportaiont  of  War  to  thai  of  Juitioe  will  alio  be  oooductve  CO  * 
priioB  «yit4sn. 


THE  STRANGE  MARKINGS   ON  MARS, 


^  THE  STRANGE  MARKINGS  ON  MARS.  j 

^^  Br  GARBETT  P.  SEBVISB. 

IN  the  whole  planetary  empire  of  the  sun  there  is  but  one  body, 
.  if  wo  except  the  moon,  wlioso  actual  surface  can  \ye  satisfac- 
ft<irily  examined  even  with  the  most  powerful  telescope.  The 
I  broad  disk  of  Jupiter  presents  a  most  inviting  and  splendid  sight; 
but  it  is  apparent  that  wo  are  not  looking  at  the  solid  shell  of  a 
planet,  but  at  a  vast  expanse  of  thick  clouds,  surrounding  and 
I  concealing  the  planetary  core,  and  reflecting  the  sunlight  from 
[their  shifting  surfaces.  Saturn  preaenta  a  somewhat  similar 
1  appearance,  modified  by  greater  distance.  Uranus  and  Neptune 
are  so  nearly  beyond  the  present  reach  of  telescopes,  so  far  as 
[the  phenomena  of  their  disks  are  concerned,  that  we  know  almost 
nothing  of  their  surface  appearances.  Some  observations  of  Ura- 
nus, however,  indicate  that  it  presents  the  same  equatorial  paral- 
lelism of  exterior  markings  that  characterizes  Jupiter  and  Saturn ; 
»nd  so  we  may  infer  that  what  we  faintly  discern  on  its  disk  are 
the  outlines  of  cloud-masses,  enveloping  the  planet,  and  drawn 
lout  by  the  effects  of  its  rotation  into  belts  and  streaks.  Coming 
|to  the  nearer  planets,  we  find  that  Venus,  superbly  brilliant  to 
Itho  naked  eye,  and  consequently,  it  might  naturally  be  thought, 
a  promising  object  for  telescopic  scrutiny,  is  nevertheless  the  most 
idisixpjKjinting  of  all  the  planets  when  viewed  with  a  telescope. 
Tlie  splendor  of  its  luminosity  in  itself  forms  an  obstacle  to  the 
letudy  of  its  surface,  where  flitting  glimpses  of  shadowy  forms 
and  brilliant  spots  only  serve  to  excite  the  keenest  curiosity, 
(With  respect  to  Mercury,  our  knowledge  is  equally  unsatisfac- 
ftory.  The  surface  of  the  moon, of  course,  has  been  well  studied,  aa 
|Buch  maps  as  those  of  Beer  and  Miidlor,  Ncison  and  Schmidt  suf- 
|fieiently  attest.  But,  after  all,  the  absence  of  the  faintest  indica- 
Ition  of  life  robs  the  wonderful  lunar  landscapes  of  a  large  share 
lof  the  interest  tliat  would  otherwise  attnch  to  them. 

Finally,  Tve  look  at  Mars,  and  here  at  last  we  find  a  globe 
whose  true  surface  we  can  inspect,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
»8  an  atmosphere  and  other  concomitants  of  vital  organiza- 
.ion.    Since  Mars  has  been  selected  by  more  than  one  astronomer 

the  probable  abode  of  life  (and  perhaps  the  only  one  besides 
the  Earth  in  the  solar  system),  and  especially  since  a  discussion 
Luf  th»3  markings  seen  upon  the  planet  necessarily  ilivolves  the 
rohysical  features  ujK»n  which  the  theory  of  Mars*s  fitness  for 
nnhabitation  rests,  it  will  be  well  to  recall  here  the  principal  facts 
Rhat  have  been  ascertained  respecting  that  interesting  orb. 
I     The  diameter  of  Mars  is  4yi00  miles,  or  only  some  240  miles 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEXCE  MONTHLY. 


more  than  half  of  tho  mean  diameter  of  the  Earth.    The  densi 
of  the  planet  is  rather  less  than  three  quarters  of  the  density  o: 
the  Earth,  or  about  four  times  the  density  of  water.    The  force 
of  gravity  upon  its  surface  is  less  than  two  fifths  of  that  upo 
the  Earth  ;  toore  accurately,  0*38.    That  is  to  say,  if  a  man  fro 
the  Earth  could  visit  Mars,  he  would  find  that  his  weight 
diminished  almost  two  thirds.    Members  of  terrestrial  fat  men' 
clubs  could  become  agile  dancer?  by  simply  going  to  Mars.    Thi 
feebleness  of  the  force  of  gravity  must,  it  is  clear,  have  an  impor- 
tant effect  upon  the  organization  of  any  forms  of  life  that  ma 
exist  upon  Mars,  whether  animal  or  vegetable.    The  mean 
t^nce  of  Mars  from  the  sun  is  141,50(1,000  miles,  that  of  the  Eart 
being  92,900,000.    The  length  of  Mars's  year  is  six  hundred  ani 
eighty-seven  days.    Its  day  is  only  forty-one  minutes  longer  t 
our  day  upon  the  Eiirth,    The  inclination  of  its  equator  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit  differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  the  Earth,   Bu 
when  wo  come  to  consider  the  eccentricity  of  its  orbit,  we  find 
decided  difference  between  the  E^rth  and  Mars,    Tho  Earth'i 
orbit  is  so  nearly  a  circle  that  its  greatest  and  least  distances  from 
the  sun  differ  by  only  3,0(X),000  miles,  while  the  orbit  of  Mars  is 
BO  eccentric  that  that  planet  is  2G,000,000  miles  nearer  to  the 
at  one  extremity  of  its  orbit  than  at  tho  other.    It  follows  that,| 
while  Mars  receives,  upon  the  whole,  less  than  half  as  much  light 
and  lieat  from  the  sun  as  tlie  Earth  gets,  yet  that  quantity  ia 
variable  to  the  extent  of  about  one  third  of  its  greatest  value — ; 
other  words,  the  sun  gives  Mars  half  as  much  again  heat  at  i 
perihelion  as  it  does  at  its  aplit'lion.     It  is  luirdly  uecessai'y  to, 
point  out  the  important  climatic  effect  of  such  a  variation.    An- 
other remarkable  resemblance  between  the  Earth  and  Mars  come 
in  here.    Just  as  on  the  Earth,  the  summer  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere of  Mars  occurs  when  the  planet  is  farthest  from  the  sun 
and  its  winter  when  nearest.    The  effect,  as  Mr.  Proctor  liaa 
pointed  out,  t^iids  to  equalize  the  temperature  of  the  seasons  ia 
Mars*s  northern  hemisphere,  but  to  exaggerate  their  difference  in 
the  southern  hemisphere. 

We  may  dwell  for  a  moment  upon  this  last-st-ated  peculiarityj 
for  it  is  exceedingly  interesting  in  its  suggest iveness.  Havingi 
summer  occurring  in  the  southern  hemisphere  of  Mars  at  the 
planet's  perihelion,  and  winter  at  its  aphelion,  we  should  fi 
there  a  most  remarkable  disparity  both  in  temperature  and 
the  brilliancy  of  daylight  between  the  two  ^  ~        i"" 

ence  wouhl  be  the  sum  of  the  effects  produce  ^ 
less  distance  of  the  sun  and  the  variation  in  the  ii 


le 

I 


ratio  of  8  to  2,  it  Lb  evidout  Umt  the  a 


THE  STRANGE  MARKmOS   01^  MARS. 


43 


[increase  the  difference  to  such  an  extent  that  the  seivsonal  changes 
might  be  fatal  to  all  higher  forms  of  life.  We  have  only  to  recol- 
lect how  powerful  the  effect  of  the  comparatively  moderate  va- 
riationB  between  the  seasons  of  our  own  planet  is  upon  the  human 
organism  in  ordtjr  to  undtTstnnd  what  must  be  the  condition  of, 
things  in  the  southern  hemisphere  of  Mars,  where  the  passaged 
from  one  season  to  the  other  presents  the  succession  of  violent 
winter  cold,  a<:compauied  by  days  of  gloom  and  faint  sunshine, 
followe<l  by  a  blazing  summer,  with  the  sun  hanging  overhead, 
visibly  increased  in  apparent  size  by  its  approach.  Telescopic 
observations  show  clearly  by  the  great  variation  in  the  extent  of 
the  polar  snows  how  extensive  Is  the  effect  of  these  changes  upon 
the  surface  of  the  planet  In  the  hot  summer  the  snows  rapidly 
retreat  toward  the  polo,  and  even  leave  the  actual  pole  itself  bare 
of  snow,  showing  that  upon  Mars,  as  upon  the  Earth,  the  center, 
or  polo,  of  greatest  cold  (at  least  in  the  southern  hemisphere) 
I  does  not  coincide  with  the  geographical  pole  of  the  planet.  Then, 
H  with  the  on-coming  of  winter,  the  march  of  the  snows  begins  and 
^nittgr  rapidly  advance  further  and  further  toward  the  equator, 
^Hfreoding  over  the  antarctic  regions  until  anotlier  change  of  sea- 
son brings  back  a  flaming  sun  to  melt  them  away.  It  should  be 
added  that,  as  Prof.  Young  has  remarked,  the  climate  of  Mars, 
upon  the  whole,  apj^ears  to  be  much  milder  than  we  should  nat- 
nrally  have  expected  in  view  of  its  distance  from  the  sun. 

t  Bearing  in  mind  these  general  facts  about  the  size  of  Mars 
and  ita  position  in  the  solar  system,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  the 
discussion  of  its  surface  phenoniftna  as  revealed  by  the  telescope, 
merely  pausing  to  remark  that  tlie  atmosphere  of  Mara  is  appar- 
ently less  dense  than  that  of  the  Earth,  and  that  the  spectroscope 
has  demonstrated  the  presence  of  watery  vapor  in  it. 

The  little  telescope  of  Galileo,  which  had  enabled  him  to  dis- 
cover the  phases  of  Venus,  the  satellites  of  Jupiter^  the  mountains 
tof  the  moon,  the  existence  of  Saturn's  ring,  and  "vast  crowds  of 
stars  "  in  tlie  Milky  Way,  was  not  jwwerful  enough  to  show  him 
the  markings  that  diversified  the  disk  of  Mars.  The  earliest  draw- 
ings of  Mars  that  have  come  down  to  us  were  made  by  Fontana, 
in  Italy,  in  103G  and  1638.  They  contain  very  little  detail,  the 
best  representing  the  planet  simply  with  a  darkish  8i>ot  in  the| 
center  of  the  disk.  Twenty  odd  yenrs  later  Huygens  made  much 
f'hetter  drawings,  and  then  the  work  was  taken  up  by  Ca^sini, 
:i.  and  others,  with  the  cumbersome  telescopes  of  the  time, 
o-t  iKJwerful  of  which  consisted  of  an  object-glass  suspended 
Jgh  in  the  air  by  means  of  a  long  pole  or  other  support,  while 
tl  of  the  observer  on  the  ground  was,  with 
._:ht  and  kept  in  line  with  the  optical  axis 
One  of  these  telescopes  was  no  less  than  three 


44 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


liimdred  feet  in  length,  the  great  length  being  necessary  in  order' 
to  avoid,  as  far  as  jioHsible,  the  chromatic  aberration  of  the  single 
lenses  of  whicli  objoct-glaflses  were  th*m  made!  Considering  the 
enormous  difficulties  under  which  they  labored,  the  results  At- 
tiiined  by  these  early  observers  aix?  astonishing.  The  delineations 
of  the  planet's  surface  made  by  Huygens  and  Hooke  were  suffi- 
ciently exact  to  be  used  by  roodem  astronomers  in  ascertaining 
the  rotation  period  of  the  planet  within  a  fraction  of  a  second, 
while  Casi-ini's  observations  enabled  liim  to  calcuLato  that  period 
with  an  error  of  less  than  three  minutes.  In  fact.  Huygens  saw 
tough  to  suggest  to  his  penetrating  mind  the  •  ••  of  nn 

inah)gy  Ijetween  the  surface  of  Mars  hikI  that  of  tl  .. 

In  1<u;g  Cassini  made  a  drawing  of  Mars,  whirh  is  reproduced 
in  our  cut,  showing  iu  rough  outline  a  feature  of  the  planet's  sur- 
face which  has  since  become  well  known  under  the  names  of 
[aiser  Sea  and  the  Hour-glass  Sea,  the  last  being  suggested  by 
ts  shape.  Directly  underneath  Cassini's  drawing  I  have  placed, 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  a  picture  of  Mars  made  by  Herachel 
in  1780,  and  showing  the  same  aea,  but  with  much  more  detail. 
Allowing  for  the  difference  in  the  position  of  the  disk  (for  the  two, 
drawings  were  plainly  not  made  at  precisely  the  same  period  of  ^ 
the  i)lanet'8  rotation,  nor  at  the  same  inclination),  and  also  con- 
sidering the  gn.'ut  superiority  of  Herschel's  telescope,  the  resem- 
blance is  sufEciently  striking  to  show  that  the  two  observers  were' 
looking  at  the  same  feature  of  the  planet,  and  that  it  was  a  per- 
manent marking  on  the  disk.  The  south  polar  ice-cap  is  conspicu- 
ous in  Cassini's  drawing. 

A  word,  by  the  way.,  in  regard  to  the  "  seas  "  and  "  ice-caps  "  of 
inrs.  The  general  color  of  the  planet  is  ruddy,  some  observora 
Ray  rose-color,  and  this  hue  is  plain  in  naked-eye  observationa 
But  the  telescope  shows  that  the  disk,  instead  of  being  uniformly 
reil,  although  that  tint  pre<lominates,  is  divided  into  streaks  and 
patches  of  varj'ing  hue.  The  reddish  regions  are  n'^i^nliHl  as 
being  the  land-surfaces  of  the  planet,  while  the  dusky  or  gi'cenlsh 
parts  are  looked  upon  as  probably  oceans  or  seas.  At  the  poleft 
t*  ,.  sfven  white  caps  which,  inasmuch  as  they  increase  in 

N  u  it  is  winter  and  decrease  when  it  is  summer  in  their 

respective  hemispheres,  are  regarded  as  the  arctic  and  antarctio 
snow  regions  of  Mars. 

From  the  time  of  Herschel  the  study  of  the  surface  markings 
of  Mars  was  prosecuted  by  many  observers  with  more  or  less  suc- 


cess, :  ■  ^  '^     r  and  Mailer,  those  iudefatigablo  portrayc 
tial  iTi?uio  a  cliart  of  Marw;  but  it  wa»  not 

'enty  y  '  that  a  rea^'- 

le  refl  pl.»..,  ^  ...<    ».''..lno»4j, '.    ,    ,,, 

\uK^  of  tho  "e«v  Dawea  aa  the  baHis  of 


■f  ..o], 


iMl 


-^^ 
>"^/ 


THE  STRAiXOE  MARKlirGS   ON  MARS, 


45 


stmoted  a  chart  of  Mars,  which  was  published  in  his  most  famous 
book, ''  Other  Worhls  than  Oufb/'  and  which  is  reprodured  with 
this  article.  The  most  hasty  comparison  of  this  chart  with  the 
drawings  of  Cassini  and  HrrHchel  whows  that  an  enormous  ad- 
vance hat!  beon  marie  since  the  time 
of  the  latter,  incomjiarably  greater, 
in  fact,  than  had  been  acconiplisbe<i 
in  the  hundred  and  more  years  that 
elapsed  between  Cassini  and  Hei*sohel. 
Yet  if  we  should  place  any  single  one 
ilf  Dawes's  drawings  side  by  side  with 
those  of  the  old  r>bservers,  the  differ- 
ence wonld  not  appear  by  any  means 
80  striking,  for,  the  reader  must  rec- 
ollect, Mr.  Proctor's  chart  was  con- 
structed by  inspecting  and  comparing 
twenty -seven  of  Dawea's  sketches, 
representing  the  planet  at  different 
I)encKls  of  its  rotation,  so  that  all 
sides  of  it  were  8ucc»^'SKively  vieweij 
in  the  best  position  for  observation. 
If  we  had  an  equally  numerous  se- 
ries of  Cassini's,  or  preferably  of 
Herschel's  skotches.  made  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  we  shouhl  probably  be 
able  to  ctmstruct  from  them  a  cimrt 
whifdi,  while   it  certainly  would   be 

itly  inferior  to  Proct<ir*s  in  its  details,  would  nevertheless 
re  it  clear  that  the  earlier  observers  saw  many  of  the  principal 
markings  that  are  shown  in  the  more  modern  map. 

Still  more  detailed:!  charts  of  Mars  followed  that  of  Mr.  Proctorr 
notably  those  of  M.  Flammarion,  and  Mr,  Green,  the  latter  being 
a  very  beautiful  work  based  upon  a  series  of  splendid  drawings 
made  by  Mr.  Green  in  the  island  of  Madeira,  But  no  very  con- 
siderable ailvance  was  made  in  areography,  as  the  geography  of 
's  has  lieen  calle<l.  until  Signor  Schiaparelli  published  the 
ilts  of  his  surprising  observations  made  during  tlie  very  favor- 
able opposition  of  Mars  in  1S77.  Although  Schiai>arelli  has  re- 
peat**d  these  observations  again  and  again,  an fl  they  have  been 
confirme<l,  in  ]>art  at  least*  by  several  able  observers,  there  is  a 
disposition  in  some  quarters  to  cast  doubt  upon  thera,  and  to 
ascribe  them  to  the  effects  of  optical  illusion  or  some  other  hallu- 
cinatioTL  Consi(b»ring  the  wonderful  character  of  these  ol)serva- 
tionM*  and  the  immense  advance  that  they  constitute  in  the  study 
of  the  surface  of  Mars,  there  is,  ]>erhaps,  the  shadow  of  an  excuse 
for  some  inentdulity  about  them.    Yet  I  think  the  reader  will  be 


Ou)  I>BAWl^oa  or  ftU.rui. 


^6  TEE  POPULAR  SCIEI^CE  MOXTULV, 

wnvincecl,  after  inspeciting  Schiaparelli's  map,  and  hearing  thi 
atory  of  what  he  has  seen,  that  to  tlirovc  <iiscredit  upon  fhe  tsub- 
Stantial  accuracy  of  his  observations,  marvelous  though  they  niayj 
apj>ear,  is  tt)  do  serious  injustice  to  the  great  Italian  Hstronoiner, 

And,  now,  what  is  it  that  Schiaparelli  has  8i?on  on  Mars  ?  Man] 
readers  will  probably  at  once  answer  "  canals/'  for  the  fame  of  j 
'*  Schiaparelli's  canals  "  has  become  wide-spi-ead,  and  that  vei 
word  has,  pt^rJiaps,  done  as  much  as  anything  to  foster  incredulity 
in  regard  to  these  discoveries.     It  is  true  that  Schiaparelli  himself] 
suggested  the  name  canals  to  describe  the  strange  lines  that  hi 
found  traversing  the  continents  of  Mars,  and  forn\ing,  as  it  wen 
a  network  of  intercommunication  between  its  seas;  but,  at  tht 
same  time,  he  indicated  that  that  name  was  simply  to  be  taken,] 
for  lack  of  a  better,  as  descriptive  of  their  general  api)earanco, 
and  not  as  implying  that  they  were  canals  in  our  senae  of  thi 
word.    Of  course,  the  term  was  at  once*  restricted,  in  pojmlar  ao- 
ceptntirm,  U.)  it.8  terrestrial  sense,  and  there  have  not  been  wantiu^ 
speculations  about  the  engineers  who  constructed  those  wonderful 
canals  on  Mars!    Mr.  Proctor  rather  helped  on  this  fanciful  inter- 
pretation of  Schiaparelli's  discovery  by  throwing  out  the  suggei 
tion  that,  owing  to  the  slight  force  of  gravity  on  Mars,  wo  shouh 
not  be  too  hasty  in  setting  limits  to  the  engineering  achievements] 
of  the  giants  who  might  dwell  upon  that  planet  I 

But,  setting  aside  the  manifestly  false  analogy  which  would] 

make  of  Schiaparelli's  "canals"  actual  artiiicial  water-courseaj 

we  shall  find  that  the  real  fact^  are  not  the  less  wonderful  an( 

mggestive  of  interesting  reflections.    Schiaparelli's  first  observa-l 

^tions  of  these  singular  objects  were  made,  as  I  have  already  said.] 

during  the  opposition  of  Mars  in  1877.    It  will  be  reraeml)ei 

that  it  was  at  that  very  same  opposition  that  Prof.  Hall,  using] 

the  great  Washington  telescope,  at  that  time  the  most  p<:)werful] 

refractor  in  the  world,  discovered  the  moons  of  Mars.    Yet  ProfJ 

Hall  saw  nothing  wonderful  or  very  unusual  on  the  disk  of  the] 

planet;  and  Schiajiarelli,  on  the  otlier  hand,  failed  to  discov< 

the  little  moons.    Halls  discovery  was  made  in  August;  Schi^ 

parelli's  began  in  September.     All  this  is  very  singular;  but  \\ 

seems  still  more  strange  that,  while  the  moons  of  Mars,  having] 

once  b*>en  discovered,  wen>  afterward  seen  with  comparatively] 

small  telescopes,  the  canals  have  never  been  seen  with  the 

;]ass  at  Washington,  and  that  only  three  or  four  observeraj 

rides  Schiaparelli  have  ever  seen  them.    In  the  last  annual 

'of  the  Naval  Obsi^rvatory  for  the  year  ending  June,  1S88, 

stated  that  the  great  tulesco|>e  had  been  in  constant  use,  U] 


nmdofromlitntt  to  time.     In  the  casw  of  tlie  latter  plani 


THE  STRANOJC  MARKINGS   ON  MARS, 


47 


canals  of  Prof.  Schiaparelli,  though  9|)ecially  looked  for,  both 
during  ami  after  the  opposition,  could  not  be  made  out.  At  the 
very  same  time  the  canals  wero  visible  not  only  to  8chiaparelli, 
but  to  Pyrrotin  and  Terby,  and,  as  we  shall  see  further  on,  some 
very  remarkablit  phenomena  connected  with  thym  were  observed. 
At  the  Lick  Observatory,  too,  they  saw  the  canaln,  though  they 
did  not  perceive  all  the  details  and  peculiarities  noted  by  Schia- 
jmrolli  juid  Perrotin.  How  shall  we  account  for  these  remark- 
able discrepancies  ?  I  do  not  for  a  moment  think  that  they  shake 
the  substantial  accuracy  of  the  Italian  observations.    No  doubt 

ilew  to  the  exjdauatiou  \s  furnished  by  what  Schiaparelli 
recently  said  of  the  difficulty  of  seeing  the  objects  he  has 
described:  "On  the  rare  days  when  these  extremely  difficult 
observations  are  possible^  the  period  of  good  telescopic  images 
does  not  last,  ordinarily,  more  than  two  or  three  hours  during  the 
twilight,  or  the  commencement  of  night.  ...  I  have  found  by 
*rience,  at  Milan,  that  one  can  hardly  hope  to  have  an  at- 

iphere  sufficiently  good  during  more  than  eight  or  ten  even- 
ings (during  an  opposition) ;  sometimes  even  entire  months  pass 
without  one's  being  able  to  make  a  satisfactory  observation. 
Much  rarer  still  are  evenings  of  perfect  images,  those  in  which 
one  can  employ  the  whole  power  of  on  instrument  like  our  Mens 
equatorial  of  eighteen  inches." 

And  this  is  said  of  the  Italian  sky,  which  has  long  been  famous 
for  the  steady  views  that  it  givers  of  the  heavenly  lM>di(\s.  What 
could  bo  expected,  then,  of  the  mist-haunted  atmosphere  of  tlie 
Potomac  flats  through  which  the  watchers  at  our  Naval  Observa- 
toi  >  strain  thi^ir  vision?    At  Mount  Hamilton  they  have 

fttii  ,  .  •  conditions  that  rival  those  of  Italy,  and  therefore  it 
wa«  to  be  foreseen  that  they  could  hardly  fail  to  confirm  the 
existence  of  Stdiiaparelli^s  strange  markings. 

It  should  l>e  said,  before  proceeding,  that  while  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  canals  have  been  seen  only  by  Schiaparelli  himself 
and  a  few  other  observers,  there  are  two  or  three  which  had  been 
rflcogniwMl,  though  not  under  their  present  designation,  and  per- 
haps not  in  their  complete  extent,  before  the  Italian  astronomer 
made  his  discovery.  Notable  among  these  is  tlie  narrow  arm 
running  out  of  the  Kaiser  Sea,  or  Syrtis  Magna,  as  Schiapandli 

les  it,  and  which  he  calls  the  Kilosyrtis,  Herschel,  and  even 
rlier  observers,  seejn  to  have  noticed  this. 

But  the  detection  of  the  dark  lines  called  canals  was  only  the 

[inning  of  Schiapurelli's  singular  discoveries.    The  next  dovol- 

lent  in  this  remarkable  serins  of  observations  was  the  dauhling 

pof  the  canals.    Those  that  he  saw  in  1677  were  simple  lines,  or 

■  '     '     Mffo  as  their  Tire  was,  the  liveliest 

lyhave  preii^  liieir  asjwct  at  subse- 


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THE  STRAXOE  MARKmOS    ON  MARS. 


49 


nuent  opjKJsitions.  Tn  1879  Scliiapavelli  noticed  that  the  canal 
fW'hich  ho  calls  Nilu^  (soe  his  mup)  was  double,  or  consisted  of 
two  streiiks  i*unuiug  side  by  side,  and  perfectly  parallel  This 
pbHervatiou  was  made  shortly  after  the  time  of  tb©  vernal  equinox 
Ion  Mars. 

I  "  These  two  regular,  equals  and  parEiUel  lines/'  he  says,  **  I  oon- 
HB8S  profoundly  surprised  me,  all  the  more  because  a  few  days 
before,  the  'Z^i  and  24th  of  December,  I  had  carefully  examined 
that  same  region  Avithuut  discovering  auylliingof  the  kind.  I 
ttwnitcd  with  cunosity  the  return  of  the  planet  in  1881  in  order  to 
Bee  if  an  analogous  phenomenon  would  present  itself  in  the  same 
place,  and  I  saw  the  wime  thing  reappear  on  the  lUh  of  January, 
DHHi,  one  month  after  the  vernal  equinox  of  the  planet,  which  had 
pccurre<l  on  tlie  Hth  (tf  December,  1.SS1.  The  duplication  was  still 
k>lniner  at  the  end  of  February.  At  this  same  date,  the  11th  of 
wanuary,  another  duplication  had  already  been  proiluced,  that  nf 
the  middle  section  of  the  canal  of  the  Cyclops  at  the  e<lge  of  Elys- 
mum  (see  map).  Greater  still  was  my  astonishment  when,  on 
the  10th  of  January,  I  saw  the  canal  Jamuim,  which  was  then 
an  the  center  of  tlie  disk,  composed  very  plainly  of  two  parallel 
Btraight  linea  traversing  the  space  which  separates  the  Nilicwus 
UAieunH  from  the  Auror€e  Sinus,  At  first  I  thought  it  was  an  illu- 
■iou  caused  by  fatigue  of  the  eye  and  by  some  new  kind  of  stra- 
pismus ;  but  there  was  no  resisting  the  evidence.  From  the  IDth 
bf  Jaiiuary  I  simply  went  from  surprise  to  surprise ;  the  Oroiitrtf, 
[Ihe  Efijihrufes,  the  Phison,  the  QanyiS,  and  most  of  the  other 
bunals  showed  themselves  very  clearly,  and  indubitably  divided 
En  two." 

I  It  ifl  not  A  matter  for  surprise  that  this  announcement  of  Scbia- 
parelli's,  coming  upon  the  heels  of  his  original  discovery  of  the 
banals  as  single  lines,  which  in  itself  was  sutliciently  remarkable, 
caused  still  greater  iloubt  to  be  entertained  of  the  correctness  of 
pis  observRtit)ns.  It  seemed  to  many  easier  to  believe  that  a  dis- 
iirignished  astronomer  and  practiced  telescopist  had  bt*en  misled 
by  some  decej»tion  of  the  eyes,  some  optical  trick  of  his  instru- 
ment or  of  the  atmosphere,  than  that  the  globe  of  Mars  was  cov- 
■red,  over  the  larger  part  of  its  surfiue,  with  a  network  of  lines, 
llp[)arently  connected  with  the  water-system  of  the  planet,  and 
Ihat,  at  certain  times,  these  lines,  canals,  or  water-coui-ses,  or 
b'hnlever  they  might  l>e,  were  doubled  up  throughout  their  whole 
Bxlent.  Even  llie  positive  assurance  of  the  celebrattxl  astronomer, 
f  I  am  absolutely  certain  of  what  I  have  observed,"  could  not 
banish  all  doubt.  The  manner  in  which  the  doubling  of  the  canals 
^■^  brought  al>*jut  seemed  most  mysterious,  and  addetl  to  the 
Hpwently  dubious  character  of  the  whole  occurrence.  Schiar 
barelli  declared  that  sometimes  ho  was  able  to  perceive  precur- 


JO 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTniY 


oairi. 

'"1 


8ory  symptoms  of  tlie  change.  A  lights  hardly  ylsiblo  shadB 
vould  make  its  appearance,  extended  alongside  on^?  of  the  canaln 
lu  a  few  days  only  a  series  of  whitish  spots  would  appear  the 
A  day  or  two  later  the  perfect  double  of  the  tuinal  would  he 
with  absolute  distinctnesMi  lying  beside  the  original,  exartly  pa 
lei  with  it,  and  of  equal  It^ngth,  brea^lth,  and  depth  of  color 
1  "  One  can,"  says  Schiaparelli,  "compare  tJus  proceiia  of  forma- 
tion to  the  appearance  that  would  bo  presented  by  a  nniUitude  tif 
soldiers  dispersed  without  order  who,  little  by  little,  should  ar- 
range thoraselvee  in  ranks  or  in  columns;  so  that  we  are  hero 
dealing  with  formations  unknown  on  the  earth,  dotennined 
the  gfogiaphical  eonfiguratiou  of  the  ground,  and  capalde  of 
producing  themselves  periodically  in  the  same  places  and  under 
the  same  aspects." 

These  canals  (we  must  continue  to  caII  them  by  that  name  for 
lai'k  of  a  better)  vary  in  length  from  a  few  hundred  miles  to  two 
or  three  thousand,  while  their  width  is  seventy-live  or  eighty 
miles.  When  they  become  double,  the  distance  between  the  twin 
canals  is  from  two  hundred  and  lifty  to  five  hundred  miles. 

The  It-alian  astronomer's  later  observations  have  again  and 
\  again  confirmed  the  results  of  his  earlier  ones.  During  the  oppo- 
sitions of  lss3-'S4.  18Hr».  and  IS8S,  under  somewhat  varying' 
conditions,  and  with  different  degreed  of  visibility,  yfA  always 
unmistakably,  he  has  seen  not  only  the  canals,  but  the  strange 
phenomenon  of  their  doubling  or  gemination.  The  clmracter  "f 
the  ap|»earance-s  has  been  always  the  same,  but  in  details  tlu-y 
have  differed. 

Let  the  reader  compare  Schiaparelli^s  map  with  the  chart  ol 
Mr.  Proctor,  and  he  can  not  fail  to  l>e  imi)n'SHHd  V»y  the  enormo 
advance  in  the  matter  of  minute  detail  exhibited  by  the  forme 
Apparently  more  has  been  learned  about  the  surface  of  Al 
during  the  past  twelve  years  than  was  learned  in  the  previo 
two  hundred  years,  and  the  greater  part  of  this  gain  is  the  wor! 
of  a  single  observer. 
(       While  it  is  more  or  less  idle  to  speculate  on  the  nattire  of  th 
singular  objects  appearing  on  a  globe  that  never  approni'lio?*  th 
earth  nearer  than  about  forty  millions  of  miles,  and  that  ordi- 
narily is  very  much  farther  away,  yet  it  is  imi)ossiblo  to  avoid 
indulging  a  natural  curiosity  to  know  what  they  are,    It  iV  ' 
that  all  tho  features  of  Marsha  glolni  are  more  or  less 
able,  though  upon  the  wholo  they  preserve  the  same   gen*  n 
asjMMrt,aud  Schiaparelli  declarer  that  in  the  case  of  th. 
the  changes  are  not  only  extensive  but  pto-iodicaL    It  I  . 
ronilly  btH?n   believe*!  that   the  variations  of  appffarance  in   m- 
parger  features  "''  *^--'  '■  k  Were  ownng  principally  to  atnv    " ^ 
^causes.    Large  .f  the  planet  have,  at  times,  h. 


THE  STRANGE  MAEKINOS  OX  MARS. 


Si 


apparently  hidden  under  a  veil,  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  which 
[li!i8  again  revealed  their  well-kuowu  lontours,  and  in  such  causes 
[the  ct>nclusi(»n  has  syemed  irrt'sistihle  that  what  had  been  observed 
rwas  the  formation  and  subsequont  dissipation  of  vast  dead 
lAi*ea8  conrealiug  or  obscuring  the  outlines  of  continents  and  seas 
[boiieath  them.  So  the  indistiuctness  near  the  edges  of  the  disk 
[ftud  the  altered  appearance  of  the  planetary  features  there  have 
mjon  partially  ascribed  to  atmospheric  influences  as  well  as  to  the 
Hjactii  of  perspecTtive.  Whether  the  observed  changes  in  the  ap- 
bearunce  of  the  canals  can  be  ascribed  to  similar  causes  is  a  ques- 
tion which  c^n  not  yet  be  solved,  Schiaparelli  appears  to  think 
[that-  tbey  are  principally  due  to  something  which  occurs  on  the 
Surface  of  the  jdanet  itself,  and  which  something,  in  its  turn, 
■depends  upon  the  changes  of  the  seasons. 

I      In  order  to  form  any  opinion  whatever  upon  this  question  it  is 
I  ry  to  examine  a  little  more  closely  the  varying  aspects  of 

\  .:ils.    Their  discoverer  has  noted  these  four  ptunts: 

jt  I.  A  canal  may  remain  invisible  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time. 
Irhis  invLsibility,  he  insists,  is  an  actual  disappearance  of  the  canal, 
bud  is  not  due  simply  to  unfavorable  circumstAnces  of  observa- 
Bion.  Moreover,  he  finds  here  a  striking  appearance  of  connection 
■ritli  the  seasons.  The  epoch  most  favorable  for  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  canals  is  near  the  time  of  the  southern  solstice  of  Mars, 
hrhich,  as  we  have  seen,  occurs  when  the  planet  is  nearest  to  the  sun, 
I  2.  In  many  cases,  according  to  Stdiiaparelli,  the  presence  of  a 
Bannl  begins  to  manifest  itself  to  the  eye  in  a  veiy  vague  and  un- 
fcertain  manner,  by  a  slight  shading  which  irregularly  eictends  it- 
pelf  in  the  direction  of  its  length.  This  phenomenon  is  so  delicate 
khat.  he  wi-ys,  it  marks,  as  it  were,  the  limit  between  visibility 
pud  invisibility. 

I  3,  Verj'  itften  the  canals  present  the  appearance  of  a  gray  band 
[fading  out  on  each  side  and  having  the  deepest  shade  in  the  mid- 
dle, which  may  l>e  dark  enough  to  suggest  the  appearance  of  a 
4Bi4)re  or  less  t^leiirly  murkc*!  line.  Sometimes,  but  rarely,  one  side  of 
bie  band  alone  is  nebulous  or  indistinct,  the  other  being  clearly  de- 
Bnerl.  Various  other  anomalous  appearances  have  been  o>)served. 
I  4.  Tlie  most  perfect  typo  of  tbe  canals,  and  that  which  their 
Biftcoveror  says  he  regards  as  the  expression  of  their  normal  cf»n- 
Bitinn.  "is  a  dark  line,  sometimes  quite  black  and  well  defined, 
looking  as  if  it  had  Ijeen  tnu^ed  with  a  pen  on  the  yellow  surface 
pf  the  planet."  When  the  canals  appear  in  this  form  they  are 
rvery  uniform  throughout  their  length,  and  Schiaparelli  says,  on 
|the  rare  ocx^asions  when  he  has  been  able  to  clearly  distinguish  the 
kwo  enlg*^,  one  from  the  other,  bo  has  discerned  slight  sinuosities 
kr  scollopings  on  the  borders.  He  adds  that  the  width  of  a  canal 
BiAy  change  with  time  from  a  thread,  barely  perceptible  in  the 


5» 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTniY, 


heat  atmosphf^ric  conditions,  to  a  broad  black  band  visible  at  t] 
first  glance. 

To  all  tliese  characteristics  must  be  added,  of  course,  tho  03 
traordinary  occurrence  of  the  gemination  or  doubling  of  th< 
canals.    It  is  natural  to  suppose  that,  in  such  cases,  wliat  wouh 
be  seen  would  be  the  apparition  of  a  new  canal  along  side  of 
old  one.    That,  in  fact,  is  what  Schiaparelli  described  us  occurrll 
during  his  earlier  observations;  but,  during  the  oi>po8ition  jiu 
passed  (1888),  he  discovered  that  this  wfis  not  a  general  rule,  aii< 
that  it  may  happen  that  neither  of  the  new  cauals»  when  a  doul 
ling  takes  place,  may  coincide  with  the  old  one.    *'  The  identity/ 
he  a<ld8,  "  in  the  general  direction  and  situation  is  thou  merel; 
approximative;  every  trace  of  the  former  canal  disappears,  giving 
place  to  two  new  linos."    Both  the  wddth  and  the  distance  a] 
of  the  twin  canals  vary  in  successive  seasons. 

It  would  carry  us  far  beyond  the  limits  of  8i»ace  available  foj 
this  article  to  enter  into  a  more  minute  account  of  8chiapart»lli' 
observation  of  the  many  anomalies  and  changes  of  apjxviraiw 
which  the  canals  present  at  different  seasons  and  under 
circumstances.  Enough  has  Ijeen  said  to  indicate  that  v 
be  impossible  to  make  a  map  which  should  show  the  precise  a] 
pearanc©  of  the  surface  of  Mars  at  any  fixed  perif»d,  and  at  th< 
same  time  contain  a  representation  of  all  the  phen(anena  whir 
ai'e,  from  time  to  time,  to  be  seen  there.  And  it  should  be  sai' 
because  this  is  a  matter  that  hits  been  mistindcrstttod,  tltat  8chia-* 


'■V-. 
^         "-»  -  _ 


OrilUiarj  Appiiannu*t. 


Api'catKDCc  In  Aptll,  148H. 


cuAJfou  iM  rat  AsptcT  or  Ubta. 

parolli  does  not  intend  his  maps  to  be  taken  as  portraitures  of  tin 
planet,  but  sr  M  '  V-tches  showing  details  of  wlir. 

therv  is  no  -1  v-r,  but  all  of  wliich  can  not 

not  been,  8iH?n  simultnne^msly. 

And  now  there  rf^main  yet  other  nMunrkable  circutP'^^^''^'''^  1< 
mentioueil  in  order  lo  ctjmplote  thti  picture  of  the  surf  Ii 


THE  STRJJrOE  MARKINGS   ON  MARS. 


53 


i 


aad  some  of  these  may  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  the  nature  of  the  canals.  A  glance  at  SchiaparclH's  map 
shows  ns  the  disk  of  the  planet  di>aded  into  areas  of  land  and 
water,  which  are  about  equal  in  their  total  extent.  Then  crossing 
the  land  areas  in  every  direction  are  the  canals,  which  it  will  Iks 
observed  always  begin  and  end  either  at  the  edge  of  a  sea,  or  at  a 
point  of  junction  with  other  canals.  Without  vaiying  their  direo- 
tion  they  cross  one  another,  and  in  some  cases* several  canals  radi- 
ate from  a  single  center,  which  then  generally  apiwars  expanded 
into  a  *•  lake."  In  addition  there  are  certain  regions  which  Schia- 
parelli  describes  as  variable  in  appearance,  or  intermediate  be- 
tween the  seas  and  the  lands,  presenting  sometimes  the  character 
of  maritime  surfaces  and  at  other  times  that  of  continental  areas. 
Among  these  are  the  places  marked  on  the  map  Deucalionis  Eegio, 
Hollas,  and  the  island  called  Cimmeria,  Tlie  region  named  Libya, 
which  ordinarily  appears  as  a  continental  expanse,  seems  to  belong 
to  this  clase  of  variable  areas,  and  within  the  past  year  it  has  ob- 
tained great  celebrity  because  it  was  said  to  have  been  submerged 
by  an  inundation  from  the  adjoining  sea.  This  region  is  more 
than  3500,000  square  miles  in  area,  and  lies  just  under  the  equator. 
In  May  last  M.  Perrotin,  of  the  Nice  Observatory,  made  the  some- 
what startling  announcement  that  the  continent  of  Libya  had  dis- 
appeared. "  Clearly  visible  two  years  ago,"  said  M.  Perrotin,  in 
his  report  to  the  Paris  Acatlemy  of  Sciences, "  to-day  it  no  longer 
exists.  The  neighboring  sea,  if  sea  it  is,  has  completely  invaded 
it-  In  place  of  the  light  reddish  tint  of  the  continents  of  Mars  the 
black,  or  rather  dark-blue,  color  of  the  seas  has  appeai-ed  there. 
.  •  .  In  sweeping  over  the  continent  the  sea  has  abandoned  on  the 
eouih  the  region  that  it  formerly  occupied,  and  which  now  appears 
with  a  tint  intermediate  between  that  of  the  continents  and  that 
of  the  9(»as,  a  light-blue  color,  analogous  to  that  of  a  slightly  misty 
aky  in  winter." 

A  look  at  the  accompan3ring  cut  will  show  the  change  which 
Perrotin  detected.  This  extraordinary  aspect  of  Libya  was  first 
in  April  and  lasted  into  May.  In  June  the  "continent" 
IS  to  have  resumed,  or  nearly  so,  its  ordinary  appearance. 
Perrotin*s  suggestion  that  the  change  observed  was  probably 
periodic  appears  to  be  borne  out  by  an  examination  of  former  ob- 
servations of  this  region  of  the  planet.  There  was  a  partial  "  in- 
undation '*  of  Libya  in  18S2,  and  a  still  more  extensive  one  in  1884, 
bv>th  of  which  were  noted  by  Schiaparelli,  who  confirms  Perrotin's 
observation  of  1888  in  a  general  way,  but  does  not  describe  the 
continent  as  having  at  any  time  completely  disappeared,  Speak- 
iru'    "    '  Jiranco  in  1884,  Schiaparelli  says  Libya  had  a  flaky 

lo*  id  been ''covered  with  innumerable  little  spots  all 

jumbied  together."    The  suggestion  of  clouds  contained  in  this 


4 


54 


THE  POPULAR  SCIE17CS  MONTHLY. 


description  is  very  striking,  yet  Schiaparelli  does  not  pursue 

lalogy. 
All  of  the  regions  which  possess  this  semi-maritime  character 
frequently  present  a  lighter  color  when  viewed  obliquely,  or  nearj 
tlie  edge  of  the  plAiiet'a  disk,  than  when  seen  near  tlio  meridian. 
This  fact  seems  strongly  to  suggest  the  presence  of  atmosjiheric] 
phenomena,  which  may  change  or  modify  the  appearance  of  an^ 
district  covered  by  them  according  to  the  visual  angle  urn 
which  it  is  observetl.    The  reader  has  only  to  take  an  ordini 

srrestrial  globe,  and,  supposing  it  to  represent  Mai's,  turn  \\ 
slowly  around  its  axis,  in  order  to  perceive  how  the  situation  oi 
any  region  with  respect  to  the  center  or  the  edges  of  the  disk  ma; 
influence  its  appearance.    Near  the  edge  the  surface  of  tlie  planet 
must  necessarily  be  seen  through  a  far  greater  depth  or  thickness 
of  its  atmosphere  than  in  the  center  of  the  disk,  and,  if  that  atmos- 
phere contained  clouds  or  mist,  of  course  its  opacity  would  be  greater ' 
in  proportion  to  its  greater  depth,  and  the  reflection  of  light  from.! 
the  mist  would  give  a  whiter  tone  to  the  features  of  the  planet  soenj 
through  it.    Nevertheless,  the  cloud  theory  fails  to  accoimt  satis- 
factorily for  all  the  appearances  that  have  been  so  carefully  d< 
scribed  by  Perrotin  and  Schiaparelli    Yet  if  it  were  possible  fc 
as  to  imagine  that  masses  of  clouds  of  some  sort  could  ret-ftin,  foil 
considerable  periods,  a  fixed  or  nearly  fixed  general  form  and  posi-1 
tion  in  the  planet's  atmosphere,  disappearing  and  reappearing  in 
the  same  localities  according  to  the  seasons,  and  occasionally  ex- 
tending their  outlines  or  slightly  shifting  their  positions,  then  we 
might  be  able  to  account  for  such  j)henomena  as  those  presented 
by  Libya,  without  recourse  to  such  violent,  extensive,  and  rapid^ 

sological   changes  as  would  seem  to  be  necessary  to  prodi 
alternate  inundations  and  emergences  of  large  areas  of  land. 

As  to  the  nature  of  the  canals,  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  BOg-j 
gest  any  satisfactory  explanation.  Several  hypotheses  have 
presented,  none  of  which  appears  entirely  to  meet  the  rasa  I 
have  already  remarked  that  there  has  not  been  lacking  the  sug- j 
geetion  that  these  curious  stpeaks  represent  the  lines  of  octualfl 
artificial  water-courses  on  Ma  s.  The  straight  and  undeviating" 
course  which  they  pursue  might  be  regarded  as  lending  some  de- 
gree of  probability  to  such  a  view,  but  the  enormous  scale  oa| 
which  they  exist  seems  to  comi>el  the  rejection  of  the  hypotliesis.' 
It  is  true  that,  if  we  consider  only  the  influence  of  the  force  ofi 
kvity  on   Mars,  giants  could  dwell  upon  that  planet  whi 

hOchunical  achievements  might  vastly  surpass  the  greatest  ppi 
formiinceB  of  our  engineers ;  for  a  body  weighing  a  ton  on  the  oarthi 
would  weigh  only  seven  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  on  M  ' 
on  the  other  hand  a  man  on  Mars  possessing  relatively  \Xi\ 
activity  as  one  of  us  might  be  fift'eon  feet  tall  and  strong  in 


THE  STRANGE  MARKINGS   ON  MARS. 


55 


Pal 


tioiL  But  even  granting  the  existence  of  sncb  a  race  of  Qoliatfas 
on  our  neighbor  world,  it  is  not  conceivable  that  they  could  have 
constructed  a  system  of  tremendous  canals  over  half  the  surface 
of  their  planet,  or  that  they  would  have  done  it  if  they  could. 
The  canals  of  Mars  are  enormously  disproportioned  in  magnitude 
to  the  most  gigantic  inhabitants  that  a  due  regard  for  the  law 
of  gravitation  would  suffer  us  to  imagine  there. 

An  ingenious  Frenchman  has  considerately  and  considerably 
diminished  the  difficulty  for  the  inhabitants  of  Mars  by  the  sug- 
;QBtion  that  the  continents  of  that  planet  are  so  slightly  elevated 
above  the  level  of  its  seas  that  frequent  and  periodical  inunda- 
tions occur  over  largo  areas,  thus  forming  temporary  channels  of 
iomraunication  between  the  seas  which  leave  only  the  more  ele- 
vated points  above  water  to  serve  as  places  of  refuge  for  the  non- 
aquatic  inhabitants.    According  to  the  theory,  these  inhabitants, 
pOBseBBing  a  horse  sense  comparable  to  that  of  the  descendants  of 
^Noah,  have,  in  the  course  of  ages,  improved  and  strengthened 
Htheir  natural  places  of  refuge  in  times  of  flood,  by  excavating  the 
■ground  from  the  low  lands  periodically  invaded  by  the  sea,  and 
Hpiling  it  up  on  the  higher  places,  thus  producing  lines  of  partly 
^B  ^ficial  hills  geometrically  placed,  and  with  talus-like  flanks. 
^^     It  will  be  observed  that  these  attempts  at  explanation  make 
to  reference  to  the  duplication  of  the  canals.   Mr.  Proctor,  always 
fertile  in  ingenious  theories,  undertook  to  include  this  strange 
•ansformation  in  an  explanation  of  the  canals  which  he  suggest- 
tc.l ;  namely,  that  they  are  great  rivers,  over  and  along  which,  in 
lortain  seasons,  vast  fog-banks  are  formed,  or  which,  perhaps, 
»ing  frozen  in  winter,  remain  covered  with  snow  and  ice  in 
ipring  until  the  snow  is  melted  along  their  banks,  so  that  by  a 
!phenomenon  of  diffraction  the  image  of  the  rivers  appears  to  us 
a  light  line  between  two  dark  ones. 
M.  Fizeau  has  put  forth  a  theory  according  to  which  the  canals 
of  Mars  are  simply  glacial  productions,  enormous  crevasses  and 
Lclcfts  in  the  ice  covering  the  planet,  like  those  seen  on  a  smaller 
^ncale  in  our  glaciers.   But  this  theory,  of  course,  would  imply  that 
HMars  is  now  undergoing  the  effects  of  a  glacial  epoch,  involving 
"even  the  equatorial  regions  ot  the  planet,  while,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  surface  of  Mars  appears  not  to  suffer  from  any  extreme 
degree  of  cold.     Attention  has  also  been   called  to  a  fancied 
resemblance  between  the  rectilineal  canal  system  of  Mars  and  the 
systems  of  rays  seen  on  the  moon,  especially  that  which  has  its 
^center  at  the  crater  Tycho,  and  which,  under  corta,in  illumina- 
■iions,  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  lunar  surface. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  said,  in  a  double  sense,  that  there  is  no  end 
of  speculations  on  this  curious  subject.    But  nothing  has  yet  been 
proposed  that  covers  all  the  appearances  presented,  and  even  a 


56 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


comlnnation  of  atmospheric  and  geological  activitios  eeems  in«n1 
ficieut  to  explain  everyihing.     It  is  possible  that  some  rl. 
of  the  eye  may  enter  to  a  minor  degree  into  the  obserrati'-.^  w.^ 
have  been  so  carefully  described  by  Schiaparelli  and  others,  but 
ran  not  bol  icvo  that  that  exceUent  observer  has  been  mistaken 
to  the  main  facts. 

Mars  is  a  world  having  an  atmosphere  as  the  Earth  has^ 

)ssing  a  diversified  surface^  upon  which  great  operations 
ktiure  are  taking  place  under  our  eyes;  and,  while  it  may  be  i< 
for  us  to  speculate  as  to  whether  those  operations  involve 
weal  or  woe  of  a  race  of  intelligent  beings  dwelling  in  the  mii 
of  thorn,  yet  the  mind  of  man  will  never  be  satislied  to  let  aucl 
questions  as  these  alone.    If  he  can  plant  his  foot  upon  one  globe 
only,  at  least  his  thoughts  can  and  will  range  among  a  million. 


BEGINNINGS  IN  SCIENCE  AT  MUGBY  SCHOOL.* 

Br  Dft,  J.  E.  TAYLOR,  F.  R,  8. 

JACK  HAMPSON  was  a  capital  sample  of  the  best  traditioni 
of  Mugby  School.    A  lad  of  fourteen,  with  well-knit  liinl 
brave,  honest  -  looking,  bluish -gray  eyes,  a  good  cricketer 
swimmer,  and  not  bad  at  a  high  jump.    He  could  no  more  do  al 
mean  thing  than  he  could  toll  a  lie;  and  he  could  give  or  take 
thrashing  if  absolutely  necessary,  although  he  would  be  in 
hurry  for  either. 

Mugby  School  has  kept  the  lead  in  modem  educational  pi 
ress  which  a  former  distinguished  master  introduced  many  yc< 
ago.  That  master  was  not  content  that  boys  should  learn  Latii 
and  Greek.  He  was  more  anxious  they  should  learn  to  be  Chrii 
tian  gentlemen;  to  fear  and  eschew  an  untruth  as  they  woul< 
poison  ;  to  be  brave  and  yet  gentle  ;  tender  toward  the  weak, 
defiant  even  to  the  strong.  The  boj-s  at  Mugby  School  were  we] 
acquainted  with  the  lives  of  the  best  men  of  all  ages  and  of  al 
nations,  as  well  as  with  the  most  stirring  deeds  of  valor,  self-denial 
and  manly  bravery.  The  noblest  thoughts  of  the  wisest  men  wui 
drawn  freely  upon  for  their  benefit. 

Much  of  this  "  new  tMlucation  "  was  thought  an  Innovation  al 
first ;  but  never  before  were  English  lads  turned  out  of  school  ii 
such  high-tone<l,  manly  fonn,  or  so  well  able  to  hold  their  own 
the  universities,  or  in  the  bigger  world  outside. 

As  may  be  imagined,  the  wonders  of  science  had  not 
ignored  in  such  a  school.  One  can  hanlly  believe  that  T^ 
science  is  almost  included  within  the  present  century.    A^. 

*  From  •draaco'Ahcela  of  "  Tb«  FUTtlrao  NatunlUt,"  in  prvBs  of  D.  ApplvUiu  k  Oo. 


Bsoryy^ryos  iir  sc/ejvcs  at  muoby  school. 


57 


then,  except  astronomy,  was  more  or  less  speoulation.  Nobody 
wouMcttU  Lirinipua's  system  of  botany  a  scienc*?.  Hlthou^h  it  was 
ver>*  uj^ef ul  aud  introductory ;  nor  was  geology,  zoology,  nor  chem- 
istry. Scientists  bati  only  been  playing,  like  children,  in  the  vesti- 
bulf  of  the  great  temple.  It  may  be  that  we  ourselves  have  not 
advanced  far  within  the  precincts — at  least  those  who  study  these 
sabjectfl  a  hundred  years  hence  may  think  so.  But,  at  any  rate, 
the  amount  of  knowledge  extant  concerning  the  world  in  which 
we  live,  and  it«  ancient  and  modern  inhabitants,  is  vast  compared 
with  what  it  was  when  the  present  century  commenced. 

At  Mugby  Schixjl,  science  was  an  imjiortant  and  also  a  welcome 
snbjtirt.  How  welcome  it  was  is  best  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the 
btiy*  got  up  a  Natural  History  Society  among  themselves.  This 
was  nally  a  self-im|Kwwl  task,  done  out  of  school-hours.  Some  of 
vb principal  teachers  encouraged  the  latis  by  becoming  members; 
not  ihat  ihey  knew  much  of  natural  history  or  scientiiic  subjects 
(wmeof  Uiem,  indexed,  knew  nothing  at  all,  and  actually  learned 
a ^  deal  from  the  boys  themselves). 

Of  wmrse,  the  society  was  founded  on  the  best  models.  It  was 
^  a  liit  behind  the  famous  **  Royal  Society  of  London"  in  its 
«loi|imenl.  It  had  its  president  and  vice-president,  and  its  com- 
mitted^ were  called  "  the 
«)uncii/'  It  also  published, 
'*>rthi?  world's  benefit,  ab- 
"tracle  of  the  short  papers 
the  boys  read  —  the  ab- 
iitTacto  being  nearly  as 
^i  as  the  pa|)or8.  Al- 
^"Ugh  it«  members  were 
'wt  nnmerous,  they  felt 
iby  Ikjre  the  weight  of 
^•"f  dimity  of  the  society 
^n  their  Bhoulders  :  and, 
*>  they  were  too  boyish- 
^niy  to  be  priggish,  the 
'''■'  --'lid  them  no  harm. 
i,  ihe  society  was 
*iindwi  into  sections.  One 
•^ion  was  appointed  to 
^^Iwt  the  plants  of  the 
"^ghlwrhood — that  is,  those  obtainable  during  the  school  half- 
iolidays;  another  U)  collect  butterflies  and  moths;  a  third,  boe- 
^;  a  fourth,  birds;  a  fifth,  fossils,  etc.  They  were  to  publish 
^Wt«  of  the  :  ^irds,  insects,  anti  fossils  of  the  district  in  the 

''Society's  1':  ligs";  for,  of  course,  the  latter  was  the  name 

Kivea  to  tbo  abstracted  papers. 


'^i 


> 


tvn,  1,— ScALi  or  Cntn- 


58 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


The  society  harl  only  been  founded  the  year  before  Jack  Ham] 
son  was  sent  to  Mugby  School ;  so  it  was  in  the  first  zeal  and  fi 
ness  of  its  youth.  Jack  didn't  like  science — it  was  nothing  but 
lot  of  hard,  jaw-breaking  names,  he  said,  and  what  was  tho  ji^oi 
of  them  ?  He  and  others  had  enough  of  hard  words  in  their  dail 
Latin  and  Greek  tat>k8.  Jack  rather  snubbed  the  fellows  wl 
volunteered  to  learn  more  hard  words  than  wore  required — 1 
couhhrt  understand  it.  What  was  the  good  of  chilling  a  buttej 
cup  Kanuncnlns,  and  a  white  etone  qnaHz  ?  It  was  all  shuiu  an 
show  I 

Now,  Jack  was  a  boru  hunter.    He  was  ardently  fond  of  ftj 
and  not  a  bad  shot^couBideriug  he  had  been  mistrusted,  iu»ti 

truste<i,  with  a 
I  dare  say  his  aki 
with  the  latter  wou) 
have  astonished  h 
father ;  and  I  ha^ 
no  doubt  a  g^xv 
many  ounces  «>f  "bac- 
ca  found  their 
into  the  ke^ 
jjocket  l>efnr<-» 
came  so  crf)ditAl 
shot. 

Butt! 
much   ti- 
Mugby  ;    or^ 
thoy  were  such  little  things  that  Jack  felt  ashamed  of  pulHn^i 
out,  and  m  heslippe<i  them  iu  again,  althougli  they  never 
t^>  grow  any  bigger.    This  was  a  wise  act  on  their  part.,  if  thoy  \u 
only  known  the  unconscious  chivalry  of  Jack's  nature,  which  hiUi 


riB.  a.— ficAUi  or  Kbl. 

taking  advantage  of  a  woak  thinff.    Then  a«  to  shooting— firsts 

•***'ul*l  1'  ^''xt,  what  was  there  to  s] 

Thi»  small  birds  in  the  ho<ig«8  ?    Any  cad  could  do  thut  J    Stii 


BEGIXiriJfGS  ry  SCIENCE  AT  MUG  BY  SCHOOL.     59 

\fi^T  the  y>oor  beggars  l>ehind  hfHlgcs,  and  tlion  bang  at  a  robin,  a 

■en,  a  yellnw-hainraer,  or  a  tit,  and  perhaps  blow  it  to  pieces! 

hat  was  ni»t  good  enough.     Partridge  and  pheasant  shooting, 
^ack  tlK>nghty  are  hardly  much  better  Bport^  only  you  can  eat 

itttn. 

Of  course,  there  was  the  excitement  of  cricket  and  foot-liall, 
lare-and-hound.H,  pai)er-cha8es.  hurdle-nicing,  jumping — not  only 
tot  bad,  but  altogether  gootl  and  brave  and  manly  spjrts.     But, 

tmehcjw,  a  lad   of  sui>erior  mental   abilities  wants  something 
Ise. 
Now,  the  scientist  is  also  a  liunter.    He  traces  his  descent  from 

imrod — he  is  a  liuuter  before  the  Lord,    He  roams  througli  the 
rUdhir  universe  for  his  prey — hunts  for  stars,  comets,  planets.    He 

not  daunted  because  he  did  not  live  on  the  world  when  it  was 
roung,  millions  of  years  ago;  for  he  makes  up  for  it  by  hunting 

16  remains  of  the  animals  and  plants  that  lived  during  countless 


^^"•fi 


\\^ 


Fifi.  i— ^Ai.1  nr  RoAca. 


Fio.  «».— StiAi.!  K>r  Dactb. 


(*fi.  and  which  have  long  been  buried  in  the  rf>cks  of  the  earth's 
;rm»l  as  fossils.  He  hunts  for  flowering  plants  and  animals  in 
ll  part«  of  the  earth  ;  braves  heat  and  cold,  hunger  and  thirst, 
^ounds  and  death,  in  liis  ardent  seiirch  for  them.  The  structures 
^f  rocks  do  not  escape  his  mineralogical  hunting,  nor  the  compo- 
lition  of  any  sort  of  substance,  organic  or  inorganic,  his  chemical 
malysis.  He  hunts  down  stars  thousands  of  millions  of  miles 
kway  with  his  t^jlesco^te,  and  creatures  less  than  the  fif(^eu- 
lousandth  part  of  an  inch  long  with  his  microscope.  Was  there 
FT'  b  a  great  hunter  ?  This  hunting  instinct  liegan  scores  of 

I  is*  of  years  ago,  when  the  hairy,  nake^l  Pahrolithic  men 

luut^  extinct  hairy  elephants  and  rhinoceros6&    It  has  been  de- 


6o 


THE  POPULAn  SCIEN'CF  MONTBLT, 


Fio.  fi.— SoAUt  ov  UoDaeoM, 


▼eloped  until  it  has  assumed  tho  high  intellectual    plwiaiirfl 
roaming  tlircmgh  Gixl's  j^eat  creation,  and   nf  <'onfirming  11 
ancient  writer's  conclusion — '*  Lo.  there  is  uo  end  to  it ! " 

Of  all  these  things  Jack  Hampson  had  never  heard  a  W4H 
PerhajiB  he  hail  occasionally  listened  Uj  a  ft*w  joking  rt-juiai 

ahout  Darwin  and  our  **  b 
ing  descended  from  monl 
eys"at  liis  father's  dinue 
table.     But  his  futlier  (wh 
WHS  anything  but  a  wealth 
man  the.se  hard  agricultu 
timi'H,  although  he   farmi 
his  own  estate)  had  not  niuci 
time  for  conHidoring  the  d 
noveries  of  modern  Rcietici 
Their  echoes  faintly  reacht- 
him  occiusioually,  but  nevi 
touched  him  seriously.    N< 
only  were  the  timey  ^ 
his  family  was  largt 
was  not  without  a  stretci 
that  Jack  was  sent  to  Mug! 
School,    rather   more    tiui] 
twenty  miles  off.    His  brother  (Jack's  uncle)  was  better  off,  l>ecaoj 
he  hml  n<»  family ;  and  the  uncle  also  had  more  leisuT*e,  and,  what 
more,  was  really  a  man  of  a  literary  and  scientific  turn  of  mind- 
All  school-boys  make  friends  at  school.    Nobody  has  ever 
lyzed    the    process    of 
friend -making   among 
boys.     It  is  as  myste- 
rious as  genuine  love- 
making.       Friendships 
— at  least,  boys'  friend- 
ships— are    also    ma<Ie 
''at  first  sight."     Live 
in  a  public  school  a  few 
years,  and  you  will  find 
it  ont.    You  might  just 
as  well   tell    a  boy  to 
muki-  frientls  with  a  cer- 
tain other  boy,  as  onler 

him  to  make  love  a  few  yoArs  lat^^r  with  your  female  8#^T»^'^^ 
An<l  yet  what  is8U«>8  of  life  depend  on  those  boyish  fri- 
made  at  school!    They  are  ofk*n  more  durable  than  marrii 
They  STirvive  suc^etiis,  disaster,  and  disease.    Not  unfreqn< 
ibey  aro  prolongGd  to  the  fsecoud  and  third  geauruUOiL    If  tli 


\ 


m\ 


Fifi.  T.— ScAU  or  Bhbax. 


BEOmmNGS  m  SCIEKCE  at  MUOBY  school.     6\ 


m 


\w 


Fib.  S.— Scau  or  Loacb. 


18  one  thing  more  difficult  to  explain  concerning  instliictH  than 
»noth«>r»  it  is  Hit*  instinct  of  l»nys*  friendships. 

How  Jack  Hampsou — big-limbed,  broad-backed  Jack^nme  Ui 
take  op,  tho  very  day  be  arrived  at  Mugby,  with  littlo  Willie  Riin- 
«onu\  I  can  n(»t  toll.  There 
is  fcHjU3t'tbing  in  the  doc- 
trine of  contrasta ;  doubt- 
less Willie  was  as  great  a 
contrast  t^  Jack  aa  you 
■would  have  found  in  the 
wliole  8c4iool  —  rather  un- 
dersiz»>d.  w*nxkly,  but  nevor- 
tholcss  a  brave  and  truthful 
boy.  He  was  fond  of  bixjks 
— a  trifle  too  fond,  for  it 
would  liavc  done  him  good 
t4j  Lavo  gut  away  from  them 

alitUe.  The  chief  feature  about  Willie  was  his  large,  bright,  in- 
quiring eyes,  and  his  altogether  affectionate  disjHisition.  Ho  t^>ok 
to  Jack  at  once,  and  Jack  to  him.  Never  before  was  there  a  better 
illustration  of  **  friendship  at  lirst  sight/' 

It  was  at  the  commencement  of  the  sf)ring  terra  that  the  friends 
CAHie  to  Mugby  Scho<jh    Without  knowing  it,  but  fortunately  for 
_  thom    and    for   the   wliolo 

school,  a  fine,  enthusiastic 
young  fellow  had  been  a[)- 
pointed  "  science  teacher." 
The  term  sounds  vague,  but 
so  do  all  terms  if  too  strictly 
analyzed.  The  boys  dublnnl 
him  "  professor,"  and  there* 
by  unconsciously  gave  liim 
higher  rank  than  his  non- 
fr^fis,  who  were  only 
'*  teachers/'  It  would  have 
been  impossible  for  a  young 
man  to  have  been  select<'d 
better  fitted  for  such  a  post. 
Nothing  gets  hold  of  boys 
sooner  than  enthusiasm.  Boys  are  naturally  enthusijistic.  There 
is  no  bett*»r  prwif  of  vitality,  even  in  an  old  man,  than  that  he  con- 
tinues to  be  enthusiastic  about  anything  intellectual. 

Willie  Ransome's  father  was  a  village  doctor,  and  it  was  hoped 
Willie  would  some  day  hnlf*  his  father  in  his  increasingly  larger, 
hot  not  increasingly  profitable,  rounds.  Willie  entered  the  science 
ch^MA  the  first  term.    His  father  was  a  man  of  scientific  tastes,  witli 


TtQ-  9.— ^CAU  or  Mjsniow. 


62 


THE  POPULAR  SCISyCE  MONTHLY, 


little  leiBure  to  indulge  them.    Bat  he  had  already  inoculated  hia] 
only  son  with  a  love  for  such  subjt^rtrt.     Willie,  however,  \\nA 
never  before  beeu  drawu  within  the  magic  circle  of  entliuHiamu 

for  them,  and  his  iiigbly! 


Fia.   10.— 8CA1.B  t3T  PnOB. 


sensitive  teinperameTit  was 
tixed  by  tht-  professor's  di 
scriptious  and  denionstru- 
tions  immediately.  Before 
the  twrm  was  half  over,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  so- 
ciety, and  doing  his  best  to 
'* collect"  for  the  society's 
niustnim. 

Jack  Jawi  many  a  hearty 
laugh  over  this  disposition 
to  hoard  up  a  lot  of  old 
stones  and  things,  and  give 
them  hard  names.  More 
than  once  he  was  a8ke<l  \a\ 
attend  a  society's  meeting 
— for  each  member  ha*!  the  privilege  of  introducing  a  friend — but 
he  always  shirked  it.    *'  No,"  ho  said  ;  "  they  are  not  my  sort," 

One  wet  evening,  however,  Willie  Ransome  got.  Jack  to  go, 
just  because  there  was 
nothing- else  to  do.  There 
was  a  short  paper  being 
read  on  "  Fish-Scales," 
and  a  number  of  them 
wei-e  mounted  for  micro- 
scopical exHmination.  of 
course  with  a  Ii>w  jx^wer^ 
8ay  inch  and  half-inch, 
Anythingrelating  to  fish 
or  fishing  was  certain  to 
gain  Jack's  attention, 
therefon*  a  ]>ett.er  sub- 
ject could  not  have  been 
«i?lect»Hl  t<)  engage  his  no- 
lice,  Besidi^,  Jack  ha*i 
never  yet  even  looked 
throngh  a  microscope  [ 
He  felt  a  bit  ashamed  of 
tliia  now;  Init  there  were  a  couple  of  microscopes  present,  and 
^     "     "  ■'    .  '  ■     \   ■  .  .„]  look  througli  them.    ^'  '^e* 

oiiets  wem  on  view.    Of  r^         .    ^^b- 
lutt  are  common  enough ;  but  who  would  tliiuk  that  each  kind 


Fia>  U.-0CAUI  or  Comvom  Cast. 


BEOIXNINGS  IN  SCIENCE  AT  MUOBT  SCHOOL.    63 


/ 


has  its  own  pattern  of  scale,  and  that  you  could  tell  a  species  of 

fish  by  its  scales  ? 

The  paj)er  showed  that  the  scales  of  fishes  were  composed  of 

the  same  material,  chitincy  as  the  feathers  of  birds,  or  the  hair  and 

uails  of  auimals — a  kind  of  substance  only  found  in  the  animal 

kingdom,  and  never  in  the  vegetable ;  that  these  scales  are  devel- 
oped in  little  pockets  in  the  fish*s  skin,  which  you  can  plainly 

we  for  yourself  when  a  herring  is  ecalod.     They  are  arrang 

all  over  thy  fish'rf  bo<ly  like  the  tiles  covering  a  roof,  partly  ovt 

lapi>ing  ea<:h  other,  as  is  seen  by  one  part  of  the  scale  being  often 

ditferent  from  the  other. 

Jiu'k    looke<l    through  ^r. 

the    microscope   and  was 

delight^.    He  was  always 

a    reverent  -  minded    boy, 

und    tlie    sight  broke  on 

Lis  mind  like  a  new  reve- 
lation.     How   exquisitely 

chaste  and  beauliful  were 

the  markings,  lines,  dots, 

and    other    peculiarities ! 

Then  tlie  scales  which  nin 

alongtho  middle  lineof  the 

fish  were  shown  him,  and 

thoducta  perforating  them, 

out   of  which  the  mucus 

flows  Ui  anoint  the  fish's 

body,  and  thus  reduce  the 

friction  of  its  rapid  move- 

njent  through   the  water. 

The  lad  was  half  bewil- 
[dered  at  the  possibility 
M»f  the  new  knowledge. 
r  Could  anylxMiy  get  to 
[know  about  these  things  ?  '*  he  asked  Willie,  who  told  him  of 

;ours«'  he  could,  if  he  would  only  take  a  litUe  trouble. 

"But,"  said  liis  young  friend,  "I  would  atlvise  you  to  get  a 

[x>ckGt-magnifier  first,  and  begin  to  examine  with  thai  Some 
Ifellows  Iwgin  right  oflF  with  a  powerful  microscope  they  get  their 
Igoveraors  to  buy  them,  and  they  work  it  like  mad  for  a  month  or 

two,  and  then  get  tired  of  it.  Fact  is,  they  never  learned  the  art 
[of  observing." 

*•  What  do  you  rac*an  by  that  ?  "  said  Jack.  ' 

**  Why.  getting  into  the  habit  of  looking  about  you,  k«H*[)ing 

'onr  eyes  open,  and  quickly  spotting  anything  unusual.     Fancy  a 

fellow  beginning  to  use  magnifying  glasses  of  thousands  of  times 


1 


^ 


Pi«.  IS.— 80U.S  or  Pi&K. 


64  THE  POPULAR  SCfEXCff  MOXTffLT. 

before  he  has  bei?un  to  use  his  own  eyes !    Use  year  own  eyvak 
fii'Ht,  then  get  a  little  extra  help  \n  the  shape  of  a  shillt'  Vol-' 

lens,  and  by  and  by  you  will  be  able  to  uae  a  real  mini  •  intl 

enjoy  using  it  too," 

This  was  rather  a  long  lecture  for  Willie  to  givf,  <ir  for  Jack 

to  linten  to,  He  wouldn't 
have  listened  if  it  ha*!' 
not  been  for  what  ho 
had  just  seen.  He  said 
nothing,  but  ho  made  up 
his  mind  he  would  get 
one  of  these  useful  shill- 
ing niagnitiorH,  WUHp 
usually  ha<l  a  country 
walk  during  the  school  I 
balf- holiday,  and  JiU'k 
had  often  been  invited! 
to  accompany  him ; 
\\k}  didn't  care  to  g«1 
**  humbugging  after, 
grubs  and  weeds,"  he^ 
id.  Now,  however,  he  invited  himself,  and  somewhat  surprised 
lis  friend  by  stating  he  wantotl  to  go  with  him. 


FiQ,  S3.— ScALi  or  OoATuno. 


AGNOaTICISM. 

A  REPLY  TO  PROFESSOR  DUXLEY. 

I. 

Bf  Rkt.  Dt.  HENBY  WAGE,  PxarctrAi  or  Kuro'ii  Oolixos. 

IT  would  hardly  be  reasonable  to  complain  of  Priif.  Huxley's 
delay  in  replying  ti>  th*?  paptr  on  "  Agnosticism  '*  which  T  readi 
five  months  ago,  wIk'U,  at  the  urgent  request  of  an  old  friund,  ij 
reluctantly  consented  to  address  the  Churcli  Congress  at  Mnnchi 
ter.     I  am  obliged  to  liim  for  doing  it  the  honor  to  bring  it 
the  notice  of  a  wider  circli*  than  that  to  which  it  was  directly  ad- 
dressefl ;  and  I  fear  that,  for  reasons  which  have  been  tht'occasioi 
of  universal  regrf*t,  he  may  not  havo  been  equal  to  literary  effoi 
But,  at  the  sanu*  time,  it  is  impossible  not.  to  notice  that  a  writei 

at  a  great  advantage  in  attacking  a  fugitive  essay  a  quarter  of 
^ear  aft*ir  it  was  made  public.    Such  a  lapse  of  time  ouglit,  indeed^ 
Ui  enable  him  to  apprehend  distinctly  the  urguineut  with  wbiol 
I  ling:  and   it  might,  at  !•  ire  him  from  a 

i  i  y  in  qtiotation  as  great  might  cxcu}*e, 

«ith«r  his  idiosyncrasy,  or  his  sqqso  of  assured  superiority,  vhoi 


AoyosncisK 


65 


I 


I 


lead  him  to  pay  no  real  attention  to  the  argument  he  is  attacking, 
or  should  betray  him  into  material  misquotatitjn,  he  may  at  least 
be  sure  that  scarcely  any  of  his  readers  will  care  to  refer  to  tha 
original  paper,  or  will  have  the  opportunity  of  doing  so.    I  can 
scarcely  hope  that  Prof.  Huxley's  obliging  reference  to  the  "  Offi- 
cial Report  of  the  Church  Congress  "  will  induce  many  of  those 
who  are  influenced  by  his  answer  to  my  paper  to  purchase  that 
interesting  volume,  though  they  would  be  well  repaid  by  some  of 
its  other  coutouts ;  and  I  can  hardly  rely  on  their  spending  even 
twopence  upon  the  reprint  of  the  pai)er,  published  by  the  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.    I  have  therefore  felt  obliged 
to  ask  the  editor  of  this  review  to  be  kind  enough  to  admit  to  his 
pages  a  brief  restatement  of  the  position  which  Prof.  Huxley  has 
assailed,  with  such  notice  of  his  arguments  as  is  practicable  within 
the  comparatively  brief  space  which  can  be  afforded  me.    I  could 
not,  indeed,  amid  the  pressing  claims  of  a  college  like  this  in  term 
time,  besides  the  chairmanship  of  a  hospital,  a  preachership,  and 
other  duties,  attempt  any  reply  which  would  deal  as  thorouglily 
as  could  be  wished  with  an  article  of  so  much  skill  and  hnisb. 
,     But  it  is  a  matter  of  justice  to  my  cause  and  to  myself  to  remove 
Hat  once  the  unscientific  and  prejudiced  representation  of  the  case 
■which  Prof.  Huxley  has  put  forward;  and  fortunately  there  will 
Bho  need  of  no  elaborate  argument  for  this  purpose.    There  is  no 
occasion  to  go  beyond  Prof.  Huxley^'s  own  article  and  the  lan- 
guage of  my  paper  to  exhibit  his  entire  misapprehension  of  the 
point  in  dispute;  while  I  am  much  more  than  content  to  rely  for 
ftthe  invalidation  of  his  own  contentions  upon  the  authorities  he 
"himself  quotes. 

What,  then,  is  the  position  with  which  Prof.  Huxley  finds 
fault  ?    He  is  good  enough  to  say  that  what  he  calls  my  **  descrip- 
tion "  of  an  agnostic  may  for  the  present  pass,  so  that  we  are  so 
far,  at  starting,  on  common  ground.    The  actual  description  of  an 
ic,  which  is  given  in  my  paper,  is  indeed  distinct  from  the 
he  quotes,  and  is  taken  from  aji  authoritative  source.    But 
I  have  said  is  that,  as  an  escape  from  such  an  article  of  Chris- 
tian belief  as  that  we  have  a  Father  in  heaven,  or  that  Jesus 
ifft  is  the  Judge  of  quick  and  dead,  and  will  hereafter  return  to 
ludge  the  world,  an  agnostic  urges  that  "  he  has  no  means  of  a  sci- 
itific  knowledge  of  the  unseen  world  or  of  the  future";  and  I 
aintain  that  this  plea  is  irrelevant.    Christians  do  not  presume 
say  that  they  Imve  a  scientific  knowledge  of  such  articles  of 
heir  creed.    They  say  that  they  believe  them,  and  they  believe 
hem  mainly  on  the  assurances  of  Jesus  Christ.    Consequently  their 
haracteristic  difference  from  an  agnostic  consists  in  the  fact  that 
ey  believe  those  assurances,  and  that  he  does  not.     Prof.  Hux- 
f&  observation,  "Are  there  then  any  Christians  who  say  that  they 

TOL.  XXZT. — 5 


€6 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIBKCE  MO^TTHLT, 


know  nothing  about  the  unseen  world  and  the  future  ?  I  was  igJ 
nonint  of  the  fact,  but  I  am  ready  to  accept  it  on  the  auth(»rity  ol 
a  professed  theologian,"  is  either  a  quibble,  or  one  of  many  indi^ 
cations  that  he  does  not  recognize  the  point  at  issue.  I  am  speak* 
ing,  as  the  sentence  shows,  of  scientific  knowledge — kuowl^Ad 
which  can  be  obtained  by  our  own  reason  and  observation  alonl^ 
and  no  one  with  Prof.  Huxley's  learning  is  justified  in  being  i^^o3 
rant  that  it  is  not  upon  such  knowledge^  but  upon  supernatural 
revelation,  that  Christian  belief  rests.  However,  as  he  goes  on  tq] 
8ay,  my  view  of  "  the  real  state  of  the  case  is  that  the  agnostid 
'does  not  l)elieve  the  authority*  on  which  'these  things'  are] 
stated,  which  authority  is  Jesus  Christ.  He  is  simply  an  old-fash«j 
ioned  '  infidel '  who  is  afraid  to  own  to  his  right  name."  The  argu J 
meat  has  nothing  to  do  with  his  motive,  whether  it  is  being  afraid' 
or  not.  It  only  concerns  the  fact  that  that  by  which  he  is  distinct- 
ively separated  from  the  Christian  is  that  he  does  not  believe  th< 
assurances  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Prof.  Huxley  thinks  there  is  "an  attractive  simplicity  about 
this  solution  of  the  problem  " — he  means,  of  course,  this  statemeni 
of  the  case—**  and  it  has  that  advantage  of  being  somewhat  offen- 
Bive  to  the  persons  attacked,  which  is  so  dear  to  the  less  refined 
sort  of  controversialist."    I  think  Prof.  Huxley  must  have  forgot- 
ten himself  and  his  own  feelings  in  this  observation.    There  can 
be  no  question,  of  course,  of  his  belonging  himself  to  the  moi 
refined  sort  of  controversialists ;  but  he  has  a  characteristic  fanc^ 
for  solutions  of  problems,  or  statements  of  cases,  which  have  tb< 
"  advantage  of  being  somewhat  offensive  to  the  persons  attacked. 
Without  taking  this  particular  phrase  into  account,  it  certainly 
"the  advantage  of  being  offensive  to  the  persons  attacked"  tl 
Prof.  Hiixlcy  should  speak  in  this  article  of  "  the  pestilent  doctrin* 
on  which  all  the  churches  have  insisted,  that  honest  disbelief 
the  word  "  honest "  is  not  a  misquotation — **  honest  disbelief  ia 
their  more  or  less  astonishing  creeds  is  a  moral  offense,  indeed  a 
sin  of  the  deepest  dye,  deserving  and  involving  the  same  fatura 
retribution  as  murder  or  robbery,"  or  that  he  should  say, "  IVin 
in  morals  or  in  doctrine  (especially  in  doctrine),  without  due  r^ 
pentance  or  retractation,  or  fail  to  get  properly  baptized  bofora 
you  die,  and  a  pUhineUe  of  the  Christians  of  Europe,  if  they  werd 
true  to  their  creeds,  would  affirm  your  everlasting  damnation  bjl 
an  immense  majority,"    We  have  fortunately  nothing  to  do  iia 
this  arguraont  with  plehiscUci  ;  and  as  statements  of  authoritativflj 
Christian  teaching,  the  least  that  can  be  said  of  these  allegat'--^^  'J 
that  they  are  offensive  exaggerations.    It  had  "the  adv;: 
^Again.  of  being  "offensive  to  the  persons  attacked,"  whoa   i^rvji^ 
'Huxley,  in  an  article  in  this  review  on  "  Science  and  the  Bishag^ 
in  November,  1887^  said  that  ^scientific  ethics  can  and  does  dddH 


AGNOSTICISM, 


I  that  the  profession  of  belief"  in  such  narratives  as  that  of  the 
devils  entering  a  herd  of  swiue,  or  of  the  fig-tree  that  was  blasted 
for  bearing  no  figs,  upon  the  evidence  on  which  multitudes  of 
ChriatiaiiH  believe  it/' is  unmoral  "j  and  the  observation  which 
followe<l,  that  "theological  apologists  would  do  well  to  consider 
the  fact  that,  in  the  matter  of  intellectual  veracity,  Science  is  al- 
ready a  long  way  ahead  of  the  churches/'  has  the  same  *'  advan- 
tage." I  repeat  that  I  can  not  but  treat  Prof.  Huxley  as  an  exam- 
ple of  the  more  refined  sort  of  controversialist;  it  must  be  sup- 
»sed,  therefore,  that  when  he  speaks  of  observations  or  insinua- 
tious  which  are  somewhat  offensive  to  the  "persons  atta<;ked'* 
being  de-ar  to  the  other  sort  of  controversialists,  he  is  unconscious 
of  his  own  methods  of  controversy — or,  shall  I  say,  his  own  temp- 
tations ? 

But  I  desire  as  far  as  possible  to  avoid  any  rivalry  with  Prof. 

Huxley  in  these  refinements — more  or  less — of  controversy ;  and 

^am,  in  fact,  forced  by  pressure  both  of  space  and  of  time  to  keep  as 

Brigidly  as  possible  to  the  points  directly  at  issue.    He  proceeds  to 

V  restate  the  case  as  follows :  "  The  agnostic  says, '  I  can  not  find 

"  good  evidence  that  so  and  so  is  true/    '  Ah,'  says  his  adversary, 

seizing  his  opportunity, '  then  you  declare  that  Jesus  Christ  was 

untruthful,  for  he  said  so  and  so ' — a  very  telling  method  of  rousing 

P'     prejudice."    Now  that  superior  scientific  veracity  to  which,  as  we 
have  seen.  Prof.  Huxley  lays  claim,  should  have  prevented  him 
putting  Buch  vulgar  words  into  my  mouth.    There  is  not  a  word 
in  my  paper  tt:>  charge  agnostics  with  declaring  that  Jesus  Christ 
was  "  untruthfuL"    I  believe  it  impossible  in  these  days  for  any 
man  who  claims  attention — I  might  say,  for  any  man — to  declare 
our  Lord  untruthful.    What  I  said,  and  what  I  repeat,  is  that  the 
position  of  an  agnostic  involves  the  conclusion  that  Jesus  Christ 
^^nf  under  an  "illusion'*  in  respect  to  the  deepest  beliefs  of  his 
^^^P  and  teaching.    The  words  of  my  paper  are, ''  An  agnosticism 
Vwhich  knows  nothing  of  the  relation  of  man  to  God  must  not  only 
™  refuse  belief  to  our  Lord's  most  undoubted  teaching,  but  must 
deny  the  reality  of  the  spiritual  convictions  in  which  he  lived  and 
died/*    The  point  is  this — that  there  can,  at  least,  be  no  reasonable 
doubt  that  Jesus  Christ  lived,  and  taught,  and  died,  in  the  belief 
of  certain  great  principles  respecting  the  existence  of  God,  our  re- 
flation to  Ood,  and  his  own  relation  to  us,  which  an  agnostic  says 
Ware  beyond  the  possibilities  of  human  knowledge ;  and  of  course 
an  agnostic  regards  Jesus  Christ  as  a  man.    If  so,  he  must  neces- 
sarily regard  Jesus  Christ  as  mistaken,  since  the  notion  of  his 
being  untruthful  is  a  supposition  which  I  could  not  conceive  being 
BuggoBted.    Tlie  question  I  have  put  is  not,  as  Prof.  Huxley  repre- 
^sents,  what  is  the  most  unpleasant  alternative  to  belief  in  the 
^■primary  truths  of  the  Christian  religion,  but  what  is  the  least  un* 


6S 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


pleasant ;  and  all  I  have  mamtalned  is  that  the  loast  uni^leasonl 
altornativG  necessarily  involved  is,  that  Jesus  Christ  was  tind< 
an  illusion  in  his  most  vital  convictions. 

I  content  myself  with  thus  rectifying  the  state  of  tho  case, 
without  making  the  comments  which  I  think  would  be  justifio* 
on  such  a  crude  misrepresentation  of  my  argument.  But  Prol 
Huxley  goes  on  to  observe  that  "  the  value  of  the  evidence  as 
what  Jesus  may  have  said  and  dune,  aud  us  to  the  exact  uatui 
and  scope  of  his  authority,  is  just  that  which  the  agnostic  fin< 
it  most  diflBcult  to  determine."  Undoubtedly,  that  is  a  prims 
question ;  but  who  would  suppose  from  Prof.  Huxley's  statemeni 
of  the  caso  that  the  argument  of  tlio  paj>er  he  is  attacking  pn 
ceeded  to  deal  with  this  very  point,  and  that  he  has  totally  ignon 
the  chief  consideration  it  alleged  ?  Almost  immodiat-ely  after 
words  Prof,  Huxley  has  quoted,  tho  following  passage  occui 
which  I  must  needs  transfer  to  these  pages,  as  containing  th< 
central  point  of  the  argument:  "It  may  be  asked  how  far  we 
roly  on  tho  accounts  we  possoss  of  our  Lord's  teaching  on  th( 
subjects.  Now  it  is  unnecessary  for  the  general  argument 
fore  us  to  enter  on  those  questions  respecting  tho  authenticity  ol 
the  gospel  narratives,  which  ought  to  be  regarded  as  settled  b^ 
M.  Renan's  practical  surrender  of  tho  adverse  case.  Apart  from  al 
dispided poiTih  of  lyriticism,  no  one  pradiraUy  doubts  that  our  Loj 
lived,  and  that  fie  died  on  the  cross,  in  the  most  intense  se7ise 
filial  relation  to  his  Father  in  Iieavent  arid  that  he  bore  testimony  it 
tJuU  Faihers  providence^  love,  and  grace  toward  munhind,  Thi 
Lord's  Prayer  affords  sufficient  evidence  upon  these  poinl-s.  If  (hi 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  alone  be  added,  the  whole  unseen  worlds  o) 
which  the  agnostic  refuses  to  know  anything^  stands  unveiled  be* 
fore  us.  There  you  see  revealed  the  diviyie  Father  and  Creator  o) 
all  things,  in  personal  relation  to  his  crraiures,  hearing  theii 
prayers,  witnessing  their  actions,  caring  for  them  and  rewardi\ 
them.  There  you  hear  of  a  future  judgment  administered  by  Chrit 
himself,  and  of  a  heav€7i  to  he  hereafter  revraledt  in  which  tht 
who  live  as  tJie  children  of  that  Father,  and  wlio  suffer  in  Uie  ca\ 
ay\d  for  ih^  saJce  of  Christ  himself,  will  be  abundantly  rewardet 
If  Je^t^  Christ  prtached  that  sermon,  made  those  promises,  ai 
tau^hi  tlicd  prayer,  iJien  any  one  who->says  ittat  we  know  nothii 
of  C  '  -fa  future  life,  or  of  an  unseen  world,  says  that  he 
not  >  i'^sus  Christ" 

Prof.  Uuxloy  has  not  one  word  to  say  upon  this  orgumenl 
though  *^     '"'   'le  case  is  involved  in  it.    Let  ns  take  as  nr- 
pie  the  :  i<>n  he  proceeds  to  give.    "  If,"  he  says, "  1 

to  doubt  that  the  Duke  of  Wellington  gave  the  command, 
Gnanls,  and  at  'em! 'at  Waterloo,  I  do  not  think  that  ov< 
Waco  would  accuse  me  of  diahdi&riiuc  Iha  d\ik0," 


AGNOSTICISM. 


69 


LOU  But  if  Prof.  Huxley  were  to  maintain  that  the  pursuit  of 
^lory  was  the  true  motive  of  the  soldier,  and  that  it  was  an  illu- 
ifiion  to  suppose  that  simple  devotion  to  duty  could  be  the  supremo 
l^ide  of  military  life»  I  should  certainly  charge  him  with  contra- 
|dieting  the  duke's  teaching  and  disregarding  his  authority  and 
example.  A  hundred  stories  like  that  of  "  Up,  Guards,  and  at 
'em  I "  might  be  doiibted,  or  positively  disproved,  and  it  would 
still  remain  a  fact  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  that  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  was  essentially  characterized  by  the  sternest  and  most 
devoted  sense  of  duty,  and  that  he  had  inculcated  duty  as  the  very 
watchword  of  a  soldier ;  and  oven  Prof.  Huxley  would  not  sug- 
gest that  Lord  Tonnyaou's  ode,  which  has  embodied  this  charac- 
'teristic  in  immortal  verse,  was  an  unfounded  poetical  romance. 

The  main  question  at  issue,  in  a  word,  is  one  which  Prof,  Hux- 
ley has  chosen  to  leave  entirely  on  one  side — whether,  namely, 
^allowing  for  the  utmost  uncertainty  on  other  points  of  the  criti- 
Icism  to  which  ho  appeals,  there  is  any  reasonable  doubt  that  the 
Xord*s  Prayer  and  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  afford  a  true  account 
of  our  Lord's  essential  belief  and  ca,rdinal  teaching.    If  they  do — 
^then  I  am  not  now  contending  that  they  involve  the  whole  of 
the  Christian  creed;  I  am  not  arguing,  as  Prof.  Huxley  would 
represent,  that  ho  ought  for  that  reason  alone  to  be  a  Christian — 
|1  simply  represent  that,  as  an  agnostic,  he  must  regard  those  be- 
liefs and  that  teaching  as  mistaken — the  result  of  an  illusion,  to 
ky  the  least.     I  am  not  going,  therefore,  to  follow  Prof.  Hux- 
[ley's  example,  and  go  do^vn  a  steep  place  with  the  Gadarene  swine 
ito  a  sea  of  uncertainties  and  x>ossibilities,  and  stake  the  whole 
case  of  Christian  belief  as  against  agnosticism  upon  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  mysterious  narratives  in  the  New  Testament. 
I  will  state  my  position  on  that  question  presently.    But  I  am 
first  and  chiefly  cx^ncerned  to  point  out  that  Prof.  Huxley  has 
skillfully  evad(?d  the  very  point  and  edge  of  the  argument  he  had 
to  meet.    Let  him  raise  what  difficulties  he  pleases,  with  the  help 
of  his  favorite  critics,  about  the  Gadarene  swine,  or  even  about 
all  the  stories  of  demoniacs.    He  will  find  that  his  critics — and 
leven  critics  more  rationalistic  than  they — fail  him  when  it  comes 
the  Lord  s  Prayer  and  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and,  I  will 
Id,  the  story  of  the  Passioa,    He  will  find,  or  rather  he  must 
[have  found,  that  the  very  critics  he  relies  upon  recognize  that  in 
le  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  allowing  for 
''ariations  in  form  and  order,  the  substance  of  our  Lord's  essential 
jhing  is  preserved.     On  a  point  which,  until  Prof,  Huxley 
'8  CATise  to  the  contrary,  can  hardly  want  argument,  the  judg- 
lent  of  the  most  recent  of  his  witnesses   may  suffice — Prof. 
Heuss,  of  Strasburg.    In  Prof.  Huxley's  article  on  the  *'  Evolution 
of  Theology"  in  the  number  of   this  review  for  March,  188t>, 


ro 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY 


he  says^ "  As  Reuss  appears  to  me  to  be  one  of  the  most  leamc 
acute,  and  fair-mindod  of  those  whose  works  I  have  studied, 
have  made  most  use  of  the  commentary  aud  dissertations  in 
splendid  French  edition  of  the  Bible,"    What,  then,  is  the  opin- 
ion of  the  critic  for  whom  Prof.  Huxley  hae  this  regard  ?    In  tht 
volume  of  his  work  which  treats  of  the  first  three  Grospels,  Rei 
Bays  at  page  191-193,  "If  anywhere  the  tra<iition  which  has  pre- 
served to  us  the  reminiscences  of  the  life  of  Jesus  upon  earth  car- 
ries with  it  certainty  and  the  evidence  of  its  lidtdity,  it  is  here''; 
and  again  \  "  In  short,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  redactor^ 
in  thus  concentrating  the  substance  of  the  moral  teaching  of  tht 
Lord,  has  rendered  a  real  service  to  the  religious  study  of  thi 
portion  of  the  tradition,  and  the  reserves  which  historical  criti* 
cism  has  a  right  to  make  with  respect  to  the  form  will  in  no  wai 
diminish  this  advantage."    It  will  be  observed  that  Prof.  Reuj 
thinks,  as  many  gowi  critics  have  thougJit,  that  the  Sermon 
the  Mount  combines  various  distinct  utterances  of  our  Lord,  bul 
he  none  the  less  recognizes  that  it  embodies  an  unquestionabh 
account  of  the  substance  of  our  Lord's  teaching- 

But  it  is  surely  superfluous  to  argue  either  this  particuli 
point,  or  the  main  conclusion  which  I  have  founded  on  it,  Ci 
there  bo  any  doubt  whatever,  in  the  mind  of  any  reasonable  mai 
that  Jesus  Christ  had  beliefs  respecting  God  which  an  agnostic 
alleges  there  is  no  sufRcient  ground  for  ?  We  know  something 
all  events  of  what  his  disciples  taught;  we  have  authentic  origi- 
nal documents,  unquestioned  by  any  of  Prof.  Huxley's  authori- 
ties, as  to  what  St.  Paul  taught  and  believed,  and  of  what  h( 
taught  and  believed  respecting  his  Master's  teaching;  and  th( 
central  point  of  this  teaching  is  a  direct  asseilion  of  knowledge 
and  revelation  as  against  the  very  agnosticism  from  which  Proi 
Huxley  manufactured  that  designation.  "  As  I  passed  by,' 
St;  Paul  at  Athens,  "  I  found  an  altar  with  this  inscripti< 
'To  the  unknown  God/  Whom  therefor©  ye  ignorantly — or 
agnosticism — worship,  Him  I  declare  unto  you."  An  agnostic 
withhohls  his  assent  from  this  primary  article  of  the  Chi 
tian  creed ;  and  though  Prof.  Huxley,  in  spite  of  the  lack  of 
formation  he  alleges  respecting  early  Christian  teaching,  kuoi 
enough  on  the  subject  to  have  a  firm  belief  "  that  the  Nazaren^ 
say  of  the  year  40,"  headed  by  James,  would  have  stoned 
who  projwunded  the  Nicene  Creed  to  them,  he  will  bar* . 
tend  that  they  denied  that  article,  or  doubted  that  Jesus  Chi 
believed  it.  Let  us  again  listen  to  the  authority  to  whcr- 
Huxley  himself  refers.  Reuss  says  at  page  4  of  the  work 
quoted : 

HlitoricftUiteraturo  in  the  primitive  t'burcli  a(t:: 
tli&t*  maaoer  to  ib9  MiniaXforaoai  uoUocCed  bjr  t 


AGNOSTICISM, 


n 


ilirootly  after  their  scparatloD  from  their  Master.  The  need  of  sncb  a  return  to 
tUe  pa«t  arose  oaturaJly  from  the  profound  imprCBsioD  which  bad  been  made  upon 
tlieni  by  the  teaching,  and  still  more  bjr  the  iDdividaality  itself  of  .Josua,  and  on 
which  both  their  hope*  for  the  future  arid  their  conviction!  were  founded.  ...  It 
is  in  these  facU,  in  this  continuitj  of  a  tradition  Trbich  could  not  but  f^o  back  to 
tbe  very  morrow  of  the  tragio  Bocne  of  Golgotha  that  wo  have  a  titrong  guflranteej 
for  ila  authenticity.  ...  We  have  direct  historical  proof  tliat  the  thread  of  tradi- 
tion waa  not  interrupted.  Not  only  does  one  of  our  evangelints  ftirnish  tbia  proof 
in  formal  terms  (Luke  i,  2);  but  in  many  other  p1ace«  besides  wo  porceire  tho 
idea,  or  the  point  of  view,  that  nil  which  the  apostles  know,  think,  and  teach,  is  oG 
bottom  and  oascntially  a  reminisceooe— a  reflection  of  what  they  have  seen  end 
learned  at  another  time,  a  reproduction  of  lessons  and  impressionii  received. 


Now  let.  it  be  allowed  for  ar^ment's  sake  that  the  belief  ani 

;bing  of  the  apostles  are  distinct  from  those  of  subsequent 
Christianity,  yet  it  is  surely  a  mere  paradox  to  maintain  that 
>y  did  not  assert,  as  taught  by  their  Master,  truths  which  an 

lostic  denies.  They  certainly  spoke,  as  Paul  did,  of  the  love  of 
GKkI;  they  certainly  spoke,  as  Paul  did,  of  Jesus  having  been 
raised  from  the  dead  by  God  the  Father  (Gal.  i,  1) ;  they  certainly 
spoke,  as  Paul  did,  of  Jesus  Christ  returning  to  judge  the  world  ; 
they  certainly  spoke,  as  Paul  did,  of  "  the  God  and  Father  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (2  Cor.  xi,  31).  That  they  could  have  done 
this  without  Jesus  Christ  having  taught  God's  love,  or  hav- 
ing stiid  that  Got!  was  his  Father,  or  having  declared  that  he 
would  judge  the  world,  is  a  supposition  which  will  certainly  bo 
regarded  by  an  overwhelming  majority  of  reasonable  men  aa 
mere  paradox ;  and  I  can  not  conceive,  until  he  says  so,  that  Prof. 
Huxley  would  maintain  it.  But  if  so,  then  all  Prof.  Huxley's 
argumentation  about  the  Gadarono  swine  is  more  irrelevance  to 
the  argument  he  undertakes  to  answer.  The  Gospels  might  be 
obliterated  as  evidence  to-morrow,  and  it  would  remain  indisput- 
able that  Jesus  Christ  taught  certain  truths  respecting  God,  and 
l's  relation  to  God,  from  which  an  agnostic  withholds  his 
it.  If  so,  he  does  not  believe  Jesus  Christ's  teaching ;  he  is 
80  far  an  unboliever,  and  "  unbeliever,"  Dr.  Johnson  says,  is  an 
equivalent  of  "  infidel." 

This  consideration  will  indicate  another  irrelevance  in  Prof. 
Huxley's  argument.  He  asks  for  a  definition  of  what  a  Cliristian 
is,  before  he  will  allow  that  he  can  be  justly  called  an  infideL 
But  without  being  able  to  give  an  accurate  definition  of  a  cray- 
fish, which  perhaps  only  Prof.  Huxley  could  do,  I  may  be  very, 
well  able  to  say  that  some  creatures  are  not  crayfish;  and  it  is  not' 
necessary  to  frame  a  definition  of  a  Christian  in  order  to  say  con- 
fidently that  a  person  who  does  not  believe  the  broad  and  -unqne*-^ 
tionable  elements  of  Christ's  teachings  and  convictions  is  not 
Christian*  "  Infidel "  or  **  unbeliever  "  is  of  course,  as  Prof.  Huxley 


7» 


TEB  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT, 


ijB,  a  relative  and  not  a  positive  term.    He  makes  a  great  di 
[of  play  out  of  what  lie  seems  to  suppose  will  be  a  vc*r}^  painfull 
'&nd  surprising  consideration  to  myself,  that  to  a  Mohauimudan  I] 
am  an  infidel.     Of  course  I  am;  and  I  should  never  expect 
Mohammedan,  if  he  were  called  upon,  as  I  was,  to  ar^e  before] 
an  assembly  of  his  own  fellow-believers,  to  call  me  anything  else. 
Prof.  Huxley  is  good  enough  to  imagine  me  in  his  company  on  »i 
visit  to  the  Hazar  Mosque  at  Cairo.    When  he  entered  that] 
mosque  without  due  credentials,  he  suspects  that,  had  he  under-J 
stood  Arabic,  **  dog  of  an  intidel  "  would  have  been  by  no  meai 
the  most  "unpleasant"  of  the  epithets  showered  upon  him,  befoi 
he  could  explain  and  apologize  for  the  mistake.    If ,  he  says,  **  Ij 
hod  hfwl  the  pleasure  of  Dr.  Waco's  company  on  that  occasion,! 
the  uudiscrimi native  followers  of  the  Prophet  would,  I  am  afraid,j 
have  made  no  difference  between  us  j  not  even  if  they  had  known 
that  he  was  tlio  head  of  an  orthodox.  Christian  seminary."    Prob-| 
ably  not;  and  I  will  mid  that  I  should  have  felt  very  little  confi' 
dence  in  any  attempts  which  Prof.  Huxley  might  have  made, 
the  style  of  his  present  article,  to  protect  me,  by  repudiating  for] 
himself  the  unpleasant  epitliets  which  he  dejirucatea.     It  would,  I' 
suspect,  have  been  of  very  little  avail  to  attempt  a  subtle  explana- 
tion, to  one  of  the  learned  mollahs  of  whom  ho  speaks,  that  ha 
really  did  not  mean  to  deny  that  there  was  one  God,  but  only^ 
that  he  did  not  know  anything  on  the  subject,  and  that  hoJ 
desired  to  avoid  expressing  any  opinion  respecting  the  claims  of] 
Mohammed.     It  would  be  plain  to  the  learned  mollah  that  Prof, 
Huxley  did  not  believe  either  of  the  articles  of  the  Mohammedan 
creed — in  other  words  that,  for  all  his  fine  distinctions,  he  was  a1 
bottom  a  downright  infidel,  such  as  I  confessed  myself,  and  that 
there  was  an  end  of  the  matter.    There  is  no  fair  way  of  avoiding 
the  plain  matter  of  fact  in  either  case.    A  Mohammedan  believes 
and  asserts  that  there  is  no  God  but  Go<],  and  that  Mohammed  is^ 
the  prophet  of  God,    I  don't  believe  Mnharamed.    In  the  plain,: 
blunt,  sensible  phrase  people  used  to  use  on  such  subjects  I  be-| 
lieve  he  was  a  false  prophet,  and  I  am  a  downright  infidel  about 
him.    The  Christian  creed  might  almost  be  summed  up  in  the| 
Insertion  that  there  is  one,  and  but  one  God,  and  that  Jesnaj 
Christ  is  his  prophet ;  and  whoever  denies  that  creed  says  that  hi 
does  not  believe  Jesus  Christ,  l>y  whom  it  was  undoubtedly  as- 
serted.   It  is  better  to  look  facts  in  the  face,  especially  from  a 
scientific  point  of  view.    Whether  Prof.  Huxley  is  justified  in  bif 
deuial  of  that  creed  is  a  further  question,  which  demands  sojuiral 
consideration,  but  which  was  not,  and  is  not  now,  at  issue.    ATI 
[«ay  is  that  his  position  involves  that  disbelief  or  infidel^' 
it  this  is  a  responsibility  which  must  bo   Tu'imI   by   . 
ticism. 


AGirOSTICTSM. 


73 


But  I  am  forced  to  conclude  that  Prof.  Huxley  can  not  have 
taken  the  pains  to  understand  the  point  I  raised,  not  only  by  the 
irrelevnnce  of  hi«  argument  on  these  considerations,  but  by  a  mis- 
quotation which  the  superior  accuracy  of  a  man  of  science  ought 
to  have  rendered  impossible.  Twice  over  in  the  article  he  quotes 
me  as  saying  that "  it  is,  and  it  ought  to  bo,  an  iinpleasant  thing 
for  a  man  to  have  to  say  plainly  that  he  does  not  believe  in  Jesus ' 
Christ."  As  he  winds  up  his  atta^ik  upon  my  paper  by  bringing 
against  this  statement  his  rather  favorite  charge  of  '*  immorality  " 
— and  even  "  most  profound  immorality  " — he  was  the  more  bound 
to  accuracy  in  his  quotation  of  my  words.  But  neither  in  the  offi- 
cial report  of  the  congress  to  which  he  refers,  nor  in  any  report 
that  I  have  seen,  is  this  the  statement  attributed  to  me.  What  I 
said,  and  what  I  meant  to  say,  was  that  it  ought  to  be  an  unpleas- 
ant thing  for  a  man  to  have  to  say  plainly  "that  he  does  not' 
believe  Jesus  Christ."  By  inserting  the  little  word  "in,"  Prof. 
Huxley  has,  by  an  unconscious  ingenuity,  shifted  the  import  of 
the  statement.  He  goes  on  to  denounce  **the  pestilent  doctrine 
on  which  all  the  churches  have  insisted,  that  honest  disbelief  in 
their  more  or  less  astonishing  creeds  is  a  moral  offense,  indeed 
a  sin  of  the  deepest  dye."  *  His  interpretation  exhibits,  in  fact, 
the  idea  in  his  own  mind,  which  he  has  doubtless  conveyed  to 
his  readers,  that  I  said  it  ought  to  be  unpleasant  to  a  man  to 
have  to  say  that  he  does  not  believe  in  the  Christian  creed.  I  cer- 
tainly think  it  ought,  for  reasons  I  will  mention  ;  but  that  is  not 
what  I  said.  I  spoke,  deliberately,  not  of  the  Cliristian  creed  as  a 
whole,  but  of  Jesus  Christ  us  a  person,  and  regarded  as  a  witness 
to  certain  primary  truths  which  an  agnostic  will  not  acknowledge. 
It  was  a  personal  consideration  to  which  I  appealed,  and  not  a 
dogmatic  one;  and  I  am  sorry,  for  that  reason,  that  Prof.  Huxley 
will  not  allow  me  to  leave  it  in  the  reserve  with  which  I  hoped  it 
had  been  sufficiently  indicated.  I  said  that  "no  criticism  worth 
mentioning  doubts  the  story  of  the  Passion;  and  that  story  in- 
volves the  most  solemn  attestation,  again  and  again,  of  truths  of 
which  an  agnostic  coolly  says  he  knows  nothing.  An  agnosticism 
which  knows  nothing  of  the  relation  of  man  to  God  must  not  only 
refuse  belief  to  our  Lord's  most  undoubted  teaching,  but  must 
deny  the  reality  of  the  spiritual  convictions  in  which  he  lived  and 
died.  It  must  declare  that  his  most  intimate,  most  intense  beliefs, 
and  his  dying  aspirations  were  an  illusion.  Is  that  supposition 
tolerable?"  I  do  not  think  this  deserves  to  be  called  "a  proptv 
sition  of  the  most  profoundly  immoral  character."  I  think  it 
ought  to  bo  unpleasant,  and  I  am  sure  it  always  will  be  unpleas- 
ant, for  a  man  to  listen  to  the  Saviour  on  the  cross  uttering  such 
words  as  "  Father,  into  thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit,"  and  to 

•  "  Popular  Scicace  110011117  '*  '<>'  April,  1889,  p.  TOfi. 


74 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT, 


say  that  they  are  not  to  be  trusted  as  revealing  a  real  relation  b^ 
^tween  the  Saviour  and  God.  In  spite  of  all  doubts  as  to  tbo  accu- 
racy of  the  Gospels,  Jesus  Christ — I  trust  I  may  be  forgiven,  under 
the  stress  of  controversy,  for  mentioning  his  sacred  name  in  ILifl 
too  familiar  manner — is  a  tender  and  saci'ed  figure  to  all  thought- 
ful minds,  and  it  is,  it  ought  to  be,  and  it  always  yn\\  be,  a  verj 
painful  thing,  to  say  that  he  lived  and  died  under  a  mistake  in  t©-j 
spect  to  the  words  which  were  first  and  last  on  his  lips,  I  think, 
as  I  have  admitted,  tliat  it  should  be  unpleasant  fur  a  man  who 
has  as  much  appreciation  of  Chi'istianity,  and  of  its  work  in  the 
world,  as  Prof.  Huxley  sometimes  shows,  to  have  to  say  that  Jt« 
belief  was  founded  on  no  objective  reality.  The  unpleasantness, 
however,  of  denying  one  system  of  thought  may  be  balanced  by 
the  pleasantness,  as  Prof.  Huxley  suggests,  of  asserting  another 
and  a  better  one.  But  nothing,  to  all  time,  can  do  away  with  th 
unpleasantness,  not  only  of  repudiating  sympatliy  with  the  most 
sacred  figure  of  humanity  in  his  deepest  beliefs  and  feelings,  but^ 
of  pronouncing  him  under  an  illusion  in  his  last  agony.  If  it 
the  truth,  let  it  by  all  meaus  bo  said  ;  but  if  we  are  to  talk  of  "  im- 
morality "  in  such  matters,  I  think  there  must  be  a  lack  of  moral 
[Bonsibility  in  any  man  who  could  say  it  without  pain. 

The  plain  fact  is  that  this  misquotation  would  have  been 
impossible  as  a  good  deal  else  of  Prof.  Huxley's  argument, 
he,  in  any  degree,  appreciated  the  real  strength  of  the  hold  which 
Christianity  has  over  meu*s  hearts  and  minds.     The  strength  of 
the  Christian  Church,  in  spite  of  its  faults,  errors,  and  omissions, 
is  not  in  its  creed,  but  in  its  Lord  and  Master.    In  spite  of  all  the 
critics,  the  Gospels  have  conveyed  to  the  minds  of  millions  of  ineu 
a  living  imago  of  Christ.     They  see  him  there;  they  hear  his 
voice ;  they  listen,  and  they  believe  him.    It  is  not  so  much  tha 
they  accept  certain  doctrines  as  taught  by  him,  as  that  they 
oept  him,  himself,  as  their  Lord  and  their  God.    The  sacred  fir©  o 
trust  in  him  descended  ujK)n  the  apostles,  and  has  from  them  been 
Landed  on  from  generation  to  generation.     It  is  with  tliat  livingj 
personal  figure  that  agnosticism  has  to  deal ;  and  as  long  as  tin 
Gospels  practically  produce  the  effect  of  making  that  figure 
reality  to  human  hearts,  so  long  will  the  Christian  faith,  and  tho 
Christian  Church,  in  their  main  characteristics,  be  vital  and  per 
manent  forces  in  the  world.    Prof.  Huxley  tells  us,  in  a  melan 
choly  passage,  that  he  can  not  define  '*  the  grand  figure  of  Jesus." 
Wlio  shall  dare  to  "  define  "  it  ?     But  saints  have  both  writte 
and  lived  an  imilnfio  Clirisii,  and  men  and  women  can  feel 
know  what  they  can  not  define.     Prof.  Huxley,  it  would  seem 
would  have  us  all  wait  coolly  until  we  have  solved  all  critical 
difficulties,  before  acting  on  such  a  belief,    '*  Because,"  he 
**  wo  are  often  obliged,  by  the  pressure  of  events,  to  act  on 


4 


ttenM 
atu^l 


AOI^OSTICTSM. 


75 


bad  ovidence,  it  does  not  follow  iliat  it  is  proper  to  act  on  such 
evidence  when  the  pressure  is  absent."  Certainly  not ;  but  it  is 
strange  ignorance  of  human  nature  for  Prof.  Huxley  to  imagine 
that  thero  is  no  "  pressure  "  in  this  matter.  It  was  a  voice  which 
understood  the  human  heart  bettor  which  said,  "  Coiuo  unto  me, 
all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy  laden^  and  I  will  give  you 
reet " ;  and  the  attraction  of  that  voice  outweighs  many  a  crit- 
ical difficulty  under  the  pressure  of  the  burdens  and  the  sing 
of  life. 

Prof,  Huxley,  indeed,  admits,  in  one  sentence  of  his  article,  the 
force  of  this  iulluence  on  individuals. 

If  (he  Mjs)  a  man  can  find  a  friend,  the  hjposUsis  of  all  his  hopes,  the  mirror 
of  hia  ethical  ideal,  id  the  pages  of  any,  or  of  all^  of  the  Goi)[>ela,  let  him  live  byj 
faith  in  thai  ideal.  Who  shall,  or  can,  forbid  himf  But  let  him  not  delndo  him* 
frolf  with  the  notion  that  hia  faith  is  evideaco  of  the  objective  reolit^r  uf  that  in 
which  be  trusts.  Such  evidcoce  is  to  he  obtained  only  hy  the  nse  of  the  methods 
of  aoi«nce,  as  applied  to  history  and  to  literature,  and  it  amounU  at  present  to 
▼erj  UtUe. 

Well,  a  single  man's  belief  in  an  ideal  may  be  very  little  evi- 
dence of  its  objective  reality.  But  the  conviction  of  millions  of 
men,  generation  after  generation,  of  the  veracity  of  the  four  evan- 
gelical witnesses,  and  of  the  human  and  divine  reality  of  the  fig- 
ure they  describe,  has  at  least  something  of  the  weight  of  the  ver- 
dict of  a  jury.  Securus  judical  orbia  terrarwm.  Practically  the 
figure  of  Christ  lives.  The  Gospels  have  created  it ;  and  it  sub- 
sists as  a  personal  fact  in  life,  alike  among  believers  and  unbeliev- 
ers. Prof.  Huxley  himself,  in  spite  of  all  his  skepticism,  appears 
to  have  his  own  type  of  this  character.  The  apologue  of  the 
woman  taken  in  adultery  might,  he  says,  "if  internal  evidence 
were  an  infallible  guide,  well  be  affirmed  to  bo  a  typical  example 
of  the  teachings  of  Jesus."  Internal  e\'idence  may  not  be  an  infal- 
lible guide ;  but  it  certainly  carries  great  weight,  and  no  one  has 
relied  more  upon  it  in  these  questions  than  the  critics  whom  Prof. 
Huxley  quotes. 

But  as  I  should  be  sorry  to  imitate  Prof.  Huxley,  on  so  mo- 
mentous a  subject,  by  evading  the  arguments  and  facts  he  alleges, 
I  will  consider  the  question  of  external  evidence  on  which  ho' 
dwells.  I  must  repeat  that  the  argument  of  my  paper  is  independ- 
ent of  this  controversy.  The  fact  that  our  Lord  taught  and  be- 
lieved what  agnostics  ignore  is  not  dependent  on  the  criticism  of 
the  four  Gosijels.  lu  addition  to  the  general  evidence  to  which  I 
have  alluded,  there  is  a  further  consideration  which  Prof.  Huxley 
feels  it  necessary  to  mention,  but  which  he  evades  by  an  extraor- 
dinary inconsequenca  He  alleges  that  the  story  of  the  Qadareno 
swine  involves  fabulous  matter,  and  that  this  discredits  the  trust- 
worthiness of  the  whole  (Jospel  record.    But  he  says : 


76 


THE  POPULAR  SCTEJ^CE  MONTHLT, 


At  Uiia  point  a  verj  obviond  objection  arises  and  dcserree  fall  nnd  CAndid  oqd< 
sideration.  It  may  bo  &iud  that  critical  flkepticism  carried  to  the  length  saggttstet 
U  historical  pyrrbouibm^  that  if  we  are  to  altogether  dit^credit  on  aiicienl  or 

lodem  hiiitorian  becaiue  ho  bis  uaunicd  fabulous  matter  to  be  true,  it  will  be  u 
'well  to  give  up  paying  any  attention  to  history.  ...  Of  conrse  (lie  ocknowlftdgea) 
thia  is  perfectly  true.  I  am  afraid  there  is  no  man  oUvo  who»e  witnet»  could  be 
accepted,  if  the  condition  precedent  were  proof  th&t  be  had  never  invented  and, 
promulgated  a  myth. 

The  question,  theiiy  which  Prof.  Huxley  himself  raises,  azii 
which  he  had  to  answer,  was  this :  Why  is  the  general  e^^dence  o 
the  Gospels,  on  the  main  facts  of  our  Lord's  life  and  teachings  to 
ibe  discredited,  even  if  it  be  true  that  they  have  invented  or  pro- 
mulgated a  myth  about  the  Gadarene  swine  ?    What  is  his  answer 
to  that  simple  and  broad  question  ?    Strange  to  say,  absolutely; 
none  at  all!    Ho  leaves  this  vital  question  without  any  answer,, 
and  goes  back  to  the  Gadarene  swine.      The  question  he  raises 
^whether  the  8upp<.»sed  incredibility  of  the  story  of  the  Gad 
Bwino  involves  the  general  untrustworthiness  of  the  story  of  th 
Gospels;  and  hia  conclusion  is  that  it  involves  the  incredibility 
the  story  of  the  Gadarene  swine,    A  more  complete  evasion  of  hia 
rpwn  question  it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine.    As  Prof.  Huxley  al- 
lost  challenges  me  to  state  what  I  tliiuk  of  that  story,  I  have  only 
to  say  that  I  fully  believe  it,  and  moreover  tliat  Prof.  Huxley,  i 
thia  very  article,  has  removed  the  only  consideration  which  would 
have  been  a  serious  obstacle  to  my  belief.    If  he  were  prepared  to 
•Bay,  on  his  high  scientific  authority,  that  the  narrative  involves  a 
contradiction  of  established  scientific  trutli,  I  could  not  but  defer 
to  such  a  decision,  and  I  might  be  driven  to  consider  those  possi 
bilities  of  interiwlation  in  the  narrative,  which  Prof.  Huxley  is 
good  enough  to  suggest  to  all  who  feel  the  improbability  of  the 
fltory  too  much  for  them.    But  Prof.  Huxley  expressly  says : 

I  admit  I  have  no  a  priori  objection  to  offer.  .  .  ,  For  anything  1  oto 
lately  prove  to  the  contrary,  there  may  be  spiritual  thinga  capable  of  the 
transmigration t  with  like  effects.  ...  So  I  declare,  as  plainly  as  I  can,  tlint  I  am 
unable  to  show  caose  why  those  tronaforable  devils  should  not  exist. 


of 


a 
I  the^ 


Very  well,  then,  as  the  highest  science  of  the  day  is  unable  to] 
^show  cause  against  the  possibility  of  the  narrative,  and  as  I  regarclj 
the  Gospels  as  containing  the  evidence  of  trustworthy  persons  who] 
were  contemporary  with  the  events  narrated,  and  as  their  genwi 
voracity  carries  to  my  mind  the  greatest  possible  weighty  I  acccpi 
tlieir  statement  in  this,  as  in  other  instances.    Prof.  Huxit 
urea  "  to  doubt  whether  at  this  present  moment  any  Pr^ 
theologian,  who  has  a  reputation  to  lose,  will  say  that  he  believi 
r     >^*    ^ireno  story."    He  will  judi?e  whether  1  fall  under  hia 
^      .       fi ;  but  I  repeat  that  I  believe  it,  and  that  hu  has 
the  only  objection  to  my  believing  it. 


AGNOSTICISM. 


77 


However,  to  tnm  finally  to  the  important  fact  of  external  evi- 
dence. Prof.  Huxley  reiterates,  again  and  again,  that  the  ver- 
pdict  of  scientific  criticism  is  decisive  against  the  supposition  that 
'wo  possess  in  the  four  Gospels  the  authentic  and  contemporary 
evidence  of  known  writers.  He  rei)eats,  "without  the  slightest, 
fear  of  refutation,  that  the  four  Gospels,  as  they  have  come  to  us,) 
are  the  work  of  unknown  writers."  In  particular,  ho  challengeSij 
my  allegation  of  *'  M.  Kenan's  practical  sunender  of  the  adverse 
case  " ;  and  he  adds  the  following  observations,  to  which  I  beg  the 
reader's  particular  attention : 

I  thought  (ho  says)  I  knew  M.  Kenan's  works  protty  -well,  hut  I  hare  contrived] 
to  lultw  this  "  practical" — (I  wish  Or.  Wa*:©  had  defined  ibe  scope  of  that  naeful 
adjecttve)— sarronder.  Uowovor,  as  Dr.  Woce  can  find  no  difficoltj  in  pointing 
oat  the  passage  of  M.  Renan^s  writinga,  hy  which  ho  feeld  justified  in  making  hia 
vtatemeotY  I  shall  wait  for  further  culightenmont,  contenting  mjscif,  for  the  pres- 
ent, with  remarking  that  if  M.  Renan  were  to  rotroct  aud  do  pcnanco  in  Notr© 
Dame  to-morrow  for  any  wmlribntiona  to  biblical  orilii'ism  that  may  bo  specially 
his  property,  the  maia  ro6ultB  ol*  that  criticism,  as  they  are  act  forth  in  the  works 
of  Straoss,  tiaor,  ReosSf  and  Volfcmar,  for  example,  would  not  be  sensibly  affected. 

Let  me  begin,  then,  by  enlightening  Prof.  Huxley  about  M. 
Renan*s  surrender.  I  have  the  less  diificully  in  doing  bo  as  the 
passages  he  has  contrived  to  miss  have  been  collected  by  me  al- 
ready in  a  little  tract  on  the  "  Authenticity  of  the  Gospels/'  *  and 
in  some  lectures  on  the  "  Gospel  and  its  Witnesses  *' ;  f  aud  I  shall 
take  the  liberty,  for  convenience'  sake,  of  repeating  some  of  the 
observations  there  made. 

I  beg  first  to  refer  to  the  preface  to  M.  Kenan's  "  Vie  de  J^sus."  | 
There  M.  Renan  says : 

Aa  to  Lnkc,  doubt  U  scarcely  possible.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  is  a  regular 
composition,  founded  upon  earlier  docamenta.  It  is  the  work  of  an  aathor  who 
chooaes,  cortailit,  combines.  The  anthor  of  this  Gospel  is  certainly  the  same  as  the 
anthnr  of  the  Acts  of  Che  Apostles.  Kow,  the  nnthor  of  the  Acts  seems  to  be  a 
companion  of  8t.  Paul — a  character  which  accords  oompletely  ivith  St.  Luke.  I 
know  that  more  than  one  objection  mny  be  opposed  to  this  reasoning;  but  ono 
thing  at  all  events  is  beyond  donbt,  namely,  that  the  author  of  the  third  Gospel 
and  of  the  Acts  ta  a  man  who  belonired  to  the  seoood  apostolic  generation;  and 
this  suffices  for  oar  purpose.  The  date  of  this  Gospel,  moreover,  may  be  deter- 
mined with  snflicieDt  precision  by  conaideratioos  drawn  from  the  book  itself.  The 
twenty- firat  chapter  of  SL  Luke,  which  is  inseparable  from  the  rest  of  the  work, 
was  certainly  written  after  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  but  not  long  after.  We  are, 
therefore,  hero  on  solid  ground,  for  we  are  dealing  with  a  work  prooeeding  en- 
tirely from  the  same  hand,  and  poaaessing  the  most  complete  unity.  j 

It  may  be  important  to  observe  that  this  admission  has  been 
supported  by  M.  Kenan's  further  investigations,  as  expressed  in 
his  subsequent  volume  on  "The  Apostles."    In  the  preface  to  that 

*  Bel%ioai  Tract  Society.        f  John  Murray,  1883.        %  Fiftoealh  edition,  p.  xHx. 


^  TffE  POPULAR  SCrsyCS  MONTELT. 

yolame  ho  discusses  fully  the  nature  and  value  of  the  narrati^ 
contained  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  he  pronounces  f  h«  fol- 
lowing decided  opinions  as  to  the  authorshij*  of  that  hook,  and  il 
connection  with  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  (page  x  sq,) : 

One  point  wliicli  is  beyond  qQe«tioa  is  tlist  tho  Acts  ore  by  the  «un«  aathor  m 

tb«  third  Gospel,  and  &re  a  continuation  of  tb&t  Gospel.     Que  need  oot  «top  to 

[/prove  this  propomtion.  which  hns  never  been  serioofilT  coDt^tod.    The  prefaces  (U 

le  oorom  en  cement  of  onrh  work,  ibe  dedication  of  each  to  Tbcophnns,  the  perfect 

lemblonoe  of  style  and  of  ideas,  famish  on  this  point  abundant  deaonstraUotu. 

A  second  proposition,  which  has  not  the  same  certainty,  but  which  may,  how* 

erer,  be  regarded  a»  extremely  probable,  is  that  the  author  of  the  Acta  is  a  diAcij 

of  Paal,  who  accompanied  him  for  a  considerable  part  of  bis  travels. 

At  a  first  glance,  M.  Renan  observes,  this  proposition  appeal 
indubitable,  from  the  fact  that  the  author,  on  bo  many  occasionflJ 
uses  tho  pronoun  "  we,"  indicating  that  on  those  occasions  he  waa 
one  of  the  apostolic  band  by  "whom  St.  Paul  was  accompanied, 
"One  may  even  be  astonished  that  a  proposition  apparently  so] 
(evident  should  have  found  persons  to  contest  it."  He  noti( 
h-owevor,  the  difficulties  which  have  been  raised  on  tho  point,  and 
then  proceeds  as  follows  (page  \i) : 

Mnst  we  be  checked  by  these  objeetlonsf  I  think  not;  and  I  persist  In  b^ 
Ueving  that  the  person  who  finally  prepared  the  Acts  is  really  the  disciple  of  Paal, 
who  says  **  wo*'  in  the  last  chapters.  All  difficnlties,  however  insoluble  they  may 
appear,  ooght  to  be,  if  not  dismissed,  at  leojtt  held  in  suspense,  by  on  argomeitt  to 
decisive  aa  that  which  resnita  from  the  nse  of  this  word  '*  we.'* 

He  then  observes  that  MSS.  and  tradition  combine  in  assigning! 
the  third  Gospel  to  a  certain  Luke,  and  that  it  is  scarcely  conceiv- 
able that  a  name  in  other  respects  obscuj'e  should  have  been.] 
attributed  to  so  important  a  work  for  any  other  reason  than  thai 
it  was  the  name  of  the  real  author.    Luke,  he  says,  had  no  pi 
in  tradition,  in  legend,  or  in  history,  when  these  two  treatises  were] 
ascribed  to  him.    M.  Renan  concludes  in  the  following  words 
"  We  think,  therefore,  that  tlie  author  of  the  third  Gospel  and  of  j 
the  Acts  is  in  all  reality  Luke,  the  disciple  of  Paul." 

Now  let  the  import  of  these  expressions  of  opinion  be  dul] 
weighed.    Of  course,  l^L  Renan's  judgments  are  not  to  be  regards 

affording  in  themselves  any  adnquate  basis  for  oiir  acceptaui 
fcf  the  authenticity  of  the  chief  books  of  the  New  Testament  Tho| 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  four  Gospels  bear  on  their  faco 
tain  positive  claims,  on  the  faith  of  which  they  have  been  accept 
in  all  ago8  of  tho  Church;  and  they  do  not  rest,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, on  the  authority  of  any  modem  critic.  But  though  H«j 
Renan  would  be  a  very  unsatisfactory  witness  to  rel\ 
the  purpose  of  positive  testimony  to  tho  Gospels,  his  t 
the  value  of  modom  critical  objections  to  those  sacred  books  ha^ 


AGNOSTICISM, 


79 


all  the  weight  of  the  admissions  of  a  hostile  witness.  No  one 
doubts  hia  familiarity  with  the  whole  range  of  the  criticism  rep- 
resented by  such  names  as  Strauss  and  Baur,and  no  one  questions 
his  disposition  to  give  full  weight  to  every  objection  which  that 
criticism  c^n  urge.  Even  without  assuming  that  he  is  prejudicc*d 
on  either  one  side  or  the  other,  it  will  be  admitted  on  all  hands 
that  he  is  more  favorably  disposed  than  otherwise  to  such  criti- 
cism as  Prof.  Huxley  relies  on.  When,  therefore,  with  this  full 
knowledge  of  the  literature  of  the  subject^  such  a  writer  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  criticism  in  question  has  entirely  failed  to 
make  good  its  case  on  a  point  like  that  of  the  authorship  of  St. 
Lnke's  Gospel,  we  are  at  least  justified  in  concluding  that  critical 
objections  do  not  possess  the  weight  which  unbelievers  or  skeptics 
are  wont  to  assign  to  them.  M.  Renan,  in  a  word,  is  no  adequate 
ivitness  to  the  Gosj>el8 ;  but  he  is  a  very  significant  witness  as  to 
the  value  of  modern  critical  objections  to  them. 

Let  us  pass  to  the  two  other  so-called  "  synoptical "  Gospels. 
"With  respect  to  St.  Matthew,  M.  Renan  says  in  the  same  preface 
("  Vie  de  J^sus  "  p.  Ixxxi) : 

To  Bum  np,  I  admit  tbo  foar  canonfcal  GoBpola  as  Mriona  docnmcnts.  All  go 
bnck  (o  tbo  ago  which  followed  tho  death  of  Jesas;  but  their  hietoriool  Toloe  is 
very  diverse.  St.  Matthew  evidently  de&orvoa  pecaliar  rontidcoco  for  the  dis- 
icuurse*.  Here  are  **tbe  oracles^""  tho  very  notoe  taken  while  the  memory  of  the 
Injimction  of  Jcsaa  was  livinf?  and  definite.  A  kind  of  floahin^  brightnesa  at  once 
■weot  and  terrible,  a  dirine  force,  if  I  may  ao  say,  anderliea  thcjto  worda,  detaches 
them  from  the  context,  and  renders  them  easily  recognizable  by  the  critic. 

In  respect  a^in  to  St.  Mark,  he  says  (p.  Ixxxii) : 

The  Gospel  of  St.  Hark  is  the  one  of  the  three  synoptics  which  has  remained 
^the  rooet  ancient,  the  moat  ori^nal,  and  to  which  the  least  oflaCer  additions  have 
'^Mn  made.  The  details  of  fiict  poesoas  in  8t  Hark  a  dcflniteneeji  which  we 
■eek  in  vain  in  tho  other  oranpeltets.  He  is  fond  of  reporting  certain  saringB  of 
oar  Lord  in  Syro-Chaldsic  lie  ia  fall  of  ininate  observations^  proceeding,  beyond 
donbt,  from  an  eye-witness.  There  is  notbing  to  conflict  with  the  sap|>osition 
that  this  eye-witness,  who  bad  evidently  followed  Jeen?,  who  bad  loved  him  and 
watched  him  in  close  intimacy,  and  who  hod  preserved  a  vivid  image  of  him,  wai 
Uie  apostle  Peter  him&elf,  as  Fapias  has  it. 

I  caII  these  admissions  a  "  practical  surrender  "  of  the  adverse 
case^  as  stated  by  critics  like  Strauss  and  Baur^  who  denied  that 
we  had  in  the  Gospels  contemporary  evidence,  and  I  do  not  think 
it  necessary  to  define  the  adjective,  in  order  to  please  Prof,  Hux- 
ley's appetite  for  definitions.  At  the  very  least  it  is  a  direct  con- 
[tradiction  of  Prof.  Huxley's  statement  •  that  we  know  "absolutely 
[nothing"  of  "the  originator  or  originators"  of  the  narratives  in 
the  first  three  Gosjiels ;  and  it  is  an  eqtially  direct  contradiction 

be  case,  on  which  his  main  reply  to  my  paper  is  based,  that  we 

•  "  FtopuUr  Sdenoe  Mootbly'*  for  April,  1889,  p.  756. 


86 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOl^TRLT. 


liave  no  trustworthy  evidence  of  what  our  Lord  taught  axu 
believed. 

But  Prof,  Huxley  seems  to  have  been  apprehensive  that  M| 
Rouan  would  fail  him,  for  he  proceeds,  in  the  passage  I  hai 
quoted,  to  throw  him  over  and  to  take  refuge  behind  *'  tli 
results  of  biblical  criticism,  as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  ^^ 
Strauss,  Baur,  Reuss,  and  Volkmar,  for  example,"    It  is  scarce!; 
comprehensible  how  a  writer,  who  has  acquaintance  enough  wit] 
this  subject  to  venture  on  Prof.  Huxley's  sweeping  aiisertions 
can  have  ventured  to  couple  together  those  four  names  for  such 
purpose.     "Strauss,  Baur,  Reuss,  and  Volkmar"!    Wliy,  the; 
are  absolutely  destructive  of  one  another  I    Baur  rejected  Strauss' 
theory  and  set  up  one  of  his  own ;  while  Reuss  and  Volkmaj*  \\ 
their  turn  have  each  dealt  fatal  blows  at  Buur*s.    As  to  Straiiss, 
need  not  spend  more  time  on  him  than  to  quote  the  sentence  ii 
whicli  Baur  himself  puts  him  out  of  court  on  this  particular  con- 
troversy.   He  says,*  "  The  chief  peculiarity  of  Strauss's  work 
that  it  is  a  criticism  of  the  Gospel  history  without  a  criticism 
the  Gospels."    Strauss,  in  fact,  explained  the  miraculous  stories  h 
the  Gospels  by  resolving  them  into  myths,  and  it  was  of  no  im- 
portance to  his  theory  how  the  documents  originated.    But  Bai 
endeavored,  liy  a  minute  criticism  of  the  Gospels  themselves, 
investigate  the  historical  circumstances  of  their  origin ;  and 
maintained  that  they  were  Tendenz-Sckrifien,  compiled  in  Um 
second  century,  with  polemical  purposes.    Volkmar,  however,  id] 
in  direct  conflict  ^vith  Baur  on  this  point,  and  in  the  very  wort 
to  which  Prof.  Huxley  refers,^  he  enumerates  (p.  18)  among  '* 
written  testimonies  of  the  first  century" — besides  St.  Paul's  epistlea] 
to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians,  and  Romans,  and  the  apocalypse  oi 
St,  John — "  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  accor<ling] 
to  John  Mark  of  Jerusalem,  written  a  few  years  after  the  dt^struc- 
tion  of  Jerusalem,  between  the  years  70  and  80  of  our  reckoning- 
about  75,  probably ;  to  be  precise,  about  73,"  and  he  proceeds  U>\ 
give  a  detailed  account  of  it,  **  according  to  the  oldest  text,  andi 
particularly  the  Vatican  text,'*  as  indispensable  to  his  acoount  of] 
Jesus  of  Nazareth.     He  treats  it  as  written  (p.  172)  either  hi 
John  Mark  of  Jerusalem  himself,  or  by  a  younger  friend  of  his,! 
Baur,  therefore,  having  upset  Strauss,  Volkmar  proce€*ds  to  upgetj 
Baur ;  and  what  does  Reuss  do  ?    I  quote  again  from  that  spleU" 
did  French  edition  of  the  Bible,  on  which  Prof.  Huxley  so  mxu 
relies.    On  page  SH  of  Reuss's  introduction  to  the  synoptic  Go*-| 
pels,  he  sums  up  "  the  n^sults  he  believes  to  have  been  obtaiue<l| 
by  critical  analysis,"  under  thirteen  heads ;  and  the  following  aw| 
some  of  them : 


» **KHU«ehfl  CntCTMcbungcn  ubcr  dJo  knnoniMihen  KvungvUi-n 
f  **  Jeaon  Kfttttctmi  imd  die  crau  chrbUJcbc  Zcit,"  1883. 


Mi- 


41 


1^ 


^^K  Of  the  threo  syDoptio  Got^peU  one  onlr,  that  which  ecclenustiool  tmtlUiou 
IPm  in  attribotin^  to  Luke^  has  rL'^chod  ua  in  its  primitive  forau 
[  8.  Lako  oonid  dr&v  his  knowlodgo  of  tbo  Gospel  historj  partly  from  ora) 
InformAtiou ;  be  was  ablo,  in  Palestine  it^vlf,  to  receive  diroet  ooiDniauieatiunB 
from  inimtHiiatt  witne«iM?s.  ,  .  .  We  may  think  ospecially  hereof  the  historv  of 
the  padaion  iixnl  tlie  roaurrection,  and  perhaps  also  of  some  other  passages  of  which 
be  is  tlie  suli^  narrator. 

4.  A  lHK>k,  which  ou  anoieDt  and  ree[)GPtab]ti  testimony  attributes  to  Mark,  tho 
disci])]e  of  Peter,  was  oertAinJj  used  by  bt.  Luke  as  the  priuciptd  tfourue  of  the 

ortioQ  of  hia  Gospel  between  chapter  iv,  31,  and  ix,  CO  ;  and  between  ^ii,  15, 
And  izi,  88. 

6.  According  to  ftU  probability,  the  book  of  Mark,  consulted  by  Luko,  com- 
prised in  its  primitive  form  what  wo  read  io  the  present  day  from  Mark  i,  SI,  to 

iii,  87. 

It  seems  unnecessary,  for  the  purpose  of  estimating  tlie  value 
[of  Prof.  Huxley's  api>Gal  to  these  critics,  to  quote  any  more.  It 
lappears  from  theue  statements  of  Reiisa  that  if  "  the  results  of 
blicftl  criticism/*  as  repreaente*!  by  him,  are  to  he  trusted,  we 
iTe  the  whole  third  Gospel  ia  its  primitive  form,  as  it  was  wi-it- 
by  St.  Luke ;  and  in  this,  as  we  have  seen,  Reuss  is  in  entire 
^meut  with  Renan.  But  besidea  this,  a  previous  book  written 
Mark,  St.  Peter's  disciple,  was  certainly  in  existence  before 
.uke's  Gospel,  and  was  used  by  Luke ;  and  in  all  probability  this 
>ok  was,  in  its  primitive  form,  the  greater  part  of  our  present 
Oos|K?l  of  St.  Mark. 

Such  are  those  "  results  of  biblical  criticism  "  to  which  Prof. 
Huxley  has  apjjealed ;  and  we  may  fairly  judge  by  these  not  only 
jof  the  value  of  his  spocial  contcmtion  in  reply  to  my  paper,  but  of 
the  worth  of  the  sweeping  assertions  he,  and  writers  like  him,  are 
[piven  to  making  about  modem  critical  science.    Prof.  Huxley 
fftays  that  we  know  "  absolutely  nothing  ^'  about  the  originators  of 
the  Gospel  narratives,  and  he  appeals  to  criticism  in  the  persons 
|of  Volkmar  and  Reuss.     Volkniar  says  that  the  second  Gospel  is 
really  either  by  St.  Mark  or  by  one  of  his  friends,  and  was  written 
[ftbout  the  year  75.    Reuss  says  that  the  third  Gospel,  as  we  now 
lave  it,  was  really  by  St.  Luke.    Now  Prof.  Huxley  is,  of  course, 
lentitleil  to  his  own  opinion ;  but  he  is  not  entitled  to  quote  au- 
thorities in  support  of  his  opinion  when  they  are  in  direct  opposi- 
;ion  to  it.     Ho  assorts,  without  the  slightest  fear  of  refutation, 
;hat "  tho  f<'mr  Gospels,  as  they  have  come  to  us,  are  tlu)  work  of 
unknown  writers."    His  arguments  in  defense  of  such  a  position 
will  be  listened  to  with  respect:  but  let  it  be  borne  in  mind  that 
thn  opposite  ar^monts  he  has  got  to  meet  are  not  only  those  of  or- 
[thodox  critics  like  myself,  but  those  of  Renan,  of  Volkmar,  and  of 
teiniss— I  may  aild  of  Ptieiderer,  well  known  in  this  country  by  his 
pibbert   Lectures,  who,  in  his  recent  work  on  original  Chris- 
tianity, attributes  most  positively  the  second  Gospel  in  its  present 

I  TOL.  XXXT. — 0 


92 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


orary    i| 


form  to  St.  Mark,  and  declares  that  there  is  no  ground  whatever 

for  that  suppositiou  of  an  Ur-Mnrcvs' — that  is  an  original  "  •  ' 
work — from  which  Prof.  Huxley  alleges  that  "at  the  pres- 
there  is  no  visible  escape."  If  I  were  such  an  authority  on  mo* 
rality  as  Prof.  Huxley,  I  might  perhaps  use  some  unpleasant  lan- 
guage respecting  this  vague  assumption  of  criticism  being  all  on 
his  side,  when,  it,  in  fact,  directly  contradicts  him ;  and  his  case  h 
not  the  only  one  to  which  such  strictures  might  be  applied. 
"Robert  Elsraere/'  for  example,  there  is  some  vaporing  about  tl 
"great  critical  operation  of  the  present  century"  ha\iDg  d^ 
etroyed  the  historical  basis  of  the  Qospel  narrative.  As  a  matti 
of  fact,  as  we  have  seen,  the  great  critical  operation  has  resulti 
according  to  the  testimony  of  the  critics  whom  Prof.  Huxley  him-' 
self  selects,  in  establishing  the  fact  that  we  possess  contemiK)rary^ 
records  of  our  Lord's  life  from  persons  who  were  either  eye-wH 
nesses,  or  who  wory  in  direct  communication  with  eye-witn« 
on  the  very  scene  in  which  it  was  passed.  Either  Prof.  Huxley'i 
own  witnesses  are  not  to  be  trusted,  or  Prof.  Huxley's  allogatious 
are  rash  and  unfounded.  Conclusions  which  are  denied  by  Volk- 
tuar,  denied  by  Ronan,  denied  by  Reuss,  are  not  to  l>e  thrown  at 
our  heads  with  a  superior  air,  as  if  they  coxild  not  be  re*isonably 
doubted.  The  great  result  of  the  critical  operation  of  this  cent- 
xiry  has,  in  fact,  been  to  prove  that  the  contention  with  which  it 
started  in  the  persons  of  Strauss  and  Baur,  that  we  have  no  con- 
temporary records  of  Christ's  life,  is  wholly  untenable.  It  has 
not  convinced  any  of  the  living  critics  to  whom  Prof,  Huxley 
appeals ;  and  if  he,  or  any  similar  wTit*u%  still  maintains  such  au 
assertion,  let  it  be  understood  that  he  stands  alone  against  the 
leading  critics  of  Europe  in  the  present  day,  I 

Perhaps  I  need  say  no  more  for  the  present  in  reply  to  Trot 
Huxley.    I  have,  I  think,  shown  that  he  has  evaded  my  point ;  he 
has  evaded  his  own  points ;  ho  has  misquoted  my  words ;  he  had 
misrepresented  the  results  of   the  very  criticism  to  which  \m 
appeals ;  and  he  rests  bis  case  on  assumptions  which  his  own  ao^ 
thorities  repudiate.     The  questions  he  touches  are  A'ery   grav* 
ones,  not  to  be  adequately  treated  in  a  review  article.     But  I 
should  have  supi>ose<l  it  a  i)oint  of  scientific  morality  to  treo* 
them,  if  they  are  to  l>e  treated,  with  accuracy  of  reference  and 
strictness  of  argument. 

IT.  I 

^^  By  W.  C.  MA(j£E.  ^^1 

^^P^  ftiinor  or  nmuioaccaR.  ^^H 

I  siioCLD  be  wanting  in  the  rcs])ect  which  I  sincerely  eaten 
tain  for  Prof.  Huxley  if  I  were  not  to  answer  his  "  appeal  "  *     ~  ■ 
in  the  la.st  number  of  this  review  for  my  opinion  on  a  i 
oontrorersy  between  him  and  Dr.  Wace.    Prof.  Hiuley  aaks  niv, 


AOKOSTICISM. 


95 


•*  in  the  name  of  all  that  is  Hibernian,  why  a  man  should  be  ex- 
pected to  call  himself  a  miscreant  or  an  infidel  "  ?  I  might  I'eply 
to  thitt  after  the  alleged  fashiou  of  my  countrymen  by  asking  him 
another  question^  namely — When  or  where  did  I  ever  say  that  I 
expected  him  to  call  himself  by  either  of  these  ntftoes  ?  I  can  not 
remember  having  said  anything  that  even  remotely  implied  this, 
and  I  do  not  therefore  exactly  see  why  he  should  appeal  to  my 
confused  "  Hibernian  "  judgment  to  decide  such  a  question. 

As  he  has  done  so,  however  I  reply  that  I  think  it  unreason- 

•iftble  to  expect  a  man  to  call  himself  anything  unless  and  until 
good  and  suflBcient  reason  has  been  given  him  why  he  should  do 
so.  We  are  all  of  us  bad  judges  as  to  what  we  are  and  as  to  what 
we  should  therefore  be  called.   Other  persons  classify  us  ac<:ording 

■  to  what  they  know,  or  think  they  know,  of  our  characters  or 
opinions,  sometimes  correctly,  sometimes  incorrectly.  And  were 
I  to  find  myself  apparently  incorrectly  classified,  as  I  very  often 
do,  I  should  be  quite  content  with  asking  the  person  who  hatl  so 

Ichissified  me,  first  to  define  his  terms,  and  next  to  show  that  these, 
as  defined,  were  correctly  applied  to  me.  If  he  succeeded  in  doing 
this,  I  should  accept  his  designation  of  me  without  hesitation, 
inasmuch  as  I  should  be  sorry  to  call  myself  by  a  false  name. 
In  this  case,  accordingly,  if  I  might  venture  a  suggestion  to 
Prof.  Huxley,  it  would  l)e  that  the  term  *'  infidel "  is  capable  of 
definition,  an<l  that  when  Dr.  Wace  has  defined  it,  if  the  professor 
accept  his  definition,  it  would  remain  for  them  to  decide  between 
them  whether  Prof.  Huxley*8  utterances  do  or  do  not  bring  him 

(under  the  category  of  infidels,  as  so  defined.  Then,  if  it  could  be 
clearly  proved  that  they  do,  from  what  I  know  of  Prof,  Huxley's 
love  of  scientific  accuracy  and  his  courage  and  candor,  I  certainly 
should  expect  that  he  would  call  himself  an  infidel — .ind  a  mis- 
creant too,  in  the  original  and  etymological  sense  of  that  unfor- 
tunate term,  and  that  he  would  even  glory  in  those  titles.  If 
thf>y  should  not  be  so  proved  to  be  applicable,  then  I  should 
hold  it  to  be  as  unreasonable  to  expect  him  to  call  himself  by  such 
names  as  he,  I  supi>ose,  would  hold  it  to  be  to  expect  us  Chris- 
tians to  admit,  without  better  reason  than  he  has  yet  given  us, 
I  that  Christianity  is  '*  the  sorry  stuff  "  which,  with  his  "  pro- 
foundly "  moral  readiness  to  say  "  unpleasant  '*  things,  he  is 
pleased  to  say  that  it  is. 
There  is  another  reference  to  myself,  however,  in  the  pro- 
fe^ors  article  as  to  which  I  feel  that  he  has  a  better  right  to 
appe*.l  to  me — or,  rather,  against  me,  to  the  readers  of  this  re- 
view— ^^d  that  is,  as  to  my  use,  in  my  speech  at  the  Manchester 
Cf>i'   '  r  the  expression  "cowardly  agnosticism."    I  have  not 

th-.-  ,  of  my  speech  before  me,  and  am  writing,  therefore, 
from  memory ;  but  my  memory  or  the  report  must  have  played 


84 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTITLT, 


me  sadly  false  if  I  am  made  to  describe  all  agnostics  as  cowardlyj 
A  much  slighter  knowledge  than  I  possess  of  Prof.  Huxley's  wtim 
ings  would  have  certainly  prevented  my  applying  to  all  ainiotvJ 
ticism  or  agnostics  snch  an  epithet. 

What  I  intended  to  express,  and  what  I  think  I  did  express  byj 
thia  phrase  was,  that  there  is  an  agnosticism  which  is  cowardly.] 
And  this  I  am  convincetl  that  there  is,  and  that  there  is  a  greafij 
deal  of  it  too,  just  now.  There  is  an  agnosticism  which  is  simply] 
the  cowardly  escaping  from  the  pain  and  diflBculty  of  coutem*] 
plating  and  trying  to  solve  the  terrible  problems  of  life  by  thoj 
help  of  the  convenient  phrase, "  I  don't  know,**  which  very  oftenJ 
means  "  I  don't  care,"  "  We  don't  know  anything,  don't  yoxA 
know,  about  these  things.  Prof.  Huxley,  don't  you  know^  &ay« 
that  we  do  not,  and  I  agree  with  him.    Lot  us  split  a  B»  and  S."    I 

There  is,  I  fear,  a  very  large  amount  of  this  kind  of  agnoM 
ticism  among  the  more  youthful  professors  of  that  phil- 
and  iiulHHl  among  a  large  number  of  eaay-going,  comfortn  I  > 
of  the  world,  as  they  call  themselves,  who  find  agnosticism  »] 
pleasant  shelter  from  the  trouble  of  thought  and  the  pain  of  effortJ 
and  self-deuiaL  And  if  I  remember  rightly  it  was  of  such  agnosJ 
tics  I  was  speaking  when  1  described  them  as  "  chatterers  in  ous 
clubs  and  drawing-rooms/'  and  as  "  freethinkers  who  had  yet  tcl 
learn  to  think."  I 

There  is  therefore  in  my  opinion  a  cowardly  agnosticism  justf 
as  there  is  also  a  cowardly  Christianity.  A  Christian  who  spondM 
his  whole  life  in  the  selfish  aim  of  saving  his  own  soul,  and  neyecl 
troubles  himself  with  trj'ing  to  help  to  save  other  men,  eithen 
from  destruction  in  the  next  world  or  from  pain  and  suffering 
here,  is  a  cowardly  Christian.  The  eremites  of  the  early  days  cfl 
Christianity,  who  fled  away  from  their  place  in  the  world  wherfl' 
God  had  put  them,  to  spend  solitary  and,  as  they  thought,  safelj 
lives  in  the  wilderness,  were  typical  examples  of  such  cowardioej 
But  in  saying  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  cowardly  ChriM 
tianity,  I  do  not  thereby  allege  that  there  is  no  Christianity  whicM 
is  not  cowardly.  Similarly,  when  I  speak  of  a  cowardly  agnoM 
ticism,  I  do  not  thereby  allege  that  there  is  no  agnosticism  wliicU 
is  not  cowardly,  or  which  may  not  be  as  fearless  as  Prof.  Huxlon 
has  always  shown  himself  to  be.  I 

I  hoi>e  that  I  have  now  satisfied  the  professor  on  the  two  |iointJ 
on  which  he  hag  appealed  to  me.  There  is  much  in  the  othefl 
parts  of  his  article  which  tempts  me  to  reply.  But  I  have  a  diJ 
like  to  thrusting  myself  into  other  men's  disputes,  more  es])(«ialljl 
when  a  combatant  like  Dr.  Wace,  so  much  more  competent  Ihaq 
1        "  is  in  the  field.    I  le.-t        '  '       i-  in  his  '      /        '  "" 

■'  icipation  that  he  will  -  rig  him; 

list  dealing  with  questions  of  tliiiology  or  biblical  criticism  may 


GROWTH  OF  THE  BEET-SUOAR  INDUSTRY,        85 

go  quite  as  far  astray  as  theologians  often  do  in  dealing  with 
questions  of  science. 

My  reply  to  Prof.  Huxley  is  accordingly  confined  to  the  strictly 
personal  questions  raised  by  his  references  to  myself.  I  hope 
that,  aft^r  making  due  allowance  for  Hibemicisms  and  for  inij>er- 
fect  aoquaiut-auce  with  Eiiglislx  mo<los  of  thought  and  expression, 
he  will  accept  my  explanation  as  sufficient. — Nineieerxih  Cejitui'y, 


GROWTH  OF  THE  BEET-SUGAR  INDUSTRY. 

Br  A.  U.  ALUY. 

THE  statistics  collected  from  the  sngar-producmg  countries 
show  that  more  than  one  half  of  the  world's  sugar  is  derived 
from  the  beet-root ;  and  it  is  known  that  the  cousuuiere  of  sugar 
in  the  United  States  often  make  daily  use  of  it  in  their  house- 
holds without  suspecting  that  they  are  contributing  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  jK?asantry  and  wage-earners  of  continental  Euroj)e. 

Whenever  the  history  of  the  "beet-sugar  industry  shall  have 
been  written,  it  will  prove  interesting  and  instructive  to  the  stu- 
dent, Bs  an  achievement  of  science,  and  will  present  a  problem  to 
the  |>olitical  economist  of  grave  im}>ort  in  its  reflection  on  the 
future  business  possibilities.  It  is  a  matter  of  historical  record 
that  for  many  years,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  con- 
tinental Europe  worked  almost  hopelessly  to  j)rcKluce  a  sugar- 
yielding  plant  which  would  thrive  in  its  northern  climate  and 
supply  the  sugar  it  consumed. 

Chemistry  had  demonstrated  that  the  beet-root— as  well  as 
other  forms  of  pl.int-life — contained  a  solution  of  sugar  identical 
with  that  found  in  the  cane-plant  of  the  tropics;  but  the  amount 
of  sugar  extracted  was  so  inconsiderable  as  to  preclude  the  hope 
of  obtaining  a  supply  from  that  source,  unless  nuw  discoveries 
.should  make  it  possible  to  increase  the  saccharine  product. 

Schools  of  instruction  were  established  for  imparting  special 
information  in  the  cidtivation  of  the  beet  and  the  extraction  of 
the  saccharine  principle.  And  costly  exx>eriment3  and  researches 
were  made. 

Scientific  men  were  rewarded,  subsidies  were  granted,  and  fac- 
tories were  built,  but  sugar  was  produced  only  at  extravagant 
[cost;  and,  as  a  financial  venture,  without  other  considerations,  it 
'proved  a  stupendous  failure.  The  industry  was  abandoned  in 
France  with  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  but  was  continued  in  a  moderate 
[way  by  some  of  the  continental  states  without  a  profitable  result. 
intil  about  twenty  years  ago,  wh^n  the  jKissilile  war  complica- 
ions  of  that  period — which  afterward  culminated  in  the  humilia- 


86 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


tion  of  France— forced  Germany  to  rehabilitate  her  agriculturaO 
industries,  from  which  the  armies  of  the  empire  were  chiefly  «upJ 
plied.  Her  lands  were  worn  under  a  thousand  years  of  tillagd 
without  rotation  of  crops,  and  had  more  recently  become  unproiitJ 
able  and  valueless  under  the  vain  attempt  to  produce  the  stapid 
crops  of  grain  in  comi>etition  with  the  rich  i>raines  of  our  Noi*!]!! 
west,  and  her  farmers  were  emigrating  to  America.  The  soil 
was  not  exhaust^'d,  as  many  have  supposed,  but,  like  our  owii 
farms  in  New  Enghmd,  laboring  at  present  under  the  same  diffiJ 
culties,  required  a  diversity  of  culture  and  new  fertilizationJ 
Their  previous  experiments  had  shown  that  the  beet-root,  ! 
iug  largely  for  its  gro^^-th  ujjon  the  atmosphere,  did  not  ■  i 

the  soil,  as  waa  the  case  in  the  cultivation  of  grain,  but,  in  rotaJ 
tiun  with  the  staple  crops,  like  wheat,  barley,  and  rye,  it  left  ihm 
land  richer  for  the  following  crop.     Besides,  the  beet-root  wad 
peculiarly  a  product  of  the  temperate  zone — indigenous  to  thd 
latitude  of  northern  France  and  Germany,  requiring  fair  skie«J 
sunlight,  and  long  seasons,  for  the  full  i>erfection  of  its  growth! 
for  sugar-making  purx^ses.    It  could  not  be  raised    profitably 
for  saccharine  extraction  on  the  sea-coast,  as  it  easily  absorber 
saline  matters,  or  in  the  dark  and  damj)  places  of  England,  or  ii 
the  higher  latitudes,  where  the  season  is  too  short  to  ripeu  th< 
jilant  to  perfection,  any  more  than  it  woxild  thrive  in  the  hot  cli? 
mate  of  the  South. 

A  new  system  of  excise  duties  was  established  which  induced' 
the  farmer  to  ent^r  into  the  growing  of  beet«  on  a  larger  scale,^ 
and  bounties  were  given  to  attract  capital  into  the  construction  oi 
factories  for  the  manufacture  of  beet-sugar.  This  excise  tax,  nol 
unlike  that  of  our  owu  internal  revenue  collection  on  whisky  an* 
tobacco— where  the  conBumer  pays  the  tax — ^wae  equal  to  two 
a  half  cents  per  pound  on  the  sugar  extracted  from  the  beet.  T< 
the  sugar  exporter  the  tax  was  returned,  and  there  was  also  poii 
a  bonus  which  assumed  the  character  of  an  export  bounty. 

Under  these  conditions  an  enormous  increase  of  sugai-  produt 
tion  and  a  rapidly  augmented  exportation   of   sugar  follow* 
The  farmer  commence«l  a  new  system  of  fertilization  that  pi 
duced  larger  crops,  and  began  with  energy  to  develop  from  thi 
soil  the  nitrogen  which  the  chemists  had  foimd  to  be  so  muol 
needed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  beet-root.    He  made  more  ni 
nure  on  the  farm  by  feeding  his  cattle  with  the  pulp,  received' 
from  the  factories  that  hod  ffprung  up  like  magic  a  residntunl 
derived  from  the  chemical  processes  in  the  extraction  of  sugar 
containing  all  the  salts  and  elements  remaining,  tlius  giving  i 
new  impulBe  to  cattle*rai£ing  and  dairy  products  from  it«  ridij 
fodder. 

Gathering  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  tons  of  booU  from  «& 


GROWTH  OF  THE  BEET-SUGAR  TITDUSTRY. 


87 


Bcre^eAch  ton  yielding  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
pounds  of  su^'ar,  which  gave  him  three  times  the  profit  that  he 
had  hitherto  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
and  the  staple  crops,  leaving  the  laud  better  prepared  to  receive 
the  annual  j)lant  in  its  rotation  with  tlie  beet,  he  found  the  value 
of  his  farm  increasing  enormously,  oiid  his  prosjjenty  phenomenal, 
as  the  Bwarms  of  peasants — men,  women,  and  children — flocked  to 
his  growing  fields  or  followed  the  harvesting,  while  full  employ- 
ment  was  given  to  the  general  wage-earner  and  the  artisan. 

few  otnploymeuts  and  collateral  industries  increased  in  the 
le  ratio;  railroads  were  projected  and  built  to  transport  the 
t-root  from  the  interior  farms  to  the  great  factories  scattered 
for  hundreds  of  miles  throughout  Germany,  long  trains  of  plat- 
f  orm-trars,  of  ten  numbering  fifty  to  sixty,  piled  full  of  white  sugar-. 
bt*et«,  met  the  eye  of  the  traveler  during  the  harvesting  seasoi 
and  speculation  ran  high  with  the  fabulous  profits  of  the  sugar 
manufacturers. 

Subsequently  the  attempt  to  manufacture  beet-sugar  in.  the 
Southern  United  States  met  with  signal  failure.  Later, beet-sugar 
factories  were  started  in  the  Northern  States,  in  the  latitude  of 
GermoQy,  where  the  soil  and  meteorological  conditions  were  equal 
t:  '  '  I'f  bc^t-growing  six'tions  on  the  Continent;  to  which 
the  long  ludian  summer,  which  can  not  be  approached 
any  country  in  its  advantages  for  maturing  the  plant.  To 
theee  factories,  erected  in  different  sections  of  the  North,  sulisidies 
were  grantt'd  and  bounties  were  given  by  several  of  the  States  in 
which  they  were  located,  fostered  and  assisted  by  the  Agricultural 
ttud  experimental  stations  of  tlie  Government;  yet  thoy 
jrcome  by  the  same  difficulties  that  had  for  fifty  years 
more  confronted  their  foreign  pioneers,  and  they,  one  and  all, 
le  to  grief  in  their  attempts  to  manufacture  sugar  from  the 
-root  at  a  profit,  for  the  metamorphosis  of  the  plant  and  the 
sOjgar-beet  process  had  not  yet  been  developed. 

But  during  the  last  decade  great  discoveries  have  been  made 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  root,  as  well  as  in  the  methods  for  the 
'ion  of  the  solution  of  sugar  by  ingenious  mechanical  de- 
iud  thft  sugar-boot  of  to-day  bears  no  resemblance  to  that 
\Ot  the  past  century,  either  in  its  form  or  the  minerals  it  contains; 
the  saccharine  principle  has  been  increased  a  thousand  per 
above  the  extraction  of  one  per  cent  secured  by  the  early 
ex|>eriments  of  Archaud  in  the  days  of  the  first  Napoleon.  Forty 
ytaars  afterward  the  chemists  found  their  experimentation  had 
■increased  the  product  to  six  per  cent  only,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
C4?ntury  later  the  highest  attainable  result  proved  that  it  required 
twulve  and  a  half  parts  of  beet-root  to  produce  one  part  of  grain 
[BUgary  about  onu  eighth  per  cent  of  the  whole,  which  was  the 


83 


THS  POPULAR  8CISXCE  MOXTHLY. 


Ibasis  on  which  the  German  excise  duty  was  established ;  yet  lasl. 
^ear  the  statistical  organ  of  the  German  Empire  reports  an  aver- 
^age  extraction  of  thirteen  per  cent.      Tlxe  employment  of  an 
iugenious  contrivance  known  as  the  "diffusion  battery^ — though 
simple  in  its  conception,  nevertheless  illustrates  well-known  laws 
uf  chemical  science  in  the  traiiBfiiaiou  of  liquids,  and  successfully  , 
opens  the  membranous  walls  of  the  sugar-cells  of  the  plant,  giv- 
ing a  higher  grade  of  juice,  with  less  gummy,  u*  as,  and 
fibrous  impurities,  at  less  cost  than  by  the  old  tn  <if  me- 
chanical pressure — has  in  no  amall  dogroo  contribnted  to  this^ 
result.    It  had  taken  three  quarters  of  a  centuiy  to  develop  the 
chemistry  and  the  mechanical  adjusitment  of  the  sugar-beet  pro- 
cesses, and  even  now  we  notice  that  the  progress  in  this  direction 
is  great.  j 
I      Meantime  France,  Belgium,  Austria  -  Hungary,  Poland,  Rus- 
sia, and  other  countries  in  continentiil  Europe,  after  a  seriea  of 
unsuccessful  attempts,  resumed  the  manufacture  of  beet-sugar, 
and  by  a  system  of  subsidies,  bounties,  and  drawbacks,  notwith- 
^anding  the  many  climatic  and  meteorological  difficulties,  pro-, 
iduceii  a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  but  little  as  compared  with  Gcr- 
bnany,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  estimating  the  produc-J 
tion  of  beet-sugar  in  the  year  18K5 : 

Gcnniin  Empire 1,1^0,000  tone 

I           FrtnoQ 3U9,000    " 

I           Belgium *.•...-. 88,WW)     " 

I           AuBtria-Hungiiry ,. r.r.f-.ooo     " 

I           KttMia  andPolAiu) 5H7,<KMi     " 

I           BoIUod  Aud  other  oountrici DO.uett    '- 

I  Sl,M  0,000     " 

The  entire  production  of  cane-sugar  in  Cuba,  Java,  Brazil, 
Peru,  British  India,  Egypt,  Manila,  Louisiana,  and  other  cane- 
sugar  producing  countries,  during  the  same  period,  did  not  exceed! 
2,2CO,100  tons,  or  loss  than  one  half  of  the  world's  sugar  production. 

The  simple  and  inexpensive  methods  adopted  in  the  German 
factories  have  made  the  beet-sugar  manufacture  one  of  the  most  \ 
profitable  of  industries,  and  tlie  work  goes  on  day  and  night,  at 
a  prime  cost  for  convti'rsion  of  two  dollars  fKjr  ton  of  beets,  or  one 
cent  per  pound  of  sugar,  not  estimating  the  cost  of  the  beet-root,j 
but  including  labor  and  all  nrnterials  used,  like  coal,  coke,  lime,: 
charcoal,  wear  and  tear,  and  interest  on  the  invested  cajjital,  Thfr' 
montlily  disbursements  of  such  an  establishment  exceed  sixty 
thousand  dollars,  and  give  eniploymeut  to  thousands  of  wag^^] 
rarnerfl  in  direct  and  colbvfcnil  industries.  One  sugar  corponititm  I 
i  '•  reporte<i  a  net  profit  derived  from  the  mai)  of 

i'.   .    .i-,Mr  a  few  years  ago  of  two  millions  of  di'llnii  ,  -i. 

•on  did  not  extend  bevoud  one  hundred  and  Xv 


I 

I 


GROWTH  OF  THE  BEET-SUOAR  lyDUSTHr.        89 

those  now  conditions  the  production  of  beet-sugar  in  continental 
Europe  has  doubled  in  the  last  decade ;  and,  after  the  home  popu- 
lations are  supplied,  the  surplus  is  exported  to  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  reducing  the  price  of  sugar  in  the  markets  of 
the  world  more  than  fifty  per  cent. 

The  Bugar-retineries  of  this  country  use  the  beet-  and  cane- 
sugar  indiscriminately  in  the  manufacture  of  the  block  sugar  of 
commerce,  and  tlie  family  grocer  sells  the  imported  refined  beet- 
8ugar  at  a  price  from  twenty -five  to  fifty  per  cent  above  the  price 
of  cane-sugar. 

Before  our  late  war,  Louisiana  produced  more  sugar  than  Ger- 
many ;  and  although  the  beet-sugar  industry  in  the  latter  country 
was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  high  prices  of  sugar  prevailing,  in- 
cident to  the  entire  destruction  of  the  cane-eugar  industry  of  the 
Unitod  States,  yet  as  late  as  1875  the  empire  produced  only  twenty- 
five  hundred  tons,  while  for  the  year  1*188  a  production  of  one 
three  h\indred  thousand  tons  of  sugar  and  saccharine  re- 
is  recorded, 
the  increasing  production  of  continental  sugar  contijiues 
in  the  same  ratio  as  in  the  past,  it  needs  no  prophet  to  foretell 
the  future  of  the  cane-sugar  colonies.  Even  now  the  English 
market  can  not  afford  to  take  colonial  cane-sugar,  although  it  is 
aduuttod  free  of  duty.  Tlie  English  refining  fact-orie-s,  which  rep- 
an  investment  of  fifteen  or  twenty  millions  of  dollars,  and 
itherto  supported  a  large  population  of  wage-eamers,  are 
being  closed,  from  the  comjKttition  with  continental  sugar. 

These  qu»»stioii8  are  attracting  the  attention  of  all  the  govern- 
ments of  Europe ;  and  while  a  number  of  members  of  the  British 
Parliament  tried  to  find  compensation  for  the  losses  of  the  cane- 
sugar  colonies,  and  the  destruction  of  the  British  sugar-refineries, 
in  the  circumstance  that  the  consumers  of  sugar  in  Great  Britain 
saved  fifty-five  millions  of  dollars  annually,  in  the  reduced  cost 
of  an  article  of  prime  necessity  of  which  the  consumption  had 
increased  thirty-three  per  cent  within  a  few  years;  yet  an  inter- 
national congress  was  determined  upon,  for  the  purpose  of  doing 
away,  if  possible,  with  all  bounties  on  sugar  manufacture. 

This  grave  question  was  presented,  in  all  its  bearings,  to  the 
Parliaments,  Finance  Ministers,  Boards  of  Trade,  and  Chambers 
of  Commerce  of  many  of  the  Continental  Governments,  but  nt 
the  gathering  in  London  the  proposition  mot  with  little  or  no 
favor. 

After  the  adjournment  of  the  congress  the  German  Empire 
announced  a  new  excise  duty,  which  took  effect  last  August, 
involving  all  the  principles  of  the  old  duties,  and  increaseil  the 
*  material  and  consumption  "  tax  on  beets  to  three  cents  per  pound 
OQ  angar  as  against  two  and  a  half  cents  per  pound  {previously. 


I 


90 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


^ 


and  fixed  the  export  bounty  at  two  cents  and  two  and  &  half 
cents  per  pound  on  raw  and  refined  sugar  respectively. 

During  the  past  year  large  capital  has  been  attracted  toward 
the  development  of  the  sugar-beet  industry  in  the  United  States 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  Although  that  section  of  the  country,  with 
its  peculiar  surroundings,  does  not  generally  present  the  mete- 
orological and  climatic  conditions  necessary  to  secure  the  best 
results  in  the  cultivation  of  the  beet-root  for  sngar-m.  '  nr- 

poses,  yet  a  factory  was  started  last  October,  with  <  .  ,  ut 
and  machinery  capable  of  reducing  three  hundred  and  M\!f 
tons  of  beets  per  diem,  and  has  proved  a  great  financial  success, 
A  full  supply  of  beets,  cultivated  by  the  wheat-growers  of  Cali- 
fornia, kept  the  works  fully  employed,  and  a  boom  was  given  to 
the  town  of  Watsouville,  The  factory  consumes  seven  tons  of  lime 
daily  in  the  chemical  processes  of  extracting  the  sugar,  which  is 
distributed  pro  rata  to  the  grower  of  beets  free,  and  can  be  re- 
turned to  the  soil.  Besides,  the  farmers  averaged  over  eighty 
doUars  per  acre  for  their  beet  products,  while  the  recent  rei>ort  of 
the  Agricultural  Bureau  estimates  the  returns  from  the  tatal  pro- 
duction of  the  five  principal  crops — oats,  corn,  rye,  barley,  and 
wheat — in  the  United  States  to  be  less  than  twelve  dollars  per 
acre  as  an  average. 

The  Leet-root,  deriving  its  fertilization  from  previous  crops 
of  annuals,  can  not  rotate  effectually  with  the  cereals,  except 
in  the  third  season ;  and  of  course  the  comparative  estimate  of 
increased  prctfit  over  wheat  is  not  as  large  as  it  would  be  if 
the  plant  admitted  of  continuous  culture,  and  thus  may  bo  miit- 
leading. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  elements — organic  and 
mineral — of  which  all  plants  are  composiKl,  aud  that  earh  variety 
requires  for  its  perfect  development  certain  meteorological  con- 
ditions, peculiar  characters  of  soil,  and  combinations  of  the  vari- 
ous leading  constituents  of  plant-food,  which  have  enlisted  tha 
energies  of  scientists  for  years  in  continued  investigation,  we  are 
struck  with  admiration  and  wonder  at  the  progress  of  agricultural 
chemistry — not  only  in  revealing  the  chemicals  as  they  exist,  re* 
pW.'ing  them  in  the  soil  when  exhausted  by  cultivation,  but  in 
transformiug  a  root  and  making  almost  a  new  creation,  by  extract- 
ing the  noxious  minerals  which  had  retarded  its  developmeot^ 
with  simyjly  special  culture. 

It  is  admitted  that  the  new  appliances  of  steam  and  'y 

and  the  inventions  of  the  past  quarter  of  a  •^-"^•-^■^^  ^'"'  -d 

the  coniraerce  of  civilization,  but,  as  ocoii  to 

scarcely  prove  more  far-reaching   in  their  ii 
rll«iN>vt*riBS  of  science,  in  the  same  porio^l    ^^' 
i    :  ible  to  open  a  new  industry  in  a  no; 


4 


OROWTir  OF  THE  BEET-SUOAR  INDUSTRY. 


% 


manufacture  of  an  article  of  prime  necessity,  whose  habitat  has 
been  for  a  century  in  the  tropics. 

The  chomitit«  have  found  that  the  four  principal  olementa  which 
enter  into  plant-life  are  met  every  day,  only  under  other  names  and 
slightly  different  forms.  Nitrogen  in  one  form  is  the  ammonia  of 
commerce.  Potash  is  simply  lye  from  wood-ashes.  Phosphoric 
acid  is  ground  bones  dissolved  in  acid ;  and  lime  is  seen  every- 
where. These  rep>resent  the  necessary  nutrition  of  the  beet-root 
when  the  cliiJiulic  conditions  are  favorable  ;  but  if  they  exist  in 
insoluble  combination,  they  will  be  useless  in  the  economy  of  nu- 
trition, or  if  in  form  suitable  for  similation^but  excessive  in  quan- 
tities, they  will  stimulate  the  plant  to  abnormal  growth,  unsuited 
to  its  desired  perfection. 

The  scientists  have  shown  us  how  to  cultivate  the  beet  for  sugar- 
making  ;  that  soils  charged  with  mineral  salts  are  injurious  to  its 
development  for  that  purpose ;  that,  in  fact,  the  beet  easily  absorbs 
tlliiiTiit  mattei's,  while  the  alkaline  salts  constitute  one  of  the 
j^Bbst  obstacles  to  sugar  extraction.  They  say  new  ground,  or 
that  lately  cleared  of  forest,  should  not  be  applied  to  the  culture 
of  the  beet,  but  the  land  used  for  this  purpose  should  have  been 
under  continued  cultivation  at  least  ten  or  fifteen  years  for  the 
of  the  nitrates  and  the  organic  matter  containing  nitro- 
liich  are  always  present  in  new  soils,  and  exert  an  injurious 
influence  on  the  quality  of  the  nx)t. 

Wo  now  have  elaborate  tables  of  analyses  of  soils  to  show  the 
chemical  composition  of  those  most  favorable  to  the  culture,  as 
well  aa  to  the  physical  character  which  render  them  best  suited 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  boet,  their  porosity  and  subsoil  conditions. 

Unless  the  supply  of  the  elements  of  plant-food  is  continuous 
regular,  a  purely  sandy  soil  would  be  undesirable.  If  no 
moans  are  provided  for  the  removal  of  surplus  water  which  may 
be  found  in  a  purely  clay  soil,  or  to  so  improve  its  condition  as  to 
admit  of  free  circulatiou  of  air  as  well  as  water,  it  will  be  too 
heavy,  imd  l)ecomo  absolutely  useless.  The  same  is  true  of  purely 
calcareous  soil,  since  the  same  unfavorable  conditions  would  pre- 
vail, though  perhaps  to  not  quite  the  same  extent.  Such  soils 
puld  also  be  unsuited  to  the  plant  itself,  because  they  would  not 
it  of  the  free  progress  of  the  tap-root  nor  of  the  lateral  fibrous 
TO'  *  "ir  search  for  nutrition.    Those  conditions  have  a  pow- 

eri  :'  lice  upon  the  ultimate  yield  of  sugar  from  the  surface 

colli  vatetl 

But  if  tho  sandy  Bt:>il  be  mixtnl  with  either  or  lx)th  of  the 
Oth'»r*!,  and  with  humus — jmlveritUnt  broum  earih — in  suitable 
pr  nditions  most  favorable  to  the  maintenance  of 

a  :  '•'"■■^1  supply  of  food,  the  healthy  condition  of 

th  ;  icint  normal  development  will  be  assured. 


■     totl 
Lgpd 


92 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


The  beet-root,  as  a  biennial  plant,  enters  rearlily  into  rotation 
with  annual  plants,  and  with  those  plants  known  to  exhaust  the 
)il.  It  precedes  barley,  wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  and  prepares  the 
»il  in  a  marvelous  manner  for  cereals,  the  subsefjuent  fertiliaa* 
tion  of  which  prei»are3  the  soil  for  the  beet.  The  land  must  not 
receive  fertilizing  treatment  during  the  season  of  the  growth  of 
the  beet-root,  but  must  be  well  prepared — not  too  light,  not  too 
moist;  it  should  be  warm,  rich  in  humus,  deep  and  free  from 
stones,  like  a  garden.  The  form  of  the  beet  desiro<i  for  greater 
sugar  extraction  would,  with  this  physical  condition,  be  long  and 
tapering. 

In  this  collection  of  data,  derived  from  the  best  authorities  in 
Europe,  where  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  is  best  managed,  it  will 
not  be  possible  to  speak  of  the  meteorological  conditions  necessiiry 
to  the  perfect  growth  of  the  root  for  sugar-producing  ])urposes, 
except  to  say  that  the  principal  conditions  to  be  studied  in  this 
connection  are  those  of  the  temiKU'ature  and  moisture  with  which 
the  plant  may  be  BUiroundetl.  The  amount  of  moisture  at  the 
disposition  of  the  plant,  at  all  seasons  of  its  growth,  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  its  normal  develoi)ment.  Temperature  has  an 
influence :  if  it  be  too  low  or  too  high,  it  has  the  same  power  of 
e^^l  as  a  deficiency  of  moisture.  Various  sections  of  the  United 
States  north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  whert*  thu  rainfall  is 
regular,  like  New  England,  with  its  long  Indian  summer,  present 
all  the  conditions  to  produce  the  sugar-beet  to  perfection. 

The  cultivation  of  the  root,  and  the  lat-est  ai)proved  process^ 
for  extracting  the  sugar,  will  be  considered  hereafter. 


i 


^^^ 


I 


EGOS  IN  CHEMISTRY  AND  COMMERCE. 

Bt  p.  L.  61MM0ND8,  F.  L.  B. 

WHAT  a  subject  scientific  research  has  found  in  eggs  as  a 
study,  witness  the  worka  of  Moquin-Tandon  and  O.  des 
[urs.*  Tht>8o  publications  serve  to  show  how  the  oologio  char- 
(ristica  may  aasist  in  the  methodical  classification  of  birds, 
what  relation  there  is  betwwMi  the  egg  and  the  organic  conforma- 
tion of  the  bird,  and  what  particuhir  habits  of  birds  may  bo  gath- 
ered from  a  study  of  their  eggs  and  nests. 

Some  birils  only  lay  a  single  e^g,  others  many.    The  largest 
ordinary  nun^ber,  on  the  average,  is  five  or  seven.    The  s] 
laying  less  are  more  rare  than  the  species  laying  a  larger  numl 
Those  in  a  .<»tate  of  liberty  j  ' 
fifNvtiK    Hut  in  domestic  p^ni*  ., 

•   » TralU  G6n«r»l  d'Oolngiu  OnilUiologlq»«,"  pur  f.  a  4fc3  Jlw*. 


EGGS  nr  CIIEMISTRT  AND   COM^MERCE. 


93 


yard  hens  average  sixty  or  seventy  eggs  in  the  year,  and  certain 
Coohiii-Cluna  fowls  are  said  to  lay  from  two  liimdi*ed  to  three 
buudrud  eggs.  TLu  number  of  eggs  laid  is  less  at  the  commence- 
meint  and  end  of  life.  With  hens,  for  instance,  the  number  laid  is 
less  in  the  first  and  fourth  year  tlian  in  the  second  and  tliird,  and 
ftftor  the  fifth  year,  geuerally,  they  cease  laying.  Chickeua  and 
ducklings,  which  can  generally  shift  for  themselves  soon  after 
emerging  from  the  egg,  are  more  numerous  in  a  brood  than  young 
pigeons,  which  have  to  be  fed  by  the  parent.  But  if  pigeons  only 
lay  liwo  oggs  at  a  time,  they  lay  more  frequently — once  or  twice  a 
month — and  hence  rear  a  largo  number  of  young. 

In  form  and  general  aspect  the  difference  among  birds'  eggs  is 
end]t«s.  Some  are  elongated,  some  are  spherical,  some  are  dull  on 
the  surface,  some  are  polished,  some  are  dark,  others  gi*ay  or 
white,  others  very  bright.    The  shape  of  eggs  offers  as  much 

^ersity  as  th^ir  size  and  weight.     They  may  bt)  tlirown,  how- 

»r,  into  six  principal  or  typical  forms — the  cylindrical,  the  oval, 
the  spherical,  the  ovicular,  oviconical,  and  the  elliptic.  Tlie  ovic- 
nlar  form  of  ogg  belongs  to  the  Piissem  and  Oallmaceie,  the 
ovoid  to  the  rapacimis  binls  and  tlin  Falmipeden,  the  conical  to 
the  wading  birds  and  some  PahnipedeSf  the  short  to  some  game 
and  many  stilted  birds,  and  the  spherical  to  nocturnal  birds  of 
proy  and  the  kingfishers. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Hewitson  observes  that  in  their  relative  sizes  the 
eggs  of  different  birds  vary  in  a  remarkable  degree  from  each 
other.  The  guillemot  and  the  raven  are  themselves  about  equal 
in  size,  but  their  f)gg9.  differ  as  ten  to  one.  The  8nii>o  and  the 
blackbinl  differ  but  slightly  in  weight,  their  eggs  remarkably. 
The  egg  of  the  curlew  is  six  or  eight  times  as  large  as  that  of  the 
rook ;  tte  birds  are  about  the  same  size.  The  eggs  of  the  guille- 
mot are  as  big  as  those  of  an  eagle,  while  those  of  the  snijie  e(iual 
the  eggs  of  the  partridge  and  the  pigeoru  The  reason  of  this  great 
disparity  in  size  is,  however,  obvious.  The  eggs  of  all  those  birds 
which  quit  the  nest  soon  aft^r  they  are  hatched,  and  are  conse- 
qaontly  more  fully  developed  at  their  birth,  are  very  large,  and 
Lirably  formed  to  occupy  the  least  possible  space,  that 
ipe  has  no  more  difficulty  in  covering  its  eggs,  though  ap- 
parently so  disproportionate,  than  the  thrush  or  the  blackbird. 
Hence  we  see  that  eggs  are  not  always  proportioned  to  the  size  of 
the  birds  which  lay  them.  The  standanl  yield  and  weight  of  eggs 
for  the  diffcnmt  varieties  of  dora(33tic  fowl  are  about  as  follow: 
Light  Brahmaa  and  partridge  Cochins,  eggs  seven  to  the  pound ; 
they  lay,  according  to  treatment  and  keeping,  from  eighty  U^  one 
hundred  per  annum,  oftentimes  more  if  kept  welL  Dark  Brah- 
nJA.".  •  it.'V.t  to  the  pound,  and  about  seventy  per  annum,  Black, 
Vf]  •  buff  Cochiiui,  eight  to  the  pound ;  one  hundred  is 


94 


THE  POPULAR  SCIS^CS  MONTHLY. 


large  yield  per  aununi.  Plymouth  Rocks,  eight  to  the  pound,  lay 
onu  hundred  pe?r  annum.  Houdans,  eight  to  the  pound,  lay  one 
hundred  and  fifty  i>er  annum ;  non-sitterH.  La  Fl^che,  seven  to 
the  pound,  lay  one  hundred  and  thirty  per  annum ;  non-uitt^rs. 
Black  Spanish,  seven  to  the  puund,  lay  one  hundred  and  lifty  per 
annum.  Dominiques,  nine  to  the  pound,  lay  one  hundre<l  and 
thirty  per  annum.  Game  fowl,  nine  to  the  pound,  lay  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  per  annum.  Cr^vecoeurs,  seven  to  the  pound,  lay 
one  hundred  and  fifty  per  annum.  Leghorns,  nine  to  the  pound, 
lay  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  per  annum.  Ham- 
burgs,  nine  to  the  pound,  lay  one  hundred  and  seventy  per  an- 
num. Polish,  nine  to  the  pound,  lay  one  hundred  and  fifty  per 
tonum.  Bantams,  sixteen  to  the  pound,  lay  sixty  per  annum, 
fturkeys,  eggs  five  to  the  poimd,  lay  from  thirty  to  sixty  per  an- 
num. Ducks'  eggs  vary  greatly  with  different  species,  but  from 
Ave  to  six  to  the  pound,  and  from  fourteen  to  twenty-eight  per 
Smnum,  according  to  age  and  keeping.  Qeese,  four  to  the  pound, 
lay  twftuty  per  annum,  Guinea  fowls,  eleven  to  the  pound,  lay 
sixty  per  annum.  Largo  eggs  have  genei-ally  a  thicker  shell  than 
small  ones.  By  compari.son  with  eggs  in  foimer  times,  those  of 
improved  breeds  of  fowls  of  the  present  day  have  gained  one 
third  in  weight. 

Exceptionally  large  hens'  eggs  are  often  met  with.  Thus,  in 
the  journal  "  Land  and  Water"  for  Juno  16, 1877,  a  Cochin-China 
fowl's  egg  is  recorded  which  weighed  one  quart.or  of  a  pound  and 
measured  eight  and  five  eighth  inches  lengthwise,  six  and  a  half 
inches  in  circumferenca  That  of  a  Dorking  weighing  seven 
ounces  measured  seven  and  a  half  inches  round  the  middle  and 
nine  and  a  half  inches  across  the  ends.  Another  weighed  ten  aod 
a  half  ounces,  and  measured  eight  inches  round  the  center  and 
twelve  and  a  half  inches  across  the  ends. 

In  the  "  Birmingham  Mercury  "  of  May  9, 1867 ; 

A  half-hrcd  Cochin-China  hen  belonging  to  Mr.  CBrapbeU.  rurter.  of  Orett 
Croft  Street,  Dnrla»ton,  is  stated  aarinK  the  puet  few  weeks  to  hare  laid  dav«i 
eitrnordinnry  eags  of  an  eoorrnons  aize^  oarh  weiphing  upward  of  five  onsew, 
Mn\  one  when  jiwl  Inid  weiprhed  not  leas  tl.fin  seven  ounces.  On  one  betop  brokca 
Snorhor  pcrfocl  epu,  of  llie  nsual  frize,  vrm  found  in*ride,  which  led  to  aeren  b«laff 
broken  witli  tJio  same  results.     Anjuud  tbi*  one  woljrhinp  seven  oun-  ■  the 

tooth  egg)  a  third  .«hcn  nnd  etv  hfti!  beffon  to  form.     Several  of  n.  .%« 

whule,  and  by  ciircfullr  handliug  tbem  tho  motltm  of  the  inmrr  v\^  n  =  .■  i  ■  i<t- 
ceived.  Two  of  tho  Inner  egjs  are  aluo  prcscrred,  and  nnmbtTtt  of  \i\>u\.\^  h»T« 
been  to  aee  them,  and  Imve  expresn**!  theniseUc!*  i\\^\\\y  gn4tifl*Ml  at  fuch  on 
^xtraordinnry  phenoiiienon.  Tbe  ben  i»  not  above  iho  middle  t»l«e,  "bwiiif?  aUMi 
fSour  and  a  half  p^iand*  in  weight. 

M»ny  oggd  ore  laid  naked,  dry, and  smooth;  others  an?  i^ 
pregnatiMl  with  a  greasy,  glatinoua  eubstance.    "^  ^| 


I 
I 


EGGS  nr  CHEMISTRY  AND  COMMERCE.  95 

chiefly  those  of  sea-birds,  or  those  which  live  in  moist  localities. 
This  glntinoiis  enating  is  JouLtless  inteiuled  to  preserve  tlio  eg( 
from  the  water,  or  to  maintain  the  dep^ee  of  heat  necessary 
preserve  life.  There  are  soft  eggs  laid  entirely  without  shells,  or 
with  only  the  albuminous  inner  membrane.  This  occurs  chiefly 
in  hens  that  are  too  fat ;  and  this  failing  can  be  remedied  by  sup- 
plying calcareous  substances  with  their  food. 

Egg-sholl  is  much  used  in  medical  prescriptions.  When  cal- 
clne<l  at  a  low  red  heat  the  shells  afford  a  very  pure  form  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  The  principal  use  of  egg-shells  is,  however,  when 
blown,  for  the  cabinets  of  private  ornithological  collections  and 
those  of  public  museums.  The  eggs  of  the  ostrich  are  often 
mnted  in  silver,  and  form  elegant  drinking-cups ;  so  are  the 
idsome  green  eggs  of  the  Australian  emeu,  which  look  as  if 
made  of  dark  morocco-leather.  Ostrich  egg-shells  serve  as  water- 
*^  among  the  African  women;  necklaces  made  of  pieces  of 
lis  punched  out  in  a  circular  form  are  worn  by  some  Af- 
rican natives. 

Eggs  blown  are  sometimes  used  in  shooting-galleries,  strung^ 
mark  or  target.     The  smooth  surface  of   the  egg -she) 
be  used  for  artistic  purposes,  and  we  often  see  oa- 
f-eggs and  hens'  eggs  painted  or  engraved  with  fanciful 

The  emplo3Tnent  of  egg-shells  for  ornamental  purposes  is 
extremely  ancient.  A  MS.  in  the  Harleian  collection  represents  a 
number  of  egg-shells  ornamented  in  the  most  elegant  and  costly 
manner ;  miniatures  were  often  painted  ujjon  them  with  extreme 
care,  and  egg-shells  thus  curiously  decorated  became  valuable 
and  highly  esteemed  presents.  In  Venice  young  noblemen  fre- 
quently lavished  large  sums  of  money  upon  portraits  paint< 
within  egg-shells,  intended  as  presents. 

Thoso  who  have  only  seen  the  ordinary  fowl's  eggs  of  oui 
Rbops  and  poultry-yards  would  suppose  that  eggs  were  always 
white.  But,  on  examining  a  large  collection  of  birds'  eggs,  it  will 
be  found  that  they  are  of  all  colors.  Except,  perhaps,  some  very 
clear  shades,  the  yellow  for  instance,  none  are  wanting.  There 
arc  blue  eggs,  yellowish,  green,  reddish,  and  olive.    When  we 

lider  the  eggs  of  some  nine  thousand  different  birds  known, 

find  that  not  one  fifth  of  those  of  the  European  birds  are 
white,  and  among  the  exotic  birds  the  number  of  white  is  much 
leas.  Tli*^  white  color  is  not  always  pure;  there  are  gray  and  yel- 
low shades),  more  or  less  of  a  dirty  hue.  In  colored  eggs,  there 
are  uniform  colors  and  spotted  colors.  Although  tlie  larger  num- 
ber ^  ^^  r-~rr'.  '  ilomestic  fowls  lay  white  eggs,  there  are  some 
wli  w  or  nankoen  tint;  these  are  principally  Asi- 

lOtic  birdd*    Birds  which  bnild  open  nests  seem  unifoimly  to  have 


96 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEITCS  MOXTELY. 


colored  eggs,  and  those  which  possess  concealed  or  covered 
white  eggs. 

But  few  of  those  who  break  the  shells  of  the  cooked  egga  oi 
our  common  domestic  fowls  at  the  breakfast-table  ever  think  of] 
the  wonderful  nature  of  the  structure  they  crush,  or  of  the  com- 
plex chemical  nature  of  tho  contents  consumed  as  food.  The] 
white^  fragile  cortex  called  the  shell,  composed  of  mineral  matter, 
is  not  the  tight>  compact  covering  which  it  appears  to  be,  for  it  is 
everywhere  i)erforated  with  a  multitude  of  holes.  Under  the  mi-1 
sroscope  th€'  shell  appears  like  a  sieve,  or  it  more  closely  retsemblesi 

le  white  i)erforated  jwiper  sold  by  stationers.    The  shell  of  thfl! 
Qgg  is  lined  upon  its  interior  everj-where  with  a  very  thin  but] 
»retty  tough  membrane,  which,  dividing  at  or  very  near  '' 

ise  end,  forms  a  small  bag  which  is  filled  with  air.    In  i:- 
)ggs  this  follicle  appears  very  small,  but  it  becomes  larger  wheaj 
Hhe  egg  is  kept.     In  breaking  an  egg  this  membrane  is  removed 
with  tho  shi.ill,  to  which  it  adheres,  and  therefore  is  regard^Ni  m  a 
pan  of  it,  which  it  is  not.    The  shell  proper  is  made  up  mostly  of  j 
earthy  materials.    The  proportions  vary  according  to  the  fo^xl  of] 
the  bird,  but  ninety  to  ninety-seven  per  cent  is  ciirbonate  of  lime) 

*he  remainder  is  composed  of  two  to  five  per  cent  of  animal  mat-] 

>r,  and  one  to  ^v&  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia. 
If  a  farmer  has  a  flock  of  one  hvmdred  hens  tliey  produce  in  egg- 

lells  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pounds  of  chalk  aanu- 

lly ;  and  yet  not  a  pound  of  the  substance,  or  perhaps  not  even  aa 
ounce,  exists  around  tbe  farm-house  within  the  circuit  of  theirj 
feeding-grounds.  The  materials  of  the  manufacture  are  found  \u 
tlie  food  consumed,  and  in  the  sand,  pebble-stones,  brick-dusl.j 
bits  of  bones,  etc.,  which  hens  and  other  birds  are  continually] 
picking  from  the  earth.  The  instinct  is  keen  for  these  apparently 
irmutritious  and  refractory  substances,  and  they  are  devoured 
with  as  eager  a  relish  aa  tho  cereal  grains  or  insects.  If  hens  are 
confined  to  barns  or  out-buildings,  it  is  obvious  that  the  egg- 
producing  machinery  can  not  be  kept  long  in  action  unless  tho 
materiala  for  the  shell  are  supplied  in  ample  abundance. 

Within  the  shell  the  animal  portion  nf  the  egg  is  found,  which 
consists  of  a  viscous  colorless  liquid  called  albumen,  or  the  fthiU,\ 

id  a  yellow  globular  mass  called  the  vitellus,  or  t/c/fr.     The; 

hite  of  the  egg  consists  of  two  parts,  each  of  which  is  enveloped 
in  distinct  membranes.  The  outer  bag  of  albumen,  next  tho  aheDj 
i^       ■      L  thin,  watery  bofly,  whilt- !  ■  f,  which  \\-       '    '^ 


But  few  h« 
the  two  whites,  or 


1.  N   and  thick. 

listingui&h  between 
'en*    Each  has  i*^    '  ■ —  ^'  *^ 
\i  incubation  or  ! 

iptjrtaut  a  part  as  tho  other. 


'  rs  who  1 
know  of  their 


exist 


EOOS  /iV   CHEMISTRY  AlTD   COMMERCE. 


97 


e  yolk  contaios  water  and  albumen,  but  associated  with 
is  quite  a  large  number  of  mineral  and  other  substances, 
b  render  it  very  complex  in  composition.    The  bright  yellow 
r  is  due  to  a  peculiar  fat  or  oil,  which  is  capable  of  reflecting 
yellow  rays  of  light,  and  this  holds  the  sul]>hur  and  phos- 

which  abound  in  the  e^^, 
t  is  well  known  that  from  the  egg  all  the  constituent  parts  of 
young  animal  are  formed — its  skeleton,  as  well  as  its  various 
textures.  Now,  for  the  construction  of  the  skeleton  an  amount 
earthy  matter  is  required  which  does  not  exist  preformed  in 
soft  contents  of  the  egg,  but  has  to  be  drawn  from  the  shell, 
g  the  process  of  incubation,  with  the  co-opc»ration  of  the 
ospheric  air  which  permeates  the  shell,  it  appears  that  the 
horus  present  in  the  yolk  gradually  undergoes  oxidation, 
d  becomes  converted  into  phosphoric  acid.  This  acts  upon  and 
iBolves  the  carbonate  of  lime  belonging  to  the  shell,  which  thus, 
incubation  proceeds,  becomes  thinner  and  thinner.  The  thin- 
ig  of  the  shell  also  makes  it  easier  for  the  young  bird  to  peck 
way  out 

An  enveloping  membrane  or  bag  surrounds  the  yolk,  and 
ppe  the  fluid  matter  of  which  it  is  composed  together.  Being 
hter  than  the  white,  it  floats  to  that  portion  of  the  egg  which 
ippermost,  but  is  kept  in  position  between  the  two  extremities 
two  processes  of  inspissated  albumen,  called  chalazea,  which 
B  to  and  are  attached,  one  to  either  end  of  the  egg. 


Toul. 


Endn  ooolcDti. 


1000 


Whit*. 


U-0 

20-4 

los 

IB 

1-6 

74-0 

78  0 

100-0 


Tolfc. 


1«0 

»0-7 

l'» 

02-0 


1000 


The  white  of  egg,  as  this  shows,  contains  a  considerably  larger 
•portion  of  water  than  the  yolk.  It  contains  no  fatty  matter, 
i  consists  mainly  of  albumen  in  a  dissolved  state,  and  inclosed 
thin  very  thin-walled  cells.  It  is  this  arrangement  which  gives 
the  white  of  egg  its  ropy,  gelatinous  state.  Thoroughly  shak- 
beatiug  it  up  with  water  breaks  the  cells  and  removes  the 
te, 

are  useful  for  many  purposes  besides  food  and  hat<»hing. 

rliil©  of  an  egg  has  proved  a  most  eflicacious  remedy  for 

seven  or  eight  succeBsive  applications  of  this  substance 

he  the  pain  and  effectually  exclude  the  air  from  the  bum. 

simple  remedy  seems  preferable  to  collodion,  or  even  cotton. 

rdinary  stories  are  told  of  the  healing  properties  of  an  oil 

TOL  ZZZT. — 7 


TBS  POPULAR  SCISXCE  MOKTfflT. 


vhich  is  6Asily  made  of  ibe  yolks  of  fowla'  egga.    It  is  iu  gei 
use  among  the  peasants  of  soutliern  Russia  as  a  means  of  ci 
cats,  broiseSy  aiul  scratches.    When,  as  sometimee  by  accideul 
9Qlpbat6  of  copper,  or  corrosive  poisons  generally,  aro  swallowi 
the  viiita  of  oiu%  or  two  eggs  will  neutralizo  tht* 
diange  the  effect  to  that  uf  a  dose  of  calumel.    Raw  •  Xi 

ail  iimeB  been  c^tuaidered  an  excellent  remedy  for  debility, 
aoooont  of  the  phosphorus  contained  in  them,  as  well  as  a 
ventiTo  of  jaundice  in  its  more  malignant  form,     llio  yolk  t^ 
sometimes  used  as  a  convenient  medium  for  forming  xui  omalsion' 
ol  the  thick  turpentines  with  water.    These  mixtures  are  used  as 


Aaa  flesh-producer,  one  pound  of  eggs  is  equal  to  one  r 
heel    About  one  third  of  the  weight  of  an  egg  is  solid  ni», .  .^.i  ..v, 
which  b  more  than  can  be  said  of  meat.    Eggs,  at  average  prices, 
are  among  the  cheapest  and  most  nutritious  articles  of 
]iuDc;an  ^g  is  a  complete  food  in  itself.    It  is  also  ci^ 
if  set  damaged  in  cooking. 

The  celebrated  Guinod  de  Reyni^re,  who  coi 
to  studying  the  delicacies  of  the  table,  aflirms,  ii. 
dm  Gourmands,"  that  eggs  can  be  served  in  more  than  six  hi 
dred  ways,  and  a  book  is  published  in  London  by  a  French  cool 
which  gives  one  hundred  and  fifty  recipes  for  cooking  oggs;. 
feeble  man,  who  has  regained  strength  by  boiled  eggs  for  sevi 
datys,  will  continue  the  same  comforting  food  when  presenl 
th(r  form  of  an  omelet,  which  is  one  of  the  prluei]ial  food 
made  with  egga. 
ThB  fiav<w  of  e^ggs  is  much  influenced  by  the  naturo  of 
for  they  imbibe  forei^  odors  with  the  greatest 

broo^t  in  the  same  ship  as  orange  be<-  '  "^g- 

vith  the  soent  and  flavor  of  the  fruit.     If  i.         .    s  in 

they  are  packed  are  made  of  green  wood,  the  e^srs  will  bo 

straw  in  which  they  are  pack 

it  wil!  ft-rment  i 


fcedydry. 


commi 


A  imv  egg  beatun  up  in  ri  ^lass  ut 
voeefieli  far  eleen&s  their  voice,  and  in 
^xrit  of  eggs  ie  9tAA  which  is  said  to  be  useful  in 
or  the  infirmities  of  air >       '  '  '        r_^  is  ^.m 

specific  for  eoT*me«(  of  '  '-^  '>f  ''i' 

albuminou  n  diarr; 

'■    Mii*.  U'iu  ^  •'  ■" 

r<»tnove  • 
i)  .  4i6ary,  a  dozen  di 


EGOS  IF  CHEMISTRY  AND   COMMERCE. 


99 


I     brain-work  to  do.    The  sulphur  in  the  yolk,  as  is  well  known, 

Hicts  chemically  on  silver  spoons,  turning  them  black,  forming  a 

^kulphide  of  silver  that  can  not  be  removed  without  taking  off  the 

^■rurfaco  of  silver,  thus  rapidly  wearing  the  spoon  away. 

'  Eggs,  although  of  animal  origin,  are  now  allowed  to  l>e  eaten 

by  Catholics  during  Lent.    But  it  was  not  always  so :  formerly 

eggs  never  figured  on  the  tables  of  the  faithful  during  the  fast; 

mXf  on  the  Saturday  previous  to  Easter,  a  great  quantity  of 

(,  held  over  for  six  weeks,  was  blessed  and  distributed  among 

Lends  on  Blaster  Sunday.    They  were  dyed  yellow,  violet,  and 

ly  I'ed,  hence  the  origin  of  the  red  or  Easter  eggs.    In  the 

Louis  XrV  and  XV,  after  grand  mass  on  Easter-Sunday, 

pyramids  of  eggs  gilded  wore  taken  to  the  cabinet  of  the  king, 

who  distributed  them  to  his  courtiers.     The  custom  of  Easter 

.     eggs  is  continued  to  the  present  time,  although  modified.    Easter 

^kggs  are  no  longer  blessed  nor  gilded  to  be  offered  to  sovereigns, 

^■lor  are  they  held  over  to  Elaster  eve  to  receive  brilliant  colors. 

H^A-  fortnight  before   Easter,  in  the  coffee-houses  and  beer-shops 

^of  Catholic  cities,  may  be  seen  huge  dishes  of  eggs  of  various 

dors,  which  are  eaten  by  the  customers  with  their  beer.    And 

families  a  hard  egg  is  added  to  the  salad,  after  removing  the 

ilored  shell. 

The  mutual  presentation  of  colored  eggs  at  Easter  by  friends 

»ntinuo3  in  Russia  and  all  Catholic  countries.     Fowls'  eggs 

variously  colored,  and  having  flowers  and  other  devices  upon 

thera,  formed  by  the  coloring  matter  being  picked  off,  so  as  to 

^icposo  the  white  shell  of  the  egg,  are  a  part  of  all  the  Malay  enter- 

dnments  in  Borneo. 

The  eggs  of  the  domestic  fowl  are  the  edible  eggs  par  exceU 

nrr,  but  many  others  can  be  utilized  for  food.    The  egg  of  the 

f,  which  is  larger,  is  inferior  in  quality ;  in  districts  where 

are  brod  they  give,  however,  some  benefit.    The  egg  of  the 

:,  with  a  smoother  shell,  smaller  and  less  rounded,  is  of  a 

freenith  or  dark  white,  the  yolk  is  larger  and  of  a  deeper  color 

ihan  that  of  other  poultry  eggs,  and  the  white  by  cooking  attains 

i  consistence  like  tran.sparent  isinglass.    The  Ggg  of  the  pea-fowl 

>r  gtiiuea-hon  has  a  thick  and  hard  shell,  flesh -colored ;  the  yolk 

B  proportionally  much  larger  than  tlie  white. 

The  cfimmon  wild  or  gray  lag  goose  is  the  origin  of  our  domes- 
ic  g<H.»»e.  It  tiin*d  to  be  common  and  bre^.l  in  our  fens  in  former 
roar&    The  common  goose  begins  to  lay  toward  Candlemas,  and 

|_p  f ;^ ,  *.,  eleven  o^gs.     If  well  fed,  she  will  lay  thirty-five 

Hff  d  sometimes  fifty,  if  the  eggs  are  removed  and 

M  is  I  '-^d  to  set.    Tlie  turkey-hen  lays  from  twelve  to 

Hp*^'  i  .*ihpr  smaller  than  those  of  the  goose,  which  are 

Hi-  I  with  re<ldi8h  or  yellow  freckles.     They  are  very 


lOO 


THB  POPtTLAB  SiJIEITCE  MO^TTTLY. 


good  in  pastry,  and  mized  with  fowls'  e%^  they  improve  onw 
lets.  I 

The  question  whether  fowls  or  ducks  are  the  better  investmenl 
for  the  production  of  eggs  has  to  some  extent  been  settled  expervl 
mentally  in  Germany  and  France  in  favor  of  ducks.  They  laitf 
more  eggs  than  the  fowls,  and,  though  they  were  rather  smalk 
er,  they  proved  to  be  decidedly  superior  in  nutritive  materialj 
It  may  be  doubted  whether  as  much  attention  is  paid  '  '' 
land  to  the  production  of  eggs  as  the  utility  of  the  food  d.  ^ 

and  particularly  by  the  poor,  to  whom  their  value  is  a  considczJ 
ation.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  induce  all  persons  couvonicntlfl 
circumstanced  to  keep  hens  and  ducks,  and  there  is  reason  td 
believe  that  ducks  are  more  prolitable  than  hens,  having  regmro^ 
to  the  number  and  size  of  the  eggs  laid  by  them.  The  solid  mat* 
ter  and  the  oil  in  a  duck's  %^g  exceeds  that  of  a  hen*s  egg  by  as 
much  as  one  fourth. 

Eggs,  their  dietetic  use  apart,  are  of  great  utility  iu  mani 
branches  of  industry.      In  some,  as  in  confectionery,  both  t) 
whites  and  yolks  are  used,  but  usually  the  two  find  separal 
plications.    The  whites  are  employed  iu  calico-printings  in 
tography,  iu  gilding,  in  clarifying  wines  and  liquors,  and  by 
bookbinder  on  the  leather  previous  to  lettering  or 

An  egg-oil  is  obtained  in  Kussia  in  large  qu  ;  ^  and 
various  qualities;  the  best  so  hne  as  to  far  exoei  o]iv&-oiL  f( 
cooking  purposes.  The  less  pure  and  very  yellow  qualitii 
chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  celebrated  Kazan  aoBi 
Both  of  these  products  were  shown  at  the  London  Intomatioi 
Exhibition  in  1802,  and  at  subsequent  exhibitions.  Neither 
oil  for  cooking  pui-poses  nor  the  soap  are  suiHciently  cheap 
general  use;  they  are  consumed  only  by  the  wealtliy  olaases  as 
luxuries;  the  eoap,  being  regarded  chiefly  in  the  light  of  a  cos- 
metic, is  a  much-valued  addition  to  a  Hussian  lady's  toilet  ueot*- 
sarioB.  The  yolk  is  also  used  for  medicinal  purposes-  It 
used  in  the  middle  ages  for  the  painter's  art,  boforo  tin*  dis^-nvi 
of  oil-colors,  as  in  the  chapter-house  at  Westminster, 

Eggs,  whether  to  be  used  in  culinary  or  pharrii 
rations,  shoidd  be  fresh.    To  determine  this  thr_ 
amined  by  the  light  of  a  lamp.    Fresh  eggs  are  easily  known 
their  transparency  when  held  up  to  the  light.    By  k-  '' 

Iwcome  cloudy,  and  when  decidedly  stale  a  distinct^  < 
like  appoaranc^e  is  <Uscernible  opposite  some  ]M)rtion  of  the  |k 
Another  simple  mode  Is  by  placing  the  '^""  •■"•—•  *i'r-    -fl 
eyelid,  and  if  the  end  of  the  egg  ia  void  i  J 

as  if  the  egg  is  now  lai<l  it  continues  cold.    A  J 

\a  to  put  them  in  a  pail  of  waf-^r  a"'^  i*"  •■  J 

their  sides;  if  bad.  they  will  Bta;  J 


EGOS  IN  CHEMISTRY  AXD    COMMERCE. 


lot 


■Bud  always  cippennost,  unless  they  have  been  shaken  consider- 
kbly,  when  they  will  stand  either  end  up. 

I  How  to  keep  eggs  is  a  problem  that  lias  attracted  the  atten- 
k(in  of  inquirers  from  the  earlieftt  times.  Twenty  or  more  pro- 
iCesses  are  generally  known,  nil  of  which  give  unsatisfactory  and 
[incomplete  results — a  circumstance  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at 
pphen  the  composition  of  an  egg  and  the  various  changes  to 
fcrhich  it  is  subjet^tod  by  exposure  to  atmospheric  influence  are 
kaken  into  consideration.  The  egg-shell  is  furnished  with  numer- 
ous pores,  through  which  the  water  evaporates,  the  loss  of  aque- 
ous conton  Us  thus  sustained  being  scarcely  perceptible  in  the  first 
jreek,  more  marke<l  in  the  second,  and  of  considerable  interest  in 
le  third.  The  surrounding  atmospheric  air  takes  the  place  of 
[lo  water  that  has  evaporated,  and  oxygenates  the  contents  of  the 
tell,  which  then  commence  to  ferment  and  are  speedily  spoiled. 
*o  hinder  this  evaporation,  and  so  aid  the  preservation  of  eggs, 
are  often  steeped  For  twelve  hours  in  lime-water,  by  which 
18  moleonlea  of  lime  are  deposited  on  the  shell,  and  so  ob- 
^ruct  the  p^jres  to  some  extent. 

To  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  how  t-o  prevent  the  air  from 
tenetrating  the  shell  of  the  e^g^  the  oxperimonts  of  such  eminent 
vanfs  as  Musschenbroek,  R(5aumur,  and  Nollet  have  greatly 
intribnted.  They  all  agree  that  the  most  pi'acticable  method  is 
envelop  the  now-lnid  ^g^  in  a  light  coating  of  some  imperme- 
fcble  robetance.  such  as  was,  tallow,  oil,  or  a  mixture  of  wax  and 
ftltre-oil,  or  of  olivo-oil  and  tallow.  Reaumur  suggested  an  alco- 
lolio  volation  of  resin,  or  a  thick  solution  of  gelatin.  Nollet 
ited  Ruccessfully  with  India-rubber,  collodion,  and  vari- 
UlldM  of  vaniisli.  At  the  Dairy  Products  Show  at  the  Agri- 
iltuml  Hall  in  1884,  three  prizes  were  awarded  for  eggs  pre- 
Tved  in  the  following  manner : 

1.  Eggs  which  had  been  dipped  twice  in  a  solution  of  gum 
Arabic  and  then  dried,  enveloped  in  paper,  and  kept  in  bran. 

2.  Eggs  which  had  been  rubbed  with  lard  and  then  kept  in 
Iry  salt 

3.  Eggs  coated  with  a  composition  of  mutton  and  beef  suet, 
^nd  then  wipe*!  with  a  dry  cloth. 

With  a  view  to  utilizing  in  a  more  portable  and  consequently 
"  '^lO  large  supply  of  eggs  obtainable  in  Austria, 

\\y_..  'V'  Ct>,  started  a  factory  at  Passau,  in  Bavaria,  for 

■■uniting  tbrnn.  The  eggs  are  carefully  selected  and  dried, 
^Hndttcod  to  A  fine  meal,  and  packed  in  tins  ready  for  use. 
^^BHKti  it  M  #(^rce]y  probable  that  the  condensed  egg  can  ever 
^■ft  j:^  for  breakfast,  it  is  asserted  that  a  good 

^bi's  ^^   iii"^''   *ii*--  finest  pastry,  may  be  prepared   from  the 


io» 


TBB  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


The  eggs  of  wild  birds  are  not  very  generally  eaten  in  thil 
country,  but  in  some  localities  those  of  sea-fowl  are  largely  com 
Slimed,  and  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  gulls'  eggv  og 
many  of  our  coasts.  There  is  a  great  demand  for  plovers'  eggs  id 
the  city  markets  for  epicures.  They  are  the  eggs  of  the  lapwing 
( Vanellus  criatatus),  a  bird  which  lays  about  four  eggs  of  an 
olivo  cast,  spotted  with  black.  These  eggs  come  chiedy  froni 
Holland,  the  home  produce  being  now  very  small,  and  they  are 
received  during  the  spring  and  summer,  from  March  to  J  unci. 
Mr.  Yarrell,  who  wrote  many  years  ago,  mentions  that  two  hniH 
dred  dozens  of  peewits'  eggs  were  sent  in  one  season  from  HonJ 
ney  Marsh  to  London.  The  eggs  of  many  other  species  of  binlj 
are  imposed  upon  the  Londoners  in  the  place  of  plovers*  egga^      I 

In  the  sea  islands  of  Alaska,  the  eggs  of  the  thick -billed  gnind 
mot  have  an  economic  value,  being  the  most  palatable  of  all  tha 
varieties  found  in  the  islands^  and  hence  are  much  sought  tdicd 
by  the  natives.  The  bird  lays  a  single  egg,  large  and  very  fanoiJ 
fully  colored.  The  shell  is  so  tough  that,  in  gathering  them,  they 
are  thrown  into  tubs  and  baskets  on  the  cliffs,  and  poured  oul 
upon  the  rocks  with  a  single  flap  of  the  hand,  just  aa  a  sa*>k  ol 
potatoes  would  be  emptied,  and  only  a  trifling  loss  is  sustained 
from  broken  or  crushed  eggs. 

On  the  Faro  Islands  the  number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  lesaef 
black-backed  gull,  and  sent  annually  to  shore  for  culinary  pun 
poses,  must  be  prodigious.  The  eggs  of  the  common  guillnmol 
lie  there  so  close  together  that  it  is  diflicult  to  movo  among  thenh 

The  eggs  of  the  stork  are  very  good  eating,  whether  hot  iii 
cold.  The  natural  color  of  the  cormorant's  egg  seems  to  lie  m 
bluish  gret^u,  like  the  usual  variety  of  the  common  domestic  duckj 
but  over  this  is  a  thick,  white,  irregular  covering  of  lime,  whJcq 
is  frequently  in  such  abundant  quantity  as  to  stand  out  in  lumfM 
on  the  surface,  seldom  allowing  much  of  the  original  color  to  la 
visible.  No  doubt  this  superabundance  of  lime  is  prtxi,. 
the  bones  of  the  fish,  of  which  this  bird  is  said  ttt  *tat  yni  '..^.  ..i 
quantities,  and  perhaps  also  from  shell-fish. 

Turtles'  eg^'s  are  held  in  great  esteem  wiuTi;vur  Lhfiy^H 
found,  as  well  by  Europeans  as  by  others.  They  have  a  very^flH 
flhell,  and  are  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  ogg.  The  mother  tarOei 
lay  three  or  four  times  a  year,  at  intervals  of  two  or  1  ■  -■■  ■    ' 

An  experience*!  eye  and  hand  are  require*!  to  detect  i  - 

they  are  always  ingeniously  covere<l  up  with  sand  The  Ori^Hl 
and  Amazon  Indians  obtj&iu  from  these  egpa  a  kind  of  -^  ->-  "l^B 
(lil^  whifh  they  use  instead  of  bnit/»r.     Fn  the  rnf>nth  "  ^^| 

when  tlio  high  waters  of  tl  ^^1 

turtles  coma  on  shore  to  dt  '  ^| 

abundance  of  the  harvest 


Is 


E0G8  m  CSEMfSTRV  AND   COMMERCE, 


103 


gathericg  about  tbo  moutb  of  tho  nver  Amazon  alone  is  soma 
five  thousand  jars  of  oil,  xind  it  takes  five  thousand  eggs  to  make  a 
I  jar.  The  turtle  comes  at  night,  aud  deposits  from  one  hundred  and 
forty  to  two  hundred  white  eggs  in  the  sand,  carefully  covering 
fthem  up  b(?foro  returning  to  the  sea.  In  about  fourteen  days  she 
[returns  again  to  the  same  place  to  lay,  and  will  come  up  about 
Tour  times  before  stopping  laying,  thus  giving  some  six  hundred 
jlo  eight  hundred  eggs,  A  nati%'e  of  Brazil  will  consume  as  many 
las  twenty  or  thirty  turtles'  eggs  at  a  meal,  and  a  European  will 
wit  a  dozen  at  a  breakfast.  They  make  an  excellent  omelet.  The 
Indians  frequently  eat  them  raw,  mixed  with  their  cassava  flour. 
The  condition  in  which  the  ^gg  of  the  turtle  is  best  fit  to  be 
catem  is  when  taken  from  the  slain  animal,  before  the  formatioa 
,of  the  glaze  and  the  surrounding  parchment-like  skin,  whicb 
[answers  the  purpose  of  a  sbelL 

The  eggs  of  a  large  lizard  (Varanus  vivitaftits)  are  eaten  in 

lAva,    In  tbo  West  Indies  tho  eggs  of  the  iguana  are  thought  a 

dtilicacy.    One  of  these  lizards  will  sometimes  contain  as  many 

fcursccre  ogg^,  which,  when  boiled,  ai^  like  marrow-    They 

about  tlie  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  but  with  a  soft  shell.    The 

of  the  common  teguexin  (Teitts  (cgiiexin)^  and  of  other  large 

tea  of  lizards,  are  eaten  in  South  America. 

In  tho  Antilles  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  the  eggs  of  the 

[nlligator  arc  eaten.     They  resemble  in  shape  a  hen's  egg,  and 

bare  much  the  same  taste,  but  are  larger.    More  than  a  hundred 

^Z£^  have  been  found  in  one  alligator. 

THm  large  eggs  of  the  boa  constrictor  are  regarded  as  a  daint,^ 
Tjy  the  Africans  from  the  Congo.  One  of  these  snakes,  killed  opj 
an  estate  in  British  Guiana  in  1884,  had  fifty  eggs,  which  wer»^ 
eaten  by  Ihe  negroes. 

The  egga  of  various  fishes  differ  remarkably  in  external  ap- 
peAranoe,.  Some  would  scarcely  be  believed  to  be  eggs  at  all. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  skate's  i'gg.  It  looks  like  a  flattened 
leather  purse,  with  four  horns  or  handles  at  the  comers.  The 
yolk  is  in  the  shape  of  a  walnut,  larger  or  smaller  according  to  j 
[the  Bpecies.  In  the  Elasmobranchii,  sharks  and  rays,  the  ova  are 
kot  so  numerous  as  those  of  other  fishes,  the  eggs  being  gener- 
lly  inclosed  in  coriaceous  or  leathery  capsules,  familiarly  known 
to  ma-side  visitors  as  mermaids'  purses  and  the  like. 

Tho  egg  of  the  picked  dog-fish,  the  yolk  of  which  is  about  the 

of  a  pigeon's  egg,  is  used  by  the  inhabitants  in  parts  of  Sweden 

N"orway  as  a  sabstitute  for  other  eggs  in  their  domestic  econ- 

I  oe  is  sold  in  London  in  a  dried  form,  smoked,  and  thus 

'     '  '  "  "us  diah  when  partly  salted,  par- 

^  are  exported  in  tins  to  Auslralia 

India  in  ttu^  ^dtod  state.    The  late  Frank  Buckland  examined 


I04 


THE  POPUlAn  SCIEXCS  MOXTffLT. 


a  cod-roe  vreighing  seven  pounds  and  three  quarters,  and  foundU 

the  average  was  one  hundred  and  forty  eggs  to  the  graiiu  This] 
gives  07/-^UO  eggs  to  the  ounce,  so  that  in  the  whole  mass  of  thUJ 
one  cod-roe^  allowing  three  quarters  of  a  pound  for  skin,  mesn^J 
brane,  etc.^  there  were  no  less  than  7,526,400  eggs.  I 

Caviare  is  the  common  name  for  a  preparation  of  the  dried] 

[Riawn  or  salted  roe  of  fiah.    The  blook  caviare  is  made  from  the 

'roe  of  sturgeon,  and  a  single  large  fish  will  sometimes  yield  as 

much  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  roe.    A  cheaper  and 

iless  prized  red  kind  is  obtained  from  the  roe  of  the  gray  mullet, 

and  some  of  the  carp  species,  which  are  common  in  the  rivers  and 

on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.    It  is  of  interest  to  Turkey  and 

the  Levant  trade  only, 

Boiargo  is  a  preparation  made  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, of  the  ovaries  full  of  the  mature  eggs  of  the  mullet  {Mugil 
xephalu.H).    The  eggs  are  salted,  cinished,  reduced  to  a  paste,  and 
Tlien  dried  in  the  sun.    SometimeH  sj]ict!s  or  other  ingredients  are 
added.    Botargo  is  eaten  like  caviare. 

There  is  also  a  destruction  by  nmnkind  of  the  ova  or  spawn  of' 
the  Cruiftacea — lobsters,  crabs,  and  slirimps — which  aro  carried 
under  their  tail.  The  lobster  produces  from  26,000  to  40,000  eggs, 
the  crayfish  upward  of  100,000,  As  much  as  six  ounces  of  eggs 
can  be  tjiken  off  in  May  from  a  lobster  weighing  three  to  three 
pounds  and  a  half,  and  there  are  about  C,720  eggs  in  an  ounce  of  | 
lobster  spawn.  The  lobster  is  never  so  good  as  when  in  the  con* 
dition  of  a  "  berried  hen," 

The  eggs  of  some  insects  are  eaten  in  Siam,  Egypt,  and  Mexico, 
it  those  most  valuable  commercially  are  the  eggs  of  the  silk- 
loth. 

The  trade  in  silk-worms'  eggs  from  Japan  has  become  an  ex- 
tensive and  profitable  one.  In  18G8  £1,01*0,000  was  paid  to  Japan 
by  the  "graineurs"  of  Europe  for  silk-worms'  eggs.  In  18«9  Iwaj 
^llion  cards,  costing  on  an  average  IS-s,  Orf.  each,  were  sent  toj 
Burope.  In  other  years  three  millions  of  these  cards,  packed  hi 
HlQB  of  about  three  hundred,  thickly  studded  with  these  tiny 
^ecks,  have  been  shipped  from  Japan  by  the  various  b^  "^    "^.      , 

In  China  and  Japan  the  moths  are  placed  to  lay  th  on-j 

cardboard  or  thick  pujMjr,  which  they  cover  regularly  and  cloeety 
with  a  secretion  which  glues  them  to  the  spot  and  jr^Is  as  a  pro- 
aervative  from  heat  or  other  accidents.  Hence  the  cards  may  Ki 
transported  many  thousands  of  miles  : 

©rly  regulated  temperature,  so  as  t^  ^ -^ 

boon.    They  should  be  arranged,  and  the  cards  t  t^M 

prithout  being  overlaid,  and  1:  f^H 

^lajico  at  one  of  these  cards  %  ^H 

Qggs  were  artificially  attached  to  the  cax  ]^| 


BOTANICAL   GARDENS. 


105 


obtaiaed  by  careful  management  of  the  moths  at  the  time  of  lay- 
ing the  eggs.  A  vigorous  moth  will  usually  lay  four  or  five  hun- 
dred eggs.  When  the  laying  is  terminated  the  peasants  examine 
I  the  cards,  and,  if  there  are  any  vacemt  places,  attach  a  moth,  by 
pins  through  its  wings,  so  that  tho  eggs  may  bo  de])08ited  in  the 
right  place. — Abridged  from  (he  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Aris, 


BOTANICAL  GARDENS. 

Bt  Dx.  FK.  HOFFMANN. 

^^rOTWITHSTANDING  its  size,  prosperity,  and  luxury,  the 
-JL^    commercial  metropolis  of  the  United  Slates  has  been  hith- 
erto a  less  fruitful  soil  for  the  rise  and  growth  of  humanistic  and 
'i<:  institutions  of   learning,  and  museums,  than  Boston, 
..  -1.  i..iigton,  Philadelphia,  and,  through  its  university, Baltimore. 
Movements,  donations,  and  beginnings  for  the  building  np  of  such 
ions  have  not  been  wanting,  but  they  have  usually  been . 
'1  by  the  predominance  of  mercautile  interests  and  tenden- 
(Cios,  unfortimate  starts,  misadministration,  seizure  by  political 
I,  or  lack  of  competent,  skilbxl,  unselfish  management, 
fallen  short  of  their  intended  and  possible  aims.    Cente- 
narian Columbia  College,  with  its  professional  branch  schools, 
has  been  left  far  behind  by  Harvard,  Yale,  and  Johns  Hopkins 
oniveredties.    The  Astor  aud  Lenox  libraries  can  not  compete  with 
;.hose  of  other  cities  of  like  importance  with  New  York,  and  are 
irpa^sed  by  libraries  in  Boston  and  Washington.    The  Museum 
>f  Natural  History  in  Ctmtral  Park  has  only  recently  acquired 
importance  and  value;  and  tho  Art  Museum  has  not  till  within  a 
.short  time,  by  means  of  a  few  large  bequests  and  gifts,  overcome 
its  previous  failures.    Ethnographical,  zoological,  botanical,  and 
pharm!t     "  1  museums  are,  except  for  the  sporadic  collections 

in  Bcieni  .-■  itutions, and  for  the  ethnographic  collection  in  the 

[Historical  Society,  not  existent,  nor  have  we  a  botanical  and 
garden.    The  museums  of  the  medical  schools  do  not 
le  measure  of  demonstration  objects,  and  the  small  phar- 
collection  of  the  College  of  Pharmacy  is  one  of  the 
J   .    3  '     *:rnificant  of  all. 

'  r  institutions  of  learning  and  of  scientific 

rto  been  left  for  the  most  part  to  private  en- 

rnce ;  the  latter  has,  as  everywhere  else  in  our 

mnnh  in  New  York  that  is  good  and  useful, 

But  tho  givers  have  too  often  lacked 

-;;^  iiave  failed  to  secure  the  qualified  and 

wore  neoded  in  order  to  put  their  rich 


io6 


TEE  POPXTLAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


gifts  to  tho  best  use.  Men  of  the  stamp  of  Louis  Agassiz  and  A£a{ 
Gray  do  not  readily  grow  up  and  flourish  in  the  iutoUectual 
atmosphere  of  a  commercial  and  partly  political  metropoli*;  or 
they  are  less  appreciated;  and  therefore  the  endowers  of  largo 
foundations  want  tho  stimulating  and  authoritative  inf'  \nA 

the  correct  intelligence  to  apply  their  gifts  in  the  righ  .<>d, 

and  to  guard  them  against  extravagance  from  injudicious  expend- 
iture>  dilettanteismj  aud  experimenting.  Furthermore,  AmericonB^ 
in  their  lat-k  of  knowledge  and  of  models,  have  been  distin- 
guished by  a  tendency  to  perpetuate  their  muniiicence  and  names  | 
preferably  in  monumental  ediiicea;  hence  the  excessive  founda* 
tion  of  so-called  universities  with  splendid  buildings,  but  which 
have  been  usually  destitute  of  what  alone,  with  or  without  archi- 
tectural luxury,  gives  them  purpose  and  value — an  efficient  fac- 
ulty, well-endowed  apparatuses,  and  cApable  pupils.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  erroneous  comprehension  and  consequent  expendi- 
ture in  buildings,  and  by  the  scattering  of  teaching  force  and 
means,  most  of  our  higher  schools,  libraries,  museums,  and  collec- 
tions hcivo  been  weakened,  "We  have  no  Irxk  cf  iir.jx)sing  struct- 
ures, but  no  real  universities  and  technical  lugh-schoola ;  librarie8> 
like  those  of  the  Astor  and  Lenox  in  New  York,  elegantly  hotised 
without  a  correspondingly  general  value  and  utility.  The  muuifi- 
cenco  of  our  founders  directs  itself,  as  Prof.  James  M.  Hart  hos^ 
remarked  in  his  book  on  "GJennan  Universities,'*  mainly  to  brick 
and  mortar.  The  rest  is  left  to  chance  and  the  discretion  of  tho 
administration ;  hence  numerous  experiments,  often  followed  by 
a  miserable,  inefficient  career. 

In  comparison  with  other  cities  of  like  size  and  population^ 
New  York  is  poor  in  public  squares  and  parks.  In  size  and  nata- 
ral  beauty  the  Central  Park  can  indeed  well  sustain  a  comparison 
with  the  parks  of  other  cities,  and  it  mighty  if  the  money  poured 
out  upon  it  since  its  creation  in  1857  had  been  wisely  and  honestly 
expended,  have  been  one  of  the  best  parks  and  botani'  '  n« 

in  the  world.    If  Nature  had  not  done  so  much  for  )  .  uld 

stand,  notwithstanding  half  a  million  dollars  a  year  are  expended 
upon  it,  far  behind  the  parks  of  other  great  cities.  If  only  a  part 
of  this  sum  had  been  systematicidly  applied  to  the  maintonanoO 
of  a  competent,  experienced  bot^nic^il  aud  landscape  gardener  as 
director  of  tho  plantations,  and  the  necessary  palm-  and  :  '  -' 
houses  had  been  erected,  the  Central  Park  might  have  1>  • 
only  one  of  the  largest  but  on©  of  tho  hands^^m*- 
and  botanical  gardens;  for,  witli  its  superficies  of  -  i^.i.  i>».w 
and  forty  acres,  it  has  a  much  greater  an^a  than,  ft>r  03 
Regent's  Park,  with  its  lj<*uutiful  bi: 

IDS,  Kensington  Garden,  and  the  Kew    .• 

»gether.    The  last-nAmod.  a  famous  hot 


BOTANICAL    GARDENS, 


107 


only  sixty-seven  acres,  and  has  nothing  liko  the  diversity  of  forma- 
tion that  the  Central  Park  contains. 

The  plan  for  making  Central  Park,  like  those  parks,  a  botani- 
cal garden  as  well,  has  existed  since  its  foundation  in  18»57,*  and 
has  come  up  again  from  time  to  time ;  a  costly  beginning  was  pro- 
jected under  the  Tweed  regime,  and  the  foundations  were  laid  for 
a  large  glass  house,  by  which  the  little  lake  on  the  east  side  of  the 
park  between  Seventy -third  and  Seventy-foiirth  Streets  was  to  be 
roofed  for  the  cultivation  of  Victoria  regia  ajid  other  fresh-water 
plants.  The  money  that  was  appropriated  found  takers  enough, 
but  no  building  came  out  of  it. 

Much  might  be  accomplished  in  the  Central  Park  with  its  ricb 
flora  under  export  and  artistic  administration,  without  great  cost^ 
if  only  the  majority  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  were  marked  with 
their  botanical  and  English  names,  as  is  done  in  the  stjuares  of 
Philadeli»hia,  Boston,  and  other  cities;  and  the  people  of  the  city 
might  thus  be  put  in  the  way  of  becoming  acquainted  with  at 
least  the  native  trees  and  bushes,  and  excited  to  some  interest  in 
botany.  The  daily  thousands  of  summer  visitors  pass  by  these 
abundant  groups  of  plants  without  any  information  to  their  names, 
and  without  any  means  or  motive  for  informing  themselves  r^ 
spocting  these  objects  that  make  the  park  attractive  and  beau- 
tiful. This,  however,  is  one  of  the  moat  important  purposes  of  the 
botanical  gardens  of  our  time ;  and  the  Central  Park  could  fulfill 
it  as  well  as  and  oven  better  than  Regent's  Park  and  Kensington 
Qar(]en  and  the  plant-houses  in  Hyde  Park  in  London. 

Of  the  eight  hundred  and  forty  acres  in  the  Central  Park,  four 

*  It  maj  b«  of  ftitereflt  to  mention  here  that  nftcr  the  onm  funoua  Hamilton  Garden 
DTftr  rbiUdelpblo,  which  was  managed  for  tbrec  jcora  towarU  the  end  of  the  lost  otmtuty 
bj  tha  fiuDons  botajUBl,  Fricdricb  Purah,  New  York  haa  bad  tbe  first  botanical  f^ardon  in 
North  Amorioa.  It  was  pstabliabed  to  1301  b;  Dr.  David  Uosack,  a  phyaictan,  who  came 
to  tUa  ooiiatt7  from  Scotland,  on  a  tract  of  about  twenty  acres,  which  he  bought  from  tlie 
dty.  h  waa  iritaatcd  ACTcrul  miles  north  of  tho  dty  at  tlic  timo,  on  the  place  of  the  pres- 
ent aqiure  between  FUth  and  Sixth  Arcntiei  and  Fortv^Bixtb  and  Fortj-scrcnth  Streets. 
TiM  ««odh(l,  hilly  land  waa  cleared  and  laid  out  and  surrounded  bj  a  atoac  wall,  alon|; 
irhkfa  tbe  tall  forest-trees  were  allowed  to  remain.  In  1806  the  garden  was  under  high 
enlllvalSaa,  and  oontatnod  over  fifteen  hundred  apeciea  of  American  useful,  medicinal,  and 
Ofifptal  plants,  ■  good  hot-house,  and  an  audlonccroom  for  botanical  teaching.  In 
!9(W  and  7807  two  bnt-bouaos  were  added,  and  a  nuraber  of  West  Indian  and  European 
pUnta  were  put  under  culUvatlon.  A  catalogue  printed  in  1807  ^tc  the  names  of  two 
"—^""^  apockt.  Tbe  garden — which  Dr.  Hcsack  had  named  tho  Elgin  Garden,  after  his 
Omrtliih  Imuib— was  regularly  taktm  care  of  during  tbe  following  yearn  by  the  owner  and 
•OQlff  waltby  lo^vr*  of  plnntji ;  but  was  sold  ia  ISIO,  for  want  of  moans  to  carry  it  on,  to 
ifaa  Stftia  of  Now  Tork.  for  Kronly  throe  thousand  dollars.  With  this,  akilUul  direction  of 
tfa«  cardsQ  arcmj  to  have  cnroo  to  an  cad.  It  was  oommittcd  in  turn  lo  tbe  Regents  of  ihc 
(JbI'-- — '■-  -'  *^ —  Yfirk,  iba  for*  »"■  -'  "1-  •"  ".-rr,^  of  Pbysicians  and  Siir;;con%  and  finally 
M  *  TUs  wia'  l>y  an  arrangement  with  the  State  lA>gi!*1n- 


ilecar,  and  with  this  tbe  onca 
tolM. 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


hundred  acres  are  wooded  with  trees  and  shrubs ;  forty-three  and 
a  quarter  acres,  besides  the  reservoirs,  are  covered  with  water  in 
the  six  lakes ;  and  of  the  many  meaflows  the  largost  contains  nine- 
teen acres.  The  size,  conditions  of  soil,  natural  beauty,  and  cen- 
tral location  are  therefore  far  more  favorable  and  more  diversi- 
fied thau  in  the  famous  parks  and  botanical  gardons  of  London, 
Paris,  and  Berlin,  Only  a  proper  beginning,  a  scientific  and  artis- 
tic organization,  and  the  wise  application  of  the  means  that  are  at 
hand,  are  neodotl  to  combine  the  useful  with  the  agreeable  in  the 
park,  and  make  it  also  one  of  the  handsomest  of  botanical  gardens. 

One  is  therefore  involuntarily  reminded  of  Schiller's  words — 
'*  Waram  in  die  Feme  Bch  weifen,  eioh^  das  Guto  liegt  00  ofth  r  " 
("  Why  wander  into  the  far,  seeing  the  good  lies  so  near  ?  '*)  when 
he  regards  the  present  movement  and  efforts  to  creat-e  a  "  great 
botanical  garden  "  in  certain  territory  in  the  northern  anuex  to  the 
city,  on  the  Bronx  River,  beyond  Mount  Vernon.  A  committee  of 
the  Torrey  Botanical  Club  is  trying  and  hopes  to  collect  a  mill- 
ion dollars  for  that  purpose.  It  is  given  among  the  purposes  to  bo 
attained  by  this  garden  that  it  will  furnish  the  city  with  living 
plants  as  demonstration  objects  for  botanical  instruction  in  the 
medicinal,  pharmaceutical,  and  other  iiistitutioas.  But  smaller 
trdons  and  houses  for  the  cultivation  of  tender  and  half-hardy 
plants,  like  the  little  botanical  garden  created  by  Prof.  Asa  Gray 
and  his  pupils  in  Cambridge,  the  Arboretum  in  BostOHi  and 
Shaw's  Gardens  in  St.  Louis,  would  be  abundantly  sufficient  for 
this  purpose.  Instead  of  utilizing  that  which  is  at  hand  and 
near  us,  we  must,  in  a  fashion  characteristic  of  New  York,  have 
>raething  now  and  grand  for  a  botanical  garden — a  scheme  that 

J  bring  money  among  the  people,  give  position  and  name  to 
politicians,  feed  the  mills  of  land-speculators  and  contractors,  and 
therefore  find  favor  everywhere. 

The  project  is  not  objectionable  in  itself.  But  why  not  apply 
it  to  the  already  existing  Central  Park,  which  has  abundant  room 
and  aU  that  is  needed  for  the  establishment  of  a  complete  botani- 
cal garden,  and  would  gain  immensely  by  it  in  usefulnpss  and 
beauty  ?  With  a  million  dollars  all  could  be  provided  on  the  same 
grand  scale  that  the  Kew  Garden  of  London  possesses  in  planta^ 
tions,  hot-houses,  and  botanical  museums ;  moreover,  a  larg^  sum 
of  money  alone  will  no  moro  make  a  great  botanic-n '  m 

it  will  a  great  university.  It  requires,  first  of  all,  tii  :::  .  .  sA 
creators  and  the  scientifically  and  artistically  competent  orgaals- 
ers  and  architects. 

Without  reverting  in  this  short  article  to  t)u>  h'Fit orv  of  botan- 
ical gardens,  which  may  be  found  in  evcrj*  ■ 
willconni  1        '    ^      ^■ 

taaoe.    Ti 


BOTANICAL   GARDENS, 


109 


I 


I 


dDcee  than  it  was  formerly.  With  tho  populaiization  of  science 
nnd  the  rise  of  landscape  gardening  on  an  extensive  scale  in  or 
near  all  the  great  cities,  botanical  gardens  have  acquired  more  and 
more  importance  and  perhaps  greater  value  for  the  awakening 
and  instruction  of  the  masses,  and  should  therefore  be  made  easily 
accessible  to  them  and  as  instructive  as  possible.  Hence  the  pub* 
lie  i>arks  that  are  most  easily  within  reach  of  the  largest  numbers 
of  p«30ple  are  the  peculiarly  fuvorabl«  territory  ou  which  to  place 
botanical  gardens.  Their  importance  and  usefulness  in  this  sense 
were  recently  expounded  in  a  striking  manner  by  Prof,  Schwen- 
dener  in  his  address  on  assuming  the  rectorate  of  the  University 
of  Berlin,  when,  having  described  the  present  condition  of  botany 
and  its  aims  and  purposes,  he  said":  "  If  we  ask  how  botanical 
gardens  stand  in  reference  to  this  new  direction,  it  can  not  be 
denied  that  they  are  in  general  behind  the  i>rogress  of  science. 
They  still  exhibit,  aside  from  a  few  unimportant  changes,  the  im- 
X>ress  of  an  earlier  time.  Certain  fashionable  plants,  like  palms, 
orchids,  camellias,  azalias,  cactuses,  heaths,  etc.,  are  cultivated  in 
extravagant  numbers,  and  grow.  bl{X)m,  and  decay  without  bearing 
any  fmit  for  science.  Where  there  are  specialists,  who  work  up 
some  group  in  monographs,  as  rich  a  representation  of  its  forms 
in  living  examples  as  p)ossiblo  may  be  justified ;  but  we  should  not 
forget  in  this  case  that  most  systematic  research  must  rest  for  the 
greater  part  on  herbarium  material,  for  the  whole  number  of  culti- 
vated forms  constitute  only  a  fraction  of  what  is  already  described. 
The  largest  collections  of  living  plants  in  the  gardens  of  the  great 
cities  may  contain  sixteen  thousand  or  eighteen  thousand  species ; 
but  the  flora  of  tlio  whole  earth  includes  ten  times  as  many.  The 
phytog^pher  is  not  willing  to  depend  upon  ganlen  specimens, 
bocauae  they  sometimes  vary  considerably  from  plants  collected 
in  nature  and  afford  no  certain  guarantees  of  their  origin.  It  is 
therefore  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  demands  of  the  new  system 
can  be  satisfied  with  specimens  that  have  grown  under  cultiva- 
tion. Hardly  anything  else  can  be  expected  of  the  future  than 
that  the  enormous  stock  of  living  plants  which  all  the  great  gar- 
dens now  exhibit  will  suffer  a  gradual  reduction. 

**  But  if  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  gra<lually  gi\ang  up  the 
charm  which  it  has  exerLM8(>d  so  long,  what  shall  take  its  place  ? 
Th  -  — '  ris  as  such  stand  in  no  other  relation  to  the  now  domi- 
nu;  jscopical  and  experimental  physiological  research  than 

that  of  fumiiihiag  the  necessury  mat^^rial  and  a  certain  number  of 
plants  for  pvtu.r-;.Ti^ut,,  and  for  that  no  particular  efforts  or  large 
gardens  ar  I.    In  this  direction,  therefore,  no  one  will  prob- 

alf^  s  or  sot  up  new  aima 

'  province  of  botanical  gardens  to 
d<tal  V  raphy  of  plants.    What  has  hit] 


110 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCS  MONTHLY, 


erto  been  done  in  this  direction  "by  the  arrangement  of  geograph* 
ical  groups,  and  which  is  all  that  can  be  done  in  the  future,  belongs 
to  the  domain  of  popular  demonstration  and  the  instruction  of 
wider  circles,  not  to  that  of  science.  It  may  be  of  real  interest  to 
the  garden-v-isitiug  public  to  find  Japanese,  Chinese,  American,  or 
Australian  plants,  etc.,  together  in  greater  numbers,  and  tho  ad- 
ministration of  the  gardens  are  not  to  be  blamed  if  they  meet  this 
p<.»pular  (desire  as  practically  as  they  can,  only  tliey  must  not  con- 
ceive that  they  are  thereby  solving  any  scientific  jiroblem. 

"  The  one  thing  that  remains  for  the  directors  of  botanical 
gardens,  if  they  would  keep  up  with  the  progress  of  science  and 
to  make  them  something  more  than  mere  magazines  of  living 
plants,  is  to  engage  themselves  in  the  questions  that  concern  the 
variability  of  organic  forms,  the  influence  of  changed  lifo-eondi- 
tions  on  the  form,  the  phenomena  of  hybridization  and  reversion, 
id  especially  the  factors  that  are  conducive  to  the  further  devel- 
>pment  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  of  ite  history, 

"  If  we  raise  the  question,  in  conclusion,  of  what  will  bo  the 
conserjuences  of  the  perspective  we  have  defined  for  the  botan- 
jical  gardens,  it  is  hardly  to  be  feared  for  the  smaHor  gardens, 
•ving  principally  for  the  purposes  of  instruction,  that  they  wiQ 

seriously  affected  by  it,  for  their  stock  of  jflants  does  not  at 
moat  exceed  the  present  requirements  for  demonstration. 

"But  a  profounder  change  concerning  the  scientific  sido  of 
botanical  gardens  may  nevertheless  be  anticipated  in  tho  futorfli 
The  fashioiiahle  plantH  of  the  trade-gardeua  and  the  monotonous 
forms  of  certain  genera  which  require  whole  houses  in  their  aim- 
less fullness  of  species  do  not  deserve  such  a  preference ;  and  the 
time  is  at  hand  for  botanical  gardens  to  break  with  tliese  old  tra- 
itioTis  and  to  cnrry  out  a  stricter  selection  connect**d  with  neces- 
iry  reforms  in  nomenclature.  For  this  is  demanded  an  expert 
and  energetic  administration  which  recognizes  modem  problems 
and  knows  how  to  overcome  the  hindrances  that  stand  in  the 
way." 

What  evidently  is  wante^i  and  should  be  created  in  New  York 
is  what  tlio  botaniral  gardens  of  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  '  '  r»r 
great  cities  priucipall}'  are,  a  "magazine"  of  cuUiviH  ve 

and  exotic  plants,  in  which  botanists  and  lovers  of  plants  as  well 
as  the  masses  can  enjoy  themselves  and  be  instructed,  and  by 
means  of  which  a  j>ercoption  of  and  interest  in  tlie  beatity  and 
emllesa  richness  of  forms  and  colors  of  the  jtlant-vrorhl  can  be 
awakened  and  sidvanced  in  the  populace.  The  Ceutr: 
eminf*ntly  a<lnpted  for  such  an  ostablislimont,  haw  thn 
tion  for  it,abundant  space,  and  tijorefure  all  th- 
are  neod**d.  Should  it  si^ni  desirable,  in  tli"  • 
of  iho  city  northward,  at  some  later  tim-' 


A    r>,.,.u    ;. 


I 

I 


TEE  DESERT  OF  GOBI  AITD   THE  HIMALAYAS,    in 


THE  DESERT  OF  GOBI  AND  THE  HIMALAYAS. 

Bt  LxBonxAvr  F.  £.  TO  UNO  HUSBAND.* 


parka  vith  botanical  gardens^  future  generations  Trill  know  how 
to  proviflo  them,  probably  with  better  means  and  servioo,  and  in 
case  with  closer-lying  interest  and  benefit.  At  present  it 
lid  bo  an  extravagance,  a  vain  illusion,  and  a  needless  and 
"costly  ex}>eriment,  to  g-o  for  the  eHtablishment  of  a  botanical  gar- 
don  beyond  the  Central  Park,  which  is  so  well  adajjted  to  the  pur- 
pose, and  to  create  from  the  beginning  a  "  grand  botanical  gar- 
den" at  a  considerable  distance  in  a  wholly  unprepared  territory. 
— Translated  and  abridged  for  the  Popvlar  Science  Monthly  from 
the  March  nuviber  of  PharmaceutMche  Rundschau, 

r 

■  'T^HE  Royal  Geographical  Society  enjoyed  a  profitable  evening 
I  -L  a  few  months  ago  in  hearing  an  account  by  Lieutenant  F.  E. 
^Mfounjchusband  of  a  journey  which  ho  had  made  across  Contni! 
^^Hia  from  Manchuria  and  Pekmg  to  K^hmir,  over  the  Mustagh 
Pbab,  and  the  discussion  upon  it,  in  which  ofiScers  learned  in 

I  Indian  geography  took  part  Tho  author  started  in  the  summer 
of  1885,  with  Mr.  H.  E.  M.  James,  who  has  since  published  in  the 
book  called  "The  Long  White  Mountain"  the  best  account  of 
Manchuria  that  wo  have.  The  travelers  separated,  after  a  pleas- 
ant and  profitable  journey,  at  Newcbang,  Mr,  James  to  return 
homo  by  wny  of  Chifu  and  America,  and  Lieutenant  Young- 
linshnnd  to  travel  back  to  India  through  Mongolia  and  Chinese'^ 
Turkifltan. 

'  ■  ing  the  field  of  the  earlier  journey,  the  author  asserts 

II  thr.:  .  countries  could  repay  tho  traveler  better  for  his  labors 
than  Manchuria.  It  is  a  noble  country,  and  well  worthy  of  being 
tho  birthplaco  of  the  successive  dynasties  which  issuing  from  it 
have  conipiert^d  all  the  countries  round,  and  of  that  dynasty 
which  to-day  holds  sway  over  the  most  populous  empire  in  the 
world.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  extraordinary ;  the  plain  coun^^ 
try  is  richly  cultivated  and  dotted  over  with  flourishing  villaj 

I  and  thriving  market  towns,  and  the  hills  are  covered  with  mag- 
uiiicont  forests  of  oak  and  elm.  The  mineral  resoiirces  are  at 
present  undeveloped,  but  coal  and  iron,  gold  and  silver  are  knowni 
to  be  procurable.  The  climate  ia  healthy  and  invigoiivting,  but 
very  cold  in  winter,  when  the  temperature  varies  from  10"  below 
xero  Fahr.  in  the  south  to  40°  or  more  below  zero  in  the  north. 
RivGW  are  numerous  and  large,"  The  principal  river  is  the  Sun- 
*  CoukflMd  from  the  ftuthor'9  paper  lo  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Rojal  GoogriLphlcal 


iia 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTITLK 


gari,  which  is  narigable  for  vessels  of  three  or  four  foet  draiight 
as  far  as  Kirin,  and  whose  rich  valley  is  every  '  racting 

thousands  of  colonista  from  China,  The  drawback  .  .  .^lindage, 
which  is  very  rife  in  northern  Manchuria,  and  on  account  of  I 
which  the  people  have  to  collect,  for  their  own  pr-  '  .in 


large  villagps  and  towns,  so  that  small   hamlets  aui 


ie<l 


farm-houses  are  never  seen.  Though  it  is  Manchuria,  the  coun- 
try is  not  inhabited  by  Manchus,  They  have  been  draine<!  off 
to  China  proper,  and  their  places  are  taken  by  immigrants  from 
the  Chinese  provinces.  The  people  of  the  original  race  have  Io«t 
their  old  warlike  spirit,  and  are  a  laughing-stock  to  the  Chiueeu 
colonists.  Unable  U)  make  headway  against  the  brigands,  they 
depend  on  the  Chinese  regiments  to  do  that  work  for  them« 

A  great  many  things  had  to  be  thought  of  in  preparing  for  a 
long  journey  over  an  almost  unknown  country,  in  which  weirQ 
included  the  crossing  of  the  terrible  Desert  of  Gobi  and  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  Bills  could  not  be  obtained  on  any  town 
in  Turkistan,  and  it  was  necessary  to  carry  money  in  bulk.  If 
the  Chinese  cop[)er  coinage  were  taken,  it  would  reiin"  :iin 

of  mules  to  cairy  a  sufficient  sum.    The  problem  wa-  by 

taking  sixty  pounds  of  solid  silver,  stowed  away  in  the  baggage. 
Clothing  must  be  provided  in  anticipation  both  of  great  heat  and 
of  intense  cold ;  and  medicines  had  to  be  laid  in,  for  the  people 
as  well  as  for  the  traveler  and  his  pariy,  "  for  they  are  always 
useful  for  giving  to  the  natives.     It  is  well  I  did  so,  for  Mr.  Dal- 

fleisch's  fame  as  a  medicine-man  had  spread  throughout  Turkis- 
tan,  and  the  Turkis  thought  that  I,  being  also  English,  must  be 
able  to  cure  them  instantly  of  any  illness  they  had." 

Ascending  the  valley  of  the  Yangho  from  Kalgan, "  the  conn* 
try  presented  a  desolate  and  deserted  appearance,  for  the  villagiefl 
were  half  in  ruins;  numerous  watch-towers,  now  falling  in  pieces^ 
were  scattered  over  the  country ;  and  the  inhabitants,  looking  iQ- 
fe<l  and  badly  clothed,  were  attempting  in  a  half-hearted  way  to 
cultivate  fields  which  were  constantly  being  coveretl  with  layers 
of  dust  by  the  horrible  sand-storms  that  used  to  occur  almo^ 
daily  at  this  time  of  the  year.  The  country  is  of  the  formation 
caUed  loess — a  light,  friable  soil  which  crumbles  to  dust  when  the 
slightest  pn*aaure  is  put  upon  it.  In  conBe<iuence  of  this  the  roads 
are  sunk  thirty  to  forty  feet  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country ;  for  when  a  cart  j;Mi8se«  along  a  road  the  soil  crumbles 
into  dust,  the  wind  blows  the  clust  away,  and  a  rut  '  iL 

Moni  traffic  follows,  more  dust  is  blown  away,  and  gru  ...i.. .  ;be 
roadway  sinks  lower  and  lower  below  the  sujToundinc  level :  for 
UioChln^»8e  here,  as  ^^  vor  thui' 

.  .  .  Ou  the  14th  of  A,  .1  emergeti 

whiolk  are  tho  oharact«ristKc  features  of  Mongolia  pi 


THE  DESERT  OF  GOBI  Al^D  TEB  HIMALAYAS.    113 


inff  far  away  in  the  distance  there  was  a  great,  rolling,  grassy  plain, 
'  "■  h  the  flocks  and  herds  and  the  yurias,  or  felt  tents,  of  the 
s  were  scattered  al>out.    These  people  offered  a  striking 
^onlniiit  to  the  Chinese  inhabiting  the  districts  I  had  just  left. 
ley  were  strong  and  robust,  with  round,  ruddy  faces,  very  simple- 
linded,  and  full  of  hearty  good  humor.    They  are  entirely  pas- 
toral and  nomadic  in  their  habits,  and  do  not  take  to  agiicultural 
tursuita.    The  ohl  warlike  spirit  which  made  them  so  powerful  in 
the  days  of  Genghis  Khan  has  now  disappeared  completely.    The 
[Chinese  Government  has  pm-posely  encouraged  the  men  to  become 
[LjimaH,  and  now  it  is  said  tliat  as  many  as  sixty  per  cent  of  tho 
'hoi©  male  population  are  Lamas»  whr»,  by  their  religion,  are  neither 
allowed  to  marry  nor  to  fight.    In  consequence,  there  is  a  great 
dooTMise  in  the  fighting  strength  of  the  Mongols,  as  well  as  in  the 
^hole  population.    A  recent  famine  carried  away  numbers  more, 
and  the  country,  it  seems,  would  almost  become  depopulated  were 
it  not  that  Chinese  immigrants  are  now  invading  it,  and  these  are 
•ven  outdoing  the  Mongols  in  their  own  callings,  for  I  met  Chinese 
fin  ^T  -  -  '  ■  I  who  owned  flocks  of  sheep  which  they  were  fattening 
for  '  :ug  market." 

In  order  to  avoid  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  to  let  the  camels  feetl 
by  daylight,  when  they  could  bo  watched  and  kept  from  straying, 
the  usual  plan  of  the  journey  was  to  start  at  ah<:)ut  three  o  clock 
|in  the  afternoon,  and  travel  on  till  midnight  or  later.  The  nights 
were  often  extremely  beautiful,  and  the  stars  shone  out  with  an 
unwonted  magnificence,  **  Venus  was  a  resplendent  object,  and 
guided  us  over  many  a  mile  of  thiit  desert.  The  Milky  Way,  too, 
was  Sebright  that  it  looked  like  a  bright  phosphorescent  cloud, 
»r  M  a  cloud  with  the  moon  behind  it.  This  clearness  of  the 
[intaiOflphere  was  probably  due  to  its  being  so  remarkably  dry. 
[SIverything  became  parched  up  and  so  charged  with  electricity 
that  in  opening  out  a  sheep-skin  coat  or  a  blanket  a  loud  crackling 
[noise  would  be  given  out,  accompanied  by  a  sheet  of  fire.  The 
^mpemture  used  to  vary  considerably.  Frosts  continued  to  the 
|i»nd  of  May,  bnt  the  ilays  were  often  very  hot,  and  were  frequently 
lott^Ht  ftt  nine  or  ten  in  the  morning,  for  later  on  a  strong  wind 
•ould  usually  spring  up,  blowing  sometimes  with  extreme  vio- 
lence, up  till  sunset,  when  it  generally  subsided  again.  If  this 
was  from  the  north,  the  weather  was  fine  but  cold.  If  it 
from  tho  south,  it  would  be  wanner,  but  clouds  would  collect^ 
and  rain  wo;'  's  fall;  generally,  however,  the  rain  would 

^paiis  off  inti  n*  reaching  the  ground.    Ahead  of  us  we 

Bee  tho  rain  falling  heavily,  but  before  it  reached  the  ground 
''       ;'     "     '*  —vanish  away — and  when  we  reached 

I  .  ba4l  btH^n  falling  there  would  not  be 

f .  re  ou  the  ground,"    Instead  of  the  rain,  the  sand 


114 


fonnd  its  way  everywhere.     Occasionally  the  march  biul  la 
given  np  because  the  camels  could  not  m£^e  Lead  against  the 
luuce  of  the  wind. 

A  great  ridge  of  bare  sand,  destitute  of  vegetation,  at  thi 
western  end  of  the  Huskn  Hills,  about  forty  miles  long  and  nin( 
hundred  feet  high,  is  associated  with  a  tradition  of  a  large  mili* 
tary  force  having  once  boon  collected  and  prt^pariug  tt»  march 
China,  when  a  mighty  wind  arose,  blowing  the  sand  against  theu^ 
and  burying  them  all,  together  with  several  villages  and  teTnpl«4L 

The  Altai  Mountains  are  perfectly  barren,  with  the  upp*/r  j)or- 
tion  composed  of  bare  rock  and  the  lower  of  long  gravel  slopes, 
formed  of  the  debris  of  the  rocks  above.  This  debris  is  formed 
under  the  influence  of  the  extremes  of  the  climate  upon  tho  nnproi^H 
tected  rock,  with  no  rainfall  sufficient  to  wash  it  away.  So  i(9 
accumulates  in  a  uniform  slope,  often  thirty  or  forty  miles  in 
length,  leaving  only  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  original  jaggy  out- 
line of  the  mountain  visible  at  the  top.  A  prominent  Altai  peak 
was  pointed  out  to  the  traveler  as  covering  a  grassy  hollow  whicl 
is  frequented  by  wild  camels.  The  Mongols  are  said  to  shoot  th< 
animals  for  the  sake  of  their  skins,  and  also  to  catch  the  yooni 
ones  and  train  them  to  be  ridden.  They  will  go  two  hundi 
miles  a  day  for  a  week,  but  can  not  be  broken  to  carry  a  Io4mL^ 
They  are  smaller  than  the  tame  camels^  and  are  said  to  have  shoi 
smooth  hair,  in  place  of  the  long  hair  of  the  ordinarj'  Mongol 
camel.  Considerable  numbers  of  wild  asses,  and  wild  horses^, 
Equus  Prejevalski,  were  seen  roaming  around  the  plains. 

The  most  trying  march  in  the  desert  was  that  of  the  last 
which  was  performed  in  sight  of  the  Tian  Shan,  or "  Hea'< 
Mountains.''    It  was  seventy  miles  in  length,  '*  and  not  a  sign 
water  could  bo  fonnd  throughout,  while  the  heat  was  intense,  for 
the  wind  blew  off  the  heated  gravel  aa  from  a  furnace,  and  I  use*! 
to  hold  up  my  hand  to  protect  my  face  from  it,  in  the  sa- 
as  one  would  in  front  of  a  fire."    On  the  nejct  evening  a  1.  .- 
voice  welcomed  the  party  as  it  was  ascending  the  lower  sloj 
tho  Tian  Shan  to  a  Turki  house,  witli  a  stream  of  water 
by  it.    The  country  on  the  southern  slojje  of  the  range  still 
tinned  desert,  but  with  a  small  oasis  every  fifteen  or  twenty 
Containing  a  village  and  cultivated  lands.    A  difference 
once  observed  between  the  Turki  and  ordinary  Chinest.- 
"  In  China  the  houses  are,  as  a  rule,  largo  and  well  built,  with  pent 
roofs  and  overhanging  oaves.    Tl.     V  ,  ' 

rnih  plenty  of  room  im*ide  for  ti, 
for  several  bustling  shopkeepers,  who  serve  i 
behind  good  sol  if^  ■^-^•-■^■-TH.    In  Turkir=*""  *^-  ■ 
more  after  tho  1.  .  le.    They  ai 

roofedy  and  the  ahupo  small  and  heapt^i  up  a. 


TEE  DESERT  OF  GOBI  AXD  TBE  fflMALAYAS,   115 

so  Uiat  there  is  little  room  left  for  the  shopkeeper.  ...  If  you 
could  get  a  bird's-^jye  \'iew  of  Chinese  Turkistan,  you  would  see  a, 
great,  ijare  deaurt,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  barren  mountains, 
and  at  their  bases  you  would  see  some  vivid  green  spots,  showing 
out  sharp  and  distinct,  like  blots  of  green  paint  dropped  on  to  a 
sopia  picture."  The  oases  are  extraordinarily  fertile;  every  scrap 
of  land  that  can  be  cultivated  is  used  up,  and  every  drop  of  water 
is  drained  off  and  used  for  irrigation.  The  inhabitants  are  indus- 
trious, but  not  so  good  cultivators  as  the  Chinese.  They  seem 
peaceful  and  contented,  dress  simply  and  well,  and  live  in  houses 
which,  Uumgh  built  of  mud,  are  kept  remarkably  clean  inside. 
They  are,  however,  much  lacking  in  spirit,  and  stand  in  great  awe 
uf  the  Chinese,  who  produce  upon  them,  as  well  as  upon  all  the 
people  of  these  regions,  an  impression  of  their  overwhelming 
[frtrength  and  importance.  They  are  perfect  masters  of  the  art  of 
I impreteing Orientals;  their  officials  are  scarcely  known  as  human 
lieings,  but  "  are  presences  inhabiting  a  great  walled-in  inclosure, 
entrance  to  which  is  barred  by  massive  gates,  and  they  never  ap- 
pear in  public  except  in  state  and  accompanied  by  an  escort. 
China,  too,  is  regarded  by  the  Turkis  as  an  almost  fabulous  coun- 
try." They  never  go  there,  and  **  only  hear  of  it  from  the  Chinese, 
Trho  give  the  most  exaggerated  descriptions  of  it,  telling  them  that 
the  emperor  has  an  untold  number  of  soldiers  at  his  command, and 
[has  a  hill  of  gold  and  a  hill  of  silver,  from  which  he  obtains  inex- 
laostible  wealth."  Turfan,  being  seated  at  a  very  low  elevation 
and  surrounded  by  the  desert,  suiffers  from  an  intense  heat,  and 
the  people,  to  avoid  it,  dig  underground  rooms,  and  live  in  them 
during  the  day. 

The  Kirghiz,  whose  country  came  next  in  order,  were  found 

imoro  well-to-do  than  the  Mongols  or  Kalmucs,  dressing  better, 

[living  in  letter  tents,  and  keeping  them  clean;  fine,  strong  men, 

not  ISO  industrious  as  the  Turkis,  but  a  great  deal  more  so  than 

the  Mongols.    "We  put  up  every  night  in  their  tents,  and  they 

[vere  generally  very  civil,  though   naturally  rather  curious   to 

:now  who  I  was  and  see  all  my  things.    The  Afghan  had  a  hard 

4me  answering  all  the  questions,  so,  when  he  found  it  monotonous, 

le  used  to  spread  a  rug  and  solemnly  say  his  prayers.    He  was  a. 

Iji,  and,  to  keep  up  his  religion  properly,  had  to  pray  iive  time&J 

day.    When  he  had  been  traveling  all  day,  and- had  not  been 

kble  to  say  \m  prayers,  he  used  to  make  up  for  it  in  the  evening 

»y  repeating  them  once  every  half-hour  or  so."    On  the  plain 

[«d  the  Syrt  were  large  fields  of  wheat  grown  by  the  Kirghiz, 

rho  bad  built  bouse*  to  store  their  grain  in,  but  continued  to  live 

i     '^    "     '     ■       "  T'         :iu\  they  j>referred  not  living 

.lid  of  their  tumbling  down 
tpoA  ihvm.  auisulf,  when  crossing  the  Himalayas 


ii6 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEI^CE  MOXTHLT, 


a  few  days  afterward,  had  to  gnard  against  the  dangcn?  of  Hvingi 
in  a  tent.  In  that  region  the  Kanjntis  are  on  the  watch  for  the 
traveler,  and,  learning  his  ways  in  the  day,  attack  him  at  nighC 
If  he  pitches  a  tent.^  they  cut  the  ropeB  and  catch  him  inside  iL 
**  So,  as  I  wished  to  end  my  journey  in  India,  and  not  in  Kanjni,  I 
^^ave  up  using  a  tent,  and  for  three  weeks,  while  croscing  thai 
Himalayas,  bivouacked  out,  spreading  my  rugs  on  the  ground  oa 
the  least  windy  side  of  any  friendly  rock  I  could  find^  and  always 
changing  my  position  after  dark." 

A  complete  outfit  had  to  be  procured  for  crossing  tbo  lofty 
range — good,  sound,  hard  ponies,  spare  shoes  for  them,  and  tools 
for  shoeing  them ;  pack-saddles  and  blankets,  and  long  shee 
xoats  for  the  men,  and,  as  there  would  be  no  paths,  pick-axes  and 
spades  for  road-making.  "  As  we  got  further  into  the  mountains 
I  noticed  that  the  heavy  haze  which  perpetually  hangs  over  th^ 
Kaahgar  and  Yarkand  districts  faded  away.  This  haze  must, 
think,  be  formed  of  dust  stirred  up  by  the  strong  winds  which 
blow  almost  daily  in  those  districts,  for  I  noticed  that  theru  was 
a  thin,  permanent  coating  of  dust  on  the  rocks  in  the  valley  of 
the  Tisuaf  River,  where  there  is  practically  no  natural  dust,  but 
over  which  this  haze  continually  hangs,  and  that,  as  we  advanced 
inland  and  the  haze  disappeared,  so  also  did  this  coating  of  dust 
on  the  rocks." 

From  the  summit  of  the  Aghil  Darvan  Pass  (sixteen  thousand 
or  seventeen  thousand  feet  high)  the  author  had  a  view  of  iho 
^great  Mustagh  Range,  or  Karakorum  Moiintains,  which  fonn 
the  water-shed  between  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  those  which  take  their  way  toward  central  Asia,  with  an 
immense  glacier  flowing  down  from  the  main  range.  "  The  a 
.pearance  of  these  mountains  is  exti'emely  bold  and  nip 
rise  in  succession  of  needle  peaks,  like  hundrefls  of  J\l 
collected  together ;  but  the  Matterhom,  Mont  Blanc,  and  all  tliQ 
Swiss  mountains  would  have  been  several  hundred  feet  below  ms* 
while  these  mountains  rose  up  in  solemn  grandeur  thoasands 
feet  above  me.  Not  a  living  thing  was  seen  and  not  a  sound  was 
heard;  all  was  snow  and  ice  and  rocky  precipices, 
mountains  are  far  too  grand  to  support  anything  so  i: 
as  trees  or  vegetjition  of  any  sort^  They  st-and  bold  and  s(-»iitary 
in  their  glory^  and  only  permit  man  to  come  among  ♦>'••!'>  f. 
few  months  in  the  year,  that  he  may  admire  their  M' 
and  go  tell  it  to  his  comrades  in  the  world  ben^.-ath. 
on  the  scene,  I  felt  as  if  I  were  intruding  on  ihoab-  ^• 

groat,  invisible,  but  all-pervading  deity." 

After asc.     ''       ''     ''  '    ,         t:'   ,  .   •  r- 

the  MufitagL 
BMond  highest  mountain  in  tho  worlds  28,^fiO  (oec  to  1p 


\ 


i.:r 


1^ 


SKETCH  OF  RUDOLF  CLAUSIVS, 


117 


it  through  a  break  in  the  mountains,  rising  up  straight, 
bold,  and  solitary,  covered  from  foot  to  summit  with  perpotiial 
^  enow.  The  upper  part,  for  perhaps  five  thousand  foet,  waa  a  per- 
B  f oct  cone,  and  seems  to  be  composed  entirely  of  ice  and  snow,  the 
^■||rt:  'U  of  ages.    The  lower  part  was  more  precipitous,  but 

PHk-  i  ^  li  to  throw  off  the  snow  altogether,  while  at  the  base  was 

a  great  glacier  formed  by  the  masses  of  snow  which  fell  from  its 
eidos.  It  was  a  magnificent  sight,  and  1  could  scarcely  tear  myself 
away  from  it."  The  name  K2  has  been  given  to  this  mountain 
by  the  Trigonometrical  Survey,  waiting  the  discovery  of  a  native 
for  it,  for  this  enlightc'ned  corps  always  prefers  native  names 
they  can  be  found.  Probably,  however,  like  Mount  Ever- 
est,* it  has  no  name,  not  being  familiar  enough  to  the  people  to 
receive  one,  for  both  summits  can  be  seen  only  from  almost  inac- 
C6esible  places.  The  name  Peak  Godwin- Austen,  after  the  officer 
who  first  surveyed  the  Mustagh  Range  and  glaciers,  was  proposed 
for  it  at  this  meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

The  thrilling  descriptinn  of  the  crossing  of  the  Mustagh  Pass, 
where  the  party  reached  the  height  of  nineteen  thousand  feet 
-above  the  sea,  is  too  long  to  be  quoted  here.  It  simply  includes 
the  usual  adventures  of  icy  Alpine  climbing  intensified,  and  adds 
facts.  General  Strachey,  President  of  the  Geographical 
renmrktHi,  in  tlie  ilisoussion  of  Lieutenant  Younglius- 
band^s  pa|)or»  that  this  pass  appeared  to  be  the  center  of  the  most 
wonderful  accumulation  of  glaciers  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Some 
of  them,  which  Colonel  Godwin -Austen  described,  and  which 
Lieutenant  Younghusband  must  have  passed  over,  were  from 
thirty  to  forty  miles  in  length,  and  probably,  by  passing  from 
one  to  another,  the  traveler  should  be  able  to  go  over  a  glacier 
sutfihoe  of  seventy  or  eighty  miles. 


SKETCH  OF  RUDOLF  CLAUSIUS. 


■  rpiIE  name  of  Prof.  CLiusius— "  one  of  the  most  brilliant  lights 
P   -L   of  i '  '  utury,"  as  he  is  called  by  one  of  the  Vice- 

rPreaidv  i  1  Association — is  conspicuously  associated, 

along  with  those  of  Rankine  and  Prof,  William  Thomson,  in  the 
'       '  nt  of  the  science  of  thermodynamics,  or  the  demonstra- 

rnechanical  theory  of  heat ;  and  to  him  is  credited  the 
rir*-  ■  ;  of  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases  on  a  secure  scientific  basis. 

'  ^'Vance  mourned  almost  equally  with  Germany  in  his 
!,  because  of  his  association  with  the  great  British 

*  Tbr  name  onvanicml;  ginru  w  tbe  D&ltre  name  of  Uoont  Creresi  U  not  the  name  of 
'     '■--'•   s-i!  ot  ,Trc  of  ihc  soicUttc  priiks  bj  wh^oti  U  i»  »arroundeil,  aud  wluch 
>rj  flcif. 


lid 


THE  POPULAR  SCTEKCE  M^OXTiTLY 


students  of  the  nature  of  heat ;  and  France,  because  he  completed 
work  begun  by  her  own  Satli  Camot,and  because  of  a  Bentimental 
affection  to  which  she  had  already  given  a  unique  expression. 

Rudolf  Julius   Emanukl  Clausius  was  bom  in  Cciaij 
Pomerania,  January  12,  lti33,  and  died  in  Bonn,  August  'M,  V 
He  began  his  course  of  studies  at  the  gymnasium  in  Stettin,  whei 
he  made  such  marked  progress  as  to  attract  the  attention  of 
teachers  and  secure  for  him  an  early  transfer  to  the  IT'' 
Berlin.    Here  he  evinced  a  predominant  taste  for  tht-' 
ical  branches.    Ho  afterward  went  to  the  University  of  Halle,  and 
received  its  doctor's  degree  in  1^8,    He  then  won  the  position  of: 
a  Privat  Docent  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  a  few  monthi 
afterward  was  appointed  Instructor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  th< 
School  of  Artillery.    At  about  this  time  he  began  his  contribu- 
tions of  scientific  papers  to  Poggendorff's  "Aunalen/'  somA 
the  earliest  of  which  were  selected  for  translation  in  the  V. 
urao  of  Taylor's  **  Scientific  Memoirs."    In  1857  he  was  a; 
by  the  Swiss  Federal  Government  Professor  of  Natural  ; 
phy  in  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Zurich.    His  career  at  tli 

was  di8tiuguishe<l  by  continued  activity  in  his  favorite  L 

research,  besides  which  "  he  published  some  short  papers  on  some 
purely  mathematical  questions,  suggested,  however,  ^  '  -ical 
problems,  and  some  [m-iiers  dealing  with  what  is  genei  ^  .  i .  .wn 
as  physical  chemistry."  He  gave  up  his  chair  in  Zurich  in  18^1 
to  go  to  a  similar  position  in  Wurzbiu'g,  whence  two  • —  f tar- 
ward  he  removed  to  become  Professor  of  Natural  Ph  y  in' 
the  University  of  Bonn.  He  became  dean  of  this  institutioa  in 
1874,  and  continued  there  till  his  death. 

The  memoirs  published  by  Clausius  are  estimated  to  number 
more  than  a  hundred.    Seventy-seven  are  recorded  on  th*- 
the  Royal  Society  up  to  1873.     Among  his  earlier  papers  t: 
famous  are  those  "On  the  Natui-e  of  those  Constituents  of  thi 
Atmosphere  by  which  the  Reflection  of  the  Light  -  "  '  '     "t 
efftx*t-c<l/'and  "On  the  Blue  Color  of  the  Sky,  and  on  in  i 

and  the  Evening  Red,"  which  were  published  while  he  won  in 
tutorship  at  Berlin.    While  at  Zurich  he  published  "  Thelnflui 
of  Pressure  on  the  Freezing-Point ";  "  The  Mechanical  Eqnivalwj 
of  an  Electric  Discharge,  and  the  Heating  of  the  Conducting 
which  accompanies  it '* ;  *' Electrical  Conduction  in  '"'    ^-  i- 
and  "The  Effect  of  Temperattiro  on  Electric  Cot. 
IftOb  ho  published  an  important  paper  "  On  the  Dot^^nni- 
Energy  and  Entropy  of  a  Body,'*  in  which  avery  v:/^^ 
gestive  conception  was  sot  fortb.    The  ideft  of  &u' 
term  is  '^  '  -  d  the  available  energy  o*' 

can  bo  c  ..     ; .  .d  into  mechanical  work,  v. ... 
in  1854,  and  which  led  him  to  some  extremi 


SKETCH  OF  RUDOLF  CLAUSTUS, 


119 


I 


pi, 

Ir 


ooncIasioDS  concerning  the  universe,  was  developed  and  extende<l 
in  Ixis  address  before  the  Congress  of  German  Physicianfl  and 
Naturalistia  ut  Frankfort  in  IStiT,  eliciting  the  ijrinciple  that  thi 
entropy  of  the  nnivorse  tends  toward  a  maximum. 

The  prineipal  works  of  Clausius,  on  which  his  chief  title  id" 
fame  must  rest,  are  those  on  **  The  Potential  Function  and  the 
Potential"  (1857),  and  on  "Tlie  Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat,"  the 
first  volume  of  which  was  puhlished  in  1864.  The  properties  of 
tlie  potential  function,  while  they  had  been  neglected  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  France,  had  been  put  to  their  beat  use  by  all  the 
philosophers  of  Germany  and  England  who  had  treated  of  the 
natural  forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion — particularly  by  such 
students  as  Gauss,  KirchhoiY,  and  Thomson..  In  the  preface  to 
the  ftecond  edition  of  his  wor4c  on  this  subject,  Prof.  Clausius 
made  the  modest  declaration  that  it  was  not  his  aim  to  institute 
new  researches  on  the  fundnmenta.1  properties  of  the  function,  but 
simply  to  expound  an  existing  th(3<^ry.  But  it  is  evident  through 
th«  treatise*  as  M.  P.  Langlois  has  shown,  that  while  he  takes  up 
l]i-  ■  ;  if  Green  and  Gauss,  he  makes  them  his  own  by  the  sim- 
ple ^s  which  he  has  brought  to  them  on  one  side  and  the 
extension  which  lie  has  on  the  other  hand  given  to  some  parts  of 
research.    The  work  is  distinguished  beyond  all  other  things, 

Langlois  adds,  by  the  strength  of  the  analytic  faculty  displayetl 
in  it,  which  is  carried  to  its  ultimate  limit.  "  Not  contented  with 
having  established  a  formula,  Clausius  knew  how  to  make  it  of 
renuirkable  utility.  Two  fundamental  and  particular  ideas  are  de- 
veloped in  the  treatise.  First,  the  author  fixes  with  precision  the 
difference  between  the  potential  function  and  the  potential,  and 
shows  the  exact  siguilicance  that  should  be  given  to  the  two, 
which  are  so  much  used  in  mathematical  physics,  and  especially 
now  in  questions  of  electric  dynamics ;  and  he  elucidates  alike 
the  idea  of  the  potential  of  a  mass  upon  itself  and  restores  to  the 
potential  ita  true  value,  which  had  been  erroneotisly  doubled,  .  .  , 
But  it  ifl  not  to  tliis  work  that  Clausius  is  indebted  for  his  legiti- 
mate fame.  His  name  is  pre-eminently  attached  to  the  great  prob- 
Iwn  of  thormodyimmics ;  and  it  is  in  his  studies  in  this  branch 
thnt  his  infliience  has  made  itself  predominantly  felt.*' 

TlieruKxiynamics  may  l>e  said  to  date  from  18)^4,  when  Sadi  Car- 
not  published  hi»  "  Reflections  on  the  Motor  Power  of  Fire  and  on 
Machines  suitable  for  developing  it.*'  The  question  of  the  nature 
of  Leat  had  alr*'ady  occupi»*d  Rumford  and  Davy,  to  say  nothing 
of  Bacon  and  Stahl ;  and  being  a  dominating  one  in  the  problems 
into  which  it  entered,  arrested  all  physicists,  who  had  only  one 
1^  MmicH.    Camot  introduced 

Mk*  'idy,  and  sought  to  fix  the 

relation  thnt  existe  between  the  work  of  a  thermic  machine  and 


120 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTBLT. 


the  heat  which  it  employe.  Waiving  the  too  subtile  question  of 
the  nature  of  boat,  he  devoted  himself  principally  to  i'  the 

conditions  under  which  a  maximum  of  work  is  yiel--.  ..a 

given  quantity  of  heat.  Guided  by  the  purely  philosophical  idea 
of  the  equivalence  of  the  work  expended  and  the  work  produced, 
in  perfect  mechanics,  he  affirmed  the  analogous  j>rinciple  that 
the  possible  work  is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  heat  employed 
and  to  certain  functions  of  the  temperatures  of  the  vapor  on  com- 
ing in  and  going  out.  Camot's  aununciatlon  of  hia  theory  wan 
defective  in  that  it  took  no  notice  of  the  fact  that  the  hot  body 
gives  out  more  heat  than  the  cold  one  receives  from  it,  and  that  it 
regarded  aa  equal  the  amoimt  of  hent  received  upon  one  isother* 
mal  side  of  a  cycle  and  that  emitte<3  from  the  other  side ;  a  pHu* 
ciple  that  may  hold  good  for  infinitely  small  cycles,  but  not  for 
larger  ones,  in  which  a  difference  exists  between  the  thermio  quan* 
titiea  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  cycle.  This  error  and  the 
true  condition  as  pointed  out  by  Clausius  are  defined  by  Prof. 
Rankine,  who  says,  in  his  paper  "  On  the  Economy  of  Heat  in  Ex- 
pansive Machines  " :  "  Carnot  was  the  first  to  assert  the  law  that 
the  ratio  of  the  maximum  mechanical  effect  to  the  whole  heat  ex- 
pended in  an  ex{>an8ive  machine  is  a  function  solely  of  the  two 
temperatures  at  which  the  heat  is  respectively  receive*!  and  emit- 
ted, and  is  independent  of  the  nature  of  the  working  substauc^ 
But  his  investigations,  not  being  based  on  the  principle  of  the 
dynamic  convertibility  of  heat,  involve  the  fallacy  that  power  can 
be  produced  out  of  nothing.  The  merit  of  combining  Camot's  law, 
as  it  is  termed,  with  that  of  the  convertibility  of  heat  and  power, 
belongs  to  Mr.  Clausius  and  Prof.  William  Thomson;  and,  in  the 
shape  in  which  they  have  brought  it,  it  may  be  stated  thus :  Tho 
nia?nuium  proportion  of  heat  converted  into  expansivt   i  liy 

any  machine  is  a  function  solely  of  the  temperatures  at  v  -at 

is  received  and  emitted  by  the  working  substance,  which  function 
for  each  pair  of  temperatures  is  the  same  for  all  substances  in  na- 
ture." The  law  as  thus  modiiled  and  newly  expresetxl  might,  as  SL 
Langlois  remarks,  be  designated  as  the  equation  of  Clausius.  But 
Clausius  himself,  acknowledging  the  influence  which  the  Prcncb- 
man's  ideas  had  exercised  upon  him,  called  it  the  theorem  of  C-ar- 
ipot.  The  second  volume  of  the  "  Mechanical  Thoorj^  of  Heat"  isi 
Wmost  wholly  devototl  to  applications  to  electrical  phenomena. 

The  reviewer  in  "Nature"  of  the  English  translation  of  tliifti 
Mrork  says  that  the  method  of  treatment  pursued  in  it  )■  "   ' 
nnything  to  be  desired,  "even  from  the  point  of  view  i=i 
previously  ignorant  of  the  subject.    The  reader  i«  nowhere  p«ir»| 
yplexed  by  uncouth  Bymlxl  '   ''     '    t       .-      _  v  -  -  '  -»        i 

jirluch  are  familiar  t-<.)  all  ,. 
ferential  and  integral  calculus.    At  tho  &ame  time* .  ^^| 


SKETCir  OF  RUDOLF  CLAUSFUS. 


I2t 


never  allowed  to  lose  sight  of  the  essential  meaning  of  the  sjinhols 
'ixL  .  .  .  Any  one  wishing  to  gain  a  general  acquaiutanci 
i^h  as  far  as  it  goes«  with  the  subject^  can  gcaroely  do 
with  the  expBnditure  of  less  time  and  labor  than  are  required  for 
the  peruflal  of  thia  book.    As  a  mathematical  study  the  book  maj 
l^pbure  some  of  the  luxuriant  growths  of  modem  geometry  and! 
lysis  with  great  advantage  to  the  brains  of  the  student." 
In  his  later  years  Clausios  was  interested  principally  in  the 
study  of  the  questions  raised  by  dynamo-electric  machines.    He 
published  a  theory  of    dynamo-motctrs   in  "  La  Lumi&ro  ^e( 
|Ug/'  in  1884,  in  which  he  sought  to  fix  more  general  equations," 
ing  on  more  solid  theories  than  those  in  use;  but,  notwith- 
standing his  memoir  is  marked  by  his  jjoculiar  qualities,  the  theo- 
ries have  not  been  accepted,  and  have  only  been  partly,  if  at  all, 
confirmed  by  late  researches.    Yet  it  is  to  him  that  we  owe  a  brill- 
inrit  and  clear  exposition,  and  one  of  the  first  that  was  made,  of 
certain  phenomena  of  self-induction. 

The  Franco-German  War  occurred  while  Prof.  Clausius  was  at 
Bonn.  Although  he  was  not  liable  to  draft  in  the  general  mobiliza- 
tion, he  wua  engaged  in  the  ambulance  service,  and  diligently  Lnter- 
himself  in  the  care  of  the  wounded.  After  the  war  was  over, 
Oerman  Government  decorated  him  with  the  order  of  the  Iron 
Cnns,  and  tho  French  with  that  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  The  rea- 
i»oa  of  tho  French  awarding  such  a  distinction  upon  an  eminent 
OfjrmAn  at  such  a  time,  when  resentments  still  lively  enough  were' 
at  their  height,  is  most  probalily  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  ho 
did  not  observe  distinctions  of  nationality  in  his  attentions.  The 
ddeut  affords  a  sU'iking  illustration  of  the  effect  of  scientific 
iiw  in  widening  the  range  of  thought  and  symjMithy. 
Prof.  Clausius  is  described  by  M.  Langlois  as  having  been  ft^ 
toaehar  of  remarkable  clearness  and  simplicity  in  his  explana-^ 
tioxifl.  His  instruction  was  marked  by  a  particular  care  to  keep 
within  the  limits  of  time  physical  principles.  Wliilo  he, 
larkably  versed  in  mathematical  methods,  he  always  kepi 
phyBical  notations  in  the  minds  of  his  readers,  and  never 
allowed  himself  to  be  carried  by  his  analyses  into  tho  regions  of 
too  vague  conceptions.  Mr.  G.  W.  do  Tunzelmann  agrees  with 
this  conclusion  in  his  obituary  sketch  in  "  Nature "  saying  tl 
ClaosioB  formed  a  center  of  attraction  at  Bonn, "not  only  as  a' 
great  investigator,  but  as  a  teacher  of  almost  unrivaled  ability. 
The  secret  of  Ir  <  as  a  teacher  may  easily  be  guessed  from 

the  study  of  hi.  ^  .  ....-^iied  papers  and  treatises."  The  greater 
port  of  his  workf  the  writer  adds,  had  thfi  additional  advantage  of 
Ih'v       ~        '  T-y  the  aid  of  comparatively  simple  analysis. 

1  ift  WAS  eletited  a  foreign  member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety in  1808,  and  rooeived  its  Copley  medal  in  187d. 


lit 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOIH'SLY. 


OOHBESPONDENCE 


"PtATlXO  ♦POSSUM," 
A/<ter  A»pH/ffr  lioiei%e<  MotU^  : 

In  your  February  issue  Mr.  S,  V.  Good- 
rich brings  up  the  queatioo  whether  uii- 
^nialfl  ever  ''play  'poasum.*'  He  suggests 
Lt  the  appftreDC  belpleflsneu  of  certain  ani- 
tn&la  when  aitaeked  u  real;  thai  what  is 
popularly  aacribed  to  cunning  U  la  rculUy 
due  to  fririit— a  fawt^  and  not  a  /tint. 

This  theory  in  new  to  the  great  uajority 
of  thoM  who  have  obwrred  the  habit  re- 
ferred to ;  but  iu  nowneM  is  not  of  itself  a 
■erious  objection  to  it  Many  fumliar  phe- 
iaoiiiena  have  waitt.'d  long  before  receiring 
[Correct  eiplanation.  It  bos  alwaya  beea 
I  taken  for  granted  that  anhoala  passive  in 
the  presonoe  uf  danger  were  attemptiug  de- 
ccptioo.  Barely  hat  any  other  explanatioo 
of  their  conduct  been  offered ;  but  it  does 
Beem  almost  incredible  that  our  far-away 
Jpnfolk  should  bo  uaing  that  distinctively 
"lunuui  device — simulation. 

Many  of  these  acts  con  be  saliofactortlj 
explaini'd  on  either  assumptton.  The  opos- 
fiuui  war  at  times  bo  unable  to  move  because 
of  bis  fright,  or  be  may  assume  tlie  paseivo- 
tie^s  of  death  ns  his  aure«t  hope  for  life. 
Wliich  appears  the  moro  reasonable  ? 
i^Oran((rd  that  it  Is  difficult  for  us  to  credit 
the  tinimnla  in  tpic-stion  with  sufficient  in- 
lelligeiiee  and  »t'!f-oontrol  to  select  deliber- 
ately luch  mode  of  defense,  doca  not  the 
Kher  theory  InvolvQ  us  in  maob  greater 
'difficultii-s  f 

Do  the  lower  animals  erer  feign  any  con- 
dition? If  this  question  can  be  answered 
p<   '  '  ir  kci'ius  to  me  that  we  shall  hare 

V  lo  the  oth(?r  problem.    The  cat. 

,11. .-..i  ,ML.,  uii^  with  acapture^i  mouse,  appcan 
feign  unconcern  and  forgclfnlncfS  while 
oking  away  from  its  Tictimi,  snd  surprise 
on  peeing  it  again.     I'robablj  there  are  very 
few  person*!  who  hure  not  at  least  one*  been 
;ivr>d  b>  ■  !  apiM-aranc*'  of  birds 

t«hi>n  their  r  ig  wi're  a[ipn)ached. 

Tery  many  m  <"ir  uir  i-  under  these  circuro- 
inees  net  w  as  to  drnw  attention  to  them- 
Ayc%  fi'.i  when  pursued  k^-cp  just  out  of 
I'  -•  the  pursuer  to  hin  grentest  ef- 

f<  :iiiig  to  hare  rvu*hed  the  masl- 

lutu  iii  ilinr  ftpred.  Flualir.  the  foolish 
10,  with  fcvUr^pi  injur>.*d.  irivM  up  thv  chose 
list.  Are  the  btriU  conscious  that 
>pcaranoe  Is    (Iccopiivp?     Fear  «?r- 

lli)      n..r     n,,A.^     fl tU      I,.  I-,1.... 


modified  aomewhat,  but  will  still  be 
talned.  Its  nose  will  be  kept  above  thai 
face,  nod  it  will  paddle  away  ao  vcrv  gnntir* 
that  the  motion  is  hard  to  detect.  If  whila 
"  dead  '*  a  stick  be  put  Into  its  open  mouth, 
it  will  quietly  close  oo  it  with  its  teeth, 
may  then  be  carried  long  distaneea  awlnglaf^ 
from  the  stick,  but  showing  no  other  vlgu 
of  consciousness;  or  il  may  be  oarrM  by 
the  tail.  It  doing  the  holding.  Do  UsMe 
facts,  which  none  acquainted  with  the  habits 
of  opofisums  will  question,  sustain  the  tboory , 
of  parulyzlng  fear  ? 

The  fox  also  appears  helpless 
when  caught,  and  there  are  tai 
corded  of  men  being  severely  liint-n  I^mv^i 
of  too  mudi  faith  in  its  appu  lica. 

The  toad  when  captured  t"  niitrs 

a  cfimplet^^  surrender,  cloring  it*  «y««  abd 
settling  down  to  apparent  listleesneaa.  If 
everything  remains  quiet,  its  eyes  will  soon 
open  vciy  gradually,  cloEing  again  U  daiti.i^ 
be  still  visible;  if  not,  it  will  pre{(ani  im 
more.  If  the  enemy  be  discovered  whiW  II 
is  trying  to  escape,  it  again  aaaumea  ita 
former  fiubmissivcness. 

The  actions  of  the  spreading  adder  am 
also  ciinouK.  If  spprtjached,  U  makea  a 
h)ii!iing  noifle  and  Marts  forward,  Inoking  as 
bid'-uua  aft  possible,  as  though  it  would 
frighU'n  its  eucmy.  These  minioue  it  «tll 
repeat  several  times  if  tonchtd  with  tlis 
linger  or  a  stick ;  but  finally  It  ecems  to  dc^ 
spair  of  relief  by  that  methc'd,  aitd  throw* 
itself  on  Its  back  and  utterly  refuses  to  mab» 
further  defense.  On  first  observing  this  p*> 
ciillar  ptvsitioiv  1  wa!3  sure  the  reptile  wtt 
dexd ;  but  uu  returning  •  few  minules  lattr 
to  the  box  in  which  I  had  it,  tv.im.i  it  Um<l^. 
ing  all  right,     The  same  elTi  Uie 

rejietition  of  the  teulng.     \^ 
it  right  side  up,  it  immediately  turiMd 
again.    Repeated  experiment  tixam  villi ' 
snakes  has  tihown  that  they  even  r««ist 
muscular  c-tfurt  a  diange  from  thdr 
ral  position. 

Atany  bectlea  hare  habits  similar  la  i 
of  the  uilmals  named,  art<l.  like  i^n  m. 
preteaae  is  ovenlonc.  i<tO 

beetle,  or  potato-bnjr,  f^!  !•■ 

vine  on  being  op;'  ays 

oomce  to  the  iat>t  i 

Many  c(5:  ,3i( 

but  the  abt>'  ^ 

l1tJ.t    Ltll-    {\\,.  tr* 


LSWURlW 


COnnESPOyDEXCE. 


113 


» 


b 


H     Uoc 


&EV5C  or  OIBECTfOS  IS  AKTB. 

A  9H0KT  Article  on  the  "  Senae  of  Direo- 
tioQ  in  Ius«ct«,"  in  the  Febnur^  number  of 
•*  Tbc  ropul&r  Sotcnoe  Monthlr/*  Bcrred  to 
remind  me  of  an  aocount  of  the  IrmTela  of 
•n  »nt  UAA  me  by  mjr  father,  the  late  Prof. 
Lrfonl.  HU  aticntiuB  was  dnwn  to  the  tn- 
iKl  by  &  Tery  huvy  load  which  it  wu  car< 
ryiag.  Wben  Grst  noticed  it  fru  traveling 
along  a  gravel  walk  in  moKt  approved  faab- 
loa,  and,  while  occasionally  avoiding  a  large 
pobble.  wad  puniiiing  in  tlio  matn  a  verv 
•traicht  lino.  But  loon  it  turned  from  the 
walk,  and  ttkiog  «  different  direction  entered 
a  gnua>pliiL  lleco  a  ditTorent  modo  of  pro- 
ceeding watf  adoptcil.  Finding  it  diflicult  to 
walk  around  tltv  ^ra*i4-(ti«lkH,  it  wtmtd  cliiub 
to  lh«  top  of  Ihv  bhuU\  let  it  bi^nd  down  witti 
its  wejgbt,  then  ^t  off  and  climb  a  eccond, 
and  M  on.  Itc^tdt**  making  quit«  nati^fuc- 
tory  progrosB  in  thia  matiucr,  tbc  top  of  the 
graM-blaqa  •eeuevJ  U*  fumisb  a  convenient 
point  of  obMrration,  liko  u  tree-top  in  a  for- 
mt,  Tbrvuzh  the  graei  the  route  woa  very 
direct  until  it  rcachfl  it«  "/ii//,"  wh<»n  it 
dliapi>caml.  A  ciircful  calcutatioa  of  tho 
di«tjLncv4  iravelcd  nu  the  gravel  and  tlirougb 
ibi4  graM,  *hd  of  iiA  niit*  of  progress  over 
the  two,  intlicnted  thnt,  while  the  total  dis- 
Uooe  wa«  great<*r  ihnn  if  mcjuurcd  in  a 
vet  that  the  insect  had  act- 
verr  nearlj  if  not  exactly,  the 
u  - . , .,-. .  uuld  be  traversed  in  tho  aborte«t 
UnMT,  aoaming  to  rcolixu  that  in  this  case  at 
laait  "the  migest  waj  round  waa  the  «hort- 
•sc  muhoac 

Edwiji  F.  Lttord. 
.  Ham^  I-tbntary  BO,  !«•. 


U 


I 


JAPANX8B  UAOXC  MIRE0B3. 
""— ■—  .'WffWi*  Monthly: 

-nry  Diunbwof  tho"Month]y," 
In  ■  '  >nT,"  page  573,  Prof.  Menden- 

h-K  "f  the  Japanese  **magic  mir- 

ft'r  '      The  rmuon  which  he  gives 

'  that  a  few  ced- 
ing upon  a  screen 
oniargeo  tmagc  oi  tiic  figures  in  relief  on 
Hhm  tMdk  of  tlw  ralrrw  a«NBDS  to  me,  to  saj 

lac  intens'.'ly  inter- 
tot-  '1,  which  has  been 
et|tlatDod  tu  maity  wa^o.  Dv  the  process  of 
aisc44*fon,  all  for  thw  tinw*  bping  were  dis- 
ear  '  ""  :  .'.]■.  given 
bj  ""  mir- 
HK  r-  V  ■  effect 
of  tfnv<  '  ;  and 
thaaeeo'  tjue*- 
tSoo  by  ' 
*M  pr  '■ 


the  softer  parts,  hence  leaving  them  a  very 
little  in  relief.  There  is  nu  design,  in  tJie 
mind  of  the  artist,  for  an  unequal  density  in 
the  casting,  and,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  there 
Is  no  proof  tliat  it  exists.  In  observing  the 
mode  of  grinding  the  face  for  the  flnarpol^ 
iflh,  it  iippeared  quite  evident  that  all  "  draw- 
ing" and  differsoces  In  density  would  be  re> 
duccd  to  quite  the  same  level.  The  process 
of  final  finish  seemed  to  me  to  aolvo  (be 
puzsling  riddle,  which  is  as  follows :  When 
the  moderately  convex  surface  has  been 
brought  to  a  satisfactory  and  equable  con- 
dition, the  casting  is  placed  upon  a  solid 
base,  on  which  the  figures  in  relief  firmly 
rvst,  leaving  the  intervening  spacea  practi- 
cally unfEUpportcd.  In  order  to  get  all  the 
"drawing"  and  unevenness  out  of  the  faco 
of  the  costing,  Ponic  nre  gronnd  lhi!iii<»r  than 
otliers.  The  final  pollf^h  la  given  by  violently 
nibbing  the  aurf&ce  with  the  rather  Binall 
end  of  a  Boft<wood  stick,  applied  with  heavy 
pressure.  It  fleema  evident  that  mlien  tho 
BtJck  paflnea  from  the  thick  supported  to  llio 
thin  unsapportod  parts,  the  latter  would  be 
Rliphtly  depressed,  and  tlie  continued  rub- 
biniT  ppeBSuro  would  fix  these  depressions, 
leaving  alightly  ratwd  liaeM  exactly  uppo«ito 
the  omamentationa  in  relief  on  tlto  ttnck- 
These  are  ao  slight  as  not  to  be  detected 
by  the  eye,  but  when  cast  from  the  couves 
BurfaoQ  on  a  screen  at  some  dit*taiK»  the  di- 
verging raya  would  enlarge  the  image,  so  as 
to  produce  the  fact  of  the  phenomennn. 
G.  0.  RooXKfl. 
Apam,  llcxioo,  ntintary  1,  ISM. 


<ifaintuMia    0 


<ip««t 


SEU-POIHONINO  BY  SNAKES. 
XaUor  Popular  Setmet  MonVily : 

Ijf  your  January  number  you  say,  *'To 
what  extent  a  poisooou-t  serpent*?  bite  is  nox- 
ious to  itself  {r  doubtful " ;  and  the  testimo- 
ny of  Dr.  Stradliug  there  given  tends  lu  Ket- 
tle the  doubt  in  the  negative.  Bearing  upon 
thi.<)  question  la  the  following  from  Lieutco- 
ant  Michler's  report  to  Major  W.  U.  Emory, 
United  States  Army,  and  bcarioe  date  July 
20,  18AA.  It  is  to  be  found  in  Major  Emo- 
ry's report  of  the  "  United  States  and  Mexi- 
can Boundary  Survey,"  vol.  i,  pp.  121,  122. 

**  The  glare  of  onr  fires  attracted  a  largo 
number  of  rattleeoakca ;  the  whole  place  " 
(the  "  Sierra  del  Poso  Verde  ")  *'  seemed  in- 
fested with  them.  We  judged  them  to  b« 
a  new  epeciea  from  their  tiger-colored  skins; 
they  were  exceedingly  fierec  and  venomuus. 
On  tho  deserts  of  tlie  Colorado  wo  liad  often 
seen  others  with  boms,  or  small  protuber- 
ances above  the  eyci-,  ond  Dr.  Abbfitt  h.is 
taken  from  the  bo<iy  of  still  another  apccies 
quite  a  number  of  small  onef^,  among  which 
wa?  B  mnnr*tTo.sity  with  two  perfectly  furmcd 
-'  to  one  neck.  ^Vhcn  you  Ho 
ir  bUnkets  stretchvd  nn  the 
),M'..,in'i.  vci;  tiuow  not  what  strange  bedfel- 
low yofj  may  liavo  when  you  awoke  iu  tho 


124 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEITCE  MOyTELT. 


iDnminp.  My  scrmnt  Insisted  npon  endr- 
cliiig  xi\y  bt'J  with  *  riaim  of  bor»e>hjalr  to 
prutec-t  nie  from  ttiL-ir  intrueiooj.  Sookee  on* 
said  to  hnvo  a  rupu^iuuioe  tu  bom;:;  prickoii 
b^  the  ostrcmttjedol  thv  hntr,  Tho/KEucmo, 
or  cliaparnti  coc-k.  iturruundH  hiH  anUgcinist^ 
*'  '"  1'.  with  a  chitiu  of  cttotud-thomi, 

'V^  .'psratioiij  are  all  made,  the  hud 

fl    .V ■  (be  head  of  the  aimke  tu  arouse 

it  Tu  iictioDt  ttic  Uttcf,  in  it^  Tuiu  on'orttt  ta 
i*soape,  u  irdtatiMl  to  «uch  a  dvgrc«  b,v  niD- 
ttiug  agaitxiil  the  barrier  uueoiDpas^ing  it,  tkiA 


it  fftdi  itt  aUtenet  fry  bun/inff  U»/<aaff»  in  ttl 

own  Aw/y." 

Tu  nhut  end  or  purpose  ia  alt  Usia  won- 
derfiil  sii-&u>gy  on  the  part  of  the  bird  f  l» 
it  mtnply  to  iTcpriaon  the  pnakc  ?  la  it  trir 
tbo  fun  of  Bceing  the  reptile  f«vt|pd  *  It  It 
luervly  ihul  the  snake  flhonl-i  ..nly 

mci-hanit'al  injury  upon  it«ov^t,  ,.tc4 

would  not  t>«  at  all  likely  to  piv^^c  imhii  .  cv 
ifl  the  whole  tiory  false  f 

A,  J.  WtUiAflL 
CxsTBLAjrv,  0bs9,  />&pvar|r  SI,  IS9. 


EDITOR'S  TABLE 


M' 


ISTSLLSCTTAL  nrTXOBTTT. 

ILL'S  ** Essay  oq  Liberty"  and 
Darwin'a  "Origin  of  Species" 
tnark  the  opening  of  what  we  may  re- 
gard as  the  latest  chapter  in  the  history 
of  cnodorn  thoagbt.  Mill  vindicated  for 
all  men  the  riffht.  not  only  of  UBing 
thoir  individaal  judgment,  but  of  ex- 
pressing their  indirldual  opinions,  npon 
all  snbjecta  whatsoever,  and  proclaimed 
it  to  be  at  once  the  daty  and  the  inter- 
est of  society  at  Inrge  to  see  that  no  Jm- 
podimtnts  were  cast  in  the  way  of  ennh 
exercise  of  intelloctiial  liberty.  Darwin 
funiisbed  almost  at  the  same  moiuent  a 
theory  whiih  ran  so  strongly  coantor  to 
rcGoircd  opinions  tliat  to  espouse  it  de- 
zuunded  no  small  amount  of  Intellectual 
OOtirage,  and  to  discuss  it  fmrly  on  its 
mAritSr  without  nny  appeal  to  theolof^rf- 
cal  prejudices,  a  somewhat  rare  do^ee 
of  liberality.  Darwin  seemed  to  say  to 
Hoeiety  that  had  Just  received  Mr. 
nirn  ese^y  with  accJajms  of  pruiao: 
'^  Well,  here  U  a  touchstone  of  your  sin- 
cerity;  here  in  a  doctrine  which  I  have 
carefully  tlioupht  ont,  and  which,  if  true. 
Involves  a  ci-tmplcti>  roconstruction  of 
many  of  your  mort  pherished  ideas:  can 
yo«  do  it  juNtio*  1  Csn  you  do  Justice  to 
Ihoeo  who  may  accept  lit "  Outside  of 
t}M  theolotiicnl  coIlctTM  the  world  re- 


governed  colleges,  lagged  behind  may 
judged  from  the  comparatively  rec«ot 
period  at  which  a  professor  of  eminence 
was  removed  from  his  chidr  in  a  Sonth- 
ern  college  because  ho  had  embrftoed 
and  taught  Darwinism  in  a  very  nUId 
and  inoffensive  form. 

The  question,  however,  at  which  wo 
wish  to  glance  very  briefly,  is  not  as  to 
the  merits  of  Darwinism,  but  as  to 
whether  a  better  basis  for  the  claimt  ol 
modem  t])onght  might  not  be  found  cm 
the  lines  of  MllVs  famous  enay  than 
upon  that  profession  of  "  agnocticisiB  " 
to  which  so  many  nowadays  betake 
thomselvea.  A  passage  that  ft\hs  nndor 
onr  eye,  from  a  French  moralist  of  tho 
seventeenth  century,  may  help  U>  Ulna* 
tmte  onr  meaning.  **  There  is,**  «ay« 
Nicole,  tho  friend  of  Poscal,  *'  a  duty  d 
c<mf>iction^  which  arises  whoa  wc  an 
face  to  face  with  evidence;  a  duty,  also, 
oidouhUf  becanso  it  is  ab«nrd  not  to  t>A 
in  doubt  regarding  doubtful  thio^;  uid 
a  duty  of  oT^tn^^n,  because  we  are  obll^vd 
to  litfimi  tli&t  cue  thing  is  t  ^a• 

blc  than  anotlk-r,  If  proof  •  ct 

isoffered."   Now,  wl;  :  k- 

er  may  justly  flaim  U,  '        ,  'M 

Nicole  colls  his  ''duty  **  Ln  tfaetfo  thrtt 
particnlara ;  to  bollevo  in  thlncaoctlaiB, 
to  duubtof  thioes  doahtftil.  and  to  kava 


iticiaed,  roceivod  the  treatment  dne  to 
•eriouB  inlcnootonl  elTort.   iTow  far  tho 
tbeolugloal  cullegeo,  or  the  thouloglcjtUy 


Ush  a  I 

tfaoew    IL:         , .      - 

chnose  a  name  for  hlmaatf  1 


IJ5 


not  he  eqaallT  absurd  for  him  to  caU 
UiiuMlf  ft  *"'  boUerer,'^  or  a  '^  duobter,"  or 
An  **opioer^?  Surely  he  is  all  throe, 
each  in  it*  (urn;  und,  vhother  in  l»e- 
tteflng,  or  in  doubting^  or  in  opining, 
ho  l«  •quAlly  mointAining  his  intellectual 
integrity.  Tukiji^  thid  view-  of  the  uiat- 
t«r,  we  b«f  e  not  hitherto  been  ftble  to 
r«g&rd  the  "ftgnostio"  position  as  rery 
well  or  hftppily  chosen  by  many,  nt 
leiLrt,  of  those  wlio  profoM  to  hold  it. 
\f  e  tliinlc,  fur  exoniple,  that  **  agnoBtia  ^* 
is  fi  poor  Dftmo  for  snch  a  man  as  Prof. 
HojcJoy  lo  be  known  by.  Prof.  Huxley 
b  a  man  of  a  deoidedly  positive  and 
coDitroctire  cost  of  miud,  a  maa  eager 
U>  Mrm  all  the  truths  that  he  can  ee- 
tahliih.  If  be  makc«  a  stand  for  any- 
Uiing,  it  is  for  intelleotonl  integrity.  To 
him  it  i«  B  crime  to  beliew  without  evi- 
<lcaio«,  or  to  di^believo  in  flpHo  of  evi- 
dwc9k  In  Utia  rMpoct  he  \»  entirely 
at  one  with  the  oTcellcnt  Kioole,  wh<«e 
wordu  we  hare  quoted.  Why  aboald  a 
man  of  tliia  kind  bo  sepurulod  by  any 
bedg«  or  party  nioknome  from  the  oom- 
mcmHy  at  large  I  Ui«  one  great  interest 
la  the  truth,  and  what  nobler  intercat 
ou  any  man  liave?  Or,  again,  what 
pr*-*''  '^i«  of  sympathy  and  union 

cax)  i>on,  or  any  body  of  men, 

hare,  than  a  common  and  ardent  lovo 
of  the  truth  t  Mere  outward  agreement 
in  opinion  oounta  for  little,  nnless  there 
is  aineefity  at  the  back  of  it.  It  is  im- 
poolUa,  at  leant  for  any  enlightened 
man,  to  dorira  aaUafaotion  from  the 
snppcirt  of  thora  who^  be  knows,  hare 
no  intareat  in  the  tmth,  and  who  are 
prepared  tu  defend  tlie  opinions  they 
have  embraced    by   all  kinds  of   party 

rhest  profo««toa  any  man  can 
tnaxowaproffcadonofintelloctnal  integ- 
rity ;  and  to  as  it  «eema  to  bo  anffiolont 
for  ail  porptwea.  It  is  one  whioh  a  man 
oa&  Ruumon  other*  to  ehure.  It  be- 
ooiaaa  ai  oooe  the  baida  of  a  true  apo4- 
tolalaw  ''BelleTe  what  you  mny,"  oric8 
tha  Inn  modem  thinker,  "disbelieve 
what  yod  may,  only  make  it  a  aacred 


principle  that  your  beliefs  shtdl  behoo) 
and  shall  be  advocated  and  defended  by^ 
honest  arguments  and  none  oth«r."    It 
may  seem  to  some  that  thi^  is  an  appeal 
ouflily  made,  a  programme  easily  real- 
ize<l.     Posijibly,   but  it  demands  this: 
that  underneath  every  opinion  and  be- 
lief Bhall  be  a  fundamental  sense,  ao- 
qniring  gradually  the  force  of  an  instinct, 
that  the  ultimate  objeot  of  loyalty  and 
devotion  is  the  truth.    Truth,  if  we  may 
so  express  it,  mnst  own  the  soil  of  the 
mind,  and  opinions  and  beliefs  must  bo 
merely  tenants  occupying  according  to< 
the  terms  of  their  several  leases.     Loyal-* 
ty  to  an  opinion  is  a  misleading  phrt 
and  one  that  ought  to  be  banished  froi 
the   vocabulary  of   honest  men.     Th< 
only  true  and  worthy  loyalty  is  to  thi 
which  alone  can  vitalize  any  upinioxt — 
namely,  the  truth. 

If  it  bo  objected  that  there  is  no  oon- 
veniont  name  by  which  the  brotherhood^ 
of  trnth-lovers  could  be  known,  we  an* 
swer  that  the  objection  seems  to  us  of 
trifiing  importance.  The  great  thing  is 
that  a  man  should  be  a  truth-lover,  not 
that  he  should  have  any  speciid  appella- 
tioD.  The  Christians  ^'wero  tirst  called 
Ohrlstiona  at  Antioob";  and  St.  Paul 
founded  churches  without,  apparently, 
naing  or  recognizing  the  name,  vrhioh  is 
not  once  mentioned  in  hia  epistles.  Tho 
"  Methodists  "  of  the  last  century  tookj 
a  name  that  was  applied  to  them  mainly 
in  derision  by  their  opponents,  and  one 
which  certainly  did  not  bind  them 
any  set  of  upiuiuns.  Let  a  man  profeaff? 
and,  still  better,  lot  him  practice  honesty 
in  all  his  beliefs,  and  let  the  world  dub 
him  as  it  may.  He  will  then  be  pre- 
pared to  say,  when  duly  questioned^ 
what  those  things  are  which,  following] 
the  pions  Nicole,  he  finds  it  a  Hnty  to 
heUcv^y  tho  oridenco  being  what  it  la; 
what  those  things  ore  which  to  his 
honost  apprehension  are  doubtful;  and 
what  thoM  in  regard  to  which  he  is 
moved  by  a  grouler  probability  to  en- 
tertain an  Qpinwru  Tlie  thtti)^  that  he 
disbelieves  he  will  also  with  e<^uaJ  frank- 


SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


neiM  dei^larcs  and  liis  disboHof  will  be 
gov«mti<]  hj  A  Benso  of  duty  oa  mach  aa 
overj  otbur  attitude  of  hia  mind.  TJiere 
ia  great  need  in  the  prosont  da^  for 
those  who  love  the  truth  in  eiDcerity  to 
seek  GEO  another  oat^  and  to  .^irengtbeu 
one  another  for  the  groat  cunfljot  that 
has  incessantly  to  he  waged  with  tho 
forces  uf  error,  of  falsehood,  and  of 
moral  indifference.  What  con  separate 
any  man,  against  his  will,  from  tho  lore 
of  the  truth?  And  what  should  sep- 
arate from  one  another  men  who, 
thoa^  differing  momentarily  in  opin- 
ion, love  the  truth  with  constant  and 
equal  devotion  t 


AJr  USCANDW  CRITICISK. 
Wk  find  in  the  March  number  of  the 
"Canada  Educational  Monthly,"  pub- 
lished at  Toronto,  the  following  remarks 
about  Dr.  Andrew  D.  White  and  "The 
Popular  Science  Monthly  " : 

*'  Tho  same  number  [of  *  The  Popular 
Science  Monthly  *]  contains  the  conclud- 
ing portion  of  Dr.  Andrew  White's  arti- 
cle on  '  Domoniocal  Possesion  and  In- 
aonity/  Dr.  Andrew  White  ^seemeth 
to  ho  Boinowhat,'  but.  we  think,  many 
tikoughtful  readers  will  say,  'ho  addutb 
nothing  to  me.*  Probably  the  best  arti- 
cle in  the  uumber,  for  most  of  onr  read- 
ers, will  be  that  on  *  Natural  Science  in 
Elementary  Schools.^  Sometimes  tho 
*  Popular  Science*  is  worth  reading 
careftiUy,  but  at  other  times  it  is  some- 
what nnitatlnftictory,  and  many  of  its 
writers  seom  to  have  atheistical  tenden- 
cies, so  that  its  pages  are  occasionally 
duiigrueed  by  remarks  about  Christianity 
which  are  too  spiteful  to  bo  aciontiflc." 
Dr.  Andrew  D.  White  is  what  be  is, 
id  whatever  lie  "  »«i»raoth  to  be  "to 
10  vtlitor  of  tho  **  Canada  Edac-atlonal 
Monthly  -'  will  not  alter  tho  facts.  Tho 
ux*Pretjideut  of  CorueU  and  our  lute 
Mlnislvr  to  Oonnony  doe»  not  neod 
that  we  sboold  aound  his  praises  as  a 
tuna  of  wide  am!  ocmirata  knowUnlgo 
ODd  cif  ^ihilovophio  habit  of  odnd.  WLat 


must  have  stmok  every  c-arefq]  rMte 
of  his  recent  article  is,  that  ho  haadlH 
bis  subject  with  the  utmost  regard  Ux 
the  feelings  of  those  to  whom  KNoe  ol 
bis  oonolosions  might  have  been  navri- 
come;  and  it  seems  proper  to  rvturk 
that,  if  ho  *'  added''  nothing  else  to  Ui« 
editor  of  the  "  Canada  Edneationa] 
Monthly,"  ho  might  hare  added — had 
his  example  been  sufficiently  heeded^ 
a  tone  of  respect  in  dealing  wlclk  iIm 
opinions  of  opponents.  Ti  fa  «88ifr, 
however,  to  sneer  than  to  orgne,  to  l»- 
smaate  than  to  prove  or  dbprove.  If 
Dr.  White  has  presented  his  subject  in 
a  false  light,  let  the  **  Canada  Edaoatioi^ 
al  Muuthly"  demonstrate  the  laot.  U 
is  hard  to  **ftdd"  anything  to  people 
who  do  not  want  to  have  anything  add- 
ed to  them  except,  perhaps,  an  extra 
layer  of  prejudice;  but,  in  the  way  of 
adding  information,  that  writer  doea  his 
own  hill  duty  who  states  relevant  facta 
in  a  lucid  and  candid  manner.  If  Dr. 
White  has  not  done  this,  >  ncs 

show  it.    We  are  not  re^poi:  oor 

contributors*  opinions ;  but«  in  the  nan)« 
of  intC'Uectual  honesty  and  literary  mo> 
rolity,  wo  protoat  against  such  criticism 
as  that  quoted  from  oar  Toronto  Ooif 
temporary. 

As  to  '*TTie  Popular  Science  Month- 
ly," wo  havo  no  doubt  tliat  our  habit  of 
letting  tlie  leading  thinkers  of  tho  world 
exprera  their  opinions  through  onr  pages 
is  very  distasteful  to  many  who  stfll 
cling,  more  or  less  teDUciongly,  to  tb« 
slowly  decaying  sniter^tliioua  of  the 
past  But  the  columns  of  the  **  Month- 
ly "  will  bear  witness  that  these  discaa- 
siona,  thongh  in  the  main  oatspoken, 
have  always  been  dlgnlftcd  in  tone,  and 
aa  oooaiderate  of  tho  feelings  of  Athcra 
OS  the  utm"- 

"Thol  .n< 

duavors  to  reprettent  Uie  ttcionlilic  cfilt- 
uro  of  the  ago  iu  all  It^i  filli  i>«m  nad 
variety;  and  it  Is  happy  t  at^ 

in  doing  ao,  it   *       **  * 

support  of  a  vcr;. 
Including  must  of  tU;  ^r- 


I 
I 


'OTICES, 


127 


ettors  of  IhU  coQtLaeut.  Oar  firm  b«- 
Udf  U,  thftt  the  truth  can  t&ko  care  at 
lt«elf— that  H  does  not  neod  any  bolstor- 
ing  or  bedging  rouud  or  aoderpiDDing ; 
aud  we  therefore  throw  our  pages  open 
to  ADf  oQd  who  can  diMoas  a  tlmaly 
aithject  bearing  upon  tho  progrega  of 
hamaa  loteruata  m  a  ftuientific  maQner. 
We  know  of  do  other  principle  upon 
whidh  A  **Popalar  Science  Monthly" 
could  h«  honestly  or  auc-coftsfully  con- 
dactod ;  and,  ari  to  our  pafreti  buing 
*di3gniflod  by  remarlu  about  GhrMtian- 
ity  which  are  too  spiteful  to  be  soien- 
tific,^  we  OAD  only  mv  that  an  nnsap- 
ported  charge  of  this  kind,  in  the  face 
i>f  tlio  record  made  by  the  magazine 
frutn  \U  h«gioniag,  ncod  gtre  na  ex- 
tremuJy  little  couoem.  Some  time  ago 
we  had  oooaaion  to  remark  that  a  single 
onnkber  of  Uie  "Canada  Educational 
Monthly*'  contained  two  articles  bor- 
rowed from  '•  The  Popular  Science 
Monthly"  —  one  of  them  without  ao- 
kt.  '•'■■■■  nu  We  tbiuk  that  Bach 
pr.i  i-rovol  of  tbo  wares  wc  offer 

the  public  goes  far  to  set  off  the  il)ih- 
•ra]  criUciam  above  quoted  from  the 
aaxnt  qoarter. 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 

PoLS-LoRt  or  Plants.  By  T.  F.  Thissu 
i«  JHia.  New  York  :  D.  Appletuu  k 
,Ca  Pp.  S88.  Price,  <ll.&0. 
7oix  Loas  Is  ftlw&ys  a  fascinating  study, 
ind  no  tirsnch  of  U  ofTera  more  of  pecuUftr 
intcTvat  than  that  of  plants.  Prof.  Dyer, 
therefore,  has  cboseu  m  popular  theme,  one 
that  has  engaged  tho  attention  of  many  wric- 
«n  befort  btm,  and  the  present  rolonie  is  a 
coodflosatioo  In  1arg^<  part  from  prerfous 
booW  anH  fi3ip^r«  upon  the  subject.  In  the 
atr'  ry  words  il  Is  "a  brief, 

«y<  ■     ,  with  a  few  iUa!«trat!nn9 

In  Mflb  ease  of  ibe  many  brandies  int'}  which 
llMflBbJeot  nabmllr  Mibdl-ridps  itself."  The 
boofc  brforv!  HI  U,  thomtore,  a  hand-book  to 
^1  -f.. —,..  !nr.r..-»..i  In  iho  suliject  upon 
«t  n  of  some  of  the 

Iwri: :  1  jjuir-  iiiio  vhich  the  work  is 

dir»:<':  Mtl!  Utp  lo  pratrsit  a  faint  idea  of 
l|i«  ■uvoiiu  of  l^rof.  Dyer'*  compU 


latiotL  Plants  in  witchcraft,  plants  In  fairy 
lore,  loTC-charms,  plant  language,  dootrino  of 
signatures,  sacred  plants,  plants  in  foIk-aiedi> 
dna,and  mysUc  plants;  these  are  suggestiTe 
of  the  careful  systematic  work  done  by  tbo 
author.  It  is  impo^ttiblo  to  epitomise  a  work 
of  thifl  kind  which  in  itnelf  is  an  «piCome  ofj 
a  Tast  subject.  The  foot-notes  and  refer- 
ences, one  or  more  on  nearly  everr  poge,  H- 
lujitrate  how  rury  wido  has  U^n  the  glean- 
ing of  the  painstaking  author.  Open  tho 
book  at  any  page,  and  a  pleasing,  succinct 
statement  will  bo  found  of  some  andent  su- 
pentitiou  of  plant  spirit,  plant  worship,  plai 
witchery,  plant  dcmonology,  or  plant  h 

Darwin,  in  his  famous  work  upon  "Hov( 
ments  of  Plants,"  says :  **  Why  a  touch, 
slight  pressure,  or  auj  other  irritant  such  as 
electricity,  heat,  or  the  absorption  of  aulmul 
matter  should  modl^r  the  turgescence  of  the 
affected  cells  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cai 
moTemeot  we  do  noi  know."  In  the  Ught 
^hia  frank  confession  of  ignorance  by  one  of 
the  wisest  of  Nature's  modern  studenU  It  is 
not  strange  that  during  the  early  ages  of  the 
world  every  living  thing  was  belierod  to  be  ua> 
dcr  the  direct  control  of  some  spirit,  good 
evil,  which  was  none  the  lew  real  to  the 
Tiorant  people  because  unneen.  It  was 
ral  for  the  ancients  to  ascribe  causes  to  well- 
establishf^d  Hffootji,  and  the  world  of  plant  life 
came  in  for  its  full  share.  Thoy  believed 
blindly  in  the  vi^getable  ori^n  of  tlic  human 
race — that  is,  man  sprang  from  some  sacred 
wor1d-tr«c.  In  modem  times  the  belief  Is 
not  altogether  different  from  thi«,  but  the 
method  is  through  the  gradual  unfolding  of 
the  higher  from  the  lower  by  the  slow  pr<^ 
cess  of  evolution.  In  like  manner  tlie  an- 
cients, in  seeking  for  a  divinity,  ascribed  su- 
perhuman power  to  the  miglity  oak,  and;, 
clothed  other  trees  as  with  the  garb  of 
The  worship  of  to-dsy  is  often  of  structures 
far  less  lofty  and  inspiring  than  the  forest 
giants.  In  our  time  we  con  with  profit  glance 
bade  aud  note  the  growth  of  ideas  as  they 
broaden  with  the  ages  and  sec  that  our  01 
idols  must  be  broken  in  pieces  by  the  relent-' 
less  wheels  of  progress.  This  is  one  of  the 
good  features  of  nich  books  as  the  one  be- 
fore us,  and  should  make  then  popular,  be- 
cause beitt^  a  hiatorr  of  tlie  people  in  every- 
day life — their  common  thought  and  oonvcr- 
aatiou. 


\z9 


TITS  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTffLT. 


Wa  mtut  remeraber  thAt  the  dAj  of  folk- 
lore U  not  put ;  superstition  bu  uot  giroo 
placo  to  acieace,  and  the  reign  of  {Bolat«d  fttv 
ffor^tleB  still  holds  away  la  msny  miDds  in 
pUoe  of  Uw  and  order.  It  m&y  be  qo  worse 
to  attribute  the  biddca  evU  of  the  world  to 
plsnts  possessed  of  Satan  tb&n  to  believe 
that  there  is  %  creature  with  bonis  and  a 
clo7CQ  foot  seeking  for  the  innooont  to  sat- 
isfy his  capacious  maw. 

Some  of  the  (nost  charming  examples  of 
plaut  lore  are  found  in  that  porttuo  having 
to  do  with  fairies.  Of  oour^  the  IoXtj  itself 
is  a  pleasing  myth  that  will  rccjuire  many 
ages  to  eradicate  from  the  hamao  mind,  be- 
Cattse  it  adds  so  roach  of  ionoccat  beaaty  to 
a  majority  of  the  nuritery  rhymes  and  chil- 
dren's tales.  The  whole  deception  of  Santa 
Clans  is  one  bora  to  an  endl«»8  earthly  life, 
bcc«u<«o  hanng  only  a  happy  and  beaJthful 
iutliiouco  upon  both  tho  old  who  practice  tt 
and  tbc  young  who  arc  so  delightfully  d&- 
odred.  There  is  a  perennial  pleuaro  in  th» 
IhoQgbt  that  a  tuUp-blossom  is  a  cradle  in 
which  mother  fairies  lull  ihclr  little  ones  to 
»lc>cp.  To  this  day  the  finder  of  a  four- 
tcflvcd  elovcr  la  considered  by  many  as  a 
perfoo  bom  to  good  luck^  notion  that  has 
descended  from  an  older  idea,  namely,  that 
tJie  monstrous  leaf  was  a  talisman  which  en- 
abled its  wearer  to  detect  the  haunts  of  fair- 
ica.  Much  of  fairy  tore  clusters  around  the 
so-called  fairy  rings,  that  is,  the  green  circles 
in  old  pastures  within  which  the  elfs  were 
supposed  to  dance  at  ulgbt  by  the  light  of 
tlte  moon.  Modern  science  has  extracted  the 
last  breath  of  poetry  from  this  common  phe- 
nnmcnon  and  left  it  as  a  dry  fact  in  the  cy- 
clopmlias. 

Flowers  play  no  mslgiuScant  r^e  in  love- 
making  at  the  present  day.  and  no  school, 
girl's  botany  is  complete  unleas  she  can  dis- 
course fluently  upon  the  language  of  flowers. 
Some  plants  are  naturally  syinliolic  of  cer- 
tain Sdeaff.  Thus,  grass  rmdily  may  stand 
forttwfuloess  and  the  eypre«s  for  mourning, 
the  poppy  for  slc«p,  and  the  Irembttng  aspnu 
ior  fear.  Other  plant*  do  not  carry  their 
irigmphical  nicADlng  iu  plain  sight,  bat 
)ia»c  acquired  their  adopted  meaning  In  ways 
ttul  ore  lunt  In  oblivion  while  the  symbol  re. 
mains.  Tliuc  tha  roM  was  dcdii^atfol  (o  V 
nus  by  tb(t  9ar1y  Komsat  tnd  Grtcks«  a; 
now  staftils  for  bve,  Mpeotally  the  deep  red 


varieties.  The  cotutoBey  of  ib«  rtokA  aad 
the  curiosity  of  the  sycamore  ar«  far  !«■»  evi- 
dent than  the  weeping  nature  of  tliff  droofi* 
tng  willow. 

The  degree  of  credence  gtm  by  many  lo 
tlie  strange  storiea  of  fabulous  pUnu  is  on« 
of  constant  surprise  to  ibose  who9«  linQwl* 
edge  shows  op  the  tiatUtions  in  Ibeir  trao 
lighL  The  bamacle>trcc  is  an  InstoAoe  lo 
the  {Hunt,  and  the  following  is  a  sixt«ca(b> 
century  description  of  it:  *'  There  are  foMod 
in  the  north  of  Scotland  snd  the  isle*  adj^ 
cent,  called  Orcades,  certain  trees  whcreoodo 
grow  small  fishes  of  a  white  color,  tending  lo 
russet,  wherein  arc  contained  little  living 
creatures ;  which  shells  in  time  of  maturliy 
do  open  and  out  of  them  grow  those  little 
living  thing!!  which,  fatliog  into  the  water,  do 
become  fowls  whom  we  call  barnacles,  in  tb* 
north  of  England  brant  ge^se,  and  in  Lmw 
caster  tree  geeaet  but  the  other?  that  do  fall 
upon  the  land  perish  and  do  come  to  noth- 
ing." There  Is  more  foimdation  in  fact  for 
this  exagRoratiun  of  trees  which,  ovcritaogiBg 
and  dippiug  into  water  at  high  tide,  nuy 
barnacles  than  in  the  wonder-working 
wort  which  would  open  locks,  and 
horses  treading  apoo  it— certainly  a  vt*7 
unsafe  herb  in  the  hand^  of  unscrtipiiloae 
house-breakers— providing  the  fable  vcte 
true.  Under  tbc  "doctrine  of  filgnalurea'* 
the  author  brings  together  a  large  amouBl  uf 
intercsliog  matter  illu.'itrating  the  old  idea 
that  each  mcdldnal  plant  has  some  sign  ol 
color,  shape,  etc.,  ^^^^'^  Indicates  its  hmllag 
pover  either  fur  the  whole  body  or  for  Mmt 
particular  organ.  For  eianipl<\  nd  JuLoe  le 
for  the  blood,  ycUow  for  Jaundice,  the  Bw 
leaf — shaped  like  a  liver — for  the  Ur#r,  (i& 
This  doctrine  wo4  carried  lo  an  alnumt  amOK 
lug  ezoesa.  Tbiis,th9»-I  '  ith 

resembles  a  human  akuli  .  cd 

for  troubles  of  the  braiu.      1  -*.  is 

employed  for  palsy  ;  atul  ml?t  Unt 

tlut  grows  In  a  suspended  postiion,  was  good 
for  dlxzineai. 

TouDg    people   even   could    find 

amu'oment  In  lbs  chapter  uiw-t'  

ing  plant  lore  as  the  basis  ai< 
rhyme. 

Folk-lore  la  meiliel&e  W  a  * 


•ubj«ct»  Aaioi^o  tiOU]iir.|.  b  b' 


f 


4 


LITERARY  KOTTCES. 


119 


ft  only  •  etrfldn^  w%.j  ot  lajriog^ 

l^al  AppI*  catAD  a[Mia  retiring 
U  b«a«r  thM  th*  ductur  liiring— 

thftt  may  not  bo  In  aci.-ord  vlib 
1I10  Ica^tig  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
OMxlcm  medicine. 

Tb«  book  bofon*  ai  I»  fnll  of  weird  thbgs 
thil  «vt  ft  pMullftr  Ugtit  u[>on  the  past,  and 
^^ftdd  &ev  lojter  to  thu  prcneot.  The  bumio 
^^buind  In  llic  nrt^  cijuturiis  ffo^  anturatcd 
^^■i|k  vftaoooaatabl«  ttotioni  of  (he  wildest 
^^HB  Prof.  Djer  hu  ebown  a  maslor'a  hani] 
^^^Hftallng  with  the  occult  theme.     He  haa 

I be«n  bA|>i>7  la  his  Mlcctions,  oonadentioufl 

^Bjbi  krefttmeat,  umI  cicrcr  In  the  groupia;^  of 
^■Ihe  ochvrwln  ftbooAi  iMl&ioU  anil  iudepcnd- 
^B»nl  fablcBf  mpcntltJoas,  and  lograds. 

I<rTnaAno!«4i.  Law.  Br  Ekxvt  Sciixxa 
Hautc,  K.  C.  &  ].  New  York :  Hoary 
UoU  k  Oo.     Pp.  234.     Pricvv  $2.7ft. 

^H       Tni  Mries  of  tweiro  lectures  here  pnb- 

^Hlihed  wai  doUTftrcd  Iwfore  tlie  ruivenity  of 

HOambridgi  In  ISf^T.  b;  the  Iat*>  Sir  IL  Maine. 

H'lt^  Fro(«««or  of  lutcrnatioiiiil  Uw  on  the 

IbtniiiatLoa  of  Dr.  Whcwrll.     In  opcaking  of 

tfa«  Hnroctt  of  int0mfiti0D.1l  Uw  ilie  author 

fay*  ihat  a  ^rpiat  part  of  it  ia  Roman  law 

•praad  Otoj  Europe  bjr  a  late  stage  of  ibe 

prnciiM  by  which  the  general  body  of  Roman 

.lav  bad  obtalneit  aiitharity  over  the  enmc 

*ai%arj.     \\  wa*  the  part  of  noroan  law 

fhieb  Uwl  lioeooaUo-J  "Law  of  Nalioan,'*  or 

\aw  of  Nature^"  and  which  wma  orii^inallf 

of  nile*  Olid  pnnciplc?  comiDon 

itionft  uf  the  various  Tu,lian  races. 

Thfl  snChor  acct  eonaiders  tbt.*  htaiory  of  the 

ecMMVptloB  of  aotffrcigDtr,  and  Itnvr  t»  state 

••^uirM  acappmpHat^id  terrimry,  alao  whit 

Jggme  of  ooeit^ni7  oon«titut«4  a  ralid  claim 

vrer  a  |[lTcn  area.     A  eonnidcratloD  of  the 

»rtgard  to  juti»tJiciirtn  in  territorial 
awl  on  lioanl  inonhant  Rhipii  ou  Che 
i^l«ftd«u-  ■  ,1  or 

•  hiX&^r  a  of 

'^rt  ot  U)0  oUaptcr  ou  thiH 
a  aqiarate  chapter.    Tbo 
*  ihi!  i'r.  .,0  wldeh 


r&ngemcnt  for  Great  BrfUin,  whoso  food- 
fluppliee  and  the  goofls  vent  to  pay  for  them 
bare  to  travel  audi  long  dietnnocfl  by  sea. 
The  mitigation  of  war  is  next  taken  ap,  and 
the  mcana  of  injuring  an  enemy  commonly 
prutubited  ni-o  named,  the  subject  of  epios 
and  stratagems  is  diunisAed,  and  the  di». 
posal  of  the  wounded  and  other  prisonora 
is  Created.  Certain  relntiona  of  belligerents 
an  land,  comprising  military  occupatioo,  ca- 
pitulation, and  fla^  of  truce,  together  with 
the  subjects  of  captures  and  requisitions,  oc- 
cupy the  next  two  chapters.  In  the  statute 
regulating  his  professonbip.  Dr.  Whcwell 
enjoincl  upon  the  occupant  of  th*?  chair  that 
lie  itbould  mnkc  it  his  aim,  in  all  parts  of  hid 
Lreatincnc  of  the  subject,  to  lay  down  such 
rules  and  sugg)3«t  such  meiiMures  as  might 
tend  to  diminish  the  evils  of  war,  and  finally 
to  citlngiiiab  war  omoug  nuUuus.  Accord- 
ingly, the  professor  devotes  bis  closing  lect- 
ure to  the  measures  for  the  abatement  of 
war  proposed  within  recent  yearsL.  In  this 
chapter  are  oousidcred  the  opposition  to  war 
on  religious  grounds,  the  sub^^titution  of  ar- 
bitration fur  war,  touching  upon  the  defects 
of  intcmatiooal  courts  with  a  mention  of  De 
Mulinari's  proposal  (hat  it  should  be  one  of 
(he  duties  nf  neutrals  to  combine  to  thwart 
the  spirit  of  belligerency.  These  lectures 
were  not  prepared  for  publication  by  the  au* 
thor,  but  have  passed  through  the  press  nn- 
dor  the  direction  of  Mr.  Frederic  Ilurriflou  and 
Mr  Frederiok  Pollock. 

Tbe  E^Y»sojno  firmtrttrTATioj*  or  IfismnT. 
Ity  JAMK8  K.  Thorold  Roocrs.  Now 
York :  O.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  Pp.  647. 
rrioe,  $S. 

pRor.  RooEM  develops  English  history 
from  the  standpoint  of  an  economist,  and 
brings  to  his  task  a  rich  mine  of  reoorda 
hitherto  ne;!ccted.  As  readers  of  his  "  Sit 
Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages  "  are  aware, 
he  hns  been  a  diligent  delver  into  the  clabo- 
nite  accotmts  kept  in  EngUnd  since  the  thir- 
teenth century  by  farmers,  builders,  and  land- 
lords.  These  and  llie  court  rolls  of  manors 
have  eiiubksl  him  to  ascortnlD  the  Tariations 
for  six  hundi'Cil  year*  iu  prices,  wages,  rente, 
and  Ujea.  We  ore  told  what  people  ate  and 
itrank,  how  they  were  hou!>ed  and  clothed, 
ntrd  what  some  of  them  were  able  to  aavt 
This  new  lipht  «hed  npon  the  hearth,  wanl- 
totn^  and  diniK-r-table  evidences   In  a  very 


tjo 


TITE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


sinking  v&y  how  progress  uid  rotn>grc«' 
eiou  hftvo  fiicccciod  one  Anotlier  Id  England. 
Fruf.  Rogent'ei  work  is  a  ooLaTtle  ooutrihiilina 
to  the  taodoru  viow  of  history,  wliicli  looks 
not  5o  muLJi  at  tbc  conspicuoiuj  and  plctur* 
liCMiae  elements  of  national  life,  the  coutc^u 
'of  courts  aud  battlo-fiulil*,  ais  at  the  d&itj 
life  of  the  comiiton  people ;  which  busies 
itself  with  their  progretu  In  the  arts  and  Ki- 
1060,  their  success  in  tronalating  justioe  into 
law,  and  the  cooseriuenccs  duo  to  etmnge  of 
conviction  as  to  the  rights  of  the  cJlizeu  and 
aa  to  truth  in  religion. 

Prof.  Uogers  abowa  that  in  many  ways 
the  common  people  in  the  middle  ag%«  were 
bctt«r  off  than  ihey  arc  now.  Although  the 
ttaodard  of  liring  wa6  low,  want  waa  rare. 
The  best  workmen,  associated  together  as 
guilds,  purchoAed  lond.^  and  hna.409  through- 
out England  fur  choritabtc  serrice  to  their 
onler,  and  so  in  a  epontaneotis,  wholesome 
way  affected  an  Insurance  for  old  ag«  and  in* 
flrinlty.  In  the  fiftccmtti  cetiturr  Hkillifl  work- 
men, suuh  as  carpenters,  and  masons,  worked 
but  eight  hotirt  a  day ;  this,  too,  wilhont  in- 
Toking  legit^Iatiun  for  ttie  purpose,  go  skilled 
wcix*  Mnic  of  tliese  men  that  they  corohiniHl 
the  talents  of  both  design  and  esecutir>n, 
Bud  plonocd  the  churche->,  guild-halls,  and 
tfnthcdraU  they  afterward  helped  to  build. 

Rent  was  at  first  a  tax  imposid  by  the 
lord  for  the  protection  he  extended.  For 
arable  land  In  aix  ceolaries  rent  has  been 
multiplied  tenfold  in  comparison  witti  the 
price  of  grain.  Competitive  rents  were  of 
T<iry  grodiul  introdaction  by  the  landed 
dnxses,  who  hi  the  main  have  been  grossly 
unjtut  in  evading  tatntiun  and  In  inercAx- 
ini>  privileges  while  ignoring  the  rcspon^i- 
biUtiea  otiginally  attached  thereto.  Onec, 
property  won  nltnotit  univenally  diffused,  aud 
at  that  time  Prof.  Rogers  bcliorca  the  re- 
spect for  property,  still  ao  charaotcriiitic  of 
Englishmen,  to  have  been  implanted.  Be- 
cause its  iihcep-pnjiturcB  were  aecura  from 
iho  Invailcr  and  nniouched  by  the  thief,  Eok- 
hujd  for  chreo  iicnturicii  enjoyed  a  mouof^oly 
of  wool  proJiiei ion  in  Va\t>.  i-  In 

value.    Prrtt  Ro;r''n*  isof  tho  ,\-^\  « 

»U|mfDe  n  rit7  lu  drramsUuicM 

and  coniliti  i>>Idi  the  drunkenness 

and  unthrlft  of  the  Kn^l'h  worklag  people 
to  l*c  Urjcidx  irlmrgfmblc  to  the  demonLlUa* 
lioa  of  imjual  iHior-lana,  uul   ilie  oppraa- 


uons  of  a  londlordlaai  which  at  UM  exlflrl(4 

famine  rento.     While  he  has  deroted  Ui  fif-e 
to  the  study  of  p<^lit1cal  economy,  he  4Mt 
that  that  ecieace  tukes  but  •  [>&nSal 
man  and  not  the  highral  view;   aaill 
BO  one  can  understand   political   ccaaoaiy 
who  docs    not   take   aome   Iroulile    to 
derstnud  human  nature — ^its  ftenUnavattOi  af- 
fections, passions,  and  hdpos.     It  ia  refnsh' 
iug  to  find  an  ecoaomist  who  baa  had  ifct 
expanding  experience  of  a  long  parUaoMal* 
ory  career  and  a  varied  knowledge  of  rmd 
and  thitiga  the  world  over.    Snob  a  niaa,  ft^ 
sessed  of  a  new  and  rich  store  of  fact,  bri^p 
a  now  treatment  to  the  wcil-wom  tbeioca 
of  currency,  pauperism,  coloui;il  policy,  lad 
the  extension  of  the  sphere  of  goveniincnl 
into  the  field  of  bu^incs^.     Bi»  chapten,  do- 
livertMl  OS  lecture*  at  Oiford,  hart*  the  frt«»-J 
dom  if  albeit  the  dogmatism  of  a  Tetmaj 
discoursing  to  his  juniors.     *Still  they  havr  aj 
ring  of  manliness  and  hamanitj  which  madtj 
heightens  the  elfisct  of  his  te&cbiof^.     Uk  haa 
aoroe  plain  words  for  the  n-  T  th«J 

arm-chair  who  pve  vnrhal 
complete  and  sccond-b  n  n  1 1  i '  > ;  ' 
who  ai'u  plainly  in  svtii|M:t,>  -*iii'  ;!.<■'  ■«  ■  • 
have  wealth  and  t*ontfoK  rather  than  willi 
those  who  create  these  thingo. 


nuAtTT,  IIlltTlI  ~        ■    ■  Ta 

WoHAK.     B^  ' 

Arb(»r,  Mich. .    1  !•-  i\'-L;i-(»-i    I  iiitiiiif ' 
Fublishing  Uousc.     Pp.  £70. 

**I  i.u  n»t  able  to   recall,**  #ava  Wim 
Catherine  E.  Beeeher,  "  in  my  Immcfuie  cir- 
cle  of  friends  and  Dcquointanoea  all  or«r  ifaa 
tTnion,  so  many  as  trn  married  lo^M^  % 
in  this  oentui7  utul  in  thi«  rtmntry,  whs 
p^jrfeOlIy  eoittul,  heallJiy,  anO  vigoroua." 
large  share  of  the  women  in  tiny  oii«*a 
quaintance  in  Amerii'a  are  delicate,  or  hai 
frc^ueot  fits   of  siekncjia,  or   gettera] 
hralth,  or  an*  chronic  iuvaliila.      There 
little  of  tills  dbenw  that  i»  not  prevmlabU 


by  faithful  uwof  ilteii" 
we  now  poasc**.  To 
known  tn  the  wijmen  < 
pros»  them  with  the  ' 
their  mode  of  lif?  by 
T)r.  U(Ms*fl  volume.  'I 
}i>et  whicli  tho  author 
ia  followed  by  a  chaj  -,. 
young  gIrU.   In  the  neat  di 


-I«d|ffttet 


LITERARY  NOTICES, 


»3« 


voA  fwyehotozSMl  chutgM  thM  occur 
III**  girl  B^t  '■  of  pubcrfj  are 

detcHhod.     Il-?ir  ical  oulturc  arc 

i<>  next  two  ftubjci'LTi  consiiicred,  and  under 
Utt#ir  bead  ccnain  g^nnstic  exercise? 
to  Jov^lnp  t^rions  pttris  of  ihr  body 
flpedfled.     Wotnaa's  drcM,  the  hygiene 
}i  Ihff  monthly  period,  tnmrriftge,  the  hygiene 
«f  pn>;i;tuuicy,  &nd  the  chan^  of  life,  are 
treated  (n  a  •iinple  praetical  fashion.     The 

■  laat  cKai>tf;r  b  devoted  to  beauty,  and  tellti 
woniKO  the  mort  effectitc  wiy»  of  securinp: 
bcauljr  for  (h<mt9elv«i,  oaJ  of  transmitting 
It  to  their  oiiildron,  Tlio  treatment  in  plain, 
firmetleEal,  and  popular  throtighout. 

HxrtkL  BvoLitTi'jN  IN  M*N.  Oniaiv  or  Ifc- 
■Aji  Facui-ty.  By  Okoroic  John  Ro- 
KAJIW.M.A,,  LL.a.  F.R8.  S?o.  Pp. 
MS.     0.  Appiclon  k  Co.     rrioe,  $3. 

Tsia  U  fh«  most  Important  RcienttAc  work 
that  baa  appoarvd  In  many  months.  It  fol. 
Iowa  In  logloal  aeqaenoe  upon  the  aathor*s 
fnrtnrr  brkok,  ^Menial  Evolution  in  Ani- 
taaU/'  and  ia  intended  to  ho  the  finit  install* 
m»nt  of  a  aeriea  whirh  dm  writer  aays  wtU 
rfcicl  with  th«  intellect,  cmutiaii!i^  volition. 
mociU,  nd  nli^n.  Thit  prcMnt  volume  in 
nflaotrnad  diiefiy  with  the  ori^n  of  Uumao 

PUy,  •«  dtJtingiiiAliAd  fronk  it^  devetop- 
t,  and  Ht  mostly  limited  to  the  psycbolo^ 
lie  nbjvirt,  post|M>ttia;;  aolhropolo^oil 
iMSM  far  tile  nevt  inj^tallmenL 
Or.  ftona&M  lakM  for  ^;ranted  the  peo- 
«fsl  th«orf  of  eruliiiton.  Including  the  evo- 
tatkmal  doctrine  of  descent  "  as  regards  the 
wiMiiffOf  Aij^nlo  nature,  morpholopcal  and 
p^dH>k>ff(«alf  with  the  one  eiception  of 
WMtLV  Eveo  with  man  this  assumption  is 
^Odsttnued  to  far  •*  hiA  bodily  organiution 
|iU  eoBQfiniod :  ttbdagthui  only  with  refer- 
to  th«  hxinan  mind  that  ihi«  exception 
allowed.  The  effort  i»  then  niade  to  Ahow 
aa  dootrioc  l«  applicable  aUo  to 
grind  otf  iMn,  or  to  "  hutnjin  faculty.** 
In  ibe  la«l  umober  of  "  Th*  I'opular  Sci- 
MontUly  **  Gxtraeti!  were  f;iren  from  the 
hfffoTW  ua  rafllciimt  to  indicate  the  main 
laltM  and  the  line  of  ar«^meni  pur- 
whlcb  areumatjince  n-mlrrs  it  nnne- 
fat  TU  to  gjlvfl  In  tbi^  place  even  an 
iiratDo*  ut  the  oohtm  of  exposltioiL  One 
bowrrvr,  en^t  lo  lis  ob«enred,  whldi 
Ad  not  afpcar  in  tba  ar<ic!«  referred  to. 


The  controvemy  centers  aioond  Ifao  problem 

of  langruage  and  the  mental  acts  involved  in 
prcdtcaliou.  The  topk  of  proving  thfit  those 
requiri*  and  exemplify  nothing  more  than 
higher  and  more  perfect  df?velopmoni8  nf 
powers  the  pame  in  kind  os  those  foimd  low- 
er down  in  the  mrale  of  animal  lite,  \a  pur- 
sued  with  great  ahlHty  and  thoroughneiia, 
and  with  a  orjncIuaireDeaa  which  will  imprest 
it^lf  upon  every  thoughtful  and  candid 
mind.  The  greater  part  of  the  volume  is 
taken  up  with  this  exomination  of  language 
and  the  mental  processes  Involved  therein. 
The  result  ifl  to  bring  out  in  a  manner  never 
hitherto  aceomplishtd  that  language  itself, 
it^  formation  and  constitution,  furnishes  a 
demonstratiou  of  the  ncccssiary  continuity 
of  deve!opmt»nt  from  the  animal  intelligence, 
to  explain  the  "  ori;<in  of  human  faculty.** 

This  splendid  work  of  scientific  achicro- 
mcnt  brings  forward  into  fidl  view  of  the 
world  of  science  a  second  Darwin.  No  doubt 
such  an  a^tsertion  is  a  bold  one,  but  we  are 
persuaded  that  it  is  just.  Not  only  is  the 
work  done  a  cominuation  of  that  of  the  au- 
thor of  "The  Deacent  of  Mau  ";  but  in  his 
Btn^lc--mindednc88  in  the  search  for  truth,  in 
his  carefnl,  confterrative  judjmient,  in  the 
thoroughnesfl  of  hi»  analyeiei,  in  his  readi- 
ness to  hear  and  patiently  examine  objec- 
tlon«,  in  Ids  plain,  clear  style  of  exprassion, 
Dr.  Romanes  more  nearly  opproarfies  Diir- 
fvin  than  hoA  any  other  sdentiflc  writer. 
Tlie  prcsi.mt  work  u  a  magnilieent  one,  and 
we  shall  await  with  eagerness  the  others 
thot  arc  to  follow. 

Dats  jsd  Ki«im»  rs  titb  Tnoprc^  By 
PcMX  L.  Oswald.  Illuptrated.  BoBton; 
D.  Lothrop  Company.     Pp.  186. 

TnK  young  or  old  reader  who  takc^  up 
this  book  can  not  fail  to  be  charmed  with 
the  vivid  Bcenca  of  animal  life  which  It  por- 
tray*. It  contains  the  experiences  of  the  au- 
thor in  a  trip  throu^  the  forests  of  Draril 
to  collect  niMve  natural  history  specimens 
for  a  national  museum  in  Rio  Janeiro.  Both 
entertainnicnt  and  information  are  afforded 
by  its  accounts  of  the  doings  and  halilis  of 
monkeys,  b<}a«,  various  members  of  the  cat 
family,  birdr^  manatees,  Itiseots,  ant-eatem, 
ond  the  ■cnrcrly  more  domesticated  children 
of  the  forest — ^the  Indiana.  The  surprising 
toleration  which  pctkeepers  and  pet-dealera 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTfiLY. 


exer«td6  fof  the  mLichJcf  and  impudeooe  of 
their  cUftrges  U  well  portrayed  in  scrcra] 
places.  The  tezi  U  not  burdened  with  tccfa- 
oical  luuDee,  ftnd  tbv  luaujr  spirited  Uiuatra- 
UoDB,  togetlicr  irith  the  tutefnl  cover,  add  to 
Uui  altnfcOtiTcneu  of  the  book- 

SocuL  Faoautss  :  An  Essat.  hy  D^lxiel 
URrtNLKAir  TsoMraos.  London  and  New 
Voi-k :  LongmuiA,  Oreea  &  Co.  Pp.  16 1. 
Price,  $2. 

Tea  irork  forms  a  p&rt  of  the  same  M- 
riee  of  phiiosophic&l  ducuuiooi  to  wlUcb  the 
ftuiUor'a  earlier  volumea  belong,  lu  Hp«- 
cial  object  U  to  preheat  the  prindplea  that 
control  the  progress  of  Bociety,  a  kaonledge 
of  which  will  enable  men  to  direct  their 
movemoniA  oa  social  uniu  bo  as  to  produce 
th«  moat  lueful  work  with  the  lea«t  friction. 
The  caaay  Is  substantially  the  introduction  to 
a  longer  work,  ou  which  the  author  ia  en- 
gaged, entitled  "Tfa«  FuDdantental  Rights  of 
Uan."  The  two  chief  topics  of  this  book 
arc  the  conditions  and  the  promotion  of  so- 
cJJtl  prugreas.  Erery  individuAl  desires  liia 
own  advancement,  says  the  autlior,  and  clo:3«- 
ly  bound  up  with  thid  ideal  of  iudivi>lual  bet- 
tvnui'iit  IA  an  idcul  of  social  improrctnoat. 
If  ttierc  bu  eillwr  individual  or  social  progress, 
there  roust  be  Ubniit/  for  acUon.  But  the 
OQttlUcling  efforts  of  antagonistic  individuals 
will  ncutnilizo  each  other  if  they  are  not  re- 
ptnlned.  Thl&  restraint  U  funuabwl  by  'atf^ 
Hut  too  much  resti-aint  is  as  destnicUvc  as 
noDC.  Hence  the  general  condition  esHcnllnl 
to  social  progress  is  the  establishment  of 
on  oqiiilibrium  between  libertj  and  law. 
ilea  dwL>II  together  In  the  organic  relations 
of  society  becaiue  thla  state  allows  each  in- 
dtTidual  to  attain  a  greater  number  of  do- 
sires  than  be  i.^ould  in  a  solitary  and  hostile 
oiisUince-  The  esisteuce  of  society  requires 
a  aodal  liberty — that  la,  the  recognition  of 
rights  due  each  member  of  the  community, 
and  the  UmilattDn  of  the  acts  of  evcrj  one 
tiy  tlio««  rights.  The  nature  of  men  makes 
Bcooasiirf  the  defense  of  social  liberty  by 
poftitlrc  law.  with  machinery  to  enforce  It  un- 
failingly and  oimsisienily.  N'o  govommunt 
can  t»e  sUihh*  that  dooa  zkR  ivurc  etiualiiy 
in  rights  at  least  between  theaa  of  the  same 
bUas,  and  a  gorenunent  widch  de[N)nds  upon 
du  «iisumc«  of  clOMea  tends  lo  tnstablltty 
W  koOWU'dge  beoomes  diffusod  aujong  Um 


least  faTor«d  duseo.    Inequality  of  povcr, 

whether  political  or  eocleait.  liiciitiy 

or  wealth,  la  diingcnius  to  sts^  liwUd 

be  resisted.  One  more  condiLiou  itaenlial 
to  the  progress  of  society  is  fr»tenxUy— • 
disposition  to  prefer  the  good  of  tha  iriMv 
to  the  selfish  interest  of  the  iudivMuaL 

In  the  part  of  thf<  volume  devoted  tn 
cussing  the  promotion  of  uodal  prcigrca* 
Thompson  calls  attention  to  the  fact  thai 
every  comtuunity  there  are  observable  ti 
op[>osod  teodencioa  with  rcganl  to  tbr  «i 
ing  order  of  things :  one  toward  cixangv, 
other  rcsisiojice  to  change.  Tlie  lerma 
adwn  and  amurvatum  have  boon  uacd 
erpress  these  antagonistic  forces.  Mea 
fortunately  tend  to  range  tbemaeWea  a* 
borents  of  one  tendency  or  tlie  othK. 
any  idea  which  bears  the  name  of  one  party 
is  soonted  by  the  other.  In  the  social  oigao- 
ism,  as  in  the  human  IkkIv,  change  is  osbbd' 
llal  to  life,  and,  when  the  ohaagea  whlob  OM^ 
Btitnte  the  vital  processes  stop^  dailli  M- 
sues  and  dl^tititegrattve  changes  begiiL  Uj, 
Thompson  states  as  the  fpeaeral  priBc)|4«a 
governing  the  promotion  of  social  prognMK 
that  opportunity  shuuld  bo  afforded  tor  t)i> 
action  of  cvntutionory  forces ;  tha.t  (^aog* 
favoring  the  common  frcedum  ^houlil  be  aJii' 
ed;  and  t^t  equal  enjoyment  ami  Bcenzii] 
of  life,  liberty,  and  property  arc  the 
common  freedom.  Further,  in  ord«r  to  < 
oide  whether  to  aid  or  oppose  •  ptvD 
we  should  examine  the  motirca  of  Ita 
nettts  and  lu  oppoueuta,  estimate  bocb  Hm  hih 
mediate  and  the  remote  eonscquonofla  of  ths 
proposaddiango,  consider  Oie  revolt  of  Icavof 
tblngii  aa  Iboy  arc,  anH  rfllrnlntf*  thr  jvmhatiOl* 
ties  of  ocoompli-'  ■<*/  r** 

suits  of  fitUnre.   t  ,  iuions 

that  will  t>c  reliable  giddes  to  coDduct,  ael^ 
knowledge  and  telf 'Control  In  indtTldualii 
prime  necessities.    The  habit  of  Iwdng 
picioua  of  the  oorreotoeai  of  <sd0*b  poail 
and  of  the  justice  of  oae*a  armpaiUai 
antipathies  uu^'ht  to  I  •ic^j  aaS^ 

rated,     optnimm  ttlmn  .Mt4  ttm^ 

tlnni  Vw- 

fit  o  :-™>i 

bo  L  u'nsJoa  and  iww  ag» 

f\il  o( ;  Jtmc  ni)("a  wlia-h  s-'i.-U 

to  goTcm  exprcaaion  of  optnroti.  < 
and  forbearanoe  arc  •omeilrr''-*  ' 
leutife  mHloa     WbUe  Mr,  ~. 


LITERARY  NOTICES, 


'33 


K 


cpoing  chKptcw  in«uU  od  iIm  oeoessUy  of 
fngnlACion  for  tiic  wiirld  9*  U  now  eii^is,  bo 
Wmjt  Id  closing :  "  Ab  wc  dran*  ai.>an.'r  to  pcr- 
feel  •odat  oooditions  positive  law  wUl  grow 

Ian  injuwMry-  ^'  ^^'l  fn^i>  ^^1  t^'^  t)^''  *1- 
Iraittladbpcnlloai  Ibcrc  would  l>o  no  need  of 
fOTennamL  The  oounc  of  pro^o^s  in  from 
e  &n&rc)i7  of  the  [irimilire  state  through  law 
gQrtnmi(int  to  the  &nurchy  of  ttic  {Hjr* 
feet  Kate  Wc  shooU  aim,  tlion,  to  dinjin> 
bb  the  rt9tralnt«  of  authority,  and,  though 
working  flautioualy  and  tcnt&tjvcly,  should 
urck  ever  to  contract  the  sphere  and  uiiui- 
uiK  the  dutiM  of  pjvpmmonl.  Only  tJiua  can 
iJiftt  Cit^  ftrise  into  which  (be  ((lory  and  hon- 
or nf  oU  the  natjona  mty  t>e  hroughi.**  Mr. 
TboiBp*vii*«  *'  SociaI  I'rogt-es5i "  will  he  a  very 
iMlpfal  book  to  the  etudi'nt  of  publio  affairs 
vfao  dcUKS  to  look  bvlow  the  foaming,  vd- 
dfifig  mrf ace  of  the  itrcam  of  events,  and 
•««  tha  atrrnxth  aitd  diroction  of  the  currents 
that  ifoCarmina  tbo  ooutm  in  which  eociet;^ 
saj  idranock 


I 


VUdH 


» 


^idy  of  Mtm,  and  ifu  Wa^  to  Hmlik^ 
\  D.  Bttcky  U.  D.  (Clarke,  «8.60),  mar 
ba  deacribod  at  a  Mrica  of  ctaays  pbilosophi- 
eal  In  eharmrter,  though  popular  in  stylo. 
The  bodf  of  tlt«  work  oitrnti  with  a  chapter 
tA  the  nainre  of  uvklence;  then  follow  aco- 
(iooa  on  the  relatione  of  niatter  and  force, 
the  nsUTaraal  «ihor,  the  characlt^r  of  phe- 
biUMtna,  polarity,  the  matter  of  life,  the 
fornw  of  life,  tnd  Uie  functions  of  orgaa- 
Udu  ;  at  a  brief  outline  of  the  priuciples  of 
hiologj.  Ad  linnortant  chapter  Im  devoted 
%0  a  con- '  of  the   structure  and 

fimoUooii  'iiin  body,  from  wbioh 

la  deduced  the  phiio^ophj  of  phy«iolof^,  and 
upon  which  14  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
of  pajcholoKy.  Thi;u  follows  a  seo- 
tion  oo  MuscuniaDeM  and  ps/chtc  phi'nomena 
la  ^Dvral ;  a  diaptcr  on  health  and  disease ; 
a  »oetina  on  sauity  and  imunitjr ;  and  the 
work  doacM  with  a  •v^'tion  on  the  higher 
aelC  Khe  arrbotypal  man.  The  snthor  Is 
n3l  al  war  with  cither  sdc^ncc  or  religion, 
Cboo^  ha  alma  tn  get  rid  of  both  ignorance 
•Dit  aapamtltUio. 

TW  Uttla  book  0tititl*<d  Uvin^  Matter^ 

J  C  A*  ft^pAsmCnie  Laboratory  Company, 

Korway  I^kic,  Uc^  #1).  ia  an  attempt  to  ex. 

pWn  tha  (ooatHutlon  of  iha  uoiTerio  on  the 

thai  ftiati«r  is  aentieoC.     The 


author  credits  to  matter  only  "  a  sentience 
of  low  degree,  in  quantity  far,  Tcry  far  be- 
neath that  evinced  by  even  the  lowest  forms 
of  life."  Biogen,  or  Uving  matter,  forms  all 
tissues  of  the  anlnial  body.  Ur.  Stephens 
gtve«  an  crpUoation  of  the  method  in  which 
auinial  organisms  are  developoJ  on  the  bto- 
gen  hypotheisia.  He  accounts  fur  aging  and 
death  as  resulting  from  changes  in  biogen, 
every  one  of  which  "  is  of  the  nature  of  an 
ordinary  physical  cause  fairly  within  human 
power  to  avoid  or  remedy,  and  many  of  whirh 
in  fact  we  are  every  day  avoiding  and  reme- 
dying.'* This  leads  up  to  a  raggcstion  of  the 
possibility  of  learning  bow  to  prevent  death 
altogether. 

There  has  been  printed  A  ClatnM  lAtt- 
of  Mr.  S,  Wiilinm  Siivei'iiCollfciiono/yctd 
Zealand  Dirds^  with  short  descriptive  notes 
by  Sir  WaUcr  X.  IhtUtr  (London.  E.  A. 
Pcthcrick  &  Co.).  A  part  of  this  ooUcetlon, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  complete  in  Europe, 
formed  a  vcrj'  attraclivc  feature  In  the  New 
Zealand  Court,  at  the  Colonial  and  Indian 
Bxhibition  in  London,  in  1886,  and  waa 
awarded  a  diplonm  and  medal.  To  the  eight 
caaea  then  exhibited,  four  have  since  been 
added,  containing  many  of  the  rarer  birda 
of  New  Zealand.  Many  of  the  genera  and 
most  of  the  species  are  strictly  con6ncMl  to 
New  Zealand  and  the  neighboring  islands. 
7*he  volume  is  copiously  illuetrated  with 
heads,  and  in  many  cases  full  6gurcM,  of 
the  typical  species,  besides  many  euts  of 
nests.  An  intcresUng  object  included  in  thia 
collection  is  a  frame  of  featliers  of  the  moa, 
di»cnvered  in  a  cave  in  New  Zealand  by  Ur* 
Taylor  White  in  1874. 

The  Forty-Jirtt  Iftport  on  the  JVew  York 
State  Museum  of  Ka/ural  Hiiftnry  contains 
the  reports  of  the  trustees  and  the  direct- 
or, which  relate  the  general  progress  sod 
changes  in  the  mtueum  during  1887,  la 
the  report  of  the  botanist  it  Is  stated  that 
since  the  summer  was  tmomially  favorable  to 
the  producUon  of  fleshy  fungi,  the  hyrocno- 
mycetea,  special  attention  was  given  to  the 
collection  snd  sketching  in  colors  of  theea 
plants.  The  document  Is  accompanied  by 
refiorts  of  finding  a  large  number  of  plants 
in  various  localitfos  ;  by  a  paper  on  "  Fungi 
dcetrocUve  to  Wood,"  contributed  by  V.  U. 
Dudley,  C  £. ;  and  by  a  botanical  index  to 
tbe  museum  reports  Koa.  S2-Sa    The  report 


*34 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


of  the  ontomologiat  occapics  the  grciicr  pan 
of  Cbc  rolumc,  And  tnntams  more  or  lusa  ex- 
U'ailcd  notes  oa  »  large  number  of  tosocts 
of  eooDoinic  importance.  Tbc  report  of  tbo 
geologist  id  brief.  It  U  oocooipuiicd  br  an 
ftc'coimt  of  ibo  finding  of  the  bones  of  mai^ 
todon  (Lssociatctl  with  charcoal  and  poUcry 
at  Attica,  and  b/  deN?Hpxioni(  of  new  gpcciua 
of  FcwtttiUdfw  of  the  lower  Uelderborg,  wiib 
Plates  Vni  to  XV. 

Piirt  U  of  the  JCfjiort  of  tJte  Chief  Sirjnal 
OJflcer  for  iBtiV^War  Dcpartntvnt;  eonBtsts 
of  a  **  Treatise  oa  ^Ictcorological  Apparatua 
and  Methods,"  bj  Pruf.  Cleveland  Abbe 
TU«  aubdivisiuDti  of  the  sobjccl  are :  the 
tucoaurcuioot  uf  atmospheric  temperature, 
of  atmospherio  pressure,  of  the  moiioo  of 
the  air,  uf  aqueous  vapor,  and  of  prcci[)tta- 
tioD,  all  of  whiuh  ore  treated  vitb  great  full- 
ness. FUtcJ  coDtaining  oinetT-eigbt  illua- 
trmtioDS  are  appoodod  to  the  volume. 

A  Biar  Ailca^  with  explanatory  text  by 
Dr.  Htrmann  J.  Kinn  |E.  and  J.  B.  Young  & 
Co.),  has  been  twuod,  containUig  maps  of  all 
tfao  stin  from  1  to  6-5  magiiiiudu  bctvcen 
tbu  north  pole  ftud  34 '  aouth  dcdiuauon,  and 
of  all  nebulie  and  stor-eluBtcrti  in  the  Ramo 
region  nhlc-h  ore  visible  iu  tdoitoopca  of 
moderat«  powers.  The  volume  couloins  a 
ntlle  prelimtnary  text,  followed  by  descrip- 
tioiu  of  the  more  intenuting  fixjed  atara, 
■toi^ujters,  and  nebula!  ouutained   tu  the 

ilBOpft,  arran|*<>d  in  onirr  of  right  aacenition. 

lOf  Ibe  vighlecu  doublo-pagc  maps,  twolro 
ace  derotcd  to  stars  and  six  to  iho  other 
obJooU.  The  atlas  is  finely  printed  on 
(▼7  paper. 

A  little  rolume  of  Chtmiccl  Ltdure  Kotea 
liai  l»et'n  publbhcd  by  Prof.  PHtr  T.  AtuUn 
(Wiloy,  |1),  which  the  uutlior  says  is  **  liiuiply 
a  collection  of  notes  and  obscrratinns  on  cer- 
Uiu  topics  which  experience  as  a  Icacber  lias 
shown  luc  often  pve  the  student  mnro  or 
trmtbla."  Explanations  are  girco  of 
of  the  principles  of  eheuiical  philoso- 

f|tli>,  and  abcait  ooo  fuurtli  of  the  Yoltimc  i« 
devoted  to  on  csB^f  on  "Tbe  Cbemitfol  Pac 
tor  in  Human  Prop;rcM." 

A  forawr  teolotis  propagator  of  Tolapuk, 
tt  Oeocge  Bauer,  baa  hiventcd  (Mmc  h.^ 
a    atill    hotter   uuiv«'t«al 
VUob  b«  colls  Sptlin,     A  patDphu.  ^..>uj^ 
a  «k«l«h  4if  Lbts  Uoguogo,  truuUtod  ami 


abridged  fnnn  on  expoelcioa  of  tlw 
by  thu  atUhor,  haa  been  issued  bj  CAarim  T. 
Slrauv^  424  Bruudway,  New  York,  Tha 
principal  adraotagv)  uhumtfj  forSp«tifi»nr 
Vohipuk  ore  that  it  cooiains  no  ooond  OM 
occurring  in  all  thrco  langnagaa^  ^^*t*^^, 
(^icrman,  and  French  ;  it  ban  uo  iWrrlcnsfciB, 
no  subjunctive  modu,  only  five  (caMSos.  nooHj 
twice  OS  many  monosylUbio  words  la  dowitff 
sentences  as  Volapuli,  fewer  lottcrs  for  «t 
prcaaiug  tbo  same  tltoughls  by  ai>T«ut0CS 
per  cent,  mora  frei^uent  vowel  tennltulioo, 
and  no  words  of  five,  fiii,  or  more  syllablcfl 
The  brief  summarjf  of  its  grammar  In  this 
pamphlet  ehowfi  that  Spdin  is  w«11  wnrtk 
examination  by  any  one  who  is  m  siArob  of 
the  best  uiUvereal  louguogo. 

7'hf  Patriotic  Jieadtr,  compilM)  by  ffnry 
B.  Carrinylon  (Lippincott,  fl.SO),  is  a  lorpf 
collection  of  *'  utterances  that  hucpiro  good 
citizenship,"  in  prose  and  vcrae.  Tba  aalao> 
tiond  ore  clossiflod  in  sixt^^cn  parta,  lh«  ftnt 
rcfcrrmg  to  the  Uebrew  and  rclalinl  oaiJoi^ 
the  second  to  the  Greeks  and  Romano,  sad 
rooat  of  the  others  to  different  periods  ka 
American  history.  One  dii'ii<ion  is  ootn^toaed 
of  national  hymn^,  sougs,  and  ode^,  both  of 
America  and  other  countrioo.  None  of  thft 
grand  and  eloijucni  utterances  In  brJioif  ri/ 
f  reodk^m  for  tbe  sUves  and  Ibe  prcs«rvatMn 
of  the  Union,  spoken  bofure  and  during  qui 
civil  war,  are  included.  A  hi<^raphical  In- 
dex of  autbon  oud  persona  whose  dieeila  on 
ct'lvbtated  is  appended.  Tbe  mwihaBtel 
featured  of  tbe  volume  ore  sabslantial  aid 
tasteful. 

A  book  which  is  being  v  r«J 

is  JTtu  0'/ifir»  latest  prod..  ./W« 

and  hU  Continent  (Ca^oll,  fl.lVu^  Tbi 
author  gives  hurried  ^llnipBc«  at  a  nolUtads 
of  subjffcta,  OS  if  himself  entered  oa  dn 
frantic  race  which  be  aooofr<is  Jouatbta 
running.  His  cotnments  are  light  and 
teriaintng.  though  many  of  his  imfutaslflas 
have  evidently  been  cathened  fmm  Um 
columns  of  Amr''< 

Laslnff :    A"- 
("Helectpd  I'r    ■     ;i   ; 

holes,  by  //./r!;i  1 

of  Dr.  J.  ».  Da: 

-li;^  for  .\mtrlti:i.i 

lis  typical  r; 
>-->.itn..i  Mi..  .',  ibtf  most  ca-ioM.. 
tile  of  O«nnao  autborfr— itu*  on 


I 


LTTERART  NOTICES. 


»35 


I 


»1io  ttsotfe  ea  a  level  wHb  Goctbe.  The 
c<4lior  <lMcr{b<^fl  hlia  m  hariDg  bcea  of  "  muU 
tifarioiM  aciirtty  u  hbulHt,  lilGrar;  and 
dranMUo  oritii\  pIilloHOjiliiir,  aiul  tliuoliv 
ginxL"  QU  •■  Luticoon  "  U  one  of  ibe  recog- 
duflea  in  ibD  Ittrmturc  of  art.     lie 

o&IiMiiit  u  a  dASitcAl  scholar,  urcbvolo- 
l^lt,  «nli>]uaif,  (•o«>L,  ami  (lraiiiati!SC  —  "a 
fdoocer  in  the  duvelopraent  of  moilcm  Ger- 
auM  litoratuTX!.**  And  there  boa  b<rcD  no 
ftguj«  Id  Ihas  Utcrmtim  "  whose  Ufc  la  more 
UtioHiiua  and  fruitful,  uu  diaraciDr  in  an 
ago  of  S4*nlltnoiiul{ty  whtcb  was  more  eaiie^ 
italirarl,  uul  manly."  Tbo  ffclcctionn  prcs 
MOt  blxn  in  lh<ffio  variouB  aapeoui,  and  ibe 
l#tt«ra  Mvcal  f^utur^fl  of  \\\»  pvr^onailtj. 

A  tnusUtloQ  of  7V4to,  ar.  iiistractivc 
book  for  bojra,  \vf  Paolo  Manttgaaa  (lK>iitli, 
$I.S6)i  his  ]ut4i  boon  ii^sueil.  lu  cbAmctc-t 
may  b«  quitrkest  imliiuiti'd  bj  coniparing  if. 
14  **  Staford  and  Mcrtoo,"  though  it  ha.-:  the 
•drantagv  of  being  wrlttrn  for  the  present 
gcneratjon,  Bcfora  ihis  book  appciircd 
note,  except  Do  Amidii>  "  Cuure,'* 
writu'n  fitr  children  tnll&ly.  "Tcs- 
m  story  ul  a  boj  who  was  sent  lo  lire 
B  year  with  t  Kagu.>Jou.4  old  uhclc,  a  re- 
lirvd  M4-aipt«in»  who,  by  telling  anecdotes 
and  by  oomiaenting  upon  rarioua  Incidents, 
tcaobn  Ua  ncpbcw  many  teasona  hi  regard 
Id  Om  opanktiona  of  oaUK.  tbo  ways  of  the 
«orld,  ajiJ  ntpccially  niaoncn  and  morale, 
ia  alao  aomo  good  oouniwl  on  the 
o/  a  profcaaioo.     In  an  oarly  chapter 

gtmu  a  Mt  of  model  resolutions  for  a 
niutuli,  and  nuu'rt'ding  cliAptcrs  conlAlu 
l>JaDk  p9'.-  -  onng  render  to  fill  nlth 

bla  own  |i  ,  ••QM  tor  each  remaining 

DioDlfa  oi  4  }<iu.  The  great  raritrtj  of  the 
book,  and  Itfl  lullan  and,  cbcn-fnro,  uufa- 
■lUIar  flavor,  arv  enough  to  make  it  iuter- 
Mthig  io  tlie  average  American  boy,  though 
coly  fJoua-oJaded  boys  will  appreciate  ita 
Ian  waanlng. 

The   ireattaa  on   The   PkvcMc  Li/c  of 


Got. 

haa  lor  i 

pajdiol'v 

fSvUaa^  auJ   u>  d 
BaaDifMUtion,    Tbc 


t,  by  At/rt^  Binri  (the  Open 
■^  Company,  AO  and  ?C  cents), 

■  prove  the  existence  of 

■  *  lo  the  eimplc»t  or- 
-  modea   of 

;ind    powirr 


atrtmetSMg  pftaacaa<ht  by  li  i  nmt. 

WW  la  cMnmofdy  called  But 

IL  BmI  aMHttt  that,  "Ifl   tbeao   mferior 


belngB,  which  represent  the  simplest  forma 
of  life,  we  find  manifestations  of  an  intclli. 
gcnce  which  grciLity  tranacendfl  the  pl)e- 
Domena  of  c«ltnlnr  irritability."  T)im  uiilhur 
describea  in  auccoaaire  chapters  the  psychic 
phenomena  connected  with  the  use  of  motory 
orgaiiit  and  orgaiid  of  sense,  wlita  Dulritlon 
and  fecundation,  nnd  ho  trcnti  alMi  the 
pbyalologica]  functiou  of  the  nuclcuii.  He 
even  gocii  furtlier  than  is  indicated  aborc 
and  ascribes  pRychio  facuUlea  to  the  cellfl 
which  make  up  the  tiafluca  of  higher  ani< 
mala.  He  states  that  "  iho  faculty  of  seia-< 
ing  food  and  of  exercising  a  choice  among] 
foods  of  diJTcrent  kinds — a  property  csaoi 
tially  psyuhologteol — apjicrtoins  to  the  ai 
tomical  elcniouts  of  tbo  ti^duca  just  aa  It 
docri  to  all  uuicdbilar  bdugd."  In  his  views 
on  the  Eubjcci  of  tbia  volume  the  author 
takes  issue  cs^K'ciaUy  with  M.  lUckel,  and 
alao  with  Prof.  Bomonus. 


PUBUCATIOXS   RECEIVED. 

AmoricAii  Society  lor  )*»yrlilcoJ  Knoarch.  P«>- 
ooMlLafa.  Vnl.  I,  Nu.  4^  Bo&lua:  namrvU  ^  Up- 
tiain.     Pp.  ^0.    11. 

BoillDiftoo,  Mm.  AUc8.     Tba  MatnmoUa; 
Bp«4i«  and  harvtviBK  Komu.     Pp.  XA. 

Bowttlicb.  II.  P,  M.  U.    Hints  for  Teachor* 
Pb^ftolofT}'.    Boston:  0.  0,  llcaUi  A  C«.    Pp.  Mil 
3&oonta. 

BroDDer,  John  a  Tha  CrataMinu  *n>\  Tertiary 
6fro)o«7  of  tha  &«r0pe-AlR5ou  Qsaln  of  Bnult  Pp. 
64.  »lUi  Pliloi. 

Hiinpv,  UiiTer  Bell,    Th**  St.<rj-  of  lUpptnoli 
Kow  York :  D.  Api»le(on  A  Co.    Pp.  l\six    S&  cental 

ililenf^  Muiut)  Tnilnlnir  Bcbool.  8Uch  Atioual 
CaulofB*.  i&a*-'H».    I*!*,  a 

CoDBocUcDt  ApHeoMunJ  Rxperfmcnt  BUtluo.. 
AoDtul  Baport  for  1BH9.    Pvt  II. 

Cook,  A.  J.  Silo  and  Slk^.  Loiuln;,  Mlcii. :' 
Darius  l>.  Thorp,     i'p  .11. 

Dar^  JUiKTlfloo  W  fiVf'^liea  of  th»  Sdenllflc 
DUpciuaLloa  of  a  Nuw  HvU^oa.  tfao  DtfltfD,  Cal. 
Pp.  04. 

I>aT.  Oeonre  B.  The  New  [orvrprrtatloo  ;  w,  (bo 
Scrlpturw  tIcwckI  la  tbc  Lljrbt  of  CbHstiait  So1cdl«. 
CblcafTo:  O.  31.  PanoDA.     Pp    1*21.     >>  cciitft. 

IV4y,  Atvab  n..  M.  D.  A  Manaal  of  1  Dfltnirlloji 
rm  tbo  Prini-ipka  of  rromiit  Alil  to  the  Ici)urwS. 
Ktiw  Tvrk :  D.  Applrton  A  Co.     Pp.  £24.    «1  2A. 

Pnwrr.  Andmw  8,  Tw«ity-flfth  Annua)  RcfKirt.' 
of  Ui»  nute  SdrK-nntcDilrDi  of  Publlr  Instmrtton  of 
Kow  Yort     Albany.     Pp  »hout  I.2W). 

rimmEOpr,  An  OVl  How  to  be  Sucvnsftil  oa  tb« 
Rovl  an  n  OtnnmrnTia)  Travrfer.  New  York  :  Fow- 
ler ami  W«ll»  Ojinpaay.     I'p.  S4.    »» ccnta. 

Fffwltp*.  4.  Walter.    Tb«  AniUAinv  of  Astraoi 
IHoo-.    Waablnictua  :  Btnltbanolan  Innttttttlan. 
80,  wltb  Btjc  PbteR. 

Fnwlce,  Ocrivr-  r,    Martnfortiira 

ADcl  Twof  Abor'^'  i^.     l*|i. 'iit. 

(lalton    Fran<::- ^^uec     I>hi(1oo 

and  Npw  Ynrk :  MacuillUui  M»i  {.iv.    V\k  ti**.    fi  ■*'". 

OArrlraM.  Dr.  B.  J.  Dor  Bdivlntotl.  Now 
York.      Pp  M. 

Oltuiao,  KlcbolBJ  Paloo.    PrcOt  Shormf 


156 


THE  POPVLAR  SCIEirCE  MON^TITLT. 


Fniployf-r  ftOil    RinplnvA.     R'Mtnn  «nil   NavrTorfc: 

Ho')Bt»t>n,  Mifflin  A  tVx     Pp  4(Vi.    11.75. 

Ou<;  "  .  M.  [>.     CoMttnl^  Biflox 

Nminr  -Lniln.     Pp.  II. 

"  ■  -'-n,  LL.  D.  Wm-k*  Rd- 
i  <^arjtine  Tloiarl.     Boa- 

' .^l.  t  ruU,  Pp.  8'.«. 
i. ...,..-....,.  .    ;. -.^.. 

Hilt,  Hotiert  R.,  M.  0.    Bpoecfa  oo  CooiuierrUl 

UdIod  vriLb  (.'«ii«i*.   pp.  a. 

.IkTri,  L«wU  G.  KToliiU'>n  nr  the  Rarth.  Bos- 
ton :  New  Iilotl  PubUAHlaj  Compuir.    I'p.  dV.    14 

l>6tcJiworOi,  William  P.  Th«  Iduha  In  K'>«4en 
C'liDtrirf.  >(rw  k  urk :  O.  P.  I*ijuiuii'e  btios.  n>- 
8T4.     t4, 

Ulnacaote. 


Ulnor  ADtlqnacliui 

i-ni  SpanUb  li«l- 

?on».     Pp.  VW. 

,  -ut.    Tba  luuQit/ 


I^w*».  T.   H., 
ArtlolM     Pp.  T. 

LorUwrt,  ^ 
Udk    £fcw  V 

Uoyd.  .)-  i!> 

of  Omut  lla^u  WvitUcf.    i'p.  u, 

Molywn.  Julio.  Tb«  luOtftoi!  Ttietr  U«tinen 
and  L'ustoMit  TopftnUi :  WUliaio  llrUrift  Pii.  8M- 
— Tbo  Blw-kfijul  »UB-t>tace.  Toruiito:  Th«  Copp 
Ci*rk«  Ouii|ijinr.     Pp.  ". 

Mat  .  .    Alu)    Hp««1«ltl<i<L 

wwtii'  Pi>  h. 

Ma:     .    .  I  :__, ..  ^-^aiM  upon  Atom 

Ma(iaL*liu»4>tU  Anicjltunil  Oollf'j*?,  Atnhenrt. 
Twvat>«Ut.ti  AluiUl  lUpurt.     Pp.  W. 

Mlxtcr.  WlUlAOi  Q.  An  £l«iD«nury  Text-Book, 
of  ChotiiUlry.  Now  Tork :  John  ft  llt-y  A.  .Sons. 
Pp.  4.V1. 

Nattt>n«l  K<lu«'Atlon«)  ASRod&doD,  PToceocIlopt 
of  ttiQ  l^i«r(mfDt  of  Superlutrailctiw,  Febnarjr, 
INeb.     Pp.  ia&. 

N<>tfr(i»\ft  Aenruttnnl  KijMriniMlAtitlcm.  Bee* 
.  :  ■  •         '  '.'.<\fcn.    UacoIi^  N<'b.    Pp.  43. 

f  M.    Oiiiltnrt  of  I.<cuua«  lb  Butju/. 
h  .  A.  Co.     Pp.  IW. 

Nvtr  JunvY  luOiiitrtnl  K<lQcatlon.  Qgbokea. 
B«^Kin  of  thp  WKinl  of  Truttcoa.     Pp.  11*. 

Now  Y4)rk  ('nllirj^r  fbr  thr  Tnlnlnfr  "f  Toacbcn. 
Circular  of  iDfaindHflO.    lSi?y     Pp.  W. 

i>  ftrior,  l>afi<l.     A  l^bornlorr  HiiUlo  In  C'liciinl- 

ADal/a«.    Nww  York  :  Joliu  Wtley  A  do&t.     Pp. 

n 


r»vii»  F.  r    l-JkUnc  of  Haaiwn*»  Slralu    To- 

rnnin;  Th«i  Cnpp  CUtIch  rntiipiny.     V\%   lfl> 

'^v    J.     lixtUoapnllA,  tmt.    Tb*  Tm* 
I  A'lTrnlBAn?  Ac«nt  to  l*«blukeranil 

i '  p.  &- 
L<.«i.»i>U'r.  \.  \.     Portv-flnit  AoDtul  Bcrport  Of 
th«  tbMrd  ofK^iicftttoD.     Pp  'jua. 

bUiiUL-  .  :.'. 

Sw'i  '.  ■      Twelfth 

Anntul  Ul- ;>[;.' L     New  Voik.     Pp  '.^0. 

ftlAtsftlilt   C^r)    A       Th«   TJxIiriBtlao   of  Bll«»r 

r»^ I'- '•■■'  "-' -    ^■•-  VofktTh* 

Wo*;, 

(M'>  Ixm4mi 

S-  .'  >      Pp.ltM. 

II. «R 

Srtpw,  f*.  P .  (Alitor.    ronfbMioiu  d'ui  Omrtw, 

Emll«  e-oavntrt,    Bmioo  :  I*.  0.  Uwtb  4  Co. 

lar. 

Txrtor.  Dr.  /.  R.     Tli«  Pteillmf  ynimllM. 
r«w  Vnrtt :  X).  Appteion  A  Ooi    j>  tn 

TbiMUiOtt,  tflr  WdilBia.    Popular  LmUhv*  wd 


AiMrfMc*.  To].  tOoiuCltiiaaaefluBK. 

ud  Now  York:  MarantltuACa.    Pp.  4tlb    $1 

WftM,  Joho  II ,  LoulitHltM,  K7.    Eclbcm  wUtea 

tlio  forty.     >>  16. 

ChK'itfo  :  b.  C^  »j>  i.ij'v  A  I  V . 

Writtlit.  Hon,  W,  w.   T  ipMfnatVl 

butluuit.    UoQffVO^  N.  Y. :    r>  '-xpaftacM 
htAJlr-n.     Pp,  I*. 

W  right  J  (in*  M«N«lr.  9m«I(1«  unit  WapM^ 
No.  a.  boftttKi:  D.  C.  aa«tlk  At  Ou  Jf^  K  M 
centa. 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 

PreMrrlo;  Tlal»n  f^a  9l«lft«re«— Ttu 

followlDg  reoomtnftndatloTiB  %n*  fflven  by  tb« 
Foroatry  Division  of  ti  Lit  gf  Ag- 

rioulture  in  regard  U*  ■■  r  (XHOitip 

for  kcopiug  moUturo  out  of  innber:  Nvfw 
apply  pfLini  or  any  other  cootiog  to  greca  er 
aDiteosoaed  tiiobcr.  If  the  vood  «M  Dol 
well  dried  or  Be^wned.  ibe  c«*t  wHl  ottly 
hasten  decay.  Good  contin^  oonubt  of  oily 
or  rtiBiDOua  stibsta.noc«?  which  tnnke  ■  imooth 
(V>al  capabtt)  of  being  uiilfonuly  AppUM. 
Tlirymnat  enter  ever^  part,  mufll  twt  ctnH, 
and  popsesB  k  ccrt»in  nnimmt  of  plMtkiry 
after  drying.  Coal-tar,  wUh  or  without  sad 
or  plaoier,  aud  pitch,  c*pociiilly  if  mlxiwi  ulii 
oil  of  turpentine  and  applied  hot  (thnff  p^ac- 
iratlng  more  deeply),  iinsirer  be^t.  A  tai%% 
lire  of  thrMv  parts  coaI*tar  and  one  part 
clean  unsaUed  grca»o,  to  prevent  th«  Car 
from  drying  until  II  has  had  tima  tii  lUl  Um 
minute  porw,  is  rvoommetidtNt,  Otm  boml 
of  eoAl-tar  (three  to  fonr  dollars  ]»er  haiv 
rvl)  will  eovcr  three  hundtwd  posta.  Woo4> 
Ur  ta  not  ftirviceable  bccaoM  U  dou  bum  dry. 
Oil  paints  are  next  in  va1n«.  BotM 
oil,  or  any  other  drying  9*g«iobU  oH,  to 
wUh  It^ad  or  any  other  body,  like 
eharc9»l,  which  will  give  auhitanca  lo  U. 
Iromenioa  in  crrnlo  petmloura  la  alfto  r*^ 
omnended.  Charring  of  ihrioe  paria  wUeb 
cotiiu  in  contact  with  tho  ground  tmn  \k  coo- 
videred  only  ad  an  imperfect  prcyerraUvc, 
and  nnlHi  It  U  carrfully  done,  and  a  OMiMiit' 
erable  layer  nf  charcoal  im  forttiM.  the  effect 
U  often  dtitr4m<^utal,  u  thE<  procsM  boih 
w««k>- -  "'V4eni£ka,llMM 

pxpn-i'  'vf«     Iji^rty,  fc» 


I 


traliiig  tttiibtT  «|ll)   oil 


4 


POPULAR  MISCELLA.VY. 


ny 


» 


fl>d<gWtl  ProffTMIf^ln  rtjTlewIn^  the 
progrcM  made  hy  praloglccl  ccienco  daring 
the  Ust  t«rcDty*fuur  yeara.  Prof.  W,  Bo/d 
Piwkfne  naontlooB  liie  adTaatngea  which  It 
bas  drmirn  from  mioro(K.*opic  uuU;sia  of  tho 
ro<i.  Ay  of  mctamorphifim,  and  of 

Uht  '  1  flboaring  forces  that  were 

ii  t'>  l>cAr  on  the  ci^^llng  cntst  of  tbe 
;  and  from  dc«p-«ca  expluration^,  rc< 
vcaDog  tits  «troctiire  and  deposits  of  the 
AOMti  abjRM*.  I^m  a  comparison  of  these 
d«po(itM  with  the  vtratifind  r(x:k»,  we  m&y 
cotuJudc  that  the  latter  are  marginal,  and 
dLiK»iicd  hi  depths  not  greater  than  one 
ihouM.nd  (atbonriA,  or  at  the  shore  end  of  the 
globigvrlna  ooie,  and  mufft  nf  tbcm  at  a  less 
dr^ilh — and  that  cuuscqucntly  (hero  is  no 
proof  In  thf  p'H>Io5lcil  record  of  the  ocean 
viir  Iwwn  in  any  other  than 
1  ;»'■(•«.     In  North  Auierieu,  the 

gtOlofpcal  survey  uf  the  ^Vestem  States  has 
brought  to  light  an  almost  uiibrukcn  scries 
of  animU  rvmaina,  ranging  from  the  Eocene 
down  I4»  Ui«  PloivioceiK  a^^c.  To  these  wc 
find  tbe  miuing  links  in  the  pedigree  of  the 
hontr,  and  sufDcient  crldence  of  tronsitioDnl 
forma  (o  enable  Pmf.  Flower  to  restore  to 
tU  plaiv  In  claH^ifii'fttion  the  order  Uiypdata 
of  CuTicr.  The»c  may  be  expected  to  occupy 
tbe  vnergicf  of  American  gcolo^sts  for  many 
5car«,  and  to  yield  furthi'r  proof  of  the  truth 
of  tlw  dmtrino  of  evolution. 

TtraUi  BBaBockft. — With  a  oonplo  of 
shuttle,  u  thin  slab  of  ta- 
pllo  vf  bcniqucn-1  eaves  at 
il  Tliompeon,  of  Merida,  the 
Tuowcu  Is  rtod/  to  aon^pt  contracts  for 
homaodka  t>y  tho  piece,  do2«n«  or  hundred. 
Ths  potM  ore  placed  a  diertaoce  apart,  ac- 
cording to  tfatt  required  length  of  the  horn- 
Th«  thin  slab  nf  Itard  wood  is  fash* 
into  «  stripper,  by  tbe  lud  of  which 
tlw  fiber  of  tbe  chick  hcniqucn-lcaf  is  dc- 
HoiImI  of  its  enrclopn,  and  a  wisp  of  rasped 
ftbor  II  obtalaad.  This  having  been  bleached, 
th«  ftbon  ar«  trpanted  into  a  certain  nura* 
har,  mtA  theso  are  rolled  into  a  strand.  Two 
or  mon  of  those  strands  are  then  taken  out. 
oad  by  a  similar  dcxt«roua  manipuUtinn 
ooovvdod  tnl/>  a  Aim  or  oiird,  from  which 
th«  lumftionlf  b  made.  The  unrd  Is  riven 
rapidly  oraand  tho  two  npright  polcd,  and 
ibotdv^  worked  by  ibo  wamon,  kccnu  to 


more  and  seek  the  right  mesh,  aays  Consul 
Thompson,  with  a  volition  of  its  own— and 
Id  a  very  short  space  of  time  the  hammock 
is  made  and  laid  with  its  kind,  (o  await  the 
coniing  of  tlie  contrtu;u>r.  Atinoxt  ihi*  cnlir© 
exportation  of  hammocks  from  Vucatan  is 
absorbed  by  the  United  States.  All  the  dis- 
tricts of  tho  State  produce  hammocks,  but 
that  of  TiieocT)  more  than  all  the  other 
diiitricts  comluncd-  Chcmax  hammocks  nro 
noted  for  th^-ir  finene's,  and  do  not  have  to 
seek  a  market  abroad. 

Vhftt  to  Fire-proof  T  —  The  idea  that 
theatrical  appurtonanccj*  of  woiid  and  cloth 
can  be  made  efficiently  Gre-proof  by  soaking 
them  with  certain  chemical  M}iutions  is,  in 
the  opinion  of  Hr.  Walter  Emdcn,  a  serious 
error.  Theoretically,  the  soaking  wotks 
beantifutly,  and  in  practice  for  a  time  secures 
immunity  against  the  spread  of  fire^  "  But 
for  how  long?  Of  the  majority  of  these 
profiervative  sohitlona,  it  is  a  question  if  any- 
tliing  is  loft  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time. 
They  craporate  or  i>nb1imate  or  pa-'S  ufT  into 
the  atmosphere.  N'o  one  can  sny  with  any 
dogreo  of  certainty  for  what  length  of  timo 
a  beam  or  a  cloth  will  ho  fire-proof  as  ilic 
result  of  soaking  in  any  noniitflararoablo 
fioluiion.  Now,  mii<M;a]cuIatiou8  in  respeoij 
to  this  may  lead  to  the  most  terrible  catas- 
trophes." A  further  point  of  the  greatest 
moment  is  tliat  ga««-flanie8  raise  the  temper- 
ature of  wood  and  canvas  in  their  vicinity  to 
140*  F.,  and  dry  them  to  tinJer.  Obviously, 
actual  contact  with  a  naked  flame  muft, 
under  such  circumstances,  produce  results 
altogether  different  from  tliosc  of  the  riper- 
iments  usually  made  with  preservative  solu- 
tions. It  is  the  materials  tlicmt;ctvca  which 
are  used  In  tbe  couittructiou  that  must  be 
proof  against  firo.  The  aim  should  be,  not 
to  muku  some  combustlhle  material  inoom- 
buaiiblC)  but  to  use  only  firo-proof  materials. 

'BrMd  of  Wat«r-Lfly  SMds.— The  seeds 
of  various  specie;!  of  water-lilies  form  the 
food  of  tlious3Dild  of  prople  in  A^ia  nud 
sonie  parts  of  America.  Tbe  most  important 
ppeciea  for  this  purpo?*'  arc  those  bclon^ng 
to  the  genua  Trapa,  nhieb  are  known  in  In- 
dia aa  Singhartt^  in  China  a^  /•in?,  ond  gen- 
erally as  watcr-cheatnul.  Tho  fruit  of  the 
7Vty>a  Idctmit^  which  grows  In  the  lokea  of 


138 


THE  POPULAR  SCIE2TCE  MOXTnLY. 


China,  U  coTlcctod  bf  women  snd  childrto 
who  paddle  about  among  the  planu  in  emKll 
circular  boftts  resoinbling  wasb'tuba.  Oih(?r 
aro  griiwu  In  Casbuiurc,  wlioro  iJiv 
tea  becomo  so  (rowdrd  with  tlie  planU 
that  navigation  is  made  impossible,  and  the 
Oovcnunent  dcrirea  £12,000  a  year  (roi« 
tbc  Uxes  on  tho  crop  of  a  single  bkti  ;  and 
I«  India,  where  the  cultivation  is  sjBtem- 
atioallj  carried  on.  The  fruit  abounds  In 
flUrcii,  which  haa  tbo  tlaror  of  a  chc^tout, 
and  may  Iw  eatua  ruw  or  cooitiHL  Tbu  dried 
luta  wiU  kcop  for  many  tcb».  The  meal 
lay  be  mode  into  cakes  or  into  ■  porridge. 
tf  tbe  keruela  arc  soaked  oremight  in  cold 
water,  they  will  i>e  ready  in  the  morning  to 
bo  boiled  or  Atcamed  into  food.  The  seeds 
of  the  loiii^  {^^ dumbo)  wore  muoh  used  ae 
food  in  ftuctcnt  t'^pi,  but  seem  to  be  oeg- 
tectvd  now.  The  tuberous  roots  rcfcmblo 
the  sweet  potato  and  arc  starchy.  The  root- 
stnlkfi  when  boiled  arc  farinaceous  and  agrce- 
abk%  and  ihosc  of  the  American  species  arc 
kplnyed  as  food  by  Western  Indians.  The 
of  the  lolaii,  in  India,  arc  eaten  raw 
when  gi'oeD,  and  roasted  or  boiled  when  ripe 
tod  hard.  The  root,  which  is  two  or  three 
feet  lung,  is  eaten,  bollinl,  as  a 'vegetable. 
The  Kinmatb  ludiaus  live  chiefly  on  the 
tookvit^  or  s^rds  of  the  yellow  waler-lHy 
(Nupliar  /w/ra).  The  capsules  are  broken, 
and  the  seeds  arc  separated  from  their  huska. 

Tlif  PhlloHopby  «f  Valat-BelU  and  C*r- 

iSCts. — In  the  course  of  an  inrcfitigaLion  upon 

kc  work  of  the  heart  in  healtti  and  disease 

'riain  facts  were  obeerred  by  Prof.   Roy 

■nd  Mr.  J.  G.  Adams  wbiiih  throw  liz:ht  upon 

the  physiolopiical  bearing  of  waist-belts,  etc. 

by  means  of  a  cardiometvr,  they  register  aC' 

Onratcly  tho^bangcs  in  Tolume  of  the  heart 

and  the  amount  of  blood  propelled  by  it, 

under  Torying  conditions.     In  the  dog.  evrn 

■  slight  compression  of  the  abtlomcn  caused 

an  1ncr«aae  in  rolume  of  the  heart,  and  with 

da  a  greatly  lucrcasetl   atiH}unt  of   blooil, 

latsed  through  the  heart  In  a  given  time. 

ht'Sf*  pheucmipna  can  be  explained  witboat 

'iBinicidty.    The  abdominal  rcsschi  are  capable 

of  containing  all.  and  more  than  all,  the  blood 

Jn  the  orgenhim.     *^'M"'*  .•."..r,r...,<;on  of  the 

lomcn  will,  wli  .^  an«rinl 

'vnpplf,  drive  out  ir-<rii  ^^im  DMijiiiuiaa]  reins 

and  Tvnomi  capUUriea  a  Urge  ouoout  of 


blood ;  and  thia  blood  will  bo  of  uae  for  titt 

other  regions  of  the  body.    Kow.' 
tional  activity  of  aoy  organ  dep«ii 
upon  ita  blood-snjpply.     Inci- 
blood-^opply  of  any  part,  un  h\ 

being  equal,  the  aciiTiiy  and  power  of  work 
of  that  part  arc  iurrriu>i<d.  Tlip  abdooiLas] 
walls  in  front  and  at  the  iddcs  are  IocidbI  ' 
of  soft,  elastic  tiaiucs.  In  health,  prras* 
ure  is,  through  these,  exerted  npoa  iJbs 
abdondual  conlenta,  and  at  the  aftoi 
upon  the  abdominal  veius  and  Tenons  e^iO-j 
lurics,  by  means  of  the  musdca  oontahftadia 
these  walls.  If,  howcror,  the  rouacles  loa 
their  tone,  the  wall:i  Ikccome  flac<Sd,  and 
the  Tclui  dilate,  and  t)iu3  holding  a  larger 
amount  of  blood  than  is  neoes«ary,  ad 
OS  reservoirs  for  this  blood,  and  so  d«- 
prire  the  rc!<t  "f  tbu  IkmIv  of  an  amount 
of  fluid  necessary  for  its  due  nutrition. 
Uere,  then,  we  have  an  cxplanatSon  of  the 
use  of  eomo  form  or  other  of  waisi-lteli  by 
all  nnliuns  who  have  pasM-d  beyond  Uw* 
stage  of  absolute  barbarism.  Tha  waJBt.biJI 
is  of  use,  and  has  oonoiantly  been  used,  ui 
cafieB  of  audden  and  giest  cxertloD.  and  in 
those  cases  where  it  bciomes  necessary  to 
counteract  the  tendency  to  a  uselojs  nturfi^ 
up  uf  blood  in  the  nbdomvu ;  and  by  parinait 
in  hcaUh,  in  bringing  more  blood  Inlo  (he 
ser%-iee  of  the  brain  and  miuclcs  to  prodnre 
a  eondition  of  increased  mental  and  cnuandar 
octivity.  Flacdd  abdominal  walls  ar«  ratUr 
tlie  nile  than  the  exception  with  ironKi^  aad 
among  men  occur  iu  those  leading  Tdantrj 
lives.  We  are,  therefore,  brought  to  een- 
rludc  that  among  women  som*  fnna  ef 
wai^-bclt  is  advantageoua.  Uodirrate  raii> 
strietioo  does  no  harm :  extreme  ooastrieliaa 
iM  absurd  and  dangerous. 

Tbe  SdDy  IbIahAs.— ScHloniaa!  m  «i»-. 
the  inhabltanta  of  the  Scilly  lalasda  calH 
thi'mtfelvea.    Though  ;  i.;aHt>^  iw 

Cornwall,  and  nearer  i-  any  olWr 

part  of  the  world,  tlit-y  aiu  uui  vJoridi^  btt 
of  high-bloo<1rt]  KMp;!Hh  storV,  tv4nff  to  a 
largt*  cxtCTii  '.la* 

and  from  r^  !!^»> 

the  EogUah  drfl  wara.  There  are,  bavw?v*» 
coasidcrablc  local  diff-^^,  nn..,  »«.i».-.in  |be! 
people  of  the  scrcrat  lisj 

the  days  of  lairmg  *<liii>--  <ni-  -.  .ti;  i*>4atl* 
were  an  Lmponant  naval  outpost  and  a  pisc« 


POPULAR  AflSCELLAiVr, 


»39 


I  for  TcM«b  in  ctonnj  Beasons, 

Tba  pMple  were  bVUI/oI  flbip-bwldcrs  and 

prosporuiu    *lii(M>wucn.     Steam    has    d&. 

prtved  tbom  of  tuosl   of  tUuii-  oU]  advun- 

fei^p*,  and    they  hare    had   l<)  tuni    their 

tttalkia  to  otbor  parsuitg.     The  oiild  cli- 

aftte  and  the  g'>od  boU  of  tbe  Uiand^  arc  fa- 

^B  Torahle  to  all  kinds  of  vegvtatioD.     Eat!dti|3; 

^"   «arl7  poUUMS  and  TrgoUhlea  for  the  English 

raarkfU  hai  boen  a  ramuDDrttWo  oocupatiou. 

Boocuily  Uio  ralBiug  of  narmsuB  and  oth«r 

balkH  hu  promifed  to  be  hUU  more  pro&t- 

•blci,  ftnd  the  people  arc  erer/  year  giviot; 

■Mkrii  and  m<jre  ailcniiua  to  it.     In  18S7 

wan  Ihaa  a  hundred  Ioob  of  Oowcra  wore 

tsponed.    The  smill  eitent  of  the  ialaoda 

ttdbging  ihccu  inio  cImo  relations,  and  al- 

aaoit  iflffTiiahly  unilcr  ctia  anoibor'a  eye,  the 

MnooUat  are  <]u)i(*  socinlili?  and  conRii]era- 

^-    hkf  prono  to  gosilp.     Tlicj  give  occaBlonal 

^H  dtoovra,  at  which   bear;  calcG  and  clotted 

^L^MMMI*  fuTorilii  dijbcs;  but  tlicy  objt'ci 

^^H^^^Hj|(  and  card-playiu;;,  and  ahhor  jesU 

^^^BpStmjtpt^cjf,     Thay  are  great  rcadors, 

•ad  ItiNp  in  the  current  of  English  period!- 

■at  Utrraiurv ;  and,  hurinf;  had  dcorge  EUoi 

BUd  Tcnnji'Jo  to  viadt  them,  they  are  "  out 

to  hfi  aw*d  by  the  presll^c  of  any  litenry 

^^  nuipiaf  e-**     rinally,  Mr.  Fruik  Boufii'ldBajTS 

^m  of  them,  "  Mont  of  tbom  ecom  to  huvc  had 

^1  •  tradlcloQ  o(  haring  come  in  from  aotoiv 

^M   »li«r«  at  00  Tory  rt'iiiotc  porinil  of  the  paal, 

^m  and  I  un  fvry  doubtful  If  therv  ik  any  abo* 

^P  rlgioal  population — that  la  to  say,  familios 

who  hare  no  rcfwrd  or  reminiaccnce  luuided 

down  of  having  Urcd  Bomewbcre  cIbc.'* 

Ckaalcal  Elbllogriphlnu— The  report  of 
tho  Auwihau  Aw*odatioo*8  Committee  on  In- 
deiing  Qiemlctl  Literature  mentionB  bb  pub- 
llBbod,  the  **rroTi»lnnal  List  of  Abbrevia- 
lioofl  of  TttlM  of  Chemical  Jonmab/*  Dr. 
A.  'A^drarauui^B  **  Indri  to  the  Literature  of 
the  %M)Blrawope/'  and  Prof.  Clarke's  "  Tabic 
of  Spodfie  QrarltitM";  %»  coinpl^od,  Prof. 
Tnpha^rnV  "  !  -f  Co- 

lumbfaun,'*  uul  <  . ;  aptiy 

of  C&cmiBlrj**  for  Irtg?-,  and  as  in  prrpa- 
ntloB^  IndcMB  <m  "  ElhyUmc."  by  Mr.  A.  A. 
Koyca;  "Mcthafic/'  by  Prof.  W.  P.  Miuon; 
tum  and  llubliUum/'  by  Mr.  William 
Tantalum,*'   by    Prof.  TraphOf^n ; 

'Bibliopupby  of  tlio  niatory  of  Chcm- 
Ufty,**  by  Dr.  Bolton ;  and  '*  Thcrmodynam- 


ioB,"  by  Dr.  A.  Tuckcnnon.  Dibliogrnphiee 
are  mentioned  of  "  Food  Adulteration  and 
iu  Dcteutiou,"  by  Dr.  J.  P.  BatterBhall  ; 
"  Milk,"  by  E.  W.  Martin  ;  uuJ  "  Butter," 
ailultcmti'tus,  tct*tnig,  etc.,  by  Prof.  EI- 
wyn  Waller  and  otbera.  Among  li^ta  of  pat- 
entd  rcUtiiig  more  or  lets  toappliod  chcm- 
iatry  an;  those  of  Mr.  C.  T.  Davis  on  the 
manufacture  of  lealbcr;  of  brick-4,  tilea, 
and  terracotta;  of  paper;  unil  his  "TreatisttJ 
OD  Boiler  IncruBtations  " ;  and  Mr.  William 
T.  Bratmt'8  "  Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vcgeta- 
ble  Fat»  and  Oils."  B.  TuUen'a  "  Handbuch 
der  Koblcnbydrate,"  Bresluu,  1888,conUina 
about  fifteen  hundred  references  to  the  lit- 
erature of  carboliyiJ rates.  Dr.  A.  B.  Lyons 
is  publishing,  in  the  "  Pharmaceutical  En*," 
a  monthly  *' Index  Pharmaceutic  us."  The 
work  of  the  eommittt'(>  ii  now  being  eupplo- 
mcntcd  by  chemists  in  Great  Britain. 

Old  md  New-Fasbloned  Ideas  In  Vedl-' 
dflf* — Dr.  Malcolm  Morri.4  boa  iiidicalodl 
some  points  in  medical  practice  in  which  a 
myitticidm,  which  wbb  one  uf  its  prcdomluant 
features  in  tlio  middle  ago^s  i>till  lingers 
around  it.  "There  rcmaiuB  in  the  people," 
be  says,  **a  belief  in  the  cf&caL-y  of  drugs 
drugs— a  belief  that,  as  for  erery  Ijane  therA* 
must  be  an  auiidute,  bo  for  every  diseasob. 
there  must  be  a  curative  leaf  or  root.  Nature 
is  distrusted :  discMO  is  aUU  represented  as 
some  evil  influence  to  be  e'vurolBcd.  In  thu 
popular  mind  Disease  walks  the  earth  as  a 
devouring  6end,  and  has  a  perfionulity  aliout 
it  as  of  old.  The  phrases  '  Stricken  with 
disease,*  '  viaitations,*  and  '  aeizuroa,*  are 
aiirrivalfl  of  the  conceptiona  of  primitive 
timea.  .  .  .  The  mjsticinn  Burvivea  in  the 
courtly  phra«e  and  the  ambipioua  lanpiapo 
of  the  practitioner  of  modem  ^mcB.  When 
sorely  presfted  by  the  Htok  man,  the  physiman'B 
only  armory  is  equivocation,  from  which  be 
drawB  Buch  verbal  wen^tons  as  'the  slate  of 
the  confililution,^  *  the  tone  of  the  body.*  *  thi- 
general  health,'  'lowered  vitality,'  and  all 
that  kind.  .  .  .  Are  the^e  not  in  eome  •K)rt 
a  Barvival  of  the  circle  of  the  horoscope?  " 
The  profesaion  13  also  at  a  disadvantage  be- 
cause of  a  Bkcpticism,  reacting  from  the  im- 
plicit faith  in  drugs  of  the  olden  time,  which 
"  repudiates  all  aida  nnd  aceeMoriea ;  briefly, 
it  states  its  dclilicrate  opinion  that  disease 
is  infinitely  better  \e(t  to  itself.     The  natural 


4° 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEyCE  MONTELT. 


physiological  corr^')'  of  tbe  body  it  the  prime 
vlemeai  in  the  hcoliog  process.  This  is 
neither  uiurc  uur  leaa  ibau  modem  fat&liKin 
— wilting  OD  cvtfutj,  Such  i  iloctrine.  If 
•uoccmful,  would  be  fatal  to  medicme."  il 
lliinl  evil  under  which  U  sufTcn  la  inat«ri«U 
i.4m,  which  "  in  caediciiie  luay  bo  carried  to 
an  InjuHous  extreme.  In  niodem  pathology, 
for  examplL\  ob  originated  by  ihc  ijernian 
school  and  taught  by  'ns  apoetlca,  vrhilu  moa 
sn:  actively  coutesting  as  tu  the  uatnra  or 
fomalion  of  b  ocrtoln  cell — whether  it  be 
Bputdl4N-abB)}cd,  round,  or  ovoid ;  whether  ii 
be  derived  from  thii  tlasuc  or  from  that — 
tbo7  «r«  likely  to  lose  sight  of  the  real  bear- 
ing! of  the  cose.  By  til  means  respect  facta, 
and  you  cxix  not  show  better  rei[>eolfor  ihem 
than  by  uting  them.  A  medical  inquirer  Is 
not  a  mere  collector.  Collect  your  facta,  and 
then  reason  from  the  data  yon  hare  eatab- 
lishcd.  A  colieetiou  teaebeii  nothing  till  it 
haa  been  arranged.  The  tendeni>y  ai  present 
ta,  in  the  majority  of  iii!>tance»,  to  collect 
everything,  and  to  arrange  and  therefore  to 
adduce  nothing." 

StnlUry  SeUncc  ind  ChlMreDU  Ht&lUt. 
— Among  the  greatest  gains  that  hare  re- 
oontJT  been  made  in  sanitary  science,  Ur. 
Eilwin  l^advrick  counts  the  power  that  haa 
been  obtained  of  preventing  chlldren^a  diS' 
ea^ea,  "  In  the  larger  district  Bchools,"  he 
«ayi«,  "  the  diHtricta  of  the  poor-law  uniona, 
tlie  children^N  chief  diseaau  are  now  praoti- 
eolly  abolished.  These  Inetilutiona  may  be 
taid  to  be  childrcn^a  bovpitals,  in  which 
children,  orphans  of  the  lowest  type  from 
the  alums,  are  token  in  targe  proportiona 
with  developed  dlseaaea  upon  them,  often 
only  to  die  from  constitutional  failure  alone. 
Tet  In  a  nnrpbcr  of  ihetw  separate  ach/iola 
there  are  now  no  deatlia  from  tneaaica, 
wbooping-coogh,  typhus,  scarlatina,  or  diph- 
theria. The  gencml  deotb-rato  ia  about  tnn 
lo  one  iliouaond,  anil  <if  those  who  are  not  In 
tbrt  pt'  I  of  tboae  who  come 

In  wit!  .  oam  upon  ihcra,  the 

dr?ath-mtvti  are  now  lct»a  than  three  in  one 
Ihourond.  or  lens*  thati  on«>  thini  of  tin*  death- 
nitea  ;  nonj;  tho  c)indr*yj  of  the 

^nenil  ,    .  n  of  the  lamc  a^es.'*     In 

on  fauiittition  where  the  old  death-rate  wu 
tvelve  In  one  thnnaand,  by  dntinasc  and 
c>car<»ca  of  atvaf^cmeni  th«  rate  wai  r^ 


dncod  by  more  than  one  third ;  ttfm,  «rirr 
improving  the  Tontilation  of  th4  rooma  and 
providing  a  aopsnitc  bed  for  each  cUU,  tlw 
rate  waa  reduced  to  leaa  than  three  In  eoe 
thoiLBond,  **  and  that  with  diUiln'o  of  the 
lowest  type.  In  a  vitdt  tu  one  of  thear  half- 
time  echoola,  after  an  interrol  of  affrcTml 
years,  I  w&a  sn  struck  with  the  app<«ra»ce 
of  tho  c^lilren  as  less  pallid  and  with  Ic** 
of  the  dull,  le&thcry  look  that  I  bad  loea 
before — they  were  bright  and  frcch-looklng 
— that  I  obacrred  lo  the  managar  tlkos  he 
must  have  hod  a  now  closa  of  ehlldrro  tdbee 
my  laat  Yieit  Ilia  onawer  waa  '  No,*  bnt 
that  ?inec  tho  sanitary  improremesta  had 
been  made  in  the  lower  districta  the  cKildrea 
received  from  them  were  of  the  Inpnitvd 
tfpc  which  had  struck  me." 

AbctIuo  IndU-Bibkcr.  —  Tlie  IndU- 
mbber  of  Central  America  i«  obtained  from 
varieties  of  CnatiUoa^  which  yield  mhhrf 
very  little  inferior  to  that  obtainMl  from  the 
Siphnnin.   To  raise  Imlio-rulihr  itteh 

arc  indigenous  to  oneplure  in  'n-aa 

the  conditions  are  at  all  fnvYjraLlu  i«  ao  dlA* 
cult  ta^k,  but  to  make  the  flome  plant  aue- 
oeasfully  productive  ta  another  mat1«'r  alta- 
getber.  Mr.  Thomas  B.  Warrun  haa  asllol 
attention  to  the  influence  which  haadltag 
raw  rubber  with  sweaty  or  dirty  handa  haa 
in  promoting  its  docay.  The  1cm  ilm  raw 
article  la  fashioned  by  the  hands  lo  hanrjlhw;, 
the  better.  Grease  of  any  kind,  even  (■ 
small  quantity,  ts  pcmiolouf  lo  tlie  durmblQl^ 
of  the  substance.  When  handled  too  aadi 
in  manufacturing,  it  is  sure  lo  show  aigna  of 
decay  after  a  short  time  In  the  parta  moat 
exposed  to  manifiululion.  It  makca  a  great 
difference  iti  the  quality  of  Ute  raw  prodofi 
whether  It  ho^  been  collected  by  a  nsUtfvriy 
clean  DrozUian  Creole  or  by  a  fatty.pcrvpfateg 
African.  When  rnbtier  ahowa  aigna  of  damy 
from  this  cause,  duitttng  over  with  mw  set 
phur  tooda  to  arrcat  it. 

WUftky  no    inlUote  far  BntOMMk*- 

PolaM. — The  popular  opinion  that  vhU^ 
la  on  antidote  to  mttlcFnake^bit*  U  ooalr^ 
verted  by  Dr.  X,  T.  iltidaon.  of  ^oclclan, 
Cat,  on  till*  authority  of  cxperiiufsu  by  I*r. 
S.  Wdr  Mitchell.  Dr.  UitchoU  BiUcd  tW 
vtnia  of  the  ratttc«nake  with  alrobol  mU 
witii  other  mputed  anlidotca,  9^4   f(Vt»l, 


I 


I 


POPULAR  SiFSCELLAyy, 


14.1 


nolutloQ  into  onimala,  that 
lis  povor  irw  Dot  altered.  He  fouod  also 
Uiftt  Uio  cfffict  of  ibo  rtniA  w&9  flabjvct  tu  very 
ncU  dafiDcd  Umltfl,  Kod  Uat  a  quantity  whlcb 
woold  kill  tax  auiomt  of  a  cerUin  kuq  was 
much  koi  powci-iul,  or  inert,  upon  larger 
lllhn*^*  If  a  Ur^^e  suake  ahoulil  bile  a 
gou  oi*  about  fifir  poundt*  weight,  and  after- 
ward two  cbiltlrea  of  corresponding  weight, 
he  oii^bt  kill  the  goal,  wliHo  the  children 
wculd  aarrite^becamtODOl  euoagh  rirus  was 
loft  after  the  goal  watf  bitten  sorioualy  to 
harm  the  children;  then,  if  whlaltj  were 
|[tTMa  to  the  children,  tbcir  recovery  would  be 
attributed  to  it,  while  it  really  bad  ODthing 
to  do  with  the  matter  It  is  rare  that  an 
■dolt  pcraoa  dies  from  the  bite  of  a  rattle- 
n^i^  Whisliy  may,  howorer,  be  regarded 
u  pbyaiologi»ny  antidotal,  in  w  far  as  it 
will  soatain  dw  flagging  powers  while  the 
polaon  Is  belug  eliminated  by  the  excretoiy 
offaaa. 

The  TVak-Trec.— T(>ak-wo«i  is  tlic  mo^t 
itaportont  uf  the  forc^  pnxluctii  of  Siani.  Ii 
imUiDM  quanliUcs  throughout 
house-building,  and  is  largely 
•iporUd  to  China  and  Etirupc  for  sliip-buitd- 
logparpoMia,  It  i^  Mid  to  be  unsurpassed 
for  mi>Ling  the  rava;;es  of  tliu  white  ants 

ftiid  t* fT<-..ij  of  tike  wcatliLT.     It  grows  in 

the  T  .It  of  Siain  and  Barmah  at  a 

■bore  the  sea, 

ion  in  about 

years;   but  a  good- 

•taMi  lr«tf  thai  can  be  cut  down  when  4ual- 

tiy  of  wood  la  not  an  object,  con  be  grown 

ta  tea  or  Ditecn  yearo.     The  teak  district  is 

tram  I'm  to  UO  miles  wide.     The  fuietits 

aro  in  charge  of  the  goremor*  of  the  pror- 

ta  whldj  they  arc  situated.    They  are 

^  l^arall;  I^omaI  for  a  torm  of  ten  rears,  and 

^1  Iho  Icaaoo  b  obliged  to  fell  and   remove  the 

^Kvraatcat  nntnber  of  logs  po«9lhle.  paying  a 

^KuAaftc  royalty  10  tbv  gofomor.     The  trees 

^^are  |(in£l«>I,  ami  are   left  standioi;    fur  two 

yvan  to  allow  the  sap  to  run  out  and  the 

wood  to  booraui  perfectly  dry.    Tbu  cutting 

4o«n  ttkos  place  In  the  dry  avraaon,  and  the 

le^  are  l<fi  until  mtflicitMil  ruin  has  fullun 

^  to  aOow  of  their  being  dragged  to  the  rirer 

1^1  with  the  balp  of  elephants.     After  the  logs 

^  are  naiU  op  laio  rafia,  iticy  are  delivered 

lo  tb«nitsm«a  to  oontwy  to  Bangkok;  when 


all  is  ready,  the  eril  spirits  of  the  riror  must 
bo  propitiated,  the  cost  of  which  U  paid  hj 
the  owner  of  the  timber.  This  custom  ris- 
molna  in  force,  despite  ibe  efforts  of  the 
foreign  and  edueatod  classes  to  stop  it,  and 
should  any  one  Ignore  it  he  would  bo  nnoble 
to  procure  ruftamcu. 

DiMOTery  by  OkMrfatloa.— The  drvum 
stances  attending  an  archirolugical  di.-?covL-ry 
recently  made  in  (iennaii  Altenbtng,  on  the 
Danube,  illuBtratc  in  the  moat  striking  man- 
ner the  Tulue  of  iDtelligeul  observation. 
Prof.  Uauscr  was  interested  for  a  mouth  in 
watching  the  colors  of  an  extcnisivc  corn- 
field, which  varied  iu  every  part,  lie  found 
on  ekvauni  post  of  obsorvaiion,  and,  after  a 
week's  close  attention,  declared  it  tu  be  hltt 
opiuloo  that  the  corn  waA  growing  over 
the  site  of  an  ancient  amphitheatre:.  His 
drawings  showed  that  the  oblong  center- 
piece waa  somewhat  concave,  and  tlie  cum 
woa  quite  ripo  in  that  port,  bocause  there 
waa  much  eoll  between  the  surface  and  the 
bottom  of  the  theatre.  EIlipLicai  lines  of 
green,  growing  paler  the  higher  they  rose, 
allowed  the  8«ata,  and  lines  forming  a  radius 
from  the  center  showed  the  walL)  supporting 
the  ellipticul  rows  of  seau.  Excavatioua 
were  mode  as  soon  as  the  com  bitd  liees, 
harvested,  which  confirmed  the  prufcisor'i 
thoory  in  nearly  every  particular.  At  six 
tnchc!i  below  the  &oil  the  top  of  the  outer 
wall  was  found,  and  from  there  the  s<h1 
gmdoally  grew  thicker  until  the  bottom  of 
the  arena  waa  reached,  the  pavement  of  which 
Ifl  in  perfect  condition.  From  the  theatre  a 
paved  road  leads  to  the  Camp  of  Camuntutn. 

The  Bnddblst  Story  of  the  rartTldg««— 

Among  the  Buddhist  stories  which  Mr.  T. 
W.  Rhys  Davids  baa  mode  Icnown  to  the 
public  is  a  legend  of  400  b.  c,  pertinent  to  tlie 
question  of  the  standnrda  of  precedence.  Ic 
runs  to  Iho  effect  that  a  partridge,  a  monkey, 
and  an  elephant,  friends,  dwelling  near  a  grcal 
banyon^ree^  discuK^lng  which  uhoutJfae  coa-< 
fiidercd  flnit,  inquired  which  was  the  oldest 
ainon^  thetn,  Ttic  elephant,  when  a^ked 
how  far  back  he  could  remember,  replied 
that  when  ho  was  a  little  elepbant  lie  ust-d 
to  walk  orer  the  banyan-tree,  and  its  top- 
moat  twig  just  grascd  his  belly.  The  moo- 
key,  when  quite  a  tittle  luoukcy,  could  gnaw 


M« 


THE  POPULAR  SCFEITCE  MOXTITLT. 


Ilie  topmost  Iwijf  of  iho  tree  u  be  squatted 
on  the  ground.  But  the  pirtridgc  uid: 
**  Friends,  there  lucd  to  bo  anothor  han^aa- 
tnv  One  day,  after  o:itinp  of  its  fruit,  I 
Toidwl  a  seed  bt're.  Heucx;  tliis  trco."  So 
tbcy  aj^rccd,  the  story  oontiaued,  to  honor 
ftfiiJ  reverence  the  pnrtndge,  a>  he  was  the 
ol'jfsl,  aad  be  trained  the  uihera  m  ohc<U- 
enro  to  tho  Five  Pn-ceptj*.  The  nee  forward 
ibcjr  lived  to^rtfacr  in  so  beautiful  a  har- 
mony ttiat  it  became  a  proverb,  and  wqa 
knova  aa  '^llic  lieauiiful  life  of  tbc  par- 
tridge.*' And  ihcyy  all  three  vent,  after 
death,  to  heaven.  Tlio  story  accords  with 
the  pcnernl  idea  among  tho  ancients  that 
tho  birds  fforo  of  rory  utd  liueogo. 

Isplialt  and  Petraldvia  ta  TfBfzarla.— 
A  part  (if  \ht  department  of  Colon,  in  Vcmv 
suda,  is  Tery  riob  tn  asphalt  and  petroleum. 
At  ooe  place  n  thick  bitumen  b  ejected  from 
the  mouth  of  a  cave,  m  globules  which  ex- 
plode with  considerohlti  uoL^;.  Thi«  place 
called  the  in/>mj/'>,  or  lUUe  hell,  is  a  mound 
of  *and.  fmm  twenty-fire  to  thirty  feet  high, 
on  the  Burface  of  whjeh  are  numerous  hole^ 
of  diffcivni  fti/ii«,  whenoe  petroleum  and  hoi 
water  ore  ejected  witli  a  noi^c  equal  to  that 
caused  by  two  or  tlirce  sleomcr*  bloiving  off 
at  onee.  Considering  ilie  linraenBc  amount 
of  Inflammnble  ga«e*  ili/it  aroompany  such 
flows  of  petroleum,  It  Ih  PUf^sted  that  some- 
thing of  the  kind  may  be  connected  with 
the  Taro  of  Uaracaybo— a  oonsiuut  lightning 
«'Uhout  thunder,  which  U  observed  from  tho 
foot  of  the  bar  kI  tbc  entrance  to  the  lake, 
f'nnppin-^*  of  a^'ih.ilt  and  ooal  nppenr  at  the 
friot  of  tlio  ttiOMiitain<*  in  tbc  department  of 
Sucre;  and  near  the  mouutainn  \%  a  flow  of 
a  black  liquid,  diniinet  from  asphalt  or  petro- 
leum, ami  apparently  identical  with  a  sul>- 
slaniv  whidi  oLxmrs  anumg  onthradU)  da- 
posits. 

Hablta  of  Tvitt(-»*— Turtles  arc  dcKrJbod 

a^  hieepy  rreatiires  thul  re«(  at  inUTVuU 
Ihrnatrhout  tho  day  and  boeumc  ahnoruinlly 
r'  I  nileep  they  He  upon 

\  '  !f,  «ith  their  h<*nd^ 

duwnwnnj  n 

disturtitd.     i 

precludes  thctu  from  moving  conatanlljr  la 
the  walftr ;  atid,  as  a  TwW^  whpn  swUnmlng 
Uwy  hoop  near  tho  aurfaoe,  and  sireick  ibttr 


heads  out.  In  order  to  gulp  En  air  ntniBSij. 
Vpon  land  they  ore  holpleao,  almost  as  pow. 
eriew  as  the  Deal  in  a  similar  altnaUoft, 
They  eapture  their  prey  with  graoi  apHty. 
for,  with  their  long  nocks,  they  con  Ibroat 
their  heads  forward  very  rapidly.  Tbe  liood, 
fin,  and  tail  an.-  iuUe{>eudent  of  tli«  atiolt,  and 
move  freely,  but  can  not  be  drawn  wbotit 
under  the  Nhcll,  like  thoae  of  the  lorrtobc 
Turtlea,  especially  young  one?,  are  Tory  pttg- 
u4doua,  and  tight  by  el  liking  their  Oijwr- 
sary'fl  htvid  with  their  finfi  and  tdtin^  Mc 
Cartel',  of  the  British  National  riabCullw 
Amodatiocif  thinks  it  praccleablc  to  propa* 
pate  them  BrtlCcbilly.  The  eggs  should  b* 
placed  in  sand,  heated  from  beneath  by 
watcr-pij>e9  to  a  constant  t^finpenitura  of 
70"  P.,  which  could  be  raiccd  in  tbc  dartlma 
to  lOO*  by  etmcentratju^  the  tetnperstun) 
from  Mrlthout.  The  young  tartic?  will  seek 
for  water  at  once,  and  this  should  be  prc^ 
vided,  warmed  to  100*.  White  propagatioa 
in  this  way  ml]*ht  be  profitable,  l(  would  WA 
be  easy  to  domcslicato  the  aulmali  to  our 
cool  latitudeSL 

Inflaencf  of  iatliepttd  •■  PMdA,— It 

has  hocomo  common  in  tmdc  to  apply  anil- 
•eptlcs  to  perii^linble  footis,  in  order  to  pr«- 
serYO  them,  snlieylie  acid  helm;  probably  iht 
most  usetL  It  !>*  important  to  as^'ortaia  what 
the  cfTcet  of  the  addition  la  upna  tlie  qiiol^ 
of  the  food,  uud  upon  the  d^ieative  fnne> 
tinns.  Luhmaon  has  slkown  tluu  aaUeytte 
ucid  does  not  usually  eontrir  i  '   juri. 

ous  quality  to  food^  but  appr  ibe 

indiscriminate  u^e  of  such  •  iiy 

be  danj-'eroue.    Experlmefrt- 1  >\^ 

in  our  Ucpartnient  of  / 
mine  what  etfeet  in  rein 
he  poxflcssed  l>y  aueli  tiub^tanre^  a*  tabeybe 
acid,  boric  aeid,  sodium  acid  lulphUe,  m*> 
charioe,  beia-naphlhol,  nud  alooboL  Uma 
found  that  salicylic  add  preT^nU  ibv  coofi^ 
sion  of  starch  into  m^r  undrr  tho  Inlaana 
of  either  diaBtase  or  pn:  1ml 

d'Ws  not  very  »erlou«l_v  \'^t 

or  panereatie  dIuo«ilon  of  alba^ucn.    Sa^ 
rhsrine  holds  abont   th»»  "nnte    rrlali^  01 
ii?   aeid.      -^  uhliA   nd 

lu'id  lire  pr  ,  'eiardtoiS 

etfeet.     Heta^nnphUjaln  -  dcciM* 

ly  with  th«  formation  i  i 
but  not  with  tha  ootlon  of  poniaeatlc  • 


2ro\ 

on  itarch.  PepttTMlfMMitffe  dtgwtion 
of  «Ibiuuiooi(l«  «^  ■teomt  fMwentod  b/  ft. 
The  expfiriraeaCA  slioir  ibul  the  indiscriml- 
nftlc  use  of  these  Bimic*,  without  sAniurj 
Impttlou,  sbouUl  noL  tw  allovii], 

Mh  a«  Wcatlifr  Udlratorv—M.  P.  J. 

di:  Ht'Mfr,  of  Lvbhtikc,  Bd^um,  has  oh- 
•<TTo4  thai  \vt\U  «P0  heard  further  >w»y  when 
the  fttmofpherc  la  in  m-clonic  motion,  and 
UiAt  ■  calm  attDntphrrc,  saturated  with  nioiitt- 
uf«,  f4»or»  the  tran!«Tni^s[on  of  s«mnd,  while 
OJQtranr  vitnJ*  kto  not  alwiys.  an  ubt^Uclo. 
Certain  ttxiAll  bvUa  six  and  cEgbt  kilomctrea 
»<mtbkiut  fruiD  Lebl»eke  an;  called  nntcr 
I>«I1h  by  llie  i)oi>ple  thero,  buoiUHC  their  bo 
ia%  heard  at  Lvbh^kois  iniuHrdiatcIj^  followed 
bjr  a  acsMia  of  niin.  And,  geuerallT,  tho 
'  hAorint;  of  •  dixtaat  vnund,  tiko  that  of  a  boll 
iir  tlir  mmbUng  of  a  railway  (nun,  ia  rcgard- 
cl  m»  portending  the  end  uf  fmc  weather  aod 
the  ajijrnMoli  of  nin.  One  boll,  which  is  ten 
kllotnotirti  away,  U  beard  twice  a  year — in 
Mda'li  or  April,  and  in  Scrpwrnbcr  or  Octo- 
btr  and  always  in  UlcnUcal  conditions  of 
Uwakj. 


143 


NOTES. 


VV  In. 


'  i.,,1.  ht,  ,1  f.,  the  kiltdnMS  nf  the 

ly,  of  \ew  Vork.  for 

I'll-  from  which  the 

for  Prof.   HcH. 

■ory  of  a  Picture- 

la  Wiii  i--i.'j  ol  ilio  "Monthly." 

Am*k(  ii  rnmmf»nly  tbotiffht  of  kb  an 

'•,  bttt,  except  in    (be 

[■uUtion  is  not  Justi- 

!  the   Yulcon  district, 

ri'irlh  at  thi>  AlaAltan 

.>  -ii  •'itMpunLture  U 

i   tbnwn   in 

iown  from 

yorfacN.',  ieitiitiuiii;<  fi^zfu  couLinuiilly  be- 

iiw.     In  Ihi*  At^Mifiiin  IVniuAula  and  Inland*, 

)  -.  3ff"  t»t  4':r,  «ni1 

,  e«t»*ndin:»  over 

fc.^  ■--  ' '  tn  be 

ID.  77*. 

■11  \'\t\pi 

t!  extending 

rt'tw;  Ani*;rit."a, 

iiure 
-  the 

tif  Ui«Sut«  oC  New  \'iitk  ia  46-4tf '. 

T  .  ^  '    hsR 

mvar  -epb 

loM  IB  wOli^.      Tbo  medal  wu  iocoid- 


psnied  hy  &  letter  rc<y>gnizing  Dr  Lcldy  as  a 
leader  in  his  epodalty. 

Tn£  report  of  the  Tnited  Stutes  Coin- 
mifisioner  of  Education  shows  the  following 
|>ereentage8  of  increase  in  ten  yeard  (1H7»1- 
'77  to  lS8Q-'87),  in  the  five  dirUiotis  of  the 
Uoion,  in  populaliun,  Aohool  cufollmcDt,  and 
school  expenditure : 


DivRuoica. 

H 

7S  1 

\i 

ii 

Nurth  AihuiUcdiv^liinD 

tU)ut»i  AtlnnOc  dh1^lon 

8oum  Antral  JIvWoo,    

Mnrth  r-tjnu-nl  illvtaloa 

Western  dlvuioa 

5  T 
fthT 

29-7 

•a* 

7&'V 

tt'U  1  ai'i 

il'l 

SoHK  erroocjus  opinions  ruspoctiog  rep- 
tilea  are  correcteil  by  Arthur  Ayling  in 
"  Science  Oosaip."  Thus,  the  alow-wunn  or 
blind-worm  {Angnit  fvnrfiilt)  ia  not  blind, 
but  hod  cyc9  which,  tbi^iigh  small  in  com- 
parison with  its  sistc,  are  v.Ty  brighi.  and 
arc  in  fact  the  preliiLAt  pail  nf  ti^  body; 
and  it  can  not  Inflict  a  pui^onuua  bito. 
Snakes  do  not  "sting"  with  their  forked 
tongues.  Reptiles  can  IWe  a  loni^  cimo 
without  food — a  tnton,  fur  instnuce,  has 
been  kept  in  tliat  conJilion  for  Ht\  montbit 
— but  they  die  in  the  end  ;  and  stories  of 
toads  hfinng  been  itnpriioned  In  rocks  for 
years  or  n^t*?.-'  under  circumitaueoa  where  air 
waa  excluded  fp>m  them  arc  faUe.  Toada 
can  not  *' spit  fire,"  and  neirts  and  Uzarda 
can  not  inflict  dangerous  bites. 

Da.  F.  B.  JEssriT.  of  lyjnJon,  claims  to 
have  shown,  from  a  compaiieu^n  of  the  num- 
ber of  death*  in  England  and  Wales  in 
various  years,  that  tlio  mortality  from  can- 
oor  increased  from  4,9C0  in  1850  to  13,542 
in  1881,  and  tho  deaib-rate  per  million  Ln- 
habitants  from  320  to  I'lW  In  view  of  thof^o 
facts,  he  8ngge«ts  that,  instead  of  shirUins 
the  subject,  it  should  be  met,  the  cause  of 
the  mortality  studied,  and  u  remedy  sought. 

NKHvri.RSflSEM  is  mt-ntionod  by  the 
**Korth  China  lU'ralJ"  ay  tlic  distinfi^iish- 
ing  quality  of  the  yellow  rac<'.  A  Chinaman 
can  go  through  the  moift  tedious  and  monot- 
onous work  from  hour  to  hour  and  fr(»m 
day  to  day,  without  any  appreciable  sense 
of  weariness  or  irritation  ;  and  a  school-boy 
can  do  the  Fame  with  his  Icsmns  nithout 
even  longing  to  be  at  play.  The  Chinese 
can  also  sleep  under  conditions  which  would 
make  a  European  very  uncomfortable  and 
restless.  This  quiility  is  one  of  the  things 
that  make  the  Clnnf.'se  such  unwelcome  com- 
p4;titors  in  the  labor  markets. 

Tnr  hamlet  of  Nive«6,  near  Spa,  in  Bel- 
gium, is  infested  with  what  the  inhabitant* 
call  "  bad-air  wells,*'  or  outlets  whence  car- 
bonic-acid gas  exhiilcs.  Dr.  Parkin,  of  Spa, 
descritws  eight  sjwts  whence  the  exhalations 
aro  abuQ:Unt,  and  most  so  in  times  uf  storm 


44 


THE  POPULAR  SCISITCE  MOyTITLT. 


and  seMODB  of  loir  boromoter.  In  some 
the  oscftpln^  (;u  uitkk'jj  Doi<iD3  (hat  am  b« 
[Iteord  froiu  »iity  frot  awa}*.  The  ground 
ipre^ntfl  no  ptfciniiir  appearanco,  except  that 
^'IkolUinj;  will  gn>w  itniovUliilol^  aruuiid  the 
^OutlulH.  Some  of  thcnc  places  are  under 
or  Dear  tbom, »"  '  ■   .     .  i 

reuicuce.     Dr.  V-^ 

icna  arc  connet::.  .  

"it'giua  of  the  Eifel.  Frof.  Lancaster,  of 
Biu^dI^,  lIiinlcA  that  tlit:  5ource  of  the  g&« 
U  doir'plj'  eeaU'J  in  the  cortb. 

An  pipcriinont  hax  bcco  tried  at  Guild* 
ford,  Ecglaud,  to  teat  Mr.  Coiuler*s  ayfitcm 
for  troating  aiid  purif)'ing  aevag«  with  b  li.«t 
of  iogredieniA,  a  principal  oae  of  wliicb  ia 
eutphtttc  uf  iroD.  An  upua  wire-work  cofTc 
cntitaintn^  tbe  punfvin^  ihaIcHeiL  vas  let 
down  into  the  tipwerand  inimereod  for  about 
%xi  Inch  and  a  hilf  in  depth  into  the  flowing 
sediiuent.  The  result  ia  repoitcd  to  have 
been  a  vwt  iniprovenieni  m  tlie  characttT  of 
the  liquid  dowtng  from  the  dratoo  into  t)ie 
river,  and  an  abaiement  uf  nule^ancc  at  polnti 
where  herolofore  nuiAancca  and  ofTensire 
■flmellj  had  been  coiuplainud  of. 

"Otfirrrsd  articles  in  which  Iti  occnr- 
rcuci^  ban  bw'o  purely  Hccidental,"  aavs  3irt*. 
A.  W.  Siiikiw,  in  "the  Chemical  Neira," 
*' jmotiic  hiu>  been  found  of  late  yearn  to  be 
pred>'nt  in  wiue  E-arapIc?  of  miittlinf,  cr&> 
tonnes,  wall-papcm,  playing^-nrdu,  the  glaze 
of  some  enameled  utew-pans,  the  paper  of 
iancj  bose&,  aud  in  some  fur«.  Those  last 
BxiMiftuallT  the  lurs  prepared  by  amateurs.  . . . 
One  has  no  visb  to  be  an  atairuist,  or  In  any 
way  to  faanufl  trade,  and  it  muni  freely  be 
r  ■'••■;—  '-'■^■•d  that  cases  of  any  ill  results 
V  '-'Ing  traced  to  the  u«o  of  these 

i     _  very  itiro.     Xone  the  less,  Bceiiig 

how  unnecessary  they  are,  and  how  onch 
year  anwnie  soema  to  bo  finding  its  way  Into 
new  quartern,  it  ffGema  advUablo  to  stop  Its 
further  pro^rvto." 

To  fnmiiih  the  French  ratlronds  with 
.tiea— 10,000  a  day  and  3,flfi'i,000  a 
year — more  than  a  thousand  fine  trees  l»*ve 
to  be  cut  down  cTorr  duT.     In  tiie  (Iniicil 

the 
...  1    .  Tl.o 

in  du  M'l- 
iber  of  l-Mj 
of  0)0  world  at  moie  than  -lU,i>uivJt'U. 

ODITTABY  NOTEa 


the  Canterburr  Dioccsjin  Choral  T'oloti. 


■ti  tt.1  }ii=  Im'oL 


0«1 


befit  cfforlB  were  lit 
which  were  on  ii 
of  them  WM  hlfl  ! 
tbre«  volumes;  il 
men  Objects  of  i 

-.  were  hifi  ' 

;.....       reaches  and  A... 

Ufu/'  *'Tbe  Boys'  Own  .Natural  Ulitorj 
Eo<ik,"  "My  Feathered  Frir-n^l  ,"  "  Hf.nu--4 
without  Hands,"  **  Insects  iir  (>or 

Garden  tVtends  and  Foe.s.'  .oa- 

lioual  work»t  And  a  scries  oi  '  .^atu^lll  Ub- 
tory  Readers"  for  aehotdn.  Ho  edited  for 
some  time  "  The  RoyA*  Own  Uag&zibe,**  aikl 
wa«  a  popular  lecturer. 

Pin    WiLUJLH    O'Prt  r  BftOOC*, 

F.  n.  S.,  who  was  dipi  ^-  hb  ood- 

neetion  «'ith  electiic  t(.K„  .  ,  'i  fn  Rflj5- 

lond  to  Jauti&r)',    He  wo^  1  ^ai 

of  Telegruphb  in  India  for  li  i,  I  »e- 

c/ivcd  a  knighthood  for  his  atrri.^*  ia  »• 
tablUfain;;  tcAep'sphs  in  thai  empire^ 

AtKtANDiJi  PAoritsTECHtK,  Dlitcior  of 
the  Museum  of  Natural  Uietorrnt  Hnrnhnrr, 
died  January  6tb,  of  heart  i>   Us 

Rlrty-fourth  year.     Hewa^  ;  wait 

I'rofeiiior  of  Zoology  at  lJei<;  '  v&s 

the  author  of  a  well-known  '  'nf- 

teraal  Zoology  *' ("AllgctncuiL  _ ^.._  'jia 

four  volumea  (18i.V18dl).  | 

of  Natural  Scien  i 

died  there,     fie  u .     .  .    ufc 

Zoidogy  at  DorpAL,  and  wa«  wcU  known 
rea-son  vi  a  f^cientiUc  journey  to  the  Indian 
Arehipelflpo  which  he  undorttiok  DBder  the 
auKpieeu  of  the  Berlin  Academy. 

pR.  J.  9oTiCA,  rrofcAsor  of  the  Grnaaa 
UniversUy  of  I*rnt:uc,  awl  frtrnierly  of  the 
Unirereity  of  V'  ■  of  boeks 

on  bacieiia,  died  ^rjf  984. 

C»nAr»  Jomi  Eiucsso!*,  the  biTe*sor«( 

the  calcrle  en/ritui,  iho  Monitor,  and  ether 

useful  or  «ailik(}  a^nis,  dli-d  lu  this  dn, 

March  i<th,  In  the  dpht>-  siitih  year  of  bU 

Dge.     He  wns  a  native  of  •;>« 

of  a  family  of  engineers.      ■ 

irivnntl'-i'   rapnoity    at  an  to.  m    -i^v. 

.'  ,<M.    h,  r;.i..  i  unnlry  in  18S9,  and  two  _ 

I  I     1  ■  L'iiii    the   Prim-eton.    th<   first' 

1    to   enrry  bnr  n  .Sa 

liae  and  out  of  il  'h* 

cnemj'ft  sliou     Hu  name  i 

with  tli«  invention  of  the 


I  CnhriuaL(?iJ 

[tcmiral  M>^ 
M  two  cl 


....   .: i':  ..-, :  InJll 'Jttl»| 

Til*   R*'*,  t>r,  rhiirffhill   TUbln^fWi, 

I 
;iany." 


THE 


POPULAR   SCIENCE 
MONTHLY. 


JTTHE,    1889. 


I 


KEW  CHAPTERS  IN  THE  WARFARE  OF  SCIENCE. 

VI.— DIAB0U8M  AND  HYSTERIA 

Br  ANDBKW  DICKBON  WHITE,  LL.D.,  L,H.D., 
u-rsauDuiT  or  oomtxu.  mnvsKUTT. 

PART  IL 

ABOUT  forty  years  later  than  the  New  England  opidomic  of 
"  possession  "  occurred  another  tyjiical  series  of  phenomeua 
in  Francft.  In  tho  yt^tr  1727  there  died  in  the  city  of  Paris  a  sim- 
ple and  kindly  eccleHiastlc,  the  Archdeacon  of  Paris.  He  had  lived 
a  pioiiii,  Christian  life,  and  was  endeared  to  multitudes  by  his 
charity ;  unfortunately,  he  ha^l  espoused  tho  doctrine  of  Jansen  on 
th«  subject  of  grace  and  free  will ;  and,  though  he  remained  in 
Uid  Oallican  Church,  he  and  those  who  thought  like  him  were 
opposed  by  the  Jesuits,  and  finally  condemned  by  a  papal  bull. 

His  rerauin.s  having  been  buried  in  tho  cemetery  of  St.  Medard, 
tlie  Jansenists  flocked  to  say  their  prayers  at  his  tomb,  and  soon 
miracles  began  to  be  wrought  there.  Ere  long  they  wore  multi- 
plied. The  sick  being  brought  and  laid  upon  the  tomb,  many 
were  cured.  Wonderful  stories  were  attested  by  eye-witnesses, 
Tho  myth-making  tendency— the  passion  for  developing,  enlarg- 
ing' Uug  tales  of  wonder— came  into  full  play  and  was 
gi\                    f  -ie. 

Many  thoughtful  men  satisfied  themselves  of  the  truth  of  th( 
representations.    One  of  the  foremost  English  scholars  came  over^j 
examine<i  into  them,  and  declared  that  there  coiild  be  no  doubt 
to  the  reality  of  the  cures. 

This  state  of  thin.^  continued  for  about  four  years,  when,  in 
1731,  more  violent  effects  showed  themselves.  Sundry  persons 
approaching  the  tomb  wore  thrown  ijit-o  convulsions^  hy9t4>ric8, 
and  oaialepsy ;  those  diseases  spread,  became  epidemic,  and  soon 
Tot,  zxxr.<— 10 


14^ 


THE  POPriAR  SCIEyCS  MO.yTffLT. 


multitudes  wore  similarly  afflicted.  Both  religious  parties  miu)o 
the  most  of  theso  casos.  In  vaiu  did  suoh  ijreat  autli<  Il- 
eal science  as  Hectjuot  and  Lorry  attribute  tbewii             ..ral 

catises ;  tho  theologians  on  both  sides  declared  tlietn  tfuptirnatrmbl 
— the  Jansenists  attributing  tJiem  to  God,  the  Jesxiits  to  Satan. 

Of  late  years  such  cases  have  been  troat*:^  in  Fnuice  with 
much  shrewdness.  When,  about  the  middle  of  the  presout  cent- 
ury, the  Arab  priests  in  Algiers  tried  to  arouse  fanatioinm  against 
the  French  Christians  by  performing  miracles,  the  French  Gov. 
ernment,  instead  of  persecuting  tho  priests,  sent  Robert  Houdin, 
the  most  renowed  juggler  of  his  time,  to  Algiers,  ajid  for  every 
Arab  miracle  Houdin  performed  two ;  did  an  Arab  marabout 
turn  a  rod  into  a  serpent,  Houdin  turned  his  rod  into  two  aer- 
pents,  and  afterward  showed  the  people  how  this  was  done. 

So,  too,  at  the  last  International  Exposition,  the  Fnmch  Gov- 
ernment, observing  the  evil  effects  produced  by  the  mania  for 
table  turning  and  tipping,  took  occasioa,  when  n  great  number  of 
French  schoolmasters  and  teachers  were  visitiuK  tlie  Exposition, 
t<>  have  itublic  lectures  given  in  which  all  tit  '    '   rk 

closets,  hand-lying,  materialization  of  spirits,  j-i  ■  it* 

of  the  departed,  and  ghostly  portraiture,  waa  fully  jjerformod  by 
professional  mountebanks,  and  afterward  as  fully  explained  by 
ihera. 

So  in  this  case.  The  Government  simply  ordered  tlie  gate  of 
the  cemot*'ry  to  be  locked,  and,  when  tho  crowd  could  no  longer 
approiich  the  tomb,  the  miracles  ceased  A  little  Parisian  ridicTiIe 
helpf.Hl  to  end  the  matter.    A  wag  wrote  up  over  the  gaUi  of  the 

cemetery : 

'^De  par  1e  Rol,  d^*feDBe  &  Diea 
De  fairo  des  miraclM  dans  ce  lico  *^ — 

which,  being  translatetl  from  doggerel  French  into  doggerel  Eng- 
lish, is — 

"  By  onlor  of  the  kin(t,  tho  Lord  mnat  rurljeMr 

T.I  work  any  morti  of  hia  mirncioa  bcre." 

But  th-  tiK-oiorriral  spirit  remained  poworfvil.  Tlie  French 
Revolution  bad  not  then  intervened  to  bring  it  under  hi^ihy 
limits.    Tho  agiUition  was  maintained,  and,  though  tli  '<'» 

and  caso^  of  possession  wore  stoppcnl  in  the  cemetery.  ..  ^^  .  ,icL 
Again  full  course  was  given  to  myth-making  and  the  retailing  of 
wonders.     It  was  said  that  men  had  allowisl   th*  to  be 

nuu-^tetl  before  slow  fires,  and  had  bwn  afforwar .  unin- 

jured :  that  some  had  enormous  weights  piIe<J  up<m  them,  but  bad 

;  and  that,  in  ooo 


Thb 


wan  long,  troublofiome,  and  no  doubt  roblxri 


yXii    LuM'TERS  AV  THE  WARFARE  OF  SCIEiVCE.   147 

r  or  permauently  of  such  little  brains  as  they 

p.>c^-..^r.--, ,  ,.  ..«-.  '»aly  whyn  tho  violence  had  becDrao  an  old  sU>ry 
and  tho  rharin  uf  novelty  hnd  entirely  worn  off,  and  the  afflicted 
f'  'vesno  longer  regarded  with  esi>ecial  interest,  that 

IL      ,  .  - iit-'d  away.* 

But  in  OermaJiy  at  tliat  time  the  outcome  of  thia  belief  was  far 
m  1.     In  1740  Maria  Renata  Sanger,  siib-prioivHs  of  a  con- 

%'  \  ilntbnrg,  was  charged  with  buwitLdiing  her  fellow-nuns. 

Thcu^  was  the  usual  story — the  same  essential  facts  as  at  Loudun 
—  shut  u[)  against  their  will,  dreams  of  Satan  disguised  an 

a  _  n;iu,  petty  jealousies,  spites,  quarrels,  mysterious  uproar, 

trickery,  ukuisils  thrown  about  in  a  way  not  to  be  accounted  for, 
hy«terical  shrieking  and  convulsions,  and,  finally,  the  torture, 
coofemion^  and  execution  of  the  supx»osed  culpritf 

Variouit  epidemics  of  this  sort  broke  out  from  time  to  time  in 
oO^--*-  ».-.-t*i  of  the  world,  though  happily,  as  modern  skepticism 
j't  witli  less  cruel  results. 

I  I  (^  congregations  of  Calrinistic  Methodists  in  Wales 

ii.;.    vent  that  they  lx?gan  leaping  for  joy.    The  mania 

uprcikd  and  jriive  rise  to  a  sect  called  the  "  Jumpers."  A  similar 
<M   *  I     '      '  nard  in  England,  and  has  been  repeated 

u^  1'        ^  since  in  our  own  country-^ 

In  1780  c&me  another  outbreak  in  France;  but  this  time  it  was 
ntii  the  JauBeniBt8  who  were  affected,  but  the  strictly  orthodox. 
A  large  number  of  young  girls  between  twelve  ami  ninetei'u 
yuara  of  age,  having  been  brought  together  at  the  church  of  St. 
RAK'h,  iu  Parift,  with  preaching  and  ceremonies  calculated  to 
aronae  hysterics,  one  of  them  fell  into  convulsions.  laimetliately 
othnr  children  were  similarly  taken,  until  some  fifty  or  sixty  were 
^jT.  .,,...1  :^y  i]^^j  sjime  antics.  This  mania  spread  to  other  churches 
tt'  riuirs.  proved  very  troublesome,  and  in  some  cases  led 

to  rt'^  >■  painful. 

A!  ;;ie  period  came  a  similar  outbreak  among  the 

Pr  ''  it^of  the  Shetland  Isles,  A  woman  having  been  seized 
with  convulsions  at  church,  the  disease  sfir^nd  to  otluM'H,  mainly 
women,  who  fell  into  the  usual  contortions  and  wild  shriekings. 
A  very  effective  cure  proved  to  be  a  threat  to  plunge  the  diseased 
iti*  '  '      *    ,'  pond. 

the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  fact  very 


•  See  Vwltlen,  **  PhaaUimiiU,"  chap.  %W ;  alao  Sir  Junes  Ftephcn,  "  History  of  France^" 
xarl;  •L*o  Hcaty  U&rtin,  "  IliMnirc  de  fVinoe,"  chap,  xt,  pp.  IflS  d  teq. ;  al«u  Cal- 
IB<"  '-  ~  *■--  ctlr;  alio  Heclrer^^  **  GtSfty/Mv,  fi ;  luid,  for  Mioplea  of  tdylb<tnakin^, 
•' '  SouTciUri  do  Cr^uy." 

iJlefvnboclt,  nrnJ  olhfr<i. 

iotttry  of  All  Rt'll^ona,"  articlo  oo  *'Jumpor«";  aIm  Hecik«r*a 
1 


THE  Pi 


Ol^THLY, 


important  for  scionce  is  established.  It  was  found  tliat  tLese 
manifentations  do  not  arise  entirely  from  religioiui  eourcen.  In 
1787  came  the  noted  case  at  Hodden  Bridge,  in  Lancashire.  A 
girl  working  in  a  cotton-manufactory  there  put  a  mouse  into  the 
boaom  of  another  girl,  who  had  a  great  dread  of  mice.  The  girl 
thus  treated  immotliately  went  into  convulsions,  which  lasted 
twenty-four  hours.  Shortly  afterwaixl  three  other  girls  wtre 
seized  with  like  convulsions,  a  little  later  six  nior^,  and  finally,  in 
all,  twenty-four  were  attacked.  Then  came  a  fact  throwing  a 
flood  of  light  upon  earlier  occurreacos.  This  epidemic,  being 
noisfid  abroad,  soon  spread  to  another  factory  five  miles  distiint. 
The  patients  suffered  from  strangulation,  danced,  tore  thoir  hair, 
and  dashed  tlieir  heads  against  the  walls.  There  was  a  strong 
belief  that  it  was  a  disease  introduced  in  cotton,  but  a  rwident 
physician  amused  the  patients  with  electric  shocks,  and  the  dis- 
ease died  out. 

In  1801  came  a  case  of  similar  import  in  the  Charit<5  Hospital 
at  Berlin.  A  girl  fell  int-o  strong  convulsions.  The  disease  proved 
contagious,  several  others  becoming  afflicted  in  a  similar  way ; 
but  nearly  all  were  finally  cured,  principally  by  the  odniimstra- 
tion  of  opium,  which  appears  at  that  time  to  have  been  a  fashion- 
able remedy. 

Similar  to  this  was  a  case  at  Lyons  in  1861,  Sixty  women  were 
working  together  in  a  shop,  when  one  of  them, after  a  bitter  quar- 
rel with  her  husband,  fell  into  a  violent  nervous  attack.  The 
other  women,  sympathizing  with  her,  gathered  about  to  assist  her^ 
but  one  after  another  fell  into  a  similar  condition,  until  twenty- 
wore  thus  prostrated,  and  a  more  general  spretul  of  the  epidemic 
was  only  prevented  by  clearing  the  premisee.* 

But,  while  these  cases  appeared  to  the  eye  of  Science  fatal  to 
^e  old  conception  of  diabolic  influence,  tlie  gr"at  majority  of 
VDch  epidemics,  when  unexplained,  coutinuod  to  give  strength  to 
the  older  view. 

In  Roman  Catliolic  countries  these  manifestations,  as  wo  have 
seen,  have  generally  appeared  in  convents,  or  in  churches  where 
young  girls  are  brought  together  for  their  first  communion,  or  at 
shrines  where  miracles  are  supposed  to  bo  wmught. 

In  Protestant  countries  they  appear  in  times  of  great  religioiiB 
excitement,  and  especially  when  large  bi^di»:»8  of  young  womf^n  are 
submitted  txi  tlio  influence  of  noisy  and  frothy  preachers.    ^V.n. 
Icnown  examples  of  this  in  America  are  seen  in  the  "  Juni 
*•  Jerkers,"  and  various  re\'ivrtl  ex'  'ly  among 

the  negroiM  and  "  poor  whites  "  of  ;  1 

*  For  thcM  exAinplc*  tnd  otfaeiv,  sm  Take,  "  InfluisnM  of  the  Ulml  npoo  (ka  Bcity,* 
ToL  I,  pp.  too,  fl77 ;  »Uo  lUckcr^t  "  Em^/*  dup.  K  M 


W  THE  W. 


^F  SCIEirCFf,   149 


The  proper  couditious  being  given  for  the  development  of  the 
jj«Me— generally  a  cougregation  composed  mainly  of  young 
^^|p— any  fanatic  or  overzealous  priest  or  preacher  may  stim- 
olate  hysterical  seizures,  which  are  very  likely  to  become  epi- 
d«mia 

As  a  rooent  typical  example  on  a  large  scale,  I  take  the  case  of 
d;  ->ion  at  Morzines,  a  French  village  on  the  borders 

oi      i;  and  it  is  especially  instructive^  because  it  was 

thoronghly  investigated  by  a  competent  man  of  science. 

Alwmt  the  year  18o3  a  sick  girl  at  Morzines,  acting  strangely, 
waa  thought  to  be  possessed  of  the  devil,  and  was  tukon  to  Bosan- 
Qon,  where  she  seems  to  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  kindly  and 
ible  e«  r'  irg,  and,  under  the  ojjeration  of  the  relics  pre- 

eii  in  t  i  ;  ral  there — esp<x^ially  the  handkerchief  of  Christ 

— 4he  devil  wais  cast  out  and  she  was  cured.  Naturally,  much  was 
of  the  affair  among  the  peasantry,  and  soon  other  cases  began 

*how  tluniiselves.  Tlie  priest  at  Morzines  attemi)ted  to  quiet  the 
matter  by  avowing  his  disbelief  in  such  cases  of  possession  ;  but 
immodiutely  a  groat  outcry  was  raised  against  him,  especially  by 
the  |>ossetu$ed  themselves.  The  matter  was  now  widely  discussed, 
the  raalarly  spread  rapiilly;  myth-making  and  wonder-mon- 

ing  began ;  amazing  accounts  were  thus  developed  and  sent 
out  to  the  world.  The  afflicted  were  said  to  have  climlied  trees 
like  *('  '  to  have  shown  superhuman  strength  ;  to  have  ex- 
orcl»e«i  .,  of  tongues,  spea.king  in  German,  Latin,  and  even 
in  Armbic ;  to  have  given  accounts  of  historical  events  they  had 

et  heard  of ;  and  iu  liave  revealed  the  secret  thoughts  of  f)er- 
about  them.  Mingled  with  such  exhibitions  of  jjower  were 
OUiburatA  of  blasphemy  and  obscenity. 

Bat  suddenly  came  something  more  miraculous,  apparently, 
than  aU  thes«  wonders.  Without  any  assigned  cause  this  epi- 
demic of  pofi^essioD  diminished,  and  the  devil  disappeared. 

Not  long  after  tliis  Prof.  Tissot,  an  eminent  member  of  the 
medical  faculty  at  Dijon,  visited  the  spot  and  began  a  series  of 
K-  of  which  he  afterward  piiblished  a  full  account.  He 
tcii-  -  ^^athe  found  some  reasons  for  the  sudden  departure  of 
Satan  which  had  never  Iteen  published.  He  discovered  that  the 
G"  '  *  'ly  removed  one  or  two  overzealous  ercle- 
iiia-  ^  ^h,  had  sent  the  police  to  Morzines  to  main- 
tain onleis  and  hud  given  instructions  that  those  who  acted  out- 
TVii[  '  '  '''  "niply  treated  as  lunatics  and  sent  to  asylums, 
T!  !it  with  French  methods  of  administration, 
ca(tt  out  the  devil :  the  possessed  wore  mainly  cured,  and  the  mat- 
ter apt '  ..-,i.-j 

Bu  jund  a  few  of  the  diseased  still  remaining,  and 

h«  Koiwi  *ttti»tJod  himself  by  various  investigations  and  experi- 


I50 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


ments  thut  tl»ey  were  simply  siifffring  from  hystorui.  One  of 
invastigutions  is  e.speciiUIy  curiou.^  In  ordor  to  observe  the  pa- 
tients moi*e  carefully,  he  invited  some  of  them  to  dino  with  him, 
Beavo  thorn  without  their  knowledge  holy  wftter  in  their  wine  or 
BLeir  food,  and  found  that  it  produced  no  effect  whatever,  though 
its  results  upon  the  demons  when  the  possessed  knew  of  its  pres- 
ence hiwl  been  very  strikingly  marked.  Evou  after  jtlentifiil  dnscsi 
of  holy  water  had  been  thuy  given,  the  possessed  remaiiu'd  afflict- 
ed, urged  thut  the  devil  should  be  cast  out,  and  some  of  tlir^m  oren 
wont  into  convulsions,  the  devil  apparently  sj>eaking  fnmi  t]»elr 
mouths.  It  was  evident  that  Satan  had  not  the  remotest  idea 
that  he  had  been  thoroughly  dosed  with  the  most  effeclivo  medi* 
cine  known  to  the  oltler  theoUtgy.* 

At  Uj.8t  Tissot  published  the  results  of  his  experiments,  and  the 
stereotyped  answer  was  soon  made.  It  ro8eml>leii  the  answer 
made  by  the  clerical  opponents  of  Galileo  when  he  showed  tliem 
the  moons  of  Jupiter  through  liis  telescope,  and  they  declared 
that  the  moons  were  created  by  the  telescojK).  The  clerical  oppo- 
nents of  Tissot  ilct'lared  that  the  non-<(ffect  of  the  holy  waitir  \\\¥vx 
the  demons  proved  nothing  save  the  extraordinary  cunning  of 
Satan;  that  the  arch-fiend  wishes  it  to  be  thought  that  he  dooe 
not  exist,  and  so  overcame  his  ropugTiance  to  holy  water,  gulping 
it  down  in  order  to  conceal  his  presence. 

Dr.  Tissot  also  examined  into  the  gift  of  tongu*'H  exercised  by 
the  possatsed.  As  to  German  and  Latin,  nt>  grx'ai  tlitlicully  was 
presented:  it  was  by  no  means  hard  to  suppfise  that  some  of  the 
girls  might  have  learned  some  words  of  the  former  lang^iago  in 
the  UHighboring  fluids  cantons  where  German  was  spoken,  or 
even  in  Germany  itself;  and  iw  to  Latin,  r^tnsidering  that  they 
\\x\A  lieard  it  from  their  childhood  in  the  church,  there  seemed 
nothing  very  wonderful  in  their  uttering  some  woHs  in  that  lan- 
guage also.  As  to  Arabic,  had  they  really  spoken  it,  that  might 
have  been  accounted  for  by  the  relations  of  tjie  possessed  with 
Zouaves  or  SpahiB  from  the  French  army ;  but,  as  Tissot  could 
discover  no  such  relations,  ho  investigated  this  point  as  the  most 
puzzling  of  all. 

On  a  close  inquiry  he  found  that  all  the  wonderful  cxainplcA 
of  speaking  Arabic  were  reducotl  to  one.     H    "  .     i     i    .»  ..^ 

there  was  any  other  perwm  speaking  or  V  \\^ 

town.    He  was  answered  that  there  was  not    ile  n.skiNl  whether 

any  per.**on  had  lived  there,  so  far  asuuy  one  could  r- -  i    r,  who 

hati  spoken  or  understood  Arabic,  and  he  was  nri  n  tho 

negative.     Ho  then  asked  the  witness's  how  1 1  So 

language  fi|>oken  by  the  girl  was  Arabic ;  nqu:.    . ..  .  _.ii» 

*  Kdr  «n  «mBxins  ilrUnefttloa  ol  tb«  our»t!rc  «»tl  uthvr  tlituM  of  tio^  wilrr,  wn  Um 


irsw  cEAPTBns  ly  the  warfare  of  science,  151 


&afed  bim,  bat  b©  was  overwhelmed  with  such  stories  as  that  of  a 
j-i  '  '  ■  'it  of  tho  (TOSS  on  the  village  church,  suddenly 
r*  ther — and  ho  was  denounced  thoroughly  in  the 

clerical  newspapers  for  declining  to  accept  such  evidence, 

At  Tissot's  visit  in  1863  the  ])osfie9sion  had  gentTiiUy  ce-ased, 
the  cases  left  were  few  and  quiet.  But  his  A'isits  stirred  a 
troversy,  and  it-a  echoes  were  long  and  loud  in  the  pulpits 
«lorical  journals.  Believers  insisted  that  Satan  ha<l  been 
nnnove*!  by  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin ;  unbelievers 
binlod  that  the  main  cause  of  the  deliverance  wae  the  reluctance 
of  the  possessed  to  bo  shut  up  in  asylums. 

Under  these  circumstances  tbe  Bishop  of  Annecy  announced 
that  he  would  visit  Murzines  to  administer  confirmation,  and  word 
appears  to  have  spread  that  be  would  give  a  more  ortlnxlox  com- 
eiion  to  the  work  already  done  by  exorcising  the  devils  who  re- 
Immediately  several  new  cases  of  possession  appeared ; 
girls  who  ha<l  been  cured  were  again  atTected;  the  embers 
Qms  kindled  were  fanned  into  a  flame  by  a  '*  mission"  which  sun- 
dr-  -  "=    'U  held  in  the  parish  to  arouse  the  people  to  their  rolig- 
i'  s — a  miBsion,  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  being  akin 

to  Ihe  ** revivals"  among  some  Protestant  sects.  Multitudes  of 
young  wom«>n,  excited  by  the  pn^aching  and  appeals  of  the  clergy, 
wortt  again  tlirown  int<i  the  old  disease,  and  at  the  coming  of  the 
g'  >i)  it  culminated. 

1 -count  is  given  in  the  words  of  an  eye-witness: 

At  the  solemn  entrance  of  the  bishop  into  the  chnrcb^  the 
Mirew  themselvoa  on  the  ground  before  him,  or 
^  "W  themselvos  upon  him,  screaming  frightfully, 

caraing,  blaspheming,  so  that  the  people  at  large  were  struck  with 
horror.  The  possessed  followed  the  bishop,  hooted  him,  and 
threatened  him,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  church  ;  order  was  only 
eAtablLBhod  by  the  intervention  of  the  soldiers.  During  the  con- 
Hrmation  the  diseased  redoubled  their  howls  and  infernal  vocif- 
erations, and  trie<l  to  spit  in  the  face  of  the  bishop  and  to  tear  oif 
h'  il  raiment.     At  the  moment  when  the  prelate  gave  his 

b  '    '  ^^'H  more  outrageous  scene  took  place.    The  vio- 

Iv  d  was  carried  to  fury,  and  from  all  parts  of  the 

c!  and  fearful  howling;  so  frightful  was  the  din 

tL !!v  the  eyes  of  many  of  the  spectators,  and  many 

atrangens  wore  thrown  into  consternation.'' 

'   ■  very  large  number  of  these  diseased  persons  there 
w  '  men  ;  of  thn  romainder  only  two  were  of  advancetl 

age.  The  great  majority  were  young  women  between  the  ages  of 
eaghtr-        -  i  .-    ,  •     i-        -.'ars. 

Tl.  liortly  afterward  intervened  and  sought 

to  cure  the  disease  and  to  draw  the  people  out  of  their  mania  by 


>5« 


THE  POPULAR  SCIE.VCB  MOy 


singing,  dancing,  and  sports  of  varions  sorts,  until  at  last  it  was 
brought  under  control.* 

Scenes  similar  to  those,  in  their  essential  character,  have  ftridCiD 
more  recently  in  Protestant  countries,  but  with  the  difference  that 
what  has  been  generally  attributed  by  Roman  Catholic  eccli^aias- 
tica  to  Satan  is  attributed  by  Protestant  ecclesiastics  to  the  Al- 
mighty. Typical  among  the  greater  exhibitions  of  this  were  those 
which  began  in  the  Methodist  chapel  at  Redruth  in  Cornwall — 
convulsions,  leaping,  jumping,  until  some  four  thousand  persons 
were  seized  by  it.  The  same  thing  is  seen  in  the  ruder  parts  of 
America  at "  revivals  "  and  camp-metitings. 

And  in  still  another  great  fiyld  these  exhi]>itions  are  seen,  hut 
more  after  a  mediceval  pattern.    In  the  Tigretier  of  Abv     *   *     •  o 
have  epidemics  of  dancing  which  seek  and  obtain  i; 
cures. 

Reports  of  similar  manifestations  are  also  sent  from  lui&^ioua? 
ries  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  one  of  whom  sees  in  some  of 
them  the  characteristics  of  cases  of  possession  mentioned  in  our 
Gospels,  and  is  therefore  inclined  to  attribute  them  to  Satan,  f 

But  happily,  long  before  these  latter  occurrences,  science  had 
coma  into  the  field  and  was  gradually  diminishing  this  cJass  of 
diseases.  Among  the  earlier  workers  to  this  better  purpose  wbb 
the  great  Dutch  physician  Boerhaave.  Finding  in  one  of  the 
wards  in  the  hospital  at  Haarlem  a  number  of  women  going  into 
convulsions  and  imitating  each  other  in  various  acts  of  frenzy,  he 
immediately  ordered  a  furnace  of  blazing  coals  into  the  midst  of 
the  ward,  heated  cauterizing  irons,  and  declared  he  would  bum 
the  arms  of  the  first  woman  who  fell  into  con\Tilsion8.  No  more 
cases  occurretl.  J 

These  and  similar  successful  dealings  of  medical  scifiiL  o  ^iih 
mental  disease  brought  about  tho  next  stage  in  the  theolo^iciil  do- 
velopraont.  The  Church  sought  to  retreat,  after  the  usual  manner, 
behind  a  compromise.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  appeared 
a  new  edition  of  tho  great  work  by  the  Jesuit  Delrio  which  for  a 
hundrfsd  years  had  been  a  text-book  for  the  use  of  ecclesiastics  in 
fighting  witchcraft.  But  in  this  edition  the  jjart  playod  by  Satan 
in  diseases  was  changed.  It  was  snggested  that,  while  diseases 
have  natunil  causes,  it  is  neceesar}  nnum 

body  ill  orrli  r  to  make  these  cause*;  that 

*Bn  Jiwoi,  i/tmnfflDtttonr  sci  Ttl^ofni'.*  n  -<^  Firarrmt'Tit''  runout  d*n»  ic  i'lr-unc 
Ai  IkmlllMx,"  Paris,  1  naS.  p«r  7 ;  ^  Ln*  ToMediVi  dt  HonXnc*  *' ;  al»o  CoaiUn*,  "  lUU- 
ilon  mr  line  Kpld^mic  Ol- r  T'ftthic."  Porit,  HC3. 

f  Kor  Ihn  Tlgrrtirr,  «i  >  .  «Lln;;  dlAXiom,  iv<*  n>^^<  **  Bmav.**  cbaft*  V^ 

M«.  t ;  Cvr  Ui«  CAMS  U  wwteni  AliiiM.  mw  llw  B«t.  J.  L  WUfloro,  "  Weilcni  Afito."  fL 


1 
I 


W7. 


%  8m  l1e«S(«.  "niMolrv  ite  Uvrtm-vntxr  voL  i,  ^  401 


OF  scik: 


>53 


I 


"attacks  Ixinatics  at  the  full  moon,  when  their  brains  are 
fiiH  of  hniuorK/'  that  in  other  cases  of  illness  he  "^  stirs  the  black 
bile."  aiul  thai  in  L'atk\s  of  blindutjsa  and  deafness  he  "  clogs  the 
eye*  and  ears."  By  the  close  of  the  century  this  compromise  vras 
evidently  found  unt^?nable.  and  one  of  a  very  different  sort  vras 
attempted  in  EugliuuL 

In  the  third  edition  of  the  "EnryclopH»dia  Britannic^,'' pnb- 
707»  under  the  article  **  Daemoniacs/'  the  orthodox  view 

ted  in  the  following  words :  "  The  reality  of  demonia- 

rai  poweesion  stands  upon  the  same  evidence  with  the  gospel  sys- 
tarn  in  general/' 

This  statement,  though  nec^essary  w>  satisfy  the  older  theologl- 

clearly  found  too  dangerous  to  ]>e  sent  out  into 

]  ill  world  without  some  qualification.    Another 

was  therefore  suggested,  namely,  that  the  personages  of  the 

Now  T    '        fit  "adopted  the  ^iilgar  language   in  speaking  of 

thoae  '"  '.'ite  persons  who  were  generally  imagined  to  be  pos- 

with  demons."    Two  or  three  editions  contained  tlus  curi- 

oos  rciTuppomise ;   but»  as  we  come  io  the  middle  of  the  present 

century,  the  whole  discussion  is  quietly  dropped. 

But  science,  declining  to  trouble  itself  with  any  of  these  views, 
inreeed  on,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  century  we  see  Dr.  Rhodes 

Lyons  curing  a  very  serious  case  of  possession  by  the  use  of  a 
erful  emetic  ;  yet  myth-making  came  in  here  also,  and  it  waa 

tod  that,  when  the  emetic  produced  its  effect,  people  had  seen 
ronltitudeH  of  green  and  yellow  devils  cast  forth  from  the  mouth 
of  the  poAsessed. 

The  last  great  demonstration  of  the  old  belief  in  England  was 
madfi  io  1788.  In  the  city  of  Bristol  at  that  time  lived  a  drunken 
irji'V  Qeorge  Lukins.     In  asking  alms  he  insisted  that  he 

Wa  <*{«8ed/*and  proved  it  by  jumping,  screaming,  barking, 

and  treating  the  company  to  a  parody  of  the  "  Te  Deum." 

H«!  waj»  solermily  brought  into  the  Temple  Cliurch,  and  seven 
clerg^'men  united  in  the  effort  to  exorcise  the  evil  spirit.  Upon 
their  adjuring  Satan,  he  swore  "  by  his  infernal  den  "  that  he 
wnuld  nf»t  come  out  of  the  man — "  an  oath,"  says  the  chronicler, 
•'nowhere  to  be  found  but  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Progress/ 
from  which  Lnkina  j*robably  got  it." 

But  th<>  wven  clergymen  were  at  last  successful,  and  seven 
dttvik  wew  cwaX  out,  after  which  Lukins  retired,  and  appears  to 
h^i  :M>rt«d  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  as  a  monu- 

in*. 

With  thi«  great  effort  the  old  theory  in  England  seemed  prac- 
li.    "       ^        ^    ■ 

•  ideutly  c*irried  the  stronghold.    In  187G.  at  a 
liUle  town  near  Amiens,  in  France,  a  young  woman  was  brought 

^  TnL    SI  XV. — M/* 


154 


TBE  POPULAR  SfTfENCB  MONTBLY, 


to  the  priest,  suffering  terribly  with  all  the  usual  evidenceH  of 
diabolic  |Mis8essiou.  The  priest  was  t)esou^'ht  to  ciwit  out  fhe 
devil,  but  lie  simply  took  her  to  the  hospital,  where,  under  sri^'H- 
tific  treatment,  she  rapidly  betrame  bettor.* 

The  final  triumph  of  acienco  in  this  part  of  the  >?reat  field  hnjs 
been  mainly  achieved  during  the  latter  half  of  the  prt»sent  century. 

FoUon-ing  in  the  noble  succession  of  Paraeelsus  and  John 
Hunter  and  Piuel  and  Tuke  and  EsquiroU  have  come  a  band  nf 
thinkers  and  workers  wIkj  have  evolved  out  of  the  earlier  forms 
of  truths  new  growths,  ever  more  and  more  precious. 

Among  the  many  facts  and  principles  thuw  brought  to  liear 
upon  this  last  stronghold  of  the  Prince  of  Darkue«s,  may  l»e 
named  especially  those  of  "expectant  attention/*  an  exp^vtation 
of  phenomena  dwelt  upon  until  the  longing  for  them  U^coaios 
niorbi<l  and  invincible,  and  the  creation  of  them  ^icrhaps  uucon- 
scious.  Still  another  class  of  phenomena  are  found  t^.»  arise  from 
a  morbid  tendency  to  imitation  which  leatls  to  epidemics.  Still 
another  group  has  been  brought  under  hypnotism,  Midtitudes 
more  have  l>een  found  under  the  innumerable  fonns  and  results 
of  hysteria.  A  study  of  the  effects  of  the  imagination  upon 
Ixxlily  function  has  also  yielded  remarkable  results. 

And,  finally,  to  supplement  this  work,  have  come  in  an  array 
of  scholars  in  history  and  lit^irature  who  have  investigateii  myth- 
making  and  wonder-nn>ngering. 

Thus  lias  been  cleared  away  that  cloud  t»f  supernaturalism 
which  so  long  hung  over  mental  diseases,  and  thus  have  thoy  boen 
brought  within  the  fii-m  grasp  of  science.f 

•See  rtgiiier;  *\m  (ViIUd  <li'  PUnry.  ** Dtctiotinalnf  Infemiil*',*'  articlo  PcioW*«. 

f  To  go  even  into  leatliiig  ciuiiunf*  in  Uiix  vinl  kiii)  bf-nfti(x>nl  li(«niture  noultl  \ak«  mu 
far  liovonj  riijr  [lUo  *»d  cpaiv^  but  I  luajr  uaiuo,  nmoog  U'ft'ling  ami  ctuQy  »oca»ibl«  tU' 
tboritlpfl,  Brti-rru  dv  Hotsiiiunt  on  "  Kftlluclu&tiorii^"  llulnu''s  tniJi«lntioRt  lMtV>;  nlut  Juaei 
Braid,  "  Tlu*  Power  of  the  Mind  uver  ibi^  ik»dy."  Londuu.  Iftlii ;  Krafft-Eblng.  "  l^brbncb 
Jer  PujchittriL-,*'  Stuit^ort,  18MS;  Tukc,  *'  Inriurnc**  of  the  Mind  on  ibe  UotW,"  t.ondoti, 
1684;    Mftudslev,   '*  Pnthnlt)^  <»{  thn    Miud."    UjDdan,    1879;  Cnrprntcr,  **  M  I- 

ologjr,'*  cixtb  fdiUdti,  l^m.lon,   18KH;  Liovd  Tnckjfy,   '*  PaiUi  Cure,"  Klneto.  ,t» 

Uag&iiiw  for  Dooonlwr.  H^H;  PHtitrrvw,  **  .S<iprniUlkiaM  ctmn^Ktvd  wklb  itu>  Pntotlo* 
of  Medlcin*  uid  Snnffry"  lioodon.  1^44. 

A>  U)  myth  niftklug  itnd  wnndftr'mongc^riag,  the  gciutnil  tvftdcr  will  Bud  InUhNtiiig  «up- 
picmctitarj  acconoiA  In  the  rpnmt  work^  of  A.ndrcv  l^ttg  And  B«riaf;'<}oafal. 

A  rcrr  rurloui  erideaoc  *4  tho  cfTucu  of  thp  m>il»-mnkiiic  icndciic;  hiu  r*«<ntlT  cobm 
U>  the  kttciUlon  of  Uir  writer  of  tldf  ■rticle.     PrHodif«)lr,  for  ri  -  '    ip 

smm,  in  tuiului  af  trttv^l  and  In  the  n(*wkpapvr«,  actviiiitA  uf  tbc  «  "  t 

in  unall  ti>  utid*t « J  tt 

till)  iir 

luiomt 


%od  stttidi. 


amHi 


tofffHur  u>  the  Jugging  k»  fruU  liMwn  in  iJl  oiar  Wiwicni  m|tlUl« 


)ACIERS    Oy  THE  PACIFIC   Ci 


I 
I 

t 


Conscientioug  men  still  linger  on  who  find  comfort  in  holding 
fft8t  to  som*?  slired  of  the  old  belief  in  diabolic  possession.  The 
trtnrdy  dcolanitiou  in  the  last  century  by  John  Wesley,  that 
•*  Ifiving  up  witchcraft  is  giving  \ip  the  Bible/*  is  echoed  feebly  in 
the  latter  half  of  this  century  by  the  eminent  Catholic  ecclesifistic 
in  FVance  who  declares  that  "  to  deny  possession  by  (Jevils  is  to 
charg-  md  his  apostles  with  imposture,"  and  asks, ''  How 

can  til  uoiiy  of  ajKXstles,  fathers  of  the  Church,  and  saints 

who  Haw  the  possessed  and  so  declared,  be  denied  ?  "    And  a  still 
fn'  '      '*        rs  in  Protestant  England.* 

IS  constnentious  iipjKwition,  science  has  in  these 
lattur  days  steuiiily  wrought  hand  in  hand  with  Christian  charity 
in  this  field,  to  evolve  a  better  future  for  humanity.  The 
thoughtful  physician  and  the  devoted  clergyman  are  now  con- 
stantly seen  working  t(jgether;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect 
th"*  ^•^Ti,  having  been  cast  out  of  the  insane  asylums,  will  ere 
!»'  ,  iH^ir  from  monasteries  and  camp-meetings,  even  in  the 

muett  uuuulightem*d  regions  of  Christendom. 


GLACIERS  OX  THE  PACIFIC  COAST.f 

Bt  G.  FREDERICK  WRIGHT.  I).  P.,  LL.  D. 

NORTHWARD  fmm  Washington  Territory  the  coast  is  every- 
where verj*  rugged,  being  formed  by  the  lofty  peaks  of  an 
extension  of  the  Cascade  Range ;  while  the  thousands  of  islands 
which  fringe  tho  cotist  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska  are  but 
the  parttally  fiubmerged  peaks  of  an  extension  of  the  Coast  Range, 
from  which  the  great  glaciers  of  former  times  have  8craj>ed  off 
nearly  all  the  fertile  soil.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  ten  thou- 
sand islands  betw(»en  Waahingion  Terntory  and  Moimt  8t.  Elias, 
ari  *  ■^'  '^o  larger  of  them  bear  snow-covered  summits  during  the 
nl  r.    Tile  water  in  the  narrow  channels  separating  these 

ulands  w  ordinarily  scveml  hundnHl  ft^et  deej).  affording,  through 
Dearly  the  whole  distjince.  a  protected  channel  for  navigation. 

Thre«>  greM  rivers  interrupt  the  mountain  barrier  of  British 
C'  ing  the  Pacific— the  Fraser,  the  Skefiia.  and   the 

Sti  .    !  the  interior  is  penetrated  for  some  distance  by  innu- 

tDFCable  fiords.    The  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  follows  the  course 
of    '      "  '  -tance,  anti  |>asHt»s  wntliin  sight  of  gla- 

ee  f,  and  every  fittrd  receives  tlie  drainagn 

*  Sb«  the  .*M»^  n«rt>T^l.^*.  Sn  th*  '^  Dtcttonnairv  ik  \%  CVmvenalton  "  ;  tlwthc  Rer.  W. 
Booct'i  **  Don  I  rd,*'  l^^ndou.  lh:>7. 

f  froai  kU  let:  Age  in  North  Amertca,  and  It*  Bcariogs  on  the 

ABt><|«llf  o(  Mail**     Id  |»rM«  otf  IJ  Appl^'too  ft  Co. 


ONTHLY. 

of  uumGrouB  decayizi^  j,(laoior&.     fiut  it  is  uot  mitil  roachliig  the 
Stickeen  River,  in  Alanka,  in  latitiidp  57^.  that  Klft*^»t?rs  bejpii  lo 


apptinr  which  are  both  Kaaily  acce«i»ible  and  larj<e  enough  Ui  invito 
protracted  study.    The  watercomitigiiit«»th*^Boniid  fmm  th»*Sti('k- 


yitt.  S.— Mav  or  Soimx&vrKBii  *<*•■*     Tb«  ■now-polnti  mtrk  glAcIeriL 

onJy  unble  lAnd  in  soaiheastern  Alaska^  has  been  built  up  by  the  de- 
posit at  tb«  mouth  of  this  river.    Tlie  most  accurate  information 


158 


THE  POPULAR   SCTSyCE  MONTELT. 


yet  obtained  concerning  these  glaciers  is  that  gathered  by  Mr,  Will- 
inm  P.  Blake  in  18fJ3.  According  to  him,  "there  are  four  large 
glaciers  and  several  smaller  ones  visible  within  a  distance  of  sixty 
or  seventy  miles  from  the  mouth'*  of  the  river.  The  second  of 
these  larger  ones  has  attracted  most  attention.  This  "sweeps 
grandly  out  into  the  valley  from  an  opening  between  high  mount- 
ains from  a  source  that  is  not  visible.  It  ends  at  the  level  of  the 
river  in  an  iiTcgular  bluff  of  ice,  a  mile  and  a  half  or  two  miles  in 
length,  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  Two  or  more 
terminal  moraines  protect  it  from  the  direct  action  of  the  stream. 
What  at  first  appeared  as  a  range  of  ordinary  hills  along  the  river, 
proved  on  landing  to  be  an  ancient  terminal  moraine,  crescent- 
shaped  and  covered  with  a  forest.  It  extends  the  full  length  of 
the  front  of  the  glacier."* 

This  glacier  has  never  been  fully  explored.  A  number  of  years 
since,  a  party  of  Russian  officers  attempted  its  exploration,  and 
were  never  heard  from  again.  Mr.  Blake  rei>urts  that,  as  usual 
with  rece<ling  glaciers,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  front  as  it 
spreatls  out  in  the  valley  is  so  covered  with  bowlders,  gravel,  and 
mud  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  the  glacier  really  ends.  But 
from  the  valley  to  the  highi'r  land  it  rises  in  precipitous,  irregular, 
stair-like  blocks,  with  smooth  sides,  and  so  large  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  surmount  them  with  the  ordinary  equipment  of  ex- 
plorers.    The  glacier  is  estimated  to  be  about  forty  miles  long. 

Another  glacier,  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  of  which 
Mr.  Blake  does  not  speak,  was  reported  to  me  by  those  familiar 
with  the  country  as  coming  down  to  within  about  two  miles  of  the 
bank.  The  Indians  are  very  likely  correct  in  asserting  that  these 
two  glaciers  formerly  met,  comp(.4Ung  the  Stickeen  River  to  find 
its  way  to  the  sea  through  a  vast  tunnel.  It  would  then  have  ap- 
peared simply  as  a  subglacial  stream  of  great  niagnitudo. 

North  of  the  Stickeen  River,  glaciers  of  great  size  are  of  increas- 
ing frequency,  and  can  be  seen  to  good  advantage  from  the  excur- 
sion steiimer.  The  Auk  and  Patterson  glatriers  appear  fii^t,  not  far 
north  of  Fort  Wrangel.  On  approaching  Holkham  Bay  and  Talni 
Inlet,  about  latitude  56°.  the  summer  tourist  has,  in  the  numerous 
icebergs  encountered,  pleasing  evidence  of  the  proximity  of  still 
greater  glaciers  coming  down  to  the  sea-level.  Indeed,  the  gla- 
ciers of  Taku  Inlet  are  second  only  in  interest  to  those  of  Glacier 
Bay. 

In  going  from  Juneau  to  Chilkat,  at  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  a 
distance  of  about  eighty  miles,  nineteen  glaciers  of  large  size  are 
in  full  sight  from  the  steamer's  deck,  but  none  of  them  come  down 
far  enough  to  break  off  into  the  wat^r  and  give  birtli  to  icebergs. 
The  Davidan*  » comes  down  just  to  the  water's 

^^^h  a1.  xc&T.  1867,  pp.  9(U^0l. 


GLACIERS    ON  THE   PACIFIC   COAST, 

},  and  has  there  built  up  nn  immense  terminal  moraine  all  alonj 
front- 

An  iJInstration  of  the  precipitous  character  of  the  southeastern 
of  Alaska  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  it  is  only  thirty-five  miles 


TlfE  POfH^LAR   SCIENCE  }fOy7'/iLy, 


reports  four  glaciers  of  considorable  size  m  the  coiirso  of  tbis  short 
portage  between  Cliilkat  (aid  Liike  Liiiileman,*  The  vast  rf-|^oii 
through  which  the  Yukon  Hows  to  the  north  of  these  mountmns 
IS  ni>t  known  to  contain  nny  extensive  glaciers.  But,  iiocortling 
to  the  reports  of  Dall.  Schwatka,  and  others,  it  i»  a  most  inhospi- 
table country,  where  human  life  can  be  maintained  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty;  where  the  thennoraeter  sinks  toCO"  below  Kt^po 
in  winter,  and  rises  for  a  short  period  to  120°  in  the  summer  ;  and 
where  the  ground  remains  perpetually  frozen  at  a  short  depth 
below  the  surface. 


4 


Piu.  4— Datidmk  OLAOisn.  niuji  Ooiuut,  AL4MC*,  LATiTi'Dii  &&"  iy.  The  moaBUtm  an  (roa 
t?e  thooM&d  to  MTi^n  thnuAHUil  feel  Ui^h:  ilie  Kunie  aboat  ltire<r  quarter*  nf  a  mil*  wUi«:  tb* 
ttiitii  v(  tb*  8l*cf«r,  tbrvf  milcfr ;  the  barulbtl  monUo*.  abuiii  tw-o  hiuidred  vul  flftj*  fMC  lUtfh. 
(View  rrom  two  mUei  dlataot.) 

Prom  Cross  Sound,  about  latitude  SS**  and  longitude  1313*  W6«t 
from  Greenwich,  to  tl\e  Alaskan  Peninatila.  thi»  (\nini  is  boniored 
by  a  most  magnificent  semicircle  of  mounUiins  opening  to  Hip 
south,  and  extending  for  more  than  a  thousand  miles.  Through* 
out  this  whole  extvnt,  glaciers  of  large  size  are  everywhere  to  he 
seen.  Elliott  f  estimates  that,  counting  givat  and  small,  tliere  can 
not  be  less  than  five  thousand  glmners  between  Dixon's  Entrance 
and  the  extremity  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula. 

Little  is  know-n  in  detail  of  the  glacier»  of  this  region.  Bui 
those  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount  St.  Elias  are  evidently  iho 
large^it  anywhere  to  be  frmnd  in  the  northern  ]  .  -  -  -^  •  ntnide 
of  Greenland.     This  mountain  rises  19,5lH)  feel  .  . ;  and 

Lieutenant  Schwatka,  in  his  expedition  of  IHSti,  reported  eleven 
glaciers  as  coming  down  from  its  southern  side.    Oneof  thesu* 

*  ''ScMno*,"*  tot  in  (F«^»nury  SSt,  10S4),  ppu  SSO-SST. 
t  Sw  **  Our  Arctic  ProWiwa,^  p.  »l. 


OLACIEIiS   OX  THE  PACIFIC   COAST. 


^ 


which  18  xiaiBtHl  tho  Agassiz  Glacier,  he  estiraates  to  be  twenty 
miieH  ia  width  and  li/ty  miles  in  lengtli»  and  to  cover  an  area  of  a 
UicmMnd  ^uare  miles.  Another,  whioh  he  named  Guyot  Glacier, 
WjU/A  to  be  about  the  same  in  dimeiufionp.  The^e  come  down  tom 
^^HiUlevel  in  Icy  Bay,  and  present  a  solid  ice  wall  many  miles  in 
crtentf  which  is  continually  breaking  off  into  icebergs  of  great  size.* 
'*«'  ;  rer's  account  of  the  glacial  phenomena  along  this  coast 

is  hi  1  instructive  and  interesting,  and  in  places  curious: 

**  Between  these  points  (Pigot  and  Pakenham)  a  bay  is  formed, 
about  a  league  and  a  half  deep  toward  the  north-northwest,  in 
vbich  were  se<^n  several  shoals  and  much  ice;  the  termination  of 
ibh*  bay  i8  bouniled  by  a  continuation  of  the  above  range  of  lofty 
motuitainK  On  thi.-i  sec^md  low  projecting  point,  which  Mr.  Whid- 
hey  cfdlttfl  'Point  Pakenham,*  the  latitude  was  observed  to  be  60" 
;.r4'»i^Jo^-  -/"^fl'.    The  width  of  the  arm  at  this  station  wash 

reduced  to  t       ^^s,  in  which  were  several  half-concealed  rocks, 

and  mnch  floating  ire,  through  wliieh  they  pursued  their  exami- 
on,  to  a  jMiint  at  the  distance  of  three  miles  along  the  western 
,  which  Htill  continued  to  be  compact,  extending  north  ^JO" 
oaai;  hi  this  direction  they  met  such  innumerable  huge  bodies  of 
ic<S801Iiean  'urs  lying  on  the  grfmnd  neiir  the  shore  in  ten 

or  twdra  fu  ■.  ater,  as  rendered  their  further  progress  up  the 

branch  raeh  and  highly  dangerous.  This  was,  however,  very  for- 
ttir-  *  ■  -  ^  ■  '  'f  no  moment,  since  before  their  return  they 
hs^i  i  act  view  of  its  termination,  about  two  leagues 

c-r  in  the  same  direction,  by  a  firm  and  compact  body  of  ice 
hing  from  side  to  side,  and  greatly  abcjve  the  level  of  the  sea; 
bohind  which  extended  the  continuation  of  the  same  range  of  lofty 
moontaind,  who^e  summits  seemed  to  be  higher  than  any  that  had 
yi!t  be<?n  seen  on  the  coast. 

While  at  dinner  in  this  situation  they  frequently  heard  a  very 
noise,  not  unlike  loud  but  distant  thunder  ;  similar 
'  ri  been  heard  when  the  party  was  in  the  neighbor- 
of  large  bofliea  of  ice,  but  they  had  not  before  been  able  to 
'-.    They  now  found  the  noise  to  orig^inate  from 
i  oui  f rugmentB  of  ice,  breaking  off  from  the  higher 
parta  of  tlie  main  body,  and   falling  from  a  very  considerable 
which  in  one  instance  produced  so  violent  a  shock  that  it 
ibiy  f»dt  by  the  whole  l>arty,  although  the  ground  on 
which  thoy  wen*  was  at  least  two  leagues  from  the  spot  where  the 
fall  of  ioe  had  taken  place.  .  .  . 

••  The  bafiO  of  thi»  lofty  range  of  mountains  (between  Elias  and 
^i'  r)  now  gradually  approached  the  sea-side ;  and  to  the 

Kb: .  .if  Capo  Fairwcather  it  may  be  said  to  be  washed  by  the 

ocean;   the  interruption  in  the  summit  of  these  very  elevated 

•  -  New  York  Tim«»,"  Xorember  U,  1886. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


I 


mountains,  mentioned  by  Captain  Cook,  vbs  likewise  conqjica- 
ously  evident  to  ua  as  we  sailed  along  the  coast  this  day,  and  lofiked 
like  a  plain  composed  of  a  ^lid  mass  of  ice  or  frozen  snow,  inclin* 
ing  gradually  toward  the  low  border;  which  fi-om  the  .smcM>th- 
nesB,  uniformity,  and  clean  api>earance  of  its  surface,  conveyed  the 
idea  of  extensive  waters  having  once  existed  beyond  the  tlien  lim- 
its of  our  view,  which  had  passed  over  this  depressed  part  of  the 
mountains,  until  their  i)rogre88  had  been  stopjKHl  by  the  severity 
of  the  climate,  and  that,  by  the  accumulation  of  succeeding  snow, 
freezing  on  this  body  of  ice.  a  barrier  had  become  formed  that  had 
prevented  such  waters  from  flowing  into  the  sea.  This  is  not  the 
only  place  where  we  had  noticed  the  like  appearance ;  since  paf^a* 
ing  the  icy  bay  mentioned  on  the  28th  of  Juno,  other  valleys  had 
been  seen  strongly  resembling  this,  but  none  were  so  extensive, 
nor  was  the  surface  of  any  of  them  so  clean,  most  of  them  appear* 
ing  to  be  very  dirty.  1  do  not,  however,  mean  to  assort  that  thate 
inclined  planes  of  ice  must  have  been  formed  hy  the  positing  of 
inland  waters  thus  into  the  ocean,  as  the  elevation  of  them,  which 
ust  be  many  hundred  yards  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea,  and  their 
ving  been  doomed  for  ages  to  perpetual  frost,  operate  much 
against  this  reasoning;  but  one  is  natumlly  led, on  con'  '  "'tg 
any  phenomenon  out  of  the  ordinary  course  of  natur-  m 

some  conjecture  and  to  hazard  some  opinion  as  to  its  origin^ 
which  on  the  present  occasion  is  rather  offered  for  the  purpose  of 
describing  its  appearance,  than  accounting  for  the  cau»e  of  its 
existence."  * 

Beyond  Mount  St.  Elias,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Copper  Riv- 
er and  Prince  William  Sound,  glaciers  are  reported  by  Elliott  as 
numerous  and  of  great  size.  Mnuut  Wrangel,  in  the  forks  of  the 
Copi>er  River,  is  estimated  by  him  to  be  upward  of  twenty  thou- 
SMud  feet  in  height.  From  the  flanks  of  tlio  Chugatoh  Alpj^  of 
which  Wrangel  is  the  east-ern  summit,  immense  glaciers  dc«oeud 
to  Prince  William  Sound,  and  iwUl  greatly  to  the  gloomy  grand* 
r  of  its  scenery.  Glaciers  also  extend  throughout  th«^  Xenai  and 
Alaskan  V     "  "  v  to  the  v  '  Im  io2*,  ofid 

one  even  1  ui>on  ti  .t. 

The  region  in  the  interior  north  of  the  8t.  Eli»is  and  Chagntch 
Alpehas  been  but  impt»rfectly  exr^       '    '    '  ''    ■  pr<"tty 

general  agreement  that  there  art?  i-  iixiseut 

time,  nor  is  there  evidence  that  glaciore  over  exLst«*d  in  tho  coun- 
try. Much  of  the  region  is  now  covered  with  (undrxi — that  i», 
with  vast  level  areas  which  are  »o  deeply  frozf-n  that  they  never 
thaw  out  below  a  few  feet  from  1  .n  ore  covered 

with  a  dense  growth  of  heath  and  ;..     '  ^'  .if?..r.l  f.uA 

for  the  reindo0r»  but  are  iiseloos  for  man. 

*  "  Vor«se  of  DWnrerjr  voood  th«  WorU,**  tvl  t,  pp  Strati,  SM-J<»L 


AaNOSTTCISM:    A   REJOmDER. 


163 


I 


At  Escli^boltz  Bay,  on  Kotzebue  Sound,  in  latitude  06**  15,' 
'1  in  1818  a  cliff  of  frozen  mud  and  icB  *'  capped 
l>eariug  moss  and  grass."  *    Large  numbers  of 
boD«9  of  the  "  mammoth,  bison  ( ?),  reindeer,  mooee-deer,  musk-ox, 
id  '  -   found  "  at  the  base,  where  they  had  fallen  down 

.  aring  the  summer  thaw.  Sir  Edward  Belcher  and 
Mr.  Q.  B.  fejt^mau  afterward  visited  the  same  spot  and  corrobo- 
rated Kotzebuo's  account.  From  their  report  it  was  evident  that 
the  conditions  in  northern  Alaska  are  very  similar  to  those  in 
northern  Sil>oria,  where  so  many  similar  remains  of  extinct  and 
other  am'mals  Imve  been  found  in  the  frozen  soil.  The  section 
dwcribed  at  Eschscholtz  Bay  seems  to  be  simply  the  edge  of  the 
/tiru/m  which  ia  so  largely  represented  in  the  central  portions  of 
the  Territory. 


I 

ft 


AGNOSTICISM :  A  REJOIXDER. 

Br  PftOF.  T.  H.  HtrXLEY,  F.  B.  S. 

THE  concluding  paragraph  of  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough's 
reply  to  the  aj)peal  which  I  addressed  to  him  in  the  penulti- 
xiuUe  number  of  this  review,  leads  me  to  think  that  he  has  seen  a 
perscmjil  reference  where  none  was  intended.  I  had  ventured  to 
flagge«rt  that  tlie  demand  that  a  man  should  call  himself  an  infidel, 
MTOrcd  very  much  of  the  llavor  of  a  "bull";  and,  even  had  the 
Right  Keverend  prelate  been  as  stolid  an  Englishman  as  I  am,  I 
ftboold  ^  *  ^*  lined  the  hope,  that  the  oddity  of  talking  of  the 

COWfcT'  irt  who  object  to  call  themselves  by  a  nickname, 

which  must  in  their  eyea  be  as  inappropriate?  ae^  in  the  intention 

of  '^ rs,  it  is  offensive,  would  have  struck  him.    But,  to  my 

Bi:;  lit;  bishop  has  not  even  yet  got  sight  of  that  absurdity. 

Ho  tiiinkii,  that  if  I  accept  Dr.  Wace's  definition  of  his  much-loved 
epithet,  I  am  logically  bound  not  only  to  adopt  the  titles  of  infidel 
and  niiscreAut,  but  that  I  shall  "even  glory  in  those  titles.'*  As  I 
hft'  "'n,  "infidel"  merely  means  somebody  who  does  not 

bti-  uat  you  l>eliove  yourself,  and  therefore  Dr.  Wace  has  a 

perfect  right  to  call,  say,  my  old  Egyptian  donkey-driver,  Nooleh, 
and  ro>"self,  infirlpls,  just  iuh  Nofjleh  and  I  have  a  right  to  call  him 
an  infidel.  The  ludicrous  aspect  of  the  thing  comes  in  only  when 
either  of  us  demands  that  the  two  others  should  so  label  them- 
Mlres.  It  is  a  terrible  business  to  have  to  explain  a  mild  jest,  and 
1  pledgo  myself  not  to  run  the  rbk  of  offending  in  this  way  again. 
1  «oe  how  wrong  I  was  in  trusting  to  the  bishop's  sense  of  the 
lodScTOUs,  and  I  beg  leave  unreservedly  to  withdraw  my  misplaced 
cgpfidm*^     And  I  tiiko  this  course  the  more  readily  as  there  is 

•  Sof  rrwtwicb'B  "  GcolosT*"  toI.  H.  p.  -iflS  ^  «y. 


'TBfrCE  MONTHLY. 


something  about  which  I  am  obliged  again  to  trouble  the  Bifihop 
of  Peterborough,  which  is  certainly  no  jesting  inuttt* r.  Reforring 
to  my  question,  the  bisbop  says  thut  if  they  (the  terms  *'  infidel*' 
and  "miscreant") 

fihotild  Dot  b€  SO  proToil  to  tw  npplicaMe,  then  I  AhouM  \\M   it  to  he  ■.■  >n* 

able  to  expect  him  to  cull  hiiuAelf  by  sach  names  aa  bo,  1  supposte,  trui  to 

bo  to  ex[>ect  an  Oliristiuna  to  kdiiiitf  M'itUout  bottor  reuaoa  tiitin  be  hiu  f  rt  givra 
U4,  that  Christittnitj  ia  "tbo  aorry  atuff"  which,  wltli  hb»  "  profuuoJly  "  mvnl 
reuiJmeas  to  say  '*  oopIeaaAQt  **  tbloga^  he  b  plutidvil  to  any  that  it  is.* 

Accortling  to  thowe  "English  modes  of  thought  and  expres- 
sion/* of  which  the  bishop  seems  to  have  but  a  po<:»r  opinion,  thU 
ia  a  deliberate  assertion  that  I  hml  said  that  Christianity  ia  "  »*jrry 
stuff."  And,  according  to  the  same  standard  of  fair  dealing,  it  is, 
I  think,  absolutely  necessary  for  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough  to 
produce  the  evidence  on  which  this  positive  statement  is  ba»se»3,  1 
shall  be  unfeignedly  surprised  if  he  is  successful  in  proving  it; 
but  it  is  proper  for  me  to  wait  and  see. 

Those  who  i>asaed  from  Dr.  Wace's  article  in  the  last  number 
of  this  review  to  tlie  anticij>atory  confuUition  of  it  which  followed 
in  "  The  New  Reformation,"  must  have  enjoyed  the  pleasure  of  a 
dramatic  surprise — just  as  when  the  fifth  act  of  a  ucw  play  proves 
xmexpoctedly  bright  and  interesting.  Mrs.  Ward  will,  I  hope,  par- 
don the  comparison,  if  I  say  that  her  effective  clearing  away  of 
antiquate<l  incumbrances  from  the  lists  of  the  controversy  reminds 
me  of  nothing  so  much  as  of  the  action  of  some  neat-handed,  but 
strong-wrists.  Phyllis,  who,  gracefully  wielding  her  long-handloti 
Turk's  heiul,"  sweeps  away  the  acciunulated  i-esults  of  the  toil  of 
lerations  of  spiders.  I  am  the  more  indebted  to  this  luminous 
sketch  of  the  results  of  critical  investigation,  as  it  is  carried  out 
among  those  theologians  who  are  men  of  science  aud  not  mere 
coimsel  for  creeds,  since  it  has  relieved  me  from  the  nece^isity  of 
dealing  with  the  greater  part  of  Dr.  W:      '        V    '  i         '  ^^j 

me  to  devote  more  space  to  the  ideally  iu  ■  y 

been  raised,  f 

Perhaj>s,  however,  it  may  be  well  for  mo  to  observe  tbjit  Hppn*- 
II  bation  of  tbe  manner  in  which  a  great  biblical  scholar,  for  inh'taiice 
^H  Reuss,  does  his  work  does  not  commit  mo  to  the  adoption  of  all,  or 
^H  indeed  of  any  of  his  views  ;  and,  further,  tbat  the  disagreements 
^H  of  a  series  of  investigators  do  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the 
^m    fact  that  each  of  them  has  matle  important  oontributions  to  the 


ft 

kme* 
stro 
"Tii 
|en. 

ft 


« ».  f 


■nthly  "  f.i 

I  10  \\\^  l^' 


'fillip  of  (hf*  'V»«TtMt. 


\i^y  MttihMHUL 


VSTICISM^:    A   REJOmDER. 


x6s 


^V  hodf  of  truth  ultunately  established.  If  I  city  BuffoHj  Linnaeus, 
^H  Lamarck,  and  Cuvinr,  us  having  oeu:h  and  all  taken  a  leading  share 
^H  in  building  U{>  invKleni  biulogy,  the  statement  that  evuryoneof 
^H  these  great  naturalists  disagreed  with,  and  even  more  or  less  contra- 
^V  dieted,  all  the  rest  is  quite  true ;  but  the  supposition  that  the  lat- 
^P  ter  assertion  is  in  any  way  inconsistent  with  the  former,  would 
r         betray  a  strange  ignorance  of  the  manner  in  which  all  true  science 

advances. 
1^  Dr.  Wace  takes  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  make  it  appear  that 
^B  I  hjive  desired  to  evade  the  real  questions  raised  by  his  attack 
^H  upon  me  at  the  Church  Congress.  I  assure  the  reverend  pruicipal 
^H  that  in  this,  as  in  some  other  respects,  he  has  entertained  a  very 
^V  CTTOneOQS  conception  of  ray  intentions.  Things  would  assume 
^H  more  accurate  proi>ortion8  in  Dr.  Wace's  miud  if  he  would  kindly 
^H  rem«4ubor  that  it  is  just  tliirty  years  since  ecclesiastical  thunder- 
^^KdtoV  *  in  to  fly  about  my  ears.  I  have  had  the  "  Lion  and  the 
^^^Bi-.  >leal  with,  and  it  is  long  since  I  got  quite  used  to  the 

tlireatdoiugs  of  epitiOoi)al  Qolialhs,  whose  crosie?rs  were  like  unto 
^L  a  weaver's  beam.  So  that  I  almost  think  I  might  not  have  no- 
^H  tioed  Dr.  Wace's  attack,  personal  as  it  was ;  and  although,  as  ho 
^^  is  good  enough  to  tell  us,  separate  copies  are  to  be  had  for  the 
modest  equivalent  of  twoj^ence,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  did  not 
come  under  my  notice  for  a  long  time  after  it  was  made.  May  I 
further  venture  to  point  out  that  (reckoning  postage)  the  expen- 
diture of  twopenco-halfpenny,  or,  at  the  most,  threepence,  would 
have  eaablcNl  Dr.  Wace  so  far  to  comply  with  ordinary  conven- 
es to  direct  my  attention  to  the  fact  that  he  had  attacked 
before  a  meeting  at  which  I  was  not  present  ?  I  ronlly  am 
xu)t  re»i»on!!iible  for  the  five  months'  neglect  of  which  Dr,  Wace 
c<".r  '  -^  ^"  rilurly  enough,  the  Englishry  who  swarmed 
a'-  ue^  during  the  three  months  that  I  was  being 

brought  back  to  life  by  the  glorious  air  and  perfect  comfort  of 
the  Maloja,  did  not,  in  my  hearing,  say  anything  about  the  im- 
portant events  which  had  taken  place  at  the  Church  Congress; 
,  and  I  think  I  can  venture  to  affirm  that  there  was  not  a  single 

k|^  copy  of  Dr.  Waoe's  pamphlet  in  any  of  the  hotel  libraries  which 
^H  Z  mmmaged  in  search  of  something  more  edifying  than  dull 
^H  EngUah  or  questionable  French  novels. 

^P  And  now,  liavi  ng,  as  I  hope,  sot  myself  right  with  the  public 
aa  regnrds  the  sins  of  commission  and  omission  with  which  I  have 
been  charged,  I  feel  free  to  deal  with  matters  to  which  time  and 
typo  may  be  more  profitably  devoted. 

The  Bishop  of  Peterborough  indulges  in  the  anticipation  that 
Dr.  Wace  will  succeed  in  showing  me  "  that  a  scientist  dealing 
with  quostiuns  of  tlieology  or  biblical  criticism  may  go  quity 
■e  tar  aatray  as  theologians  often  do  in  dealing  with  questions 


k 


|66 


THE  Pi 


of  science.'**  I  have  already  admitted  that  vaticination  is  not 
in  my  line ;  aud  I  can  not  so  much  as  hazard  a  guess  whether 
the  spirit  of  prophecy  which  has  descendtxi  on  the  bi.sliop  comes 
from  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  tvro  possible  sources  recrjgnized 
by  the  highest  authorities.  But  I  think  it  desirable  to  warn 
those  who  may  be  misled  by  phraseology  of  this  kind,  that  the 
antagonists  in  the  present  debate  are  not  quite  rightly  repro- 
eented  by  it.  Undoubt-edly,  I>r,  Wace  is  a  theologian ;  and  I 
should  be  the  last  person  to  question  that  his  whole  ca^t  of 
thought  and  style  of  argumentation  are  pre-eminently  and 
typically  theological.  And,  if  I  must  accept  the  hideous  term 
"  scientist "  (to  which  I  object  even  more  than  1  do  to  *'  infidel '% 
I  am  ready  t^  admit  that  I  am  one  of  the  people  so  denoted. 

But  I  hope  and  Vjeliove  that  there  is  not  a  solitary  argument  I 
have  used,  or  that  I  am  about  to  use,  which  is  original,  or  hafl 
anything  to  do  with  the  fact  that  I  have  been  chiefly  occupied 
with  natural  science.  They  are  all,  facts  and  reasoning  alike, 
either  identical  with,  or  consequential  upon,  propositions  wliich 
are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  scholars  and  theologians  at  the 
highest  repute  in  the  only  two  countries,  Holland  and  Germany,! 
in  which,  at  the  present  time,  professors  of  theology  are  to  be 
found,  whose  tenure  of  their  posts  does  not  depend  upon  the  re- 
sults to  which  their  inquiries  lead  them.t 

It  is  true  that,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  I  have  sati.sfie»1  myself 
of  the  soundness  of  the  foundations  on  which  my  arguments  are 
built,  and  I  desire  to  be  held  fully  responsible  for  everything  I 
Bay.  But,  nevertheless,  my  |)osition  is  really  no  more  than  that 
of  an  expositor;  and  my  jiistification  for  undertaking  it  is  tiimply 
that  conviction  of  the  supremacy  of  i>rivato  judgment  (iudoed*  of 
the  impossibility  of  escaping  it)  which  is  the  foundation  of  the 
Protestant  Refonnation,  and  which  was  the  doctrine  accepted  by 
the  vast  majority  of  the  Anglicans  of  my  yoiith^  before  that 
backsliding  toward  the  "beggarly  rudiments"  of  an  effete  and 
idolatrous  sacerdotalism  which  has,  even  now,  provided  ub  with 

•  "  Popular  SdcDce  tfonthtr"  for  May,  18S9,  p.  SI. 

f  Tho  tJn)lo<l  ^^tatC9  nught,  ptrhap*,  lo  t»c  »<i<l«-(l,  hut  I  am  tuX  utirr. 

I  JiUAgtue  lliAt  all  our  clintrt)  uf  A^iXfrnomj  hrul  tivcii  fouiidrd  Id  ibo  IcMrtMvlb  fftvU 
urj',  aod  tliat  their  iDe-iinibcnU  «ere  boiiiiU  to  nigo  Ptolcmftio  artides.  lu  that  cm«,  wttli 
I'very  rrapect  for  tUe  cSbrta  of  persott*  thus  hunpored  to  Attain  am]  cxpounil  the  trutli,  1 
lltiok  men  of  cammAn  apn»o  ironld  go  cUewhoN  Co  Ic^ani  astronom/.  ZclWa  **  V«rtri^ 
und  Abliaodlungpn  **  wt'rv  publt»h«d  aiul  ca<n«  Into  my  hantln  <>  '■-..■  ^  •■■--  ^^^ 

The  vritor'e  rank,  wi  a  IhtxilogUa  to  begin  with,  and  vnbMquiin  •-••k 

f'  Among  iheye  caMVB  arc  two^"  i>iu  1  lUid 

lulo  " — whlrh  arr  IlkcW  l/»  hi»  nf  mnro  tr  ^  oil 

Co  kiiutt  ilic  [cal  «uin  of  tlu>  oaao  than  il*  ttv 

•n  trnth  and  ihtt  t^iUor  on  lb*  teo«U"  I  a 

■Ci^iiiHfli  tfa«o1o(Ua  about  tboo^paoaof  ibia  Maiup mk  pi  <  ol  tbe  **  VnnrAfr.* 


TICISM:    A  REJOmDER. 


the  saddufft  spectacle  which  has  been  offerevi  to  the  eyes  of  Eng- 
Ibhrnen  in  this  generation-  A  high  court  of  ecclesiastical  jnris- 
flicticu,  with  a  host  of  great  lawyers  in  battle  array,  is  and,  for 
Heiiven  knows  how  long,  will  be,  occupied  with  these  very  quee- 
tiou^i  of  "  washings  of  cups  and  pots  and  brazen  vessels,"  which  the 
Mast^^r,  whose  professed  i-epresentativcs  are  rending  the  Church 
ovi*r  these  squabbles,  ha*l  in  his  mind  when,  as  we  are  told,  he 
uttered  the  scathing  rebuke : 

W«l]  did  Iwuili  propbcinr  of  yon  hypocrites,  as  it  is  vritten: 
T)ii^  pti''<iile  lionoreiii  roe  with  their  lips, 
But  their  heart  in  fur  from  ma : 
But  in  vain  do  they  worship  iiie, 
TeocbtnfC  *«  tlitir  doclrints  the  precepts  of  men  (Mark  vii,  6,  7). 

Men  who  can  be  absorbed  in  bickerings  over  miserable  disputes  of 
Uii£  kind  can  have  but  little  sympathy  with  the  old  evangelical 
ctrine  of  the  "open  Bible/'  or  anything  but  a  grave  misgiving 
the  reeults  of  ililigent  reading  *tf  the  Bible,  without  the  help  of 
«cclti6ia8tical  spectacles,  by  the  mass  of  the  people.  Greatly  to 
the  Burp»ri»e  of  many  of  my  friends,  I  have  always  advocated  the 
reading  of  the  Bible,  and  the  diffusion  of  tlie  study  of  that  most 
remarkable  collection  of  books  among  the  people.  Its  teachings 
are  so  infinitely  superior  to  those  of  the  sects,  who  are  just  as 
bogy  now  as  the  Pharisees  were  eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  in 
smothering  them  under  •*  the  precepts  of  men";  it  is  so  certain, 
to  my  mind,  that  the  Bible  contains  within  itself  the  refutation 
of  nine  t^^ntlis  of  the  mixture  of  sophistical  metaphysics  and  old- 
'  ition  which  has  been  piled  round  it  by  the  so-called 

I  later  times;  it  is  so  clear  that  the  only  immediate 

and  roa^ly  antidote  to  the  poison  which  has  been  mixed  with 
C  '''y,  to  the  intoxication  and  delusion  of  mankind,  lies  in 

Iraughts  from  the  undeliled  spring,  that  I  exercise  the 
right  and  duty  of  free  judgment  on  the  part  of  every  man, 
inly  for  the  purpftse  of  inducing  other  laymen  to  follow  my 
imple.  If  the  New  Testament  is  translated  into  Zulu  by 
Protestant  missionaries,  it  must  be  assumed  that  a  Zulu  convert 
w  comf>etent  to  draw  from  its  contents  all  the  truths  which  it  is 
neowsary  for  him  to  believe.  I  trust  that  I  may,  without  immod- 
wty,  claim  to  Iw  put  on  the  same  footing  as  the  Zulu* 

The  n»o«t  constant  reproach  which  is  launchfxl  against  persons 
of  my  way  uf  thinking  is,  that  it  is  all  very  well  for  us  to  tallc 
"US  of  scientific  thought,  but  what  are  the  poor 

.  .    d  to  do  ?    Has  it  ever  occurred  to  those  who  talk 

in  this  fashion  that  the  creeds  and  articles  of  their  several  confee- 
Qooe      '  ■    ,  ■         "   '     ,  xnct  nature  and  extent  of  the 

leac}j  IIS  of  the  re^l  meaning  of  that 

which  is  written  in  the  Epistles  (to  leave  aside  all  questions  con- 


t6S 


THE  POPriAR  SCIEyCF  MOKTlTLr. 


cerning  the  Old  TeHtatnent)  are  nothing  int^re  than  dcductionts 
which,  at  any  rate,  profess  to  be  the  result  of  8tri'   '  '^c 

thinking,  and  which  are  not  worth  attending  to  unK-  ,  iy 

p4:>s8e»s  that  character  ?  If  it  is  not  historically  true  that  Biich  and 
such  things  happened  in  Palestino  eightt^^n  centuries  ago,  what  h<s 
comeB  of  Christianity  ?  And  what  iy  historical  truth  but  that  of 
which  the  evidence  bears  strict  scientific  investigation  ?  1  do  not 
call  to  mind  any  problem  of  natural  science  which  has  come  under 
my  notice,  which  is  more  diflScult,  or  more  curiously  interesting  ««  a 
mere  problem,  than  that  of  the  origin  of  the  8ynoi>tic  Gosjiels  and 
that  of  the  historical  value  of  the  narratives  which  they  contain. 
The  Christianity  of  the  churches  stands  or  falls  by  the  renultfi  of 
tho  purely  scientific  investigation  of  thewe  qut;stions.  They  were 
first  taken  up  in  a  purely  scientific  spirit  just  about  a  century 
ago ;  they  have  been  studied,  over  and  over  again,  by  men  of  vast 
knowledge  and  critical  acumen ;  but  he  would  he  a  rash  man  who 
sliould  assert  that  any  solution  of  these  problems,  as  yet  formu- 
lated, is  exhaustive.  The  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  certain 
prevalent  solutions  are  certainly  false,  while  others  are  moro  or 
less  probably  true. 

If  I  am  doing  my  best  to  rouse  my  countrymen  out  of  their  dog- 
matic shimbers,  it  is  not  that  they  may  be  amused  by  seeing  who 
gets  the  l>pst  of  it,  in  a  contest  between  a  "scientist"  and  a  theo- 
logian. The  serious  question  is  whether  theological  men  of  sci- 
ence, or  theological  special  pleaders,  are  to  have  the  confidence  of 
the  general  public  ;  it  is  the  question  whether  a  country  in  which 
it  is  possible  for  a  body  of  excellent  clerical  and  lay  gen^  •«> 

discuss^  in  public  meeting  assembled,  how  much  it  is  du-.:.,.  ..  :o 
lot  the  congregations  of  the  faithful  know  of  the  results  of  bibli- 
cal criticism,  is  likely  to  wake  up  with  anything  short  of  the  grasp 
of  a  rough  lay  hand  upon  its  shoulder;  it  is  the  question  whether 
the  New  Testament  books,  being  as  I  believe  they  were,  written 
and  compiled  by  people  who,  according  to  their  lights,  wen*  per- 
fectly sincere,  will  not,  when  properly  studied  as  ordinary  histori- 
cal documents,  afford  us  the  means  of  self-criticism.  And  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  New  Testament  books  are  not  rv  '  =*  !e 
for  the  doctrine  invented  by  the  churches  that  they  an-  < 

but  ordinary  hi*<torical  documenta.    The  author  of  the  t 

})el  tells  us  as  straightforwardly  aA  a  man  can  that  he  hu.s .lu 

U)  any  other  character  than  that  of  an  ordinary  compiler  and  ed- 
itor, who  had  before  him  the  works  of  many  and  variously  quali- 
fied prtM.h.*4;e.^s<>r>^. 


4 
I 

I 
4 


Til   my 
i\  \\r^  an 
lows: 


•-.1 

.   1- 


AaXOSTTCISM:    A  RJSJOIXDER. 


^ 


ApATt  from  nil  diluted  potoU  of  criticifiro,  no  one  practically  doubU  tliAt  our 
LofJ  llv*d  ADil  that  he  (liocl  on  tite  cro^,  In  the  most  intense  sen»e  of  filinl  rela- 
tion to  hU  Fiither  in  heaven,  and  thiit  ho  boro  tL'stimony  to  thnt  Father's  provi- 
il^oirr,  lore^  tndgracu  toward  innnkiud.  Tliol.ord'a  Prayor affords  a  suflioieni  eri- 
d«ibr«  on  ibew  poiDta,  If  the  Sermon  on  tbo  Mount  alone  be  addetl,  the  whole 
uo*c«n  vorld,  of  which  the  ajcmostic  refuses  to  know  anything,  stands  anreilod 
before  08.  .  .  .  If  Jpsita  Christ  preached  that  sennon,  inado  those  promises,  and 
UMi^ht  that  prayer,  then  any  one  who  says  that  we  know  nothing  of  God,  nr  of  a 
fatm  Uf««  or  uf  an  oosoen  world,  sa^s  that  he  do«B  not  believe  Jesus  Chriiil.* 

Again — 

The  main  qoestJOD  at  issne,  in  a  word,  ia  one  which  Prof.  Huxley  has  chosen 
to  iMte  cmlirvly  on  one  sidc^whcther,  namely,  allowing  for  the  utmost  unoer- 
Ui&ty  00  ntlier  points  of  the  critieiain  to  which  ho  appeals,  there  is  any  reason- 
■ble  donht  Uiat  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Semion  on  the  Mount  alTord  u  trne 
t  of  our  Lord's  esaonlial  belief  and  cardinal  teaoldng.f 

certainly  was  not  aware  that  I  had  evaded  the  questions  here 
ertAtod ;  indeed,  I  should  say  that  I  have  indicated  my  reply  to 
thorn  pretty  clearly  ;  hut,  as  Dr.  Wace  wants  a  plainer  answer,  he 
shall  certainly  be  gratified.  If,  as  Dr.  Wace  declares  it  is,  his 
**  whf>le  case  is  involved  in  "  the  argument  as  stated  in  the  latter 
of  these  two  extracts,  so  much  the  worse  for  his  whole  case.  For 
1  am  of  opinion  that  there  is  the  gravest  reason  for  doubting 
wht^ther  the  '* Sermon  on  the  Mount"  was  ever  preached,  and 
whether  the  so-called  "  Lord's  Prayer  "  was  ever  prayed  by  Jesus 
of  Nazareth.  My  reasons  for  this  opinion  are,  among  others, 
these:  There  is  now  no  doubt  that  the  three  synoptic  Gospels, 
no  far  from  being  the  work  of  three  independent  writers,  are 
clc^^ly  interdependent,  t  and  that  in  one  of  two  ways.  Either  all 
thre^  '  '  as  their  foundation,  versions,  to  a  large  extent  ver- 
bally i>  w,  of  one  and  the  same  tradition  ;  or  two  of  them  are 
tha«  cloaely  dependent  on  the  third ;  and  the  opinion  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  best  critics  has,  of  late  years,  more  and  more  con- 
vergfjd  towiird  the  convictiou  that  our  canonical  second  Gospel 
(the  so-called  "  Mark's'*  Gospel)  is  that  which  most  closely  repre- 
Xs  the  primitive  groundwork  of  the  three."    That  I  take  to  be 

•  ••  p.,T.uk,  K-i.-nce  Monthly"  for  May,  lS8fi,  p.  6R.  f  Ibid.,  p.  69. 

)  I  *  -  \a  what  Dr  Waoo  is  thinking  about  when  he  wj%  tlist  I  allege  that 

Uwr*  "w  uu  •tiKJ^e  eicape"  from  the  supposition  of  an  "  Ur- Marcus**  (p.  82).  That  a 
"ibvologliaa  of  rrpatc"  should  confound  an  indiitpu tabic  fact  with  one  of  the  modes  of 
KSptiiah^  llut  face,  is  not  so  slugular  as  iboe«  who  arc  unaccustomed  to  the  ways  of 
thcaloi^iaofl  voU^i  imagiae. 

■^  wbow  dtjty  it  has  been  to  exatnlne  into  a  cspe  of  "copying"  »iU  be 
••|»ftf*»l  t'l  sppn'oittte  the  force  of  the  case  ^totcfl  m  that  most  cxoellent 
frtic  i-  of  iht*  S>no[iUc  Gofpel=,"  by  Dr.  Abbott  and  Jllr.  Rnitb- 

Vraokc'  '  >«hn  hitTe  riot  pa«$od  through  nuch  pAinfnl  cipcricnccs 

}  tBMj  rceoBunentl  tbi-  t»H'f  tliftt.'Ud^iion  of  the  [^nuincDesB  of  the  "Caskei  Letlen*"  in  my 
ftwnit  Mr.  Skcitun'*  intrrcating  hook,  "Maitland  of  Lethb^rton."  The  wcriDd  ciition  of 
llnWfniiaii't  **Lttbrbach,"  published  In  19Sa,  gives  a  rcsnarlcably  (air  and  full  account  of 


170 


one  of  the  most  valid  results  of  New  Testament  criticigm,  of  im- 
meaeuraMy  greater  importance  than  the  diecusfiion  about  dates 
and  aulborKhip. 

But  if,  as  I  believe  to  be  the  case,  beyond  any  rational  doubt 
or  dispute,  the  second  Gospel  is  the  nearest  extant  representative 
of  the  oldest  tradition,  whether  written  or  oral,  how  conies  it  that 
it  coutaina  neither  the  "Sermon  on  the  Mount"  nor  the  "Lord's 
Prayer,"  those  typical  embodiments,  according  to  Dr.  Wace,  of 
the  "  essential  belief  and  cardinal  teaching  "  of  Jesus  ?  Not  only 
does  "  Mark'ti  "Gospel  fail  to  contain  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Mount," 
or  anything  but  a  very  few  of  the  sayings  contained  in  tliut  col- 
lection ;  but,  at  the  point  of  the  history  of  Jesus  where  the  "  Ser- 
mon'' occurs  in  "Matthew,"  there  is  in  *'Mark"  an  ;i  My 
unbroken  narrative,  from  the  calling  of  James  and  J'-  lie 
healing  of  Simon's  wife's  mother.  Thus  the  oldest  tradition  not 
only  ignores  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  but,  by  implication, 
raises  a  probability  against  its  being  delivered  when  and  where 
the  later  *'  Matthew  "  inserts  it  in  his  compilation. 
I  And  still  more  weighty  is  the  fact  that  the  third  Gospel,  the 
fcnthor  of  which  tells  us  that  ho  wrote  after  "many"  others  had 
"taken  in  hand"  the  same  enterprise ;  who  should  therefore  have 
known  the  first  Gospel  (if  it  existed),  and  was  bound  to  pay  to  it 
the  deference  duo  to  the  work  of  an  apostolic  eye-witness  (if  be 
had  any  reason  for  thinking  it  was  so) — this  writer,  who  Pihibits 
far  more  literary  competence  than  the  other  two,  ignores  any 
"  Bennon  on  the  Mount,"  such  as  that  reported  by  "  Matthew," 
just  as  much  as  the  oldest  authority  does.  Yet  "Luke"  has 
a  groat  many  passages  identical,  or  parallel,  with  those  in  "Mat- 
thew's" "Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  which  are,  for  the  mo^t  i«ar^ 
scattered  about  in  a  totally  different  connection. 

Interpttsed,  however,  between  the  nomination  of  the  apoetlM 
■nd  a  visit  to  Capernaum ;  oc<;upying,  therefore,  a  place  whioh 
Answers  to  that  of  the  **  Sermon  on  the  Mount  '*  in  the  first  G<i8pel» 
there  is,  in  the  third  Gospel,  a  discourse  which  is  as  closely  almilAr 
to  the  "Sermon  on  the  Mount"  in  some  particulars,  as  it  is  widely 
tinlike  it  in  others. 

This  discourse  is  said  to  have  been  delivered  in  a  "plain"  or 
"  level  place  "  (Luko  vi,  1 7),  and  by  way  of  distinction  we  may  call 
it  flu*  "  Sermon  on  the  Plain." 

\  soo  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  two  evangelists  are  dcaliogt 


tv  a  I 
a  coii 


rit.  with  t 


i 


At  p«fe  SAIl  hf  write*  lh»l  lh*»  pn-^f-ot  hnmln^ 


critic*  diflvr/  and  ite  dcciUcs  in  r»Tor  oi  Muk. 


AGNOSTICISM:    A  REJOmDER, 


tp 


••  LuW«"  version  is  the  earlier.  The  correspondences  between  the 
tv  '  '  •  *  •'  tiou  that  they  are  independent.  They  both  begin 
V.  iessings,  some  of  ■whit:h  are  almost  verbally  iden- 

tkaL  In  the  middle  of  each  (Luke  vi,  37-3S,  Matthew  v,  43-48) 
there  is  a  striking  exposition  of  the  ethical  spirit  of  the  command 
given  in  Leviticus  xbc,  18.  And  each  ends  with  a  passage  contain- 
ing the  declaration  that  a  tree  is  to  be  known  by  its  fruit,  and  the 
parable  of  the  house  built  on  the  sand.  But  while  there  are  only 
twenty-nine  verses  in  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Plain/''  there  are  one 
hundre<1  and  aev(^n  in  the  **  Sermon  on  the  Mount  "  ;  the  excess  in 
length  of  the  latter  being  chiefly  due  to  the  long  interpolations, 
one  of  thirty  verses  before,  and  one  of  thirty-four  verses  after,  the 
midd''  "  '    mwith  Luke.    Under  the«e  circumstances, 

it  ta  •,  .  to  admit  that  there  is  more  probability  that 

•'Matthew's''  version  of  the  sermon  is  historically  accurate  than 
thoro  is  that  Luke's  version  is  so ;  and  they  can  not  both  be 
■ccurat«. 

"Luke"  either  knew  the  collection  of  loosely  connected  and 
aphoristic  utterances  which  appear  under  the  name  of  the  "Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount  *'  in  "  Matthew,"  or  he  did  not.  If  he  did  not, 
he  ma>it  have  been  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  such  a  document 
as  our  canonical  "  Matthew,"  a  fact  which  does  not  make  for  the 
genoinenoss  ur  the  authority  of  that  book.  If  he  did,  he  has 
gliown  that  he  does  not  care  for  its  authority  on  a  matter  of  fact 
of  no  STuall  importance ;  and  that  does  not  permit  us  to  conceive 
tliut  ho  believed  the  first  Gospel  to  be  the  work  of  an  authority  to 
•lit  to  defer,  let  alone  that  of  an  apostolic  eye-witness, 
1  ion  of  the  Church  about  the  second  Gospel,  which  I 

^believe  to  be  quite  worthless,  but  which  is  all  the  evidence  there  is 
t'~  "  V  rk'ii"  authorship,  would  havens  believe  that*'  Mark"  was 
li  •'  than  the  mouth-piece  of  the  apostle  Peter,    Consequent- 

ly,  weare  to  suppose  that  Peter  either  did  not  know,  or  did  not 
care  rery  much  for,  that  account  of  the  "  essential  belief  and  car- 
dinal teaching  "  of  Jesus  which  is  containe<l  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount ;  and,  certainly,  he  could  not  have  shared  Dr.  Wace's  view 
of  it«  imp«>rtance.» 

I  thought  that  al!  fairly  attentive  and  intelligent  students  of 
the  Qo*pi'l«,  to  say  nothing  of  theologians  of  reputation,  knew 
tiiesie  things.  But  how  can  any  one  who  does  know  them  have 
the  couficieDt^e  to  ask  whether  there  is  "  any  reasonable  doubt " 

•  UcJizma&D   '  n  ETmngelien,"  180S,  p.  75),  following  Ewald.  ar^ee  that 

iIm  "Sotiro*  A  **  I  I  tr&dltion,  more  or  Xa^)  contained  Aoraetbing  that  an- 

twnl  tu  llu  "SemiMH  on  ihe  Plaiu"  immwl'vatcly  after  the  words  of  our  present  Hark, 
"JImI  be  rametli  Into  %  hous«  "  (iii,  IP).  Hut,  what  conceirable  motive  could  "  Harti  '*  baro 
for  ociinliig  h  ?  Ilottsnana  bu  no  doubc,  hoirrTpr,  that  the  "'  Sermon  on  tfac  Mount  '*  ia 
*  ooninlMi'Ms  or,w  h«<sUi  U  In  his  recenilj  puhliihcd  *' t^irbucb"(p.  ST'i),  '*■&  artificial 
aonfevDcfc.** 


I 


4 


1731 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


tliat  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  preach(?d  by  Jesus  of  Nar-areth  ? 
If  conjecture  is  permissible,  where  notliing  else  is  j^ssiViIo,  tho 
most  probable  conjecture  seems  to  be  that  "Mntthew/'  huviug  % 
c^nh  of  sayings  attributed — rightly  or  wrongly  it  in  impojwiblo 
to  say — to  Jesus,  among  his  materials,  thought  they  were,  or  might 
be,  records  of  a  continuous  discourse,  and  put  them  in  at  tho  placo 
he  thought  likeliest.  Ancient  historians  of  the  highest  chanictor 
saw  no  harm  in  composing  long  speeches  which  never  Wf  re  spoken, 
and  putting  them  into  the  mouths  of  statesmen  and  warriors;  and 
I  presume  that  whoever  is  represented  by  "  Matthew  '*  would  hare 
been  grievously  astonished  to  find  that  any  one  objectetl  to  hia 
following  the  example  of  the  best  motlels  accessible  to  hinu 

So  with  the  "  Lord's  Prayer."  Absent  in  our  representative  of 
the  oldest  tradition,  it  api)ear8  in  both  "Matthew'' and  "Luke," 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  every  ]>ious  Jew,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  our  era,  prayed  three  times  a  day,  according  to  a  formula 
which  is  embodied  in  the  present  Schmone-Esre*  of  the  Jewish 
prayer-book.  Jesus,  who  was  assuredly,  in  all  respects,  a  pioua 
Jew,  whatever  else  he  may  have  been,  doubtless  did  tho  sama 
Whether  he  modified  the  current  formula,  or  whether  the  so-called 
"  Lord's  Prayer  "  is  the  prayer  substituted  for  the  Schmone-Esre 
in  tho  congregations  of  the  Gentiles,  who  knt'W  nothing  of  the 
Jewish  practice,  is  a  question  whicli  can  harrlly  be  answered. 

La  a  subsequent  passage  of  Dr.  Wace's  article  t  he  adds  to  the 
list  of  the  verities  which  he  imagines  to  be  unassailable,  ''The 
story  of  the  Passion."  I  am  not  quite  sure  what  he  means  by 
this — I  am  not  aware  that  any  one  (with  the  exception  of  certaia 
ancient  heretics)  has  propounded  doubts  as  to  the  reality  of  tho 
crucifixion;  and  certainly  I  have  no  inclination  to  argue  alw:>ut 
the  precise  accuracy  of  e\'ery  detail  of  that  pathetic  *itory  of  suffer- 
ing and  wrong.  But,  if  Dr.  Wace  means,  as  I  suppose  he  does, 
that  that  which,  according  to  the  orthodox  view,  happened  after 
the  crucifixion,  and  which  is,  in  a  dogmatic  sense,  the  most  impor* 
tant  part  of  the  story,  is  founded  on  solid  historical  proofs,  1  must 
beg  leave  to  express  a  diametrically  opposite  c»jnviction. 

What  do  we  find  when  the  accounts  of  the  events  in  ou-r^stioi 
contained  in  the  three  synoptic  Gospels,  are  compared  ' 
In  the  oldest,  there  is  a  simple,  straightforward  statemt^ui  wun 
for  anything  that  I  have  to  urge  to  the  contrary,  muy  be  exactly 
trua  In  the  other  two,  there  is,  round  this  posnible  and  probable 
nucleus,  a  mass  of  accretions  of  the  moet  --^i    *•  Tiable  chr^ *  - 

The  cruelty  of  death  by  crucifixion  .              I  very  m  n 

its  lingering  character.    If  there  were  a  support  for  the  f 

the  body,  as  not  unfrequently  was  the  case,  the  pain  d ^  ;**o 

*  Sec  SehOrer,  "Go*dilc<btc  d«a  jUdt*eli«ii  Volkc*,**  ZnHUt  TlivH,  p.  S8I. 
f  **r«iiuUr  SdoDor  Uouthlj  **  for  Uftjr,  ISB9,  p.  B». 


of  tlie  infliction  was  not,  necessarily,  extreme ;  nor  need 
jiu'iis  pliysical  symptoms  at  once  arise  from  the  wounds 
by  the  uaila  in  the  hands  and  feet,  supposing  they  were 
mdledy  which  was  not  invariably  the  case.  When  exhaustion  set 
in,  and  hun^r,  thirst,  and  nervous  irritation  hod  done  thoir  work, 
the  agony  of  the  sufferer  must  have  been  terrible ;  and  the  more 

■ible  that,  in  the  absence  of  any  effectual  disturbance  of  the 

•hinery  of  physical  life,  it  might  be  prolonged  for  many  houre, 
or  even  daya  Temperate,  strong  men,  such  as  the  ordinary  Gali- 
its  were,  might  live  for  several  days  on  the  cross.  It 
to  bear  these  facts  in  mind  when  we  read  the  account 
contained  in  the  fiftf,H>nth  cha])ter  of  the  sec-ond  Gospel. 

Jf^us  wag  crucified  at  the  third  hour  (xv,  25),  and  the  narrative 
i5m6  to  imply  that  he  died  immediately  after  the  ninth  hour  (r. 
34).  In  this  case,  he  would  have  been  crucified  only  six  hours; 
and  the  time  spent  on  the  cross  can  not  have  been  much  longer, 
because  Jose]>h  of  Arimathaea  must  have  gone  to  Pilate,  made  his 
preparations,  and  deposited  the  body  in  the  rock-cut  tomb  before 
guiiftet,  which,  at  that  time  of  the  year,  was  about  the  twelfth 
hour.  That  any  one  should  die  after  only  six  hours*  crucifixion 
could  not  have  been  at  all  in  accordance  with  Pilate's  large 
©xporicnce  in  tiu?  eflFects  of  that  methud  of  punishment.  It,  there- 
for&,  quite  agroo^  with  what  might  be  expected  if  Pilate  "  mar- 
yeh'<l  if  h*  'ready  dead,"  and  required  to  be  satisfied  on  this 

point  by  1 1  mony  of  the  Roman  officer  who  was  in  command 

of  the  execution  party.  Those  who  have  paid  attention  to  the  ex- 
traordinarily difficult  question.  What  are  the  indisputable  signs 
of  death  ? — will  be  able  to  estimate  the  value  of  tho  opinion  of  a 
rough  soldier  on  such  a  subject ;  even  if  his  report  to  the  procu- 
rator were  in  no  wise  affected  by  the  fact  that  the  friend  of  Jesus, 
who  anxiously  awaited  his  answer,  was  a  man  of  influence  and  of 
veoltk 

The  inanimate  body,  wrapped  in  linen,  was  deposite<l  in  a  spa- 
ciooa,'  cool,  rock  chamber,  the  entrance  of  which  was  closed,  not 
by  a  well-fitting  door,  but  by  a  stone  rolled  against  the  opening, 
which  would  of  course  allow  free  passage  of  air,  A  little  more 
than  thirty-six  hours  afterward  (Friday  6  P.  U.,  to  Sunday  6  A.  M^, 
or  a  little  after)  thrwi  womon  visit  the  tomb  and  find  it  empty. 
And  they  are  told  by  a  young  man  *'  arrayed  in  a  white  ro)>e  "  that 
JasuB  is  gone  to  his  native  country  of  Galilee,  and  that  the  disci- 
pT.  '  ry-'-.-n  j^w  f^mj  Jijui  there. 

1  rids,  plainly  recorded,  in  the  oldest  tradition  that, 
for  any  evidence  to  the  contrary,  the  sepulchre  may  have  been 
TBcatud  at  any  time  during  the  Friday  or  Saturday  nights.    If  it 


4 


a  ^fling  maa  could  tit  lu  It  '*  on  the  right  eide  "  Ur.  5\  oud  tbcre- 
tev  Tilb  plcst5  of  f^>om  U>  vparc. 


» 


I 

I 


dMfiwrtk 

of  saBGSorsfta 

«fth»lmr. 
an  flMlSMlioftfaeeMft  asiialed  bgrUtebl&st  eztut 
airmUwe  of  them.  I  do  ool  sev  vb jr  aa j  oob  doold  bare  a  wcrrd 
to  aaj  aipdxnt  tlia  iabveni  ptotmHSty  of  tbat  nanatxTe;  and,  for 
mf  paity  I  am  quxta  nadj  to  aenpt  It  aa  aa  Idrtorkal  fact,  that 
•o  mturh  and  bo  more  is  ponthnelj  kaown  of  tlw  end  of  Jena  of 
Kacareth.  On  niiat  grounds  can  a  rwajCTCubk  man  ba  aafcod  to 
beliara  any  more  ?  Bo  far  aa  the  naiiatita  in  th^  first  Goi^,  on 
tba  ona  hand,  and  thoM  in  the  third  Ooi^id  an  '  '^,00  the 

other  go  beyond  what  ift  stated  in  the  9eax>dOo^f^..^Liv.i  arehope- 
Itaalj  diAcr«pant  with  one  another.  And  this  ts  the  more  sigidfi- 
cant  becaaae  the  pregnant  phraae  ''aomadoahlBdY''  in  the  first  Gos- 
pel, is  ignored  in  the  third. 

But  it  is  sail]  that  we  hare  the  witness  Paul  speaking  to  na 
directly  in  th«  EpistleSb  There  is  little  donbt  that  we  hare,  and  a 
very  singular  witnifls  he  i&  According  to  his  own  showing,  Psol. 
in  the  Tigor  of  his  manhood,  with  every  means  of  hecoming  ac- 
qoaitttedy  at  fiiKi  hand,  with  the  eridenoe  of  ^  '"^am,  not 
marely  refoacd  to  credit  them,  bnt  'peraecutcd  oh  of  God 

and  made  havoc  of  it"  The  reaaoning  of  Stephen  fell  dead  npon 
the  acute  intellect  of  this  zealot  for  the  traditionfi  of  his  fathers: 
his  eyes  were  blind  to  the  ecstatic  illumiuatiou  of  the  martyr^ 
e(jUDt4.*nance  **  as  It  had  l»een  tlie  face  of  an  ungol  ^ ;  and  when,  at 
the  wordb  "  Behold,  I  see  the  heavens  opened  and  the  Son  of  man 
standing  on  the  right  hand  of  God/'  the  murderous  mob  mshed 
npf>n  M>^I  the  rnpt  diBciplo  of  Jesxis,  Paal  ostentatioasly 

ma^le  1:.... .  .1  tboir  official  accomplice. 

Yot  IhJA  strange  mhn,  because  he  has  a  vision  one  day, at  onoe, 
Ith  ♦•qiially  hwwllonR  zeal,  flie**  to  the  opposite  po1< 
And  hn  '\H  moRt  car».»ful  to  tell  n.s  that  h©  abstained  .y 

ra-examinaUoD  of  the  fxkcU^. 


lion*  I,  ID,  17.) 

I  do  not  pr 
fled  him.  tltnt 

not  c.i 

But  1 1  •  I  i.tiiM 


ill.  floph  urii]  '.!.'  . 
'frforo  mi',  I'Ni  1 


(  I  up  lu  Jvnu*- 


-  !         irrel  withPm" 

I  ;  ami,  if  it  ... 

i-ato  iiie  right  of  thn-t  pcreoa  to  b-  1. 

.>-  liio  riKht  t' **■"*  '*  "-^.-.i-i  "  » 

in  like  oft«o ;  thut  I  fihould  be  \  it 

it  could,  or  ought  to,  tMiti>4fy  me;  and  that  1  can  en(tuiain  but  a 


I 
I 


I 


I 


I 


^    Ken 


AOXOSTICISM:    A  REJOINDER. 

'if  the  value  of  the  evidence  of  people  who  are 
•  li  Lliii*  faj^hioiij  when  questions  of  objective  fact,  in 
ith  18  interested,  are  concerned.    So  that,  when  I  am 

wl  upvn  to  believe  a  great  deal  more  than  the  oldest  Gospel 

8  me  about  the  £aal  events  of  the  liistory  of  Jesus  on  the 
authority  of  Paul  (1  Corinthians  xv,  6-8),  I  must  pause.  Did  he 
think  it.  at  any  subsefjuent  time,  worth  while  "to  confer  with 
fleah  and  blood,"  or,  iu  modc^rn  phrase,  to  re-examine  the  facts  for 
himBelf  ?  or  was  he  ready  to  accept  an3^hing  that  fitted  in  with 
hia  pr-  ' '.  i>d  ideas  ?    Does  he  mean,  when  he  speaks  of  all  the 

appesi  1  f  Jesus  after  the  crucifixion  as  if  they  were  of  the 

ftome  kind,  that  they  were  all  visions,  like  the  manifestation  to 
himftolf  ?  And,  finally,  how  is  this  account  to  be  reconciled  with 
those  in  the  first  and  the  third  Gospels — which,  as  we  have  seen, 
disagree  with  one  another  ? 

Until  these  questions  are  satisfactorily  answered,  I  am  afraid 
tliat,  8ti  far  as  I  am  concerned,  Paul's  testimony  can  not  be  seri- 
o  Lrdtnl,  except  as  it  may  afiFord  evidence  of  the  state  of 

tr« jJ  opinion  at  the  time  at  which  he  wrote,  say  between  55 

and  00  A.  P. ;  that  is,  more  than  twenty  years  after  the  event ;  a  pe- 
ri 'i  iiuire  than  sufficient  for  the  development  of  any  amount 
C'l  ...;  ..  i'jgy  abotit  matters  of  which  nothing  was  really  known. 
A  few  yoara  later,  among  the  contemporaries  and  neighbors  of  the 
J-  ....  ^  probable  iuttfi-])retation  of  the  Apocalypse 
c-i  c^  the  followers  of  Jesus  also,  it  was  fully 
boiioTe<l,  in  spite  of  all  evidence  to  the  contrary,  that  the  Emperor 
Nero  war*  i    '        !;y  dead, but  that  he  was  hidden  away  somewhere 

tho  En-  .  ould  speedily  come  again  at  the  head  of  a  great 

y,  to  be  revt«nged  ujwn  his  enemies. 

Thus,  I  conceive  that  I  have  shown  cause  for  the  opinion  that 
Dr.  Waco's  challenge  touching  the  Sermon  on  the  Moimt,  the 


V  '  'jer  I  believe  him,  or  in  him,*  or  not  I    As  Dr. 

"NN  ..  ,  .  -. :  I  have  dissipated  his  lingering  shade  of  unbelief 

al»out  the  bedevihnent  of  the  Gadarene  pigs,  he  might  have  done 
somothintr  "  ';►  mine.  Instead  of  that,  he  manifests  a  total 
Irani  of  f  ^  n\  of  the  nature  of  the  obstacles  which  impede 
tho  obnvorsion  of  his  **  infidels.'^ 

The  trutli  I  believe  to  be,  that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 

*  1  «m  Trry  ttary  tax  ihc  InrcrpolAt^xl  *Mti,**  bccaiuic  dution  ou.ght  to  bv  arciimtc  tn 
^hH  UibCB  •»  hi  igt^mu  Bui  wluit  djffurenoe  U  niikcs  wlioibcT  ont*  "believMi  Jesus'*  or 
**bdi*vci  ia  Jon*  **  niucli  tlHnigbt  ha«  not  eiublcd  mv  to  diecot^cr.  If  rmi  "  b«*licvc  him  " 
)«n  mim%  ImKcv^  Urn  to  b«  «ba(  b«  pnifcucd  to  be — that  U,  "  believe  lo  bim  '* ;  uiU  if  juu 
**  bali«f«  la  talB"  yaa  mact  BcntuMrily  **  btftieve  hlni.** 


■ 
I 


I 


• 

Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Passion,  was  more  valorous  than  discreet,  fl 
^  After  all  tlus  discussion,  I  am  still  at  the  agnostic  point.  Tell  me,  ■ 
^H     first,  what  Jesus  can  be  proved  to  have  been,  said,  and  done,  and  1     H 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOSTHLT, 


I 


arriving  at  a  sure  conclusion  ae  to  these  matterfi,  from  t^  n 

on  tlie  Mount,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  any  other  (lata  offci ..  :iid 

synoptic  Gospels  (and  aforiiori  from  the  fourth  Qospc'I)  are  insu- 
perable. Every  one  of  these  records  is  colore<l  by  the  ;  -" 
fiions  of  those  among  whom  the  primitive  traditions  ai"  if 
those  by  whom  they  were  collected  and  edited ;  and  the  diificidty 
of  making  allowance  for  theae  prepossessions  is  enhanced  by  our 
ignorance  of  the  exact  datc»a  at  which  the  documents  were  first 
put  together ;  of  the  extent  to  which  they  have  been  subsequently 
worke<i  over  and  interpolated ;  and  of  the  historical  sonse,  or  waai 
of  sense,  and  the  dogmatic  tendencies,  of  their  compiltTs  aurl  edit- 

's.    Let  us  see  if  there  is  any  other  road  which  will  tAke  xi»  into 

>mething  better  than  negation- 
There  is  a  wide-spread  notion  that  the  "  primitive  Church,** 
while  under  the  guidance  of  the  apostles  and  their  immi3diato 
successors,  was  a  sort  of  dogmatic  dove-cote,  pervaded  by  the  most 
loving  unity  and  doctrinal  hamoony.  Protestants,  especially,  are 
fond  of  attributing  to  themselves  the  merit  of  being  nearer  "the 
Church  of  the  apostles "  than  their  neighbors ;  and  they  are  the 
less  to  be  excused  for  their  strange  delusion  because  they  are  great 
readei's  of  the  dt>cuments  which  prove  the  t^xact  contrary.  The 
fact  is  that,  in  the  course  of  the  first  three  centuries  of  its  exist* 
ence,  the  Church  rapidly  underwent  a  process  of  evolution  of  the 
most  remarkable  character,  the  final  stage  of  which  is  far  more 
different  from  the  first  than  Anglicanism  is  irom  Quakeri.siiu 
The  key  to  the  comprehension  of  the  problem  of  the  origin  of 
that  which  is  now  chilled  "  Christianity,"  and  its  relation  to  Je^u« 
of  Nazareth,  lies  here.  Nor  can  we  arrive  at  any  sound  conclusion 
to  what  it  is  probable  that  Jesus  actually  said  and  did  wit Itout 

sing  clear  on  this  head.  By  far  the  most  important  and  sub«j* 
quently  influential  steps  in  the  evolution  of  Christiituity  took 
place  in  the  course  of  the  century,  more  or  less,  winch  followed 
ujKin  the  cnicifixion.  It  is  almost  the  darkest  pericnl  of  Cliurcb 
history,  but,  most  fortunately,  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
period  are  brightly  illuminated  by  the  contemporary  ev:  '  r — .f 
two  writers  of  whose  historical  existence  there  is  no  d'  J 

against  the  genuineness  of  whose  most  important  works  thcnij  '\% 
no  widely  admitte<l  objection.  Those  are  Justin,  the  pli-'  •  '  'T 
and  martyr,  and  Paul,  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles.    I  II 

upon  these  witnesses  only  to  testify  to  the  condition  of  opiuivu 
among  those  who  called  thomselves  discipli^s  of  J"^'w  mi  their 
tima 

Justin,  in  his  dialogue  with  Tr>iiho  t^     t          -  ,3 

jwhere  al^out  the  middle  of  the  ^'  .     s 

*  TViM  for  JuAtIo  1  but  |K«fo  b  •  tehool  of  tb««loftlcftl  critic*,  who  mor*  or  !«<•  f^aMUott 
iW  Unoricd  TtiL\\\f  ot  Piool  toJ  \ht  giiilp«<w  of  «f«B  t^  four  o»nllDftl  •|fUtl««i 


I 


177 


observe  the  lav, 
tbe  law 


cetriAin  categories  of  persons  ■who,  in  his  opinioQ,  will,  or  wnll  not, 
^a  BavecL*    TLeso  are : 

^fl,  Orthitdox  Jews  who  refuse  to  believe  that  Jesns  is  the 
Christ.     Noi  saved, 

2.  Jews  who  observe  the  law  ;  believe  Josus  to  be  the  Christ ; 
]>Bt  who  insist  on  the  observauce  of  the  law  by  Gentile  converts. 

3.  Jews  who  observe  the  law;  believe  Jesus  to  be  the  Christ,  and 
hoM  th«t  Ot*utile  converts  need  not  obsei've  the  law.  Saved  (in  Jus- 
tiii  [neof  his  fellow -Christians  think  the  contrary). 

•;rts  to  the  belief  in  Jesus  as  the  Christ,  who 
Saved  (possibly).  | 

'  era  in  Jesus  aa  the  Christ,  who  do  not  observe 
-  {except  so  far  as  the  refusal  of  idol  sa^^rifices), 

but  do  not  consider  those  who  do  observe  it  heretics.    Saved  (this 

U  Justin's  own  new). 

6.  Gentile  believers  who  do  not  observe  the  law  except  in 
rofusing  idol  sacritices,  and  hold  those  who  do  observe  it  to  be 
Loreticfi.    Saved. 

7.  Gentiles  who  believe  Jesus  to  be  the  Christ  and  call  them- 
selves Christians,  bnt  who  eat  meats  sacrificed  to  idols.    Not  saved, 

8.  Gentiles  who  dLsbelieve  in  Jesus  as  the  Christ.     Not  saved. 
Jufitiu  does  not  consider  Christians  who  believe  in  the  natural 

birth  of  Jesus,  of  whom  ho  implies  that  thei-e  is  a  respectable^ 
minority,  to  be  heretics,  though  ho  himself  strongly  holds  the  pre-! 
tematural  birth  of  Jesus  and  his  pre*existenee  as  the  "  Logos'*  or 
"  Word."  He  conceives  the  Logos  to  be  a  second  God,  inferior  to 
the  first,  unknowable,  Gr>d,  with  respect  to  whom  Justin,  like 
Fbilo,  is  u  complete  agnostic.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  not  regarded 
byjuiftin  a^  a  se]>ftrate  personality,  and  is  often  mixed  up  with 
the  "  Logos."  The  doctrine  of  the  natural  immortality  of  the 
soul  1»,  for  Ja8tin,  a  heresy ;  and  he  is  as  firm  a  believer  in  the 
fwrarrection  of  the  body  as  in  the  speedy  second  coming  and  the 
eeUblishment  of  the  millennium. 

Th-  f  the  Church  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century — 

In  much  ...- ...    1  native  of  Samaria — was  cert^iinly  well  acquainted 
with  Rome,  probably  with  Alexandria,  and  it  is  likely  that  he 
lanion  throxighout  the  length  and  breadth  ofc 
:  as  well  as  any  man  of  his  time.    If  the  variouB 
categories  above  eumnerated  are  arranged  in  a  series  thus —         l 
■Auriii'i  Ckriitianfl^.  I 

^P  /miatmm. .  ChrixtiQnity.    Peifj>tnigm, 

^       t  n  in        rv        V        n        vn  \i\\ 


I 


rti..!  .-. 


MC 


•ccUooa  47  asd  35.     Ik  la  to  be  uDderstood  tliat  JuaUn 
tn  order  om  I  havo  done. 


178 


THE  POPULAR  SCTEI^CS  MOrTTRLT, 


it  is  obvious  that  they  form  a  gradational  wriea  from  orthodox 
Judaism,  ou  the  extreme  left,  to  paganism,  whether  philosophic 
or  popular,  on  the  extreme  right ;  and  it  will  further  bo  observed 
that,  while, Justin's  conception  of  Christianity  is  very  broad,  be 
rigoroasly  excludes  two  classes  of  persons  who,  in  his  time,  called 
themselves  Christians;  namely,  those  who  insist  on  circumcision 
and  other  observances  of  the  law  on  the  part  of  Gentile  converts ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  strict  Judffo-Christians  (II),  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  those  who  assert  the  lawfulness  of  eating  meat  offered  to 
idols — whether  they  are  gnostics  or  not  (VII).  Those  last  I  have 
called  "  idolothytic"  Christians,  because  I  can  not  devise  a  better 
name,  not  because  it  is  strictly  defensible  etymologically. 

At  the  present  moment  I  do  not  suppose  there  is  an  English  mis- 
sionary in  any  heathen  land  who  would  trouble  himself  whether 
the  materials  of  his  dinner  had  been  previously  offered  to  idols  or 
not.  On  the  other  hand,  I  suppose  there  is  no  Protestant  sect 
within  the  pale  of  orthodoxy,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Churches,  which  would  hesitate  to  declare  the  practice  of 
circumcision  and  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  diet- 
ary rules,  shockingly  hereticaL 

Modern  Christianity  has,  in  fact,  not  only  shifted  far  to  the 
right  of  Justin's  position,  but  it  is  of  much  narrower  compass. 


JwffWk 


I 


Judt»-  CArutiamUf. 


Mwkm  Chrialianitjt, 


II 


m 


vr 


VI 


vn 


vm 


For,  though  it  includes  VII,  and  even,  in  saint  and  relic  worship, 
cuts  a  *'  monstrous  cantle"  out  of  paganism,  it  excludes,  not  only 
all  JudeBo-Christians,  but  all  who  doubt  that  such  are  heretics. 
Ever  since  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Inquisition  would  have 
cheerfully  burned,  and  in  Spain  did  abundantly  bum,  all  i)erson8 
who  came  under  the  categories  II,  III,  IV,  V,  And  the  wolf  would 
play  the  same  havoc  now  if  it  could  only  get  its  blood-stained  jaws 
free  from  the  muzzle  imposed  by  the  secular  arm. 

Further,  there  is  not  a  Protestant  body  except  the  Unitarian, 
which  would  not  declare  Justin  himself  a  heretic,  on  account  of 
his  doctrine  of  the  inferior  godship  of  the  Log<w;  while  I  am  very 
much  afraid  that,  in  strict  logic.  Dr.  Wace  would  he  under  the 
necessity,  so  painful  to  him,  of  calling  him  an  "  infidel/'  on  the 
same  and  on  other  grounds. 

Now  let  us  turn  to  our  other  authority.  If  ih^re  i«  any  r^ffnlt 
of  critical  investigations  of  the  sources  of  CI  i» 

certain,*  it  is  that  Paul  of  Tarsua  wrote  the  Li.a..^  i>  i^u  ^,^lm- 


*  I  guard  mynrU  if^AloM  befog  mppoMd  lo  »&m  (hu  «««a  th«  four  otrtlAAl  «pt 
of  P««l  mij  Dol  bar*  boea  tcriooBtj  tsmpflred  wlih.    Set  oO  «  oa  p«f*  1T9. 


4 


H 


I 


AGNOSTICISM:    A  REJOINDER. 


^ 


^^MjiMBMI^Kre  between  the  years  55  and  60  a,  d.^  that  is  to  say, 
rMj^HQTf  tl***^ty,  or  five-and-twenty,  years  after  the  crucifixion. 
If  this  \»  so,  the  Epistle  to  the  Qalatiaus  is  one  of  the  oldest,  if 
not  the  very  olde^it,  of  extant  documentary  evidences  of  the  state 
of  the  primitive  Church.  And,  be  it  observed,  if  it  is'Paul  s  writ- 
ing, it  unquestionably  furnishes  us  with  the  evidence  of  a  partici- 
pat4^>r  in  the  triinsiR'tioiis  narrated.  With  the  exception  of  two  or 
three  of  the  other  Pauline  epistles,  there  is  not  one  solitary  book 
in  the  New  Testament  of  the  authorship  and  authority  of  which 
we  have  such  good  evidence. 

And  what  is  iLe  state  of  things  we  find  disclosed  ?  A  bitter 
quarrel,  in  his  account  of  which  Paul  by  no  means  minces  matters 
or  hesitates  to  hurl  «lefiant  sarcasms  against  those  who  were  *'  re- 
puted to  be  pillars  *' :  James, "  the  brother  of  the  Lord,"  Peter,  the 
rock  on  whom  Jesus  is  said  to  have  built  his  Church,  and  John, 
^tih^  beloved  disciple."  And  no  deference  toward  *'the  rock" 
^Kthholds  Paul  from  charging  Peter  to  his  face  with  "  dissimu- 
lation." 

The  subject  of  the  hot  dispute  was  simply  this :  Were  Gentile 
converts  bound  to  obey  the  law  or  not  ?  Paul  answered  in  the 
negative;  and,  acting  upon  his  opinion,  had  created  at  Antioch 
(and  elsewhere)  a  specifically  "Christian"  community,  the  sole 
qunlificAtions  for  admission  into  which  were  the  confession  of  the 
.Jb/^gl  that  Jesus  was  the  MeBsiali,  and  baptism  upon  that  confes- 
'^■B'  In  the  e{Hstle  in  question,  Paul  puts  this — his  *' g(38pel,"  as 
be  calls  it — in  its  moHt  extreme  form.  Not  only  does  ho  deny  the 
necessity  of  conformity  with  the  law,  but  he  declares  such  con- 
formity to  have  a  negative  value,  "  Behold,  I,  Paul,  say  unto  you, 
that  if  ye  receive  circumcision,  Christ  will  profit  you  nothing " 
(Qalatians  v,  2).  He  calls  the  legal  observances  "  beggarly  rudi- 
meota,"  and  anathematizes  every  one  who  preaches  to  the  Oala- 
liana  any  other  gospel  than  his  own — that  is  to  say,  by  direct  con- 
aaqoence,  he  anathematizes  the  Jerusalem  Nazarenes  whose  zeal 
for  the  law  ia  testified  by  James  in  a  passage  of  the  Acts  cited 
further  on.  In  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  dealing  with 
the  question  of  eating  meat  offered  to  idols,  it  is  clear  that  Paul 
hinuelf  thinks  it  a  matter  of  indifPerence ;  but  he  advises  that  it 
should  not  be  done,  for  the  sake  of  the  weaker  brethren.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Nazarenos  of  Jerusalem  most  strenuously  opposed 
Paul's  "  gospel,"  insisting  on  every  convert  becoming  a  regular 
Jewish  proselyte,  and  consequently  on  his  observance  of  the  whole 
Law ;  and  this  party  was  led  by  James  and  Peter  and  John  (Gala- 
tiaaa  ii,  0).  Paul  docs  not  suggest  that  the  question  of  principle 
was  nettled  by  the  disctission  referred  to  in  Qalatians.  All  he 
aays  is  that  it  ended  in  the  practical  agreement  that  he  and  Bar- 
nabas should  do  as  they  had  been  doing  in  resj>ect  of  the  Gentiles ; 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MOyTHlT. 


while  Jamofl  and  Peter  and  Jolm  eLould  deal  \i\  iheir  own  faahino 
witli  Jewish  converts.  Afterward  he  comi>laius  bitterly  of  Ptiter^ 
because,  when  on  a  visit  to  Antioch,  he  at  first  inclined  to  Pad's 
view,  and  ato  witli  the  Gentile  converts  ;  but  wheu  "  c  ' 
from  Jiimes,"  **drew  buck,  and  separated  kimscdf,  f».i 
that  wei*e  of  ihe  circumcisiou.  And  the  rest  of  the  Jews  duaem* 
bled  likewise  vrith  him ;  insomucb  that  even  Barnabas  wiw  carnod 
away  with  their  dissimulation  "  (Galatians  ii,  1!J,  13). 

There  is  but  one  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  Paul's  aooonxit 
of  this  famous  dispute,  the  settlement  of  which  detonuined  Ui» 
fortunes  of  the  nascent  religion.  It  is  that  the  disciplea  at  Jeni- 
salcra,  headed  by  "  James,  the  Lord's  brother,"  and  by  the  ' 

apostles,  Peter  and  John,  were  strict  Jews,  who  objected  U 

any  converts  to  their  body,  unless  these,  either  by  birth  or  by  bfr 
coming  jjroselytes,  were  also  strict  Jews.  In  fact,  the  S(il-- 
ence  between  James  and  Peter  aud  John,  with  the  b<:Miy  oi  ,. 
pies  whom  they  led,  and  the  Jews  by  whom  they  were  6urxx>tuid«d, 
and  with  whom  they  for  many  years  slmrnl  the  relij^ious  nbs<m?- 
ances  of  the  Temple,  was  that  they  believed  that  the  Messiah, 
whom  the  leaders  of  the  nation  yet  looked  for,  had  alretidy  oomo, 
in  the  pei*son  of  Jesus  of  Nazaretlu 

The  Acts  of  the  A}M>Ht]es  is  hardlj'a  very  trustworthy  history; 
it  is  certainly  of  later  date  than  the  Pauline  epistles,  supposing 
them  to  be  geauine.  And  the  WTiter*s  version  of  the  cOQfe>renci* 
of  which  Paul  gives  so  graphic  a  description,  if  that  is  correct,  W 
unroiKtakably  colored  with  all  the  art  of  a  reconciler,  anxious  to 
cover  up  a  scandal.  But  it  is  none  the  less  instructive  on  this 
account.  The  judgment  of  the  "council"  delivered  by  Jamas  is 
tlrjit  tli(*  Otritilu  cronvorts  shall  merely  "abstain  from  t^  ri* 

lirv'i  U}  iiliiU,  and  from  bhxxi  and  from  tilings  strangk-i,  ,„  i  -:jm 
foruication."  But  notwithHtaudiug  the  accommodation  in  which 
tlio  writer  of  the  Acts  w<jnld  have  us  believe,  the  Jerusalem 
church  held  to  its  endeavor  to  retain  the  observance  of  the  law, 
I»ng  after  the  conference,  some  time  after  the  writing  of  tlie 
Epistk's  to  the  Galatians  and  Corinthians^  and  immediately  after 
thi*  dispatch  of  that  to  the  Romans,  Paul  uiakes  liis  last  visit  ti) 
Jerusalem,  and  pres*:*nt8  himself  to  James  and  all  tlie  elders.  Aod 
this  is  what  the  Acts  tells  us  of  the  interview : 

And  thoj  aaiJ  onto  him,  Thou  stKist,  brother,  how  xum\j  thoatands  (or  myr^- 
adn)  Lbvrt*  are  uinuiig  the  Juwa  of  them  ^vbiAh  have  brlitfvcd;  uiil  tboj  orv  all 
zoftlons  for  tho  Iaw  ;  an4  the;  bavo  bc^u  iufitnutMl  cunoerxiixi^  Uice.  cli«t  lli^ni 
t4mohort  nil  tho  Jowii  which  aro  among  tli«  (jundled  tu  furMko  U<j«c>s  teUia^' 
th(<m  tiot  to  elmumciito  tbohr  chiUtmn,  neithor  to  walk  after  tli«  custom*  (AoU 
xxl,  20,  21). 

They  therefore  request  that  ho  should  [>erform  a  Dertain  pablio  n- 
ligious  art  in  Uie  Templo^  in  onlor  that 


WyOSTfcTSUTAREJOfWDER, 


t8t 


•II  itholl  Iniow  tiiai  tliere  is  nu  truth  in  tbo  tiling  wlioreof  thoj  liAve  bcea  in- 
fc^nziml  cv>tK«miDS  theo;  but  that  tbou  thjseU  walkest  orJerljr,  keotting  the  law 
(Ibid^  S4), 

How  far  PtiiU  could  do  what  he  is  hero  requested  to  do,  and 
wh'  '     '  r  of  the  Acts  goes  on  to  siiy  ho  did,  with  a  clear 

1      con  ■■  wrote  llie  epi.'^tles  to  the  GalutiaiiH  and  Corinth- 

H  SanBr  1  tu^y  lottve  any  candid  reader  of  those  epistles  to  decide. 
^  The  point  to  which  I  wish  to  direct  attention  is  the  declaration 
J  that  the  Jerusalem  church,  led  by  the  brother  of  Jesus  and  by  his 
H  |jorsonal  disciples  anil  friends^  twenty  years  and  more  after  his 
^^^tbth,  consisted  of  strict  and  zealous  Jews. 

^UpTertnllus,  the  orator,  canng  very  little  about  the  internal  dissen- 
'  j^n^  of  the  followers  of  Jesus,  speaks  of  Paul  oh  a  "  ringleader  of 
^  ibo  isect  of  the  Nazarenes"  (Acts  xxiv,  5),  which  must  have  af- 
B /octtHl  James  much  in  the  same  way  as  it  would  have  moved  the 
^■^chbi^hup  of  Canterbury,  in  George  Fox's  day,  to  hear  the  lattt^r 
^HAlvI  a  '*  ringkuidor  of  the  sect  of  Anglicans."  In  fm-t, "  Nazarene  " 
WMj  OS  is  well  known,  the  distinctive  appellation  applied  to  Jesus ; 
bis  ■  'i;ite  folhjwers  were  known  as  Nazarenes,  while  the  con- 

giv:  f  the  disoiplt^s,  and,  later,  of  converts  at  Jerusalem — 

the  Jemsalem  church — was  emphatically  the  "sect  of  the  Naza- 
renes,"  no  more  in  itself  to  be  regarded  as  anything  outside  Juda- 
imn  than  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees  or  of  the  Essenes.*  In  fact,  the 
tenets  of  both  the  Sa<lducees  and  the  Esaenes  diverged  much 
widely  from  the  Pharisaic  standard  of  orthodoxy  than  Naz- 
ism did. 
Let  us  consider  the  position  of  affairs  now  (a.  d.  50-GO)  in  rela- 
tion tj  that  which  obtained  in  Justin's  time,  a  centuiT"  later.  It 
is  plain  that  the  Nazareues — presided  over  by  James  '*  the  brother 
oft"  '  T/'  and  comprising  within  their  body  all  the  twelve 
Bpi  t'longed  to  Justin's  second  category  of  "Jews  who  ob- 

•erre  the  law,  believe  Jesus  to  be  the  Cbrist,  but  who  insist  on 
theobti.  of  the  law  by  Gentile  converts,"  up  till  the  time 


At  whii 


atroversy  reported  by  Paul  arose.    They  then,  ac- 


cording lo  Paul,  simply  allowed  him  to  form  his  congregation  of 
* 'b'-ntilo  converts  at  Antioch  and  elsewhere;  and  it  would 
wna  lo  these  converts,  who  would  come  under  Justin's 
fifth  cjitegory,  that  the  title  of  "Christian  "  was  fii*st  applied.  If 
any  of  thitse  Cliristians  ha<l  aeted  upon  the  more  tlian  half-i)or- 
mtsaion  eireii  by  Paul,  and  bad  eaten  meats  offered  to  idols,  they 
wo  d  to  Justin's  seventh  category. 

i.  ..  ,  .:  ..,  ,  „:;^  that,  if  Justin's  opinion,  which  was  doubtless 
iLftt  of  the  ithurch  generally  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
va«  correct,  James  and  Peter  and  John  and  their  followers  could 

*  AO  UUtt  vms  qnUf  clcsrl^  pofntal  oni  by  Ritsclil  ncArlj  fortj  ycara  ago.     Seo  "  Die 
Inuirtiwig  d«r  alt  Lilboljaoliun  Eirdie  "  (180O),  p.  106. 


THE  POPULAR  SCUSXCE  MONtm 


ft 


not  be  saved;  neither  could  Paul,  if  he  carried  into  practice  hk 
views  as  to  the  indifference  of  eating  meats  offerod  to  idols.  Or, 
to  put  the  matter  another  way,  the  center  of  gravity  of  orthodozyt 
which  is  at  the  extreme  right  of  the  series  in  the  nineteenth  oont- 
ury,  was  at  the  extreme  lef t^  just  before  the  middle  of  the  first 
century,  when  the  "sect  of  the  Nazarenes"  constituted  the  whole 
church  founded  by  Jesus  and  the  apostles;  while, in  the  time  of 
Justin,  it  lay  midway  between  the  two.  It  is  therefore  a  profound 
mistake  to  imagine  that  the  Judmo-Christians  (Nazarenos  and 
Ebionites)  of  later  times  were  heretical  outgrowths  from  a  primi- 
tive, universalist  ^'  Christianity.*'  On  the  contrary,  the  universal* 
ist "  Christianity  "  is  an  outgrowth  from  the  primitive,  purely  Jew* 
ish,  Nazarenism;  which,  gradually  eliminating  all  the  ceremonial 
and  dietary  parts  of  the  Jewish  law,  has  thrust  aside  its  parent, 
and  all  the  intermediate  stages  of  its  development,  into  the  pom- 
tion  of  damnable  heresies. 

Such  being  the  case,  we  are  in  a  position  to  form  a  safe  judg- 
ment of  the  limits  within  which  the  teaching  of  Jesus  of  Naza* 
reth  must  have  been  confined.  Ecclesiastical  authority  would 
have  us  believe  that  the  words  which  are  given  at  the  end  of  th« 
first  Gospel,  *'  Go  ye,  therefore,  and  make  disciples  of  all  the  nA- 
,tions,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son 
kd  of  the  Holy  Ghost^"  are  part  of  the  last  commands  of  Jesiu, 
Issued  at  the  moment  of  his  parting  with  the  eleven.  If  so,  Peter 
and  John  must  have  lieanl  these  words ;  they  are  too  plain  to  be 
inderstood ;  and  the  occasion  is  too  solenui  for  them  to  be  ever 
'forgotten.  Yet  the  "  Acts  "  tells  us  that  Peter  needed  a  vision  to 
enable  him  so  much  as  tc*  baptize  Cornelius;  and  Paul,  in  tho  Ga- 
latians,  knows  nothing  of  words  which  would  have  completely 
borne  him  out  as  against  those  who,  though  they  heard,  must  be 
supposed  to  have  either  forgotten  or  ignored  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  Peter  and  John,  who  are  supposed  to  have  hfnrd  the  "Sar- 
men  on  the  Mount,"  know  nothing  of  the  saying  that  Jesus  had 
not  oome  to  destroy  the  law,  but  that  every  jot  and  tittle  of  th« 
law  must  be  fulfilled,  which  surely  would  have  boon  pretty  good 
evidence  for  their  view  of  the  question. 

We  are  sometimes  told  that  the  personal  friends  and  daily 
companions  of  Jesus  '  ■!  zealous  Jews  and  op|H>8ed  Paurs 

innovations.  becauM  tl)  ,  i  >•  hard  of  heart  and  dull  of  compre- 
hension. This  hypothesis  is  hardly  in  accordance  with  the  con- 
comitant faith  of  those  who  adopt  it,  in  the  miraculous  insight  and 
8U|)erhuman  sagacity  of  tlicir  Master;  nor  do  1  H*»e  any  way  of 
getting  it  to  hamionize  with  the  other  orthtxlox  i  ly, 

that  Matthew  was  the  author  of  th'"  *—* '-'"■'  '  -'■ iiie 

fourth.    If  that  is  so,  then,  moat  w  was  no  dul- 

lard ;  and  as  for  the  fourth  Qospel— h4  U^eo^ophlc  romance  of  the 


4 
I 

I 

i 


« 


AOXOSTICISM:    A   REJOINBEIt, 


«83 


^1      pliiloso] 
^H  Goepul  j 


first  onler — it  could  have  lH?en  written  by  none  bnt  a  man  of 
remarkable  literary  capacity,  who  had  dnink  deep  of  Alexandrian 
philosophy.  Moreover,  the  doctrine  of  the  writer  of  the  fourth 
Goepul  is  more  remote  from  that  of  the  "  sect  of  the  Nazarenes  " 
that  of  Paul  himself.  I  am  quite  aware  that  orthodox  crit- 
e  been  capable  of  maintaining  that  John,  the  Nazarene, 
who  was  probably  well  past  fifty  years  of  age  when  he  ia  supposed 
to  have  writU»n  the  most  thoroughly  Judaizing  book  in  the  New 
Testament — the  Apocalypse — in  the  roughest  of  Greek,  under- 
went an  aatounding  metamorphosis  of  both  doctrine  and  style 
by  the  time  ho  reached  the  ripe  age  of  ninety  or  so,  and  pro- 
Tided  the  world  with  a  history  in  which  the  acutest  critic  can 
not  make  out  where  the  speeches  of  Jesus  end  and  the  text  of 
the  narrative  begins ;  while  that  narrative  is  utterly  irreconcila- 
ble in  regard  to  matters  of  fact  with  that  of  his  fellow-apostle, 
Matthew. 


The  end  of  the  whole  matter  is  this :  The  "  sect  of  the  Naza- 
rene*,"  the  brother  and  the  immediate  followers  of  Jesus,  commis- 
sioned by  him  as  apostles,  and  those  who  were  taught  by  them  up 
to  the  3'ear  fiO  a.  d.,  were  not  "  Christians  "  in  the  sense  iu  which 
that  term  has  been  imderstood  ever  since  its  asserted  origin  at 
Antioch»  but  Jews— strict  orthodox  Jews— whose  belief  in  the  Mes- 
Biahship  of  Jesuit  never  led  to  their  exclusion  from  the  Temple 
senricefl,  nor  would  have  shut  them  out  from  the  wide  embrace  of 
Judaism.*  The  open  proclamation  of  their  special  view  about  the 
Hetsiah  was  doubtless  offensive  to  the  Pharisees,  just  as  rampant 
Low  Churchism  is  offensive  to  bigote*!  High  Churchism  in  our 
own  country ;  or  as  any  kind  of  dissent  is  offensive  to  fervid  relig- 
of  all  creeds.  To  the  Sadducees,  no  doubt,  the  i>olitical  dan- 
of  any  Messianic  movement  was  serious,  and  they  would  have 
been  glad  to  put  down  Nazarenism,  lest  it  should  end  in  useless 
TobvlHon  against  their  Roman  masters,  like  that  other  Galilean 
movement  headed  by  Judas,  a  generation  earlier.  Qalilee  was 
always  a  hot-l»ed  of  swHtious  enthusiasm  against  the  rule  of  Rome ; 
and  high  priest  and  procurator  alike  had  need  to  keep  a  sharp  eye 
upon  natives  of  that  district.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  Naza- 
ranos  wer«.»  but  little  troubled  for  the  first  twenty  years  of  their 
existence ;  and  the  undying  hatred  of  the  Jews  against  those  later 
converts  wh(»m  they  regarded  as  apostates  and  fautors  of  a  sham 
^1''  ^as  awakened  by  Paul.     From  their  point  of  view,  he 

Bla  <*  renegade  Jew,  opposed  alike  to  orthodox  Judaism  and 

to  orthodox  Nazarenism,  and  whose  teachings  threatened  Judaism 

*  **lf  •vvTf  oiw  «!■  b»ptiwd  M  looa  ui  h«  acknowledpfd  Jomui  to  1>«  the  &fe$mh,  Cbe 
inACMMlsM  era  bftT«  be«n  awsre  of  do  otiwr  e«KnU&I  Uifforcncei  from  the  Jews." — 
Zrfkr,  *"  VortrtfiB"  <lMd).  p.  216. 


with  duatniction.  And,  from  tlioir  point  of  vievF,  tliey  wore  quitd 
iigbt.  In  the  course  of  a  century,  Pauline  influences  htwl  a  Inrgo 
iihare  in  driving  primitive  Nazarenism  from  being  the  very  heart 
of  the  new  faith  into  the  poBition  of  scouted  error;  and  the  spirit 
of  Paul's  doctrine  continued  its  work  of  driving  Christianity  fur- 
ther and  further  away  from  Judaism,  imtil "  meats  offered  to  idols  '* 
might  be  eaten  without  scruple,  while  the  Nazarene  i;  '-f 

observing  even  the  Sabbath  or  the  Passover  woi-f?  br.r  .h 

the  mark  of  Judaizing  heresy. 

But  if  the  primitive  Nazarenes  of  whom  the  Acts  s]  re 

orthodox  Jews,  what  sort  of  probability  can  tbere  be  i  us 

wjis  anything  else?  How  can  he  have  founded  the  universal 
religion  which  was  not  hoard  of  till  twenty  years  after  In*  ^  '  *V  ''• 
That  Jesus  possessed  in  a  rare  degree  the  gift  of  attn<  oa 

U)  his  persfm  and  to  his  fortunes;  that  he  was  the  author  of  many 
a  striking  saying,  and  the  advocate  of  equity,  of  love,  and  of  humil- 
ity ;  that  he  may  have  disregarded  the  subtleties  of  the  bigots  for 
legal  observance,  and  appealed  rather  to  those  noble  conceptions 
of  religion  which  constituted  the  pith  and  kernel  of  the  tcviching 
of  the  great  prophets  of  his  nation  seven  hundred  years  earlier ; 
and  that,  in  the  last  scenes  of  his  career,  he  may  hav<  - -d 

the  idoiil  sufferer  of  Isaiah — may  bo,  as  1  tJiink  it  ih,  <  ly 

probable.  But  all  this  involves  not  a  step  beyond  the  iKjrders  of 
orthodox  Judaism.    Again,  who  is  to  say  whether  J*-  '  "    ihJ 

himself  tlie  veritable  Messiah,  exjiected  by  his  na;  he 

ppearance  of  the  pseudo-prophetic  work  of  Daniel,  a  century  and 
*'R  half  before  his  time ;  or  whether  the  enthusiasm  of  bis  follow- 
ers gradually  forced  him  to  assume  that  jjosition  ? 

But  one  thing  is  quite  certain :  if  that  belief  in  the  Bpt?ody  sec- 
ond coming  of  the  Messiah  which  was  shared  by  all  parties  in  the 
primitive  church,  whether  Nazarene  or  Pauline ;  which  Jesus  is 
made  to  prophesy,  over  and  over  again,  in  the  synoptic  Gospels; 
and  which  dominated  the  life  of  Christians  during  the  first  cent- 
ury aft^r  the  crucifixion— if  he  believer!  and  taught  that,  then 
nsjiuredly  he  was  imder  an  illusion,  and  he  is  ri  "at 

which  the  mere  effluxion  of  time  has  dt_mor^  .^ 

digious  error. 


When  I  vonture<l  to  doubt "  whether  any  Protestant  theologian 
rbo  has  a  reputation  to  loae  will  say  that  he  believes  tlie  Qadarene 
iry,"  it  apjjears  that  1  reckoned  without  Dr.  WacejWha,  t^ernug 
to  this  passage  in  my  ))a]>er.  says : 

*  Dr.  lUniAck,  in  Urn  Utelv  published  Moond  cdllioD  of  bU  *"  DaS[mcup:»o1ikhl«.**  mgt 

4aM  to  art  tgAlait  .h«  ntifriootat  of  Jmu«  u  obMrrvtlun  wHtk 

bin  af  <»i(ln&lit;."    b««  ftW  £umis  4«  do  ih*  »mo  ptgci. 


A02TOSTTCISM :    A   nEJOTiVDER. 


185 


I       He  vill  Jii<]ge  frbetber  1  fall  nnder  his  dcBoripUon ;  bat  I  repeat  that  I  believe 
kC  umI  tbflt  he  bofl  rvmoved  the  uol;  objection  to  aiy  bclieviog  tU* 

F  -  '     :t  from  lue  to  set  tnyself  up  as  a  judge  of  any  such  deli- 
cat-  11  iU4  tluit  put  beforo  me ;  but  I  think  I  may  venture 
to  expiv*?  the  conviction  that,  in  the  raatt^?r  of  courage,  Dr.  Wace 
has  raided  tor  himself  a  monument  i^re  pert^vnius.    For,  really,  in 
my  poor  judgment,  n  trertain  splendid  intrepidity,  such  as  t>ne  ad- 
'miroa  in  the  leatier  of  a  forlorn  hope,  is  manifested  by  Dr.  Wace 
twben  he  solemnl}"  affirms  that  he  believes  the  Oa*.larene  story  on 
[the  evidence  offered.    I  feel  leas  complimented  i>erhaps  than  I 
'■\  when   T  am  told  that   I  have  been  an  accomplice  in 

■ ^  .      iiig  in  Dr.  Wace's  mind  the  last  glimmer  of  doubt  which 

Icommun  Hense  may  have  suggested.    In  fact,  I  must  disclaim  all 
^HpouKiTiility  for  the  use  to  which  the  infonnati<»n  I  snitplie<l  has 
^Iri  put.     I  formally  decline  to  lidmit  that  the  expression  t>f  my 
[ignorance  whether  dB\'il8,  in  the  existence  of  which  I  do  not  be- 
lieve, if  t^ey  did  exist,  might  or  might  not  bo  miule  to  go  out  of 
men  into  pigs,  can,  as  a  matter  of  l(»gic,  have  been  of  any  use  what- 
ever to  a  jiers4)n  who  already  believed  in  devila  and  in  the  histori- 
Fcnl  accuracy  of  the  Gospels. 

I       Of  the  Gadart^ne  story,  Dr.  Wace.  with  all  solemnity  and  t^^nce 
over,  aOirnis  that  he  "  lielinves  it."    I  am  sorry  to  trouT»le  him  fur- 
Ether,  bnt  what  does  he  mean  by  **  it  "  ?    Because  there  are  two  sto- 
me^  QfJP  m  '*  Mark  "  and  "  Luke/*  and  the  other  in  "  Matthew," 
■■^■former,  which  I  quoted  in  my  previous  paper,  there  is  one 
HHHfcd   man ;  in   the  latter  there  are  two.    The  story  is  told 
[fully,  with  the  vigorous,  homely  diction  and  the  picturesque  details 
r  folk-lore,  in  thesecond  Gospel.    Tlie  immediately  ante- 
it  is  the  storm  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth.    The  imme- 
[diiiti«]y  consequent  events  are  the  message  from  the  ruler  of  the 
»yt-.  *  the  healing  of  the  woman  with  an  issue  of  blood. 

I  In  sjH'b  the  oifier  of  events  is  exactly  the  same,  and 

[theiv  tM  an  extremely  close  general  and  verbal  correspondence 
lliutwevn  thr  narratives  of  the  miracle.  Both  agree  in  stating  that 
itLere  wnA  only  one  possessed  man,  and  that  he  was  the  resitlence 
rol  i  ■  il«.  whf»p;e  namn  was  "  Legion." 

I       1..  arst  Gospel,  the  event  which  immediately  precedes  the 

I  faildLTene  affair  is,  as  before,  the  storm ;  the  message  from  the 
■A]*  ^'*K  **f  tlie  issue  are  separated   from  it  by  the 

Hk<-  ling  of  a  paralytic,  of  tlie  calling  of  Matthew, 

lAXiid  of  a  di*russion  with  some  Pharisees.    Again,  while  the  sec- 
f  th*>  roimtry  of  tlie  *'  Gerasenes '"  as  the  local- 
third  Gospel  has  **  Geraseues."  *' Gergeseiies," 
I  and  -  Gadaren«<s  "*  in  different  ancient  MSS. ;  while  the  first  has 
•*  GadareneK'* 

L •  •*  roiroUr  BH('iu'(f  MonAly  "  for  May,  1»80.  p.  Id. 

^^L  vat.  xxxw. — IS* 


iS6 


THE  POPULAR  8CIEXVB  MOJ^mLT. 


The  really  important  points  to  be  notice*!,  however.  In  tli«*  nar- 
rative of  the  tii"st  Gospel,  are  these — that  there  an  ^ 
men  instead  of  one;  and  that  while  th«?  »tory  is  >  hy 
omissions,  what  there  is  of  it  is  often  verbally  identical  with  tho 
corresponding  passages  in  the  other  two  Gospeln.  The  most  un- 
aba-shed  of  reconcilers  can  not  well  say  that  one  man  is  thv  same 
as  two,  or  two  as  one;  and,  thougli  the  suggestion  really  has  lieen 
made,  that  two  different  miratdes,  agreeing  in  all  essential  particu- 
lars, except  the  number  of  the  ix>sse8sed,  were  effected  immedi- 
ately after  the  storm  on  the  hike,  I  should  be  sorry  to  accust*  any 
one  of  seriously  adopting  it.  Nor  will  it  Ix*  pretende«l  that  the 
allegory  refuge  is  accessible  in  this  particular  case. 

So,  when  Dr.  Wace  says  that  he  believes  in  the  synoptic  evan- 
gelists' account  of  the  miraculous  bedevilment  of  swine,  I  may 
fairly  ask  which  of  them  does  he  believe  ?  Doos  he  hold  by  the 
one  evangelist's  story,  or  by  that  of  the  two  evangelists  ?  And 
having  made  hie  election,  what  reasons  has  he  to  give  for  hiit 
choice  ?  If  it  is  suggested  that  the  witness  of  two  is  to  be  taken 
against  that  of  one,  not  only  is  the  testimony  dealt  with  in  tloat 
common-sense  fashion  against  which  thet.)logian8  of  his  school 
protest  so  warmly ;  not  only  is  all  question  of  inspiration  at  an 
end,  but  the  further  inquiry  arises,  after  all,  is  it  the  testimony  of 
two  against  one  ?  Are  the  authors  of  the  vcr&ions  in  the  swond 
and  the  third  Gospels  really  independent  witnesses  ?  In  i»rtlt'r  to 
answer  this  qiiostion,  it  is  only  needful  to  place  the  English  ver- 
sions of  the  two  side  by  side,  and  compare  them  carefully.  It  will 
then  l>e  seen  that  the  coincidences  between  them,  not  merely  in 
substance,  but  in  arrangement,  and  in  the  use  of  identical  words 
in  the  same  order,  are  such,  that  only  two  alternatives  are  eon* 
rcivuble:  cither  one  cvuiigelist  freely  copied  fr(»m  the  other,  «r 
both  base<l  themselves  upon  a  common  source,  which  may  either 
have  been  a  writt-en  document,  or  a  definite  oral  trailition  learned 
by  heart.  Assuredly,  these  two  testimonies  an^  not  those  of  indi*- 
pondunt  witnesses.  Further,  when  the  narrative  in  tlie  first 
Gospel  is  compared  with  that  in  the  other  two,  the  same  fact 
comes  out. 

Supposing,  then,  that  Dr.  Wace  is  right  in  his  assumption  that 
Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  wrote  the  works  which  we  '  ib- 

uted  to  tlien*  by  tradition,  what  is  the  value  of  their  ;*^.      ...val* 
even  that  something  more  or  less*  like  this  particular  miraclv  oo- 
it  is  denionhlrable,  either  that  all  depend  on  «»nie 
.         .        Mtemuul.of  theaulhtjrship  of  will' K  ii<>tliinLM>  kn- 
or  that  two  an?  du|M<ndent  n|»on  the  third  ': 

Dr.  AV  '      ■     ■ 

version  • 
he  iii  fttated  i  vorsions  to  have  «aiii,  and  th«n>by  virtaally 


FUKOL 


187 


dMlaiwI  that  tlic*  theory  of  the  nature  of  the  spiritual  world  in- 
voIvikI  ill  tbo  story  is  truo.  Now  I  hold  that  this  theory  is  falso, 
that  it  is  ft  monstrous  and  mischievous  fiction ;  and  I  unhesitat- 
in|;ly  express  my  disbelief  in  any  assertion  that  it  is  tnie,  by 
whomBot*ver  matle.  So  tliat,  if  Dr.  Wace  is  right  in  his  belief,  he 
iii  alsry  quite  ri^ht  in  classing  m**  among  the  people  he  calls  '*  infi- 
drU";  and  although  I  can  not  fulfill  the  eccentric  expectation  of 
thi*  Bishop  of  Peti^'rborough,  thai  I  shall  glory  iu  u  title  which, 
from  niy  p<jint  of  view,  it  wouM  be  simply  silly  to  adopt,  I  cer- 
tainty shall  rejoice  not  to  be  reckoned  among  the  bishop's  "us 
Chrifitians  "  so  long  as  the  profession  of  belief  in  such  stories  as 
the  Ottdarene  pig  a(Fair«  ou  the  strength  of  a  tradition  of  unknown 
origin,  of  which  two  disci-epant  rejxjrts,  also  of  unknown  origin, 
alone  remain,  forms  any  part  of  the  Christian  faith.  And,  al- 
though I  havop  more  than  once,  repudiated  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
yet  I  think  I  may  venture  t<j  express  the  anticipation,  that  if 
"Chrii*tiam«''  generally  are  going  to  follow  the  line  taken  by  the 
Bi«is»p  of  Pet^rbonmgh  and  Dr.  Waco,  it  will  not  be  long  before 
all  men  of  common  sense  qualify  for  a  place  among  the  "  infidels." 

fi(^•rnth  Century, 
fun^i  as  a  class  may  hardly  be  called  popular.  For  v^ 
..JUS  reasons  they  are,  so  to  speak,  under  a  cloud.  They  are 
little  known,  and  so  in  lieu  of  better  information  the  legend  "poi- 
Roi  "  ^  Ui  run  for  all  the  finer  and  more  showy  species.     If 

ni''  .'^olutely  poisonous,  most  are  at  least  considered  useless 

Aod  are  niunete«&  Iat,f!rature,  the  oll-embracing,  which  concerns 
il>'  ■'  '  '  ''  ither  forma  of  animate  nature,  draws  a  line  at 
th*  A'uing  evinces  great  boldness  when  he  ventures 

to  touch  wiih  the  wand  of  his  poesy  "the  freaked,  fawnn^olorod, 
crew"*  that  rises  in  November  hours. 
Worm*  than  all  this,  thanks  to  the  imperfect  knowledge  of  days 
nr*  ne  by,  the  very  word  fungus  is  uncanny,  and  to  most 

mi;..;  -  •.  .  .igue,  uncertain  application,sugge8live  of  things  unplcivs- 
ttQt,  Dtii  to  sav  <iir©fnl.  For  what,  forsooth,  is  a  fungus  ?  A  wily 
ill  inu  by  some  unguarded  entrance  gained  access, 

ma;.    .    --.  ■  mischief;  may  fdl  our  cellar,  for  instance,  and 

torn  u«  out  of  hnnM«  and  home,  as  one  is  reputed  to  have  filled  the 

*  ]IIa«tr«tion«  from  dnwinfte  bv  M.  F.  Under  uil  tbc  Hutbor. 


FUNGI. 

1, — ^TOADSTOOLS   AND   MUSHROOMS.* 

Br  T.  n.  McBRIDK, 
rBorsMoa  or  wtAinr   ur  rns  ikxtkimitt  ur  iowa. 


collar  of  the  wiiie  merchant,  l)arring  the  door  from  vrithin  aocl 
threatening  summary  eviction  and  what  not!  is  it  not  a  foarftil 
para8ite  which,  having  foimd  lodj^ng  iu  the  tissnes  of  its  unwill- 
ing host,  swells  tci  proportions  vast,  a  hidden  tumirr.  flending  ita 
human  victim  all  to*3  soon  forth  from  his  tennncnt  of  clay  ? 

Even  when  not  thus  associated  with  the  destruction  of  nobler 

forms,  fungi  arw  nevertheless  held  bn^sprvt.     At  l»est  and  luri^ftit 

they  are  cwid,  poculiar,  hiding  in  out-of-the-way  pluce^»  far  from 

**  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerfiil  day  ** ;  "  off  color,"  as  m«i 

ly.  and  owing  little  or  no  allegiance  to  our  sovereign  sun;  pale, 

fhastly  things  whose  himies  are  with  the  dead. 

It  remained  for  modern  Science  to  dignify  the  world;  nothing 
shall  be  stranger  to  her  touch  benign.  Even  the  fungi  come  iiit#i 
prominea<:e  as  they  come  into  light.  Odd  as  thny  may  a])pearand 
mysterious  too,  they,  like  some  odd  and  peculiar  people,  do  gwatly 

prove  upon  acquaintance.    Certainly  no  one  can  look  in  njion 

basket  of  Bolefi  fresh  from  August  woods  and  not  gT^eatiy 
admire  their  delicate  tints,  their  yellows,  purples,  browns,  and 
gniys.  Fungi,  once  for  all,  are  plants,  for  the  most  part  very  mm- 
pie  ones  too;  in  their  larger  forms  more  commonly  useful  tlian 
noxious,  and  positively  sources  of  seri(ms  injury  and  detriment  in 
those  species  only  which  to  mankind  at  large  are  unseen,  unknown, 
and  unsuspected.  To  these  reference  will  be  made  again ;  for  the 
present  let  us  consider  such  forms  »)Tdy  as  mec't  the  eye  of  ordinary 
observation,  the  common  denizens  of  forest  and  of  tield. 

Assuming  the  veget^ible  natnre  of  fungi,  the  moat  notable  thing 
alxmt  them,  as  compared  witli  all  surrounding  vegetation,  is  their 
color.  Growing  plants  are  green  ;  Whitney  says  the  words  »ns 
eynonymous.  But  whatever  the  colors  fungi  may  take  «m,  and 
they  are  often  brilliantly  tinted,  they  are  never  green,  at  any  rale 
in  the  sense  of  possessing  leaf-green.  Without  exception  the  fungi 
are  chlorophyl-less.  This,  though  a  negative  ijuality,  is,  neverthe- 
less^ a  very  convenient  one,  and  witluil  ejtpressive,  for  it  disfluatt 
exactly  the  jdace  these  plants  must  hold  in  the  econi»my  of  nature* 
Chli^rnphyljUS  is  well  known. gives  to  ordiiwiry  plants  their  Ri»enal 
and  peculiar  ability,  namely,  the  jjower  to  ehilntrate  the  mf»«t  im- 
jxirtrtnt  organic ■pHwlucis — starch,  sugar,  and  the  like.  This  jwvrur, 
ly,  the  chlorophyl-less  fungi  have  not.   Tit-  "^y 

I  ictive  plants  ;  all  that  they  have  they  rec*"  ;?« 

bringing  to  the  fetist  of  life  naught  save  appetitts  thejr  mtutt  needs 
lay  under  contribution,  living  or  dead,  tlie  wb-  '         _  M, 

and  are  jmrofiiUs  or  Hoprophyteft  acci>rding  to  t!  ■  ta. 

Such  as  derive  their  nourishment  from  dead  orgaiiie  matter  are 

f.'  .[«• 

orly  enough  calieti  panixitus. 


FUNGi 


^  '.V  or  otlipr.  through  sympathy  perhaps,  we  are  more  wiil- 

^H  in^  '<'  {'.•i'lou  Ha]iro]ihytiBai  than  ^mratiitisin  pure  and  simple,  and 
^H  Xntur^  apparently  takes  tho  same  viow  fif  the  caHO»  for  the  sapro- 
^1  phyte*  include  all  the  largest  and  finest  speeimens  of  the  fun^'us 
^Kkind.  Mushrtxiins,  toatistoDls,  earth-stars,  puti'-balls,  sliuk-honis, 
^Htruftl<n(,  ))r»cket-fmiKi,  are  nearly  without  exception  eaprophytea. 
^V  -      *    "  '»'.  havi*  Won  attention  ami  enjoy  something 

PI  ^    i  oil.     Thii*  ela&silication  8c  if  nee  largely  con- 

firms— not  wholly ;  ami  it  is  interesting  to  notice  that  it  is  just 
»-wh'        '  '        V  -ification  is  weak  that  science  faiJs  to  dis- 

co\  I       X  a  country  wight  and  many  au  epicure  as 

well  would  deem  it  rare  fortune  could  he  learn  to  distinguish  inva- 

Iriahly  t/widstools  from  mushrooms.  SnpjK)se  we  say  that  toad- 
Mo^jU  are  [MJisonous  whiK*  mushrooms  are  not.  A  tondstoul, accord- 
ingly, i*  a  poisontms  mushroom,  and  a  mushroom  is  an  edible  toad- 
fttoii.  The  only  jK)ssihle  means,  therefore,  by  which  the  two  may 
bi5  di8tingaishe<]  is  a  tost  dii-ect,  as  in  the  old  rule  which  bids  the 
inquirer  eat  with  the  assurance  that,  if  he  survive,  ho  has  eaten  a 
xnoRhroam  ;  if  he  ditt,  a  toadstool.  But  some  species  poisonous  to 
one  person  are  by  no  means  so  to  ant>t}ier ;  so  that  even  tho  rule 
ju-*  tinfactory  on  the  score  of  being  inconclusive,  as 

w»  lit  of  application.     Even  Atjurirun  tttu^rxxrHUS, 

««t<^me<i  so  very  poisonous  to  ordinary  mortals,  is  said  to  produce 

Iin  ^*     ''  '  n  simply  an  increase  of  that  pleasing  stupidity 

wh^  III  socks  in  his  opium-bowl  or  the  American  in 

hni  beer.     Furthermore,  Science  runs 
her  ^  '  't  fts  between  toatlstoola  and 

mii  ,  but  as    between    specific 

fc»nns.  Poisonous  and  not  poisonous, 
wlible  and  inedible,  are  side  by  side  in 
4ny  ••numeration  of  species.  Let  it  be 
onrt"  known  which  are  e<lible  species, 
mnd  lhe?«>  jnay  thereafter  bo  readily 
nwiAniixi^i  by  any  one  competent  to 
i''.s^ — no  easy  muttiT,  by 
to  the  practiced  student. 
So  much  fur  ]>i>pular  estimate  and 
n.  Lei  us  now  Tiriefly  con- 
i  from  the  standpoint  of 
ftrocture,  the  true  basis  of  clasnitica- 
--    *'  '       -:     i.      A    bit    of    mold 

f_  •  Pto.  I.— Fnrrr  or  Okees  Uoui 

our  micro9cof)e  (/*„*d/A««. ,;'«.«.»,.). 

Viii  enable  u»  to  maken  beginning  (Fig. 

1).    Herv  wc  have  cells,  of  course,  tubular  in  shape  and  dis]>osed 

to  form   thread -liko   branches  in  different   directi<nis.     These 

threads  art*  known  a«  hypha',  and  fungi  generally  are  masses  of 


l^ 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


hyphff*  modified  here  and  thero  to  the  accomplishment  of  vari 
ous  fuuctions.  Fungi,  like  other  organisms,  Ixave  two  principal 
things  to  do — \iz.,  to  accumulate  energy  and  to  expend  it;  to 
grow  and  to  produce  fruit.  The  hyphie  of  a  fungus  are,  there- 
fore, in  ordinary  cases  of  two  sorts — nutrient  hyphte  forming  tlie 
mycelium,  and  fruiting  hyphie  which  make  up  the  fructificAtion, 
In  what  wo  term  puff-lmll,  mushroom,  we  have  simply  the  fruc- 
tification— the  fruiting  hyphie — all  compacted  together,  while  the 
mycelium  lies  hidden  beneath  the  surface.  When,  however,  wo 
pluck  the  mushroom  from  its  place,  the  mycelium  may  perhaps 
seldom  be  discovered.  There  are  for  this  two  reasons :  fi r8t.  the 
mycelial  threads  are  generally  tenuous  and  delicate  in  the  ex- 
treme, and  unlt'ss  crowded  together  escape  observation  ;  and,  sec- 
ondly, once  the  fnictiiication  or  colony  of  mushrooms  is  formed, 
the  energy  of  the  mycelium  having  passed  above  the  surface,  the 
threads  vanisli.  Only  in  special  cases,  or  where  the  fructification 
is  unusually  large,  and  the  numl>er  of  hypha?  converging  at  a 
single  point  in  consequence  very  great,  do  we  find  root -like 
structures  tliat  are  at  once  obvious  and  persistent.  Fugacious  as 
the  mycelium  thus  appears,  it  is  really  in  many — perhaps  most — 
cases  much  longer-lived  than  the  fructification  it  creates.  Months 
— jKJssibly  in  some  instances  years — elapse  while  the  subterranean 
byphal  threads  ramifying  and  spreading  through  myriad  dimin- 
utive tunnels  are  ingathering  to  some  single  center  those  i-e- 
E<mrc(«5  of  nutriment  and  energy  which  shall  at  lengtli  break 
forth  with  a  suddenness  and  volume  utterly  astounding.  In  my  ■ 
neighbor's  yard,  not  long  ago,  appeared  a  succession  of  giant 
puff-balls  one  after  anotlier,  sometimes  two  or  three  at  a  time, 
over  an  area  of  ]»rhap8  thirty  by  forty  feet.  In  size  the  plants  I 
ranged  from  the  dimensions  of  a  goose-egg  to  that  of  a  half- 
bushel,  and  the  amount  of  matter  raised  above  the  surface  was 
little  less  than  one  hundred  pounds.  The  largest  fruit  seemed 
simply  sessile,  hardly  attached  to  the  substratum,  while  others, 
smaller,  showed  something  like  a  tap-root,  white,  cord-like,  ex- 
tending a  few  incht's  downward — not  a  root,  certainly,  rather  the 
undeveloped  base  of  the  ball  itself.  Whence  had  ali  this  wealth 
of  organic  matter  come,  and  what  was  the  meaning  of  it  all  ? 
The  previdus  existenco  of  a  wood-yard  on  the  ](M*ality  affords 
probable  explanati^m  of  the  phentmunion.  Through  and  through 
the  accumulated  detritus  of  the  old  wcMxl-yard  the  mycelium  of 
the  ;  "'  '  '  1  1  V*  "  '» 7  »  '  —  •.  .y  developing  i>erchance 
U\T  twelve  hundred  square 

feet,  re«l*»  mt  to  the  kingdom  of  life  and  ■ 

into  ruin  iiTetrievable.  "' 
tificatiou,  we  sliall  find 
ig  iutrt« :    A  short  staJk, 


I 
I 


\g\xf 


r.oi. 


FfjyGL 


191 


fltotn,  crowned  with  a  oap,  the  pUeus,    This  cap  consists  of  an 


fi*.  L— fiaoTMir  or  mi 
Mowiiinoa. 


iK'ftring  on  its  lower  surface  hundrorls  of  radiat- 
gills  or  lamella,  with  sharp  edges  and  delicately 
tinted,  velvety  sides,  Cut  a  eection  perpendic- 
ular to  tho  course  of  these  plates  or  gills,  and 
wo  have  a  comh-like  structure  which  under  a 
^■ood  lens  presents  the  appearance  portrayed  in 
Kig.  '^.  Under  still  better  lenses  we  may  discover 
on  each  gill-section  a  marginal  row  of  rather 
large  cylindric  cells,  each  bearing  at  its  sum- 
mit a  pair  of  smaller  cells  manifestly  formed 
by  abstriction  from  diverging  branches  of  the 
Utrger  cell  (see  Fig.  3).  The  small  cells  are  the 
spores,  and  the  supporting  cell  but  the  termi- 
nus of  an  extended  and  much-brancheii  hypha, 
which  has  blended  with  a  myriwi  like  itself  to 
f<)nn  stalk  and  cap  and  gill  <»f  our  completed 
mnshrotnn.    That  is  the  whole  structure,  and 

yet  fr«>m  such  simple  machinery  l>ehold  what  wealth  and  variety 

of  ff>nn  and  ntyle  come  forth!     (Jther  modes  of  spore-production 

tl^ere  are  to  be  hereafter  seen,  but  that  describe<l  is  characteristic 

i»f  the  vant  majority  of  those 

greati^r  fungi  which  occupy 

the  iduidows  of  our  world.  To 

begin  with,  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  species  of  agarics, 

fungi    like  the    mushroom, 

dilTering  fnim  ea<*h  other  in 

nmtti-rs  of  form  and  color 

chi<*rty,   the   attachment    of 

sii|R'  and  gilli^f  the  stability 

and  instability  of  the  entire 

sir  ,  .  fhe*'ink- 

cai  .  -pring  in 

tht*  night  luid  vanish  in  inky 

dif     '    '  ■■  the  sun  as- 

cj?:-  ,iy  ;  others,  as 

the*  iitlJe  woolly  fungus  wit li 

^jprf,     ..;ii.    f  C.J ^jifttjlUtJu), 

«o  I  braui'li- 

W  everywhrn'.  survive  tlio 

storms  of  many  seasons  and  outlast  the  substratum  on  which  they 

grow.     Fiir.  3  shows  the  elegant  ciirvature  of  the  cleft  gill-plates, 

ari  in  which  they  ap]>ear.     New  ones  are  constantly 

in:-      tw*^n  those  already  foiTued. 

In  all  tbetie  the  lamellte  run  out  in  rays  and  remain  quite  gen- 


FlM.  ;!.— Hi^UIXUl-UTLU'll    CtiMJirNS,   L-ri>iB-*L<CliDIl. 


191 


'6KCOUDN  Wahjiki,  ver* 

UC&l   MCtlOb. 


erally  distinct  from  one  another;  but  here  follovra  a  serii^s  in' 

which  these  plates  all  iiiter8f*ct,  or  wander  in  many  a  ^vinding 

line  and  Uibyrinthine  puttLTU  (DndaUn^  TrmneU.Sj  Htc),  until  the 

intersections  become  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  perfect  houey- 

comb  whose  cell^  are  niinnto  inures.    The  gummy,  golden  Bolrfi 

of  the  w()o<iland8,utid  the  Common  brack- 
et-fungi {Polyjxtni^)  of  every  »tump  and 
log  iu  all  the  forest,  are  exumpkt«. 

Even  the  puff-ball  family — another 
section  of  tlu*  greater  fungi— form  their 
fruit  iu  agaric  fashion,  and  the  connection 
between  our  muahroom  and  the  gi&nt 
*'  puffer,'*  though  at  first  sight  remote,  is 
yt't  ni»t  far  to  seek.  It  mtist  l>e  n«mem- 
bered  that  muHhrooms  when  first  emerg- 
ing from  the  ground  are  quite  contract©*! 
and  close<l,  ofteu  like  a  closed  umbrella — 
one  of  the  old-fashioned  sort,  puckered 
around  the  margin  \vith  a  string.    Split 

euch  a  mushn^oin  at  this  stage,  and  all  the  laraellie  will  Ix*  found 

with  tlu*ir  edges  close  pressed  against  the  sides  of  the  8tipi*K»  tho 

edge  of  the  pilena  close  drawn 

ronnd  the  bottom.    Now,  in  au- 

tiuun  we  may  find  a  fuiigus  hM)k- 

ing  exactly  like  an  unopened  toad- 

«t*Kd ;  but  you  watch  its  opening 

in    vain  —  it   never   open».      The 

puckering  string  never  rolaxe«, 

the  laraellfip  never  leave  the  stipe, 

hut  are  iniitH**l  gr<»wu  faHt  againHt 

it,   and    with    maturity    l»ecoTne 

wTitikied  iu  m)Tiad  folds,  finally 

to  br»yik  down  entirely,  leaving  a 

ma8*)  of  dusty  brown  spores  which 

escape  only  with  the  final  rupture 

of  the  fragile,  unex])ande<l  pileus 

(Fig.  4).   From  s*unh  a  fungus  the 

puff-b;ill  iliffers  chiefly  in  degriv; 

the  sjMjreM  are  borne  upcm  thnsails 

and  fill  up  definite  cavities,  nnii 

or  inf>re,  and  are  discharged,  as 

in  ilif  raae  just  described,  by  the 

nipture  of  the  inclofiiuK  tissuna. 

iy  break  open  Irregtihirls    rir  it 
may  break  regularly,  thrnwi ug  baric  from  the  top  ita  p>  '»s 


FUNGI. 


'93 


ferOfcatoand  star-like  forms — earth-stars,  beautiful  as  they  are 
MnsriooSy  and  oiFenug  a  nuig-ularly  j>Grfect  raoohanism  for  the  did- 
porsal  of  tlio  ppores.  Hero  is  an  earth-star  (Fig.  5)  whoso  pcridiuni 
coQitifits  of  three  coats — two  outer,  strong  and  leathery,  and  one 
||U6r,  delicate,  silk-like.  The  whole  structure  is  develoiwd  as  a 
PBp*jtli  white  ball  beneath  the  soil.  But,  once  the  Bporea  are  ripe, 
^0  outermost  peridium  splits  open  at  the  top,  its  lobes  gj>ring 
backward  and  outward,  giving  room  for  the  second  covering  to 
^ burst  in  similar  fashion.  The  lobes  of  the  second,  however,  by 
rei"  '    '  *  the  entire  inner  structure  oiit  of  the  ground  and 

up  .„-  _-  -r,  where  the  inner  peridium,  enthroned  thus  upon 
springing  arches,  groined  by  no  human  hand,  opens  at  tip  a 
■l^^^ke  mouth,  and  suffers  the  spores  slowly  to  escape,  to  sail  on 
^H^nvi^  journeys  with  the  jxissing  breeze. 

We  have  8])aco  left  but  sufficient  to  mention  the  fruiting  of 

the  morel.    Here  wo  have  on  the  outer  upper  side  of  the  structuro 

iA  layer  of  rnthor  large  elongate  cells,  quite  similar  to  those  on 

iho  mushroom  gills;  but,  instead  of  abstricted  spores  on  the  out- 

ndo  of  the  supporting  cells,  M'e  find  each  of  the  latter  a  fruit-case 

in  wliich  are  lodged  eight  elliptical  sporules  arranged  in  a  row, 

formed  freely — that  is,  each  entirely  independent  of  the  other  and 

I  of  the  cell- wall  that  incloses  all.    But  this  msthod  of  fruiting 

Ibrifiics  us  in  sight  of  the  microscopic  and  parasitic  world  of  fungi, 

'  ter.    Here,  then,  we  well  might  rest;  and 

^'    .    .      , hrooms,  and  puffers  vanish  entirely  from 

^H  though i,  it  were  well  to  note,  if  but  for  a  moment,  the  various 
fBim8  tlkOAc  '  '3  wear.    The  names  by  which  natural  objects 

are  known  i  often  in  primary  eignilicance  something  of 

[hiBtoric  epitome ;  so,  in  the  present  case,  we  may  discover  the 
^mmg.-  ---*  '  ]x  the  object  named  first  attracted  human  atten- 

^^^^  itself  is  the  record.     Thus  it  appears  that  the 

^^^^Hfi^ruJVj  although  coming  to  us  from  the  Latin,  is  neverthe- 
^^^^^•^  '•  vigiu^  and  is  the  same  word  as  that  wo  have  angli- 
^fc^^.  »o  that,  according  to  the  earliest  record  we  have, 

^^^^kpgrs  uf  the  sea  and  tbo  fungi  (pufT-balls?)  of  the  land 
Pm^^^v..;.i..^...l  l{in_  Our  Teutonic  ancestors  seem  to  have  ar- 
JTTwl  ^  me  conclusion;  and  to  this  day,  for  a  German, 

■ft'  her  a  sponge  or  a  fungus,  as  you  like  it.     Nor  less 

wtki  ^  1- ,  -    :::o  etymology  of  our  other  common  names  for  such 

QilaoU.  Toadstool  is  suflGciently  plain,  prosaic,  and  suggestive; 
^^-  ■*^m  to  be  the  English  adaptation  of  a  French 

^H*  ,  '^mething  growing  in  or  among  moss),  evi- 

^■Sy  pronounced  by  Englishmen  long  before  spelled,  and  evinc- 
^^■|m  "     •     '  luick  French  wit  was  first  to  discover  the 

^^^H^'  ^  of  so  many  other  delicacies. 

^^E  TDL  XZST. — tt  I 


»94 


FABULOUS  ASTRONOMY. 


Br  P»or.  J.  0.  HOUZEAU. 


THE  darkness  of  tLe  night  exercised  a  sort  of  terror  npcn  the 
minds  of  our  ancestors.  Just  as  material  oxisionco  was  sup- 
posed to  succeed  to  nothing,  and  to  be  followed  by  it,  day  succeeds 
night,  and  this,  they  said,  is  the  origin  of  time,  as  the  winter  is  of 
the  year.  The  Ostiaks  of  the  Yenisei  count  their  years  bj*  tbo 
snows,  as  also,  or  by  winters,  did  the  Iroquois  of  North  America. 
The  Nuniidians,  Cjesar'a  Gauls,  and  the  Germans  of  Tacitus,  esti- 
luiited  daily  periods  by  tlie  nights.  The  night  had  a  ronsiderabl© 
importance  in  the  North;  and  the  Scandinavians  had  tlio  most 
coherent  and  most  poetical  ideas  of  it.  Day  was  the  son  of  Night. 
The  latter  went  first,  a  patisage  in  the  Edda  suys,  mounted  on  her 
horso  Rinfax,  of  the  icy  mano.  Every  morning,  at  the  conclusion 
of  his  race,  the  courser  watered  the  earth  with  the  foam  that  fell 
from  his  bridle;  Ihis  was  the  dew.  Day  followed,  mounted  oa 
liofaz,  of  the  glowing  mane,  which  lightened  up  the  air  and  the 
earth.  These  people  also  believed  that  the  longest  night,  that  of 
the  winter  solstice,  begat  all  the  others,  and  that  the  world  was 

•eated  on  sucli  a  night.     Therefore  night  was  called  mother. 

[idwinter-night,  or  Yule,  was  Ihe  great  annual  festival,  and 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  new  year.  The  Chaldeans  said  that 
the  world  began  nt  the  autumnal  equinox,  when  the  night  be* 
CAmo  longer  than  the  day.  The  French  courta  in  the  «jvcn- 
teenth  century  still  ordered  clients  to  appear  within  fourtetm 
nights.    The  English  fortnight  is  a  contraction  of  this  term* 

Tlie  ancient  Peruvians  said  that  the  moon  was  dead  daring  thfi 
three  days  that  it  is  invisible.  The  Ehasias,  of  northeastern  In- 
dia, thought  timt  the  sun  burned  it  up.  Some  savage  tribes  be- 
lieve that  the  lunation  is  a  quarrel  between  the  sun  and  moou  as 
husband  and  wife,  identically  repeated  in  ©very  month.  The  in- 
creasing moon  represents  its  gaining  the  n:- '  - *■      ' nse 

its  yielding,  till  at  last  the  sun  swallows  it  nt 

in  the  sky.  The  ancient  Slavs  imagined  tliat  the  moon  wa« 
condemned  to  wander,  for  infidelity  with  the  morning  fctar.  The 
Dakota  Indians  funcie<l  that  ihe  declining  moon  waa  oatmi  by 

lice;  tlie  Polynesinns,  by  spirits  of  the  dead.     The  !■  (« 

lid  that,  suffering  from  headache,  it  covered  its  fact  .....  it» 
hand;  the  Eskimos,  that,  becoming  tired  and  hongry^it  rotirod  to 
rest:-  '-ated  very  fast. 

Ti  ^      here  »ome  kind  of  a  picture haa 

not  been  made  ont  of  the  visible  spots  on  the  moon.    Two  typos 


»95 


of  fl^reSy  distributed  according  to  a  geographical  rule,  havo  pre- 
dotainatefi  in  these  fancies.  In  Eastern  Asia,  it  is  a  hare  or  rab- 
bits Tho  Chinese  and  Japanese  make  it  a  hare,  sitting  on  its  hind- 
quarters, pounding  rice  in  a  mortar.  The  Hindus  see  a  hare  or 
Toe;  the  Siamese,  a  hare,  or,  some  of  them,  a  man  and  woman  cul- 
tivating their  field.  The  North  American  and  Mexican  Indians 
bolize  the  moun  by  a  hare  or  rabbit ;  and  some  of  the  Central 
erican  monuments  represent  it  by  a  jar  or  spiral  shell  with  a 
nibbit  coming  out  from  under  it.  In  South  America,  a  human 
figure  took  the  place  of  the  hare.  The  lucas  related  that  a  light 
young  woman,  walking  in  the  moonlight,  was  charmed  by  the 
beauty  of  the  star,  and  sprang  foi*ward  to  embrace  it.  The  moon 
took  her  up,  and  has  kept  her  ever  since.  Some  tribes,  in  both 
North  and  South  America,  make  of  the  si)ots  a  woman  bent  with 
age.  In  Samoa,  they  see  a  woman  and  her  child ;  on  the  Bookl 
Islands,  men ;  in  Timor,  an  old  woman  spinning.  The  Scandi* 
aavinn  E<lda  relat-os  that  Mane,  who  regulates  the  course  of  the 
moon  in  its  quarters,  placed  there  two  children  whom  he  saw  car- 
rying a  jug  of  water  hung  between  them  from  a  pole.  The  Eski- 
mos tay  that  Anninga,  the  moon,  brother  of  the  beautiful  Mal- 
nia,  the  sun,  was  pursuing  his  sister  and  aljout  to  overtake  her, 
when  aho  tunicil  round  and  smutted  his  face  and  clothes  with 
her  finKors,  which  she  had  blackened  with  the  soot  of  a  lamp. 
Tl  ■  '9  say  that  the  spots  are  the  cinders  resulting  from  the 

m' :.    -  ..    jaming  up  of  the  moon  by  the  sun. 

French  peasants  variously  believe  that  they  see  in  the  moon 
th*  '  '  Judas,  hanging  from  an  eldor-brunch  ;  tumip-Jaclt 
wii'  ^  i  barrow  of  stolen  turnips;  Cain  leaning  on  his  spadd* 
and  looking  at  the  murdered  Abel ;  a  peasant  who  has  been  caught 
by  the  moon  stoaliug  wood  in  his  lord's  domain ;  a  peasant  com- 
pelled to  freeze  in  the  moon  with  his  bundle  of  sticks  for  making 
feaco  on  Sunday ;  a  hunter  and  his  dog ;  or  a  she-goat  and  her 
keeper  by  a  bush. 

Eclipses  of  the  moon  attract  more  attention  tlian  those  of  the 
because  total  ones  are  more  frequently  scon  than  those  of  the 
and  the  darkness  is  of  longer  duration.  The  Peruvians  sup- 
posed that  they  were  an  illness  of  the  moon,  and  if  total  were  a 
sign  of  its  death,  when  it  would  fall  to  the  earth  and  put  an  end 

»to  the  world.  "WTien  one  occurred,  they  would  beat  upon  every- 
tliing  that  would  make  a  noise,  and  chastise  their  dogs,  in  the  faith 
|kai     '  ssing  the  sufferings  of  the  creatures  it  loved, 

■t><  '   to  save  them.    All  would  call  upon  the  heav- 

enly powtirs  not  to  allow  the  star  to  die ;  and,  when  the  light  re- 
lur      *      7  '      -        riven  to  the  great  god  Pache-camac,  supporter 
iM     of  having  restored  the  moon,  and  thereby  pre- 

|H  rented  the  winding  up  of  human  existeuco,  ■ 


FABULOUS  ASTROirOMY, 


197 


aw 


rang  biills  daring  storms  •  and  eclipses  to  counteract  the  action  of 
^^  fo  repel,  with  the  priest's  blessing,  the  darkness  caused 

1^  \  ;s — a  survival,  according  to  P.  Lafitan,  of  the  dark 

genii  that  devoured  the  moon. 

The  earliest  observers  of  the  stars  had  no  suspicion  of  their 
true  nature,  or  of  the  considerable  distances  that  separate  them 
from  na.  If  they  did  not  think  them  within  reach  of  their  hands, 
they  supposed  that  they  were,  at  least,  almost  in  a  literal  sense, 
AOOMEdblo  to  the  voice.  Homer  says  that  the  highest  pines  of 
Mount  Ma  jwissed  l)eyond  tlio  limits  of  the  atmosphere  and  pene- 
tratod  into  the  ethereal  region  throngh  which  the  clangor  of  the 
arms  of  hi*  heroes  reached  to  the  sky.  This  sky  was  a  solid  hemi* 
ttphcre.  a  bell  resting  upon  the  earth,  or,  according  to  Euri]»ides, 
a  cover  set  over  the  work  of  the  sublime  artisan.  The  Hebrew 
jwalmist,of  the  eleventh  century  before  our  era,  said  to  the  Lord, 
*'T]!  '      r  out  the  heavens  as  a  pavilion."    The  stars  of 

An;  re  tixe*l  in  this  vault  like  nails.    The  celestial  bell 

oorered  a  flat  earth  whicli  was  suirounded  by  water  on  every  side. 
Every  p^iple  imagined  itself  in  the  center  of  it,  and  CMna  is  still 
**Th«  Middli' Empire.*'  The  Incas  exhibited  this  center  in  their 
stoictuary  of  Cuzco,  the  name  of  which  signified  navel,  as  the 
Greeks  also  saw  it  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  which  was 
alAO  called  the  navel  (V^^Ao^)  of  the  world,  and  was  celebrated  by 
Pindar  under  that  name.  The  Chinese  located  the  navel  of  the 
<3arth  in  the  city  of  Khot^n.  The  conception  of  the  earth  as  flat 
and  like  a  C4ike  prevailed  in  European  civilization  till  the  Cru- 
sades^ and  the  lazzaroni  of  Naples  have  it  stilL 

The  Huwaiians,  Maoris,  and  Eskimos  supposed  that  the  whole 
y  was  supported  by  a  pillar,  as  the  ancients  fancied  it  upheld  by 
Atl         "'     '  f-  thought  it  was  fluid, 

1  .  (explained  the  revolutions  of  the  sun  by  sup- 

poeiDg  that  the  great  god  Meni  held  it  by  a  cord. 

T'  '  '  •  /■  '^'  ^  ^Vndhon  regarded  the  stars  as  fires  kin- 
dle-, 'ly  fire), or  by  Varuna  (the  celestial 
Taiilt).  A  hymn  which  he  addressed  to  the  gods  mentions  the 
moon  with  icy  rays  to  signalize  its  powerlessness  against  the  di- 
rine  fir^  of  heaven.  (It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  moon  is  often 
«p( '  -  a  frozen  place — probably  in  reference  to  the  differ- 
ent  ...  ;,  .i.porature  between  day  anrl  night.) 

I  ,  The  milky  way,  which  was  Winter's  path  to  the  Scandinavians, 
■■b  1  of  souls  for  some  of  the  American  nations;  the  souls 

PMt.  .  ...  •  world  by  the  door  situated  where  it  intersects  the 
jBodiao  in  Gemini,  and  quit  it  to  return  to  the  gods  by  the  door  of 
htarilter'  ts  still  call  it  St.  James's  road;  my- 

^HQ^  milk  that  dropptnl  from  Juno*s  breast 

^^1  *  ThU  practice  iru  kept  ap  tUl  Ibc  Uit  ceutuiy. 


T$8 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCS  MONTHLY. 


while  she  was  suckling  Hercules.    It  was  the  celestial  river  of  tho 

Chiuese,  a  shark-iufested  creek  to  tho  Tahitians ;  t  '^    r  tribe, 

the  field  where  their  ancestors  hunted  ostriches  ;  .-  i  to  tho 

Peruvians.    The  Pleiades  were  regarded  by  the  Iroquois  and  some 

of  the  ancients  as  a  group  of  dancers,  and  are  still  figured  in  Bome 

parts  of  Europe  as  a  hen  and  chickens.     A  tribe  called  theChoki- 

tapia  are  said  to  have  regulated  their  festivals  by  the  appearance 

and  disappearance  of  thia  group.    When  they  disappeared,  in  the 

autumn  in  that  country,  was  the  time  for  beginning  farm-work, 

the  feast  of  the  men ;  and  the  feast  of  the  women  was  celebrated 

on  their  reappearance.    The  former  festival  referred  to  tho  burial 

or  combustion  of  the  seed  ;  the  latter  to  the  return  of  tho  abdent. 

Tho  day  before  the  reappearance  of  these  stars  the  women  rejoicel 

^  and  danced  around  a  pole.    In  the  autumn,  the  dance  of  the  dead 

fwas  held.    Women  swore  by  the  Pleiades,  and  men  by  the  soil 

In  all  religious  festivals  the  calumet  was  presents!  toward  the 

Pleiades,  and  prayers  for  happiness  were  addressed  to  them.   Theee 

Indians  Ijelieved  that  the  Pleiades  were  seven  young  persons  wLo 

L^arded  the  holy  seed  during  the  night  and  executed  a  sacred 

raance  over  it.     Epizors,  the  morning  star,  charmed  with  their 

grace,  took  them  to  the  sky,  where  the  stars  were  cheered  by  their 

gambols,    The  sand-dance  of  Malay  warriors  may  convey  some 

idea  of  this  celestial  dance.    The  bath  of  purification,  prescribed 

|by  some  of  the  medicine-men,  comprised  a  triangular  hole  in  which 

Seven  hot  stones  were  dropped  nnd  covered  over  with  cold  water. 

In  their  invocations,  the  medicine-men  prayed  the  Pleiades  to  help 

|them  heal  bcKlily  diseases.    For  talismans,  they  had  seven  boneSy 

Feevon  balls,  or  seven  buttons. 

The  period  of  fifty-two  years  formed  a  complete  era  fur  tho 
tA^tecs,  and  they  questioned  whether  at  the  end  of  that  '  tho 

^^reat  heavenly  clock,  having  perfomie<l  its  revolution,  not 

stop  forever.  This  era  menacefl  a  considerable  numlier  of  tho 
population  once  in  their  lives,  and  some  of  them  perhaps  twice. 
Tho  night  on  which  tlie  fifty-second  year  would  expire  WM  A 
solemn  moment  to  them,  and  was  signalized  by  extingiiishing 
the  sacred  fi^res  in  the  temples  and  those  on  privait*  ht*sarth- 
stones,  and  by  breaking  all  vessels  that  had  contained  pro^'isions; 
anil  tho  evening  was  passed  in  darkness,  with  trembling  and  fear. 
The  day  was  in  November,  when  the  Pleiades  would  culminate  at 
midnight,  and  this  moment  was  tho  termination  of  the  century. 
Ah  tlie  liour  1,  the  human  victim  wa«  m<"  '  '  ^        '  'he 

stickii  were  r'  verhisatill  quick  body  for  h*  ^ire 

for  hifl  funeral  pile  and  the  inauguration  of  the  new  enu    Man 
LWere  waiting  '  v    '    '  ',.,}^  with  wh^  ^    *' 

fcow  fire  wa£»  ;  ces.    Tho  l. 

of  midnight  was  hailed  with  ahouta  of  joy.    The  world  had  not 


rnS  PRODUCTION^  OF  BEET-SUOAR, 


199 


oome  to  an  eml,  and  men  could  hope  that  it  would  last  at  least 
througli  another  era.  Those  who  could  not  attonJ  the  public 
Mrftmonios  watched  kneeliug  ou  the  roofs  of  thuii*  huuses.  The 
secular  festival  was  supprossod  by  the  Spaniards,  the  last  human 
rictim  having  been  sacrificed  on  the  pjrramid  of  Tlaloc  iu  I0O7. 
— Translaied  far  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  from  a  review  j  by 
M,  £».  Barr^,  in  Oie  Eevue  Scieniifique, 


-•♦♦- 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  BEET-SUGAR. 
Bt  a.  h.  almy. 

IN  the  May  number  of  this  magazine  a  sketch  was  presented  of 
the  rise  and  progress  of  the  beet-sugar  industry.  In  this  arti* 
c\i'  '-'■  '  ■i>osed  to  outline  the  method  of  growing  the  plant,  and 
thr  3  employed  in  extracting  the  sugar.    The  sugar-beet, 

like  other  phvnts,  contains  a  definite  number  of  chemical  elements 
which  arc  indispensable  to  its  growth,  and  which  must  be  present 
in  smtable  proportions  in  order  to  insure  its  highest  development. 
Yet  it  is  not  long  since  the  proportions  of  these  constituents  were 
looked  upon  as  merely  incidental,  and  without  any  direct  bearing 
on  the  prttcesses  of  growth.  Plants  are  nourished  by  air,  water, 
ond  the  substances  contained  in  the  soil ;  but  they  differ  in  the 
kinds  and  quantities  of  nourishment  required.  Some  need  to  have 
their  roots  constantly  in  water,  others  are  best  suited  to  dry  soils, 
and  oi)  n  prosper  only  on  the  best  and  most  richly  manured 

Unit  i  .  ;  .ic  some  elements  common  to  all  plants,  and  some 
poculiAr  to  each  kind.  Like  animals,  plants  are  endowed  with 
tiute  or  choice  regarding  their  food — they  do  not  absorb  indis- 
criminately nor  in  the  same  proportions  all  the  substances  pre- 
flented  to  them.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  fertilization  of  the 
0oil  Bhonld  bo  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  plant  that  is  to  bai 
cultivated.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  other  cereals  push  up  long 
ftaUn  baring  few  and  slender  leaves,  which  absorb  little  nourish- 
ment from  the  air.  These  plants  consequently  take  most  of  their 
food  through  the  roots,  and  are,  therefore,  great  exhausters  of  the 
MdL  Plants,  on  the  contrary,  having  large,  fleshy,  green  leaves, 
like  Uie  beet,  take  greater  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  and  water 
from  the  air,  and  hence  withdraw  less  material  from  the  ground. 
In  *  VSR  of  growth  plants  exhaust  that  portion  of  the  soil 

whiL..      ...A  in  contact  with  their  roots;  hence,  after  the  surfacej 
layefB  havo  been  dra^vn  upon  by  short,  creeping  roots  like  tbi 
of  the  corctfils,  a  long  tap-root,  like  that  of  the  beet,  may 
able  to  extnicl  an  abundance  of  nourishment  from  the  deepef' 
layers. 


300 


The  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  is  another  important  fac- 
tor in  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet.  From  tho  closonwsa  of 
its  texture,  a  stiff  clay  retains  water,  and  does  not  roa^lily  mlmit 
heat  or  air  among  its  particles ;  it  also  opp08(.\s  much  r-  to 

the  fibrous  roots  making  their  way  through  it.  By  ].i'  .lUiiig 
the  free  growth  of  the  roots  downward,  clay  is  Gsj»ecially  unfa- 
vorable to  the  Btigar-beet  crop;  for  the  beet,  instead  of  produc- 
ing the  long,  slim  root  which  is  necessary  for  tho  proi>or  secw- 
tion  of  eaccliarine  material  in  the  sugar-cells,  grows  round,  to^ 
nip-like  roots,  which  are  of  no  value  for  sugnr-makiut:.  Sand 
is  tho  opposite  of  clay,  and,  from  tlie  looseness  of  its  texture,  ad- 
mits heat  too  freely,  and  is  not  capable  of  retaining  a  sufficient 
amount  of  moisture  for  the  needs  of  vegetation.  In  Fand,  also, 
tho  particles  of  plant  food  are  washed  down  by  the  rains  below 
the  Teach  of  the  roots,  or  are  vaporized  by  heat  and  escape 
into  tho  air.  Plants  grow  best  in  loam,  which  is  a  mixture  of 
these  soils  of  opposite  character,  in  such  proi>ortion  that  the  faulta 
of  both  are  corrected.  The  depth  of  the  soil  and  the  nature  of  \he 
underlying  stratum  are  also  important ;  for  if  the  richest  soil  is 
only  seven  or  eight  inches  deep,  and  lies  on  a  cold,  wet  clay  or  im 
rock,  it  will  not  be  as  fruitful  as  a  leaner  soil  that  lies  on  gravel, 
for  instance,  which  is  perhaps  the  best  subsoiL  The  best  soil  ftrr 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet  root  is  a  mellow,  sandy  loam, 
with  a  free  and  permeable  subsoil,  such  as  would  be  called  by 
the  German  agriculturist  a  first-class  barley  soiL  It  should  be 
ten  to  sixteen  inches  deep — the  deeper  the  better — rich  in  weU- 
decomposod  organic  matter  and  minerals. 

Ordinary  laud  can  not  be  planted  with  the  same  crop  year  after 
year  without  a  gradual  diminution  of  product.  This  is  owing  to 
tho  fiict  that  the  specific  food  of  the  particular  plant  is  exhaastdd 
from  the  soil  by  the  constunt  drafts  upon  it.  But  if  the  land  is 
planted  one  or  more  years  with  a  vegetable  which  takes  a  differ- 
ent kind  of  nourishment  from  the  soil,  time  is  allowed  for  the 
chemical  changes  constantly  going  on  in  the  ground  to  produce  a 
supply  of  the  food  required  by  the  first  kind  of  crop.  In  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  beet-root  for  sugar-producing,  it  must  follow  tho 
cereals,  such  as  wheat,  rye,  and  barley,  but,  I'O  be  profitable,  not 
oft^ner  than  every  thinl  year. 

The  advantages  of  connect  fertOization  in  tho  cuHiviaion  erf 
tho  beet-root  are  shown  by  tho  experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert. 
Dpn  one  acre  of  ground,  c^i  '  -  nf 

D^t5  were  gniwn.    Onuii...  .    '^o 

pamo  characteristics  of  soil,  enriched  with  5d<)  pounds  of  idtrato 
V^      T         r-  :v    ,      'r  ..jf,r,  fi80  h    '    '    ^       '  '■  '  rA. 

"I  .._  lit  manui  -*( 

sugar  per  acre*  tho  boets  grown  with  the  mineral  uilrogvn con*] 


IJT  B£ET-S^ 


301 


led  5,145  pounds  iwr  acrt?.    In  other  words,  with  the  use  of  a 
'Hrtilizer,  an  Lni^Tvatie  of  3,030  pounds  of  8ugar  was  obtained. 

Th«3  application  of  highly  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  or  the  iu- 

iN-»rporatiou  i>f    partly  decayed    organic   substances — like  stable 

lurc — in  the  soil  in  tlie  autumn  or  in  the  spring,  directly  pre- 

iK  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet,  is  known  to  act  injuri- 

bl  ^ition  of  the  roots.    Such  manuring  increasea, 

iioes  in  the  juice,  prevents  a  desirable  develop- 

leot  of  the  sngar^  besides  placing  the  latter  under  unfavorable 

"jrcum-'  r.»r  sef^ijiration.    Thus  no  fertilization  must  be  used 

luriiiK  '       .      '  '>f  the  beet  crop. 

.ftor  the  plowing  and  harmwing  of  the  soil,  much  the  same  as 
insi  for  n  potato  crop,  leaving  the  ground  as  smooth  as  a  gar- 
li,  thf  sowing  of  the  seed  commences  early  in  the  month  of  May, 
whctQ  the  bed' planter^  represented  in  Fig.  1,  is  brought  into  requisi- 


T\9  1.— Tni  OlUIAMIA   BiKT'pLANTia 


lion.     Like  the  mower,  reuper,  binder,  and  other  agricultural  won- 
ders, it  Haves  the  labor  of  many  workmen.     It  is  drawn  by  two 
and  plants  eight  rows,  eighteen  inches  apart,  at  each  pas- 
'he  seed  is  placed  in  hoppers  extending  along  the  top  of 
the  niiichine;   thence  it  descends  through   chutes  or  aporttires, 
sh  can  be  enlarged  or  rontracttMl  at  pleasure,  into  the  body 
thi^  machine.     A  shaft,  furuished  with   small  sp<^ons^  runs 
tlirough  thtt  body  of  the  machine,  and  is  made  to  revolve  with 
\XvT  <»r  leS8  rapidity  by  an  arrangement  of  cog-wheels  connect- 
tliv  shaft  \rith  one  of  the  driving-wheels.     At  each  revolution 
each  little  spoon  brings  up  a  seed  and  deposit-s  it  in  a  small  hop- 
per, from  which  it  descends  through  a  series  of  funnel-shaped 
tubes,  which  tehwcope  into  each  other,  into  the  seed-box  of  the 
drilL    Another  S€irii33  of  cog-wheels  is  set  in  motion  by  the  other 
driving-wheel,  and  these  cause  another  shaft  to  revolve,  faster  or 
slower,  aciiording  K<y  the  arrangement  of  the  wheels.    This  shaft 
ki«  '  i   with  eight  wheels,  with  cams  or  projections  on  the 

[circ-....   ..uce,  which  ojieratc  the  valve-rods  that  open  and  shut 

ithft  i$eod-boxe0  in  the  drills,  and  thus  this  gearing  regulates  the 
distaoc-  -c'eds  are  dropped,  just  as  the  other  regulates 


THS  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTH LY. 

tho  quantity  tif  seed  deposited  in  the  seetl-lioxes.    The  need-drills' 
are  furnished  with  little  plows,  which  open  furrows  for  the  Heod,, 
dee|>er  or  shallower  in  proportion  as  they  are  laden  with  wui^hts^ 
provided  for  t!ie  piirjK>se,  and,  being  hung  on  pivots,  they  rejidUy 
adapt  themsolves  to  any  inequalities  on  the  surface  of  the  land. 
In  returning  across  the  field,  the  inner  wheel  follows  in  the  track 
made  by  the  ont^r  one  in  going,  and  thus  the  last  row  of  a  Iwp'nty- 
acre  tieUi  is  parallel  to  the  tirst,  and  the  spaces  between  tlie  rowK 
are  uniform.    With  land  thoroughly  prepared,  and  wiUi  men  and 
horst?s  practiced  iu  their  work,  the  machine  could  plant  twejity- 
five  to  thirty  acres  jwr  ilay. 

The  heei-culiivaioTy  Pig.  I^,  is  also  drawn  by  two  liorses.  ajid 
cultivates  tive  rows  at  each  passage.     It  cousista  mainly  of  Mve 


Fn.  ft^— Tbs  BKBT-CoLnTATum  wiTu  ArT*c4iJU.:rT  run  luoTKOTixa  Tiu  YoCMo  Pi.un& 

se(.s  of  Hcuffles  or  hoes,  set  in  a  fruinrwork,  suspf'ndod  1  !lie 

Iliad-wheels  of  the  machine.     By  means  of  a  Jever,  tern  ^  iji 

a  cog-wheel  and  playing  on  a  ooggeil  semicircle,  Uiis  frame  can  be 
moved  from  side  to  side,  or  olevat*Ml  t^>  pass  ov**r  obsti  »>r 

for  convenience  in  going  to  and  returning  from  tin-  i.  mJi 

set  of  hoes  comprises  three  diflferent  forms  of  implemouts  miapt<«<l 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  at  different  stages  of  \Xs  growth. 
The  first  s»^t  consists  of  a  broad,  single  scutlle,  almost  as  wide  as 
tlie  distjincc  between  the  rows  ;  this  is  intended  to  be  us*m1  about 
ii»  soon  iiM  the  rows  can  be  tra«'ed,  and  it  is  provided  with  a  c^nx- 
trivanco  which  bestrides  the  rows,  and  protects  the  yountr  plAiits 
from  lieing  CKVored  with  earth.     The  second  *et  of  i 

consists  of  two  narrow^  scuffles,  which  penetrate  and  si;.     

lu  a  greater  depth,  and  are  used  after   the   plants  have  Lem 
thinned  out  and  have  grown  stronger,  and  tb* 
danger  of  c*>v.  linL-  them  witli  earth.    The  tii 
witli  the  bet-t  ■  or,  is  a  kind  of  i]nnble  mold-board  plow,  and 

naed  for  th«:  tiuL  huoing  or  hilling.  Fig.  .1.    The  shape  anil  uw 


lOJ 


iniplemeutt^  will  bo  seen  by  reference  to  the  diugrams, 
fllfch  tlluMtraU'  the  cultivator  rigged  for  use  at  different  stages 
|of  Ibt?  jjrowtb  of  the  crop. 

Ivery  seed-veHsel  of  the  beet,  containing  fi^om  two  to  three 
ft,  will  produce  as  many  plants,  of  which  the  strongest  is  left. 


of  1 


T""    KtKT  *   I-1TIV4TOII,    WITU    ATTACimCNT   rOB  CuVilliiAu   Xilfc    UuUTB   AT   IU«   LAfT 
UQElXa. 

•  st  livv  pulleil  up  or  otherwise  destroyed.     The  process 

,.;  out  the  plants,  not  unlike  the  same  operation  in  the 

caltivatiou  of  com,  takes  place  after  the  first  passage  of  the  cul- 

lie  routs  have  reached  the  length  of  fromfour^ 

'       remaining  plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  apart.' 

The  0oil  around  the  young  plant  is  frequently  loosened  by  the 

cultivator,  as 

n    in    Fig.    2, 

every  two  or  three 

w«ii^te«,    natil     the 

h-^vf^      have     ac- 

their  proi>er 

;.   .    .  jnucnt    early 

inJuof*.  Tliistnuit- 

mpnt,}»y  dt-'^itniyiufi: 

the   weeds  and   in- 

^reatdng  the  gener- 

[a]  alMorbin^  prop- 

i«rUe«   of    the   »cnl, 

(faToreiui  aiidiMturbed  and  early  development  of  the  leaves,  which 
*^   "'ug  intlueuce  in  the  formation  of  sugar. 
'J  '}fr.  Fig.  4,  is  a  powerful  machine,  also  drawn  by 

^two  hontew.  It  consists  of  two  long  knives  or  coulters,  fixed  in  a 
hoovy  framework,  and  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  set  to  run 
to  H  grc«t«ir  or  Ie«»  depth,  as  may  be  desired.  These  knives  run 
uzkder  and  lift  two  rows  of  btx-ts  at  e4u;b  passage.    As  the  machine 


Fio. 4— Tm  BKvr-Dioacx. 


ao4 


THE  POl 


SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


passes  along,  only  u  slight  ni)pling  or  uudulating  motioD  is  ob- 
served in  the  rows  of  bect-top8»  but  tlie  roots  are  hwsened  and 
cleared  of  dirt  more  perfectly  than  could  be  done  by  hund.  and.  as 
no  roots  are  broken  or  left  in  the  ground,  a  contiidenible  increase 
in  the  crop  is  obtained.  Like  the  beet-cultivator,  the  digger  is 
stoered  by  a  lever  at  the  hind  end  of  the  machine, and  can  be  lifted 
to  pass  over  obstructions  and  for  convenience  of  travel  to  and 
from  the  field.  The  l>eets  being  raised  out  of  the  soil,  and  the 
leaves  cut  off  vrith  sword-like  knives  about  one  half  to  an  inch 
^bove  the  root,  the  harvesting  is  completed  by  the  removal  of  the 
ots  to  the  jiits  or  factory. 

These  machines  are  constructed  to  work  with  mathematical 
exactness,  and  are  ust^d  in  Germany  with  great  success,  and  ac- 
comjilish  a  very  important  saving  of  labor.  Tht-y  have  also  Ijeeu 
experimented  with  at  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 
with  the  same  results.  It  is  ob\nous  that  the  smoother  and  more 
level  the  land,  the  bolter  for  cultivation;  but  the  beet  machinery 
will  do  good  W(jrk  on  rolling  and  uneven  laud.  The  be«?t-plant<*r, 
or  any  part  of  it,  may  pass  over  stones  or  mounds  without  inter- 
fering with  its  operation,  ample  provision  being  made  to  enable 
each  part  to  n<lapt  itself  to  the  inequalities  of  the  land.  Finally, 
the  crop  must  bo  kept  free  from  weeds  until  harvcsUxl,  otlior- 
wise  the  root-lifter,  which  on  clean  land  is  a  model  of  ifimplic- 
ity  and  effectiveness,  will  be  clogg(»d  and  will  not  work  at  alL 
In  short,  it  requires  and  abundantly  rewards  careful  prepare 
tion  of  the  land,  punctual  performance  of  the  rarious  opemtions 
*)f  tillage,  and  perseveraiicp  in  destroying  weeds.  We  may  say» 
this  machinery  is  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  other  cropH.  ]mr- 
ticularly  corn. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet  |k*i  mi'. 
without  machinery,  on  the  farm  in  New  England^  is  alx'Ut  the 
same  as  for  a  crop  of  onions,  com,  or  jx>tatoes,  and,  exclusive  of 
fertilizers,  may  bo  estimated  aa  fullow>^  * 

Fall  plowing. fa-Oe 

Spring  plowing..  4.INJ 

Htrmwing 8.00 

Murttiog  mid  planting  ...  1.00 

First  weeding  nod  ihinuing. .                            8.00 

CulUrator  with  hone,  three  limca 4.00 


ToUl. 


$I*.60 


It  would  be  ira|K>ssible,  ^nthin  the  limit*  of  Ihia  artusle,  U%  dr- 
Bcrilie  in  minute  detail  nil  the  approved  ::  m- 

facture  of  l)eet-suffar;  but  an  attempt  will  J  n- 

eral  id(?a  of  the  different  prooome^,  with  a  det--  of 

Uie  ingenious  mechanical  coutri^^ancea  introductiii«iuna|(  iLt?  past 


205 


decadi^  which  havt?  been  important  ngtnicies  in  making  it  possible 
tci  man n fact tir«»  beet-sugar  at  a  profit.  Tlie  method  c»f  extracting 
the  Huj^ar  frt)m  the  lieet-rot^t  is  entirely  unlike  the  one  usually 
einployi^l  in  manuf^tcturing  sugar  from  the  cane-plant,  but  the 
principle  of  the  former  is  e^iually  applicable  to  the  hitter,  and 
will  prttbably  be  generally  adopted  when  the  cane-sugar  aiauu- 
ffti^turvr  can  afford  to  replace  his  old  mechanical  system  with 
nitary  diffusion  batteries. 

The  beet-root^  are  dumped,  by  the  farmers,  into  large  bins 

t  nine  hundred  feet  long,  capable  of  holding  five  thousand  tons 

ietfi,  from  which  tliey  are  dropped  by  adjustable  traps  into 

a  concrete  ditch  or  canal,  underneath  the  beet-house.    This  canal 

is  I  •  with  descents  of  brickwork  or  metal  gutters,  thrtjugh 

whi  root*  are  borne  by  the  rushing  water  into  the  wash- 

houfie,  which  constitutes  the  first  stage  of  the  factory.    In  the 

houso  is  a  large  screw  or  raising  wheel   arrangement,  by 

h  the  beots  are  emptied  into  a  hopper  on  the  second  floor. 


f 


Fw.  5  — The  3*rr-CvTnm. 


^Hfrom  which  they  pass  into  a  large,  drum-shaped  iron  cylinder, 
^V '  •'barrel,  where  the  roots  are  thoroughly  cleaned. 

^^  (  the  beet  is  a  \'ery  important  operation  in  the 

^nnanafacturo  of  the  sugar,  for  the  roots  are  thus  freed  from  mold, 
^^■MttHt'  V    ]       IdndH  of  dirt  attaching  to  thorn,  which  not 

^I^^^B^' '  y  employed  in  the  actual  preparation  of  the 

Im^  from  injury,  but  keeps  the  sugar  ultimately  obtained  free 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEI^CE  MONTHLY, 


from  impurity.  With  the  mere  washing  of  the  beets  the  sugar 
manufacturer  is  not  content;  they  are  therefore  freed  from  those 
parts  which  are  poor  in  saccharine,  damaged  or  otherwise  unde- 
sirable, by  a  machine  called  a  cartntsaL 

When  cleaned,  the  beets  are  thrown,  from  the  wash-barrel  into 
a  hopper,  from  which  they  pass  into  an  endless  elevator  whicli 
carries  them  to  the  top  floor,  where  they  are  discharged  into  u 
large  liopper.  They  then  pass  into  a  cage  which  will  hold  one 
thousand  pounds  of  beets,  and,  when  this  weight  is  indicated, 
the  cage  empties  its  load  into  the  cutter  or  slicer,  Fig.  5.  The  cage 
and  the  indicator  enabb^  the  factory  people  to  closely  estimate 
the  amount  of  raw  material  used  each  day.  It  is  also  a  check 
on  every  depai*tment.  It  will  show  any  error  tliat  may  arise  in 
the  rweiviug  or  Kliippiiig  ilepartnuiuts.  Tbt'  wliccr  is  a  round 
iron  shaft,  rotating  horizontally,  and  fitk'd  witli  steel  knives  ca- 
I>able  of  slicing  four  huntlred  tons  of  beets  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  rotating  knives,  which  descend  upon  the  beets,  cut  them 
into  thin  slices,  thus  exposing  the  sugar-cells,  which  is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  diffusion  system.  The  lower  end  of  the  cutter 
opens  into  a  wooden  trough  about  two  feet  square,  on  the  bottom 
of  which  is  an  endless  belt.  As  the  sliced  beets  fall  from  the 
cutter,  the  l)elt  carries  them  along  to  the  diffusion  tanks. 

In  alluding  to  the  operation  of  the  diffusion  haitery  in  the  arti- 
cle on  '*  Growth  of  the  Beet-Sugar  Industry/*  it  was  said  that 
"though  simple  iii  its  conception,  it  nevertheless  illustrates  well- 
known  laws  of  chemical  science  in  the  transfusion  of  liquids,  and 
successfully  opens  the  membranous  walls  of  the  sugar-cells  of  the 
plant,  giving  a  higher  gnwle  of  juice,  with  less  gummy,  nitroge- 
nous, and  dbrous  impurities,  at  less  cost  than  by  the  old  methods 
of  mechanical  pressure."  By  membranous  diffuijion  is  understood 
the  process  of  exchange  between  two  fluids  of  unequal  density, 
contained  in  two  vessels  separated  only  by  a  membrane.  Sup- 
posing the  sugar-cells  to  bo  brought  in  contact  with  pure  water, 
then,  theoretically,  if  the  cells  contain  twelve  per  cent  of  sugar, 
transfusion  will  go  on  till  an  equal  weight  of  water  contains  six 
per  cent  of  sugar,  while  by  the  passage  of  water  into  tlie  cells  the 
juice  there  is  reduced  to  the  same  degree.  Taking  the  six-per-cent 
watery  solution  and  treating  with  it  fresh  roots  containing  twelve 
I)er  <*ent  of  sugar,  a  nine-per-cent  solution  will  be  obtAiued,  which, 
on  being  brought  a  third  time  in  contact  with  fresh  roots,  would 
be  raised  to  a  density  of  10'5  per  cent.  Thus,  seven  eighths  of 
the  whole  sugar  would  be  obtaiuetl  at  the  third  operation,  and  it 
is  on  this  theory  that  the  diffusion  process  is  base(l. 

A  diffusion  bdfifry.  Fig.  ti,  consists  of  a  range  of  twelve  large, 
close,  upright  cylinders  called  diffusers,  provided  with  man-holes 
above  and  perforated  false  bottoms,  with  a  like  number  of  heaters. 


Pio.  T. 


Pcntitm  voa  avrrLi  09  Luni  aito  Cxmonc-AGrD  Q*»  to  fAnoar  I" Jnarmii  d«> 
FftbrfcADU  (l6  Biiera"). 


the  combine*!  influence  of  heat  and  pre^sun* — the  whole  snlatiou 
comes  richly  charged  with  aiigar.    Fmm  i^Hiidor  No.  I,  which 

>ntAins  the  stIic€^8  nlmoKt  oxhausUnl  of  thr---      i-*' ..*....».    ^}^q 

luid  pjiRSCH  into  No,  *J,  when*  it  act«  "ii  «]  in 

Juico.    80  it  goe^  oa  through  the  series,  moetuig  in  v«Mjh  cytkiidori 


209 


nlIoeH  incrpjwingly  rich  in  juice,  and  acquiring  density  in  its  prog- 
r«««.  B<-foni  ent^^ring  the  last  cylinder  the  solution  is  heated. 
aail  Iht*  richly  charge<l  fluid  is  sent  forward  to  the  carbonation 
tnuks.  This  process  of  saturation  consists  in  the  treatment  of  the 
ciiflfn^ion  juicvs  with  lime  and  carbonic  acid,  whereby  the  non- 
flBCcitariBP  substances   are  precipitated  and   partly  decomposed. 


Uie  811^^  remaining  unalterod  in  solution.  These  foreign  or  non- 
sftocharine  substances,  which  are  present  in  the  juice  in  consider- 
able proportions,  would  interfere  with  the  crystallization  of  the 
■agar, 

Tbo  carbonic-acid  gas  is  generated  in  a  lime-kiln.  Fig.  7,  which 
of  a  hollow  circular  chamber  of  incombustible  matHrial 
tdcd  with  furnaces  an<i  dnlivery  apertures,  and  is  genc^rally 
placed  in  the  op^n  air  in  the  factory  yard.    The  lime  and  carbonic- 


I       Bogar. 
■       Tho< 
^^npsiista 
^^Pmridc< 


SIO 


'MONTHLY, 


acid  gas  are  obtained  by  the  decompoHition  of  marble  chips  by  ft 
tire  of  coke  and  a  bath  of  sulphtiric  acid.  The  process  of  satura- 
ti«»u  being  complete,  the  juice  is  drawn  throu^jh  siind-witcbtfrs  by 
means  of  a  lye-pump,  which  conveys  it  under  pnv^nre  into  the 
iilter-prosses  of  the  lirst  saturation,  whert*  the  precipitated  sub- 
stances are  rwieivo<I.  The  presae-s  cuuHist  of  a  number  of  four- 
cornered  plates  or  frames,  over  which  cloths  are  Btrotclied.    The 


Fw,  •.— CuiMiniuAi.  Farm  (llMaan*). 

iTemduum  is  deposited  between  the  platen  or  in  tJie  frrr — 

irt**  may  be,  whib*  the  (luid  pwH^e*!  thro?ij^'h  the  cl-  f( 

leaving  the  pms^,  and  id  1hu8  filti 

From  the  presses  the  liquid   ]  ♦,.    m,..   rrvajmralor 

This  congiMtit  of  one  or  more  cyhn  -^r  in  a  viv- 

or  a  horixontal  {K>8ition,  occordiug  an  iU  viS«ct  is  tfinglOf] 


til 


doabl^»  triplt»»  or  qiuwlruple,  (luJ  provided  with  a  Bystein  of  heat- 
ing pipes.  T}je  sttiam  which  prweeds  from  the  boiling  juice  of 
th**  firat  vessel  serves  to  heat  the  second  vessel,  and  so  on  through 
the  entire  series.  The  evacuation  of  the  heating  system  ou  the 
evaporator  is  effected  by  means  of  small  tubes  leiuling  from  one 
ve««el  to  the  other  and  connected  with  a  condenser. 

When  iht*  simp  has  attained  to  a  certain  degree  of  concentra- 
tion, it  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  pneumatic  suction  direct  into  the 
wictium  boUer,  The  vacuum  boiler.  Fig.  8,  consists  of  a  vertical, 
cvV  '         '    ''-3hai>ed  vessel,  with  a  conical  base,  cont^iining 

h*  -  -s.    The  mass  obtained  from  the  vacuum  holler 

b  finut  of  All  placetl  in  a  refrigerator,  which  consists  of  a  trougli 
pn»vided  with  a  stirrer  and  a  refrigerator  jacket.  The  mass  of 
sugar  crystals  must  now  be  sepaj'ated  from  the  sirup,  so  that  raw 
sugar  may  be  obtiiined,  and  hence  it  is  sent  forward  from  the 
refrigerator  to  the  centrifugal  machines. 

A  centrifugal  machine.  Fig.  9,  consists  of  a  cylindrical  drum, 
over  which  ia  a  tinely  perforated  sieve,  and  which  rotates  with 
great  rapidity  on  its  own  axis.  The  mass  placed  in  the  drum  is 
prewc«d  against  the  sieve  by  the  action  of  centrifugal  force,  and 
the  fluid  escapes  through  tiie  small  apertures.  The  siru])  hav- 
ing boon  ilisptMied  of,  the  yellow  sugar  obtaine(i  is  calle<l  the  first 
product,  and  this,  having  been  emptied  from  the  drum,  is  trans- 
ferred to  another  sieve,  wliere  it  is  frt^ed  from  the  lumps  which 
it  may  contain,  and  the  raw  sugar  is  finally  emptied  into  sacks  on 
Ihe  lower  floor,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  refinery.  The  process 
of  roftning  raw  sugar  into  the  block  sugar  of  commerce  is  an 
independent  industry. 


MISCHIEF-MAKERS  IX  MILK. 


Br  ALICE  B.   TWEEDT. 


"BRY  rooently  it  wa«  azuiounced  by  Proust  that  the  bicarbon- 
atts  of  Sfxlft  used  as  a  preservative  of  milk  formed  a  com* 
pound  partictihirly  injurious  to  children — i.  e..  the  lactate  of  soda. 
There  appears  to  be  great  danger,  in  the  newly  aroused  fear  of 
feT  "       i;es  in  food  and  of  the  baneful  products  of  the 

bn  ,  uiy  vaunted  preservative  or  germicide  maybe 

greedily  seized  ujK3n  at  once,  without  thoiight  as  to  the  innocence 
of  *       *  '      *  i  ^*ity.    This  easy  credence  in  antiseptics  seems 

Uf  of  the  minds  that  shrink  with  most  unreason- 

ing frar  I  rom  every  advance  in  bac^teriological  research.  Not  long 
riooe,  a  no v r- '  ■  -*  ^^ -  ore  imaginative  than  scientific,  arraigned  Science 
b«icaase>  *' t .  of  the  comma  bacillus  is  more  dreadful  than 

that  of  the  cbolt^ra."    This,  as  an  outburst  of  ignorance,  would 


112 


excusable,  preferring  the  known  horror  to  the  inuneaiJurabU*  tm» 
known.  But,  to  one  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  inEniteaitnal 
life  swarms  about  and  witliin  ua,  why  shoulrl  it  be  terrible  to 
learn  that  some  forms  are  coincident  with  disease  ?  If  wp  thrive 
upou  palpitant  air,  drink  water*  populated  with  bacteria,  and 
sheIt«M-  millions  of  microbes  in  our  bodies,  why  should  we  treuiblo 
to  find  a  few  unfriendly  species  that  we  can  not  safely  enterbiin  ? 
We  talk  glibly  of  '*  pure  air  "  and  "  pure  water  " ;  but,  to  \h>  exAct, 
wo  have  only  a  laboratory  knowledge  of  either,  and  might  as  well 
try  to  rid  ourselves  of  our  surjilus  population  as  to  provido  our- 
Hflves  with  these  elements  in  a  sterilized  state. 

Deatl"  and  "undesirable"  may  be  equivalent  t^rma  in  re^rd 
to  iiir  and  water,  but  we  do  not  yet  know  whether  they  can  be 
applied  to  food.  All  of  the  bacilli  that  visit  our  articles  of  diet 
soem  to  herald  some  fermentative  or  putrefactive  change.  8om^' 
times  these  are  agreeable  to  us.  and  we  aid  them  in  their  work  Ot 
creating  yeast,  wine,  and  kumyss.  Even  then  we  watch  clo8*dy 
and  fix  a  limit  to  their  activity.  Generally^  we  are  squeamish 
about  their  advent  in  meat,  milk,  cheese,  or  eggs,  having  dire  ex- 
perience of  the  alkaloids  that  they  manufacture.  And,  it  must 
be  noted,  it  is  not  the  bacilli  them.selves  that  give  us  trouble; 
for  all  we  know  they  may  be  as  digestible  as  the  ch<dera  bacillus 
was  to  M.  Roche  Fontaine.  It  is  the  physiologiai]  result  of  their 
sojtnirn  in  the  food  that  constitutes  the  danger — the  unfortunate 
remainder,  or  ptomaine,  that  may  be  fjital  to  us.  This  ptomaine  is 
an  alkaloid  formed  from  the  medium  in  which  the  orgtuiism  exists, 
and  includes  whatever  substance  may  be  left  of  the  bact*.irium 
itself.  Just  as  man  changes  the  atmosphere  about  him  by  exhal- 
ing carbonic-acid  gaa  and  varigus  solid  particles  of  matter,  so  the 
Iwilliis  decomposes  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body  in  which  it 
reisides. 

Nf^thing  more  wonderful  than  this  work  of  disintegration  is 
revealed  to  us  in  the  economy  of  Nature.  The  picture  of  sj^eciee 
after  species  accomplishing,  by  a  brief  life,  one  step  toward  tbfi 
final  resolution  of  organic  matter  into  the  elementary  product^*,  is 
not  surpassed  by  a  study  of  the  glacial  chiseling  of  the  rocku, 
nor  of  the  marveUius  influence  of  the  earth-worm  in  fructifying 
the  !<oil. 

Obviously,  wo  can  not  wait  for  the  manufacture  of  any  p«ji)(OD, 
bat  must  make  it  an  impossibility,  if  we  can,  without  rivaling 
any  **(  the  t«txic  effects  by  our  remedies.     Ac<i  -a* 

sionally  made  with  the  ptomaine  before  the  gn      ^  is 

known ;  in  such  cases  even  more  care  roust  be  exercised. 

Following  the  investigationa  of  Lister  and  Hii  :        'V-  nnij- 


*  A  ctllite  OfmUrbetrf  of  whalvAcm^  tnitt  tnmy  i-uittAin  fruiu  A.^Twi 
vf  bictvria. 


roll 


rns  m  MILK. 


«M 


^ 


I 


nary  fermentation  of  milk  iB  traced  to  the  growth  of  a  micro- 
Ofgamsm  knowij  as  Bacteriu^n  laclWf  which  converts  the  milk- 
murar  into  liictic  acid.  The  work  of  decomposition  is  then  taken 
uj  i Uus,  named suh/Uis,  through  which  butyric  acid 

t«  i-.  ..;..- .  i.     u  .  i^ut  experiments  made  in  the  cultivation  of  milk 


bftctorla  by  Baginaki  *  indicate  that  the  BaeteTnuni  lactis  ia  incor- 
^  md.  being  responsible  for  an  acetic-acid  formation, 

^\h  d  aceti. 

There  is  also  a  peculiar  fermentator,  Baci^riuvi  coli,  that  refuses 
to  meddle  with  milk-sugar  alone,  but  upon  the  addition  of  white 
of  egg  hIujws  exti*aonliuary  activity,  furnishing  luetic,  formic,  and 
Bu?e4ic  aci<i.  These  three — Baderiuvi  aceti,  Bnetllus  ^ubiilis,  and 
gc  '  1.  roli — are  the  normal  visitants  f  of  milk,and  the  changes 
pi\  ■■■  upon  their  presence  are  well  understood.    The  micro- 

tirgnnisTns  that  breed  disease  and  deatli  ai>pear  under  exceptional 
chrumstancea,  against  which,  so  far  as  they  are  known,  we  may 
carefully  guard. 

The  bacilli  of  phthisis,  typhoid,  and  scarlet  fever  have  betm 
det-ected  in  milk  supposed  to  l>e  wholesome.    Thorough  inspection 
of  cattle  and  dairies  may  reduce  the  frequency  of  infection :  but, 
rtil  such  superWsion  is  the  rule,  all  danger  can  be  avoiderl  l)y 
nling  the  milk.     In  the  late  Congress  at  Paris  on  the  study  of 
ttiberculosis,  Dr.  NocahI  advised  this  to  be  done  in  every  case 
■re  there  existed  any  temieucy  to  consumption. 
A  peculiar  sickness.!  which  in  its  malignant  form  is  similar  to 
anthrax,  has  been  traced  to  a  germ  occurring  in  milk.    The  con- 
dit  quired  for  its  development  are  known,  and  have  been 

Hi  ..  produced  by  fetnling  cattle  with  fodder  exposed  to  the 

dev-fatL  The  poison  is  found  in  sweet  milk,  butter,  cream»  and 
chww,  but  not  in  buttermilk.  It  is  either  formed  in  small  quan- 
tity, !»r  has  the  property  attributed  to  it  of  self-attraction.  Neither 
th^  pTomaine  nor  the  bacillus  prmlucing  it  has  been  determined, 
and  they  offer  a  new  field  for  experiment. 

The  uhief  mischief-maker  is  yet  unknown,  imless  it  may  pos- 
9\\ '  '  limtlcul  with  the  micrococcus*  found  by  Dr.  Sternberg 

in .    Its  ptomaine,)  however,  was  isolated  by  Prof.  Vaughan, 

of  the  University  of  Michigan,  in  1885,  and  was  called,  from  the 
V  hich  it  was  discovered,  iyrofoxicon — cheese-poison. 
y  of  this  di.scovery  is  interesting.    Three  hundred 
ca0ea  of  cheese-poisoning  were  recorded  iu  Michigan  by  the  Board 


*  *  Bvport  of  the  Plifiiologicftl  ^ineiet;  of  Berlin,"  JaQuarr  IB,  1889. 
^  T««ni>  i'  't'^  of  bacteria  were  found  in  intestineaof  milk-fed  iDfonte  suffer- 

ifeg  *ilh  wnnti  'Ht»  <Dr.  Oookcr,  Baltimore). 

I  •*Bd«c.  k,  l«Stt,  vol.  Hii,  p.  482. 

■  **  Roport  .>a  of  HMlth  nf  Micbigun,*'  18S4-'85.  vol  xiii.  p,  SI8. 

I  **  PUimaiiw*  and  LruoPtnauw?/*  Vaugban  and  Novy,  p.  tti. 


THE  POPlTLAn  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


of  Health  during  I8fct;j  and  1H84.  Although  none  of  these;  were 
fatal,  the  illness  was  in  some  instances  alanuing^  and  the  evil 
efferts  were  contined  to  twelve  different  cheefies.  Samples  of  these 
were  sent  to  Prof.  Vnughan  for  analj'sis.  The  cheese  exhibited 
no  unusual  taste  or  otior,  but  a  dog.  with  keener  instinct  than  the 
human,  8electe<l  a  piece  of  untainted  cheese  in  prefeitjnce.  Thed^ 
tection  of  the  poisijn  proved  to  l>e  a  difficult  task.    TIm  ino 

was  volatile  and  unst-able.and  a  roetlio<l  hiwl  to  Ihj  invcn  itis 

isolation.  An  alcolioHc  extract  of  the  cheese  fixerl  the  poison  in  ih 
fatty  acid.  An  aqueous  extract  was  made  and  ev:i:  '  '  Ten 
the  poison  also  dii^appeared.    Two  years  of  patient  >  it-d 

the  process,  and  Prof.  Vaughan  succeeded  in  separating  the 
ptomaine  in  crystalline  shape.  During  the  same  year  he  ob- 
tained tyrotoxicon  from  milk  kept  in  stop|>ered  bottles  in  the 
laboratory. 

In  188(j  there  occurred  some  case^  of  mysterious  poisoning  at 
Long  Branch.  Twenty-four  j)er8on3  became  suddenly  ill  at  one 
hot^l,  niu€»to«.'U  at  another,  and  in  the  folluwing  week  thirty  mortj 
coinplained  of  similar  symptoms.  The  investigations  condnctect 
by  the  chemists,  Newton  and  Wallace,  established  the  fact  that 


in 


■V3 


tyrotoxioon  was  the  cause  of  the  sickness.    The  con  " 
which  the  poison  was  generated  are  given  in  the  report  ; 
*•  The  noon's  milking — which  alone  was  followed  by  illn 
place<l  while  hot  in  the  cans,  and  then,  without  any  ■■•  'at 

Cooling,  carted  eiglit  miles  during  the  warmest  part  of  ;  in 

a  very  hot  month  "  I  Milk-poisouing  in  Iowa  and  Michigxm  waa 
subsequently  trace<i  to  the  formation  of  t>Totoxicon;  atid,  in 
India,*  an  English  surgef»n,  Firth,  discovered  the  »ime  ptomaine 
in  milk  that  occasioned  sickness. 

It  might  b*'  supp08e<l  that  mt  favorable  a  nidns  as  custard  would 
not  be  overlooked  by  the  mischievous  bacillus.  After  Vaughan'a 
method  of  isolating  the  ptomaine  was  made  known,  many  luialyf^et)' 
of  poiiionous  ice-cream  and  cream-puffs  testitied  to  its  industry. 
"Wherever  this  toxic  agent  was  identifuMl,  thi^  circumatimceft  al- 
teiuling  its  growth  were  carefully  studied,  and  the  *  ,  ht* 

milk,  cream.  r»r  custard  was  found  to  be  faulty.    In  soui-  ^.«* 

cleanliness  had  been  strictly  observed,  but  other  conditions  indue* 
inij;  f<*niii'ntation  had  ])f*en  overlooked.     In  the  mi^V   i  :il 

Long  Briuuli   propter  airing  and  c*xding  of  the  i\\  -g- 

U^'t^Ml.  In  Milan,  Mich.,  three  fatal  cases  occurred  in  the  tidy 
home  of  a  fanner's  family.  Examination  showed  that  the  but- 
tery where  the  milk  was  kept  had  a  new  flftop  laid  over  d<*raying 
boiirds,  and  some  of  the  dirt  accumulation  ti 

to  the  lahuratf—     " •■♦fd  tyrotoxicon  in  i ..    .^  iim»%.    .  -n, 

Mich.,  the  ci:  rod  for  froer-ing  ntmid  for  sun i  'U 

*  "  lodiu  MniioMl  Joanal.**  OOrata,  1SB7,  tqI.  H,  p.  1. 


4 


iilSCmEF'MAi 


»»y 


HA  nnv-f^ntilated  building  formerly  used  as  a  meat-market.  The 
it'e*cn^ain  made  from  them  jxiiaon^^d  eighteen  persons. 

Atx-oniin^i^  tii  Prof.  Vaughan,  tyrotoxicon  does  not  develop 
1n-»]ow  <M/  Fahr.,  and  is  anaerobic — grows  when  air  is  excluded, 
Somo  vi^ry  einiple  measures,  then,  ai-e  preventive : 

1.  Scrupulous  rl»ianlini»ss.*  A  little  dry  milk  on  the  rim  of  a 
cftp  -1  m;tj'  breed  the  germ  which  will  find  a  culture-groxmd 

in  1  ■'■lik. 

8.  A  low  temperature — below  60**  Fahr. 
3,  Ventilation  in  an  untainte*!  atmosphere. 
It  ifl  but  just  to  say  that  these  precautions  are  generally  ob- 
^■red  by  careful  dairymen  and  cream  manufacturers.    There  is 
^^ve  reason  to  fear,  however,  that  they  are  not  generally  observed 
oftor  the  milk  reaches  the  consumer's  hands.    Also,  the  slightest 
curele^sness  may  affect  seriously  that  class  of  the  community 
which  dfH*8  not  speak  for  itself — tlie  very  youngest. 

The  symptoms  of  cholera  infantum  t  and  poisoning  by  tyro- 
toxicon have  W'i'tW  proveci  ex|)erimentally  to  be  very  much  alike, 
if  not  identical.    Even  the  iH}st-inoriem  condition  of  children  dying 
with  this  complaint  is  shown  by  Prof.  Vaughan  to  agree  exactly 
^l^tfiat  caused  by  tyrotoxicon-ix^isoning  in  animals.    The  enor- 
HHBper  cent  of  deaths  from  the  disease  occurs  between  the  ages 
of  six  montlie  and  two  years,  proving  conclusively  that  heat  and 
■fa'  '■  !   — .  can  n<it  be  the  potent  causes.    Thert"  is 

HUj  '■  iti  the  life  of  those  under  six  months  and 

older  children — the  foo<l.  The  younger  class,  then,  must  escape, 
becaoite  a  grenter  majority  of  them  are  naturally  nourished.  Sta- 
tistics t  prove  with  increasing  testimony  that  nil  artificial  fcf^ling 
ifl  not  only  unnatural  but  hazardous,  and  to  be  successful  recjuirea 
the  most  intelligent  attention.  However,  if  all  mothers  and  nurses 
cirtiM  I»*arn  that  milk  ex]H)sed  to  foul  i»r  warm  air  for  any  length  of 
tirii  "t  only  sour,  but  }>econu>  the  v^liicle  of  a  viinjlent  poison, 

,  piiti*.*, .  :*u*  summer  montlis  would  l»enr-a  bettin*  health  record." 
I  One  word  rif  wAming  may  not  Tm»  aniiss.|  Whenever  a  young 
HMiI  5s  fed  upon  cowV  milk,  an<l  this  onuses  symptoms  of  dis- 
PPreEoneut,  the  diet  should  Ix*  changed  at  once  either  to  meat  or 
riea ;  for,  if  the  ciiief  mischief-maker  be  at  work,  the  best  milk 
■^'  *  *  'A\  it  with  tlie  medium  in  which  it  flourishes,  and, 
^^^  i-^,  it  will  inevitably  perish. 

•  "  Ptn^J-lphin  MMIaU  KewB,"  vol.  I.  p.  676. 

t  irfM  iTcforc  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  Hij,  1868. 

-PV  Hs,"  JuDc.  1888. 

{  '*Uf  hvl  diMpfi  in  LtvcrtMif»l  only  38  liftd  UAtural  nourUhiiiuuC  \  of  341  in  Leiceator, 
flsW  twr.  r>.  r  ivnt"  ("  PhiUdelphlft  Mt^ioal  NewM,"  June,  1887). 

*1m  of  the  mortnlitr  under  one  year  of  Qf^  i»  from  preventable  catues  ** 
iDr    .,  .^. .  _Ur«B  tMifore  (be  Amcrioui  Uedlcal  AsaodAtioo), 

I  -  Saall«n4ii,**  yul.  nli,  pp.  A08-3I 1 


that  ifMe  fiorUds  tke 


Cucifiil 

oimaAUer. 

in 

xathasHOAD 

^thfrlrv^Ashool 
Mia4-b«Aliag,  liwwiikhud  bi»  on  tnif  ■Unmilw^  and  all  Uw 
U\m  itp^UstoM  am  well,  tlus  vr^er,  vith  a  Jtnagv  ^iian^ftrd  of 
\  deToi«»  fix  p«cei  to  Argunent  aad  ineUaee  in  fi^Tor  of 
iiMiiUl  ImaUai^,  azM}-HDo«t  imiiMmg  af  aU— odminiRt^n  what 
ChriniiAO  adentiflU  coonder  «  wvO-metiud  i«bakB  to  the  IL  D.s 
f/ir  rvit  jprinfc  tise  poblic  the  benofit*  of  this  ''pleaaaat  mod  uii?x- 
f>^ri«ivA  medicine  tbit  cnxtm  in  some  cmsm  whsn  dru|CH  faP,** 
"  nh'/rtjvnji  tK^  ic-nn  of  gickneMi  and  Ught«iis  its  pains  in  many  other 
tnmt^r  m\i\t  '*  fnrtb4innorc%  ha«  oo  injurious  incidental  effects.^ 

•)  oxrw^  fc»r*rocb  misreprosentar' 
111*'  t  has  a  t<9zt-book»  '^ Science  and  i. 

rtrrMMMy  rwviKiii2(«d  ht^  the  exponent  of  its  diictnni»  and 

iiriwa|iM|mr  KtwHlfiiiritJ  pabiic  roroon    This  text-book  6o\ 

lllr 

<1''  "■;   iinil  f»t   "  tnith-cure,'    "i  bt'liof. 


and   nat 


Uli.!    ;     

Witliiitlt.  11 


rt..T 


*  virluiilly  blitt*! 
t.     If  truth  iA 


<m>r  may  oiiier  Uiruuxa  this  muue 


■^>  ^"P  '  e;  obwrvation  and  induction, "  Seienov 

llftaltli     111  a  liM  oMi  uf  oX|>erinientfi  in  Mind  that  satisfy  the 


CHBISTT, 


ti7 


exacting  rules  for  the  use  of  tLese  guides  in  investigation, 
that  extoml  ovor  many  years.  Its  statements  are  absi^lute 
knd  domoustrable  in  the  same  sense  and  by  the  same  methods  as 
;he  propositions  of  geometry.  Every  line  of  this  book  was  writ- 
ten from  demonstration,  by  which  is  meant  experiment  in  the 
msd  the  word  carries  in  natural  science.  The  author  first 
■  out  the  principles  of  healing  in  Christian  Science  on  her- 
\'?T  she  had  been  condemned  by  medical  science.  Then, 
through  nine  years  more,  she  worked  out  the  rule  of  the  opera- 
of  truth  in  the  constant,  public  practice  of  healing  "  all  man- 
of  diseases,"  physical  and  moral. 

This  practice  covered  thousands  of  cases.    Her  history  tlirough 

--  and  the  almost  twenty  that  have  succeeded  them,  has 

silent  endurance,  in  reliance  on  God,  of  mockery  and 

:ution,  often — in  the  earlier  times — of  hunger  and  cold.    Suf- 

worse  than  martyrdom,  daily  repeated,  has  set  its  seal  upon 


Hon?  ia  her  o^m  declaration  as  to  the  method  pursued  in  work- 
ing out  her  discovery : 

"The  point  to  be  determined  is.  Shall  Science  explain  all 
caose  and  effect,  or  shall  these  be  loft  open  to  mere  speculative 
.thought  ?  •  •  .  In  Christian  Science  mere  opinion  is  valueless. 
*oof  is  essential  to  a  due  estimate  of  the  subject.  ...  I  have  set 
forth  Christian  Science,  and  its  application  to  the  treatment  of 
only  as  1  liave  discovered  tlicm.  I  have  demonstrated 
le  ©fftic^s  of  Truth  on  the  health,  longevity,  and  morals  of  men 
'through  Mind.  ...  I  have  healed  hopeless  disease,  and  raised  the 
I  djring  to  life  and  health,  thnjugh  the  understanding  of  God  as 
Hthe  only  life.  .  .  .  The  aick,  the  halt,  and  the  blind  look  up  to  me 
Htnth  blessings," 

^^^  To  the  truthfulness  of  the  most  surprising  of  lier  declarations 
^^^i.  •  are  published  in  "  Science  and  Health  "  from  per- 

^^Rr  ,  .,.,uoned  character,  and  have  stood  fourteen  years 

xmi .  l.    Hundreds  of  others  have  been  published  dui'ing 

the  ^4;".  t,  and  the  publication  continues  monthly  in 

tho  "CL;  ice  Journal,"  with  the  names  and  addresses  of 

irriterSf  and  thousands  more  are  at  the  free  disposition  of  any  ui- 

tnir      '       '  tuth, 

-  or  formulee  of  Christian  Science  are  given  in  "Science 

id  Health  "  so  plainly  that  any  i)erson  of  average  intelligence 

*'      -       T*      ^itained  by  the  author.    These  results  have 

i,led  by  multitudes  of  persons,  who  testify 

ihKcly  to  tho  tact  that  they  have  ]>rovod  them  to  be  invariable. 

ItHQ  facie,  then,  the  pretensions  of  Christian  Science  are  not 

They  ana  entitled  to  fair  and  candid  examination,  coa- 

[^ed  bo  in  tho  case  of  any  other  alleged  science. 


zl8 


ujider  its  own  canons  of  procedure,  subject  to  the  law«  of  oLstT- 
vation  and  induction  that  govern  all  investitfation.  The  >"alidity 
ftf  its  conclusions  must  be  allowed  to  rest  on  tlic  proofs  of  con- 
formity to  these  scientific  tests. 

The  charge  that  Christian  Science  contemns  natural  science  is 
as  unfounded  as  that  it  disregards  ohsorvatiou  and  induction.  U 
is  said  in  "  Science  and  Health  " : 

Learning  U  useful  if  it  ia  of  Iho  right  sort  nistnry,  obnenrution,  iiivenlioo, 
philosophic  research,  atid  original  thought^  ore  essential  to  the  frrowth  of  mortal 
miritl  oat  of  itself,  error.  The  tangled  harbart^fm  of  learning  w  deplore — tb« 
mere  dogma,  ihu  spccolutivL*  theory,  the  naudooufl  flctiun. 

If  oatoral  science  save  one  thing  more  otearlj  than  another,  it  ia  Ihii:  that 
Jaw  is  everywhere,  and  that  there  can  be  no  ezoeption  to  it    Natoral  adeooo 
Mloni&4  niiraclas  if  by  a  miraolo  ia  meant  any  variation  from  the  r«^nUr  ordar  of 
dlvlno  cause  and  effect. 

Herein  Christian  Science  i§  in  a  lino  with  natural  science.  Christian  Science 
Ideroatly  belierea  the  wonderful  works  performed  by  Jesus,  but  affimia  that  his 
so-called  miracles  wore  in  accord  with  the  highest  law  ;  that  tbev  proceeded  from 
the  divine  Principle  of  him,  which  is  the  Christ  or  anointed  imperial  hamanity, 
Liliracles  are  impossible  in  Science.  The  highest  manifestation  of  Life  or  Truth  is 
pOivino — notauperaatarol  or  preteraatorol,  since  Science  is  nature  explicatod. 

The  rational  claims  of  natural  science  against  the  authority 
and  mere  belief  of  dog^inatic  theology  have  all  been  anticipated 
and  formulated  in  "Science  and  Health."     The  cor?"  of 

"  The  Devil-Theory,"  in  the  editor's  table  of  the  April '  y," 

■with  the  following  passage  from  the  chapter  "  Imposition  and 
Demonstration,"  will  illustrate  this  identity  of  attitude  : 

God,  or  good,  has  not  created  a  mind  snsceptSble  of  creating  eviJ,  for  «vil  is  th« 

opposing  error,  and  not  tlie  truth  of  creation. 

As  1  understand  it,  the  only  evil,  or  devil,  in  the  aniverse  b  made  dp  of  fltMh 

erroneous  beliefs  as  these:  that  man  is  a  compound  of  both  mind  and  BUU^t; 

that  a  wicked  mind  can  exist  in  a  nmtvriid  form,  and  both  form  and  miod  eaa  1t# 

oreated  by  the  Pivine  Mind  ;  that  God  la  the  author  of  sin,  siokneva,  and  d«aih; 

and  that  Mind  can  ho  an  entity  within  the  cranium,  with  power  to  sin  ad  lihifvm^ 
Jib  other  words,  Satan  is  not  a  person  bnt  an  illnsion.  A  lie  is  the  ozUy  Balan  thera 
Hi,  OS  rcitults  prove.  All  the  dls(M>rdt(  of  earth  are  lies,  and  falsetiood  caiD  not  pro- 
peed  from  Truth.  Tn  and  of  itself  diaconl  id  a  falsity,  tt  doet  not  repfeMai  Iba 
!lact  relative  to  God  or  man. 

To  give  the  merest  outline  of  the  Pi-inciple  and  rule  of  Chris- 
tian Science. as  laid  down  in  "Science  and  Health," vrotild  roqtiiro 
lA  volume.    Some  of  fl       *  '         'Ings  of  human  con- 

boioasness,  and  concl  it  of  Christian  8d- 

pxioe,  can  only  be  briefly  referred  to  in  the*  space  at  comiiuind. 
*      Man  maybe  defined  n-  -    *"*n<>f  conp'-^""""-     •'  *  *^  ■     '^n* 
ditiou  of  consciousnoss  c-  ■-.  the  inl  is- 

jliefis  is  related  to  two  disiiuct  ciaaseo  of  pheoomeua.   Que  uf  ibeso 


USTIAy  SCIENCE  A  "  CRAZE'*  f 


219 


IP 


IP 


embrftcee  tlie  impressions  derived  from  or  received  through 
the  five  personal  seuses,  aud  constitut<»H  what  is  called  material  or 
physical  life.  These  are  all  summarized  in  the  word  mailer.  In 
Iho  technology  of  Christian  Science  they  are  termed  "  beliefs  "  of 
tuatt«r,  and  are  treated  as  inhering  iu  a  supposed  subject  termed 
"  mortal  man  "  or  "  mortal  mind/'  and  are  said  to  be  cognized 
throagh  material  sense.  This  is  the  consciousness  of  life  in 
matter,  or  life  in  the  material  body,  and  in  Christian  Science  is 
tormed  the  **  false  consciousnesa." 

Beiii<le<i  this  consciousness  or  sense  of  material  life,  or  life  in 
the  body,  there  is  another  sense  or  consciousness  of  Truth,  Lore, 
beauty,  expressed  in  the  word  God,  or  Spirit.  The  impressions  of 
Spirit  not  only  do  not  come  to  us  through  the  personal  senses,  can 
not  be  cognized  by  material  sense,  but  they  are  contrary  to  this 
MD«e,are  the  opposites  of  the  phenomena  of  material  sense.  They 
are  distinct  or  obscure,  just  as  the  individual  is  immersed  in  or 
withdrawn  from  the  objects  of  material  sense,  and  the  impressions 
derive*l  from  them. 

Because  these  two  states  of  consciousness  are  opposites,  they 
are  destructive  of  one  another:  as  one  is  increased,  the  other  is 
diminished  ;  thoy  are  precisely  represented  in  the  action  of  light 
and  darkness — as  one  advances,  the  other  recede&  Every  human 
Indi^-iduality  is  the  battle-ground  of  these  opposing  forces ;  the 

e  is  at  evory  instant  inclined  more  strongly  to  the  one  or  the 

or,  and  tiio  true  history  of  the  individual  and  of  the  race— the 
only  history — is  the  record  of  this  struggle. 

In  the  uninstructed  consciousness,  and  on  this  mortal  plane 
of  existence,  the  beliefs  and  fears  that  are  the  inseparable  con- 
comitants of  material  sense,  or  the  belief  of  life  in  matter,  pre- 
beliefs  of  good  or  ill  are  connected  with  all  the  ele- 
other  conditions  that  make  up  the  material  environ- 
ment; with  every  act  of  the  material  man;  with  eveiy  article  of 
food,  drink,  or  apparel ;  with  the  function  and  operation  of  every 
otgna  of  the  botiy;  with  sleep  and  wakefulness,  and  every  condi- 
tion that  can  be  named.  In  their  train  is  the  countless  array  of 
diiMflMy  envy,  jealousy,  malice,  hatred,  covetousness ;  every  con- 
dition of  thought  that  lust,  appetite,  and  the  nameless  brood  that 
develop  and  i\-  d  as  earthly  life  advances — these  are 


the  shadowy  n 


t  haunt  the  consciousness  of  material 


man — the  i>onaUy  attached  to  the  false  sense  of  life  in  matter. 

Does  pi  '   "^»  gained  from  personal  sense,  emanci- 

pate man   '.  .    -e  thralldom  ?     To  the  contrary,  the 

mure  knowledge  he  gains,  relative  to  these  conditions  and  influ- 
ences, the  rr.  -  ^  -  "s  he  finds  himself  subject  to — a  subjection  that 
the  navag^  led  man  is  free  from.     In  the  words  of  "Science 

and  Health,''  "  Man  hath  sought  out  many  inventions,  but  he 


330 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEITCE  MONTHLY, 


hath  not  yet  found  that  knowledge  can  save  him  from  the  dire 
effects  of  knowledge," 

The  character  of  this  personal  or  material  sense  or  so-called 
consciousness,  and  the  doctrine  of  Science  concerning  it,  are  stated 
in  these  graphic  words  from  the  text-book  of  Science : 

Personal  sense  defrauds,  lies,  cboats,  vll]  break  all  tbe  oomoiaadA  of  the  Uo- 
eaic  Decalogue,  to  meet  ita  own  demands.  How,  then,  can  tbis  sense  be  the  ctian- 
nei  of  blessings  or  of  understanding  to  mant  IIuw  can  man,  reflecting  God,  be 
dopendent  on  sncb  materitd  SDnsc^s  for  knowinjj,  hearings  seeing?  Who  daro  saf 
that  the  senses  of  man  can  bo  at  one  time  the  medium  for  sen'ing  sin,  and,  at 
another,  for  commnnion  with  God  ? 

An  affirmative  reply  would  contradict  tbe  Scriptnre,  for  *'the  aame  fountain 
sendeth  not  forth  sweet  and  bitter  waters/* 

The  so-called  senses  of  matter  are  the  only  source  of  evil  or  error.  Science 
shows  them  to  be  false;  since  matter  has  no  eeusation,  and  no  organic  construc- 
tion can  give  it  hearing  and  sight,  or  make  it  the  medium  of  Mind, 

Outside  of  the  material  sense  of  things,  all  is  harmony.  A  wrong  sense — of 
God,  man,  and  creation— is  nanume^  or  want  of  fiense.  Belief  would  have  the 
material  senses  sometimes  good  and  sometimes  bad. 

Science  sustains  with  immortal  proof  the  impossibility  of  any  material  sense, 
and  defines  these  so-called  senses  (la  human  beliefs,  whose  testimony  can  not  bo 
true  of  ninn  or  liia  Maker — of  whose  reality,  or  immortality,  the  senses  can  take 
no  cognizance.  Nerves  have  no  more  sensation,  apart  from  what  belief  bestows 
upon  tbem,  than  the  fibers  of  a  plant.  Mind  atone  feels,  seea,  tastes,  smells,  ar.d 
hears;  therefore  these  faculties  cttntiuue  when  organization  is  destroyed.  Other- 
wise tlie  very  worms  could  nnfashion  man.  If  it  were  possible  for  the  real  senses 
of  man  to  bo  injured,  Poul  could  reproduce  them  iu  all  their  perfection ;  but  tbey 
can  not  be  disturbed,  since  they  exist  in  Soul. 

"Science  and  Health"  givps  plain,  practical  rules  by  ^rhich 
the  origin  and  classification  of  all  the  objects  or  images  appearing 
in  con.sciousness  can,  first,  be  instantly  recognized ;  and,  second,  can 
be  dealt  with  understandingly  and  on  their  merits.  It  thus  simply 
affirms  that  states  and  conditions  of  consciousness  can  be  gradu- 
ally and  progressively  controlled  and  changed  from  fear  and  suf- 
fering to  happiness  and  serene  confidence.  It  teaches  how  to 
eliminate  from  consciousness,  how  to  destroy  all  objects  that  are 
opposed  to  harmony,  through  the  cultivated  imderstanding  of 
Truth.  The  operation  of  this  understanding  results  in  gradual 
elimination  of  material  sense,  and  beliefs  of  matter  that  are  its 
concomitant,  from  the  individual,  and  thus  from  the  race,  con- 
sciousness. The  improved  state  of  consciousness  thus  resulting  is 
what  constitutes  ''Christian  Science  Mind-healing." 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  persons^  found  in  every  city,  town, 
and  village,  are  living  this  Science,  They  have  destroyecl,  indi- 
vidually, and  in  the  measure  of  their  several  understandings  of 
Science,  the  beliefs  and  fears  of  matter,  and  have  come  into  a 
state  of  IT  *»  health  and  harmony.    That  all  who 


IS  CffRISTIA.V  SCIEyCE  A   ''CRAZE''? 


221 


I 


Igater  tho  Science  can  not  demonstrate  on  themselves  and  others 
^Bii  the  same  or  with  uniform  success,  is  no  more  an  argument 
l^inst  its  Principle  and  Rule,  than  is  tho  fact  that  few  can  fol- 
low the  calculations  of  Leverrier  an  argument  against  the  exist- 
©nco  of  the  planet  Neptune,  or  the  truth  of  mathematics  that 
it  out.     Because  every  school-boy  or  college  graduate 
work  his  way  into  the  calculus,  or  reach  the  demonstra^ 
!5n"of  the  highest  problem  of  geometry,  shall  we  deny  the  exact*  J 
Des8  and  value  of  mathematics,  and  throw  away  our  Euclid  and^ 
the  arithmetics  ?    To  the  contrary  of  such  reasoning,  would  not 
the  pretension   that  the  results  of  Christian  Science  coidd  bo 
brought  out  arbitrarily,  aud  in  disregard  of  established  facts  and 
laws  of  consciousness,  be   a  demonstration  of  its  unscientitic 
character  ? 

Now,  as  to  the  question  of  reality  or  unreality  of  matter  and 
it«  beliefs,  especially  of  sickness  and  sin :  evidently,  if  the  objects 
oppoised  to  harmony  can  be  destroyed  or  kept  out  of  any  indi- 
vidual consciousness,  such  objects  will — to  this  individual — have 
to  exist.  If  ho  can  keep  out  any  one  or  a  number  of  such 
|ects,  just  in  so  fur  approach  is  made  to  the  state  of  absolute 
harmony^  that  is  wholeness  or  health. 

Christian  Science  admits  tho  reality  of  the  phenomena  of 
^  mattx^r — as  defined  above — to  inaierial  sense,  and  it  teaches  the 
^1  destruction  of  this  sense,  through  the  opemtion  of  Truth  under- 
^Hj^^Lbut  it  demonstrates,  by  such  destruction,  that  it  is  a  false 
^HBH^Bd  that  it  is  unreal  in  this — that  it  has  neither  Principle 
^m  nor  permanence.  | 

^       The  exerciiso  of  tho  healing  power  in  Christian  Science  is  no 
nayjrtery.    It  is  explained  in  *'  Science  and  Ilealth  '*  as  follows: 

"  A  mental  state  of  self-condemnation  and  guilt,  or  a  faltering 

and  doubting  trust  Lu  Truth, are  unsuitable  conditions  for  healing 

the  sick ;  if  lost  yourself  in  the  belief  and  fear  of  disease,  and 

tomzti  of  the  mental  remedy,  you  fail  to  use  tho  energies  of 

^nil  in  your  own  behalf,  you  can  exercise  little  or  no  power  for 

others'  help." 

"To  succeed  in  healing  you  must  conquer  your  own  beliefs  and 

as  well  as  those  of  your  patients,  and  you  must  rise  daily 

Into  higher  and  holier  being ;  by  tho  spirit  of  Truth  and  Love  you 

"  'leal  the  sick. , .  .  Science  makes  no  concessions 

■  ns.    One  must  abide  strictly  by  its  rules,  or 

le  can  not  demonstrate  its  Principle.  ,  ,  .  We  approach  to  God  or 

Llf-    ■*■  *^  ■  ratio  of  our  spirituality  and  fidelity  to  Truth;  and  in 

th;.  ^e  (ire  ft>ile  to  discern  the  thoughts  of  the  sick  and  the 

sin  Voal  them." 

.1.  .  ..viding  goes  up  and  down  with  the  moral  condi- 

.tion  of  '.'r^and  this  so  completely  that  the  Scientist  knows 


222 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIE2i^CS  210XTHLY. 


ft 


bifi  position  and  power  in  Mind,  from  day  to  day,  with  Uio  samu 
irtainty  and  precision  that  the  mariner  knows  the  position  of  his 
ip  on  the  ocean, 
"  Science  and  Health "  describee  the  operation  of  Christian 

healing  in  these  words: 

The  botlj  iniprovee  ooder  the  same  tmtfa  that  improve  tbe  mind.  Chrifttioa 
Science  U  Hunligbt  to  the  body.  It  iQvigorat«fl  and  jiiirific8.  Ii  m^XA  a«  an  Kltvra* 
tire,  QcutraliziDg  error  with  Trut!i.  It  obonges  the  seoretiona,  eipcJa  bomorai 
dissolves  tuniors,  relaxes  rigid  xuiuclois  and  reetores  carious  bone^  to  soondoeaa. 
The  effects  of  tliis  Scieuoc  are  to  stir  the  liuman  niiod  tu  n  ctiaugv  uf  base  wbercbj 
it  DiA/  yield  to  tbo  Divino  Mind. 

As  wbeo  an  acid  and  an  ulkidi  meet  and  ferment,  bringing  out  a  tbinl  prop- 
erty, so  mental  and  moral  fermentation  cbonge  the  material  bas^  of  man,  gi^ng 
more  spirituality  to  mortal  sense,  and  caaaing  it  to  depend  leas  on  matariiJ  «ri- 
d<Doe.    The  cbarigea  that  go  on  in  mortal  mind  serve  to  reconstruct  tbe  body. 

Hence  the  doctrine  "Truth  is  the  universal  medicine  of  aia 
and  sickness  "  ;  both  have  their  orij^n  in  error,  in  ignorance ;  the 
itidote  to  error  is  Truth,  to  ignorance  is  understanding;  and  the 
question  of  reality  or  unreality  is  summed  up  in  the  words  "  Sia 
and  sickness  have  just  as  much  reality  as  you  give  them — and  no 
more" 

The  nature  and  scope  of  healing  in  Christian  Science  are  fur- 
ther set  forth  in  these  words : 

No  man  b  healed  in  sin,  or  by  it,  any  more  than  he  ia  mor«}ly  lavod  in  or  by 
sin.  To  be  every  whit  whole,  be  must  tie  better  apiritnally  as  woll  as  physically. 
Lnst,  hatred,  and  dishonesty  make  a  man  sick;  and  neither  nie<llcine  nor  rfilnd 
cxiu  pbyaiciilly  help  hitn  unless  they  make  him  bettor  morally,  and  (?■  im 

from  tbe  deatroyer.     Body  and  mind  are  one.     Tbo  beat  of  batr.  mg 

bratttl  propensities,  the  indulgence  of  evil  motiros  oud  alms,  will  moke  any  maa 
(n  ho  U  above  the  very  loweat  type  of  raanhoodj  a  hopolaas  anfleror.  Tl»«y  con- 
sume the  body  with  the  Brea  of  Iioll  I 

It  will  be  seen  that  Christian  Science  is  the  Science  of  Life ; 
ila  t<?xt-book  says :  "  Its  anatomy  is  mental  self-knowledge,  and 
consists  in  the  art  of  dissecting  thoughts,  in  order  to  discover 
their  quality,  quantity,  and  origin;  it  teaches  when  and  how  to 
probe  the  self-inflicted  wounds  of  mail'  '  '  •        t^j 

»^ure  the  hallowed   influences  of   ui  .  y, 

spiritual  love,  and  the  government  of  the  body,  t>oth  in  health 
and  sickness ;  its  ontology  is  the  nature  and  esf*  *"»,'  — 

Minii,  and  il^  i^seutial  qualitii!s;  and  on  thesi  ts 

my  system  of  mental  healing  is  based;  its  p!  il, 

and  it<s  medicine  is  intellectual  and  spiritual  for  ,'* 

"*}ut  j»rnpo«itifin  "all  is  Mind,  there  is  no  i.- 


4 


toriol  sense.    In 


,  but,  as  above  ■ 
bald  denial  of  i.^    ,  .. 
jds  the  truth  of  this 


SCIENCE 


22J 


I 


^Bnonstrated  or  proved  by  tho  aiiniliilation  of  the  alleged  un- 
nklity.  The  afBnnation  of  the  absolute  supremacy  of  Mind  is 
not  fitate<l  as  a  theory,  but  is  accompanied  by  plain  rules,  com- 
prehensible to  any  fair  intelligence,  by  which  this  supremacy  can 
be  verified  in  an  endless  progression.  This  authority  over  the 
supposed  conditions  of  matter  was  first  completely  demonstrated 
by  Jeffoa.  It  is  the  Science  of  the  life  of  Jesus,  in  its  supremacy 
ov©rTnatt<^r  and  its  belit^fs  of  sin  and  sickness,  that  is  set  forth  in 
''Science  and  Health." 

'  knows,  or  can  learn,  any  more  of  this  Science  than  he 
istrate<l — that  is,  lived.  The  students  of  natural  science 
will  not  find  unreasonable  tho  declaration  of  an  humble  beginner 
in  this  Science,  that  no  one  is  entitled  to  sit  as  a  judge  on  it  who 
has  not  either  gone  through  with  the  demonstrations  as  set  forth 
by  lis  Founder,  acconling  to  her  directions,  or  until  he  can  show 
by  experience  that  when  the  rules  of  the  Science  are  followed  the 
results  are  not  invariable. 

This  position  was  forcibly  stated  in  a  review  of  it  that  ap- 
peared the  year  following  the  publication  of  "Science  and 
Health,"  as  follows;  "  Why  do  you  assail  her  for  individual  opin- 
ion* and  b*>liefs  ?  That  is  not  the  gi'ound  she  occupies.  She 
declares  that  wliat  she  states  is  not  her  own.  It  is  Science  left 
subject  to  proof,  based  up<^n  Principle,  governed  by  given  rules, 
the  d'^monatration  whereof  she  leaves  for  you.  It  is  for  you  to 
decide  whether  it  is  Science  or  not :  now  who  can  answer  that 
que^tioQ  who  doesn't  understand  Science  ?  " 

V  h  has  been  said  to  show  that  healing  in  Christian  Sci- 
en  ■  y  tliiTt'rent  from  the  fanciful  representation  given  of  it 

by  tho  writer  in  the  April  "Monthly."  Physical  healing  is  a 
Zkoooctwry  and  useful  incident,  not  a  factor,  in  the  scheme  of 
Cbristian  Science.  Tho  operation  of  the  healing  power  is  as 
cldftrly  defined  and  as  tangible  in  consciousness,  just  as  amenable 
to  law — vastly  more  so  to  one  reasonably  well  instructed — as  are 
th«  phenomena  involved  in  the  operation  of  natural  law  on  the 
plane  of  \naible  effects. 

Tho  writer  in  the  April  "  Monthly"  could  not  tell  its  readers 
what  Christian  Science  is,  precisely  because  it  is  Science,  and  can 
not  be  learned  or  picked  np  by  ciirinusly  turning  over  the  leaves 
of  •'Science  and  Health,"  from  odd  paragraphs  in  the  daily  papers, 
or  from  the  loose  gossip  that  circulates  in  the  lower  atmosphere 
of  ^ »^   "-->. 

rous  and  unworthy  statements  reflecting  on  the 
porsonal  character  and  motives  of  the  founder  of  Christian  Sci- 

©nr-  •* -  -dsof  hers  from  the  great  toxt-b(X)k  of  Science  shall 

in  ^  answer: 

la  founding  this  system  of  ethics  and  medicine  I  have  labored 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTHLY 


for  principle,  not  for  personality.    Otliere  CAn  not  tak'  ■?©, 

even  if  willing  to  do  bo.  1  therefoi-o  remain  at  my  i-c. .,  ..  >fk- 
ing  for  the  generations  to  come,  never  looking  for  a  presont 
reward." 

"  I  have  clung  to  Truth  most  closely  in  the  hour  of  lt«  \x\aL 
The  weajKjns  of  mortal  Belfishnees,  envy,  ambition,  and  baLn»d 
that  Lave  opposed,  have  often  pierced  the  human  heart,  but  *  nont* 
of  these  things  have  moved  me/  -  .  .  Twenty-two  years  I  have 
planted  and  watered  *in  labor  and  travail,  working  day  and 
night.'" 

"Hoping  all  things,  enduring  all  things  —  in  the  spirit  of 
Christ's  charity — ready  to  bless  them  that  curse  me,  glad  to  bear 
consolation  to  the  sorrowing  and  healing  to  the  sick,  I  comnxit 
these  pages  to  honest  seekers  for  Truth  in  thia  age  aud  to  pos* 
terity." 

As  to  the  reflections  of  the  same  character  on  the  tena  of  thou- 
sands of  devoted  students  who  are  laboring  to  spread  the  glad 
tidings  she  has  brought,  to  alleviate  and,  finally,  to  destroy  the 
supposed  ills  of  humanity — real  to  sense,  but  not  to  Truth — they 
are  left  to  the  judgment  of  those  who  have  followed  these  few 
words,  so  unworthy  of  their  great  theme. 

It  is  proper  to  refer  to  the  declaration  of  the  signs  of  "decad- 
ence" of  Christian  Science.  Its  founder  began  in  18G7  with  a 
single  student  Since  that  time  she  has  taught  nearly  four 
thousand,  the  number  increasing  every  year — not  to  speak  of 
the  pressure  for  admission  to  her  classes  of  hundreds  she  \m 
obliged  every  year  to  refuse,  **  Science  and  Health  "  had  an  in- 
significant sale  during  the  years  following  its  publication  in  18r&, 
But  this,  too,  has  steadily  increased  yearly,  until  it  has  ni^ached 
a  sale  of  forty  thousand  copies.  A  large  proportion  of  tlie  stu- 
dents from  the  classes  of  its  author  have  become  healers  and 
tfaohers,  so  that,  while  for  ob^nous  reasons  no  exact  ^^  of 

their  number  can  be  given,  it  is  certain  that  some  Li  of 

thousands  are  to-day  "in"  Science — that  is,  living,  according  to 
their  several  understandings,  the  "Life  that  is  Spirit,"  Among 
thu.se  who  n^ceive  "  Science  and  Health"  as  a  revelation  of  divine 
Truth  are  many  of  the  most  giftod  and  honored  men  and  women 
not  only  in  this  country  but  in  England. 

Christian  Science  is  no  "craze."  The  readers  of  "  The  Popular 
Soitnico  Montlily  "  will  judge  for  themselves  whether  the  words 
of  its  founder  ore  words  of  sobcrncsa  or  of  d*'!"^'"-  *^^'*'  '^••ys: 
"I  have  never  supposetl  this  century  would  pr-  itA 

of  Christian  '  (^r  tluit  sin.  ot 

continue  for  .- ..s  to  come;  Lu . ..,  i , ..   „  ro- 

8ult  of  my  teaching,  old  age  and  decrepitude  will  not  oomo  lO 
soon — that  already  health  is  restored  and  longevity  incroosed  by 


I 


*^  COWARDLY  AONOSTICISMr 

If  »ncb  •«  the  present  fruits,  what  may  not  the  harvest  be 
when  jiifttico  £(ha]I  be  done  to  this  Science  ?  " 

Christian  Science  claims  to  be  the  Science  of  sciences;  it  takes 
up  vrithout  hi^-siUition  the  challenge,  **  The  true  science  of  mind- 
onre  mu^t  explain  all  the  phenomena  of  mental  healing/'  and  vol- 
untarily lays  itself  onder  the  further  obligation  to  account  for 
all  '  Hnd  all  supposed  material  phenomena  whatever.    It  is 

tL i  .  1 1  of  tliis,  or  it  is  nothing.    Aut  omni^,  aid  n uUus,  is  the 

motto  on  its  shield,  is  its  word  to  humanity.  Though  the  brow  of 
divine  8<nence  is  star-encircled,  its  feet  are  ui)on  the  earth,  and 

Lch.  harmony^  and  holiness  are  the  gifts  it  brings  to  men. 


•'COWARDLY  AGNOSTICISM."* 
A  WORD  wrra  prof,  huxley. 

At  W.  H.  MALLOCK. 

IWELCOilE  the  discussion  which,  in  this  review  and  else- 
vl  ■  ■  been  lately  revived  in  earnest  as  to  the  issue  be- 
tween i  '  science  and  theology,  I  especially  welcome  Prof. 
Huxley's  recent  contribution  to  it,  to  wliich  presently  I  propose  to 
rcf  '  '  '  1  In  that  contribution — an  article  with  the  title 
"A  '  which  appeared  a  month  or  two  since  in  "The 
Nineteenth  Century  " — I  shall  point  out  things  which  will  proba- 
bly startle  the  public,  the  author  himself  included,  in  case  ho  cares 
to  attend  to  them. 

Before  g*>ing  further,  however,  let  rae  ask  and  answer  this 
qnesUon.  If  Prof.  Huxley  should  tell  us  that  he  does  not  believe 
in  Gody  why  should  we  think  the  statement,  as  coming  from  him, 
worthy  of  nii  attention  which  we  certainly  should  not  give  it  if 
mad«  by  a  pH^^rsou  lees  distinguished  than  himself?  The  answer 
to  this  question  ia  as  follows:  We  should  think  Prof.  Huxley's 
•tnent  ^^  It-Ting  for  two  reasons:  Firstly,  he  speaks 

a  man  i  ly  well  acquainted  with  certain  classes  of 

faetA.  Secondly,  he  speaks  as  a  man  eminent,  if  not  pre-eminent, 
for  the  viL-  1  honesty  with  which  he  has  faced  these  facts, 

anddrawji  '  <  'juclusions  from  them.     Accordingly,  when  he 

«umA  op  for  us  the  main  conclusions  of  science,  he  speaks  not  in 

h\^    ■ '■''-  ><ut  in  the  name  of  the  physical  imiverse,  as  modem 

ftci  iis  far  apprehended  it;  and  similarly,  when  f^t^m 

Ihrao  conclasions  he  reasons  about  religion,  the  bulk  of  the  argu- 

'  A*  OhltOp  of  Prttrttortmgh  departed  so  fur  firnn  his  customary  conrH!9.j  ond  «clf- 
to  ipeikor  •cowmrdly  igDosticism.*'*— Paor.  Ucxltt.  "Nineltenlh  CtJiiiiry/* 
Tt/bnmrj,  1980,  p.  1>\  %nd  **  Pbpulsr  Sdeaco  Uoothl//'  April,  ld«&,  p.  701. 
Toi_  ixxr, — 15 


THE  POl 


monis  which  he  advances  against  theolo^  are  in  no  way  pcctsH&rl 
to  himself,  or  gain  any  of  their  strength  from  his  reputation  ;  th^-y 
are  virtually  the  arguments  of  the  whole  non-Christian  world. 
He  may  possibly  have,  on  some  points,  views  peculiar  to  himself. 
He  may  also  have  certain  peculiar  ways  of  stating  them.  But  it 
requires  no  great  critical  acuteness,  it  requires  only  ordinary  fair- 
ness, to  separate  those  of  his  utteranc-es  which  represent  facts 
generally  accepted,  and  arguments  generally  intluential,  from 
those  which  repreyent  only  some  peculiarity  of  his  own.  Now,  all 
this  is  true  not  of  Prof.  Huxley  only.     With  varion  '    n-a- 

tions,  it  is  equally  true  of  writers  with  whom  Prof.  Hn  _  ap- 
parently in  constant  antagonism,  and  who  also  exhibit  constant 
antagonism  among  themselves.     I  am  at  this  moment  thinking  of 

Hwo  especially — Mr.  Frederic  Harrison  and  Mr.  Ht^rliert  Spence.r. 
Mr.  Harrison,  in  his  capacity  of  religious  t<»acher,  is  constantly 
attacking  both  Mr.  Spencer  and  Prof.  Huxloy.  Prof.  Huxley 
repays  Mr.  Hurrinon's  blows  with  interest ;  and  there  Jiro  C4^rtAin 
questions  of  a  religious  and  practical  character  as  to  which  ho| 
and  Mr.  Spencer  would  be  hardly  on  better  terms.  But,  under- 
neath the  several  questions  they  qiiarrel  about,  there  is  a  solid 
substructure  of  conclusions,  methods,  and  nrguinents,  us  to  which 
they  all  agree — agree  in  the  most  absolute  way.  Wliat  this  agreo- 
ment  consists  in,  and  what  practical  bearing,  if  taken  by  itsidf,  itl 
must  have  on  our  views  of  life,  I  shall  now  try  to  explain  in  a 
brief  and  unquestionable  summary;  and  \n  that  summary,  what 
the  reader  will  have  before  him  is  not  the  private  opinion  of  these 
eminent  men,  but  oHcertjiined   facts  with  n*gard  to  ni.;  '  th©j 

universe;  and  the  conclmiious  which,  if  we  have  notli  .    to 

[assist  us,  are  necessarily  drawn  from  those  fiurts  by  the  necessary 
operations  of  the  mind.  The  mention  of  names^  however,  has  this 
signal  convenience — it  will  keep  the  reader  convintc*!  that  I  nm 
not  speaking  at  random,  and  will  supply  him  with  sUmdunl*  by 
which  he  caji  easily  test  the  accuracy  and  the  suHiciency  of  roy 
assertions.  i 

The  case,  then,  of  science,  or  modem  thoutcht.  hl-  .l»o- 

logical  religi(mor  theism,  and  the  Christiiui  religi<Mi  ii  i^j 

substantially  is  as  follows:  ^| 

lu  the  first  place,  it  is  now  an  •       '  "  'i.yl  fact  tl  ^^^| 

univei-se,  whether  it  ever  had  u  '    ,  .^  or  no,  .  *i4| 

of  an  antiquity  beyond  what  the  imagination  can  realize;  and^ 

Lftlso  that,  whether  or  no  it  is  limited,  itsi  extent  is  so  Vi    *        *  -  ha 

PBqually  unimaginable.     Scienco  may  not  pronounce  it  'ly] 

lo  be  either  eternal  or  iniiuito,  but  science  does  say  Uiis,  that 

L0O  far  as  our  faculties  ran  carry  us  they  reveal  to  ua  no  hint  of  j 

pifther  limit,  end,  or  l>eginning. 

It  is  farther  datablisbed  that  thestoif  out  of  which  the  auiverm 


127 


JpQiBHdo  is  the  same  eveiywhere  and  follows  the  sarne  laws — 
li^Mther  at  Ciapham  Common  or  in  the  farthest  system  of  stars — 
iAd  that  this  has  always  been  so  to  the  remotest  of  the  penetrable 
abysses  of  time.  It  is  established  yet  further  that  the  universe 
in  its  present  condition  has  evolved  itself  out  of  simpler  condi- 
tions, ttolely  in  virtue  of  the  qualities  which  still  inhere  in  its  ele- 
mpnts,  and  make  to-day  what  it  is^  just  as  they  have  made  all  yes* 
IflCilays, 

^tl^utly,  in  thia  physical  universe  science  has  included  man — 
iKd  alnn»^  his  borly,  but  his  life  and  his  mind  also.  Every  opera*^ 
tion  of  thought,  every  fact  of  consciousness,  it  has  shown  to  btf 
nisdociated  in  a  constant  and  definite  way  with  the  presence  and 
■ril^Mrtain  conditions  of  certain  particles  of  matter,  which  are 
^^^K  i^  their  turn,  to  be  in  their  last  analysis  absolutely  similar 
it*  the  matter  of  gases,  plants,  or  minerals.  The  demonstration 
|Mfl  every  appearance  of  being  morally  complete.  The  interval 
Bfcu'cen  mud  and  mind,  seemingly  so  impassable,  has  been  trav* 
cirsed  by  a  acrios  of  closely  consecutive  steps.  Mind,  which  was 
onco  thought  to  have  descended  into  matter,  is  shown  forming 
itaelf,  and  slowly  emerging  out  of  it.  From  forms  of  life  so  low 
that  naturalists  can  hardly  decide  whether  it  is  right  to  class 
them  as  plants  or  animals,  up  to  the  life  that  is  manifested  in 
saints,  heroes,  or  philosophers,  there  is  no  break  to  be  detected  in 
the  long  pr(»cpss  of  development.  There  is  no  step  in  the  process 
wb«re  science  finds  any  excuse  for  jwstulating  or  even  suspecting 
tbo  presence  of  any  new  factor. 

And  the  same  holds  good  of  the  lowei^t  forms  of  life,  and  what 
Prof.  Huxley  calls  "  the  common  matter  of  the  universe."  It  is 
true  that  experimentalists  have  been  thus  far  unable  to  observe 
the  generation  of  the  former  out  of  the  latter,  but  thia  failure  may 
be  accounted  fr>r  in  many  ways,  and  does  nothing  to  weaken  the 
overwhelming  evidence  of  analogy  that  such  generation  really 
doc6  take  place  or  has  taken  place  at  some  earlier  period.  "Car- 
bonic acid,  water,  and  ammonia/'  says  Prof.  Huxley,  "  certainly 
powooD  no  properties  but  those  of  ordinary  matter.  .  .  .  But  when 
ibey  are  brought  together  under  certain  conditions  they  give  rise 
to  protoplasm ;  and  this  protoplasm  exhibits  the  phenomenon  of 
life.  T  »**e  no  breach  in  this  series  of  steps  in  molecular  complica- 
tioti,  and  I  am  unable  to  understand  why  the  language  which  is 
Applicable  to  any  one  form  of  the  series  may  not  be  used  to  any  of 
th.     '•    -   "• 

U,  then,  for  what  modem  science  teaches  us  as  to  the 
d  the  evolution  of  man.    We  will  presently  consider 
.rt;,.;....t]y  obvious  as  they  are,  in  which  this  seems  to 
■  i\s  of  all  theism  and  theology.    But  first  for  a 
I  •  "^  Uj  Samooi,  iddrcsecs,  and  Reriewv,**  pp.  114, 117.  J 


uri 


THE  POi 


moment  let  us  torn  to  what  it  ieacliea  us  also  with  rogi&ni  to  thai 
history  and  tho  special  claims  of  Christianity.  Approji'^--  - '  hria-^ 
tianity  on  the  side  of  its  alleged  history,  it  establiai.'  .T%i^ 

following  points :  It  shows  us  first  that  this  alleged  hi&iory,  withi 
the  substantial  truth  of  which  Christianity  stands  or  faUs,  con*^ 
tains  A  number  of  statements  which  are  demonstrably  at  varianciftj 
with  fact ;  secondly,  that  it  contains  otliors  which,  though  very' 
probably  true,  are  entirely  misinterpreted  through  the  ignoranc<^ 
of  the  writers  who  recorded  them ;  and,  thirdly,  that  though  thej 
rest  may  not  be  domoustiably  false,  yet  t'  :  x^ytX 

essential  to  the  Christian  doctruie  are  so  ]  .        .         ible 

and  so  utterly  unsupported  by  evidence  that  we  have  no  mor«| 
ground  for  believing  in  them  than  we  have  in  the  wolf  of 
Romulus. 

Such,  briefly  stated,  are  the  main  conclusions  of  science  in  so 
far  as  they  bear  on  theology  and  the  theologic  concojition  of  hu- 
manity. Let  U8  now  consider  exactly  what  their  bejuing  is.  Prof, 
Huxley  distinctly  tells  us  that  the  knowleilge  we  have  rta.che<i  oas 
to  the  nature  of  things  in  general  does  not  enable  us  to  deduco 
from  it  any  absolute  denial  either  of  the  existence  of  a  personal 
God  or  of  au  immortal  soul  in  man,  or  even  of  the  possibility  and 
the  actual  occurrence  of  miracles.  On  the  contrary,  he  would 
believe  to-morrow  in  the  miraculous  history  of  Christianity 
only  there  were  any  evidence  Kufficioutly  cogont  in  it*   '  .md 

on  the  authority  of  Christianity  he  would  Ijelieve  in  »  •  .  ia 

man's  immortality.  Christianity,  however,  is  the  only  religion  in 
the  world  whose  claims  to  a  miraculous  auth      '  n-thy  of 

serious  consideration,  and  science,  as  we  have  -  ■  i^  tboM 

claims  to  be  unfounded.  What  follows  is  this — whether  Ihoru  ba 
a  God  or  no,  and  whetlier  he  has  given  us  immortal  souls  or  no, 
science  declares  bluntly  that  he  has  never  informed  ua  of  fither 
fact ;  and  if  there  is  anything  to  warrant  any  btiliof  in  uither,  ii 
can  be  found  only  in  the  study  of  the  natural  universe.  Accord* 
ingly,  to  the  natural  universe  science  goes,  ajid  wo  have  jost  eaai 
what  it  findti  there.    Part  of  what  it  finds  br 

theologic  conception  of  God,  and  part  bears  ftj. ..  ....    _ -    iii 

logic  conception  of  man.  With  regard  to  God,  to  an  inlelligont 
creator  ;i  '  '    U  lum  on  every  gr*'      '  ItOMles 

and  a  811  [  _      irsis.    In  former  com  1  >wlodg« 

it  admits  that  this  was  otherwise — that  the  hy]>othe»is  thim  was 
not  only  natural  but  nic  ,   fur  thoi  iug 

mysteries  which  could  \v  ,  .ained  v.^  'he 

case  has  been  altogether  reversed,    Oueatlerau*  >■- 

teriecs  have  been  ; '^""d,  not  eutin'V-  *  •*  *     *^  all 

events,  that  the  is  of  an  it*  aly 

nowhere  aeoos^ary,  but  it  generally  iutrvducua  i^  more  dii; 


I 


4 


QirOSTTCISMr 


919 


At 

^■■^ 


\  from 
■B  there 
^Bth«ro 

^   TOfW 


■^  bnae 


it  solves.    Thus,  though  we  can  not  demonstrate  that  a  cre- 
I  ^      ■  .  ^^  have  no  grounds  whatever  for  6U|Ji>nRinff 

.  regard  to  man,  what  science  finds  is  aralopous. 
10  theology,  he  is  a  being  specially  related  to  God,  and 
iM.l.  and  hia  destinies  have  an  importance  which  dwarfs 
a  of  maUirial  things  into  insignificance.    But  science  exhib- 
it* him  in  a  very  different  light;  it  shows  that  in  none  of  the 
qualities  onco  thought  peculiar  to  him  does  he  dilfer  essentially 
from  other  phenomena  of  the  universe.    It  shows  that  just  as 
there  are  no  grounds  for  supposing  the  existence  of  a  creator,  so 
re  are  none  for  supposing  the  existence  of  an  immortal  human 
aoq]  ;  vlale  as  for  man's  importance  relative  to  the  rest  of  the  uni- 
,  it  riiowe  that,  not  only  as  an  individual,  but  also  as  a  race, 
h«  ia  Ites  than  a  bubble  of  foam  is  when  compared  with  the  whole 
wtm^    The  few  thousand  years  over  which  history  takes  us  are  as 
nothing  when  compared  with  the  ages  for  which  the  human  race 
boa  existed.    The  whole  existence  of  the  human  race  is  as  nothing 
when  c'omi>are<l  with  the  existence  of  the  earth ;  and  the  earth *a 
ry  is  but  a  second  and  the  earth  but  a  grain  of  dust  in  the 
duration  and  vast  magnitude  of  the  All.     Nor  is  this  true  of 
"file  pftRt  only,  it  is  true  of  the  future  ahio.    As  the  individual  dies, 
eo  also  will  the  race  die ;  nor  would  a  million  of  additional  years 
ttdd  on.v'thing  to  its  comparative  importance.    Just  as  it  emerged 
out  of  lifeless  matter  yesterday^  so  will  it  sink  again  into  lifeless 
mutter  to-morrow.    Or,  to  put  the  case  more  briefly  still,  it  is 
merely  one  fugitive  manifestation  of  the  same  matter  and  force 
■obedient  to  the  same  imclianging  laws,  manifest 
.'.;illy  in  a  diing-lieap,  in  a  pig,  and  in  a  planet— 
matter  and  force  which,  so  far  as  our  faculties  can  carry  us,  have 
'"         t  everywhere  and  forever,  and  which  nowhere, 
■5  avail  to  read  them,  show  any  sign,  as  a  whole, 
of  m«Mning,  of  design,  or  of  intelligence. 

It  is  posidble  that  Prof.  Huxley,  or  some  other  scientific  au- 
i>rity,  may  be  able  to  find  fault  with  some  of  my  sentences  or 
y  expressions,  and  to  show  that  they  are  not  professionally  or 
rofessorially  accurate.  If  they  care  for  such  trifling  criticism 
hey  are  welcome  to  the  enjoyment  of  it ;  but  I  defy  any  one  to 
b' ■  ssion  aside  and  paying  attention  only  to  the 

g«n -,  I  what  I  have  stated,  that  the  foregoing  ac- 
count of  what  w^ience  claims  to  have  established  is  not  substan- 
ly  true,  ivnd  is  ^  *    itted  to  bo  so  by  any  contemporary 

:€(r  who  oppos<t  to  theism,  from  Mr.  Frederic  Harri- 

to  Prof.  Huxley  himself.  ' 

^     '  '  '  'o  something  which  in  itself  is  merely 

ft  ni  h  will  bring  what  I  have  said  thus  far 

into  the  circle  of  contemporary  discussion.    The  men  who  are 


tyo  THE  POFfn!S^SmKWv^MONfHf!Y^^^^^^ 

mainly  responsible  for  having   forced  the  above  views  on  thai 
world,  who  have  tinfolded  to  us  the  verities  of  natare  aud  Inimait 
history,  and  have  felt  constrained  by  these  to  abandon  tht'ir  \>\\V 
religious  convictions — these  men  and  their  followers  have  by  com- 1 
mon  consent  agreed,  in  this  country,  to  call  themselvca  by  tboj 
name  of  agnostics.    Now  there  has  been  much  quarreling  of  latoj 
among  these  agnostics  as  to  what  agnosticism — the  thing  whioh  ^ 
unites  them — is.    It  must  be  obvious,  however,  to  everj' impartial 
observer,  that  the  difTeronces  between  them  are  little  more  thau 
verbal, and  arise  from  bud  writing  rather  tlian  from  different  rea- 
Boning.    SubHttvntially  the  meaning  of  one  and  all  of  them  i.n  the 
same.    Let  us  take,  for  instance,  the  two  who  are  most  ost<mU- 
tiously  opposed  to  each  other,  and  have  lately  been  exhibiting 
themselves,  in  tliis  and  other  reviews,  like  two  tc^rriers  ea^^li  nt 
the  other's  throat.    I  need  hardly  say  that  I  mean  Prof,  Huxloj 
and  Mr.  Harrison. 

Some  writers.  Prof.  Huxley  says,  Mr.  Harrison  among  them, 
hove  been  speaking  of  agnosticism  as  if  it  was  a  creed  or  a  faith 
or  a  philosophy.  Prof.  Uuxley  proclaims  himself  to  be  "  daaed  ^ 
and  "  l>ewildered  *'  by  the  statementa  Agnosticism,  he  says,  is 
not  any  one  of  these  things.  It  is  simply — I  will  give  his  defini-, 
tiou  in  his  own  words — 

ft  TDOtboO,  the  essence  of  which  lies  in  tho  vigorous  application  of  >  0iDpI«  prin- 
ciple. .  .  .  PoBilirolr,  tho  principlo  ma/ bo  expressed:  lu  matters  of  Ibu  tiitellevt, 
follow  your  roaiK)D  as  far  as  it  will  t4kke  rou,  without  regnrd  to  anj  other  cuuaid- 
«ration.  And  negative! jr :  In  matters  of  the  intellect,  do  not  pretend  that  ooodo- 
Bons  are  certain  which  are  not  demonstrated  or  demoustroUe.  That  I  take  to  b« 
the  ognoatio  faith,  which  if  a  luun  keep  whole  and  utidetiU'd,  he  tthall  not  be 
ashamed  to  look  the  univerte  In  the  £aoo,  wbatorer  tb«  t^itore  oiaj  hav«  la  ator* 
for  him. 

Now  anything  worse  expressed  than  this  for  the  pnrpose  of  tha 
discussion  he  is  engaged  in,  or,  indeed,  for  the  ]iurjK»KB  of  convey- 
ing his  own  geiieral  meaning,  it  ia  liardly  jiosaiblo  to  imagine. 
^Agnosticism,  as  generally  undorstootl,  may,  from  one  point  of 
view,  bo  no  doubt  rightly  described  a«  "  a  method."     f  la 

method  with  no  results,  or  with  results  that  are  of  n. ^t  ? 

If  so,  there  would  be  hardly  a  human  being  idiot  vuough  to  lA'atfte 

a  thought  upon  it.    The  interest  resides  in  it-  '  '      ns 

suits  solely,  and  specially  in  thosu  results  tii  .^^as 

about  religion.    Accordingly,  when  tho  word  agnosticiBm  is  nour 

used  in  discusHion,  til' 

who  use  it  is  not  a  n 

religious  bearings;  and  the  method  is  of  interest  only  in  s*t»  far  u 

it  leads  to  these.    A:        '    '         neans,  therefore.     -         *     ...i. . 

Pn>f.  Uuxley  says  it  vn.     It  means  a 

ril  faith,  it  means  a  religious  or  irreligintis  philoeophy.    And  Uii»] 


I 


*3« 


aning  attributod  to  it  not  only  by  tlio  world  at  largi^but 

r  by  Prof.  Huxloy  also  quite  as  much  as  by  anybody.    I 

will  not  lay  too  much  stress  on  the  fact  that,  in  the  passage  just 

quoted,  having  first  fiercely  declaretl  agnosticism  to  be  nothing 

t  a  method,  in  tJio  very  next  sentence  ho  himself  speaks  of  it 

ft  '•  faith."    I  will  fjass  on  to  a  passage  that  is  far  moro  uuam- 

guous.    It  is  taken  from  the  same  essay.    It  is  as  follows : 

^  *Agn<Mtid«m  [iAyi  Mr.  IlarriBOD]  is  a  sUgo  In  the  evolation  of  religion,  an 
vntirtlj  D»gaiira  sUge,  tlie  point  reflche<l  by  physiciatH,  a  purely  mental  codcIu- 
rioDvWlth  DO  retntioD  to  tldngs  social  at  all*  I  am  [aaye  Prof.  UaxlcyJ  quite  dozed 
I17  Uiii  dedjiration.  Are  ttierti  then  any  *  concludions  '  tbut  arc  not  '  purely  mea- 
tal'l  I*  thoro  no  rolatioa  to  tliingi  social  tu  ^  meDtal  oonclusions '  wLich  affect 
m«ti*«  wbolo  conception  of  life)  .  .  .  *  Agnosticism  is  a  etugo  in  the  evolution  of 
rvlligloD.'  If  •  .  .  Mr.  ITarrlfton,  llico  most  people,  means  by  *  religion  *  theology, 
UiMi,  Id  my  Jodgment,  agnosticism  can  he  said  to  be  a  stage  in  its  evolution  only 
aa  d«aib  maf  be  aaid  to  be  the  final  stage  in  the  evolation  of  Ulc.^^ 

L«t  us  consider  ^hat  this  means.  It  means  precisely  what 
oYory  ono  olso  has  all  along  been  saying,  that  agnosticism  is  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  a  doctnne,  a  creed,  a  faith,  or  a  philoso- 
phy,  the  essence  of  which  is  the  negation  of  theologic  religion. 
Now  the  fundamental  propositions  of  theologic  religion  are  these: 
There  is  a  personal  God,  who  watches  over  the  lives  of  men ;  and 
there  is  an  immortal  soul  in  man,  distinct  from  the  flux  of  mat- 
'  'sm,  then,  (jxpressinl  in  the  briefest  terms,  amounts 
— not  of  beliff,  but  of  disbelief.  Ida  not  beUeve  in 
an^  Oodf  jwrsonal,  hiieUujeixlt  or  with  a  purpose;  or,  at  least,  wUh 
nn'.  I    sft  that  luiH  any  amcerrx  with  man,     I  do  not  believe  in 

ati  J  rtal  soul,  or  in  any  persomtHiy  or  consciousness  surviv* 

ing  the  disaoluiion  of  the  body. 

Here  I  anticipate  from  many  quarters  a  rebuke  which  men  of 
science  are  very  fond  of  administering.  I  shall  l>e  told  that  ag- 
uo«ticH  never  say  "  there  is  no  God,"  and  never  say  "  there  is  no 
immortal  soul."  Prof.  Huxley  is  often  particularly  vehement  on 
this  point.  Ho  would  have  us  believe  that  a  dogmatic  atheist  is, 
in  ,  as  foolish  as  a  dogmatic  theist ;  and  that  an  agnostic, 

tTu.  ,..'-:  etymology  of  his  name,  is  not  a  man  who  denies  God, 
boi  who  hAs  no  opinion  about  him.  But  this — oven  if  true  in  some 
dim  an- '  f*  sense — is  for  practical  purposes  a  mere  piece  of 

Aolemu   .  iig,  and  is  utterly  belied  by  the  very  men  who  use 

it  wfaonorer  they  raise  their  voices  to  speak  to  the  world  at  large. 
TV  '        if  they  shrink  from  saying  that  there  is  no  God,  at 

ii'zx  ,u  there  is  nothing  to  suggest  that  there  is  one,  and 

raisoh  to  .nuggeist  that  there  is  not.  Surely,  if  they  never  spoke 
more  strongly  than  this,  for  practical  purposes  this  is  an  absolute 
iltfaiiiL  Prof.  Huxley,  for  instance,  is  utterly  unable  to  demon- 
strate Ibat  aa  evening  edition  of  the  "  Times  "  is  not  printed  in 


4 


»33 


bo  cHtflved  altogether  from  the  nhiftlDg  pains  or  pleasures  whi 
*     i;ake  np  our  Tnomentary  span  of  life,  or  the  life  of  our  ra 
in  thti  illiiuitablo  history  of  the  All  is  an  incident  just 
momeatary. 

Now  supposing  the  importance  and  interest  which  life  has  thus 
lost  c»n  not  bo  replaced  in  any  other  way,  will  life  really  have 
sofforod  any  practical  change  and  degradation  ?  To  this  question 
our  agnostics  with  ono  consent  say  Yes.  Prof,  Huxley  says  that 
U  tlieologic  denial  leads  us  to  nothing  but  materialism,  ^'tho 
ibeanty  of  a  life  may  be  destroyed,"  and  "  its  energies  paralyzed  ";  • 
and  that  no  one,  not  historically  blind, "is  likely  to  underrate  tho 
importance  of  the  Christian  faith  as  a  factor  in  human  history, 
[oubt  that  some  substitute  genuine  enough  and  worthy 
to  replace  it  will  arise."  \  Mr.  Spencer  says  the  same  thing 
1  even  greater  clearness :  while,  as  for  Mr.  Harrison,  it  is  need- 
Xo  quote  from  him ;  for  half  of  what  he  has  written  is  an  am- 
Ication  of  these  statements. 

It  is  admitted,  then,  that  life,  in  some  very  practical  sense,  will 
bo  ruined  if  science,  having  destroyed  tlieologic  religion,  can  not 
put,  or  allow  to  be  put,  some  other  religion  in  place  of  it.  But  we 
muHt  not  content  ourselves  with  this  general  language.  Life  will 
l»o  ruined,  we  say.  Let  us  consider  to  what  extent  and  how. 
Tlion'  18  a  good  deal  in  life  which  obviously  will  not  be  touchefl  at 
all — that  ia  to  say,  a  portion  of  which  is  called  the  moral  code. 
Theft,  murder,  some  forms  of  lying  and  dishonesty,  and  somo 
forms  of  sexual  license,  are  inconsistent  with  the  welfare  of  any 
sot*'  "        '      •.  in  self-defense,  would  still  condemn  and  pro- 

hil"  ]'posmg  it  had  no  more  religion  than  a  tribe  of 

gibbering  monkeya.    But  the  moral  code  thus  retained  would  con- 
'       *  ibitions  only,  and  of  such  prohibitions  only  as  could  bo 
/  external  sanctions.    Since,  then,  this  much  would  sur- 
vive the  loss  of  religion,  let  us  consider  what  wonld  be  lost  along 
with  it.    Mr.  Si>encer.  in  general  terms,  has  told  us  x'^ai^ily  enough. 
Wbnl  would  be  lost,  he  says,  is.  in  the  first  place, ''  our  ideas  of 
■  tde,  or  duty,*'  or,  to  use  a  single  word, "  morality." 
1  *.^.  .c-  ...      ..uudiction  of  what  has  just  been  said,  for  morality  is 
lot  obe'lience,  enforced  or  even  instinctive,  to  laws  which  have  an 
iction,  but  an  active  co-operation  with  the  spirit  of 
ider  pressure  of  a  sanction  that  resides  in  our  own 
lwUIs.    But  not  only  would  morality  bo  lost,  or  this  desire  to  work 
'■'d  good:  there  would  be  lost  also  evor>' higher 
*  the  social  good  or  of  what  our  own  good  is ; 
and  men  would,  as  Mr.  Spencer  says,  "become  chioBy  absorbed  in 

•  **  Liy  Jvm»ofl^  A'KirMm-n,  nt»t\  Rorieirs,"  p.  127. 

t  *•  A|r»o#iicS»m,"  *•  NlDPtecQth  Century,"  February,  188>,  p.  101 ,  and  "  I'opular  Science 

UouMr,"  April.  1689,  ^  ns. 


*54 


the  immediate  and  the  relative."  •  Prof.  Huxley  admits  in  effect 
precisely  the  same  thing  when  ho  says  that  the  ti-ndency  of  sys- 
tematic roat^rialifa-m  is  to  *'  paralyze  the  energies  of  life,"  and  *'  to 
destroy  itis  heauty." 

Let  us  try  to  put  the  matter  a  little  moi'e  concisely.  It  is  ad- 
mitted by  our  agiiosti<;8  that  the  most  valuable  element  iu  our  life 
is  our  sense  of  duty,  coupled  with  obedieueo  to  its  dictat<«;  and 
this  sense  of  duty  derives  both  its  existence  and  its  power  over  us 
from  religion,  and  from  religion  alone.  How  it  derived  them  from 
the  CliHstian  religion  ia  ob^^ou8,  The  Christian  religion  pre- 
8cribe<l  it  to  us  as  the  voice  of  G(xl  to  the  soul,  api>ealiiig  as  it 
were  to  all  our  most  powerful  i>assiona — to  our  fear,  to  our  hoi>er 
and  to  our  love.  Hope  gave  it  a  meaning  to  us,  and  love  and  fe«r 
guvo  it  a  siiuctiim.  The  agnostics  have  got  rid  of  Gotl  and  the 
soul  together,  with  the  loves,  and  fears,  and  hopes  by  which  tho 
two  were  connected.  The  problem  before  them  is  to  discover  somo 
other  considerations — that  is,  some  other  religion — wliioh  shall  in- 
vest duty  with  the  solemn  meaning  and  authority  derivable  no 
longer  from  these.  Our  agnostics,  as  wo  know,  declare  them* 
selves  fully  able  to  solve  it.  Mr.  Spencer  and  Mr.  Harrison,  though 
the  solution  of  each  is  different,  declare  not  only  that  some  new 
religion  is  ready  for  us,  but  that  it  is  a  religion  higher  and  more 
eflicacious  than  the  old ;  while  Prof.  Huxley,  though  less  prophetic 
and  sanguine,  rebukes  those  "who  are  alarmed  lest  man's  mom! 
nature  be  debased/*  and  declares  that  a  wise  man  like  Hume  woi 
merely  "  smile  at  their  perplexities."  f 

Let  ns  now  consider  what  this  new  religion  is— or  rather  th( 
new  religions,  for  wo  are  offered  more  than  one.  So  far  hja  fonft^ 
goes,  indeed,  we  are  offered  several.  They  can,  however,  all  of 
them  l>e  resolved  into  two,  resting  on  two  entirely  ilifferent  baseSy 
though  sometimes,  if  not  usually,  offered  to  our  acceptance?  in  com- 
bination. One  of  these,  which  is  called  by  8<tme  of  its  literarj-  ad* 
herents  Positivism  or  tho  Religion  of  Humanity,  is  based  on  two 
proiwsltions  with  regard  to  the  human  race.  The  first  x>roposition 
is  that  it  is  constantly  though  slowly  improving,  and  will  one  day 
reach  a  condition  thoroughly  satisfactory  to  itHclf,  The  Kecoad 
proposition  is  that  this  remote  consummation  can  be  made  so  i&- 
t-«TOstintf  to  the  present  and  to  all  interveuii-  'tU 

they  will  strain  every  nerve  to  bring  it  about  n^  t*, 

though  humanity  is  atlmittod  to  bo  absolutely  a  ilwting  pheuuiofr- 
ion  in  the  universe,  it  is  presonted  rela'i     '  "  The  utmottt 

toment  to  the  individual:  and  duty  is  b>  a  coutftont 


H!nfp  thff  bptrinnln;;.  rfUfr^^n  hnn  hnil  thf  all  pwrntlil  08I0V  of  prtrTfnilng 

1  uf  AvaUag  ibcm  10  • 
'of 


tnm 


** COWARDLY  AOITOSTICISM: 


235 


to 


meaning  by  hope,  and  with  a  conBtant  motive  by  sympathy.  The 
basis  of  the  other  religion  is  not  only  different  from  this,  but  op- 
poef**!  ^J  it.  Just  as  thia  demands  that  we  turn  awaj'  from  tlio 
universe,  and  concentrate  our  attention  upon  humanity,  so  the 
other  demands  that  we  turn  away  from  humanity  and  concentrate 
our  utlenlion  on  the  universe.  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  calls  this  the 
Ruligion  of  the  Unknowable;  and  though  many  agnostics  con* 
aider  the  name  fantastic,  they  one  and  all  of  them,  if  they  resign 
the  religion  of  humanity,  consider  and  appeal  to  this  as  the  only 
possible  altoruativt». 

Now  1  have  already  in  this  review,  not  many  months  since,  en- 
deavored to  show  how  completely  absurd  and  childish  the  first  of 
t  "  irions,  the  Religion  of  Humanity,  is.    I  do  not  pro- 

1;  ,  to  discuss  it  further  here,  but  will  beg  the  reader 

consider  that  for  Uio  purpose  of  the  present  argument  it  is 
bri  V  '  '  like  rubbish,  unworthy  of  a  second  examination. 
pt  Mjui*st  will  somid  somewhat  arbitrary  and  arrogant, 

bat  1  have  something  to  add  which  vsill  show  that  it  is  neither. 
The  particular  views  which  I  now  aim  at  discussing  are  the  views 
represented  by  Prof.  Huxley;  and  Prof,  Huxley  rejects  the  Re- 
ligion of  Humanity  as  completely  as  I  do,  and  witii  a  great  deal 
ceremony,  as  the  following  passiage  will  demonstrate : 

Oat  of  the  fUrknen  of  prehistoric  a^c9  man  emergon  with  tho  marks  of  his 
wl;  origin  strong  upon  hiru.  Ho  U  a  brute,  only  more  inteUigeat  than  the  other 
brutos ;  %  blind  prey  to  impulses  which,  as  ofton  as  out,  lead  him  to  destructioD  ; 
■  rfotixD  U>  ondfc«s  Uhiaioos  which,  as  often  as  cotf  make  his  menial  czistcnco  a 
UfTor  and  a  harden,  and  6U  his  phrsical  life  with  barren  toil  and  battle.  IIo 
attaspw  a  r&rtiiin  <lftrre«  of  physical  cutufort,  uud  devclopu  u  more  or  tees  wurkablo 
ttn  i;iVorable  sitaatioos  as  tlie  plaiDs  of  MeHopotamia  or  Egypt, 

■11'  i-v  and  thousands  of  years,  struggles  with  varying  fortunes, 

atten4l«d  by  intlnitA  wickednes-s  bloodshed,  and  misery,  to  maintain  himself  at 
this  prilat  against  the  groed  and  the  ambition  of  his  foUow-mon.  Uo  mukea  a  point 
of  fciUiog  or  otherwise  persecuting  all  those  who  try  to  get  him  to  move  on ;  and 
he  haa  moved  on  a  6tep«  foolishly  confers  post-mortem  deiHcatiim  on  his  vic- 
Htf  eiactly  ropeata  the  process  with  all  who  want  to  move  a  Mtep  yet  far- 
tk«.  And  the  be»t  men  of  the  beet  epoch  nro  Hirnply  those  who  make  the  fewest 
Unadaira  and  romniii  the  fewett  sins.  ...  I  know  of  no  study  so  unutterably  sad- 
d«iuag  as  that  of  the  evolution  of  humanity  as  it  is  set  forth  in  the  aonals  of  his- 
tofj;  .  .  ,  [and]  when  the  positlviats  order  men  to  worship  humanity — that  ifl  to 
aay,  to  adore  the  generaliEed  conc4>ption  of  men,  as  they  ever  have  been,  and 
probably  ever  wUl  b« — I  must  reply  that  I  could  jnst  as  ftonn  l>ow  down  and  iror- 
dklp  Uia  getMrallzed  conception  of  a  ^'  wilderners  of  upes.^*  * 

Let  Ofl  hero  pause  for  a  moment  and  look  about  us,  so  as  to  see 
where  we  fttand.  Up  to  a  certain  point  the  agnostics  have  all  gone 
together  with  absolute  unanimity,  and  I  conceive  myself  to  have 

♦  '^IcDOMkboi,''  ^'Mactaeath  Ceoltiry."  February,  IS8V,  pp.  19J,  I«2.  and  "Popular 
MootWy."  April.  188»,  pp.  77a,  773. 


2^5 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEirCE  HfO^THL 


gone  -with  tliera,    Tlioy  have  all  "boon  unanimous  in  tliolr  rejection 

of  t)n    '  .'ind  in  rofi^nrdiiig  man  nntl  Uie  nire  of  mon  ns  R  fiigi- 

tiv<*  1  ition  of  the  all-oiiduring  sometliing,  wliicli  ftln-nrs, 

everywhere,  and  in  an  equal  degree,  is  l>ehind  all  other  i  ua 

of  the  universG.  They  are  unanimous  also  in  affirnuu^  iJiJv*,Ln 
spite  of  its  fugitive  character,  life  c^an  afford  us  certain  com<idor- 
ations  and  interests,  which  will  still  make  duty  binding  on  us,  will 
still  give  it  a  meaning.  At  this  point,  however,  they  di\ide  into 
two  hands.  Some  of  them  assert  that  the  motive  and  the  meaning 
of  duty  is  to  bo  found  in  tho  history  of  humanity,  regnwled  as  a 
single  drama,  with  a  prolonged  and  glorious  conclusion,  complete 
in  itself,  satisfying  in  itself,  and  imparting,  hy  the  aacramont  of 
sympathy,  its  own  meaning  and  grandeur  to  theindi^  '  '  "U% 
which  would  else  be  petty  and  contemptible.    This  is  v  mo 

assert,  and  this  is  what  others  deny.  With  those  who  assert  it  wo 
have  now  parted  company,  and  are  standing  alone  with  thoM 
others  who  deny  it — Prof.  Huxley  among  them,  as  one  of  their 
chief  spokesmen. 

And  now  addressing  myself  to  Prof.  Huxley  in  this  cliarfiotwr, 
let  me  exi)lain  what  I  shall  try  to  prove  to  him.  If  he  could  be- 
lieve in  God  and  in  the  divine  authority  of  Christ,  he  admits  he 
could  account  for  duty  and  vindicate  a  meaning  for  life;  but  ho 
refuses  to  believe,  even  though  for  some  reasons  he  might  wish  to 
do  so,  because  ho  holds  that  the  beliefs  in  question  have  no  evi- 
dence to  support  them.  Ho  complains  that  an  English  bishop  has 
called  this  refusal  "cowardly" — ^"has  so  far  departed  from  hifl 
{•!  ry  courtesy  and  self-respect  as  to  6]»eak  of  'cowardly 

^L  tsm.'"    I  ngreo  with  Prof,  Huxley  that,  on  tho  grounds 

advanced  hy  the  bishop,  this  epithet  "cowardly"  is  entirely  nnd^ 
served ;  but  I  projx>se  to  show  him  that,  if  not  deserved  on  them, 
it  is  deserved  on  others,  entirely  unsuspected  by  himself.  I  pro^ 
IK>se  to  show  that  his  agnosticism  is  really  cowanUy,  but  cowardly 
not  because  it  refuses  to  believe  enough,  but  b'  ■  *-"  1  by  its 
ovnx  standards,  it  refuses  to  deny  enough.    I  ])i  \7  that 

the  same  method  and  principle,  which  is  fatal  to  our  faith  in  the 
Goil  and  the  future  life  of  theologj',  is  equally  fatal  to  anything 
which  can  give  existence  a  meaning,  or  which  can — to  have  re- 
course to  Prof.  Huxley's  own  phrases — "prevent  our  'ener^<?«" 
from  being 'paralyzed/  and  'life's  beauty'  froni  K-mtw^  destroyed," 
I  propose,  in  other  words,  to  show  that  his  t\  lu  is  oow* 

'dly,  not  b-  '  does  not  dare  to  aHirm  t!  '>f 

■ist,  but  b  ^  does  not  dare  to  deny  the  m-  'bo 

reality  of  duty.    I  propone  to  show  that  the  miserable  ragB  of 

■  ■  .      '.>      I'll        .1         11  .  >     >  -  f       i>t» 

•gtit-.    ^  ■  .     .  ■   - 


of  that  very  t^uporstition  itaaif — that,  though  they  are  not  the 


237 


I 


diftgnble  and  tbo  embroidered  robe  of  tbeology,  they  ara  its  hair- 
glurt,  and  its  ^  *"  ^  '"t  in  tatters — utterly  useless  for  tho  purpog© 
l^whirh  it  it>  .  '»gly  applied,  ami  serving  only  to  make  tbo 

forlorn  wearer  ridiculous.  I  propose  to  show  tbat  in  retaiiung 
Ibis  difihonore*!  garment,  agnosticism  is  playing  the  part  of  au 
iutidWlual  Ajiauias  and  Sappbira;  and  tbat  in  professing  to  give 
o;  it  can  not  demonstrate,  it  is  kee]»ing  buck  part,  and  the 

luij-,-..  i .-.  t  of  tho  price — not,  however,  from  dishonesty,  but  from 
lidoggtMl  and  obs^tinat^  cowardice,  from  a  terror  of  facing  tho  ruin 
which  its  own  principles  have  made. 

Some,  no  doubt,  will  tliink  tbat  this  is  a  rash  undertaking,  or 
else  that  I  am  merely  indulging  in  tbo  luxury  of  a  little  rhetoric. 
I  hope  to  convince  the  reader  that  the  undertaking  m  not  rash, 
and  that  1  moan  my  expressions  to  be  taken  in  a  frigid  and  literal 
senile.  Let  me  begin  then  by  repeating  one  thing,  which  I  have 
said  before.  When  I  say  tbat  agnosticism  is  fatal  to  our  concep- 
tion of  duty,  I  do  not  moan  that  it  is  fatal  to  those  broad  rules 
antl  obligations  which  are  obviously  necessary  to  any  civilized 
Hociety,  which  are  distinctly  defensible  on  obvious  utilitarian 
grounds,  and  which,  8{>eaking  generally,  can  bo  enforced  by  exter- 
«;'  'US.    These  rules  and  obligations  have  existed  from  the 

<at.... ;  ^^<ja  of  social  life,  and  are  sure  to  exist  as  loog  as  social 
life  oxist^  Bat  so  far  are  they  from  giving  life  a  meaning^  that 
oa  Prof.  Huxley  3  ovm  showing  they  have  barely  made  life  toler- 
able. A  general  obedionco  to  them  for  thousands  and  thousands 
of  yearn  haa  loft "  the  ervolution  of  man,  as  set  forth  in  the  annals 
of  lufif.  "  ',.*  "most  unutterably  saddening  study"  that  Prof. 
Httxit-;  .  -.  From  tbo  earliest  ages  to  the  present — Px-of,  Hux- 
ley admits  this — the  nature  of  man  has  been  sucJi  that,  desjiito 
ws  anil  their  knowledge,  most  men  have  made  themselves 
kble  by  yielding  to  "  greed  "  and  to  **  ambition,"  and  by  prac- 
ticing **  iufiuit^  wickedness."  They  have  proscribed  their  wisest 
when  alive,  and  aiccorded  them  a  "foolish"  hero-worship  when 
dead.  Infinite  wickedness,  blindness,  and  idiotic  emotion  have, 
then,  a<;cording  to  Prof,  Huxley's  deliberate  estimate,  marked  and 
marred  men  from  tho  earliest  ages  to  tbo  present ;  and  he  deliber- 
ately savs  alflo,  that  "  as  men  ever  have  been,  they  probably  ever 
wiUb«,^ 

To  do  our  duty,  then,  evidently  implies  a  struggle.  The  im- 
polMS  noaally  uppermost  in  us  have  to  be  checked,  or  chastened, 
b>      '  '    '  Mier  impidses  have  to  be  generated,  by  fixing 

ou  ^derations  which  lie  somehow  beneath  the 

•urface*  If  this  were  not  bo,  men  would  always  have  done  their 
duty;  and  their  history  would  not  have  been  "unutterably  sad- 
d«!«aing/*  a^  Prof.  Huxley  says  it  has  lieen.  What  sort  of  consid- 
omlionA,  thfiu,  muflt  those  we  require  be  ?     Before  answering 


ft 

!■        Httxlt  ; 

^H  lay  a<ln] 

ft 


W^*  POPULAR   SCIENCE 


this  question  let  ns  panse  for  a  moment,  nnd,  with  Prof.  Huxley's 
help,  let  ns  make  ourselves  quite  clear  what  duty  is.  I  have 
ftlready  shown  that  it  differs  from  a  passive  obedience  to  eztor- 
nal  laws,  in  being  a  voluntary  and  artive  obedience  to  a  law  that 
is  internal ;  but  its  logical  aim  is  analogous — that  is  to  wiy,  Iho 
good  of  the  community,  ourselves  included.  Prof.  Huxley  d^ 
scribes  it  thus — "  to  devote  one's  self  to  the  service  of  huuianlfyf 
including  intellectual  nnd  moral  eelf-i^ulturo  under  that  name"; 
"to  pity  and  help  all  men  to  the  best  of  one's  ability";  "to  bo 
strong  and  patient/* "  to  be  ethically  pure  and  noble  "  ;  and  to  push 
our  devotion  to  otherH  "to  the  extremity  of  self-sacrifice/'  All 
these  phrases  are  Prof.  Huxley's  own.  They  are  plain  enough  in 
themselve-s ;  but,  to  make  what  he  means  yet  plainer,  he  tells  us 
that  the  best  examples  of  the  duty  he  has  been  describing  are  to 
be  found  among  Christian  martyrs  and  saints,  such  as  Catherine 
of  Sienna,  and  above  all  in  the  ideal  Christ — "  the  noblest  ideal 
of  humanity/' he  calls  it,  "wlijrh  mankind  has  yet  worshipetL" 
Finally,  ho  says  that  *'  religion,  properly  underst<Jo<l,  is  simply  the 
reverence  and  love  for  [this]  ethical  ideal,  and  the  desire  to  realise 
that  ideal  in  life  which  every  man  ought  to  feel,"  That  raan 
"ought"*  to  feel  this  desire,  and  *' ought'*  to  act  on  it, "  is/' he 
says,  "  surely  indisputable/'  and  "agnosticism  haa  no  more  to  i]o 
with  it  than  it  has  with  music  or  painting." 

Here,  then,  wo  come  to  something  at  last  which  Prof.  Huxley, 
despite  all  his  doubts,  declares  to  be  c<:'rtain — to  a  conclusion  which 
agnosticism  itself,  according  to  his  view,  admits  to  be  "  indtspQi- 
able."  Agnosticism,  however,  iia  he  has  told  us  already,  lajna  it 
down  ns  a  "fundamental  axiom"  tliat  no  conclusions  are  indi^ 
put^vble  but  such  as  are  "  demonstrated  or  demonstrable.^  Tlie 
conclusion,  therefore,  that  we  ought  to  do  our  duty»  and  that  w« 
ought  to  experience  what  Prof.  Huxley  calls  "religion/*  '\»  cvl- 
dently  a  conclusion  which,  in  his  opinion,  is  demonstratod  or 
demonstrable  with  the  utmost  clearness  and  cogency.  B4>fore, 
however,  inquiring  how  far  this  is  the  caee^  we  must  stat«  the 
conclusion  in  somewhat  different  terms,  but  still  in  te^  h 

we  have  Prof.  Huxley's  explicit  warrant  for  using,  i  -  .  ■  a 
thing  which  men  in  general, "as  they  always  have  been,  ami  prob- 
ably ever  will  be/'  have  lamentably  failed  to  <!■  *  which 
is  very  difficult,  going  as  it  does  against  some  oi  >t  and 
most  victorious  instincts  of  our  nature.  Prof.  Huxley's  conda- 
■ion.  then,  mnst  be  exprosised  thus :  "  We  ought  to  ^  ''  ^  ig 
Brhich  most  of  u*i  do  not  do,  and  which  we  can  n<»"  a 
severe  and  painful  struggle,  often  involving  the  extremity  of  wlf- 
sacrifice." 

And  now,  such  being  the  ca«^,  let  u«  proceed  to  this  cmcial  que»- 
tion— What  is  the  meaning  of  the  all-important  word  **  ought  *'  f 


I 


*39 


It  does  not  mean  merely  that  on  utilitarian  grounds  the  conduct  in 
qaecition  can  be  defended  as  tending  to  certain  l)oneticent  results. 
Thii»  concluaion  would  be  indeed  barren  and  usoIghs.  It  would 
merely  amount  to  saying  that  sorae  people  would  bo  happier  if 

or  j>eople  would  for  their  sake  consent  to  be  miserable ;  or  that 
would  he  happier  el»  a  race  if  tlieir  instincts  and  impulses 
were  different  from  "what  tbey  always  have  been  and  probably 
over  will  be."  When  we  say  that  certain  conduct  ought  to  be  fol- 
lowed, we  do  not  mean  that  its  ultimate  results  can  be  shown  to 
ficial  to  other  people,  but  that  th^y  can  be  exhibited  as 
le  to  the  people  to  whom  the  conduct  is  recommended — 
and  not  only  as  desirable,  but  as  desirable  in  a  pre-eminent  degree 
— deeir-  '  '  ^  \'ond  all  other  results  that  are  imm»*iliately  bene- 
ficial \ olves.    Now  the  positivists,  or  any  other  Ix^liovers 

in  the  destinies  of  humanity,  absurd  as  their  beliefs  may  be,  still 
hmive  in  their  l>eHefs  a  means  by  which,  theoretically,  duty  could 
9  thus  nicommended.  Acconling  to  them,  our  syrnpatliy  with 
other*  ift  80  ke<>n,  and  tlie  future  in  store  for  our  de^jcendants  is  so 
igfcisfyin^,  that  we  have  only  lo  think  of  this  future  and  we  shall 
Bmi  TTJ^b  a  *lesiro  to  work  for  it.  But  Prof.  Huxley,  and  those 
^^^^^■fe  with  him,  utterly  reject  both  of  these  suppositions. 
H^^i^and  very  rightly,  that  our  sympathies  are  limited  ;  and 
that  the  blissful  future,  which  it  is  supposed  will  ap|>eal  to  them, 
MO.  TliH  utmost,  then,  in  the  way  of  objective  results, 
■  t  us  can  accomplish  by  following  the  imth  of  duty,  is 
not  only  little  in  itself,  but  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that 
it  will  '  ito  to  anything  grccit.    On  the  contrary,  it  will 

only  e-  to  something  which,  as  a  whole,  is  "unutterably 

jvadiiening." 

L*^t  us  sujjpose,  tlien,  an  individual  with  two  ways  of  life  open 
to  him — the  way  of  ordinary  self-indulgence,  aufl  the  way  of  pain, 
effort,  and  self-sacrifice.  The  first  seems  to  him  obviously  the 
most  a^lvnntagoou*;  hut  he  has  heard  so  much  fine  talk  in  favnr 
of  the  second,  that  he  thinks  it  at  least  worth  considering.  He 
gcHw,  we  will  suppose,  to  Prof.  Huxley,  and  asks  to  have  it  dem- 
onstfAted  that  this  way  of  pain  is  preferable.  Now  what  answer 
to  that  could  Prof,  Huxley  make — he,  or  any  other  agnostic  who 
a^TBM  with  him  ?  He  has  made  several  answers.  I  am  going  to 
take  thom  one  by  one ;  and  while  doing  to  each  of  them,  as  I 
hope,  complete  jtiatice,  to  show  tliat  they  are  not  only  absolutely 
an-  '       '  "ut  to  prove  what  is  demandeil  of  them,  bat 

tJi  'mJ  in  touching  tlie  question  at  issue. 

One  of  the  amiwcTS  hanlly  needs  considering,  except  to  show 
ti»  '  '  '  '  ''  "'  thinker  must  bo  put  who  uses  it.  A  man,  says 
Pr  it  to  choose  the  way  of  pain  and  duty,  because 

U  oondnres  in  some  small  degree  to  the  good  of  others;  and  to  do 


thii 


>^% 


the 


ntMjL 


hBhm 


^^ 


fiooadA* 
;  «■•  day  -vill  am 

from  «s  j- 
^  ftoc  us^Acy  his  «ln^ 
;  «£  xvalitj,  aad  thit  is 


for  Attwij^'tfat  dttlr  ii^%ai  itfta^  iMltov  for  ci  gating 
M7  litrfw  to  do  iL    ladfled,  to  mder  Ph>L  Hus)ey  jotke^  it  Is 
rii  tte  arsvBttt  oo  vhich  be  mnalj  nlSok    TIm  sz^cnzKiit,  or 
tb*  AignttflBt%  on  wblch  W  aaia}y  reiMS  hsT«  no  direct 
«it]i  tfaingft  aocial  at  alL    TSey  wmk  to  create  a  xdiff- 
^  or  to  gi^B  a  mwantng  to  doty,  by  dveUiag  on  nan*^  oonacc** 
i,  fyA  with  his  fello^-nieo,  bat  with  the  imiTocs^,  aod  thus  4^ 
in  ih«  individual  a  oertaiii  rthical  8^-ffttTaoioos»or  rath- 
fif  eiff  V  ing  his  enslia^  aelf-cerereiice  frosa  destrac- 
Hoif  Any  human  being  who  pretends  to  arrorato  thinking 
'        '*  M  would  '  '        ^        ^      _,^j 

any  wav  ■  r- 

of  any  kin<i.  or  that  thia  self-reverence,  if  it  .  could 

.   ..  .    i#  ...:.i.  .  .      *:._!    1.  *.-      -^5^  my  r     "  "       In- 

.  *1«?larf-  ''tr 


wo 


I  .*»f^ 
f  etiU^ 


man 


ho  Bay»p "  to  rejCArd  ovorv 
power  by  which  wo  w 


i»in  rii  .Tiii'tir.n 


Dtntiijir^-^^ucc  iA  uiitUiukabIc,  yot,  as  oxptrioneo  dis^-iw^^u^  au  Uuundf 


►£F  AeyOSTlCISM.'' 


»4« 


the  diffasion  of  phenomena,  we  are  tinable  to  think  of  limits 

iho  presence  of  this  power ;  while  the  criticisms  of  science  teaoh 

•us  that  this  power  ia  incomprehensi])le.    And  this  consciousness 

tf  an  incomprehensible  power,  called  omnipresent  from  inability 

lign  its  limits,  is  just  that  consciousness  on  which  religion 

"  •     Now  Prof.  Huxloy,  it  will  bo  remembered,  gives  an 

?onnt  of  religion  quite  different.    He  says  it  is  a  desire  to  real* 

a  certain  ideal  in  life.    His  terminology  therefore  difiFers  from 

of  Mr.  Spencer;  but  of  the  present  matter,  as  the  following 

fotivtion  will  show,  his  view  is  substantially  the  same. 

Let  us  suppose,"  he  says, "  that  knowledge  is  absolute,  and 
noC  relative,  and  therefore  that  our  conception  of  matter  repre- 
B6niA  that  which  really  is.    Let  us  suppose  further  that  we  do 
^knoW  more  of  c^use  and  effect  than  a  certain  succession ;  and  I 
^■for  my  part  do  not  see  what  escape  there  is  from  utter  material- 
H|^HHB^  neces^arianism."    And  this  materialism,  were  it  really 
^^^^^Bience  forces  on  us,  he  admits  would  amply  justify  the  dark- 
eel  Fears  that  are  entertained  of  it.    It  would  "  drown  man^s  soul/' 
I"  impede  his  freedom,"  "  paralyze  his  energies,"  *'  debase  his  moral 
Xiature,"  and  "  destroy  the  beauty  of  his  life."  t     But,  Prof.  Hux- 
ley aasures  ns,  these  dark  fears  are  groundless.    There  is  indeed 
only  one  avenue  of  escape  from  them;  but  that  avenue  truth 
Open  to  u& 
m 


**  For,**  be  »&f\  "  after  all.  what  do  we  know  of  tliis  terrible  *  matter/  except 
•a  a  ttama  for  the  nnknown  and  hTpoibtitical  oaose  of  states  of  oar  own  ooumIouh- 
beMl  And  what  do  we  know  of  that  ^ttpirit^  over  whoso  extinction  hy  Euattor  a 
gnu-  ioo  ia  aristiigr,  • .  •  except  that  it  aUo  is  a  name  for  &d  unknown  and 

fcy^xr  Tiaso  or  condition  of  Biatua  of  oonso.!ou9nessl  .  .  .  And  what  is  th« 

ilrr  DcecadtT  and  iron  law  under  which  men  groant     TruJv,  moat  (rratnitously 
tad  bugbears.     I  suppose  if  tliorc  be  an  'iron*  law  it  is  that  of  cavitation; 
tlier*  be  a  phvsictd  neceMit/  it  is  that  a  stone  nnsnpported  must  fall  to  the 
gfMmd.    Bui  wtiAt  ifl  all  we  really  know  and  can  know  ahont  the  latter  phe- 
nOBcaal    Simply  that  in  all  human  oxporionco  stone?  have  fallen  to  the  ground 
vaAtt  tbwM  conditions ;  that  we  have  not  the  stiiallei^t  reason  for  heli^ving  that 
itoiM  ao  oirctimst&aced  will  not  fall  to  the  ground ;  and  that  we  have,  oo  the 
trvf,  ^ery  reaoon  to  believe  that  it  will  so  fall.  .  .  .  But  when,  as  oom- 
lAocilj  happoBa,  we  change  tri^  into  muj^,  we  introduce  an  idea  of  neceasitjr 
"wMcb  . . .  has  no  wnrrantj  that  I  can  discover  anywIiiTo.  .  .  .  Force  I  know,  and 
Ijiw  I  know  ;  bat  who  is  this  Kecessity,  save  an  empty  shadow  of  my  own  mind*Ji 
throwing  f  *• 


md 

^^ 

■eooi 

VlttOC 


1 

7^m 


Let  UB  now  compare  the  stAtexnents  of  these  two  writers.  Each 
tat««  that  the  reality  of  the  nuiverse  is  unknowable;  that  just  aa 
ttiroIjT  AS  matter  is  always  one  aspect  of  mind,  so  mind  is  equally 
OtM  Aspect  of  matter ;  and  that  if  it  is  true  to  say  that  the  thoughts 

man  aro  maioriiU^  it  Is  equally  true  to  say  tJiat  the  earth  from 


VOL    J.,.> 


I  "Lay  SmDoos,"  pp.  12S,  123,  187. 


~t  THE  POPriAH  SCIKNCE  MOf^THLY.  V 

wliich  man  is  taken  is  spiritual.  Further,  from  theso  8tat«m<mt0 
each  writer  dedncos  a  similar  moral.  The  only  difFiTf-'nce  botwoon 
them  is,  that  Mr.  Spencer  puts  it  positively,  and  Prof.  Uuxley 
negatively.  Mr.  S[»encor  aays  that  a  consciousness  of  the  tm- 
knownblo  nature  df  tlie  miiverse  fills  the  mind  with  relif^ous 
emotion.  Prof.  Huxley  says  that  the  same  consciouanesH  will  pre- 
serve from  destruction  tho  emotion  that  already  exists  in  it.  We 
will  examine  the  positive  and  negati\^o  propositions  in  order,  and 
see  what  hearing,  if  any,  they  have  on  practical  life. 

Mr.  Spencer  connects  his  religion  with  practical  life  thns:  Tlio 
mystery  and  the  immensity  of  the  All,  and  our  own  inseparable 
connection  with  it,  deepen  and  solemnize  our  own  conception  of 
ourselves.    They  make  ns  regard  ourselves  as  "elemf  'nt 

great  evolution  of  which  the  beginning  and  the  end  t  ,  nd 
our  knowledge  or  conception  " ;  and  in  especial  they  make  ua  so 
regard  our  "  own  innermost  convictions." 

*'  It  ia  not  for  nothing,^  says  'M'r.  Spencer,  **  tliftt  ft  idah  boft  tn  \Am  theie  qyiii- 
pattitea  witb  eotue  principles,  aoU  repugnance  to  others.  ,  .  .  lie  ia  h  dcAooodaat 
of  tbe  pont ;  he  U  a  pareut  of  the  future ;  nud  hin  thoughts  ore  ju  cIj  i  :  lo 

him,  which  he  mny  not  carelo^Iy  let  die.    He,  like  t'lvery  othor  luan,  .'"1? 

consider  himself  as  one  of  the  myriAfl  agencies  ihruiigh  wbom  vrorlCB  the  TukiiowB 
Cause:  and  when  the  Unknonm  Oanse  proOuoe*  in  him  a  oortain  beiiof,  he  b 
thereby  anthonzed  to  profe&s  and  act  vrlth  this  belief."* 

In  all  the  annals  of  intellectual  self-deception  it  would  bo  hard 
to  find  anything  to  outdo  or  even  to  approach  this.  What  a  man 
does  or  thinks,  what  he  professes  or  acts  out,  c^in  have  no  e^ect 
whatever,  conceivable  to  ourselves,  beyond  such  effects  as  it  pro- 
duces within  the  limits  of  this  planet;  and  hardly  any  effect, 
worth  our  consideration,  beyond  such  aa  it  produces  on  himdelf 
and  a  few  of  his  fellow-men.  Now,  how  can  any  of  theso  effects 
be  connected  with  the  evolution  of  the  universe  in  such  a  way  tB 
to  enable  a  consciousness  of  the  universe  to  inform  us  thut  one 
Bet  of  effects  should  be  aimed  at  by  u»  rather  than  another  ?  Tbe 
positivists  Bay  that  our  aim  should  be  the  j)rogn"-  '  m  ;  and 
that,  as  I  have  said,  forms  a  standard  of  duty,  <  it  may 

not  supply  a  motive.    But  what  has  the  universe  to  do  with  the 

progress  of  man?    Does  it  know  anything  about,  it  or   rsy- 

thing  ahout  it?    Judging  from  the  language  of  Mr.  S,  lad 

Prof.  Huxley,  one  would  certainly  suppose  that  it  did.  Barely,  in 
that  case,  here  is  anthi'opomorphism  wi<h  a  vengeance.  "It  i» 
not  for  nothing,"  says  Mr.  Spencer,  "  that  the  Unknowable  haa  im- 

tolanted  in  a  man  certaiu  impulJWH."    W 

rtht?r»logic  d(K'tnne of  design  P    Can  iinythi:i^ 
with  the  entire  theory  of  the  evolutionist  t    Mr,  .^  ;  arga* 

b  •  "  nnt  PriufliplWf"  p.  Itt. 


^COWARDLY  AONOSTICIS]^.'* 


H3 


I 


tncnt  means,  if  it.  means  anything,  that  the  Unknowable  has  im- 
pUuit^-''  ■  '     r  sympathies  in  a  sense  in  which  it  hu-s  not 

lmpla*i  -    the  impulse  to  deny  one's  belief,  and  not  to 

ftoi  on  it,  which  many  people  experience,  would  be  authorize<l  by 
the  Unknowable  as  much  as  the  impulse  to  j)rofes3  itj  and  to  act 
on  it.  And  according  to  Mr.  Spencer's  entire  theorj-,  according  to 
Prof.  Huxley's  entire  theory,  according  to  the  entire  theory  of 
modem  science,  it  is  precisely  this  that  is  the  case.  If  it  is  the 
fact  tliat  the  Unknowable  works  through  any  of  our  actions,  it 
works  tlirough  all  alike,  bad,  good,  and  indifferent,  through  our 
lies  aa  well  us  through  our  truth-telling,  through  our  injuries  to 
our  race  as  well  as  through  onr  benefits  to  it.  The  attempt  to  con- 
nect thft  well-lxjing  of  humanity  with  any  general  tendency  ob- 
•erviible  in  the  universe,  is  in  fact,  on  agnostic  principles,  as 
Iiu|H^l4*H.s  as  an  attempt  to  get,  in  a  balloon,  to  Jupiter.  It  is  utterly 
unfit  for  serious  men  to  talk  about ;  and  its  proper  place,  if  any- 
where, would  be  in  one  of  Jules  Verne's  story-books.  The  desti- 
nies of  mankiurl,  so  far  aa  wo  have  any  means  of  knowing,  have  as 
little  to  do  with  the  course  of  the  Unknowable  as  a  whole,  as  the 
destinies  of  an  ant-hill  in  South  Australia  have  to  do  with  the 
question  of  home  rule  for  Ireland. 

Or  even  supposing  the  Unknowable  to  have  any  feeling  in  the 
matter,  how  do  we  know  that  its  feeling  would  bo  in  our  favor, 
and  that,  it  wtjuld  uot  be  gratified  by  the  calamities  of  humanity, 
rather  than  by  its  improvement  ?  Or  here  is  a  question  which  is 
marc  important  still.  Supx>osing  the  Unknowable  did  desire  our 
■nt,  but  we,  as  Pruf.  Huxley  says  of  us,  were  obstinately 
n  _„  _:!st  being  improved,  what  could,  the  Unknowable  do  to 
U0  for  thus  thwarting  its  wishes  ? 

All''  '"  'u^Ih  us  to  another  aspect  of  the  matter.  If  conscious- 
ness oi  i  knowable  does  not  directly  influence  action,  it  may 
yet  be  said  that  the  contemplation  of  the  imiverse  as  the  wonder- 
ful ~^  ■  nt  of  this  imspoakable  mystery,  is  calculated  to  put  the 
n*'  a  serious  and  devout  condition,  which  wouhl  make  it 
BUBCoptible  to  the  solemn  voice  of  duty.  How  any  devotion  so 
produced  could  have  any  connection  with  duty  I  confess  I  am  at  a 
loss  to  see.  But  I  need  not  dwell  on  that  point,  for  what  I  wish 
to  show  is  this,  that  contemplation  of  the  Unknowable,  from  the 
agnostic's  point  of  view,  is  not  caJctilated  to  produce  any  sense  of 
dovoatneas  at  alL  Devoutness  is  made  up  of  three  things,  fear, 
love,  and  wonder ;  but  were  the  agnostic's  thoughts  really  con- 
trolled by  his  own  principles  (which  they  are  not)  not  one  of  these 
ensotioDs  could  the  Unknowable  possibly  excite  in  him.  It  need 
h.*!  ''  '  ■  '  '^  ;  he  has  no  excuse  for  loving  it,  for  his  own  first 
pi  im  to  say  that  it  is  lovable,  or  that  it  possesses 
any  character,  least  of  all  any  anthropomorphic  character.    But 


4 


»44 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEyCS  yOXTffZT. 


perhaps  it  is  calculated  to  excite  foar  or  awe  in  bim.    TbiB  idea  is 

more  plausible  than  the  other.     The  universe  ns  <•  '     'fh 

man  is  a  revelation  of  forces  that  are  infinite,  am]  id 

that  surely  these  have  something  awful  and  impressive  in  thanL 
There  is,  however,  another  side  to  the  question.  This  univorm 
represents  not  only  infinite  forces,  but  it  represents  also  infinity 
impotence.  So  long  as  we  conform  ourselves  to  certain  ordinary 
rules  we  may  beliave  as  we  like  for  anything  it  can  do  to  us.  We 
may  look  at  it  with  eyes  of  adoration,  or  make  faces  at  it,  and 
blaspheme  it,  but  for  all  its  power  it  can  not  move  a  finger  to 
touch  us.  Why,  then,  should  a  man  be  in  awe  of  this  lubberly 
All,  whose  blindness  and  impotence  are  at  least  as  remarkable  aa 
its  power,  and  from  which  man  is  as  absolutely  safe  as  a  mouse  in 
a  hole  is  from  a  lion  ?  But  there  still  remains  the  emotion  of 
wonder  to  be  considered*  Is  not  the  universe  calculated  to  excito 
our  wonder  ?    From  the  agnostic  point  of  view  we  i  rtainly 

say  No.    The  further  science  reveals  to  us  the  c^  ion  of 

things  the  feeling  borne  in  on  us  more  and  more  strongly  is  this, 
that  it  is  not  wonderful  that  things  happen  as  they  do,  but  that  it 
would  be  wonderful  if  they  happened  otherwise:  while  as  for  tbe 
Unknown  Cause  that  is  behind  what  science  reveals  to  us,  we  can 
not  wonder  at  that,  for  we  know  nothing  at  all  about  it,  and,  if 
there  is  any  wonder  involved  in  the  matter  at  all,  it  is  nothing  but 
wonder  at  our  own  ignoranca 

So  much,  then,  for  our  mere  emotions  toward  the  Unknowable. 
There  still  remains,  however,  one  way  more  in  which  it  is  aIle:ffod 

lat  our  consciousness  of  it  can  be  definitely  connH(?ted  v.    '        *  v ; 

id  this  is  the  way  which  our  agnostic  philosophers  n  :n- 

monly  have  in  view,  and  to  which  they  allude  most  frequently.  I 
allude  to  the  search  after  scientific  truth  and  the  proclamation 
of  it,  regardless  of  consequences.  Whenever  the  agnoHtics  are 
pressed  as  to  the  consequences  of  their  principles,  it  is  on  this  con- 
ception of  <luty  that  they  invariably  fall  back.  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer,  on  his  own  behalf,  expresses  the  position  thus: 

Tbo  bighest  truth  be  seee  will  tbo  wise  man  fearlesalx  attor,  kpowlnR  lb«t,  lift 
whftt  may  conic  of  it,  ho  is  thus  playing  his  right  part  io  Iho  world,  knowing  thfll 
if  bo  c«it  eifixt  UiQ  change  [In  bvlier]  ho  aiiits  ot^  well ;  if  DOl,  well  aIm;  tLoogk 
not  M  well.* 


Aft4^r  what  has  l)een  naid  already  it  will  not  be  neccaaary  to 
dwell  long  on  this  astonishing  proposition.  A  abort  examination 
will  suiHce  to  show  its  emptiness.  That  a  certain  amount  of  tmtli 
in  social  intercourse  is  necessary  for  the  conlinuoi  y, 

Aud  that  a  large  numlx»r  of  scientific  truths  tire  usel'. .:ig 

U0  to  add  to  our  material  comforts  iit,  tm  Prof.  Huxloy  would  99tj, 

•  **if1nt  rrisciplof,**  p.  Itt. 


AGirOSTICISMr 


245 


» 


i 


*»ttrely  indisputabla'*  And  truth  thus  understood  it  is  "surely 
Afal'  '  Mo"thiit  we  should  cuUivaU\  The  reason  is  obvious, 
Id'  hiis  certain  social  consequences,  certain  things  that  we 

aB  dftfire  come  of  it ;  but  the  highest  truth  which  Mr,  Spencer 
speaks  of  stands,  according  to  him,  on  a  wholly  different  basis, 
and  WW  are  to  cultivattv  it,  not  because  of  its  consequences,  but  in 
defiance  of  them.  And  what  are  its  consequences,  so  far  as  wc  can 
see  ?  Prof.  Huxley^s  answer  is  this :  "  I  have  had,  and  have,  the 
firmefli  conviction  that  .  ,  .  the  verace  via,  tho  straight  road,  has 
led  nowhere  else  but  into  the  dark  depths  of  a  wild  and  tangled 
forent."  Now  if  this  be  the  case,  what  possible  justification  can 
there  be  for  following  this  verace  via  f  In  what  sense  is  the  man 
who  follows  it  playing  "  his  right  part  in  tho  world  "  ?  And  wlien 
Ur.  Spencer  says,  with  regard  to  his  conduct, "  it  is  well,"  with 
whom  is  it  well,  or  in  what  sense  is  it  well  ?  We  can  use  such 
with  any  warrant  or  with  any  meaning  only  on  the  sup- 
that  the  universe,  or  the  Unknowable  as  manifested 
through  the  universe,  is  concerned  with  human  happiness  in  some 
special  way,  in  which  it  is  not  concerned  with  human  misery,  and 
that  thus  our  knowle<lge  of  it  must  somehow  make  men  happier, 
even  though  it  leads  them  into  a  wild  and  tangled  forest  It  is 
certain  tliat  our  devotion  to  truth  will  not  benefit  the  universe; 
tho  only  question  is,  will  knowledge  of  the  universe,  beyond  a  cer- 
tain point,  benefit  us  ?  But  the  supposition  just  mentioned  is 
merely  theism  in  disguise.  It  imputes  to  tho  Unknowable  design, 
pur^wse,  and  affection.  In  every  way  it  is  contrary  to  the  first 
pr'         '        '  ^.icism-    Could  we  admit  it,  then  devotion  to 

tru  .,  Ill  tho  meaning  that  Mr.  Spencer  claims  for  it: 

hut  if  this  supposition  is  denied,  as  all  agnostics  deny  it,  this  de- 
VoCioo  to  truth,  seemingly  so  noble  and  so  unassailable,  sinks  to  a 
aupuwtition  more  abject,  more  meauiuglc'ss,  and  more  ridiculoas 
than  that  of  any  African  savage,  groveling  and  mimibling  before 
hia  fetich. 

We  have  now  passed  under  review  the  main  positive  argu- 
ments by  which  our  Agnostics,  while  dismissing  the  existence  of 
Qod  as  a  question  of  lunar  politics,  endeavor  to  exhibit  the  reality 
of  religion,  and  of  duty,  as  a  thing  that  is  "  surely  indisputable/' 
We  will  now  pass  on  to  their  negative  arguments.  While  by 
positive  arguments  they  endeavor  to  prove  that  duty  and  religion 
are  realltlos.  by  their  negative  arguments  they  ende-avor  to  prove 
that  d  '  a  are  not  impossibilities.    We  have  seen 

how  ft['  '  ss  to  their  cause  are  the  former;  but  if  the 

former  are  worthless,  the  latter  are  positively  fatal. 

are  the  render  has  already  seen.    I  have  taken  the 
tVv  :iiem  from  Prof.  Huxley,  but  Mr.  Spencer  uses  lan- 

guagu  almost  precisely  similar.    These  arguments  start  with  two 


4 


X4^ 


THE  POPULAR  SCTSyCB  MONTffLY. 


admissions.    Wore  all  our  actions  linked  one  to  another  by  m^ 

cliauical  necessity,  it  is  admitted  that  resx>onsibilityaud'!  *  uld 
bo  no  longer  conueivahle.    Our  "  energies/' a.s  Prof.  ].  ij- 

mits,  wouJd  be  "  i^twdXyzed  "  by  "  utter  necessarianism."  Further, 
did  our  conception  of  matter  represent  a  reality,  were  matter  low 
and  gross,  as  we  are  accustomed  to  think  of  it,  then  man.  as  the 
product  of  matter,  would  be  low  and  gross  also,  and  heroism  and 
duty  would  bo  really  successfully  degraded,  by  being  reduced  to 
questions  of  carbon  and  ammonia.  But  from  all  of  these  diiBcul- 
tios  Prof.  Huxley  professes  to  extricate  us.  Let  us  look  back  at 
the  arguments  by  which  he  coufiiders  that  ho  has  done  so. 

We  will  begin  with  his  method  of  liberating  us  from  the 
"  iron  *'  law  of  necessity,  and  thus  giving  us  back  our  freedom  and 
moral  character.  He  i}erforms  this  feat,  or  rather,  he  thinks  he 
has  performed  it,  by  drawing  a  distinction  between  what  wiU 
lia]>pen  and  what  must  happen.  On  this  distinction  his  entire 
I)osition  is  based.  Now  in  every  argument  used  by  any  sensible 
man  there  is  probably  some  meaning.  Let  us  try  fairly  to  see 
what  Ik  the  meaning  in  this.  I  take  it  that  the  idea  at  the  bottom 
of  Prof.  Huxley's  mind  is  as  follows:  Though  all  our  scientific 
reasoning  presupposes  the  imifonnity  of  the  universe,  we  are  un- 
able to  assert  of  the  reality  behind  the  universe,  that  it  might  not 
manifest  itself  in  ways  by  which  all  present  science  wonld  be 
baffled.  But  what  has  an  idea  like  this  to  do  with  any  practical 
question  ?  So  far  as  man,  and  man's  will,  is  concerned,  we  have 
to  do  only  with  the  universe  as  we  know  it ;  and  the  only  knowl- 
edge we  have  of  it,  worth  calling  knowledge,  in  vol  V'  'A, 
Huxley  is  constantly  tt^lling  us,  "the  great  act  of  fail  eh 
loarls  us  to  take  what  has  been  as  a  certain  index  of  what  will  be. 
Now,  with  regard  to  this  universe,  Prof.  Huxley  telhi  un  that  the 
progress  of  science  has  always  meant,  and  "  means  now  mere  thaa 
ever,"  "the  extension  of  the  province  of  ,  .  .  causation,  and  .  ,  . 
the  banishment  of  spontaneity."*  And  this  applies,  as  he  ox* 
pressly  says,  to  human  thought  and  action  as  much  as  to  the 
flowering  of  a  plant.  Just  as  there  can  be  no  voluntary  action 
without  volition,  so  there  can  be  no  volition  without  some  pre- 
ceding cause.  Accordingly,  if  a  man's  condition  at  any  lorivim 
lomont  were  completely  known,  his  actions  could  b*-  ''*d 
ith  as  much  or  with  as  little  certainty  as  the  fall  of  as  aid 
be  predicted  if  released  from  the  hand  that  held  it.  Now  Prof. 
Huxley  tells  us  that,  v  "  '  ' '  '  la 
saying  that  the  stouo  \'  _  'Ri- 
fled in  saying  similarly  of  the  man,  that  he  will  act  in  such  and 

such  :i  V.^      ■'  *'         ,     ■■       "  .,.»__ 


IS  no 


^''UjBmvMiu,'*  p.  \VL 


•*  COWARDLY  AGKOSTICZSM,'' 


I        sou 


^ 


and  the  question  of  hiiman  freedom  is  nothing  if  not  practicaL 
Whttt  then  id  gained — is  anything  gained — is  the  case  in  any  way 
alton>d — by  telling  ourselved  that,  though  there  is  certainty  in  the 
caae,  then?  is  no  necessity  ?  Suppose  I  held  a  loaded  pistol  to 
Pn>f.  Huxley's  ear,  and  offered  to  pull  the  trigger,  should  I  recon- 
cile him  to  the  oi>eration  by  telling  him  that,  though  it  certainly 
Id  kill  him,  there  was  not  the  least  necessity  that  it  should  do 
?  And  with  regard  to  voUtiun  and  action,  as  the  result  of  pre- 
caeding  causes,  is  not  the  case  precisely  similar  ?  Let  Prof.  Huxley 
torn  to  all  the  past  actions  of  humanity.  Can  he  point  to  any 
malleat  movement  of  any  single  human  being,  which  has  not  been 
product  of  causes,  which  in  their  turn  have  been  the  product 
other  causes  ?  Or  can  he  point  to  any  causes  which,  under 
en  conditions,  could  have  produced  any  effects  other  than  those 
they  have  produoed,  unless  he  uses  the  word  could  in  the  foolish 
and  fantastic  sense  which  would  enable  him  to  say  that  unsup- 
ported stones  could  possibly  fly  upward  ?  For  all  practical  pur- 
poses the  distinction  between  viuM  and  wiU  is  neither  more  nor 
leas  thaa  a  feeble  and  childish  sophism.  Theoretically  no  doubt 
it  will  bear  tins  meaning — that  the  Unknowable  might  have  so 
made  man,  that  at  any  given  moment  he  could  bo  a  different  be- 
ing :  but  it  does  nothing  to  break  the  force  of  what  all  science 
teaches  us — that  man,  formed  as  he  is>  can  not  act  otherwise  than 
OS  ho  does.  The  universe  may  have  no  necessity  at  the  back  of 
U;  but  itfl  presence  and  its  past  alike  are  a  necessity  at  the  back  of 
ua ;  ftnd  it  is  not  necessity,  but  it  is  doubt  of  necessity,  that  is 
TBally**  the  shadow  of  our  own  mind's  throwing." 

And  now  lt?t  us  face  Prof.  Huxley's  other  argument,  which  is 
to  save  life  from  degratlation  by  tiiking  away  the  reproach  from 
matter*  If  it  is  true,  he  tells  us,  to  say  that  everything,  mind  in- 
cludf»d,  is  matter,  it  is  equally  true  to  say  that  everj'thing,  matter 
ill  is  mind ;  and  thus,  he  argues,  the  dignity  we  all  attribute 

to  iuiii.,  c.i  once  is  seen  to  diffuse  itself  throughout  the  entire  uni- 
Tenft.    Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  puts  the  same  view  thus: 

6wth  An  cttitnde  of  mind  [contempt  fur  matter  and  dreiul  of  materialism]  ia 
flignlflc*nt  not  so  much  of  a  r«rorenoe  for  the  Unkoowa  Cause,  oa  of  an  irreror- 
«ao«  for  tbotc  familiar  forma  in  wbich  the  Unknown  Cause  is  manifested  to  ns.* 
•  •  •  But  whooTcr  rememben  that  the  forma  of  oxistenoe  of  which  the  nnonltl- 
vailod  fp«ak  with  eo  mneh  000m  .  .  .  ore  found  to  be  the  more  niarveloofl  the 
mor*  tbey  «ra  tnvwtljeAtcd,  and  are  aliK)  to  be  foand  to  be  in  their  natures  abeo- 
lotoly  fiaoompr^btiOsTblo  .  .  .  will  see  that  the  coarse  proposed  [n  reduction  of  all 
Uuiigi  to  terai  of  matterl  does  not  imply  a  degradation  of  the  so-called  higher, 
bot  AH  el^TittioD  of  the  cocalled  lower. 

The  answer  to  tliis  argument,  so  far  as  it  touches  any  ethical 
or  fftligiotw  question,  is  at  once  obvious  and  conclusive.    The  one 

H  *  "  Fint  Principlos^"  p.  &60.  dl 


i 


r 
I 


248 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


duty  of  ethics  and  of  religion  is  to  draw  a  distinction  between  two 
states  of  emotion  and  two  courses  of  action — to  elevate  the  one 
and  to  degra^le  the  other.  But  the  argument  we  are  now  consid- 
ering, though  undoubtedly  true  in  itself,  has  no  bearing  on  this 
distinction  whatever.  It  is  invoked  to  show  that  religion  and 
duty  remain  spiritual  in  spite  of  all  materialism ;  but  it  ends, 
with  unfortimate  impartiality,  in  showing  the  same  thing  of  vice 
and  of  cynical  worklliness.  If  the  life  of  Christ  is  elevated  by 
being  seen  in  this  light,  so  also  is  the  life  of  Casanova ;  and  it  is 
as  impossible  in  this  way  to  make  the  one  higher  than  the  other 
as  it  is  to  make  one  man  higher  than  another  by  taking  them  both 
up  in  a  balloon. 

I  have  now  gone  through  the  whole  case  for  duty  and  for  re- 
ligion, as  stated  by  the  agnostic  school,  and  have  shown  that,  as 
thus  stat-ed,  there  is  no  case  at  all.  I  have  shown  their  arguments 
to  be  so  shallow,  so  irrelevant,  and  so  contradictory,  that  they 
never  could  have  imposed  themselves  on  the  men  who  condescend 
to  use  them,  if  these  men,  upon  utterly  alien  grounds,  had  not 
pledged  themselves  to  the  conclusion  which  they  invoke  the  argu- 
ments to  support.  Something  else,  however,  still  remains  to  be 
done.  Having  seen  how  agnosticism  fails  to  give  a  basis  to  either 
religion  or  duty,  I  will  point  out  to  the  reader  how  it  active- 
ly and  mercilessly  destroys  them.  Religion  and  duty,  as  has  been 
constantly  made  evident  in  the  course  of  the  foregoing  discussion, 
are,  in  the  opinion  of  the  agnostics,  inseparably  connected.  Duty 
is  a  course  of  conduct  which  is  more  than  conformity  to  human 
law  ;  religion  consists  of  the  emotional  reasons  for  pursuing  that 
conduct,  Now  these  reasons,  on  the  showing  of  the  agnostics 
themselves,  are  reasons  that  do  not  lie  on  the  surface  of  the  mind. 
They  have  to  be  sought  [)ut  in  moods  of  devoutuoss  and  abstrac- 
tion, and  the  more  we  dwell  on  them,  the  stronger  they  are  suj)- 
posed  to  become.  They  lie  above  and  beyond  the  ordinary  things 
of  life ;  but  after  communing  with  them,  it  is  supposed  that  we 
shall  descend  to  these  things  with  our  purposes  sharpened  and  in- 
tensified. It  is  easy  to  see,  however,  if  we  divest  ourselves  of  all 
prejudice,  and  really  conceive  ourselves  to  be  convinced  of  noth- 
ing which  is  not  demonstrable  by  the  methods  of  agnostic  science, 
that  the  more  we  dwell  on  the  agnostic  doctrine  of  the  universe, 
the  less  and  not  the  more  shall  duty  seem  to  be  binding  on  us. 

I  have  said  that  agnosticism  can  supply  us  with  no  religion. 
Perhaps  I  was  wrong  in  saying  so,  but  if  we  will  but  invert  the 
supposed  tendency  of  religion,  it  can  and  it  will  supply  us  with  a 
religion  indeed.  It  will  supply  us  with  a  religion  which,  if  we 
describe  it  in  theologi*    '  vith  literal  accuracy 

describe  aa  the  the  spirit  which 

denies.    L?  meaning  which 


^COWARDLY  agnosticism:' 


849 


does  not  lie  on  the  surface,  such  meaning  as  may  lie  on  the  sur- 
face it  will  utterly  take  away.  It  will  indeed  tell  ns  that  the 
soul  which  sins  shall  die ;  but  it  will  tell  us  in  the  same  breath 
that  the  soul  which  docs  not  sin  shall  die  the  same  death-  In- 
stead of  telling  us  that  we  are  responsible  for  our  actions,  it  will 
tell  us  that  if  anything  is  responsible  for  them  it  is  the  blind 
and  unfathomable  universe ;  and  if  we  are  asked  to  repent  of  any 
shameful  sins  we  have  committed,  it  will  tell  us  we  might  as  well 
be  repentant  about  the  structure  of  the  solar  system.  These  med- 
itations, these  communings  with  scientific  truth,  will  be  the  exact 
inverse  of  the  religious  meditations  of  the  Christian.  Every  man, 
no  doubt,  has  two  voices — the  voice  of  self-indulgence  or  indiffer- 
ence, and  the  voice  of  effort  and  duty ;  but  whereas  the  religion 
of  the  Christian  enabled  him  to  silence  the  one,  the  religion  of  the 
agnostic  will  forever  silence  the  other.  I  say  forever,  but  I 
probably  ought  to  correct  myself.  Could  the  voice  bo  silenced 
forever,  then  there  might  be  peace  in  the  sense  in  which  Roman 
conquerors  gave  the  name  of  peace  to  solitude.  But  it  is  more 
likely  that  the  voice  will  still  continue,  together  with  the  longing 
expressed  by  it,  only  to  feel  the  pains  of  being  again  and  again 
silenced,  or  sent  back  to  the  soul  saying  bitterly,  I  am  a  lie. 

Such,  then,  is  really  the  result  of  agnosticism  on  life,  and  the 
result  is  so  obvious  to  any  one  who  knows  how  to  reason,  that  it 
could  bo  hidden  from  nobody,  except  by  one  thing,  and  that  is 
the  cowardice  characteristic  of  all  our  contemporary  agnostics. 
They  dare  not  fac^  what  they  have  done.  They  dare  not  look  fix- 
edly at  the  boiiy  of  the  life  which  thej'  have  pierced. 

And  now  comes  the  final  question  to  which  all  that  I  have  thus 
far  urged  has  been  leading.  What  does  theologic  religion  answer 
to  the  principles  and  to  the  doctrines  of  agnosticism  ?  In  con- 
temporary discussion  the  answer  is  constantly  obscured,  but  it  ia 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  it  should  bo  given  cle-arly.  It  says 
this:  If  we  start  from  and  are  faithful  to  the  agnostic's  fimda- 
mental  principles,  that  nothing  is  to  be  reganled  as  certain  whieb 
is  not  either  demonstrated  or  demonstrable,  then  the  denial  of  God 
is  the  only  possible  creed  for  us.  To  the  methods  of  science  noth- 
ing in  this  universe  gives  any  hint  of  either  a  God  or  a  purpose. 
Duty;  and  holiness,  asy)iration  and  love  of  truth,  are  "merely 
shadows  of  our  own  mind's  throwing  "  but  shadows  which,  instead 
of  making  the  reality  brighter,  only  serve  to  make  it  more  ghastly 
and  hideous.  Humanity  is  a  bubble ;  the  human  being  is  a  pup- 
pet, cursed  with  the  intermittent  illusion  that  he  is  something 
more,  nnd  ronse<l  from  this  illusion  with  a  pang  every  time  it  flat- 
ters him*  Now,  from  this  condition  of  things  is  there  no  escape  ? 
Tlieologic  religion  answers.  There  is  one,  and  one  only,  and  this  is 
tliD  nipodiation  of  the  principle  on  which  all  agnosticism  rests. 


I 
I 

I 


I 


I 


I 
I 


I 


150  THE  POPULAn  SfJIEN'CS  MOI^THLT. 

Let  us  see  what  this  repudiation  amounts  to,  and  we  sliall  then 
realize  what,  in  the  present  day,  is  the  intellectual  basis  which 
thcv^logic  religion  claims.  Theologic  religion  does  not  say  that 
within  limits  the  agnostic  principle  ia  not  perfectly  valid  and  has 
not  led  to  the  discovery  of  a  vast  body  of  truth.  But  what  it  does 
say  is  this :  That  the  truths  which  are  thus  discovered  are  not  the 
only  truths  which  are  certainly  and  surely  discoverable  The  I 
fundamental  principle  of  agnosticism  is  that  nothing  is  certainly  ™ 
true  but  such  ti'uths  as  are  demonstrated  or  demonstrable.  The 
fundamental  principle  of  theologic  religion  is  that  there  are  other 
truths  of  which  wo  can  be  equally  or  even  more  certain,  and  that 
these  are  the  only  truths  that  give  life  a  meaning  and  redeem  us 
from  the  body  of  death.  Agnosticism  says  nothing  is  certain 
which  can  not  be  proved  by  science.  Theologic  religion  says, 
nothing  which  is  important  can  be.  Agnosticism  draws  a  line 
round  its  own  province  of  knowledge,  and  beyond  that  it  declares 
is  the  unknown  void  which  thought  can  not  enter,  and  in  which 
belief  can  not  support  itself.  Where  Agnosticism  pauses,  there 
religion  begins.  On  what  seems  to  science  to  be  unsustaining 
air,  it  lays  its  foundations — it  builds  up  its  fabric  of  certainties. 
Science  regards  them  as  dreams,  as  an  " imsnbstantial  pageant"; 
and  yet  even  to  science  religion  can  give  some  account  of  them. 
Prof.  Huxley  says,  as  we  have  seen,  that  "from  the  nature  of 
ratiocination,"  it  is  obvious  that  it  must  start  "  from  axioms  which 
can  not  be  demonstrated  by  ratiocination " ;  and  that  in  science 
it  must  start  with  "one  great  act  of  faith" — faith  in  the  uni- 
formity of  nature.  Religion  replies  to  science :  "  And  I,  too,  start 
■with  a  faith  in  one  thing,  I  start  with  a  faith  which  you,  too, 
profess  to  hold — faith  in  the  meaning  of  duty  and  the  infinite  im- 
portance of  life ;  and  out  of  that  faith  my  whole  fabric  of  certain- 
ties, one  after  the  other,  is  reared  by  the  hands  of  reason.  Do 
you  ask  for  proof  ?  Do  you  ask  for  verification  ?  I  can  give  you 
one  only,  whi(rh  you  may  take  or  leave,  as  you  choose.  Deny  the 
certainties  which  I  declare  to  be  certain — deny  the  existence  of 
God,  deny  man's  freedom  and  immortality,  and  by  no  other  con- 
ceivable hypothesis  can  you  vindicate  for  man's  life  any  possible 
meaning,  or  save  it  from  the  degradation  at  which  you  profess  to 
feel  so  aghast."  "  Is  there  no  other  way/'  I  can  conceive  science 
asking,  "  no  other  way  by  which  the  dignity  of  life  may  be  vindi- 
cated except  this— -the  abandonment  of  my  one  fundamental  prin- 
ciple ?  Must  I  put  m'  "  ~  itn^^l^^^liatiim,  to  the  cup 
of  faith  I  Lavt?  so  qont^^  <2^^^^^^Bmi  me  ?  May  not 
this  cup  '^^^B  no  other  ?^  And 
to  tbiaiM^Hoi       ^^^^^                                    *^'    voice  of  reason 

•ad 

.  will  see  before 


THE  A. 

thorn,  in  all  iU  cmdeness  and  nakedness,  cleared  from  the  rags 
flrith  which  the  cowardice  of  coutemporary  agnosticism  has  ob- 
scured it ;  and  they  will  then  have  to  choose  one  alternative  or  the 
other.  What  their  choice  will  be  I  do  not  venture  to  prophesy; 
but  I  will  venture  to  cull  them  liappy  if  their  choice  prove  to  be 
this ;  To  admit  frankly  that  their  present  canon  of  certainty,  true 
so  far  as  it  goes,  is  only  the  pettiest  part  of  truth,  and  that  the 
deepest  certainties  are  those  which,  if  tried  by  this  canon,  are  illu- 
sions. To  make  this  choice  a  struggle  would  be  required  with 
pride,  and  with  what  has  long  passed  for  enlightenment ;  and  yet, 
when  it  is  realized  what  depends  on  the  struggle,  there  are  some 
at  least  who  will  think  that  it  must  end  successfully.  The  only 
way  by  which,  in  the  face  of  science,  we  can  ever  logically  arrive 
at  a  faith  in  life,  is  by  the  commission  of  what  many  at  present 
will  describe  as  an  intellectual  suicide.  I  do  not  for  a  moment 
admit  that  such  an  expression  is  justifiable,  but,  if  I  may  use  it 
provisionally,  and  because  it  points  to  the  temper  at  present  preva- 
lent, I  shall  be  simply  pronouncing  the  judgment  of  frigid  reason 
in  saying  that  it  is  only  through  the  grave  and  gate  of  death  that 
the  spirit  of  man  can  pass  to  its  resurrection. — Fortnightly  Ee- 
view. 


I 


THE  ANIMAL  WORLD  OF  WELL-WATERS. 

Br  J>%.  OTTO  ZACHABUS. 

/*  TTTHAT!  can  it  be  that,  in  the  well  from  which  we  obtaii 
V  V  our  drinking-water,  there  are  animala  ?  "  This  question 
will  undoubtedly  suggest  itself  to  one  or  more  of  my  readers 
on  seeing  the  heading  I  have  cfiven  to  these  lines.  Some  of  them 
perhaps  may,  in  view  of  the  existence  of  a  "  well-fauna,"  take  a 
solemn  pledge  of  total  abstinence  so  far  as  the  drinking  of  water 
is  concerned,  and  hereafter  quench  their  thirst  in  something  else. 
Others  may  perhaps,  seemingly  in  jest,  and  yet  withal  in  truth, 
seriously  enough  ascribe  a  catarrh  of  the  stomach,  contracted  by 
drinking  water  that  was  too  cold,  not  to  their  own  carelessness, 
but  to  some  little  animal  which  they  fancy  they  have  swallowed- 
Others  still  will  play  the  part  of  skeptics,  and  perchance,  hold- 
ing a  glass  of  water  from  their  well  up  to  the  light,  peer  critically 
into  it  and  exclaim :  "  The  story  is  merely  another  fable  of  the 
scientists;  we  shall  not  believe  in  the  existence  of  these  creatures 
until  we  see  them." 

Nor  can  any  one  be  blamed  for  taking  this  view  of  the  matter. 
[owever,  right  here,  the  fact  should  be  mentioned  that  it  is  not 
16  cloAr  upper  portion  of  the  well-water  that  contains  the  ani- 
mal organisms,  but  tliat  they  occur  in  the  lower  strata,  close  to 


I 


•  wiiiijfwiiiicf  yitfy. 
It  k  but  of  iaift  OmI  O* 
(7  of  2c4klgMi^r  bM  beendnn  li 
)ir«  wMHb  «fldM  is  tte  defiAi  €r  vdk 
^)do>vakjr«  ia  Pn^a^  for  a 

._ ^..  nalaofthftMcnalvarU. 

Oit  >icrlrii^-  <y»  of  Bcfapce  had 
«r  lb*  ooMUH  Md  iakttd  mm; 

'^1  ti/C#;rv<^!fi£/  }4lMMi  of  MlifHlri  Ssd  pllfl4  fife  Ifi  ^i^ 

lii  <m  iht  tnow-fielda  of  the  Alps.    Bi 
Li.u«  :;ir  1^,^  toft  ■naiitrhwii  and  bon&mfltS 
i4«  ft«ii4  for  Um  osplorer,  for  the  makinff  of 

^  pocFulUr  cifawpaf  nfo  Ibd  to  a  jjatemaac 

In  iciareb  for  ilia  organiatna  tbrf  miglit 
\i»  at  Praffutf  li«ii  jfroiru  to  be  rery  high,  aad  tftits  crta 
r  -  *    '  tfii4  pubtlc  tha  id«A  tbat  ilia  oooditkn  of  the 
wui  ni  fttult*     In  1679  a  oommittoa 
hi''lj  wriN  l/j  r/iAko  a  i^rttcti^^Al  inveatigation  into  thia  taaHar* 
in  Tf^iw-mi  of  iUin  C'jmtniiUM,  Prof.  VejdovBky  has,  in  a  period 
I'llriK  *tv»r  two  yMirH,   examined   with  the  microaoope  the 
^nffirof  liundrod  wella  of  il\-  Pmsna^ia 

Sordortoi :  .  ..    ..    ...  organumainuipecteci    .  L.-..:.ngthewin. 

Of  Qourm,  H  in  only  powiible  to  Acquire  knowledge  of  this  kind 
1  '         T  fj^m  \}iQ  ^^  which  k 

t  .an  apparatos  eapociaUy 

o«jniitntott»il  fr»r  iho  fiurpoMtj  into  tho  well-ahaft    The  scoop  con- 

[i«|j«  iif  A  iiUrnip  nimln  (»f  inin,  u  ftmi  and  a  half  long  and  half  a 

fiiifi  tirt'iMl,  lii  wliii'h  A  l»ag  uf  cr>HrBe  CAoraa  is  attachc*d.    Thta 

Dntrivancit  U  faiiUtnud  tou  ropo  from  twenty  to  thirty  m^treain 

niicih,  ami.  in  r  i  '        '    1   >    ^  .ultl  sink  dv  ;    -•  •     •*  ^,  a 

iintiMU'lmlt,  wiM^  :  txi  ten  ptnii  j  it 

at  till)  ]ir<t|Hir  pllkc(^ 

A(vorilin«  to  tho  kind  of  v  ^V  ♦^■"  <anva8  Img  ifl  either  flraggcd 
ovivr  thti  lioltoin.iio  that  It  <  '^r  up  the  tnud^  ur  the  rop«* 

la  jiirkvJ  up  and  down ;  tJiO  wul^r  U  thus  stirrtNi  up  and  rtindcivl 


\NnfAL   WORLD   OF  WELL-WATERS. 


«5J 


turbid,  so  that  iu  this  manner  ilie  mud  will  be  caught  in  the  bag 
clniwing  it  up  to  the  surface. 

In  order  to  make  the  investigation  a  thorough  one,  a  small  por- 
tion of  this  muddy  matter,  which  generally  consists  of  decaying 
organic  Bubstances^  is  placed  at  once  under  the  microscope,  and 
:he  OTganifims  contained  in  it  are  determined.  Besides  doing  this. 
It  ia  desirable  to  put  a  large  quantity  of  the  mud,  say  about  one 
^hundred  grammes,  into  a  glass  jar,  which  can  be  closed,  and  to 
add  Bomo  water  from  the  well  from  wliich  the  mud  was  taken. 
Then  this  should  h%  quietly  set  aside  for  two  or  three  weeks,  in 
•omo  liglit  spot,  where  the  warm  sunbeams  can  penetrate,  so  that 
ftny  eggs  or  germs  present  in  the  water  may  bo  destroyed.  In 
thto  way  a  great  deal  may  yet  be  ascertained  that  could  not  have 
botn  learned  at  the  examination  conducted  immediately  after 
[obtaining  the  sample. 

t^But  what  does  the  mud  from  such  a  well  contain  ?"  will  bo 

by  the  reader  with  whom  the  question  what  it  is  that  he 

[inuBt  guard  against  is  of  prime  importance.     This  question  is 

icjns  to  be  annwered.    First  of  all,  let  a  glance  be  cast  at  the 

iwoodcuts  subjoined.    Excepting  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8,  the  organisms 

represented  are  visible  only  under  the  microscope,  or  at  least 

recfaire,  in  order  to  be  distinguishable,  the  aid  of  a  powerful  mag- 

ifying  lens.    Nearly  eveiy  particle  of  well-mud 

lins  the  am<.elȣe  pictured  in  Fig.  1.     Tliey 

ible  drojjs  of  flowing  liquid,  and  constantly 

change  their  form  by  sending  out  ray-like  exten- 

sioiUL     These  extensions  of  the  body  are  called 

pseudapodia,  because  their  ap]>ennuice  creates  the 

[irapreAsion  that  the  little  animal  is  possessed  of 

But  this  is  not  the  case ;  the  pseudopodia  (ps) 

formed  only  in  the  moment  when  a  change  in 

location  is  desired,  and  they  cease  to  exist  when 

the   place   ia   reached  which    the   little   animal 

Maght  to  attain.     It  can  easily  be  proved  that 

thoM  ftmopbm  are  animals,  for  they  take  up  solid  particles  of 

food,  digest  ibe  same,  and  cast  out  again  whatever  has  not  been 

ftSBimilated.   There  is  no  vegetable  organism  which  takes  up  solid 

particles  into  ita  interior  for  sustenance.    Tlio  j)ro]iagation  of  the 

,amcpba  takes  place  in  the  simplest  manner  imaginable,  by  fission : 

large  specimen  contracts  at  the  center  and  ultimately  divides 

into  two  j>arts,  »>  that  the  mother-animal  is  actually  rent  into 

talves.    In  the  body-substance  of  these  beings,  which  are  on  the 

lowest  piano  of  organic  life,  the  microscope  discloses  a  number 

kf  small  |iartick*8«  and  a  larger  kernel  (k),  which  is  called  the 

tnoloits.    Boidt^  this  there  are  yet  one  or  more  clear  spaces  called 

vocuoIm"  (t*).    When  fission  takes  place,  the  nucleus  is  also 


p» 


1^ 


— V- 


^v 


Fxo.  1. 


*54 


divided,  and  eacli  of  the  newly  formed  organisms  receives  it« 

share.    These  little  beings  are  particulatly  en^''    '  •      •:-  -**  n- 
tioD,  because  each  higher  orgaoism  is  also  <  -«i 

from  a  naked  egg-oell,  and  devoid  of  any  membrane  or  cnticloL* 
Moreover,  such  a  cell  shows  essentially  the  same  simple  structure, 
id  moves  about  in  the  same  manner  as  the  amoeba — that  is,  by 
the  aid  of  pseudopodia. 

Hence  the  amaebtc  are  one  of  the  lowest  forms  of  orgsnisnia 
kno>vii ;  they  have  remained  on  the  lowest  plane  of  developomit, 
and,  if  one  accepts,  with  T  '        -1  Durwin.  tl  '   'ion  of 

the  animal  world  from  a  >^     ^  _  ;  ining,  these  i  -  must 

bo  regarded  as  the  original  progenitors  of  all  forms  of  animal 
life.  Of  course,  every  one  is  at  liberty  to  doubt  such  progressive 
evolution  of  organized  beings  ;  bat  tliis 
much  is  certain,  the  indivirlual  develop- 
ment of  each  proceeds  from  a  primary 
state,  which  is  not  greatly  different  from 
the  structure  of  these  amtebas. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  shell-bearing  amGebtt 
{Euglypha),  which  is  also  to  be  found  in 
great  numbers  iu  the  mud  of  wells*  In 
this  organism  the  naked  sarcode,  which 
consists  of  a  substance  similar  to  albumen,  is  covered  and  pro- 
tected by  a  membranous  envelope,  or  "r..  ,"  from  which, 
through  an  opening,  the  pseudojwdia  (pa)  .  .  The  little  or- 
ganism pictured  in  Fig.  3  stands  in  close  relationship  to  the  pre- 
ceding (Centropyxis  aculeata.)  Its  shell,  made  up  of  diatoms  and 
fragments  of  small  jiarticlcs  of  stone,  shows  thorn-like  protuber- 
ances. 


I 


Flo.  S. 


Fra.  4. 


Fig.  4  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  appearance  of  the  fiagel^ 
late  infusoria.   Those  are  animals  that  1.  '  '      *    '     '     vrhich 

can  be  contracted,  and  at  one  end  of  wl  i  .  t  (gf) 

which  is  constantly  in  motion,  and  with  which  certain  movements 
are  executed.    This  Alament  is  in  reality  nothing  else  than  a  long 

*  Aui>ioriU*^  (Uffrr  on  llio  qucattuo  m»  to  whcUicr  thv  udivImv  trv  cevtrsd  wiik  a  BMi- 
lifkM  or  bat — TftA3ML«TMtt. 


*55 


Ikst 


Flo.  fl. 


Fio.  6. 


idopodiam,  whicli  Ima  grown  to  be  permanent,  and  which 
a  certain  function  to  exercise,  namely,  to  make  motions  of 
rowing  and  feeling. 

Starting  with  the 
anK^ba,  tiie  flagellate 
infusoria  represent  the 
next  higher  phase  of 
^rpbological  diffi:!r- 
ition  —  that  i8  to 
"My,  thoy  represent  iLo 
division  of  the  homo- 
jgeneonfl  substance  of 
aracthii  "  finct 

^5i,tow[  -rrent 

Sanctions  are  assigned. 
In  social  science  one 
would  alhiile  to  this  aa 
the  commencement  of  a 
division  of  labor. 

Fig.  6  represents  an  individual  belonging  to  the  genus  Cothur- 
nia,  which  is  very  fretiuently  found  in  the  depths  of  town  and 
country  wells.  It  possesses  the  power  to  withdi'aw  with  light- 
ning speed  into  the  trans- 
parent envelope  which  sur- 
rounds it  whenever  the  cilia 
which  are  attached  to  its 
front  come  in  contact  with 
anything  hard.  K  denotes 
the  nucleus  which  no  infu- 
soria lack,  and  v  represents 
the  vacuole,  which,  however, 
at  times  may  disappear. 

Fig.  6  pictures  a  small 
creature,  the  Stenosfonia  leii- 
copSj  which  attains  a  length 
of  alxiut  one  millimetre,  and 
which  appears  to  the  naked 
eye  like  a  minute  white 
thread.  This  kind  of  worm 
is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and 
has  received  its  name  from 
the  rotary  motion  which  the 
cilia  that  are  on  the  surface  of 
ibo"^^  '"  -  r^  '  +^  -/  r  when  the  animal  moves  or  swims :  g  g, 
is  iht  -  -;;inglion),  which  is  very  considerable  in 

proportion  \o  the  size  of  tbo  worm.    The  mouth  is  not  shown  iu 


»5« 


i 


Pta.  a. 


the  picture,  but  p  His  the  throat,  and  this  is  followed  by  the  a 
like  "  stomach -intestine,"  rf.    These  worms  propagate  liV    ~       hj 
ftinipk'  fission,  after  a  new  brain-ganglion  has  boon  form*  ..•  ty 

by  the  thickening  of  the  two  sides.  A  new  mouth  is  formed  by  • 
drawing  in  of  the  outer  skin.  On  either  side  of  the  heatl  tbore 
is  a  little  indentation  in  which  longer  hairs  are  growing.  Thc«e 
are  probably  organs  of  seuso;  however,  their  functiou  has  not 
yet  been  determined- 
Figs.  7  and  8  show  a  pair  of  crab-like  animals^  which  are 
Eunong  the  regular  inhabitants  of  wells.  Fig.  7  is  a  cvpIojjs  ;  Fig. 
8  represents  a  crustacean,  the  Cypris.  The  latter  is  rather  a 
peculiar  object,  as  the  animal  is  inclosed  in  a  shell-like  structare, 
called  a  carapace,  from  which  only  a  pair  of  caudal  appendages 

protrude,  which  are  provid- 
ed with  bristles  and  serve 
for  the  pnr})Ose  of  locomo- 
tion ;  oc  is  the  eye, 

A  considerable  number 
of  species  of  cydops  are 
to  be  found  in  the  mud 
of  wells.  Fig.  7  showB  the 
Cydopa  nanus.  This  lit- 
tle animal  travels  rapidly 
through  the  water  by  means  of  its  swimming  :ii  --,  to  which 

the  i)Owerful  muscles  (w)  lend  considerabk  . .  ..  _t!ice.  The 
female  carries  two  ovisacs  (ei)  with  numerous  eggs  ;  oc,  at  tlio 
front  pnrt  of  the  body,  is  the  eye,  which  is  of  a  reddish  or  brown 
color  and  possesses  a  fine  lens. 

In  this  article  we  havo  enumerated  and  pictured  only  the  prin- 
cipal representatives  of  this  fauna  of  the  wells,  so  that  a  general 
idea  might  be  gaineil  of  the  appearance  of  the  animals  which  live 
in  the  turbid  water  of  wcIIh.  However,  to  show  how  rich  in 
numbers  this  little  animal  world  is,  the  fact  should  be  mentioned 
that  Prof.  Vejdovsky,  after  his  careful  examination  of  tlie  water  of 
two  hundred  and  thirty-one  wells  of  Prague,  was  able  to  announce 
the  existence  of— (1)  twenty  varieties  of  amccba-like  organisms; 
(2)  twelve  varieties  of  flagellate  infusoria;  (3)  forty-five  variedca 
of   other  infusoria;  (4)  twenty-four  >  of  worms;  (5)  ton 

varieties  of  cm stacoa— making  altogt  i  tal  of  one  hnndn?d 

and  eleven  species  of  organisms.  Most  of  these  varic*tiiA  wens 
found  in  wells  which  had   bw?n  polluti'td  by  ''      *    *"  t'f 

urino  and  decjiying  organic  mattor.     Tlio  organ  .ni 

by  the  surf<u?e  water  into  these  lower  regions  had  found  atmn- 
dant  food  there,  and  were  thus  enabled  t^         -^   -      -'  '\=\. 

once.     With  regard  to  the  qucsti^ju  ah  to  m  in 

wells  that  show  an  abundance  of  these  forms  of  life  is  daDgc*rouB 


I 


«57 

^J^HJlth  or  not,  it  may  bo  mild  that  the  danger  of  partaking  of 
irater  is  due^  not  so  much  to  the  presence  of  the  minute  in- 
^JtooriA,  worms,  and  crustacen,  as  to  the  occurrence  of  putrefying 
ic  matter  which  has  found  its  way  into  these  wells  and 
ttllMre  ^eatly  favora  the  development  of  fimgi  The  intelligent 
ft  will  not,  therefore,  allow  the  ejtistence  of  a  well-fauna  to 
■fere  with  his  enjoyment  in  quaffing  a  cooling  draught  fresl 
the  pump;  for,  ae  already  remarked,  the  organisms  siKtken' 
of  Mva  only  In  the  lower  depths,  and  as  a  rule  never  reach  the 
upi'  ';i  of  the  water. 

i-  .  [lowcver,  by  any  accident  this  normal  state  of  affairs 

be  cluuige<l,  the  turbid  appearance  of  the  water  woiild  indicate  it, 
and  bear  at  once  warning  to  rather  choose  water  from  some  othorj 
fm>uroe  until  tlie  well  shall  have  resumed  its  normal  condition, 
or  shall  have  been  subjected  to  a  thorough  cleaning. — Translated 
from  Ueber  Land  und  Meer  for  the  Popular  Science  Monthly, 


THE  CHINOOK  LANGUAGE  OR  JARGON. 

Bt  £DWABD  nOLLAND  NICOIX. 

WAS  about  to  take  a  trip  up  the  S ,  one  of  the  rivers  which 

flow  into  Puget  Sound.  It  was  early  in  March,  yet  the  grass 
•was  groen,  the  trees  were  putting  out  fresh  leaves,  and  the  dog- 
wood, aalmon-berry,  and  wild  rose  were  in  blossom.  The  river 
irea  fiwollen  by  the  melting  masses  of  snow  on  the  Cascade  MoimU 

IaiiM  (a  pn)longation  of  tlie  Sierra  Nevadas),  and  its  waters  were 
rushing  rapidly  toward  the  sound.  I  was  considering  whether  it 
would  be  practicable  to  make  headway  against  the  current,  when 
I  saw  Jac-.k,an  Indian,  who  ha<l  been  with  me  on  one  or  two  river- 
jcmmeys,  lying  lazily  in  his  canoe,  enjoying  the  mild  March  sun. 
I  went  up  to  him,  and  our  conversation  ran  thus : 
"  Klahowya,"  I  said.  "  Hyas  klosho,"  replied  Jack.  "  Nika 
tik'  '  iwa  kopa  chuck ;  konsi  chickaraon  potlatch  ?*'    "  Kwi- 

^^  nui^  _.-..„r.''  "Hyas  skookum  chuck  papet  canim?"  "Wake 
^H  hyiu«"  This  is  Chinook,  and  put  into  English  would  read :  **  How 
V  •  '    "'"   "  Very  well."    "  I  want  to  go  np  the  river."    "  How 

^K  you  give  ?  "    "  Five  dollars,"    "  Will  the  current  make 

^m  It  hard  work  ?  "    "  Not  very." 

^^  Chinook,  a  language  or  jargon,  the  existence  of  which  few 
I  people*  living  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  know  of,  is  the  sole 
j        medium  of  commutucation  between  the  whites  and  Indians  upon 

*the  northwest  coast  of  America,  from  the  Columbia  River  to 
AUftka.  inclttiling  tlie  tribes  scattered  over  Washington  Territory 
aaii  Oregon.    Chinook  is  a  conventional  language,  and,  in  this 

Tdi_  Hit. — 17 


V 


THE  POPCLAR   SCIENCE  MUMMLF. 


respect,  is  like  the  lifigua  franca  of  the  MoJitcrrauiuLn  ooasi,  and 
the  "  pidgin  "  English  of  the  EhaI  Indies  and  China. 

A  century  ago,  in  the  year  1787,  two  vessels,  the  Columbia, 
commanded  by  John  Kendrick,  and  the  Washington,  by  Robert 
Gray,  left  Boston  on  a  voyage  to  tlie  northwest  coast  of  America*, 
to  open  up  a  fur  trade,  and,  if  possible,  to  trade  vrith  China.  At 
the  rendezvous  in  Nootka  Sound,  to  tlie  west  '  "  "^' 
Island,  which  latter  is  a  part  of  what  is  U"v  « 

the  people  on  the  vessels  acquired  a  number  of  words  used  by 
natives.    The  expedition  going  afterward  ui>  the  C<:»lurabia  Rir< 
to  Oregon,  they  carried  these  Indian  words  with  them  there, 
which,  added  to  some  common  and  easily  pronounced  Englisl 
words,  formed  the  beginning  and  basis  of  Chinook.    Ita  vocAbu- 
lary,  however,  was  scant  until  the  coming  of  the  Astor  expedition, 
and  the  settlement  of  Astoria.    It  was  then  enlarged  by  num«ruutf^ 
English  words,  together  with  many  of  French  origin,  or  of  th« 
Canadian  patois.   The  dialects  of  the  Chinook  and  Chehalis  tribwi, 
which  ranged  about  southeastern  Oregon,  furnished  many  wonls 
for  its  development.    The  Hudson  Buy  and  Northwest  Com |)anics, 
and  the  early  settlers  in  Oregon,  further  added  to  it ;  it  CAme  into 
xise  between  Indians  of  different  tril>on,  and  even  l>etween  Amuri 
cans  and  Canadians;  it  spread  to  Puget  Sound, and  found  ita  way,, 
with  trade,  up  tlje  Pacific  coast  and  rivers,  as  explorers  and  settlers 
advanced,  gradually  spreading  until  its  use  reached  its  prasont 
extent. 

Chinook  is  not  a  written  language,  and  the  spelling  given  henai 
is  purely  phonetic.  Ot  the  five  or  six  hundred  words  in  common 
use,  about  one  third  are  of  English  and  French  derivation  ;  a  few 
can  not  be  traced  to  any  source,  and  the  rest  ore  takon  from  the 
Chehalis  and  Chinook  dialects. 

No  words  beginning  with  the  letter  r  are  used ;  the  sound  of 
that  letter  is  modified  into  that  of  I  or  p,  the  pronunciation  of 
which  is  the  easier.  This  matter  of  pronunciation,  and  not  thd 
impression  made  upon  the  ear,  seems  in  all  tongues  to  be  the  trae 

'  ioh 


fi>un(lati(>n  of  euphony.    There  aro  no  words  in  Chi' 

begin  with  the  letters  /,  j,  q,  tt,  v,  z,  or  s  ;  but  two  bi  a. 

"  got  up/'  and  "  glease  "  (grease). 

Turning  to  the  words  derived  i* 
meaning  dime,  the  bit  beiug  the  K' 

it  for  a  ten-cent  piece,  and  "  tea,"  "  sun,"  **  short/'  "  papa/' "  ole- 
tnan,** "  musket,"  "  smoke,"  "  man/'  "soap,"  "  paint/*  **  spoon,"  otc*, 
all  of  which  need  no  translation.  Rice  becomes  "lice";  fish, 
"pish";  fire,  "piah";  rum,  "lam";  rope,  "lopo";  cry.^cly"; 
dry, "  dly."    Ac^t  is  "pr-^  --  ." 

The  first  white  men  '.  uu  the  Indians  in  Oregon  aaso 

ciated  intimately  being  tho^e  ol*  the  expedition  under  Gray  and 


1 


Tffs  armrooE  language  on  jargon. 


259 


i 


Kendrick,  from  Boston,  Americans  have  always  been  termed  in 
Chinook  "Bosi  ;^  while  "Boston  Illahee"  {"illahee,"  the 

CH^'QIm], or  eart    ;  la  fur  the  "United  States."    An  English- 

man is  *'  King  George." 

With  f • '  ^t ions,  the  words  of  French  origin  hegin  with 

the  letter  I,  t  he  article  *' le  "  or  "  la  " ;  there  is  no  article  in 

Chinook  Hxcppt  aa  found  joine<i  or  prefixed  with  these  French 
words.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most  common :  "  La  pome/' 
apple;  "la  chaise  "chair;  "  la  chandelle,"  candle;  "la  table";  "la 
bkl"  bullet,  ball;  "la  messe/'mass;  "la  pote/'door;  "la  pois," 
pens ;  "  diaub  "  (diable),  devnl ;  "  marsi "  (merci),  thanks. 

It  is  impossible,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  two  dialects, 
Chinook  and  Cliehalis,  to  say  what  native  words  in  the  Chinook 
jargon  belong  to  each  ;  the  Chinook,  however,  predominates. 

Many  words  have  two  or  more  equivalents ;  as,  for  example^ 
*'  cbickamen/*  which  means  iron,  any  metal,  metallic  money ;  with 
"dollar,"  it  is  silver;  "chuck"  stands  for  water,  river,  stream; 
♦•flalt  chuck"  is  the  sea;  "skookum  chuck,"  a  rapid;  "soUeks 
chttck,"  a  rough  sea,  "Tum-tum"  is  the  heart,  will,  opinion, 
"  Mamook  tutn-tum"  means  to  make  up  one's  mind;  "mamook 
kloshe  tum-tum,"  to  make  friends  or  peace.  "  Polaklie  "  is  night, 
dark,  darkneiis.  "  Till "  means  tired,  heavy,  a  weight.  "  Wau- 
wau  "  ifl  to  talk,  speak. call,  ask,  tell,  answer,  conversation ;  "  cultus 
van- wan  "  is  idle  talk,  nonsense. 

Onomatopoeia  is  frequent  in  Chinook.  "Hee-hee,"  means 
laughter :  "  Kah-kah,"  a  crow  ;  "  moos  moos,**  a  cow ;  "  kal-ak-a- 
la-ma,"  a  goose;  "shwahkuk,"  a  frog  ;  all  of  these  are  imitations 
of  natural  sounds.  These  words  are  native,  and  their  origin  is 
doe  to  the  disposition  to  give  an  imitative  complexion  to  those 
^ndfl  whi' '  Ty  matters  recognized  by  the  ear,  thus  bringing 

^POnt  a  silt  Uetween  the  sign  and  the  thing  it  stands  for. 

But  we  have  to  do  here  with  Chinook,  not  the  "  bow-wow  theory  " 
of  the  origin  of  language. 

But  few  cif  the  verbs  are  English,  though  many  are  formed  by 
prefixing  "  mamook  '*  to  make,  or  do  (native),  to  an  English  word ; 
AB  "  mamook  pent,"  to  paint ;  "mamook  warm,"  to  heat ;  "  mamook 
bloom"  (broom),  to  sweep;  "mamook  wash,"  to  wash.  It  is  a 
carious  fact  that  neither  the  verb  "to  be,"  nor  any  of  its  moods 
or  tamves,  are  foxuid  in  Chinook.  All  verbs  are  understood  wher- 
eror  naoectary  In  a  sentence.  There  are  a  number  of  words  which 
are  U8<»d  indifferently  as  nouns  and  verbs,  though  there  are  but 
few  which  are  u^ed  solely  as  verbs. 

One  form  of  pronoun  answers  for  the  personal  and  possessive. 
"  Xika**  ia  I  and  mine ;  "  mika/'  tin  >u  and  thine ;  "  yalika,"  he,  his ; 
**  nesika  "  is  w«,  xis,  ours ;  "  mesLka,"  you,  yours ;  "  klaska,"  they, 
theira. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


The  numerals,  probably,  are  taken  from  the  uative  tongues,  ancl 
some  of  them  are  a«  follows :  1,  "  ikt "  ;  2,  "  mokst " ;  3,  **  klone  "  j 
4,  "lakit";  5,  '^kwinum";  6,  ^'taghum";  7,  "sinnamoket";  $, 
"stotekin";  9,  "kwaist";  10,  "  tahtlelum  "  ;  11,  "  tahtleluia  po 
ikt";  20, "  mokst  Uihtlelum";  100, "  ikt  tukamonuk," 

The  missionaries  who  labor  among  the  natives  of  the  north- 
west coast,  from  necessity  learn  Chinook,  I  once  •^^'  "  *  a 
church  service  in  Wiishington  Territory,  where,  tlie  €<•  ,  ,,  ion 
being  made  up  of  Indians,  the  praying  and  preaching  were  both 
in  Chinook,    The  Lord's  prayer  is  rendered  thus : 

"  Nesika  papa     klaksta  mitllte    kopa  saghalie,  kloshe  kopa 

^*Our  father     who  stajeth      in  the  above,    good        iu 

nesika  tnm-tum  mika  nem  ;  kloshe  mika  tyee  kopa  konaway 
oar  heart  (be)   th^         oame;    good         thou      chief   among  all 

tillikum  ;  kloshe  mika  tum-tum  kopa  illahee,  kahkwa  kopa 
people ;  good         thy        will  upou      earth,        aa  In 

saghalie.  Potlatch  konaway  aun  nesika  muckamuck,  Spoeo 
the  aboTO.      Gire  everj  daj     oar         food.  If 

nesika  mamook  mesachie,  wake  mika  hyas  solleks;  pe  8]X)ee 
we  do  ill,  (l>«)  not  thoa      very      aD^rT7 ;        and  If 

klaksta  mesachie  kopa  nesika^  wake  nesika  solleks  kopa 
any  one  (do)  evil  tovArd  m^  (be)  not     wo  uigry      lovard 

klaska.     Mahsh     siah  kopa  nesika  konaway  mesachie." 
them.  Send  away  far      from    na  all  erii^' 

Any  one  can  acquire  Chinook  whose  memory  is  retentive 
enough  to  enable  him  to  learn  a  certain  number  of  worda;  and 
then,  with  practice,  he  will  speak  it  fluently.  It  is  not  uncommoa 
to  hear  young  children  in  Washington  Territory  and  Oregon  talk 
in  Chinook  as  easily  as  in  English, 

Many  Chinook  words  have  taken  root  in,  and  form  part  of, 
the  Pacific  coast  vernacular.  Some  of  the  most  common  of  th«6e 
are  "  tillicum,"  friend  ;  *'  tyee,"  chief,  or  boss ;  "  kiutan/'  horse ; 
"muckamuck,"  food;  "cultus,"  worthless;  and  "siwash,"  which 
is  always  used  for  Indian.  The  motto  on  the  seal  of  Washington 
Territory  is  a  word  used  in  Chinook,  but  native  in  origin,  L  e, 
"  Alki,"  meaning  by-and-by,  or  in  the  future. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  aecn  that  whil^  <'* --^ok 
does  not  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a  language,  it  is  an  impoi ;  ■  ijr 

in  every-day  life  as  it  exists  on  the  northern  Pacific  coast.  Th* 
Indians  of  tliat  region  are  peculiar.  Tliey  get  their  foo<i  easily  by 
fishiug,  hunting,  and  gathering  the  wild  roots  and  lierriea  of  tbo 
wo<^>d3,    Noma<lic  bodies  hang  about  the  townfl  and  ^|  t», 

earning  money  from  the  whites  in  various  ways.  In  a  \:  .  .,  --L*y 
procure  their  living  too  readily  to  develop  habitji  of  induHtry  and 
Jkhrift    Thoox|K'ri  "  "  •:  reevr- 

P^tioas,  and  edu.  ,  iriinlly 

saooefiEfoL    They  become  disoontefnttn),  and  long  for  tbo  freoilum 


4 


SKBTCE  OF  WILLIAM  OR  AH  AM  SU MITER. 


261 


of  Uieir  life  on  the  sea-coaat  and  rivers.  The  Indian,  too,  likes  to 
iate  with  the  white  man,  from  whom,  it  must  lie  confessed, 
]f-ftms  many  of  the  vices,  and  but  few  of  the  virtues,  of  civili- 
zation. It  is  not  probable  that  Chinook  will  fall  into  disuse  for 
nmny  years  to  come.  Though  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether 
or  not  the  native  p«ipulatiou  of  this  part  of  our  country  is  ma- 
t4Tially  decreasing  at  present,  the  race  will,  no  doubt,  in  time 
me  rvilucod  to  small  proportions,  and  the  raison  d'etre  of 
00k  will  gradually  cease. 


SKETCH  OF  WILLIAM  GRAHAM  SUMIJ^ER. 

1LLL\M  GRAHAM  SUMNER  was  bom  at  Paterson,  N.  J., 
October  30,  1840.  He  is  the  son  of  Thomas  Sumner,  who 
came  to  this  country  from  England  in  1836,  and  married  here 
Sarah  Graliam,  also  of  English  birth.  Thomas  Sumner  was  a 
ZOftchinist,  who  worked  at  his  trade  until  he  was  sixty  years  old, 
and  never  bad  any  capital  but  what  be  saved  out  of  a  mechanic's 
wagM.  Ho  was  au  entirely  self-oducated  man,  but  always  pro- 
feesed  great  obligations  to  mechanics'  institutes  and  other  associa- 
tions of  the  kind  of  whose  opportunities  he  had  made  eager  use  in 
England.  He  was  a  man  of  the  strictest  int<>grity,  a  total  ab- 
stainer, of  domestic  habits,  and  indefatigable  industry.  He  be- 
came enthusiastically  interested  in  total  abstinence  when  a  young 
man  in  England,  the  method  being  that  of  persuasion  and  mis- 
sionary effort.  He  used  to  describe  his  only  attempt  to  make  a 
speech  in  public,  which  was  on  this  subject,  when  he  completely 
fuiknL  He  luwl  a  great  thirst  for  knowle<lge,  and  was  thoroughly 
informed  on  modem  English  and  American  history  and  on  the 
oonfttitutional  lav^  of  l»oth  countries.  He  made  the  education  of 
bis  children  his  chief  thought,  and  the  only  form  of  public  affairs 
in  which  he  took  an  active  interest  was  that  of  schools.  His  con- 
tempt for  demagogical  arguments  and  for  all  the  notions  of  the 
labor  a^tatora,  as  well  as  for  the  entire  gospel  of  gush,  was  that 
of  a  simple  man  with  sturdy  common  sense,  wlio  had  never  been 
trained  to  i  1  any  kind  of  philosophical  abstractions.    His 

plan  was,  ii  did  not  go  to  suit  him,  to  examine  the  situa- 
tion, «©o  what  could  be  done,  take  a  new  start,  and  try  again.  For 
'88  the  custom  in  New  Jersey  was  store  pay. 
<e  store  \u\y,  he  moved  to  New  England,  where 
be  foutui  that  ho  could  get  cash.  He  had  decisive  influence  on  the 
ot»r              -  and  tastes  of  tie     ^  "     f  of  this  sketch, 

aamor  grew  up  a;  .  1  J,  Conn.,  and  was  educated  in 

the  public  schools  of  that  city.    The  High  School  was  then  under 


I 


I 


rE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


the  charge  of  Mr,  T.  W.  T.  Curtis,  and  the  classical  department  uu 
der  Mr.  S.  M.  Capron.  These  teachers  were  equally  remarkable, 
although  in  different  ways,  for  thoir  excellent  influence  on  the 
pupils  under  their  care.  There  was  an  honesty  and  candor  ahout 
both  of  them  which  were  very  healthful  in  example.  They  did 
very  little  "  preaching/*  but  their  demeanor  wan  in  all  respects  such 
as  to  bear  watching  with  the  scrutiny  of  school-chUdren  and  only 
gain  by  it,  Mr.  Curtis  had  great  skill  in  the  catechetical  method, 
being  able  to  lead  a  scholar  by  a  series  of  questions  over  the  track 
which  must  bo  followed  to  come  to  an  understanding  of  the  subject 
under  discussion.  Mr.  Capron  united  dignity  and  geniality  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  The  consequence  was,  that  he  had  the  most 
admirable  disciplinCj  without  the  least  feeling  of  the  irksomeness 
of  discipline  on  the  part  of  his  pupils.  On  the  contrary,  he  pos- 
sessed their  tender  and  respectful  affection.  Mr.  Capron  was  a 
man  of  remarkably  few  wonis,  and  ho  was  a  striking  example  of 
the  power  that  may  go  forth  from  a  man  by  what  he  is  and  does 
in  the  daily  life  of  a  school-room.  Both  these  gentlemen  em- 
ployed in  the  school-room  all  the  beat  methods  of  teaching  now  so 
much  gloried  in,  without  apparently  knowing  that  they  had  any 
peculiar  method  at  all.  Prof.  Sumner  has  often  declared  in  pub- 
lic that,  as  a  teacher,  he  is  deeply  indebted  to  the  sound  traditions 
which  he  derived  from  these  two  men. 

He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  18G3,  and  in  the  summer  of 
that  year  went  to  Europe.  He  spent  the  winter  of  lS63-'64  in 
Geneva,  studying  French  and  Hebrew  with  private  instructors. 
He  was  at  Guttingen  for  the  nest  two  years, studying  ancient  lan- 
g^uages,  history,  especially  church  history,  and  biblical  science.  In 
answer  to  some  questions.  Prof.  Sumner  has  replied  as  follows : 

"My  first  interest  in  political  economy  came  from  Harriet 
Martineau*s  '  Illustrations  of  Political  Economy.'  I  came  upon 
these  by  chance,  in  the  library  of  the  Young  Men's  Institute 
at  Hartford,  when  I  was  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  old.  I  read 
them  all  through  with  the  greatest  avidity,  some  of  them  three 
or  four  times.  There  was  very  little  literature  at  that  time  with 
which  these  books  could  connect.  My  teachers  could  not  help  me 
any,  and  there  were  no  immediate  relations  between  the  topics 
of  these  books  and  any  public  interests  of  the  tima  We  sup- 
posed then  that  free  trade  had  sailed  out  upon  the  smooth  sea, 
and  was  to  go  forward  without  further  difficulty,  so  that  what 
one  learned  of  the  fallacies  of  protection  had  only  the  same  inter- 
est as  what  one  learns  about  the  fallacies  of  any  old  and  aban- 
doned error.  In  college  we  read  and  recited  Wayland's  '  Political 
Economy,*  but  I  believe  that  my  conceptions  of  capital,  labor, 
money,  and  trade,  were  all  formed  by  those  books  which  I  read  in 
my  boyhood*    T  >gt  was  turned  rather  on  the  po- 


I 


SKETCH  OF  WILLIAM  Git  AH  AM  SUMNER. 


263 


litical  than  on  the  economic  element.  It  seemed  to  me  then,  how- 
ever, that  the  war,  with  the  paper  money  and  the  high  taxation, 
must  certainly  brin|i;  about  immense  social  changes  and  social 
problems,  especially  making  the  rich  richer  and  the  poor  poorer, 
and  leaving  behind  us  the  old  ante-war  period  as  one  of  primitive 
simplicity  which  could  never  n^turn.  I  used  to  put  this  notion 
into  college  compositions,  and  laid  the  foundation  in  that  way  for 
the  career  which  afterward  opened  to  me. 

*  I  enjoyed  intensely  the  two  years  which  I  spent  at  Qottingen. 
I  had  the  sense  of  gaining  all  the  time  exactly  what  I  wanted. 
The  professors  whom  I  knew  there  seemed  to  me  bent  on  seeking 
a  clear  and  comprehensive  conception  of  the  matter  under  study 
(what  we  call  'the  truth')  without  regard  to  any  conseqiiences 
whatever,  I  have  heard  men  elsewhere  talk  about  the  nobility  of 
that  spirit ;  but  the  only  hody  of  men  whom  I  have  ever  known 
who  really  lived  by  it,  sacrificing  wealth,  political  distinction, 
church  preferment,  popularity,  or  anything  else  for  the  truth  of 
science,  were  the  professors  of  biblical  science  in  Germany.  That 
was  precisely  the  range  of  subjects  which  in  this  country  was 
then  treated  with  a  reserve  in  favor  of  tradition  which  was  preju- 
dicial to  everything  which  a  scholar  should  value.  80  far  as 
those  men  infected  me  with  their  spirit,  they  have  perhaps  added 
to  my  usefulness  but  not  to  my  happiness.  Thoy  aJso  taught  me 
rigorous  and  pitiless  methods  of  investigation  and  deduction. 
Their  analysis  was  their  strong  point.  Their  negative  attitude 
toward  the  poetic  element,  thnir  indifferenco  to  sentiment,  even 
religious  sentiment,  was  a  fault,  seeing  that  they  studied  the  Bible 
as  a  religious  book  and  not  for  philology  and  history  only ;  but 
their  method  of  study  was  nobly  scientific,  and  was  worthy  to 
rank,  both  for  its  results  and  its  discipline,  with  tho  best  of  the 
natural  science  methods.  I  sometimes  wonder  whether  there  is  any 
one  else  tn  exactly  the  same  position  as  I  am,  having  studied  bib- 
Heal  science  with  the  Germans,  and  then  later  social  science,  to 
mark  the  striking  contrast  in  method  between  the  two.  The  later 
social  science  of  Germany  is  the  complete  inversion  in  its  method 
of  that  of  German  philology,  classical  criticism,  and  biblical  sci- 
ence. Its  subjection  to  political  exigencies  works  upon  it  as  dis- 
astrously as  subjection  to  dogmatic  creeds  has  worked  upon  bib- 
lical science  in  this  country. 

"  I  went  over  to  Oxford  in  the  spring  of  1866.  Having  given 
up  all  my  time  in  Germany  to  German  books,  I  wanted  to  read 
English  literature  on  the  same  subjects.  I  expected  to  find  it 
rich  and  independent.  I  found  that  it  consisted  of  second- 
id  adaptation  of  what  I  had  just  been  studying.  I  was  then 
quite  thoroughly  Teutonized,  as  all  our  young  men  are  likely  to 
be  aiter  a  time  of  study  in  Germany.    I  had  not  imdergone  the 


264 


^ 


N 


toning-down  process  which  is  necessary  to  bring  a  young  Anneri- 
can  back  to  common  seuse,  and  I  underrated  the  real  ?<  *  of 
many  Engliahmon  to  the  Bible  as  a  reli^ous  book,  t-A.  im 

supplement  which  I  then  needed  to  my  Germiin  education,  Ull- 
maun's  'Wesen  des  Christenthums/  which  I  had  read  at  Gottin- 
gen,  had  steadied  my  religious  faith,  and  I  devoted  myself  at 
Oxford  to  the  old  Anglican  divines  an<l  to  the  standard  b<.M>k9  of 
the  Anglican  communion.  The  only  one  of  these  which  gave  mo 
any  pleasure  or  profit  was  Hooker's  *  Ecclesiastical  Polity/  Tho 
first  part  of  this  book  I  studied  with  the  greatest  care,  r  in 

analysis  of  it  and  reviewing  it  repeatedly.  It  suited  cx.v_ .._.  s« 
notions  of  constitutional  order,  adjustment  of  rights,  coiuHitu- 
tional  authority,  and  historical  <;nTitiniiity,  in  which  I  had  bc»en 
brought  up,  and  it  presented  those  doctrines  of  liberty  under  law 
applied  both  to  church  and  state  which  commanded  my  enthusi- 
astic acceptance.  It  also  presented  Anglicanism  in  exactly  the 
aspK't  in  which  it  was  attractive  to  me.  It  reawakened,  however, 
all  my  love  for  political  science,  which  was  intensiiied  by  reading 
Buckle  and  also  by  another  fact  next  to  be  mentioned. 

"The  most  singular  contrast  between  Gottingen  and  Oxford 
was  this:  At  Gottingen  eveiything  one  got  came  from  tho  uni- 
versity, nothing  from  one's  fellow-students.  At  Oxford  it  was 
not  possible  to  got  anything  of  great  value  from  the  university; 
but  the  education  one  could  get  from  one's  follows  was  i'  '  '  ]^ 
There  was  a  set  of  young  fellows,  or  men  reading  for  fut  i^ 

there  at  that  time,  who  were  studying  HegeL  I  liecaroe  intimate 
with  several  of  them.  Two  or  three  of  them  liavo  since  died  ftt 
an  early  ago,  di8apix>inting  hopes  of  useful  careers.  I  never 
caught  the  Hegelian  fever.  I  had  heard  Lotze  at  QOttingvtn,  anil 
found  his  suggestions  very  convenient  to  hold  on  by»  nt  "^  '  f  tr 
the  time.    We  used,  however,  in  our  conversations  at  '  10 

talk  about  Buckle  and  the  ideas  which  he  hml  then  set  id 

tho  question  which  occupied  us  the  most  was  whetlier  tli.  i^  ^  v.ild 
be  a  science  of  society,  and,  if  so,  where  it  tdiould  bogiu  and  how 
it  should  bo  built.  We  had  all  been  eager  students  of  what  was 
then  called  tho '  philosophy  of  history/  and  I  had  also  felt  gr«it 
interest  in  the  idea  of  God  in  history,  with  which  my  companions 
id  not  sympathize.    We  agreed,  however,  that  -e 

lust  be  an  induction  from  history,  that  Buckle  I  "H 

the  right  track,  and  that  the  thing  to  do  was  to  otudy  history; 
The  difficulty  which  a  1       '    '  ..,»•.       ,  .        ^I.a 

maaa  of  matter  to  be  r  i^ 

sred  that  the  induction  could  actually  bo  performed  if  this  notiaa 
an  'induction   from  history'  ehould    V      '  -   .-    »     ._;  .1^^ 
Young  ds  we  were,  wo  nev**r  took  up  thie  ■  a1 

programme  of  work.     I  '  Iiought  of  it  sincti  whei 


I 


SKETCir  OF  WILLIAM  GRAHAM  SUMITER, 


255 


» 


lieen  the  propositions  of  that  sort  which  have  been  put  for- 
Uriii-  ■  ''■  ypars.     I  have  lost  sight  of  all  my  associates 

afl  *  >till  living.    So  far  as  I  know,  I  am  the  only 

one  of  them  who  has  become  professionally  occupied  with  social 

Mr.  Scunner  returned  to  the  United  States  in  the  autumn  of 
1B6C,  having  been  elected  to  a  tutorship  in  Yale  College.    Of  this 

says: 

•The  tutorship  was  a  great  advantage  to  me.  I  had  expected 
to  go  to  Egypt  and  Palestine  iji  the  next  winter,  but  this  gave  me 
an  opportunity  to  study  further,  an*!  to  acquaint  myself  with 
church  affairs  in  the  United  States  before  a  final  decision  as  to 
a  ;,  M.     I  spf^ily  found  that  there  was  no  demand  at  all 

foi     al  science*;  that  everybody  was  afraid  of  it,  especially 

if  it  came  with  the  German  label  on  it.  It  was  a  case  in  which, 
if  a  man  should  work  very  hard  and  achieve  remarkable  residts, 
the  only  consequence  would  be  that  he  would  ruin  himself.  At 
thi»  time  I  undertook  the  translation  of  the  volume  of  Lango's 
'C  tnryon  Second  Kings.'    While  I  was  tutor  I  read  Her- 

b*::  't's  '  Firnt  Principles  * — at  least,  the  first  part  of  it — but 

it  mode  no  impression  upon  me.  The  second  part,  as  it  dealt  with 
evtilulion,  did  not  then  interest  me.  I  also  read  his  *  Social  Stat- 
ics'at  that  period.  As  I  did  not  believe  in  natural  rights,  or  in 
his  *  fundamental  principle/  this  book  had  no  effect  on  nie," 

Mr,  Sumner  was  onlaiued  deacon  at  New  Haven  in  December, 
18C7,  and  priest  at  New  York,  July,  1809.  He  became  assistant  to 
Dr.  Washburn  at  Calvary  Church,  New  York,  iu  March,  18*19. 
He  was  also  editor  of  a  broad  church  paper,  which  Dr.  Wash- 
bum  and  some  other  clergymen  started  at  this  time.  In  Septem* 
bp'  he  became  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Redeemer  at 

M  ti^N.J. 

•*  When  I  came  to  write  sermons,  I  found  to  what  a  degree  my 
hilereBi  lay  in  topics  of  sotial  science  and  political  economy. 
TItere  WM  then  no  public  interest  in  the  currency  and  only  a 
little  in  the  tariflf.  I  thought  that  these  were  matters  of  the  most 
nt  importance,  which  threatened  all  the  interests,  moral, 
al,  and  economic,  of  the  nation,  and  I  was  young  enough  to 
Ixdiere  that  they  would  all  be  settled  in  the  next  four  or  five 
yearn.  It  waa  not  po.«tsible  to  preach  about  them,  but  I  got  so 
near  to  it  that  I  was  detected  sometimes,  as,  for  instance,  when  a 
NfifW  J  r  came  to  me,  as  I  came  down  from  the  pulpit, 

and  aa.  ,,  vas  a  great  deal  of  political  economy  in  that 

.d  that  I  read,  in  an  English  magazine,  the 
fix-  .        '   Herbert  Spencer  which  were  afterward 

ooUeeted   into   the  volume  'The  Study  of    Sociology.'     These 


80. 

fvfi  of  tte  biter 

aB  of  ]>Bnri2i,  Hax- 

mwciafly  in 

ipndilj'  A^juBted 

aev  mflaaiQip  and 

's'Ptinciplei  of  Sociology'  v«6  now 

I  wse  cQOfliuUx  gi^tin^  vridence  that 

vif  it  ImtiwJ  i&e  tlfeeory  oC  evolotioe  in  the  firvt  places 

ii  back  aeu)  enriched  ^•"  —  -^  nnd  indfr 


to  r«ad8p 


ik  in  the 


I  formed* 

parts  as  they  oune  oot,  k^  t-  ^t  I  beipui  tu  iutercst  men 

in  thai  smportiBt departm«nt  ^.  ^...,.\Aad  to  prepare  tbem  to 
f oDov  ita  devekpm^Bt,  years  before  any  such  attempt  was  made 
at  BOX  other  muTendty  in  the  world.  I  have  followed  the  growth 
of  the  acS«a»oe  of  «ociolog7  in  all  its  brancbe?,  and  have  Mi6«n  it  far 
mirpoH  all  the  hope  and  faith  I  ever  had  in  it    I  have  spent  aa 

iromenM'  '  - 

dlrwfwl.  I 

t  own  mistakea.    1  have  not  publish^  them  for 


<'<mont  of  the  hiittory  of  Prof.  Snmner^A  edaca^ 
\i{*ph  i»Iii»v>«  iUtf  w.*hool  of  opinion  to  which  he  bekHig&    He  a&loptB 


M  SUMNER. 


t67 


I. 

^  tnil 


llie  conception  of  society  according  to  which  it  is  Ihe  seat  of 
forces,  and  its  phenomena  are  subject  to  laws,  which  it  is  the  husi- 
&eM  of  science  to  investigate.  He  denies  that  there  is  anything 
urbitrary  or  accidental  in  social  phenomena,  or  that  there  is  any 
field  in  them  for  the  arbitrary  intervention  of  man.  He  therefore 
allows  but  very  limited  field  for  legislation.  He  holds  that  men 
must  do  with  social  laws  what  they  do  with  physical  laws — learn 
thorn,  obey  them,  and  conform  to  them.  Hence  he  is  opposed  to 
Bite  interference  and  socialism,  and  he  advocates  individualism 
and  liberty.  He  has  declared  that  bimetallism  is  an  absurdity, 
involving  a  rontra*iiction  of  economic  laws,  and  his  attacks  on 
protectionism  have  been  directed  against  it  as  a  philosophy  of 

ih  and  prosperity  for  the  nation. 

a  to  politics,  he  says: 

Sly  only  excursion  into  active  politics  has  been  a  terra  as 
erman.    In  1872  I  was  one  of  the  voters  who  watched  with  in- 

t  and  hope  the  movement  which  led  up  to  the '  Liberal '  Con- 
ntion  at  Cincinnati,  that  ended  by  nominating  Greeley  and 
Brown.  The  platform  of  that  convention  was  very  outspoken  in 
it«  declarations  about  the  policy  to  be  pursued  toward  the  South, 
I  did  not  approve  of  the  reconstruction  policy.  I  wanted  the 
South  let  alone  and  treated  with  patience.  I  lost  my  vote  by 
moring  to  New  Haven,  and  was  contented  to  let  it  go  that  way. 
In  1870  I  was  of  the  same  opinion  about  the  South.  If  I  had  been 
asked  what  I  wanted  done,  I  should  have  tried  to  describe  just 
vhat  Mr.  Hayes  did  do  after  he  got  in.  I  therefore  voted  for  Mr. 
Tilden.  In  1880  I  did  not  vote.  In  1884  I  voted  as  a  Mugwump 
for  Mr.  Cleveland.  In  1888  I  voted  for  him  on  the  tariff  issue." 
A  distingushed  American  economist,  who  is  well  acquainted 
th  Prof.  Sumner's  work,  has  kindly  given  us  the  following  esti- 
xnate  of  his  method  and  of  his  position  and  influence  as  a  public 
teacher:  **  For  exact  and  comprehensive  knowledge  Prof.  Sumner 
is  entitled  to  take  the  first  place  in  the  ranks  of  American  econo- 
mista;  and  as  a  teacher  he  has  no  superior.  His  leading  mental 
charar*  he  has  himself  well  stated  in  describing  the  charac- 

teristic former  teachers  at  Gdttingen ;  namely,  as  '  bent  on 

seeking  a  clear  and  comprehensive  conception  of  the  matter '' or 
truth  **  under  study,  without  regard  to  any  consequences  what- 
ever/ and  further,  when  in  his  own  mind  Prof.  Sumner  is  fully 
fi^ed  SB  to  what  the  truth  is  he  has  no  hesitation  in  boldly 
l^^riuK  iW  on  every  fitting  occasion,  without  regard  to  coiise- 
qui*nr*»«.  If  the  theory  is  a  '  spade/  he  calls  it  a  spade,  and  not  an 
in  r  of  husbandry.    Sentimentalists,  followers  of  precedent 

^^^^><-  *>-  ia  precedent,  and  superficial  reasoners  find  little  favor, 
^^^nre,  with  P^of.  Sumner;  and  this  trait  of  character  has 
gfron  kim  a  reputation  for  coldness  and  lack  of  what  may  be 


2$3 


TEE  POPULAJt  SCTBNCB  ifONTffLT. 


calleil '  humanitarianism/  and  Las  rondertd  one  of  his  l)e«t  essayB, 
'  Wliat  Social  Clas8t>s  ovro  to  each  other/  nlniost  repulsive  in  ro- 
spoct  to  some  of  its  conclusions.  At  the  same  time,  the  ri'pre- 
sentativea  of  sxich  antagonisms,  if  they  are  candid,  ^lni^t  admit 
that  Prof.  Sumner*8  logic  can  only  be  resisted  by  making  their 
reason  subordinate  to  eentinient.  Prof.  Sumner  is  an  eamcsl 
advocate  of  the  utmost  freedom  in  respect  to  all  commercial  ex- 
changes ;  and  the  results  of  his  experiences  in  the  discnssdon  of 
the  relative  merits  and  advantages  of  the  systems  of  free  trade 
and  protection  have  been  such  that  ju'obably  no  defender  of  the 
latter  would  now  be  willing  to  meet  him  in  a  public  discussion  of 
these  topics." 

Prof.  Sumner  has  published  "  History  of  American  Currency/ 
"Lectures  on  the  History  of  Protection  in  the  United  Statee/' 
"Life  of  Andrew  Jackson/' "Economic  Problems/'  ** Protection- 
ism/* *•  Essays  in  Political  and  Social  Science/'  and  "  What  Social 
Classes  owe  to  each  other/'  besides  a  large  number  of  magazine 
articles  on  the  same  line  of  subjects. 


I 


COHHESPONDENCE 


^^        iriu 


-CffRISTTAW   8CTKNCE."    >' KOlUlSHAJf 
SCIKKC'E,"  WTO. 
I'opittar  Seitnc*  MontM)f  ; 
S  article  appcart  in  ^our  Taliuble  jour^ 
.ZTTV.  tml  for  April,  pocv  71*8,  va  Ibe  MubjccI 
of  **Chri8ti&Q  Sdctice?'     On  tw*^  »(lO  an 
it«m  U  giTen  concerning  Dr.  TwI.  of  Chi. 
ctt^o,  in  which  is  Piiti-<l  ihat  puiU  rteneflicl 
miti  a  Tlflim  of  fnUh-euro,  and  that  C.  R. 
IWl  iriU  be  call«il  upon  to  aniwer  criminal 
cbar^c«s  etc     I  tlo  nuc  know  the  adtln^ss  of 
friend  Mr  Komohl,  su  I  can  not  wrilo 
to  correct  this  item.     I  am  pemootLlljr 
tcqualntcii   nith  i'r.  TcvU  an  J  the  csn:  in 
que«tion,  and  I  desire  to  •int*',  in  juntioo  to 

all  concerned,  thit  r^'^ "'" nl  U9«il  a«  ftu 

argiiracnt    by  our    '.  it    tnio.      Pr. 

TotMl  la  editor  of  *'  -  .-  Stfir."     File 

VTftnn  of  science  awl  phiiosophj  la  wholly 
dlfTvipfti    in   vrcTj   nni*   uf  its    iM>rtit   from 
**OhTl«ian  ^i'lentv.**     lit-  U  ftu 
ftcian,  and  hof  hnd  TCara  nf   ' 

»«cnmHl  ro"     *'-  " 

licioe.     T' 

Innrs.     I 

Kcw  V  .<•« 

OTit    a    • 
Ti  : 


failed.    The  chnrc.-*  .iptiu»l  Dr.  Teed 
not  sustained,  iid<1  h''  won  ihi-  raM.     I  hope 
you  will  akk  llr.  i'-         '  >i  reel  thb  il«a 

In  hin  article;  at  hitn  Hi/ Mai*> 

mcnt,  ■"'  -'  '■  '  *'  ■"  » :jougb  to  oado 

whHt  )<<  bring  rvproMifa  m 

a  fine  tp  ■  

f:cdi>rcifuti.t.  n.  0 

Cnr  Bom«  WAmvoau,  V('A«ifT»ttn»r  tmt 

SiMor  Popvtar  Selme*  MtmiM^: 

Af  to  '*  Kortebun  pci<?ncc  "  boinp  w' 
different   from    *' (.'liHslian   •ciauv,"  Pro 
SjK^r'a   authority   might   Kccm  tnvoaeftloo- 
able,  a>  he  is  a  grailnal«  of  "'■  ■  "  ' 
C<»Uepe,"  ami    a    ' -    ■ 

{>aniphlrtv.     rit't,  ^  TkokUc 

nTCNllfrator,  this  i  j-oCdb  of 

astrology    and   tpcculaiivo  Lbbulugr 


of  i*ft»( 


th«  '*  Kor<ra|f«& 


— wcrv  employed  In  (he  OMe,  tiwy  boite  !  Ibo  lasi  tnomant  baa  tOaaiy  fttnUftli«d  tm 


CORRESPONBENCS: 


U 


ihm  Mpendeil  koeount  of  the  matter,  which 
1  lUak  vfl]  MUftfy  four  readers  tlut  1  was 
follf  JusUflcd   In  cloMing  tbU  cam  aowog 
th«  bluotl^ra  o(  inirDtal  healing. 
ViTj  truly  your*, 

PttCDSaiK  A.  FONALO. 

Vmt  Toas,  iftfy  fi,  IMS. 


96*  OMHmvT  BrmnT.  Osicaqo,  I 
iTay  «,  ISfW.        f 

FaanicaxK  A.  Feexald,  Esq. 

i>«ar  Sir:  Tbfi  man  T(Mh],  vhom  tou 
tiwak  of  a^  doctor,  w&*  at  the  time  nf  Done 
iuct*i  d«ath  the  founder  and  prv^ident  of 
iho  World's  College  of  Life,  pa<tor  of  the 
Arrh-Triiirnphant  Church,  (*dJlor  of  the 
"Gijj'lmf*  Star,"  proprietor  of  a  restaurant, 
•tc.,  %W  coutl'icted  ID  gne  or  two  offioe-roonu> 
in  Central  Music  Hnll.  The  feUoir  claimed 
to  b*  a  Kiftdualo  of  the  New  Vork  Eclectic 
||r-!i-«i  f -.!!.•._■.■  hut  At  the  ooroDcr'd  Inquest 
C(i>-  '  iHploiaa,  claiming  as  ah 

•T"  i'»n.     A»  I  remember  it. 

hift  nK;)ku>i  iV)niii«tc4l  in  healing  hy  prayer 
and  faith,  lachuIinK  abvcnt  treatmcntt  all  of 
which  waj  eii.i'  '•  ■  case  of  Ucuedict 

from  lb«  tie^ii  iilneM  nntll  abnul 

two  or  three   -.-..  ■■-'  \o  hi»   death, 

wltm  medicine  wa8  ;  i  r  an  eclectic 

pnictiU>>ai9'  whom  T'  \<y  his  aaelst- 

anoe.  At  thl«  «ta::o  of  the  case  Teed  partly 
or  wholly  abandoned  his  eysiem,  and  aUo 
prvacribod  roe«Urincs;  but,  Inasmuch  aa  hia 
fcnowted^  of  ttii'  patholopcul  condition:! 
wUoh  ware  proaent,  and  wicli  whioh  he  had 
to  daal,  amonatod  to  almoH  nutbinjf,  the 
tPMlOMlt  wa«  of  no  aviiil.  Accordin;;  to  hia 
•tatoment^,  made  ('j  mv  the  moming  of  Bene- 
iDet'a  death,  th**  pnfi'Tit  was  regarded  afl 
fasTtn:;  had  \\\  '-.'urlsy,  intcrcosta] 

DMiral(;ia,  an  1  ;^  all  existing  at 

OM  and  the  Mune  timt.- :  The  absurdity  of 
•tub  a  dilog  U  apftarent  to  almost  any  one. 
The  po^-mortfrn  eiaminatioo  proved  death 
to  be  doe  to  broaohO'pneumonii.  In  my 
opifdon,  ondof  pnipor  treatment  the  case 
wooht  have  Ncorered.  The  following  is  a 
copy  of  th#  »eT"lIcl  *jt  the  con>oer'a  jury : 


Oyn»  R 

for  tbe  <i*^^m 

hy  drnproDtT 

forrlob 

Mtappn 

the  praelic*:  4>: 
Bflias  and  we 
iho  Malty  U 


IT     llir-     »j 


i]    that    one 
1  prescribed 
u'-y  without 
bite  projMrl;  i'  ti  >     '.  be  held 

by  tm  proiwr  <:f  tin-  -r.iful   jury 

>«  10,  n.  and  12  of  an 
"V  IH,  1887,  rogulating 
n  the  State  of  I1li. 
"  reconunend  that 
iatjon  of  the  above 
Mt  aKmld  b*  maite  moro  wverv,  so  aa  to  In- 
«M«  laprtaoniaeol  In  addition  to  fine,  in 
UMfwtBm," 

la  hb  Imtmctlont  to  the  Jnrrthr  deputy 
iMcr  made  a  few  remaHu  m  which  he 
hiSMd  at  qoaclu,  Impostor*,  and  "■  roodoo  " 
4aetnfa,  aiHl    '  'He  was 

ddc  of  havlnr  i  lorgL*. 

K»pv^— ....■  7 

C  W.  Leon,  U,  D. 


THE  POSITION  OF  TITE  lONOSTia 
Sclitor  Popular  &h*iim  Uotithlj/ : 

Wqile  sympathizing  heartily  with  the 
rpirit  of  your  editorial  article  on  '*  Intellect- 
ual Liberty,"  in  the  May  number  of  the 
"Monthly,"  yet  it  seema  to  me  you  have 
OTcrlooked  an  application  of  the  word  ag- 
nostic whicli  it  ii  important  that  all  loTers  of 
truth  should  recognize.  Nay,  more,  in  the 
words  of  Xicolc,  whom  you  cite  with  ap- 
proval, it  19  "  the  duty "  of  the  modem 
thinker  to  decLire  himself  an  "  agnostic  "  in 
regard  to  many  questions  that  arc  still  dis> 
cu.4sed  in  theological  circles. 

It  ia  one  of  the  chief  merits  of  the 
school  of  philosophy  of  which  Prof.  Umlcy 
U  so  brilliant  a  member  that  it  distinctly 
recDgnize«<  what  Mr.  J^pencer  declares  to  be 
"the  ctmviction  .  .  .  thnt  has  been  slowly 
gaining  f*round  as  civilization  has  advanced." 
viz.,  that  **  human  iDtclIigLiice  ia  incajiable 
of  abi^olute  knowIcdjL'e,"  and  that  ''  our  duty 
is  to  Hubmit  oup<elvps  with  all  humility  to  the 
efitabli»hott  limits  of  our  intelligence;  and 
not  pcnersely  to  rebel  againei  them.*' 
licacc,  when  qucsttuns  are  propounded,  to 
which, /rom  (hrtr  naiurf,  neither  an  affirma- 
tive nor  a  negative  answer  can  be  given,  and 
whicli  do  not  admit  of  nolution  by  any  natu- 
ral  process,  but  can  only  be  solved  by  the 
acceptance  of  a  supcmotural  authority — that 
authority  being  generally  the  very  question 
at  it>sue — then  it  bi-comei?  the  duty  of  thosa 
who  follow  the  scientific  method  in  tbdr 
search  for  truth  to  declare  themselres  on  all 
such  subjects  "  aguosiiu'^/' 

Our  tht'ologicnl  friends  occupy  mtich  of 
their  time  in  dlHcussIng  questions  of  this 
character,  such  as  the  origin  of  the  universe, 
the  nature  and  personality  of  OoJ,  the  di- 
vinity of  Chi-i^t,  the  inimortality  of  the 
soul,  and  the  like.  But  all  these  are  in- 
scrutable questions,  incapable  of  solution  by 
the  human  intellect.  They  have  bocn  dis- 
cussed ever  since  ibe  dawn  of  philosophy, 
and  arc  no  nearer  solution  today  than  when 
they  were  first  propounJcd.  If  settled  to 
any  onu's  satiofaction  at  all,  they  can  only 
be  sn  accepted  without  proof  and  upon  au- 
thority. Moreover,  there  arc  many  questions 
oapahio  of  solution  by  the  sdcntifle  method, 
which  thoologiaod  dlscusii  only  from  preoi- 
Un  foiiutied  upon  tti**  supposed  solution  of 
the  primary  (piefltlnns  rofrrrcd  to  obovc. 
This  inevitably  prevents  their  proper  dis- 
cussion and  solution.  The  premi.v^s  can  not 
bo  ooccpCed  by  the  scicntldc  thinker  who  Is 
convinced  of  tlie  futility  of  nil  onlological 
speculation  as  a  means  for  establishing  the 
truth.  This  does  not  mean — as  so  many 
seem  to  think — tlmt  science  only  concerns 
Itself  with  those  thincs  which  can  be  seen 
and  felt.  Nor  does  it  even  deny  to  the  in- 
dividual, who  feeU  that  bis  intellectual  and 
uioml  integrity  can  be  bcFl  conserved  by 
fnch  ffpeculaiinnn,  the  right  to  indulge  In 
thorn,  and  believe  in  thorn  if  needs  be.  By 
all  means  let  him  do  so,  If  he  la  made  a  hap* 


4 


4 


4 


tyo 


POPULAR 


^ 


(lier  and  a  better  man  by  such  fiilb.  B«t 
ct  him  not  upbraid  bta  fcltoir-man  whose 
laith  Is  not  aa  his  is ;  lei  him  not  ima^ruic 
that  iruUi  id  eiitirelj  on  hia  aido ;  and,  above 
let  him  bcwarv  of  dogTiiati«m.  So  "  with 
ilioc  toward  none,  with  chariij  for  all,'*  be 
tv  cultivate'  that  opunnBSS  of  mind  which 
a  ^(•nuinc  ncarch  for  tnith  fostora  and  intcU 
IrciuoJ  liberty  tnainlains. 

1  think  jou  will  agre^;  with  mc  that  much 
ontologiiutt  flpcrtilalinn  in  a  dlFtioct  lo«9  to 
sound  pliiloaophT,  and  that  there  would  be  a 
great  auring  of  Ume  and  tulout  if  all  ihiuk* 


cr«  acoo7>ted  and  aot«>d  vpaa  "the 

siona  of  Hume  and  Kant,  M  well  fftalMl  lit 

the  lattor  la  t  Hotcuc«"  qQOl«il  tf  iW, 

IIuilflT  ! 

'*  The  greatest  and  pvhapa  th«  •»!•  qm 
of  all  philoflopliy  of  pure  rcMca  b^  a/ldr  all, 

HiCrol^    ti.M'niivi'     ••Illicit    it    KiTVM    nnt    n*   4|| 
OrglD.r  .t-\ 

but  ah  .1  ■*A, 

instead   of  diicuvi'iijig   tiuUi.  hoM  uai/   tbe 
modeat  merit  of  preventing  error." 

Bobcat  HafBnra. 
Bocmnm  N.  T.,  Jf«y  »,  1881, 


EDITOR'S  TABLE. 


T/7£  CLAIMS  or  "  caRisrrAX  scisvcxr 
print  ia   this  number  of  the 


W-Z. 


[oatblj  "  a  defense  of  "  Ohrin- 
tijm  science,*'  and  an  explanation  la  doe 
our  readers  for  the  appearance  of  such  a 
paper  in  tljc  pof^oB  of  a  scieutific  joanial. 
Our  April  issuo  contained  a  carcfnlljr 
prepared  artiolci,  which  aimed  to  give  n 
jnst  Btfltement  of  tho  claims  and  the  re- 
sult* of  **  Christian  stienoo."  The  writjsr 
of  that  article  had  good  ttuthoritj  for  oil 
his  8tAt«mentii,  and  hia  onlj  pnrpose  was 
to  tell  the  tmth  obout  the  new  theory. 
Kotwithstonding  his  efforts  in  respuot 
to  fairness,  be  it  charged,  in  thu  reply 
which  we  publUh,  with  tho  mo^t  Igno- 
rant mUrepreaoutaiion  of  tho  doctrine. 
"We  do  not  concede  tJie  tmth  of  this 
chanro,  but  we  print  Ur.  Bailej^a  ex- 
poflition  for  two  ronsons:  flrst,  to  re- 
more  ftU  possible  ^otind  for  the  charge 
of  onc-side(lni-e«;  und,  second,  to  give 
our  renders  a  fuller  idea  of  what  kind  of 
Btutr  '*  Christian  aeieuoe"  is.  Of  the 
balf-docen  replies  sent  us  wo  selected 
for  poblicatioi)  the  one  that  oamo  from 
thp  most  aaiboritAtiTo  source — from  the 
kIiUt  of  "  Tho  Christian  Srionc©  Jonr- 
naP* — ftlthon^^h  it  wn*  tho  only  one  of 
\9  wholo  tinmber  wtiich  did  not  ex- 
Icttljr  concede  the  honesty  of  por- 
of  Mr.  Fornald's  article.  Tho 
TMd4<r  will  obaorrc  In  tbo  rnply  fV*. 
QOeat  qnotationsfrttm  Mr«.  r    ■  l, 

*•  Bdeneo   and    lU-alth,"   >v  .  .^ 

irrUten  by  the  iurcutur  of  (he  duciriii*i 


la  generally  accepted  ns  the  authorff 
tive  expression  of  tho  tvi)«.t-«  of  tlie  ?w 
Reference  to  Mr,  Feruuld's  article  wlU 
show  that  his  statt^nient  of  the  cUlnu 
of  **  OhriatiAD  acicDco  "  was  bafrod  opon 
quotations  from  exactly  the  some  anarcv, 
and  hence  is  no  more  open  to  the  oh* 
jection  of  being  a  "fancifnl  repreeea* 
tation  *'  than  is  tho  exposition  of  Mr 
Bailey. 

If  a  doubt  reinaiocd  la  tho  mfsd  of 
any  reader  as  to  whether  this  doctrioo 
deserres  the  name  of  *'  science,"  it  mtut 
be  destroyed  by  Mr.  lioiley's  ax^ele: 
This  writer  doHueci  man  us  "a  state  of 
conaoioufiness,"  compriMnff,  first,  the  Im- 
proasioaa  received  ibrongh  tho  five 
sensca,  and,  second,  *'  ttio  hnpresMfSona 
of  Spirit"  Ho  asserts  that  senee-tm- 
presaiona  can  bo  kept  out  of  ouusdooa- 
ne«  by  theae  olhi^r  impresaiooa,  afid 
hence  that  tho  former  are  utirail  and 
uut  to  1)0  tXQ6li.'<!.  This  is  a  ^nod  anrn* 
pleof  the  jumping  at  concl  h 

passes  among  "Christian at i .,     Tor 

legitimate  induction.  Tbo  pretetuftoo 
that  tlie  scnaes  arv  "  unreal,"  and  (bait 
their  *•  testimony  ••an  not  he\  tniA,"  ia  too 
a!>surd  for  scrioi:  !t 

who  has  cither  ait,  ^ 

or  any  plain  oomroon  •  ii 

— 0700  the  'H'hriatiuti  i-  tvt 

thnmaclvM  believe  it  •    tOMjr 

that  Mrs.  Eddy  v  'vn  by 

her  Bensc-iinprF>  1  tixncn 

ft  d^y.    Sho  would  not  atcp  v0  from  the 


4 
4 


EDITOR* S    TABLE. 


oopt 
^^  onr 
^H      ixtftj 

■%' 

I 


bcr  hoUM  dlAtriLning  the  tcstU 
tMi^  of  hor  oyon  that  it  w  as  a  long  way 
to  thft  ^uatid ;  ab«  woold  Dot  eat  food 
iibl{^  her  »vn«e  of  t^te  toM  her  was 
DDtlt  to  oat;  Dor  rernMo  on  a  roilroad- 
trmck  ^^  ^  raring  told  bor  that  a 

tf«la  u  It  is  absurdly  illogi- 

cal to  truu  tbc  N«nsea  in  ftoirb  caaeo,  and 
to  reirnse  to  trust  them  In  the  precisely 
poratlel  oimm  when  th«j  testify  to  a 
hftsdaobo,  or  th*  toflammatton  of  a  joint, 
or  tb«  pre««DC«  of  a  malignant  tumor. 
Oar  Mmiet  aro  ocrnsioDally  deceived  by 
dow  resembliincti4,  but  with  these  ex- 
00pttr*n»  tlie  experience  of  every  day  of 
onr  live*  embraces  a  counileaa  host  of 
ixtftancea  lo  which  wu  6nd  it  aafe  to 
t  cor  aonsea.  All  tho  observations 
eb  famUh  ttie  material  of  science 
If*  made  by  the  •cnsos,  and  any  doc- 
trloa  which  denio^  the  trustworthiness 
of  the  acnac^  certainly  ia  not  acience, 
irltat«vcr  elae  it  may  bo.  "Chriatian 
•eiesiee*^  mak«fl  itMlf  ridiculona  by  strut- 
ting abont  Id  Uia  borrow4yi  plumage  uf 
a  ayatem  wboM  data  and  mothad  it 
aSbeCa  to  despUe.  The  applicatioa  of 
tba  tiatB«  of  fcloDoo  to  this  vnt^oe  meta- 
physical doctrine  Is  ntlcrly  unworrantcd. 
Ifl  Uiide«  art,  pnlidca,  rcliffion,  and  every 
otber  field  in  wbich  wealth  or  fame  can 
baaob)'  rioua  articles  are  being 

paImM'  iiually  under  the  name 

of  aooietbiog  alao  which  enjoys  a  well- 
eaniMl  repute.  Kqieeially  has  there 
bMD  of  lato  years  an  cagemeaa  to  tack 
tho  Batne  of  science  on  to  all  sorts  of 
■clwnni  and  tbeorioa  which  have  no 
imrtSfle  of  right  to  the  designation^  in 
enSer  that  they  may  share  its  glory  and 
fain  the  aid  of  ita  preatige. 

llr.  Bailey  claims  that  "Christian 
aettDCO*^  baa  been  vindicated  by  numer- 
DOi  Mocwea  in  healing  diaeaie.  Many 
with  various  complaints  have 
'  •  '^ObriatiftD  flcienre" 
vve  ceased  to  complain. 
From  tbia  he  iufvrfl  not  only  that  the 
fcraatttcot  cored  thcra,  but  alao  that  all 
Iheao  frotosqofi  notiona  about  *'  the  tm- 
pr»winfH  of  •fiirii'^  and  the  falsity  of 


the  senses  must  be  true.  As  was  ahown 
by  the  conlribntor  to  onr  April  number, 
it  is  not  neoesaftrv  to  accept  the  "Chris- 
tian science  "  theory  in  order  to  explain 
the  process  of  mental  healing.  When 
there  i«  any  real  effect,  it  is  due  to  the 
stimulating  influence  exerted  upon  th« 
patient's  miml,  and  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence whether  tho  etimulu*  is  truth  or 
error,  if  tho  patient  only  ia  stirred  up  by 
it.  Tho  allege<i  results  of  "Christian 
Bcienoe,"  and  the  number  of  its  l>ettev- 
ors,  have  been  paralleled  by  many  delu- 
sions which  have  had  their  A^y  and  then 
disappcaretl.  Mesraer  was  a  greater 
prophet  in  hi<i  time  than  Mr^.  £Uldy. 
Mesmerism  had  itd  host  of  oared  pa- 
tients, many  of  them  very  worthy  por- 
Bona,  who  gave  enthuMastlo  toatimouiuls 
to  its  efficiency  and  truth.  Bpirituali^tlc 
healers  have  paraded  their  alleged  curcit, 
and  have  argued  for  their  doctrine  as 
peraistontly  as  tho  "  Christian  scientists," 
but  they  hare  never  gained  any  soieDtiflo 
standing.  Every  other  abnnrd  quackery 
that  bids  for  the  dollars  nod  homage  of 
tho  ignorant  multitude  haa  the  same  sort 
of  indornemeuts,  but  time  and  science 
deal  mercilessly  with  all  alike.  Witch- 
craft and  diabolic  agency  have  been 
wide-spread  and  eminently  reputable 
doctrines,  bnt  they  have  ignomlnionsly 
fallen  beneath  the  atturka  of  scienti6c 
investigators.  The  render  will  find  in 
a  note  to  Dr.  White's  article  in  our 
present  issue  some  of  the  leading  au- 
thorities which  have  combated  these 
myth -making  and  wonder -mongering 
ogencies.  A  comparison  of  one  of  those 
books  with  "Soit'Hce  and  ITealth"  will 
show  the  difference  between  a  scien- 
tific and  a  visionary  treatment  of  a  sab- 
ject,  Mrs.  Eddy'a  book,  as  shown  in 
the  extracts  whicli  Mr.  Bailey  givea, 
ia  an  incomprehensible,  because  mean- 
ingless, moss  of  rant  and  rnbbiab,  con- 
sisting of  capricious  inferencea  from 
scanty  facts,  of  far-fetched  analogies, 
of  hysterical  appeals  to  sentiment,  and 
fanciful  twisting  of  language.  The  fiict 
that   such    a   baselcaa   apeooUtioa   aa 


I 

i 

4 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


I  the 

k 


"Christian  Bfience"  can  (InJ  believers 
allows  that  vrhsl  ia  rvferreti  to  in  our 
otlitir  oditoriul  aa  tho  fancy  of  the  mul- 
titudo  for  tbeoriefl  which  Bave  them 
trouble  ttUil  minister  to  their  Ioto  of  the 
marvelous  boi  not  jot  disappeared  from 
the  world.  The  foacinatiua  for  hold- 
iug  odd  Qotioos  scema  to  be  &  vealtiiQaa 
the  human  mind  whicii  la  hard  to 
dicate.  8ucb  beliefs  have  been  pretty 
ell  driven  out  of  chemistry,  physics, 
zoAlogy,  and  other  fieids  of  scionco 
which  can  bo  searchingly  invcstigatodf 
and  they  remain  only  iu  psychology  and 
IneJiciue,  dealing  with  the  living  haman 
organism,  which  can  not  bo  freely  ex- 
perimented upon,  liumun  credulity  has 
beun  greatly  lessened  by  the  march  of 
scioncifiu  enlightenment,  and  what  re- 
xoaing  has  talcen  on  a  new  form.  In 
earlier  timee  it  delighted  in  the  super- 
Datnral,  now  it  reveU  in  it^  own  false 
ideas  of  tho  natural.  Then  it  trotted 
tho  revelations  of  frelf- appoint^  proph- 
ck<S  now  it  pins  its  faith  to  the  slipshod 
roofiuoingof  gbaminvesiigntorg.  Science 
has  done  euch  wonderful  things  of  late 
that  a  certain  class  of  people,  including 
many  of  excellent  judgment  io  other 
fields,  lias  come  to  believe  any  marvels 
put  forth  under  its  name.  Hence  we 
have  a  modem  cl.'iss  of  mystery-mongers 
which  will  flonri-h  until  tlie  spread  of 
BcientiBc  culture  has  diffused  tho  power 
of  diseriminatiag  between  science  and 
base  imitatloDa  of  aclence. 


DiL  ABMorra  DKWgsas  or  tits  deviu 

TBSOB  r. 
RcpiTTKO  to  oiir  recent  article  on 
"The  DevilTlioory,"  Dr.  Lymou  Ab- 
bott says  that  he  ohjoets  to  it  bocaoM 
Itis^ansdenUtio."  17111  the  reverend 
doctor  allow  us  tu  say  tliat  we  object 
to  his  article  beoan«e  it  is  evasive?  It 
la  frraalve,  in  the  first  plnce,  becaa»c, 
thoQgh  ho  declares  our  poi»ttion  to  be 
imscicntinc*  ho  dues  out  attempt  to  show 
ID  what  way,  but  leaves  bU  readers  to 
d^fcoTor  It  tor  themftolroa,  as  bo  ox- 
it,  ^'botwecn  tho  lioaL*"    It  U 


evasive,  in  the  seroml  place,  bocad>»  !t 
does  not  attempt  to  defvnd  tlie  partW'u< 
lar  version  of  the  devil-theory  pot  for- 
ward by  the  doctor  in  hU  "  Sunday  aft- 
omooD  "  discourse  and  oriticised  by  ns ; 
but,  without  a  word  of  warning  or 
apology  to  the  reader,  rjcrcrlj'  nwitchcs 
that  version  away  and  substitutes  a  com- 
pletely different  one.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  tlie  view  which  Dr.  Abbott 
O'lvocated,  in  the  e«»ay  to  which  wo  ro- 
forred,  aa  being  most  in  ham»oay  both 
with  reason  and  with  Scripture  was  that 
tho  victims  of  devil  pus^uMiion  wero  qd- 
happy  creatures  uho,  by  a  looir  oourso 
of  sin,  had  virtually  lust  control  of  thum- 
selves  and  were  oomitelled  to  aet  aa  they 
might  be  moved  by  the  malign  vpMt  or 
spirits  to  whom  they  had  **  voluntarily  " 
surrendered  themselves.  We  poixttod 
out  that  this  was  not  in  harmony  with 
Scripture,  which  nowhere  dropped  the 
slightest  bint  that  the  posaesaed  mtt% 
other  than  the  involuntary  and  bol(il«« 
victims  of  their  diabolirol  persocnton. 
One  would  havo  cspccted  wtmp  ootioo 
by  Dr.  Abbott  of  tliis  direct  ..f 

thfl  ** Scriptural"  cliAracter  -  n 

ing;  bat  no,  not  one  word  have  wo  on 
this  point  in  bis  last  deliveraooe  Ln  tbo 
"  OhrUtian  Union."  Wa  aro  trMtvd  ift- 
Btead  to  A  reproduLHioQ  of  somotblng 
written  by  him  twenty  years  stro,  which, 
OS  he  says,  ex])rcs9cs  perfec*'  n- 

ions  be  holds  to-day.    Wliat,  h« 

drift  of  tbo  reauscitatod  arUrlol  Tli« 
reader  may  Judge  by  a  few  oxtracti: 

"  It  may  bo  cotilidently  ssMirtod  that, 
if  then  are  no  oases  of  demonsiraUa 
demoniacal  posaeesioo  In  mmlem  tlaiea* 
tbcro  are  mentAl  pbmomrnn  whioh  tbs 
bTpotboais  of  ancb  poosaaslun  brUcr 
solves  than  any  other.  What  mors  ra^ 
sonabU  c^tplanatioo  has  seiunco  to  afford 
uf  tlie  4  use  uf  that  outbo  wbo  beg^t^  10 

bedismi«he<l  tnUitreaaV  Mrrio* 

beoatute,  in  i  tbo  child  ▼bocn 

she  devoutly  Inved,  an  almost  irr«ci«ti* 
bio  paiuion  soi^wd  hir  to  tear  it  to  f-S"*^*-*  - 
or  that  yoQDg  girl  who,  otliarw 
tmplary,  socmod  lo  htfaclf  to  U  mi- 


EDITOR'S   TABLE, 


373 


^ 
^ 


polled  \ef  s  spfrft  to  Rct£  of  iDoendin- 
rfycn;  ...  or  tlmt  di«tre«s«d  olivmiHt,  uf 
fl  aAtorall;  amiublv  cluiractor,  who  w«ct 
U>  kh  B»>lam  that  be  might  bo  pre- 
T«iie4  from  indulginv  in  a  propensity 
to  kill  some  one ;  or  Uifit  re»>f»ect»ble  old 
l»dj  «rh«»  ««nd<!iirorod  to  strangle  ber 
owD  dau^tor?*'  Ale,  etc 

But,  if  ihcHo  arc  tj'pes  of  derU  pos- 
nMJon,  whAt  beoomcs  of  the  theorj  r^ 
ecntl;  ftdrano«d  b/  Dr.  Abbott  tbut  a 
deril  "  never  b^ome»  the  posseMor  of  a 
baraan  itoa]  except  by  \Xa  own  ^nidiial 
and  volontJiry  eubjeotion  to  hia  hatoful 
dMpoti«in**T  As  HD  honest  roaa,  the 
doctor  wlU  hflve  V*  lulmit  that  the  facte 
niarvhAlofl  in  his  Article  of  twenty  years 
A|fo  wcr«  destined  to  fiapport  a  view 
iA*  direct  cppMite 0/ that  wAie^  ve  eritir- 
cUe*i — Ihe  ricw.  namely,  tbut  diaboliool 
agency  tnay  be  most  rcniuiDnbly  aAHdmed 
wbon.  tho^noral  chararter  being  sonnd, 
■omo  morbid  or  criminal  propcnmty  for 
which  on  niUnral  cause  cno  be  assigned 
la  m«nifc5tiMl  tn  ono  partionliir  direction. 
iU  iiayH  be  holds  the  fmuis  viewa  now; 
and  yet,  the  olb«r  day,  he  took  up  the 
entirely  IrrecoQcilablo  position  that^  be- 
fore the  fl«nd  could  do  anytbing  with  a 
bnman  boing,  thertv  had  to  be  a  *'  grada- 
alf  rolnntary'*  yielding  to  hia  infernal 
iuDN.  Or.  Abbott  sajB  that  he 
90i  **tDainlain  the  duotrine  of  de- 
?n*"***^l  pOMeasioD  iiiK>n  thculo^cal 
poonda*';  but  snrely  if  he  maintained 
H  at  all  as  a  8iDoer«»  iodepeodont  eon- 
iHoUott,  he  ooald  hardly  put  forward 
two  90  directly  contradictory  viewa 
withoat  hting  aware  of  the  oootradic- 
tioa.  Will  not  the  doctor  say  which  of 
th«  two  lbeoritf9  it  is  be  really  holds? 
la  the  preseoce  of  the  deril  to  be  argaed 
tram  ilie  ftoooral  excolleoco  of  character 
who,  in  some  one  respect,  are 
an  inexplit-nble  impulse  to 
Or  i»  il  the  other  way — does 
llio  ficfid  simply  in  the  ^nd  dtdra,  as 
it  wcETC,  hb  dae  from  tbo«o  who  have 
**  gradoally  and  yoliintarily "  aorren- 
il«r«d  llMflOMlrea  into  hia  handaf 

Lmwin^  oar  r«a]iccted  oppooent  to 

T0k.TXIT,~l9 


vniBoT 


make  his  eleotion  between  the  abo^e 
two  views,  both  of  which  he  singularly 
profvMoa  to  maintain,  let  na,  from  onr 
own  point  of  view,  briefly  inqnire  what 
light  the  devil  •  theory  throws  either 
npon  the  phenomenon  of  morbid  im- 
pulses or  upon  tiiat  of  hordoDed,  ha- 
bitual iniqnity.  If  it  is  a  devil  who  be- 
Beta  an  amiable  chemist  or  a  reffpeotnblo 
old  lady,  when  one  or  the  other  wiahea 
to  commit  some  senseless  act  of  vio- 
lence, the  only  remedy  would  seem  to 
bo  exorciam,  which,  however^  thero  la 
reubou  to  fear,  is  a  lost  art — outaide,  at 
least,  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Bnt  it  ia  perfectly  known  to  Dr.  Ab- 
bott, ua  to  every  one  else,  that  those 
morbid  influences  do,  more  or  lesa.  yield 
to  various  curative  measures  in  which 
exorcism  has  no  part  whatever.  If  evi- 
dence on  thifl  point  is  wonting  it  in  anp- 
pliod  in  th(j  further  article  wo  print  in 
our  present  number  from  tbe  pen  of  Dr. 
Andrew  D.  Whit*.  To  know  the  cause 
of  an  evil  onght  to  be  a  great  help  to  tlie 
discovery  of  a  euro,  provided  the  oanse 
b  a  natural  one ;  bat  of  what  assistance 
would  it  be  to  any  one  to  know  that 
hb  friend  or  neighbor  was  afflicted  with 
a  devil,  if  tliore  were  no  devil-chaser 
accessible  ?  On  the  other  band,  what 
mischief  might  not  bo  wrought  by  the 
assumption  of  a  anpernataral  cause,  if 
the  canoe  were  really  natural,  and  there- 
fore, poAsibly,  removable  by  natural 
moans  ?  We  doabt  very  niach  whether 
Dr.  Abbott  baa  snflSciently  reflected  on 
the  mischief  he  may  be  doing  in  en- 
couraging people  to  believe  in  devilp,  in- 
stead of  urging  them  to  a  patient,  untir- 
ing search  after  the  natural  causes  and 
appropriate  remedies  of  alt  ills,  bodily 
and  mental.  In  this  great  controversy 
a  man  of  Dr.  Abbott's  Intclligcnco  onght 
to  be  on  our  side.  We  would  respect- 
fully call  upon  him  to  probe  his  con- 
scioncoH  and  ask  whether  he  is  really  be- 
ing jast  to  himself,  or  doing  the  world  a 
service,  by  inciting  bis  readera  and  hear- 
ers to  Attrihnte  to  Satanio  agency  ©very 
manifestation  of  evil  that  they  can  not 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTSLT^ 


clearly  trace  to  n  natnrid  caase.  He 
knuwi  Oft  welt  ua  wg  do  tbe  general  in- 
ertuvM  of  the  haman  mind^  uid  bow 
retdily  maltUadev  abandon  tho  search 
for  Datarol  causes  in  faror  of  snperoata- 
rol  explanations  thut,  in  tbcirejca,  have 
the  double  merit  ufftaving  them  trouble 
and   nnnist«riDg   to   their   lore  of  the 

jaarrclouB.  I  a  this  a  disposition  that  a 
coltare  tihonld  Bet  himself  to 
ite  and  render  more  potent  for 
the  fabrication  of  mischievons  illusions  t 
Ttiat  is  what  Dr.  Ab1>ott  is  now  doin^, 
however,  and  we  ar-arctdy  nuderdland 
how  ho  can  bo  blind  to  the  fact. 

The  other  hji»othe«i8— that  after  a 
grodaal  and  voluntary  subjection  of  the 
nature  to  sin  in  some  form  or  other  the 
individual  posees  under  the  power  of  a 
fiend — errB  in  the  direction  of  super- 
fluity. If  Or.  Abbott  should  elect  to 
dtftud  by  this  viow  of  the  matter,  and, 
in  npito  of  hla  very  recent  indorsement, 
to  dismiss  hla  theory  of  twenty  years  o^ 

^oat  amiable  and  rcwpeotable  fieoplu 
coming  the  nctiina  of  diabolical  pes- 
(ie9.soh,  wc  fthoiild  then  only  hare  to  ask 
him  how  ho  diatinfrnishcs  between  slav- 
ery to  a  devil  and  that  alavory  to  evil 
prnpensUies  loUji:  indulged  which  the 
world  has  for  ages  recognized  as  a  famil- 
iar and  deplorable  phenoraeoon.  Tbe 
devil  in  this  case  seems  to  be  &  fifth 
wheel  to  the  coach,  and  even  worse 
than  a  fifth  wheel ;  for  it  is  honl  to  see 
how  the  weight  of  tho  vehirle  is  poJng 
to  be  mode  to  rc&ty  in  the  Blightust  do- 
grec,  on  so  unnecessary  an  adjuoot. 

LITERARY  NOTICES. 

NATtra&i.  IxacMTAHci.     Br  FftAVCii  0*i- 

roN.    London  sod  Kcv  lork :  Sjacmtllaa 
k  Co.     Fp.  350.     Pnce,  $2.50. 

Tux  name  of  thn  author  of  thli  wnrk  Is 
M<iitin«Mi  with  stiiiVies  of  pn>hl*mi»  Utat  U« 
at  the  base  of  tlie  ndenct  of  h«n*d]ty.  roons 
closely,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  other  who 
lias  writu<n  npcm  the  suhj(>ct  Upoa  H  he 
baa  pobll^hcd  Ave  book*  ami  fifteen  nrm- 
otrt  and  rartew  artielM,  ths  sartieAi  of 
vUoh  appeand  In  1B09.    Thai  work,  which 


covered  the  sulijnct  of  *'  fferviUtary  G<oi«v 

could  only  haro  bc«n  ilw  fruit  "f  lonjr«o»- 
tinued,  careful  sludlca,  aucb    .  'on 

Is  still  jiurtiuing,  but  under  in'  iirii 

mMbodhoed  fornix,  TliIs  volume  cxkotains 
the  more  tmportaal  of  the  rc4ulu  of  ihess 
oenttnued  re9carohe.4,  ««(  forth  in  an  oniet^ 
way,  with  mono  completeness  than  bos  hllb- 
erto  been  pos^ibW,  logetbiT  with  a  Urgs 
aiQouot  of  new  ojnttcr     Tbe  I'  '  '^«s 

to  the  inheritance  of  modcnr  o- 

al  ({ualitiift  by  tiruthorlifiod:!  aiiU  muUiiuiki 
mtht^r  than  by  imnviiluola.  Amnh^  the 
prublcms  to  be  dealt  with  lo  -  '  -^ 

lar  nticntion  la  eaUcd  arc  tttc    i.  :  -n 

lo  tho  curious  rognhu^ty  observcU  in  liiv  vto- 
tixtical  iwculisriUes  of  popnlatinat  during  a 
lung  series  of  gqavrations,  to  which  cvrtsia 
marks  that  may  not  recur  promlnsnlly  la 
the  groups  must  closely  related  to  ons  anoth- 
er, appear  mtml  distinctly  thnHij^h  the  whole; 
ilic  avvm^e  »har«  cuulribulcd  lo  dio  persoa> 
a1  features  of  the  offspring  by  each  anccjtor 
soTcraJIy  \  oxul  the  neamcts  of  kloaUip  lo 
JiiToreni  degrees.  Tike  discussion  is  opsnsd 
with  an  accotiui  of  tbe  proceMss  ia  bsredltj, 
in  which  a  disliuction  Is  marked  t>ecwmi 
natural  and  acquired  iHicidioHtiea,  and  fam* 
ily  likeness  and  lodividiul  variation,  latent 
charoctoriatics,  blcodlng  and  mutually  «xdu- 
idre  heritages,  and  petty  ioflucuccs  sre  cet»- 
sidervd.  Tlie  man  iK'log  luually  ons  t««Utfa 
larger  than  tlie  woman,  a  rule  is  found  for 
transmatlng  female  into  ntale  msasufaa  m 
as  to  fix  a  nnlform  standaH.  applleatft^  lo 
cithiT  sex,    Tl»e  tenn  '  H*. 

anoc*^  is  defined  as  rrl  >  i  ni 

elements  which  we  Inherit  from  this  pcD- 
genitOT  atul  that,  and  as  oorcrlng  th«  EAoaka* 
labU  numlH'T  of  sniall  and  mnatly  iniknvva 
circunuitanres  that  mfl  --  ■  ""'  '■  ^'~!np. 
menu     In  a  ctiapter  on  -  r  ** 

the  effort  is  mode  to  chow,  m  ii>[uumr  jitti» 
kratinns  frura  cnoitiion  tlilugn,  bow  trjiea 
may  come  abnut  anrl  br  pc rpcloatcd ;  bow 
**  sports  "  may  auddejily  appear  and  then  «&• 
dure ;  and,  f  mm  thin,  that  rvolttltoo  Is  ft«l 
by  minute  steps  only,  but  tssy  oovor  bf 
Jumps.  The  sccouut  of  th«  ttrtboiS  by 
wtikli  tbu  author's  **  sohemca  "  and  his  mtoi 
for  csthnatiug  the  value  of  hts  rcsutis  ««» 
pn*p*rtM  !•  ,..!«..(.  „,..!  ..-,...,  Wif^  m  g 
niatbf^matin  inv,  bal, 

nke    a   mathemaucai    uTmuELffiiauoOi 


^ERARY  NOTICES. 


* 


Um  preeeoici  tre  nutnrcd.  By  it  ia 
equatioQ  stigji;ejitlug  a  tbeoi^  of 
iftMowc,  lA  be  tppllcU  in  the  eubseqacnt  la- 
iWillfilloiiw  Tint  iuvMttgfttiona  were  made 
bjr  ihc  Aid  of  eip<ff1raeat9  on  swert  pus  (the 
rt]W«  of  tlie  peftf  of  a  crop),  tnd  on  motiu 
Ikcvd  for  (hfi  porpoM,  uid  of  aUout  a  biin> 
tirtil  »"  '  It  reoonia.     The  records, 

oT  CBOT  -  fACM  rvtatiug  to  »  Tuily 

Urgcr  Dumber  oi  p«rsoiw.  Tbe  chief  ftub- 
J«cti  to  which  tbej  relate  are  etatare,  eyo- 
e»h>r,  ««mper,  ibi;  aiti«tlc  fAcultv,  some 
famm  of  dlMaw,  ntarrUge  icluoiioa,  uml  fer- 
tittlf.  Tho  lt«m  of  itJture  offcra  many  ad- 
▼nlttges  hi  tbe  study — from  tbc  eaM  and 
ff^qunttej  with  which  it  may  be  measored 
ud  ki  pradical  conptancy  during  many 
ywa,  from  the  fact  thai  it  U  uot  a  dimple 
bat  U  the  Rum  of  the  accumulated 
or  tbtckntfuiies  of  many  bodily  elc- 
BflBli^aDd  btoauM  tta  dincuiafon  need  Dot  be 
cnlucted  with  oonaidentiona  of  marriof^ 
ariflCdoB,  and  its  TariabtUty  ia  normal.  To 
tb*  lBb«rit«oc«  of  stature  each  mtd^parent 
(mfldUa  betwfcu  ibc  two  parents)  contrlb- 
«ia«  on  Ingnwion  marked  wa  one  half,  each 
ladtrUoal  pamt  one  quarter^  and  each  IndK 
vUttal  gnndpanni  oo«*«ixtccnth.  A  like 
1m'ih<Iim7  r^tloo  Is  found  to  extiit  between 
th*  man  and  Us  ancestors  in  the  matter  of 
«7»4right.  (n  (lotnt  of  the  artistic  faculty, 
bighly  RtlttUc  people  hitormart7,  while  mod- 
cnUfely  artistic  people  do  not  so  aeuallv.  be- 
eaose,  **A  man  of  highly  artbitic  tempera- 
mms  moat  look  on  ibo««  who  aro  deficient 
la  it  as  harbarlAnsi  h«  would  oootlnually 
cnre  for  a  sympathy  and  response  that  such 
pccsntw  are  laoapablc  of  giving.  Om  tlie  utber 
band,  srrry  qnlet  tmntudcal  man  must  ghrink 
•  IttUs  fnvn  the  idea  of  wedding  hini<<rlf  to  a 
frtnd  plaoo  in  coostant  action,  with  Its  Tocal 
atnd  ptfcolfar  social  accoropanlmeou ;  but  he 
■il^M  aatldpako  p'^^t  pleasure  in  hiiTing  a 
«tf«  «if  n  modsracely  arlUtvc  Icmp9rarn<.-n1, 
«ko  would  ^re  color  and  rarfety  to  his  pro- 
aate  Ucl  On  tb«  other  hand^  a  sensitive  and 
fcma^wtJTS  wife  would  bo  oonsdona  of  need- 
Iqg  tW  old  of  ft  husband  who  had  enough 
MBse  to  reitrtfa  her  too  en- 
fnapientlj  foolish  projecta." 
Of  tlis  |irohtem  as  related 
to  Mmmi  I,  th.-  "Tves;  "The  viut 

mrtrfw  of  A  Iff  thoie  of  a  rast 

army  varrfdaf  rmnk  hchind  rank,  acrosa  tb« 


treacherous  table-land  of  life.  Some  of  ita 
members  drop  out  of  sight  at  erery  stup, 
and  ft  new  rank  is  ever  rising  to  tako  the 
place  vacated  by  the  rack  that  preceded  it, 
and  which  has  already  moved  on.  Tbc  pop- 
ulation retaini)  lis  peou]iaritie«,  although  tlie 
elements  of  which  it  \s  composed  are  never 
stationary;  neither  are  the  same  individuals 
present  at  any  two  suoccssive  epochs.  In 
these  respects  a  population  may  be  compared 
to  a  cloud  that  seems  to  rcjuse  in  calm  upon 
a  mo'intHin  platrau  while  a  gale  of  wind  is 
blowing  over  it.  The  outline  of  the  cloud 
remains  unchanged,  although  its  elements 
are  in  violent  movement  and  in  a  condition 
of  perpetual  destruction  and  rcovwul.  ,  .  . 
Both  in  the  cloud  and  in  the  population 
there  arc  continual  supply  and  in-rush  of 
new  individuals  from  tbc  unseen;  they  re- 
main awhil<*  as  risible  objects  and  then 
disappear.  The  cloud  and  the  population 
ore  composed  of  elements  that  rceemble 
inch  other  in  the  brevity  of  their  cKistcnec, 
while  the  gvnoral  features  of  tbe  cloud  and  of 
the  population  are  alike  In  that  they  abide." 
f>ne  of  the  striking  facts  disclosed  in  the 
clab«ifiuaUon  of  the  dlseaaos  of  each  family 
is  iheir  great  Intcnnixture.  We  know  very 
little  about  the  effects  of  njch  mixture,  how 
far  they  ore  mutually  exclusive,  and  how  far 
they  blend ;  or  how  far,  when  they  blend, 
they  change  Into  a  third  form.  Owing  to 
the  habit  of  free  intermarriage,  no  person 
can  be  exempt  from  tbe  inheritance  of  a  va- 
riety of  diseases,  or  of  8pei:ial  tendencies  to 
them.  While  death  by  mere  old  age  and 
failure  of  vital  powers  appears  common,  it  is 
not  found,  sa  a  rule,  that  the  chlMren  of  per- 
^rm»  who  die  of  old  ago  have  any  marked 
immunity  from  spedfic  dises9«s.  Applying 
the  intpiiry  to  oonsumptinn,  the  law  of  hered> 
lly  found  to  (;;ovem  the  other  facultioa  exam- 
ined appears  to  govrrn  that  of  liability  to 
this  disease  bIh),  although  tho  constants  of 
the  formula  differ  eligliSJy.  It  is  not  po«- 
slblc  that  moru  than  one  half  of  the  varie- 
ties and  number  of  each  of  the  parental  ele^ 
meiilB,  latent  or  pervcmal,  can,  on  the  average, 
Bubsbt  in  the  offspring;  for  a  calculation 
bosod  upon  the  suppoelUon  that  they  can  all 
he  conveyed  would  soon  lead  into  ah^urdt- 
liea.  But  if  the  pcrsoiml  and  latent  cl«- 
mcnia  ore  transmitted  on  the  average  In 
•qua]  numbert,  It  Is  dU&cult  to  suppose  that 


•T' 


^m 


TUB  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOKTELT. 


there  can  be  much  tiifferenoe  in  their  Tariciy. 
Mr.  (ialtofi^fl  iDqutiipM,  as  a  whole,  caa  he 
hardly  ragarded  aa  more  ihan  pioneer  work, 
the  flctcnnioatc  and  accurate  resulta  of  whidi 
have  yet  to  be  brought  out  Tlic  oonclu- 
Aiona,  he  remarks,  "depend  on  ideon  that 
muit  first  be  well  comprehended,  and  which 
arc  DOW  novel  to  the  large  majorit/  of  read- 
pre,  and  unfamiliar  to  all  fiut  those  who 
oan!>  to  brace  iheinMlrca  to  a  nL^taUicd  effort, 
need  not  (et^l  much  regret  that  tha  road  to 
be  traveled  orcr  \i  inilirect,  and  does  not 
admit  of  being  mapped  beforehand  in  a  wajr 
Uioy  can  clt-'url;  understand.  It  itt  full  of 
interest  of  It^  own.  It  familiarizes  us  with 
the  meaBurerocnt  of  Tariabilitj,  and  with  cu- 
riou«  laws  of  chance  that  apply  to  a  rast  di- 
versity of  «ooial  subjects.  This  part  of  the 
luiry  msy  be  said  lo  run  along  a  road  on 
high  level,  that  affords  wide  views  ia  un- 
•xpected  directions,  and  from  which  easy 
do^oeots  may  be  made  to  totally  different 
goals  from  those  we  bare  now  to  rcAcli.** 

The  Cuitical  Puiod  or  Amciuoan  Bistort. 
178a-l789.  By  Joan  Fiskk.  Bo«toa: 
Houghton,  Himia  k  Co.    Fp.  S6fi.    Frioc, 

Ov  hearing  the  news  of  tlie  treaty  which 
•ndod  the  Revolutionary  War,  Thomaa  Paine 
stopped  the  publiciiion  of  "The  Crisis,"  de- 
olartog,  "  The  times  that  tried  men's  souls 
ftm  over.'*  So  far  from  this  being  tbo  caso. 
Prof.  Flske  ssts,  "  The  most  trying  time  of 
ail  was  just  bcginnfng.  Xt  is  net  too  much 
to  ftsy  llmt  the  period  of  Ave  years  following 
the  peace  of  17B3  was  the  most  critioal  mo- 
ment in  all  the  hbitonr  of  the  American  peo- 
ple." The  American  commonwealth  was 
then  a  tender  plant,  beset  by  many  and  va> 
vied  dangers,  and  only  the  mo£t  judicioas 
management  could  hsve  preserved  its  life 
antti  it  hsd  ukcn  firm  root.  Prof.  Fiske  In 
hid  first  chjipter  recounts  the  negotiations  at 
Paris  in  1763  aod  17S3  in  rcf;ard  to  the 
trt'aly  of  p<»oe,  Kiting  eoptcdal  attention  to 
Sing  George's  iroablea  with  his  tnooeBsirc 
cablnals,  and  thidr  bearing  on  the  qusstlons 
at  Unue.  This  Is  followed  by  a  survey  of 
the  obangn^  in  forms  of  governmoDt,  and  In 
R^rd  lo  the  euoocflsion  of  property,  alarery, 
■ad  church  eatahljuihnirnt  made  by  thn  tbir- 
•atn  oommonwealths  Itt  ooosctqaenw  of  ob- 
Ululng  independasM*  of  Bngluid.    Th«  Mit 


two  chapters  icll  of  the  < '  '  *QV« 

tlic  path   of  Congress  t;  iitttit 

the  nnpald  army ;  by  the  unwillininiMi  of  tha 
people  to  pay  taxes  for  the  support  of  (bo 
General  (jovemmont,  or  to  pay  thclr  dohts  lo 
British  creditors ;  by  their  jcalouny  of  any 
semblance  to  royal  power  or  hereditary  priri. 
I^ie;  by  the  commerdal  hostility  between 
the  States,  and  State  quarrels  over  eoAlte^ 
iug  boundary  claims ;  by  the  poverty  of  lb* 
country  and  the  confusion  of  the  curmcy 
— until  finally  insttrrectiuos  in  iome  of  lb* 
States  forced  uiKin  a  majority  of  llic  fteopte 
the  conviction  that  somotlilKg  roust  tte  done, 
and  done  qujckly.  The  author  then  shows 
how  a  spirit  favorable  to  strengthening  the 
national  Oovcmment  grew  cmt  of  vmrluus  oe- 
ctirrcnces.  One  of  Ihcw  waa  tbo  sctttcoaenl 
of  the  oonfiictlng  claims  of  the  Stales  tolaadi 
west  of  the  AUeghonios  by  tho  furr«ider  of 
all  these  claims  to  the  Tulied  tftates ;  so- 
other wss  a  difficulty  with  f^p^in  id  rrganl  U> 
the  navigation  of  the  lower  Hls&IaiippL  The 
convention  which  drew  np  the  new  Ooostl- 
tution  was  led  up  to  In  a  most  cauiioas  way. 
"At  first,"  ssYB  Prof.  Flske,  'Mt  waa  to  be 
just  a  little  meeting  of  two  or  three  States  la 
talk  about  the  Putomao  Biver  and  some  pro- 
jected canals  '* ;  then  eommtssioners  from  alt 
the  SCatos  were  invited  to  be  proacat  and  die- 
eusB  soma  imiform  tystem  of  legieladoa  on 
the  subjeet  of  trade ;  and,  finally,  the  plan  far 
a  oonrenliun  to  devise  provisions  **  Ui  maler 
the  ConstitotloD  of  the  Fcileral  Government 
adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  HakkQ** 
was  oRldsIIy  adopted  by  Congraa. 

Ttie  story  of  ihe  work  done  liy  tlie  Fed> 
cral  Convendon  forms  the  chief  chapter  of 
UiO  volumCf  and  la  told  in  a  way  to  abow  ibe 
interactions  of  tho  oppr>elng  tod  dlverftof 
forces  whose  roenltaut  was  tlie  Cooctitntiaa 
of  the  (Tulted  SUtea.  Thro  followa  as  ae- 
coiint  of  the  discussion  and  rmtifleadoa  of 
the  document  by  the  several  State*!  ao4  tte 
election  and  inauguration  of  Washhiglatt  u 
President,  and  the  critioal  period  of  Aiattfi* 
an  history  was  lafely  paMcd.  Prnt  fUet 
offers  his  book  lo  the  aludeal  Of  AttMefcaa 
history,  not  as  a  complete  Manavy  of  the 
events  of  the  period  whloh  It  oows,  Bor  as 
a  discussion  of  the  poUtlosl  quasUuas  la- 
Tulvtfd  In  tliem,  bnt  mthvr  a«  a  grw«pli^(  of 
the  main  faeH  In  sucli  a  way  aa  lo  biiig  «tt 
ihair  o»aaal  aaiigaoflb 


4 


4 


LITER  ART  XOTICES, 


277 


* 


Vattiiaimt,     By  Dr.  J.  E 

F.  U   .S.  KdiLor  of  "Science- 

Co»ip.**     With  $60  iDiutnUons.     New 

York:     D.    Applelon   &.  Co.     pp.   as?. 

Priop,  ii.ao. 

Xo  beitfr  sutemcM  of  the  scope  and 
;||trit  of  ilt«  "  riAftimc  XaiuniHst'*  can  be 
I^Tva  ihui  b^  quoting  iu  preface  enlirc.  It 
b  M  fuUum :  "  The  writer  gf  ibis  book  fau 
■  UUckg  for  InidUgiTTit  EogliAb  lads,  juM  as 
•orat  peopltf  bnvo  for  blue  china  iinti  etub- 
tttga  H«  Teatnrea  to  think  ibc  ronucr  arc 
even  mora  iotorMtlng  objects.  And,  as  the 
VY{l«r  mu  oaoe  a  boy  hliii5«'If,  ami  vividly 
VtBOMnbor*  Ibe  nBTcr-to-be-lorgottcnruiibled 
•ad  olnvnralloiu  ol  the  objoote  in  ibe  coun- 
Ifj ;  tadf  moroovcr,  u  he  treuuros  up  »ucb 
NbUbIaowiom  Kt  the  moit  plcaaant  aad  ia- 
nooMk  of  u  actiro  raan'fi  life,  bo  thought  he 
ootilil  not  do  betttff  than  onlut  thlj  younger 
pauntloD  bk  tbo  umo  loroa  omt  ihu  uunc 
pl«uart4.  Ho  ha«  endeavored  to  do  hia 
bcaC  for  hii  bumaa  hubbies,  and  hopes  their 
Bvta  WMj  ba  rid^er  and  aweeler  and  inor« 
nunly  for  wtmt  b«  baa  iutroduocd  ibem  to 
In  thr  fultuwing  pagea.** 

Th€  book  \i  a  atory  of  the  collecting  done 
by  iba  boy*  of  "  Mugby  ychool,"  and  its 
atyU  nay  bo  *cm  ia  the  scciiou  relatin;i;  to 
iab-acml«a,  pabliihnl  In  the  kUy  number  of 
tblj  magsjJiut.  Tli«re  u  a  dcHgtitfuI  chapter 
e»rl/  to  thit  relume  cntiilad  "Among  the 
fUnlO  aoid  thi«  u  followed  by  a  faj«cinating 
aeeouBl  of  moth  and  butterfly  collecting.  A 
varii«3r  of  la*ccC«  of  land  and  water,  land 
•*"  newts,  etc.,  and   tuioroscopic 

•*"  JDtJi,  rcocUc  aitcniion  intum- 

Tbo  doKTiptiotis  art'  accompanied  by  aa 
•boBilaiioo  uf  Ulutiirationa,  which  aid  in 
UcBlliytag  tbo  oeatttrrs  deacribed,  4uid  add 
nttdi  lo  th«  aUracdvcucas  of  ih«  Tolmne. 
No  book  belter  adapted  to  aruaa«  a  lore  of 
I  in  ibo  jrooog  baa  baoi  pabliabod  to  a 


»l*    (f.    MlM  <0T   of 

in    Vale    1  New 

,Y  urfc :    John  WUer  &  ^lu.    pp.  469 

Tm  smbor  «tet«a  a«  the  aim  of  thi«  book, 

lo  oiaMa  tb«  ilodent  to  grup  tlie  fnndo- 
iBcatal  priodplea  of  the  ftci*ncc,  and  at  the 
anaa  itaie  to  loam  aomathing  of  tho  cbem- 
ititrj  of  oomaoa  tkhq^L.    The  work  ia  a^Upu  ! 


ed  to  atadcnta  of  college  age.  Th«  "peri- 
odic classifi cation  "  hati  been  nude  the  boais 
of  ammgement.  The  aodic  and  l*sic  groups 
are  treated  alternately  in  onler  to  disctua 
bases  and  salts  early  in  the  courac,  aa  woU 
as  to  give  constant  rariety  to  the  oharaotcr 
of  the  uxperimeutd  |>crform«l.  Compouoda 
of  the  rare  itlomenta  are  deHcrihcd,  to  make 
evident  the  roaaons  for  the  olassificaliotif 
and  also  to  serve  aa  a  btuis  for  the  Bumma- 
rieis  of  the  groupfl.  Graphic  and  ooosticu- 
tional  formulas  are  mach  ui»ed.  The  rea- 
sons for  a  number  of  conetitntional  forrnU' 
las  arc  given,  and.  in  case  of  oompounda 
whose  oonstitiition  is  not  understood,  care  !a 
generally  taken  to  state  that  the  conatlcu- 
tional  formulas  eroptnyed  arc  assiinKHt  from 
analogy.  Conaiderablo  matter  fnicuded  for 
reading  rather  than  recitation  ia  dii«tinguisbod 
by  small  type.  The  volume  is  introduced 
by  a  short  chapter  on  the  phyidcs  of  chem- 
istry, which  includes  an  account  of  eryslAt' 
lography  and  of  the  Uwa  of  gasea.  D^ 
tailed  directions  for  eipcriments,  and  a  large 
number  of  figures  of  apparatus,  are  given. 
Much  paini  is  taken  to  abow  the  relation. 
ship  between  the  members  of  each  group 
bj  means  of  summaries.  Presentations  of 
chemical  principles  are  scattered  at  inter- 
vals through  the  book. 

Natitii  urn  Mas.  EanATS  Sciimno  asv 
ruitosopaiCAL.  By  William  B.  Gaji- 
PE.NTia,  with  an  Introductorv  Memoir  by 
J.  EarLW  CAwnfTot.  New  York:.  D.  A  p- 
pletoo  ft  Co.     Pp.  483.     Price,  ♦i,25. 

Tux  fifteen  cssayn  ooDtamed  in  thi»  vol- 
ume represent  chiefly  the  latter  phases  of 
Dr.  Carpenter's  thoughts  on  the  problems 
concerned  with  the  interpretation  of  nature 
and  man.  Be  bcUovod  some  of  the  conclu. 
alona  which  they  embody  to  be  of  high  im- 
portance in  the  j^idonce  of  life.  They  were 
the  result  of  long  observation,  and  in  some 
cases  differed  widely  from  the  idea*  which 
hi*  early  education  and  hi£  first  stodicfl  had 
led  him  to  adopt.  Mr.  J.  Enilin  Carpenter 
undertakes  in  the  "  Memorial  Sketch "  to 
indicate  some  of  the  processes  which  con- 
tributed to  this  change,  and  to  present  bdefly 
the  connection  between  Dr.  Carpenter's  va- 
ried work  and  the  personality  from  which 
his  many-sided  energy  flowed  out.  An  in- 
teresting and  instructive  delineation  is  given 
of  the   varioue  phasca  which  Dr.  Coipen- 


^78 


TffE  POP\ 


R  svrsycB  mo. 


(cr*!  Ticws,  particularly  thnic  bearing  upon 
the  relations  of  Cheological  and  sdpzitiflc 
lhoug1it«  underwent  tn  the  counc  of  hia  tran* 
9ilioa  fn.)m  strict  tdeologi.im  to  th«  full  ao- 
oeptanco  of  dtc  thmnr  of  crotution.  He 
rccdved  his  earif  education  uudt>r  ibo  ta- 
|>crintomlcnce  of  bid  faiber,  a  Unitarian  min< 
I^tcr,  ifbo  wai  aocujitunied  to  insist  in  biei 
teavhiog  on  the  importance  ol  brio  dog  the 
reasoning  powcn  to  bear  apoo  obwrved 
fao4a — a  principle  which  the  philosopher  ap- 
pllc<1  well  in  bia  after-etuditta.  In  hift  liix- 
Lth  year  he  became  tnlcrcstod  in  &tr.  Ex* 
'  New  Theory  of  Matter,"  a  book  de- 
to  showing  that  "  all  the  attractions 
of  graritation,  cohesion,  electricity,  ehcmi- 
ofclf  magnetic^  etc.,'*  can  be  explained  upon 
the  sauie  principle*.  Il  woi  a  first  attempt 
to  demonstrate  the  correlation  of  forces. 
While  Dr.  Cflrpcnter  was  active  in  proMcot- 
ing  lib  phTi^iological  investigation s,  and  bad 
alieady  louclied  upon  tlte  auuilarity  in  the 
character  of  the  lawa  regulating  rital  and 
pliysical  phenumuna*  the  affairs  id  bis  re- 
UgiouA  society  obtained  a  nearly  equal  share 
of  his  interest.  Ue  cultivated  music,  particu- 
larly or|(ao  music,  with  great  assiduity.  With 
tills  laite,  and  partly  directing  it,  pcrbapA, 
was  auodated  the  preparatiun  of  a  collec- 
tion of  psalm-tunee  for  bid  little  chapel  at 
Edinburgh.  Uift  adherence  to  ibc  Unitarian 
faith  bsrred  him  from  a  profesaoraUp  hi  the 
university,  for  which  ho  desired  to  tie  a  caii< 
didate.  When  he  had  removed  from  Edin- 
burgh, be  felt  the  losii  of  public  worship 
more  than  any  other  inooovonieooe  of  bis 
ailualioD,  and  wiftbed  be  could  bo  back  at  his 
old  poflt,  where  he  could  take  bis  part  In  lead- 
ing the  *' devotional  feelings  of  the  congre- 
gation.*' When  the  "  Vestiges  of  Creation  " 
a}ip«<ar«d,  a  few  of  ita  tonceplions  were 
found  to  be  so  •Imllar  to  thouf^hts  that  he 
had  cxprcftscd,  that  some  readers  attribiitnl 
il  to  him ;  but  he  was  not  prepared  to  ae< 
crrpl  the  main  doctrine  of  tliat  book,  abd  an* 
Bwored  it  by  saying  that,  ai  we  Usd  scr'ipt* 
urmi  authority  for  believing  that  the  Creator 
formed  man  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  he 
muiit  oonCcBH  ld«  predllceiioii  for  b»li?vlng 
that  the  Creator  bad  at  some  period  "  en- 
dowed certain  forms  of  organlo  mattrr  with 
the  profirrliiiii  rmpilnile  to  onaMo  '' 
oamliloft  al  Llie  fttting  scauiu  iuU* 
ttut  oqpudaa  " — rmtber  that  thai  we  ere 


the  Cf». 
it  are  te- 


desecnded  from  a  ohlopeittML  Ho  Uogbl 
that  a  eommuu  designed  plan  tvlgae*!  in  ttti: 
evoltititto  of  the  solar  syvtcm,  of  hamaa 
forms,  and  of  the  entire  or^nlc  worhl ;  b*- 
Uered  thoroughly  in  the  reellty  of  miradet) 
and  held  tltut  man  Is  fie< 
atctr  for  all  his  act*,  c^ 
ally  Cod's  own.    Wbilc:li     -i  * 

views  conccmiDg  tlic  r -■-i       '       '   *^  ■ 
wcro  taking  mon;  ■!■  !i!  >.    -I.    ;■:  ,  i 
of  the   Der>'ou8   bv.-!i  id    "cr.     ' 
panded  and  leading  him  U> 
iona  concerning  the  will  and  n,^.-,  ,    -,    .^. 
bilily.     When  Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Spodc*  *• 
appeared,  "br  was  well  titled  loapprcdaicthe 
geueral  srgumcnt,'*  for  he  had  long  lltnuphl 
00  the  flobject  of  modification   by  dcscmc, 
and  while  he  had  wjcctcl  llie  theorr  of  the 
"  VcMigv-V  '*  H  bad  liren  on  '  '*  ol 

injullicicut  evidence  and  ph;-i  *>r, 

not  from  ihrtJuErical  preposseaeion/'  He 
had  written  tu  his  ImHhrr  Ku*«eU  In  1874, 
that  one  of  fais  great  d^iuK-s  was  '*  to  br  of 
some  use  as  a  mediator  tu  the  cnolllot  wUdi 
has  DOW  distinctly  begun  betwcm  sdcnee 
and  theology.  I  see  i^uite  clearly  that  it  Is 
of  no  use  tn  try  to  grapple  aUh  the  subject 
unless  one  thoroughly  masters  tbif>  questiea 
on  both  sides."  Ills  views  on  the  quealione 
rsised  by  Darwin's  ihc^-t  <•«- 

pre^M-d  in  a  seni!'Aulot>i  -  oo 

"  Darwinium  in  Eugland,''  wbi' '  '  ^ 

in  Malu  in  lt«81,  and  which  i'  ICr. 

Estlin  Carpenter's  "  McoiDrial."  lUs  Iheo- 
lo^'cal  views  were  disturbed  by  this  eoona 
of  thinking,  but  he  wrote  In  a  letter:  **l 
believe  that  thc»  dllBculties  are  a  ncccMMy 
result  uf  the  liablu  of  thought  «blcb  hftve 
bwii  growing  up  wtlb  ma ;  and,  as  ihey  ntrvr 
objure  my  view  of  duty,  1  6nd  It  better  not 
to  trouble  myself  loo  much  about  them,  but 
to  apply  my*clf  to  tbif  business  of  the  time-* 
Throogh  thee  difflculiies,  Dr  Carpenter,  we 
arc  tuld.  "  after  no  long  Interval,  woriEcd  his 
way.  The  Atrong  rcUgtoos  Beods  of  bis  na* 
Uirv  found  thoir  MllJ»faetloQ  (a  Uke  view  of 
the  world  depiotrd  in  the  later  cMayi  lb  thU 

volume."     Of  thooesay-  "   '' -'  r»+ 

lection,  five  relate  to  pi  •in* 

muscubu'  raovemrnt,   aui    >•  w 

msn  a«  the  lalerprsier  of  n^  .  -y- 

<  of  bcQef,  and  the  **  Fallacies  U  Tae- 
;  In  Rslatloa  Be  the  finpii'aeiBiel  **  { 
two,  iQ  btuoeti  ealrtrmtli ;  «nt|  to  *1l« 


4 
1 


4 


ZITERART  NOTICES, 


DiMp  8m  ud  lu  Oafiants  ** ;  foar,  to  '*Tbe 
Fbrw  behind  Nftturc,**  "Xature  and  Uw," 
^  Tbt  Dootrifie  of  ETolution  in  lu  KcUtitiofl  to 
n«Uia,"  And  **  Th*  Argument  from  Design 
!a  Um  Oripitiic  World."  Tbe  Uat  of  Dr.  Car- 
pentor**  writioir*  oouUuu  tiro  btmdred  and 
BiivCy-tiirN  titles. 


ri .    ■ 

P«uum'i  Sooa. 


FanxAN.     Br 

i.nsof  UieDay 
...  .,..«  York;  G.  P. 
Pp.  2d2.    Prico,  11.25. 


Tvi  eailmate  of  negro  character  which 
pivratla  In  Ifae  Xortbrm  Buies,  where  ne- 
giDM  are  few,  has  been  more  Induenocd  bjr 
kaovMge  of  ihe  wrongs  which  tbe  race  h4S 
■uftitd  than  by  aciiiminianco  with  tho  aot- 
wJ  babiu  of  ib«  bla«Jc  people.  Hr.  Brucc's 
▼olimie  will  dlvpel  any  too  idral  view  of  the 
black  t*e«  which  the  reader  may  bold.  It  ia 
a  rtrj  iKorougfa  pr««cautioa  of  thoir  mim- 
Ul  Mil  noral  tnha,  aa  Exhibited  iu  all  the 
Mlallona  of  life,  t>aji<fd  upoo  ul>- 
of  Ibp  author  rx  tending  orvr  a  long 
of  fnndnoe«mancipatioD,  in  "South. 
■U*  yicginia,"  a  region  containing  a  colored 
popaUsiofi  of  atroqt  two  hundred  and  fifty 
Ihnwdi  Ut.  Brace  repiaeoto  tbe  negro 
■a  *  «u«leai  and  aipridoaa  parent,  a*  b<dng 
^eddadly  lax  in  irgard  to  the  marriage  tic, 
M  dip—diiig  00  firm  management  for  hia 
vi!iM  M  ■  MrraDt,  and  as  humble  or  Impcr> 
IImm  In  dMMaaor  toward  tbe  whites  accord- 
ing la  Uw  vay  he  Is  treatod.  Eia  crlmca 
tn  of  tbe  fanpoldVe  olaa>  he  ia  not  a  cool 
nod  mlgghllBg  vUkln.  Ab  a  roter  he  la 
•Mfl^  Ind  Mtray,  and  El  becoming  readily 
psnkninble.  Rla  raliglon  li  emotional,  and 
batf  bat  little  infloonce  on  lUa  conduct.  He 
b  highly  aapendlloua,  and  baa  great  faith  in 
Ibt  tridc  doctor.  Tbe  author  thinlu  that  the 
oedlnary  aort  of  odncation  furnished  the  ne- 
po  burli  htm  iti  toine  ways,  as  well  aa  hctp- 
Ea|t  him,  and  that  a  ayitcm  mod)6cd  so  aa  to 
bn  ndnptod  to  bla  character  would  be  much 
■ere  of  a  beiwiflt.  About  the  suae  that  waa 
hU  «f  th«  blaok  u  a  wrrant  appUea  to  him 
M  a  Carm  laborvr  lie  delighta  to  own  or 
ivaft  land,  but  his  laxlneaa  makes  him  an  im- 
dm^nbla  leaant.  Aji  n  mechanic  he  \s  gen- 
•nlly  only  a  helper.  Xr.  Broer  regards  the 
ni^p«  BOt  t*  befall  caaentially  deprared,  but 
na  bavbg  many  unfortunate  wMkne*«efl,  and 
ibb  oflniaa  itocninntw  she  new  as  to  the  fti- 


tnrc  of  the  raee  whi<di  he  girea  In  the  doe- 
hig  cbaptor.  ile  regards  the  proper  aolutlon 
of  the  negro  problem  aa  a  matter  of  pro- 
found solicitude  to  a  large  and  important  part 
of  our  country. 

A  Uaxital  or  Isstkpctio*  ik  tbx  PaiNa- 
pLis  or  pROHPT  Aw  Tu  TUK  Injurko.  By 
Altah  il.  Doty,  M.  D.  New  York:  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.  Pp.  234.  Price,  «1.26. 
lit  order  that  the  subject  of  thU  volume 
may  be  well  understood,  it  is  esAcntlal  to 
know  something  of  the  conatruction  of  the 
human  body  and  the  functions  of  tlie  dlffor- 
eut  urgona.  Fur  this  rca»ou  the  author  dc- 
rotes  about  a  third  of  the  volume  to  anat- 
omy and  pliTEiologT.  Cuiutng  to  the  nppU- 
cation  of  thi3  knowledge,  he  describes  the 
use  of  roller  bandages,  of  fuur-tailed,  siiuare, 
triangle,  and  cravat  handagefl ;  of  filingn,  com* 
pru0!>e«,  and  tampons ;  also  tbe  tying  of  knot^ 
tho  making  of  poultices,  and  tbe  applicAtion 
of  moist  ami  dry  beat.  Half  a  dozen  pages 
are  devoted  to  antiseptics  and  deodorants. 
The  various  forma  of  injury  are  then  de- 
scribed, and  the  prc^pcr  troAtment  for  each 
i«  elated.  Under  wounds,  tbe  bites  of  dogs 
and  anakes  are  Included.  Tho  chapter  on 
bicmorrhagc  contains  a  diagram  showing  tbtt 
position  of  the  important  arteries,  and  a  out 
of  a  auepcnder  so  deviled  as  to  be  especially 
useful  in  cose  of  en>ei|{ency  for  constricting 
a  bleeding  limb.  Hie  uo  of  Tarloua  arti- 
cIcH  likely  to  be  at  hand  aa  temporary  splints 
and  elings  in  cases  of  fracture  is  described. 
A  Toriety  of  tnjuries,  many  of  them  involT- 
ing  UDConsciousness,  receive  due  atientlon. 
Among  those  are  bums,  frost-bite,  fainting, 
stunning,  intoxicalicm,  fits,  hysteria,  and 
heat-etroko. 

In  the  treatment  of  drowned  persona, 
three  methods  of  artiflcial  respiration  aro 
given,  with  fignres.  There  ia  a  chapter  on 
poisons,  and  another  in  which  a  variety  of 
injuries  and  affections  are  treated,  including 
convulsion.^  of  children,  bed-«orcfl,  chafing, 
etc  The  Ia<it  chapter  is  on  transportatloa 
of  the  patient,  either  with  or  without  a  lit- 
ter, mani]factured  or  extemporised,  and  in- 
cludes by  pcrmlsi^Ion  thiit  part  of  (he  *'  Man- 
ual of  Instruction  forllospitol  Corps,  U.S.A.** 
which  a'lnles  to  transportation  of  the  wound- 
ed, with  tho  cuts.  The  author  statos  that 
Rpcoial  effort  !ias  been  made  to  so  arrange 
tho  matter  and  to  Introduoa  such  points  ne 


4 
4 


i 


will  muke  the  book  of  use  to  the  smtraltnoe 
oorp*  onnnectcd  with  the  differntl  TnlliUry 
oi^nuatioojp.  Uc  has  eadeavored  Co  cxplua 
each  topic  in  a  eimple  manacr,  and  when 
medico]  torma  are  used  Uieir  lay  fynonrms 
are  aLio  giretL  Numerous  itlufitrations  hare 
bveo  iDFertml  lo  aid  iu  laakiog  tluf  wgrk  read- 
ily lntolligibl& 

Tmt  ItfjiAare  im  Forkiom  Coc?mtiE9.  By 
William  P.  LrrcawoRTB.  Scrr  Vork: 
G.l'.Pntnam'BSorL.*.    Pp.  374.    Price,  f3. 

Tais  Tolume,  by  the  President  of  the 
New  Tork  Stat«  Board  uf  Charitiea^  u  an 
impunaot  conlribuUoa  to  the  literature  of 
itti  subject.  It  embodioH  an  exaiuinatioo  of 
European  methods  of  caring  for  the  iDMoe, 
especially  the  inminc  in  public  indtitutions, 
pursued  without  bitemiptlon  for  seven 
monttta,  aupplcmcntcd  by  information  ob- 
tuiaod  aince  (be  time  of  the  author^s  risit. 
By  way  of  coatnttt,  a  brief  introductory 
sketch  of  the  ways  In  which  the  luaane  were 
treatt'd  in  earlier  times  ia  given.  The  tcys- 
teiua  uuipluyed  iu  Bugland,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  are  then  deaoribed  in  turn,  and  the 
ractcristica  of  representutive  Cuntincntol 
Uultonis  are  set  forth.  A  chapter  each 
given  to  the  inmno  colony  of  Gheel,  In 
iicl^um,  where  ia  the  celebrated  shrine  of 
St  Dyrophna,  and  to  the  colony -boa  pital  at 
Alt^herhiU  in  Saiouy.  The  final  and 
toojreat  dupteri  and  the  most  iraponant 
portion  of  the  Toliiroe,  preMnts  a  rr^unti  of 
the  autbor'a  obeerraliona  and  his  conclu- 
stona  drawn  from  tiicm.  BaRed  upon  the 
refnltif  of  hill  inHpectioDB  of  foreign  and 
American  asylamK,  and  of  his  own  experi- 
ence In  the  BuperrUion  of  the  defective 
oloA&es  of  New  York  State,  Mr.  LcU>bwortb 
offt'ra  bis  views  on  reganla  the  sclootion  of 
aites  and  loeaUona  of  asytums,  the  kind  of 
bnildings  to  be  provided ;  the  quo9tlntis  of 
sewage  dt.^poaal,  water-supply,  protection 
■gaiovt  firf>.  the  laying  out  of  the  gronoda, 
the  fnmi»hin^  and  df>cnraUi:ia  of  wards  M»d 
roomi,  the  dirBcuU  prubletn  of  the  dbipo«!> 
lion  of  tho  ac'ite,  'hf  fhrnnlc,  and  the  crimi- 
nal insane ;  \\>-  r  renralnt  and  tho 
amount  of  UK  v  be  granlud ;  lbs 
cbaraeirr  of  (he  attcudanta  to  be  chosen; 
the  reUglous  e&?rd-4<^»,  amnitenienis,  cntpl(>y- 
SDfnls,  jren  and  clothing.  rUitauon  and  oar- 
rMpohtlenoe  of  patlcota, /hW-mor/^iti  etanil- 
the  mcthuda  of  adaiU«lun  and  dla- 


All  these  aubjecta  are  ireaiod  cl«mr)y  and 
explicitly.  Besides  these,  the  anthor  gfrcs 
his  personal  Tiews  respecting  th«  insane  la 
poor-hooses,  local  or  district  cm  of  th«  !&• 

sane,  state  care,  the  boartlin^-^Mit  Matcas, 
9tale  eupcrvision,  and  kltidrt.-d  topica,  The 
book  is  beautifully  priutsd  and  ri(di}y  Ulus- 
trated  with  cngraTiugs  and  hellorjpe  repr». 
ducUons  of  plans  of  buUdlufcs  and  asylttm 
interiors,  and  picturvs  uf  hiaiorical  In 


GsOl-OOICAt  SCRTTT  Or  N'fW -t  SKFrv 

RarotiT  or  niit   f^riTi  <^  ir^LovL-rr.     Vol. 

1.    Tupographv,  ^t '-  •    '  i •     My 

Ggorok  H.  Cook  I 

ton:  John  L,  M     .    .  ._         -t- 

pany.     Pp.  4:ty,  with  Uapa,  etc 

Tax  survey  was  authorized  by  the  8tat« 
Li^AUture  in  IBA4,  and  has  been  continued 
regularly  till  tbe  date  of  the  report.  The 
act  cuntemplated  a  contptctiou  of  the  work, 
prcvtoua  partial  surveys  baring  bosn  oarrtod 
on  by  Henry  D.  Bogera  In  18ati-*40,  and  l)r. 
WilUam  Kitcbell  in  1854-'.W.  While  the 
yearly  repnrtf  of  the  present  work  that  have 
been  mado  and  liberally  dl«trilmted  anaoof 
the  people  have  been  somewhat  tnlsceUaw^ 
ous  OS  to  the  subjects  discussed,  on  acconnt 
of  the  prominence  of  spedaT  wants  and  in- 
terests, the  various  branches  of  llie  mtrvsy 
bare  been  kept  adraacinfc,  so  tliai  It  has  bocn 
fonnd  practicable  to  lodode  the  final  gvck 
graphical  report4  in  this  roliime.  Tlie  Slafit 
Geologist  hKH  enjoyed  the  oo-operalloa  aad 
asaislanre  of  tlie  Unitetl  Butos  Coast  and 
Qeodctio  Survey:  and  the  expense  of  coo- 
ductlitg  tbe  latti^r  half  of  the  topofcraphtcal 
work  has  t>een  bonie  try  tbe  rDltf4  Stalas 
Oeologtcal  Survey.  Of  the  »rvirr»l  parte  of 
tho  prasent  rolume,  the  article  on  the  G«o> 
detic  Survey,  by  Prof.  Bow»cr,  of  the  Ooaai 
Survey,  ^vca  accurate  doi«rmlnatlon*,  b 
latitude  and  longi(ttd««  of  ssvetal  hundrrd 
points,  the  lUtlons  of  wluch  are  exaoUy  ds< 
icrilM^S,  and  thH  prlmarr  ones  ditainetly 
marked  on  tho  ei>ot,     U\  '  *• 

scriptlon,"  Mr.  C.  C.  Vm  it 

thegoognphloal  po.'in-n  .*.,  t  ■■  .1^,1,  .  .,i  Uiv 
8iat«,  rclata*  ibebi-i.'v  . /  ;n  of 

boundary  and  limits  of  J.i  <■* 

bcf;ttmlng ;    narks   the    (a... 
with  iBcasomncfldi  ot  tk<  sns. 
ti*w  and  lownchlpa,  and  ili — 
raplty  of  thv  .*$t«t«  as  Wii  i 


Fix^^^^ 


4 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 


28 1 


^ 


b  bdu  which  corrt*potid  cloady  vlth  the 
mAtro^  o(  ihc  T&rioos  geologlcftl  fonutttions. 
Tl<f1nn1>t  U  Uh:  northweat,  we  bnvc  the  KiU 
MouaUoi  nJ  ViUleT,  occupyiDg  the 
kaU  of  Sumcx  and  Warren  counties, 
■B'!  (o  the  PalsoKolo  forroa- 

ttu<.  tin  lligliUnds;  Lbcn  the 

railing  TriMvic  ur  n^l  ajutd^lono  plain ;  then 
the  fofTOwed  aod  Irregularly  hilljr  cretaceous 
plain;  and,  lastly,  tltc  trianpiUr,  rxircuicl^r 
lcr«l,  Miuiri  ami  piii(M:lud  plain  uf  the  Ter- 
tiary fonaalion,  fringed  Kawanl  by  a  belt  of 
inclosed  from  tbc  sea  by  aaud- 
Tticac  features  arc  common  to  the 
■left*  MOfithwcM.**  In  tUe  detailed 
rsrle*  tlwM  belu  divide  tbcmselves  up  into 
al;-  ^ic*  of  muuntain  and  tqUct, 

ta:  .iU,  of  which  twcntj>four  arc 

Jiw<iib»d>  Tb«w«  divisiiina  preMnl,  txmsid- 
eriag  Cfae  lloluitiana  of  the  area,  mnoh  dl- 
rcnity  of  aapcci,  from  the  niouotaiu  lands 
of  the  nonhwmt,  studded  with  lakes,  with 
Uw  trap  dlk««  t«(  th<«  ^  rvA.  aafidstone  plain  " 
iuMfTcming,  to  the  owamps  and  pluo  plolnB 
■nd  CkU  plain  and  beach  sands  as  wc  ap- 
proaeh  or  when  we  reach  the  iea-coa»l.  The 
dmiiptioa  ii  HUppkMnritU'd  by  a  tablv  giving 
the  arcu  of  the  sercral  watcr-dhedji,  with  the 
prrorata^  of  furefit  u|Hjn  tlicui,  and  thuir 
popuUttun  per  Mfinare  tnile,  a  H.Uof  l»cnch- 
marks  at  whleb  the  elevation  aborc  the  sea 
is  exactly  teri^rdcd ;  and  a  touch  larger  list 
of  alev«tion»t  frum  tJie  lateei  and  best  deter- 
^rfwatlrtftM  of  prominent  points,  referred  to 
Wmm  MA-lrveL  The  paper  on  the  Mn^etic 
fivrey,  reoortfinf*  obscrTations  at  one  hun- 
dred stid  fifty  eight  stations,  rcvoals  some 
BOtewosthj  irrrgitlnritiM  in  declination,  par- 
tiAiUflj  In  rcpnns  tif  Archaian  ruck,  and 
Bear  iIm*  trap  riUj^M,  where  a  trmlency  of  the 
Mioiflr  toward  a  petpcodiaiUr  to  the  crest- 
Vkm  ot  the  ridgo  Is  remarked  upon.  Tliis 
pajivr  is  accompanied  by  a  chart  showing 
«)ual  lines  of  declination  for  1SR8.  Prof. 
faiDck  dftscHbes  four  natural  cllmatio  prov- 
tntcB  ia  the  State,  each  of  which  has  its  pe- 
eattar  ftuuraa:  tlie  ingblaods  and  Klitatln- 
Uf  VaDey ;  (be  Sod  SauiUtone  Plain  ;  the 
SboKlicni  tstcfior ;  and  tbo  Sea^ahore,  or  At- 
laaAk  CoMt  BoU.  Tbe  ftrat  U  not  geuerally 
■arfcad  by  amwtft  mwmee  of  tcmpem- 
Caro,  but  haa  father  a  nortliem  climate.  The 
bM,  ikaa^  haviag  nowhere  a  truly  mild 
trtaiCTcrijgrtto  ■liVethg  of  soQlbcm  Itvrida 


and  Oalifomia,  etc. — affords  pleasant  winter 
resorts.  In  view  of  the  small  area  of  tbo 
{relate,  the  variety  of  ounditions  to  be  found 
in  New  Jersey  appears  a  little  remarkable.  A 
fine  topographic  map,  and  an  altitudo  map, 
in  which  nine  grades  of  elevation  ure  Indi- 
cated by  as  many  dibit  net  i^lwded  uf  eoluringi 
are  funUflhcd  in  pockets. 

Acn  vTTT  is  rcBumed  by  the  Podety  for  Po- 
litical Education  by  the  istfue  of  a  pamphlet, 
No.  2&  in  its  aeries,  on  Electoral  ileform.'* 
It  sets  forth  the  grave  defects  in  the  eU^^lo- 
ral  pystcms  of  moat  of  the  Statce,  and  ex- 
plaiuD  the  remedies  therefor  in  secrecy  of 
ballot  and  other  reforinfl.  The  "New  York 
[Saturn)  Uttt  "  and  the  "  Ma»Muchusf>rtu  lial- 
lot  Refnrm  Act"  are  appeudrd.  The  next 
forthcoming  publication  of  the  society  will 
deal  with  ttic  "Lifjuor  Quention  in  ralitlcd,'* 
and  as  soon  as  possible  it  will  revise  and  re- 
[nsiic  its  list  of  sundard  works  on  economics, 
political  history  and  sdeacc,  and  eoonomio 
reforms,  for  the  direction  and  aid  of  stu- 
dente  and  the  general  reading  public  Tho 
society  aims  at  awakening  an  intelligent  inter- 
ctit  In  govcromcntitl  methods  and  purposen, 
and  at  difru!«in(;  information  coooeruiug  the 
rights  and  duties  of  citizons.  Mr.  George 
lies,  secretary,  S30  Pearl  Street,  New  York, 
invitee  the  co-operation  of  all  iotcrcAied  in 
the  society's  work. 

Thr  Mf:  What  it  Uf  U  the  problem 
which  Ur.  /.  &  Maions  attempts  to  answer 
{J.  P.  Morton  k  Co.,  Louisville,  7&  cents). 
He  divides  the  human  mind  into  two  parts 
— intellect  and  iien»tibiUty — and  affirms  that 
the  faculty  wiiich  causes  all  human  activity 
Is  desire,  a  subdivision  uf  sonsibiUiy,  chul- 
len^ng  any  one  to  find  one  voluntary  human 
action  that  can  he  traced  back  to  intellect  as 
its  primal  cause.  He  deems  intellect  only 
instnimcnloL  He  affirms  that  moral  r»- 
sponsibility  belongs  also  to  sense,  and  that 
the  end  of  existpnee  concerns  only  thix  de- 
partment of  mind.  In  the  second  (tivi^ion 
of  liis  liook  he  maintains  that  intellect  is  an 
offhhuot  from  sense,  and  examines  some  of 
Kaat*s  doctrines. 

Mr.  frtdtrrie  JS.  /reihos  privately  printed 
in  Philadelphia  a  brief  acccmnt  of  his  pru- 
cesB  of  photographins  in  color*,  under  tho 
title  A  Nwm  Prmci^  in  ileiioehrwny.    Ua 


sfis 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIBHrCE  MOirrnLT. 


tude*  lo  the  rarioos  altempU  which  hnre 
been  made  to  produce  pbotogmphs  in  natu- 
re) colors,  aad  tbeu  ulatci  thu  e»»«ntial  /«At- 
of  bis  own  method.  He  aaya  In  cobdu- 
that  there  U  much  ^et  to  bo  done  lu 
pcrfeeUng  the  print^makitig  part  of  Uie  pro- 
oeu,  and  that  tor  the  preMnt  be  is  HlUfinl 
to  obtAta  perfect  beliochromia  prinia  on 
glaas,  ao  thai  the  ro«ult  uiav  be  abowri  mth 
the  optical  laatcro.  He  appendu  a  replj, 
which  he  mado  in  the  "Journal  of  ibe 
Fraoklln  Institute,**  to  a  criticism  on  hia 
cUitua  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Bothamley.  The  hr^h 
ehure  has  a  photo-engraved  portrait  of  Mr. 
Itci  aa  fronUypicco. 

A  lecture  entitled  OtUHiut  of  a  Xew  &»- 
wi«,  by  E.  y.  Doimeil,  baa  been  pubMjihod 
in  ihc  ''Qucstioofl  of  the  Dav  Peric*  "  (Put- 
nam, $1),  The  author  niaintaiiu  that  cts- 
ehanyf<shUitif  U  the  eouroe  of  economic  Talue, 
that  all  wealth  u  Uie  fruit  of  comniGrml  ex- 
change, and  that,  when  thia  la  going  on  ao- 
Urelv,  all  dcpartrai^nl^  of  prml'ictiTc  Indoa- 
try  have  health  and  rip^r.  Further,  that 
the  rcccDt  enormous  tncruaic  In  the  product- 
ive powers  of  labor  has  created  a  problem 
which  ilcniaudd  an  immudiatg  aoliitioD ;  that 
the  problem  is  cjipec-ially  presAing  in  tliia 
country  because  our  productive  powers  are 
gi-fater  and  the  refltriccions  on  nur  commer- 
cial vtcfaangei  more  opprcwive  ihan  in  any 
other  of  the  advanced  Industrial  nations ;  and 
tliat  uur  tariff  sjatum  taxes  the  tnanj  for  the 
bcnpfit  uf  the  few. 

The  Truitcei  of  the  Peabody  UnBCum  of 
American  ArchiiH)lr>);y  and  Rthnolo(^  have 
beiriin  to  {A9tte  from  lime  to  time  stieh  special 
papcnt  an  have  heretofore  bc<m  published  in 
conucctlon  with  the  annual  rrpnrta,  in  a  sepft* 
rate  form,  but  uf  unifurm  octavo  site  with 
the  reports.  Each  number  will  be  Bold  sepa- 
rately at  a  speciflod  price,  which  will  vary 
acoonling  to  the  number  of  pag:cs  and  illus- 
traliun.t.  Tlio  pafters  will  be  omitted  from 
the  annual  roporta.  The  first  of  these  papers 
publinhed  Is  an  Interesting  cftiayby  Mra.  Ze> 
lia  Kuttoll.  on  a  "  lU-Mc  of  Ancient  Ucxloo— 
8tAndanl  or  Dt^iul-drMtf?" — with  three  ool» 
urod  plates,  (o  vhich  is  appended  a  note  **0a 
I  iicntixry  Sigits  of  the  Mexican 

-  "Tit" 

Bvftply  .1/    It 
from  a    Sottrtm   imdtptmdtnt  0/  the  Voiem  \ 


WtiUr^htd^  pmpodod'by  Jnhn  R.  BorHm  mmi 
A*micidU4$,  contemplate  Uiu  utllisalkHi  of 
th«  PuBiio  waivr-nhdi  in  New  Jenvj;  tha 
fcaerrolfm  to  bo  looated  about  ftftecn  ttiU« 
from  tba  dty,  and  the  ttaL4rr  to  b«  bfoaght 
la  by  a  tunnel  under  the  HiulAun  Ri-w> 
The  Bopply  of  all  the  New  Jcmey  loivBi 
iuborban  to  New  Tork,  and  of  firaoklyn,  la 
declared  to  be  practicable  by  the  same  sys- 
tem, and  it  la  claimeil  that  the  qmnUCf  of 
water  available  for  Uiis  piirpottf  ia  9nlDci«it 
to  ftiroiith  them  all  abundantly.  The  water- 
privileges  of  the  region  lu  queatioa  are 
owned  by  private  corporations,  from  which 
the  author  fan*  obtaiiMil  uoiwjtwfaui  of  lbs 
right  to  conatniot  reser?oIfa  aikd  eoHecc  aid 
use  the  surplus  waters.  In  behalf  of  lUa 
echeme,  ti  is  claimed  that  the  Pa&aale  ivaMr^ 
■bed  baa  three  times  the  srua  of  the  C^nHoa 
water-shod,  and  Is  thert-roro  capable  «f  of- 
fording  a  muuh  larger  su^iply  of  water  ihta 
can  ever  be  derived  thence ;  thai  It  Is  nacfa 
nearer  to  the  city  ;  iluti  tite  water  oao  b« 
brought  direct  to  the  lower  part  of  tlie  dcy, 
where  it  la  most  needed ;  tlint  it  will  be  pw 
and  wholesome,  and,  being  dellrcrad  uadff  • 
boad-pre«0are  of  tbnM  bttodred  t»9k  «iB  g» 
of  lu  own  force  to  the  to|M  of  tka  hlghMl 
hou«ea,  and  with  sullic!<>!)t  fufrvy  to  ba  to- 
stAutly  arallablo  in  ri!i  -^ttm;  and 

that  it  possosve*  oth>  r  i  Ion  1^ 

portant  but  obviously  oonTonleni  adnik* 
lages.  The  book  In  which  the  aebcno  b 
developed  and  explained  contaliu  aeetrdl 
addrefftea  and  memoirs,  legal  opiuionsi,  md 
Qpinions  of  experts  on  the  rarioua  qnejtIoM 
brought  oat  in  the  dlseuaalooa  of  U,  wllti 
maps,  plans,  prtiGlea,  and  view*. 

Ur.   Charte*  W.    ft"  -«p<»<!l^ 

Secrcury  of  the  Oneld  I  Society. 

has  published  prlfstcly,  lu  a  pampMet  af  41 
page*.  BOWO  iil9torictil  Xotm  ctmfgrytimf  Als 
Cttjr  o/ytw  York  a»  it  a|>p»:ai  <.d  to  its  cvDmI 
daya.  They  have  been  gaitiereil  fron  tW 
writing*  of  the  chief  hi'tovians,  tmtVua  aad 
later,  of  the  dly,  and  fruin  m-!-!--''^-'  *'Ho 
volumes   of  public   recvnts.  xhi 

nukttot  that  la  omitted  by  onr  i^r  i.\ftrr^  or 
mora,  of  thu  wrii«Tn*  i)uiiioil  from,  and  fra 
r*  -■'  haidlft 

t.  rhvwrtM 

'.Aim  b»di  to  Uis  petl^  »Uca  tJr»ilia(  aad 
riahiag  buts  were  flral  MWisil  opan  Ifaftlial- 
tao  UUnd,  aiid  arnhnoe  Uw  yvwt  hitaWD 


I 


I 


LITSRAEY  irOTICES. 


.83 


ihe  diieovcr7  bf  Qudtot  In  1 109  and  the  re- 
oaU  oi  Ooversor  VTotner  V«a  TvUltir  in  1 6S7. 

jBMfaMH  h  ooB  of  hftK  «  dozen  thought* 
III  Idlt  bookii  by  yonui  f/a/T,  on  kinilrtxl 
mfe|eelft  uid  "iUi  etiaally  tvrttc  liilus  (FikU 
wtai»  IS  onti).  It  b  a  viosr,  rigorous,  aoil 
£r«l  tttttomest  of  tbc  OKturo  and  irapor* 
ta&M  of  Mcii  of  ttio  qualitici}  which  uiakv  up 
the  meaUl  fitUnj^a  of  tlio  aucoc-ti^ful  man  of 
b<Jilii—fc  The  ftuthor  hu  long  advocoted 
ilk*  tOAChlttg  of  buainMfl  motbod.4  in  English 
Mho»U,  no  that  the  youth  of  that  country 
might  b«  competent  to  fill  the  cterlc-ihips 
which  Engllab  merchants  ire  constantly 
gtvlag  to  Oermaiu  and  8wlsa.  He  regards 
•amMnU  U/«  a*  a  renwnohMi  straggle 
for  eaist«noe,  in  which  the  men  of  greatest 
akill  and  porMTcrancc  defeat  their  feUowa. 

repndlati^a  the  doctrine  of  the  weak,  in- 
ilf  and  thoogbtloas  that  puU  all  failure 
npoa  Dm  Lord,  and  Hya  that  if  men  do  not 
toooaad  b  U  beoauao  they  arc  not  equal  to 
tba  rvqaircmmtfl  of  Uic  age  they  live  in.  Mr. 
Plait  do««  not  bold  iliRt  reading  books  alone 
irill  make  any  one  a  thorough  man  of  busi- 
Be«,  bat  that  books  can  supply  knowledge 
of  U«9  aiid  priuci[iU*j|i  wliicli,  if  inielllgeDtly 
^ipHed,  nitl  prcTont  failure  or  bo  produot- 
l?«of 


|i 


D.  OL  Heath  4  Co.  are  abovt  to  pabUsh 
TXiXy-aix  OAMTMfion  Zanons  on  Oymmon 
Mitur^  hy  Mmrji  L.  Cl«^)pt  dealgned  as  a 
pracUcxt  'be  ose  of  the  teacher  In 

direotinc  -  •^netglea.  and  oulUrating 

tba  tne  adencific  habit  of  thinking  and 
verldBg.  The  same  firm  will  i.^ue  7^ 
/jam  »/  fltndih  in  Hdatvm  to  Sthool  Life^ 
by  Arikur  ypmiJuAfMy  ILD.,  Intended  for 
the  guidaACfl  of  all  who  are  ciiar^ed  with 
ibe  reapousibttlty  of  watching  over  the  men- 
tal and  phyaica!  wirU-li«ing  of  pupiln  of  Irath 
■asea  tn  pabUo  or  prirate  schools.  The 
book  Is  in  oai!  In  English  trmining  acboolit, 
■b4  tba  American  edition  has  been  carefully 
iWiMd  to  adapt  it  to  our  climate  and  (ho 
«f  our  whoob. 


PCrntKATIONB   BKCErv^I) 


lAtMrrt  0 

Xaawaaea  luti«e«li« 

iiai  iMa   P     ■* 
OfwaieClaa  ita 
««Be*t«fk 


TTtB  G*Bt  of 

" :  Til*  Trntb- 

i-.(  ft.twr.  Q.     Flatoe 

*  Oa    Pp.M. 


Afilvd  W^  aad  Mamy,  Qaarcei     A 


ITaad-book  of  Cryptnffsmlo  B«uny.  Lob<1od  and 
N«w  York  :  Looffinuu,  tinwn  h.  Co.     I'p  411}      ^X 

Dftitlo.  Prat  Kdion  fl.  CoUoffs  Botaoy.  ClU- 
ea^:  Q.  I'.  £iitf«Ih«r4ACo.     Pp  431.    tS. 

B«a»nD,  LawreiMe  Whiter.  MathnnBtlcM  In  • 
KoUbrll,  ctfl.    IW  5ond  atrwM.  Sew  York     Pj>   10. 

Brn,  Paol  Prlinor  of  »cl«Dtma  Knowkili!^ 
TraiiilAt»<l  and  adiiptiKl  fbr  AmeriranSchooU.  FblU- 
delpois:  J.  B.  Up(ilQooa  f^ooipaiiy.  Pp.  IM.  M 
cwntft, 

BovUlOQ.  P«t*f.  John  nur&vaa  :  A  T»I«  of  tba 
Ciril  tTar  In  AJuvrlna.  PhlUdolptiia  :  J,  B.  Uiiptu- 
coU(A»Dpuy.     Pp  2S9.    fl/iu. 

Brikun^,  Ji<hQ  0.  Auniul  R«pnri  of  tbo  Ow- 
lofrlciU  Surrey  uT  Arkaoaas.  UtUe  UwK  Pp.  3i0, 
wilh  Mnps. 

Ilrvro,  jAmeB.  Thp  Amarteaa  romrooo wealth. 
LoodcD  ui<l  Now  York:  Hacmlllui  A  Co.  '^  To;t, 
pp.  XtA\  iD'l  7i».    to. 

ilurt  Blaphan  fiullh.  M.  D.  Vl«ws  on  Iho  Pre- 
TcnUoD  and  Troatjur&i  of  Typtwld  k'ercr.  Now 
York.     Pp  11. 

('oDnoct)<<iit  A^cultunil  Experimant  Btatlon. 
Bulletin  No.  97.  Fooiroiu  Diaeawa  of  PIauul 
Pp.  is. 

rrotbom,  T  !>.,  Iwlllor.  ••  The  Qaartflrty  Joonial 
of  loebrtoiy."  April.  ISttB.  Uartfonl,  Conn. :  Tba 
CaM,  Lockwood  A  Bralnanl  Coinpaoy.    Pp.  lUO. 

Daoinar,  Wlllfam.  Ttie  Tall  of  th«  Fartb ;  nr; 
the  LooatloD  and  CVrndltlon  of  Uia  "  bplrlt  ^VorhL** 
BrooklyaN   Y.    Pp.  M.    UcoDta. 

D«st«r.  Hertnour.  A  TrealUtf  un  Co-op«ratlT« 
BaTtnira  ftnd  Loon  A  MiicUttnn*.  Nitw  Tot4  :  D. 
applotODACo,     l*p  S'W.    fl.t5. 

I>unhara.O  M.  ^  Tb«  A  m«rlcan  Voriinian.''  Ad 
tllUflrntMl  UntfttfiDO.  Nrw  York.  Pp.  lA.  bccnU; 
lif.So  a  year. 

Fooia.  E.  B..  .Tr..  M.  P.  Pr.  Cjmt  Edton**  PIm 
tor  CV]aipula'>ry  Taodiutlon  mviowi-O.     Pp.  16. 

Fmiter,  Mirbtel,  aod  otber*.  "The  Jnumul  of 
Pbrtiir^lofry,"  Vol.  X.  SToa.  1  and  a.  Pp.  iM  aod  Ir, 
wttb  ilaiM.    $^  a  Tolama. 

Oroh.  lanfl  W.  Did  Mud  fallt  New  York: 
The  Tnith-8of!k«r  Oompany.     Pp.  t\.    in  centa 

EJUL  Bobfrt  T  £vi*ata  In  Korth  Amarican  Cr»- 
tacMiu*  lllviory  lltii<itr*t«d  tn  tho  Arkaaaai-Taxaa 
UlTltlua.    Austin.  TaxM.    Pp.  10. 

lliirbctck.  0.  &  Tba  Infloeooa  of  8<tfaioa  on 
EoUiciouB  Tbou«bt.     Wara,  &!>»*.    Pp.  IT. 

IlllnAU.  TTnlrttfulty  of.  Ajrrlrnltnral  Exr>ar1ni<*Dt 
Btatloa.  field  ExpwtxaanU  with  Com.  ISdiL  Pp. 
lya. 

toffwaon.  Sobprt ;  Condert.  IVMlcrlcrk  K. ;  and 
WortrtfonL  Biawirt  I*  The  Umlta  uf  TolotmLiun. 
A  UlMuuton.  N«w  York  :  TbeTnitb-dookur  Com- 
puy.    Pp.  it.    lu  cents. 

Iowa  Affricvltunl  Collar  Ktparlment  BtatlOB. 
BuHriln  Ka  *.     Pp.  A8. 

Jftcobl.  Marr  Putnam.  M.  !>.  Phyvfolofrlol  Notaa 
on  Primary  Eancation  and  tb«  Htviy  of  I  afupiatf* 
Vfw  York  and  Loodoo :  O.  P.  IhiUiain'a  thiaa.  Pp. 
IW.    II. 

Johna  Hopklna  Unlrarattr  ClreolarB.  Ro.  Tl. 
Pp  13. 

Li-ffiniinn.  n^^nrr,  and  BMm.Winiaai.  Eauntni^ 
tlon  <if  Warvr  fur  Sunltary  and  Tvrhnleal  Pnrpwwa, 
PbilailclnlUa:  P.  Itlsklstati,  »oo  A  Co.  Pp.  1()^ 
•  IJ*. 

Unncan  SoHoty  of  New  York  City.  Abatract 
of  Phkx.  r.!ln;rs  for  ISSS-'eS      Pp  9. 

'     Nf>t<»«  on  iti*  0<yjlo(r7  of  ltfae«B 

('  rt.     Pit.  8!^  — Cla»lllcBUoH   of  Ooo- 

la-i,- by  Uaneata.     Pp.   10.— Pyaaaileal 

G«4>loffy      Pp.  tt. 

MoK«nrtn.  9.  J„  fdltor.  Ptaoiiavlon  oTtha  Itadl- 
cal  BlU.  Koirulara  »«.  Quaeka.    Oahkoah,  Wla.    Pp 

'•Mlnn«»nt«.  Public  HMlth  fa.**  rahraarr.  1S9S. 
Mnmtlily.  wttb  aapplaiiwDU  Pp,  (3  and  Cbart  tO 
coott  a'year. 


rf4 


'E  POPULAR  SCISNCE  MONTBLY. 


MMMrboMlta    Hut«    Agrfrtlltnnbl     KKprrtrnrot 

ln>J.      AULh>>nk      i')>    i'.'t— BuUetla  ±iu.   :fii.      Uo 
Couimxnd^  VartlJlxar*.     Pj^  ll. 

W«Mkv  e^ni'  ,riA. 


whfc 


fji 


ni«t«fy.    IkMt.       > 

Naw  TurL.  il«|>urt  uf  itir  L'utiuiilMkiQvn  uT  Ui« 
gut**    IImctvkUod   St    MMpmi   lor    )ti»^     Pp.   IIV, 

■•'"  -   -  '' '<..*■  t»...p  >DtnU  r^rk  M«n<Hf«rl«. 

pPl  >'1U  ot     CtttAlofpiu  and 

rp.  Hi. 

>)^i  .>^>utti  i^'^:it-Li.  \v  ubiiiiruio's  [aan^mU. 
BMtoo:   D   ('.  DmUi  a  Co.     E^   li.     GntuU. 

IVker,  rmmU  W.  Hyw  (o  Mudr  Ueofnplijr. 
S*w  Turk  :  D,  Afijlctvo  it  Ut.     IV  4iHJ.    f  L.'M. 

I'vrrtQ,  B.  llninar'i  Uilvfcwj-  B'K>k«  1  U>  IV, 
witii   J4i>u»      Uo«iou ;    Uko   A   Co.      Pp.    £30. 

•1.4U. 

rickf^nr,  F,flw«H  C.  H^fT  TVrapw  Menorlfel 
Til        "  *   ■  :    Siutly  of 

B'  '.  l*rtulo»- 

II-  ..'I. 

no.      i:\»luilMri   i.>f   W-^i'Uble   LlTc^ 
1-  'cw  Idool  PutiUkltili^  Louipuif.     Pp. 

V- 

p..»  ...rl 

of  Uitf  -«. 

■\V»»liia^; i «-.  r,.,...,.,     .J,  0.*i<^ 

KILh  Mjii>  «n4t  l'Ut4>«. 

I'ri^-ior,  Iti.tiirl  AnUiooy.  Tlw  8tudrnC'»  Atlu. 
T  <  '    ^i-'»   Vurk :  IjJU^tuAui,  Urmm  dt  Co. 

'I  r  y>t|».      |I  OCI. 

<  i  II..  M   D.    WatAT  enppIlM  of  nii- 

n^iih  4.EJ.1  lUu  roiriiUoo  o(  lU  binuok.    8prtA|ifiekJL 
UL     Pp.  WL 

lUiic^  C  O..  M.  II.    INychokiftj  M  ft  Natonl  Bd- 

row  *ppUH  t'>  tin-  ^-oliitltiii  of  tV-<'Ult  Ptyehte  Ph*- 
0U1U4M.     PlillMlolutiia :  Purior  &  CVmim.    Pt*.  Ml. 

Karmond.  RoMlur  W.  Evolution  of  Antm«) 
Life.  Uo»ton  ;  lljr  Now  1i1«a1  PutjlUtiUt«  C\MDji«aj. 
!>  :fi.     ID  oenta. 

IU>tcb,  A    I^wTonni,     OhMrvatloDf  hikId  at  tbe 

IS'tiQ    lltU    Mp(con.il'j«t('Al   OtMfmtory,  MmsacAu- 

lu,  iu  18^7.    <^  •itibrttlKo,  IUm.-  Juba  WUmh  4i 

m.      P|>.  Ml,  wlLtl  PUtet. 

KhttfrUt,  It.  W.     OifeMklon  of  Clrcu  UodioDtiu 

Pp.  w. 

*'"nt*l,  A  .  «i«J  Jonlan,  David  Starr.  8U  BpinHai 
I  II  uf  PUUm.     WMbbitftOQ  :   tfinith' 


I'ottK  HuiU'm.  Btq<1»r«  In  Utv  Outlrtne  P1*t<ti 
of  PftVfiiilo  !«<-l(.h.«.  Now  York  :  kl.  L,  lloitfuuk  A 
Oo.    Pp. 'iCkj.    Ii.d^ 

V^^whmln.  Iter,  .1..  KdUnr.  Tho  fllttnrf  of  An- 
^'Ti  N#w  V<iTk:  D.  Af)pU*tno  *  tV. 
t 

r    r     Sntn"   P-H*t;il    b'.I    r<-i'*'«rn!p 
1-  .   ..4 

^  1.  -^ 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 


>an*l  Ro* 
.  Wooil'l 


4  4. 


■   of  T\fij   Tmit*. 
ail   Aiii'T'ittn  Womno.     VYA' 
PttMtoliUiff 


tiuirbL    A'vw  York,    r^i  M. 


tdf 


JahB  Coldle. — This  iadoMriooft 
wu  Ujro  Di'^  M  ^ 
ai,  l7»8;(litHlalA 
ha  hod  long  rcsiUcU.  r 
ninety -fourth  jrc«r.  Mi  < 
u  ft  gftnleocr;  and  moat  Scocc^b 
10  thoM  dsy«  vera  boUiu»(«.  Frott  tht  Gli^ 
gov  Botanic  Garden,  tbca  in  ahuiK«  of  8r 
William  Hooker,  be  came  to  Am«rica  to  %^ 
Ubical  exploraliot)  in  tlic  y«»r  1817.  H* 
iotercettnfc  pftrticular»  of  tht»  t*xp«dittim  an 
here  giren  la  on  abctnut  froiabUi  ^DtMrip> 
tjon  of  some  Xcw  am]  Rare  f*l&nU  dlaeovvnd 
in  Canada  in  tbo  Tear  1819,"  pubUftbfd  to  iIm 
"  Edinbur^  Philoaophical  Journal,"  roL  vi, 
April,  18S2.  "  llaring  bad  for  many  -^mt^ 
a  great  deatn?  to  risit  North  America,  chWf* 
ly  Tith  a  ricw  to  examine  and  collect  wtreut 
of  ita  Tcgetablc  productloua,  1  rontrifTd  la 
1817  to  obuun  aa  much  monej  aa  voatd  Jan 
jiflj  my  Iiaaaage  there,  IraviD^  when  tlila  waa 
done  bul  a  very  Bmall  •iirjiIiM,"  He  aalkd 
from  Lcitfa  to  Hnlifnx,  went  to  Qncbac^ 
whcooo  be  dispatched  hif  collactionn  of  Dr. 
ing  mou  and  dried  planu  in  a  teaiie]  bound 
fur  Greenock,  "  but  never  heard  of  tbea 
afterward."  At  Uontrcal  he  found  Purab^ 
who  adriaod  him  to  exjitore  ih<^  nttrthwaal 
country,  and  promlieil  to  ubiAlu  fur  htm  pcr- 
miasiun  to  accompany  tbe  trader*  going  to 
that  region  the  folK^winf;  ipring.  **  I  trav- 
eled on  foot  to  Albany,  ibtuicc  praoe«dod  by 
•m%\jex  lo  Now  York,  ...  I  explored  IW 
e««t«ra  part  uf  New  Jcrvey,  a  country  abldi, 
thoupli  barren  (uid  litttc  inliiLMtrd,  yrt  pr^ 
?ont3  manT  mririi*ii  lo  the  *»<>tftnl«i.  w-A  pat* 

er'«  itridgfl  I  gathered  Nunc  mott  mtcrcAbif 
plants,  and,  having  accomulatcd  a»  Ur^  a 
load  a»  my  hack  would  carrv,  I  io»k  my  JotXT' 
ney  to  PbiUdolphlft  " — tbenw  to  Xew  Tork, 
wbenoe  a  ahip  voii  about  lo  «atl  In  Scodaad, 
**  und,  havinc  again  commltlod  my  trvsmna 
to  the  du-p,  1  had  afralii,  ai  lite  flnrl  Usm^  lb* 
'I  "Qt  of  never  obtaining  any  En- 

\^  i.tttevfr  rt^  thrrri      Ify   ftMSoa 

being  now  extrrnv  o^ 

mmmmcril,  I  Kr.,  .  hiii, 

itiif  Uohavfc 
i>  ,iaenl  tb««  1^ 

MQ  aa  irfioolwalig  **^iJiaacsr  la  (ka  ^riiS 


I 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 


'       tang.  t\t 
I^H  deroted 


I 


to  Voatrttl,  ami,  fkUisg  to  m&ke  tbe  connco- 
Cloftf  orrvnnty  to  reaching  the  northwest  dis* 
tdet,  be  **  took  to  the  Bpad«  "  all  lammer 
tang,  ftc«t>(  two  daja  In  the  week  which  be 
deroted  to  lK>Uuiizin^.  "  In  the  autunm  I 
mj  rollcction  of  plants,  aod  in  two 
hod  tha  raortlQcaiion  to  Ic&m  that 
I  waA  toull^r  wrecked  in  (he  St  Law* 
Durinje  ib*i  n«tt  winter  1  did  Uttlu, 
•scvpt  emploTing  ajruclf  with  snch  skill  03 
I  waa  kblr  in  designing  nonic  flower-picceii, 
for  which  I  got  1  trifl*;.  Early  the  following 
ng  I  cooiinonc>.*d  labor  again,  and  hj  tbo 
iog  uf  June  bad  amassed  about  fifty 
,  which,  with  a«  much  more  borrowed 
from  a  (riuud,  formed  my  stock  of  money  Cor 
th«  Dril  aummffr'a  tour.  I  starlctd  in  tbe  bo* 
ginning  of  June  from  Montreal,  and  paaeing 
through  Kingston  wont  to  New  York  [mean- 
ing ih*  ^ute,  eridenily],  to  which,  after  an 
«&evr«iao  to  Lake  Simooe,  I  returned  ;  then 
vliittd  the  Fktb  of  Niagarv  and  Fort  Erie, 
■ad  onaaed  OTor  to  the  Vn\\B\\  States,  keep- 
ing nloog  the  eancm  aide  of  Lake  £ri<: " ;  he 
Gr«««d  orer  to  Plttabtirf,  back  by  way  of 
Oleu,  Oaoddagft,  atid  Sackett^a  Harbor  to 
MoBtroal,  and  thence  aafuly  homo  to  Scot- 
Uzut,  **  the  plantf  t  carried  with  m)-8elf  t>e- 
h%  Uie  wboio  that  I  aarcd  out  of  the  prod- 
■et  of  umrly  three  years  «pcnt  in  bounical 
mstfdhn.**  tiard  linea  tbew  and  In  those 
dap  for  eoUarting  botanlatA,  which  tba»c 
wlw  **  atay  al  hoaie  al  case  "  do  not  appre- 
oUtc.  tn  the  year  IB'JI  b«  was  oommia. 
rfOD«d  to  lake  ohariEe  of  a  cargo  of  liring 
pia&ld  neol  by  the>  Kdinbur^^h  Uotanio  Gar- 
dn  to  that  of  St.  Petcnburg.  On  his  re- 
turn he  went  into  the  nurttery  httninoas  in  his 
saljrt  ooniitry.  Thrn,  with  a  laudable  wish 
10  better  the  pro«)H<ct«  of  his  family,  in  1844 
be  traaapoTted  his  homo  from  the  Scotch  to 
tbftOnadian  Ayr,  In  the  province  of  (hitario, 
vbfff  h«  flikortshed  and  prMpered  for  over 
diirtjr  jaara  of  green  old  age,  and  died  in  the 
aridrt  of  BiiniBrous  and  provpcrouB  children, 
ptttdobBdm,  and  grcat^anilchtldrea. 

TarmadaM.— Mr.  J.  P.  Ffnicy  say*  that 

than  are  two  prfakclpal  ooodltiaae  upon  wb  ich 

the  <i-^-.tt^»>n^..  of  eomadoe»  depends:  one  \ti 

r.:>  lo  '■qtdltbrmoi  In  the  lir,  and 

irvutatory  motion  with  reference 

of  dIabarbaDce;    Tora&doce  arc 

lo  oaeur  hi  regiona  ahcre  warm 


moist  air  flows  underneath  a  colder  and  dri- 
er stratum  crttning  from  anotlier  direction. 
Such  regions  are  found  in  the  Uiasissipp!,; 
Sliasouri,  and  Ohio  Valleya,  and  in  Alabama, 
Georgia,  and  the  Carolinas.  The  summer 
season  is  the  most  favorable  for  tornadoes, 
when  the  interior  of  the  ooDiineut  is  warmed 
up,  and  tbe  air  of  the  lower  strata  is  drawn 
from  lower  latitudes  far  up  into  the  northi 
portions  of  the  country  on  the  eastom  sidf 
of  the  Rocky  Mouutain^.  If  this  uiuitabl#'^ 
condition  docs  not  of  itiielf  induce  a  disturb- 
ance, one  is  readily  brought  about  by  the 
addition  of  any  small  effect  from  some  other 
cau«e,  as  frum  extremely  warm  weather,  in 
which  the  air  simta  close  to  the  earth's  sur* 
face  become  still  hotter  than  tbo^  above 
them.  Tornadoes  very  generally  ocoompany 
an  area  of  low  Uaromcicr,  and  are  to  be 
looked  for  In  the  Mutheast  quadrant  only  of 
the  "low,'^  at  distances  generally  of  from 
two  hundred  to  five  hundred  miles  from  the 
center.  But  as  the  unstable  state  in  a  "  low  " 
very  rarely  eiteods  down  to  the  earth's  sur- 
face, tornadoes  arc  not  neccttsarily  visible  in 
every  general  atorm.  The  destructive  vio- 
lence of  a  tornado  is  sometimes  coa&ncd  to 
a  path  a  few  yardn  in  width,  or  it  may  widen 
to  the  extreme  limit  of  eighty  rods.  The 
tornado,  with  hardly  an  exception,  occur*, 
just  after  tbe  hottest  part  of  tbe  day — moal4 
frequently  between  3.30  and  5  r.  H.  The 
month  of  greatest  frequency  Is  Uay,  April 
coming  next.  It  is  estimated  that  one  bun- 
drt^  and  forty-six  tornadoes  occur  In  the 
Tnitcd  States  yearly.  Tlie  vortex  wind-vcv 
lodtles  of  the  tornado-cloud  vary  from  one 
hundred  to  five  hundred  milei*  an  hour,  from 
actual  measurements,  Vclodtics  of  from 
ci^t  hundred  to  one  thousand  miles  an  hour 
are  extremes  that  hare  been  reported,  but 
may  not  be  altogether  reliable.  The  cloud 
generated  by  the  vortex  assumes  the  form  of 
a  funnel,  with  the  smaller  end  toward  iho 
earth.  The  characteristic  cfFects  of  a  tor- 
nado are  objocls  drawn  into  the  vortex  from 
all  sides,  whirled  upward  and  thrown  out- 
ward by  the  circling  air :  structures  are  lit- 
erally torn  to  pieces,  as  shown  by  the 
of  the  Hibris  ;  lis;ht  objects  arc  carried  tO~ 
great  heights  and  also  to  great  distance*^ 
persons  are  stripped  of  clothimr ;  fowls  and 
blnls  are  denuded  of  feathers  and  killed ; 
treea  are  whipped  to  bare  poles,  uprooted  or 


tS5 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


\\jfA  off  ne«r  the  rT>ot)i;  hemvjr  timbers  ar« 
^driven  through  tho  Bideff  of  buildings  or  deep 
into  the  solid  earth ;  men  uid  auimnU  are  ter- 
ribly mAitglcd  by  oonttcl  with  flyiog  dihriA^ 
Hnd  by  U'iiig  swq)t  over  ibe  Burfaoe  of  the 
.ground ;  bowldcrB  weighing  tons  are  rolled 
long ;  ratlrond  trains  arc  throirn  from  the 
tmck^ ;  ftnd  iron  bridge  %xt  okrriod  from 
their  fouudatiuoB. 

Etonomlcal  Ism  of  Flowen.— Tbo  dried 
lowers  of  }!cmeroca/l44  jpraminfo  iLnd  th« 
>ung  RuwerB  uf  the  plantain  pickled  in 
^■vinegar  are  choice  Chinese  fooda.  Capere 
are  the  flower-buda  of  a  Cfipparia  or  a  Z^^ 
p?ii/flum ;  atul  cloTe«  are  the  uuexpanded 
HuwcT'buds  of  CarjfophjfUu*  aromtgtint*.  The 
ppetala  of  eofilowcr^  Carthamus  (tftrtortiu, 
yield  a  beautiful  dye  of  various  shaded  of 
color  between  red  and  yellow.  It  is  the  ear- 
thnmiiie  of  the  pink  MUcera,  and  ibit,  miied 
with  powdcrtd  mica  or  tftlc,  forms  a  rouge 
for  lodiea*  toiloi-tublcs.  The  dried  flowers 
of  two  sjiecifs  of  liuUa^  locally  known  a« 
<Mait,  t'uto,  tooUff,  and  it'ouorrr,  are  extcn- 
Bively  osed  in  India  for  the  production  of 
orange  and  red  dyea.  The  orange-rod  flow- 
ers, wliirli  grow  in  dusitcrSt  »«  prcsaed  when 
frcfli,  or  boiled  or  utecpcd  when  dried,  iJi  a 
jie^V.  solution  of  lime  in  water.  The  flovor< 
ids  of  C<UtiJtaeeio7t^  which  resemble  a  dove, 
the  hlo^om>t  of  a  Ui*kflpur  of  KhornMan, 
and  the  white  Qowers  of  Coirtla  Toona^ 
give  yellow  dyca.  The  Rophftra  Japonita^  a 
WL'tl-known  nmameutal  atirub  of  our  gar- 
dt'UJi,  Is  onlUTQtcd  in  Cbinn  for  the  sake  of 
the  imperial  yellow  dye  obtained  from  it* 
bunches  of  flowen  and  undeveloped  flowcr- 
bud§.  Flowers  of  marigold  are  made  into 
garlande  in  India  for  the  Idols  and  for  ibc 
,dccoratIoti  of  buiiscA  in  festivals.  The  red 
iwcrs  of  HibiAtuA  roid-MRffuu  supply  a  trd 
re,  and  hnve  bevn  used  to  r>oIi&h  hnotJi  ami 
<H*«.  A  flt't'llng  omngc  or  bulT  dye  is  ex- 
ictcd  in  Imlia  from  the  corolla  tubes  of 
'IttieiaHthH^  which  are  also  strung  in  neek- 
laoif*  for  womfo.  Tlif  flower*  *»f  the  l4*ak  anil 
of  the  pomegranate  are  used  lo  India  fnr  dye- 
ing red.  The  drii*d  atlgmaa  of  the  crocus  arr 
a  source  of  aaffma.  Cake  saffron  is  made 
of  the  florets  pr*HSod  loitethor  nith miicilB£«>, 
I, 


of  hop*  arL<  loiuc  oua  luuouik;  Uwi  I'lu-  I  ik*u  ia 


vencc  rose  is  eonsidored  aatxinseBt  c  ib»  fle^ 
era  of  the  hollyhock  are  nnicUs^iDona 
demulcent ;  tboM  of  Oridta 
tringent  and  tonic;  ibOM  of 
and  anodyne  Infosioo  of  li&da>-6oirc»  Is , 
giveu  as  on  antlapafiinodi&  The  fliMrasa  cf 
the  Abyaslnian  Urawra  vnihtfmUMtm  asid 
the  flower-beads  of  Arffminn  act  aa  vennk 
fugrs.  Violets  are  considered  pvrgatSra; 
but  a  conserre  of  the  flowers  with  sugar  liai 
a  grateful  flaror  forcorcrlDg  uauaeona  n*dS> 
cine.  The  flowrra  of  the  Indian  JfoAtf* 
{Bnttia  fat\folh)  i>ecre1e  much  vof^Wt  ud  ai* 
gathered  by  the  iialires  during  (bdr  scan^ 
in  March  and  April.  A  single  tioe  «U1  ytaU 
many  hundred-weight?  of  corollas.  They  art 
eaten  by  the  poorer  clusscs  in  varioua  parti 
of  India.  The  ripe  flowers  bare  a  lidtly 
smell  and  a  sweet  tavte,  resembling  ^^fvr% 
and  are  stored  as  a  staple  of  tanl ;  wbca 
dried  they  have  somewhat  the  odor  aad  ap> 
pearance  of  Bultaiia  rai(<in« ;  ooDfialutng  iS| 
per  cent  of  sugar,  they  arc  as  noarisbing  aa 
gi'oin,  but  people  could  not  lire  on  ihcB 
ainne  for  any  lenj.'th  of  time.  They  ar«  Aa. 
tilled  by  the  Parseci>,  and  yield  a  powarftil, 
coarse  ^ilrit.  CowsUp-flowon  ara  oaed  fai 
wine-maldng,  and  th»  Bowers  of 
sweet  to  improve  the  flavor  of  certain 
Some  of  the  Cbineae  teas  are  oflcB 
with  flowers.  The  kinds  of  flowen  aad  tbo 
processes  are  various,  but  Ibc  object  of  all  Ea 
to  make  tlie  tea  more  attractive. 

Famtry  la  S^ata*— Aodoo  waa  IbImb  for 

the  promnlimi  of  forestral  sdenot  la  d^^m 
toward  ibe  dose  of  tbe  flfteviitk  oeotwyi 
and  there  la  reason  to  beliere  that  mcaiarea 
had  been  adopted  to  chock  tbe  dcatfiMCloa 
of  limt>er  even  previous  to  the  relKa  of  Kec^ 
diuand  and  Isabella.  Thr  ecbooS  of  fonest- 
ry,  projected  In  1HS5,  went  Inf)  o(«#rafiaai 
tfQ  ypflrs  later,  and  w:i  Gs- 

curbl  in  IRftS.     It  if  '-.  t  •f 

a  head  admbdatrator  and  chief  cagviser. 
with  nine  prnfaawn  and  ihrea  udMsato. 
Tlie  number  of  atudentB,  now  utorty-tvov  is 
not  Itmilcd,  and  is  dei»enilent  on  ib»  awnher 
of  auocCMfui  candidate*  for  entraAor 
year.  On  tbe  completion  of  (ha 
the  acfaool,  which  lasts  fntir  yean^  Che  aafr 
^  >1  oandidslen  are  appninted  I*  iW  nnvps 
-•I  cngioecn  The  oDuna  of  IbUtimv 
I  liuu  ia  dlrtded  (nio  pTvparatory  aai 


4 


m 


I 


I 


efttegorifift.  Cunilidfttes  for  KflmiMioD 
[b«i|Qaliflfid  io  Sp&nish  aud  Lot-in  gram- 
ter«g«opaphv,  Spitiiab  Uitorr,  Uie  rlciueata 
of  Mlunl  hiJtory,  Ibcorctical  m^chuiicft,  ge> 
tmtUj  «oJ  lU  rrlaliiiDs  to  projocttoDS  and 
{wrvpcoUre.  pbrsics,  chemiAtr.v,  Uncal,  tQpo- 
gnphk«t,ftad  Uoditcapc  dnning.  ud  Frcncb 
•ad  Oaruas.  Sipocial  ftttcacion  ia  given 
la  lb*  eoon*  to  Mpognnibj,  cbenibti7,  and 
mrtirmatlm  Bruuhes  bearing  particuUrljr 
OB  ftiiMliy  are  Introdooed  in  tba  aeoond  year, 
•ad  am  nade  more  pmniioent  in  tbc  auc- 
nwitlnii;  yaara.  Tlie  Lntalody  of  tbo  public 
la  fcfltcd  fa  the  ciric  guard.  The 
k  dlvldetl  into  forty  aix  forestral  de- 
paftBiati,  the  foTMU  in  each  of  which  arc 

tka  euv  of  a  chid  engineer. 

Bvtalair  ttBUnnatlon  Scbooli.  — In  a 
raad  before  the  Societj  of  Arta,  Lon- 
don, Dr.  WilUao)  Lant  Carpenter  oonatd«red 
the  beat  aiaane  of  continuing  tbo  education 
«f  d^ndren  trbo  are  taken  from  the  day 
•efeool  aa  i*arly  aa  the  law  i»Uoira  aud  aet  a( 
vork.  Oe  MJd  that  education  to  be  given 
tn  ihfl  eTeniag  mtut  be  inch  as  will  ailract, 
biC^reeti  and  rtfrtnU  Uf«d  children.  It  has 
im  ffimpoU  with  the  aodal  gambolhigB  of 
Ibt  M<art«  or  circa  with  the  gaudy,  spooioiu 
a■NM■u*^'  'o<>  often   allure  ihcm. 

la  die  eci  r,  must  touch  and  draw 

flpfth  thf  n|jrui&^  tiaturc  of  children  of  that 
■0y  ao  ih«t  their  lamincdvc  impulseii  and 
grovfaiC  puwrm,  Niib  uf  hmly  and  mintl,  shall 
be  rli^tly  nourfibvd  and  trained.  Lutly,  it 
miaal  b«ar  dLrv«tly  upon  ihc  practical  worlc 
of  ttMJr  dally  Ufa,  upon  the  pure  eujoymenta 
that  arc  pOMibla  to  ihitm,  and  upon  the 
noUa  duties  that  will  devolve  on  thum.  la 
Wftttingham  a  rtry  auoecaaful  attempt  hod 
been  made  to  Ingraft  upun  the  invtructiuii 
fW|ain»d  by  tb«  Ouvcrmni'nl,  exerciaea  of  a 
mmn  praotieal  and  reoroatire  character, 
*''"**M****  by  voluntary  teachers,  ench  as 
ealisthndca,  masical  lirills,  drawing,  model- 
tflfd  dcaMnMratlon  lU  elementary  Hcience^  gtv 
ograpby  with  fpcrial  rvfereoce  to  physical 
a  and  to  ccmnnerce,  shopping  and 
arithmetic,  n«edleworlc,  hi«torical 
aad  oUi«r  rcodlnpA  t|lu«Lmted  by  the  lantern. 
Uoreaver.  swen  worliiaj:  men  were  appoiated 
la  W  tbc  oiaaagcra  of  ooch  school,  aud  these 
■■i  ao  labored  that  duTicg  tbe  flnt  year  of 
Ifae  artidsnot  was  doubled. 


The  "  Recreative  Evening  Schools  Aflsocii 
tion"  was  formed  in  London  in  1686  wit 
a  similar  purpose,  and  had  acoomplibhcd 
valuable  work,  both  within  and  ontiide  of 
the  metropolis.  Dr.  Carpenter  said  in  re- 
gard to  the  use  of  the  lantern  that  ita 
value  as  an  educational  agent  Is  only  begiu- 
ning  to  be  recogni?^d.  Ejca  wearied  with 
long  use  during  the  day  can  not  endure  the 
fatigue  of  moch  boolt-worlt  at  ni^ht,  but 
they  are  revived  and  charmed  by  the  spU-a* 
dor  of  gay  color  and  brillionoc  of  light, 
urged  tho  teaching  of  ^deuce,  nut  only  as 
preparation  for  technical  education,  but  still 
more  to  put  the  young  people  into  an  intel- 
ligent relation  with  the  phenomena  of  the 
world  in  which  thuy  live.  In  order  to  dval 
with  the  diAtresa  arielng  from  unthrift,  vice, 
sclf-lndulgencc,  ami  reckless  and  Improvident 
marriage  In  a  great  dty  like  London,  Dr. 
Carpenter  said :  "  We  must  capture  tho  boys 
and  the  girls  who  will  be  Iho  fathers  and 
mothers  of  five  or  ten  years  hence.  If  when 
csptured  their  lives  and  habits  arc  molded 
nt  the  impressionable  i^^e,  from  fourteen  to 
twenty-one,  so  as  tn  become  good  citlzeni^ 
and  not  reckless  plrasurfshuuters,  unai 
tomcd  to  rc^at  tbo  Impnlse  of  paaaion  op 
the  suggestions  of  desire^  wc  are,  in  point  of 
fact,  sterilizing  the  un6tness  latent  In  them, 
and  thus  prcv(.-nliug  the  forms  lion  of  a  new 
national  debt  of  vice  and  crime." 


NOTES. 

Da.  F.  P.  WiGnT.«Jint  sounds  another  note 
of  alurm  ajiruinsl  dun^icr  from  leaii-poii^oniDg 
from  using  fruit  canned  in  tin.     Throe  case 
have  lately  come  under  hia  observation  li 
which  he  ajaigna  the  cauHe  of  trouble  to  this 
source.     One  case  Is  that  of  a  patient  who 
bad  1>ccn  using  conned  tonmloea  for  three 
years,  and  who  had  for  sevfrnl  raonthii  suf- 
fered painful  diemrdortt  of  digcetlion.     Analy- 
sin  of  the  toraatooii  revealed  the  presence 
0»P7  grain  of  oiidc  of  tin  and  0339  gral 
of  ehluriiJo  of  lead  per  pound  of  preserve 
vegetables.    The  other  ca.«cs  are  of  a  moth* 
and  son   who  have  eaten  canned  tomatc 
freely,  and  are  suffering  from  similar  digetf 
Ive  disorders.     The  evidence  of  lead-poisoi 
ing  is  not  presented  In  ao  ponltive  a  form 
in  the  other  nu^e.     Medical  men  and  chem*'' 
ist«  hare  ufUiiIly  inclined  to  the  opinion  thnt 
the  dangvr  of  poisoniug  from  canned  Iniita 
was  inalgnUlcabL 

Titl  "Quarterly  Journal  of  Inebriety** 
has  called  attention  to  tbe  indiacrittiutte 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOKTRLT, 


I 
I 


':  nf  poIicomen*s  discipline  to  io- 
il  !i  vx^k:?  ill   hot  wi-iithcr.      Most 

rr^^,...  .,..,  c-.jcli  cui-L*  BEii  sijll«riug  far 
niurt!  fram  other  cftus**  timn  from  liquor 
— from  dobiiitr,  heal -i^iro Ice,  or  some  other 
caiiHo  pcculiAT  to  or  resulting  from  tbc 
weather — added  to  a  degree  of  Intoxiration 
which  under  onlinary  drcuro-^tancL-s  might 
not   attract   an  otKccr'jt  altc-nlion — not  un- 

fn -■■•'-    ''■■•"    '■■' ■    — 1  ..^.".3Q'g    club    or 

r-  nt>cdisinMli- 

oai  I  t'xamlnatlon, 

before  being  thrust  into  a  hot,  dose  cclL 

Tmk  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
for  thief  year  is  to  be  hold  iit  NewciiisiIc-on< 
Tjne,  under  the  preftidency  of  Prof.  W.  U. 
Flower,  F.  R.  8.  The  preAidentA  of  the  va. 
rioufl  i^ectionn  are  as  fullonu:  A,  Malhumat!- 
cal  and  Thrsical  i>eieoce.  Captain  W.  De 
W.  Abney,  R.  E.,  C.  ».,  F.  R.  S.— B,  Chemi- 
cal  ScieoM,  Sir  I.  Lowthian  Dell,  F.  R.  a— C. 
GeoloCT,  Prof.  Jamed  fleilcic,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  a 
— D,  Biology,  Pmf.  J.  P.  Burdon-SaDderHon, 
MA.,  M.  n..  l.I>.  a,  F.  R.  S— E,  Getw^-raphv. 
Colonel  Sir  Frandi-dc  Winlon.  K.  C.  M.  G.,  K 
R.  0. 9. — F,  Eeonoriiic  St-icnce  and  Statistics, 
Prof.  F.  T.  Edgeworth,  M.  A.,  F.  R  S  — G, 
Unchoiucal  Seteuuc,  Wtlliacu  Anderson,  M. 
ItL^i.  V.  K— H,  Anthropology,  Prof.  Sir  W. 
Tumor,  LLD.»F.R.S. 

A  Botanical  Coxcntina  has  been  called 
by  the  Botanical  Society  of  France,  to  be  held 
in  Pnrifi  iu  August,  for  the  prtauntalion  and 
dUcuArtion  of  trcati^oA  on  l»otanioal  Buhject«, 
pure  or  applied.  FarticulAr  aiiciiiioii  will 
be  pivcn  to  confiideriny  the  uftcfulne^a  of  c«- 
tabltithitii:  joint  Ai'th»n  lonking  to  the  prcpa- 
raUou  of  maps  ifhowitt;;  the  dtstrlhutioo  of 
apet'Ii'A  iind  genera  over  the  globe;  and  to 
ttie  chnruotcrs  for  clos.'ii&caiiou  tuniLihcd  by 
anatomy. 

Till  French  Aawclalion  for  the  Adrano»> 
ment  of  Science  wlU  moot  in  Paria,  Augoat 
8tb  to  15th. 

Ay  affection  similar  tn  9unflrokc  \9  do* 
ecribcil  by  the  ^  Dritiith  M<-<tii-Al  Jminial "  ns 
pr  '  '  '  the  eh'ulric  light,  and  l»  called 
"  •■   stroke."     It  i^  Tory  liable  to 

»ti.: ..  ■ -'  K-,i.i.ir,(F  f,i  I h,>  tiociric  fur- 
nace of  the  '  ki).  Am  the 
beat  CTiilttc  I  ih  not  f-'U  to 
»"  *H',  the  fiui  K'tiiis  probability 
l«  Itinn  that  tbo  "ktrotce"is  an 
c(Tf.'<.-(  'jt  lij^hi  rather  than  of  beat. 

Trnr  Fn*n<*h  Acntlcmy  of  5ka<inrM  offers 
f«"  '•»/,  of  tlirto  thou. 

a-i  ■■  urk  on  disra»ca  of 


ivat  of  a^ri^  uaTlJ;itiou  aiu^  IbdO. 


OBITUARY    N0TH3. 

M.  Cmmiaci.  died  at  hi*  h*"  ■    "■  i' 
from  Dittural  cxhnustlon  uf  li  ,'^ 

April   Vth,  at   tb«  uj-'  nf  or;.  ■  j 

two  yearn,  aleveii  r*. 

He  had  li*e*l  vfrs  ». 

tioo  of  '1  111-'  f'uc  ijiiiulredUl 

year,  .\'  lie  «raa  iociiPionc4 

to  drivv;  ...Ml'    L..  ■  ■'*■"■-"'=  maiW  hi 

tlie  erection  of  the  I  .  raai,  M. 

Ilcnri  Clie^Tcul,  \\\  .  aiid,  al- 

though the  fact  bad  uut  been  cornaiuniqitcd 
to  him.  he  eeemod  to  have  -'onifr  Mif^plrifm  uf 
It,  and  to  b«  anxloua.     <  >  >rQ 

hie  larft   drire,  the  Wt^;  hia 

death,  he  was  rerr  «i.  i.,  nu  hjiu  m  b« 
helptH],  with  •oDie  diiti.  li: ,.  iji  to  hli  apait- 
meiil<!i;  and  it  wan  tjv;  1.  m  iLit  the  end  iru 
approacliing.  lie  ennk  gmdtiaUj,  wltbonl 
pain,  tlU  the  morning  of  the  Qih,  whrii  h« 
expired. 


Co^pi  rii    Xl.iivt^t;     in    1  iiilntrtf 

-'"■''-•  la 

several 

IS, 

March  7: 

Mia 

ap(>ointed  a  FfUon  iu>atutai 

^Ml 

Faadty  of  Medirinr    in    IKX" 

.  .in 

gcolf^  at  \\i 

•Ac$MOt 

of  Botany  at  ' 

-elected 

to  the  Acttdc 

'^-'  ml 

Economy,  ii. 

■  %\ 

traTelcr;  in  Iv.         ^ 

■i»- 

Bclf  with  equal  auooew*  to  liit 

-■7- 

Icorology,    phyaice,     botany, 

T. 

comparative    'aimiomy,      an! 

y. 

Wherever  he  went,  he  stndieil 

•'i«> 

tOfna,  fauna  anil  flom,  and  the  j'li 
noinena   of  the    rcpon.   and    he 

dcttoibed 

them  all  in  bia  Iwuk,  *'  Kr.i..i  s..ii 

"■nb«gto 

the  Sahara."     With  Bni' 

.'ittforbft 

a^oeoded  Mont  Blanc  in 

^«KM 

the  re«ulta  which  Uc  ^us»urv  Latl 

<«aeb«a 

I 


4 


Pxov.  Dojroot,  of  tb«  l7niT«TsitT 
ITtreeht,  one  of  the  flraCof  oontempormry  pfayv 
{oIoL'i<<t&.  has  ri^N»Rtlv  diod.  Hl-  «tivj  ihc  uu- 
('..  .q 

(,.:  .      .  .u, 

and  phuuatiuu,  ubi^ih  luive  Uiawo  auad* 
arda. 

Tni  RcT,  Dr.  r                         "arwwd, 

lat^*  IS^Metjl  of  '                                  -fM  at 

In-  ■  »» 

h  a 

Iv  MiUUh 

lu  -  .    .  _.-:.-  ul  Ollkt 

great  wrrloec  wtUch  iw  nadered  bo  tte  omm 

of  cducatioo. 

U.  0.  Mcrtsosm.  Profcsnr  of  OMtaD 
In  tbo  ITalTcratty  of  Plaa  aim*  IB49L  <B«d 
January  S9tU,  aMf aiUy-«l|{Ul  }ta^t%  of  a^ 

Sioxoa  Axonjo  fSnniccn,  rroddnt  of 
th«  AcMdcmy  of  BctoMu  vT  T«rla,  ifiirf 
Jlonb  7tb,  ajpud  vf  aair-ootf  fMHk 


•>^' 

•  /• 


THE 


POPULAR   SCIENCE 
MONTHLY. 


JULY,   1889 


WHAT   IS  CIVIL  LIBERTY? 
Bt  w.  o.  bumneb. 

VBorvMii  or  rouTtoAi.  akd  moial  tonDfos  m  taib  oolurib. 


in 

CC-l 


rm'"^*       m  that  liberty  was  one  of  the  most  trite  and  worn 
^^.  jrcia.     It  will  be  the  aim  of  this  paper  Ui  show  that 

o  JcAstwell  analyzed  of  all  the  important  social  concep- 
•t  h  the  thing  at  stake  in  the  most  important  current 
■■-■■.  and  tbnt  it  needs  to  be  defended  as  much  against 
thu9e  who  abuse  it  as  against  those  who  deride  it. 

In  tliu  first  place,  I  put  together  some  citations  which  will,  I 
think,  juiitify  me  in  bringing  this  subject  forward  again: 

1.  P  s  IB  the  one  of  the  recent  socialists  with  whom  it  is 

best  wl     1       lie  to  deal,  for  he  is  the  master  of  them  all.    He  is 
also  best  understood  in  his  writings  on  Roman  taxation,  in  which 
^ lis  social  dogmas  throw  important  light  on 
I  ^  liberty  to  be  a  share  in  the  power  of  the 

Ho  then  defines  **  free  tra<le/*  in  the  following  pagee,  so 
it  cover  all  civil  liberty,  according  to  Anglo-American 
,  uud  attributes  to  *'  free  trade,"  in  this  sense,  no  less 
the  destruction  of  civilization.  It  is  amusing  to  notice 
nunciation  of  free  tra<le,  which  it  would  have  been  so 
for  the  opponents  of  free  trade  to  quote,  has  been 
i  !  marked  with  the  strongest  kind  of  a  danger-signal, 
110  ver  quoted  at  all,  because  it  is  an  assault  on  all  mod- 
em liberaliBm  as  broad  as  the  Pope's  "  Encyclical  "  of  18G4.  In 
fn-  tti  must  be  noted  more  than  incidentally,  for  it 

ht'.j :  =:  I  here  have  in  view:  that  all  forms  of  liberty 

art?  wlidairt  with  each  other,  and  all  forms  of  assault  on  liberty,  as 
well  the  rovolutionist  and  socialistic  as  the  extreme  reactionary,  are 

*  S  Hildcbr&nd'fl  *"  JabrbQcbor,**  S69. 


Stale-* 

Ho 

. 

in 
1 

1 

HI 

l..ii  ■, 

htu 

290 


THE  FOFTTLAR  SCIENCE  MOfrTHLT. 


also  solidaire  with  each  other.  A  criticism  of  Rodbertufl  la  a  task 
wliich  I  rcBorve  for  another  occasion,  but,  as  p<  '  •  ^- 

ont  subject,  1  ask  attention  to  the  following  pi  i.^- 

trating  the  sort  of  dogma  which  shows  the  need  of  re-analyzing 
liberty:  "Moral  freedom  is  conditioned  on  historical  necessity,** 
Some  of  our  contemporaries  take  that  sort  of  proposition  as  tli^ 
profoundest  wisdom.  To  me  it  is  oracular  in  more  senses  than 
one.* 

2.  From  a  large  collection  of  similar  cases  I  select  the  follow- 
ing:  "  Life  appears  to  the  Manchester  party  to  run  its  course  under 
the  form  of  a  parliamentary  debate,  and  not  otherwise.  An  assi^r- 
tion  is  followed  by  an  <jbjection,  this  by  a  rejoinder,  and  so  on. 
The  decision  of  the  majority  is  Gnal."  The  \'iew here  s'  ■  "  -^d 
is  held  by  all  those  who  believe  in  government  by  d'  -  a, 
"  The  great  affair  in  this  world  is,  not  to  convinoo  a  mau's  intolli* 
gence.  or  to  increase  his  knowledge,  but  it  is  at  least  equally  im- 
portant to  lead  his  will  and  to  conquer  it.'*  t  The  writer  goes  on 
to  argue  that,  if  men  are  allowal  to  act  freely,  they  will  not  act 
by  deliberation,  but  selfishly.  There  ho  leaves  the  matter,  appar* 
ently  believing  that  he  has  routed  the  "  Manchester  Schulo,"  and 
established  something  of  philosophical  or  practical  imjiortanc©. 
He  must,  of  course,  assume  that  himself  and  his  frieuds  are  to  de- 
cide when  others  and  their  friends  are  acting  selfishly,  and  ought 
to  have  their  wills  conquered. 

3.  To  take  another  citation  from  a  popular  writer:  "Not  one 
liberal  principle  but  is  admirable  in  the  abstract ;  yet  not  one  lib* 
era!  measure  that  hfis  not  worked  terril)le  mischief  in  our  time. 
The  liberty  of  thought,  for  instance;  who  dare  gainsay  it  P  Yet 
it  ha&  provefl  destructive  of  the  principle  of  religion,  without 
flehich  there  is  loss  cohesion  among  mon  than  among  a  herd  of 
%wine.  THp  liberty  of  Hettlera«'iit  and  circulation  has  given  rise 
to  the  pestilence  of  large  towns,  in  which  men  congngatt?  and  live 
together  on  terms  worse  than  a  pack  of  wolves.  The  Hbi^rly  of 
industry  has  reduced  four  fifths  of  the  population  to  a  fii^Xv  of 
serfdom  more  cruel  than  negro  slavery,  whili*  more  than  half  of 
the  remaining  population  is  engaged  in  a  perpetual  stni"""'"  ""re 
savage  than  the  intermittent  warfare  of  cannibals.  1  le 
among  nations  has  ruined,  first  individually,  then  in               \y, 

then  financially,  and  finally  politically,  prosperous  couui ^ch 

as  Turkey,  while  in  England  it  has  destroywl,  not  only  affricnli- 
nrn^but  :  -  qualities  which   "  '  "»1 

British  ii  ^  :t\  .  .  ,  Pnrullol  {■■  .  .    n- 

encod  by  the  modem  world  through  the  progress  of  Inilxistiy. 
aided  by  discovery  and  invention,  have  come  down  on  this  gv&eci^ 

•  9  Rtl4l»hnn<l'«  "  jAbrhftchrt,"  iK^.  not*.  ^ 


jrHAT  IS   CIVIL  LIBERT yf 


291 


tion  the  fatal  effects  sprung  from  the  spread  of  education.  While 
thoughtless  or  superficial  writers  pretend  to  find  in  education  the 
remedy  of  all  social  e\Tls,  as  a  matter  of  fact  education  has  become 
the  source  of  a  vast  amount  of  human  suffering  in  modem  times, 
under  which  those  whose  education  is  their  only  patrimony  or 
source  of  income  suffer  most"*  This  is  sufficiently  explicit,  and 
ohso  manifests  the  solidarity  of  all  forms  of  liberty  and  modern 
civilization.  Those  who  attack  them  all  show  that  they  appre- 
ciate the  truth  of  things  a  great  deal  better  than  those  who  try  to 
attack  some  and  save  others. 

4.  Then  there  are  the  philosophers  of  the  newest  school,  who, 
seizing  upon  the  plain  fm-t  that  all  liberty  is  subject  to  moral  re- 
ftiraint^,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  are  forcing  upon  us,  or  trying 
to  force  upon  us,  by  legislation,  restraints  on  liberty  derived  from 
altruistic  dogmas,  and,  in  general,  under  the  high-sounding  name 
of  ethics,  are  assuming  a  charter  for  interference  wherever  they 
choose  to  allege  that  they  have  moral  grounds  for  believing  that 
things  ought  to  be  as  they  want  them. 

ft.  Finally,  the  anarchists,  taking  liberty  to  mean  that  a  man 
ought  to  be  a  law  unto  himself,  and  that  there  should  be  no  other 
law,  have  shown  from  another  side  that  we  should  try  to  find  out 
what  liberty  ia. 

Thk  History  of  the  Dogma  op  Natural  Liberty.— The  his- 
tory of  the  dogma  of  the  natural  liberty  of  all  men,  with  the  cog- 
nate dogma  of  the  natural  equality  of  all  men,  would  be  an  im- 
portant topic  for  exhaustive  treatment  by  itself.  From  the  notes 
which  I  have  made  on  the  subject  I  condense  as  far  as  possible 
thi<  following  view  of  it : 

Slavery  in  the  classical  states  seems  to  have  rested  upon  the 
law  of  war»  that  the  vanquished  man  with  his  family  and  all  his 
property  fell  under  the  good  pleasure  of  the  conqueror,  Xonophon 
stateH  thii)  law  explicitly:  "The  law  is  well  known  among  all 
men  that,  when  a  state  goes  to  war,  the  property  and  bodies  of  all 
in  Uie  state  are  the  property  of  the  captors.  You  will,  therefore, 
not  possess  wrongfully  whatever  you  get,  but,  if  you  permit  them 
t"  '      mything.  it  will  be  out  of  humanity."  f    It  seems  that 

X\[  :i  why  slaves  in  antiquity  so  universally  accepted  their 

fate  was  that  they  understood  that  such  was  the  fortime  of  war. 
ff  li  ♦hI  in  it  as  according  to  the  rules  of  the  game.    The 

m^-  in  date  whom  I  have  found  who  utters  the  dogma 

of  liberty  Ik  Philemon  (fl.  c.  360  B.  c.) :  "  No  one  by  nature  ever 
was  bom  a  slave,  but  ill-fortune  enslaved  the  body,"  J  Aristotle 
diacaaMa  the  subject  in  the  third  and  fourth  chapters  of  the  first 

•  K*roljr,  "The  DtlnnniM  of  T^abor  wiJ  EJacatioo,"  London,  18m,  lotrod.,  x. 

4  •'  '■  '  "  vU,  ft,  7S.    Cr.  '•  M.-mor»b..**  U,  2,  2,  and  PoIybluB,  U,  ftfl,  9.  j 


293 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


I 


» 


book  of  the  "  Politics,"  He  says  that  some  hold  that  slavery  yc 
against  nature.  Such  persous,  whoever  they  were,  must  have  de- 
rived their  opinions  entirely  from  humane  impulse  and  poetic 
enthusiasm.  Aristotle  was  not  of  that  tone  of  mind.  He  could 
not  find  in  history  any  example  of  a  state  which  hml  not  slavery. 
When  he  examined  the  stato  in  which  ho  lived  he  easily  saw  tliat 
slavery  was  of  its  very  essence.  He  therefore  held  that  slavery 
was  a  nattiral  necessity.  Such  it  was  in  the  sense  that  it  waa 
rooted  in  the  nature  of  the  classical  state.  It  is  undeniable  that 
the  classical  state  could  not  have  g^-own  np  and  could  not  have 
produced  its  form  of  civilization  without  slavery.  It  mtist  also 
bo  recognized  as  a  fact  that  no  other  organization  of  society  has 
yet  shown  itself  capable  of  that  degree  of  expansion  which  tho 
Roman  state  developed  by  means  of  slavery.  The  mediseval  state 
broke  down  under  the  first  expansive  reqxiirement  which  waa 
made  upon  it.  Whether  the  modem  state,  basted  on  natural  agents 
and  machinery,  is  capable  of  expansion  or  not,  is  yet  to  be  proved. 
There  seems  to  be  ample  reason  to  believe  that  it  is,  unleea  the 
modern  world  votes  not  tt)  go  on ;  but,  if  the  motlem  world  votes 
to  go  on  and  not  be  afraid,  it  can  only  do  so  by  virtue  of  educa- 
tion, and  then  it  is  subject  to  the  remonstrance  of  Mr.  Karoly  at 
the  head  of  this  article,  and  of  others  who  think  like  him.  To 
return  tr»  the  elassicul  ^iGX^\  it  remains  only  to  observe  that  slav* 
ery  was  likewise  the  fate  of  that  state  which,  having  enabltU  it  to 
grow  lip  to  immense  power  and  achievement,  also  inevitably  car- 
ried it  down  to  ruin  and  disgrace.  It  is  free  to  us  all  to  si)eculate 
on  the  question  whether  every  force  which  makes  high  §x|t€m8ion 
possible  will  not  also  bring  with  it  its  own  form  of  inevitable 
destruction  or  decay.  Aristotle,  therefore,  proceeding  upon  tho 
historical  method  and  upon  observation,  found  that  slavery  was 
necessary  and  expe<lient  within  the  limits  of  the  age  p^i-^  ^'^'^  ^'"-m 
of  society *he  was  discussing. 

Fuller  expression  of  the  dogma  of  natural  liberty  C' 
with  the  Christian  era.  Dio  Chrysostom,  at  the  end  ■  : 
century,  expresses  himself  in  favor  of  it,  but  his  declaration  is  in- 
cidental and  can  be  taken  only  as  rhetorical.*  It  is  among  the 
Christian  writers  that  it  first  finds  distinct  and  enthnsiastic  ex- 
pression. With  them  it  is  rather  an  inference  from  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  faith  than  an  actual  article  of  tl  *     ''*     '  'h 

they  quote  texts  freely  in  support  of  it.    The  ti  ^•- 

tianity  are  undoubtedly  favorable  to  it,  and  the  •  vaa 

direct  and  easy.  Tertnllian  (fl.  c,  2()0a-  D.),  addrejj^ii^  urathon, 
declares,  "  We  are  your  brothers  by  the  right  of  one  moLhta^— 
Nature."  t 

T  t  w  f.  8  not  confined  to  Christians,  however.    It  is  very  probable 

•  OaiL,"  tU,  13*.  f  •*  Ajwloflt^.  ad  QfmX^  c,  59, 


1 


4 


WE  AT  IS   CIVIL  LIBERTY  f 


i93 


that  it  may  have  entered  into  the  Stoic  philosophy  in  some  vague 
way.  We  find  it  in  the  lawyers  of  the  third  century.  Ulpiau  says : 
"  lu  civil  law,  slaves  are  considered  null*  Not,  however,  by  natu- 
ral right;  because,  as  regardii  natural  right,  all  men  are  equal."'*' 
And  Floreutinufl:  "  Liberty  is  the  natural  faculty  of  that  which 
it  18  permitted  to  any  one  to  do,  unless  something  has  been  pro- 
hibited to  him  by  force  or  law.  Slavery  is  an  institution  of  the 
law  of  nations,  by  which  any  one  is  subjected  to  the  rule  of 
another,  against  nature.  Se^^t  are  so  called  because  military 
commanders  are  wont  to  sell  captives,  and  so  to  preserve  (aervare) 
them  and  not  kill  them."  \  The  doctrine,  tlierefore,  gets  into  the 
Institutes  of  Justinian ;  J  "  Slavery  is  the  institute  of  the  law  of 
tions  by  which  a  human  being  is  subjected  to  anothers  control 

inst  nature."  These  propositions,  however,  in  the  law,  re- 
mained entirely  barren,  and  were  not  different  from  the  academi- 
cal ut '  -  of  the  philosophers.  It  was  the  voice  of  reason  and 
oonsc:  lugniziug  a  grand  abstract  doctrine,  but  without 
power  to  solve  the  social  problems  which  would  arise  if  that  doc- 
trine should  be  in  any  measure  admitted  into  the  existing  order. 
The  Christians  alone  seem  to  carry  on  the  doctrine  as  something 
more  than  a  pious  hope,  something  not  more  distant  than  any 
other  feature  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  easily  realizable  in 
that  kingdon.  The  vague  elements  of  social  and  political  innova- 
tion in  the  revolt  of  the  Donatists  and  the  Bagaudes  bear  witness 
to  the  extent  to  which  some  such  doctrines  had  been  popularized. 
The  latter  had  a  very  naive  definition  of  natural  rights,  and»  on 
the  whole,  as  good  a  one  as  has  ever  been  given :  "Natural  rights 
are  bornVith  us,  ahoui  which  nothing  is  said:'  • 

By  the  seventh  century,  the  churchmen  had  made  the  doctrine 

natural  liberty  one  of  the  tenets  of  the  Church.  Gregory  the 
reat  writes:  "Since  our  Redeemer,  Creator  of  all  creatures, 
deigned  to  put  on  human  form,  in  order  by  his  di^4ne  grace  to 
break  the  bonds  of  the  servitude  by  which  we  were  held  as  cap- 
tives, that  he  might  restore  us  to  our  ancient  liberty,  it  is  fitting 

d  advantageous  that  those  whom  Nature  has  made  free,  and 
horn  the  law  of  nations  has  made  subject  to  the  yoke  of  servi- 
tude, should  be  restored,  by  enfranchisement,  to  that  liberty  in 
which  they  were  bom."  ||  Tliis  passage  became  authoritative  for 
the  middle  ages,  as  well  for  the  point  of  view  of  the  doctrine,  and 
the  sanction  of  it,  as  for  its  substance.    It  is  a  familiar  fact  that 


•  "  tH-wi,**  I,  n  «2  f  ••  Digest,"  T,  4.  X  T,  tit.  ai,  8. 

•  Sue  Jung,  ?■ '  ■■"  xJii,  rtfl.     He  R)""  "h  muhority  for  Ihf  drfinitlon  of 
il  rtjtiis.     .'  r  h  might  Ik*  ioTL^^iigiitcU  with  fteat  ndrnniagi;  to  tucUI 

tchotr  ;Mii>uUf  rvvolic.  Ktih  ntpccul  fttlootlan  to  their  comtnuo  elcmcolA 

I  Bpbdo,  book  ri,  vp,  it;  77  Uigne,  BOS. 


^94  TJTIff  POPULAR  SCTSyCS  MOyTRLT.  V 

the  current  reason  then  alleged  for  enfranchisements  wa»  oa«l6 
gouKs  health  iti  the  realization  of  a  high  Christian  ideaL  Aboat 
8^5  Bishop  Jonas,  of  Orleans,  asks:  "Why  are  not  master  and 
slave,  rich  and  poor,  equal  by  nature,  since  they  have  one  Lord  in 
heaven,  who  is  not  a  resi)ecter  of  persons  ?  .  .  .  TIk*  '  il  and 

rich,  taught  by  these  [church  fathern],  recijgnize  tli  a  and 

the  poor  as  equal  to  themselves  by  nature.**  •  In  the  t^relfth  eent- 
nry  Bishop  Ivo  writes :  "  If  wg  consult  the  institutes  of  ^ '  V  . i 
the  law  of  nature,  in  which  there  is  neither  bond  nor  ii  .  f 

In  the  tiiirtoenth  century  the  doctrine  appears  in  Bracton-t  Wh<m 
describing  the  classes  of  men  as  free,  villains,  serfs,  etc,,  he  say*: 
"  Before  God,  there  is  no  acceptance  of  men  as  free,  or  of  men  as 
slaves."  Here  wo  see  the  doctrine,  such  as  the  churchmen  hail 
been  elaborating  it,  with  its  scriptural  warrant,  pass  ixxU^  Oi- 
English  common  law. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  kings  of  France,  in  tr " 
ing  the  communes  on  the  domains,  repeatedly  allege  thi:^ 
as  one  of  their  motives.*  Undoubtedly,  the  real  motive  whb  MtMk 
more  revenue  could  be  got  from  them  by  taxing  them  as  com- 
niunes  than  by  exacting  feudal  dues  from  the  members  as  serfii, 
but  it  all  helped  to  spread  the  doctrine  as  an  idea  of  what  would 
be  "right." 

This  review  now  shows  that  the  doctrine  of  liberty  and  equality 
by  "  nature,"  by  birth,  and  by  natural  right  was  not  by  any  means 
an  eighteenth-century  dogma.  It  had  been  growing  and  spreading 
for  eighteen  hundred  years.  It  had  begun  in  skepticism  about  the 
fairness  of  slavery.  It  could  not  begin  with  anything  else.  It  went 
on  until  it  became  a  philosophical  notion  of  liberty,  meaning  the 
natural  right  of  every  one  to  pursue  happiness  in  his  own  way,  and 
according  to  his  own  ideal  of  it.    It  could  not  stop  short  of  that 

This  dogma  did  not  emancipate  slaves  or  serfs.    During  a 
thousand  years,  from  the  sixth  to  the  sixteenth  century,  the  peas- 
ants of  Fr::  I  England  passed  thr. .      '    ' '  "    ' 
serfdom,    ^             ^e,  and  compulsory     ■  il 
struggles  of  their  own,  aided  by  economic  improvements  and  po* 

«  "  Dc  Ifutlt.  Ulc,"  U.  n ;  IOC  UlgnA,  US.    Uc  quota  Colou.  it.  1.  M 

f  Eplii.  221 ;  102  Uignc,  SSS.  ■ 

%  Uook  I,  oh.  8,  oa.  T«lf«.  lft?8.  I 

•  Tbo  originftl«  of  lb»o  dwniinent'  nrr:  nnt  ntTciblc  to  mc.     One  of  nUllppe  !•  B#l  bH 
qaoccdt  "^^O}:  that  evcrr  ci'r^aiurc  who  is  (nnocd  In  the  Imttgc  of  our  L<iriJ  «iw;!:ht,  ia 
pfucml.  Id  tw  fnMt  lir  tt-^:  "  etc.;  and  one  b;  Lout*  Iv  Ilutln :  **!Mfelu{  tliAt,  bf 

lh»  Hi^lti  «if  n»tiir»,  «<•(»  ■  ^hr  hnm  fpi'#,'*  etc^ 

I  In  "Anphflr 

to  dofcmiiDr  <  <  aratifln  nf  ocfm  tbttit'  * 

the  soil ;  S,  rh  i«mp>  Mrfilflm  la  vtlbii  ^   ,     . 

(Quoted  b7  Itodtwrni*.  «Ub  AppnmJ,  t  llUitobnoiiV  "JafarVkter,"  SM.)    7b. 


^RAT  IS   CIVIL  LIBERTY  f 


^9S 


I 


liticnl  vicissitudea,  but  the  dogma  of  natural  rights  was  aiding 
theiu  all  tho  time,  by  trndornnning  the  institutions  of  the  law, 
and  by  destroying  the  confidence  of  the  ruling  classes,  so  far  a3 
they  were  religious  and  humane,  in  the  justice  of  the  actual  sit- 
uation. 

Therefore  the  most  important  fact  in  regard  to  the  history  of 
the  dogma  of  natural  liberty  is  that  (hat  dogma  has  never  had  an 
hijttcrical  foundafioTiy  but  is  tho  purest  example  that  could  be 
brought  forward  of  an  out-and-out  a  priori  dogma;  that  this 
dogma,  among  the  most  favored  nations,  helped  and  sustained  the 
emiuici|jation  of  the  masses ;  and  that,  by  contagion,  it  has,  in  the 
ninet^^nth  century,  spread  liberty  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
cnrlh.  At  no  time  during  this  movement  could  anybody,  by 
]<jokiug  backward  to  history,  have  found  any  warrant  for  the 
next  step  to  bo  made  in  advance.  On  the  contrary,  he  would 
!i  '  .tid  only  warning  not  to  do  anything.  Such  must  always 
I"  ''ct  of  any  apjM-al  to  history,  as  to  what  we  ought  to  do, 

or  as  to  what  oiiglit  to  be.  It  is  a  strange  situation  in  which  we 
f  r  '  --'Ives,  when  those  of  us  who  are  most  unfriendly  to'*met- 
ij.  , "  and  have  most  enthusiastic  devotion  to  history^  find 

oarsoivea  compelled  to  remonstrate  against  half-educated  denial 
of  what  speculative  philosophy  has  done  and  may  do  for  mankind, 
and  also  to  remonstrate  against  tho  cant  of  an  historical  method 
which  makes  both  history  and  method  ridiculous.  To  go  off  and 
U'gin  to  talk  about  history,  in  the  crisis  of  a  modern  discussion, 
IB  the  last  and  best  device  of  reaction  and  obscurantism. 

Let  it  be  noticed  also  that  from  our  present  standpoint  this 
doctrine  has  lost  nearly  all  the  arguments  which  were  ever 
brought  to  its  support.  The  notion  of  natural  rights  is  not  now 
hebl  by  anybo<ly  iu  the  sense  of  reference  to  some  original  histori- 
cal state  of  the  human  race.  The  biblical  scholars  would  scarcely 
^ow  the  exegesis  by  which  the  doctrine  was  got  out  of  the  Script- 
irea.  The  dogma  to-day  does  not  stand  on  the  ground  of  an  in- 
feriiuce  from  any  religious  doctrine.  Tho  doctrine  of  evolution, 
insU>aii  of  fiUpfM)rting  the  natural  equality  of  all  men,  would  give 
a  demonstration  of  their  inequality ;  and  the  doctrine  of  the  strug- 
gle for  existence  would  divorce  liberty  and  equality  as  incompat- 
i  'i  each  other.    The  doctrine,  thus  stripped  of  all  tho  props 

^^ „.iVQ  been  brought  to  its  support,  would  remain  only  a  poetic 

inspiration ;  but,  if  all  this  is  admitted,  if  its  historic  legitimacy  is 
:•'  ly,  does  that  detract  anything  from  the  benpficeuce 

I  !iie  in  history,  or  render  invalid  a  single  institution 


I 

4 


tad  bMiitlful  in  »pplioatif>Q  of  the  *^ tcftcliiugt)  of  history**  as  oould  posaiblv  have 
beea  a*dA  to  tb»i  c««e,  jvt  it  rcittir&t  rcrr  litile  knowlcd;^  of  Iho  cam  u  It  rt«)ly  dtooit 
te  tm  that  Uiic  pro^rtTntn^  wu  a:'  unprnrticnl  and  pedaatic  as  ilie  wildest  proposilioa 
•fclcb  «a»14  b*r«  t>Mfl  made  by  ao  a  priori  philosopher. 


29^ 


THE  POPXTLAR  SCTBJTCE  MOirrffLT. 


I 


» 


which  resflB  upon  it  now  ?  Shall  we  any  of  us  return  into  serfdom, 
because  it  is  proved  that  our  ancestors  were  emancipated  under  ft 
delusion  or  a  superstition  ? 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  when  we  turn  to  the  present  and  the 
future  that  the  rectification  of  the  dogma  becomes  all-important 
The  anarchists  of  to-day  have  pushed  the  old  dogma  of  natural 
liberty  to  the  extremest  form  of  almtract  deduction,  and  they  pro* 
pose  to  make  it  a  programme  of  action.  They  therefore  make  of 
it  a  principle  of  endless  revolution.  If,  however,  the  baRis  on 
which  it  ouce  rested  is  gone,  it  is  impossible  that  we  shoulrl  liold 
and  use  it  any  more.  With  our  present  knowledge  of  history,  we 
know  that  no  men  on  earth  ever  have  had  liberty  in  the  sense  of 
unrestrainedness  of  action.  The  very  conception  is  elusive.  It  is 
impossible  to  reduce  it  to  such  form  that  it  could  be  verified,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  non-human,  non-earthly.  It  never  c-ould  oxint 
on  this  earth  and  among  these  men.  The  notion  of  liberty,  and 
of  the  things  to  which  it  pertains,  has  changed  from  ago  to  age 
even  in  modem  history.  Never  in  the  history  of  the  world  has 
military  service  weighed  on  large  bodies  of  men  as  it  does  now  on 
the  men  of  the  £\iropeau  continent.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  would 
ever  have  been  endured.  Yet  the  present  victims  of  it  do  not 
appear  to  consider  it  inconsistent  with  liberty.  Sumptuary  laws 
about  dress  woukl  raise  a  riot  in  any  American  State ;  a  prohibi- 
tory law  would  have  raised  a  riot  among  people  who  did  not 
f  directly  resist  sumptuary  laws.  A  civil  officer  in  France,  before 
the  Revolution,  who  liad  ]x>ught  or  inheriteil  his  oflice,  had  a  def^ve 
of  indepondencn  and  liberty  in  it  which  the  ninetoent'  y 

official  never  dreams  of.  On  the  contrary,  the  more  ti..  --ia> 
teenth-century  civil  and  political  liberty  is  pl3^ff^ct^»d,  the  more  it 
ppcArs  that  under  it  an  official  ha**  frot'dom  of  opinion  and  Lide* 

ndence  of  action  only  at  the  peril  of  his  livelihood. 

80  far  our  task  has  been  comparatively  eaay.  It  requires  oxdy 
industry  to  follow  out  the  hist-ory  of  what  men  have  thought 
about  anything.  To  find  out  how  things  have  actually  taken 
place  in  the  life  of  the  human  race  is  a  task  which  can  never  be 
more  than  approximately  performed,  in  spite  of  all  our  talk  about 
history.    To  interpret  the  history  is  still  another  task,  of  a  much 

re  difficult  character.* 

Liberty  in  Histort  and  iNSTrnrTTONS,— We  are  blinded  by 

the  common  use  of  language  to  the  fact  that  all  social  actions  are 

.ttanded  by  reactions.    To  take  the  commoui«8t  and  oft^n  noticed 


4 


I 

i 


Thfl  Emperor  Taul,  of  RumIa,  tbowiv' 

tory.     Whea  lu*  hranJ  ni  titc  vxctt^^tm  of  n: 
14,  *'  N'ow  yvn  f>w  (hat  It  U  nfcmcrj  to  trc«i  raon  like  dc^  "  { 
Ra«fe)«,"  ilV).     It  U  tnio  Lh«t  be  «u  cnuj,  (nit  w*  all  li«r«  nur  f 

wbicli  w  nuMt  ImporUBt  whua  w  uad«ruk«  iiuer|ir«takiaiL 


U  1 

.1  ni=.iuiic 


WBAT  IS  CIVIL  LIBERTY  f 


^97 


instanco:  We  talk  of  buyers  and  sellers,  as  if  they  were  independ- 
ent of  each  other.  We  call  those  who  have  money  buyers,  and 
those  who  have  goods  sellers.  We  tind,  however,  that  uo  trans- 
acUou  can  be  correctly  understood  untO  we  regard  it  as  an  ex- 
cbangOp  haviug  two  parts,  an  action  and  a  reaction,  equal  aud 
opposite.  In  the  language  of  the  market,  also,  wo  Kp<:iak  of 
being  long  or  short  of  the  market,  but  every  one  who  has  either 
money  or  gooils  is  iii  the  market^  aud  is  both  long  and  short 
of  it  ail  the  time.  He  is  either  loug  of  goods  and  short  of  money, 
or  long  of  money  and  short  of  goods.  The  pliilosophy  of  the 
market  can  not  be  understood  unless  we  study  it  from  this  point 
of  view. 

The  fallacy  of  a  grpat  many  doctrines  in  social  science,  and  the 
philosophy  of  a  great  many  errors  in  social  policy,  is  that  they 
divorce  the  action  from  the  reaction.  If  there  is  not  a  reaction 
with  equivalence  and  equilibrium,  then  there  is  an  expenditure 
from  one  side  toward  the  other, a  drain  of  force  from  one  side  and 
an  accomulatioQ  of  it  at  another,  until  there  come  a  crisis  aiid  a 
redistribution.  When  the  retuni  and  equivalence  are  suspended, 
there  is  a  necessary  contipuance  of  the  movement,  in  the  tendency 
toward  a  stable  equilibrium  of  another  kind,  which  would  come 
'hen  all  the  force  had  been  transferred.  For  instance;  You  , 
8(^:hools  for  less  than  their  market  value ;  you  must,  then, 
give  free  scliools ;  then  you  must  give  free  books  and  stationery ;  ' 
then  ^  hot  breakfasts,"*  and  so  on  in  succession.  The  fac^t  that  I 
one  thing  has  been  given  is  made  an  argument  for  more.  You  are 
told :  You  have  established  free  schools ;  **  why  should  not  you  " 
do  whatever  else  the  proponent  favors.  The  argument  that,  be- 
came you  have  given  a  man  one  thing,  you  ought  to  give  him  an-\ 
other,  is  not  good  in  logic,  but  it  is  intensely  strong  in  human 
nature  and  in  history.  The  saying  is  attributed  to  Danton,  the 
rerolutionist :  "The  revolution  came,  and  I  and  all  those  like  me 
plunged  into  it.  The  ancien  regime  had  given  us  a  good  educa- 
tion, nithout  opening  an  outlet  for  our  talents."  The  great  fal- 
lacy of  socialistic  schemes  is  that  they  break  off  the  social  reac- 
tion. A  man  is  to  have  something  simply  because  he  is  a  man — 
that  is,  simply  because  he  is  here.  He  is  not  to  be  called  upon  to 
render  any  return  for  it,  except  to  stay.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
taT  '  .-—  who  has  provided  all  there  is,  is  not  on  that  account  to 
bt:  to  a  recompense  of  any  kind.    He  has  only  incurred  a 

new  liability— viz.,  to  do  the  next  thing  which  is  demanded  of 
him.  The  only  stable  equilibrium  under  this  system  would  bo 
nniversia]  contentment.  But  boimty  does  not  lead  to  content- 
ment, and  can  -  !  the  recipient  has  everything  for  nothing. 
The  movemei]'  ^re^  runs  to  a  crisis,  a  redistribution,  a  re- 
•  "Tlie  Ewnomiat,"  1389.  p.  430 


39^ 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOI^TffLY. 


commencement.    The  further  it  goeB,  the  further  it  a]>proaebet( 

lanarchy,  impovorishment,  and  barbarism.  j 

^      At  various  times,  in  primitive  society,  in  ancient  Egypt,  and  ia 

the  Roman  Empii*e,  when  women  have  jK>:3se8sed  the  forces  whidiJ 

wen3  efficient  in  the  society,  they  have  had  dominion  ovt»r  mML 

They  abused  the  power  when  they  had  it,  too.    At  other  times 

the  subjection  of  women  has  been  due  to  the  fact  that  they  have 

needefl  protection.    They  did  not  possess  the  forces  which,  at  the 

time,  were  required  for  self-defense  in  the  society.    StncH"  they 

accepted  protection,  they  could  not  be  free.    When  they  fell  into 

dependence,  they  could  not  be  independent.     If  they  could  claim  J 

protection,  and  at  the  same  time  dominion,  they  would  be  privi»l 

Jieged;  and  any  on©  who  enjoys  privilege,  which  some  one  o]s<^  has 

h.0  furnish,  is  of  course  superior.    Hence,  there  are  thi^ee  pos.itioa», 

only  in  social  relations:  servitude  with  inferiority,  privilc^  with 

superiority,  and  a  middle  state  of  neither,  with  equality. 

Peasant  proprietors  turn  into  colons  and  serfs  through  mia-j 
ery.*    They  abandon  personal  liberty  in  order  to  get  protection, 
and  they  accept  servitude  to  get  security,  because  they  find  that  J 
they  have  not  enough  of  the  force  which  prevails  in  the  society  to] 
defend  themselves.    Tlieir  lords  maintain  superiority  and  exactj 
for  themselves  social  privilege.    Such  was  the  course  of  things  at! 
the  downfall  of  tho  Roman  Empii-e,    When  things  began  to  im- 
pmvo  in  western  Europe,  tho  slave  thought   that  it  was  com- 
parative freedom  when  he  was  bound  to  the  soil,  because  his 
family  could  not  be  separated,  and  he  could  not  be  romovod  from 
hifi  home*.    A  villain,  however,  would  have  thought  it  nlavery  t« 
be  reduced  to  the  status  of  the  serf,  with  unlimited  servitudes  io 
render.    The  serf,  in  Kis  turn,  tliought  it  immeasurable  ffain  loj 
grt  his  servitudes  made  definite,  although  a  free  im 
thought  it  slavery  to  be  reduced  to  villainage,    A  \  i 
|go  if  he  wanted  to,  but  be  could  not  be  evicted  if  any  one  vrauttd  1 
tf)  send  him  away.    A  free  man  can  go  if  he  want«  to,  and  may] 
be  evictetl  if  the  other  party  chooser*.    At  what  poitit  dno**  tho 
servitude  of  the  villain,  who  must  stay  and  worlc  la!  I 

dues,  turn  into  tlio  blessing  of  the  free  tenant,  w  of  j 

tenure,  but  works  and  enjoys,  subject  to  taxes  ?    K  at  j 

that  point  where  the  rights  and  benefits  of  holding  and  ujiitigj 
become  equal  to  the  bunlens  and  duties  of  taking  am!  using —  j 
always  with  reference  to  the  comparative  value  of  other  chanc«ft 
f^mselves.    If  a  villain  wants  •  tiaaprivi-j 

i  _    .    -      ran  evict  him;  if  he  wante  to  ^  .         a  aerTitiid«| 

that  some  one  can  retain  him.    If  the  landlord  wants  to  foroej 
t<inantH  t<>  ntay  and  till  his  land,  it  is  a  privilege  for  him  to  bft  ahkJ 

*Thl»  \m  ■  dl^putml  pnint,  on  whlrfi  a  p*«l  ilr«l  hu  »wi^n  --'!»'"■    -^'V  -"-^  t-™**^ 
dlrcfgtfocc  of  opinion,    Tba  ftbovs  netiaw  h>  inv  to  b«  (b«  h^tt  o!  i 


WHAT  IS  CIVIL  LIBERTY  t 


«9^ 


to  force  them  to  stay,'  If  the  landlord  wants  to  turn  his  land  to 
other  uw,  it  ifl  a  servitude  for  him  if  he  can  not  evict  his  tenants. 
The  modern  peayaut  proi>riotor  is  one  in  whose  statxis  all  these 
privil*>ge9  and  servitudoa  have  mot,  coalesced,  and  disfti>peured,  so 
til ''  *  :Lre  all  summed  up  in  the  question  whether  his  land  is 
w-  ■  It ug  and  tiliing,  subject  to  tho  taxes  which  must  be  paid 

on  it. 

In  all  these  variations  and  mutations  of  social  status  and  of 
the  rvhitiona  of  classes,  which  we  might  pursue  with  any  amount 
of  detail  through  the  history  of  the  last  fiftet*n  hundred  years, 
where  ifl  thor©  any  such  thing  as  personal  liberty  of  the  sort  which 
moans  doing  as  one  likes  ?  None  have  had  it  but  those  who  were 
privileged— that  is  to  say,  it  has  lain  entirely  outside  of  civil  lib- 
erty. It  has  had  the  form  of  an  artificial  social  monopoly,  and 
the  fact  haa  come  out  distinctly  that  liberty  to  do  as  you  please  in 
Uiis  world  is  oidy  possible  as  a  monopoly,  but  that  it  is  the  most 
vnlnable  monopoly  in  the  world,  provided  you  can  get  it  as  a 
monopoly.  You  would  realize  it  when  you  got  into  the  position 
of  Ni-ro,  or  Louis  XIV,  or  Catharine  II, 

Wo  may  gatlier  some  other  cases  iu  point,  ■ 

A  man  who  expects  to  go  to  the  almshouse  in  his  old  age  may 
m^s^ard  a  law  of  settlement  as  his  ])atcnt  of  security,  because  it 
defines  and  secures  his  place  of  rofugo.  A  man  who  is  in  the 
same  status,  but  who  is  determined  to  better  his  condition  by  en- 
ergy and  enterprise,  tries  to  move.  He  fm<ls  the  law  of  settlement 
m  curve,  which  may  hold  him  down  and  force  him  to  become  a 
paupor. 

If  you  are  not  able  to  make  your  own  way  in  the  world,  you 
want  to  bo  protected  by  status.  If  you  have  ambition  and  ability 
to  make  a  career  for  yourself,  you  find  that  status  holds  you  down. 
In  the  former  case  it  hoKls  you  up,  or  keeps  you  from  falling ;  iu 
the  latter  it  holds  you  down,  or  keeps  you  from  rising.  On  the 
w1  '  ''  rofore,  it  keeps  tho  society  stagnant.  If  numbers  do 
»•/  .r^e  very  much,  there  may  not  be  much  suffering.    If 

nnmt>ers  do  increase,  there  will  be  mendicancy,  pauperism,  vaga- 
bondage, and  brigandage.  It  is  a  matter  of  grea-t  surprise  that  so 
liitlr*  invMtigation  has  been  expended  on  the  vagabondage  of  tho 
nv  s.    The  students  of  that  period  have  kept  their  atten- 

tiuii  -i.  .v^-.Ase  who  were  inside  of  its  institutions.  The  test  of  tho 
modhitva]  system  is  to  be  found  in  a  study  of  those  who  were  kept 
ont  of  utions. 

If  i:  .„  .^  :„.trk  of  a  free  man,  as  in  early  Rome,  to  do  military 
dnty,  every  one  may  regard  that  function  as  a  right  or  j>rivilege, 
ralher  than  as  a  burden  or  duty.    It  may  carry  with  it  privilege^ 

*  b  vM  to  Ifl  I^tflrmuk  in  ih«  tut  eontuiy.     Sec  Falbe-Hanftcn,  "  SunubaAadd 


3O0 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTELT. 


of  citizenship  which  make  it  worth  more  than  it  coets.  Ifp  how- 
ever, the  privileges  of  citizenship  are  lost  unci  the  bur-l  ili- 
tary  duty  increases,  men  will,  as  in  the  dark  ages,  bji-  i-er- 
Bonal  liberty  as  well  as  civil  liberty  in  order  to  get  rid  of  mllit&ry 
duty.  If^  as  in  Russia,  at  least  formerly,  the  privileges  of  citiz<*n- 
ship  are  nH  and  the  burdens  of  military  duty  very  heavy,  to  bo 
taken  as  a  soldier  is  like  incurring  a  capital  sentence. 

If  a  man  enjoys  a  position  of  advantage  compared  with  othm, 
he  is  anxious  to  entail  it  on  his  children.  If  he  is  under  »)inmeor 
disadvantage,  he  is  anxious  to  break  the  entail  One  who  is  bora 
of  a  duke  is  anxious  to  maintain  hereditariness,  but  one  who  is 
born  of  the  hangman  rebels  against  it.  The  two  were  pari  of  one 
j^stem,  and,  in  the  long  run,  must  stand  or  fall  together. 

He  who  is  not  able  to  attain  to  his  standards  of  happiness  by 
his  own  efforts  is  one  of  the  ^  weak."  He  does  not  want  to  be  let 
alone.  He  wants  some  on©  to  come  and  help  him.  He  who  is 
confident  of  his  own  power  to  accomplish  his  own  purposes,  waats 
to  be  let  alone ;  he  is  "  strong  "  and  resents  interference.  In  tlie 
long  inin,  however,  he  who  may  be  called  upon  for  aid  in  the  for- 
mer case  will  insist  on  his  right  to  interfere  in  the  latter  cojKs  and 
he  who  claims  freedom  in  the  latter  case  will  lind  that  he  muift 
bear  his  own  burdens  in  the  former.  Any  other  course  would 
simply  lead  to  a  new  system  of  privilege  and  servitude,  for  be  who 
can  choose  his  own  ends  and  make  somebody  else  help  him  attaiu 
them  has  realized  privilege  in  its  old  and  ever-abiding  sense. 

Priviiege  and  servUude,  therefore,  are  the  poles  between  which 
all  farms  of  social  siatua  lie  when  we  classify  them  with  rffertmCe 
to  our  present  study.  Rights  lie  on  the  side  toward  privil«»ge» 
Duties  lie  on  the  side  toward  servitndeu  Rights  and  duties,  bow- 
ever,  are  not  separal^nl  by  any  gulf  nor  even  by  u  lino.  They 
overlap  each  other.  Not  only  are  they  parallel  and  c<jiin(*ctod  by 
the  social  reaction,  but  also  often  to  different  men  or  at  different 
times  the  same  thing  presents  itself  either  as  a  right  or  a  duty, 
e.  g,,  military  duty.  Somewhere  between,  however.  lit»s  ilw  middle 
point  or  neutral  pointy  where  there  is  neither  /  rtor  servi- 
tude, hut  where  the  rights  and  duties  are  in  e^u..., n,  and  thai 

stalus  is  civil  liberty  in  the  only  sense  in  which  it  is  thinkable  or 
realizable  in  laws,  institutions,  and  hist^)ry. 

We  have  seen  cases  above  in  which  the  same  men  were  andw 
privilege  and  siitrvitude  at  the  same  time,  having  accepted  one  as 
V  '•  of  the  other.    We  have  also  seen  caees  in     "         'h© 

I   -       ^  ■  of  some  involved  the  servitude  of  others.     1  h« 

class  of  cases  have  been  those  which  liave  had  the  most  unbafipy 
i  '  V  '    n  faded  with  '  '    *         vi- 

.1  !       Jk  bargain  wl  ug 

pan  raruly  afford  to  make,  to  incur  sonritudo  in  the  hope  of  phvtif«go. 


I 


WffAT  IS  CIVIL  LIBBRTYf 


301 


I 

1 


^erein  lies  the  curse  of  socialistic  schemes  whon  viewed  from  the 
Kide  of  the  supposed  beneficiary.  They  are  a  bait  to  defraud  him 
of  his  Iil>erty.  I  do  not  see  how  the  Gemiau  accident  and  work- 
man's insurance  can  fail  to  act  as  a  law  of  settlement,  thereby, 
under  a  pretense  of  offering  the  workman  security,  robbing  him 
of  his  best  chance  of  improving  his  position.  Still,  the  cases 
where  a  man  incurs  his  own  servitude  for  the  sake  of  his  owa 
pri-   "  fo  not  as  bad  in  some  respects  as  those  in  which  some 

.\^'ge!&  for  which  others  bear  servitudes. 

The  modern  jural  stjite,  at  least  of  the  Anglo- American  type, 
by  i"  *  '  ility  to  privileges  and  servitudes,  if  not  by  direct  ana- 
lyt,  uition  of  its  purpose,  aims  to  realize  the  above  defini- 

tion of  hl»erty.  It  is  the  one  which  fills  our  institutions  at  their 
and  the  one  which  forms  the  stem  of  our  best  civil  and  social 
ft.  If  all  privileges  and  all  servitudes  are  abolished,  the  indi- 
vidual finds  that  there  are  no  prescriptions  left  either  to  lift  him 
up  or  to  hold  him  down.  He  simply  has  all  his  chances  left  open 
that  he  may  make  out  of  himself  all  there  is  in  him.  This  is  indi- 
vidualism and  atomism.*  There  is  absolutely  no  pscai>e  from  it 
except  back  into  the  system  of  privileges  and  servitudes.  The 
doctrine  of  the  former  is  that  a  man  has  a  right  to  make  the  most 
of  "i  "  *  r  to  attain  the  ends  of  his  existence.  The  doctrine  of 
the  is  that  ft  man  has  a  right  to  whatever  ho  ntH>ds  to 

attain  the  ends  of  his  existence.  If  the  latter  is  true,  thou  any 
one  who  is  bound  to  furnish  him.  what  he  needs  is  under  servi- 
tude to  him. 

The  fact,  however,  is  rapidly  making  itself  felt  that  this  civil 
liberty  of  the  moflern  type  is  a  high  and  costly  thing.  A  genera- 
tion which  has  been  glorying  in  it  and  heralding  it  to  ail  the 
world  Afl  a  boon  and  a  blessing,  to  be  had  for  the  taking  and  to  boj 
enjoyed  for  nothing,  begins  to  cry  out  that  it  is  too  great  for 
tbem  ;  that  they  can  not  attain  to  it  nor  even  bear  it ;  that  to  1)6  a 
free  man  means  t^  come  up  to  the  standard  and  be  it ;  and  that 
It  is  asking  t<:>o  much  of  human  natiire.  They  want  somebody  to 
oofno  and  help  them  to  be  free.  It  has  always  been  so.  Meid 
hn'  *  '*  '  '  *  l<im  not  because  kings,  noblps,  or  priests  en- 
t\i\:  'cause  liberty  was  too  high  and  great  for  them. 

They  would  not  rise  to  it  They  would  submit  to  any  servitude 
filler.    Therefore  they  got  sorviturlo. 

^PThe  strain  of  civil  liberty  is  in  the  demand  which  it  makes  on 
the  whole  mass  of  the  people  for  perpetual  activity  of  reason  and 
conscience  to  re-examine  rights  and  duties,  and  to  nyidjust  their 
equilibrltmt.    Civil  liberty  is  not  a  scientific  fact.    It  is  not  in  the 

*  TW  wrtMr  or  AH  ochrr*  isc  gtkml  book  (TUuher,  **  tTrf;pPcliicliie  des  Menschcn."  U,  201, 
ft. )  iotMifitt  in  an  mrv^rdiunry  9ortr«d  agviuat  tho  atominU.  Ue  rvnchos  Uie  condutlon 
tktt  takt  U  lb*  flMe.    T&  tbc  it  bocedb  that  fate  U  oDfr*a  father  and  mother. 


30a 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEWCE  MOyTffLT. 


order  of  nature.    It  is  not  iKtsitive  and  objective;  thorofor^  it  is* 
not  crtpttble  of  coustaut  and  easy  verification.    It  is  hisitorical  and 
iiitstitutional.    That  means,  however,  that  it  i^  in  tho  flux  and 
change  of  civilization,  wherefore  the  reason  and  conscience  of 
men  are  kept  in  constant  activity  to  re-examine  ;<  '  princi- 

'pleH,and  to  reach  new  and  more  correct  solution  oi  us.    ()n 

account  of  this  activity,  institutions  are  modified  constantly,  and 
the  concrete  contents  of  the  public  creed,  about  rights  and  dut!<^ 
are  undergoing  constant  change.  It  does  not  rtppenr  that  this  everi 
can  be  otherwise.  There  is  an  assumption  that  we  can  attain  to 
social  stability  by  finding  out  the  right  *'  form  of  govtrmment,** 
or  the  correct  '*  social  sj'stem,"  but  no  ground  for  Bneh  a  notion 
can  be  found  in  pliilosophy  or  history.*  Hie  equilibrium  of  rights 
and  duties  con^ttittUes  the  terms  on  which  the  struggle  for  existence 
is  carried  on  in  a  given  society,  after  the  reason  and  conscience  of 
the  commiinity  have  pronounced  judgm<*nt  on  those  terms.  The 
very  highest  conception  of  the  state  is  tliat  it  is  an  orguni&atjoa; 
for  bringing  that  judgment  to  an  expression  in  the  Const itatioa! 
and  laws.     A  stJite,  therefore,  is  gtw^d,  bad,  or  indiffer-  rd- 

ing  to  the  directness  and  correctness  with  which  it  In  ■  au 

expression  the  host  reason  and  conscieuoe  of  the  people,  and  om- 
bodies  their  judgment  in  institutions  and  laws.  The  state,  there- 
fore, lives  by  delilKTation  and  discussion,  and  by  tacit  or  overtj 
expressions  of  the  major  ojiinion. 

The  fact  that  laws  and  institutions  must  bo  constantly  rtv 
molded,  in  the  progress  of  time,  by  the  active  reason  and  con- 
science of  the  people,  is  what  hiis  ])robably  given  rise  to  tin?  notion^ 
juflt  now  so  popular,  that  ethical  considerations  do,  or  ought  to, 
regulate  legislation  and  social  relations.  Tlie  doctrine,  however, 
that  institutions  must,  in  the  course  of  generations,  slowly  change 
to  conform  to  social  conditions  and  social  forces,  otx^ording  to  the 
mature  convictions  of  groat  masses  of  men.  is  a  very  differeai 
thing  from  the  notion  that  rights  and  i"  "  " 
of /ill  thi?  crude  notions  which,  from  '  .  ' 

assent  of  even  an  important  group  of  the  population. 

Among  the  most  important  tides  of  tlK»ught  at  tin-  j  !• 
time  which  are  hostile  to  liberty  are  sociali^sjT}^  which  ahvuyj;  Jmn 
to  assume  a  controUitig  organ  to  overrule  personal  liberty  and  eet 
^  :3-  :..-j  iii)(.rfy  in  order  to  bring  about  what  tVi  ^  i-  .  ^-^^ 
1  havcdixiilod  shall  be  done;  nniionnlism^  ■.  .alt> 

of  STKialism,  with  opposition  to  emigration  or  immigration ;  giaie 


•  On-  of  till-   : 

f»ei  thrtt  tijrnrtu  ti 

'tHni**  nf  tbr  r>tAlc,  or  to  make  n  wieooe  of  "  (loliliakl  •cirtm,**  «  d 
'Chiii^  hut  hi4ior1i!ftl  laJ  iMlltntiooftl,  and  ftt  die  urai  time  to  deny 
ercmotalc  U«^  abd  U>  InvJit  Uiftt  ihrjr  tiw  hUiOT\aa\  ttod  IbfttllutlatiAl. 


la 


A  STUDY  OF  SUTCIDE, 


303 


ahscHuHsm,  which*  in  its  newost  form,  insists  that  the  individual 
ex'-  ;  and  (i//ri/ (AW,  which,  when  put  forward  as  au 

al-  ,      :is  auti-s(>cial  as  seltishness.    These  all  are  only 

the  latest  fonuM  of  the  devices  by  which  some  men  live  at  the  ex- 
.  "f  othorH.    In  their  essence  and  principle  they  are  as  old  as 
y,  and  not  even  the  device  of  making  tlie  victims  vote  away 
tht*ir  own  lib*»rty,  apparently  of  their  own  free  will,  because  they 
tbiuk  tljey  ought  to  do  aoj  has  anything  new  in  it. 


A  STUDY  OF  SUICID 

Bt  CHAHLE3  W.  PILGRIM,  M.  D. 

AS  the  love  of  life  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  strong- 
.  est  instinct  of  the  human  mind,  it  is  but  natural  that  the 
guliject  of  voluntary  death  should  liave  attracted,  at  all  times,  a 
great  aroonnt  of  attention  from  moralists  and  sociologists. 

Somo  of  the  noblest  men  and  women  of  ancient  timoa  advo- 
cate Bn<l  practiced  self-destruction,  and  the  fivcpiency  of  the  act 
in  cnir  own  day  demonstrates  that  the  fear  of  death  is  by  no  means 
gen(>raL  Prof,  Mayer,  of  Paris,  in  a  lecture  on  this  subject,  de- 
clared that  every  one  of  his  hearers  had,  at  some  time,  thought 
favorably  of  committing  the  deed.  He  cballenged  contradiction, 
but  no  one  responded. 

This  longing  for  "restful  death,"  which  comes  to  nearly  all  of 
»r  or  hiter,  CAD  usually  bo  resisteil ;  but  often  the  desire  is 
\t  tiiat  the  will  is  not  strong  enough  to  overcome  it,  and 
miothor  name  is  added  to  the  long  list  of  suicides  which  statistics 
'iig  with  terrible  rapidity. 

•  ■  statistics  in  regard  to  this  subject  bave  been 
oompiled  by  I*rof8.  Bertillion  and  Morselli,  and  they  both  arrive 
■t  '  *  Mie  same  conclusions.  Taking  each  million  of  inhabit- 
aii'  .Howing  results  were  obtained  :  In  Austria  the  number 

waa  incrvii*ed  between  1860  and  187S  by  from  70  to  VZ'l  annually ; 
In  Prusttitt.  l>etweea  1820  and  1878.  by  from  71  to  133 ;  in  the  smaller 
German  stAtt'W.  between  1S35  and  1878,  by  from  117  to  2fia;  in 
Franoe,  Iwtweeu  1837  and  1877,  by  from  53  to  U9,  the  greater  jtro- 
pr**-*;..!^  T...ing  in  the  larger  cities.  Peasants  rarely  commit  sui- 
cj  tics  showing  that  in  Belgium,  where  laborers  can  gen- 

er  uieiit,  the  increase  between  1831  and  1K7C  was 

ou.,.  .In  Sweden  and  Norway  about  the  same  result 

waa  obtained,  viz.,  an  increase  from  39  to  80  per  year  during  the 
'",  Spain,  and  Ireland  show  the  lowest  number, 
a  1864  and  1878  \nm\g  only  from  28  to  35  in  the 
former,  while  in  Spain  and  Ireland  it  was  still  leas,  the  latter  show- 


J04 


THE  PO. 


SCJENCS 


» 


ing  an  increase  of  but  from  14  to  18  per  year  during  the  same 
penod-  This  result  is  probably  due  to  a  great  extent  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Catholic  priL'athtK>d,  for  it  is  the  Roman  Church,  above 
all  others,  that  has  firmly  "  lix'd  its  canon  'gainst  self-slaughter." 

On  account  of  the  more  settled  social  condition  of  Euglaud  the 
statistics  of  that  country  do  not  show  the  same  alarming  increase 
MiB  those  of  FraiK'H,  Germany,  and  Austria,  but  tho  ri'^ularity  of 
lihe  numl>er  for  each  five  years,  from  lfct55  to  lb75— viz.,  fr<^m  l*i$6 
to  18G0,  05  ;  from  1860  to  1805,  CO ;  from  1805  to  1870,  C7 ;  and  from 
1870  to  1875,  iJO — supports  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  Ht«t<?mcnt 
mafle  by  Buckle  that^  *'  when  the  social  conditions  do  not  undergo 
any  marked  change,  we  find  year  by  year  the  same  proportion  of 
persons  putting  an  end  to  their  existence,  so  that  we  are  able  to 
predict,  within  a  very  small  limit  of  error,  the  number  of  volun- 
tary ileaths  for  each  ensuing  period." 

Both  Profs.  Bertillion  and  Morselli  express  soua*^  uouut  jjj*  lo 
the  reliability  of  their  statistics  showing  an  increase  in  the  United 
States  on  account  of  its  rapidly  increasing  i>opulation;  but  any 
one  who  will  pay  attention  to  the  subject  will  be  courinced,  I  am 
stire,  that  a  marked  increase  is  annually  taking  jjlace;  and  tJiere 
are  many  reasons  why  it  should  be  so.  Our  country  is  young, 
social  changes  are  rapid,  and  the  struggle  for  wealth  is  8e\-ero.  In 
brief,  we  are  living  in  what  is  justly  called  a  "  fast  age,"  The 
mwiern  youth  "  consumes  in  an  hour,  by  useless  brilliancy,  the  oil 
of  the  lamp  which  should  bum  throughout  the  night,"  and  soon 
findi}  that  the  infirmities  of  age  have  supplanted  the  vigor  of 
youth;  the  business  man  who  to-day  is  at  the  very  height  of  pro»- 
perity,  by  some  rash  speculation  lxs:*omo8  a  bankruj)t  to-morrow; 
the  professional  man,  who  is  ambitious  of  distinction,  does  not 
rest  when  the  sun  goes  down,  but  prolongs  his  work  far  into  the 
quiet  hours  of  night.  In  fact,  almost  every  one  is  madly  purstiing 
either  pleasure,  wealth,  or  fame,  and,  under  such  circuii:  ,  is 

it  a  wonder  that  often  an  overpowering  sense  of  rmiut  iti.-*  <.u-^uj$t 
of  life  occurs,  or  that  the  delicate  structure  of  the  bmin  brtwlcs 
down,  impelling  the  unfortunate  victim  to  seek  rest  iu  the  9tticido*8 
dishonored  grave  ? 

Bej^idea  dissipation,  reverses  of  fortune  and  overwork,  love^ 
'}'    '  atid  remorf^o  play  an   important  j)art  in  the  •       *         of 

h-  iK'tion.     Marc  Antttny  fell   upon   his  aword  :'*d 

himself  bi^c^nse  ho  bellovwl  that  Cleopatra  hml  played  him  false; 
;i!    '     '  11^  by  reiM  1        '    -       '         •      '  tjy  }j^ 


i  Jit"tlie  K 

unite  hti'T  in  the  grave  with  him  whose  nb^ 


th 


us 

th 


--  :  and  thr      -      -     ''-     -'  '  '    'V  - 

!  rist,  uiJL 
rule  jujtt  a»  {Xtwertuiiy  t4Miay  in  mndem 


I 

i 

I 


A   STTTDT  OF  SUICIDE. 


3C»5 


^^    com 
■   tifiq 


Saoli  causes,  though  occurring  everywhere,  are,  of  course, 
more  frequent  in  large  cities  like  Paris,  London,  and  New  York, 
the  former  probably  tfiking  precedeuce,  it  being  no  uncommon 
sight  to  see  upon  the  marble  slabs  of  the  Morgue  three  or  four 
ies  which  have  been  recovered  from  the  Seine,  When 
ry  of  such  cases  can  be  learned,  they  show,  in  the  ma- 
jority of  instances,  the  absence  of  domestic  ties,  coupled  either 
with  misguided  love  and  jealousy  or  dissipation  and  remorse.  In- 
dee<l,  BO  far  as  men  are  concerned,  we  must  consider  marriage, 
with  its  accompanying  influences  of  home  and  children,  a  most 
t  prophylactic.  In  regard  to  women,  however,  this 
nt  does  not  hold  good,  for  with  them  suicide  is  more 
uent  among  the  married  than  the  single,  the  proportion 
being  10  to  about  9  or  9'4,  This  may  be  explained  to  some  extent 
by  the  mental  disturbances  produced  by  pregnancy  and  child- 
birth, but  the  strongest  reason  undoubtedly  is  that  a  girl's  youth- 
ful dreams  of  happiness  are  often  Bhattore<l  by  the  realities  of 
married  life. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  tables  in  this  connection  is  that 

c>ompi]e<!  by  Bertillioii,  and  first  published  in  the  "  Revue  Scien- 

tifique"  for  1870.     He  found  that  among  a  million  of  inhab- 

t**,  taken  from  all  classes,  the  following  numbers  committed 

icide,  viz, : 


Hurled  m«D  with  obilJmt 205 

MarvicdiMn  without  children 470 

iriiloirtni  with  chitiJroo 638 

iHttiuut  children 1,004 


Married  wotnen  with  chlldrvn -(5 

U&rricd  women  wiihout  children IftS 

Widows  with  children 104 

Widows  without  children 338 


We  here  learn  the  interesting  facts  that,  when  marriage  is 
childless^  the  number  of  suicides  is  doubled  in  men  and  trebled 
in  women  ;  and  also  that  maternal  love  diminishes  the  number  of 
anieides  among  widows  with  children  by  one  third  over  those  of 
childless  unions. 

This  table  alao  shows  that  males  exceed  females  in  the  fre- 
quency of  the  act  in  the  proportion  of  four  to  one.  While  this  is 
true  of  suicides  in  general,  it  certainly  is  not  the  case  in  those 
who  are  insane.  My  experience  leads  mo  to  believe  that  suicidal 
t«i»deDcie!4  in  the  insane  are  quite  as  frequent  among  women  as 
among  men,  and  I  am  sure  that  the  former  frequently  show  the 
more  dotormination  and  persistence.  In  the  outside  world  men 
lead  more  exciting  lives  and  are  subject  to  greater  mental  strain 
than  women,  and  it  is  therefore  natural  that  they  should  more 
frequently  resort  to  suicide.  Another  probable  reason  for  the 
OOttparatiTe  infrequency  of  suicide  among  women  is  that  they 
am  better  endowed  with  religious  fervor  and  jx)ssess  a  larger 
ahare  •  In  India  and  Japan  only  does  this  rule  fail  to  hold 


—t^^ 


jo6 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEyCE  MOXTHLT. 


good,  and  there  the  number  of  suicides  among  women  is  tiricse  afl 
great  as  among  men.  This  fact  bears  striking  witness  to  the 
hardsbips  of  woman's  lot  in  countries  removed  from  the  influ- 
ences of  civilization. 

Statistics  show  that  the  months  in  which  the  fewest  suicides 
occur  are  October  and  November,  while  the  greatest  number  occur 
in  April,  May,  and  June.  July  and  September  also  have  a  goodly 
share^  the  hitler  possessing  a  peculiar  fascination  for  womeiL 
This  refutes  the  old  idea  that  suicides  occur  most  frequently  in 
damp  and  gloomy  weather,  for  the  months  just  mentioned  as 
being  the  most  prolific  are  certainly  those  in  which  the  skies 
look  brightest  aud  the  earth  is  fairest,  Anotlier  remarkable  fact 
in  this  connection  is  that  the  progressive  iucre^ise  and  decrease  in 
the  number  of  suicides  coincide  with  the  lengthening  and  the 
shortening  of  the  days,  and,  as  M.  Guerry  has  shown,  not  only 
the  seasons  of  the  year,  but  the  days  of  the  month  and  of  the  week, 
and  even  the  hours  of  the  day  exert  au  inlluence,  the  constancy 
of  which  can  not  be  mistaken,  As  a  result  of  hia  elaborate  re- 
search he  found  that  the  greatest  ntimber  of  suicides  among  men 
occurred  during  the  first  ten  days  of  the  month,  and  from  Monday 
to  Thursday  of  the  week.  This  is  accounted  for  by  remembering 
that  the  majority  of  workingmen  receive  their  wages  either  on 
the  first  of  the  month  or  the  last  of  the  week,  and  that  ** pay-day" 
is  often  followed  by  dissipation,  debauchery,  and  remorse.  Oet- 
tingen  completed  this  interesting  observation  by  showing  that 
the  larger  number  of  suicides  among  women  take  plac^o  daring 
the  last  half  of  the  week,  when  they  are  most  apt  to  feel  the 
effects  of  man's  prodigality  and  wrong-doing.  In  regard  to  the 
hours  of  the  day,  we  know,  from  Brierre  de  Boismonfs  examina- 
tion of  1,093  cases  of  suicide  in  Paris,  that  the  maximum  number 
occurred  between  6  a.  m.  and  noon,  and  thereafter  regularly 
declined,  reaching  tlie  minimum  at  the  hour  before  sunrise. 

It  is  also  au  established  fact  that  the  more  rugged  natures  of 
men  impel  them  to  seek  coarser  means  of  self-destruction,  such  as 
the  revolver,  the  razor,  and  the  rope,  the  latter  being  most  fre- 
quently used  by  those  in  whom  the  vigor  of  manh'X'^  •'•  '  >*«t. 
Women,  on  the  contrary,  seldom  resort  to  measur*>s  ^\  ^y 

think  will  disfigure  thorn,  and  therefore  most  fr  y  »««k 

ideath  by  poisoning,  asphyxia,  or  drowning.    This, »'.      .....•,  only 

ifers  to  cases  in  which  the  suicide  has  opportimity  to  adopt  the 

'method  preferred.    In  hospitals  for  the  insane  almost  all  suicides^ 
both  male  and  female,  and  of  whatever  age,  are  aocompUshod 

tpension,  that  being  generally  the  most  available  method* 

Fr"       •         ---..-  .,     '  '         .      •    .■,.,^ 

any  i.  -^ 

1793  an  epidemic  occurred  in  Voraailies,  ami  tbs  populaLion  was 


idofl^ 


A  STUDY  OF  SUICIDK 


307 


i 


decmsed  within  a  single  year  by  1,300  self-sought  deaths.    In 
the  H6t«l  dos  Invftlides  an  inmate  hung  liiinself  upon  a  certain 
cross-bar,  and  within  a  fortnight  five  more  did  the  same  thing, 
although  there  had  not  been  a  single  case  of  suicide  in  the  estab- 
it  for  two  years  before,  and  the  threatened  epidemic  was 
kverted  by  the  removal  of  the  fatal  bar. 
Lord  Bacon,  in  his  "  Essay  on  Death/'  says  that,  "  aft^r  Otho, 
tbf     ■"• ' .. -r^j,^  }jad  slain  himself,  pity  (which  is  the  tenderest  of 
I       -  itjl  provoked  many  to  die  out  of  mere  compassion  to  their 

Bovcnyjgii."  Plutarch  tells  us  that  the  women  of  the  ancient  city 
I  of  Miletus,  becoming  melancholy  over  the  absence  of  their  hus- 
bands and  lovers,  resolved  to  hang  themselves,  and  vied  with  each 
^K  other  in  the  alacrity  with  which  they  did  the  deed.  Various 
^H  other  epidemics  have  occurred  in  more  recent  times — viz.,  at 
^M   Bouea,  in  180G ;  at  Stuttgart,  in  1811,  etc. 

^B        What  might  almost  be  called  an  epidemic  prevailed  in  the 

^H  New  Tork  Stal«  Lunatic  Asylum  in  July,  1850.    According  to  the 

^H  report  for  that  year,  there  were  at  one  time  twenty -eight  persons 

^^bp  t*  titution  bent  upon  destroying  themselves.    There  were 

^^Hp:  i  iiriug  that  mouth  forty-four  patients,  nineteen  of  whom 

were  suicidal.     The  first   successfid  attempt  occurred  on  the 

12th,  and  on  the  following  day  two  more,  who  had  been  in  the 

asylum  for  a  lung  time  and  had  never  shown  suicidal  tendencies, 

•ttempt^d  strangulation,  and  were  so  persistent  that  they  were 

only  prevontod  from  carrying  out  their  designs  by  mechanical 

r««timint    On  the  17th,  20th,  and  22d  other  attempts  were  made 

by  various  patients,  and  before  the  end  of  the  month,  at  which 

time  it  subsided,  tliere  had  been  fourteen  distinct  attempts  by 

eight  persons,  while  several  others,  in  whom  the  propensity  was 

strong,  rt'qnir'.'d  constant  watching  to  prevent  them  from  acoom' 

pliflhing  their  object. 

These  epidemics  are,  to  a  great  extent,  the  result  of  the  prin- 
cij '  *"  mitation,  and  it  may  be  said  that  suicide  is  almost  as 
m  ,-subject  of  fashion  as  is  dress  or  household  decoration, 

and  tliat  each  particular  method  reigns  for  a  time  and  then  gives 
way  til  some  newer  means.  For  instance,  a  man  destroys  himself 
by  plunging  from  the  heights  of  a  tower.  The  newspapers 
g:  y  record  the  fact,  and  straightway  a  dozen  more  do  the 

fiikUi.-  ..ii.ig, and  the  practice  is  only  stopped  when  some  one  who 
IB  tircH-l  of  life  sends  a  bullet  through  his  brain.  This  method  ifl 
then  aflnptod  until  another  takes  a  dose  of  carbolic  acid,  when 
that  in  turn  becomes  the  prevailing'means, 

AnothfT  proof  that  suicide  is  often  due  to  the  faculty  of  imi- 
Lf         -      -      -     .     ■  -  are  recorded  of  children  com- 

_;  ;  ;  cause,  after  haWng  heard  of  a 

in  which  their  interest  was  aroused. 


3o9 

Among  the  most  remarkable  attempts  at  suicide  upon  rocord 
is  that  of  a  man  in  Fressonville,  in  Picardy^  as  related  by  Dr. 
Wiuslow,  who  was  actuatinl  by  a  desiro  to  ring  his  own  death- 
iknell.  To  accomplish  this  object  ho  hanged  himself  to  th©  clap- 
per of  the  church-belL  But,  fortunately,  he  chose  an  hour  at 
■which  it  was  not  customary  for  the  bell  to  ring,  and  attention 
was  attracted  in  time  to  save  his  life.  Another  very  deliber- 
ate attempt,  probably  the  most  extraordinai-y  ever  known,  was 
that  made  by  an  Italian  shoemaker,  named  Matthew  Lovat.  This 
case  was  originally  reported  by  Dr.  Bergierre,  afterward  en- 
larged upon  by  Dr.  Winslow  in  his  "  Anatomy  of  Suicide,"  and 
has  since  been  frequently  quoted  by  various  w^riters.  The  his- 
tory of  the  case  in  brief  is  that  the  man  determine<.l  to  imitate  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour,  and  therefor© 
deliberately  set  about  making  a  cross,  and  providing  himself  with 
all  the  adjuncts  of  that  scene,  "  He  perceived  that  it  would  bo 
difficult  to  nail  himself  firmly  to  the  cross,  and  therefore  made  a 
not  which  he  fastenetl  over  it,  securing  it  at  the  bottom  of  the 
upright  beam  and  at  the  ends  of  the  two  arms.  The  whole  appa- 
ratus was  tied  by  two  ropes,  one  from  the  net  and  the  other  from 
the  place  where  the  beams  intersected  one  another.  These  ropes 
were  fastened  to  the  bar  above  the  window,  and  were  just  8uffl- 
cieutly  long  to  allow  the  cross  to  lie  horizontally  upon  the  floor 
of  the  apartment.  Having  finished  these  pn'parations,  he  next 
put  on  his  crown  of  thorns,  some  of  which  entered  his  forehead ; 
then,  having  strippfKl  himself  naked,  he  girded  his  loins  with  a 
■white  handkerchief.  He  then  introduord  himself  into  the  net, 
and,  seating  himself  on  the  cross,  drove  a  nail  through  the  palm 
of  his  right  hand  by  striking  its  head  upon  the  floor  until  the 

point  appeared  on  the  other  side.    He  now  place<i  his  f i  a 

bracket  he  had  prepared  for  them,  and  with  a  mallet  di  ^  nil 

completely  through  them  both,  fastening  them  to  the  wood.  He 
pexi  tied  himself  to  the  cross  by  a  pi(H\i  of  cord  around  his  woist^ 
wnd  woundetl  liimsclf  in  the  side  with  a  knife  which  ho  used  in 
his  trade.  The  wound  was  inflictml  two  inches  below  the  hyp<H 
chondrium,  toward  the  internal  angle  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  but 
did  not  injure  any  of  the  parts  which  the  <Mivity  containa,  Sev- 
eral scnit^thes  wore  observed  upon  his  breast  which  appear  to 
have  betm  done  by  tlie  knife  in  probing  for  a  place  which  ahould 
present  no  obstruction.  The  knife,  according  to  Lovat,  repre- 
Aente<l  the  spear  of  the  passion.    All  this  he  a  Ke 

Tnterior  of  his  ajwrtrnt' nt,  but  it  was  necessiii,  tlf 

in  public.    To  accomplish  this  he  had  placed  tlie  foot  of  the  cross 


I 

I 


the  foot  of  thu  cross  overbalancing  the  headj  the  whole  tnarhimt 


STUDY  OF  surer D£, 


309 


^ 
^ 


I 


out  of  the  window  and  hung  by  the  ropes  which  were  fast- 
to  the  beam.  He  then,  by  way  of  finishing,  nailed  his  right 
Jtand  to  the  arm  of  the  cross,  but  could  not  succeed  in  fixing  the 
left,  although  the  nail  by  which  it  was  to  have  been  fixed  was 
driven  through  it,  and  half  of  it  came  out  on  the  other  side.  This 
happened  at  eight  o'clock   in  the   morning.     Some  persons  by 

►m  he  was  perceived  ran  up-stairs,  disengaged  him  from  the 
and  put  him  to  bed<     By  medical  care  his  wounds  ulti- 
mately healed,  but  he  was  ever  afterward  morose  and  singular." 

A  person  bent  upon  suicide  will  sometimes  await  a  favorable 
opportunity  for  months,  or  overcome  apparently  insurmountable 
di^cultics  by  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  which,  if  it  were  devoted 
to  th«s  acoomplishment  of  a  better  object,  would  be  worthy  of  the 
highest  cwmmendation.  Dr.  Wynter  cites  the  case  of  a  man  who 
was  placed  onder  medical  observation  because  he  had  attempted 
to  oommit  suicide.  He  was  watched  with  the  greatest  care; 
daring  nine  months  all  means — so  far  as  his  attendants  knew — by 
which  he  could  injure  himself  were  removed.  But  one  morning 
he  was  discovered  hanging  by  his  neck  from  the  bedstead,  quite 
dead.  How  he  became  possessed  of  the  cord  was  an  enigma 
which  was  afterward  solved  by  the  discovery  that  he  had  care- 
fully preserved  every  piece  of  string  from  the  parcels  that  had 
boea  sent  Ui  him  from  time  to  time.  With  them  he  had  twiste*!  a 
rope  suiliciently  strong  to  accomplish  hia  purpose.  The  news- 
papers a  few  months  ago  reported  the  case  of  a  man  named  Fred- 
erick Helbig,  of  Zanesville,  Ohio,  who  also  showed  considerable 
inventive  talent  He  was  blind  and  disconsolate,  and  therefore 
reeolved  to  die,  but  as  none  of  the  common  methods  were  suited 
to  bis  parpose  he  made  his  way  to  the  cellar,  broke  off  a  piece  of 
the  gas-pipe,  and  then  covering  the  end  of  the  pipe  and  his  head 
with  a  hesavy  quilt,  quietly  suffocated  himsc^lf  with  the  gas. 

Another  extraordinary  case  is  that  of  a  man  who  was  quite 
recently  admitted  to  the  Buffalo  Insane  Asylum.  He  had  at- 
ttjmpted  suicide  the  day  before  while  in  the  station-house,  and, 
owing  to  his  dangerous  tendencies,  he  was  placed  under  the  care 
of  a  special  night-watch,  who  sat  outside  his  door.  For  three 
nights  all  went  well,  but  on  the  fourth  he  jumped  from  the  head 
of  his  bed  for  the  transom  over  his  window,  the  only  exposctl  glass 
in  the  room,  crashing  through  the  panes  and  seizing  the  bars  on 

oatside.    Before  the  attendant  could  prevent  it  he  had,  with 

'     '  1S8,  cut  into  his  thriMit,  severing  the  thyroid  cartilage. 

t.  was  in  a  frenzied  condition,  and  it  required  the  efforts 

five  atten^lanU  to  keep  him  from  tearing  open  the  wound.    The 

;ilAge  w;:  '  d  and  the  wound  sewed  and  dressed.    Foiled  in 

attecni''  ir  open  the  wound,  he  fixe*l  his  lips  and  jaws 

ilghtly  and  exhaled  forcibly.    He  succeeded  literally  in  blowing 


the 


4 


310 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIEITCS  MO^TnLT. 


himself  up,  for  the  air  found  Hh  way  through  the  slit  in  the  carti- 
lage into  the  tissues  about  the  wound,  and  in  a  few  soconds  the 
emphysema  extended  as  low  as  the  clavicles  and  so  high  that  liia 
features  lost  all  expression.  He  refused  food  and  resisted  nntri- 
tive  enemas  and  shortly  died  of  exhaustion. 

Thequostion,"  Is  suicide  an  evidence  of  insamty?"is on©  which 
has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  In  olden  times  it  neema  always 
to  have  been  considered  a  crime,  and  very  severe  laws  wer"  -^"'"^t^d 
against  it.    The  Hebrews  did  not  bury  the  bodies  of  sui  til 

after  sunset,  thus  treating  them  as  they  did  executed  criminals. 
The  Armenians  cursed  and  burned  the  house  in  which  the  suicide 
had  lived.  At  Thebes  their  bodies  were  burned  and  no  funeral 
rites  allowed  ;  while  the  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  among  whom  it 
was  the  custom  to  burn  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  a  natural 
de^ith,  buried  suicides  immediately,  as  they  thought  it  a  wrong  to 
contaminate  firo,  which  they  deemed  a  holy  element,  by  burning 
in  it  the  bodies  (tf  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  self -slaughter.  In 
England  it  was  formerly  attended  by  some  of  the  consequeuoes  of 
felony,*  hence  the  t^rxa  felo  de  se.  All  of  the  personal  property 
which  the  party  had  at  the  time  of  committing  the  deed,  even  in- 
cluding debts  to  him,  was  forfeited  to  the  crown,  and  his  i*emain8 
were  interred,  without  the  rites  of  Christian  burial,  in  the  public 
highway,  with  a  stake  driven  through  the  body.  In  fact,  every- 
where was  the  act  proscribed  and  considered  a  crime,  until  the 
present  century,  when  it  began  to  be  regarded  by  many  writerH  as 
a  positive  proof  of  insanity.  Esquirol  says,"  I  believe  that  I  haTe 
proved  that  all  suicides  are  ^  *     "  1";  and  Dr.  Wins- 

low,  one  of  the  greatest  autli'    .  ibject,  sup]>orla  Dr. 

Rowley's  assertion  that  "  suicide  should  ever  be  considered  an  act 
of  insanity."    On  the  other  hand,  Blandfoi  >'  "  "     '  ^     '     ill, 

Tuke,  Gray,  and  nearly  all  modem  authui  i  .de 

is  often  committed  by  people  in  whom  no  disease  of  the  brain  ex- 
ists. Indeed,  Dr.  Gray  went  much  further,  and  in  one  of  hia  lect- 
ures said,  "Suicide,  tliough  always  an  uiuiatural  act,  is,  in  the 
large  proportion  if  m^t  in  the  majority  of  caaes,  committed  by 
persona  who  are  entirely  sane,"  Whether  it  i«  or  is  not  the  act  of 
insanity  can  only  be  determined  by  a  careful  inquiry,  as  then 
are  many  cases  to  support  either  side  of  tho  n  ",  and  each 

one  must  l>e  a  "law  unto  itself."  For  inst..,..  .  be  ioisaaa 
enough  to  commit  suicide  does  not  imply  that  a  man  must  bo  a 
raving   Innatic,  "cutting  strange  antics  bef"  ■  ■•a\*cxi,"* 

which  make  his  madness  apparent  to  the  nv  ,  ced  ob- 

server.   Indeed,  in  many  instancea  the  attempt  at  suicide  ia  the 


4 
4 


*  Tbp  new  prnul  oodo  iiiftk^  It  \n  tliU  Siatu  a  ft'loof  to  ititAttitK  lo  eomttilt 
Lftwrcnrc  llallanl  nu  K'ntoncml  U)  dqu  ytar'i  iin]iriwmmi*m  Hiul«r  tJri«  tcctlon,  oa  Fcbf^ 
■17  8,  1$6S.    HiU  WM  tbfl  ftnt  oonvltftioB  for  Oif  critoa  tn  K«ir  T<irk  HMAir  ib«  &•«  ml* 


I 


A   STUDY  OF  SUICIDE. 


3»> 


first  prominent  symptom  of  msanity,  and  frequently  the  intensity 
of  tho  suicidal  t.  '  \-  Bubsides  with  the  progress  of  the  diseasei. 
All  who  know  J I  ^  about  the  insane  will  admit  that  lunaticr 

Tery  froquontly  poBsess  extraordinary  cunning  in  concealing  their 
Inn  ■  i  that  the  malady,  in  Tnany  cases,  is  successfully  hidden 

ixv'i.  is  and  acquaintances  until  some  remarkable  departure 

from  the  ordinary  ways  of  life  brings  it  to  light,  A  case  in  point 
U  that  of  Hood  Alston,  who  committed  suicide  in  New  Orleans  in 
ih^  early  part  of  1879,  after  writing  a  full  explanation  of  why  he 
wiBhi»d  to  die.  He  had  been  an  able  writer  for  the  newspapers  in 
many  of  the  large  cities,  his  habits  had  been  those  of  a  gentleman, 
and  his  death,  in  the  absence  of  the  letter  which  he  left,  would 
have  boen  inexplicable.  He  was  in  the  Interior  Department  at 
Washington,  and  was  afterward  appointed  the  secretary  of  a 
minini;  company  in  California.  He  was  married  and  had  every 
ny ;  '*'  -r  domestic  happiness.    **  Last  November/'  he  wrote, 

**  I  ■  possessed  of  an  impulse  to  kill  my  friends.     I  could 

hardly  resist  an  opportunity.  The  desire  would  be  but  for  a  mo- 
ment and  thei»  pass  away.  An  infant  was  bom  to  us  two  months. 
a^.  I  loved  it,  was  proud  of  It.  When  it  first  looked  upon  m6^ 
the  desire  seize*!  me  to  prey  upon  its  young  life.  My  friends  were 
i|(norant  of  my  mental  condition.  I  imparted  it  to  no  one,  not 
even  to  my  darling  wife.  I  die  that  others  may  live."  Dr.  Wins- 
low  relates  a  singular  case  of  a  man  who  was  heard  to  exclaim: 
\o,  for  GodV  aake,  get  me  confined,  for  if  I  am  at  liberty  I  shall 
»y  myself  and  wife;  I  shall  do  it  unless  all  means  of  destruc- 
are  removed,  and  therefore  do  have  me  put  under  restraint* 
Something  above  tells  mo  I  shall  do  it,  and  I  shall."  Mr.  Cheva- 
Her  also  tells  us  of  a  young  lady  of  delicat'O  constitution,  although 
'ivon  any  symptoms  of  mental  derangement,  who 
ii_;,  1  up  from  tho  tea-table  and  rushed  to  the  window, 

of  which  she  endeavored  to  throw  herself.    It  was  with  great 

•  nted  from  accomplishing  herdesign*. 

^  tlie  rest  of  her  life,  which  he  adds,'^ 
was  fortunately  not  long  prt)tracted."  Such  cases  illustrating 
the  frequency  and  intensity  of  the  suicidal  and  homicidal  pro- 
pensity abound  in  every  work  on  mental  disease  and  are  found  in 
every  asylum.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  imdoubtedly 
of  suicide  in  which  the  hj'-pothesis  of  insanity  is  un- 
iXty  stabbed  himself  rather  than  live  under  the  des- 
pT'*  of  Cicsar:  Themiatocles  poisoned  himself  rather  than 

lea*i  ...--  i'ursiana  against  his  countrymen;  Ze no,  when  ninety- 
oigbt,  hang  himself  because  bo  had  put  his  finger  out  of  joint; 
and  Hannibal  and  Mithridates  poisoned  themselves  to  escape  be- 
inr  f^l.-.-n  nrianners.  AVhen  we  search  Scripture  we  find  thatSanl, 
rat  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  commanded  his 


31* 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEITCE  MO^TRLT 


armor-bearer  to  hold  liis  swonl  that  he  might  plnnge  upon  it ; 
Samson,  for  the  sake  of  being  revenged  up<jn  his  enemi»i«.  puIK'd 
down  the  house  in  which  they  were  reveling  and  "died  with 
them";  and  Judas  Iscariot,  after  selling  the  Sa^^o^^  for  thirty 
pi»?cos  of  silver,  was  overcome  by  remorse  "  and  went  and  hanged 
himself."  The  exainjjles  quoted  from  ancient  history  show  that 
the  deed  was  the  result  of  Stoic  philosophy,  and  those  from  the 
Bible  show  motivf>a  sufficient  for  the  act,  and  iu  all  must  we  di»- 
\  card  the  theory  of  insanity. 

To  come  down  to  our  own  times,  we  may  take,  f<»r  exftmiilo,  th 
case  uf  Benjamin  Hunter,  the  Camden  murderer.  For  four  or  hx 
days  before  his  execution  he  made  a  practice  of  sitting  over  th 
prison  register,  with  his  legs  coverc*d  by  a  blanket,  and,  under  the 
pretense  that  they  were  cold,  kept  rubbing  them  with  his  hands,, 
leading  those  wlio  saw  him  to  believe  that  he  did  so  only  for  th 
purpose  of  increasing  their  warmth  by  rest'>ring  the  cir< 
through  them,  Ujiou  the  night  preceding  the  execution  i; 
aged  to  secrete  a  basin  in  which  he  place*!  his  feet,  and  after  cut- 
ting through  the  vessels  with  a  piece  of  sharpened  tin  he  com- 
menced the  process  of  rubbing,  and  was  actually  forcing  out  hia 
life  with  every  movement  when  his  appearance  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  keeper.  His  object  hod  almost  been  gained,  and, 
nnder  the  circumstances,  can  we  say  that  it  was  an  insane  one  ? 
He  was  a  proud  man,  who  dreaded  the  disgrace  of  a  public  execu- 
tion ;  he  also  possessed  in  a  marked  degree  the  desire  to  cheat  the 
law  of  its  deserts,  which  is  a  cbantcteristic  tendency  of  the  crimi- 
nal mind ;  in  one  constituted  and  situated  as  he  was  there  wore 
sufficient  reasons  to  account  for  the  attempt,  and,  instead  of  its 
being  the  act  of  a  madman  it  was  merely  the  effort  of  a  deter- 
mined  will  to  accomplish  a  desired  end.  Cases  innumerable  might 
be  cited,  did  space  permit,  where  persons  of  imdoubted  aanitj 
have  committed  suicide  for  the  purpose  of  escaping  suffering, 
punishment,  or  disgrace.  Tn  fact,  a  great  many  of  tht' 
whicli  we  daily  rea<l,  probably  the  majority,  can  not  bt- 
due  to  cerebral  dtsnase,  but  must  be  looked  upon  rather  as  tha 
result  of  social  laws,  combine<l  with  false  training  and     '■:     'i-rn. 

**Is  suicide  ever  justifiable  P"  is  another  mooted  qi;  .iwi 

many  writers  have  answered  it  in  the  affirmative.  Epictvtns, 
Z**no,  Pliny,  Seneca,  and  Plutarch  wero  ita  advocates.  Hume,  in 
his  "  Essay  on  Suicide,"  says :  "  It  would  be  no  crimo  for  me  to 
divert  the  Nile  or  Danube  from  its  course  if  I  could ;    •  '  leo, 

is  tlio  crime  of  turning  a  few  ounceit  of  Idood  out  uf Laral 

channels  ? "  Rousseau  taught, "  To  seek  one's  own  jrood  and  avoid 
.one'a  own  harm  in  •'  ■  law  of j 

'iTatiire."    Budgel  b-  i»Mi»y  w 

support,  uuUs  ovorwhelmod  with  clouds  »ud  sorrows,  man  hiu  a 


1 


8BA~B  UTTERFLIES. 


3«S 


fed 


tural  right  to  deprive  himself  of  it,  as  it  is  better  not  to  live 
au  tct  livo  in  f»ain/'  Montesquieu,  Montaigne,  Dr.  Donne,  and 
theni  have  ativauced  similar  ide.as  ;  but  it  is  ueedleiss  to  say  that 
Iwsir  arguments  can  find  support  only  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
ievo  tluit  *'  death  endeth  all/' 

The  teudenty  has  always  been  to  palliate  the  act,  aud  the  ver- 
dict, '*  cominittetl  suicidn  while  laboring  under  temporary  aberra- 
of  mind,"  lias  become  a  stereotyped  phrase.  This  verdict 
frequently  rendered  in  earlier  times  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
TeatinK  the  proi>erty  of  the  deceased  from  reverting  to  the  crowni, 
jUEld  it  has  been  kept  alive  in  more  rc*cent  times  hy  tlie  deHire, 
which  is  inherent  in  every  human  breast,  to  speak  kindly  of  the 
,  It  is  evident,  however,  that  such  a  verdict  should  only  bo 
orwd  when  the  actions  of  the  deceased  have  been  such  as  ti> 
very  strongly  to  insanity,  or  where  the  autopsy  shows  un- 
doubted lesions  of  the  brain.  Under  such  conditions  no  other 
verdict  would  Ije  just.  But  wlien  one  becomes  "  a  deserter  from 
the  army  of  humanity/'  and  resort*  to  suicide  as  a  means  of  escape 
from  the  trials  of  life,  the  act  is  merely  a  confession  of  weakness, 
which,  while  it  may  awaken  feelings  of  compassion,  certainly  dc^es 
not  call  for  paUiation.  There  are  ronditions  of  life,  I  will  admit, 
to  which  death  might  seem  far  preferable;  but  though  our  min- 
fortunos  may  bo  such  as  to  make  us  long  for  the  grave,  we  must, 
to  slightly  change  the  noble  words  of  Burke,  "  even  in  despair  live 
i.n  "  n'membering  that — 

**  Our  tixn«  b  fixed,  and  all  oar  days  are  oanibered ; 
Dow  loofc,  how  eliort,  wo  knon-  not:  this  wo  know, 
Dat7  re^Qirea  we  calmly  wait  tho  .sumraona. 
Nor  dare  to  stir  till  Heaven  shall  f^re  permisaion.*' 


.point 


SEA-BUTTERFLIES. 
Bt  Phof.  carl  vogt. 

THE  litth)  bout  lay  rejidy  at  the  dock  of  Nice ;  I  had  at  that  time 
to  depend  upon  my  own  hands.  The  idea  that  a  permanent 
ion  could  be  GstablialiHl  on  the  sea-coast,  with  laboratorips  in 
ich  the  student  could  fmd  in  one  place  all  the  aids  he  wonld 
in  the  investigation  of  sea-animals,  had  not  yet  occurred  to 
Tt  WA»  not  till  I  had  worke'l  two  years  in  Nice,  and 
■>I  nil  the  inconveniences  and  loss  of  time  that  comQ 
[rom  di^liciency  of  means,  that  I  devised  plans  for  building  sucl 
an  '  ^  '  >  ,  :]t,  which  all  came  to  no  result  till  Herr  A.  Dohrn, 
wi^  iL'd  energy,  founded  the  zoological  station  in  Na- 

ples, a  moiiel  i  hat  has  been  imitated  in  nearly  all  coast  countries. 
*o»,  xxjtt.— so* 


1H 


THIS  POPULAR  aCIEirCB  MONTHLY. 


Thirty  years  ago,  wg  did  the  best  we  could.    I  waa  living 
Nice  in  a  j»rivute  houHt»,  since  tumod  into  a  hot'O],  whi<  ^ 
a  projtH'ting  rock.     My  fiahing-^ound  was  in  th»?  K, 
franca,  which,  cutting  deep  into  the  shore  a  few  kilometres  to  Ww 
eastward,  was  inexhaustibly  rich  in  swimming  creature.     I  lui 
come  to  an  understanding  with  an  intelligent  tisherraan.     Whoi 
the  weather  seemed  favorable  to  the  flowing  of  rich  tides  intu  tbi 
bay,  Joacchino  would  come  early  in  the  morning  to  my  hom 
and  tell  me  that  the  Graziella  lay  at  the  dock.    Then  lie  wouli 
pack  two  baskets  with  large,  wide-mouthed  glasses;  1  would  stuff] 
into  my  pockets  as  many  small  glasses  as  they  would  hold,  audj 
take  a  net  made  of  the  finest  bolting-cloth  stretched  upon  a  ooj 
per  ring,  and  furnished  with  n  long,  strong  hnndU*.    Joocchinaj 
had  a  Bimilar  net  of  his  own  in  the  boat.    Magnifying  glasses  andj 
compasses,  hung  by  ribbons  from  the  neck,  completed  the  outfit 
which  was  quickly  deposited  in  the  boat;  J-  ;      ■  '     >  rowed,  for] 
we  only  went  out  when  the  air  was  still,  and  1  J,    In  aboiuj 

an  hour  we  were  in  the  bay. 

"  Do  you  see  the  tide,  Joacchino  ?  " 

"There,  sir,  before  the  Sanita,"  answered  JoKCchinOp  after 
having  risen  and  looked  around. 

I  saw,  indeed,  the  clear  streaks  with  smooth,  unruffled  surfaco^ 
that  usually  denote  the  coining  in  of  the  tide,  I 

"  I  hardly  think/'  I  said,  *'  that  we  shall  fill  our  vessels  to-day.  ~ 
It  is  getting  cloudy,  and  the  sun  is  not  shining." 

"  So  much  the  better,  sir.    The  sirocco  is  blowing  OtttAido 
the  sea,  and  will  come  in  here  in  the  aftemoou.     Do  ^ 
long  swells  on  the  tide  which  run  from  the  rtlBng  aloii^ 
to  the  back  of  the  bay  ?    I  will  wager  that  the  stream  reaches  \k 
the  other  side  of  the  bay.  over  by  the  lighthimse.  and  froi. 
to  the  mouth.    Tliat  is  a  g<x>*i  sign.    Tlie  more  clomly  th' 
the  more  butterflies  we  shall  cat^h." 

"We  must  go  out  from  the  land  to  catrh  ltuttiTlli»>a^ 
might  f>erhaps  get  a  few  swallow-tails,  mouruing-cloJiks,  or  a  few| 
pretty  Jasons  out  there ;  but  here—" 

Joacchino  somewhat  nervously  drove  the  boat  by  vig* 
oar-strokes  to  the  edge  of  the  stream,  which  waa  really  swai 
with  animals  of  various  kinds. 

Wliile  I  he  Mrdiutm  and  the  polyps  had  Borae  attriMTtions  for) 
him,  h«  aimLtd  particularly  for  a  placu  whore  a  transparent  anintall 
V  roe  eddy  \n  th»»  »tr*'am.     I  at  on<' 

It.. lI.:    .i.;itures  that  turn  so  wildly  in  cii' -    -     i 

perfectly  transparent  Pterotrachta,  about  a  span  in  length, 
f  '  '  '^  finger,  which  keeps  it«  long  »nout  inceesantly  foray- 

When)  jon  see  them,**  aaid  Joacchino,  **  tho  bi  itf«n( 


I 


I 


315 

f*r  off.  There  I  yoa  have  a  handsome  one,  of  the  largest  kind/* 
He  handed  me  a  gl&as,  with  which  he  had  dipped  some  out  of  the 
water. 

I  am  quite  proud  of  young  Joacchino.  He  has  eyes  like 
lyax,  and  has  learned  that  the  more  delicate  animals  mutjt  not  be 
touched  with  a  net,  but  must  bo  let  run  in  with  the  water  into  a 
glass  held  out  to  receive  them.  In  deep  water  the  net  must  be 
handled  so  as  to  cause  an  eddy  by  the  side  of  the  animal  that 
shall  draw  it  along  on  the  surface. 

**  Bravo,  Joacchino ! "  I  said,  after  examining  the  animal  in  the 
glass.  "  I  know  now  what  you  know  about  butterflies."  The 
#nJro^H  which  have  been  named  Pferopoda,  or  wing-footed,  really 
dcserre  *  -me.  They  are  exeitiiblo  creatures,  that  fly  round 
in  the  t  ,i88,  often  strike  the  walls  in  their  vehement  move- 

aienta^  then  suddenly  draw  in  their  wings,  turn  downward,  and 
ilowly  sink  to  the  bottom,  to  spring  up  again  after  a  time  and 
begin  the  old  play  anew.  I  recognized  at  once  the  lK>at-butterfly, 
dedicated  to  the  famous  seaman  Peron,  the  Cymbulia  peroni 
(Fig.  I).     A  little  way  off,  one  sees  merely  the  eddy  in  the  water 


PlO.  1.— CTMBITLI*   rKBOKl. 


anil  a  brownish  kernel  aljont  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat ;  only 
00  a  closer  inspection  can  we  distiugnisli  two  large,  roundish 
wings,  as  clear  as  glass,  that  sit  up«^n  a  yellowish  body  drawn 
backward  in  length,  that  rests  in  a  crystal  boat,  the  contour  of 
which  can  not  1^  exactly  discerned,  l>ecause  the  substance  of 
w]r.  '  lias  the  same  refractive  power  as  water.    It  is 

i>ni^  aal  is  put,  hardly  covered  with  water,  in  a  flat 

•auoe>r  of  glaas,  against  a  black  gronnd,  that  we  can  see  the  figure 


of  a  l)oat  hollowed  abovt\  rounded  in  front,  and  drawn  oat  int 
two  points  behind  (Fig.  1)  the  outer  Burfaco  having  wart-1 
oesiHiH,  whik*  tini)  p<iijits  like  the  teoth  of  a  saw    rise   f; 
npper  edges  in  front  of  an<i  behind  the  body. 

Thd  btvly  itself  lies  in  the  upper  hollow  of  the  bortt  - 
loosely  fixtMl  to  it  that  if  carelessly  handled  it  is  easil 
from  the  shell.    The  shell  is  nuule  of  a  uiiifunu  /md  stiniolurel 
substance,  aboxit  midway  in  consistence  betwt^en  jelly  and  grisUei' 
The  animal  does  not  appear  to  be  especially  affectvd  in  ita  mo- 
tions by  sepamtion  from  the  boat,  but  flies  around  i;  ^it«r 
as  iKtfore;  but,  as  it  does  not  live  long  in  captivity,  it  Li.  .. 
possible  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  is  able  to  form 
shell-    It  may  lie  said,  against  such  a  -            '  :       :*       ' 
feet  animals,  only  empty  shells  or  rar»  ^ 

in  the  sea,  whCe  none  have  ever  been  observed  with  imperfi 
shells,  as  must  have  been  the  case  did  a  new  gn)wth  take  placCL 

The  btxly   is  very  curiously  constructed     Leaving  out  th 
wings,  it  appears  insiguiticant  in  proportion  to  the  shell,  and  as  1 
burie*j  in  it.     The  fore-part  corresponds  with  the  thicker,  '  '- 
rounde<i  part  of  the  boat.    In  the  posterior  channel  ^'layn  a  ' 
like  tnil-aj)pendage,  starting  from  a  heart-sha; 
and  transparent  tin,  which  is  attached  to  the   ..,->..   ..^,  ..  ;.„h 
Stem,    There  is  no  head ;  in  front,  at  the  spot  where  the  w 
join  m  the  central  line,  lies  the  mouth,  ]»rojecting  in  t' 
a  little  rouml  mast,  behind  whicli  a  dark-brown,  creiJi.;.-. 
streak  may  be  i>erceived.     Tliis  is   the  phar>*nx-ht*ad 
through  the  bo<ly-cover.    Like  other  moll     "       'is  "i*™*^ 
(a  peculiar  imier  armament  which  has  b*     .  i4?ly 

[tonguef  but  has  not  the  least  in  common  with  the  ton^cue  of 
tebrates.    This  tongue  is  variously  formt'-l  *      * 

of  the  animal — like  a  file  or  rubl^-r  in  | 
with  teeth,  hooks,  and  thorns  in  CJiruivores.    All  th' 
flies  have  on  their  tongues  rows  of  stror  -  -  : -- •    i  < 
I  are — pi^rhaps  with  a  few  exceptions — di 
Bui  our  fishing  did  not  end  with  the  capture  of  a  fev, 
p.. J  ^TW.i.iT.-r  them  into  the  glasses  which  we  had  pi 
i  '  home.    The  Cyvxbulice  are  the  giants  amontr 

ffioii-buittjillies  of  the  Bay  of  Villafranca;  am' 

also  swim  in  the  tide  which  even  the  most  sk:: 

tinguish  from  the  water,  so  clear  and  ti-ansparetit  are 

"Sh)%  '      '  •!()!    L»'t  uh  drift  with  the  strwun  I " 

I  »iiil>  i  into  the  water,  so  that  its  rim  is  liareJy  un-j 

der  the  surface,  aud  sot  the  b>ng  luindic  ou  the  vdge  of  the  boalfl 
^a^ainst  '■      '    '        i.    Jo»*.^chino  slowly  piwhw  the  boat  onward™ 
ithont  watiT. 

"Stop I    Give  me  the  r  glass!" 


SEAS  UTTERFLTES, 

Blessed  be  G^ambrinus!  Without  his  invention,  nobody  \ 
Imps  would  havo  thought  of  furnishing  beer-glasses  with  fi: 
liaudleu.  The  nt»t,  which  was  filled  with  a  mass  of  swimm 
creatures  that  could  not  escape,  was  raised  above  the  water 
tL» :  I  room  to  dip  out  of  it  with  a  beer-glass.  We  have  b 
fot  for  wft  have  fallen  upon  a  swarm  of  needle-buttorfl 


318 


I  let  the  water  run  out  of  the  net  into  a  small  glans,  so  as  to  W 
sure  that  it  containB  no  other  animals,  and  take  a  glass  tube  long 
enough  eaaily  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  niug.  The  life  hens  in 
all  in  a  confusion  of  panic  <m  account  of  the  cramped  quart^ra.  I 
introduce  the  tube,  holding  the  up]>er  end  tightly  closed  with  mj 
forefinger.  The  air  contained  within  it  (lermits  very  littl©  water 
to  enter. 

We  have  now  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout.  When  I  porci»ivo  a 
butterfly  which  perhaps  has  spining  at  a  bound  to  the  surface  and 
is  now  gently  sinking  back,  I  trj^  to  bring  the  lower  end  of  my  tnbe 
close  to  it.  My  forefinger  is  then  suddenly  raised ;  a  stream  of 
water,  stronger  as  the  tube  is  deeper  in,  presses  out  the  escap- 
ing air  and  draws  the  animal  in  with  it.  My  forefir 
brought  down  to  close  the  upper  end,  the  tube  is  di-a«\ 
the  animal  in  it  is  transferred  to  the  collecting-glass.  This  is  a 
Dmple  metlioil  of  catching  such  small  and  delicate  animals,  bat 
lUst  ho  well  practiced  if  one  would  acquire  any  skill  in  it.  It  can 
not  be  used  successfully  in  a  rough  sea,  and  when  that  is  the  coo- 
diticm  the  student  must  wait  till  he  gets  home.  But  when  the 
animal  is  secured,  it  is  a  real  joy  to  lose  one's  self  in  contemplat- 
ing it  with  the  lens  and  microscope.  The  needle-butterflies  are 
a  beautiful  object.  Their  cylindrical,  glass-clear  shell  is  firm 
enough  to  stand  a  slight  pressure.  An  animal  is  caught  iu  tl 
prescribed  way  and  put  in  a  conipressorium;  a  small  '•■ 
n  thin  gUuss-plute  or  cover,  is  useil  with  a  tortuous  ni'  ...  .it 
bring  it  closer  up  on  the  stand,  which  is  also  of  glass.  A  drop  of^ 
I  water  is  made  to  fall  on  the  stand,  the  cn*atui'e  tol.' 

brought  up,  and  the  two  plates  aru  twistt^d  till  bot. 

>p.  We  might  crush  our  specimen  with  the  apparatus;  but  wa 
j^iin^fully  regulate  the  pressure  so  that  no  It  a         '    " 

hile  it  is  held  fast  iu  the  siime  jilace.     It  sir*. 
its  wingSj  but  all  its  exeriions  are  in  vain  ;  it  can  not  in  th<» 
row  space  overcome  the  pressure  that  weighs  r*    -^  '■*  ■  Rhelh 

It  is  a  wonderful  view  we  got  under  the  mi  of  ih**  fin 

muscular  fil>ers  crossing  one  another  in  the  winj^;:*,  n 
together  and  now  extending  mit^  and  w«  can  follow  ti 
aons  of  the  n^'rves  and  the  %i388els  of  the  circulation.    ^"^ 
the  ]n<ttinns  of  the  m<mth  as  it  ojx'ns  and  shuts,  the  pi 
with  the  tongue,  which  Ih  projot^ted  and  withiiraT^Ti, :_    .    :-a( 
tions  of  the  intestine;  we  see  the  heart  beat,  and  can  follow  the 
current  and  *  "  "         f*  wntrr  m  '      " 
jion^s  and  cei '  a»tory  oj'  . 

ble  cilia  in  their  regular  way.    Tlio  animals  ai*e  henuHplirodi 

va  F  ,1  1.1  1.-.1  1  .T 

ti 

pelted.    c;nly  a  few  hours  piissed  bvfors  iho  U4MMil<ybtttt<«rtlios  anc 


^EA-B  UTTERFLIES, 


V9 


their  relatives  could  be  seen  laying  eggs,  with  transparent  shells, 
which  resembled  rosaries  or  long  pods,  in  the  spaces  of  which 
tho  eggs  swam  in  a  clear  liquid.  Do  they  lay  these  eggs  because 
they  are  comfortable  in  the  vessel,  or  in  order  to  rid  themselves 
of  whnt  is  a  burden  in  their  straitened  captivity  ?  While  this 
quOHtion  is  still  unanswererl,  it  is  certain  that  such  strings  of  eggs 
IxkIs  are  also  found  drifting  in  the  open  sea,  that  the  eggs 

ich  are  laid  in  captivity  are  usually  fertilized,  and  that  the 
development  of  the  embryo  can  be  followed  under  the  microscope 
— fit    ■  till  the  iK)int  when  the  larvie,  which  go  through  many 

m*'  iptses,  leave  the  shells  to  swim  in  the  sea.     These  do  not 

reaembie  tiie  parents,  but  the  larvje  of  creeping  sea-mollusks,  and 
swim  by  means  of  a  ciliary  apparatus  which  grows  on  the  head, 
and  afterward,  when  the  wings  have  been  formed,  is  repressed. 
Th«  free  larva?  have  not  been  successfully  raised  any  further  in 

;ivity.  Probably  they  die  of  hunger,  for  it  is  impossible  to 
them.  But  we  can  tish  them  out  of  the  sea  in  a  net,  and  can 
compare  fi*om  the  various  forms  found  among  them  the  succession 
of  single  steps  in  their  growth  to  the  adult  state.  This  is,  indeed, 
not  always  Basy,  for,  on  the  one  hand,  the  larv»  of  different  species 
are  often  very  much  alike,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  currents 
do  not  always  fetcli  what  is  wanted,  so  that  many  observers  have 
to  wait  year  aft«r  year  to  continue  their  observations  and  bring 
them  to  a  conclusion. 

Dealing  with  the  pelagic  animals  that  swim  on  the  high  sea 
ia  a  delicate  matter,  and,  despite  the  most  careful  researches,  the 


cauM  of  their  appearance  and  disa7)pearance  has  never  been  ascer- 
Im  the  years  from  1850  to  1852,  which  I  spent  in  Nice, 
when  I  fished  with  my  fine  net  at  least  twice  a  week  in  the 
'Biiy  of  Villafranca,  1  only  found  a  fnw  8j>fHMes  t)f  ncedlo-butterfiies 
relatwl  species.  Cymhuli^v^  which  could  not  hnve  escaped  me 
I,  I  first  found  at  a  visit  in  tlie  Easter  vacation  of  1807,  when 
were  very  niimerous.    Messina  ia  the  Mediterranean  station 


3ZO 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTJILr, 


wlii're  Iho  butt<>rflies  are  brought  in  tbt'  largest  noniber  and  mofl 
various  forms  from  the  stream  of  Charybdis.    When  I  lofit  spciw 
asked  my  colleague  there,  Prof.  Kieinenberg,  to  send  ni' 
Hpectimens  of  a  naked  shelle*:*  species  (P/itfamodermon),  "• 
OUJ4  friend  Hcnt  me  a  goodly  number  of  other   butt 
wrote:  "I  am  sorry  I  wiu  not  send  Fnevvtodtrtnort. 
Wiu<  formerly  ho  abundaut  that  one  could  hardly  uuvk'- 
without  luiving  some  in  his  net,  there  are  now  none  hereL"  Hi 
uauie  Job's  comfort  came  from  the  zoological  st:*'  .   **    < 

which  UHUally  afforded  remarkably  fine  sea-anima 
myself  had  obtained  Pnextviodermon  two  years  before,    1  recrtnd 
a  Hplendid  lot  of  other  butterflies,  which  were  so  well  prvwrnai 
that  one  could  almost  believe  they  were  still  alive;  but  Pritum^ 
dt<rmo7i  was  not  among  them. 

In  Messina,  however,  is  found  the  round  butterfly,  Tiedemannift 
(Fig,  2),  of  gigantic  proportions  when  compared  with  the  ui\ken^ 
which  somewhat  resembles  the  mourning-cloak  of  the  land-nuuii^ 


Pi».  0.— CuDorai  Kkobvii. 


F)«.  T,— <OUOXS   ftOSKAUB.  Pin.  9.— lAmACIMA 


but  Ib  otherwise  of  like  structure  with  the  Cymfcu^wp,     It  mJmI 

has  u  water-clear  shell,  but  much  smaller  and  ♦      '     " 

its  wings  are  united  into  u  large  disk,  and  its  mou' 

into  a  long,  double-tipped  snout,  which  the  animal  carries  in  «fwi»' 

ming  like  a  rakish  mast  between  the  wings. 

All  the  8ea-butt<»rflie8  monticmed  al>ovo  are  predatory,  but 
am  inclined  to  believe  that  certAin  gorbelliee,  which  are  comp 
ble  to  corpulent  night-moths,  an<l  might  be  called  tl  :  *-  * 
flies  {Htfofii'a),nre  als*>,  In^sideH,  plant-eaters.  njt»y  tui;. 
clumsily  at  Messina  and  Naples,  are  occasionally  driven  to  Villi 
franca,  and  are  <li*tingui«he<l  by  their  swollen,  brow  '-T 
ext*>nding  into  a  jKjint  hehiml,  and  haxnng  a  narrow  > 
of  wliich  rise  the  shnH,  and  m 
usually  beiLT  rag^"^  *'*■  tlhlnm-in: 


3«» 


j^reen  color,  wluch  well  adapt  them  to  abiding  among  the  sea- 
weeds. In  the  ititestines  of  many  specimens  which  I  have  exam- 
ined for  Ihut  pvirjMjse  I  have  found  among  fine  grains  of  sand  and 
mold  dnbioxitf  remains  of  sea-plants  and  little  shells  of  swimming 
mollusk-larvae. 

Many  sea-butterflies  are  naked,  having  their  spiudle-like  bodies, 

insit.'^Ki  of  sliells,  covered  only  by  a  sack-like  skin.    The  laterally 

lixi'd  wings  are  sometimes  drawn  back  into  pockets,  and  over  them 

ri3tt>**  A  roundish,  somewhat  depressed  head-part,  which  is  occa- 

I»r*:>vitled  with  appendages  bearing  hooks  or  suckers.    To 

::. iuuge  (he  above-mentioned  violet-colored  Pneuviodervion 

of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which,  when  danger  is  impending, 
envelof>s  itself  in  a  white  cloud  of  slime  that  is  secreted  in  numer- 
oas  glandtt,  but  is  soon  exhausted. 

A  Bpecica  occurs  in  the  northern  seas  which,  together  with  a 

M'1!     Viyft   rtly,  Limacina  ardica  (Fig.  8) — a  species  having  a 

i'lrul,  transparent  shell — comes  into  remarkable  direct 

.      :■-  with  maiu    The  little  Limaciiias  appear  in  immense 

"  '  hn  polar  seas,  and  the  not  less  numerous  naked  Cliones, 

a  (Fig.  7),  which  are  much  lai-ger  and  inflict  grier- 

i  «nupon  them.    In  the  Mediterranean  Sea  thoCliones 

.(...--  .il.,'d  by  the  related  genus,  CUnopsis  Krohnii  (Fig.  6). 

The  polar  voyatcer.  Captain  HalbOU,  once  tried  to  bring  some  liv- 
Ui  Prof.  Eschricht,  in  Copenhagen,  for  ex.'iminntion. 
■  ..       .._     .at  they  were  carnivorous,  he  fed  them  with  reindeer- 
uvuit,  which  tliey  ate  greedily  at  first;  but,  although  he  changed 
'..he  was  not  able  to  keej>  them  alive  more 
.  had  to  bring  them  preaervetl  in  alcohoL   But 
it  made  a  very  satisfactory  research  upon  them. 
i  -   :i3  eat  little  crustaceans,  the  Clionos  eat  the  Lima- 

cinii  'ire  consumed  by  the  ton  by  whales.    The  Green- 

land whaie  appears  to  live  almost  exclusively  on  the  two  species 
of  aea-butterfly,  which  it  has  to  swallow  in  immeuse  quantities  to 
fill  its  capacious  maw.  It  eats  also  other  pelagic  small  fry  and 
cnurtaoeans  as  side-dishes. 

These  are  only  indirect  relations  in  which  the  sea-butterflies 
inhabiting  all  seas  stand  to  man.  But  they  are  important  enough. 
Without  whale-food,  no  whales;  without  these,  no  blubber  to 
grease  sailora'  water-proof  lx>ots  and  overalls;  and  without  boots 
and  eouthwefiters,  no  sailors  and  high-sea  fishermen;  and  with- 
OQt  whales,  no  whalebone,  no  parasols  and  umbrellas  and  corsets^ 
which  were  not  worn  by  the  beauties  of  ancient  times,  because 
ther  wore  limited  to  the  productions  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
whoro  there  are  no  Greenland  whales.  But  chains  of  this  kind 
can  be  fouml  everywhere. 

The  oldur  Fn*nch  naturalists — D'Orbigny,  P^ron,  Lesueur— 


3«» 


THE  POl 


•wlio  paid  nmch  more  attention  to  the  butterflies  of  the  tropical_ 
eeas  than  to  those  of  the  nearer  Mediterranean,  pronounced  them 
loctumal  high-6ea  animals.  They  had  never  been  seen  near  the 
coast,  nor  before  sunset.  They  were  not  found  at  a  less  distance 
tlian  about  ten  marine  miles  from  the  coast,  and  disappeared  la 
tlie  deep  at  daybreak.  That  may  be  correct  for  the  tropical  re^- 
gionfl,  where  a  dazzling  sunlight  is  poured  ujmn  the  highly  h*^ated 
surface  of  the  sea;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  sfA-but- 
terflies  have  no  eyes,  and  their  keeping  away  from  the  coast, 
where  the  water  ia  highly  warmed  to  a  considerable  deplh,  may 
indicate  that  temjjerature  is  more  a  determining  factor  in  thi» 
behavior  than  light.  •  The  sea-butterflies  behave  differently  in  the 
Mediterranean.  They  are  not  wanting  on  sunny  days,  but  are 
more  numerous  when  the  sky  is  clouded  and  in  the  night  In 
midsummer  they  are,  like  many  other  pelagic  animals,  extremely 
rare,  and  keep  themselves  in  the  great  deeps.  Prof.  Chun,  of 
KOnigsberg,  who  investigated  this  matter  in  the  summer  of  1880, 
fished  larvao  of  Cymhulia  and  TUdemannia  from  as  groat  depths 
as  a  thousand  metres.  Temperature  may  also  be  the  deciaiTe 
imoment  in  this  case;  why  should  the  animals  not  spend  their 
summer  vacation  there  ?  The  sea-butterflies  of  the  Mediterranean 
are  not  at  all  afraid  of  the  coast.  The  Bay  of  Villafranca  14 
hardly  two  kilometres  wide,  and  they  swim  in  the  straits  and 
harbor  of  Messina.  I  have  caught  multitudes  of  needla-buttcrflies 
in  the  daytime  in  that  stream,  close  by  the  shore. 

The  case  is  somewhat  different  in  the  polar  seas.    Wo  hunt 
the  whale  during  the  jmlar  summer,  when  the  sun  ^1  'set 

for  months,  and  not  in  the  polar  nights,  which  are  .•  tlu 

[long,  and  when  the  ships  would  be  frozen  in  the  ice.  If  liio  GU'^ 
ones  and  Limacinaa  were  night  animals  they  would  not  come  to 
the  surface  during  the  whaling  season,  and  would  also  not  be 
known  to  sailors  and  hunters.  They  might,  in  fact,  seek  the  deep 
in  winter  for  the  same  reas*>n3  that  they  resort  to  it  in  sunuuer  in 
the  Metliterrancan — to  escar>e  extremes  of  temperatura  Every" 
thing  tliat  lives  depends  on  external  conditions,  an<l,  as  these  aro 
not  everywhere  the  same,  the  behavior  of  the  orgitnisms  Kubjoct 
to  thorn  must  adapt  itself  to  the  local  relations, — Transioitd  fur 
the  Popular  Sciejice  Monthly  from  tfOnd  und  3Ieer, 


Tm  tad  Uut  tlio  ciirore«ai6r>t  of  tlie  le^nl  re<|airrtDout«  «i>  to  rif  tptwBl 


>JohnoUro<tinB  falle  of  liiwlf  ^»  •«<-uro  a  wholowtnu  fttmo-i'- 
[tlz»cl  bj  Dr.  Gcor^iY  IbVuVa  Inip^ctiont  of  thtt  nobooli  of  > 
«-ft39  ton-7  '  ■  ,      ■       ■ 

of  drculAticm  4r»  nUU  ucc. 


I,  wbffv 


FARM-LIFE  IK  CfflKA, 


3*3 


FARM-LIFE  IN  CHINA. 


Bt  adele  m.  fteldk. 


I 


I 
I 


THE  number  of  persons  that  may  subsist  upon  the  products  of 
an  acre  of  land  ajjpears  to  Lave  been  practically  determined 
by  the  Chinese.  On  ground  that  has  been  tilled  for  thounands  of 
ycnra  tliey,  by  a  skillful  use  of  fertilizers  and  by  attention  to  the 
wolfur©  of  each  plant,  raise  crops  that  would  honor  a  virgin  soil. 

In  this  Swatow  region  probably  nine  tenths  of  the  men  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The  farmers  live  in  villages,  isolated 
dwellings  being  uncommon.  The  villages  are  walled,  contiun  no 
wasted  space,  and  are  densely  peopled,  The  wide-spreading,  flat 
fields,  lying  along  the  river-banks  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  may  be 
made  to  yield  here  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  a  constant  series  of 
crops  without  interval  on  account  of  winter.  Their  chief  produe- 
tioDs  are  rice,  sugar-cane,  sweet  potatoes,  pulse,  garden  vegetables, 
luta,  indigo,  sesamnm,  ginger,  the  gross-cloth  plant,  tobacco, 
wheat.  Rico  is  the  stajile  fooil  of  the  people,  and  in  the  best 
years  the  local  product  just  supplies  the  local  demand.  Sugar  iaj 
the  principal  export.  The  cane  requires  less  labor  than  any  other 
crop,  and  will  grow  upon  nnwatered  land,  which  is  uusuitiible  for 
rioe-cultnre.  One  crop  of  cane  or  two  crops  of  other  produce  may 
be  grown  in  the  same  year  upon  nnwatered  land.  On  the  best 
rice-fields  three  crops  are  sometimes  raised.  The  early  rice  is 
»owed  in  April  and  harvested  in  July ;  the  late  rice  is  sowed  in 
August  and  harvested  in  November,  and  the  field  is  then  some- 
times plante<l  with  garden  vegetables,  which  are  pulled  in  March. 
The  expense  of  fertilizing  the  third  crop  is  so  nearly  (vqual  to  its 
value  that  it  is  never  reckoned  as  a  source  of  profit  to  the  culti- 
vator, j 

The  whole  coxmtry  belongs  theoretically  to  its  sovereign,  and 
Upon  all  land  that  can  be  tilled  with  profit  a  t^ix  is  paid  into  the 
imperial  treasury.  The  sum  due  annually  to  the  Government  for 
tho  u«e  of  land  is  fixed  for  eacli  field,  amount«  to  from  sixty  cents 
to  two  doUai's,  and  averages  a  dollar  and  a  half  upon  each  Elng- 
liah  acre. 

When  a  father  dies  his  land  is  divided  equally  among  his  sons, 
the  eldest  receiving  an  additional  tenth  on  account  of  the  extra 
expense  to  which  he  is  put  in  worshiping  the  manes  of  the  ances- 
tor, Tho  land  is  distributed  very  generally,  though  unequally, 
amonf^  the  people,  and  is  usually  tilled  by  it^  peasant  proprietor. 
Few  own  so  much  ««  two  hundred  acres ;  one  who  owns  ten  acres 
is  reckoned  wealtliy,  and  he  who  owns  one  acre  possesses  a  compe- 
tcnoa*    Thoee  who  own  from  one  tenth  to  one  h'alf  an  acre  are 


3*4 


THE  POPULAR  SCTEyOE  MOyTHLY, 


most  nnmerous,  and  therefore  there  are  many  who  till  land  foi 
a  share  of  the  profluco. 

Land  that  ia  too  sterile  for  profitable  cultivation  or  for  taxi 
tion  sells  for  from  six  to  sixty  dollars  an  acre,  while  gool  fami' 
laud  is  valued  at  from  three  hundred  to  eight  hundred  do! 
acre.  Rice-fields  not  in  the  vicinage  of  a  city  sell  readil> 
hundred  dollars  an  acre,  and  are  not  always  to  he  hought  at  thati 
price,  because  those  who  own  land  find  it  the  safest  iiivesfiUnent,] 
and  part  with  it  only  when  under  the  stress  of  debt.  The  burst-] 
ing  of  dikes,  drought,  and  bad  habits  are  the  chief  causes  of  thta 
transfer  of  land^  and  the  Bale  of  a  child  often  precedes  that  of  the] 
rice-field.  Interest  on  money  lent  is  from  twelve  to  twenty 
cent,  according  to  agreement  between  lender  ami  borrower. 

The  chief  expense  of  tillage  ia  in  fertilizers,  beans  and 
mum-seeds  from  which  the  oil  has  been  expressed  being  commonli 
used,  at  an  outlay  of  from  six  to  forty  and  an  average  of  t 
four  dollars  upon  every  acre  of  land.  Besides  this,  pota* 
ingSy  hair  from  shaven  heads,  and  all  other  vegetable  and  aui 
refuse  is  carefully  husbanded  and  methodically  applied  to  the 
The  clods  of  the  field  are  laid  up  into  little  ovens  t^  retain 
be  enriched  by  the  smoke  of  the  Ktubble  burned  undenieatli  them." 
Adobe  houses,  whose  walls  have  for  many  years  absorbed  thoj 
fumee  of  a  kitchen  and  the  exhalationfi  of  human  inmates,  ar^j 
pulverized  and  addeil  to  the  ever-hungry  wirth.  Each  growing 
plant  separately  receives  distinguished  consideration,  a  scrap  of 
tobacco-stalk  being  sometimes  put  beside  its  root  to  destroy  under* 
ground  grubs,  while  its  leaves  are  frequently  examined  and  seda-j 
lously  freed  from  vermin.  The  rotation  of  crops  is  always 
ticed. 

As  no  milk,  butter,  or  cheese  is  used,  the  only  quM'irafjed 
on  the  farms  is  the  water-liutlalo,  or  the  zebu,  which  a^sta  in| 
plowing  and  harrowing.  3fany  farmers  rear  duckH,  which  arft| 
taken  U)  the  fields  to  devour  the  snails,  crabs,  and  y  ' —  '"""gS] 
which  thrive  there  at  planting-lime.    Fowls  often  ace-  lb< 

harvesters,  jiicldng  up  the  last  grains  left  among  the  stubbit% 

Few  families  are  witliout  the  ubiquitous  black  hog,  who«»A 
usual  habitat  is  the  door-step.  Its  food  ia  the  bran  of  the  rice] 
hulled  and  eaten  in  thohou-se;  its  head  is  the  cl  '^iug 

before  the  lares  and  penates,  and  its  flesh  is  most  ii., j  --locm) 

among  festive  vianda    It  ifl  reared  at  small  expense,  makes 
'*  ■   '  1  on  ttpaco,  f'i  thf»  unctuous  el-  'm  a 

>         _  f  fare,  and  •  Hys  be  soM  at  t  -a 

pound. 

The   farm  .'s  ;vn'  si        ' 

be  boui^ht  i  :  iry.     A 

harroT^^,  and  a  tauuing-mill  OMk  oost  two  doliArs;  a  painp  worki 


FAHif-LIFS  m  CHTJTA. 


3*5 


^ 


hj  treadles  in  irrigating  tLe  fields,  four  dollars;  a  water-buffalo, 
twenty  dollars  ;  ho*?8,  sickles,  baskets,  iind  suudrieH,  nine  dollars. 

When  laud  is  luaticd,  the  owner  pays  the  Utxes,  and  the  lessee 
fitmifihua  all  that  is  required  in  tillage.  Payment  to  the  landlord 
is  always  mwle  in  unhusked  rice,  and  when  the  land  is  worked 
on  shares  this  amounts  to  ab<jut  ono  half  the  crop.  The  usual 
Tmrgain  for  the  use  of  land  is  a  ton  and  a  quarter  of  unhusked. 
rice,  worth  about  thirty  dollars,  for  each  acre.  If  the  year  be 
remarkably  bad,  the  lessee  may  insist  upon  the  landlord's  taking 
oae  half  the  crop,  though  that  be  manifestly  much  less  than  the 
amount  agree<l  upon  as  payment.  If  the  year  be  good  and  the 
huul  excellent,  the  lessee  may  pay  one  third  of  his  crop  to  the 

diord,  may  have  expended  another  third  upon  fertilizers,  and 
have  the  other  third  as  net  profit  for  his  labor.  As  one  man 
_  e  to  till  more  than  one  aero  alone,  the  average  yearly  eai'u- 
-of  men  who  work  land  on  shares  is  leas  than  thirty  dollars^ 
acre  of  good  land  produces  on  the  average  3,048  pounds  of 
clean  rice. 

A  farmer  may  be  hired  by  the  year  for  from  eight  to  fourteen 
dollars,  with  food,  clothing,  head-shaving,  and  tobacco.  Those 
who  work  by  the  day  receive  from  eight  to  ten  cents,  with  a  noon- 
day meal.  At  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  rice,  wages  are  from 
ten  to  twenty  cents  a  day,  with  five  meals;  or  thirty  cents  a  day 
wi'"  kL    Few  land-owners  hire  hands,  except  for  a  few  daya 

dci :   ..,         planting  and  harvesting  of  rice.    Those  who  have  more 
land  than  they  and  their  sons  can  till,  lease  it  to  thoii*  neighbors. 

Much  lanil  is  held  on  leases  given  by  ancient  proprietors  to 
clansmen  whose  desceudantd  now  till  it,  paying  from  seven  to 
fourteen  dollars'  worth  of  rice  annually  for  its  use. 

F<x>d  averages  little  more  than  a  dollar  a  month  for  each 
member  of  a  fanner's  family.  One  who  buys,  cooks,  and  eats  his 
neala  alone,  spendu  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  dollars  a  month 
apoa  the  raw  material  and  fuel.  Two  pounds  of  rice,  costing 
three  and  a  half  cents,  with  relishes  of  salt  fish,  pickled  cabbage,! 
cheap  vegetables  and  fruits,  costing  a  cent  and  a  half,  is  the  ordi- 
nary allowance  to  each  laborer  for  each  day.  Abemethy's  advice 
to  a  luxurious  patient,  "  Live  on  sixpence  a  day  and  earn  it,"  is 
followed  by  nearly  every  Chinaman.  One  or  two  dependent  rela- 
tives frequently  share  with  him  the  sixpenc-e. 

Five  dollars,  wisely  sjwnt,  each  year,  will  keep  up  a  comfort- 
even  elegant  outfit  of  clothing  for  a  man  or  a  woman, 
hing  is  usually  woven  in  hand-looms  in  the  farmer's 
houae,  from  the  fiber  of  tlie  gniss-cloth  plant  {Bttehmen'a  nivea), 
or  frotn  imported  cotton  yarn.  The  average  amount  of  clothing 
possesaed  by  a  fanner  may  be  reckoned  at  four  dollars  in  value. 

A  room  may  be  comfortably  furnished  by  an  outlay  of  dve 


Jtl 


dollarR,  and  such  a  room  would  usually  be  occupied  by  three  o 
four  persons.    The  house  varies  in  value,  from  the  twenty-doUa 
cabin  of  the  poor  to  the  thousandnlollar  dwelling  of  the  riclu 
The  value  of  the  land  in  the  villages  in  which  the  agriciUturifita! 
live  is  from  six  to  eight  hundred  dollars  an  acre. 

As  the  emij^atiou  of  men  is  constant,  and  the  smotliering 
female  infants  is  common,  it  is  probable  that  the  land  ^^iIl  sup- 
port no  more  than  its  present  population.  One  sixth  of  an  »cre  to 
oacb.  mouth  to  be  filled  is  commonly  declared  to  bo  the  least  that 
will  enable  the  cultivator  to  live  upon  hia  own  land,  even  with  the 
highest  tillage  and  the  utmost  frugality.  One  aero,  tillt^d  by  tho 
peasant  proprietor  alone,  will  feed  six  jiersons — the  peasant,  his 
wife,  his  aged  fatlier  and  mother,  and  his  two  young  children.  It 
will  yield  rice,  hullml  in  the  house,  and  vegetiibles,  raised  between 
rice-crops,  Bufficient  for  food.  The  straw  and  stubble  will  servo 
as  fuel,  and  the  pig  and  fowls  will  supply  meat,  Tho  clotliin^ 
will  be  woven  and  made  by  the  wife,  whilo  tho  old  couj)!©  t^Uca 
care  of  the  children.  The  aged  ami  tho  young  are  thuH  provided 
for  through  the  land  which  has  been  the  property  of  the  one  and 
will  be  the  inheritance  of  the  other.  If  dirt,  superstition.  And 
mendacity  were  eliminated  from  such  a  home,  its  inm  uld 

api>ear  eminently  fit  to  sur\nve.    A  process  of  nalin-.-: 
has  doubtless  adapted  the  Chinese  to  tieir  environment. 

Two  brothers,  aged  thirty-one  and  thirty-two 
from  their  father  one  acre  of  land,  half  of  which  is 
house,  with  the  ground  on  which  it  is  built,  is  worth  fifty,  their 
furniture  fifteen,  their  clothing  twenty,  and  their  funning  appH 
ances  thirty  dollars.  They  live  as  well  as  do  their  neigh l>ort4,  ha Vd' 
paid  up  a  debt  inherited  with  their  land,  and  are  now  laying  up 
money  to  invest  in  wives.  Twenty  years  ago  a  wife  could  be 
betrothed  for  thirty  dollars,  whereas  none  can  now  be  ohtain«<t 
for  less  than  a  hundrefl  dollars,  and  tho  price  is  rop  ng. 

Last  year  they  got  twenty-seven  dollars'  worth  of  tie-   ..■  :,.  i>iii9 
half  their  farm,  after  having  put  on  twelve  dollars*  worth  uf  fop- 
tilizers.    On  the  other  half  they  planted  augar-caie,  pf 
dollara*  worth  of  manure,  and  sold  the  stantling  crop  fc; 
lars.    The  younger  brother  did  nearly  all  the  work. 

Pong  Hia  lives  in  a  village  of   ' 
about  thirty  men  are  laud-owm  i  ,     vv 

iw^res  of  land.    Pong  Hia  owns  two  acres,  inherited  from  tlie  iather 
who  adopted  him.    Hia  land  is  v''  ■  -  >    >   "   ^b.    His 

family  consists  of  ten  persons,     H  t^  old, 

his  wife  is  forty-one,  his  son  is  twenty-two,  his  son's  v  -  n- 

ty-one,  his  four  daughters  are  from  ten  to  scvontt'-v 
^grandchildren  are  three  and  seven  years  ohl.    He 
the  land,  hiring  help  at  harvest'timo,  and  weaving  sinkw  iua 


TIANITT  AND  AONOSTICISl 


sr 


ft 


raitiy  (lays.  The  women-folk  make  the  clothing,  rear  pigs  and 
fowl:^,  mill  do  m11  the  house-work.  Tlieir  dwelling,  with  its  site^  is 
valued  ut  a  hundred  and  twenty  dollars,  their  furniture  at  forty- 
four  dollare,  their  clothing  at  forty  dollars,  their  farming  appli- 
ances at  forty  dollars.  They  have  a  water-buffalo,  two  hogs, 
thirty  fowls,  ten  ducks,  a  pair  of  geese,  a  dog,  and  a  cat.  Last 
year  Pong  Hia  sold  twenty  dollars'  worth  of  rice  from  his  farm, 
and  paid  $3.«0  in  taxes.  He  haw  two  hundred  dollars  out  at  inter- 
est, at  eighteen  per  cent. 

At  this  rate  of  production  and  consumption,  the  arable  land  in 
the  St^t*)  (if  New  York,  with  a  retluctiou  of  one  half  its  returns 
tm  Hocount  of  its  more  northern  latitude,  would  support  the  total 
population  of  the  United  States  at  the  present  time;  and  the  oc- 
cupicHl  arable  land  of  the  United  States,  with  its  producing  power 
diminished,  on  account  of  climate,  to  one  half  that  of  land  at 
Swatow,  would  feed  a  population  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  world, 
or  over  1,400,000,000. 


■ 
I 


CHRISTIAOTTY  AND  AGNOSTICISM. 
Bt  E«t.  t>%.  hexhy  wack, 

nUHCITAL  or  KUO'S  OOUJEOl. 

ELVDERS  who  may  be  willing  to  look  at  this  further  reply  on' 
my  part  to  Prof.  Huxley  need  not  bo  apprehensive  of  being 
vntangled  in  any  such  obscure  points  of  church  history  as  those 
with  which  the  profesHor  has  found  it  necessary  to  perplex  them 
in  support  of  his  contentions ;  still  less  of  being  troubled  with 
any  personal  explanations.  The  tone  which  Prof,  Huxley  has 
thought  fit  to  adopt,  not  only  toward  myself,  but  toward  English 
theologians  in  general,  excuses  mo  from  taking  further  notice  of 
any  personal  considerations  in  the  matter,  I  endeavored  to  treat 
him  with  the  respect  due  to  hia  great  scientific  position,  and  ho 
replk*s  by  sneering  at  "  theologians  who  are  mere  counsel  for 
cr«edi^^'  saying  that  the  serious  question  at  issiie  "is  whether 
theological  men  of  science,  or  theological  special  pleaders,  are  to 
have  the  confidence  of  the  general  public,"  observing  that  Hol- 
land and  Germany  aro  "the  only  two  countries  in  which,  at  the 
present  time,  prufeesors  of  theology  aro  to  Ije  found  whose  tenure 
of  their  posts  does  not  depend  upon  the  result  to  which  their 
inquiries  lead  them,"  and  thus  insinuating  that  English  theolo- 
gians are  debarred  by  s«^lfish  interests  from  candid  inquiry.  I 
•hall  presently  have  something  to  say  on  the  grave  misrepresenta- 
tin-  '  ''.  rman  thecilogy  which  these  insinuations  involve;  but 
fi'  :  and  fur  English  theologians  I  shall  not  condescend  to 

reply  to  them.    I  content  myself  with  calling  the  reader's  atten- 


f 


3z8 


wrrmmismmimm^^^ 


tion  to  the  fact  that,  in  this  controversy,  it  is  Prof.  Hnxley  who 
finds  it  requisite  for  his  argument  to  insinuate  that  his  opponents 
are  biased  by  sordid  motives;  and  I  shall  for  the  future  K^ave  him 
and  his  sneers  out  of  account,  and  simply  consider  his  arguments 
for  as  much,  or  as  little,  as  they  may  be  worth.  For  a  similar 
reason  I  shall  confine  myself  as  far  aa  possible  to  the  issue  which 
I  raised  at  the  Church  Congress,  and  for  which  I  then  made  my- 
self responsible,  I  do  not  care,  nor  would  it  be  of  any  avail,  to 
follow  over  the  wide  and  sacred  field  of  Christian  evidences  an 
antagonist  who  resorts  to  the  imputation  of  mean  motives,  aud 
who,  as  I  shall  show,  will  not  face  the  witnesses  to  whom  he  him- 
self appeals.  The  manner  in  which  Prof.  Husley  has  met  the 
particular  issue  he  challenged  will  be  a  sufficient  illustration  to 
impartial  minds  of  the  value  which  is  to  be  attached  to  any  fur- 
ther assaults  which  he  may  make  upon  the  Christian  position. 

Let  me  then  briefly  remind  the  reader  of  the  simple  question 
which  is  at  issue  between  us.  What  I  alleged  was  that "  an  agnos- 
ticism which  knows  nothing  of  the  relation  of  man  to  God  must 
not  only  refuse  belief  to  our  Lord's  most  undoubted  teaching,  but 
must  deny  the  reality  of  the  spiritual  convictions  in  which  he 
lived  and  died."  As  evidence  of  that  teaching  and  of  those  con- 
victions I  appealed  to  three  testimonies  —  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  story  of  the  Passion — and  I 
urged  that  whatever  critical  opinion  might  be  held  respecting  the 
origin  and  structure  of  the  four  Gospels,  there  could  not  be  any 
reasonable  doubt  that  those  testimonies  "  afford  a  true  account  of 
our  Lord's  essential  belief  and  cardinal  teaching."  In  his  original 
reply,  instead  of  meeting  this  appeal  to  three  specific  testimonies. 
Prof.  Huxley  shifted  the  argument  to  the  question  of  the  general 
credibility  of  the  Gospels,  and  appealed  to  "  the  main  results  of 
biblical  criticism,  as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  works  of  Strauss, 
Baur,  Reuss,  and  Volkmar."  He  referred  to  these  supposed  "  re- 
sults "  in  support  of  his  assertion  that  we  know  "  absolutely  noth- 
ing **  of  the  authorship  or  genuineness  of  the  four  Gospels,  and 
he  challenged  my  reference  to  Renan  as  a  witness  to  the  fact  that 
criticism  has  established  no  such  results.  In  answer,  I  quoted 
passage  after  passage  from  Renan  and  from  Reuss  showing  that 
the  results  at  which  they  had  arrived  were  directly  contradictory 
of  Prof.  Huxley's  assertions.  How  does  he  meet  this  evidence  ? 
He  simply  says,  in  a  foot-note,  **  For  the  present  I  must  content 
myself  with  warning  v  "  ^    -  ^  :.  -  ^^^y  reliance  upon  Dr. 

Waco's  siatementaag  J'-  '^  ^^  ^^  modern  criti- 

They  ar^^  iJ^lfc  ^  ^^^^^ 

'Vince,as  it 
ihut  the  slate- 

.      fj^^^^^^^^m,  "^""^    Bui  I  in 


cisra. 

.1.    V 


mRTSTIAI^lTY  AND   AGyOSTICISM, 


3*9 


If  tarn  content  myself  with  pointing  out  that,  if  my  quotations 

rom  Rriiim  And  ReiiRs  hud  boen  incorrotit,  hc»  couhl  not  only  have 

lid  »o,  hut  couhl  have  produced  the  correct  qui^tationa.     But  he 

not  deny,  as  of  course  he  can  not,  that  Reusg,  for  example, 

dly  states,  as  the  mature  result  of  his  investigations,  what  I 

Loted  from  him  respecting  St.  Luke^s  Gospel,  namely,  that  it 

'itten  by  St  Luke  and  has  reached  us  in  its  primitive  form, 

f',  further,  that  St.  Luke  used  a  book  written  by  St.  Mark,  the 

lAciple  of  8t,  Peter,  and  that  this  book  in  all  jjrobability  com- 

•i-i«*d  in  its  primitive  form  what  we  reatl  in  the  present  day  from 

:k  i,  ifl,  to  xiii.  :i7.    These  are  the  results  of  modern  criticism 

itefl  by  a  biblical  critic  in  whom  Prof.  Hiislty  expressed  spe- 

mfidence.    It  was  not  therefore  my  statements  of  the  results 

tlical  criticism  with  which  Prof.  Huxley  was  confronted,  but 

t*s  statements ;  and,  unless  he  can  show  that  my  quotation 

false  one,  he  ou^ht  to  have  had  the  candor  to  acknowledge 

Renss»  at  least,  is  on  these  vital  points  dead  against  him, 

of  any  such  frank  admission,  he  endeavors  to  explain 

the  force  of  his  reference  to  Reuss.     It  ma)^  ho  says,  be  well 

tr  him 

obwrte  tliat  approbation  of  tho  manner  in  which  a  groat  bitUco]  scholar — for 
T.rtjttv— {JooH  hiB  work  dovs  not  cmntnit  mo  to  the  adoptiun  of  all,  or  ia> 
..orhi«  vtows;  wit!,  furlhiT,  that  llje<lisi4;roementnof  uHorie«of  invcg- 
TAtors  ilo  tiot  in  tiny  way  interrero  with  tho  fact  thnt  each  of  them  htw  made 
iportant  contribailous  to  the  body  of  truth  ultimat^^lj  eatabli&Iicd. 


But  I  beg  to  observe  that  Prof.  Huxley  did  not  appeal  to 

[*8  methods^  but  to  Reuss's  results.    He  said  that  no  retnicta- 

lon  by  M.  Renan  would  sensibly  affect "  the  mam  res^iUs  of  bibli- 

m  cts  (hey  are  set  forth  in  the  works  of  Strauss,  Bnur, 

Volkmar."     I  have  given  him  the  results  as  set  forth 

Reuss  in  Reuss's  own  words,  and  all  ho  has  to  offer  in  reply  is 

i/jw  dixit  in  a  foot-note  and  an  evasion  in  the  text  of  his 

icla. 

But,  aa  I  said,  this  general  discussion  respecting  the  authen- 

•ity  and  credibility  of  the  Gospels  was  an  evasion  of  my  argu- 

kot,  which  rested  upon  the  specific  testimony  of  the  Sermon  on 

[ount,  the  Lord*s  Prayer,  and  the  narrative  of  the  Passion; 

accordingly,  in  his  present  rejoinder  Prof.  Huxley,  with 

luch  protestation  that  he  made  no  evasion,  addressed  himself  to 

■i.     And  what  is  his  answer  ?    I  feel  oblige<l  to 

another  evasion,  and  in  one  particular  an  eva- 

lon  of  a  tlagrant  kind.    The  main  point  of  his  argument  is  that 

'oni '      ^-  circumstances,  which  I  will  presently  notice  more 

*rl  1  there  is  much  reason  t^j  doubt  whether  the  Sermon 

the  Mount  was  ever  actually  delivered  in  the  form  in  which  it 


330 


THE  POPULAR  SCJEXCE 


is  rocordo*!  in  St.  Matthew.  He  notices,  for  instance,  the  com- 
bined similarity  and  difference  between  St.  Matthew's  Sennon  on 
the  Mount  and  St.  Luke's  so-called  "  Sermon  on  the  Plain/'  and 
then  he  adds : 

I  thought  thnt  aU  fairly  attentiro  nnd  intelligent  ittudcntfl  of  the  GocpeU,  to 
SAj  notliing  of  thoologianfi  of  rcpntatioa,  knew  those  ibin^  But  bow  c«i  uy 
one  who  tIoc«  know  tiiem  bftce  the  cunacieuce  to  a»k  whether  tfaera  U  *'  anj  rvuoQ* 
ablo  doubt "  that  the  Sermon  on  th«  MoQDt  w&«  preached  by  J«id>  of  NazstvUk  T 

It  is  a  pity  that  Prof.  Huxley  seems  as  incapable  *'^  v^ 

in  his  quotations  of  an  opponent*8  words  as  in  his  rti  to 

the  authorities  to  whom  be  appeals,  I  did  not  ask  **  whethvr 
there  is  any  reasonable  doubt  that  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  wis 
preached  by  Jesus  of  Nazareth/'  and  I  expressly  observed,  in  the 
article  to  wliich  Prof.  Huxley  is  ropljnng,  thnt  "  Prtjf.  Renjia 
thinks,  as  many  good  critics  have  thought,  tlmt  the  Sermun  on 
the  Mount  combines  various  distinct  utterances  of  our  Lord." 
tWhat  I  did  ask,  in  words  which  Prof.  Huxley  quotes,  and  there- 
■Tore  had  before  his  eyes,  was  "  whether  there  is  any  reasonable 
doubt  that  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  afford 
a  true  account  of  our  Lord's  essential  belief  and  cardinal  teach- 
ing." That  is  an  absolutely  distinct  question  from  the  one  which 
Prof.  Huxley  dissects,  and  a  confusion  of  the  two  is  peculiarlj 
inexcusable  in  a  person  who  holds  that  purely  human  view  of  the 
Gospel  narratives  which  he  represents.  If  a  long  n^jxirt  of  a 
speech  appears  in  the  **  Times"  and  a  shortened  report  appears  in 
the  *'  Standard,"  every  one  knows  that  we  are  none  the  less  made 
acquainted — perhaps  made  still  better  acquainted — with  the  esaeD- 
tial  purport  and  cardinal  meaning  of  the  sj>eaker.  On  the  sup- 
position, similarly,  that  St.  Matthew  and  St,  Luke  are  simply  gir* 
ing  two  distinct  accounts  of  the  same  address,  with  such  omijuiinns 
and  variations  of  order  as  suitwl  the  purposes  of  their  ve 

narratives,  we  are  in  at  least  as  good  a  position  for  knou  ,,,^  ,.  liai 
was  the  main  burden  of  the  mldress  as  If  we  had  only  one  Hceuunt, 
and  perhaps  in  a  better  position,  as  we  see  what  v.  fMiinhs 

which  both  reporters  deemed  essential.    As  Prof,  \\         .     antsvlf 
observes,  we  have  reports  of  speeches  in  ancient  historians  which  , 
are  certainly  not  in  the  very  wortls  of  the  s]x*Jik«'i  '  ti# 

douhtrt  that  we  know  the  main  puri>ort  of  the  si>ucn  <  •»§ 

which  Thucydides  records.  ^H 

This  attempt,  therefore,  to  answer  my  appeal  tc  *^  —  -"-*mlwlB^ 
of  the  teaching  of  tlie  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  a  pm  .  asiun. 

And  it  is  aggravated  by  Uie  manner  in  which  Prof.  Huxley  quotes 
a  high  German  authority  in  snpport  of  ^  •-  .-..,.♦..„»;..,.  T  ^m 
much  obliged  to  him  for  appealing  to  1!  ^U 

Uoltzmann's  own  conclusiooa  respecting  the  U>t>ks  ui  U^e  New 


iTrDAOWoaTTcTsK 


33» 


Te«tAment  seem  to  mo  often  extravagantly  skeptical  and  far- 
fotclii)d,  and  though  I  can  not,  therefore,  quite  u^^ree  with  Prof. 
Huxley  tliat  his  "  Lehrbuch "  gives  "a  remarkably  full  and  fair 
ftcoount  of  the  present  results  of  criticism,"  yet  I  agree  that  it 
gives  on  the  whole  a  full  and  fair  account  of  the  course  of  criti- 
ciem  and  of  the  opinions  of  its  chief  representatives.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  imitating  Prof.  Huxley,  and  pronouncing  an  ipse 
dixit  as  to  the  state  of  criticism  or  the  opinions  of  critics,  I  am 
very  glad  to  be  able  to  refer  to  a  book  of  which  the  authority  is 
recognized  by  him,  and  which  will  save  both  my  readers  and  my- 
self from  embarking  on  the  wide  and  waste  ocean  of  the  German 
criticism  of  the  last  fifty  years.  "  Holtzmanu,  then/'  says  Prof. 
TT  ■  "  ' "  a  note  on  page  48t>, "  has  no  doubt  that  the  Sermon  on  the 
51'  ;v  compilation,  or,  as  he  calls  it  in  his  recently  published 

'Lohrbuch*  (p.  372),  'an  artificial  mosaic  work."*  Now,  let  tho 
reader  attend  to  what  Holtzmann  really  says  in  the  passage  re- 
ferred to.  His  words  are :  "  In  the  so-called  Sermon  on  the  Blount 
(Matt,  v-vii)  we  find  constructed,  on  the  basis  of  a  real  discourse 
of  fundamental  significance^  a  skillfully  articulated  mosaic 
work."  *  The  phrase  waa  not  so  long  a  one  that  Prof.  Huxley 
ae^  have  omitted  the  important  words  by  which  those  he  quotes 
mx9  qualified.  Holtamann  recognizes,  as  will  be  8tH»u,  that  a  real 
diBcour^o  of  fundamental  significance  underlies  the  Sermon  on 
the  MouuL  That  is  enough  for  my  purpose;  for  no  reasonable 
person  will  suppose  that  the  fundamental  significance  of  the  real 
discourse  has  been  entirely  obliterated,  especially  as  the  main 
purport  of  the  sermon  in  St.  Luke  is  of  the  same  character.  But 
Prof.  Huxley  must  know  jwrfectly  well,  as  every  one  else  doej?, 
that  he  would  be  maintaining  a  paradox,  in  which  every  critic  of 
ute,  to  say  nothing  of  every  man  of  common  sense,  would  be 
inst  him,  if  he  were  to  maintain  that  tht^  Sermou  on  the  Mouut 
;li»cs  not  give  a  substantially  correct  idea  of  our  Lord's  teachuig, 
Bui  to  admit  this  is  to  admit  my  point,  so  he  rides  off  on  a  side 
i«8Ue  OS  to  the  question  of  the  precise  form  in  which  the  sermon 
was  dvlivered. 

I  mu«t,  however,  take  some  notice  of  Prof.  Huxley's  argument 
on  this  irrrlevant  issue,  as  it  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  that 
superior  method  of  ratiocination  in  these  matters  on  which  he 
prides  himself,  I  need  not  trouble  the  reader  much  on  the  ques- 
tions ho  raisos  as  to  the  relations  of  the  first  three  Gospels.  Any 
oil  i  full  and  thorough  discussion  of  that  difli- 

c'l       .  .  t'.d  with  a  complete  knowledge  of  foreign 

oritteism  ou  the  subject,  and  at  the  same  time  marked  by  tho 
greateBt  lucidity  and  int**rost,  may  be  referred  to  the  admirable 

••Ib4«  »cig.  KcrjjprfiHgt,  Mt.  5-7.  gibt  ricli  ©tnc.  nwf  OrnnJ  cincr  nirklichcn  Redo 
roa  fBuLuMnUtiff  lltfil«uuiiig  tkb  crbebctkle,  kuosircicb  gtgUiMJorte  MasAikarbeit.** 


I 


"Iiitroilurtirm  to  the  New  Testament,"  by  Dr.  Salmon,  who,  like 
Prof.  Huxley,  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  %vV  '  tuo 
emiueut  as  one  of  the  first  mathematicians  of  Eiu*oja  lie 

became  similarly  eminent  as  a  theologiam  I  am  content  hexu  to 
let  Prof.  Huxley'a  assumptions  pas8,  as  I  am  only  co^'"^"*" •'  to 
iUuatrate  the  fallacious  character  of  the  reasoning  he  f'  '.n 

them.    He  tells  us,  then,  that — 

iJiere  ia  now  no  doubt  that  tho  three  synoptic  Go^peK  bo  far  from  li-  >rk 

of  thrt'o  independent  wriwrs,  aro  cIo»eJjr  iuterdcpc-ndent,  and  Uiut  i  ■  wo 

waTR.  Either  all  three  contain,  n«  their  foundation^  vereionA^  u*  a  larpo  evirTtC 
verballj  identical,  of  ono  and  the  same  tradition ;  or  two  of  them  arc  thus  cIoh)/ 
dc{><!ftdent  on  the  third;  and  tbo  opinion  of  tho  majority  of  the  bcftt  critica  hA%  ol 
lato  years,  more  and  more  convet^ed  toward  the  conviction  that  our  canonical 
second  Gospel  (tho  so-called  ''Mark's"  Gospel)  is  that  which  most  chx-ely  r«pro- 
aenl*  the  primitive  groundwork  of  tho  three.  That  I  take'  to  be  vnv  of  the  intMt 
valid  rcaulta  of  New  Testatiant  critJcisfn,  of  immeasurably  (rrcatvr  lnii>ortJinc« 
than  tho  di^cns^ion  about  dates  and  ftUtbor«hlp.  But  if«  as  I  believe  to  b«  tb« 
case  beyond  any  rational  doubt  or  dinput«^  the  second  Gospel  Is  tlic  nearest  extant 
representative  of  the  oldest  tradition,  whether  written  or  oral,  faow  cumea  it  that 
it  contains  neither  the  "  Sermon  on  the  Mount'*  nor  the  "Lor"     "  *  ''.ie« 

typical  etnbodtuienta,  accordlag  to  Dr.  Waco,  of  tho  "osaonliiil  ..oal 

teaching  "  of  Jetiua  t 

I  have  quoted  eveiy  word  of  this  passage  because  I  am  anxious 
for  the  reader  to  estimate  the  value  of  Prof.  Huxl-    '  t^ 

ment  of  hia  case.    ILis,  as  he  says,  the  opiuioit  of  i  >jt 

authority  that  a  certain  fixed  tradition,  written  or  oral,  wa«  used 
by  the  writers  of  the  first  three  Gospels.  lu  the  first  jihice,  why 
tide  should  prevent  tlioKe  three  Gosjiels  from  being  the  work  of 
'*  three  independent  writers  "  I  am  at  a  loss  to  conceive.  If  Mr. 
Froude,  the  lat^  Prof.  Brewer,  and  the  late  Mr.  Green  each  um> 
the  Rolls  Calendars  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  I  do  not  «ee  that 
this  abolishes  their  individtuility.    Any  historian  wli  '>e« 

the  Peloponnesian  War  uses  the  memoirs  of  that  war  n'. . ..  by 

Thucydides ;  but  Bishop  Thirlwall  and  Mr.  Grot©  wero,  I  preeame^ 
iudej>eudent  writers.     But  to  pass  to  a  more  import  Vat 

which  is  »issume<l  is  that  the  allege<]  tra4litiou,  ^s  ul, 

was  the  groundwork  of  our  first  three  Gospels,  and  it  la,  theyefcm, 
older  than  they  are.     Let  it  be  granted,  for  tho  Sftl^i     '  •  i^L 

But  how  does  this  prove  that  the  tradition  in  <v  he 

oldest,"  so  that  anjrthing  which  was  not  in  it  is  th'  it- 

ed  ?    It  was,  lot  us  allow,  an  old  tradition  used  b;.  of 

tlie  first  three  Gospels.     But  how  does  this  fact  ra.  »i 

presumptitm  a>fainst  the  probability  that  there  w-  M* 

tioas  equally  old  which  they  might  use  with  eip:  ..».ion 

»o  far  as  their  acojio  required  ?    Prof,  Huxley  al 


nut  can*  to  rl 


1  I  du 
negation,  that  the  first  lUrbts  Gospt^ 


CRRTSTIANITY  AXD  AOyOSTTCISM. 


embody  a  citfrtAin  record  older  than  themselves.    But  by  wliat 
ri-'      '        '        '    me  to  accept  this  as  evidence,  or  as  affording 
0\'  :   presumption,  that  there  was  no  other?    Bo- 

tireen  his  allegation  in  one  sentence  that  the  second  Qosjwl  "moat 
c;.-  '-  T].  resents  the  primitive  groundwork  of  the  thi-ee/'  and 
h  -  uon,  in  the  next  sentence  but  one,  that  "the  second 

Gospel  is  the  nearest  extant  representative  of  the  oldest  tradition," 
there  is  an  absolute  and  palpable  noii  sequiiur.    It  is  a  mere  juggle 
of  phrases,  and  upon  this  juggle  the  whole  of  his  subsequent  argu- 
)X\i  on  this  point  depends.    St.  Mark's  Gospel  may  very  well 
ftproftent  the  oldest  tradition  relative  to  the  common  matter  of  the 
ihrct,  without,  therefore,  necessarily  representing  "the  oldest  tra- 
dition "  in  sxudi  ft  sense  as  to  be  a  touchstone  for  all  other  reports 
of  our  Lord's  life.     Prof.  Huxley  must  know  very  well  that  from 
the  time  of  Schleiermacher  many  critics  have  believed  in  the  ex- 
istence of  another  d<x;ument  containing  a  collection  of  our  Lord's 
discourses.     Holtzmann  concludes  ("  Lohrbuch,"  page  370)  that 
**  under  all  the  circumstances  the  hypothesis  of  two  sources  offers 
most  pnibabki  solution  of  the  synoptical  problem";  and  it  is 
kly  increilible  that  no  old  traditions  of  our  Lord's  teaching 
should  have  existed  beyond  those  which  are  common  to  the  three 
Oos{>€»ls.    St.  Luke,  in  fact^  in  that  preface  which  Prof.  Huxloy 
has  no  hesitation  in  using  for  his  own  purposes,  says  that "  many 
hiwl  taken  in  hand  to  set  forth  in  order  a  declaration  of  those 
things  which  are  most  surely  believed  am^ng  us";  but  Prof. 
Huxley  asks  us  to  assume  that  none  of  these  records  were  old,  and 
istworthy,  but  that  particular  one  which  furnishes  a  sort 
leton  to  the  first  three  Gospels.    There  is  no  evidence  what- 
ever, beyond  Prof.  Huxley's  private  judgment,  for  such  an  assump- 
tion.   Nay,  he  himself  tells  us  that,  according  to  Holtzmann,  it  is 
at  present  a  "  burning  question  "  among  critics"  whether  the  rela- 
tively primitive  narration  and  the  root  of  the  other  synoptic  texts 
i» contained  in  Matthew  or  in  Mark."*    Yet  while  his  own  author- 
ity tells  him  that  this  is  a  burning  question,  he  treats  it  as  settled 
121  favor  of  St.  Mark,  "  beyond  any  rational  doubt  or  dispute,"  and 
employs  this  assumption  as  sufficiently  solid  ground  on  which  to 
fMt  his  doubts  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
and  the  Lonl's  Prayer  I 

But  let  ua  pass  to  another  point  in  Prof.  Huxley's  mode  of 
argument    Let  us  grant,  again  for  the  sake  of  argument,  his  non 
*•  'cond  Gospel  is  the  nearest  extant  representa- 

tr.  -     .   ....      ..     .  tratlition.    "How  comes  it,"  he  asks,  **  that  it 

contains  neither  the  Sermon  on  the  Moimt  nor  the  Lortl's  Prayer  ?  " 
^V  -      ■  t'sting  inquiry,  which  has,  in  point  of 

f.i     .  I  'i\   by  Christian  diviues;  and  various 

■  ■*Pio|raUr  Sdcnoe  UuDthlj  "  far  Jane,  1839.  p.  169. 


334 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOHTBLY. 


ansrrers  are  conceivable^  eqtaally  reasonable  and  sufficient.  If  it 
wsw  St.  Mark's  object  tti  record  our  Lord's  acts  rather  than  hiu 
teaching,  what  right  has  Prof.  Huxley,  from  his  purely  human 
point  of  view,  to  find  fault  with  him  ?  If,  from  a  Christian  point 
of  view,  St.  Mark  was  inspired  by  a  divine  guidance  to  present 
the  most  vivid,  brief,  and  effective  sketch  possible  of  our  Lord's 
action  as  a  Saviour,  and  for  that  purpose  to  leave  to  another  writer 
the  description  of  our  Lord  as  a  teacher,  the  phenomenon  is  not 
less  satisfactorily  explained.  St.  Mark,  according  to  that  tradition 
of  the  Church  which  Prof.  Huxley  believes  to  be  quit*-  •  .*, 

but  which  his  authority  Holtzmann  does  not,  was  in  gi. os- 

ure  the  mouth-piece  of  St.  Peter.  Now,  St.  Peter  is  recorded  &n 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in  his  address  to  ComeliuB,  a^  'ig 

up  our  Lord's  life  in  these  words :  "  How  God  anointti-i  -  of 

Nazareth  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  power,  who  went  about 
doing  good,  and  healing  all  who  were  oppressed  of  the  dexdl ;  for 
God  was  with  him";  and  this  is  very  much  the  point  of  view 
represented  in  St.  Mark's  Gospel.  When,  in  fact.  Prof.  Huxley 
asks,  in  answer  to  Holtzmann,  who  is  again  unfavorable  to  his 
views, "  What  conceivable  motive  could  Mark  have  for  omjttixig 
it  ? "  *  the  answers  that  arise  are  innumerable.  Porhaj^s,  a8  has 
been  suggested,  St.  Mark  was  more  concerned  with  act*  tbAn 
words;  perhaps  he  wanted  to  be  brief;  perhaps  he  wa«  Tirriting 
for  jx^rsons  who  wante<l  one  kind  of  record  and  not  another ;  and, 
above  all,  i)erhap8  it  was  not  so  much  a  question  of  "  oraiaaion  ** 
as  of  selection.  It  is  really  astonishing  that  this  latter  considera- 
tion never  seems  to  cross  the  mind  of  Prof.  Hnxl-  rg 
like  him.  The  Gospels  are  among  the  briefest  bio^  ^  i  he 
world.  I  have  sometimes  thought  that  there  is  e^ndenco  of  some- 
thing superhuman  about  them  in  the  mere  fact  tlm^  '  '  '  ui 
biographers  labor  through  volumes  in  order  to  giv.  i^ 
of  their  subject,  every  one  of  the  Gospels,  occupying  no  more  than 
chapter  or  two  in  length  of  an  ordinary  biographj',  nc"  -'^  ^  a 
lve3  us  an  image  of  our  Lord  sufficiently  vivid  to  havi-  .  iia 
the  living  companion  of  all  subsequent  generations.  But  if  "tl^e 
gospel  of  Jesus  Clirist "  was  to  be  told  within  the  compaaa  of  the 
sixteen  chapters  of  St.  Mark,  some  selection  had  to  bo  made  oni  of 
the  mass  of  our  Lord's  words  and  deeds  as  roc'  li- 
tion  of  those  "who  from  the  beginning  were  «...  iJ 
ministers  of  the  word."  Tlie  very  greatness  and  »  '>f 
these  four  Oospels  consist  in  '  f ul  power  oi  fi, 
like  that  by  which  a  great  art '  ■  ,  .^  character  a: w  ^  ire 
in  half  a  dozen  touches;  and  Pmf.  Huxley  may,  perbape,  to  put 
•r  on  its  1  >t. 
.M             ,iiis3ioni^                                                                               -o 

*  **  rojratw  Scltfoco  Vontlil;  "  for  Jnoit,  S«tlO.  |k  ITX. 


1 
I 


I 


cffRJSTTA.yirr  and  agitosttcis^,  535 

All  St.  Mark's.  As  St,  John  says  at  tlie  end  of  his  Gospel,  "  There 
aro  also  many  other  things  which  Jesus  did,  the  wliich,  if  they 
aboald  be  written  every  one,  I  suppose  that  even  the  world  itself 
could  not  contain  the  books  that  should  be  written/'  So  St.  John, 
like  St  Mark,  had  to  make  his  selection,  and  selection  involves 
onil*iaion. 

But,  aft-er  all,  I  venture  to  ask  whether  anything  can  be  more 
preposterous  than  this  supposition  that  because  a  certain  tradition 
is  llie  oldest  authority,  therefore  every  other  authority  is  discred- 
ited ?  BoawcU  writes  a  life  of  Johnson ;  therefore  every  record  of 
Johnaou's  acts  or  words  which  is  not  in  Boswell  is  to  be  suspected^ 
Carlyle  writes  a  life  of  Sterling  first,  and  Archdeacon  Hare  writes 
one  afterward  ;  therefore  nothing  in  the  archdeacon's  life  is  to  bo 
tnuiod  which  was  not  also  in  Carlyle's.  What  seems  to  me  so 
aatonisliing  about  Prof.  Huxley's  articles  is  not  the  wildness  of 
their  conclusions,  but  the  rottenness  of  their  ratiocination.  To 
take  another  instance : 

Lnke  «ithor  Icnow  the  collection  of  looselj  oonoected  and  aphoristic  utterances 
which  appear  nnder  the  name  of  the  "Sarmon  on  the  Mount"  in  "Matthew,"  or 
bo  did  not.  If  he  did  not,  ho  mufit  have  boon  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  tnoh  a 
doownent  u  oar  canonical  ^^MuUhow,"  a  fnct  whioh  does  not  make  for  the  ^na- 
ineaaaa  or  tbo  authoritjr  of  that  book,  if  he  did,  be  baa  ahown  that  he  doea  not 
eare  for  ita  aathoritj  on  a  matter  of  fact  of  no  small  importance  ;  and  that  does 
svot  permit  aa  to  conceive  that  ho  believed  the  6rKt  Gospel  to  be  the  work  of  an 
ooLbortt/  to  whom  bo  uaght  to  defer,  Jet  alone  that  of  an  apostolic  eye-witness, 

I  pasa  by  the  description  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  as  a 
"collection  of  loosely  connected  utterances/*  though  it  is  a  kind 
of  begging  of  a  very  iinportaut  question.  But  supposing  St.  Luke 
to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel, 
m  reflect  on  the  genuineness  of  that  book  unless  we 
^uo  one  does,  that  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  was  written 
bofore  Bt  Luke's^  and  sufficiently  long  before  it  to  have  become 
known  to  him  ?  Or,  if  he  did  know  it,  where  is  the  disrespect  to 
iU  authority  in  his  baring  given  for  his  own  purposes  an  abridg- 
in«^nt  of  that  wliich  St.  Matthew  gave  more  fully  ?  Prof.  Huxley 
might  almost  seem  dominated  by  the  mechanical  theory  of  inspi- 
ration which  he  denounces  in  his  antagonists.  He  writes  as  if 
there  were  something  absolutely  sacred,  neither  to  be  altered  nor 
addtid  to,  in  the  more  words  of  some  old  authority  of  which  ho 
coDcaivea  himBclf  to  be  in  possession.  Dr,  Abbott,  with  admirable 
^1'  '  '  '  [irint«d  for  him,  in  clear  ty])e,  the  words  or  bits  of 
mo  ii-e  common  to  the  first  three  Gospels,  and  he  seems 

immediately  to  adopt  the  anathema  of  the  book  of  Revelation,  and 
to  r  !  '11  to  every  man,  evangelists  and  apostles  included/'if 
aj  aall  add  unto  these  things.  .  -  .  and  if  any  man  shall 

take  away  from  the  words"  of  this  "common  tradition"  of  Dr. 


33< 


Abbott,  he  shall  be  forthwith  scientifically  excominanicated.  S 
venture  to  submit,  as  a  more  matter  of  common  sense^  that  if| 
three  purHOUH  used  oue  document,  it  Ls  the  height  of  raahu^ss  to ! 
conclude  that  it  contained  nothing  but  what  they  all  three  quota; 
that  it  is  not  only  possible  but  probable  that,  while  certain  parts 
were  used  by  all,  each  may  have  used  some  parts  as  suitable  to  hit 
own  purpose  which  the  others  did  not  find  suitable  to  theirs;  and« 
.lastly,  that  the  fact  of  there  having  been  one  such  document  in 
(existence  is  so  far  from  being  evidence  that  there  were  no  otherti, 
that  it  even  creates  some  presumption  that  there  were,  lu  shorty 
I  must  beg  leave  to  represent,  not  so  much  that  Prof.  Huxley'tt 
conclusions  are  wrong,  but  that  there  is  absolutely  no  validity  in 
the  reasoning  by  which  ha  endeavors  to  support  them.  It  is  not, 
in  fact,  reasoning  at  all,  but  mei'e  presumption  and  guess-work, 
inconsistent,  moreover,  with  all  experience  and  common  sense. 

Of  course,  if  Prof,  Huxley's  quibbles  against  the  Sermon  on 

the  Mount  go  to  pit>eos,  so  do  his  cavils  at  the  authenticity  of  the 

Lord's  Prayer ;  and,  indeed,  on  these  two  points  I  venture  to  think 

that  the  case  for  which  I  was  contending  is  carried  by  the  mere 

f;ict  that  it  seems  necessary  to  Prof,  Hoxley's  position  to  dispute 

them.    If  he  can  not  maintain  his  ground  without  pusliing  hi.s 

agnosticism  to  such  a  length  as  to  deny  the  substantial  g&uuints 

bless  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  the  Lord's  Prayer,  I  think 

he  will  be  found  to  have  allowed  enough  to  satisfy  reasonaUe 

men  that  his  case  must  be  a  bad  one.    I  shall  not,  therefore,  waste 

more  time  on  these  points,  as  I  must  say  something  on  his  ytrange 

.treatment  of  the  third  point  in  the  evangelical  records  to  which  I 

^Teferrtid,  the  story  of  the  Possiom    It  is  really  difficult  to  takd 

seriously  what  he  says  on  this  subject.    He  says : 

I  am  not  quite  sure  what  Dr.  Wace  metuiB  by  tbb — I  am  not  airar*  that  t9] 
one  (with  the  exception  of  certain  ancient  horvtira)  Las  pro  pounded  doulx*  m  to 
tho  reality  of  the  crucifixion;  and  certainly  I  have  no  tndination  to  ar^«  *boiii| 
the  prcciao  sc^Miracy  of  every  detail  of  tliat  pathetic  story  of  ButTcHog  ftnd  wroof. 
But  if  Vt,  Wace  means,  aa  I  «upf>uw>  he  does,  that  that  whiclt,  according  to  tb« 
orthodox  view,  hapi>enod  after  the  crucifixion,  and  which  ia,  In  a  dognutki  Mnaa, 
tlie  roost  important  |>art  of  the  Ktnrr,  U  foandMl  on  BoUd  historical  proofoy  1  mutt, 
beg  leave  to  expreaa  &  diametrically  oppodte  oonTiotlon.  ^H 

I       Prof.  Huxley  is  not  quite  sure  what  I  meitu  by  ' 
TPassion,  but  supposes  I  mt'an  the  story  of  tho  nvsu: 

barely  credible  that  be  can  have  supposed  anything  of  \ho  kind  ;^ 

but  by  this  ;:0*«ituitouB  eiippositioa  hi*  ' 

I  proposed  to  him,  ftud  has  shifted  thi 

which,  however  important  in  itself^  is  entirely  ir  to  thoj 

particular  point  in  questiou.    If  he  r    '^v      -  -  '    '•  ^ 

feaid  the  Passion  I  meant  the  resurreL*: 

of  hill  incapacity  far  strict  ar^ment,  at  iuosi  on  Uioso  subjiMfiy 


I 


CffRISTTA^ITT  AND  AGNOSTICISM. 


337 


I  not  only  used  the  expression  "the  story  of  the  Passion,"  but  I 
[explicitly  stated  in  my  ro[)ly  to  him  for  what  purpose  I  appealed 
it    I  said  tliat  "  that  story  involves  the  most  solemn  attesta- 
ion,  again  and  again,  of  truths  of  -which  an  agnostic  cooUy  says 
'he  knows  nothing";  and   I  mentioned  particularly  our   Lord's 
^final  utterance,  "  Father,  into  thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit/*  as 
mvoying  our  Lord's  attestation  in  his  death  agony  to  his  rela- 
[tion  to  God  as  his  Father.     That  exclamation  is  recorded  by  St. 
jLuke ;  but  let  me  remind  the  reader  of  what  is  recorded  by  St, 
[Mark,  upon  whom  Prof.  Huxley  mainly  relies.    There  we  have 
Ithe  account  of  the  agony  in  Qethsemane  and  of  our  Lord  s  prayer 
[to  his  Father ;  we  have  the  solemn  challenge  of  the  high  priest, 
'Art  thou  tlie  Christ,  the  son  of  the  Blessed  ? "  and  our  Lord's  reply, 
'  I  am ;  and  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  sitting  on  the  right  hand 
of  power,  and  coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,"  with  his  imme- 
diate CO-  *ion,  on  the  ground  that  in  this  statement  he  had 
spoken  ^      ,      Miy.    On  the  cross,  moreover,  St.  Mark  records  his 
affecting  appeal  to  his  Father,"  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou 
r        '    ?i  me  ?  "    All  this  solemn  evidence  Prof.  Huxley  puts  aside 
-'*  mere  passing  observation  that  he  has  "  no  inclination  to 
argn^o  about  the  precise  accuracy  of  every  detail  of  that  pathetio 
ifftory  of  suffering  and  wrong."    But  these  prayers  and  decla- 
itions  of  our  Lord  are  not  mere  details ;  they  are  of  the  veiy 
ice  of  the  story  of  the  Passion  j  and,  whether  Prof.  Huxley  is 
lined  to  argue  about  them  or  not,  he  will  find  that  all  serious 
>ple  will  bo  inflaenced  by  them  to  the  end  of  time,  unless  they 
ran  be  shown  to  be  unhistorical. 

At  all  eveut-s,  by  refusing  to  consider  their  import..  Prof.  Hux- 
ley has  again,  in  the  most  flagrant  manner,  evaded  ray  challenge. 
n*^t  only  mentioned  specifically  "the  story  of  the  Passion,"  but  I 
'explained  what  I  meant  by  it;  and  Prof.  Huxley  asks  us  to  be- 
lieve that  he  does  not  understand  what  I  referred  to;  he  refuses 
to  face  that  story;  and  he  raises  an  irrelevant  issue  about  the 
rMUmotion.      It  is  irrelevant,  because  the  jniint  sf)ecifically  at 
iwuo  between  us  is  not  the  truth  of  the  Christian  creed,  but  the 
moaning  of  agnosticism,  and  the  responsibilities  which  agnosti- 
dflm  involves.    I  say  that  whether  agnosticism  be  justifiable  or 
lol,  it  involves  a  denial  of  tliR  beliefs  in  which  Jesus  lived  and  died, 
[t  would  equally  involve  a  denial  of  them  had  he  never  risen ;  and 
Prof,  Hnxley  really  thinks,  therefore,  that  a  denial  of  the  resur- 
ts  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  Passion^  he  must  be 
-I  distinguishing  between  two  successive  and  entirely 
ict.  occurrences. 

"lanner  in  which  Prof.  Huxley  has  treated  this  irrele- 

.van  !'_*»erves  j>erhapH  a  fpw  words,  for  it  is  another  charac- 

rrifltic  specimen  of  his  mode  of  argument.    I  note,  by  the  way^ 

fOIL   XXZT.— SI 


538 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEXCE  MOKTELT. 


that,  after  referring  to  "  the  facts  of  the  case  as  statM  by  th«  old- 
est extant  narrative  of  them" — he  means  t!it>  stni-y  im  '^  tvk. 
though  this  is  not  a  part  of  that  common  tradition  -_:  ,  _r<» 
Gospels  on  which  ho  relies ;  for,  as  he  obserres,  tlie  accounts  in 
St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  present  marked  variations  from  it — 
ho  addH : 

I  do  not  iee  whj  anv  one  should  have  a  word  to  uj  agAinet  the  tnlieroDt  prob*- 
)ll]t)r  of  that  narrative;  aud,  for  my  part^  I  am  quito  r(*adv  to  accept  It  ai  an 
ibturioul  fact,  that  bo  much  and  no  uioro  U  poaitivuljr  koowtt  of  th«  cdul  of 
Z^wx%  of  Na£ar«lh. 


We  have,  then,  the  important  admission  that  Prof.  Hujtley  has 
not  a  word  to  say  against  the  historic  credibility  of  the  narrative 
in  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  8t.  Mark,  and  accordingly  ho  procc«i» 
to  quote  its  statements  for  the  purpose  of  his  arguments  That 
irgument,  in  brief,  is  that  our  Lord  might  very  well  hav©  8ur^ 
•ived  his  crucifixion,  have  been  removed  still  living  to  the  tomb> 
have  bo<>n  taken  out  of  it  on  the  Friday  or  Sattmliiy  night  by 
Joseph  of  Arimathea^  and  have  recovered  and  found  his  way  to 
Galilee.  So  much  Prof.  Huxley  is  prcjjared  to  believe,  and  he 
asks  *^  on  what  grounds  can  a  reasonable  man  be  asked  to  believe 
any  more  ?"  But  a  prior  question  is  on  what  grounds  can  a  re*« 
aouable  man  be  asked  to  believe  as  much  as  this  ?  In  the  first 
pliK'e,  if  St.  Mark's  narrative  is  to  be  the  basis  of  discussion,  why 
does  Prof.  Huxley  leave  out  of  account  the  scourgin^t.  with  Uio 
indication  of  weakness  in  our  Lord's  inability  to  bear  his  cross, 
and  treat  him  as  exposed  to  crucifixion  in  the  condition  simply  of 
•*  temperate,  strong  men,  such  as  the  ordinary'  Galilean  peasants 
were "  ?  In  the  next  place.  I  am  informed  by  go«l  medical  as- 
thority  that  he  is  quite  mistaken  in  sa^'ing  that  "  ih  '  va- 

ical  symptoms  need  at  once  arise  from  the  woumi-  ,   ?q» 

nails  in  the  hands  and  feet,"  and  that,  on  the  contrary,  very  {^ve 
symptoms  would  ordinarily  arise  in  the  course  of  no  long  time 
from  such  severe  wounds,  left  to  fester,  with  the  imila  in  them, 
for  six  hours.    In  the  third  place.  Prof,  Huxley  takes  no  account 

of  the  piercing  of  our  Lord's  side,  and  of  the  ^t  •■     ■  -^ f  bl«X)d 

and  water  frt)m  the  wound,  which  is  solemnly  :  le  wit- 

n^'^M.    It  is  true  that  incident  is  not  rec^ordod  by  5t,  ^  -ut 

Prof.  Huxley  miuit  disprove  the  witness  before  he  can  1' ..  ..  .jut 
of  account.  But*  l&stly.  if  Prof.  Huxley's  account  of  the  matter 
be  true,  the  first  \ 

on  a  deliberate  i:..  ,  ..    

intimatefriends  were  f^ilty,  or  to  which  thev  wet^  accessory ;  luid 


I 


with  tho  f\irth«r  evidence  of  Bt«  Paul.    That,  ind&o<i^  ia  vvid4 


CSRISTIANITT  AND  AGJ^OSTIClSJif. 


339 


pf  a  far  more  momentous  nature  than  he  recognizes ;  but  it  is  by 
no  means  the  most  importiiut.  It  is  beyond  question  that  the 
thristian  society,  from  the  earliest  moment  of  its  existence,  be- 
Bieved  in  our  Lord's  resxirrection,  Baur  frankly  says  that  there 
Qa  no  doubt  about  the  church  having  been  founded  on  this  belief, 
Bhough  he  can  not  explain  how  the  belief  arose.  If  the  resurrec- 
Ition  be  a  fact,  the  belief  is  explained ;  but  it  is  certainly  not  ez- 
V  "^  ^  by  the  supposition  of  a  fraud  on  the  part  of  Joseph  of  Ari- 
1  ..     As  to  Prof.  Huxl(*y's  assertion  that  the  accounts  in  the 

khree  Gospels  are  "hopelessly  discrepant,"  it  is  easily  made  and  as 
f«asily  denied ;  but  it  is  out  of  all  reason  that  Prof.  Huxley's  bare 
,iisKer1.ion  on  such  a  point  should  outweigh  the  opinions  of  some 
jof  the  most  learnet!  judges  of  evidence,  who  have  thought  no  such 
[thing.  It  would  be  absurd  to  attempt  to  discuss  that  momentous 
buiry  as  a  side  issue  in  a  review.  It  is  enough  to  have  pointed  out 
fthat  Prof.  Huxley  discusses  it  without  even  faking  into  account 
Lthe  Btiitements  of  the  very  narrative  on  which  he  relies.  The  man- 
Bier  in  which  he  sets  aside  St.  Paul  is  equally  reckless : 

Aoeordtog  to  hifl  own  showing,  PauI,  in  the  vigor  of  hU  manhood,  with  every 

B1C-U18  of  becoming  acquainted,  Bt  firnt  hand,  with  the  uvidenco  uf  e^e-witnoBSea, 

l&at  morel/  rcf^ued  to  credit  ihein,  hot  *' pcrt»ocutQd  the  Church  of  God  and  made 

[fiarot:  of  it.^  .  .  .  Yet  thid  strange  man,  bccAuse  he  has  a  vision  one  day,  at  unce, 

Iftnd  -with  <*<)uall/  houdlong  xciU,  Ilivtt  to  the  opposite*  polo  of  opinion. 

l**  A  vision !  '*  The  whole  question  is,  what  vision  ?  How  can 
IProf  '^  -^^y  he  sure  that  no  vision  could  be  of  such  a  nature  as 
[to  j  man  in  acting  on  it?    If,  as  we  are  told,  our  Lord 

nM^rBonally  apjwarud  to  St.  Paul,  spoke  to  him,  and  gave  him  spe- 
Lcific  commands,  was  he  to  dis))elieve  his  own  eyes  and  ears,  as 
twell  as  his  own  conscience,  and  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  cross* 
[examine  Peter  and  John  anii  James  ?  If  the  vision  was  a  real 
lone  he  was  at  once  under  orders,  and  had  to  obey  our  Lord's 
hnjonciions.  It  is,  to  say  the  least,  rash^  if  not  presumptuous, 
Mb  Pfi^f.  Huxl'^y  to  declare  that  such  a  vision  as  St,  Paul  had 
BBbld  r»«it  huvt/  otuivincod  him  ;  and,  at  all  events,  the  question  is 
pot  duposed  of  by  calling  the  raanisfestation  "a  vision."  Two 
ItbwgR  Are  certain  about  St.  Paul.  One  is  that  he  was  in  the  con- 
pd^nce  of  tht^  Pharisees,  and  was  their  trusted  agent  in  persecut- 
lin^  the  Christians ;  and  the  other  is  that  he  was  afterward  in  the 

■    -  •• ' ^f  the  apostles,  and  knew  all  their  side  of  the  case.    He 

:'ore,  the  unique  position  of  having  had  equal  access 
ho  ail  tJint  would  be  allcgt'd  on  both  sides;  and  the  result  is  that, 
■Miiig  fully  arquainted  with  all  that  the  Pharisees  could  urge 
^Hfitifit  the  resurrection,  he  nevertheless  gave  up  his  whole  life  to 
^HutiniT  its  truth,  and  threw  in  his  lot,  at  tho  cost  of  martyrdom, 
PMh  tho«e  whom  he  had  formerly  persecuted.  Prof.  Huxley  re- 
biuuda  tu  that  he  did  all  this  in  the  full  vigor  of  manhood^  and  in 


S¥> 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTSyCE  ^OXTHLT 


gpite  of  strong  and  even  violent  prejudices.    Tin*  \»  not  *  witn< 
to  be  put  aside  Ln  Prof.  Huxley*8  ofF-Laud  manner. 

But  the  strangest  part  of  Prof.  Huxley's  article  remaluA  to 
noticed ;  and,  so  far  as  the  main  point  at  issue  between  us  in  con- 
cerned, I  need  hardly  have  noticed  anything  elase.    He  procoedj 
to  a  long  and  intricate  discussion,  quite  needless,  as  I  think,  fi 
his  main  object,  respecting  the  relations  between  the  Nazarenes, 
Ebioiiites,  Jewish  and  Oentile  Christians,  first  in  the  time  of  Jub- 
tin  Martyr  and  then  of  St.  Paul,    Into  this  discusiiion,  iu  the 
course  of  which  he  makes  assumptions  which,  as  Holtzmann  yn\\\ 
tell  him,  are  as  much  questioned  by  the  German  criticisra  oui 
which  he  relies  as  by  English  theologians,  it  is  unnecessary  fori 
me  to  follow  hira.    The  object  of  it  is  to  establisli  a  conclu^sioDrj 
which  is  all  with  which  I  am  concerned.    That  conclusion  ii 
that "  if  the  primitive  Nazareues  of  whom  the  Acts  speak 
orthodox  Jews,  what  sort  of  probability  can  there  be  that  Jesus 
was  anything  else  ?  **  *    But  what  more  is  necessary  for  the  pur- 
pose of  my  argument  ?    To  say,  indeed,  that  this  a  priori  po^ba^j 
bility  placus  us  "  in  a  position  to  form  a  safe  judgment  of  thi 
limits  within  which  the  teaching  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  must  hai 
been  confined,''  is  to  beg  a  great  question,  for  it  assumes  that] 
our  Lord  could  not  have  transcended  those  limits  unless  his  dis 
ciplos  transcended  them  simultaneously  with  him.    But  if  oui 
Lonrs  beliefs  were  those  of  an  orthodox  Jew,  we  certainly  knoir] 
enough  of  them  to  l>e  quite  sure  that  they  involved  a  denial  ol 
Prof.  Huxley's  agnosticism.    An  orthodox  Jew  certainly  1)elieve<l< 
in  God,  and  in  his  responsibility  to  God,  and  in  a  di>-ine  revcla*] 
tiou  and  a  divine  law.     It  is,  says  Prof.  Huxley,  "  extremely  prol 
able"  that  ho  appealed  "to  those  noble  conceptions  of  religioaj 
which  constituted  the  pith  and  kernel  of  the  teaching  of  the  great 
prophets  of  his  nation  seven  hundred  years  earlier,"    But,  if  so, 
his  first  principles  involved  the  assertion  of  religious  realitii 
which  an  agnostic  refuses  to  acknowledge.    Prof.  '■ 
fact,  dragged  his  readers  through  tliis  thurny  qu* 
and  Gentile  Christianity  in  order  to  ostablifib,  at  the  end  of  it 
and,  aa  it  seems,  quit'  i  -oiously,  an  essential  part  of  the 

allegation  which  I  iy  made.    I  said  that  a  person  wJ 

'*  knows  nothing  "  of  U<id  asserts  the  belief  of  Jbsus  of  Nj 
to  have  been  unfounded,  repudiates  his  example,  and  denies 
authority.     Prof.  Huxley,  in  order   to  answer  this  coniiaitii 
offers  to  prove,  with  great  elaboration,  that    '  hi] 

liux  Jew,  and  consequently  tliat  his  belief  di ......:  ai 

^i^noBtio   rejects.     How  much   bevond  these  elementary  tml 
J  '       *  :    a.     Whi.'  ■ 

^u  agnost 

•  **  PopuUr  Sc>.  .  •  "  for  June,  IS6».  ^  ISC 


CHRISTIAyiTT  AKD  AGNOSTICISM. 


34« 


respect  to  even  the  elementary  truths  of  religion  without  reject- 
iug  tJio  example  and  authority  of  Jesus  Christ ;  and  Prof.  Hux- 
h>y,  though  he  still  endeavors  to  avoid  facing  the  fact,  has  estab- 
lished it  by  a  rounda^Kjut  method  of  hia  own. 

I  etupjK^se  I  must  also  reply  to  Prof.  Huxley's  further  challenge 
respecting  tny  belief  in  the  story  of  the  Gadarene  swine,  though 
the  difficulty  of  which  he  makes  so  much  seems  to  me  too  trivial 
to  doserve  serious  notice.    He  says  '*  there  are  two  stories,  one  in 
'  Mark  *  and  '  Luke,'  and  the  other  in  *  Matthew/    In  the  fonner 
there  is  one  possessed  man,  in  the  latter  there  are  two,"  and  he 
me  which  I  believe  ?    My  answer  is  that  I  believe  both,  and 
the  supposition  of  there  being  any  inconsistency  between 
lem  can  only  arise  on  that  mechanical  view  of  inspiration  from 
hich  Prof.  Huxley  seems  unable  to  shake  himself  free.    Cer- 
tainly "  the  most  unabashed  of  reconcilers  can  not  well  say  that 
is  the  same  as  two,  or  two  as  one";  but  no  one  ne©<i  be 
trt  say  that  the  greAter  number  includes  the  less,  and  that 
two  men  met  omr  Lord,  one  certainly  did.    If  I  go  into  the  oper- 
Ating  theatre  of  King*s  College  Hospital,  and  see  an  eminent  sur- 
geon perform  a  new  or  rare  operation  on  one  or  two  patients,  and 
if  I  tdl  a  friend  afterward  that  I  saw  the  surgeon  perform  such 
*        *!      I        -ration  on  a  patient,  will  he  feel  in  any  i'>erplexity 
.     M  hor  spectator  half  an  hour  afterward  who  says  he 
esw  the  operation  performed  on  two  patients  P    AU  that  I  should 
have  been  thinking  of  was  the  nature  of  the  operation,  which  is 
as  well  dpflcribed  by  n>ference  to  one  patient  as  to  half  a  dozen ; 
and  similarly  Ht.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  may  have  thought  that  the 
only  important  point  was  the  nature  of  the  miracle  itself,  and  not 
the  number  of  possessed  men  who  were  the  subjects  of  it.    It  is 
quite  unnecessary,  therefore,  for  mo  to  consider  all  the  elaborate 
dilemmas  in  which  Prof.  Huxley  would  entangle  me  respecting 
the  relative  authority  of  the  first  three  Gospels.    As  two  includes 
one,  and  as  lx)th  witnesses  are  in  my  judgment  equally  to  he 
N«    tnut«d,  I  luiopt  the  suppc^sition  which  includes  the  statements  of 
^bM)Qi.    It  is  a  pure  assumption  that  inspiration  requires  verbal 
^^■liHMiy  in  the  reiKirting  of  every  detail,  and  an  assumption  quite 
^^^^^^^^^nt  with  our  usual  tests  of  truth.    Just  as  no  miracle  has 
saved  the  texts  of  the  Scriptures  from  corruption  in  secondary 
points,  so  no  miracle  has  been  wrought  to  exclude  the  ordinary 
variations  of  truthful  reporters  in  the  Gospel  narnitives.    But  a 
miracle,  in  my  belief,  has  been  wrought  in  inspiring  four  men  to 
givp  H-^'t^'»n  the  compass  of  their  brief  narratives,  such  a  picture 
.ud  work  and  teaching,  of  the  death  and  resurrection, 
iif  man  as  to  illuminate  all  human  existence  for  the 
to  eunbJe  men  "  to  lielieve  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  and 
have  life  tUi*ough  bis  name."  I 


I 


» 


of 
fn- 

llml 


J4* 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEKOB  MOXTIILT 


It  is  vith  different  feelings  from  those  which  Pmf.  Htntlto 

provokes  that  I  turn  for  a  while  to  Mrs.  Humphrey  W. 

on  "The  New  Reformation,"    Since  he  adopts  tLat  : -.     .^.  -. 

sufficient  confutuiinn  of  mine,  I  feel  obliged  tx)  notice  it,  tboo^^h 
I  am  sorry  to  appear  in  any  fM>8ition  of  antagoniHm  t"  ^mr.) 

'Apart  from  other  consideration!?,  I  am  under  much  c>t    .,.        :  toj 
Mrs.  Ward  for  the  valuable  series  of  articles  which  she  cantril 
ut-ed  to  the  "  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography '"  i. '   '  '"lor- 

sliip,  upon  the  obscure  but  inten^stiug  history  <  -  -  inj 

Spain.    I  trust  that,  in  her  accoimt  of  the  effect  upon  Robert  Els- 
mere  and  Merriman  of  absorption  in  that  barbarian  scene,  she  i»| 
not  describing  her  own  experieac*.'  and  tlie  source  of  her  owu  aber- 
rations.   But  1  feel  especially  bound  to  treiit  her  argumout  irith] 
consideration,  and  to  waive  any  opi)osition  which  can  be  s\'oided. 
I  am  sorry  that  she,  too,  questions  the  jKJssibility  in  this  countryj 
of  '*  a  scientific,  that  is  to  say,  an  unprejudiced,  an  imbiased  study ^ 
of  theology,  under  present  conditiomi,''  and  I  should  hare  bo|>ed 
that  she  would  have  had  too  much  confidence  in  her  colleagnes  in 
the  important  work  to  which  I  refer  than  to  cast  this  plur  upon 
them.    Their  labors  have,  in  fact,  been  received  with  snfficiGitt 
appreciation  by  German  scholars  of  all  schools  to  render  th«i 
vindication  unnecessary;  and  if  Prof.  Huxley  can  exit     ' 
study  of  German  theological  literature  much  beyond   ^ 
"  VortHige  "  of  "  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,"  or  Ritschl's  writings 
of"  nearly  forty  years  ago,"  ho  will  not  find  himself  country    -      * 
by  church  historians  in  Germany  in  his  contempt  for  th^ 
contributions  of  Engliah  scholarsj  to  ejirly  church  histojy.    How. 
ever,  it  is  the  more  easy  for  mo  to  waive  all  differences  of  thii 
nature  with  Mrs.  Ward,  because  it  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  look] 
beyond  her  article  for  it^  o%m  refutation.     Her  miiin  contenlionJ 
or  that  at  least  for  which  Prof.  Huxley  appeals  to  her,  soems  to] 
be  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  8up])ose  that  the  rationalistic  movomcnl 
of  Gonuany  has  bf*eu  defeated  in  the  sjjhere  of  New  TestAmenl 
criticism,  and  she  selects  more  particularly  for  her  protest  a  recenl 
statement  in  the  "Quarterly  Review"  that  this  criticism,  and  pai 
ticuhirly  the  movement  led  by  Baur,  is  "an  aH     ' 
faileil."  The  Quailerly  Reviewer  may  Ix*  left  to  Im 
self;  but  I  would  only  ask  what  is  the  evidence  which  Mrs,  Wan! 
addiices  to  the  contrary  ?    It  may  lie  sum       '  *     '        ■     ^ 

a  prophecy  and  a  romance.    She  does  3* 
that  the  Tlibingon  s<'hool,  which  is  tho  one  wo  nre 

cerne<l  with,  did  not  fail  tov**^'^-  •*      ' ■•' •  ui 

the  contrarv.  fthn  wiv«  that  " 


which  "  Robert  ElsmonB  "  ends,  of  a  "  n*  w  lU  : 


^TIAKITY  A. 


J« 


I 

I 
I 


nggling  into  ntterance  and  being,  all  around  ns,  .  ,  .  It  is  close 
Upon  tis — it  is  prepareil  by  all  the  forces  of  history  and  mind — its 
rise  BOoner  or  later  is  inevitable."  This  is  prophesy,  but  it  is  not 
argument;  and  a  little  attention  to  Mrs.  Ward's  ovm  statements 
will  exhibit  a  very  different  picture.  The  Christian  representa- 
tive in  her  dialogue  exclaims: 

WImt  in  the  whole  bUtory  of  German  criticism  but  a  series  of  brilliant  failarea, 
from  Stranss  downward  f  One  theorist  follows  another — now  Murk  is  upperntost 
u  the  rr-Evangellst,  now  Mattbew — now  the  Sjnoptiofi  are  sacrificed  to  tSt.  John, 
DOW  St.  John  to  the  Syuoptics.  Baur  relegates  one  after  another  of  the  £pirtiica 
Co  the  second  ccntnry  bec4iufte  bis  theory  can  not  do  with  them  in  the  first.  IJiir- 
DAck  tolls  jon  that  Biiiir's  theory  is  all  wrong,  and  that  Thessalonians  and  PhtJip- 
plus  mQflt  iro  bark  Aj^ain.  Volkmar  sweeps  togetiier  Gospels  and  Epistles  in  a 
heap  Coward  the  middle  of  the  second  oentury  as  the  earliest  date  for  almost  all  of 
;  and  Dr.  Abbott,  who,  as  we  are  told*  has  absorbed  all  the  learniug  of  the 
ons,  put«  Mark  before  70  a.  n.»  Matthew  jost  about  70  x.  d.,  and  Lnke  alK>nt 
^  A.  t>. ;  StrausaV  mythical  theory  is  dead  and  buried  by  common  consent;  Baor's 
tvadency  theory  \%  mwrh  the  tamo;  Uonan  will  have  none  of  the TQblngon  school; 
Yolkmar  is  olreadv  auti<iuated ;  and  Pfleiderer^a  fancies  are  now  in  the  order  of  the 

A  better  st.'\tement  could  hardly  be  wanted  of  what  is  meant 
by  an  attack  having  failed,  and  now  let  the  reader  observe  how 
Miirriman  in  the  dialogue  meets  it.  Does  he  deny  any  of  those 
allegations  ?  Not  one.  "  Very  well/'  ho  says,  **  let  us  leave  the 
matter  there  for  the  present.  Suppose  we  go  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment " ;  and  then  he  proceeds  to  dwell  on  the  concessions  made 
to  the  newest  critical  school  of  Germany  by  a  few  distinguished 
English  di   *  ■  the  last  Church  Congress,    I  must,  indeed,  dis- 

pute her  r«  I  it  ion  of  that  rather  one-sided  debate  as  amount- 

ing to  •*  a  collapse  of  English  orthodoxy,"  or  as  justifying  her  state- 
ment that  "the  Cluirch  of  England  practically  gives  its  verdict" 
in  favor,  for  instance,  of  the  school  which  regards  the  Pentateuch 
or  the  Hexateuch  as  "the  peculiar  product  of  that  Jewish  relig- 
ious movemcTit  which,  beginning  with  Josiah, .  .  .  yields  its  final 
fruits  long  after  the  exile."  Not  only  has  the  Church  of  England 
given  no  such  vtrdict,  but  German  criticism  has  as  yet  given  no 
such  verdict.  For  example,  in  the  introduction  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament by  tme  of  the  first  Hebrew  scholars  of  Germany,  Prof, 
H'  '  !<  k,  contained  in  tlio  valuuble  "Hand-lK»ok  of  the 

Ti-  , ,  -  i**nces/*  edited,  with  tlie  ussistance  of  several  dif^tin- 
guiftbed  scholars,  by  Prof.  Z5chler,  I  find,  at  page  215  of  the  thinl 
e<1>*  ■  '  "  ^tnl  this  year,  the  following  brief  summary  of  what, 

ill  -  opinion,  is  the  result  of  the  controversy  so  far: 

T  >  *  r  '<■  r««ulta  of  farther  labors  in  the  field  of  Pentateuch  criticism  ean  not, 
of  "ticnlars.     But,  in  jtpitc  of  the  r  f  which  the 

ri.  1  at  present  tnjovs.  wc  are  ncvi  r  mvIm^o^I  rliut 

it  viU  oot  pcnnaiiiAt^y  lead  to  any  eseential  alteration  in  the  concepuoo  which  has 


344 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


iltUhorto  preTnilwl  of  fbe  history  of  Tarael,  and  in  pflrtloulur  cf  •  if  Ml 

Od  the  other  hand,  odo  resaU  will  certainly  remain,  tbat  ibe  \  .  •   was 

conpoaed  by  Moses  liroBeif,  bat  was  compiled  by  laXer  odiUvrs  from  rariovt  orlgi- 
&a1  soarccs.  .  .  .  Diit  tbe  rory  variety  of  these  sooroes  may  be  applieil  is  bTOr  of 
the  credibility  of  the  Pentateuch. 

In  other  wonls,  it  may  be  said  that  Dr.  Strack  regards  it  as  estab- 
lished that "  The  Law  of  Moses"  is  a  title  of  the  same  character 
as  "  The  Psalms  of  David,"  the  whole  collection  being  denomiuated 
from  its  principal  author.  But  he  is  convinced  that  the  fjeneral 
conclusions  of  the  prevalent  school  of  Old  Testament  criticism, 
which  involve  an  entire  subversion  of  our  present  conceptions  <>f 
Old  Testament  history^  will  not  bo  maintained.  In  the  face  of 
this  opinion,  it  does  not  seem  presumptuous  to  express  an  appre- 
hension that  the  younger  school  of  Hebrew  scholars  in  England, 
of  whose  concessions  Mrs.  Ward  makes  so  nmcli,  Itave  gone  to*-» 
far  and  too  fast ;  and,  at  all  events,  it  is  clear  from  what  Dr.  Btrack 
say  a — and  I  might  quote  also  Delitzsch  and  Dillmann — that  it  is 
much  too  soon  to  assume  that  the  school  of  whose  coim  '^T^^ 

Ward  })oa8t«  is  stijireme.    But,  even  siipposing  it  wen*.  has 

this  to  do  with  the  admitted  and  undoubted  failures  on  the  other 
lide,  in  the  field  of  New  Testament  criticism  ?  If  it  be  the  fact, 
Mrs.  Ward  does  not  deny,  that  not  only  Strauss's  but  Baur*« 
theories  and  conclusions  are  now  rejecl^jd ;  if  it  has  been  pnjved 
that  Baur  was  entirely  wrong  in  supposing  the  greater  part  of  the 
New  Testament  books  were  late  productions,  written  with  a  con- 
troversial purpose,  what  is  the  use  of  appealing  to  the  alleged 
success  of  the  German  critics  in  another  field  ?  If  Baur  is  con- 
futed, he  is  confuted,  and  there  is  an  end  of  his  theories ;  though 
he  may  have  l»een  useful,  as  rash  theorizers  have  ort<'ri  Ihh^u,  in 
stimulating  investigation.  In  the  same  valuable  hand-book  of 
Dr.  Zdchlor's,  already  quoted,  I  find,  under  the  "  History  of  th» 
Science  of  Introduction  to  the  New  T(  - :  "  v  '  '  ^g© 

15,  vol.  i,  part  2),  "Result  of  the  c«  :  .  t 

Ttibingen  sohooL" 

The  Tobingen  school  (the  writer  conclode*,  p.  20)  m  •      '^  m  mvib 

OS  5t9  aasnroptiona  were  reoopniKNi  and  given  np.     As  !•  -KHru,  "U 

iieut  to  an  ntyusttfiablQ  lengthy  and  inflicted  too  deep  woundi  ou  the  ChrlatUn 
f:iitb.  ...  No  tioduriog  results  in  matters  of  subftAoc«  liav«  b«oa  prodnosd 
by  it." 

Such  is  tho  judgment  of  an  authoritativu  Gorman  '  ^'k 

on  the  writer  to  whom,  in  Merrimau's  opinion, "  we  -  '  r<^ 

rwilly  know  at  the  present  moment  about  the  Xev  w 

though  the  Christian  thought  and  life  of  eighteen  hundriHl  y^ars 
hod  produced  no  knowk»dge  on  that  subject  I 

In  fnct»  l^lrs.  Ward's  cumiiarison  seems  to  mo  to  point  in  exaoUj 
iho  oppoaiitu  direction : 


cmrsriAyiTT  aj7d  ACFX0STrcis.v. 


34S 


I 
I 


I  ttj  to  myiMslf  (vayi  ber  spokeflman,  p.  id^)  it  haa  taken  bouiq  thirty  yean  tot 
OcmuUk  cHHciU  science  to  conquer  English  opinioL  in  tlic  mutter  of  the  Old  Tostiw 
taeoL  .  .  .  How  ttitiob  longer  will  it  take  before  wo  feel  thti  victory  of  the  Bame 
ftoleoee  <  .  .  witii  regard  to  the  bistorj  of  Christian  ori^ns? 

Remembering  thnt  tho  main  movemcut  of  New  Testament  criti- 
ciara  in  Germany  dates  not  thirty,  but  more  than  fifty  years  back, 
aud  that  thirty  yoara  ago  Baur's  school  enjoyed  the  same  applause 

crmany  aa  tliat  of  Wellhauscn  does  now,  does  it  not  seem 
in  conformity  with  experience  and  with  probability  to  an- 
ticiiwit<»  that,  as  the  Germans  themselves,  with  longer  experi- 
ence, find  thoy  1i;k1  been  too  hasty  in  following  Baur,  so  with  an 
equally  long  experience  they  may  find  they  have  been  similarly 
too  hasty  in  accepting  Wellhausen  ?    The  fever  of  revolutionary 

cism  on  tho  New  Testament  was  at  its  height  after  thirty 

,  and  tho  science  has  subsided  into  comparative  health  after 

we-  ''\    The  fever  of  the  revolutionary  criticism  of  the  Old 

Te-i  I  13  now  at  its  height,  but  tho  parallel  suggests  a  similar 

rotum  to  a  more  sober  and  common-sense  state  of  mind.    The 

famous  name,  in  short,  of  German  New  Testament  criticism 

ow  ossociaunl  with  exploded  theories ;  and  we  are  asked  to 
ffbut  our  eyes  U^  this  undoubted  fact  because  Mrs.  Ward  prophe- 
dea  a  dififerent  fate  for  the  name  now  most  famous  in  Old  Testa- 
ment criticism.  I  prefer  the  evidence  of  established  fact  to  that 
of  romantic  prophecy. 

But  these  observations  suggest  another  consideration,  which 
has  a  very  important  bearing  on  that  general  disparagement  of 
Engliiith  theology  and  theologians  which  Prof.  Huxley  expresses 
jto  offensively,  and  which  Mrs,  Ward  encourages.  She  and  Prof, 
Huxley  fjilk  as  if  German  theology  were  all  rationalistic  and  Eng- 
lish thtH>]<)gy  Tilonc  conservative.  Prof.  Huxley  invites  his  readers 
to  «tudy  in  Mrs.  Ward's  article 

lh«  rMalts  of  critical  inve«tigatkni  as  it  is  carried  out  among  those  tbeologiana , 
wlio  ar*  nien  of  science  and  not  mere  coonael  for  creeds ; 

and  be  appeals  to 

thv  irorkg  of  fitfholar«  and  tbcolopians  of  the  htgbeat  ropote  in  the  only  two  coan- 
tri«a»  Holland  nnd  fiermany,  in  which,  at  tlio  present  time,  profeasors  of  theology 
•ra  to  bo  found,  vUox  tcnnrc  of  their  posts  does  not  depend  upon  tlie  results  to 
wUcfa  thear  iD4Utria9  lead  them. 

Woll,  passing  over  the  insult  to  theologians  in  all  other  countries, 
what  hi  the  consequence  of  this  freedom  in  Germany  itself  ?  Is  it 
seen  that  all  learned  and  distinguished  theologians  in  that  coun- 
try are  of  the  opinions  of  Prof.  Huxley  and  Mrs.  Ward  ?  Tho 
Iven  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  the 
ill?  case.  If  anyone  wants  vigorous,  learned, 
satisfactory  answers  to  Prof.  Huxley  and  Mrs,  Ward,  Ger- 


346 


THE  POPVXAR  SCIEXCE  MOXTRLT. 


many  is  the  best  place  to  which  he  can  go  for  thitm.  The  profeM* 
ors  aiiJ  tli     '        ins  of  OeriTiany  who  adliere  si  '  "  :he 

old  Chri^  li  are  at  least  as  numerous,  .1  ^  ,  as 

learned,  as  iaborions,  as  those  who  adhere  to  fikeptici&l  opinions; 
What  ia,  by  general  consent,  the  most  valiiabhi  and  comprehensive 
work  on  Christiau  thtM^lo^jy  and  church  history  which  tho  last 
two  generations  of  German  divines  have  produced  ?  HiTzog's 
^Real-Encyclopiidie  fiir  prot<?8tantische  Theologio  nnd  Kirche," 
of  which  the  second  edition,  in  eighteen  large  volumes,  was  com* 
pleted  about  a  year  ago.  But  it  is  edited  and  written  in  harmony 
with  the  general  belief  of  Protostant  ChrlHtians.  Who  have  done 
the  chief  exegetical  work  of  the  last  two  generations  ?  On  the 
rationalistic  side,  though  not  exclusively  so,  is  the  "  Kin  t<><( 

exegetisches  HandbucL,"  in  which,  however,  at  the  pr'_i  :  .ae, 
Dillmann  represents  an  opposition  to  the  view  of  Wellhatuseti 
resj>ecting  the  Pentateuch  ;  but  on  the  other  side  we  h^  "  ■-».'r 
on  the  New  Testament — almost  the  standard  work  on  ;  jict 

— Keil  and  Delitzsch  on  the  Old  Testament  and  a  great  j»art  of 
tho  New,  Lange's  immense  *'  Bibelwerk,"  and  the  valuable  **  Eurz- 
gefasster  Kommentar"  on  the  whole  Script^ire,  including  the 
AjKKTypha,  now  in  course  of  publication  under  the  editorship  of 
Profs.  Strack  and  Ztickler,  The  Germans  have  more  time  for 
theoretical  investigations  than  English  theologians,  who  generally 
have  a  great  deal  of  practical  work  to  do ;  and  German  pi'ofestsors, 
iu  their  numerous  universities,  in  great  measure  live  by  tbfiXL 
But  it  was  by  German  theologians  that  Baur  was  refuttnl ;  it  is 
by  German  Hebraists  like  Strack  that  Wollhausrn  nnd  Kucnini 
are  now  being  best  resisted.  When  Prof.  Huxley  and  Mrs.  Ward 
would  leave  an  impression  that,  because  German  theological 
chairs  are  not  shnckled  by  articles  like  our  own.  '  '  Hie 
beftt  German  thought  and  criticism  is  on  the  rat]  Je, 

they  are  convoying  an  entirely  prejudiced  representation  of  the 
facts.  Tlic  efffH't  of  the  Gterman  syntem  is  to  make  everything  Ml 
o]>en  question  ;  as  though  there  were  no  snrh  thing  as  a  bettled 
'Stem  of  the  spiritual  universe,  and  no  establishe*!  facts  in  Chrift- 

lan  history;  and  thus  to  enable  any  man  of  '■*  -i  >    •«   ^' ith 

a  skei»lical  turn  to  unsettle  a  generation  and  "f 

belief  to  Ih^  built  up  again.     But  tho  edifice  is  biult  up  ;id 

Germans  take  as  large  a  part  in  rebuilding  it  a*  h^  '"  ng 

it.    Because  Prof.  Huxley  and  Mrs.  Ward  cun  quot*  lU 

nanuw  on  one  side,  let  it  not  be  forgotten  t1  ^n 

names  can  be  quoted  on  the  other  8i<Ie,    T       .  .    1  ir- 

nnok,  to  whom  Mrs.  Wanl  apyioals,  and  whose  "  History  of  Don- 

mfu*"'  Pr   "    "     *  "  •       ■'Se 

history  <•;  i.j- 

ttcnt  diriney  ThomaKius^  whoeo  "  HiKtor>  waa**  2uu  Jml 


I 


I 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  AGNOSTICISM, 


347 


W 


been  repuhlisLed  after  his  death,  and  who  wrote  in  the  devoutest 
8|iirit  of  the  Lutheran  commumon.  Of  course,  Harnack  regards 
hi*)  point  of  view  as  narrow  and  unsatisfactory ;  but  he  adds  that, 
"wjually  great  are  the  vahiable  qualities  of  this  work  in  partii:- 
nbir,  in  regard  of  its  exemplarily  clear  exposition,  its  eminent 
learning,  and  the  author's  living  comprehension  of  religious  prob- 
lems." A  man  who  studies  tho  history  of  Christian  theology  in 
Harnack  without  reference  to  Thoniasius  will  do  no  justice  to  his 
subject. 

But,  aayg  Mrs.  Ward,  there  is  no  real  historical  apprehension 
the  orthodox  -writers,  whether  of  Germany  or  England,  and  the 
lole  problom  is  one  of  "historical  translation."  Every  state- 
ment^ every  apparent  miracle,  everything  different  from  daily 
cperience,  must  be  translated  into  the  language  of  that  experi- 
ic«%  or  oLse  we  have  not  got  real  history.  But  this,  it  will  be  ob- 
scrred,  imder  an  ingenious  disguise,  is  only  the  old  method  of 
assuming  that  nothing  really  miraculous  can  have  happened,  and 
that  therefore  everything  which  seems  sxipernatural  must  be  ex- 
plainer! away  into  tho  natural.  In  other  words,  it  is  once  more 
begging  the  whole  question  at  issue,  Mrs.  Ward  accuses  ortho- 
dox writers  of  this  fallacy;  but  it  is  really  her  own.  Merriman 
ia  represontod  as  saying  that  he  learned  from  his  Oxford  teachers 
that 

it  WM  IraperatiTetf  ri^ht  to  endeavor  to  disentangle  miraclo  from  liintor^,  tho 
triftrrrloaa  from  ihc  real,  in  a  docuoient  of  the  fourth,  or  third,  or  Bccjnd  century; 
.  .  .  bat  the  cootent*  of  the  New  Testament,  liowever  uiarvoloas  and  however 
mpparotttl/  akio  (o  whut  surrounds  them  on  either  side,  wore  to  be  Lruuted  fruiu 
an  entirely  ditlureDt  point  of  rlcw.  In  the  one  case  there  must  be  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  hiutoHan  to  disoover  the  Llstorical  under  the  niirAcalona,  ...  in 
the  other  cum  there  aiQct  be  a  desire,  a  strong  *^  affection,^  ou  tho  part  of  the 
tbeologian,  toward  proTing  tb«  miraculous  to  be  hi^toncul. 

Mrs.  Ward  has  entirely  mistaken  the  point  of  view  of  Cliris- 
tian  science.  Certainly  if  any  occurrence  anywhere  can  be  ex- 
plained by  natural  causes,  there  is  a  strong  presumption  that  it 
onght  to  be  so  explained ;  for,  though  a  natural  eEect  may  be  due 
1!'  supematiiral  action,  it  is  a  fixed  rule  of  phUoso- 

I'  _;  to  Newton,  that  we  should  not  assume  un- 

known cauises  when  known  ones  sufl&ce.  But  the  whole  case  of  the 
C^  '  '  reasonpr  is  that  the  records  of  tho  New  Testament  defy 
II  iipt  to  explain  them  by  natural  causes.     The  Gorman 

cntics  Hase,  Strauss,  Baur,  Hausrath,  Keim,  all  have  made  the 
Attempt,  and  each,  in  the  opinion  of  the  others,  and  finally  of 
Pflpiderpf,  has  offered  an  insufficient  solution  of  the  problem. 
T  'f  the  Christian  is  not  that  the  evidence  ought  not  to  be 

ej*i 1  naturally  and  translateni  into  every-day  experience,  but 

tlxat  it  can  nf>l  be.    But  it  is  Mra.  Ward  who  assumes  beforehand 


3AB 


TBE  POPULAR  SCIEirCE  MOI^TS^ir. 


that  simply  because  the  ^  Life  and  Times  of  Jesxxs  the  Mefteiah," 

by  that  lejirued  scholar  and  able  writer.  Dr.   '*  so 

recent  loss  is  so  much  to  be  deploretl,  does  not '       _,  ihe 

Oospel  narratives  into  natural  occurrences^  therefore  it  is 
tially  bad  history.  The  story  has  been  the  same  ti 
Tho  whole  German  critical  school,  from  the  venerable  L 
— and,  much  as  I  differ  from  his  conclusions,  I  can  not  mentioD 
without  a  tribute  of  respect  and  gratitude  the  nnrae  of  that  groftt 
scholar,  the  veteran  of  all  those  controversies,  whose  "  Leben 
Jesu,"  published  several  years  before  Strauss  was  heard  of,  ia 
stilly  perhaps,  the  most  valuable  book  of  reference  on  the  subject 
— all,  from  that  eminent  man  downward,  have,  by  their  own  re- 
peated confession,  started  from  the  assumption  that  the  miraca- 
loufl  is  impossible,  and  that  the  Gospels  must,  by  some  device  or 
other,  be  so  inteq)reted  as  to  explain  it  away.  "Affection"  there 
is  and  ought  to  be  in  orth<xiox  writers  for  venerable,  profound, 
and  consoling  beliefs ;  but  they  start  from  no  such  invincible 
prejudice,  and  they  are  pledged  by  their  principles  to  accept 
whatever  interpretation  may  be  really  most  consonant  with  the 
facts. 

I  have  only  one  word  to  say,  finaUy,  in  reply  to  Prof.  Huxley* 
I  am  very  gla<i  to  hear  that  he  has  always  advocated  t1  M:sg 

of  the  Biblo  and  tho  diffusion  of  its  study  among  the  j--    _  -ist 

1  must  say  that  he  goes  to  work  in  a  very  strange  way  in  order 
to  promote  this  result.  If  lie  could  succeed  in  ja-rsuiMling  peo- 
ple that  the  Gospels  are  untrustworthy  c^jllections  of  legonds^ 
made  by  unknown  authors,  that  St.  Paul's  epistles  were  the 
writings  of  "a  strange  man,"  who  had  no  sound  capacity  for  judg- 
ing of  evidence,  or,  with  Mrs.  Ward's  friends,  that  the  Pentateuch 
is  a  late  forgery  of  Jewish  scribes,  I  do  not  think  the  jieople  at 
large  would  be  likely  to  follow  hia  well-meant  exhortations.  But 
I  venture  to  remind  him  that  the  English  Cliurch  has  anticipated 
his  anxiety  in  this  matter.    Tlin^o  hundred  y-  ■  i»f 

tlie  greatest  strokes  of  real  government  ever  <  Ik 

lio  reading  of  the  whole  Bible  was  imposed  upon  Ei  n; 

and  by  the  public  reading  of  tho  lessons  on  Sunday 
cliief  portions  of  the  Bible,  from  first  to  last,  have  becoii. 
upon  the  minds  of  English-8j)eaking  pec>ple  in  a  dogroe  in  which, 
as  the  Germans  themselves  m^knowledge,*  they  are  f*r  '    *  •-■  "  rig. 
He  has  too  much  n-/ii<on  for  lutt   lament  over   the  i<  ly 

spe<-tAcle  prf'sented  by  the  intestine  quarrels  of  cli  u  over 

matters  of  mere  ceremonial.  But  wh»M  ^m-  -".■■-^  ..  ,.,  ;.,ij»  that 
the  clergy  of  our  day  "  can  have  but  1  y  with  the  old 

evangelical  doctrine  of  the 'open  Biblu,*  " 
bi^ntl  that  our  own  grmomtion  of  Engli:; 


i 


'ij- 


AN  EXPLANATION  TO  PROF.  HUXLEY, 

Bt   W.  C.  MoGEE,  Btsaor  or  Pxtsrsorocoh. 


Air  £XPLANATIO]ir  TO  PROF.  HVXLET,  349 

labor  of  years,  endeavored  at  all  events,  wbetlier  successfully  or 
not,  to  place  the  most  correct  version  possible  of  the  Holy  Script- 
ures iu  the  hands  of  the  Elnglish  people.  I  agree  with  him  must 
cordially  in  seeing  in  the  wide  diffusion  and  the  unprejudiced 
study  of  that  sacred  volume  the  best  security  for  "true  religion 
and  sound  learning."  It  is  in  the  open  Bible  of  England,  in  the 
general  familiarity  of  all  classes  of  Englishmen  and  English- 
women ^lith  it,  that  the  chief  obstacle  has  been  found  to  the 
spread  of  the  fantastic  critical  theories  by  which  he  is  fascinated ; 
and,  instead  of  Englishmen  translating  the  Bible  into  the  lan- 
guage of  their  natural  experiences,  it  will  in  the  future,  as  in  the 
past,  translate  thorn  and  their  exx>eriences  into  a  higher  and  a 
supernatural  region, — Nineteenth  Century, 

^H  TTN  the  Fobruar^'  number  of  this  review  Prof.  Huxley  put  into 
^f  -L  tho  mouth  of  Mr.  Froderic  Harrison  the  following  sentence: 
^"  "In  his  [the  aguostic's]  place,  as  a  sort  of  navvy  leveling  the 
ground  and  cleansing  it  of  such  i>oor  stuff  as  Christianity,  he  is  a 
odefo]  creature  who  deserves  patting  on  the  back — on  condition 
bt  he  does  not  venture  beyond  his  last."  The  construction 
ich  I  put  upon  these  words — and  of  which  I  still  think  them 
,e  capable — was  that  the  professor  meant  to  represent  Mr, 
m  and  himself  as  agreed  upon  the  proper  work  of  the 
r,  and  as  differing  only  as  to  whether  he  might  or  might 
not" venture  beyond'*  that.  On  this  supposition,  my  inference 
tbat  he  had  called  Christianity  "sorry,"  or,  as  I  ought  to  have 
aaid, "  poor  stuff "  (the  terms  are,  of  course,  equivalent),  would 
have  been  perfectly  correct. 
^^  On  re-reading  the  sentence  in  question,  however,  in  connection 
^P  with  it«  context,  I  see  that  it  may  more  correctly  be  regarded  as 
"    ab         *       ■       loal;  and  this,  from  tho  professor's  implied  denial 

^in  le  of  the  correctness  of  my  version,  I  conclude  that 

he  intended  it  to  be-  I  accordingly  at  once  withdraw  my  state- 
Mnt,  and  expreas  my  regrut  for  having  made  it.  May  I  plead, 
Ipwever,  as  some  excuse  for  my  mistake,  that  this  picture  of  him- 
self when  engaged  in  his  agnostic  labors  is  so  wonderfully  accu- 
rate and  life-like  that  I  might  almost  be  pardoned  for  taking  for 
a  portrait  what  was  only  meant  for  a  caricature,  or  for  supjKising 
that  he  had  expre.ssed  in  so  many  words  the  contempt  which  dis- 
plays itself  in  so  many  of  his  utterances  respecting  tho  Christian 
f&iUi? 


350 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEITCS  MOXTffLr. 


Nevertheless  I  gladly  mlmit  tliat  the  particular  expresaion  1 
had  ascribed  to  him  is  not  to  be  reckoned  among  the  .1'  '  tijo 
numerous  illustrations  of  what  I  had  described  as  bis  <"4i 

to  say  unpleasant,"  and — after  reading  his  last  article — I  mujft 
add,  ofFensivo, "  things." 

With  this  explanation  and  apology  I  take  my  leave  of  the  pro- 
fessor and  of  our  small  personal  dispute — small^  indeed,  beside  the 
infinitely  graver  and  greater  issues  raised  in  his  reply  to  the  un- 
answered arguments  of  Dr.  Wace. 

I  do  not  care  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  public  from  these 
to  a  fencing-match  with  foils  between  Prof.  Huxley  and  myself. 
In  sight  of  Gethsemane  and  Calvary  such  a  fencing-match  &&iUis 
to  me  out  of  place, — Nineteeiiih  Century, 


FUNGI. 

n.— MICROSCOPIC  FORMS.* 

Bt  T.  H.  MoBHIDE, 
raoramoM  om  ovtaxx  mm  tiu  trviruuirr  or  iowa. 

THE  microscopic  world  is  ever  fair.    In  every  department  of 
research  we  revert  to  our  instruments,  certainly  ''ug 

to  be  charmed  by  beauty,  whether  of  movement  or  n  in. 

Rarely  are  wo  disappointed,  certainly  not  in  the  realm  of  organic 
form.  Here  everything  is  beautiful,  and,  as  the  heavens  to  the 
astronomer,  everything  is  clean.  Even  the  rudest  fungi  offer  no 
exception.  In  them  the  microscope  finds  no  exception  to  the  law 
of  beauty.  The  simplicity  of  structure  noted  in  the  previous  arti- 
cle runs  through  nearly  all,  only  varied  a  thousand  times:  but 
whether  mycelial  thread  or  spores,  one  or  other  or  both  A, 

the  result,  as  we  hope  by  illustration  here  to  show,  \&  a.  m- 

metry  and  elegance  itself. 

To  begin,  let  us  revert  to  the  lilac-bush,  wh-  '  "  'Ued  ieuvea 

may  readily  affonl  illustration  of  mycelial  weti  ncemlsL    By 

September,  if  not  sooner,  the  entiro  foliage  will  have  token  on  its 
peculiar  whiteness  as  if  thickly  dusted  with  chiilk  or  flour.  On 
certnin  leaves,  however,  appear  suspicious-looking  dark-brown 
specks  or  grains,  very  small,  but  plainly  visible  to  the  nakivl  eye. 
Removing  some  of  these  granules  to  the  micr^^'  '^  -  ^c  find  the 
field  filled  with  tiny  sculptured  spheres  ornai;:  ;th  a  pn^ 

fusion  of  long,  interlocking  filaments,  starting  out  like  so  many 
^extende<l  rivHi  of  each  sphere.  A  gentle  preusuro  on  the  cuvur- 
(lass  breaks  the  Bjihere*  And  forthwith  (Fig.  1)  a  dozen  tinj  aaca 


FUyQI, 


3S» 


N 


appear*  each  pocke^i  with  transparent  oval  nucleated  spores,  just 

rfiuch  spores  aud  quite  such  sacs  as  appeared  in  the  fruiting  sur- 

fnce  of  the  morel,  and  we  are  ready  with  the  botanist  to  call  the 

grannies  fruit.     Who  could  have  guessed  the  contents  of  that 

sphere  ?    But  look  again  at  those  radiating  oruameutal  filaments. 

Tmeo  to  its  distal  end  a  single  ray,  and  see  the  grapnels  by  which 

the  fertile  globule  we  have  studied  holds  fast  to  the  surface  of  its 

(Ugh  storm  and  flood.     Notice  the  elegant  curves,  the 

Leal  branching,  fit  m<idel  for  the  artist  in  arabesque  or 

1    What  more  beautiful  or  more  efficiently  suggestive! 

2  a.) 

I  Such  is  the  lilac  blight;  but  now  that  we  have  discoverd  one 
puch  funuru3,  we  may  carry  our  inquiries  to  almost  any  extent. 
The  neighboring  cherry-tree  will  aflPord  similar  material  for  study 
and  admiratiou.  Here  tlie  appendages  are  simpler,  and  the  fi*uit 
■iitains  but  a  single  sac  with  spores  (Fig.  3  a).  The  pop- 
:....  ,...i  the  willows  show  spherules  whose  appendages  are  simple 
LookSf  so  that  the  fruit  is  a  minute  bur  of  the  teazel  sort,  £t 
for  fairy  carding  (Fig.  2  ?*).  The  oak-leaf  and  the  hazel  bear  ap- 
pendages simpler  still,  the  ap]>eudages  being  straight  and  needle- 
shaped,  ray-like,  actinic;  Phyllaciinia  L^veilld  named  it — leaf- 
ray — the  needles  starting  like  rays  of  light  from  some  effulgent 
oent*ir  (Fig.  3  h). 

During  the  early  days  of  autumn  we  can  hardly  go  amiss  for 
ftppendaged  fungi  such  as  just  described.     In  the  wotKlland, 
LO  pastures,  by  the  road-side,  in  shade  and  in  sun,  a  thousand 
white-flecked  leaves  attract  the  aj»preciative  and  only  the  appre- 
ciative eye*     Minuteness  removes  from  ordinary  ken — and  the 
world  goes  on !    Besides,  these  parasites  are  not  especially  harm- 
ful, At  least  in  the  phases  described,  to  their  presumably  unwilling 
XtA.    Tlie  pea-vine  and  the  rose-bush  may  sometimes  suffer,  but 
ily  the  leaves  attacked  have  pretty  well  done  the  season's 
fore  the  parasite  attains  its  maximum,  so  that  man's 
in  the  matti-r  is  not  specially  affected.    There  is,  how- 
i«vor,  another  and  different  set  of  leaf-fungi  whose  parasitism  is 
lodly  more  intimate,  and  consequently  destructive  of  the 
-plant,  suicidal  as  such  a  policy  would  seem  to  bo.    ThesG' 
latter,  as  indeed  all  the  fungi  already  cited,  are  known  as  blights, 
as  such  some  sfpecies  are  already  famous.    The  potato  mur- 
i,  which  has  its  place  in  civil  history,  is  a  very  pretty  little 
transparent  bnuichiug  fungus,  so  delicate  that  a  breath  destroys 
iL    First  becoming  notorious  in  1845,  and  during  the  famines  of 
184C  and  XSM^  it  has  been  found  and  studied  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  for  the  forty  years  succeeding.    The  lilac  fungus  is  content 
to  ffpread  its  mycelium  over  the  surface  of  the  lilac-leaves,  absorb- 
ing \i»  nourishment  from  the  surface  cells ;  but  the  potiito  mold. 


352 


THE  POPULAR  SCTENCS  MO^rriTir. 


the  Phytophihora  infestans  of  the  books,  eeems  to  reach  every 
cell  and  every  tissue,  so  that  a  whole  potato-f5t>I*^  ^<i 

will  go  down  tu*  if  smitten  hy  the  frost  of  night.    Kin  ..   nv 

upon  many  of  the  plants  abont  ua,  Peronoapora  viticofa  iUt4ic1t« 
the  le-aves  of  the  grape.    In  wet  seasons  it  is  not  mu  to  «tf 

the  A^ild  grape-vines  along  our  western  streams  c*  M  ,  wliitc 

with  this  overwhelming  assailant,  nor  are  our  Concord  vineyards 
ever  quite  exempt.  The  mycelial  filaments  thread  the  soft  iut^ 
rior  tissues  while  fruiting  hyphi©  come  forth  in  delicate  tuft«  or 
pencils  through  the  open  stomata  on  the  under  surface  of  tlie  leaf. 
It  is  pleasant  to  think  that  weeds  of  various  kinds  suffer  from 
similar  fungal  invasions.  Thus  goosefoot  {Chtnopodivm,  «p.) 
bears  every  spring  upon  its  earlier  leaves  a  tiny  parasite,  which 
seen  under  our  lenses  seems  a  miniature  forest,  while  the  fruit 
masses  itself  in  violet  tinted  patches  plainly  to  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye. 

Even  the  evergreens,  the  cone -bearers,  that  ancient  race  of 
hardy  conservatives,  are  compelled  to  pay  tithes  and  tribute  to 
these  all-assailing  Vandals.    I  suppose  the  cedars  of  L- '  ire 

not  exempt !    At  all  events,  who  has  not  seen  our  nat  .4r» 

bending  after  some  warm  shower  in  June  with  orange-colored 
fruit,  beautiful,  but  to  the  cedar  costly  as  it  is  fair  ?  (Pig.  4  o,) 
Cedar-applt's,  men  say,  and  they  are  not  a  few  who  would  inaist 
that  the  cedar  is  actually  blooming  and  fruiting.  Such  fruit  has 
actually  been  planted — vain  expectation.  CVdar-apples  are  but 
the  excrescences  caused  bj^  the  persistent  development  of  h  fun- 
gus parasitic  upon  branch  or  leaf;   they  are  recep*-'  itn 

which  the  fungus  throws  out  at  a  favorable  moment  ^ .lus 

masses  of  orange-colored  spores  (Fig,  4  fc).  No  fruit  of  the  codar 
are  apples  such  as  these,  fruit  rather  of  th*^  '  "  mAlignAtit 
foe.    Trees  are  sometimes  seen  whose  crop  of  **  ' .  ^  i>ecom<»  so 

heavy  that  disaster  almost  to  extinction  marks  successive  yoarcL 
Strange  to  say,  the  cedar  does  not  bear  its  affliction  alono.  The 
hawthorn  has  a  part  in  the  matter,  and  on  its  leaver  are  homo 
fringed  cups  of  fungal  fi-uit  supplemental  to  the  <!e<lar's  parasite, 

just  as  the  clnstor-ciips  on  the  barberry-leaves  ar' ■-—  of 

the  rusts  on  fields  of  standing  grain.    In  fact,  wv  no. 

scopic  forms  parasitism  is  the  rule,  whether  R^  :»>• 

table  world  as  we  have  seen,  or  in  more  insidi  ...  i>g 

the  animal  as  well,  when  bacteria  and  bacilli  in  ph  A* 

appear  to  baffle  surgery  and  sanitary  science.    H»  -n 

well  said,  is  "the  arrow  that  dieth  b^'day;  the  ;      ,   ljjxX 

walketh  at  noonday.^  Tlie  disoussions  of  a  decade  have  rendenid 
thee.  ■         '  '         ■  '        T- 

wise  I     ^  .  ... 

has  grown  up,  to  which  the  scientifio  world  mokes  daily  contri* 


i 


FUJiOL 


lonR,  and  Ti&cteriology  is  hailed  the  latest  phase  of  biologic 

i<*t\    Nevertheless,  the  subject  is  as  yet  only  touched  upon. 
Wo  have  simply  begun  to  tind  out  how  to  study  these  minutest 

ii«.  some  of  which  may  yet  be  hiding  beyond  our  utmost  micro- 

►ic  Nision. 

But  the  most  remarkable  group  of  fungoid  organisms  remains 
yet  to  be  considered— remarkable  alike  because  of  the  innate  iiov* 
elty  und  be-auty  of  the  objects  themselves,  and  because  of  the  difl^^^ 
culty  which  seems  ever  likely  to  attend  any  effort  to  fix  exactly 
their  place  in  classification.  Among  English  writers  the  organ- 
in  question  are  called  slirae-molds ;  in  science  they  have  re- 
ceived as  a  group  different  appellations.  The  slime-molds  are 
sufficiently  common  in  all 
tli«  wooded  regions  of  the 
I,  although  receiving 
attention  on  account 

minuteness  and  unob- 
trusivcuess.  With  most  uf 
the  species  it  is  a  plain  cavSe 
of  "  seek  and  thou  shalt 
find,"  Some,  however,  are 
quite  large,  lus,  for  instauco, 
one  of  the  simple-st  appear- 

i>ft*?n  in  summer  flow- 
up  between  the  planks 

our     familiar     board 
for   be    it    under- 
ii    the   outset   that 
slime -molds  are,  in  one  stage  at  leaeti  soft,  protoplasmic 

lies  possessed  of  locomotive  p<.iwers,  changing  form  with  pro- 
incertitude,  and  position  with  nonchalance  far  from  reas- 
suring. The  species  in  question  Hp})ears  then,  in  quantity,  a 
patch  of  brownish,  frothy-looking  matter,  not  attractive.  Scrape 
it  away,  ami  probably  more  will  take  its  place,  furnished  forth 
from  the  moist,  dark  chambers  uudemeath.  Leave  it  a  few  liours, 
and  you  return  to  find  a  mass  of  purjiliah  dust,  overarched,  per- 
chance, by  a  porous  crust  of  yellowish  color  and  fragile  struct- 
This  dust  is   fniit,  spores  we  may  say,  and  w<*  wond( 

tt  may  be  the  destiny  of  spores  formed  in  so  strange  a  fashJ 
ion.  Place  a  few  of  these  spores  in  a  moist  chamber,  and  in  a 
ahort  time  each  germinatt^a  and  prcKluces — a  mycelial  thread  ? 
Not  at  all ;  on  the  contrary,  a  protoplasmic  particle,  not  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  that  other  protoplasmic  bit  men  call  Amceba. 
When  tliese  Amad)fie,  produced  by  the  germinating  spores,  have 
for  a  time  pursued  each  his  individual  way,  all  under  favoring 
circamfftances  reassemble,  coalesce,  actually  blending,  ui   most 

TOt-  rxxT. — 23 


Fm.  I.— Fhdit  or  LU.AC  Buuut.  k  Hm. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


cases,  to  produce  a  new  slime-mold  tn 
all  respects  CM^mparable  to  ita  polymor- 
phic ancestry,  a  new  motile  or^^anitim.! 
ready  once  more  to  break  up  intti  sporeaj 
and  fruit,  and  so  continue  iXs  never-end-| 
ing  cycle  of  purposeless  existence.  1  «uy  | 
puri>oseles8,  for  there  seems  to  be  no 
outlet,  no  outlook  toward  anything  bet- 
ter or  higher.  Its  relations  look  back" 
ward,  not  forward,  and  wt  ■    it] 

with  the  lowest  forms  of  u  lifaj 

more  easily  than  with  anything  elw., 
Hence  the  diflBculty  oi  tlie  systemaiist* 
Animals  they  can  hardly  be,  for 
where  else  in  the  kingdom  are  anii 
repro<luced  by  sjiores,  to  say  nothing  o(\ 
the  forms  of  fruiting  de8cril>ed  later  on. 
Wo  call  them  for  convenience  fungi; 
yet,  while  some  fungi  are  destitute  of 
mycelium,  and  some  produce  swarm 
spores  or  motile  naked  amoeboid  sporeo, 
still  in  no  instance  do  thes»*  b.^>if*v(!. 
in  the  slime-mold. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  the 
gerly  manner  in  which  naturaliste  in 
their  discussions  approach  these  forma. 
Sachs  throws  in  a  chapter,  nowherp 
in  j>articular»  a  sort  of  ad<leudum  on 
Myxfymycetes.  De  Bary,  the  lamented, 
givo-s  us  his  masterpiece  on  fungi,  "  in- 
rhuiimj  UiH  Afijvtfozixi"  and  in  sjH^ak- 
ing  of  their  relationship  says,  "  For 
various  reasons,  which,  according  totho 
knowledge  at  hand,  have  from  timo  to 
time  l)een  more  or  less  closely  worked 
out,  I  have,»i«oe  1858,  placed  the  Myro- 
myceUis  (slime-moUlfi)  under  the  name 
}fycet^zoa  outside  the  ^ 
dom,  and  this  I  still  < 
proper  place."*  Ho  doea  not  call  tha 
<»rtr.*irii^ins  nniinnls^  lie  It  ol>-  '      tf 

a  /(Hiluf^isr  t'ln»f»se«  to  do  S"  iry 

makes  no  objection.    Meanwhile,  daviUe 


ri*  r 


Kent,  zo('Vltifj 
De   BnrvV    , 


hy 

iA 


Do  Oatt,  *•  Uorpbotogr  uid  Biology  uf  Fttocl,'*  p.  47B. 


Fuirei. 


355 


is  "  Manual  of  InfuBorin  "  and  claims 
whole  series  as  animals ;  while 
ke,  as  representing  the  Englisli 
lK>tanL9t4f,  says,  in  the  introduction  to 
yxomycetes  of  Great  Britain/' "  It 
iinwessary  to  attenij)t  any  contro- 
Tormun  of  the  proixjsitiou  once  made, 
but  soon  ignored,  that  these  organisms 
aro  more  intimately  related  to  animals 
than  phints/'*  And  Saccurdo,  in  liis 
gT*?At  work  now  appoaring,  '*  Syllogo 
Fungorura,"  enumerates  and  describes 
Mffjronnjri'ies  with  the  rest. 
But  while  systematists  thus  differ 
aa  to  the  place  the  slime-molds  should 
have  in  claasification,  we  need  not  hesi- 
tate to  enjoy  their  beautiful  forms. 
They  are,  whetlier  we  know  wAo/  they 
or  not,  Tlie  sidewalk  species  is 
utrange,  and  the  transition  from 
«limc  to  dusty  R|>orea  would  be  incredi- 
ble did  wo  not  witness  it.  Stranger 
fitill,  however,  is  the  case  of  a  species 
often  brought  in  midsummer  from  the 
woods.  Here,  as  the  object  comes  from 
tho  forest,  is  a  mass  of  yellowish  slime 
without  appurunt  stnicture  or  parts, 
"  witliout  form  or  comeline«s,"  We  lay 
it  upon  the  laboratoi*y  table,  shut  it  up 
in  a  box,  if  you  choose,  and  a  few  days 
later  examine  to  find  no  end  of  struct- 
ure. Every  particle  appears  to  have 
passed  into  the  comi>08ition  of  definite 
ami  elogant  machinery.  A  perfect  hon- 
mb  now  lies  upou  the  bit  of  rotten 
,  the  original  support,  each  cell 
capjied  with  a  filmy  lid  which  seems 
all  t4x>  fragile,  and  which.  v)^)ening  here 
re,  discloses  a  |X)wdory,  fluffy 
thin.  Brought  to  the  micro- 
wope,  the  contents  of  each  cell  spread 
out  in  fruit,  in  spores  and  banded  iila- 
cneutfi* "  olat4>rs  "  called,  to  whose  beauty 

tys  but  distant 
'dor,  sculptured 


r- 


Fiu.  3, 


■^r'«  "  Xyiomyoetaf  of  Orett  Britain/'  Introduction,  p.  Ul 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


arc  the  spores,  and  twiste'l  are  the  filaments  witb  many  a  delicati 
spiral  wound,  the  coils  ninning  transverse  to  certain  finer  striof, 
a>i  if  the  whole  Htructure  did  but  make  appeal  to  some  H*sthf>^a] 
eye.    Slime-mold  it  wiis  before,  Trichia  chrysoapei'Via  now,  ami,] 
so  far  as  may  be   seen,  Bimi>]e   evaporation   Ii-hh    wrought  tlia| 
change. 

Fig.  6  illustrates  the  fruit  of  imotlier  slimt'-niol*!  v  '  "  '      lur- 
inff  the  present  year,  has  been  extremely  common  in  tli  ity. 

Abundant  rains  during  the  summer  were,  perchance,  the  tstimulftt- 

ing  cause.  On  c^ak- 
Htumps  of  four  or 
tiva  years'  standing 
there  ap]>eared  glis- 
tening patches  of 
the  size  of  one'fi 
hand,  by  no  moau 
attractive  to  the 
ual  observer;  mtber 
th«i  reverse.  Pres- 
ently the  entire  maaB 
hea[)ed  itself  up,  be- 
coming, say,  four 
tenths  of  an  incli 
in  depth  ;  a  t 
Him  covered  ail^and 
desiccation  began. 
Shortly  the  entire 
iiias.s had  been  traiuk 
forraed.  Uundn.-<ls 
of  slender  columnar 
I'ecfptacles,  k^aoh 
mounted  upon  the 
mo8t  <lelicAte  littU% 
blac^k,  shining  |H»di* 
cle  or  stallc,  and 
crf^wded  with 
spores,  completely 
replaced  that 
of  slime,  leaviai^. 
scarcely    a     traca 


FUNQI. 


357 


» 


i 


lonitis,  only  more  delicate  still  both  in  form  an4  color,  are 
it.  Tbey  are  everywhere  in  the  woodland — on  leaves 
and  sticks  that  lie  close  upon  the  ground,  upon  a  thousand  hum- 
blest things.  Such  forms  are  the  ConiafricJKf,  ArcyritB^  Cnbraruf, 
The  arcyriaa  form  their 
»res  and  the  net  which  con- 
rains  th*>m  nil  in  a  delicate 
iphvrtcal  or  oboouical  recepta- 
di6fe*  At  maturity  the  upper 
part  Lreaks  away  and  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  contained  stnict- 
uree  forces  them  out  as  a  most 
airy  puff,  from  which  the  sptjres 
may  l>e  driven  by  the  wind  while 
the  haae  of  the  original  enve- 
lope remains  as  an  empty  cup. 
Sometimes  the  entire  structure 
is  mounted  upon  a  slender, 
polished  st^ilk  of  appreciable 
length,  and  the  whole  colony  of 
»rangia  stand  as  tiny  salvers 
>se  shadowy  cou tents  rise 
like  incense-wreaths.  To  find  a 
(1  of  Arryria  puniceuTii, 
\y  box  it  and  lodge  it  in 
one's  collection,  is  enough  to 
a  man  joy,  even  of  the 
lotic  sort,  from  Sunday  to 
Sunday.  The  tints  in  all  these 
fruits  are  just  right:   they  are 

the  grays,  the  olives,  the  brick-reds,  the  browns,  and  yellows. 
Of  thiise  that  produce  their  fruit  thus  in  spherical  or  cnp- 
Ittped  receptacles,  some  are  giants  among  the  rest.  One,  very 
coramoUr  imitates  the  Lycoperdons,  or  puff-balls,  and  that  so 
as  to  have  tleceivtwl  the  botanists  themselves.  It  has 
imed  Lycoprrdon  again  and  again,  and  even  carried  over 
the  whole  tribe  with  which  it  is  related  into  the  order  Gasiero- 
mycfles — the  puff-ball  order.  The  student  finds  a  row  of  little 
«phen»s,  ashy  or  rosfy  in  color,  about  as  large  as  bullets,  resting 
aide  by  side  on  some  bit  of  rotten  stuff  in  the  woods,  and  forth- 
with thinks  about  Lycoperdon  pusillum,  or  possibly  some  new 
species,  and  not  until  aft*>r  much  investigation  and  groping,  and 
prot>ably  some  outside  assistance,  does  he  at  length  reach  the  "  true 
inwardness"  of  Lycognla, 

ftUo  hM  At  onr  time  id  Hb  (iercloptneot  a  delU»t«  peridiam  aroaxid  cftcb 
Thte,  howGPcr,  Mxm  vazushcfl. 


Fis.  &.-t^roiua  amd  Klatir»  or  Tkicuu 
oaBTiuaruuiA.    Blgblj  ougnlflcd. 


Fia.  ft.— frrMMuHiTiA  rvtc&.     cv-mrii  n-urv  «  a;  tlvuU  suil 
•por««  mar*  hlgliij  ninf^ipHrd. 


The  more  wo  study  these  wonderful  urganisms,  the  more  sur- 
prising it  seems  that  two  such  very  different  phases  should  coexist 
in  the  same  organism  and  succeed  each  other  so  abruptly.  We  no 
longer  wonder  at  the  perplexity  of  the  systematists,  and  we  ran 

but  admire  the  rule- 
less courage  of  Sfto- 
cardo,  who  discusM* 
the  Blime-mulds  in  his 
vol  u  m  e  vii,  "  Sy U  oge 
Fungorum,"  along 
with  other  mycelium- 
loss  forms,  and  sayit 
never  so  much  a«i "  By 
your  leave/* 

Before  the  vijsion 
of  the  biologist  there 
rises  ever  more  that 
weird  limbo  where 
"  vien  "  appear  "  aa 
trees  walking." 
Whether,  as  in  that 
elder  case,  ex]>erienoo 
may  bring  clearer  vision,  time  alone  can  tell.  Plant  and  animal 
have  doubtless  somewhere  a  common  starting-ground.  Toward 
that  Common  origin  the  Myxovij/cefes  undoubtedly  point.  They 
are  not  it.  They  seem  rather 
to  represent  an  independent 
twig  near  the  base  of  the 
great  tree  of  life,  a  branchlet 
whose  departure  was  absolute 
as  ancient,  developing  with  no 
respect  to  any  other  organic 
thing,  and  soon  reaching  the 
limit  of  that  partictilar  pos- 
bility.  Perfect  in  them- 
^Ivos,  we  may  look  for  noth- 
ing further  in  that  direction. 
Nature  herself  has  written, 
*•  No  thorouglxfare.'* 

In    conclusion,    wb    may 
notic*»  tb'  futility    fi». 

whicli  di'  .  in  soino 

minds.     To  what  end  are  all 
organic  thus  hidden  from  or'* 
reial  answer  can  be  given.    Ou : 
sufficiently  refined,  our  tests  ot 


thesii  microscopic 
hen?    T 

bits 

t    __ 

of  ttuff 

/ti  uf  «viii 

.-nn 

volne  show  nu  ksaitmoM  wheats 


4 


THE  ARTTFFCIAL   PROPAGATION   OF  SEA^FISffES.    359 


■delicacy  trembles  to  a  case  like  this.  What  know  we  of  Nature's 
Hinfinite  eijiii|Mii«e  ?  Such  orgauisms  are  their  own  excuse  for 
Hl>eini7y  and,  if  by  any  chance  they  serve  at  len^ctli  the  testhetic 
Bsenae  of  some  creature  intellectual,  his  is  the  good  fbrtuue ;  their 
destiny  waxes  not  nor  wanes. 

■     THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  SEA-FISHES 

H Bt  Pbof,  W.  K.  brooks, 

I      O   bv  I 


or  joura  iioncnffl  cxivsutTY. 


3  years  since  the  writer  was  much  impressed  by  an  article 
by  Prof.  Huxley,  in  "  The  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  on  the 
artificial  propagation  of  food-fishes,  in  which  be  recognizes  the 
value  of  the  ecwnDniic  results  which  have  followed  the  culture  of 
the  fishwj  of  inland  waters,  but  gives  very  emphatic  expression  to 
his  belief  that  man's  influence,  eithur  for  good  or  for  bad,  upou 
tlije  infinite  wealth  of  the  ocean,  is  so  very  slight  as  to  be  alxjo- 
lutely  without  significance.     He  argues  that  an  oceanic  species 
which  is  rich  enough  in  individuals  to  resist  all  the  enemies  which 
prey  \\\^n  it  can  be  in  no  danger  from  man.    If,  he  says,  it  is  able 
to  hold  its  own  in  the  fierce  struggle  with  the  natural  conditions 
of  its  existence*  the  loss  of  the  few  individuals,  which  are  all  that 
the  human  fishermen  are  able  to  capture,  can  not  possibly  lead  to 
iU  i»x termination,  nor  even  exert  any  noteworthy  influence  upon 
it^  'i('f»;  nor  can  man,  he  argues,  by  artificially  fertilizings 

a  fr.       ._.    .ion  eggs,  and  by  rearing  a  few  million  young  fishes,. 
c»a«o  any  ajipreciable  increase  in  the  abundance  of  a  species 
ties  rountlesH  millions  n{  a<lult  fishes,  each  of  wluch 
er  to  leave  behind  it  millions  of  descendants. 
As  compared  with  the  natural  repro<luctive  power  of  the  cod- 
tip<^»n   the  Grand  Banks,  the  efforts  of  man  to  artificially 
the  supply  sink  into  ubsijlute  insiguifica-nce,  and  Hux- 
atat4.*mont  of  the  case  seemed  to  me  at  the  time  io  he  con- 
TiDCing;  but  I  have  recently  been  able  to  investigate  the  subject 
fnr  Tny"«'»lf.  and  I  am  now  satisfied  that  his  opinions  are  not 

vin.    As  I  am  well  aware  that  their  influence  has  been 
......  ..V  ....ig,  and  has  much  to  do  with  current  ^'iews,  I  take  this 

opporttmity  to  state  my  reasons  for  the  change  in  my  own  opin- 
ion, fW  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  what  I  now  consider  a  serious 
falhfccy  in  his  argument.  If  man's  destructive  influence  were  simi- 
lar in  kind  to  that  of  the  other  enemies  of  marine  food-fishes,  it 
'  '  '  '  "  .  he  quite  true  that  the  numbers  destroywi  by 
1 1^  when  com|)arod  with  those  which  are  de- 
ed in  other  ways ;  but  the  danger  which  comes  from  man's 


fey-s 


5^6 


THE  POPULAR  SCISyCE  MOyTTTLT. 


influence  is  fundamentally  different  from  all  the  natural  danj^Virv 
to  which  Bea-fiahes  are  ex|>08ed,  since  it  is  modem  or  '  tad 

has,  therefore,  failed  to  be  recognized  and  provided  agui  ^  Jug 

the  evolution' of  these  animals.  In  this  sense  man^s  influeiice  ia 
MnnaiuraX,  while  all  other  dangers  are  natural.  The  danger  from 
man  is  not  only  modern,  but  also  totally  anomalous  in  the  rapid- 
ity of  \i»  approach.  It  has  not  grown  up  gradually  and  imper* 
ceptibly,  but  has  swept  over  the  entire  ocean  with  a  speeil  which 
leaves  no  chance  for  the  production  of  compensating  adjustmeutA 
by  the  slow  process  of  selection.  If  it  were  to  remain  without 
change,  or  were  to  change  very  slowly,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
all  the  species  which  were  not  quickly  destroyed  would  ultimately 
be  brtjught  into  adjustment,  and  would  from  that  time  on  be  able 
to  resist;  but  what  animal  can  become  a^ijusted  to  an  enemy  who 
is  able,  in  less  than  a  generation,  to  increase  his  power  by  ffuch 
inventions  as  the  steamboat,  the  eh^^tric  light,  and  the  dynamite 
])omb  ?  To  marine  food-lishos  man  is  a  catastrophe, not  a  natura) 
enemy,  and  the  natural  methods  of  maintaining  the  haiinoajr  1>^» 
tween  oceanic  animals  and  the  slow  geologic  changes  of  the  ooeaa 
bottom  are  of  no  avail  against  him. 

A  study  of  the  destructive  forces  of  nature  shows  that  man  i* 
peculiar  in  other  all-essential  particulars.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  of  all  the  marine  animals  which  fall  a  prey  to  enemies,  or  be* 
come  the  victims  of  accidents  and  diseases,  all  but  an  infinitesimal 
perc€ntage  are  destroyed  during  infancy  or  youth.  As  ft<H»n  as 
the  e^^  of  a  fish  are  laid,  the  process  of  decimation  beginx.jind  it 
is  initiated  on  a  scale  which  would  quickly  sweep  th^  ut 

of  existence  if  it  histed  long;  but.furtunately.itdoesnt  l,..,.  .  ^icli 
day  in  the  life  of  a  young  fish  brings  witli  it  iin  onormouiii  increoao 
in  the  chance  for  a  long  life. 

During  the  early  stages  of  development  the  young  fiah  is  to- 
tnlly  defenseless,  and  at  the  mercy  of  enemies  and  accidentci ;  ftud,, 
Although  eat^h  pelagi<T  fish  lays  en<»rmouK  numbers  ^'f  ■ 
«  single  one  could  escape  if  the  embryonic  period  ^ 
Natural  selec^tion  has  been  constantly  acting  for  untold  ages  to 
shorten  it.  however,  for  in  each  generation  those  eggs  which  de- 
veloped most  rapidly  have  most  frefpiently  escaped  dp«trn'^tion  ; 
and  as  the  fishes  which  hatched  from  these  preco<  a'r 

inherited  a  tendency  to  produce  similar  eggs,  th*-  • ......,, .if» 

has  gi'adually  grown  short,  and  most  jH^lagii^  ^'K\K^  now  develop  ao 
rapidly  that  it  is  not  unusual  for  them  to  hatch 
four  hours  after  they  are  fertilized.    After  they  a 
transparency  and  activity  of  the  little  ^hes  luld  greatly  to  ibeir 

iug  for  an  hour  from  tho  end  of  a  wharf  a  school  of  aomn  t'ighti 


4 


Tffff  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAOATION  OF  SEA-FISEES.  361 

hundred  or  a  thousand  young  fishos,  that  one  of  them  fell  a  victim 
miuuto  to  (ho  enemies  of  the  air  or  of  the  water.    While  the 
kth-rato  is  vastly  less  than  it  was  during  embryonic  life,  it  is 
'groat  enough  to  put  an  end  to  the  entire  school  in  a  single  day, 
wero  it  not  for  the  fact  that  each  time  a  bird  swoops  down  upon 
the  little  6skes  out  of  the  air  above,  and  each  time  that  a  preda- 
jcioas  fiiili  darts  in  among  them  out  of  the  depths  and  carries  off 
a  victim,  the  survivors  profit  by  the  new  experience,  and  become 
.more  alert  and  vigilant  and  better  able  to  escape  future  danger. 
While  it  is  not  possible  to  give  figures,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
tliat  the  chance  for  long  life  increases  by  a  high  geometrical  ratio 
f^with  lige.    Among  salt-water  fishes  the  death-rate  is  enormous ^gt 
iirst,  but  it  grows  less  and  loss  as  the  individuals  grow  older;  and 
natural  death-rate  of  adult  fishes   is  infinitesimal  as  com* 
with  the  death-rate  of  the  young.    A  high  birth-rate  has 
since  it  gives  an  opportunity  for  selection,  and 
'■■^  to  the  maintenance  and  gra^lual  evolution  and 
[improvement  of  the  standard  of  the  race.    Each  adult  fish  is  a 
Isurvivor,  picked  out  or  naturally  selected  from  among  thousanfls 
»r  oven  millions  of  less  favored  brothers  and  sisters ;  and  while 
\y  of  the  accidents  which  overwhelm  the  eggs  and  young  aro 
^fnch  a  character  that  individual  peculiarities  count  for  nothing 
against  them,  wo  can  not  doubt  that,  on  the  whole,  the  alert  and 
tenergetic  and  intelligent  fishes  are  most  likely  to  escape,  and  to 
grow  up  to  maturity  and  to  bear  descendants.    A  high  rate  of 
increase  does  unquestionably  aid  evolution  by  selection,  but  the 
well-known  fact  that  it  is  reduced  in  all  species  with  low  death- 
-rates bhows  that  its  primary  and  most  important  purpose  is  to 
»mpen»ate  for  the  loss  from  atjcidents  and  diseases  and  enemies, 
nd  l-o  inytiro  tito  perpetuation  of  the  species. 
A  young  fish  with  a  million  brothers  and  sisters  must,  before 
it  roaches  sexual  maturity,  be  in  imminent  jwril  of  life  a  million 
before  it  is  able  to  reproduce  its  kind ;  and  the  million  perils 
grouped  that  most  of  them  face  it  at  the  beginning  of  its 
life,  and  grow  less  and  less  frequent  as  it  becomes  older.    The 
eriln  of  a  fish  may  be  compare<l  to  a  pyramid  which  tapers  from  a 
^roaii  base  in  infancy  to  a  pointed  apex  in  mature  life,  and  each 
i|*eoie3  must  be  made  up  of  individuals  of  all  ages  in  a  similar 
irical  ratio  to  each  other.    The  perils  of  each  individual  fish 
to  be  accident-al,  but  their  average  for  the  entire  species  con- 
exact  numerical  laws,  and  the  number  which  die  during 
day,  the  second  day,  and  so  on,  of  their  lives,  must  be 
kboni  the  same,  season  aft^r  sciison.    During  the  slow  process  of 

'>f  each  sppciei*  has  been  so  regulated  by 

uatural  mortality  has  been  provide*!  for, 

lero  shall  be  enough  fiurvivors  in  each  generation  to  maintain 


j6* 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEyCE  MONTHLY. 


the  species  aud  to  keep  the  area  whicli  it  inhabits  stocked  with  a» 
many  adults  as  it  can  support. 

All  the  natural  sources  of  mortality  are  thus  provided  for.  As 
each  species  is  slowly  and  gradually  brought  into  harmouiuos 
mijustmfliit  to  the  conditionH  of  its  environment,  its  birth-rat<^, 
like  all  its  other  attributes,  is  regulated  aud  adapted  to  mc«t  all 
the  natural  demands  upon  it.  Now  what  hapjwni^  if,  aft4rr  wich 
one  of  the  natural  enemies  has  claimed  its  victims^  a  new  onczny 
not  provided  for  by  Nature  suddenly  attacks  the  few  adult  survir- 
ors  which  Nature  has  provided  to  perpetuate  the  species  ?  What 
happens  when  the  last  drop  falls  into  the  brimming  bucket? 
What  happens  when  the  proverbial  hist  straw  is  put  on  the  load  ? 
It  may  be  quite  ti-ue  that,  for  each  codfish  which  man  catches,  the 
natural  enemies  destroy  a  million.  That  has  no  bearing  on  the 
subject  Nature  has  provided  for  the  destruction  of  the  million. 
Before  their  birth  they  were  destined  to  premature  death.  The 
one  was  reserved  by  Nature  for  another  purpose. 

If  the  destructive  influence  of  man  had  been  gra<lual]y  brought 
to  bear,  and  had  kept  pace  with  the  evolution  of  the  i?i'  ~.;t- 

ural  selection  would  have  provided  a  remedy,  and  th(^  ae 

would  have  been  correspondingly  increased ;  btit  this  has  not  been 
the  case ;  and,  while  man  might  not  bo  able  to  make  any  impres- 
Won  ou  the  broad  base  of  the  pyramid,  we  must  remember  that 
he  does  not  attack  the  base,  but  the  pointo<l  apex.  The  faot  that 
sea-fishes  are  so  enormously  prolific  is  entirely  irrelevant.,  Tliiflr 
high  birth-rate  is  an  adjustment  to  their  natural  eDvironm6iit« 
while  the  influence  of  man  is  a  new  factor  which  has  not  boon  pri> 
vided  against. 

It  is  difficult  to  get  statistical  information  regarding  miuiae 
animalsj  but  there  is  ample  evidence  that  they  ni-     '  li- 

nated  by  man.    The  Bahama  sponge-fishermen  con  4  -y 

are  now  compelled  to  make  long  voyages  and  to  visit  remote  banks 
forRpongea  which  in  former  yfwirs  could  bo  gathered  in  ;;'  '  no 
near  fcho  seaportji*.    It  is  well  known  that,  just  before  tl,  m 

the  wells  of  Pennsylvania  came  into  common  use,  the  tsporm- 
whales  had  become  so  scarce  that  tliey  were  in  imminent  danger 
of  extermination.  The  scarcity  aud  the  high  priro  of  Kea-tinhee 
in  the  vicinity  of  large  seaport  towns  are  unqir  ■  ho 

shore-fisheries  of  the  New  England  coast,  to  whi   ..  . .-,  .  ^  .vt-s 

its  name,  have  been  so  completely  destroyed  that,  whon  the  Cape 
Cod  fishormo'  ■  t,a  few  months  a^'o.  in  -'  of 

Iho  young  c<  srhich  had  been  hatched  iU* 

mission  laboratory  at  Wood's  Boll,  they  brought  thorn  lo  the 


animal  o: 


>nougb  to  be  valuable  a6  hnmon  food  which 


TltE  AnTTFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  SEA-FISHES,    363 

can  long  surTive  the  attacks  of  a  uow  uanatural  enemy  armed 
with  tLe  onergy,  the  resoiirces,  and  the  inteUigeoce  of  civilized 
man.  Fortunately,  the  qualities  which  render  him  the  most  resist- 
less of  enemies  also  enable  him  to  become  a  producer  ae  well  as 
•oyer;  and.  while  the  fear  of  him  and  the  drea<i  of  him  is 

>n  every  beast  of  the  earth  and  ujK>n  every  fowl  of  the  air  and 
upon  all  the  lishes  of  the  sea — while  they  are  all  delivered  into 
hia  hamhi,  and  are  powerless  to  resist  him — he  alone  of  all  animals 
is  able  10  make  good  the  destruction  caused  by  his  ravages,  and 
to  increase,  by  agriculture,  by  domestication,  by  selection  and  im- 
provement, and  by  artificial  propagation,  the  animals  and  plants 
which  he  destroys. 

Can  these  inttnences  be  brouglit  to  bear  upon  marine  animals  ? 
human  intelligence  an<l  skill  and  power  over  Nature  be  so 
iployod  as  to  make  quickly,  by  artificial  means,  that  slight  ad- 
juutraent  in  the  birth-rate  of  food-fishes  which  would  have  beei 
brought  about  more  slowly  by  natural  agencies  if  man  had  longf 
oocapied  his  present  rank  among  their  enemies  ? 

Looked  at  in  this  way,  the  proposition  certainly  does  not  seei 
to  bo  impracticable;  and,  while  human  eHorta  in  this  field  are  oj 
too  recent  a  date  to  furnish  positive  evidence,  I  believe  that  I  have 
«hown  that  there  is  no  a  priori  impossibility  and  no  logical  b( 
for  a  negative  annwer  to  the  question.  The  results  which  ha^ 
already  been  rcache*!  by  the  artificial  propagation  of  certain  sea- 
fishes,  like  the  shad,  which  make  i>eriodical  visits  to  fresh  water, 
are  extremely  interesting^as  they  furnish  indirect  evidence  which 
28  very  conclusive.  They  prove  that  human  influence  producers 
very  prompt  and  decidedly  advantageous  results  in  the  case  of 
thoae  fisheSi  and  thus  give  ns  every  reason  to  hope  that  equally 
valuable  results  will  follow — a  little  more  slowly,  pi»rhups— from 
our  eflrorts  to  increase  the  supply  of  more  strictly  marine  species. 

In  the  year  1880  the  fisheries  census  and  special  investigations 
which  ried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States 

Fish  C-  ">n  proved  that  there  had  been  a  most  rapid  and 

alarming  decline  in  the  value  of  the  sha<l-fishtiriea  in  the  rivers 
and  bays  and  sounds  of  our  Atlantic  coast,  and  that  there  was 
every  reason  to  foar  that  in  a  few  years  the  shad  would  bo  utterly 
exterminated.  The  adult  shad  is  an  oceanic  fish,  but  each  spring 
it  r-^  •  nf?  of  the  inlets  or  bays  and  makes  its  way  up  to  the 
fn  :  streams  to  reprcxluce  its  kind.    The  supply  of  sha*l  for 

the  market  is  caught  during  this  spring  migration,  when  the  fishes 
enter  our  inland  waters  plump  and  fat  after  their  winter's  feasV 
upon  the  abundant  supply  of  food  which  they  find  in  the  oceai 
the  greater  part  of  each  year  gathering  uy>  and 
-^  .  -    •  the  substiince  of  their  own  bodies  the  innumerable 
mintite  marine  organisms  which  would  be  of  no  value  whatever  to 


36+ 


THE  POPULAR  SCfSXCE  MOyTITLT. 


I 


man  without  their  aid,  and  as  their  natural  insiinuts  impel  tbem 
to  bring  to  our  very  doors  this  great  addition  to  our  fo'  > "  'v, 

their  t'couoniic  value  is  very  great,  as  they  put  at  oui  a 

vast  area  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  "which  would  otherwise  l»a 
entirely  beyond  our  control.  The  extinction  of  tho  shad  would, 
therefore,  be  a  national  calamity. 

In  1880  the  fishermen  believed,  apparently  with  good  re-ason, 
that  the  rapid  decline  was  due  to  improper  methods  of  fishing — 
to  the  erection  of  p<:>unds  and  weirs  along  the  shores  of  the  salt 
hays  and  sounds,  where  the  fishes  were  captured  in  great  numbers 
long  bt'fore  they  hiwl  reached  their  spawning-grounds.  It  was 
urged  that,  if  these  obstructions  were  removed,  and  all  the  shad 
were  permitted  to  reach  fresh  water  before  they  were  captur<>d, 
enough  eggs  wouhl  be  deposited  each  ye-ar  to  keep  up  tlie  8uj)ply, 
hut  that  the  destruction  of  such  great  numbers  in  salt  water  must 
necessarily  result  in  extermination.  This  seemed  to  be  good  logic, 
but  in  tho  spring  of  tho  year  1888  more  shad  were  caught  in  salt 
water  than  were  caught  altogether  in  the  year  1880  in  both  freish 
and  salt  water ;  and  yet  the  shad-fisheries  are  now  increasing  in 
value  from  year  to  year,  while  in  1880  they  were  in  danger  of 
destruction. 

To  what  is  this  change  due  ?  In  1880  the  United  States  FiaU 
Commission  began  systematically  and  upon  a  large  scale  the  work 
of  collecting  the  eggs  from  the  bodies  of  the  shad  which  were 
captui'ed  for  tlie  market  in  the  nets  of  the  fishermen.  These  eggs 
were  artificially  fertilized  and  hatched ;  the  young  fishes  were 
kept  for  a  few  days  in  captivity  in  glass  jars;  they  were  then  set 
at  liberty  in  the  fresh-water  streams,  and  the  waste  of  egg«  waa 
thus  prevented.  This  work  has  been  prosecuted  steadily  for  eight 
years,  and  the  results  are  briefly  summarized  in  tho  following 
table: 


I 


TSABS. 

Bhad  uptnrf  d  Id 

•alt  or  brwkUli 

wttUr. 

61uM  eaptarvd  In 

frrth  wmtrr. 

TotaL 

iiiii 

S,M9,M4 
8.2B7,41>7 

8.04S,7n8 
8.813.744 

2.4.S^.""|' 
S,«AO,«TS 

4.U0.B88 

84          1 

The  money  value  of  the  excess  in  1888  over  the  total  cat^^h  in 
1880  is  more  than  $:("'»,000.    Tli  r- 

able  than  ever  to  natural  reprc:.  .    .bi 

that,  if  no  shad  had  been  ]iroduced  by  man  since  1880,  and  if  ftll 

Til  ,  vr 

pounds  and  traps  in  the  lower  w&t«r«,  and  finally  nsach  tho  numlhs 


THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATIOiV  OF  SEA-FISHES,   365 

of  the  rivorSj  are  excluded  by  dams  and  other  obstructions  from 
all  the  streams  which  arp  of  moat  valuo  as  feeding-grounds  for  the 
young ;  and  the  area  which  is  now  available  for  spawning  is  re- 
stricted to  the  lower  waters  of  the  riverH,  which  are  so  assiduously 

jpt  by  drift-nets  and  seines  that  each  fish  is  surely  captured 

>u  after  its  arrival,  and  before  it  has  had  an  <:»pportunity  to 
deposit  its  eggs.  Tlie  number  of  eggs  which  are  naturally  deix)s- 
it4>d  is  now  very  small  indeed,  for,  while  the  take  upon  the  spawn- 
ing-grounds has  increased  from  1,600,000  in  1880  to  2,000,000  in 
1888,  the  take  in  salt  water  has  increased  from  2,500,000  to  5,000,000, 
and  the  shores  of  our  bays  and  sounds  are  now  so  thoroughly 
lined  with  both  nets  and  pounds  that  the  number  of  shad  which 
reach  the  spawning-grounds  at  all  is  proportionately  much  less 
than  it  was  eight  years  ago,  and  more  HLa<l  are  now  taken  each 
year  in  salt  water,  where  spawning  is  impossible,  than  were  taken 
altogi:*ther  iu  1880.  The  fact  that,  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  value  of 
tho  fisheries  has  increased  eighty-five  per  cent,  seems  to  prove  that 
the  ahad  is  now  entirely  an  artificial  product,  like  the  crops  of 
grain  which  are  harvested  on  cur  farms. 

If  any  one  doubts  whether  this  result  is  due  to  man*s  efforts, 
we  have  more  conclusive  evidence.  Previously  to  1870  no  shad 
were  found  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  or  in  an/ of  its  tributaries.  Be- 
tween 1870  and  1875  tho  United  States  Fish  Commission  intro- 
duco«l  a  few  young  shad  into  tho  Sacramento  River.  The  number 
very  small,  but  the  little  fishes  made  their  way  down  to  the 

;ific  to  feed  and  grow  large  and  fat,  and  to  return  at  last  to 

the  fresh  water  to  reproduce  their  kind.    Some  of  them  came  back 

the  same  river,  but  others,  following  the  warm  Pacific  current, 

idered  farther  north  into  other  rivers,  until  now  the  shad  is  in 
some  places  sufficiently  abundant  to  furnish  profitable  fisheries, 
and  it  is  distributed  along  more  than  three  thousand  miles  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  North  America,  and  is  still  spreading  northward 
in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  it  will  in  a  few  years  be  found 
in  the  rivers  of  Asia,  so  that  the  descendants  of  the  shad  of  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  will  increase  the  food-supply  of  China,  If  such 
noteworthy  and  valuable  results  follow  the  artificial  culture  of  a 
fish  which  spends  the  greater  part  of  its  life  in  the  ocean,  and 
there  obtains  its  food,  is  there  any  reason  why  man  should  not 
:e  good  his  destruction  of  species  which  are  more  strictly 

The  great  increase  in  the  shad-fisheries  during  the  last  eight 
b.         '^  ftf'd  by  tho  use  of  means  which,  while  effective, 
cri  .  primitive  as  compared  with  those  of  modem 

agriculture,  (or  example,  and  we  must  look  for  g^-eat  improve- 
ment* and  a  vastly  greater  return  in  the  future.  A  farmer  who 
did  nuUiing  more  than  to  save  and  sow  wild  seeds  which  would 


366 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLr. 


otherwise  be  lost  on  sterile  ground  or  killed  by  frost  or  damp  or 
eaten  by  birds  and  insects,  would  no  doubt  effect  a  slight  incneaso 
in  the  food-supply,  but  his  efforts  would  be  very  far  behind  th<* 
requirements  of  mo<leru  agriculture.  His  harvest  would  bo  ns 
nothing  compared  with  that  of  the  farmer  wlio  sows  iniprovod 
seed;  cultivates,  protects,  and  nourishes  his  seedlings,  and  tlius 
increases  many  hundrod-fold  the  bounty  of  nature.  Can  similar 
improved  methods  be  applie^l  to  the  harvest  of  the  sea?  The 
Superintendant  of  the  United  States  Fish  C<immission,  Prof.  Mar- 
shall McDonald,  is  now  trying  on  a  large  scale  experiments  which 
will  furnish  an  answer  to  this  question,  and  the  result  will  be 
eagerly  looked  forward  to  by  those  wlio  are  interosttHl  in  pure 
science,  ns  well  as  by  those  who  value  nothing  except  economic 
results.  The  young  shad  which  are  reared  from  the  artificially 
fertilized  eggs  are  usually  turned  out  into  the  streams  soon  after 
they  are  born  to  shift  for  themselves.  Many  of  them  perish  from 
accidents  and  the  attaclcs  of  enemies,  wliile  others  are  forced  to 
struggle  for  an  insuflBcient  supply  of  food.  All  horticulturistt 
and  bre<?ders  of  domesticated  animals  know  that  the  size  and 
vigor  and  vitality  of  a  plant  or  animal  depend  to  a  great  degree 
upon  its  treatment  during  it«  infancy  and  youth,  and  that  a 
stunted  or  injured  infant  seldom  becomes  a  valuable  a»^  '  "  'it 
or  animal.    Last  spring  about  half  a  million  young  m  re 

placed  soon  after  hatching  in  a  large  pond  in  Washington,  and 
were  carefully  tende<l  and  fod  and  protecte<l  from  enemies  dur- 
ing the  whole  of  the  period  which  the  young  shad  spends  in  fresh 
water.  The  young  fishes  prospered  and  grew  rapidly,  and  nearly 
all  of  them  were  still  alive  when  the  time  for  migrating  to  the 
ocean  came  in  the  fall.  Tlie  gates  of  the  pond  were  thou  opened 
one  morning,  and  all  day  long  the  silver  stream  of  young  shad 
poured  out  through  them  and  started  on  the  long  journey  down 
to  the  sea.  All  naturalists  will  look  forwunl  with  the  greatest 
interest  to  the  time  when  these  fishes  return,  briuK  'h 

them  to  the  fishermen  of  the  Potomac  the  wealth  ci  h 

they  have  gathered  in  the  ocean.  In  the  mean  time  we  may  in- 
dulge the  hope  that  the  strong  coustitutionfi  which  i'  '  ■.  o 
acquired  during  their  carefully  nurtured  youth  will  en  >  n 

to  excel  their  less  favored  brothers,  and  that  when  they  renoh  our 
market  they  will  havo  some  of  the  excellence  of  our  improved 
garden  product*, 

But  this  is  not  all.   Tlieso  shad  were  rt^red  from  a. 

'^*-     ndults  which  enter  ov"  —  ' '""vt  in  the  sp'  \ 

\Ao  to  the  fishermen,  ""  p"t  n[»on  a 

11  time  when  fresh  fish  are  scarce  and  h. .  " 

with  garden  vcgctM^*^-^^  ^.i^tw*.,.:.  fi...  ^  f 

early  shad  shall  '  il 


MAIL  WAT  MALADJUSTMHyrS. 


r 


the  young  fishes  which  were  put  into  the  Fish  Commission  pond 
re  hatched  from  eggs  taken  from  the  earliest  shad  of  the  season, 
d,  if  this  process  of  selection  be  pursued  for  a  few  years,  we 

may  feel  confident  that  the  Potomac  River  will  soon  abound  in 

shad  of  extra  quality  at  the  time  when  fine  shad  are  hardest  to 

get  and  most  valuable. 


RAILWAY  MALADJUSTMENTS. 

Br  BENJAMIN  BEECE. 

IT  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  in  social  and  industrial  concerns 
men  never  dream  of  restoring  an  equilibrium  by  withdrawing 
the  forces  which  disturb  it,  but  they  invariably  demand  the  exer- 
tion of  new  and  opposite  forces  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  those  in 
operation  wliich  C(mld  more  easily  be  removed.  When  the  mov- 
ing locomotive  is  to  be  brought  to  a  stuud,  the  engine-man  shuts 
off  the  steam  and  applies  the  brakes ;  but  the  practical  statesman, 
and  indeed  many  economic  students,  never  dream  of  this  simple 
method  in  dealing  with  social  problems;  they  almost  always  insist 
on  bringing  out  another  locomotive  of  equal  weight  and  power  to 
run  c-  •  the  one  in  motion  and  thei-eby  neutralize  its  energy^ 

and  till  -  generated  in  tlie  two  locomotives  are  thus  lost  in 

preserving  au  efjuilibrium  which  could  have  been  more  readily 
secured  by  closing  the  throttle-valve  of  the  one  which  it  was  dcr- 
signed  to  stop.  Tlio  railroad  manager  making  such  use  of  his 
moti%*e  i>ower  would  be  deemed  insane,  yet  in  our  industrial  con- 
cerns a  similar  application  of  social  energy  is  declared  to  be  the 
only  practicjil  method,  and  those  who  decry  its  folly  are  con- 
temj)tuou8ly  termeil  impracticals. 

The  space  devoted  by  the  leading  periodicals  to  the  discussion 

investigation  of  the  causes  which  underlie  the  disordered  and 

mcongruouH  devflopmont  of  onr  railways,  as  well  as  the  numerous 

modies  proposed,  fully  attest  their  state  of  utter  instability, 
ch,  if  not  corrected,  may  ultimately  lead  to  practical  confisca- 

jn  by  means  of  legislation,  or  their  purchase  and  control  by  Gov- 
ernment. In  whatever  light  we  view  the  social  and  industrial  rela- 
tionB  of  the  railroads,  we  are  confronted  by  that  state  of  chaotic 
c    *  which  must  ever  result  from  a  persistent  transgression 

01  I  law. 

Yet,  while  railroad  managers  are  pleading  to  be  preserved  by 
legLnlation  from  their  reciprocal  aggressions,  while  the  railroads 
and  the  public  are  asking  for  laws  to  protect  them  from  their 
mutual  hcMitilities,  while  railroad  companies  and  employ(?s  have 
Tainly  sought  an  equitable  adjustment  of  their  differences,  and 
h  looking  in  legislation  to  define  their  rights  and  limit 


368 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEXCS  MOTTTirLr. 


» 


em 
■    pu 


their  obligations^  \i  is  worthy  of  all  attention  (but  in  tho  phy^ncal 
and  mechanical  phases  of  its  dovelopment  the  railr^    '  '  •?! 

of  orderly  desi^fu,  a  monument  of  human  energy,     ^  ii, 

and  skilly  to  the  perfection  of  which  every  branch  of  Bclenlifio 
research  has  contributed  and  revealed  to  man  the  proper  adapta- 
tion of  moans  to  ends. 

In  a  recent  article*  it  was  pointed  out  that  to  increase  the 
specific  gravity  of  water  would  at  once  disturb  its  reV*'^  -^^  to 
every  other  form  of  matter,  and  that  the  equilibrium  so  i  d 

could  only  be  restoi^ed  by  a  retuiui  to  natural  adja9im«iit>t.  Do 
not  the  disurderod  industrial  relations  of  our  railroads  prewut  a 
striking  parallel  ? — for^  with  regard  to  their  social  and  oconomic 
relations,  viz.,  to  the  investors  who  own  them,  to  tlie  omploy^Sa 
who  operate  them,  and  to  the  public  who  employ  them,  thoir 
adjustments  are  non-adapted,  and  have  thus  far  pix)VC(1  uon* 
adaptable ;  for  innumerable  laws,  intended  to  be  remedial,  have 
only  served  to  increase  the  disorder  and  perplexity.  Is  it  not 
time  tliat  we  ceased  our  vain  attempts  to  neutralize  by  Imlancing 
unmeasured,  unwaighed,  and  complicated  forces,  and  turn  our 
attention  to  the  discovery  of  the  original  sources  of  disturlxince, 
so  that  by  sliutting  o6f  the  steam  and  applying  the  brakes  the 
equilibrium  of  adjustments  will  be  reinstated  ? 

In  the  examination  of  the  many  evils  which  it  is  soaght  to 
remedy,  I  will  refer  to  articles  in  recent  publications,  contribuloil 
by  gentlemen  whose  experience  and  intimate  knowledge  of  detaiU 
connected  with  railroad  management  enable  them  to  spoak  with 
authority,  and  I  can  not  but  conclude  that  an  analysis  will  show 
all  the  disturbances  enumerated  to  have  their  origin  in  two  groups 
of  stimnlatiDg  laws,  and  in  their  repeal  will  be  found  the  only  tnio 
and  permanent  remedy. 

"The  Political  Control  of  Railways"!  is  ^  general  arguioent 
against  legislation  which  preecribea  and  enforces  regulationa  for 
the  administration  of  raili'oad  proprerties.  The  author  calls  for 
tlio  repeal  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Bill,  and  of  advcr^ie  laws 
enacted  by  the  States;  but  such  enactments  had  their  origin  in  an 
effort  to  restore  the  equilibrium  between  the  rnilroada  and  the 
public,  and  they  stand  as  the  reactions  of,  and  not  as  the  active 
uses  of,  the  original  disorder.    It  is  true  the  ropCAJ  of  these  lawa 

ght  restore  lnirm(.iiiy  between  the  railroads,  but  only  >»v  ^^  fur. 
thor  unbalancing  of  the  relations  between  the  railroad  <  4 

and  tlio  public.    The  arguraeni  C 

built  roads  without  regard  to-,   % 

investors  should  be  permitted  to  unite  in  pools,  et4X»  to  secure  the 

*  "U«  M  a  DUturbcr  of  SocUl  Order/*  **  Popular  Sdcaoe  Vooth^,**  Manl^  lent 

p.  63-2. 

\  ^pylstoa  UorgKii,  ^  Popat&r  S(»«d«o  UoiiiUl^,"  Fibniiiry^  1889. 


I 


ILilLWAr  MALADJUSTMENTS, 


369 


tniiintoaAnce  of  profitable  rates^  and  the  author  insist.s  that  legis- 
lation aiming  to  prevent  such  unions  or  agreements  or  regulating 
rates  is  in  the  nature  of  couiiscation.  This  seems  plausible,  for  it 
is  only  u  hali'-s  tat  emeu  t  of  the  case ;  as  the  Western  granger,  who 
lias  granted  a  free  right  of  way  and  voted  aid  for  the  construc- 
tion of  competing  lines  of  railways,  views  such  alliances  as 
treachery  and  dishonesty,  to  be  prevented  and  punished  by  legal 
penal  tt*>3. 

The  author  of  "  Legislative  Injustice  to  Railways  "  ♦  condemns 
attempts  at  State  regulation,  which  from  the  very  nature  of  thin^ 
must  more  or  loss  directly  interfere  with  interstate  commerce; 
but,  upon  the  whole,  he  is  disposcjd  to  look  upon  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Bill  as  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  would  only 
recommend  certain  modifications  of  the  anti-pooling  and  the  long 
and  short  haul  clauses.  But  in  tlio  main  this  writer  asks  for  legis- 
lation aimed  directly  at  the  inherent  dishonesty  of  railroad  man- 
agement; viz.,  he  wants  laws  compelling  directors  to  publish 
truthful  reports,  and  asks  the  appointment  of  public  accountants 
ixamine  and  attest  all  reports  for  publication.  He  asks  a  law 
ing  it  incumbent  ujwu  railroads  to  elect  at  least  one  thor- 
oughly trained  and  honest  director,  specially  educated  for  the 
purpose.  He  also  insists  on  legislation  "to  regulate  the  nietliods 
of  construction  companies,"  which,  ho  says,  "arc  probably  doing 
more  to  demoralize  the  railroad  system  than  any  other  factor,*' 
he  broadly  intimates  that  these  companies  are  nothing  but 
lized  schemes  for  the  enricluaent  of  thrifty  directors  at  the 
expense  of  the  stonkholders. 

*' Bribery  in  Railway  Elections"  f  is  an  argument  to  show  that 
the  many  evils  complained  of  are  the  result  of  systematic  briV)ery 
employed  in  the  election  of  the  directors  who  control  the  man- 
agement of  railway  properties.  The  writer  asserts  that  the  prac- 
tice is  neither  business-like  nor  moral, "and  recjuires  some  weapon 
more  potent  than  arwrument,"  honco  he  demands  enactments  pre- 
scribing heavy  penalties.  But  surely  bribery  within  the  railway 
company  can  not  be  the  cause  of  demoralization,  for  it  is  but  a 
■  m  of  a  <lisoased  organism,  and  proves  the  evil  to  rest  in  the 
ition  of  the  railway  corporation  itself,  which  is  the  creat- 
nr©  of  statute  law.  What  could  better  indicate  the  operation  of 
fureign  and  abnormal  forces  than  this  acknowledgment  that  our 
railroads  an?  controlled  by  forces  neither  "business-like  nor 
moral  *'  ?  Is  it  not  evident  that  such  an  organism  is  of  artificial 
origiui  and  is  nniitted  to  survive  unless  its  business  and  moral 
.qnolitiea  are  developed  on  a  plane  with  the  importance  and  far- 
thing influences  of  the  proj>erties  coutr«>lled  ? 

•  Wfmrj  CWwrt,  "Norib  Amcrfoan  ReTlcw,"  Marcb,  lft89. 
\  Imoc  U  Uioo.  "Tbo  Forum,"  March.  ISSfl. 


37^ 


THS  POPULAR  SCISyCE  MOKTITLT. 


In  "  The  Prevention  of  Railroad  Strikes/'  •  as  the  title  iodlcates, 

the  author  confines  himsolf  to  the  want  of  harnntn  "^e. 

tween  raili-oad  companies  and  their  employ^^s,  and  ^   _  _  .iUl 

for  improving  their  relations  by  bringing  the  officials  of  tho  rottds 
into  closer  |M*rKonnl  contact  with  the  men. 

An  examination  of  the  evils,  as  above  given  from  varioas 
sources,  proves  them  to  be  symptomn  of  a  chronic  disease,  at  once 
suggesting  a  complication  of  disorders  arising  from  two  ft^rms  of 
original  stimulation,  which,  although  more  or  less  reciprocal  in 
their  operations,  are  susceptible  of  a  tolerably  distinct  line  of  di^'ifi- 
ion:  viz.,  (I)  legislative  stiniulation  of  railway  ctmstrurtion ;  (2) 
legislation  tending  to  push  capital  into  unnatural  combinationa, 
Tliese  two  groups  of  laws  give  rise  io  evils  independent  of  each 
other,  although  when  coexisting  they  interact,  and  not  unfrc*- 
quently  the  one  furnishes  the  means  while  the  other  affords  tho 
Loccasion  for  dishonesty,  as  the  construction  compnn"  '  ■  *  re 
ralluded  to  make  plain ;  e.  g.,  while  our  loose  laws,  cm-  ho 

construction  of  new  railroads,  have  afforded  the  opportunity  or 
occasion  for  directors  to  insidiously  absorb  the  profits  of  stock- 
holders by  the  extension  of  systems,  the  laws  which  have  united 
"  unbusiness-like  and  immoral  forces  "  for  the  control  of  railway 
properties  have  placed  in  the  hands  of  designing  men  the  tools 
and  means  of  doing  bo  dishonestly. 

In  this  present  article  let  us  confine  the  inquiry  to  the  evihs 
arising  from  laws  intended  to  induce  the  speedy  construction  of 
railroads,  and  we  will  leave  to  a  future  number  the  examination 
of  those  evils  which  have  developed  within  tho  railway  corpora- 
tion itself,  of  which  railroad  wrecking,  false  reports,  briben'  in 
railway  election,  and  railroad  strikes  are  familiar  phases. 

The  splendid  (tpportunities  which  the  railroad  afforil 
development  of  a  country's  resources  were  verj'  fjuirkly  i  i 

by  society  at  large,  and,  being  impatient  of  the  reasonable  caution 
exercised  by  capital  before  embarking  into  vast  and  c*-'' "  ' -r* 
prises,  the  people  through  their  Legislatures  ennctod  I.  j  o- 

cially  calculated  to  promote  and  hasten  the  constnlrtion  of  rail- 
roads, never  imagining  that  any  evils  could  arise  therefrom.  The 
Western  and  central  States  particxilarly  ennrt^xl  laws  pmviding 
for  State  subsidies  and  local  aid,  while  tl  .t 

joined  the  States  in  the  surrender  of  the  pu.  ... .  a, 

Nearly  all  the  States  passed  general  railroad  laws  «u'  !y 

h'         .        :..  ...V-   ■    -    -■   -   --    ^--        ^-  -  ■         ■      ■  -       '«• 

tributed  to  dastroy  the  equilibrium  between  the  normal  wanU  of 

'     iilwny 
:nand, 

*  Cbarlctf  FiruoU  Adasn,  *'  ScribncHft  UonUil;.'*  JiprO,  18S9. 


RAILWAY  MALADJUSTMENTS. 


37 « 


¥ 


and  much  of  tlie  present  demoralization  is  due  to  the  roah,  impetu- 
ous folly  of  those  who  hoped  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  stimulated 
activity  and  still  escape  the  reacting  evils. 

When  legislative  inducements  were  made  to  investors  for  the 
construction  uf  new  railroads,  capitalists  were  pleased  to  be  re- 
lievwl  of  ordinary  prudence  in  making  their  investments,  and 
upon  the  strength  of  such  legislation  continued  to  build  railroodd 
in  excess  of  commercial  wants,  expertiug  to  so  adjust  the  traffic 
rates  as  to  insure  to  them  gooil  profits ;  hut  this  was  never  the  pur- 
pose of  the  sliippers  or  of  the  legislators  who  represented  them, 
for,  by  the  construction  of  numerous  lines,  they  expected  to  arouse 
a  spirit  of  compotition  among  tho  railroails  which  would  lead  to 
cut  rates  and  re<laood  cost  of  service.  Thus  the  original  laws 
which  stimulated  the  organization  and  construction  of  railroads 
polarized  tho  interests  of  the  investors  and  the  shippers,  and  made 
mutually  repellent  forces  which  should  have  mutually  attracted. 
Each  was  deluded  by  false  hopes,  for  neither  considered  the  rights 
or  interests  of  the  other,  and  all  subsequent  legislation  which  has 
aime<l  to  preserve  the  benefits  of  unwise  and  premature  railroad 
construction  to  the  public  has  shifted  all  the  evils  and  consequent 
losses  Uix»n  the  railnxid  companies,  while  the  efforts  of  railway 
com[.mni('S  to  avoid  all  competition,  l>y  a  division  of  revenues 
would  throw  the  entire  burden  of  supporting  useless  roads  upon 
the  public;  and  it  is  tliis  unbalanced  condition  of  affairs  which  hius 
led  to  :i  1     '  tbo  part  of  railroads,  adverse  verdicts  by 

juries, ;      i  hition  by  tho  Stutes,  all  of  which  are  in  the 

nature  of  reactions  due  to  the  disturbance  caused  by  the  original 
laws. 

For  example,  between  the  cities  of  Toledo  and  Detroit  there  are 
two  lines  of  railway  passing  through  the  same  towns,  and  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  dist^inco  running  side  by  side,  their  rights  of 
way  abutting.  These  two  roads,  being  branches  of  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Canada  Southern  respectively,  were  originally  independent 
and  competing  lines,  but,  as  one  could  have  carried  the  busine^js 
brought  to  the  two,  it  is  evident  that  the  conflict  was  only  a  ques- 
tion of  the  surA'ival  of  the  fittest.  In  this  as  in  most  other  cases 
tho  new  road  ultimately  fell  into  the  hands  of  those  who  owncnl 
the  original  line,  and,  though  under  different  managers,  are  oper- 
at'-'         •  'ntrolling  policy;  rates  were  etjualized,  train 

8cri>  ;/;ed,  and  th«  business  which  with  the  small  ad- 

ditional cost  of  a  second  track  could  be  more  cheaply  |>erformed 
by  one  line  musit  now  earn  the  fixed  charges  and  pay  diWdends  on 
the  i^ lock  certificates  of  two,  all  of  which  extra  expense  must  be 
paid  by  tlie  people.  So  long  vkA  the  roads  were  in  competition,  tJiey 
Wf""  -  '  'Tree  of  loss  to  the  owners;  when  they  harmonized  their 
dli  .  they  became  a  burden  to  the  public ;  and  the  chiss  of 


J7a 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT. 


legislation  which  encouraged  the  constmcticin  of  the  second  line,  ^H 
under  the  false  pretext  to  the  public  that  it  would  serve  as  a  com*  ^H 
pcting  route,  has  really  imposed  upon  the  people  the  exponso  of  ^| 
supporting  two  ruilroads  when  their  interosta  could  be  aa  well  or  ^H 
l)etter  Kyr\'ed  by  thesnjjport  of  one.  The  West  Shore,  Ki  '  ite,  ^| 
and  other  lines  were  practically  built  for  the  purpose  oi .  iho  ^| 

old  roods  which  they  paralleled  aud  threatened  with  ruiuoaft  ooxn*  ^| 
potition,  and,  as  in  tho  first  instance  named,  tlu  t  : .    '    '  \  -ng  ^| 

those  lines  are  now  conapelled  to  pay  for  the  n  vro  ^| 

railroads^  while  for  all  practical  purposes  they  derive  bonelits  from  ^H 
only  one.    Is  it  not  evident  that  the  construction  of  railroads  in  ^^ 
exce-ss  of  commercial  needs  must  entail  a  loss  upon  the  investorB 
or  an  additional  cost  to  shippers ;  and  so  long  as  tliis  unbalanced 
state  exists  the  railroad  companies  can  only  be  saved  from  losses 
by  pooling  with,  purchasing,  or  gaining  control  of  competing  liDce^  ^, 
and  thereby  throw  the  cost  upon  the  people  ?    Or  if  tho  latU^r,  Mfk 
through  legislation,  the  verdicts  of  their  juries,  and  interpret*-  ^^ 
tions  of  their  courts,  can  thwart  such  combinations,  purcha«e,  or 
control,  then  the  full  force  of  vicious  legislation  will  b<  Mo 

the  railroads,  and  as  investments  those  i»roj)erties  will  '-■       .    :\L 

Tho  rights  and  obligations  of  railway  companies  and  the  pnbUc 
meet  and  harmonize  at  the  poiat  where,  tho  facilities  ju  '  '  '  Ije- 
ini(  ample  for  the  business,  tho  amount  of  traffic  is  ^i;  to 

make  a  low  cost  of  service  remunerative  to  the  investors ;  but  this 
desideratum  can  not  be  attained  by  legislating  to  preserve  rail- 
roatl  properties  by  restricting  competition  and  legalizing  pools, 
nor  by  anti- pooling  clauses  to  foster  competition;  it  will  only 
come  through  tho  repeal  of  tho  disturbing  laws  which  by  stimn* 
luting  the  construction  of  railroads  polarized  interests  which  nat- 
ural wljustments  made  identical ;  but  nonual  iuljustments  aro 
impossible  so  long  as  laws  exist  which  oHer  advnntagt*9  to  Iho 
investor  other  than  the  natural  and  legitimate  X)rofits  of  the  in- 
vostment. 

Let  general  railroad  laws  be  repealed,  and,  before  tho  legiBlatiTv 
authority  to  exercise  the  right  of  eminent  domain  ib  cxtoudod  to 
a  railway  company,  lot  tho  public  necessity  for  the  constntcdon 
of  a  railroad  be  fairly  shown  and  affirmatively  proved  as  required 
by  the  common  law. 

Is  the  prosont  demoralization  to  be  wmidered  at  when,  in  most 
of  the  States,  (!h;irttM-3  gruate<l  under  general  luwa  are  deemed  an 
primn  facie  evidence  of  the  public  necessity,  nltbongh  railroads 
so  chartered  may  bo  projected  side  by  side  with  thf*so  hating 
facilities  not  half  employed  ? 

Not  uncommonly  it  ia  clahn(v!  that  thi?  r.  -lo 

tho  country  what  it  ia,  but  is  it  not  equally  tni  -  -  ry 

ItAS  made  its  railroads  what  they  btq  1    The  two  f  lo*  I 


RAILWAY  MALADJUST.VEI^TS, 


m 


plemeni  each  other,  aad  afford  further  proof  that  a  stable  adjust- 
ment is  only  possible  when  the  development  of  a  country's  com- 
merce and  its  means  of  transport  and  communication  advance 
together. 

The  Stato  of  Iowa  early  passed  sundry  laws  very  favorable  to 
the  construction  of  railroads,  and,  as  a  consequence,  induced  the 
premature  development  of  several  systems.  For  convenience  of 
Ulastration,  let  us  watch  the  early  settlers  of  Iowa  distribute  them- 
solres  along  three  lines  of  railroad  when  they  could  have  been 
better  accommodated  at  less  cost  for  highways,  schools,  churcheaj 
policing,  and  the  administration  of  township  and  coimty  affairs 
along  the  line  of  one;  but  in  addition  to  these  incidental  burdens 
they  found  themselves  compelled  to  pay  high  rates  for  railway 
S€trvice  in  order  to  pay  the  fixed  charges  and  dividends  on  the 
stock  of  throe  railroads  doing  the  business  of  one.  If  the  legis- 
lators hful  been  endowed  with  the  common  sense  of  the  locomotive- 
driver,  they  would  have  closed  the  throttle-valve  and  put  on  the 
brakes ;  but,  instejul  of  doing  this,  they  allowed  the  disturbing  laws 
to  remain  in  force,  and  prescribed  legal  rates  to  bo  charged  for 
railway  services,  hoping  thereby  to  retain  the  benefits  and  still 
po  the  evils  of  premature  railroad  extension,  and  from  that 
y  to  this  Iowa  has  vainly  sought  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
problem. 

The  evils  to  be  corrwted  were  those  due  to  the  premature  ori 
unnecessary  construction  of  railroads:  this  could  only  be  accom- 
plished by  deterring  such  construction;  and  in  so  far  as  the  laws 
suciTPeded  in  so  doing,  the  people  wore  relieved  of  the  evils  but 
lost  the  advantages  arising  from  the  operatic»ns  of  the  original 
law,  and,  in  so  far  as  the  reme<lial  laws  failed  to  deter  further  con- 
struction, the  evils  iw  well  as  the  supiwsed  benefits  of  the  original 
law  remained  in  force. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  two  classes  of  laws — the  one  stimu- 
lating direct,  the  other  rei)ressing  railroad  extensions  by  impair- 
ing their  value  as  invc-stnients — did  not  operate  to  restore  a  stable 
equilibrium ;  for  the  adverse  legislation  was  not  aimed  directly 
against  premature  and  unnecessary  construction,  but  it  simply 
made  the  conditions  of  operating  railroads  more  onerous. 

Hence  the  influence  of  the  two  laws  may  be  likened  to  a  see- 
saw, and  in  their  operations  they  have  caused  abrupt  changes  and 
rioleat  oscillations.    The  first  effect  of  adverse  legislation  tended 
rther  building;  but  when  populativo  increane  caused  the 
iff  rates  to  become  remunerative  to  the  railroads,  the 
deterring  laws  became  inoperative,  the  stimulating  enactmental 
'a  developiiif»nt  far  in  advance  of  the  natural 
-sure  of  adverse  laws  was  again  experienced; 
and  ao  these  spasmodic  flactuations  have  taken  the  place  of  the 


374 


TBH  POPTTLAR  SCIENCE  Mi 


steady,  rhythmic  development  "which  results  from  the  operation 
of  natural  laws  and  is  ever  indii^tive  of  genuine  progresB  and 
stability. 

The  pernicious  influence  of  such  conflicting  legislation  has  led 
capital  to  alternate  its  moods  between  the  extremes  of  inexciuuible 
recklessness  and  unwarranted  timidity ;  wbercas  tbo  rei^al  <if  1aw» 
encouraging  construction  would  withdraw  the  incentive  of  the 
reckless,  while  a  similar  repeal  of  laws  discoui^aging  constmciion 
would  quiet  the  fears  of  the  timid,  and  a  healthy  growth  and  a 
stable  development  would  result. 

Laws  which  have  led  to  the  construction  of  parallel  lines  of 
railway  have  diverted  capital  from  the  improvement  of  the  conn- 
try's  highways;  and  even  in  Illinois  and  a'ljoiuin-  '  -luring 
certain  sea.sons  of  the  year^  a  ton  of  freight  can  bo  -  .  .  « thou- 
sand milea  to  the  seaboard  at  less  cost  than  it  can  be  hauled  a  dU* 
tanco  of  ten  miles  to  market ;  yet,  in  spite  of  this  groti-.'  idl- 
tion,  laws  encouruging  further  railroad  extensions  still  <1  loir 
8tatute-lxK>kH. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Bill  aims  to  correct  the  e\'il,  but  it 
will  fail,  for  it  does  not  touch  the  cause.  It  attempts  to  euro  evils 
which  have  come  from  unnecessary  and  premature  construction 
by  regulating  the  operation  of  railroads.  Its  direct  and  inuuedi- 
ate  effects  appear  to  be  good,  for  men  do  not  concern  themselves 
with  the  necessary  reactions  which  are  the  true  adjustments  by 
which  any  laws  or  systems  of  laws  must  be  judged. 

Here  is  our  railroad  system  in  a  state  of  utter  demoralization 
and  confusion,  and  yet  the  "  Railway  Ago"  of  April  12th  pres^its 
a  table  in  detail  showing  that  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  new  linea 
are  in  contemplation,  with  an  aggregated  mileage  of  over  fift]r> 
thn-e  thousiind  miles,  of  which  nearly  fift-        ■■  1  milofl  ftra 

lunlt-r  coiiHtniction  or  contract,  nearly  ten  ;  i  les  iire  8Ur^ 

veyed,  and  twenty-nine  thousand  mil(«s  incorix»rated  only.  Does 
this  not  suggest  the  probable  direction  which  the  n.'actioo  to  tho 
Interstate  Commerce  Bill  will  take,  unless  stimulating  laws  artt 
repealed,  viz.,  a  separation  of  the  men  who  bnild  the  railroads  on 
speculation  under  the  one  class  of  laws  and  tlio  bona  fide  invcittur* 
who  will  be  compelled  to  purchase  and  operate  them  nuder  the 
other  claRs  of  laws  ?  Can  any  <>ne  imagine  the  bewildering  com* 
plications  which  the  new  adjustment  thro^vtens  ? 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Bill  gives  fair  warninic  to  inreafcori 
.that,  if  they  "  ^  which  •  '        •»• 

'btruction  of  v.  .        ^  .  r  tlie  c<m      ,  ■  ir 

rashness,  for  they  will  bo  permitted  neither  to  combine  i  tn 

but,  unfortunately^  oar  laws  are  so  deviled  as  to  giro  aid  and  «&- 


4 


nAILWAT  ifAZADJUSTMEyrS, 


37S 


fmeni  to  persons  wlio  construct  railroads  without  regard 
to  jjiiljlic  wants  for  speculation  merely,  and  then  so  manipulato 
tLozu  OS  to  compel  old  companies  to  puivlmse  juid  operate  the  new 
lines  in  order  to  save  losses  on  the  old,  which  can  not  bo  done 
without  additional  cost  to  the  people. 

If  we  would  restore  harmonious  relations  between  the  rail- 
roails,  we  must  repeal  the  laws  which  are  more  favorable  to  those 
who  build  than  to  those  who  operate  them ;  and  by  such  repeal 
the  construction  of  railroads  for  purposes  of  blackmail  and  specu- 
lation will  bo  made  impossible,  and  the  occupation  of  dishonest 
construction  companies  will  Ix*  gone. 

Is  it  not  evident  that  to  prevent  ruinous  competition  and  ad- 
vorno  legislation  of  which  the  railroads  complain,  and  to  avoid  the 
dtiicrimiuatiou,  pools^and  combines  of  which  the  public  conii>laiu, 
wo  must  close  the  throttle-valve  and  apply  the  brakes,  and,  by 
repeiiliag,  arrest  the  operation  of  those  laws  which  have  led  to 
unduo  and  premature  railway  construction;  and,as  {Kipulatiouiu- 
creases,  existing  railway  systems  will  be  more  fully  employed,  and 
nf'v.-  -  '  Tiis  will  be  extended  only  on  their  merits  ?  Under  such 
coi.  listurbances  will  become  less  and  less  marked,  pulsa- 

tions loss  and  less  severe,  and  a  stable  equilibrium  will  be  speedily 
ired. 


An  analysis  of  the  testimony  presented  to  the  United  States 
Senate  Committee  on  Interstate  Commerce,  which  entered  upon 
its  investigation  after  the  above  article  was  in  type,  fully  con- 
firms the  position  assumed.  Mr,  Fink  stnted  to  the  committee 
that  there  were  too  many  roads,  and  that,  if  the  Grand  Trunk  and 
a  half-dozen  other  lines  did  not  exist,  the  i)ublic  would  be  as  well 
scr%*©*l  as  now.  It  was  generally  acknowledged  that  the  law  was 
not  fully  observe<l,  and  Mr.  Depew  did  not  hesitate  to  state  that 
it  never  would  be  unless  pools  were  legalized. 

With  few  exceptions  the  railroiwl  managers  asked  for  the  abro- 
gation or  moditication  of  the  anti-pooling  and  long  and  short  haul 
claoBBS,  which  led  Mr.  Herrick,  of  the  New  York  Produce  Ex- 
change, to  remark,  tluit  "  it  seemed  as  if  the  railroads  wanto*!  to 
abrogate  jnst  what  the  public  demanded  should  bo  enforced.*' 
Depew  admitted  that  the  law  has  prevented  the  building  of 

^Iftss  roads,  and  that  the  condition  of  the  railroads  had  im- 
provwl,  but  not  so  much  as  would  have  been  the  case  had  they 
iUeil  to  pool.     He  said,  "The  law  has  proved  beneficent 

I..  ,  ,.  iic  at  tlie  expetlse  of  the  railroads  " ;  but  ^vith  legalized 
pooLi  the  converse  might  be  stated,  for  they  would  improve  the 
pf  '  '   '         "       ^N  at  the  expense  of  the  public. 

.1,  ex-railrojul  commissioner  and  attorney 
for  the  Produce  Exchange,  insisted  that  the  Interstate  Commerce 


37^ 


THE  POPULAJt  SCIENOS  MOXTFTLT. 


Act  extGndcd  to  the  roads  all  the  advantages  whicli  could  le] 

ilegitimatply  dorivod  from  a  pool;  and  ho  very  ;*       ' 
[that J  when  recklessness  had  r€*ached  its  length,  tli- 
dents  and  bankers  onlered  their  employ<?3  to  obey  the  law  and 
slap  huildimj  useless  railroads, 

Mr.  John  Newell,  President  of  the  Lake  Shoro^  declftrod  that 
"for  fifteen  years  they  had  fruitlessly  sought  a  solution  of  tht 
difficulty";  the  cause  of  failure  is  not  obs(!ure,  for  railway  pooU, 
like  legislation,  sought  to  annul  the  unfavorable  conditions  In- 
duced by  over-construction  ;  but  moderating  the  evil  im- 
ply resulted  iu  the  unchecked  persistency  of  the  cause ;  -.  liuflT 

roads  were  built,  expecting  to  enjoy  tha  artificial  profits  derived 
through  combination,  and,  if  denied  a  connection  with  the  pool, 
the  new  roads  entered  the  lists  as  freebooters  and  disturbers  ui 
their  claims  were  allowed. 

Since  the  Interstate  Commerce  Law  i-         '       '  ";."  rrstM'Oi 
nor  enforced,  what  its  effect  will  be  isiu  .  ,   but  «-<  it 

aims  to  lessen  the  evils  due  to  excessive  railnjad-building,  it  will 
tend  to  increase  the  energy  of  the  original  disturbing  cause,  iiad 
will  probably  resxilt  in  specializing  the  8i)eculative  constructor  M 
distinct  from  the  oj)erator  of  railroad  proi>erties;  and  as  the  im- 
pinging forces  are  intermittent  in  operation,  it  is  at  once  suggest' 
ivo  of  the  attempt  to  balance  an  ^gg  upon  its  end.  Railrood 
managers  would  scale  up  rates  by  combination,  the  people  would 
scale  them  down  by  competition;  in  either  cose  the  gain  ..f  On 
one  is  predicated  upon  the  loss  of  the  other. 

lu  the  normal  a<ljustment  of  means  to  ends,  of  b\i]>  ' 
ural  demand,  no  such  conflict  appears,  for  the  publv 
better  served  at  lower  cost.,  while  the  railroads  could  s^uro  fair] 
profits  from  a  larger  traffic  at  lower  rates. 

The  strength  of  this  position  does  not  rest  upon  the  fact  that] 
"  existing  railroads  have  all  they  want,"  but  on  what  Scnut<»r  Blair 
f;iiled  to  comprehend,  that  the  public  are  already  providwl  with 
more  raili'oads  than  the  traffic  at  reasonable  rates  can  etistain ; 
hence  no  possible  legislation  can  bo  invoked  which  can  pri'Vool 
either  a  loss  to  the  railroads  or  added  burdens  upon  the  peophn 


Tnc  existenrc  of  evidences  of  the  Glacifll  pen'od  In  tlie  AUn^  MotioUias  ww 
doobtwl  by  B.  Vnn  CotU,  wliu  failcJ  ty  fin<I  ihcm.     But  M'  'imJii,  tn 

1870,  oWrvwl  'Min«lonbteil  trncc«  of  ft  tnightjr  *pre«(lin^  of .  i  i  firs'*  In 

the  Koatborn  port  of  tlio  ninf^,  wbere  tber«  aru  now  fonio  Inrf;  sn^ 

Rr   -  -    -red  ridffca.    Ainoa(f  tLctn  ar«  deposit*  of  bow  Morn,  of  rt*, 

(  niinpU'd.  thv  f  luuUer  uuc«  Well  roiindud  and  tho  UrRtr  .  ati- 


i 


rcboDsittlv* 


MUSCLS  AND  MIND. 


377 


MUSCLE  AND  MIND. 

Br  FBANCE3  EMILY  WHITE,  M.  D. 

THE  fundamental  characteristic  of  the  animal  worlds  as  dis- 
tin^^shed  from  the  vegettible  world,  lifs  in  its  diiTerBut 
rekitious  to  the  energies  of  matter.  Every  animal  is  a  mechanism 
for  the  liberation  of  energy  previously  stored  up,  in  great  part,  in 
the  tissues  of  plants  which  serve  as  food  for  these  higher  forms  of 
life;  and  the  quantity  and  kinds  of  energy  liberated  in  any  ani- 
mal are  determined  mainly  by  the  degree  of  development  of  the 
muscular  and  nervous  systems,  the  other  tissues  and  organs  of  the 
being  subservient  to  these  two,  which,  liave  been  well  styled 
»r  tissues. 
"^nl:  the  animal  differs  from  the  plant,  not  only  in  the  power 
librraliiig  ontjr^y,  and  thus  acting  on  the  outside  world  ;  it  is 
differently  affected  by  the  outside  world,  the  energies  of 
lich  play  upon  its  living  tissues  as  the  wind  upon  the  strings 
an  ^oliau  harp  ;  and  the  sensitive  organism  thrills  under  these 
iuences  with  responsive  sensations  of  greater  or  less  diversity 
intensity  according  to  the  variety  and  grade  of  development 
its  sensitive  organs. 

The  muscular  and  the  nervous  tissues,  upon  which  depend  the 
^Unctively  animal  functions  of  sensation  and  spontaneous  move- 
it,  develop  together,  an<l  their  relations,  both  anatomical  and 
physiological,  are  of  the  most  intimate  character. 

Rudimentary  nerve  -  threads  are  found  in  the  Hydra;  first 
recognized  by  Kliuenberg,  they  were  regarded  by  him  as  partly 
ner  '      'tly  muscular;  and  the  most  primitive  fibers  posi- 

tive ^  I  as  true  nerves  serve  as  pathways  of  commuuica- 

lon  from  the  sensitive  surface  to  the  rudimentary  nerve-centers, 
from  these  con  tors  to  the  equally  rudimentary  muscles  of  the 
iple  animals  to  which  they  belong.  In  short,  the  primitive 
nervooa  system  is  merely  an  immature  apparatus  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sensations  and  the  excitation  of  movements  of  the  kind 
calle^l  "  reflex,"  cilice  they  are  excited  by  a  stimulus  transmitted 
fn>m  the  surface  of  the  body  to  the  nerve-centers  and  thence 
reflocled,  as  it  were,  to  the  muscles;*  and  a  large  proportion  of 
^tho  nerve-bundles  which,  with  the  centers,  make  up  the  nervous 
fOf  man,  consiats  of  fibers  of  communication  between  the 
of  the  trunk  and  limbs  and  their  stimulating  centers  in 

•  Th«  l«rm  "  reflex  **  la  a  mlrooiaer,  u  lie  BcUon  of  the  nprvc-cenier  is  noi  the  mere 
rc4«edda  of  an  tmpuUe  rccclTcd  from  the  pt:riphw7.  Tbf  won]  i?  owd  to  tD(ltcat«  ihm 
iSio  tsdtlu^  caoM  of  KCtjriir  of  the  center  arues  outride  ]u«l£,  and  not,  u  in  MM»llod 

itouuUc  "  aottoti,  wiUtin  Itself. 
rot.  XiiT.— 24 


37« 


TffB  POPULAR  SCIEKCS  MOXTIFLT. 


the  brain;  and  since  no  muscle  normally  contnictd  except  under] 
the  stimulus  of  a  nervous  impulse)  trunsmiiletl  through  a  nerv^- 
Hbt^r  from  the  central  ucrvouB  eysUnn,  my  drst  tho^  will  bo  at 
once  admitted^  viz.,  that  eaercise  ofmusdes  necessartly  involre0\ 
ixercise  ofOieir  associated  regions  in  the  central  nervi  ''Ui, 

ami  ihai  voluntary  vwvtments  at  least  require  the  ad'  ter- 

tain  areas  of  tJie  brain. 

It  is  admitted  that  the  evolution  of  mind  in  the  animal  series 
and  that  of  the  bodily  organs  have  kept  pace  with  each  other. 
The  hemispheres  of  the  brain  increase  in  size  and  in  complexity 
in  the  ascending  zoological  scale,  the  animal  becoming  menlttliztil 
in  a  diroct  ratio  to  the  development  of  this  pai-t  of  the  bntin^ 
which  iu  man  forms  by  far  its  largest  subdivitiion.  The  doctrine, 
first  definitely  formulate<l  by  Fritsch  and  Hitzig,  that  the  cortex 
of  the  brain  contains  special  centers  "which  govern  definite  jn^mps 
of  muscles,*  is  most  significant  in  connection  with  tl  '  "  -ct 
Thoy  and  their  followers  divide  the  brain  cort<*x  into  ^  uci- 
pal  regions— one  of  sensory  areas,  which  He  in  the  hinder  part  of 
the  brain,  and  another  of  motor  areas,  which  lie  anteriorly  ;  L  «., 
into  a  region  engaged  in  receiving  from  the  surface  organs  (the 
skin,  the  eye,  etc.)  impressions  which  excite  the  various  sonaa- 
tions,  and  a  region  concerned  in  exciting  and  co-ordinating  the 
movements  of  the  body,  Tlie  motor  centers  thus  far  definitely 
heated  are  those  which  conttol  the  miiscles  of  the  face,  arm,  leg, 
aud  trunk.  They  lie  on  each  side  of  one  of  the  fissures  of  the 
brain,t  in  the  order  named  from  below  upward — an  arrangement 
which  led  Dr.  Lauder-Brunton  to  suggest  that  it  had  occurred 
in  accordance  with  the  progressive  evolution  of  the  factUtietf, 
premising  that  the  uppermost  in  position  were  the  latest  to  be 
[acquired  and  the  highest  functionally,    Thu.^  -  low  iu  the 

ificalo  seize  their  food  with  the  mouth;  the  -  <  r  the  fac*» 

muscles  was  therefore  earliest  in  order  of  development,  as  it  i>| 
Jowest  in  situation.  Animals  of  a  somewhat  higher  k'  '  -iMp 
^tlieir  food  with  the  anterior  limb*— the  next  higher  ct  i  in|f 

those  devoted  to  the  arm-movements.  Animals  still  funber  ad- 
vanced in  development  have  the  power  of  running  after  their 
jtrey,  uiiing  the  posterior  to  assist  the  anterior  limbs  in  accordance 
with  the  higher  level  of  the  centers  concenied.  I^ter  still,  tLe 
trunk  muscles  come  to  the  assistance  of  tlio  arms  and  legs  in 
the  all-important  work  of  securing  food,  the  first  necessity.  Co- 
incident with  these  observations  is  the  f 

center  the  more  it  re^iuirea  education  in  i..-  .. r..     - 

new-bom  infant  has  control  of  the  muscles  of  the  moatb  loj 

*  Knova  •■  the  iloctrinr  of  locftllmacm. 

f  Tho  Aworn  of  RoUodo,  utcrior  Co  t^  fi«ara  vi  S^UWia  «lik4i  ^rpmbM  Om  v^M 


MUSCLE  A^D  Mmn. 


379 


|ihe  extent  of  appropriating  the  food  placed  at  its  lips;  yetp 
for  the  effective  use  of  the  aruis  and  h-'gs,  months  of  training  are 
necessary ;  whilu  definite  movemeata  of  the  trunk,  as  in  danc- 
ing, boving,  etc.,  are  acquired  much  later  in  life.  It  is  also  a 
most  significant  fact  that  the  center  for  the  control  of  the  various 
and  complex  niovementa  concerutid  in  ei>eech  is  limited  to  the 
l*>ft  aide  of  the  brain  in  right-handed  2)ers(>tis — a  few  cases  having 
been  recorded  in  which  disease  of  the  corresponding  locality  on 
th«  riglit  side  of  the  brain  has  been  followed  by  loss  of  speech  in 
'the  Ifft-handed  • — implying  that  the  more  frequent  and  intelligent 
of  the  muscles  of  the  right  hand  and  arm  has  had  some  con- 
ion  with  the  develojjmHut  of  the  faculty  of  speech.  This  is 
corrol»orated  by  the  fact  that,  among  the  lower  animals,  there  ia 
if  any  difference  in  the  use  of  the  anterior  limbs,  as  there  is 
absence  of  the  faculty  of  speech — a  factor  of  the  highest  im- 
:ance  in  mental  development. 

Although  the  doctrine  of  localization  has  distinguished  oppo- 
nents, Prof.  Qoltz  denying  that  either  sensations  or  movements 
ly  fijjeclal  centers  in  thu  brain,  and  the  lute  Oeorgo  Henry 
'opposing  the  idea  to  tlie  extent  of  saying,  '*  It  ia  the  whole 
man  who  feels  and  thinks,"  nevertheless  the  doctrine  is  gaining 
ground-    At  least  two  cases  have  been  recorded  of  otherwise  nor- 
mal individuals  in  whom  a  congenital  absence  of  the  left  band 
and  a  part  of  the  arm  was  accompanied  by  a  rudimentary  condi- 
Ition  of  the  corresponding  convolution  on  the  right  side  of  the 
[brain,  showing  that  the  building  up  of  these  motor  areas  in  the 
[brain  is  largely  dependent  on  muscular  exercise  during  the  period 
of  growth.    That  the  maintenance  of  theii*  nutrition  in  the  adult 
is  also  to  some  extent  dependent  on  muscular  exercise  is.  made 
(probable  by  the  fact  that  wasting  of  the  corresponding  convolu- 
ition  has  been  found  in  a  few  instances  after  amijutation  of  a  limb. 
iBemoval  of  the  brain,  slice  by  slice,  in  the  lower  animals  is  fol- 
>y  a  corresponding  rodnction  both  of  intelligence  and  of 
voluntary  movements  which  disap|K?ar  together  in  about 
Fan  vqual  degree ;  and  every  ol^servor  knows  that  in  many  cases 
'of  brain  disease  intelligence  and  the  power  of  voluntary  move- 
[inont  alike  suffer  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  degradation  of 
^brain  substance.    There  is  also  no  more  conspicuous  feature  of 
[idiocy  tlian  its  accompanying  feeble,  irregular,  and  uncoordinated 
ivementa.  Just  what  relations  exist  between  the  motor  areas  of 
ithe  brain  and  gtjneral  intelligence  is  not  a  matter  for  dogmatic 
»rtion ;  but  that  these  centers  form  a  part  of  the  intellectual 
^hinery  is  undoubted,  and  the  facts  cit«d,  without  reference  to 
fcy  be  n^garded  na  proving  my  second  thesis,  viz.,  that 
He  and  Tfijular  usp  of  the  ii'^mthtrtj  viUSdeS  of  tli^^hody 
*  Eassmaul. 


fio 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIEXCB  MONTITLK 


vitist  liave  an  importafd  infliience  tm  the  development  of  the  brain^- 
and  heme  also  of  the  mind  ttf  whi4:^h  the  hraln  is  fJi' 

Whatever  differences  of  ox>iiiion  may  exist  as  i"  i  nunori 

points  in  the  phyeiology  of  the  bruin,  all  agree  that  it  ia  organ- 
ized on  the  same  general  plan  as  are  the  lower  parts  (jf  *V  i-v- 
ous  system,  and  as  are  the  entire  nervoua  systems  of  1 1  pie 

animals  whose  functions  consist  in  feeble  sensations  wliioh  arouse 
equally  feeble  movements;  and  as  there  are  no  abrupt  transitionn 
either  in  the  animal  series  or  in  individual  development,  so  ia  thtf 
nervous  system  of  man  there  is  no  abrupt  introduction  of  mental 
conditions  of  a  kind  totally  different  from  those  which  prevail  at 
a  lower  plane  of  animal  life,  but  rather  the  foundations  of  all 
mental  processes  are  to  bo  found  in  simjde  reflex  actions.  The 
mental  building  material  is,  therefore,  derived  from  movements 
as  well  as  from  sensations ;  and  a  sensation  and  its  associated 
movement  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  j).v?/c7i tcnZ  unii  of  ih^ 
xt'htde  mental  life,  as  a  sensory  and  motor  nerve  with  their  eon-  i 
necting  center  constitnte  the  structural  unit  of  the  entire  nerrooft  ■ 
system.  \^ 

It  is  argued  by  Prof.  Bain  *  that  it  is  by  the  erperienoe  of 
tmi3cular  exertion  that  wo  obtain  our  first  real  knowledge  of  ilie 
external  world — a  **not-me"  as  opposed  to  the*'me'*  of  passive 
sensation.  Mr,  Herbert  Spencer  also  describes  our  fundamental 
conception  of  matter  as  of  something  which  offers  resi.^t4ince.t 
The  different  degrees  of  resistance  met  with  from  the  "not-xaa" 
calling  out  different  degrees  of  muscular  effort,  there  arises  a 
souse  of  discrimination  which  is  the  beginning  of  knowlclge. 

The  duration  of  a  muscular  act  also  leaves  its  imprc^ssion  aa  a 
distinct  element  of  consciousness;  and  the  continuance  of  the 
mental  state  which  accompanies  this  duration  bocomea  a  roeasnre 
of  time,  the  idea  of  which  is  thus  incoq>orated  in  our  mental 
make-up  from  the  very  dawn  of  conaciousness. 

The  origin  of  the  pe^-  '  "  •  ■■•  ;■  '  \vi 
part  at  least,  to  movemuni  -  .  .  "D, 
which  is  greater  or  leas  in  any  given  case  according  to  the  degree 
of  contraction  involved  in  moving  the  limbs  through  space,  taken 
in  connection  with  tlio  time  occupied.  It  is,  thru,  largely  by 
those  fiindumeutid  modes  of  what  may  bo  tonued  m\i*cular  dis- 
crimination that  we  acquire  our  idea^of  matter,  of  ti ■}  tif 

ice — the  classic  triad  of  "innate  iueaii"  of  the  i»i  -ta» 

liosG  supposed  innate  ideas  being,  however,  k:  *  »>f  a 

'|>sycho-physical  explanation,  wo  are  bound  by  th'  »  nm- 

luony  to  aco^pt  itf 

*  8<«  "The  Scn«cei  nmj  tliv  IntoIUct,*'  I7  Prat  Al«x«n*Ur  BalA,  31.  X. 

f  8W*PirKt  Ptiiidplw." 

I  Tilt)  view  ftdvttcatoU  bj  TruX.  W.  Jocnea  (cm  "  SQoa,'*  1S8TX  ^^^  ^  «MiMlioM  li«f«  1 


MUSCLE  AND  MIND. 


38- 


It  Urns  appears  that  the  brain  has  a  twofold  connection  with 
tbo  muscular  machinery  of  the  body;  that  it  not  only  supplies 
the  stimulus  required  for  the  production  of  voluntary  movements, 
neccssituting  a  corresponding  activity  on  its  own  part^  but  that  it 
in  stimulated  in  tui-n  l.>y  the  active  muscles ;  since  every  contrac- 
tion is  a  sepiirate  occaiiion  for  the  return  of  responsive  impulses 
to  the  brain,  by  meun3  of  which  the  corresponding  centers  there 
are  informe<l  of  the  degree  of  energy  put  forth,  and  the  extent  of 
tlie  resulting  movement.  Voluntary  movements  are  thus  associ- 
ated with  three  distinct  kinds  of  consciousness :  1.  That  which 
ace  '  s  the  outgoing  impulse  from  the  brain — the  so-called 

" ».  of  innorvutiou."  *     2.  That  excited  by  contraction  of 

ma«(clo5  through  impulses  arising  within  the  muscle  itself  and 
thenco  transmitted  to  the  brain — the  true  muscular  sensation  in 
which  the  muscle  acts  the  part  of  a  special  fienso-organ.  3,  That 
produced  by  the  resulting  movement,  also  due  to  impulses  sent  to 
brain — perhaps  from  the  surfaces  of  the  bones  as  they  move 
each  other  at  the  joints,  or  from  the  stretched  and  com- 
tissuas,  especially  the  tendons  in  which  many  "  Pacinian 
)les  "  are  found. 

The  brain  is  thus  infused  with  a  knowledge  of  the  work  done 
by  the  muscles,  and  hence  of  the  external  world  of  matter  npon 
which  the  b(xly  ai'ts  by  means  of  its  muscles.  These  nwscular 
tuUions — so-ca,lled  intuitions — become  permanent  constituents  of 
the  mental  life  ;  and  my  third  thesis  is  to  the  effect  that  the 
muscles  play  a  r6le  in  the  development  of  mind  similar  to  that 
which  belongs  (a  (he  other  si>€ci<U  S€fise*organs — the  eye,  the 
ear,  etc. 

The  dependence  of  intellect  upon  sensation  was  recognize<l  by 
Aristotle  in  his  famous  dictum,  "  Nothing  in  the  intellect  not 
first  in  the  senses  " ;  f  and  whatever  the  differences  of  view  which 
divide  the  schools  of  psj'chology  or  individual  psychologists  as  to 
the  origin  of  our  idea^  of  matter,  time,  and  space,  and  whatever 
the  real  nature  of  the  so-called  "muscle-sense,"  all  agree  that  the 
special  sense-organs  are  the  chief  avenues  of  approach  to  the 

■a  tmileHrcd  vpatiftt  elemcni,  thouf^h  oppcv^>d  to  that  of  the  exclusirdj  mtiscular  oHinn  of 
tbu  apsM  tcJfls^  ilo?*  wH  ci.>ii6ict  with  the  gcncrnl  scope  of  my  argument,  since,  u  will  appear 
UUbt,  the  more  iinportAnv  ^porial  «ciMc-or^n«  involru  &  luuiK'uUr  dement. 

•  N'ot  a  true  acnsaiiun,  nince  it  p^rts  from  the  center.  Those  sensations  arc  described 
hf  prof.  ¥*_Tfir'^  "*  '?  :'*-riilcnl  on  tiic  nivmory  of  originally  reflex  moremcnta.  Sec  "P»y- 
chUtry/MtTT!.  '  rt,  M.  D. 

by  F<  be  fAli^ely  attributed  to  Aristotle;  the  ftillowlnf;  cttaliona,  how- 

Orote'n  account  of  the  psychology  of  Ari±)totle  show  that  thU*  A(iborism  19  in 
'vllh  hid  pbiloMphy ;  **  Without  the  visible  phiLntastn  of  objects  «ecQ  Knd  toudicd, 
the  audible  pbantutu  of  words  hearU  and  rcmenibcrKl,  the  *noui'  [iaiellcet]  iu  human 
Iwia^  would  be  a  DnlUty." — '*  The  fumliimenta  of  intellect  are  sense  and  hea/ing.**     JAtuxj 
otlivr  excerpts  of  aimiUr  purport  utl^t  be  giren. 


38. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTELT) 


k 


brain,  and  that  the  sensations  excited  through  thes 
Htitute  the  raw  material  of  the  mental  life — ton 
aight  being  rocogiiizod  as  par  excellence  intellectual  ..     . :   w, 

it  is  a  most  significant  fact,  from  the  point  of  view  erf  my 
third  tliesiSj  that  the  iictivities  of  these  three  - 
involve  muscular  co-operation  as  au  essential  ■  >  , 
profound  relations  which  exist  between  many  of  the  mental  pWK 
cesees  and  mufe-cular  action  ai-e  at  least  adumbrated  in  cert^ 
ex]»erimeutal  observations  by  Wundt  upon  the  eye.  He  has 
shown,  for  example,  that  vertical  distances  appear  greater  than 
equal  horizontal  distance*  in  the  proi>ortion  of  4'8  to  i,  and  that 
the  same  proportion  exists  between  the  muscular  forces  which 
move  the  eye  vertically  and  those  which  move  it  horizontally ; 
that  the  minimum  of  movement  of  the  eye  capable  of  exciting 
consciousness  of  contraction  and  the  smallest  i»erceptible  dis- 
tance are  in  exact  agreement,  both  answering  to  an  aiigU*  of  one 
sixtieth  of  u  degree ;  that  we  are  able  to  distinguish  a  difference 
in  length  of  two  lines  if  it  amount  to  one  fi  ftietli  of  the  eutlro 
length  of  the  sliorter  on^— the  difference  in  movement  <if  Um) 
eyes  in  this  case  being  also  one  fiftieth  of  their  entire  lin 
movement.* 

These  relations  can  not  be  mere  coincidences.  Ideas  of 
size  and  distance  of  objectt^  are  also  attributable  in  part  to  the 
degree  of  muscular  action  involved ;  for  the  nearer  an  object  to 
th*f  eye,  the  greater  the  muscular  exertion  required  in  converging 
the  axes  of  the  balls  ui>on  the  object,  and  the  greater  the  lax  upon 
the  musf'les  of  accommodation ;  and  it  is  not  the  visual  soufiation 
alone  which  gives  the  idea  of  distance,  although  the  degrw  of 
distinctness,  no  doubt,  has  a  marked  influence,  but  the  muiscuhir 
Geusatious  excited  by  the  movements  of  accommodation  and  con- 
vergence mxist  also  contribute  to  the  result.  A  mere  allusion  to 
the  immense  importance  of  risual  perceptions  in  our  mental  fur- 
nishings will  sufficiently  indicate  tin  "  "  u's  of  these  facts  cm 
the  relations  of  muscular  activity  to  ^  ,trtivity  and  growth. 

To  the  significance  of  the  muscles  as  organs  of  tho  mnscalor 
^ense  must  then  be  abided  that  which  is  due  to  the  exifftence  of  a 
luuscular  element  in  other  senso-organB. 

Since  movements,  no  less  than  sensations,  play  a  <  'O* 

jMirt  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  of  tho  extenial  w*-,  ,.i,  *%  lol- 
Kows  that  ideaa  are  a  revival  of  ideal  movementi*  as  W4^ll  a9  of 
Ideal  sensations.     My  fourth  thesis  is,  therefore,  t 
^Hc  special  separate  ceniers  in  the  brain,  but  resuU 
tiQH  of  those  areas  wJiich  have  taJcen  part  in  the  o  /jt»* 

{  has,  viz.,  ihr  id* 

IK.    L  _  !S.  With    the    i. ^,     .......    .-.. •.Ik* 

^B  '  Sc»  "Gcrnuui  Pwjx^uAo^  of  TfMUf  "  Bibot. 


MUSCLE  JJTD  JiiyD. 


383 


fibers,  make  up  tli©  convolutions  of  the  brain  and  constitute  tbo 
physical  basis  of  the  mental  life.* 

Tlie  voluntary  or  spontaneous  excitation  of  ideas  is  thus  to  be 
attributed  to  the  activity  of  the  pBycho-motor  ctyiters,  while  the 
iiihiViitory  ceut4?rs,  since  they  play  au  important  part  in  attention 
and  ooncentrutiou  of  thought,  are  the  seat  of  the  higher  faculties ; 
and  intellectual  power  probably  bears  a  direct  ratio  to  the  devel- 
opment of  these  centers.  By  observations  and  experiments  simi- 
lar to  those  employed  in  localizing  the  sensory  and  motor  areas, 
the  inhibitory  centers  have  been  localized  in  the  frontal  lobes  of 
the  brain.  The  development  of  these  lobes,  as  compared  with 
other  parts  of  the  brain,  is  conspicuous  in  man ;  as  a  inile,  also, 
it  intellectual  jjower  is  associated  with  great  frontal  devel- 
lontf 

The  biological  doctrine  that  automatism  is  a  property  of  proto- 
plajtra  sup7>ort8  the  theory  of  the  originally  spontaneous  charac- 
ter of  the  so-called  voluntary  movements,  leading  up  to  the  view 
that  volition  is  an  underived  quality  of  mind ;  but  it  is  a  biologi- 
cal fact  that  muscles  and  nerves  appear  on  the  stage  of  animal 
[life  together  in  the  form  of  a  reflex  apparatus,  and  that  the  pri- 
lordial  movements  executed  by  these  specialized  forms  of  proto- 
ire  reflex;  my  fifth  thesis  is,  therefore,  that  (he  germs  of 
■:  are  io  he  found  in  vioveinenia  ;  thai  volition,  so  far  from 
[providing  an  original  stimulus  to  the  muscular  activitieSt  has  itself 
^groxm  out  of  these  adi cities—the  voluniarij  movements  developing 
secoHfUirUy  from  reflex  ones. 

Movements  in  themselves  excite  agreeable  sensations  which 
prompt  to  repetition ;  such  as  prove  injurious,  however,  become  a 
Bource  of  pain  which  tends  to  their  suppression — that  is,  to  inhi- 
ibition;  volition,  therefore,  develojts  under  the  stimulus  of  pleas- 
tire  combine<l  with  the  repressive  influence  of  pain,  both  of  which 
result  from  the  action  of  muscles.  The  will  is  thus  disciplined 
and  dirt'oled  to  such  activities  as  are  useful  to  the  organism^ 

Prof.  Meynert  describes  volitional  impulses  as  due  to  the  [re- 
iyivetl]  perception  or  memory  of  sensations  of  innervation.  By 
*  11  these  memories  acquire  sufficient  intensity 
movements  which  thus  starting  from  the  brain 
^Appear  to  bo  spontaneous;  their  character  will,  however,  depend 
\Vn  what  has  been  previously  registered  in  the  motor  centers.! 
[Although  the  brain-centers  concerntHl  in  the  exercise  of  volun- 
[tary  restraint  (the  inhibitory  centers),  primarily  stimulated  to 
activity  by  the  pain  resulting  from  injurious  movements,  do  not 

*  *  TboDgbt  comiats  of  a  certain  elaboration  of  bcdmotj  and  motor  preKnUtiona,  and 
hai  BO  cimtrni  ap^n  from  tbcm."  Article  "  Pfjcbologj*,*' '*  EDCjolopvdia  RriuanieV* 
Jlc  JaaM  Ward. 

t  Bee  "  TnaeOm  of  ibc  Brnia,**  hy  Darld  Fcrrier,  U  D.,  K.  R  a  t  ^P-  <^- 


3S4 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


expend  their  mfluence  dii'ectly  upon  muscles,  tliey  may,  nevertlu 

thc'loss,  be  reganlod  as  n  part  of  the  motor  machii-  '  1 

act  on  other  centers  which  are  motor;  and,  by  tit 

tion  of  these  two  kinds  of  centers,  the  will  gradually  acquires  a 

real  though  limited  coutrdl  over  the  voluntary  niuscleH. 

Volition,  whatever  its  origin,  involves  a  state  of  excitation  of  j 
the  brain  and  stimulation  of  body  and  mind.  Opposition  only' 
serves  to  increase  its  energy  (as  the  load  in  "the  nervo-niQ»clo{ 
preparation"*  augments  the  force  of  the  contraction),  and  under 
excitement  intellectual  as  well  as  muscuhir  work  is  more  oasily*i 
done.  Emotional  excitement,  if  not  of  too  absorbing  a  nature,  prt>'J 
motes  intellectual  activity,  but  the  latter  is  itself  acrcompanied  byj 
a  peculiar  exaltation  of  feeling  which  is  a  source  of  the  keeneel 
psychical  satisfaction. 

Stimulatitm,  then»  either  sensory  or  volitional,  is  a  neceesai 
Ltecedent  of  activity — in  common  parlance,  its  cause.     Prof. 
Eain  advocates  the  idea  that  stimulation  is  the  sole  cause  of  pleas-l 
ure,  the  nutritive  functions  by  keeping  up  the  vital  energy  on-| 
abling  stimulation  to  be  carrie^l  to  certain  lengths  before  dogon- 
eratiug  into  pain.    If  we  fall  short  of  the  pain  limit,  wo  fail  of  j 
the  satifefactious  which  flow  from  the  conscious  expenditure  of  j 
energy  to  the  full  degree  of  which  the  organism  is  cajwhlo.     If] 
we  exceed  this  limit,  we  pay  the  penalty  of  physical  degeneracy  j 
and  resulting  mental  decrepitude  with  the  accompanying  fall  inj 
off  of  acti^^ty,  and  hence  of  pleasure.    Degeneration  also  follows' 
from  disuse — that  is,  the  neglect  of  stimulation,  and  consequent 
inaction. 

Sir  William  Hamilton,  following  Aristotle,  defines  pleasure  as 
*'the  reflex  of  the  spontaneous  and  unimpeded  exertion  of  poi 
of  whose  energy  we  are  conscious."    But  1  *"  :  ^x^curs- 

as  a  result  of  stimulation.    The  larger  fci  1.  Bain, 

therefore,  includes  that  of  Hamilton ;  and,  since  the  spontaneous^ 
exertion  of  power  with  the  accompanying  state  of  cor     ' 
depends  on  excitation  of  motor  centers,  both  these  8ta:  uroj 

involved  in  my  sixth  thesis,  viz.,  that  mvveincrds  art  ihe  jtHmory 
source  of  jAeasure  a/iul  pain  which,  in  Ow  expcritnr'  ->  '--^^  q^ 
psychology,  are  reccfgnized  as  tlie  basis  of  (lie  e-nfire  in' 

Mr.  James  Ward  f  regards  the  relli'X  r 

iressive  of  pleasure  and  pivin  as  priix-  . . ;...  , 

TQovements  being  elaborated  out  of  these.    But  movements  occur 

]'  'My  bt»low  the  plane  of  < . 

p  sm.    We  may  therefore  <- 

animal  series,  tlie  lowest  members  of  which  are  indistingaishablo^ 

*  Tbf!  cftlf-nituclc.  wltli  \ta  tufrm,  token  from  the  leg  irf  a  fve^    WMfa  Mrt 

UlP  tl'^ritfr  the  Wright    tttailif-'l   to    thf   luust'l'-    llm  morr  powrrfullt  il  ivintrsifia  vImm  aI»1 

ovTTv  is  tfUrauUtod. 


'SCLE  ANi 

from  plants,  pleasure  and  pain  gradually  arose  oat  of  movements, 
thuK  loading  to  the  development  of  vt>lition. 

Ln('rf*tiu!<  says:*  "  It  is  delightful  to  stand  on  the  sea-shore  in 
a  high  wind  and  watch  the  dangers  of  those  who  are  on  the  deep; 
it  is  w|ually  ple/isant  to  behold  from  an  elevated  station  a  battle 
raging  in  the  plains  below,  because  it  is  naturally  agreeable  to  wit- 
ness those  misfortunes  from  which  yourself  are  free;  but  far  more 
pleasant  still  is  it  to  o<7cuj>y  wisdom  s  heights,  and  fr*nu  thence  to 
look  down  on  others  groping  and  wandering  in  search  of  the  true 
light."  \  Although  the  want  of  sympathetic  feeling  shown  in  this 
jHKitic  flight  is  sluM-king  \m  the  altruism  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  idea  is  nevertlieless  in  entin^  harmony  with  Hamilton's  defini- 
tion of  pleasure,  since  conscitmsness  of  power  naturally  belongs 
to  a  position  of  superiority;  and  the  feeling  here  disclosed  un- 
doubtedly constitutes  an  important  element  in  human  satisfac- 
tions. It  ia  not  always  necessary  that  superiority  should  be 
demonstrattHl  in  order  to  the  securing  of  its  legitimate  effei^ts; 
a  jjowerful  mastiff  sct»rns  to  use  his  strength  agnirist  an  inf«*rior 
antagonist;  the  mere  consciousness  of  aV»ility  tr>  exterminate  tho 
puppy  with  a  single  shake  satisfiejs  the  demands  of  his  nature. 

Plcasun*,  originating  in  physical  activity  and  reaching  a  far 
higher  phase  in  the  doing  of  intellectual  work,  culminates  in  the 
supreme  consciousness  of  power  which  attends  the  moral  actions. 
As  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Stanton  Coit.J  '"The  conscioiis  fulfillment 
of  duty  is  attend<*<l  by  a  feeling  of  hnppint-ss  which  8ometimc*s 
takes  the  form  of  deep  inward  peace,  and  sometimes  of  gladness 
and  exultation^  like  that  of  a  victor.*'  Thus  the  ancient  heathen 
I>oet  and  the  modem  moralist,  although  separated  by  the  vast 
oueau  of  sympathy  which  lies  between  the  opposite  poles  of  ego- 
mu  and  altruism,  meet  nevertheless  on  the  common  soil  of  n  com- 
mon human  nature. 

Activity,  then,  carries  with  it  its  own  reward;  it  is  in  itself  an 
end;  and  tnlucation.once  almost  exclusively  dir<»cted  to  the  imme- 
diate culti^'ation  of  the  mind,  is  gradually  extending  to  all  the 
Jictivitiefl  of  the  complex  human  Ix'ing^ — the  physical  and  moral 
OS  well  as  tlio  intellectuaL  The  general  methods  by  which  the 
fall  measure  of  develojmient  of  which  hunian  nature  is  suscep- 
tiM  '  ure<i  ari',  I  T»elieve,  indicateil  in  the  psycho-physi- 

ol*.^,  ,tii<l  jiriiwiplfs  of   which   I  \\\\\\^  hen*  jilt*«inptvd  a 

brief  outline. 


*  Quoted  bv  B.  Oat  tell  in  **  Are  Anltnals  monully  happy  t  *'  "MnM^nib  Cctunry," 
Aupm,  1SM6 

S  li  m%*  otH'  of  t>io  t4iMrbiT>(C»  of  »  ofrUin  vyvtcni  nf  iboologr.  in>w  bnppilr  nearly  olii«>- 
tHc,  tint  tbr  upocuclc  of  ihr  torturM  of  tbc  damned  would  comliluic  oner  of  the  ctcmonti 
ol  Inftfwkly  tklbw. 

I  Am  **  Vlmi;*  N'a  tiru,  '*Th</  Final  Aim  of  Mi>ral  Aciioo." 

TU^  lUT.— 16 


Gx{>eriintjutal  proofH  of  thf  efficiency  of  the«o  inuthods  are  also 
forth  coTning.    Among  theiu,  {^rhaps,  none  uro  more  convinuiag 


•V 


V/.' 


Fm.  1.— Aaa,  6ii  Hojrm. 


Pia.  l^Affi,  RiaHTnn  Moirnn. 


X 


than  the  n»sultd  secured  iu  the  modem  training  Hchuols  for  idioU. 

in  which  difficult  field  the  late  Dr.  Edward  St'guin.  of  New  York, 

duftiu^niisht'd  liimsclf  not 
only  as  an  investigator  of 
rt'tniirkHhl)'  innight  ami 
fjrigiiinlity,  hut  a**  a  hu- 
manitariun  of  a  high  order. 
At  Ihc  nioeting  of  the 
British  AHsixnaticm  iu  1^7^, 
Dr.  S(?guin  read  a  [vapor  un- 
titled •'Tht?  Tniiuiag  nf  nn 
Idiotic  U.iutl/**  in  which 
an*  given  th«  details  of  hu 
ilevi'lopinvutal  mulhuti  of 
t^m'hing  iu  the  cose  uf  ao 

!'lin1    b(iy.      Thf   tr  ](V 

scnbi'd  was  applj    :     ...Aj 
U>  the  hani]H,over  which  the 

r.     ■       •■    -   •      '  ■  ■    A 

unnhte  to  put  either  his  fkth 


^ 


Klo.  a -Auk,  9wna  Yum. 

ity  and  cinisidem*  ^-  ^•■- " 

fmni  thp  wrist,    1 

*  Sm  »  Aitlihw  of  MnlMne.'*  <lcwb«r.  187* 


movomeuta  of  gn.»at  rapid- 

-.1,..  *.,-;i..    ,. *  ,.)      i. 


MUSCLE  AXD  MIND. 


387 


ing.  After  n  ytiur's  training  (the  detailEKi  account  of  which  is 
fnosl  iiiHtrnctive)  he  is  described  as  having  learned  to  help  nnd 
amuse  himself,  and  to  rt>frain  from  biting  himself,  and  from  strik- 
ing his  friends,  although  the  haudH  are  still  Hubjcrct,  at  timeM,  to 
involuntary  movomentw.  The  sense  of  touch  has  developed  to  the 
degree  of  ret^ognizing  about  one  hundred  objects  by  their  shape 
and  texturu  alone,  without  the*  aid  of  Right  He  has  also  iM^quired 
conscirjuHnoss  of  the  ordinary  vuriations  of  temperature  of  wat'er, 
fm^d,  etc.  He  haa  been  taught  to  recognize  the  typical  geometri- 
cal forms,  and  to  cut  them  out  of  paper.  He  has  viaitod  the  florists 
daily,  and  horned  to  know  and  name  about  sixty  different  kinds 
of  flowers,  all  fragrant,  thus  appealing  to  the  brain  thnjugh  still 
nnolhur  st^nw».  This  development  of  the  special  senses  and  of 
volition  was  accompanied  by  a  marked  de<'liue,  not  only  of  un- 
controlled movement**  but  of  outbursts  of  temper,  which  had  been 
i4-onflpicuou8. 

At  the  end  of  a  j'e^ir's  training,  concentrated  mainly  on  the 
iuiud-s  llie  Hpecial  training  of  the  eyes  was  begun,  tlie  history  of 
'which  is  given  in  a  second  paper.* 

Thore  was  a  lack  of  control  over  the  movements  of  the  eyes 
ciuite  comparable  to  that  which  hail  existed  in  the  case  of  the 


.^; 


Py«.  4.— Aok,  KiauT  T1AB8. 


Fig.  S.'Aob,  ifon  Tcjlju. 


hnntU.    The  lM>y  w»w  unable  voluntarily  either  U\  hold  his  eyes 

fill  or  tci  direct  them  toward  any  particular  object^ — rapid  oscil- 

llatiouij  alternating  with  pi'riods  of  fixation  upward  and  to  f>ne  side. 

In  the  training  of  these  refractory  organs  the  improvwl  hands 

[were  made  to  give  most  effective  assistance.    '*  What  wor<ls  can 

►t  do/*  says  Dr.  S^guin,  **  the  hand  can  ;  viz.,  it  can  present  ob- 

'he  eye  at  the  proper  distance,  at  the  proper  opportunity, 

rii  the  riroper  degree  of  insist^^nce  and  pertinacitv.  evfi^  foN 

'  Sec  "Archircs  of  Medicine,"  December,  I860. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


lowing  the  eye  in  it»  waikderiugs  till  it  has  c&pturud  atid  c»pU- 
viit«(i  tlie  regard, .  .  .  keeping  the  oyp  at  bay,  or  leading  it  away 
from  its  empty  fixwlnoss.*' 

At  the  end  of  the  second  your  of  traiutng,  *' the  vibrations  of 
the  oyi'8  have  diminished,  his  volunlHry  htok  \\\\»  bBcome  mon? 
8t-<iady,  and  his  antoniatir  ono  less  rivi!U*d."  From  the  sttidy  of 
objects  and  movements  this  no  longer  idiotic  hoy  was  led  r»n  to 
the  acquirement  of  language.  At  the  beginning  of  training  he 
conld  rpi>eat  only  the  lawt  word  of  what  was  said  to  him  ;  at  the 
end  of  the  second  year  lie  had  acquin^d  an  ;iocurate  ihoaffh  lim* 
ited  vocabnlary.     Five  |K»rtraitH  of  the  riiild  '      'fw 

portrt  of  tJiis  exi)eriment — tlu*  fiist  (Fig.  1)  t«k»  of 

Hge,  showing  normal  development ;  the  second  (Fig.  2)  nt  oight^M^u 
months  (after  o<»nvul8ions)»  in  which  idiocy  is  apparent:*  the 
third  (Fig.  3)  at  seven  years,  in  which  the  charactprij>tic>;of  idiocy 
are  well  marked ;  the  fourth  (Fig.  4)  at  the  end  ol  a  year's?  traitiiug 
of  the  hands,  and  the  fifth  (Fig.  5)  after  a  years  training  of  the 
eyen,  Thes*?  jnirtraits  tt^stify,  in  a  language  far  more  forcible  than 
that  of  words,  to  the  efficiency  of  Dr.  S^guin's  method.  The  ina- 
provement — physical,  mental,  and  moral — as  reflected  in  the  \waX 
portrait,  is  most  remarkable.t  The  entire  history  of  thiH  exfjeri- 
ment  is  a  history  of  the  triumph  of  the  phyMiologicul  niethori  of 
education! — the  only  rational  method,  and  as  ajiplicable  to  the 
stmnd  OS  to  the  unsound  body  and  brain.  To  the  physinlo^sti 
kt  least.  It  must  have  the  value  of  a  conjplete  demiMi-  of 

le  supreme  importance  of  physical  cultun*  in  h*tth  in  ^d 

moral  development 

Corroborative  testimony  of  equal  or  even  ;  i-v 

may  be  found  in  a  recent  report  of  the  New^  Y-  la- 

tory  at  Elmira,  to  whose  resident  physician,  Dr.  Hamilton  D. 
Woy,  belongs  the  distinction  of  having  proposed  and  carried  out 
the  details  of  an  experiment"  for  testing  the  eft'ects  of  plo^ical 
cnhxire  on  the  mental  and  moral  ra|>acities  of  an  inferior  order  of 
aMlult  criminals.  Dr.  Wey  seUn^tCMi  for  this  experiment  twein* 
men  ranging  from  nineteen  to  twenty-nine  years  of  a|fe,  five  of 
whom  hn4l  b«K'n  convicteil  of  burglary,  four  of  grand  larceny,  And 
throe  of  crimes  against  the  person. 

•  Thr  facl  tbfti  Wlocy  often  foHows  ooovnltiona  hiu  •  «ipiJflfnnl  hrartnjr  nn  t>tr  tlI^)rrt 
ftf  tiil»  pAfirr,  xlnec  the  coDrul.>iob»  of  cfaildhooj  arc  gmcrallr  titr  r^  rr* 
«li>rttiU(*MMi  of  tht>  titulor  <%ut«r(i  of  itio  bmhi  from  «xoM>dvi>  li'tltAttfti>  "a 
ti'r»  bruiinUi  Aboul  bv  M>mc  flf vrr*  iU«lurtMiioo  %\  ihv  p«4f|>bc«7,  M  In  tb^  OOQ* 
tccUilnp. 

*  Wr  are  tailvbtwl  lo  tbc  Umincfi  of  iIm  MiMn.  Pmium  for  pcnaMtm  le 

tflM«  t'      " 

X  1  nil  lliAi  ronm  under  tlic  bu^  of  muhmm/  rnr4iiM5. 

"  Si'i.  AiiiiidU  ICepuri  of  Bii»rd  of  UanagKn  of  the  Ke«  York  9t»1<  Itcformkloffj. 


MVSCLK  AND   MIND. 


589 


Thive  of  thfm  hvA  bven  total-ulistiin^nce  men:  eight  had  in- 
[tlulguil  in  alf'obolu'  ilrinks  orcaaionally,  and  om?  hahitiially.    Sciver- 
J  of  thorn  conf<?sseil  to  intemperatt-  jjareiits;  one  had  an  inKaue  and 
»ne  an  epileptic  mother.     Many  of  theso  men  had  faeces  indicative 
tf  rriniinal  t^'ndi'nries ;  the  heads  of  two  were  suggestive  of  idi- 
^y ;  and  among  tho  entire  number  tliere  was  n<»t  a  face  which 
lid  not  express  either  mental  hebetude  or  moral  obliquity,  or  both 
»mbinod. 
During  th©  previous  two  years  these  men  had  mmle  no  appre- 
>iable  progress  in  school- work,  seeming  incapable  of  prolonged 
lental  efforts.     One  of  them  could  neither  read  nor  writ-o;  au- 
[other  found  great  difficulty  in  doing  either;  and,  altliough  four  of 
.hem  understood  the  ste^ni  necessary  for  working  out  a  pn»blem 
In  long  division,  they  could  never  obtain  a  correct  answer,  while 
.he  nimjiining  eight  were  *'  stramhxl  uj>ou  the  shoals  of  rudiment- 
ary Arithmetic  from  notation  to  simjde  division."    Some  of  them 
'ero  uniibh*  even  to  name  the  State  or  country  from  which  they 
cftme.    It  will  be  admittt^d  that  the  proposed  test  of  the  value 
tif  physical  culture  was  of  the  severest  possil)Ie  kind. 

The  physical  discipline  to  which  thoy  were  subjected  consisted 
in  (I)  hot  batlis — three  weekly,  the  Turkish  and  common  bath 
Llt<M  ;  {t)   massage — kneading  «>f  the  muscles,  passive  hkh 

;i<Mi  joints,  and  friction  of  the  entire  surface;  (M)  physical 

:«rci»&— manual  drill,  free  gymnastics  and  exercise  with  durob- 
»lls  ranging  (jroj^ressively  from  three  to  eight  pounds  in  weight; 
1^4)  the  substitution  of  a  sp*»cial  dietary  for  the  reguhir  prison 
'an*.  The  experiment  was  continued  during  five  montlis — long 
'nough  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  the  method,  but  not  to  deter- 
mine the  full  mea^Hure  of  success  probably  Httainalde  by  these 
iCAUs.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  nine  of  the  eleven  men  then 
living  had  risen  from  the  third  or  refractory  to  the  intermediate 
lt%  the  remaining  two  having  merely  maintained  their  original 
standing  in  this  grade. 

During  the  six  mouths  immediately  preceding  the  experiment^ 
le  average  marking  for  shop-work,  school-work,  and  conduct  had 
IX  [»er  cent.     During  the  experiment,  the  average  for 
;  A,  previously  lowest  of  all,  rose  to  seventy-four  jter 
»ot,  the  conduct  improving  at  about  an  e^|ual  rat*.    Shop-work 
iliHCf>ntinued,  as  the  special  training  wtis  thought  to  sixMire 
igh  muscular  exercise.     During  the  six  months  folh^wing  the 
[emi  of  the  experiment,  the  average  marking  of  the  men  in  the 
•part.ments  of  shop- work,  school-work,  and  conduct  rose  Uy 
one  per  cent  as  compared  with  forty-six  per  cent  for  the 
IX  ne»iiths  preceding  the  exfieriiuent.     At  the  end  of  this  period 
W..y  reportcfl*  that  '^althmigh  the  men  had  been  remanded  to 
♦See  "  Sci«doi'."  Jun«  17,  1887. 


^1.-. 


390 


THE  POPULAR  SCTE^CE  MONTHLY. 


the  former  routine  of  prwon  life,  mental  development  wiw  «till 
going  on  ;  six  of  tho  number  h\v\  rwichorl  tho  first  lt  '  ■  '  ,,»1- 
work,  and  two  of  the  remaining  five  ha^l  every  j  i  ..,yi 

doing  8o." 

Physiral  improvement  was  marked  ;  their  ski  nw  luii  jiliiuii^'i 
the  softness  and  smoothness  of  childhood  (several  having  had 
some  form  of  skin-disease),  and  their  biceps  musclefl  \\w\  hecomf 
worthy  of  the  traditional  blacksmith.  Their  fonner  NUxvpicg 
attitude,  slow  movements,  and  slmffling  gait  h;ul  given  pllu^«y  tu 
an  appearance  of  alertness  and  vigor;  their  fjices  ulst*  '  sl- 

oped an  expression  of  comparative  brightness  and  iiji     ..^  .ii», 
(n  manual  labor  the  advance  was  not  so  pronouncml  as  in  utber 
directions,  though  improvement  in  this  department  was  ii'     " 
hut  the  stride  in  mt*utal  and  moral  development  was  almotit    ^ 
belief.    Dr.  Wey^  in  closing  hia  accoimt  of  this  moat  intereBAaUjCi 
test  of  a  new  method  in  prison  discipline,  says,  "I  ' 
itx]»eriment  in  physical  culture  as  showing  that  som* ; , 
than   mere   brawn  can   l>e  accomplished  by  mascular  exerdKU,] 
pr(»perly  directed." 

Iminiries  extending  over  a  period  of  forty  years,  made  of  About 
three  hundred  members  of  the  Cambridge  and  Oxford  University 
crews,  instituted  by  Dr.  Maclareu,  director  of  the  Univr-'*'-  'Ivm- 
nasium  at  Oxford,  have  elicited  facts  which  may  be  ,  ,  a^-j 

ex[»erimental   evidi'nce  of  tlie  value  of  j)hysical   traitung   in  n 
class  of  cases  in  which  the  conditions  of  life  ai-e  most  favorable,; 
honce  affording  a  test  from  which  practically  every  element  or- 
cept  the  purely  muscular  one  is  eliminated.    The  !>** 
rieuced  by  the  members  of  these  crews  are  stated  to  be  i 
of  stamina,  of  energy,  enterprise,  and  executive  powur,  and  of  for- 
titude in  endurance  of  trials,  privations^  aud  disappoint  >  '*» 
gftCMJIy  list  of  benefits  l»eai'ing  on  the  mental  and  m-'               na* 
8picuou8ly  as  on  the  physical  side  of  the  question,"  saya  l>r.  Hwj- 
Inren,  "for,  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  failure  is  it          *■'-  '■ 
to  result  from  inability  to  endure  trials  and  disupiKtint 
from  mendy  physical  weakness — the  stAtistic*  of  suidiie  bMnng 
out  this  statement.**  * 

The  t<'stimony  obtained  from  this  source  show's  that  the  adran- 

ttagea  of  jdiysical  training  are  not  limited  tf.»  the  idiotic,  the  igoo- 

■Tant,  and  the  criminal  classes,  the  conditions  of  whose  lives  hovtf 

been   especially  unfavorable  to  a  normal   symmetrical  devcilo|»* 

Bnent,  but  that  they  boloTi  '■►ali:aii'  " 

Experiments,  coD8idt**red  t  _    :    : .  are  cai< 

most  8keptlc4il  mind  of  thr  Boundneas  of  the  several  fonw>uMF 
fi         '        '  *     "  ■    ■      •       ■  '     • 


*  8c>c  ]>r.  ttwUfrnU  ««r%  on  trmlubin 


MUSCLE  AiVD  MIND. 


391 


jycho-physica  and  psychologj^  to  which  reference  has  been  made, 

Ir-  tal  evult^iico,  having  boen  drawn  from  observations 

i>n  I  mI*  human  (.'apacity  and  churactyr  (exeniplilied  in 

the  young  idiot,  the  adult  oritninal,  and  the  university  student, 

[during  the  inf>*r mediate  developmental  period),  may  be  accepted  as 

Ivirtunlly  covering  thp  entire  jfrouud  of  human  uiituro  in  its  vari- 

lUfi  phases,  and  therefore  as  conclusive  of  the  universal  applica" 

'iiiiy  of  sysU' mafic  physical  culture  in  eduraiton.    The  cast's  citod. 

I^how  that  in  the  processes  of  mental  and  moral  development  thi- 

lUHclea,  as  well  as  the  purely  sensory  mechanisms,  play  a  con- 

jpicuiius  part ;  ami,  while  the  period  of  growth  is  undoubte<ily 

lOHt  favorable  to  this  work.  Dr.  Wey's  experiment  shows  that 

ren  tht"  whdt  brnin  nvd  mind  vmy  ht  imprttreti  by  the  various 

>roccdurr^  included  under  the  hf.ad  of  physiad  culture. 

That  health  has  an  im[>ortant  bearing  upon  morals  is  uu- 
[onbted.*  Count  TolntoT,  thmnj^h  the  lips  of  one  of  his  (Iramatie 
impersonations,  says,  "  1  must  have  some  phynical  exercise  or  my 
;haraoter  will  entirely  spoil  '* ;  \  and  it  is  probable  that  not  even 
ihe  finest  exam]deH  of  human  development  havi*  attnin(»d  a  height 
gr*«it,  either  intellectual  or  moral,  as  to  be  beyond  betterment 
»y  these  means.  Descartes  te8titie<l  to  the  importance  of  atten- 
tion to  the  physical  nature  in  ryiying,  "  If  it  bo  ]io8sible  to  [lerfeot 
he  huuuLU  race,  it  is  in  metlicine  that  we  mu«t  seek  the  means" — 
employing  the  tenn  *' me*Jicine  **  in  its  broad  sense  fis  u  science 
^devoted  tu  the  care  of  the  bo<^ly.  The  curative  value  of  physiciil 
'xercise  has  long  been  recognized.  Boerhaave  said  tlint  most  of 
lur  fashionable  diseases  might  bo  cured  mechanically  instead  of 
ihemicaliy,  by  <Iinibijjg  a  bitter-w<K»d  tree  or  by  chopping  it  down, 
ktherthan  by  swallowing  a  disgusting  decoction  of  its  leaves  and 
[»ark.  A.sclej»ia<lcs  was  accustomed  to  prescribing  a  course  of 
fymmistics  for  nearly  every  form  of  btxiily  ailment.  TolstoY 
propom.'fl  to  enrich  medicine  with  a  new  term,  "  labor<iure," 
an  r*  ','n  spfvific  for  nervous  affections.! 

S  founil  that  at^tivity  is  in  itself  an  end.    The  excite- 

HBnt  which  attends  voluntary  muscular  exercise  is  a  natural 
'lilt  in  wliich  all  can  afford  to  indulge,  since,  unlike  the 
.;  stimulants,  it  adds  U*  the  stock  by  promotiitg  th*'  nutri- 
tion of  the  entin»  body.  Voluntary  exorcise  also  tends  U>  develop 
the  ginienil  power  of  volition  (including  that  of  self-restraint), 
hich.  as  we  have  seen,  first  appears  on  the  stage  of  animal  life 
connection  \^ith  movements. 

But  emiitions  and  thoughts  as  well  as  movements  may  be 

thibited  and  brought  under  contn^l ;  aiid  it  is  in  this  region  of 

*  Hr*  Atithur**  utW\«s  *'Hsp^fUC  as«Ha«ifiof  Morally"  "  Popular  3cI«dou  Monthly," 

f  80*  **  Ajsm  K«r6ainft."  (  i^ir.  fit. 


59^^       THE  POPULAR   SCIJSSC£  MONTHLT: 

mentality  that  volitiuu  i-eaehes  Ittt  highest  phAtsu.  WlioMitiwr 
hns  HttrHJiifHl  tltoso  ^'shiaiiiK  t4ib]e-lan(l£! '^  of  huniau  chunicUT 
where  foive,  courage,  endurance,  and  a  due  di.*gree  of  altmitnii 
perennially  abide  is  in  his  own  j^Tson  an  ajw>the*.>tiitt  of  p»>wer. 
the  power  whose  beginnings  wo  have  traced  to  tlie  muiiCtilar 
activities. 

It  then  appears  that  in  the  twofold  nature  of  man  the  pli 
tvU  and  the  psyehit^al  exist  not  merely  iii  the  relation  uf  sii 
contiguity,  but  rather  as  involved  in  "the  one  and  indivii 
whole"  of  human  existence,  and  that  the  psychical — (1»h  :$i»-ci 
spiritual — cpialitieB  are  developed  through    the   pbyHicjil    a^ 
known  as  the  bodily  organs,  by  means  of  the  activitii^  which" 
constitute  the  functions  of  those  organs. 

Said  the  grejjt  Spino:ea,  whose  far-reaching  vision  penutrstMlj 
depths  beyond  the  ken  of  the  common  mind  :  "  W>  do  nid  desirtl 
or  \/ruv  after  ontfthing  because  wh  think  it  good;  tre  ihink  ii^ 
yood  because  we  are  moved  to  strivf  uftfr  and  denire  iL 


KINSHIP   IN    POLYNESIA,* 

Br  C.  N.  8TAKCKK,  Pn.  a, 
or  niK  iTXiT3cit*iTY  Of  conafiiAOKif. 

IN  Polynesia,  the  distinct  classes  constitute  a  Bimilar  state  of| 
things  to  the  family  group  in  the  pooples  of  Asia,  since  tb^{ 
form  an  exclusive  organization,  holding  pmperty  in  common.    It' 
is  not  very  clear  how  these  classics  arose,  but  we  may  assume  that 
they  are  connects  with  an  earlier  distnbution  into  clans,  so  thai, 
the  chief  represents  the  eldest  line  of  the  posterity  of  their  cam<{ 
mon  ancastor.     In  Bf>nie  ea.s<*.s  this  ancestor  is  sup|tosed  (i»  ho  of < 
divine  origin  ;  I)ut  we  lay  nn  stress  on  such  a  su|iixtbition,  since  it 
pntbably  arose  after  tlie  chief's  pojsition  was  ostublishiHl.     Tbei 
piH)ple  are  usually  in  possession  of  Hmnll  plots  of  ground,  i^thi^' 
as  t'ompurutively  indei>endent  prupriclors,  or  as  serfs  : 
are  o>vuers  or  mlei's  of  small  districts,  and  the  king  is  r 
whole.    Tlie  conditions  are  iu  mmiy  respects  coufuse<l  and  in- 
jdefinite,  yet  the  type  i.»«  undonbte<iIy  that  of  the  joint  faoiily^or 
illftge  oouiiiitinity. 

The  classes  dilTer  from  clans  iu  ft  natural  way.    The  nobles  ofj 

!'"■  :.  -A  clans  IhV        *  '  ,     '      '  ■'■    *'        ' -  ":iUy 

■us,  the  ■  !i^ 

'oJyne»ia,  the  detiuition  of  the  class  dejKMjds  m 
;inship,  and  the  classes  are  not  iv  '   •    '  ■  ■*'■  •' 

•  Ktflw  "Th^  IMitilUw  runiHy."  by  Dr.  r 
col.  UVf  )iuii  itublUhvii  \¥j  D.  Applrtou  k  Oo. 


Km  SHIP  IN  POLVNESIA. 


393 


f^caatefi  in  India :  marriages  between  the  different  classes  are  not 
absolutely  forbidden. 

The  position  of  a  child  bom  from  a  marriage  between  persons 
of  unequal  rank  may  be  decided  in  several  ways.  The  child  may 
either  be  always  assigned  to  the  superior  or  inferior  class^  or  al- 
ways either  to  the  father  or  mother,  Polynesia  offers  us  examples 
of  all  kinds. 

If  the  father  or  mother  alone  belongs  to  the  ruling  class,  the 

I  child  is,  in  the  Caroline  Isles,  assigned  to  that  class.*  In  the  Tonga 
Isles,  the  highest  class — the  Egi,  or  nobles — inherits  rank  and 
|jroperty  throiigh  the  mothi>r;  the  children  of  the  common  people 
(Matalxiulas  and  Tuas)  inherit  from  the  father,  but  belong  to  the 
mother's  class.f  In  Otaheite,  the  children  of  a  marriage  between 
B  noble  (Hui-Arii)  and  a  woman  of  a  lower  class  are  set  aside,  un- 
less numerous  ceremonies  are  performed  in  the  temple  at  the  time 
of  the  wedding,  so  as  to  raise  the  rank  of  the  inferior  person,  t 
Both  among  the  nobles  and  in  the  intermediate  class  of  land- 
owners the  father  abdicates  in  favor  of  his  new-bom  son,  because 
Bthe  son  has  an  additional  ancestor,  and  is  therefore  of  higher  rank 
"than  his  father.* 

Marriages  are  dissolved  in  the  Sandwich  Isles  at  the  wish  of 
either  party;  only  in  the  case  of  the  chiefs  there  is  no  divorce, 
but  they  form  a  connection  with  other  women,  and  their  wives 
:e  other  lovers.  These  are  usually  of  inferior  rank,  and  the 
fchildriin  begotten  of  such  marriages  are  almost  always  put  to 
Icath,  probably  by  the  kinsfolk  of  the  higher  class,  in  order  that 
iheir  own  importance  may  not  suffer  from  intermixture  with  an 
inferior  rank.|  When  we  are  told  that  in  Hawaii  the  dignity  of 
;hief  is  inherited  through  the  mother,  it  must  be  understood  that 
)reference  is  given  to  those  of  the  chief's  children  whose  mother 
of  the  highest  rank.-*  "  The  wife  does  not  share  her  husband's 
The  rank  of  the  child  is  decided  by  certain  definite  laws, 
:enerany  by  that  of  its  mother,  but  also  in  some  cases  by  that  of 
^the  father.  A  woman  of  noble  family  who  marries  one  of  the 
common  people  loses  her  rank  in  the  event  of  bearing  children  to 
him,  in  which  case  she  and  her  children  are  degraded  to  her  hus- 

I band's  class.    The  right  of  inheritance  is  not  decided  by  priority 
pf  birth,  but  by  the  fact  that  the  mother  is  of  higher  rank  than 
the  other  wives."  ^ 
Thin  is  also  the  case  at  King's  Mill  and  in  New  Zealand.  %    In 
I    *  ChMilMo,  ToL  B,  p.  u\. 
f  MBitin,  ToL  a,  p.  101.     lUcnii,  rol.  Hi,  p.  4ft.    Morgan,  "  Sjstema,**  p.  ftftO, 
[     i  EUh,  v«L  Ui,  p.  9Bw 
I     ■  iMd,,  vol  m,  p.  100.    Cook,  vol.  I.    HAwkccworth,  vol  il,  p,  243. 
'     t  Wn».  »oL  I,  ^  »&6  ;  tol  It,  p.  411.  *  Viri^T,  p.  U. 

0  fT«iiai«o^  fol.  U,  p.  «a.  J  Wilkes,  ToL  t,  p.  8ft.     lUeaa,  vol  iiij  p.  141. 


394 


THE  POPtTLAn   SCIENCE  MOXTELT 


the  latter  country,  the  man  who  marries  into  another  tribe  or  clan 
takes  up  his  abode  in  it,  and  is  thenceforward  reckoned  with  bis 
wife's  family.  It  is  also  usual  for  the  wife  to  raise  her  hiutbaxKl 
to  her  own  rank,  while  this  ia  not  done  by  the  husband.*  This 
fact  has  been  regarded  as  a  survival  of  a  clearly  establi  ' 
male  line,  and  a  sign  of  the  earlier  pre-eminence  of  the  wi:  v .  l  _. 
it  seems  to  me  to  imply  precisely  the  opposite.  Only  the  prer*- 
lent  custom  of  ascribing  the  child  to  its  father  w<>uld  induce  the 
kinsfolk  of  a  woman  of  high  muk  to  adopt  her  husband,  in  onier 
not  to  lose  their  hold  upon  the  children.  If  tlie  female  line  were 
about  to  disappear,  the  growing  claims  of  the  husband  would  lead 
to  the  adoptiou  vi  his  wife  by  his  own  family. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  strongest  proof  of  the  fitmalo 
line  is  to  be  found  among  the  Fiji  Islanders,  but  here  also  the 
spirit  of  mature  criticism  is  wanting.  We  are  told  that  the  king 
is  succeeded  by  his  brother,  and  by  his  eldest  son  only  in  the  event 
of  his  leaving  no  surviving  brother.  The  mother's  rank  and  some 
other  circumstances  may,  however,  cause  this  rule  to  be  violated, 
so  that  the  younger  is  preferred  to  the  elder  brother.f  The  chief's 
practice  of  extensive  polygamy  makes  it  desirable  to  establish  the 
child's  rank  by  a  reference  to  its  mother,  t  The  female  line  can  not 
bo  deduced  from  these  customs,  but  a  Ktronger  proof  is  afforded 
by  the  institution  of  the  Vasu,  which  in  described  as  follows: 
"  Most  prominent  among  the  public  notorieties  of  Fiji  is  the  Vasu^ 
The  word  means  a  ne])how  or  niece,  but  becomes  a  title  of  office  in 
the  case  of  the  male,  who,  in  some  localities,  has  the  extraordinary 
privilege  of  appropriating  whatever  he  chooses  belonging  to  his 
uncle,  or  tliose  under  his  uncle's  power.  Vasxis  are  of  throe  kinds: 
tlie  Vtimt  tnukeij  the  Ta.vu  levu,  and  the  Va»u;  tlio  last  is  a  com- 
mon name,  belonging  to  any  nephew  whatever.  Vasu  iaukr^i  is  n 
term  applied  to  any  Vasu  whose  mother  is  a  lady  of  the  land  in 
which  he  is  bom.  The  fact  of  Mbau  being  at  the  h«ad  of  Fijian 
rank  gives  the  Queen  of  Mbau  a  pre-eminence  over  all  Fijian 
ladies,  and  her  son  a  place  nominally  above  all  Yasus.  No  mate- 
rial difference  exists  between  the  power  of  a  Vasu  taukei  and  thai 
of  a  Fo^u  levH,  which  latter  title  is  given  to  every  Vasn  bom  of  a 
woman  of  rank,  and  having  a  first-class  chief  for  his  father.  Fosv 
iaukei  can  claim  anything  belonging  to  a  native  of  his  mothers 
land,  excepting  the  wivea,  home,  and  land  of  a  chief,  .  .  '' 
ever  high  a  chief  may  rank,  however  powerful  a  king  niii 
ho  has  a  nephew  he  has  a  master,  one  who  will  not  be  couieufi 
with  the  name,  but  who  will  exercise  his  prerogative  to  tho  f 


I 


•  Thompioa,  rol.  I,  p.  170,     Drow»,  p,  S4, 
f  WUlianui  and  Cftlrertf  p.  IB.    AppttwlU  ixvL 
SfMcnu,*'  p.  SSa  ;  •'  Ancient  SodMlMi,'*  p.  87A. 
i  WULUm*  ana  Oaltcrt,  p,  SS.    AfpcsdU  sxtU. 


Bianit,  fol  tii,  p.  ftSS.    Mtrpa, 


KTK3EIP  m  POLYNESIA. 


395 


fixing  whatever  may  take  hia  fancy,  regardless  of  its  value  or 
the  owner's  inconvenience  in  its  loss.  Resistance  is  not  thought 
of,  and  objection  only  offered  in  extreme  cases.  Tliokouauto,  a 
Rowa  chief,  during  a  quarrel  with  an  uncle,  used  the  right  of 
Vasu,  and  actually  supplied  himself  with  ammunition  from  his 
,eneni3r^s  stores."  • 

It  can  not  be  denied  that  this  great  power  of  the  sister's  son  is 

rery  remarkable,  and  at  the  first  glance  it  seems  only  possible  to 

ixplain  it  by  assuming  that  there  was  a  peculiar  sanctity  in  the 

ie  of  kinship  between  the  man  and  his  sister's  son.    The  extent 

it  the  claim  is  astonishing — a  claim  which  no  son  would  venture 

put  forward ;  and  this  is  the  more  remarkable  since  the  sister's 

ilB  not  the  uncle's  heir,    In  all  other  cases  in  which  the  female 

divides  father  and  son,  in  order  to  tighten  the  bond  between 

the  mother's  brother  and  sister's  son,  the  analogy  with  the  male 

line  is  maintained ;  that  is,  the  uncle  exerts  his  authority  over  the 

iter's  son,  whereas  in  this  instance  their  positions  are  reversed, 

Thia  arouses  a  suspicion  that  ideas  unconnected  with  the  female 

ine  may  have  produced  the  Vaau  rights. 

On  examining  more  closely  the  whole  institution  of  the  Vasn, 

we  are  first  struck  by  the  fact  that  no  legitimate  rights  belong  to 

the  common  Vaf?u,    These  claims  can  only  be  mode  by  the  Vasu 

whose  mother's  brother  possesses  people  and  land.    It  may  be  as- 

^■umed  that  the  power  of  the  Vasu  in  its  extreme  development  was 

^Hrst  directed  against  the  mother's  brother  after  it  had  become  an 

^Bntegral  part  of  the  political  machinery  of  Fiji,  since  we  are  told 

^Khat  the  Vasu  right  l>ecome3  an  instrument  in  the  king's  hand  for 

ffruthlesaly  plundering  the  land.    The  king  makes  use  of  the  Vasu, 

and  shares  the  plunder  with  him.f    There  can  be  no  doubt  that 

the  institution  of  Vasu  arose  out  of  the  natural  reverence  with 

which  the  subjects  regarded  the  king's  sister's  son  when  he  visited 

hia  Tincle.    They  honored  the  king  through  his  kinsfolk.    The 

:ing  and  his  sons  ruled  after  no  gentle  fashion,  and  the  ruler  was 

wtitletl  to  commit  all  sorts  of  acta  of  violence.    In  this  way  the 

Lonor  paid  to  the  king's  sister's  son  enabled  him  to  rob  the  people 

Jreely.    The  Va«u  right  was  gradually  transformed  into  a  fxinda- 

^tnental  institution,  and  that  wliich  was  at  first  serviceable  to  the 

waa  now  tum*^!  against  him.    It  certainly  affords  no  indict 

ionii  of  a  mystical  and  rnligious  belief  in  any  special  sacred  bond 

itween  the  mother's  brother  and  sister's  son. 


■Bin< 
Pbsi 
T 


Tm  Hnsfian  obserrers  of  the  uAat  eclipse  of  Angnet  19,  1887,  bave  CTpreswd 
tb«  eottehiaioD  that  the  corona  hiifl  a  rcol  existence^  and  Is  not  merely  an  optical 
pbenoDMnon ;  iihaTiDpTDaintatneditashapedaringtbe  whole  of  the  eclipeo  at  each 
^jM)t  w1i«r«  It  «u  observed,  and  also  at  spota  as  far  aa  six  thoasand  milea  apart 

•  WmUou  and  Calrert,  p.  S7.  f  rbiJ.,  p.  27.    Appcndli  mtKL 


ris  a  trait  peculiar  to  some  minds  to  believe  tqc  much  and  to 
others  to  believe  too  little.    Between  these  extremes,  however, 

there  are  many  who,  though  keenly  alive  to  the  Hmitatiota  til 
medicine,  are,  at  the  same  time,  able  to  appreciate  the  great  boon 
it  is  to  mankind.  There  may  be  those  who  would  resent  the  ides 
of  circumscribing  our  art,  but  "  truth  can  never  be  really  injuri- 
ous, whatever  phantoms  apprehensive  ignorance  may  conjure  up 
around  it." 

The  questions  have  often  presented  themselves  to  me  why, 
after  so  many  years  of  familiarity  with  disease,  is  there  such  a 
wide  different  of  opinion  regarding  its  management  ?  Why  is  it 
possible  that  there  are  two  largo  schools  of  me<iicinB  opposed  tn 
theory  if  not  in  practice  ?  Why  the  endless  and  surprising  eon- 
sumption  of  patent  remedies  ?  It  would  seem  that  more  or  lew 
8U})erBtition  still  prevails  in  reference  to  disease,  aa  well  as  mach 
ignorance  respecting  its  natural  history,  I  am  not  well  convinced 
that  illness  is  a  necessary  concomitant  of  human  •       '  id 

to  believe  that  it  is  unavoidable  is  to  paralyze  all  log  ^  u 

for  its  prevention.  That  it  will,  at  any  time,  be  wholly  eradicated 
is  too  much  to  hope,  and  as  Utopian  as  to  expect  that  a  h '  ^  't 
of  knowledge  will  ever  bo  universal;  nevertheless,  grt.  J 

attainments  and  perfect  physical  health  have  been  realized,  and 
therefore  muat  be  accepted  as  a  standard  for  approximation.  Nor 
is  such  a  realization  fortuitous.  Long  years  before  our  era  a  wise 
philosopher  of  Greece  declared  that  chance  was  nothing  more 
than  caiuse  unperceived  by  human  reasoning.  Now,  the  wcWaw 
of  the  human  race  suffers  in  proportion  to  the  survival  of  a  b** 
lief  that  chance  and  not  some  ascortainnblo  cause  un<i  '^c 

evils  that  endanger  it.  We  are  prone  to  shift  the  resj-  _  ty 
for  our  misfortunes  upon  others,  and  slow  to  take  the  blama  on 
ourselves,  where  it  commonly  belongs.  Life  is  r  '  '  !eeim- 
ble  thing  under  favorable  circumstances,  and  '  ive  ore 

the  makers,  or,  at  least,  the  modifiers  of  our  en\nronmenU  As  % 
rule,  bad  health  is  the  foundation  of  the  13-  '  -  part nf  the  nn- 
happiness  of  man.    And  yet  nothing  is  ni'  ::vn  than  that 

the  preservation  of  good  health  depends  upon  a  strict  obMTTaac* 
of  the  laws  of  being,  which  include  those  of  inheritance.    Mju^y 

•  RMd  bcfort  ihtf  Clinical  Sodct;  o£  Ou  Kew  TotV  p..it.r,r*Juat*  V«J1.-*!  Rrh— I  «U 


SO^ti:  OF  TEE  LIMITATIOXS  OF  21EDICIXE.      597 

of  these  precepts  are  well  understood,  but  they  are  by  no  means 
^enenilly  heeded ;  for,  though  life  is  undoubtedly  shortened  by 
ignorance,  it  ia  also  curtailed  by  a  disregard  of  what  is  known — a 
failure  to  profit  by  the  undei*standing.  All  infringements  of  the 
rules  of  health  entail  suffering  upon  the  individual,  his  contonj- 
por&rieSy  or  his  descendants.  It  is  the  inability  to  appreciate  that 
man  is  but  a  molecular  vibration  in  the  great  molar  pulsation  of 
life,  that  allows  him  to  hope  that  action  will  ever  be  not  followed 
py  reaction.  Furthermore,  Nature  is  never  cognizant  of  extenuat- 
[ing  circumstances.  Whatever  a  man's  motive,  he  is  equally  a 
victim  of  a  neglect  to  preserve  his  bodily  well-being,  whether  hia 
[iutentiond  be  good  or  bad.  We  see  death  prematurely  and  with 
impartiality  destroy  the  just  and  the  unjust.  We  know  that 
life  bt*rtrs  many  an  old  sinner  to  Its  utmost  limit,  and,  contrari- 
wise, that  goodness  is  not  incompatible  with  extreme  old  age. 
'Seeing  and  knowing  these  things,  are  we  to  shut  our  eyes  and  be 
^oblivious  to  such  truths,  or  are  we  to  awaken  to  a  just  apprecia- 
iou  of  the  invariable  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  however  far 
removed  one  from  tlie  other  ? 

Life  has  been  defined  as  *'  the  continuous  adjustment  of  inter- 
nal relations  to  external  relations."    Hence,  a  partitU  failure  of 
[t)ie  inner  man  to  meet  the  successive  changes  that  are  going  oa 
ittbout  him,  means  incomplete  life  or  disease,  and  a  complete  fail- 
ire  of  a  similar  adjustment  signifies  death.    The  transmission 
the  development  of  characters  known  as  inheritance  are  made 
by  the  hypothesis  of  pangenesis,  which,  therefore,  with  your 
ion,  let  me  give:  "Every  unit  or  cell  of  the  body  throws 
lules  or  undeveloped  atoms,  which  are  transmitted  to  the 
offspring  of  both  sexes,  and  are  multiplied  by  self-division.    They 
may  remain  undeveloped  during  the  early  years  of  life  or  during 
successive  generations;  and  their  development  into  units  or  cells, 
like  those  from  which  they  are  derived,  depends  on  their  aflSnity 
[for  and  union  with  other  units  or  cells  previously  developed  iu 
[the  due  order  of  growtL.'^    Hero  we  find  an  explanation  of  the 
lannor  in  which  pre<lispositions  to  disease  are  probably  trans- 
ijnitte<l,  and,  what  is  more,  the  particular  form  of  inheritance 
[Icnown  as  aiavism,  ur  the  recurrence  of  certain  features  after  one 
[or  two  generatioiis  of  immunity.    I  dwell  upon  this  matter  of  in- 
leritance  in  order  to  show  how  futile  the  attempt  to  construct  a 
[perfect  being  out  of  imperfect  material.    No  amount  of  thera- 
lutic  skill  will  ever  be  able  to  atone  for  the  fat^  mistake  of 
[unwise  parentage.    The  laws  of  generation  are  as  applicable  to 
Isnan  as  to  the  lower  animals.    It  seems  unfair  that  the  child 
Ifihi  •  r  for  the  shortcomings  of  the  parent,  but  the  offspring 

is  ii  ..luation  of  his  progenitors,  the  product  of  those  who 

hAve  gone  before,  plus  his  own  indi^'iduality.    Hence,  what  affects 


39« 

the  cbHd  in  some  degreo  aSecta  the  parent  Indeed^  the  suffering 
of  a  parent  over  the  misfortunes  of  tlie  child  is  often  greater  than 
that  of  the  child  itaelf.  It  is  important  that  man  ahould  under- 
stand the  great  power  that  inheritance  exerts  upon  the  race  fw 
good  aud  for  evil,  so  that  he  may  make  a  wise  departure  in  tLo 
right  direction;  and  that  he  should  know  that  his  daily  Hfo  »o 
regulates  his  hahity  of  mind  and  hody  that  each  buc  >  fay 

is  the  sum  total  of  the  days  that  have  gone  before  in  iU^  »«»»-caoe 
upon  his  future  health  and  movements. 

Confucius  saj's:  "When  you  know  a  thing,  to  hold  thatycra 
know  it;  and  when  you  do  not  know  a  thing,  to  allow  that  you 
do  not  know  it — this  ifi  knowledge,"  The  laity  are  of  necessity 
more  or  less  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  disease.  And  it  would 
seem  that  their  ignorance  is  shared  by  no  inconsiderable  nnmber 
of  our  profession.  Every  malady  pursues  a  definite  course,  and 
ends  in  restoration,  incomplete  recovery,  or  in  death.  Now,  I  be* 
lievo  that  those  me<lical  men  who  are  familiar  with  the  natural 
history  of  disease  will  admit  that  the  milder  forms  of  most  aciUo 
affections  will  pass  through  their  various  Btnges  and  end  in  recov- 
ery without  the  assintance  of  a  single  drug.  Moreover,  I  think 
they  will  be  obliged  to  acl^nowledge  that,  under  the  most  favora- 
ble circumstances  and  most  skilled  treatment^  many  persons  die 
oveqjowered  by  the  virulence  of  a  malady.  The  daily  recctrd  of 
vital  statistics  would  seem  to  prove  as  much.  And  the  paUido-  > 
gists  will  boar  testimony  to  the  fac-:t  that  where  disease,  either 
acute  or  chronic,  has  invaded  a  vital  organ,  just  so  much  of  the 
tijssue  as  is  destroyed  remains  destroyed  and  is  never  r-  "  lsL 
Have  wo  a  broken-down  lung?  The  best  that  can  :  .,  i  ia 
that  the  process  shall  be  stopped.  Are  portions  of  the  kidneys 
d»>gonerated  ?  We  can  but  save  the  remainder,  H«-  ''  '  ver 
begun  to  retrograde  into  fibrous  tissue  ?    We  can  at  bet  i  ck 

the  retrogression. 

The  probable  reason  that  treatment  does  not  keep  pAce  with 
the  rapid  advance  of  pathology  is  that  therapeutics  has  gooa 
astray,  since  the  only  possible  solution  for  some  of  theee  diifi* 
culties  is  to  seek  out  the  cause  and  obviate  it.  A  groat  deal  of 
time  and  talent  have  been  wasted  in  a  fruitless  search  for  specif 
remedies  for  disease,  like  unto  the  metaphypicians  who  have  bc€»n 
asking  unanswerable  questions  for  hundreds  nf  v^nrs  jili<^iuf  tljd 
unknowabia 

While  it  is  j)ossible  to  imagine  u  commuii 
to  exist  free  from  the  ravages  of  disease,  it  i-  i 

most  sanguine  to  hope  for  in  the  near  fatureu  But,  notwtthstand- 
ii      "  ■     "     '     ■         .  "  '"  nt  post  assurea  n     "    '    ilrcody 

le  proper  directi  vaRtnU 

Lg  epidemics  arc  less  common,  because  stupidity  and  sup^ratitiGO  , 


SOATB   or  THE  LimTATlOXS   OF  MEDICINE.      399 


aro  boing  overcome  by  iiiU=illigence  and  a  more  general  recognition 
of  the  sequeuce  of  cause  and  effect. 

We  have  many  useful  drugs,  some  that  are  indispensable,  but 
ihey  are  mostly  double-odgod  toola  to  be  handled  only  by  trained 
La,  The  man  unfaniiliur  with  disease  who  ventures  to  ndmin- 
theso  drugs  because  he  happens  to  be  acquainted  with  their 
tmes,  is  very  much  like  the  literary  aspirant  who  resorted  to 
opium  in  the  vain  hope  of  becoming  a  De  Qiiincoy. 

"Whenever  the  germs  of  disease  gain  admission  to  the  body, 
Tature  makes  strenuous  efforts  to  throw  them  off,  and,  although 
it  takes  its  own  time,  it  is  often  successful.  For  example,  fever, 
dootroying  the  morbid  products  that  produce  it,  serves  a  most 
f-Ufieful  r6l€  in  the  restoration  of  the  patient  to  health.  And,  as 
of  nature,  the  skillful  physician  stivnds  by  in  readiness  to 
►his  share  in  furthering  the  process  already  initiated,  Bj'  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  phenomena  of  disease  and  the 
ms  by  which  they  are  manifested,  he  is  enabled  to  do  the 
it  thing  at  the  proper  moment,  and  thus  frequently  turn  the 
toward  recovery,  when  without  his  intelligent  interference 
balance  might  fall  in  the  wrong  direction.  But  the  meddle- 
some interposition  of  the  ill-informed  is  often  productive  of  great 
A  burning  desire  to  do  some  impossible  thing  leads  the 
unwary  practitioner  into  many  fatjil  extravagances.  To  have  the 
knowledge  when  not  to  act,  and  the  moral  courage  to  forbear  and 
give  Nature  a  reasonable  chance,  are  indeed  combinations  of  gifts 
as  desirable  as  they  are  rare.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  man 
who  recognizes  the  limitations  of  medicine  is  by  far  the  safest 
advisor.  There  are  no  real  specifics  for  disease;  and  to  believe 
.that  somewhere  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral  kingdoms, 
len  from  the  eye  of  man,  there  are  to  be  found  by  diligent 
:h  a  cure,  at  least,  for  each  of  the  many  ills  that  flesh  brings 
upon  itself,  seems  much  less  rational  than  to  consider  all  these 
troubles  aa  induced  by  violations  of  laws,  known  or  discoverable, 
which  must  be  obeyed  and  can  not  be  evaded.  In  tke  scheme  of 
Nature  it  would  have  been  much  simpler  to  eliminate  all  pain  and 
f  i>rovide  occult  remedial  agents  for  each,  were  either 

lin  the  scope  of  creation. 
No;  disease  is  avoidable  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  if  not 
jly.    And  tliis  is  possible  just  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge 
our  will  to  act  thereon.    But,  because  of  our  ignorance  and  of 
failure  to  live  up  to  what  is  known,  we  are  yet  far  removed 
from  perfect  health. 

Lot  us  now  glance  at  what  we  can  do.    To  begin  with,  we  are 
give  much   instruction  regarding  the  avoidance  of  dis- 
e  can  relieve  functional  troubles  first  by  the  simpler 
QMMui  of  rest,  food,  or  exorcise,  as  the  conditions  demands 


400 


rnE  POPULAR  scTsycs  moxtitlk 


can  qnell  undue  pain.  But  we  can  not  contiuue  to  supply  medi- 
cineg  that  will  t^e  the  place  of  proper  living.     The  ho 

neglects  hia  own  health,  and  expects  the  medical  pi"  to 

make  up  for  his  negligence^  is  somewhat  like  a  x>«rson  careless  of 
liro  in  his  own  house  because  there  happens  to  be  an  efficient  flre 
department  in  town.  The  dames  sometimes  get  extinguished  if 
the  alarm  is  sounded  in  time.  We  can  assist  Nature  in  ber 
endeavor  to  cast  out  morbid  products  by  various  tliernpeutical 
expedients.  We  can  remove  some  of  the  exciting  causes  of  dis- 
ease, or  else  take  the  patient  beyond  their  reach.  We  can  place 
him  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  for  Nature  to  do  her 
work,  and  at  critical  moments  stimulate  the  Eagging  powers  and 
thus  bridge  over  a  yawning  gulf.  We  can  palliate  many  of  the 
distressing  symptoms  of  disease,  but  we  can  not  atone  for  all  the 
outrageous  infringements  of  Nature's  inexorable  laws  by  do«ing 
with  drugs,  and,  moreover,  it  is  not  likely  that  we  shall  ever  b« 
able  to  do  so. 

It  is  possible  that  we  are  upon  the  threshold  of  a  new  era  in 
the  treatment  of  infectious  and  miasmatic  diseaaes,  in  \v'  ^  -w 
reasons  will  be  found  for  the  sur^-ival  of  old  remedies,  ..  nj 

useful  additions  will  be  made  to  our  pharmacopoeia.  The  wonder* 
ful  discoveries  of  Pasteur  in  France  and  of  Koch  in  Germany, 
and  the  splendid  achievements  of  the  former  in  his  applications 
of  them,  seem  very  fruitful  of  promise.  But,  notwithstanding  all 
this,  it  is  much  safer  to  be  cautious  about  mad  dogs  than  to  run 
anyimdue  risks  because  Pasteur  has  evolved  a  means  of  lessening 
the  terrors  of  rabies. 

And  now,  in  conclusion,  I  would  venture  to  claim  that  the 
answer  to  my  three  questions  at  the  beginning  of  this  paper  U 
foimd  in  tbe  fact  that  there  is  a  natural  cycle  to  many  diaeaaos 
wherein  there  is  a  tendency  toward  recovery  that,  to  be  «ar(%  is 
favored  or  retarded  by  a  multitude  of  circumstances,  but  vhich 
jOften  takes  place  r  Mve  of  me*Hcation.    And  t'  '    '       '     uo 

ibstratumof  all  i  lorences  of  opinion  that  ;ii  ily 

arising  among  superficial  observers ;  is  a  reason  for  tho  sarrival 
>f  many  absurd  therapeutical  theories;  is  th**  explanation  of  the 

:istenco  of  the  vagaries  of  faith  and  of  mind-cures;  and^  what  is 
perhaps  the  most  lamentable  of  all,  makes  it  iMjsjtibh.t  for  the  de- 
signing to  trade  upon  the  credulity  of  the  public  with  their  oft 
times  harmful  nostrums. 


I 

I 


I 


nsBOABTtt  vnppoMd,  til  16A8,  tlmt  tho  displKnerr 
vntiuns  of  tbe  Barfao«  mi^bt  be  oiiiscd  l».r  tbo  cArth  - 
jireftM'd  A  flimilar  thoonlil  In  IflSl,  in  a  letter  rot9ectiDp  I'f.  Borti 
Tbcor;  ofthft  Kartb,"  bat  was  cArefol  to  a<bl  to  bU  byp(rtb<wli,  "  I 
down  uiytblntr  t  have  wotl  OQn^d«r«d,  or  will  nndortak*  to  <l«l«od.  " 


;U  He- 
ron «r- 
4 


a^^ 


TTi 


OF  HBNBT  CAR 


401 


SKETCH  OF  HEITOY  CARVILL  LEWIS. 


ALTHOUGH  Prof,  Lewis  died  at  an  age  when  men  upnially 
-  have  hardly  more  than  begun  to  produce  matured  work,  his 
name  had  already  become  associated  with  the  solution  of  a  most 
imjtortant  geolo^^cal  question,  and  ho  was  recognized  as  one  who 
kad  led  the  science  another  step  forward. 

Hexry  Carvit.l  Lewis  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  November 
IC,  1853,  anil  died  in  Manchester,  England,  July  "ZX,  18S8.    Ho  waa 
I  descended  from  an  ancient  patrician  family,  the  Ludewigs,  of  the 
free  imperial  city  of  Hall,  in  Swabia,  who  are  mentioned  as  hav- 
>ing  occu])ied  as  early  as  tlie  fourteenth  century  resjwnsible  posi- 
[iions  a*  military  and  cinl  officers  in  their  city  and  in  the  Holy 
Homan  Empire.    In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
isons  of  his  ancestor,  Johaim  Peter  Ludewig,  appear  as  distin- 
If^uhihod  in  arms  and  letters.    One  of  them,  Johann  Peter  von 
Lndewig,  besides  having  other  dignities,  was  a  learned  jurist  and 
[iistoriographer  and  poet  laureate  of  the  empire,  and  the  author  of 
many  historical  and  legal  works.     His  own  ancestor  of  this  gen- 
eration, Johann  David  Ludewig,  was  connected  with  military 
land  court  life.     His  great-grandfather  removed  to  America  in 
1784  and  anglicized  his  name  to  Lewis.     His  grandfather,  John  F. 
[X»ewis,  and  his  father,  F.  Mortimer  Lewis,  were  engaged  in  the 
ti  India  trade.    The  latter,  since  retiring  from  business,  has 
•on  atttivi^y  engaged  in  various  philanthropies  in  connection 
l*with  hospitals  and  benevolent  institutions,  and  is  now  President 
[of  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  D^af  and  Dumb  and  of 
le  Children's  Hospital  of  Philadelphia.    An  incident  that  oc- 
tcurrecl  when  Henr>'  Lewis  was  little  more  than  an  uifant  is  men- 
ioned  by  his  biographer  as  showing  an  early  inclination  toward 
fr.«.T,.,ri,.jj  studies.    He  was  found,  while  on  a  visit  to  the  country, 
:  in  the  gravel-walk  with  a  spoon,  and,  when  asked  why 
Jm»  was  doing  it,  replied  that  he  "wanted  to  see  what  was  under- 
ktlu"    This  may  have  been  only  a  manifestation  of  childish 
itivity  which  uuder  other  circumstances  might  not  have  been 
1  and  have  passed  without  influence  upon  his  career ;  but 
>^'r  and  his  maternal  grandfather,  Mr.  Henry  Carvill,  were 
[tiick  to  observe  the  direction  of  the  dawning  intelligence  of  the 
»y,  and  to  cultivate  whatever  profitable  tastes  he  might  show, 
le  gienerous  interest  taken  by  his  father  in  fostering  the  bent  of 
lis  fion*B  mind  toward  research  deserves,  in  fact,  special  recogni- 
ion  and  acknowledgment.    As  soon  as  his  son  displayed  earnest 
[leanings  In  this  direction,  Mr.  Lewis  provided  ever^'  facility  for 
lelping  him  in  bin  favorite  studies.    Instead  of  attempting,  as  too 

roc  xxxr. — 24 


^#1 


x^ 


Hi 


Ml  MB^^  tcfeWMK  JBihn' flMi  aflBi^HHj^ifl 

mamm^  warn  mm  nemmmmtkm    «*■ 


of  PhOidelpiBA^*  fraa  M77  to  13»1L 
9ia  Ajwwilion  i&  1«77  a  drnxiftic  ci 
^iAcal  light  —  clxiLt Tui  by  hi» in M*t of 
ra  tm  ibe  wrAkmnd  light  were  pohB^ed  in 
Amsrican  AMoctetkm"  and  in  the* 
fi^lnmo.    la  Ifi^  h«  joined  the 
onia  M  a  Tolnnteer  member,  and  cod\ 
rb4arl  vrUli  It  till  Ifr^    la  cannection  with  thid  work  he 
It  '  '  f)  geology  of  the  poatheni  part  of  the  St 

K  of  tha  great  terminal  glacial  monune 
li  hli  nanm  la  mmi  clotiely  aMociated,  determining  ita 
Utf)i  flw'         "  '   of  Pewwylvania.    Ii:     "   Mi 

i|»"<i,  nw  <  s  in  miucnklo^  and  j  : 

*Wy  111  iUnm*  rolatinn  Uj  tho  dinmcmd  and  to  tho  arrb  i 
lin  wan  m*ivt*i\  by  nn  wim«?«t  spirit  of  indt'pmd*-:  *  ' 
ulToril'ul  a  living  illiirdration  of  ihv  forco  and  ai^  i 

inoitii,  "TrtiUi  fitr  authority,  not  authnrity  for  truUu  " 
trolling  fori'ii  uf  tliiH  jii'inciplt)  in  his  lifo-work  in  unn 
ili(i  NliMplo  rt'iKrrd  on  his  tombstone  in  Walm&luy  cl 
Hoi-  '  '  hM  truth.'* 

I>  1         .  wnA  vUh^UmI  Pmfosfior  of  Mineralogy  in  thi 

AoAilnniy  of  Natural  Scionc«iB»  Philadelphia;  and   in  1883« 


\riiitorA  in  ; 


ttorthvru  t^MTiiuuiy,     Tho  winler  and  spriitg  of   l^ 


SK£TCIT  OF  HEKRT   CARVILL  LEWIS, 


403 


^Bpont  in  this  country,  partly  in  visiting  tbe  places  in  the  Southern 
States  where  diamonds  have  heen  found,  in  continuance  of  his 
^  investigations  on  the  origin  of  that  gem.  He  had  read  papers  on 
Kthe  subject  at  the  meetings  of  the  British  Association  in  18S8 
^■ftd  1S87,  and  was  planning  to  present  his  further  results  at  the 
Hsntt  meeting  of  that  botly  ;  after  which  ho  hoped  to  carry  on  his 
H  glacial  studies  in  Norway  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
'  He  sailed,  with  Mrs.  Lewis,  for  Eiirope,  on  the  3d  of  July,  1888»i 

He  was  affected  during  the  latter  part  of  his  voyage  with  symp- 
toms of  ilhiess,  which  developed,  after  he  reached  Manchester, 
(England,  into  typhoid  fever.    From  this  he  died  on  the  21st  of 
July,     Prnf.  a.  F.  Wright,  author  of  "The  Ice  Age  in  North 
America  "  (New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1889),  who  was  asso-j 
ciated  with  him  in  the  investigation  of  the  terminal  glacial  mo- 
raine, has  furnished  the  estimate  which  follows,  of  the  general 
value  of  his  work.    The  more  particularized  review  of  his  glacial 
W  investigations  with  which  this  paper  continues,  has  been  fur- 
IH  nishod  us  by  Mr.  Warren  Upham,  who  was  also  the  author  of  a 
"  sketch  of  Lewis  in  the  "  American  Geologist." 

"It  is  impossible,"  says  Prof.  Wright,  "to  overestimate  the 

value  to  the  world  of  such  a  career  as  Lewis  set  before  him,  and 

M  alrea/ly  at  his  early  death  had  largely  realized.    His  vigor  of  body 

I  and  mind,  pleasing  address,  lil>eral  education,  high  social  position, 

H  and  abundant  means,  insured  to  him  flattering  success  in  almost 

^kw  direction.     He  could  easily  have  attained  eminence  in  the 

^iPnitica  of  his  State  and  nation.     He  could  have  entered  upon  a 

hoBinesB  career  with  fair  prospect  of  becoming  a  millionaire.    Or 

^  he  could  have  settled  down,  as  the  majority  of  those  thus  situated 

V  do,  to  the  seductive  pleasures  of  society,  and  have  been  one  of  its 

chief  ornaments.    Instead  of  this,  he  threw  all  tlie  resources  of 

his  nature  and  of  his  position  into  the  most  laudable  work  of 

enlarging  the  stock  of  the  world's  knowledge. 

The  leisure  hours  of  his  boyhood  were  spent  in  his  lalx»ratory 

in  roaming  over  the  hills  in  the  vicinity  of  Phila<lelphia  in 

ph  of  facts  to  explain  their  origin.    After  graduating  from 

le  university,  he  offered  himself  as  an  assistant  to  the  Geological 

Survey  of  the  State,  and  for  one  or  two  seasons  accompanied  the 

surreyors  in  the  dull  routine  of  their  work.    He  afterward 

commissioned  to  prosecute  independently  investigations  into  the 

I      nstnro  of  the  gravel  deposits  of  the  rivers  entering  the  Atlantic 

H  between  New  York  and  Norfolk,  Va.    It  was  with  the  results  of 

W  these  youtliful  investigations  that  he  came  to  the  meeting  of  the 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  at  Boston, 

in  1880,  with  two  or  three  papers  which  at  once  attracted  the 

att'*"*''^''  ^intb  of  that  body  and  of  the  wider  audience  reached  by 

tht  ;  reports.    Lewis  was  specially  delighted  on  that 


404 


TBS  POPULAR  SCIEirCB  MOXTItlT. 


sion  by  the  approval  of  his  work  which  was  givon  by  the  venei 
ble  Prof.  W,  B,  Rogers,  then  at  the  head  of  the  Mas:-  ;i 

^ Institute  of  Techuolugy,  aud  for  80  loug  »  time  uoimf  •  ii 

the  Oeoloffical  Survey  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  adjoining  Appa- 
lachian region. 
P  "  During  all  his  earnest  search  for  the  tmths  of  Nature,  Lowis 
was  siimuluted  by  the  thought  that  man  doiis  not  live  by  bread 
alone,  but  that  he  who  ministers  to  the  mental  wanta  of  the  race 
by  discovering  truth  and  bringing  it  within  reiH'h  of  the  general 
apprehension  is  as  truly  a  philanthropist  as  he  who  ministers  to 
»  their  bodily  comfort.  In  all  these  aims  it  is  gi'utifying  to  know 
that  his  wifermost  heartily  coincided.  A  great  truth  of  Katuro^ 
like  the  wonderful  history  of  the  Glacial  period,  when  it  finds  \\a 
way  into  the  school-books  of  the  children  and  into  works  of  gen- 
eral literature,  is  of  incalculable  utility  in  the  intellectual  deveU 
^K    opment  of  manlcind.'* 

^H         "  Prof.  Lewis  tirst  became  specially  interested/'  writes  Mr« 

^M    Upham, ''  in  the  glacial  drift  and  its  tei-minal  moraine  during  the 

^^    tatter  i>art  of  the  year  1880,  when,  in  company  with  Prof,  G.  P. 

Wright,  he  studio*!  the  remarkable  osars  of  Andover,  Mass.,  tiio 

gravel  of  Trenton,  N,  J.,  containing  palipolithic  implements,  the 

drift  deposits  of  the  vicinity  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  under  the 

,         guidance  of  Prof.  Dana,  and  finally  the  terminal  moraine  in  east- 

^H    ©m  Pennsylvania  between  the  Delaware  and  Lt*high  Rivers,    The 

^"    following  year  Profs.  Lewis  and  Wright  ti^versod  together  the 

Bontheru  border  of  the  drift  through  Pennsylvania  from  Bclvi- 

dero,  on  the  Delaware,  west-nortlnvesterly  more  than  two  hundred 

miles  across  the  ndges  of  the  Alleghanies,  to  Little  Valley,  noar 

Salamanca,  N.  Y.,  and   thence  southwesterly  one  hundred  and 

thirty  miles  to  the  line  dividing  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  which  it 

^^    crosses  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  the  Ohio  River.    The  report 

^B    of  this  survey  of  the  terminal  moraine  waa  published  in  1KH4, 

^B    forming  Volume  Z  of  the  rcjHjrts  of  progress  of  the  Second  Qeo- 

^H    logical  Survey  of  Pennsylvania. 

^1  '*With  the  similar  exploration  of  other  portions  of  this  great 
^H  moraine  done  a  few  years  earlier  by  Prof,  Cluimberlin  in  Wiscon- 
^H  sin,  Profs.  Cook  and  Smock  in  New  Jersey,  and  Mr.  W*rpr*n 
^B   Upham  in  Long  Liland,  thence  eastward  to  Nantucket  >3 

^H   Cod,  and    also  in    Minnesota^  it  completed    the  dem>  n 

^H    of  the  formation  of  the  North  American  drift  by  the  .  f 

^H    land -ice. 

^^  *'  The  observations  of  the  moraine  in  Penns)*lvania,  detailed  in 
^M  this  volume,  ore  summarised  by  Prof.  Lewis  as  follows;  'Th© 
^^  line  soparatiii!  *        ta 

^H  defined  by  a  i 
^M  terial  and  bowldors;  which,  lieup^kl  up  into  irregular  hills  and 


4 
4 


ft 


lioHows  over  a  strip  of  ground  nearly  a  milo  in  width,  forms  a 
continuous  line  of  drift-hills  (more  or  less  marked)  extending 
comitIett»Iy  across  the  State.  These  hills  vary  in  height  from  a 
few  feet  up  to  one  hundred  or  two  hundred  feet,  and,  while  in  some 
places  they  are  marked  merely  hy  an  unusual  collection  of  large 
transported  bowlders,  at  other  places  an  immense  accumulation 
forms  a  notewortby  feature  of  the  landscape.  When  typically 
developed  this  accumulation  is  characterized  by  peculiar  contours 
of  it«  own — a  series  of  hummock.s,  or  low,  conical  hills,  alternate 
sliort,  straight  ridges,  and  inclosed  shallow  basin-shaped  depres- 
fiions,  which,  like  inverted  hnvimocks  in  shape,  are  known  as 
heiiU'lioles.  Large  bowlders  are  scattered  over  the  surface,  and 
the  uusiratifind  iiU.  which  composes  the  deposit  in  filled  with 
rlacier  -  scratched    bowlders    and    fragments   of   all    sizes   and 

^pes.' 
From  its  lowest  point  in  Pennsylvania,  where  it  crosses  the 
Delaware,  "l^)  f<x*t  above  the  sea-level,  this  terminal  moraine  ex- 
ten«ls  indiscriminately  across  hills,  mountains,  and  valleys,  rising 
over  2,(XJ0  feet  above  the  sea  in  crossing  the  Alleghanies,  and  at- 
taining the  maximum  of  2,580  feet  on  the  high  table-land  farther 
went,  being  there  '  finely  shown  at  an  elevation  higher  than  any- 
where else  in  the  United  States.' 

"  Preliminary  outlines  of  Prof.  Lewis's  work  on  the  glacial  drift 
of  Eiicjlftnd,  Wales,  and  Ireland  are  given  by  his  papers  in  the 
reports  of  the  British  Association  for  1886  and  1887;  and  the  first 
of  these  also  ap[>oared  in  the  'American  Naturalist'  for  Novem- 
ber, and  the  'American  Journal  of  Science'  for  December,  1886. 
Their  most  important  new  contribution  to  knowledge  consists  in 
the  recognition  of  the  terminal  moraines  formed  by  the  British 
ice-sheet,  which  Lewis  traced  across  southern  Ireland  from  Tra- 
lee  on  the  west  to  the  Wicklow  Mountains  and  Bray  Head,  south- 
east of  Dublin;  tlirougli  the  western,  southern,  and  8outheas^^?^n 
portions  of  Wales;  northward  by  Manchester  and  along  the  Pen- 
nine chain  to  the  southeast  edge  of  Westmoreland ;  thence  south- 
east to  York,  and  again  northward  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Tees;  nnd  thence  southeastward  along  the  high  coast  of  the 
North  Sea  io  Flamborough  Head  and  the  mouth  of  the  Hum- 
bcr.  It  is  a  just  cause  for  national  pride  that  two  geologists  of 
the  United  States — Lewis  in  Great  Britain  in  1886»  and  Salis- 
btxry  the  next  year  in  Germany — have  been  the  first  to  dis- 
cover the  terminal  moraines  of  the  ice-sheets  of  Europe.  Like 
the  groat  moraines  of  the  interior  of  the  United  States,  those  of 
l>oth  England  and  Germany  lie  far  north  of  the  southern  limit 

the  drift. 

**  Ajiother  very  important  announcement  by  Prof.  Lewis  relates 
to  the  marine  shells,  mostly  in  fragments  and  often  worn  and  stri- 


4 
4 

I 
I 


I 


SCIEyCE 


I 


)d,  found  in  morainio  deposits  and  associated  kamt^  1;100  to 
^^,350  feet  above  the  sea,  on  Three  Rock  Mountain,  near  Dublin,  on 
Moel  Tryfan  in  northern  Wales,  and  near  ftlacclestield  in  Ches- 
hire, which  have  been  generally  considered  by  British  geologi^^ta 
as  proof  of  marine  submergence  to  the  depth  of  at  least  1,350  feet 
These  shells  and  fragments  of  shells,  as  Lewid  has  shown,  were 
transported  to  their  present  position  by  the  currents  of  t)io  con- 
fluent ice-sheet,  which  flowed  southward  from  Scotland  and  nortlj- 
ern  Ireland,  passing  over  the  bottom  of  the  Irish  Sea,  thero  plow- 
ing up  its  marine  deposits  and  shells,  and  carrying  them  upward 
as  glacial  drift  to  these  elevations,  so  that  they  afford  no  testi- 
mony of  the  former  subsidence  of  tlie  land.  Tlie  ample  descrip- 
tions of  the  shelly  drift  of  these  and  other  localities  of  h'  ^  '  '1, 
and  of  the  lowlands  of  Clieshiro  and  Lancashire,  rr<  \>y 

English  geologists,  agree  perfectly  with  the  explanation  given  by 
Lewis,  which  indeed  had  been  before  suggested,  so  long  ago  as  in 
1874,  by  Belt  and  Qoodchild.  This  removes  one  of  the  most  per- 
plexing questions  which  geologists  have  encountered,  for  nowhore 
else  in  the  British  Isles  is  there  proof  of  any  such  submergence 
during  or  since  the  Glacial  peri<xi,  the  maximum  known  being  510 
foot,  near  Airdrie,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  At  the  same  time 
the  submergence  on  the  southern  coast  of  England  was  only  from 
ten  to  sixty  feet,  while  no  traces  of  raised  biMU'hes  or  of  Pleisto- 
cene marine  formations  above  the  present  sea-levol  are  found  in 
the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands.  The  work  and  writings  of  Prof. 
Lewis  emphasize  the  principle  that  glacially  transjiortod  marine 
shells  and  fragments  of  shells,  which  occur  in  both  the  till  or 
bowlder-clay  and  the  modified  drift  in  various  parts  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, are  not  to  be  confounded  with  shells  imbeilded  wher©  they 
were  living,  or  in  raised  beaches,  for  only  these  prove  the  fanner 
presence  of  the  sea, 

*^The  drift  depr^itsof  England  south  of  the  terminal  moraiuoa 
traced  by  Lewis  were  regarded  by  him  as  due  to  floating  ice  U|>on 
a  great  fresh-water  lake,  held  on  the  north  by  the  barrier  of  ike 
ice-sheet  which  covered  Scotland,  northern  England,  and  tlio  area 
of  the  North  Sea,  and  on  the  southeast  by  a  land-barrier  whuro 
the  Strait  of  Dover  has  since  been  eroded.  Under  this  vivw  lie 
attributed  the  formation  of  tli'  * '        '       '     ^        \  m- 

glia  and  of  the  purple  and  H-  ,  te 

and  much  of  Yorkshire  to  lacustrine  deposition,  and  believed  that 
there  was  only  on-      '  '  *        r  -»      '       ^     *      v-a 

shortly  after  the  I;  »• 

tions  on  Franklcy  Hill  tu  Worcestershire  and  thence  J 

led  him  i-  t  the  cor  '■  -  .t.  -  ..  .i-.>.. ,.-,  ^i-  y 

other  gift  Mjth  in  ;  ''•> 

two  principal  epochs  of  glaciatioa,  divided  by  tax  iut- 


4 


n 


SKETCH  OF  HENRY  CARVILL  LEWIS, 


407 


I 
I 
I 
I 


cial  epoch  when  the  ice-aheet  was  mostly  melted  away.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  continuation  of  Lewis's  study  of  the 
drift  in  England,  if  he  had  lived,  would  have  soon  convinced  hira 
of  the  correctness  of  the  opinions  of  Soarles  V.  Wood,  Jr.,  Mr^ 
8kertchly,  and  James  Goikie.that  land-ice  during  the  earlier  Gla-' 
cial  epoch  oversproad  all  the  area  of  the  Chalky  bowlder-clay,  ex- 
tending south  to  the  Thames.  Small  portions  of  northern  Eng- 
land, however,  escaped  glaciation  both  then  and  during  the  later 
cold  epoch  when  the  terminal  moraines  mapped  by  Lewis  were 
accumulated ;  and  these  tracts  of  the  high  moorlands  in  eastern 
Yorkshire  and  of  the  wisteni  flank  of  the  Pennine  chain  are  simi- 
lar  to  the  driftless  area  of  southwestern  Wisconsin. 

*'  Comparison  of  the  drift  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
enabled  Prof.  Lewis  to  refer  the  British  modified  drift,  both  that 
often  intercalated  between  deposits  of  till  and  that  spread  upon 
the  surface  in  knolly  and  hilly  kames  and  more  evenly  in  plains 
and  along  valleys,  to  de{>osition  from  streams  supplied  by  the 
glacial  melting,  the  material  being  washed  out  of  the  ice-sheet. 
These  beds,  however,  are  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  those 
of  interglacial  and  post-glacial  agau  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted 
that  this  sagiu'ious  observer  was  not  sijared  for  the  fulfillment  of 
his  plan  of  yet  more  extended  study  of  European  glacial  deposits 
in  the  light  of  his  wide  knowledge  of  the  terminal  moraine  and 
other  drift  formations  in  this  country." 

Prof.  Lewis  was  a  member  of  the  American  and  the  British 
Associations  j  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  the  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Sciences,  and  the  Franklin  Institute,  in  Phila- 
delphia; of  the  Geological  Society  of  Liverpool;  and  a  Fellow  of 
the  Qtological  Societies  of  London  and  Germany. 

He  was  married  in  1882  to  a  daughter  of  the  late  William 
Parker  Foulko,  of  Philadelphia,  who,  with  a  daughter,  survives 
him,  and  will  transfer  his  unfinished  papers,  for  completion,  to 
the  distinguished  geologists  who  have  generously  offered  their 
assistanca  He  possessed  a  strong  Christian  faith,  and  was  an 
active  member  of  St.  Michael's  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
Philadelphia,  of  whose  Sunday  school  he  was  for  many  years  a 
teacher,  and  for  a  long  time  superintendent.  He  had  the  happy 
faculty  of  imparting  knowledge  to  those  whom  he  taught,  and  iiij 
making  his  instructions  interesting  and  agreeable.  With  a  high? 
charactor,  a  pure  standanl  of  manliood,  fine  mental  and  physical 
powers,  a  wide  range  of  scholarship,  a  happy,  genial,  and  enthu- 
siastic temperament,  rare  perseverance  and  industry,  and  a  lofty 
devotion  to  the  interest  not  only  of  science  but  of  mankind,  his 
life  seemed  to  promise  the  widest  iisefulness  and  honor. 

The  following  list  of  Prof.  Lewis's  published  papers  is  abbre- 
viated from  the  "  American  Geologist " : 


1876.  **0a  Stroutbaite  ood  Asaooiatod  Mineralit  in  Mlffibi  Cnaot^,  P«a»- 

•jflvanitt.** 

l$77-*79.  T^vent^-nino  commniucatioDs  to  the  MincroJuglcal  and  GimIosIuS 
Swtion  of  tlio  AcHilotujr  of  Sciences  of  PbiladelpMa. 

]8S0.  "  Nolo  ou  llio  Zudido^l  Li^'Ut:  Tliu  Atiruru  aod  Zodiacal  l^ht  oT  Umj 
2,  1877." 

1880. 
sidered." 

18S0. 

1681. 

1882. 
dclphia. 

1882. 

1882. 


"  The  Anliqaitj    of   Man    in  EasWrn   Ainoricu,    goologicftOy 

'*  TUe  Iron  Ores  of  the  Brandon  Period/* 

"The  Antiquitj  and  Origiu  of  llio  Trenton  Grnvd.'^ 

FiftuuQ  oommanicatious  to  the  Aoadciu;  of  Katural  Sciencei  of 


"  Volcanic  Pnst  from  Krakutua." 

"Tho  Grvut  Ternjiniil  Moraino  ucrosa  PennsylTania." 
1882.  *'  Note  on  the  Aurora  of  April  16  and  17,  1882." 
1882,  "  Map  of  the  Tonniu.'U  Moraine.** 

Eight,  communicatiuoa  to  the  Ac&d«rny  of  Katninl  ScloDCM  of  FUb- 


18S3. 
delphio. 
1883. 
1883. 
1884, 


"The  Great  Ice  Age  in  Pennsjlvanitt.*' 
"The  Geolotjy  of  Philudelpbia,*' 

*^  Report  on  the  Termiuol  Moraine  in  Pennsvlvania  »nd  We«terD  Sov 
b/   a  Map   of  Pennsjrlvania,   showing   the    Ghicinted  Be- 


Tork.    D]uairat«d 
gion,  etc'* 

188-L  "A  Phosph  orescent  Vftriet/  of  Limestone.** 

1S84.  "Supposed  GlaciatioD  in  Peuusjrtvama  south  of  the  Terminal  UondM.** 

1884.  "Marginal  Kames." 

1884.  "An  Interesting  Mineral  (Oaooclasito)  from  Canada." 

1685    "On  a  Kvw  Substonoo  resembling  Doppleritef  from  a  Peat 
Soranton.^ 

188fl.  "  A  Gri'ftt  Trap  Pike  across  Sootheastom  Pennpykania  *' 

Erythritc,  Gentldto,  and  Caprito  from  near  PhilAtlelphia." 
The  Dlrectioa  of  GlaciatioD  as  ascertained  bj  the  Vorm  of 


18S6. 
I8SG. 
Stri».*' 
1686. 
1886. 
188rt. 
1B87. 


"Some  Examples  of  Preseore  Fluxion  in  PennsyUania.*^ 
"  CoiPparHlJvc  Studiea  upon  tlie  Gl.aciution  of  Korth  America."' 
"  On  a  Oinmantiferous  Peridotite  nnd  the  Getiewi*  ofth*  Iilatnowl." 
"The  Torriiinul  Moraines  of  the  Grc'nt  Glai'iera  f  '  " 

1887.  "On  Some  Iinportnnt  Extra  Mormnir  Lakes  in  v  ^'land,  North 

Auiurioa,  and  eUewhere,  during  the  Period  of  Uoximom  UlaclatluD,  and  ua  Uit 
Origin  of  Exira-Morainio  Bowlder  Clay/' 

1S87.  "The  Matrix  of  Uie  Diamond," 

1887.  "On  the  Terminal  Moraine  near  Manchwiter.** 

1887.  "  Account^  of  Some  Bo-ealled  '  SpiritualUtlo  *  S^anoea.** 

1666.  "Dlamoodulu  Meteorites. '* 


4^9 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


AWAicrxTNO  TnoronT. 

pppuiar  .\:<if^C4  yonthty  : 
OUK  •nklc  upon  *'  Learning  to  think," 
lu  ttie  April  tniiuliiTof  your  luu^Kxine, 
XirAlM  it|M>n  a  gr-eni  nocd. 

To  ntaki!  ityvt  uurc  lielpftil  Xq  ifause  who 
«ri«b  to  know  how  to  mtik  quo^itiuiiB.  ottbcr  to 
Ainikcii  thi)u;:hi  or  to  elicit  iaforniatiou 
from  other*,  will  you  kiudly  luggeDl,  in  a 
T  ruber,  Aome  IcoilinK  'V^ucfiiiou.i  ar- 

1  .T  curlaia  calugunci*,"  for  fui-tbcr 

i-i ^..ui»  by  way  of  cxuroplc? 

la  tMb&lf,  1  beliovc,  of  mioy  eijimtors, 

A  HOTUUL 
WoBCimu,  Mam,  May  1, 1SS9. 


AXIMAL  ALTEnsM. 
JUUor  r»p¥Jor  ^Ufwt  MoiUhtt/  : 

Isi  n  J,  RiMntiu's'fl  chart  of  the  "  Do- 
rim-i-.'  '";.;..  uf  tlic  Huinnn  Miiwi***ho 
mil'  'ly '*  in  ihi*  scale  on  the  levol 

or  l>i<  1  "ooinmuuicatlon  of  iJcaV' 

OQ  «hii:h  level  Or  Uoo  is  kUo  pUceU  "  Uy- 
BMnopMr^** 

Tb«  wrftor  h»n<n  vtudiod  llr.  Rotnane* 
enough  to  iiniierstitDii  hi»  ulurt,  onJ  there- 
for* tam  not  cce  why  titc  f/i/nifHopfrfa  nrc 
Ihcro  pU<i'*l,  rxcfpt  it  be  that  ia  that  cIeas 
of  irinocl*  the  cxim-nuiuoalion  of  idood  iet 
carlicft  •wn.  B*  doe*  Dot  DOto  altruiam  ia 
the  chart. 

It  »ccnw  to  nie  ftltrufsra  ia  allied  to 
•■iiyinpiKhy,"  and  to  thi*  tnaternal  faculty 
of  afTediuu.  At  firnt  thoiir;bl  it  ae«med  as 
If  altrd^im  misht  be  thr  outgmwth  of  outer- 
naJ  lov:.  ^...1  ....  .r.i  ftut  two  in*itanc(>9  of 
lu  ii>  i-*  of  a  colony  of 

dOHi'  r  ■  adverse'  (n  that 

conclttBiutk     TiivM  may  be  described  in  do- 
tail. 

A  relalWc  of  the  wHtor,  Mrs,  R ,  of 

Etookton,  wus  occupied  in  \iiii\  with  the  oarc 

ami  atudy  -'  ■  ;'    ' ^'■■-t.cint.     One 

lUy  eilw  w  1  Nt  in  fimnll 

piwwi,   iv '■  --'ed   fiunilr 

Sithrrcl    aro>ind    ami    led    from    her   hand. 
ui  ono  little  whit4f  pullet  waa  too  ilinld  tu 
up    and   f;ot    her   portion.     A  fltntng 
chtektfu,  nrarly  fall  rrowo,  and  which 
no   fumtly    kinnhip  to  the  other, 
•MOMd  to  obvrre  nnd  take  in  the  furtorn 

cr,  aa 

.  I  ■•■iatp. 
Mui  it  did  Doi  "(ir  or  move  toward  ilie  feed- 
btc  ftrottp.  Thr  gray,  falling  In  that  rffort, 
boldly  cajni*  forward,  took  a  fragment  of 
meat,  aarrJviJ  U  to  the  htrngry  chicken  and 

•  *  ropaltt  Bdntcv  Uonlhly."  Afirit,  U30L 


dropped  it  at  ila  feet,  and  then  moved  awav, 
iLs  if  it  bad  done  a  udoful  and  frit-ndiy 
act. 

On  another  and  subiEvqueDt  occasion,  Mrs. 

R was  o^'oin  fccdiiiij  iur  poultry  from 

her  hand.  As  she  appeared,  they  burritid 
out  from  under  a  ?*h«'lU:red  rclrt-ut,  and  wilb 
nHturnl  captTnesseiich  "Wfilluwr-d  it?  covt-Ud 
portiun.  itut  oue  Uhick  Spiuiirtb  ntcuibev 
timidly  rcmaiued  Ix-hiud  under  cover,  though 
in  eight.  After  dovouriti;;  a  ffw  plccca  of 
meiU,  a  rigomua  biowu  Leghorn  t)t'iy.cd  a 
good-diked  piece,  ran  to  a  conter,  and  tdd  It. 
She  then  went  to  the  retreat  and  inducdJ  ihe 
backward  party  to  go  oui.  They  two  went 
to  the  place  nf  concealed  ittore,  when  the 
L4?gl)uru  Immcht  forth  the  n*«»r\-cd  n)or5cl 
of  tiicut  and  dra[iped  it  bcfttro  lier  compaiilun, 
wlilcli  at  once  lu'ocjjtcd  the  gift. 

Hero  arc  two  eiainpJM  of  the  altruifltlo 
faculty  developed  in  members  of  the  body 
politic  of  domeslic  fowI.-i.  Aa  lhe«d  iit- 
«lauc<^  are  found  Iti  yuuug  tndividnata 
wherein  tlie  mntcnial  frtcidtt  of  lOve  and  ns 
gard  for  offspring  liiu  never  been  called  ia 
action,  rou.it  we  not  conclude  that  aUniii^ni 
in  them  i*  an  outirTowih  of  energica  remote 
from  the  matenmi  charncteHittk'*  The  im- 
mediate mother  of  Utoao  cbickuoa  waa  the 
incubator. 

It  if  of  interest  to  determine  bow  earljr 
In  the  growth  of  mind  altruiMn  can  be  pMw' 
ocived.  A.  8.  Ucimos,  M.  D. 

BToaCTDlii  CaL,  AprU  1,  IsW. 


DO  CATTLE  COCNTf 
BdUor  Populnr  ficiAntvi  Jfonthly: 

RcAtuNG,  not  lone  ago,  a  flketch  in  our 
Iixail  pa|H'r,  entitlcil  '*Cen  Animal.i  coimt?" 
said  to  have  been  taken  from  "  The  Popular 
Scicnct?  Monthly,"  r«x-alU  to  my  mind  an 
incident  that  I  have  hcnrd  my  father  reliite. 

Uv  grandfather  Buctcrflold  kept  a  hol4;l 
on  the  tireen  Mnuntiinit,  five  milert  from 
Haneheffter,  Vermont,  more  than  a  hundred 
ycAra  a;^.  It  wo.-*  hifl  cuatocn  to  aalc  his 
cattle  every  Smiday  momlnjE^ 

After  vogetiitiun  >Hart<,«d  In  the  sprlof!  he 
would  turn  hiftvounjr^tock  into  the  foreal  to 
get  their  Uviug,  being  abort  of  cleared  paat- 
nraco. 

Thew  cattle  would  remain  away  a  week, 
but  wuuld  invaiiably  coiue  to  t)ie  bam  cvi'ry 
Sunday  for  their  salt,  and  after  eating  it 
would  return  to  the  wooda  again, 

Kow,  if  tliifl  dof'fl  not  pmve  that  animali 
can  count,  it  provo9  that  they  arc  croaturee 
of  very  regular  habiin. 

8UAA1I  M.  n.  S^APUv. 
ICanVTfus,  Jarraatoii  Covttt,  M.  Y. 


EDITOR'S  TABLE. 


nnr  aTiMrtA.TJos  or  thovobt. 

ON  another  page  wo  print  a  luiter 
from  "A  Mutbor,"  wfaum  we  ur*» 
happy  to  fiod  interested  in  the  gubject 
uf  uur  recent  editorial  articlo,  **  Learn- 
ing to  tbinV/*  Wo  are  not  snro  that 
W6  can  follj  meet  onr  correspondent's 
donumd  for  a  seriefi  of  *' iiuei^itions  ar- 
rsoged  trader  certain  categories"  for 
the  pnrposo  of  drnwio};  out  thoaght, 
seeing  that  the  questions  would  ueoea- 
sanlv  Tarjr  to  a  great  extent  w^ith  the 
subject.  As  we  puinted  out  before, 
however,  what  is  of  cliief  importance 
is  to  koi'p  alive  a  sense  of  relation  be- 
tween the  particular  thing  that  occu- 
pies attention  for  the  moment  and  other 
thinga.  A  van  number  of  prartical  er- 
rora  lie  in  neglecting  the  category  of 
eau<#.  The  question  ^VhyH  is  one  tliut 
can  hardly  be  asked  too  often,  provided 
only  it  is  ai^lced  with  a  sincere  desire 
for  infurmation  and  not  in  a  spirit  of 
evasion  or  obittraciion.  Children  often 
&jk  Why  f  simply  Co  gain  their  own  ends, 
not  with  any  intention  of  yielding  to 
the  r«a8ona  given.  This  spirit,  of  course, 
has  to  be  repressed  a«  far  as  jwsstblo, 
but  too  much  encoarofieroent  can  not  be 
giren  to  an  observing,  impiiring  dispo- 
tion. 
Whatever  the  intHltectual  task  in 
baud,  we  shnnid  adjust  ouriielveB  to  It, 
with  the  intention  of  seeing  thu  subject, 
a<«  far  ai«  may  be^  in  lt«  true*  proportions 
and  complete  bearings.  We  know  what 
It  is  to  sit  oppoi^ite  an  object  so  as  to 
gtst  airood.  fair,  and  aqnare  view  of  it. 
\^  with  nor  Intellertuul  tat(k«:  we  should 
ft  onr  position  till  wo  feel  that  we 
neso  aitunLwl  as  tu  tnke  in  all  that  wo 
MO  take  la  of  them.  Instead  of  thin, 
however,  bow  cornnion  a  thing  it  is  for 
pw^lpt,  old  and  juung,  to  taku  bot  a 
hasty,  anf/ular  glanoo,  «o  to  apeak,  at 
wLaI  they  have  to  deal  with,  and  to  foil 


to  see  ita  most  important  and 
oonapicuons  features  I  llelore  i| 
oun  be  asked  to  uuy  gouU  purpuiw,  tJiara 
has  to  be  careful  ub^^rvaUan ;  and  b** 
fore  there  con  be  careful  obHervatiuo, 
the  object  must  bo  placed  In  the  oeniar 
of  the  field  of  vision.  Whatever  w«ae« 
wo  should  try  to  realize  6r«t  In  Its  c&» 
tirety,  as  consisting  of  such  and  aoob 
related  and  convergent  parts;  and  aft«^ 
ward  we  sht  uld  cjcamine  It  analytically. 
in  order  to  ubtoin  b  better  kuuM  Icdgv  of 
the  parts,  from  which  may  Aow  a  better 
innight  into  their  relulioDs,  It  [»  una 
thing  to  know  thai  a  Lt^y  flts  a  locit,  and 
another  to  be  able  to  figuro  to  our*«lv«fi 
the  wards  or  eomparlmcnts  in  the  loek 
that  exactly  answer  to  the  paltcm  of 
the  key.  It  is  one  thing  to  know  that  a 
certain  action  is  predicsted  of  a  certain 
subject,  and  auoUter  to  underalojid  tliat 
the  predicated  action  was  a  noltaral 
product  of  Uiu  Htteudant  circomstaftoeik 
The  habit  of  closhiflcattou  ia  one  UuU 
can  be  taught  witli  rompArativ«  mm  to 
tliG  young ;  and  it  ia  one  tliat  trivca  riaa 
to  many  usefn!  question*.  *  ^y 

rolsea  the  que^ttiuu,  "  WLm  :iDd 

tenches  the  habit  of  gtjitig  behind  fttat 
appearances.  We  can  not  ask  lo  rcfard 
to  anything :  To  what  class  do««  It  b^ 
longt  witiiout  also  asking:  What  la  It 
like?  What  is  It  unMk*tf  THvn,  wb«i 
the  class  is  rco<»^ixc<  ■«  qao^ 

lions  of  relrttion  to  ■  m.-*,  «tCL, 

qaestions  of  nrigin,  of  funrtioa,  of  eana 
and  effectt,  of  pur(>u»o,  of  eignifloanoe, 
and  many  othera.  To  develop  onr  tJioiM 
faUy  would  bo  to  write  no  tmmy  oo 
pedagofcics.  To  sum  up,  we  may  My  that 
the  great  dcnderacnm  ia  to  otatdlsb  a 
healthy  action  and  reoi'tiou  botve^n  Ui« 
mind  and  the  enrlruuiog  world.  ^NtiM 
mindi  set  i  -    •'  -  ■  ■■ '   reaiillQiS 

tills  luterc'  •tnlfXMi' 

ocptlonai  (qv  UiuuM^vca,  Uli^m  itead 


4 


i 


fDITOB'S   TABLE. 


4n 


mors  or  leu  help^  and  that  help  can 
b«t  lftk«  the  t'orm  of  placing  tbeoif  as 
W0  b>T«  «xpre«wHl  it,  fair!/  opposite 
•uceeialTe  objoot«  of  otodT,  and  leading 
them  to  aslr,  one  hy  od^,  the  qaestions 
naoaaBary  to  draw  out  oU  the  infornia- 
llon  obtainable  id  regard  to  these.  The 
jadneator  who  makee  all  education  prao- 
'licflj — that  is  to  ftay,  who  keepH  ihe 
SdoB  of  rational  purpoM^  erer  in  the 
fnreirround  —  will  certainly  accomplish 
,l>vtter  rusulia,  in  the  way  of  derelopiag 
Itbought,  thdu  uuo  who  teacbea  with 
only  ao  occatdouol  reference  to  purpose. 
VTe  can  not  say  more  on  this  subjeot  at 
prmant ;  but,  as  it  ia  one  of  great  im- 
porUnoa,  and  aeems  to  be  of  B|>ecial  in- 
Icreat  to  not  n  few  of  our  readers,  we 
may  attempt  further  eluoidaliona  at  a 
fki tore  day. 


Tffr   WOJU'  Of  PSSSWSST  BAityABD. 

7m  death  of  ex-President  Barnard, 

[Of  Colombia  College,  has  removed  from 

,  Among  Q8  one  of  the  most  snccessfDl  and 

far-sighted  of  American  teaohera.    Dr. 

Barnard  was  a  leader  In  advancing  eda 

cationaJ   movemouta ;  onioog   the  fore* 

jinoat  in  stepd  to  enlarge  the  scope  and 

tprove  tho  methods  of  academio  io- 

ioD.  His  early  training  aodaasooia- 

might  have  been  expeeted  to  make 

a  OODserrative;  but  they  did  not. 

prizing  and  keeping  what  was 

in  the  old  theories  and  forma,  he 

a  pioneer  in  the  movumeutthot  has 

libufolized  the  courses  of  university  «*tud- 

leu  and  given  them  greater   ficxihiltty 

And  adapiuiion.     During  the  very  years 

ireTioofl  to  1810,  when  he  was  oloeely 

it*d  with  :  ■    (i+  which  seem 

iva  been  .  m  the  forroal- 

of  tho  anoieni  Udditiooa,  and  with 

len  wedded  to  them,  he  was  maturing 

lose  views  which,  foreshadowed  in  hia 

and  rvports  on  "  College  Oovern- 

*'CoIlpgi»t«   Education."   "Art 

"The   Improvements  practi- 

lericau  Collrge*.*'  **  The  Re- 

loMof  Cttiveraity  Education  to  Oom- 


mon  Schoola,"  and  "  Fnirendty  Ednca- 
tiou,"  he  carried  out  in  the  hitter  port 
of  his  carver. 

Notwithstanding  its  advantages  of 
age  and  endowment,  Columbia  Oollego, 
when  Dr.  Uornard  was  called  to  ita 
presidency  in  1805,  waa  not  occupying 
a  couifpiouous  position.  His  acoeasion 
to  the  presidency  was  nearly  coiucident 
with  tho  removal  of  tho  college  to  its 
pre^tpnt  location  aud  the  c^tubli^hmeDt 
of  the  School  of  Mines,  Tliese  were  for- 
tanate  eventa  whieh  coiitributetl  their 
share  to  the  growth  of  tlie  college.  But 
the  prosperity  of  the  School  of  iiiuea  i^ 
aelf,  whioh  boa  become  oae  of  the  fore- 
most American  scientific  acliools,  L»  large- 
ly accredited  to  hia  executive  ability, 
conjoined  with  the  fiduLity  of  tho  Hoard 
of  Instructors  who  were  happily  a«so- 
oiated  with  him.  ^^hile  always  urging 
the  giving  of  increaaed  promiuence  to 
scieotific  studies,  he  did  not  lose  sight 
of  the  value  of  the  other  departmeuta. 
Ue  rather  sought  and  secured  a  sym- 
metrical development  all  around  ;  so 
that,  as  one  of  the  most  temperate  aum- 
mortes  that  we  have  noticed  of  the  re- 
salt  of  bis  work  records,  '*  uuder  his  ad- 
miaistratioo  Coluinbla  has  mude  steady 
progress,  until  he  was  able  in  his  laat 
years  to  foresee  a  fnttire  tn  whirh  the 
institution  shall  grow  into  the  dignity  of 
a  university  worthy  of  the  metropolis." 
During  the  last  year  nf  bis  active  serv- 
ice Columbia  is  said  to  have  bad  the 
hip:bost  enrollment  of  any  ooUego  in  the 
country. 

President  Barnard  was  snccosafnl  be- 
cause he  waa  an  original  and  independ- 
ent thinker  and  a  prompt  executor; 
because  be  was  quick  to  discern  what 
was  good  and  ready  to  accept  it  ITe 
waa  neither  too  srntnffly  altaehod  to  the 
old  and  established,  nor  ao  radical  as  to 
grasp  at  visions  and  try  to  force  changes. 
Regarding  education  as  something  that 
must  grow  and  bo  dcveloi>cd,  he  looked 
constantly  forward,  judged  everything 
bv  its  merits,  and  seized  and  made  the 
best  of  a'hatever  be  found  that  was  good. 


4« 


THE  POPULAR  Si 


Tho  arownl  of  principles  and  occeptaDro 
of  innovations  ibat  flovr  in  tho  faco  of 
the  cusLum  ot  tbtj  ages  uftvn  demanded 
mnoh  ooarage,  bat  he  nover  lacked  it ; 
and  the  wisdom  of  hiA  conrse  woa  osu* 
allv  juBtified  iu  the  event. 

The  opening  of  the  School  of  Mines 
gave  an  opportunity  to  enlarge  the  phin 
i)(  »tudiei»  in  favor  of  science,  and  to 
CQCoarogo  tho  preferenoe  of  studentd 
wlio  desired  to  give  it  predominant  at- 
tention. Similar  liheralitj  toward  oth- 
er depurtmcnta  fucititated  the  ultimate 
adoption  of  eluctivc  studies.  This  is  a 
Victor  that  is  changinif  the  wholo  aspect 
of  uolle^  life.  Colaiuhia  College  is  not 
alone  in  tho  movement  toirard  dexibilitT- 
In  the  cnrrionlum  ;  but  it  is  most  Inrgelj 
due  to  Presideut  liarnord  Ihdt  it  is  in 
it  at  oil}  and  ban  been  able  to  turn  it 
to  advantage.  It  can  not  be  doubted 
that  his  positive  attitude  and  example 
have  bei>n  tnllucniiul  in  promoting  its 
extension  uud  itd  advance  elsewhere. 
The  tnith  of  Hm  remark  with  which 
our  '^sketch  "  of  Dr.  Barnard  in  May, 
1877,  opened— that  tew  men  araonur  the 
promoters  ofscienoc  aud  liberal  culture 
in  oar  time  had  labored  more  efficiently 
and  succt'gifully  tlian  he — was  made 
more  and  more  phitn  during  the  suc- 
ceeding years  of  his  life,  and  was  never 
more  evident  than  on  the  day  when  ho 
restinied  the  presidency  of  Colnmbia 
College. 

LITERARY  NOTICES. 

The  A«F»ir*?(  CoMnnNwrALTH.  By  Jauw 
HrtTcr.  M.  P.  London  and  Kew  York : 
MacmilUn&Co.  TwoVolumoa.  Price,  $0. 

Tnv  or>inpn>hcnAlv(m<*4s  snJ  huportiuioe 
of  Mr.  Brvec'ji  bouk  pUo?  it  with  Vou  Holst'is 
(frest  work  in  llii*  Brut  rank  of  treatises  on 
the  polili(3il  In^ttttitlons  of  America.  It  U 
hot  q  history,  thoii£;b  Its  statimirntH  are 
eldddatcd  here  and  there  by  tti-«ioriciU  ma. 
terial ;  It  is  not  •<  ;  >aal 

law,  thmtxh  lh«  .  i  it*. 

btu  fcA(ure>*  of  '    ftjid    Uitf   acV' 

•ral   Slate   Coa»i  -   polniAJ  out; 

its  fifteen  huivhxhi  p«K**  cuotpriK  aa  ao> 


onnnt  of  the  prc»^t  condition  of  lbs  AmtA 
can  nation,  Iu  the  words  of  the 
"  There  an*  three  main  thinjp  that  one  wl 
Co  know  about  a  national  eomiDOQwothh,' 
vii.,  iu  framework  and  cinstUutiuaal  laa- 
cbloery,  the  roelhudti  by  which  It  Is  ipitrkM, 
the  forces  which  move  It  and  'Einvt  Ita' 
course.**    These  thre>^  in  twm  Its 

task  to  tell  ahuut  the  i  -•      Pin  f 

dexUs  with  the  thr^e  divUlous  at  i 
GorenuncQC — the  eitt-utive.  ihr  : 
aud  the  jiididal.  It  dcfcrihce  ti< 
<>f  the  natiunsl  j>uncr  to  the  leTc:--. 
It  discusses  the  nature  of  the  Conjiiitittiual 
and  shows  how  thb  stable  isffratncnt  has  been 
in  a  few  points  expressly,  in  many  others 
taeitlyandlimlf-uncon-' 1  Part 

n  deals similsrly  with  i  •.uta. 

There   is  also  gtveu  >:  .m  ol    the 

systems  of  rural  and  (r>  :v' r:iTr.iml  which 
bare  been  created  in  the  vaiiuufl  StaCea,  Mr. 
BrycG  eommi'uJs  our  rurml  govenuacnis, 
hut  coiulemne  (he  gDT«*rnii)ont  of  oar  cities 
as  **  the  one  ecmppicuous  failure  of  lbs  Cait^d 
SUtes.^*  Part  III  contains  a  sketch  at  ibaj 
party  system  aitd  of  the  men  who  **  no  **  IL 
The  author  is  conscious  of  especial  dUBcuItieaj 
in  making  such  a  sketch,  l>ceaiiM  tho  i»ytt«3a' 
itf  so  ditfereut  fmra  what  a  study  of  tha 
C<jnt>ttl4tt{on  would  fti^j.'v^t,  bccauj*e  tbenj 
are  no  cxifitinp  suthuriUi.^  on  the  subj^-et^l 
anil  knowledf^  miut  be  ghnuad  from  Dvw**j 
paper  artkle^,  cou^timUod,  and  a  Tarirtyl 
of  oecurrcncw,  wliich  topetber  eoostltuta  a] 
floating  and  uneven  basis  for  th»  nark. 
But  wlial  Mr.  Urytv  tletius  tli«  mo*t  dlAcult 
aud  luust  vital  part  of  hiit  lafck  it  to  dcaorilM 
public  opininn  la  America,  and  this  snbjoeft 
forms  Part  IV.  Public  oplnioo,  he 
**  stands  above  the  jisrtlea,  bring  cool 
larger-ndti'Iod  thun  th^?  arr;  It  awta 
leaders  and  holds  In  cbt-ok  partT  nryrisit^ 
tlouB.  No  one  o|K'nly  rent 
It  ileteonined  thcilirei'titinui: 
of  national  policy.  It  1^  \iuf  pt 
greater  Quraher  of  mtndii  thnn  u. 
ooimtry,  and  It  U  more  b-! 
elgo."  la  order  to  illu<itnii*-  ^f  . 
made  In  craUlag  of  paitiea  aa 
opluhitt,  tlie  audi  "       V 

of  iiw  TwimmI   I:  '■ 


•/iiirf  ttoctrina,  msid  wuuiiub'v 


LITER  AH  Y  KOTICSS, 


4»3 


tnd  tb«B  p«SM9  to  tn  estimate  of  the  strength 
mud  wfAluieds  of  deinoorailc  goverameat  u 
it  *xiiiti  in  the  United  Sut«a,  and  a  com- 
parbon  of  tU«  /acts  with  European  tfppcula- 
tloo  about  deuKtcroc;  in  g^uvral.     Part  VI 
ii  of  a  aoawwhal  different  chariLCter  from 
Ibv  preoediag  porticos  of  the  «ork,  dealing 
with  the  social  Intitttutioaa  of   the  Uniud 
Rtates,  bnl  thcnc,  ait  ibu  author  navd,  "count 
fof  AO  murfa  In  ihc  total  life  of  the  country, 
in  the  total  Impre^lon  which  it  makes  and 
the  boi>e«  fiif  thti  future  wliich  it  rai.-wa,  that 
they  can  not  be  left  unnoticed."     In  foot- 
notQH  and  appuudUea  to  both  volume*  much 
illuatmiive  of  the  text  Is  aiippUed. 
ig   these  materials  are  an  account  of 
tobbr/*aad  a  newspaper  description  of 
%  sooa  la  s  presidential  nominating  couvea- 
tlon.     Mr.  Bryco  is  not  Inclined  to  credit 
so  much  Influence  to  democracy  in  making 
Amerloft  what  It  i«   as  preceding   writcrg 
bavo  done,  or  as  Americans  arc   fond  of 
doing.      "A   eloM  analy^i   of   social    and 
politiofti  phenomena."  be  says,  "  often  shows 
ti»  that  cauaofl  are  more  complex  than  bad 
ftt  fir»i  appeared.**     He  finds  many  things  to 
/Condemn  to  our  political   systeto,  aB  any 
houRSt  crttic  mo-It,  but  be  ts  not  pescimisUc 
fin  r«^rd  to  oar  future.     lie  Is  conrincod  of 
••*h«  cxtstcnce  in  tlip  American  people  of  a 
of  force  and  patriotism  more  than 
lufldettt  to  sweep  away  all   the  evils  which 
«i«  bow  tolerated,  and  to  make  the  politics 
•<    tfco    oounlry    worthy    of    its    material 
puidmr  and  of  the  prirate  rirtues  of  its 
Inhalfiunts.     America  excites  an  admiration 
wbidi  must  be  felt  upon  the  spot  to  be  un. 
dmtood.      The  hopefult»ess  of  her  peo|)le 
eommunlcaiea  itself  to  one  who  moves  among 
them,   And   makes   him   perceive    that  the 
graver  faulta  of  politics  may  be  far  le«  dan- 
gerons  there  than  they  would  bo  in  Europe. 
A  hmdred  Umes  In  writinj;  this  book  hare  I 
disboartimed  by  the  facU  X  was  sUling ; 
timn  has  the  recollection  of  the 
■tMDgth  and  Titality  of  the  nation 
away  these  tremors.'*    If  there  is  not 
Is  these  volumes   that    tho   wett-in- 
>rTnnt  American  )■  not  aware  of.  Oiore  is  a 
deal  In  them  that  Americans  do  not 
itly  think  of,   wbllo  to  the  Knglish 
ftiniiKhei  at-  'n\,  opppc- 

Ciatlv*  rif w  uf  the  grvL  ,f  U^:  \«w 

WoHd 


Thb  HiSTonr  or  Axciekt  Citilization.    Kd- 
Itod  by  Rev,  J.  VitatwaoTLK.     New  York  : 
D.ApplcloniCo.  Fp.  296.  l*rice,$1.7ft. 
Tbw  hand-book  is  intended  to  give  a  com- 
prehensive view   of   ancient  civilization   in 
Egypt,  UesopoUmia,  and  other  quorti-rs  of 
"  the  Bast,"  as  well  as  in  G  recce  and  Rome. 
in  order  to  bring  them  out  In  their  relations 
with  one  another  and  show  the  chain  of  de- 
pendence, without  an  undersiauding  of  wliich 
their  sucocsfiion  and  development  can  uut  be 
adequately  comprehended.     The  civiliaitii 
of  Rome^  "which  was  the  outcome  of  corpo- 
rate action,"  was  most  largely  influencftl  by 
that  of  Greece,  which  was  "  ihe  outcome  of 
individual  thought,"  and  tbhi  runa  back  into 
tho  various  civiliiatioos  of  the  East.     The 
precise  nature  and  extent  of  the  influence  of 
these  dvilizationa  upon  Grecian  development 
have  not  bocm  defined,  but  are  at  this  moment 
more  than  ever  before  the  lubjcct  of  active 
study.   The  author  doo^  iMt  attempt  to  meas. 
ure  them,  but  gives  oomprehensivo  tlwugb 
:  succinct  descriptiotu  of  the  civIlizationH  »o  far 
as  they  have  been  made  out,  bcgimiing  with 
"  the  beginnings  of  dvlltzatiun,"  and  bring. 
Ing  under  review  in  succession,  "  The  Mnnw. 
ments  and  Art  of  Epypt,"  •'  The  Babylonions 
and  A8?yrian^"  "The  Religion  and  Social 
Suteof  Iho  Jews,**  "  Phfpnician  Commerw," 
snd  "TheUviliMLionof  tho  Aryans, Hindoos, 
and  Pcruiana."     Greek  civiliiation  is  treated 
under  tho  heads  of  '*  Religion.'*  "  PolltJea," 
"  Literature  and  Art,"  and  "  The  Diffusion  of 
Or«ek  Genius  " ;  "  The  Roman  World  "  under 
those  of  "  The  Republic,"  "  The  Conquests 
of  Romfr— Transformation  of  the  Republic," 
"  Roman   Society   under   the  Empire,"  aud 
"  Latin  Literature  and  Art."     The  work  Is 
based  on    U.  Ducoudray's   *'Uistoire  sora- 
malre  de  la  Civilisation  "  ;  but,  while  a  trans- 
lation was  made  by  an  experietiocd  hand,  It 
can  not,  in  it»  present  form,  be  callcKl  a  truni»- 
lation,  for  a  large  part  of  it  has  beeo  ro- 
written. 

How   TO    BTTDT   GxOORAPnT.        By    FRAWoa 

W.   Pakkkr.      Intemaiional    Educatkn 
Series,  Vol.  X.     New  Turk :  D.  Apple- 
ton  k  Co.     Pp.  400.     Price,  $1  50. 
Tire  equipment  of  the  teacher  must  In- 
clude both  an  undcrstianding  of  educailnnal 
theory  and  an  acquointance  with  educational 
pructice.     TJ)«  present  volume,  as  indicated 
by  lu  title,  ii  dc94gDed  to  contributo  to  the 


4U 


'OlTTl 


Utter  of  thcM  qtiAlIfleitiniiA.  It  ooiuiBta  of 
plftlu  luid  detailed  dtrcctioiiB  for  teaching  %. 
koowledf!^  of  tbe  cuib*a  surface.  The 
geoerftl  forms  of  river  biusiiu  arc  first  taught 
with  tbe  aid  of  dla^ramg.  The  structure  of 
eaeh  of  the  eontinenu  is  then  shown  in  the 
igunc  way.  N'ext.  attention  la  drmm  to  a 
[large  Dumber  of  points  which  together  give 

ricw  of  the  world  as  a  whole,  among  thcM 
'  iKiing  the  relative  poaltlons  of  tbe  continents, 
teUtiona  of  contiucnU  to  oceana,  distribu* 
Uou  of  heal,  ocean  currentd^  winds,  distribu- 
don  of  molsturt\  of  vcgctatioOf  of  animalfi, 
fof  races  of  men,  and  of  minerala,  and  po- 
litical dirtalons.  A  brief  outline  of  a  cotirao 
of  atudj  ia  given,  and  this  is  followed  by  a 
chapter  of  general  suggcstiooe  and  dirt>c- 
tlocia.  One  direction  which  the  author  ranki) 
above  all  othcmt  ia  that  the  pupil  should 
r»rTQ  the  habit  of  "  locating  every  place, 
natural  feature  and  country,  mentioned  in 
reading  and  study/'  the  best  cuance  for  thia 
being  found  in  the  study  of  history,  lie  in- 
dunes  the  us«  of  relief  maps,  after  consid- 
ering the  objtictiooa  to  them,  and  recom- 
mends map -drawing.  He  maintains  that 
**in  the  art  of  quecUoniog  is  conccutralvd 
the  art  of  lenchinir,"  hence  the  "  Notci  on 
the  Counw  of  Study,"  which  occupy  about 
bnlf  of  the  volume^  larp'ly  consist  of  qucft- 
tionA.     Thera  may  be  used  aa  they  stand  by 

le  Icttcher  to  giving  leasona,  and  should 
Also  serve  the  higher  purpose  of  a  modul 
from  which  the  teacher  msy  learn  the  art  of 
original  quc^floninf:.  The  course  of  study  fa 
inarkrd  nnt  in  grnile*,  and  ihc  "  Notea"  are 
followed  by  a  lUt  of  books  and  maps  sulta- 
ble  for  supptemrntary  reading  and  reference 
In  each  grade.  E^Eiays  on  "Spring  Siudiea 
in  Xatut*,*»  "  Wentlier  Ob*erv  nil  oris,"  "Tl»c 
KtuJy  nf  Ocos^raphy,"  and  "  Relief  Mspa  and 
Ihetr  Con-truction,"  by  various  writers,  are 
apf>en'lr<l.  Thin  book  can  not  fail  to  be  an  iro* 
portani  aid  to  ihc  tcachrr  In  ctianging  g«og- 
Taphy  le?)<K)ns  from  a  mere  drudgery  for  the 
^laemory  to  a  real  study  of  the  cuth*a  surface. 

Ttai  tfniB  or  rttt  CiiiLo,  Vk%i  X\.    Tnic  Ok* 
TKLOPMKirr  or  thr   Ifrrfti-Rrr.     Bv  W. 

ralYICR.     Tnitislut'-'l    ' •'-   '•— 

bv  n.  W.  Brown 

rleton  ft  Oo.     "  Ini 

Berlos.'*     Pp.  XI 7.     I'rio,  Itl.Ao. 

Tna  fonnr*r  rtdvim*  of  th«  relatkm  of 
VtqL  Trttpa'it  tavaatifaiaaa  «i  ihe  mimd  af 


the  child  contained  thoae  paMa 
tbe  deretopment  of  the  aeasca  «nd  of  tiir  vfll  ^ 
The  preaeni  volume  cooealns  a  thlcd  part, 
which  treats  of  the  dcvelopmeat  of  tfao  la.^ 
tellecL  Three  appendixes  are  added, 
talning  «upp lemon tary  matter.  Tb*  ojiUbefi 
conifidering  that  the  development  nf  ihapoau 
er  of  u«iog  language  la  the  moat  pnnttlaanl 
Index  to  the  unfolding  of  the  latrilect^d^ 
votes  tbe  greater  part  of  tli  thai 

branch  of  theaubjcrt    The  <;  ^eih-. 

er  there  can  be  thought  without  worda^  wUtk' 
Max  MQller  haa  mada  a  living  one,  bold*  m\ 
fir«t  pluce  in  the  discuaaion.  Th<-  aatW*^ 
opinion  on  this  stib]tK><  ta  dear  and 
without  reserve,  and  la  opposed  to  Ilia 
which  Dr.  M&ller  maiuLaioa.  The  thtakor,' 
who  has  long  vinoe  forgotten  the  tltne  wtiaa 
he  himulf  learned  to  speak,  ran  not  gfve  a 
dedded  answer  to  the  quosUoo ;  for  lia  caa 
nnt  admit  that  he  haa  been  thinking  wttltoaft 
words,  "not  even  when  he  haa  cauglit  ^Att-^ 
self  arriving  at  a  logical  result  withooft 
oonliouity  in  his  exproasod  IhoogbL  .  . 
But  the  child  not  yet  aequalnted  with  varbal^ 
language,  who  ba«  not  been  pnrmatufvly  artU 
ficialized  by  training  otui  by  aupprcaaion  ol 
his  own  attempts  to  cipreea  bia  atalM  oC 
mind,  who  learns  of  Mmsri/  to  lAsal;  jaal  aa 
be  leama  ol  himself  to  ace  and  hear  saaha 
child  shows  plainly  to  the  attentive  obMrvar 
that  long  before  knowledge  of  tha  word  u 
a  means  of  undermtandlng  among  own,  aa4 
long  before  tlio  first  aocorafal  attenpt 
express  himself  in  artlmlate  wttrda— <oay,< 
long  before  learning  the  pnmmtciatloa 
einglo  word,  he  oombinea  idnaa  la  a 
manner— I  e^  he  thinH*^  ThSi  poaitkiB 
awitalAod  by  nuroeroua  iUustratiooa  and  dn^' 
tions  of  InddenU;  aad  tha  caae  ol  —adari' 
tod  dcaf'matcM  is  regarded  as  dininnalnlkn 
that  thooglit- activity  crista  witbooft  «o«^ 
and  without  a|||;na  lor  vorda.  In  our  awn 
only  half-reiafinbarad  arimisiwaa^  tW  an* 
thor  aaya,  *'  it  waa  not  lanjrnaiJe  Ibal  ^tamt* 
ated  the  Ifitellect;  It  is  tbe  lutellooi  Itnt  fov* 
merly  Invented  Ufiguage ;  and  wni  aa«  IIm 
new-born  human  heing  brings  vlUi  Wm  lata 
the  world  far  more  tnirllfxt  than  ftalaot  la» 
tattguag«».**  The  aorpilaitioa  ol  apaaA  bo- 
long*  to  thr  unsolved  ph]raUI««toal  prwN- 
lenuk  Aa  a  help  to  the  InTaatlgsaOoa,  a  par* 
allat  la  drawn  bitwes  Ifaa  dMU  that  dm* 
tioC  7«t  qwak  and  the  dlacased  cdall  «ta 


ITBRART  NOTICEt 


4*5 


«o  loader  fau  oommand  of  language.  Id  tbe 

li^t  of   vhfccb   the  organic   oooditioDS  of 

letnlog  u>  speak  are  convidered,  with  im< 

portani  plijrtlulogical  reaulu.     The  derelop- 

mcftl  of  apeccb  la  the  child  during  the  first 

tbrM  yeora  b  detcribed  from  obtfervatioM 

OB  the  atttbor'a  ovn  EafanL     The  growth  o( 

the  fccUog  of  Bclf,  or  \.\w  "  I  **  fecUug,  \a 

examinetl  in  a  like  mauner ;  and  the  resulta 

are  lummarizcJ^  pardcuUrly  as  tbcy  bear 

upoD  llie  theory  of  the  formation  of  con* 

oepca  without  laoguag&     In  tho  appeodixee 

^^Are  giren  '*  Coinparati?*!  Ohacrvattonfl  oom- 

^Bcerning  the  Aequircinent  of  Sjieech  by  Gcr- 

^Bsnan  and  Foreign  Children";   ''NoU'i  con* 

^■MtiUng   Lacking,    iJefective,   and   Arrestee] 

^■Mental  D<.«vpliipiuiiiit  in   Iho  Firat  Ycara  of 

^f  Li/e";   and  reporta  of  sorcml  cases  illua- 

trating  tba  (*rooea«  of  learning  to  see,  on  the 

part  of  p«noas  bum  bllud,  but  acquiring 

itffht  Ihrottf^   aurgical   treainicnt.      A  full 

1^^  eoospeotua,  lowing  the  results  of    Prof. 

^■Trwyer'a  ohterrationa  In  a  chronological  or* 

^Hd<.T,  airaagMj  by  months,  la  added  by  the 

^Btranalalor,   and  very  gruatly  augueuts   tbe 

^^  ralue  of  the  book. 


Pdrrtaa  T/     vn  AnnBtasM.    By  8ir 

Wu.i.i  V  In  Three  Volumes. 

\fA   !  ;..  .i(>?i  or  MATnta.     With 

Illu  i-r,    1-      London  and  New  Vork: 
Ma -Tnul  .11  \  Co.     I»p.  4rtl).     Price,  %%, 

Taa  flnt  Ircturc  included  in  this  volume 
^H^tt'*  *^'^  ca{HiUry  attraction,  expUiniog 
^H«(th  ftha  aid  of  diasrsnis  tbe  action  of  the 
^yforees  which  produce  capillary  phenomena. 
^P*  Tb*r«  are  two  lectures  od  electrical  meajure- 
i:  000  dAscrlbiog  how  the  units  in 
n  hare  been  arrived  at  and  point- 
ing oat  certain  things  In  relation  to  them 
wtlldl  ihould  be  atvanced  and  perfected; 
llMOlkv  rtiiilln|[  mainly  with  thecoostmo- 
lioa  al  rieoKroinetara.  The  collection  oon- 
talita  aa  eiimdMl  dUcuiuion  of  the  size  of 
atooa,  and  an  addr^sa  entitled  *'8tepe 
lovard  a  Eioetlc  Theory  of  Matter.'*  The 
sort  popular  aildrew*  in  the  volume  Is  en- 
|fcl«d**The  Sis  Gateways  of  Knowledge," 
maA  daab  wHb  the  aenees,  todudtne  among 
tkaai  tW  laDperatnra-aenae.  Prof.  Thnmson 
MfB  Chan  ii  BO  erideno*  for  the  exi.«tenceof  a 
■■■ffeHu  aeoM.  Aauther  altracti  re  paper  to 
Um  ^neral  reader  I*  a  lecture  on  tbe  ware 
^^ihtorj  of  Deht,  ilt:llrcr«a  in  Phlladilphia. 
affc  two  Uetores  on  the  sun's  heat,  ooe 


of  which  coDttldcre  the  probable  limit*  to  the 
pcTiods  of  time  past  and  future  during  which 
the  sun  can  be  reckoucd  on  au  a  source  of  heat 
and  light.  The  second  volume  of  tht$  Bcrit'e 
will  iududo  subject.*!  ouanccted  with  geology, 
and  the  third  will  be  chiefly  concerntvl  «iih 
phenomena  of  the  ocean  and  with  maritime 
affair*. 

ScTiutTB  ANsrAX  RapoRT  or  thx  TxirKD 
Stateh  Ugologicai.  Sdrvkt  to  the  .>sc- 
RBTA»T  or  TUK  InTriiioR— 1886-'86.  By 
J.  W.  Poww-L,  lUrcctor.  Washington: 
Goremment  Printing  -  Office  Pp.  6^tt, 
with  Plates. 

Tm  report  begins  with  an  explanati'm  of 
the  purposea  of  the  geographic  division  of 
the  BDrrey  and  the  object  of  the  topographio 
maps  and  metbods  of  preparing  them.  In 
the  geologic  division  the  udoption  of  a  £chenie 
of  taxonomic  representation  that  shall  be 
comprcbcDslTe  and  susceptible  of  cxtensloa 
aa  new  featares  come  to  light  is  shown  to  be 
Important  The  perfection  of  the  work  of 
the  survey  baa  made  oeecssaiy  the  estab- 
lishment of  accessory  divisions  of  paleon- 
tology, chemistry,  microscopic  petrogriipliy, 
slAtisttcfl  and  technology,  forestry,  and  lllu^ 
tmtions;  and,  in  order  that  needed  fadlillea 
may  bo  provided  for  the  consultation  of  the 
r«iill8  obtained  by  other  goologists,  a  libra- 
ry of  17,'i65  books,  10,fiOO  pamphlets,  and 
9,000  maps,  baa  been  collected.  Tupograph- 
io  surveys  were  carried  on  during  the  year 
orer  81,829  square  miles,  at  aa  aremge  cost 
of  about  $2.7fi  per  square  milo.  In  tbe  dis- 
tribution of  the  work,  the  invejitigation  of 
the  artisan  rocka  ha.i  been  conducted  under 
tbe  direction  of  Prof.  Raphael  Pumpelly; 
inrcff ligations  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  includ- 
ing changes  of  level,  by  Prof,  ^aler;  in- 
the  Appalachian  region,  by  Bfr.  G.  K.  nil. 
bcrt ;  in  the  Lake  Sup**rior  region,  by  Prof. 
It  D.  Irving ;  in  GUcial  Geology,  )iy  Prof. 
T.  0.  Chamberlin;  in  Montana,  Yellowstona 
Park,  Colorado,  California,  Volcanic  Gecrfogy, 
the  Lower  tfiaalssippi  region  (Inw  and  othet 
ores,  salphnr  and  «alt  depoalta,  etc.),  PotlK 
nuc  Rlrer  and  tbe  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay, 
by  Dr.  Hflvden,  Amolil  Hajrue,  R.  F.  Emmnn*, 
G.  F.  Becker,  Captain  Dutton,  L.  C.  John- 
son, and  W  J  UcGct*,  reMpecUvely.  la 
other  branches  of  the  studica,  the  sorreyt 
have  been  continuix]  under  the  several  spe^ 
dalista  who  have  had  them  in  charye  la  pro- 


4i6 


tIoub  Tc»r».  The  ppocial  pnpc«  comolncJ 
in  Uiii  Tolumc — fniita  of  Uie  division  iW' 
reys  alreftilj  fuuned— arc:  " The  Rock-Scor- 
lng9  or  the  Ureal  Ice  InTMion,"  by  T-  C. 
ChambiTUn;  "  ObsUUa  CliU;  Yellowstone 
National  r»rk,"  by  J.  P.  Iddinps;  "Geology 
of  Blartba'a  Vineyard,"  bj  Prof.  Shalcr ; 
B*Claui6cation  of  the  Early  Camhrian  snd 
-Cambrian  Forraaiiona,"  by  R.  D.  Irving ; 
"Struclurc  of  the  Tria»«ic  Fonnatioa  of  the 
Conneciicut  Vallej,"  by  W.  M.  Darla;  "Salt- 
making  Procesaeis  in  the  United  States,"  by 
T.  M.  Cbat&rd ;  and  "  Geology  of  ibe  IlcaJ  uf 
Chesapeake  Bay,"  by  W  J  McGcc 

PRoriT-Saxusa  dctitscn  Emplottb  a!«d 
EMTLorEE.  By  Nicholas  P.  Gttuxs. 
BotttoD:  HoD^litoUf  MiOUu  k  Co.  l*p. 
400.     Prico.  *1.75. 

Trk  vide  extent  irhleh  labor  troubles 
>Te  reocbtxl  in  xhe  pof  i  fuw  yt'ors,  aad  the 
great  losa  and  nujurr  wbioh  tbey  liaro  cau^-ed^ 
^vc  hnportonce  to  a  eohfinc  which  promlseB 
to  be  in  any  incaxiirc  a  remedy  for  them. 
The  present  Tolume,  which  \i  Iho  only  reotnt 
work  givin«;  a  comprehensive  acoonnl  of  its 
Bubjoot,  is  dcroled  chiefly  to  a  history  of 
pnjfit-iharing.  Account*  of  eipcneuce  wiUi 
the  syatom  in  busineoa  hoMBoa  of  continental 
Eii?-ripc  occupy  three  chnptrrs,  llie  first  of 
which  if*  n  dket.h  of  "the  father  of  proftl- 
ahoring,"  U.  Leelaire,  and  hii  houoe.  In 
the  other  two  cliaplcrs  the  operation  of  the 
arrttetu  In  paper-iuuking,  tj-pographical  in- 
_dnBtrie«,  cotton  and  wofiti-n  factor^i^a,  Iron, 
iross,  and  8t«ot  wnrk^,  In^nrnnce,  hanking, 
am)  transportation  companiea,  retail  cs- 
lnhli»! intents,  oprictiltune,  and  variona  other 
Industries  ii  def^cribed.  A  chapter  ia  do- 
voted  to  profit-dhariog  in  Ens;1and,  and 
another  lo  American  experience  with  tfao 
ByKtrm.  Ca^ea  in  which  tho  srstem  hoa 
been  abundooed  arc  grouped  In  another 
chapter,  the  rvoaona  for  abandonioent  being 
p1r«n  in  each  com.  Tho  author  hoa  pre* 
fixed  to  (his  liistnry  on  ct()oa)Uon  of  tbo 
^nt  eliuiding  of  proflt-«liaring,  a  brief 
itroductlon,  a  ehnpter  on  product 'sharing* 
r!iii*h  h  concerned  with  the  conduct  of  agri- 
pnjtnrts  fi^lheric^  and  mining  "on  iihares," 
and  another  on  auoh  oapvcTia  of  the  wo^tw 
«a  <«i«wfn  his  theme.  In  two  oou- 
Piludlng  cStoptett  ha  ulrcs  i  ffutmnonr  and 
anaiyiia  vt  tb»  mnitt  wliidi  haru  been  lo 


far  attained,  and  foUowg  thli  irita 
nwni  of  tltrt  argumtml  for  p«ofil  ■  ahaHBi^ 
The  eBsencv  of  his  orgiiiocot  ia  tbo*  fltMfd: 
'•  Pioflt-shttring  advances  Utt  f)r(j*]M»rity  ttf 
on  e!itabii!>hmvnt  by  increaelug  tbc  qooalfty 
of  tile  product,  by  improving  ita  quaUfy»  by 
proniolinj;  care  of  iinplcincnts  and  eoooomy 
of  materinlft,  und  by  il'^  labot  dK- 

flcultieH  and  the  cost  of  :••<«.**  A 

bibliography  of  the  auhjcct  i*  *|kpcfidfld. 


I 


Pp. 

tome. 


The  Comi*lbt«  Woitis  or  R 
inn.     Edited  by  hie  Cir«i> 
otiJTK  Hazakp.     Pofttin 
Uuughton,  MitHin  kCn. 
416,  410.  aSO,  504.     Prl«-.  r- 

Mn.  IIajbaiu)  waa  a  man  <-n»iurftJ  luipny 
in  manafacturotf  and  oomm* '  -md 

time  to  think  of  qnection*  oi  >.ya> 

omy  and  mctaphyeioa,  and  wrote  weil  oad 
vigorously  upon  th«m.  While  hU  dioeoa* 
siona  usually  went  back  to  fundamenul  pri^ 
ciplea  and  were  rather  abstract,  tbooe  oa 
economical  subjects  at  least  vere  ptacdeal 
enough  lo  be  applloftble  to  qQcstlotia  of  tb« 
day ;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Pnif.  0.  P.  IHibar 
tlial  in  the  financial  cxigendca  thttt  aigio 
during;  the  civil  war  bla  obaerrattooa  wtn 
ruuiT  liwu  once  luflueiv  -  pro««t 

inj;8  of  ft*crctAric3  of  tl-  .lie  »a« 

bom,  of  Quaker  descent,  in  IbUl,  and  thod, 
excepting  thirteen  year*  ipent  ta  Peaatylw 
tiht,  at  Peacedolc,  in  Bhode  lalondL  wfacr* 
he  waa  engaged  in  the  woolen  luauufocturv. 
For  tea  coiuH'cutivv  yearn  he  traTcled  Izi  the 
South,  in  the  intervfti  of  his  builavo.  U 
th«  oour««  of  these  journeys  b«  look  «p 
the  cauHf  of  Northern  colored  men  who  «cn 
detained  at  Kew  (IHeaus  in  tlic  cha&O'ica&i; 
and,  harlng  reoolTcd  to  aeonre  tWr  rvU«ie, 
may  be  said  to  harr  b'*:injf-'i  ifir  vUrtxpowrr 
in  its  den  and  r  It  Id  Iu 

own  courts.     It  i*  '^*¥  mndt- 

lion  of  American  thi>u;dit  and  fi^iliiii;  at  tlia 
Urao,  that  it  was  dijcmcii  vipodient,  when 
this  matt«r  was  referred  to  •ererol  yeofs  oft- 
erwani,  to  •appross  Iha  name  of  tbe  dbtsf 
actor,  in  order  that  h«  mtfibt  tM  oovno  loo 

Bol  Mr. 
'■  rrrmttat 
effort  o(  hi«  li(o<     lii 
cutying  hh  taitr  fm* 
stnuc  qo^^ 
boiinuf  hi* 
wtrv  JM  pabUsUd  as  pablSe  oMmMf,^^ 


4 
4 


4«7 


,or  In  book-form— while  »omc  of 
jvar  b«fura  b«vn  publUbikl — are 
mpcil  In  thtse  four  vohunox  in  u  roMny 
[■«u,  e»ch  bKving  Ua  duttiuctire  chftractcr, 
iho  Tolame  containJog  tbe  portrait  uid 
Btogrftplilcal  Prcfw,**  tbe  tuo*t  imfwrtiinl 
|up«r  b  im  **  LauguAgt^/*  tbe  firat  cs^lajf  »bicb 
lb«  Mlbor  producud,  uid  ono  i»Uicb,  u  be 
■ttnvd|  OontAinrd  the  gcmis  of  all  bis  writ- 
ingi.  It  nttrmcted  ibo  nttviitiou  of  Dr.  Cban- 
lung,  and  was  Uio  ortgia  of  u  tantiiig  friend- 
dp  beiweo  tbe  two.  Of  tha  other  papvn 
BKMt  notable  an>  ihoso  on  "  Tbo  Adnpu- 
tion  of  Iho  Ual7cr6c  to  tbu  Cidtlvatiun  of  tbe 
id** ;  '*  Tbe  Bibl^,"  now  for  tbo  fint  Unic 
mbtiabrd;  "  lutemperanc**"  ;  "Tbe  Public 
kfaoola"  ;  and  "  Tbe  Duly  uf  TudiviJuala  to 
ipport  Science  and  Litcrutun.*.'*  A  second 
rulunui  of  "Economica  and  Politics"  con- 
[%a\m  pa(>cn  on  publk'  quciitioni.  Tbe  llrift 
>f  tbewi,  on  the  "  D.?<:line  of  Politicnl  Moral- 
Fit;,"  li  at  good  rcadiujj  ami  as  pertinent  now 
as  when  il  wu  A[Nikon  immediatolj  after  the 
r  rlurtion  of  tlw  cMer  IIirriMni  in  184'\  Tbe 
^■Oibrra  were  fainted  to  quetttions  of  their  timo^ 
^B«uch  aa  tbe  "Kugltlve^luve  Law  "  ;  matters 
^■ctjnceminf;  rallroada  and  tli^ir  cbargcfl  ;  *'  The 
■Turtff";  "Bribery;^  "  tlourt  of  Labor"; 
^■Kod  <|Uc«tiona  of  finaoce  ami  [»oIicy  that  arose 
1^  dnriog  Uut  war  or  have  ari^n  ainiMh  A  third 
Tohuna  cotnpriflea  the  book   "Freedom  of 

»Jlind  In  Willing,"  wbicb  was  6nl  publlabcd 
t.T  D.  Applcton  At  Co.  In  lSft4.     It  woa  pre- 
pared at  the  lugsuiUon  of  Dr.  Cbanning,  u 
an  auwer  to  tbe  ptMllitm  (»f  Edwanls,  and  is 
pnoeded  bj  an  «ii«I>w«  br  Prof.  G.  P.  Fisher 
of  the  author'*  philoHophical  wriiingB.     The 
lotirth  rolume  contains  the  Icttern  oa  "  Can- 
Free  Will/  which  were  addressed 
SuiortMill,  with  tbuir  appendixes,  tbe 
of  Matter  "  and  "  Our  Xotiona  of 
Space*';  "  Aoimals  not  Automata/* 
flnt  apiXAr*!  in  this  maguinc,  and 
^AaeotttaM  on  "  Man  a  Creative  First  Cause.** 


k 


Son  CiLu*nu  on  JDOauni  Aim  tub  Scoarci 
nr  Knjaiox.  By  [(abbl  Locu  Orosb- 
UAKH,  D.  D.  Now  Tofk  :  G.  P.  PutnAm's 
Bona.     Pp.  IJKt.     Prloc,  H.5o. 

Tas  anthor  atteropta  to  afcelch  b  this 
oluioe  1  few  a^re«>tn<*nts  whieh  he  di^;ccms 
oa  alreidr  noticeable  between  bl^toHcal  Ju- 
daUm  And      ■  ,.i   eci«ice  of  religion, 

Warilng  u;.  -ht  tttat  tbo  ftdencc  of 

nQ|loa  la  r  Judaium— or,  aa  he 

ro.  --.'7 


otherwise  expresMS  hirofelf,  that  the  retaltA 
uf  tbe  Bclenoo  of  religion  and  tJio  doetrlnes 
of  Judaism  overlap  each  other.  Ho  firat  aims 
to  ibow  that  risligion  U  Intuitive,  or  tliat  the 
religious  feeling  iii  native  and  eommon  to  all 
niun;  that  it  ia  sponloncoua,  by  which  ia  meant 
that  tbe  fueling,  having  been  «ugge<4ied  by  in- 
tuition, in  made  active  and  manifeald  itaelf  in 
Bome  form  of  pcrsonilieution.  In  tlic  cbap* 
tcr  on  "  The  Uiureraal  Religion  and  tbo 
Secta/  religion  U  treated  aa  in  some  sort  a 
growth  and  an  adaptation.  A  distinction  U 
drawn  between  religion  and  theology  ;  "  Rc- 
li^on  is  a  cliild  of  our  heart,  theology  is  a 
creation  of  our  tnind.  .  .  .  Keligion  ia  QteN 
nnl ;  theolo;^  a  moke-shift,  which  tbe  eii- 
gendes  of  time  and  tbe  eompetllng  agents  of 
Providence  may  throw  into  a  useless  heap.'* 
The  relaliona  of  prophoey  and  the  value  of 
religious  books  are  oonidJered.  Tiie  ftsud- 
ard  of  morality,  thcorie;?  of  ctbie«,  and  the 
relatjoDS  of  religion  and  knowteilgc,  are  di^ 
cussed.  Tbe  relations  of  Judaism  arc  treat- 
ed of  under  the  headings  of  ita  biiitory  and 
the  foreign  elements  In  Judaism.  Tbe  book 
i»  full  of  suggestion,  but  the  peculiarities  of 
il«  thought  and  style  make  rery  careful  read- 
ing essential  to  the  proper  appreciation  of  it. 

Tut  IxniAKS ;  Thvr  Massem  Aim  CrsroMS, 
By  Joan  MoLr.Ajt,  \Vlib  Ei^htetui  l\- 
lusirstlooB,  ToKinto :  William  liriggfl. 
Pp.  351. 

Tas  information  embodied  in  this  book 
Is  b&»cd  upon  a  nine  yean*  residence  of  tlio 
author  aa  a  nuitsionary  among  the  Blood 
Indians  of  tbo  Canadian  Korthwesi,  and 
some  facta  of  a  hinorical  naturu  have  been 
obtained  from  other  bourctA  Fiuding  tb«t 
many  of  the  books  ubout  tbe  Indiana  arc  of 
a  sensational  character,  ho  has  endeavored 
to  write  BQ  account  that  should  be  reliable 
and  at  the  aarac  time  Interesting.  A  large 
number  of  topics  are  touched  upon,  inchid- 
ing  family,  war,  and  *<x*ial  customs,  religious, 
laogaAges,  Ieg>>?u<i8,  and  trnditlona,  modes  of 
oommunication,  and  Indian  oratory.  Sketches 
are  given  of  Tecnmsefa,  Red  Jacket,  ami 
other  Indian  heroes,  and  there  is  a  obaplcr 
consistlng  of  frontier  tales  of  advencoro. 
The  author  tells  of  tbe  roiulls  achieved  by 
tbe  misslonarice  in  C1iristiani£lng  and  civt- 
linng  the  Indians,  and  gives  liifl  ideas  oo 
the  Indian  pn}blem.  "  Hand,  bead,  and 
heart  trmining  must  go  together,**  h«  aaya, 


4t1 


opuLAn  sciEKaE  iroxTn'Lr 


"in  clentios  th«  Indian  ncc."  Utny  re- 
*peclt  in  «hicb  the  iDdiann  &re  eoiumoti!/ 
misjuilg<ed  ore  pohitctl  out  In  tlib  volume, 
tnd  «  Ur^  store  of  material  \»  fuml<4hcd 
from  whicb  aa  lotclUgent  opinion  of  these 
pco{>le  niAj  be  forsied. 


Th»  Ftout  or  it  . 
York  :    1).    A; 


L  nrsirjt.     New 
».  Co.      Pji.    186. 


Price,  26  oenu. 
TnKai  are  nineteenth  •  centtirr  lof^enda, 
or  eMftjrs  the/  might  be  ooJIcd,  for  the  cm- 
b<xlimcat  of  otorj  in  each  ra'^e  {»  subordinate 
lo  the  tluittght  which  it  cvntaloa.    They  are 
of  a  criticul  character,  but  far  from  being  ill- 
nalured  or  peMttnlHtic,  and  ai-e  aitractire  In 
atyle.     "Tlie  Siory  of  IlappinoUndc"  calls 
attention  very  fortTJblr  to  llie  fact  that  the 
ii(y  of  providing  for  oar  own  nanta  I0 
th«  00I7  thing  llmt   makea  ui  cvowmt   to 
flwpjtiT  the  wants  of  othcrB,  and  that  without 
tbiA  oeortuitf  the  indiistnal  ayrtcm  of  the 
world  could  not  ckiAt     In  "  A  UilUonaire^a 
HilHooa"  a  wouM<tic  public   benefactor  U 
gratluallv  fiirced  to  tlic  cuuviction  that,  for 
ipruving  the  condliion  of  the  poor.  Ideas 
toon?  powerful  titan  money,  and  that  a 
tinitilm  to  industry  and   economy   aecom- 
iliihei  the  lM*iieSrent  pnrjwse  whicb  ahna- 
•Inp  only   d>.*f*'«t<.     Tcrtain  »clieme«  and 
[IcndeooicR  whicb  have  retxntly  attmci«d  pub- 
ic attention,  e«pecialty  in  New  YorV  city,  uro 
'■Uo  critically  csaminciL     "  The  City  Beau- 
tiful" la  an  idea).  »htctt  will  ftimnlate  the 
reader  lo  do  liia  ohnrc  toward  rvalidbgll; 
^UUe  ilie  cIo«ing  «tory,  "Jobn'i  Attic,"  I0 
an  iitnl  of  a  "  home  beautiful  **  adapted  to 
moderate  circumatauoea. 

Prof.  Davfd  €^Brint  haa  pttb11flh«d  • 
^Vecond  editjim,  rewritten,  of  A   Laboratory 

ifie  in  Chnni^il  Atutl^tiM  ("Wiley,  $t).  In 
Its  pre«ent  form  tho  bmilr  c(>mpriM«,  flm, 
a  ctmpter  pvlii^  rbt:  prepAratlon,  tMla,  and 
u»et  of  eacb  of  the  rvufrctkto  employeil; 
oi'ii,  a  dcftrription  of  tcau  In  the  dry  way, 
Indmlinplthoee  HpecUlly  appliraWe  tn  ndnair- 
ala.  TI1C  tnta  in  the  wot  way  for  the  baaoi 
are  then  described,  and  Iherv  la  a  page  on 
e«rparmtion  b  I-.,  which  la  followM 

br  ihD    tuciu  T*r»t\nz    'h#   «<-i.l«. 


are  followed  by  a  brl<rf  •uuuuary  et  ifat ' 
leading:  laws  and  prinripira  of  rhinilHij 
Ucthtxls  fur  the  examioatioQ  of  wan 
Oie  detm^lon  of  vai^ona  pulaona  an  pna, 
and  tlio  cloeing  obaptcr  deals  wHli  (CMfal 
titochiometry. 

The  treatise  on  T^**  F.fTiptiOii&n  •/  fffm 
Orm  witA  ffypOM'  v>iu,tiyO>rfX 

StdtfdJX  (The  S>  ^'UabSBg  COBCfA- 

ny),  is  offL'tcd  to  roetatlur]^stA  a«  a  olav,  eo»> 
plete  d«>criptIon  of  the  llslTlatioa  praoM 
in  \\A  most  Improved  modera  foriK.  !9p*sM 
prominence  faan  been  accorded  to  th9  WliMfll 
procesa  as  practically  vtondlng  for  tka  tts^ 
irlatlon  of  to^lay.  Tim  author  dcmla  ftm 
with  ibo  cbemtfiry  of  the  prooeaa,  ilMBrSth 
ing  the  di*mical3  iu>:<'  'iqai 

of  thr  aodlum  bypo!-u.  •  itia 

inlntlfinfi,  and  lelling  in  n^txm  dolail  iSv 
eolubilitic-'^  nf  nietaU  and  rariona  oomfMMMdla 
in  Bodimu  hy]iO."ulphlte  solutions.  Thia  part 
inolude?  also  the  chemUtfy  of  the  wmsh- 
water,  and  of  tiodium  and  calcSnm  ffnlpUda^ 
and  a  diapter  on  latwntory  work.  In  th*i 
pnrt  of  the  volume  devoted  to  the  prac<Iali 
carrring  out  of  the  procesa,  a  Diiimt«  d»> 
Kription  of  the  arntn;*emfint  of  the  plant  li 
fivcn,  with  detailed  drawings  dlmenatoira, 
and  estimates  of  the  co^t  of  ofeetlnf  and 
ninning  the  niUL     Tdr  .^^ 

tions,  the  chaifrln^  ai>>i  ;   ths 

Tat«,  the  trcatnx.'nt  of  roanted  and  raw  m«*, 
and  the  precipitation  of  the  metala  frova  a 
tlxiriation  ■obitloo  receive  atlrntlon  to  tuTit 
The  closing  chapter  is  a  ooiopftriwm  of  i^ 
anlta  of  tlio  l;u»ell  prvceaa  with  tboaa  wT 
Atdlnary  Uilrtaiion  and  of  ama]|ramalklL 
The  author  reports  that  hr  has  fooztd  h  Ad 
flcult  to  obtain  correct  staltatSos  of  tba  Ua. 
ivIailoR  proccfA,  hut  bit  pxpecia  to  taaoe 
jiitpplemrnt.*  tlmt  will  plaoe  tlie  statlalica 
iifion  as  round  a  ha^  a^  the  chemisiiy  <4 
the  mbject  rrints  upon.  Tlie  flrwi  of  tltwa* 
aappleti»ent»  aommpanlos  oar  oop^  of  ifat 
work;  it  enntaioa  tunno  cnrrcrtioau  and  rr- 
sttllM  from  the  Vcdras  Mill,  Suialo«,  UeaSfa 
The  Sifmmtary  iho^^«  pr«paf«4  1^ 
^.    J.    liarwrif    C  '  "    \.    <Ua^eiHB% 

|1  76),  U  •  tett.l.  10  onllega  aUk- 

dents.     It  op'.-fv  >  f  awmmvy  fli 

th«   piinHpal    r«r,  pKir*|««    a^J 


o(  Lbo  actds,  with  tbv  oeual  ^cagcnt)^  wbicii 


^■itioo«  and  ni 


LlTERAnr  NOTICES. 


41P 


e 

»: 


gird  10  Uw  reUdonRhip  of  iDnrpholojpeaJ 

|in4  pbfvlologlenJ  drlAilii  tu  genentl  priuci- 

)i'i  b*irc  been  iotroduoed,  because  ibc  author 

k  eunrinord  ihat  "working  fajpothoscs  not 

onlj  Mrv«  to  wcATe  ftpfMrcnlJy  Uotated  f«ote 

togethrr,  but  giT«  a  certain  vlriUQi'tui  tuid 

InUrcst  to  what  would  olborwisc  prove  too 

ft«*n  a  hare  and  lifclcM  catalojpie  of  data." 

«  bujoaale  ihu  UoUoifal  aspect  of  biolof^ 

tha  udnal  b  tbU  book, 

tbe  formor  from  ita  eUn- 

Itdty  fmirc  BuittKl  to  elcmcDlary  stadf ,  aod 

UM    ll]«    latter  liuj    bvi-n    abnodaotlj 

ted  b^  other  authon,     Tbo   book  oo&- 

n«  193  cuta. 

JUdobic    iha    lAto  **  OuUetins "    of   the 

States  Ocologica!  Surrey  arc  So.  40, 

im  Uiper  Course*  in  Wanhimjton 

IfhftAny  du$  la  Otaetation^  hy  Baifr.y  iViKix^ 

with  mapi;  Ko.  41.   7%»  Fo*ni  Fanivu  o/ 

«    Vftper   lifvoman—tha  (renuft    Sectiofi^ 

y^k,  by  ilmrg  S,  WWivM :  No.  42, 

oftht  MWitdone  in  ibe  divi.-ion  of 

i«fry  and /A, wioi  (I865-'^dC),  by  F.  \S\ 

•  No.  43,   On  (he  Terliarif  and  Crt^ 

of  the  Tu»ttitooM^  TomhSffUtt^ 

JUven^  bj  KMgm«  A.  Smith 

C.  JohnMOn;  No.  44,  /t'Miot^ 

>P  of  -Xttrth  A  mrrican  Ontttyftf  for  ISSOs 

//.  Darton  ;  No.  4.%,   Prmml  Con. 

of  Kmwff^;ff  of  the  Geofoffy  '>/  7>ju<, 

by  &>A«f  7*.  mil;  No.  14;,  7^  Xature  and 

Ori$fin  0/  IkrpatitM  of  PhogfJittfe  of  Limr^ 

f  A  A.  F.  Pmr^ttr,  /r,  with  an  introduc 

on  by  Prof.  Shalvr,  and  »  bibllograpliy; 

No.  47,  ylmi/ytt«u/  WaJera  of  th*  YAhit- 

i/wnat  Park,  mth  an  A*r^unt  of  the 

of    AnafifKU   rmpin'/rtf^  by    /'r-tait' 

Gooeh  and  Jnmc%  Edtatrd  WJiitJielL 

Cf  twn    ffvnt   geolo;^i,-al    fsttijii    by  IT 

n   tfir   Grttloffy  of    Afao^n 

cmt»odic^  tlto  rMulta  of  a 

cy  which  was  made  prcUniln;iry  to  pnt- 

ng  down  a  proapwsl  borc;  and  Dynamimt 

Ofologjf  nrlat««  to  cprtain  fundamental  dofl- 

ttioat  growing  wit  of  the  dUcrifPlaation  rf 

Kamm  oommonly  <oafouitdcd  bat  really 

A  Qui*  maanal  of  /Xvlu^H«<r  l^e  han 
laancd  hf  .9  r^P-T  ■    \.  (Lon^- 

I)  Sfl)     Tbv  4  ks  tu  hl9 

incfiMB  ibat  one  crlUi?  vtin  axfttnlncd  h\a 
book  fai  — nnirript  adrlfted  him  not  to  pub- 
tUb  b,  b«eaiiae  U  ma  too  tike  all  other 


logics,  whilo  another  adviaed  blm  to  cot  out 
a  (xmbidi^rablu  amount  of  now  matter.  lie 
followed  the  latter  advioct,  and  hopca  that 
be  has  at  least  escaped  the  guilt  of  waoloa 
innoTation.  Ilia  object  baa  been  "to  pro> 
duce  a  work  which  ebould  bo  aa  tbon>ui;hIy 
representatiTc  ol  tbo  present  state  of  tbo 
logio  of  tbo  Oxfonl  sohoola  aa  any  of  the 
text-books  of  tho  paat."  As  a  quaUficalron 
fur  his  tabk,  bo  refcre  to  seventeen  ycam  of 
Btudy  and  teaching  of  the  subject  at  Oxford. 
A  ooUectioo  of  exerciaea  is  appended.  Tbo 
volume  ia  made  in  a  neat  and  conTcnieot  form. 

The  most  noticcablo  dwrocleriatio  of 
CVam*«  Standard  American  AtUu  of  tks 
ffV^J  (George  F.  Cram,  New  York,  lIO.OO) 
is  iu  unconventional  baitdiuess.  On  the 
front  ooTcr  is  an  index  of  Uio  United  States, 
Carada,  and  Uex'OL)  mapis,  and  the  p*ge« 
refencd  to  here  and  in  tbc  futl  index  inside 
the  volume  can  be  readily  found,  ai  tho 
loaves  arc  printed  on  botli  sidca,  cither 
with  maps  or  letterpress  The  vulume  ood- 
talns  maps  of  all  the  States  and  Territories 
of  the  United  States,  which,  it  b  stated  on 
tho  title-page,  "  are  the  largest  scalo  and 
deitrot  print  of  any  atlas  maps  published.*' 
There  arc  o\m  maps  of  the  various  divisiooa 
of  Canada,  the  other  couotrloa  of  North 
America,  Europe  And  ita  countries,  South 
Anicnco,  Asia,  Afdon,  Australia,  sad  tho 
chief  Icland  gnmpA  nf  the  world,  and  twenty- 
two  mapa  of  Atucricon  cities.  Each  Stoto 
map  U  accompanied  by  an  index  of  Its  towns 
and  Titloces.  with  information  in  re^rd  to 
location,  population,  post  office*,  railways, etc. 
At  the  end  of  the  book  are  twenty  pogca  of 
"curiosities  of  statistics,"  an'!  rii  paa»  of 
colored  statistical  dio^rrams.  Wc  hare  found 
with  very  little  search  a  number  of  errors  in 
its  maps  and  ir^  figures  of  population. 

An  Amcrienn  edition  of  Sonnrm9rhriH*» 
CHplonmfin  nf  E'fwaHom,  edited  bv  Alfred 
S.  Ftdfhfr.  is  puhli.^hed  by  Rnrrleen  (I3.7M 
It  c^mprlws  a  wide  variety  of  pedago^ieal, 
p«foho1nciral,  ht'torical,  de^prindve,  and 
HoerafthioJiI  srticle*  br  sncb  writerfi  ta  Oa. 
ear  Brownintr,  .1.  ?.  Turwen,  Jnmes  PnnnlJ- 
son.  8rr  pliilio  Mn(rn>'*i  T>a*"id  Palmnn, 
Arthur  Pld^wlck,  snd  Jamm  Sully.  A  Hh- 
liocrmnhy  of  education,  oocupHng  thirty- 
four  pft?*^  i*  appended. 

A  Ni»f^*r^  of  Bitumtifm  in  AWA  nsr^- 
Una,  by  Chttrtm  Ut  SmilA^  k  pabUabed  by 


420 


THE  POPULAB  SCrE^CE  MONTHLY. 


the  Uoited  States  Bureau  of  £duc«tloD  as 
one  of  iu  "  Circularaof  InformatioD/'  among 
which  it  furnu  uuv  uf  a  ««rivs  uf  "Coutri- 
l)utionH  to  Americuu  Edacationol  BUtorj,'^ 
uudi.T  lb«  editorial  dIrvcUoD  of  Uurbert  B. 
LdaniB.      la  thia  casajTi   a«  Comoiiiflioacr 
kwaon  nmarlui,  tb«  vrriier  baa  tnced  Uie 
axul  dcvolopmoat  of  bducallon  In 
Forlli  Carolina  from  (he  Orol  svttlcmont  of 
thai  State  to  the  present  time;  and  for  that 
.purpOM  had  examined  llu!  coloui:!!  recordji, 
le  e&rljr  Uw0  of  the  Sutc,  works  in  pubUc 
Hbraricd,  and  private   eoUvctionB  and   per- 
gonal corrcBpondcucc,  bj  tbt-  aid  of  wludi  he 
has  inado  a  very  salisfaclor;  prvsentmenl  of 
the  stoi7.      While  the  history  of  primary 
and  secondary  lastructton  lias  uot  been  neg- 
itxlcd,  the  higher  edueutioa  haa  been  prio- 
ipaU;  treated  in  the  sketch.     The  ioflucQce 
^of   certain   classea  of  immi^mtion   and  of 
lustiiuUons   outside  of  the  Stale  is  sbowiL 
FactA  oouccming  noted  educators  are  brought 
out.    A  full  account  of  the  Uotversitj  of 
Xorth  Carolina  and  of  its  influence  on  the 
South  is  given.     In  the  picture  of  the  pres- 
,Ctit  statu.'t  of  education  iu  the  Slate^  ire  bare 
*i<D  partioul&rlj  iniercDtcd  in  the  story  of 
wliBt  hju  been  achicvod  tunce  the  war,  and 
with  the  accounts  of  education  among  the 
llorvd  people.     Odu  flourishing  lustitutlon, 
Jriogstone  College,  of  the  African  Uelhodi^t 
K|ii»copal  ZioD  Chureh,  Li  wholly  tbe  product 
of  tiu^  effort.    The  views  of  buUdingSf  which 
prominent  in  the  roliime,   help   fllu»' 
tzkl«  how  fast  a  hold  the  aroUileotunU  idea 
■tjtl  kc<^ps  in  education. 

Another  of  the  Educational  Riiremi^s  cir- 
culars oompriac*  a  paper  on  fnJuttrial  ICdu- 
in  ths  Smithy  by  the  Rct.  A.  D.  Afayo. 
'a  gonenl  dla«itsalao  of  tJie  conditions  ot 
American  and  Soutbcm  life  leads  to  a  con* 
•kteratioo  of  the  need  of  induatrial  tnin^ 
hi^  to  Improve  those  oundltion*,  not  only  in 
ibe  abopa  andoo  iIm  fttrms,  but  In  the  homs 
[too  t  and  to  a  rtrlcw  of  the  prarlsions  tliat 
made  lo  fiimitth  such  traininf^. 
to  be  KooA,  to  far  as  they  hare 
made^  to  be  distributed  with  fnir  even- 
tmoni;  the  ^tatc*.  nnd  tn  be  afforded 
"r«lty«nd 

V  ;  v:  and  el&- 

•lent  scale 

Inoiuded  in  tha  Procft^mif^  0/  tht  XV 


EduMikmal  AmoeiatioA,  at  Ita  mecdac  fa 
Washington  i«  February,  188d,  are  papvn 
and  di»ctu)9toc»  on  "  Uanuol  Training  in 
the  Public  ^hooU,"  "County  Inatkntoi,'' 
"Elocution/*  "Qualifications  of  Tcacbvro,** 
*'  Normal  Schook,"  "  Moiml  Trainlnt^''  "Can 
8chool  ProgroiQiucs  b«>  ahortenod  and  m* 
ricbedr*  "  AUaka,"  the  nlaUona  of  **Su- 
pcrintendenta  and  Teachers,'*  and  **  National 
Aid  to  Educaiiuu." 

Tbe  AfiuuofhuatttM  Soeifty  for  ytmmitmjf 
Oood  Ci/ifimiAi/>  (Boeton)  ismea  aatcafiff*t 
"  Circular  of  InfomutUon  '*  a  report  of  tlia 
Committee  upon  Courses  of  Readfi^a&dStndy 
on  WorkM  on  CivH  GovtTnmmL  Tfaa  ivpon 
contains  a  list  of  teit-books  reMumaaikded 
for  schools,  each  accompanied  by  «  deacrfp* 
live  and  critical  note,  showinc  tbe  aoc^  and 
value  of  the  book ;  a  list  of  other  tat^boob^ 
with  notes ;  a  list  of  brief  oommenlaffc*  tod 
similar  booki  rcoomiurodtid ;  ami  a  Oct  of 
less  valtuble  or  more  bulky  cutntneotadea 
and  books  of  reference. 

The  fifth  of  the  **  Uonographa  **  ^  ^ 
Industrial  Education  AsAoelatlon  ooodMiif 
a  study,  in  the  history  of  pedagogy,  of  JU- 
p(Hs  6/  AWueo/ton,  by  Ur.  OMm-  Btowaiii0. 
The  author  rcriewa  tlie  various  shapes  in 
whioh  interest  in  ciuottion  has  manifested 
itself  since  the  middle  ogc«,  with  tha  facton 
which  hare  InOuf'w.'vd  or  worked  to  filiinpr 
thorn — ending  with  the  present  aspect,  wiiicfa 
he  seemi)  to  regard  as  largely  ihe  foUovkig 
of  Dr.  Aroold'fi  Ubon  at  Bugby  SdiooL 

NinJa  for  Ttaelim  of  Fh^idUaSf^^  by  H, 
P.  Awt/ifrA.  J/.  D  (D.  a  neaihlL  l!ia^  Is 
No.  11  of  tlte   Boston  8o('i<  "  t-ital 

ai«tury*s  "  GuUlc*  for  Rdciir-  h 

furaiihes  aaggo*<  tbe 

Instraotions  of  lli  •  r^ 

oimplo  cbscrvatioaK  and  ex] 
Ing  bodies  or  on  organic  n)a!< 
teachers  will  nerd  no  other  apparattts  tkan 
la  within  their  easy  prach.     Tri^tj,  ^ft  ORiia. 

7"A»  TraMng  of  ifuma,  an  addreaa  be-| 
fore  tfic  MichiK'att  State  Board  ol  CharitiKa 
and  Correction.  t»y  Dr.  I/a!  C  ITju^or.  gSvaa  a 
drar  picture  of  what  1  "f€ 

bo.  and  of  the  mannc^  ^e 

perform  tbe  datiM  of  htft  offiiK. 

I^e  Staddt  «n^f  ^''•iv^iitf  tft^  cf  rmL- 
erfl,  by  Julia  M-  1-d 

iu  third   nnmb*  r   ,  -     ,      TV. 

prMcnt  tolume  la  atrndar  hi  dtaneta*  to : 


f 
f 


I 


LTTERAR7  NOTICES. 


4*1 


(VQ  whidt  pTOMKird  it,  the  Icssona  dealing 
i(b  plftnu,  litMcu,  blrds»  ftotl  fishefl. 
Il  itvipirvi  ooufideuce  ia  Mr.  Brnjamin  Y. 
)k  of  Knffiig/i  C/minnutr  nnd 
?1eton,  75  ct'OU)  to  fiud 
le  ttifnor  MTing  In  his  "  blnta  to  tcacbcn  " : 
^**Iii  teaching  gnunmar,  it  should  never  be 
ifitgottes  that  the  rc&l  object  ia  to  teach 
IpupUa  how  lo  upeftkaDd  to  write  the  flnglish 
|tant;ua(;e  oonrctlv,  and  how  to  read  it  io^ 
lUgcntly.  Analpis  and  parting  are  oa\y 
Huu  to  thi«  end."  The  theory  of  the  book 
U  th«  gradual  derelopment  of  the  K'otetice^ 
bcglimltis  with  itfl  timpleat  form  and  adding 
iww  clcmtnta  one  aft«r  another.  The  tearu- 
Ing  of  tlw  proper  forms  which  are  required 
ihj  the  reUUous  of  words  ia  sentences  is  du- 
[fcrred  until  the  puplln  hare  become  familiar 
with  the  nature  and  oflice  uf  the  difTcrcnl 
paita  of  cpeodi.  The  author  states  that  he 
'haa  sndMTorod  to  avoid  an  exoeu  of  Ian- 
•work  on  the  one  band,  and  too  much 
fonnal  parting  and  analyaii  on  the  other.*' 
Tlso  qnoadmu  on  the  lessons  arc  designed  to 
«aiue  ibt  poptl  to  coostruet  his  own  anxwers. 
Instead  of  the  usual  eiamples  of  f«Uo  ayn- 
tai,  ricrdfei  arc  given  for  filling  blanka  in 
a«Bieaoe«  b;  luppljing  tbc  ciim^ct  fnnuj  of 
the  seeded  words.  But,  for  tMchera  who 
desire  to  use  the  former,  a  collection  U  given 
in  an  sppendii-  The  book  is  intended  to 
««rapaaB  (h£  entire  range  of  a  two  •book 
«oor»e. 


rPBLICATIONS   RECFIVED. 

M.  T.  A,   The  rni»*4r  -r  HtrliarJ  f.     tlM- 
£ntf11ab  Ulfltory  hj  Cunlwmpormr/  Writrrt  " 

»vw  York :  O.  P.  l*utuu  •  b4Mu.     Vn. 

rtetat.    •■». 

L.W.M.  n.IUM«(nr1»*,\(»M.    Th«  In. 

)lMMe*  ta    Ibrlr  UvUtliMia    k>    th«    t'uhlte 

trteola.    Pp-  li.— Uu«r  aliall  w«  dc*!  with  tho  lae- 
hftmf    rp  T. 
lUknr  T  D«rw1«k  U     Wtf  with  rrima.    I7«w 
Tori :  LoBcnuui*. f^nMa  A  Co,     Pp.3s».    •(. 

OnwIIACo,  KvwTorfc.  -The  Arrwrtwii  Wort- 
IMB."     WMkly.     Vy  1«.     &  MOU  ;  #9.00  *  jmr. 
j^      CbMMOltcwt   AcTlcttkimJ     Expwtia^ot    Bt«tki& 
^uawial  Repurt  Jbr  irm.    I*wt  L    Pp.  4& 

H^Mtaaal  anOoa    llulUUa  Nu.  &,  AiiHI,  1»0.     Cp. 

V  Oaik«r,  G«aqrs  Onitcr.  pTtnHpUaofrrocfNlnn* 
fa  P»iai— an  BadUa.  Nnw  Yurt ;  Q.  P.  pqiiwui** 
ftdoa.    I>.lia 

Omln-.  Ctaria  O..  V  P..  2r«w  Tf>r%.  The 
XSiwv  of  mur*  Mul  Otlwr  MwtM  vrnplored  to 
pvlfy  Dftaltac  Wai«r.    P^x  a. 

ll••fWl,0•o»»•^  ''      ^  <f.  th*  IMlin  TVfbM 

«r  tik*  Yakoa  I>tF  V4)u«Dt  Nortbpni 

IMbMr.  PmiT  a.  K.  Oo  ttkf  OnnnUattnn  r»r 
AlmMBHtMalMoW.  »««toa :  Oiuo  4  Co.   Pp.  Id. 


K>MT».  Oconrr.  Manrny  (Orvd*) :  A  Tak  of  OM 
SunuitM-Ti;.  'I'riiukUtitl  try  Civm  tWU.  Naw  Yurk  : 
W,  tf.  Outtih^-ncer  &.  Co.    1  vola.     Pp.  STV  and  M), 

£^«*(oa.  T  Cfttalofne  of  Mlnwab  and  Brao' 
nycui  aljululMMlciilIy  urAugvd  for  Uw  Um  of  Miu»* 
uiu*.  Wft«hlit|rtuu  :  liovernuumt  PrlJiliiitF-OlfiDa. 
Pp.  IHSl 

Qvntir,  E.  L.  Kuoy  B«L  (Vena.)  Norfolk, 
Ya.:  '•LaadmaHi"  t^teuu  PriitllaK'tloti*^-     !>  IH. 

tiotidc-,  UwiT^  Brown.  Tbc  Ftobcrlea  UmI  PUfa- 
*rr  loduauiu  of  tb«  Uuluid  ^tau-iL  if^ctions  III, 
IV.  tad  V.  W>«blii(tnfi :  Govi^nmirnt  PriiiUof 
Offlce.    4  TOto.,  rp.  ITT,  llK  tVH,  t^U  ud  PIkUrs. 

Ooiic«,  H.  A.,  N«w  York  Air:  iLa  r»ft  aod 
AboMa.  Ilow  Prrfrct  Vviitilatlua  am  bo  MKiind 
ttodor  lil  Ctrvninst&auA.     Vp.  M. 

UjffiM,AnoU,C.B.Geok«lcal8arTer.  Boaptaf 
Q«ftaa.    l*p.  10. 

TTnrrK,  Plyin  B.  Electricity  la  Fsdal  BlemUhM. 
Cbica^ro  :  W.  T.  Kveaer.    Pp.  Ifik 

llowa,  Wllllun  W.  UuuklMl  Bbtorv  ot  Xvw 
Ortcans.  BBJllmora :  Jolilia  Uopklu  Uolvvraltj. 
Pp.SL    fl5outl. 

UuetHch.  Sanael.  New  York.  POteda  df>  Bclo- 
man.     (Prvrerb*  ol  8olomon  In  VohpU.)     Pp  42. 

IHnalt  Htsth  Annual  Hrporl  of  tlM  Board  of 
UcalUL    6priO|rllcUL     Pp.  211 

Kawoah  Co-o\>entiw9  Colooy  Cotnpaaj.  Limited, 
C«l,  A  PeD-t'Irturo.  fiaa  Pr*iiclMO  I  'Ibo  *'Cotti- 
mutt  wealth."    Pp  as. 

Kona,  Gaor^  F^  Kirw  York.  Prvdou  StOMC 
rp,V4.— MlxtwaJofiieal  Nol»».  V\i.  n.-Oi.  Two  Naw 
MuMSoflleiaorlo  Irtm.  Pp,4.«>-i  'trivia 

IroB  fhMB  Arkaoaaa,  I  i^^^    Pr  Pre- 

eUAi8taD«a.0«ina.ai)il  Dtfcuriut  <  aoada 

ftod  Brtuih  North  Aurrtca,  vKbUjlu-il  ai  iLo  t'ulf  Ca- 
hllilliuo.  l-^,  b/  llOanjr  A  Co  ,  ^«w  Vorfc,    l*p.  SS. 

Uoyd,  J.  Handrie,  M.  D..  PhllwI'^tphU.  Tba  In- 
HOltjr  oru*car  Hogo  Webbtr.     I'p.  ^. 

McComas.  E.  W.,  Port  ^ott,  Kuua.  A  Coo- 
eept  of  ttis  UttlvdCHk    Pp.  8&. 

McGoe,  Mm.  Anita  Newconih,  BomUrjr.  Or- 
leaulntiuQ  and  ILi«lorieal  l^kelob  uf  tbu  ^^ola(!tl*• 
Anthrnpolofflcftl  Society  of  Amertaa.  WukUCtoo, 
D.  C:  The  oodciy.    Pp.  SC4. 

UuMcbiuetta  BlJit«  AfrlmUoral  RxneHmml 
fitailoD,  Ambent  Aoaljr^Ls  of  Coaunereial  fartl- 
bura.    iDitrucUoiML     Pp  4. 

tfar*.  TlioRUM  J  ,  M.  n..  FhlbuIcIbUU.  Alcohol- 
Um  tail  P<iliiioD«ry  L'aiuutu]>tluQ.    I'p.  10. 

M«'rTi4m,  Goonrv  9.,  Ed  tor.  Th*-  Storr  of  Wni- 
tun  Aikd  LucT  Builth.  Bottoo;  Uoutfbto'a,  Ulltlln 
A  Co.     Pp.  «ML    I'i. 

Mlchino.  A^eoltiin]  CoMe^  of.  EaperfmeBt 
StsUOD  BDUvtiiu,  W,  47,  44  (]Mcctl(4d««,  ^Ou*  ao4 
Kncllafv,  utd  Borticnliaral  I)flt>Brtin«Dt)L  Pp.  flL 
4^•DJ-T. 

UnnuiTQe.  T.  C.  Arnold  Toynbee.  Baltlmavt! 
Joliiu  Uopklne  rnlveniftj.    Pp,  TO,    fiOecata. 

Mo«««,  B«ti«nl.  Tbe  E*t»blUbm*nt  of  MudM- 
pal  Ooremmi'Dt  In  Ban  Fratidaco  Baltlmrm :  Jobna 
UopklDi  Unlr«T»Hy.     Pp.  Nt.    M  can  la. 

O'Cofinor.  Willlom  T>.  Mr  nmuwnjrli  Iterlwr- 
#r«  Cbinvn.  New  Yorii.  ftod  &aa  naiwUeo:  Bal- 
lord.  CUrkr  A  t'^X     Pp   lot. 

Ohio  .^ffrtpiiltunil  Exp«r1cn<»fit9tlitlmi.fVv)mii(«^ 
BnllPtlD  Ka  d,  ;:«tWi  t  (Inaeeta  and  InaeetMdaaK 
Pp.  19. 

Packard.  A.  9  Tba  GaTO  Taaaa  of  Korfk 
AtDArks.  with  Itomcrkt  on  tb«  Aeatomy  ft  thm 
Brain  and  Orbrin  of  tbo  lUInd  Pp^clM  NkrltPoal 
Ac»dctny  of  BelfDua.     I*p.  IM,  wltb  87  Pl»t«e. 

Pirk^-f.  Francti  W.  How  to  arndy  Georrapby. 
ir«w  York  :  I>.  ApplstoD  A  Oo.     Pp.  400.     t\  9i 

Phttlir>»,  llonry.  .Ir.  Ad  Ait«>mpt  toward  an  la- 
temitioaal  l^oen»e*.  Bjr  Dr.  F-Rparanto  ^Waraaw, 
Riuilat.  New  York  :  Ilaory  Uolt  A  Co.  Pp  M^ 
Sfi  nariUL 

*-  piiMtc  ffeattb.**  fiopplaoMDt,  ^vtoff  Mlanv- 
•ota  tUtlaUoa. 


42a 


THE  POPULAB  SCTEITCB  MOXTITLT, 


jton:  <}ovf»mmpni  I'riotiojr-OfflwL     I'p  Sft. 
Rtii'f  I'l^yur  Anni6  and 

>oftb  ^ 


^^ 


tod 

...„.  .....  — „.  —  I'p. 

SttftkA,  O.  X.  Tbe  PUmttiTO  twi\\}.  tta  Orttfia 
Vp.sia.   ii.iEi. 

bUjoTAll,  r.  B.  ^jrlUbiu  of  Lccltim  In  Aoibmiy 
■ntl  Fhyilofai^,    b)-recuM,  N.  Y. :  U,  W.  BwUmq. 

TbuuiM^  CvniA     Aldi  lo  Ihi-  Bnuly  of  Ibv  Hxjlt 
'tcea.    Wkoiii£Wo:  OuTonuxical  rritiUti^-Ofliaa. 
lUO, 

Tudtl,  W.  O  Edttrir.  "  Tbe  Tp«*her'«  OaUook  " 
[oaOih  .  Vu)  I,  Nu.  1.  lh:»  Muiiiti*,  iowft  i  TMnb- 
PubtlaUloy  CuiDpuy.     Pp.  t;i. 

Tnnt,  WIltAni  P.  Ea^b  Culrort  In  Vtrs^DU. 
BtUtluiurtf :  JuliQ*  UupkliuUnininity.   1>.  ui.  |l 

Wvntworth.  G.  A..  MqLsUul  J.  JL.  aod  Olutian, 
r.  C    A  l(r«briyo  AulyiU,  tioluUoM,  ud  JucoicIma, 

ilivtiDir  ttio  KudjIkdwdIhI  Tbeoramf  and  the  luoat 
'ImpurUoL  I'nweMM.  Bofttoo :  GUift  A  Cu.  I'p. 
413.     il.60. 

IThltniftii,  O  O.,  Hid  AIH*,  P^lward  Pbetpt.  Jr. 
■■^Jonrool  of  ^?---  ^--^■-—        '-  -■'    is(({t.     B<i^a : 

m  A  Co.     1  $1)  »  ^MT. 

W1bob«Il.  ^t     Tb«  OMlOjcl- 

nl  aiKl  NftiurmJ  Mii^tor]  ;-ur^.M' ui  MUuiuwia.  &» 
pwt  fcr  IbsT.     Mlaiii!i{)oU&     Tp  Cui. 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 

Ai  Edlrijr  \frf«lc» — One  of  the  m<wt 

narfnl  featureii  of  the  monthly  'Tildt  ChurtV 
IniUlishcd  by  the  liydrogrnpluc  UlHcc  of  the 
Nftvj  Dcpanmcnt,  i«  the  Buricfi  oomprisEiig 
trmcing^  of  iho  vourscs  of  dt.'reliot  Ttu)»«U. 
It  Ib  ftoid  that  between  twenty-fiTc  uid  fony. 
flrtt  of  these  peH[Atetic  ilikugi>ni  to  Rftvigib- 
lion  ore  recorded  ctci-j  month  in  the  North 
Atlantic  alooe,  &nd  the  supply  U  coustanlly 
ktfrt  up  bj  tlic  fruits  of  every  grcflt  stoiTD. 
Tli^ir  viiDdeiiugs  aro  often  rery  rccvatric 
Thun  the  W.  U  Whit*?,  a  lunibor-iad«i  thrwv 
iniulwl  EchooDcr,  baring  boon  abandtmod  off 
Delaware  Bay  during  the  blinanJ  of  Mirch, 
1888.  ftartvd  off  to  the  Bouthwurd  under  tho 
influence  of  the  luthorr  currvnl  nud  th«  nonb- 
WMt  gale.  Upon  reacbiog  the  Outf  Strcurn 
■b«  turned  airay  to  tbn  eaatward  and  began 
bor  hmx  craiAC  toff«hi  Europe,  dirrctly  tu 
th*  tntck  of  thousands  uf  vessels  ;  'Jrifting 
blindly  ibout  at  tho  mercy  of  wind  and  cur- 
rent. Durins  tl»o  former  p«rt  of  bttr  wamlvr- 
hu;  the  followed  *  couma  iibtmt  eiuit  north' 
oaat,  at  an  HTcrage  rate  uf  alnut  tllrtr-two 
mllM  a  ilay,  Protn  the  beginning  of  Mav 
till  the  «Dd  of  October  the  pursued  an  < 
traordinaffly  rfj(njc  eoarao,  feefawlnf;  W... 
and  forth,  and  douhlut^  upuu  bcrvolfi  "  tta^-  \ 


gcring  like  a  drunken  man  all  ef«r  a 
par&Urely  amall  area,  a  conauat  *****^'^  lo 
navigaltoi)  in  iu  most  frwiuent^il  gr^gnd." 
Afterescapi'  ncjirviliatf 

and  uorthcu  ctvdi^ar 

or  on  aTorugv  uL  oLuu.  s-a  a  day. 

>lnally»  on  ibo  2^*1  o.  i&«9,  *W 

wad  Blnuidcd  ou  w\<^.  uf  the  ulaiida  nC  tLt 
Hebrides  alter  a  cruiw  of  ton  snonlka  and 
ton  days,  In  which  ahc  travcf^ed  a  JiAtiae* 
of  Qiorc  Ihun  live  Lhotnaud  Uiiliw,  aitd  »a4 
rvporUid  forty -Qro  times;  wLUa  maqy  nuirt 
vesBola  cnuy  have  pused  daugcroualy  near 
her  at  night  or  during  thick  vcatlutr. 

The  Caiadiaa  Lakes  and  tba  CUrknw— 

In  Bocouuting  for  thv  nrtjpn  of  tbv  gnal 
take  baatud  in  <^ansda,  I>r.  I^obcrt  Bell  r» 
gards  Lake  Superior  aa  of  rolcnnie  orig^a, 
and  Budsoo  Bay  aa  having  some  poinu  la 
common  with  It ;  while  Athabasca,  tba  Gi«ck 
81are  Lake,  take  Winnipeg,  tho  Gaoc^aa 
Bay,  and  Lake  Ontario,  lie  a1oo|C  the  Une 
where  tho  Unieetones  and  *a\  '  .  .•..<^ 

the  oldtir  Laureutlau  and  II  \\^ 

and  were  probably  excavated  t  *rj 

gtncicra.     Dr.  B<-U  alao  points  iM 

of  grecoatones,  etc ,  often  formed  ib«  «t%k 
nat  linos  along  which  the  ciianocU  of  riven, 
ann«  of  takcii^  and  fionia,  were  cut  liy  ilcnod- 
Ing  foruea  Pruf.  A.  T-  DnimrooDd  vaiggt^ 
that  the  glaci^ra  Iwve  beitu  calU^d  upott  to  do 
too  anu'h  work.  Tlivru  la  difflvaltj  bi  M" 
«>pling  the  theory  uf  nub  eolusaal  gU«ial 
sy.^tcma  as  geologists  Invoke  The  raat  irf- 
fet-'tii  of  AfTMlnn  by  atino^jiheric  and  oiKcr 
"  :<«  agea  which 

i::  '  ial  epoetk,  and 

the  great  depoaUa  oi  deotnupovcd  rock  wUch 
inuat  bavo  aceoraolated  during  tluaic  agw, 
bare  bora  orvrlook#d.  Tlir  cuntinoiital  g^ 
eior,  «vtfa  if  only  a  mile  in  LhiekMssa,  ml 
ihfl  axtcsit  dcmantled  by  the  theory,  woald 
reprewot  a  ilepUi  of  about  five  btntdrvtl  or 
aix  hundred  feet  l-ikim  unlfonxily  rverTwhara 
from  the  waten  of  the  ooran  and  trafliiaiaiii 
Into  loi>.  Thii  wltluIrAwal  of  aacik  a  maaa  of 
water  from  ;  ».ro 

carried  uor  to 

ifn«  faundrcil  i  «m  fi»> 

:K'r-athe(;'-:  luarfaarf 

t  tho  Great  Bai>.  iviUatod 

. .  ...     surface,  and  wo^  .  •  '  •'«<--< 

Ute  Gemtau  Oonan.     Ara  *«  | 


4 
I 


POPULAR  MISCELLAXV. 


4*3 


crpt  tbew  coiuequcnow  f     Trof.  Dnitnmond 

ipraftfTB  A  theory  of  grrat  northern  elevaUons 

jf  land  I'-rvnUug  uiountftiu-cb&Iiu  and  tticir 

1  ff likt^ien,  nccocDpanicil  or  followed  by  a  tlo- 

pTTsaion  faribcr  tomb,  wliii^h  aiUultied  the 

arctic  currtiiiia,  or  prrbapi^  formwl  an   la- 

Und  Aet  and  a  highwaj  tor  ici-bergft  bearitig 

diArU  and  bowhlcxa,  wluuU  thcjr  dropped  on 

<      thebouon. 

^^^Mlliir— Orohlda  ar«  commended  by  tf  r. 

^^^PI^BBoylc  ft*  plc&tant  ruom-onuLiucnt», 

^^Bolwnt  flwUy  noLnagvd  pUnU.    "  Observe 

ny  Oaddhmi,"  be  Mya;  **  it  stuida  In  n  pot, 

but  ihia  ii  only  for  couTcnience — a   reocp- 

tocle  filled  wiUi  moa*.    The  long  stem,  fealh* 

md  with  grvat  bloasomv,  spriug?  frum  a  bare 

^^  sUbM  wood.     No  mold  nor  peal  aurroundd 

^kt;  ditrv  It  abaolutcly  Doibing  aavo  the  rooU 

^Vthat  twine  rouml  their  sup[»ort,  and  the  wire 

that  lutaine  it  in  ibe  air.     Il  aslu  no  atten- 

lioa  beyond  iu  dally  bath.''    Sir  Trevor  Law- 

raoM  otn  see  no  rcaaon,  in  the  oa»o  of  most 

orohids,  why  tboy  «liould  ever  Jlo.      "The 

pvu  o(  tbo  OrehitUm  arv  annually    repro* 

duoed  in  a  great  many  Uuitancca,  and  there 

11     il  really  no  reiMQ  why  they  thoold  not  live 

^m  forever,  unlcta  .  .  .  tbcy  are  killed  by  erron 

^|in  cultivation.'*    Another  antliority  saya  that, 

^M  **  IQcc  tbe  di^iuustic  animal^  they  aoon  find 

^^  ont  when  there  n  one  about  ibem  who  la 

fond  o(  tbrm.     With  mh  a  guaniijLn  they 

law  Co  be  h«ppy,  nnd  to  thrive,  und  tu  es- 

lablkb  an  iindi^rcUndlng.  indicating  to  him 

llkflir  matft  in  OMny  liupoiuiot  umttcra  as 

pining  m  tboogh  they  could  apenlc"     Ac< 

^nnWln  to  Ur.  Boyle,  thg  HMret  of  orchid- 

OidtnM  D#8  In  their   indiffcrenoe  to  detail 

"Seoiuvtfae  ^taenl  oondiUooft  necessary  for 

their  well-doing,  and  they  will  gratefully  re- 

Have  you  of  fnnher  anxiety ;  nejclcct  tboee 

I^cncnl  coniliiioiiA,  and  no  care  for  detail 
will  reooQcUe  them."  In  Mr.  Sander's  orchid 
fana,  at  St.  Aibana,  England,  where  three 
MM*  are  oooopled  by  orchtdi  eidiuivel?, 
gro«iag  hi  tbe  mo»t  profuse  luxurhince,  no 
fTtat  palu«  are  ukcn  tn  exclude  fro«t  frora 
the  oool  bcuaeft.  It  would  be  belter  to  keep 
ihaa  al  iO",  bnt  the  advantage  doc«  not 
eqtaU  tho  expense  and  inocnivcDicnoe  of 
«ocb  enonnoua  buildings  to  the 
A^nr  Hr.  Boyle  oays  that  the 
of  tfoplcal  America  cherish  a  fine 
H^iU  t»  ikw  d«(ree  that,  iu  many  cases,  no 


aum,  and  no  offer  of  valoablcft,  will  Ivmpt 
thum  to  part  with  it.  Ownership  is  diatinct- 
ly  reougnLced  when  the  epcduen  grows  near 
a  rilUge."  Mr.  Rocge  haa  left  a  description 
of  tbe  scene  when  he  6rst  bohdd  the  Fhr 
dm  Majo,  The  church  woa  hung  with  gar- 
lands of  il,  and  such  emotion  selxed  him  at 
the  view  that  he  choked.  The  natives  showed 
him  plou  of  thiit  spccioe  aeres  in  extent, 
where  it  was  grown  for  tbe  omamentulioa 
of  their  church.  A  fine  CattUtfa  Monia  in 
one  of  Ur.  Sander's  bouso*— tbe  largest  or- 
chid of  the  kind  that  was  ever  brought  to 
Europe — bad  grown  upon  a  high  tree  beaide 
an  Indiuii'a  hut,  and  belonged  to  him,  aa  it 
bad  belonged  to  hi£  grandfather.  He  re- 
fiwcd  to  part  with  it  at  any  price  for  yuan, 
but  was  overcome  at  U^t  by  a  rifle  of  pecul- 
iar fascination,  added  to  the  previous  oQers. 
"  A  magic-lonlcrn  lui>  great  influence  in  such 
case^  and  the  collector  providee  hiiufrelf  with 
one  or  wore  nowadays  as  part  of  hid  outhL'' 

EtehlBg  ta  GIUS.~The  object  to  ba 
etched  is  immersed  in  a  bath  of  melted  wax, 
which  OD  removal  forms  a  thiu  coating  over 
its  sarface.  On  this  tbe  decigna  are  carefully 
scratched  uut  by  means  of  a  pointed  instru- 
ment, which  removes  the  wax  along  the  lines 
of  the  pattern.  The  glass  is  then  icirocrsi<d 
in  a  solution  of  hydrofluoric  add.  Tbe  acid, 
which  is  very  corrosive,  attacks  all  the  por- 
tiuna  of  the  gloss  not  protected  by  the  wax« 
thus  eiting  out  the  lines  of  the  engraving  on 
the  glosA.  When  this  is  done,  all  iltat  re- 
mains is  to  clear  away  the  wax.  Owing  to  the 
destructlpo  nature  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  atp^ 
cial  room  ia  kept,  in  which  it  is  applied,  (b« 
windows  of  which  mnst  be  coated  with  wax, 
and  the  vessels  oscd  to  contain  the  acid  must 
be  made  of  lead.  Uono<rrams  and  similar  de- 
signs arc  printed  in  a  kJnd  of  thick  bk,  on 
transfer  paper,  the  lines  of  the  mooopraro  be- 
ing left  uncovered  by  tlie  Ink.  Tbe  pattern  to 
then  transferred  to  thcglas«,  the  ink  protect- 
ing the  portions  covered  from  the  acid  in  the 
subsequent  prooeases.  As,  however,  ilio 
monogram  only  oovera  a  small  portion  of^ 
say,  a  wioo-glaas  or  decanter,  the  mi  to 
coated  with  wax.  The  bath  of  hydrofluoric 
acid  is  then  used  as  before.  The  pretty 
dgag  patterns  which  so  fretinently  adorn 
many  wine^Iassee  are  scratched  on  the  wax 
by  means  of  several   Ingenious   maclu&etr 


424 


THE  POPULAn  SCIEXCE  MOyTITLr. 


Oa«  of  the  einiplesl  patterus  b  produced  bj 
the  tracing  point  rapidly  rerolrlng  in  a  circle, 
V  hile  the  gliu*  tlowljT  turns  rtraud  on  its  aii». 
Another  vcll-knowu  pattern  U  traced  out  taj 
a  rntlier  oomplicitcd  mccLaniflm,  in  which, 
b,v  meanrt  of  whccb  having  ooga  a)ong  half 
their  circumference,  tbo  tracing  points  are 
lna.d(>  to  move  up  and  down,  and  the  glafis  to 
turn  roond,  alteraatclr,  in  a  Bcriee  of  jerks. 
Although  most  of  the  patterns  on  gloM 
are  etched  in  thia  way,  the;  Uck  the  sharp* 
neaa  of  dcfinitiou  required  for  the  rery  best 
engnivlnga.  These  latter  are-  therefore  carft- 
fuller  ground  by  hand,  very  amoll  rapidly 
rotating  wheels  covered  with  fine  rotten-Atonc 
powder  being  used  to  cut  out  the  pulteni  on 
the  glnsB.  A  large  number  of  wheels  of  dif- 
ferent ahapes  and  bixea  mnH  be  u»ed  fur  the 
vftrioui  detflili!  of  a  complicated  deslgi],  such 
Hh  a  bunch  of  flowci's  and  fniit,  and  this 
method  is  only  resorted  1o  In  the  case  of  the 
most  expensive  desaert  sets,  as  it  involves 
a  eoDsldorablc  amount  of  f^kllled  workmao- 
^p.  With  regard  to  the  embossed  patterns, 

common  on  butter-di&bcs  and  similar  ar- 
1icIi7S,  these,  as  well  &«  the  lenses  used  in 
UghthouMs,  are  formed  by  pre«tibg  tb« 
luolten  glass  into  molds  of  the  desired  form. 
The  fluting?  and  ribbing?  nn  decanters,  and 
the  lamiliar  lozenge  or  diamond  patterns  on 
cruets,  ar«  carved  on  the  gloss  by  means  of 

ittdstonea,  whose  edges  are  rounded,  aa- 
pihir,  or  flat,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  the 
preHminary  grinding,  rolten-stonc  and  water 
are  u«d,  but  tor  the  final  polUh  tlw  flneot 
patty  powder  is  refjuircd. 

Baaaa  ITlBe*.— The  Increase  in  **« 
yearn  n>f  the  wlue  production  of  the  provifn* 
of  Rome  has  been  attended  with  gre.at  Im* 
proTcmcnts  in  the  quality  of  the  wine  pro. 
durM.  Tl»e  prluripal  group  of  winc-makbK 
districts  it  that  of  the  **  Castelli  Romani," 
the  wines  of  which  arc  robust  and  durable, 
Thfi  land  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  the  ati- 
rir>ni  Roman  rules  of  cultivation  are  fol- 
lowed. The  njltivatirm  nf  tli*  white  grape 
is  giving  place  to  that  of  the  black,  with 
a  eorrespondiug  change  in  the  color  of  Lh« 
win*.  Thp  vino  !«  kept  in  caves  that  ooo- 
»i)rt  of  long  corridors  or  |(allerio«  h*wii  out 
hi  layera  of  Infa,  and  hsvtni;  lateral  niohcs. 
In  each  of  which  a  butt  Is  plao^  holdlQjf 
betwvcio  clgfal  and  twclre  LecutUtrts.    Tlut 


cares  are  ventilated  by  means  of  wvCls.  s»4 
even  in  the  height  of  summer  (he  wine  is  th«» 
kept  at  a  vory  low  tcrapemtiirv.  The  Oot< 
emment  exercisca  itrict  mci 
adulteration  :  and  thla  is  hrl>l 
addiiiuoof  any  cubslanoeA  thtif  >i-  >.  . 
in  pure  wine,  or  the  use  of  w;l]  i.  .-  t 
Bfioordanoe  with  the  rattoool  princtpl 
whid)  wine-mokjng  Is  hnsed.  Thr  ativlitt<jo 
of  aubatancea  naturally  to  1h<  found  in  win* 
is  also  considered  as  adulteralioo,  if  tbe  sub- 
stances are  beyond  the  just  pi^portloos  cs- 
Lnlng  in  pure  wines.  An  exceptioa  U  mstds 
b  the  c(uw  nf  gypsum,  for  which  tbe  maxi. 
mum  quantity  to  be  permitted  is  datanDbDol 
bf  the  Superior  Doard  of  Health. 


4 


L^ad-rolrtonlog. — Several  case*  of 
poisoniug,  caused  by  the  preparation  of  hozne* 
made  wine  in  earthenware  dlsbcs  coated  vllh 
litharge  glaiiog  (oxide  of  leadj  bav r  rromtty 
been  noted  In  the  London  *"  LAtimV  Tbe 
symptoms  were  the  appearance  of  a  blnlah 
Hne  around  the  f  .  f  krtle  in 

large  quantities,  i'  fn,  a»l 

constant  ahdomiiul  ji.Liiin.  i,)u  aaaly>ii«  ut 
some  chf  rrywine,  from  tbo  u^e  of  which  one 
of  the  capes  had  arisen,  lead,  in  the  fona  «f 
sulphate,  was  found  lii  very  daut'^h^tua  pn»> 
portions. 

GfttlBX  to  Slrey. — Among  the  many  re^ 
cipes  that  have  been  given  for  ovrrooaiog 
wakefulness  is  one  deri&»fl  by  a  Mr  OanSarr. 
and  formvriy  celebrated  Lu  England,  but  now 
almost  forgotten  It  is  lo  lie  on  Iha  rtjlit 
side,  with  the  head  n>  pU'-fd  on  ilw  pilhm 
that  the  neek  shall  be  •tnii;:hi :  lirf-pm-  the 
Up9  closed  tightly,  a  rather  )  ^.jo 

is  to  be  taken  through  the  n"  iha 

lungi  then  left  to  their  own  arQon.  Tba 
person  mutt  now  Imagine  that  be  seM  Ito 
hreath  streaming  In  and  out  of  his  nnatrOs, 
an>l  cimflne  bis  attention  to  this  Idcn.  U 
properiy  narrieil  oat.  thi«  msliiod  Is  anU  I9 
I..  ■■■i>eaitjig 


ed.    C-  >:;tbeforthaBd 

with  !i  ■   f*M»l««,  •« 

all  gf^,.i     1  and  mlgbi  wvU  b* 

IrlM  .,u  -i     ,  ■^>i».    To  tbcw  ■•« 

be  added  th»  Spanish  praetlee  of  getting  a 
baby  off  to  ak'op  by  nihbtns  lu  \mfk  whb 
tb*  band.    A  sensatinn  of  dry, 


t 


POPULAR  MTSCELLA^T, 


4«5 


in  tb«  *ote«  and  pclms,  which  ftccompanica 
c«rula  disouvD  in  •oaw  (>ei)ple,  ta  a  cauM  of 
•fwplcMOMa  that  will  pst  m%y  to  apoaj^ng 
the  parU  with  vinegar  and  water.  WoLc- 
fttlnesi  !■  stjmtfUtiicft  ilic  result  of  Uek  of 
foodf  and  a  glasH  ur  o)t*l  water  ur  p&te  ale, 
or  tbi*  cnting  of  a  MnJwich,  will,  by  Mtling 
up  aclirily  lu  tht*  abdominal  orgiiu»,  divert 
aup«rabandant  bl>x>d  from  the  head,  thus 
ring  the  eaiup  of  the  onoatural  actirity 
Doe  rcanon  why  the  most  gift- 
bave  frequtiuiJy  been  afllictMl  bj 
it  bocauM  bodily  cxerciflc  ifl 
MO  oAea  ooglaolrd  by  peoplo  dcrotod  to  in- 
tellectiial  par«nit«.  For  such  pcr^na  there 
la  DO  better  suiwrific  ttian  mu^uular  civrtlon, 
earried  even,  in  extrome  caaea,  to  a  eenav  of 
faiiffoe. 

CriBlul  EMpeaxtkllltj  ef  the  liuine. 

—It  U  a  difficult  matter  to  define  with  auj- 
thing  like  prcctdioa  the  point  at  which  we 
should  ooaAe  to  re];ard  crime  aa  the  reiult  of 
depraricy  and  begin  to  treat  the  wrong-doer 
an  the  rlclim  of  diaeaac.  Prof.  C.  J.  Cul- 
lingworih,  of  Ctwcntt  College,  thinks  that 
•ortain  forms  of  innanlty  are  not  properly 
fOgarded  in  the  practice  of  thi^  Engtinh  in\m- 
iftal  eourii.  In  IfilS  ttio  Uoum  of  LordA 
obuinrd  from  the  judges  who  had  acqultiod 
the  munluner  McSaghu*n,  on  the  plea  of  in- 
Malty,  the  opinion  tltat,  *'  to  eHtahliali  a  de- 
fonae  on  the  ground  of  tnMinity,  it  must  be 
ctearly  proved  that  at  the  time  of  oommit- 
Ihe  act  the  party  aeoujed  waa  laboring 
tuch  a  defect  of  rcaaoa  from  diaeaso 
of  the  mind  as  not  to  know  the  nature  and 
Qoaltty  of  the  act  he  wu  doing,  or.  if  he  did 
know  it,  tliat  ht*  did  not  know  he  waa  doing 
what  waa  wron^,*'  F.ver  (»inoe  tt  wu  put 
forth,  this  ictft  ha«  been  trrated  as  though  tt 
ware  the  Uw  of  the  land.  It  la,  howerer, 
Ur  from  tulliKfairiDry,  in  that  it  rtratricta 
mind  to  the  inteUigimoe,  and  ijcnorca  the 
eoMMkiofl  and  the  will  Kow  it  ia  by  no 
mint]  UBuaiut  to  find  the  dlwrder  of  the 
etDOUoni  and  the  will  far  creater  ili&n  that 
of  the  Intellect,  and  espcciallj  In  the  easee 
fkf  tboae  whom  inwnity  is  most  Hkclj  to  Im- 
pel '  '  ACta.  !t  \9  a  common  Giperi- 
Qucc  Hxyltmi*  111  find  that  (ho  very 
penooi  wbo  are  the  tnort  dangrrouB  to 
ihMBBe]ve«  aod  thoae  ahoat  Ihcm  are  the 
mMl  iatintgvBt  bunatot  lo  the  Lutitntloa. 


•aaity 
H  ctoarl: 

^^wr  th< 

I 


Thia  ts  not  a  purely  medlcnl  view  of  the 
question.  Sir  James  Stephen  hossaid  :  "  No 
doubt  ihtirc  are  coMfS  in  which  madncH  in- 
t«rftfre8  with  the  power  of  ftelf-contnd,  and 
BO  Icarcs  the  sufTerer  at  the  mercy  of  anf 
temptation  to  which  he  may  bo  expOAed.  .  .  . 
I  do  not  think  that  a  pcrwo  unable  to  con- 
trol his  conduct  should  be  the  subject  of 
legal  punishment.''  Here  we  are  bnni^ht 
face  tu  face  with  the  6ercely  di«>put<«d  quets- 
tion  whether  there  \b  or  is  not  audi  a  tiling 
as  irrcaidtible  impulse — that  is,  whether  pcr- 
Hoca  apparently  sane,  and  at  any  rate  freo 
fium  ebrious  dclunion,  may  be  impelled  Ufe'| 
insane  acid  by  a  force  that  they  can  nut 
ooDtroL  "  1  can  not  deny  that  medical  wit» 
nesses  have  sometimes  pressed  thii^  dorirlne 
of  irresi.'itible  influence  unduly;  still,  there 
arc  undoubtedly  onscs  where  the  insanity  re- 
TcaU  itat'lf  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  in  arts  of 
violence,  the  consequence  of  un controllable 
impulse.  The  popular  notions  that  one  man 
can  recognirc  lunacy  as  well  as  another,  and 
that  it  invariably  betrays  itAelf  by  definite 
and  unuddtakablc  sjmptoma,  are  altogether 
crron<M7iis.  In  a  lunatic  a^iylunt  the  raring 
maniac  \»  an  exo«>ptinn,  the  majoritT  of  the 
Inmates  In-ing  quiet,  orderly  pertoua,  who 
present,  so  far  as  their  outward  appearance 
goes,  little  or  nothing  to  distinguish  iheta-l 
from  other  people.  EVobably  no  one  rlslM 
such  an  institution  for  the  first  time  without 
being  puxxled  to  know  which  arc  the  nfflcials 
iind  whit'h  the  inmates.  Like  other  chronic 
disorders.  Insanity  \a  apt  to  oome  on  insid- 
iously. A  certain  alteration  of  manner,  a 
di«po:ititiun  tn  talk  a  little  more  or  a  little 
less  than  usual,  an  unaccustomed  recklcfia- 
neM  In  expenditure,  a  tendency  to  be  atis* 
plciona  of  thofto  who  have  hitherto  been  Ira* 
pticitly  tnifflvd,  a  iilight  failure  in  buaini 
capacity — these  may  be  all  the  symptoni*" 
that  mark  the  departure  from  mental  health, 
until  one  day  the  smoldering  Insanity  breaks 
out  In  an  act  of  Tiolencc.  The  analtisy  be- 
tween epilepsy  and  those  forms  of  iiuanirjf 
which  are  accompanied  with  sndden 
bursts  is  a  very  close  one.  The  causes  that 
haTc  been  at  work  in  each  caw  haro  bern 
cumolatlvG  In  their  action,  and  only  wh^n 
the  accumulated  irritation  has  rcarhed  a 
certain  degree  of  Intensity  haA  there  b«> 
any,  or  but  the  rery  slightest,  outward  indifia*' 
tioa  of  the  gathering  Etonn.    The  spectacle 


426 


THE  POPULAR  SVlSIfCS  MOIfTl 


o(  sn  epileptic  ftdzure  taking  pl&cQ  Buddeuljr 
In  aa  apparent!/  boallbjr  pcrwiD  la  one  o/ 
ftuch  uTet7'Ua^  occurrence  ttiot  U  BcorceJj 
v>c)it«a  an;  notice.  Uut  if  a  luetlicol  wifnesa 
fttiinda  up  ID  court  outi  suggeaU  that  on 
Atrocious  and  apparently:  moUTclcoi  act  of 
^TiolcDce  was  tbo  tusanc  act  of  tbe  apporo 
eiitl;  calm  pHvoocr  in  ibe  d»ckt  be  U  io 
d>mger  of  beiit^  ridiculed  03  a  iheoridi/* 

i  PracClca]  View  of  Pirksr— Lord  Bra- 
,1XUK>D,  at  the  8aiutary  Congress  held  in  York 
In  Scpteoitwr,  1 88(}«  defended  the  propritttj 
of  maintaining  porks  in  large  towoji  upon  tbe 
broodiest  practical  groundi<.  Such  eatabliah- 
Kitfiita,  be  held,  dboutd  not  be  coDsidcre«l 
luxuries,  but  public  Dtfcessiiios.  For  health 
U  one  of  the  brat  of  oeocaalticf,  and  no  ex- 
,^na«  ftbould  be  ffpar«d,  and  no  opiKirtunitT 
^ncglocted,  to  Increase  the  arenigo  standard 
of  the  nation's  health  and  nren}^.  If  a 
people'i  avufogc  ataDdard  of  riiaiiij  Ih>  lo^f- 
ered,  tltal  people  will  ajtsuredly  be  handi- 
capped io  the  race  of  oatlona  by  aa  much  ai 
that  standard  boa  been  leoacned.  The  health 
of  the  luind  is  Inrf^ly  dependent  on  l})« 
health  of  the  bodr,  and  a  nation  can  only 
^•a  have  much  muscular  power  and  brain  force 
maj  be  the  sum  total  of  Uiow  iitiuHUra 
posBMsed  by  thy  men  and  wnmen  of  which  it 
is  formed.  It  it  an  axiom  of  by^rnic  Kicnco 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  health  of 
a  fMTpulotion  is  in  ioTcr«e  rntJo  to  ita  denidty, 
Ilcnce  tlie  denelty  of  population  In  large 
towiii  ahwiiM  bo  offact  hy  provldrng  oa  much 
lopcB  Bpacc  ta  possible  tn  thn  form  of 
■qaares,  ptuks,  aod  pluoaure-grounda. 

Panpf  n  of  (he  Laboralory.—A  atriklng 
tnitanoe  of  the  ilangcwua  tjuesta  which  on- 

laaiaAtic  chcTnt«t»  undrrtake  nrn  tbe  effort* 
tolnTeailgate  the  yellow  oily  tmhstanro  called 
e^iIotld«  of  nltroKC^Q.  Thia  terrible  esp1oaIv« 
i*«0  dbtcovend  la  1811  by  Dulong,  wbo  lost 
Kpt  and  three  fingen  lo  a  vain  attempt 
to  DJoertain  Ita  oampoaition.  So  powerfal 
li  It  that  when  Futtda^  and  Sir  Ilamphrj 
[Dury  took  It  In  Itawl  thpy  prorldeil  thcm- 

«lvf«i  with  thick  pla««  nioftk*  to  phittvi 
t  >om  Oylngblia  of  gtiM,  and  to 

t  Ml  from  iha  Irrltotlag  Tapors  of 

10  oil  iurtf.  FAmJay  woj  on  cmo  oecaolon 
'Miiaiwd  t7  a  dH«iitalion  of  only  a  few  p«tiM 
i>f  lire  90iB|iouDiI,  aa^  MU  al  tb*  Uilw  In 


which  U  had  beoa  coolaiDni   *t»oal  pCM^ 
tratcd  bis  nuuk.     Ou  anetiaer  oeooiteft  8r 
H.  ])ary  was  aofcrcly  iajuicd  by  ths  axpbv 
aion  of  a  few  drupa  under  th»  tvoritcr  uf 
an  airpump.    Siiuw  tliilr  tune  tbe  pirdM 
compoMtion  of  tlie  oil  has  bcco  a  mystvfy. 
At  lost,  bowcrer,  Dr.  Gattannaso,  of  G^t-, 
tiagm,  boa   e!ucce<rdcd  in  lt4   aaalyata. 
finds  tliat  tbe  Bub«laDU*?  vxaxnlned  lilthcital 
waa  Impure,  and  that  the  extnenu  donpr  of^ 
handling  it  wa£  parUy  due  to  that  fact,  osulij 
partly  to  tbe  varying  actidn  uf  lighL     Aoyj 
bright  llglit^  be  had  found,  ir  eaongL  to  pfn. 
duce  detonation — a  djacovcry  mode  by  tbo 
sudden  destruction  of  his  apparotm  by  a] 
almy  sunbeam.     Chemical    reotarcb    bo« 
dityA  is  apt  lo  stray  among  the  "^f^Hg  pofl 
urea  of  orgnnio  chemistry,  to  the  ncgtoel 
the  old  problems  offered  by   the  kaor^ 
world,  though  the  solution  of  thvac  problana 
should  enlUt  the  btgbett  cflorta  of  ttpM^ 
mental  science.  

SBpfntltleBR  aboot  Snakfa.— 

certalu  errors  in  natural  hlalory,  bsi 
has  vested  onakos  with  come  aupi 
or  uncanny  qualltlci.  Tims,  they  ant  b 
some  places  belicrrd  to  know  where 
treasorci  are  dcponitcd  ;  to  lio 
fold  In  winter ;  and,  white  too  wary  to 
tbemHcWeit  ooar  their  hoard  in  summer,  to 
come  out  in  the  brig;ht,  warm  days  of  orriof  j 
and  back  in  tbe  neighborhood  of  i 
winter  quarlcra.  Al  such  time*  a  wise 
will  not  kill  them,  but  will  watch  whet*  t&nj^* 
^,  tnork  the  place,  and  take  iMasiifwa  IB 
pooieas  hlmielf  of  the  treastitc.  But  the 
vnake  ia  snppoard  to  fi^t  wildly  for  Ui 
property ;  and  there  are  feigned  to  be  la 
the  old  mints  of  Italy  winp^d  acrpcnu  vbJch 
never  come  iuto  the  oi^cq  air,  bat  tkan«l 
tbe  vaulta  where  anything  of  value  U  hidden. 
Tbcy  live  upon  the  aomt  of  (rold,  and  Ti«-< 
IcQtly  attack  any  one  who  f»i<(^«  M*  w^ 
into  their  domain.     Ko  oar,  h 

ever  seen  them  ' '  ^  "  '  .-,  "hna 

ibvy  must  hare  I  ua.  Tbe 

houar-enaWe  In    t..\rMi.i:>    ip    nippeacd  U 

bring  food  ItH'k  tn  tbe  hooae  h«  freqnaata. 

Tha  fatter  be  f^wa  li 

Italia,  th"  Rtiuiarle*  n.t'- 

not  dlstariied,  bi:   ' 

trwywuialngao-'- 

batt«*«.    SocDO  of  tbcas  a»3t«aM  an  tabIM 


POPULAR  MTSCELLAITY. 


4»7 


10  mt%T  ft  orovti — a  sniftU  circlet  of  gold 
Mt  nUh  «tnnge  jewclit,  that  briags  good 
luok  to  any  ono  who  finds  and  knowi  bow 
lo  doil  wtlh  ii'— oUuTHiae  it  uiay  hnn^i^  uiure 
barta  than  good.  WUmi  It  ur  uny  other 
id,  it  muat  oot  be  touchtnl  flntt 
but  a  part  of  the  clothlag 
flliouM  be  Caat  over  IL  A  m&iden  abould 
nae  Iter  apron  for  this  purpose,  but  a  man 
may  tako  hb  coat  or  even  bis  pocket-hand- 
ktralAei.  If  a  bat  or  bdt  pan  of  the  head- 
gear U  tiMd,  tlic  duller  will  |l;o  mad.  ThMO 
inakM  ar«  thought  to  have  a  queen  who  ia 
far  aior«  terrible  thna  thoy.  A  le<^Dd  la 
eurrent  at  fricdbach  that,  in  the  old  daya 
wb«n  U  waa  rexed  with  Huakoa,  a  atrongpf, 
FMdaio,  rami*  atuiig,  antl  prauiisvd  to  rulivve 
Umsd,  provided,  if  ho  HhouUI  bn  killed,  they 
voftU  laj  a  niaaii  for  bii  loul  orery  year. 
U*  4irderfd  a  fire  built  around  an  oak-tree, 
under  wUidi  be  placed  himself.  Aj  tbo  fire 
bomed,  Friildu  bcgao  to  aing,  or  whistle, 
or  oail,  and  the  anakea  ruabed  into  the  fire 
and  peruhcd.  Finally,  a  white  serpent  ap- 
pearvd,  paaaed  the  flru,  and  bore  Fridelo  to 
tha  flm  «a  tb«  other  side,  where  both  were 
eooMnadi  Tbo  district  was  cTer  after- 
ward fiet  fraoi  renomnua  creatures,  and  in 
grallluil4  for  the  riddance  a  church  was 
built  where  the  troe  stood,  in  which  aerpent 
maaaea  ara  aaid. 

^^^A  Chtrafe-golig  D«g«— A  story  of  al- 
^^H|l  reasoning  Intel  llgeneo  la  toM  of  a  dog 
^^TSoogtng   to  the  Rev.  R.  Aahton,  superin- 
B  tondcsit  of  ao  Indl&n  iicho<:>l   and  pastor  of 
''       ths   church  at  Brantford,  Ontarla     He  at- 
tend* the  church   with  the    ninety  Indian 
children  of  the  school,  and  rises  and  aits 
down  with  th^  congn^galion.    One  day  when 
a  airanger-clergyman  had  preached  loo  long 
for  the  dog,  he  bethought  himaelf  of  a  mcth* 
od  for  closing   the  servloe :  he  would  hare 

tthe  collection  taken  which  he  had  associated 
with  the  end  of  the  acrmon.  Ue  ran  to  the 
boy  who  was  acctifitomnl  to  carry  the  plate, 
•a4  gand  ateKdfastl^  in  his  face.  Finding 
thai  no  notice  was  takim  of  this,  he  aat  up 
and  "beggeit'*  per»iMi«utIy  for  some  lime, 
Tbia  alio  nweiTiDj*  no  attention,  ho  put  his 
•oat  tmdor  the  lad's  kue«  and  tried  with  alt 
lib  Mnogth  to  force  blm  out  of  his  pUce, 
<«mhHiteg  thbi  at  tot^nala  till  tbo  lonnoa 


Agrlcnltaral  Maxlaa. — In  the  now  «d). 
tion  of  Stephens's  "  Book  of  the  Farm  "  tiie 
aiudent  of  agricultural  adcnoe  la  advised  to 
enter  upon  his  course  earlv  in  the  winter,  b^ 
cause  most  farming  opcrmtiona  ure  begun  at 
tltat  time.  Two  years  arc  conshlered 
sary  for  a  thorough  grasp  of  the  aubjcel/ 
(or  bo  "  cikn  nut  uudt•r^lallll  the  olij^t  uf  a 
single  operation  in  the  firat  year  of  his  pa- 
pilage."  Those  who  bare  not  been  bred  upon 
a  farm  and  who  can  afford  it,  will  find  it 
better  to  spend  their  time  at  an  agricultural 
college  with  a  farm  attached,  than  with 
some  "practical"  man  as  a  priratc  tutor, 
who  is  not  glftod  with  teaching  abllitiea*;^ 
Of  the  branches  of  science  applicable 
agriculture  are  muned  botany,  cbemlstry,! 
germs,  coflloj^y,  entomoloj^,  geology,  mete>j 
oroIogT,  mechanics,  and  cngioeoring.  Amonf  < 
practicA.!  bygromi^ti-ic  iudicatious  la  men- 
tioned the  Tapor  Issuing  from  the  funnel  of 
a  locomotiTC  steam-engine,  "for  when  tlie 
air  b  saturated  with  rapor,  it  oan  not  ab> 
sorb  the  spare  steam  as  it  la  ejected  from  the 
fonnet,  and  henco  a  long  strtiim  of  white 
steam,  sometimes  four  hundred  yardi  in 
l«Dgth,  le  seen  attached  to  the  train.  ^'^bcD 
the  air  is  dry,  thf  steam  is  altforbed  as  it 
issues  from  the  funnel,  and  Hitle  of  it  is 
seen.**  Other  si^ois  of  weather  aio  drai 
from  the  beha\'ior  of  animals,  Aooonfinf ' 
to  the  calculations  giron  in  this  book,  moat 
plowin;^  including  turning  and  time  spent  in 
occatlooal  stoppa^efl,  is  done  at  the  rate  of 
about  a  mile  an  hour ;  and  "  a  ridge  of  no 
more  than  seronty-elf^ht  yards  In  length  re*  I 
qnlrea  five  hours  and  clercn  minutes  out  of 
erery  ton  hoors  for  tuminj^  at  the  landlnga, 
with  a  ten -inch  furrow,  slice;  whereas  fti 
ridgo  of  two  hundred  and  WTonty-four  yards 
in  length  only  requires  one  hour  and  twen- 
ty-two minutes  for  turning — making  a  dlffcp. 
once  of  (bree  hours  and  forty-nine  minutes 
in  faror  of  the  long  ridge  as  regards  the 
saving  of  tbne  "  in  one  day^s  work. 

DbtrlbBtloD  of  Lakei  od  the  Gleb««~Tbe 
distribution  of  lakes  on  the  carib  baa  bceOi 
studied  by  Dr.  Boiim,  of  Vienna.  Aastno*^ 
log  that  lakes  usually  exist  in  groups,  and 
ibcir  origin  Is  connected  with  the  glaciers, 
the  author  shows  thtit  there  l^  a  rrlation 
between  thpir  aitnatioo  and  their  altitude. 
It  seems  prorcd  that  the  height  of  moantain 


TSS  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTffLT. 


» 


* 


lakes  abore  ihc  Icrcl  of  the  sea.  in  going 
from  the  pole  to  the  equator,  riMii  na  the 
Ctnow*1ine  rises.  Alpine  lakes  are  cUsnSed 
u  nil1«T  lakes  and  mountain  lakes.  The 
lorxner  are  gcaemllT  of  cotuiderable  extent. 
They  occupy  the  bottoms  of  the  Talleys  and 
form  a  horizontal  tone  among  themselves, 
bounding  the  circurofert-nce  of  a  fonner  gla* 
dal  region,  where  the  currents  of  ice^  at  the 
niomeiit  of  mniimum  congoliitiotif  could  ex- 
ercise tlit^r  grt-atesi  ftcttOQ.  The  otherBare 
generally  nmull  and  lie  at  great  elevations. 
Id  the  heart  of  the  mountainous  region ;  bat 
they  are  also  frequently  present  in  numbers 
at  a  conunnn  height  in  each  chain  of  mount- 
ibEnfi,  where  they  iodicate  the  last  stagv  in 
the  retreat  of  the  glaciers.  Mountain  lakes 
have  only  an  opheraeral  existence,  for  the 
aiQoaat  of  detritus  which  they  rrceke  and 
the  depth  of  their  effluents  contribute  to 
Uidr  speedy  dUappearance.  More  than  a 
hundred  lakes  have  gone  out  in  this  way  in 
the  Tyrol  during  the  last  century. 

Famlirs  and  Irrlgallan  In  India. — Mr. 

H.  V.  DanverB  hns  eiininTarizH  the  histories 
of  fifly-two  f Aminefi  in  India,  citending  over 
a  period  of  twenty -three  hundred  or  twenty- 
four  httmlrcd  ycart,  of  which  thirty  occurred 
in  the  hiiiturical  period,  aoil  twrnty-two 
within  the  present  oeotiiry.  The  earliest 
was  between  50S  and  449  n.  c.  Then  a 
period  of  fifteen  hundred  years  follows  with- 
out a  record,  though  not,  d«tibtle»,  wiltiout 
famincfi.  The  year  s.  o.  logs  wam  rr'niark- 
able  for  rery  extensive  druugtit  nnd  fsminf*, 
succeeded  by  a  pestilence.  The  corlicst 
faniine  in  the  Deccan  occurred  in  the  year 
\^(x\  and  lasted  twelve  yetirt.  Thr  dletreai 
of  1345  was  caused.  En  part,  by  eicessire 
tniatiun,  by  reason  of  which  "  the  poor  be- 
came bepjrars,  the  rich  brcome  rebels,  and 
the  formers  were  forced  to  fly  to  the  woods, 
and  to  itMinlntn  thptnaelven  by  mpini!.  Tlie 
lands  were  left  uncultivated,  and  grain  ooa- 
seqnently  become  scarce,  famine  bcsan  to 
do>olate  whole  prorlnee?,  and  the  eoffcrings 
of  the  people  obliterated  from 
*^ery  idea  of  government  and 
authority.*'  The  great  Doorp*  fe^Tv*  famioc 
of  13W  arooe  from  n  totnl  mu:  of  f*^*nn 
able  rain,  and  1a<r 
famine  of  IRll,  it»  • 
dUbarsaniunts  on  areoHtti  of  crretzioaice  for 


rain  to  be  perfonnvd  in  l2i«  prinolpal  fwgfr- 
doa  in  Ouddapah.  In  Kailywmr,  awn  aold 
their  children  for  food,  and  many  n*«iNxt»- 
ble  and  velUto-do  pervoas  poiitoci**!  tba»> 
eelvea  to  aecure  relcow  fniiD  the  panp  ol 
hunger;  and  others  died  from  want  of  thai 
grain  which  their  Hche4  could  not  pnrchaaa. 
The  great  famine  tn  •outhem  India,  of 
187(V-'76,  was  the  worst  which  has  Ucn  ex^ 
[>ericDccd  lince  the  beginning  of  the  oeotnrj. 
It  la  estiiuaied  ttiai  five  and  a  half  ndllloRa 
more,  out  of  nu«  ttundred  nnd  ninety  tniUioo 
people,  perished  than  wonld  hare  died  had 
the  seasons  been  ordinarily  healthy,  Kr. 
Danrers  onddpatcs  great  rcsulu  in  n^^aW 
log  the  evils  of  famlar  from  the  extcaaiofl 
of  the  railroads,  by  means  of  which  proria- 
Ions  can  be  speedily  talcea  into  regions  of 
scarcity,  and  prices  kept  down.  In  the  dU- 
cttosion  In  the  Society  of  Ant  upon  Hr. 
Danvcrv*8  paper,  General  Rundal  laid  great 
stress  on  the  economical  advantages  of  sys- 
tems of  irrigation.  The  total  sam  ejtpcad«d 
on  irrigation  works  throughout  India  «aa 
£■24,600,000,  while  the  total  loee  wbtoh  lh« 
Government  had  sustained  in  sncccsaitc 
famines  was  given  ba  £SS,AOO,000.  Tb« 
Irripation  works  reinreed  mors  than  five  per 
cent  nct^  but  the  sum  hopelessly  ep«*Dt  in 
trying  to  mitigate  famine  returned  nothing, 
and  ten  xnillion  lives  bod  been  lost  during 
(he  oentaty.  The  Godavery  works,  aflar 
ihirty-flve  vears,  bad  neued  XI,4'V),0OO,  or 
double  the  whole  capital  otitlay;  the  Klstaa 
workr.,  after  tweaty-6ve  years,  had  netted 
£S81,000,  which  was,  perhaps,  half  what 
thtry  had  actually  cost  These  two  worka 
irrigated  003,700  acrefl  and  308.0<iO  ac7«e 
reaprctlvcly.  The  Tanjrtre  works  were  still 
more  remunerative.  Other  wnrks  had  not 
glwn  so  large  Ti«lblr  rctumi ;  bat  th^ 
could  not  be  called  ffltliiro*,  beraiioe  they 
provided   security    -  *'ire   faminot, 

and  ttere  otherwise  ly  bcnrfleial. 

Idntllratloi     ky    Thnak-ftarU  — 

Among  other    anthmpometrical    data,  Itr. 

n  h&ji  sceurol  the  IfflprooricBS 
R  f\f  tlie  two  thumbs  of  auay 

hunilu'il   {Krrvans,  in  (/nJ-  ^ ' 

po«!»!bt!llT  of  arlng  'ha* 


dixtary  dlffcTcnce  in  oraall  ihongtt  peftMttf 


I 


duiinct  pcculUritie*.  Neither  is  there  Muy 
room  for  doubt  that  tbeM  pcculUrilius  A-rv 
poT^it«nl  throughout  life.  ThU  method  of 
tetttog  McDtiCy  would  be  raluable  in  muxj 
CUM.  A  writer  iu  xho  **  firituh  North  Bor- 
Deu  Bi^rmldf"  commeDllag  od  a  lecture  bj 
Mr.  Gilton  on  this  pubjcci,  haa  spoken  of 
the  gnmt  difHculty  vf  ttlentifyiug  coolies 
filter  l»x  tliutr  pbolographa  ur  mcosure- 
znentd,  and  said  that  the  question  how  this 
could  bf-st  be  done  would  probably  become 
Important  in  the  early  future  of  British 
North  Bonieo.  Mr.  Gallon  believes  also 
thai  ilie  difficulty  of  ideDtlfylng  pensioners 
and  annuitants  has  led  to  the  loss  of  large 
sums  of  mociey  annually.  A  method  of  talc- 
ing iha  impressioas  which  he  hoA  used  with 
good  success  is  as  follows :  A  copper  plate 
is  Hraooihly  covered  with  s  rery  thin  layer  of 
printvr's  Ink,  by  means  of  s  printer's  roller. 
Vb«L  tkt  thumb  is  pressed  upon  the  inked 
pUt«,  BO  bok  penetrates  into  the  delicate  fur* 
rows  of  the  skin ;  the  Kdges  only  are  Inked, 
and  those  leave  their  impression  when  the 
thumb  ifl  preMed  on  paper.  Turpeotine 
rasdny  r«aiovcs  the  ink  from  the  skin.  A 
riapler  prooMs  is  to  sli^btly  smoke  a  piece 
of  imooth  motal  or  glass,  press  the  thumb 
upon  ii,  and  then  make  the  imprint  on  a  bit 
of  punned  pspcr  lh«t  U  slightly  dampened. 
The  Impnaaloo  is  a  particularly  good  one, 
and  is  durable  enough  for  the  purpose, 

Jndlelois  Charity.— The  giving  of  money 
beggars  has  l)e«n  condemned  on  many 
To  bestow  food  or  clothing  upon  a 
^■rCAlA  clnst  of  mendicants  is  also  mistaken 
ehftrity.  The  former  is  only  ui  incumbrance, 
to  be  thrown  away  st  the  first  opportunity  ; 
snil  the  latter  often  finds  Its  way  to  tlie 
piwn^abop.  To  prevent  btankota  being 
pawned,  a  benevolent  Scotch  lady  once  sng- 
gested  buying  ihem  in  two  oolors,  cutting 
them  down  the  middle,  and  sewing  a  lialf  of 
OD*  ookv  to  a  half  of  the  other.  The  pur* 
pos«  of  the  gift  or  loan  wnnld  be  answered, 
while  th«  blanket  would  be  unavailable  oa 
a  plcdga.  The  poor  who  are  most  deserving 
cf  sytnpalhy  snd  sIJ  requin'  much  Hearchtn^ 
out,  and  often,  when  fscc  to  fnce  with  Iboi^c 
who  fain  would  rrlieve,  moke  the  most  of 
tlhetr  nlstfttble  surroundings  la  order  to 
iksAf  poverty.  Indiscriminate  olms- 
shovld  be  avoided  and  organisation 


adopted — not  the  orf^anization  which  re- 
quinsfl  eUbotittcty  furuished  officer  and  a 
staff  uf  heavily  paid  officials,  but  that  which 
uoostBts  of  benevolent  individuals  who  liave 
time  at  their  diupofial,  and  the  heart  and 
means  to  give,  co-operating  with  each  other 
In  all  cases  the  assistance  afforded  should  bo 
adapted  to  the  circumstanced  of  the  coae,  and, 
wherever  possible,  o^ume  the  form  of  a  loan 
in  preference  to  that  of  a  pit.  Money  should 
demand  on  equi^  olent  uf  labor  in  some  form : 
an  out-building  whitewashed,  a  fence  mend- 
ed, wood  cut,  coal  put  in,  asbes  or  snow  re- 
moved, or  something  eUc.  Organization 
cuuld  provide  common  material  for  shirt- 
making  at  proper  prices  by  starving  scam- 
fltrcsscs,  even  if  the  articles  were  subse- 
quently soU  at  a  loss  ur  given  away.  In 
any  case  let  something,  however  simple,  b« 
required  In  return,  so  oa  not  to  destroy  what 
self-reliance  remaiua  to  th«  recipients  of  the 
bounty. 

imw-PolMn. — A  letter  from  Mr.  U.  M. 
Stanley,  read  recently  before  the  Royal  Oeo- 
grophlcal  Society  of  London,  contained  an 
extremely  interesting  reference  to  the  arrow- 
poison  ttsod  by  the  natives  on  the  lower 
Congo.  Mr.  Stanley  says  lliat  several  of  ids 
party,  being  tiit  by  the  arrows  of  ibe  natives, 
died  almost  immediately  in  great  agony.  The 
poison  was  found  to  oomiist  of  the  bodiei  of 
red  ants,  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  then 
cooked  in  palm-oil.  This  mixture  was  smeared 
on  the  arrow-heads ;  its  poi^tonouB  effects  are 
due  to  the  formic  acid  which  is  known  to  ex- 
ist in  the  free  eute  in  red  anta.  This  acid 
is  also  found  in  the  stiugiog-ncttlc. 

ExprewloB  !■  InfantSr— It  is  not  probt^ 

ble  that  infants  in  their  earliest  days  give 
expressions  of  pleasure,  for  such  expressionji 
are  largely  imitative.  There  is  but  little  dif- 
ference during  the  first  days  of  life  between 
the  joyful  and  the  sad,  the  intelligent  and 
the  stupid  fare.  The  child's  feelinga  have 
to  be  called  out  by  his  experiences,  and  Ida 
means  of  expression  caught  from  tl)o#e 
around  him.  lie  has  a  few  movements  of 
rcGex  origin,  and  some  that  may  be  iatuitivsL 
According  to  the  "Lancet,^*  an  agrveablc 
perception  or  a  fM>ling  of  satisfsctitin  i*  ne- 
oesaory  to  the  causatitiu  uf  a  smile,  while  the 
number  of  KniMiiuDa  of  a  pleasnrabtv  sort 


+30 


THE  POPULAR  SCf^TTVE  ^OXTffLT. 


» 


ft 


frhlfli  are  possible  to  ii  babv  a  few  days  old 
ip  rtry  etriall,  aD(l  a  p«rceplioo  in  the  proper 
scDftc  i4  bejond  iw  capadty.  "Tbe  being 
b«tbcd  or  suckled  doc^  not  cause  it  to  smile, 
but  itt  counu'naDf!^  «xpn>flM>j  simple  satlm 
fcielion,  piobaMv  bocatuw  of  tbc  nb&enev  for 
the  time  b<.Mn^  of  alt  iinmmfortnble  f«?ling. 
Even  elccping:  infaot(  r  few  days  old  lift  tlw 
snglea  of  the  mouth  in  an  incjptrnt  dmilfi, 
if  such  it  niaj  be  nomod.  Very  lirely  faces 
with  dimple  in  the  cheeks,  bat  «rith  cloaed 
Ujes  and  other  9i;nt>  of  «lrcp.  are  miitten  of 
common  obserration.  On  the  twelfth  day 
of  life  Preyer  observed  on  the  (ace  of  a  wait- 
ing infant  most  of  the  characteriiHicR  of  a 
mitlc,  though  the  month  movements  were 
imperfect.  It  waa  on  the  tWHity-^lith  day 
of  life  that  he  first  observed  all  the  algns  of 
an  intelligent  smile  in  liia  own  child.** 

The  !fe$t  ef  the    Wiler-Kplder.— The 

waj»  of  Ihe  water  spider  {Ar^roneta  a^na- 
tiea)  were  dcMrribcd  io  M.  Blanchard'a  article 
e:everal  months  ago.  A  fuller  account  of  the 
breeding  habita  of  this  arachnid  is  given  by 
Mr.  Joseph  L.  N'ewion  In  "Science  (Joarip." 
The  author  hod  placed  rcreral  of  the  cpidera 
in  a  tant,  in  which  tuitahle  planta  wore 
growing.  All  made  thcmptlvcs  at  home  but 
one,  which  ap|>cared  reMles*.  **  For  the 
first  two  daj*9  it  quiiklj  travelled  from  elde 
to  tide,  making  repeated  attempts  Ut  climb 
the  glass  to  effect  an  escape,  but  cventuallj 
it  a«^-ttI^down,  nod  was  toon  lni»ily  webbiug 
together  in  a  dircrgfng  manner  the  pectinate 
Ictvei  of  the  water  crowfoot;  then  going 
wittua  ita  kaf/  «ha>1c,  ...  to  weave  its 
ailkcn  cocoon,  nr  no9t.  In  nbich,  rm  the  fifth 
day,  totfa  of  June,  ihrongh  a  «mall  opening 
It  had  left  uQwebbed  .  .  .  could  be  obwnred 
ths  T'ellowisb  raau  of  t^\  surrounded  with 
a  glistening  layer  of  air,  dutiiicily  teparato 
from  its  dtill  unflntfh'^d  hartior  Afteradsy 
or  to  of  rc-«t,  it  further  extended  tiie  neat 
downward.  In  a  bell  nr  funnel  fomi,  antll 
nearing  two  inchoa  fong;  then  ctoaed  the 
bwvr  or  wider  portion,  with  the  ciceptioo  of 
two  opening*,  one  oo  cich  «idc,  Ju«t  to  giro 
Icftre  of  its  exit  or  admlMlon.  This  being 
completed,  the  m<<lhrr  c^mld  often  \t^  aeen 
gracefully  wendtng  her  way  t»  the  mirface, 
aod  oarryhag  du<*n  large  nccewiTc  bubhlei 
of  «lr,  then  oirefuUr  liberating  tham,  and  by 
ooe,  bi  order  to  form  •  auAcUat  aapply,  hi 


which  it  then  remained  foraomedaya.  from 
the  end  of  the  first  week  the  eggs  now  p^u. 
ally  grew  darker,  and  on  July  let,  exactly 
the  thini  week,  ihi  ''on  of  tka  u«t 

or  ooeoon  wait  1*011  ti  with  toii&iF; 

when  the  large  giubulv  of  ni-  v-na 

to  diminiAb,  and,  ou    being  t'.ia 

motlier  eeem&d  reluctant  to  fiifi  a  furiher 
supfily — aa  thoufrh  fthe  had  done  Ivr  ijiity. 
Here  the  young  naturallr  bet  .  -4| 

and   in  the  fourth  week  were  r  .    -iid' 

ing  the  Interior  of  the  celt,  apparently  for 
eacape,  which  ihcy,  through  the  courae  of 
nature,  effected  on  July  1 1  th ;  thita.  In  abont 
thirty  daya,  over  forty  young  were  Actively 
playing  their  dcli;;hlful  and  youtiiful  part, 
each  bearing  ita  silvery  bubble." 

Abdi&I  llngi  af  Trfff. — In  itgarflag 
the  annual  ring  ai  It  is  marked  In  dUTemit 
kinds  and  qualities  of  Umlx-r,  Prof.  F«naw 
says  that  there  are  to  bo  taken  Into  oonaiit- 
eration  the  absolute  width  Of  the  ring«»  tlw 
regularity  In  their  width  from  year  to  jtur^ 
and  the  proportion  nf  spring  wood  to  attSVlBA 
wood.  The  cpring  wtKwl  i«  cbar»ct»ri»ei|  ktf 
leM  iubstastlal  clcmenu  (reMeU  of  thin- 
walled  cella  in  greater  abundni  'ha 
autumn  wood  ia  formed  by  (  i-^ 
ceUa,  which  therefore  appear  of  darker  cflor. 
In  the  wood  of  conifers  and  in  that  of  de- 
ciduous-leaved trees,  in  which  tlie  veaacIa(a|K 
peering  an  pnrea  on  a  tranererM  cut)  are 
mo9t  frpqTient  In  the  oprinK  wood,  the  asaual 
ring  ia  nsnally  verr  ditftinnly  vlaible;  wbil« 
in  these  wooda  which,  like  the  birch,  tloden, 
maple,  rtr,,  have  tlic  pores  (or  veiscb)  even- 
\j  distributed  (hroughuut  the  annnaJ  nog 
growth,  the  diatlnnlon  la  Dot  m  inark«4. 
Sometime*  the  gradual  oliange  in  «p{i«aral>Ct 
of  the  annual  ring  from  spring  to  aulvma 
wothI,  which  U  due  to  tlir  differODce  of  Ita 
component  eleomtA,  t»  Interrupted  lo  inch 
a  manner  that  aermingly  a  itiure  or  I«as  pt^ 
Dooacod  layer  of  autumn  wnoil  can  be  reco^ 
niifd,  which  n—'-  *^  -^  to  ppriag  nr  simK 
mer  wood,  ar  ^  '  <*ii  w  Ith  tli4  rffvlar 
autuoiD  wuuii.  1  tu#  jrrrgularity  may 
more  than  once  In  (be 


f 

f 
I 


p:»i  I 

glfti",  i.  ' 

rin^i  an  not  a  tma  taMllcaUon  of  tg* 


NOTES. 


43» 


of  floch  irrvfulartty  may  be  iongbt  in 
tvmpormry  int«rruptiou  uf  tbe  vigorauB 
fii[U!tlon9  or  ih«>  irMf  Induced  hy  defoliation^ 
Iiv  iosUoco,  or  by  extreme  climatic  condi- 
tioBit— 4iuch  OA  euddon  cfanngcj  of  tempera* 
tare,  ould  days  followed  by  «uddcn  wktqi 
wp*thrr,  or  droughts  fnIloiri*d  bj  rain.  The 
absolute  breadth  of  llio  ring  depcoda  on 
the  ian^xh  of  the  period  of  veg:etAtion,  and 
if  affcctrd  br  the  depth  and  richnei«ii  of  tbe 
•oil,  and  the  influence  of  liglit  upon  tbe  tree. 


NOTES. 

AccoantMO  !o  the  "  iKHl('cini:^rhe  rrc««,'* 
of  Vienna,  a  Dr.  Tcrc  \\a9  fuuiid  a  curu  fur 
j-hoMi  :-....  ,^     ll.irinc:  found 

ihttt  '*<1  hy  a  Hwulling 

up  t'.'  -  ,  I>  "H-'crus  to  biive 

become  Ir.  ni^t  fiirtber  vlTuol,  he 

tn'.-d  ihi!  ~  a  rhciimatic  patient. 

Upon  Mturatiii^  the  pitierit'v  iiy:4lein  irith 
tbu  brH!-pol:i4in  the  rhettniati.^m  disappeared 
— Ill  i  .1  for  a  I'm;;  lioie.     Dr.  Terc 

ba>*  nMDody  ill  ono  Inmdred  and 

aevcf:)  ,    ,  ■>   "'mI  hax   indicted  ihlrtr- 

nino  tbon  '^ ;  nnd  now  keep;*  a 

colony  of  :-  prumiK^A,  lo  bo  em- 

ploy^ ia  thU  wutk. 

,^r^^.«n.^n  I,,  n  ,-.,„.,f  i.r  Dr.  W.  J.  Beal, 
oft  'inmifnion,  there 

KTO"  ■  >ity  upt-cica  of  in- 

O^Mhiiu  irv^ej  and  ihfv«  c^xotics  that  hare 
MCapcd  from  cultlv  ittlon ;  aiitl  uf  shnibs,  one 
iHindrcd  on*!  dfiy  native  and  fire  MCaped 
taotJoa. 

A  DirnnxAttT  of  Volaplk,  compiled  by 
A«ai«tAiu  Surireoa  \I.  W.  Wood,  U.  S.  A.,  U 
onii"  'liarK'j  E.  Hprague,  Now  Yrtik. 

It    n  more    than    tlin-u   hundred 

\     -lU  emh'xiy  the  additions  and 
tioni  conTaiitod  in  the  fourth  edition 
jhleyor'a  diciiuuary.     A  peciliar  fuaiure 
will  be  tbe  arran^'Lmcnt   of   the   Volapak- 
|ni;IUh  «nd  Rii-*h*h- VoUpUk  porta  on    the 
■  L-ontiiinlnpa  Volapiik- 
>oUcaUy  oorrcspondinj; 


pKKTtKicjrTtT  lo  the  Interest  that  ta  taken 
Id  t«ating  the  virion  and  odor.^enw  of  aeo- 
VieQ,  a  wnler  In  the  "  l^noei  '^  orfrea  the 
tanoe  of  aceur  icy  of  hearing  in  men  of 
(data.  During  fo^,  «r>und8  are  tl)<>  only 
reaacla  p  .t^.-*  r>f  .■i*ii.ff  notici^  of 
preaeaee,  ^  ni  by  which 

maybtf  »:i  .ter  of  i-ol- 

^ttfton.  It  oftea  re^tiire*  a  Dic«  ear  to  bear 
A  distant  foj<-wl)Ntle,  ami  a  nic^r  nne  lo  de* 
Ine  from  what  dirrctlo-i  Sea- 

am  aa   liable   til  afT«'<  i    aill 

ihrt  ocui^mefl^  of  thuii  M^-..»^  .Ml  ibey 
«r«  to  faulu  of  vyv-aight. 


nni  Is  Another  Instance  of  bow  obe 
lion  trip*  up  a  vriori  reasoning.  A  corr»>' 
(ipondcnt  of  '*  The  Spectator "  rel&tc«  that 
Boine  une  wrote  to  on  English  paper  to  miy 
thai  "MAOkblrdfl  did  not  eat  fruit  bocauNe 
they  liked  It,  but  bevausc  they  were  thinsty, 
and  reconiTn(.-u<]Lnl  wo  t'hould  place  pnus  oi 
water  on  the  gravel  walks  and  so  5ave  ourgar> 
den  fruit.  A  c»tta;;er  in  Montgomeryahiic, 
l»ving  tutd  of  tbi<>  intereHting  fact,  replied  In 
the  dialect  of  that  part  of  the  country: 
*  Dero  the  brutK !  they  cross  the  bruck  to 
oomc  to  my  geerding.' " 

An  opinion  in  p^wln:*  that  borine  tuber- 
cnlo^ift  ia  frL-r(UL>ntly  tranismhted  lo  the  hu- 
man iubjei't  by  catiD'^  the  He^h  and  drinking 
the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows.  It  is  to  ba 
hoped  that  thorough  boiling  of  the  meat  do- 
stroya  the  vitality  of  tito  haoilll,  which  aro 
D.<!Sumed  to  produce  thiit  di^ctfe,  but  ne  are 
not  warrante<l  In  believing  that  roasting  tho 
meat,  aa  usually  proctitxvl.  will  hare  that 
effect ;  nnd  as  milk  I^  !te>dom  boiled  before 
being  partaken  of,  it  is  ob-ar  ihut  the  milk 
of  a  ttibcrculous  aiduial  U  unfit  for  food, 
and  dangerous  to  life. 

Bninsn  North  Romwi  is  fast  approocb- 
ing  tbe  state  of  a  reiculnrly  organizi'd  i^luiiy, 
with  a  rtnc  protnirtc  of  pm.-pcrily.  The  ter- 
rilnry  ha*  been  Uividi.'d  lutu  nine  provinces, 
named  after  the  founders  of  the  company, 
and  grants  of  land  have  been  knued  cover- 
ing 475,2S9  acre*,  in  five  of  the  pnivtnces, 
those  on  the  coast  having  the  preference. 
The  grantees  arc  mostly  Dutch  ;  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  land  granted  is  intended 
for  tobacco  cultivation.  Tlic  total  area  of 
tbe  territory  w!l(  probably  he  found  to  bo 
rooi-e  llian  l!0,ut><),0')0  oirfs.  Tlie  prii*  of 
tfao  laud,  originally  one  dollar  an  u'rv,  Itas 
t>ct.*n  rajj^ed  to  two  ilollnrs.  Kei;ular  steam 
communication  wa<«  ini'tituted  .Si'ptcmbiT  1, 
IS88,  bcttreen  Sondakon  and  Uong-KoOg 
and  Singapore. 

A  KTOBT  i*  told  in  the  Ohio  papers  of  ft 
railroad  engine-driver  who  naa  au>*t>t;ndeU 
because  the  exauiinin;;  physician  pri<nounM><l 
him  deaf.  Uc  asked  to  be  reinftiat^'d  be- 
caUiie,  when  on  a  moving  engine,  be  could 
heir  perfectly  well.  This  was  found,  on 
experiment,  to  be  the  cft«e,  Pruf.  W.  U. 
Williams  mulchen  thi.>4  stnry  nilh  anotlier, 
within  itis  own  ob<ervation.  of  a  man  who 
WES  painfully  deaf  in  a  qulit  house,  but 
'* could  hear  ordinary  convcr<ailon  with  per- 
fect ease  in  a  i-ab  or  rmiUay-t-arriagc,  pro* 
vided  the  jolting  was  considerable" 

A  "  Oktiomart  of  VnJTCPial  Climatolo* 
gy  "  I"  announced  a«  in  preparafinn  by  the 
Observatory  of  Rio  Janeiro.  M  I..  I'mU.  di- 
rector. Il  i*  int^^ndfsl  to  prevnl  methodi- 
nilly  tlic  • '  <   il  data  of  aa  crcat  ft 

number-.'  Uie  earth   aa  Is  poi«9U 

hie,  rcdui.-'.  '■•  <.».i-jrm  standards  of  nol&- 
lioo  sod  turmioolqgy. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTMLY. 


M.  CniitLC?  RiCRKT,  editor  of  (be  "Ro- 

Tno  Scicnxifiquc,"  Paris,  U  inresllgaiing  he- 

^retliiy  ill  niAti,  nod  invites  iBfomiaiiou  frota 

(}rre»pondetita     ri'Specttng    rcmarkabte    in- 

E^tAUCUd  uf  the  trautfmltidiou  of  powoia. 

"Vkoitaolk  MrBK"  is  made  from  the 
of  the  Hihiacu*  abtdnoacAu*^  a  ruftl- 
lua  pUaL  The  anL-ieut  Egyptians  used 
cben  the  Heeds  to  ttimulato  their  appc- 
titcB  and  mftke  ibeir  breath  Crusoe,  and 
the;  regarded  theiu  u  aphrodleiac  and  as- 
^tringcnt.  Protious  to  the  French  Hcrolulioo, 
rhon  it  woa  the  fashion  to  powder  the  hair, 
the  fr'cds  CAlled  amhrrttf,  were  mixed  with 
(itnruh  Had  Itepi  till  the  §tarch  hud  absorbed 
A  r^uitablo  prupgrtiou  of  their  perCuniCf  wheo 
the  seeds  were  rcworcd  aud  the  muek)'- 
odored  c^la^uh  was  put  up  in  packets  for  sale. 
^mbrette  \a  now  imported  Id  Urge  qnaotilicB 
into  Eumpe,  and  in  Ui>ed  in  the  preparalioa 
of  the  atkertuca  uf  rioreoce,  and  to  adulter- 
kU)  luuak, 

"How  Sea -Birds  dine"  ia  dcfcribed  in 
"Nature"  by  a  oorrespoadcni  who  caught 
ihcoi  in  the  act  uff  (tie  Ii«laud  of  Mull.  Ob- 
?rviug  them  coUecIcd  at  a  pinple  Bpot,  he 
'•teamed  toward  it,  Hud  found  that  the  center 
of  their  ^thcring  was  a  reddi»h-brown  ball, 
about  two  feet  under  the  surface,  compoflcd 
of  lierriug-fry,  which  bad  been  drif-en  into 
tliftt  fhape  by  the  dtvera  flurrounding  the 
_shoB)  and  beuioiiag  them  iu  on  all  Eidea,  "  eo 
'that  the  terrified  &r>b  huddled  togetlter  m  & 
>aia  GtTorl  to  e.'>copc  Ineviiable  destruction. 
Tlie  diveva  wurk  rrom  below  and  lb«  other 
aea-birdfl  feed  from  Abore ;  and,  aa  in  eonic 
after  the  birdti  bad  been  at  work  for 
}mc  time  1  &aw  no  ball,  I  suppose  not  one 
lb  Ls  left  to  tetl  the  tale.'*  The  obecrratioo 
raa  repeated  scvurol  tiinee. 

A^AYAif  A,  one  of  the  most  noted  volcnnocB 

in  Japan,  is   the   loftiest   mountain  hi  the 

^Country  which  In  in  a  constAUl  ^tate  of  ae- 

"  Irity,  and  ia  nearest  lu  the  cnpitui,  and  is 

duo  p'itnated  iu  a  diotrtct   the'  '-^  f-.fii..ii..  for 

health   reports.     A    con-  '  lio 

fisiled  it  described  the  roai  •:  rung 

the  edfre  of  the  crater  us   not    uulike    the 

nutite  produced  l>y  tiic  pat^imee  nf  a  railway- 

^traiii   acrost*   n  liridj^e   '  "^  'i   one  i» 

Mjindiri;;.     There  wbh  t.  hul  hmj 

isaUi;;  and  bubbling  coi.rtau...    jirocoeded 

nunberleM  vftporwieta  In  the  ioser  face 

dw  oraterwftU.     Toe  cstlmatrt  of  iho 

Ibunetcr  of  the  opening  vary  widely.     The 

it  eruter    I9  np[>arcuily   the    >oun;;f.-st 

fturl  Innerm<<si  of  thrr-«. 

Tut  irnportant  trrnti-e  of  Brrre  BaOot 


we«torD  .Vroen'ea  (40*).  and  In  tbo  MtotaB 
hecoidphcrc,  in  Aunralia. 


1  Sutton  of 
,:i*  *ery  pi: 


oTcr  the 
>liic  K-p. 


nKnitb.Eag;> 


OBITUARY   XOTES. 

Un.  RoBMf  DiUAA,  of  Wcy 

land,  a  wcIl-Lr""«"  •i,ii..r..u.i   ,., 

died  May  ■!■ 

was  an  cstci 

lector.     Amuit^  i.. 

a  Nrrius  of  fut^^il  . 

beds  of  the  Lebanuu.  : 

plete  specimen  of  the 

cnw,    from    f- >-!■■'•   ' 

called   corny 

Sea.      lie  L. 

collections  foriLi: 

in  Hamburg,  ttn<i  i 

lection  in  England  o[  ii 

the  author  of  a  work  OL 

mouth  and  the  I^lauduf  i  i>n)a.F'i 

contemplating,  at  the  time  of  hie 

Other    trip  to  Siberia,  to   procut« 

mammolb'fl  skeleton. 

Amokg  recent  deoth"  ^■*  '■■-■■ 
Europe   ore  tlioF«  of   ' 
Prof.    Seitus   Otto   Lin  .   . 

mann  ThvudorGayler,  Director  of  the  BoUft* 
icftl  Gardens  at  Frankfort. 

Warrev  De  La  Rer,  F.  It.  R,  on  mA- 
nent  English  physicist,  died  April  19th,  agvd 
about  iixty- three  years.  He  wb»  bom  la 
Guerawy  and  edumted  in  PaHt;   wm  iiw 

tureslwl  in  pbolnr  '  ••• 

lar  eclip^eii  and  '  •  In 

1874:    WB«    -  '  i.n  r»j«r 

Stewart  nii  |niUka* 

tionof  "Ktij   _.:_.,    j.j*'";  cai>> 

ri(.-d  on  a  series  0/  rei^rarche^  ou  the  rlfctxlc 
discharge,  the  result*  of  which  mr-rc  enm»o> 
nicated  to  the  Royal  ^-  -'irk 

Academy;    was  for  t*  1  of 

the  Royal   and  f <  y     '  uk-  Mitimca] 

iTocieiy,  and    fui  -  a  mcnilKf   of 

the  i'-""- 1*  "f  :1k     ..1  Art*;  and  was 

a  CfT'  itieiuber  of  Mvtral  funipi 

bdenii 

Pnor.  Fravz  Connrurs  roKnnui,  of  the 
rnUeryiiy  ot  Utn-clit.  u  tr[.tiiii.-ul.ln-<I   i^lirv 
ifil())i;iiit     and    op! 
2lt!i,  m    thr   *r\ 

'-<>4»apTi^ 
Jonor  ft;  1.'  '        .hX. 

He  wAji  Til'  u( 

ll.rifi  «n   I.,  -ity 


■"'-'fk  t<i 

-•camotUo 

•  •  >  -447%    Be 

;reoa  vt<n  or»* 

ojaMs  to 


•fv  in  noctiiuiutciu  Asia  (tH>  ;  ami  narih>  1  tuu  in  •  imlj  soentiJia  s|^<u. 


inyi 


\ 


V 


THE 


POPULAR   SCIENCE 
MONTHLY. 


ATTQUST,   1889 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  MANUAL  TRAIlsTNG, 

Bt  C-  HANFORD  HENDERSON, 
ojf  rurnct  kxu  caxuxMmr  tm  m  ruiLADELPHU.  uakual  TB^unxo  Mnooi. 

AN  obsen-ant  foroi^er  onco  said  of  America,  "  I  found  prog- 
re««  in  everything  except  in  their  schools  and  churchea." 
On'  '         *  ""i  a  grain  of  allowance  the  impressions  of  for- 

eiK  ■      y  nre  solicited  so  importunately  by  the  objects^ 

of  the  senses  that  they  fail,  as  a  class,  to  appreciate  the  real  sig- 
of  American  institutions.  But  there  was,  nevorthelesa, 
ittle  truth  in  this  brief  criticism.  The  schools  and  the 
chorohes  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  march  of  events.  Perhaps 
ono  notices  them  straggling  the  more,  because  of  all  institution^^ 
they  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  jealous  guardians  of  the  interestH^ 
of  humanity.  Yet  in  hundreds  of  communities  the  land  over  the 
masses  of  the  people  are  but  half  persuaded  of  the  utility  of  the 
one,  and  treat  with  increasing  neglect  the  ministrations  of  the 
other.  While  these  protestants  against  our  current  scholasticisnij 
and  ecclesiaaticisro  were  few  in  number,  their  complaint  attrad 
little  notice.  Now,  however,  that  their  ranks  are  grown  to  lar| 
pp-  "     ]i  imjHirtance  attaches  to  the  question  aa  to 

wli'  itutions  are,  or  are  not,  properly  fulrtlliug  their 

functions. 

The  hand  of  Destiny  never  seemingly  pointed  with  more  un« 
erring  certainty  tu  an  impending  change  than  it  does  to-day  as  i1 
stretches  out  toward  the  school  and  the  church.  The  office  of  the 
teacher  and  the  office  of  the  priest  are  passing  the  review  of  a 
thoughtful  public  sentiment.  Of  the  failure  of  the  Church  to 
justify  her  proud  title  of  "  the  institute  of  humanity"  little  m 
be  said.  But,  however  imperfect  one  may  regard  her  present  min-" 
istratioDs,  bo  can  scarcely  withhold  his  affection  from  an  insti- 


434 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEITCS  iiONTHLY. 


tution  wliich  has  done  so  mncli  to  encourage  the  soniimtmt  or 
•worship.  The  liberal  movement,  the  impulse  toward  Christian 
unity,  the  substitution  of  ethical  for  dogmatic  teachings  the  app(!Al 
to  the  soul  of  man  rather  than  to  his  credulity,  all  seem  to  indi> 
cate  that  the  Church,  which  has  been  so  much  in  the  past  history 
of  the  race^  is  yet  to  adapt  herself  to  the  changed  conditions  of 
the  times,  and  still  be  an  important  factor  in  its  future. 

But  of  even  greater  importance  are  those  changes  which  Becm 
imminent  in  the  school.  Its  influence  comes  at  an  age  when  tho 
mind  is  particularly  plastic,  and  when  life  is  new  and  fresh.  It 
occupies  the  attention  during  the  greater  portion  of  at  least  fire 
^ays  in  the  week,  and  even  during  the  remainder  it  is  seldom 
Pfthsent  from  the  thoughts  for  any  considurable  length  of  tixna 
One  can  scarcely  overestimate  the  importance  of  establishing  so 
pervasive  an  institution  upon  the  right  basis. 

It  may  seem  a  trite  thing  to  particularize  again  the  function 
of  an  old  institution  like  the  school,  yet  it  is  only  by  keeping  thiu 
very  constantly  in  mind  that  one  can  appreciate  its  present  posi- 
tion, or  pass  intelligent  judgment  upon  those  innovations  which 
have  been  proposed  for  its  improvement. 

The  school,  in  the  first  place^  then^  is  a  means  and  not  an  end. 
It  serves  a  purpose.  It  is  not^  like  the  state  or  the  church,  an 
organism  and  possessed  of  life.  One  can  construct  no  pleasing 
ideal  of  what  the  perfect  school  ought  to  bo.  He  can  at  best  only 
specify  what  results  it  should  produce.  Like  all  other  tools^  its 
function  is  to  form  and  to  fashion.  A  machine  is  ■  '  '  for 
its  proportions,  its  color,  its  material,  but  for  its  j-  _;  to 

the  work  required,  and  for  the  character  of  its  producU.  The 
point  demands  emphasis,  for  educators  too  frequently  look  to  the 
symmetry  of  the  school  itself  instead  of  to  tho  harmony  of  Its 
results.  They  forget  that  different  materials  require  different 
tools  for  their  working. 

It  is  a  curious  thing  that  tho  human  mind  should  so  delight  in 
tho  idea  of  stability,  and  should  attempt  to  attain  )t>  whea  rach 
on  idea  finds  no  place  in  all  nature.  Even  tho  crystal,  tho  tnoel 
unchanging  object  of  our  admiration,  has  undergone  innumarmble 
births  and  deaths.  All  nature  is  in  a  state  of  solution  and  of  flax. 
There  is  no  stability,  even  comparative,  except  where  there  is  no 
life.  Yet  we,  who  believe  ourselves  to  live  best  when  wo  ara  in 
tlie  most  perfect  conamunion  with '*    ■  '    '^    •■■         ■"•  ■   .^^ 

manifestation  we  call  Nature,  are  '  ...  '^ 

the  profane  effort  to  give  permanence  to  that  which  is  eosentially 
trunsitory.  Our  laws  seem  to  us  good.  Wo  cr--'-  "---  ^^  —  -r,to 
a  code,  and  so  burden  the  generations  to  come  rt- 

gago  upon  their  juntica    Our  faith  seems  to  us  divine.     W 
it  by  formulating  it  into  a  oreedj  and  so  etar*-^  ♦"*•  -^"T-        ,^ 


4 


THB  SPIRIT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING. 


^Kntldrcn.  Oppresssed  with  wearincgg,  wo  paint  our  heaven  as  a 
Hplaco  of  eternal  rest.  As  well  might  we  extol  the  lifeless  moon 
Habove  the  sentient  earth.  It  is  no  wonder  that  men  fonr  death, 
^■and  hear  with  chill  delight  the  holy  name  of  heaven.  Through 
Hall  OUT  human  institutions  there  runs  this  same  unnaturahiess 
Band  inconsistency  acting  like  a  constant  brake  upon  our  progress. 
Hin  theory  we  adore  this  progress,  hut  the  seraphim  of  our  secret 
■altars  are  insolnble,  infusible,  unchangeable.  In  the  school  this 
inconsistency  of  ours  has  been  particularly  glaring  and  particn- 
i^larly  disastrons.  We  have  found  our  imagination  of  sufficient 
Hcompass  to  span  the  distance  between  man  and  protoplasm,  but  it 
Bseeras  to  have  halted  at  the  less  difficult  task  of  recognizing  that 
Hihe  principle  of  evolution  is  still  working,  and  that  the  educa- 
Htional  demands  of  one  age  ore  not  the  demands  of  all  ages. 
~  Tlie  cnuse  of  education,  however,  will  be  but  poorly  served  if 
one  demoliah  without  building  up  again  with  as  much  zeal  as  he 
tears  down-  Nor  must  one  complain  too  bitterly  of  an  institution 
^which,  in  Fpito  of  its  short-comingSj  has  assisted  to  produce  in  tho 
community  a  culture  sufficient  to  recognize  them.  But  it  would 
»e  well  to  remember  that  the  school  can  never  be  made  to  con- 
Tonn  to  any  crystallographic  habit,  however  heautlf  ul.  Let  it  be 
regarded  as  what  it  is,  simply  a  tool  and  a  very  plastic  one  at  that, 
lot  too  sacred  to  be  sharpened  and  altered,  whenever  by  so  doing 
it  can  he  made  to  accomplish  better  work. 

The  great  question,  then,  concerning  the  schools  is  a  very  aim- 
do  one:  What  effect  has  the  institution  upon  its  pupils  ?  What 
»ort  of  men  and  women  does  it  make  out  of  them  ?  It  is  not  what 
ttudies  are  taught,  or  what  accomplishments  are  imparted,  or  what 
extent  of  information  is  bestowed.  These  considerations  have 
heir  proper  importance,  but  they  are  secondary;  tlio  real  test  is 
leepcr.  The  standard  so  far  has  been  too  material.  We  want 
nething  more  spirituaL  It  is  a  truism  to  say  that  the 
1  I  of  the  school  is  not  to  instruct,  but  to  educate ;  but  it  is 

tmism  which  has  not  yet  been  taken  sufficiently  to  heart  to  be 
iranslated  into  a  fact.    Struck  by  the  manifest  inadequacy  of  the 
tinary  school  in  preparing  boys  to  meet  the  problems  of  life,  a 
lomewhat  vehement  reformer  has  declared  that  America  has  suc- 
reeded,  not  because  of  her  public-school  system,  but  in  spite  of  it, 
'he  exaggeration  is  e\ndent.    There  are  many,  however,  who  can 
lot  help  feeling  that  as  a  moral  force  tho  mcxlem  school,  whether 
lublic  or  private,  has  been  scarcely  loss  than  impotent.    It  has 
^iven  itself  up  to  the  business  of  instruction,  and  has  found  little 
timo  for  the  infinitely  more  important  work  of  development, 
whole  force  of  the  school  shoiihl  be  devot-ed  to  the  one  su- 
premo issu^— the  boy  himself.    If,  while  you  are  making  a  man, 
^ou  can  ttljo  make  a  scholar,  it  will  be  well,  but  look  to  the  man 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


rfirst.    The  majority  of  thoughtful  people,  if  '  !7T 

believe,  make  answer  that  their  own  spiritual r>  —  ' — ^*--  ^-^^ 

come  from  literature  that  happened  to  fall  within  their  reading 
rather  than  from  either  pulpit  or  college  chair.  It  looks  very 
much  as  if  we  were  leaving  to  chance — if  there  be  such  a  thing — 
what  ought  to  be  the  object  of  our  mightiest  effort 

I  should  deeply  regret  any  exaggeration  of  the  def      ',      ■;  of 
the  school,  but  I  think  that  I  do  noc  err  in  stating  thai  imy 

of  these  institutions  the  work  of  true  education  would  be  better 
accomplished  were  the  formal  instruction  now  in  vogue  entirely 
abolishfjd,  and  the  children  simply  brought  into  daily  contact  with. 
some  living,  spiritually-minded  man  or  woman,  and  through  them 
with  the  questions  of  life  and  with  the  rich  literature  of  the  race. 

The  end  of  educMion  being  discipline,  it  is  manifest  that  the 

subjects  chosen  for  study  are  less  imi>ortant  than  the  spirit  in 

which  the  study  is  pursued.    In  the  atmosphere  of  a  school  whore 

this  sentiment  prevails,  almost  any  curriculum  will  produce  living 

men.    But  there  are  certain  branches  of  study  which,  1  liau 

any  others,  are  calculated  to  provoke  thought  and  sei  ^  ;id« 

of  education.    There  are  certain  ways  of  speDding  the  time  that 

promise  the  richest  harvest    To  select  such  studies  ajid  employ 

such  modes  is  indisputably  the  fimctiou  of  thrise  who  attom]>t  to 

guide  the  course  of  education.    In  this  all  are  certainly  agreed. 

Yet  that  old  notion  of  the  ideal  school  still  hinders  the  search 

after  these  admittedly  good  things.    In  many  sch<.>ols  the  counso 

pursued  is  much  the  same  as  if  we  mixed  the  colors  on  our  palette 

with  our  eyes  shut,  and  still  ejcpected  to  get  the  tint  dusirtni.    The 

discrepancy  between  the  end  sought  and  the  method  employed 

jwould  discourage  any  one  less  sophisticate^d  than  the  average 

Bchool-man.    Hygiene,  for  example,  is  taught  in  rooms  so  ill-ven* 

tilated  that  the  children  are  fairly  pale.    Granmiar  and  parsing 

are  inflicted  in  the  blind  hope  that  they  may  i  ilt  way 

inlluence  the  language  of  the  child.    They  i.-     ,  •;»  Bome 

nmaccountablo  theory  of  culture  years  are  devoted  to  languages 

phat  one  will  never  use,  and  precious  moments  squandered  on  the 

keography  of  places  one  will  never  see  or  hear  of.    And  so  one 

pnight  follow  the  entire  list  of  studies  imdertaken  in  the  majority 

of  schools.    They  seem  hopelessly  inadt»qnate. 

In  the  face  of  such  wide-spniad  failure  it  wcniUl  npp*^r  that 
t  i^h  after  a  suitable  scheme  for  th-  !ae 

c.  V  ....v.ien  must  bo  very  difficult    The  tru. ..  ...  ;.. — .vult 

to  the  verge  of  the  impossible,  if  one  procccHl^  in  this  credulous 
rfashion, 

FWhatevfi  ..^ 

trusts  that  by  some  a]cb<?ini^ic  pror-  ■ 

tramimuted  into  gold.    But  the  task  \a  ^^i 


I 


THE  SPiniT   OF  2fAKUAL   THAININO. 


437 


I 

I 

I 

ft 
ft 


I 


&l>out  it  in  tho  right  way.  And  tho  right  way,  hero  as  elsewhere, 
is  the  natural  way.  A  definite  result  is  wanted.  Let  definite 
moans  bo  taken  to  reach  that  result.  If  strong  men  are  wanted, 
let  the  conditions  of  the  school  be  such  that  strength  will  t»e  a 
necessity.  In  many  of  them  at  present  it  is  not  even  a  possibility. 
If  honest  men  are  wanted,  let  the  training  of  the  school  tend  to 
that  end,  even  if  one's  knowledge  of  Timbucfcoo  and  the  Kara- 
korum  Mountains  is  not  very  definite.  If  self-reliant  men  are 
wanted,  let  education  take  the  place  of  instruction.  If  useful 
men  are  wanted,  let  useful  things  be  taught.  If  thoughtful  men 
are  wanted,  let  the  appeal  be  made  to  the  individual  reason  of  the 
boy  rather  than  to  external  authority.  All  this  ia  very  obvious ; 
it  is  merely  common  sense,  but  unfortunately  it  is  not  the  method 
of  the  schools.  In  a  word,  the  problem  of  education  is  to  be  ap- 
proached  from  the  other  side.  We  are  to  work  backward  from 
results.  Instead  of  assuming  certain  studies  to  bo  useful,  and 
then  working  on  to  decidedly  variable  results,  we  are  to  begin 
with  results  admitted  to  be  worthy,  and  then  work  backward  to  a 
curriculum  as  varied  as  Joseph's  coat  if  individual  cases  demand 
it.  What  the  true  educator  most  wishes  to  influence  is  the  con- 
duct of  life.  The  object  he  holds  sacred ;  the  methods  by  which 
ho  compasses  it,  indifferent. 

This  is  the  spirit  of  manual  training.  Where  this  system  of 
education  has  been  introduce*!,  it  gives  so  distinct  a  character  to 
the  course  of  study  that  it  has  loaned  its  name  to  the  school  as  a 
whole.  In  many  respects  this  is  unfortunate,  as  it  has  caused 
serious  misapprehension  in  regard  to  the  purx>ose  of  such  schools, 
but  apparently  the  name  is  now  too  well  rooted  in  educational 
nomenclature  to  be  easily  changfni.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  the  name  stands  for  an  object  rather  than  a  method. 
The  manual  training  school  has  sprung  into  existence  for  a  pur- 
pose much  more  profound  than  that  of  merely  cultivating  the 
hand.  It  has  come  in  recognition  of  the  growing  demand  for  a 
complete  man.  Our  educational  methods  have  too  long  been  at 
work  turning  out  fractional  products,  men  strong  perhaps  in  this 
or  that  particular  dt'iiartmont,  but  sadly  deficient  when  viewed 
from  the  standard  of  complete  manhood.  The  specific  purpose  of 
BUch  schools  is  to  offer  an  education  that  includes  as  far  as  pos- 
sible all  of  the  faculties.  Its  favorite  maxim  is,  "Put  the  whole 
boy  to  school."  Its  mode  of  carrying  out  this  purpose  is  the  very 
practical  one  of  occupjing  the  time  in  any  way,  formal  or  infor- 
mal, that  will  beet  lead  to  the  end  proposed. 

The  manual  training  school  is  now  in  its  formative  period, 
and  the  time  is  a  critical  one.  Two  rival  theories  contend  for  the 
tnafft4^ry  t)f  its  future.  The  one  regards  manual  training  as  an  end 
in  !  'jbor«linnt^  education  to  technical  skill.    It  con- 


THE  POPULAR  SCIBNCS  MONTHLY. 


t«m«H 
,  ib«  1 


cems  itself  more  with  the  production  of  artisans  than,  of  mem 
This  view  of  manual  training  makes  the  school  very  modi  akia 
to  the  trade  and  industrial  schools,  and  would  end  hy  convertisg 
it  into  a  shop.  The  school  is  heralded  as  the  legitimate  ffoooGOor 
of  the  apprentice  system,  and  as  an  Instituticin  whose  highest  end 
is  to  restore  the  advantages  lust  in  the  abolition  of  that  sya 
According  to  this  theory,  the  ahility  to  do  hecomes  the  standard 
'  of  success  for  the  school,  and  the  chief  object  of  its  ambition, 
production  of  well-executed  handiwork.  The  results  of  the  year's 
work  would  be  summed  up  in  an  exliibition  of  things. 

The  other  theoiy  also  sees  in  the  school  an  establishment  fof 
the  fabrication  of  a  deBnite  product,  but  it  is  a  product  too  subtile 
to  find  its  complete  expression  in  wood  or  iron  or  clay.  It  is 
believed  that  the  specific  purpose  of  education  is  to  cultivate 
character,  to  induce  sound  thinking,  and  to  make  a  necessity  of 
scientific  inquiry.  Its  highest  end  is  ethical.  Of  great  value,  but 
secondary  to  its  supreme  pui'pose,  are  the  skill  and  the  informa- 
tion which  would  be  the  natuial  result  of  such  cultivation*  The 
aim  of  the  school  is  to  prepare  for  completeness  of  life.  The  cen- 
tral thought  in  its  entire  organization  is  always  the  boy  himself, 
and  everything  that  is  done,  every  study  that  is  taken  up,  every 
influence  that  is  brought  to  bear,  has  for  its  sole  purpose  lUfl 
development  In  this  view  of  its  proper  function,  the  school  Is 
purely  educational  institution,  and  is  industrial  only  in  tuaklB^ 
use  of  the  tools  of  industry  to  accom])lish  its  chosen  purpoaa 
The  manual  work,  like  the  work  in  science  and  literature,  is  sim- 
ply a  means  of  development.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
process  of  education  that  a  railway  train  does  to  travel  One  may 
select  slower  modes  of  ajiproach  if  he  choose,  but,  in  his  dtflighC  at 
the  rai>id  transit,  he  must  not  confuse  the  journey  with  the  end 
for  which  the  jouniey  is  made.  Those  who  hold  thia  vicwo 
maniml  training,  watch  with  sincere  regret  any  encroach v 
that  Bpiht  which  places  the  inanimate  product,  however  iiit;  ^ 
*«nd  beautiful  it  may  be,  above  the  human  product  The  objecti 
of  manual  training,  they  believe,  is  the  production  of  thoughtfuh 
self-reliant,  honest  men. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  two  theories  are  antagonistic  The 
first,  in  its  anxiety  for  material  results,  is  somewhat  impatient  at 
the  slower  unfolding  of  the  spiritual  handiw^>rk.  Tli<*  F^ouL 
while  it  admits  all  the  claims  of  the  first,  obj  ijfl 

scope— they  do  not  go  farenougK    It  belfr-  -^ 

and  women  who  can  do  something,  but  it 

i  Illy,  in  men  and  women  who /n  o^ 

1..;..  .    vv  in  all  sincerity,  and  reap  a^    '  hfl 

vest  is  gathered  before  the  other.    1  i^| 

blossoms  ami  bears  fruit  in  objecta  of  bcuuly  iu^d  utility.    'il^| 


SPIRIT   OF  MANUAL   TRAINING. 


4S9 


'is  much  to  exhibit  on  stated  occasions  to  the  public  gaze  and  com- 
mendation.   The  other  harvest  is  slow  in  maturing.    It  taxes 
faith  and  hope.    It  does  not  offer  material  well  suited  for  pnblia) 
display.    Yet  this  intangible  result  is  so  valued  by  those  whoj 
labor  for  it,  that  they  are  content  to  wait,  persuaded  that  a  well- 
spent  present  can  afford  to  leave  the  future  to  divine  law. 

In  nearly  every  manual  training  school  these  two  elements  are 
present.  In  one  way  this  is  an  advantage,  for  they  act  as  a  check 
upon  eAch  other.  The  practical  side  is  kept  from  becoming  sor- 
did ;  the  spiritxial  side  from  becoming  visionary.  But  the  balance 
of  power  between  the  two  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  it 
determines  the  character  of  the  school.  If  it  be  on  the  one  side, 
the  tendency  of  manual  training  must  be  regarded  as  unfortu- 
nate— the  educational  ideal  is  degraded ;  life  contracts.  If  it  be 
on  the  other,  no  finer  nursery  can  be  imagined  for  the  rearing  of 
a  race  which  shall  be  strong  in  its  passion  for  goodness  and  for 
knowledge.  It  teaches  that  the  worth  of  a  man  lies  in  what  he  is. 
The  question  ia  one  of  fiber,  not  of  veneer. 

It  is  not  unnatural  that  an  ontorpriso  with  so  ambitions  a  pur- 
pose should  constantly  bring  disappointment  to  its  projectors. 
When  one  has  poured  out  his  whole  soul  in  an  effort  to  regenerate,) 
oven  a  reasonable  amount  of  success  does  not  satisfy  him.  He 
looks,  perhaps,  for  too  much.  The  currents  in  human  affairs 
frhich  do  not  make  for  righteousness  are  too  strong  to  be  easily 
Btemmeii.  Tlie  iailueuce  of  the  school  is  working  against  very 
powerful  counter -influences.  Arrayed  against  it  are  the  low 
maxims  of  the  street  and  the  market,  the  sensationalism  of  much 
of  our  current  literature,  and  not  infrequently  the  indifferent  moral 
atmosphere  of  the  home  itself.  It  is  not  alono  that  these  opponents 
have  contemporary  power,  but  they  have  been  in  office  for  from 
thirteen  to  fourteen  years.  We  have  to  fight  not  only  the  present, 
but  the  past  as  well.  The  leaven  of  the  now  ideas  goes  frequently 
[.into  very  obdurate  dough,  and  its  working  ia  correspondingly 
sluggish.    We  must  cope  with  both  the  boy  and  his  great-grand- 

lother. 
A  difficulty  keenly  felt  in  these  schools  ia  the  necessity  of 
.spending  the  first  few  months  in  the  negative  work  of  undoing, 
>^Children,  as  a  rule,  are  very  badly  trained.  They  are  taught  to 
iwork  under  a  false  stimulus,  and  from  vicious  motives.  Their 
morality  is  generally  the  morality  of  rewards  and  punishments. 
Wore  the  childish  heart  less  beautiful  and  less  pure  than  it  is, 
the  injury  done  to  it  would  be  even  more  irreparable. 

Nor  are  those  the  only  difficulties.  The  spirit  of  manual  train- 
ing is  ethical  and  evolutionary.    But,  tmfortunately,  not  all  of 

tose  who  presume  to  teach  in  such  schools  have  themselves 
[caught  its  fine  meaning.    One  can  not  communicate  what  he  haSi 


440 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHir, 


pot    Meu  will  teacli  for  bread  and  butter  just  as  tboy  ■  -A 

taud  pray.  Too  many  are  in  the  school  because  they  ha. ..  ..  U;;ng 
IfilBe  to  do.  They  have  not  elected  leaching.  Like  their  boya,  they 
must  undo  a  groat  deal  of  their  past,  and  thia  in  a  man  require* 
not  a  small  degree  of  plasticity.  Some  possess  it,  some  do  not, 
To  look  within  the  soul  and  draw  one's  inspiration  from  that  well 
of  living  wat43r  ts  not  given  to  all  men;  to  commimicate  it,  in  aM 
frankness  and  generosity,  to  but  few.  Our  education  has  uuido 
us  all  too  cautious.  We  are  too  afraid  of  speaking  out  and  ex- 
pressing our  inmost  convictions.  And  bo  our  goodness,  if  wo 
have  any,  does  not  provo  contagious.  No  wave  of  spirituality 
proceeds  from  our  teaching. 

In  contending  against  these  odds,  the  pressure  from  withoml 
and  the  iusufiiciency  within,  the  teacher  experiences  allemationa 
of  hope  and  despair.    The  faculty  of  a  manual  traini-  )  is 

commonly  ma*ie  up  of  young  men.    The  more  thought.... lUg 

them  have  been  attached  to  the  movement  by  its  immense  prom* 

jise,  but  under  their  hopefulness  there  is  observable  a  current  of 

Almost  premature  seriousness.    It  is  a  grave  task  to  undt^rtake 

the  regeneration  of  humanity,  even  when  it  is  in  the  bud. 

In  attempting  to  carry  out  this  idea  of  boy  d^     ' 
atmosphere  of  the  school  is  an   object  of  cons:  \ 

Great  care  is  taken  that  it  shall  not  be  charged  with  the  miasma 
called  information.  It  is  to  be  kept  fresh,  and,  above  all,  morally 
wholesome.  Character  is  to  be  grown  there,  but  one  spirit  most 
pervade  the  school ;  it  is  that  of  a  divine  egotism.  The  boy  is 
taught  that  for  himself  the  one  object  of  8U]>reme  im[Jortance  isii 
the  whole  universe  is  himself.  His  gasse  is  directed  toward  the 
naked  human  soul,  strippe<l  of  the  false  props  of  apparel,  of  fam* 
ily,  of  possessions,  even  of  knowledge.  He  is  led  to  do  tliis  atui 
that  not  for  the  sake  of  the  prcnluct,  although  this  is  duly  valu<H], 
but  for  the  sake  of  the  doing,  and  the-  '   •»  it  will  ' 

himself.   Education  is  thus  made  iutoj.     ^        .jt^ctive. 
the  dignity,  the  responsibility  of  the  individual  at^  given  greater' 
emphasis  than  the  facts  of  geography,  of  grninmfti  '  '     *  ry. 

It  is  in  this  spirit,  the  constant  recognition  of  a  >]<  liaL 

(inanual  training  attempts  to  work.    It  would  not  du,  however^  toj 

Kialk  to  boys  very  much  about  the  soul.    It  is  an  ab-^* *■  n  tni 

I  them,  and  tliey  would  soon  cease  to  listen.    They  must  toj 

fcvl  it.    The  task  is  a  verj*  subtle  one  ;  its  nature  mubt  never  ba! 

furgotton,  but  seldom  displayed.    The  ki'*'"'-'"  of  heaven  cttu 

not  be  taken  by  violence.    It  is  through  i  s  and  patienM, 

J  through  love  and   >  v,  that  t 

rliyarts  are  to  be  rejitu    _-     i  i  t;y  have  :      ^ ^ 

that  the  body  has  a  souU    The  sttit«aieut  is  b<>ro  r*  sud, 

Llltey  are  made  to  feel,  if  powtblo;  that  the  9ual  Lbk  u  body.    Xh^ 


I 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING, 


the  school  deeply  impressed  concoming  the  objects  of  the 
the  concrete.  They  are  here  persuaded  of  the  greater 
reality  of  the  spirit ;  and  appreciation  is  asked  for  the  abstract 
and  impersonal.  So  far  these  objects  might  be  the  tibjects  of  any 
school  of  high  principle.  They  represent  the  spirit  of  the  new 
education.  But  they  belong  peculiarly  to  manual  training,  since 
it  is  a  systom  willing  not  only  to  cherish  these  sentiments,  but 
also  to  work  with  complete  singleness  of  purpose  for  their  reali- 
zation. It  is  a  sincere  and  practical  effort  to  do  something  better 
than  has  yet  been  done  in  tlie  name  of  education. 

The  methods  of  manual  training  are  too  new  to  have  been 
encumbered  with  any  traditions;  nor  have  they  attained  sufli- 
cient  fixc^lness  to  threaten  growth.  For  the  most  part,  they  are 
still  tentative  and  experimentaL  This  plasticity  is  very  hopeful, 
A  question  left  open  is  a  constant  stimulus  to  renewed  searching 
after  something  still  a  little  better.  Each  school  that  attempts  to 
carry  out  manual  training  soon  develops  a  certain  individuality. 
Any  teaching  so  intensively  subjective  as  this  is  deeply  influ- 
ence! by  the  personality  of  its  faculty.  The  character  of  the  men 
who  have  it  in  charge  is  quick  to  find  expression  in  the  school. 
The  distinctive  features  in  the  institution  at  Philadelphia  are, 
perhaps,  the  predominance  given  to  ethics  and  the  unremitting 
effort  to  preserve  unity  throughout  the  many-sided  development 
attempt^L  In  defending  our  unity  we  are  beset  by  difficulties. 
The  over-enthusiasm  of  our  friends  would  plunge  us  into  many 
axoessea  Manual  training  seems  to  them  so  good  a  thing  that 
they  can  not  realize  the  possibility  of  having  too  much  of  it.  We 
who  take  the  long  view  have  often  to  counsel  moderation,  or  the 
new  idea  would  quite  run  away  with  us.  In  the  intense  delight 
which  these  good  people  feel  in  giving  substance  to  ideas,  they 
would  discard  everything  which  is  not  capable  of  such  expres- 
eion.  Th»?y  apparently  forget  that  imagination  is  absolutely 
nwdful  for  jH*i*s{>octive,  and  that  of  all  useless,  pitiable  creatures 
the  unimaginative  man  is  superlative.  Yet  this  excessive  amount 
of  represoiitrttion  would  quite  kill  imagination.  In  careless 
hands  the  effect  of  manual  training  would  Ix^  to  sot  bounds  and 
ilimits  rather  than  to  break  them  down.  It  is  not  a  system  that 
can  be  indiscriminately  recommended.  Men  are  so  prone  to  mis- 
take the  means  for  the  end,  that  those  who  esteem  manual  train- 
ing most  highly  are  least  willing  to  encourage  its  introduction, 
nnlees  they  know  the  character  of  the  men  who  are  to  have  it  in 
charge. 

In  its  organization  the  manual  training  school  differs  little 
from  the  customary  high  school  It  is  an  institution  of  similar 
grade^  and  covers  about  the  same  period  of  boy  life.  Its  students 
enter  at  from  thirteen  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  remain,  if  they 


TSK  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


complete  their  entire  course,  for  three  years.  It  is  not  l«tt  liter- 
ary and  not  less  scientlBc  than  the  best  of  oar  high  schoolB,  but 
it  is,  we  believe,  far  more  practical  in  preparing  boys  to  meet  the 
real  jiroblems  of  life.  The  customary  high-school  course  covers 
four  years,  but,  as  only  a  small  percentage  of  Htudents  remain  to 
graduate,  it  is  thought  wiser  in  the  manual  training  school  to 
limit  the  course  to  tliroe  years,  and  to  offer  u  fourth  yi  "  H- 
graduate  study  in  any  department  where  a  student  n  vm 

special  aptitude.  One  third  of  the  school  day  is  devoted  to  man- 
ual work,  and  the  rest  to  science  and  literatura  It  aer  r  it.^^ 
sible,  however,  to  consider  such  a  school  except  as  a  It 
refuses  to  be  divided  into  sections.  Representing,  as  it  does,  ft 
purpose  rather  than  a  method,  all  departments  are  bound  to- 
gether by  a  common  aim,  and  are  subservient  to  tliat-.  Thoy  are 
members  one  of  another,  and  the  head  no  longer  says  to  the  handi 
or,  for  that  matter,  to  any  other  member  of  the  anatomy,  "  I  have 
no  need  of  thee."  We  venture  to  hope  that  the  impulse  whoee 
spirit  I  have  been  attempting  to  describe  is  only  at  the  begin- 
ning of  its  work.  When  the  new  aspirations  in  education,  which 
are  now  called  manual  training,  come  to  a  fuller  development, 
they  will  concern  themselves  not  with  the  hand  onh  '  'th 
the  entire  body  and  the  entire  being.  We  even  hi-j  at 
some  time  in  the  future  parents  and  teachers  will  feel  it  their 
duty  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  condition  and  needa  of  the 
little  bodies  of  which  they  ai-e  now  the  ignorant  gnardiana,  and 
will  attempt  by  definite  means  to  make  them  more  fitting  vest* 
monts  for  the  human  soul.  The  time  has  come,  it  seems  to  me, 
when  evolution  should  bo  a  conscious  process,  and  man  should 
Arork  in  happy  sympathy  with  the  purposes  of  that  power  which 
snakes  for  righteousness. 

Although  the  most  distinctive  feature  in  these  schools  is  nat- 
urally the  manual  department,  its  success  from  t'  -iiJ 
standpoint  can  only  bo  judged  by  observing  its  <  _  .,  ..  the 
rest  of  the  school  work.  It  is  true  that  the  boy  does  not  in  ftQ 
coses  understand  the  full  significance  of  his  work,  but  ho  is, 
nevertheless,  gaining  unconsciously  that  degree  of  patience,  of 
perseverance,  and  of  judgment  needed  to  accomplish  his  tusk. 

The  next  thing  he  tmdertakes  demands  t^ ..  i  .• 

measure,  and  so  the  work  of  character-t ; 
taueously  with  the  pro<luction  of  handiwork.    Ti: 
hapg,  only  these  finished  pieces  of  work  as  In-  - 
are  looking  on  see  something  vastly  more  imp< 
•turdier  virtues — self-reliance,  luanlincfttf,  and  ; 
Roping  to  wholesome  proportion^-    Tim  lw»v  inV-i 
and  we  take  pride  in  him. 

The  constructive  faculty  in  ciiUdrcu  and  ) 


f  11 


:cr 
il- 
r- 


4 
I 


MAyUAL 


44J 


» 


They  seem  never  so  Uiorouglily  liappy  as  when  they  are  making 
something.  This  wonderful  self-activity  in  children  was  wliat 
Froebel  8oi2ed  upon  as  the  basis  for  the  Kindergarten.  In  boys  it 
is  made  the  basis  for  manual  training.  Whenever  possible,  the 
appeal  is  made  to  their  own  resources  and  faculties  in  preference 
to  the  external  world.  Here,  as  in  the  lecture  and  recitation 
room,  education  is  made  to  proceed  subjectively. 

In  judging  of  the  success  of  the  enteri^riso,  duo  allowance 
must  bo  made  for  the  quality  of  the  material  that  is  to  be  worked 
uj).  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  not  a  few  of  the  boys  who  come 
to  a  manual  training  school  come  thero  for  the  express  puqioae 
of  cultivating  the  mechanical  side  to  the  exclusion  of  everything 
els*.  In  many  cases  these  lads  are  finally  converted  to  the 
broader  view  of  life,  but,  if  that  enlightenment  does  not  come, 
they  can  hardly  be  taken  to  represent  in  fairness  either  the  aim 
or  the  result  of  manual  training.  Comparisons  are  always  diffi- 
cult to  make  successfully,  and  hero  particularly  so,  because  allow- 
ances have  to  bo  made  on  both  sides.  While  many  of  tlio  most 
clever  little  workmen  would  possibly  count  as  dullards  in  a 
Bchool  of  different  character,  not  a  few  of  the  boys  represent  an 
intelligence  above  the  average.  For  it  is  the  more  advanced  peo- 
ple who  have  been  the  first  to  recognize  the  significance  of  man- 
ual training,  and  have  shown  their  faith  in  it  by  selecting  it  for 
their  own  sons.  The  visitor  to  a  manual  training  sch(X»l,  if  ho 
come  to  it  with  the  shop  idea  in  his  head,  expresses  constant  sur- 
prise at  the  class  of  boys  he  sees  there.  Sometimes  he  very 
graciously  complimenta  the  institution  on  its  excellent  Englishj 
under  the  apparent  impression  that  a  little  noise  has  a  tendenc] 
to  make  the  adverb  and  the  adjective,  the  past  tense  and  the  per- 
fect participle,  xjlay  at  stage-coach  and  change  places  with  each 
other.  Hia  surprise  is  perhaps  not  unnatural,  for  ho  comes 
expocting  to  find  a  shop,  and  he  finds  a  school. 

The  theory  upon  which  a  manual  training  school  is  conducted 
may  not  be  lightly  ilisregarded.  It  has  here  been  dwelt  upon  as  the 
all-important  thing  about  the  school,  for  it  determines  the  aims 
and  methods  of  the  institution,  and  the  very  atmosphere  of  its 
lecture-rooms  and  laboratories.  Moreover,  it  determines  for  what 
class  of    '     '  ^0  school  is  intended.     If  things  be  regarded  as 

the  pr  ^       .  I,  only  prospective  artisans  should  enroll  them* 

selves  among  its  students;  but  if  men  be  the  product  sought, 
^j-,   iM.  -   II    _..  11  1     ,  _  _.*j.^j^j,  ^g  human  want  itself.    There,  in 

jii-  s,  will  be  found  the  embryo  scientist 

ar  '  and  miuifrter,  lawyer  and  doctor,  artist 

a;  ■"■'  ^— — .'  ..•t....o|..  and  these  men,  though 

Hi'  iy  exorcise  their  acquire*! 

hi  uiUj  fuUei-  luiatiou  with  all  life  through 


444 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT. 


that  completo  oducntion  of  tLe  faculties  wliicli  it  is  the  function 
of  a  manual  training  school  to  accomplish. 

In  glancing:  at  the  several  schools  of  this  character  which  hAVQ 
been  established  in  America,  one  must  admit  that  the  artisan 
spirit  is  more  prevalent  than  the  educational.  The  fact  is  to  be 
deplored.  It  means  that  unle^  the  advocatee  of  the  higher  pi> 
dtion  are  alert  and  vigilant,  the  fine  opportunity  for  broader 
iltnre  offered  by  manual  training  will  be  lost  in  mere  technique. 
The  man-element  will  go  uuder^  and  the  world  of  things  will 
again  rule. 

The  chief  claim  of  manual  training,  it  must  be  repeated,  is 
not  mechanicaL  It  is  spiritual,  the  development  of  character ;  and 
while  its  success  in  this  direction  can  not  always  bo  judged  from 
the  standard  of  formal  scholarship,  there  are  other  and  very  ready 
tests  which  are  infallible.  Conduct  is  a  sure  gauge  of  the  stuff  of 
which  a  boy  is  made.  No  better  index  of  the  moral  atmosphere 
of  a  school  can  be  foimd,  I  tbinlc,  than  its  discipline.  The  bo3rB 
in  a  manual  training  school  are  not  yet  old.  The  younger  among 
them  are  only  thirteen  or  fourteen  years,  and  to  boye  of  this  age 
there  are  special  temptations  to  disorder  in  the  freedom  and  move- 
ment of  the  laboratories.  To  maintain  order  among  ^'  '  in- 
dred  of  these  active  young  spirits  without  api)ealing  tu  'jir 

of  consequences,  or  to  other  vicious  motives,  would  not  seem  on 
easy  task.  Yet  it  is  accomplished  in  a  highly  satiafactory  manner. 
There  are  plenty  of  noise  and  life,  it  is  true,  and  a  fair  uhare  of  fun, 
but  this  seldom  goes  beyond  wholesome  bounds.  As  for  bb  possi- 
ble the  order  of  the  school  is  left  to  the  boys  themselves.  Certain 
customs  are  observed  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  but  there  are  no 
formal  rules  for  conduct.  The  lx>ys  know  perfectly  well  wliat  is 
right,  and  they  are  encouraged  to  do  it  because  it  is  the  right,  and 
not  because  they  will  get  into  trouble  if  they  do  otherwise.  As 
little  personal  authority  is  exerted  as  possible.    Tlie  ■  l-le 

law  of  right  is  taught  as  a  principle,  to  which  both  t< .  .  .,  .ud 
boy  must  conform.  It  is  a  high  ground  to  t^o,  but  it  works— «■ 
,fiV  Is  to  the  Ijetter  nature  of  a  boy  generally  do.    It  i»  po«- 

*>■  '  this  abnegation  of  authority  robs  the  prof«wsorial  chair 

of  some  of  its  dignity,  Init  there  are  better  levers  in  the  world 
than  this.    The  friendly,  even  sfT    '        *  r  ^    ^      V  'en 

teacher  and  pupil  which  takes  its  ;  .or 

influence  and  of  a  more  profitable  intercourse. 

It  is  felt  by  those  irabuod  with  the  new  idea  of  -^ — *'''-^  *liat 
punishment,  however  judiciouHly  appIie-1,  is  an  :  ;id 

iperlicial    thing,   and    r  ,y, 

'uture  has  placed  an  in<;  <\* 

Wrong  conduct  is  ao  sun  I  ;it 

it  seems  a  presumption  on  tUo  i«art.  of  a  t4*o 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  MANUAL   TRAINING, 


leasure  out  a  suitoble  penalty  in  addition.  Tho  same  effort  can 
("better  be  applied  to  an  attempt  to  show  the  boy  why  a  certain 
jliue  of  conduct  is  wrong,  and  the  greater  beauty  of  the  right.  All 
ftppeals  are  avoided  which  involve  iu  any  way  tho  fear  of  consc)- 
quences.  This  applies  not  only  to  the  discipline  of  the  school  but 
also  to  questions  of  scholarship.  The  system  of  daily  marking 
has  been  aboHnhed,  and  an  attempt  made  to  substitute  the  nutural 
and  proper  motive  for  study  in  place  of  the  lower  and  artificial 
ona.  No  rod,  either  mental  or  physical,  is  held  over  the  boy. 
Solomon  was  the  great  advocate  of  that  system  of  government, 
but,  judging  from  the  subsequent  behavior  of  Rehoboam,  it  has 
been  suggested  that  it  was  not  a  success  even  in  the  hands  of  so 
trise  a  man.  The  school  is  to  prepare  for  life,  and  in  life  things 
are  not  conducted  in  that  way.  The  difficult  art  of  governing 
one's  self  can  best  bo  learned  if  the  practice  begins  in  boyhood.  It 
becomes  increasingly  diflScuIt  to  choose  the  wrong  as  one  recog* 
nizes  more  and  more  clearly  that  the  offense  is  primarily  against 
one's  own  nature,  and  can  meet  forgiveness  only  by  self-atone- 
ment. The  deepest  philosophy  of  life  thus  forms  an  essential  part 
of  the  curriculum  of  a  manual  training  schooL  I  do  not  believe 
that  a  school  conducted  in  this  spirit  ever  graduates  a  boy  who 
feels  that  he  is  escaping  from  restraint  when  ho  loaves  the  schooL 
He  is  under  tho  eye  of  an  ever-present  master,  who  judges  with 
increasing  culture,  not  according  to  appearance,  but  righteous 
judgment ;  for  that  master,  if  the  school  has  been  successful,  is 
himsylf.  We  feel  justified  in  subordinating  the  less  serious  ends 
of  education  to  this  one  supreme  end ;  for  conduct,  as  Matthew 
Arnold  says,  is  at  least  three  fourths  of  life.  It  is  the  essence  of' 
religion,  the  material  of  men. 

In  thus  seeking  to  reach  the  inner  sources  of  conduct  and 
achievement,  the  manual  training  school  renders  an  inestimable 
service  if  it  Fuccee<l  in  arousing  boys  to  think  for  themselves,  and 
Jin  making  thorn  tho  guardians  of  their  own  destiny,  working 

tder  divine  law.  But  the  work  of  the  school  does  not  end  here. 
The  occupations  of  life  which  open  before  its  graduates  are  varied 
and  numerous.  There  is  something  for  all  talents,  however  di- 
verse. A  school  which  produces  men  must  so  train  its  boys  that 
[they  will  be  competent  to  take  some  definite  and  acceptable  part 
[iu^this  complex  activity.  The  selection  of  tho  right  part  to  bo 
ia  a  matter  of  no  small  moment.  It  must  be  made  ulti- 
dy  by  tho  boy  himself,  but  he  is  as  yet  so  young  and  so  inex- 
Iperienced,  it  is  no  wonder  that  many  men  declare  in  after-life  that 
[they  have  mistaken  their  vocntioa.  Unless  his  genius  be  of  the 
pr..n.,nTi.-.Ml  type  which  knows  itfl  future  from  the  very  cradle, 
11,  all-important  as  it  is,  is  extremely  difficult  to  make^ 
.Tliu  lioy  uc-rtla  help  and  friendly  counsel.    To  prevent  the  enor- 


THE  POPULAR  SCIESCE  UONTHLT. 


mons  ivaste  of  energy  and  tlie  lifo-long  iit  i  ani» 

from  mistakes  in  one's  calling,  is  certain.,;  „  — ^..-^  ..i-j-jriant 
function  of  an  institution  which  professes  to  prepare  a  lad  for  the 
problems  of  daily  living.    The  absence  of  pron-  '  ■  ist^  In  the 

boy  is  not  the  only  obstacle  to  be  overcome,    'i  i*  few  boys 

totally  devoid  of  some  interest  which  may  be  made  available  far 
future  worfc,  but  it  needs  something  to  bring  it  out.  The  ordi- 
niiry  school  training  does  not  do  it.  In  the  outcry  which  is  peri- 
odically made  against  what  is  mistakenly  called  "  over-education,'* 
there  is  discernible  the  bitter  tone  of  men  who  feel  in  a  ^  '  -^  —^y 
that  somehow  the  schools  have  cheated  them  in  so  ill  -tg 

them  for  life.  There  is  much  reason  in  their  complaints  it  is  not 
true  that  such  questions  are  outside  the  business  of  the  ftchooL 
What  a  boy  is  to  do  after  he  leaves  school  is  very  much  tho  busi- 
ness of  the  school,  and  its  neglect  is  scarcely  less  than  criminaL 
If  what  is  done  before  graduation  bears  no  relation  to  what  m  to 
be  done  after  graduation^  then  tlie  school — and  it  is  said  in  all 
soberness — had  better  give  place  to  tho  gymnasium,  for  that  at 
least  would  give  health  and  beauty  in  place  of  narrow  chests 
and  pseudo-culture.  But  the  faculty  of  a  manual  training  school 
do  not  so  lielieve.  They  believe  that  the  development  of  a 
useful,  judiciously  chosen  purpose  in  life  is  a  very  important 
element  in  education,  and  it  receives  in  such  schools  an  amount 
of  attention  commensurate  with  its  importance,  A  boy  can  not 
judge  rightly  for  what  sort  of  work  he  is  hest  fitted  xmless 
his  experience  be  so  enlarged  by  those  who  guide  his  course  that 
he  shall  at  least  come  in  contact  with  the  differejit  department* 
of  human  activity,  and  taste  them,  if  we  may  so  phrase  it,  for 
himself.    Even  with  these  advantages,  the  choice  is  :lt 

one.  The  first  boyish  impulse  is  not  always  to  be  tru^,  .  .at, 
by  gi%'ing  these  impulses  as  free  play  as  practicable  during  U10 
three  years  of  the  course,  the  chances  of  mi^  t«  nt  Icnst 

greatly  reduced.     In  a  well -equipped  manu  '  lug  schotjl 

there  are  few  boys  who  are  not  able  to  become  interested  and 
proficient  in  some  one  of  its  several  d-  i  '  ^fs.  In  t^  '  nf 
making  the  school  still  more  useful  i  _    'g  boys  ■  a 

suitable  life-work,  and  in  helping  to  prepare  them  to  carry  il  oat 
with  efficiency,  the  plan  of  post-graduato  study  h:-  ^  ■:  --'-tv 
duced.    By  permitting  a  boy  to  work  a  year  in  1  ir 

department  where  his  undergraduate  per!  -a 

the  greatest  promise,  ho  can  be  still  more  \  '  t 

the  work  of  the  wi.»rid.    This  is  a  special  it- 

nro  of  tRe  school  ut  Philwlelphia,    Tlio  rc*ulU  iiuiicuto  Ui. 
worthy  of  further  extension. 

It  is  ciignificunt  of  tho  spirit  of  its  toftohing  that  ao 
proportion  of  manual-training  gradaates  coutinuo  thair  ati 


AGNOSTICISM  ASD   CHRISTIANITY. 


447 


Luiversities  and  higher  technical  schools.    Its  effect,  as  far  as  one 
in  judge,  has  been  to  make  boys  aspire  after  the  Letter  things 
ii  life. 

I  have  read  that  Pestalozzi,  in  his  eager  enthusiasm,  used  to 
^find  many  things  in  his  little  school  which  less  partial  though 
Biiot  less  careful  observers  failed  to  discover.  1  should  be  sorry  to 
Hrepeat  his  mistake  in  connection  with  the  manual  training  school. 
Hi  have  tried,  therefore,  to  so  temper  my  praise  with  criticism 
Hthat  both  the  beauty  of  the  system  and  its  danger  should  be 
'^fairly  represented.  The  view  taken  might  still  be  too  favorable, 
if  it  were  given  as  tlie  veritable  history  of  a  single  schooL  The 
spirit  of  manual  training,  to  which  I  have  tried  to  give  expres- 
represents  rather  an  ideal,  which  in  moments  of  e:ctreme 
fulness  we  are  tempted  to  believe  that  we  have  partially 
realized,  and  in  moments  of  discouragement  we  still  hold  to  be 
worthy  of  our  effort 


AGNOSTICISM  AND  CHRISTIANITY, 

Bt  PBor.  T.  H.  UUXLET,  F.  R.  8. 

remo  ^rgo  ex  mo  tdre  qaent,  quod  me  cesdro  toto,  nlfii  forte  nt  n«9drc  disc«t.* 

Auocsnnui,  Dt  Civ.  J)<i^  xU«  7. 

CONTROVERSY,  like  most  things  in  this  world,  has  a  good 
.  and  a  hw\  si<le.    On  the  good  side,  it  may  be  said  that  it 

ffitimulates  the  wits,  tends  to  clear  the  mind,  and  often  helps  those 
engaged  in  it  to  get  a  better  grasp  of  their  subject  than  they  had 
ibofore;  while,  mankind  being  essentially  fighting  animals,  a  con- 
[test  leads  the  public  to  interest  themselves  in  questions  to  which, 
lerwise,  they  would  give  but  a  languid  attention.  On  the 
side,  controversy  is  rarely  found  to  sweeten  the  temper,  and 
rally  tends  to  degenerate  into  an  exchange  of  more  or  leas 
effective  sarcasms.  Moreover,  if  it  is  long  continued,  the  original 
id  really  important  issues  are  apt  to  become  obscured  by  dis- 
►ute«  on  the  collateral  and  relatively  insignificant  questions 
which  have  crop{»ed  up  in  the  course  of  the  discussion.  No  doubt 
hboth  of  these  aspects  of  controversy  have  manifested  themselves 
the  course  of  the  debate  which  has  been  in  progress,  for  some 
ithS)  in  those  pages.  So  far  as  I  may  have  illostrate^l  the 
kd,  I  express  repentance  and  desire  absolution ;  and  I  sliall 
endeavor  to  make  amends  for  any  foregone  lapses  by  an  en* 
Lvor  to  exhibit  only  the  better  pha  "j^se  concluding 

smarks. 


*  tc(  BO  flcio  ihcrofon  Mek  to  kao*  tram  dm  vlut  1 
Of'der  to  Ic^m  not  lo  know. 


I  An  Dot  kttaw^  excupt  In 


THE  POPULAR  S€I£2iCJS  MONTHLY, 


The  present  discuHsion  lias  arisen  out  of  the  mso,  'vrliich  IJP 
become  general  in  the  last  few  years,  of  the  tenna  "  agnostic ''  and 
"  agnosticism." 

The  people  who  call  themselves  "agnostics  "  have  been  charged 
with  doing  so  because  they  have  not  ^e  courage  to  declaro  them- 
selves  "  mfidels."  It  has  been  insinuated  that  they  have  adopted 
a  new  name  in  oi*der  to  escape  the  unpleasautne<is  which  attaches 
to  thtiir  proi>er  denomination.  To  this  wholly  erroneous  imputa- 
tion, I  have  replied  by  showing  that  the  term  "agnostic**  did.  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  arise  in  a  manner  which  negatives  it ;  and  my 
statement  has  not  been,  and  can  not  be,  refuted.  Moreoverf 
speaking  for  myself,  and  without  impugning  the  right  of  any 
other  person  to  use  the  term  in  another  sense,  I  fuilher  say  that 
agnosticism  is  not  properly  described  as  a  "  negative  *'  creed,  nor 
indeed  as  a  creed  of  any  kind,  except  in  so  far  as  it  expresses 
absolute  faith  in  the  validity  of  a  principle  which  La  as  much 
ethical  as  intellectual  This  principle  may  be  stated  in  various 
ways,  but  they  all  amount  to  this:  that  it  is  wrong  for  a  man  to 
say  that  he  is  certain  of  the  objective  truth  of  any  proposition 
unless  he  can  produce  evidence  which  logically  justifies  that  c«r- 
tainty,  TliLa  is  what  agnosticism  assorts;  and,  in  my  ;  '  '  ;<,  it 
is  all  that  is  essential  to  agnosticism.    That  which  agn  tiy 

and  repudiate  as  immoral  is  the  contrary  doctrine,  that  thoro 
are  propositions  which  men  ought  to  beliovOj  without  logically 
satisfactory  evidence;  and  that  reprobation  ought  to  attach  to 
the  profession  of  disbelief  in  such  inadequately  supported  propo- 
sitions. The  justification  of  the  agnostic  principle  lies  in  the  eruc- 
cess  which  follows  upon  its  application,  whether  in  the  field  of 
natural  or  in  that  of  civil  history ;  and  in  the  f^iot  that,  so  far  as 
these  topics  arc  concurned,  no  aane  man  thinks  of  denying  its 
validity. 

Still  speaking  for  myself,  I  add  that,  though  agn-  ■  '  '  is 
not,  and  can  not  be,  a  creed,  except  in  8f>  far  as  its  gen* '  ,  : .  .i- 
ple  is  concerned  ;  yet  that  the  application  of  that  principle  raults 
in  the  denial  of,  or  the  suspension  of  ji  '  .a 

number  of  propositions  respecting  which  i^  ;         ,         it*. 

siastical  "  gnostics  "  profess  entire  certainty.    And  in  so  far  as 
these  ecclesiastical  persons  can  be  justified  in  the  .'!-■*-* 
custom    (which  many  nowadays    think   more    h 
breach  thiiu  the  observance)  of  using  opj»robrious 
who  differ  from  thorn,  I  fully  admit  thnir  ri?*^  t  ' 
those  who  think  with  me  "  infidols  " ;  all  I  Im- 
i^  that  they  must  not  expect  us  to  8pdak  of  ourst^v . 
title. 

Tha  extent  of  the  region  of  the  unccirtaiui  tho 
problems  the  investigation  of  wliich  Qnd«  la  a  > 


--a 
.1 


4 


4 

4 


VjyiTT, 


449 


^Kroren,  "will  vary  according  to  the  knowledge  and  the  intellectual 
^K|Uts  of  the  individnal  agnostic.  I  do  not  very  mnch  care  to 
^^^^k  of  anything  as  unknowable.  What  I  am  sure  about  is 
that  there  are  many  topics  about  which  I  know  nothing,  and 
which,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  are  out  of  reach  of  my  faculties.  But 
whether  these  things  are  knowable  by  any  one  else  is  exactly  one 
of  those  matters  which  is  bt^yond  my  knowledge,  though  I  may 
haye  a  tolerably  strong  opinion  as  to  the  probabilities  of  the 
case.    Belatively  to  myself,  I  am  quite  sure  that  the  region  of  un- 

I certainty — the  nebulous  country  in  which  words  play  the  part  of 
Realities — is  far  more  extensive  than  I  could  wish.  Materialism 
^nd  idealism ;  theism  and  atheism ;  the  doctrine  of  the  soul  and 
its  mortality  or  immortality — appear  in  the  history  of  philoso- 
phy like  the  shades  of  Scandinavian  heroes,  eternally  slaying  one 
another  and  eternally  coming  to  life  again  in  a  metaphysical 
Nifelheim,"  It  is  getting  on  for  twenty-five  centuries,  at  least, 
ince  mankind  began  seriously  to  give  their  minds  to  those  topics. 
'Generation  after  generation,  philosophy  has  been  doomed  to  roll 
the  stone  up  hill ;  and,  just  as  all  tlie  world  swore  it  was  at  the 
»p,  down  it  has  rolled  to  the  bottom  again.  All  this  is  written  in 
lumerable  books ;  and  he  who  will  toil  through  them  will  dis- 
jover  that  the  stone  is  just  where  it  was  when  the  work  began* 
[ume  saw  this ;  Kant  saw  it ;  since  their  time,  more  and  more 
lyes  have  been  cleansed  of  the  films  which  prevented  them  from 
ung  it;  until  now  the  weight  and  niimber  of  those  who  refuse 
be  the  prey  of  verbal  mystification  has  begun  to  tell  in  practi- 
!al  life. 

It  was  inevitable  that  a  confiict  should  arise  between  agnosti- 

lism  and  theology ;  or  rather  I  ought  to  say  between  agnosticism 

id  eoclesiaBticism.    For  theology,  the  science,  is  one  thing ;  and 

jclefiiasticism,  the  championship  of  a  foregone  conclusion  *  as  to 

the  truth  of  a  particular  form  of  theology,  is  another.      With 

:ientific  theology,  agnosticism  has  no  quarreL    On  the  contrary, 

agnostio,  knowing  too  well  the  influence  of  prejudice   and 

liosyncrasy,  even  on  those  who  desire  most  earnestly  to  be  im- 

►artial,  can  wish  for  nothing  more  urgently  than  that  the  scien- 

thoologian  should  not  only  be  at  perfect  liberty  to  thrash  out 

jr  in  his  own  fashion,  but  that  he  should,  if  he  can,  find 

the  agnostio  position,  and,  even  if  demonstration  is  not 

bo  had,  that  he  should  put,  in  their  full  force,  the  grounds  of 

t-ma  he  thinks  jin)l>ablo.     The  scientific  thiMdogian 

:\gnoRtic  princijilo,  however  widely  his  results  may 

from  those  rearhed  by  the  majority  of  agnostics, 

it,  08  betwi  —  -  '^iniam  and  occlosiaaticism,  or,  as  our 


THE  POPULAR  8CIEXCB  MOSTHLY 


neighbors  across  the  Channel  call  it,  clericalism,  there  can  he 
neither  peace  nor  truc^.     The  cleric  assc^rts  that  it  is  monOIr 
wrong  not  to  believe  certain  proj)ositious,  whatever  the  results  of 
a  strict  scientiiic  investigation  of  the  evidence  of  these  propod- 
tions.    He  tells  us  that  "  religious  error  is,  in  itself,  of  an  iimnorAl 
natura'**     He  declares  that  he  has  prejudged  certain  ooncla 
eions,  and  looks  upon  those  who  show  cause  for  arreet  '-'  ' 
ment  as  emissaries  of  Satan.    It  necessarily  follows  that,  i 
the  attainment  of  faith,  not  the  ascertainment  of  tmth«  is  ih 
highest  aim  of  mental  life.    And,  on  careful  analTsis  of  the  na* 
ture  of  this  faith,  it  will  too  often  be  found  to  be  not  the  myotic 
process  of  unity  with  the  divine,  understood  by  the  religious 
enthusiast — but  that  which  the  candid  simplicity  of  a  Sunday 
scholar  once  defined  it  to  be.     "  Faith,**  said  this  unconscious 
plagiarist  of  Tertullian,  "is  the  power  of  saying  you  belier 
things  which  are  incredible." 

Now  I,  and  many  other  agnostics,  believe  that  faith,  in 
sense,  is  an  abomination;  and  though  we  do  not  indulge  in  th^ 
luxury  of  self-righteousness  so  far  as  to  call  those  who  are  not 
our  way  of  thinking  hard  names,  we  do  feel  that  the  di 
ment  between  ourselves  and  those  who  hold  this  doctrine  is  eveiL 
more  moral  than  intellectuaL  It  is  desirable  there  should  lio 
end  of  any  mistakes  on  this  topia  If  our  clerical  opponents  were 
clearly  aware  of  the  real  state  of  the  case,  there  would  be  an  end 
of  the  curious  delusion,  which  often  appears  between  the  lines  of 
their  writings,  that  those  whom  they  are  so  fond  of  calling  *'  infi- 
dels "  are  people  who  not  only  ought  to  be,  but  in  their  h<^artjt 
are^  ashamed  of  themselves.  It  would  be  discourteous  to  do  uioro 
than  hint  the  antipodal  opposition  of  this  pleasant  dream  of  the 
to  facts,    - 

The  clerics  and  their  lay  allies  commonly  tell  us  that,  if 
refuse  to  admit  that  there  is  good  ground  for  express- 
convictions  about  certain  topics,  the  bonds  of  human  ; 
dissolve  and  mankind  lapse  into  savagery.  There  are  several 
answers  to  this  a^ssertinn.  One  is,  that  the  bonds  of  human 
society  were  formed  without  the  aid  of  their  theology,  and  in 
the  opinion  of  not  a  few  competent  judges  have  been  weakenedl 
rather  than  strengthened  by  a  good  deal  of  it.  f^'  ! 
Greek  art,  the  ethics  of  old  Israel,  the  social  r^n-  » 

Rome,  contrived  to  come  into  being  without  ^i 

who  believed  in  a  single  distinctive  a-'-  ^  ^| 

Christian  croe<la      The  sdeuce,  tht-  ^| 

chief   political  aud  social  theories  of  the  i  ^'^l 

grown  out  of  those  of  Greece  an-^  V-""" — '^-  '  i^H 

the  teeth  of,  the  fundamental  t>  >i^| 


"lAy/rr, 


451 


prWch  science,  art,  and  any  serious  occnpation  with  the  things  of 
this  world  were  alike  despicable. 

Again,  all  that  is  best  in  the  ethics  of  the  modem  world,  in  so 
far  as  it  has  not  grown  out  of  Greek  thought  or  barbarian  man- 
hood, is  the  direct  development  of  the  ethics  of  old  Israel.  There 
ia  no  code  of  legislation,  ancient  or  modem,  at  once  so  jnst  and 
so  merciful,  so  tender  to  the  weak  and  poor,  as  the  Jewish  law ; 
and  if  the  Gospels  are  to  bo  trusted,  Jesus  of  Nazareth  himself 
declared  that  he  taught  nothing  but  that  which  lay  implicitly,  or 
^  explicitly,  in  the  religious  and  ethical  system  of  his  people. 

I  And  the  scribo  said  aoto  liini,  Of  a  truth,  Teaobor,  tbou  hast  well  said  tbut 

h«  U  one ;  and  there  is  none  uCher  bat  be:  and  to  love  him  with  all  the  heart, 
and  with  oil  the  andi-rutaoding,  and  with  uXl  the  strength,  nnd  to  love  Me  neigh- 
bor oa  hlmsoU,  U  nmch  uioro  than  all  whole  bamt-olTeniiga  and  oaorificei.  (Mark 
Zll,  82,  88.) 

B  Here  is  the  briefest  of  summaries  of  the  teaching  of  the 
prophets  of  Israel  of  the  eighth  century;  does  the  Teacher,  whose 
^  doctrine  is  thus  set  forth  in  his  presence,  repudiate  the  exposi- 
H  tion  ?  Nay,  we  are  told,  on  the  contrary,  that  Jesus  saw  that  he 
Hbnswered  discreetly/*  and  replied, " Thou  art  not  far  from  the 
HBbgdom  of  God." 

H      So  that  I  think  that  even  if  the  creeds,  from  the  scMjalled 
"  "Apostles'"  to  the  so-called  "  Athanasian /'  wore  swept  into  obliv- 
I      ion;  ftud  even  if  the  human  race  should  arrive  at  the  conclusion 
■  that  whether  a  bishop  washes  a  cup  or  leaves  it  unwashed,  is  not 
\      a  matter  of  the  least  conse<inence,  it  will  get  on  very  well.    The 
catises  which  have  led  to  the  development  of  morality  in  man- 
kind, which  have  guided  or  impelled   us  all  the  way  from  the 
savage  to  the  civilized  state,  will  not  cease  to  operate  because 
a  number  of  ecclesiastical  hypotheses  turn  out  to  be  baseless. 
And,  even  if  the  absurd  notion  that  morality  is  more  the  child 

I  of  speculation  than  of  practical  necessity  and  inherited  instinct, 
had  any  foundation ;  if  all  the  world  is  going  to  thieve,  murder, 
and  otherwise  mis<*ondnct  itself  as  soon  as  it  discovers  that  cer- 
tain jK>rtions  of  ancient  history  are  mythical,  what  is  the  rele- 
vance of  such  arguments  to  any  one  who  holds  by  the  agnostic 
principle  ? 

Surely  the  attempt  to  cast  out  Beelzebub  by  the  aid  of  Beelze- 
bub is  a  hopeful  procwiure  as  compared  to  that  of  preserving  mo- 
Tttlity  by  the  aid  of  immorality.  For  I  BUpjwse  it  is  admitted 
fthat  nn  n^'>«^i''  may  be  perfectly  sincere,  may  be  competent, 
fan  i  '^d  the  question  at  issue  with  as  much  care  as 

^*  *'■     ^^"*   •'"  '^"-  agnostic  really  believes  what 

argnfier  (consistently  I  admit 
iy  otikfl  him  to  abstain  from  tell- 


45» 


SCTEKCE  MoyrsL 


ing  the  truth,  or  to  say  what  he  believes  to  be  antru«>,  becAOSO  of 
the  supposed  injurious  consequences  to  morality,  *'  V.  '  1  breth 
ren,  that  we  may  bo  spotlessly  moral,  befoi^  all  tl,  ■  x\b  lie/' 

is  the  sum  total  of  many  an  exhortation  addressed  to  tho  **  in- 
fidel." Now,  OS  I  have  already  pointed  out,  we  can  not  oblige  our 
exhorters.  We  leave  the  practical  application  of  the  convenient 
dfX'trine^  of  "  reserve"  and  "non-natural  interpretation  '*  to  those 
who  invented  them, 

I  trust  that  I  have  now  made  amends  for  any  ambiguity,  or 
mt  of  fullness,  in  my  previous  oxi)osition  of  that  which  I  hold 
be  the  essence  of  the  agnostic  doctrine.  Henceforward,  I  might 
hope  to  hear  no  more  of  the  assertion  that  we  are  necessarily  ma- 
terialists, idealists,  atheists,  thoists,  or  any  other  isis,  if  "  tioe 
had  led  me  to  think  that  the  proved  falsity  of  a  stat-  .va« 
any  guarantee  against  its  rei>etition.  And  those  who  apprcoi^te 
the  nature  of  our  position  will  see,  at  once,  that  when  ecclesiosti- 
ciatn  ileclaros  that  we  ought  to  believe  this,  that,  and  the  other, 
and  are  very  wicked  if  we  don't,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  give  any 
answer  but  this :  We  have  not  the  slightest  objection  to  bulioTo 
anything  you  like,  if  yoii  will  give  us  good  grounds  for  belief; 
but,  if  you  can  not,  we  most  respectfully  refuse,  even  if  that  re- 
fusal should  wreck  morality  and  insure  our  own  damnation  several 
times  over.  We  are  quite  content  to  leave  that  to  the  decision  of 
the  future.  The  course  of  the  past  has  impressed  us  with  the 
finn  conviction  that  no  good  ever  comes  of  falsehood,  and  we 
warranted  in  refusing  even  to  exjieriment  in  that  direction. 


•n 


In  the  course  of  the  present  discussion  it  has  been  aeserbed  that 
the  "  Sermon  on  the  Mount "  and  the  "  Lonl's  Prayer  "  furnish  a 
summary  and  condensed  view  of  the  essentials  of  the  teaching*  of 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  set  forth  by  himself.  Now  this  supposed  iSurn- 
WW4  of  Nazarene  theology  distinctly  affirms  the  existence  of  a  spir- 
itual world,  of  a  heaven,  and  of  a  hell  of  fire ;  it  teaches  the 
fatherhood  of  God  and  the  malignity  of  the  de%'il;  it  declares  the 
superintending  providence  of  the  foi-mer  and  our  nootl  of  deliver- 
ance from  the  machinations  of  the  latter;  it  affirms  thofaclof 
demoniac  possession  and  the  power  of  casting  out  devils  by  the 
faithful.    And,  from  theao  premises,  the  conch'  '     "  Vat 

those  agnostics  who  deny  that  thcro  is  any  <  !  a 

character  as  to  justify  certainty,  reHpectLug  the  existence  and  the 
nature  of  the  spiritual  world,  contra<r 
of  JesuB.    I  have  replied  to  this  argujM 
there  is  strong  reason  to  doubt  the  hi«ttorical  u  ^A  ihe 

attribution  to  Jesus  f'f    '''    :  '^^      **  "  -  *''-  ~  '^  ' 

"Lord's  Prayer ••;  ar 

is  not  warranted,  at  any  rate  on  the  grounds  S' 


AGNOSTICISM  AND    CHRISTIANITY. 


453 


» 


But,  whether  the  Gospels  contain  trustworthy  statements  aliout 
this  and  other  alleged  historical  facta  or  not,  it  is  quit«  certain 
that  from  thom,  taken  together  with  the  other  books  of  tho  New 
Testament,  we  may  collect  a  pretty  complete  exposition  of  that 
theory  of  the  spiritual  world  which  was  held  by  both  Nazarenes 
and  Christians ;  and  which  was  undoubtedly  supposed  by  them  to 
l>e  fully  sanctioned  by  Jesus,  though  it  is  just  as  clear  that  they 
did  not  imagine  it  contained  any  revelation  by  him  of  something 
heretofore  unknown.  If  the  pneumatological  doctrine  which  per- 
rades  the  whole  New  Testament  is  nowhere  systematically  statedj 
it  is  everywhere  assumed.  The  writers  of  the  Gospels  and  of  tlw 
Acts  take  it  for  granted,  as  a  matter  of  common  knowledge ;  andj 
it  is  easy  to  gather  from  these  sources  a  series  of  propositions, 
which  only  need  arrangement  to  form  a  complete  system. 

In  this  system,  man  is  considered  to  be  a  duality  formed  of  a 
spiritual  element,  the  soul ;  and  a  corporeal  *  element,  the  Ixxly 
And  tliis  duality  is  repeated  in  the  universe,  which  consists  of  a 
corporeal  world  embraced  and  interpenetrated  by  a  spiritual 
world.  The  former  consists  of  the  earth,  as  its  principal  and 
central  constituent,  with  the  subsidiary  sun,  planets,  and  stars. 
Above  the  earth  is  the  air,  and  below  it  the  watery  abyss.  Wlieth- 
er  the  heaven,  which  is  conceived  to  bo  above  the  air,  and  the  hell 
in,  or  below,  the  subterranean  deeps,  are  to  be  taken  as  corporeal 
or  incorporeal  is  not  clear. 

However  this  may  be,  tho  heaven  and  the  air,  the  earth  and 
the  abyss,  are  peopled  by  innumerable  beings  analogous  in  nature 

the  spiritual  element  in  man,  and  these  spirits  are  of  two  kinds, 
and  bad.  The  chief  of  the  good  spirits,  infinitely  superior 
to  all  tho  others,  and  their  Creator  as  well  as  the  Creator  of  tho 
corporeal  world  and  of  the  bad  spirits,  is  God.  His  residence  is 
heaven,  where  he  is 'surrounded  by  the  ordered  hosts  of  good 
spirits ;  his  angels,  or  messengers,  and  the  executors  of  his  will 
throughout  the  universe. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  chief  of  the  bad  spirits  is  Satan — (he 
devil  jHir  cj-cellrncfi.  He  and  his  company  of  demons  are  free  to 
roam  thntugh  all  parts  of  the  universe,  except  heaven.  These  bad 
spirits  are  far  superior  to  man  in  power  and  subtlety,  and  their 
whole  energies  are  devoted  to  bringing  physical  and  moral  evils 
upon  him,  and  to  thwarting,  so  far  as  their  power  goes,  the  benev- 
olent intentions  of  the  Supreme  Being.  In  fact,  the  souls  and 
bodies  of  men  fonn  both  the  theatre  and  the  prize  of  an  ince.ssant 
warfare  between  the  good  and  tho  evil  spirits — the  jjowers  of 
light  and  the  powers  of  darknesa  By  leading  Eve  astray,  Satan 
^brought  sin  and  death  upon  mankind.    As  the  gods  of  tho  hea- 

*  h  If  b^  tio  w^ua  CO  be  uiuin^d  th»t  *'  ipiritDal  '*  and  "oorpore&l  *'  are  cxtct  equlra* 
of  **  boBftliTisl  **  ftad  "  tuftUnikt  *'  in  the  nundi  of  ucicnt  speculators  on  dieae  topics. 


454 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MO 


I 


then,  the  demons  are  the  founders  and  maiutaiuors  of  idolatrj 
as  the  "  powers  of  the  air,"  they  afBict  maukiud  with  pestilence 
and  famine ;  as  "  unclean  spirits,"  they  cause  disease  of  mind  and 
body. 

Hie  significance  of  the  appearance  of  Jesus,  as  the  Messiah  or 
Christ,  is  the  reversal  of  the  sataiiic  work,  by  putting  an  end  to 
both  sin  and  death.  He  announces  that  the  Idngdum  of  God  is  at 
hand,  when  the  "  prince  of  this  world  "  shall  be  linolly  "  cast  out" 
(John  xii,  31)  from  the  cosmos,  as  Jesua,  during  his  earthly  career, 
cast  him  out  from  individuals.  Then  will  Satan  and  all  his  der- 
iltry,  along  with  the  wicked  whom  they  have  seduced  to  their 
destruction,  be  hurled  into  the  abyss  of  unquenchable  fire — there 
to  endure  continual  torture,  without  a  hope  of  winning  pardon 
from  the  merciful  God,  their  Father;  or  of  moving  the  glorified 
Messiah  to  one  more  act  of  pitiful  intercession ;  or  even  of  inter- 
rupting, by  a  momentary  sympathy  with  their  wretchedness,  the 
harmonious  psalmody  of  their  brother  angels  and  men,  eternally 
lappod  in  bliss  unspeakable. 

The  straitest  Protestant,  who  refuses  to  admit  the  existence  of 
any  source  of  divine  truth,  except  the  Bible,  "ftill  not  deny  that 
every  j>oint  of  the  pneumatological  theory  hero  set  forth  has  am- 
ple scriptural  warranty:  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  the  Epistles,  and 
the  Apocalypse  assert  the  existence  of  the  devil  and  his  demons 
and  hell,  OS  plainly  as  they  do  that  of  God  and  his  •;  *  ml 
heaven.    It  is  plain  that  the  Messianic  and  the  satan  - 1*. 

tions  of  the  writers  of  these  books  are  the  obverse  and  the  reverae 
of  the  same  intellectual  coinage.  K  we  turn  from  Scripture  to 
the  traditions  of  the  fathers  and  the  confessions  of  the  churrhc«t 
it  will  appear  that  in  this  one  particular,  at  any  rate,  time  has 
brought  about  no  important  deviation  from  primitive  belief. 
From  Justin  onward,  it  may  often  be  a  fair  que-'^tion  whether 
God,  or  the  devil,  occupies  a  larger  share  of  the  ii'  ho 

fathers.    It  is  the  devil  who  instigates  the  Boman  ...... to 

persecute ;  Uie  gods  and  giKldesses  of  x)agauism  are  devils,  and 
idolatry  itself  is  on  invention  of  Satan ;  if  a  suint  falls  away  from 
grace,  it  is  by  the  seduction  of  the  demon ;  if  a  heresy  arises,  the 
devil  has  suggested  it ;  and  some  of  the  fathers  *  go  so  far  aa  to 
challenge  tlie  pagM  "  '  '    '  '     ^t- 

ing  the  truth  of  *  ^  ,  iC 

^-ith  patristic,  on  this  head.    Tlie  masses,  the  clergy,  the  t 
giane,und  the  philosophers  idilc^    i;  ^        -        '  ■    -    '* 

ing  in  a  world  full  of  demons,  i ; 

*  TertolllAn  ("  Apolog.  sdr.  Gflal««v**  OAp.  nfii)  Uitu  duUnCM  ^  Roau 
kt  Iheni  briag  %  poMMMd  porvon  into  ths  prcMiiM  of  ■  Cbruiiu  W' 
uuAt  if  ihe  4bbhmi  doM  art  cnnffit  ^'tT"*yif  to  bt  tath^  oa  tlit  ovlcr  . 
tbe  Chriitiw  b«  «l9C0Md  out  of  tiuuL 


4 


ererj-day  occtirronces.    Nor  did  the  Reformation  make  any  dif- 
ference.   Whatever  else  Luther  assailed,  lie  left  the  traditional 
demonology  untouched ;   nor  could  any  one  have  entertained  a 
Lore  hearty  and  uncompromising  belief  in  the  devil,  than  he  and, 
it  a  later  period,  ihe  Calvinistic  fanatics  of  New  England  did. 
'inally,  in  theee  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  demono- 
»gical  hypotheses  of  the  first  century  are,  explicitly  or  implicitly, 
leld  and  occasionally  acted  upon,  by  the  immense  majority  of 
Lristians  of  all  confessions. 

Only  here  and  there  has  the  progress  of  scientific  thought,  out- 
ide  the  ecclesiastical  Tvorld,  so  far  affected  Christians  that  they 
md  their  teachers  fight  shy  of  the  demonology  of  their  creed. 
Ley  are  fain  to  conceal  their  real  disbelief  in  one  half  of  Chris- 
m  doctrine  by  judicious  silence  about  it;  or  by  flight  to  those 
^fuges  for  the  logically  destitute,  acconunodation  or  allegory. 
tut  the  faithful  who  lly  to  allegory  in  order  to  escape  absurdity 
temble  nothing  so  much  as  the  sheep  in  the  fable  who — to  save 
their  lives — jumped  into  the  pit  The  allegory  pit  is  too  commo- 
ious,  is  ready  to  swallow  up  so  much  more  than  one  wants  to  put 
ito  it.  If  the  story  of  the  temptation  is  an  allegory ;  if  the  early 
)gnition  of  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God  by  the  demons  is  an  alle- 
gory ;  if  the  plain  declaration  of  the  writer  of  the  first  Epistle  of 
fohn  (iii,  8),  "  To  this  end  was  the  Son  of  God  manifested  that  he 
light  destroy  the  works  of  the  devil,"  is  allegorical,  then  the  Pau- 
Lne  verson  of  the  fall  may  be  allegorical,  and  still  more  the  words 
>f  conBeoration  of  the  Eucharist,  or  the  promise  of  the  second  com- 
Lg;  in  fact,  there  is  not  a  dogma  of  ecclesiastical  Christianity 
le  scriptural  basis  of  which  may  not  be  whittled  away  by  a  simi- 
Lr  process. 

As  to  accommodation,  let  any  honest  man  who  can  read  the 

Few  Testament  ask  himself  whether  Jesus  and  his  immediate 

Lends  and  disciples  can  be  dishonored  more  grossly  than  by  the 

tsition  that  they  said  and  did  that  which  is  attributed  to 

while,  in  reality,  they  disbelieved  in  Satan  and  his  demons, 

possession  and  in  exorcism  ?  * 

An  eminent  theologian  has  jiistly  obeerved  that  we  have  no 
[ht  to  look  at  the  propositions  of  the  Christian  faith  with  one 
■e  open  and  the  other  shut,    ("Tract  85,"  p.  29.)    It  really  is  not 
iiLHsible  to  see  with  one  eye,  that  Jesus  is  affirmed  to  declare 
ie  personality  and  the  fatherhood  of  God,  his  loving  providence, 
"  lity  to  prayer,  and  to  shut  the  other  to  the  no  less 
_    ascribed  to  Jesus  in  regard  to  the  personality 
and  the  misanthropy  of  the  devil,  his  malignant  watchfulness, 

*  Sm  (he  txpreuion  of  onliodox  Cfrfniaa  opon  the  "  AcoommodAtion  "  eubtcrfng?,  &!• 
if  cltori,  "  Y!c*t«tttJs  C«!iHiTy,"  rebruiry.  1W19,  p.  173  ^  "  PopuUr  Saeace  Momhly," 
l,  ISSSf, 


TEE  POPULAR  SCISXCS  MONTHLY, 


I 


and  Ms  subjection  to  exorcistic  formula  and  ntes.    Jeeos  is  made 
to  Bay  that  the  devil  "was  a  murderer  from  tlie  beginniug*'  {John  ^ 
viii,  44)  by  the  same  authority  as  tJiat  upon  which  we  depend  for  H 
his  asserts  declaration  that "  Gk)d  is  a  spirit "  (John  iv,  24).  ~ 

To  those  who  admit  the  autliority  of  the  famous  Vinceutian 
dictum  that  the  doctrine  which  has  been  held  "  always,  every- 
where, and  by  all "  is  to  bo  received  as  authoritative,  the  deraon- 
ology  must  possess  a  higher  sanction  than  any  other  OhrLntiac 
dogma,  except,  perhaps,  those  of  the  resurrection  and  of  the  Hes- 
siahship  of  Jesus;  for  it  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  other 
points  of  doctrine  on  which  the  Nazarene  does  not  diiter  from  the 
Christian,  and  the  different  historical  stages  and  contemporary 
subdivisions  of  Christianity  from  one  another.  And,  if  the  demon* 
ology  is  accepted,  there  can  be  no  reason  for  rejecting  all  tho«e 
miracles  in  which  demons  play  a  part.  The  Gadarene  story  fits 
into  the  general  scheme  of  Christianity,  and  the  evidence  for 
"  Legion  "  and  their  doings  is  just  as  good  as  any  other  in  the 
New  Testament  for  the  doctrine  which  the  story  illustratea. 

It  was  with  the  purpose  of  bringing  this  great  fact  into  ppomi» 
nence,  of  getting  people  to  open  both  their  eyes  when  they  look  at 
ecclesiasticism,  that  I  devoted  so  much  space  to  that  miraculoos 
story  which  happens  to  be  one  of  the  best  types  of  its  class.  And 
I  could  not  wish  for  a  better  justification  of  the  course  I  bare 
adopted  than  the  fact  that  my  heroically  consistent  adversary  lu» 
declared  his  implicit  belief  in  the  Gadarene  story  and  (by  neces- 
sary consequence)  in  the  Christian  demonology  as  a  whole.  It 
must  be  obvious,  by  this  time,  that,  if  the  account  of  the  spiritnal 
world  given  in  the  New  Testament,  professedly  on  the  authority 
of  Jesus,  is  true,  then  the  demonological  half  of  that  account 
must  be  just  as  true  as  the  other  half.  And,  therefore,  thoee  who 
question  the  demonology,  or  try  to  explain  it  away^  deny  the  truth 
of  what  Jesus  said,  and  are,  in  ecclesiastical  tern  .  "  infi- 

dels" just  as  much  as  those  who  deny  ih^  spirit -....Lj  A  Ood. 
This  is  as  plain  as  anything  can  well  be,  and  the  dilemma  for  my 
opponent  was  either  to  assert  that  the  Gadarene  ]jig-bedevilment 
actually  occurred,  or  to  write  himself  down  an  '*  infidel."  As  ttm 
to  be  expected,  he  chose  the  former  alternative;  and  I  znayer* 
press  my  great  satisfaction  at  finding  that  there  '  'of 

common,  ground  on  which  both  he  and  I  stanr^,  .n 

judge,  we  are  agreed  to  state  one  of  the  broad  ho 

consequences  of  agnostic  principles  (as  I  dmsN  i 
consequences  of  ecclcsiiistical  dognoatism  (as  hv 
follows :  ^1 

Ecclesiasticism  says:  The  der?'''"''^'^'"''  "'  ^^'^  r>.wT-.i«  t** ^^H 
essential  part  of  that  account  of  t:  .  fl 

which  it  declares  to  be  certified  by  Jcsiuh.  H 


losticism  {me  judice)  says :  Tliere  is  no  good  evidence  of 
Isteuce  of  a  demonic  spiritual  worlds  and  much  reason  for 
doubting  it. 

Horeupon  the  ecclesiastic  may  observe :  Your  doubt  means 
that  you  disbelieve  Jesus  ;  therefore  you  are  an  "infidel''  instead 
of  an  "agnostic."  To  which  the  agnostic  may  reply:  No;  for 
two  reasons:  first,  because  your  evidence  that  Jesus  said  what 
you  say  he  said  is  worth  very  little ;  and,  secondly,  because  a  man 
may  bo  an  agnostic  in  the  sense  of  admitting  he  has  no  positive 
knowledge ;  and  yet  consider  that  he  has  more  or  less  probable 
ground  for  accepting  any  given  hypothesis  about  the  spiritual 
world.  Just  as  a  man  may  frankly  declare  that  he  has  no  means 
of  knowing  whether  the  planets  generally  are  inhabited  or  not, 
and  yet  may  think  one  of  the  two  possible  hypotheses  more  likely 
than  the  other,  so  he  may  admit  that  he  has  no  means  of  knowing 
anything  about  the  spiritual  world,  and  yet  may  think  one 
or  other  of  the  current  views  on  the  subject^  to  some  extent, 
probable. 

The  second  answer  is  so  obviously  valid  that  it  needa  no  dis- 
ouflfiion.  I  draw  attention  to  it  simply  in  justice  to  those  agnos- 
tics, who  may  attach  greater  value  than  I  do  to  any  sort  of  pneu- 
matological  speculations,  and  not  because  I  wish  to  escape  the 
responsibility  of  declaring  that,  whether  Jesus  sanctioned  the 
demonological  part  of  Christianity  or  not,  I  unhesitMingly  reject 
it.  The  first  answer,  on  the  other  hand,  opens  up  the  whole  ques- 
tion  of  the  claim  of  the  biblical  and  other  sources,  from  which 
>thes68  concerning  the  spiritual  world  are  deriveil,  to  be  re- 
led  as  unimpeachable  historical  evidence  as  to  matters  of  fact. 

Now,  in  respect  of  the  trustworthiness  of  the  Gospel  narratives, 
I  was  anxious  to  get  rid  of  the  common  assumption  that  the 
determination  of  the  authorship  and  of  the  dates  of  these  works 
is  a  matter  of  fundamental  importance.  That  assumption  is  based 
upon  the  notion  that  what  contemporary  witnesses  say  must  be 
true,  or,  at  least,  has  always  a  prima  facie  claim  to  be  so  regarded  ; 
so  that  if  the  wi-iters  of  any  of  the  Gospels  were  contemporaries 
of  the  events  (and  still  more  if  they  were  in  the  position  of  eye- 
witnesses) the  miracles  they  narrate  must  be  historically  tme, 

1,  consequentlj',  the  demonology  which  they  involve  must  be 

!pted.  But  the  story  of  the  "  Translation  of  the  Blessed  Martyrs 
Marcellinus  and  Petrus,"  and  the  other  considerations  (4p  which 
endless  ailditions  might  have  been  made  from  the  fathers  and 
the  m«li»val  writers)  set  forth  in  this  review  for  March  last, 
yi>  -i^^HB|0atiafactory  proof  that,  where  the  miracu- 

kv.  rUpUBfht^r  ruTisMiT^blo  intellectual  ability,  nor 

mt  '  >f  the  world,  nor  proved  faith- 

fu  ;;k&j  n\fX  profound  piety^  on  the  part  of  eye* 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


^tuesses  and  contemporaries,  afForda  any  guanmteo  of  tho  objwjt* 
ive  truth  of  their  statements,  when  we  know  that  a  linn  beliuf  m 
the  miraculous  was  ingrained  in  their  minds^  and  was  the  prcv 
suppoiiition  of  their  observations  and  reasonings. 

Theref(»re,  although  it  be,  as  I  believe,  demonstrable  that  we 
have  no  real  knowledge  of  the  authorship,  or  of  the  date  of  com- 
position of  the  Gospels,  as  they  have  come  down  to  us,  and  that 
nothing  better  than  more  or  less  probable  guesses  can  be  arrived 
kt  on  that  subject,  I  have  not  cared  to  expend  any  space  on  the 
question.  It  will  be  admitted,  I  suppose,  that  the  authors  of  the 
works  attributed  to  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  whoever 
they  may  be,  are  personages  whose  capacity  and  judgment  in  the 
narration  of  ordinary  events  are  not  quite  so  well  certified  as 
those  of  Eginhard ;  and  we  have  seen  what  the  value  of  Egin* 
bard's  evidence  is  when  the  miraculous  is  in  question. 


1 


I  Lave  been  careful  to  explain  that  the  arguments  which  I 
kvo  used  in  the  course  of  this  discussion  are  not  new ;  that  they 
historical  and  have  nothing  to  do  with  what  is  commonly 
called  science ;  and  that  they  are  all,  to  tlie  best  of  my  belief,  to 
be  found  in  the  works  of  theologians  of  repute. 

The  position  which  I  have  taken  up,  tliat  the  evidence  in  favor 
of  such  miracles  as  those  recorded  by  Eginhard,  and  consequently 
of  media-val  demonology,  is  quite  as  good  as  that  in  favor  of  such 
miracles  as  the  Gadarene,  and  consequently  of  Nazarene  demon- 
ology,  is  none  of  my  discovery.  Its  strength,  was,  wittingly  or 
unwittingly,  suggested,  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  by  a  theological 
echolar  of  eminence ;  and  it  has  been,  if  not  exactly  occupiinJ,  yot 

fortified  with  bastions  and  redoubts  by  a  living  ec*  :il 

'auban,  that,  in  my  judgment,  it  has  been  rendered  im; .  .^.-„_-iQ, 
In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  the  ecclesiastical  mind  in 
this  country  was  much  exercised  by  f '  not  exactly  of 

miracles,  the  occurrence  of  which  in  bi  was  axiomatic, 

but  by  the  problem,  When  did  miracles  cease  P  Anglican  dirinea 
were  quite  sure  that  no  miracles  had  happened  in  their  day,  nor 
for  some  time  past ;  they  were  equally  sure  that  they  happened 
sixteen  or  seventeen  centuries  earlier.  And  it  was  a  vital  ques- 
tion for  them  to  determine  at  what  point  of  time,  between  this 
iermintis  a  quo  and  that  ferminiis  ad  qtiem,  miracles  ramo  to 
an  end. 

The  Anglicans  and  the  Bomani&ts  agreed  in  tl'«*  nwiinTnr.Uoa 
that  the  possession  of  the  gift  of  miracle-working  v  i# 

f    ■  '  of  the  Roundness  of  the  faii"       '    ' 

'I  ^  j'Odition  that  miraculous  pov 

heretics  (though  it  might  be  supported  by  high  an 
conacquences  too  frightful  to  bo  entortainod  by  pin^uu  wua 


I 


AGNOSTICISM  AXD   CHRISTIANITW 


I 


bnsied  in  building  their  dog^natic  Louse  on  tlie  sands  of  early 
church  history.  If,  as  the  Romanists  maintained,  an  unbroken 
series  of  genuine  miracles  adorned  the  records  of  their  Church, 
throughout  the  whole  of  its  existence,  no  Anglican  could  lightly 
venture  to  accuse  them  of  doctrinal  corruption.  Hence,  the  An- 
glicans, who  indulged  in  such  accusations,  were  bound  to  prove 
the  modern,  the  mediaeval  Roman^  and  the  later  patristic  miracles 
false ;  and  to  shut  off  the  wonder-working  power  from  the  Church 
at  the  exact  point  of  time  when  Anglican  doctrine  ceased  and 
Roman  doctrine  began.  With  a  little  adjustment — a  squeeze  here 
aod  a  pull  there — the  Christianity  of  the  first  three  or  four  centu- 
ries might  be  made  to  fit,  or  seem  to  fit,  pretty  well  into  the  An- 
glican fioheme.  So  the  miracles,  from  Justin  say  to  Jerome,  might 
be  recognized  ;  while,  in  later  times,  the  Church  having  become 
'■'  corrupt  "—that  is  to  say,  having  pursued  one  and  the  same  lino 
of  development  further  than  was  pleasing  to  Anglicans  —  its 
alleged  miracles  must  needs  be  shams  and  impostures. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  may  bo  imagined  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  scientific  frontier,  between  the  earlier  realm  of  sup- 
posed fact  and  the  later  of  asserted  delusion,  had  its  di&cidties ; 
and  torrents  of  theological  special  pleading  about  the  subject 
flowed  from  clerical  pens ;  until  that  learned  and  acute  Anglican 
divine,  Conyers  Middleton,  in  his  "  Free  Inquiry,"  tore  the  sophist- 
web  they  had  laboriously  woven  to  pieces,  and  demonstrated 
the  miracles  of  the  patristic  age,  early  and  late,  must  stand* 
or  fall  together,  inasmuch  as  the  evidence  for  the  later  is  just  as 
good  as  the  evidence  for  the  earlier  wonders.  If  the  one  set  are 
certified  by  contemporaneous  witnesses  of  high  repute,  so  are  the 
other;  and,  in  point  of  probability,  tliere  is  not  a  pin  to  choose 
between  the  two.  That  is  the  solid  and  irrefragable  result  of 
iliddleton  8  contribution  to  the  subject.  But  the  Free  Inquirer's 
freedom  had  its  limits;  and  he  draws  a  sharp  line  of  demar- 
kation  between  the  patristic  and  tlie  New  Testament  miracles — on 
the  professed  groimd  that  the  accounts  of  the  latter,  being  in- 
spired, are  out  of  the  reach  of  criticism. 

A  century  later,  the  question  was  taken  up  by  another  divine, 
Middleton  3  equal  in  learning  and  acuteness,  and  far  his  superior 
in  subtlety  and  dialectic  skill ;  who,  though  an  Anglican,  scorned 
the  name  of  Protestant ;  and,  while  yet  a  Churchman,  made  it  his 
buainess  to  parade,  with  infinite  skill,  the  utter  hoDowness  of  the 
arguments  of  those  of  his  brother  Churchmen  who  dreamed  that 
they  could  be  both  Anglicans  and  Protestants.  The  argument  of 
the  "  Essay  on  the  Miracles  recorded  in  the  Ecclesiastical  History 
of  the  Early  Agos,"  •  by  the  present  Roman  cardinal,  but  then 

•  r  qvoto  tb«  am  ttthioa  (IMA).  X  Meood  ediUon  tppCAred  in  1870.  Tract  S5  of 
lh»  "  TiKti  for  Umi  'ni»n**ifconldb«  Kftd  «rith  thb  ■*  Essay."    If  I  were  cftUed  upon  to 


I 

.     flow 
^a  divi] 

m 


460 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEXCE  MOyTBLV. 


ULnglican  doctor^  John  Henry  NewmaHi  is  compendiou&ly  staM^ 
thy  himself  in  the  follo^ving  passage : 

If  th«  zniraolee  of  cbarch  Iilatory  can  not  be  defended  by  tUe  Brgnmei^  of 
LLeslie,  LvttlotoDf  Paloy,  or  Douglaa,  how  moojr  of  tbe  Scripture  mLraclei  utiaiy 
rihuir  conditionu?  (p.  oFii). 

Andj  although  the  answer  is  not  given  in  so  many  words^  little 
doubt  is  left  on  the  mind  of  the  re-ader  that  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer  it  is :  None,  In  fact,  this  conclusion  is  one  which  can  not 
be  resisted,  if  the  argument  in  favor  of  the  Scripture  miniclc«i 
ia  based  upon  that  which  laymen,  whether  lawyers,  or  men  of 
science,  or  historians,  or  ordinary  men  of  affairs,  call  evidence. 
But  there  is  something  really  impressive  in  the  magnificent  coo- 
tempt  with  which,  at  times,  Dr.  Newman  sweeps  aside  alike  those 
who  offer  and  those  who  demand  such  evidence. 

Some  Infidel  authors  fldvlso  ns  to  &ocept  no  mirsolea  wMrb  wonld  not  htrt  a 
berdiot  in  their  favor  in  a  court  of  juatieo ;  thflt  is,  thej  entplov  ag;r<  "-re 

^  weapon  vliich  Proteetantd  would  oonfioe  to  Attacks  upon  tlie  1  r«  if 

norftl  &nd  religions  qncstione  required  legal  proofSf  and  eridcnoQ  vero  tbo  teA  ci 

troth  •  ij».  cvii). 

"  As  if  evidence  were  the  test  of  truth  "  I — although  the  trnth  in 
question  is  the  occurrence  or  non-occurrence  of  certain  phenomena 
at  a  certain  time  and  in  a  certain  place.  This  sudden  revelation 
of  the  great  gulf  fixed  between  tbe  ecclesiastical  and  the  scientific 
mind  is  enough  to  take  away  the  breath  of  any  one  unfamiliar 
with  the  clerical  organon.  As  if,  one  may  retort,  the  assumption 
that  miracles  may,  or  have,  served  a  moral  or  a  religious  end  in 
any  way  alters  the  fact  that  they  profess  to  be  historical  events, 
things  that  actually  happened ;  and,  as  such,  must  needs  be  ex- 
actly those  subjects  about  which  evidence  is  appropriate  and 
leical  proofs  (which  are  such  merely  because  they  afford  odeqtiAte 
evidence)  may  bo  justly  demanded.  The  Gadarene  mir»cle 
either  happened,  or  it  did  not.  Whether  the  GadarenA  ''ques- 
tion" is  moral  or  religious,  or  not,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  purely  historical  que&tiou  whether  the  demons 
said  what  they  are  declared  to  Lave  said,  and  the  devil-poftDoiami 
pigs  did  or  did  not  rush  over  the  cliffs  of  the  Lake  of  Genncsa- 
reth  on  a  certain  day  of  a  certain  year,  after  A-  p.  20  and  K-fope 
A«  D.  36 ;  for,  vague  and  uncertain  as  New  Testament  ■.  :j 

is, I  suppose  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  evt^'ut  in  qur;-...  '* 

happened  at  all,  took  place  during  the  procurat^rship  of  i 

eompilc  1  primer  of  "  Infidelitj,*"  I  tklnlc  I  slould  nr^  mynM  trouhio  hy  maUB|  e  fdec- 
UoD  from  thcM  irorlu,  nod  from  tbo  "Emaj  on  Dercloiinient "  M  ''"^  ' 

*  Tct,  when  li  suiu  hit  purpoie,  u  in  tbe  Introduction  t 
mf*Qt,'*  Dr.  N<winftu  can  dcmuid  strict  eriUaii' 
**iuni1«l  autltor";  ud  he  c«a  evfii  pfofMi  i<  . 
1370.  note,  p.  S91), 


iti-ttuii 


OirOSTICISM-  AND   Cffl 


If  that  is  not  a  matter  about  wMch  evidence  ought  to  be  re- 
quired, and  not  only  legal  but  strict  scientific  proof  demanded 
by  sane  men  who  are  asked  to  l^lieve  the  story — what  is  ?  Is  a 
reasonable  being  to  be  seriously  asked  to  credit  statements  which, 
to  put  the  case  gently,  are  not  exactly  probable,  and  on  the 
acceptance  or  rejection  of  which  his  whole  x\ow  of  life  may  de- 
pend, without  asking  for  as  much  "legal "proof  as  would  send 
an  alleged  pickpocket  to  jail,  or  as  would  suffice  to  prove  the 
validity  of  a  disputed  will  ? 

"Infidel  authors"  (if,  as  I  am  assured,  I  may  answer  for  them) 
TfiU  decline  to  waste  time  on  mere  darkenings  of  counsel  of  this 
sort ;  but  to  those  Anglicans  who  accept  his  premises.  Dr.  New- 
man is  a  truly  formidable  antagonist.  What,  indeed,  are  they  to 
reply  when  he  puts  the  very  pertinent  question: 

"  wbdther  persons  who,  not  merely  qae«tioii,  bat  prcjadgo  the  pocIealAstical  mira- 
cles OD  the  groaad  of  their  want  of  rosemblacco,  whatever  that  he,  to  tboso  coq- 
taioed  In  Scriptare — as  if  the  Almighty  could  not  do  in  the  Christian  church 
what  he  bad  not  alretidx  done  at  the  time  of  its  foundalioD,  or  under  the  Mosaio 
oorenant — whether  such  rousonere  are  nut  aiding  with  the  skeptic,*'  ^ 

and  I 

"whether  It  is  not  a  happy  inconsistency  by  which  they  continue  to  beliere  the 
Soripturos  while  they  reject  the  Cburob  "  ♦  [p.  liii). 

Again,  I  invite  Anglican  orthodoxy  to  consider  this  passage; 

the  narrstiTe  of  the  combats  of  St.  Antony  with  evil  epirits  is  a  derolopment 
mtber  than  a  contradiction  of  rcretation,  viz.,  of  such  texts  as  speak  of  Siitan 
being  cast  out  by  prayer  and  fasting.  To  bo  shocked,  then,  at  the  miracles  of 
■oolMiutical  hititory,  or  to  ridioulo  thcni  for  thetr  strangeneao,  is  do  part  of  a 
•oriptond  philosophy  (p.  lili-liT). 

Further  on.  Dr.  Newman  declares  that  it  has  been  admitted 

that  adiitlnot  line  can  bo  drawn  in  point  of  character  and  circumstance  between 
the  miracles  of  Scripture  and  of  church  history ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case 
(p.  It).  .  .  .  SpooSmona  ore  not  wanting  in  the  history  of  the  Church  of  miraolos 
as  awful  in  their  character  and  as  momeotoas  In  their  otfocts  as  tliose  which  are 
recorded  In  Scriptur**.  The  fire  interrupting  the  rebuilding  of  the  Jewish  temple, 
and  the  death  of  AHns,  are  Instances  ho  ecclesiastical  history  of  such  xolemn 
crenta.  On  the  other  hand,  difficult  iuatoncea  in  the  Scripture  hi>itory  are  aaoh 
astbeio:  the  serjient  in  Eden,  the  ark,  Jacob's  vision  for  the  mnltipUcation  of 
hts  cattle,  the  speaking  of  Balaam's  ass,  the  axe  swimming  at  Elisha'e  word,  the 
mh^bole  on  the  swino,  and  various  instances  of  prayers  or  prophecies,  in  which, 
ai  In  that  of  Noali^s  blessing  and  ean^  words  which  seem  the  result  of  private 
fnBA^  are  expressly  or  virtnaUy  ascribed  to  a  divine  snggeetion  (p.  hi). 

Who  is  to  gainsay  our  ecclesiastical  authority  here  ?  "Infidel 
authom "  might  be  accused  of  a  wish  to  ridicule  the  Scripture 

*  CiMpMi  ftact '  ^rs  perMaddd  thn- 

poic  «h*Obmb46ct.  iioriptaxal,  ibey  t. ., 

log  rtie  |D«pel" 


but  oonf  istoDt  who  op- 
xto  the  Jews  for  rcjwt- 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTHLY. 

miracles  by  putting  them  on  a  level  with  the  remarkable  stnry 
about  the  fire  which  stopped  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  or  that 
about  the  death  of  Ariua — but  Dr.  Newman  is  above  fliispicion. 
The  pity  is  that  his  list  of  what  he  delicately  tenm^  '  '•" 

instances  is  so  short.  Why  omit  the  manufacture  of  L  - .  ..:  of 
Adam's  rib,  on  the  strict  historical  accuracy  of  which  the  chief 
argument  of  the  defenders  of  an  iniquitous  portion  of  our  pres- 
ent marriage  law  depends  ?  Why  leave  out  the  account  of  the 
"Bene  Elohim"and  their  gallantries,  on  which  a  largo  part  of 
the  worst  practices  of  the  medijevaJ  inquisitors  into  witchcraft 
was  based  ?  Why  forget  the  angel  who  wrestled  with  Jacob, 
and,  as  the  account  suggests,  somewhat  overstepped  the  bounds 
of  fair  play  at  the  end  of  the  struggle  ?  Surely  we  must  agree 
with  Dr.  Newman  that,  if  all  these  camels  have  gone  down,  it 
savors  of  affectation  to  strain  at  such  gnats  as  the  sudden  ail- 
ment of  Arius  in  the  midst  of  his  deadly,  if  prayerful,*  enemies ; 
and  the  fiery  explosion  which  stopped  the  Julian  building  opera- 
tions. Though  the  words  of  the  "  Conclusion  "  of  the  "  Essay  on 
Miracles  "  may,  perhaps,  be  quoted  against  me,  I  may  express  my 
satisfaction  at  finding  myself  in  substantial  accordance  with  a 
theologian  above  all  suspicion  of  heterodoxy.  With  all  my 
heart,  I  can  declare  my  belief  that  there  is  just  as  good  re<w>n 
for  believing  in  the  miraculous  slaying  of  the  man  who  fell  short 
of  the  Athanasian  power  of  aflBrming  contradictori^-  '  '  re- 
spect to  the  nature  of  the  Godhead,  as  there  is  for  b-  ^  in 
the  stories  of  the  serpent  and  the  ark  told  in  Genesis,  the  speak- 
ing of  Balaam's  ass  in  Numbers,  or  the  floating  of  the  axe,  at 
Elisha's  order,  in  the  second  book  of  Kings. 


It  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  a  really  sound  argument  that 
it  is  susceptible  of  the  fullest  development;  and  that  it  8am<v 

times  leads  to  conchisions  unexpected  by  those  who  •       'it. 
To  my  mind  it  is  impossible  to  refuse  to  follow  Di.  :  :fui 

when  he  extends  his  reasoning  from  the  miracles  of  the  potrisiio 
id  raediieval  ages  backward  in  time  as  far  ri  '  V  ;ire 
scorded.     But,  if  the  rules  of  logic  are  valid,  1  .led 

to  extend  the  argument  forward  to  the  alleged  Roman  niiraclos 
of  the  present  day,  which  Dr.  Newman  might  not  havo  odmittetl. 

*  According  to  Dr.  Kcwman,  **T\\\b  pnjer  [tlial  of  BUhop  Atciamlrr,  wlio  bctc«l 
God  to  'take  Arliu  awnv']  is  ifttt]  to  hiiro  bora  offered  about  8  ML  un  tb«  Bknintaj; 
thai  uxat  ornning  Ariug  was  ia  tlie  great  »qii«re  of  ConitastiDc,  wbcu  bo  wu  tmhhijjr 
with  fDdl»p09itIon  *"  [p.  cUi).  The  *MnlUisl"  Clbbon  sercos  to  kati*  a»i«d  to  lii^> 
thai  "on  optioa  bctwctu  ,    '  'r-icle"  S»  y^  '  '      '  *  n-ml 

tdmlttcd,  that  if  the  blsli*  >  rra^h  nf  a  ..j* 

li«Te  gout  tiAfillv  will.  :  •/*  poucMoU  o(  fti 

lonlsiry,  ai*  oot  onUktlr,  ^  ,  tuggiat  aa  "lyrka 

minde  **  la  tMking  for  the  c&u»e  oTtiie  bco  ooiVani  u  J<f«ttln. 


I 


AGJ^OSTICISJf  A^D   CHRISTIANITY,  4&J 

it  which  Cardinal  Novrman  may  hardly  reject.  Beyond  ques- 
tion, there  is  as  good,  or  perhaps  "better,  evidence  for  the  miracles 
worked  by  our  Lady  of  Lourdes,  as  there  is  for  the  floating  of 
Eliaha'ii  juce  or  the  speaking  of  Balaam's  ass.  But  we  must  go 
still  further ;  there  is  a  modern  system  of  thaumaturgy  and 
demonology  which  is  just  as  well  certified  as  the  ancient.*  Vo- 
racious,  excellent,  sometimes  learned,  and  acute  jiersons,  even  phi- 
losophers of  no  mean  pretension,  testify  to  the  "levitation"  of 
boiiits  much  heavier  than  Elisha's  axe;  to  the  existence  of 
"spirits"  who,  to  the  mere  tactile  sense,  have  been  indistinguish- 
able from  flesh  and  blood,  and  occasionallj'  have  wrestled  with 
all  the  ^Tgor  of  Jacob's  opponent;  yet,  further,  to  the  speech,  in 
the  language  of  raps,  of  spiritual  beings,  whose  discourses,  in 
point  of  coherence  and  value,  are  far  inferior  to  that  of  Balaam's 
hnmble  but  sagacious  steed,  I  have  not  the  smallest  doubt  that, 
if  these  were  persecuting  times,  there  is  many  a  worthy  "spirit- 
oalut "  who  would  cheerfully  go  to  the  stake  in  support  of  his 
pueumatological  faith,  and  furnish  evidence,  aft^r  Paley's  own 
heart,  in  proof  of  the  truth  of  his  doctrines.  Not  a  few  modem 
divines,  doubtless  struck  by  the  impossibility  of  refusing  the 
spiritualist  evidence,  if  the  ecclesiastical  evidence  is  accepted, 
and  deprived  of  any  a  priori  objection  by  their  implicit  belief  in 
Christian  demonology,  show  themselves  ready  to  take  poor  Sludge 
seriously,  and  to  believe  that  he  is  possessed  by  other  devils  than 
those  of  need,  greed,  and  vainglory. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  was  to  be  expected,  though  it  is 
none  the  less  interesting  to  note  the  fact,  that  the  arguments  of 
the  latest  school  of  ''spiritualists "present  a  wonderful  family 
likeness  to  those  which  adorn  the  subtle  disquisitions  of  the  advo- 
cate of  ecclesiastical  miracles  of  forty  years  ago.  It  is  unfortu- 
nate for  the  ''spiritualists"  that,  over  and  over  again,  celebrated 
and  trusted  media,  who  really,  in  some  respects,  call  to  mind  the 

*  A  writer  In  ft  splriCuAllHt  journal  takes  ae  roundly  to  Male  for  renturlag  to  doubt  the 
hlMoHnl  ud  Ucera)  truth  of  the  Gadarenn  storjr.     The  following  parage  tn  his  letter  I« 
worth  qooutjoD  :  "  Now  to  the  nutcrUUstic  and  tdentlSc  mind,  to  the  anioitiflted  Id  epiritqal 
verlilMf  ocruinlr  this  itor^  of  the  fSad&reoe  or  Gcr^cne  swine  premmta  Insurmountable 
dIflleuUlei ;  it  teema  grotesque  and  noDScnsicaL     To  the  experienced,  trained,  and  culti- 
Tated  Spiritualist  this  miracle  la,  as  I  am  prepared  to  show,  one  of  the  most  fnatructire, 
the  most  profoundly  oseful,  uid  the  most  beneBoent  which  Jcsui  ever  wrongfat  in  thai 
whole  eoune  of  hts  pilgrimage  of  redemption  on  earth."    Just  so.     And  the  flml  pagfl 
of  this  same  journal  presents  the  following  advertisement,  among  others  of  the  ■■tum 
kidoer :  * 

**To  WiitntT  SnarmLisTS. — A  tadj  medium  of  tried  power  wishes  to  meet  with  an 
cldefl;  gentleman  who  would  bo  willing  to  give  her  a  eomforiable  home  and  maintenaneej 
in  etcbang*  for  her  spiritualistic  serricea,  as  her  guides  consider  her  health  is  too  delicatll 
(or  pQbUr  sittings:  T^oodon  preferred. — Address  '  Mary,*  office  of  '  Light.'  " 

Ave  we  going  back  to  the  deji  of  the  Jodgca,  wbea  wealthy  Slicab  act  up  hit  private 
ttikel,  Impblm,  and  Lerlto  J  . 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTIILr. 


Moiitanist  *  and  gnostic  seers  of  the  second  contnry,  are  either 
proved  in  courta  of  law  to  bo  fraudulent  impostors;  or,  in  sbeer 
weariness,  as  it  would  seem,  of  the  honest  dupes  wLo  swear  by 
tliem,  spontaneously  confess  their  long-coutinued  ini-  '  '  a.i 
the  Fox  women  did  the  other  day  in  New  York.f    Bui  s  er 

a  catastrophe  of  this  kind  takes  place,  the  helievers  are  nowi^ 
dismayed  by  it.  They  freely  admit  that  not  only  the  media,  but 
the  spirits  whom  they  summon,  are  sadly  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the 
elementary  principles  of  right  and  wrong;  and  they  triumphantly 
a^k :  How  does  the  occurrence  of  occasional  impostures  disprove 
the  genuine  manifestations  (that  is  to  say,  all  those  which  have 
not  yet  been  proved  to  be  impostures  or  delusions)  ?  And,  in 
this,  they  unconsciously  plagiarize  from  the  churchman,  who  just 
as  freely  admits  that  many  ecclesiastical  miracles  may  have  been 
forged ;  and  asks,  with  the  same  calm  contempt,  not  only  of  legal 
I)roofs,  but  of  common-sense  probability.  Why  does  it  follow  that 
none  are  to  be  supposed  genuine  ?  I  must  say,  however,  that  the 
spiritualists,  so  far  as  I  know,  do  not  venture  to  outrage  right 
reason  so  boldly  as  the  ecclesiastics.  They  do  not  sneer  at "  evi- 
dence " ;  nor  repudiate  the  requirement  of  legal  proofs.  In  fact, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  spiritualists  produce  better  evi- 
dence for  their  manifestations  than  can  bo  shown  either  for  the 
miraculous  death  of  Arius,  or  for  the  invention  of  the  crofiat 

From  the  "  levitation  "  of  the  axe  at  one  end  of  a  period  of  near 
three  thousand  years  to  the  "  levitation  "  of  Sludge  &  Ca  at  the 
other  end,  there  is  a  complete  continuity  of  the  miraculous  with 
every  gradation  from  the  childish  to  the  stupendous,  from  the 
gratification  of  a  caprice  to  the  illustration  of  sublime  truth. 
There  is  no  drawing  a  line  in  the  series  that  might  b**  '  v»f 

plausibly  attested  cases  of  spiritual  intervention.    If  t- 
all  may  be  true ;  if  one  is  false,  all  may  be  false. 


I 


;e. 


This  is,  to  my  mind,  the  inevitable  result  of  that  method  of 

*  Gooaider  T«rtalIUii*i  "R»t«r"  ("botlie  apud  D(«"X  *bo  coavorMd  with  angclii,  mm 
and  hc&rd  mjBtcricB,  knew  mcn^s  thoa^U,  aad  prvecrlbed  uedkine  for  their  bodln  (*'  D» 
Amma/'  cap.  V).  Tortulli&u  tells  ui  that  lliU  wozn&n  mw  the  tool  u  corpure*!.  umI  ileacribti 
It:t  color  and  shape.  Tbo  '*  infidel  **  will  probably  be  nnatilo  to  refrain  froa  loiabl^  tb« 
tncroorr  of  the  ecstatic  »ainl  b;  tb«  romark  that  TertiiUiftn't  known  ricwB  abosi  ^h$  oo*» 
porealily  of  the  soul  maf  baro  had  tomething  to  do  with  the  remarkabld  |>troopUt«  perat 
of  tlie  MootanUt  medium,  in  wboM  ravolatian»  of  lbs  iplritoal  world  be  took  Mcb  profooal 
intereft. 

f  Sm  tlie  Kew  York  '*  World  "  for  Sunday  Octobor  SI,  1888 ;  ftod  th«  **  BepocI  •£ 

bort  OofDDilMion/*  rhilaild]ildft,  lti87. 

X  Or.  Newman'!  oUcttkUod  that  the  mlracaloui  nnltlplloatioa  of  «^  plMV  «f ' 
trve  croM  (with  which  *'  the  whole  world  le  filled/*  acoordtni;  to  Cjrll  of  Jora««lia ;  «ftl  tf 
which  eome  Mr  there  at*  aoog|^  extant  to  boitd  a  man-of'WKr}  U  no  nocv  wooAerftal  Ui«a 
that  of  lUu  toavvi  aad  flihci,  U  OM  Uiat  I  do  not  M«  017  waj  to  Motiw&cL  8n  "ftaiy  oa 
llir»cte^''  M90IM1  edition,  p.  IftS. 


AQyOSTICISM  AND    CBRISTIANITY, 


"  Toasoning  whidi  is  applied  to  tho  confutation  of  Protestantism, 
vith  so  much  success,  by  ono  of  the  acutest  and  subtlest  disputants 
who  have  ever  cliampioned  ecclesiasticism — and  one  can  not  put 

^Lliis  claims  to  acuteneas  and  subtlety  higher. 

^1       .  .  .  the  CbHsUaoity  of  blstorjr  is  not  Proievtontinn.    If  ever  tliore  were  a 
^Biafo  truth  U  is  ttits.  ...  **  To  bo  deep  in  biatorj  is  to  oeuse  to  be  a  rrotestant,*^  * 

H  I  havo  not  a  Bhadow  of  doubt  that  these  anti-Protestant  epi- 
^^  grams  are  profoundly  true.  But  I  have  as  little  that,  in  the  same 
sense,  tho  "  Christianity  of  history  is  not "  Romanism ;  and  that  to 
be  deei>er  in  history  is  to  cease  to  be  a  Romanist.  The  reasons 
which  compel  my  doubts  about  the  compatibility  of  the  Roman 
doctrine,  or  any  other  form  of  Catholicism,  with  history,  arise  out 
of  exactly  the  same  line  of  argument  as  that  adopted  by  Dr.  New- 
man in  the  famous  essay  which  I  have  just  cited.  If,  with  one 
hand,  Dr.  Newman  has  destroyed  Protestantism,  he  has  anniliilated 
Romanism  with  the  other ;  and  the  total  result  of  his  ambidextral 
efforts  is  to  shake  Christianity  t-o  its  foundations.  Nor  was  any 
one  better  aware  that  this  must  be  the  inevitable  result  of  his 
arguments — if  the  world  should  refuse  to  accept  Roman  doctrines 
and  Roman  miracles — than  the  writer  of  Tract  85. 

Dr.  Newman  made  his  choice  and  passed  over  to  the  Roman 
Church  half  a  century  ago.  Some  of  those  who  were  essentially 
in  harmony  with  his  views  preceded,  and  many  followed  him. 
But  many  remained ;  and,  as  the  quondam  Puseyite  and  present 
Ritualistic  party,  they  are  continuing  that  work  of  sapping  and 
mining  the  Protestantism  of  the  Anglican  Church  which  he  and 
"his  friends  .so  ably  commenced.  At  the  present  time,  they  have  no 
little  claim  to  be  considered  victorious  all  along  the  line.  I  am 
old  enough  to  recollect  the  small  beginnings  of  the  Tractarian 
party ;  and  I  am  amazed  when  I  consider  the  present  position  of 
their  heirs.  Their  little  leaven  has  leavened,  if  not  the  whole,  yet 
a  very  large,  lump  of  the  Anglican  Church ;  which  is  now  pretty 
much  of  A  preparatory  school  for  Papistry.  So  that  it  really  be- 
lioovcs  Englishmen  (who,  as  I  have  been  informed  by  high  author- 
ity, are  all,  legally,  members  of  the  state  Church,  if  they  profess 
to  belong  to  no  other  sect)  to  wake  up  to  what  that  powerful  or- 
ganization is  about,  and  whither  it  is  tending.  On  this  j)oint,  the 
writings  of  Dr.  Newman,  while  he  still  remained  within  the  An- 
n  fold,  are  a  vast  store  of  the  best  and  the  most  authoritative 
lation.  His  doctrines  on  ecclesiastical  miracles  and  on  de- 
velopment are  the  corner-stones  of  the  Tractarian  fabric.  He  be- 
*  '  '  :       ;  ta  led  either  Romeward,  or  to  what  occle- 

, '  and  I  call  agnosticism.    I  believe  that 

*  "  Ab  fjmj  CA  ibe  DflTolopmeni  of  Chriitlu  Doctriuo,"  by  J.  IL  Newmftii,  D.  D.,  pp. 


ft 
ft 

I 


466  rnS  POPULAR  SCISXCS  MOXTHir,        ^^B 

Jie  was  quite  right  in  this  conviction ;  but  while  bo  clirK>»es  in? 

none  alternative,  I  choose  the  other;  as  he  rejects  Protestantism  ou 
the  ground  of  its  incompatibility  with  history,  so,  aforiiori^  I  coo- 
ceive  that  Romanism  ought  to  be  rejected,  and  lli-  tW 

consideration  of  the  evidence  must  refuse  the  an!  ■        _  ■  fixft 

|to  anything  more  than  the  Nazarenism  of  James  and  Futcr  and 
John.  And  lot  it  not  be  supposed  that  this  ih  a  mere  "infidel" 
perversion  of  the  facts.  No  cue  has  more  openly  and  clearly  ad- 
mitt^  the  possibility  that  they  may  be  fairly  interpreted  in  this 
way  than  Dr,  Newman.  If,  ho  pays,  there  are  texts  which  seem  to 
show  that  Jesus  contemplated  the  evangelization  of  the  heathen: 

.  .  ,  Bid  not  the  fipoetlca  factLT  oar  Lord?  and  ^hut  was  ihHr  imprvnioo 
from  what  the;  beard?  Is  it  not  certaJa  that  the  apostlee  did  not  gather  Uiia 
truth  from  his  teEcliing  t     ("  Tract  85/*  p.  68.) 

I  He  said,  "  Preach  the  tfoepel  to  every  creatarc.*'  Tliew  words  ne<d  Iiave  only 
pDeant  **  Bring  all  men  to  ChristlanHv  through  Judaism.*'  Mak«  tliem  Jftws,  that 
hhey  may  enjoy  Cbrist'a  privileges  which  are  lodged  in  Judaism ;  teach  thorn  tboM 
rttea  and  ceremoniea,  cirouincisioQ  and  the  like,  which  hitherto  have  been  dead  or- 
dinance, and  now  are  living;  and  so  the  apoetloa  seem  to  have  Dxuler*tood  tiicm 
(Ibid.,  p.  flC>. 

So  far  as  Nazarenism  differentiated  itself  from  cor'  iry 

orthodox  Judaism,  it  seems  to  have  tended  toward  a  re\  i ,  „-  -..  liie 
ethical  and  religious  spirit  of  the  prophetic  age,  accompanied  by 
the  belief  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  and  by  various  accretions  which 
had  grown  round  Judaism  subsequently  to  the  exile.  To  these 
belong  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection,  of  the  last  judgnicntjof 
Lbeaven  and  hell;  of  the  hierarchy  of  good  angels;  of  Satan  and 
Ffcbe  hierarchy  of  evil  spirits.  And  there  is  very  strong  ground  for 
belie'ving  that  all  these  doctrines,  at  least  in  the  &hai)es  \i\  which 
they  were  held  by  the  post-oxilic  Jews,  wore  derived  from  Fermn 
and  Babylonian  *  sources,  and  are  essentially  of  heathen  oHgltt 

How  far  Jesus  positively  sanctioned  all  these  indraiuiugB  of 
circumjacent  paganism  into  Judaism ;  how  far  any  one  has  a  right 
to  say  that  the  refusal  to  accept  one  or  other  of  these  d<vtrini^  as 
^certainetl  verities  comes  to  the  same  thing  as  co;  '^ng 

Jesus,  it  appears  to  me  not  easy  to  say.  But  it  is  hardly,  .  .-  v.^^* 
cult  to  conceive  that  he  could  have  distinctly  negatived  any  of 
^cm ;  aud,  mon  ^Hy,  that  i\(-  •     ■     .    i 

Accepted  by  the* .^a  churches  il  _     :.,     „ 

their  mutual  antagonisms.     Bui,  I  rcpcftt  my  convirtioa  tluitj 

*  Pr.  yevman  fscei  thli  qoottton  with  hU  wutomafy  ablBly.    **  ^  ]  «»  tmJ 

at  all  •olicltoua  to  deny  that  tbii  dociHn«  of  an  apottat^  •n*-r!  *n.>  •  rm.rt. 
IroiQ  Bftbjioa:  ll  nt^tht  pUH  b«  dlvln«  B«vertlt«loiiA,    (' 

lipeak,  uid  thereby  bisiruoted  the  prophet,  ruS^xX  interact  In-  •  <^h 

pabylon  ^  ("  Tract  00,"  p.  88).    There  sccma  to  bo  no  end  to    I  ^| 

■alaaia*B  a»  can  carry.  ^H 


« 


AGNOSTICISM  AND   CHRISTIANITY. 


467 


whether  Jesus  sanctionocl  the  demonology  of  his  time  and  nation, 
or  not,  it  is  doomed.  The  future  of  Christianity  as  a  dogmatic 
system  and  apart  from  the  old  Israelitish  ethics  which  it  has  ap- 
propriated and  developed,  lies  in  the  answer  which  mankind  will 
©ventiially  give  to  the  question  whether  they  are  prepared  toJ 
believe  such  stories  as  the  Gadarene  and  the  pneumatological 
hypotheses  which  go  with  it,  or  not.  My  belief  is  they  will  de- 
cline to  do  anything  of  the  sort,  whenever  and  wherever  their 
minds  have  been  disciplined  by  science.  And  that  discipline 
must  and  will  at  once  follow  and  lead  the  footsteps  of  advancing 
civilization. 


The  procetling  pages  were  written  before  I  became  acquainted 
with  the  contents  of  the  May  number  of  this  review,  wherein  I 
discover  many  things  which  are  decidedly  not  to  my  advantage. 
It  would  api>ear  that  "evasion  '*  is  my  chief  resource,  "  incapacity 
strict  nrgunient "  and  "  rottenness  of  ratiocination  "  my  maia 
Ltal  characteristics,  and  that  it  is  "barely  credible"  that  a' 
statement  which  I  profess  to  make  of  my  own  knowledge  is  true. 
All  which  things  I  notice,  merely  to  illustrate  the  great  truth, 
M  forced  on  me  by  long  experience,  that  it  is  only  from  those  who 
Henjoy  the  blessing  of  a  firm  hold  of  the  Christian  faith  that  such 
^ktttufeetations  of  meekness,  patience,  and  charity  are  to  be  ex* 
■RUed 

^■^    I  had  imagined  that  no  one  who  had  read  my  preceding  papers 
^"  could  entertain  a  doubt  as  to  my  position  in  respect  of  the  main 
issue  as  it  has  been  stated  and  restated  by  my  opponent: 

an  agnosticism  which  knowi  nothing  of  the  relation  of  man  to  God  most  not  onlj 
refuse  bdief  to  onr  Lord's  most  nndoubtod  teachioif,  bnt  innst  deny  tbo  realitj  oX 
tiio  spiritOA]  oonviotioas  in  which  he  lived  and  died.* 

That  is  said  to  be  "  the  simple  question  which  is  at  issue  between 
,118,''  and  the  three  testimonies  to  tliat  teaching  and  those  convic- 
tions selected  are  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
jftnd  the  Story  of  the  Passion. 

My  answer,  reduced  to  its  briefest  form,  has  been :  In  the  first 
Iplace,  the  eWdence  is  such  that  the  exact  nature  of  the  teachings 
[and  the  convictions  of  Jesus  is  extremely  uncertain,  so  that  what 
(©eel  '  *  >  are  pleased  to  call  a  denial  of  them  may  be  nothing 
lof  I  1.    And,  in  the  second  place,  if  Jesus  taught  the  de- 

Lonological  s>'stem  involved  in  the  Gadarene  story — if  a  belief 
in  t'    '        *       *■  ^  1  part  of  the  spiritual  convictions  in  which 

10  1  I,  for  my  part,  unhesitatingly  refuse  be- 

lief in  that  -  1  deny  the  reality  of  those  spiritual  con- 

Vij-.  i  s  '  -  i^jUier  and  add,  that  exactly  in  so  far  €i3  it 

•  *.  r,^.,.'.,  i-i^P,.-.  y -^tWjfl  Ji4jr,  I88O,  p.  8S8. 


I 


468 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT. 


Lean  be  p^  -  sanctioned  t'  "  y  pagan  dvmiio^ 

'ological  I  _         :   _  _:  among  the  j_    _     _  __r  uge,  exactly  in 

so  far,  for  me,  will  his  authority  in  any  matter  touching  the  9piiV' 
itual  wcirld  Ik>  weakened. 

With  respect  to  the  first  half  of  my  answer,  I  have  pointed  cot 
that  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  as  given  in  the  first  Qospol,  Ls^  in 
the  opinion  of  the  best  critics,  a  "  mosaic  work"  of  matrrialp  de- 
rived from  different  sources,  and  I  do  not  understand  tliat  this 

Lstatement  is  challenged.    The  only  other  Gospel,  the  thii^,  which 

-contains  something  like  it,  makes,  not  only  the  discourse,  but  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  was  delivered,  very  different.  Now^ 
it  is  one  thing  to  say  that  there  was  something  real  at  the  bottom 
of  the  two  discourses — which  is  quite  possible;  and  another  to 
affirm  that  we  have  any  right  to  say  what  that  something  wimj,  or 
to  fix  upon  any  particular  phrase  and  declare  it  to  be  a  gonuino 
utterance.  Those  who  pursue  theology  as  a  science,  and  bring  to 
the  study  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  ways  of  ancient  liisto- 

aians,  will  find  no  difficulty  in  providing  illustrations  of  my  moan- 

Wng.  I  may  supply  one  which  has  come  within  range  of  my  own 
limited  vision. 

In  Joseph ixs's  "  History  of  the  Wars  of  the  Jews'*  (chap,  xlx) 
that  writer  reports  a  speech  which  he  says  Herod  made  »<  the 
opening  of  a  war  with  the  Arabians,    It  is  in  tlie  first  i  ud 

would  naturally  be  supposed  by  the  reader  to  be  inttu.."*  i^ro 
true  version  of  what  Horod  said.    In  the  "Antiquities,"  wriltyn 

jiKime  seventeen  years  later,  the  same  vrritor  gives  another  report, 

^slso  in  the  first  person,  of  Herod's  speech  on  the  same  uocaaion. 
This  second  oration  is  twice  as  long  as  the  first,  and  though  the 
general  tenor  of  tho  two  speeches  is  jr  ^    re 

is  hardly  any  verbal  identity,  and  a  g-  ^  rt> 

ducod  into  the  one  which  is  absent  from  the  other.    Now  Jo«»> 

g^hus  prides  himsplf  on  his  ao<  '       *         "  ''  '   '  ^ 

Biavo  heard  Herod's  oration  \s 

pistorical  sense  is  so  curiously  undevclopod,  tliat  ho  can,  qait« 
innocently,  perpetrate  an  obvious  literary  fabr  '■ —  '  -  -  of 
the  two  accounts  must  bo  incorrect.    Now,  if  1  ^^r 

I  believe  that  Herod  made  some  particular  statement  on  thb 
occasion;  whether,  for  example,  he  uttered  the  pious  aph-  •^'^•" 
"Where  God  is,  there  is  both  multitude  and  courago,"  wi 

Lffiven  in  the  "Antiquities,"  but  not  in  the  **  '^  ' 

fpelled  to  eay  T  do  not  know.    One  of  the  two  ^ 
neoufi,  possibly  botli  are:  at  any  rote,  I  can  m  ' 

toither  is  true.    And,  if 

tlhould  build  up  a  thoor;         :  .      .     * 

dence  that  he  propounded  the  aphorism,  ij«  it  &  *'  m 
Baijg  in  reply,  that  tho  orideace  thai  he  did  utter  it  ij  ^v 


jU- 


^^^^  AGNOSTICISM  AND   CERISTIANITY.  4^ 

It  appears  again  that,  adopting  the  tactics  of  Conachar  when 
brought  faco  to  face  irith  Hal  o'  the  Wynd,  I  have  been  trying"  to 
get  ray  simple-minded  adversary  to  follow  me  on  a  wild-goose 
chase  through  the  early  history  of  Christianity,  in  the  hope  of 
escaping  impending  defeat  on  the  main  issue.  But  I  may  be  per- 
mitted to  point  out  that  there  is  an  alternative  hypothesis  which 
equally  fits  the  facts ;  and  that,  after  all,  there  may  have  been 
method  in  the  madness  of  my  supposed  panic. 

For  suppose  it  to  be  established  that  Gentile  Christianity  wa^ 
a  totally  different  thing  from  the  Nazarenism  of  Jesus  and  his  im- 
mediate disciples ;  suppose  it  to  be  demonstrable  that,  as  early  as 
the  sixth  decade  of  our  era  at  least,  there  were  violent  divergen- 
cies of  opinion  among  the  followers  of  Jesus ;  suppose  it  to  be 
hardly  doubtful  that  the  Gosjiels  and  the  Acts  took  their  present 
shapes  under  the  influence  of  these  divorgoncios;  suppose  that 
their  authors,  and  those  through  whose  hands  they  passed,  had 
notions  of  historical  veracity  not  more  eccentric  than  those  whichj 
Josephus  occasionally  disjjlays — surely  the  chances  tlmt  the  Q09-J 
pels  are  altogether  trustworthy  records  of  the  teachings  of  Jesna 
become  very  slender.  And  as  the  whole  of  the  case  of  the  other 
is  based  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  accurate  records 
lially  of  speeches,  about  which  ancient  historians  are  so  curi- 
loose),  I  really  do  venture  to  submit  that  this  part  of  my 
iment  bears  very  seriously  on  the  main  issue;  and,  as  ratioci- 
[on,  is  sound  to  the  core. 

Again,  when  I  i)assed  by  the  topic  of  the  speeches  of  Jesua  on 
the  cross,  it  appears  that  I  could  have  had  no  other  motive  than 
tlio  dictates  of  my  native  evasiveness.    An  ecclesiastical  dignitary 
may  have  respectable  reasons  for  declining  a  fencing-match  "  in 
sight  of  Qethscmane  and  Calvary  " ;  but  an  ecclesiastical  "  infi- 
del"!   Never.    It  is  obviously  impossible  that,  in  the  belief  that 
the  greater  includes  the  less,"  I,  having  declared  the  Gospel  evi- 
dence in  general,  as  to  the  sayings  of  Jesus,  to  be  of  qnestionable 
, value,  thought  it  needless  to  select,  for  illustration  of  my  views^l 
those  particular  instances  which  were  likely  to  bo  roost  offensive 
^to  persons  of  another  way  of  thinking.    But  any  supposition  that 
may  have  been  entertained  that  the  old  familiar  tones  of  the  ecclo- 
il  Aviir-drum  will  tempt  me  to  engage  in  such  needless  dis- 
h.-ui  better  be  renounced.    I  shall  do  nothing  of  the  kind 
kl>et  it  suflSce  that  I  ask  my  readers  to  turn  to  the  twenty-third 
f  ^•"' *  r  of  Luke  (revised  version),  verso  thirty-four,  and  he  will 

■  he  mnrppn 
I      ^  umlt:  And  Jesua  said,  *'Falltcr,  furtive  tlictOf  for 


^  the  fourth  century,  there  were  ancient 
Uq  most  fkncieut  and  weightioet^  -<ft\i^ 


'ULAR  SCmsrCM  MOl 


I 


id  not  k^aw  of  this  nttetrnpoe^  to  oClcn  qtioiai  a 
of  Jesoi,  or  did  not  belicrre  it  had  betta  ottered. 
Hasf  yaazs  ago»  I  reeeired  an  ADoojnKnis  IttUtTf  which  abused 
a*  hiMatfly  for  mj  want  of  morel  oooc^e  in  not  cpeaking  oat  I 
tLooffaft  that  ODe  of  tha  oddeast  charge*  an  aDoaTSunu  letier- 
-r  oiMild  bring.  Hat  I  am.  not  buib  that  the  plentifol  sowing 
ihe  p^es  of  the  article  with  whidi  I  am  dealing  with  aocoff^ 
of  errasion,  may  not  seem  odder  to  thoaa  who  ooBsider  that 
tha  main  strength  of  the  azuwers  with  whidi  I  have  been  ^vorod 
(in  this  review  and  dsewhere)  is  devotoi  not  to  anything  in  the 
text  of  my  first  paper,  bat  to  a  note  which  ocean  at  page  171.* 
In  this  I  say : 

Dr.  WaeeeeOin:  "It  mtj  beukadhovftr  Vaonnlfaa  llM»oeoaBlB  v« 
^mmm  of  oar  Lonr«  t«a«hiag  oa  thoao  flubJoctiL*  AaA  booMB* to  thU ibo 
foartiaa  sppnypriaUlj  nvvcTBd  by  ftbi  iMfftioa  thit  k  ^ov^t  Is  U 
MCtfad  by  X  B<aM*i  pcAe&cal  mirtUa  of  the  ftdv«tw  tmC* 


I  requested  Dr.  Waco  to  point  oat  the  passages  of  3L  Benan^li 
works  in  which^  a^  he  affirms,  this  *pnM:tieal  sorremkr"  (not 
merely  as  to  the  age  and  aathorship  of  tho  Go^r  *  ob«erved« 

bat  as  to  their  historical  value)  is  made,  and  Ll  .-^  .  on  so  good 
as  to  do  so.  Now  let  as  consider  the  parts  of  Dr.  Wace's  citation 
from  Renan  which  are  relevant  to  the  issao : 

Tb«  aatbor  of  Uils  Gospel  [Lak*]  ii  oertali^r  tbe  mbm  m  Ui«  Aulbor  x^:  l^o 
AoU  of  tbs  A^ottl««.  Kow  tLo  AOthor  of  Uie  AcU  mcoo  to  b«  s  ooaiptalos  o( 
8t  Pin-]  ■  ehsrscUr  whieb  aocordi  oampitlbAj  wUb  8t  Lako.  I  toov  dtat 
nom  tbaa  oa«  ob^^eetioa  m^  bo  oppoMtl  to  tbb  rwMnnfng;  bat  oco  tbiof,  it  ■!! 
#fwt%  ia  bcTood  do«bt»  namoly,  th«i  tbe  lothor  of  tlw  tbhil  Goipdl  sal  of  Ibo 
AeU  k  a  bmh  vbo  bdooged  to  lb«  teeoed  cpootoUo  geo«miiiMi :  aibj  tlm  snffitM 
£or  oar  porpoM. 

Thi«  is  a  curioos  "practical  sarrunder  of  the  -.. 
U.  Reman  thinks  that  there  is  no  doubt  ^*    '  ''  ••^ 

third  Goepel  is  the  aathor  of  the  Act»— a  t 

soppoae  critics  generally  agree.    He  goes  on  to  raroar>.  14 

person  Stf^rru  to  be  a  companion  of  St.  Fan],  and  adilit  ti»»^  » -.ko 
was  a  companion  of  St.  PaoL  Theoi.  somifwhat  needleMly,  M. 
Banan  points  oat  that  there  is  more  t!  y 

',  from  such  data  as  these,  to  the  cori' . « 

tor  of  the  third  Oo^peL    And,  finallv.  M.  Rsnan  Ib 
redace  that  which  is  *'  Joabt"  to  the  fatrt  that  Mx^  au) 

of  the  two  books  w  i-  A  tlw  second  ap«»^'^!ii'  trrnrmt!] 

Well,  it  seems  to  me  that  I  ooald  agree  with 
cottd-l       "'  '    •     '  —  \ 

Dr.  Wace  ("Niaetoealh  Century,'^ 
•  «  r^opidir  Sdaoft  VootUf,-  April,  1S39,  p.  TSi. 


AGNOSTICISM  AND  CHRISTIANITY 


I 
I 


k 


I 


"ho  dorivea  tho  abovo  citation  from  the  prefaco  of  the  fift<?onth 
<jdition  of  the  "  Vie  de  J^sus,"  My  copy  of  **  Les  Evangiles,"  dated 
1877,  contains  a  list  of  Reuan^s  "CEuvrea  Completes/' at  the  hoad 
of  which  I  find  "  Vio  do  Jffeus,"  15*  <5dition.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
later  work  than  the  edition  of  the  ''Vie  de  Jdsus"  vrhieh  Dr. 
Wace  quotes.  Now  "  Les  Evangiles,"  as  its  name  implies,  treats 
fully  of  the  questions  resjwcting  the  date  and  authorshij*  of  the 
GoBpels ;  and  any  one  who  desired,  not  merely  to  use  M.  Reuan  a 
expressions  for  controversial  purposes,  but  to  give  a  fair  account 
of  his  views  in  their  full  siguilicauco^  wouldy  I  thinks  refer  to  the 
later  source. 

If  this  course  had  been  taken.  Dr.  Wace  might  have  found 
some  as  decided  expressions  of  opinion  in  favor  of  Luke's  author- 
ship of  the  third  Gospel  as  ho  has  discovered  in  "  The  Apostles," 
I  mention  this  circumstance  because  I  desire  to  point  out  that, 
taking  even  the  strongest  of  Renan's  statements,  I  am  still  at  a 
loBS  to  see  how  it  justifies  that  large-sounding  phrase  "  practical 
surrender  of  the  adverse  case."  For,  on  p.  438  of  "Les  Evan- 
^ies,"  Renan  speaks  of  the  way  in  which  Luke^s  *' excellent  inten- 
tions "  have  led  him  to  torture  history  in  tho  Acts ;  ho  declares 
Luke  to  be  tho  founder  of  that  "  eternal  fiction  which  ia  called 
ecclesiastical  history";  and,  on  the  preceding  page,  he  talks  of^ 
the  **  myth  "  of  the  Ascension — with  its  miae  en  achie  vendue.  At 
p.  435,  I  find  "Luc,  on  Tauteur  quel  qu'il  soit  du  troisi^mo 
Evangile"  [Luke,  or  whoever  may  bo  the  author  i;f  the  third 
Gospel] ;  at  p.  280,  tho  accounts  of  the  Passion,  the  death  and  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  are  said  to  be  "pen  historiques"  [little  his- 
torical] ;  at  p.  283, "  La  valour  historique  du  troisifeme  Evangile  est 
sCiroment  moindre  que  celles  des  doxix  premiers"  [the  historical 
value  of  the  third  Gospel  is  surely  less  than  that  of  the  first  two]. 

A  Pyrrhic  sort  of  \ictory  for  orthodoxy  this  "surrender"! 
And,  all  the  while,  tho  scientific  student  of  theology  knows  that 
tho  more  reason  there  may  be  to  believe  that  Luke  was  the  com- 
panion of  Paul,  the  more  doubtful  becomes  his  credibility,  if  he 
y  wrote  the  Acts.  For,  in  that  case,  ho  could  not  fail  to  have 
acquaintctl  witli  Paul's  account  of  tho  Jerusalem  conference, 
and  ho  must  have  consciously  misrepresented  it.  We  may  next 
turn  Xo  the  essential  part  of  Dr.  Wace*s  citation  ("Nineteenth 
Century,"  p.  305)*  touching  the  first  Gospel: 

St  MuttLiev  ovldc&tly  deserres  p«caliar  conGdenco  for  the  disooofBea.    Here 
af^  ''  '  *     "  !iot«s  lakcQ  while  the  memory  of  the  lostruotioD  of 


m*n  b**!'*^ 


?  the  very  general  opinion  as  to  the 
-1,"  having  a  diflfcrent  origin  from 

-X.  ilottlhlr,"  BI*y,  1899,  p.  79. 


47^^      TBE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MQnTBEF^^^^^ 

the  text  in  which  they  are  imbedded,  in  Matthew,    "Notw"  aw 

somewhat  suggestive  of  a  short-hand  writer,  but  the  euggestiou  i» 

nnintentional,  for  M.  Renan  assumes  that  these  "  notes  *'  were 

taken,  not  at  the  time  of  the  deliver)-  of  the  "  login,"  Imt  imb- 

Bequently,  while  (as  he  a&sumes)  the  memorj'  of  them  was  llvifig 

and  definite ;  so  that,  in  this  very  citation,  M,  Rcnau  leaves  opcai 

Bthe  question  of  the  general  historical  value  of  the  tlrst  Qofpcl, 

Fwhile  it  is  obvious  that  the  accuracy  of  "  notes,'*  t^iken,  not  at  the 

time  of  delivery,  but  from  memory,  is  a  matter  about  which  more 

|thau  one  opinion  may  be  fairly  held,    "  ^'       n  eipre»Iy 

Iballs  attention  to  the  diiliculty  of  d:        ^  •    autbentio 

**  logia  "  from  later  additions  of  the  same  kind  ( "  Les  Evangilea," 

p.  yOl).     The  fact  is,  there  is  no  contradiction  here  to    that 

opinion  about  the  first  Gospel  which  is  expressed  in  "  Le^  Evnn- 

giles  "  (p.  175). 

The  teit  of  tbo  *o-caIk<l  Mattbcw  snppoeee  tlie  j>rt'-ti*  'luii  i-f  ^^rk, 

and  does  little  more  than  cotoplete  it     Tie  com])loleii  it  iii  <'U» — first,  by 

tho  in»ertJon  of  those  long  dlsconrses  K'liich  gavo  tbeir  chief  value  to  tho  tl^brtW 
Gospels ;  tlicQ  by  adding  traditions  of  a  more  modern  formation,  resolta  of  mcccft- 
Bive  dovclopmeots  of  Uie  legend,  sod  to  which  tho  ChriBti&o  consdoamMi  alreidlj 
attached  infinite  valae. 

Jf.  Renan  goes  on  to  suggest  that  besides  "  Mark,"  "  pseudo- 
Mntthow"  used  an  Aramaic  version  of  the  Gospel  originally  sot 
forth  in  that  dialect.  Finally,  as  to  the  second  Gospel  ("Nine- 
teenth Century/'  p.  3G5):* 

Ho  [Mark]  u  full  of  minute  obscnratloos,  proceeding,  beyond  doubt,  ttam  a 
eye-wltnGa&  There  is  nothing  to  convict  with  the  BappoalUoo  that  ihli  eyo-vHnes 
,  .  .  was  t^e  apOHtle  Peter  hlubeU,  aa  Fapiaa  haa  IL 

Let  us  consider  this  citation  also  by  the  light  of  "T-k  Kvnn- 
giles": 

I     This  work,  althoagh  composed  after  the  death  of  PetcTj  wus.  \\\ 
'work  of  Potor;  it  reprcsente  the  way  in  vhich  Pet<ir  was  acciutou^  ;  .^  .%u,fa 
tho  life  of  Jesas  (p.  llff).  ^H 

M.  Henan  goes  on  to  say  that,  as  an  historical  docmncmt,  tho 
Gospel  of  Mark  has  a  great  superiority  (p.  i 

a  motive  for  omitting  the  discoorsos ;  and  he  li: ,  .  — 

importance"  to  miracles  (p.  117).  The  Gk)5pel  of  Mark  is  lew 
A  legend  than  a  ~ 

Ebrouhl  he  nuih  to  -^ 

touched  (p.  120).  j| 

If  '   thinks  that  1  ha  ^k 

shar]'  Lion  between  "bti  i^| 

for  creeds  " ;  or  that  my  warning  against  the  tjoo  ri'  iiH 


AGNOSTICISM  AND    CURISTIANITY. 


47J 


if  certAin  declaraiioos  as  to  the  state  of  biblical  criticism  was 
ne«?dltf8a  ;  or  that  my  anxiety  as  to  the  seiiBe  of  the  word  ^'  prac- 
:.ical"  was  suportluous,  let  bim  comparo  the  statement  that  M. 
man  has  made  a  '*  practical  surrender  of  the  adverse  case"  with 
(the  facta  just  set  forth.    For  what  is  the  adverse  case  ?    The  quea- 
ition,  as  Dr.  Wace  puts  it,  is, "  It  may  be  asked  how  far  can  we  rely 
|4>n  the  accounts  we  jfossess  of  our  Lord's  teaching  on  these  aub- 
ioots,"    It  will  be  obvious,  that  M.  Renan  s  statements  amount  to 
lu  adverse  answer — to  a  "practical"  denial  that  any  great  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  those  accounts.    He  does  not  believe  that  Mat- 
thew, the  apostle,  wrote  the  first  Gospel ;  he  does  not  profess  to 
know  who  is  responsible  for  the  collection  of  "  logia,"  or  how  many 
of  them  are  authentic ;  tliough  he  calls  the  second  Gospel  the  most 
historical,  he  points  out  that  it  is  written  with  credulity,  and  may 
have  been  interpolated  and  retouched ;  and,  as  to  the  author  "quel 
qu'il  soit "  of  the  third  Gospel,  who  is  to  "  rely  on  the  accounts "  of 
a  writer  who  deserves  the  cavalier  treatment  which  "  Liiko  "  meeta 
with  at  M.  Kenan's  hands  ? 

I  n>peat  what  I  have  already  more  than  once  said,  that  the 
question  of  the  age  and  the  authorship  of  the  Gospels  has  not,  in 
my  judgment,  the  importance  which  is  so  commonly  assigned  to 
it;  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  reports,  even  of  eye-witnesses, 
would  not  suflice  to  justify  belief  in  a  large  and  essential  part  of 
their  contents ;  on  the  contrary,  these  reports  would  discredit  the 
witnesses.  The  Ga<larene  miracle,  for  example,  is  so  extremely 
improbable,  that  the  fact  of  its  being  reported  by  three,  even  ind^ 
lent,  authorities  could  not  justify  belief  in  it  unless  wo  had 
clearest  evidence  as  to  their  capacity  as  observers  and  as  inter- 
ppoters  of  their  observations.  But  it  is  evident  that  the  tliroe 
authorities  are  not  independent ;  that  they  have  simply  adopted 
a  legend,  of  which  there  were  two  versions ;  and  instead  of  tJhoir 
■  proving  its  truth,  it  suggests  their  suj>erstitioiis  credulity ;  so  that, 
B^' Matthew,"  "  Mark,"  and  "  Luke"  are  really  responsible  for  the 
^Hfe^elSy  it  is  not  the  better  for  the  Gadarene  story,  but  the  worse 
^^W  them. 

A  wonderful  amount  of  controversial  capital  has  been  made 

mt  of  my  assertion  in  the  note  to  which  I  have  referred,  as  an 

ni  of  no  '  r-nce  to  my  argument,  that,  if  Kenan's 

■  non-ex!  main  results  of  biblical  criticism  aa 

[K6t  lorih  in  tlie  works  of  Strauss,  Baur,  Renss,  and  Volkmar,  for 

•  affected.     I  thought  I  had  ex- 
Imt  it  seems  that  my  explanation 
bo-  -  u£  my  native  perversity,  so  I  ask  for 

one  .....    .  ....ti- 


^        *  I  ttlM  (I  JbXf  W4  b* 


ahio  U.  R«Qaa^*  \%hnT%  or  m»vuil«d  Mv 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


In  tho  course  of  the  historical  development  of  any  lifftnch  <rf 
science,  what  is  universally  observed  is  this :  that  the  mfra  who 
make  epochs  and  are  the  real  architects  of  tho  fabric  of  uxttct 
knowledge  are  those  who  introduce  fruitful  ideas  or  nietluwl*.  A* 
a  rule,  the  man  who  does  this  pushes  his  idea  or  his  iiietbvKl  too 
far ;  or,  if  he  does  not,  his  school  is  sure  to  do  so,  and  those  who 
follow  have  to  reduce  his  work  to  its  proper  value.  '  'i^ 
it  its  place  in  the  whole.    Not  unf rcquently  they,  in  ;  in, 

overdo  the  critical  process-  and,  in  trying  to  eliminate  errors, 
throw  away  truth. 

Thus,  as  I  Raid,  Linufeug,  Buffon,  Cuvler,  Lamarck,  really  "set 
forth  the  results"  of  a  developing  science,  althoTigh  they  often 
heartily  contradict  one  another.  Notwithstanding  this  circum- 
stance, modem  classificatory  method  and  nomenclaturo  have 
largely  grown  out  of  the  results  of  the  work  of  Linnaeus;  the 
mo<iern  conception  of  biology,  as  a  science,  and  of  its  relation  to 
climatology,  geography,  and  geology,  are  as  lartrely  rooted  in  the 
results  of  the  labors  of  Buffon;  comparative  -1  pale- 

ontology owe  a  vast  debt  to  Cuvier's  results ;  v  _  t>ibrat« 

s&oolugy  and  the  revival  of  the  idea  of  evolution  are  intlmAtAly 
dependent  on  the  results  of  the  work  of  Lamarck.  In  other  worda, 
the  main  results  of  biology  up  to  the  early  years  of  this  century 
are  to  be  found  in,  or  spriug  out  of,  the  works  of  these  men. 

So,  if  I  mistake  not,  Strauss,  if  he  did  not  originate  the  idcA  of 
taking  the  mythopceic  faculty  into  account  in  the  development  of 
the  Gospel  narratives  ;  and,  though  ho  miiy  have  exaggerate^!  the 
influence  of  that  faculty,  obliged  scientific  theology  here-aftor  to 
take  that  element  into  serious  consideration ;  so  Baur,  in  giving 
prominence  to  the  cardinal  fact  of  the  divergence  of  the  NAzarcno 
and  Pauline  tendencies  in  the  primitive  Church  ;  bo  lleuss,  in  set- 
ting a  marvelous  example  of  the  cool  and  dispassionate  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  of  scientific  criticism  over  th--  "  '  "  1  <if 
Scripture;  so  Volkmar,  in  his  clear  iuid  forcible  fI  bo 

Nazarene  limitations  of  Jesus,  contributed  results  of  permaneDt 
value  in  scientific  the«jlogy.  I  took  these  names  aa  they  occurred 
to  me.  Undoubtedly,  I  might  have  advantageously  added  to 
them ;  perhaps  I  might  have  made  a  better  sdeciicm.  But  it 
really  is  absurd  to  try  to  make  out  that  I  did  not  know  *'  *  **'"ae 
writers  widely  disagree ;  and  I  believe  that  no  Bci«*nMftf  '  oi 

will  deny  that,  in  principle,  what  I  have  wiid  i  U 

Ecclesiastical  advocates,  of  c<''—      ">i\  not  1 
this  view  of  the  matter.    To  t '  m  m^rc 

in  1=0  far  oh  their  results  are  u-  iflfl 

have  to  support,  are  more  or  .    .  ifl 

fidoltty '- ;  and  the  only  thing  they  care  to  .•  ^| 

is  the  fact  that,  in  a  great  many  mattenii '  ^H 


! 


AGNOSTICISM  AND    CHRISTIANITY. 


47S 


'rom  one  another,  Bnd  thoreforo  can  easily  bo  exhibited  to  the 

)ublic,  OS  if  they  did  nothing  elso ;  as  if  any  one  "who  referred  to 
lem,  as  having  each  and  all  contributed  bis  share  to  the  results 

>f  theological  science,  was  merely  showing  his  ignorance ;  and,  as 
a  charge  of  inconsistency  could  be  based  on  the  fact  that  he 

limsolf  often  disagrees  with  what  they  say.  I  have  nerer  lent  a 
[shallow  of  foundation  to  the  assiuuption  that  I  am  a  follower  of 
either  Strauss,  or  Baur,  or  Reuss,  or  Volkmar,  or  Kenan  ;  my  debt 
[to  these  eminent  men — ao  far  my  superiors  in  theological  knowU 
U^ge — is,  indeed,  great;  yet  it  is  not  for  their  opinions,  but  for 
[those  I  have  been  able  to  form  for  myself,  by  their  help. 


h 
¥ 


In  "Agnosticism:  a  Rejoinder"  (p.  484)*  I  have  referred  to 
he  diflSculties  under  which  those  professors  of  the  science  of  the- 
ology, whose  tenure  of  their  posts  depends  on  the  results  of  their 
iuve«tigations,  must  labor  \  and,  in  a  note,  I  add : 

TiDAf^Do  tbat  nil  oar  obairs  of  astronomy  hnd  b€en  foaodcd  In  the  fonrtcooth 
CMltnry,  and  that  tUoir  incambents  were  bound  to  sign  Ptolemaio  articlea.  la 
that  oaflo,  with  crcry  rospuct  for  tho  efTorto  of  pentous  thus  hampered  to  attain 
and  expound  tho  truth,  I  tliink  meo  of  common  seziaa  wonld  go  elaewbore  to 
Jcaro  aatroaomy. 


I  did  not  write  this  paragraph  without  a  knowledge  that  its 
sense  would  be  open  to  the  kind  of  perversion  which  it  has  suf- 

■fered ;  but,  if  that  was  clear,  the  necessity  for  the  statement  was 

Hstill  clearer.    It  is  my  deliberate  opinion:  I  reiterate  it;  and  I  say 

Hthat,  in  my  judgment,  it  is  extremely  inexx)edient  that  any  subject 

Bwhich  calls  itself  a  science  should  be  intrusted  to  teachers  who 

Hare  debarred  from  freely  following  out  scientific  methods  to  their 

legitimate  conclusions,  wliat-over  those  conclusions  may  be.    If  I 

may  borrow  a  phnvse  paraded  at  the  Church  Congress,  I  think  it 

"ought  to  be  unpleasant "  for  any  man  of  science  to  find  himself 

Bin  the  position  of  such  a  teacher, 

^  Human  nature  is  not  altered  by  seating  it  in  a  professorial 
chair,  even  of  theology.  I  have  very  little  doubt  that  if,  in  the 
year  1859,  the  tenure  of  my  office  had  depended  upon  my  adher- 
ce  to  the  doctrines  of  Cuvier,  the  objections  to  those  set  forth 
the  "  Origin  of  Species "  would  have  had  a  halo  of  gravity 
t  them  that,  being  free  to  teach  what  I  pleased,  I  failed  to  dis- 
And,  in  making  that  statement,  it  does  not  appear  to  me 

I I  am  confessing  that  I  should  have  been  debarred  by  "selfish 
nteresta"  fr'  '  "        -undid  intiuiry,  or  that  I  should  have  been 

by"  ^^."    I  hope  that  even  such  a  fragment 

1  n  in  an  ecclesiastical  "infidel"  might 

t  :  i  li*'  <iiruculty  ;  but  it  would  be  unworthy  to 


Mobthlj  ■*  for  June,  1630,  p.  160. 


476 


THE  POPULAR  SCI£XCE  MO^^THLIT. 


leny  or  disguise  th»>  fact  that  a  very  Rorious  iliflicuHy  '  '>t'e 

)n  created  for  mo  by  tho  nature  of  my  tonure.    An  he 

observed  that  tho  tcmptationj  in  my  case,  would  have  been  far 

lighter  than  in  that  of  a  professor  of  thoologj';  wh;/       ;   liio 
logical  doctrine  I  had  repudiated,  nobody  I  cared  for  v  ,*vo 

tliought  the  worse  of  me  for  so  doing.  No  scientiiic  jouthaIb 
would  have  howled  me  down,  afl  the  religious  newspapers  howled 
down  ray  too  honest  friend,  the  late  Bishop  of  Natal ;  nor  would 
my  colleagues  in  the  Royal  Society  have  turned  their  backs  upon 
me,  as  his  episcojial  colleagues  boycotted  him, 

I  say  these  facts  are  obvious,  and  that  it  is  wholesome  and 
needful  that  they  should  be  stated.    It  is  in  the  inter  ■  he- 

ology,  if  it  he  a  science,  and  it  is  in  the  interests  of  thu  .  -  iicra 
of  theology  who  desire  to  be  something  better  than  connsel  for 
creeds,  that  it  should  bo  taken  to  heart.  The  seeker  '  'if-o- 
logical  truth,  and  that  only,  will  no  more  suppose  t  .»ve 

insulted  him  than,  tho  prisoner  who  works  in  fetters  will  try  to 
I)ick  a  quarrel  with  me,  if  I  suggest  that  he  would  get  on  better 
if  tho  fetters  were  knc»cked  o£E;  unless,  indee<i,  as  it  is  said  does 
happen  in  the  course  of  long  captivities,  that  the  victim  at  length 
coascs  to  feel  the  weight  of  his  chains  or  even  takes  to  hugging 
them,  as  if  they  were  honorable  omamenta.* — Nineteenth  Ceniury. 


LIFE  IN  THE  SOLOMON  ISLANDS.f 

Bt  C.  M,  WOODFORD. 

IN  October,  1885,  I  left  England  with  the  object  of  paying  ft 
visit  to  the  group  of  islands  known  as  the  "  Solomon  Islands,'* 
for  tho  i)urpose  of  making  coUectiona  of  the  fauna,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, penetrating  to  the  mountains  of  the  interior  of  Bomo  of  the 
irger  islands,  which  had  not  yet  been  visited  by  w*--*  -^  ■■'  -^•-     The 
blomon  Islands  are  a  group  lying  ubtrnt  five  h  to 

the  eastward  of  New  Guinea.    They  extend  f< 
in  a  northwest  and  soutlieast  direction,  and  u..  •  u 

the  parallels  of  h^  and  H*  south  latitude,  and  thu  m  '4* 

lo.    They  were  first   i 

t-.    .:, ; .,  who  gave  them  tlje  L 

Solomon,  in  order  tlmt  his  countrymen,  supposing  thorn  to  bo  tht 

•  To-dttj'fi  ** Times"  oontalna  a  trpart  of  t  rtnmricftblo  ipKci  V  rftftw  Bb«u«T«k.  (a 
which  lie  tnlti  tbir  Belctiotag  Out  hi- ha*  Jonr  ■'<-'":  •■"  !'-—■-  i"   *.....:»-.  .1..I1, 

doing  nhould  mitlciLd  hU  Ju'];n»<mi  In  hU  t 
tf«(d«ntiaB  piove  tlul  Uio  chancellor  «cciimv  S' 

U  not  rmtber  ahow  th&t,  erra  Id  draUng  y* 

f  Prom  ft  pftp«r  nad  bcforv  th«  fionl  Geograplii&il  ::^uac(v,  Mli di  .11,  ' 


LJFK  /iV   THE  SOLOMON  ISLANDS. 


InlnndK  w]u»iu:p  King  Solomon  got  his  gold,  might  he  induced  to 
colonize  them.    There  are  seven  principal  islandn  aiui  nunierouB 
tmaller  ones.     The  total  land  area  of  the  group  I  estimate  at 
Ifteeu  tliousand  square  miles,  or  considerably  more  than  twice 
;,he  area  of  Wales.     They  present  evidences  of  recent  volcauic 
rtivity.    The  island  of  Savo  was  an  active  volcano  at  the  time 
he  Spaniartis  discovered  the  group  in  15G7.    There  is  an  active 
[volcHuo  lu'ar  tht!  center  of  the  island  of  Bougainville  ;  hot  springs 
iftnd  sulphur  are  found  at  Savo,  8unbo,  and  Vella  Lavella,  while 
,Kulambiingnra  is  an  extinct  volcano.    During  my  residence  of  six 
Weeks  ftt  Alu  I  ex|K?ri«nced  frequent  shocks  of  earthquake,  but 
if  no  great  violence.    The  mountains  of  Bougainville  rise  to  a 
[ieight  of  10,000  feet,  and  those  of  the  other  large  islands  to  from 
3,000  to  6,00t^  fwt,  exce}>t  on  Ouadalcanar,  where  they  reach  an  ele- 
vation of  8,000  feet.     I  matle  three  attempts  to  reach  the  interior 
of  this  island,  but  was  prevent^id  by  the  hostility  of  the  mountain 
.tribes  and  the  timidity  of  my  guides.    The  highest  point  which  I 
iTi«*d  on  Giiadalcanar  was   l.UO  feet.     Tin  and  copper  have 
found  in  small  quiiutities  ou  the  island  of  San  Cristoval, 
while  I  myself  discovered  copper  on  the  island  of  Ouadalc-auar, 
,and  from  the  northwest  end  of  the  island  of  Malayta  I  obtained  a 
mineral  from  the  natives  which  proves  to  be  iron  pyrites.    The 
people  told  me  they  used  it  for  staining  their  teeth.    The  coast 
natives  buy  it  from  the  bushmen  in  bamboos,  at  the  fair  that 
Uikes  phice  on  the  coast  every  two  or  three  days.    The  islau-ls  are 
for  the  most  part  clothed  from  the  coast  to  the  mountain-tojis] 
with  the  densest  tropical  forest,  in  which  the  immense  iicus-treea,] 
of  several  species,  are  often  conspicuous  objt?cts,  their  trunks  cov-1 
ered  with  creepers  and  ferns ;  the  undergrowth  consisting  of  small 
palms  of  many  8i)ecie8,  among  which  and  over  the  trees  the  im- 
mensely long  rattans  or  climbing  canes  twine  in  and  out  in  inex- 
tricable confusion-     In  the  ueigliborhood  of  native  villages  the 
beach  will  be  found  fringed  with  cocoanut  palms,  but  my  observa- 
tion tends  to  prove  that  the  cocoanut  rarely  grows  unless  planted. 
I  know,  howitver,  that  this  is  opposed  to  the  opinions  of  some. 

I  [Mr.  Wo(Mlford  nuwlo  two  or  three  visits  to  the  Solomon  Islands, 
by  moans  of  the  schooners  engaged  in  recruiting  boys  to  work 
lapon  the  plantations  at  Fiji,  and  returning  them  to  their  homes, 
at  tlje  »fXpirution  of  their  terms  of  service  ;  and  by  traiiing-vesselal 
frora  Sydney.  It  i3  not  necessary  to  follow  the  author  in  the  de-| 
tails  of  his  journeying  from  jilaco  to  place,  and  of  bargaining!! 
with  the  natives.  We  present  th^  more  striking  incidents  of  life 
in- 

<lii..r  vf-.ti.Mi -ii  Pdi-iiin-i  ^.-^.i<■l.  '^  the  center  of  the 
ie;i  1  ishiud  occupied 

>y  ouo  .wfd  Ui  occupy  on  suffer- 


1       478                THE  POPULAli  SCIKNVE  MONTHLr.       ^^^H 

^^^ftiiceonly.    It  brlon^s  to  thn  nutive.sof  Si>^^                                      '^^^1 
^^Vbtt  they  utH*  it  for  their  cannibal  feasts,     1                                       '^'^l^l 
H      were  eaten  here  a  fortnight  before  my  visit.    From  here  we  wtailS 
H       to  a  town  calhxl  Oneavesi,  and  thence  cri)Sfsed  to  the  .m     **     '.indfl 
^^^of  Rubiana  proper,  where  we  foun<l  nearly  all  the  m**ii               n  aH 
^^Bibead-hnutlng  expedition  to  the  island  uf  Isabel.    1  heru  photo*fl 
^^^graphed  the  interior  of  a  tiimbu  house,  the  post  of  which  wasl 
H       carved  to  represent  a  rrf>codiIe.     Along  the  rafters  was  a  row  of fl 
H       heads.     I  also  took  a  photograph  of  a  collection  of  sacred  imag««,fl 
H       near  to  which  was  a  heap  uf  skuIU,  upon  every  one  of  which  !■ 

H       noti 
H      are 
H      aref 
H 

^^^■^ 
^^^fca8 

1 

PtQ,    1. -SaCUKU    tHAOK   AT    KmAKA, 

ced  the  mark  of  the  tomahawk.    Thpw>  r/illw?tton 

to  be  found  in  nearly  every  town  thi- 

jtrictly  tambn  (Fig.  1).    I  found  on^  ■* 

utfly  objected  to  my  pho^>trI'l^^hiI                                            ' 

'  at  all.     At  aiioiluir 

1  found  nearly  all  the 

a.    Tho  women  and 
I  lor  them  on  their  r^uiu.    At  LUe  px 

/esH 

LIFK  IN    THK  SOLOMON  ISLANDS, 


♦79 


tn  nnotlier  village  wo  visitt-d  there*  w*^re  tlvo  large  lioad-hunting 
iCUiioefiii  pnifuBeiy  ornam»*uted  and  inlaid  with  pearl-ishelL  The 
hoiiso  was  about  eighty  feet  long,  with  a  high-pitcheil  roof,  the  end 
"being  closed  in,  but  two  nari*ow  slits  being  loft  for  the  high  prows 
of  the  cunoes  to  pass  through  (Fig.  2).  In  this  house  there  were 
!  eight  hcmib ;  1  i*ccugnized  among  them  the  straight  hair  of  natives 


.^!^^ 


'» 


r'^' 


--'■■   .,.-^5^^?:^.  ■ ,. 


Fid.  1.— HKAi>-HinrTiira  Carob  um  c*NnK.HorHK  at  HtmuKA. 

of  the  Lord  Howe's  group,  and  was  told  that  a  year  or  so  previous- 
ly a  canoe  containing  sixteen  of  them  had  been  driven  from  Lord 
Howe's  group  to  Laibel,  whore  tliey  have  been  caught  from  time 
to  time  by  the  head-hunters.  In  another  canoe-huuae  in  the  same 
tuwii  I  counted  thirteen  heads.  After  some  pereuasion  they  car- 
ried out  the  largest  canoe  for  me  to  photograph.  The  Hubiaua 
tnon  reiunied  next  day  from  Isabel  with  K\^  heads,  from  t^iree 
'luen  and  two  women  ;  they  also  brought  five  prisoners  alive. 
During  the  fortjiiglit  that  I  spent  in  the  lagoon  I  heard  of  no 
|leH8  than  thirty-one  heads  being  brought  home,  as  follows:  Ru- 
biaiifl  %nllage,  five ;  Siasieta,  six;  Kokorapa,  three;  Lokorokongo, 
•ventolin. 
I,f(''  spent  a  fortnight  at  this  place;  and  hav- 

'""  '^'"  *   iT,,;,,...!  Om.  confidence  of  the  two  chiefs 

w  I  went  frequently  ashore  at 

the  inauguration  of  u  large 

J,  (iiOii,  the  ceremony  t-aldng 

town,     I  wft:*  assigned  a  neat 

1^1  word  tho  eight  heads  pre- 


480 


m 


TUE  POPULAR  SCtEXCS  M02i'TBLT. 


viously  inentioneiK    The  trough  was  alwrnt  fV  ' 

carvud  to  represent  a  crocodile.    Twenty-two  n    ; 
eac'h  side  of  the  trough,  and  an  old  man  at  either  end. 
all  their  ornaments  on,  and  wore  their  shields  oviir  t ' 
while  their  spears  and  tomahawks  were  cloee  hehii; 
focxl,  consisting  of  taro,  yams,  and  nuts,  was  phu;ed  in  the  trough, 
d  the  men  sat  ready.    An  ohl  man  in  full  fighting  rig  wa^*  then 

n  advancing  toward  the  house.  Walking  up  to  the  entrance,  h« 
suddenly  starteil  back  and  i*aised  his  spear,  exclaiming, "  Basiot^o !" 
("  A  crocodile  I ")  and  standing  on  the  defensive.  Lngova  then  ad- 
vanced from  the  interior  of  the  house,  and,  placing  out*  hand  on 
the  crocodile's  head,  began  a  sj)eech  which  In.sted  about  tiin  min- 
utes. At  a  given  signal  the  men  began  pounding  the  food,  all  of 
them  keeping  excellent  time.  When  they  got  tired  or  hot  they 
were  relieved  by  others,  and  the  po\mding  was  continue*!  for  over 
half  an  hour.  I  was  then  asked  to  go,  and.  not  wirihins  to  utTend 
them,  I  did  so, 

[On  another  occasion  the  author  had  walked  with  som*.'  iiunv^^ 
from  Aola,  on  tin*  coast  of  Guudalcanar,  to  a  town  called  KoLum, 
tuated  on  the  river  of  that  name,  awl  about  four  miles  inland.] 
-While  walking  along  the  river-bank  with  my  men  we  heard  a 
number  of  natives  apj)roaching,  shouting  and  making  a  gn^t 
noise.  I  was  told  they  were  coast  natives  returning  from  a  raid 
upon  a  mountain  to^vn,  My  men  all  Htood  on  the  defensive  wilh 
their  spe^irs  re^ady  [loised,  ami  I  got  my  revolver  reiwly,  but  they 
proved  to  bo  friends.  They  were  very  proud  of  tlieir  victory, 
and  told  me  that  they  had  killed  one  man  and  got  one  alive,  I 
saw  the  dead  nmn's  hand  and  a  piece  of  flesh  carried  in  triumph 
by  one  of  them  on  liis  sijear.    I  did  not  w.^e  the  pri^-  ]  I  was 

glad  to  hear  afterward  that  he  had  escaped.     It  is  t  >n8tant 

raids  of  the  coast  natives  upon  the  bufibmen,  and  n^talifttory  on« 
on  the  part  of  the  buahraen  upon  the  *'■  '     ■    :       '    -•  il 

dilKcnlt  and  dangerous  to  penetrate  ai!;  '>r. 

I  had  been  over  three  months  at  Aola  before  1  could  induce  tho 
natives  to  accompany  me  into  tho  interior,  during  wbich.  timo 
I  ha<l  surveyed  all  the  lower  coast  of  the  rivers  in  tho  neighbor- 
hooil. 

[A  typical  illustration  of  the  vegetation  of  the  ifllnr-^- 
nished  in  the  picture  of  the  sago  palms  (Fig.  3)  on  the  i ; 
Hiver,  u  stream  which  runs  down  from  the  m** 

nor.)     The  vegetation  [the  author  says]  in  hti 

and  composed  of  lari;e  ficmi  and  other  larffe  forest  tree«.  with  000»- 
iei>  '  and  nr-  ""■ 

I     _  ..  :    .   invi  surves  •     _   _    _ 

of  which  it  rami  through  a  rich  alluvial  flat»  deniMdy  v 

[Valemaoga^  where  the  author  ift-opptsd  In  an  aiU*m|'i  \>j  mi 


liO 

.at, 


LIFE  IN   THE  SOLOMOX  ISLANDS, 


mt  of  Mouut  Viitupusau  (4,360  feet  high),  was  situated  at 
;ht  of  8CK)  feet  on  the  top  of  a  narrow  ridge,  sloping  ab- 
iptly  down  on  the  eastern  and  western  sides],  and  was  sur- 
Irouuded  with  a  st<x"kade  about  seven  feet  high,  with  a  narrow  open- 
ing, closed  at  night,  througli  which  we  squeezed  one  by  one.     In 


yu.  S.— Saoo  pAUii  AXD  NcT*— Vurw  on  rnit  BoKORnuo  Rirvu.  Ot-AHiXCAiriB. 

weak  places,  sharpened  bamboos  were  stuck  in  the  ground  on  the 

rinside  of  the  fence  to  transfix  any  one  breaking  through.    Walk- 

[ing  into  the  center  of  the  town,  I  inquired  for  the  hea<l  man,  and 

'^hen  ho  appeared  I  held  out  my  hand  to  him,  which  he  took,  and 

[then  he  put  his  arms  round  me  and  embraced  me.    The  settlement 

ronsist^Ki  of  ten  or  a  dozen  houses  and  thirty  inhabitants.  ...  At 

iusk  we  were  conducted  to  a  perfectly  clean  new  house,  with,  as 

I,  the  bare  ground  fur  flottr.  and  were  sup])lied  with  cooked 

IS.    After  we  iind  finished  our  meal,  the  whole  town  crowded* 

into  the  house,  and  my  men  sang  a  song,  ami  when  they  had  fin- 

IL<ihed  the  women  of  the  *   " -  -  ■ 

the  midst'  of  the  perfoi 

tprang  to  his  fti«jt, auil,  uiU^r  «»  shun  bi 


.*■  *i. 


THE  POPULAR   SVFEN^VE  MOyTHLY, 


mun  *if  the  iriwn  with  three  or  four  s^tickH  of  t<)l)ac<!0.  I  had  noT 
intended  to  make  my  present  before  morning ;  but,  as  I  thought 
the  opportunity  a  good  one,  I  gave  Beta  an  axe,  a  knife,  and  fiomf» 
pipes,  niatche.s,  and  a  quantity  nf  Tohncoo,  and  told  him  t-o  pref«eut 
tbem  with  a  suitable  speech.  Sliortly  jifttTward  one  of  tlio  initn 
of  the  town,  stood  up,  and,  leaning  his  two  hands  upon  his  totnik* 
hawk,  roturue*!  thanks.  Each  man  beforerounumcinghiKHix'^jch 
gave  a  .shrill  stM'eain,  I  suppose  to  attnict  attention,  but  lht»  ring- 
ing went  on  all  the  time,  [A  few  days  after  this,  eleven  naUreSr 
consisting  of  six  men,  throe  women,  tw^o  little  girls,  and  a  bahy> 
arrived  at  Aola,  being  the  sole  survivors  out  of  the  thirty  iulu»hil- 
ants.  The  t^wn  had  been  attacked  at  ilaylight  two  days  after  the 
author's  visit,  and  the  old  chief,  Tambougi,  who  had  given  the 
traveler  the  affortionate  embrace,  was  among  tlie  killed.) 

Natives  of  different  parts  of  the  group  differ  considerably  fn«n 
one  another,  but  they  belong  to  the  Melanesiau  or  Papuan  type;. 
The  natives  of  Buka  and  Bougainville  and  of  the  islands  of  Bou- 
gainville Straits  and  of  Choiseul  are  i'  black  in  color,  but 

as  one  journeys  e-astward  the  color  ■ :-^—  to  a  dai'k  brown- 

They  have  woolly  hair,  but  occasionally  natives  are  mot  with  wavy 
and  in  sf>nio  cases  straight  hair.  Tlie  men  wear  no  .  '  ^  '  nd 
the  T-banduge  usually  met  with  among  savage  >  i"©- 

quently  men  are  seen  without  even  thia  Tlie  natives  of  Alu,  how- 
ever, wear  a  small  piece  of  calico  round  the  wiiist.  Oii  "'  ''n^- 
toval  and  the  more  eastern  islands  the  women  wear  a  sij  I'hJ 

square  of  grass  fiber,  about  six  inches  by  fonr»  which  is  suspcaidDd 
rouml  the  waist  by  a  string  and  hangs  down  the  front.  Upon 
Mala^-ta  they  wear  the  8a^^e,  but  one  fiequently  sees  women  with- 
out even  this.  On  Guiidalcanar  the  women  wear  a  series  ijf 
fringes,  one  over  the  other,  made  out  of  some  vegetable  fiber  r^- 
sfmibling  hemp.  For  working  in  they  wear  a  similar  fringts  made 
^ut  i»f  a  shredded  banana-leaf.     The  <lre8s  of  the  w  hi. 

*na  and  the  neighboring  district  wasdeclare*!  by  C;  i  ^  iie, 

who  visitM  the  islands  in  18443,  to  bo  indescribable.  At  Ala  Ihe 
women  wore  pieces  of  calico  Inrnght  fr<jni  the  fi     '  "''"«d 

Solomon  natives  are  not  so  addicted  to  the  pnu'ti  \u^ 

OS  the  lighter-colored  Polynesians,  probably  beo4iut»o  the  pottern 
Wuuld  not  show  so  conspicuously  upon  their  dusky    '  '    *^' 

Cristoval,  however,  both   men  and  wt^men  havn 
face  cut  all  over  with  a  pattent  of  chevroii 
and  on  Gnarlaloanar  the  same  pr.!**  '        'i 
torn  takes  the  form  of  small  circlt 
enwl  bi>no  from  the  wiT»gt>f  the 
with  the  wige  sh 


J(VI"*»M 


,1       TV 


one,  ail 


one*  sitting,  ts  a  pj< 

paid  for  his  trouble,  tatiooiug  Utiug  a  proi 


LIFE  ly  THE  SOLOJfO.r  fSLA^'DS, 


48J 


y  of  tbew.'  natives  pierco  aud  gradually  distend  the  Kibe 
of  tlia  etir,  and  enlarge  it  by  degrees  until  at  lengtk  it  attains  au 
euormooB  size.    On  San  CristoTal  a  circular  disk  of  soft,  whita 


484 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


A  huop,  ttiid,  by  (Miastautlj'  exertiut;-  a  prossure,  tended  to  e]ila|^| 
She  bole,  A  b*jy,  whose  photograph  I  took  at  Rubiaua,  hnd  fll 
bole  in  his  ears  enlarged  to  a  diameter  of  at  least  four  inche& 
They  are  excessively  fond  of  and  prize  highh'  armlete  made  from 
the  shell  of  the  giant  clam  {Tridacna  gigtus).  A  native  chief, 
whom  I  saw  at  Santa  Anna  with  a  remarkably  fine  pair,  told  me 
he  bad  giveu  a  boy  for  each.  At  Quadalcanar,  Rubiann,  and  tu 
the  westward  they  take  rather  the  form  of  bangl»\s,  an<i  a,s  many 
as  eiglit  or  ten  are  frequently  worn  on  each  arm.  Large  crtsiscentit 
cut  out  of  pearl-shell  are  frequently  worn  round  the  n»Tk,  and, 
especially  on  Malayta,  frontlets  of  a  white  cowry.  Perhaps,  how- 
ever, the  ornament  most  highly  prized  is  a  necklace  of  ■■  'h. 

A  good  necklace  will  consist  of  live  hundred  teeth,  eacL :.  mg 

carefully  bored  and  mounted  with  great  ingenuity.  As  only  two 
tfH:*th  are  available  from  each  dog,  it  wouhi  require  two  buiidrL*d 
and  fifty  dogs  to  make  a  necklace  sudi  as  I  refer  to.  On  San 
Cristoval,  where  most  of  the  dogs*  teeth  come  from,  I  am  told 
that  they  extract  the  teeth  from  live  dogs,  burying  1^  to 

the  neck  in  the  ground  for  the  purpose.    Porpoisw  t^  1  us 

teeth,  and  the  teeth  of  the  flying  fox  are  also  used,  but  are  not  so 
highly  valued  as  dogs'  teeth. 

The  natives  of  Rubiaua  and  New  Georgia  also  wear  n  nock 
ornament  known  by  them  as  a  bucl'ea.  This  is  a  ring  cut  from 
the  solid  shell  of  the  Tridacna  yt'gas,  and  suspended  round  the 
neck  by  a  sort  of  plaited  refl  straw.  The  buckea  is  more  highly 
prized  if  it  possesses  a  peculiar  yellow  stain,  and  I  am  told  that 
the  best  are  made  from  shf^lls  that  are  found  as  fossils  in  the  buah 
in  regions  of  coral  upheaval. 

I  must  not  forget  to  mention  the  strings  of  bea<l-m<'f  ■•r* 

ally  about  a  fathom  in  length,  which  are  nuule  froui  ^1 -he 

expense  of  groat  labor.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  red  and  white,  the  red 
beiup  more  hit^hly  prized  by  them. 

Tlieir  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  clubs,  tomahawks, 
and  defensive  shields.  But,  while  the  natives  of  San  Cri^toval 
and  Malayta  use  the  arrow,  spear,  and  tomahawk,  I  never  saw  tm 
GumbUcanar  any  arrows  or  lx>ws  except  those  usivl  for  bird^houi- 
ing.  At  Rubiaua  and  New  Qeoigia  nho  arrows  are  not  u^e^l,  tho 
tomahawk  and  8i>ear  being  preferred.  But  it  is  on  BougainvUhf 
that  the  finest  specimens  of  arrows  and  spt^ars  are  found.  In  facl^ 
tlie  latter,  Imrbt^l  with  the  wing-bones  of  the  ilyiug  fox,  ufv 
eagerly  stmght  after  and  bought  by  the  natives  of  the  more  east- 
ern islands^  the  Alu  natives  pa\dng  two  or  three  vi^dtja  a  year  to 
.P  vilb*  for  the  jmrpose  of  buying  -• 

n,  V   tluiii.'.-*    ill    Un-   iiuiiiur.'n'tiii'f  iif  V  ,_^ 

natives  excel.  H 

k     Perhaps  the  tUuig  lUiU  mua»l  btniceti  a  tilrang*!-  vi^tUn^  ttST 


rJV  THE  SOI 


'Otip  \s  the  beauty  of  shape  and  decoration  of  the  canoes.    These 

'•ary  in  size  from  the  tiny  thing  just  able  to  support  a  boy  of 

.welve,  to  the  great  head-hunting  canoes,  capable  of  carrj'ing  fifty 

)r  sixty  men.    They  are  built  of  planks  lal)oriously  adzed  down 

from  the  solid  tree,  and  are  sewn  together  with  a  tough  vegetable 

fiber,  the  seams  being  calked  with  a  sort  of  putty  scraped  from 

Pthe  kernel  of  a  nut  (Parinarimn  Uivrinum)  that  grows  plentifully 
in  the  bush.  This  vegetable  putty  sets  perfectly  hard  in  a  few 
hours  and  is  quite  water-tight.  The  canoes  are  ornamented  ex- 
■  toriorly  at  bow  and  stem  with  whit-e  cowry  shells  and  inlaid  with 
™  pieces  of  pearl-shell  cut  into  patterns,  and  at  the  bow  end,  just 
above  the  water-line,  is  often  a  small  human-shaped  figure-head. 

■  These  canoes  are  propelled  solely  by  i>addle8»  being  unadapted  to 
sailing,  and,  being  long,  narrow,  and  light  for  their  size,  they  travel 
at  a  great  rate. 
H        Except  perhaps  on  Bougainville,  the  use  of  stone  implements 
Hhas  gone  out  among  these  natives,  but  while  at  Guadalcanar  I  ob- 
Htained  more  than  two  himdred  stone  adzes.    These  were  brought 
H  Jne  by  the  natives,  and  were  for  the  most  part  dug  up  by  boys 
Bupon  the  sites  of  old  houses.    I  asked  an  old  man  to  mount  me 
one  upon  a  wooden  handle  in  the  correct  way.    The  same  form  of 
handle  is  still  us»il,  but  a  plane-iron  is  now  employed  instead  of 
the  stone  axe.    With  these  they  cat  out  their  canoe-planks  and 

I  fashion  the  wooden  bowls  in  which  they  serve  their  food. 
The  houses  vary  in  shape  somewhat  in  different  parts  of  the 
group,  and  in  Florida  and  Fauro  houses  built  on  posts  may  be 
seen.  On  Guadalcanar  the  eaves  of  the  roof  come  right  down  to 
the  ground.  The  material  is  always  the  same,  the  leaf  of  the  sago 
j»alm,  which  makes  a  durable  and  dry  roof.  There  is  no  floor  but 
the  bare  ground^  but  rough  couches  are  made  of  palm-stema  laid 
eide  by  side,  and  raised  from  a  few  inches  to  a  couple  of  feet  from 
the  ground.  They  are  most  uncomfortable  to  sleep  upon,  being 
very  hard  and  rough  and  invariably  too  short.  A  fireplace  is 
made  in  the  center  of  the  house,  and  the  smoke  finds  its  way 

Pout  through  the  door,  or  through  the  roof  or  sides  of  the  houseu 
Strings  of  pigs'  jaw-bones,  cuscus  and  flying-fox  skulls,  fished 
bones,  turtles'  heads,  and  sometimes  human  jaw-bones  may  be 
seen  strung  on  strings  along  the  rafters  as  mementoes  of  former 
feasts ;  but  the  hunian  heads,  at  least  in  the  head-hunting  districts, 
are  reserved  for  the  canoe-housea.  These  are  larger  and  better 
built  than  the  ordinary  dwelling-houses,  and  are  tamhu  (tabooed) 
[for  women — i.  e.,  a  woman  is  not  allowed  to  enter  them,  or  indeed 
pass  in  front  of  them. 

Both  men  and  women  take  their  parts  in  the  gardens ;  felling 
te  trees  and  fen«Mng  against  wild  pigs  being  men's  work,  while 
le  actual  pi  —planting,  weeding,  and  digging— is  done  by 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  2iO, 


iibe  women.  Having  few  wants,  blest  with,  a  climate  in  which  the 
Tudest  methods  of  cultivation  produce  abundance  of  fot>d  for  their 
use,  they  ought  to  be  a  happy  and  contentod  race,  and  no  doubt, 
iprere  security  to  life  more  assured,  they  would  be.  But  a  man 
^ould  as  soon  think  of  going  to  his  garden  of  a  morning  without 
his  spear  and  tomahawk  as  an  Englishman  would  of  wearinfr  his 
hat  in  church.    The  greatest  distinction  a  native  cau  to 

have  taken  a  life^  and  it  matters  not  whether  it  id  an  i  mih 

surprised  working  in  her  yam-patch,  or  a  mau  surprised  and  killed 
in  the  busli,  the  glory  is  just  as  great.  Such  a  thing  as  a  square, 
stand-up  fight  between  equal  numbers  I  never  heard  of.  This 
renders  them  suspicious  in  the  presence  of  strangers ;  always 
ready  for  treachery  themselves,  they  are  constantly  suspecting  it 
in  others.  Having  given  them  a  had  character  in  their  dealings 
with  one  another,  I  must  in  justice  say  that  my  own  relations  with 
them  were  throughout  of  the  most  friendly  character. 

The  shark  is  held  in  high  veneration  among  certain  of  then 
natives,  and  notably  upon  the  island  of  Save,  The  Savo  nntivM 
say  that  their  island  was  made  by  the  shark,  who  carried  the  stontt 
there  and  planted  yams  and  cocoanuts,  and  put  upon  it  men  and 
women,  and  the  bird  known  as  the  megapode.  The  megapode* 
increased  so  rapidly  that  they  began  to  make  havoc  by  digging  in 
the  yam-patches.  The  men  went  to  the  shark  and  asked  him  to 
[jiake  the  megapodes  away.  This  was  done,  but  now  tho  m^ 
nissed  the  megapode's  eggs,  which  are  a  favorite  article  of  food 
with  them.  They  accordingly  went  again  to  tho  shark  and  asked 
iiim  to  bring  the  birds  bat^k,  but  to  confine  them  to  one  plnw. 
pThis  request  was  also  complied  with.  The  result  may  bo  now 
seen :  the  megapodes  lay  their  eggs  on  two  large  open  patches  of 
sandy  ground,  which  are  several  acres  in  extent,  and  nowhere  eke 
on  the  island.  These  laying-grounds  are  fenced  off  into  small 
divisions  for  different  owners,  and  I  am  told  that  sovonil  thousands 
a  day  are  taken  out  of  them,  I  myself  bought  eighteen  e;ggs  for 
the  value  of  three-halfpence  when  calling  there. 

The  sharks  at  Savo  grow  to  a  great  size  and  are  extreoMly 
bold.  At  the  time  of  a  child's  birth  the  mother  ddcides  whether 
it  belongs  to  the  land  or  the  water.  If  to  tho  latter,  it  is  thrown 
into  the  sea  at  death,  with  all  the  property  it  may  have  aocunm* 
lated  during  life.  If  the  mother  declares  it  belongs  to  the  land* 
it  is  buried  ashore,  tho  property  also  being  buried  with  it,  which« 
strange  to  say,  is  always  found  to  have  been  stolen  a  few  days 
afterward  by  the  rfrinZ. 

These  natives  believe  in  the  power  of  t  to 

produce  rain,  while  I  met  with  a  belief  in  ;..-.  '"^ 

in  tho  moon,  which  was  related  to  me  by  a  nat 
Marl  Lau,  ^ 


1 
I 


LIFE  nr  THE  SOLOJfOI^  ISLAITDS. 


487 


1  can  not  conclude  my  description  of  the  natives  and  ilieir  ens- 
Tritliout  some  reference  to  cannibalism  and  head-hunting.  I 
ly  state  that  very  few  whito  men  have  ever  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  see  a  cannibal  feast^  as  the  natives,  knowing  the  detesta- 
tion in  which  the  practice  is  held  by  white  men,  always  keep  the 
occurrence  as  quiet  as  possible.  On  one  occasion  only  did  I  ever 
see  human  flesh,  and  the  owner  assured  mo  he  was  not  going  to 
cat  it.  I  never  heard  of  cannibalism  the  whole  (six  months)  time 
I  was  living  at  Aola  on  Guadalcauar,  and  the  natives,  in  answer 
to  my  inquiries,  most  strenuously  denied  the  practice,  but  this,  of 
course,  they  would  do.  On  San  Cristovol  it  is  said  to  bo  common, 
and  bodies  are  hawked  about  for  sale  from  town  to  town,  an( 
the  same  is  the  case  on  Malayta.  The  head-hunters  of  New  Geor- 
gia and  the  neighboring  islands  are  also  notorious  cannibals,  while 
my  own  boy,  Hogare,  who  was  a  native  of  the  island  of  Buka, 
confessed  to  me  that  the  practice  was  common  there.  Not  only, 
will  the  New  Georgian  natives  eat  the  bodies  of  those  killed  in  bat- 
tle, or  prisoners,  but  they  will  exhume  the  bodies  of  people  re- 
cently buried  for  their  disgusting  purpose. 

Throughout  the  group  one  constantly  sees  human  skulls  hung 
up  either  in  or  outside  the  houses,  but  it  is  from  New  Georgia  and 
the  adjacent  islands  that  head-hunting  is  carried  on  to  its  fullest 
extent.  Among  these  natives  it  appears  to  be  a  perfect  passion. 
No  canoe-house  can  be  completed  and  no  canoe  launched  without  a 
head  being  obtained.  They  make  long  voyages  in  their  large  ioma- 
1co9,  or  head-hunting  canoes,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  heads, 
the  chief  hunting-ground  at  the  present  time  being  the  two  islands 
Choiseul  and  Isabel,  ninety  to  one  hundred  miles  away,  which, 
»ver,  are  becoming  somewhat  "worked  out,"  The  basest 
is  often  employed.  They  will  at  times  visit  a  village  as 
and,  after  staying  for  a  day  or  two,  at  a  given  signal  turn 
upon  their  hosts,  and  either  kill  them  or  take  them  alive.  Such  a 
occurred  while  I  was  at  Rubiana.  At  other  times  they  will 
(rise  or  cut  off  a  party  fisliing  on  the  reef,  and  no  matter 
^■whether  they  are  men,  women,  or  children,  the  heads  count.  The 
heads,  after  being  slightly  smoked,  are  stuck  up  along  the  rafters 
of  the  roof  in  the  canoe-houses,  and  I  have  myself  counted  thir- 
teen recent  heads  in  a  house  at  Sisieta.  Occasionally  the  head- 
[huntora  themselves  meet  with  reverses;  and  while  at  Hubiana  I 
[inquired  the  reason  of  some  particularly  fine  cocoanut-troes  hav- 
■  vn  ;  I  was  told  that  it  was  in  consequciicf*  of  the 
f  who  was  killed  on  a  head-hunting  expedition  to 
IsaboL 


m 


THE  POPULAR  SOIEyCE  MONTHLY. 


^P  "SCIENTIFIC  CHARITY." 

I  Br  A.  Q.  WAENER,  Ph.  D. 

IN  1844  C.  C.  Greville  made  this  entry  in  his  journal :  "  Wo 
now  overrun  with  philanthropy,  and  God  only  knows  where 
it  will  stop,  or  whitlier  it  will  lead  us!"  When  ho  wrote  these 
words  ho  was  appalled  lest  the  malign  influence  of  philanthropy 
should  avail  to  secure  additional  legislation  for  tlie  pixitootioa  of 
women  and  children  in  the  mines  and  factories  of  England. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  the  F^  •  hi- 

lanthropists  and  the  English  economists  joints!  iijsu',   .  .^ .'jly 

npon  two  great  questions,  and  the  victor  in  one  ca£e  was  van* 
quashed  in  the  other:  the  economists  won  in  the  fight  for  the 
reform  of  the  poor-laws,  the  philanthropists  in  the  fight  for  fac- 
tory legislation.  Of  course,  no  sharp  line  of  distinction  can  be 
drawn  between  the  two  classes  thus  labeled,  but  in  the  main  it  Is 
true  that  the  apostles  of  self-sacrifice  were  on  one  side  and  the 
apostles  of  self-interest  on  the  other.  Especially  in  the  struggle 
for  factory  legislation  were  the  two  classes  distinct,  and  distinctly 
antagonistic.  Cobdon  doubted  the  sincerity  of  Shaftesbury,  and 
Shaftesbury  rejected  the  reasoning  of  Cobden.     Results  have 

indicated  that 

"  Each  was  partly  in  tho  rif^ht, 
And  both  were  ia  Ihe  wrong." 

While  political  economy  was  getting  itself  called  tho" diamal 
science/'  it  was  actually  fighting  the  battles  of  the  poor  as  well  M 
the  rich ;  and  while  philanthropy  was  being  charged  with  a  mis- 
chievous meddlesomeness^  hurtful  to  the  ]Kx>r  and  fatal  to  tbo 
industrial  supremacy  of  England,  it  was^  in  truth,  cutting  tbo 
tap-root  of  the  Chartist  agitation  and  re-establishing  the  founda- 
tions of  British  industry.  From  those  dual  experiences  of  success 
and  failure  in  the  attempted  solution  of  social  problems  tho 
^bvious  conduKion  has  bi*en  that  neither  class  of  thinkers  can  bo 
regarded  as  infallible,  while  at  the  same  time  tho  conclusionft  of 
neither  can  be  considered  valueless. 

The  conclusion  is  commoui)lace  enough,  but  th'  ii- 

ure  of  the  case  is  tluit  both  parties  seem  to  \iu  W 

entire.    All  are  pretty  well  agreed  that  both  senst  nX 

are  necessary  to  guide  us  properly  along  th^    *  ' 

politico-economic   investigation.      He  who  «i 
question  from  the  side  exclusively  of  the  i  J 

tho  emotions,  is  apt,  like  the  blind  man  ft  fl 

mistake  a  part  for  the  whole,  and  to  err  i  ^^| 

qaenco  of  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  necesbity  :  f^| 


^SCTEXTIFIC  CffARirr" 


4»9 


J.  I 


Investigation  of  social  questions^  we  have  lately  come  to  hear  of  a 
**  nexv  y)olitical  economy/'  and  very  lately  of  a  "  now  charity." 
The  former  is  said  to  be  less  "  dismal "  and  the  latter  more  "  sci- 
ntidc^'  than  their  respective  progenitors,  and  it  is  hoped  that  a 
utual  exchange  of  the  surest  conclusions  and  the  best  methods 
in  each  will  result  in  the  improvement  of  both. 

The  title  of  this  paper  has  been  put  in  quotation-marks  be- 

auso  it  is  believed  by  some  that  no  such  thing  as  "scientific 

hariiy  "  exists,  and^  when  these  two  words  are  joined,  that  either 

he  adjective  or  the  substantive  or  both  must  lose  all  natural  sig- 

cance.    They  say  that  those  interested  in  science  and  those  in- 

erosted  in  charity  have  an  equal  right  to  complain  of  the  phrase, 

and  that  its  use  is  only  another  instance  of  the  confuse<l  thinking 

that  results  from  a  tendency  to  count  our  sciences  before  they  are 

Latched.    But  right  or  wrong  the  term  exists,  and  will  serve  as 

[well  as  another  to  stand  for  a  certain  phase  of  recent  charitable 

ork.     It  has  come  to  be  much  used  by  the  members  of  the 

ational  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction;  and  it  seems 

ulikely  that  one  more  profanation  of  the  word  "  science "  can 

Id  much  to  the  exasperation  of  those  who  contend  for  its  more 

stricted  application. 

Social  pathology  is  not  an  attractive  study.    The  failure  of  the 

unfit  to  survive  forms  the  subject  of  the  dreariest  chapter  in 

ocial  science.    Indeed,  it  is  so  entirely  dreary  that  it  is  seldom 

tton.    Those  calling  themselves  scientists  have  been  very  will- 

g  to  leave  the  care  of  defectives  and  incapables  to  the  philan- 

hropists,  and  tHpially  willing  to  complain  of  the  latter  for  alleged 

ad  management.    Those  interested  in  the  new  charity  are  en- 

eavoring  to  devise  such  methods  of  work  as  will  make  benevo- 

wnce  more  certainly  l>eneficent,  and  such  methods  of  investigation 

1  will  enable  them  to  give  at  least  an  approximate  answer  to 

reville's  question,  "  Whither  will  philanthropy  lead  us  ?  "    Cer- 

y  in  the  past  it  has  led  to  many  quagmires,  and  much  has 

been  and  still  more  could  be  written  on  the  subject  of  philanthropy 

aa  a  failure. 

I  "We  can  have  as  many  paupers  as  we  will  pay  for."  The 
kruth  of  this  somewhat  frequently  quoted  statement  one  might 
■■nbly  reach  by  a  study  of  his  own  inner  consciousness.  Such 
^Ridy  woul<i  show,  probably,  the  truth  of  Emerson's  assertion 
that  **  men  are  ae  lazy  as  they  dare  to  be,"  and  thence,  by  deduct- 
^■ftMMoning^  we  might  tnesa  of  the  conclusion 

Hnated*    But  the  new  i   ^  :^y  is  inclined  to  ask  that 

■  priori  re^Boai'  i  be  reinforced  by  reasoning  from  ob- 

I         '  "    '       "'  '  '       i  ^  Mg  to  eetab- 

1^-   !  —  •  apparatus 

■HKi  lorcly  of  a  pocketful  of  five- 


490 


TBE  POPULAR  SCIE^CS  MONTHLY 


cent  pieces.  Provided  witli  these,  go  to  any  crowded  thorou^^' 
farOj  and  givo  thom  out  to  the  childron  or  others  that  ask  f  *  ' 
— perhaps  under  pretense  of  peddling.  Notice  how  the  .. 
of  askers  multiplies — how  older  children  and  better-drossod  chiln 
dron  take  part  in  the  asking — and  you  will  realize  that,  if  rour 
pocket  were  big  enough,  you  could  pauperize  half  the  city.  TIw 
same  experiment  may  be  tried  by  simply  giving  a  little  money  tot 
each  one  that  chooses  to  ring  your  door-bell  and  ask  for  it*  Itt 
may  almost  be  considered  fortunate  that  a  great  nation  was  mI 
unfortunate  as  to  try  just  such  exi)eriment.3  on  a  gigantic  scale. 
Wallcer  thus  summarizus  the  influence  of  Eagllsh  outiloor  poor 
relief  while  tho  GillH^rt  Act  was  in  force:  *'Tho  dlspt^ition  td 
labor  was  cut  up  by  tlio  roots;  all  restraints  upon  an  incrcaso  of 
population  disappeared  under  a  premium  upon  births;  self-respect 
and  social  decency  vanished  before  a  mouoy-pi*umium  on  bas- 
tardy." Cities  in  our  own  country — notably  Brooklyn  and  Phila- 
delphia— have  found  that,  when  public  outdo*>r  relief,  given 
prodigally  for  a  long  series  of  years,  was  cut  short  off,  the  number 
of  indoor  poor  actually  decreased,  as  also  tho  demands  upon  tho 
private  charities  of  the  cities,  and  this  in  the  face  of  an  inoreaftlng 
population. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  new  or  scientific  charity  as  opposed 
to  purely  emotional  philanthropy  that  it  regards  poverty  as  an 
evil  to  be  assailed  in  its  causes.  It  does  not  merely  pity  poverty, 
but  studies  it.  It  believes  that  a  doctor  might  as  well  givo  pUls 
without  a  diagnosis,  as  a  benevolent  man  give  alma  without  an 
investigation.  It  insists  that  "hell  is  paved  with  good  inten- 
tions,'' and  that  tho  philanthropist  mutit  bo  careful  at;  woll  as 
kindly. 

Mr.  Smiley,  in  his  recent  article  in  "The   i*"i)uiar  dci^H 
Monthly"  on  **  Altruism  economically  considered,"  says  but^^ 
tlo  of  this  more  rational  jihiiae  of  charitable  work.    The  evil«  bo 
condemns  are  very  e\nl,  but  others  are  attacking  them  a«  '  ■•  - 
oudly  as  himself,  and  possibly  along  Iin^?*!  of  ^n^ixU-x  ft 
advantage.    To  prostKnitc  existing  cl  bfl 

of  true  charity  is  apt  to  have  more  \ '  S 

raign  the  same  culprits  at  the  bar  of  political  H 

Most  of  the  workers  in  tho  new  ( '  i^| 

entered  more  or  less  fully  into  the  m-       .   .  >^| 

as  "charity  organization,*'    Speaking  broatlly,  thct  pnr  [  t^| 

I  '  rit  is  to  make  the  1  i^| 

I  >.t<^matic  and  moreiii.  t^f 

efited  in  the  movement  are  already  Bu9ici(*nUy  \  i^| 

thateachy..^  ifl 

number  of  f;  ^^B 

I>al  cities  of  the  country.    An  esLamiaation  of  oun  i^| 


1 


* 


^V  ''scisyrrrrc  cnAnirrr  491 

flics  already  collated  by  them  will  best  serve  to  indicate  their 

rmethods-  and  the  value  of  their  ^rork. 

I       Charity  organization    societies   have  been  formed    in  cities 

I  embracing  about  one  seventh  of  the  entire  population  of  the 
United  States.  Thirty-fonr  of  them,  representing  cities  contain- 
ing one  eighth  of  the  population  of  the  country  and  probably  one 
fiixth  of  its  pauperism,  reported  to  the  fourteenth  National  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Correction,  which  met  at  Omaha  in  Sep- 
tember, 1887.  From  careful  estimates  it  is  supposed  that  theee^ 
cities  contained  about  450,000  paupers.  Over  C2  per  cent  of  this 
number  actually  came  under  the  cognizance  of  the  charity  or- 
ganization societies  of  the  cities  indicated — that  is,  they  dealt 
•with  57,000  families,  containing  about  285,<X>0  persf.>n3.  Not  all  of 
the  societies  made  f\ill  reports,  or  they  made  them  in  such  a  form 
that  the  facts  contained  were  not  easily  comx>arable  with  those  re- 
ported by  the  others.  Twenty-five  societies,  however,  agreed  in 
classifWng  under  four  heads  the  cases  that  came  before  each. 
These  societies  made  a  careful  analysis  of  nearly  28,000  cases,  in- 
cluding something  over  lOO.OCK)  persons.  The  result  by  percent- 
ages of  the  classification  alwve  referred  to  was  as  follows: 

Bhould  have  contioaoos  roHcf. 10'3  jwr  cent. 

•*         temporary      "    , 5fl-6       "  , 

Koeding  work  mthor  than  rolipf 404      •*  I 

Unworthy  of  rtHcf .  S2*7      "  j 

Charles  D.  Kellogg,  who  made  the  report  to  the  National  Con- 
ference, goes  on  to  say:  '*  For  Feveral  years  there  has  bern  a  very 
close  correspondence  of  published  experience  between  Boston  and 
New  York,  and  in  these  cities  the  percentage  of  those  needing 
work  rather  than  relief  has  been  fiS'-t,  and  of  the  unworthy,  15*8, 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  notable  unity  of  opinion  that 
►only  from  31  to  37  per  cent,  or,  say,  one  third  of  the  cases  actn- 
treated,  were  in  need  of  that  material  assistance  for  which 
Eofiices  of  friendly  counsel  or  restraint  could  compensate.  The 
logical  application  of  this  generalization  to  the  whole  country 
i«  that  two  thirds  of  its  real  or  simulated  destitution  could  be 
iped  out  by  a  more  perfect  adjustment  of  the  supply  and  de- 
id  for  labor  and  a  more  vigorous  and  enlightened  police  ad- 
i?tmtion.  Subsequent  and  wider  experience  may  modify 
this  conclusion,  but  hardly  can  wholly  overturn  it;  and,  while  it 
stands,  it  is  of  the  b  i^nificance  in  the  solution  of  the  poor 

problem."    Not  onl^  >3  deductions  of  "  the  highest  signi£- ' 

(canoe  in  the  solatioo  of  r  problem/'  bat  they  contain  im- 

•iffl  ahould-be  friend,  the 


istfi  that  a  still  more 


49« 


MONTRLT. 


ponetratiug  analysis  waa  needed,  aud  at  the  meeting  of  the  six- 
teenth National  Conference,  where  about  forty  reifreeentativea  of 
tids  branch  of  philanthropic  work  were  presi^ut,  a  schedule  was 
adopted  for  the  collation  of  more  elaborate  and,  it  is  1  ire 

useful  statiRtica.  This  schedule,  except  for  a  few  mi:...  v«.»,r4- 
tious  aud  additions,  is  the  same  as  the  one  elaborated  and  used 
by  the  Buffalo  society.  As  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  figures  will  tell  their  story  when  collated,  wo  may  glance  at 
some  of  the  results  reached  by  the  Buffalo  society  thro\igh  a  very 
[Careful  study  of  1,-K)7  families,  including  5,388  persons.  The  chief 
cause  of  destitution  was  adjudged  to  be  lack  of  employment  La 
263  cases,  sickness  in  ^)l^,  no  male  support  in  373,  intemperanoe  In 
VZA,  physical  defects  in  113,  insufBcieut  earnings  in  87,  accidents 
in  45,  imprisonment  of  bread-winuer  in  35,  sliiftleasnoss  in  2G,  andj 
insanity  in  15. 

The  personal  equation  must  enter  very  largely  into  the  collec- 
tion of  such  statistics.  For  instance,  it  might  bu  inferre*!  n  priori, 
from  the  foregoing  figures,  that  those  who  wore  resp  for 

the  decisions  are  not  rabid  "temperance  people"  nor  pi-.^.t^.^ioa- 
^ists.    Such  is^  indeed,  the  fact ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  must  bo 
[fiaid  that  in  Boston,  and  among  workers  inclined  to  give  intern-  ^ 
peranco  its  full  meed  of  discredit  as  a  cause  of  poverty,  a  careful  " 
statistical  analysis  of  this  character  convinced  them  that  it  waa 
tbe  chief  cause  in  only  about  half  the  cases.    Though  .-  -  of 

this  nature  may  not  be  the  fii'mest  ground  to  tread  up<  >  _  yet 

allord  better  footing  than  the  quicksands  of  hap-hazard  opinion.* 

Li  some  matters,  also,  the  facts  are  more  tangiblei,  n-  *  '' 
Tesults,  therefore,  more  reliable.  For  instance,  it  has  U». 
time  been  the  opinion  of  practical  workers  that  a  cozs^iderable 
portion  of  the  most  hopeless  poAT?rty  is  caused  by  the  decay  of  the 
ties  of  the  family.  It  is  foimd  that,  in  the  1,407  familiee  reported 
on  in  Buffalo,  there  were,  in  fact,  183  deserted  wives.  Where,  ad 
in  this  case,  investigation  merely  confirms  a  previous  opinion,  it 
is  Btill  of  the  greatest  use,  becaiise  it  enables  the  workers  to  make 
a  more  cogent  appti-al  for  remedial  legislatioji. 

Recently,  more  than  in  the  immediate  pn.riseut,  it  was  the  fiuh- 
ion  to  talk  as  though  a  common-sohool  education  wn»  the  one 

igne.  '■■  ■  all  soci; ' 

tmineii  lu    The  t 

with  a  spelling-book  shield  that  might  bavo  boruo  V 
n  Bc'     '-     '  '     '        r}x  aooimeoUo&  i' 

to  3.  ofamllieainv^flt!^ 

it  was  found  that  the  rotfj>octive  hoods  of  ' 

1«S9. 


*' SCIENTIFIC   CI 


4^5 


■end  and  write,  that  49  others  could  read  hnt  not  write,  and  that 
►nly  33f*,  or  twenty-four  per  cent,  were  wholly  illiterate. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  examples  that  the  field  of 
investigation  upon  which  the  charity  organizationists  have  entered 
is  a  large  and  important  one.  A  good  deal  might  be  said  in  the 
way  of  criticism,  especially  of  the  analysis  of  the  canses  of  pov- 
erty, but  it  19  rather  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  describe  than  to 
criticise.  The  facts  it  is  aimed  to  accumulate  are  of  a  character 
•that  could  not  be  got  by  public  officials  without  very  great  expense, 
since  thoy  tike  account  of  the  cases  of  manj'-  dependants  whose 
names  never  appear  on  the  reconls  of  public  poor-relief. 

Besides  the  statistics,  which  all  the  societies  will  work  together 
to  accumulate,  different  societies  have  undertaken  elaborate  spe- 
cial investigations  into  the  heredity  of  panperism  and  similar 
topics,  Oscar  C.  McCulU>ch,  at  the  last  National  Conference,  read 
a  paper  entitled  "The  Children  of  Ishmael:  a  Study  in  Social 
Degradation/*  which  was  based  upon  such  an  investigation  made 
by  the  society  in  Indianapolis.  It  gave  the  hideous  story  of  thirty 
interrelated  families,  embracing  two  hundred  and  seventy  persons, 
nearly  all  of  whom  belong  to  the  pauper  and  criminal  classes,  aa ' 
did  their  ancestors  before  them.  The  study  resembles  that  which 
Dugdale  made  of  the  Juke  family,  by  which  it  waa  suggested; 
but  it  embraces  a  larger  number  of  families  formerly  distinct. 

The  workers  in  the  new  charity  are  active  propagandists. 
They  insist  continually  upon  the  evils  of  indiscriminate  giving. 
They  assail  the  public  authorities  with  facta  and  figures,  and  the 
churches  with  biblical  quotations.  They  assure  the  latter  that 
bread  indiscriminately  given  is  cast  not**  upon  the  waters,"  but 
into  the  bottomless  pit — that  it  is  "  the  bread  by  which  men  die," 
They  establish  in  each  city  an  office  to  serve  as  a  clearing-house 
of  charities,  and  so  endeavor  to  prevent  the  overlapping  of  the 
relief  given  by  different  agencies.  Their  general  view  of  the  situa- 
tion enables  them  to  deviso  new  and  needed  forms  of  benevolence, 
and  to  ascertain  what  additional  legislation  can  be  really  helpful. 
It  is  very  satisfactory  when  the  conclusions  of  one  set  of  think- 
ers coincide  with  the  conclusions  f»f  others  who  have  approached 
the  same  subject  from  a  different  standpoint.  When,  therefore, 
'        *  *    i;  to  think  and  work  in  accordance  with 

I oned  self-sacrifice,  tinds  himself  agreeing 
[o  Uioory  and  practice  with  the  economist  whose  guiding  star  has 
["boon  «.    '    '  ^    V     ^^  *  '        ' /•  there  is  reason  to  congratulate 
wm  1'  manner,  we  of  course  ignore  the 

ly  by  which  it  is  said  to  be  proved  that  aU 

"■'"  have  their  origin  in  motives  of  self- 

'  -f  of  this  to  be  perfect,  it  is  yet  to  be 
lit  ivrms  in  which  self-interest  manifests  itself 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIBXCB  MONTHLY, 


.<,  *•• 


liave  been  so  differentiated  tbat  we  may  right! 
sify  tliem.  The  man  who  is  convinced  that  al.  -^., 
from  a  single  form  is  yet  justified  iu  practical — O-  g^  gastronomi- 
cal — affairs  in  making  a  distinction  between  meats  and  veg<*tA- 
bles,  or  even  between  beefsteak  and  mutton*  8o^  there  ia  a  prac- 
tical if  not  a  philosophical  difference  between  the  motives  thai 
;uidH  men  in  stock  speculations  and  those  thut  guide  them  in  the 
^founding  of  hospitals.  To  reach  charity  by  the  way  of  self-inter* 
est  is  following  too  roundabout  a  road  for  the  average  man  or  < 
the  average  thinker,  and  many  there  be  that  have  failed  most 
sadly  in  the  attempt. 

It  is  therefore  exceedingly  fortunate  that  the  pldlanthnipista 
seem  likely  to  work  out  their  own  salvation  from  mischief-mak- 
ing by  studying  with  scientiiic  care  tlie  lessons  tlmt  their  own 
exj>erience  teaches.  Such  a  course  not  only  gives  valuable  facili- 
ties for  checking  the  conclusions  of  those  who  have  thought  and 
worked  along  other  lines,  but  it  secures  the  acceptance  by  those 
charitably  inclined  of  correct  ideas  much  more  readily  than  could 
any  amount  of  outside  pressure.  The  dictates  of  wisdom  are 
formulated  in  language  to  which  they  are  accustomed,  and  the 
motives  to  which  appeal  is  made  are  those  to  which  they  hav^ 
taught  themselves  obedience.  Not  that  acceptance  of  the  new 
Leas  is  easy  under  any  circumstances  for  those  trained  in  the 
'older  methods.  It  can  only  be  said  that  it  is  a  trifle  1-  ■  ''■'^'  -lUt 
to  rout  this  variety  of  old  fogyism  by  attacking  from  wi  icr 

than  from  without. 

But  there  is,  happily,  an  increasing  number  of  those  who  ap- 
preciate the  fact  that  the  introduction  of  scientiBc  methods  into 
charitable  work  will  not  hamper  chanty  but  aid  it ;  that  the 
resulting  restrictions  that  may  be  placed  upon  us  will  merely 
guide  our  sympathies,  and  not  thwart  them.  The  restraints  thai 
will  be  put  upon  l>enevolence  will  be  merely  to  prevent  its  waste 
and  insure  its  usefulness — ^'  restriction  for  the  purpose  of  oxpau* 
sion."  Scientific  methods  carefully  used  for  such  purposes  will 
not  make  the  charity  of  the  future  ctdd-blooded  a'  '  '  ■ 
but  will  prevent  it  from  boing  foiU**!,  dofenU^l,  ?xi 
from  its  high  purposes  by  its  own  gratuitoui*  i 
render  that  charity  helpful,  constructive.  «  ^ 
it  possible  that  love  of  neighbor  umy  "  shi  . 
the  growing  life  of  mam" 


they  will 


Tfli  Rer  I>f.  Donioiter,  wbo  !*  ftJ^o  an  ^tiitntnt  «t' 
remarked  In  a  recent  loolore  at 
hod  given  Icaelf  foarlcsflj  anc]  >«  iut<  ui  m. 
tioQ  fafld  boeomo  oo  longer  %  buglionr,  r.: 
xaotl  timid  Uioologtan,  us  tLo  utua]  motboU  wrvrt;ai<.  .1 


THE  IXFLUENCE  OF  RACE  IN  JUSTOBT. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  RACE  IN  HISTORY.* 

Bt  M.  QUSTAVE  LE  fiON. 

HISTORICAL  studies  have  undergone  a  great  transformation 
I  in  our  days.     Almost  exclusively  literary  a  few  years  ago, 

they  are  tending  at  this  time  to  become  almost  as  exchisivoly  sci- 
entific. It  is  not  the  recent  pr(^gresa  of  archeology  alone  that  has 
caused  a  remodeling  of  oiir  knowledge  and  our  ideas  in  history. 
The  discoveries  in  the  physical  and  natural  sciences  have  had  a 
still  greater  effect  upon  them  ;  and  it  ia  hy  means  of  these  discov- 
eries that  the  notion  of  natural  causes  is  entering  into  history 
more  and  more,  and  tliat  we  are  habituating  ourselves  to  consider 
historical  phonomena  as  subject  to  laws  as  invariable  as  those 
that  control  the  course  of  the  stars  and  the  transformations  of 

ies.    The  part  which  all  the  ancient  historians  attributed  to 

evidence  or  to  chance,  is  now  no  longer  attributed  to  anything 
hut  natural  laws,  as  entirely  removed  from  chance  as  from  tho 
;"will  of  the  gods. 

The  new  ideas  which  are  entering  into  history  are  due  chiefly 
to  the  progress  of  natural  science.  Making  more  and  more  evident 
the  preponderant  influence  of  the  past  on  the  evolution  of  beings, 
it  teaches  ua  that  we  must  first  study  the  past  in  societies  to  com- 
prehend their  present  condition  and  foresee  their  future.  In  the 
same  way  that  the  naturalist  now  finds  the  explanation  of  beings 
in  the  study  of  their  ancestral  forms,  the  philosopher  who  wishes 
to  comprehend  tho  genesis  of  our  ideas  and  institutions  should 
examine  primitive  usages.  Thus  regarded,  history,  the  interest  of 
which  might  seem  but  slight  so  long  as  it  is  limited  to  the  enumer- 
ation of  dynasties  and  battles,  is  acquiring  an  immense  significance. 

The  method  which  the  modern  man  of  science  applies  to  his- 
tory to-day  is  identical  with  that  which  the  naturalist  applies  in 

laboratory.  A  society  can  be  regarded  as  an  organism  in  pro- 
of development.  There  is  a  social  embryology  as  there  are 
an  animal  and  a  vegetable  embryology,  and  the  laws  of  evolu- 
tion that  govern  them  all  are  of  the  same  order.  Social  embry- 
ology, or  the  stufly  of  civilizations,  shows  us  the  series  of  ad- 
vances by  which  the  marvelous  and  complicated  mechanism  of 
rrfined  soci' '■  —  ^"-  *-nied  from  the  savage  condition  in  which 
the  first  m*  I  :  how  our  thoughts,  feelings,  institutions, 

•and  creeds  t  •  roots  in  the  primal  ages  of  mankind.   Inst4?ad 

^.f  «a  -'.Af,...  ..■  .i  friiif  between  the  i>eoples  who  ate  their 

•  lavish  cares  ujjon  them  in  their  old 
aitd  Wt-'  ;  between  those  who  look  upon  their 

Ttar^krm  CIvUlMtiont,"  now  ■ppcating  In  pftrt«. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEXCE  MONTSLT. 


women  as  lower  anininls  Iwlonging  to  all  the  meml'  ^*, 

and  those  who  have  made  them  the  object  of  a  ci  ilt; 

between  those  who  expose  their  malformed  children  to  periab, 
and  those  who  lodge  their  idiots  and  incurables  iu  ii  *    ••nt 

hospitals — we  trace  out  the  close  bonds  which  connci    .  .  i;h 

the  ages,  the  most  different  thoughts,  institutions,  and  crueda.  We 
realize  that  present  civilizations  have  been  derived  from  past  civ- 
ilizations, and  contain  in  the  germ  all  the  civilisations  to  come. 
The  evolution  of  thoughts,  religions,  industries,  and  art — in  short, 
of  all  the  elements  that  enter  into  the  constitution  of  a  oiviliza* 
tion — is  as  regular  and  inevitable  as  that  of  the  different  forms  of 
an  animal  series. 

The  factors  that  determine  the  birth  and  development  of  tho 
constituent  elements  of  a  civilization  are  as  numerous  as  thcMto 
which  control  the  development  of  a  living  being.  The  study  of 
them  has  as  yet  hardly  begun ;  but  the  influence  of  some  of  them 
can  be  brought  into  evidence.  One  of  the  most  important  among 
these  factors  is  race — that  is,  the  aggregation  of  the  physical, 
moral,  and  mental  traits  that  characterize  a  people. 

AAThen  human  racea  appear  in  history  they  have  generally 
alrCiwly  acquired  marke<l  characteristica,  which  afterward  under- 
go only  very  slow  transformations.  The  oldest  Egyptian  baa- 
reliefs,  on  which  are  depicted  the  various  types  of  the  peojdwi 
with  whom  the  Pharaohs  hud  to  do,  are  proof  that  our  present 
grand  characterizations  of  races  oould  huvo  been  applied  even 
then,  in  the  daxsTi  of  history. 

The  various  human  races  had  formed  themselves  during  tba 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  that  preceded  historical  limos; 
Tliey  were  so  formed,  no  doxibt,  like  all  the  animal  spcciw^  by 
Uit-iins  of  slow  changes  produced  by  variability  of  tho  environ- 
ment, limited  by  selection  and  enforced  by  heredity.  Tho  firet 
step  toward  understanding  the  history  of  a  p>eople  and  tho  origin 
of  their  institutions,  moral  ideas,  and  creeds,  is  to  gtudy  their 
mental  constitution.  It  is  vain  to  ask  from  anatomical  charac- 
iteristics,  as  has  been  done  for  a  long  time,  for  the  means  of 
Bifferentiating  races.  Psychology  alone  permits  a  precise  defi- 
pition  of  racial  distinctions.    It  shows  us  \xt 

viental  constitution  will  have  similar  fatL , — ^  ..-  .Jie 

circumstances,  however  thoy  may  diflfer  in  external  aspe<d.  In  this 
way  we  havu  been  able  to  m   "  "  '    ' 

the  modem  English  and  th»' 

fact^  an  evident  mental  relationship  betwuon  cM 

tl  ffl 

for  holding  colonies.     Hut,  n-^  ■  ■ 

complete  want  of  r£f9embIano&  ui<.^^i.->ju  m  H 


1 


I 


TEE  INFLUENCE  OF  RACE  IN  HISTORY. 


497 


Two  fundamental  psychological  elements  to  bo  always  studied 
among  any  people  are  ehai-acter  and  intelligence,  Cbaracter  ia 
infinitely  more  important  to  the  succeea  of  an  individual  or  a  race 
than  intelligence.  Rome,  in  her  decline,  certainly  possessed  more 
Buperior  minds  than  the  Rome  of  the  earlier  ages  of  the  republic. 
Brilliant  artists,  eloquent  rhetoricians,  and  graceful  writers  ap- 
peared then  by  the  hundred.  But  she  was  lacking  in  men  of 
manly  and  energetic  character,  who  may  perhaps  have  been  care- 
less of  the  refinements  of  art,  but  were  very  careful  of  the  power 
of  the  city  whose  grandexir  they  had  founded.  When  it  had  lost 
all  of  these,  Rome  had  to  give  way  to  peoples  much  less  intelligent 
but  more  energetic.  The  conquest  of  the  ancient,  refined,  and  let- 
tered GrfiBCO-Latin  world  by  tribes  of  semi-barbaroua  Arabs  con- 
stitutes another  example  of  the  same  kind.  History  is  full  of  such, 
Wliile  character  thus  plays  the  chief  part  in  the  historical 
development  of  a  people,  it  is  intelligence  that  prevails  in  deter- 
mining their  civilization ;  but  it  must  be  creative,  and  not  assimi- 
lative only.  Peoples  having  only  an  assimilative  intelligence,  liko 
the  Phoenicians  of  old  and  the  Mongolians  and  the  Russians  of  the 
present  time,  are  capable  of  appropriating  more  or  less  of  foreign 
.civilization,  but  can  not  make  civilization  advance.  Peoples 
[endowed  with  a  certain  intelligence,  like  the  Greeks  in  antiquity 
[and  the  Arabs  in  the  middle  ages,  have  been  the  factors  of  all  the 
general  progress  by  which  mankind  has  profited. 

The  most  superficial  observation  soon  demonstrates  that  the 
[fieveral  individuals  composing  a  raco  differ  from  one  another  in 
physical  aspect  as  well  as  in  moral  and  mental  constitution ;  but 
a  little  more  attentive  observation  will  show  that  under  these 
apparent  diversities  is  hidden  a  mass  of  characteristics  common 
^to  all  the  individuals  of  the  race,  the  aggregation  of  which  con- 
^ktitutes  what  has  justly  been  named  the  national  character  of 
^■■people.  When  we  speak  of  an  Englishman,  a  Japanese,  or  a 
^H%ro,  we  at  once  attribute  to  him — and  without  hardly  ever  being 
much  mistaken — a  collection  of  general  traits  which  are  a  kind  of 
1       '  '  'of  the  characteristics  of  his  race.    These  na- 

>,  creatcxl  among  homogeneous  peoples  by  the 
>ng-continue<l  intiuences  of  the  same  mediums,  the  same  insti- 
Lutionft,  and  the  same  creeds,  play  a  fundamental,  though  invis- 
ible, part  in  the  life  of  peoples. 

In  human  raccfl,  as  in  animal  species,  some  offer  many  vario- 

r  '  ♦^>-  -■  but  few.    The  fewer  varieties  a  race  presents — or  the 

erge  from  a  mean  tyi)e — the  more  homogeneoiis  it  is. 

is  the  moilem  English  race,  in  which  the 

<-iv,.Ti  ,ow]  ^^..•  Korman  have  been  effaced  to 

t.  type.    If,  on  the  contrary, 

li  ju*Uii«>j4csi  without  having  been  sufficiently 


498 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCJS  MONTSIF. 


mixed,  the  race  continues  heterogeneous,  and  the  me.i  >ff 

c(tmo8  more  lUfficult  to  establisb,  becaubo  the  common  ;.at 

compose  it  are  lees  numerous.  It  is  easy  to  compn^hend  that  the 
more  homogeneous  a  race  is,  the  stronger  it  will  be*,  and  the  moro 
called  \ipon  to  march  rapidly  in  the  way  of  progress.  Whi>n,  on 
the  contrary,  thoughts,  traditions,  creeds,  and  interests  remain 
separated,  dissensions  will  be  frequent,  and  progress  always  ^^t'-^v- 
and  often  completely  hindered. 

We  see  by  this  how  important  to  the  erplanation  of  \\\v  lu-rwry 
of  a  people  is  the  study  of  its  composition.  We  see  aLso  tliAt  the 
word  "  people  "  can  not  be  in  any  case  considered  synonymoua  with 
"  race."   An  empire,  a  i>eople,  or  a  state  is  a  more  or  lev  '  %'r- 

able  number  of  men  united  by  the  same  political  or  gt  •  vol 

necessities,  and  subjected  to  the  same  institutions  and  laws. 
These  men  may  belong  to  the  same  race,  but  they  may  equttJIy 
belong  to  dilFerent  races.  If  the  races  are  too  dissimilar,  no 
fusion  is  possible.  They  may,  under  necessity,  live  side  by  aide, 
like  Hindus  subject  to  Europeans,  but  we  must  not  think  of  giv- 
ing them  common  institutions.  All  great  empires  uniting  dis- 
similar peoples  are  created  only  by  force,  and  are  coudeinne<l  to 
perish  by  violence.  Those  only  can  endure  which  are  formed 
slowly  by  the  gradual  mixture  of  races  differing  but  little,  con- 
tinually crossing  with  one  another,  living  on  the  same  soU,  sub- 
ject to  the  action  of  the  same  climate,  and  having  the  same  insti- 
tutions and  creeds.  These  different  races  may  thus,  after  a  few 
centuries,  form  a  new  homogeneous  race,* 

As  the  world  grew  old,  the  races  gradually  became  more 
stable,  and  their  transformations  by  mixture  rarer.  In  prehia- 
torical  times,  when  man's  hereditary  past  was  not  so  long,  when 
he  had  neither  well-fixed  institutions  nor  well-nesured  ctiniliiions 
of  existence,  mediums  ha*!  a  more  profound  action  uj»on  bim 
than  now.  Civilization  has  permitted  man  to  subtract  him64>lf| 
to  a  large  extent,  from  the  influence  of  the  medium,  but  not  from 
that  of  his  past.    As  mankind  grows  older,  the  weight »  -'j 

grows  heavier.  For  heredity  to  act  in  the  mixture  of  :.:.  .,  .i  ii 
necessary  that  one  of  the  rjvces  sliall  not  bo  too  inferior  to  tho 
jpther  in  numbers,  and  that  their  physical  and  mental  oonstitu- 
vions  shall  not  be  too  different 

The  first  of  these  conditions  is  fundameutaL    When  two  dif- 
ferent races  are  brought  i-       '        '  '       * 
the  other.    In  a  black  J"  j              , 

*  Tlio  mccliatiitiu  nf  UiU  fuiton  of  th«  dKTorfni  slirmnkU  of  ft  ts«  U  nrvl^  <flMi^H 
I.  Lovcrer,  vltUMcfd  U  ooco,  during  mj  trtveU,  unoDf;  •  imiunUiUMf  popalftUoo  ^"fj^H 
In  Uur  InKirlor  of  OaUeit,  at  Uw  foot  of  Um  TatrM  UouomIca  7^  a  ■  lU  m  ^^^H 
t  tvoonl^tl  my  oUiurvMtou  ft|>p«rrl  in  Ui«  **  ltDil«Ua  4*  te  •'^  ^| 

PaHa"(U8S).  H 


THE  lyriuEycE  of  eace  av  historv, 

disappear  wilLoiit  leaving  any  traces.  Such  lias  been  the  lot  of 
all  conquering  peoples  "wliicli^  though  strong  in  arms,  have  been 
veak  in  numbera  Those  only  have  escaped  obliteration  which, 
like  the  Aryans  in  India,  formerly,  and  the  English,  also  in  India, 
to-day,  have  obsei-ved  a  rigid  sj'et^m  of  castes,  preventing  the 
mixture  of  conquerors  and  conquered.  Except  where  the  rule  of 
caste  has  operated,  the  general  result  has  been  to  see  the  couquer- 

■  ing  people  absorb*xl,  after  a  few  generations,  by  tlie  conquered. 
H  It  has  not  disappeared,  however,  without  having  left  traces  of  its 
^work  in  civilization  behind  it.    Egj^it,  conquered  by  the  Arabs, 

quickly  absorbed  its  conquerors;  but  they  left  the  most  impor- 
tant elements  of  civilization — religion,  language,  and  arts — there. 
A  like  phenomenon  took  i^lace  in  Europe  among  the  peoples 
called  Latin.  The  French,  ItalianB,  and  Spaniards  have,  in  real- 
ity, no  traces  of  Latin  blood  in  their  veins ;  but  the  institutions  of 
^  the  Romans  were  so  strong,  their  organization  was  so  perfect, 
B  their  influence  in  civilization  so  great,  that  the  countries  occupied 

■  by  them  for  centuries  have  remained  Latin  in  language,  institu^ 
L  tions,  and  peculiar  genius. 

■  It  is  not,  however,  by  reason  of  its  strength  that  one  x>eople 
^B^Woses  its  civilization  upon  another;  very  often  the  conquei^ed 
H^Dple  leads  the  conquerors  in  this  line.  The  Franks  ^ally  tri- 
Hum]>hed  over  the  Qallo-Roman  society,  but  they  were  in  a  short 
H  time  morally  conquered  by  it.  They  were  also  physically  over- 
I  come»  for  they  had  plunged  into  a  population  more  numerous 

than  themselves.  This  conquest  of  the  conquerors  by  the  con- 
quered is  to  bo  seen  in  a  still  higher  degree  among  the  Mussulman 
peoples.  It  was  precisely  when  the  political  power  of  the  Arabs 
had  wholly  disappeared,  that  their  religion,  language,  and  arts 
were  spread  most  extensively. 

But  when  races  too  dissimilar  are  brought  in  contact  by  the 
chance  of  invasions  and  conquest,  fusion  is  impossible  by  any 
force,  and  the  only  result  that  can  bo  produced  is  the  extermina- 
tion of  the  weaker  race.  This  disappearance  of  the  inferior  peo-» 
iple  in  the  face  of  a  superior  race  does  not  always  take  place  by 
[means  of  a  systematic  and  sanguinary  extermination ;  the  simple 
action  of  presence,  to  use  a  chemical  term,  is  suificient  to  bring 
on  destruction.  When  the  superior  people  has  established  itself 
in  a  barbarous  country,  with  its  complicated  mode  of  life  and  its 
numerous  menns  of  subsistence,  it  monopolizes  and  masters  the 

■livv'-'  *■■'♦■ -^  ■^<'  •!•»  ' '*'v  much  more  easily  and  speedily  than 

lb'  latter,  formerly  masters  of  all  the  re- 

liust  to  only  toilsomely  gleaning  what 


:i  become  mingled,  notwithstanding 
.uatiou,  the  result  is  disastrous  rather  to' 


THS  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


the  inforior  than  to  the  superior  race.     It  soon    '  re,  and 

gives  place  to  a  race  which,  may  represent,  in  a  mc..:-.  :  Bpect,  a 
kin<i  of  mean  between  tho  two  races,  but  morally  ia  inferior  to 
either  of  them.  Half-l)ree<ls  have  never  made  a  society  advance; 
the  part  thoy  have  played  has  been  to  degrade  tho  civilizations 
of  which  they  have  by  chance  been  the  heirs.  The  disa^itroiis  r»- 
i:0ult«  of  such  mixtures  of  superior  races  with  inferior  wore  cltsaHy 
fperceived  by  the  most  ancient  civilized  peoples.  This  was  doubt- 
less the  origin  of  that  rule  of  cagtes,  preventing  unions  between 
persons  of  diiferent  races,  which  we  find  in  many  ancient  societies. 
Without  it,  man  would  never  have  risen  above  tho  dawn  of  civiK- 
zation. 

But,  while  tlie  mixture  of  races  which  have  reached  very  un- 
equal stages  of  evolution  is  always  disastrous,  the  result  is  other* 
wise  when  these  races,  although  still  possessing  different  qualities, 
have  arrived  at  nearly  the  sanio  period  of  development.  Their 
qualities  can  then  very  usefully  complement  one  another.  The 
n-jniblic  of  the  United  States  has  been  formed  by  proci  "'»  a 

mixture  of  races,  already  elevated  in  civilization  n-  mg 

qualities  complementary  to  one  another.  The  people  owo«  ita 
astonishing  Angor  to  the  fnct  not  only  that  it  is  '    ?  of 

a  mixture  of  elera*»uts— English,  Irish,  French,  '  .— 

already  highly  developed,  but  also  that  the  individuals  throagh 
whom  the  crossing  was  effected  were  themselves  tho  r-  --'♦-  -.f  » 
selection  from  among  the  most  active  and  vigorous  ij  of 

ImQioso  nations. 

'      The  general  laws  which  w©  have  just  summarized  can  of  them*  ^H 
selves  fumijih  the  explanation  of  a  large  number  of  historical  Hj 
events.    They  show,  for  example,  why  one  conquest  was  the  origin  ^ 
of  a  brilliant  civilization,  and  why  another  introduced  an  era  of 
disorder  and  anarchy ;  why  the  Oriental  has  always  easily  impoi»ed 
bis  yoke  and  bis  customs  upon  O  "        '       "  '  tn- 

tiou  WHS  like  his  own;  and  why  ,-         .  ^n^ 

Westerners  have  been  eo  ferocious,  and  usually  terminated  in  piti* 
the  <  i  iin 

^oples  have  been  c<)i  -a- 

rally,  if  they  were  of  tlie  race  of  the  conquered,  or  by  respt^liiig 
their  cnstoms  and  creeds  if  they  were  of  a  dlffcrenl  &t(»ck,  to  moiA- 
tain  their  authority  over  distant  nations. 

A  question  has  arisen  as  to  whether  th<  ^n 

tends  to  equalize  races,  or  to  differontiatj    ...  '" 

To  it  we  have  to  answer  that  the  upper  lev- 
always  ascending;  but  by  this  '     '  ^f 

always  nations  at  tho  lowewt  st»>p,  ;       ^     .  tfl 

higher  races  is  coiLstrvntly  gnawing  dcuper.    'J  sH 

is  tnte,  even  in  the  most  bAckward  g>  'fl 


I 


THE  INFLUENCE   OF  RACE  AV  EISTORY, 

gives  it  an  accelerated  march  as  it  advances.  The  stipe- 
[or  ffftces  are  now  developing  themselves  by  giant  8t4>ps,  while  the 
others  still  demand  the  long  ages  which  onr  ance£tors  traversed 
in  order  to  reach  the  point  where  wo  are  now.  And  when  the  in- 
ferior races  reach  that  point,  where  shall  we  bo  ?  Farther  from 
them,  without  doubt,  than  we  are  now,  luiless  we  shall  have  dis- 
nppi»-are(L  The  e'l'ideut  conclusion  then  is,  that  as  human  rnceSj 
become  civilized  they  tend  to  greater  differentiation  rather  than 
to  an  approach  to  equality.  Civilization  not  being  able  to  act 
equally  on  mioqual  intelligences,  and  the  most  develoi>ed  neces- 
narily  profiting  more  than  those  who  are  less  so,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  difference  between  them  will  increase  considerably  in 
each  generation,*  It  increases  all  the  more  because  the  division 
of  labor,  condemning  the  lower  strata  to  a  uniform  and  identical 
work,  tends  to  destroy  all  intelligence  in  them.  The  engineer  of 
our  days,  who  composes  a  new  machine,  needs  much  more  int^jlli- 
gence  than  the  engineer  of  the  last  century ;  but  the  modern  work- 
[uires  much  less  intelligence  to  make  the  detached  piece  of 
I,  which  he  will  keep  on  making  all  his  life,  than  his  auces- 
had  to  Lave  to  make  the  whole  watch. 
These  considerations  do  not  rest  on  theoretical  reasonings 
alone.  We  some  time  ago  fortified  them  also  by  anatomical  argu- 
ments Studies  of  the  skulls  of  human  races  have  shown  us  that 
while  among  savages  the  heads  of  different  individuals  vary  but 
little  in  their  dimensions,  the  differences  in  our  civilized  scjcietiea 
are  formidable.  From  the  upper  to  the  lower  ranks  of  society 
the  anatomical  gulf  is  as  immense  as  the  psychological  gulf,  and 
the  advance  of  ciiilization  is  constantly  making  it  wider.  Since, 
then,  the  differences  among  men  of  the  same  race  become  more 
and  more  extended  as  the  race  rises  in  civilization,  we  conclude 
that  the  higher  the  civilization  the  more  considerable  will  be  the 
intellectual  diversities  among  individuals  of  the  race.  No  doubt 
the  mean  level  will  also  rise.f 


*  Thoorctically,  the  diffcreatlarion  between  lodividuftlB  itfaould  follow  a  kind  of  ^omet- 
rictl  progrcMioa,  and  coimcqucutly  acceniuite  h«elf  with  eitrene  rapidity.  It  is,  howerer, 
tew  npid  Ui&n  tho  tlicory  todlcatca.  The  rcftaon  of  it  doubtless  lioji  in  the  obserred  f>ct 
that  the  funullc*  of  Ftti'.erior  miii — sdcstiflc  a&d  literary  men,  artieta,  statesmen,  etc — Bel- 
dam endure.  Their  dcsceodants  disappear  rapidly  by  dcf^cnc ration,  or  ot  least  soon  return 
10  tbe  crowd.  TUcrc  atjoina  (o  be  a  mystetioui  law  coustaully  tending  to  eliminate  or  ns 
4(iC4i  to  U)e  mean  intclU-t'tual  type  of  a  race  all  the  families  which  depart  very  greatly  from 
K  TU«  {«  m,  perbnpp,  btcause  a  superiority  id  one  direction  hog  to  be  awiuired  at  the 
ooal  of  an  iaferioritr,  and  consoquently  a  kind  of  dcfrmcracy,  in  another.     A  great  man  Is 

iBP#t  '-~ "-  -•  ■"  »-'"i'wd  man;  and  cerebral  imbalanctng,  howeTer  Utile  accentuated 

It  u-  ■  I'cluatc  by  reprodocLicD  oa  an  anatomical  nionatrosity.    Bocieiiea 

laiio  ft^Tii  cniM:  !r;.'  '1,  UK"  injlvidualc,  cot  to  poBB  a  certain  lereU 

i  MiMt  of  tiie  tKouchu  cttbodied  in  this  vdckt,  cspcdally  tba  theory  of  Um  progiesiii 
ivldaali,  «&d  Cb«  acxca  with  the  adraao*  of  oivUluUoD.  an  the 


JOS 


'BXCE  MO. 


The  stiady  of  all  civilizations  proves,  in  fart,  that .  '^ 

lias  been  accomplished  by  a  small  nxmiber  of  the  higi.r.  ^i^^iiiiln. 
The  mass  has  done  nothing  more  than  profit  by  the  advanr/* ;  it 
does  not  even  like  to  see  it  extended,  and  the  greatest  ^  or 

inventors  have  often  been  martyrs.  Yet  all  the  gem i«..  ...  :ho 
whole  past  of  ti  race,  bloom  out  in  these  fine  geniuses.  Tboy  do 
not  ai>poar  by  chance  or  miracle,  but  represent  a  long  syutbeste. 
To  favor  their  birth  and  growth  is  to  favor  the  birth  of  a  prog- 
ress by  which  all  mankind  will  be  benefited.  If  we  should  allow 
<>.T*selves  to  be  blinded  by  our  dreams  of  um''         '  "■''      wo 

^■ll  uld  ourselves  be  the  first  victims  of  it.  \\\j 

exist  in  inferiority.    To  bring  about  a  reign  of  equality  in  tlio 
world,  it  would  be  necessary  gradually  to  pull  all  that  gives  valne 
to  a  race  down  to  tbe  level  of  what  in  it  is  lowest.    It  would  re- 
quire ages  to  raise  the  intellectual  level  of  the  lowest  peafiants 
up  to  that  of  the  gonius  of  a  Lavoisier^  while  a  second  and  the 
stroke  of  the  guillotine  is  sufficient  to  destroy  such  a  brain.    But 
while  the  part  of  superior  men  in  the  development  of  a  cirilissft* 
tion  is  considerable,  it  is  not  quite  what  it  is  generally  believed  to 
be.    Their  action,  I  repeat^  consists  in  synthetizing  all  the  efforts 
of  a  rac^ ;  their  discoveries  are  always  the  result  of  a  ^ 
of  prior  discoveries;   they  build  an  edifice  with  st-i 
others  have  previously  hewn.    Historians  fancy  they  must  couple 
the  name  of  a  man  with  every  invention;  yet,  among  the  gn^at 
iuveutioua  which  have  tninsformed  the  world,  like  those  of  print-  ^m 
ing,  gunpowder,  and  electric  telegraphy,  there  is  not  one  of  which  ^| 
it  can  be  said  that  it  was  created  by  a  single  man«  ^H 

Of  similar  character  is  the  part  which  great  statesmen  have 
played.  They  could  without  doubt  destroy  a  society  or  disturb  its 
evolution,  but  it  is  not  given  to  them  to  change  its  course.  The 
genius  of  a  Cromwell  or  a  Napoleon  could  not  perform  such  a 
la^k.    Great  conquerors  might  destroy  citieSj  men,  nv  '  r«i 

by  sword  and  fire,  as  a  child  could  burn  a  museum  :  :  ■  itb 
treasures  of  art,  but  this  destructive  power  should  not  mibjeci  iw 
to  illusions  respecting  the  grandeur  of  their  i  '  '  'Hio 

work  of  grftat  political  men  is  durable  only  »'  or 

Richelieu,  they  direct  their  efforts  according  to  tho  Utfmaodsof 

rcsuli  of  mj  own  resiC'iLrchefl.  The  rvader  who  msy  bo  latcroited  In  (b«  > 
tbcm  dfTrlappil  in  i\\e  following  ntirkf!,  or  mrmolM,  wUcfa  barf  bi-oa  DotiC  ' 
Utu«s  :  "Hfvlierchva  atttilQniiqti<*»  ct  mqih^'niAliqucn  ("ir  Ua  UiW 

ilii  Ct^ne"  (fOWTy»rtn/  by  the  ln«ti!ut«  and   hy  the  Anit"^ 

"  IvtuJe  lie  i'i  Cr4n»  rrUonuoM  e^l6hrc«  do  U  Oollectlori 
*f  the  Aaihr(ipoIoj[lc»I  Soeloty  of  Pari«n  **VV. 
Bifloire,'*  rol.  U ;  **  Do  MoftOoo  «uk  Moai«  Tft 
tSalletla  of  the    - 

l^I»hlti»  <  tU«  Haw*  "  \  'IU\  U4I  rUiluMitUi^uA  *> 


I 

4 


THE  INFLUEXCE  OF  RACE  IS  HISTORY. 


^ 


■jwnient. ;  tho  true  cause  of  their  success  is,  then,  generally 
'fea^  Anterior  to  tliomsolveg.  Tho  really  great  men  in  politics  are 
those  who  anticipate  the  demands  that  are  going  to  arise,  tho 
events  for  which  the  past  has  prepared,  and  point  out  the  way  to 

followed.     They,  also,  like  tho  great  inventors,  synthotize  the 
of  a  long  previous  work, 

what,  in  the  eye  of  philosophy,  is  history,  an  the  books  tell 
it,  composed,  except  of  tho  long  recit^il  of  tho  struggles  endunnl 
by  men  to  create  an  ideal,  adore  it,  and  then  destroy  it  ?  And 
have  such  ideals  any  more  value  in  the  eyes  of  pure  science  than 
the  mirage  of  the  desert  ?  There  have  been,  however,  great  enthu- 
siasts, creatAirs  of  such  mirages,  who  have  profoundly  transformed 
tho  world.  They  still  from  their  tombs  hold  the  minds  of  multi- 
tudes under  the  sway  of  their  thoughts.  While  not  mistaking 
the  significance  of  their  achievements,  let  us  not  forget  that  they 
would  not  have  succeeded  in  accomplishing  what  they  did  if  they 
had  not  unconsciously  incarnated  and  expressed  the  dominant 
ideal  of  tlieir  race  and  their  time. 

It  is,  in  fact,  ideas,  and  consequently  those  who  incarnate 
thorn,  that  lead  the  world.  They  rise  at  first  under  vague  forms, 
and  float  in  the  air,  gradually  changing  their  aspect,  till  some 
day  they  appear  under  the  form  of  a  great  man  or  a  great  act.  It 
is  of  little  account,  as  determining  the  force  with  which  they  shall 
act,  whether  they  are  true  or  false.  History  teaches  us  that  the 
most  cliimerical  illusions  have  excited  more  enthusiasm  among 
men  than  the  best  demonstrated  truths.  Such  illusions  are  only 
shadows,  but  nevertheless  have  to  be  respected.  Through  tlxem 
our  fathers  were  hopeful,  and  in  their  heroic  and  heedless  course 
they  have  brought  us  cmt  of  barbarism  and  led  us  to  the  pioint 
where  we  stand  to-day.  Mankind  has  expended  most  of  its  efforts, 
not  in  the  pursuit  of  truth,  but  of  error.  It  has  not  been  able  to 
reach  the  chimerical  aims  it  was  pursuing ;  but  in  pursuing  them 
it  has  realized  a  progress  that  it  was  not  seeking. —  Translated  for 
the  Popxdar  Science  Monthly  from  the  Revue  Scientifique. 


XlL  Gaboixrk  C.  UcriiBAnD  shows  a  good  record,  in  Ms  pre^dfotial  address  to 
die  Anerican  Ooo^raphicfll  Society,  of  American  contnlmtton^  to  the  txtenfion  of 
gwigrofiliioal  knowlt'^ljre.  Oar  ootintrj  "has  00Dtrit>utcd  its  qnotii  of  martyrs  in 
Oif  '  ^'  '  V      ',  il  tho  wny  into  tho  torrid  rcpnns  of  Afrirn."     !t  hns 

U)  ^'W  •cienoo  of  the  jfvography  v(  the  wa,  hy  th«  di»- 

cc-'  r:ts,  the  topography  of  the  ot-n-byttoms,  niid 

de-  ,  tirflt  to  PD^Qge.    "Tlie  exploring  veasels  of 

out  red  ia  the  deep  <icaf  in  one  smftle  season,  more 

'  •  '^  ^''<»  Obnlleng^r  Ex|)€ditiun  in  a  three  years' 

founding  the  "geography  of  the  air,"  or 

Iceeping  at  tlie  front. 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLr. 


» 


i 


THE  STONE  AGE  IN  HEATHEN  SA\^DEN. 
Bt  w.  h.  labrabee. 

ONE  of  the  pocniiar  features  of  modem  historical  study  is  that 
it  is  to  a  very  largo  extent  dependent  upon  the  examiuAttoa 
of  the  monuments  which  the  people  of  the  past  have  h  '  •  lo 

articles  of  use  and  ornament  that  are  found  among  ti.,.  ...is. 
When  the  nations  constituting  ohjectfl  of  research  Trere  civilized 
and  had  xvriting,  as  in  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia,  the  rnfomiaitun 
aflForded  by  these  relies  is  extremely  valuable,  and  furuifthes  rec- 
ords of  events  and  illustrations  of  the  life  of  the  peoples  more 
definite  and  accurate  than  can  be  obtained  from  books.  The  ac- 
counts and  pictures  they  bear  were  a  part  of  the  contemporary 
life,  and  have  such  a  relation  to  written  history  aa  in  the  eye  of 
tw  courts  the  evidence  of  the  res  gesta  has  to  a  minute  made  up 
fter  the  event.  With  peoples  who  had  not  writing  and  arta,  the 
relics  give  hardly  any  evidence  respecting  events,  and  ouly  Hcanty 
and  incoherent  testimony  of  the  conditions  of  their  life.  The  fur- 
ther back  we  go  in  the  investigation  the  less  satisfactory  docs  the 
knowledge  imparted  by  them  become.  But  they  are  all  that  we 
have  by  which  to  inform  ourselves  respecting  the  lifo  of  ju-inii. 
tive  man. 

Relics  of  human  life  antedating  all  written  monumeut5  have 
been  found  in  nearly  all  countries  where  the  search  ha*  bof-n  car- 
ried on  by  excavation,  and  often  occur  superficially  where  ihtj 
can  be  seen  without  particular  search.  The  invest  i>  ''  *  'h 
relics  has  been  mndo  most  systematically  in  the  ^n 

coiontries,  and  it  was  there  that  the  division  of  prehistoric  limes 
into  three  periods  was  first  made.  Thus  in  Sweden  the  u«io  of  iron 
was  universal  in  the  ninth  century  A.D.,  and  had  been  so  for  a 
long  time.  Investigation  of  the  antiquities  of  the  country  hoB 
sliown  that  previous  to  the  Iron  ago  there  was  another  long  lime 
when  iron  was  not  known,  and  weapons  and  tiJol8  wore  made  of 
bronze;  and  that  before  the  beginning  of  the  "Br  -"the 

country  had  been  inhabited  by  j>eople  who  had  l  :  _  use  of 
metals,  and  were  obliged  to  employ  such  materials  as  aUme,  ham^ 
bonp,  and  wood.    This  was  the  **  ^"  o."    Wo  can  conceivei 

says  the  Rov.  P.  Woods,  how  inco:  h  tho  evidence  respect- 

ing the  primitive  life  aflforded  by  these  relics  of  stone  and  brooxep 
ty  reflect i:  -  "  /  while  furniture,  stuffs,  :-  1  i  -^  -  --  r  -.j^ 
of  such  1  io  materials  as  wood,  b  : 

foruied  inooinparably  Uie  greater  part  of 
heathen  Northmen,  it  '-^  "■•"H''byan  *^*'- 
spncialJy  favorable  c  "^  that 

able  to  survive* 


THE  STONE  AGE  IN  HEATHEN  SWEDEN 


Tho  rt'Iics  of  tho  Stone  ago  in  Sweden,  and  incidentally  in  Scan- 
inaviH  generally,  are  described,  and  the  testimony  they  give  to  the 
[kind  of  life  tho  people  lived  is  sot  forth  in  the  fii-st  part  of  Dr. 
Oncar  MontMiiis's  "Civilization  nf  Swetlru  in  Heathen  Times" 
(London  and  New  York,  Macmillan  &  Co.).  from  which,  and  the 

\y,  F.  Woods's  intro- 
'<Inctioii.  the  facta  and 
illustrations  in  this  ar- 
ticle are  derived. 

Our  only  clew  to  the 
lanti'juity  of  human 
teottlemeut  in  Scandi- 
lUavia  is  derived  from 
ithe  evidence  afforded 
Ly  certain  finds  of  a 
habitation  of  some 
Bouthorn  |iarts  of  the  region  by  a  people  of  the  Stone  age  at  a  time 
when  firs  were  still  the  prevailing  trees  there.  Since  then  the  for- 
ests of  tir-ti-ees  have  died  out  and  made  way  for  great  forests  of 
[oaks,  "which  covered  the  land  till  they  in  their  turn  succumbed 

tho  now  prevailing  beech  woo«is." 


PlO.  1.— fUnnUMO-PKfiBLB. 


Piu.  B.— Ltm&TK  FuMT  Saw. 


Traces  of  population  at  a  somewhat  later  but  still  very  early 

dati'Hre  found  in  the  "  kitchen-middens"— enonnous  collections 

[of  shells,  with  bones,  bearing  marks  of  having  been  eaten  from, 

md  remains  of  fireplaces  and  instruments — which  are  scattered 

along  the  sea-coasts. 


T" 


FU.  4.— POLUBBD  QsnfDVrONI,  VDBS  BT    tJ*ll. 

with  which  the  Northmen  during  the  Stone  age 

"  "       * -ks,  and  which  are  found  at  their  old 

.  saws,    borers,  chist^ls,  and  axes  or 
*  made  out  of  flint,  chipped  into  shape  by 


5o6 


TRE  POPUT^n  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


stono   liammers,  of  which    many  spt'cinien.s   liave  1" 
Soiuetiines  liollows  were  cut  or  ^oirnd  out  iu  the  1"  wg- 

pebbles  (Fig.  1),  in  order  to  secure  a  firmer  grip  for  tb^  ting«r«. 

The  maimer  iu  which  such  tt  peb- 
ble could  be  usetl  for  the  work 
was  demonstrat«xI  to  an  Eugliali<- 
luaa  Bome  time  ago  by  au  IndiaD 
arrow-maker  in  California.  The 
long  and  narrow  barbs  in  the  fine 
arrow-heads  (Fig.  2)  and  $«w* 
toeth  ( Fig.  3 )  wore  uhlAinod 
prol^ably  by  the  pressuTM  of  % 
bone  tool.,  such  as  is  still  uecd 
by  some  American  tribiMs.  Hoktt 
Flo.  ^— amub  bbad.       Fiq. a.— Boir«  pwo     Were    bored,   where    newlwl,  by 

'^'^  twirling    a    stick,  hard  pressed 

upon,  against  the  spot  where  the  perforation  was  to  be.  It  took  %\ 
long  time»but  primitive  meu  had  time.  Most  of  the  tools  were ' 
only  chipi>e<I.  while  others  were  polisln?vl  or  ground.  The  grimi- 
stpone  was  usually  a  suitable  block  of  sandstone,  or  else  a  thiek^ 
piece  of  the  same  material.  One  of  these  pieces,  which  ha*  bfcn 
Worn  down  in  the  middle  by  use,  is  represented  by  Fig.  4.  Handl<>«,J 
if  the  instruments  were  provided  with  them,  were  inserted  iutoJ 


2^ 


fin.  7.~Dmjim  at  Ha«a.  ok  ma  Islarti  or  Omrvr. 


holes  bored  by  the  t«diou»  procoffi  which  we  have  mtmtioned, 
were  attached  in  grooves  by  splitting  the  end  of  a  stick  and  l)ind- 
ing  it  around  by  (^ords.    Cln 

•.st,  but  Homt'  b»fautiful  win 
ihem  ;   and  a  Danish  g'  n 

ime  tree«  foUtxl  and  all  Uii*  ^on.  u. ■,...-; 


THE  STOXE  AGE  IX  HEATHEN'  SWEDEN, 


50: 


houiM?,  "with  <lo*jrs  and  wind()ws,  carried  out  exclusively  with  axes 
and  other  implements  of  flint. 

At  first  the  people  are  supposed  to  have  made  such  clothes  as 
they  wore  of  nkiixa  and  hides ;  at  a  later  peritKl  they  became  ac- 
quainted with  woven  stiiffs  of  wool  ;  and  the  lake-dwellers  of 
Switzerland  cultivated  flax.  For  ornaments  they  had  beads  of 
am))er  (Fij?.  5),  the  teeth  of  animals,  and  articles  of  bone.  Awls  and 
needles  were  made  of  bone^and  au  instrument  resembling  a  comb, 
made  of  the  same  material,  is  suj>posed  to  have  been  used,  just  as 
instruments  of  the  kind  are  employed  by  the  Eskimo's,  in  cutting 
out  the  leather  threafls  for  sewing.  Fishing  and  the  ch/ise  sup- 
plied the  chief  means  of  subsistence,  and  probably,  during  the  ear- 
lier part  of  the  period,  the  only  means.  Hooks  (Fig,  0)  wei'e  made 
of  bone,  or  of  bone  with  the  point  and  barb  of  flint.     Harpoons 


Iha,  a— Two  PABHAOsOiuris  at  LtrrroA. 

and  fishing-spears  were  also  in  use,  and  the  lake-dwellers  hod  nets. 
The  people  liad  boats,  for  remains  of  fish  that  can  only  >>©  caught 
in   '  t  watt-r  have  been  found  in  the  middens.    The  earliest 

b"  '  '  -probably  "dug-outs,"  though  none  of  those  now  known 
can  be  referred  to  the  Stone  age.  Domestic  animals  were  kept»  for 
Uj  •_  1  _  ^  I  _^,^  "be^n  found  in  the  passage-graves.  The  Swiss 
pcv  I    cattle  and  tilled  the  grnunil,  raising  flax,  three 

sorts  of  wheat,  and  two-cornered  and  six-cornered  barley.    We 

hn*- ■  ^-     *—    *  .^^.  ...•  *;n...„.  \^  Sweden  during  the  Stone  age, 

l>i  rhat  it  was  not  unknown  to  them ; 

jir  i  by  the  discovery  of  a  stone  liand- 


5o8 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


mill  belcinp:ing  t^  thi^  perio<l.     Caldrons  of  day  li        ' 

iu  tho  uppor  part*  by  wliic}i  the  vtessel  was  prol-. 

the  lire  for  crooking.    Vessels  were  decorutod  ^tb  straight  linen. 

A  born  axe  assigned  to  ibis  period  boars  two  ungTavt<d  rupresontA- 

iii)as  of  animalB. 

Except  the  pile-hotiaes  of  the  Swiss  InkeH,  w«  know  nnlhing  of 
the  dwellings  of  tbo  Stone  age.  Prof.  MonteliuH  thinks  the  coo- 
JBcture  is  aUowable  that  the  people  lived  in  tents  made  of  hSd^i^ 
or  in  hovels  of  wood,  at^mes.  and  turf.  Prof.  Nilsson  ban  irared 
a  resemblance  in  fv»nn  Iwitween  what  are  called  the  **  passage- 
graves  "  of  Scandinavia  and  the  homes  of  the  arctic  mees  in 
Anif'rica  and  Europe.  That  the  fitone-age  men  had  '" 
ing-plac*es  '*api)ears  from  their  often  magniti<*Mut  tom 
seem  to  point  to  the  beginning  of  an  organized  society,  and  Iho 
combined  industry  of  a  small  community  or  of  a  whole  tribe.", 
Thase  tombs  are  described  as  "dolmens"  (Fig.  7),  *^  paswage- 
graves"  (Fig.  8),  and  "stone  cists"  (Fig.  9),  Of  thew,  the  dol- 
mens were  the  earliest ;  the  passage-graves  are  a  little  later ;  the 


^ 


:■:< 


l^ 


< 


N.*^l 


Pl».  9,~«T0K*  OlVT  K>A» 


uncovered  str»ne  cists  are  later  still ;  and  the  cists  covertni  writh  aj 
barrnw  belong  to  tbo  time  of  transition  between  the  Stouo  andj 
Bronze  ages. 

"During  the  Stone  age"  says  Prof.  Montelius,,  ''bodic*  wwo 
always  buried  unburned,  in  a  recumbent  or  sitting  p^^sition.     By 

If  side  of  the  deaii  body  v 

>rae  ornaments.     We  oftt>a  i- 
ware  vessels,  now  filled  only  with  earth,    Thr 
the  last  rerftiug-plat^e  of  the  «1         '    '        * 
in  ft  future  life;  but  tlie  tbi 

^m  to  show  tluit  tJiat  life  was  h> 
non  of  the  life  on  irarth,  with  lbi>  r.iiiti.'  i:L-<  j  >  iwmi 


ELECTRICAL    WAVES, 


509 


ires.''  Uffenng -stones,  with  little  cup-shaped  holes,  are  sometimes 
found  on  the  voof-stunes  of  graves  of  the  Stone  age.  They  are  now 
popularly  cAlled  "elf-mills,"  and  are  still  regarded  as  holy;  and, 
it  is  said,  offerings  are  still  secretly  mafle  in  them. 

That  the  Stone  age  lasted  for  a  very  hjng  time  in  the  North  is 
provotl,  among  other  things,  by  the  fact  that  this  period  reached 
a  far  higher  development  there  than  anywhere  else  in  Eiiro]>e. 
At  what  time  it  began  in  Sweden  wo  can  not  even  approximately 
iletermine  ;  but  everything  seems  to  show  that  it  ende<l  rather 
before  than  after  1500  b.  c,  and,  therefore,  about  three  thousiknd 
five  hundred  years  before  our  time.  In  many  countries  of  the 
and  iu  the  south  of  Europe  th<>  Stone  age  came  to  an  end  long 
;  while  in  some  parts  of  the  New  World  this  stage  of  civili- 
zation has  continued  to  our  own  day. 


» 


ELECTRICAL  WAVES.* 

Bt  SAMUEL  SHELDON,  Piu  D. 

SINCE   the  time  when   Maxwell  occupied   himself  with  the 
theory  of  electricity,  perhaps  even  since  the  time  of  Fan 
day,  it  has  Wni  generally  accepted  by  most  physicists  that  elec- 
tricity is  a  phen<imenon  resulting  from  oscillations  of  the  lumi- 
niferoufl  ether.     However,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  experi- 
nienf-s  on  inductive  capacities,  etc.,  instigated  by  Maxweirs  '^elec- 
tro-magnetic theory  (tf   light,"  no  direct  experimental  veritica- 
tion«  of  this  hypothesis  had  been  made  until  the  latter  ])art  of 
Imi  year,  when  Prof.  Hertz,  of  Ciirlsriiho,  Germany,  commenced^ 
nj     ft  series  of  experiments  on  the  interference  of  electrical  wavef 
H-In  all,  six  articles  have  been   published— two  in  Band   31   and 
^wnr  in  Baud  34  of  the  *' Annalen  dcr  Physik  imd  Chemie.''    The 
^^^^lier  articles  are  of  a  qualitative  charm^ter.  while  the  latter  are 
^^quantitative.    The  former  are  of  loss  interest  than  the  latter,  be- 
^  cause  the  ]}henomena  are  less  striking  and  are  not  so  decisive  as 
a  proof.    They  are  substantially  as  follow:  The  secondary  elec- 
trodes of  a  large  Ruhmkorff  coil  consist  of  two  brass  rods  whose 
ends  are  i?urniounte<i  with  brass  balls.    The  two  rods  are  in  the 
mu  straight  line,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  short  air- 
r  about  sieven  millimetres  in  length.    This  is  the  general 
:  dischargt^r  in  a  Ruhmkorff.    From  either  of  these  elec- 
trodes is  led  a  wire,  which  connects  with  a  rectangularly  bent 
wire,  which,  liowever,  is  not  completely  closed,  but  is  cut  in  some 
rtion,  and  each  of  its  ends  surmounted  by  brass  lialls. 

Iliifora  Uw  K»lbOTail(c>J  Phjuioil  Club  of  Bosum  &nd  Cainbrtdge,  December 


5IO 


TH£  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


If,  now,  the  Ruhmkorff  be  excited,  the  followi?  :  wt 

result:  If  the  point  of  contact  between  thecoudi.  uul 

tho  rectangle  be  moved  alon^  the  latter,  it  will  l>e  foumi  that| 
for  most  places,  a  spark  passes  between  the  balls  of  tlu»  rect- 
angle, which  varies  in  intensity,  and  at  one  place  entirely  di^p^ 
poars.  This  place,  if  we  suppose  the  opening  in  the  rectangle  to 
be  in  the  middle  of  one  end  and  both  balls  to  be  of  the  same 
size,  is  in  the  middle  of  the  other  end.  If,  now,  while  no  spark 
is  yHiflvsiug  in  the  rectangle,  an  inwUlated  conductor  bo  brought 
into  connection  with  either  ball,  the  sparks  again  apj>ear.  These, 
again,  may  be  caused  to  disappear  by  moving  the  point  of 
contact  toward  the  manipulated  terminal.  The  same  effect 
would  also  l>e  produced  if,  instead  of  cJianging  the  jKiiut  of 
contact,  an  equal  insulate  conductor  were  touched  to  the  other 
balL 

The  length,  resistance,  and  quality  of  the  conducting  wiro  have 
no  influence  upon  the  sparks ;  neither  does  the  resistance  or  mato- 
rial  of  the  rectangle  affect  it  noticeably :  e.  g.,  one  half  of  the 
rectangle  being  made  of  thick  copjwr  wire  and  the  other  of  very 
fine  German-silver  wire  did  not  alter  tho  phenomena.  Another 
conductor  being  brought  in  contort  with  tho  joint  between  the 
conducting  ynra  and  the  rectangle  has  no  influence. 

The  size  of  the  rectangle  has  a  gi-eat  influence  u]>on  the  siw 
and  length  of  the  spark  between  its  terminals ;  the  larger  giving, 
within  certain  limits,  always  tlio  longer  spark. 

The  air  distance  of  tho  Ruhmkorff  discharger  is  of  great  Im- 
portance ;  under  five  and  more  than  tiftr-en  nnllimetrps  prnv*xl  tn 
be  infelicitous. 

Hertz's  explanation  of  these  phononu'iia  i.s  the  t'ulii>wing :  M 
the  moment  when  a  discharge  takes  place  Ix^tween  the  t«'nninaU 
of  a  Ruhmkorff  coil,  in  the  whole  circuit,  and  in  all  comluct^irs  in 
contact  with  it,  powerful  wave  disturbances  are  agitated,  which 
follow  each  other  in  such  infinitesimal  portions  of  time  that  tho 
time  which  is  required  to  travel  with  enormous  velocity  even  a 
short  wire  is  appreciable.  Those  waves,  arriving  through  the 
conducting  wire  at  the  rectiingle,  divide  and  traverse  simultane- 
ously both  branches.     If  both  sides  are  electrical!  al, 

the  two  wave-branches  arrive  at  the  balls  of  the  i.  -   .-    ...  tX» 

actly  the  same  phase,  but  oppositely  directed,  and  interfere;  ibere 
can  then  l>e,  of  course,  no  spark.     If,  ^ 
m*;trical,  as  when  the  contact  is  not  in 

t<?rfero  totally,  but  a  spark  jjas^cs,    Aj»  the  co:  iM 

t^  "'  irk  at  it*?  temainals  wUl  In.*  ji  >iH 

ICC  is  more  or  less  t-'tnl.  H 

Th«  uiectncal  sjTnmetry  dejiends  r-  .  H 

tho  wire,  but  upon  its  sclf-inductioo  cmuu  itnL  .n:  t|H 


The  formula  which  exjiresses  the  ri'lations  is  one  from   Lorenz 
I     ("  Aanalen  der  Phyyik  iind  Chemie,"  vii,  p.  1*J1): 

■  where  T  =  time  of  oscillatioa  of  the  electrical  wave,  P  =  the  self- 
H  induction  of  the  conductor  concerned,  C  =  its  electrostatic  ca- 
HflBDity,  autl  A  =  velocity  of  ele«»trieal  {iropagatiou,  which  is  a«- 
^^Hinoti  to  be  that  of  light.  It  will  thus  l>e  seen  that  eiu:h  conducttjr 
W  has  it8  own  proper  time  of  electrical  oscillation  and  wave-len^^h. 
If,  now»  the  capacity  of  one  side  of  the  rectangle  be  increased, 
the  time  of  oseilliUion  of  the  waves  on  that  side  will  b<^  also  in- 
creased. This  will  increase  the  wave-length,  and  equilibrium  can 
be  established  by  adding  the  same  capacity  to  the  other  side,  or 
by  changing  the  point  of  contact. 

For  the  reason  that  the  only  variables  in  the  time  of  oscilla- 
tion are  tlje  self-induction  and  the  capacity,  the  resistance  and 
material  of  the  rectangle  have  no  influence  on  the  phenomena. 
Bt.rause  tlie  capacity  of  each  half  of  the  rectangle  is  chiefly  thai 
of  the  balls  at  its  terminals,  the  employing  of  fine  wire  for  on« 
half  can  produce  no  noticeable  effect. 

That  the  size  of  the  rectangle  should  have  such  an  influence  is 
to  be  expected  up  to  certain  limits — that  is,  until  the  total  length 
of  the  sides  is  one  wave-length  or  a  multiple  of  the  same.  Then 
the  waves  could  be  made  to  arrive  at  the  terminals  in  opposil 
phases,  and  would  give  the  largest  sparks. 

PWere  this  the  oidy  proof  which  Hertz  could  give  of  interfer- 
ence, a  groat  deal  of  doubt  might  be  cast  upon  its  conclusiveness. 
Would  not  one  naturally  exj>ect  that,  if  both  sides  of  the  rectangle 
were  of  the  same  length  and  had  the  same  capacity,  the  potential 
on  both  balls  would  bo  the  same,  and  no  discharge  coiild  take 
place;  or^when  of  different  capacities,  the  charging  and  discharg- 
following  each  other  so  rapidly  that  the  same  quantity  of 
stricity  would  tend  to  pass  through  a  section  of  each  side  of 
the  rectangle,  and  would  thus  necessitate  a  discharge  ? 

Biit  Hertz's  quantitative  experiments  are  more  satist'itctory. 
In  order  to  understand  them,  a  few  preliminary  phenomena  must 
bo  described.  These  relate  to  what  he  calls  the  principle  of  '*  reso- 
nance." As  any  sound  resonator,  having  its  own  proper  wave- 
length, can  be  set  in  vibration  by  a  vibrating  body  of  the  .same  or 
multiple  time  of  vibration,  so  we  might  suppose  that  any  electri- 
cal -r  •  i.-^*-or  could  be  set  in  vibration  by  a  neighboring  electrical 
}>aii<vi  of  proper  time  of  oscillation.  This  sui)position 
il»  ^  t. 

.rr  .iif-M.^T^t  are  very  similar  to  those  in 

instead  of  the  two  outer  brass 

Ihi.  -chiirgor,  two  hollow  zinc  spheres  of 


5»* 


TH£  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTBLY, 


thirty   ccmtimeti'es  diameter  were  su'    '       '  d.  and    *'  ^jH 

iiiovftblo  along  the  rods.     As  these  ci-,  .       t.lie  td»>i  iifl 

of  the  discharger,  the  same  may  be  altered  in  length  by  tivn  toted 
diameter  of  each  by  simply  letting  the  rcnls  proj\*ct  into  '^  ily 

of  the  spheres.   The  time  of  oscillation  of  the  wavt's  in  ;  m* 

korff  can  thus  be  altered.  The  bi-ass  balls  of  the  rectangle  were 
provided  with  a  micrometer  adjustment,  so  that  the  length  of 
spark  which  jMtsHed  might  l>e  measure*!.  Tlie  connecting  wire 
was  in  these  experiments  di8j>eused  with,  and  the  rectangle  was 
mounted  on  insulators  in  front  of  the  Ruhmkorff  discharger. 

With  this  arrangement  Hertz  carried  out  a  complete  eet  of 
observations,  in  each  of  which  the  etfect  of  a  regular  i»t*rie!<  of 
changes  in  one  of  the  variables  was  investigated — e.  g.,  the  time 
of  oscillation  of  the  primary  discharger  would  be  regulArly  in- 
creased by  changing  the  capacity  or  self-induction,  and  for  each 
change  the  length  of  spark  in  the  rectangle  would  b^?  njeasured. 
One  series  in  detail  will  suf&c^^  for  our  purpose. 

Suppose,  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  that  t;  <if 

oscillation  of  the  rectangle  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  1 ;  rff 

discharger,  and  the  spark  is  one  millimetre  long.  If  now  we  hang 
two  hooks  of  wire  on  each  ball  (»f  the  rectangle,  the  capacity  ia 
increasfi'd,  and  we  get  a  spurk  of  three  millimetres.  Add  two 
more  equal  hooks,  and  the  spark  is  five  millimetres.  Add  two 
more,  and  it  falls  off  to  three  millimetres  again.  If  this  proc^es 
be  continued,  the  spark  will  alternately  reach  a  maximum  and 
minimum,  and  the  natural  inference  is  that  the  time  of  ^  n 

of  the  rectangle  is  nearest  that  of  the  RuhuikorfT  discliii  .^q 

the  spark  in  the  former  is  at  a  maximum. 

Perhaps  it  is  mont  striking  to  jil         '     -       -    n    s  :   .[ 
mum  spark  distance,  and  then,  by  1  v  rl.in^^in^  ti 

ty  of  either  conductor,  cause  the  spark  to  dinappear  and  reappoai; 
Should  small  spheres  be  used,  instead  of  wire*,  for  ch.i  Mie 

capacity,  we  would  then  have  a  direct  moans  of  deten.  '-(? 

wave-length. 

These  seta  of  experiments  led  Hertz  to  conclude  that  tht-  j«  jn- 
ciple  of  resonance  is  us  true  for  eU>cfrical  waves  as  for  soiuid 
waves,  and  he  employs  it  for  his  quantitative  work. 

The  arrangement  of  apparatus  is  as  follows:  To  the  outer  euds 
of  tlie  RiihuikorfP  discharger  are  attached  two  plates,  wbone  planes 
are  vertical  and  embrace  the  line  of  direction  of  '  r. 

Back  of  one  of  these  is  mounte<l  on  an  insulated  £i  .-  -  ...iiir 
pluto  of  the  same  size.    A  wire  leads  from  the  itiner  tf«ntnil  edgo 


metre»  directly  oTer  the  discharger,  and  then   • 

straight  borizontAl  lino  somo  sixty  metres.    The  ouu  \^  itu  irvt. 


ELECTRICAL   WAVES. 


fanrl,  If  now  the  RiihmkorfF  be  excited,  a  series  of  stationary  elec- 
trical waves  will  be  fonned  in  the  wire.  To  detect  these  we  em- 
[ploy  the  principle  of  resonance.  A  wire  whose  time  of  osciUation 
;lia8  been  determined  and  found  to  bo  nearly  eqnal  to  that  of  the 
>rimary  conductor  is  bent  into  a  circle,  and  the  ends  are  brought 
close  together.  This  is  then  brought  close  to  the  long  wire,  and 
beld  so  that  its  jdane  embraces  the  latter,  A  fine  display  of  sparks 
will  be  seen  to  accompany  the  Rulimkorff  discharge. 

If  this  proof  circuit  be  approached  to  the  extreme  end  of  the 
long  wire,  no  sparks  will  be  seen.    The  wire  has  at  its  end,  in  fact, 
a  node  the  same  as  a  stopped  organ-pipe  has.    As  the  air  in  the 
pipe  is  undisturbed,  so  the  potential  of  the  wire  end  is  unchange- 
able.   As  we  recede  from  the  end,  the  sparks  grow  longer,  but 
finally  disappear  again.    Here  is  another  node.    We  measure  the 
distADCe  between  the  two  and  cut  the  wire  so  that  its  total  length 
shall  be  a  multiple  of  this  length,  and  then  we  proceed  to  find  all 
the  nodes,  and  mark  them  by  paper  riders.    If  we  measure  each 
of  these  distances  and  take  the  mean,  or  measure  the  whole  length 
of  the  wire  and  divide  by  the  number  of  nodes,  we  have  a  value 
for  the  wave-length  of  the  conductor.    In  Hertz's  experiment  this 
value  was  2*8  metres.    From  this  value,  and  the  time  of  oscilla- 
tion reckoned  from  the  self-induction  and  capacity,  he  gets  the 
velocity  of  propagation  of  electrical  disturbances  as  two  hundred 
thoxisand  kilometres  per  second.     This  result  Hertz  prints  in 
bold-faced  tj-pe,  and  puts  it  as  a  climax  of  all  his  work.    This  is 
truly  wonderful.     If  we  consider  that  the  calculated  value  of  the 
time  of  oscillation  depends  upon  the  assumption  that  the  velocity 
of  electrical  wave  propagation  is  the  same  as  that  of  light  (three 
hundred  thousand  kilometres  per  second),  and  this  circuitons 
^calculation  of  the  same  thing  gives  two  hundred  thousand  kilo- 
Bmertres  per  second,  we  can  hardly  give  Hertz  the  credit  of  ex- 
■  tremely  accurate  work.     However,  Hertz  has  made  a  great  ad- 
m  vance  in  physical  science.    Since  Weber  introduce<l  the  absolute 
system  of  units,  no  great  advance  has  been  made.    Physicists  have 
busied  themselves  in  measuring  the  various  constants,  in  refining 
I     and  perfecting  the  methods  of  measnrement,  or  in  applying  prin- 
Rciplee  already  known  to  techuic4il  and  practical  purposes.    Hertz, 
^however,  has  opened  a  new  and  unexplored  field,  which  must 
eventually  bring  us  into  a  closer  acquaintance  with  the  mysteries 
which  wo  are  daily  manipulating. 

This  series  of  experiments  has  excited  a  great  deal  of  attention 
in  English  physical  circles.  Prof.  Fit2gerald,  of  this  department 
of  the  British  Association,  laid  groat  emphasis,  at  the  last  meet- 
ing, on  the  advance  which  had  been  made.  Oliver  Heaviside  has 
{nstified  his  patronjrmic  by  publishing  a  complex  mass  of  mathe- 
ral  formula  on  the  subject    He  considers  that  the  waves  of 

tOU  ITtTT. — 98 


THE  POPULAR  SCISjrCS  MONTUIT. 

Hertz  are  of  a  muuli  moro  complex  naturo  ihun  the  expocimsDi 
would  leave  oue  to  infer. 

When  we  remember  the  effect  which  electricity  }ia«  npon  th 
plane  of  polarized  light,  it  would  seem  that  H    '   '       :      ' 
are  of  an  entirely  different  order  from  what  th' _ 
can  electrical  wave-lengths  of  one  metro  be  in  any  way  as&ociated' 
with  light-waves  of  less  than  one  billionth  of  a  millimetre  ?   What- 
ever we  have  known  of  the  wave  lengths  of  the  ether,  in  radiant 
heat  and  light,  has  always  been  of  that  infinitesimal  ordeo*.    Still, 
Bhould  tho  velocity  of  propagation  of  electrical  waves  bo  tu  ucU 
greater  than  has  been  supposed,  then  with  these  large  wave-leagths 
the  times  of  oscillation  coidd  be  of  the  same  order  as  tboso  of 
light 

Hertz,  however,  has  a  system  of  stationary  wares,  and  it  w<mld 
seem  that  no  direct  calculations  could  give  a  correct  value  for  the 
time  of  oscillation.  This  can  bo  shown  by  moving  a  long  trongh 
of  water.  By  holding  one  end  in  the  hand,  suitable  impulses  can 
be  given  so  as  to  produce  any  desired  wave-length&  Bhould 
Hertz  be  wrong  in  his  conclusions,  still  the  impulse  which  he  baa 
given  in  this  direction  is  sure  to  fructify.  It  is  possible  that  in* 
duction  may  be  found  to  be  a  phenomenon  of  pure  wave-motion, 
and  that  it  can  be  likened  directly  to  radiation.  Ooidd  we  Ibeo 
carry  the  comparison  still  further,  and  say  that  a  conductor  is  an 
opaque  medium;  that  a  dielectric  is  transparent— then  wo  would 
likely  soon  be  constructing  electrical  lenses,  would  be  di<toctiug 
electrical  refraction,  diffraction,  and  p4>8aibly  l>e  an 

electrical  spectrum.    Doubtless,  if  not  this,  some  ^ -^uig 

will  develop,  and  no  young  physicist  need  then  say  that  all  tho 
things  in  physics  have  already  been  discovered  and  mt'ABuraL 


••••»■ 


THE  WASTES  OF  MODERN  CIVILIZATION'. 

Bt  FELIX  L.  OSWAU),  II  tH. 
I. 

VARNHAOEN  von  EXSE,  the  Germaa  Ifawi 
izos  the  shams  of  our  latter-day  civilizatiou  .«  ^^-  rei 
Pthaf'a  constant  improvement  in  the  luster  of  the  varnish 
kept  up  with  the  progressive  dry-rot  of  tho  timber," 

Tlie  historian  thus  denoomc^a  the  incroasiug  political  camip- 
tiou  of  his  age,  but  his  aphorism  admits  of  a  maoh  wi' 
tiou-    Tlie  increase  •  " 
it  trios  to  simulate;  II 

the  baldest  ogotism ;  calioua  inhamaxiity  is  gloajMd  ov< 
UmtinCal  oaaL 


THE  WASTES   OF  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


5'5 


I      But  the  justice  of  Vambagen's  indictment  is  perhaps  most 
torcibly  illustrated  in  the  time  and  labor  saving  contrivances  of 
modem  civilization,  as  contrasted  with  the  enormous  waste  inci- 
lent  to  tho  ovils  of  life  under  abnormal  circumstances. 

The  apparent  shiftlessness  of  animals  and  savages  is  often  due 

to  their  coniidence  in  the  spontaneous  bounty  of  Nature,    Apes 

will  nibble  and  fling  away  dozens  of  wild  figs  for  one  they  eat,  well 

knowing  that  the  forests  will  continue  to  produce  millions  of  simi- 

H'lar  fruits.    Nomads  exhaust  the  pastures  of  a  whole  river-delta, 

Hfrud  then  drive  their  herds  farther  inlandi  having  found  by  ex- 

Bperienco  that,  before  the  return  of  spring,  the  coast-land  meadows 

"will  have  recovered  their  luxuriance. 

We  pity  the  ignorance  of  the  Circassian  peasant  who  wastefl 
his  time  and  energy  by  plowing  his  highland  farm  with  an  imple* 
ment  resembling  a  crooked  fonce-rail ;  but  together  with  other 
old-fashioned  things  that  bai'barian  has  retained  his  primitive 
confidence  in  the  trustworthiness  of  his  natural  instincts^  and  con- 
sequently devotes  every  square  yard  of  his  field  to  the  production 
I     of  palatable  and  nutritious  vegetables, 

^k      "  Whatever  is  natural  is  wrong,"  was  for  centuries  the  shibbo- 
^^eth  of  our  spiritual  taskmasters,  and  that  doctrine  has  borne  its 
fruit  in  the  reckless  disregard  of  our  natural  intuitions.     The 
shocking  taste  of  a  poisonous  weed  or  liquid  is  generally  accepted 
as  a  •prima  facie  proof  of  its  wholesomeness,  and  many  millions 
of  acres,  plowed  and  harrowed  with  highly  improved  apparatus, 
are  wasted  on  the  production  of  not  only  useless  but  positively 
^pernicious  harvests.    Our  prohibition  orators  bewaC  the  vast  area 
Hof  arable  soil  wasted  on  distillery  crops,  but  in  the  eyes  of  science 
"the  alcohol-habit  is  only  a  special  form  of  the  stimulant-vice, 
which,  in  the  course  of  the  last  fifty  years,  has  assumed  more 
gigantic  proportions  than  in  the  most  bibulous  era  of  pagan  an- 
tiquity.   The  official  statistics  of  the  liquor  traffic  generally  allow 
one  bushel  of  grain  for  two  gallons  of  spirits,  and  three  bushels 
^kor  one  barrel  of  beer.    By  that  estimate,  the  distilleries  of  the 
^United  States  alone  consumed  in  the  last  few  years  an  annual 
average  of  thirty-five  million  bushels  of  grain,  the  breweries  at 
least  twenty  millions.    The  aggregate  of  that  wasted  farm-prod- 
Tice  would  have  ma/le  more  than  a  billion  four-pound  loaves  of 
bread,  or  nearly  a  hundred  loaves  for  every  household  in  North 
AmcTtca.     Placefl  side  by  side,  tho  bushel-measures  containing 
Xh$X  grain  would  form  a  chain  equal  iu  extent  to  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  earth.    But  the  area  of  the  land  thus  **  tilled  to  bring 
forth  ah  "     '  ind  disease  "  is  only  a  fraction  of 

klho  total  ^  '  iltivated  to  subserve  the  various 

lonxu  of  the  stimulant- vice.     Tobacco,  tea,  coffee,  pulque,  and 
Dpitmif  together  witii  all  the  toxic  atimtilanta  prepared  from  tree- 


Si6 


THK  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


fruits  and  edible  roots,  devour  the  toil  of  many  v  "  riS* 

and  the  productive  value  of  at  least  one  million  oqv  The 

fertility  of  that  enormous  area  is  thus  not  only  wasted,  but  tQniiedi{ 
from  a  blessing  into  a  concentration  of  cureea.  Munldr  '  '-  leed, 
would  gain  by  the  result  if  the  fruitful  fields  of  tliut  ,  har- 

vest were  wholly  withdrawn  from  human  use ;  but  if  even  only 
lialf  thoir  surface  were  devoted  to  the  production  of  wholesome 
food,  pauperism  would  disappear  before  the  blessings  of  an  un- 
paralleled abundance — an  abundance  far  exceeding  the  prosperity 
of  the  happiest  provinces  of  pagan  Italy  or  Moorish  Spain.  Add* 
ing  the  indirect  benefits  resulting  from  the  decrease  of  disease  and 
.crime,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  half  the  weight  of  human 
misery  would  thus  be  lifted  from  the  scale  of  weal  and  woo. 

Our  political  economists  would  bo  scandalized  by  studying  the 
free-and-easy  financial  methods  of  ancient  empires  whose  mlcra 
often  permitted  a  large  percentage  of  the  public  taxes  to  cling  to 
the  pockets  of  ill-controlled  collectors;  but  the  live-aud-let-Uve 
carelessness  of  those  potentates  was  associated  with  a  belief  in  the 
justice  of  the  general  claim  to  earthly  happiness,  and  the  evils  of 
absolutism  were  mitigated  by  the  liberality  of  the  absolute  CffKtars. 
Every  city  of  the  Roman  Empire  had  its  free  wrestling-ring  and 
foot-race  course ;  every  provincial  metropolis  a  free  circus,  with 
accommodation  for  many  thousand  spectators.  Free  baths  were 
thought  as  indispensable  as  free  public  fountains  of  pure  drink- 
ing-water. Holidays  were  multiplied  to  satisfy  the  neoda  of  an 
increasing  population  deprived  of  the  rustic  sports  of  their  anoce^ 
tors.  Every  community  had  its  weekly  and  monthly  fcetivalB. 
In  Greece  even  the  hostilities  of  civil  wars  were  suspended 
,  insure  free  access  to  the  plains  of  Corinth,  where  the  Olsrmpio 
games  were  celebrated  with  a  regularity  that  made  their  period 
the  basis  of  chronological  computation  for  a  space  of  nearly  eightj 
hundred  years.  "WTien  Rome  became  the  capital  of  the  world,  the 
yearly  disbiirsomenta  for  the  subvention  of  free  public  recrcatioos 
equaled  the  tribute  of  a  wealthy  province.  As  a  consoquonce, 
jeoutent  with  the  rule  of  such  autocrats  was  so  mro,  that  the  pcacD' 
-of  an  empire  equal  in  extent  to  the  entire  areia  of  modem  Europe 
could  be  preserved  with  a  standing  army  of  leas  than  one  hundred 
thousand  men. 

The  modem  alliance  of  canting  hypocrisy  and  bullying  despoUJ 
ism  has  tried  a  different  plan.     Enjoyments  are  reserved   fi 
aristocrats  by  the  grace  of  tiie  orthodox  Deity,  while  the  wmrshi] 
of  sorrow  is  enforced  on  milliona  of  toilers,  whoee  deidre  of  reonnj 
ation  is  suppressed  as  a  rev' .    '     '         : 
Cffiears  silenced  the  chunoni  f< 
circus  games;  the  Czarfl  silence  them  wir 
cowed  victims  of  knout  and  cro«8  caa  nut  k^- 


I 


'^J-t 


THE  WASTES   OF  MODERN  CIVILIZATION, 


defense  of  their  oppressors;  and  the  conscious  impossibility  of 
relying  on  the  enthusiasm  of  volunteers  obliges  every  ruler  of 
fifty  faithful  square  miles  to  surround  his  throne  with  a  bulwark 

fof  dehumanized  machine  soldiers,  who,  in  obedience  to  the  man- 
date of  the  uniformed  chief  machinist^  would  shoot  their  own 
fathers  or  bayonet  their  owji  children.  A  territory  which  once 
could  be  easily  managed  with  twenty  legions,  each  of  four  thou- 
sand men,  has  now  to  be  bullied  into  submission  by  standing 
armies  aggregating  from  five  million  and  a  half  to  six  million 
conscripts.  The  expenses  of  maintaining  that  apparatus  for  the 
perpetuation  of  orthodox  despotism  cost  the  nations  of  Europe  a 
minimum  of  1025,000,000  a  year,  and  withdraw  from  agriculture 
an  amount  of  labor  which  otherwise  would  suffice  to  support  her 
population  in  spite  of  intermittent  droughts. 

Our  elaborate  code  of  by-laws  for  the  suppression  of  holiday 
recreations  can  still  be  circumvented  by  the  resources  of  opulence^ 
and  the  well-known  hopelessness  of  any  other  expedient  has  stim- 
Hnlated  a  race  for  wealth  which  does  not  hesitate  to  attain  its  ob* 
Hfect  at  any  risk  of  social  or  sanitary  consequences.    The  number 
^Mf  infants  which  the  superstition  of  the  Ammonites  sacrificed  to 
Vlfoloch  is  a  mere  trifle  compared  with  the  multitude  of  children 
■  now  devoted  to  a  far  more  cruel  fate  by  being  literally  drudged 
to  death  in  crowded  factories  to  enable  a  millionaire  to  save  a  few 
^dimes  on  his  weekly  pay-roll  and  add  a  few  per  cent  to  the  exor- 
Hbitant  rate  of  his  yearly  profits.    In  times  of  general  scarcity  the 
market  has  been  drained  of  its  scant  supplies  by  speculators  try- 
ing to  coin  gain  from  the  distress  of  their  fellow-men  and  risking, 
.fter  all,  to  be  foiled  by  the  decay  of  their  hoarded  stores  or  their 
lestructiou  by  fire  or  flood.    Quack  nostrums,  which  not  one  in- 
tent man  in  a  hundred  would  privately  hesitate  to  pronounce 
itely  worse  than  worthless,  are  sold  by  ship-loads  and  car- 
loads to  disseminate  disease  and  the  seeds  of  the  stimiilant-vico, 
and  the  saints  who  contribute  thousands  to  insure  the  theological 
soundness  of  the  Quaggalla  Hottentots  do  not  care  enough  for 
the  physical  health  of  their  own  eoimtrymen  to  whisper  a  word 
^against  the  lawfulness  of  the  infamous  traffic. 
^p     Nearly  two  thousand  years  ago  Pliny  and  Columella  denounced 
l^tho  folly  of  destroying  the  highland  for€»pt.s  that  shelter  the  sources 
of  fertilizing  brooks  and  the  nests  of  inswt-destroying  birds.    "  8a- 
groves"  were  not  limited  to  the  land  of  the  Phcenicians.    The 
loltic  and  German  Druids  protected  the  forests  of  their  native 
l»;  nnd  even  the  barbarous  Huns  seem  dimly  to  have  recog- 
!  ojatic  influence  of  arboreal  v*>getation,  since  we  read 
rv  ,-.<.,>+v'*  laws  for  the  protection  of  the  mountain- 
Wc-  }'  of  the  Danube. 

^^^^1'  .^'u  of  Antinaturalism,  however^  inaugurated 


51« 


iiwonHH 


that  reckless  destruction  of  forest-trees  which  by  it*  consequence* 
has  turned  many  of  the  most  fniltful  regions  of  ancient  Eorope 
into  almost  irreclaimablo  deserts.  Rational  agriculture  bocaina* 
tradition  of  the  past ;  the  culture  of  secular  science  was 
denounced  from  thousands  of  pulpits ;  improvidence,  "  uiiw< 
ness,"  and  hlind  reliance  on  the  efficacy  of  prayer  were 
atically  inculcated  as  supreme  virtues.  A  warning  against  tho 
consequences  of  that  infatuation  would  have  been  answer&d  by 
the  prompt  anathemas  of  the  miracle-mongers;  but  it  would  bo  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  their  rant  imposed  on  any  independent 
thinker,  even  of  that  ghost-ridden  ago.  "  When  1  consider  the 
value  of  the  least  clump  of  trees/'  says  Bernard  Palissy,  a  perse- 
cuteii  dissenter  of  tho  sixteenth  century, "  1  much  marvel  ai  tbo 
great  ignorance  of  men,  who,  as  it  seems,  do  nowadays  study  only 
to  fell  and  waste  the  fair  forests  which  their  forefathers  did  guard 
ao  carefully.  I  would  think  no  evil  of  them  for  cutting  down 
the  woods,  did  they  but  replant  again  some  part  of  thom ;  bat 
they  caro  nothing  for  the  consequences  of  their  wa«lvfulnea% 
nor  do  they  reck  of  the  great  damage  done  to  their  childrea 
which  come  after  them."  (**  CEuvres  completes  do  Bernard  Pa- 
lissy,"  p.  88.) 

The  fully  of  the  insane  bigotry  which  left  Buch  protests  jxx^ 
heeded  was  only  too  soon  demonstrated  by  its  natural  oouw* 
quences.  When  the  highlands  of  the  Mediterranean  penuwula* 
had  been  deprived  of  their  woods,  the  general  failing  of  springs 
tiuned  rivers  into  shallow  brooks  and  brook  vallej's  into  arid 
ravines,  which  at  last  ceased  to  supply  the  irrigation  canab  by 
which  tho  starving  farmers  hoped  to  relieve  their  distress.  Vast 
tract*  of  once  fertile  lands  had  to  be  entirely  abandoned.  And 
while  the  summer  droughts  became  more  severe,  winter  flooda  be- 
came more  frequent  and  destructive.  The  steep  mountain-elopca, 
denuded  of  their  vegetable  mold,  sent  down  torrents  of  snow-watfltij 
turning  rivers  into  rushing  seas  and  inundating  their  vaUo3rg 
spite  of  protecting  dikes.  Hill-sides  which  onr^  furnished  jme^ 
ures  for  thousands  of  herds  were  torn  up  by  e\  i 
and  reduced  to  a  state  of  desolation  ati  compk  . . 
canic  cinder-field.    Harbors  once  offering  sikfe  or  •  forth( 

fleets  of  an  empire  became  inaccessible  from  t]>  ulal 

de]x>sits  of  tho  diluvium  which  had  been  swept  ^  ..  romtbe 
torrent-rent  mountain-slo])es,  while  a  detritus  of  coareo  sand  and 
gravel  covercnl  the  i^  '  "  'itermediate  \   " 

On  tho  shores  of  i  ■   alone  !J5r»/^ 

highland  soil  are  thus  yearly  deposit- 
mud-banks.    At  "''  *' 

anil  weatern  Asi.' 
the  moon.    The  Hhono,  the  Loire,  the  Et 


'\r.  yards  nl 


nOME-^ALE  APPARATUS. 

Euphrates,  and  the  Orontcs  have  completely  depopulated  man^ 
districts  exposed  to  the  devastations  of  their  yearly  floods. 

In  America  the  same  cause  has  begun  to  produce  the  same 
effect.  Not  in  Mexico  alonej  but  within  the  boundaries  of  oi 
own  republic,  the  progress  of  reckless  forest-destruction  has  madi 
inundations  an  annual  calamity,  and  has  so  impoverished  the  soil 
of  the  denuded  area  that  extensive  tracts  in  the  terrace-lands  of 
the  southern  Alleghanies  now  resemble  the  despoblados  of  worn- 
out  Spain*  The  loss  resulting  from  the  consequences  of  that  im- 
providence far  exceeds  the  benefit  of  labor-saving  machinery— so 
much  so,  indeed,  that  the  waste  of  vegetable  mold,  in  our  Eastern 
cotton  States  alone,  more  than  outweighs  the  profit  derived  froi 
the  improvement  of  all  agricultural  implements  used  on  this  con« 
tinent. 


HOME-MADE  APPAKATUa 

Br  JOHN  ?.  WOODHIJLL, 
noniMft  09  VAvrEJO.  fonitca  ix  tb»  collxoi  ros  nn  TSAnmo  or  nAonu, 

MB«  TORK  oirr. 


^m        www 

m  XT  is  a  duty  every  teacher  owes  to  his  pupils  to  explain  to  them, 
JL  or  help  them  to  find  out  for  themselves,  the  causes  of  the 
natural  phenomena  which  occur  daily  before  their  eyes.  Yet  to^ 
undertake  to  teach  pupils  about  natural  objects  without  allowinf 
them  to  see,  handle,  hear,  taste,  or  smeU  them — i.  e.,  to  come  in 
contact  with  them  by  means  of  their  senses — is  like  trying  to 
teach  music  to  a  man  who  was  bom  deaf,  or  color  to  a  man  who 
was  born  blind.  Although  it  is  pretty  generally  conceded  that 
the  teaching  of  the  physical  sciences  mi^hi  to  be  accompanied 
with  illustrative  experiments,  it  is  rarely  done  in  the  public 
schools,  even  in  the  larger  high  schools. 

The  science  teacher  in  the  public  schocils  appears  to  be  in  a 
state  of  mind  which  might  be  described  as  hopeless.  He  knows 
^  that  it  is  idle  to  look  for  well-equipped  laboratories  in  the  public 
H  schools.  Ho  knows,  also,  that  oven  if  ho  could  hope  for  labora*' 
H  tories  and  apparatus,  he  certainly  can  never  expect  a  course  of 
"  study  which  will  permit  of  sufficient  time  for  laboratory  work. 
,1  Therefore,  finding  it  wholly  impracticable  to  carry  out  his  convic- 
H  lions,  he  is  in  a  state  of  hopelessness.  He  despairingly  falls  into 
^^^u  old  way  of  assigning  lessons  from  the  text-book.  Subjects 
^^^phill  of  interest  as  the  natural  sciences  are  thus  converted  into 
nroloir  y. 

'n^-  .  ia   TTnw  shaR  w€  mak^  U  practicable  to  teach  scu 

■'s  experimentally  f 
y  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  is  that  school 


520 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


boards  have  not  the  means  wherewith  to  purchase  apparatus  to 
any  great  extent.  This  fact  has  led  some  firms  to  mauuf actoro 
what  might  be  called  demonstralion  apparatus,  much  cheaper  and 
jimpler  in  construction  than  that  hitherto  used,  and  therefore 
"Vastly  superior  for  illustrating  principles,  although  not  sufiiciently 
re&ned  for  making  accurate  measurements;  like  a  story  told  for 
illustration  by  a  public  speaker,  short  and  to  the  point,  but  not 
embellished  so  much  as  to  divert  the  mind  from  the  argument 
This  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  it  does  not  solve  the 
problem.  The  apparatus  is  still  so  expensive  that  it  wHl  Iw  a 
long  time  before  school  boards  will  bo  able  to  purchaae  it* 

Driven  by  necessity,  therefore,  which  frtjquently  proves  to  be 
the  mother  of  invention,  the  teacher  must  seize  upon  familiar 
objects  which  chance  to  be  at  hand,  and,  with  slight  changes  per- 
haps in  their  construction,  use  them  as  ai  >  with  which  to 
iUustrate  the  principles  of  his  science.  (-  "S  he  will  find 
that  this  simple,  home'mcule  apparatus  is  far  better  for  illustrat- 
ing scientific  principles  than  that  wliich  has  held  sway  in  labora* 
tories  for  years.  Its  great  merit  lies  in  its  simplicity.  The  stu- 
dent's mind  is  confused  by  a  complex  piece  of  apparatus.  Ho 
loses  sight  of  the  principle  which  you  would  t-ettch  in  his  p<ir- 
plexity  to  solve  the  riddle  of  the  machine.  Again,  this  home- 
made apparatus  has  special  merit  in  the  eyes  of  the  school  trustee 
who  sees  that  with  an  expenditure  of  ^vq  cents  something  hai 
been  made  which  usually  costs  five  dollars. 

The  second  great  difficulty  in  the  solution  of  our  problem  is 
that  school  courses,  as  they  are  now  planned,  do  not  allow  ade- 
quate time  for  exx>erimentation.  It  may  seem  strange  to  say  that 
one  can  make  his  owia  apparatus  and  experiment  with  it  lu  lees 
time  than  is  required  to  um*  the  old-fat^hiout^d  apparatus,  and  yet 
we  positively  and  emphatically  state  this.  For  example,  the  priA< 
ciplbs  taught  by  the  so-called  '^  fountain  in  rocuo"  are  much  more 
quickly  illustrated  by  a  bottle  with  ruliber  stopper  and  tubing,  u 
|rtiown  in  Gage's  "  Elements  of  Physics,"  page  3,  Fig.  3.  In  this 
case  the  lungs  are  used  as  an  air-pump.  If  tV  -'.,.  v  .4.1  ^^j 
tubing  be  arranged  as  shown  in  the  alx>ve-n.'  k, 

page  69,  Fig.  40,  the  lungs  may  l>e  uwkI  as  a  he 

bottle  will  supply  the  place  of  a  con<f«nJn'ny  .-.-.. -.,  ;,w...»iv- 
ances  by  which  all  the  experiments  may  be  performed  which 
usually  require  air-pump  and  condenser  are  us  simple  as  ihomi 
mentioned  above.  The  common-school  teacher  who  has  difficulty 
in  tecuring  air-pump  and  condenser  may  rejoice  in  the  thought 
dtbat  he  has  a  pair  of  lungs  wliich  may  be  made  to  supply  thi» 
tplace  of  l>oth,  and  are  loss  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  They  will 
not  require  him  to  spend  his  Saturday  afternoons  in  oiling  them 
and  fixing  valves. 


f 


5*1 


¥. 

^ 


The  time  required  to  pet  ready  the  old-fashioned  apparatii3 
jnakea  it  utterly  impossible  for  a  teacher  in  a  public  school  to 
USD  it.  Again,  the  time  required  for  the  manipulation  of  it  in  the 
class,  causes  the  pupil's  mind  to  vauder  to  other  thoughts  than 
that  of  the  principle  which  is  to  be  illustrated.  Add  to  this  the 
fact  that  home-made  apparatus  is  so  suggestive  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples that,  while  the  student  is  making  it,  his  mind  is  constantly 
learning  something  new,  and  we  have  ground  for  the  statement 
that  home-made  apparaitM  econovxizea  time  sufficienUy  to  make  it 
practicxtble  to  (each  science  experiynenidlhj  in  the  public  schools. 

Perhaps  the  chief  argument  in  favor  of  home-made  apparatus 
ifl  what  might  be  called  the  manual-training  argument — i  e,, 
the  argument  of  its  educational  value  to  the  student  who  con- 
stnicts  it.  It  is  always  noticeable  that  the  studeut  who  makes  his 
own  apparatus  is  not  only  liable  to  got  a  better  comprehension  of 
the  principles  which  it  illustrates,  but  his  mind  is  thereby  stimu- 
lated to  inquire  into  many  kindred  principles. 

The  third  great  diflSculty  in  the  solution  of  oxir  problem  is 
often  stated  in  this  way :  Teachers  in  the  public  schools  have  not 
sufficient  skill  to  do  this  work.  The  reply  is,  (1)  that  it  requires 
less  skill  to  illustrate  principles  with  home-made  apparatus  than 
with  that  which  has  been  the  awe  and  admiration  of  pupils  and 
teachers  alike  for  ages,  and  (3)  that  patience  and  a  love  for  the 
work  are  far  more  essential  qualifications  than  that  which  is  usu- 
ally called  skill. 

To  summarize  the  arguments  for  home-made  apparatus : 

1.  It  teaches  the  principles  better  than  the  cumbersome  and 
expensive  forms  of  apparatus  can.  Pupils,  as  a  rule,  are  not  ma- 
chinists and  do  not  understand  a  complex  machine. 

2.  The  student  takes  a  more  lively  interest  in  it  and  under- 
stands it  better  because  he  makes  it  himself. 

3.  All  schools  may  possess  it  because  of  the  slight  expense  in- 
TolvedL 

4.  It  is  applicable  to  the  lower  grades  because  of  its  simplicity. 

5.  It  is  applicable  to  subjects  which  have  not  hitherto  been 

I  taught  experimentally. 
I  The  last  argument  has  special  reference  to  physiology.  It  has 
l)een  customary  to  speak  of  physics  and  chemistry  as  the  experi- 
mental sciences,  but  there  seem  to  be  equally  good  reasons  why 
physiology  should  be  taught  by  experiments  also.  The  procefisea 
of  respiration,  circulation,  action  of  muscles,  formation  df  voice, 
digestion,  and  many  others  admit — nay,  demand — illustrative  ex- 
periments, and  the  advantages  of  home-made  apparatus  are  quite 
aa  apparent  in  this  field  as  in  the  realm  of  the  physical  sciences. 


I 


I 


y»« 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEKCS  MONTHLY, 


THE  DEFENSIVE  ARMOR  OF  PLANTS, 
Bt  M.  UENBY  DB  VABIQNT. 

WHILE,  as  Darwin  and  his  successors  have  establiidiody 
are  dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  insectB  for' 
means  of  securing  the  fertilization  of  their  seed,  they  are  also 

ible  to  bo  eaten  by  them,  and  are  in  great  danger  from  the  vora- 
'cions  appetites  of  other  animals.  They  are  not,  however,  ■wholly 
without  defense  against  these  attacks,  but  are  provided  with 
armors  of  various  kinds,  by  the  aid  of  which  they  offer  a  mora 
or  less  effective  resistance  to  them.  These  methods  of  defenao 
have  been  the  subject  of  special  investigation  by  Prof.  E.  StAhl/ 
of  the  University  of  Jena,  whose  work, "  Pflanzen  und  Schnecken* 
(June,  18S8),  presents  a  most  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of 
the  vegetable  struggle  for  existence. 

While  every  plant  has  its  enemiee  more  or  less  numerous  and 
dangerous,  the  number  as  a  whole  is  not  generally  considerable, 
r^me  attack  the  young  plant,  others  the  adult ;  some  one  part  of 
it,  some  another.  They  would,  perhaps,  bo  more  numerous  were 
it  not  for  the  effectiveness  of  the  means  of  defense  that  the  plant 
ku  present  against  them.  These  means  are  various,  but  without 
'them  vegetable  species  would  disappear  very  quickly.  The  pro- 
tection conferred  by  them  is  evident,  but  an  enemy  more  or  less  is 
much  for  a  plant.  It  is  sometimes  a  question  of  life  or  death. 
The  phylloxera  alone  has  been  compt^tent  to  destroy  the  vine  in 
France ;  and,  if  ruminants  should  add  their  attacks  to  those  of 
insects  against  the  thyme  or  euphorbia,  those  kinds  would  soon 
disai)pear.  In  some  cases,  as  of  thorns  or  nettles,  the  armor  is 
easily  discovered ;  in  other  cases  it  is  internal,  chemical,  or  toxic 
The  protection  is  evident,  wliatever  its  nature  may  be.  The  que** 
tion  arises  whether  it  is  fortuitous  or  the  result  of  a  selection 

long  plants.    We  can  hardly  doubt  what  the  ajiawer  should  be; 
jtion  has  certainly  played  a  considerable  part  in  the  matter. 

*  Prof.  8tftht'«  ttad;  is  ooC  tho  oi&ly  one  thftt  btB  be«n  muS*  in  Ihf0  Um,  «]lbM^  h  M 
pcrlmpf  tbo  oiUjr  expffritacDUl  one.  M.  L.  KrrAn,  of  BhumU,  proMStcd  %  ifaartntiMftr 
to  the  ICo^al  BoUxUcaI  SooUtj  of  Beldam  la  1S86,  In  vhidt  hr  pointed  out  hr>w  fxy^^i^ 
111  and  otwerrailona  could  bo  cArrfcd  wi  la  r«ff*rfn(-«t  to  ill*  «abJ9Cl  p  * 

'Uhltn  tn  which  he  clMftiflM  tb«  m««inii  of  defvnM  prcMntcd  liy  pliuiM  w  fol    ^  ^^.. 

ftrt  rJiarneirra  :  PlaDte  tt  ilmtloni  sot  eaillj  accet»]btc  or  with  orguu  (IUBmK  • 

•ocial  plant*,  Taaul  plants,  bulljlng  plant*  f«!mnlatln|r  H -  .. .>.-i,^j      ,1..-.  --.  - 

Hard,  euttingr  or  pUrdop    i>rv«iMi,  ca.ld&'  u.  ncflla  tftirf,| 

Chfmicril  cKttratUtrt:   AcUs  laotilo^ 
rcf«9oliU.     M.  Errftm  addi  a  tabic  of  pL 
•  '  f  the  diarartt^riatlit  thiu  defcribo' 

p  crest  the  atudj  might  bt  mad*  i' 

StaLl'a 


THE  DSFENSIVS  ARMOR  OF  PLANTS. 


BL  Stahl's  experiments  were  made  in  his  own  garden  and  in  the 
is  in  the  neighborhood,  and  bore  direct  reference  to  the  atti- 
tude of  snaila  towitrd  the  plants.  The  questions  were  asked,  What 
plants  do  snails  prefer ;  what  ones  do  thoy  avoid,  and  why  do  they 
avoid  them  ?  The  results  of  his  study  may  be  verified  by  almoet 
any  one.  Several  species  of  snails  were  observed  ;  including  spe- 
ciad  feeders,  those  which  live  wholly  on  mushrooms,  and  om-j 
nivorous  snails,  which,  while  preferring  certain  species,  eat  morer* 
or  less  of  all  kinds  of  plants,  and  sometimes  accommodate  them- 
selves to  animal  food. 

Pieces  of  mushroom  were  offered  to  the  snails,  a  part  of  them 
fresh,  others  after  having  been  macerated  in  alcohol,  dried  by 
evaporation,  and  washed.  The  different  species  varied  in  their 
behavior  toward  the  food.  The  omnivorous  snails  would  not  eat, 
or  would  only  touch  the  fresh  pieces,  but  readily  devoured  thosei 
which  had  been  treated  with  alcohol ;  but  a  special  feeder  ate  the 
fresh  pieces  and  left  the  others.  Hence  the  author  concluded  that 
there  exists  in  the  fresh  mushroom  a  substance  soluble  in  alcohol 
that  attracts  some  animals  and  repels  others.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  believed  that  the  special  feeders  can  only  live  on  particu- 
lar food,  for  they  are  capable  of  accommodating  themselves  to 
other  kinds  when  it  is  necessary.  That  the  ingredient  soluble  in 
alcohol  was  the  essential  element  of  the  food  was  proved  by  the 
special  feeders,  which  avoided  the  macerated  and  dried  food,  but 
returned  ti>  it  whon  it  had  been  soaked  again  in  the  alcohol  by 
which  tliut  ingredient  had  been  abstracted, 
^  Some  light  is  cast  upon  the  bearing  of  this  experiment  by 
W  reflecting  on  tho  enormous  quantities  of  food  which  the  omnivo- 
rous snails  in  a  state  of  nature  require.  A  vine-snail  or  a  slug 
will  eat  a  quarter  or  a  third  of  its  weight  of  carrot  or  potato  in 
twelve  or  twenty-four  hours.  Although  their  needs  are  but  slight^ 
they  can  hardly  find  enough  to  assuage  their  hunger,  on  account 
of  the  mechanical  or  chemical  defenses  which  most  plants  offer 
against  them.  Thus,  the  garden  snail  causes  immense  destruction 
of  the  filbert-leaves  in  the  spring;  but  it  would  cause  more  if 
these  leaves  did  not  contain  certain  chemical  substances,  for  it 
eats  them  more  greedily  after  they  have  been  treated  with  aJ< 
hoi.  Tl  '  'liis  sort  of  protection  is  only  relative,  it  will  appear 
veryc''  I'le  when  we  reflect  upon  the  abundance  and  fer- 

tility of  some  species  of  snail. 

Y^ -ling  a  garden  near  Jena  after  a  warm  rain  in  April, 

of  ar  »nails  of  the  speries  horteiisiSffruiicum,  and  arbus' 

forum,  ten  were  found  uj)on  living  plants,  while  the  thirty-four 
,.ii.... r.  ..^4^..  ,1...,.)  1....,-,.^      These  three  species,  therefore, 

*8.     Helur-  poTnaiia,  on  the  other 
iiUixH,  \  [  vod  tduLuvit  tTXclusivoly  upon  li>'iug  species.    Ex- 


THE  POPULAR  SCISNCS  MOmHLT. 


poriments  in  wliicli  this  species,  with  Helix  hariensxs  and  Limas 

cujrestis,  a  voracious  all-feeder,  were  put  in  preeeuce  of  seveml 

plants  having  strong  odors  and  pronounced  flavors,  showed  that 

.their  taiites  as  toward  living  plants  were  very  diffen  '  ■      "^^*e 

texperimenta  tend  to  show  that  the  living  plants  are  pi  to 

\b  greater  or  less  tixtent  by  the  preaenoe  of  somo  constituent  di«v- 

greeable  to  the  snails,  which  we  may  regard  hs  a  defensive  armor 

to  them.    The  dead  parts  of  the  plants  were  preferred,  ulthoogh 

sas  a  rule  dried  vegetable  is  less  alimentary  than  fresh,  because 

the  disagreeable  substance  had  been  removed  or  weakened  by 

evaporation.    Other  experimente  show  that  this  kind  of  armor  is, 

M  a  rule,  the  most  efifective. 

When  a  drop  of  the  juice  of  sorrel,  garlic,  saxifrage,  or  naatur- 
tion  is  put  upon  the  tegument  of  a  snail,  the  animal  manifests 
pain  and  exudes  abundance  of  its  mucons  secretion  ;  yet  it  is  not 
thus  affected  by  a  drop  of  water.  When  snails  avoid  plants 
marked  by  such  juices,  we  have  a  right  to  regard  the  plants  as 
defended  by  a  chemical  armor.  The  offensive  sTibRtance  ma}-  also 
bo  important  to  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  but  that  is  not  the  ques- 
tion we  are  dealing  with  here.  Many  plants  are  evidently  lacking 
in  this  means  of  defense ;  for,  of  some  plants,  all  the  animals  ex* 
perimonted  upon  have  boon  found  to  prefer  fresh  to  dead  parta 
Others  are  never  touched  by  them,  whether  living  or  dead.  Henoo 
we  may  conceive  that  an  infinite  variety  may  exist  in  the  degrees 
of  chemical  armoring  between  total  absence  of  protectitm  and 
complete  protection. 

Plants  containing  perceptible  tannin  are  disagreeable  to  nearly 
all  animals.  Only  swine  will  eat  acorns  as  if  they  regard  thctn 
as  food.  Other  animals  reject  them,  except  when  they  can  not  get 
anything  else.  Leguminous  plants  containing  tannin  in  weak 
proportions  are  eaten  by  horses  and  cattle,  but  snails  are  not  fond 
dOf  them.  But  the  garden  snail,  which  lets  "  ^  l>>ver  alone,  will 
leat  it  freely  after  the  tannin  has  been  <  1  with  alcoIioL 

It  is  also  probably  tannin  that  inspires  snaila  with  respect  lor 
wretches,  saxifrage,  and  stone-crop.  Many  wat  -  - 'r-t^,  likewise, 
^0trong  in  tannin,  are  respected  by  water-snaJ  the  treat- 

ment with  alcohol  converts  them  into  savory  diBijea  for  the  same 
animals.  Other  plants,  like  dock,  sorrel,  and  be^nia,  contain 
oxalic  acid  in  notable  quantities,  and  are  obnoxious  to  them  whim 
doo  freely  mixed  with  their  food.    It  is  worthy  of  -  that  il  I 

earrot,  of  which  snails  are  fond,  is  eoaked  in  »olu..  .  tioinin 
or  oxalic  acid,  they  will  avoid  it  in  proportion  aa  it  ;  v-ly 

impT  n  substance^ 

8:    -:^-^.  _, ar«  often  found  on  thu  iinrfane  of  thfl  I 

leaves  of  plants.    M.  8tahl  casually  perceived 

thera  caused  a  rery  prononnoed  acid  aeasatiou  un  c  -  u^ 


4 

4 

I 


TEE  DEFENSIVE  ARMOR  OF  PLANTS, 


5*5 


tongue,  -which  was  due  to  the  presence  of  a  euperficial  acid. 
On  exami nation  he  found  the  same  property  present  in  other 
plants  of  the  Onogracecz  and  Papilioyxacea,  The  acid  is  secreted 
by  numerous  one-colled  cylindrical  hairs.  It  consists  of  a  mixt- 
ure of  oxalic,  acetic,  and  malic  acids,  and,  being  very  disagreeable 
to  slugs  and  snails,  constitutes  an  efficacious  protection  against 
their  ravages.  A  simple  contact  of  its  tentacles  or  teguments 
vrith  the  secretory  hairs  is  enough  to  cause  the  animal  to  draw 
back  and  go  somewhere  else  to  indulge  its  cravings.  But  if  the 
leaves  are  washed,  and  the  hairs  cleansed  of  the  acid  secretion, 
they  will  be  eaten  at  once. 

Many  plants  are  furnished  with  strong  and  pungent  ethereal 
oils  or  similar  substances.  Prof.  Tyndall  thinks  that  these  es» 
aences  help  to  protect  the  plant  against  excessive  heat  With- 
out disputing  this,  M.  Stahl  finds  that  they  are  also  e£&cient  in 
defense  against  animals.  This  was  proved  with  respect  to  rue, 
calamus,  peppermint,  dictamnus,  and  crane's-bill ;  and  snails  would 
at  once  turn  out  of  the  way  to  avoid  a  crushed  leaf  of  the  latter 
when  placed  in  their  road.  Bitter  leaves  were  avoide<l  when  fresh ; 
when  dead,  even  those  of  the  gentian  were  relished,  although  the 
fresh  ones  were  rejected  by  very  hungry  animals.  The  expressed 
juices  were  very  disagreeable  to  them.  The  bitter  was  evidently 
the  unpleasant  quality,  for  the  plants  in  question  were  free  from 
tannin.*  The  liverworts,  according  to  W.  Pf offer's  researches,  con- 
tain fat  substances,  the  function  of  which  is  unknown,  but  to 
which  Mr.  Stahl  ascril)es  a  protecting  agency.  It  is  certain  that, 
though  they  are  easily  accessible  to  all  animals,  they  very  rarely 
present  any  traces  of  having  been  attacked  by  them ;  and  land- 
snails  respect  thorn  in  a  very  marked  manner.  Even  after  four- 
teen days  of  fasting,  Helix  Jioriensis  could  not  resolve  to  eat  the 
thallus  of  PeUi<u  But  there  are  genera  {Lunaina  and  Marchantia) 
of  which  the  less  delicate  snails  will  consent  to  eat  a  little.  When 
the  thalluses  are  treated  witli  alcohol,  the  moUusks  accept  them 
readily ;  and  there  are  some,  like  Plagiovhila,  that  they  will  even 
eat  fresh,  in  spite  of  their  disagreeable  smell,  because  of  the  much 
sugar  that  is  in  them.  But  most  plants  of  the  order  are  avoided, 
because  of  the  unpleasant  taste  and  smell  given  them  by  their 

*  M.  Stahl  did  aot  particularly  concern  himwK  with  alkaloitlji,  Althongh  th«y  mnst 
bt'v  ptaj'L'd  «  con«iilcrubte  ;Mrt  In  ilefeuM  In  eoine  of  ibe  plant*  tbtt  be  experimented 
wUh.  On  thi»  point  wc  may  refer  to  ftomc  of  M.  £rr6r«'6  condasloni,  M  ipren  in  tbe 
of  Umifclf  iind  MaLstriftn  iind  Claatrian  (Bnuecls,  1867)  on  the  ^  Loc&llzatloii  ui 
ipOftlDO^  of  Alkaloid?  Ui  flnntfl  ":  "The  B.lk&loiUs  can  hardly  be  re^ftrded  m  other  than 
mot  pr»tnn!«('iiM<-  -*  ilsliv.  In  fact,  U  has  been  proved  by  experiment  thai  thfy 
oaa  oat  Krre  tu*  '  lo  planu,  and  are  toxic  oren  to  the  plant  that  prodncca 

thimu  .  .  .  Tb^  ^  *  '^.•m]  Gatitierin  tbis^uinal  kingdom  bring  ■  slrvng 

ooctAmftUem  tt>  v.  :  that  a  few  granuDM  of  an  alkaloid  protect 

fiUoA  tfateai  ua  ju^4.'mi^.'u  oi  ojuntAi-j  ai  oflactually  aa  ibc  itroBgeat  ChorDOt" 


Sz6 


TBS  POPULAR  SCIEX'CS  MONTHLY. 


^fttts.    It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  of  what  oU^  (^| 

ntgreeable  or  toxic  chemical  constituouts  may  be  to  th':^  ^^ 

puiiit  that  concerns  us  in  this  discussion  is,  that  they  protect  tt^ 
from  being  eaten,  and  of  this  there  can  be  hardly  any  doubts 

M.  Stahl's  study  of  the  mechanical  defenses  of  plants  is  no  ksB 
interesting  than  that  of  their  chemical  armor.  Many  of  the  weap- 
ons of  this  character  are  obvious  and  well  known ;  but  some  of 
them  are  more  difficult  of  discovery,  while  a  great  variety  prevails 
l^unong  them.    In  the  large  majority  of  cases  the  mechanical 
Fdefense  consists  of  a  hardening  of  some  parts  of  the  plants,  "which 
may  be  general,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  carapace,  or  local*  in  the 
txroduotion  of  hard  special  organs,  such  as  hairs,  thor  :i<>o- 

Wes>  making  it  harder  for  animals  to  reach  the  planU.   :  uos 

the  mechanical  weapons  are  associated  with  chemical  quaUties,  as 
in  the  nettle,  crane's-bill,  PriniwZa  sinensis,  blessed  t^'*^-  .^ic. 
They  either  serve  to  prevent  or  impede  the  access  of  ..ad 

slugs,  to  make  it  harder  for  them  to  take  hold  of  the  alimentary 
Lpart,  or  to  cause  pain  during  the  eating. 

y  Hairy  plants  certainly  oflfer  more  obstacles  to  snails  going 
about  on  them  than  do  glabrous  plants.  If  we  place  a  snail  upon 
a  comfroy-plant,  it  will  lind  itself  very  uncomfortable,  unable  to 
get  any  hold  on  the  leaves,  and  continually  brought  to  a  stop  by 
the  disagi-eeablo  contact  of  the  hairs  witJi  its  t<  '  -  and  a 
free  snail  or  slug  will  be  hard  to  find  on  this  planl.  r  hairy 

plants  possess  immunity  in  less  marked  degrees ;  and  M.  Stahl'd 
conclusions  from  his  experiments  as  a  whole  are  thji*  '  'cal 
armor  is  more  efficient  than  hairs.    In  some  cases  do  nts 

were  preferred,  while  chemically  armored  species  wore  always 
respected.  So,  when  glabrous  and  downy  species  of  the  t?ri""  '--^ily 
Nrere  tested,  downy  ones  were  eaten,  while  Pino^tth  on*  eft 

alone.    Hence,  the  hairs  a£Eord  only  an  i  «.    AL 

Stahl  accounts  for  this  by  supposing  that,  v.i.. <  ..ww.- plants 

are  protected  by  disagreeable  chemical  constituents,  the  hairy 
plants  are  without  this  armor,  or  else  present  attractive  qualities 
of  odor  or  taste,  against  which  their  hairs  are  only  j^is  imTwrf^ 
set-off. 

Some  plants  are  defended  by  the  calcification  oi  i.; 
ficial  colls.    The  snails  would  not  eat  the  leaves  of  /  -        am 
cheiranii/ides  (treacle-mustard)  when  fresh,  or  evon  when  treated 


with  alcohol,  but      ■     '     ^   -                »  *     a^fter  Iho  car' 

'    of 

lime  had  been  tL                                          A.    The  sar 

■b- 

perved  with  other  plants  having  a  similar 

^H6 

are  protected  against  :'*':'■  ''-  ■•  '- 

- 

tion  of  the  walls  of  f 

that  would  be  at' 

-4 

foofi  would nuko u»  ....    . 

tl 

4 


THS  DSFENSIVE  ARMOR   OP  PLANTS. 


5*7 


offering  to  snails  full-grown  leaves  and  young,  tender  ones  of 
the  fiame  grass.  The  latter  will  be  taken  and  the  others  left. 
But  if,  by  a  method  of  cultivation  proposed  by  Sachs,  we  make  a 
normally  siliciferous  plant  grow  where  it  can.  get  no  silica,  it  will 
be  devoured  at  once. 

Some  plants,  that  were  avoided  after  treatment  with  alcohol  aa 
well  as  before  it,  were  found  to  contain  a  gum  which  the  alcohol 
failed  to  remove,  and  which  stood  between  the  snails  and  the  edible 
substance.  Among  these  were  linden,  althea,  cactuses,  and  gum* 
my  roots.  Another  series  of  plants,  including  onAi'um,  narcissus, 
leucojum,  and  the  balsam  touch-me-not,  which  contain  no  tannin 
or  gum  or  substances  of  disagreeable  taste  or  smell,  appeared  to 
l)e  protected  by  raphidea.  TabernsBmontanus  recognized  in  1587 
that  the  leaves  of  these  plants  produce  a  violent  sensation  of 
burning  in  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  that  it  is  not  due  to  soluble 
products  or  juices,  but  to  the  raphidea,  which  ai*e  abundant  ia 
their  tissues.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  filtered  juice  of 
the  pounded  leaves  does  not  produce  the  burning  sensation,  while 
the  residue  on  the  walls  of  the  filter,  and  the  pounded  leaves  them- 
selves, produce  the  characteristic  sensation  that  is  felt  after  chew- 
ing the  fresh  loaves.  It  is  also  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  if  the 
leaves  of  Arum  vWrCidatuviy  for  example,  are  treated  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  raphidea,  animals  will 
eat  them,  while  they  let  alone  leaves  treated  with  alcohol, 
ion  they  have  been  steeped  in  sugar-water.  In  the  case  of 
the  squill,  snails  avoid  the  outside  of  the  scales,  which  are  rich  in 
raphidea,  and  eat  the  iimer  sides,  which  are  free  from  them.  So 
in  the  narcissus  and  orchids,  and  various  other  plants,  there  are 
parts  protected  by  raphides  which  are  objectionable  to  snails,  and 
other  parts  free  from  them  that  they  eat.  But,  while  raphides 
protect  against  some  animals,  they  do  not  against  all.  Birds  and 
ruminants  do  not  object  to  the  plants  containing  them ;  and  even 
snails  manifest  different  degrees  of  aversion  to  them*  In  a  simi* 
lar  manner  to  tbeee  plants  with  raphides,  some  species  of  iris  are 
protected  by  crystals  of  oxalic  acid.  It  is  very  probable  that  the 
kinds  of  armor  that  we  have  named  are  available  for  protection 
against  other  animals  than  snails.  Bat  investigation  on  this  sub- 
ject has  not  been  sufficiently  advanced  to  permit  of  definite  con- 
iclufiious  or  generalizations. 

Of  tV  of  defense  named,  a  minority  of  the  plants  stud- 

,i«d  by  Im.      .  .1  iK>s3ess  but  one;  many  are  endowed  with  two; 

some  with  tliree— as,  for  instance,  Oxcdis  (oxalic  acid,  tannin, 

(bitter  hairs,  tannin,  and  raphides);  SnvHax 

•i^i  ,  -lid  poisons);  Aloe   (leaf -teeth,  raphides,  and 

IV  tad  Ponkderia  (crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime, 

M'j  tauum).    In  fact,  considering  the  number  of  ene* 


Sa8 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT. 


^mies  agalnnt  which  a  plant  has  to  contend  to  mauit&ln  its  b^^| 

rence^  their  defenses  are  more  nmneroua  than  we  would  ^nKpj^^ 

and  more  important  than  we  might  at  first  belieTe.  W^ 

■       In  analyzing  M.  StahVs  results,  we  peroeire  that  sonio  :       ^^T 

rpoBsem^  as  a  whole,  similar  methods  of  protection :  the  ^ 

fledges,  and   horse-tails,  siliciiication ;   the  roogh-leaved  order;. 

hairs;  the  AviaryllidecE,  Asparagca,  orchids,  and  Onagracea,  ra- 

phides ;  the  gentians,  bitter  substance;  the  rose  family, ^'f^raniums, 

legmnee,  and  heaths,  tannic  acid ;  the  nightshades,  alk  the 

labiates,  ethereal  oils;  mosses,  mechanical  means  {h\ uca^ 

tion) ;  and  liverworts,  chemical  means,  and  one  genus  of  them, 
Ricria,  mechanical  means  alsa 

Different  genera  in  the  same  family  sometimes  preeeni  quite 
diverse  means.  Among  the  lilies  are  genera  (SctUa  and  Omiiho* 
galliLs)  having  raphides;  others,  alliaceous  compounds;  Hliee,  tn- 
lips,  and  crown  imperial,  poisons.  There  are  also  difference*  be- 
tween the  species  of  the  same  genus ;  thus,  one  species  of  Sedum  ifl 
protected  by  tannin,  and  another  by  an  alkaloid.  And  in  the  same 
plant  there  are  often  very  notable  differences  between  the  leaTM^ 
fruit,  and  root, 

M.  Stah]  asserts  that  he  has  not  found  a  single  phanerogamooB 
species,  living  in  a  wild  condition,  that  is  not  armed  in  some  way 
against  slugs  and  snails.  Such  armor  is  wanting  only  among  cul- 
tivated plants,  or,  rather,  among  some  of  them.  It  appears  as  if 
at  the  moment  when  man  cultivates  a  speciee  of  plant,  or  takes 
it  under  his  protection,  tising  all  possible  means  to  facilitate  iU 
existence  and  remove  its  enemies,  the  plant  gives  up  lis  own 
means  of  maintaining  the  struggle,  surrendering  its  defensirc 
armor  at  man's  invitation.  The  common  lettuce  is  a  striking 
example  of  this  fact.  It  is  a  favorite  viand,  as  all  know,  of  the 
Gasientpods  of  the  garden.  Nothing  protects  it  against  their 
attacks,  and  its  smooth,  tender,  and  succulent  loaves  make  it  a 
ready  prey  to  them ;  yet  it  is  the  descendant,  modified  by  culti- 
Lvation,  of  the  Laciuca  scariola,  which  has  chemical  v  nta  1 

flo  distasteful  to  snails,  and  so  constant,  that  they  wii<  ^^^^  ^^.t  itj 
even  after  it  has  been  treated  with  alcohoL  J 

The  defensive  armor  of  plants  is  most  freqii  'uated  U||^ri 

their  surface,  or  where  the  attack  begina  1...-  _.  particaliBIH 
the  case  with  the  mechanical  weepons  and  such  chemical  ones  as] 
•tanir  i.il  juices,  etc^  1 

"      ^ •  '■  consider  how  varied  are  theae  armors  of  plant*  and ' 

how  generally  spread  they  are  among  all  the  orders,  ai 
without  *'  >ae  spedea  would  not  bcj.*'  -i^m 

to  deny  :  -►  fft  wrtne  flpetrbil  adapt-M  '^1 

p*>Ae  that  til  -^H 

one oi  natur«4«  .'r<.'iv).;.ivij,  nuu  LxirictcL  cuui  ^I^^H 


BLOOn^VEXGEAKCE  AXD  PARDON  IX  ^iLBAXIA,  519 


Botnetimes  in  one  way  and  sometimes  in  another,  is  not  unfavor- 
able to  this  hjqwthesis.  It  is  with  plants  as  with  animals.  One 
animal  endures  by  means  of  his  agility,  another  by  his  thick  skin ; 
another  by  this  kind  of  defense,  and  another  by  that.  The  field 
opened  by  M.  Stahl  is  one  that  has  as  yet  been  but  little  e3cplored. 
It  promises  much  that  is  novel,  and  bids  fair  to  afford  a  new  and 
most  intorosting  cliapter  in  the  history  of  natural  selection, — 

ITranslaUd for  the  Popular  Science  Moulhhj  from  the  Eevue  Sci- 
tntifique. 


-♦♦•- 


BLOOD-VEXGEANCE  AND  PARDON  IN  ALBANIA. 

Bt  OERS  J.  OKIE. 


I 
I 


THE  Albanians  are  accustomed  to  train  ganders  for  fighting, 
for  which  purpose  they  feed  them  with  such  herbs  as  con- 
tribute most  to  the  development  of  a  pugnacious  diapositioo, 
When  one  among  them  thinks  his  goose's  courage  has  been  suffi- 
ciently developed^  he  sends  out  a  herald  to  go  through  the  \illage 
uttering  a  challenge  for  any  townsman  having  a  gander  which 
he  is  ready  to  pit  in  a  combat  to  bring  him  to  the  ring  for  a 
matcK 

Such  a  challenge  was  sounded  in  the  village  of  Uuter  Rogiza 
in  the  later  days  of  August  of  last  year.  It  was  answered  by  a 
wealthy  Albanian,  who  at  once  betook  himself  with  his  goose  to 
the  place  where  such  spectacles  were  exhibited.  His  antagonist 
was  alrea<:ly  in  waiting,  with  about  a  hundred  on-lookers.  The 
match  had  gone  on  for  about  two  hours,  when  one  of  the  cham- 
pions began  to  fail.  His  owner  wanted  to  help  him,  but  the 
proprietor  of  the  conquering  goose  would  not  permit  it.  Irritate^l 
by  this,  the  losing  owner  raised  his  gun  and  shot  the  other  man 
down  on  the  spot.  The  spectators  of  the  tragedy  were  so  aston- 
ished for  the  moment  that  no  movement  was  ma*le  to  arrest  the 
murderer,  and  he  fled  to  the  mountain.  The  friends  of  the  mur- 
dered man  instituted  a  pursuit  of  him,  which  was  kept  up  for  sov- 
eral  hours,  the  murderer  running  up  and  down  the  hills,  and  his 
pursuers  following  him  closely.  Finally,  when  he  saw  that  he 
could  not  escape,  he  turned  toward  the  village  and  took  refuge  in 
the  house  of  his  victim.  The  dead  Arso  was  lying  in  the  room» 
And  his  mother  beside  him  was  weeping  and  lamenting  the  death 
pi  her  only  son.  The  murderer  set  his  gun  in  the  corner  and  said : 
I  am  in  your  house;  give  me  hessd  (oath  of  protection),  for  they 
it\''  He  continued  repeating  these  words  till 
Inm  the  h€S9/u  When  his  pursuers  came  np 
;  of  the  dead  Arao  stepped  to  the  do<:>r  and 
I'  •-!  toward  them  as  &  sign  that  no  one  should 


wmm 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  ^OyVBLT. 


he  went  ^ 


inter.    Tbe  pursuers  scatiered,  only  the  fatbcr  of  tho  d* 
-Temaininff  in  the  yard.    When  they  had  all  gone  away,  ho 
into  the  room  where  tho  mxirdorer  of  his  Bon  was  sitting  by  the 
mother,  with  a  part  of  her  mantle  thrown  over  his  knee. 

"  Go  out  of  the  room/*  she  called  to  him  ;  "  I  have  given  hhn 
my  oath  I " 

The  old  man,  without  speaking,  set  his  gun  in  the  conier,  ki&dca 
his  son's  cold  forthea<l,  and  went  out  to  make  preparations  for  tto 
f  uneraL  At  sunset,  while  the  people  of  the  village  were  bn»iod 
with  the  affairs  of  their  iimer  households,  and  even  Arso's  rolativics 
were  engaged  each  in  his  own  particular  duties,  the  old  lady  took 
her  charge  by  the  hand  and  led  him  out  upon  the  mountain.  As 
soon  as  she  had  seen  him  at  a  safe  distance  she  told  him :  "  Now 
my  oath  is  fulfilled ;  you  must  look  out  for  yourself  after  this!"* 

The  obligation  of  the  hessA  had  terminate ;  now  f'  the 

pursuit  of  vengeance.  The  more  industriously  tho  fuii_..;  ...  iho 
murdered  man  sought  for  retribution,  the  more  earnestly  the 
friends  of  tho  murderer  exerted  therasolveB  to  obtain  pordoiL 
This  state  of  affairs  continued  through  two  months. 

At  last  tho  whole  circle  of  the  murderer's  relatives  mot  and 
Efcided  to  ask  the  father  of  the  murdered  man  to  remit  tlie  blood* 
'nalty  to  the  murderer.    For  this  they  all  rose — tho  women  takiag 
their  infants  from  the  cradle  and  carrjring  them  along— and  went 
in  a  body  to  Arso's  father.     In  front  of  the  company  marched  tho 
murderer,  his  head  veiled  with  a  linen  cloth,  and  the  gun  with 
which  he  had  committed  the  murder  hanging  from  his  neck,  mua- 
zle  down.    Behind  him  walked  two  of  his  particular  friends,  and 
after  them  the  rest  of  tho  family  procession.    As  they  came  near 
the  house  of  the  avenger,  they  all  cried  out  as  with  one  roic^ 
*' Aman !   aman!"  (pardon);   and  continued   the  petition  till 
noon.     The  father  of  tho  murdered  man,  without  8oeminj<  to 
notice  thorn,  consulted  with  the  members  of  V     "      "*       "     \\9 
he  ehould,  according  to  the  customary  law  of  . .      -lOt 

the  murderer  at  once  or  give  him  pardon-    It  was  dw^ided  to  paiw 
don  him.    The  father  advanced  toward  tl  *     ' 

Tlio  murderer  knelt,  ready  to  accept  life  or 
the  procession  renewed  their  petition  for  pardon* 
[;nmn  took  the  murderer's  gun  and  discharged  it  Ini 
ifted  the  cloth  from  his  head  and  kissM  him,  in  ♦< 
lic'U  he  kissed  the  other  male  meml> 
look  the  murderer  by  the  hand,  led  hi...  ...>. 

him  in  the  son's  place.     The  affair  was  con 
tys*  fe:i  •r's  bouse. — TVarula^Mi  /t#r  ^ 


i^ipany. 
n»tof 
sneaU«- 

■  '*tT*n 


MR,  MALLOCK  OX  OPTIMISM, 


MR,  MALLOCK  ON  OPTIMISM. 

Bt  W.  a  LE  BUEUB. 

AS,  in  olden  time,  a  certain  Lars  Porsena,  of  Clusium,  8wor«j 
by  the  great  gods  tliat  his  friends  the  Tarquins,  who  had 
been  expelled  frum  Rome  for  gross  misconduct,  "should  suffer 
wrong  no  more,"  so,  in  our  own  day,  Mr.  Mallock,  of  "  Is  Life 
worth  Living  ?  *'  seems  to  have  sworn  a  great  oath  that  the  beliefs 
which  the  republic  of  modem  thought  has  for  good  caiise  expelled 
from  its  borders  shall  by  his  powerful  arm  be  restored  to  their 
old  tyranny  over  human  life.  Ho  therefore  brings  up  his  forces^ 
draws  lines  of  circumvallation,  and  prepares  to  conquer  and  capt- 
ure the  whole  host  of  liberal  thinkers,  and  either  put  them  logic-, 
ally  to  the  odgo  of  the  sword  or  force  them  back  into  the  ancient- 
slavery.  The  enterprise  is  not  lacking  in  audacity,  and,  to  do  Mr. 
Mallock  justice,  he  seems  to  be  a  writer  of  no  little  courage  and 
of  injQuito  jest.  His  sword -practice  is  always  brilliant;  and,  if  he 
could  only  induce  his  opponents  to  stand  exactly  where  he  makes 
his  passes  and  slashes,  there  is  no  question  that  he  would  do  for 
them  completely  enough.  As  it  is,  we  see  the  gleam  of  the 
weapon ;  but,  somehow  or  other,  the  foe  does  not  fall,  and  we 
gin  to  perceive  that  he  was  never  quite  in  the  line  of  the  strokes. 

In  furtherance  of  the  purpose  above  indicated,  Mr.  Mallock 
has  contributed  two  apparently  powerfid  articles  to  the  "Fort- 
nightly Review" — one  on  "The  Scientific  Bases  of  Optimism," 
and  the  other  on  "  Cowardly  Agnosticism."  We  shall  briefly  ex- 
amine the  first  of  these  to-day, and,  perhaps,  with  the  editor's  kind 
permission,  may  tiike  up  the  second  at  a  later  date.  **  Optimism," 
in  Mr.  Mallock's  view,  is  the  essential  creed  of  all  the  modem 

tools  of  ^'         '  :'    r  Unitarians  or  Deists,  followors  of 

icer,  f^.M  .lew  Arnold,  or  followers  of  Auguste 

Comte.    Ail  of  these,  whatever  some  of  them  may  say  to  the  con- 
trar-    -     !ly  unite  in  worshiping  Humanity;  and  Mr.  Mallock^ 
Uii-  to  show  them  how  foolish  their  worship  is,  and  hoi 

mntually  contradictory  are  the  ideas  on  which  it  is  founded.    Let 

take  a  brief  but  careful  survey  of  Mr.  Mallock's  argument. 

**The  religious  doctrine  of  Humanity,"  says  this  agile  writer, 
'  ts  of  history  have  a  meaning,  that  they  fol- 

i.;il  order,  and  that,  taken  as  a  whole,  they  have 

LeoDt  tre,  and  will  be  always,  working  together — though  it  maj 
bi^  Very  »1'-  '■♦?  kind  of  happiness  i)ospible  for 

the  huiri**;  : '.afto  the  numbers  by  whom  £uch 

b/i :  To  aiErm  this,  however,  is,  by  impli- 

eauuii  iilml  element  in  human  character  is 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEyCE  MOXTHLY 


sympathy^  nnd  that  not  only  is  tins  feelixig  far  stronger 
widor  than  has  usually  been  supposed,  but  it  i^  capable  even  now, 
■when  once  the  idea  of  progress  has  been  apprehended,  of  inspir- 
ing the  individual  to  work  for  the  progress  in  wLich  he  ffiLurofly 
and  is  uure  to  at'quiro,  as  time  goes  on,  a  strength  incalculably 
greater.  It  is  because  the  religion  of  humanity  takes  (as  he 
ys)  such  a  cheerful  view  of  things  in  general  tha*  V     "*TiJlock 

Lxistous  it '•  the  creed  of  Optiniism."    All  the!.  f  that 

eroed  believe,  we  are  told,  "  that  the  human  lot  has  something  in 
It  which  makes  it,  in  the  eyes  of  all  who  can  see  clearly,  a  thing 
to  be  acquiesced  in,  not  merely  with  resignation  but  devoutnees.** 
This  is  the  idea  which  Mr.  Mallock  undertakes  to  di.sj>el  by  show- 
ing (1)  that  the  doctrine  of  a  steady  progress  in  human  affairs  is 
not  proved ;  (2)  that  sympathy  is  not  the  [wwerful  emotion  thai 
optimists  take  it  to  be;  (3)  that  admitting  progress  to  be  a  real- 
ity, and  sympathy  to  be  all  that  it  is  claimed  to  be,  the  thought  of 
the  miseries  humanity  had  endured  in  the  past  would  poison  all 
the  satisfaction  resulting  from  its  improved  condition  in  tha 
pi'esent  and  its  brilliant  prospects  for  the  future;  (4)  that  tha 
more  we  dwell  upon  the  practical  perpetuity  of  the  human  race 
the  more  is  individual  influence  dwarfed  in  comparison ;  (5)  that 
it  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  form  or  character  the  hnppin<stt 
we  anticipate  for  our  posterity  cau  take,  seeing  that  the  absonot 
of  pain  is  merely  negative  in  its  chai-acter,  and  that  the  idea  of 
on  abundance  of  creature  comforts  is  not  one  that  can  give  pleas* 
ure  to  any  human  being  capable  of  any  high  conception  of  life; 
finally,  (G)  that  if  we  are  to  see  any  meaning  in  life  we  must  follow 
a  light  which  is  not  that  of  science — the  light  of  theological  faith. 

Such  is  the  argument  of  our  opponent,  -  L;hout, 

it  must  be  admitted,  by  more  or  less  aptly  ^s  and 

an  abundance  of  plausible  rhetoric.  The  question  is.  How  doei 
it  affect,  how  does  it  touch,  any  vital  issue  of  the  i  ^         '^f 

Is  it  true  that  there  exists  in  the  world  to-day  a '"  :i* 

xnism  "  held  in  common  by  a  number  of  otherwise  di  ^  L» 

of  thought,  and  that  the  elements  of  that  croed  ar*^  a-  d 

by  Mr.  Mallock  ?    To  this  question  wo  venture  tu  give  ;  .  o 

answer.    It  is  quite  possible  that  individuals  bore  y 

have  constructed  for  themselves  some  such  metapL  a 

the  above;  but  to  say  that  any  large  number  of  a 

thinkers  of  our  time  c  -►• 

tions  formulated  aiul t 

are  confident  is  not  the  casa. 

The  situation  ionlay  h 

I  descendod  to  our  age  _        .. 

on  examined  from  the  hiatoricad  {i 

»of  a,gaini)t  criticiion  aa  the  tnciral^  puui ; 


I 


I 


MH.  MALLOCK   ON   OPTIMISM, 


of  th<?  ?Rme  period.  The  considerations  which  movetl  ova  ancestors 
to  belief  do  not  and  can  not  move  us ;  and,  therefore,  so  far  as  the 
theology  in  question  furnished  an  interpretation  of  the  world  or 
a  guide  to  conduct,  men  wlio  can  not  now  accept  it  are  compelled 
to  look  around  for  other  canons,  other  sanctions,  other  modes  of 
arriving  at  truth.  The  thinkers  of  this  Otge  have  not  deliberately 
made  this  situation  for  themselves.  The  change  has  come,  upon 
tlie  whole,  very  gradually ;  and  human  beings  are  every  day  being 
bom  into  an  atmosphere  in  which  the  ideas  that  were  current  in 
the  earlier  centuries  simply  can  not  live  unless  in  some  manner 
artificially  protected.  The  difference  between  our  time  and  the 
former  age  consists  mainly  in  this,  that  educated  men  have  now 
something  like  an  adequate  idoa  of  what  knowledge  is,  and  of 
what  proof  is,  and  that  they  have  got  into  the  way  of  asking  for 
proof  before  they  yield  l)elief.  That  this  was  not  formerly  the 
case— that  men  believed  for  the  most  fantastic  and  ridiculous 
reasons^ould  be  abundantly  proved  if  necessary  5  but  surely  it 
is  not  necessary.  The  task,  then,  which  is  assigned  by  dogmatic 
theolog}'^  to  this  generation  is  to  believe  without  those  aids  to  be- 
lief which  the  more  habitual  supernaturalism  of  our  more  igno- 
rant ancestors  supplied.  Some  try  to  do  it  and  succeed,  making 
ends  meet  by  ways  and  means  beat  known  to  themselves.  Some 
try  and  do  not  succeed ;  and  some  feel  dispensed  from  trying  at 
all.  Monotheism  it  must  be  remembered  was  not  a  special  reve- 
lation to  nmnkind.  There  are  good  grounds  for  the  belief  that,  in 
every  CAse  it  lias  resulted  from  the  consolidation  of  an  antecedent 
polytheism ;  while  polytheism  itself  has  been  a  delusion  forcetl 
upon  men's  minds  by  the  countless  activities  in  nature  which  they 
have  been  powerless  to  explain  to  themselves  in  any  other  way. 
The  time  has  come  at  length  when,  as  an  explanation  of  nature, 
monotheism  itself  has  lost  its  virtue;  not  because  there  are  not 
many  dnrk  problems  still  to  be  solved,  but  because  monotheism  is 
recognized  as  rather  the  assumption  of  a  solution  than  a  solution. 
Men,  even  those  who  \iew  things  in  this  light,  may  still  be  theists, 
but  intelligent  men  at  least  are  not  theists  merely  because  they 
can  not  understand  everything  in  nature.  Their  reasons  are  of  a 
different  order. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  there  being  anything  in  the  condition  of 
men's  minds  to-day  or  in  the  average  philosophy  of  the  time  to 
provol:  '0  or  hostile  comment,  there  is  much  that  calls  for 

evorv  ....:(;  and  consideration.    The  science,  the  history,  the 

ph  .  the  political  and  social  organization  of  the  past  are  dis- 

rr*  "      '         "     "         "*     1.  too,  and  men  are  engaged  in 

^*^^  .  itions  and  rear  worthier  super- 

^^|ki ;  irtment  of  thought.    The  workers,  hapyaly 

^^^^t  tlieworld»  are  not  all  brigaded  and  dra- 


THE  POPULAti  SCISXCS  MONTHLY, 


I 


gooned  by  the  voice  of  authority,  and  therefore  U 
working  on  the  same  lines;  but  they  are  vorking, 
cere  la}>ors  will  not  be  in  vain. 

The  question,  however^  at  proaont  is  whether  ll  .i>- 

eral  schools  referred  to  by  Mr.  Mallock  stand  coii'  he 

new  dogmatic  system  which  he  has  described*  The  tirsl  thing 
tliat  strikes  a  careful  reader  of  his  article  is  that  he  has  -  -  *  -vea 
a  single  quotation  from  any  leader  of  modem  thought  \  ;:g 

acceptance  of  the  views  in  question — a  thing  which  it  would  cer* 
tainly  have  been  easy  to  do  if  those  views  were,  as  he  maintoim, 
fundamental  with  them  all.  It  is  an  illusion  into  which  a  ZKUUI 
easily  falls,  whose  own  thought  has  run  in  dogmatic  lines,  to  gup- 
pose  tliat  others  must  have  constructed  for  themselves  a  philo- 
sophical or  logical  framework  of  equal  rigidity.  The  truth  con 
not,  therefore,  be  too  often  repeated  that  the  essential  mark  of 
miniern  thought  is  the  taking  of  the  world  just  a^  it  ia^  and  tho 
reduction  of  all  theories  more  or  less  to  the  rank  of  working  hy- 
potheses. Whether  the  changes  in  human  affairs  support  the 
theory  of  a  great  secular  drift  toward  better  conditions  is  a  ques- 
tion to  be  decided  simply  according  to  the  e\*idence,  which  can 
hardly  under  any  circumstances  be  of  a  demonstrative  character 
in  the  full  sense.  The  simple  fact  that  men  have  the  power  of 
rationally  adapting  means  to  ends  is  enough  to  prompt  to  cfTort 
and  inspire  hope,  for  in  this  power  lies  the  key  to  the  highest  pos- 
sibilities of  advancement.  He  who  knows  can,  and,  as  long  bs 
this  is  the  case,  the  path  of  knowledge  will  be  the  upwanl  jjalh. 
Knowledge,  to  be  sure,  is  sometimes  abused.  VThj  ?  For  want 
of  more  knowledge.  There  may  come  periods  in  the  history  of  a 
people  when  the  virtue  of  such  knowledge  as  they  possesa  has 
become  e^diausted,  and  when  in  the  rude  school  of  esperienoe  they 
may  have  to  learn  other  practical  lessons  as  the  necessary  condi* 
tion  of  further  advance ;  but  hovr  all  this  may  be  im  a  matt<<r  for 
which  no  individual  man  is  rcapousiblo,  and  one  who  should  wait 
to  devise  a  practical  philosophy  for  himself  until  he  har]  cast  the 
horoscope  of  humanity  would  not  be  wise.  The  late  Mr,  Arnold 
thought  he  had  discovered  clear  truces  of  "  a  power,  not  onrselvea, 
that  makes  for  righteoasnesa  ";  but  he  did  not  wait  for  '  n. 

latiou  of  that  discover^',  if  such  it  was, before  striving  x*..  ^.^  Ui* 
own  life  on  principles  of  righteousness.  And  if  some  one  comes 
forward  i\iid  point,s  <nii,  as  one  critic  at  least  *''  d, 

that  whether  "the  jH>wcr"  is  makiiig  for  r'x^^        ^  t 

depends  upon  the  stage  of  a  nation's  do\'elopmeut»  there 
periods  when  the  r  '  "irctw  make  rathi 

no  ono  is  obligi^tK  •  t  tough  he  may  i- 

j>  and  woU-foundod,  to  abandou  his  pn>v; 


f 

4 


MR,  MALLOCK   OJV'   OPTIMISJf, 


I 


I 


Tf^ therefore,  Mr.  Alallock  woulil  really  make  tlie  position  of  nn 
indopendent,  non-theological  thinker  of  the  present  day  unten", 
able,  he  must  show,  not  that  the  theory  of  progress  in  general  u^ 
without  logical  support,  but  that,  taking  the  world  as  it  is  known 
to  us,  there  is  no  Hupport  outside  of  theology  for  intellectual  or 
moral  effort.  Let  Mr.  Mallock  show  that,  because  we  can  not 
share  his  views  in  regard  to  the  government  of  the  world,  we  can 
not  desire  the  good  of  our  neighbor  or  draw  the  distinction  which 
the  poet  draws  between  "a  higher  and  a  lower,"  and  we  shall  at 
once  acknowledge  our  situation  to  be  a  very  serious  one.  It  is 
simply  becauBo  he  can  not  show  anything  of  the  kind  that  ho 
adc»ptfl  his  present  tactics,  which  are  to  Ba<idle  on  the  liberal 
schools  doctrines  which  they  do  not  hold,  and  then  to  attack  those 
doctrines  with  his  heaviest  logical  ordnance.  In  regard  to  tho 
doctrine  of  progress,  Mr,  Spencer  is  perhaps  the  most  authorizt>d 
exponent  of  modern  ideas,  and  how  far  ho  is  from  maintaining  it 
in  anything  like  an  abs^duto  form  may  be  gathered  from  his  works 
at  large  and  very  conclusively  from  tho  eighth  chapter  of  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Principles  of  Sociology."  A  quotation  or  two 
may  be  permitted:  "  If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  notion  that  savagery 
is  causetl  by  lapse  from  civilization  is  irreconcilable  with  the  evi- 
dence, there  is,  on  the  other  hand,  inadequate  warrant  for  the 
notion  that  the  lowest  savagery  Las  always  been  as  low  as  it  is 
now.  It  is  quite  possible,  and,  I  believe,  highly  probable,  that  ret- 
rogression has  been  as  frequent  as  progression.  ...  Of  all  exist- 
ing species  of  animals,  if  we  include  parasites,  the  greater  number 
have  retrograded  from  a  structure  to  which  their  remote  ancestors 
had  once  advanced. ...  So  with  super-organic  evolution.  Thoiigh, 
taking  the  entire  assemblage  of  societies,  evohition  may  bo  held  to- 
be  inevitable  as  an  ultimate  effect  of  the  co-operating  factors,  in- 
trinsic and  extrinsic,  acting  on  them  all  through  indefinite  poriotls 
of  time ;  yet  it  can  not  be  held  inevitable  in  each  particular  soclu 
ety  or  even  probable.  .  .  .  Direct  evidence  forces  this  conclusiofll 
on  us.  Lapse  from  higher  civilization  to  lower  civilisation,  matlo- 
familiar  during  school  days,  is  further  exemplified  as  our  knowl* 
edge  widens." 

Any  candid  person  can  judge  from  these  passages  how  far  Mr. 
Spencer  must  be  from  basing  any  theory  of  human  conduct  upon 
the  abstract  notion  of  the  progress  of  the  human  race.  His  moral 
system,  as  is  well  known,  has  notliing  to  do  either  with  a  general 
thoory  of  progress  or  with  the  sympathetic  interest  which  indi- 
vidual men  may  take  now  or  hereafter  in  the  fortunes  of  humanity 
at  Iarg«^    If  w  '  tber  writer  of  very  "advanced"  opin- 

jionn,  bttt  whf«i  (lifTt^rs  materially  from  Mr.  Spencer's 

—Dr.  ^'  '  too  lays  no  great  stress  upon  the 

tdoA  of  y  recognizes  tho  many  evidences 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLV. 


of  retrogression  whioli  history  and  natural  hisN^ry  alike  preseot^ 
'*  It  admits  of  no  doubt/*  he  says  in  one  place, "  Ihftl  a  law  of  dii- 
generation  is  manifest  in  human  events;  that  each  tndividn&l, 
each  family,  each  nation,  may  take  an  upward  course  of  evolution 
or  a  dovmward  course  of  degeneracy.  Noteworth}'"  (he  adds)  "  is 
the  fact  that,  when  the  orgauiBm — individual^  social,  or  natioual^ 
.  1  lied  a  certain  state  of  comjdex  evolution,  it  inevitably 

'  l^  lianges  in  itself  which  disintegrate  and  in  the  end  destroy 

it."*    Turn  now  to  Mr.  Leslie  Stephen,  a  writer  as  free  from  aU 
theological  prepossessions  as  either  Mr.  Spencer  or  Dr.  Mandsloy. 
Far  from  making  the  assumptions  which  Mr.  3Iallock  atinbuCeil 
to  the  whole  liberal  school,  he  criticises  some  of  those  assumptions 
in  terms  that  resemble  very  closely  those  used  by  Mr.  Mullock 
himself.    For  example,  he  tells  us  that,  while  speculatious  in  re- 
Igard  to  a  future  Utopia  for  human  society  "  may  be  useful  in  de- 
nying an  end  toward  which  all  well-wishers  to  their  fellows  may 
desire  t-o  act,"  such  speculations  are  nevertheless  rash,  and  do  not 
toolve  the  difficulty  for  us,  inasmuch  as  ''the  knuwUnlge — if  ire 
reould  attain  the  knowledge — that  our  descendants  would  be  better 
off  than  ourselves  would  not  disprove  the  existence  of  the  present 
pvil."    Pushing  the  objection  further,  he  says :  "  We  can  not  tell 
llhat  progress  will  be  indefinite.     It  seems  rather  that  science 
points  to  a  time  at  which  all  life  upon  the  planet  must  become 
extinct,  and  the  social  organism  may,  according  to  the  familiar 
analogy,  have  its  natural  old  age  and  death."  \ 

There  is  no  use  in  taking  up  space  with  further  citation& 
The  fact  is,  we  would  not,  at  this  moment,  know  to  what  writer  of 
the  several  schools  of  thought  referred  to  by  Mr,  Mall^ck  we 
could  turn,  to  find  that  dogmatic  assumption  of  pix/gress  which 
he  says  is  characteristic  of  them  all.  What  characterizes  them 
all  is  a  manly  determination  not  \o  despair  of  the  fortunes  of  ! 
humanity  btK'ause  the  former  monopolizers  uf  spiritual  authority 
have  suffeiv*!  an  abatement  of  their  prerogatives  and  nuw  ex{>eud 
a  large  portion  of  their  energy  in  anathematizing  the  tcndporica 
of  the  age.     What  further  characterizes  them  all  :(»u 

that  morality  and  happiness   must  have  soun:es  .  ciX 

human  institutions  and  abstract  philosophies,  and  that,  ciirtiiixdy, 

neither  demonstrable  falsehoods  nor  unverified  theor-  ■     *"  

kind  can  be  their  absolutely  necessary  conditions. 
Stephen  exprosf»es  this  well  when  he  says:  "  It  may  \  mt 

the  whole  history  of  the  world  and  >t«  inlmb*'*'^^  "-■  ^^ 

problem  of  stupendous  magnitude.  ,  .  •  We  ^'  iH 

lem  by  living,  or  rather  wo  ■  1  our  «^v  v^H 

problem.    Wo  are  utterly  iut   ...^    ..i^t  to  gr.u^  ^| 

rise  above  it.  and  say  why  such  and  mich  data  n  i^| 


MR,  MALLOCK   OX   OPTIMISSf. 


iveTi,  and  wliat  will  bo  the  further  stages  of  the  process.  But 
hon  we  once  recognize  the  fact  that  the  j)roblem  is  being  worked 
>ut,  wo  see  that  an  answer  is  actually  given  in  some  degree  by 
the  very  facts  before  us.  That  is  really  the  nature  of  the  change 
in  the  ])oint  of  view  implied  in  the  acceptance  of  the  evolution 
theory."  • 

Having  thus  shown  to  how  large  an  extent  Mr.  Mallock  has 
[drawn  upon  hin  imagmation  in  regard  to  the  imi)ortttnce  assigned 
in  modern  ethical  theories  to  the  idea  of  progress,  it  is  easy  to 
tehow  that  what  he  has  said  on  the  subject  of  sympathy  is  equally 
idi-stituto  of  foundation.    The  emancipated  modern  thinker  tries 
to  take  stock  of  human  nature  as  it  is:  the  age  for  constructing 
[ideals  of  a  purely  imaginative  kind  has  passetL    We  waut  to  as- 
certain just  how  much  sympathy  there  is  in  average  human  na- 
ture, so  that  we  may  know  what  we  have  to  dei>end  on.   We  want 
^to  discover  also  how  far  the  quantity  now  existing  admits  of  in- 
irease.    Augusto  Comte  studied  this  question  closely;  and,  far 
(from  unduly   magnifying  the  sympathetic  element   in   human 
nature,  he  continually  speaks  of  it  as  being  very  weak  in  com- 
[parisoa  with  the  egoistic,  and  therefore  requiring  all  the  re-en« 
[forcement  we  can  give  it.    His  whole  system  is  an  elabonite  effort 
to  draw  out  sympathy  and  make  it  more  widoly  and  powerfully 
[operative  in  human  affairs.    For  this  purpose  his  followers  think 
it  right  ond  profitable  to  dwell  much  upon  the  history  of  the 
human  race,  and  to  bring  into  strong  relief  the  organic  depend- 
lence  of  the  individual  upon  society  at  large.    Many  who,  per- 
[liaps,  would  not  care  to  acknowledge  any  obligations  to  Comte, 
[*re  to-day  doing  the  same  thing — so  much  so  that  the  prominence 
m  to  the  thought  of  society  as  an  organic  whole,  infusing  its 
larger  life  into  its  individual  members,  may  ho  said  to  be  an 
ipecial  note  of  the  present  age.    If  it  be  asked  what  object  there 
'an  l>e  in  quickening  sympathy  between  a  man  and  his  fellows, 
[the  answer  is,  the  promotion  of  more  harmonious  social  action, 
suiting  in  economy  of  force  and  increase  of  happiness     Upon 
tliis  point  Mr  Mallock  seems  to  be  all  astray,  owing  doubtless  to 
the  too  abstract  manner  in  which  he  choge  to  treat  the  qxiestion. 
|He  seems  to  think  that  the  whole  effect  of  symjjathy  is  confined 
the  mental  representation  of  others'  pains  and  pleasures.    He 
'orgets,  apparently,  tl^at  it  has  its  natural  outcome  in  action ;  and 
;bat,  except  as  a  basis  for  action,  there  would  be  no  useful  pur- 
.=A  ti.  cultivating  it.    This  is  the  true  and  obvious  answer  to  his 
ical  contemtion  that  an  increase  of  sympathy  could  not 
f<jr  h"-  'ig  that  if,  on  the  one  hand,  it  enabled  us 

M  '^'i  the  joys  of  others,  it  would,  on  the 

}i  poignantly  their  sorrows.    We  can 

'^  «C  EtWe*,'' ^  SI. 


HP  THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTBLY, 

not  increase  sympathy  with  mankind  at  L'lr  "^    ^ 

iiig  the  sense  of  duty  and  prompting  to  v 

they  take  the  form  of  promoting  happiness  or  averting  miwry- 
will  themselves  be  a  soxirce  of  "blessedness  to  tbe  doers.  Wliat  10 
Tranted  is  simply  such  a  development  of  sympathy  as  will  btt-t 
liiibserve  the  interests  of  society ;  and  Mr,  Mallock^s  idea  tLat  u 
power  of  sympathy  sufficient  to  prompt  men  to  lead  rirtaoutf  lires 
would  also  bo  suHicient  to  fill  them  with  anguish  at  the  thought 
of  all  the  past  suilerings  of  mankiud,  is  altogetlier  fanciful  asd 
hollow. 

An  assumption  which  vitiates  much  of  Mr  Mallock's  reoaon- 
;ing  on  this  whole  subject  is  that  right  conduct  is,  in  the  honsan 
sphere,  a  kind  of  rare  and  frail  exotic,  requiring  the  service*  of  a 
theological  gardener  and  the  warm,  heavy-laden  atmosphere  of 
some  ecclesiastical  hoi-house  in  order  to  live  at  alL  But  that  in 
a  view  which  we  are  under  no  obligation  to  accept,  and  which 
the  facts  of  life  are  very  far  from  suggesting.  Why  should  the 
relations  of  man  with  man  be,  in  their  own  nature,  everlastingly 
wrong  ?  Siirely  there  is  sunlight  enough,  and  air  enough^  &dJ 
earth  enough,  and  water  enough,  for  a  good  many  of  us  to  lirft 
together  on  this  earth  in  peace  and  concord  and  mutual  helpful- 
fliesa  I  Surely  men  have  need  of  one  another,  and  it  is  diflicnlt  to 
imagine  how  they  could  long  work  together  without  the  develop- 
ment in  their  minds  of  the  conception  of  justice.  In  point  of 
fact,  the  idea  of  justice  is  in  the  world  and  has  been  in  it  in  one 
form  or  another  for  many  ages.    The  task  1?       "  '    *    ■■  us 

to-day,  with  our  widened  experience  and  deei>t  ,  s  to 

realize  that  idea  more  and  more  perfectly  in  all  social  relatioui 
Why  should  we  wish  to  do  it  ?  Because  we  know  that  justice  is 
good,  and  because  our  sympathies,  aided  by  a  certain  difttised 
feeling  of  self-interest,  prompt  us  to  strive  for  the  p-  :  of 

society.    But,  apart  from  all  voluntary  or  delibr-  *  tho 

idea  of  justice  acts  as  a  powerful  leaven  in  the  so«  ich 

it  enters,  and  we  may  hope  that  by  and  by  it  will  leaven  iho 
whole  lump.  When  Mr.  Mallock  says  that  **the  problem  is  to 
construct  a  life  of  superlative  happiness,"  he  makes  a  complete 
jnis^  ■  t  80  far  as  any  problem  contemplated 

Jiecr...  ..   .  13  concerned.    Theologians  promise  a  i- . ,      .._ 

tive  happiness  in  another  world,  but  non-theolo^cal  reformers 
are  more  moderate  in  their  c  *'"         '      *    "  * 

the  human  race  may  be  in  1 

undertake  to  predict    They  may  BomotimeA»  ■  ^mk 

^their  dream  of  good;  but,  if  ?  '  -  ^   '  i^| 

^f  human  nature  and  its  en^  IjH 

It  is  hard  to  understand  how  Mr.  f  H 

make  such  a  statement  as  tb»t  juini  <^MOi^:u.    ..«^4lul  ti^| 


4 


MR.  MALLOCK  OX  OPTIMISAf, 


Bogians  attack  the  problom  of  "constructing  a  lift)  of  perfect  Imp- 
piness,"  does  it  follow  that  the  liberal  thinkers  of  the  present  day 
must  follow  them  on  that  gronnd,  like  the  magicians  of  Pharaoh, 
imitating,  to  the  best  of  their  considerable  ability,  the  miraclt'S  of 
Moses  and  Aaron  ?  It  would  be  much  to  Mr.  Mallock\s  benefit  if 
he  coald  only  be  persuaded,  once  for  all,  that  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  whole  evolutionary  school  is  that  they  take  the  world 
aa  they  £nd  it,  and  expect  no  moro  from  it  than  it  is  adapted  to 
render.  If  human  history  as  a  whole  is  predestined  to  be  a  fail- 
ure, that  is  none  of  their  affair ;  they  are  not  in  the  business  of 
insuring  worlds  or  universes  or  even  civilizations.  All  they  can 
ay — and  this  they  do  on  the  ground  of  cxxicrienco^is  that,  taking 
ho  world  and  the  human  consciousness  as  they  are,  there  seems 
to  be  one  line  of  conduct  which  beet  subserves  human  interests ; 
and  which,therefore,  they  will  both  follow  themselves  and  recom- 
mend to  others.  That  line  consists  in  practicing  the  lessons  that 
Nature  and  history  have  taught  us,  using  our  faculties  for  the 
r  '  'ion  of  real  knowledge  and  our  powers  of  foresight  for  a 
V  i  jiistmont  of  present  action  to  future  nee^is  and  results.  If 
the  man  who  is  filthy  spurns  this  humble,  unpretentious  philoso- 
phy, and  determines  to  be  filthy  still,  he  must  be  allowed  to  exer- 
cise his  preference,  as  he  has  done  under  other  dispensations. 
Wisdom  will  still  be  justified  of  her  children,  though  the  gospel 
of  science  should  be  hid  to  them  that  are  lost. 

Mr.  Mallock   is  much  concerned  over  what  the  future  of 

humanity  will  be  if  his  principles  do  not  prevail.    He  can  not 

feel  any  pleasure  in  the  thought  of  a  Humanity  'shut  up  in  infi- 

ito  content,'  when  once  it  had  secured  itself  three  meals  a  day, 

nd  smiling  every  morning  a  satisfied  smile  at  the  universe,  its 

uge  lips  shining  with  fried  eggs  and  bacon."    Well,  if  the  time 

hould  ever  come  when  humanity  has  nothing  to  be  satisfied  with 

abundance  of  food  and  a  good  digestion,  Mr.  Mallock's  deli- 

y  chosen  image  may  be  in  some  measure  realized ;  but  why 

t  tthould  be  necessary  to  imagine  such  a  future  for  society,  merely 

vse  knowledge  is  growing  and  superstition  waning,  it  is  not 

to  say.    Why  should  not  "knowledge  grow  from  more  to 

more,"  and  yet "  more  of  reverence  in  us  dwell,"  so  that — 

I  ** .  .  .  mind  and  henri,  according  well, 

^^^^^  H&7  moke  ouo  maalc  a»  before, 

^^^H  But  vaator  *' 

It  is  hard  to  conceive  any  reason  except  such  as  might  be  sup* 
Ji*'    '''■'':        T       '■  '    '    '         ''    tu.    Mr.  Mallock 

^  ■  i   .  iples,  life  ia  not 

^^^Bh  rgumentation,  the  mod- 

^^^^K'  '   urjMu Liu^  t<vt-r  uiun;  ^vldoly  from  his  favorite 


THE  POPULAR  SCIBXCE  MONTHir 


principlee,  goes  on  living  and  enjoying  life.  Her.t^t-  tIp^^o  t«^B 
and  these  savage  diatribes  against  an  imaginary  iii>gnjaTic  QipB 
miam  on  the  part  of  hia  opponents.  To  hira  they  perhaps  seem 
optimists,  as  not  sharing  his  pessimism;  to  their  own  apprvhirn- 
sion  they  are  simply  children  of  their  age,  listening  to  it^  U^ach- 
ings  with  earnest  attention  and  trying  to  utter  the  meesage  th*y 
receive. 

What,  after  all,  would  Mr.  Mallock  have  us  do  ?  He  wts 
that  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  meaning  or  of  any  goncral  p 
grossive  movement  in  human  history — none  that  **  would  bo 
cepted  either  in  physical  or  philosophical  «cienco/'  Yet  be  wants 
us  to  helieve  on  some  a  priori  ground,  which  he  is  prepartnl  lo 
present,  that  life  lias  a  meaning  and  does  exhibit  progress.  If  we 
will  only  accept  the  light  that  he  offers,  we  shall  soe  that  "  life  i 
fuU  of  august  meanings";  but  that  light,  he  plainly  tells  us,  i» 
not  the  light  of  science.  In  the  same  way  he  offers  to  invest  witl^ 
infinite  significance  and  value  any  little  services  we  may  rendc 
to  humanity — services  which, considered  simply  as  offered  by 
to  man,  would  not  be  worth  taking  into  any  kind  of  account.  The 
method  in  this  case  is  to  bring  our  offering  to  Chri&t,  who  "  judges 
it  by  the"  effort  and  the  intention."  The  altar  of  humanity,  then, 
is  not  a  sanctifying  altar;  and  men  must  be  assured  of  a  hig 
rating  for  their  sacrifices  before  they  will  bo  content  to  inako 
them.  "  The  love  of  humanity  without  faith  to  enlighten  it,  and 
nothing  to  justify  it  beyond  what  science  can  show,  is  as  absurd 
as  the  love  of  Titauia  for  Bottom."  The  reply  to  this  u?  that  long 
before  what  Mr.  Mallock  speaks  of  as  **  faith  "  was  known  in  the 
world  the  nobler  spirits  among  men  had  a  love  for  humanity,  and 
were  further  ennobled,  not  made  ridiculous,  by  their  luve.  Fron 
the  commencement  of  history,  indeed,  down  to  the  present  day, 
there  has  been  but  one  way  of  being  noble,  and  tb.at  hait  bt-en 
by  caring  for  one*s  fellow-men.  That  way  some  have  f"  '  iy|| 
an  eminent  degree,  and  multitudes  in  a  lessor  degree,  w  q^ 

aid  from  theological  fancies.  In  the  present  day,  when  the  iawn" 
of  social  development  and  the  true  relations  of  individual  lifo  are 
so  much  better  understood  than  formerly,  there  ouirht  to  \m,  noJ 
there  is,  much  more  to  nourish  in  individuals  a  ^^H 

for  the  general  welfare.    The  love  of  Titauin,  v: BM 

torn  or  forOberon,  supplies  no  apt  illustration  here» since  tlio  cam 
is  not  one  calling  fur  rumfintic  love,  bn'  '^^'^rf 

tion  to  a  recognizetl  source  of  gof^d — to  tl  i^| 

without  which  the  indi\-idual  life  would  Willi-  H 

Mr.  M  "     '  \  terms  are  t.  '.    Much  ..  H 

read  th'  juist  meaning:  '    a**  wv  ::'■■■  ^M 

that  our  gjfl^  to  humanity  ^ecei^  -^H 

pathetic  appraisement^  if  it  is  a  i^u^^nUuii  ^H 


ITS 


1 

#1  V 


MR.  MALLOCK  ON  OPTimSM. 


541 


K 


»«: 


©CclesIftfiHcism,  we  must  forego  those  visions;  we  most 
00k  v-itliin  for  our  reward.    Better  to  face  a  sterile  universe  than 
submit  to  a  spiritual  tyranny.    But  to  us  the  universe  is  not  ster- 
e,  nor  is  life  without  meanings  which  might  almost  bo  pro- 
ounced  "  august."    The  theological  solution  of  the  problem  is 
simply  an  adjournment :  the  next  world  is  to  clear  up  the  mys- 
teries of  this.    The  scientific  solution  may  be  summed  up  iu  the 
owl  "adaptation."    There  is  a  law  in  things  which  slowly  re- 
eals  itself  to  careful  observation ;  and  just  as  that  law  is  re^id, 
rned,  marked,  and  obeyed,  does  human  life  grow  in  value  and 
ore  and  more  carry  its  own  justification  within  itself.    "  It  doth 
ot  yet  appear  what  wa  shall  be"  is  a  sa^-ing  very  applicable  to 
he  future  of  our  race  upoa  the  earth.    Supposiaig  it  possible  that 
ligion  should  in  the  future  take  the  form  of  an  earnest  study  of 
he  laws  of  life  and  cf  morality,  personal  and  social,  who  can 
orecast  the  glory  that  might  yet  bo  revealed  in  this  despised 
humanity  of  ours  ?    And  who  would  not  feel,  in  presence  of  such 
a  transfiguration,  that  it  was  "  good  for  us  to  be  here  "  ?    If  any- 
hing  will  thus  transfigure  society,  we  venture  to  affirm  that  it 
will  be  science  pursued  in  a  religious  spirit — that  is,  regarded  as  a 
ministry  of  truth  and  good  to  mankind.    There  is  a  force  avail- 
able liere  that  is  at  present  little  understood.    It  may  possibly 
never  be  understood  by  more  than  a  few:   no  one  can  answer 
for  that;  but  it  is  impossible  not  to  hope  that  some  day,  for  a 
religion  based  on  relics  and  texts,  on  myths  and  traditions,  on 
ogma  and  ritual,  on  barren  erudition  at  one  end  of  the  scale,  bois- 
rous  sentiment  at  the  other,  and  infinite  my6>tification  through- 
ut,  may  be  substituted  one  founded  on  the  truth  of  nature  and  di- 
ectod  with  undivided  aim  to  the  perfecting  of  humanity.    Alrootly 
e  see,  here  and  there,  how  much  of  pure  happiness  the  right  ad- 
ustment  of  human  relations  can  create;  and  we  do  not  see  why 
he  law,  by  virtue  of  which  such  happiness  is  produced,  should 
ot  become  more  widely  known  and  more  faithfully  observed. 
t  is  the  habit  of  the  self-styled  orthodox  U\  fling  all  the  failures 
of  the  universe  at  our  heads,  as  if  we  had  produced  them,  or  wore 
at  least  specially  responsil)le  for  explaining  them.    The  habit  \a 
n  idle  one:  the  responsil)ility  is  not  ours ;  but  now  that  the  light 
f  scientific — that  is,  of  verifiable — truth  has  come  into  the  world, 
e  do  hold  ourselves  responsible  for  bearing  witness  to  it,  and 
'   no  as  vridely  as  possible.    And,  as  we  are  not  an- 
1  pat^t,  neither  do  we  assume  to  control  or  predict 

0  future.    We  see  merely  a  duty  in  the  present,  a  duty  the  per- 
"      '  *  '         M  bring  peace.  traiKiuillity.  and  security. 
*:  it  is  in  evury  man's  power  to  make  it  a 


54* 


THE  POPULAR   SCTSNCB  HOXTHLT. 


^  SAVAGE  LIFE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA.  ^H 

^^  Br  CArTAiai  SOIXS  PAGE,  ^^^1 

[  or  TUX  ABOKimn  v att.  ^^^^| 

THE  Gran  Chaco  derives  its  name,  according  to  Charlevoix,  g 
from  those  great  Indian  battnes,  or  collf.   '  '  wild  gamc^B 

■which,  surroundfd  iiy  a  cordon  of  fireandhun  '  regradnnllyl 

driven  to  a  given  center.  It  is  a  va^  central  tract  of  country  lying  ■ 
bet-ween  the  southern  tropic  and  ^D"  south  liiti hide,  bounded  oafl 
the  north  by  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  on  the  south  by  the  ArgentiM  V 
province  of  Santa  F^,  on  the  east  by  the  ParanA  and  Paragnay 
Rivers,  and  on  the  west  by  Santiago  del  Estero  and  SaltA.  It  con*^ 
tains  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  square  milen,  or  con^^^ 
Biderably  more  than  the  superficies  of  Great  Britain  and  IrolanrL 
About  one  third  part  of  this  vast  area  bidongs  to  Paraguay,  but  thfl^M 
exact  demarkation  of  the  limits  between  the  Argentine  H^^pnblicjHj 
Boli\-ia,  and  Paraguay  has  still  to  be  made,  although  1  th*^" 

first  and  last  of  these  countries  an  arrangement  was  t :  :,  .  into 
through  the  arbitration  of  President  Hayes,  of  the  Unit4.'d  Stat«», 
•which  must  neces.sarily  be  calhxl  satisfactory.  The  Gran  Chaco 
luis  been  called,  particularly  in  allusion  to  the  low-lying  Paraguay 
section,  the  "  Oceano  firme/*  or  solid  ocean.  In  fact,  owing  to  the 
comparatively  limited  means  of  communication,  it  was  formerly 
considered  too  vast  for  an  undivided  control,  and  the  ArgealiiM 
part  was  constituted  into  tvo  territorial  governorships — one  collwl 
the  Chaco  Austral  and  the  other  the  Chaco  Central.  -^  •'  '- '  sec- 
tion is  that  belonging  to  Paraguay,  part  of  which,  aloiK  -♦h- 
era  side,  is  disputed  by  Bolivia,  and  goes  by  the  name  of  i 
of  Azero.  The  Chaco  Austral  is  the  most  favored  in  natura*  •  i-.  i.- 
of  these  three  great  sections,  and  has  extensive  primeval  forests. 
The  principal  -water-courses  of  these  torritnrins  are  the  Pilco- 
mayo  and  Bermejo,  which  are  undoubtedly  destined  to  becomo 
highways  of  commerce.  The  waters  of  these  rivers  differ  in  eolofi 
those  of  the  Pilcomayo  being  dark  and  s-  '  .wl 
those  of  the  Bermejo  rod,  as  its  name  imh                                  row 

•  Mr.  Clements  Markfaftm  said,  In  th*  dli«raisi«n  on  r*pt»ln  Vw^r  P•T*'*^  *^'**  **■* 
^Choco  wfti  A  mn«  IniportoDt  rvgion,  Iriug  bi'^-  <St. 

:WwJ  the  great  fluvUl  highwav  of  riche*.     In  ii>  .  ^  -ai, 

but  uider  the  goTenuncnt  at  the  Inou  of  Pom  the  word  itm  imv^Un  that  fi*r;i*Al  nVn 
ihrj  aurrouiulMl  and  numbered  their  flotka.  ll  waa  a  ammtii^  of  <ri4't>-  H  i^c  fm 
klibteii  c/baM^  or  Oran  Ma»,  was  ao  nam<Kl  bjr  lb«  local,  t*oa«a«  tb>  •  -^H 

I'ffv^otifl  to  tii^  nut  of  their  tt".  •«*■.;"  '  •nioa  were  •  •ourcv  of  *■-»'''  l^H 

Aiala,  prcdoua  dm^  and  v.  izcd  hanvMa  of  eoaa.  ^^^H 

WmbocIs  which  flowed  from  th  -  of  (be  Tnou  acraaa  tli*  -^^M 

Baling  down  thr  prcxtnee  of  ilte  And*«  to  raarfccn  Urpmd  '■  ^H 

okA  ao<  ^«t  arrttcd,  attbougfa  thv  apvabtf  b«li«v«il  It  iraa  umt  «i  !u  ^| 


SAVAQS  LIFE  IX  SOUTH  AMERICA, 


I 


^Vtortuoas,  and  both  run  in  a  general  southeast  direction,  pre- 
Pl^ing  a  remarkable  ])arallelisni  tliroughout  their  course,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  abont  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles.  Their  depths  and 
general  characteristics  correspond,  and  they  are  frequently  ob- 
structed by  narrow  argillaceous  beds  and  fallen  trees.  The  waters 
of  both  rivers  sire  drinkable,  but  hard  and  unsuited  for  washing. 
The  Bermejo  brings  dowTi  an  enonuous  amount  of  sediment,  which 
is  deposited  with  such  extraordinary  rapidity  that  it  must  be  con- 
eidered  a  peculiarly  strong  feature  of  the  mechanical  work  of  tho 
river,  by  which  its  geological  formations  are  made  and  unmade. 
This  swift  precipitation  of  its  detritus,  which  it  replaces  by  an  in- 
creasing abrasion  of  tho  banks,  goes  on  in  the  Bermejo,  even  when 
at  its  height  and  when  in  the  exercise  of  its  greatest  carrying- 
power,  with  a  speed  equal  to  the  square  of  its  normal  current.  I 
n  this  river  eat  away  an  entire  point  of  land,  and  by  way 
pensation  deposit,  just  a  turning  below,  an  amount  of  de- 
tritus suihcient  to  form  a  similar  promontory,  which  in  one  season 
of  low  water  became  covered  with  a  thick  and  luxuriant  growth 
of  red  willow.  The  Pilcomayo  is  to  a  great  extent  unknown,  and 
in  one  section  that  is  quite  unknown  is  invested  with  a  mythical 
halo  in  the  shape  of  a  tradition  that  it  disapjiwars.  An  apparent, 
disappearance  is  a  phenomenon  which  seems  to  have  taken  place 
with  some  rivers.  The  upj)©r  Paraguay,  as  I  have  witnessed,  haa 
been  known  to  flow,  as  if  absolutely  lost  for  many  miles,  beneath 
a  matted  covering  of  living  and  dead  vegetation  several  foet  in 
depth.  In  the  year  1858  one  of  these  growths,  under  tho  influ- 
ence of  an  extraonlinary  inundation,  broke  loose  and  drifted  two 
thousand  miles,  down  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  it  brought  up,  with 
many  wild  animals  and  reptiles  that  had  taken  refuge  tliero  from 
the  almost  universal  deluge.  The  Pilcomayo  is  not  affected  in 
this  way,  and  I  believe  that  it  not  only  does  not  become  lost,  but 
that  tliere  are  no  insuperable  obstacles  to  its  navigation.  At  tho 
point  where  it  is  supposed  to  be  lost,  it  begins  a  very  erratic  wan- 
dering— after  running  a  few  miles  to  the  southeast,  it  suddenly 
turns  to  tlie  north,  leaving  several  minor  branchas  looking  in  the 
oppoBito  direction.  It  then  returns  as  rapidly  to  its  general  south- 
east course,  and,  while  subject  to  overflows,  the  main  body  of  it 
flows  on  in  a  natural  bed  uninterruptedly  to  its  mouth.* 

*  Cokmol  Cbnroh  r«Tiurt«4,  ht  th«  rlfsniMton^  thai  the  Ar^ntino  Republic  seemM  to  b« 
dIviM  huo  liro  eeciioiu — that  of  tba  Punpu,  wtiboux  forest,  and  that  of  tho  Chaco,  which 

vma  a  forcat'Onrared  country.     Oirtmipt-  ^r -v   the  rain*  of  the  Chaoo  dlalrict  did  noC 

Bravr  Marfan?  \h«  niuy  p^o<li  of  ibv  r  :  riot  i  but  from  Xorenbar  to  Mat  ther« 

w»»  J         •     •  -      t        .:>ont,  aiwl  the  trjunir^  t^vamc  flooded,  flllM  •rilh  la^roons,  with  h»f# 
asil  1  "  nnall  bUL    JU  tho  hoad-walers  of  tlio  B<>rmp}<>  there  was  on  ancdftJ 

ny  lcaj$««  aur&w.     ll  •»•  m  ^  t-ry  iKfl)''uU  proltl^m  to  him  how  tho 


t^btj 


rm^y*  9«iM  ••«  fjm  u»*>riillY  niirijfatifd.     Tlw  formor,  one  hundred 
<  litiand  klmlt  through  a  aaody  awtmp  odo  bund7<ed 


THE  POPULAR   SCISXCE  MONTHLY. 


Sf^vcral  att»>nipta  have  been  made  to  ex]jloro  1i  "  "" 

story  of  one  that  was  undertaken  under  the  Bolivia.  ' 

has  b&en  told  with  such  exaggerations  as  almost  mark  it  a  workj 
of  dciion,  by  Lieutenant  Van  Nivel.    A  tragic  i        •    l     '  ^     '    ^  to 
the  expedition  of  Dr.  Cr^vaux,  of  the  French  i  ^  ci- 

ety,  who  undertook  to  work  along  the  banks  of  the  river.  The 
party  were  enticed  inland  by  the  savages  and  murdered.  A  later 
Bolivian  expedition  of  one  hundred  troops,  accompanied  by  a^ 
French  traveler,  M,  Thouar,  were  harassed  but  not  acluully  ai* 
tacked  by  the  savages,  and,  aft^T  wandering  considerably  out  of 
their  course,  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Paraguay,  having  tmv- 
ersed  the  Chaco  in  a  southeast  direction  more  or  less  along  the 
river,  but  without  in  any  manner  elucidating  its  geography.* 

milef  in  diameter,  while  abore  th!<i  iwamp  It  wu  filled  with  fBlln.  npiiU,  8aiul4)«Dk«,  io4 
gnagA.  The  bed  of  the  latter  osdllatod  backward  and  forward  to  the  csWot  of  thirty  or 
fortT  miles,  CArtTing  with  it  great  trunka  of  treea  of  ver7  hard  wood,  the  aprciflc  ^raWt/  of 
which  exceeded  llmt  of  water.  The  rain;  flemeoD  waa  auecMded  bj  one  ao  drj  thai  «nlB«t 
life  almost  purUbcd  for  lack  of  water.  There  wu  a  distsooe  uf  twelv«  hnndrvd  «i>4l  tXiJ 
miles  along  ibo  Bormcjo  to  its  mouth  ia  which  It  recelTod  but  one  brmnoh. — EmrmL. 

*  Dr.  Criraux,  already  di<iungui.<4hcd  for  bi«  work  In  eiplorliig  the  iKniodarj  of  0<Uaaa 
uid  Brazil,  was  oamniissioneil  to  endcaror  to  reach  the  opposite  ildo  of  the  Amaran  \aXitf 
br  waj  of  the  npper  Paraguaj.  At  Bueno*  Ajrea  the  mcmtxini  of  iho  l(*eal  Gco^pkieal 
Society  intereated  him  la  the  idea  of  tracing  the  course  of  the  Pilcoritayo.  Sa,  iMtMd  of 
ueendlng  the  PoraguaT,  he  went  b?  railway  to  Tucum&o,  croaacd  the  UuliTlau  bonier  oa  tW 
]6tb  of  J^nuarj,  1B82,  and  mode  hli  wi^  to  Father  Doroteo'a  misstoD.  San  Frmncbvo,  «■ 
the  Pilcomaro.  At  about  the  same  time  a  military  cipediUoD  aeot  a^iut  the  Toti*  Indi- 
an* of  the  Ohaco  to  punitth  them  for  »me  deprednlloiu  had  returned,  bringing  nerea  ohA- 
drcn  aa  priaonen.  It  was  deemed  beat  to  send  a  lueaiicnger  to  tbein^«  Toba  woman  nantcd 
IjSalla  or  Petrona,  who  htul  lived  for  some  time  at  the  ndulon — to  learu  how  ibry  wonU 
^^Ire  the  expIorerA.  The  meaaeagtr  did  out  return^  but,  at  waa  afterward  IcaruMl,  laaii- 
g^ted  the  IndiAnm  to  muider  Dr.  Cr^raux  and  hla  compnniuns.    The  I'^  'inf 

twenty  person?,  without  waiting  longer,  vtartcd  on  the  Itfth  of  April     On  ti  the 

aame  month  they  were  all  massacred  but  one. 

M.  Thouar  started  from  FantSago  in  May,  1883,  on  hearing  that  th«  Tol«»  hold  aa  prfa. 
oncra  two  aurriTo™  of  the  Crtraui  expcdltlnn.  Following  Cn^Tauz'a  atrpft  fn«o  T*rfia  aad 
the  tdvaneod  poai  of  Calu,  he  i«ached  the  aoaae  of  the  maafacrv  and  foosulvd  \hm9 
toward  the  end  of  August  the  ralony  CrbrauK.  He  loaravd,  frnm  a  number  of  the  aUirlgi* 
BOS  whom  ho  interrogated,  that  none  of  tho  Cr^raux  expedition  •urrlved ;  but,  not  attaa- 
tv\\  with  what  the  lodlaoa  afllrmed,  he  plunged  Into  the  unknown  region  and  on^rtAsk 
with  afiy  Bolivian  t-oldicrs  to  descend  the  nioomaro  In  the  mldat  of  the  hwtiU  tri^a. 
lli«  partT,  which  wq*  weakened  from  time  to  lime  by  deaertlwia,  dcaoendod  ihc  v^  m  ^ 
Jirgcntine  banlc  of  the  rivrr,  plunged  Diroitch  deep*  braeklah  mar«he«,  «^^^HH 

'vnrT'riie  by  two  thouMsd  Indiana,  repelled  an  attack  by  ctghl  hnztdmi  '^'^^^l 

thcr  uavellng  through  tlie  swamps  ItoprieiAeabUi  and  oroned  «^  '  ^H 

rhcr ;  and,  finally,  in  October,  having  nadbed  the  beglanlttg  of  ^H 

eomaT<s  gare  up  the  attempt  to  follow  the  rirer  further,  and  to<>  ^H 

the  Paraguay,  which  they  reached  after  a  mont''*'  ...nrT,^vin*T  in  -  '^'^1 

returned  to  the  expIorRtion  la  1690,  and,  si"  ^^^| 

vent  np  bi  T      *    '  '      iMsgaea  to  tha  plaoa  whnc  nr  liu:  ^^| 

•xpodltton,  ;  loaoeDdad  the  rtrfr  to  a  ciuum  t  •  ^H 

a^iged  by  the  liuhuiui  G^vemmetLl  la  !««  aiieaitia  to  lu^a  «  p"  «^H 


SAVAOS  LIFE  ly  SOUTE  A^EHICA. 


545 


The  Bermejo  River  in  18C9-'70  became  deflected  from  its  an- 
lient  course  and  actually  'wandered  about  for  a  long  time  before 
lading  a  new  Iwd.  It  formed  for  tbe  time  being  an  island  Dearly 
two  himdrod  miles  in  length  by  an  average  of  fifteen  miles  in 
Hpridtli.  Thia  change  of  bed  in  our  times  enables  us  to  understand 
^Whe  mechanical  work  which  this  and  the  Pilcomayo  rivers  have 
^■carried  on  for  many  centuries,  resulting  in  the  production  of  the 
^mnch  alluvial  lowlands  of  the  Gran  Chaco.  It  is  an  interesting 
Hfact  that  the  Bermejo  in  this  as  in  other  changes  of  less  magni- 
tude has  manifested  a  tendency  to  swerve  to  the  eastward  suffi- 
^— ciently  marked  to  suggest  the  idea  of  some  physical  cause. 
|B  The  Bermejo,  like  the  Pilcomayo,  has  been  the  object  of  many 
^expeditions  to  open  up  its  waters  to  navigation.  Between  1853 
and  1858  my  father.  Captain  Page,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
iTJnited  States  Government,  explored  the  fluvial  system  of  the  Rio 
[de  la  Plata,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  a  staff  of  competent  offi- 
[cers,  made  exteiisivo  collections  in  botany  and  natural  history, 
[which  were  deposited  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  He  made 
surveys  of  all  the  rivers  so  far  as  he  examined  them,  and 
kblished  wherever  he  went  those  positions  which  are  the  stand- 
s  to  this  day  used  in  the  cartography  of  those  countries.  In 
conrso  of  these  explorations  he  twice  entered  the  Bormojo  and 
mce  the  Pilcomuyo,  ascending  the  former  to  a  distance  of  nine 
tundred  miles  by  river  course,  and  turned  back,  paradoxical  as  it 
[may  Bcera,  on  account  of  the  excess  of  water  which  had  flooded 
the  country,  fearing  that  liis  steamer,  in  case  of  a  sudden  fall,  the 
[course  of  the  river  b(_Mng  unrecognizable,  would  be  loft  stranded 
the  interior.  This  was  the  only  expedition  up  the  Bermejo 
tndertaken  with  purely  scientific  views.  Its  results  are  embodied 
ke  book, "  The  La  Plata,  Argentine  Confe<leration,  and  Para- 


The  author  was  commissioned  in  1S85  to  examine  the  Bermejo 
ind  rf«port  upon  its  navigability.  He  started  on  the  25th  of  June, 
'he  way  for  the  first  three  hundred  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  was  interrupted  by  obstructions  caused  by  the  wrecked  ves- 
sels of  former  exploring  expeditions ;  the  falls  of  Yzo,  a  sliarp 
incline  of  some  two  feet  in  the  mile  over  about  that  extent,  which 
koses  the  water  to  run  swiftly  and  e<ldy  around  and  look  formi* 
table  to  the  uninitiated ;  and  the  argillaceous  bars.  The  most  for* 
ddable  barrier  of  the  last  class  was  overcome  by  fixing  a  chain* 
irag  w-  ':ax«3  faiftened  uprightly  in  it,  which  was 

Irawn  i backward  over  tlie  clay,  marking  a  scratch 


r,  1r^  It-i!lr!fl,  m  I*nrrf*7  T^irtirm  trrt  t!ir  r.-inrrnr. 


Both  proj(*et«l  nratcii  prorod 

itlsScxt  tliftt  tlio  odIt  fi>ft«t* 

omaro. — EinTrm,  fronv  "  La 


TUB  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTHLT. 


wliich  tho  water  in  a  few  hours  washed  out  into  a  oavi^l 
clianneL 

At  about  three  hundred  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Bor-| 
.mejo  the  author  entered  the  Teuco,  or  the  channel  opened  by 
erratic  waters  of  that  river  when  they  depart^xl  from  their  orif^* 
ual  bed.    In  many  places  along  the  old  bed  successive  amnuil 
floods  have  covered  with  rich  deposits  the  low-lying  lauds,  leav- 
ing the  tops  of  large  trees  pecrring  above  the  surface.    It  wuuld 
be  impossible  for  the  least  sentimental  not  to  admire  and  feel  the  | 
influence  of  those  rich  woods,  clothed  in  perpetual  >•;-»::--  *': 
trees  eut^vined  by  the  Paraguay  jasmine,  with  its  del 
and  blue  flowers,  whose  fragrance  is  perceivt^d  os  you  run 
tho  banks,  and  covered  with  other  climbers,  parasites,  and  ore] 
in  great  variety.    There  is  a  certain  richness  of  growth  \i\  t] 
wilds,  tilled  with  the  native  pineapple,  which  is  unlike  the  rank- 
nesa  of  the  Brazilian  tropical  vegetation,  so  suggestive  of  jungle 
fevers.    A  Mr.  Plaisant,  in  1854,  by  direction  of  the  Minister  of 
Commerce  of  France,  made  an  analysis  nf  the  wockIs  of  Paraguay, 
which  practically  may  be  said  to  be  identical  with  those  of  the     i 
Chaco,  and  be  concluded  that  they  might  bo  a\lvantageoualyfl 
em]>loyed  to  take  the  place  of  those  useil  in  Eurojie  for  caliuuft^| 
work.    Many  of  them  are  certainly  very  beautiful ;  the  /a/<inj^| 
(Porliera  hygromdrica)  compares  favorably  with  the  bird's-eyo 

maple;   the  polo  rosa,  the  Ouayacan  Cesalpinea  meln- na^a 

Tariety  of  Lapachos,  the  urujuley,  cumpay^&ad  cuni  che 

quebracho,  with  a  hundred  others,  all  of  hard,  in'l«  r.:- ublo 
wood,  when  used  in  the  earth  or  water,  and  which  w<.)U.M  hold 
their  own  with  any  of  the  woods  of  Eui'ope  or  Asia.  Mr.  Plaisant 
classified  thirty-nine  species  of  superior  quality,  r 

construction  and  cabinet  work,  ejcclusive  of  a  gn:yti , : 

had  s}>ecial  applications  for  mcMlical  and  domestic  use.  Moet  of 
the  trees  I  have  enumerated  are  actually  us    ■  itinain 

great  quantities  for  ehip-building,  fencing,  i      ..     ,  «.•*,  andj 

railway  sleepers,    Tho  three  sporiots  of  aigarroba  proilooo  the  loag] 
locnst-pod,  a  staple  article  of  food  with  tho  Cha-      '    '"• 
pound  it  up  and  make  it  into  a  very  sutitaining  br* 
brew  from  it  an  intoxicating  beverage,  nniier  tho  i  of; 

which  they  become  dangerous.    The  pod  ■  ■  '-"  * 

for  cattle  and  horses,  having  a  groat  p* 

latter.    The  presence  of  th-  '.     .  mi    n  i 

ind  not  subjitct  to  overflow.     .  ...  .,  .j.i  -^i 

sivelv  in  tho  manufacture  of  hubs  and  fur 

f  ,  ■    " 

1.  . .  .   ■  i   __   .._■  .-  .■:   _..  _   '.  .- 

"j»alo  snnto,'*  holy  wood,  or  lignum  vlt 
north  of  tho  twenty-sixth  paraUeL   It$  wi 


UVAGS  LIl 


SOUTH  A. 


54r 


^Escd  for  blocks  and  bushings^  \a  so  fall  of  resinous  matter  thai  it 
^nrill  bum  like  n  candle. 

^B  Among  the  useful  plants  is  the  c<\raguald,  of  the  family  of  the 
^mBromdiaceiX,  which  grows  generally  within  the  range  of  the  for- 
^ksts,  and  from  which  the  Indian  obtains  a  strung  fiber  useful  for 
^Bnany  domestic  purposes.  It  is  said  to  be  the  fiber  known  to 
^n^uropean  manufacturers  as  Batista  Anan^  The  caraguafi'i  has 
^mlso  a  faculty  of  catching  and  retaining  water,  whereby  the 
Indians  are  afforded  moans  of  slaking  their  thirst  in  seasons  of 
j^drought.  Among  a  hundred  edible  wild  fruits  may  be  named  the 
^mthaflar ;  the  vinul;  the  guayabOj  a  fine  fruit;  the  vhatjmj,  a  i)as- 
Hiion-flower,  which  gives  a  largo  but  rather  insipid  fruit;  and  tho 
Hmo«<fuviro,  a  wild  almond.  Several  Ladeas  produce  a  line  fruit, 
Hftnd  the  woods  are  full  of  tho  wild  pineapple. 

The  exploitation  of  the  timber  industry  has  occupied  several 
^thousand  people,  and  has  been  the  means  of  reducing  to  a  qxiasU 
Hbivilization  many  himdreds  of  the  aborigines.  This  has  led  to 
^tho  development  of  the  Austral  Chaco  along  tho  borders  of  the 
^Paran^,  where  are  now  many  small  towns  and  large  agricultural 
Hcolonies,  pros|>erou3  beyond  their  own  hopes,  and  connected  by 
"rail  and  telegraph.  Two  of  these  colonies  are  o\(Tied  by  English- 
men ;  and  the  word  of  the  proprietor  of  one  of  thorn  is  given  that 
jhe  Indians  are  of  the  best  laborers,  being  tho  most  docile  and 
iteady,  although  a  trifle  more  indolent  than  the  civilizefi  work- 
len.  As  I  continued  my  ascent  of  the  Bermejo,  with  but  little 
interruption  than  was  occasioned  by  the  draught  of  my  ves- 
)\,  I  always  found  large  masses  of  Indians  at  the  low  passes, 
'hich  are  indeeti  their  fisbing-grounds;  at  those  points,  which 
oro  numerous  in  tho  upper  Teuco,  they  would  wait,  evidently  in 
;tatioQ  of  some  catastrophe  or  something  giving  them  a 
ice  to  make  an  attack.  They  were  usually  on  these  occasions 
mode  up  with  tlieir  war-paint,  and  many  of  them  decorated  with 
ostrich-feathers,  but  they  generally  kept  their  arms  out  of  sight, 
though  doubtless  handily  within  reach ;  and  they  would  come  to 
us  with  articles  for  barter,  consisting  of  dried  fish,  necklaces,  a 
few  bows  and  arrows  and  war-clubs,  the  skins  of  wild  animals, 
td  the  animals  themselves.  I  was  never  attacked,  though  often 
ireatened 
It  is  H  safe  pre<lictioa  that  this  region  has  a  great  future,  po&- 
igfts  it  does  an  equable  climate,  tempered  by  the  prevailing 
.,.  ^^.1  ■••''\rest  winds,  with  just  enough  of  the  warm 
•  to  ^ve  a  zest  to  the  enjoyment  of  tho  other 
U]  ■  gi-owth;  a  climate  which  through- 

\\  r»-:t,.ri\.«  ciiits  admirably  the  sons  of 

pi  has  been  prove<l  to  suit 

ukbvi  J4ud  the  United  States.    The  soil  is 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTHlY. 

^goiKl,  and  compares  well  with  the  lands  of  southern  and  wi 
Buenos  Ayres,  haWng  io  its  favor,  for  agricultural  purpoees,  a 
better  climate ;  and  is  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton,  toboci 
tht?  caator-oil  plant,  the  olive,  barley,  sorghum.  In  " 
the  manioc,  and  many  other  products  of  temperat* 
cal  climates.    Cattle  thrive  in  all  the  Chocos,  uttainiug  au  extrvor- 
dinary  development  in  size,  especially  among  tL<    '    '"       '    rd»,' 
where  they  depend  exclusively  upon  the  grosstts  .  jita 

such  us  the  jmlm  and  locust.    The  grasses  are  varied  and  abun- 
dant, and  include  many  of  the  species  highly  thought  of  in  Buont 
Ay  res,  which  is  the  pre-eminent  cattle-growing  section  ju&t  noi 
of  the  Argentina. — Abridged  for  the  PopnliXT  Science  Monthly  froni\ 
iJie  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographiccd  Society, 


SKETCH  OF  LAVOISIER. 

ANTOINE  LAURENT  LAVOISIER  was  bom  on  the  20Ui  •  of' 
August^  1743,  and  suffered  death  by  the  guillotine  on  tbeSth 
of  May,  170-L    His  family,  descended  from  a  x)03tilion  in  the  royal, 
stables  in  the  previous  century,  had  gradually  risen  in  estateu    Hi 
father,  styled  in  the  standard  biographies  a  *'  wealthy  tradesman/ 1 
is  described  by  M.  Grimaux,  in  the  "  Revnie  des  Deux  Monde8,''afti 
a  graduate  of  the  law  school,  and  advocate  aud  attorney  in  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris.    The  family  had  also  considerable  wealth  on  tbe> 
mother's  side.    Lavoisier's  father  was  thus  able  to  provide  his  son 
with  good  instruction,  and  interested  himself  in  doing  so.    Thaj 
youth  was  sent  to  the  College  Mazarin,  where  ho  was  remarked  ttg»l 
brilliant  pupil  and  a  diligent  student.    Science  at  once  became  tbol 
prominent  object  of  his  studies.    After  leaving  the  college  be  look! 
a  course  in  law,  and  was  admitted  as  an  atlvocate  in  17  ' '.      ' '  !h(i 
same  time  he.  began  those  studios  by  which  ho  became  \  in 

many  branches  of  science.     He  pursued  mathematics}  and  As- 
tronomy with  theAbM  LaCaille;  botany  with  E  ••    ■  '  ^     ' 
aieu ;  mineralogy  and  geology  with  Guettard ;  and 
Rouello,    At  twenty  years  of  age,  while  he  soomed  to  give  tho 
principal  share  of  his  attention  to  mathematics,  h''  i'--*— ^  "^»pr- 
ested  in  meteorology,  and  began  a  series  of  barcM  :  ;-»- 

tions,  wl  -0  continued  thruugh  his  v 

Bo  iiiu     did  Lavoisier  become  in  :...  aci**  tlial  1"«  wt^- 

ly,  in  his  twentieth  year,  to  give  up  general  society  and 

*  5^  it  Is  filvf^n  In  tlic  "  niojp^phie  G<<ndrAl0  "  od  Uio  &ullKirit;  <tf  J.  >' 
M.  Edousnl  (Jrimsui,  who  wrilc*  on  thfl  mUjor^*"-'  -""-"•-'  ---  - — ^— 
tjux  1b  the  "  R«nu  (le«  Deox  Uotuic*  ^  for  1 
|bo  l6Ui «/  Aagoit 


949 


rthe  circle  of  his  associat^^  to  his  tencliers  and  f ellow-stndents ; 
nnd,  pleading  that  his  health  required  it,  he  pat  himself  upon  an 
exclaaive  milk  diot.  Some  of  his  friends  Beem  to  have  believed 
that  his  health  was  really  giving  way  ;  and  M.  de  Troncq,  send- 
ing hira  a  dish  of  gruel,  advis<>d  him  in  1703  to  be  temperate  iu  his 
;jBtudif>s,  and  to  believe  that  "a  year  longer  on  the  earth  is  worth 
toore  than  a  hundrod  in  tho  memory  of  men." 

Among  his  particular  friends  was  Guettard,  who  had  been  ad- 
mitted to  the  Academy  as  a  botanist  in  1743,  but  had  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  geology  and  mineralogy.  Ho  had  already 
traveled  in  France  and  other  countries  in  the  interest  of  a  plan  he 
had  ooncelved  for  making  geological  maps,  upon  which  the  kind 
of  soil,  mines,  and  qnarriPH  should  bo  indicated  by  special  marks, 
^In  connection  with  Guettard,  Lavoisier  made  extensive  excui*sions 
uring  three  years  through  different  parts  of  France,  At  the 
me  time  he  studied  the  gypsum  of  the  environs  of  Paris,  con- 
erning  which  ho  presented,  in  17(>5,tho  first  of  tho  valuable  series 
of  memoirs  with  which  he  was  to  enrich  the  journals  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  during  nearly  the  next  thirty  years.  His 
inviwtigation  includetl  the  varieties  of  the  mineral  ami  their  solu- 
bility in  wat^r,  and  the  cause  of  the  setting  of  plaster,  which  he 
Was  the  first  to  explain. 

Tho  Academy  having,  in  1765,  offered  a  prize  of  two  thousand 
ivres  for  an  essay  on  "the  best  means  of  lighting  at  night  the 
treeta  of  a  large  city,  combining  clearness  of  illumination,  facil- 
ity of  service,  and  economy,"  Lavoisier  resolved  to  compete  for  it, 
began  at  once  a  series  of  experimental  studies  on  the  subject. 
er  to  make  his  vision  more  sensitive  to  slight  differences  in 
intensity  of  light,  he  hung  his  room  in  black,  darkened  it,  and 
onfinod  himself  within  it  for  six  weeks,  without  permitting  him- 
elf  to  look  upon  daylight  for  an  instant.    The  two  thousand 
ivres  were  divided  by  the  Academy  among  three  competitors, 
ho  had  incurred  considerable  expense  in  their  experiments,  while 
it  gave  a  special  distinction  to  Lavoisier's  memoir  by  awarding 
the  king's  gold  medal  to  tho  author,  for  which  a  public  session 
was  given. 

I  The  g*x>logical  excursions  with  Guettard  were  resumed  imme- 
diately after  the  conclusion  of  this  transaction.  The  intervals  of 
leisure  were  given  to  reading,  studying, and  making  notes;  among 
|ho  fruits  of  which  was  an  inquiry  into  the  matter  of  fire  and  the 
i  '  '  ~  elements.   At  first  Lavoisier  fancied  that  air  was  only 

\   '  •♦d  to  vapor,  or  rather  water  combined  with  the  matter 

bf  llro ;  but  this  gave  way  at  once  to  tho  conception  of  an  atmos- 
j^  T  ^'-~'.  -  -^  f— •-,",.  :  f  i|g  own  and  containing  the  fiery  fluid 
t.M  ,    .  (ard's  plan  for  a  mineralogical  atlas 

IttflKr  A  by  Minister  Bertin,  Lavoisier  was 


5?<J 


JIEyCE  Jfi 


invited  to  accompany  Lim  in  a  tour  in  tho  interest  of  that  work  tdl 
Lorraine  and  Alsace.  Among*  the  fruits  of  this  joumt^y  vriws  an' 
extended  memoir  on  the  analyses  of  mineral  vrators,  vrhicL  was 
not,  however,  published  during  Lavoisier's  life.  The  work  of] 
publishing  the  atlas  on  the  original  plan  proving  to  bo  a  largorj 
one  than  the  government  was  ready  to  sustain,  Guettard  r&tired 
from  it,  and  ilounet,  who  was  no  friend  of  T  liLs 

place.    He  used  Guettard's  and  Lavoisier's  tii..    i      ,  .      mc-, 

thing  of  his  own,  and  ignored  Lavoisier,  while  recognizing  Guui-J 
tard,  in  his  credits.  I 

Other  results  of  Lavoisier's  earlier  work  were  papers  **  On  thai 
Pretended  Conversion  of  Water  into  Silica  "  (in  which  a  provail-j 
ing  error  was  refuteil)^ "  On  a  Species  of  Steatite/'  **  On  a  Coal-^ 
Mine"  (in  conjunction  with  Guettard),  "The  Analysis  of  theOyp*. 
sums  of  the  Environs  of  Paris/'  "Thunder/*  the  •*  Aurora  Bunvj 
alis/' "  The  Conversion  of  Water  into  the  Condition  of  Ice/' and' 
"The  Strata  of  Mountains"  (general  obaer\'Btions  on  the  mod- 
em horizontal  strata  which  have  been  depositt-nl  by  the  sea,  and 
on  the  conclusions  that  can   be  drawn   from  their  dispofiition 
relative  to  the  antiquity  of  the  terrestrial  glubo).    The  last  was 
not  published  till  1789,  when  it  appeared  in  the  "  ^iemoiia  of  the 
Acailemy." 

Lavoisier  was  nominated  in  17C8  to  succeed  Baron  in  ibe  Acad- 
emy  of  Sciences, by  Lalande, who  proi>o«ed  hi r.  '  <  '  '\mi 
ho  Lad  knowledge,  talent,  and  activity,  and  i  ine, 

which,  relieving  him  from  the  necessity  of  embracing  another  pTO-| 
fession,  would  enable  him  to  be  very  useful  to  science.  H:  -  - 
cipal  competitor  was  Jars,  an  eminent  metallurgist,  L;« 
was  chosen,  but  the  final  decision  rested  with  tho  king,  and  his 
minister  decided  that  Jars  should  have  the  seat.  0*i*  "''  ■^-•fer-j 
euce  to  the  views  of  the  Academy,  a  new  position  of  ad.,  m- 

ist  was  provisionally  created  for  Lavoisier,  with  tho  uudor^stand' 
ing  that  on  the  occurrence  of  the  next  vacancy  in  chemistry  h^] 
should  go  in  without  a  new  election.     The  vacancy  occumii; 
through  the  death  of  Jars  in  the  next  year. 

Desiring,  as  the  biographers  pleasantly  express  it,  to  rdacft  him- 
aelf  on  a  financial  footing  in  which  he  could  pursue,  ii! 
ly,  i  1        i    1 1  ions  involving  costly  exi-      '  *  *  ^ 

anil  i  iu  Kti8  a  position  hs  oi.  .■ 

the  revenue).     Ho  conscientiously  [»  ■ 

office;  instituted  reforms  in  taxai-   ■  tM 

and  earned  the  grutitutlo  of  tho  lifl 

from  an  odious  imi^jst.  M.  Grimaux  r<  jM 

l^^duty  of  making  n^gular  tours  of  i .  *  fl 

^Hlted  the  study  of  the  features  of  fl 

pH^^BS  ho  vtsitod  might  afford.    The  work  i>t  ihij&  oil  -^ 


5S» 


ft 
ft 


Lim  into  association  vith  farmer-general  Paulze,  whose  tlanghtor 
h©  tftjarricd,  and  who  -went  with  him  to  the  scaffold.  In  177C  Tur- 
got  ma^le  him  inspector-general  of  powder  and  saltpeter.  In  this 
capacity  he  made  great  improvements  in  the  manufacture,  so  that, 
•while  he  put  a  stop  to  forced  official  searches  for  saltpeter  in  the 
collars  of  private  houses,  he  quadrupled  the  product  of  the  salt, 
and  so  increased  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder  that  the 
French  brand  became  as  much  superior  to  the  EngUiih  as  it  had 
been  inferior. 

Lavoisier's  great  work  consisted  in  the  discovery  of  the  true 
functions  of  oxygen  and  the  nature  of  combustion;  the  determi- 
nation of  the  relations  of  the  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  states  of 
matter;  and  in  many  other  observations  that  embodied  the  germs 
of  what  have  become  since  the  leading  principles  of  chemical  sci- 
ence. Oxygen  was  detected  at  about  the  same  time  by  Priestley, 
Scheele,  and  Lavoisier;  but  the  phlogistic  theory  of  combustion 
possessed  the  minds  of  chemists,  and,  although  Eck  de  Suchbach 
and  Jean  Roy  had  already  dimly  discerned  the  truth,  no  one  hod 
paid  any  attention  to  their  discoveries,  aud  Lavoisier  was  work- 
ing on  what  was  to  him,  and  substantially  to  the  world,  virgin 
ground,  "  Fixed  air  "  and  "  combustible  air  "  had  been  speculated 
upon,  and  "  the  air  that  is  left  after  combustion  "  had  attracted  at- 
tention. But  the  phenomena  of  this  kind,  inconsistent  aa  they 
were  with  the  phlogistic  theoiy,  had  not  been  sufficient  to  over- 
throw it.  The  first  germ  of  Lavoisier's  theory  on  these  matters 
was  embodied  in  a  sealed  packet  which  he  deposited  with  the 
Academy  in  1770.  Recognizing  that  the  calcination  of  metals 
could  not  take  place  without  the  access  of  air,  and  that  the  freer 
the  access  the  more  rapid  the  calcination,  he  "  began  to  suspect," 
as  he  expresses  himself,  that  some  elastic  fluid  contained  in  the 
air  was  snsceptiblo,  under  many  circumstances,  of  fixing  itself  and 
combining  with  metals,  and  that  to  the  addition  of  that  substance 
were  due  calcination  and  the  increase  in  weight  of  motals  con- 
Yerted  into  calxes.  From  this  thought  came,  after  much  groping 
with  erroneous  conclusions,  the  idea  that  air  is  a  compound  con- 
taining a  vital  j»art  and  another  part,  and  that  it  is  the  vital  part 
that  is  abflorbevL  The  behavior  of  charcoal  when  burning  in  o«y- 
gon  p<''       '        '  '  ire  of  that  sui  nud  to  the  true  theory 

of  con  new  vital  sl^  •,  which,  uniting  with 

melals,  formed  calxes,  and  with  other  substances  generated  acids, 
b"      "    *  '  "  '  :  r.iducer;  *'       -  "  ^  ^v-as  left  after 

c*i  '-^^     Th  le  air  which, 

C<  '  'kI  hydro^ 

Iff  .  ^iiown  sub- 

ftl.  '.  nomenclature 

which,  ait'  jait  to  conform  to 


THE  rOPVLAJl  SCJESCE  MOXTBLT, 


new  discoveries,  still  rules.  Tbe  "  murial  Ic  radiold  "  ~    voii^| 

some  troublu,  for  lie  could  find  no  oxygen  in  mu:  id,  abB 

Ills  experiments  upon  it  with  oxygen  rosult*3d  in  tiie  producUoa 
of  a  ntiutral  substance  which  must  be  ita  calx ;  and  bo  he  called 
chlorine  oxidized  muriatic  acid.  Such  mistakes  were  natural  in 
the  early  days  of  cbcmi»try.  The  dooom position  of  volatile  &11ca11» 
oor  ammonia,  by  BerthoUet,  led  to  the  suggestion  which  LavoisiOT 
^ave  out  with  groat  modesty,  that  many  earths,  still  regardixl  as 
simple,  might  be  compound ;  and  that  their  apparent  indiUcrrenco 
to  oxygen  should  be  attributed  to  their  being  already  &atui«tcd 
with  it 

On  the  nature  of  gases  and  vapors,  which  had  not  been  xmder- 
stood  before,  Lavoisier  asserted,  in  a  memoir  published  iu  1777, 
that  most  bodies  were  capable  of  existing  in  three  different  stat^ii 
— those  of  solids,  liquids,  and  vapors,  or  aeriform  fluids,  TLo 
tenns  airs,  vapors,  and  aoriform  fluids  express  only  a  singlo  form 
of  matter — a  class  of  bodies  Infinitely  extended ;  and  this  principle 
"gives  the  key  to  nearly  all  the  phenomena  relative  to  the  diiTor* 
ent  kinds  of  air  and  to  vaporization."  While  heat  toudii  to  cliango 
volatile  bodies  into  vapor,  the  pressure  of  the  air  has  a  contrary 
effect ;  and  "  the  tendency  of  volatile  bodies  to  evaporate  is  in 
(direct  ratio  to  the  heat  to  which  they  are  exposed,  and  inverse  to 
the  weight  or  pressure  brought  to  bear  u[>on  them."  Lavoisier's 
memoirs  on  heat,  expansion  and  contraction  under  changes  of 
temperature,  and  latent  heat,  show  an  insight  into  the  accepted 
principles.  Ho  discus^icd  with  much  sagacity  tlie  question 
whether  heat  is  a  fluid  or  a  force;  and  it  would  not  bo  hartl,  for 
one  who  is  determined  to  look  for  it,  to  find  in  his  essays  on  this 
subject  a  prevision  of  the  current  constitutional  t^'  ,'.    La- 

voisier's later  labors  were  physiologicaL  They  ini  :  ,  j/v^rs  on 
the  production  of  carbonic  acid  in  respiration  and  the  ofiico  of  tbo 
lungs  in  the  process,  in  which  the  present  theory  is  proposed  as  a 
secondary  hypothesis,  and  on  cutaneous  transpiration.  In  his 
physiological  studies,  M.  Dumas  has  found  that  ho  had  arrived 
at  a  remarkable  anticipation  of  modern  views  concerning  tiio  Y»* 
latious  of  organic  to  inorganic  nature. 

Lavoisier  earned  his  energy  into  several  other  i\  Is 

his  mark  in  alL   He  cultivated  an  estate  of  two  hun  ty 

arpenta  in  the  Vend6me,  and  in  nine  years  doubled  a* 

His  name  is  associated  with  a  number  of  | 

the  public  welfare  or  economical  reform.     1  _ 

tho  National  Assembly  a  report  of  the  "  Caisse  d  ■ 

v'     '    '  '    had  been  attiic.ljed  for  ■  fl 

^ry  ho  prt)posc<l  in  1780  '^  .  fl 

inipo  U  he  ehiborat^  iu  a  8|>ectal  y  ^ 

ritt^rmi  *»  tiijih  of  the  Kingdom  of  Fraucvp'  n  wmei.  rH 


» 


M.  F.  Hoefer,  in  tbe  "  Biographie  g^ii^rale,"  gave  him  a 
n  the  front  rank  of  the  economists  of  hia  time.  Ho  partid- 
n  the  work  of  the  commission  on  a  new  system  of  weights 
and  measures.  As  treasurer  of  the  Academy  he  set  the  accounts 
and  inventories  in  order,  and  discovered  some  forgotten  funds  of 
the  institution,  and  made  them  available.  "In  short,  Lavoisier 
•wras  to  be  found  everywhere ;  and  his  facility  and  zeal,  equally 
ndmirablo,  wore  adequate  for  everything/* 

On  the  2d  of  May,  1794,  twenty-eight  of  the  farmers-general, 
of  whom  Lavoisier  was  fourth  on  the  list,  were  accused  in  the  Con- 
vention of  conspiring  with  the  enemies  and  against  the  people  of 
IVance.  On  the  6th  of  May  they  were  all  condemned  to  death, 
and  on  the  8th  were  executed  together.  Lavoisier  and  his  friends 
lioi>eil  that  his  great  scientific  eminence  and  the  undoubttxl  useful 
clmrncter  of  his  career  might  be  brought  to  bear  to  save  him, 
8ome  efforts  were  made  to  exert  such  influence,  Lavoisier  himself 
drew  up  a  memoir  of  what  he  hatl  done  for  the  Revolution.  The 
Bureau  of  Consultations  presented  a  detailed  report  on  his  labors. 
A  deputation  of  the  Lycie  des  Arts  visited  him  at  the  Concier- 
^erie,  bearing  "  to  Lavoisier,  the  most  illustrious  of  its  members/' 
a  testimonial  of  its  admiration- 

Lavoisier  loft  no  children.     He  is  described  as  having  had  a 
pleasing,  intellectual  face,  and  having  been  of  large  figure  and  of 
leasant,  sociable,  and  obliging  disposition. 
His  most  important  works  were:  "Opuscules  physiques  et 
chimiques"  ("Physical  and  Chemical  Worklets/'  1774),'"M«5thodo 
de  Nomenclature  chimique"  ("Method  of  Chemical  Nomencla- 
ture," 1787),  "Traitt'i  ^k^mentaire  de  Chimiqne"  ("Elementary 
Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  1789).    A  complete  edition  of  his  works, 
published  by  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  18G4-'G8, 
included  those  books,  fifty-eight  memoirs  communicated  to  the 
emy  of  Sciences  between  1770  and  1790,  and  numerous  notes, 
etters,  and  reports  relating  to  the  various  affairs  in  which  he 
"wae  engaged.     Ho  had  himself  begun  to  pre])are  a  collection, 
f  hia  works,  the  completed   portions  of  which  wore  publishc<l 
7  his  widow  in  1S05  in  two  volumes  entitled  "  M^moires  de 
:himi*>." 


prOTBioob  Bt  a  loir  vi«vr 

itina*  vUh  «  \<m  mci  i 

iirUlit J  fmm  tUo  Uianuv ;  Um  tn' 

m1  nn  Bp-   '-  '-  -:■ '  ' —  '•  ■  '  "' 
the 


'^  '      n  piirta  of  New 

us.     It  is  more 

nuximom  tuU  nioiBtnrt>  titnii  in  the  higher 

ih  ».  rur.Ti  lilt  ('TiU  a  amaU  lnt)a«nc«  upoo  ibd 

T  frT«at«r  ainonj^  vomciif 

-  '-^  '  '■'    ---:a  between 

rty.    The 


ItMX 


ct;L  tttfi  Urai<T  u 


^54 


THE  POPULAR 


MONTHLV. 


EDITOR'S  TABLE. 


TBK  JOnySTOWH  DJSASTBR. 

AMONG  the  pablisbed  sermons  of 
the  Rev.  John  Wesle;  is  a  famous 
one  on  **  The  Cause  juid  Core  of  Earth- 
quakes.^*  The  cause  of  earthquake*,  ao- 

)rdiDg  to  the  eminent  divine,  was  na- 
ti<»ual  unright^ousncsfs  and  their  cure 
would  be  found  to  lie  in  natiouol  refor- 
mation. It  was,  in  his  npiuion,  of  slight 
importance  to  know  what  physical  euosoii 
or  conditions  wore  eonccmcd  in  the  pro- 
duction of  eartliquakes;  seeing  that, 
when  the  AJniightv  proposed  to  nse 
them  for  parposes  of  national  chasten- 
ing, thej  would  always  he  furthcom- 
ing; and  when  he  willed  to  hold  them 
in  ahe^ance  they  would  not  happen. 
In  the  case  of  railway  and  steamboat 
occldenta  wo  haro  often  been  pointed 
to  filleted  Sabbath  desecration  by  the 
railway  and  steamboat  companies  as  the 
tinderl^-ing  causes  of  the  calamities, 
speaking  generally,  there  have  never 
been  lacking  those  who  ooald  interpret 
every  grave  occurrence  in  such  a  way 
to  reveal  thoir  own  familiarity  with 

le  Fpocial  designs  of  Ueavon.  In  the 
face  of  such  explanfitinns  any  reforcnc* 
to  secondary  or  mediate  causes  seemed 
•uperfluons,  if  not  profane.  Lord  Palm- 
erston  incurred  mnch  theological  odium 
for  sn^rgesrlng  that  thorough  eanttary 
lAicasures  might  be  more  cffeottial  than 
>rayer  in  averting  cholera  from  Great 
Britmn ;  or  that,  at  least,  it  might  be 
well  to  try  such  measurca  before  ap- 
pointing a  day  of  national  humiliation. 
Down  to  the  preeent  time  it  has  been 
customary,  throughont  a  large  part  of 
lociety,  to  lot  the  t!  '   vifiw  of 

II  penttiunl  boreavenv  inate  the 

d.  From  one  point  of  view  the 
of  this  hm  been  hunelicial ;  from 
another  It  hai  been  i|atte  the  opposite. 
[t  has  bi'.  I  '  '  ■  "  idlng,  in 

feot,  a  vi.  rid  order 

of  thii^ga  and  dtetpusiiig  mou  «  minda  to 


m 


resignation  and  fortitude.  It  bta  be«D 
the  opposite  of  lK>ncficial  In  dirertiftg 
attention  from  the  proximate  causee  of 
painful  visitations,  and  eo  far  dlminieh^ 
ing  the  seuM  of  pereooal  reeixnufUltty 
in  coDoection  with  snch  thisiffa.  Tliaft 
mankind  would  roach  earUer  bare  ac- 
quired the  power  of  oombaliag  the 
various  tbrtns  of  diseaae  tuecCMftfly, 
had  theological  prepoeaeeeioDa  been  «)»- 
sent,  no  o-andid  and  rraAonable  penoa 
cooJd  well  deny. 

The  effuct  of  the  Johnetown  dhuUr 
will  be,  if  wu  uilntake  not,  to  brLo^ 
needed  prominence  thti  two  Idcaa 
Bopremacy  of  natural  law  and  the  d** 
pcndenoe  of  human  life  upon  ■  wiae  od* 
justroent  by  society  ItJctf  of  loeaiu  ta 
cuds.  No  other  gtn^r^  leieon  la  d«>4a- 
cible  from  the  sad  clrcnmaUBoee  of  tKe 
oa»e.  Whatever  may  liave  been  poaiJUe 
iu  John  Wosley^s  time,  it  is  hanlly  pos- 
sible to-day  for  any  leader  of  optnioo  tA 
maintjUo  that  the  dUnster  should  be  re- 
garded OS  a  divine  dl*p«naatiofi.  The 
proavher  of  the  Brooklyn  Taberaade 
himself,  who  in  mi.*st  Tnattert  ireaerally 
Ukanagea  to  express  the  most  t»«*iat«d 
view,  haa  openly  refoMrd  to  luturprri 
this  calamity  as  a  sign  of  divltt«  augtr; 
being  able,  as  he  slateSt  to  affirm  of  bli 
own  knowledge  that  many  of  tboM  over- 
taken by  sudden  deeth  were  amnog  tKo 
best  people  la  the  countrr.  Tticn  \t\ 
the  lesson  which  the  factn 
teach  be  taken  to  heorL 
oouaneea  of  life,  not  by  :  >^ 

not  by  personal  ploiy  or 
by  anything  that  Jor*  tint 
on  the  dangtrs  tn  be  avcrte«2  %^    l1i« 
benefits  to  bo  eecnrvd,  wl!J  hrmao 
be  protected  from  ill  or 
good,  so  far  aa  the  o^*'-  ■  ' 
pbyftical  world  la  roij 
tliat  la  effloari" 
nimolatea  to  r 
b  effloacioot  b  thai  > 


4 
4 


A'jTJimri^  TABzr, 


555 


I 


I 


obserratioD  and  reoooiu  In  one  of  the 
dbpatchiw  received  by  "  Tho  Kewr  York 
Times"  from  the  tcene  of  tho  dUaster 
it  wu  itated  that  Bocoe  persoDB  who  had 
been  rtocucd  from  the  flood  only  to  fiod 
tliemselvea  sole  eorrivors  of  their  Cami- 
lies  had  abandoned  all  faith  in  Provi- 
deocet  <^d  had  omphasizod  their  change 
of  mind  bj  caatiog  away  their  Bibles. 
Tid^  ftffordfl  on  iUastraLioD  of  a  luud  of 
faith  that  never  should  have  existed, 
ThcM  ]M!rBons  haJ  evidently  oherbhed 
the  idea  thai,  if  they  tried  to  live  relig* 
loasly,  Providence  would  see  that  the/ 
did  not  BUJfcr  ft^m  the  effects  either  of 
their  own  or  of  others^  carcIeMneiu ; 
and  that  natural  agencies  of  a  destraclivo 
ckaraotor  woald  in  some  mysterious  way 
be  tnatrooted  to  pass  tbem  orer,  even 
whQe  oansing  havoo  all  aronnd.  This 
«xp«otAtion  having  been  falsified  by 
foots,  their  faith  in  the  divine  govern- 
ment is  not  only  ^halcon  bat  destroyed. 
Tboir  standpoint  is  manife»tly  a  less 
maaonable  and  noble  one  than  that  of 
the  patriarch  Job,  who  in  the  depth  of 
his  trouble  oould  exclaim,  ^'  Though  Oe 
•lay  IM)  yet  will  I  trust  him." 

n«r«in  lies  a  lesson  for  the  clergy 
and  for  all  teachers  of  yonth.  The  only 
stable  faith  is  one  that  reposes  upon  the 
order  of  nature,  or  at  loaxt  that  fully 
aooepts  that  order,  and  is  therefore  pre- 
pared for  all  that  may  flow  from  it  The 
fflfla  who  supposes  that  by  any  pious 
observaoeee  ho  CAn,  to  even  the  smallest 
extent,  guaraotre  UmMflf  or  his  house- 
hold from  fire  or  flood,  from  pe«tilenoe> 
famine,  or  any  form  of  physical  disas- 
ter Is  virtually  a  fetich-worshiper.  The 
pact  he  strives  tu  make  with  the  power 
ha  reoognlic^  ro  of  a  pri- 

Tato  brtfprtlTi.  .ti  t«niis«f 

wit  ms  lo  the  general  working 

of  i_:-  .;  ;^iva  are  to  be  made  when- 
«r«r  bu  iudividnal  intercstn  seem  to  re- 
Thai  man,  on  :'         '       '       * 
>na1  fnitli  xfhu 
l*Qt  to'tboUK' 
onlscitame  -' 
aad  pr\,-  •elf  for  aU  thai  Dsa> 


neoeasarily  flow  therelVom,  strives  to 
make  the  best  possible  life  for  himself 
and  others.  Such  a  man  docs  not  ex- 
pect socarity  if  the  conditions  that  gnnr- 
antoo  it  bare  not  been  iolflUed.  Qo 
knows  that  pesUleooe  ioi7^  "come  nigh 
his  dwelling  "  unless  sanitary  measures 
are  enforced  in  the  neighborhood.  Do 
knows  that  vigilance  is  the  price  not 
only  of  civil  Uberty  but  of  freedom  from 
all  tho  avoidable  ills  of  life.  lie  sees 
that  the  laws  of  life  rightly  observed 
are  the  source  of  abundant  happiness, 
and  that  all  that  is  needed  to  make  life 
increasingly  worth  living  is  greater  in* 
eight  into  the  natural  order  of  things, 
and  A  duo  Inclination  of  the  heart  to  do 
the  things  which  the  book  of  the  kw 
prescribes.  It  seems  too  much  almost 
to  hope  that  any  adequate  compensation 
con  be  found  for  so  stupendous  a  disna- 
tur  as  that  at  Johnstown  and  In  tho 
valley  of  the  Oonemaugh  ;  but  the  suffer- 
ing and  loss  it  has  entailed  will  not  have 
been  wholly  in  vain  if  we  can  bring  oar- 
selves  to  regard  the  calamity  as  a  great 
national  object-leason  in  the  paramuuut 
necessity  of  placing  human  life  under 
the  safeguards  that  science  is  prepared 
to  supply^  and  in  the  duty  that  dcvoKca 
upon  every  individual  in  the  commuuiiy 
to  contribute  his  own  quota  of  reflection 
and  action  to  tho  general  welfare.  One 
man,  by  a  policy  of  masterly  Inactivity, 
re-established  the  falling  fortunes  of  tbi 
Boman  state ;  who  knows  what  oq< 
man,  by  a  reeolate  activity  founded  on 
common  sense,  might  have  done  to  avert 
cue  of  the  greatest  calamities  of  oaodern 
times? 


TRAS\-JKO. 

Tub  now  class  of  schoob  which  iu- 
clij'^'-  •"  i'-  ..r...r--  of  »tudy  exercises  for 
tb»  1   much  mivondorstood, 

'  lu  the 


only  their 


POPULAR  SCIEXCE  MO. 


distinrtWo  "bat  their  dominoUng  feat- 
Qro.  Tho  truo  Aim  and  the  intcll^tUAl 
chtLTACter  of  Uie^  sobooU  are  atlmirably 
prt;«enU>d  in  the  Krticle  on  **  Thd  Spirit 
of  Manual  Triuning/'  bj  Prof.  C.  llan- 
fortl  Ilondcrsnn,  which  opens  thia  issue 
of  the  *'  Monthly."  M  Prof.  Henderson 
shows,  there  is  no  sobuul  vrhows  plan  it) 
to  froo  from  one-fidedneca  a«  the  nuinnal 
training  school.  "  The  specifio  purpose 
of  sQch  fichuola^*^  be  aars,  *^  is  to  offer  an 
odncation  that  inoladee  aa  far  aa  possible 
all  of  the  focnltioa.  Its  faroHco  nioxini 
ia,  *Pnt  the  whole  hoy  to  school.*  Ita 
mode  of  carrying  out  thi^  parpose  Is  tho 
very  practical  one  of  ocoopyiug  the  time 
in  any  way«  forinul  or  informal,  that 
will  brst  lead  to  the  end  proposed.** 
Tho  chief  danger  wliich  bo^eta  such  n 
Bohool  is  that  of  becoming  a  shop,  and 
producing  artisans  rather  than  develop- 
ing men.  There  are  many  who  are  not 
aware  that  any  other  effect  follows  from 
the  training  of  the  hands  than  the  power 
to  rnako  certain  artii'les.  But  not  a  fiugcr 
can  be  consciously  lifted  uolesa  an  im- 
jMiUe  ia  first  sent  to  that  finger  from  the 
brain.  The  bangling  motions  of  nn- 
practiccd  hands  ore  due  to  the  imperfect 
control  of  an  nndevdopod  brain,  and 
the  gradual  aoqnirement  of  the  power 
to  more  tlie  hands  to  just  the  right  ex- 
tent, in  juat  the  right  direction,  funl 
with  just  tho  right  amonnt  of  force,  la 
accompanied  by  a  propcTtionato  devel- 
opment in  the  brain.  The  iucrcailng 
fteuttitjveness  of  the  ere  to  detect  alight 
dovifltiond  from  a  porfet-t  sj^aare,  vertical, 
or  circle  carriOB  with  it  a  gonoral  ability 
to  eeo  occnratcly.  and  to  rightly  Interpret 
tite  Tijtnul  impres&ions  presentiMl  to  tb« 
uiind.  Manual  training  tus  also  a  higher 
inAitenoe.  Tbe  boy  takes  a  pride  in  his 
worlc,  and,  In  ovorooming  the  difflcolticj 
of  his  sucoossiv*  t«llkl^  he  dt?vc1n|i«  tho 
rlrtaos   of   piir-=  i- o, 

and  honesty.     I :  I  in 

A  furuiatlve  stage,  and  doubilciw  Imper* 
fet'tions  and  errors  niaj  be  found  In  the 
choTftctor  of  any  portioutar  infttitntloa; 
tat  If  tho  xpirit  which  Prof.  n«odenN>Q 


reveals  ghuH  dc: 

ing  school,  its  lj  -<f^ 

work  promise  to  form  the  b^'st  syvt*!!) 
of  all-around  edacationol  doT«lupracot 
that  has  yet  been  devised. 


BnUyO'S  BTATFE  AT  BOMC, 

Tns  erection  at  Home  of  a  statua  to 
Giordano  Bmno,  who  on  the  ITlli  of 
February  !u  the  year  1800  was  |mliUciIy 
burned  in  !halcitr  for  the  hef««t*s  nUeg«d 
to   be    contained    in    ld»    '  ici] 

writing*,  is  a  noble  act  of  j  ti»o 

memory  of  a  great  and  mach-iqjiiriid 
man.  It  is  more  than  this,  boverer, 
for  it  bears  emphatic  witness  to  the  ile* 
terniinatioD  of  the  Italian  GovoramVM 
and  people  to  rnngo  thomeelras  oa  tbs 
b'mIo  of  tbe  widest  freedom  In  spooala- 
tion,  aud  thns  to  place  their  whole  dti- 
lixation  under  the  soitpiccs  and  gnidaooe 
of  the  modem  spirit.  It  la  aaAkfaotoiy 
that,  amid  not  a  few  partial  siflnis  of  re- 
Qctiou,  we  httv>'  d  lonnil 

\indicationuftiM  :oQ4Ct«ll 

liberty  on  the  part  of  one  of  th«  Isad- 
ing  nations  of  the  world.  When  v* 
read  of  the  thuasaods  of  telegrams  of 
sympathy  sent  to  tbe  Pope  in  MMma^ 
tion  with  this  event,  we  can  KOt  iMlp 
Wondering  how  tho  -.  "s  Wbo, 

it  may  be   preenrot'i.  ■.-   a  fatr 

measure  of  civil  librrty  in  llie  oonnlriei 
througboct  which  they  are  acattered, 
would  themselves  like  to  bo  in  tho  ItAxtds 
of  a  power  tiiatconld  bring  ibvm  to  the 
stake  If  their  opiniom*  woro  nnt  of  the 
pattern  which  that  power  cho- 
prove.  From  the  modem  polr 
tbe  exeoulloo  oi 
cold-blooded  mill  .  . 
of  A  man  tmmcasam 
in  knowIsdKe  and  iiif.-u 
and  who,  by  hb  refusal, 
dMth,  to  reottt 
himself  poewaaid 
degree  of 


I 


I 


LITERARY  ^^OTICES. 


Ttnlrors«  baJ  on  animntlng  soul,  whiuh 
WAS  diifased  tiiruugb  ever;  form  uf  ma- 
teri*I  exiflteace,  giving  to  eooh  the 
powen  and  properties  it  wu  fonnd  to 
poaseos.  lie  w&8  &  wfirm  nphoUler  of 
the  Copemicnn  aystora  of  philosophy; 
for  adliCTODoo  to  which  Galileo  also  suf- 
fered at  a  later  date.  He  believed  that 
the  noiverso  uras  of  infinite  extent  and 
embraced  an  ondteaa  mnliitude  of  worlds. 
Id  a  word,  bo  had  broken  the  fetters  of 
ecclvsioslical  dofpua,  and  bad  entered 
on  a  career  of  orijfiiial  specuhuion  and 
research.  Ko  wonder  he  was  consiilered 
a  daageroun  man,  and  that  firai  the 
priaon,  and  finally  the  stake,  were  his 
portion.  Timed,  however,  hare  greatly 
changed;  and  he  who  waa  led  as  a 
ortniinal  to  death  for  having  dared  to 
tiituk  for  himseLf  and  attereti  his  tbougliC, 
ifl  now  placed  high  on  the  honor-roll  of 
the  foremnnera  of  modem  liberty  and 
clrillzation,  and  la  gratefolly  remem- 
bered by  thousands  of  iDtelligent  men 
and  women  the  world  over. 

LITERARY  NOTICES. 

THK  Tea  Agi  in  Korm  Amzkica,  ash  rrs 
DsAniNO  rrox  the  AxriqitTr  or  Mar. 
Hf  (i.  KRCDXftiric  Wbioht,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
F.'G.S.  a.  With  an  Appcudli  on  '*Thi 
J*«(in*m  K  Caihi  uf  Uiacutjoh."  Hv 
'abbkx  Uphvk.  F,  0  RA.  With  Ul 
LpR  and  ItluKintiotiB.  Kew  York :  D. 
bppleton  k  Co.  Sto,  pp.  iviii  and  t%'l. 
:k«.  $5. 

T«i  publication  of  "  The  Great  Ice  Age," 

Geikie,  fifteen  Tears  igo,  and  of  ita 

revised,  two  or  three  yoara 

to  the  general  reader  a  oom- 

prahaadve  and  very  inten-rtting  aocount  of 

ihe  Glacial  period,  the  lutv&t  completed  cbap- 

|«r  oC  ($«olO)ilc  iii<*torv.     In  tht^,  m  In  «o 

nutiy  iiih«r  pt" 

the  matt  uiip*-  - 

kiiovkdf*  have  been  gaUiCftd  on  ibis  coo* 
tlMoa :  add  Pro!  Wriflht,  vidair  knovn  for 
U»exMMit«obatrvalIouiBand  fraltful  IdvW' 
U^OUvf  ia  pi*' -I  .-..i.^k.kaL^r''  ""* 
iMttli,  in  aa  ^ 
»a^i  — 

0*' 
Aa  Ju.t, 


Martha's  Vmerurd,  and  Long  Island,  to  the 
cilieJi  of  Ne«r  York,  ClociDQall,  and  St,  Lnub, 
and  OQ  the  Podfio  coaat  to  Seattle  and  Tan* 
oouver  Island. 

Conducive  proof  that  the  drift  dei>ocit5, 
bowIdorSi  and  etrta»  found  upon  all  the  coud* 
try  farther  north  aro  due  to  the  igcncr  of 
land-ioe  aeema  to  be  supplied  by  the  tcr> 
mlnal  moralnee  which  were  rccngntzcd  only 
about  a  dosen  years  ago  by  Clorenoe  Ki 
in  Ihe  EUzabctb  lalanda  on  the  oouih 
of  New  England,  by  Cocdi  and  Smock  in  New 
Jersey,  and  by  Gfaambcrlin  In  Wiac«n«hi. 
Since  then  Prof.  Wright  baa  devoted  erury 
vacation  and  Leisure  day  to  the  fasdnatlog 
study  of  the  drift,  and  haa  pcraonally  exam- 
ined and  mapped  Urge  portiona  of  the  gla- 
cial boundary  along  tu  client  acroaa  th§| 
eaatam  half  of  the  United  Sialea,  from  Nan- 
tucket and  Cape  Cod  tfarougfa  New  Jcracy, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  lUinola,  Ufah. 
nouri,  Conaoa,  Nebraska,  and  South  and' 
North  Dakota.  This  boundary  traverses  val- 
leys, hllla,  and  mounuins,  with  eurpriaing 
disregard  of  tho  oootour,  often  rialnfr  or 
falling  one  thousand  feet  or  more  within 
abort  diatanoea  hi  oroaslng  the  Alleghany 
ranges. 

Not  content  with  these  tnveatigatlons, 
Prof.  Wright  wont  thrvo  ycara  ago  to  Alas- 
ka, and  there  spent  a  month  in  obaervaiiooa 
of  the  Muir  (jlncifr,  ubich  t'ntvn  ihr  sea  at 
the  head  of  Glacier  lS»y,  tcrtninating  in 
water  about  six  hundred  feet  deep,  and  ria* 
lag  above  the  water  In  a  Tcrttcal  cliff  of  iec 
a  mile  long  and  two  huudrvd  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  feet  high.  The  authrjr*^  measure- 
ments ahowed  that  tld«  glacier  is  puahed  out 
into  the  bay  at  an  average  rate  of  forty  feet 
per  day,  moving  thus  many  times  fiislvr  than 
the  comparatively  small  glaciers  of  the  Alps, 
though  not  surpAHsing  the  motion  of  GrceQ* 
land  glacier?,  which  siinilarly  end  hi  tho  » 
being  there  broken  into  Icebeigs  and  [loatod' 
away. 

Funions  of  Prof.  Wright'a  exploration 
of  the  gladal  boundary  were  done  for  the 
Geologiool  Survaya  of  Pennaylrania  and  uf 
iho  Uultd  Stales,  the    terminal    moraine 

'* *'  '''"^^"^^Ivania  ticiog  traced  by  him 

h  tho  Uie  Prof.  Henry  Car- 
-<,antl  In  thai 
rylMtrai 
Ifu  ;iLuLuj^rui'4*a  nctu  tiikai,  which  a{i| 


SS9 


TITS  POPULAR  SCIEXCE  UOyTniV, 


•a  CD^Tod  niu^r«tlona  Id  thii  rolume. 
Tb«  auUior  also  prewatH  vety  twWy  the  re- 
siilta  of  the  labon  of  olherB,  both  In  the 
Uulteil  States  aud  lu  Canada,  aa  Agassix, 
I>aaK,  E.  and  0.  H.  ffitcliooofc,  Newb«rr7,  Le 
•  Coote,  Lealey,  WUt«,  OiamberUii,  BalUburj, 
Todd,  Gilbert,  McOci%  Shalcr,  DstIb,  Slon^ 
Riuacll,  Vpham,  A.  and  K.  H.  Wincbell, 
Clftfpole,  Spencer,  WhitacT,  Sir  WlUUm  and 
G.  H.  DaweciD,  B«U,  Cbalmerft,  attd  many 
morf,  often  quoting  from  thetr  reports  and 
memolra,  and  reprodiictu;;  tbclr  tllustrationa 
and  mapa.  The  work  is  thoii  a  compendium, 
well  brought  up  to  date,  of  the  alrcadv 
volutninoua  literature  of  thli  wonderful  geo- 
logic winter  of  ow  globe. 

Qladcfs  now  exivt,  aa  dcMrtbed  in  thig 
volume,  on  the  ^erra  Kerada,  on  Mount 
8ha8ta,  in  the  Sellcirk  Konge,  and  In  great 
numbers  and  extent  northtranl  to  Mount  St 
Kliai!  and  Cnaluika.  In  the  chapter  on  the 
plaeiera  of  Greenland,  a  tnap  ihowg  the 
route  of  Nordcnsldold  in  1888,  and  of  Dr. 
F.  Nanten  laat  year  upon  the  Ice-sboet  thai 
ooTcts  ilfl  Interior,  eitendiug  in  a  raat  mo> 
AOtooona  expanse  which  Hdce  grmduall;^  to 
clcraflooa  in  its  ccnimi  portion  six  thousand 
to  ten  thouiand  feet  above  the  (iRa,  The 
further  dcflcriptlofl  of  Ktaciera  In  other  parta 
of  the  world,  and  of  the  antarctic  lce>6lieet, 
prepare  the  reader  for  the  diseii«Bton  of  the 
•ign«  of  former  gtAciation  in  the  now  tern- 
|ienU«  rt'^ons  of  North  America  and  Ea- 
rope. 

The  Btrialifin  of  the  bed-rock*,  the  »tri. 
atcd  pebbli?8  and  Imwlder*  nf  the  drift,  fioC' 
tkn*  of  till  and  of  ■tratified  drift  and  loeaa, 
tba  characteristic  topographjr  of  karaca,  tcr- 
mliul  morainea,  and  the  oval  hill*  of  till 
cnlleJ  druTuliufl,  air  very  clearl/  dvacribed, 
with  excellent  Ulnatratioos  from  photo- 
graphn.  The  bonndarr  of  the  glaciated  area 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Miniaalppi  to  ahown 
In  a  fcrica  of  «lx  mapa  ;  and  a  g«aera]  map 
ohowtng  ihff  gUdaJ  |^1n^  of  the  United 
BtAtea  delinoatea,  beoidei  tUIa  aouihem  limit 
of  the  Korth  Aracricran  iiN>^hoct  and  dri/l, 
the  auoceaslre  terminal  muratnea  forrarl  at 
tiiMf  «f  halt  or  readranee  uf  the  ioe  dnring 
lu  r«lreal  and  final  melting,  the  coumi  id 
ibe  glncial  utrlie  and  trunnportatlon  of  bowl- 
der*, tf»"  rf'./-M.-.«  qrea  of  aouthwcatem  Wia- 
oonilii  ^  of  adjoining  Btatea,  tin 

tnodiftvU  ,ri,i  •ipj^vtfltad  In  v*Ii«;«  of  aonlb^  i 


v«rd  drainage  from  lh«  (a^«hce^ 
bouxidarT  of  the  gladal  Lak«  Afua 
waa  held  in  the  banbi  of  the  Bed  Rlret  of 

the  North  and  of  Lake  Winoipci;  hj  the 
barrier  of  the  loe  while  It  waa  bdof  mcliai 
away. 

Important  changes  in  the  drainage  of  the 
country,  cauacd  by  the  Ice-aheet  and  ll»  drift 
deposlta,  are  noticed  b  considerable  detail 
In  the  some  way  tliat  Z^ke  Ag^aaait  was 
formed,  outflowing  by  the  gUc^  Ktttr 
Warren  along  the  coufm  of  the  yf*ff*F**< 
and  MUelMippi  Birer^f  the  Great  Xakm  tf 
the  SU  Lawrence  wire  heM  by  the  f*t»dian 
ice-harrier  at  Icrele  much  higher  ihan  now, 
similarly  oatflowing  OTor  the  loweal  poinla 
in  tbclr  aouthera  waierabed  lo  the  lllHl»i 
sippl ;  and  theite  ondeul  lakeOerrla  aiw  nU 
found  distinctly  marked  by  broch  ridgd  saA 
deltas  of  grarcl  and  sand.  Aao<bcr  Tvy 
interesting  gladal  lake  was  formed  fal  Iha 
baJiin  of  the  Ohio  KiTer  by  the  Mmikormry 
dam  of  the  icc-sheei,  which  at  Ua  ifiBd  aC 
ttULzlmum  area  extended  acroai  tida  rivar  a| 
Cinrintiatl,  carrying  lu  moralnie  drift  Inn 
the  northfm  edge  of  Kentucky.  **ThM« 
glacial  deposit?  south  of  the  Ohio,**  ar(«r4* 
Ing  to  Prof.  Wright'*  obserrations,  "aiw 
such  as  to  make  it  ocruin  that  the  frwit  «f 
the  continental  glacier  Itself  pushed,  at  manm 
points,  scren  or  eight  miles  beyond  the  Okio 
River;  and  it  is  altogether  probable  tlies 
for  a  dlatactoe  of  fifty  miles  (or  emnplsltfy 
around  the  cactem,  Dorihorn,  and  «ae(«rtt 
sides  of  the  Kentucky  pi'uinsula  f<mae4  by 
tlie  great  bend  of  the  rtrcr)  the  \t» 
down  to  the  trough  of  the  Ohio,  and 
It  so  OS  completely  to  dtoke  tJie  dwsinel  ead 
form  a  facial  dam  high  enotigh  le  raise  the 
level  of  the  water  five  bntidrc^  and  Afly  feel 
— this  being  tlu"  height  of  the  water-shed  la 
the  south."  Trace*  of  ih<t  f<irmcf  etleieaee 
of  this  Lake  Ohio  are  famd  aloon  •  tlletuae 
of  about  fuur  hundred  milea  in  the  valley  ef 
the  Ohio,  Alltfghany,  and  Monnnjshile  Klf- 
rrs  and  their  trihtilariri.  At  Um  pfWl 
time  the  ahandnnt  lakes,  and  the  waiolaOB 
on  Ntn^ms,  througliout  the  gladelei  etM, 
so  remar^hly  contraeted  with  ibcir  fwil 
abMDC*  farther  south,  ar*  .liu-  Ui  UnregitaiC 
thu  in  the  depomtioo  ^'^  ^uf  |»  lu 

obfftmctlons  of  the  pregU-   .    ȣ8t 

A  chapter  la  derotvl  le  the  flight  af 
pbutA  «Ad  eftlBMb  dating  tlie  CHidal  p^ 


f 


4 


LITERARY  ^^OTICES, 


559 


I 


•Jhr  north  h*rlng  b«ea 
die  Mrere  climate  aotl 
ftCooiouUtliig  ioc,  u  ti  Bbovn  by  remiiAiita 
of  ft  flora  and  fauna  like  thoM  of  the  arctic 
reglona,  which  Imti!  auumged  to  oontinuc 
Iheir  exUtenoe  aince  the  Ice  age  o&  th«  tti[M 
of  mounuixu  ia  temperate  UUludea.  Mabj 
peenllaritlM  in  the  dUtribution  of  forc«t 
treea,  made  Icnowo  by  the  researches  of  the 
late  Prof.  Aaa  Grat,  alto  find  ihcir  00I7  ade- 
quate ezpUnatioQ  in  those  ricIssitudM  of 
cUraatA. 

Northwestern  Europe  was  covered  bj  an 
loe-ah«et  about  balf  as  exteiutiTe  ax  that  of 
our  own  oootlnent,  and  ibe  author  gi*cfl  on 
a  aingle  map  a  comparative  rlew  of  the  gla* 
elated  afe*s  of  both.  Another  map  shows 
the  ooitrse  of  the  termiual  inoraiaca  recdfnUf 
traced  by  Lewis  in  Ireland*  Wales,  and  £ag- 
lond*  and  by  6aliflbur7  in  Oennonj,  each  of 
whom  had  mnefa  previous  experieoee  from 
work  ott  gfaielal  f>eolog,v  in  the  Unilivl  Sutes. 

TivaUag  of  the  cause  and  date  of  the 
Gladal  period.  Prof.  Wright  rcjocts  the  oa. 
tioaonio  theory  of  Crall  and  Oeikic,  wbich 
attrihnlaa  tb«  severe  dtmat«  to  oooditioos 
dependent  on  the  eccvntridtx  of  the  earth's 
orbit  between  two  hundred  and  fortj  thou- 
oand  and  elffhty  thouRand  jcars  a^.  Instead 
of  ihii,  the  poat-glaclal  erosioo  of  ttw  gorge 
below  the  Falls  of  Kiagara  and  of  that  v\' 
tenliog  ei;!ht  miles  on  tlic  Uis^Hftippi  from 
Fort  Soclliuf;  to  the  F11II5  of  .St.  Aulhony  at 
MJaueapoIis,  Rlniilar  erostoo  bj  streams  lrib> 
utarj  to  Lake  Erie,  changes  in  the  shores 
and  depokUa  of  duue  haiul  hN-miI  Lnke  Micbi* 
gan,  and  other  ob^prvaiinnn,  ofTonl  much 
shorter  measures  of  tlie  time  since  the  de> 
pannrt  of  the  iee-shcctf  ■;:rccing  in  their 
testimony  that  it  was  no  lunjc^er  a^ro  than 
atwA  fo  ten  thoosaod  years.  Prof.  Wright 
Is  alto  disposed  to  doubt  that  there  have 
been  two  distinct  Glacial  Cfochi  in  America, 
ami  believes  tliat  the  facts  thus  far  obtained 
•raopable  of  explanation  on  the  theory  of 
but  MM  epoch,  with  the  natural  osciiULioos 
■tfoomptnying  the  retreat  of  so  vaA  aa  ioe- 
frant 

The  last  two  chapten  review  the  evW 
dencefl  of  man's  premnce  in  America  and 
Europe  during  the  Glacial  period,  specially 
ribing  the  important  dUcoverius  of  pa- 
lie  Implements  In  gladal  gravel  depos- 

oear  Tremlott,   X.  J.,  by  Abbott;  near 


Claymont,  Del,  by  Oreeffon;  tn  the  Little 
Miami  Valley,  Ohio,  by  MeU ;  and  at  Little 
Falls  Minn^  by  UIm  Babbitt.  But  doubu 
remain  eoocemlng  the  authenticity  of  the 
famous  Calaveras  akuU  and  stooo  Imple- 
ments denoting  a  liigber  stale  of  devi'Iop- 
nni  than  that  of  palteoUthlc  man,  reported 
as  oecurring  in  the  lava-oorered  go1«l-bear> 
ing  gravels  of  CaUfomia,  which,  If  obtained 
there  in  the  undisturbed  gravel,  would  giv^ 
to  our  race  a  considembly  greater  aati<iui7f 
than  is  othemizte  known. 

In  the  appcndU  Mr.  Cpham  coniribatea 
"  an  explanation  of  the  causes  of  the  Glacli 
period,  which,  in  this  applicatioa  of  Its  fua*. 
damental  principle,  seems  to  be  new,  whihi 
in  Its  secondary  elements  it  oomblncs  manf 
of  the  features  of  the  expUnations  proposed) 
by  LjcU  and  Dona  and  by  Croll.  Bricflj 
stated,  the  condition  and  relation  of  the 
carth*a  crust  and  interior  sppear  to  be  such 
that  they  produce,  In  connection  with  ooiw 
traction  of  the  eartb^H  mass,  depro^Ntona  and 
uplifts  of  extensive  area«,  some  of  wltioh  bar*/ 
been  raised  to  heights  where  Otcir  precipita- 
tion of  moisture  throughout  the  year  was 
alnost  wholly  snow,  gradually  forming  thick 
ice-sheets ;  but  under  the  heavy  load  of  ioo 
subsidence  ensued,  fiith  correlative  uplift  of 
other  portions  of  the  canh*s  crust ;  so  that 
glacial  conditions  may  have  prevailed  alter* 
oatcly  in  the  iKirtbcrn  and  southern  baini> 
spheres,  or  in  North  America  and  Europci, 
and  may  hare  been  rcpeati^^l  after  warm  In- 
terglacjfll  epoch*  '•  Mr  Tpham  brlievcs  that 
the  earth'fl  cnitit  floats  in  a  condition  of  hy- 
drostatic equtlil>rium  upon  the  heavier  liquid 
or  viscous  mobile  interior,  or  layer  envelop- 
ing the  interior,  subject,  liowever,  to  strains 
and  resulting  deformation  because  of  the 
earth*8  contraction.  Hut  such  osotllationt 
seem  not  Incon^Utent  with  thr  doctrine  that 
the  earth's  interior  is  solid,  with  a  degree  a£] 
mobility  like  that  of  ice  in  glaciers.  Whethc 
the  forraallaB  ol  the  Ilimalayan  Bioamtain*  | 
range  has  beea  oootamporaneoas  and  oomiU 
ative  with  the  Glacial  |*eriod,  and  tiie  Appo^ 
lachlan  uplift  with  the  Cnrbonlferons  and 
Permian  gladatlon  of  portions  of  the  East- 
ern hemisphere,  as  is  here  suggested,  must 
probably  require  many  future  yeans  of  ob- 
servation and  study  to  determine. 

AU  who  have  read  the  earlier  work  of 
Prof.  Gcikie,  or  listened  to  ProL  Wright** 


THE  POPULAR  SCTS^CB  MONTHLT, 


lecture*  on  this  Biibjwt  heforp  tho  Lowell 
InsUtute  in  Boston,  nnJ  the  Fe&bodjr  Insd- 
iBteia  BalUmoret  will  wcloorne  ihtii  degmatl/ 
printed  voIuqk}  u  tho  most  ftUbonte  lod 
complete  proaentation  of  tiiia  manrdotu  ge<^ 
logic  period.  The  broad  and  criticnl  knowU 
Otlgo  which  the  antbora  hare  gained  tbraagh 
long  field'WorIc,  the  admirable  Uierary  vtylo 
with  which  0)0  complex  facta  ore  grouped 
and  eipUined«  the  atHtndant  iUuatratioaa  b^ 
cngrarines  and  maps,  and  the  copious  Index 
nuking  the  volume  a  oonrexdcnt  miuiual,  will 
be  sure  to  incite  nunjr  to  obdcrre  for  them* 
wives  the  reoordc  of  the  Icti  age  in  the 
riduity  of  their  own  homes. 

The  Fisbuid)  kfm  Fnonrar  IvDcsmv  op 
Tiu  Umitku  Statkh.  Bjr  Gioiiax  Baowir 
OoopB  and  a  StmiT  of  AsAistants.  8co- 
tions  HI,  [V,  and  V,  Waaiiln^ton :  Gor- 
crnment  PrintJiig-Uffice.  your  Vols,  Fp. 
17A,  178,  80ti,  8b7,  with  Plates  and 
Charts. 

Tnts  ^at  work  it  d<^ai•^cd  to  gire  a 
complete  aurr«t;  of  oil  thut  related  to  our 
Qaherics,  and  include  in  its  portly  volumes 
a  vQjt  ociount  of  information  on  evcrj  branch 
of  the  subJL-ct.  This  Inf  ormatUui  ts  present- 
ed* moreoTcr,  in  a  wsj  to  attract  rcodcn, 
notwithflondlng  its  diftcoiirogiog  Tolumlnouo- 
nrss,  and  Invite  them  to  keep  oo.  The  lint 
part  of  tho  present  install  meot,  Section  IH, 
is  devoted  10  a  description  of  the  **  Fishing- 
Grounds  of  Kortb  Amcricji,"  and  Is  edited 
hy  Richard  Rathbun.  Tlic  term  **  fishing- 
grounds  **  is  doAned  to  apply  to  '*  thoto  areas 
of  the  seft-boitora  which  ore  known  to  be 
the  feeding  or  spawuiog  f^rounds  of  one  or 
more  spedcfl  of  edible  fif hes,  and  which  af- 
ford flsberios  of  greater  or  leas  extent."  Tlie 
most  imporuni  of  our  fish  lag-grounds  are 
located  off  tlio  eastern  coast  of  Xorth  Amer- 
!ea,  between  Kontuckct  and  Labrador;  the 
moit  dl!«tant  fictda  lying  in  David  StnUt  off 
the  coast  of  Greenland.  These,  with  the  otJi. 
*'  "m  coast  down  toUexioo, 

fti  -  (hIrffAn  local  or  special 

^  -and  Mr.  Rath' 

t'  of  the  Pacific 

Ptat**4  coaM,  by  IV  iau  ;   tbosa  of 

Alaska,  with  their  ;  y  Tarlcton  H. 

Hi>an  .  ihoM  of  ili  'S,  by  LuJwIg 

Kumlicn  and  Frc«i<ti.A  <* .  iruo.  In  oddl* 
tion,  rmaliltint  Jordan  fumiAlios  a  di»caa- 
sba  of  ib«  *«Q«ogT«phI<ml  Distiilnuloa  of 


Food-Fl!^he^  'tl  nyilrographfc 

sins  of  the  I  ^."    The  text  \a  scjt- 

plemented  by  ihirly-twu  "  ocean  tci^perature 
diarts.*'  Action  tV  ouiopri«es  oa  ocoocnt 
of  "The  Flfihermen  of  the  Cnlied  fHatei,' 
by  Prof.  Goode  and  Ur.  ColUno,  lncliu2la« 
the  clasiftficaXiou  of  tbelr  natlrataUtio*,  tttrfr 
distributloo,  dcUoeutlons  of  Uiiir  mo>it  oi 
living,  obaracier,  liAbfta  al  work,  Intclfigcnev, 
tastes,  and  otfaor  qmlities.  X  featw*  o( 
special  intereit  Is  the  B«otlon  ••  lh«  put 
played  by  "  fisliermeo  sa  tavc«t!gatorai"  la 
Section  y,  tho  "  niDtory  and  Methods  of  lh« 
Flshories"  are  related  In  two  xtry  lar)(« 
volnines.  The  rovirw  of  tbls  pan  tcuds  lo 
take  the  form  of  an  enuTneratirm  ntlMr  tkia 
on  analysis.  Nineteen  authors  ant  repno^ 
oented  in  the  different  papers.  The  oooounu 
cover  the  history  of  th**  aevenl  flsbetict  d» 
scribed;  their  beginning,  growth,  or  deeay, 
and  present  condition ;  the  xoelboda  pofraed 
at  the  different  grounds  whore  each  ftahery  ll 
proeecuted;  processes*^?  >n  fortM 

market;  applications  of  itistiflsil 

retams  and  value ;  inquiry  tnUi  the 
which  have  affoctod  tho  prosperity  or 
ence  of  lh«  fifilittig  stations  as  auch ;  aad  * 
variety  of  fuch  other  Infonnatioo  as  oaj 
help  to  a  clear  and  compreheuslv*  i|4w  <4 
the  condition  and  prosiicetJt  of  lirhlw  evicts 
prtic.  The  first  vulume  relalc«  to  f-rrMhih- 
es ;  the  second  to  marins  mammalt,  repcUii^ 
and  tnverU'bratcs  which  wtt  osad  for  f«ail 
or  other  ec  ■  -poiiM.    Tba  riictkl 

subjects  are  :  \  oud,  haddock,  kokt^ 

mackerel,  menhaden,  herring  and  **sardlM^'* 
Spanish  mockervl.  milU't,  red  sn«pp«v,  oolfl^ 
on,  whole,  blaek&sh  and  porpoloe,  PmSlm 
walrus,  oeol  and  sea-otter,  turtle  oad  tcm^ 
pin,  oyster,  scallop,  clam,  nnuod  nad  ah^ 
lone,  crab,  l4b:tter,  crvylUh,  rock  tobatcr, 
shrimp  and  prawn,  leech  and  ttvpoaqi  and 
r  [  '     \^\  iodtutrlcs,  and  trods;  wkb 

-rs  on  "The  Shore  FbharlflSQl 

{•IshcryofK'  ' '  •un<S*oe«  Aik* 

eriei  of  the  United  Statoa,"  and  '*T^  Fteb- 
erifts  of  ilic  Great  tAkcfk."  In  r^^rTv  ar- 
cry  obapter  may  br  fadBil  I'  («i 

the  deprcdntt'"!  tir  'Itwini.-tl 
onccortretij 
manner  Id  viut  . 
aources  to  go  Co  « 
proieoatlan  of  speoiutiv*  m 


4 


I 


LITERART  NOTICES. 


561 


» 


i 


luiMor  tlio  series  It  an  atlM  of  two  hua- 
drcil  &iui  fift>'-fiTc  plateSw 

A  TWUTICB   on  Co-OraSlTm  RiTTNOB   AND 

LoAK  Amociatioss.  U/  Sminc'R  iJiix* 
rm.  New  York :  D.  Applcum  ^  Co. 
Pp.  2S»9. 

Tni  author  has  aimcil,  in  preparing  thia 
Of  to  f  uruiBb  lof  unnatioa  eouoeming  the 
of  udodatiood  descn'bod  Ln  the  title,  in 
form  In  which  It  ebAll  be  acoceiiblo  to  oil 
deairing  it.  \  to  «iptala  cloarly  the  principles 
on  which  the  typical  association  ia  founded ; 
to  dcjcribc  variations  from  the  type;  to  fui^ 
nbh  a  oomplcto  and  safe  guide  to  porsooB 
wlahing  to  engage  in  audi  aaBodatioos;  to 
eorreet  certain  false  notions  oonoemin^  aomo 
mattem  of  Kuandal  maoagenient  in  them ; 
and  to  pubUah  the  boat  statutes  of  the  sev- 
eral States  concerning  tliem,  rcooinmcndlng 
particularly  the  N<^w  York  act  of  1887  and 
the  laws  of  Massachusetts,  Wliilc  oo^pcra* 
tioQ  baa  existed  under  Tarious  forma  and  for 
Qtany  purpotea,  the  efforts  in  tho  special 
ahape  oonsldercd  in  this  hook  have  been 
more  aniformly  Fuccessful  tlian  in  any  other. 
The  asKtdations  formed  for  the  purpose  have 
bad  variouB  naincs — building  and  loan  aaso- 
cUtiooc,  building  asaocUtions^  mutual  sav- 
fatgi  and  loan  ofisodationa,  homestead  aid  as* 
■odAtlonsor  co-operative  banlu.  The  name 
given  them  by  Ur.  Dexter  includes  all  the 
otiiers,  aud  Is  belicTed  to  describe  them  more 
aceumtety  than  any  other  name.  The  bene- 
fits derived  from  there  are  all  included  under 
the  general  description  that  they  encourage 
ttrings,  Thia  tbcy  do  by  affording  a  safe 
ploi-e  of  dcpoflii,  oonvcnitni,  btit  out  of  the 
reach  of  prcsnng  temptations  (0  spend ;  that 
tlio  ultimate  object  of  ihc  saving*  to  provide 
a  home.  Is  mode  practicable  through  them ; 
that  through  them  an  opening  ia  offered  for 
inveetmcot  of  small  sums  that  might 
Ise  he  frittered  away ;  and  that  they 
cnnvcuicul  facilities  to  their  members 
wUiing  to  negotiate  loans.  A  chapter  is  d&> 
Tuted  to  tbo  delineation  of  the  typical  aaso- 
;  atiMlwr  rhapt^r  to  a  sketch  of  the 
"-^niutioDB  and 
=  In  the  several 
inji  history  bc- 


tlio  nit 
^_  a  horm 
^1  that  th 


9lai«9 — wljivb  U 
fall  infur- 


tions  are  conducted  is  reviewed,  with  the 
m'xliBcalions  it  has  andcrgone,  and  "the 
best  sciieme"  is  detennioed;  and  tliis  rc^ 
view  is  followed  by  dirceliona  for  the  organi- 
sation of  an  association  nnder  the  New  York 
act  of  1887,  and  also  under  that  of  1861, 
ai^  by  inatructions  in  the  keeping  of  the  aft- 
•odatioo's  acoounts — this  being,  in  faei,  th« 
exposition  of  a  particular  system  of  boc^ 
keeping.  In  the  appendix  are  givao  lb« 
laws  of  New  Yorlc,  Pennsylvania,  Masflnobii 
setts,  and  Obb  respecting  the  asaodatiooi^ 
and  forma  for  a  constitution  and  the  paper* 
required  in  the  transaction  of  their  business. 
The  book  snpplies  satiofoctory  information 
on  a  subject  in  whiob  there  is  wide-spread 
interest,  and  answers  well  to  the  familiar  d^ 
scription  that  U  nwpoodi  to  a  want  of  tha 
times. 

Anrcal  RrponT  or  tm  Oboiooioal  BcHTKr 
or  Ark-axsas  Foa  1 888.  Vol.  I.  By  Jon 
C.BRAVKKR^SuteOcologidu  LiiLleKock: 

Press  Printing  Company. 

OfTEATioiis  under  the  present  surrey 
were  begun  In  1887.  When  the  first  report 
was  made,  they  had  been  carried  on  for  so 
short  a  time  that  only  a  mc^er  statement 
could  be  published  ;  hence  the  rcfolt  of  most 
of  the  work  that  has  been  done  from  the  b^ 
ginning  will  be  giren  in  the  four  volumes  of 
the  current  report.  The  prcaeut  volume, 
after  a  brief  general  account  of  the  work 
done  during  the  year,  Is  occupied  with  the 
report  of  Dr.  T.  B.  Comatock,  assistant  gfr 
ologi?t,  upon  his  preliminary  examination  of 
the  miDcnU  resources  of  the  western  central 
part  of  Arkansas,  with  especial  reference  to 
tbc  production  of  the  precious  metals.  The 
second  volume  will  give  the  results  of  the 
oombined  work  of  the  United  Slates  Geo- 
logical Survey,  and  the  Geological  Survey  of 
Arkansas,  upon  the  Hesozoic  geology  of  the 
State.  The  third  volume  will  relate  to  the 
ooal  regions  ;  and  the  fourth  volume  wiU 
oontahi  miscellanroua  and  local  reports. 
Dr.  Comstock^s  work,  as  de»cribe<l  in  tb* 
prescut  volume,  relates  to  Pulaski,  Sollnfly 
Hot  Spring,  Garland,  Montgomery,  Folk,  and 
Scott  Counties,  and  parts  of  Yell,  Pike.  How- 
a)"d,  Sevier,  and  FrankKu  Counties.  The  ob» 
servAiionA  recorded  were  made  in  18S7  and 
1888  in  all  the  important  places  in  the  Sute 
where  mining  or  prospecting  for  gold  and 


S6t 


THE  POPULAR  JSClSyC£  MOXTELT. 


ellrer  were  or  bad  been  carrfed  on,  and  were 
ftlM>  directed  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  oo 
enrrcncc  of  ihe  boftor  metals.  After  deecriU- 
Ing  the  surface  geology  and  lUe  niaea  of 
le  oountice  named  with  oooaidcrable  full- 
'oeas  the  author  auouoarizea  hla  concluaioiui 
that  there  is  but  little  ronsoD  to  believe  that 
any  workable  deposits  of  gold  occur  in  the 
&ute.  The  promise  Is  better,  ihoogh  not 
briliiant,  for  silver;  and  much  of  the  profit 
to  arise  in  the  working  of  the  tilvcr  ores  \^ 
likely  to  eniue  from  the  presence  of  other 
mctoU,  chiefly  lead  and  zinc,  wUh  which  the 
^rer  ores  are  closely  linked.  Other  metaU 
looked  for  were  copper,  which  does  not  prob- 
ably ciiat  in  deposiu  that  can  bo  profilablv 
worlccfi;  tin,  of  which  there  U  one  slight  in- 
dication ;  nickel  and  rolmlt,  of  which  nnc 
**  claim  "  is  mentioned  Uuit  "  deserres  devel- 
opment"; manganese,  which  exists  in  con- 
ridorable  amount ;  iron,  In  ores  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  which  do  nut  appear  to  have 
been  definitely  determined ;  and  misoclknis 
ouB  products,  eueh  ad  graphite,  eilici  powder, 
pyrites,  and  mineral  paints.  A  list  of  the 
mlneraJd  of  western  central  Ariiausas,  and 
a  chapter  on  ihe  location  of  mining  daima, 
complete  the  Tolume, 

A  Hahdiiooe  or  CaTrrnoAinc  Rotaht.  By 
Alfkbd  W.  BKNTiKTr,  F,  L.  S,.  and  Georo'b 
Mntaar,  ¥.  L.  l?.  London  and  New  York  : 
Longmans,  Orecn  &  Ca  Fp.  473.  Price, 

Tma  work  fills  an  tnportant  gap  In  our 
botanical  literature,  for,  wlulo  we  have,  on 
the  one  band,  numcrott^  elaborate  mono- 
graphs dealing  with  special  familiea  or  groope 
of  cryptogams,  and,  on  the  other,  our  gen- 
era! treatises  on  botany  give  a  sketch  of  the 
orrptogamUi  aeries,  there  is  no  book  In  th« 
igllsb  language  devoted  to  presenting  the 
in  facts  of  oryptogamic  txitauy  as  iliey 
are  known  at  the  present  time  The  &rst 
eubdivision  treatad  la  the  vascular  crypto- 
gams, including  fossil  forms,  and  oinbrme- 
di  dauea.  In  this  aubdiviAitm  and  ilw 
iseiHMv  tha  olaasificaUon  ftdopted  by  tb« 
ithora  follows  gencru  '  ]   prlnel- 

In  tJio  Thalloplit  r.  whwre, 

MoouBl  of   laa«  ooinpl*  'i:[«, 

U  tsMffUiatal  ap^MAii,  I  una 

art  bumaroiui.  and  the  aathors  atatc  that  In 

fh'^'^ttftg  attinwg  tliinri    tlu-r  have    raoAc  mi 


19a 


effort  to  bring  together  ttiMft 
vhicli  arc  mo^t  nearly  rclAtadto 
Tu  thi^  end,  while  they  a^I^ 
fthtfta  of  Sach»  cs  a  primary 
from  that  authority  in  hoM' 
division  of  the  higher  Thai  I  , 
two  great  groapa  of  At$tt  and  ^imiffi, 
sides  thoMO  already  tuAntioned,  tbo  two 
groups,  CAarami  and  JfyoitfaaM,  maka  i^ 
the  Mven  chief  sab£ri«Sou  cnployod  ia 
this  work.  The  language  of  the  iraaiiM  Is 
dear  and  smooth,  and  the  aixthocs  h«v« 
striven  toward  a  shnpic  tcrmbolosy  la  tbdr 
department  by  using  snob  AoglldJenS  foma 
of  Lailu  and  Orcwk  tanal  u iporci^  «rdU> 
ycnc,  antfitndt  rjrtdem^  etc.  Tha  teat  b 
ttlustt^ted  by  nearly  fcrar  huntircil  nfffflrat 
iUuBtratiunin ;  lista  of  the  I&cratnr»  of  tb* 
sereral  groups,  classes,  or  ordera  are  bueifel 
at  the  appropriate  places ;  and  Ibo  rolant  1ft 
adaqustely  Indexed. 


tan  V 


Tac  Tnn  or  V-. 
FursTjiax:  A 


byrncuK',  ->.  i 


WT*  ASV 

Bahleen. 


"Mills 
[■[I.  268. 

Tuitf  work,  which  Is  d«o1ai«d  to  lie  tbc 
fruit  of  a  loTc  for  the  subject,  attks  ta  a^ 
certain  something  of  the  origin,  natorei,  and 
growth  of  myth,  what  it  primarily  waa,  aad 
what  has  come  of  it.  Tha  thame  eaa  not,  fai 
the  author's  view,  be  aald  to  hara  taooos 
obsolete,  '*  when  the  bale-flres  are  rtSlt  kia* 
died,  as  in  Jutland  and  Korway, ««  eadi  re* 
turn  of  the  eolstlo* ;  whm  the  peuairt,  aa 
in  Germany,  ittlll  ffnlders  wind  and  flansa  la 
deprecatory  offering,  ui^l  hunts  OQ  @t.  Joiia^f 
night  the  witches  from  house  and  stall ;  wba, 
as  In  onr  own  cormtrr,  th<>  eopisntldoqs  re- 
ganl   for   feigns,  jlill  holiSs   aa 

strongly  even  in  its  4  ovstparm- 

tivcly  freed  minds,  an>:  •Ic&oa  lli- 

numerable  of  old  mytii      ^  ''fi  «iir. 

else,  to  this  hour,  powerful 
opinions  and  cunduet."    '!'* 
Is  soDj^ht  by  the  author 
I         '    '   Mliood,"aDij 

1  (O  VUw  CTtT'. 

h&vl^;  cuadduu^  ' 
strange  or  va|r. 
Cambload  with  ' 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 


I 


pp^n^tlTO  sense  of  words  descriptive  of  ob* 
JceU  tn  BAlure  wu  lost,  aad  tha  aiithropQ- 
orphiAm  Antl  pcraocificfttion  bccoinu  mora 
ftcd  mora  complete.  From  tUU  guneml  dc* 
icripUtm  ftitJ  origin  the  author  gooa  on  to 
iccount  for  "  mytltf  of  explanation,"  "  myths 
arUing  from  mct.ipbor,"  "  heroic  legends," 
•*nu«ery  talcs,"  "proverbs,  /olk4on5,"  etc.,' 
•'aurriTals  and  retolnisccnccs,"  *'  shadow  and 
Vigolficatlon,*'  "didactic  and  ethical  myllis/* 
and  "  symbolism. "  Knally,  he  fowcasl*  an 
''cxceUior"  for  tho  human  muDl,  when  It 
ahsll  grow  beyond  "  anthropomorpbium  in 
rofonnce  to  ZkUy  T  " 


The  book  prepared  by  Pmd  SaH  u  an 
IntTodaottoQ  to  his  "  First  St«ps  tn  8dentiac 
Knowledge  "  has  been  transbced  sod  iasnod 
In  this  ootmlry,  with  the  title  Primtr  of  Sci- 
entific Knov>t€<lg«  (Lipplncott,  86oonta).  The 
suthor  says  of  titc  present  volume:  "This 
new  work  U  carried  out  la  the  same  spirit 
%a  tho  former  and  follows  tho  same  plan. 
The  book  ts  so  arranged  thst  the  larger  work 
bfoomcs  a  review  and  extonsion  of  the  sub< 
j«*l.  Tbe  method  which  consiirts  in  present- 
ing to  the  child  during  two  or  three  consecutive 
years  tho  same  eabjocte,  in  the  flame  order, 
pillowing  the  same  iiencral  ■rraugomcul,  but 
▼tth  an  Increuisg  nauibcr  oX  facts  mud  a 
progresalre  devation  of  ideoj,  Is  an  exoel- 
Jont  one  and  Is  now  onlverBaily  adopted." 
Till)  •*  Piluier"  is  both  more  elementary  and 
more  practical  In  character  than  the  *'  First 
Steps.**  It  treats  of  man  (his  organs  and 
tlielr  uscsX  animals,  plants,  slooea,  and  the 
<hrw  itaUts  nf  matter,  with  a  few  para* 
gimphi  cm  light,  sound,  elecldclty,  and  mag- 
wrtlam.  Kcadlog  Icasons  and  subjects  for 
position  ftre  given  at  the  end  of  eaob 
Tba  book  is  full  of  pictures  and  is 
prorided  wUh  a  glossary.  Those  two  books 
admirably  to  bring  tho  Httdy  of  nature 
tba  early  education  of  pupils,  where  it 
Irill  do  them  nifiui  gtMHl. 

A  very  attrsctirv  little  book,  entitled  OuU 
'iiu»  of  LaaoM  in  Botany,  Is  ofTcred  by  Jam 
ff  V«,.,//  for  the  uac  of  teachers,  or  of 
lying  with  their  chiidn>n((Jinn), 
here  onilined  an  Bnltable  for 
Iwnlve  years  of  age  and  upward. 
Gray's  "First 
lie  Grott."  ami 
ctmUoUoa  will 


cither  of  tboao  hooka.  The  necessary  rcier- 
cDces  arc  givcu  at  tho  end  of  each  fecetiou. 
These  lessons  oontain  dircclJonB  for  getting 
plants  to  work  upon  by  raising  thum  froui 
tlie  seed,  etc  ;  also  suggeetions  for  leading 
the  pupils  to  observe  and  to  experiment  for 
themselves.  Part  I,  now  before  us,  deals 
with  the  organs  of  plants  and  their  func- 
tions, taking  up  in  succession  root.^,  buds 
and  branches,  stems  and  leaves,  and  thus 
afTord^  a  basis  for  dasaification,  which  Part 
II,  on  flowers,  is  to  develop.  A  general  de- 
scription of  seodlingg  precedes  the  chapters 
on  the  spedal  organs,  and  prefixed  to  that 
is  a  brief  account  of  plants  and  their  ooca. 
Only  the  flowering  plants  are  studied  In 
these  lessons.  Tho  book  has  twenty-five 
Dlustrations. 

Prof.  Wentworth's  series  of  math«maU 
leal  teat-books  has  been  increased  by  the 
first  volume  of  a  work  on  Jlfftbraie  Analy^ 
#i#,  by  O.  A.  WnUmortli^  J.  A.  Mcldlen^ 
and  J.  C  Glashan  (Ginn,  $1 .60).  This  work 
Is  intended  to  supply  students  of  mathe- 
matics with  a  well-filled  storehouse  of  solved 
CJumplea  and  tui^olved  excrdsos  in  thoaf>- 
plic&tion  of  the  fundamental  theorems  and 
processes  of  pare  algebra,  and  to  exhibit  to 
them  the  highest  and  most  important  results 
of  modem  algebraic  analysis.  It  may  be 
used  to  foUow  and  supplement  tbe  ordinary 
text-books,  or  aj  a  work  of  reference  In  a 
course  of  instruction  under  a  teacher.  Tho 
present  volume  ends  with  a  large  coUcotioo 
of  exercises  in  determinants. 

SftKlia  in  the  Outlying  FirUU  r>f  Pk^ 
chic  Science^  by  Ilwlvm  7\$t(U  (Holbrook, 
tl.SS),  ii  an  attempt  to  explain  thofie  0(V 
currenoes  which  have  come  to  be  known  by 
the  name  of  psychic  phenomena.  Hi^  theory 
I9,  that  there  is  a  psychic  other  which  con- 
voys thought  OS  Uio  luminifcrons  ether  con- 
veys light ;  that  every  one's  thoughts  pnv 
duco  waves  In  this  psydiic  ether,  which  may 
be  felt  by  a  person  at  a  di.-;tanco  who  boa 
the  rofiuL-iitc  senaitivenciis,  and  that  In  this 
way  mesmerism,  clairvoyance,  mlnd-rcadlng, 
visions,  thought-transference,  etc.,  are  made 
pOBsibie.  tie  regards  this  theory  and  tbe^e 
phenomena  as  furnishing  a  scientific  basis 
for  the  belief  in  Immortality.  The  doring, 
(^ptcr  la  ■  record  of  Imprcssians  wblch  the 
anthor  believes  ho  received  fmmtlie  spirit- 
workL    Kr.  Tattle  appears  to  be  icqualoted 


s6* 


THE  POPULAR   SCISyCE  MdyT^LT. 


with  the  phyilologioal  cxplaandons  of  bKllo- 
dauUoa,  Chs  influeaoc  of  tlio  mind  upon  the 
IxKlily  faactions,  and  allied  pbenomuno,  and 
be  accepU  some  and  rcj<x!U  otbera  accord- 
log  as  they  happen  to  run  with  or  counter  (o 
'm*flpeculatioiui.  Other  rcflalta  of  scientific 
research  be  trcaia  in  the  &ame  arbitrary 
fojhion. 

The  eecottd  roluiue  to  appear  in  the  four- 
Tolnme  history  of  Engliah  literature,  which 
U  being  published  bj  Uocmillaa  it  Co.,  is  A 
HUtorjf  of  EighUtnih  Omtury  LUeraXure 
(lflfta-1780),  by  AUmwfu/  </mw,  M.  A. 
($1.75).  The  flrnt  grcut  writer  of  this  period 
U  Drydcn,  and  the  other  prominent  names 
which  oomc  in  the  scope  of  the  present  vol* 
ome  are  Pope,  Swift,  Steele.,  Addison,  Defoe, 
Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  Johnson, 
Qume,  Goldsmith,  and  Gibbon,  the  period 
ending  with  Fanny  Burncy,  Junius,  and 
Burke.  In  regard  to  the  critical  opinions 
cxprcfKd  in  the  work  the  author  says:  ''In 
every  case  I  have  attempted  to  set  forward 
my  own  vtcw  of  iho  lilcrary  character  of 
CActa  figure,  founded  on  personal  study. 
Hence,  in  a  few  cases.  It  may  be  dlsoovered 
that  the  verdicts  In  this  Toluine  differ  in 
sooio  degree  from  those  commonly  held.  A 
few  names  which  are  habitually  found  chnui> 
icied  are  hero  omitted,  and  still  fewer  which 
are  new  to  a  general  sketch  are  included. 
...  In  the  final  chapter  I  ha\-o  stated  my 
thtiory  with  regard  to  the  mode  in  which  the 
philoflophical,  theological,  and  political  writ- 
ing of  the  period  sbould  be  examined.  But 
I  may  explain  hero  that  it  has  been  my  d1>- 
ject,  wbilo  giring  a  rough  sketch  of  the 
tenets  of  each  didactic  specialist,  to  leave 
the  discnssioD  of  lfao9e  tenets  to  critics  gf 
the  spedalisf B  own  professioo,  and  to  treat 
his  publications  mainly  from  the  point  of 
view  of  style,"  The  work  is  provided  with 
an  index,  and  a  brief  bibliography  dcaigned 
to  n?fer  the  scndeat  to  tlie  most  aooesaiblo 
UixK  of  the  chief  writer*  meotionod. 

SckiOn^tJur  CMtaiOy  adlted 

hj  BtnimUA  \\\  '  It.  6ft  cents),  has 

been  adapCfd  for  liw  olasa-roum  by  a  cops> 
IW*  ACMUpanunaBt  vf  notes  and  other  io- 
farmatlun.  The  text  is  prcfocvd  by  an  In- 
troductloa  of  Aftccn  pii|C»t  dsallog  wttb  *^" 
eompodtion  of  iha  drama,  editions 
oasnaeripUi,  BMl«r  fend  rhyme,  and  thu  Ji- 


vergc&co  of  the  pU/  from  history; 
eludes  some  biographical  notes  on  Cbo  bts- 
torical  charoetcrs  in  tliC  drama.  TIm  text 
has  a  clear,  attractive  look,  altlrough  the 
stage  direetioos  and  foot-notes  are  In  ntbor 
small  type  for  German  print,  frhldi  la  try* 
ing  enough  to  the  e^'va  even  when  Urge. 
Thirty.«ight  pages  of  Dot<«— grataraotical 
and  hl'ittorical — arc  appended. 

Prof.  B.  Pfrrin'i  cditlen  of  ff<tnm^»  O^ 
i»ty,  Books  T-TV  (Ginn  &  Co.*s  "  CoUeg*  Stfte 
of  Greek  Authors,**  |1.50),  b  baMtd  on  the 
edition  of  Karl  Friedrich  Amcls  sad  t, 
Dentxc,  witb  otlujitniion  to  nhat  Utt  evEttOT 
believes  to  bu  the  requirements  of  AznedcHa 
college  classes.  Confliderabte  mstcrial  hsfl 
been  furnished  for  the  higher  criticism  ei 
the  poem,  in  which  the  first  four  bo«ikS  are 
of  special  significance  At  the  same  lime, 
enough  assistance  of  an  elenientary  sort  has 
been  provided  to  enable  a  good  l«adMr  lo 
use  the  volume  in  intrcMlQcixig  ftvdcnta  to 
the  study  of  Homer.  Certain  hUerpjrelatfaM 
characteristic  of  the  Amcas-Hanta*  cdit&oB 
have  been  retained  in  the  current  boIm^ 
while  the  editor  cxpreases  in  the  appcndU 
his  preference  for  other  views.  On  the 
other  band,  he  has  Incorporated  In  tho  ootss 
views  at  variance  with  thoae  of  the  Gennaa 
edition.  Tariations  In  the  mannacript,  read* 
ingB  of  other  editors,  and  other  daU  a|>pcfr 
priate  to  a  text-book  of  th«  kind,  ara  ptta 
in  the  appendix. 

yoA»  (7%ardlzci(JobnB.  T  ''*im- 

pany,  91.2s)  ts  a  tale  of  the  l  .  ottk 

America,  by  Petrr  BoyUion,  \iom 

identity  Is  left  indrfinilr  In  •>  •  note 

by  his  "  literary  executor."  The  plot  aflnr^ 
room  for  considerable  varielv  of  sit 
and  ind^hml,  and  ti»o  mana. 
The  history  of  tlur  titW  oliaru^ 
with  a  degree  of  mystery  wldch  adds  to  tkt 
Interest  and  compteiity  of  tJte  staey;  aad  a 
negro  woman  from  Uie  ftlare-maHMTU  «(  tbt 
Sleuth,  hax  '  r  of  flhar> 

aCtcr,  Ih  it:': 

7 
i7,  J" 

short  aentcnces.  In  both  script  and 
ly]tC;  new  kuiiI*  aic  n-'t 
tUnnA  oo  II. 


rv*.u-t, 


I 


«siB^^^ 


LITEnARY  NOTTCES. 


S«$ 


[«xerdM  the  pupiU  In  talking  about  objects, 

hi  rwidiiis  from  the  blackboard,  before 

putting  thcTcadcrinio  their  hands.    Pioturca 

}f  the  objccu  named  accompany  most  of  the 

>tv3,  and  when  long  Bcntenccfl  are  rcsclivd 

IL7  arc  broken  into  fibort  aecttooa  nt  nnt- 

[dtuI  piiueii,  each  stonJiog  In  a  line  by  itwlf, 

orOor  tliat  the  pupiVa  mind  mnj  not  bo 

(uirod  to  take  Ui  too  much  ut  uncu. 

Dr.  Ufarjf  PvU^m  Jacohi  baa  publlahed, 
under  the  title  Phynioioi/ieai  Xott»  en  Pri- 
mary Edue^Mtion  and  the  JStwlif  0/  Z/m^uaije 
(Putnam,  |l),  four  cbavb,  of  which  three 
appeared  Id  "  The  Popular  ScicDce  Monthly  " 
for  1885  ond  1886,  and  the  fourth  in  "  The 
Tcftohcr "  during  188$.  Two  of  these  essaTB 
dncribe^An  Experiment  In  Primary  Edu- 
Mtton,*'  being  a  record  of  the  method  cm- 
pToyml  in  tratning  Uie  intelloctnal  facultiefl, 
Itspcclally  the  perception  and  memory,  of  a 
child  between  the  ages  of  four  aod  rix  and  a 
half  yean.  Tlio  next  essay,  entitled  "The 
Flower  or  the  Leaf,"  is  a  reply  to  a  criticism 
I  by  Blisa  E.  A.  Toamons  on  the  method  of 
teaching  a  knowledge  of  plants  employed  in 
[the  afort'-meniioned  "  Experiment.'*  The 
[•uhjcot  of  the  paper  which  eoncludcs  the 
Tolumo  U  **  The  Place  for  the  Study  of  Lan- 
irinp;c*  ta  a  Curriculum  of  Education/'  and 
^^  embraces  a  contti deration  of  what  special 
^■fnllucm%languA!;e  study  has  upon  monlaldv- 
^Hvolopment,  wlut  is  the  ago  at  which  tlils 
^^BafloalkO*  should  be  exerted,  and  what  rclo- 
^■tire  proportion  language  and  other  subjects 
^Bibould  have  In  a  general  curriculum. 

One  might  suppofie  T?ie  Oto^rapKy  of 
Marrin^f  (Putnam,  |1.60)  to  be  a  surrey  of 
the  dlreraified  natural  features  of  the  <iUte 
of  matrimony.  But,  under  this  title,  Mr. 
WMuitn  L.  Snj/^cr  offers  a  law-book  written 
socb  t  popular  Htyle  as  to  make  it,  aside 
|lroa  lu  subject^  attractlre  oiul  useful  to  the 
ij  reader.  In  a  seore  of  chipters  h«  com- 
ires  the  proTisions  of  the  marriage  and 
Urorra  lawi  of  the  States  of  the  Federal 
r&Ioa  OS  ta  who  may  marry,  what  oonsti- 
vlaiidestine  and  run- 
'■?,  divorce,  and  tari- 
'iject,  taking  oc- 
oriidng  from  the 
IOCS  among  tt»e««  taw*  in  different 
eoiuury.  Of  tli*  lira  ways  of 
fom  law   nWcIi  fasvo  bcvn 


proposed,  be  favors  concerted  action  by  the 
States  rather  than  a  constitutioDal  amend- 
ment giving  up  the  CfJDtrol  of  tbis  matter  to 
Congress.  A  summary  of  the  marriage  and 
divorce  laws  existing  in  this  country,  ar- 
ranged by  States,  concludes  the  volume.  Tlie 
index,  which  covers  the  geueml  port  of  tlic 
book  tolerably,  la  very  meager  with  respect 
to  this  summary. 

The  fifth  volume  in  the  series  of  "  Eng- 
lish History  by  Contemporary  Writers  ^  tells 
the  story  of  7^*  Cnuad4  of  Eiehard  J 
(lld9-'92),  and  tbo  materials  were  selected 
and  arranged  by  T.  J.  Arcktr  (Putnam, 
$1.20).  Tberu  is  in  ample  number  of  ac- 
counts of  this  expedition,  some  by  contcm* 
porary  writers  who  were  in  Palostinc  when 
the  events  narrated  occurred ;  others  by  oon- 
tempormrics  who  remained  at  home;  and 
still  others  by  writers  of  the  next  genera- 
tion, some  of  whom  bud  visited  the  scenes 
of  the  crusade.  Accounts  of  tho  authora 
and  books  from  which  sxtructs  are  takon, 
and  notea  on  various  customs  and  things  of 
tho  time,  are  appended  to  tlio  volume.  Plct^ 
ures  of  war-engino%  fortresses,  etc.,  Illus- 
trate tho  text    The  volumo  htcka  an  iodci. 

Mr.  D.  IT.  Montyoniery  boa  made  a  book 
which  claims  to  embody  The  Zeadinff  FaO* 
of  FrfwK  JIutory  (Ginn,  $1.25),  and  is  eri- 
dcntly  intended  to  serve  either  as  a  text- 
book or  for  general  reading.  It  begins 
with  a  reference  to  tlio  cave-men  and  the 
latest  event  wliich  it  records  Is  the  election 
of  President  CamoL  Tho  narrative  is  popn. 
lor  and  picturesque  in  style,  and  is  enlivened 
with  nnmcrou5  anecdotes.  Many  additional 
bita  of  information  and  the  pronunciation  of 
all  difficult  names  are  supplied  in  fooUnotea* 
Fourteen  maps,  mostly  in  colors,  ehow  thd 
changing  boundaries  of  France  throughout 
the  history.  A  list  of  dates,  a  genealogical 
table  of  French  sovereigns,  and  a  list  of 
books  on  French  history,  are  appended  to 
the  volume. 

Six  J^pttut  of  KortK  Amtriean  FiiJut, 
published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
under  the  head  of  "  Natural  History  lUus- 
tmtjons,'*  contains  representations  of  the 
figures  and  details  of  five  speclce  of  mf- 
DOT  fresh-wal«r  fiflhea  and  the  pickerel,  as 
Uicy  were  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
Profs.  Agassis  and  Daird,  from  drawing? 
bj  A.  Sourol,  with  exploaatloaa  by  PraBldent 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MO, 


Ditrid  Starr  Jordan.  The  publicntlon  ia  msde 
"  nfl  a  roemoriiil  of  a  project  UDdortakea 
early  in  the  history  of  American  soEence,  hj 
itto  of  tiio  Uiosl  cminuQl  naturalists  ibu 
eoimit7  lias  orcr  poseeascd.'' 

A  full  and  ralitablo  pspcr  on  Th»  Cave 
Fttufui  of  Korlh  Ameriea  u  publbhul  by 
Prtif.  A-  a  Pttckahi,  from  the  memoirs  of 
the  Katiooal  AcaUeiuy  of  SeicDees.  U  con- 
tains deacriptioaa  of  tht:  cuvea,  with  ootca 
on  Ihfiir  hydrography,  tmupGmture,  origin, 
and  geological  age ;  the  sourcu  of  the  food- 
supply  of  thr-ir  inhabitants ;  tho  probahJe 
mode  of  oolonixatiun;  with  Hits  uf  tbo  spe- 
dC3  Inhabiting  the  bettor-known  caves.  TtiJs 
general  mtruductJon  to  the  subject  is  fol- 
lowed by  moro  special  articlefl  on  the  TCg«- 
tflbltt  life  of  tlie  caves ;  a  iyslomatio  descrip- 
tJon  of  the  invertebrate  anliii&la  found  in 
them;  a  Eiyatemaiic  list  of  the  care  ozU- 
tnals  of  North  America ;  geographical  di£tri' 
bution  of  the  cave  speciefl ;  lUts  of  Ameri- 
cnn  and  European  cftve  animals  and  of  blind 
Don-eavemicoloas  animals ;  ooatomicol  stud- 
ies; a  diseowlon  of  the  origin  of  the  care 
•pedea  and  genera;  and  a  bibliography.  To 
all  these  are  appended  twcnty-aoven  plates 
of  lUuatrations. 

The  serenth  series  of  tlio  "  Johns  Hopkins 
TTaJTorstty  Studios  in  Ilifitnrical  and  Political 
Science  **  is  devoted  to  a<H;Ial  euiuuce,  educa- 
tion, nnd  government.  The  first  number  in 
a  sketch,  by  K  C,  ^hnia^e^  of  Arnold 
Toyttli^,  a  tutor  at  Oifonl,  and  an  eamcat 
and  practical  advocate  of  political,  economi- 
cal, and  ecclcsi Attica]  refonn,  and  of  meas- 
ures for  improving  Ibe  condition  of  the 
moMea,  who  died  in  1B83,  in  his  ihlrty-firflt 
year.  Accounts  are  added  of  "Tbo  Work  of 
Toytihee  Uall,"  which  is  named  after  him, 
and  In  which  tlie  effort  la  made  to  further 
what  he  had  at  licart,  and  of  "The  Ncigb- 
borhoi>d  Guild  id  New  York  " — tho  former 
by  r.  L.  Gill,  and  the  latter  by  the  Rev. 
Charles  B.  Stover.  The  second  and  third 
numbers  preAeut  the  Itictory  of  Th£  £ttal>. 
Uxhmmt  of  Municipftt  Omtmrnent  in  San 
FrtmrueOj  by  Prof.  Btrnard  Mote*,  of  the 
University  of  California.  The  history  bo- 
wttb  the  foundation  of  the  Spanlah 
in  1776,  and  Is  ronsideretl  In  tbtw 

(**  eoinewhat  dearly  dffitiod  periods  ** :  thoMi 
Spanbb  B«1tl«:f.nan(  and  stagnation;  uf 

flnsiitlon,  utcndlng  from  ih«  oun<iu<Ai  to 


aid* 


the 

of  the  eharlcr  of  1851.  No.  i 
niciptU  Uittory  qf  ,Vne  Orl^'ty^i 
W.  ffow.  It  begins  with  t ; 
the  town  in  1718,  and  traei-t  wm 
velopment  of  the  municipal  orgudmlkn  end 
its  vicisattudos  uuilor  Uie  ubangte  of  jnia- 
dlction  which  the  Louisiana  Taiilttiiy  Bof* 
fered,  with  tfac  cxperimcuts  In  charter-xnaking 
that  marked  tlie  career  of  the  Aoottxteaa  dty, 
down  (o  the  atlopUon  of  the  iirewnt  charter 
in  1 882.  To  itils  are  idded  noticva  of  Iho  fin 
department.  Commission  of  Publio  Wocka, 
and  water  and  gas  supply.  i^a<J  aceoa&ta  «d 
the  charitable  gifts  that  have  bA«A  ma4e  l« 
the  city,  and  the  voluntary  public  astoda- 
tloos.  The  sixth  and  seventh  number*  tm* 
brace  a  sketch  of  Kn/jliA  Cutur*  m 
ffinia,  by  Prof.  W'iJUam  F.  Trmi,  oi  Hi 
University  of  the  South.  The  paper 
chiefly  of  a  study  of  the  letters  of 
Walker  Gilmer,  one  of  the  roost  active  of 
the  Virginia  gentlemen  of  the  old  sdiool  fot 
the  advancement  of  education,  who  was  also 
considerably  distinguished  in  hii  day  for  Hi* 
erary  acbierementa — and  an  account  of 
English  profceeore  obulncd  by  Jcffersoo 
tbo  University  of  Virginia. 

No.  XXV  of  the  Bcvnamie  TVodii  ^lA» 
Scei^y  for  Pditieai  JCdwaHon  (S80  IS«H 
Street,  New  York)  Is  a  pamphkl  en  SitdtMi 
lUform.  In  it  the  purposes  of  thoae  po^ 
Bona  who  are  seelung  to  wlihdr:iw  tlbv 
trol  of  tbo  dlalribnUon  of  UaUoU  fmni 
liiMUi  manipulators  and  lodge  U  vlth 
offiucrs,  and  to  secure  %  really  secret 
dependent  vote,  are  czplaiaifd  ;  Ibt 
ijons  to  their  propoMd  system  are  ani 
the  operalion  of  the  Australiaa  syMam  l« 
described ;  ami  tlie  tPXt  of  the  MssasdtB* 
setts  httUouvform  srt  and  th«  X*»«  Todt 
Sastou  bill  are 
this  sericrt  In  ? ' 
tic*,  by  Off;''  '■•■  I 
lug  and  olanpiiij;;  [<"«'  ■ 
anil  with  tbff  efforts  of  vinous  fonui  t9  n* 
strain  It,  t*u----  »t-^A»  "n.l 
ysceof  tl) 

the  adrocat-       .i       i 
o«nse,and  of  tho  pcti'l 
tabi 
peoul' 
Utjuor  Ui^iUatiun  'ui  u 


no  l« 
■dto* 


S67 


» 


J.  f>mU\  SO  Vcscy  Street,  Kew  York,  in  » 
ihtcl  cnlitled  /«  aB  vdl  teiih.  utf  »&• 
that  we  buve  not  politically  degen«r- 
from  any  itAodard  of  our  ancentors, 
but  ar«  (luhe  aa  puro  as  tltcy ;  and,  admit- 
Clog  th«  exi«t«DCc  and  hold  of  the  opoils  sys- 
tecQ,  malnlalna  tbat  it  i»  a  logiLimato  and 
direct  fniit  of  the  restrictions  imposed  in 
the  CunfiUtutioa  of  tbo  United  States  upon 
frecdorn  and  elasticity  of  Icjniil&tire  action, 
no  belicrea  that,  to  get  rid  of  it,  our  form 
«f  gOTemm(*nt  rouBt  be  w  modified  that  the 
will  of  the  people  may  fiad  certain  and  im* 
mediate  expression  in  lav. 

J%«  TtQcher'B  Ovilook,  edited  by  IF.  G. 
7hdJ(TicB  Moines,  Iowa),  ia  a  monthly  moga- 
itne.  di?Totod  to  general  literature,  science, 
health,  and  industrial  and  national  affairft.  Its 
peculiar  feature  ii9ascml-i*o0peratirc  plan  of 
publication,  under  which  tcitchera  arc  invited 
lobaoocM  stocklinlders  under  cvrtaia  easy 
ooodiUonB ;  when  they  arc  enrolled  on  the  Uat 
of  oontributont,  and  arc  entitled  to  flcnd  ono 
articla  each  year  for  publicalion  (if  it  bo 
foottd  auitabic),  for  which  they  rccdrc 
another  aharo  of  stock. 

T^r  Anurican  Workman^  published  for 
0.  M.  Dunhum  by  Caasclt  ft  Co.,  ia  "  an  illua- 
iraced  weekly  magaiine  of  practice  and  the- 
ory for  all  workmen,  professional  and  ama- 
i£ur.  Ita  purpose  is  to  furnish  articles,  with 
defigns,  for  rarioui  kinds  of  work,  particu- 
larly auch  aa  nn  amateur  might  incline  to 
undertake.  The  half-dozen  numbers  on  our 
table  contain,  on  their  flrat  pages,  articles 
with  views  and  diaj^ins  on  "  A  Cabinet  In 
Frct-cutllng,"  "  A  0rmwinj;-room  Orerman- 
td,"  "  A  Cheap,  Strong,  and  Tasteful  Uetbod 
of  binding  Pamphleta,  Music,  etc,**  '*  Wood- 
Carring,"  "Saw  Filing  and  Settiog,"  *•  A 
Somrner  Fttxnent  for  the  Ftreplooe/'  etc. ; 
end  the  other  pages  oro  ocenpicd  with  simi* 
lar  natter. 

In  Thf  SMy  of  WiUiam  onil  Lwy  SmUK 
by  Qrorgt  &  Marriam  (Iloughtoii, 
&  Co.),  arc  prcMnt4<d  the  Ufe  and 
tlionghtd  nf  a  literary  man  whoso  career  was 
il^Un|p]lshed  by  crctlilable  work  through 
fuftyynn,  but  who  Uid  not  acqoire  fame. 

"n  ' 

of  t 


iKmt 


Ue  be* 


came  a  contributor  to  "Blackwood's  tfago- 
sine  *'  in  1H3U,  and  was  regularly  represented 
in  its  pages — as  literary  reviewer,  and  in  ee* 
says  embodying  philosophical  thought — till 
his  death  in  1871.  His  contributions  were 
mostly  anonymoua ;  no  collection  of  his  papers 
was  made  ;  and  this  book  Is  published  to  ex- 
hibit hi?  best  work,  in  dramatic,  critical,  and 
pbiloeopbi(.'al  writings.  Ills  best  and  bciit- 
known  work  was  "  Tbomdale,  or  tlia  Con- 
flict of  Opinions,"  published  in  18fi7  ;  after 
it  wa9  "  Gravcnhurat,  or  Thoughts  on  Good 
and  Evil,"  1802.  Lucy  Smith  was  his  wife, 
and  his  mate  in  the  beat  senfle  of  the  word. 
The  book  is  divided  into  three  parts,  corer- 
ing  Mr.  Smith's  bachelor  life,  the  joint  mar- 
ried life  of  the  couple,  and  Mrs.  Smith's 
widowhood.  It  bears  the  character  of  & 
tribute  of  admiration,  as  well  as  of  literary^ 
analysis,  and  its  Interest  la  Utcrory  and  pf^j 
cfaologiooL 

PCBUCATI0S3  BECLiVKD. 

AbVtt,  riurVi  C.  Daya  Out  of  I>oora,  SsiT  < 
Turk  :  V.  Apt'lrtoo  &  Ok    Pp.  St9.    11. M). 

Aodrewi.  Ch»rl«  M.  Tho  K!t<t  Towrti  of  Coo* 
DcrttraL  nklUmimi :  Jolin*  Uouklos  Uoivvnltr, 
Pp.  ia4L    ti. 

lUlnl,  ^Mnr'pr  F.  Anntul  R«pAK  of  tba  B«f«nU 
nf  Ui«:?iDltAM>nUn  Inttltutlua, JiuiettLlVHC.  Wa*lt- 
Idkiod;  Ooremtnent  I'rlntiDfrOlDc*.    Pi>.  S7% 

B«m1Vird.  Mary  K.  Up  tad  Down  Um  Bmnka. 
IVMttin  and  M«w  Yort:  Uoafhtaa,  lllllUa  A  Co. 

The  BuKToft  Compaay.  8nn  Fraodteo.  A  Pop>a> 
lar  History  ofOalUonilA.     Pp.  ^lA. 

Bdodo.  Klchvd  a.  Eduutton  la  lb«  Ualtod 
f^tavi.  K«w  York:  D.  Apploloa  A  Co.  Pp.  101. 
«I.BO. 

Biirroiicha.Jotin.  Ind<yr  Btudlri.  BovtonanA 
Now  York:    Hoocbtoa,   Mtfflln  &  Co.     Pa  ttCI 

CaroM,  I>r.  P»a!.    FnndMnetiUl  Tr. 
Mrtbol  of  Pbtloaoptty  ai  a  Svtt^niiiti<  i 

of  Knowlcdn.    Oilcuo:   Opea  CuurL    i  .  g 

Compttoy.    Pp.  90T.    |l. 

Osrk  rnlTcnlty.  Wocvicater,  Msf a  Flnt  OttoUlJ 
AnaonsoenKmc.    Pp.  St. 

C-ooper  Pntnn  fyr  the  Admnmnrnt  ot 
and  Art.    TbtrU«tb  AooiuU  BAporC    Pp.  OX. 

Copfx  E.  D.  Ths  D«sc«ot  of  Maa.  Boctoo :  Th«l 
}7«w  MmI  rubllihlDC  Oaapaor.    Pp.10,    lu  wnU 

Omnfttlon.  0|tlnlon«  «o.  Vtfw  York:  FuIImI 
States  CrfniitloD  CompADj'  (limited).    Pp.  tb. 

Cron,  Jftmc«.  BU'llsr  Evvlatlon  ud  lu  k«UUooi 
tn  G(>i>Iorlrnl  Time.  T7cw  Yi^k  :  t>.  ApptoCuo  A 
Co.    fV-  II'-     •'■ 

Curtti,  Opnrirc  WllUnn.      Addirw  prwpuwl 
lJif«  Annual  MrMitlni;  .if  t))r  ?Ji?w  York  Cwfj  Srnlra 
Kpforui  AMOclalkio.  M*y  I.  Ih-*).    N<-w  Ywk:  Qrtl 
?5.'rfW  r.rf"nn  .\«s"f-t,iT|i.n.     7\,.  lb. 

'    iifwrnjihlp.  DfTnlop* 
I    rift  be  OoDDM^ttral 

fc  ..lifl.      1  p.  id,  Wl''' 
-"  Nf.     Ftvt>ort  no  m 
I   ....     .,t   nirtrVt.   N.  W.  T..  i.....-..i^.-..fc 

aiuniMrn  I'onlao  of  Urttlah  CotutntiU,  iiah    koD»»] 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY 


» 


Tf<a1 ;  t>av»ftn  BrottMi*.    Fp.  KS,  wUb  PUt«»  ud 

K«xU>a^  Hubert  Q_  U.  D.  Brotatlon  ofthf  Ulnd 
Bofiiua:  New  idoal  PublUhluff  Compaa/.  Fjk  M. 
IOmdU. 

Qrovty,  A.  W^  Aiuia«l  BaDort  of  fcb»  Chief  Sic- 
DBlOOccr  of  the  Army.lSBH.  VVMl»n|[ton:  Uovani- 
ment  PrloUng-Offloe.    Vp.  \\% 

Orlni««,  J.  duality.  CootKimy:  CraaUon  of  Ui» 
Cwitliii'Dtjt  hjr  the  ijcjcma  Cum^otK;— uid  Ki>anif>- 
eonilft :  I'hc  (irowtb  of  WorhU  ftod  tbo  CtoBOA  cif 
tiraviuti>m.  I'Lllvlctjihkft:  J.  fi,  Llp[4iicott  Cam- 
I>«ny.     Pp.  18S.     C*>  wuuk 

OroC.  Gcorpr,   and   Siytir,   C'oonl.      Tb«   Two 

Urait  UvtrenU  of  Illxturjr  (of  Uio  Tco  Tb<>asu(l ; 

and  Nap->lei>ira  frrm  Moscow).     Witli  IltU'i.MJaoU»o 

Id  Noun  br  D.  H.  M.    Uwtou  :  UiuQ  A  Cu.    Fp. 

1&.    CO  wuu. 

Oro»o,  Sir  n«orf  o.  A  DlcMrtoary  of  Mii»k  •nd 
Vn<>triuii.  AppoDilix.  LoD(li>a  aoU  ^«w  Vork: 
M*<'i>iillui  A  Co.    Pp.31&.    t^,;^ 

lUfirKoni.  H.  C  azt'l  IlelM,  P*aL  Rattdy  Lbti 
nfTiM-haluklLttcrmtant.  Ptft  L  Pp.  99.  |l.  ViWix 
Ktj.    Pp.  19.    U  cenU. 

IlxD'lersoii.J.T^CotiimlaaktDor  nf  Anleuttura. 
Cto\>  U«port,  Ocorgik,  Junv.    AUmou.     Pf.  18. 

Hilt.  C  T.,  AiuUik.  A  PorUun  of  tbe  rKwiloflml 
Story  of  Lb«  Colondo  BlverofTeuu.     Pp.  Itt. 

llflt.  IIonrT.  &  ('o_  Boriplf^mtMituT  EUuaitluiiftl 
CatAlu«uc.     X»w  Yurk.     I^  23. 

Qume  Rak  und  FedcratlotL    Loodon:  E.1Vti»- 

iPTfc   p^^4.  it/. 

nUnnls  TTnl*(»ralty  of.  Ap^cnltanl  ExpertmeDt 
Btfttlon.    BuJIbUdNo.  A.     Pp.'i!4. 

InilUDS  TTDlforsI^,  Blo»niiiiitt<>D,  Pftvld  Stur 
JonlBD.  Preildont.  AtiDiial  Cat^o^e  for  Xh*  6«r- 
«ui>flfth  CoU««s  Tiur.     lVi9.     Pp.  i>S. 

|nwa  Aprlcoltiml  t'oUi!c«,  Esperlmeitt  8t&tIoiL 
BullutiD  Noil.  8,  i,  »Dd  S.    Pp.  ISO. 

.lirkiK>nTil)i»,  Fla.,  SultaiT  ANOcbUon  BepOTt 
of  tba  Kpfdauilc  at  IS^     l*p.  aOOi 

June^.  Urab  rtcnoD,  Clodniutt.  Bltjgnpbj. 
Pp,  7,  with  PwmUt. 

Kanua  BUU  AjrHraltoral  CoU««e.£.M.8bcltoiL 
Bopurt  orKxperliDLnt  la  ing'fvaillttg.     l*p.  IV. 

Lti-wmnn,  W.  E.,  U.  fl.  A.  Ctn8!riflcftU<m  uf  Om» 
Atomic  Wel^-hU  In  Two  AKouOln^*  Sirlw*.     Pp.  IS. 

Loowy,  Den)an<lQ.  A  Grwluatctl  OoarM  of 
Natural  8cleoM.  Loodon  and  Ni!W  Vork:  Mac- 
■allUa  &  Co.    Pp,  ISL    00  oents. 

5Uc1o«kla,  fVof.  O.,  Pi4nr«toti  ColI«e*.  Tb* 
Polaoli  A]ifMratRii  of  the  UutMiilto,  Pp.  6  — Amnfc*- 
OMil  Of  Aoalytteal  Kayt.  Pii.  &— Ccwuwsatou  to 
BelMoe.    Pp.  0. 

Ma—Aaaatta  Rtata  Arrieiiltaral  Expertnicat 
Station.    BoUetln  Na  S4.     Pp.  ]S. 

HeiTluB,  Florcoeeu  Birds  throoyb  an  Oi>#r»- 
GWa.  BoitoD  and  Now  Turk:  Uoojibton,  MUSiU 
ACo.     Pp,  ns.    TOcwita. 

MlJlt,T.W«i]eT.lLD„MocitrA^:  r(y> 

of  tlie  Mcrvooa  firvtam  od  OvII  .— 

Pbyniotoirlcal  and  nubologtoal  Brvr  l^V 

Moonoy.  Janna,  Waablofton.  1>.  C-  Folk-Lors 
of  ib«  C^tfotliia  Monnialn*.    Pp.  10.— Tho  Uotldar 

O-"' «/    I...Ur..l  1'..     M> 

-ITTTPT,  Atiftual  B* 

«j,  iroook. 

|r(.|.:i^..fi  I,  ri.,'%.     11.,  -J. 
Kww  Tnrk  Btaio  Bnvd  of  Cb&rltlM.     Thtrty- 
oad  Aiinuil  It.'twrt,  I'T-^S.    Pi',  'l*  -^,  M-iih  Platae. 
Nii>  'la  tJ»it»- 

iti'l>--  -.liaTbar*- 

8d. 
'<r  Uffbt- 

fka  by   1^, 

Tlia 
M.rMte»- 


port  of  thi)  Bf!- 


inn  II,   1  ■ 


(.•uDiary,     Ala^ 

N  T.    Utr»' 

1*.     I>M. 

f  M>-  rikull  to 


8»wyrr,  R«?T.   1..  '' 
dUctloQ  to  ft  New  UiU 

ttimfoint.  n.  w.    1 

Nw>tDtua  Fukclpca.     1 

t^rf,  T.  J.J.,  rnlwi...;^  ■'.    .^u*..uL     Orl(lJl  of 
Bloaf?  ^tort.    Pp.  Ti. 


iny.  Boatoft.    UMt  M 
l.y   U.  a     S>  tt-    SO 


BriK* 


teW«Y« 


Tbr. 
U)o  PftU^. 

COIlll. 

Tboaaa.  CVma.  Tlia  Problam  of  tlM  0M» 
Mocmda^  WaahLartOD :  UoTCrauMBl  Prtallng-*Oflaa 
Pp.  M. 

Tborna.  Juan  U^  Dlrvctrir.  Cnrdoba.  tt«0illaAo« 
d«t  ObMrrttlorio  Kaclooal  Afv«utUio.  Vol.  X  1^- 
Pp.  2OT. 

T.v|d.  J.  B..  M.  D,  Atlanta,  0*.  ll«tWftt  ib4 
LbDi^iTtiy.    Pp  10. 

TTlah,  Adnilutnn  of.  Report  of  tlia  OictmiHI** 
on  Tcrnu>rlc«.  JJ.  It  Vr'aahlmxoo  i  Otfvacmttaak 
PrliiUnrOffloe.    Pp  111. 

WarbatDtilh.  Cbarlca.  and  9pK»c«r.  Fmkk.  R^ 
pen  uB  O-tookU    Pp.  H  wltb  PUIm. 

WallacHk  Alft<r4  Btiiaal.  ParwiRiimi :  Ai  Sx- 
pnaltloa  nt  ihe  Tbfory  of  5«turaJ  8vl.»<^.ii.  w«Ji 
axiDu  of  It*  AppllcatluUK.  Ijniidttp  aiul  Mew  Tock; 
UacmtlUi)  A  c'a     Pp  4»l.    $1,T& 

Wajbbum  Cnlip^  L*hnf«tnry  of  Kkinml  niitorf 
nuDuitiL  TupcLa,  Kuami  ¥.  W.  Cmelo.  Ldlb& 
Pp.  )ci. 

VTMfo.  C  P.  rarb<irtlf>fODi  OltciMkn  In  tk* 
BoQtberu  uid  ICaaiors  Hoiulapbur*^  otb    P|tb  tt. 

TVm "■'   *    A    A  Co.  »  WaLttman**  JtWvttJ.* 

Oirrfii'  Itoofci.    tWmt-moaiUy.     r> 

Vo<xn<tnr<i.  (_  M.  Tb*  lhb>llr«c>iat  Tahm  «l 
Manukl  TraUittitf.    Sww  York  :  tUtuiMua&Cw.    Pu. 

■•^'-',«. 


I 


.<iti<^(] 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 

port  oC  the  Committee  of  AmeTlaui  M«ls- 
rati^ia^  vD  a  M:bcuie  ut  iiisuuctiua  In  ofttartl 
sdcncc  to  be  recomnianiliHl  to  lb«  ■rhoah, 
odrlAcB  that  InalnwtSoo  ahoult)  bcgib  fin  th« 
I  i<<primAr7»c!iMl^uutee^ 

[.  '  wlmle  <v)qntt.    It  tkmld 

tra  cbivll/  >  In  lh«   \omm% 

gndctsbut-  »utn«lkla(be 

kta;h  ftcboQl* ;  end  an  okmaotarj.  taai  gm* 

Inn  And    hrHL-Lteal.  aisiiiaIuiMiiOi>  Vf\\)^  •iiiv  <tr 

more 

iw  rcijiiii 'Hi  i "I 

ntftlo  port  oi  tb<- 


glTca  Id  thti  loivcir  *« 


POPULAR  MISCELLAXT. 


569 


ft 


I 

I 


plftnu  and  animflls;  the  botonlcft]  instrue- 
tiou  bOfputdng  «rith  tuch  oxerdsM  u  ilraw- 
ibg  anil  doflcribfug  varioaa  foraid  of  Icarc% 
aiwl  adranelog  to  flowers  of  gradually  in- 
creasing  dlfficultjr.  In  zoulo}^*,  the  moat  fa- 
mUiar  aatnuls,  and  those  whicb  the  pupils 
aUre,  ahould  be  studied  first,  thcD 
th<  ooounon,  and  final  I7  the  more  obscure 
fiirtua.  The  collection  of  ^cdraens  should 
vactmraged,  aud  tho  upecimeiu  abould  be 
ilie  subject  of  object-lewoiu.  Homan 
^Taiology  and  hygiene  being  of  immense 
liraclical  importance,  their  rudiments  ahould 
be  tougbl  in  iho  grommsr  and  even  tho  pri- 
raarj  aohools.  Rudimentary  coursej  fn  pbjs- 
ka  and  aatronomj  ahould  be  introduced  io 
the  higheal  grades  of  the  grammar  school. 
PhjraicA)  geography,  phu-nogamic  botany,  and 
human  physiology  should  Iw  includMl  in  the 
chwiml  courses  hx  the  high  school,  and  re- 
quired for  admission  to  college. 

The  SiB-DtDM  of  the  BlacU^t«^n)e 

moat  tiuporlant  nucrud  festival  uf  ibe  Black- 
fvet  Indians  is  the  sun-dance,  which  is  called 
also  by  the  whites  the  mvdiclniMlance.  Tliu 
tradition  mns  that  it  orjgimtted  in  the  thank- 
offering  of  a  woman  for  (he  recovery  of  her 
sick  child  ;  accordingly,  it  is  usuaUy  initilutcd 
by  a  woman  who  has  come  successfully  out 
of  some  trial.  It  is  generally  held  when 
the  wiU  fruit  la  ripe,  hi  July  or  August,  in 
4  lodge  especially  constructed  for  it,  and 
may  oonttnuo  for  »eren  days.  The  cere- 
monies hare  been  dcMribcd  by  the  Ker. 
John  McLean,  who  wiuie^so<l  them  at  the 
Blood  ludian  camp  in  Albcrla  Tcrritorr, 
Cftowb.  The  aacrod  &iv  was  banUng  In  the 
ssni-lodge,  and  waa  used  by  tho  people  for 
lighting  thuir  ptfiea.  The  fuel  was  supplied 
«xolui>)Tely  by  young  men  who  had  performed 
some  Taloroua  deed,  such  as  stealing  horses 
from  A  hostile  tribe,  and  thought  the  duty 
an  bonorablc  oql'.  Two  bundles  of  birch- 
wood  brush  were  placed  in  tho  form  of  a 
croai  oa  the  saored  pole.  A  bower  of  brush- 
wood by  the  side  of  the  Imlgo  w»s  occupied 
by  lito  woman  who  had  instituted  the  cere- 
mony, hor  bnsbantl,  and  a  mcd) cine-matt, 
and  prwiiic.  Pnycre  were  offered 
tl  Urainallc  rt'prc- 

WWKA  were  given, 
ast'l  '^ntcd  repreaentations 

•^  -ere  socceedod  by 


feasu  of  berries  cooked  hi  fat,  snu^king,  and 
conrcrsallun.  A  young  man  who  hoil  been 
Buccessful  in  a  horse-stealing  expedition  1 
up,  in  fulfilment  of  a  tow,  to  make  himself 
ftacrificc  to  the  god.  An  old  medicine-woman 
cut  off  one  of  his  fingers,  held  ll  up  to  tbu 
aun,  and  dedicated  it  to  him.  Two 
men  presented  themselves  to  be  oonsooi 
for  admission  to  the  noble  hand  of  warriora. 
One  of  them  stretched  himself  upon  a  blanket 
on  the  ground.  An  old  man  made  a  fpceeh 
over  him  relating  his  brave  ducdp,  each 
dent  of  which  was  received  with  applai 
and  music.  Then  four  men  held  bim  white 
a  fifth  made  inciMons  in  his  breast  and  back. 
Wooden  skewcra  were  Inserted  in  tlic  brf 
Incisions,  and  connected  by  lariats  wlih  ll 
sacred  pole,  while  nn  Indian  drum  was  fnst^l 
ened  to  the  skewer  in  the  buck.  *'Th«" 
yonng  man  went  op  to  the  eacrcd  pole,  and 
while  his  countenance  was  exceedingly  palo 
and  his  frame  trvmbliiiK  with  emotion, 
threw  his  arms  around  it  and  prayed  earnest- 
ly for  strength  to  pass  Buoceasfully  through 
tho  trying  ordejil.  His  pmycr  ended,  ho 
moved  backward  until  the  flosh  waa  fully 
extended,  and,  placing  a  small  bone  whistle 
in  his  mouth,  bo  blew  continuously  upon  It 
a  series  of  short,  sharp  pounds,  while  he 
threw  himMlf  backwanl  and  danced  until 
the  flesh  gave  way  and  ho  fell.  Previous  to 
his  tearing  himself  free  from  the  larlatit,  ho 
seized  the  drum  with  both  bandi*,  and  with 
a  sudden  putl  tore  the  fiesh  on  his  back, 
dashiog  the  drum  to  the  ground  amid  tlte 
applause  of  the  people.  A&  he  lay  on  tho 
ground,  the  operators  eiamined  ht-t  wounds, 
ctrt  off  the  flesh  that  wa.-*  han^ng  Icuscly^i 
and  ihc  ceremony  was  at  an  end." 

The  Selkirk  HoiaUlnA  and  their  Clft- 
clers« — The  Selkirk  Mountains  are  situated 
in  the  southern  part  of   British  Columbia, 
we9t  of  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mount* 
oins,  vriihin  the  great  bend  of  the  Columbia, 
and   are   crossed  by  the   Canadt&n   Pacific 
Railway  at  the  height  of  4,31S  feet  above) 
the  sea.    As   seen  from  the  ColnmbU  be«- 
tween  the  two  ranges,  they  rise  In  irentlo 
flIo[>05  and  tiers  of  foot-hills  richly  dad  In 
pine  forest,  and  cleft  by  far-reaching  valleySf 
while  the  Rockies,  on  (be  other  side  of  the 
olwwTcr,  tower   up   "  from  almost  barmtj 
benches  of  white  silt,  with  a  sparse  eprinb 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCS  MOXTELY. 


ling  of  DoQglas  fin,  in  greiU  bare  prcci- 
piccfl  of  pinklsb-whito  Uiacstone  to  nig}^ 
noaotftla  fonn*  at  ncca*'  Tlie  level  of 
p«rpetnal  snow  Among  them  Is  given  b^  ilic 
Rev.  W.  S.  Gr^eu,  wbo  visited  thent  to  ei- 
amiac  tbeir  glsciorSf  at  about  seven  thousand 
feet,  and  tbo  upper  Umit  of  tlie  forest  at  six 
tboosand  feet,  wbllc  the  prindpal  peaks  liM 
to  bt'tweea  ten  and  elcren  tliOTiMnd  feet. 
The  Ftarting-point  of  Mr.  Green's  escar* 
sloDS  vas  thu  Glacier  Uotel  Etalion  of  the 
nilwaT,  in  front  of  tbo  grcftt  lUcoeiraet 
GUcicT,  -1,123  feet  above  the  sea.  Seek- 
ing SOKC  commanding  point  vbcnce  a  view 
might  be  gained  of  what  laj  K'yond  the 
ujipcr  enow-field,  the  anthor  reached  a  little 
f^eiik  un  the  southern  shoulder  of  Mount  isir 
Donald,  six  hundred  feet  below  the  main 
summit  (I0,M5  feel).  Hence  "  we  bad."  be 
says,  *'  one  of  the  most  interesting  views  it 
is  po«sUi!c  to  Imagine.  Kow  for  the  Erst 
time  wo  paw  whnl  tbo  glacier  rcgiona  of  the 
^Ikirka  reallj  meant,  from  the  batu;  of  the 
pvftk  we  were  on,  the  great  snow-ficid  ex- 
tended for  over  tim  mile*.  Beyond  it  to  the 
Boiitliward,  and  owaj  In  unending  scrieo,  far 
OS  the  eye  could  reach,  ro$e  range  after 
mnge  of  snowv  j>eaka  with  gladers  in  the 
lirllows;  peaks  and  glaciers  were  simply 
innumerablo.  Looking  westward  and  north- 
ward, a  similar  prospect  presented  itself," 
Of  these  glaciers,  Mr.  Grcrn  has  mappinl  the 
Fir  Donald,  Getkle  (four  miles  long  and  one 
thotrwind  rardii  wide),  Deville,  Dawson,  Van 
Ilorue.  Aan'^kan,  and  Lily.  J^U  the  glacten 
show  eridf  noes  of  shrinking.  Measurements 
mnde  at  the  foot  of  iho  Great  lUeoewaet 
Glacier  Indicated  that  the  ice  had  moTcd 
along  twenty  feet  in  thirteen  days. 

■eatd  Pawcrs  ofCrlalnAli.—Tbe  bear- 
ingofeducationoo  the  cbnrncler and  reforma- 
tion of  cnminals  is  disi^usscd  by  Dr,  namlltoo 
1».  Way  in  a  j^ayxT  on  tlw»  phv«inil  iinl  indua- 
1  :  ublislied 

I'  'j\.   The 

tihor  as5unie9  ihnt  "  it  is  a  mistake  to  pup- 
""^se  that  the  criminal  is  naturally  bright 
Moral  failure  and  blunted  intellect,  as  a  ntle, 
py  hand  in  hand.  If  bright,  it  Is  uAially  In 
a  narrow  Unc  and  self -repeating."  The  crlm- 
InaJ's  n  '-  ■'  has  its  ori(;in  in  blunted 
or  nni.  norvoua  arean,  ami  In  In- 

tflcAUre  of    wrui.-' 1..M  I..!r.  f«.     Whutevet 


may  be  said  of  the  motives  or  InccutlWi 
that  led  to  crime,  the  fact  ivmaias  tSia( 
bead  of  the  criminal  is  wrong.  The  tfaoc 
has  gone  by  In  which  to  argua  tliat  to  ediv 
Cute  the  criminal  is  to  make  bim  a  monr  ao* 
complisbed  and  successful  semap.  **tl  l4 
through  phyeioal  and  mental  training  and 
their  composite  labor  that  the  Btainb«HAg 
germs  of  mauhood  are  fnicliSed,  maturlBK 
under  a  firm  and  unrclaxing  diwIpliMk" 
The  criminal's  mind,  **  while  not  disc«Sed,  Is 
uadereloped,  or  it  may  be  aboonaaUy  drr^ 
oped  In  certain  directions;  the  smartaMM 
resulting  therefrom  partaldng  of  low  ooiw 
uing  and  centering  about  self.  IIv  Is  drfl* 
dent  in  stability  and  will-power,  and  Inca- 
pable of  prolonged  mental  effort  and  appU* 
cation.  Ills  intellect  travels  in  a  rat,  asid 
fiUls  him  in  an  emergency.  Ula  oinrat 
nature  shares  in  the  Cmpvrfections  of  his 
phyidcal  and  mental  state."  A  training  is 
advocated  by  the  anthor  that  will  awakoi 
the  slumbering  faculties,  and  thus  aat  ih« 
mind  in  a  normu.1  condiiioo.  Tliis  DaltnBg 
had  bcjt  not  be  given  by  persons  ootnweted 
wiih  tbe  prison,  for  it  might  thereby  bt  m^ 
pleasantly  associated  with  penal  tmXatm, 
but  by  teachera  brought  in  for  the  purpoaiL 
Dr.  Way  glres  an  interesting  relation  ol  9X- 
perimcnts  whieh  he  has  made  with  prisoavrt 
in  accordance  with  these  rlewa,  th«  avenga 
results  of  which  are  rvry  encoara^ng 

Tbt  AlranttgM  «f  lumlMStT— . 

Kngliflh  writer  has  t«eent1y  foggcAed  Uma 
we  aro  wont  to  give  cxccaslra  praiar  to  4i* 
fnouUy  of  sensibility,  while  we  depr*c(al«  tos 
opposite,  or  tbe  want  of  It,  insonsibttlty;  U 
is  cle&r,  he  maintains,  that  aliDost  wvtry 
shade  of  iiuwnslblUty  has  a  side  of  adva^ 
tage  as  well  as  of  disadTantag*.  Tbe  wvrtd 
forgets  how  very  nnieb  t«Ddar  aanrtbUky 
often  Interferes  with  tbe  calm  JtidgAcat 
necessary  for  Hi:bt  net  (on  and  the  eool  pm^ 
ence  of  mtn  !  >Mntlal  to  irfl«<lH« 

execution  <*«  aay  of  the  aim 

geomor  tfaennrsa  who  is  so  scasldte  tkai 
the  sight  of  suffering  diaturfae  Che  )ad)9> 
mtnt  and  makes  ttu)  hand  tnimbis  vbee  e 

steady  hand   la  tTv"    ■- ''•>•    'a 

work.    It  is  obrio 

ofalU'^:    ■ 

C»f  ilir<  it  hi  te 

h^hest  ilcgrte  uiJv^ita^cJ>u,  If  liuC  oee^ 


I 


POPULAR  MISCELL^iXY. 


I 


I 


itory.  Tbebestnmfmlh»ca1ixicaliinnee, 
uid  tbej  Arc  veiyMUoBI  tbo  ones  vho  mf- 
fer  moct  %X  the  figbt  of  Ihctr  patkmta'  niffor- 
Iiig ;  and  '*  one  of  Uic  grriit  Adrantugefl  which 
patients  fed  on  entering  %  bospUol  ia  that 
tlieir  iittffcringH  do  not  coma  tnck  roflcct«rd 
fram  thti  fnc«fi  of  thi>eu  nround  them ;  that 
the  fLpnp»tltj  tbcjr  exdt«  \»  only  a  mild 
fijrmpAthy,  aiul  not  one  which  heightens  their 
own  pain,  ,  .  .  Ufirdly  a  soflerer  cxjsla  who 
ifl  not  the  bctver  initcad  of  tbo  worae  for 
socing  that  thtvsc  amund  him  are  not  over- 
wbehntnl  by  Us  BafTcrlngB— tlut,  fo  for  ej 
he  can  go  out  of  hiiuitclf  at  all,  ha  may  ^t 
a  Uttic  rvlicf  by  eatoriog  into  the  leea  OTiT- 
fha<]owcd  llnca  around  him,  and  tabling  In* 
directly  anoihorV  enjoyment^.'* 

A  Theory  vf  Tolrjiile  irtlont— Mr.  J. 

Lo;;an  LobU-y  pxplnincd  in  tho  Itritisb  As- 
aodation  ta.'^t  year  a  theory  of  the  causes  of 
rolcauip  action  which  ho  bad  rcachcit  while 
kccpbg  In  view  forty-two  leading  and  con- 
trolling factA.  nis  conclusions  are,  that  the 
primary  cau«e  of  tlie  formation  of  lava  is 
the  inttfmal  beat  of  the  globe  toducing  cbcm- 
IoaI  aotbn  in  aubtcrranean  regions  when  the 
malfrishi  and  conditions  are  l»oth  farorabte ; 
thatiince  the  fu*ion-point  of  solidj  is  raised 
by  cxtrvme  pressure,  Iha  conditions  for  chem- 
ical action  may  be  changed  by  the  removal 
of  T?rUeaI  pressure  or  ita  relief  by  lateral  or 
tiLDgential  pressure ;  that  certain  substances 
arc  fusible  ut  low  or  uiodcratc  temperatures, 
and  that  ihm  at  very  modcraie  depths  chem- 
ical action  tuny  bo  locally  citmmcooed  that 
will  extend  until  sufficient  heul  ia  prodoood 
Co  affeot  rock-fusion;  that  the  cause  of  tb« 
ejection  of  lava  l!rom  its  source,  and  of  its 
rl»«  in  the  vutcanic  tube,  is  the  increa^  of 
consequent  upon  the  change  from  the 
to  the  tluid  ataCe.  aided  by  the  fonna> 
Hod  of  potentially  piseous  compounds  by 
clkemlcal  reactions  among  the  urt;pnal  xjvxUs 
rials  of  the  ma;;rma;  that  the  a^ent  of  the 
lava  in  the  vulcanic  tube  may  be  affected  by 
iba  weight  of  the  atmosphere  and  by  lunar 
attradiTe  ioQuunce ;  that  the  cxplvaiTe  elTectd 
of  voloonic  eruptions  are  altogether  second- 
ary, and  are  due  to  the  acoe»  of  sea  and 
land  water  to  fissures,  by  peroolallon  through 
cool  roidca,  up  which  lara  is  ascending;  that 
thit  vuer,  when  ooDTcrted  into  stoam,  open% 
bgr  Ua  •spanalva  power,  rcou  Uiat  admit 


large  flows  of  sefr-watcr  to  the  Iato,  oceosiox 
ing  the  formation  of  vents  and  the  gre4)l 
explosive  phenomena  of  eruptions.  The  for- 
niatitin  of  the  actual  sarfaco  rolcano  aiuV, 
the  determination  of  its  position  are  thei 
furs  due  to  the  sea,  near  wiiich  rutconorff 
are  almost  always  situated,  EmlssioQB  of 
lova  without  cxplouTc  effects  are  from  roU 
canio  tubes  to  which  large  flows  of  water 
have  not  obtained  odmittancQ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  purely  explos'tve  eruptions,  with- 
out lava-llow!),  are  caused  by  water  reaching 
lava  which  foila  to  rise  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

Firf-preof  BonsM  In  BifDM  iyrefl,— 
They  build  tlrc-proof  houses  in  Buenos  Ayrea 
aud  Montevideo  without  thinking  of  it,  and 
while  using  all  the  wood  tbcy  can  afford  lo ; 
and  they  use  neither  iron  nor  the  arch.  Trees 
are  9oareo  In  the  neighborhood,  and  timber 
has  to  be  brought  down  from  the  upper 
waters  In  hard  woods.  Being  dear,  a  little 
of  it  is  made  to  go  as  f or  aa  paaalble»  The 
floors  and  the  loofs  axe  supported  by  Joists 
of  hard  wood,  as  among  us ;  aorosa  these  are 
laid  flat  rails  of  the  same,  and  the  ffpacea 
between  those  arc  bridged  over  by  thin 
bricks  tbirtoeo  Inches  aud  a  Imlf  long,  with 
their  ends  resting  on  the  rails;  another  layer 
of  bricks  ia  then  laid  with  lime,  and  gener- 
ally on  this  a  layer  of  flat  Ulos.  Tl>e  doors 
and  windows  havo  no  boxes,  but  nlmply 
frames,  which  are  set  up  when  the  walls  are 
going  up,  and  buili  in.  There  ia  no  lathing, 
or  waiutcot,  or  skirling  of  the  bottom  of  the 
walls.    A  house  thus  built  can  not  be  burned. 

G1u»-BlowlBg  by  SachiBeiT«~A  tystem 

for  glasa-blow^ing  by  machinery,  under  which 
mouth-blowing  ia  dispensed  with,  has  been 
deii^cd  by  Mr.  Howard  31.  Ashley.  In  the 
machine,  the  molten  metal  b  dcliveretl  into 
a  reeeptiiclti  cnlted  a  paruon,  which  holila 
just  enough  metal  to  form  a  bottle.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  recqitacle  is  a  collar  mold, 
which  forms  the  ring  arcmnd  the  mouth. 
The  central  portion  of  the  mold — which  may 
be  described  as  a  punch  within  a  punch, 
from  the  method  in  which  it  works  up 
the  molten  glass  to  make  the  collar — is  hi 
low,  and  is  connected  with  a  reservoir 
comprcaaed  air.  After  the  collar  is  molded, 
the  Du>ld  ia  turned  apalile  down^  a  Uttlo  air 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


I 


b 


being  at  tbc  sanic  tiruo  fltlmitt«d.  The  met- 
ftl  begins  to  elongate  pradually  by  gravity, 
and  It^fallif  rcgutativl.  When  i(  has  attained 
the  required  Icn^rth,  the  bloom  is  iac1o»ed 
within  tbt-  two  halves  of  the  mohl,  and  tbo 
bottou)  of  the  mold  is  aleo  plac«d  la  posi- 
tion. At  tho  ennie  nionieat  the  air  la  fully 
tnmfd  on,  and  tbc  bottle  1a  blovm  out  to  the 
fall  shape  of  the  mold.  The  result  in  a  cono- 
pictc  buttle  of  the  same  thlcknesa  of  gloss 
throughout,  and  of  perfect  form  and  aecu* 
mcy  la  every  part,  A  pair  of  thcso  ma- 
clunos,  with  one  youth  and  three  hc>y^  to 
MTve  them,  arc  oompeleot  to  turn  out  an 
average  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  bottles 
per  minute  per  umchine.  The  capidty  of 
the  8T>tem  ia  j^rcaily  increased  In  the  rcpeat- 
Inp-machinc,  which  is  quoiirupled^  and  oper- 
ates in  a  ooniinnous  cycle,  as  follows :  while 
tbc  fir$t  bottle  in  being  automatically  ditu 
char^ed,  the  second  botlle  is  bein;;  6nUhcd, 
the  Uiird  one  ia  being  punched,  and  tbc 
fonrtii  is  beinp  cast — that  is,  the  niptal  ia  be- 
ing filled  into  the  mold  by  the  "gatherer," 
or  oerrer  of  molten  metal 

Do  Sijnlrrfls  play  'Pqs^ob  t — In  a  paper 
on  ttie  intelligv'acc  of  equirrels,  with  special 
reference  to  feigning,  ooromnnloated  to  the 
£oyal  j^ciety  of  Canada,  Dr.  T.  Wesley 
'.miU  givcfl  two  casea  of  the  behavior  called 
f>%nillE.  by  otUokarrcs  or  red  squirrvls.  and 
dMn  prooeeds  to  di«ca»a  several  views  ad* 
vanced  In  ciptauation  of  this  habit.  Feign- 
ing death  ho*  btvn  otisenred  in  many  differ- 
ent genera  of  in^ectd,  in  anakea,  fiabes,  nn- 
tnorous  birds,  cntstac-anA,  and  several  mam* 
loals.  In  tlio  caw  of  iu!«ect8,  Preycr  would 
aHCribe  the  S4M-alled  sbamming  death  wholly 
to  cataplexy  (hypnotism),  which  Pr.  Mills 
^cexa%  highly  probable.  Ooucb  would  ex* 
plain  ccrtaJa  behavior  of  wolves,  foxo5,aitd 
some  other  animals,  usually  set  down  to  de- 
liberate fetgutug,  aImj  by  an  elTeot  analogous 
to  cntnplny.  tie  thinks  their  icnscs  are 
atupcfled  by  surprise,  terror,  etc.,  *o  that  tfaoy 
are  unable  to  «icape.  Dr.  Clarke  adds  lo 
this  «'splnnnltou  tht«  idea  that  the  fiuiot  ^f 
animals  when  rrMrainc<I,  in  many  caaea  Is 
due  to  an  Intelligent  perception  that  ctragglo 
la  UBclesa.  Or.  Milla  la  convinced  that  Ro- 
nirtr..-  u,  fi-^isAing  this  8ubj»ci  has  impori- 
<-''  into  ll  ttlikh  ar«  not  la  the 

iwt:irc  oi  liiQ  caM  prcpeou    FInt,  la  It  at  all 


osscntial  to  '  r  HeaOh  or  fal> 

jury  that  nnu.  ,  as  Bomanai 

sappose4,  the  nbntnici  itlrx  i*{  d«ftth  at  all  t 
It  ia  to  t>e  remctnbonyl  Uial  in  tbvM  ea«sa 
tho  animal  aimply  remainji  nA  quiet  ami  *• 
passive  aa  possible,  which  is  In  a«oord  witb 
all  on  ammal*a  experteuceti  aa  U»  Citcap*  from 
daogcr  by  any  form  of  ooDwalmenL  A 
great  part  of  the  whole  difficulty  lias  prob*' 
biy  arisen  from  the  osc  of  tbc  cxprasdan 
**  felling  death.**  What  la  aaaqined  ia  t»* 
activity  and  passivity,  more  or  Icse  oomplftci 
This,  of  course,  bears  a  certain  degrve  of 
roMoiblanoe  to  death  Itxelf,  Xo  regard  to 
tlw  behavior  of  his  tvd  »iuirrels,  Dr.  Uitt«  U 
inclined  to  think  that  "  by  inherited  tiwtinet, 
as  well  as  by  all  those  life  cipcriencea  irhleii 
had  taught  ibcm  that  quiet  and  oooooalxnent 
of  their  usoal  activltiea  wen^  aaaoclal«iJ  «Ub 
escape  from  threat<Mied  evils,  tliOM  Uttk 
animals  wcm  naturally  led,  aadi*r  tba  lo^ 
wonted  circiimfltancea  of  their  oonflnOBMl, 
to  diiigui^e  in  an  extraordlDary  degree  t^ktCr 
real  condition,  and  creri  to  Imitate  an  am- 
aual  and  unreal  one."  ITe  baa  reaaon  to  b^ 
lieve  abo  that  the  hypnotic  element  may  play 
a  part  In  the  apparent  feigninc  of  death  by 
sqnirrclii.  "  It  thus  becorace  manifest,**  bt 
continues,  *'  how  varied  and  aUo  bow^otapUs 
these  cases  of  scy-callcd  feigning  may  W. 
The  subject  is  all  the  more  InKreftln^  t^ 
canae  it  ahowa  that  there  if<  '  '  i  la 
common  in  the  psychic  life  of  '  ^ 

and  that  of  the  lower  antmala.  It  plaoea 
the  study  of  their  hnbtts  and  intclligoioe  oa 
a  higher  plane,  and  famidica  new  motiraa 
for  extending  our  inqnirlea  and  attempting 
to  give  unity  to  our  coD(.¥|>tioo  of  ttttart  Id 
this  aa  In  other  domalua,** 

Tb«  BroBU  Bi4dka  tf  Sara^— Th*  ot4 
hronac  Images  in  Japan  are  r«markable  aQkfl 
for  thrir  ennrmouA  proportioba,  the  method 
of  their  construction,  and  the  eioclleot  efaaro 
actcr  of  tho  alloy  oompoalng  them.  Tho 
largust  and  moat  reinarkabla  of  tbmi  la  at 
Nora,  some  mtM  eastward  of  Kioto.  *hkft 
wa«  erected  aUrtit  a.  h,  1100.  It  la  Iftj- 
three  feet  six  iocbes  high  and  mote  Ihaa 
twenty-eight  feet  broad  acrooa  ttw  i^Mil- 
den.    On  Ita  heatl  arc  004)  ntrla ;  a&d  tUa 

]n>><-r.<  !a    •...,^»>.,n.t...)    1..   .  .-).,«.  ....    >■  ,' 

t    , 


4 


POPULAR  UISCELLANT, 


573 


I 
I 

I 

ft 

ft 

ft 

ft 

I 


emcU  tweutj-fire  feet  high, 
in  front  of  the  larger  otic.  Tlic  toiaj 
weight  tif  meUl  in  the  luaiD  fi^re  is  about 
460  tona,  and  ihis  la  snid  to  coosbt  of  gold, 
(00  poandB;  tin,  16,2S7  poandfl;  morcurj, 
1,934  poundA;  and  copper,  986,080  poundfl. 
Tbo  Urgu  images  are  not  cast  in  single  picoes, 
but  are  built  up  of  Dumerous  suuill  pieces  of 
irrvgular  uhipe,  wbicli  are  oementcd  togeth- 
er by  a  subitaoce  of  nuknoim  composiiion, 
that  takes  on  the  same  tamUfa  as  the  bronze. 

Forestry  la  the  Capr  Coloor* — No  caro 
was  token  of  the  forests  of  the  Capo  Colony 
until  1880,  when  many  valuable  tractti  had 
been  nearlr  de«troye<l.  Hcasiirca  were  lakea 
io  that  year  for  their  futuro  prvservaiion, 
and  the  Count  de  Vaeielot,  who  had  had  a 
large  expericnoe  in  French  forestry,  was  ap- 
pointed forest  enpertntendcnt.  lie  divided 
the  forcstB  into  districts  and  these  into  eec- 
tions,  in  nbicb  the  foiling  should  proceed  no 
tliat  the  regrowth  of  the  first  section  should 
bo  given  time  to  develop  Into  UiBture  iret's 
before  the  axe  should  be  utsed  thcro  again. 
Ity  thii  eyateiit  the  uutiru  shutting  up  of  any 
forest  for  •  timo  id  dani?  nway  with.  The 
period  for  the  "  revolution "  of  felUng  is 
fixed  at  forty  years.  The  forests  severally  arc 
watohed  over  by  a  Ataff  of  foresters  and  in* 
Bpeotoro,  under  whose  supcrvleion  all  cutllug 
goes  on,  and  wbo  attend  to  the  raising  and 
planting  of  young  ikcs.  Tho  Government 
bos  estabUdhed  large  tracts  of  plonlaltoufl 
aod  nurwrlea  from  which  the  forests  and 
private  holders  arc  supplied ;  has  begun  a 
reafTorestatlon  of  Table  Mountain ;  and  has 
Instilutetl  an  '*  arbor  day,"  which  is  observed 
with  great  enihusiaam. 

n»  *'BeapB  if  Jajf^^ofSilnUPUoir- 
Toorista  have  often  Dolicod  little  heaps  of 
BtODOB  on  the  higher  peaks  of  Mont  Sainte- 
Itaome,  rrorence.  They  are  called  caaittiets^ 
or  ttltte  cafitles,  and  are  cither  composed  of 
several  stones  forming  a  Mrt  of  mde  pyramid, 
or  of  one  large  stone  inserted  in  a  fl^snrc  of 
ihc  rocky  soil.  They  are  most  (roqucnt  in  the 
ririnlty  of  tho  Oratory  of  i^int-Pilon,  where 
they  are  found  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  one 
thoosatul  feet.  Dr.  B.  F^raud  has  learned 
ttiat  they  are  al«o  locally  called  mouioriM  <U 
Joytihtxn*  of  Joy),  oud  itiai,  bcfrides  being 
Uit«li(Io(l  to  testify  to  the  sucoesafuj  ascent  of 


pilgrims  to  the  Sttmmit  of  Saint'Pilon,  they 
wcra  fre(|i)cnlly  designed  to  propluaic  &L 
Uugdalen,  to  whom  prayers  are  made  on  the 
spot  for  approval  of  tlie  special  raoidca 
whom  the  worsliipcr  may  desire  to  marry^ 
In  the  latter  case  the  mound  Is  visited  hf 
the  builder  at  the  end  of  a  year,  and  if  he 
finds  the  stonca  ondhturbcd,  he  cou£idera 
that  the  saiot  approves  of  his  choice ;  but  If 
the  heap  is  brokeu  up,  it  ia  generally  regard- 
ed as  a  decisive  barrier  against  tbo  intended 
marriage.  In  this  supcntilion  Dr.  F^raud 
•eea  a  survival  of  the  ancient  u^oge  of  erect- 
ing stone  monomcntdf  audi  as  altars,  pil 
meuhin",  etc.,  to  oommetnorate  some  Inij 
tant  personal  event. 

Slgt-lUk  In  Xev  G«lnea.~An  cxplora. 
tlon  was  made  some  months  ago  by  Mr. 
Theodore  F.  Bcvan  of  the  Philp  and  Quccn*a 
Jubilee  Rivers,  hitherto  unknown  ofBuouia 
of  the  Gulf  of  Papua,  in  southern  Kew 
Ouineo.  lu  the  course  of  his  voyages  the 
traveler  met  several  bauds  of  natires  who 
had  apparently  never  before  seen  white  men, 
iutcrcotirec  witli  whom  brought  out  somu  oii- 
rioDB  cliaracleririticd  anil  capacities  of  Uio 
sign -language.  At  Attack  Point,  on  the 
Aird  River,  the  progress  of  the  party  was 
opposed  by  some  sixty  nude  Papuans,  wlio, 
after  a  little  hesitation,  Iwre  down  upon  them, 
*'  alternately  eplaahing  the  water  into  the 
and  bf'aling  time  with  their  paddles 
the  sides  of  thdr  canoea,  also  shooting 
leva  of  arrows  at  us.  .  .  .  Thla  attodt  wi 
decided  hi  our  favor,  without  any  bloodsht 
by  a  judicious  use  of  the  ntcam-whi^tle 
a  few  iihota  fln-d  wide  and  high."  The 
ages  wtre  {Minted,  decorated  with  feat 
bead-dresses  in  addition  to  other  omomenl 
and  wore  white  groin*9hells  to  partly  conoeat^ 
their  nudity.  At  Tuniii,  on  Philp  River,  the 
natives  dressed  their  persons  and  canoes  in 
green  boughs  in  manifestatioo  of  tlidr 
friendly  feelings,  and  were  responded  to 
tbo  whites  with  dumb  motitma  and  woi 
likely  to  be  recognized  by  them.  The  next 
etvp  from  this  side  was  to  bind  a  slip  of 
Turkey-red  cloth,  u  piece  of  aliarpencd  hmtp- 
iron,  and  one  or  two  triOea  upon  a  wooden 
batten,  and  let  it  drift  down-stream.  '*  One 
native,  bolder  than  the  rest,  paddled  after 
this  parcel,  and,  after  cautions  inspection, 
appropriated  it,  and  donned  the  red  cloth  aa 


574 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


«  eorering  fnr  hit  fHidjr  Suir.  On  ABother 
rUii  from  tbu  DflUrvf,  one  has  honi&ed  at 
■iuc  Bolt  beef  *m  a  uak,  and  another  fras 
Idcd  at  seeing  hb  own  nglj  rtflecUon  in  a 
minor.  The/  bad  bcoomo  tired  of  the  white 
luen  by  tUifl  time,  and  fi!gni&««l  it  by  waving 
llieir  arma  dowD'Btream.  **  Ono  very  old  and 
wrinkled  man  nibbed  his  noae  and  pinched 
the  tip  of  it,  and  rubbed  the  pit  of  hid  stom. 
ach.  Atu>tber  signified  bj  signa  the  act  of 
cutting  off  the  bead  and  arma,  uaing  the 
worda  '  oorar  *  and  *  badluar/  **  With  a  tribe 
called  Eiwa  Fori,  in  the  delta  of  the  Queen'a 
Jubilee  Rirer,  one  of  tho  algoa  waa  to  hid« 
liicir  lowered  heada  in  tbrir  handa  and  then 
to  draw  their  hand^  down  ever  ehecks,  mrnithf 
chin,  neck,  breast,  and  a1>domerL  These 
men  wena  of  imuauaUv  fine  stature,  and  dark 
bruiizo  in  color  ;  but,  though  with  well- 
Douhshed  and  muHculor  frames,  '*  their  ro- 
trcatlng  foreheads  and  heavy  eyebrows  gare 
tlicta  a  aintater  expression.**  One  tribe  al- 
waya  spoke  tho  name  of  the  sun  In  a  whia- 
pcr,  with  finger  jMintiDg  upward  and  arcrtcJ 
£aa«.  In  a  deserted  hut,  wUch  noced'^l  the 
others  of  the  village  in  nzc;  was  found  lixed 
up  in  front  a  "taboo,"  ci:insi»llng  of  a  painted 
maak  reating  on  a  largo  circular  wl^p  of 
aagO'palBi  fiber  and  rattan,  with  pendent 
stroamera  of  the  same  tlbroua  material ; 
whilo  lialf<way  down  the  floor  of  the  but 
were  bonca  of  QaheB  and  small  deer  sus- 
pended from  stroamera.  AU  of  tho  new 
irlbi'A  wore  noae-pcncila,  diatcndtni  the  lobm 
of  their  cars,  and  amokcd  snn-dricd  tubacoo 
means  of  bam1>oo  tiibca.  Tlie  cnnoca  of 
II  tho  tribes  wcro  dug*oulB,  with  cither  a 
Imnk  of  mad  or  a  small  boy  ^quautng  Id 
llic  prow  and  opito«ing  liia  back  to  tbe  In- 
oomlng  wat*.T.  Sonte  of  them  were  Tcry 
lar^.  In  one,  twenty -nina  xnen  atoxl  up  to 
paddlo. 

Pollihlng  Tfleitropir  Ol^ertlrfs.— The 
^ping  and  grinding  of  (elcACoplc  objootlru 
1>tiaan  arc  oporalions  requiring  gnjal  care  and 
dalloacy  in  uiccutiuti.  In  poUehing,  aoftin' 
powd^ni  and  softer  tool-aurfacea  muBt  be 
UK»(1  than  In  griiuling.  Of  all  thi*  sub- 
HUinrea  tliat  hate  been  used  for  tfan  faco  of 
Iba  poUafaer,  pilch,  or  the  natural  hituminoun 
defioalt  from  Archangel,  vhlch  was  Aral 
employoil  by  Sir  Iraae  Newton,  la,  accord- 
iDg  to  ^  nonani  Orubb,  ailU  tho  beat    It 


has  th«  Important  ^qnalStSM  <if  p«rt«ct 
tJcity  and  a  pnTperty  of  nibMestt. 
can  not  giTc  a  pi  i  ',  beeaoMr  It  la 

apt  to  round  <•(?  ?  \\>^  pita  lafl  Vf 

heir  hot* 
tho  leasL. 

Pitch  weora  away  the  surfaoa  arcnly,  atid 
does  not  take  huld  <if  t)ie  plt-boUoma  iSl 
the  whole  la  ground  don^  to  a  lercl  with 
them.  AUbough  pitch,  by  boUing,  caa  bo 
made  ao  hard  that  an  imprcaalon  can  not  tio 
made  on  U  with  the  6o[rer-oail  without  ai^Bt* 
ting  it  in  picoeSi  It  will,  ercn  in  thto  ooo- 
ditlon,  if  laid  on  an  uneven  surface.  In  tins 
•ubside  and  take  the  form  of  fi|iat<rf  er  U  b 
reMtug  upon.  This  property,  by  rUtuo  of 
wtiieh  it  may  be  considered  technical^  a 
liquid,  ia  takes  advanta^  of  In  tb»  mifllpD* 
lation  of  the  polishing  proeeoa  to  prodooft  « 
surface  ciactly  otud  and  true,  tl  a|i|iran 
to  be  peculiar  to  pitch,  some  of  th«  reafaai^ 
and  ice ;  although  it  has  been  obocrfrd,  la  • 
vastly  inferior  <legree,  In  aome  ndaka.  b  li 
a  curious  circumstance  that  the  aaznoqiMll^ 
which  in  Ico  allowe  gradual  crtwpiiig  aad 
aabsidence,  and  tbe  coaaequcnl  fonutSaa  ol 
glaciers,  should  in  pitch  hdp  ua  U>  pfodaeo 
accurate  optical  surfacea. 

Itallao  Bnttf  r.'— Tho  Iiallana  do  aot  a* 
eel  in  the  manufncturo  of  butter,  ll  la  pco- 
duced  considerably  only  In  four  distiieu^  ol 
whieh  Lombardy  fumiabea  the  bt«t,  waaOy 
thrtnigfa  iho  market  of  Milan,  t^m  boncv* 
of  Reggie  and  tho  Tyrol  aru  uaed  fornii^ 
ureSf  and  tliosD  of  ^raitla  and  Sorreato  asv 
unlmportaot  in  quantity.  In  the  real  of  lb* 
country,  oil,  fat  of  Amariean  origin,  or  Mh* 
«tltutcfl  are  used  fur  daily  wanta.  AcQOtdtaf 
to  the  Froneh  uoaaul  at  UlUa,  the  pffadptl 
obstacle  to  tho  development  of  the  Ini4a  ta 
pure  butter  \a  tbe  tncreasiug  oaa  of  ibioo  «ub- 
alitule*,  ami  artiflcial  b'!''-^-  -.i.:..».  ^^.  f-^, 
ported  from  America,  K-  >^ 

land,  and  tho  Nethcrlaun*.  -  jdc  u.unaad 
for  butters  in  Curopo,  f«outh  Anoriea,  Ai» 
tralia,    i  -  n  China,  Ims 

becou  ^  1  n»cxK>  of  the 

toauindebi'v  fsJ  prodad,  U  be- 

came nrccf  'irtnrc  an  anakfiai 


Icr,  the  arti&d&l  batter 
iafceo  without  fuar  of  pj-j... 


Ul0  p*ii« 


NOTES. 


575 


ig  beforo  Italj  foUovcd 
iplo  of  these  two  couQCiicd,  but  the 
flnt  ftttctupU  were  uot  fortunate."  lulion 
iDsrgarihc  butter  costs  from  forty  to  fony- 
firo  per  cent  1cm  than  ptwi  butter,  noil  U 
Doro  oftiily  handled. 


NOTES. 

Tii«  "  Iland-BAok  of  Meioorolo«ieal  Ta- 
tlca,"  compiled  by  Prof.  II.  A.  Uaxto,  con- 
■taliu  in  a  euavcuient  furm  iho  reductiom^ 
btvded  for  currant  wurkf  omitting  tbo^  bui 
low  gCQCTttlly  used,     Scrcral  of  Che  tables 
'■re  new,  or  recomputed   in   thdr  prt'acnt 
form  after  aotne  yeara'  oxpcriuucc  by  tlic  au- 
.  ....    ;.,  ti...;r  .>««      Th«>  table  for  n-ductiun 
itioDS  to  e«a-1evcl  has 
:'.  thoosand  feet     Fur- 
malff*  and  ubitrt  are  gifcn  for  the  determi- 
nation of  mean  wind  direction,  and  for  tlie 
(cnuversion  of  wind  rclocitiea  from  miles  per 
;  hour  10  taetrcfl  per  ncoood,  auU  vico  vena. 

Thb  Society  or  A^.^ociatioa  of  Saititarr 
Inspectors  of  Great  nHuin  1.1  composed  of 
the  profcMional  luspectorfl  who  act  under 
tl»e  direction  of  the  metlieal  boards  of  licaJth. 
The  **  lAncet  **  claims  that  a  great  improro- 
ment  Iim  ootne  over  tho  charueler  of  (bow 
olBoers  ftnco  the  meiety  wad  fnnnod,  fire 
ycara  r;;o,  and  that  thi'y  bavo  gained  great- 
ly in  iutlue'nee.  The  exaruiimtiotu  by  the 
b.tniurr  Ii)»titiii(>  have  al«o  contributed  laa. 
terially  to  roi^e  the  standinz  of  these  men. 
The  diploma  of  1'  >«*noleg.il 

lioenM  or  rorp<>i  it  la  a  ies- 

tinuiolal  of  quaU.-^ ..  -  ..._l  of  honor, 

mid  a  atifuulant  to  earnest  worlc  and  improve* 
uicnt. 

Tki  Wat*on  ^1d  medal  and  $100  in 
pold,  f..un.i.-.t  liv  l\f,  Jaincd  C.  Watson,  to 
be  •:,  II  of  any  country  who 

lia.'f  I  ipiirLant  dtnooveriei  in 

B»troBumy,  Xax*  i^uuti  awanlud  to  Dr.  Kdnnrd 
KchOnfehi,  of  thy  ITnivomlly  of  Flonn.  (Jer- 
many.     T!-  .  to  I>r.  Sthonfeld 

for   his  x<  i^  the  Tariahlo 

»ura  autl  ; .,>  catalotruiug  the 

•Cam  brighter  tljan  the  ti?u(h  nmirnitude, 
from  tho  equator  to  the  southern  tropic. 

Tux  Con^nMs  on  Tubereulosia  that  wai 
held  in  X\\r\-  in  the  summer  of  1888  recom- 
tttt.'ii  :  'isionof  thai  affection  In  the 

list    i  I  >u4  difteasoii  of  animul*:,  and 

tho  fr^i^uro  aud  destruction  of  every  Inf  L-ctcd 
beoat.  It  nryod  tho  apread  of  pfjpular  in- 
ntnjr'  \nC\\\- 

iA^  I  J.  the 

rii-W- ' 

ami   n.     ;    c-'t; 

and  til','  !!ii.-:!.-Lji-  ■         ■■■ 

fiTCtiou  of  materiaU  derlfmi  it\iiu  pliUiisiLnl 

paticuta.     It  ioidited  on  the  iuapoctiun  of 

datrii-a  and  d^iry  faroA 


A  LowLAsn  cure  hns  l»et'n  F'ip:o<;tpd 
by  Dr.  Lind^ley,  to  bo  applied  in  pUi\-  h  ■- 
low  tho  level  of  (he  aea,  where  the  aUrnt;^ 
phere  U  dcnaer  than  at  normal  or  bi(.'hcr 
lovda.  Such  places  01*0  tho  valley  of  Con- 
chilla,  near  Los  Angeles,  California,  atiout 
two  hundred  and  i^evcncy-three  feut ;  the  Dead 
Sea  district,  twelve  hundred  and  cighiy-iiine 
feet;  Lalco  Asal  in  East  Africa,  eU  hviii- 
dri.*d  and  thirtj-uine  feet ;  the  Arroyo  del 
Kuerto,  California,  two  hundred  and  thirty 
feet ;  (ho  oojiid  of  Sirrah  in  Libya,  ono 
hundred  and  twcnty-tliree  feet,  and  ihii  bor- 
dcrriof  UieCaa;ilanSea,cighly-eii  fcotbcloir 
the  Bco-lcvel 

Cotonano  poatiMiscslar^ccoaMjcldfl  which 
yielded  1,4JV»,811  tons  in  1S86.  Tho  laluo- 
tion  of  coal  on  the  car»,  at  $t.S&  per  too 
prosa,  waa  $3,37^.095.  About  8,600  men 
are  emploj-cil.  The  average  cost  of  pro- 
ducing the  cool  on  the  cars  at  tho  mine«  la 
^1.74  per  ion.  Tlic  ficld«  yield  anthradc«, 
biiuminoua,  and  lignilu  coals  ;  and  it  la 
thouf^ht  by  tho  officvra  tif  our  Geological  Sur- 
Tuy  that  about  U'O.OoO  aquare  miles  of  tha 
territory  of  the  Stale  are  luulcrlald  by  ooal- 
bcarlng  strata. 

Tbi  roonomoot  to  be  placed  over  General 
PrjeTal^ky^a  fC*^v0  on  toe  shores  of  Lako 
bailt-kul  wiD  represent  a  n>ck  iwcnty-elghC 
feet  hifzh,  on  th«  top  of  which  a  large  ea^l* 
i«  perched.  The  eagle  gnurjts  in  !tJt  tolona  a 
map  uf  Central  Asia,  the  arciui  of  the  scion- 
tiflo  exploits  of  the  deceased,  and  in  its  brak 
an  olive-branch,  aymbolicat  of  the  peaceful 
scientific  eon(|uc4tn  which  RuRaia  owl-s  to 
Prjeval*ky.  The  inscription,  recording  the 
name,  birth,  and  death  of  the  deocased,  on 
one  aide  of  the  rock,  ia  surmounted  by  a  Urge 
bronze  croas.  In  tho  interior  of  the  inonu- 
meut  ia  cut  a  spiral  ataircaso  crowned  with 
an  enlarged  copy  of  tho  medal  stnick  by  llio 
Academy  of  Sdcncca  In  1887,  and  FhowinK 
the  iuBtription,  "To  the  tirst  cxplonrr  of 
Nature  in  Conlrul  Aaia.** 

HiSBor's  Ring  was  Fc«n  In  Febmary.  1889, 
by  Ml9s  £.  Rruwn,  of  Cirencester,  England, 
at  about  noon  one  day  when  the  sun  wafl 
hiddeji  behind  a  cloud.  It  appeared  very 
similar  Id  extent  and  color,  but  uot  in  iiit<*n> 
«ity,  to  ita  exhibition  after  the  Krakatoa 
eruption. 

In  a  paper  on  "  Deatructon  and  Refuse 
Funiacefl,"  read  before  a  Yorkshire  Sanitary 
Science  C-onfereuce,  Mr.  W.  Warner  said  that 
a  chimney  ono  hundretl  and  sixty  feet  hl;;h 
wait  suitable  far  the  cremation,  and  could  be 
built.  With  a  aii-ccllM  dtntruclor,  for  about 
£^,'>t>,>,  Of  plfi.oon.  If  a  town  could  utilize 
all  thi'  clinkv-'iT,  fine  R:*hp:*,  and  flnrt  d»ij*t.  It 
Would  par  the  cost  of  bumiug  and  tlic  re- 
turn of  capital  cxi)cudcd  ou  tho  plant,  and 
protluee  a  revenue  to  aid  the  ncewsary  o>*l 
of  erection.  The  author  did  not  ace  why 
the  point  of  perfection  should  but  be  rcaohod. 


576 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  JI0NTHL7. 


in  Ail , .:,   ,-,- 

iDilmn  Ocuotif  utuoiD^  consUu  of  a  series 
uf  ^hort  cuts  which  heal,  leaving  cicatrirea. 
Ill  New  Zealand,  America,  the  Piolfic  islanija, 
amoug  the  tribcH  of  lutUo,  uiiJ  tii  Ilunuah, 
buraoo,  and  Now  Guint'A,  pftllenis  art*  first 
dniwii  uiK>n  tJie  ttkin,  and  then  punctured 
hIUi  iborni",  n(*cdlf«,  or  «plintcra  of  huTn&n 
boaea.  Color  Is  thcu  rubbed  in.  Tlie  pro- 
cess 19  rery  paiaful  and  can  only  be  carried 
OD  at  iut^rraU,  sorcrol  ^cars  being  som«- 
timetf  retpiired  for  it«  c<>oip1etion.  Among 
men  tattooing  ii  ralucd  a^  a  mark  of  bnr- 
ery.  In  tlio  caso  of  women  dovieoa  are 
workiKl  upon  tbe  chin  to  siguifj  luarria^e. 

AjTca  his  etiinological  re.^archP6  In 
EffflJt,  Prof.  Virchuw  iia5  concluded  thai  ihi' 
folliihccn  do  not  (exactly  represent  the  an- 
cii'tit  iuhabitanla  ia  ibeir  ph\iica]  asiu'Ct. 
The  eridcncD  uffonled  by  tho  olUeft  sculpt- 
ure and  the  earlit^.^t  <«kull3  showA  that  the 
primitive  type  was  brachyceplialic,  wbercun 
the  types  of  the  present  timf*  unri  of  many 
Ceoturies  pasl  are  dob' '  "  [iieijo- 

cephalir.     It  ]i  iincert  j  nee 

produc<:d  by  the  fUwi'>iiii«.-iii,  wi  ujr  the 

IX  of  new  races ;  but  Prof.  VirchoV  in- 
to the  tatlor  vieir. 

Tns  principal  and  most  nsoful  wood  In 
Bonioo  Itf  tilutr.  ■"■  !■■  r-  wood.  Its  char- 
octettifiic^,  aa  til  >Ir.  R.  T,  Prit- 

chet,   ar©  hardn<  ,  und   being  ant- 

proof.  It  is  Lbe  bc.4t  shingle  wood,  and,  be- 
ing Urge  and  plentiful,  the  moat  valuable 
timU'r.  OUicir  itinkin^  nood.-^  are  ru*MtcJc^ 
fn^ttinffttniritffou^  the  IiihI  nf  whieh.  a  heavy, 
dark-ycllyw  wood,  is  TohiflM  '  -  '  -:.!tnro 
and  takes  a  fine  polish  ;  caii<  and 

a  red  wood,  and  «rav<iA,  »!;-'.  ^-  luga 
Avtj  feet  in  dJoujelGr  and  forty  Icct  long. 

O^-^-"-'""^  made  by  M.  Jan»B«D  on 
Mont  ihe    pnrp<)3e  of    deciding 

whetl  inieti  in  the  solar  Bpeotrom 

aru  duo  to  oxygen  in  our  air  or  in  tbe  «olar 
aimo'tpbcTe,  s'bovring  tbo  Uncd  weaker  ttiau 
at  lower  lereU,  eecni  to  prove  that  tbvy  ftre 
doc  Lo  our  atmosphere. 

Tm  nJ;M>  Is  a  [>alm-ln*e  of  GomcH) 
vhleb  grows  In  thv  awiunps  above  the  nmn- 
Knjvc,  where  the  watrr  ix-gin*  to  be  brack- 
vh.  It  revel?  whrro  the  iwamM  arr  more 
than  <?a1t,  lt«>  lcarc9  f*ri  '  '  '"  tnd 
IntJily  to  a  bcig;lt(  of  :  md 

miiwai'.r  II. ..i-.-.ih,.iri, ;,,.-;.  ■  i,i.-. 


It  _-.  - 1  i_. 


-  —*  frtiaSHMH 
ud  l,taotaDs  la. 


'»?Ii«    Wirrn 


ployed  in  ItfiiS^  and  i 
wore  dcstroTotl.  Tb* 
maiie  more  effcclivc,  and  in 
aTaila))lu  for  use  more  thm 
and  13,000  truirt,  thi' 
au  Bgg^regutv  length  ' 
nearly  tbe  whole  cuuu....'  .. 


d. 


It   fionnds  odd  to  read  in  a  pa^^^r  >i] 
Robert  W'l 
the  ilanc!. 
operating    u.    ....    ..>i,m.|>* 

amount  of  r<.-fraetloD*'  or  ; 

rccopnitt'd  h^  a  "  trade  cuer-   , 

of  wheat  from  tSx  or  Bevvu  to  two  p«r  cvnl. 

Kogardtng  tb**  pr»"»f  r>r  niotnm.  It  na*  been 

e*tima(ed.  N  Walbkeo,  thai 

direct  Io8-  is  aiuivoleut 

the  sum  t-'.  ■  ■  '^ 

"  fpent  uj' 

wurk  of  fl.!,  .     o 

which  had  btrcn  added  to  i 

pK*s  of  wheat  with  the  dcK 

netting  on  unjiut  gain." 


OBITCABY  NOTESu 

Maria  Mitchw.i^  « 
mor  and  professor  in  *. 
Lynn,  Masa.,  Jn; 
brain,  from  wIul 

uhOUE    .l.-l.f.-.  ri 

Naii< 
leur 

thiT  and  Chdirle»  Piiiice. 
o^e  she  recorded  the  time  i*1  Uil*  begimunc 
and  ending  '    '     moon,    la 

1847  ebe  <  tmr  k^ 

•^'    to  ' 


mo' 
fa- 

AVtikvejQ  jeonof 


the  AiuiTii 
ment    of    ' 


ion  for  tiic  Auvosee- 
l.f..  P.  of   lUnavfr 


Vuaor  C> 

tion  waj  i : 

she  xtiU  remained  the  utulai 

r- —-■-•    " '• 

rcccti- 

ycarv      i 

gationa  of  orchid*  and  hybnda. 

Pr.  Osorob  Oww  Rk«^  p.  R,  a,  JM  Ift 

Uuytitild,  England,  May  <i?Ui. 


iiiiitv,  wliieh  tiuvelftji  bo>l  very 
-  will  fold  up  Into  very  small  cooi-  I 

|>ai^;,  arc-  aliso  made  from  Utetn. 

TwR  pfsf  of  Inr-t"!*  hw"  b'-rn  fn"t'ht  t^j;- 


U) 


:"   \ 


THE 


POPULAR    SCIENCE 
MONTHLY. 


8XFIEMBEB.  1889. 


A  STUDY  FROM  LIFE, 


Bt  oute  tuorne  miller. 


MANY  a  strange  little  beast  from  far-off  quarters  of  tbe  globe 
may  be  picked  up  in  New  York,  in  places  where  sailor8  are 
wont  to  dispose  of  tboir  pets.  In  this  way  I  came  into  possession 
of  a  rare  and  interesting  animal,  a  black-headed  lemur,  or  Leviur 
bninncus,  native  of  Madagascar.  Ho  was  a  member  of  my  house- 
hold for  nearly  a  year,  and  during  that  time  the  family  circle  was 
novor  dulL  The  whole  of  Bamum's  menagerie  next  door  could  not 
afford  more  entertainment  than  did  this  one  drnll  little  fellow. 

He  was  about  the  size  of  a  small  cat,  or,  to  be  exact,  from  the 
tip  of  his  pointed  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail  ho  measured  sixteen 
incliea;  of  that  length,  three  inches  were  face  and  thirteen  body 
and  neck.    His  girth  back  of  the  fore-legs  was  nine  inches. 

The  manners  of  the  little  stranger  were  extremely  odd.  His 
home  was  a  cage  in  the  parlor,  where  he  was  generally  alone  all 
day,  and  spent  the  time,  it  is  to  be  supposed,  in  sleeping,  although 
I  must  admit  I  rarely  found  him  so.  At  about  four  in  the  after- 
noon I  went  into  the  room  and  lot  liim  out.  The  moment  I  ap- 
peared he  came  to  the  front  of  the  cage,  pressed  his  weird  little 
black  face  with  its  clear  topaz  eyes  to  the  wires,  and  then  began  to 
call  and  "weave"  impatiently.  The  latter  was  a  singtdar  move- 
ment. Planting  his  hind-legs  far  apart  in  a  half-sitting  position, 
he  held  up  and  outward  his  short  arms,  and  swayed  his  whole  bodyd 
from  side  to  side — at  each  end  of  his  swing  bringing  his  hands 
down  almost  to  the  floor.  This  he  did  very  rapidly,  uttering  every 
moment  a  short,  quick  sort  of  double  gnint,  with  an  occasional 
explosion  or  "  snort,"  in  the  exact  tone  of  a  pig. 

Of  course,  I  instantly  opened  bis  door,  from  that  time  till  ten 
o'clock  being  his  regular  daily  outing.    Like  a  flash  he  bounc( 


57» 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTffLT. 


through  it,  jumped  to  the  nearest  chair,  from  that  to  the  sofa,  tho 
table,  somebody's  lap  or  shoulder,  the  mautel,  the  top  of  his  cago, 
or  the  piano,  and  so  made  the  circuit  of  the  two  parlurSj  without 
touching  the  carpet.  After  thus  going  the  grand  rounds,  h©  gon- 
erally  jumped  to  the  floor,  and  ran  all  about  under  the  furniture 
His  sharp  nose  nearly  touched  the  car]>et,  and  his  back  (owing  to 
the  four  inches  diflFerence  in  length  between  his  fore  and  bind 
limbs)  sloped  up  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  to  the  tail,  which 
stood  straight  up  like  a  banner  over  his  back,  the  tip  somelimcss 
curling  forwai-d  like  a  dog's,  sometimes  backward  like  a  hcMjk. 
During  the  whole  performauco  hu  constantly  uttered  a  conteutcd 
single  grunt  like  "  woof !" 

If  any  movement  in  the  room  startled  him,  he  broke  into  a 
grotesque  gallop,  bringing  his  feet  up  closely  beside  his  hands  at 
every  leap.  This  gallop,  which  was  rapid  and  light,  always  ended 
in  a  sudden  spring  to  somebody^s  lap,  or  a  .-         "        ' '  T  » 

tall  easel,  where  he  looked  around  to  see  wj  i  „  in. 

But  if  not  disturbed,  when  his  tour  of  inspection  was  over  he 
usually  went  to  the  open  fire,  placed  himself,  sometimes  on  the 
toe  of  a  lady's  slipper  if  it  were  conveniently  near,  sometimes  on 
a  little  three-by-fivo-inch  cushion  on  the  arm  of  an  easy-chAir, 
Here  he  sat  up  like  a  cat  with  tail  hanging  out  before  him^  or  fell 
eagerly  to  dressing  his  peculiar  woolly  fur,  which  stood  out  all 
over  his  body,  washing  his  face  by  licking  the  outside  G<]g©  of  his 
hand  and  rubbing  it  back  and  forth  over  his  face,  and  wiping  his 
mouth  on  a  chair  as  a  bird  wipes  its  bill,  first  one  side  and  then  the 
other.    Especially  did  he  labor  over  his  ■     '  '  .11, 

scraping  up  the  fur  till  it  stood  out  round  ,^  -lt 

great  apparent  size.  The  tool  with  which  he  occompli^bcd  80 
much  was  his  curious  row  of  lower  front  tcclh,  whicli  '  Mn 
points  of  almost  needle  sharpness,  and  proj(^ctetl  at  an  .  nal 

prevented  their  being  used  to  bite,  but  made  an  effective  w:raper 
for  the  skin,  or  a  comb  for  his  own  gray  wooL 

Warmed  and  dressed,  the  playful  fellow  began  his  f?v<yiiing*B 
amusement.    If  the  master's  quiet  game  of  cribbagt*  ig 

on,  he  often  began  by  marking  his  prey  from  his  seat  oii  ...  v.,..ir- 
arm,  and  without  warning  springing  to  the  middle  of  the  tfthlAf 
scattering  cards  like  chaff,  upstitting  cribbage-1  "g 

the  pegs  flying,  slapping  cards  out  of  the  ha  ' -^ 

and  biting  needle-like  holes  in  them. 

To  make  a  great  commotion  of  any  sort  wit  iL- 

ting  peacefully  on  my  lap,  or  lying  flat  upon  i  "T 

limb  stretched  out,  apparently  the  most  iunc>coQl  n 


face,    if  1  started  ai  this  rough  salut«,  as  I  was  tt> 


A  STUDY  FROM  LIFE, 


579 


^ 
¥ 


do,  he  was  struck  with  panicj  gave  one  mighty  hound  to  the  man- 
tel, the  bracket  of  a  lamp,  the  edge  of  an  open  door,  or  the  floor, 
where  he  stood  a  few  seconds  motionless  as  he  alighted.  A  panic, 
indeed, struck  through  him  instantly,  with  curious  effect.  Whether 

were  lying  quietly  on  one's  knee,  standing,  sitting,  or  in  what- 
position,  on  being  alarmed  by  an  attempt  to  capture  him,  or 
by  an  unexpected  sound,  he  instantly  disappeared — sideways,  back- 
ward, or  forward  mattered  not — without  in  anyway  making  ready, 
or  getting  upon  his  legs.  It  was  as  if  his  body  were  a  spring,  or 
as  if  ho  were  flung  by  some  force  outside  of  himself — he  simply 
went.  It  is  impossible  to  give  an  idea  of  this  most  remarkable 
movement;  I  never  saw  anything  like  it.  A  curious  fashion  h© 
had  also  of  leaping  against  the  bare  side  wall  of  the  room,  which 
he  struck  flatly  with  all  fours,  and  then  bounded  off  in  another 
direction.  I  have  seen  the  same  thing  done  by  a  squirrel,  and 
also— strange  as  it  seems — by  a  bird. 

The  extreme  nervousness  of  the  little  lemur  seemed  to  be 
caused  by  too  much  company.  "Wlien  alone  with  one  person, 
especially  if  that  one  were  my  daughter  or  myself — his  prime 
favorites — he  was  as  quiet  as  the  family  cat.  He  sat  or  lay  in 
the  lap,  and  allowed  himself  to  bo  brushed;  indeed,  ho  enjoyed 
brushing,  and  thrust  out  arms  and  legs  to  be  operated  upon.  He, 
sat  up  with  his  tail  laid  over  his  shoulders  in  a  comical  way,  and, 
if  he  wanted  to  turn  his  head,  he  "ducked"  it  under  the  tail  and 
brought  it  up  the  other  side  rather  than  change  its  comfortable 
I)06ition.  This  member  was  really  an  important  charge  to  the 
little  beast ;  he  spent  hours  in  dressing  it,  and  by  it  he  expressed 
all  his  emotions.  When  in  quiet  mood  it  hung  straight  down,  as 
stiffly  as  if  made  of  wood ;  on  mischief  bent,  it  assumed  a  wicked- 
looking  sidowiso  turn,  though  still  hanging;  during  his  pranks 
and  in  excitement  it  stood  up  like  a  flag-staff,  safely  out  of  harm's 
way;  if  his  "angry  passions  rose,"  it  was  swished,  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  cat ;  and  when  he  jumped,  it  delivered  a  severe  blow,  like 
a  smart  rap  with  a  stick. 

Never  was  a  living  creature  more  alert  than  this  small  brute. 
So  acute  was  his  hearing  that  it  was  absolutely  impossible  to  sur- 
prise him.  No  matter  how  quietly  and  ai)parently  off  his  guard 
he  sat  on  a  chair,  one  could  not  jerk  or  tip  that  piece  of  furniture 
so  qmckly  .*«  '  -  him  unawares ;  at  the  first  sign  of  movement 

ihe  app<jart^i  other  side  of  the  room,  one  could  hardly  tell 

I  how.    I  wanted  much  to  see  him  when  he  did  not  see  me,  and  to 

Ithn"    -  ' '  '-- ^  V    '—'  *'       --.ra  from  the  front.    The 

ba  lid  he  could  not  possibly 

.  — to  my  senses — without 
I^MM^  .r>...r.  I  reached  the  point 

HHp  he  was,  waiting. 


s8o 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


looking  for  me,  his  bright  yellow  eye  pressed  eagerly  against  the 
wiros,  in  tho  cornor  nearest  the  side  I  came  to.  The  inst:. 
saw  mo  he  uttered  a  mocking  grunt,  which  plainly  said,  *'  Th 
you'd  surprise  me,  eh  ? "  and  began  a  -violent  weaving  and  coax- 
ing to  get  out.  Perhaps  he  was  thus  wide  awake  because  he 
deemed  really  to  fear  being  alone,  and  to  dread  the  dark.  Tho 
moment  he  was  left  in  the  room  the  spirit  of  mischief  departed, 
and  ho  retreated  to  the  top  of  his  cage,  where  ho  remained  till 
some  one  came  in.  The  dusk,  with  its  shadows,  always  alarmed 
him,  and,  when  taken  into  a  strange  room,  he  cowered  and  clung 
to  his  friend  as  if  frightened  out  of  his  wits.  Fond  as  was  tho 
lemur  of  society,  he  was  exceedingly  nervous  about  it.  When  he 
riieard  a  person  coming  through  the  hall,  he  first  ran  to  Mm  vnd 
of  a  sofa  nearest  the  door ;  as  the  steps  approached,  he  gruw  more 
and  more  uneasy ;  and,  when  the  hand  touched  the  door-knob^  he 
yielded  to  wild  panic,  boxmdod  to  the  other  end  of  tho  sofa  and 
over  the  back,  where  he  held  by  one  hand,  while  his  body  dangled 
behind.  His  great  sensitiveness  showed  also  in  another  way — he 
never  met  a  human  eye  with  his  own.  He  saw  everj'  oxprBSsion 
of  the  face,  but  he  always  looked  just  beyond  it.  He  violently 
objected  to  l>eing  stared  at,  turned  his  head  away,  and,  if  his  head 
were  held  between  two  hands  for  the  ])urpo8o  of  looking  in  his 
face,  he  got  away,  either  by  a  sudden  spring  to  the  top  of  tho 
head  of  his  captor  or  by  wiiggling  himself  out  1  1.    His 

wool-covered  body  was  the  moat  elusive  iu  the  won  _  : ,id. 

But,  although  the  little  fellow  would  not  look  one  fiqxuut?ly  in 
the  face,  he  saw  everything  that  hapj)ened,  and  was  as  ^  "  :  ve 

as  any  monkey.    He  likod  to  sit  before  the  window  a  i  .  at 

ftkassers-by,  both  beast  and  human ;  a  cat  aroused  him  to  tho  point 
^f  expressing  his  mind,  and  he  saluted  hor  by  a  short,  sharp  bark. 
A  bugle  that  was  brought  out  with  the  hope  of  curing  him  of  too 
great  familiarity  with  the  person  of  the  owner,  proved,  on  tho 
contrary,  to  be  a  special  lure.  Ho  rose  on  his  hind-legs— which  bo 
did  with  perfect  ease— and  thrust  his  nose  into  the  large  end,  cTi- 
deutly  to  find  the  sound.  Once  ha]}pening  to  gv-t  possieasion  of 
tho  instrument  when  its  guardian  was  absent,  tiie  lenyti'- >t.>..1a  ^ 
thorough  examination  of  it.    Ho  pulled  it  on  to  tho  i'  uW 

liis  body  across  it,  embracing  it  with  1      ' 

and  then  proce^nied  to  push  his  head  u :  .  ,, 

big  end,  take  the  small  end  in  his  mouth,  as  If  i  tp 

,3i    '         inute  aiJM  -  .     .     ,        - 

f  that  wL  ' 

abandoned  it^  m 

blAi;  fl 

that  no  one  had  a  right  to  tonch  th4.'m ;  ho  leni  ^H 


I 


A  STUDY  FROM  LIFE. 


S8i 


» 


ily,  always  answered  when  spoken  to,  and  came  at  a  call  like  a 
dog,  a  thing  very  rare  among  animals  of  his  sort.  He  also  knew 
his  own  box,  his  chosen  seats^  his  place  before  the  firOj  and  insisted 
that  they  should  not  be  used  by  others.  In  pictures  he  recognized 
a  bird,  or,  at  least,  he  tried  to  snatch  it  out  of  the  paper,  and  the 
same  with  figures  that  looked  like  insects.  He  disapproved  of 
change,  complained  when  I  dosed  the  shutters,  and  looked  askance 
at  me  when  I  put  on  a  different  dress.  He  knew  with  perfect  cer- 
tainty who  would  let  him  out  of  the  cage  and  who  would  not; 
on©  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  house  might  sit  in  the  parlor  nil  day, 
and,  except  for  keeping  an  eye  on  him,  the  little  beast  made  no 
sign ;  but  let  either  of  his  mistresses  enter,  and  he  was  excited  at 
once,  weaving,  grunting,  and  demanding  that  the  door  bo  opened. 
He  understood  at  once,  too,  when  forbidden  to  do  anything. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  8e%'eral  days'  visit  of  a  child,  he  was  at 
first  very  jealous;  did  not  like  her  occupying  a  lap  he  had  oon*| 
sidered  his  own,  and  opposed  with  a  squealing  grunt  her  sitting  on 
his  special  stool  before  the  fire.  But  she  was  a  gentle  child,  and 
a  little  later  he  became  very  fond  of  her,  lot  her  pat  him,  sit  beside 
him  on  hia  seat,  and  at  last  insisted  upon  lying  on  some  article  of 
her  dress  if  any  were  in  the  room. 

What  the  small  African  set  his  mind  on  he  always  secured  in 
the  end,  for  his  persistence  was  simply  marvelous.  Ho  was  as 
fond  of  apples  as  any  school-boy,  and  the  head  of  the  family  liked 
to  tantalize  him  by  coming  in  with  one  hidden  in  his  pocket.  The 
sharp  little  nose  sniffed  it  at  once,  and  the  eager  little  fellow 
sprang  u^iou  the  apple-bearer,  tried  to  dive  into  his  pocket  head 
first,  then  to  dig  into  it  from  below,  and,  despairing  of  this,  went 
to  work  to  tear  away  the  garments  that  covered  it.  No  doubt  he 
would  have  surct^ded,  but  before  he  went  so  far  the  owner  gave 
inland  delivered  the  fruit  to  the  impatient  creature.  He  snatched 
it  at  once,  and  fairly  "  gobbled  "  at  it,  biting  off  pieces  with  his 
back  teeth,  throwing  his  head  up  to  chew  them,  and  carefully 
separating  and  dropping  the  skin.  He  never  at  any  time  made  a 
full  meal,  as  do  many  beasts.  His  desire  seemed  to  bo  merely  to 
stop  the  cravings  of  hunger;  the  moment  these  were  satisfied  he 
opened  his  band,  and  whatever  food  was  in  it  dropped,  he  being 
apparently  as  tmconscious  as  if  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  it.    He 


ate  brr* 
but  hi. 


ar 


•fu-t  potato,  and  banana^  and  drank  milk  and  water; 
was — with  the  girls — in  candy,  and  that  he  never 
'       ■"  sight,  and  he  not  sharing  it,  he 
:!g  offered,  he  snatched  it,  chewed 
;(jd  for  more.    The  favorite  trick  of  a 
-drop,  which  bo-. 
s  jaws  together;1 
>me ;  but,  in  spite  of  his  strug- 


I 
I 


5IS  THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTBLY, 

gica  mth  it,  he  was  never  discouraged,  and  always  coaxed  f< 

another. 

I      No  beast  that  I  ever  saw  was  more  fond  of  play  than  the  little 
Malagasy^  not  even  a  lively  kitten.    From  the  moment  } 
was  opened  till  he  was  shut  in  for  the  night  he  often  g:;-.  ...^ 
mind  to  a  constant  succession  of  pranks.    He  scraped  the  boAds 
off  our  dress-trimmings  with  his  comb-like  teeth,  emd  he 
or  pulled  books  or  work  out  of  our  hands,  and  especially  1 
frolic  in  one's  lap,  lying  on  his  back  kicking  with  all  fourSy  pre-J 
tending  to  bite,  and  even  turning  somersaults  or  indulging  in  the 
most  peculiar  little  leaps.    In  the  latter  he  flung  out  his  arms, 
dropped  his  head  on  one  side  in  a  bewitching  way,  turned  half 
around  in  the  air,  and  came  down  in  the  spot  ho  started  from,  the  ^A 
whole  performance  so  sudden,  apparently  so  involuntary,  and  hisH' 
face  so  grave  all  the  time,  it  seemed  as  if  a  spring  had  gone  off 
inside,  with  which  his  will  had  nothing  to  do. 

A  favorite  pla>i.hing  with  the  lemur  was  a  window-shade.  Ho 
began  by  jumping  up  to  the  fringe,  seizing  it  and  swinging  bock 
and  forth.  One  day  he  learneil  by  accident  that  ho  could  **  set  it 
off,"  and  then  his  extreme  pleasure  was  to  snat-ch  at  it  with  bo  much 
force  as  to  start  the  spring,  when  he  instantly  let  go  and  made 
one  bound  to  the  other  side  of  the  room,  or  to  the  mantel,  when> 
he  sat,  looking  the  picture  of  innocence,  while  the  released  shade 
sprang  to  the  top  and  went  over  and  over  the  rod.    Wo  could 

^never  prevent  his  carrying  out  this  little  programme,  and  w© 
drew  down  one  shade  only  to  have  him  slyly  set  off  another  tho 
next  instant. 

Next  to  the  shade,  his  chosen  play-ground  was  a  small  bmM 
rod  holding  a  brackut-lump.  It  was  not  more  than  half  an  iuch-i 
wide,  and  so  sharp-edged  that  it  seemed  impossible  that  un  oniJ 
mal  of  his  size  and  weight  could  stay  on  it  one  minute,  capociaUy^ 
as  it  was  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  and  held  a 
burning  lamp  at  the  end.  The  lamp  was  no  objection  to  tha 
always  chilly  little  beast ;  he  enjoyed  the  heat  of  it,  and  not  only^ 
did  he  sit  there  with  perfect  ease,  and    '         '  '^  fur  or  eat  hi* 

'bread,  but  he  played  wlxat  seemed  impo^^  _  .nks  on  it^  Ho 
turned  somersaults  over  it;  he  hung  by  one  hand  and  swung;  ha' 
jumped  and  seized  it  with  hand  or  foot;  wl  '  1  ,  .  .  1 
came  up  the  other  side.    He  never  made  a 

rlamp,  and  his  long,  stiff  tail  served  as  a  bahui  j 

Perhaps  tlio  greatest  fun  in  our  li 

tporlor  was  with  a  newspaper.    T\\^ 

[•InteroBt  in  the  iirticlo  was  boin^ 
longed  to  tear  it  up.  That  ung 
trouble,  till  at  last  1  resolved  to  >. 
paper  and  put  it  on  the  floor  for  1 


I 


♦*i.-  « 


i>.^^« 


A   STUDT  FROM  LIFE. 


583 


^ 


with  a  big  leap  into  the  middle  of  it,  when  the  rustle  instantly 
scared  him  off  in  a  second  bound  as  tremendous  as  the  first.  He 
soon  ffturned,  however,  and  began  again.  He  turned  soraer- 
saultB  on  it,  rolled  over  on  it,  took  hold  of  one  comer  and  rolled 
himself  up  in  it.  But  during  all  these  performances,  every  fresh 
mstlo  of  the  paper  put  him  in  a  panic,  and  ho  leaped  spas- 
modically away — a  wild  frolic  impossible  to  describe,  with  atti- 
ttxdes  so  grotesque,  movements  so  unexpected,  and  terror  and  joy 
fio  closely  united,  that  it  was  the  funniest  exhibition  one  can  im- 
agine. The  next  evening  I  arranged  a  newspaper  tentwiso  on  the 
floor.  The  lemur  looked  at  it,  contemplated  the  tempting  pas- 
sage-way under  it,  then  dashed  frantically  through  and  tlew  to  the 
highest  retreat  in  the  room,  as  if  he  had  taken  his  life  in  his 
hands.  He  retnmed — for  it  was  impossible  to  keep  away — and 
resumed  the  gambols,  the  hand-springs,  the  various  fantastic 
exercises,  and  between  each  two  antics  ilung  himself  about  the 
room  as  if  he  had  gone  mad,  ending  every  romp  by  sitting  a  few 
aeconds  motionless,  with  a  grave  and  solemn  air,  as  if  it  were  out 
of  the  question  that  ho  could  be  guilty  of  anything  frivolous. 

Unlike  most  beasts,  this  little  fellow  had  a  great  liking  for 
strangers,  and  frequently  took  violent  fancies,  in  which  case  it 
was  quite  impossible  to  keep  him  away  from  the  object  of  his 
affections.  Some  people  liked  it,  but  others  did  not ;  and  when  one 
young  lady  was  actually  afraid  of  him,  ho  appreciated  her  atti- 
tude, and  not  only  resented  it  by  angry  barking  grunts,  but  con- 
trived again  and  again  to  surprise  her,  by  stealing  up  behind  her 
chair  and  suddenly  pouncing  upon  her.  Of  course,  she  shrieked, 
and  he  squealed  and  grunted  and  ran  out  his  tongue  at  her. 
With  his  friends  he  was  troublesomely  affectionate,  insisting  on 
being  held,  on  lap,  arm,  or  shoulder,  and  following  them  from 
room  to  room,  in  a  long,  droll  gallop  on  the  floor,  or  by  jumping 
from  chair  to  table,  and  sometimes  to  their  backs  as  they  passed. 

Almost  every  sound  the  creature  uttered  reminded  one  of  a 
pig.  Going  about  the  room  contentedly,  he  constantly  made  a 
low  sound  represented  by  "  oof  I "  or  "  woof ! "  with  the  tone  and 
•<;cent  of  the  animal  mentioned  ;  when  anxious  to  get  out  of  his 
cage,  the  grunt  was  double,  like  the  drawing  in  and  expulsion  of 
the  breath  in  the  same  tone,  varied — as  has  been  said — by  a  little 
explosive  sound.  His  bark  even  was  of  a  piggish  quality.  When 
angry  or  hurt-,  he  delivered  a  squeal  and  grunt  together  impossible 
to  characterize ;  and  if  rubbed  and  caressed,  he  breathed  out  a 
loud,  rough  purr.  His  cry  of  loneliness  was  truly  piteous ;  I  heard 
it  fw'/'fviit.nnlU-  through  the  register.  It  was  a  sobbing,  dismal 
B(t>  iii'i*  half  a  howl,  sometimes  with  a  retching  sound. 

In  '  la  small  round  hole  of  a  quarter-inch 

HiK  uis  very  flexible  lips.    If  this  cry  is  a 


584 


TUE  POPVLAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


common  indulgcmce  of  his  tribe  ia  the  wiltls  of  Madagiwcary  I 
not  wonder  that  tlio  people  are  saperstitious  about  thcim,  and  call 
them  "  ghoBts  "  or  "  specters."  Ko  lament  can  be  imagined  more 
weird  and  torturing  to  the  nerves.  At  first,  when  TV'  my  pet 
cry  thus,  I  ran  hastily  down-Btaira^  thinking  somt-  i  ,^  eadfal 
had  happonod  ;  but  the  instant  his  eye  foil  upon  me,  the  rogne 
changed  his  wails  into  the  grunt  of  recognition,  and  a  demand  to 
bo  let  outb 

When,  after  ^ye  hours  of  revels  that  kept  his  audience  In 
shrieks  of  laughter  or  in  terror  for  hia  life,  the  time  came  for  him 
to  go  to  bed,  and  his  wire-gauze  door  was — in  spite  of  his  remon- 
strance— closed  upon  him,  it  was  curious  to  see  him  prepare  for 
jiight.  His  bed  was  in  a  round  wooden  box,  fastened  upon  tho 
Ide  of  his  cage,  lined  and  covered  with  blankets,  Bometimes  he 
lay  on  his  back,  his  head  hanging  out  upside  down,  and  two  legs 
sticking  out  at  awkward  angles ;  occasionally  his  arms  wero 
thrown  over  his  head,  and  his  hands  clung  to  the  edge  of  the  box. 
But  usually,  after  a  long  preparation  of  fur-dressing,  he  placed 
his  head  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  face  down,  and  then  disposed 
his  body  around  it,  wriggling  and  twisting  and  turning,  till  bo 
was  satisfied,  when  he  was  seen  lying  on  his  side,  his  bead  not 
under  him  as  would  be  expected,  aud  his  tail  curled  neatly  around. 
Sometimrs,  after  long  and  elaborate  arrangement  of  himself,  when 
one  would  not  expect  him  to  move  before  morning,  ho  suddenly- 
started  up  and  came  out  as  bright  and  lively  as  if  ho  never 
dreamed  of  going  to  sleep.  But  more  often,  when  ho  hn/1  thus 
composed  himself,  the  heavy  blanket  was  dropped  before  his  doot^ 
the  lights  were  turned  out,  and  he  was  left  for  the  night. 


RECENT  ECONOMIC  CHANGES. 

Bt  Ucw.  DAVID  A,  WELLS. 

THE  readers  of  "  The  Popular  Science  Monthly  "  '-* '  * 
the  interesting  series  of  papers  communicate  . 
during  the  years  1887  and  1888  by  Mr.  David  A.  "Weils ;  in  whioli 


were  traced  out,  and  exhibited  in  something  like 
the  causes  end  extent  of  tho  wonderful  industr 
changes  and  accompanyi'  '.vliich  1 

characterized  the  last  fii;.i..  ..  :..  ...^.  yearM  . 
history.    It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  economic 


,1^.. 


a 

■r 


m  rec 


'1  either  n^ide  of  Ui 
A  oro  read  bv  ceo  m&ni 


V    ■ 

a'  .  more  at 

Boch  interest  and  profit 

It  aiTords  us  ploararo  now  lu  £iaie  thai,  bxuc 


RECSNT  ECONOMIC  CHANGES. 


» 


I 
I 


publication  in  this  journal,  these  papoT8  have  been  in  great  part 
rewritten  by  the  author,  and  in  all  rovnsod  and  brought  up  to  the 
latest  date ;  and  are  now  nearly  ready  for  publication  in  book 
form  by  Messrs.  D.  Appleton  &  Co,,  under  the  title  of  "  Recent 
Economic  Changes,  and  their  Eiloct  on  the  Production  and  Dis- 
tribution of  Wealth  and  the  Well-being  of  Society/* 

From  advanced  sheets  wo  are  enabled  to  lay  before  o^^^  roadora 
the  following  illustrations  of  the  quality  of  the  new  material  that 
Mr,  Wells  has  incorporated  in  his  forthcoming  voluma — Editok. 

ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  8KQUKNCB  OF  TRUSTS. 

It  was  formerly  a  general  assumption  that,  when  price  no 
longer  equaled  the  coat  of  production  and  a  fair  profit  on  capital, 
production  would  be  restricted  or  suspended ;  that  the  less  favored 
producers  would  be  crowded  out,  and  by  the  relief  thus  afforded 
to  the  market  normal  prices  would  be  again  restored.  But  this 
doctrine  is  no  longer  applicable  to  the  modem  methods  of  produc- 
tion. Those  engaged  in  great  industrial  enterprises,  whether  they 
form  joint-stock  companies  or  are  simply  wealthy  individuals,  are 
invested  with  such  economic  powers  that  none  of  them  can  bo 
easily  piishe<l  to  the  wall,  inasmuch  as  they  can  continue  to  work 
under  conditions  that  would  not  permit  a  small  producer  to  exist. 
Examples  are  familiar  of  joint-stock  companies  that  have  mado 
no  profit  and  paid  no  dividends  for  years,  and  yet  continue  active 
oijerations.  The  ahareholders  are  content  if  the  plant  is  kept  up 
and  the  working  capital  preserved  intact,  and,  even  when  this  is 
not  done,  they  prefer  to  submit  to  assessments,  or  issue 'prefer- 
ence shares  and  take  them  up  themselves  rather  than  go  into 
liquidation,  with  the  chance  of  losing  their  whole  capitaL  An- 
other feature  of  such  a  condition  of  things  is,  that  the  war  of  com- 
petition in  which  auch  industrial  enterprises  are  usually  engaged  ifi 
mainly  carried  on  by  a  greater  and  greater  ortonsion  of  the  mar«- 
ket  supply  of  their  products.  An  illustration  of  this  is  afforded 
in  the  recent  history  of  the  production  of  copper.  When  in  1885 
the  United  States  produced  and  put  on  to  the  niarkf*t  Reventy-four 
thousand  tons,  aa  against  forty  thousand  tons  in  ISS*?,  the  world's 
prices  of  copper  greatly  declined.  A  large  number  of  the  smaller 
producers  w  pelled  to  suspend  operations,  or  wisre  entirely 

cruslied;  !*'■  aiat  Si>anish  and  other  important  mines  en- 

Hkvored  ''to  otf^t  the  diminution  of  profit  on  the  imit  of  quan- 
BBy"by  increa*-:-  -  **  -r  production;  and  thus  the  price  of  cop- 
per continnwl  I  until  it  reached  a  lower  figure  than  ever 

I       t  ^.w,-,..  ^^'-f"9frial  over-production — mani* 

pew'  11  to  effect  sales,  and  a  rod uc- 

'  o£  pr*xlaction— may  become  chronic ; 


THS  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTBLT. 


aud  tlicre  appears  to  be  no  other  means  of  avoiding  auch 
th«an  that  the  great  producers  should  come  to  some  understandinip; 
among  themselves  as  to  the  prices  they  will  a&k;  which  in  tarn 
naturally  implies  agreements  as  to  the  ext-ent  to  which  they  will 
produce.  Up  to  this  point  of  procedure  no  exception  on  the  part 
of  society  can  well  ho  taken.  But  such  an  agreement,  onco  per- 
fected and  carried  out,  admits  of  an  almost  entire  '  '  '  u'IM 
and  the  establishment  of  monopolies,  in  the  manag«  .  ich 
the  rights  of  the  public  may  be  wholly  ignored.  Society  had 
practically  abandone*! — and  from  the  very  necessity  ot  the  case 
has  got  to  abandon,  unless  it  proposes  to  war  against  progrosa  and 
civilization — the  prohibition  of  industrial  concentrations  and  com- 
binations. The  world  demands  abundance  of  commodities,  and 
demands  thorn  cheaply;  and  experience  shows  that  it  can  have 
them  only  by  the  employment  of  great  capital  upon  the  most  ox- 
tensive  scale.  The  problem,  therefore,  which  society  under  thid 
condition  of  affairs  has  presented  to  it  for  solution  is  a  difficult 
Lone,  and  twofold  in  its  nature.  To  the  producer  the  ■  of 
importance  is,  How  can  competition  be  restricted  to  .'.^ut 
Bufilcient  to  prevent  its  injurious  excesses  F  To  the  consmner. 
How  can  combination  be  restricted  so  as  to  secure  ltd  adrantagee 
and  at  the  same  time  curb  its  abuses  ? 

Another  cause  of  the  so-called  over-production  is  undoubtedly 
due  to  an  agency  which  has  never  before  in  the  history  of  the 
world  been  operative  to  the  extent  that  it  is  at  present.    With  the 
great  increase  of  wealth  that  has  followed  the  increased  control 
over  the  forces  of  luituroand  their  utilization  for  prodnction  and 
distribution,  there  has  come  a  desire  to  convert  this  wealth  into 
Uhe  form  of  negotiable  securities  paying  dividends  or  intenjst  with 
iTegularityj  and  on  the  recipiency  of  which  the  owner  i^an  live 
without  personal  exertion    or   risk   of  the  principal    Hcnoo  ai 
yptimulus  for  the  undertaking  of  new  entcrpn"  "     h  can  czB-i 

IWte  and  market  such  securities;  and  these  cj.  ^  'Sy  whel 
in  the  nature  of  new  railroad,  majiufacturing,  or  mining 
porations,  once  developed,  must  go  on  producing  and  selling 
their  products  or  services  with  or  without  a  profit  in  order  to 
meet  their  obligations  and  command  a  sharo  of  previously  exiat* 
ing  trade.  Production  elsewhere,  as  a  consequence,  is  ■-'-'' red 
with,  displaced,  and  in  not  a  few  cases,  by  reason  of  I  .  ii- 

tions,  permanently  undersold.    And  the  general  result  is  appro- 
priately recognize<l  by  tlie  t«rm  **  over-production." 

Furthermore,  in  anticipation  of  such  con»oqaenc««t  the  tand-^i 
jAiKiy  and   the  interest  of  every  suc-cessful  raanufivcti  ra- 

DUUhtion  are  to  put  the  prices  of  its  products  do%v?i   :  -nA 

Bpisre  it  will  not  pay  for  spoculatora  to  form  n 
fliook  companies  to  be  bought  off  or  croahed  by  IL    i'  t^M 


RECENT  ECONOMIC  CHANGES, 


keep  up  high  profit-assuring  prices,  one  of  two  things  would 
eventually  liappeu :  either  new  factories  would  bo  started ;  or  the 
inventive  spirit  of  the  age  would  devise  cheaper  methods  of  pro- 
duction, or  some  substitute  for  the  product  they  furnished,  and 
80  ruin  the  first  combination  beyond  the  possibility  of  redemp- 
tion. And  Lence  we  havu  here  another  permanent  agency,  an- 
tagonistic to  the  maintenance  of  high  and  remunerative  prices. 

CrRIOUS  CHANGES  IX  PRICES,  j 

The  record  of  extreme  changes  in  prices,  by  reason  of  circumJ 
stauces  that  are  acknowledged  to  have  been  purely  exceptional,' 
is  iJso  most  instructive,  and  removes  not  a  few  commodities  from 
the  domain  of  any  controverte<I  economic  theory  respecting  mone- 
tary influences. 

The  price  of  manufactured  Mediterranean  coral — the  trade  in 
which  is  extensive— has  been  greatly  depressed  in  recent  years  by 
reason  of  the  discovery  of  new  banks  of  coral  on  the  coast  of 
Sicily,  from  which  the  raw  material  has  been  obtained  moati 
cheaply,  and  in  large  excess  of  demand.  The  consequent  decline' 
in  prices  has,  however,  opened  new  markets  in  Africa,  where  the 
natives  now  purchase  coral  ornaments  in  place  of  beads  of  Vene- 
tian and  German  manufacture. 

Few  commodities  have  fluctuated  more  violently  in  price  in 
recent  years,  or  more  strikingly  illustrate  the  degree  to  which 
supply  and  demand  predominate  over  all  other  agencies  in  deter- 
mining pnce,  than  the  vegetable  product  luops.  In  1881  there  was 
an  almost  universal  crop  failure,  and  the  highest  grade  of  English 
hops  (East  Kent)  commanded  700s.  per  cwt.  In  18S(i  the  German 
Hop-Growers'  Association  estimated  the  quantity  grown  through- 
out the  world  at  93,340  tons,  and  the  annual  consumption  at  only 
S3p200  tons,  so  that  there  was  an  excess  of  production  over  con- 
sumption for  that  year  of  nearly  10,000  tons.  As  might  have  been 
expected,  there  was  a  notable  decline  in  the  world's  prices  for  hops, 
and  the  same  quality  of  English  hops  which  commanded  700.9.  per 
cwt.  in  1882  sold  for  745.  in  1887,  and  in  June,  1888,  for  08.?.  Later 
in  the  year,  with  unfavorable  harvest  reports,  the  price  advanced 
to  1475.  i 

DIAMOKDS.  ' 

Tho  recent  price  experience  of  diamonds  is  in  the  highest  de- 
gree interesting.  Diamonds  were  first  discovered  in  South  AfricA 
about  the  year  1SG8,  and  a  business  of  searching  (mining)  for  them 
immetiiately  sprang  up.  At  the  outset  the  mining  was  conducted 
by  individuals,  but,  in  consequence  of  the  expense,  the  work  grad- 
ually ar^l  "•■■ — -.— ii.'  Mjissed  into  the  control  of  joint-stock  com- 
paniee  .  r  large  CApital ;  and  it  was  not  until  1880 

I  that  opuri»tiunA  khx  u  gi^Mit  scale  were  undertaken.    The  result  of 


^t^^^^'SE  POPULAR  S€I£yCS  MONTHLY.  ^^^M 

this  improved  sjBiem,  conjoined  with  nnder^ound  ti?  aa 

auch  aa  iucrease  in  the  output  of  diamonds  that  an  ovu;  ^  .j  j..y  to 
tho  market  and  a  serious  reduction  in  price  became  imminont; 
and  the  period  of  1883-'84  was,  in  fact,  one  of  falling  prices  and 
intense  competition  among  the  various  producing  companies,  dorw 
ing  which  the  leading  companieB  paid  little  or  nothing  to  their 
shareholders,  and  some  entirely  suspended  operations.*   <"  t-d 

disaster  was,  however,  finally  arrested  through  a  prui  in- 

solidation  of  all  the  companies  for  the  purpose  of  controUing 
product  and  prices;  and  a  re\nval  in  demand  having  occurred 
about  the  same  time,  average  prices  were  advanced  between  1885 
and  1887  from  305,  bd.  per  carat  to  23«.  7icL 

Tho  value  of  the  diamonds  exi>ortod  from  South  Africa  since 
the  first  discovery  of  the  mines,  or  from  18(18  to  1887,  is  believed 
to  have  been  between  £40,0{K),OCK)  and  X46,0(Ki,Oai.i  {§'^00,000,000  tO 
$225,000,000),  of  which  about  X15,500,0CK)  ($77,600,000)  represente 
tho  value  of  the  output  from  1883  to  1887.  Very  curiously,  this 
largo  export  of  value — nearly  all  in  the  first  instance  ^  '"  '  iid 
— seems  to  find  no  distinctive  place  in  the  columns  of  i ■_  _  :  ^  im- 
ports, although  they  have  served  in  a  large  measure  to  cnahla 
South  Africa  to  pay  for  her  imports  of  British  and  other  foreign 
products.  If  tho  export  of  diamonds  from  South  Africa  to  Sa- 
rope  has  aggregated  £45,000,000  ($235,000,000)  in  the  rough,  tho 
process  of  cutting  may  be  regarded  as  having  increased  thoir  niu<> 
ket  value  full  one  hundred  per  cent,  or  to  £00,000,000  (or  HST^ 
000,000) — a  greater  value  than  the  yield  of  the  world  during  thfl 
two  preceding  centuries.  The  aggregate  weight  of  the  entire  dia- 
mond product  of  the  South  African  mines  up  to  1887  is  estimated 
at  38,000,000  carats,  or  over  seven  and  a  half  tons. 

Of  tlxis  immense  product  there  is  good  reason  for  believing 
that  a  very  large  proportion  found  a  market  in  the  Unit^ni  States. 
According  to  tho  customs  returns,  the  value  of  the  un»et  di^ 
monds  which  were  imported  into  the  United  States,  and  paid  dutj, 
from  1877  to  1887  inclusive,  was  in  excess  of  160,000,000;  and  it 
can  hiirdly  be  doubtttd  that  an  efpial  or  larger  >  ■     :*      -  ^-in 

of  unset  stones  and  jewelry  escaped  during  th  ,  he 

cognizance  of  the  revenue  officials.  The  value  of  the  preaeni 
annual  import  of  precious  stones  not  set — mainly  dia:  '  -is 
about  ♦10,0<:m>,000.     In  1808  the  annual  value  of  a  con  .iig 

import  was  about  $l,OOO,0C»0.    These  data,  imi>erfect  as  they  are. 


i 


I 


*  TliQ  **  Kimbcrlj  C«ntnl  Compmny  **— tlu  Ittdtas  orj^snlnllaz^— which  twtxn 
IB83  incrvaM^  Us  diviJcDd  frotn  tea  to  thill j  per  cent,  p«iil  nuthUig  to  It*  ihar«4.  n^cra 
during  1884  ftnil  1886,  and  at  th«  doM  of  IfiSft  wu  ouIt  ftblit  to  dcoUre  «  dlTidend  U  ft*« 
pn  ornu    Ti  "•«  i»wtm.\»^ 


Uld  p«|rl  for 


il«CUit 


•WfHHaiW  piuU  iwUuu^  4tinii|{  Utc  nuiio  jfcrivU,  uiti  MUie  cuuwl^f  tM*^i.>w<U  biiibai^ 


i 


I 


^ 


afford  some  indication  of  the  rapid  increaae  in  wealth  in  recent 
years  among  the  people  of  the  United  States. 

We  have,  therefore,  in  this  oxperionce,  the  phenomenon  of  the 
strangely  persistent  value  of  a  comparatively  useless  gem,  during 
a  period  when  the  prices  of  most  other  commodities  were  dimin- 
ishing by  leaps  and  bounds,  as  well  as  the  extraordinary  concur- 
rent absorbent  power  of  the  world  for  a  greatly  increased  product* 
But  the  demand  for  diamonds  latterly  is  thought  not  to  have  kept 
pace  with  their  increasing  production ;  and  it  is  said  that  the  stock 
of  diamonds  in  the  hands  of  dwilers  in  1888  was  fully  twenty-five 
per  cent  in  excess  of  their  requirements.  To  meet  and  neutralize 
the  influence  of  this  condition  of  affairs,  the  South  African  dia- 
mond-mining companies  have  limited  pro<luction,  which  for  the 
time  has  advanced  prices.  But  the  tendency  obviously  is  for  dia- 
monds to  decline  in  value ;  and  tho  wonder,  indeed,  is  that  this  has 
not  happened  at  an  earlier  date.  "  One  thing,  furthermore,  seems  ■ 
certain,  and  that  is,  that  when  the  breakdown  of  si)oculation  andJ 
prices  does  occur,  the  consequences  will  be  singular  and  far-reach- 
ing. For  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  for  the  most  part  the  u&o  of 
diamonds  is  a  mere  whim  of  fashion,  that  may  change  at  any 
time.  There  is  no  way  of  stimulating  the  demand  for  them,  ex- 
cept by  lowering  prices,  and,  of  course,  if  prices  were  materially 
reduced,  the  wealthy  votaries  of  fashion  would  inevitably  cease 
to  wear  diamonds,  and  would  take  up  some  other  form  of  per- 
sonal adornment."*  The  price  experience  of  diamonds  in  the 
near  future  promises,  therefore,  to  be  even  more  interesting  than 
it  has  been  in  tho  recent  ])ast. 

In  the  United  States  during  recent  years  there  has  been  a  re- 
markable decline  in  the  price  of  hides  and  in  certain  descriptions 
of  leather ;  "  Buenos  Ayres  "  hides  having  sold  in  May,  1889,  at  the 
lowest  figures  for  thirty  years,  while  the  leather  trade  generally 
has  been  depressed  and  unsatisfactory.  The  agency  occasioning 
the  first  result  is  ascribed  to  the  great  increase  in  the  supply  of 
domestic  hides  consequent  upon  a  notable  extension  of  the  Ameri- 
can (Western)  cattle  industry ;  and,  in  the  case  of  the  second,  to 
an  over-production  and  decline  in  demand  for  upper-leather,  in 
consequence  of  a  change  in  fashion,  whereby  lighter  grades  of 
foot-wear  have  supplemented  the  use  of  *'  leg-boots," 


CHAXOES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  CONDITIONS  IS  TROPICAL  COUNTRIES. 

TliG  improvements  in  recent  years  in  the  production  of  sugai 
from  tho  boot,  and  tho  artificial  encoxiragement  of  this  industi 
in  the  continental  states  of  Europe  through  the  payment  of  lai'ge 
bor-'      '  ..    '    t  .oiled th.'  '  ^  it,-ars 

Uandon  i.  i  i^ing» 

*  LooduQ  "  Ecouomiflt." 


590 


and  reorganize  tliis  indiistry  on  a  most  gigantic  scale  as  a  oondi< 
tion  of  continued  existence.  Thns,  for  example,  althouiBrb  tho 
business  of  cane-sugar  production  waa  commenced  more  than 
three  hundred  years  ago  on  the  island  of  Cuba,  the  grinding  of 
the  cane  by  animal  or  "  wind"  power,  and  the  boiling  and  gTB&a- 
lating  by  ancient,  slow,  and  wasteful  methods,  were  everywhere 
kejtt  up  until  within  a  very  recent  period,  as  they  still  are  by  small 
planters  in  every  tropical  country.  But  at  the  present  time,  ujxin 
tho  great  plantations  of  Cuba  and  some  other  countries,  tho  cane 
is  conveyed  from  the  fields  by  a  system  of  railroads  to  nv  i  r- 

ing  centers,  which  are  really  huge  factories,  with  all  ti-.  _  oo- 
teristics  of  factory  life  about  them,  and  with  the  former  home  or 
rural  idea  connected  with  this  industry  completely  •''  ".'d. 

In  these  factories,  where  the  first  cost  of  the  raachin  _  _  lut 
often  represents  as  large  a  sum  as  $200,000  to  $250,000,  with  an 
equally  large  annual  outlay  for  labor  and  other  expenses,  all 
grades  of  sugar  from  the  "  crude  "  to  tho  "  partially  refined  "  are 
manufactured  at  a  cost  that  once  would  not  hare  been  deomod 
possible.  In  Dakota  and  Manitoba  the  employment  on  single 
wheat  estates  of  a  hundred  reapers  and  an  aggregate  of  three  hun- 
dred laborers  for  a  season  has  been  regarded  as  som  n- 
precedeuted  in  agricultural  industry;  but  on  one  sugai  ^.  . —  in 
Cuba—"  El  Balboa  "^f rom  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  handjt, 
invariably  negroes,  are  employed,  who  work  under  sev  "'  -i- 
plino,  in  watches  or  relays,  during  the  grinding  seas*  ,:  ij 
and  night,  the  same  as  in  the  large  iron-mills  and  furnaces  of  the 
Unit^  States  and  Europe.  At  the  same  time  II-  fn w  village 
communities  where  a  like  number  of  people  v>_  •  Ihosazne 
care  and  surveillance.  The  male  workers  occupy  quarters  walled 
and  barricaded  from  the  women,  and  the  women  from  the  men. 
There  are  in  every  village  an  infirmury,  a  lying-in  hospital,  a  phy- 
sician, an  apothecary,  a  chapel,  and  priest.  At  ni^^ht  and  morning 
mass  is  said  in  chapel,  and  tho  crowds  are  always  large.  There 
is  of  a  Sumlay  less  restraint,  though  ceaseless  cj*pionaj?c  is  never 
remitted.    On  these  days  and  iu  parts  of  )                                  -le 

mirth,  ruder  music,  and  much  dancing.     : ,:     ..  ^-   tin 

►mewhat  in  detail,  because  it  illustrates  how  all-pervading  and 
tremendous  are  the  forces  that  are  modifying  ?-     '  ^-. 

in  civilized,  partially  civilized,  and  evon  barbai  Q- 

jointly  with  the  new  conditions  of  production  and  ooiummption. 


Tni  English  Society  for  Promoting  tho  Growth  of  Indnstrin!  Yillnw  ItM 
formed  to  rotintcract  the  tendency  of  worklnpmen  to  lif 
«luni9  of  oieiedi,  and  to  cncounig«  aaburtjiiii  8i'ttK<n)pnt° 
tratton  of  tbo  pTuctJcal  workinu  of  thU  thonght,  tlw  - 
firm  in  London,  whirh  ha»  r  "  *  !     '       ' 

nutertttl  to  tbum  to  b«  reti. 


h0 


4 


TITB  SURFACE  TENSION  OF  LTQUTDS. 


59* 


I 


I 
I 


M  THE  SURFACE  TENSION  OF  LIQUIDS. 

^^^P  fir  W.  IL  LABRABEE. 

WHAT  13  it  tliat  keeps  a  drop  of  water  in  shape ;  that  enables 
it  to  resist  a  considerabli?  pressure  or  blow  before  it  will 
collapse  into  a  spatter ;  that  holds  it  in  its  integrity  to  a  leaf  or 
the  eaves  till  it  is  mature  to  fall,  while  it  still  maintains  its 
round,  independent  individuality  ?  Whatever  the  power  is,  it 
appears  yet  more  distinctly  in  a  globule  of  mercury,  which  will 
not  bo  hammered  out  of  shape  or  compelled  to  spread.  Dr. 
Thomas  Young  conceived,  for  the  explanation  of  this  and  somo 
other  phenomena  exhibited  by  small,  isolated  liquid  masses,  the 
idea  of  their  being  surrounded  by  a  thin,  elastic  membrane,  less 
dense  than  tlio  deeper  parts  of  the  drop,  and  capable  of  adhering 
perfectly  to  them,  and  more  or  less  strongly  to  solid  bodies.  It 
seemed  capable  of  opposing  a  certain  resistance  to  being  rent,  and 
this  was  called  its  superllcial  tension.  Some  curious  movements 
take  place  when  certain  solid  substances  are  cast  upon  water,  to 
account  for  which  Dutrochet  supposed  a  new  force,  which  he 
called  opi polio  force.  These  phenomena  of  the  drops,  the  "  opipolio 
force,"  the  calming  effettts  of  oil  on  storm-disturbed  water,  and  a 
variety  of  other  curious  actions  hitherto  unaccounted  for,  have 
lately  been  referred  to  this  pro|>erty  of  superficial  tension.  Tak- 
ing a  drop  of  water  as  tyincally  emboilying  the  property,  M.  K. 
Qossart  •  asserts  that  all  the  energies  of  nature  may  be  found  ia 
its  tenuous  envelope.  Besides  M.  Gossart,  studies  of  tlie  curious 
and  protean  properties  of  this  superficial  t<?nsion,  or  the  envelop© 
of  the  water-drop,  have  been  published  by  M.  H.  Dovaux  \  and  M. 
Van  der  Mensbrugghe.t  The  present  article  is  a  summary  of  some 
of  the  results  of  their  studies.  Regarding  water  in  a  vessel,  M.  Van 
der  Mensbrugghe  finds  that  whatever  may  once  have  been  thought 
on  the  subject,  it  is  not  equally  constituted  throughout.  Its  parti- 
cles are  solicited  by  attractive  forces  which  are  exhibited  when, 
upon  drawing  out  a  pencil  which  has  been  dipped  into  the  mass, 
a  drop  is  found  adhering  to  the  point.  If  this  drop  be  conceived 
to  be  cut  by  a  horizontal  plane,  all  the  parts  below  the  plane 
may  be  supposed  to  bo  sustained  by  those  which  are  above  it. 
It  is  also  acted  upon  by  repulsive  forces  tending  to  scatter  the 
particles,  tlie  effects  of  which  are  seen  in  evaiioration.    Wlien  the 

•  "A  Voyig^  On  lb"  PTirfflr^.  of  a  Drop  of  Water."    I^ecturc  before  the  Scientific  and 
tittimr;  Sodety  of  r  '1  iu  the  "  Rome  Sdcntiaque,"  1B87. 

♦  *  St>fjQUrjcou3   '  '..f  cortslu  Bodies  on  th«  Surface  of  some  Liquid*,"  "L* 
Kit  J 

;    .  1 1  T.^iiiii.ifi  "    I-  i-r.r^  >..  r^irti  the  Belgian  Sooietj  of  Xlerosoopf,  Uarcfa  8, 


59« 


MONTULr, 


attractive  and  ropulsivo  forces  are  at  wiuilibrittm  within  tLo 
liquid,  there  ia  supposed  to  bo  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
free  surface  a  tendency  to  the  dispersion  of  the  particles  vhich  ia 
constantly  opposed  by  the  attractive  forces.  Tlie  condition  of  the 
miporficial  layer  may  be  compared  with  that  of  a  thin,  chistic 
membrane  under  stretch,  the  cohesion  of  which  constantly  op- 
poses itself  to  a  more  considerable  elongation.  Tlie  ;al 
layer  of  a  liquid  is  thus  subject  to  a  contractile  force  >  _  ;  la, 
by  virtue  of  which  it  tends  to  become  as  small  as  possihlo.  M. 
Gopsart,  comparing  the  relative  situation  of  two  molecnlcs,  A 
witliiu  the  drop,  and  B  at  its  surface,  against  the  air  or  another 
liquid  or  a  solid  body,  shows  that  each  molecule  is  attroctod  by 
the  others  only  from  a  certain  distance  (less  than  ten  thousandth 
of  a  millimetre),  which  is  as  formidably  great  to  it  as  it  seemfl 
little  to  us.  Those  molecules  which  are  at  a  greater  distance 
from  A  and  B  will  have  no  more  action  upon  them  than  the  stars 
have  upon  our  sun,  earth,  and  planets.  Regarding  those  spheres 
alone.  A,  equally  solicited  iu  all  directittns  by  an  equal  number 
of  molecules,  will  be  free  in  its  mo%'onientB,  and  obedient  to 
Pascal's  principle;  while  B  has  not  the  same  surrounding  tn 
every  dii-ection.  Hence  a  kind  of  rarefaction  which  extends  to 
only  a  slight  depth  in  the  drop;  and  hence  al.^o.  nn  tlir-  surfAco, 
the  elastic  membranous  or  resistant  quality. 

This  property  is  illustratcKl  in  some  exj-    "  -.U  by 

M.  Van  dor  Mensbrugghe.    Take  two  penci .  .  :^hould 

be  of  light  wood  and  thinner  than  the  other  (Fig.  1) ;  place  them 
alongside  and  in  contact;  drop  a  little  clear  water  in  the  angle 
between  them,  so  as  to  moisten  tlio  line  of  contact.  There  will  bo 
formed  a  slight  liquid  mass,  adherent  to  both  pencils,  of  concsTO 
outline,  the  section  of  which  ia  represented  by  a  ^  in  the  comer 
diagram  of  Fig.  1.  The  lighter  pencil  will  hang  from  Ihrtolhiar 
by  virtue  of  the  tension  of  the  concave  surface^s  ah,\  ad 

either  side  of  the  line  of  contact.  With  the  pencils  t%\  l  . , .  ■-.  v  ..li- 
metres  long,  a  weight  of  eighteen  hundred  nulligrammee  may  bo 
sustained  in  this  way.  In  a  second  experiment,  a  ring  of  copper 
wire  a  millimetre  thick  and  three  and  one  quarter  inchee  in 
diameter,  is  laid  carefully  upon  the  surface  of  pure  water,  when 
— ifeverythii     '  '      ^  in — it  will  float,  as  in  Fir  *^q 

(I,  and  tliis,  i  ..  copper  is  8'8  times  he:i  m 

water.  This  takes  place  because  all  tlie  texudoos  of  the  liquid 
!V---  -:^v   ,.,_._-__    ,.  :    wardwBultart      ^  -■-  - 

ligrTiiiiuiPBT' 
uphold,  while  the  maximum  olFect  of  the  tei  id 

aeven  hundred  and  seventy  milligramir.'"'" 
weight  of  the  ring.    Needles,  globule.^ 
Itlatinum,  etc.,  may  be  similarly  mflde  to  iloat  on  waar.  ^| 


4 


4 
I 


THE  SURFACE  TENSION  OF  LIQUIDS, 


S93 


In  a  third  experiment  a  strip  of  thin,  unglaze<i  paper,  say  six 
inches  and  three  (juarters  long  by  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  is  folded 
|6o  a«  to  form  u  Ikix  ur  trough,  ua  represented  in  the  lower  part  of 
f!Fig.  8.  Set  the  box  on  a  table>  moisten  the  inner  faces  with  a  wet 
imsli,  and  pour  in  water  from  an  inch  or  two  above.  The  tension 
of  the  liquid  surface  will  at  ouce  bring  the  long  sides  of  the  bo3 
together,  and  the  vessel  will  thus  shut  upon  itself. 


L— AuusKKSci  or  unb  rsAcii.  Tu  A!toTueu  lit  TUX  I'KKMiux  uy  CuMCATc  SusTAcn  or 

Watkil 

Again,  take  a  cylindrical  cork  of  about  wine-bottle  hizo  ;  fix  in 

th«  cent«r  of  one  end  a  fine  iron  wire  terminating  in  a  hook  or 

pan  to  hold  ballant.     In  the  other  end  fix  a  ring  about  four  inches 

|ln  diameter,  lifted  on  branching  supports  as  in  Fig.  4.     Plunge 

the  apparatus  into  a  vessel  containing  a  suitable  d«'j)th  of  water. 

With  a  proper  weight  of  ballast,  the  cork  will  assume  a  vertical 

[position,  and  will  ride  only  to  a  certain  distance  above  the  level  of 

the  water.    But  if  the  whole  is  pushed  down  into  the  liquid  and 

left  there,  the  ring  will  not  again  clear  itself  from  the  water;  it 

|will  only  riso  a  little  above  its  level,  producing  a  double  concave 

leniscus.    In  this  ciise  the  effect  of  superficial  tension  is  to  give 

ise  to  a  downward  resultant  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  in- 

rreaiw  of  the  upward  flinist.    If  the  ballast  is  managed  so  that 

kd  exoetss  of  this  resultant  is  but  slight,  on  the  application  of 

>ther  by  a  wad  or  sponge.,  the  effect  of  which  will  be  to  diminish 

^'  •  '    .      ■  the  ring  will  rise  from  the 

1  -riginal  position. 

In  a  iient  a  square  frame  of  wire  is  dip|)ed  into  a 


50+ 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTk 


mixture  of  soap  and  sugar  with  water.  On  witJidrawing  the 
Frninti  its  inner  spaco  will  bo  {wcupiod  with  a  (lut  Olui  of  so  littb 
weight  tliut  it  docs  not  visibly  sa^;.  but  be?comes  uion*  (on.st*  ais  il 
18  attenuated.  A  closed  contour  of  cotton  or  silk  thread  laiil  Ujvm 
the  film  will  lie  in  any  form  bo  long  as  the  film  ia  wholv  and  it» 
tension  equal  in  every  direction.     But  the  instant  it  is  broken 


Fio.  ».— Corrm  Kufa  rwATixa  oit  mt  SuKTAtnt  ur  Watol 

within  the  contour  the  thread  will  stretch  iin<l  i»ssun)»-  "far 

form  as  in  Fig.  5,  under  the  influence  of  the  outward  i-  uf 

the  rest  of  the  film.  It  takes  the  shape  in  which  it  bounds  as 
great  a  surface  as  its  length  permits*,  which  is  thai  of  a  circle. 
Prof.  Sch<>entjeB  haa  varieti  upon  this  experiment  by  using,  instead 
of  a  simple  thread,  a  nystem  comiKJsed  of  |)ortion8  of  rectilinear 
solids  and  portions  of  arbitrary  form,  made  by  ]>a6sing  thn^atls 
loosely  thrcmgh  pieces  of  fine  straws  (as  in  the  object  lying  on  the 
Uihle  in  Fig.  5).  This  being  plucod  ui*oa  the  film  and  the  film 
pierced,  as  in  the  previous  experiment,  invariably  afisumc^il  a 
shape  in  which  all  the  loose  thread  portions  became  area  of  a 
ingle  circumference,  of  which  the  rectilinear  solid  pot  ho 

iraws)  constituted  chords — or  the  figure,  according  '  lt, 

of  the  maximum  surface  that  can  be  limited  by  a  contour  ao 
compose<1.     M.  Terquem  and  M.  OosKart*  1     '        '  '      "at 

one  or  m<»n'  poinl.s  f)utKi(b>  of  th(^  rnnUnir.  i  -lo 

into  lix»ps. 

M.   Gossjirt  has  fc^tmiied    tin?   prnshture  ot    V'  in* 

bran*^  surrounding  the  drop  of  watt*r,  and  its  v.  if- 

ferent  degrees  of  curvature^      Investigating  its  Iwharinr  in  a 


595 


lomogeneotis  medium,  he  takes  the  envelope  itsolf — a  drop  void  of 
^at-or,  or  ratlier  full  of  air — represented  for  convenience  of  mi^ 
ULpulation  by  a  soap-bubble,  and  consisting  of  two  films  separated 
»y  an  extremely  tliiu  mass  of  water.  The  pressure  is  the  same  in 
►very  part.,  and  the  curvature  uniform,  and  that  which  j^vos  the 
least  possible  surface — a  sphere.  The  pressure  is  strong  enough 
drive  tobacco-smoke  back  through  a  pijie-stem  or  to  blow  out  a 
mdle.  The  curved  film  may  be  deformed  by  passing  it  through 
*igid  frames,  but  it  will  always  preserve  a  geometrical  shape,  for 
it  can  not  continue  to  exist  except  upon  the  condition  of  exercis- 
ing an  wjual  pressure  throughout  upon  the  air  imprisoned  within 
It ;  but  some  of  the  shapes  it  will  assume  within  this  rule  are  very 
lurious. 

If  n  drop  of  wttt<?r  is  poured  upon  another  liquid,  it  is  still  im- 
prisone<l  in  its  contractile  sac,  but  in  one  having  two  walls  of 
unequal  elasticity ;  the  upper  wall  resting  against  the  air,  and  tho 
■lower  one  against  the  liquid.    The  line  of  suture  of  these  two 


Fio.  t.--A  Pafwi  Box  cLocma  irpo>  rmtLr  munt  Watkb  u  rorsn)  ntro  it. 

^alls  floats  in  three  different  media — air,  water,  and  the  subjacent 

iquid ;  or,  to  use  M.  Gossart's  figure,  it  is  like  a  cord  drawn  by 
ihree  different  forces,  which  are  represented  in  this  case  by  the 

ipper  and  lower  walls  of  the  sac  and  the  uncovered  membrane 
of  the  inferior  liquid,  pulling  against  one  another,  as  when  three 

»pes  are  pulled  by  three  men  of  unequal  strength.  Suppose,  as 
[he  extreme  case,  that  the  attraction  of  the  membrane  exterior  to 
;ho  drop  so  prevails  over  the  tension  of  the  two  walls  of  the  sac 
bt  they  can  not  rest  in  equilibrium.    Then  the  mui  will  be  drawn 


596 


THE  POPULAS  SCIgyCF  MONTm 


out,  and  all  the  superior  liquid  will  spread  in  an  infinitely  tliin 
luy^r  over  the  other.  Tliis  is  what  hap|Mf<ii>9  Ui  a  drop  of  oi!  * 
it  is  thrown  upon  water.  When  a  liquid  is  brought  in  • 
with  a  solid,  as  when  a  first  drop  of  wat«T  \3i  let  fall  upon  n  hori- 
zontal plate  of  glass,  tho  inclosing  sac  ia  flattencKl  whert*  it  us  In 
touch  with  the  ghiHs.and  bu!g»*8  where  it  is  in  contact  with  the  air. 
The  form  of  the*  sac  and  the  angle  of  ita  junction  with  the  glass 
are  determined  by  the  fact  that  the  two  teiisions  of  the  eavelopo* 


Fm  4.— An  laoK  Uiiio  ujiiso  bC£M  ruixoKD  chiikb  Wxteb,  uouioti  i^wn  ra»  Cteu  v* 

WSKW  IT  l>  ATTAOBSV. 

the  upper  and  lower,  should  balance  the  traction  of  the  exterior 
gl/i-ss  upon  the  cordon  separating  thora.  In  the  case  of  a  drop  of 
alrohol,  the  tensions  being  much  weaker,  can  not  resist  the  trac- 
tion of  the  glass,  and  the  liqui<i  spreads  out  at  onct?,  a«  aliw  haj>- 
pens  with  water  when  the  pinto  has  already  bt<»n  ^  '  -  r^L 
Mercury  opposes  a  very  strong  tension,  and  i)<  hardly  .  at 

al]  on  striking  the  gla^s.  A  drrip  of  water  ciist  upon  a  hot  plate 
also  exhibits  a  sui)erior  tension,  ami  assumes  the  Mpheroidal  statfs 
which  was  first  analyssed  in  18o<)  by  M.  Boutiguy,  of  Evreux.  He 
said, "  Bodies  in  a  spheroidal  state  are  bounded  by  a  film  of  mat- 
ter^ the  molecules  of  which  are  so  connected  tliat  we  can  coui|jArt* 
them  to  a  solid,  transparent,  very  thin,  very  elastic  envelope^ 
I      '    '  '  /  less  dense  than  the  f  *    i   protects  tlie  liquid  vrilhln 

\'  t  any  too  considorahl.  ■^'* 

This  force  of  sujierticial  tension  exists  and  b  tuni  lUl 

liquids,  but  in  different  (].  ^'  ' 

any  (»ther  of  the  roninmii 
been  measured^and  is  usually  expn^a«ed,in  miillgnamxii' 


TRFACE  TENSIO.y   OF  LIK 


597 


» 


taetre  of  superiicial  length,  at  *J0°  Fahr.,  as  7'5  for  distilled  water; 
4y  for  mercury;  4  for  glycerin;  S'O  for  olive-oil;  :i"8  for  soap- 
suds; 37  for  spirits  of  turjtentine:  2'(J  for  petroleum  ;  %'h  for  abBo- 
lule  alcoliol ;  aod  TKS  for  ether.  It  is  diminished  when  the  liquid 
ia  wanned,  and  is  weakened  and  even  destroyed  by  impurity.  M. 
Tepquem  has  determined,  from  observations  on  the  interference  of 
luminous  rays,  that  the  envelope  is  less  than  u.iTnr  ^^  ^  millime- 
tre thick. 

Curious  effects  appear  when  liquids  haviiig  different  superfi- 
oinl  ttinsions  are  brought  together,  and  when  solids  containing 
volatile  properties  are  thrown  upon  a  liquid.  With  two  liquids 
that  will  mix,  as  water  and  alcohol  or  ether,  the  tension  at  the 
point  of  contact  becomes  null,  and  the  lighter  fluid  sprearls  out 
over  the  other.    This  ia  followed,  according  to  M.  Van  der  Mens- 


Pio.  &— A.  CowTocn  OP  Siuum  Tiiiiiad  rxrAivniNO  into  a  Cibcu  wmbii  tuk  Ptur  ok  waicv 

IT  OAS  BUM   LAID   la   BBOXAI. 

bmgghe,  by  a  retreat  of  this  fluid  toward  tlie  point  where  it  wiw 
drop|jed,  in  consequence  of  an  increased  tension  given  to  that 
point  by  the  cotiling  that  follows  the  evaporation  of  the  dropped 
liquid.  If  the  liquitls  will  not  mingle,  as  when  oil  or  turpentine 
is  dropped  t^n  water,  the  drop  spreads  over  the  surface,  forming  a 
thin  layer  upon  it  which  is  marked  by  beautiful  plays  of  colors. 

M,  Devaux  exemplifies  one  of  these  effects  by  an  experiment 
(Fig.  H)  in  which  a  tin  boat,  having  a  notch  cut  in  the  stern,  is 
luuiM'hod  uj>on  the  water.  On  letting  a  drop  of  alcohol  fall  at 
the  notch,  tlio  bimt  moves  away  as  if  driven  by  some  repulsion, 
[Tbero  iu,  howover.  no  repulsion ;  but  the  tension  astern  has  been 


TUK  SURFACE   TENSION   OF  LIQUIDS. 


app«»ar  pwimming  over  thw  surface  of  tht«  morcury  (Fig.  7).  If, 
now,  wfi  breathe  continuously  from  one  side  upon  the  mercury, 
the  "tadpoles"  will  become  more  lively,  and  direct  themselves 
jipfainat  the  breath,  coming  up  to  the  very  edge  of  the  mercury. 
The  breath,  driving  the  vai>ors  back,  clezirs  a  Ppace  in  front  of  the 
'*  tadpole,"  leaving  the  tension  of  the  mercury  free  to  act  upon 
it  and  draw  it  forward,  while  it  clouds  the  r(*ar,  weakening  the 
tension. 

M.  Devaux  has  exemplifi**d  the  strength  and  jM^raistence  of  the 
t4?n8ioual  force  by  connecting  Ills  camphor-boat  with  a  float  in  the 
shape  of  a  watch-glaas.    The  movement  of  the  Iwat  continues,  car- 


Fia.  8.— Tdi  Boat  oAUiiita  *  Loadrh  Pmut  to  uo  bopnd  wttb  it. 

rying  the  float  around  while  it  is  loaded  with  weights  ri!*ing  to 
fifty  or  a  hundred  grammes,  and  even  t<j  a  kilogramme  (Fig.  8) ; 
and  if  forcibly  Htopf>ed,  it  will  1)egiD  again  when  the  obstacle  is 
removed. 

The  phenomena  of  capillary  attnwrtion  are  explained  under  the 
theory  of  superficial  tension.  The  liquid  rises  in  the  tubes  by  vir- 
tue of  the  adhesion  of  its  superficial  membrane  to  their  walls,  and 
to  a  less  height  in  the  larger  than  in  the  smaller  tubes  bfvause 
the  mass  of  the  liquid  to  be  raised  increases  more  rapidly  than 
the  power  of  the  membrane  to  sustain  it.  Just  as  the  tension  of 
a  liquid  is  dimini.she4l  by  adding  a  foreign  substance,  the  capillary 
force  of  a  tube  is  diminished  by  the  presence  of  a  foreign  vajjor. 
This  is  illustrate*!  by  M.  Devaux  as  in  Fig.  i),  where  water  rises 
to  the  great-est  height  in  the  tube  A,  which  was  fille<l  simply  with 
air,  to  a  less  height  in  E,  which  has  boen  charged  with  the  vapor 
of  ether,  and  to  a  still  less  height  in  C,  which  waa  occupied  with 
the  vapor  of  camphor. 

Other  energies  than  this  mechanical  energy  have  been  shown 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MOSTHLV. 


\~~    1 

2^      1 

■';«€-? 

iaa- 

1 

m 

■ 

■ 

H 

by  flifferont  invostigatora  to  resido  in  the  tliin  »•  ^ti«» 

water-drop;  acoustic  energy  by  M.  Savart^us  notio-  .    idi' 

of  water-drops,  the  envelopes  of  which  underwent  rhytlimical 
deformations;  calorific  energy,  due  to  the  dis   "  "      "le- 

cules  that  pass  from  the  surface  to  the  ranks,  -  1  lo 

the  saperficiui  layer;  luniinon>$ 
energy,  as  studied  by  Newtou. 
Boyks  Hooke.  Young,  and  Frca- 
nel  ;  and  electrical  energy,  as 
manifested  in  effects  that  bttVis 
lx»en  observed  by  M,  Liptnann— 
all  of  which,  accoRling  to  M. 
Goaaart^  are  transformable  one 
into  another  in  ac^^ordam^e  with 
the  law  of  conservation  of  force. 
A  drop  of  water  hangs  from 
1  leaf  or  the  eaves  of  a  house. 
Iield  up  a«  in  a  bag  by  its  su- 
perficial envelope.  It  conlinue^s 
-'y  increase  in  size  and  weight 
many  times  faster  than  the  ten- 
sion of  its  cordon  of  attachment 
is  re-enforced,  till  it  overcomes 
that  tension,  and  th*?n  it  falls ; 
and,  according  t-o  M.  Qossart, 
all  the  drops  of  water  that  full — 
of  themselves — are  of  the  same 
size.  The  drops  of  melted  metals,  whose  superficial  ti-*nsions  ar<^ 
enormous,  reach  correspondingly  enormous  magnitude^.  The  pa- 
rity of  liquids  can  be  determined  by  observing  the  size  of  the 
drops  they  give  ;  in  the  case  of  wines,  by  couutiug  the  numl>or  of 
drops  per  cubic  centimetre ;  for  the  superficial  tenaion  of  nil 
liquids  is  modified  by  adulteration. 

M.  Van  der  Mensl)rugghe  has  calculated  what  he  calb  the 
potentinl  energy  <''f  water,  on  the  basis  of  tb-  "its 

supi'rfifial  tension  at  7'5  milligramme-niillimei  t-  ilj. 

metre  of  free  surface.    This  is  resident  in  a  tilm  not  more  tbiui 
rr.Jrff  ^f  a  millimetre  thick.    Distributed  over  the  wh"'  .it 

give»5  an  amount  of  mechanical  force  which  we  havi  inii 

of  nccuratoly  calculating.     If  we  suppose  that  of  two  e<iuai  Hxx^ 
a'ijacent  superficial  layers  of  sea-water,  one  wa-*    -^    ' 
by  the  effect  of  the  wind,  for  »>xample,  the  hi 
lo«t»s  itst  free  surface,  and  with   it  its  projwir   p»i 
which   api>ears  again  in   an   increase  of  sj>ee<L 
oce-an  the  action  goes  on,  the  energies  of  the  sn 
being  extingubhed  as  to  them  and  tramtferred  tii 


Pto.  9  —Lmu  TO  WBICB  Water  ^c  ill  riai  im 
Capillaut  Tliikb  chaiuskd,  UEtPXCTtrBLTi 
WITH  Ai«  (A),  Vapok  or  Btiibb  ^B),  ahd 

CAKPHOB-VAroa  (C). 


I... 


'F   WITNESS    TO    THE  Mil 

overy  wave  in  course  of  formation  is  composed  of  portions  the 
speeds  of  which  are  greatest  toward  the  top.  In  a  violent  wind 
the  Acceleration  pr<Klucfs  on  eacli  wave  a  crest  that  ]>t!Comcs  nioro 
and  more  protul>erant,  and  at  lenj^th  ia  disint«KT'*'t^j  <*r  breaks. 
It  follows  that  any  agent  capable  of  preventing  the  washing  of 
the  superficial  slice«  over  one  another  will  constitute  an  obstacle 
to  the  progressive  increase  of  the  living  force  of  the  liquid 
masses. 

Such  an  agent  ia  found  in  oil  when  it  covers  a  sufficient  extent 
of  the  surface  of  the  sea.  By  virtue  of  its  specific  levity  it  keeps 
on  the  surface  and  prevents  the  washing  of  one  layer  of  water 
over  another.  Thus  is  explained  the  s<x>thing  action,  which  ap- 
pears so  mysterious  at  first  sight,  of  oils  upon  rough  seas.  Sus- 
ceptible of  lieing  sprca<l  out  into  lamina*  of  the  incredible  thin- 
ness of  xWnrj  ^*^  rnrVmr  of  «•  millimetre,  a  small  quantity  of  oil 
is  efficacious  to  cover  and  prevent  overwashing  of  waves  upon  a 
large  surface.  When  this  is  done,  the  formation  of  the  crests  or 
breaking  waves,  so  dangerous  to  ships,  can  not  take  place,  and 
the  terrible  breaker  is  converted  into  a  harmless  swell. 


<■» 


THE  VALUE  OF  WITNESS  TO  THE  MIRACULOUS. 

Br  P»or.  T.   U.  HUXLKY,  F.  R.  8. 

C~  HARLES,  or,  more  properly,  Karl,  King  of  the  Franks,  con- 
secrato^l  Roman  emperor  in  St.  Peter's,  on  Christmas  day, 
A.  D.  8(X),  and  known  to  posterity  as  the  Great  (chiefly  by  his 
agglutinative  Gallicized  denomination  of  Charlemagne),  was  a 
man  great  in  all  ways,  physically  and  mentally.  Within  u  couple 
of  centuries  after  liis  death  Charlemagne  became  the  centvr  of 
innumerable  legends;  and  the  myth -making  process  does  not 
m  Uy  have  been  sensibly  interfered  with  by  the  existence  of 
r  and  truthful  histories  of  the  emperor  and  of  the  times 
which  immediately  preceded  and  f<jllowed  his  reign,  by  a  con- 
temporary writer  who  occupied  a  high  and  confidential  position 
in  his  court,  and  in  that  of  his  successor.  This  was  one  Eginhard, 
or  Einliard,  wht)  jqipears  to  have  been  liorn  about  a.  d.  770,  and 
spent  his  youth  at  the  court,  being  educat^-d  along  with  Charles's 
aonfi.  There  is  excellent  contemporary  testimony  not  only  to 
Eginhunrs  exlsf  'utto  Ids  abilities,  and  to  th«  place  which 

he  rnxnipie*!  in  1 1  ■■  of  the  intimate  friends  of  the  great  ruler 

whose  life  he  subsequently  wrote.  In  fact,  there  is  as  good  evi- 
den  -''  ^  /  "  --- -V —  if  his  official  position,  and  of  his 
bei!  rk*^  attributed  to  him,  as  can  rea- 

aoaabi^  a  man  who  lived  more  than 


THE  POPULAR  SaSl 


a  thousand  years  ago,  and  'was  nt^ithttr  a  great  kiii^  »or  a  gnnil 
warrior.    These  works  are — 1.  "The  Lifo  of  Iho  EnijMfror  Knrl/' 
2,  "  The  Annals  of  the  Franks."    3.  "  Ltittvrs."    4.  ''  Tho  Hwtoi 
of  the  Trmislation  of  the  Blessed  Martyrs  of  Chrial,  88.  Harcvl 
I'mus  and  Petrus.'* 

It  is  to  the  last,  as  one  of  tho  most  siuj^ular  and  interodtlAi 
records  of  the  period  diirini?  M'hicli  the  Roman  world  pu*«sed  \n\ 
that  of  the  middk»  ages,  tliat  T  wish  to  direct  attention.*  It  wi 
written  in  the  ninth  century,  somewhere,  apparently,  ahotxt  Ih 
year  830,  when  Eginhard.  ailing  in  health  and  weary  of  | 
lifo,  had  withdrawn  to  the  niouiislery  of  Soligenstadt,  of  v  : 
was  the  founder.  A  manuscript  copy  of  the  work,  made  in  Kbi 
tenth  century,  and  once  the  property  of  the  monastery  of  SI 
Bavon  on  the  Scheldt,  of  wliieli  Eginhard  was  abbot,  is  still 
extant,  and  there  is  no  rejuson  to  believe  that,  in  this  c*')py,  lh«J 
original  has  hi^en  in  any  way  i?iteri»olated  or  otherwise  tampertHi] 
with.  The  main  features  of  the  strange  story  contained  in  ihi 
**  Historia  Translationis"  are  set  forth  in  the  following  pagvs,  ia] 
which,  in  regard  to  all  matters  of  im{>ortfince,  I  shall  adhere 
closely  as  possible  to  Eginhard's  own  words : 

While  I  was  atill  at  coortf  busied  idth  secnlar  affairs,  t  often  tbooght  of  tfa« 
leii^ure  which  1  hoped  one  A\xy  to  enjoy  in  a  sotitur^r  plarc.  far  awti;r  from  th« 
crowd,  witli  which  tho  lihirnilit^Y  of  IVincu  Louis,  whom  I  tbvQ  itvrvtd,  Irod  prv-j 
Tided  rno.  This  place  is  situated  ia  thut  port  i>f  Gerniuiijr  ubirh  lies  hotwoexi  tbd 
Kerknr  and  tho  Main,t  and  is  nowadiijs  rolled  the  Odenwahl  hy  th(>«e  \tho  liv^J 
ID  and  about  It.  And  hera  having  hailt^  according  tu  nif  caparity  and  raioai 
nnt  only  houses  and  permanent  dweJling^  hut  also  a  basilica  tittod  for  tlie  pvr- 
formttDoe  of  divine  service  and  of  no  mean  style  ot' oonstmction,  I  hejran  to  thinlcj 
to  what  saint  or  martyp  1  ronid  best  (iedicat**  it,  A  g*HM!  di^al  nf  time  had  p«« 
while  my  tliouj^titf  flnctuatod  about  this  nmttor,  when  it  hniJ|icned  that  a  rortainj 
dt'ucon  of  the  Komun  Church,  named  Deu^dono,  nrrived  at  the  court  for  ti>r  par^ 
pose  of  seeking  the  fuvor  of  iJie  Wiug  in  4ouiv  affairs  in  which  ho  was  Lnteru«iod, 
lie  romuini^  sometime;  and  then,  having  trontMCted  Ills  btisiue>«s>  lie  waa  abctotj 
to  return  to  Uome,  when  one  day,  niovtd  hy  courtesy  to  a  etranger,  «r*  1bi 
him  to  n  modest  retortion;  and  while  talking  of  many  thini;^  at  tahlc, 
wns  raadc  of  the  irmislntiou  of  the  NWy  nC  tlie  hlossed  SebB«tiiin,J  nr  nflf. 

lectcd  tombs  of  the  murtyrs,  of  which  there  is  such  u  proilipioiw  nun  ;;*«; 

and  the  ounverKalion  having  turned  toward  the  dodicntiun  of  onr  nt*w  ha»iii«a,  I 
began  tu  inquire  how  it  might  lie  puasibJu  for  me  to  obtain  soiui'  of  the  tni«  ntfioi 
of  the  aaiale  which  re«tt  at  Rome.  He  at  first  besitated,  and  iJedared  ikfil  lie 
Dot  know  how  ibat  could  he  done.  But  obsurving  thut  I  wn-  ■  '"  "^  "  "^  wii^j 
carious  about  the  subject,  he  prnmiscd  to  give  mv  an  answer  ^ 

*1fy  dUiloni«  are  made  from  Tettlet's  "Eitihardi  oniols  qam  utani  o(i«i^**  Fudwl 
1A4rV-1643.  whici)  oonuiiu  a  bio^fmphy  of  ihc  author.  «  hislory  af  Utii  tost,  wUL  tnoi^ 

tions  into  Fr«*n<^h,  nnd  msnr  vrtlnuhl*  tinnotsttrms. 

♦   '  .f  Uewe-D: 

t  ;  ■    r>.    The  P.I 

pooiUil  iu  the  Church  oi  6t,  Ucdordos  at  SoL»aas» 


THE   VALUE   OF  WITXESS   TO   THE  MIRACULOUS.   603 


Wlieo  I  roturnwl  to  tho  qaoatlon,  some  time  afl«nrord,  he  imniodiiitol^  drew 
frotn  hie  hosom  n  ]>nper,  which  ho  begged  mo  lo  read  when  I  was  tihtno,  i!ml  to 
tell  him  what  I  wjls  rlnposod  to  think  (tf  that  which  ua^  thi-rnn  ntaiod.  I  took 
tho  papLTf  and,  as  he  d(5sired,  read  it  alone  and  in  «vcrvl.     (Cap.  l,  2,  8.) 

I  sluill  have  occasion  to  return  to  Deacon  Deusdona'a  oon- 
(Htions,  an*l  to  whivt  liappened  aftor  Eginhard'ft  acceptance  of 
them.    Suffice  it,  for  the  present,  to  say  that  Eginhard's  notary, 

fctlciciis  (Rivtleis),  was  di8])atcheil  t<i  Rome  and  succeeded  in 
iring  two  bodies,  supposed  to  lie  those  of  the  holy  umrtyrs 
Marcellinua  and  Petrus;  and  when  ho  liad  got  as  far  on  his  home- 
ward journey  as  tliu  BurKundian  t.owi»  of  8olothurn  or  Soleiire,* 
notary  Ratleig  dispatched  to  his  muster,  at  St.  Bavon,  a  letter 
announcing  the  success  of  his  mission. 

As  soon  OS  h.r  rending  it  1  was  ns^ured  of  the  arrival  of  thp  snin(9,  I  dispatched 
A  confidoiitinl  meesonfier  lo  MucRtrioht,  \o  gather  together  prie&td,  ulhor  cleric*, 
and  al^o  lavraen,  to  gu  out  to  meet  tho  coming  saints  an  s[wiHlilv  a^  fK>fisible.  And 
he  and  his  cumpaoiontif  having  lo»t  uu  tinio,  after  a  few  duvs  met  thoae  who  had 
charge  of  tlie  saiiita  at  Solothurn.  Joined  with  them,  and  with  u  vast  crowd  of 
de  who  gathered  from  all  parts  singing  hymoa,  and  amid  great  and  univer- 
rejoicingA,  they  traveled  qnickly  to  the  city  of  Argentoratum,  which  is  now 
OftHed  Sirashurg.  Thence  ornhorking  on  the  Rhine  they  came  to  tho  place  oallod 
I*ortns,t  and  landing  on  the  ea«t  bank  of  the  river,  at  the  fifth  <*tation,  thence 
they  arrived  at  Michilinntadt,^  accompanied  by  an  inimeuse  multitude,  praising 
God.  This  place  14  in  that  foreat  of  Germany  which  in  modern  times  is  culled  tho 
Odenwald,  and  ahont  six  leagues  from  the  Main.  And  here,  having  found  a 
bftailtca  recently  built  by  me^  bat  not  yet  consecrated,  they  carried  the  sacred  re- 
mains into  It  and  de)}OBited  them  therein,  as  if  ii  were  to  be  their  final  reAting- 
plaoe.  As  aoon  us  all  ibis  was  reported  to  me,  1  traveled  thitlier  as  qaickly  as  I 
couldL     (Cap.  ti,  14.) 

Three  days  after  Eginhard's  arrival  began  the  series  of  wonv 
derful  events  which  he  nan-ates,  and  for  which  we  have  his  per- 
sonal guarantee.  The  first  thing  that  ho  notices  is  tho  dream  of 
a  servant  of  Ratleig  the  notary,  who,  being  set  to  watch  the  holy 
relics  in  the  church  after  vespers,  went  to  sleep,  and  during  his 
slumbers  had  a  vision  of  two  pigeons,  one  white  and  one  gray  and 
white,  which  came  and  sat  upon  the  bier  over  the  relics;  while, 
at  the  same  time,  a  voice  ordered  the  man  to  tell  his  master  that 
the  holy  mart>Ts  had  chosen  another  resting-place  and  desired  to 
be  transported  thither  w^ithout  delay. 

UnfortiM  '  the  saints  seem  to  have  forgotten  to  mention 
where  th»'j.  to  go,  and,  with  the  most  anxious  desire  to 

gratify  their  smallest  wishes,  Eginhard  was  naturally  greatlj'  per- 
plexed what  to  da.    While  in  this  state  of  tnind,  he  was  one  day 

*  Mow  ;n'-1tt[I>7(l  In  WBfCem  Hwltxetland. 

{  IV  '  iing  lo  TffnJct,  the  prcacnt  8«ndfaofer>fabrt,  a  Uttio  below  tbe  eo> 

^BchuTt:  ^ .  . .  '  " 

Wb  '^^  P'^'  'ttlMraat  uf  B«U«Ib«rg,  I 


coniemplatiug  his  "  great  and  wonderful  treasure^  more  prfcioufi 
than  all  the  gold  in  the  world,"  when  it  stnick  him  that  the  ckeei 
in  which  the  relics  were  contained  was  quite  unworthy  of  ita  con- 
tents ;  and  after  vespers  he  gave  orderB  to  one  of  the  sacristans  to 
tftke  the  measure  of  the  chest  in  order  that  a  nmre  fitting  shiini? 
might  be  constructed.  The  man,  having  lighte<l  a  wax  cAiidh* 
anil  raiseil  the  pall  which  covered  the  relics,  in  order  to  carry  out 
his  master's  orders,  was  astonished  and  terrified  to  observe  that 
the  chest  was  covered  with  a  blood -like  exudation  {londum  mirum 
in  viodmn  humtrrt'  samjuiiito  undique  tlistiUantem),  and  at  utieK 
sent  a  mesHage  to  Eginhard. 

Then  I  and  tboso  priests  who  accompaniod  me  beheld  this  Muftendoiu  ailrad«^ 
worthy  of  all  admirRtion.  For  just  us  wlivn  it  is  goiD)?  l«  rnid,  plllnrs  nnd  Mabft 
and  marble  imiigeft  exudo  mui^torc,  and,  aa  it  wer«,  sweat,  so  the  ohmt  which 
cuntaioed  the  tnuat  Bacred  relScs  woa  fonnd  moist  with  the  blood  eiudttig  oo 
all  sldea.    iC^p.  il,  16.) 


I 


Three  days'  fast  was  ordained  in  onler  that  the  meaning  of  the 
portent  miglit  be  ascertained.  All  that  happene*!,  however,  was 
that  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  "hlood/'  which  had  been  exuding 
in  drops  all  the  while,  dried  up.  Eginhard  is  careful  to  wiy  that 
the  li([ui<l  "had  a  saline  taste,  something  like  that  of  tean^.  and 
waa  thin  as  water,  though  of  the  color  of  true  blood/'  ami  bo 
clearly  thinks  this  satisfactory  evidence  that  it  was  bloo<L 

The  same  night  another  servant  had  a  vision,  in  which  still 
more  imperative  orders  for  the  removal  of  the  relics  were  giVMi; 
and,  from  that  time  fortli,  "not  a  single  night  passed  wl'^  '  tie^ 
two,  or  even  three  of  our  companions  receiving  rev.  in 

dreams  that  the  bodies  of  the  saints  were  to  be  transferred  frcim 
that  place  to  another."  At  last  a  priest,  Hildfrid,  saw,  in  a  drt'^m, 
a  venerable  white-haired  man  in  a  priest's  vej^tments,  who  hitti^rly 
reproached  Eginhard  for  not  obeying  the  rc*peat/-d  orders  of  the 
saints,  and  upon  this  the  journey  was  commenced.  Why  Egin- 
hard delayed  oljedience  to  these  repeated  X'isiouK  so  loiigdot«  oot 
appear.  He  does  not  say  so  in  so  many  Wf>rds,  but  the  general 
tenor  of  the  narrative  leads  one  to  suppose  that  Mulinheim  Rafter- 
ward  Seligenstadt)  is  the  "solitary  place"  in  which  he  had  buUt 
the  church  which  awaited  dedication.     In  i'  "    '  t>le 

about  him  would  know  that  he  desired  tli.  :^o 

there.    If  a  glimmering  of  secular  sense  led  him  to  be  a  Uttb 


suspicions  about  the  real  <~-   ■'        ^  the  unar'^ 
being.s  wlio  mattift'st^^d  ti  'H  to  hi:- 

moving  on,  he  does  not  say  so. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  day's  journey  tV-   • 
depo8it*.Hl  in  the  church  of  St.  Martin,  in  ' 
Hither  a  paralytic  nun  {sanctimoniaUs  quaUix^ 


f  tlie  visionary 
i/r  in  favor  of 


4 


TUE  VALUE  OF  WITXESS  TO  THE  MIRACULOUS,   605 

JDame  of  Ruoillang  was  bmuglit  in  a  car  by  her  friends  and  rela- 
tives from  a  monastery  a  league  off.  She  spent  the  night  watching 
and  praying  hy  the  bier  of  the  saints;  "and  health  returning 
to  all  her  members,  on  the  morrow  she  went  liack  to  her  ]ilace 
whence  ahe  came,  on  her  feet,  nobcnly  eupiwrting  her,  or  in  any 
way  giving  her  aasiBtanco."    (Cap.  ii,  lH.) 

On  the  second  day  the  relics  wore  carried  to  Upper  Mulinhcim, 
and  finally,  in  accordance  with  the  orders  of  the  mart>'rs,  deposited 
in  the  church  of  that  phw-e,  wliich  wati  thei'efore  renamed  Seligen- 
stadt  Here,  Daniel,  a  beggar  boy  of  fifteen,  and  ro  bent  that  *'  ho 
could  not  look  at  the  sky  without  lying  on  his  back,''  collapsed 

I  and  fell  down  during  the  celebration  of  the  mass.  ''  Thus  he  lay 
a  long  time,  as  if  asleep,  and  all  his  lirnbs  straightening  Jind  his 
flesh  strengthening  {recepfa  firmiUiU  nervorum),  he  arose  before 
uur  eyes,  quite  well."  (Cap.  ii,  20.) 
S(tme  time  afterwanl  an  old  man  entered  the  church  on  his 
hands  and  knees,  beiitg  unable  to  use  his  limbs  properly : 
bl 
h< 


He.  ID  tho  presence  of  nil  of  ut,  by  the  power  of  God  and  the  merits  of  tbo 
bloMed  mnrtvrs,  in  the  !uum>  hour  in  which  he  entered  was  ^o  perfet'tly  cured  that 
ho  walked  without  so  much  as  a  ntick.  And  lio  aaid  thut,  tlmti^h  ho  hud  hevn  douf 
for  fire  yean,  hia  deafness  had  ceased  ulon^;  with  tho  palsy.    (Cap.  iiif  38.) 


Eginhard  was  now  obliged  to  return  to  the  court  at  Aix-Ia- 
Chapelle,  where  his  duties  kept  him  through  the  winter;  and  he 
is  careful  to  point  out  that  the  later  miracles  which  he  proceeds 
to  speak  of  are  known  to  him  only  at  second  hand.  But,  as  he 
natui-ally  observes,  having  seen  such  wonderfiil  events  with  his 
own  eyes,  why  should  ho  doubt  similar  narrations  when  they  are 
received  from  trustworthy  sources  ? 

Wonderful  stories  these  are  indeed,  but  as  they  are,  for  the 
most  part,  of  the  same  general  character  as  those  already  re- 
countixl,  thi>y  may  be  passed  over.  Thei'e  is,  however,  an  account 
of  a  jMisseased  maiden  which  is  worth  attention. 

This  is  set  forth  iti  a  memoir,  the  principal  contents  of  which 
are  the  speeclies  of  a  (lemon  who  declared  that  he  possessed  tho 
singular  appellation  of  "  Wiggo/'  and  revealed  himself  in  tho 
presence  of  many  witnesses,  before  tho  altar,  close  to  tho  relics  of 
the  blessed  martyrs.  It  is  notuwurthy  that  the  revelaticms  ap[)ear 
to  have  been  mmle  in  the  shajK'  of  replies  to  the  questions  of  the 
jxorcLsing  priest,  and  there  is  no  means  of  judging  how  far  the 
'«Tk>«werH  are  really  only  the  questions  to  which  the  patient  replied 
yes  or  no. 

Tho  pos.'-M'ssal  girl,  about  sixt^nm  years  of  age,  was  brought  by 
jhor  paR'tit*  to  Ihe  basilica  of  the  martyrs. 

dill'  ai)T>ruai'.hrd  tho  tomh  containing  tho  sacred  hodie«,  the  prtcatf  ao«| 
ruod  tliu  fonnuU  ufvxornism  over  hvr  bend.     When  hit  begoaj 


to  a>4k  Low  uud  wlitiii  tbe  donion  limi  entered  her,  sbc  aiiiiw«rcd,  not  w  Uio  tOD^o 
uf  tlic  burbariiinSt  which  alou«  the  girl  IcDen,  Imt  io  the  Kumun  tongui'.  And 
when  the  priest  waa  nstoni^hcd  and  oaked  how  she  onrne  to  know  Latin,  wbeo  tier 
porcuts,  who  3t(»od  by,  were  wholly  ignomnt  of  U,  "Tliou  hast  iiewrscrn  my 
purcuts/^  wuH  the  reply.  To  this  tlie  priest,  "  Whence  urt  thou.  tJieu,  If  tliene  are 
not  thy  pareuter'  Aud  the  demon,  by  iho  mouth  of  the  girl,  "  I  wn  a  fuUower 
and  disciple  ol'Sutan,  and  for  u  long  time  I  wai*  gati^kwftor  (janitor)  in  hell;  but, 
for  »otuc  years,  along  with  eleven  companions,  I  have  ravag^l  th«  klo^Oftt  of  th» 
Franks."    (Cap.  v,  40.) 

He  then  goes  on  to  tell  how  they  blast^^d  the  crops  and  scatterctd 
pestilence  among  boasts  and  men,  because  of  the  prevalent  wicked' 
ness  of  the  people.* 

The  enumeration  of  all  these  iniquities,  in  oratorical  styk-,  takue 
up  a  whole  octavo  page ;  and  at  the  end  it  is  sialed^  **  All  Ihtiw 
things  the  demon  spoke  in  Latin  by  the  mouth  of  the  gixL" 

And  when  the  priest  imperatively  ordered  him  Io  come  out,  **I  ahall  bo,"  said 
ho,  "  not  in  obedience  U>  yon,  but  on  iiccount  of  the  power  of  the  saiufiK  who  do 
DOl  allow  mo  to  remain  any  longer,"  And,  having  said  thin,  he  tlirew  tho  ulri 
down  on  tho  floor  and  there  compelled  h«r  to  lie  prostrate  for  a  timo.  nn  tbongb 
eho  alambercd.  Aftx^r  a  little  while,  however,  he  going  away,  tbo  girl,  by  tbo 
power  of  Christ  and  the  mcriU  uf  the  blessed  martyrs,  tu  it  were  a«  akening  from 
sleep,  rose  ap  ipiito  well,  to  the  nBtoniahment  of  all  pres*int ;  nor  nft«r  the  demon 
had  gone  out  wu»  ^he  able  to  8perik  Latin :  so  that  it  wuh  plain  enough  that  it  «a« 
not  she  who  had  apokeo  in  that  tongue,  but  the  demon  by  her  mooih.  (Cap. 
V,  51.) 

If  the  **  Historia  Translationis  "  containetl  nothing  more  than  has 
been,  at  present,  laid  before  the  retider,  disbelief  in  the  minu^li.^  of 
which  it  gives  so  precise  aud  full  a  reconl  might  well  be  rogardnd 
as  hypor-skepticism.  It  might  fairly  be  said :  "  Here  you  have  a 
man,  whose  high  character,  acute  intelligence,  and  large  instruc- 
tion are  certified  by  eminent  contemporaries;  a  man  who  alotid 
high  in  tho  confidence  of  one  of  the  greatest  rulers  of  any  a|^,and 
who.se  other  works  prove  him  to  be  an  accurate  aud  judicioua  uar- 
rator  of  (jrdinary  events.  This  man  tells  you,  in  language  which 
boars  the  st^imp  of  sincurity,  of  things  which  happened  v.  '  '  M?« 
own  knowledge,  or  within  that  of  pftrsous   in  whose  i*  le 

lias  eutiro  confidence,  while  he  apfieals  to  his  soveniign  and  ihm 
court  as  witne»se8  of  others;  what  possible  ground  can  there  h» 
for  disbelieving  him  ?" 

Well,  it  is  hard  upon  Eginhard  to  say  eo,  but  it  is  oxacily  tlie 
honesty  and  sincerity  of  thi?  man  which  are  his  undoing  a»  a  wit- 
ness to  the  miraculous.  Ho  himself  makes  it  quit4»  obviotia  that 
when  his  profound  jnt't.y  comos  on  the  8t;i  mmI  sens*!  and 

even  hia  perception  of  right  and  wrong  nui.-.   :..,  :i- exit.     I^t  ui^ 

*  la  lln*  mMdlu  agw  one  of  ths  jami  fkvoriw  aoCttiatiofu  agahut  «it<h^  vmi  dual  ibn 

omamfttod  }iut  thote  cnonullUia.  H 


fo  back  to  the  point  at  which  we  loft  him,  secretly  perusing  the 
letter  of  Deacon  Deijsdona.    As  he  tells  us,  its  contents  were — 

that  ho  (the  doncon)  Imil  many  re1i(»  of  saints  nt  liomv,  and  thnt  tiu  would  give 
litem  to  me  if  I  would  turoii'Li  liim  witli  the  iiii.'UIih  <j1'  returning  tu  Moniv ;  bo  hod 

lohiicrvcd  tlml  1  Imil  two  mult?8,  uud,  if  I  would  lot  hliu  hiivcoQt*  ot  thvui  und  wouM 

[di:}patch  with  him  a  coutid^Dtial  servnnt  Co  taki^  chnrge  of  the  reliois,  ho  would  at 
once  Send  thorn  Co  me.  T)U8  plnuitihl/  oxprt^ssed  propon^ition  ptriusod  me,  and  I 
suudti  tip  mj  mind  to  last  thu  value  of  th«  flume  what  amhij^ous  promise  nt  onL*e;  * 

fBo  giving  him  the  mule  and  monoj  for  his  joaroey  1  urdored  id^  uotur.v  KuUrig 
(who  already  desired  U>  go  to  Kumc  lo  olTer  hi»  devotioas  thvre)  to  go  with  liim. 
Thorefort.',  Imviiig  left  .Vii-!a-Chapollo  (where  the  emperor  and  his  court  resided 
At  the  Lime)  they  came  to  KolsAtms.  Here  ihev  epokit  with  Ilildoiu,  nblfot  of  iho 
monodtory  of  St,  Medurdua,  bccuuse  the  said  deaeou  hud  asaured  Iiiiu  thnt  ho  had 
the  meaoB  of  pliwiiig  in  hii*  poHs^ssion  iho  hody  of  the  blessed  Tiburtius  the  mar- 
tyr. Attraetv^l  by  which  promiuts  he  (llilduln)  sent  with  them  u  i?erUiin  priest, 
lluotia  by  nAme,  a  shnrp  ninn  {kominf.m  eaUidum)^  whom  he  ordered  to  receive  and 

» tiring  buck  tbo  hmly  of  the  murtyr  in  queHtion.  And  ^.  resuming  their  journey, 
they  proceeded  to  Home  ad  lust  us  they  eould.     (Cap.  i,  8.) 

Unfortunately,  a  servant  of  the  notary,  one  Roginbald,  fell  ill 
of  a  tertian  fever,  and  impeded  tho  progress  of  the  party.  How- 
ever, this  piec(^  of  adversity  had  its  swwt  uses;  for,  three  days 
before  they  reached  Rome,  Regiiibald  had  a  vision.  Somebo^ly 
habited  as  a  deacon  appeared  to  him  and  asked  why  his  master  was  | 
in  such  a  hurry  to  get  to  Rome ;  and  when  Reginbald  explained 
tJieir  business,  this  visionary  deacou,  who  iseeius  to  have  takeu  tho 
measure  of  his  brother  in  the  flesh  with  some  accurai^y,  told  him 

by  any  means  to  exj>ei-t.  that  Dousdona  wotild  fulfill  his  prom- 
Moreover,  taking  the  servant  by  the  hand,  he  led  him  to  the 
'top  of  a  high  mountain  and^  showing  him  Rome  (w)iere  the  man 
had  never  been).  p<iinteil  out  a  church,  adding:  "Tell  Ratleig  tho 
thing  he  wants  is  hidden  there ;  let  him  get  it  as  quickly  as  he  can 
and  go  back  to  his  master*';  and,  by  way  of  a  sign  that  the  ord*^r 
was  authoritativi',  tho  servant  was  promise<l  that  from  that  time 
forth  his  fever  should  disa]»pear.  And  as  the  fever  did  vanish  to 
return  no  more,  tho  faith  of  Egluhanrs  people  in  Deacon  Deusdona 
naturally  vanished  with  it  (*/  fidtnt  dnictttn  j/romiffffiji  nnn  hcUje- 
rerU),  Nevertheless,  they  put  up  at  tlie  deacon's  house  near  St  Pe- 
ter da  Vincula.  But  time  went  on  and  no  relics  made  their  appear- 
ancu,  while  the  notary  and  the  priest  were  j>ut  off  with  all  Borts 
of  excuses— the  l>rother  to  whom  the  relies  had  been  confided  was 
gone  to  Boneveiitum  an<l  not  expected  back  for  some  time,  and  so 
on — until  Ratleig  and  Hunus  began  to  despair,  and  were  mindedJ 
to  return,  infectu  upgotio,  J 

^^^^^Mretty  c1«ar  thai  K;*ibhiird  hiul  hii<  doiibls  about   Iho  deacon.  wIhwo  pledfre  lie^ 
HHHK  ipomionm  incerUt.     tiui|  tv  be  raiv,  be  vrotc  alter  eviDtd  which  fully  jufiti6cd] 


6o8 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEKCE  MOyTffLT, 


Hnt  my  noUrj,  onlling  to  mind  hU  ftvrvatit*8  ilroniit,  proposcii  to  liUoompoflioD 
thAt  they  should  go  to  the  cemetery  which  tliuir  host  hnd  tnlkcHl  about  without 
him.  Su,  having  found  and  hired  h  tfuidv,  they  wunt  in  lht>  th^i  pUco  lu  \hv  hiullil' 
ica  of  tlio  blossed  Tibiiriius  in  tho  Via  Labiciinm  uU«ut  threw  IhoUfomd  pares  from 
tbo  town,  and  lautiously  nnd  oAtoinlly  in^|it.Tt^l  llto  U^mb  of  that  mart}T,  in  order 
to  difloover  whetlier  it  ooulii  be  opontKl  without  nny  one  l»oing  \h(s  wlncr.  Tlien 
thvy  do&cvnded  into  the  udjuiuing  crypt,  in  which  the  bodies  of  Uto  blcHOod  inw- 
tyra  of  Christ,  Marcellinud  and  Pvtmi*,  were  bnried;  and,  hHving  made  oixt  tho 
nature  uf  their  tornh^  ibey  went  uwav  tbinkin^  their  ho9t  would  not  know  what 
they  hud  been  about.  Uut  lhiu{;»  fell  uut  differently  from  wiiU  they  liad  inia* 
gined.    (Cap.  i,  7.) 


In  fact,  Deacon  Deusdojm,  who  doubtless  kept  an  ey6  on  liis 
UDSts,  knew  all  about  tht*ir  mano^uvrpH  aii"!  mjule  li-  ■"     Itis 

*i'vices,  in  order  thut>  "  with  the  help  of  G<_k:1  "  {si  J>'  •.  m 

favere  dignaretur),  they  should  all  work  together.  The  deacon 
was  evidently  alarmed  lest  they  should  surreed  without  his  help. 

So,  by  way  of  ])roparation  for  th<>  contcmitlatod  I'o/  nrec  effrae* 
Hon,  they  fasted  three  days;  nnd  then,  at  night,  \\Hlhout  Ixtuig 
seen,  they  betook  themselves  l<i  the  basilica  of  St.  Tibnrtiiis,  and 
tri«Hl  to  break  open  the  altar  erected  over  his  remains.  Bui  the 
marble  proving  to<»  solid,  they  descended  to  the  crypt,  and  "  hav- 
inif  invoked  our  Lonl  Jesus  Christ  and  adored  tlie  holy  martyrs," 
they  pnxieeded  to  prise  off  tho  stone  which  covered  tho  tomb,  and 
thereby  expt^jsed  the  biniy  of  the  most  sacred  mnrlyr  Maivelliuuij, 
"  whose  head  rested  on  a  marble  tablet  on  which  his  name  waa 
inscribed."  The  body  was  taken  tip  with  the  greatest  ven«>raiion, 
wrapped  in  a  rich  covering,  and  given  over  to  tliv  '  *jf  tho 

deacon  and  his  brother  Lunison,  whih*  the  8t<me  wa  I  ivith 

such  care  that  no  sign  of  the  theft  remained. 

As  sacrilegious  proceedings  of  this  kind  Wi-rf  pum  in 

death  by  the  Roman  law,  it  set^ms  not  unnatural  that  Di  ,  ,i». 

dona  should  have  become  uneasy,  and  have  urged  Raieig  U»  be 
satisfied  with  what  he  had  got  and  be  off  with  Ids  sjmjiIs.  But  thu 
notary  having  thus  cleverly  captured  the  ble.Hy(.»d  Marcelliutis, 
thought  it  a  pity  he  should  be  parted  fn»m  the  blessed  Pefrus,  side 
by  side  witli  whom  he  had  resttnl  ft)r  five  hundred  years  ajid  more 
in  the  same  sepulchre  {m^  Eginhard  pathetically  observes) ;  and  the 
pious  man  could  ucitlier  eat.  drink,  norskvp.nntil  he  had  compassed 
his  desire  to  reunite  the  saintly  colleagues.  This  time,  apparently 
in  consefpieuce  of  Deusdi>na's  opposition  to  imy  further  resorwc* 
tionist  doings,  he  took  connsel  with  a  Greek  motik  "      "d, 

accompanied  by  liunus,  but  saying  nothing  to  1 '  I'-y 

committed  another  sacrilegious  barglarr,  securing  thio  tftott*  not 
<H  ■     ■'      '      •        -    V     .-  .  Tr  •  ^W-K 

tl  .  .   If 

wai$  tht*  remains  ot  the  t>le8sed  Tiburtioa 


THE  VAL 


WITNESS 


riRACULO 


I 


How  Deiisdona  was  "  stinared/'  and  what  he  got  for  his  not  very 
valuablo  complicity  in  these  transactions,  dnos  not  appear.  But  at 
the  relics  were  sent  off  in  charge  of  Lnnison,  the  brother  of 
ona.  and  the  priest  Hnnus,  oa  far  as  Pavia,  while  Ratleig 
pod  behind  for  a  week  to  see  if  the  robbery  was  discovered, 
and,  presumably,  to  act  as  a  blind  if  any  hue  and  cry  were  raised. 
But,  as  everything  remained  quiet,  the  notary  betook  himself  to 
Pavia,  where  he  found  Lunison  and  Hunus  awaiting  his  arrival. 
The  notary's  opinion  of  the  character  of  his  worthy  colleagues, 
however,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that,  having  persuaded 
them  to  set  out  in  advance  along  a  road  which  he  told  them  he 
was  about  to  take,  he  immediately  adopted  another  route,  and, 
traveling  by  way  of  St.  Maurice  and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  event- 
ually reached  Soleure, 

Eginhard  tells  all  this  story  with  the  most  naive  air  of  uncon- 
Bciousness  that  there  is  anything  remarkable  about  an  abbot,  and 
a  high  officer  of  state  to  lx>ot,  being  an  accessory  both  before  and 
after  the  fact  to  a  most  gross  and  scandalous  act  of  sacrilegious 
nxid  burglarious  robbery.  And  an  amusing  sequel  to  the  story 
proves  that,  whore  relics  were  concerned,  his  friend  Hildoin,  an- 
other high  ecclesiastical  dignitary,  was  even  less  scrupulous  than 
himself. 

On  going  to  the  palace  early  one  morning,  after  the  saints  were 
eafcly  bestowed  at  Soligenstadt,  he  found  Hildoin  waiting  for  an 
audience  in  the  emperor's  antechamber,  and  began  to  talk  to  him 
about  the  miracle  of  the  bloody  exudation.  In  the  course  of  con- 
versation, Eginhard  happened  to  allude  to  the  remarkable  fineness 
of  the  garment  of  the  blessed  Marcollinus.  Whereupon  Abbot 
Hildoin  replied  (to  Eginhard's  stupefaction)  that  his  observation 
was  quite  correct.  Much  astonished  at  this  remark  from  a  person 
who  waa  supposed  not  to  have  seen  the  relics,  Eginliard  asked 
him  how  he  knew  that  Upon  this,  Hildoin  saw  that  he  had 
better  make  a  clean  breast  of  it,  and  he  told  the  following  story, 
which  he  had  received  from  hia  pnestly  agent,  Hunus;  While 
Hunus  and  Lunison  were  at  Pavia,  waiting  for  Eginhard's  notary, 
Hunus  (according  to  his  own  account)  had  robbed  the  robbers. 
The  relics  were  placed  in  a  church,  and  a  number  of  laymen  and 
clerics,  of  whom  Hunus  was  one,  undertook  to  keep  watch  over 
them.  One  night,  however,  all  the  watchers,  save  the  wide-awake 
Hunus,  went  to  sleep;  and  then,  according  to  the  story  which 
this  "  sharp"  ecclesiastic  foisted  upon  his  patron — 

It  wng  bomo  \u  upon  Iiis  mind  tliat  tliere  mast  l>o  some  great  rcasoa  whj-  nil  the 
tpl«^  except  himself,  hml  Btiddcolr  bocomo  ftomnoUnt;  ftod,  dotennihlog  to 
aTftll  liiinself  of  iho  oppi'T  '  .-»  offered  {ohlaUi  0eM»ums  uUfufwn),  he  roso 

and,  liuTinK  lii^liied  a  cAit  approafibed  the  cheate.    Tb«n«  having  bamed 

jiltrougb  th«  tbr«ad«  of  tb«  reals  with  the  flame  of  tbd  OAikdl«y  be  qaicUy  opened 

I  TOL.  XTXT.— SO 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOKT, 


the  cbesta,  whirb  lind  do  Incks  ;*  und^  taking  oat  portions  of  eaeb  of  tb«  hodfcv 
«'lilcli  were  thus  exposed,  he  closed  the  cbcsta  fmd  cooneoted  tha  banivd  vadi  sf 
the  tbreads  with  the  maIb  agaio,  so  that  th«jr  appeared  not  to  bare  bveii  tooeM ; 
a&d|  no  one  baring  aeaa  him,  be  retoroed  to  hia  place.    (Cap.  iii,  S8,) 

Hildoin  went  on  to  tell  EginLard  tliat  Hiinus  at  first  declared 
to  him  that  these  purloined  relics  belonged  to  St.  Tiburtitis ;  but 
terward  confessed,  as  a  great  secret,  how  he  had  come  by  thorn, 
"and  he  wound  up  hi3  discourse  thus : 

Thej  have  a  place  of  honor  beside  St.  Medardos,  where  they  are  wonUped 
witii  great  roneration  hy  alt  the  people ;  bat  whether  we  may  keep  th«ra  or  Ii«4  is 
for  joar  JudgmtiuL    (Cap.  iu,  28.) 

Poor  Eginhard  was  thrown  into  a  state  of  great  pcrturbatioa 
of  mind  by  this  revelation.  An  acquaintance  of  his  had  recently 
told  him  of  a  rumor  that  was  spread  about,  that  Huiius  had  con- 
trived to  abstract  all  the  remains  of  SS.  Marcellinus  and  Petros 
while  Eginhard's  agents  were  in  a  drunken  sleep;  and  that,  while 
the  real  relics  were  in  Abbot  Hildoin's  hands  at  St,  MeilanJu**,  the 
shrine  at  Soligonatadt  contained  nothing  but  a  little  dust.  Though 
greatly  annoyed  by  this  "  execrable  rumor,  spread  everywhere  by 
the  subtlety  of  the  devil/'  Eginhard  had  doubt1e»ss  i'  "  - '  i  him- 
self by  bis  sui)posed  knowledge  of  its  falsity,  an-i  y  now 
discovered  how  considerable  a  foundation  there  was  for  the  scan- 
dal. There  was  nothing  for  it  but  to  insist  upon  the  return  of  the 
stolen  treasures.  One  would  have  thought  that  the  holy  mAD. 
who  bad  admitted  himself  to  bo  knowingly  a  receiver  of  stolen 
goods,  would  have  made  instant  restitution  and  bogged  only  for 
absolution.  But  Eginhard  intimates  that  he  had  very  great  diffi- 
culty in  getting  his  brother  abbot  to  see  that  even  restitution  was 
necessary. 

Hildoin's  proceedings  were  not  of  such  nature  as  to  lead  any 
one  to  place  implicit  trust  in  anything  he  might  sar  '■^'w 

had  his  agent,  priest  Hunus,  established  much  claim  to  i '  e ; 

and  it  is  not  surprising  that  Eginhard  should  have  lost  no  time 
in  summoning  his  notary  and  Lunison  to  his  ler 

that  he  might  hear  what  they  had  to  siiy  n^  ^ 

They,  however,  at  once  protested  that  priest  Hunus's  storj'  was  a 
parcel  of  lies,  and  that  after  the  relics  left  Rome  no  op--  *  ■  ^  -'-sy 
opportunity  of  meddling  with  them.    Moreover,  Lunisoi;  ig 

himself  at  Eginhard'a  feet,  confessed  with  many  tears  v.  .  ta- 
ally  took  ploco.    It  -win  ho  remembered  that,  nf'- "  »^"  ''  '  % 

Marcellinus  was  abstracted  from  its  tomb.  Rat  La 

the  hriuso  of  Dousdona,  in  clui-  »u 

But  Huuus,  being  very  much  '..:,,    .  .:    .    ..  ^^■ 

*The  wDrds  are  mrima  §lne  Wctvr,  vhlcb  Miiin  to  mean  '^hki 
ferfaU  did  Idea  of  bruklag  opon. 


i 


I 


THE  VALUE  OF   WITNESS  TO   THE  MIRACULOUS,    6m 


I 


I 


K 


hold  of  the  body  of  St.  Tibtirtius,  and  afraid  to  go  back  to  his 
abbot  empty-handed,  bribetl  Liinison  with  four  pieccB  of  gold  and 
five  of  silver  to  give  him  access  to  the  chest.  This  Lunison  did, 
and  Himus  helped  himself  Ui  as  much  as  would  fill  a  gallon  meas- 
ure (ra^  5f.irfaru*  wifn^w  ram)  of  the  sacred  remains,  Eginhard*8 
indignation  at  the  "rapine  "of  this  "  nequissimus  nebulo"  is  ex- 
quisitely drolL  It  would  appear  that  the  adage  about  the  receiver 
being  as  bad  as  the  thief  was  not  current  in  the  ninth  century. 

Let  us  now  briefly  sum  up  the  history  of  the  acquisition  of  the 
relics.  Eginhard  makes  a  contract  with  Deusdona  for  the  delivery 
of  certain  relics  which  the  latter  says  he  possesses,  Eginhard 
makes  no  inquiry  how  he  came  by  them ;  otherwise,  the  trans- 
action is  innocent  enough. 

Deusdona  turns  out  to  be  a  swindler,  and  has  no  relics.  There- 
upon Eginhard's  agent,  after  due  fasting  and  prayer,  breaks  open 
the  tombs  and  helps  himself. 

Eginhard  discovers  by  the  self-betrayal  of  hia  brother  abbot, 
Hildoin,  that  portions  of  his  relics  have  been  stolen  and  conveyed 
to  the  latter.    With  much  ado  he  sucoceds  in  getting  them  back. 

Hildoiu's  agent,  Hunus,  in  delivering  these  stolen  goods  to 
him^  at  first  declared  they  were  the  relics  of  St,  Tiburtius,  which 
Hildoin  desired  him  to  obtain  ;  but  afterward  invented  a  story  of 
their  being  the  product  of  a  theft,  which  the  providential  drowsi- 
ness of  his  companions  enabled  him  to  perpetrate  from  the  relics 
which  Hildoin  well  knew  were  the  property  of  his  friend. 

Limison,  on  the  contrary,  swears  that  all  this  story  is  false, 
and  that  he  himself  was  bribed  by  Hunus  to  allow  him  to  steal 
what  he  pleased  from  the  property  confided  to  his  own  and  his 
brother's  care  by  their  guest  Ratleig.  And  the  honest  notary  him- 
self seems  to  have  no  hesitation  about  lying  and  stealing  to  any 
extent,  whore  the  acquisition  of  relics  is  the  objoct  in  view. 

For  a  parallel  to  those  transactions  one  must  read  a  police 
report  of  the  doings  of  a  "  long  firm  "  or  of  a  set  of  horse-coupers ; 
yet  Eginhard  seems  to  be  aware  of  nothing,  but  that  he  has  been 
rather  badly  used  by  his  friend  Hildoin  and  the  "nequissimus 
nebulo  "  Hunus. 

It  is  not  easy  for  a  modem  Protestant,  still  less  for  any  one 
who  has  the  loast  tincture  of  scientific  culture,  whether  physical 
or  historical,  to  picture  to  himself  the  state  of  mind  of  a  man  of 
the  ninth  century,  however  cultivated,  enlightened,  and  sincere 
he  may  have  been.  His  deepest  convictions,  his  most  cherished 
hoppR,  wore  hound  up  in  the  belief  of  the  miraculous.  Life  was  fti 
constant  battle  botwoen  saints  and  demons  for  the  possession  of 
the  scmU  of  men*  The  most  superstitious  among  our  modem 
lOOiintrytnen  iitm  to  supernatural  agencies  only  when  natiiral 


^ 


causes  seem  insufHciont ;  to  Egiiihard  and  liis  friends  the  Bixper> 

iialnral  was  the  nile,  and  tho  sufficiency  of  uattiral  causes  was 
allowed  only  when  tliere  was  notliiiig  to  suggest  othenL 

Maroover,  it  must  be  recollected  that  the  {Kttisession  of  mirscle* 
working  relics  was  greatly  coveted,  not  only  on  high  but  on  very 
low  grounds.  To  a  man  like  Eginhard,  the  mere  satisfa/^tiun  of 
the  religiouy  sentiment  was  obviously  a  powerful  at  But, 

more  than  this,  the  possession  of  such  a  treasure  wj..  ..  -'  -rttio 
practical  advantage.    If  the  saints  were  duly  flatterer-  r- 

skiped,  there  was  no  telling  what  benefits  might  result  from  tUoir 
interposition  on  your  behalf.  For  physical  evils,  access  to  the 
ehrine  was  like  the  grant  of  the  use  of  a  universal  pill  had 
ointment  manufactory  ;  and  pilgrimages  thereto  m'  '  '  tHoo  to 
deanse  the  performers  from  any  amount  of  sin.    />  to  Lu- 

pus, subsequently  abbot  of  Ferrara,  written  while  Eginhard  was 
smarting  under  the  grief  caused  by  the  loss  of  his  much-loved 
wife  Imma,  affords  a  striking  insight  into  the  current  view  of  the 
relation  between  the  glorified  sainta  and  their  worshii;>ers.  Tho 
writer  shows  that  he  is  anything  but  satisfied  with  the  way  in 
which  he  has  been  treated  by  the  blessed  mart3rr3  whose  remains 
he  has  taken  such  pains  to  "  convey  "  to  Seligenst.idt,  and  to  honor 
there  as  they  would  never  have  been  honored  in  their  Roomu 
obscurity : 

It  is  an  aggrartttlon  of  mj  gHef  iiml  ■  reopening  of  m;  wound,  tbst  oar  vovra 
faavo  been  of  no  avail,  nnd  that  the  faitti  wliioh  wv  placed  In  the  roertta  «Dd  iotcff> 
ventioD  of  lh«  m&rt/re  has  beon  utterly  disappointed. 

We  may  admit,  then,  without  iinpeachment  of  Eginhard'a  Bin- 
cerity,  or  of  his  honor  under  all  ordinary  circumstances,  that  when 
piety,  self-interest,  the  glory  of  the  Church  in  general,  and  that  of 
the  church  at  Soligcnst/idt  in  j>articular,  all  pullfMl  one  way,  Avca 
the  work-a-day  principles  of  morality  were  <]\  a 

/(c;r/tori,  anything  like  proper  investigation  ol  .» ^  ...  ihe 

fidftUeged  miracles  was  thrown  to  the  vrimls. 

And  if  this  was  tho  condition  of  mind  of  such  a  man  as  EgiQ- 
hard,  what  is  it  not  legitimate  to  suppose  may  have  boen  thai  of 
Deacon  Deusdona,  Lunison,  Honus,  and  compauy^  thieves  and 
cheats  by  their  c      •   ■     ■  "      '  -n  ;  or  of  tti  '    '  '      V      '     *   i%l 

nun  ;  or  of  the  pr-  offers,  for  w!  -tk 

id  straighten  themselves  there  is  no  guarantee  but  their  awn  ? 


Who  is  to  make  sure  that 
not  just  such  nnolhor  pri- 
8ible,when  Egiuhard'snorvant 


of  the  demon  ^V 
rtnd  is  it  not  a' 


,ly 


CO 


a  curious 
found  they  i^ 


♦  r...-i, 


Quito  apart  from  Uubbvrait»  and  cou9ctou4  fr4»u4  i 


I 


TII£  VALUE  OF  WIT.^ESS  TO  THE  MIRACULOUS.   613 

rarer  tLing  than  is  often  supposed),  people  whose  myihopreic  fac- 
ulty is  ouce  stirred  are  capable*  of  saying  the  thing  that  is  not,  and 
of  acting  as  ihey  should  not,  to  an  extent  which  is  hardly  imagin- 
able by  persons  who  are  not  so  easily  affected  by  the  contagion 
of  blind  faith.  There  is  no  falsity  so  gross  that  honest  men,  and, 
Btill  mure,  virtuous  women,  anxious  to  promote  a  good  cause,  will 
not  lonfl  themselves  to  it  without  any  clear  consciousness  of  tho 
moral  bearings  of  what  they  are  doing. 

The  cases  of  miraculously  effected  cures  of  which  Eginhard  is 
ocular  witness  appear  to  belong  to  clajjises  of  disease  in  which 
malingering  is  possible  or  hysteria  presumable.  Without  modern 
means  of  diagnosis,  the  names  given  to  them  are  quite  worthless. 
One  "miracle,"  however,  in  which  the  patient  was  cured  by  tho 
mere  sight  of  the  church  in  which  the  relics  of  the  blessed  martyrs 
lay,  is  an  unmistakable  case  of  dislocation  of  the  lower  jaw  in  a 
woman ;  aud  it  is  obvious  that,  as  not  uiifrequently  happens  in  such 
accidents  to  weakly  subjects,  the  jaw  slipped  suddenly  back  into 
place,  perhaps  in  consequence  of  a  joltj  as  the  woman  rode  toward 
the  church.    (Cap.  v,  63.)* 

There  is  also  a  good  deal  said  about  a  very  questionable  blind 
man — one  Albricus  (Alberich  ?) — who,  having  been  cured,  not 
of  his  blindnessj  but  of  another  disease  under  which  he  labored, 
took  up  his  quarters  at  Seligenstadt,  and  came  out  as  a  prophet, 
inspired  by  the  archangel  Gabriel.  Eginhard  intimates  that  his 
prophecies  were  fulfilled;  but,  as  he  does  nut  state  exactly  what 
they  were  or  how  they  were  accomplished,  tho  statement  must  be 
accepted  with  much  caution.  It  is  obvious  that  he  was  not  the 
man  to  hesitate  to  '*  ease  "  a  prophecy  until  it  fitted,  if  the  credit 
of  the  shrine  (tf  his  favorite  saints  could  be  increased  by  such  a 
procedure.  There  is  no  impeachment  of  his  honor  in  the  supposi- 
tion. The  logic  of  the  matter  is  quite  simple,  if  somewhat  sophist- 
ical. The  holiness  of  the  church  of  the  martyrs  guarantees  the 
reality  of  the  a]>i>earance  of  the  archaugel  Gabriel  there,  and 
what  the  archangel  says  must  be  true.  Therefore,  if  anything 
seem  to  be  wrong,  that  must  be  the  mistake  of  the  transmitter ; 
and,  in  justice  to  the  archangel,  it  must  be  suppressed  or  sot  right. 
This  sort  of  "  reconciliation "  is  not  unknown  in  quite  modem 
times,  and  among  people  who  would  be  very  much  shocked  to  be 
compai'od  with  a  "  benighted  papist"  of  the  ninth  century. 

The  readers  of  this  review  are,  I  imagine,  very  largely  com- 
posed of  people  who  would  be  shocked  to  be  regarded  as  anything 
but  enlightened  Protestants.    It  is  not  unlikely  that  those  of  them 

*  fitpnhArd  ipcaltA  «ilh  lofcycoot^rmpt  of  the  "  mipui  ac  tmpcraiitiata pnwmmptio*^  of  the 
pxir  vomK&'a  oomtuulotu  In  tTyitig  to  allcrimtc  her  eoffcrlnga  vith  "  berba  and  frivolous 
incanuiloni.'*    Vain  cnoagb,  no  doubt,  but  ibc  "  muUorcula: "  might  have  returned  the  cpi- 


6i4 


THE  POPULAR  SCTESCE  MO^TfflT. 


I 


who  have  accompanied  m©  thus  far  may  be  disposed  to  say :  **  WeD, 
this  is  all  very  amusing  as  a  story ;  but  wLat  is  the  j  r- 

est  of  it  ?    We  are  not  likely  to  believe  in  the  miraL       •  .  \}j 

the  spolia  of  SS.  Marcellinus  and  Petrua,  or  by  those  of  any  other 
salntd  in  the  Roman  calendar." 

The  practical  interest  is  this :  If  you  do  not  believe  in  thoeo 
miracles,  recounted  by  a  witness  whose  character  and  competency 
are  firmly  established,  whose  sincerity  can  not  be  doubted,  and  who 
appeals  to  his  sovereign  and  other  conteinjHjraries  as  witnesses  of 
the  truth  of  what  he  says,  in  a  document  of  which  a  MS.  coi>y 
exists,  probably  dating  within  a  century  of  the  author's  deatb, 
why  do  you  profess  to  believe  in  stories  of  a  like  character  which 
are  found  in  documents,  of  the  dates  and  of  the  nutborsbip  of 
which  nothing  is  certainly  determined,  and  no  known  copies  of 
which  come  within  two  or  three  centuries  of  the  events  they 
record  ?  If  it  be  true  that  the  four  Gospels  and  the  Acta  were 
written  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John,  all  that  wo  know  of 
these  persons  comes  to  nothing  in  comparison  with  our  knowledge 
of  Eginhurd ;  and  not  only  is  there  no  proof  that  the  traditional 
authors  of  these  works  wrote  them,  but  very  strong  reasons  to  the 
contrary  may  be  alleged.  If,  therefore,  you  refuse  to  beliovo  that 
**  Wiggo  "  was  cast  out  of  the  possessed  girl  on  Eginhard*s  author- 
ity, with  what  justice  can  you  profess  to  believe  that  the  legion  of 
devils  were  cast  out  of  the  man  among  the  tombs  of  the  Gada- 
renes  ?  And  if,  on  the  other  hand,  you  accept  Egiuhard'a  ovi- 
dence,  why  do  you  laugh  at  the  supposed  efficacy  of  relics  and  the 
saint-worship  of  the  modem  Romanists  ?    It  can  not  be  pretc&dedt 

the  face  of  all  evidence,  that  the  Jews  of  the  year  30,  or  thorfr- 
bout,  were  less  imbued  with  the  belief  in  the  supernatural  than 
were  the  Franks  of  the  year  A.  D.  800.    The  same  in  flu  ■  no 

at  work  in  each  case,  and  it  is  only  reasonable  to  suppo.-L  ..,,  :ho 
results  were  the  same.  If  the  evidence  of  Eginhard  is  insuffi- 
cient to  lead  reasonable  men  to  believe  in  the  min:  '  '  •  *, 
a  fortiori  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  Qosjielii  and  ,  -;i 
be  so.* 

But  it  may  be  said  that  noserious  cr**'     v    •     -^ 
of  the  four  great  Paulino  Epistles— O 

Corinthians,  and  Romans — and  that,  in  three  out  ot  these  four, 
Paul  lays  claim  to  the  power  of  working  miracles. f  Mtv*  "- ■  ^np. 
pose,  therefore,  that  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  has  ^  it 

which  is  false  ?  But  to  how  much  does  this  so-called  claim  luuouub  ? 


*  Of  ooora*  iber«  la  i 
Ana  tiic  cMo  vf  Kejnbftr 
in«r  hM  to  rvry  InnJUT, 
aotml  bftbitM,  but  tbive  «f 

t  Seo  t  Cor.  Ill,  lO-tS 


in  thii  aipmutri 


tbu 


Lii  bim. 


ft  Cor.  tI,  U;  Eom.  xr,  U. 


THE   VALUE   OF   WITNESS   TO  THE  MIBACULOUS,    6lf 

It  niay  mean  much  or  little.  Paul  nowhere  tells  us  Trh^t  ho  did 
in  this  direction,  and,  in  his  sore  need  to  justify  his  assumption  of 
apostleship  against  the  sneers  of  his  enemies,  it  is  hardly  likely 
that,  if  ho  luwl  any  very  striking  cases  to  bring  forward,  he  would 
have  neglected  evidence  so  well  calculated  to  put  them  to  shame. 

And,  without  the  slightest  impeachment  of  Paul's  veracity,  we 
must  further  remember  that  his  strongly  marked  mental  charac- 
teristics, displayed  in  unmistakable  fashion  in  these  Epistles,  are 
anything  but  those  which  would  justify  us  in  regarding  him  as  a 
criti(.!ttl  witness  respecting  matters  of  fact,  or  as  a  trustworthy  in- 
terpreter of  their  signiiicance.  When  a  man  testifies  to  a  miracle, 
he  not  only  states  a  fact,  but  ho  adds  an  intei-pretation  of  the  fact. 
Wo  may  admit  liis  evidence  as  to  the  former,  and  yet  think  his 
opinion  as  to  the  latter  worthless.  If  Eginhard's  calm  and  object- 
ive narrative  of  the  historical  events  of  his  time  is  no  guarantee 
for  the  soundness  of  his  judgment  where  the  supernatural  is  con- 
cerned, the  fervid  rhetoric  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  his 
absolute  confidence  in  the  "  inner  light,"  and  the  extraordinary 
conceptions  of  the  nature  and  requirements  of  logical  proof 
which  he  betrays  in  jfage  after  page  of  his  Epistles,  afford  still 
less  security. 

There  is  a  comparatively  modem  man  who  shared  to  the  full 
Paul's  trust  in  the  "inner  light,"  and  who,  though  widely  dif- 
ferent from  the  fiery  evangelist  of  Tarsus  in  various  obvious  par- 
ticulars, yet,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  shares  his  deepest  characteris- 
tics, I  speak  of  George  Fox,  who  separated  himself  from  the 
current  Protestantism  of  England  in  the  seventeenth  century  as 
Paul  separated  himself  from  tho  Judaism  of  the  first  century,  at 
the  bidding  of  the  "  inner  light  '* — who  went  through  persecutions 
as  serious  as  those  which  Paul  enumerates,  who  was  beaten, 
stoned,  cast  out  for  dead,  imprisoned  nine  times,  sometimes  for 
long  periods,  in  perils  on  land  and  perils  at  sea.  GJeorge  Fox  was 
an  even  more  widely  traveled  missionary,  and  his  success  in 
founding  congregations,  and  his  energy  in  visiting  them,  not 
merely  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  the  West  India  Islxmds, 
but  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  that  of  North  America,  was 
no  less  remarkable,  A  few  years  after  Fox  began  to  preach  there 
were  reckoned  to  be  a  thousand  Friends  in  prison  in  tho  various 
jails  of  England  ;  at  his  death,  less  than  fifty  years  after  tho 
foundation  of  tho  sect,  there  were  seventy  thousand  of  them  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  cheerfulness  with  which  these  people 
— women  as  well  ivs  men — underwent  martyrdom  in  this  country 
and  in  the  New  England  States  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
facta  in  the  history  of  religion. 

No  one  who  raulB  the  voluminous  autobiography  of  "  Honest 
Qeorge  **  can  doubt  the  man's  utter  truthfulness ;  and  though,  in 


n 


I 

I 


THE  POPULAR  SCI£29^CE  MONTULY. 


his  multihidmous  letters,  he  but  rarely  rises  far  nhoro  tho  Inco- 
herent commonplaces  of  a  street  preui^her,  there  can  bo  no  qaoft- 
tiou  of  his  power  as  a  speaker,  nor  any  doubt  as  to  the  dignity 
and  attractiveness  of  his  personality,  or  of  his  possession  o(  a 
large  amount  of  practical  good  sense  and  governing  faculty. 

But  that  G^rge  Fox  had  full  faith  in  his  o^vn  powers  as  a 
miracle-worker,  the  following  passage  of  his  autobiography  (to 
"which  others  might  be  added)  demonstrates: 

Now  after  I  was  set  at  liberty  from  Nottingham  gaol  (wbcre  I  had  bc^o  kepi 
prisoner  a  pretty  loog  time)  I  traveled  aa  befon^  in  tho  work  of  tbo  Lord.  And 
coming  to  MansticM  Woodboa^se,  there  waa  a  distracted  woman  under  a  doctor** 
hand,  with  her  hair  lot  loose  all  aboat  her  6&rf,\  and  ho  was  abont  ia  let  her  bkMMl, 
•he  hoin};  first  bound,  and  many  people  being  about  her,  holding  her  hj  riolaaoc; 
bat  he  eonid  get  no  blood  from  her.  And  I  desired  them  tu  anbt&d  her  and  Ivt 
hor  alone;  for  thejr could  not  tonch  the  spirit  in  her  b;  whioh  eho  wil-  ••A, 

So  tbey  did  unbind  ber,  and  I  was  moved  to  epe^k  to  her,  and  in  tho  'lO 

Lord  to  bid  her  bo  quiot  and  etilL  And  Bho  woa  bo.  And  the  Lord*8  power  settled 
her  raindand  ebe  mended  ;  and  afterwards  received  the  truth  and  continued  in  it 
to  her  death.  And  the  Lord's  name  was  honour»d;  to  wbom  the  glory  of  all  his 
workfl  helonffs.  Ifany  great  and  wonderfol  things  were  wronght  hy  the  hesTentf 
power  in  tliosc  da}'<;.  For  the  Lord  mado  bare  his  omnipotent  arm  nsd  maaK 
leated  his  power  to  tho  af*tonisbment  of  mnny;  hy  tbe  healing  Tirtue  wbcr«of 
manj  have  been  delivered  from  great  infirmities,  and  tlie  devils  were  mad«  sah- 
Ject  through  his  name:  of  which  particular  instances  might  bo  given  he/ond  what 
this  unbelieving  age  ia  able  to  receive  or  bear.* 


4 


It  needs  no  long  study  of  Fox's  writings,  however,  to  urrivo  a 
the  conviction  that  the  distinction  between  subjective  and  objeci- 
ivo  verities  had  not  the  same  place  in  his  mind  as  it  htis  In  that 
of  ordinary  mortals.  When  an  ordinary  person  would  «iy  **  I 
thought  so  and  so,"  or  *'  I  made  up  my  mind  to  do  so  and  bo/* 
George  Fox  says  "  it  was  opened,  to  me/'  or  "  at  the  command  of 
God  I  did  so  and  so."  "Then  at  the  command  of  God  on  the 
ninth  day  of  the  seventh  month  1''43  [Fox  being  just  ninetiM*n]  I 
left  my  relations  and  brake  off  all  familiarity  or  friendship  with 
young  or  old."  "About  the  beginning  of  the  year  1047  1  wa» 
moved  of  the  Lord  to  go  into  Darbyshire."  Fox  hears  voicea  and 
he  sees  visions,  some  of  which  he  brings  before  tli  *^i 

apocalyptic  power  in  simple  and  8trf»ng  English,  aii  A 

and  undefiled,  of  which,  like  John  Bunyan,  hi»  contemi)orary,  ho 
was  a  master. 

"And  one  morning,  as  I  was  sitting  by  the  fire, %  fftoat  cloud 
came  over  me  and  a  temptation  besot  me;  and  I  sato  »tflL  And 
it  was  said. /IK  things  covie  hy  Naiurt,  A  '  "^  .--  ^.  .  . --.j 
stars  came  over  me ;  so  that  I  was  in  a  i  i 

*  "A  JourtuU  or  HUlArlo*)  Acooimt  of  tlio  Ltfa,  TmvoSs,  SalMn^  and  Chirimlae  Ea. 
irtc,  of  O«orge  foi,'*  mL  1,  1994,  ppi  17,  t8. 


m 


^ 
^ 


MUSEUMS  OF  HOUSEHOLD  PRODUCTS.  617 

with  it  .  .  .  And,  as  I  sate  still  under  it,  and  let  it  alone,  a  living 
hope  arose  in  me,  and  a  true  voice  arose  in  mo  which  said.  There 
is  a  living  Ood  who  made  all  things.  And  immediately  the 
cloud  and  the  temptation  vanished  away,  and  life  rose  over  it  all, 
and  my  heart  was  glml  and  I  praised  the  Living  God"  (p.  13). 

If  George  Fox  could  speak  as  he  proves  in  this  and  some  other 
passages  he  could  write,  his  astounding  influence  on  the  con- 
temporaries of  Milton  and  of  Cromwell  is  no  mystery.  But-this 
modern  rei)roduction  of  the  ancient  prophet,  with  his  **  Thus  saith 
the  Lord/'  '*  This  is  the  work  of  the  Lord,*'  stooped  in  supernatu- 
ralism  and  glorying  in  blind  faith,  is  the  mental  antipodes  of  the 
philosopher,  founded  in  naturalism  and  a  fanatic  for  evidence,  to 
whom  those  affirmations  inevitably  suggest  the  previous  ques- 
tion :  "  How  do  you  know  that  the  Lord  saith  it  ? "  "  How  do  you 
know  that  the  Lonl  doeth  it  ?"  and  who  is  compelled  to  demand 
that  rational  ground  for  belief  without  which,  to  the  man  of 
science,  usstnit  is  merely  an  immoral  pretense. 

And  it  is  this  rational  ground  of  belief  which  the  writers  of 
the  Gospels,  no  less  than  Paul,  and  Eginhard,  and  Fox,  so  little, 
dream  of  offering  that  they  w-ould  regard  the  demand  for  it  as 
kind  of  blasphemy. — Nineteenth  Century. 


MUSEUMS  OF  HOUSEHOLD  PRODUCTS, 

Bt  RUDOLF  VlHCnoW. 


I^I^HE  publication  of  a  plan  for  establishing,  in  the  capital  of  the 
-L    German  Empire,  a  "  Museiun  of  Popular  Costumes  and  Prod- 
ucts of  Home  Industry,"  has  aroused  so  earnest  and  general 
interest  that  the  realization  of  the  thought  may  be  regarded 
assured.    It  may,  it  is  true,  be  poasilile  to  carry  it  out  at  first  only 
to  a  very  limited  extent,  for  neither  sufficient  means  nor  space  can 
be  secured  at  once  for  setting  up  a  comprehensive  institution. 
But  the  initial  purpose  of  tlio  authors  of  the  enterjiriso  will  have 
been  accomplished  when  they  have  exhibited  a  series  of  objects 
^^  illustrative  of  their  plan*    They  confidently  hope  that  these  ex- 
^ta  amples  will  satisfy  their  fellow-citizens  of  the  usefulness  and  even 
^B  the  need  of  such  a  museum ;  and  that  the  Government  will  assist 
^P  it  as  it  has  assiste<l  the  technical  museum,  and  will  eventually  take 
^^    it  under  official  care- 

Horr  von  Oossler,  tho  Prussian  Minister  of  Worship,  hi 
already  given  the  costume  museum  free  temporary  quarters  in  the 
oM  '  1^-1  Academy,  the  prosent  Hygienic  Institute,  in  the 
Ki  The  first  acquisitions,  which  were  mo'le  in  the 

peninflula  of  Monkgat»  in  RQgeu,  satifled  him  that  profitable  ro* 


''HE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MO 


sulls  could  be  secured.  It  is  obvious  that  the  acqi 
more  easily  made  througli  private  iKjrsona  wlio  are 
diute  intercourse  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  special  di> 
through  state  officers,  who  will  be  hamx>ered  by  ntr 
servos.  It  seems  dear,  therefore^  that  the  best  course  im- 
mediate present  will  be  to  excite  interest  in  the  enterprise 
the  people  themselves ;  and  to  secure  the  participation  *  '  ' 
the  scheme  in  the  practical  support  of  its  promoters,  J 
opraent  of  tho  older  museums  has  been  predominantly  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  representative  arts.  Even  architecture  has  been 
crowded  into  tho  background  after  sculpture  and  painting.  In- 
dustrial art  has  l>een  very  slowly  and  tardily  recovered  from  ob- 
livion. Those  highest  efforts  of  human  skilly  while  they  arouse 
the  admiration  of  tho  observer,  vitalize  and  elevate  the  nnder- 
standing,  excite  it  to  imitation,  and  give  direction  to  the  activity 
of  whole  generations.  They  have  thus  become  pre-eminently  tho 
criterion  of  civilization. 

But  civilization  has  never  anywhere  come  up  at  once.  Many 
generations  have  to  apply  their  best  force,  through  slow  labor,  to 
gain  artistic  skill  and  make  it  at  home.  A  kind  of  heroditaiy 
transmission  assures  the  continuance  of  progress  in  thi-  '  "'  nd 
in  case  of  long  interruption  the  recovery  of  aims  an-.  *\b 

once  possessed.  Not  only,  therefore,  does  the  investigator,  thfi 
real  art-expert,  give  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the  history  of 
art,  but  the  question  also  occurs  to  the  simple  man  of  the  peopUj 
— who  may  have  made  such  a  great  discovery,  and  how,  in  the 
course  of  time,  ever  higher  degrees  of  skill  and  imderstanding  in 
art  are  mastered. 

Two  circumstances  have  hitherto  given  deep  significance  to 
these  questions,  and  extended  them  far  over  the  domain  of  pure 
art:  First,  the  increasing  knowledge  of  the  efforts  of  savaflres.  This 
be^^nn  with  tho  grent  discoveries  of  the  \  th 

centuries,  but  only  obtained  that  fruitful  t:^:. -....-:..-  ...  ..  gen- 
eral view  which  is  now  apparent  to  all  with  tho  scientific  expedi- 
tions of  the  last  century,  especially  with  Cook's  vo}  1  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt's  researches.  Who  does  not  >  at  the 
course  of  civilization  from  its  rudest  beginnings  to  an  often  mow 
prising  height,  lies  visible  as  in  an  open  book  in  the 
to-day,  and  that  the  development  of  society,  law,  and  r 
well  as  tho  ordering  of  the  household  and  tho  -v* 
property  in  household  goods  and  ornaments,  d*.- 
and  useful  plants,  may  be  obf^rvfnl,  now  here,  nc»v 
gnulual  building  up?  U  .  the  savag- 
with  fearful  rapidity  unU*  >  .  .*,i<ict  with  civ: 
may  l)o  considered  fortunate  that  the  innroaw 
vatioQ  and  collection  of  tho  things  i»ecaliar  to  ' 


I 


of 
as 
<^f 


it 


I 


I 


vivals  of  primitive  times  is  exerted  in  preserving  the  objects  them- 
solves  as  well  as  the  recollection  of  thoru,  for  futnre  study.  Thus 
are  explained  the  origin  and  growth  of  ethnological  museums,  of 
which  the  one  in  Berlin  is  one  of  the  best  specimens. 

The  second  circumstance  that  has  determined  with  hardly  less 
force  the  direction  of  late  research  is  the  shaping  of  archaeology 
into  a  real  science  of  prehistory.  The  gro-vnng  interest  in  the 
European  states  in  collecting  the  antiquities  of  the  country,  with 
the  activity  of  Danish  and  Swedish  students  and  the  co-operation 
of  several  German  investigators,  have  been  the  means  of  intro- 
ducing general  order  and  chronological  consistency  into  this  pre- 
viously chaotic  domain.  The  discovery  of  the  Swiss  pile-dwell- 
ings kindleti  zeal  in  the  study  through  all  Europe;  and  ]trchistoric 
museums  are  now  among  the  instit.utioua  in  the  completeness  of 
which  each  nation  has  a  peculiar  pride. 

In  this  study,  out  of  the  graves  and  dwellings  of  our  ancestors, 
is  unfolding  before  us  a  new  picture  of  the  growth  of  human  civil- 
ization ;  and  we  observe  with  surprise  and  wonder  how  it  serves 
as  a  complement  to  the  conception  supplied  by  the  view  of  the  de- 
velopment of  savages,  so  that  one  supplements  the  other.  We 
look  at  our  ancestors  themselves  as  they  stood  in  their  day  where 
savages  are  now. 

Art-history  proper  is  preceded  by  the  history  of  labor;  a  long 
story,  that  began  in  the  farthest  primeval  time,  is  still  continu- 
ing, and  is  destined  to  continue  ever.  There  is  no  boundary-line 
between  the  two,  for  no  man  can  say  where  art  begins,  or  toil  for 
daily  living  ends.  Art  proceeds  out  of  the  labor  of  the  day,  as  a 
flower  from  a  bud.  History  and  prehistory  are  only  outwardly 
separate,  while  inwardly  they  are  undistinguishable.  As  pre- 
history survives  in  the  present  savages,  so  likewise  prehistoric 
traditions  pass  over  into  the  lives  of  civilized  peoples.  The  re- 
covery and  preservation  of  these  traditions  is  a  not  less  important 
aid  to  the  understanding  of  civilization  than  prehistory  itself; 
for  they  furnish  the  threads  by  which  we  can  trace  the  connection 
of  the  past  and  the  present  in  immediate  sequence. 

The  connections  of  the  oldest  ti'aditions  are  afforded  first  by 
language  and  legends,  for  the  study  of  which  no  museums  are 
required.  Next  to  these  in  value  are  material  objects,  particu- 
larly useful  ones,  with  which  are  associated  antique  designs  and 
mythic — sometimes  superstitious — meanings,  and  which  also  in 
their  forms,  decorations^  and  applications  give  very  definite  views 
of  their  age.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  projected  museum  of  cos- 
tuxaes  and  household  goods  to  collect  these  objects — not  the  only 

pu;i         r  .    ■'  '  i!jres  in  the  historical  development 

of  i  traces  in  dress  and  furnishings, 

but  tho  principal  one.    A  moseam  of  costumes  and  household 


goods  will,  therefore,  closo  the  gaps  between  ethnological  and  pre- 
historic museums  on  the  one  side  and  betwwn  ethnological  and 
historical  museums  ou  the  other  side.  It  will  do  for  our  own  peo- 
ple what  ethnological  museums  have  done  in  relation  to  foreign 
peoples,  particularly  to  savages;  it  will  seek  out  objects  of  the 
present  as  historical  museums  have  recovered  them  from  the 
tombs  and  dwelling-places  of  primitive  times;  and  will  give  for 
the  common  life  and  conduct  of  the  peoples  what  historical  rau- 
seums  have  furnished  as  to  their  ecclesiastical  and  courtly  Hfe. 

We  have  a  right,  therefore,  to  expect  much  from  tlie  museum 
of  costumes  and  household  goods.  Experience  has  contradictod 
the  objection  that  it  is  too  late  to  carry  out  such  a  purjjose.  Our 
beginnings  have  already  taught  us  that  even  in  Germany  ooeluu 
only  to  inquire  and  exert  himself  earnestly  to  obtain  a  groat 
number  of  objects  of  antique  tradition.  In  other  countries  brill- 
iant success  has  been  achieved,  especially  in  Sweden,  which, 
through  the  indefatigable  industry  of  Horr  Hiizelius,  has  bad  a 
model  museum  of  this  kind  in  Stockholm  for  many  years.  There 
are  also  notable  collections  of  similar  character  in  Moscow  and 
Amsterdam ;  but  the  expectations  should  not  be  raised  too  bigh. 
Thus  it  is  evident  that  what  we  perhaps  too  ambitiously  call 
national  costumes  do  not  reach  back  into  prehistoric  timc«. 
There  was  then  nothing  like  them,  Sucb  characteristic  styles 
can  exist  only  among  those  peoples  of  whom  some  of  tho  tribes 
have  continued  in  a  kind  of  natural  condition,  and  these  aro 
found  in  Europe  only  among  those  of  the  Finnish  stock.  With 
all  the  Aryan  peoples  of  Europe  the  national  <  la- 

tively  late,  almost  a  modern,  product.    In  <J  ■•*■ 

tumes  can  be  found  only  in  limited  districts,  sometimes  only  in 
particular  villages,  and  are  seldom  of  earlier  origin  than  tho  fif- 
teenth century.  Not  a  few  of  them  were  first  fixed  by  the  Refor- 
mation, The  actual  collection  of  the  material  nmy  open  tho  way 
to  comparative  studies  that  will  furnish  earlier  dates,  but  this  is 
likely  to  be  the  case  only  as  applies  to  single  i>artfl  of  tho  dreea. 

Men  are  more  permanent  in  their  house  coustr^i  ^^thods 

of  tilLoge  and  of  domesticating  animals,  in  their  fu:: ^  and 

tools,  than  in  their  dress.  Articles  of  stone,  bone,  horn,  and  dny, 
in  jjarticular,  incline  to  b<    ^  '  ~"  "      .,■]£ 

of  house  arrangement  pei>  ,1  lie 

extension  of  the  scale  and  tho  larger  estate  may  ouUul ;  and  it  is^ 
in  respect  to  tV  "  *ly,  as  permanent  as  are  the  topography  And 
flora  to  whoi^  :  .-*. 

Whole  houses  can  hardly  be  brought  into  musi  as 

they  may  be  r^-"'-*^  *  ■'  -     '  '-     ••    > "— - 

will  be  given 

in  complete  h  1  mi  ..< meai,  and  wn  hope  at  ti 


THE  WASTES   OF  MODERN  CIVILIZATION, 


I^Beum  to  make  sucli  exliibitions  of  apartments  from  various 
RRiods,  by  raoaiia  o£  wliich  vro  shall  bo  able  to  convey  ideaa  of 
tho  more  important  parts  of  the  house.  > 

The  new  entoi*prise  invites  the  active  co-operation  of  our  coun- 
tTjnnen.  As  a  rulo,  the  people  know  best  where  such  treasures  as 
we  desire  to  bring  to  light  are  to  bo  found.  We  therefore  ask 
them  to  help  us  gather  up  sucli  national  relics  as  still  exist  in  tho 
way  of  dress  and  house  furnishings  to  be  preserved  for  the  obser- 
vation of  posterity. — TiuixsUxted  for  the  Popular  Science  Monthly 
from  Die  GarienJaube, 


THE  WASTES  OP  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


Br  VZUX  L.  OSWALD,  U.  D. 


II. 


ft 
ft 


THE  use  of  certain  remedial  drugs  is  apt  to  become  a  confirmed 
habit,  which  often  continues  to  aiHict  the  patient  for  years 
after  his  apparent  recovery  from  the  effects  of  the  original  dm* 
ease.  The  medication  of  desperate  moral  disorders  has  now  and 
then  entailed  a  similar  penalty.  During  the  millennium  of  modite- 
val  superstition,  when  the  enforcement  of  antinatural  dogmas  had 
made  common  sense  a  capital  crime  and  seciilar  science  an  article 
of  contraband,  the  study  of  classic  literature  became  for  thou- 
sands a  refuge  from  the  peril  of  madness.  From  the  tyranny  of 
the  monkish  Inquisition  thousands  of  persecuted  thinkers  could 
still  escape  to  tho  haunts  of  Plato  and  Virgil,  as,  in  spite  of  chains 
and  guards,  a  Siberian  exile  may  in  dreams  return  to  the  lost  para- 
dise of  freedom.  Knowledge,  too,  could  still  be  delved  from  the 
treasure-mine  of  pagan  philosophy,  and  for  nearly  a  thousand 
years  the  stutly  of  dead  languages  became  thus  a  chief  coudition 
of  intellectual  survivaL 

Intellectual  progress  had  been  almost  completely  arrested. 
Like  a  monstrous  dam,  the  barrier  of  an  unnatural  dogma  ob- 
structed the  currents  of  civilization ;  all  through  priest-ridden 
Euroi^e  the  rivers  of  national  life  had  been  collected  into  a  vast 
theological  mill-pond,  and  only  from  tho  heights  of  a  classical  edu- 
cation, from  turrets  accessible  only  by  steep  and  tortuous  stairs, 
philosophers  could,  in  retrospect,  study  the  phenomena  of  life  un- 
der less  abnormal  conditions,  and  natunilly  made  the  attic  of  that 
edifice  the  repository  of  their  own  choicest  thought. 

Then  camo  tl)e  great  dam-burst  of  the  Protestant  revolt.  Tho 
j^i     _r  .V     .--  .  r  -       1  1  .  uncontrollable  torrents,  and 

tL<  rushed  onward  with  an  impe- 

tus which,  in  lh«  nipid  progress  of  science  and  reform,  pi*omised 


THE  POPULAR  SCISyCS  MONTHLY. 


to  compensnte  the  stagnation  of  a  thousrtiid  j'Oftrs.  TItua  far, 
however,  the  speed  of  that  progress  has  been  sadly  retiirded  by 
the  very  means  which  once  constituted  its  only  hope  of  rerivaL 
tstead  of  navigating  the  river  of  the  new  em  in  manageable 
loata,  scholars  persisted  in  clinging  to  the  wrcrk  of  their  chiMric 
observatory,  to  a  cumbersome  raft  of  old  beams  and  plankfl  which 
got  stranded  at  every  turn  of  the  stream,  and  often  became  a  »o- 
rions  obstacle  in  the  channels  of  reform.  The  experience  of  the 
hist  three  hundred  years  has  as  yet  failed  to  disassociate  the  ideaa 
of  Latin  and  Greek  from  the  scholastic  notions  of  culture,  and  the 
time  may  come  when  practical  educators  will  almost  fail  to  realize 
the  possibility  of  the  fact  that,  in  our  own  rapid  age  of  discorery 
and  invention,  millions  of  our  most  gifted  students  had  to  wa8t« 
from  one-third  to  three-fifths  of  their  time  on  the  study  of  dead 
languages.  Witness  the  following  curriculum  of  the  German 
Gymnasia,  or  high  schools — tho  preparatory  colleges  of  the  best 
European  universities,  and  the  gates  to  every  highway  of  liberal 
education: 

Latin,  ten  hours  per  week ;  Greek,  eight  hours ;  Hebrew,  throe 
hours;  German,  four  hours;  mathematics,  four  hours;  geo^ 
raphy,  two;  history,  two;  drawing,  two;  French,  two;  physiol* 
ogyj  two;  religion,  optional;  English,  optional  (occasionally 
taught  instead  of  French);  gymnastics,  four  hours.  In  other 
words,  twenty-one  hours  of  graveyard  studies  to  eighteen  hoars 
of  all  living  sciences  taken  together,  since  gymnastics  lias  ceased 
under  certain  circumstances  to  be  a  compulsory  branch  of  educes 
tion. 

Those  twenty-one  hours  devoted  to  the  dead  leave  not  a  min- 
ute's time  for  the  study  of  such  problems  of  life  as  biology  and 
rational  hygiene;  not  a  minute  for  anatomy,  political  economj, 
j>hikisoph3%  rhetoric,  or  non-sectarian  ethics.  Such  things,  of 
course,  are  taught  by  the  regular  <  '  -    '        t^j. 

versity  i  but  a  large  percentage  of  ;  _  ho 

primer-class  of  the  gjounafiinm  to  the  duties  of  practicai  life,  and 
in  ninety-nine  of  a  hundred  coses  may  charge  t!i  '  :  '4 
given  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages  to  the  '  ixi 

loss.     Not  one  of  a  hundred  non-philological  students  (gradn* 


i 

4 


.1       4l. 


>.: 


ates  devoting  themselves  to  tho  special  study 
of  ancient  languages)  would  ever  dream  of  e 
quarian  pursuits  or  be  able  to  look  u[»ou  a  Greek  or 
book  without  a  shudder  of   disgust.     It  has  hmrn  ci 
proved  that  all  the  etymological  benefit  derived  fron 

■aveyardH  could  Iw  reaped  if 

^ords  (most  of  thorn  familiar..,    .      .      .  .    _ 

derivatives).     It  lm«  boon  demonstrated  to  the 
every  impartial  thiukor  that  grammar^riO  !«  n(4  the  ^up  .riau 


'i- 

,t. 

ly 

tic 
t- 

-h 


TEE   WASTES   OF  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


n 


intollectual  exorcise  VRuntcd  in  the  arguments  of  its  advocate&y 
but,  on  the  contrary,  almost  the  worst  of  all  possible  systems  or^ 
mental  training — a  dead-lift  of  memory,  exercising  the  lower  at 
the  expense  of  the  higher  mental  facultieg.  Nor  is  there  a  shadow 
of  a  doubt  that  in  natural  history,  astronomy,  geography,  physi- 
ology, and  mathematics,  the  achievements  of  Greece  and  Rome 
have  been  distjinc-ed  as  far  as  their  own  writers  eclipsed  the 
wiseacres  of  Scythia  and  Abyssinia.  Yet  the  New  World  con- 
tinues to  emulate  the  Old  in  wooing  the  specters  of  the  past, 
and  thousands  of  American  parents  encumber  the  memory  of 
their  children  with  a  mass  of  antiquarian  rubbish  that  leaves  no 
room  for  the  culture  of  progressive  science,  too  often  not  even 
for  the  adequate  study  of  their  own  mother-tongue. 

A  cardinal  tenet  of  mcdi»val  ethics  was  the  belief  in  the  merit 
of  mental  pwsflhdion — the  duty  of  submitting  to  dogmas  which 
tlieir  professors  did  not  and  could  not  believe,  and  which  the  exi- 
gencies of  daily  life  obliged  them  practically  to  repudiate. 

A  logical  consequence  of  that  doctrine  was  the  antagonism  of  J 
theory  and  practice,  which  continues  to  involve  an  enormous^ 
waste  in  our  method  of  moral  education.    A  million  pulpits  still 
preach  a  gospel  that  inculcates  the  vanity  of  industrial  pursuits* , 
"Take  no  thought  of  the  morrow,  for  the  morrow  shall  take' 
thought  for  the  things  of  itself/'     "Take  no  thought,  saying, 
What  shall  we  eat,  or  what  shall  we  drink,  or  wherewithal  shall 
we  be  clothed  ?    For  after  all  these  do  the  Gentiles  seek.'*    As 
a  practical  comment  on  the  wisdom  of  those  precepts,  nations^] 
cities,  and  corporations  vie  in  the  restless  pursuit  of  wealth,  and 
a  thousand  lessons  of  daily  life  admonish  the  young  citizen  of 
our  industrial  world  to  take  earnest  and  constant  thought  of  the 
morrow ;  nay,  the  mere  attempt  to  disregard  those  lessons  would 
be  followed  by  the  punishment  of  the  shiftless  vagrant. 

Loss  of  health  and  wealth,  loss  of  working  capacity — in  fact, 
every  form  of  temporal  afiliction — the  disciples  of  our  moral  exem- 
plar are  instructed  to  consider  as  proofs  of  divine  favor.  Yet  the 
prevention  of  such  favors  is  the  legally  encouraged  purpose  of 
dozens  of  fire  and  life  insurance  companies  and  mutual  aid  asso- 
ciations with  their  omnipresent  agencies. 

Our  ethical  text-books  in  the  plainest  terms  teach  the  possi- 
bility of  curing  diseases  by  prayer  and  mj-stic  ceremonies.  **  If 
any  man  is  sick  among  you,  lot  him  call  for  the  elders  of  the 
church  and  let  them  pray  over  him,  anointing  him  with  oil  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord."  "  And  the  prayer  of  faith  shall  save  the  sick, 
and  the  Lord  shall  raise  him  up,"  "  And  when  he  had  called  untoi 
him  his  twelve  disciples,  he  gave  them  power  against  unclean 
spirits,  to  cast  them  out  and  to  heal  all  manner  of  disease."  Yet 
in  at  least  forty-five  of  the  fifty  most  civilized  countries  of  Chris- 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTMLW 


l^ndom  tho  attempt  to  euro  any  serious  disease  on  that  plan  woma! 
Hb©  followed  by  a  prompt  indictment  for  quackery,  i 

The  possibility  of  diabolical  ftpparitions  is  implied  in  a  ootuit-l 
loss  number  of  jia^sages  whicli  our  traditional  cref^ 
accept  as  infallible  truth.    Devils  by  scores  and  It^  -  „_      _. 

land  of  faith,  tempting  the  virtuous,  afflicting  men  and  animALi 
with  sf  rriuge  diseases,  or  even  taking  |H^rmanent  possession  of  a 
liunuiii  boily  still  tenanted  by  a  conscious  souL  The  report  of  a 
five  minutes'  interview  with  the  smallest  of  those  imps  would  now 
expose  the  narrator  to  the  risk  of  a  lunacy  inquest. 

The  worthlessness  of  earthly  life  is  inculcated  with  a  distinci- 
ness  which  seems  intended  as  an.  encouragement  to  the  indirect 
suicide  of  monastic  asceticism ;  yet  the  same  moralists  who  bewail 
this  earth  as  a  vale  of  tears  take  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  pro- 
longation of  human  life,  and  court  popularity  by  indorsing  every 
measure  tending  to  promote  the  progress  of  sanitary  reform. 

The  inevitable  result  of  such  inconsistencies  is  a  moral  confa- 
sion  rescmbb'ng  the  bewilderment  of  the  guests  invited  to  the  b«ti- 
quet  of  Rueckert's  Hakim  Baba,  who  urged  his  visitors  to  indulgo 
in  wine,  but  thrashed  them  fearfully  if  they  showed  any  eigns 
of  intoxication. 

From  the  chaos  of  conflicting  theoretical  and  practical  lessons 
our  children,  by  the  aid  of  expeinence,  somehow  manage  to  evolve 
a  moral  compromise  code  of  thoir  own ;  but  what  a  waste  of  time  m^ 
could  be  saved,  how  many  hours  of  doubt,  perplexity,  and  repenU  ^^k 
ance  could  bo  obviated  by  a  system  of  ethics  inculcating  procffpt* 
in  harmony  with  the  laws  of  nature  and  the  facta  of  actual  life! 

Yet  the  injury  caused  by  the  theoretical  survival  of  ohsoleio 
jdogmas  is  far  surpassed  by  the  baneful  results  of  tb  re- 

Wtablish  their  authority  by  the  aid  of  legal  euforcL...  „. .ral 

confusion  in  that  case  takes  the  more  serious  form  of  a  morml 
revolt  which  strikes  at  the  very  root  of  socin^  "  "  -Tiaking 
injustice  a  s^Tionym  of  law  and  order.    The  ^l  liu  con- 

siontly  warn  us  against  the  danger  of  attempting  social  nsfonos 
by  an  apjieal  to  "  {witemal  legislation  "  have  :i         *   ''    '    Mo  ex- 
plain by  wluU  right  they  continue  to  employ  t  .^  fur  the 
perpetuation  of  social  abuses.    They  decline  to  meddle  with  iho 
affairs  of  their  poor  brother,  for  fear  of  sheltering  him  ;>-■  ■-    * 
"the  natural  penalties  of  his  shift^essness " ;  but  they  ri- 
interferenco  by  enforcing  laws  tx)  deprive  him  of  the  natural  re- 
wards of  his  labor,  especially  if  their  own  position  enr*^'^-^^  ?T...r.. 
to  evade  the  inconveniences  of  such  laws.    In  other  \. 
di'*nounce  med<]lesomo  help  but  connive  •  ^^H 
Thoir  tender  conscience  shrinks  from  tho  ...,..-.  f^| 
an  arbitrary,  unearned  blessing,  but  consents  to  tho  1)  H 
Inflicting  an  arbitraryi  undeserved  curae.                                     ^| 


THE  WASTES    OF  MOUERX  CIVILIZATION, 


I 


I 


» 


For  what  else  is  the  tyranny  of  the  laws  "by  which  nine  tenths 
of  our  fellow-citizons  are  robbed  of  their  scant  chance  of  recrea- 
tion and  obliged  at  the  expense  of  their  mental  and  physical 
health  to  toil  like  criminals,  whose  only  alternative  of  labor  is  the 
dreary  inactivity  of  their  prison-ct^lls — all  in  order  to  retain  a 
conventional  mark  of  deference  to  the  joy-hating  insanity  of  the 
middle  ages — or,  i>erhaps,  to  enhance  by  the  charm  of  contrast 
the  prerogatives  of  the  privileged  few,  whoso  abundance  of  leifiure 
days  enables  them  to  dispense  with  the  blessing  of  a  free  Stm- 
day? 

It  is  trae  that  the  rigor  of  medi&Bval  ethics  has  been  modified 
in  several  important  resj)octs.  The  duty  of  abstaining  from  work 
and  relying  on  prayer  has  been  abrogated  in  favor  of  our  tax- 
paying  national  industries.  The  duty  of  despising  the  danger  of 
defilement  by  things  that  enter  the  mouth  had  Iwen  generally 
remitted  in  favor  of  candidates  for  the  temperance  vote.  The 
obligation  of  despising  the  vanities  of  secular  sclenco  does  not 
prevent  the  Rev.  Tollemach-Tollemach  from  collecting  his  tithes 
by  telephone ;  but  the  duty  of  renunciation,  of  submissive  absti- 
nence from  worldly  and  physical  enjoyments,  is  still  enforced  at 
the  expense  of  every  laborer  whose  finaxicial  circumstances  pre- 
clude the  luxury  of  extra-Sabbatarian  leisure  days. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years  several  hundred  appe-als 
for  the  abrogation  of  our  anachronistic  blue  laws  Lave  been 
calmly  ignored  as  below  the  notice  of  legislators  engaged  in  such 
important  reforms  as  the  dredging  of  Catfish  Bayou,  though  it 
might  be  questioned  if  the  total  amount  of  misery  entailed  on 
our  workingmen  by  the  systematic  suppression  of  public  recrea- 
tion has  ever  been  stirpassed  by  the  resuJts  of  the  most  inhuman 
alliance  of  mediaeval  bigotry  and  despotism.  The  Spanish  Inqui- 
sition enforced  its  mandates  regardless  alike  of  fear  and  pity; 
its  victims  were  selected  from  a  class  forming,  after  all,  only 
all  fraction  of  the  total  population— one  scapegoat,  por- 
in  a  herd  of  ten  thousand — while  at  least  a  hundred-fold 
proportion  of  our  countrymen  feel  the  galling  yoke  of  the  Sab- 
bath despots.  The  Scotch  ascetics  of  David  Hume's  time  filled 
their  chiirches  by  a  system  of  penal  statutes  which  made  financial 
and  social  ruin  almost  the  only  alternative  of  conformity;  but 
the  Caledonian  peasant  who  had  passed  a  week  among  the  flocks 
of  his  Highland  home  might  easily  endure  a  day  of  confinement 
in  the  man-pen  of  his  kirk,  while  the  bigots  of  our  manufacturing 
communities  enforce  their  asceticism  upon  men  who  need  recrea- 
tion and  outdoor  sports  as  they  need  food  and  sunlight,  and 
whose  numbers  include  thousands  for  whom  the  promise  of  a 
po^'moHem.  Utopia  has  lost  ita  compensating  valno. 
j      A  ft  '  '         >^  I  accompanied  a  friend  on  a  stroll  across  a. 


6)6 


THS  POPULAn  SCIBXCS  MOXTHLT. 


Lill-pastnre  \rbere  a  young  goat-berd  lay  stretcbed  oat  mk  fall 
!  !-  a  tree  still  dripping  from  the  ahoireiB  of  a  vaoont 

I      .     ■  ■     ■    ■     ria. 

*•  Hallo,  Billy!"  called  out  my  companion.    "Wbat  are  you 
loing  in  that  puddlo  of  rain  ?    D<)u*t  you  know  iLeie  ia  a  lav 

linst  bathing  on  Sunday  ?  " 

"  That's  a  fact/'  laughed  Billy.    "  If  a  Etretch  i  .« 

could  do  a  fellow  any  good,  I  havo  no  doubt  there  v.  -^w^**  ^.  «  law 
fagainst  it" 

That  reply  exactly  defines  the  popular  verdict  on  a  oi»do  ot^H 
laws  founded  upon  a  system  whose  comer-etone  is  ind«od  tht^lH 
dogma  that  "wliatevcr  ia  natural  is  wrong."    Sabbatorixui  dt«- 
potism  has  Bucceedc^d  in  counectin;^  the  popular  U'    '         "  l  mofa]- 
iat  with  the  idea  of  a  kill-joy,  and  ma<le  religion  u    ,        j  m  of  a 
system  for  the  infliction  of  the  greatest  possible  misery  oa 
greatest  possible  number. 

"  ^Vhy,  but  is  there  not  an  offset  in  the  leisoro  gained  for  tbe 
perusal  of  moral  and  instructive  pamphlets  ? "  asks  the  agent 
the  Free  Tract  Society. 

Our  pious  friends  can,  indeed,  not  be  accused  of  underrating  tli» 
value  of  those  tracts  if  they  expect  them  to  compensate  the  vasU 
of  opportunities  for  lifo-brightening  recreations,  the  loss  of 
humor,  the  loss  of  patriotism,  the  loss  of  faith  in  the  benefits 
laws  and  cre^^ds,  the  loss  of  content,  and  the  often  irretrioTabla 
loss  of  health  and  vital  energy. 


if  »^^ 


THE  ETHICAL  VIEW  OF  PROTECTION: 

A  WORD  TO  THE  WATFAHIKO  MAN. 

Bt  HUNTINGTON  SillTtt. 

TTTHENEYER  any  great  question  comes  up  for  s^ttli 
W     there  are  always  people  ready  with  argunifnts  on 
giiles.    These  arguments  are  all  supported  by  wl 
^Facts  in  great  numbers  are  accumulated  topro^'.  ...^..^ 
opposite  things ;  for  there  is  no  question,  it  matters  not  how 
surd  it  may  be,  that  facts  in  al  can  not  be  f 

favor.    Now  the  simple  ti'uth  is,  i ,  .-ts  mean  notL ^  :... 

know  the  relation  which  they  bear  to  other  facts.  A  mase  of  fact 
is  li^         '     !])  of  brii '  ^  just  as  you  cav 

of  ii  >;  out  of       .       .  heap  of  bricks,  r 

number  of  facts  you  can,  by  picking  your  material  o' 
.together  in  :  '  '  ,  lau  yon  ^ 

intxl  upon,  afgittneti 

mon  saying  that  ligures  will  nut  lie.    It  is  tru 


TEE  ETHICAL    VIEW  OF  PROTECTION. 


6z7 


» 
^ 


^ 


of  themselves  lie,  any  more  than  a  heap  of  bricks  will  lie ;  but 
they  can  be  made  to  lie,  just  as  a  heap  of  bricks  may  bo  used  for 
the  construction  of  a  sham  building.  We  may  compare  the  dis- 
cussion over  a  great  question  to  the  terminal  moraine  of  a  glacier. 
The  word  moraine  means  a  heap  of  rubbislu  Wlien  a  glacier  la 
formed  and  begins  to  push  its  way  do^vn  a  valley,  a  vast  mass  of 
rubbish  gathers  and  conceals  its  approach  from  view.  If  you  did 
not  look  carefully  at  one  of  these  terminal  moraines,  you  never 
would  know  that  there  was  any  glacier ;  and  after  you  discovered 
the  glacier  you  never  would  know,  except  by  careful  observation, 
that  it  moved.  Yet  it  does  move,  slowly  but  surely,  in  spite  of 
the  rubbish  that  seems  to  block  its  way.  The  rubbish  is  pushed 
on  little  by  little,  and  in  due  time  the  glacier  gets  to  the  sea. 
Every  one  realizes  then  that  the  important  thing  was  not  the 
moraine  but  the  glacier.  The  moraine  has  been  ground  out  of 
sight  or  is  scattered  along  the  path ;  but  the  glacier  remains. 

So  it  is  with  every  great  truth  that  is  making  its  way  in  the 
world.  It  stirs  up  a  vast  amount  of  talk.  Some  people  approve 
of  the  truth,  and  bring  their  little  store  of  facts  to  show  what  a 
fine  thing  it  will  be;  others  disapprove  of  it,  and  bring  the  same 
little  facts,  arranged  in  a  different  way,  to  show  that  if  this  prin- 
ciple is  adoptcMl  it  will  inflict  immense  damage  upon  the  welfare 
of  society.  Many  remember  how  it  was  when  the  great  question 
of  the  abolition  of  slavery  came  up  in  this  country.  Some  men 
argueil  against  it,  ingeniously  devising  i)lausiblo  arguments,  full 
of  statistics  and  Bible  toxta,  and  assertions  that  slavery  was 
indorsed  by  Christianity;  and  others  argued  in  its  favor,  with 
more  statistics,  and  other  Bible  texts,  and  the  assertion  that 
Christianity  and  slavery  were  totally  incompatible ;  and  mean- 
while the  principle  of  human  freedom  went  on  working,  and  in 
time  the  slaves  were  set  free. 

How  did  the  man  of  upright  mind  and  noble  heart  decide  the 
question  of  slavery  or  abolition  in  the  days  when  that  question 
as  before  the  country  ?    Did  he  weigh  argument  against  argu- 
ont,  statistics  against  sUitistics,  this  Bible  text   against  that 
iblo  text  ?    No.    He  simply  sat  down  in  the  quietude  of  his  own 
chamber  and  said   to  himself:  "The  slaves  are  men  like  me. 
Would  I  bo  willing  to  be  a  slave  ?    Will  it,  in  the  long  run,  be 
rofitable  to  humanity  if  n  jwrtion  of  the  human  race  remains  in 
ndage  ? "    And  it  did  not  take  him  long  to  answer  tJie  ques- 
ion.    His  own  reason  told  him  what  the  answer  was.    He  de- 
clared then  and  there  that  slavery  was  wrong,  and  henceforth  ho 
was  on  the  side  of  freedom. 

Now,  a  man  wh<'  nch  a  course  as  that,  it  matters  not 

ow  letkmed  or  how  i,.  ^  he  may  bo  in  the  science  of  facts,  is 

phOoaophor.    A  philosopher  is  a  lover  of  wisdom,  and  it  is  pos- 


e9 


sible  fco  be  wise  and  yet  to  know  very  few  fa4:ta.    Wisdom  does 
not  consist  in  the  ability  to  heap  'Op  facts,  although  our  scht 
instructors  seem  to  think  it  does.    Wisdom  is  conoomed 
something  far  higher  than  facts ;  it  is  concerned  with  the  tmevj 
I  the  eternal^  the  unchanging  relations  of  things.    The  man  who 
phae  grasped  a  few  of  the  elementary  truths  of  existence  and  gov-l 
ems  his  life  in  accordance  with  them  is  wise,  oven  if  he  con  not 
,  read  a  line  of  Latin,  or  solve  a  problem  in  algebra,  or  work  out  a 
FBum  in  the  rule  of  thre&    A  few  of  the  elementary  truths  of  ex- 
istence are  that  you  must  treat  others  as  you  would  be  iroatad 
yourself;  that,  if  you  would  derive  the  utmost  possible  advan- 
tage from  your  relations  with  your  fellows,  you  must  be  tnuak 
rand  open  in  what  you  do;  that  you  must  not  build  up  barriers  of 
^restrictions  between  yourself  and  othera  and  expect  to  thriv«^ 
either  materially  or  morally,  as  you  would  if  the  barriers  did  not 
P  exist — in  a  word,  the  elemental  truths  of  existence  upon  which  wo 
[must  depend  are  justice,  fraternity,  and  love.    The  man  who  gov- 
ftems  his  life  by  these  principles  may  not  bo  a  learned  man ;  ho 
^  may  not  be  able  to  construct  ingenious  arguments  from  ceutfus 
reports ;  but  he  will  be  a  good  father,  a  kind  neighbor,  a  man  you 
can  trust  in  business,  and  he  is  pretty  sure  to  bo  prosperona,  b^ 
cause  he  is  on  the  side  of  truth  and  righteousness,  and  somohow 
or  other  truth  and  righteousness,  sooner  or  later,  always  wiru 

The  great  questions,  as  we  have  said,  are  all  tl  .^rising, 

and  they  have  to  be  met  in  some  way.    Each  geii  tias  iti 

own  particular  question  to  settle.  In  this  country,  a  generation 
la^o,  it  was  the  abolition  of  slavexy.  That  question  was  effeolually 
Htettled,  as  we  all  know.  Now  a  new  generntion  has  come  upon 
the  stage,  and  a  new  question  arisen  The  new  question  is  broader 
than  the  other,  although  it  does  not  go  so  deep.  If  it  doininot 
affect  so  closely  the  very  principle  of  manhood  or  call  for  arach 
iberoic  treatment,  its  settlement  concerns  the  welfare  of  a  far 
kreater  number,  and  upon  it  depend  the  prosperity  and  happi- 
mess  of  the  whole  nation^  It  is  not,  then,  a  question  to  be  deddod 
lightly.  Every  man  should  think  long  and  carefully  before  ren* 
ndering  his  decision.  The  question  with  ■^vliicli  wo  :iro  now  con- 
cerned is  that  of  protection  and  free  trade. 
I       Here,  as  in  all  other  great  -  is,  we  n*. 

Sand  trjnng  to  win  converts  t  ^wn  sp*.^  .        .  ' 

meats  in  which  statistics— that  is,  facts — in  one  form  or  anuihor,  i 
are  brought  together  to  prov     ''  .      trically  '-■        '*     "   "  If 

we  listen  to  them,  we  are  pei  *A-e  ar*^  •  If 

one  man  tells  us  that  wages  are  higher  in  of 

protection,  and  that  consequently  f^- ^ 

Ujction  than  without  it;  and  a- 

wugoa  will  b«  lower  under  free  trade,  Qio  cuj '  'idl 


TBS  ETHICAL    VIEW  OF  PROTECTION. 


I 


I 
I 


I 


oe  far  less,  nnrl,  being  relievetl  from  the  burden  of  beavy  taxation^ 
we  ahall  all  bo  much  more  proHperous  than  we  are  now ;  and  if 
each  of  these  men  snpports  his  assertions  with  a  vast  array  of  in- 
controvertible statistics,  what  are  we  to  do — we  who  are  not 
learned  in  fibres,  or  who  see  that  the  same  facts  differently 
arranged  can  be  made  to  prove  different  things  ?  I 

Evidently  there  is  only  one  course  open  to  us  if  we  wish  to  de-j 
cide  the  question  on  its  merits  and  not  in  accordance  with  por-^ 
sonal  prejudice,  or  party  affiliation,  or  the  superior  eloquence  and 
ingenuity  of  the  orator  wo  hear  last.  We  must  brush  aside  all 
these  confusing  statistics,  ignore  the  arguments  based  upon  them, 
and  put  the  matter  before  our  minds  in  the  simplest  form.  Wo 
must  deal,  not  with  a  misleading  array  of  facts,  but  with  the  ele- 
mental truths  of  existence.  We  must  do  this,  even  though  we  run 
the  risk  of  being  called  mere  theorists  and  impractical.  The 
trouble  with  the  practical  man  is,  that  his  vision  is  closely  lim- 
ited; he  sees  only  what  is  directly  under  his  nose.  The  practical 
man  always  wants  to  get  change  for  his  dollar  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. He  is  never  willing  to  run  what  he  calls  risks— that  is,  he 
is  never  desirous  of  making  a  beginning  till  he  has  the  end  within 
his  gnxsp.  It  was  not  a  pi-actical  man  who  built  the  first  steam- 
ship to  cross  the  Atlantic,  or  inventcMl  the  electric  telegraph,  or 
planned  the  first  ocean  cable,  or  conceived  the  idea  of  the  Pacific 
Railway.  The  relation  of  the  practical  man  to  humanity  in  gen- 
eral is  the  same  as  that  of  the  hands  to  the  body.  It  is  not  for 
the  hands  to  make  plans  or  say  how  things  shall  be  done;  that 
must  be  left  to  the  brain.  It  is  the  business  of  the  hands,  when 
the  plan  is  made,  to  take  hold  and  do  the  work.  And  just  as  the 
hands  can  not  judge  of  a  thing  simply  by  the  sense  of  touch — can 
not  tell  a  five-dollar  gold-piece  from  a  copper  cent — so  the  pmcti- 
cal  man,  because  governed  by  immediate  appearances,  is  of  all 
men  the  most  easily  deceived. 

But  you,  if  you  are  a  theorist,  a  philosopher,  a  man  who  deals 
with  general  principles,  will  settle  the  matter  for  yourself  in 
accordance  with  general  principles.  If  the  question  before  you 
is  that  of  free  trade  and  protection,  and  practical  men  are  being 
confused  and  misled  by  the  artful  devices  of  statistical  orators, 
you  will  simply  refuse  to  listen  to  the  conflictiug  statements  of 
either  side,  which  do  not  prove  anything,  and  never  can  prove 
anything.  You  will  decide  the  matter  for  yourself  on  general 
principles ;  and  yoii  will  first  wish  to  determine  clearly  and  defi- 
nitely what  is  meant  by  the  terms  protection  and  free  trade. 

The  word  pr.  -Tieans  a  defense,  a  guard,  literally  a  cover 

or  shield  again:  hing  or  somebody,  and  it  can  be  used,  of 

kx>uree,  only  against  an  enemy.    No  one  would  think  of  protecting 
phnself  against  a  friendly  influenca    The  word  protection,  or  its 


Cjo 


equivalents  in  different  languages,  wns  devised  by  man  when  lie 
was  still  in  a  barbarous  condition,  when  his  hand  wu9  againat 
every  other  man,  and  every  other  man*s  hand  w^ts  againBt  him. 
It  was  necessary  that  he  shouhl  have  some  sort  of  A  dcfeoae  or 
cover  to  enable  him  to  attack  his  enemies  without  being  immedi- 
ately killed,  and  this  defense  or  cover,  whether  it  was  a  shield  to 
hold  before  his  person  or  a  strong  wall  built  about  his  dwellini;- 
place,  he  called  a  protection.  Holding  the  shield  before  him,  he 
could  throw  his  spear  or  shoot  his  arrows  at  bis  enemy  and  not 
be  harmed  by  the  spear  or  the  arrows  his  enemy  returned;  be- 
hind the  strong  wall  he  could  be  safe  from  assault  and  carry  on 
the  various  activities  of  life  without  fear  of  molestation.  Ho 
could,  if  he  chose,  scour  the  surrounding  re^on,  and  rob  and  kill 
right  and  left,  and  get  back  to  his  strong  wall  bofare  those  he 
attacked  could  rally  and  take  him  prisoner.  The  outside  bar- 
Marians  would  not  endure  this  sort  of  thing  forever.  They  abo 
jlonged  for  protection.  They  got  shields  for  themselves  and  built 
strong  walls  about  their  places  of  refuge,  and  in  this  way  groups 
of  what  we  now  call  society  were  first  organize<l.  Each  of  the«e 
groups  was  a  very  barbarous  sort  of  society,  but  it  was  society 
nevertheless.  A  society  means  an  association  of  persons  for  mu* 
tual  profit  or  advantage.  The  barbarous  group  was  a  society 
based  on  protection^  and  protection  was  therefore  an  invention  of  i 
barbarism;  it  was  urme<l  and  organized  selfishness;  it  was  tbt 
means  by  which  thoft  and  rapine  and  murder  were  made  poesiUii 
on  a  large  scale.  H 

Time  went  on,  and  man  gradually  acquire*!  'IwH 

ing.    The  little  protected  groups  who  were  r-  iig 

war  on  each  other  and  trying  to  prosper,  each  at  the  advantage  of 
the  other's  happiness  and  prosperity,  were  le<l  to  80f  *^  ■•  'Vr*y 
would  bo  happier  and  more  prosperous  if  they  would  k* 

ing  war  on  each  other,  tear  down  their  strong  walU,  ami  uiui«  in 
one  harmonious  community.  It  is  not  known  who  th«  ilrKt  man 
was  that  c<inceived  this  idea,  but  whoever  he  may  havo  b«Hm 
he  Wits  unquestionably  a  great  benefactor  to  th-    "  ■.  race. 

The  groups  that  united  into  communities,  howev'  :.         nt  6m-  i 
brace  tlio  whole  of  mankind.    In  fact,  in  theso  first  dajr*  of  primi- 
tiv<'  intidligrnce,  a  fiiT    '  "     in  which  all  '        '       '        ;ld 

unite  was  out  of  the  <.  ■  .       i  many  gTO\ij  -^ 

barbarous  that  they  preferred  a  hazjtrdous  existence  i  i^l 

by  war,  rather  than  the  prosperity  that  wa.^  — 
friendly  cultivation  of  the  arts  of  peace,    Tj 
join  iuto  communities  were  closely  relate*!  t<»  c  tafl 

blood;  they  spoke  the  same  or  r.  '•■'•-  *^-  — "o-  '^^H 

hml  the  same  or  gimilar  customs^  .t  •«^| 

for  were  nearly  id^iticaL    llie^  gruu|x&  ui  ^^| 


THE  E*. 


I 


I 
I 


groups  or  commonities,  and  then  tho  same  relation  existed  be- 
tween the  largo  communities  that  had  hitherto  existed  betweeskj 
the  smaller  groups.    They  all  felt  the  need  of  protection,  and  thiil| 
desire  for  protection  led  them  to  build  larger  and  stronger  walls, 
and  to  devise  now  methods  of  defonao.  , 

The  only  advantage  was— and  it  was  a  great  one— that,  insteaffl 
of  a  lot  of  little  groups  all  fighting  with  one  another,  there  were 
now  large  communities,  and  the  chances  for  fighting  were  cor- 
respondingly decreased.    But  the  process  of  assimilation  once  bo- 
gun  could  not  stop,  because  man,  if  he  was  to  be  anything  more 
than  a  fighting  aniujal,  must  agree  to  live  on  friendly  tonus  with 
his  fellows  and  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.    Tlio  process  went  on : 
communities  that  had  gradually  grown  to  have  similar  ideaau 
unite<l  into  still  larger  communities;  tribes  became  states,  ana| 
then,  at  last,  states  became  nations. 

Now  the  idea  of  the  necessity  for  protection  has  so  long  been 
dominant  with  the  various  associations  of  men  that  these  associa- 
tions, even  in  our  days  of  general  enlightenment,  do  not  readily 
believe  that  it  can  be  given  up.  A  man  who  has  been  living  for 
years  in  a  wild  country  where  he  has  been  liable  to  attacks  fr^»m 
savages  at  any  moment,  does  not  readily  adapt  himself  to  tho 
new  conditions  of  mutual  trust  when  he  comes  to  live  again 
among  civilized  and  peaceful  folks.  You  will  find  him  still  sleep- 
ing with  his  revolver  at  his  side,  and  when  he  walks  abroad  he 
has  his  eye  out  for  a  possible  ambush.  So  it  is  with  the  associa- 
tions of  mankind  that  have  developed  from  the  far-back  barbar- 
ous groups.  They  know  that  the  conditions  of  existence  hav^ 
changed,  they  know  that  if  they  are  peaceable  and  industriouji^ 
they  will  not  be  molested ;  but  the  idea  of  protection  still  lurks  in 
their  minds,  and  they  feel  that  they  must  have  it  in  some  form,  or 
be  at  the  mercy  of  the  rest  of  mankind,  whom  they  wrongfully 
regard  as  enemies,  but  who  are  by  nature  as  peacefully  inclined 
as  themselves. 

And  so  we  find  man,  as  intelligent  and  enlightened  as  he  is  to- 
day, still  clinjjong  to  this  relic  of  barbarism,  this  system  of  orgaotJ 
ized  selfishness  known  as  protection.  Tho  trado  of  man  is  nOii 
longer  fighting,  the  trade  of  man  is  now  to  devise  inventions  for 
his  own  comfort,  and  although  we  find  some  groat  associations 
maintaining  vast  standing  armies  in  conformity  with  tho  spirit  of 
protection,  the  chief  occupation  of  man  is  with  the  arts  of  peace. 
Tho  arts  of  jjeace  and  warfare  are  incompatible ;  one  builds  up 
and  the  othfT  tear?  down;  one  creates,  the  other  destroys;  hence 
it  is  K  -d  that  warfare  is  an  evil  which  must 

scio"  V  ,...*  t'.-Oit  and  at  tho  same  time  till  the 

ti  .'lilways,  write  novels,  preach 

8erui*jui^,  ti>  i  uu  are  beginuiug  to  see  now  that 


figliUug  is  a  foolish  waste  of  blood  aud  liino  and  money,  espe* 
cially  money,  and  before  long  fighting  will  bt?  abaudoued,  b^cauM 
when  men  once  are  thoroughly  convinced  that  a  thing  is  foolish, 
or  that  it  costs  more  than  it  comes  to,  they  stop  doing  it^  Thd 
few  men  who  are  now  in  favor  of  war  are  practical  men  vrho  be- 
lieve that  war  conduces  in.  some  way  to  national  prosperity  or 
helps  trade.  They  would  like  to  see  things  torn  down,  if  tboy 
could  have  the  opportunity  of  building  them  up.  The  thKiri«t«, 
the  philosophers,  are  all  opposed  to  war ;  they  know  it  dow  m 
great  deal  more  harm  than  good. 

War,  then,  which  has  so  long  been  the  chief  form  of  protection 
adopted  by  nations,  is  doomed.  Men  began  some  time  ago,  when 
peaceful  communities  were  fully  established,  to  see  that  it  was 
doomed ;  but  the  old  idea  of  protection,  growing  out  of  the  dis- 
trust of  humanity  for  humanity,  had  its  hold  upon  them,  and  they 
set  thomselvos  at  work  to  devise  some  new  method  of  protection 
which  would  meet  the  new  conditions  and  not  destroy  wliat  we 
may  call  the  industrial  type  of  society.  The  practical  men  of  the 
day  put  thtiir  heads  together  and  said  that  the  chief  thing  now 
was  trade,  and  that  they  must  not  permit  any  rivalry  in  trade. 
The  enemies  of  their  si>ecial  community  were  no  !■  "        "O 

who  were  better  armed  or  better  furtifie*!;  the  cu'      i  -ir 

comm.unity  were  the  men  who  could  make  things  they  could  not 
make,  or  supply  things  they  could  make  at  a  lower  price. 

"  Let  us,"  they  said,  "  keep  trade  to  ourselves.  Let  U8  make 
everything  we  want,  be  suflficient  to  ourselves,  and  be  indt'pondont 
of  the  rest  of  mankind.  In  that  way  we  shall  grow  rich  and 
prosperous,  and  the  rest  of  mankind  may  supply  its  wants  the 
best  it  can." 

How  were  they  to  do  this  ?    The  daj's  of  war  were  going  by* 
They  could  not  establish  guards  and  shoot  every  one  of  their 
fellow-citizens  who  bought  anything  <tf  a  foreigner,  or  shoot  every 
foreigner  who  brought  goods  to  sell  within  their  borders.    They 
could  not  do  this,  because  it  would  be  ruinous  and  expensive,  but 
they  could  fine  every  person  who  engaged  in  t '    '       '  '     ■  y  per- 
son outside  their  own  nation,  and  this  theyprcM  •  They 
established  a  new  form  of  protection,  and  called  it  very  properly 
a  protective  tariff.    The  word  tariff  comes,  so  some  pV  '        U 
tell  us,  from  Tarifa,  a  town  in  S{>ain  at  the  entrance  of  -it 
of  Gibraltar,  where  passing  vessels  were  detained  by  force  and 
obliged  to  pay  tribute  to  the  i-i*  •^^'   nts.    The  citizens  of  Torlfft 
were  the  first  of  the  modem  ;               nisia    Wlifm  we  i^^enk  of 
protection  nowadays,  wo  moan  a  system  of  n 
a  whole  nation  by  acertoln  small  but  powt;.  ..    ...                        i- 

cal  men.    The  system  is  so  de%n.Hed  that  it  takes  m'.  le 

pockets  of  the  people  and  puts  it  into  the  pockets  u(  Ua»  pnwiusal 


f 


THE  ETEICAL    VIEW  OF  PROTECTIOy, 


633 


men,  who  are  manufacturers  and  traders.  At  least,  it  does  so  at 
first.  After  a  wliilo  it  does  something  else,  and  the  manufacturers 
and  traders  lose  by  it,  just  as  the  practical  men  of  barbarous  times 
lost  in  the  end  more  than  they  gained  by  war. 

We  have  now  traced  the  idea  of  protection  from  the  begin- 
nings of  human  society  down  to  the  present  time,  and  we  know 
what  it  means.  What,  on  the  other  hand,  is  free  trade  ?  The 
term  free  trade  explains  itself.  It  is  the  opposite  of  protection. 
It  does  not  believe  in  barriers  or  covers  or  defenses.  It  does  not 
believe  in  organized  selfishness  at  the  expense  of  the  many  for 
the  good  of  the  few.  It  believes  in  the  most  open  and  free  inter- 
course between  all  mankind.  It  believes  that  all  men  are  brethren, 
and  that  it  is  no  more  right  to  fine  an  Englishman,  a  German,  or 
a  Frenchman  because  he  can  do  a  thing  well  than  it  is  to  fine  an 
American  for  employing  an  Englishman,  a  German,  or  a  French- 
man to  do  a  thing  well.  It  bolieves  that  the  world  is  large  enough, 
the  resources  of  nature  sulHcient,  to  enable  every  man  to  support 
himself  without  joining  a  protected  community  and  forsweai'ing 
the  help  of  others.  Protection,  as  we  have  seen,  is  organized  self- 
ishness. Free  trade  is  based  on  the  elemental  principles  of  exist- 
ence— on  justice,  fraternity,  and  love. 

But  now  como  the  orators  and  tell  us,  on  one  side,  that  protec- 
tion means  higher  wages  and  greater  prosperity  for  everybody, 
and,  on  the  other  side,  that  free  trade  means  reduced  expenses  for 
the  necessities  of  lifo  and  diminished  taxation ;  and  the  orators 
on  both  sides  have  countless  statistics  to  prove  the  absolute  truth 
of  what  they  say.  What  are  we,  who  are  not  practical  men,  and 
who  know  that  statifitics  will  prove  anything — what  are  we  to 
do  ?  Evidently  we  must  fall  back  on  elemental  piinciples,  and 
extend  oiir  reasoning  a  little  further.  We  must  examine  the 
assertions  of  the  orators  iu  the  light  of  general  principles,  and  ask 
whether  they  are  true. 

Let  ois  suppose  a  primitive  group  modeled  after  the  groups  of 
barbarous  times  to  be  formed  in  our  day  in  accordance  with  the 
existing  industrial  conditions.  Let  us  suppose  a  family  group — 
for  such  the  early  groups  were — a  family  group  consisting  *of  a 
father,  a  mother,  three  daughters,  and  four  sons.  In  the  barbar- 
ous days  families  were  sometimes  of  this  size.  The  father,  we 
will  imagine,  is  a  shoemaker;  the  mother  a  milliner;  the  first 
daughter,  Sarah,  a  dressmaker;  the  second  daughter,  Jane,  a 
cook;  the  third  daughter,  Mary,  a  seamstress;  the  first  son,  James, 
a  tailor ;  the  second  son,  Thomas,  a  hat-maker ;  the  third  son, 
John,  a  butcher;  the  fourth  son,  Henry,  a  grocer.  Each  has 
grown  to  be  expert  at  his  or  her  particular  trade,  and  is  doing 
welL  But  the  third  son,  John,  is  a  very  practical  man,  and  he 
has  studied  what  is  called  political  economy.    Political  eco\\ft\si'i 


6J4 


THS  POPULAR  SCTBSCB  MO^Ti 


is  the  science  of  selecting  suitaLle  facts  to  provd  certain  prod&- 
termined  propositions  with  regard  to  the  laws  of  trade;  it  can 
ahvays  be  ma<Ie  to  favor  protection,  hut  it  will  also  favor  free 
trade  if  you  choose  to  have  it  do  so  and  select  your  factd  with 
proper  discretion;  political  economy  is  the  favorite  science  of 
practical  men.  John,  then,  has  studied  political  economy,  and  be 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  various  members  of  the  family 
are  squandering  their  forces  by  working  for  outsiders.  He  calU 
the  family  together  and  says: 

^  I  think  I  see  a  way  in  which  we  conM  be  more  i  la 

We  must  give  up  working  for  the  rest  of  the  world-  Fu...^.  „.ust 
make  shoos  only  for  us;  Jane  must  not  cook  for  anybody  except 
ourselves ;  James  must  not  make  clothes  for  any  one  except  hiu 
father  and  his  three  brothers;  Henry  must  not  undertake  tosdl 
groceries  to  people  who  do  not  belong  to  the  family ;  and  I  shall 
not  supply  any  one  but  you  with  meat.  Moreover,  no  one  must 
buy  of  other  people.  We  must  have  our  shoes  made  by  fathfir, 
our  clothes  by  Jomes^  and  we  must  buy  our  groceries  of  Honry. 
If  any  member  of  the  family  buys  anything  of  an  out?'  '  -. '  \b 
to  be  fined  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  urti>  .if 

any  one  of  us  sells  anything  to  an  outsider,  and  takes  that 
outsider's  goods  in  exchange,  those  goods  shall  be  taxed  one 
fourth  of  their  value.  The  money  so  collected  shall  be  put  into 
a  common  fund,  and  used  for  defraying  the  joint  family  ex^ 
penses." 

What,  think  you,  would  be  the  reply  of  the  philosophic  father 
to  a  pro{)ofiitiou  like  that  ?  He  would  not  be  likely  to  waste 
many  words  over  the  matter.  He  would  tell  John  flatly  that  he 
was  H  fool,  and  advise  him  to  let  political  economy  alone,  and  b« 
would  send  the  whole  family  about  tlieir  business. 

But  now  let  us  suppose  that,  instead  of  a  family^  we  have  a 
town  made  up  of  a  hundred  families,  and  the  people  get  together 
and  are  asked  to  a^lopt  a  proposition  similar  to  that  made  by  John, 
the  political  economist.  Some  prominent  citizen  arises  and  d&- 
clart*  that  the  town  would  be  vastly  more  prosperous  and  inde- 
pendent if  all  its  trading  were  done  within  its  own  limits;  that 
the  poor  and  struggling  traders  would  have  enough  Xf>  do  if  people 
would  patronize  them  instead  of  sending  to  otlier  town-  :s; 

and  that  to  discourage  trade  with  outsiders  it  waa  ej.,    to 

tax  aU  such  commercial  transactions,  and  place  tlio  moooy  m 
[obtained  in  tin.*  town  ti-easury.     Would  not  thifl  pr  n  b©  a» 

Bkl>is»ird  as  tht*  i^ther  ?    Would  not  some  citizen  vit'       ,        .«<-^r'b!- 
cal  turn  of  mind,  who  reasoned  from  general  principlefi^  r- 
word    '  '     *Ti»«e: 

"  tloman  who  has  madd  this  propoeitSon  i^  tnlkiwtJ 

noD^ens^    The  prosperity  of  this  Icmm  aud  t}ir  flj 


I 


I 

I 


V 


THE  ETHICAL   V/WWH^  PROTBCTIOIT. 

inhabitants  depend  on  its  relations  with  other  towns  and  the 
country  at  large.  Our  prosperity  and  comfort  depend  on  the 
uuniljer  and  quality  of  things  we  can  make  that  the  rest  of  the 
world  wants,  and  the  facility  with  which  we  can  exchange  those 
things  for  things  that  we  want.  The  gentleman  who  has  just 
spoken  proposes  to  tax  the  very  relations  upon  which  our  material 
welfare  is  founded!  Wo  want  corn  and  wheat  and  tea  and  coal 
and  sugar ;  can  we  produce  any  of  those  things  here  ?  Certainly 
not.  In  order  to  get  them  we  must  make  things  wanted  by  the 
people  who  can  and  do  produce  com,  wheat,  tea,  coal,  and  sugar, 
and  exchange  our  products  for  theirs.  If  we  tax  corn,  wheat,  tea, 
coal,  and  sugar,  the  people  who  want  our  goods  will  take  them 
and  pay  for  them  in  money,  and  we  shall  simply  bo  jmyiiig  out  of 
our  own  pockets  the  extra  valuation  put  upon  got^ls  that  w© 
want.  We  all  of  us  who  want  and  must  have  com^  wheat,  tea, 
coal,  and  sugar,  will  bo  paying  extra  for  them,  and  the  only  peo- 
ple who  will  bo  benefited  will  be  the  few  among  us  who  produce 
the  articles  that  outsiders  want.  They  can  put  larger  prices  on 
their  goods  on  the  strength  of  the  extra  valuation  of  corn,  wheat, 
tea,  coal,  and  sugar,  and  so  the  greater  portion  of  the  taxes  will 
fall  indirectly  into  their  pockets.  It  will  be  cheaper  for  us  in  the 
end  to  pay  the  money  directly  over  to  them  in  the  form  of  sub- 
sidies, which  is  a  polite  term  for  legalized  charity." 

Somewhat  in  this  way,  no  doubt,  the  philosophical  citizen 
would  speak,  and  it  would  be  strange  if  a  majority  of  his  fellow- 
oitizena  did  not  agree  with  him.  If  we  enlarge  our  community, 
and  instead  of  a  city  have  a  state,  would  the  conditions  be  any 
diiTerent  ?  Not  at  all.  Certain  people  in  this  state  would  be  able 
to  do  certain  things  well,  und  their  prosperity  would  depend  upon 
the  facility  with  which  they  could  exchange  their  labor  or  the 
products  of  theii-  labor  with  the  labor  or  the  products  of  labor  of 
the  citizens  of  other  states.  What  would  have  been  the  condition 
of  this  countrj',  of  the  United  States  of  America,  if  every  State 
Lad  pat  up  a  barrier  against  its  neighbors  in  the  shape  of  a  pro* 
tective  tariff  ?  Suppose  that  an  inhabitant  of  Massachusetts 
could  not  get  anytliing  from  Pennsylvania  or  Now  York  without 
paying  a  duty,  and  suppose  that  an  inhabitant  of  New  York  or 
Pennsylvania  could  not  buy  of  an  inhabitant  of  Illinois  without 
being  taxed  by  his  own  State  from  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent 
on  his  purchase,  what  would  become  of  our  national  prosperity  ? 
To  ask  the  question  is  to  answer  it.  The  prosperity  of  each 
depends  upon  the  utmost  freedom  of  intercourse  with  all  the 
others. 

Let  us  now  take  a  still  wider  outlook,  and  extend  our  reason- 
ing a  little  further.  Why,  if  a  protective  tariflf  is  not  conducive 
to  prosperity  when  established   lietween  families  or  towns  or 


states  of  the  same  country^  should  it  be  regarded  tkS  boo^ceni  to 
the  welfare  of  a  country  when  every  country  is  only  a  state  in 
the  great  federation  of  humanity  we  call  the  world  ?  Do  not  the 
elemental  principles  of  existence  apply  to  countries  as  well  as  to 
states  ?  They  certainly  do.  Then  whence  the  argument  that  a 
protective  tariff  between  states  of  the  same  country  is  wrong, 
while  between  countries  even  of  the  same  blood  and  race  it  is 
right  and  proper,  and  conducive  to  national  prosperity  ?  Is  it 
not  plain  that  the  device  of  a  protective  tariff  between  couiitries 
is  a  relic  of  the  old  barbarous  idea  of  protection,  the  idea  thnt 
pooi)le  belonging  to  other  communities  are  enemies,  and  thnt  we 
must  have  as  little  to  do  with  them  as  possible,  except  to  fight 
them  if  they  trespass  on  our  rights  or  threaten  to  take  trade  away 
from  us  ?  It  must  be  so,  or  men  who  profess  to  believe  in  justio« 
and  fraternity  and  love  between  all  mankind  never  would  be 
found  advocating  the  detestable  and  misleading  system  of  or- 
ganized selfishness  built  up  of  burdensome  taxes  upon  the  rela- 
tions that  alone  can  civilize,  enlighten,  and  elevate  the  whole  of 
humanity  and  so  conduce  immeasurably  to  the  welfare  of  the 
whole  world. 

One  of  the  chief  nr^monts  of  the  orators  who  favor  i  n 

ia,  that  under  the  tariff  system  the  prosperity  of  this  co„.-..^.  ,.114 
been  very  great,  and  as  usual  they  cite  an  endlesa  array  of  fltAti»- 
tics  to  prove  the  truth  of  what  they  say.  But  is  the  assorliou 
reasonable  ?  Can  wo  who  govern  our  ideas  by  common  senee  and 
not  by  the  dictates  of  short-sighted  expediency  agree  with  the 
orators  when  they  say  that  our  national  prosperity  is  due  to  pro- 
tection ?  Do  we  not  find,  when  we  come  to  consider  the  matter, 
that  through  our  boundless  resources  and  unlimited  energy  in 
industrial  affairs  we  have  prospered  in  spite  of  the  p-  •^  ■•-ve 
tariff,  not  because  of  it  ?    If  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  a 

protective  tariff  and  continued  to  prosper  and  heap  up  woaJth 
within  her  borders,  should  we  say  that  it  was  because  of  the 
tariff  ?  No,  Wo  should  see  at  once  that  hor  prosperity  was  dU6 
to  causes  superior  t-o  the  disadvantages  of  a  tariff  s;.  •  hat  is, 

to  the  extraordinary  capacity  of  her  citizens  for  iuii  ;  offiuri 

and  the  vast  stores  of  material  at  their  command,  enabling  them 
to  conquer  obstacles  under  which  leas  ]  '  )   comxnauitloft 

would  languish  or  utterly  perish.    If  a  ma:  pa  baautf  for 

the  sale  of  any  sort  of  goods,  and  charges  an  admission  fee  to 
ciistomers,  and  yet  can  sell  his  goods  V~  "  :  ^^  *  ^riducDcn^* 
tomers  to  pay  the  admission  fee  and  <  :-nrc*hw 

id  if  this  man  amasses  a  great  deal  of  moue} 
jhall  not  bo  likely  to  say  that  his  riches  are  w.i.'  ..  -  > 
Imiflflion  fees.    We  simply  conclude  tiiat  ho  muj-* 
"SlrBordinary  capacity  for  getting  Uis  goods  at  n  low 


ft 

i 


prospers,  not  on  account  of  his  system  of  odmisaion  fees,  but  in 
8pite  of  it. 

We  hay©  gone  far  enough  now  in  our  course  of  reasoning  to 
Bee  that  in  the  light  of  the  elemental  principles  of  existence  the 
evils  of  protection  are  very  great.  Its  greatest  evil  is  that  it 
interferes  with  the  free  exchange  of  human  activities  j  it  puts  a 
check  upon  justice,  fraternity,  and  love.  But  a  great  evil  can 
not  exist  without  engendering  other  evils.  Another  oN'il  en- 
gendered by  the  protective  system  is  that  it  encourages  poor 
and  defective  work.  If  a  man  is  sure  of  plenty  of  trade,  no 
matter  how  he  makes  his  goods,  he  will  not  be  so  particular 
with  regard  to  the  quality.  Ask  an  American  oculist  whore  he 
gets  the  delicate  instruments  with  which  he  tests  the  eyes  of 
hia  jMitients.  He  will  tell  you,  if  he  is  an  expert  at  his  profes- 
sion, that  he  gets  his  instruments  abroad.  Why  ?  Because  the 
men  in  this  country  who  produce  such  articles  are  not  careful 
to  do  good  work-  They  can  make  inferior  instruments  and  sell 
them  to  the  generality  of  oculists  who  are  not  expert,  and  make 
more  money  than  they  could  by  producing  really  excellent  arti- 
cles, and  selling  them  at  the  same  price  as  the  foreign  goods.  If 
you  buy  a  suit  of  choap  clothing  in  this  country,  the  chances  are 
that  it  will  bo  of  little  service  compared  with  a  suit  of  clothes 
you  could  buy  for  a  third  less  if  you  were  living  in  London. 
Why  ?  Because  the  tariff  on  woolens  enables  the  American 
manufacturers  of  clothing  to  use  cheaper  and  poorer  goods,  and 
to  charge  more  for  a  smt  of  clothes  than  the  foreign  suit  of  first* 
class  material  would  cost  if  you  could  send  to  London  and  buy 
it  without  being  fined  for  patronizing  an  English  tailor.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  a  great  many  rich  Americans  who  go  abroad  do 
patronize  foreign  tailors  and  do  not  got  fined,  but  of  course  the 
poor  Americans  who  have  to  stay  at  home  and  support  the  tariff 
system  can  not  do  this.  They  must  buy  poor  clothing  of  their 
fellow-citizens  and  pay  nearly  as  much  for  it  as  they  would  for  a 
foreign  article  of  excellent  quality.    American  clothing  manu- 

iturers  will  tell  you  that  they  can  make  as  good  clothing  as  a 
peigner  can  and  at  as  low  a  price.  Of  course  they  can,  but 
they  don't.  If  they  did,  they  would  not  bo  in  favor  of  protection ; 
they  would  be  willing  to  meet  the  foreigner  on  terms  of  friendly 
competition,  and  not  take  advantage  of  him  by  skulking  behind 
the  tariff  wall  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  people  who  do 
not  make,  but  who  buy,  clothing. 

Imagine  a  community  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and 
that  this  community  8uffei*s  from  a  water  famine.  All  the  wells 
h.'i—  ^'"-1  •  ■  -'  '  v'"*or  has  to  be  brought  from  a  distant  river, 
Ei^  what  water  he  needs,  or  employs  some  one 

«l5o  t'j  .  :»ier  for  him,  and  every  one  is  supplied.    But  a  few 


I 


are 
^^     com 


practical  men  got  together  and  Bay:  "How  much  better  it  would 
bo  if  everybody  went  after  water  and  poured  what  was  brought 
into  a  common  tank  from  which  supplies  could  be  drai^ii  iw 
needed  I    We  will  build  the  tank/'    Tliey  build  the  tank,  and  ihm 

pie  bring  water  and  fill  it.  Then  the  practical  men  take  pot- 
ion of  the  spigots  and  charge  the  people  so  much  a  gallon  for 
'all  the  water  drawn  from  the  tank.  The  practical  men  are  pro- 
tected by  the  labor  of  the  rest  of  the  community  ;  uiifortuuatt-'ly, 
all  can  not  be  practical  men. 

Of  course,  the  effect  of  protection  upon  the  ^  '  f  th^  pro- 
tected must  in  the  end  be  very  bad.  It  has  a  .  y  I41  mukrt 
them  cowardly,  treacherous,  and  gr^isping.  The  fear  of  tnecrCing 
outsiders  in  friendly  competition ;  the  temptation  to  make  poor 
goods  when  poor  goods  can  be  sold  for  an  unjustly  high  price ;  tho 
business  of  seizing  as  legitimate  prey  the  labor  of  otliers  and  turn- 
ing that  labor  to  one's  own  uses — ^must,  sooner  or  later, have  a  bad 
effect  on  the  individual  and  the  community  at  large.  A  man  can 
not  thrive  at  the  expense  of  other  men,  whether  those  men  are  hk 
near  neighbors  or  are  living  at  the  antipodes,  without  being 
hardened  in  his  sensibilities  and  becoming  to  a  certain  extent  in* 
human.    The  effect  of  protection  upon  the  moral  *  of  the 

protected  is  bad;  its  effect  on  their  material  wclfart  tually 

ruinous.  In  barbarous  times,  when  men  collected  in  protected 
groups  behind  str  Us,  the  outside  Im  '  s  had  as  little 

to  do  with  them  .u  lo.     They  remov.  goods  If  they 

could  beyond  the  reach  of  plunder.    On  the  other  hand,  a  great 

ny  practical  men  crowded  into  the  fortified  groups-'  "*       'he 

vantages  of  protection  wore  recognized,  there  wa^i  >t 

enough  plunder  to  go  round,  and  the  practical  men  wh  4 

in  protection  quarreled  among  themselves  as  t'^  "^^  ■  ^'^  uiivo 

the  spoils,  till  they  learned  by  experience  liow  f •  ^r  wn«, 

and  joined  a  larger  community  where  they  cou  ly 

terms  with  a  larger  number  of  their  felJowo,    ^.  n! 

protected  in  our  day.    As  long  as  tho  wants  of  a  :  li* 

munity  are  simple  and  tho  Ln  .r»- 

ulation  few,  the  community  g-       ^  i    .  1 

are  ample,  it  will  be  able  to  produce  i  a  low 

compote  in  the  open  r      '  QM 

older,  unprotect^  con-  ^M 

urces  to  draw  upon.     But  tho  tima  eui  -^ 

urces  of  t!     **  '      '  ufl 

loogor  produi '  -^ 

Thc'U  the  memt>en9  of  other  <  'w 

privilege  of  tr-'^'-"^*  "'*'■  •■  •■-  ■  -fl 

They  will  go  ^M 

change  thorn  frwiy,    Au  Eu^  fl 


4 


"HE  ETHICAL    VIEW  OF  PBOTECTIOK. 


» 


I 


thoorists  and  by  hard  experience  ihat  free  trade 
pays  in  the  long  run  better  than  protection,  will  buy  of  an  Ameri- 
can only  as  long  as  he  can  exchange  his  own  goods,  plus  the  duty 
exacted  by  the  tariff,  for  the  American's  goods,  and  still  get  them 
lower  than  be  can  of  anybody  else.  When  the  American  can  no 
longer  sell  the  goods  the  Englishman  wants  at  a  lower  price 
than  that  demanded  by  other  people,  the  Englisliman  will 
elsewhere ;  and  if  the  American  puts  a  tax  on  the  Englishman' 
goods,  it  is  the  same  as  charging  more  for  his  own  goods,  and 
ho  is  simply  handicapping  himself  in  what  ought  to  be  a  free 
race. 

When  this  happens — and  it  is  sure  to  happen  sooner  or  later, 
because  if  a  man,  however  strong,  willfully  handicaps  himself  in 
a  race,  there  is  sure  to  be  found  in  time  a  man  who  will  beat  him 
— when  this  happens  the  producers  of  a  protected  community 
have  no  longer  any  foreign  demand  to  depend  upon  and  the  home 
demand  is  not  enough  to  take  up  the  supply,  because  so  many 
practical  men  have  been  attracted  into  the  protoctod  community 
and  gone  to  producing,  that  more  things  are  made  than  the  com- 
munity really  desires.  The  community  desires  things  that  its 
own  members  can  not  make,  and  to  get  them  it  must  exchange 
money,  which  represents  labor  in  some  form,  at  a  ruinous  dis- 
advantage. The  result  of  all  this  is,  that  the  practical  men  who 
have  been  producing  things  their  own  country  does  not  want  are  d( 
prived  of  patronage  and  are  worse  off  than  if  they  hml  never  1 
protected.  If  the  family  of  which  we  wore  speaking  a  little  way 
back  had  been  contented  to  live  out  in  the  country  by  themselves 
in  a  simple  way,  they  would  have  got  on  very  well  without  the 
rest  of  tho  world.  They  would  have  cut  down  trees  and  built  a 
made  a  clearing  and  planted  com  and  potatoes,  hunted 
[A,  clad  themselves  in  the  skins  of  animals,  and  existed  entirely 
I  t.  of  their  fol low-men.   But  their  wants  were  numerous, 

:oroed  to  depend  on  others  to  supply  them,  and  they 

obliKed  to  exchange  the  products  of  their  own  labor  with  the 
pT"  "    *     ■  '         -   ■  -'  t>f  the  world, 

.  .    .i^  examples,  but  we  might  end  by 
being  statistical,  and  we  must  not  forget  the  general  principles 

It  is  clour  enough  now  thatj 
;  that  it  interferes  with  and 
'langu  of  human  activities;  that  it  is 
luiy,  and  love;  that  just  as  protection  in 
h\\\  lOF  r.f  Ktr"ni;  walls  and  armor,  put  a  pre- 

,Bo  protection  in  these  d 

'*-  ,1  premium  on  ignori 

\r  that  the  world  would 

form,  and  we  are  bound 


POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 

to  do  all  we  can  to  rid  Ltimanity  of  a  burden  so  lic^ 
and  so  injurious,  materially  and  morally,  to  overy  mt 

civilized  community. 

"  Gold  and  iron  arc  good 
To  bay  iron  and  gold ; 
All  Garth*9  floeoe  and  food 
For  Uieir  like  are  sold. 


Ixx  'W  •        V  k 


Nor  tdnd  nor  coiaage  buys 
Anght  aboro  tu  rate. 

Fear,  craft,  and  avarioe 
Oao  Dot  rear  a  state.'* 


SOME  MODERN  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGY.* 

Bt  GEORGE  IL  WILUAM8, 
AuooUTB  rxorsBBOB  or  TUX  joiuTB  Dorxoit  uirtrxucrr. 

GEOLOGY  has,  from  the  oariiest  times,  claimed  the  serious  at^ 
tention  of  mankind,  by  appealing  to  two  entirely  difftirent 
sides  of  human  character.  In  the  first  place,  the  reverence  for  the 
mysttunous  iu  nature,  which  in  untutoreil  men  amounts  to  worship, 
has  always  been  excited  by  the  secrets  of  the  earth ;  while,  in  tJie 
Becond  place,  the  cupidity  of  man  has  always  led  him  to  oxplorft 
the  rocks  in  quest  of  the  mineral  treasurea  which  they  contain. 

Thus  we  have  at  the  very  outset  a  theoretical  and  a  pradiecd 
interest  in  geology,  both  of  which  have  i)layed  a  most  important 
part  in  the  development  of  the  science.  From  the  earliest  times 
and  under  various  guises  we  can  trace  their  influence  side  by  side, 
and  they  are  throughout  typical  of  the  two  objvcts  with  which 
Nature  is  always  studied — as  an  end  in  herself  or  as  a  means  to 
an  end — as  science  pure  or  applied. 

The  ultimate  object  of  geology  is  to  decipher  the  coxnpletd 
life-history  of  our  planet.  The  biologist  at  his  microecope  suc- 
ceeds by  patient  watching  in  tracing  the  t  ■  fffome 
minute  organism.  Often  the  most  snrpri-  .,  \  vsim  of 
form  and  function  are  observed,  and  more  than  one  gencr&tioa 
may  be  net'-essary  to  complete  the  cycle  of  cham 
phusos  far  more  varied  and  through  conditions 
complex,  wo  may  follow  the  story  of  "world-life," 
like  the  organism,  is  dcvelopin 
of  its  own ;  while  among  ite  < 
it  is  hardly  more  than  the  single  iiuect  amid  tiw  myriads  which 
compose  its  swann. 

*  Portion  of  aa  ailJrcM  d«Ur«v«d  at  ttie  ooanmoieciBent  cxcrtiaa*  of  tbe  Wormlicr 
Pol5i«clialc  luatitstc,  Jti&c,  ISSS. 


-^ A 


roagh 
more 

}^ 


n 


SOME  MODERS  ASPECTS   OF  GEOLOGY. 


641 


But  the  history  written  in  the  rocks  is  long  and  difficult  to 
^.jriftd.  Here,  the  record  is  scanty ;  there,  lost,  or,  worse  still,  mis- 
'^lelding.  Only  by  the  most  minute  and  careful  tracing  out  of 
every  clew  can  we  hope  to  read  aright  the  glorious  tale.  A  thou- 
sand earnest  students  are  collecting  observations  and  comparing 
their  results.  Astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and 
biology  are  all  contributing  to  the  sum  of  what  old  Mother  Earth 
herself  can  tell  us  of  her  history. 

If  such  a  task  as  this  is  worthy  to  arrest  the  attention  and  ex- 
cite the  interest  of  all  intelligent  men  and  women,  then  I  may  feel 
justified  in  speaking  of  some  of  the  rnodern  a»pech  of  geology. 

If  we  would  understand  the  true  significance  of  the  present 
outlook  in  geological  science,  we  must  take  at  least  a  glance  at  its 
past  history. 

Ages  before  it  became  a  science,  geology  itself  existed.  The 
germs  of  an  interest  in  the  history  of  the  earth  are  as  old  as  man's 
own  questionings  about  the  origin  of  himself  and  his  surround- 
ings. In  the  religions  of  all  ancient  peoples  are  cosmogonies  and 
theories  of  the  world  innumerable ;  and  fanciful  as  those  are,  they 
still  bear  witness  to  an  a])preciation  of  the  mysterious  in  nature 
amounting  even  to  a  worship, 

With  the  advent  of  Christianity  and  the  acceptance  of  the 
Bible,  geology  became  a  burning  question  which  has  hardly  ceased 
to  smolder,  even  in  our  day.  The  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation 
and  the  true  meaning  of  fossil  remains  were  eagerly  discussed  by 
the  early  Church  fathers  and  by  the  keenest  minds  of  the  Re- 
naissance. Tertullian.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Voltaire  alike  ex- 
hausted upon  them  their  sharpest  wit  and  their  profoundest  wis- 
donL  No  assertion  could  be  too  absurd  to  secure  a  following, 
provided  it  accorded  with  the  six  creative  days.  One  supposed 
that  the  shells  imbedded  in  the  rocks  on  mountain-summits  owed 
their  existence  to  a  certain  "  plastic  force "  inherent  in  matter ; 
another  imagined  them  produced  by  the  influence  of  the  sun  or 
stars.  Still  others  were  so  blasphemous  in  their  mad  defense  of 
Scripture  as  to  assert  that  fossils  were  only  the  waste  dibria 
formed  in  earlier  and  unsuccessful  attempts  of  the  Deity  to  create 
a  workL  And,  lastly,  Voltaire,  in  bitter  irony,  maintained  that 
in  his  opinion  the  fossils  of  the  mountains  were  merely  shells 
^  dropped  from  the  pilgrims'  hats  as  they  journeyed  homeward 
H  from  the  Holy  Land !  The  decrees  of  religious  dogma  as  to  what 
"  interpretation  was  to  be  placed  iipon  facts  which  the  rocks  dis- 
closed, were  as  stem  and  implacable  as  those  placed  by  the  Church 
^on  Galileo;  but  still  more  stem  and  implacable  were  the  facta 
themselves.  For  centuries  the  fierce  war  raged  on  one  battle-field 
Rafter  another,  and  from  each,  Dogma  sullenly  retired,  leaving  the 
'^'itory  to  Truth.    This  fascinating  phase  of  the  history  ot  ^^ackVvssJ 


VOL.  XZXT. — II 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


rlas  been  made  the  subject  of  a  series  of  recent  papers  by  I^i^^l 
dent  Andrew  White.    It  does  not,  however,  concern  us  fnHflH 
than  to  sliow  that,  although  8uch  violent  opposition  certainly  r&-j 
tarded  the  early  and  free  development  of  geology,  it 
theloss  not  unfavorable  to  its  ultimate  success.    The  v,      .    ,  .  .    _ 
partisanship  excited  by  theological  discussions  only  dissuminAted] 
a  broader  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  hence  a  greater  "' 
in  it,  so  soon  as  the  hindrances  to  its  cultivation  won 
removed.  ■■ 

But  it  is  to  neither  religious  pcrst-cutioii  nor  to  n  i  :'.aff 

that  we  owe  our  modern  science  of  geology.    Dogma  ;■  u»- 

sion  might  have  been  extended  indefinitely  without  approaching  ] 
one  whit  nearer  to  the  truth.  Observation,  not  theory,  wojj  th« 
one  thing  needful.  While  the  doctors  were  deciding  whether  or 
not  shells  could  have  been  strewn  over  mountain-tops  by  Iho 
waves  of  Noah's  deluge,  the  *'  practic4il  men  "  of  the  earth  woro 
busy  in  exploring  its  crust  for  hidden  wealth.  Some  accurate  I 
means  of  comparing  and  classifying  the  strata  was  to  them  a  mat- 
ter of  necessity,  and  it  need  not  surprise  us  to  find  that  tho  first 
real  geologists  were  not  professors,  but "  practical  '*  miners ;  Uiai 
the  earliest  germination  of  a  truly  "^  '  '  study  of  the  earth 

was  not  in  the  university,  but  in  the  t  .  schooL 

At  that  remarkable  period,  about  one  hundred  years  ago,  when 
not  merely  tho  sciences,  but  Science  herself  in  the  modem  aense, 
sprang  into  life,  geology  was  doubly  prepared  to  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  groat  awakening.  As  she  gradually  developed  from 
a  creed  into  a  science,  there  was  twofold  interest  in  her  welfare: 
the  first,  theoretical,  or,  as  we  may  more  properly  say,  theological, 
since  it  amounted  to  a  religious  fanaticism;  the  second,  practlcitl,, 
and  brought  about  by  the  growth  of  mining  industries  ai-l  Hm 
search  for  wealth. 

I  During  the  past  century  of  geological  activity  the  ol' 
points  of  these  two  ideas  have  been  in  succession  more  ■ 
cultivated.    Among  the  theologians  the  question  at  issno  rolsted 

„io  the  fossils  ;  among  the  miners,  on  the  other  bacil«  to  tba , 

Irocks. 

Originating,  aa  the  systematic  study  of  the  earth's  crusi  did, 
in  the  mining  schools,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  latter  first  rec>eiv«i 
the  serious  attention  of  scientific  men.  The  rocks  were  the  i^arliest 
objects  of  investigation,  and  pefrography,  or  the  science  of  nicks, 
was,  naturally  enough,  the  slurting-point  in  geology.  But  as  a 
science,  petrography  was,  at  tlie  outset,  a  failure,  though  not  an  , 

^count  of  any  hick  of  appiTviation  or  puf 

jcultivators.    Mineralogy  throve, but.  nonir,  .        

of  applying  her  methods  to  tho  fiiior-grained  rocks,  aad  so  thul 
interest  in  petrography  uec«s«arily  d(»cliaiKl.     After   rvpoofead 


80MB  MODERy  ASPECTS  OF  OSOLOOT. 


«43 


» 


trials,  resulting  only  in  disappointment,  the  Btudonts  of  rocks  fol- 
lowed tho  example  of  the  theologians  ;  and,  in  lien  of  observations 
and  facts,  produced  only  the  useless  and  often  virulent  polemics 
of  the  Neptunist  and  Vulcanist, 

Again,  there  was  a  reaction  against  Ruch  waste  of  energy. 
Geologists,  wearied  by  more  barren  controversy,  turned  eagerly 
to  some  new  field  where  observation  should  bo  less  difficult. 
They  had  opene<i  the  great  book  of  Nature  and  had  first  tried 
to  read  the  text;  but  the  hieroglyphics  were  obscure,  and  the 
clew  could  not  be  found.  Is  it  strange,  therefore,  that  they  should 
have  gladly  left  this  hard  and  unintelligible  writing  for  tho 
picture-book  which  Nature  spread  l>efore  them  in  the  fossils  ? 
Here  at  least  was  something  tangible.  None  now  doubted  that 
those  fossils  had  once  been  living  organisms  which  could  be  un- 
derstood by  careful  comparison  with  living  forms.  | 

It  wa«  through  the  study  of  fossil  organisms — or  paleontology 
— that  geology  first  accomplished  its  true  aim,  viz.,  the  decipher- 
ing of  a  portion  of  the  earth's  hiBt<^>ry  by  observed  facts.  We 
can  hardly  wonder  that  a  field  so  fruitful  should,  since  the  bo- 
ginning  of  our  century,  have  been  cultivated  to  the  exclusion' 
of  almost  every  other.  But  paleontology  is  easentially  a  biologi- 
cal, not  a  geological  science.  Its  8cr\'ico  to  tho  sum  of  human 
knowledge  can  scarcely  be  overestimated,  for  it  has  done  much  iu 
establishiug  the  greatest  generalization  of  this  or  perhaps  of  any 
century — tho  doctrine  of  evolution.  Nevertheless,  its  contribu- 
tions must  ever  be  to  the  history  of  life  on  the  globe,  rather  thaa^ 
to  the  history  of  the  life  of  the  globe. 

So  strong  has  been  the  growth  of  the  organic  side  of  our  sci- 
etice  that  a  popular  idea  still  prevails  that  there  is  no  geology 
aside  from  stratigraphy  and  the  fossil -bearing  rocks.  The  paleon- 
tological  school  is  still  in  the  ascendant,  but  it  is  no  longer  with- 
out a  vigorous  rival. 

Within  recent  years  there  seems  to  have  been  infused  into 
almost  every  domain  of  physical  science  a  fresh  life.  Through 
gradually  acquired  generalizations  higher  points  of  view  have 
been  reached ;  old  notions  have  been  discarded  for  newer  and 
broader  ones.  Prof.  Langley  tells  us  of  the  "new  astronomy"; 
the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of  energy  has  given  us  a  new 
physics ;  evolution,  a  new  biology ;  and  the  study  of  carbon  com- 
potmds,  a  new  chemistry.  So,  too,  the  application  of  the  micro- 
to  the  study  of  rocks  has  givea  ns  a  new  geology. 

The  recent  development  in  the  science  of  tho  earth  consists  of 
tTie  return  to  the  work  Wgun  by  its  earliest  pioneers.  The  old 
Petrographers  were  right.  If  we  would  know  the  life-history  of 
our  planet,  we  must  learn  thn  origin,  structural  relations,  and 
composition  of  our  rocks.    Wo  must  discover  the  forces — chomi- 


644 


THE  POPULAH  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 


ral  anil  physical — ^wklcli  work  in  and  upou  them,  ami  we  must 
hoiv  tliey  wurk. 

As  I  have  already  said,  the  early  geologists  ha<l  full  faith  inl 
tbe  importance  of  their  labors,  but  thoy  were  forced  to  abandon 
them  by  a  lack  of  methods  and  appliances  suitable  to  cope  with 
the  diffioulties  presented,  To-<lay  this  importance  is  not  dimitt- 
iahod,  but  rather  increased,  by  what  has  been  accompli  '  *  '  ijag 
other  lines.    If  we  can  renew  the  attack  upon  theoL;  "OB 

with  improved  weapons,  the  rewards  of  victory  are  as  promising 
as  ever.    It  is  believed  that  such  weapons  are  now  in  our  Lands, 
id  the  hope  of  success  is  almost  daily  attracting  fresh  aud  ear- 
it  workers  to  the  ranks  from  every  land. 

The  first  and  strongest  impetus  to  a  renewed  study  of  the 
rocks  themselves  was  given  by  the  successful  application  of  tbe 
licroscope  to  this  end  ;  but  this  most  valuable  acquisition  has  by 
"^o  means  remained  aluno  in  the  rapid  growth  of  modern  jjetrogra- 
phy.  Other  appliances,  scarcely  less  useful  in  rock-study,  fol- 
>wed  quickly  in  its  wake.    Microchemical  analysis,  t!  liU 

ig  f uunul,  and,  most  of  all,  the  furnace,  in  which  has  \)-  in* 

pliahed  the  perfect  synthesis  of  many  rocks,  have  all  contributed» 
along  with  the  microscope,  to  make  the  methods  of  petrogmpLy 
not  inferior  in  delicacy  and  accuracy  to  those  of  any  other 
science. 

The  greatest  difficulty  with  which  the  older  geologist*  had  Ui 
contend,  in  thcnr  studies  of  the  rocks,  was  their  inability  to  iden* 
lify  the  conytituent  minerals  which  compi)8od  them.  Their  disap- 
pointment and  vexation  are  still  curiously  recorded  in  some  of  our 
oldest  rock-names,  like  "  doleriie^*  deceptive  ;  and  "  aphanite"  nol 
apparent  or  distinguishable.    With  tbe  successful  ap]  '  nf 


the  microscope  to  rock-study,  this  difficulty  at  once  il 


-I. 


and  at  the  same  time  new  and  unexpected  problems  of  the  great- 
\t  interest  unfolded  themselves  in  quick  successioa 
In  the  light  of  all  that  had  been  done  with  the  aid  of  tb« 
microscope  in  the  organic  sciences,  it  may  at  first  seem  stnuigv 
that  its  application  to  geology  was  so  long  delayed.  This  wa» 
due  to  thH  imaginary  (Hflficulties  in  preparing  transpan^ut  ro4)k- 
se^^tions,  and  Uy  the  fact  that  rock  powders  ha<i  been  examinod 
microscopically  at  an  early  date  with  absolut<'ly  no  result. 

In  spite  of  certain  spoi-adic  efforts  in  this  direction,  it  waa  not 
mtil  the  year  ISr)^  tJint  tlie  flew  t^j  the  soluHon  of  tli  xy 

hit  upon  by  Henry  CI  if  ton  Serby,  a  wealthy  m.it ler 

of  Sheffield,  England,  who  as  a   pastime  succeeded  in  mnlring 
'aiisparf'ut  nx'k-set^tions.     These  ho  .  '       "       "  '  '  rtw 

^opu  with  good  results,  but  the  mat  ixw 

uved  serioLLs  attention  by  scientific  men  had  be  not,  almost  by 
ideut,  transphinte^l   his  idea  to  Qermany.    In  thia  oaugeuUI 


m 


SOME  MODERN  ASPECTS   OF  GEOLOGY. 


it  readily  took  root  and  flourished  like  a  ^^go^ous  tree,  bear- 
ing rich  fruit  and  standing  its  sotxls  into  every  laud  upon  the 
earth  where  knowledge  is  sought  for. 

At  first  progress  was  necessarily  slow,  mistakes  were  frequent, 
and  a  general  interest  in  the  subject  was  almost  lacking.  But  as 
one  point  after  another  was  gained,  and  as  a  deeper  insight  into 
the  problems  presented  was  secured,  the  number  of  workers  stead- 
ily iucreaseil.  The  patient  labors  of  such  pioneers  as  Zirkel, 
Vogelsang,  and  Roseubusch  can  never  bo  forgotten  by  those  who 
can  now  avail  themselves  of  their  years  of  toil  in  a  few  mouths. 

Interesting  and  surprising  results  were  secured  at  the  outset 
by  the  new  science,  but  tliey  were  mineralogical  rather  than  geo- 
cal  in  their  bearing.  It  is  only  now,  after  thirty  years  of 
paration,  that  the  time  is  fully  ripe  for  the  application  of  the 
new  petrography  to  some  of  the  deepest  questions  of  theoretical 
geology.  Thin  it  is  which  affords  almost  the  only  hopeful  means 
of  dealing  with  the  records  of  the  crystalline  strata  of  the  earth, 
which  undoubtedly  contain  the  longest,  as  they  do  by  far  the  dark- 
est, chapter  of  its  history.  What  y>aloontology  has  already  done 
and  is  still  doing  for  the  more  superficial  strata  in  which  organic 
remains  are  preserved,  the  microscope  must  do  for  the  crystalline 
rocks,  whether  volcanic,  plutonic,  or  metamorphle.  These  con- 
tain their  own  lifo>bistories,  written  in  characters  which  need 
only  to  be  carefully  studied  in  order  to  be  properly  interpreted. 

The  purely  mineralogical  services  of  the  microscope  need  not 
here  concern  us,  but  it  may  be  pertinent  to  inquire.  What  spe- 
cific classes  of  facts  has  this  instrument  disclosed  and  what  new 
ideas  luw  it  suggested  that  entitle  it  to  so  high  a  consideration  by 
those  who  are  interested  with  the  broader  problems  of  the  earth's 
ory  ?    To  this  inquiry  w^e  may  answer: 

1.  The  microscope  has  shed  light  into  darkness ;  and,  by  its 
promise  of  results,  has  stimulated  au  enthusiastic  cultivation  of  a 
most  important  but  hitherto  neglected  field. 

3.  It  has  shown  us  that  the  internal  structure  of  the  common- 
pebble  is  not  less  admirable,  delicate,  and  exquisitely  beautiful 
that  of  a  living  organism. 

3,  It  has  already  thrown  much  light  upon  the  origin  of  many 
of  the  crystalline  rocks — both  massive  and  schists— by  allowing 
us  to  judge  of  the  conilitious  under  which  they  must  have  beea' 
formed. 

4.  Most  wonderfid  of  all,  it  has  taught  us  that  the  components 
of  the  "everlasting  hills"  are  not  mere  masses  of  dull,  unchange-^ 
able,  inert  matter,  but  that,  in  so  far  as  constant  change  of  form 
and  composition  to  accord  with  altered  conditions  is  a  sign  of  life, 
they  live. 

Any  single  one  of  the  four  points  which  I  have  here  enumer- 


POPULAR  SCIENCE 


ated  is  enough  to  assure  a  lively  interest  in  modern  jvtrogmphy, 
not  merely  on  the  part  of  geologists,  but  on  the  part  of  aH  intelli- 
gent pereons  who  love  to  study  the  "  wonderful  wisdom  and  \Kiyrtt 
of  God  aa  shown  in  his  works."  Together  they  promise  far  motv 
for  the  future  than  has  been  fulfilled  in  the  past. 

Wg  can  not  pause  long  enough  to  consider  each  of  the-se  four 
points  in  succession,  but  it  will  be  worth  our  while  to  glanco  for 
a  few  momenta  at  the  last. 

It  ia  a  question  how  far  the  popularly  received  ditftinction 
between  dead  and  living  matter  can  be  made  aun  '    '  '  -  ict 

definition  as  long  as  we  know  so  little  of  what  the  -  ;  i'b- 

force"ia.  As  far  as  we  can  judge  of  the  phenomena  presented 
by  the  organic  and  mineral  worlds,  they  differ  rather  in  degree 
than  in  kind.  This  seems  like  a  bold  statement,  and  I  am  fully 
aware  that  it  would  be  totally  unwarranted  except  for  the  recenl 
disclosures  of  the  microscope  in  geology. 

The  chemistry  of  life  is  the  chemistry  of  carbon ;  the  ohetnifltry 
of  the  rocks  is  the  chemistry  of  silicon*  Both  are  closely  allied 
elements,  with  the  property  of  forming  extremely  complex  com- 
pounds,  which  become  more  or  less  unstable  with  a  variation  nf 
extermd  conditions.  We  are  accustomed  to  regard  uac4?ni$ing 
change  as  a  sign  of  life,  and  to  look  upon  the  rocks  as  unohang* 
ing,  and  therefore  dead.  But  the  microscope  shows  that  tbia  is  a 
fulse  conception.  Not  only  do  the  component  minerals  assume  a 
form  as  directly  inherent  in  their  nature  as  that  of  a  plant;  but, 
If  the  surrounding  conditions  become  unfavorable,  they  change 
to  other  forms,  and  leave  written  in  the  rocks  the  records  of  their 
often  com]>licated  histories.  The  only  difference  seems  to  be  in 
the  relative  slowness  of  the  action.  I  say  ''seems  to  be,"  because 
I  am  by  no  means  convinced  of  the  absolute  identity  of  the  two 
processes. 

In  his  recent  annual  address,  the  well-known  V-  He 

Geological  Society  of  London,  Prof.  Jolin  W.  Judil, ....    .: ,  led 

to  throw  aside  entirely  the  distinction  between  cryj<talUs:ed  and 
living  matter,  and  to  bring  the  phenomena  of  cli  '-d 

by  the  microscopist  in  rocks  within  the  limits  of  "^i  us 

of  life  as  those  of  Lewes  and  Spencer.  While  we  may  bo  ttnwUl* 
ing  to  follow  him  to  this  extent,  we  can  bnf  "        ** 

analogy  to  vital  terms  and  procesHes  recf^ntly  ■ 
power  by  Prof.  Drummond  in  quite  a  different  sphere  is  al»< 

ble  of  a  valuable  application  in  illustratii  '  '^ 

aspe<'ts  of  geology.    We  may  speak  of  th- 
oral,  of  its  histology,  morphology,  physiology,  vit-i 
bility  to  it,**  environment,  designating  by  fV  ■   *  *  •' 
which  are  at  least  analogous  to  those  w. 
biology. 


ho 
h 

Ml 
II- 

'iV» 

n* 
in 


I 


SOME  MODERN  ASPECTS    OF  GEOLOi 


'47 


I 


I 


We  encounter,  in  thin  soctious  of  both  volcanic  and  metamor- 
phic  rocks,  microscopic  crystals  arrested  in  evei-y  stage  of  their 
growth,  and  it  is  not  true  that  these  earlier  forms  are  mere  epit- 
omes of  the  perfected  individual.  We  have  the  fundamental 
globulito  and  the  complicated  and  fantastic  "  growth  -  formsj" 
which  are  as  different  from  the  finished  crystal  as  is  the  larva 
from  the  butterfly.  Thus,  to  one  familiar  with  such  facts  as  these, 
there  can  be  no  confusion  in  speaking  of  the  "  embryology  of  a 
crystal."  We  think  with  wonder  of  the  marvelous  \itality  of 
seeds  which  sprouted  after  three  thousand  years  spent  in  Egyptian 
pyramids,  and  yet  the  "  vitality"  of  a  crystal  is  such  that  it  will 
continue  its  growth  under  favorable  conditions  after  any  number 
of  thousands  of  years  of  interruption. 

There  is,  however,  nothing  among  the  recent  disclosures  of  the 
microscope  in  regard  to  rocks  so  surprising  as  their  delicate  ad- 
justment to  their  environment.  We  are  accustomed  to  look  upon 
the  masses  of  our  mountains  as  the  very  type  of  what  is  sta- 
tionary and  eternal ;  but  in  reality  they  are  vast  chemical  labora- 
tories full  of  activity  and  constant  change.  With  every  altera- 
tion of  externa]  conditions  or  environment,  what  was  a  state  of 
stable  equilibrium  for  atoms  or  molecules  ceases  to  be  so.  Old 
tinions  are  ever  being  broken  down  and  new  ones  formed.  Life  in 
our  planet,  like  life  in  ourselves,  rests  fundamentally  on  chemical 
action.  The  vital  fluid  circulates  unceasingly  through  the  arteries 
of  the  (xreaas  and  the  curreuts  of  the  air ;  it  penetrates  the  rocks 
through  the  finest  fissures  and  invisible  cracks,  as  the  human 
blood  penetrates  the  tissues  between  artery  and  vein,  pnwlucing, 
with  the  help  of  heat  and  pressure,  like  changes  in  the  histology 
of  the  globe.  The  recurrence,  after  a  long  interval,  of  tlie  same 
set  of  conditions  in  the  same  rock-maws,  may  bring  alxiut  the  un- 
ending cycle— analogous  to  succeeding  generations — which  Hut- 
the  earliest  of  the  Scotch  geologists,  recognized  a  hundred^ 
s  ago. 

Such  processes  as  these,  which  properly  represent  the  physi- 
ology of  our  earth's  crust,  have  long  been  suspected,  but  their 
-exact  nature  and  details  are  only  now  being  gi*adually  disclosed 
by  microscopical  studies  of  the  rocks. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  lava-stream  bursts  from  the  side 
of  some  volcano.  As  it  flows  onward,  quickly  solidifying  and 
crystallizing  under  circumstances  of  intense  heat,  chemical  com- 
j>ound8  are  produced  which  accord  with  such  conditions,  but  i)er- 
haps  not  with  those  ordinarily  obtaining  at  the  earth's  surface. 
If  this  is  the  case,  the  hardened  lava  will  be  in  a  chemically  un- 
stable state,  and  will  tend  in  turn  to  adapt  itself  to  its  now  siir- 
roundings  by  chemical  change. 

Countless  examples  of  this  adaptability  of  rocks  to  their  envi- 


ronmentare  familiar  to  every  geologist  wholioa  availed  hiRiBelf 
of  the  newest  and  most  potent  aid  in  his  professioa.  There  is 
nothing  hypothetical  about  them,  for  the  minerala  have  written 
their  own  "life-historiea'Mn  characters  which  ran  not  be  misrc^. 
They  throw  a  flood  of  light  upon  many  types  of  rocks  whooe  ori' 
gin  and  nature  have  heretofore  remained  an  unsolved  riddle;  and 
tlioy  ojH^n  up  a  vista  of  pussibilitios  to  tho  futuro  explorer  whose 
length  and  whose  attractiveness  can  hardly  be  exaggerated. 

Let  me  quote,  in  closing  this  brief  survey  of  a  new  field  in 

>logy,  a  sin^lo  passage  from  Prof.  Judd: 

"In  the  profound  laboratories  of  our  earth's  crust/'  he  says, 
slow  physical  and  chemical  operations,  resulting  from  the  inier- 
ition  between  the  crystal,  with  its  wonderful  m-  '       '      struct* 

>,and  the  external  agencies  which  environ  it,  ha  i  rise  to 

new  structures,  too  minute,  it  may  be,  to  be  traced  by  oar  micro- 
Bcopes^  but  capable  of  so  playing  with  the  light-wa%*efl  as  to  startle 
us  with  now  beauties,  and  to  add  another  to 

*  The  fairy  tales  of  soieooe, 
Aod  the  long  results  of  time' 

"Yes!  minerals  have  a  life-history,  one  which  is  in  pari  deter- 
mined by  their  original  constitution^  and  in  part  by  tho  long 
Heriea  of  slowly  varying  conditions  to  which  they  have  since 
been  subjected.  ...  In  spite  of  tho  limitations  placed  upon  ns  by 
our  brief  existence  on  the  globe,  it  is  ours  to  follow,  in  all  itii 
complicated  sequence  this  procession  of  events;  to  discover  the 
delicate  organization  in  which  they  originate ;  to  detormine  the 
varied  couilitious  by  which  they  have  been  controlled ;  and  to 
assign  to  each  of  them  the  part  which  it  has  played  in  the  won- 
derful history  of  our  globe  during  tiie  countless  ages  of  the  past^ 

"  Mineralogy  has  been  justly  styled  the  alphabet  of  petrology; 
but  if  the  orthography  and  etymology  of  the  language  of  rocks 
lie  in  the  province  of  the  mineralogist,  its  syntax  and  prosody 
belong  to  the  realm  of  the  geologist.  In  that  language,  of  which 
the  letters  are  minerals  and  the  worcls  are  rock-typrs,  I  am  per- 
suaded that  there  is  written  for  us  the  whole  story  of  torroatrial 
evolution." 


I 


OrtircLmwo  It*  review  of  tlie  report  of  the  KmlcAtoa  ' 
Society,  **Natnro*'  c«lU  attention  to  ili«  fad  t)iat  tbe  t-i 
tlic  grcftt  ^xplonion  "has  not  tnor<ly  eoliirgcd  our  4>oDcoptJonii  of  volcanic  powcni 
anil  ibo  coutinaitjr  of  ntmot^pbcrio  rirculntion,  m  wull  oa  jicMctl  poiiiive  iiifiinti*- 
tioa  of  great  rolne  to  different  brnnoben  of  Mctvncc*  bot  boji  oiwiord  np  tt^i  |troW 
]«m8  In  option)  and  ni«u*orologi'    -  'rion  of  wUeh  wQS 

utimulftte  rcsvurcb  u  wl^U  as  ti.  .i«  ol  M 

knowled^  of  tbtw  sobjeois." 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  THE  GULF  STREAM.      6+g 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE  GULF  STREAM. 

Bt  RALPH  S.  TAEK. 

IN  the  Gulf  Stream,  near  the  surface,  animal  life  is  extremely 
ahuiidant>  both  young  and  a^ilult  finding  the  warm  waters  of 
tlie  current  peculiarly  adapted  for  life  and  rapid  growth.  Cuttle- 
fish swim  about,  chased  by  sword-Gsh,  dolpliins.  and  sharka  At- 
tracted by  the  glare  of  the  electric  lights  in  the  evening,  large 
schools  sport  around  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  steauier 
Albatross,  swimming  backward  and  forward  with  etjual  facility, 
leaping  out  of  water  and  ejecting  their  bhu-k.  inky  fluid  whenever 
surprised.  Many  devices  were  tried  for  the  capture  of  one  of 
these  quick-motione<l  creatures,  but  we  faile<l  to  secure  any  until 
ftn  ingenious  sailor  rigge*!  a  peculiar  spear,  which,  when  pro|>er]y 
used,  would  bring  the  cuttle-iiah  on  board.  This  curious  animal, 
cla88o<l  by  naturalists  among  the  mollusks,  or  shell-fish,  has  so 
little  resemblance  to  its  rela- 
tives, oysters  and  clams,  that 
ftn  average  observer  would  be 
far  more  likely  to  place  it 
among  the  true  fishes.  It  has 
large,  prominent  eyes,  and  its 
mouth  is  armed  with  a  horny 
beak,  very  much  like  a  par- 
irot's  bill.  With  this  it  un- 
|doubte<lIy  proves  itself  a  dan- 
»rous  enemy  to  many  marine 
ininmls.  Forward  motion  is 
»btained  byafin-like  biil,  while 
it  moves  backward  by  sudden- 
ly forcing  water  out  of  a  bag 
having  its  opening  nmr  the 

I  creature's  mouth.      Ten  anns 
or  feelers,  with  their  inner  sur- 
faces lined  with  suckers,  are 
arranged  about  the  month.  Al- 
though it  seldom  grows  over  a 
foot  long,  an  embrace  from  it^  arms  is  painful.    How  much  more 
I      80  must  it  bo  in  the  case  of  the  large  octopus,  or  devil-fish,  of  the 
North,  which  is  often  forty  ft*et  in  length,  measured  from  the  tips 
of  the  two  long  arms !    In  this  latter  animal  the  suckers  are  sorae- 
l^^imeti  two   inch«?s  in  diameter,  and,  when  worke*!  by  the  powerful 
^pnuscles,  painful  wounds  can  bo  produce<l.     From  earliest  times 
^fabuloiis  aiTonnt-s  of  a  creattiro  like  this  have  been  circulate<1. 


Pio.  I.— CiTTTLi-Fiui  tApia  (ifietnalU)  amd  Sana.. 


TOU.    XXXV. 


!• 


'S« 


I 


supporters  of  the  belief  that  the  sea  is  still  possessed  of  some 
lesceiidants  of  the  enormous  fish-like  reptiles  which  inhabited  it 
early  geological  periods.  A  fair  picture  but  jKxir  description 
of  an  octopus  is  given  by  Victor  Hugo  in  his  "  Toilers  of  the 
Sea."  He,  in  the  course  of  his  description,  becomes  very  much 
lonfused,  mixing  devil-fish  with  polyp,  and  describing  an  animal 
possessed  of  habits  belonging  to  each  of  these  two  widely  sepa- 
rated groups.  The  confusion  apparently  arises  from  the  fact 
that  a  common  name  for  the  octopus  is  poulp,  but  this  etymo- 
logical resemblance  to  the  polyp,  or  sea-anemone,  is  the  only  one. 
He  also  confounds  the  name  Cephalopoda  with  CepJuilopiera,  a 
gigantic  ray  or  skate,  also  called  devil-fish,  and  this  causes  new 

iconfusifin  in  the  description.  There  are  gigantic  octopi  in  the 
Bouthern  waters,  and  these  furnish  food  for  the  toothed  sperm 
^hale.  Our  Northern  devil-fish  is  not  a  true  octopus,  but  a  squid, 
for  it  has  t<in  arms  instead  of  eight. 
A  sword-fish  captured  during  the  voyage  was  found  to  have  in 
its  stomach  over  thirty  eyes  and  twenty  beaks  of  the  small  cuttle- 
fish, together  with  a  few  partly  digested  individuals.  Sword- 
fishes  and  sharks  are  natural  enemies,  always  fighting  when  they 
meet,  and  there  are  accounts  of  fierce  and  deadly  encounters  be- 

ktween  thorn.  An  ugly  sword-fish  is  a  bad  enemy  to  encounter, 
using  its  weajion,  as  it  does,  with  such  ease  and  force.  One 
will  often  drive  its  sword  tlirough  the  bottom  of  a  boat^  and,  if 
it  succeeds  in  withdrawing  it  without  breaking  it  off,  the  boat 
rapidly  fills  with  water,  and  the  oc^iupants,  driven  into  the  sea, 
are  savagely  attacked  and  badly  wounded  by  the  furious  fish.  At 
times  they  are  abundant  on  all  sides,  lying  near  the  surface,  with 
their  dorsal  fin  projecting  above. 

A  sailor  speared  a  dolphin  one  day,  much  to  our  surprise,  for 

selilom  came  near  enough  to  reach.     For  several  days  there 

l)een  a  school  around,  probably  attracted  by  the  refuse  thrown 

•board,  by  the  brilliant  light  at  night,  and  by  the  cuttle-fish 

lich  kept  near  the  vessel.    They  usually  remained  many  (wt 

below  the  surface,  and,  viewed  through  the  deep  azure-blue  water 

»of  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  different  colors  of  their  bodies  reflected 
in  the  sunlight,  and  again  in  the  electric  light,  were  beautiful  in 
Bn  extreme  degree.  At  last  one,  coming  too  near  the  surface,  re- 
ceived a  fatal  wound,  and  was  successfully  brought  on  deck,  I 
Lad  often  heard  of  the  changing  colors  of  a  dying  dolphin,  and 
^L]u)w  I  was  to  witness  them  for  the  first  time.  No  one  can  ex- 
^Baggt^nito  the  weird  beauty  of  the  sight  as  the  fish  in  its  last 
^Ktmggles  changes  through  all  its  various  hues.  One  can  see  the 
^■colors  di8api>ear,  to  be  followed  by  othors.  Beginning  with  the 
^Bieadf  they  seem  to  sweep  as  a  wave  o%-er  the  body.  Blue  gives 
^ft)lace  to  white,  then  a  light  yellow,  which  in  turn  changes  to  a 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


-V 


/ 


golden,  and  fcillo' 
this  a   Cf»pymr-c«Ii 
tint;  and  soon  thn 
all    conceivable    hn 
until  finally,  the  end' 
having   come,   change 
is   intemiptf-d    in    i1 
course,  and  two   tin 
are  left  in  po«B««flioi 
of   the  IxKJy  —  one  i 
the  act    of  ditfa|>p<»iir- 
ing,  the  other  about 
spread  itself  over  th 
surfiice.     Tliat  jKirtioi 
exposed    to     sunligh 
changes  more  rapidly, 
while  the  under  nidw 
less  gorgeous.  Herewi 
see  a  peculiar  propvrt 
possessed  by  many  ani 
mals  widely  separate' 
in  the  scale  of  lif 
that  ofvdianging  col 
at  will,  eithor   Uj  sni 
the  surrounding^  shad< 
as   ill  ustrated    in    thi 
chameleon     and      dol 
pliin,  or  to  attract  cer- 
tain kinds  of  prey,  u 
seen  in    many      f  *'^ 
lower  marine  •• 
—  which    becomes    so 
much  a  habit   in   tbo 
caee  under  consideni- 
tion    that,  even 
death  is  at  hand,  th 
changes  are  all  paiL^i 
through  iir 

StiDrmy    ^    --. 
Mother  Carey's  chicks 
enn,  as  lh»' 
commonly 
low  tho  ontbound 


i 


ertng  about  as  M)on  as  land  is  lost  to  riew. 

shore  is  once  more  sighted,  unloM  a  rioient  stonn  driv^eii  Uii 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE  6ULF  STREAM. 


by.    For  the  most  part  they  foed  upon  refuse  thrown  overboard, 

are  never  fat  and  always  hungry,  due  undoubtedly  to  the  fact 

lat  they  are  almost  continually  upon  the  wing,  seldom  being 


FlO.   4.— FLTINO-Pim 


romno  «t  nu  Doltbix. 


resting.  Hovering  over  the  food  in  a  peculiar  manner,  by 
itting  the  water  with  its  webbed  feet  and  (juickly  flapping  its 
ings.  it  appears  to  stand 
on  the  water, and,  following 
^the  food  as  it  is  drifted 
Hpihout,  to  walk  along.  Sail- 
^Httre^anl  it  with  great  su- 
^^ftstitiou,  and  believe  that 
some  calamity  will   follow 

Pthe  wanton  killing  of  this 
bird.  They  seem  to  have  no 
fear  of  man,  for  they  con- 
stantly flew  near  and  aboard 
the  vessel.  Attracted  by  the 
lights,  many  flew  sl)oard 
at  night,  and,  striking  the 
house,  fell  senseless  to  the 
deck.  These  birds  must 
have  a  very  short  and  irregular  breeding  period,  for  they  are 
found  several  hundred  miles  from  land,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Tliey  probably  go  in  flocks,  at  dillerent  times,  to  their  favorite 
ireeding-plin^o.  and  aftor  a  short  period,  having  raised  one  brood, 
return. 


Fio.  S.-SroKMT  PmuEL  i  /  AafOMMnuru]  jMki^ni). 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


Fkysalia,  the  Portuguese  man-of-war,  with  its  In-  \^i 

float,  may  at  times  be  seen  on  all  sides.    The  float,  filKv;  ..  .v^*  air; 
serves  to  keep  the  animal  on  the  surf  ace,  and,  driven  by  the 
to  bear  it  from  place  to  place.     It  is  a  curious  animal,  or 
cluster  of  animals  we  should  say,  for  naturalists  now  considi 
to   be  a  group  of  individuals,  having  different  functions,  bul 
working  for  the  same  general  cause — that  of  ^^'  ^(j  mass. 

They  say  that  in  this  group  there  are  some  wl  ^     i  poeo  is 

to  obtain  food»  some  to  digest,  others  to  reproduce,  etc.,  yot  each 
is  an  individual  animal  working  for  the  g*>od  of  the  wh*  '      ' 

the  whole  may  work  for  its  g< 

that  in  conjunction  they  may  perfonnj 
all  the  functions  of  life  necessary'  to  the] 
well-being  and  general  welfare*  of  thw 
whole  united  colony.  The  cluster  Kiw 
most  remarkable  defensive  powers,  Iw-J 
ing  well  furnished  with  lasso  celLs  oi 
stinging  organs.  These  cor 
barbed,  arrow-like  points,  L.. 
thread-like  arms,  each  of  which  is  coUedj 
up  in  a  little  cell.  "V^* 
Siiry  to  use  them  the\ 
violence,  and  each  barb,  striking  the  ol^ 
ject,  penetrates,  for  it  li-i  '' 
**  working  into"  flesh,  aii 
with  a  sort  of  poison,  it  in  conjuuctiont 
with  many  others  liontimb-s  tlie  p 
n>uders  it  hnrnilcss.  Tluit  the  / 
possesses  this  property  to  a  marked  de-^ 
gree,  some  of  the  sailors  of  th- 
can  testify,  for  they  inoauti' 
their  hands  in  a  tub  of  wate: 
one,  and  the  shock  they  r. 
com|>aretl  in  violence  to  a  stronir  sho 
from  a  Ley«len  jar. 
8ess  this  sivme  prcj      ^.  .-, 

common  shore  spcciod  can  alfoci  atil| 
VHry  tender  animals.    I  havi*  .-•'  *"ep-l 

sea  anemone, six  inches  in  length,  by  this  mtans  kill  au'  iirdi 

swallow  a  lively  flnh  a  foot  long,  that  was  placed  in  the  miuarii 
with  it.    The  fish  bandy  touched  the  aneni'        *'    -       ^      '    -     ipa- 
ble  of  moving  farther,  and  after  a  few  strii  >*H. 

Th'^se  arrow-poiuts  possess  the  power  of  mi>tion  for  never; 
after  being  detached  from  the  animal    Laaso  <• 
when  lost,  and  in  a  very  »thort  time,    Ou  s 
mUlious  of  cells.   It  is  a  cunous  fact  tbnt  all  wvU-UviVudvU  tuui 


.\n..-.t.....^' 


ft— POUTDOiniB  MAM'OF-WAB 


,.li.. 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN   THE  GULF  STREAM, 

— 1  speak  with  particular  referenco  to  the  lower  maruie  animals — 
are  usually  brilliantly  colored.  Tliin  can  be  seen  in  the  case  of 
sea-anemones,  tropical  shells,  and  crabs.  ThoBc*  with  little  or  no 
defense  are  inconspicuous  and  resemble  surrounding  objects,  Thf 
reason  for  all  this  is  plain,  for  if  inconspicuous  they  easily  escape 
the  notice  of  their  enemies.  Brilliant,  well-defended  animals  liuve 
littlo  fear  of  enemies,  but  by  their  >>right  colors  will  attract  curious 
aninuils  within  reach  of  their  deadly  powers. 

Like  the  Physalia  in  general  structure,  and  in  the  fact  that 
they  ^>ossess  stinging  C4?lls,  are  the  jelly-fishes,  which  are  present 
in  the  Qu!f  Stream  in  a  great  abundance  of  forms.     There  are 


Fia.  7.— A  JcLLT-Fiio  swiajiuva. 

bell-shaped,  tubular,  spherical,  discoidal,  and  many  other  fonns, 
most  being  transparent,  but  some  very  brilliantly  colored.  One 
of  the  disk-like  forms  is  colored  with  deep  purple  and  orarij 
bands  radiating  from  the  renter,  while  from  the  entire  circumfer- 
ence hang  many  transparent  tentacles.  The  mouth  of  must  jelly- 
fishes  is  beneath,  in  the  center  of  the  bell,  and  is  purmunded  by 
tentach^  which  pro<»ure  foofl.  These  are  also  furnished  with 
stinging  cells  by  which  the  food  is  killed.    Thoir  modes  of  repro- 


THE  POPULAR   SCIBXCE  MONTHLY. 


duotion  are  cnrious.    In  some  a  portion  of  tJio  body  of  '  nt 

begins  to  grow  out,  and  this  continues  until  a  i»erf*?i;i  .....  ..ke 

jirotuberanne  is  tho  n»siilt,  and  tln^n  the  bud  drojis  off  and,  after 
various   interesting  changes,  beL-omea  a   fully  forTnn<l  -h. 

Somptimes  the  parent  l>egins  to  divide,  and  Actually  ui 

two  parts,  each  of  which  becomes  a  perfect  animaL 

So  ^eat  is  the  transparency  of  most  jelly-f^ 
scarcely  visible ;  but  at  night,  what  a  change  ta        ; 
a  school  is  passed,  the  water  becomffS  suddenly  transformed  to  a 
lass  of  liquid  fire,  composed  of  individual  Imlls  th;i'  "       '^         lO 

*ount  of  their  great  number,  appear  as  one  vast  it 

When  they  are  disturbeil,  their  Ijrilliancyis  increased.  i»^ar  dili'er- 
ont  from  the  jelly-fish  in  structure,  but  resembling  it  in  its  phoB- 
phorescence,  is  Pyrosoma^  a  colony  of  animals  often  found  in 
these  warm  waters,  which  together  form  a  tlcshy  mass.  pcMBee»> 
ing  no  remarkable  points  by  day,  but  at  night  bocoming  most 
brilliantly  phosphorescent.  In  the  mass,  six  inches  in  len^^b, 
there  are  hundi-cds  of  separate  animals,  each  like  tho  others,  all 
massed  together  in  a  common  colony.  They  are  very  curious, 
for,  while  most  of  the  young  remain  to  help  build  the  mother 
colony,  some  become  entirely  separate,  and,  after  swimn  '  '  ut 
for  a  while,  begin  a  new  cluster  that  soon  takes  the  f<  ;  '  in? 

parent  group.  Each  gronp  has  a  regular  shape  just  liko  ihi* 
original  one.  The  same  is  true  of  corals  and  most  other  clusters 
formed  of  more  than  one  individual. 

In  our  surface  towings  we  find  many  beautiful  animals,  but 
none  have  impressed  me  so  strongly  as  the  so-called  sea-butterflies. 
They  are  small,  usually,  and  seldom  found  iu  abundaiaoe,  and, 
being  thus  inconspicuous,  are  not  likely  to  be  seen  by  tliogte  not 
specially  searching  for  them.  Every  color  is  found  in  these  beau- 
tiful forms,  and,  as  they  float  n\Hin  the  surface,  with  their  vring- 
like  ex]jansion8  spread  out  to  catch  the  wind,  but  a  small  am'Uint 
of  imagination  is  needed  to  transform  them  into  true  butlorllic* 
accidentally  fallen  into  the  water.  Tliey  have  a  very  light  and 
beautiful  shell,  with  an  air-chamber  above  to  serve  ils  a  fli-Uit, 
while  from  a  lower  compartment  the  wings  are  expanded.  When 
startled,  their  sails  are  withdrawn  into  this  chamber,  and  th« 
oddly  shaped  shell  is  alone  exposed  to  view.  Htia-butterflit*  can, 
by  arranging  their  sails  so  as  to  ntilis&e  the  wind  in  tho  moci 
offective  manner,  guide  their  courst*  to  a  certain  extent,  just  as 
the  ship  can  proceed  against  a  head  wind^  Their  fib'"  '-^-rh 
are  often  taken  without  the  animal,  ]iresent  many  ve?  ;tr 

forms,  from  the  nearly  round  to  the  long,  sliarply  pt^  % 

fiome  with  spi*—  "»lH*r8  perfectly  smooth  :  ••"■^  "-■■  ' '■  m 

in  every  con  color^  the  glassy,  ;  uo 

mllk'Whito,  and  ui*ju>^^8  of  the  most  briUiaat  culvi 


4 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IX   THE   GULF  STREAM. 


I 


I 


> 


nml  Vftriod  aa  to  defy  all  comparison  or  description.  Those  little 
auinialH,  liviu^^  iu  the  water  and  moving  from  place  to  placo^  are 
as  perfect  and  sea-worthy  ships  iu  miniature  as  the  best  modern 
vessels,  and  built  upon  as  improved  a  pattern  as  our  vessels  which 
have  been  so  long  evolving.  They  have  for  centuries  plowed  the 
open  seas  in  their  vessels^  never  seeking  port  and  never  suffer- 
ing diwister.  With  their  air-float  above,  in  addition  to  buoyancy, 
jierfect  stability  is  obtained.  Their  body  beluw  serves  as  ballast, 
and  their  membranous  wings  are  good  sails,  that  can  be  furled 
or  hoisted  at  the  animars  will.  No  masts  to  bo  carried  away,  no 
anchor  needed,  but  perfect  safety  always.  How  well  a<laj)ted  for 
their  sumiundings — indeed,  how  well  all  Natures  creatui^es  aro 
aihipted  for  their  mode  of  life  I  How  many  ideas  in  modem  arclii- 
tecture  and  engineering,  but  just  discovered  as  the  result  of  long 
study  and  exi>eriment,  have  been  in  use  for  centuries  untold 
among  the  lower  animals  which  we  are  so  wont  to  regard  as  un- 
worthy of  life!  The  ant,  the  bee,  the  spider,  and  hundrefls  of 
others  are  to-day  using  principles  which  man  has  yet  to  learn. 
The  properties  of  the  arch  and  dome,  if  not  first  learned  from  ani- 
mals, might  have  been,  much  to  man's  advantage,  long  before  ho 
discovered  them. 

On  very  rare  occasions  the  nautilus  is  found,  and  at  times  we 
also  fall  in  with  the  Argomiuta,  or  paper  nautilus.  Tljey  are  both 
related  to  cuttle-fishes,  differing  from  them  in  having  shelly  cover- 
ings and  in  some  other  more  technical  points.  Each  has  a  row  of 
arms,  with  suckers  around  the  mouth,  and  they  move  in  the  same 
maimer  as  true  cuttle-fishes  do — by  ejecting  a  quantity  of  water 
through  a  tube  with  such  force  as  to  drive  the  animal  backward. 
The  nautilus,  as  it  grows,  builds  the  shell  larger  to  accommodate 
the  growing  bo<ly,  building  on  the  edge  and  continuing  the  spiral, 
and  at  the  same  time  forming  a  partition  across  the  rear.  If  a 
nautilus-shell  is  cut  longitudinally,  it  will  be  found  to  be  made 
up  of  a  large  anterior  chamber,  which  the  animal  occupied  just 
before  it  died,  and  behind  a  large  number  of  chambers  separated 
from  each  other  by  transverse  partitions,  and  connect^l  together 
only  by  a  small  circular  hole  that  exists  in  each  jmrtition.  When 
the  nautilus  is  alive,  a  fleshy  tube  runs  through  all  these  cham- 
bers, passing  through  the  holes,  and  forms  the  only  connection 
between  the  animal  and  the  rear  chambers  once  inhabited  by  its. 
It  is  thought  that  by  means  of  this  tube  the  rear  compartments 
can  be  filled  with  wat«r  or  emptied  at  the  animars  will,  thus 
allowing  it  either  to  rise  to  the  surface  or  to  sink  to  any  required 
depth,  Artjonauia  is  a  pure  white,  ridged  shell,  thin  and  delicate, 
the  animal  l»eing  very  much  like  the  nautilus;  but  in  this  case 
the  female  alone  has  the  covering,  while  the  male  is  entirely 
without  a  shelL    In  many  cases,  among  the  lower  forms  of  aui- 


TPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


mal  life,  the  malo  is  unprotected,  while  the  female  is  covered  by 
some  very  perfect  shell,  or  is  otherwise  well  fitted  for  wUf-{)n>- 
tection,  all  undoubtedly  for  the  preservation  of  the  youug.  The 
higher  we  ascend  in  the  animal  kingdom  the  more  we  8<?o  the 
oiJjMJsite  extreme,  the  male  being  the  best  fitted  to  defend,  and 
hence  assuming  both  its  own  protection  and  that  of  the  weaker 
eex.    Far  back  in  remote  geological  periods  animals  resembling 


I 


P10.  ^— Tn  AnonivArT. 

'the  nautilus  and  Anjouautn  were  extr^fUiely  a' 
fonuH  even  more  primitive  than  these;  but  to--i  j.  a 

very  few  as  representatives  of  this  largo  group  of  fossil  ammsl^ 
Tlie  surface-waters  in  the  Gulf  Stream  ti        ->''   -        *    '-'fcif 
nil  kinds.    There  the  young  of  lart,'»/r  an  I  jiwi 

in  size ;  and  ailult  animals  which  never  grow  1  to  Ih« 

]»1 '•>  i»   visible  to  the  naked  eye  on —  ■''  ■ 

'■  ;  a  fine  silk  net  behind  tli 

cattily  Laken,  and  when  placed  in  glaaci  disht.'v 


!^^ 


Pt- 


ed  are  seen  swimming  backward  and  forward.  Wlien  looked  at 
through  a  microscope  we  see  young  jelly-fishes,  the  young  of  bar- 
nacles, crabs,  and  shrimps,  besides  the  a<iult  microscopic  species, 
which  are  very  abundant.  The  toothless  whale  finds  in  these  his 
only  footL  Rushing  through  the  water,  with  mouth  wide  open, 
by  means  «>f  his  whalebone  strainers  the  minute  forms  are  separated 
frt>in  the  water.  Swallowing  those  obtained  after  a  short  period 
of  straining,  he  repeats  the  opc»ration.  The  abundance  of  this 
kind  of  life  can  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  nearly  all  kinds  of 
whales  exist  exclusively  upon  these  animals,  moat  of  them  s>o  small 
that  they  are  not  noticed  un  the  surface.  Prominent  among  the 
animals  obtained  from  the  surface  towiugs  is  Sapharina,  a  small 
crustacean  which  is  remarkably  iridescent,  Bashing  in  the  sun- 
light with  motullic  colors.  It  darts  swiftly  al>out,  now  grwn, 
now  blue,  and  very  conspicuous  on  account  of  its  ever-chauglng 
hues.  Another  similar  form  is  red.  At  all  times,  and  in  nearly 
all  places,  both  in  the  Gulf  Stream  and  in  the  warmer  waters  out- 
side, there  is  an  interesting  transparent  animal  called  Saljtfi,  At 
first  glance  it  would  appear 
to  bo  structureless,  but,  if 
carefully  studied,  a  mouth, 
a  stomach,  and  other  organs 
will  be  found,  which  i)lace 
it  among  the  higlier  inver- 
tebrate animals.  They  swim 
around  in  large  schools,  but 
on  account  of  their  great 
transparency  are  scarcely 
visible.  Whether  or  not 
they  serve  as  food  for  other  animals  I  do  not  know,  but  it  seemi 
that  a  meal  made  of  them  would  be  rather  unsalisfiu'tory  on  ac- 
count of  the  gi-eat  quantity  of  salt  water  that  enters  into  their  con- 
struction. They  often  have  a  curious  blue  parasite  inside  the  l)ody 
walls,  and  this  is  about  the  only  visible  sign  of  structure.  Very  few 
animals  are  free  from  parasites,  and  in  the  fi.^lies  they  are  numer- 
ous, burrowing  into  the  gills,  in  the  roof  of  tlie  mouth,  and  all  over 
the  external  portions  of  the  body.  On  sharks  we  sometimes  find 
them  four  inches  long,  an  inch  of  which  extcrnds  into  the  flesh. 
There  is  one  called  Penella,  which  is  very  long,  and  haw  u  hairy  tuft 
on  the  outer  end.  In  most  cases  this  parasite  has  attached  to  the 
external  st.  <  ies  of  barnacle,  whi<*h  itself  hn-s  small  parasites. 

Parasitic  l  rs  degenerate  an  animal,  so  that  many  of  the 

once  essential  organs  become  useless  and  are  lost.    We  see  this 
'  -^'i    'r  •  r]  in  PeneUa,  which  is  an  iilly  to  the  shrimp,  but  has 
losing  its  feet  and  other  organs,  as  to  bear  but  little 
resemblAucc  to  these  higher  crustaceans.     Degeneration  is  still 


Pio.  9.— I>ouot.t*a  {An  AsctDtAH  axxixd  to  thi 
Saxpa). 


I 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


Ijettpr  illustrated  by  certain  worm-like  animnls  which  live  in  the 
stointichs  of  sharks  aud  other  fishes.  Boiug  placed  where  fuod  id 
ground  up  fine  aud  all  ready  for  assimilation,  there  is  no  nevd  of 
a  mouth,  and  but  littlo  need  of  a  stomach,  so  both  of  thvso  orKana 
are  lost,  and  all  food  is  absorbed  into  the  system  through  the  outer 
walls  of  the  body.  Eyes  are  also  lost,  and  the  animal  becomes  a 
mere  stomach;  but,  as  for  that  matter,  most  animals  -•»'  re 

stomach,  with  a  few  necessary  organs  to  assiwt  it.    Borne  ■•» 

can  be  classed  as  parasites,  while  many  use  other  animals  as  a  meaus 
of  attachment  and  protection.  Under  the  dome  of  the  true  bell- 
shaptxi  jelly-fish,  a  species  of  fish  is  generally  found  that  is  never 
taken  under  other  conditions.  It  appears  not  to  be  affected  by  the 
stinging  cells  of  the  animal,  but  will  stay  near  the  mouth  whilo 
the  dart5  are  exerting  their  deadly  powers  upon  some  brother- 
Esh,  and  after  this  fish  is  dead  will  pick  up  enough  for  a  meal  from 
what  tbo  jelly-fish  does  not  eat.  What  benefit  this  fish  is  to  the 
jelly-fish  it  would  be  impossible  to  say,  but  in  such  cases  some 
service  is  usually  returned,  such,  for  example,  as  that  of  wanjiug 
the  friend  in  case  of  danger.  This  habit  of  commensalisin,  or 
eating  at  the  same  table,  is  seen  in  other  animals,  as  the  oyster- 
crab,  pilot-fish,  and  others.  They  seem  to  recognize  their  friends, 
aud  not  only  do  not  harm  but  even  protect  them.  Tlie  oyster* 
crab  could,  if  so  inclined,  devour  the  oyster  without  trouble,  but 
it  never  offers  to.  Under  such  conditions  certain  apparently  dead- 
ly powers  have  no  effect,  and  these  animals  may  even  be  entirely 
unharmed  by  digestive  fluids.  Fish  are  sometimes  found  iu  vory 
odd  places.  One  burrows  into  the  side  of  a  larger  fish  and  stays 
Uiere,  as  in  a  house,  cat4:!hing  what  food  pa8.s<^8  by.  Another  fast- 
ens itself  on  to  tJie  sides  of  a  fish  by  means  of  a  sucker,  and,  ai;8um* 
ing  a  similar  color  to  that  of  the  larger  one,  ifi  easily  overlooked 
by  its  enemies.  One  of  these,  the  lump-fish,  is  a  very  pr**tty  groea 
in  color.  There  are  certain  fishes  tlmt  always  stay  in  the  snrf 
near  shore,  being  able  to  remain  there  without  being  cast  ;ikK.»r*, 
and  never  seeking  quiet  water. 

Among  the  patches  of  sea-weed  which  float  in  the  Oulf  bU<«un 
there  are  numerous  small  fishes  very  prettily  colonel.  One  among 
these  has  a  curious  mode  of  defense,  and  because  uf  this  IS  Dallsd 
the  file-fish.      Normally  folded  down  upon  iXs  bac'  '  -t 

long  ppine.    Whenever  dauger  is  appreheuiled.  this  ^. 
springs  upright,  and  is  held  there  by  a  little  bono  behind 
the  base  and  undi.Tr  the  skin.    If  this  buue  is  touched  wi'* 
it  can  be  presstMl  down,  and  then  the  spine  will  fold   • 
unless  the  bi>ne  is  reraov(»d,  the  spine  will  j 

The  fish  pi^ssessea  the  pow^^^-f  --"-■■ - 

will.    We  Hometimes  see  t 

scale  along  the  surface  for  uiuuy  iet^.    Ch 


It  Daar 

J. 


'PE  IN   THE  G\ 


STREAM, 


661 


they  i!»eek  safety  in  the  air,  and,  after  darting  as  far  as  posfiible, 
will  strike  tlio  wator  a^ain  and  then  diish  off  in  anothor  direction. 
They  presont  a  very  <n\A  appearance,  skipping  out  of  the  water 
and  passing  through  the  air  by  means  of  their  wing-like  tins,  and 
then  again  disa})pearing.  While  trying  to  escape  their  finny  ene* 
mios  they  often  fly  right  into  the  claws  of  an  albatross  or  some 
other  large  sea-bird,  jumping,  so  to  s]>eak,  "  from  the  frying-pan 
into  the  fire."  A  hard  lot  is  theirs  in  this  struggle  for  existence, 
eating  smaller  animals  only  to  be  themselves  eaten.  The  panic 
whirh  a  shark  will  cause  in  a  school  of  mackerel  or  menhaden,  or 
a  dolphin  among  flying-fish,  can  hardly  be  described.  Another 
curious  fish  that  we  sometimes  meet  with  is  the  HipjHtcantpus,  or 
sea-horse.  These  little  creatures  are  most  interesting  t4)  watch  in 
an  aquarium.  They  curl  their  tails  about  any  object  which  will 
hold  tliem  in  place,  and  then  assume  an  upright  position.  With 
their  peculiarly  shaped  head  and  large,  intelligent  eyes,  an  almost 
perfect  miniature  resemblance  to  a  horse  is  plainly  seen.    There 


m.  10.— Sba-Bous  iinppoeampu*  bnvtrottrwy        Fta,  IL— Ooou  Babkxolm  on  a  Bottlb. 

It  sita  motionless,  rolling  its  prominent  eyes  backwanl  and  for- 
ward imtil  a  small  animal  comes  too  near,  when  a  sudden  dive  is 
made,  which  generally  ends  fatally  to  the  intended  prey,  and  then 
the  same  grave  indifference  is  assumed.  Altogether  it  reminds 
me  of  a  toad  watching  for  its  food* 

Floating  around  on  ail  sides  are  numerous  patches  of  gulf- 
weed  filli»d  with  life  of  all  kinds.  Here  good-sized  crabs  and 
shrimps  flee  for  refuge  from  larger  foes,  and  feed  upon  their  more 
miDUt«  brethren  also  seeking  safety  under  the  floating  wee<l. 
H' r     '''  ^  '     '     found  in  great  numlK-rs  nt.ta<'ln*<l  to 

*vt  -I  is  the  animal  which  is  such  an  enemy 

-iaiiing  from  tropical  ports.     Although  the  vessors 


h 


bottom  IB  scraped  just  before  leaving  port,  youug  gooee  banuwlisf 
attach  themselves  in  such  numbers  that,  owing  to  their  mpid 
growth,  they  seriously  retard  the  ship's  progress.  There  iji  no 
remedy  but  to  sail  on,  letting  them  grow  as  fast  an  they  wiU,  and 
removing  them  when  port  is  reached.  Norwegian  sailors  believe 
that  the  barnacle  gotjse  hatches  out  of  the  goose  baniacl©,  aod 
many  have  asserted  that  they  have  seen  the  young  just  on  tho 
point  of  Hying  out.  This  belief  probably  arises  fnjm  tbe  pocniliar 
scooping  motion  of  the  fringed  feet  of  the  barnacle  while  it  is 
obtaining  fmnh  Even  tlieu  a  good  imaginatiou  needs  some  stretch- 
ing to  be  able  to  see  a  resemblance  to  a  young  bird.  When  a 
barnacle  is  young,  it  is  free-swimming,  and  resembles  a  shrimp; 
but,  as  it  grows  older,  it  attaches  itself  to  some  object  by  a  sort 
of  cement,  and  becomes  so  changed  that,  unless  its  anatomy  is 
carefully  studied,  no  aSinities  to  a  shrimp  would  be  imagined. 
Indeed,  enrly  natui-alists  considered  it  to  be  a  shell-fish  or  luol- 
lusk.  Odd  as  it  may  seem,  many  kinds  of  animals,  at  first  |>o»* 
Bussed  of  free  motion,  volunt-arily  attach  themselves  to  some  object, 
and  ai-e  from  that  moment  imprisoned,  having  no  ix)wer  of  mov- 
ing from  place  to  place. 

Ins(H:ts  are  seldom  seen  in  a  natural  state  far  from  land,  but 
we  find  a  few  young  forms  a  little  nearer  shore,  and  one  of  these, 
a  fly  larva  (Chironoinus),  is  more  interesting  than  the  others  on 
account  of  its  remarkable  powers  of  endurance.    Ex'  tg 

were  tried,  and  we  found  that  it  would  live  after  being  '  ut 
of  a  vial  of  alcohol  in  which  it  had  been  kept  several  houn. 
Most  auimals,  under  similar  conditions,  will  die  in  five  minutee^ 
and  the  most  hardy  in  twenty.  Different  poisons  were  tried,  and 
none  were  effective.  Even  caustic  potash  w^as  resisted  for  nearly 
an  hour.  In  tho  moan  time  the  creature  would  swim  around 
lively.  Such  hardiness  is  probably  found  in  no  other  animal.  In 
addition  to  these  more  interesting  forms,  there  are  hundre^ls  of 
species  each  presenting  some  especial  peculiarity  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  the  rest,  and  all  have  interesting  habits  and  fioinU 
of  structure.  The  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  graflually  mergo 
into  those  of  the  ocean  on  either  side,  and,  while  there  an»  some 
peculiarly  tropical  forms  which  never  go  outside  of  tho  warm 
water,  most  are  likely  to  be  taken  on  either  side  in  t"  "  r 

Waters,  and  there  are  many  which  are  found  both  near  1 

in  the  Gulf  Stream,    After  long-continued  southerly  wi  i 
cal  fonns  are  at  11  !    .,,.;  and  \-       '  '  a 

the  Gulf  Stream   *      _  .  -:  iuto  | 

bottoms,  crabs  luid  shrimps  which  normally  do  i. 

region.    The  warm  waters  of  th-    '*  -^ 

abl6  to  rapid  growth,  and  tlic 

ing  the  shoruH  of  Florida,  thu  Gulf  Sstreom  Ber'> 


4 


OP  HYDROPl 


66} 


animals  to  Europe,  and  the  many  kinds  which  we  have  been 
consideriug  are  thus  carried  from  place  to  place  without  their 
own  guidimcy.    Thus  it  is  that  the  tropical  fauuu?  of  t!io  two  sides 

Pof  the  Atlantic  so  closely  resemble  each  other.    The  Gulf  Stream, 
then,  serves  not  only  to  modify  the  climate  of  naturally  cold 
,,      regions,  but  also  to  distribute  life  equally  on  two  different  shores, 
which,  without  some  such  commxinication,  would  have  animals  as 
tidedly  different  as  are  those  of  Asia  from  American  east  coast 
iies. 


HUXLEY  AND  PASTEUR  ON  THE  PREVENTION  OP 

HYDROPHOBIA. 

AT  the  call  of  the  Lord  Mayor,  a  meeting  was  held  at  the 
Mansion  House,  in  London,  on  the  1st  of  July,  to  hear  state- 
ments from  men  of  science  with  regard  to  the  recent  increase 
of  rabies  in  England  and  the  efficacy  of  the  treatment  discov- 
ered by  M.  Pasteur  for  the  prevention  of  hydropliobia,  Amonj 
several  letters  that  were  read,  the  following,  one  from  Prof.  Hux< 
ley  and  the  other  from  M.  Pasteur  Limself,  are  of  especial  interest : 

"MoNTt  GiimusOf  SwrrzcRLASD,  June  tS,  JS89. 

"Mv  Lord  Mayor:  I  greatly  re>^ret  my  inability  to  be  pres- 
ent at  the  meeting  which  is  to  be  held  under  your  lordship's  au- 
spices in  reference  to  M,  Pasteur  and  his  institute.  The  unremit- 
ting labors  of  that  eminimt  Frenchman  during  the  last  half- 
century  have  yielded  rich  harvests  of  new  truths,  and  are  moiiels 
of  exact  and  refined  research.  As  such  they  deserve  and  liave 
received  all  the  honors  which  those  who  are  the  best  judges  of 
their  purely  scientific  merits  are  able  to  bestow.  But  it  so  hap- 
X>ens  that  these  subtle  and  patient  searchings  out  of  tlio  ways  of 
the  infinitely  little — of  that  swarming  life  where  the  creature  that 
measures  one  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  is  a  giant — have  also 
yielded  results  of  supreme  practical  im]M>rtuuce.  The  path  of  M. 
Pasteur's  investigations  is  strewed  with  gifts  of  vast  monetary 
value  to  the  silk-trader,  the  brewer,  and  the  wine  merchant.  And, 
thi-  it  Well  be  a  proper  and  a  graceful  act  (in  the  i>art 

of  1 1        ,  i.'s  of  trade  and  eommerct'  in  its  greatest  cen- 

ter to  make  some  public  recognition  of  M.  Pasteur's  services  even 
1'^  furtbnr  to  lie  naid  about  tliem.     But  there  is 
':'].     M.  Pa^iteur's  direct  and  indirect  contribu- 
10  causes  of  diseased  states,  and  of  the 
nee,  are   not  measurable  by 
hy  life  and  diniinisluxl  suffer- 
Jiud  hygiene  have  all  been  pow- 


ifii 

rail' 

■lions  to  oar  ku* 

mvn         '   


erfuUy  aflPected  by  M.  Pasteur's  work,  which  has  calininated  in 

hifl  methcMl  of  treating  hydrophobiji.  I  can  tiot  concoiv.  ''  '  my 
coinpehtntly  instrunt€H_l  person  cau  consider  M.  Paatour  in 

tbie  direction  without  arriving  at  the  conclusion  that,  if  any  man 
has  earned  the  praise  and  honor  of  his  fellows,  he  has.  I  find  it 
no  k*ss  diflioult  to  imagine  that  our  wealthy  country  should  be 
othor  than  ashamed  to  continue  t/>  allow  it^  citizens  t<i  prtjflt  by 
the  treatment  freely  given  at  the  institute  without  contributing 
to  its  Bnpport.  Opposition  to  the  projx^sals  which  your  lordntbip 
sanctions  would  be  equally  inconceivable  if  it  arose  out  of  noth- 
ing but  the  facts  of  tlie  case  tims  presented.  But  the  oi>pi>siti<>n 
which,  as  I  see  from  the  English  papers^  is  threatened,  has  really 
for  the  most  part  nothing  on  earth  to  do  either  with  M.  P«st<^nr'8 
merits  or  with  the  efficacy  of  his  method  of  treating  hydrophobia. 
It  proceeds  partly  from  the  fanatics  of  laxssez  fatre,  who  think  it 
better  to  rot  and  die  than  to  be  kept  whole  and  lively  by  state 
iutcrforenee,  partly  from  the  blind  opponents  of  properly  con- 
duct^^  physiological  experi mentation,  wJio  prefer  that  men  should 
suffer  rather  than  rabbits  or  (higs,  and  partly  from  those  who  for 
other  but  not  less  powerful  motives  hate  everything  which  con- 
tributes to  prove  the  value  of  strictly  scientific  methtxisi  uf  in- 
quiry in  all  those  questions  which  affL*ct  the  welfare  of  society. 
1  sincerely  trust  that  the  good  sense  of  the  meeting  over  which 
your  lordship  will  preside  will  preserve  it  from  being       '  hI 

by  these  unworthy  antagonisms,  and  that  the  just  and  f  ■   :  at 

enterprise  you  have  undertaken  may  have  a  happy  issue. 
"I  am,  my  Lord  Mayor,  your  obedi^^iit  stTvatd., 

"Thomas  H.  Huxley. 

**The  Right  Hoo.  the  Lord  Mayor,  Hansloa  Ilouse,  E.  C." 


The  following  letter  from  M,  Pasteur,  dated  Paris,  the  27ih 
ult,  was  read  by  Sir  H.  Roscoe : 

"Dkak  Colleague  and  Fkiend:  I  am  obliged  by  your  send* 
ing  me  a  copy  of  the  letter  of  invitation  i^sm**!  by  thi*  Ltird  Mayor 
for  the  meeting  on  July  Ist.  Its  perusal  has  givm  me  great 
pleasure.  The  questions  relating  to  the  propliyhictic  treatmttnt 
for  hydrophobia  in  persons  who  have  been  bitten  luid  the  st«p« 
which  ought  to  be  taken  to  stamp  out  the  .'  "       -sod  lu 

a  nmnni*r  both  exact  and  judicious.     St*eiii^;  _         i       "lahiks 

existed  in  England  for  a  long  time,  And  that  mpdiral  scionc©  ham 
failed  U*  ward  i»ff  the  ifCcurrtMi  "  '"  p- 

toms,  it  is  clear  that  tho  pnn  iis 

malady  which  I  have  discoveretl  ought  to  be  a<iopUtd  iu  the  caiN? 

of  every  pt^rson  bitten  by  a  rabid  animal.    The " -f^ 

by  this  metliod  ie  painless  during  lli*"  whole  of  "t 

disagrocabluc    In  the  early  days  of  the  appIicatiuD  u/  tbiv  iii 


TH£  PRE  VI 


^ 


contradictions  such  as  invariably  take  placo  with  every  now  dis- 
covery wero  found  to  occur,  and  ©specially  for  the  reason  that  it 
is  not  every  bite  by  a  rabid  animal  which  gives  rise  to  a  fatal  out- 
burst of  hydrophobia.     Hence  prejudiced  people  may  pretend  that 
all  the  successful  cases  of  treatment  were  cases  in  which  the  nat- 
ural contagion  of  the  disease  had  not  taken  effect.    This  specious 
reasoning  has  gr:ulually  lost  its  force  with  the  continually  increa^ 
ing  number  of  persons  treated.    To-day,  and  speaking  solely  fori 
the  one  anti*rabic  laboratory  of  Paris,  this  total  number  excoed^ 
7,000,  or  exactly,  up  to  the  3Ist  of  May,  1880,  6,950.    Of  these  the 
total  number  of  deaths  wjis  only  seventy  one.    It  is  only  by  pal- 
pable and  willful  misrepresentation  that  a  number  differing  from 
the  above,  and  differing  by  more  than  double,  has  been  published 
by  those  who  are  systematic  enemies  of  the  method.    In  short,  the 
general  mortality  applicable  to  the  whole  of  the  operations  is  one 
per  cent,  and  if  we  subtract  from  the  total  number  of  deaths  those 
of  persons  in  whom  the  symptoms  of  hydrophobia  appeared  a  i&m 
days  after  the  treatment— that  is  to  say,  oases  in  which  hydropho- 
bia had  burst  out  (often  owing  to  delay  in  arrival)  befoi'o  tha 
curative  process  was  completed — the  general  mortality  is  reduced 
to  0"68  per  cent.    But  let  us  for  the  present  only  consider  the 
facts  relating  to  the  English  subjects  whom  we  have  treated  in 
Paris.    Up  to  May  31, 1889,  their  total  number  was  two  hundredj 
and  fourteen.    Of  these  there  have  been  five  uusuccessful  cased 
after  completion  of  the  treatment  and  two  more  during  treatment/ 
or  a  total  mortality  of  Z"Z  per  cent,  or  more  properly  2*3  per  cent. 
But  the  method  of  treatment  has  been  continually  undergoing 
improvement,  so  that  in  1888  and  1889,  on  a  total  of  sixty-four 
English  persons  bitten  by  mad  dogs  and  treated  in  Paris,  not  a 
single  case  has  succumbed,  although  among  these  sixty-four  there 
were  ten  individuals  bitten  on  the  head  and  fifty-four  bitten  on 
the  limbs,  often  to  a  very  serious  extent.     I  have  already  saidi 
that  the  Lord  Mayor  in  his  invitation  has  treated  the  subject  in  a 
judicious  manner,  from  the  double  point  of  \\ew  of  prophylaxis 
after  the  bite  and  of  the  extinction  of  the  disease  by  administra- 
tive measures.     It  is  also  my  own  profound  conviction  that  a  rig- 
orous observance  of  simple  police  regulations  would  altogether 
stamp  out  hydrophobia  in  a  country  like  the  British  Isles,    Why 
am  I  so  confident  of  this  ?    Betrnuse,  in  spite  of  an  old-fashione<i 
and  wide-spread  prejudice,  to  which  even  science  has  sometimes 
given  a  mistaken  countenance,  rabies  is  never  spontaneous.    It  is 
caused,  without  a  single  exception,  by  the  bite  of  an  animal 
affected  with  the  malady.    It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  the  begin- 
ning there  must  have  been  a  fir«*  mun  of  livrlrnt^Vi.iTna.     This  i^ 
certain ;  but  to  try  to  solve  thi^  ^ly  th*? 

question  of  tho  origin  of  Hfo  iX»*  .<  here,  in 

roL.  ixzT. — it 


€66 


TEE  POPULAn  3VIENVS  MONTI 


order  to  prove  tlie  truth  of  my  assertion,  to  remind  yoa  tlini 
neither  in  Norway,  nor  in  Sweden,  nor  in  Austm'  ^ 
exist ;  and  yet  notliing  would  l>e  easier  than  to  int ; 
rible  disease  into  those  countries  by  importing  a  few  mod  dogcL 
Let  Elngland,  which  has  exterminated  it-s  wolves,  make  a  vigorous 
effort  and  it  will  easily  succeed  in  oxtiryjating  rabiea.  If  firmly 
resolve^:!  to  do  so,  your  coxintry  may  secure  this  great  benefit  in  a 
few  years;  but,  until  that  has  been  accomplished,  and  in  the  pres- 
ent state  of  science,  it  ia  absolutely  necessary  that  all  persona  \nU 
ten  by  mad  dogs  should  be  compelled  to  undergo  the  anti-rahic 
treatment.  Such,  it  seems,  is  a  summary  of  the  statement  of  the 
^case  by  the  Lord  Mayor,  The  Pasteur  Institute  is  profonadly 
touched  by  the  movement  in  support  of  the  meeting.  The  inter- 
est which  his  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  of  Wales  ha*  evinced  in 
the  propose<l  manifestation  is  of  itself  enougli  to  secure  its  suc- 
cess. Allow  me,  my  dear  colleague,  to  express  my  feelings  of 
affectionate  devotion," — Nature, 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  RIGHTS  OF  PROPERTY. 

Bt  henry  J.  PEILPOTT. 

IN  the  joint  enterprise  of  making  a  living,  human  beings  w 
only  potentiate  but  they  also  stimulate  one  another.  The 
power  and  the  stimulus  are  often  combined,  jnst  as  some  foodft 
furnish  at  the  same  time  nutrition  and  stimulation  to  the  hunuui 
body.  Sometimes  we  may  distinguish  between,  the  two  elemental 
It  is  so  in  the  case  of  property.  Wealth  is  power.  Property  Istk 
stimulant.  In  order  to  make  this  distinction  clr^r,  w©  draw  an- 
other. We  must  explain  the  difference  in  meaning  betWMD 
fVealth  and  property.  This  will  not  be  a  hard  ta^k.  ProfK-rty  is 
ownership,  and  weiJth  is  the  thing  owned.  Wealth  is  a  Ihinp, 
property  a  right  to  it  Wealth  is  mine  and  tliiue,  pro]>erty  mlne- 
m^*8  and  thineness.  True,  we  often  confuse  the  tenn.s  and  epotkk 
of  the  thing  itself  as  property ;  especially  do  wo  s{>eak  of  a  body 
of  real  estate  as  a  piece  of  property.  This  is  jutftified  by  umkv 
and  by  the  dictionaries.    For  tin-  '  " 

to  cofifuie  the  term  to  its  original 
MacletHl,  who  says: 

"  A\nien  wo  understand  the  true  m* 
it  will  throw  a  blazt*  of  light  over  tii 

ics»  and  cliMir  up  diJ!ioulties  to  which  the  word  wwiJlh  lia&gii 
ri-^f.  in  f/K't,  the  meaning  of  the  word  property  is  ihc  *'  "  *"»' 
•      nondcs. 

Most  persouB,  wbea  th^y  hear  the  word  pre 


667 


I 
I 

I 


some  material  things,  such  as  lands,  bouses,  money,  corn,  cattle, 
etc.  But  that  is  not  the  true  and  original  meaning  of  the  word 
|»roperty. 

"  Property,  in  its  true  and  original  meaning,  is  not  any  mate- 
rial substance,  but  the  absolute  right  to  something." 

It  is  in  the  same  sense  that  the  socialists  use  the  word*  When 
they  demand  the  abolition  of  property  they  do  not  mean  the  abo- 
lition of  lands,  houses,  etc.  They  are  as  anxious  as  anybody  that 
wealth  shall  bo  increased.  But  they  want  it  to  be  ours,  not  mine 
or  thine.  Wealth  which  belongs  to  the  whole  people  is  not  prop- 
erty in  the  economic  sense  of  the  term.  It  is  conceivable,  though 
not  ])ractically  ascertainable,  that  property  might  be  totally  abol- 
ished without  any  diminution  of  wealth.  So  property  may  be  in- 
creased without  any  increase  of  wealth.  There  would  be  just  as 
much  land-surface  on  the  earth  if  nobody  owned  a  rood  of  it. 
There  were  as  many  negroes  after  as  before  the  abolition  of  prop* 
erty  in  man.  The  abolition  proclamation  did  not  obliterate  a 
single  acre  of  land,  a  house,  a  shred  of  clothing,  or  a  mouthful  of 
food.  But  it  did  obliterate  avast  amount  of  property;  so  does 
B  commercial  panic.  "  And  yet,"  says  Prof.  Newcomb,  using  the 
panic  of  1837  as  an  illustration, "  if  we  l(K>k  at  the  case  from  a 
common-sense  point  of  view,  we  shall  see  that  no  wealth  was  de- 
Btroyed.  There  wore  just  as  many  suits  of  clothes  in  the  country 
the  day  after  the  crisis  as  there  were  before,  and  they  were  just 

well  fittetl  for  wearing.  The  mills  and  factories  were  all  in  as 
order,  the  farms  as  fertile,  and  the  crops  as  large  after  the 
ipposed  hurricane  as  before.  Tlio  houses  remained  standing, 
the  wood  was  in  the  wood-ahods  rea4ly  for  burning,  and  the  food  in 
the  larder  ready  for  cooking,  just  as  it  had  been  left.  In  a  W(»nl, 
©very  appliance  for  the  continued  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of  labor 
remained  as  perfect  as  it  ever  was," 

Prof.  F.  A.  Walker,  in  calling  attention  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween wealth  and  property,  says  that  "  the  neglect  of  this  dis- 
tinction has  caused  great  confusion."  But  he  8o<jn  dismisses  the 
subject  with  the  remark  that  "we  might  say  that  'property 'is 
not  a  word  with  which  the  political  economist  has  anything  to  do. 
t  is  legal,  not  economical,  in  its  significance."  I  can  not  concur  in 
that  opinion.  I  think  the  socialistic  theory,  which  relates  prima- 
rily to  the  institution  of  property,  is  an  economic  theory,  as  truly 
as  monometalism,  or  free  trade,  or  Malthusianism.  The  whole 
Bubject  of  distribution,  to  which  Prof.  Walker  devotes  a  hundred 
pages,  and  which  is  certiiinly  one  of  the  most  important  in  this  or 
fknj  other  science,  Is  a  question  of  whose  shall  be  the  wealth  pro- 
c^  :  ^  *^  *  is.  it  is  a  question  of  the  distribution  of  property  in 
I  i  Either  than  of  the  wealth  itself.    Whether  two  fisher- 

Inea  joiatiy  carve  out  a  iiartnership  bottt,  or  whether  one  fximishes 


THE  POPULAR 


the  capital  and  the  other  the  labor,  the  boat  is  not  "di«tribnted^ 

but  the  ownership  of  it  is,  and  presumably  according  t*^  mic 

principles.    So  there  may  often  be  distribution  of  prot  ifu 

or  less  than  commensurate  with  the  distribution  of  wealth  ;  and  it 
is  the  distribution  of  property  which,  in  fact,  most  concerns  tlia 
economist. 

A  great  de^l  has  been  written  about  this  subject  of  private 
property.  The  world  is  tilling  with  |>eople,  and  it  is  filling  with 
good  things  which  these  people  like  and  wantv  Shall  tho  people 
as  a  body  own  the  goods  in  a  lump,  or  shall  the  >  '  ifi  and 

enjoyment  of  the  goods  be  divided  among  the  hu  ings  in 

proportion  to  the  ability  of  each  to  get  hold  of  them  by  hard 
work,  or  skillful  work,  or  monopoly,  or  trickery,  or  any  gcxfd  or 
bad  superiority  which  helps  to  constitute  him  one  of  the  '*  fittest" 
and  most  likely  to  survive  in  such  a  contest  ?  Shall  even  the 
planet  itself,  crowding  with  the  less  fit,  be  parceled  out  among 
these  good  and  bad  "  titteet "  ?  Can  there  be  a  more  momentoxu 
question  than  this  ?  Can  there  be  one  which  more  deeply  con- 
cerns the  economist  as  such  ?  On  the  very  day  on  which  I  write, 
four  men  are  to  hang  for  committing  murder  in  answer  to  thie 
question.  The  mere  presence  in  the  community  of  a  considemblo 
and  clamorous  element  which  denies  the  right  of  property  hna  ita 
grave  economic  effects,  and  hence  is  a  matter  of  great  moment  to 
the  economist.  Hanging  four  men,  or  a  hundred  men,  will  not 
silence  that  element. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  only  aspect  of  the  question  that  con* 
cems  us,  though  most  writ^^rs  seem  to  have  thought  so.  The 
orthodox  have  been  content  to  prove,  or  pt-rhnps  on\\  assort,  thai 
the  right  of  property  is  the  greatest  of  all  the  stimuli  to  labor 
and  frugality,  just  as  Proudhon,  on  the  other  hand,  was  content 
to  show  that  property  is  robbery.  If  any  distinction  hwi  been 
made  as  to  the  comparatii'o  validity  of  titles  to  diffen^r  -  ,)f 

property,  it  has  usually  been  thought  sufBcient  to  d. ■^.,.^.»fclh 
between  owning  the  earth  and  owning  its  products.  But  it  is  not 
so  simple  a  matter  as  this.  Our  great  danger  is  not  the  theo* 
retical  denial  of  the  right  of  property  in  generuL  Wo  are  daily 
called  upon  to  defend  it  against  attack  in  detaiL  Baatiat  saw  this 
half  a  century  ago,  when  he  was  in  the  thick  of  the  hottest  battle 
that  has  ever  raged  about  the  citadel  of  propt^rty.  And  now  that 
the  contest  has  broken  out  in  that  quarter  again,  and  under  the 

inspiration  of  being  interrupter!  in  the  ir '  '  '      '  -'       q. 

tence  by  a  bulletin  announcing  that  tht  U 

have  just  been  hanged,  it  would  be  easy  to  write  n  us 

following  text,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  eighth  cii-^-v-  * 
"  Harmonies  of  Economics  " : 

"  A  mere  theoretical  war  Against  property  is  by  no  meone  tiio 


ORiam  OF  TBS  mGffTS   OF  PROPERTY. 


669 


most  virulent  or  the  most  dangerous.    Since  the  beginning  of  the 
world  there  haa  existed  a  practical  conspiracy  against  it  which  is 
not  likely  soon  to  cease.    War,  slavery,  imposture,  oppressive  im- 
posts, monopolies,  privileges,  commercial  frauds,  colonies,  right  to 
emplo3rment,  right  to  credit,  right  to  assistance,  right  to  instruc- 
tion, progressive  taxation  imposed  in  direct  or  inverse  proportion 
to  our  power  of  bearing  it,  are  so  many  battering-rams  directed 
against  the  tottering  edifice;  and  if  the  truth  must  come  out, 
would  you  tell  me  whether  there  are  many  men  in  France,  even 
Bamong  those  who  think  themselves  conservative,  who  do  not,  in 
Hone  form  or  another,  lend  a  hand  to  this  work  of  destruction  ?  " 
H       In  America,  at  the  present  time,  this  interminable  war  on  the 
Vinstinct  and  institution  of  private  property  has  taken  on  all  these 
"  forms,  and  many  more,  which  will  be  treated  of  in  their  proper 
plaoes.    The  four  anarchists,  who  are  at  this  moment  hanging  by 

■their  necks,  were  in  the  van  of  the  procession.  When  we  care- 
fully study  the  relation  of  all  these  doctrines  to  the  antiquated 
notion  of  a  sacred  and  absolute  right  of  private  property,  those 

■  who  openly  deny  the  right  of  property  in  land,  as  being  itself  a 
denial  of  property  in  the  products  of  labor,  are  seen  to  be  far 
toward  the  rear.  To  that  study  let  us  now  devote  our  attention  ; 
and,  in  order  that  it  may  be  a  scientific  and  not  a  partisan  study, 
we  must  not  let  private  ownership  be  to  us  for  the  nonce  either  a 
fetich  or  a  bugbear.  We  must  analyze  it  dispassionately,  as  if  it 
concerned  us  only  as  a  matter  of  curiosity,  though,  in  fact,  our 
analysis  will  show  that  it  is  in  all  respects  our  chief  concern, 
.nd  we  must  not  neglect  to  note  the  economic  consequences  of  its 
^"being  to  us  and  to  our  fellow-beings  a  fetich  on  the  one  hand,  or 
on  the  other  a  bugbear. 

What  is  property  ?  We  have  said  it  is  not  wealth  ;  but  that  is 
not  saying  what  it  is.  We  have  said  it  is  ownership,  but  a  syno- 
nym is  not  a  definition.  What  constitutes  ownership  ?  What  is 
the  exact  meaning  of  the  wonls  mine  and  ihine,  in  the  sense  of 
ownership  ?  There  is  none.  Few  words  are  more  indefinite  in 
their  meaning.  There  are  degrees  of  mineness  and  thineness. 
These  apply  respectively  to  different  communities  at  different 
periods  of  their  history,  and  to  different  subjects  of  property  at 
the  same  period  and  in  the  same  community.  Thus  there  have 
been  times  and  places  in  which  the  phrase  "  my  wife  "  expressed 
a  property  relation.  The  phrase  is  still  everywhere  used,  but  not 
in  the  same  sense  of  property.  And  yet  it  seems  that  among  us  a 
man  has  property  in  his  wife's  affections,  for  he  has  an  action  for 
damages  against  the  man  who  "alienates"  them.  Yesterday  I 
received  a  copy  of  an  interesting  paper,  read  before  the  American 
Water- Works  Association,  under  the  title  "  Is  Water  Property  ?" 
[This  question  uf  what  is  and  what  is  not  ownership  or  property 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


is  one  with  which  the  courts  of  ChristoiuloTii  »n^  eng^guti  \u  fttr 
interminable  wrestle.  Their  anxiety  shows  that  they  re>capti  the 
gettlemeut  of  that  question  in  any  particular  case  x\»  a  grcAt  point 
gaint^:!  one  way  or  the  other. 

I  have  said  that  property  is  a  right  to  something.  It  is  rather, 
as  Macleod  says, "  an  aggregate  or  handle  of  rights.*'  Thia  ag- 
gregate is  not  the  same  for  all  classes  of  property.  T'  '  ;i  order 
to  define  property  we  must  classify  it.    Before  attL-ii,  his,  lot 

us  inquire  how  it  comes  about  that  there  is  such  an  institntian 
existing  among  men.  We  can  all  feel,  if  we  can  not  formulate,  a 
definition  which  will  suflSce  for  this  purpose.  I  do  not  exactly 
know  the  limits  of  my  property-rights,  nor  which  of  the  righU 
that  I  have  to-day  n»ay  be  taken  away  from  me  to-morrow,  but  I 
am  severely  conscious  of  the  fact  that  I  am  chiefly  occupied  in  a 
struggle  to  make  that  mine  to-morrow  which  is  nt^t  mine  to-4iay, 
and  I  want  to  know  how  I  came  to  be  engaged  in  this  struggle; 
how  the  universe  happens  to  be  divided  into  the  mine  and  the 
not-mine ;  and  by  what  warrant  the  one  is  transmuted  into  the 
other  ? 

I  know  of  but  one  economist  who  introduces  the  science  of  pc^ 
litical  economy  by  founding  it  upon  the  right  of  property.  The 
late  Prof.  J.  M.  Sturtovant  begins  his  text-book  of  "  Economics  ** 
in  this  wise : 

"  The  science  we  are  about  to  expound  is  the  logical  develop- 
ment and  application  to  a  special  group  of  phenomeaa,  of  a  ttinglo 
law  of  nature,  as  truly  as  physical  astronomy  is  the  logical  devel- 
opment and  application  to  the  phenomena  of  the  solar  system,  of 
the  law  of  gravitation-  The  law  of  nature  to  which  we  refer  may 
bo  thus  enunciated : 

"  Every  man  oivns  himself,  and  qM  which  h(  produi*rs  b«/  ih^ 
voLuniary  exertion  of  his  oum  powers, 

"Every  science  must  assume  something.    Uurs  nn  no 

that  the  idea  of  ownership  is  perfectly  clear  and  int-  to 

every  one.  It  is  a  simple  intuition,  which  originates  in  the  apon- 
taneous  action  of  every  human  mind,  and  is  therefore  i'  ^  '*~  ^lo. 
It  ranks  in  this  respect  with  the  idea  of  personality  of  i  li- 

gation and  of  causation.^ 

This  statement  of  the  case  must  be  rejected.  Property  may  be 
universal  among  human  beings,  though  this  is  extroraely  doubt- 
ful.   But  cortainly  the  idea  is  not  clear  and  intell'  ry 

one.    It  would  be  nearer  the  truth  to  say  that  it  i ,. ; .  ,  .^ar 

to  any  one.  Even  the  notion  that  every  man  owns  himself  in  ncit 
"    "  l     A  great  many  human  being? 

t'  millions  more  by  their  kings,    Ti  ^  .^ 

of  Europe  do  not  own  themselves.  TLey  are  owmsd  by  tho  ^MH 
And  this  ownership  by  tho  stato,  by  a  king>  Ivy  m  sUveLoldeCvv 


I 


ORTGiy  OF  THE  RIGHTS   OF  PROPERTY. 


671 


considered  perfectly  normal  in  the  communities  where  it  pre- 
vaiLs.  I  have  heard  it  preached  from  a  Northern  pulpit  that  denial 
to  the  Southern  black  of  the  right  of  property  in  himself  was  a 
divine  institution.  The  assertion  of  that  right,  and  of  the  idea 
which  Prof.  Sturtevant  calls  a  "  simple  intuition,  originating  in 
the  spontaneous  action  of  every  human  mind,"  drove  many  of  the 
stronger  abolitionists  into  open  rejection  of  the  sacred  writings  of 
Christianity,  which  nowhere  fumishe<i  them  a  text  for  their  side 
of  the  argument.  The  poorest  slave  may  own  something,  but  ho 
does  not  own  himself. 

Neither  does  every  man,  in  any  community,  own  all  the  prod- 
ucts of  his  voluntary  efforts.  Wage-workers  never  do.  They  are 
increasing  in  proportionate  numbers.  Hence  the  second  part  of 
the  assumed  law  of  nature  ou  which  it  is  proposed  to  rest  the 
whole  science  of  political  economy  is  less  and  less  true  every  year, 
and  the  whole  present  progress  of  civilization  is  away  from  it. 
The  belief  that  it  ought  to  be  true  is  the  foundation  of  the  creed 
of  those  anarchists  who  have  just  been  hanged,  and  of  those  who 
mourn  them.  "  Labor  produces  all  the  wealth,  and  labor  ought  to 
own  it,'*  is  their  familiar  ciy.  Since  few  things  are  producwi  by 
the  efforts  of  single-handed  men ;  since,  as  I  have  shown  in  the 
second  paper  of  this  series,  nearly  all  production  is  by  combina- 
tion— ownership  of  product  by  producers,  if  it  is  to  be  universal 
and  complete,  must  also  he  in  combination,  or,  as  we  say,  in  com- 
mon. This  is  the  straight  read  to  communism,  and  the  first  guide- 
board  on  the  way  is  this  doctrine  that  property  in  anything 
springs  certainly  and  exclusively  from  effort  expended  in  its  pro- 
duction. Yet  it  is  a  doctrine  which  has  often  been  laid  down 
by  the  most  conservative  economists  and  philosophers.  Locke 
stated  it  two  hundred  years  ago  in  these  terms:  "Whatsoever, 
then,  he  removes  out  of  the  state  that  Nature  hath  provided,  and 
left  it  in,  be  hath  mixed  his  labor  with  it,  and  joined  to  it  some- 
thing that  is  his  own,  and  thereby  makes  it  his  property."  McCul- 
loch  says,*  "  All  have  been  impressed  with  the  reasonableness  of 
the  maxim  which  teaches  that  the  produce  of  a  man's  labor  and 
the  work  of  his  hands  are  exclusively  his  own." 

So  Laveleye  f  says  that  "  property  in  all  the  fruits  of  his  work 

lust  be  guaranteed  to  the  worker."    Bonamy  Price  t  is  equally 

emphatic  :  "  I  made  it  and  it  is  mine,  is  a  sentiment  which  asserts 

property  in  every  human  soul."    Imagine  the  navvies  who  build 

railroad  saying  this!    And  Herbert  Spencer"  even  informs  us 

;liat,*^  from  the  beginning,  things  identified  aa  products  of  a  man's 

•  **  Principle*  of  Political  Economy,"  chap,  ii,  lectioB  I. 
f  *'  Elemeote  of  Political  Economy,"  chap.  Ui,  aecUon  9. 
J  "Prtcticftl  Political  Economy,"  chap.  n. 

•  **  Priuciplw  of  Sociology,*'  ecction  641. 


TBE  POPULAR  SCIBNCB  MONTSL 


S- 

A 

10  1 


own  labor  are  recognizod  as  his."    On  the  island  where  Mr  9 
cer  lives,  we  might  say  that  almost  from  the  beginning  the  p 
uct,  and  part  of  the  time  both  producer  and  product,  have  I 
recognized  as  belonging  to  the  lord  of  the  manor.    At  present  th 
bulk  of  the  products  belong  to  the  lords  of  the  factories — tl 
"captains  of  industry" — and  nobody  but  the  Bocialist  fails 
recognize  both  the  fact  and  its  propriety. 

So  in  the  first  chapter  of  Dr.  Chapin's  recast  of  Way  land  *i 
''Political  Economy  "  we  find  it  stated*  as  the  third  of  th<s  fonda- 
mental  principles  of  the  scieuce,  that  "the  exertion  of  lalwr  estab- 
lishes a  right  of  property  in  the  fruits  of  labor,  and  the  idea  nf 
exclusive  possession  is  a  necessary  consequence."  And  Mark  Ho 
kins,  in  his  "  Law  of  Love  "  (chapter  iii),  says  that  **  with  no  rigL 
to  the  product  of  his  labor,  no  man  would  make  a  tool  or  a  gar- 
ment,  or  build  a  shelter,  or  raise  a  crop.  There  could  be  no  indos- 
try  and  no  progress." 

Now  wo  must  accept  or  reject  the  theory  supported  by  thi 
formidable  and  indefinitely  extensible  array  of  authority,  becAOse 
it  does  or  does  not  conform  to  the  facts ;  not  because  it  le&da  to 
the  conclusion  that  property  ought  to  keep  even  pace  with  pn>- 
duction  in  its  development  toward  communism ;  not  because 
justifies  some  in  opposing  property  in  land  on  the  ground  t 
land  is  not  a  product  of  labor ;  not  because  it  leads  Prof,  Pe 
and  his  school  into  confusion  in  their  effort  to  prove  that  pr  ■*  r— - 
in  land  is  right  because  the  value  of  land  i^  the  produn 
labor  of  its  owner.    If  production  confers  on  the  produc^jr  thfl 
divine  or  otherwise  particularly  sacred  right  of  property  in  the 
product,  I  propose  to  accept  the  truth  as  soon  as  convinced  of  it, 
whatever  agreeable  or  disagreeable  conclusions  it  mB\  .1 

do  not  know  that  there  is  any  absolute  and  infallibk-    -      ...a  of 
truth  or  reality.    Perhaps  "  persistence  in  consciousness  "  may 
one.    But,  at  any  rate,  I  have  lived  long  enough  to  know  that 
*'  agreoablenesa  "  is  not." 

The  fact  known  to  everybody  is  that  the  vast  army  of  tboce 
who  work  for  wages  or  salaries  do  not  acquire  the  slightest  pro- 
prietary interest  in  the  particular  things  with  which  they  **  m" 
their  labor."    Neither  do  the  transportation  companies  nor  the 
draymen  of  the  streets.    It  may  be  said,  in  defense  of  the  th 
that  their  interest  is  bought  off  in  advance,  or  that,  having 
their  labor,  it  is  no  longer  theirs,  but  does,  in  fact,  belong  to 
owner  of  the  product. 

But  this  is  not  the  statement  of  the  economists  and  phflcHO- 
phers  we  have  quoted,  and  would  slur  over  the  laws  by  which  lb» 
rate  of  pay  for  salaried  services  is  governed.    It  is  much  leas  con- ji 
fusing  and  more  rational  to  look  at  the  matter  as  the  ^reAi  iiia^| 
jority  of  people  look  at  it— as  all  look  at  it,  ia  fact,  until  they  ar«^ 


lAt~ 


oRTom  OF  THE  rtghts  of  propkrtt. 


673 


influenced  by  the  labor  agitators,  who  base  their  arguments  on 

•the  unguarded  utterances  of  the  great  thinkers  quoted  above. 
It  18  all  as  plain  ;is  day.     What  the  wage--worker  acquires  by 
his  work  is  not  a  proprietary  interest  in  the  thing  he  has  worked 

Ion,  but  a  right  of  action  against  the  person  who  employed  liim  to 
work  on  it.  It  is  not  ^jus  in  re,  but  a  jus  in  persnnavi.  It  is  a 
claim  against  his  cniployen  It  is  not  a  claim  for  any  particular 
chattel  or  product,  but  for  legal-tender  money  of  a  certain  total 
amount.  This  amount  is  determined,  not,  or  at  any  rate  not  di- 
rectly, by  the  value  of  the  thing  produced,  nor  yet  by  the  value 
that  his  work  added  to  it,  but  by  the  demand  and  supply  of  his 
kind  of  labor.    The  legal  claim  itself  is  a  subject  of  property.    It 

•can  bo  bought  and  sold.  Tho  comnnmity  stands  ready  to  enforce 
it,  and  thus  gives  it  all  its  value.  Property  in  this  claim,  or  right 
of  action  at  law,  is  jiLst  as  truly  i)roperty  as  is  property  in  the 

(material  product,  and  it  is  oftt>u  moi-e  reliable ;  for  it  lives  on, 
even  though  tho  capitalist's  property  in  his  factory  and  its  unsold 
products  is  wholly  destroyed  by  fire,  or  its  value  partially  de- 
stroyed by  a  tumble  in  the  market. 

The  theory  we  started  out  to  combat  consists,  in  fact,  of  four 
propositions,  and  we  have  refuted  three  of  them.  We  have  proved 
that  it  is  not  true  that  every  man  owns  himself ;  that  it  is  not  true 
that  every  man  owns  bis  products,  or  the  things  with  which  he 
has  mixed  his  labor,  nor  that  he  gets  thereby  any  propriotjiry 
interest  in  them ;  and  that  not  the  affirmative  but  the  negative  of 
[these  propositions  has  been  most  generally  accepted  by  mankind 
jfts  tho  true  and  natural  state  of  the  case.  So  much  for  what  «r, 
[It  remains  to  inquire  what  ouglit  to  bo  ?  What  would  be  absolute 
justice  iu  the  matter  ?  Would  it  be  universal  private  ownership 
[of  self  and  of  the  products  of  tho  labor  of  one's  self  ?  To  any  such 
[question  as  this  there  are  three  possible  answers.  There  is  the 
inswer  "  Yes,"  there  is  the  answer  "  No,"  and  there  is  the  answer 
that  it  makes  no  practical  difference  wlmt  is  absolutely  just,  since 
tbsolute  justice  is  unattaiuable  or  undesirable.  If  justice,  like  per- 
petual motion,  is  beyond  our  reach,  the  most  economical  thing  to 
jdo  is  to  find  that  out  and  cease  to  hope  and  struggle  for  it.  Mean- 
le  economy  of  motion  or  of  force  is  an  approach  toward  per- 
itual  motion,  and  so  we  may  find  something,  or  conclude  we 
^ant  nothing,  that  will  be  an  approach  toward  absolute  justice. 

Now,  justice,  like  property,  is  an  undefined,  and  quite  likely 

indefinable,  term.    Our  ideas  of  it  change  from  age  to  age.     It  is 

elated  to  the  term  and  tho  thing  '*  equality."  and  this  we  can  all 

iderstond.    When  it  is  said  that  two  things  equal  each  other,  we 

low  exactly  what  is  meant.    The  proposition  that  all  men  ought 

be  equally  rich  aud  happy  is  i>erfectly  clear.    That  would  bo 

absolute  equality.    The  idea  of  justice  bears  about  tho  same  rela- 


67* 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTBZV. 


tioa  to  equality  that  the  matbematical  statement  of  a  proporttui 

does  to  that  of  a  simple  equation.    Wg  may  say  it  wr^i  '  '  ' 
lute  justice  for  all  m*m  to  be  rich  aud  happy  in  pi  -^ 
their  deserts,  whatever  that  last  word  may  mean ;  ]ierhap«  i1 
would  mean  that  they  ought  to  bo  rich  and  happy  in  pr^  i    - 
the  pains  of  the  work  they  do,  perhaps  in  proport.ii>n  t- 

The  former  seems  to  me  to  be  the  true  meauing.    If  thuro  be 
such  a  thing  as  deserving,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  woman  whu 
heroically  wears  herself  out  as  a  half-hand  deserves  mor^i  than 
the  man  by  her  side  who  does  a  hand's  work  with  ease  and  plvaa- 
uro^supposiug,  of  course,  that  they  have  both  previously  jiiade 
the  same  heroic  efforts  to  acquire  skill  and  efficiency.    AbsolatttJ 
justice,  if  there  were  such  a  thing,  would  give  her  several  tii 
his  wages.     But  coidd  society  afford  thus  to  reward  people 
proportion  to  their  incurablo  incompetency  ?    If  we  Bay  **  So/ 
then  we  decide  that  absolute  justice  is  undesirable  at  tV 
stage  of  evolution.     It  can  be  desirable  only  under  tL 
of  a  perfect  equality  of  gifts;  and  since  this  condition  is  mosl 
nearly  approached  by  the  lowest  savages,  we  are  almost  f  orc^ 
the  conclusion  that  absolute  justice  is  a  thing  to  be  av( 
rather  than  courted — at  any  rate,  for  the  present,  and  until 
course  of  evolution  (or  progressive  creation)  is  changed-    Such 
seems  to  be  the  real  view  of  everybody,  whether  ho  has  thought 
little  or  much  upon  the  subject;  and  yet  everybody  douie&  it,  aiid| 
claims  to  be  in  favor  of  absolute  justice,  or  the  noarpst  pofleibkt] 
approach  to  it.    Nay,  and  he  is  sincere  in  his  claim.    The  differ* 
enco  between  what  ]XH)plo  believe  and  what  they  think  they  be-i 
lievo  is  always  iiuportant,  but  nowhere  more  so  than  in  thiii  sti 
of  political  economy. 

Any  system  of  private  property  \\]  '  ^    '      luws  its  '  ' 
proportion  to  ofiiciency  in  work  aud  a  ,i*^nt,  is  xw  :j 

man  who,  with  a  heroic  disposition  to  do  his  best,  is  hel4i  Uoi 
by  circumstances  over  which  he  has  no  control,  to  a  life  of  hani 
work  and  little  pay.  That  those  who  got  the  least  pay  havo  thttj 
most  irksome  work  is  notoriously  not  the  exception,  but  iho  rule,' 
But  this  is  an  injustice  which  it  would  b©  fatal  to  the  very  life  of 
society  to  mend,  even  if  it  could  be  done.  We  can  never  e^sibnato 
relative  irksomeness;  and,  if  we  could,  it  would  bo  fatal  to  put  a 
premium  on  the  incai*acity  which  makes  the  tusk  irk&ome.  Ca- 
pacity to  work  and  inclination  to  work  are  both  imj>ort<aut.  BiHUI 
must  be  develo|>ed.  Nature's  way  »:' 
to  develop  in  the  human  mind  the  i)! 

have  it  to*day.    6he  planted  it  there  long  before  any  of  ht*r  creat- 
urea  ever  tL  ,  * 

lult;  aud 
deeper  growth,    Aud  she  pLanUKi  by  its  sirie  a  r* 


ORTGrX  OF  TITS  RIGHTS   OF  PROPERTY. 


'5 


I 


ingr  for  something  wo  call  justice.  Both  were,  and  both  still  are, 
blind  Bentinients, -working  out  Nature's  **  plans"  as  involnntarily 
as  do  our  breathing  or  loving.  Our  ideas  alike  of  justice  and  of 
the  right  of  private  property  correspond  to  the  age  and  com- 
munity in  which  we  live.  They  may  never  coincide.  At  jjroscnt 
they  do  not,  in  any  mind  with  which  I  have  come  in  contactv 

And  yet  we  must  take  account  of  both  of  them,  or  lose  our 
reckoning.  Wo  shall  find  among  the  causes  which  have  con- 
tributed to  tliat  confusion  of  i<leas  regarding  the  right  of  property 
which  now  confronts  and  perplexes  us,  in  all  our  legislation,  as 
well  as  iu  our  pursuit  of  theoretical  knowledge,  the  following: 

1.  That  the  origin  of  the  right  of  property  is  not  one,  but 
Mveral.  Ownershij)  of  self  arose  in  one  way,  of  means  of  suste- 
mmce  in  another,  of  land  in  another,  and  of  foUow-beings  in 
another. 

2.  That  most  writers  have  failed  to  draw  the  lino  between 
possession  maintained  by  force,  or  not  subject  to  contest,  and 
oumerahip  which  depends  absolutely  on  the  recognition  by  our 
fellow-beings  f)f  our  right  to  the  things  we  call  our  own.  As  iSj 
remarked  by  T.  E.  Cliffe  Leslie,  in  his  introduction  to  Laveleye's 
"  Primitive  Property  " : 

"  No  mere  j)sy<;hological  erplanation  of  the  origin  of  property 
is,  I  \'onturG  to  aflirm,  ndmissihlo,  though  writers  of  great  author- 
ity have  attempte*l  to  discover  its  germs  by  that  process  in  the 
lower  animals.  A  dog,  it  has  boon  said,  shows  an  elementary  pro- 
prietary sentiment  when  ho  hides  a  bone,  or  keeps  watch  over  his 
master's  goods.  But  property  has  not  its  root  in  the  love  of  poa-i 
session.  All  living  beings  like  and  desire  certain  things,  and,  if 
Nature  has  armed  them  with  any  weapons,  are  prone  to  use  them 
in  order  to  get  and  keep  what  they  want,  ^^'llat  requires  expla- 
nation is  not  the  want  or  desire  of  certain  things  on  the  part  of 
individuals,  but  the  fact  that  other  individuals,  with  similar  wants 
and  desires,  should  leave  them  in  undisturbed  possession,  or  allot 
to  them  ft  share,  of  such  things.  It  is  the  conduct  of  the  commu- 
nity, not  the  inclination  of  individuals,  that  needs  investigation. 
The  mere  desire  for  particular  articles,  so  far  from  accxjunting  for 
settled  and  peaceful  ownership,  tends  in  the  opposite  direction, 

lely,  to  conEict  and  the  riglit  of  the  strongest.  No  small 
■TOiount  of  error  in  several  departments  of  social  philosophy,  and 
especially  in  political  economy,  has  arisen  from  reasoning  from 
the  desires  of  the  individual,  instead  of  from  the  history  of  the 
community." 

This  18  one  of  the  profoundest  observations  ever  made  on  the 
under  consideration.    The  error  to  which  it  is  an  answer 
by  so  great  an  authority  as  Herbert  Spencer,  and  re- 
peated in  his  "  Principles  of  Sociology  "  (section  636),  | 


"Tho  fiict  referred  to  in  §  202,  that  even  intolligent  aaimAls 
display  a  sense  of  proprietorship,  negatives  the  belief  j^r  •  v-  'nj 
by  some,  that  individual  property  was  not  recognized  h  ve 

men.     When  we  see  the  elaim  of  exclusive  possession  4 

by  a  dog,  so  that  he  fights  in  defense  of  his  majster's  ckii..  .  ..  uti 
in  charge  of  them,  it  becomes  impossible  to  suppose  that  even  in 
their  lowest  state  men  were  devoid  of  those  ideas  an<l  emotions 
which  initiate  private  ownership.  All  that  may  be  fairly  as- 
sumed is  that  these  ideas  and  sentiments  were  at  first  less  devel- 
oped tlian  they  liave  since  become." 

And  again  (section  Ml),  Mr.  Spencer  says: 

"  The  desire  to  appropriate,  and  to  keep  that  which,  has  been 
appropriated,  lies  deep,  not  in  human  nature  only,  but  in  i^Tirmal 
nature:  being,  indeed,  a  condition  to  survival," 

Nevertheless,  individual  ownership  does  not  prevail  among  the 
social  insects,  and  yet  their  industry  and  frugality  have  been, 
even  from  Bible  times,  held  up  as  a  lesson  for  man.  **  Go  to  th« 
ant,  thou  sluggard,"  and  learn  among  other  things  that  animalst 
unlike  men,  may  be  aroused  to  intense  and  untiring  activity  and 
close  frugality  by  purely  social  instincts,  their  own  sustenance 
being  swallowed  up  in  social  sustenance. 

In  the  following  passage  from  the  same  section,  Mr,  Spencer 
reaches,  only  to  drop  it,  the  point  insisted  on  by  Mr.  Leslie : 

"The  conyeiousness  that  conflict,  and  consequent  injury,  may 
probably  result  from  the  endeavor  to  take  that  which  is  held  by 
another,  ever  tends  to  establisli  and  strengthen  the  cuirtom  oC 
leaving  each  in  possession  of  whatever  he  has  obtained  by  labor; 
and  this  custom  takes  among  jjrimitive  men  the  shape  of  on 
overtly-admitted  claim." 

Perhaps  this  explains  also  the  custom  of  leaving  each  in  pw*- 
session  of  what  he  obtains  without  labor.  At  any  rate,  the  claim 
to  ownership  comes  to  be  admitted,  and  then  only  <-s  it  ownersliip 
or  property,  whether  founded  on  pttrticipation  in  production  or, 
as  Liebor  ("  Property  and  Labor ")  insists,  on  appropriation  or 
what  not. 


1 


Pkof.  JoBBpa  Lb  Cobts  Has  anggMted  that  the  co&tom  uf  duilncing  ihc  rfUtlvo 


moruUt;  frum  difTtiront  diseases  by  uuEDpariaun  wlUi  the  toUU  niort 
of  tho  nnoibcr  of  penioDs  still  living,  ii  liable  to  lend  to  trrroneoii 
Eren  estim&tcA  ot  goneral  mortality  by  comparing  the  total  r  ^ 
Uio  cnnibcr  of  pt^rnoDS  at  all  b|;C8  may  mifilvad.     Tbni*  the  Hpt 
ujortalitjr  In  San  Francisco  as  compared  with  E 
niftl  proportion  of  adults  to  cUiMren  tboro,  oiid  n 
ally  fftvorable  to  health.    The  troo  cueffioient  of  luvic 
i»  cxprcMcd  by  th<?  ratio  of  tho  number  of  deaiha  fr^ 
of  pur»oDa  Tlnblo  to  bo  attacked  bv  It— or  to  th«  onit 
ycara  of  age. 


.Ih 

■4 


ARCTIC  ICE  AND  ITS  NAVIGATION. 


^77 


ARCTIC  ICE  AN^D  ITS  NAVIGATION. 


Bt  albebt  a.  ackebuan, 

axnov,  Dinrao  vtatsi  mvT. 

FEW  people  can  understand  the  fascination  of  summer  life  in 
the  arctic  regions  for  those  who  have  once  gone  through  the 
exiierience  without  disaster. 

It  is  an  awe-inspiring  land.  Tlie  massive,  dreamy  beauty  of 
the  slumbering  icebergs,  the  sharp  outlines  and  sheer  height  of 
the  baBttU  coast  cliffs,  the  mysterious  expanse  of  the  glacier,  and 
the  ceaseless  motion  of  the  ice-floes  grinding  and  rloflliing  to- 
gether, produce  upon  all  men  emotions  of  awe  and  delight, 

EI«t'whore,  Nature  moves  as  well  with  power  and  grandeur, 
but  more  slowly  and  with  much  less  amplitude  of  action ;  there, 
the  changes  that  in  a  temperate  climate  require  months  take 
place  tumiiltuously  in  a  few  days. 

The  breaking  up  and  floating  away  of  the  ice-field,  the  rUhdcte 
of  the  glaciers  and  disgorging  of  the  fionis,  impress  man  with  his 
utter  insignificance  and  weakness  in  the  presence  of  such  mighty 
forces.  Fleets  of  l<»fty  icebergs  drift  southward,  urgcni  on  by 
deep  under-currents,  and  plow  their  way  through  thinner  ice, 
splitting,  colliding,  and  overturning,  always  maintaining  a  cer- 
tain sphinx-like  dignity — majestic  and  mysterious.  Vast  out- 
rea^i'hing  tongues  of  ice  eartend  from  their  hidden  bases,  as  hard 
as  rock  and  as  dangerous  to  the  unwary  navigator,  while  to  lee- 
ward drifts  a  convoy  of  smaller  bergs,  the  (Uhris  of  the  first — a 
jostling  following  too  rough  for  safe  companionship.  Over  all 
this  glistening  mass  of  marble  white  hover  myriads  of  white  gulls, 
and  in  the  blue  translucent  caverns  at  the  water's  edge  reverber- 
ate the  swash  of  the  sea  and  tho  music  of  cascadea 

Amid  such  surroundings  men  can  test  themselves,  whore  the 
brave  have  confessed  fear  and  the  hardy  and  strong  confessed 
weakness;  and  so  long  as  men  are  brave  and  strong,  so  will  there 
be  volunteers  for  expeditions,  the  northern  limit  of  which  depends 
alone  upon  tht>  extent  to  M'hich  fortune  favors  their  strength  and 
judgment.    Arctic  exploration  is  not  dependent,  however,  upon 

A  orld  throntcs  with  eager  students 

itringthe  motive  which  alone  can 

it  happen  that  robust  health  and 

tfie  knowledge  of  generalization 

iv,  and  80  essential  in  localities 

:  and  unworthy  of  record ;  to 

-  i  rom  whiph  hardly  an  expedi- 

thttt,  not-vrithstanding  the  treas- 


thr             ■'          -       ' 

1    ■  ' '' 

of: 

lead  to  Kucce«(8. 

Karoly  dot^s 

lovo  of  -  '■■-*-- 

- , -•- 

ionly  a- 

ivrhore 

n^;..  ,., 

678 


TBE  POPULAR  SCISNCE  MONTRLY, 


ure  expended  in  arctic  exploration,  bo  little  is  known  and  so  many 
of  the  popular  ideas  are  erroneous. 

Most  arctic  travelers  will  agree  in  saying  that  careful  irtudy 
of  all  the  works  on  tJie  subject  will  form  but  a  meager  prepA- 
ttion  for  a  prospective  explorer.  It  is  a  new  world;  iinprftgsions 
•e  so  strange  and  vivid  that  no  fixed  plan  of  description  will 
suffice. 

In  the  narrow  Greenland  waters  each  successive  he^ulland^  isl- 
and, or  mountain  stands  as  the  mark  of  farthest  pn>grc»<3  and 
blasted  hopes  of  brave  old-time  naingators.  Can  anything  b<» 
more  pathetic  than  the  quaint  log-book  of  that  stanch  old  sea- 
man. Captain  John  Davis,  with  its  account  of  protracted  simg- 
^les  and  final  disappointment  ?  He  sailed  in  tho  time  of  Raleigh 
id  Blake.  Now^  but  a  few  miles  beyond  a  black,  ram-fihaped 
c&pe,  that  he  named  Sanderson's  Hoop,  lies  the  Danish  trading* 
post  of  Upernavik,  and  everj'  summer  ten  powerful  steam  wbal« 
era  smash  through  the  ice^  which  at  this  point  turned  back  his 
small  sailing  vessels.  For  hundreds  of  years,  dating  back  to  tho 
time  of  Da\is  and  Frobisher,  the  art  of  ice  navigation  has  boon 
constantly  improving,  until  now  it  is  a  very  rare  thing  for  oithw 
a  Dundee  whaler  or  a  St.  John  sealer  to  meet  with  serious  difiaster 
while  pursuing  its  legitimate  calling. 

With  our  own  Bering  Sea  wlialers  the  case  is  different — there 
are  important  differences  between  the  ice  encountered  in  Green- 
land waters  and  that  north  of  Alaska.  A  description  of  the  cir- 
cumstances affecting  the  fonnatiou  of  the  various  kinds  of  \>&tg 
and  floe  ice  will  make  this  clear. 

The  natural  form  of  an  iceberg  is  a  regular  prism,  broken  from 
tho  face  of  the  glacier  as  its  onward  motion  forces  it  down  along 
the  bottom  of  the  inclosing  fiord,  by  the  buoyant  action  of  the 
water.  Through  the  tides  the  upward  pressure  of  the  woU:»r  w 
ries  constantly,  and  has  much  to  do  with  the  production  of  inter- 
nal strains  and  fissures,  which  form  planes  of  cleav  — riUcl  lo 
tho  face  of  the  glacier;  one  of  these  ultimately  m^n  "f^ound^ 

ary  of  the  berg,  tlie  others  are  weak  spots  which  may  duvtdop 
afterward.  Where  glaciers  approach  tho  sea  at  a  steep  grmle, 
they  move  moro  rapidly,  are  subjected  to  greater  stmssefl,  Ihisre  is 
less  opportunity  for  the  exhibition  of  the  vis*  uf  ire 

at  the  freozing-point,  dibdd^s  occur  moro  f;.  ,.-.-.. ,  -xul  the 
bergs  are  smaller  and  more  irregular.  Under  such  conditions 
tlio  ice  is  full  of  partly  <  '  cracks  and  curved  fia8ur«»,m 

that  in  a  short  time  wat..  „:..ngs,  ice-scorings  and  aciA^oheat 
and  the  melting  of  suow^spots^  produce  the  most  fantastic  and 
a-       ^  "         '         '  ■      ■      '  ■  ^    ^«iu  Id 

\  .  .(««  ar" 

revealed  in  passing.    Apparently  free  from  all  tho  requistt 


ARCTIC  ICE  AND  ITS  NAVIGATION. 


679 


I 


rem 

^  ject 

m 


equilibrium,  owing  to  the  preponderanco  of  tho  part  submerged, 
bold  spurs  and  flying  arches  spring  from  their  walls,  and  hanging 
balconies  ornament  their  crests. 

In  Greenland,  as  in  the  antarctic,  there  is  either  a  great  con- 
tinent or  a  congeries  of  islands,  covered  with  an  ice-field  of  such 
gradual  inclination  through  great  distance  that  the  movement  of 
its  face  is  very  slow,  and  the  (Mbdcles  and  avalanches  occur  less 
frequently,  so  that  tho  bergs  are  of  enormous  size  and  regular 
shape,  having  a  height  of  from  one  to  two  himdred  feet  in  the 
northern  and  three  hundred  feet  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
The  Alaskan  glaciers  are  of  comparatively  small  extent,  the  ice- 
field of  which  the  Muir  and  Davidson  glaciers  are  spurs  being 
only  four  hundred  miles  wide ;  owing  to  the  inclination  of  their 
containing  valleys,  they  move  with  great  rapidity,  debdcles  are 
occurring  continually;  the  bergs,  falling  into  shallow  water, 
quickly  go  to  pieces,  and  the  fragments  which  at  last  escape 
through  the  intricacies  of  fiords  and  archipelagoes  are  very  smalL 
In  addition,  tho  comparatively  shallow  water  along  the  coast  of 
Siberia  prevents  floe-bergs  of  any  great  size  passing  through 
Bering  Strait,  while  a  seventeen-fathom  bank,  north  of  Wran- 
gell  Island,  b«nrs  the  way  to  all  rectangular  bergs  over  twenty- 
three  fathoms  thick  that  have  drifted  across  the  arctic.  In  this 
way  it  happens  that  the  Bering  Sea  whalers  never  see  the  great 
icebergs  which  play  so  important  a  part  in  the  navigation  of 
those  in  Greenland  waters, 

Perhaps  the  continual  excitement  in  the  confined  waters  of  the 
latter  land,  and  the  natural  desire  to  classify  the  new  and  myste- 
rious with  the  old  and  commonyjlace,  make  the  mind  quick  to 
see  resemblances.  However  that  may  be,  the  bergs  seem  subject 
to  some  laws  of  form.  Capitals,  sphinxes,  castles,  and  catheilrals 
are  frequently  met  with  ;  at  times,  whole  menageries  would  troop 
past — lions  couchant,  mushrooms,  and  flowers  occur  in  profu- 
sion— the  small  fragments  of  ice,  through  the  washing  of  water 
and  scoring  of  surrounding  floes,  showing  a  greater  variety  of 
forms  than  the  large  bergs. 

On  the  east  side  of  Melville  Bay  in  north  Greenland  is  a  head-  , 
land  called,  from  its  peculiar  shape, "  The  Devil's  Thumb."   It  is  a 
remarkable  column^  resembling  a  closed  hand  with  the  thumb  pro- 
jecting upward,  and  bears  stout  testimony  to  the  toughness  of  the 
granite  composing  it,  which  has  withstood  in  this  sharp  outline 

the  disintegrating  forces  of  that  climat-e  for  centuries.    It  is 

ut  seven  hundred  feet  high.    In  June,  1884,  a  photograph  waa 
taken  of  a  very  lofty  iceberg,  grounded  in  its  vicinity,  which  waa  i 
an  alm<'  '         "■  <t  representation  of  a  hand  and  wrist,  the  index- 
finger  1  -   heavenward*    A  connection  between  the  black, 
iime-stoinod  Devil's  Thumb  and  this  beautiful  marble-like  shaft 


68o 


THE  POPULAR  SCIS^TCE  MOyTffLY. 


was  at  once  made  in  the  minds  of  every  one  present^  and  the  ic&A 
berg  was  named  "  The  Hand  of  Providence/* 

The  pack  ice  of  one  winter's  growth  is  met  and  fought  by  the] 
whalers  on  both  aides  of  the  continent,  until,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  summer  sun,  it  is  conquered,  and  no  longer  forms  an  obsta- 
cle to  progress  northward. 

Hayes  states  that  the  formation  of  now  ice  in  Foulk  Fiord  dur- 
ing one  winter  in  still  water  was  thirteen  feet  thick.  It  is  highly 
improbable  that  any  additions  at  that  dejith  would  be  made  dur- 
ing even  extraordinary  cold  periods ;  it  has  since  been  surmisiHl  by 
experienced  arctic  travelers  that  a  portion  of  this  thickness  was 
due  to  snow  deposits.  Ordinarily,  this  ice  will  not  be  found 
thicker  than  seven  feet-  Early  in  summer  it  breaks  up  and  floats 
away  in  immense  lioes  as  pack  ice ;  sometimes,  through  pressure^ 
becoming  hummocked  or  piled  in  thicknesses  of  three  or  four  fold  i 
into  the  size  of  small  bergs  or  crushed  into  fragments,  until  it 
finally  melts  out  of  sight  away  to  the  60uthwar<l.  This  ice  can 
be  distingxushed,  even  when  hummocked,  from  that  formed  by 
brokcn-up  bergs  by  its  opaque- white  color,  due  to  the  presence  of 
innumerable  air-cells,  its  method  of  formation  rendering  it  i*<ifter 
and  more  porous  than  glacier  ice,  which  is  subjected  to  years  of 
pressure  and  concentration  through  infiltrating  streams  of  fre<>z- 
ing  water. 

Before  the  immense  floes  are  broken  up,  however,  they  are  ex 
tremoly  dangerous  in  the  confined  Greenland  waters,  where  thoy 
are  continually  subjected  to  terrible  pressures  by  the  winds  and 
surface  currents.    The  eiistern  whalers,  through  -  ip- 

ment  and  working  in  company,  escape  many  of  li  of 

the  Americans  in  the  Pacific,  while  their  proximity  to  land  or  fa»t 
ice  and  numerous  villages  of  Eskimos  gives  them  s'  i 
of  rescue,  even  though  their  vessel  may  be  lost.    Afl- 
at their  station  they  have  little  to  fear  but  Boating  bergs  and 
hummocks,  their  powerful  steamers  crushing  the  then  rotten  floo 
ice  with  ease.    As  thL*  whales  leuvu  the  vicinity  of  Pond's  Inlet 
early  in  the  summer,  the  whalers  strive  to  get  there  as  quickly  as 
possible ;  a  large  reward  being  often  given  by  the  ownera  to  the 
crew  of  the  vessel  first  reaching  that  point.    They  can  afford  thi», 
ifts  her  cargo  may  consist  largely  of  whalebone  C' 
tskimos  in  the  vicinity.     These  men  arv.  in  i-. 
best  ico-nnvigators  in  the  world. 

Our  own  American  whalers  have  no  f'. 
no  less  hardy  or  brave  tlian  any  seamen  in         ■       :  i       i 
is  a  hard  one;  in  case  of  disaster,  there  is  no  such  way  of  escapo. 
46  that  open  to  tlie  S     ^  ^  ■      *^ 

^omparalivuly  easy  t' 
coast  of  Alaska,  which  would  repay  perhaps  more  tlmn  any  olh6r| 


ARCTIC  ICE  AND  ITS  NAVIGATION-, 


681 


I 


on  our  coasts.  There  is  but  one  narrow  passage  for  the  Bering 
floes,  and  the  ice  after  passing  through  the  strait  scatters  and  be- 
comes easier  to  avoid.  The  pack  is  not  confined  and  caused  to 
revolve  between  immense  icebergs  or  many  narrow  passages,  as 
in  Greenland  or  eastern  waters,  so  that  the  recent  employment  of 
steam  whalers,  instead  of  the  old-time  sailing  vessels,  has  been- 
dictated  more  by  a  desire  for  increased  profits  than  by  actual  ne- 
cessity. 

But  there  is  another  and  more  dangerous  ice  than  floe  ice,  as 
it  takes  many  years  for  its  formation.  It  is  met  with  in  isolated 
floes,  but  rarely  if  ever  in  pack  below  Smith's  Sound,  and  the 
Scotch  whalers  seldom  encounter  it.  Ships  have  been  nipped 
hundreds  of  times  in  floe  ice  and  escaped,  but  few  if  any  have  ever 
freed  themselves  from  the  fierce  grasp  of  the  ancient  ice  of  the 
arctic,  called  by  Nares  floe-berg  or  paieocrystic  ica.  This  bears 
evidence  of  great  age,  the  part  above  water  being  from  fifteen  to 
forty-five  feet  in  thickness,  which  would  make  its  depth  from  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  to  four  hundred  and  five  feet ;  the  stout- 
est-built ship  that  ever  put  to  sea  would  be  cnmhed  into  match- 
sticks  by  the  pressure  of  two  such  floes  upon  her  sides.  This  ico 
forms  the  northern  limit  of  the  cruising-grounds  of  the  Americaaj 
whalers  north  of  Alaska.  Some  years  it  moves  to  the  southward] 
and  closes  up  on  them;  again,  it  recedes,  disclosing  more  of  the' 
mystery  of  the  farther  north.  Scattered  here  and  there  through 
it  are  polynias,  or  lakes  of  ice,  of  one  year's  growth,  inclosed  by 
heavy  floes  arched  and  keyed  together. 

Paleocrystic  ico  is  old  pack  ice  built  up  by  successive  deijosita 
of  snow  during  a  long  period  of  time,  thus  giving  it  an  appear- 
ance of  stratification.  There  is  an  alternation  of  soft  white  and 
hard  blue  ice,  representing,  respectively,  compressed  snow  and 
water  formed  during  the  sunshine  by  thawH,  and  frozen  at  night 
or  when  cloudy.  (It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  snow  will  melt  andii 
seep  througli  floe  ice  in  sunlight  though  the  thermometer  may 
record  far  below  the  freezing-point.)  Eventually,  during  the  long 
summer  day,  the  floe  is  left  bare  and  dry,  but  soft  and  porous, 
imless  so  far  north  that  the  snow-storms  continue  all  the  year 
round.  Over  some  strata  are  layers  of  atmospheric  dust,  such  as 
Nordenskiold  found  on  the  Greenland  glaciers ;  also  the  gradual 
decrease  of  the  thickness  of  the  layers — due  to  pressure  and  in- 
crease of  blue  ice — because  of  greater  infiltration,  as  the  lower  part 
of  tho  borg  is  approached,  make  certain  the  progressive  nature  of 
the  formation. 

Beyond  the  Melville  Bay  pack,  averaging  six  feet  in  thickness, 

irth  water  "  of  the  whalers,  corresponding  to  the  oi^en 

lly  found  between  tho  paleocrystic  pack  and  Bering 

Strait.    This  is  dotted  with  hummocks,  rubble  ice,  or  btokft^-^x^ 


MONTHLY, 


bergs,  and  icebergs  of  enormous  size,  "wbioL  it  Is  easy  to  avoid 
except  in  tbe  frequent  fogs  of  the  summer  months.  These  ice- 
bergs break  from  the  immense  glaciers  bounding  Mclvillo  Bay 
^d  Kennedy  Channel,  which  occasionally  rise  two  hundred  feet 
•above  the  water.  It  is  apparent  that  the  bergs  breaking  off  irrc^* 
larly  might,  through  a  bulky  form  of  the  submerged  part,  attain 
a  still  greater  height.  Hayes  mentions  a  berg  over  three  hondrad 
feet  high  in  the  "north  water";  the  Proteus  on  her  last  trip 
sighted  one  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high,  six  miles  long,  and  a 
liu]..' more  than  a  mile  wide.    These  immense  bergs  ar-  'm- 

[loiUint  agents  in  breaking  up  the  ice-fields  in  early  .-^  _  i.it, 
being  propelled  by  deep  under-currents.  their  motion  Is  often  con- 
trary to  that  of  the  floe  ice  moved  by  the  wind  and  fi;  "*  imenta 

The  wind  also  plays  an  important  part,  a  south.  ,  f'  send- 

iug  the  packs  and  hummocks  upon  the  e<\^e  of  the  fast  or  land 
ice,  and  crushing  it  for  some  distance,  after  which  any  northerly 
wind  disengages  the  free  ice,  leaving  an  open  space,  calletl  th* 
inshore  lead,  which  the  earliest  whalers  always  follow.  It  is,  of 
course,  dangerous,  as  a  south  wind  sends  the  pack  back,  and  im- 
prisons if  it  does  not  crush  them.  In  July  the  quicker  way 
through  "  the  middle  passage  "  of  the  MolvilJe  Bay  pack  \»  u«ed, 
as  the  ice  is  then  comparatively  harmless,  although  vf!j<.s«-ls  nfc 
sometimes  nipped  and  rather  severely  handled. 

No  stronger  vessels  than  those  of  the  Dundee  whalers  .iri  ;.ui:i; 
they  are  from  four  hundred  to  one  thousand  tons  tii^jjlaortueut, 
have  powerful,  well-secured  engines  to  resist  the  shock  of  ram- 
ming or  stoppage  of  the  propeller  by  ice,  and  are  built  with  an 
eye  to  the  easy  and  rapid  replacement  of  rudder,  propeller,  and 
propeller-shaft  if  damaged,  these  parts  being  carried  in  duplicate; 
(Above  all  other  considerations,  they  iK)88ess  strength  for  ramming 
pas  well  as  resistance  to  lateral  pressure  when  nipped. 

Another  very  important  feature  is  that  the  bow  shall  ImTO 
considerable  inclination,  which  permits  the  vessel,  wh».*T«  ruritr.Mng 
very  heavy  ice,  to  lift  slightly  and  slide  on  it,  thus  iho 

Udi<»ck  and  assisting  the  cutting  action  of  the  bow  witl;  va- 

r^-ard  crushing  weight  of  the  ship.    In  this  way  it  is  p  iiir 

those  steamers  at  full  speed  to  ram  ice  over  twenty  feet  thicki  aod 
receive  no  immediate  incapacitating  damage. 

If  the  ice  is  not  t-oo  heavy,  the  shear-like  rise  and  fr.l!  nf  Jbei 
bow  is  re]>eat«d  several  times  as  the  vessel  sttiams  lly{ 

ahead  until  her  headway  is  checked.    The  d-*^   ■  >•- 
extract  the  ship  from  the  dock  she  bus  ctit  1 
floes  press  on  her  sides,  cakes  of  ice  .1^ 

there  is  nothing  but  the  ice-hami>Qr  -^| 

overcome  her  inertia  and  draw  back  '^B 

ibis  is  insufficient,  and  the  ship  may  be  orub^t-^i  ^| 


I 


IfJ 


I 


In  breaking  up  a  floo  of  great  extent  and  thickness,  which  is 
nn|^Attenipte<J,  as  the  coal  and  labor  thus  expended  might  bo 
pIPPRy  ^  movemeut  of  tho  icu  iu  a  few  hours,  two  vussoIh  work 
to  great  advantage  in  concert,  striking  alternate  blows  at  an  angle 
vith  each  other,  thus  breaking  off  wedge-shaped  sections,  which 
iiro  shoved  out  of  the  way  as  fast  as  an  advance  is  made  into 
the  floe. 

Various  other  methods  are  employed  for  breaking  a  way 
through  the  ice  or  relieving  the  pressure  on  the  ship,  but  they 
am  all  insignificant  compare<l  with  the  mighty  results  of  dashing 
and  fearless  ramming.  Without  it,  iu  spito  of  the  utmost  exer- 
tions of  officers  and  men,  Qreely  would  not  have  been  rescued, 
Tho  dispersive  effect  of  explosives  in  water-soaked  ice  is  small,  and 
placing  the  torpedoes  requires  time;  the  ice-saw  is  clumsy,  slow, 
and  rapidly  exhausts  an  already  overwrought  crew,  while  warp- 
ing and  towing  floes  are  but  the  lost  safeguards  from  despair. 

Tho  Dundee  skiiipors  are  not  held  to  too  strict  account  for 
damages  that  the  vessels  may  sustain  during  thi'ir  short  but  ex- 
citing cruise.  Desperate  risks  are  taken  every  day;  the  man  who 
fears  responsibility  would  never  succeed,  while  another  hesitating 
or  lacking  resource  would  quickly  lose  his  ship.  Starting  from 
Dundee  in  April,  they  generally  reach  Qodhavu,  in  latitude  09"  15' 
north,  before  June,  but  from  that  point  to  their  dostimition  it  is  a 
long  and  plucky  fight  with  the  ice.  Continually  following  up  the 
breaches  made  in  the  solid  field  by  storms  and  tides,  their  only 
fear,  though  surrounded  by  floes  capable  of  crushing  the  ships  if 
taken  unawares,  is  that  the  lead  will  open  in  some  other  place, 
leaNnog  them  inclosed  by  vast  immovable  floes  imtil  some  rare 
northwest  wind  loosens  the  pack,  or  the  summer's  sun  so  weakens 
it  tliftt  the  ship  is  able  to  smash  through  and  escape. 

On  the  approach  of  a  gale,  when  the  ice  may  be  expected  to 
move  rapidly  and  through  its  great  weight  and  extent  accumulate 
pressure,  a  fine  solid  floo  is  selected  in  which  to  form  a  protectee! 
dock.  In  it  tho  ship  is  rammed  as  far  as  possible,  if  necessary  the 
slip  being  deey)ened  with  the  ice-saw ;  so  long  as  the  floe  holds 
together  the  ship  will  bo  subjected  to  tlie  pressure  of  only  those 
small  fragments  that  may  be  forced  into  the  entrance  to  the  dock. 

To  take  advantage  of  every  little  patch  of  oj>en  water  in  break- 
ing through  the  pack,  a  pilot  is  stationed  aloft  in  the  "crow*s 
jbiBit";  ^liis  is  a  large  cask,  with  a  trap-door  in  the  bottom  for  en- 
■•  ■  .■''■■'''  !.    It  is  sometimes  quite  cozy,  being 

- 1  for  the  long  glass,  engine-room  bell 
pull  or  indicat<>r,  helm -director,  and  compass.    The  height  of  the 

T^ — -  ^  '     ;'     "  ■'■-■■■  * ^"-   *  -"]  fifteen  feet,  and  the  greatest 

;s  visible  from  that  height  is 
leaa  than ocvun miit»;  it idevideutj then^how much  ex[;erience and 


judgment  are  necessary  in  directing  the  movementfi  of  the  ship,: 
the  only  indications  at  times  being  doubtful  ice-blinks  and  tmdi^ 
cided  waier-skios. 

The  ice-bliuk  is  frequently  a  very  weak  indication  in  satniuf?, 
appearing  as  a  narrow  belt  of  a  little  lighter  and  yellowi«l»  nky 
just  above  the  horizon.  So  faint  is  its  api>earance  at  timf«  that  \% 
would  not  be  roco^ized  except  by  comparison  with  known  wnter- 
sky.  The  latter  is  dark  and  gloomy,  much  resembling  that  pre- 
ceding a  thunder-storm. 

In  the  pack  itself  it  is  generally  calm,  a  slight  br  '^iig 

almost  certain  evidence  of  the  clo^it*  proximity  of  r  ,td» 

open  water.  fl 

The  sealers  of  Dundee  and  Ht.  John,  Isewfoundland.  im 

at  the  latter  port  and  start  almost  in  tbe  same  half-  -trnt 

midnight  of  some  day  in  March,  The  date  is  fixed  by  law,  in  order 
to  protect  tlie  seals  during  their  Ix^aring  j>eriod.  They  hav  ^ 
venturesome  voyage  than  the  whalers,  though  starting 
their  hope  being  to  meet  the  first  great  ice-floes  in  the  ojH^n  seA 
where  they  are  subjected  to  very  little  pressure,  though  the  fogs 
and  dark  nights  make  it  diilicuU  tc  avoid  collision  with  one  of  the 
numerous  icebergs. 

The  sealers  depend  in  a  great  measure  on  luck  to  strike  tha 
floes  on  which  the  hair-seal  is  found  in  great  numbers ;  a  few  of 
the  oldest  captains  are  supposed  tv  possess  a  prescience  or  jH»euliar 
judgment,  though  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  seals  will  be 
met  with  in  the  same  part  of  the  oi>en  sea  in  two  consecutiro  8M- 
tpons.  In  fact,  out  of  ten  or  twelve  scalers  lea^nng  in  th©  Bamo 
fnoxir  every  year,  it  frequently  happens  that  one  or  two  of  the 
luckiest  have  made  two  successful  trips  with  full  OArgoca  before 
some  of  the  others  have  reported  more  or  less  bad  luck  from  their 
first;  the  Proteus  once  brought  in  one  hundred  thousand  fikine 
from  her  first  trip  of  the  season  alone. 

On  flighting  the  ice  the  steamers  run  along  the  groat  floee  and 
through  the  leads  until  they  find  a  floe  on  which  a  colony  of  oeaLi 
have  congregated;  a  d(X^k  is  rammed  into  the  ice  at  once;  ice 
anchors  are  laid  out  ahead ;  the  very  large  crew  carried  is  landed 
by  the  Jacob's  ladders  dangling  from  the  head-booms.  Sometimes 
the  crow  is  split  up  into  several  parties  to  work  on  different  floes; 
in  all  cases  the  seals  are  surroundcKl  as  rapidly  as  possible  nad. 
driven  toward  a  common  <5enter.  Here  they  crawl  up  ©n  each 
•oflier,  barking  and  moaning,  uutll    '       ^  ' 

ter  more  in  lieight,  writhing  and  i,. 
direction  is  dotted  with  the  white  puppy-seals  ao  young  as  t4^H 

unable  to  mo\-e.    The  men  at  worl:        ''     '         ^ —  ^  ':!^B 

the  frozun  hearts  of  these  young  '  iH 

only  palatable^  but  enable  them  to  better  stand  cold  .-^  rfl 


I 


A   CORNER   OF  THE  DUTCH  EAST  INDIES.        685 

The  seals  having  been  concentrated,  the  work  of  slaughter  com- 
mences :  each  man  is  armed  with  a  pole  having  a  hook  attached 
to  one  end,  with  which  the  seals  are  one  by  one  di'awn  from  the 
pile  and  killed  by  a  single  blow  on  the  head.  The  skin  is  then 
.quickly  removed  with  the  fat  blubber,  which  is  wrapywd  up  in  it; 
St  is  valueless  as  fur,  and  eventually  tanned,  split,  and  made  up 
as  imitation  kid  into  gloves,  linings  of  porte-monnaies,  valises, 
;8hoes,  etc. 

In  less  than  two  months  after  the  sealers  first  start  out,  the 
da  have  completely  d isapi>eared ;  where  they  go  is  a  mystery, 
fin  the  fall  they  reappear  in  small  groups  making  their  way  north 
again. 

The  whaling  season  tlien  follows  immediately  after  the  seal- 
ig,  the  same  steamers  sometimes  being  employed. 

Early  in  September,  whether  the  season  has  been  successful  or 
lUot,  the  Dimdee  whalers  start  on  their  return  voyage,  following 
the  east  coast  of  British  America  and  Labrador  until  they  lose 
the  benefit  of  the  polar  current  near  Newfoundland. 

It  is  a  rough  trip ;  galea  and  tremendous  seas  are  peculiar  to 
both  time  of  year  and  locality,  yet  it  may  be  considered  almost 
uneventful  to  the  crews  of  those  racked  and  bruistnl  vessels  which 
will  require  the  whole  winter  to  refit  for  next  season's  work. 


•^•^ 


» 


A  CORNER  OF  THE  DUTCH  EAST  INDIES. 

Bt  CATTAnr  O.  LANGEN. 

THE  Key  or  K^  Islands  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  derive  their 
name  from  a  native  word  signifying  "  What  do  you  say  ?  " 
The  native  tradition  runs  that  when  Macassar  traders  first  land- 
ed there  and  inquired  in  the  Malay  tongue  after  the  name  of  the 
land  they  had  set  foot  on,  the  natives  answered/*  Kay,"  and  this 
expression  was  mistaken  by  the  questioners  for  the  name  of  the 
islands.  The  group  consists  of  two  hirger  islands,  of  which  the 
westerly  one  bears  the  name  of  Nuhu-roa,  or  Little  Key,  and  the 
easterly  one  Ju-ud,  or  Great  Key,  with  a  number  of  smaller  isl- 
ands around  them.  Great  Key  is  undoubtedly  geologically  much 
older  than  Little  Key  and  the  other  surrounding  islands,  and 
possesses  elevations  of  from  twt)  thousand  to  thi-ee  thousand  feet, 
while  Little  Key  and  the  other  islands  are  very  low.  Great  Key  is 
principally  of  a  rocky  and  volcanic  formation ;  Little  Key  and 
the  surrounding  islands  are  fornie4l  of  coral  and  iutervelued  by 
flint  and  quartz.  Little  Key,  according  to  the  most  reliable  chiefs, 
was  raised  out  of  the  sea  about  thirty-five  yeors  ago,  during  the 


686 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEir€B  MOSTTHLT. 


shocks  of  a  severe  earthquake  attended  by  a  tidal  wave;  aftor 

•which  no  earthq  <  '  '^urred  till  April,  18ft4. 

Every  island  ■  ,    ig  to  the  group  is  covered,  down  to  Iha 

water's  edge,  with  dense  tropical  jungle,  with  gigantic  ctw 
winding  from  one  tree  to  another  so  as  to  form  a  close  network 
These  forests  contain  choice  kinds  of  timber,  the  induci«meats 
offered  by  which  have  provoked  the  establishment  of  thw  prej^ent 
Gierman  colony.  The  southwest  monsoon,  which  blows  dnring 
our  winter  months,  brings  abundant  rains;  and  tlie  orcasioual 
showers  of  April,  with  the  heavy  dews  of  June,  July,  and  Aagiuit, 
keep  the  ground  moist  and  afford  ample  nourishment  to  vogetA- 
tion.  In  October  and  November,  the  hottest  months,  vegetation 
tBuffers  from  drought.    The  rain  porc"'  '  '(->ugh  th*-  i  *k- 

ly  to  the  coral.    The  traveler  will,  tl-  ,  meet  ^v,  _y  » 

few  pieces  of  marshy  soil  on  the  islands ;  but  he  is  astoniBhod  at 
jthe  lururiant  growth  of  vegetation,  at  the  gigantic  and  statt^y 
spreading  their  roota  to  seek  ft  firm  hold  around  the  cond, 
out  of  whose  porous  texture  their  libers  obtain  nourishraout;  and 
no  place  on  the  group  is  entirely  barren  and  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion. 

The  supply  of  fresh  water  is  very  unevenly  distributed,  and 
there  are  many  villages  where  none  is  obtainable,  and  the  inhab- 
itants have  to  go  a  long  distance  for  it.  Generally,  the  freah- 
rVater  wells  are  situated  close  by  the  sea.  All  the  fresh  drinking' 
water  contains  lime  in  large  quantities,  the  characteristic  effects 
of  which  are  neutralized  by  the  liberal  use  of  acid  fruit*.  It  ia  evi- 
dent that  the  sea,  infiltrating  gradually  through  the  [■  the 
coral,  becomes  purified  and  separated  from  all  its  salt'  _,  _di- 
ents  on  its  way  to  the  wells ;  and  those  places  where  fresh  water 
is  not  obtainable  are  of  quartz  formation. 

The  islands  are  divided  into  districts,  each  comprising  a  nam- 
her  of  villages  with  their  surrounding  land.  Each  district  has 
its  principal  chief,  or  rajah,  au'l  these  hjive  in  the  villagccuindtfr* 
chiefs  of  various  ranks.  All  these  offices  are  hereditary,  desoend- 
ig  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  resj>ective  families.  If  theru  is  no 
successor,  a  new  chief  is  elected  by  the  natives  of  the  district,  A 
chief  receives  no  payment,  but  after  having  been  acknowledged 
id  established  in  office  by  the  Resident  of  Amboyna,  he  is  prfr- 
tnted  with  a  silver  mounting  for  his  walking-stick,  on  wliic^  is 
en^ravod  the  Dutch  coat  of  arms.  After  he  hafe  held  his  office  for 
<  -  with  faultless  -  "er 

II  ^     -    ..    walking-stick  ib  ..,..  .     if  a 


4 


chief  has  rendered  an  extraordinarily  pm 

govn 

umb: 

abroad,  to  prevent  the  sun  from  tanning  his  faoe« 


sorvico  to  his 


A   CORIS'ER  OF  THE  DUTCH  EAST  mDlES.       687 


About  one  third  of  the  population  are  Mohammedans,  and 
these  are  increasing  every  year,  through  the  influence  of  Arabs 
and  of  natives  who  have  returned  as  hadjis  from  Mecca  These 
men  ar«-»  worshiped  to  a  certain  extent  by  their  inferior-stationed 
fellow-believers,  and  exercise  such  an  influence  up*3n  them  as  to 
be  kept  for  the  rest  of  thuir  lives  in  food  and  clothes. 

The  indigenes  of  Key  aro  tall,  strongly  built,  having  the  fore- 
head broad  and  slanting  backward,  dark  eyes  with  heavy  black 
lashes,  a  large  but  well-shajjed  nose^  liigli  cheek-bones,  and 
broad  mouth,  with  the  under  lip  more  or  leas  projecting,  black 
aod  brown  colored  beard,  and  long,  wavy,  but  tine  curled  black 
,  mixed  with  several  lighter  or  darker  shades  of  brown, 
reaching  to  the  slK^ulder  and  projecting  all  rf»und  tlie  head 
like  a  mop.  Their  skin  is  rather  dark,  but  of  a  lighter  hue 
than  that  of  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea.  Formerly,  their  cloth- 
ing was  the  same  as  that  used  by  tho  Alfueros  of  Coram  arul 
Borneo;  but,  since  the  establishment  of  the  European  colony, 
both  their  clothing  and  manner  of  li>nng  have  become  more 
elaborate.  Mixtures  have  taken  place  between  some  of  them  and 
the  Papuans  of  Now  Guinea,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a  stock 
which  18  found  in  all  parts  of  the  islands. 

The  natives  live  in  huts  built  on  poles  of  strong  and  hard  tim- 
ber or  thick  bamboo;  and  a  very  few  houses  of  chiefs  are  con- 
structed of  timber.  Tho  huts  are  built  several  feet  above  the 
ground,  for  protection  against  the  swarms  of  vermin  that  come  up 
during  the  southwest  monsoon,  and  to  secure  a  free  current  of  air 
and  consequent  coolness.  Tho  sides  of  these  houses  are  covered 
in  either  by  atop,  which  consists  of  the  dried  leaves  of  the  sago- 
palm  doubled  over  a  small  bamboo  about  six  feet  long  and  laced 
tightly  to  it  by  means  of  split  cant*;  or  with  the  stems  of  the 
same  palm-leaf,  which,  after  being  drilled  and  deprived  of  their 
thorns,  are  placed  vertically  between  two  boards  in  such  a  way 
that  the  hollow  part  of  the  stem  fits  tightly  over  the  half-roimdei 
part  of  the  succeeding  one.  In  this  way  a  very  light  but  water*' 
tight  outside  covering  is  formed,  and  gives  to  the  house  a  not  un- 
pleasant appearance,  for  the  dried  stems  exhibit  a  brown  gloss, 
as  if  they  were  polished.  The  doorway,  in  the  middle  of  the 
front  of  the  house,  leads  into  a  spacious  room,  which  represents 
the  reception-room  for  visitors.  On  the  floor  of  this  room,  which 
is  covered  with  split-bamboo  matting  of  rather  wide  meshes,  are 
out  other  mats,  made  of  fine  grass  or  bark.    Belonging  to 

;h  mat  is  a  bolster,  with  a  cover  of  bright  calico  print,  having 
its  ends  ornamented  with  embroidery.  From  each  side  of  the  re- 
ception-room are  openings  leading  into  the  other  rooms.  These 
rooms  are  divided  into  sitting  and  bed  rooms,  and  they  are 
adorned  with  fancy  colored  boxes  made  out  of  palm-leaves,  and 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOyTffi 


having  figures  worked  uix>n  them  with  differently  colored  bark 
aud  beads  of  small  shells.  Placed  one  upr>u  another,  thesws  boxes 
are  gotxi  substitutes  for  cupboards  aud  chests  of  drawer«,  wliile 
a  strong,  roughly  made  timber  chest,  provided  with  a  clumsy 
lock  of  iron  or  brass,  contains  the  family  treasures,  jewels,  heir- 
looms, weapons,  aud  emblems.  An  assemblage  of  hute  or  housed 
forms  a  village.  The  villages  are  surrounded  by  walls  of  coral, 
aud  are  for  the  most  part  situated  on  the  sea-shore. 

Each  village  has  an  allotment  of  land,  the  bouudarios  of  which 
are  established  by  the  chiefs.  Here  the  native  raaj-  fell  his  tim- 
ber, cultivate  a  garden,  or  cut  down  the  sago-palm,  which  fur- 
nishes his  principal  food.  The  cocoanut-trees,  however,  are  re- 
garded as  general  property,  aud  are  under  the  is,  "of 
chiefs,  without  whose  orders  not  a  nut  may  be  i-:  ;*r- 
vest-time.  Then,  on  a  day  appointed  for  this  purpose,  the  whole 
village  will  set  out  to  gather  them,  when  each  one  will  receive  a 
number  proportioned  to  his  rank  and  station. 

When  a  native  child  is  strong  enough  to  assist  his  pareuUi  in 
their  daily  C)CCupation,  he  has  to  accompany  them  to  the  garden, 
the  boat-l>uilding  yard,  or  some  other  place  of  general  work- 
Children  of  from  three  to  five  years  of  age  may  be  seen  occupied 
in  trying  their  skill  in  carving  ornamental  figures  such  Ofi  an* 
used  for  the  figure-heads  of  boats,  or  in  cutting  out  vessels  and 
rigging  them,  or  the  boys  will  asr^ist  their  fathers  at  the  building 
of  a  boat  or  a  house.  Although  they  are  without  all  proper 
drawing  materials,  the  artistic  and  constructive  talent  is  almoot 
universally  manifested  among  them.    The  chiMr*  ^  "n  try- 

ing their  skill  by  drawing,  on  a  smooth,  flat  Hurfii  -'  MUid« 

houses,  animals,  steam  and  sailing  boats,  and  I  have  been  always 
struck  by  the  symmetry  of  their  work.  The  children  are  iUM>med 
marriageable  at  fifteen  j'ears  of  age,  but  arrangements  for  mating 
the  female  children  are  made  as  soon  as  may  be  after  their  birth. 

AVhen  disputes  relating  to  boundaries  arise  between  differont 
villages,  each  of  the  quarreling  districts  elects  a  jx^rson  aud  com- 
mits him  to  the  judgment  of  the  god,  who,  it  is  believixl,  will  let 
the  party  iu  the  wrong  die  within  three  mouth&  If  uo  harm  bo- 
falls  either  party  after  the  lapse  of  that  time,  the  land  in  disputu 
is  divided  equally. 

The  chief  talent  of  the  natives  is  for  boat-building.  Tho  vym- 
metric^il  construction  of  their  vessela,  large  and  small,  would  as- 
tonish a  European  ship-builder,  and  ■  *'  .  ,»  i  i  ^^ 
they  have  nothing  but  the  most  roUi^;  ho 
tools  are  made  by  natives  of  Toor.  In  nearly  every  village  wo 
find  a  snr*^'  ■*  ;>'lished,  who  is  employed  from  - v— ■—  **'>  -  -  ,"ht 
melting  .  ils  in  a  charcoal-fire,  which  l  liy 
meaoA  of  a  primitive  pair  of  bvUowg  moved  by  the  operator** 


« 


OF 


DUTCH  EAST  IXI>I£S.       ^ 


Lt*lpmate.  This  apparatus  consists  of  two  bamboo  cylinders, 
mt  two  feet  long,  at  the  bottom  of  each  of  which  a  small  bam- 
convoys  the  current  of  air  into  a  still  smaller  one,  leading  into 
the  charcoal-fire.  Each  of  these  bamboo  cylinders  contains  a 
Bpear  of  the  same  material,  at  the  lower  end  of  which  are  tied 
bunches  of  feathers.  Generally  a  native  of  Key  will  prefer  the 
rough  workmanship  of  the  tools  made  by  the  village  blacksmith 
to  the  finely  finished  and  polished  ones  imported  from  Europe. 

The  natives  are  largely  engaged  in  felling  and  selling  timber. 
For  felling  the  trees  the  woodman  uses  a  wedge-shaped  axe  only, 
by  which  he  is  able  to  cut  down  the  largest  tree.  After  lopping 
off  all  the  branches  and  bark,  ho  squares  the  trunk  in  such  a  skDl- 
,ful  though  wasteful  manner  that,  as  a  rule,  the  four  sides  repre- 
sent exactly  the  same  dimensions.  The  islands  produce  large 
quantities  of  various  kinds  of  very  hard  and  soft  timber,  suitable 
for  different  branches  of  building,  but  the  most  valued  sort  is  the 
haymn,  or  New  Guinea  teak,  called  by  the  natives  by  a  Malay 
word  signifying  iron-wood,  because  of  its  flexibility  and  durabil- 
ity, and  its  imniunity  from  the  attacks  of  white  ants.  Mother-of- 
pearl  shell  is  found  in  the  bays  and  inlets,  and  other  valuable 
shells  are  plentiful  Tortoise-shell  is  exported  in  very  small 
h  quantity. 

On  the  perpendicular  face  of  a  cliff  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
Nuhu-roa  are  to  be  seen  rude  native  drawings  of  various  shapes 
and  meanings,  chiseled  in  the  rock,  which  appear  to  have  been 
once  filled  in  with  red  pigment.  It  is  a  marvel  how  the  chiseler 
could  have  been  suspended  over  these  very  steep  rocks,  so  as  to 
I  bo  able  to  engrave  the  figures.  The  eye  may  distinctly  perceive 
inch  forms  as  a  little  sailing  boat,  a  human  head,  hand,  foot,  star- 
fish, tombstones,  and  many  other  objects ;  and  it  is  strange  that 
similar  figures  are  still  drawn  and  painted  on  various  articles  in 
use.  Natives,  on  being  questioned  about  these  rock -engravings, 
answer  that  they  can  not  account  for  them,  nor  were  their  fathers 
before  them  any  wiser ;  but  they  think  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead 
suspend  themselves  over  the  cliffs  at  midnight  aud  engrave  them. 

(All  natives  shun  the  spot,  and  by  no  means  whatever  can  they 
be  induced  to  climb  the  cliff  in  order  to  copy  these  strange  draw- 
ings.   No  native  can  be  persuaded  to  accompany  a  European  to 
this  spot,  where,  according  to  their  belief,  the  spirits  hold  their 
meetings.    Certain  trees  are  also  held  sacred,  and  believed  to  be 
the  abotle  of  an  invisible  god,  to  whom  the  native  offers  sacrifice 
whenever  any  mishap  occurs  in  his  family,  or  when  one  of  its 
lembers  leaves  home  to  go  over  the  sea.    The  sacrifices  are  made 
in  the  fcdlowing  manner :  Some  c<^»lced  sago  or  rice  is  wrapped 
in  a  palm-leaf,  and,  before  tying  the  same  with  a  piece  of  split 
in  the  shape  of  a  parcel,  tho  person  sacrificing  scrapes  over 

TOL.  ZJEZr. — 14 


the  sago  or  rice,  by  means  of  a  kuife,  file,  or  any  other  ahai 
edged  stone,  a  little  gold-dust  off  his  ornaments.    After  thin  hi 
^heen  done,  he  ties  the  parcel  together  and  snitpends  it  by  rT>*»arii*  f4 
a  split  cano  from  a  branch  of  the  sacred  tree,  un'i 
era  to  his  god.    In  some  parts  of  the  island  the  ts ;. . .  <, .  ' 

these  sacred  trees,  ornamented  from  top  to  bottom,  liko  o  t 
Christmas-tree,  with  these  odd -looking  palm-leuf  parcehw    in 
other  parts  of  the  Key  group  there  ore  still  found  public  p] 
for  sacrificing,  consisting  of  a  fancifol  carved  box,  elevated  on 
polo  about   four  or  five  feet  high.    The  sacrifice  is  oonveji 
through  a  small  opening  in  the  box.    Some  places  are  ahum 
by  the  natives,  who  prefer  walking  a  long  distance  cmt  of 
direct  way,  to  being  obliged  to  pass  the  haunted  spot  where 
imaginary  Satan  and   his  followers  are  supposed  to  hold  th< 
meetings. — Abridged  from  ihe  Proceadiiuja  of  the  Royal  Qtogra\ 
ical  Society. 


SKETCH  OF  JOSEPH  LOVERINa 


r- 

I 


A  COMPANY  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  gontlomeii  di*-  j 
tinguished  in  science  and  literature  sat  down  a  few  monthdl^| 
ago  to  a  banquet  in  the  H6tel  Vendome,  Boston.  T'  "  '  vul  was^ 
one  tendered  by  his  colleagues,  classmates,  and  i  i  >  Prof. 

Joseph  Lovering  in  honor  of  the  distinction  he  enjoyed  of  hav- 
ing served  for  fifty  j'-cars  as  a  professor  in  Harvanl  College.    H 
was  the  first  professor  who  lield  that  position  for  so  long  a  time. 
Previous  to  entering  upon  this  office,  he  hud  served  two  years 
tutor ;  and,  adding  the  two  terms  together^  his  was  the  aeoood 
longest  period  of  consecutive  service  recorded  in  ihe  hiatory  of 
the  institution.    President  Eliot  presided  nt  the  banquet,  and  the 
tables  were  occupied  by  members  of  the  Board  of  Overseers,  t 
teaching  faculty,  and  distinguished  graduates  and  friends  of  th 
oldest  American  institution  of  learning.    The  speakers  wore 
many  to  be  specified  here ;  and  we  shall  have  to  he  aatiafied  wt 
saying  that  their  names  are  associated  with  what  is  bett  in  tb 
thought  and  learning  of  the  period.     A  '      «cone  t* 

leasod  in  this  city  at  the  dinner  of  th"  rd  Club 

Slst  of  February,  I8S9,  when  Prof.  Lovering,  being  a  guost,  re- 
ceived congratulations. 

Joseph  Lovslrino  was  bom  in  Charlestown,  Masa.,  Deoem 
Sr>,  1813.    His  father  was  surveyor  of  ic€%  wood,  and  lombtir.    He 
attended  a  grammar  school  of  his  native  town,  m"' 
to  liavo  outrun  the  capacity  of  his  teachers;  for 
him  that  hu  wont  through  Ccdburu's  Algebra  by  huuMlf,  mauit 


cr^um  [3 


SKETCH  OF  JOSEPH  LOVERIKG. 


69. 


thexD  having  any  knowledge  of  th©  subject.  He  was  afterward 
fitttKl  for  college  under  bis  pastor,  the  Rev.  Dr.  James  Walker, 
subsequently  Professor  and  President  of  Harvard  University,  to 
whom  he  recited  daily,  entered  the  sophomore  class  at  Harvard 
in  1830,  and  was  graduated  in  1833.  He  entered  the  Divinity 
School  in  Cambridge  in  the  fall  of  1834,  and  remained  there  two 
years,  but  was  practically  employed  in  te-aching  almost  constantly 
after  gi*a<luation :  in  the  first  year,  in  a  small  private  school  in 
Charlestown;  in  l834-'35,  as  assistant  to  Prof.  Peirce  in  the  in- 
Btmction  of  the  college  classes  in  mathematics;  in  1835-'36,  as 
proctor  and  instmctor  in  mathematics;  in  1836-'37,  as  tutor  in 
mathematics  and  lecturer  in  natural  philosophy;  and  from  1838 
to  18S8,  as  Mollis  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philoso- 
phy. Retiring  from  this  active  professorship  after  fifty  years 
of  service,  he  became,  as  he  still  is,  Hollis  Professor  Emeritus. 
Ho  acted  as  Regent  in  1853-51  during  Prof.  Felton's  absence  in 
Europe;  succeeded  to  that  office  in  1857,  and  held  it  till  1870;  but 
passed  a  year's  leave  of  absence — given  to  him  in  consideration  of 
his  long  and  uninterrupted  services  to  the  college — in  i868-'G!>,  in 
Europe.  Wlien  the  Jefferson  Physical  Laborat<:»ry  was  opened 
in  \9^i,  he  was  appointed  its  director,  and  during  the  four  years 
of  his  administration  made  annual  reports  of  its  activities. 

While  his  college  duties  demaiidetl  the  largest  share  of  his 
time  and  his  best  thoughts,  he  found  and  improved  opportunities 
to  make  a  good  record  of  other  work — all  for  the  increase  and 
dissemination  of  knowledga  Among  these  extra-collegiate  exer- 
cises were  nine  courses,  of  twelve  lectures  each,  and  each  lecture 
delivered  to  two  different  audiences  in  the  earlier  years,  oa 
astronomy  and  physics,  at  the  Lowell  Institute ;  shorter  ooursee 
of  lectures  at  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  Peabody  Institute 
of  Baltimore,  and  the  Charitable  Mechanics'  Institution  of  Boston ; 
and  single  lectures  in  different  towns  and  cities  in  New  England. 
Ho  edited,  in  1842,  at  the  request  of  the  author,  a  new  oflition  of 
Farrar's  "  Electricity  and  Magnetism."  One  of  his  essays  on  the 
aurora  borealis,  in  the  "Memoirs"  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  fills  a  thick  quarto  volume.  Other  memoirs, 
on  terrestrial  magnetism,  the  aurora,  the  determination  of  trans- 
atlantic longitudes,  etc..  published  in  the  same  series,  attest  the 
fertility  of  his  reftearches. 

As  Permanent  Secretary  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  from  1S54  to  1873,  Prof.  Levering  edited 
fifteen  volumes  of  its  "Proceedings."  Retiring  from  this  office 
tm  being  elected  President  of  the  Association  for  1873,  he  put 
upon  record  that,  when  he  entered  upon  its  duties  at  the  eighth 
meeting  of  the  Asst^ciation,  the  body  had  an  annual  income  of 
only  a  few  hundred  dollars,  and  waa  dop<indent  upon  the  gener- 


692 


THE  POPULAR  SCFS^CS  MONTHLY. 


osity  of  the  cities  where  it  met  for  the  publication  of  it£  *'  ProJ 

LCeedings."    Since  that  time  it  had  been  able  to  pay  all  its  oxpense*, 
^ad  acquired  a  valuable  stock  of  "  Proceedings/'  and  po^^esitod  a 
CAsh  balance  amounttug  (with  interest)  to  more  than  twothoa-, 
sand  dollars.    As  president  of  the  Portland  meeting  of  1873,  hw 
emphasized,  in  his  reception  address,  as  the  one  object  of  the  Asso, 
ciation,  the  advancement  of  science  in  the  United  States,    "  Few 
of  us/'  ho  said, "  can  aspire  to  the  honor  of  bein^f  discoverers  of' 
the  laws  of  nature,  in  the  high  sense  of  that  phrase.    But  no  one, , 
however  humble  his  capacities^  or  however  limited  his  oppjorto- 
nities,  who  labors  for  Bcieuce,  will  fail  to  advance  it  and  be  re- 
warded by  it.    We  meet  together  from  year  to  year,  the  reterans  1 
in  science,  with  the  younger  '^  for  di:-'  '         ny 

more  who  long  to  catch  the  eiu  tinge  of  1  .  ich 

Science  has  to  say  in  regard  to  the  earth  under  our  feel  or  tho 
LBtars  above  us;  a  few  to  apealc  but  many  more  to  li  '  '  ich 
Hoing  his  part  to  advance  science,  either  by  acti  or 

encouraging  sympathy.  Our  brief  meetings  allow  us  no  leisure 
\Mfy  listen  to  what  is  old  or  to  what  may  be  read  in  booka,  or  to 
flittering  generalities,  or  ingenious  speculations  on  the  universe^ 
unsupported  by  evidence  and  individual  investigation,  But  any 
new  fact,  however  microscopic,  any  new  investigation,  whether  it 
concerns  a  planet  or  an  atom,  any  new  experiment  in  which  a  law 
of  nature  is  made  more  palj)able  and  convincing,  finds  witli  us  a 
ready  welcome/*  Tho  members,  he  added,  did  not  concern  them- 
selves with  the  utility  of  the  truths  which  were  communicated  at 
these  meetings.    If  they  had  no  immediate  pr;f  it  was 

sufficient  for  them  that  thoy  were  true  and  ri  ^  ,-:aiu  of 

the  Creator,  "  It  is  impossible  for  the  man  of  science  to  son 
Xwo  masters,  the  Kingdom  of  Nature  and  Mammon.  It  is  a  dan- 
gerous thing  for  him  to  be  thinking  of  the  utility  of  hia  diacor- 
eries,  or  of  the  pecuniary  profit  which  may  bo  made  out  of  them.' 
In  his  retiring  address,  in  1874,  which  was  publish*?d  in  tho 
**  Monthly  "  for  December,  1874,  and  Januar>%  1875,  Prof.  Tj'>vt>ring 
8poke  of  "  Instruments  in  Physical  Progress  "  and  **  M^i  al 

Investigations  in  Physics," and  sketched  the  resources  u.^-.  ^-..^at 
attitude  of  the  physical  sciences.  He  presented  the  view  that 
"  the  groat  problem  of  the  day  is  how  to  subject  ai '  ho- 

nomuua  to  dynamical  laws.    With  all  the  experi: _-   .^   .cea 

and  all  the  mathematical  appliances  of  this  generation,  ike  human 
mind  has  been  baffled  in  its  att*  ■  ' -al 

science  of  physics.    But  nothing  lit! 

in  one  direction,  it  will  attack  in  anothar.    Science  la  Boi  destriie*! 

W        ^ -     -ivo;  whi*    ''     ^'        ■        '     -         '■     -     *     -    .      ■ 

1  ..^  are  wt 

We  may  extend  to  all  the  theories  of  physical  scienoe  tho  remarls  1 


SKETCH  OF  JOSEPH  LOVERIKG. 


69J 


I 


J 

I 

I 


of  Grote,  which  Challis  quotes  in  favor  of  his  own :  '  Its  fruit- 
fulness  is  its  correctibility,'  Instead  of  being  disheartcnod  by 
difBculties,  the  true  man  of  science  will  congratulate  himself  in 
the  words  of  Vauvenargiies,  that  he  lives  in  a  world  fertile  in 
obstacles.  Immoi'tality  would  be  no  boon  if  there  were  not 
something  left  to  discover  as  well  as  to  love  \  *' 

Thb  Observatory  of  Harvard  Uku'ersity.— M.  W.  C. 
Bond  started  a  private  observatory  at  his  house  in  Dorchester, 
wliere  he  observed  eclipses  and  occultations,  as  far  back  as  18:20. 
In  1840  he  was  induced  by  President  Quincy  to  remove  to  Cam- 
bridge with  his  transit-instrument  and  other  appointments,  which 
wore  supplemented  by  some  telescopes,  sextants,  etc.,  belonging  to 
the  college.  Prof,  Lovering  was  associated  with  him  in  the  man*| 
agement  of  this  primitive  observatory.  Its  location  was  in  a  pri* 
vate  house  belonging  to  the  college,  in  which  Mr.  Bond  and  Prof, 
Lovering  took  up  their  residence.  Humboldt  had  induced  the 
Royal  Society  of  London  to  co-operate  in  making  simultaneous 
observations  on  the  elements  of  terrestrial  magnetism  in  Great 
Britain  and  its  colonies.  The  only  stations  on  this  Western  Con- 
tinent were  at  Toronto,  Canada,  and  in  Philadelphia  and  Cam- 
bridge. Prof.  Bache,  afterward  Chief  of  the  United  States  Coast 
Sxirvey,  conducted  the  observations  in  Philaflelphia,  Mr,  Bond 
and  Prof.  Lovering  had  charge  of  the  observations  in  Cambridg0,J 
These  observations  were  to  be  made  simultaneously  all  over  tho 
earth,  and  with  instniments  constructed  acconling  to  the  Gaus8' < 
pattern.  Cambridge  was  supplied  with  a  set  of  these  instru-^ 
menta  by  the  generosity  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.  , 

Ail,  on  one  day  of  each  month,  observations  were  to  be  madei 
every  five  minutes  on  three  different  instruments,  day  and  nightj 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  curves  of  diurnal  variation  in  then 
magnetic  elements,  tho  assistance  of  a  few  competent  and  zpalous 
undergraduates  was  freely  ofFere<l  and  gladly  accepted.    Of  these,: 
Thomas  Hill,  afterward  President  of  Harvard  College,  and  Ben-^ 
jamin  A.  GJould,  now  the  distinguiahetl  astronomer,  deserve  spe- 
cial mention.    Prof.  Benjamin  Poirce  rendered  valuable  service^ 
not  only  by  assisting  in  the  observations  on  the  special  days  ofP 
each  month,  but  in  applying  the  Gauss  theory  to  the  calculation 
of  the  magnetic  elements  for  Cambridge.    Mr,  Hill  was  employed 
in  reducing  the  weekly  moans  to  empirical  formulte  by  the  method 
of  Prof.  Peirce. 

Profs.  Peirce  and  Lovering  wore  co-editors  of  the  "Mathe- 
matical Miscellany,"  published  at  Cambridge,  and  devoted  to  pure 
and  applied  mathematics.  The  essays  contributed  by  Prof.  Lov- 
ering are  enumerated  in  the  annexed  catalogue  of  his  publica- 
tions.   A  gentleman  who  has  achieved  a  world-wide  reputation  in 


694 


science  has  recently  written  of  Prof.  Lovering^'ji  articles  that  th«y 
impressed  him  as  few  others  had  ever  done.  "  It  will  surprise  him 
to  know  it;  yet  it  is  true  that  the  ideas  then  pHsJojiUid,  and  with 
an  elegance  worthy  of  their  breadth  and  power,  affected  the  wbfila 
tenor  and  tendency  of  my  thoughts,  and  thus  of  my  snbsecioeut 
life.  At  this  moment  I  could  repeat  by  memory  lon^  [MiAstaKt^t 
from  these  articles.    They  were  upon  *  The  lutern;  irn 

of  Bodies/  *  The  Application  of  Mathematical  Auuly.  /■ :  - .  •! 

Research/ *  The  Divisibility  of  Matter/  etc/'    And  ho  co; 
the  style  of  parts  of  thorn  with  that  of  the  most  classic  ptusMi^^ 
in  Babbage's  "  Ninth  Bridgewatcr  Treatise.'* 

Mr.  Rv  W.  Emerson  published  the  following  notice  for  the 
"  Dial " :  •  "  We  rejoice  in  the  appearance  of  the  first  number  of 
this  quarterly  journal  edited  by  Prof.  Peirce.  Int^  its  matho- 
matics  we  have  not  ventured ;  but  the  chapters  on  astronomy  and 
physics  we  read  with  great  advantage  and  refreshment.  Eape- 
crially  wc  thank  Prof.  Lovering  for  the  beautiful  essay  on  the 
*  Internal  Eiquilibrium  and  Motion  of  Bodies/  which  is  the*  most 
agreeable  contribution  to  scientific  literature  which  has  falbin 
under  our  eye  since  Sir  Charles  Bell's  book  on  the  hand»  and 
brings  to  mind  the  clear,  transparent  writings  of  Davy  and  Play- 
fair.  Surely  this  was  not  written  to  be  read  in  a  corner,  and  we 
anticipate  the  best  success  for  this  new  joumaL" 

Prof.  Lovoring  is  a  member  of  the  American  Arademy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences  in  Boston ;  was  its  corresponding  secretary  for  many 
years ;  was  afterward  its  vice-president,  and  its  president  siuco  1880. 
He  is  also  a  member  of  the  National  A      '  ^  - 

Americ-an  Historical  Society  of  Phil.       , 
.cademy  of  Sciences,  and  of  the  Buffalo  Historical  Society*    lo 


)nnection  with  the  work  of  the  United  Stutes  Coast  Sti^ 
[867  to  1870,  he  had  charge  of  the  computations  for  d* 


acrosai 


the 

T»h. 
'>r 


differences  of  longitude  in   the  United  States  and 
^Atlantic  Ocean,  by  means  of  the  land  and  cable  lin<-      * 

[e  was  for  some  years  one  of  the  trustees  of  the  T.. 
the  endowment  of  scientific  research,  and  is  now 
trustees  of  the  Poabody  Museum  of  Archeology  and 
Besides  the  papers  already  mentioned.  Prof.  Lovering  ' 
other  articles  to  the  *'  Memoirs  *'  and  "  PrweiMlings  *'  of 
can  Academy,  and  scieutiHc  articles  and  reviews  lo  th<- 
ings  of  the  American  Association/'  the  "  American  Journal  of 
Science,"  the  "Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,**  ^ '  '  '  ^in 
Almanac,"  the  "  North  American  Review/'  the  '  *  r'.x* 

aminer/'  «  Old  and  New,"  and  "  The  Popular  Science  Monthly." 
The  following  is  a  list  of  these  contributions : 


ri- 

c-d- 


•  Vol.  m,  p.  151. 


3KBTCH  OF  JOSEPH  LOVSRIl^. 


695 


1.  **  An  Account  of  the  Magnetio  OhservAtions  msdo  at  the  M&i^oU(>  ObBcrrn- 
tory  of  IFarvard  CoU«ge."  ^In  two  parts  ('*  Memoirs  of  the  Amerioao  Academj," 
vol.  ii,  1840.) 

S.  "  On  the  Secular  Poriodloity  of  the  A  orora  Borealta  "  (ibid.,  toI.  \x). 

8.  "  Oa  the  DetenniiuitioD  of  Transatlantic  Longitudes  bj  Means  of  the  Tolo- 
grsphio  Gables"  (ibid.,  1867). 

4.  "  Catalogue  of  Aororaa  observed,  mostly  at  Combrid^  after  1888  "  (Ibid^ 
ToL  X,  1868). 

5.  "  On  the  Periodicity  of  the  Aarora  Borealis.^'  In  two  ports  (ibid.,  with 
pUtea,  1868). 

6.  "  On  tho  Cuases  of  the  Differenoe  in  the  Streo^h  of  Ordinary  Msfrneta  and 


Electro- Magnets,  of  tlic  some  Size  and  Shap«.' 
Academy,"  vol.  ii). 

T.  "  On  the  Law  of  Oontinnity  "  (Ibid.). 

8.  •*  On  the  Aneroid  Barometer  "  (ibid.). 

P.  "Electrical  Experiment"  (ibid.,  vol  tv). 


(**  Proceedings  uf  Lite  Amerii'aa 


(ibid.,  ToL  if). 


10.  "  On  the  Connection  of  Electricity  with  Tornadoes 

n.  "On  OoronjD  and  Halos"  (ibid). 

19.  "On  Iho  SpeclroBCopo "  (ibid.,  vol.  iii). 

18.  "On  the  Bioscope  "(ibid.). 

14.  '^  Apparatus  for  Rapid  Rotations  "  (ibid.). 

15.  **6hapo  of  Luminons  Spots  in  Solar  Eclipses"  (ibid.). 
15.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  John  Farrar  "  (ibid.). 

"  Nolioe  of  the  Death  of  Melloni  "  (ibid.). 

"  New  Apparatus  and  Ezpcrimcota  in  Optics  and  Aoonsttea  "  (ibid.). 

"  Arago*B  Opinion  of  Talile-Moving  "  (ibid.), 

"On  FoBsers  Gyroscope"  (ibid.). 

"  Apparatns  to  rognlato  the  Electric  Light"  (Ibid.). 

"  Doe?  the  MlBsissippi  River  flow  Up-liill  f  "  (ibid.). 

53.  "Report  on  Ilwigcook's  Quadrant"  (ibid.). 

54.  "On  the  Boomerang  "  (ibid.,  toL  iv). 
"  Report  on  Meteorological  Obscrvalionfl  "  (ibid.). 
"  On  the  Oooan  Cable  "  (ibid.). 
"  Co  the  Polarization  of  the  Light  of  Comets  "  (ibid.). 
"  Report  on  the  Polar  Expedition  of  Dr,  I.  I.  Hayes  "  (ibid.), 
**0d  Records  of  the  Aurora  Borealls  "  (ibid.), 
"  First  Observations  on  the  Aurora  in  New  England  "  (Ibid.). 
"Notice  of  the  Death  of  Biot"  (\\i\\^^  vol.  ii). 
"  On  the  Velocity  of  Light  and  the  Son's  Distance  "  (ibid.). 
"  Notice  of  the  Death  of  O.  M.  Mitchell "  Obid.). 

84.  "On  the  Optical  Method  of  studying  Sonnd  "  (^bid.,  toL  rli). 

85.  "On  the  Periodicity  of  the  Aurora  BoreaJia"  (ibid.,  toI.  vlii,  1878). 
80.  "On  the  French  Republican  CaJendar  "  (ibid.). 

87.  "  Application  of  Electricity  to  the  Motion  of  Tuning-Forks**  (Ibid.). 

88.  "  On  Optical  Meteorology  "  (ibid.). 

89.  "  On  Transatlantic  Longitudes  "  (ibid.). 

40.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  William  Mitchell "  (Ibid.). 

41.  "  Kotioo  of  the  Death  of  Fortday  "  (ibid). 

42.  "Notice  of  the  Death  of  David  Brewster"  (ibid.). 

43.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  J.  W.  F.  Hcrschel "  (ibid.). 

44.  "  NoUoe  of  the  Death  of  Christopher  Hanstecn  '*  (ibid^  vol.  tz). 


17. 
18. 
IQ. 
30. 
21. 
29. 


S6. 

27. 
28. 
22. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
88. 


696 


THE  POPULAR  SCTBN^CS  MOT< 


62. 

Gibhs' 

63. 

64. 


46.  "  Kotico  of  the  Death  of  Aupnstfl  A.  ile  U  Kivc  "  (itiii!.). 

46.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  Joioes  Wblkcr  "  (lbia.«  vol.  x). 

47.  *'  Notice  of  the  Deatb  of  Joe«pb  Wialock  *^  (ibi<L,  toI,  ri). 

48.  "Notice  of  the  Death  of  Alexis  Caswell  "  (Ibid.,  vol.  rili). 

49.  **Notlre  of  the  Death  of  John  U.  Temple  "  (ibid.,  roU  xHt)- 

60.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  Joseph  Ilenrj  "  (ibid.,  toU  xiv). 

61.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  H.  W.  Dove"  Obid.,  vol.  xv), 
"  Addreaa  as  Preaident  od  preaeattng  the  Btunford  Ucdal  to  J.  WiQflrd 
■  (ibid.,  Tol.  ivi). 

**  ADtloipatioaa  of  the  Ltsa^ooa  Currea  **  (IMd.). 
"Notiooa  of  the  Deaths  of  Richard  IL  Doua,  of  Edirard  D«»or,  aad  of 

fohn  W.  Draper"  (ibid.,  vol.  ivii). 

66.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  Sir  Edward  Sabine  '*  (Ibid.,  vol.  x<x). 

6fi.  *'  Address  of  the  Prcaident  on  Preseotbg  the  Rnmford  Medal  to  IT.  A. 
Rowland  "(ibid.). 

67.  *'  Address  as  Prealdeot  on  preaentiog  the  Ramford  Medal  to  &  T.  Laag- 
lejr  "  (ibid.,  voL  rxii). 

68.  "  Notice  of  the  Death  of  Gastav  Robert  Kir  '  l.»  vol.  itiii). 
68*.  **  Addroas  as  President  on  presenting  the  Hu'                Jiil  to  A.  A.  Micbal- 

son  '*  (ibid.,  voL  xxiv). 

58^.  "  The  *  Mtcanique  C61e«t« '  of  Laplace,  and  its  TransUtiou  by  Bowdltdb  " 
(ibid.,  vol.  iiiv). 

69.  *'  On  the  Electro-dynaraio  Forces  "  ("  Proceedings  of  the  Ameiieaii  Aaao- 
elation  for  the  Advuncement  of  Science  **  (vol.  ii). 

60.  **On  a  Curious  Phenoujeoi.m  relating  to  Vieion"  (ihid.>, 

61,  **  On  a  Singular  Case  of  Interference  in  the  Eye  itaelf  **  (ibid.,  rol.  tU), 

63.  **0n  a  Modification  of  So1eil*B  Polarixing  Apporatua**  (ibid.). 

68.  '*  On  the  Australian  Weapon  called  the  Boomemng  **  (ibtd.,  vvi.  xi»). 

64.  "  On  tht!  Optical  Method  of  studying  Sound  *"  (ibid.,  vol  xvl). 

65.  "On  the  Periodicity  of  the  Aurora  Borealis"  (iMd.,  vol  xvi,  1868). 

66.  '*  Sympathetic  Vibrations  botvocn  Tuning-Forlu  and  Stretched  ConU* 
(ibid^  vol.  xvl). 

07.  **  On  Methods  of  lUnstruting  Optica]  Meteorology  "  (Ibid.,  to3.  xlx,  1671X 
00.  "  On  Synopathetio  Vibrations  "  (Ibid.,  vol  xxi,  and  ''Journal  of  the  Praak- 
iDstttnte,"  May,  1878). 

69.  **  Addresflos  aa  President  at  the  Portland  Meeting*^  (Proee«dlai:a  of  tli« 
A*  A.  A.  8.,  vol.  xxiii). 

70.  **0n  a  Nov  Way  of  iUastratlD^'  the  Vibratlona  of  Air  la  Or^uk-Flpa** 
(ibid.,  vol.  xxiii). 

71.  "  AddrcAS  as  Rctiriog  President,  A.  A.  A.  S."  (i^id..  vol.  xxiti,  rapobMied 
in  *'The  Popular  Bcionce  Monthly,"  ''American  JonmAl  of  Scienc«v'*  u4  tL« 
"  London  Pbiloaophioal  Mngazino  "). 

73.  "  On  a  Now  Method  of  monsurlng  the  Velocity  of  Elcctriaity  "  ("  ProaM^- 
Ings  of  the  Ani*^c(»n  Awociation  for  Llie  AdvancccDcnt  of  Sdciicft,**  ?ol  XMSCf^ 
alao  "Journal  do  Physique,"  tome  vl). 

78.  **  Shooting  Stars  "  (*'  American  Jooraal  of  8c1«al-«,**  vol.  iixt ). 
*'Tho  American  Primo  Meridian  "  (Ibid.,  N.  8.,  voh  Ix,  1600), 
»*Tho  Aneroid  Barometer"  (ibid.,  N,  8u  Tol  Ix.  I860.) 
**0n  tb«  VeloolKy  of  Light  and  tha  8as*i  PitUoec  "  (ihU 


74. 

76. 

76. 

xxxTi). 


4 

i 

i 


77.  "  Mollonl's  R«««flrchcs  on  Badlant  Dtftl^  ('*  American  AlottBap/'  X\ 


SKETCH  OF  JOSEPH  LOVERTyO, 


697 


78.  "  Animal  Electriinty  "  (ibM.,  1851). 

T9.  **  Recent  Discovorica  in  Aitrouomy  "  (Ibid.,  1852). 

80.  "  ComeU  "  (ibid.,  1858). 

81.  "Atmospherical  Electricity"  (ibiJ.,  18^4  ami  1856). 
'*  Lightning  and  Ligbtning-Roda"  (i****^*  186C). 
"Terrestrial  MflKnelism"  (ibid.,  18B7). 

84.  "  Theories  of  Terrestrial  Magnotiam  "  (ibid.,  1858), 
8fi.  "On  the  Boomerang"  (ibid.,  1863). 

"  On  the  Aurora  Borcalia  and  Aastralifl  "  (ibid.,  1800). 

*'0n  Moleorology"  (ibid.,  1861). 


83. 
83. 


Sfl. 
67. 


88.  "On  the  Prepare  of  the  Atmosphere  and  the  Barometer  '*  (ibid.,  1862). 

REVIEWS,  ETC. 

89.  "Guyot's  Pbysioal  Goograpby  "  ("  Christian  Eiaminer,"  vol.  xlvii). 

90.  "  Unmboldt'a  Coimoa"  (ibid.,  vol.  ilviii). 

91.  "  Skepticism  in  Science  "  (ibid.,  toI.  11). 

92.  '*  Spiritual  Mechanic  **  (ibid.,  vol.  Iv). 

93.  "  Tlioiupson  aod  KaemU  on  Meteorology ''  ("  Korth  Amdrioan  RettoV,** 
vol  Ixxi). 

04.  *' Elementary  Works  on  Physical  Science"  O^d.,  vol  Ixiil). 
96.  "  Michael  Faraday  "  ("  Old  and  Noflr,"  vol  I). 

96.  '^Reporta  on  Light honsea.^*     By  Benjamin  Poirce  and  Joseph  Z^overtng 
("Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,"  vol  xviii). 

97.  "Oo   the   Internal  Equilibrium   and   Motion  of  Bodies"   ('^Oambridgo 
Mathematical  Miscellany,"  vol  i). 

98.  "On  the  Application  of  Mathematical  Analysia  to  Researches  in  the  Phyt- 
ioal  Soiences  "  (ibid.). 

99.  ••  Encke's  Oomet "  C^id.). 

100.  "  The  rMviaibility  of  Matter  "  (ibid.) 

101.  "  Boston  and  Science  *'  ('*  Memorial  Ilistory  of  Borton,"  vol  Iv). 
103.  "Article  on  the  Telegraph  "  ("  American  Cyclopicdifl,*'  last  eiiition). 
108.  "  Address  at  the  Dedication  of  the  Mural  Mouutueut  to  the  Memory  of 

Dr.  James  Walker,"  In  tho  Oarvard  Chnrch,  Charleatown. 


SUBJECTS  OF  LECTURES  AT  THE  LOWELL  INSTTTUTB. 

1840-'4L  "Electricity  and  MagDotiam." 

l&41-'42.  "Mechanics." 

1849-'48.  "Astronomy." 

184a-'44.  "Optica." 

1846-'4fl,  "Aatronomy." 

185»-'54.  "  Electricity  and  Magnetism." 

1859-'00.  "Astronomy." 

18e5-'9fl.  "  Light  and  Sound." 

1879-'80.  "  Connection  of  the  Physical  Soiences." 

Prof.  Levering  also  edited  six  volumes,  from  V  to  X  inolusive, 
and  part  of  Voliirao  XI,  of  tho  "  Memoirs  "  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  and  Sciences :  also  the  "  ProceedingB  "  of  tho  same 
Academy,  Volumes  VII,  VIII,  and  XVII. 


EDITOR'S  TABLE. 


MR,   WAILACJS  OX  •  DARWIKISM.'' 

THE  rcocDtly  pubU&ljed  trork  of  Mr. 
Alfred  KoBsd  ■ffellace  on  "Dor 
win  ism  "  farniahos  a  timely  and  weighty 
answor  to  those  who,  followiag  the  rash 
load  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  hare  lately 
been  maiotaiDing  that  the  doctrine  of 
DAtiirol  selection  is  wholly  anable  to 
explain  the  development  of  ^ciea,  and 
that^  03  ft  theory,  it  has  had  its  day. 
Far  from  conceding  anything  to  this 
noisy  Bohool,  Hr.  Wallace  is  disposed  to 
make  even  hirger  olaims  for  the  potency 
of  this  principle  tlian  Darwin  bimfielf 
did,  and  certainly  larger  than  Mr.  Spen- 
cer is  to-day  disposed  to  allow.  He 
holds  that  we  only  have  to  look  closely 
enoagli  at  the  facts  in  order  to  see  ttio 
inSucDce  of  natural  selection  every- 
where, and  to  convince  ourselves  that 
it  alone  liiis  prcftided  over  the  whole 
derotopmcnt  of  rcgotablo  and  animal 
forms.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  Mr. 
Wallace  is  a  nnturutist  of  the  very  Brat 
rank,  and  that  his  reasonings  do  not 
lack  for  facts  and  illustrations  to  enforce 
tlicm.  The  work  he  has  now  given  to 
t)]0  world  \h  an  vxooedtngly  T&loable 
repertory  of  information  beoriog  on  the 
qocstions  he  disiMisses,  and  is  writl«n  in 
a  style  at  once  popular  and  exacts  In 
giving  it  the  title  "Darwinism,**  he  once 
more  evidonces  the  generosity  of  nature 
which  led  him  thirty  years  ago  to  waive 
the  claims  he  mt^ht  have  urged  as  dis- 
coverer of  the  principle  of  the  variation 
of  species  by  means  of  natural  selection. 
He  recognizes  that  Darwin  hoa  made 
that  whole  Hrlfl  uf  investigation  p«^ul- 
Sarly  his  own;  and  he  is,  therefore* 
very  witling  that  Darwin's  name  should 
stand  i&dtftsoluMy  and  cxdosivety  oon- 
BOoted  with  th«  great  revolutloo  in 
spMulatire  Mologj  which  our  g«nura- 

tioQ  hMB  WitOMBOd. 

Tha  two  pdAcipal  qaostioBS  whloh 


Mr.  Wallace's  work  will  bring 
prominence  ore  (1)  whether  tli*  •!- 
tremoly  vide  claims  lie  pals  forth  OQ 
behalf  of  natural  sclDction  ar«  fUly 
made  good ;  and  (2)  whether  hia  Tia«« 
in  regard  to  the  mudo  of  derdojinMftt 
of  man's  higher  intellectual  and  OMnl 
nature  are  well  founded.  Tpoa  the  flj« 
poioL,  as  we  have  already  hiutod,  Mr. 
Wallace  comes  into  diroot  ijolllskta  wllh 
Mr.  Spencer.  The  latter  considers  ttial 
the  doctrine  of  natural  selootlon  can  not 
account  for  certain  coses  of  ranatiua, 
and  that  we  must  have  reooursa  to  tbo 
supplementary  doctrine  of  as«  and  iB^ 
use.  Mr.  Wallace  takes  up  the  iftsUaos* 
cited  by  Mr,  Sponoer,  and  cndetror*  to 
show  that  they  msy  be  es|tlai]i«d  wllli- 
out  calling  in  any  other  law  thaa  that 
of  natural  selection,  lie  odmita  t2uU,ai 
regards  tliose  *' lower  organiama  vtikli 
consist  of  simple  cells  and  fonnlos 
mosses  of  protoplasm,**  the  aeUoFB  cf 
the  environment  is  very  mark^dt  and 
that  the  vortailona  it  produoea  oa 
individual  forms  may  ba  tranaB^ltcl 
hy  inhetitanoe;  hut  he  does  doC  €on- 
sider  that  we  can  argue  fhxn  etam  fai 
which  the  environment  acts  tboa  pov- 
erfully  on  the  whole  life  of  the  orgu- 
ism,  and,  of  cnune,  neeosaarily  on  iti 
reprotluctivo  nystcm,  so  Car  as  It  eaa 
bo  said  lo  liavo  a  svsteim,  to  rsisa 
whtTB  the  outward  -'  iloaa  of 

wvll^csublistied    tyr><'  'fad    hf 

change  uf  habiL  Such  modifl«atSoiia  ba 
does  not  tbink  Br«  transmiwibla  by  la- 
heritanoc;  spontsnonns  Toriatioa  and 
r,^'  *     ,        ,         '  ■■  .  in 

\..  >a- 

riAiion,  I'he  r]u«stiuD  is  uaniAaidy  aa 
oh^.nre  one,  (.'.filllnL*   for   i>iif  uml  imd  OS- 

iiaostivo  in^  :»• 

daced   hy  thf    rmiri'UinriiL  ff 

lowest  forma  nay  ba  traa*  a* 

herltanoo.  ta  WalUca  adniu.  t2i«a  tba 


I 


qticBtiou  is,  at  what  pnint  the  line  Is  to 
bi)  druvnu  Q^ow  fur  down  mtv  we 
come  ID  the  devolopmcnt  of  typo  before 
this  priociplo  oeaae^  to  acl?  Aguin, 
how  con  it  be  positively  atfcertained  that 
ohAQgMof  uQtrititiD,  or  obaages  in  the 
gttMral  balaace  of  function,  ma;  not  act 
OD  the  roproductive  feystcm  so  an  to  pro- 
daoo  inheritable  VAiiitlon!  Mr.  Wal- 
Uoo  doca  vrcU  to  staud  up  for  the  doc- 
trine of  natural  aelecti  jd,  nnd  to  irif^ial 
that  it  shall  not  nectlleful^  bo  put  usido; 
bat  the  gcQoral  doctniie  of  cvoluiioa 
would  not  suffer  if  the  eiceptions  to  the 
action  of  Dotaral  Mlection  contended  for 
b7  Mr.  Spencer  should  ultiraately  be 
mainiaiued. 

Kefiising  to  mlmit  any  other  general 
law  thoo  that  of  natural  flcleclion  as  a 
key  to  the  duvelopuieut  uf  Hpeoies,  and 
finding,  aa  he  oaserts  thut  law  inade- 
quate to  explain  loan's  tooml  and  iutd- 
Ic47taal  nature,  or  rather  the  extreme 
diffbrGOces  oii<^ting  between  indtviduals 
in  reepeot  to  mora]  and  intellectual  qual- 
itioa,  Mr.  Wollace  ■ummons  to  his  aa- 
aiatonoe  the  theory  of  a  apedal  "spir- 
Uool  eaaenco  of  nature,  capable  of  pro- 
graaalve  dcvetopmcDt  under  favorable 
oondltlona/*  To  explain  an  unknown 
thing  by  one  utill  more  unknown  has 
never  been  oonaidcrod  a  quite  aaiiafac- 
tory  logical  performance ;  and  wo  can 
not  help  feeling  a  little  surprised  that, 
in  a  purely  scientifle  treatise,  our  author 
ahoald  resort  to  suoh  a  method.  "  On 
the  hypothesis,"  he  says,  **  of  this  spir- 
itual nature  superadded  to  the  animal 
Dfttore  of  man  we  are  able  to  under- 
stand innch  that  is  otherwise  mysterious 
or  nni n tell igi bio  in  regard  to  him."  The 
trouble  is  that  "  this  spiritnal  nature," 
aa  it  does  not  lend  itself  to  definitiun, 
is  not  and  can  not  be  an  object  of  knowl- 
edge, and  therefore  can  not  tcrTo  as  a 
ooientiflo  bypoiheHts  at  all.  It  may, 
however,  be  questioned  whether  Mr. 
WaUac«  is  not  untrue  to  bis  own  prin- 
oiplM  wb«D  bo  sa.v  renoM 

innorftl  and  iau\  uts  be- 

tween difforant  Individnala  are  greater 


than  can  oxiitt  under  (he  rule  of  natnral 
selection.  Who  is  to  act  the  limits  of 
spontanoona  variation  in  any  spcotos, 
and,  above  all,  in  the  most  complex  and 
highly  organized  hpecies,manf  In  the 
lower  tribes  individuals  departing  in  a 
marked  manner  from  the  average  type 
are  generally  doomed  to  destruction;  but 
in  human  society  it  is  different.  Human 
society  is  itself  an  organism  of  ever-in- 
creaung  complexity  as  we  pass  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher  races;  and  In  the 
social  organism  there  is  room  for  on 
infinite  variety  of  tastes,  acoompliah- 
ment«,  aptitudes,  an<l  powcra.  A  man 
need  not  bo  a  great  inatbcmatioal  gen- 
ius  or  have  a  snrpntuiog  talent  for 
music  in  order  to  survivu  ;  neither  docs 
an  extraurdioary  development  in  either 
direction  nooessarily  lend  to  his  oxtiuo- 
tion.  A  place  can  generally  be  found 
for  every  man  whose  nature  is  not  ab- 
solutely anti-Booial.  Thus  extreme  vari- 
ations are  preserved,  and  the  quHlitios 
they  imply  are  kept,  as  it  wtiii\  in  cir- 
culation in  the  sot'lal  body,  ready  to 
manifest  themselves  under  suitable  con- 
ditions. The  rang©  of  variation  in  men 
would  probably  bo  greater  thun  it  U 
were  it  not  for  llio  fact  that  the  law  of 
natural  selection  is  at  work  more  or  less 
at  all  times  in  snppreasing  both  superi- 
orities and  inferiorities.  It  was  an  old 
pastime  of  a  certain  Tcnerable  race  to 
stone  their  prophets ;  and  une  of  their 
wisest  raen  has  left  on  record  the  cau- 
tion :  **  Be  not  riglitoous  overmuch, 
neither  make  thyself  overwise:  why 
shouldst  thou  destroy  thr^idf?"  Nor 
has  the  danger  of  excessive  righteoQS- 
ness  altogether  vanished  in  oar  own 
time,  as  Mr.  Bpooccr  in  his  casay  on 
*'  The  Morals  of  Trade  "  bears  impress* 
ive  witness.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  dangers  in  excessive  infcri 
oritjr.  After  uttering  bis  caution  against 
over-rigbteonsDoas  the  Hebrew  moralist 
goes  on  to  say :  **  Be  not  ovormucli 
wicked,  neither  be  thou  fooliih ;  why 
ahonldat  thoo  die  before  tljy  time  ? " 
And  to-day,  aa  then,  the  ma,n  who  ia 


7CO 


I 


OTermnch  wicked  or  foolish  genernnjr 
leeU  on  early  fate.  The  l&vr  of  natural 
flection  is,  therefore,  manifestly  at 
Vork  in  controlling  the  moral  and  in- 
tellcotuid  development  of  society;  and 
if,  in  spite  of  this,  tbore  is  a  much  wider 
variation  between  human  iudindnola 
than  obtains  in  the  lower  orders  of  ani- 
mal life,  that  is  just  what,  oonaidering 
tlio  extretne  complexity  of  tbc  social 
organism,  w«  should  have  expected. 


TBS  coAca  or  civiuzatioh. 

Toe  author  of  that  popular  book 
"  Looking  backward"  has  given  a  graph- 
ic description  of  present-duy  civilization, 
aa  he  nnderatands  it,  by  comparing  it  to 
ft  ooooh  in  or  on  wbich  the  wealthy 
daaaea  ride  while  the  working  classes 
drtg  it  over  heavy  roads  and  up  steep 
ascents.  It  would  almost  seem  ss  if 
the  author  had  been  more  concerned  to 
write  what  the  French  call  wtw  helU 
page  than  to  represent  thiuj^  us  they 
really  arc,  otherwise  the  picture  would 
have  been  somewhat  differently  drawn. 
Nothing  is  told  us  of  the  means  where- 
by seats  on  tbo  coach  are  obtained  nor 
of  the  means  by  which  they  arc  lost. 
There  is  no  hint  that  frugality,  prudence, 
self-control,  readiness  of  resource,  and 
social  usefulness,  or©  In  general  the  qual- 
ities by  which  men  rise  to  cotiipetence, 
or  that  it  is  the  lack  of  these  qualitioe, 
and  often  of  any  disposition  to  possess 
them,  that  consigns  some  men  to  the 
labor  of  the  rope.  We  do  not  read  that 
the  man  who  is  on  the  coach  has  often 
helped  to  make  hotter  conditions  of  life 
for  multitudes  of  his  fellow-men,  nor  is 
hint  dropited  thnt  many  of  those  who 
t  the  credit  of  riding  are  really  them- 
pplvos  laboring  hard  to  help  tho  vehicle 
forward.  There  is  nothing  in  the  whole 
description  that  answers  to  the  cose  of 
those  intelligent,  efficient,  and  eelf-ro* 
ting  workers  who,  without  reaping 
wealth,  obtain  a  larg»>  u  '      ri). 

furt  and  antpio  moan-^ 
ateot.    Wo  get  no  hint  uf  tK^cial  «io«a 


that  do  more  to  mak-  nf  ibtCr 

victims  difficult,  if  n-^-  -i-^,.^..ia,  ttuBB 
anything  in  the  const itT<)Sofi  of  aockty. 
Mr.  Bellamy  might,  ha^li*  oihoMn,  hare 
introdaced  these  poijfau  Tb#y  m  «o 
obvious  that  he  con^  nr.t  t- 

looked   them,   and   ire   mi:  -re 

conclndd  that  ho  oialtted  them  on  liter- 
ary grounds.  Th'i  way  to  he  tirevome* 
said  Voltaire,  is  t*  tay  every  thing;  and 
Mr.  Bellamy  did' not  want  to  be  tlra- 
aome,  ao  ho  aimply  gave  ub  a  plctnro  of 
a  conch  crowded  with  idlers  and  draftged 
by  tbo  induKtrions  under  the  laab  oC 
hunger.  Well,  Mr.  Bellamy  ha«  pro- 
duced the  effects  he  aimed  at.  His  xamA 
has  been  very  widely  talked  abont  mod 
considerably  udmired  ;  so  perhajM  DOW 
he  might  take  into  coriBideration  tboM 
who  are  not  so  impatient  of  detAHa  m 
to  prefer  a  misleading  romparisoQ» 
dashed  off  with  a  few  bold  strokea,  to  a 
more  correct  one  carefully  vlabonited. 
We  know  he  ooald  make  another  oooeb 
for  ns  if  he  trieil,  and  we  aboiUd  rtirj 
much  like  him  to  try. 

For  be  It  from  us  to  say  that  aooiety 
as  we  see  it  to-day  haa  toadied  tJie  acme 
of  perfection :  there  Is  much  Id  It  w« 
aro  deeply  persuaded  tiiat  is  fanlty  and 
that  might  be  improved.  Wo  wont 
greater  et^onomy  in  prodnction  and — no 
one  need  hesitattf  to  say — greater  e^aaU 
ity  in  distribution.  We  want  ft  grMt«r 
sense  of  social  rcapODslbHity  on  tbt  part 
of  the  holders  of  woaltli,  and  wo  woftt 
ecpecially  a  diminution  of  thu  svbatltaa 
paasion  for  display.  Those  thUi^  wo 
hetiere  arc  now  on  the  way,  tlion^li  k 
might  be  hard  to  dlMem  the  stfm  oftW 
one  last  inentiooed.  Society  ia  bocom* 
ing  every  day  more  closuly  ksH  in  tbo 
bonds  of  a  oommon  sympathy ;  the  solf- 
reapoctof  i'  irtily  io* 

creating  Oil- J  < '.'^UBlof 

at  once  morv  rational  and  more  bama»4. 
What  we  have  ddofiy  to  oootend  vilb 
tO'day  to  Dot  tbo  idlonoo*  or  oxtnv*- 
gunoo  of  a  few,  but  a  gwr.  -  *  '  *-  of 
knowlod^  as  to  tlia  beat  u»  -w^* 

eiftl  GO-opvrBtkdL    Where  Mr.  U«A«a7 


I 


4 


I 


LITERARY  NOTFCES. 


701 


eira,  Id  oor  opinioo,  is  id  making  Uie 
wealthy  portion  of  society  a  simple  bur- 
den upon  tho  poor.  Snob  15)  not  the 
case.  Ou  llie  contrary,  it  is  tb«  moo  of 
wealth  who  have  done  ruoro  than  any 
other  das9  to  dlroot  labor  into  usefol 
channela  and  generally  to  vlrii^  and  fer- 
tilize tlie  inda.ttry  of  the  world.  If  Mr. 
Ballatoy  could  amoud  lila  atory  of  the 
ooaofa  10  us  tu  bring  this  aodonbted  fact 
into  proniiiienco,  be  would  do  more  jus- 
tii'o  to  the  centary  in  which  he  Iitos,  and 
take  a  little  of  the  ating  from  the  dia- 
tribea  of  hia  Dr.  Barion. 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 

Edccatios  ih  Tin  rwrrKD  Statcs  :  Irs  Bifl- 

TOKT    raOU    7QK    EiRLIItfr    SCTTLtUINTS. 

Bjr  RlcHAan  ti.  Booxe.     New  York  :  U. 
Appleton  k  Co.    Pp.  402.    Price,  $1.30. 

Tni9  is  the  olorentfa  Tolume  of  the  "  In- 
Unutiunol  Educftiioa  Series,"  and  Is  char- 
acterized bj  the  general  editor  of  that  se- 
ries as  the  flrjit  noteirorthy  attempt  to  pre- 
Mnt  tho  hubject,  and  as  forming  "a  tol> 
arsblj  coraplctc  inventory  of  what  exists, 
as  well  as  aa  sceouni  of  iu  origin  and  de- 
velopment." We  6nd  It  a  eyalematic  and 
oomprohcniivc  treatise,  proscniing  the  im. 
porUnl  fiicLA  in  their  bc&tin^  upon  one  an- 
other and  their  rvlaUons  to  contemporary 
oowUtlons.  The  bbttory  U  dlridod  into  the 
ColonUI  and  the  Revolutionary  period)!  and 
the  pcrlud  of  Ri?4irgaiiizAliun,  to  which  li 
added  a  review  of  "Current  Educattnnnl  In 
lorftBta.*'  The  discuMlon  of  "The  Colonial 
Period"  oomprisos  the  bUtory  of  the  earli- 
est American  cchooU,  of  colonial  cnllc;;c% 
and  of  colonial  school  «y6t(?md.  Uoiler 
"The  ReToltilionory  Period"  are  sketched 
tha  conditions  of  elementary,  secondary,  and 
coUe^ata  education  during  the  time  In- 
eluded.  The  third  part,  "The  Period  of  , 
Rcorgsnliation,"  included  aoouunts  uf  the 
traasilloo  from  the  old  to  the  new,  with  its 
oentralitlng  tendencies,  the  ogcncies  and 
metbodi  for  the  preparatian  of  teachers,  the 
development  of  the  course  of  iuntnictioa  in 
Jiha  more  recent  collegest  the  aspects  of  pro- 
lal,  technological,  and  special  eduea- 
the  growth  of  supplcnoatal  Instttu- 
liooa,  teamed  »ocieUes  and  tibnuioa,  and  the 


ratalions  of  Goremment  and  cducition. 
"  Current  EducalluDol  lutervsts  '*  cmbraco 
"Compulsory  Bciiool  Alleodance,'*  "Tho 
Gradation  of  Schools,"  ''Education  in  the 
8oulh,"  and  '*  The  lligher  £diicutlon  of 
Women."  To  vach  chapter  \&  appended  a 
bibliography.  Tlic  author's  aim  baa  been 
"  to  suggest  lines  of  thought  for  the  teacher 
and  Bources  of  information,  and,  avoiding 
mere  description  on  the  one  oidc  and  per- 
sonal criticism  on  the  other,  to  exhibit  faiib'^ 
fully  the  development  of  contemporary 
sUtutions  and  educational  forces,  with  Boi 
thing  of  their  natioual  setting."  The  editor. 
Dr.  Harris,  sees  in  the  trend  of  the  educa- 
tional moTement,  as  disuloeod  iu  this  his- 
tory, a  tendency  from  private,  endowed,  and 
parochUl  Khools,  toward  the  aesumption  of 
education  by  the  state,  away  from  isolated 
efforts  and  toward  system  and  supcrri^on, 
and  in  methods  toward  tlie  adaptation  of  the 
matter  of  instruction  to  tho  mind  of  the 
diild  and  toward  tmproTcd  discipline.  The 
entire  educational  idea  of  the  people,  too, 
"haa  progreased  in  the  direction  of  divine 
charity,"  as  ta  eienipUficd  in  tho  greater 
attention  paid  to  the  cduc:itjon  of  women 
and  to  infltitutions  for  unfortunates.  Tlic 
author  finds  our  etiucatlonal  sTHtcm  stPl 
very  imperfect,  and  notices  as  problems  yrt 
unsolved  or  not  provided  for  ibc  means  of 
securing  a  supply  of  qiuillfii'd  teachers ;  a 
way,  wlxile  shaping  the  understanding  mind, 
of  bringing  up  yonth  with  sound  bodies  and 
a  love  for  tnith ;  the  relation  which  tho  pub- 
lic schoobi  should  sustain  to  industrial  train* 
big;  questions  concerning  infant  and  pri- 
mary and  free  putltc  higher  and  praft«. 
alonal  education ;  citm-scliool  training:  and 
the  constitution  of  a  citizenship  cdiicaliuu. 
A  hopeful  outlook  Is  discerned  m  the  fact 
that  cotntiion  -  school  <iueslio»^  arc  being 
studied  by  college  presidents  and  profe^ROrs 
as  related  to  their  own  Ubor«,  and  by  ccoiuk 
mists  and  historians, 

tKDooa  Srrmts.  HyJonit  BtranoDOiOL  Dos- 
trn  and  New  York  :  (touqhtou,  -MlfDin  & 
Co.     Pp.  256,     Prici>,  ♦l.:2&. 

Mb.  Bi  Rjioi'oui  Is  best  known  a*  a  writer 
about  Xoturc,  or  outdoor  subjects.  In  that 
department  bo  has  gnino<l  a  iH>«4tiaa  among 
tha  select  repreeentaiivo  authors  of  our  coon- 
try,     OocDplctely  at  home  amid  rural  aux^ 


70* 


THE  POPULAR 


MONTHLY, 


pouDtUnps,  comtQimlQf^  with  Natiir?,  mod  Uicn 
drawing  frooi  the  hid'ien  storo«  of  his  ralml 
wbkt  he  boil  absorbed  from  her,  faidepciid- 
enl  in  thtmgbt  and  thorooghlj  American, 
sod  pitbj  and  vigorous  io  osprCMioD,  b«> 
Couud  BD  audicnw  m  tsoon  as  he  look  the 
platfomi  frum  which  bo  w»8  b«8t  fitted  to 
spcftk  ;  and  Uiat  audience  bu  been  groiring 
evur  siDce.  lb  the  **  EgotUtlcil  Chapter/* 
which  forms  one  of  the  **  studies"  ho  relates 
ttow,  tike  many  other  aulhorfl  who  hare  after, 
word  nuhltived  aueoci-S  be  gropod  in  untuck; 
czpeninonta  before  be  found  hui  proper 
place.  He  began  bj  reading  booki  of  ea- 
says  aod  trying  to  catch  their  viyle;  and 
wrote  cssayish  papers  on  aubjecta  whoae  In- 
terest was  eo  uoirerHal  that  it  was  spread 
out  ver^  thin,  lo  have  them  »ent  bat-k  hy  tlic 
jooroab  to  which  he  ofTereil  thr.-m ;  and  finaU 
1/  took  to  outdoor  themes  "  to  break  tlie 
spell  of  Emerfton's  influence,  and  get  upon 
ground  of  hin  own."  ni»  Bt;1e,  which  ia  of 
the  most  fordbte,  and  in  wUch  atrong 
thou^ta  arc  condcnfied  into  few  words  of 
moat  direct  meaning,  ia  tbo  resnlt  of  mu<^i 
stud;  and  discipline,  in  which,  he  sajs,  "  Z 
hare  taught  myself  always  to  get  down  to 
the  <|tiick  of  tny  niind  at  ooce,  and  not  fum- 
ble about  atnld  the  fanaks  at  the  surface. " 
Of  lalc  years  be  has  been  givln^  more  al- 
tention  In  literary  lopica  and  suhjr(44  of 
scieutiOu  discuBpion,  although  in  theftc  also 
the  natQre-«idc  api»cara  most  prominent  to 
bis  view.  Tlio  present  roluma  is  lately 
made  tip  of  articles  of  this  character.  In 
thoTD  he  dl9plny«  the  same  independenoe 
that  eharActerlzod  his  earlier  work — a  At- 
tcrmiuatttm  to  say  nhat  be  tbinka.  without 
If  ing  htntsolf  worry  cmceming  what  nttt- 
may  b&vo  said  or  ttioughl.  In  two  of 
tho  longer  c-'^^^oy■* — "  Matthew  Arnold's  Criti- 
cism "  and  •'  Amold^a  View  of  EmcTMu  and 
CtiiplyUi"— the  Uteniry  side  is  alone  conspic- 
unui;  in  two  others,  •'Heury  D.  Tlioroan" 
nod  ''Gilbert  White 'a  Book/^  we  have  the 
fltudonl  of  oaiur«  appreciating  and  criticis- 
ing bis  two  most  illtutrlous  co-work^ra  In 
tbo  same  lino.  "  Science  nod  Literature  **  In 
■o  attempt  to  measure  the  ralue  of  acioncv 
in  culture,  In  wh^  '  iibor  tnilicates 
that  **thii  final  v.  ionl  PcLeoM  It 

lu  capability  to  fonUr  Ja  u«  noble  Ideala, 
and  to  lead  ua  to  new  and  Ut^M  vtows  of 
■Mnil  and  spiritual  truiba.     Tbo  «tt«nl  to 


whi.^h  it  Is  able  to  do  thla  ncamrM  to 
value  to  tbo  spirit — meamrvt  lU  TaJui  ks 
the  educator.  Tliat  tbu  grcAt  actetioc*  cmn 
do  tlUa,  that  ihcy  are  ca|iabio  of  bccocniajf 
inatnuncnta  of  pure  cnlinrc,  tnatramt&la  lo 
refine  &od  spiritualixe  Ow  whole  moral  &»• 
tunc,  is  Du  doubt  true ;  bnt  that  Uiey  cu 
cTcr  uaurp  tho  plaoe  of  the  bumaiiltica  or 
general  literature  in  this  respect  la  ens  of 
those   mistaken  notions  wlii  '  tw 

gaining  ground  «0  fast  in  <<  ttt 

"Science  and  the  Toct^**  Emenan  ia  bald 
up  as  the  poet  whose  work  has  bees  tnost 
infittenced  by  Bdonr«.  "  A  Malfgrmfd  Ot- 
ant  **  is  a  bmvc  critidfim  of  Victor  Hop/ft 
excesses  of  style  and  maniwr.  Of  the  dgfat 
"Brief  Essays,"  "Tho  Biologiit*s  Tree  of 
Life"  tonohes  a  tidMitlfic  sub3ect,  and  "  An 
Open  Door"  relates  to  the  question  of  a 
supiirintcnding  rrovidenoo. 

RiTEnsiDt  LioKAiT  roi  T«vifO  Fmra   Kik 

8.     ItllU«  TBBOVtiB  AH  UriftA-OlUHL     E^ 

FLonrxnt  A.  Muioub.  Pp.  t.t^,  tr 
AiTD  Dowx  Tva  Ukoocsl  By  UAjty  C 
lUHvoan.  Pp.  121.  ItoMon:  IL'ttghKA, 
llifflin  &  Co.     Prioe,  7>  cents  «ack. 

Tns  "Rircralde  Library**  acrict  i«  M- 
(tigned  e^pecUIly  for  boys  ontl  ■  "aw 
laying  tbo  foundation  of  pi  -  t«i^ 

and  is  Intended  to  consist  not  of  i-pbomcnl 
publications,  hut  of  "t.nnH  thnt  tHI!  btrt." 
It  will  cornp-  ry, 

biography,   \i    ■  .    \\i^ 

tory,  adrcnture,  and  kindred  tlierao,  whk 
fiction  not  excluded,  prcMmtln^  tho  vmrions 
rabjerls  in  an  atlraoll* o  manner,  bal  not  la 
the  "  ChU,1at  dialeol."  Tho  autbor  al 
"Birdtt  through  an  Operm-Olaav,**  reeocnia- 
inK  lite  ptqdeiltlrs  of  young  obscrran,  h« 
tried  to  supply  their  wawta,  tSit  chlrf  «l 
which  in  St  IV  means  oC  dl** 

tinrriil'hlnEr    ,  ibm  vflboat 

).  f:n<i] -'iitaorl»gn|i|de 

^'    ,.  >>m':.mI  ''fM.-  hi  tha  taiibwia. 

The  opera-cU-  tv.  a  oiwiiia  of  lookfaiC 

si  tbe  crcatuic-  o.^  tf  from  a  ahorWr 
than  il  is  poMflbla  to  appmacb  thaa 
win  or  abooM  aopply  the  potntu  liy 
they  are  to  bo  r«eo;:nlzBL  To  tKvaa 
mt%  added  aneh  facts  aa  Ua  wllbbs  reaab  a( 
tbo  young  obaarrei'a  opfMrmmltlaa  mpM- 
(nn  tho  so^  n#«ila(,  aad  (aDtral  ba^ftfs 
of  tbo  UnL  Tbo  robto  aispflls*  tW  attarf' 
an!  by  wMoh  %U  Um  otbar  fabdi  «n  *»- 


i 

4 


1 
I 


JTERART  irOTWgS. 


705 


I 

k 
P 


I 


pftrad.  Some  simple  and  Msily  followed 
mlM  for  obnrv&Uon  arc  given.  With  IhMe, 
iha  open-^laaa,  ftnd  liU  own  good  mhW) 
Uit  joung  obaetTor  fe  ifiUodiioed  by  the  ud 
of  the  pleulog  deioriplioiii  to  Rome  sevcDtj 
iipovtes.  To  UicM  ftre  add«d  &  t&ble,  which 
the  ftulhor  callii  *'  pigeon-holes,"  for  (he  cla&- 
Blflcatlon  of  the  bii-dt,  rjnopses  of  generml 
funily  £har&cterUlics  and  of  arbltrvry  clis- 
eificalioaa,  and  a.  lUt  of  1>ook«  for  rvforeoce. 
"  Up  and  Down  tbo  Bronka  "  ia  the  ittorj 
told  In  a  simiUr  ipirit  of  Ifao  Inxcct  life  In 
and  upon  thu  water.  The  spcdtnona  lerring 
as  tjpos  were  oolU'Cted  fn  the  bmulti  of  one 
of  the  cntmticn  nT  California ;  but  tlic  aatbor 
judgm  righttf  tliat  mcinbrTS  of  the  sune 
famUiea  ma/  be  found  by  nlraoAl  any  brook 
East  or  Weat,  and  that  bur  aL-oounta  will 
acnro  for  all.  ThoM  insects  are  vuch  as 
ercry  one  a«e«  dancing  upon  the  water,  »wim- 
mlog  in  it,  or  flying  aboTe  M  \  but  few  hate 
any  real  aoquaiataoce  with  their  nature, 
mode  of  i^wth,  habita  of  life,  or  affllla- 
ttona.  To  tboeo  who  wiah  to  know  about 
ibeiDf  thift  little  aeriea  of  aketohm  will  be 
oonvetueni  and  iasiructiTo  as  well  aji  onler- 
tkislng. 

Datb  otrr  or  Doom.  Dy  C&jinLts  C.  Au- 
BOTT.  Kew  York :  D.  Apploton  k  Co. 
Pp.  323.     IVicc,  ll.fiO. 

A  WMK  about  Nature  by  Dr.  Abbott  by 
thla  fcimo  necd«  no  apodal  Lntrodiiclion  to 
the  readora  of  the  **  Uonthly.**  They  have 
all  had  a  lane  of  the  author'a  quality  a«  an 
obeorrar  lad  desoriber  of  outdoor  life,  and 
know  that  ho  is  oafiable  of  tntoboaittiog  to 
any  otbora  who  will  lUtcn  to  him  or  read 
bin  the  rarlety  and  enjoymont  that  be  finds 
there.    Aa  tbo 

"  ncrw)  oUff 
Oaa  thooMikd  4e«*  In  a  thooMad  bouim,* 

Dr.  Abbtjtt  finds  the  aame  to  be  "  true  of  the 
tamest  pasture,  where  not  cren  the  clorer 
and  battercnpB  of  one  side  arc  the  twioa  of 
tbe  buttorcnps  and  clover  of  tbo  other**; 
and  where  UuxMgh  the  swsoeeding  changes 
of  the  year  objects  of  interest  "never  re- 
peat tbemselres,  or  else  I  am  dolly  s  new 
Nor  aiglil  hor  sound  but  has  the 
of  novelty,  and  one  rambler,  at 
least,  in  hli  malurer  years  is  still  a  boy  at 
Smwi**  Theoe  duagca  by  tho  month  and 
'Mmoo  ooter  lato  tbo  plaa  of  Ihe  present 


book,  vfaldi  peceentB  a  kind  of  natiinOist*B 
eUcBdar  or  dtary  of  tbo  montha.  Tho  birds 
figure  aa  tbe  principal  diaracters,  though 
other  objects  of  life  are  not  uoreganJed,  and 
the  story  of  their  coming  and  gotng,  or 
sometimes  staying,  their  workii]^,  sporting, 
cooiDg,  nest- breeding,  and  initiation  into  the 
experiences  of  life,  is  recorded  cousoculivdy 
from  January  through  the  winter,  spring, 
snmmer,  and  autumn  montlui,  till  December 
doeee  tbe  cycle  and  ends  at  tho  time  when 
a  DOW  series  la  to  bcff^ln.  Other  people  finri 
novelties  and  things  of  ever  refreshing  in* 
tvrest  abroad.  Dr.  Abbott  does  nut  deny 
them  the  pleasure,  fr>r  he  can  do  and  has 
dono  the  eanwt  but  he  con  find,  too,  all 
that  u  needed  to  make  lifo  worth  lUing  011 
tlie  banks  of  his  unproteodlng  creek  and 
modcat  river  to  which  it  w  ever  his  pleasnro 
to  return.  Therefore  ho  holds  "  that  one 
need  not  mope  because  ha  has  to  stay  at 
home.  Trees  grow  here  sa  suggestively  as 
in  California,  and  the  water  of  our  river  Is 
very  wet.  Remember,  too,  If  trees  arc  Dot 
toll  enough  to  suit  your  whim,  to  lie  down 
beneath  the  brmnclios  of  ever^  one  of  them, 
and,  OS  you  look  up,  tlie  topmost  twig  piercoa 
the  sky.  There  \»  not  an  oak  but  will  tie- 
oomo  a  gigantic  Snpujia  in  tlila  way.  One 
oecd  learu  no  magic  to  bring  the  antipodes 
home  to  him."  Thii  is,  perhaps,  the  prin> 
dpol  lesson  taught  in  ihc  book,  and  it  is 
made  extremely  palatable  by  the  spice  of 
familiar  illustration,  Inddcni,  adrcnlnre,  per- 
sonal delinealiona,  old  lore  of  hialory  and 
tradition,  and  pictures  of  the  brvok  and 
fields  and  tbdr  incessantly  changing  Ufici 

Phtsicai.  RrAUSM.    By  Thomas  Casb,  M,  A. 

Ixjudon    and    New    York  :     IxinRmaus, 

(irwm   k  Co.     One  vol.  Svo.     Pp.  387. 

Price,  |fi. 

Tins  is  on  able  and  flcholarty  work,  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  those  faiulliur  with 
the  oourse  of  philosopldeal  thought  and  fond 
of  pbiloeophioal  discussion.  The  ai^ument 
of  the  author  is  that  we  sensibly  perodvo  aa 
Internal  but  physical  world — phyaical  objeeta 
of  sense  tn  tbe  Internal  nervous  system — 
from  which  wc  infer  an  external  and  phyri* 
ool  world.  This  in  "  physical  realism."  It 
U  oppoaed  to  iotnitirc  or  natural  reallaiB, 
which  declares  that  we  directly  pererivo  im 
external  physical  world ;  and  to  ooamotbotio 
idealism,  wbidi  ooaelcdos  that  wc  ere  sen- 


70+ 


THE  POPULAR 


elblc  of  a  pttychiral,  bat  infer  a  physical 
world.  It  aliio  conlrorerls  all  the  utrictly 
idenlistic  hvpothcs^a.  The  treall«(^  u  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  Crst  coDtfining  the  "  Quo- 
enl  Proof  of  Phjrsicul  Realism,"  and  the  i(ec> 
ood  deuIiDg  with  "  PE^cholo^cal  IJulism.** 
Thii  to-^t  embraces  in  AucceAaivt*  chnptcra 
cHticiiims  of  the  phUosophiea  of  Dewartca, 
r«ockc,  Berkeler,  Uuine,  and  Kont^  from  the 
aathor'8  point  of  riew.  ThoHO  ditfcusstons 
txa  very  acute  and  iotcresilog.  la  ^ui-ral, 
it  tuay  t>c  i«aIJ  that  ihe  ticgHlire  pari  of  the 
work,  or  ihc  refutation  of  idealistic  doc- 
(Hdcs,  \%  more  uicocnful  Oiid  more  valuable 
than  the  constructiTe  portion  which  iDvolvea 
Ihti  aubatAulialiOD  of  the  author'^  Lhcory. 

PstCBOLOOT  AS  k  NaTUIULI.  SciKRCB,  AFFURO 

TO   THK  SoLrxioje    Qt   Ocrri.T    Pstchic 

Phmjohenji.      By    G.    C.    Rirs;   M.  D. 

FhiUiU'lphia :    Porter  k.   Coatcs.     8vo. 

Pp.  5-11,  1  vol. 

This  !«  a  disappointing  book.  Its  psy- 
chology ift  erode,  and  oa  *'  appUi<>d  to  the  flo. 
tuUon  of  occult  psycblv  phfovmeno,'*  ll  does 
not  ippcAT  to  fiolre  anything.  The  ooouJi 
phenomena,  indeed,  ore  not  rcacbod  till  page 
380,  and  the  pan  relating  to  ihrra  {»  largely 
taken  tip  with  oKtrncts  fmm  well-known  au- 
thors  (like  those  bolon^ng  to  the  Sodely  for 
PflTchical  Research,  M&«tuer,  Braid,  Fahnc- 
stock,  sod  otben),  upon  which  Dr.  Raae 
iuako4,  H  mast  be  oaid,  oomc  interesting 
oomiD**nb> ;  but  he  odds  nothing,  so  far  u  wi: 
are  able  to  make  out,  to  Ihe  store  of  human 
knowledge  npon  the  subject.  What  explana- 
tion he  docs  giro  is  ao  application  of  bis 
piychology,  which  Is  based  upon  or  rather 
an  f*xpo«{tion  of  that  of  Pr.  Kricdrich 
Editan)  Itpncke,  who,  the  author  thinks,  has 
bt»ew  undc^crvcitly  nf:glccted  by  nuoccedlng 
thinkers.  In  this  notion  wc  can  not  agree 
with  Dr.  Raue,  because  there  is  nothing  suf- 
ficlcaily  )*}*ni6cant  in  Henekc's  work  to  make 
It  worth  while  for  students  of  the  present 
lime  to  recur  to  his  writiogH.  A  sample  of 
this  applied  |i«yvhu1o'(ry  is  found  in  the  ex- 
planation of  ••  ihought'trKnaferenoc."  Tho 
ler  may  be  uiidonUxid,  acooiOittg  to  tlie 
r,  If  wc  suppose  that  th«  noul  actually 
of  dilfercnt  oystems  of  sobsisalhU 
forcss,  b«vlng  "mobile  elerosnU,'' 
and  producing  dlffemnt  t  iitcatloiiii 

which  an  tpaeAm^  "a..  '  uUy  n<»t 

rcAtricted  by  any  c«rportal  djsUusou  or  Inter' 


tl»U( 


ilbor, 


rcronce,  so  that  they  can  n«di  a  almlUr 
psychic  modlflc&tioa  In  another  mlod  as  wtU 
as  lu  their  own,  and  impart  to  U  their  o«« 
state  of  excitement  and  makj*  It  ocmactooa.* 
But  how,  pray,  are  wc  sble  to  ooticdT*  cf 
motion  without  space  or  **rDam"  for  (■> 
lion  ?  And  if  thou£;ht  Is  tbua  esciKd  la  ooe 
person  by  the  alii  >  '  Tiilar  cxdlaSloB 

in  annihcr,  there  '  n  from  tha  ont 

to  the  other,  what  luuru  lit  this  than  a  state- 
ment that  there  Is  some  subUo  puwcr  of 
thought- transfer  wtijch  wo  do  not  vnder- 
stand  ?  To  make  such  an  averment  «« 
hardly  need  Dr.  Rauc's  book. 

Thus,  while  the  scholar  will  always  find 
much  to  Interest  him,  and  much  to  approw 
in  any  work  of  this  character,  prepared  wtth 
serious  purpose,  wc  can  not  rcoommeud  il  to 
those  who  are  only  able  to  giro  a  llmiled 
amount  of  attention  to  ilie  topics  of  wfaldi 
it  trrata,  being  pcDtiadrd  that  they  can  mfv 
prufiLably  sprud  lUclr  lime  uj>ou  sooMtbil^ 
6lse. 

It  Is  a  little  singular  that  no  mention  b 
made  In  this  book  (written  by  a  PhttaUrl- 
phtou)  of  the  rety  interesting  and  Taluabls 
rpport  by  the  Se^bert  CucimlMion  of  the 
Unirenity  of  Pennsylvania  npon  aome  of 
the  most  curious  of  these  **  occult  psyakto 
pheoomeaa." 

Tnk  PHtLosomr  r.>  rttxtnn 

EXTIUCTB  mOV  11.     S»< 

lected  and  trauni«u>i  u<  u.>ua  Wsnoo, 
LL.  D.,  Professor  In  Queen's  C^lb^c^ 
Kingston,  Canada.  One  roL  I^*  3M^ 
Macruillan  Ae  Oo.     Price,  |l.Tft. 

Kakt's  Kni">'  '  *■  ■""  ^*'  •■»  Rtssoa  Ex- 
rLAi.so  facing  VoL  I  cf 

Rant's  '  T  fur  ^ipflsb 

Rcodi'rs.  l*t 

ami  Jnic-    II  ;:9, 

Hacmillnu  A  Oj.     rmc,  gi.i.V 

Tm  demand  for  a  return  to  Kant,  wUdi 
has  beoD  evidsnt  in  lbs  pbUosepUoal  veHd 
for  a  few  yoarv  post,  has  tssurj  lo  a  ruo4 
deal  of  new  and  valuable  Ksi  .r«, 

and  there  Is  liUcly  to  be  cuorv .  .^.  ..  .•^uot 
Im  dftnled  that  this  rvtnm  to  tits  sta^y  vl 
Ksni  has  prailuoeid  ta  Ijieraaa*  uf  Ida  a» 
tboriutlve  InflacDos.  WUalowr  nor  views 
may  be  of  the  wisdom  of  purmlng  phJsoe- 
phy  under  tlte  Hil<*f  gtiidan'<«  nf  ibo  KAidf». 
\y*t%  oag*,  fit  ''■  m 

of  the  valm*  A^ 

there  Is  no  doabt  that  a  tiftorcnisfa  siod  j  ul  Ms 


1 
1 


LITERARY  N^OTICES. 


» 


\b  tndfspcoMblc.  not  onlj*  for  scholar- 
•UIp'i  vke  but  atso  to  wcure  a  proiwr  lucn- 
lol  equilibrium  in  ianma^  a  iheor/  of  kuowl- 
ml^(%  on  tbc  pait  of  liiuw  BS[>ecially  who 
have  bojn  itijuc-atfld  Ui  rely  un  d  jtiutenori 
metltcHlit.  Fur  ibo  rcajwn  just  giveu  the  soi- 
CDtiflo  (ituJcnl  ctka  Icaitt  of  all  afford  to 
iii^gtcct  Kiiiit,  and  if  bi^  hoA  a  ouotcnipt  for 
tbLi  pbilusnpber  he  lua;  be  odauri-d  lUal 
ibcra  It  atill  upportuutt;  for  crvdilablu 
aohicvGineut  in  Uic  wiy  of  refuting  the  ao- 
tbor  of  llie  *'Krilik"  on  tiuiny  important 
poinu  slill  Itift  for  the  ambitious  oonuo- 
rer*iali«t. 

The  two  works  aborc  mentioned  are  ox- 
collcnt,  each  in  lu  own  way,  for  the  purpoM 
of  nialtiTig  tho  Bttitlont  acqnoiotud  with  KanU 
iaa  pbiliwophj.  Prof.  Watsua'a  idea  is  to 
preicnl  lo  a  eln&s  of  more  advanced  students 
a  scries  of  carefully  nelectcd  eitractii  from 
the  chiuf  trcatisM  of  Kanl,  *'The  Crliiipie 
of  Pure  Season,"  **Tlie  MrtAphviiic  of  Mo- 
rality," "  The  CritiiiiK^  of  rraeticol  RfMOn," 
aoJ  "  Tho  Criliii'w  of  JudgiiH-nl " ;  then  to 
aid  these  ttadonu  by  tbc  dlscus.'iions  of  tlie 
clttii^noam^  usliig  the  eitniets  as  a  tcxUbouk. 
It  must  be  borno  in  mind  th&t,  ciccpt  pos. 
•ibly  where  a  student  ii  deroting  himself 
eicluilTely  to  philosophy,  ncrcr  could  he 
bopn  to  go  over  the  wbtkle  of  the  four  workit 
Just  nsnu^l  uuditr  the  t4<achcr*8  daa-*  in.'^tnic- 
liotL  Tbe  advanta;;e,  then,  of  a  work  like 
Frof.  Watson's  b  rcry  apparent,  If  the  selec- 
tions have  been  so  judiciously  made  as  to  pro- 
sent  oonncctedly  the  most  Important  parts 
of  tho  IrMtiaoa.  In  aocompU(>biiig  this  the 
editor  has  been  very  sucocasful.  lie  has 
luada  good  hia  claim  that  the  rolumn  "  con- 
Uiat  aU  Ibe  main  ideas  of  Kant  in  their  sys- 
tcmatiiT  oomiection,"  and  he  has  produced  a 
▼cry  useful  book  for  those  who  hare  not  the 
time  to  dcTote  to  Kant's  works  in  full,  and 
also  an  excellent  preparatory  course  for 
those  who  intend  to  go  further  in  studying 
that  pliilo?>opher. 

Trof.  MahafTy's  book  is  a  good  one  for 
tlie  studeul  to  read  hi  connection  with  a 
texUbook  like  Prof.  Watson's.  It  is  exposi- 
lory  and  criticil ;  we  re^et  to  say  it  is  also 
polemical,  tho  laltpr  quality  constituting  its 
chief  w«ftkneafl.  In  a  vomewhat  cxtraTapint 
preface  Frot  Uahaffy  esproasca  his  conric- 
tJon  thai  Kant  i.-^  "  certainly  the  greatest " 
of  all  metapliysivtans,  "  and  perhaps  iko 
roi,  xxxT, — 48 


moet  imperfectly  underalood.**  Wo  do  not 
tbluk  the  writere  of  this  rulume  haTR  added 
anyiliing  to  Kant's  grcataflss,  whatever  it 
may  be,  but  we  do  consider  that  tbey  have 
contributed  somcLhlug  tu  a  bett<ir  under- 
standing  of  him.  For  the  UH>nt  part  they 
hare  oorrvctly  apprehended  lUeir  nuuftei's 
lacaoin^  aud  have  clearly  interpreted  him 
in  a  fltyli'  of  diction  which  is  rcry  a;*i'ecaldi» 
and  well  caU'ulitlMl  to  bold  tbc  dtudent's  at- 
tention. This  volume  is  to  be  followed  by 
a  st'coud,  containing  the  *'  Prolegomena  "  of 
Kant. 

Stati  or  Kkw  Tork.  Ttmrrr-sicovB  As- 
tivxL  Rxronr  or  nts  ^atk   Boahd  or 

CHAhlTIKS,     t88Bu         CBARLICB     S.     IloYT, 

Seorotary.     Pp.  008, 

Turn  Tisiiorial  powers  of  this  board  ex- 
tend to  all  chflritable,  correctional,  and  elec- 
ntOHynary  insiitutiunt*,  c-icepting  State  pris- 
ons, supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  Ibo 
State,  or  by  cities,  counties,  ineor)>oratod 
twncvolent  associations,  or  otherwise.  Its 
executive  duties  are  the  supervision  of  the 
support,  care,  and  romoral  of  ^taXc  paupers ; 
the  examination  and  removal  of  alien  pau- 
pers lo  their  homes  in  different  countri«s  of 
Europe;  watch  of  the  care  of  the  liLwne; 
the  approval  and  ccrti6catiuo  of  iuoor|toni- 
tiona  for  the  custody  and  care  of  dependent 
children ;  and  the  oversight  aud  control  of 
inune  Indians  on  the  several  reserraUoni 
of  the  State.  U  bos  also  authority  torcrjulre 
reports  from  the  various  institutions  sulije<*t 
to  its  violation.  Tlic  institutions  included 
within  this  juriNlictinn  have  in  all  fA4,810,- 
658  of  properly;  return  as  the  year's 
ceipts,  $14,691,81?,  and  |1S,31.%,rt96 
pended  ;  and  care  for  64,322  persons.  The 
report  gives  a  picture  of  their  general  con- 
dition and  operations. 

"  War  with  CRnre."  Being  a  Selection  of 
Heprioted  Papers  on  Crime,  Kefurtnalo- 
ries,  etc.  By  the  Into  T.  BAnwirx  I.I.  B**- 
Kxa,  Esq.  Edited  by  lUnDXiiT  Pnitirs 
and  Epvukd  Vkkmet.  London  and  Kew 
York :  Longnisiu,  Orocn  k  Co.  Pp.  2!/9. 
Pnce.  $A. 

Ur.  Daakcii,  who  died  in  Deoomber,  1 894, 
is  described  as  having  been  a  man  of  diligent 
thought,  who  sought  out  the  principles  that 
underlie  the  practical  aido  of  every  question. 
"  A  country  squire  of  iDodernte  wealth,  be 
sludi^  the  duties  locumbc&t  on  him  in  that 


'E  POPULAB  SCISNCS  MONTHLY. 


I 
I 


ition  ul  lifp;  a  country  mugUtrttc,  be  fdt 
to  iu<iuirc  tDtu  the  causes  of  crime, 
[ase  for  ibe  bonc&t  of  the  oommunlty 
sricncv  gained  ou  the  bench ;  a  poor- 
Uw  guardian,  be  wofl  druwn  IdIo  perflonol 
fytnpatby  wilb  the  (K)or,  the  outcast,  and  the 
dt'atiiule."  The  papera  he  left  behind  him, 
fnini  which  the  selection  of  tboM  in  the 
prcflcot  volume  vaa  made,  embody  bia  vell- 
digentcd  thought  ou  a  vanetj  of  eubjects, 
and  nuiny  of  them  deal  with  problemB  still 
uiuiulvL'd.  Of  those  here  presented,  three 
deal  with  the  provcntioD  of  crime  gcnerttUj; 
otbere  prettcut  ad  a  practical  measure  for 
that  object  the  apportioument  of  ecatenocs 
to  crimes  ou  a  scientific  principle  wbicli 
^flhoakl  be  made  clcarlj  uoderstood,  of  "  ou- 

dative  puni«bment.**  This  means  grada* 
tloa  aocordiiig  to  the  anteoedeats  of  the  of- 
fender and  thi'  number  of  repetitions  of  Uie 

Fonse^  with   a  term  of  polios  supenriflioD 

Ided^  under  which  the  man  miglit  be  en< 
oouraged  to  xrt  to  regiala  his  character  in 
booest  employment.  Other  papers  deal  with 
adult  reformatories;  the  impridoomont  of 
children,  which  is  advocated  uudur  certain 
conditions;  jail  labor;  rcformAtories ;  meas- 
ures for  just  dealing  with  ragrants;  ec- 
elesia^tical  <)ucHtiouK  ;  education ;  labor  and 
wages;  and  the  prUons  bill  (Mr.  Cross's  of 
I87fl). 

ExPt-oiuTiox  or  Tsv  CurBT  trt  ITsjiLTn  aito 

DiBiAR.    Dy  STKTmw  Sinm  Btmr,  M.  D. 

New  Vurk  :  D.  Appletoo  k  Ca   Pp.  206. 

Price,  $1,60. 

Trzs  mannal,  which  embodies  tlio  mctliods 
poreued  by  the  author  with  his  classes,  is  ia> 
tended  to  Aid  the  student  la  leaniiug  tlie 
significaitee  of  phyalcat  si^ ns  and  their  mode 
of  dcvclopnient.  Dr.  13urt  stAtes  that  bo  bas 
made  no  attempt  to  establish  distinctive 
signs  of  di«easc,  because  ho  is  ooarinced  that 
"precision  in  dia^^OAls  Is  more  surely  at. 
taJned  by  trt-nting  each  ntgo  as  subordinate 
to  the  various  oombinallofU  of  signs  which 
are  found  in  the  different  maladies.'*  The 
text  is  iUustrstod  with  oats  showing  the 
position  of  the  heart  and  lungs  with  refcr- 
enco  to  ondi  other  and  to  Uie  cUest'Walla,  the 
forms  of  InstrutzifiutA,  etc.  In  dcsoriblng  the 
dlffervnt  furms  of  stethoscopes,  the  author 
erprmses  a  prcfcrrncc  for  one  which  sngsges 
both  cars^  lie  bos  dlsoovfrrHl,  br  meeos  of 
the  double  ai^thoaeops,  w  tut  he  dcms  k 


demoBstrstion  td  the  daal  fnactkn  of  die 
ears,  rix.,  for  perceiving  Iho  dlnctkio  of 
Boand*.  Wheo  llsten-ng  to  ibe  tleliEng  of  e 
watch  with  a  binaonil  stethoscope  bcvhig 
arms  of  soft  rublwr  tubing,  If  one  am  Is 
cIommI  by  pindtlug  it.  the  watch  ssini  to 
have  be*!n  retoored  to  the  ear  which  itiU 
faean  iu  ticking.  If  the  tabs  Is  iwfeeasd  sad 
the  other  one  ts  closed,  the  wetch  sppoiM 
to  be  transferred,  not  to  its  actual  pUoa;  but 
to  the  other  ear. 

AsKUAL  RiyoaTorTn«rBiirPicKii-^>TTicm 
or  TUK  Aavr  to  tbi  Sacit  <  ^  At 

roft  rni  Ykab  IS88.    Bv  .  t.r. 

Washington:  Govenunvnt  i'rinitn^~<J{&ce: 
Pp.  418. 

Ov  the  mflttery  side  of  hts  funrtfcnn^  Ifce 
Chief  Signal-Offioer  records  the  slept  he  bee 
taken  to  secure  a  suitable  heliograph  ■pf*' 
ralud,  the  selection  of  fleld'glassos  for  amy 
ufiu,  and  experiments  with  homing  plgeooa. 
The  iiiade^^nacy  of  the  prt'Seni  methods  in 
insure  Instruction  in  military  aignaling  It 
lamented,  with  the  declaration  that  **ther« 
is  not  an  STersge  of  two  oflcen  to  %  irgt* 
meot  who  are  compel^ml  to  irannnit  signals 
— bj  sun,  flag,  and  tordi — day  and  nlpht, 
except  those  who  have  p*w>et]  Ihrougb  a 
regular  course  of  Instruction  in  oatueetkNi 
with  this  office."  A  valuable  report  by  U«n> 
tenant  Thouipsoo  oo  foreign  orxsalxelkBS 
and  appliances  for  ^tgiislitiis  ftirma  ens  eC 
the  appendiies  of  tliu  Tolunie.  In  tba  maOcr 
of  the  weather  servlcv,  crcdii  U  oeconlsd  to 
three  of  the  principal  tivwHpapcrs  of  tbs 
country  for  the  assistance  given  by  thcb' 
meteorological  editors  tn  sapplementing  the 
general  predictions  made  by  the  offlos  by 
their  own    local    ('•  and  to  otbef 

journals  for  publi  rvdt^Scel  del* 

of  local  lAtcrcst  Of  the  itunu-sIgiMla,  TTi 
per  ecut  were  rerified ;  Uie  system  ef  sold- 
wave  observations  was  eontlniwd  sinsjesafally 
and  Mtlsfactorn^.  ObserratfaMM  on  atiaa^ 
pberia  electricity  wen  ooudiiiKd  at  fov  0»- 
tious.  Bulletins  sliowlnfr  ili.^  tffr^x  t,t  ih» 
wmtber  on  the  cru|ii   <■  ly. 

The  railway  bulletin  tvr^nr  uq-  u-.vitv«4. 
having  been  targely  superseded  by  iIm  Suie 
oervlcca,  wli'i '-  J,     TW 

question  of  r,  'stfoa  te 

dangsroue  floods  ettd  U««.  »u^a  of  nav^ge- 
tlon,  ciigiKed  rtteadflBi  A  eyaften  of  rsJto* 
fell  sieiloQe  vu  tMOtnled  faft  Jul/,  IMT.  ei 


4 


4 


4 

I 
4 


LITSnARY  NOTICES. 


707 


I 


I 


euitable  points  in  the  grcftt  water-flhcda,  near 
ihc  soiiroe*  of  tho  prinripal  tributaries  of 
Uie  lugeet  rirora.  Improrementa  in  (he 
orgmniuitinn  of  the  Krricc  are  sfaown  to  be 
much  needed  to  make  it  u  effident  as  it 
■boald  be 

FrimAKiMTAL  Pitoitrnis.  Tm  MimoD  or 
ParuMorar  l»  a  ^vbtkmatic  Aiuianus- 
aiKKT  or  Knowlkpoe.  Uy  Dr.  Vxvl 
Cahob.  Chicago :  The  Opca  Court  Tub- 
lUhing  Company.     Pp.267.     Price,  $1. 

Tna  papers  prescctod  in  tliia  Tolamc, 
covljtuting  a  confltructiTc  ecries  of  phllo- 
Bopbical  CBfaya,  first  appeared  for  the  mo«t 
part  in  the  editorial  coluiDna  of  "  The  Open 
Court,"  Thev  were  there  subjected  to  criti- 
cism and  ilLicttasion  which  the  author  has 
turned  to  advantage  in  rcrising  and  rearrang* 
fag  and  adding  to  them.  Pliitosophj  i«  ro- 
gvded,  from  a  point  of  view  both  radical  and 
ooniierTatirc,  aa  the  most  practical  and  im- 
portant kcience,  whoN?  probletna  lie  at  the 
bottom  of  all  the  single  adcnces,  of  which 
religion  and  cthicn  are  applications  The 
view  b  radical,  liccaiye  the  Iseacfl  of  pbilo- 
eophio  thoajrht  are  ppewntcd  in  their  rigidity 
without  tr^'in;;  to  conceal  the  conseqaencM 
to  which  tho  argument  leads,  with  the  old 
and  long-cheriflhcd  errors  faced  and  erilicatly 
txplnined;  and  coDaerrEtiTc,  becauae  the 
historical  eonnection  with  the  work  of  our 
ancestors  Is  rcg&rded,  and  progress  is  sought 
through  a  derelopmcnt  from  the  past,  not  by 
A  rapture  with  It.  "A  philosophy  of  mmX 
r«dicfll  fri>e  thonght**  U  pr«sontcd^  "that  \h 
no  oei^Uviftm,  no  agnostlidsm,  and  no  meta- 
physical mynlicism,  but  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  positive  facts^"  This  philosophy  Is 
monlam,  or  a  conception  of  all  existence  as 
one.  This  is  complemented  by  meliorism,  or 
the  ooDception  of  a  purified,  higher  view  of 
Hfc. 

Ootfi  GTKMASTioi  roR  m  Wcll  and  mi 
Sick.  Edited  by  E.  ANORitaTf^iN,  U.  D., 
and  \3j  0.  Ecxxni.  TnuutUtcd  from  the 
Eighth  German  Bditloo.  Boston  :  Hon;:h- 
coo,  Mifflin  A  Co.     Pp.  »i.    Priw,  IU60. 

WiuLt  setting  forth  in  no  nneertain 
terms  the  invigoratiDg  effects  of  lyatMuttic 
bodily  fxeecise,  the  anthot*  of  ihia  manual 
fnukly  oantion  the  reader  flgnin^t  resorting 
to  gymnajitlcfl  for  ihe  cure  of  eerioua  dl«ea«eai, 
eertftinly  not  without  preTiotis  consultation 
vilb  «  phyiifHan,  and  they  warn  him  also  not 


to  impatiently  expect  striking  results  after  a 
few  weeks*  practice.  The  book  comprisoa 
some  general  rules  and  information  abonk 
home  gymnastic*,  which  is  followed  by  de> 
tailed  descriptions  of  sirty-nine  exercises, 
moat  of  which  nr«d  no  apparmtue,  while  fxr 
the  othem  durob-bells,  a  wand,  and  a  chair 
are  tho  only  articles  required.  Fiftytwo 
cuts  illustmie  the  descriptions.  General 
directions  and  apedfio  Uns  of  exernses  are 
then  given  for  the  use  of  boys  and  girls  of 
different  ages,  for  young  men,  young  women, 
mature  men  and  women,  and  for  old  age. 
Similar  directions  and  groups  of  csemeeB 
are  glren  adapted  to  certain  conditions  of 
ill-bealth  or  imperfect  development,  such  as 
gvncral  wcakneaa,  weak  chest,  stagnation  in 
tho  abdominal  organs,  corpulence,  hent  car- 
riaf*e,  etc  A  large  sheet  contnintng  all  the 
cuts,  and  a  list  of  the  exercises,  accompaiu«a_ 
the  Tolttme. 

BriTt  OF  Nrw  Yoat  TniRnr-nmi  Avkitxl 

KkPORT    op    the    BtaTB    ScPKBlNTUdlKKT 

or  Public  iMtraccnoNi  1889.     AxDRinv 

F.  DBAncB.     Pp.  about  1,000. 

Thb  year  corered  by  this  report  Is  de- 
scribed at  baring  been  one  of  marked  edu- 
cational activity.  A  new  interest  In  eduoa- 
tionat  work  was  monifc-sterl,  and  showed 
itself  most  intelligently  in  directions  which 
promise  the  best  reeulls.  The  riralries  and 
antogonisms  between  different  classee  of 
educational  workers  arc  disappearing.  The 
critioisraa  of  the  pnblit)  schools  hare  prompt- 
ed examination  of  deficiencies  and  the  March 
for  means  of  remedying  them.  More  study 
is  gtveu  to  the  hlRtory  and  philosophy  of 
education  than  ever  before ;  and  "  00  CTcry 
side  a  new  and  healthful  Interest  in  public. 
school  woric,  on  the  part  of  tliose  cliarged 
with  the  carrying  on  of  that  work,  is  appar. 
'cot.'*  The  coat  per  capita  of  educating  tho 
children  of  the  State  U  pat  at  various 
amoimta,  aeeording  to  the  rale  by  which  It 
Is  eatlmatod,  but  the  real  cost,  for  the  chil- 
dren actually  attending  the  schools.  Is  ulti- 
mately fixed  at  ^16.  Iff.  The  expense  per 
capita  of  the  whole  population  was  $5.08. 
The  statistics  of  attendance  arc  claimed  to 
show  that,  while  it  ia  relatively  nnaller 
thon  formerly,  the  school  work  of  the  State 
baa  grown  somewhat  m  aubstontlal  diar- 
octer  during  die  last  thirty  yeara.  filnoe 
18«B  the  arerage  ationdanoe  Intbedtlcabas 


I 


7o8 


TSS  POPULAn  SCIEyCS  MONTHLY. 


adfoccod  about  ereul;  with  the  ■dranoo  in 
total  onrollmeut,  and  in  the  towtiB  it  bos 
iDcrcAii«d  twenty  per  cent,  while  the  total 
enrollment  haa  fallen  off  nine  per  cent.  The 
rcffult*  of  inquiries  into  the  compulMry  cdu* 
cational  methods  of  KngUnd,  France,  and 
G^rTuuijr  are  reported.  More  attention  to 
purely  professional  work  in  the  examination 
uf  teachers  is  recommended.  The  eupetin- 
tendent  Is  aconstomed,  In  accordance  with 
the  law  of  the  State,  to  indorse  the  certifi- 
cates and  diplomas  issued  by  State  superin* 
tendenls  and  normal  icbools  in  other  States; 
and  he  has  had  some  oorrespondence  with 
other  euperintendenta  with  reference  to  a 
general  understawling  on  thia  matter.  The 
re^ponfies  hare  not  been  as  general  or  as 
sntisfactory  as  was  desired.  The  superin> 
if^ndcnt  believes  that  the  morement  in  faTor 
of  the  manual -training  Fjfttem  has  been  re- 
urded  by  the  fact  that  "*  the  kinds  of  indus- 
trial work  which  have  been  pushed  forward 
were  each  as  Boemed  incongruous  with  school 
work  and  gare  small  promise  of  assimilat- 
ing with  it";  and  he  regards  free-hand 
drawing  as  offering  a  simple  and  practicable 
means  of  reaching  the  same  end.  Consider- 
able space  in  the  report  is  occupied  with  the 
diMus^icn  of  questions  concerning  school 
libraries.  Several  valuable  documents  are 
included  among  the  *^£xhibits"  and  in  the 
appendix. 

Tm  MoDEur  Scmci  Essatist.  Uonthlj. 
Boston:  The  Xcw  Ided  Pabliahlng  Com- 
pany.   Ten  cents  a  number,  oos  dollar  a 

Tolimie  of  twelve  numbers. 

This  periodical  has  been  established  as  a 
medium  for  the  pnbllcatioa  ol  etsaya  and 
lectures  presenting  the  modern  BdcottiAe  or 
evolutionary  aspect  of  rarioos  subjects. 
Each  number  contains  one  essay.  The  six 
numben  before  us  contain  the  firat  six  of 
the  fifteen  lectnre«  en  different  phasc«  of 
evolution,  delivered  before  the  Brooklyn 
Ethical  Association  last  winter.  These  lect- 
ures followed  a  logical  order  The  firat  two 
were  biograpUeal  sketche*  of  the  two  gnat 
men  wh«s*  namaaare  most  intiraaleljr  aaio> 
etaied  irHh  the  otoImIoo  h|n>othesi« — ^Iler- 
bert  £%p€ncar  — <  ttlMI<<>-JMieK  Darwin, 
Uk<  furam-  *~<a  sml  tbt 

'  The 


by  Garrett  P.  Scrvlss.  and  is  illustrated. 
This  is  foUowed  by  '*£volution  of  the 
Earth,"  by  Lewis  G.  Jane«;  ""Erolution  of 
Vegetal  Life,"  by  William  Potts;  and  "Evo- 
lution of  Animal  Ufc,"  by  Roaeiier  W. 
Raymond.  The  plan  of  the  eeriee  included 
Iccturca  on  the  descent  of  man,  evolution  of 
mind,  fooicty,  theolf^,  and  morals;  proofs 
of  evolution,  its  philosophy,  and  its  rela- 
tions to  rcli;;fious  thought  and  the  coming 
civilization.  In  undertaking  to  present  to 
its  membera  and  ilte  public  in  a  popular 
fonn  the  leading  ideas  of  the  evolution 
ptiiicsopby,  this  associatioo  has  entered  upon 
a  work  In  harmony  with  the  most  etiligbt- 
ened  spirit  of  the  time,  which  can  not  fail 
to  produce  beneficial  and  gratifying  reanlta. 
The  lectures  of  lost  winter  were  delivered  by 
men  having  special  fitncu  for  dealing  with 
the  subjects  assigned  to  them,  and  each 
furnishes  an  excellent  introduction  to  a 
course  of  reading  on  its  special  topic  We 
learn  that  the  association  is  to  conduct  ■ 
similar  series  of  lectures  next  season,  and 
that  its  BQOoess  has  le^  to  the  formation  of 
slnular  organizations  in  various  parts  of  the 
countxj. 

Aasval  RiroRT  or  tbk  Boakd  or  Rconrn 
or  TBI  SmrasoNiAK  IitsTrrrnov,  for  the 
Year  ending  June  SO,  1886.  Part  I. 
Wa«bingion :  Guremment  Prinliag-Officc. 
Pp.  878,  with  PtatesL 

Bbsidis  the  operations  of  the  Instituticn 
itself  and  of  the  Kational  Uuseum  and  Bu- 
reau of  Ethnology,  which  ara  regalarly  under 
its  charge,  this  report  inclndea  sketdtes  of 
the  work  of  the  United  Sutcs  Fish  Commis- 
sion and  Geological  Survey,  which,  though 
independent  of  the  Institution,  are 
to  it  in  line  of  worlc  Not  bo  mudi  I 
is  recorded  in  the  way  of  explorations — psitly 
because  the  work  has  been  completed  in 
many  of  the  districts,  and  partly  becaUM 
means  have  been  lacking  for  bf^Inning  ntw 
enterprises  of  any  magnitude.  The  Hat  of 
publication^  beaidee  UbUographSea  aad  oata^ 
logoos,  fndadea  aercral  works  aad  bmoo- 
graphs  of  fanportanco  and  general  intereA 
The  development  of  the  Xational  MiiMiim,  M 
maa««red  by  the  acqulaition  of  fifteen  huB* 
dred  Iota  of  spednens,  was  nnexpadedly 
gnaL  Beside*  the  oe&trai  refercnoe  lilirtry 
of  th^  mnMraBL  Motianal  libnriea  bar*  bofs 


I 


I 


LITER. 


NOTICES. 


Rnreau  of  Ethnologj,  the  field  work  in- 
r«I>idci  mound  cxplormthMU.  exptuniEoiu  in 
»Drti»maad  moileni  «toDe  rtlUgcs,»n<l  graeiml 
field  studioj  in  iufltUuUoDS,  lingiiitftks,  etc ; 
tfc«  offloe  work  hM  eondiBled  Urgcl/  ia  giring 
litorury  forra  to  tliy  n>«ulLi  of  the  fidd  work. 
Thi*  opt-rations  of  the  Goolopic«l  Surrey  and 
llic  Fish  Comniisiton  aro  prx's<M]lr4j  io  brjuf 
Bnmmarica  Tlic  stimiDario*  and  **  uocodionol 
Iiftponn"  In  tlie  appendix  include  too  pepera 
rrl;itifij»lo»ntbro[ioloj;j;  unarticlcon  "Cer- 
tain Panulto^  OommousAla,  and  Domiriliairrj 
in  iho  IVarl  Oy^tr-rs,"  by  K.  E.  C.  Stoftrnn ; 
"Tfano  Reckoning  In  thcTwenticlh  Centur?," 
by  Sandfnrd  Klcrolng ;  and  a  "  Report  oo 
Aatronorolcal  Obwrtaiiona/'  bj  Gcorgo  II. 
Bochtuer. 

BxjimtATioTr  o»  Watk*  ron  Paxitabt  and 
TumsiCAi.  PcRPoflts.  Br  IIcmrt  Lkit- 
«4«:<»  H.  I> .  Ph.  [>.,  and  William  Bkam, 
A.M.  Philadelphia ;  p.  Blakiaton,  Son 
ACo.     Pp.  10«.     Price,  |!. 25. 

Thx  aim  of  this  manual  Ii  to  prvBcnt  pro- 
oewM  whkh  are  Inutworthjand  pnicticablo, 
vilhout  any  uicIo««  matter.  Certain  pro- 
OfiMfl  which  have  Innp  held  promiucat  placca 
cro  not  admitted  to  this  vohimc,  (or  in«(jkrtoe 
the  aoap  test  for  hoidness,  which  ti  ivjccted 
<m  tlic  auihoriij  of  llehacr,  who  boa  doclarvd 
U  luoccurjte^  and  has  dedited  the  metliud 
hero  presented.  The  ccttorimottie  ti-sta  for 
nitratea  and  nltrit**  are  described  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  prooesBcs  heretofore  In  uae. 
Bttfidca  the  dcwriptlou*  of  aiulytical  opera* 
tions,  the  tCJU  Includ(«  a  ehapter  on  the  In- 
terpretation of  resvitts,  dealing  with  the  ao- 
tioo  of  water  on  lead,  UvSbr  organisms  tn 
»aU;r,  idvntiecation  of  the  »ouree  of  WKtcr 
purificatlun  of  drinking  and  boiler 
Tabic?  of  rariou*  analytical  data 
ore  nppended,  there  are  fereral  pictures  of 
apitaratuA,  and  %  auiub*)r  of  oheeta  of  Uhels 
occomponjr  the  vulutno. 

CotLMt  BoTAJtT,  By  Edeom  a  BAmric,  Pro. 
fesBor  of  Botany,  Materia  M.'dicn,  and 
Ulflraaoopy  In  th-.*  t'hie*^  College  of 
Pharmaey.  Chicaco:  O.  R  Eneelhard 
*0o.     Pp.461.    Pricv,«a 

A«  tadieated  ht  1la  title,  this  work  i« 
adapted  to  ^ludinu  of  lome  maturity.  The 
flr»t  onhjiMH  tnken  up  In  it  U  "Or^nne* 
«phy,*'  the  orgoiu  b^ln^  dirided  Into  those 
of  rpgcUtioo  and  thow  gf  reprodncilon.    In 


dcAcribinp;  (he  orsrans  something  U  told  ef 
their  fuoctiunff,  although  a  nhort  dirifk]on  of 
the  volume  irt  derotcd  to  "  Vi^gvtable  Physl- 
oh>jry,'*  after  '•  Vegeuhle  Histology,"  nhidi 
\»  the  pecond  «ubjt;et  treated.  AppeiwletJ  to 
the  -chiipt^n*  on  hiatology  arc  dirrctiona  for 
the  u»o  of  the  microscope  and  aooessory  op- 
psratuB.  Suggntions  for  loboratory  work 
follow  each  ehapter  io  thooo  throe  diHwioufl 
of  the  book*  The  fourth  att<I  cluttinR  part  la 
occupied  with  "  Vegetable  Taxonomy/'  end- 
ing with  a  brief  account  of  the  sucoeosian  of 
planu  in  gcolof^ic  time.  The  text  Is  Illus- 
trated by  nearly  six  hundred  outs,  largely 
from  drowinpi  by  the  author,  and  a  glossary 
of  botanical  tcnns  la  appended.  The  vol- 
ume la  somewhat  marred  by  typographical 


In  tlie  Inirotiwtion  to  Saw/tr''»  BUik^  the 
Jief.  iHenOrr  A,  JSawyrr,  of  Whltevboro, 
N.  y.,  In  riew  of  a  new  translation  In  course 
of  publication  by  hlto,  seta  forth  his  views 
respecting  Uie  character,  authmUelty.  date, 
and  purpose  of  the  several  books  of  Script- 
ure. He  hotd9  thnt  if  the  pradiglea  and 
mlmrlpfl  of  both  Testaments  ora  cxpUlned 
in  the  li^ht  of  modem  aciencOf  and  tf  tl»e 
Judgment  of  the  annents  is  (e»ted  by  the 
laws  of  nvidcnuj  ruling  in  the  oonrti*,  they 
will  be  fotmd  *'  to  hare  been  attested  only 
by  incompetent  witnoftitc#,  and  by  supposed 
proofs  tliat  are  entirely  nophlstical " ;  and 
elaims  that  h!v  work  will  show  many  of  Uto 
supposed  foots  to  hart  been  fictions,  and  of 
the  propbociN  to  bate  been  written  and  an- 
tedated after  the  event  had  occurred.  Bo 
findt*  many  errors  which  the  late  revision 
ho?  faik'd  to  correct,  Iwt  concerning  which 
he  eijwctB  to  rontrlb-ite  to  the  forraatlnn  of 
right  v{f>WR ;  and  hopcfi  aUo  that  his  scbemo 
may  be  adflpted  to  facilitate  more  sncceaaful 
Bible  stndy  tlian  boa  been  geDemlly  possi- 
ble hitherto  by  readen  of  English  Bibles. 

Vol.  IX  of  the  OtmerptUuMU  of  th*  Xu- 
Honnt  Arp^ine  Ob$rr9atorjf  oover*  the  work 
done  dnrini*  the  ye&r  Irt7A,  which  was  di- 
rected by  Juait  J/.  Tfutme,  In  the  ab^iencft 
of  Dr,  B4«njnmtn  A.  Gould.  Tlio  volume 
contains  IS.O'il  determinations  of  Iho  pool- 
lion*  of  southern  stars, 

Xa  V  of  Vol.  XVm  cf  the  Anna!*  of 
Harvard  CotUrjt;  OtMtervntnnf  reconis  ihc  ob- 
aervatioQS  of  the  total  oeUpie  of  the  aim,  An- 


710 


I 


gnsl  SO,  1880,  made  by  Prof.  W.  ff.  Pielrr- 
inff^  iritb  tlie  aid  of  Tolunt«er  &st<i«t&nU,  on 
tbe  UUnd  0/  OrvuulOf  in  the  Weit  Indice. 
Tiie  account  is  aocompuiled  by  fuur  platoe. 
No.  VII  of  ilie  HUM!  toIuuic  ia  a  record  of  A 
PholOp'^thie  DeitrmiruitiOH  6/  the  Brit/hi- 
nor  9/  the  Starts  all  uf  tlie  faeasur«a  in- 
Tolved  m  thu  work,  the  idi'mtificaticm  of  the 
Btarv,  aoJ  tlic  nuinorical  cumjiututioDS  bav- 
in^ been  made^  with  few  exwptiona,  by 
ilin.  M.  Flamnff.  Tlie  paper  oontaiiu  a 
OfttAlogne  of  1,04)9  close  polftr  stars,  oue  of 
420  etar«  ia  the  riclndr«,  and  ooc  of  1,131 
«(iunturial  Rtar«.  Part  I  of  Vol.  XX  U  a 
record  of  Oi*ervotion*  made  tii  l/w  Siwt  HiU 
Mtteorntoffieal  OttTrvatory  in  thf  Year  1SS7, 
autl  b  Uitroduocd  \>y  a  dcttcriptioa  of  tbo 
obticiTatory  and  lu  work,  by  A.  Lattrenee 
H'ftch^  6,  B.,  iU  proprietor  and  director. 
Mr.  //.  Heim  Ciajfton  \s  the  obserrcr.  The 
Obserraiory  of  Harvard  College  now  co-up- 
cratea  with  ihc  Blnn  Hill  Ohitervitlory  hv 
publishing  tli«  obeervatioriB  of  the  Utter, 
and  a  oonM>lidation  of  the  two  tnaUtntioiu 
ia  oontcmplaled.  The  presoal  record  com- 
prtMS  tables  of  hourly  values  of  atmoapheriG 
preesure,  air  temperatures,  wind  ludmuUia 
and  morementa,  precipitation,  bright  aoa. 
ehlDc,  cloud  ot>serTBUonB,  etc.,  etc.  There 
tre  KU  platce  showing  tracings  by  self- 
rcgiBtering  InBtruments,  and  a  view  of  the 
obMrrstory.  The  Third  .&DDiia]  Report  of 
tlie  PhoiOfrraphic  Studt/  0/  .SteUar  Spt^tra, 
conducted  at  the  Uarvard  College  Ob«erT»> 
tory,  and  constituting  the  Henry  Draper 
Meiiiorial,  akMcbefl  briefly  the  progreM  of 
work  during  1868. 

The  foiuth  number  of  the  Pr*>eeedinff$  0/ 
Amfriean  SodHy  /or  T^^eAim/  I\<tntrnh 
(Damrell  &  Upban,  $1)  Id  a  pAmphlct  of 
ab^iut  three  hundred  pagee^  nearly  a  third  uf 
which  is  dcToled  to  the  report  of  the  com- 
miitcc  on  phantasms  and  presentlmonta,  by 
Prof.  J.  Boyee.  The  report  contains  ac- 
counts of  a  large  number  of  o&sea,  with 
eorroboraiire  cTidenoe,  and  an  e4Un)at4>  of 
ihfir  ralnc.  A  record  of  experiments  In 
thoasht  transference  is  contributed  by  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  John  F.  Brown,  and  a  report  upon 
"iho  diagram  test*,"  by  Prof.  C.  &  Minot 
Tbo  ihoory  of  telepathy  Is  diaeu»od  by  Ur. 
nodpva  and  Prof.  Minot.  7*tio  r«>port  of 
(be  oooimUtoo  on  modlumlrtic  phenomena  Is 
tnirtraotir^  in  iplte  of  iia  brorlty,  fnr  It  mvu- 


Lions  as  on  obstacle  to  this  vorit  fhas  »(dl- 

um»  whld)  hare  been  recommended  to  tbe 
attention  of  the  committee  are  ceaastaAtlf 
being  thown  up  an  ImpOdlMs,  StOl,  tW 
oonimittoe  has  made  some  iBr«»()^ttga«, 
whieh  it  is  not  ready  to  repoit,  ud  kopci 
to  make  more. 


PUBLICATIOBTB  KECCIVEIX 

At'bott,  riuriM  C.     Itar*  out  of  Ddota,     X«v 

York.:  D   Aiifr-tnn  *Crt.     I>  XM.    %\±A, 

All«ti.  '  tnnierryl  Or«fJii0  AaalrstK 

V0(.  III.  1  i^^lpLb:  P.  Bkainaa, 6«a  A 

CV     fi'    ■ 

.>rMK    nick- 
Atwdter. W   O.    Th^  Wt»I  and  Vby  of  A 

eoltiml  KnMiiiQerit  Butlin*.    Wft^lidtftaD:  ' 

enimeat  rnniliir  Ottoe.    fp  Itt. 

Awtln.  Prler  T..  X«w   Bronnrick,  V.  J,     Ad- 

dr«»oD  ?H.nl6r  AcTlciiUiirf      Tp    16- 

Ar:  f 


9.  -  '>.  «^ 

A  ^  .    ry 

0H-B<ink.     V.  \ 

Barrvwik  W,  i :-  „.    .      ,  —  -li 

America.    W«(ihlii|?uiQ  :  i>«v*ro»fttl  l'rtBUtif-<^- 
floe.     J*^  405.  Mitt)  Uaft. 

r ■ '    "  "   --mai«,- 

y..,.  .  101 

Ilium<i.  J,  C.  wiij  lirwtni.  Jl  ^"-,  Uti.*  SC 
The  PtrUoaie  uf  iMk.  Ctmuvj.  Ari.     T\i.  1<^ 


&oah,  Omm  0«ry.  BUtor;  of  Edoesthia  la 
Y\<n\Atk  Wsshuiftaa:  OrovanunrritPriDtlMc-Oacft 
Pp  ftc 

Hutlrr,  A.  U.  What  Moms  f4w  ao4  HmM 
Cblcafo:  It  R.  l>tiiin«U«7  A  PoDl.     Fp 

Collar.  tnilUm  0      PnHlail  UUa  Cmmi 
BoaluB  :  OIdu  *  Co.     I>  it^- 

CotDinoQwealttt  PuMUliloc   Comfiawy,  T>Mta 
Col     "Tbi'  < '''»  cianwnlOt."  Jni*.  ms.     Wofitkly. 
Pp.148.     )U*rtit,t«.  |^la>«ar. 

Day.  DavlJ  T  MiD<-ral  K^aounwaof  th#  r&lt«4 
6tiit«9,  t«'^T.     H'aaliliictoa :  Oorpnupant  PrlBtlitt- 

DuboU,  rrff.  A.  J.    IManr*  sarf  Mlrael*.     t> 

SllwaBiivr,    CvfiTCfi    H. 
N«w  York  :  Ol  A 
ralW^f.  a.  |i 

Ch^-  -'■  ' ■ 


Tkc   Osr4«a*a    8»aer> 


r.  Malftia    Auical  taA»x 


Tf 


ft 


ru 


llenort.  Wmi<im  9.  SrlanUftc  V»l*rUllMn  ;  tU 
Kfl^  In  Art  mhI  Morals.    JUteuy :  Tbe  Ajfu*  Com- 

Loatfon  :  fiuapMHi  Low,  MantOD,  SMfto  «  ttrl&c- 
to».  Un»lt«L    Pp.  1114. 

M«ri»etta«r.  Colrcr.  Hittorj  of  Hlfbfr  Sdaa»> 
tton  Id  HiiBtb  CiiroaaL. 

MloMirmn.  Ri-fHirt  of  (L  B.  Baker,  ^cretmrr  of 
It,,.  ^■^■  "  --'  '  "ilrh.  for  lS(*7-*hft.  l*p  m— 
Ai:r  if^riuM*at  HUtloa  BullcUn*. 

S-'-^  r^vtit-HlftQt  l^u>(-,  uid   Env' 

BA/*  '>I  U.V    n  •>..,!     ,  (...It.       rp,  (t  KDll  7.      LuUltlg. 

]f«w  T«rk  AffH^'ilturml  Eipnrlraent  BUtlon. 
P«t<-r  OilMi-n  T>!r^<-inr  Ilutlrtln.  A  Blodj  of  Lb* 
Com  \irftte 

t  <  I  pvrlmcnt  Rtotlnn  RoOfttn, 

Cv\'>  ilorMft.     Djr   n.    J.   DvtlMrl. 

Pp.  is. 

%T^tr,  Pnf.  JokB  i.  Tb«  Oriflii  ud  Uauliir 
«rS«x.    (TwotMpon)    Pp-9M)di». 

Besunlc,  TtavM  M.  Nuniben  ITaiTonUlsod. 
Aa  AdTftneod  Alnbr*.    I*wt  1.    K*w  Toik :  D. 

ACd.  Pp.  aj6.   iKio. 


MMr,  NoboD  Rkbt  Hvleetlon  la  WMloek.  N«w 
T«ffc  :  Powlcn  A  Writ*.     !>- 11.    It  oeKi. 

flinltb.  Chnrkt  Le*.    Illftwn^  of  Edamtl'n)  fai 

Slortb  r«r()linn.    Wutittiirtuii :  uaTcninaiit  Print- 

iBfOfflCA       Pp.  1^ 

Baoefc.  J«t)ii  C.  Iras  MtnM  utd  Iroa-Or*  I>t»- 
lykta  m  IhP  Hfnfo  of  Nrw  Tvrh.  Nrw  Y.-ri  9t»U 
Sllu>-  "        rjtl  HliLiiry.     Pp.  70.  witb  U«p. 

<>«,  M.  1).    Twvlw  RdU.I«  Ua*h 
r«*tMi  '  ntiM  <iut<>«      Wublngtoo,  D.  C: 

filbton  braUirri.     Pp.  V»,  with  PUt*. 

TonotOt  nijr  ikf,  U«[»rt  oa  Extouliitt  of  W*- 
Bir-Bapply  ftpd  DupouJ  nf  N>war<*.  Br  Biulolf 
U«rtug  ud  a.  M.  tiny.    Pp  t^  witb  Mji[>4,  etc 

••T      ^  -  ,1   K*lHi."  etc    J»ck- 

■nio  •     1^  no. 

I'i)f;r«  rb"I»f'f  do*  M^ 

».  itu   D.u.  lU^   rjilnL  fiiuiau.     BcmIaq  :   Uina   A 

Pp.  vh;.   ?:•  wiiu. 

-  17llb«r.  Prmstfla  A.  A  OoaTeiileot  Fuim  of  Oa*- 
1Uo»lT«r,  9tc.    Pp  a. 

Wlftcomiln.  Tvr*lRb  AnniM]  Hnmrt  of  the  8tsU 
BMf4  of  HMUb.  J.  T.  Umta,  M.  D..  dwrttarr. 
Madlmn     Pp.  SM. 

Wnodwmrd,  C  II .  BL  I^U  RcUtiia  of  Uui- 
«Al TMAtof  to  Bodjrott  MUd.    Pp.9& 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 

Pracdeil  ud  JIvrmI  Imstroclltn  li 
8cb«*b.  — Wlut  ibnll  be  taiight  in  the 
•dM)oU,  MjB  the  New  York  State  Supcriu- 
tendeiit*  iu  his  (ast  report,  is  %  difficult  qnc5- 
Uon  10  tuwer.  Tb«  law  l«ares  It  to  each 
lootlity  to  settle  for  itadl  "  The  tondencj 
of  the  times,  portiLtilarly  In  the  larger  places, 
too  much.  It  ought  to  be  re- 
It  does  Dot  dcToIrc  upon  tbe 
au  to  put  iuto  the  child's  bead 
an  that  be  will  eccr  be  expected  to  know.  . .  . 
It  U  better  lo  cnmte  a  de«ire  for  knowledge, 
ud  »upplj  the  itnplvZQentfl  with  which  to 
0dn  U."  The  triiil  of  manual  training  is 
cnmrnrndcd,  tad  tU(a,  It  \a  obacrrcd,  need 
DOi  b«  OTndocd  to  oarpestry  work  with  bojt 


and  making  tproiu  and  drciwea  with  girls. 
Free-hand  or  industrial  drawing  may  train 
tbe  hand  and  the  eye  more  effectually  than 
handling  a  «aw  or  a  needle.  Every  sdiool 
la  tbe  Slate  may  undertake  tbia  without  diffl* 
culty.  The  importAuce  of  a  pervading  moral 
Influeneo  In  the  achool-room  \a  ineinted  u|K)n. 
"There  is,  unfortunatelj,"  the  superintendent 
rcmarkc',  "  but  little  done  to  stimulate  pairl* 
otism  among  children  in  the  public  scbook*, 
or  outaidc  of  them.  A  gcneratlion  ago  it 
wat  common  to  uje  the  mastorplecce  of  our 
naiioDAl  oratory  for  tbe  purpoACs  of  recita- 
tion and  declamation  in  the  schoola,  and  the 
resultADt  influences  were  of  no  amall  Goo»e- 
quence  Id  arouung  and  cultivating  patriotio 
ardor  la  the  rising  generations.  Then  every 
child  was  required  to  take  part  in  the  eier- 
cisea.  But  even  thia  la  no  longer  common. 
Tbe  modem  fashion  is  to  take  pupils  who 
give  promise  of  epcdal  success  as  oratora 
and  Kftdera  and  train  them  elaborately  for 
show  upon  public  occaaions.  Tbe  older 
custom  might  be  reTived  with  pro6t'*  Tlie 
normal  schools  oontinuc  to  grow  in  alse  sod 
extent  and  to  improrc  in  the  cbanctor  and 
quality  of  the  work  performed^  and  limy 
ar«  gradually  con6nJn,;  thcm.^i'lrcs  more  al>d 
more  clOAcly  to  tlieir  logitimale  work,  the 
preparation  of  li*achcrs  for  the  public 
schools. 

■elktdii  •(  TtABiiporUUea.— The  do- 
velopment  of  the  art  of  carrying  ii  considered 
by  Pmf.  0.  T.  Mason  In  a  paper  in  the 
**  American  Anthropologl«t"  on  "  Tbe  Begin- 
mngR  of  the  Carrying  Industry.'*  Twenfy 
distinct  forms  of  the  art  are  enumerated  by 
htm  as  preceding  the  modem  inventions  of 
transportation  by  the  power  of  machinery. 
Among  them  are  carrying  in  the  hand, 
which  is  unlrenial ;  with  both  hands,  when 
the  load  is  dirided  and  balanced ,  on  the 
fingers — the  method  nf  the  ancient  ro<kal 
cop-bearcra;  with  a  boldric ;  irith  the  load 
bung  to  a  belt — chiefly  employed  in  car- 
rying treasure;  hung  to  the  arm,  as  when  a 
butket  b  tiM>d  ;  bung  from  tlii*  shoulders, 
on  the  Kliouldcr,  on  the  sc^i^uUe,  <m  the 
bock,  on  tbe  bead,  on  tlie  forehead  or 
bregma,  in  pockets,  by  men  combined^  by 
hauling,  by  throwing  or  tossing,  by  oararans, 
with  relays,  and  by  couriers.  Primi^Te 
commerce,   says  tbe  author,  "and  aU  tb« 


7»* 


THS  POPULAn  SCISyVB  MONTHLY. 


^ 


oruTTiug  mid  runiung  mTolred  in  prfmor&l 
arte  conneciod  wHli  food,  ahtJUT,  clotbui^, 
real,  enjoyment,  odd  wir,  rere  aocompUalied 
tUti  lieadj  or  foreheads,  sbouldere  or 
:kft.  or  in  the  b&nd^t  of  Ttieo  anti  women  ; 
"and  civUizattou,  while  it  hae  hivcDtcd  many 
wnys  of  btirden-bcarinir,  tlniLs  Ueo  aa  cod* 
1i%a  vaHety  of  uses  for  the  old  mctboda. .  .  . 
Ic  i«^  for  insuQCC,  oalj  a  few  ycara  siuce 
iho  iuvcnlUtti  of  the  paMenger  and  freight 
elcralor  began  to  fnjpplant  that  oaravan  of 
bod-camcrs  who  have  bceu  ciIdco  the  be- 
ginning uf  architecture  carrying  upward  to 
itA  «!onipIctWn  every  wooden  ami  brick 
Btnictiire  in  the  world.  .  .  .  The  bock  is  the 
natural  resting-plftce  for  Ibo  burdea.  Tbe 
lowest  BATages  know  thj^  and  ioTentire 
genius  earlj  began  to  devigc  apparatus  for 
bantcsfdng^  this  part  of  tbe  body.  In  Africa, 
on  the  AndcB,  in  Ucxico,  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  the  peaceable  cauricr  bean 
un  hb  bock  the  commerce  of  tbe  race.** 

SciftaD  Porteri.  -Mr.  W.  A.  Croffut  re- 
Ifttea,  in  the  **  Axaeriean  Anthropologtitt,*'  that 
of  half  o  dozen  porter*  whom  ho  saw  resting  at 
a  Ifcxicun  railway  station — *•  One  had  a  sofa 
OQ  bin  «hou!(Icr4,  tttmpped  on  I  could  not  sec 
how ;  another  bore  a  tower  of  chairs  locked 
into  each  other  and  rising  not  lesa  than  eight 
foet  above  his  head ;  another  carried  a  hen* 
coop  with  a  dozen  or  twenty  hens,  and  oth- 
ers were  conroyin^  laden  bam-U  and  tbH- 
003  faou&chotd  gooda.  They  had  come,  titcy 
B^d,  from  Son  lAiis  Potoi^i,  not  less  than 
fifty  miloa  dUtaat/*  The  carriera  wrre 
almost  alwaya  in  si^jhl  fn>m  the  car-win- 
dows of  the  Mexican  National  (Collroad,  and 
were  declared  by  Prcjidont  Purdy  to  be  lt« 
HtbIm.  If  it  wen?  not  fnr  ihem,  the  ooimtfy 
would  treble  Its  railroads  in  the  next  year, 
and  the  roads  would  doiiblo  thnir  proflLa. 
**  Wo  are  combaUng  the  cufilotri  of  centuriea. 
Tbniw  fvllnwa  carry  on  Iheir  backs  to  Mexi- 
ro  the  entire  cropt  of  groat  kaoiandiu  far 
orer  the  mountains  ** 

Monfhij  DhtrlbitloB  of  Isrendlary 
flrea. — Mr.  Franklin  Wrh«ter  has  found 
that  tlie  prcTftU'nco  of  iQccridlori^m  la  lus- 
Cdptibltf  of  brin;  graphically  re]>rew'ntcd 
itystemaUaillr  according  to  the  acaAoa.  Tbe 
monthly  onrrct  for  tlie  four  yoani  ending 
Ux  1884  ibow  thai  thov  af«  oioro  orlmiiial 


firea  in  January  tlian  hi  fobrttary ;  that  tli« 
number  increases  tlirr^uj;;!!  Slarch,  April, 
and  May,  falls  off  in  June,  axid  then  ia. 
cresM  again  tilt  Norcmbor,  to  fall  off  ^ala 
in  Deocmbcr.  Taking  the  yaan  §tpu»U^, 
tbero  appeatv  to  be  an  ■  r.t»- 

laricy  in  the  ntmdier  of  <  -'^ 

fin4  fix  monthly,  el  '-''  .     irvfulari* 

tiea  and  «ide:3t  IIlil:  i.ih  li-  .it  ii  ib*  la4l 
half  of  the  year ;  and  iu  thta  jMrriod,  rilaj 
nnl  firetf,  taking  the  w1k>Ip  cotintry,  mtt  «s* 
ceaaire  compared  with  the  earlier*  manlW. 
In  the  farming  dlstrlcta  they  are  luir*  fn^ 
quent  when  the  groateat  aelivitj  prtvalli^ 
and  are  cBpccbtly  numeraua  bi  tbo  tlow  d»> 
roled  Iu  Iranrcitt ;  « hile,  da  ring  ib«  nwntlia 
when  mo«t  of  the  :  ar«  growl^ 

(here  la  a  lull  m  l!>  .  inoaiitSaHcB. 

Mr,  Wi'bnter  condude»  thaA  inoandiai;  fiivi 
for  the  aako  of  colleetiog  baonaca  ara  rara 
■a  compared  with  othar  firaa  of 
origin. 


CalUbrala'B  Th«maJ  Spriiga. — A 
inj;  to  a  impcr  read  by  Prof.  W.  P.  Mr.NtiU 
before  the  Interrtnttimaj  Medira]  Ctaigrai^ 
more  than  two  hundred  lo^litif**!  are  kncnm 
in  California  nbetv  wauv  '-ralitraa 

rising  to  213"  F.,  and  din  alto  and 

gaaea  of  high  (hcriprutic  vnlnr,  pour  forth 
from  the  earth  lu  treat  prufu5ion.  Tba  nam* 
ber  of  individual  springs  In  diffcrxiit  locaU- 
tiea  rangea  from  one  tn  thirty,  vacfa  varying 
in  oonpcMltSoDt  tompcrainre,  and  pou^ly 
other  aa  yet  undctcnnfaied  qualtelaiw  Al> 
though  tba  eharaoUr  of  these  aprioga  la 


'inre  pa- 

VanifT^ 

'^T7  \m 


known,  only  a  fow  n( 
Arefully  analyird, 

ticntabee&aiiil> :  i i 

TliB  seven  ajrun-  <;!/.--.■, 
Rnnrh.  fifty  mil**  fnim 
temperature  from  flS"  to  {  . 
1$  giren  of  t  wonderful  little  nU«y  Bear  fil- 
•kiore,  c<mtainliig  aluigrther  ona  hnai4cT>4 
and  eighty^tlx  spring*  of  bra  aad  csid 
water,  sulphur,  soda,  wbffe  rnlpbar,  ■■i.iia- 
«U,  Iron,  borai.  hot  mud.  frcah  watrr,  cic 
Tbe  Armwh'  '  ^ags,  at  an  altltail^ 

of  orer  two  i:  t.  rary  ko  tcMpcrv- 

tnre  froai  140'  to  i\0\  An  Imawnaa  f^ 
trolaum  tpring  la  mentioned  aa  bring  iflBi 
ten  tviU-s  «r«i  of  ^Dta  tSarban,  altuaiol  Id 
the  ImhI  of  lh«  rK«aa,  atwal  a  nfla  md  a 
half  from  lh«  ation^  lb*  prc»dttc4  «r  vbM 


i 


POPULAR  MISCELZAXT. 


7»3 


conKnuAtly  ri«ea  to  the  surface  of  the  init«r 
and  floaU  upon  h  nrer  an  arua  of  many 
jni\e*.  At  tlic  thcrmAl  acid  springs  in  the 
Cu««)  Rttni^',  Inyo  County,  tlmuMudti  uf  tons 
jof  pure  fulphur  cover  tlic  fjroiinil,  winch 
[%crc  dopostted  llicrc*  in  former  time*,  vhm 
the  wulor  mu^t  hart!  cnntftiitcd  Urge  qiian- 
titlcft  of  stilphurpt'M)  liTdrogcn.  Owcuti 
Lake  f«  a  remarkable  hoiSy  of  »ater,  which 
la  mnr«  than  twica  as  nh  aB  tbo  AtUntIo 
Oovan.  VolcAiiio  mincmt  «pring«  arc  ti^- 
bHonstj  eituntcd  in  Death  Valley,  and  Sara- 
tof^a  Sprlnfcs  at  the  «o>ith  cod  of  Funeral 
Range,  suuth  of  Death  Vatic;.  Uooo  Lake, 
In  many  of  Hi  fciturefl,  rcscnihW  the  Dead 
Sea.  Of  Byron  Spring*,  In  rnntra  Costa 
4V>iimy,  one,  coiled  "SurprlBC,"  U  both  co- 
thartio  and  emetic.  Some  of  the  pprfngs 
are  aparbllnu  with  carbonic  ariil ;  fith(«r« 
contain  otilphuretcd  and  pboKphiircti'd  hy- 
drogen ;  and  there  arc  bat  mud-batba.  Ijoo* 
acn  County  tii  full  of  hot  (bofling)  ppHngs, 
havini;  a  temperature  of  from  200*  to  2I2*. 

Alpine  FiBfrslft. — A  clew  to  the  origin 
of  thi*  IHph  wnkd  and  oilier  runornl  |H;fn|>Dti- 
ticn,  which  wo  are  wroctimcn  iaclincd  to  re- 
gard as  relics  of  barbarism,  may  be  found  In 
the  fuDcml  cu»t<im9  of  some  of  ihe  Alpine  ro* 
glona.  Thedrrteof  acquaintance  of  the  more 
pro9pcroua  people  of  the  rillageA  often  ex* 
tends  OTcr  milca  of  country ;  and  the  friends 
of  a  deceased  proprietor  «tll  inaku  Inni;  jour* 
ficy*  to  attrnd  his  funeral.  The  dictates  of 
hospitality  require  tbaC  thdr  physical  wants 
bo  prorSded  for ;  or,  if  not,  ihcy  will  meet  at 
the  Inn  and  naturally  hare  somctlitng  very 
tike  a  feast.  In  some  districts,  crcn  before 
death  occurs  and  the  patient  Is  hi  hU  la«t 
agonies,  all  around  arc  Informed  of  the  fact 
and  Gxpectod  to  make  a  ccremonlxl  lost  rlxit. 
They  enter  the  «leU-ror>ni,  take  a  long  look 
at  the  dying  man.  and  go  their  way*.  After 
death,  when  the  body  baa  been  prepareil  for 
burial,  a  table  Is  spread  eorered  with  re- 
freshments, an-l  open  honse  is  held  till  the 
funeral.  \A1ioevcr  o^mes  U  Intited  to  eat 
and  drink.  Two  cnndles  are  kepi  bumlnfi 
by  ihe  cttffln,  and  two  wiwnen  are  emp!oy«N| 
to  watch  and  \:uif%  their  time  in  prayer.  Aft- 
■tbe  funeral  a  hot  tncnl  t^  gtren  (o  tlte 
In  Carinthia.  while  pTfect  quiet 
deeenej  are  presrrred,  tlie  friends  are 
linritefl  io  com*  In  and  say  a  praytn*  for  the 


oool  of  their  Uto  friend,  at  stated  hoota,  or 
daring  the  whole  time ;  and  occasionally  an* 
of  thera  repeats  the  prayer  aloud,  while  tb« 
other*  jolu  in.  On  leaving  the  rouu,  each 
of  the  Ttyittirs  Ih  uffHrt>«l  a  pU'iv  nf  bmid  and 
a  glacn  of  wine  or  rplrits,  and  U  expected  to 
accept.  Snch  cu.<itoms,  [tcrfectly  liinqde  and 
pro)ier  In  tltelr  origin,  may  easily,  when  car- 
ried to  exi'^ena  or  abused  by  unworthy  pcr- 
»oiu  or  intruders,  degenerate  into  the  repaU 
clvo  wake. 

ne  Glrr»  Rltrhpo-Cardra.— The  Glri'a 
Rjtcltca- Garden,  a  practical  development  of 
tbe  Kinderj;art4.'n  in  adaptation  to  Bitg1i»b 
or  AmerieuD  hobius,  in  an  institution  for 
teaching  girls  from  very  childhood  lh«o 
things  which  pertain  to  good  houac-work  and 
good  housekeeping,  by  a  series  of  illastrn- 
tire  Ie«»ons  which  arc  made  as  attractiTc  a^ 
passible.  It  Includes  a  graduated  aeries  of 
three  courses.  In  the  fir^tt  course  the  giria 
are  taught  methodical  daily  work,  by  being 
taken  step  by  step  through  the  series  of  du- 
ties, to  the  a«5on»panhnent  of  lixely  songa, 
bright  objcct-lcssono,  and  little  toy  mmleli 
for  table*sctting  and  bed<making.  Tbe  second 
coarse  includes  washing,  ironing,  and  booEC- 
cleaning ;  In  the  third  courxe,  tho  part«  of 
beef  and  muttin,  ple-maklng.  baby-dressing 
with  dolly,  and  '*  waiting  on  the  door."  An 
English  journal  obscrrc?,  respecting  the  poa- 
sible  utility  of  the  Inslitution:  "Oue  can 
not  but  noticre  how  happy  Itiile  glrU  arc  if 
allowed  to  dust  mother's  chairs  or  to  iron  the 
stoekiii^  and  handkea'hicfs ;  how  deftly 
they  manage  lhe»«wvcptn;i-bioom  i*Ub  a  han- 
dle about  twkv  aa  tall  as  tliemselvcs;  boir 
delighted  to  bare  a  small  piece  of  dough  and 
make  grimy  little  cdlitoos  of  mother^s  lorta. 
And  one  can  not  but  be  sti^ck,  too,  by  the 
fact  that  as  tbe«c  same  little  girls  grow  older 
tbcy  lose  thlff  ta£te,  and  come  to  louk  upon 
domestic  work  an  drudjrery,  preferrinp,  when 
they  leare  scboul,  any  occupitlon  hut  hooae- 
work.  U  not  thl^,  in  a  great  measure,  duo 
to  the  fact  tliat  this  nittunil  wumanly  losto 
ift  neglectctl,  and  it*  niMvatlon  left  out  of 
the  girl's  education,  wiili  the  result  that  our 
girls  go  out  OS  little  moid^-or'all-work  with 
STidi  profound  ignorance  and  want  of  meth- 
od thai  they  art*  a  torment  to  Uic  mistretfa 
and  a  mUery  to  ihcraseh-es  ?  "  Tlie  kltJ  ri 
garden  b  Intended  to  help  remedy  this  ^  •  > 


7M 


THE  POPULAR  SClEyVB  MO^ 


rUrUUvft  U  BalUk-Uad.— Tbo  Bav 
Uka  are  &  [>cople  of  comiuaa  orig^  with 
the  Malays  and  resembling  them  in  aianj  r«- 
fipccta,  wbo  Uto  aloDg  the  western  ooa^t  anil 
In  the  interior  of  the  island  of  Sumatra.  The 
djauict  ehiL-fi  form  a  confederation,  tUo 
fltrongofil  oue  amoag  th«tn  reattiing  near  the 
Tobn  Lttke.  They  have  cnjored  the  advan- 
tagea  of  cirilizationf  are  good  igriculturlsta, 
baro  ao  original  sj.item  of  writing,  aad  take 
core  to  have  tbclr  children  Infitnictcd  in  iuoh 
arts  and  knowledge  a«  they  appreciate ;  and 
yet  they  eat  enemies  who  are  token  armed, 
and  crioanaJA  of  a  certain  claso,  and  adorn 
their  tomba  with  obscene  figurca.  Aa  senti- 
mental people  in  Western  countriei  practice 
in  a  "language  of  flowera,"  bo  the  yoiir^ 
people  of  either  sex  onjon^;  the  Dattaka  cor- 
respond by  means  of  a  language  of  leareci. 
The  leaves  themselves  hare  no  Mgnificancc, 
but  their  names,  modified,  pcrhopo,  within 
the  bounds  of  poetic  liccoMr,  indicate  or 
rhyme  with  the  wurd  which  the  correspond- 
ent wishoe  to  suggest.  Dcaides  leaves,  oor- 
alo,  bells,  anta,  and  the  figures  of  all  sorts  of 
objects  arc  employed  for  the  same  purpose. 
Dr,  VandcrTunk^  wholiaflsttidicil  the  Battak 
tangnage,  tells  of  another  method  of  scnli- 
menial  commimication  among  ihejo,  by  means 
of  quatrains,  which  are  called  by  theoi  cnjrs 
or  um/kma.  In  iheiM)  the  Grst  two  Uncs  arc 
suggested  by  the  language  of  the  leaves, 
which  is  employed  to  suggest  tbt-ir  catch- 
word. They,  however,  have  no  partioular 
significance^  but  lead  up  to  the  second  pair 
of  lines,  Id  wLieh  Is  emb(»died  the  sentiment 
that  the  loTcr  widies  to  express.  To  he  cx- 
)>ert  iu  Ibo  use  of  these  endet,  it  is  nccesnary 
to  know  a  coasidcnblo  numl>cr  of  ihcm  by 
heart.  The  young  maidens  arc  usually  bvt- 
tcr  rer^cd  lu  this  lore  tbou  the  youni;  uicn, 
and  there  ore  often  tn  the  nattok  villages 
sotui;  who  nmkc  ■  buPittPMi  of  supplying  and 
interpreting  them.  It  is  one  of  the  custoow 
of  the  people  that  girls,  as  soon  as  ihcy  roach 
a  marriageable  age,  shall  leave  the  housM  uf 
their  parents  and  go  In  live  with  aome  fithcr 
ontnarnod  woman  C*  widow  or  grmoi-wldow). 
A  atrin  flurreilhuice  Is  pretended  to  be  kept 
over  them,  which  U  usually  m- 
the  icIaxaUon  than  tn  thr  nx:i' 


igiiur«nl  uf  tlwi  oitoi  ihna.tiu<n.   Whli«i 


plad  here  In  ««ating  nuUa  mad  nuiki^  to* 
bacco-boxos  and  Wr£A-baga^  they  t«»efc  o«w  a» 
other  the  tnu/cv  whidi  tliey  have  laanM^  fraoi 
their  grandmot  hi*  rs  aiidotlMfroU 
for  ret^ning  whidi  thdir 
enormous  capacities. 

AtBOBpbcrlr  Tldeii«— The  qootlooortfi* 

tides  similar  lo  ocean  tides  that  may  tw 
atcd  In  the  atmo^pbcre  by  the  moon  Iw 
gaged  the  atlcutlon  of  many  phyi^lrivt* 
Newton.  The  longest  »eHt,<«  of  sttnUtf  oo 
the  subject  Is  that  of  Eiscnbhr,  whkh  Id- 
cludea  tlnrty>two  thousand  obscrratiocis  d)*> 
tributcd  through  twenty -lhre«  conarcntin 
years.  Tlie  author  concluded  that  a  mrtaio 
equalixalion  uf  atmoFpfacrJc  proasurc  Is  p^ 
Uucvd  during  a  rcrolution  of  the  moan  aroottfl 
the  earth.     According  to  V    '  u«t, 

a   later  ohdorver,   the  equu.  .  uot 

brought  about  by  the  moremcat  «f  wamtM 
of  air,  but  by  a  lund  of  expanaioQ  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  only  seta  In  motSuii  dio* 
tinct  partielca  of  the  wtioir  mosa.  Siaoc,  is 
this  way,  the  density  of  the  air  at  uij  ^rcn 
point  docs  not  change  much  during  a  itto> 
lution  of  the  mnon^  the  tcnijicraturo  tad  hy> 
grumetrie  condiliun  arc  no  mora  iafltunoed; 
uciihe^  the  barometer  nor  other  niclea«tt> 
logical  inslntiiii'uls,  tie  "  T  of 

an    atnioflplierio    lid*-,    •>  'tt 

points  of  view,  the  inllueaee  of  t 
may  be  well  marked  by  the  lii-^r' 
TI>e  aetiuu  uf  itie  sun  must  b«  ftUl  wvakcr 
than  lltal  of  th«  fttoou.  Tlie  ci)ual2sfttioa  U 
prossorc,  in  this  tiew,  tak<«  pUo*  Um  boh 
uMliy  as  the  difTcrcnoe  is  last  btflv«BA  lbs 
augiuentAitoa  Mid  dbnlautloa  of  deasl^. 
Those  conditions  exist  when  lhi<  ffgla—  W 
Itts«  and  of  grcatvr  deuvily  ar*  bear  OM 
another.  Thus  the  cqualtxatioa  OBa  tab 
place    at    »lie   (\!ia'.!ra{iif«  rather   thoB  flie 

Cil    ■     ■  ■  '1    U 

is  at  the  lyiTgLea.  This  is  fully  oooAnBol 
by  obserratSon*.  Every  culmJBatloo  «f  ths 
moon  is  prer^ifod,  for  any  mortdUa,  by  a 
baromvtno  bclgjit  inferior  to  »'      -  —   aod 

is  followed  by  a  superior  Ir  >•- 

iu.in  Is 

■  ^ 

(lis 

barowvter,  whUv  thn  bsv<««o 


I 


POPULAR  MTSCELLAITY. 


7»5 


oocon  prerious  to  Ibo  culmination.    TfacM 
InvcrBc  rarifttion*  of  prcaaurc  ma^,  bow- 
er, be   nuifikod    tjy  meteorological   cuuJi- 
chure  U  kh  a»oeDding  or  a  dc> 
lit.    During  (lio  winter  moDths 
e  mvao  pressui-c  in  the  hours  foUowLug 
tbo  culminatton  of  the  moon  U  greater  than 
Iho  hours  pn*a<djng  it.      A  current  of 
nin^  air  could  ma«k  the  phenomenon,  but 
there  rarclr  Is  one  at  this  season.     During 
the  summer   niontli*  tlio  variation  is   lefw 
rked.     Kinallv,  if  wo  take  account  of  the 
lion  of  the  f  on,  we  «haU  find  that  tfaeac  dif* 
rencca  are  more  accentuated  at  the  ffyzj-gica 
than  at  the  quadratureHf  oorreffpoDding  with 
whal  has  been  obsonred  above.     The  rcaulta 
of  ol>t<!ryal!oii  thun  pnive  that  ttiere  realljr 
exisla  an  auDuspberic  tide.    It  Is  liardl^  «en- 
hle  to  our  Inftnimcnts,  becaiiao  we  are  at 
bottom  of  the  ocean,  subject  to  th«  action 
the  moon  and  the  sun,  and  because  kbe 
Uo  force  of  the  air  is  oonslantl;  tending 
oqualizalioQ  of  preaaurea. 

Art  lad  Fan  of  the  bklHOt.— Uucfa  as 
IS  been  written  of  the  Eakimoa,  aayi  Mr.  K. 
r.  Parne.in  a  paper  read  beforo  the  Canadian 
ifltitute^   we  And  tu    almost  evorj  writing 
)methlng  new  to  intere«t  ua.     Mr.  Payne's 
ru  es8aj  bears    out    tbo    uaertion.      In 
ikUng  their  iffioot   the  &>kimos  take  a<l> 
ita^e  of  the  tendency  of  the  inow   to 
drift  on  the  ioutheaatcm  sidea  of  the  hills, 
60  thai  the  author,  on  vliittnga  Tillage  after 
a  Hiiow-ntorm.   wu    struck  with   itn   rotem- 
blance   to  a   lot   of   mole- hills.      Nothing 
oonld  bo  sren  but  a  little  »now  thrown  up  on 
oteta  aide  of  a  hole  by  which  a  paaaage  led 
to  the  ifjUtn  ,  but,  on  a  nearer  approach,  win- 
dows could  be  leen  a  little  below  the  surface, 
from  whioh  the  inow  bad  been  reroored. 
Upen  onMring  some  of  tboM  iffioot^  paaiape^ 
ways  wvru  foitnd    cut  through  titc  drifted 
snow«  %o  connecting  the  huts  as  tu  glre  the 
appcanuif^o  of  an  nndei^round  village.    The 
^Hneoplc   are  not  de«t[iute  of  tite  art-ecfi^e, 
^^ftat  have  an  Inborn  love  of  Aketchtng,  and 
^Hve  profideut  In  carving.    Good  models  of 
^^'Jtytuvb,  auimaU,   and    birds    in   Ivory   are 
'       made,  etpcdally  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Mralt,  where  Kim  artttttii  rio  with  one  anrilher 
In  tryiuj;  tu  make  the  fntalledt  models.     The 
art  of  drawing  \*  confined  for  the  most  part 
to  dMcribing  figures  on  ih«  Icrel  furfoco  of 


Ibe  snow,  either  with  a  pie^  of  sUcl^  or  in 
larger  figurca  with  the  feet.  In  sereral  in- 
utaucua  correct  drawings  of  their  own  peo- 
ple were  made  by  slowly  moving  along  with 
the  feet  clow  together,  and  afterward  dex- 
terously addiog  details  with  one  foot.  Per- 
spective was  a  great  mystery  to  thrm ;  and 
even  those  who  were  accuetomed  to  look 
dally  at  the  pictures  on  the  walU  of  the  au- 
thor's house  could  not  understand  it.  In- 
voluntarily thrir  hands  would  luteal  np  to 
the  picture  and  feel  for  the  objects  that 
seemed  to  project ;  wliile  other  persona 
would  shift  their  heads  tu  look  behind 
screens  or  doom  in  the  picture.  Amusemcnta 
are  few,  and  only  one  or  two  oxcit«  Interest. 
Throwing  the  harpoon  luu  the  greatest  at- 
traction for  the  men,  and  wrestling  and 
nmning  are  occasionally  practiced  till  th« 
weaker  side  loeoe  interest.  Foot -ball  waa 
played  with  the  blown  bladder  uf  a  walnia 
corcred  with  Icnthcr.  *'  Men,  women,  and 
children  all  took  part  in  it,  and  no  quarter 
waa  allowed.  Here  s  woman,  carrying  her 
child  on  her  back,  might  be  scon  running  at 
full  speed  after  the  ball,  and  tbo  next  mo- 
ment stie  might  ho  MnK  at  full  length  with 
her  naked  child  floundcriug  in  the  t>now  a 
few  feet  beyond  her.  A  minute  later  tho 
child  would  be  again  in  iL<i  place,  and  iicarlj 
choking  with  laughter  she  wuuM  tie  0«en 
elbowing  her  way  after  the  tiall  agaiiL  Boys 
make  small  spca»  and  throw  thi^m  at  marlui ; 
and  girts  have  dolls  and  keep  ihcm  till  they 
are  roarriud,  and  they  play  at  housekeeping 
and  going  a-Tiditing  just  tike  United  States 
girU. 

The  Otter  at  Done.— Tho  otter,  as  he 

may  tx*  Keen  sunning  himself  on  a  tre6- 
tnink,  looks  likr  a  Inr^e  cut  which  has  been 
thrown  into  the  wul'*r  and  crawled  ouL 
Some  people  think  that  ibe  (tir  of  ibe  otter 
throws  tho  water  off  Hke  tlie  feathera  on  a 
duck's  bsek.  That  is  not  the  case;  his  fur 
protects  his  IxHly  In  a  difTerent  way.  Any 
one  who  haa  seen  a  wutcr-rat  como  np  on  a 
bank  after  a  dive  will  hare  a  good  ideft  of 
the  general  appearance  of  the  otter's  fttr. 
Now  he  gircs  bis  c(«c  a  shake  and  combs 
hi*  fur  a  bit  with  hia  short,  webbed  fceL 
!li.4  head  look^  for  the  moment  just  like 
that  of  an  infuriated  tiger  in  miniatun^  as, 
with  cam  drawn  close  to  bis  bead,  h« 


7M 


md  ihov*  bis  teeth.  Wbon  jrropcHy  tnai- 
ed,  th«  olter  la  riuily  conrcrusl  Lnio  Vi 
afTediouate  and  pUvf ul  p«t.  Ue  u  •  trifle 
Urgur  tbaii  ■  CftL,  bftvixig  m  yttj  dmiUr 
bead,  only  fiatt«r,  which  ia  prfnidrd  with  a 
flup  set  of  teetb.  and  hi*  oui  une  ibem  with 
tciriblc  fon»  for  his  aizi*.  Oo  bin  Up  fa« 
ba<*  a  lot  of  utrong  brifltlcs.  Elia  cyva  ar« 
Kmnll  and  have  a  watdiCul  took  fitM>ui  them ; 
the  necU  la  almost  aa  thick  ai  hU  chest ;  hli 
bodj  ii  JoD^  and  round;  the  \c^  are  r err 
■hort,  strong,  and  flexible;  the  toea  wcbbod 
for  a  great  part  of  their  lenjrth,  and  the 
ctaws  ou  tbem  sharp.  The  tatl  is  thick  at 
the  root,  and  tapera  off  to  a  point  It  ia 
ver;  powerful^  and  fa.  In  fact,  b'la  awlmming- 
macbine.  In  color  he  la  dark  brown,  aa  a 
rile,  wiib  ibe  side*  of  liia  head  and  tbroat 
brownish  frn>7.  On  Und  tho  otter  roorea 
with  a  pecaliar  lophi|;  pntt.  When  )te  cornea 
up  not  of  the  watrr,  there  la  first  a  Ultle 
awell  ou  the  surface,  tben  his  head  appean, 
and  if  evervthinjT  w  quiet  he  iilcntlj  crawla 
up  00  a  log  or  bank.  When  etartled,  he 
raukea  one  gliding;  plunge,  and  the  wat«r 
cloaca  over  bim  with  ecaroely  a  ripple. 

Th»  Talar  sf  Banai  Tariatln.  —  Mr. 

Frands  Galtnn,  addrcs^^ing  the  Anlhrwpo- 
logical  In^titvitc  recently,  said  that  anthro- 
pulogisls  oii;»ht  to  give  more  con r>i deration 
to  variety  than  they  have  hitherto  be'tiow<.d 
tipon  It.  Ttiey  commonly  devote  tJielr  In- 
qairies  to  the  meao  raluea  of  dtfferent 
gmtip»f  while  the  variety  of  Iha  Individuala 
who  consUiulc  ihoaa  gn*upa  la  loo  often 
paased  o»er  with  conleuled  neglect.  An 
■Tcr&ge  man  la  morally  aiid  intellectually 
N  Tcry  unintTesting  bein^.  The  claM«  to 
which  he  bolonmi  l»  b^ilky,  and  no  doitbl 
eerrca  to  keep  «ooial  li/e  in  motion.  It  abto 
affords,  by  its  inenia,  a  regulator  that,  like 
tho  fly-wheel  to  the  at««m  •  onghiv,  rMtoU 
«ndi]on  and  irn*;:iititr  chanj^«&  Bot  (heaTffw 
fl|^  man  is  of  n»  direct  help  toward  evolu- 
tion, which  appean  to  our  dim  rMoo  to  b« 
the  primary  purpose^  m>  to  apeak,  of  all 
twin;*  eilatetiPA.  Bvobtiion  la  an  uarcatlng 
progrc«flion;  the  nituro  of  the  averat^e  In- 
dlHdunl  is   n>«eniiall'  HU 

children     timd     to    !■  •"^'y, 

wbrr^iaa  the  ohtldrvn 
Wad  to  retrrcM  tow.i 

rare^  wboM  treragc  wonli  la  not 


ef»d«iwl  aa^^ 
I  apply  vlth^l 
'  to  tb«  tili;;4t^| 


oapcdally  notalile,  la  maimty  of  ittfarait 
aecoont  of  Iia  rarlabOby,  wUflli  la 
and  modrra  timet  aeema  to  bare  b*CB 
tmrinTtnartly  great.  It  baa  bom  sbU 
tpujiply  men,  tlroo  after  tin*,  vba  W*t 
towered  high  above  their  («l>ow«,  aad  left 
enduring  marka  on  tlie  hlat4n7  of  Hhm 
In  a  mob  of  modiocrttfca,  ibe  getwtiJ 
ard  of  thought  and  moralo  n*ii«t  b« 
ocre.  and,  what  In  worao,  cot- '  Tba 

lack  of  living  men  to  alio:  i  Ljjiplca 

and  U)  edoeate  cba  vlme  nf  raramw»«OBM 
leave  an  irroroeiliable  blank.  All  smd  vanM 
ftnd  themselrQa  at  neatly  tbe  aamv  4mA 
average  level,  each  aa  meanly  endomd  ■• 
hia  neighbor,  llieae  rvmark*  apply 
obvioua  modificaticma  to  variety  to  tb« 
oal  facuUiea.  PeenUar  ^fla, 
ford  Ml  eapeetal  juatlfleatinn  for  dlrtdoa  al 
labor,  (Mich  man  doing  that  wkiob  beflaft4o 
beau 

The  Inter4rpen4riire  af  Uf^« — Th*  4of» 
trine  of  tho  dependence  of  life  on  citemal 
conditiona,  eayi  General  B.  l^tracbey,  'T'f^HHT 
life  itaolf  a«  an  Important  ODacarrtnt  agv* 
cy  ia  lb«  9ni«r«l  r««uU«  obwrrwL  Tbni, 
in  order  to  aupplv  ibe  food  and  utiier 
nienta  of  anlniaU,  ttte  pnatpqa  of 
hies  or  otlicr  imlmala  la  DMCaaafy.  To 
inimals,  aa  well  aa  to  aomw  |>UDlt,  tha  afceU 
ter  of  foresia  or  parttoular  fncna  of  filaaa 
is  esiivntlal,  TaraaitM  oiK<d  fi>r  iMr  wm- 
tenanre  living  plants  and  animnla,  TW  far 
tilUalion  and  hcnci'  the  propa;;atkiB  ol  piMa 
la  a  development  of  life  not  devlAilaK  la  aay 
partkular  direction  from  that  ahldb 
tho  hereditary  prlndple.  It  rvihcrr 
tbal  theciiatifv  <   tk 

nf  e  «itrv>r^tor>  •r^trtanHft- 


btea   tumrtl    in  a  illlTerenI  d)vT«( 
butance.  a  dlfTerenoc  In  tb« 
ai>r|De»c«  of  the  aubaumta  at 
miglil   hav«  ilrtrntiln«it    the 
monntaina  wherv  «  hfdUiw  flUrd  by  tb* 
waa  actually  fnrmed.  or  thfr  mnvrraa^ 
by  the  (^roatal  and   ottiM 
par'' 


1  beta  eaainillnl  i«  lu 


i&tnitia 


7«7 


I 


tuUua  uf  tlie  m&ttor  whIcL 
f  to  form  our  ptauet.  The 
obwscter  of  ftU  inorgaoio  sub«tAa«>o«,  as  o( 
all  lini^  c-mlarM,  ia  uiiljr  vonsUlcnt  wHh 
ibo  aciual  coiuUtutioa  and  proponioa  of  Uie 
varlottf  ftubatantyts  of  vliich  ttio  eftrib  b 
oompttd,  Oih«>r  timtK>i-ti(iu8  ih«a  tboM 
ptMont  in  the  conytitucnta  of  tlto  •tmn'u 
phon  would  liavo  rvM)uin.Hl  a  diflerc'iit  otpui' 
IzatloG  ia  all  afr  •  brcalliing  anitiuiU,  anil 
probftblj  in  nil  pltinU.  Any  ixnuiderablc 
dilTeriMU'c  in  the  qmintity  of  water,  diher  la 
ftbe  sua  or  distrittutoil  aa  vapor,  must  have 
inrolred  correa ponding;  diangcfl  ta  the  con* 
stitulion  of  living  crealurva. 


Tbc  nrdlnta  of  Clrrtrt-nafnietU  Arltoi. 
i-^Tt    wa»   UeciJed    by    cipcriincnt,    Jiiring 
1888,  acGoixliiig  to  Prof.  Q.  i\  Fitzgerald,  iu 
-aliH  ilritiiih  AAJiooialion,  that  elect ro^magnc tic 
IHclina  takes  place,  not  at  a  diAUUic«,  but 
['through  an  intcrvcniog  medium.     The  ex- 
loata  wore  made  by  Herts  in  Gorman/, 
rho  obserred   the   interference  of  olcctr«. 
tbagnetio  waves  quite  analogoua  to  tboiie  of 
Aod  proved  that  clcctro-magnctic  ac* 
'%re  propagated  1q  air  with  the  velociij 
'of  Ifgbt.     *'  B;  a  beautiful  derico  Hertz  haa 
»roduccd  rapidly  alternating  currcotn  of  such 
ipf  that    their   wave-lcogtb  ia  only 
(wo  iDMrea.     I  may  pauao  for  a  min- 
ute to  call  your  attention  to  what  that  meana. 
It   they  Tlbraied  throe  huudrcd  tbounand 
rtlinea  a  wcoodf  the  waves  would  be  each  a 
kilometre  long.     This  rate  of  vibration  ia 
much  higher  timn  the  lilghcat  audible  note, 
,  &nd  yet  the  wares  arc  much  too  long  to  be 
fbianagoable,     Wc  waat  a  vibration  about  a 
thousand  timot  aa  fast  again,  with  waves 
about  a  metre  loag.     Horta  produced  such 
vibnaiflus,  Tibratiag  more  than  a  hundred 
^^  miUlou  tiiuM  a  aseond."     While  tbia  rate  ia 
^Btoo  slow  for  visibility  or  light,  and  the  vl- 
^Hbntluni  areatra  inaudible,  tlie  experimenter 
^H  wai  able  to  detect  them  by  rcaonance.    Ho 
^Hcoo0tnict£d  a  circuit  nboao  period  of  vibra- 
^Klion  for  vlectric  currents  iraa  tho  same  as 
^^  Ibat  of  hia  generating  vibrator,  and  "was 
able  to  sec  sparks,  due  to  the  iuduccd  vibra- 
lioo,  Ivaping  acn>M  a  «mnli  air-Apace  tn  this 
raaooaui  arouit."     J^y  ihiiii  combination— of 
a  vibcaiiog  gmerating  circuit  with  a  xvsonant 
drooti— wiiicb  tho  author  had  reo- 
»mfla«adod  a  ih«  Soutbport  m<«tlog  of  tho 


I 


Association  to  be  oaed  for  this  very  inrcati- 
gation,  Herta  was  able  to  obeervc  Uic  ititcr- 
ferenoe  between  waves  iauideut  on  a  wall 
and  the  reflected  waycs.  Tbo  pbcuomcuoa 
is  the  eame  as  what  arc  knutru  as  Uojd'i 
bands,  in  optics,  which  arc  due  to  the  iiiter> 
ferenoe  between  a  direct  aud  a  reflected  wavtx 
**  It  foUowfl,  hcnoe,  that  just  oa  Young's  and 
Freuicl^s  rcaearcbes  on  the  interferum-o  of 
liglit  prove  tlie  unduhitary  theory  of  optica, 
Etu  llertx's  GxpcrimeDt  proves  the  ethvreal 
theory  of  electrtMnagnetinu.  It  is  a  splen- 
did ruttult  Boooeforth  I  hope  no  loamer 
will  fail  to  be  imprt;sscd  with  the  Ibi'ury — 
hypothesis  no  longer — that  elootro-magnctio 
actions  are  due  to  a  racdiurn  pervading  all 
Kpace,  aod  that  it  id  tho  same  medium  aa  tho 
one  by  which  liglit  ii  eondnotod.** 

Waj4hlng  Hrn  and  Children  b)  BCachlo* 
rry« — (>oe  of  the  latest  inventions  in  sanita- 
tion ia  machinery  for  pcronnal  washing.  A 
Fraiofa  flolonel.  according  to  Ur.  Edwin  Chad- 
wick,  ascertained  that  be  could  wash  bis  men 
with,  tepid  water  for  a  centime,  or  one  tenth 
of  a  penny  a  head,  soap  included.  Tho  man 
andrcsses,  steps  Into  a  tray  of  water,  and 
soaps  himself,  when  a  Jet  of  tepid  water  la 
played  upon  him.  He  then  dries  and  dresses 
himself  in  five  ndnutoa,  against  twenty  mlo* 
utcs  in  the  bath,  and  with  five  gallons  of  water 
against  seventy  in  the  usual  bath.  In  Ger- 
many they  have  an  arrangcmeut  under  which 
half  B  milliou  of  soldiers  are  regularly  washed. 
By  an  adaptation  of  apparatuti  to  tbc  use  of 
schools,  a  child  may  be  completely  washed  in 
throe  minutes. 

Hsdf  m  Drtrrloratlon  of  EyrsliEht. — Dr. 
R.  BruduDL'li  Carter,  when  questioned  about 
the  causcfl  of  modem  dctcnoratioo  of  eye- 
eigbt,  replied  that  ihc  drvumstaucvs  of  civit]- 
xation  are  utifavorable  to  the  euitivaticm  of 
eye-sight  We  are  not  as  dependent  on  Ilccu- 
ness  of  vision  as  our  ancestors  were.  Much 
of  the  woHt  uf  dwcU»s  in  towns  is  dono 
upon  objects  close  to  them,  from  whiofa  Ibcy 
obtAtn  large  retinal  images,  whence  Ihuy  b»> 
oome  cwnpsraiively  Insensible  to  small  onos. 
They  often  work  by  defective  light,  sad  are 
thus  driven  to  approach  the  object  still  mure 
closely;  and  it  l»  by  snob  approiimiilion 
that  tbo  malformation  which  produors  short 
alght  is  mainly  brought  about.    The  iaorcaao 


THE  POPULAR  SCI£NOB  MOITTBLT, 


of  Um  aalfonnatlcm  b  prartdcd  br  Itself: 
**  •tracturmllj  i1  is  hmd&d  down  to  yoaXxnij^ 
mad  mecfaAnicmll;  it  u  iooreaMd  b^  tha  pmv 
tioe  «  bich  it  comprU  of  toning  the  ejes  In- 
ward to  combine  upon  ■  Tery  acmr  point.'* 
Among  the  oonBcqacnces  of  ehort-aighted- 
aoH  are  failure  lo  develop  the  power  of  ob- 
MTTAtion ;  blindneu  to  the  ezpreMioB  of  the 
httman  face ;  an  woiXeaam  ezpcndhig  Itself 
upon  dotail*  with  bat  a  restricted  power  of 
graeplog  priaciplef.  The  remedies  proposed 
for  tlic  ilefoct  inclade  testing  of  visual  pow- 
er and  liuiitationi  of  tasks  to  capablUtiee, 
ftnd,  in  rending  matter,  large  trpe  with  the 
upper  part  of  the  Icttera  cut  with  particu- 
lar dcameas. 

Jl  Taap  GsrllU.— An  English  timder  a 
Xgore,  on  the  soolhwest  coast  of  Afrfca, 
lit,  J.  J.  Jonea,  has  had  for  some  time  a 
joong  fcnuds  gorilla  whmc  docilUj  Ib  nwet 
remarkftble.  Jeannie^  as  thi<  babj  gorilla  has 
been  named,  sleepa  with  her  master,  and 
follnwa  him  whcrofpr  he  goes,  weeping  like 
a  ^Id  if  left  behind.  She  reeentlj^  acoom- 
panied  him  on  a  joumoj  of  twenlj  miles  or 
KDore,  walking  all  the  ws^.  She  has  ac- 
quired many  dviliied  tastes  and  habits,  and 
will  drink  tea,  ale,  brandy,  etc.,  out  of  a 
cnp  or  glass,  displaying  the  ntmost  caref  ul- 
BeM  not  10  break  the  vessel.  She  will,  In 
faet,  do  almost  anything  her  master  wtsbes, 
and  is  snrpri.otngly  intelligent  and  affection- 
ate.  Tbi«  is  by  tio  means  a  solitary  instance 
of  Ihc  facility  witli  wliicli  yotmg  gorillas 
can  be  lamed.  Tbu  expeHcncc  of  others 
who  liare  Urcd  in  the  Femond  Vai  corrobo- 
rntcfi  this  statement  as  to  their  tractable 
disposition  when  treated  with  kindness,  as 
woll  as  the  distroas  tboy  exhibit  if  sooldod 
fur  misconduct. 

PrvpMed  Starage  of  Tflle  FIo«lii.r— Mr. 
Gopo  WhitchooM  presented  WUkc  the  flrit- 
llh  AModatlon  st  Bath  a  plan,  which  he  has 
basn  advocating  for  »cT«ra1  yeeu-s,  for  storlof; 
the  Nurpliu  waters  of  the  flomls  of  the  Xlle  lo 
the  dcprculon  called  the  Katnn  basin — which 
he  belleras  to  be  the  site  of  ancient  Lake 
Uooris — lo  bo  drawn  off  again  to  irrigate  the 
laud  of  EsTpt  In  the  drr  seaaon.  Ur  eomputea 
llint  a  ro*^ 
Nile  with 
a  day  for  lOi)  iIm/s  c«ik  he  bmUc  for  iluiM^iHHj.  | 


The  canal  of  «eaps  for  tW  acai  af 
Xilc  flood,  to  be  aaed  as  tlw  cAcal  cd  naif^f^ 
and  diicbargft,  caa  b«  sfisaej  fai  MO  4ayst 
by  the  FMavsOoa  and  ba^llBg  «f  auao<VOOO 
cubic  mctros  of  asad,  day,  and  soEl  rock. 
The  area  and  prodoctire  wcallk  of  liJOT" 
would  be  increased  by  morv  than  oas  IhM 
Xo  burden  would  be  fanpoaed  upon  ika  pi* 
ent  ux-payers.  Tb<  woHu  wooU  b>  miWj 
the  tttilixatsoo  and  rcflorBtSoo  of  dftca, 
canak,  and  pfayaleal  dKaiacterfakiea  hi  aamnl 
use  for  the  Mae  purpoae  daring  IjQOO  ^fmt\ 
and,  in  part,  in  coetfasooos  opetmtiea  fiwi 
a.  c.  ISOO  to  the  present  tlm«. 


NOTES. 

Thb  National  Goofrrmphie  Kocioty 
been  organix^  at  Woahtngtoo  **  u>  inc 
and  diffuse  geographical  knowledi^^"*  and  wBI 
hold  fortBi|;luly  rncrtlnr*.  It  pm^tts  a 
physical  atls^  r.f  I  has 

begun    the    put>  '±<msl 

Geograpbi    .'  .ir«pr«vA* 

ncnceiou  ^saytaah^ 

cal  matters,  ^..  ■       .     .,  .  .        u^  suanualv 
inter«Kt  in  original  snurcrs  of  iafonnatian. 
it  was  orgudacd  in  January,  IftB^  haa 
two  hundred  active  members,  and  fans  ~ 
itaelf  into  five  wctiOBs:  ihwv  «(  ibi 
rspby  of  tha  land;  of    '  <>f  the 

of  the  gaogmphie  di  f  Itfie 

of  abstract   geograpL*^    -•   ,u<ftp 
etc.).    Ur.  Gardner  U.  Hubbard  la 
ami  Mr,  George  Kecmaa  Waahlogica, 
spoodiiig  Mcretary  of  tba  todat;. 


I 


anil   I 

Tscciuatiun.     ^^ 
Inwf  it  to  f>*»  cii  I 


been  made  to  the  «Sr> 

pitals  for  i«nla(ioD  ar> 
nuLsaucc  t' 
tion   b«'  ft'.- 


f...i.l^ 


009  rink  of  those  who  livf  niitMi|«. 

Pfcor.  v..  ~  "  r<r« 

a  onrrvPTiu  SocMy 

Kthrm1vK.V.   Auv^.-.f- .......   .Vxehvnfoffv, 

of  which  Prt^f.  UiidnU  Virvhow  Is  |*ra*UfSt 

This  Wocrap!.  '  tins  of  lbs 

late  John  Kries  d  by  Oda^ 

.,.,iri,M.-,.t,  ,.f  (1,,  .  -l.-.maL" 


ooujutrvmaa. 


NOTES. 


I 
I 


» 


0TDiO0luPifER  DyoT,  of  the  Nary  De- 
ptnmcot,  reports  tfant  tcstimonlilR  arc  con- 
stently  received  of  (he  cfllGlcncj  Atid  ueicful< 
ncM  of  ihc  [iilot  charts  and  supplcinenu. 
Tb«  rvcnt*ii  uf  Hinting  veiiMis  affurdu  ou  ci- 
crllrnl  opporiuuiiy  for  Atudj-ing  the  varioua 
phoM^  of  ocean  currcutft.  Tbo  supplemrat  u 
isBued  whracrer  nubjecti  of  special  interest 
demand  It.  Such  supplerocnta  have  bccD 
MM  out  d(»crii>tive  of  Weal  Indiao  hurri- 
OUUM  ami  the  luir  of  fltorma;  on  the  best 
tniwatUuitiL'  nmtcs  and  tbo  winter  Rtonn* 
heU  of  the  Atlantic ;  and  on  wat«r-ftpouta  off 
the  AtlonUc  oooit.  Reporta  of  marine  me- 
teoroIn(y  arc  received  regularly  from  forty- 
ait  Gororninent  veasela  and  five  hundred 
and  forty-four  of  the  inerointile  marine. 
Many  favorable  repnrtfl  have  born  received 
on  the  efficacy  of  oil  in  smoothing  the  wovca. 

A  auiiaK  ii  made  by  Dr.  A.  G.  Auld  upon 
the  strange  fact  that  the  effects  of  tobacco 
are  m>  commonly  overloukcd  in  computing 
tliL*  e&iiAca  of  diieaae — for  it  la  one  of  the 
rooAt  virulent  polsona  koown,  continually  at 
work  in  the  iiyalems  of  lbo6«  who  use  it,  and 
a  poison  whose  phyalcal  rcactiona  bare  neTcr 
been  aoi'urately  determined.  Dr.  Auld  is  im- 
prcAnetl  that  ii  ta  r««|Kmi4tble  for  a  variety  of 
functional  iluran^inenta  which  there  is  no 
reoMm  to  arer  ooa  not  terminate  in  organic 
dlMue.  Among  these  «re  albuminuria  of 
whlob  be  hu  tracod  ooaea  to  the  tobacco  hab- 
it ;  and  eertoin  fibrillary  twItchinF^,  often 
eiCMslve,  that  oecur  moRt  frequently  about 
the  trunk  and  upper  arms.  When  such 
symptoms  are  found  in  oasodalion  with  to- 
baix'o-sinoking,  It  will  not  sufHco  merely  to 
ltiduli;e  It'fls  in  the  practice,  but  tobocoo  must 
msed  with  entirely. 

»9iCKiLvi*fo  flamingoes  atnuldling  their 
,  whiuh  Mr.  Henry  A.  Blake  Ims  dis- 
puted {"PopuUr  Science  Honthly,"  March, 
1S88),  Mr.  E.  J.  Dunn,  of  Melbourne,  luu 
wriltcn  in  "Nature^*  that  he  has  Been  in 
Buahmanland  numbers  of  the  liill  nests  that 
are  described  and  pictured  in  the  booki. 
They  an*  conical,  about  eigliteco  Inchoe  high 
and  six  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top,  with  a 
Fhallow,  basin-like  cmvity  for  the  eg]^  were 
built  in  the  water  where  It  wa.i  a  few  inches 
deep,  and  could  not  have  been  oat  upon  ud- 
IttU  thi'y  were  straddled  over. 

Tub  London   Diocesan   Conference  boa 
suggested  legal  measures  to  meet  the  evil  of 
too  early  marriagca.  and  Dr.  Matthews  Dun.  j 
can  ooscrts  that  the  age  at  which  marriace 
lakea  place  is  one  of  the  mo»t  important 
foct'int  in  the  matter  of  defects  of  the  re- 
productive function.     He  believes  that  fer-  | 
liliiy  is  tnrem  and  safest,  and  most  happy  i 
in  its  results,  at  between  twenty  and  tweaty- 
ftre  7«ara  In  women,  and  twenty-five  and  , 
thirty  years  In  men ;  and  n?f;ards  the  coodi-  i 
tiiios  ak  more  prrcarlous  at  an  earlier  than  at 
a  later  ng*.    The  social  and  economical  oon*  i 
ditkms  are  also  not  to  be  orerlooked. 


Dr.  Battt  Tnti  insists  upon  the  impor- 
tance of  ixiving  more  attention  to  effbrls  to 
core  Insanity.     This  thought  baa  been  fiiib-. 
ordtnated  under  the  operation  of  the  a.'iylui 
system,  wUcb  was  bef^n  for  protection  rat 
er  than  cure,  and  of  the  theory  nf  th^  ps] 
chological  nature  of  insanity.     Tbo  London' 
County  Council  has  now  before  it  a  propo- 
aition  to  appoint  a  committee  to  inquire  cun- 
ceming  the  expediency  uf  mmplimeiitingths' 
eilating  eysiem  of  ircaiment  with  a  hospital 
and  medical  staff  Laving  a  curative  ooursc  In ' 
Tiew. 

A  RrsiARK  In  the  report  of  Principal 
Bliaii,  uf  the  Detroit  High  S*'hottl,  tm  over- 
work, touches  what  is  iucoiitestably  one  of 
the  weak  prjlnu  uf  the  pubUu  schools.  It 
should  be  remembered,  he  says,  "  that  over- 
work Ih  a  continued  rurh.  Our  dasae^  arc 
large  and  our  recitation  perirkis  short.  Ttu3 
good  of  a  cla&a  con  not  be  ttacriflccd  for  (hoi 
of  an  individual.  In  tbo  hurry  of  our  dailrj 
work,  some  boy  or  girl  who  Is  not  sti 
enough  to  do  our  work  may  l>o  overlooked. 
Have  the  pubbc  schools  so  far  a.<utuiti4*d  the 
duties  of  parents  that  parents  riiu  be  ex- 
cused for  not  calling  our  attention  to  such  a 
case*" 

Ama  tweWc  years  of  cxpertmenlal  work 
at  Rotbanutcd,  Dr.  Gilbert  hss  fouml  the 
old  viowa  confirmed  respecting  the  value  of  a 
doe  apportloament  of  nitrogenous  and  min- 
eral substanoo  In  the  cuUivation  of  potatoes. 
The  preaent  practices  of  gotid  farmrrs  with 
bora-yard  manure:*  are  sustained,  while  min. 
er«l  manure*  alone  are  of  little  effect.  Al- 
though liberal  manuring  increases  the  tend' 
eucy  to  disease,  the  efTcct  Is  thought  to  lie 
offset  by  the  advantage  of  a  heavy  crop. 
The  cootlDaouB  growth  of  poiatooa  In  tho 
same  land  doex  not  appt^ar  to  render  the  crop 
more  liable  to  discoHe,  but  rather  llic  reverse. 
Thus,  during  three  periods,  of  four  years 
each,  the  percentage  of  diseaae  in  the  vk. 
nous  plots  was  n>dueod  succcssirciv  from 
6-14-12-82  to  lGa-4  95.and  1--43-1  78. 

A  BtoLoaiCAL  survey  of  Kansas  Is  In 
progress,  under  the  dircetiim  of  mrmtwrs 
of  Washburn  College,  the  cigliih  report  of 
which  is  given  to  the  Dullctio  of  the  Lab- 
oratory of  Nfttural  History.  It  includes  A 
fourth  series  of  notes  on  fisbc*.  by  Dr.  C.  If. 
fiilb*'rt,  and  Mr.  B.  It.  Smylb's  catalogu*>  of 
flowering  plants  and  feru»,  in  which  1,602 
species  and  varieties  are  named. 

PuBOCS  rcbakM  porcelain  boa  been 
found  by  Dr.  C.  0.  Currier  to  be  the  beat 
Bulftitance  for  domestic  filters.  If  thick  and 
strong  enough  to  allow  the  nse  of  a  largtti 
surface,  and  the  suhstance  remaius  peKecl 
it  may  yield  a  fair  flow  of  clear  water*  ft 
from  all  bacteria;  yet  under  the  onimi 
Croton  pressure,  tho  yield  is  only  In  rapid* 
drops,  unless  the  appamtus  be  complex* 
Tlie  tiUer  should  be  occMionolly  stcriltaed 
tltrouf^out,  by  atcatuhtg  or  other  metnoL 


7JO 


TUi:  POPULAR  SCIENCm  MONTHLY, 


Dn.  Oar.K,  an  1*  "  lu,  while 

tiilmicting  to  tfie  f  iic  move* 

nient.  in  En^laotJ  '    ^    • 

wurd   the  luwns  i' 
aUcQiii'ii  by  a  dei;  . 

liicts.  Dt.*  hu  funnd  that  tbv*  runiJ  popula- 
tion in  KD<;land  did  not  decrca.««  between 
l&fil  And  ISfil  by  more  than  one  percent,  a 
rate  quite  within  the  limit  of  alluwanc'C  for 
4'rror.  The  uutbor  bclievcii  Lhut  ihe  rurml 
jHifruliilioQ  is  only  suiioaary,  and  lis  ainplvt 
with  the  rrjodfm  inipmTcments  in  fanuing, 
for  th*?  tillage  of  the  land,  while  only  Its  in- 
crenHti  and  surplus  pour  Into  tho  townfl ;  but 
the  coniinuoua  migrstioa  of  the  motft  rigiiN 
oua  lixid  cnci^i^tic  to  the  manufacturing  dis- 
trirts,  and  the  higher  mortnUty  there,  moy  be 
prodiK-ing  a  gradual  deterioration. 

WmLE  oBScriin);  thnt  attention  has  hilh- 
orto  hmn  Urircly  paid  to  the  prcAcrraiion  of 
tbo  unfit  luoiubern  of  bi^dety  by  not  allow* 
ing  tlieiii  t4i  di^.'%f)|M.■Ar  according  to  natural 
ca'i3C9,  and  thus  proptLgutitk^  unfitness,  Dr. 
Tlioinod  Pcarcy,  of  Tn "calottes,  Al*.,  siip- 
genia  iha.1  a  higher  field  of  effort  lies  in  ibc 
direction  of  iucreofiiii^  tbu  proportionate 
numbers  in  society  of  the  more  fit.  Appar- 
ci»lly,  in  modem  society,  the  object  of  fflort 
ia  to  leach  »ueh  a  ilocroe  of  competency 
that  une'.4  children  will  not  have  to  strife 
DfgeneniL'y  then  eetfi  in.  The  fitut  gcnvra- 
tiuu  may  Huccocd  by  force  of  the  broin-powcr 
transmitted  frora  its  parents,  but  the  afttT- 
gunor^tions  have  no  bottom  to  stand  upon. 

In  a  recent  lecture  on  the  education  of 
iriA,  Mr.  Jomofi  OLlpbanC  conderonod  the 
iprcssion  that  the  education  of  (be  two 
wea  dhonU  be  povemod  by  the  same  rule. 
Physical  deterioration,  he  sold,  could  best  be 
prevented  by  a  suitable  dblribution  of  stud. 
i.H  duriui;  the  day,  and  by  allowing  hourly 
short  interhidc-^  of  muBfuIar  eierciae.  There 
wus,  in  our  mddcm  plan  of  Rtudy^  too  much 
reiteration  and  loo  little  thought,  a  con^o- 
(pient  svDse  of  drudgery,  and  a  lack  of  the 
Interest  which  come-ii  of  ui^inn;  the  rfAfltming 
power,  JJomn  l»»""on  wnrk  had  Iteoomc  a 
■•■<■  '.f  Hpecial 

'ICC  often 

of  lc»3  developed  faiultied. 

In  the  luck  of  any  natloiml  rcgtalry  of 
vital  aUli.-lfcfl,  the  .^^ufM'Hnlrn.h-nl  nf  Uie 
CensUK  of  18110  iiil"      "  .      ■  . 

to  furnlsli  an  api 
birth  nn.i  '?.... I.   . 
try.     !. 
c«I  pn! 

blnnkv.  which  ihfv  are  invited  to  till,  find 
thit«  farnlfch  mnr#»  n/v^nttf^  rMum^  than  it  \% 
I-      '  10  make.     In 

•  '  >   product*  and 

i;,,  ,     .  ,.  ......     ... 

pr       ; 

Umj  si,  ibVM. 


TuE  dc" 
pleaaunt  fct 


■Uhi 


■  liip'«U.'  _' 

aninmL 

Db.  Koro'a  llirnricc    rr*ri.ctmff  ill**  frt*.^. 

tions  and  • 

have  been  -ii 

certain    CQnimi<»<»ioikA,    t 

flrtned  in  thi'ir  most  inv 


ic,  have  identi6e<I,  i"*-' 

Kooh^B   Eipirillutn,   and 

BtateiQcnt  as  to  Its  patltogeuic  chataciaf. 

0[TT  of  more  than  five  buiid»d 
received   by   the  Principal   ^'f    the 
Di;;h  School  in  annwer  l*i  qur^tiona 
Ing  the  effect  of  the  stnrfiea  on  ihr 
of  the  children,  87"S1  per  cmt  luatain 
work    uf   thu   ftcbooL      * ' 
platnta  an-  of  tnriou* 


mora   than    the   tv^ulmf   «ui'k  ;   hbil 

to  be   atl<»wcd  to  do  thi«  had  in 
BtaQcev  followed  comjilajntt, 

Jlcconnixa  to  Dr.  Oxeret«kof»kI«  fayctcfia 
exists  among  Itufe^ian  Ml'liem,  and  ptcatf 
HA  TviotiB  divcrblLlcs  of  fono  fti  b  don 

unoog  women. 


OBirrARY  K0TE3. 

EtacM    FrRDiNAUD    tou    n»iirYi 
eminent  oniitho1o]:iflt,  and  I*^ 
Ornithol'»:,'ii.-nl    •^^o'-ietT   of    T 
8io)p.  '  '  of 

age.     '  !«, 

and  po<>.-->.'--^<.<]  MiC  (ori:t:M  cii«>tiu^  cviwctkH 
uf  £urupean  blrtia. 

Ml  Jons*  F.  I.a  Tr 
en^zieer  who  tuppUvd   ' 
from  Loch  JLatriuc,  diiu  ..'uuv  tL*- 
KTcnty-Dfaio  ynra. 

Ur  "  inmiea,  1V»> 

fcssor  'f  «if  fW 

tmili-  '.  i'-d  ihm^ 

(ill..  .iL  III.  'ir  of  his 

11'  »oa  ol  • 

lien,  and  co-OMTVied 
'  ]<«p*lh)n  q4  lh«  laltr 


chidii,  in  ktiuviedgc  of  which  he  m%M  lh»  ink 


I  a  Ofvrpa, 


THE 


ULAR    SCIENCE 
MONTHLY. 


OCTOBEB,  1889 


PENSIONS  FOR  ALL. 


Bt  OnrzKAi,  M.  11  TRUMBULU 


» 


N  the  wondroua  literature  of  the  time  there  is  hardly  anything 
so  glaring  and  sensational  as  the  report  of  the  Commissioner 
f  Pensions  explaining  the  work  of  his  department  for  the  year 

ding  June  30^  18S8.  In  that  report  he  says :  "  The  total  amount 
xpeniled  for  all  purposes  by  the  Bureau  of  Pensions  was  $82,038,- 
86.69.  The  toUil  oxpeiulitures  of  the  Qovernmeut  for  the  fiscal 
oar  1888  were  «t2*Jr,!)2-l,801.13.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount 
xpende<l  for  and  on  account  of  pensicma  was  nearly  thirty-one 

r  cent  of  the  entire  outlay  of  the  Government." 
hi  round  numbers,  one  third  of  the  public  payments  goes  for 

nsions,  and  it  is  gravely  propos*3d  that  the  pensioners  have  the 
ther  two  thirds  also.  A  few  days  ago  the  Governor  of  lUinoia, 
peaking  to  the  Illinois  department  of  the  Grand  Army,  said. 
If  the  Government  paid  $I,(XX),000  daily  for  pensions,  the  nation 

a  nation  wouM  be  just  as  rich  at  the  end  of  the  year  as  it  wsm 
efore,  US  the  money  would  still  be  in  the  hands  of  our  own  people." 
Tti  take  a  milliou  dollars  a  day  from  industry  and  bestow  it 
pon  idleness  is  a  patriotic  form  of  dragoonade  much  recom- 

onded  by  politicians  like  the  Governor  of  Illinois.  The  "nation 
s  a  nation  "  in  not  injured  by  it;  the  money  is  still  in  the  hands 
f  our  own  people.    It  is  merely  taken  out  of  the  hands  that 

med  it  and  put  into  other  hands  to  spend  it. 
In  Whittier'a  delightf id  poetry  we  are  cheered  by  the  informii- 

tion  that 

"...  Barbara  FriotchU'a  work  U  tfer. 
And  ibo  robd  ridos  oa  bU  raida  do  mora.** 


True,  the  rebel  miders  have  dismounted,  but  the  "boys  in 

I  blue  "  have  sprung  into  the  vacant  wuidles  and  the  raids  go  on, 
I  TOU  XXXT. — «• 


7=* 


TITE  POPULAR  SCIEXCE  MOXTffLT. 


The  point  of  attack  is  the  national  treasury.    Tho  cry  ia,  **  On  to 

W;t.shington ! "    The  new  foray  is  not  the  8UfM<      '     '      '  uU 

ing  party;  it  ia  literally  the  charge  of  an    ■      .  /un 

throats  of  the  bugles  and  the  buglers  ring  out  tho  injspiring  alogan, 
"Pensions  for  all!" 

Is  there  no  moral  resistance  in  the  people  ?  Must  the  guardi- 
ans of  the  public  money  thniw  up  Llieir  hamls,  while  the  foragera 
carry  off  the  national  cash-box  ?  Or  must  they  buy  off  the  raid- 
ers as  ouce  upon  a  time  the  Romans  bribeil  the  Gauls  ? 

A  comprehensive  jwiision  system  corro<ie8  the  heart  of  gov* 
"emment  and  beguiles  a  people  into  servitude.  A  caste  coropc»®ed 
of  pensioners  is  always  the  defender  of  existing  wrongs.     It  bo- 


lievos  that  all  reforms  are  a:>saults  upon  its  own  pri 


nd 


that  public  honesty  is  dangerous.  It  can  always  be  di  ,  .. .  i  on. 
to  support  the  pensioning  power.  Tho  history  of  England  fihowaj 
bow  worthless  ministries  have  retain-  " 
cious  diKirihiitiou  of  pensions.  Nai 
public  spirit  as  it  conquers  private  virtue. 

In  the  United  States  we  have  r  'I  civil  olTi 

called  patronage,  and  ponsif)ns  \n  .1  the  fiiini-    1.  .         '.■ 

public  offices  are  legal  tender  in  payment  for  parly  services, 
Bions  will  become  so  too.  To  a  dangerous  extent  they  arv  uihkI  aa 
political  currency  now.  By  a  skillful  use  of  pensions  thn  partyj 
in  power  can  bribe  one  portion  of  the  people  with  the  money  of  j 
the  other. 

With  the  warnings  of  all  biJirt-ory  before  us,  we  subntiL  to 
corruption  of  our  politics  by  a  pension  system  h' 

ever  laid  upou  any  other  people  since  govemmi--.    1  -^ 

monarchy,  no  hierarchy,  no  oligarchy  ever  had  the  daring  to  puti 

80  many  i<llers  under  public  pay  :  -  -        t     - 

pension  laws.     Some  of  us  think  i 

causes  in  republics  as  in  the  **  effete  monarcbies,"  and  that  we  cao 

dignify  our  people  by  an  alms-tribute  that  would  -^ 

pie  of  those  benighted  lands  across  tho  »oa,    W 

mence  we  exclaim  :  *' Pensions  are  not  a  king's  pi  •>  here 

they  are  the  free  gifts  of  a  free  people.    I^enfiious  t^iu  h".  eorrupt< 

us.    The  Asiatic  cholera  ia  harmlesa  here,  becauBB  it  ia  not 

American  disease." 

It  has  never  been  suspected  that  the  warriora  who  «»'T-i'!.-l  1 
g'reat  rebellion,  who  marched  and  counter-marched   <  1 

*'  it  and  fought  a  thouj?and  ' 

•  Yet  this  is  the  inference        ....  ..   

testimony  of  the  CommisHioner  of  Pemfiona.    In  Lis  report  forj 
,1888  he  says,  "It  tl.i  '        •       * 

tnsion  claims  hare  1 
737,200  clxiims  have  been  allowod.** 


PBySIOXS  FOR  ALL, 


7«S 


This  includes,  of  coursB,  the  claims  of  vridowa  and  dependent 
relatives.  Although  many  have  been  dropped  from  the  rolls  by 
[reas<.>n  of  death  and  other  causes,  the  actual  number  of  old  sol- 
[dicrs  on  the  pension-liat  is  323,020,  while  there  are  thousands  of 
claims  on  file  not  yet  adjusted  by  the  Pension  Bureau, 
r  It  is  pretended  that,  although  the  soldiers  Tfere  sound  and 
[hearty  when  they  went  into  the  army,  they  were  enfeebled  by 
liardahip  and  disease  when  they  came  out  of  it.  Some  of  thorn 
■were,  but  not  many  in  proportion  to  the  whole  number  in  the 
[Tanks.  The  great  pai*ade  at  Washington  in  1865  is  a  suflicient 
^Tefut«^tion  of  that  clMim.  The  athletic  and  boisterous  armies 
which  marched  in  review  before  the  President  of  the  United  States 
ftt  the  close  of  the  war  were  not  composed  of  sickly  and  vitiated 
Irnen.  Tlioy  wt*ro  fairly  rollicking  with  health,  tliey  wure  full  of 
[**  lusty  life."  Yet  we  are  told  they  carried  millions  of  mortal 
tQicrob*>s  in  their  knapsacks  and  all  manner  of  diseases  latent  in 
Lth(nr  blooil— diseases  which  needed  only  pension  laws  to  develop 
[them  into  activity. 

I  Colossal  as  are  the  figures  presented  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Pensions,  they  are  to  ho  multiplied  six  times  when  Congress  dual* 
ly  capitulates  to  the  Grand  Army.  Even  in  their  pi'esent  rudi- 
Imentary  form  thoy  make  the  English  pension -list  cheap  and 
[tawdry  by  comparison.  Last  yoar  the  English  pension-roll  con- 
[taiuod  tlio  names  of  160,492  persons  altogether,  who  drew  from 
the  treasury  £7,H1.5.575,  of  which  amount  the  army  pensioners 
1(97,004)  drew  i::t,78y,'v>6;i,  and  the  navy  pensioners  (38,3«G)  drew 
£2,0i0,659.  The  Financial  Reform  Association  of  England,  com- 
[znenting  on  this  exhibit,  says:  "John  Bull  will  do  well  to  notice 
that  in  tht^se  last  five  years  of  bad  trade  he  has  had  to  pay  on 
army  list  of  over  100,fK)0  pensioners  (military,  naval,  and  civil) 
for  doing  nothing;  and  that  their  drawings,  amounting  to  nearly 
eight  millions,  swallowed  up  the  whole  of  the  income-tax  laid  on 
the  national  profits  for  last  year," 

The  complaint  is  valuable  as  a  caution  to  "  Brother  Jonathan." 
fHe  has  had  to  pay  three  or  four  army  corps,  each  as  large  as  the 
one  criticised  by  the  Financial  Reform  Association  of  England, 
and  it  is  proposed  that  they  shall  be  recruited  to  their  full  ca- 
[pacity  by  adding  to  their  numbers  twice  six  hundred  thousand 
more. 

The  pension-roll  of  England  is  very  much  larger  than  it  was  a 
hundred  years  ago  when  John  Philpot  Curran  poured  upon  it  the 
foil'  '  ircasm  :  "  This  polyglot  of  wealth,  this  museum  of  cu- 
rio;-! ■  jM-nsion-list.  embraces  every  link  in  the  human  chain 
I  from  the  exaltc-d  excellence  of  a  Hawks  or  a  Rodney  to  the  de- 
WMed  situation  of  the  lady  who  humbleth  herself  that  she  may  be 
^1^^ ;  but  the  lesson  it  inculcates  forms  its  greatest  perfectioa. 


7H 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEXCB  MONTHLY 


teraa  ^ 


It  teachos  that  sloth  and  vice  may  eat  the  brend  which  virtue  and 
honesty  may  Htarve  for  after  thoy  have  earuod  it ;  it  teaches  tho 
idle  and  the  dissolute  to  look  up  for  that  support  which  ihoy  arv 
too  proud  to  stoop  and  earn ;  it  directs  the  minds  of  inon  to  an 
entire  reliance  on  the  rulinjj  powers  of  the  state," 

This  condomiiation  will  apply  in  general  terms  to  every  pen- 
sion system.    It  is  impossible  to  limit  pensions  to  rewards  f 
sacrifice  and  service.    Favoritism  and  fraud  will  crowd  tho  pen 
eion  ranks  with  pretenders.    Every  crippled  soldier  who  hu.t  n^ftUy 
been  disabled  by  battle-wounds  must  share  his  eametl  rewani  with) 
men  who  never  did  a  dollar's  worth  of  service.    He  must  d 
ftlong  with  him  to  the  pension-office  a  dozen  "comradea"  wh 
never  saw  a  battle  and  who  never  received  the  slightest  injury  X 
body,  health,  or  limb 

"Veteran  diseases  "  are  those  miraculoiis  ailmeats  which  i^ge 
unsuspected  in  the  bodies  of  old  soldiers  until  seductive  peaaian 
Ljwh  bring  them  to  the  notice  of  the  sufferers.    The  ArrearB  of 
Pensions  Bill  is  responsible  for  over  a  hundi*ed  thousand  vetsraa 
diseases.    This  law  was  in  existence  about  two  years,  and  ex 
by  limitation  July  1, 1880,    In  1678,  the  year  before  the  law 
into  operation,  the  pension  applications  numbore<l  18^1:$.    In 
under  the  stimulus  of  the  act,  they  rose  to  30,835.    In  1880  they 
reached  the  shameful  dimensions  of  110,673.    In  1881,  the  law  hav 
ing  expired,  the  number  of  applications  fell  to  18,455.    Tbo  A 
rears  of  Pensions  law  in\nted  the  Grand  Army  to  loot  tV- 
ury,  and  UO,(i73  veterans  accepted  the  invitation.    The  nu 
applications  filed  the  year  before  the  law  and  the  year  Aft«r  i 
prove  that  the  110,673  extra  diseases  were  niaflo  not  by  tho  wan 
but  by  the  Arrears  of  Pen.sious  Bill.    The  bribe  offered  by  Con 
gross  put  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand  additional  names  on  thit 
sick  report  for  1879  and  1880. 

Tlio  crippled  and  wounded  soldiers,  whose  battle-scars  were 
vouchers  to  their  honesty  and  sacrifice,  did  not  receive  any  ben 
fit  from  the  Arrears  of  Pensions  law.    They  were  already  on 
pension-rolls.    All  the  booty  was  divided  anionjr  the  moo  wb 
Buddenly  d"  1 

which  they  i 

inity  of  this  proceeding  is  revealed  in  the  fact  that  every  one 
those  claims  was  attested  by  the  solemn  .      '      '    '       ' 

The  law  of  compensation  pervades  n  ;  Ih 

here.    If  pennion  laws  are  potent  in  the  making  of  <i  i  ;  4»i 

sicins  themselves  have  the  opposite  efT    *     '*        ' '  i  ht»i 

Lb  nothing  tliut  i>romote8  lonp-vity  I  .ow«f»v- 

unty^wven  years  since  the  War  of  Ittia  W^-aw 
yuars  since  it  ended.    Yet  f)    -^  "-•  -     -k    .. 
tho  pcnaion-roIU  who  claim  : 


that  they  wer* 
n  ignorant  for  ^h 


PENSIONS  FOB  ALL. 


7«$ 


I 


There  is  a  delightful  contrast  between  the  nigged  and  healtliy 
state  of  tho  old  veteran  uft«r  his  pension  has  hcen  allowe<l  and 
his  decrepit  condition  before  the  allowance.  I  know  a  man  who 
was  simply  a  harbor  of  refuge  for  diseases  until  he  obtained  his 
pension,  and  then  they  disappeared!.  Having  drawn  IiLh  "  arrears," 
he  prudently  took  out  a  life-insurance  i)olicy.  The  affidavit  on 
which  ho  obtained  hia  insurance  curiously  contradicted  the  affi- 
davit on  which  he  got  bin  }>eusion,  proving  that  the  pension  had 
restored  him  to  health  and  ma<le  him  a  "gocul  risk  "  for  tho  insur- 
ance company.  The  department  was  greatly  shocked  on  learning 
the  facts,  and  revoked  tho  pension ;  but,  on  discovering  that  tho 
dolinquent  was  n  good  rauciis  warrior  and  a  hustler  at  tho  (>o1Ih, 
the  dei^artment  became  shocked  at  its  own  imprudence  and  re- 
red  him  to  the  "nation's  roll  of  honor." 

It  is  not  iropy  or  sarcasm  to  say  that  the  insurance  companies 
can  afT<:»rd  to  give  lower  rates  to  old  pensioners  than  to  other  peo- 
ple, because  the  pensioners'  chances  of  long  life  are  greater  than 
the  chances  of  other  men.  The  commissioner's  figures  prove  this. 
Ho  reports  that  the  number  of  tho  pensioners  of  1861  to  18(J5  who 
died  in  1^88  was  only  two  per  cent  of  the  three  hundred  thousjmd 
pensioners  on  the  rolls,  most  of  whom  must  be  between  forty-five 
and  sixty-five  years  of  age,  and  all  of  whom  are  legally  and  of- 
ficially suffering  from  wounds  and  diseases  contracted  in  tho 
ftrmy.  Three  humlred  thousand  healthy  citizens  of  the  like  age 
will  show  a  larger  mortality  than  those  diseased  pensioners  can 
show.  This  pro^■os  that  a  large  projx>rtion  of  those  *'  veteran  dis- 
eases "  are  fictitious. 

Still  more  miraculous  is  the  power  of  pension  laws  to  bring 
dead  men  back  to  life.  Year  after  year  the  "  Mexican  War  Pen- 
sion Bill "  was  rejected  by  Congress,  At  last  the  claim  agents 
proved  by  the  tables  of  mortality  that  the  Mexican  War  soldiers 
wore  nearly  all  deafl.  That  war,  they  said,  was  an  insignificant 
affair;  our  army  in  Mexico  was  small, and  the  surviving  members 
of  it  could  not  be  numerous  after  the  lapse  of  forty  yeara  Be- 
Btdes,  it  was  invidious  to  be  generous  to  the  soldiers  of  tho  late 
war  and  nit^^urdly  to  the  soldiers  of  Mexico.  This  plea  carried 
the  bill  through.  It  was  passed  on  the  29th  of  January,  1887,  and 
■before  the  1st  of  March,  1889,  21,206  surviving  soldiers  of  Mexico, 
d  7,742  widows,  hml  file<l  their  claims  for  pensions  under  tho 
law.  On  the  very  face  of  the  returns  it  is  evident  that  most  of 
hoao  claims  are  without  any  of  that  merit  or  grace  whereby  pen- 
ons  are  justified,  namely.  ser\ncG  in  battle,  or  at  least  on  the 
genuine  theatre  of  war  during  the  time  of  active  hostilities. 

How  happens  it  that  bo  many  Mexican  War  veterans  spring  up 
out  of  the  ground,  like  Roderick  Dhu's  freebooters,  at  tho  clarion 
^11  **  to  pensioiis  **  ?    Not  one  tenth  of  those  claimants  ever  saw  a 


ft6 


THE  POPULAn  SCTEXCS  MOXTITLr 


Taylor's  last  figbl 
■■.'WI4 


-   -imii, 
battI«-soldien  of 

'^    "  -  the 


battla    Here  is  tlie  explanation  of  tbo  miracle 

vas  at  Buena  Vista,  where  he  had  !• 
Many  of  these  had  also  fought  at  P:i 
and  Monterey.    It  is  liberal  to  say  that  all  the 
Taylor  did  not  exot*od  ton  thousand,    Scott's  ! 
city  of  Mexico,  where  hH  had  about  eleven  th'  loy 

of  these  were  the  same  soldiers  who  had  f<mght  at  Cerro  Uorda, 
Contreras,  Churubusco,  Chupultepec,  and  Molino  del  Roy.  Scolt'f 
real  battle-soldiers  could  all  be  included  within  a  total  of  tweati 
thousand  meiu  Allowing  for  losses  of  all  kinds,  it  is  not  1 
that  more  than  twenty  thousand  battle-soldiers  of  the  Ame 
anny  in  Mexico  were  alive  at  the  close  of  the  war  in  l&lft.  It 
not  likely  that  two  thousand  of  them  are  living  now.  Ev 
of  these  is  compelled  to  lead  ninecomradesundcr  the  flag u:  :  .  ,^. 
to  the  gory  field  of  pensions.  Where  does  he  get  the  nine  f  H« 
,.gets  them  from  the  army  of  redundance,  thus : 

Although  the  figliting  ended  in  8t?ptember,  1847,  when 
captured  the  city  of  Mexico,  peace  was  not  declared  until  June,! 
1848.    This  nine  months'  interv^al  was  passed  in  "nv-^    "  ua." 

This  valuable  time  was  wisely  employed  by  our  Go\  in 

re-enforcing  the  American  armies  in  Mexico,  so  that  our  inviacdbU] 
numbers  might  act  as  a  moral  pressure  upon  the  Mexicans,  con- 
vincing them  how  hopeless  was  their  causa    This  policy  was  suc- 

iful.     The  Mexican  Government,  deeming  further  resistaDM 
UflolesSj  ratified  the  Treaty  of  Quer^taro. 

From  September,  1847,  until  June,  1848,  new  regiments,  en 
panjes,and  detachments  were  jjoure*!  into  Mexico  to  r» 
divisions  already  there,  so  that  only  a  small  fraction  v.i  ...,.  ... ; 
that  marched  home  rlid  any  fighting  in  the  Mexican  War,  Hhifv 
.loads  of  soldiers  arrived  »t  Vera  Cruz  in  Jun'*  '  '  *  rati£c»- 
ion  of  the  treaty  of  peace  was  known  at  Wash  --y  wer» 

ordered  back  without  being  |)ermitted  to  disembark,  because,  peace 


'lere  wft»  no. 

army  thall 

trfiop«,j 

*^'*  rites 

..let 
They  can  as 


having  been  declared  while  they  were  on  th- 
necessity  that  they  should  laud.     It  is  this  ■ 
now  swoops  down  upon  the  Capitol,  augmenteti  by  * 
who  did  garrison  duty  at  the  various  posts  in  th 
during  the  war,  and  now  march  int*^  th*>  treasury  li 
the  pretense  that  they  also  are  r^  f  Mexico. 

truthfully  claim  to  be  soldiers  of  A tz.* 

Pensions  pauperize  the  character  and  alwisc  the  aonls  of  tm 
ipecially  those  men  who  have  no  k  .mi 

lest  pride  and  make  nobility  itec..   .^ ..  ■  ^'^ 

conscienoo  and  weaken  self-respect.     To  obtain  and 

«ionB  men  will  8<.'niple  not  at  perjury.    Men  of  the  Li^ih^^i  r*4iJi 

*  Till  beavAta  of  thff  aoS  *r«  Umh«d  lo  nrm  orrr  tlxty -tvo  jf«r«  of  a^  as  ibu  Ifcp 
of  Mtxieo  who  w«f«  under  l«cotjr-«iM»  al  ttie  doic  wf  iho  «v  mv  ;«i  lo  bMt  fnim. 


i 


PEXSIOirS  FOR  ALL. 


m 


will  stoop  fo  mendicancy  for  a  pension  they  do  not  nciod. 

asks: 

'*  What  can  cnnoblo  sots  or  sUtcs  or  cowards  f 
Alosl  aot  all  the  blood  of  all  the  Uo wards/* 


Popo 


And  yet  a  pension  can  UTi-uoble  the  chief  of  all  thp  Howardfi,  and 
reduce  him  to  ignominious  ^>auperism.  The  Diiko  of  Norfolk, 
with  an  income  of  two  millions  of  dollars  a  year,  is  on  the  pension- 
list  of  England  for  sixty  pounds  a  year.  This  pension  was  granted 
to  his  ancestor  by  the  gontkt  Kichard  III.  Nobody  knows  why. 
It  may  hove  been  for  smothering  the  princes  in  the  Tower.  It 
could  not  have  been  for  anything  very  good,  because  Richard 
was  not  in  tho  habit  of  rewarding  virtue;  yet  for  mure  than  fuur 
hundred  years  the  Dukes  of  Norfolk,  chiefs  of  all  the  Howard* 
have  asked  for  and  received  this  degrading  outdoor  relief.  We, 
too,  can  fall  to  the  same  base  level  by  the  same  process  of  gravita- 
tion, as  the  following  testimony  shows : 

When  tlie  Mexican  War  Pensions  Bill  passed,  the  "  honor  "  of 
being  the  first  man  to  claim  liis  dole  and  get  it  was  given  to  a 
prominent  and  wealthy  citizen  of  Kentucky,  who  did  not  need  the 
alms  any  more  than  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  needed  the  charity  of 
sixty  pounds  a  year.  Yet  he  took  it,  and  was  applauded  for  his 
promptness  by  the  press  as  if  ho  had  done  a  patriotic  deed.  Such 
demoralizing  power  has  a  pension. 

It  is  true  that  we  have  no  hereditary  pensions  yet  extending 
beyond  the  third  and  fourth  generation,  but  we  have  made  a  fair 
beginning,  and  may  hope  to  enjoy  that  high-casto  luxury  in  gor- 
geous blossom  after  it  shall  bo  withered  and  dead  in  England. 
The  "royal  prerogative"  is  now  exercised  by  Congress,  with  a 
proftiae  liberality  exceeding  that  of  kings.  Our  senators  and  rep- 
resentatives are  creating  a  pensioned  aristocracy  out  of  the  con- 
sanguineous relics  of  naval  and  military  officers,  official  digni- 
taries, and  successful  politicians,  many  of  whom  bad  no  claim  to 
recognition  except  that  their  public  lives  were  laboriously  spent 
in  the  private  serNace  of  themselviss. 

The"retire«I  system  "  is  a  high-toned  pension  scheme,  avail- 
able only  to  those  who  have  taken  the  superior  degrees  in  the 
order.  This  is  borrowed  from  the  "  half-pay  "  and  "  retiring  "  sys- 
tem of  England,  where  it  had  a  logical  and  consistent  reason  for 
existence,  under  the  social  law  which  decreed  that  no  man  should, 
earn  an  honest  living  by  his  own  exertions  after  he  had  once  held 
the  "  king's  commission."  No  such  law  prevails  in  this  country, 
the  practice  founded  on  it  is  an  exotic  ill  adapted  to  the  cli- 
of  a  republic.  We  have  now  on  the  "  retired  list "  of  the 
army  one  general,  four  major-generals,  twenty-six  brigadier-gen- 
orals,  eighty-five  colonels,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty-nine  officiT**^ 
of  lower  grade.    The  navy  can  make  a  like  showing,  and  the  e: .  i. 


7*8 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEI^CE  MONTHLY. 


service  is  rapidly  growing  to  the  same  proportions.     Many  of 

those  "retired "  officers  havo  been  place<l  on  the  list  by  tho  arbi- 
trary favoritism  of  Congress,  and  some  of  them  never  held  ibo 
rank  in  the  army  which  they  hold  on  the  retired  list.  In  fact^ono 
of  the  chief  abuses  of  political  power  is  the  reckless  and  im?«pon- 
sible  usurijation  by  which  members  of  Congress  confederate  and 
combine  to  place  their  friends  on  the  retired  list,  and  thuir  can- 

l«titaents  on  the  pension-njlL 

p  One  of  the  amiabilities  of  the  practice  is  its  freedom  from  par^ 
tisan  bigotry.  It  is  notorious  that  on  a  recent  occasion  the  widow 
of  an  eminent  Republican  politician  was  rewarded  with  a  ponsion 
of  two  thousand  dfdlars  a  year^  on  condition  that  tiio  widow  of 
an  eminent  Democratic  politician  should  be  included  in  the  bill 
and  rewarded  with  a  pension  of  the  same  amount.  This  having 
been  done,  the  Republicans  voted  for  the  Democratic  pexiBion  and 

Erfcho  Democrats  for  the  Republican  pension.    In  t***  '     \\fy- 

niovolence  was  lifted  up  out  of  tho  impure  air  of  jt  -  icft 

into  the  othereiil  atmosphere  of  good  feeling  and  high  life. 

In  one  of  Irwin  Russell's  negro  hymns,  the  jingle  sounds  lilu» 

this: 

"  Close  np — aainta  in  do  center ; 

Fall  in — sinnahs  on  de  flunki ; 

^^^K  An*  all  11  get  a  pension  an^  a  booorable  roencion 

^^^B  Wlmt  stand  up  stiddjr  In  do  ranks." 

We  extend  the  principle  far  beyond  those  boundaries  and  giv« 
pensions  to  claimants,  whether  they  stootl  up  et^jady  in  tho  ranks 
or  not.    If  the  pension  list  could  be  analyzed  it  ■■  rid 

that,  after  taking  out  the  woundtxl  men,  fifty  per  cei.;     .  ..i>jr« 

did  not  stand  uj)  steady  in  the  raaks  nor  do  any  valuable  sonrioo. 
It  would  be  found  that  their  diseas(.«  arc  ly, 

and,  where  they  really  exists  that  they  wi-j  he 

army. 

In  addition  to  pensions  for  all,  wr  "  '  ■  > 

for* equali2atJon  of  bounties/' and  scL»  j- 

IgresAman  from  Iowa  introduced  a  bill  to  give  the  soldiers  tho  dif> 

ferenco  between  the  value  of  the  greenbacks  in  w*"  •^'  *V rft 

paid  and  gold  at  the  time  of  payment    The  statesi  'i> 

duced  this  bill  is  not  at  all  troubled  about  where  i  to 

come  from  to  effect  its  puri)ose.     Ho  is  a  desoendik:i;    ■  t^ 

old  sea-capt-ain.  who  bequeathed  princely  sums  to  his  :  lo- 

gother  with  gold  nnuff-boxes  and  din  h 

had  been  presented  to  him  by  variou::     ...^ ..    _        \M 

ho  did  not  own  a  dollar  in  the  world,  and  tho  swords  and  Antiff- 
bou'-  '  '^is 

libor-  t 

Tho  sum  of  money  necessary  to  pay  that  diHorenca  would  ba  the 


PEKSrOKS  FOR  ALL. 


7*9 


I 
I 


I 


measure  of  a  conquest,  the  ransom  of  an  ompire.  It  wouM  feu*  ex- 
ceed the  iino  imposed  by  Germany  on  France  in  1S71. 

It  13  time  that  the  soldiers  themselves  repudiate  the  dema- 
gogues and  vindicate  their  own  patriotism.  The  glory  of  the 
Union  army  is  tarnished  by  the  mercenary  clamor  for  pensions. 
If  the  soldier  is  tx>  bo  a  chronic  menace  to  industry,  ho  will  forfeit 
his  claim  to  honor,  and  cancel  the  obligation  due  him  for  service 
in  the  war.  As  it  stands  now,  every  Union  soldier  is  "  a  suspect " 
in  the  eyoB  of  his  countrymen.  Ho  is  regarded  as  a  pension-grab- 
ber, and  as  a  patriot  who  desires  to  commute  his  military  glory 
for  a  stijmlated  sum  in  cash.  The  suspicion  is  unjust.  There  are 
thousands  of  Union  soldiers  who,  having  served  the  country  in 
war,  refuse  to  forage  on  it  now. 

It  may  be  said,  Why  do  they  not  protest  against  the  pension 
scheme  ?  Why  do  they  remain  silent  while  the  forays  are  being 
organized  ?  The  answer  is  easy.  In  the  first  place  it  is  not  a 
pleasant  thing  for  any  old  soldier  to  criticise  the  plans  and  par- 
poses  of  his  comrades.  It  is  an  unthankful  duty,  even  if  it  is  a 
duty  at  all.  It  can  only  make  him  unpopular  among  those  wlioso 
approbation  he  would  like  to  have.  Secondly,  he  thinks  that  a 
general  j^ension  law  is  the  only  plan  by  which  the  worthy  soldiers 
can  be  placeil  on  a  level  of  reward  with  the  unworthy  claimants 
who  never  did  any  good  service,  but  who  have  no  delicacy  and  no 
scruples  about  getting  on  the  pension-rolls.  He  says  :  "  There  are 
many  brave,  needy,  and  deserving  soldiers  who  will  never  make 
application  for  a  pension,  therefore  let  the  Government  offer  it^" 
And,  thirdly,  whatever  his  own  opinions  may  be  as  to  the  morality 
or  |K)licy  of  pensions,  he  does  not  care  to  be  nfficions  in  opiioaition 
to  the  general  sentiment  on  that  subject,  nor  does  he  wish  to  stand 
as  an  obstacle  in  the  pension  path  of  others. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  war  there  may  have  been  some 
Union  soldiers  who  were  tempted  into  the  army  by  large  bounties, 
but  they  were  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  whole.  Excepting 
these,  it  may  be  truly  said  that  the  men  wlio  saved  the  Union 
neither  knew  nor  cared  when  they  enlisted  what  were  the  rates  of 
pay,  or  the  measure  of  allowances  for  service.  They  were  moved 
by  patriotism  and  not  by  promises  of  pay.  The  charge  that  they 
were  a  "  mercenary  soldiery"  was  false  in  the  days  of  Abraham 
Lincoln,  although  it  was  freely  made  by  the  envious  and  dis- 
loyaL  Let  it  not  become  true  now.  Let  not  the  "  pension  temp- 
tation "  change  the  character  or  diminish  the  fame  of  the  Grand 
Army. 


730 


TB-B  POPULAR  SCTSXCE  MfOXTmr, 


^M     fon] 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  PHRENOLOGY 

Bt  PBor.  M.  AJXEX  STARR,  M.  P.,  Pk.  P. 

ALMOST  every  one  has  at  some  time  wondered  whether  there 
is  any  truth  in  phrenology,  Tho  figures  of  heads,  ou  which 
various  mental  facultu'^  aro  marked,  are  to  bo  seen  everywhere, 
and  the  notion  that  from  the  shape  of  the  head  the  character  can 
be  determined  has  enough  of  the  mysterious  in  it  to  Y>ro\  i- 

ive.    The  thought  that  some  one  may  discover  uur  lit...    ,-;,.. .-js 
and  more  serious  deficiencies — for  it  is  these  rather  than  our 
strong  jjointfl  that  we  are  afraid  of  having  r        - 
study  of  bumps  disagreeably  interesting.    ,\       ,         , 
to  find  out  a  little  more  about  our  friends  than  they  would  wish 
us  to  know  adds  somewhat  to  its  attraction- 
It  is  pretty  well  agi-eed  among  KcientistSy  at  present,  that  the 
old  system  of  phrenology  has  no  actual  lia^iis  of  fact,  aiAil  that  ele- 
vations npon  the  skull  do  not  indicate  masses  of  brain  ^    — rh 
them.    But  to  this  old  system  of  Gall  modern  science  i'  s 

a  great  deal ;  for,  like  every  false  idea,  it  had  within  it  a  little 
kernel  of  truth,  and  the  interest  excited  by  tho  claims  of  its  sup- 
porters awakened  a  discussion  which  has  led  to  a  disscovery  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  the  saving  of  human  life. 

The  claims  of  Gall  that  each  part  of  the  brain  preaided  OTer 
some  mental  faculty  stimulate<l  Flourens.  the  leaxlin^r  French 
physiologist  of  forty  years  ago,  to  a  »•  '     h 

seemed  to  show  the  falsity  of  Qall's  i,  ,  .    li- 

menta  in  turn  were  disputed  and  led  to  others,  and  thu»  interecfc 
in  the  brain  and  its  action  was  stimuli:   ^         "'       t   ~      -  |^^ 

ject  was  taken  up  in  Germany,  and  fn«  U 

form  the  basis  of  our  present  knowledge  of  brain  action. 

For  in  Germany  a  method  of  testing  the  action  of  the  braia 
invented  by  Fritsch  and  Hitzig  in  1S70.  Theee  men  notii^ed 
that  when  they  applie<l  an  electric  shock  to  the  brain  of  an  omcs- 
thetized  dog,  the  result  was  a  movement  of  the  limba  To  carue 
this  movement  a  certain  part  of  tho  bmin  had  to  be  irritated  by 
tho  electricity,  other  parts  being  irrf'sp<tnsivo ;  and  it  was  even 
poftaiblo  to  distinguish  the  part  which  movfd  thefoT*^^'^'  ri-^in 
that  wlilch  moved  the  hind-leg,  while,  queorly  enoujch.  '  >• 

ti         '     MO  side  of  the  brain  always  ►? 

ot'  of  the  body.    This  was  an  ii   ,  ^t 

showed  that  one  part  of  the  brain  irovemed  moiione  while  the 
other  •      ■    '     '     .    '  • 

Tl  further.    They  Mid, 

"If  this  part  of  the  brain  really  goroms  motion^  then  when  it  l» 


I 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  KEW  PHREHOLOGY, 


7Ji 


removed  the  dog  will  lose  the  power  of  movement,"  and  this 
reasoning  was  found  in  fact  to  be  correct ;  for  when  tliis  part, 
which  they  named  "  the  motor  area,"  was  taken  away,  the  animal 
was  found  to  be  paralyzed,  while  removal  of  other  parts  had  iin 
Buoh  effect.  These  expcrimont-s,  since  that  time  repeated  in  every 
laboratory  of  Euru|>o  and  America,  and  tried  upon  various  ani- 
mals, have  established  the  fact  that  there  is  in  the  brain  a  certain 
part  which  flire<'t,s  voluntary  movements. 

The  second  step  toward  the  new  phrenology  was  taken  in  Eng- 
land in  1873  by  David  Ferrier.  Reasoning  from  the  fact  that  our 
movements  are  usually  the  result  of  some  preceding  sensation,  he 
concluded  tliat  sensation  as  well  as  motion  must  be  governed  by  the 
brain.  If  motion  is  governed  by  one  part,  sensation  may  be  received 
in  another  part.  This  reasoning  led  him  to  undertake  a  series  of 
ex]>enment8  to  settle  the  question.  He  soon  succeeded  in  showing 
that  sensations,  which  are  received  by  the  various  sense  organs 
jf  our  bodies — by  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  mouth,  or  by  the  skin — are  all 
hnt  inward  to  the  brain,  and  that  each  of  these  organs  sends  its 
impressions  to  a  distinct  region  of  the  brain  ;  sensations  of  light 
going  in  one  direction,  those  of  sound  in  another,  and  so  forth. 

The  work  of  Munk,  of  Berlin,  in  1881,  confirmed  and  added  to 
the  discoveries  of  Ferrier,  and  finally  established  the  conclusioa 
that  fiensations  as  well  as  motion  can  l>o  located.  So  that  to-day 
it  is  possible  to  lay  out  a  sort  of  map  on  the  brain  of  animals, 
mad  to  say  that  each  of  the  regions  put  down  on  the  ma]j  hiis  a 
Articular  snnse  with  which  it  is  related.  Oa  such  a  map  there 
are  here  and  there  empty  spaces,  sucli  as  there  are  on  our  geo« 
graphical  maps  of  Africa — for  no  one  knows  what  is  there.  But 
that,  of  course,  does  not  invalidate  our  knowledge  of  regions  wliich 
are  known,  and  (udy  shows  that  further  discovery  is  jKissible, 
Wlien  we  come  to  see  the  practical  results  of  these  discoveries, 
the  arguments  of  those  who  oppose  vivisection  will  cease  to  inter- 
■pt  or  move  us. 

"  These  physiological  experiments,  however,  are  only  of  impor- 
tance to  us  in  our  study  of  our  own  mental  action,  provided  they 
have  a  bearing  upon  the  working  of  the  brain  in  man.  And  this 
is  a  question  which  has  only  been  settle<l  within  the  past  fifteen 
years.  It  was  admitted,  indeed,  that  in  the  structure  and  appear- 
ance of  his  brain  man  resembled  quite  closely  the  higher  types  of 
gorilla  and  ape,  and  yet  the  apparently  impassable  barrier  between 
men  and  animals  as  regards  mental  activity  prevented  any  hasty 
conclusion  that  these  facts  could  be  applied  to  men.  The  question 
whether  sensation  and  motion  could  be  assigned  to  parts  of  the 
brain  in  the  human  race  was  still  (ton  years  ago)  an  open  one. 
Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  experiment  upon  the  human  brain. 
But  on  a  little  consideration  it  soon  became  evident  that  Nature 


■I 

I 


I 


75* 


THS  POPULAR  SCIElfrCE  MONTHLY. 


^ 


was  really  furnishing  the  observer  with  a  series  of  natural  experi- 
ments on  man  in  tho  form  of  disease.  The  '  '  '  ■! 
a  piece  of  the  brain  ami  watched  the  loss  ■  •  ^ 
the  loss  of  motion  which  enfiuodL  The  physician,  on  tho  othor 
hand,  watches  tho  same  kind  of  loss  of  sight  and  hear'  -  -f 
motion,  in  his  patient,  and  may  perhaps  conclude  that  1.  i\ 
loss  of  brain-tissue  is  the  cause.  And  this  conclusion  wad  con* 
firmed  by  further  observation.  Perhaps  this  may  be  ma^le  a  little 
clearer  if  we  add  a  factor  two  regarding  the  way  in  which  these 
coLperimenta  of  nature  are  conducted.  The  blood  which  is  sent  to 
the  brain  at  every  throb  of  tho  lieart  goes  up  io  a  set  of  tub<^ 
which  give  off  side  branches,  like  the  system  of  water-pipes  whicli 
conncKit  your  basins  with  the  reservoir.   Each  tube  g                      .^ 

its  branches  are  given  off,  until  ut  the  end,  instea<i  ;l< 

pipe,  there  is  an  innumerable  series  of  little  end  pipes*  each  throw- 
out  its  little  stream. 

Let  us  picture  to  ourselves  the  water-pipe  system  of  a  towu  set 
up  on  a  frame  aboveground.  with  tho  great  main,  the  street 
mains,  the  house  pipes,  and  the  little  pipes  all  over  the  houses,  all 
in  view,  and  we  will  have  a  sort  of  conception  of  the  brain'tf  vessels 
and  its  blood-supply.  Now,  it  is  easy  io  see  that,  if  a  stick  or  a 
mass  of  loaves  start  out  from  the  reservoir  into  a  main,  they  will 
go  on  and  on  till  they  reach  a  pipe  too  small  to  allow  thotn  to 
pasSj  and  there  they  will  hwige.  If  the  stick  gt*ts  into  one's  hous© 
pipe,  one's  entire  house  will  be  cut  off  from  the  water-supply  ;  if 
the  mass  of  leaves  breaks  up,  a  few  particles  may  coma  in  and 
plug  up  a  pi|»e  to  one  only  of  the  basins.  But  in  either  cas©  the 
basin  will  be  as  useless  for  washing  purjioses  as  if  there  wem  no 
reservoir  at  all.  Kow,  something  very  similar  to  this  occurs  in 
diaeaae.    Little  plugs  sometimes  come  up  to  th     '      '     '  ■,,. 

heart  in  the  blood,  and  lodge  in  the  little  ves^t  r, 

the  blood  to  various  parts  of  the  brain  ;  and  whf^n  the  part  of  the 
brain  is  thus  cut  off  from  its  supply  of  nutrition,  it  gradaally 
withers  up  and  ceases  to  act. 

But  when  it  ceases  to  act,  a  lo«s  of  some  one  sense  remnlts,  just 
as  in  the  dog  when  a  part  of  the  brain  was  cut  out  a  loss  of  somo 
sense  occurred.    When  these  fact**  were  studied  in  this  war,  it  soon 
became  evident  that  in  some  persons  it  ^ 
hearing,  in  others  s*)rae  other  sense,  in      .;... 
movement  which  was  lost ;  and  further  study  »howe«d  ' 
ing  efftxit  depended  up<->n  which  part  f»f    " 
nutrition  and  was  withered,  just  as  in  tli 
part  removed  determined  which  sensation  wj  ai 

of  .; 

what  is  true  of  aaimals  is  true  of  man,  that  tn  txuui  as  woU  ae  la 


4 
I 


THE   OLD  AND    THE  NEW  PHRENOLOGY, 


733 


auimftls  certaia  regiona  of  the  brain  can  bo  mapped  out  and  can 
be  assig^ned  to  th<?  different  senses.  It  has  thus  been  proved  that 
in  their  action  as  woll  as  in  thoir  sirtidure  the  brains  of  man  and 
of  animals  are  alike. 

If  in  structure  and  in  function  all  brains  are  somewhat  similar, 
it  may  b*!  intort^stiug  to  obtain  a  little  notion  of  what  a  brain  is 
really  like.    The  figure  will  demonstrate  this  very  well. 


Tm.  L^DiAoiLAM  OP  m  BxTEaaAi.  StrnFACB  at  rni  Lift  Cbuibai.  BxMisrasas  (modlBod 

fruu  £clior>. 

It  shows  that  the  brain  is  an  egg-shapod  organ  with  an  irregu- 
lar surface  of  a  yellowish  -  gray  color.  The  irregialarities  are 
formed  i)y  a  folding  of  the  surface  layer  so  as  to  accommodate 
itself  to  tlie  small  space  in  tho  head.  To  illustrate  this,  when  a 
handkerchief  is  spreitd  out  over  the  hands  it  takes  up  a  great 
Bpaco,  and  a  box  in  order  to  hold  it  would  have  to  bo  of  large 
size ;  but  by  gathering  the  handkerchief  up  in  the  hands  it  is 
thrown  into  folds,  and,  although  its  actual  surface  is  not  de- 
creased, the  space  it  occupies  is  much  diminished,  and  it  could 
now  bo  put  in  a  very  small  box  and  yet  all  bo  there,  but  then  its 

irface  would  be  irregular  and  show  many  creases.  Now,  what 
done  to  the  handkerchief  Nature  has  done  to  the  brain  aa  it 
has  develo{)ed.     In  the  lower  animals  and  in  an  early  stage  of  life 

\e  folds  are  few  and  simple,  but  in  man  when  full  grown  they  are 
ij  and  complex.    This  only  means  that  the  actual  surl 


3+ 


TITB  POPULAR  SOTBlfrCS  IfOXTffir. 


the  hrain  if  spread  out  would  be  much  ^eat«^r  in  man  than  in  th^ 
lower  animals,  and  far  tcK>  great  to  bo  laid  out  t1   '  Iva 

head.    There  are  many  iutorestiiig  facte  which  uiak  va 

that  tho  greater  the  extent  of  brain  surface  in  a  nun,  or,  to  pot  ii 
a  little  differently,  the  more  the  folds  and  deej>er  the  crea^i^s  b^ 
twecn  them,  the  greater  are  tho  man's  mental  powers;  and  just 
here  it  becomes  apparent  that  to  judge  of  tho  extent  of  the  entire 
brain  surface  by  the  size  of  the  heiul,  or  by  the  oxterit  of  tlic  Rupor- 
ficial  irregular  surface  which  is  covered  by  the  skull  \nlhout  any 
regard  to  the  number  of  folds  or  their  depth,  is  to  fall  into  an 
absurd  error,  and  here  we  begin  to  see  how  baseless  the  old  phre- 
nology really  is. 

For  a  little  brain  with  many  deep  f<  tlds  may  really  wl : 

out  have  a  larger  surface  than  a  large  brain  with  tew 

folds,  and  a  so-called  bump  or  elevation  on  the  apparent  surface 
of  tlie  organ,  even  if  it  proiluces  a  corr-    >  'lu 

hea<l,  which  it  fniquently  fails  to  do,  w  r  ,     ■!• 

ing  tho  number  of  the  folds  or  the  depth  of  the  creAses  which  lie 
about  it,  so  that  it  may  bo  stated  without  hesitation  tb.'it  "'  'he 
Bizeur  shai)e  of  the  head  no  conclusion  whatever  can  In  cia 

to  the  extent  of  surface  of  the  brain,  and  consequ<'Dtly  no  conclu- 
sion can  be  reached  regarding  the  mental  capacity. 

But  what  lies  underneath  the  brain  surface  ?  The  inner  struct* 
nro  of  the  brain  is  interesting.  Everywhere  coming  off  from  the 
under  surface  are  white  threads  which  gather  into  bands  and  ptUM 
downward  and  inw»rd,  and  finally  come  ont  below  in  the  form  of 
nerves.  These  are  tho  lines  of  communication  by  which  m«,*s^agoe 
from  various  parts  of  the  body  reach  the  brain,  and  along  which 
the  impulses  are  sent  out  from  the  brain  to  the  body  which  resuU 
in  speech  and  action.    Imagine  for  a  moment  that  fr  »-y 

part  of  your  hand  little  threads  pass  up  tho  arm  and  i  it 

way  to  the  brain,  and  there  go  to  a  special  part  of  its  surface  and 
end.    It  can  be  seen  at  once  that  you  W'     ''  *  '  "'  if 

the  hand  laid  out  on  the  brain  surface,  .  :e 

terms  of  the  geographer;  and  in  fact  such  a  map  of  the  entire 


fol- 
htm 


body  could  really  be  drawn  on  the  brain  sur**        •''  ■" 

low  all  the  little  threads  to  their  ends.     A 

been  sent  in  from  your  little  finger  has  always  gnuo  to 

place  in  your  brain,  and  whenever  a  mess? i.-w*...^ 

thread  and  goes  to  the  brain  you  feel  a  is 

finger.    Tho  threiul  goi^'S  along  your  funny'  d 

if  you  happen  to  strike  it  there  you  send  n  ...  ..    ..-    .^  .    u» 

the  brain  ;  but  as  all  such  messa^^es  have  usually  come  fmrn  this 
lii:'    ^  'V  '        *  '  ■  ■  -    ,r» 

bonev  jrou  tmi  it  in  tho  finger.    Thai  also  is  the  moHon  wb 


f 

4 


THE  OLD  AND    THE  NEW  PHRENOLOGY, 


735 


I 


pie  whose  fingers  have  been  cut  off  often  say  that  they  have  pain 
in  the  missiug  finger^  and  wht^n  you  are  seated  on  a  hard  or  lui- 
comfortablo  chair  your  foot  "goes  to  sleep." 

Now,  just  as  the  fingers  are  ji>ined  to  the  brain  we  must  believe 
that  the  other  organs  are  joined  to  it.  Thus  the  eye  sends  in  its 
thousiinds  of  little  threads  to  one  part  of  the  brain  surfaee,  the 
ear  to  another,  the  nose  and  tougue  to  another.    So  that  each  of 


TATioB  or  rn»  Dnncnon  or  town  or  nnr  Fmmt*  in  tii»  C»ii»- 
''f  llio  aiufjicc  ;  thi}  ii«iiocUittin  flhcrH  joltiln},'  rttlTcrnit  rcijloai  uf 
Bttii  tlitt  AUori  (iftsffinji  tluwti  Ui  IbeorKmaj  urHU»car«  ibuwo. 

the  organs  of  Hense  Is  related  to  a  special  region  of  the  brain.  AixH 
each  of  th*.\se  regions  r<?coive8  menjiuges  from  its  own  particular 
organ  and  from  no  other.  That  is  wliat  is  meant  by  the  term 
localization  of  brain  functions;  namely,  that  each  power  of  sensa- 
tion can  bt3  assigned  to  a  location  of  its  own.  This  idea  aids  very 
materially  our  coucoptiou  of  the  senses.  The  sense  (»f  sight,  for 
example,  cau  not  l>c  thought  of  as  dependent  upon  the  eye  alone, 
but  Mpon  the  eye  and  the  visual  part  of  the  brain  surface  with 
til'  ^reiids.    And,  after  all,  wo  must  admit  that  we 

di;  ilh  our  eyea  or  hoar  with  our  ears.     Why  does 

your  friend  want  to  hurry  through  an  art  gallery,  while  you  wish 


736 


TffS  POPULAR  SCTEI7CS  SfOXTHLr. 


to  look  carefully  at  the  paintings  f  Tou  both  see  them  vith  yc 
eyos  alike.  Is  it  not  because  behind  the  eye  there  is  something 
that  is  mental  which  enhances  your  enjoyment,  and  the  lack  of 
which  prevents  him  from  appreciating  the  beauties  of  art  ? 

Go  to  a  concert,  and,  aa  you  come  away,  listen  to  * '  i « 

of  people  about  you.    One  says  that  he  was  occu;  m 

watching  the  gyrations  of  the  man  who  plays  the  kettle-Ainims. 
Another  is  indulging  in  raptures  over  the  intricate  uountvrjKiinl 
displayed  in  the  orchestration  of  the  symphony.    Yon  hnvi-  %m- 
joyed  the  music  without  perhaps  having  noticed  thee*-"  nt 

at  alL    And  yet  you  and  the  other  two  have  heard  equ.... .   .  .lil, 

8o  far  as  the  actual  hearing  goes.  But  how  differently  you  have 
really  heard !   It  has  been  the  v-  -ounds  in  th«  brain, 

'ather  tlian  in  the  ear*  the  appi  <  •  i  meamng,  the  ideaa 

kwakened  by  the  sensations  there,  which  has  determined  this  dif- 
i^orenca  You  see  and  hoar  with  the  brain,  and  not  with,  the  eje 
or  ear. 

Or  take  another  function  of  the  brain,  that  of  voluntary  mov<s 
ment.  You  may  bo  fairly  skillful  and  graceful;  you  may  have 
learned  to  write  a  good  hand,  or  to  play  on  the  piano;  you  lany 
even  have  succeeded  iu  acquiring  the  power  to  pronounce  foreign 
languages  with  the  ease  and  fluency  of  your  own.  But  this  ia  not 
the  limit  to  the  knowledge  of  movement.  There  are  many  now 
motions  which  you  might  acquire;  for  example,  the  steps  of  new 
dances,  the  peculiar  fingering  of  the  violin  or  comet  or  other 
musical  instruments,  or  some  one  of  the  innumerable  fine  adJTisU 
ments  of  motion  which  you  see  made  with  such  r  n« 

of  (ifty  different  operatives  in  every  factory  in  i :  so 

are  movements  of  adaptation  and  adjustment,  first  studied  by  the 
aid  of  sight  and  then  imitated  by  th<^  aid  of  mu       *  ^h^ 

sense  of  movement,  and  finally  acijuired  by  pr,.  .     -'O 

be  executed  with  dexterity.    It  is  not  tho  fingers  or  the  inu»:loai 

which  have  learned  the  movements.    It  is  -     ^— ' ^     *    ■-  its 

motor  area,  has  received  the  sensation  of  i;.  -J 

a  memory,  and  then  combined  the  memorie:s  forma  of 

motion  so  as  to  direct  and  guide  the  hand  whicu  •  .^. .  >•  ^  thum  ooL 
And  so,  though  we  all  have  hands  and  arms,  there  are  Mime  who 
,_   ,.thom  deftly  and  are  skillful,  -n  are  r'  \\ 

nWftys  be  hopelessly  clumsy  and  .- ,:>i.    And  a 

\\isA  in  the  brain  in  the  part  called  the  motor  aroA. 

Wliere  are  the  various  nrent;  ?    TlioycH'  '  ii 

of  iHagraras  n*presonting  the  brmn  «urfftco  \     _,  a 

middle  lies  the  motor  area  (Fig.  3^  1),  and  ib  3s  \nU.^v  w 

that  on  the  left  half  of  t1)^  v  /     '  v     "  it 

is  larg*fr  in  exU»nt  than  <  ft 

hand ;  because  Uio  majority  of  tino  movomoDta  aro  |M>ri  '*j 


4 

4 
4 


1 
I 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEW  PHRENOLOGY. 


737 


Fio.  S.— Tna  FmtcTiAMAt.  Anu  oir  m  Burv  SmvAOV. 

Tbc  parallel  tini**  »hnw  th^  Mltnatioa  ofdifferrot  anuui:  1, 
%Tv%  ot  mnitnn ;  s,  ires  nf  tlj^t ;  1,  area  of  b«arlDg ;  4,  area 
ofameUaiul  UaUs;  0,  mm  of  toncU. 


tho  right  hand,  and  have  to  be  learned  by  the  left  brain.    The 
reverse  is  true  of  left-handed  people. 

At  the  extreme  back  is  the  visual  area  which  receives  im- 
pressions from  the  eye  (Fig.  3,  2;  Fig.  4,  2).  In  the  lower  part  of 
the  side  the   auditory 

area  ia  situated,  where  ^  i 

impressions  from  the 
ear  are  recoivcMl  (Fig.  3, 
3),  On  the  under  sur- 
face and  in  front  of  the 
ditory,  the  senses  of 
and  smell  are  lo- 
Cftte<l  (Figs.  3  and  4,  4). 
Touch,  which  includes 
the  senses  of  location 
and  of  movement,  as 
well  as  those  of  tern* 
peraturo  and  piun,  ia 
assigned  to  the  same 
area  as  that  of  motion^ 
but  extends  a  little  far- 
ther back  (Figs.  3  and 
4,  5),  and  this  overlap- 
ping of  the  two  is  not 
strange  when  we  consider  that  our  motions  are  guided  by  touch  ; 
think  how  differently  you  lift  a  heavy  lamp  or  a  fine  bit  of  cotton- 
wool, and  you  will  see  how  your  gnvsp  is  guided  by  touch.    Thes 

are  the  areas  which 
are  thus  far  discov- 
ered, but  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  brain  is  by 
no  means  complete, 
for  there  are  large  re*; 
gions,  on  this  Afri< 
map,  of  undiscovered 
country.  Fortunately, 
several  Stanleys  are 
on  the  way. 

Let  us  now,  accept- 
ing this  tlieory  of  tho 
localization  of  func- 
tions in  the  brain,  go  on  to  see  how  much  it  reveals  to  ua  regard- 
ing the  process  of  thinking. 

t)        '     '  part  of  our  thinking  is  done  by  the  aid  of  lan- 
ter  part  of  it  is  carried  on  without  the  conscious- 
ness of  actual  words.     Mental   imager  ore  constantly  passi 

TOU  XilT. i? 


fm.  ir-Tm  Hbdur  StTHTACB  or  Tm  Riobt  TSalt  or  raa 
BaAix,  aaoima  FimcnoMAi,  Absai. 


73t 


TES  POPULAB  SCISyCS  JTOJS 


ti! 


m 


through  tho  mind,  one  crowding  upon  anoth 
when  we  need  to  tell  some  one  els©  about  th« 
guuge.  Call  up  to  your  mind  for  a  moment 
you  passed  last  summer,  and  already  there  ha 
of  mental  images  of  place  and  people,  of  seen 
following  the  other  with  amazing  rapidity  but : 
Max  MiJller  would  have  us  believe  that  thougl 
impossible,  and  he  even  attempts  to  trace  I 
thought  by  studying  the  growth  of  language.* 
ties,  scientilic  and  philosophical,  teach  the  c 
than  accept  his  position  one  is  tempted  to  undo] 
ing  the  opinion  that  few  men  think  as  the  atud 

If  we  think,  then,  by  means  of  mental  ima^ 
be  worth  while  to  study  the  structure  of  a  men 

When  you  examine  a  flower  you  perceivfi 
and  form,  its  exquisite  color,  its  delicate  frag 
velvety  foeL    You  say  it  is  called  a  rose,  but*- 

*'  What^s  in  ft  name?    That  wbiob  we  ooll 
Bj^  Any  other  Dame  wonld  flmell  u  fweot 

So  that  without  its  name  you  have  a  mental  i 
made  up  of  several  distinct  sensations.  Thoso 
of  tho  rose  as  it  aj>pear8  to  the  eye — the  vtsua 
tiori  as  it  reaches  the  nose — fJie  olfactory  image 
of  its  touch,  its  shape,  and  softness — (lie  tactile 
])ressions  on  the  different  souses  have  been 
separat-e  regions  of  the  brain  surface.  The 
ceived,  they  are  stored  up.  so  that  the  image  oi 
recognized  when  rei^eated  and  can  be  revived  h 

Every  sensation  leaves  behind  it  a  trace  ujn 
trace  is  the  physical  l>asis  of  our  memory  of  t 
hapB  no  modern  conception  of  the  physical  \ 
more  graphic  than  that  which  we  find  in  Plato 
tus  "  he  puts  the  following  words  into  the  mou 

"  I  would  have  you  imagine,  then,  that  ther 
of  man  a  block  of  wax,  which  is  of  different  ru 
harder,  moister,  and  having  more  or  leas  purity 
other.  Let  us  say  that  this  tablet  is  a  gift  of 
of  the  Muses,  and  that  when  we  wish  to  rememi 
wc  have  seen  or  heard  or  thought  in  our  own 
wax  to  the  perceptions  and  thoughts,  and  in 
presslous  of  them  as  from  the  seal  of  a  ring ; 
1"  '  "  yyhni  is  imprinted  as  loi 


V 


is  e/TacoJ  or  ran  iic»t  i 


do  not  know."  t 


'*  Sdcaico  of  Thought,' 


f  "  ThmtMm,' 


TB£   OLD  A^D   THE  NEW  PHREXOLOOY. 


739 


■now 


Plftto  carries  out  the  same  figure  to  explain  different  degrees 
of  meraory.  When  the  wax  is  deep,  abundant,  smooth,  and  of  the 
^right  quality,  the  impresaioud  aro  lasting.  Such  minds  learn 
Beasily,  retain  easily,  and  are  not  liable  to  confusion.  But,  on  the 
■other  hand,  when  the  wax  is  very  soft,  one  learns  easily  but  for- 
Hgets  as  easily ;  if  the  wax  is  hard,  one  learns  with  difficulty,  but 
■what  is  learned  is  retained.* 

'         In  some  way  or  other,  we  do  not  know  exactly  how,  the  sensa- 
tions leave  behind  them  impressions  or  memory  pictures, 

I  And  these  separate  memory  pictures  are  associated  together, 
B9  they  have  all  come  from  the  same  object;  so  that,  the  associa- 
tion being  once  made,  any 
one  will  bring  to  mind  the 
others,  and  hence  if  you 
perceive  the  fragrance  you 
remember  the  appearance 
of  the  flower  from  which  it 
comes — its  color  or  its  feel. 
This  association  of  separate 
memory-pictures  is  secured 
[by  means  of  fine  nerve-  <f,'u  p 
[threads,  which  pass  l>etween  |'  ||  J^ 
the  various  areas  of  the 
brain  and  join  the  parts  of 
'the  mental  image  with  each 
lother.  This  may  be  repre- 
|sent«d  in  the  diagram  (Fig. 
'6)  by  placing  a  circle  for 
'each  memory-picture  in  its 
[appropriate  jdaco  and  join- 
ing the  circles  by  lines.  The 
jircles  represent  those  little 
round  masses  of  brain  sub- 
tstanco    called    nerve -cells, 


W0"O 


ro9€ 


I  ROSE 


Fio.  «.— Duoiujt  TO  fixciTiuTa  nnt  OoMoarr  So«b. 

Eftch   nurmory  It  the  irllc  of  a  (■•■t  p(trc«ptlno,  *c> 
qalrrd  throoj^U  «d  orgui  of  mum.    Tbet«  mtmoilet  kn 
d    the    lines    the    aSSOCia-    >M>uclatcf1.foniiln);tog«tb«rth0eone«pt 

v«i  ...  Ttiv  ItnR*  fmm  the  row  rvprwratthvctuilDeltuf  vrn- 

nerve -noers  UnUnig  Mttrm;  tta«  IIiim  botwwn  the  cIrIo  ike  aMoeUtlon 
tnckft,  Tbfl  mouth  uidbAud  %xt  Uw  motor  oism  of 
•p««ch  and  wrlUoc 


;he  cells  (Fig.  0).  The  dia- 
:ram  shows  the  physical 
m%  of  the  mental  image  of  a  rose — what  has  been  called  by  Ro- 
lanes  a  **reoej)t,"  since  its  elements  have  been  received  by  tie 
'nses.t  What  is  true  of  the  rose  is  true  of  every  other  object 
[which  we  have  ever  learned  to  know,  for  of  every  object  we  have 
recept,  or  a  series  of  mental  images  in  the  brain. 

BumbuD,  "Americaa  Joanud  of  Fijrchologj^,'' 


*"31emoi7  IlUtorlcally  CooslJcml,' 
41. 
f  BoaiuM,  *'  UentA]  Erolatlon  b  UtUf' 


p.  K,  D.  Appleton  Jt  Cu.,  1889. 


74© 


THE  POPULAR  8CTS2^CB  MOi 


We  are  constantly  increasing  our  store  of  mental  imogea,  an* 
when  one  conira»t«  tlie  Hinall  number  of  such  images  in  the  brali 
of  a  common  uneducated  day-laborer  with  the  myriads  In  th< 
brain  of  one  who  has  traveled  widely,  has  become  familiar  wit] 
ff  the  stores  of  info] 

tion  in  foreign  lan- 
guages as  wuU  aa 
bis  own,  and  has  cul- 
tivated his  powers  ol 
observation  in  many 
different     dir«cti< 
—for  examplOy  sucl 
a    great    leader     oi 
thought     as     01ad< 
stone — one  can  nof 
but  be  amazed  at  ths' 
capacity  of  work  in 
this  little  organ,  the 
brain.     And  if  thers' 
tm.  e.-Tw  LocATioK  or  toe  m«dbt-pictuh»  in  tii*  suh-  ^  **  physical  basis  fc 

TAJ.  UtAttK  or  A  Roai  om  the  Bkais  Svrtacb.    Tbc  dlOeivat    each  of  these   mBIltall 

images,  is  it  not  evi- 
dent  that  in  the  brain  of  a  Qlodstone  large  areas  must  be  takci 
up  which  in  the  laboring  man  tire  really  empty  ?    W«  have  i»en 
that  on  our  brain-map  there  are  some  empty  spaces.     There  ia^ 
every  reason  to  believe  that  these  grow  smaller  as  otir  informatioi 
widens;  and,  if  so,  then,  like  the  undiscover*^'' 
they  should  roally  lie  a  stimulus  to  efforts  of  f  i 

But  this  mental  image  of  the  rose,  as  represented  in  the  figu 
is  not  really  a  complete  image  until  it  is  ass*" '  -    '      •' 
And  the  mental  image  of  the  name  is  not  a.^ 
first  be  supposed ;  for  you  have  not  only  learned  to  r  f 

word  "rose"  when  you  hear  it,  or  when  you  «ee  it  i 
you  have  also  learned  to  say  the  word  and  to  write  it. 
really  have  a  word-image  **  rose  "  made  up  of  two  senMirj- 
auditory  and  x-iaual,  and  of  two  motor  images,  or  Ihe  mcii....,, 
the  effort  necessary  to  use  the  word  in  speech  and  in  script, 
is  necesHury  to  add  then  four  more  circles  to  the  diagram  to  abi 
the  physical  basis  of  the  word  *'  rose,"  and  each  of  these  mont 
placed  in  its  own  special  region,  which  has  been  determined  by 
long  series  of  investigations.     T^ 
togt>thor,  since  all  the  p>arts  of  thr 
and,  finally,  the  word-image  and  the  monUtl  im 
must  also  bo  associated  (Fig.  7).     T'       " 
of  such  a  simple  obj»>ct  im  a  rose  i 
jj&ental  pictxxrea,  each  joined  to  all  the  othofB*  aud  each  looatvd 


THE  OLD  AJfTD   THE  27 EW  PHREJSrOLOGY. 


74 « 


I 


^ 


its  own  particular  domicOe.  Now,  such  a  mental  image  is  termed 
a  concept,  and  concepts  are  the  material  of  thought.  Thought  ia 
the  piny  of  consciousness  among  those  concepts — a  play  which 
always,  in  our  waking  hours,  is  within  definite  boundaries  and 
along  lines  of  association.  The  oddity  of  our  dreams  arises  from 
the  disregard  of  these 
lines  and  boundaries  in 
a  semi-conscious  state. 
Many  of  the  concepts 
arc  related  to  one  an- 
other. Thus  the  rose  is 
only  one  of  many  flow- 
ers which  you  know, 
and  the  terra  "  flower  " 
really  brings  to  a  focus 
all  the  images  of  the 
different  roses,  chrys- 
anthemums, pansies, 
and  pinks  and  varied 
objects  which  the  most 
complet-e   horticultural 

exhibition   can   display.    Fm.  7— Tbk  Location  of  tbb  MBMOKT-PnTimm  or  tbb 
Tiitt     f^vrti     "  fl.^wor  '*  '  Word  Imaoi  Ho«.     I,  worrJ-hparlojf ;  %  wonJ-««dng;  % 

llie     l«rm  UUWtr  wonJ-uliertnj{;  i,  •onl-prrllliig  u*oiaorjr-|tlcto«. 


I 


which  we  may  call  an 

ract  term,  because  it  stands,  not  for  a  single  object,  but  for  a 
of  differout  objects  with  common  features — enables  us  to 
liandle  theiw  many  monUil  images  easily  and  communicate  the 
pictures  before  our  minds  to  others.  It  is  a  convenience,  then,  to 
use  the  word ;  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  the  mental  images,  rather 
than  the  words,  which  play  the  greater  part  in  our  thinking. 

This  has  been  most  ably  expressed  by  the  Duke  of  ArgyD, 
who  says:  **  Images  are  repetitions  of  sensation,  endowed  with  all 
its  mental  wealth,  and  consciously  reproduced  from  the  stores  of 
memory.  Without  images  we  can  do  nothing  in  the  flelds  of 
thought,  while  with  images  we  can  mentally  do  all  things  which 
it  is  given  us  to  do.  Tlie  very  highest  and  most  abstract  conc-eptt 
aro  seen  and  handled  by  our  intellects  in  the  form  of  voiceleBfl 
imagery.  How  many  are  the  concepts  roused  in  us  by  the  forma 
and  by  the  remembered  images  of  the  human  countenance! 
Love  and  goodness,  purity  and  truth,  benevolence  and  devotion, 
ilrmness  and  justice,  authority  and  command — these  are  a  few, 
and  a  few  only,  of  the  abstract  ideas  which  may  be  presented  and 
repreeented  to  us  in  every  degree  and  in  every  combination  by 
the  remembennl  imag^  of  some  silent  face.  What  a  wealth  of 
concepts  is  set  before  us,  for  example,  in  the  images  raised  by  this 


single  line : 


Her  eyes  are  bomea  of  ailont  prejer  ^  1 


74* 


THE  POPULAR  SCIBHrCS  MOm 


"  Introspection  will  convince  lis — perhaps  to  our  own  MtonisM 
TDent — how  large  a  part  of  our  think i  tuluoiMl 

through  the  raising  and  recalling  of  i  * 

But  it  may  be  objected  that  one  can  not  spend  oue's  time  r 
day-dreams,  or  in  the  mere  pleasures  of  memory  and  iuiti^iimtix] 
You  say  that  reason  and  action  are  the  real  things  of  lifti.    Hav 
these,  too,  such  a  physical  as  well  as  a  mental  basis  ?    L<p1  vis  fob 
low  one  or  two  simple  acts  of  reasoning  for  a  moment.    AVbcu  yo 
flee  a  rose,  although  it  is  at  a  distance  from  you^  you  will  admi! 
that  you  believe  it  to  have  a  fragrance.    You  conclude  that  it  hiin,' 
because  in  your  former  experience  with  roses  you  remember  thfttj 
when  you  have  held  one  near,  you  liave  always  perceived  li»  pel 
fume.    The  association  of  the  sight  of  the  rose  and  the  f ragrancM' 
has  become  fixed  in  your  mind,  and  when  you  see  it  your  thought 
is  led  along  to  its  fragrance,  and  you  draw  the  conclusion  thai  lb* 
rose  is  fragrant.    That  is  an  act  of  reasoning.    Suppoeir^ 
one  says  that  the  rose  sounds  sweetly.    You  have  no  as.^ 
between  such  things  as  roses  and  sounds  in  nature,  and  yoi 
thought  refuses  to  run  along  where  there  is  no  track.    Yoa  repl; 
that  he  is  talking  nonsense — that  is,  the  unreasonable. 

Or  take  another  example.  Your  dog  sees  you  go  into  the  balt| 
and  take  up  your  hat  and  cane ;  he  at  once  jumps  up  and  nuJI 
about,  showing  by  his  action  that  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  you  are  off  for  a  walk,  and  that  he  wants  to  go  with  yuu. 
What  is  the  basis  of  this  process  of  reasoning  ?  He  has  a  zDeotal 
image  of  this  act  of  yours,  associated  with  another  mental  imag« 
of  a  run  on  the  lawn,  and  the  first  calls  up  to  I  '  : ' 

In  his  experience  one  act  has  usually  follow 
draws  the  conclusion  that  you  are  going  out  where  lie  can  run. 
You  say  at  once  that  the  dog  has  reasonrW  ^^^-    tly.    It  ta*y 
even  be  true  that  the  dog  has  learned  to  uj  ■■  langoagii 

Many  dogs  know  the  word  "  out,"  and  it  calls  up  to  them  09  di»- 
tinct  a  mental  image  as  your  act  of  putting  on  your  h 
John  Lubbock  has  even  taught  his  dog  to  read ;  f  for,  by  s 
him  a  large  card  ou  which  the  word  "water"  wn 

time  he  gave  him  a  drink,  an  association  was  ett 

dog^a  mind  between  the  card  and  the  act;  and,  finally,  when  tL< 
dog  wanted  a  drink,  he  would  bring  '  i  in  his  mouth  to 

master.    Ten  such  different  woais  wlv  ^  lI  him,  and  he  rarely, 

made  a  mistake.    So  that  the  understanding  of  speech  and 
writing  anil  t'         '  ,,f  reasoning,  so  far  as  simple  conclnsioi 
from  the  rv  u  of  mental  imagee^  may  bo  granted  to 

mala  as  well  as  to  mam    And  Uieeo  aoU  of  reafloningf  Uko  tbcw 

^  Ar;^^!!,  **Th^  Identity  of  ThtMigUt  attd  Ltngugt,"  **  Coucnipoemry  BevU-Vf**  D» 

'«Qnibor,  188a,  p.  flU.  ^^ 

f  **  InMlUgnwHt  of  AniauUt,"  D.  Appk^toD  k  Co.  ^H 


« 


THE  OLD  AND  TEE  NEW  PITRENOLOOT, 


7*3 


of  memoTy,  hnve  as  a  basis  the  association  of  ideas.    It  may  be 
admitted  at  once  that  many  hii^h  prooesHes  of  thought  involve 

e  following  of  association  along  many  lines  al  ontM*,  or  in  such 
mplex  way  that  to  picture  them  clearly  to  the  mind  would  be 
almost  impossible  task.  But  there  ajipears  to  be  no  essential 
difference  in  kind  between  the  simple  conclusions  which  have  been 
used  as  illustrations  and  the  more  complex  ones  involved  in  ab* 
stract  reasoning.  The  logician  will  reduce  all  your  acta  of  rea- 
soalng  to  certain  syllogisms  which  it  is  now  quite  customary  to  ex«] 
press  in  algebraic  formulas.  For  each  of  these  fonnnlte  it  is  pos* 
sible  to  picture  a  physical  basis  of  nerve-cells,  joined  together  by 
nerve-fibers,  so  that  it  seems  probable  that  the  mechanism  of 
thought  will  some  day  l>e  understood.  Our  thoughts  are  usually 
so  rapid  and  so  many  that  we  do  not  atop  to  analyze  them,  but, 
when  we  do,  we  find  them  always  the  result  of  a  gradual  accre- 
tion of  ideas  and  not  a  new  creation.  The  inventor  will  tell  you 
that  his  mostbrilliant  discovery  did  not  spring  suddenly  into  his 
mind  in  all  its  perfection,  but  was  gradually  le<i  up  to,  stop  by 
step,  with  many  halts  and  puzzling  alternatives.  Finally,  old 
mechanisms  and  principles,  formerly  familiar,  were  successfully 
associated  together  with  new  adaptations  into  a  new  unit,  and  the 
ingenious  mechanism  was  complete.  The  evolution  of  the  loco- 
motive, of  the  telegraph,  and  of  the  telephone  teaches  us  the  pro- 
cess in  the  inventor's  mind  as  clearly  as  it  shows  his  genius  for 
construction.  There  are  many  other  mental  processes  which  might 
be  followed  out  which  display  equally  well  how  closely  reasoning 
dejiends  on  the  association  of  ideas — i.  e.,  upon  the  play  of  con- 
sciousness along  lines  of  communication  between  different  re- 
gions of  the  brain.  But  we  must  pass  on  to  some  illustrations  of 
action. 

Watch  a  game  of  tennis  and   notice  the  difference  between 
players,  and  you  can  toll  a  gi-eat  deal  about  their  mental  pro- 
cesses.   One  is  quick  to  see  the  ball,  to  note  its  direction,  and  to 
calculate  its  speed  and  the  position  it  will  reach  in  a  moment,  and 
yet  from  a  lock  of  quickness  in  movement  or  from  clumsiness  hei 
is  unable  to  return  it  well.    Another  is  particularly  agile  and^ 
graceful,  plays  all  over  the  field,  and  seems  to  be  everywhere  at ' 
right  time ;  and  you  think  him  the  better  player.    But  as  you 

tch  you  find  that  he  judges  the  ball  badly,  and  is  not  accurate 
in  his  calculation  as  to  where  it  is  going  or  when  it  will  falL  The 
champi<.)n  player  is  the  one  who  combines  accuracy  and  quickness 
with  precision  and  agility.  The  sight  of  the  direction  of  the  ball 
leads  him  at  once  to  a  correct  judgment  of  how  far  he  has  to  run 
or  reach  for  it,  and  his  movement  is  quick  enough  and  directed 
with  just  sufficient  force  to  make  the  return.  Now,  this  matter  of 
precision  of  movement  is  dependent  upon  a  process  of  perception, 


744 


THE  POPULAR  SCTEyCS  MOyTITLT, 


hfisooiatioD,  and  effort,  and  is  to  a  great  extent  a  matter  of  labom 
kapucity.    The  ]•!  -•  express  this  by  saying  that  oacb  of  us 

mas  his  personal  <  .   Perhaps  this  will  be  more  easily  undcr- 

stood  if  we  follow  the  manner  in  which  it  was  discovered,    One 
pi  the  interesting  astronomical  events  is  the  eclipse  of  Jupiter's 
^oons  as  they  pass  behind  the  planet  and  disappear  from  the 
astronomer's  view.    MaskeljTie,  British  astronomer  royal,  and  hi* 
iftflsistant  in  the  Greenwich  ObHervatury,  in  1795,  sitting  side  by 
bide  and  looking  through  two  telescopes,  were  attempting  l<»  n>- 
cord  very  accurately  the  moment  at  which  the  eclipse  was  com* 
plote.    It  was  found  that  their  records  differed  from  one  aitothtf 
by  some  fractions  of  a  second.    And  the  difforences  wenr  alK^tzt 
-the  same  when  other  observations  with  a  similar  object  wen* 
rznada    The  explanation  of  these  difTercnccs  has  lieen  found,  afi^r 
many  years  of  investigation,  to  be  due  to  a  difi^erence  in  the  rapid- 
dty  with  which  each  man  observed  and  recorded  1'      '      rvation, 
%nd  those  <iifference8  can  now  be  measured.    Thi^^  ^  appre- 

ciated at  first,  for  we  find  that  the  result  of  this  discovery  of  a 
difference  between  the  records  of  the  two  obserA-ers  was  very  nn- 
fortunate  to  one  of  them;  for  in  his  annual  report  ilaskelyne 
writes: 

"  I  think  it  necessary  to  mention  tliat  my  assistant,  Mr,  David 
Einnebrook,  who  had  observed  the  transits  of  stars  and  planets 
|Tery  well  in  agreement  with  me  all  the  year  1794,  and  for  the 
Kreat  part  of  the  present  year,  began  from  the  beginning  of  An- 
wust  last  to  set  them  down  half  a  second  of  time  later  than  he 
mhould  do  according  to  my  observations;  and  in  Janv  "  ^he 

.flucoeeding  year,  17i'G,  he  increased  his  error  to  eight  i  j  a 

second.  As  he  had  unfortunately  continued  a  considerable  time 
in  this  error  before  I  noticed  it,  and  did  not  seem  to  me  T '  '  ver 
to  get  over  it  and  return  to  the  right  metho<l  of  obser\  .  rtK 

[fore,  though  with  reluctance,  as  he  was  a  diligent  and  useful  as- 
sistant to  me  in  other  respects,  I  parted  with  htm-" 

Thus  Mr,  David  Einnebrook  fell  a  victim  to  tha  earliest  dii- 
covery  of  the  difference  of  power  of  observation. 

How  these  differences  were  measured  it  would  take  too  long  to 

relate.    The  results  only  can  be  stated,  and  for  details  reference 

|Xnade  to  an  article  by  Prof.  Cattell  in  a  rec<mt  num)  'hn 

Topular  Science   Monthly"  on  **The  Time  it  takos  i      k," 

and  to  one  by  Prof.  Sandford,  in  the  "  American  Journal  of  Psy- 
chology," on  the  "P*  V        "  "       hon/'* 

Any  act  which  d- i  ^        sensation,  snrh  n?^  rnftimtnir  a 

t^Wnis-ball  or  replying  to  a  qtiestion,  takeft  Um  be 

Hieparated  into  certain  imrts.    TIkt    *    :' 
pion^  the  decision  to  respond  io  i 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  PHRBNOLOOT. 


74S 


hear  the  question,  you  think  of  the  answer,  and  you  say  it.  Each 
of  th<Mn  Las  been  separately  measured,  and  takes  from  one  tenth 
to  one  sixth  of  a  second,  so  that  tbe  entire  procetjs  requirew  from 
three  tenths  to  one  half  of  a  second  to  complete  it.  People  differ 
widely  from  one  another  in  this  rapidity  of  action,  and  the  same 
person  differs  much  at  different  times,  and  the  explanation  of  this 
difference  is  found  in  the  inherent  power  of  activity  in  the  braia« 
The  effect  of  wine  is  to  make  these  acts  slower.  The  action  as  a 
whole  calls  into  activity  several  parts  of  the  brain,  the  nerve  from 
the  organ  of  sense  to  the  Ijrain,  the  part  receiving  the  sensation, 
the  tract  from  it  to  the  motor  area,  and  the  part  of  that  area  which 
initiates  the  impulse  and  guides  the  movement  and  the  nerve 
thence  to  the  muscles.  It  is  not  surjirising,  therefore,  that  it 
should  take  some  time ;  the  astonishing  thing  is  really  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  brain  acts,  for  modern  measurements  extend  to 
thousandths  of  a  second,  and  some  mental  processes  in  rapid  brains 
take  only  a  ft»w  luindredtlm  of  a  second  to  be  completed.  Famil- 
iarity with  a  certain  act  lessens  the  time  it  requirea  A  lady  was 
beard  to  say  the  other  day,  in  alluding  to  the  acting  of  the  French 
comedians  who  have  recently  been  seen  here,  that  it  was  surpris- 
ing how  much  faster  French  people  talked  than  Americans,  She 
would  have  thought  it  an  act  lacking  in  courtesy  had  it  been  in- 
sisted upon  that  it  was  not  because  they  really  talked  faster,  but 
because  her  English-speaking  brain  refused  to  think  as  rapidly  in 
French,  that  had  led  her  to  the  conclusion.    Yet  such  was  the  fact. 

There  is  one  more  process  of  mental  activity  to  which  allusion 
must  be  made,  as  it  haa  thrown  much  light  upon  the  theory  of 
localization,  aud  has  now  been  fully  explained  by  that  theory — 
viz.,  the  ix)wer  of  speech.  There  is  iwrhaps  no  'mental  procees 
which  brings  us  more  closely  Ui  the  point  of  meeting  of  the  physi- 
cal and  mental  elements  of  the  mind. 

Language  is  so  complex,  as  we  survey  it  and  as  we  constantly 
use  it,  that  it  seems  at  first  impossible  to  unravel  all  its  mys- 
teries. But,  if  we  watch  its  growth,  we  can  get  at  some  facts  of 
not  a  little  interest.  Let  us  trace  the  way  in  which  a  baby  learnfll 
it5  first  word,*  As  the  baby  looks  about  him  he  begins  after  ft 
time  to  distinguish  faces,  and  one  face,  his  mother's,  being  con- 
stantly near,  soon  becomes  most  familiar.  Mothers  are  constantly 
talking  to  their  babies,  and  always  speak  of  themselves  as  "  mam- 
ma "  or  "  mother,"  never  using  "  I  "  or  "  me."  Aft-er  a  time  the 
baby  begins  to  notice  this  sound  "mamma  "  and  to  recognize  it, 
aud  then  the  fact  that  a  certain  face  and  a  certain  sound  usually 
oome  together  finally  establishes  a  fixed  association  between  the 
sight-p^  '    'lO  sound-picture,  so  that  the  one  when  broutcht 

to  min- 1  he  other.   Then,  if  you  ask  the  baby,  *'  \\1it.  rt* 

•  PwTvr,  "*  The  Wad  of  the  Chlia,**  D.  jlpplffKra  k  Co.,  16S6. 


I 


I 


IB  mamma  ?  **  be  will  look  about  tbo  room  untO  bo  finds  tlie  familmr 
face.  He  haa  now  taken  hia  first  Ktep  in  acquir'-  -  -•  -  ^  -*  •  -;a4 
learned  tbe  meaning  of  a  word.    Tbo  second  £t  « 

time.  From  time  immemorial  in  tbe  babjr's  •  -  ,'  r:  !:re  he  has 
been  able  to  cry,  and  bo  knows  it;  in  otber  woru.i-.,  Lo  is  awaro  of 
tbe  fact  tbat  it  is  one  of  bis  native  powers  to  m&ke  a  noij^t.  By 
and  by  it  begins  to  occur  to  him  tbat  tbis  sound,  "  mamma,"  la  aUo 
a  noise,  ami  some  (lay,  probably  by  accident,  hs  be  is  l>eing  cnuilly 
sbaken  up  by  being  trotted  on  some  one's  knee^  he  emits  a  tKmnd 
like  "mamma,"  If  be  is  a  bright  baby — and  whose  bab>  '  '— 

he  notices  tbo  similarity  between  tbe  stmnd  be  ba«  ma'^  -le 

sound  be  bus  aln^ady  learned.  Such  attempts  at  staying  *"  roomma'* 
usually  meet  with  considerable  active  encoti^  -  nt  of  an  agra^ 
able  kind,  and  be  naturally  repeats  the  .i  After  many 

failures  it  is  a  success,  uud  be  has  at  last  acquired  a  memory  of 
tbe  exact  effort  in  certain  muscles  of  lips  and  tongua  needed  to 
produce  tbe  sound,  and  has  also  associated  that  memory  of  effort 
with  the  memory  of  the  sound  which  in  time  is  joined  to  tho 
memory  of  the  mother's  face.  Anil  now  the  second  proceM  Is 
complete,  and  the  baby  knows  how  to  si\y  tbe  word  intelliGrently; 
for  intelligent  siHM?ch  is  speech  ^         '  i% 

Of  course,  as  the  child  grows,  1  ^  _  ^  .r^- 

ure  of  the  word  *'  mamma  '*  to  the  auditory  picture  wbati  he  ieame 
to  read  ;  and  a  manual-effort  memory  to  tbi*  '     ""  'mory 

when  he  learus  to  write.    When  all   tlu-  a  an 

[uired  and  associated,  he  has  acquired  the  use  of  language. 

Now,  what  is  true  of  this  simple  word  hn    *     -    '-;:  •  of  every 
other  word  which  we  make  use  of ;  and,  tb^  not  r«>**«l] 

this  process  which  wo  have  been  through,  we  can  .^  a 

about  us.  If  you  wish  to  study  it  carefully,  study  cl...  4..  *.,  ,.,  ii^e 
aid  of  Preyer's  interesting  book,  "Tlie  Miud  of  thu  Child."*  Or 
if  you  wish  to  observe  the  process  mure  din-.  r 

in  which  you  have  acquired  a  foreign  lan^  ..-^., :  .  :..,.: ^uo 

in  the  same  way,  if  the  natural  method  is  followed.  8appoeo  thai 
you  are  told  that  in  German  tbe  brain  is  called  " "  '  "j 

pronounced  gay heem,  and  spelled  g-e-h-i-r-n.   1 1  .  '- 

iar  with  German,  you  have  now  a  new  word-image  coimectail 
with  the  mental  image  of  the  brain  u      ^  "'  "   ^! 

than  was  the  wonl  •'  mamma  "  when  you  '  -a 

acquired  in  the  same  way. 

Whether  we  think,  then,  in  mental  im   - 
the  process  is  tbe  same ;  it  is  ccm»oian«ne«^ 
linos  of  association  to  and  fro  botvroon 
These  memory-pictures  have  been  ac<ii...  *, 

*  TTia  prmetiol  iprillcntloa  of  ihU  kimvlMlff*  In  niAjA  i  s 

ajtide  OB  **  LAoguase  in  BdueMloa,"  **  AoMviwo  Jounwl  v(  l^^Khith^,''  toL  h, 


< 


H 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEW  PHRSNOLOOT. 


^7 


oach  tlirough  its  own  particular  channel  of  seusalion,  and  are 
stored  up  in  the  brain,  oaeli  in  its  piirticuiar  part  of  the  brain. 

Memory  is  tbo  revival  in  consciousness  of  these  various  mem- 
ory-pictures. 

Imagination  is  the  combination  of  old  pictures  into  a  ne^ 
image. 

Reasoning  is  the  passage  of  thought  from  one  picture  to 
another,  along  established  lines. 

Action  is  the  carrying  out  of  the  impulse  to  whose  memory 
reason  has  led  up. 

These  are  some  of  the  mental  faculties,  and  it  is  at  onco  exn- 
dent  that  they  are  not  distinct  entities,  like  the  mental  image,  but 
rather  powers  of  the  mind  to  deal  with  these  images ;  and,  there- 
fort*,  the  faculties  can  not  be  said  to  have  any  particular  seat, 
and  can  never  be  located  in  an  area  of  the  brain.  Imagination 
and  reasoning  power  are  therefore  not  to  be  assigned  to  bumps  on 
the  head,  as  the  old  phrenology  taught.  And  even  when  we  speak 
of  memory  we  distinguish  it  broadly  from  the  memory-pictures, 
which  do  have  a  location,  but  one  that  is  wholly  different  from 
that  taught  by  Gall.  Here,  again,  we  see  how  far  removed  from 
the  old  phrenology  the  new  phrenology  is,  and  how  much  more 
exact  in  its  knowledge.  If  proofs  of  these  facts  are  demanded, 
they  are  to  be  found  in  the  study  of  diseases  of  memory,  as  de- 
scribed in  Ribot's  entertaining  little  volume.  But  one  or  two 
statements  may  bo  made,  very  briefly,  in  closing,  which  must 
carry  conviction  to  the  most  skeptical  mind. 

The  reason  why  it  is  now  accepted  that  each  sense  with  its 
memory-pictures  has  a  definite  hxration  in  the  brain  distinct  from 
all  others,  is  tbut  it  is  possible  for  one  sense  or  one  set  of  memory- 
pictures  to  be  lost  without  affecting  the  others.  There  are  men  in 
apparently  perfect  health  who  have  suddenly  lost  all  their  sight- 
memory,  so  that  they  no  longer  recognize  people  or  things  formerly 
familiar.  One  such  man  did  not  even  know  his  wife  until  she  spoke 
to  him,  when  he  at  once  knew  her  voice.  There  are  men  who 
liave  in  the  course  of  a  few  moments  been  deprived  of  their  mem- 
ory of  language,  and  who.  although  they  could  talk  and  even 
write,  were  as  incapable  of  understanding  what  was  said  to  them 
or  of  understanding  what  they  saw  on  a  printed  page  as  one  would 
be  of  spoken  or  written  Chinese.  There  are  others  still  who  have 
lust  tlieir  artistic  or  musical  powers,  but  in  other  respects  are  per- 
fectly sound,  so  that  instead  of  being  able  to  sketch  from  memory 
AS  formerly  they  are  unable  to  call  up  to  mind  a  single  memory- 
pictare;  and  instea<l  of  being  able  to  follow  or  recollect  a  melody 
or  appreciate  the  harmonies  of  music,  they  are  totally  depriv»'il  y>t 
this  pleasaro,  and  this  without  any  blindness  or  deafness  b's^hk  i  t^ 
ing  of  the  mind. 


THE  POPULAR  SCTSyCE  MONTHLY, 


f 


ns 

I 


Others,  again,  lose  the  power  of  speech  or  of  writing  without 
having  their  understanding  of  language  interfered  with  or  without 
any  paralysis  of  the  muscles — the  efiFort-memory  of  speech  is  lost^ 

Such  effects  find  their  only  possible  explanation  in  the  fa(^| 
that  each  set  of  memory-pictures  may  be  destroyed  simply,  ana 
this  is  only  possible  provided  they  are  sitiiated  in  separate  regions, 
of  the  brain. 

And  there  is  a  great  practical  application  of  all  this  theory 
localization,  which  has  only  been  reached  within  the  past  thr 
years. 

If  it  is  possible  to  locate  a  set  of  memories,  and  in  the  progress 
of  disease  those  memories  are  lost,  it  is  evident  that  the  location 
of  the  disease  has  been  determined.    Sometimes  that  disease  is  of 
a  kind  which  can  be  removed— for  example,  a  brain  tumor.    From 
a  study  of  such  facts  as  those  presented  here  it  has  been  possible 
to  determine  the  location  of  tumors  in  the  brain,  and,  although 
externally  there  was  no  sign  of  disease,  it  has  been  possible  for 
surgeons  to  go  through  the  skull  to  find  the  tumor  and  to  remo 
it.    Up  to  the  present  time  about  seventy  such  operations  ha 
been  done  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  and  of  these  fifty  ha 
been  successful,  and  what  was  formerly  considered  a  necessarily 
fatal  disease  has  thuB  been  cured. 

The  practical  demonstration  of  the  truth  of  the  new  phrenol- 
ogy is  therefore  complete. 

The  old  phrenology,  as  we  have  seen,  was  wrong  in  its  theory, 
wrong  in  its  facts,  wrong  in  its  interpretation  of  mental  processes, 
and  never  led  to  the  slightest  practical  result.  The  new  phrenol- 
ogy is  scientific  in  its  methods,  in  ita  observations,  and  in  its  anal- 
ysis, and  is  convincing  in  its  conclusions.  And  who  can  no 
set  a  limit  to  the  benefit  it  has  brought  to  mankind  by  ita  practi 
cal  application  to  the  saving  of  human  lives  ? 


I 


LIFE  AT  THE  CAMEROONS. 

Br  BOBEBT  MOLLER,  M.  D. 

THE  Cameroons  youth  has  the  inclination  to  independence  fi 
the  day  of  i-^  i->-t1.    -r.,?  \i  is  taken  advantflgo  of  by  his 
mother.    Befor  ^bo  sets  him  out  near  the  house, 

wli        I     '  ,ok-  '"      '       'twill    As  soon  as  he  i« 

uich  of  fish  <^  his  father 
.),  for  drying  and  putting  away. 

g  (v^u,...  I..,  fjjg  brothers  ora 

lit  the  manage- 

^Ui^iiger,  h©  18  allowed 


LIFE  AT  TEE  CAMEROOXS. 


49 


I 


to  go  ftlone  And  disport  himself  in  tho  water  to  hiB  heart's  con- 
tent. At  the  Bamo  time  ho  begins  to  fish,  using  four  lilies  at  dnoe 
— two  attached  to  his  big  toea  as  his  feet  hang  over  the  side  of 
the  boat,  and  two  held  in  hia  hands.  It  is  a  ciirious  spectacle  in- 
deed to  see  him  pulling  in  first  one  foot  and  then  the  oilier^  as  a 
fish  has  beon  caught  upon  it,  and  at  the  Ramo  time  gesticulating 
with  his  arms  to  keep  the  boat  in  position  and  manage  the  lines 
in  his  hand.  As  he  fishes  the  boat  is  allowed  to  drift  down  the 
stream  ;  but  tho  pulling  back  abHorbs  his  entirw  attention.  Crab- 
fishing  comes  in  about  every  two  years,  when  tho  crustaceans  oc- 
cupy the  water  so  thickly  that  they  can  be  caught  as  fast  as  they 
can  be  taken  out  with  the  hands. 

For  the  chief  dish  at  hia  breakfast  or  dinner  he  receives  a  haslfa 
of  various  vegetables,  baked  or  packed  sausage-fashion  in  leaves. 
Rice,  bought  from  the  factories,  and  pilot-bread  from  the  ships, 
are  becoming  common,  and  are  regarded  as  delicacies.  A  favorite 
dish  is  made  of  chicken  and  yams,  cooked,  with  pepper-po»ls,  in 
palm  oiL  The  youth  eats  his  meal  in  company  with  his  mother 
and  brothers  aiul  sisters,  and  is  allowed  only  in  exceptional  cases 
to  share  his  father  s  usually  solitary  repast.  By  "  brothers  and 
sisters  '*  are  understood  only  children  of  the  same  mother ;  the 
others  are  the  sons  and  daughters  of  his  father.  I  learned  this 
when  I  asked  my  little  companion  Akuelle,  a  son  of  King  Bell, 
who  was  the  other  youth  with  us.  "He  is  a  son  of  King  Bell," 
was  the  reply.  **  Then  he  is  your  brother  ?  "  "  No,  doctor,  he  has 
another  mother/'  When  the  child  is  nine  years  old  ho  is  shorn 
and  counted  among  the  men.  If  his  father  is  rich,  a  wife  is 
bought  for  him,  but  the  couple  are  not  expected  to  live  together 
for  some  years  yet.  During  his  earlier  years  the  negro  of  this 
part  of  Quinea  is  conspicuously  intelligent  and  a  most  p1easin|^ 
companion.  Kut  his  good  qualities  disappear  with  the  passinip 
away  of  his  youth,  and  he  becomes  the  false,  idle,  quarrelsome 
African  of  the  factories. 

The  breech-clout  constitutes  the  usual  clothing  of  the  men.  A 
small  apron  is  also  worn,  so  that  if  the  former  piece  becomes  op^ 
pressive  it  can  be  taken  off  without  the  man  being  wholly  naked. 
Articles  of  European  clothing  are  often  worn,  but  only  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  body ;  trousers  have  not  yet  been  admitted  to 
the  Camoroons  wardrobe.  King  Bell  wears  also  a  stove-pipe  hat, 
which  he  manages  to  keep  always  looking  new. 

The  birth  of  a  girl  is  received  with  great  joy,  as  a  costless  ao^ 

qoisition  of  wealth,  for  she  is  sure  when  she  becomes  marriage-^ 

to  bring  a  goodly  sum.    The  purchaser  may  come  from  the 

e  village  or  from  another,  but  is  more  welcome  in  the  la' 
for  then  he  will  have  to  pay  more.    The  child  grow^ 
under  the  eyes  of  her  mother,  and  is  taught  by  her  to  cook,  ^^ '  y'--- 


750 


TEE  POPUXAR  SdSlTaS  VOimTLK 


in  the  field,  take  care  of  the  other  children,  and  «;moke.    AD  this 
||nust  be  done  early,  for  it  will  not  ho  tmiay  yt^r  a  por- 

r chaser  will  come  for  her;  and  at  ten  or  twelve  y  a^  sbo 

will  probably  be  called  upon  to  follow  a  stronger.    Notwithstand- 
ing the  early  marriages,  the  numl>er  of  children  Heldc>in  excee^U 
three,  and  the  woman  is  a  uintron  at  twenty.     When  she  has 
ipassed  her  bloom  she  is  relegated  to  the  capacity  of  a  serraiit,  and 
lier  husband  gets  another,  younger  wife.     Thus  men  of  means 
often  take  one  or  two  iihw  women  every  year.    The  women  and 
their  children  live  in  separate  houses,  which  are  not  sbanid  by 
the  husband.    He  lives,  too,  in  a  house  of  his  own,  in  the  midst 
of  the  women's  houses,  which   are  sometimes  quite  numerous. 
UKing  Bt^ll  has  a  hundred  and  twenty  wives.    Tlie  intercourse  be- 
"tween  mother  and  child  is  very  different  from  what  it  is  with  ua, 
and  the  Cameroons  mother  is  more  sparing  in  her  caresses  than 
ber  white  sistr^i-s.     Kissing  has  no  place  among  ihem^  but  they 
have  tht'ir  own  peculiar  ways  of  fondling  and  petting,  which  per- 
haps represent  as  much  affection  as  the  more  demonstrative  pro- 
LCeedings  of  Europeans. 

I      So  long  as  they  are  young  and  handsome  the  CamerooD« 

hvomen  pay  great  attention  to  their  toilet.    The  petticoat,  which 

Beaches  down  from  the  hips  to  the  ankles,  must  be  thoroughly 

Psmooth  and  clean,  and  the  apron,  which  is  worn  under  it,  is  as 

spotless  as  the  mider-clothing  of  a  European  lady.    Their  Lair  ia 

woven  by  professional  hair-dressers  into  braids  of  variou*  shapes, 

without  gn*ase  and  usually  without  omamonta,  although  a  woman 

Las  occasionally  found  who  wears  a  string  of  beads  ;  ';er 

Riead.    The  dressing  usually  lasts  for  a  week,  and  is  l' -,;  at 

night  in  a  cloth  for  protection.  It  is  also  a  part  of  the  hair- 
dresser's business,  which  is  carried  on  in  the  <ill  ont 
the  lady's  eyelashes.  A  string  of  pearls  or  8<^':'  uament 
of  European  origin  is  worn  around  the  neck.  The  Bhoulders, 
breast,  and  belly  are  covered  with  omamenta*  *  "'  in  red 
and  blue,  apparently  centering  at  the  navel.  1  itBea  of 
ivory  or  metallic  rings  are  worn  upon  the  wrists  and  ankles. 

The  principal  musical  instrument  is  the  drum,  or  c7fr-'-    -^-ir^h 
is  made  from  a  hollowed  log.     It  has  a  slot  alone  thp  <I  ij^ 

its  length,  which  is  unevenly  divided  by  a  bri*'  •  -j^  it,  on 

which  the  drumstick  is  beat  to   produce  diil .^-iua,     Tb« 

mufiio  is  at  first  monotonous  enough  to  the  oar,  ajui  it  \m  hani  to 
realize  that  the  instrument  is  available  nr  -Wb 

is  its  principal  usa    Thi.*  Cameroons  man  ...:..       ,.  _  .  ^jU 

that  appears  worth  communicatinff.    Tho  next  mmxi  takiB  it  np  i 

n-  '   I !  ■  -preadvpc-  "" 

fv.  ....     i^uage  ha^    ■    ■ 

OUt^  which  the  Cameroons  man  can  imitate  with  his  mouth  or  Imil  I 


4 
4 


LIFE  AT  TEE  CAMEROOXS, 


75 » 


I 


silently  on  bis  breast,  and  tbus  converse  at  bis  convenience  witb 
his  countrymen,  even  in  the  ]>resence  of  wliite  men  who  under-^ 
stand  the*  spoken  language.  The  dnim-t€*legTaph  does  not  cease 
during  the  whole  night,  for  the  Cameroons  man  is  communica- 
tivo  and  has  much  time.  The  drum  ia  also  available  as  an  ingtni- 
ment  to  dance  by.  The  dances  are  quite  different  from  those  of 
the  civilized  world.  The  sexes  being  separated,  there  are  no 
waltzes  or  contru-dauces;  there  are  no  pauses  for  conversation; 
but  the  dancing  lasU  all  day,  and,  when  any  one  gets  tired  of  it, 
he  simply  goes  away  and  rests.  The  x>erformance  presents  a  curi- 
ous scene,  with  two  fellows  beating  on  their  drums  aa  if  wild, 
yet  in  regular  measure,  and  a  company  of  male  or  female  dancers 
in  action  in  front  of  thenu  These  have  disposed  themselves  in  a 
circle,  and  beginning  with  short,  shuffling  8te{)8  to  the  right  and 
left,  gradually  wax  more  lively  in  their  motions  till  the  musclea 
the  legs,  arms,  and  shoulders  are  all  engaged,  and  the  whole 

y  at  last  gets  into  a  condition  of  shaking  and  twisting  that 
no  European  can  imitate.  There  is,  however,  no  jumping,  but  a 
kind  of  singing,  in  which  a  favorite  theme  is  taken  up  by  one  of 
the  musicians  aud  joined  in  by  the  chorus,  which  from  time  to 
time  rises  into  a  regular  bellowing.  This  goes  on  to  the  climax^ 
then  subsides  into  a  calmer  tempo,  while  the  performers  are  gather- 
ing strength  ft)r  a  new  outburst.  The  Cameroons  music  would  be 
tame  without  the  drum.  It  is  therefore  taken  into  the  boat,  where 
the  song  is  performed  in  the  same  fashion  as  at  the  dance.  The 
subjects  of  the  songs  are  various :  sometimes  they  celebrate  the 
beauty  of  the  canoe ;  sometimes  the  good  trade  which  the  singers 
have  made ;  sometimes  scorn  of  their  enemies  or  praise  of  their 
friends ;  aud  sometimes  they  are  of  love.  The  other  musical  in- 
struments are  of  inferior  importance  as  compared  with  the  drum, 
and  include  stringed  instruments  of  various  conRtruction,  in  which 
the  resonance  is  sometimes  strengthened  by  using  a  hollow  gourd 

1 ;  and,  in  King  Bell's  royal  canoe,  a  bell  ami  an  ivory  horn. 
The  Cameroons  man  is  a  most  passionate  trader.  Circum- 
stances compel  the  recognition  of  a  credit  system  between  Euro- 
peans and  the  Duallas.  The  black  comes  to  the  white  man  and 
asks  for  an  advance  ujwn  the  products  which  he  engages  U^  bring. 
When  he  brings  them  he  wants  another  advance,  and,  keeping 
this  up  for  several  years,  he  is  liable  to  get  considerably  behind  in 
the  white  man's  books.  The  Europeans  accordingly  find  it  con- 
venient to**  stop  the  trade"  from  time  to  time,  and  compel  the  na- 
tives to  "  wash  out  their  accounts  "  before  they  will  permit  any 
further  advances.  This  they  do  by  agreement  among  themselves, 
^^reby  the  native  is  debarred  the  opportunity  oi  skipping  from 
jBR  dealer  to  another.  Trade  ia  almost  wholly  by  barter,  in  which 
the  blacks  receive  rice,  tobacco,  spirits,  cloth,  guns,  ammunition. 


'     and 
■  the 


75* 


THE  POPULAR 


salt,  and  knickknacks  in  exchnnge  for  their  palm-oil,  nnta,  an^ 
ivory.  Tlie  Europeans,  of  course,  do  uot  fail  to  make  tixe  bargaiw 
pro6tftble  to  themselves.  The  unit  of  values  is  the  "  kru,"  tiod. 
represents  the  quantity  of  goods  which  the  man  will  receive  for  m 
definite  quantity  of  his  products.  It  is  a  very  indefinite  standard  a 
for  a  kru  of  salt  is  uot  worth  as  much  as  a  kru  of  cloth,  and  thuAi 
it  varies  according  to  the  kind  of  goo<ls  in  question.  It  mi^y  \m 
rated  at  about  twenty  marks  German.  There  are  also  tbo  "  kek,! 
or  the  quarter-kru,  and  the  "bar,"  or  twentieth  of  a  kru  ;  wliencM 
appart^ntly  the  km  may  in  the  l>eginmng  have  repre»oiitod  thai 
English  pound.  j 

The  exchange  of  his  products  keeps  the  Camerooos  man  veryl 
busy.  He  usually  spends  the  day  at  the  factory  in  ' 
For  the  goods  which  he  has  actually  brought  for  the 
of  his  immediate  wants,  he  usually  receives  a  ticket  or  "  book"  J 
and  this  little  paper  is  the  one  thing  in  the  world  for  which  hai 
has  a  real  respect,  and  by  which  he  will  swear.  He  can  not  readj 
it,  but  he  has  learned  that  on  presenting  it  he  will  receive  wbaU 
has  been  promised  hira.    The  mystery  of  this  process  sctenis  X/ty 

^him  a  real  enchantment,  and  he  regards  it  accordingly;  and  Iho 
awe  with  which  it  inspires  him  is  extended  to  all  writing. 

The  objects  offered  in  the  factories  are  not  produced  by  Uiis 
Cameroons  man.  He  is  too  idle  for  that,  and  prefers  to  be  a 
middle-man.  He  buys  the  goods  in  *'  the  bush  "  on  such  terma  as 
to  give  him  a  tremendous  profit  in  the  whole  transaction.  In  fact,j 
he  cheats  the  bushman,  and  because  of  It  conceives  a  great  ci 

,  tempt  for  him,  which  he  expresses  by  calling'  every  one  whom  he 

'  regards  oe  dull  a  bushmam 

From  time  to  time  the  Cameroons  man  leaves  bis  home,  pi 
visions  his  canoe,  and,  taking  some  of  his  wive-s  with  him,  ir  ^ 
by  his  slaves  into  the  bush,  where  he  has  his  appointfvl 
posts  and  purveyors.    When  his  boat  or  boats  are  i  nH 

turns  to  the  Cameroons  in  grand  style,  and  celebrates  ii^^  v*.wl  oCj 
his  expedition  with  a  feast.  I 

The  Cameroons  man  is  also  a  S]  :  on  the  water.    The 

canoe  is  an  exceedingly  uustalile  cralL  .  ..  .lu  inexperienced  niaaJ 
is  trying  to  manage  it,  but  the  blacks  handle  it  with  greftt  «kiil, 

.and,  whether  it  be  a  large  boat  c        "    -  many  perpons  («omo  of] 

them  have  capacity  for  sixty),  »  i  Vtr  Mmaelf  alorns  b«  pro- 

pels it  swiftly,  safely^  and  accurately.    A  canoe  Akimming  uTcrj 

^©  water  in  the  panoply  of  war  oflfersan  attrai^t^  '  '     ^^ 

"i>oats  are  handftomel}^  paintt-d  in  gay  colors,  aiv 
figure-heads,  chielly  representing  birda  or  men,  or  <  ofi 

fancy.    The  crew  sit  on   the  fri'^^^  "i"-'  '—  -  ■'  -*   ^  ■  -"" 

Ltnanipulations  of  the  paddles,  wh ' 

the  end  of  the  haadle,  and  the  other  ciumt  down  by  tite  blade ;  aadJ 


LIFE  AT  TBS  CAMSROOI^S. 


753 


r 


Uioy  pride  themselves  on  the  figures  and  tricks  they  can  execute 
with  it.  The  boatineu  in  these  war-vessels  delight  in  arraying,, 
themselves  with  warlike  emblems — helmets  of  goat-skin,  guns  oi 
all  kinds  except  good  ones,  swords,  and  bush-knivea  While  the 
war  vessels  are  highly  adorned,  the  trading  vessels  and  those  in 
common  use  are  plain. 

On  account  of  their  lack  of  industry,  the  Cameroons  peoph 
make  very  few  articles  beyond  what  are  necessary  for  their  own 
use;  and  it  is  therefore  hard  to  obtain  a  8atisfactoi*y  collection  of 
their  products.  If  they  could  be  taught  to  apply  themselves  to 
anything,  they  would  make  most  excellent  wood-carvers.  The 
figure-heads  and  models  of  their  canoes,  and  their  chairs,  are  very 
fine.  They  make  handsome  mats  and  bags  of  bast.  Tlteir  fishiuj 
neta  and  lines  do  them  credit.  Carved  canos  of  ebony  and  cala- 
baahes  are  harder  to  procure.  An  ivory*cutter  drives  a  good  busi- 
ness in  making  walking-sticks  for  persona  of  means,  The  gar- 
dens, in  which  banana-trees  and  yams  are  the  most  important 
plants,  are  taken  care  of  by  the  women,  who  also  look  after  the 
eggs,  committing  the  sale  of  them  to  the  young  people.  Tlio 
youthful  salesmen  drive  their  trade  at  the  factories  and  the  ships. 
The  buyer  very  carefully  tests  all  the  eggs,  selecting  the  good 
ones,  which  are  usually  not  in  very  large  proportion  to  the  whole 
number,  and  the  seller  takes  his  pay  and  goes  with  the  rojoctod' 
eggs  to  the  next  customer.  He  takes  the  best  be  can  find  out  of 
the  lot,  and  the  seller  goes  on  till  he  generally  manages  to  dispose^ 
of  most  of  his  stock.  Sometimes  a  chicken  i)ecks  through  the  eg^ 
shell  while  the  bargain  is  going  om  This  vexes  the  Europeai 
but  is  very  enjoyable  to  the  native  ;  for  are  we  not  fond  of  teasinj 
thoso  we  love  ?  Tlio  ogg-raercbant  uses  his  mouth  for  a  poi 
mounoie,  and  puts  coin  after  coin  into  it ;  when  he  has  to  mak< 
change,  he  spits  his  fund  into  his  band,  and  picks  out  the  need* 
six-  and  three-penny  pieces. 

The  people  also  keep  goats,  which  they  eat  and  Europeans  do] 
not;  Bwine,  whose  flesh  Europeans  reject;  in  the  intt^rior,  very' 
small  cows,  which  furnish  good  meat;  dogs;  and  in  the  way  of 
pots,  parrots,  monkeys,  chameleons,  and  crabs. — Translated  for  the 
Popular  Science  MonDdy  from  Das  Ausland, 


Thb  report  of  tbo  BrttlBb  Rofiil  EdacatioD  Gommiynon  luwonies  tliat  \t  the 
object  of  elotueatary  eduoatioa  be  tho  flttiag  of  papiU  ia  gODcral  for  tbos« 
daiiM  which  thej  will  roost  probftbly  bo  oaWgA  on  to  perform,  infftraotion  In  Mi- 
•noe  U  only  second  in  hnportanco  to  instraction  Id  reading,  writing,  and  arHh- 
OMCla  The  Boandnew  of  this  riew  is  Uliutrntcd  bj  the  fact,  alfio  declarrd  in  the 
report,  that  Uio  preponderaficu  of  opinion  aiiKHip  ibc*  tcm  Lcrs  examined  U  thut  tiu 
atibjeot  u  hotter  calvolatod  to  awakon  the  iutcroat  miil  iDColUgODoc  of  the  {iti;  tin 
thftD  adenee. 

fOL.  XIXT. — 18 


S4 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLV. 


bat. 


EVOLUTION  AS  TAUGHT  IN  A  THEOLOGICAL      ■ 
SEMINARY.  I 

^  Br  BOLLO  OOD£N.  ^^H 

AT  tlie  time  of  the  last  hearing  of  the  case  of  Prof.  Woodrow 
befon?  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Southern  Presbyteriaa  ■ 
Church,  at  Baltimore,  many  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  students  em*^ 
braced  the  opportunity  of  a  lifetime  to  listen  to  the  expositions  of 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  made  by  so  many  of  the  divines  of  thatj 
gathering.    It  is  said  that  inextinguishable  laughter  was  excit< 
among  these  young  men  by  their  learning  how  greatly  their  i] 
competent  professors  had  misled  them  as  to  what  evolution  really' 
was  and  meant.   It  is  not  often  that  a  theologian  can  stop  to  afford 
ffuch  enlightenment  to  the  inquirer  in  science ;  and,  when  he  does, 
it  is  an  obvious  duty  for  one  finding  such  priceless  light  hiddt 
under  a  bushel  to  discover  it  to  the  world. 

The  bushel,  in  the  case  in  hand,  is  the  two  volumes  of  "  Dc( 
matic  Theology/*  recently  published  by  Prof.  Shedd,  of  Uiii< 
Theological  Seminary,  embodying  the  lectures  which  he  gives  in 
that  institution ;  and  the  little  candle  which  would  surely  CAst  its 
beams  far  in  this  naughty  world  if  really  given  a  chance  to  fehine, 
is  the  exposition  and  annihilation  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  as 
given  in  the  chapter  on  "  Creation/*  vol.  i,  pp.  499-516.  The  pro^ 
fessor  opens  the  discussion  by  admitting  that  there  is  a  "trudj 
evolution,"  This  whets  curiosity,  until  it  is  explained  to  be  the 
individual  development  of  an  organism  from  its  embryo, 
being  the  only  "  true  "  evolution,  all  other  kinds  are,  of  coui 
false,  and  accordingly  are  labeled  forthwith  "  pseudo-evolution, 
under  the  burden  of  which  eminently  calm  and  philosophical  epi* 
thet  they  have  to  stagger  all  through  the  subsequent  pages.  A 
better  name,  however,  could  not  be  devised  to  fit  that  carioatui 
of  the  theory  which  Dr.  Shedd  sets  himself  to  explain  before 
futing.  It  is  probably  unwitting  caricature ;  the  professor  is 
unconscious  humorist.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  charitable  to  sup] 
that  he  jumbles  up  several  different  theories  into  one  throuj 
ignorance.  It  would  be  hard  to  excuse,  on  any  other  ground, 
identifying  the  views  of  Darwin  with  those  of  Spencer  ant 
Haeckel,  Chauncey  Wright  long  ago  pointed  out  the  great  dif- 
ferences between  those  writers.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
general  theorizings  of  the  last  two,  it  is  clear  that  their  methtnl  is 
not  the  patiently  inductive  one  of  Darwin.  They  are  wide-rang- 
ing philosophers  and  rigid  systematizers.  Darwin  was  the  most 
matter-of-fact  and  plotlding  naturalist,  who  dreaded  of  all  tl 
getting  his  feet  off  the  earth.    He  felt  himself  lost  once  out 


e  tne 

Thi4- 

furaa 

ion^V 

leniS 


things 
>ut  ofl 


^^m     EVOLtTTTOir  jy  a    TUEOLOOtCAL   SEMINARY.     755 

eight  of  facts.  His  "books  fxirnish  the  best  examples  of  careful 
induction  the  world  has  seen,  and  it  is,  of  course,  for  that  reason 
that  they  have  had  such  iranionse  influence,  and  that  he  gave  an 
indestructible  life  to  that  cautioiia  working  theory  of  evolution 
which  is  to-day  the  presupposition  of  all  the  beet  work  in  natural 

^  science. 

H  But  Prof.  Shedd  leaves  all  this  out  of  the  account,  and  knows 
of  no  evolution  which  does  not  mean  the  change  of  a  mineral  into 
a  vegetable,  and  f>f  a  vegetable  into  an  animal.  "  Evolution,"  he 
says,  "is  not  a  mere  change  of  form  but  of  matter."    It  is  true  he 

■  recurs  frequently  to  Darwin  and  his  specific  views,  but  you  can 
never  be  sure  that  he  will  not  fly  off  to  his  favorit-e  Haeckel  even 
when  apparently  farthest  from  him.    This  process  of  mixing  up 
distinct  tilings  makes  it  easy  for  a  disputant,  when  persecuted  in 
one  city,  to  flee  into  another,  but  does  not  much  help  one  who  is 
after  the  facts. 
^m        This  confusion  can  be  forgiven,  however,  for  the  sake  of  the 
f  doctor's  great  lucidity  when  he  comes  to  state  the  objections  to 
evolution.    Here  you  always  know  what  he  means.    We  can  not 
'       follow  him  all  through  his  enumeration  of  the  difficulties  which 
B  the  theory  has  to  encounter,  but  will  allude  to  those  which  are  the 
most  novel.    The  first  gun  ho  fires  off  is  formidable  enough :  "  The 

I  first  objection  to  the  theory  of  pseudo-evolution  is  that  it  is  con- 
tradicted by  the  whole  course  of  scientific  observation  and  experi- 
ment It  is  a  theory  in  the  face  of  facts,"  Tliat  is  certainly  a 
serious  objection,  and  one  wonders  that  it  had  never  occurred  to 
any  of  the  scientists  who  have  looked  into  this  matter.    It  is  but 

(another  instance  of  the  value  of  a  new  point  of  view.  In  fact,  the 
thing  Rpi>e4ir8  to  l»e  mostly  intuitive  with  Prof.  Shedd  (and,  of 
course,  for  that  rea.son  all  the  more  certain  ;  he  stands  by  the  in- 
tuitive philosophy),  for  he  advances  slight  evidence  for  the  state- 
ment we  have  tjuote<l ;  tlie  gist  of  what  he  says  being  that  he 
H  never  heard  of  a  pigeon  being  developed  out  of  a  cabbage  or  a 
™  piece  of  quartz,  nor  of  its  developing,  on  the  other  hand,  into  a 
horse.  It  would  bo  a  brazen  theory  that  could  hold  up  its  head 
|ta  after  such  an  objection,  but  the  professor  seems  to  fear  that  evo- 
H  lution  needs  to  be  slain  at  least  twice,  and  so  he  fires  a  second 
H  fatal  shot:  "This  objection  is  proved  to  bo  true  by  the  failure  of 
H  the  theory  to  obtain  general  currency."  He  means  Darwinism 
^^noWj  for  all  the  t-estiraony  which  he  cites  bears  on  that  theory, 
^■■■ib  is  his  main  tower  of  strength.  The  views  of  a  man  who 
^^Q^raxteen  years  ago  may  be  thought  to  have  little  to  do  with 
H  what  is  now  "  general  currency,"  but  that  is  nothing  beside  the 
H  witness  of  Haeckel  himself.  Out  of  its  own  mouth  Dr.  She<ld  will 
^1  judge  evolution.  He  cit<?3  a  passage  from  "  Creation  "  in  which 
^H  the  German  rails  at  the  French  for  not  accepting  Darwinism,  and 


756 


TffB  POPULAR  SaiEyCE  MONTHLY, 


J 


Bays  that  even  among  his  own  countrymen  are  to  be  found  many 
doubters.     It  is  scarcely  worth  mentioning  that  this  book  wj 
written  twenty-one  years  ago,  only  uino  yeai*9  after  the  appeal 
ance  of  the  "  Origin  of  Species,"  for  it  is  one  of  Prof.  Shedd's 
principles  that  a  proof -text  is  a  proof-text,  no  matter  where  yoi 
find  it.    Besides,  it  is  exposition,  not  comment,  that  we  are  at  ji 
now. 

"  If  the  doctrine  be  true,  it  should  be  supported  like  that 
gravitation  by  a  multitude  of  undisputed  facts  and  phenomena,' 
The  implication  is  that  it  is  not  so  supported,  and  that  is  pretl 
tough  on  the  libraries  full  of  books  like  MuUor's  "  Facts  for  Dar-"^ 
win."    Prof.  Shedd  takes  it  very  unkindly  of  Darwin  that  he  never 
eicactly  defined  a  species.    Considering  that  that  is  one  of  tbd 
things  that  Darwin  said  he  was  perfectly  unable  to  do,  and  than 
this  very  fact  led  him  to  believe  that  there  was  something  mighty 
queer  about  sf^ecies  anyhow,  it  does  seem  rather  hard  to  bring 
up  against  him  now.    "  Evolution,"  adds  the  professor,  "  conflicj 
with  the  certainty  of  natural  science."    If  it  is  true,  it  is  the  intro- 
duction of  chance  into  nature.    Anything  may  happen  from  any^ 
thing.    This  is  clear,  for  th©  evolutionists  themselves  say  thi 
"variations  are  accidental."    Poor  Darwin!  after  all  his  paina] 
and  endless  iteration,  tliere  it  goes — "  accidentaL"    One  of  the  m( 
tiresome  things  in  his  books  is  his  constant  crying  out, "  Noi 
mind  you,  when  I  say  accidental,  I  mean  according  to  laws  thi 
are  not  yet  discovered.'*    But,  after  all,  here  is  an  order  of  min< 
for  which  he  ought  to  have  said  it  twice  as  many  times. 

The  embryological  argument  for  evolution  attains  the  higl 
honor  of  being  admitted  to  be  "plausible";  but  it  is  immediately 
and  severely  added  that  this  is  just  the  place  to  apply  the  maxii 
"Judge  not  by  the  outward  appearance."    Naturally,  Prof.  Sheil( 
is  strong  on  design :  "  The  abundant  proof  of  design  in  nati 
overthrows  the  theory  of  evolution.    This  design  is  executed  ev« 
in  an  extreme  manner.    The  mammas  on  man's  breast  and  tl 
web-feet  of  the  upland  goose  show  that  the  plan  of  structure 
carried  out  with  persistence  even  when  in  particular  circum- 
stances there  is  no  use  for  the  organ  itself."    If  that  is  hyper-j 
borean  science,  it  is  dangerously  near  Hibernian  logic,  and  ougl 
to  be  called  the  argument  from  the  usefulness  of  useless  things. 

But  it  is  really  impossible  to  keep  up  the  pretense  of  taking' 
Prof.  Shedd's  arguments  against  evolution  seriously.  Even  ono 
who  has  read  in  the  subject  as  little  as  the  writer  has  can  not  buti 
see  that  this  theologian,  in  attempting  to  refute  the  arguments  oJ!l| 
the  evolutionists,  does  not  know  what  those  arguments  are.  Takd 
one  sentence  of  his :  "  If  evolution  be  true,  man  may  evolve  inta 
ape  as  well  as  ape  into  man."  It  would  not  be  possible  to  con  J 
struct  a  single  sentence  containing  a  more  complete  misapprehenJ 


1 


'  EVOLUTION  IN  A   THEOLOGICAL  SEm^^^iRT,     757 

flion  of  evolutionary  doctrine.  Evolution  does  not  ussertp  it  de- 
nies that  ape  evolves  into  man.  Evolution  undertakes  t-o  show 
why  it  19  perfectly  imiwesiblo  that  man  should  ever  evolve  into 
ape.  Prof.  Shedd  onglit  to  know  this,  or,  if  he  does  not,  he  ought 
to  refrain  from  attacking  what  lie  does  not  undorBtand.  Tliere  is 
a  nxiaprint  in  one  of  his  pngeH  which  is  highly  significant.  Ho 
speaks  of  Darwin's  work  on  "insectivorous  animals"!  A  mis- 
jtrint,  of  course,  yet  how  characteristically  a  sign  that  the  author 
wxis  moving  about  in  a  world  not  realizwl  when  he  wrote  those 
pages  ]  A  scientist  reading  proof,  with  a  spark  of  vitality  left  in 
him,  could  no  more  have  passed  over  that  blunder  than  Prof, 
Shedd  could  have  pansed  over  a  careless  expre8sif)n  which  might 
have  implied  that  lie  believed  the  mercy  of  God  was  of  equal  rank 
with  his  justice.  In  one  case  as  in  the  other  the  thing  would 
have  seemed  so  horrible  a  mistake  that  instinct  without  intellect 
would  Imve  prevented  its  finally  getting  printe<l.  ^ 

The  worst  of  it  is  that  there  is  no  reason  whatever  to  suspect 
Dr.  Shedd's  perfect  honesty  in  all  this.  When  he  says  that  evo- 
lution has  failed  to  obtain  general  currency,  ho  undoubtwlly  be- 
lieves it.  Evidence  to  the  contrary  he  either  has  not  road  or  has 
not  weighed.  If  he  were  to  see  what  Romanes  says  in  his  latest 
book,  and  says  wholly  in  passing,  wholly  as  a  matter  of  course, 
tliat  there  is  not  living  a  naturalist  of  note  who  ia  not  an  evolu- 
tionist, he  would  probably  be  greatly  surprised.  If  he  wore  to 
read  the  evidence  gathered  a  few  yeara  ago  by  the  **  Independent/' 
and  recently  by  the  "Christian  Union,"  going  to  show  that  evo- 
lution underlies  the  scientific  teaching  of  all  our  loading  colleges, 
he  would  probably  be  greatly  alarmed,  I  repeat  that  Prof.  Shedd 
is  undoubtedly  entirely  honest  in  his  ignorance ;  and  I  say  that 
that  is  the  worst  of  it,  because  it  lends  the  influence  of  his  highi 
character  and  great  learning  and  unusual  ability  to  the  spread  of 
erroneous  and  disastrous  beliefs. 

Narrr»wly  considered,  it  is  in  reality  a  conspicuous  and  crown-] 
ing  t(.*stimony  to  the  place  which  evolution  has  taken  in  the^ 
thought  of  the  world,  that  Prof.  Sheild  should  have,  at  la«t,  taken 
up  the  cudgels  aguinst  it.  It  is  like  exerting  influence  back  into 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  a  doctrine  of  the  nineteenth  cent- 
ury, making  such  a  din,  cutting  up  so  much  of  the  inherited 
theology  by  the  roots,  tbat  Turretin  looks  out  uneasily  from  his 
grave  to  see  what  the  row  is  all  about.  Such  a  remark  is  in  the 
line  of  what  the  professor  considers  the  highest  compliment.  He 
prefers  to  bo  known  as  scholastic.  A  student  who  listened  to  a 
year's  lectures  from  him,  a  decade  ago,  reported  that  but  two 
llsoolcB  writt  -iry  were  referred  to— and,  as  one  of, 

hllflee  "was  1  'gy/'  that,  as  the  student  admitted, 

redooed  the  number  to  one.    The  writer  heard  the  late  President 


TEE  FOj 


SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


Sturtevant,  of  Dlinois  College,  narrate  an  experience  of  his  own 
with  Prof.  Shedd,  which,  as  the  story  was  told  in  general  com- 
pany, may  be  referred  to  without  any  violation  of  confidGnce.  It 
was  many  years  ago  that  he  and  Prof.  Shedd  went  in  compaay 
from  Andover  to  Boston,  each  intending  to  preach  in  a  Boston 
pulpit  on  the  following  Sunday.  They  returned  on  the  same  traiu, 
Monday  morning. 

"  I  don't  know  how  it  was  with  you,  professor,"  said  President 
Sturtevant, "  but,  for  myself,  I  certainly  felt  like  laying  unusual 
stress  on  evangelical  doctrine  yesterday,  preaching  in  Boston 
where  so  many  loose  theories  are  afloat."  And  Prof.  Shedd  replied : 
"  I  really  don't  know  anything  about  that.  I  never  read  books  of 
that  class.  All  these  inHdel  arguments  were  so  much  better  put 
by  the  writers  of  the  seventeenth  century."  To  have  pierced 
through  such  an  armor  is  a  great  achievement,  and  the  counter- 
attack of  the  professor  is  in  reality,  as  has  been  said,  a  supreme 
proof  of  the  immense  influence  now  gained  by  evolutionary  doc- 
trine— a  sort  of  rueful  cry,  "  Thou  hast  conquered,  O  Evolution ! " 

Such  complete  failure  to  understand  the  great  contribution  to 
knowledge  and  speculation  made  by  the  theory  of  evolution  can 
not  but  have  a  most  deplorable  influence  when  found  in  one  occu- 
pying so  prominent  a  chair  of  instruction  in  so  prominent  an  insti- 
tution. A  fair  proportion  of  Prof.  Shedd's  students  come  from 
colleges  where  they  have  been  taught  to  regard  evolution  as  one 
of  the  settled  things.  They  must  come  out  from  their  lectures  in 
Union  Seminary  either  dazed  or  indignant.  Others,  of  course, 
who  have  either  taken  a  short  cut  to  the  ministry,  or  have  ha*l 
their  only  education  in  some  ecclesiastically  controlled  school 
where  they  have  met  no  competent  teacher  of  natural  science, 
take  in  all  that  they  are  told  on  this,  as  on  other  subjects,  and  go 
out  to  swell  the  number  of  ministers  who  know  nothing  of  the 
revolution  wrought  in  human  thoiight  in  the  past  thirty  years. 
They  are  the  men  who  do  all  they  can  (of  course  unwittingly)  to 
make  Christian  belief  an  impossibility  to  a  large  class  of  intelli- 
gent and  educated  yoimg  men.  One  of  that  class  came  to  his  pas- 
tor, not  long  ago,  and  said :  "  I  was  at  the  meeting  of  the  Be- 
nighted Presbytery  last  week,  and  they  were  talking  about  evolu- 
tion as  a  very  dangerous  thing,  and  finally  passed  a  resolution 
condemning  it,  I  thought  that  everybody  accepted  evolution." 
That  young  Presbyterian  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard,  and  learned 
of  Prof.  Gray  (who,  by  the  way,  is  a  Balaam  whom  Prof.  Shedd 
in  delightful  innocence  summons  to  curse  evolution)  to  reconcile 
evolution  with  theistic  and  even  Christian  belief,  and  was  not 
unnaturally  surprised  at  running  up  against  a  chunk  of  the  last 
century. 

It  would  be  wholly  unfair  to  give  the  impression  that  such 


TffS  ART  OF  PROLOXaryO  LIFE. 


7S9 


I 


treatment  of  evolution  as  Prof.  Shodd's  is  the  rognlar  thing  in 
our  theological  seminaries.    In  a  few  of  them  there  is  a  frank 
acceptance  of  the  main  positions  of  evolutionary  teaching ;  in 
many  of  them  there  is  a  growing  care  not  to  antagonize  evolution 
as  flatly  as  was  once  customary,  and  to  lay  down  theological 
propositions  which  would  not  be  entirely  swept  away  if  it  should 
turn  out  that  evolution  should  finally  have  to  be  admitted  to  be 
^m   established^    Archbishop  Whately  u»ed  to  say  that  the  attitude 
^  of  the  clergy  to  new  scientific  doctrines  was  marked  by  three  defi- 
nite stages :  "  At  first  they  say, '  It  is  ridiculous  * ;  then  they  aflirmy 
^  '  It  is  contra/iictod  by  the  Bible ' ;  at  lost  they  declare,  *  We  always 
B  believed  it.'"    All  these  stages  are  represented  in  the  teaching  of 
the  seminaries — to  which  one  Union  should  be  assigned  may  be 
inferred  from  what  has  gone  before.    It  will  certainly  not  be 
Prof.  Shedfi'd  fault  if  the  institution  which  he  serves  does  not 
prove  to  be  the  one  to  come  to  mind  as  the  best  illustration  of 
Horace  Bushnell's  remark  :  "  Some  theological  seminaries  are  not 
only  behind  the  age,  but  behind  all  ages." 

H  n^HE  doctrine  that  a  short  life  is  a  sign  of  divine  favor  has 
H  J-  never  been  accepted  by  the  majority  of  mankind.  Philoso- 
phers have  vied  with  each  other  in  depicting  the  evils  and  mis- 
eries incidental  to  existence,  and  the  truth  of  their  descriptions 
H  has  often  been  sorrowfully  admitte<l,  but  they  have  failed  to  dis- 
I  lodge,  or  even  seriously  diminish,  that  desire  for  long  life  which 
has  been  deeply  implanted  within  the  hearts  of  men.  The  ques- 
tion whether  life  be  worth  living  has  been  decided  by  a  majority 
far  too  great  to  admit  of  any  doubt  upon  the  subject,  and  the 
voices  of  those  who  would  fain  reply  in  the  negative  are  drowned' 
amid  the  chorus  of  assent.  Longevity,  indeed,  has  come  to  be, 
regarded  as  one  of  the  grand  prizes  of  human  existence,  and^ 
reason  has  again  and  agaui  suggested  the  inquiry  whether  care  i 
or  skill  can  increase  the  chauceB  of  acquiring  it,  and  can  make 
old  age»  when  granted,  as  comfortable  and  happy  as  any  other 
stage  of  our  existence. 

From  very  early  times  the  art  of  prolonging  life,  and  the  sub- 
ject of  longe\nty,  have  engaged  the  attention  of  thinkers  and 
essayists;  and  some  may  perhaps  contend  that  these  topic-s, 
admitteflly  full  of  interest,  have  been  thoroughly  exhausted.  It 
is  true  that  the  art  in  question  has  long  been  recognized  and  prac- 
ticed, but  the  science  upon  which  it  really  depends  is  of  quite  mod- 


THE  ART  OF  PROLONGING  LIFE. 
Bt  Db.  bobson  boose. 


760 


SCIENCE 


em  origin-  New  facts  connected  with  longevity  have,  moreover, 
been  collected  within  the  last  few  years,  and  some  of  these  I  pro- 
pose to  examine,  and  further  to  inquire  whether  they  teach  us 
any  freeh  means  whereby  life  may  be  maintained  and  prolonged. 

But,  Ixjfore  entering  upon  the  inamediate  subject,  there  are 
Beveral  preliminary  questions  which  demand  a  brief  examination, 
and  the  first  that  suggests  itself  is,  What  is  the  natural  duration 
of  human  life  ?  This  oft-repeated  question  has  received  many  dif- 
ferent answers ;  and  inquiry  hiis  been  stimulated  by  skepticism  as 
to  their  truth.  The  late  Sir  George  Comewall  Lewis  expressed  the 
opinion  that  one  hundred  years  must  be  regarded  as  a  limit  which 
very  few,  if  indeed  any,  human  beings  succeed  in  reaching,  and 
be  supported  this  view  by  several  cogent  reasons.  He  pointed 
out  that  almost  all  the  alleged  instances  of  abnormal  longevity 
occurred  among  the  humbler  classes,  and  that  it  was  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  obtain  any  exact  infoi-mation  as  to  the  date  of 
birth  and  to  identify  the  individuals  with  any  written  statements 
that  might  be  forthcoming.  He  laid  particular  stress  upon  the 
fact  that  similar  instances  were  altogether  absent  among  the 
higher  classes,  with  regard  to  whom  trustworthy  documentary 
evidence  was  almost  always  obtainable.  He  thought  that  the 
higher  the  rank  the  more  favorable  would  the  conditions  be  for 
the  attainment  of  a  long  life.  In  this  latter  supposition,  however, 
Sir  George  Lewis  was  probably  mistaken :  the  comforts  and  lux- 
uries appertaining  to  wealth  and  high  social  rank  are  too  often 
counterbalanced  by  cares  and  anxieties,  and  by  modes  of  living 
inconsistent  with  the  maintenance  of  health,  and  therefore  with 
the  prolongation  of  life.  In  the  introduction  to  his  work  on 
"  Human  Longevity,"  Easton  says, "  It  is  not  the  rich  or  great  .  .  . 
that  become  old,  but  such  as  use  much  exercise,  are  exjx>sed  to 
the  fresh  air,  and  whose  food  is  plain  and  moderate — as  farmers, 
gardeners,  fishermen,  laborers,  soldiers,  and  such  men  as  perhaps 
never  employed  their  thoughts  on  the  means  used  to  promote 
longevity." 

The  French  naturalist,  Buffon,  believed  that,  if  accidental 
causes  could  be  excluded,  the  normal  duration  of  human  life 
would  be  between  ninety  and  one  hundred  years,  and  he  sug- 
gested that  it  might  be  measured  (in  animals  as  well  as  in  man) 
by  the  period  of  growth,  \<i  which  it  stocKl  in  a  certain  j>roportion. 
He  imagined  that  every  animal  might  live  for  six  or  seven  times 
as  many  years  as  were  requisite  for  the  completion  of  its  growth. 
But  this  calculation  is  not  in  harmony  with  facts,  so  far,  at  least, 
as  man  is  concerned.  His  period  of  growth  can  not  be  estimated 
at  less  than  t^venty  j^ears;  and  if  we  take  the  lower  of  the  two 
multipliers,  we  get  a  number  which,  in  the  light  of  modem  eW* 
dence,  can  not  be  accepted  as  attainable.    H  the  period  of  growth 


I 


I 


TITS  Anr  OF  PROLON'GISO  LIFE. 


76» 


ft 
I 


¥ 


bo  multiplied  by  five,  the  result  will  in  all  probability  not  be  far 
from  the  truth. 

If  we  seek  historical  evidence,  and  from  it  attempt  to  discover 
the  extreme  limit  of  human  life,  we  are  puzzled  at  the  difFereuces 
in  the  agea  said  to  have  been  attainetl.  The  longevity  of  the 
antediluvian  jiatriarchft  when  contrasted  with  our  modem  expe- 
rience seems  incredible.  When  we  look  at  an  individual,  say 
ninety  years  of  age,  taking  even  the  most  favorable  specimen, 
a  prolongation  of  life  to  ten  times  that  number  of  yeai'S  would 
appear  too  absurd  oven  to  droam  about.  There  is  certainly  no 
physiological  reason  wh}'  the  ages  assigned  to  the  patriarchs 
should  not  have  been  attained,  and  it  is  useless  to  discuss  the  sub- 
ject, for  we  know  very  little  of  the  conditions  under  which  they 
livecL  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  after  the  Flood  there  was  a 
gradual  decrease  in  the  duration  of  life.  Abraham  is  recorded  to 
have  died  at  one  hundred  and  6eventy-6ve;  Joshua,  some  five 
hundred  years  later,  "waxed  old  and  stricken  in  age''  shortly 
before  his  death  at  one  hundred  and  ten  years ;  and  his  prede-^ 
cessor,  Moses,  to  whom  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  are  as- 
signed, is  believed  to  have  estimated  the  life  of  man  at  threoHCore 
years  and  ten — a  measure  nowadays  pretty  generally  accepted. 

There  is  no  reason    for  believing  that  the  extreme  limit  of 
human  life  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  differed  materi- 
ally from  that  which  agrees  with  modem  experience.    Stories  of 
■  the  attainment  of  such  ages  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  and 
upward  may  be  placed  in  the  same  category  as  the  reputed  lon- 
gevity of  Henry  Jenkins,  Thomas  Parr,  L#ady  Desmond,  and  a  host 
of  others.    With  regard  to  later  times,  such  as  the  middle  ages, 
there  are  no  precise  data  upon  which  any  statements  can  be  based, 
but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  average  duration  of 
life  was  decidedly  less  than  it  is  at  present.    The  extreme  limit, 
indeed,  three  or  four  centuries  ago,  would  appear  to  have  been 
^^  much  lower  than  it  is  in  the  nineteenth  century.    At  the  request 
^H  of  Mr.  Thorns,  Sir  J.  DuffuH  Hardy  investigated  the  subject  of  the 
^M  longevity  of  man  in  the  thirteexith,  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  six- 
^Bi|tfith  centuries,  and  his  researches  led  him  to  believe  that  per- 
^^^^  seldom  reached  the  age  of  eighty.    He  never  met  wiUi  a 
^■toistworthy  record  of  a  person  who  exceeded  that  age. 
^"        To  bring  the  investigation  down  to  quite  recent  times,  I  can 
not  do  bettor  than  utilize  the  researches  of  Dr.  Humphry,  Pro- 
l^ft  fessor  of  Surgery  at  Cambridge.     In  1886  he  obtained  particulars 
^■relating  to  hfty-two  individuals  then  living  and  said  to  be  one 
^Bhondred  years  old  and  upward.    The  oldest  among  thorn  claimed 
^Bto^'  >  hundnnl  and  six,  while 

^Htht  :  in  one  hundrod  and  two 

^Byuaro.     Many  inturusting   facts  connected  with  the  habits  and 


POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTBLT, 


mode  of  life  of  these  individuals  were  obtained  by  Dr.  Humphry, 
and  will  be  referred  to  in  subsequent  paragraphs. 

A  short  account  of  the  experience  of  a  few  life-assurance 
companies  will  conclude  this  part  of  my  subject.  Mr.  Thorns 
tells  us  that  down  to  1873  the  records  of  the  companies  showed 
that  one  death  among  the  assured  bad  occurred  at  one  hundred 
and  three,  one  in  the  one  hundredth,  and  three  in  the  ninety-ninth 
year.  The  experience  of  the  National  Debt  OflBce,  according  to 
the  same  authority,  gave  two  cases  in  which  the  evidence  could 
, bo  regarded  as  perfect;  one  of  these  died  in  the  one  hundred  and 
^second  year,  and  the  other  had  just  completed  that  number.  In 
the  tables  published  by  the  Institute  of  Actuaries,  and  giving  the 
mortality  experience  down  to  1863  of  twenty  life-assurance  com- 
panies, the  highest  age  at  death  is  recorded  as  ninety-nine ;  and  I 
am  informed  by  the  secretary  of  the  Edinburgh  Life  Office  that 
from  18C3  onward  that  age  had  not  been  exceeded  in  his  experi- 
lence.  In  the  valuation  schedules,  which  show  the  highc^  ages  of 
existing  lives  in  various  offices,  the  ages  range  from  ninety-two 
to  ninety-five.  It  is  true  that  one  office  which  has  a  large  busi- 
ness among  the  industrial  classes  reports  lives  at  one  hundred 
and  three,  nnd  in  one  instance  at  one  hundred  and  seven  ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  among  those  classes  the  ages  are  not 
nearly  so  well  authenticated  as  among  those  who  assure  for  sub- 
stantial sums.  There  is,  moreover,  another  source  of  error  con- 
nected with  the  valuation  schedules.  When  a  given  life  is  not 
considered  to  be  equal  to  the  average,  a  certain  number  of  years  is 
added  to  the  age,  and  the  premium  is  charged  at  the  age  which 
results  from  this  addition.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  in  some 
Leases  the  ages  given  iu  the  schedules  are  greater  by  some  years 
than  they  really  are. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  facts  thus  rapidly  passed  under 
review,  it  must,  I  think,  be  admitted  that  the  natural  limit  of 
human  existence  is  that  assigned  to  it  in  the  book  of  Eccleeiasti- 
ons,  "  The  number  of  a  man's  days  at  the  most  are  an  hundred 
years"  (chapter  x^diL  0).  In  a  very  small  number  of  cases  this 
limit  is  exceeded,  but  only  by  a  very  few  years.  Mr.  Thoms's  in- 
vestigations conclusively  show  that  trustworthy  evidence  of  one 
hundred  and  ten  years  having  been  reached  is  altogether  absent 
Future  generations  will  be  able  to  verify  or  reject  statements  in 
all  alleged  cases  of  longevity.  It  must  be  remembered  that  pre- 
vious to  the  year  1836  there  was  no  registration  of  births,  but 
only  of  baptisms,  and  that  the  registers  were  kept  in  the  churches, 
and  contained  only  the  names  of  those  therein  baptized. 

Whatever  number  of  years  may  be  taken  as  representing  the 
natural  term  of  human  life,  whether  threescore  and  ten  or  a  cent- 
ury be  regarded  as  such,  we  are  confronted  by  the  fact  that  only 


THE  ART  OF  PROLONOINO  LIFE. 


763 


I 
■ 


I 


I 


one  fourth  of  our  population  attains  the  former  age,  and  that  only 
about  fiftt'on  in  one  hundred  thousand  l)ec<>nie  centenarians.  It 
la  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article  to  discuss  the  causes  of  prema- 
ture mortalit}^,  but  the  conditions  favorable  to  longevity,  and  the 
causes  to  which  length  of  days  has  been  assigned,  are  closely  con- 
nected with  its  subject. 

A  capability  of  attaining  old  age  is  very  often  handed  down 
from  one  generati(jn  to  another,  and  heredity  is  probably  the 
most  powerful  factor  in  connection  with  longevity,  A  necessary 
condition  of  reaching  advanced  age  is  the  possession  of  sound 
bodily  organs,  and  such  an  endowment  is  eminently  capable  of 
transmission.  Instances  of  longevity  characterizing  several  gen- 
erations are  frequently  bnjught  to  notice.  A  recent  and  most 
interesting  example  of  transmitted  longevity  is  that  of  the  veteran 
guardian  of  the  public  health.  Sir  Edwin  Chadwick,  who  was 
entertained  at  a  public  dinner  a  few  weeks  ago  on  the  occasiion  of 
his  reaching  his  ninetieth  year.  He  informed  his  enttn'tninors 
that  liis  father  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-four,  his  grandfather  at 
ninety-five,  and  that  two  more  remote  ancestors  were  centenarians. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  influence  of  other  contingencies 
which  affect  longevity.  With  regard  to  sex,  Hufeland's  opinion 
was  that  women  were  more  likely  than  men  to  become  old,  but 
that  instances  of  extreme  longevity  were  more  frequent  among 
men.  This  opinion  is  to  some  extent  borne  out  by  Dr.  Humphry's 
statistics :  of  his  fifty -two  centenarians,  thirty-six  were  women. 
Marriage  would  appear  to  be  conducive  to  longevity,  A  well- 
known  French  savant,  Dr.  Bertillon,  statics  that  a  bachelor  of 
twenty-five  is  not  a  better  life  than  a  married  man  of  forty-five, 
and  ho  attributes  the  difference  in  favor  of  married  people  to  the 
fact  that  they  take  more  care  of  themselves,  and  lead  more  regu- 
lar lives  than  those  who  have  no  .such  tie.  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  that  the  more  fact  of  marrying  indicates  superior 
vitality  and  vigor,  and  the  ranks  of  the  unmarried  are  largely 
filled  by  Uie  physically  unfit. 

In  considering  occupations  as  they  are  likely  to  affect  longev- 
ity, those  which  obviously  tend  to  shorten  life  need  not  he  con- 
sidered. With  respect  to  the  learned  professions,  it  would  appear 
that  among  the  clergy  the  avcrftge  of  life  is  beyond  that  of  any 
eimilar  class.  It  id  improbable  that  this  average  will  be  main- 
tained for  the  future ;  the  duties  and  anxieties  imposed  upon  the 
clergy  of  the  present  genenition  place  them  in  a  very  different 
position  from  that  of  their  predecessors.  Among  lawyers  there 
have  been  several  eminent  judges  who  attained  a  great  age,  and 
'Ilk  and  file  of  the  profession  are  also  characterizeri  by  a 
:  tendency  to  longevity.  The  medical  profession  supplies 
bat  few  insiau<MMS  of  extreme  old  age,  and  the  average  dtiration 


7«* 


THE  POPULAR  SCIEITCE  MONTHLY. 


of  life  among  its  members  is  decidedly  low,  a  fact  which  can  be 
easily  accounted  for.  Broken  rest,  hard  work,  anxieties,  exposure 
to  weather  and  to  the  risks  of  infection  can  not  fail  to  e«ert  an 
injurious  influence  upon  health.  No  definite  conclusions  can  b© 
arrived  at  with  regard  to  the  average  longevity  of  literary  and 
scientific  men,  but  it  might  be  supposed  that  those  among  them 
who  are  not  harassed  by  anxieties  and  enjoy  fair  health  would 
probably  reach  old  age.  As  a  general  rule,  the  duration  of  life  is 
not  shortened  by  literary  pursuits.  A  man  may  worry  himself 
to  death  over  his  books,  or,  when  tired  of  them,  may  seek  recrea- 
tion in  pursuits  destructive  to  health  ;  but  application  to  literary 
work  tends  to  produce  cheerfulness,  and  to  prolong  rather  than 
shorten  the  life  even  of  an  infirm  man.  In  Prof.  Humphry's 
"  Report  on  Aged  Persons,"  containing  an  accoimt  of  eight  hun- 
dred and  twenty-four  individuals  of  both  sexes,  and  between  the 
ages  of  eighty  and  one  hundred,  it  is  stated  that  forty-eight  per 
cent  were  poor,  forty-two  i>er  cent  were  in  comfortable  circum- 
stances^ and  only  ten  per  cent  were  described  as  being  in  affluent 
circumstances.  Dr.  Humphry  points  out  that  these  ratios  "must 
not  be  regarded  as  representing  the  relations  of  poverty  and  afflu- 
ence to  longevity,  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  poor  at  all  ages 
and  in  all  districts  bear  a  large  proportion  to  the  affluent ;  and, 
^  secondly,  the  returns  are  largely  made  from  the  lower  and  middle 
classes,  and  in  many  instances  from  the  inmates  of  union  work- 
houses, where  a  good  number  of  aged  people  are  found."  It  must 
also  be  noticed  that  the  "past  life-history"  of  those  individuals 
6howe<i  that  the  greater  proportion  (fifty-five  per  cent)  "  had  lived 
in  comfortable  circumstances,"  and  that  only  thirty-five  per  cent 
had  been  poor. 

Merely  to  enumerate  the  causes  to  which  longevity  has  been 
attributed  in  attempting  to  account  for  individual  cases  would  be 
a  task  of  some  magnitude ;  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  a  few 
somewhat  probable  theories.  Moderation  in  eating  and  drinking: 
is  often  declared  to  be  a  cause  of  longevity,  and  the  assertion  is 
fully  corroborated  by  Dr.  Humphry's  inquiries.  Of  his  fifty-two 
centenarians,  twelve  wure  recorded  as  total  abstainers  from  alco- 
holic drinks  throughout  life,  or  for  long  periods;  twenty  had 
taken  very  little  alcohol ;  eight  were  reported  as  moderate  in  their 
use  of  it ;  and  only  three  habitually  indulged  in  it.  It  is  quite 
true  that  a  few  persons  who  must  be  classified  as  drunkards  live 
to  be  very  old ;  but  these  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  and 
such  cases  appear  to  be  more  frequent  than  they  really  are,  because 
tliey  are  often  brought  to  notice  by  those  who  find  encourafs^rmeDt 
from  such  examples.  The  habit  of  temperance  in  food,  good 
powers  of  digestion,  and  soundness  of  sleep  are  other  main  char* 
acteristics  of  most  of  those  who  attain  advanced  years,  and  may 


THE  ART  OF  PROLOJ^GIITG  LIFE. 


7«5 


r 
I 


il^ivrded  as  cauBes  of  loDgevity.  Not  a  few  old  x>e^on8  are 
found  on  inquiry  to  take  credit  to  themselvefi  for  their  own  con- 
dition, and  to  attribute  it  to  some  remarkable  peculiarity  in  their 
habits  or  mode  of  life.  It  is  said  that  Lord  Mansfield,  who 
reached  the  age  of  eighty-nine,  was  wont  to  inquire  into  the  hab- 
its i>f  life  of  all  aged  witnesses  who  appeared  before  him,  and  that 
only  in  one  habit,  namely^  that  of  early  rising,  was  there  any 
general  concurrence.  Health  is  doubtless  oft^sn  promoted  by  oarly 
rising,  but  tho  habit  is  not  necessarily  conducive  to  longevity.  It 
is,  as  Sir  H.  Holland  points  out,  more  probable  that  the  vigor  of 
the  individuals  maintains  the  habit  than  that  the  latter  alone 
maintains  the  vitality. 

If  we  pass  from  probable  to  improbable  causes  of  longevity  wo 
are  confronted  by  many  extravagant  assumptions.  Thus,  to  take 
only  a  few  examples,  the  immoderate  use  of  sugar  has  been  re- 
garded not  only  aa  a  panacea,  but  as  decidedly  conducive  to  length 
of  days.  Dr.  Slare,  a  physician  of  the  last  century,  has  reconled 
the  case  of  a  centenarian  who  used  to  mix  sugar  with  all  his  food, 
the  doctor  himself  was  so  convinced  of  the  "balsamic  virtue" 
this  siibstunct^  that  he  adopted  the  practice,  and  boasted  of  his 
health  and  strength  in  his  old  age.  Another  member  of  the  same 
profession  used  to  take  daily  doses  of  tannin  (the  substance  em- 
ployed to  harden  and  preserve  leather),  under  tho  impression  that 
the  tissues  of  the  body  would  be  thereby  protected  from  decay. 
His  life  was  protracted  beyond  the  ordinary  span,  but  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  the  tannin  aote<l  in  the  desired  direction.  Lord 
bermero  thought  that  his  good  health  and  advanced  years 
due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  fact  that  he  always  wore  a  tight 
belt  round  his  waist.  His  lordship*s  appetite  was  doubtless 
thereby  kept  within  bounds ;  wo  are  further  told  that  ho  was  very 
moderate  in  tho  use  of  all  fluids  as  drink.  Cleanliness  might  be 
supposed  to  aid  in  prolonging  life,  yet  a  Mrs.  Lewson,  who  died 
in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  aged  one  hundred  and  six,  must 
liare  been  a  singularly  dirty  person.  We  are  told  that  instead  of 
washing  she  smeared  her  face  with  lard,  and  asserted  that "  people 
who  washed  always  caught  cold."  This  Ia<ly,no  doubt,  was  fully 
persuaded  that  she  had  discovered  the  universal  medicine. 

Many  of  the  alchemists  attributed  the  j^ower  of  prolonging 

[•reparations  of  gold,  probably  under  the  idea  that 

of  the  metal  might  bo  imparted  to  the  human 

r>  favored  such  opinions:  he  told 

!  he  would  not  venture  to  promise 

his  Ufemiglit  be  lengthened  to 


life  toc^-*'* 
tlhe  per: 


ill  excesses  au<l 


rugal  meals. 


nff 


7^ 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEN^CE  MONTHLY. 


I 
I 


Having  thus  endeavored  to  show  the  extent  to  which  human 
life  may  be  prolonged,  and  having  examined  some  of  the  causes 
or  antecedents  of  longevity,  the  last  subject  for  inquiry  is  the 
moans  by  which  it  may  be  attained.  Certain  preliminary  condi- 
tions are  obviously  requisite ;  in  the  first  place  there  must  be  a 
Bound  constitution  derived  from  healthy  ancestors,  and  in  the 
second  there  must  be  a  freedom  from  organic  disease  of  important 
organs.  Given  an  individual  who  has  reached  the  grand  climac- 
teric, or  threescore  and  ten,  and  in  whom  these  two  conditions 
are  fulfilled,  the  means  best  adapted  to  maintain  and  prolong 
his  life  constitute  the  question  to  be  solved.  It  has  been  said  that 
"  he  who  would  long  to  be  an  old  man  must  begin  earlj'"  to  be  one," 
but  very  few  persons  designedly  take  measures  in  early  life  in 
order  that  they  may  live  longer  than  their  fellows. 

The  whole  term  of  life  may  be  divided  into  the  three  main 
periods  of  growth  and  development,  of  maturity,  and  of  decline. 
No  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn  between  these  two  latter 
phases  of  existence :  the  one  should  pass  gradually  into  the  other 
until  the  entire   picture  is   changed.     Diminished  conservative 
power  and  the  consequent  triumph  of  disintegrating  forces  are 
the  prominent  features  of  the  third  period,  which  begins  at  differ- 
ent times  in  different  individuals,  its  advent  being  mainly  con- 
trolled by  the  general  course  of  the  preceding  years.    The  "  turn- 
ing period,"  also  known  as  the  "  climacteric  "  or  "  middle  age,"  lies 
between  forty-five  and  sixty ;  the  period  beyond  may  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  advanced  life  or  old  age.    The  majority  of  the 
changes  characteristic  of  these  hist  stages  are  easily  recognizable; 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  the  wrinkled  skin,  the  furrowed 
face,  the  "  crow's  feet "  beneath  the  eyes,  the  stooping  gait,  and  the 
^Brasting  of  the  frame.     The  senses,  notably  vision  and  hearing, 
^lecome  less  acute ;  the  power  of  digestion  is  lessened ;  the  force 
of  the  heart  is  diminished ;  the  lungs  are  less  i>ermeable ;  many 
of  the  air-cells  lose  their  elasticity  and  merge  into  each  other,  so 
that  there  is  less  breathing  surface  as  well  as  loss  power.     Si- 
multaneously with  these  changes  the  mind  may  present  signs  of  ■ 
enfeeblement ;  but  in  many  instances  its  powers  long  remain  in 
marked  contrast  with  those  of  the  body.    One  fact  connw:i»d  with 
advanced  life  is  too  often  neglected.    It  should  never  be  forgotten  fl 
that  while  the  "  forces  in  use  "  at  that  period  are  easily  exhaiuted,  I 
the  "  forces  in  reserve" are  often  so  slight  as  to  be  unable  to  meet  I 
the  smallest  demand.    In  youth,  the  xnres  in  posse  are  suj)er-  H 
abundant ;  in  advanced  life,  they  are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  fl 
in  some  instances  are  practically  non-existent.    The  recognition  H 
of  this  difference  is  an  all-important  guide  in  laying  down  rules  I 
for  conduct  in  old  age.  ■ 

In  order  to  prolong  life  and  at  the  same  time  to  onjoyjt.  qccu-  ■ 


TEE  ART  OF  PROLOyOiya  LIFE, 


7^ 


pation  of  some  kind  is  absolutely  necessary ;  it  is  a  great  mistake 
to  suppose  that  idleness  is  conducive  to  longevity.  It  is  at  all 
times  better  to  wear  out  than  to  rust  out,  and  the  latter  process  is 
apt  to  be  speedily  accomplished.  Every  one  must  have  met  with 
individuals  who,  while  fully  occupied  till  sixty  or  even  seventy 
years  of  age,  remained  hale  and  strong,  but  aged  with  marvelous 
rapidity  after  relinquishing  work,  a  change  in  their  montAl  condi- 
tion becoming  especially  prominent  There  is  an  obvious  lesson  to 
be  learned  from  such  instances,  but  certain  qualifications  are  neces- 
sary in  order  to  apply  it  proi>erly.  With  regard  to  mental  activity, 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  more  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties are  exercised  the  greater  the  probability  of  their  lasting. 
They  often  become  stronger  after  the  vital  force  has  passed  its 
culminating  point ;  and  this  retention  of  mental  power  is  the  true 
compensation  for  the  decline  in  bodily  strength.  Did  space  per- 
mit, many  illustrations  could  be  adduced  to  show  that  the  power 
of  the  mind  can  be  preserved  almost  unimpaired  to  the  most 
advanced  age.  Even  memory,  the  failure  of  which  is  sometimes 
regarded  as  a  necessary  concomitant  of  old  age,  is  not  infrequently 
preserved  almost  up  to  the  end  of  life.  All  persons  of  middle  age 
should  take  special  pains  to  keep  the  faculties  and  energies  of  the 
mind  in  a  vigorous  condition  ;  they  should  not  simply  drift  on  in 
a  hajvhazard  fashion,  but  should  seek  and  find  pleasure  in  the 
attainment  of  definite  objects.  Even  if  the  mind  has  not  beeni 
especially  cultivated,  or  received  apy  decided  bent,  there  is  at] 
the  present  day  no  lack  of  subjects  on  which  it  can  be  agreeably^ 
and  profitably  exorcised.  Many  sciences  which,  twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago,  were  accessible  only  to  the  few,  and  wore  at  best  a 
somewhat  uninviting  garb,  have  been  rendered  not  merely  intel- 
ligible but  even  attractive  to  the  many ;  and  in  the  domain  of 
general  literature  the  difficulty  of  making  a  choice  among  the 
host  of  allurements  is  the  only  ground  for  complaint.  To  increasOJ 
the  taste  for  these  and  kindred  subjects  is  worth  a  considerable 
effort,  if  such  be  necessary;  but  the  appetite  will  generally  comQ- 
with  the  eating.  The  possession  of  some  reasonable  hobby  which 
can  be  cultivated  indoors  is  a  great  advantage  in  old  age,  and 
there  are  many  pursuits  of  this  character  besides  those  connected' 
with  literature  and  science.  Talleyrand  laid  great  stress  on  a 
knowledge  of  whist  as  indispensable  to  a  happy  old  age,  and 
doubtless  to  many  old  people  that  particular  game  affords  not 
only  recreation  but  a  pleasant  exercise  to  the  mind.  It  is,  how- 
ever, an  unworthy  substitute  for  higher  objects,  and  should  be 
regarded  only  as  an  amusement  and  not  as  an  occupation. 

Whatever  be  the  sphere  of  mental  activity,  no  kind  of  strain 
must  be  put  upon  the  mind  by  a  person  who  has  reached  si,Tty- 
five  or  seventy  years.    The  feeling  that  mental  power  is  less  than 


'62 


TSS  POPULAR  3CTBNCE  MONTHLY' 


I 


it  once  was  not  infrequently  stimulates  a  man  to  increased  exer- 
tions "which  may  provoke  structural  changes  in  the  brain,  and  wi^ 
certainly  accelerate  the  progress  of  any  that  may  exist  in  that  ofl 
gan.  When  a  man  finds  that  a  great  effort  is  required  to  accom- 
plish any  mental  task  that  was  once  easy,  he  should  desist  from  the 
attempt,  and  regulate  his  work  according  to  his  power.  With  this 
limitation,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  mental  facidties 
will  be  far  better  preserved  by  their  exercise  than  by  their  dis 

Somewhat  different  advice  must  be  given  with  regard  to  bodi] 
exercises  in  their  reference  to  longevity.  Exercise  is  essential 
the  preservation  of  health;  inactivity  is  a  potent  cause  of  wasti 
and  degeneration.  The  vigor  and  equality  of  the  circulation,  the 
functions  of  the  skin,  and  the  miration  of  the  blood,  are  all  pi 
moted  by  muscular  activity,  which  thus  keeps  up  a  proper  bi 
ance  and  relation  between  the  important  organs  of  the  body, 
youth,  the  vigor  of  the  system  is  often  so  great  that  if  one  or^ 
be  sluggish  another  part  will  make  amends  for  the  deficiency  bi 
acting  vicariously,  and  without  any  consequent  damage  to  itsel 
In  old  age,  the  tasks  can  not  be  thus  shifted  from  one  organ 
another ;  the  work  allotted  to  each  suflBciently  taxes  its  strength, 
and  vicarious  action  can  not  be  performed  without  mischief 
Hence  the  importance  of  maintaining,  as  far  as  possible,  the  equa^ 
ble  action  of  all  the  bodily  organs,  so  that  the  share  of  the  vital 
processes  assigned  to  each  shall  be  properly  accomplished.  For 
this  reason  exercise  is  an  important  part  of  the  conduct  of  life  in 
old  age;  but  discretion  is  absolutely  necessary.  An  old  man 
should  discover  by  experience  how  much  exercise  he  can  tal 
without  exhausting  his  powers,  and  should  be  careful  never 
exceed  the  limit.  Old  persons  are  apt  to  forget  that  their  staying 
powers  are  much  less  than  they  once  were,  and  that,  while  a  walk 
of  two  or  three  miles  may  prove  easy  and  pleasurable,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  return  journey  of  similar  length  will  seriously  overtax 
the  strength.  Above  all  things,  sudden  and  rapid  exertion  should 
be  scrupulously  avoided  by  persons  of  advanced  age.  The  ma- 
chine which  might  go  on  working  for  years  at  a  gentle  pace  often 
breaks  down  altogether  when  its  movements  are  suddenly  acc< 
erated.  These  cautions  may  appear  superfluous,  but  instances 
which  their  disregard  is  followed  by  very  serious  consequent 
are  by  no  means  infrequent. 

No  fixed  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  kind  of  exercise  most 
suitable  for  advanctwl  age.  Much  must  dejwnd  upon  inilividunl 
circumstances  and  peculiarities ;  but  walking  in  the  ojien  air 
should  always  be  kept  up  and  practiced  daily,  except  in  unfavor- 
able  weather.  Walking  is  a  natural  form  of  exercise  and  eu^ 
serves  many  important  purposes :  not  a  few  old  j>eoplo  owe  tl^ 
maintenance  of  their  health  and  vigor  to  their  daily  "  constitu- 


% 


ten 


Kional/'  Riding  is  an  excellent  form  of  exercise,  but  available 
Only  by  a  few  ;  tbe  babit,  if  acquired  in  early  life,  should  be  kept 
U|>  as  lung  88  iK>s8ible,  subject  to  tbe  caution  already  given  aa  to 
ancient  exercise.  Old  persons  of  both  sexes  fond  of  gardening, 
and  so  situated  that  they  may  gratify  their  tasteSj  are  much  to  bo 
envied.  "  Fortunati  nimium,  sua  si  bona  nOriut!"*  Bo<Iy  and 
mind  are  alike  exercise^l  by  what  Lord  Bacon  justly  termed  "  the 
purest  of  human  pleasures.'*  Dr.  Parkes  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that 
light  garden  or  agricultural  work  is  a  very  good  exercise  for  men 
Ipast  seventy :  "It  calls  into  play  the  musi^les  of  the  abdomen  and 
:,  which  in  old  men  are  often  but  little  used,  and  the  work  is 
Tied  that  no  muscle  is  kept  long  in  action,"  A  few  reraarka 
met  bo  made,  in  conclusion,  with  regard  to  a  new  form  of  exer- 
jcise  sometimes  indulged  in  even  by  elderly  men,  I  allude  to  so- 
jcalled  "  tricycling."  Exhilarating  and  pleasant  as  it  may  be  to 
Iglide  over  the  ground  with  comparatively  little  effort,  the  exer- 
Icise  is  fraught  with  danger  for  men  who  have  passed  the  grand 
klimacteric.  The  temptation  to  make  a  spurt  must  be  often  irre* 
'fiistible ;  hills  must  be  encountered,  some  perhaps  so  smooth  and 
gradual  as  to  reijuire  no  special  exertion,  none,  at  least,  that  is 
noticeii  in  the  triumph  of  surmounting  them.    Now,  if  the  heart 

I  and  lujigH  be  {)erfertly  scmnd,  such  exerciseH  may  be  practiced  for 
Bome  time  with  npinxreni  impunity  ;  but  if  (as  is  very  likely  to  be 
the  case)  these  organs  be  not  quite  structurally  j>erfect,  even  the 
slightest  changes  will,  under  such  excitement,  rapidly  progress 
and  lead  to  very  serious  results.  Exercise  nnsuited  to  the  state 
of  the  system  will  assuredly  not  tend  to  the  prolongation  of  life. 
With  n?gard  t<»  food,  we  iiud  from  Dr.  Hunjphry*s  repftrt  that 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  aged  persons  were  either  **  moderate  "  or 
"small  "  eaters,  and  such  mtxieration  is  quite  in  accord  with  the 
teachings  of  physiology.  In  old  age  the  changes  in  the  bodily 
Htissnes  gradually  become  less  and  less  a<^'tive,  and  less  food  is  re- 
"quired  to  make  np  for  the  daily  waste.  The  appetite  and  the 
V  power  of  digestion  are  correspondingly  diminished,  and  although 
^Kfor  the  attainment  of  a  great  age  a  considerable  amount  of  digest- 
^BSve  power  is  absolutely  necessary,  its  perfection,  when  exercised 
^npon  pro|>er  articles  of  diet,  is  the  most  important  characteristic. 
^■Indulgenco  in  the  plen8ur<»8  of  the  table  is  one  of  the  common 
^krroni  of  advanced  life,  and  is  not  infrequent  in  persons  who,  up 
^■lo  that  period,  wore  moderate  or  even  small  eaters.  Luxuries  in 
^Blhe  way  t)f  foo«l  are  iipt  to  be  regarded  as  rewards  that  have  been 
^HuUy  enrned  by  h  life  of  labor, and  may,  therefore,  be  lawfully  eu- 
^■oyod.  Hence  arise  many  of  the  evils  and  troubles  of  old  age,  and 
^ff  '  ''  ■  ^'  'Ion  and  gouty  8yni[)ionis  in  various  forms,  Ix^sidoa 
^Kr  rt.    No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down,  but 

^^H^^  ^  [Fortuo&i4  Vf^  Riruure  If  tho;  luow  Wuix  own  wlT»otjig««.] 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY. 


strict  moderation  should  be  the  guiding  maxim.  The  diet  suita- 
ble for  most  aged  persons  is  that  which  contains  much  nutritive 
material  in  a  small  bulk,  and  its  quantity  should  be  in  iiroi>ortion 
to  the  appetite  and  power  of  digestion.  Animal  fooil,  well  cooke<I, 
should  be  taken  sparingly  and  not  more  often  than  twice  a  day, 
except  under  special  circumstances.  Dr.  Parkes  advc«rat<*8  riceaa 
a  partial  substitute  for  meat  when  the  latter  is  found  to  disagree 
with  old  persons.  "  Its  starch-grains  are  very  digestible,  and  it 
supplies  nitrogen  in  moderate  amount,  well  fitted  to  the  worn  and 
slowly  repaired  tissues  of  the  aged."  Its  bulk,  however,  is  some- 
times a  disadvantage;  in  small  quantities  it  is  a  valuable  addition 
to  milk  and  to  stewed  fruits. 

The  amount  of  food  taken  should  be  divided  between  three  tir 
four  meals  at  fairly  regular  intervals.  A  sense  of  fullness  or  op- 
pression after  eating  ought  not  to  be  disregarded.  It  indicates 
that  the  f(X»<i  taken  has  been  either  too  abundant  or  of  improper 
quality.  For  ma;iy  elderly  people  the  most  suitable  time  for  the 
principal  meal  is  between  1  and  %  P.  M.  As  the  day  advances  the 
digestive  powers  become  less,  and  oven  a  moderately  substantial 
meal  taken  in  the  evening  may  seriously  overtask  them.  Undi- 
gested footl  is  a  potent  cause  of  disturbe<i  sleep,  an  evil  often  very 
troublesome  to  old  people,  and  one  which  ought  to  be  carefully 
guarded  against. 

It  is  an  easier  task  to  lay  down  rules  with  regard  to  the  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  by  elderly  people,  Tlie  Collective  Investigation 
Committee  of  the  British  Medical  Association  has  lately  issued  a 
"Report  on  the  Connection  of  Disease  with  Habits  of  Intemper- 
ance," and  two  at  least  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  are  worth 
quoting :  "  Habitual  indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors,  l)eyond  the 
most  moderate  amount,  has  a  distinct  tendency  to  shorten  life,  the 
average  shortening  being  roughly  proportional  to  the  degree  of  in- 
dulgence. Total  abstinence  and  habitual  temperance  augment 
considerably  the  chance  of  death  from  old  age  or  natural  decay, 
without  special  pathological  lesion."  Subject,  however,  to  a  few 
exceptions,  it  is  not  advisable  that  a  man  sixty-five  or  seventy 
years  of  age,  who  has  taken  alcohol  in  moderation  all  his  life, 
should  suddenly  become  an  abstainer.  Old  age  can  not  readily 
accommodate  itself  to  changes  of  any  kind,  and  U^  many  i)ld  peo- 
ple a  little  grxid  wine  with  their  meals  is  a  source  of  great  com- 
fort. To  quote  again  from  Ecclesiasticus, "  Wine  is  as  good  as 
life  to  a  man,  if  it  be  drunk  moderately,  for  it  was  made  to  make 
men  glad."  Elderly  persons,  particularly  at  the  close  of  the  day, 
often  find  that  their  nervous  energy  is  exhausted,  and  re<iuire  a 
little  stimulant  to  induce  them  to  take  a  necessary  supply  of 
proper  nourishment,  and  perhaps  to  aid  the  digestive  powers  to 
convert  their  food  to  a  useful  purpose.    In  tho  debility  of  old' 


I 


77« 


I 


age,  and  08i>ecially  when  sleeplessness  is  accompanied  by  slow  and 
imperfect  digestion,  a  small  quantity  of  a  generotis  and  potent 
wine,  cont4iiuiug  much  etlu-T,  often  docs  good  service.  Even  a  lit- 
tle beer  improves  digestion  in  some  old  people;  others  find  that 
spirits,  largely  diluted,  fulfill  the  same  purpose.  Individual  pecul- 
iarities must  be  allowed  for;  the  only  general  rule  is  that  which 
prescribiy*  strict  moderation. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  the  hints  given  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  that  the  preservation  of  health  should  bo  the  predomi- 
nant thought  in  the  minds  of  elderly  persona  who  desire  that  their 
lives  should  be  prolonged.  To  be  always  guarding  against  dis- 
ease, and  to  live  in  a  state  of  constant  fear  and  watchfulness^ 
wrmhl  make  existence  miserable  and  hasten  the  progress  of  decays- 
Selfish  and  undue  solicitude  with  regard  to  health  not  only  fails' 
to  attain  its  object,  but  is  apt  to  induce  that  diseased  condition  of 
mind  known  as  hypodiondriasis,  tlie  victims  of  which  are  always 
a  bunlt^n  and  a  nuisance,  if  not  to  themselves,  at  least  to  all  c<>n- 
iiected  with  them.  Addison^  in  the  "  Spectator/*  after  describing 
the  valetudinarian  who  constantly  weighed  himself  and  his  food, 
and  yet  became  sick  an<l  languishing,  aptly  remarks,  '*  A  continual 
anxiety  for  life  vitiates  all  the  relishes  of  it,  and  casts  a  gloom  over 
the  whole  face  of  nature, as  it  is  impossible  tliat  we  shoulil  take  de- 
light in  anything  that  we  are  every  moment  afraid  of  losing." 

Sleep  is  closely  connecte*!  with  the  question  of  diet ;  "  good 
sleeping*'  was  a  noticeable  feature  in  the  large  majority  of  Dr. 
Humphr3'^s  cases.  Sound,  refreshing  sleep  is  of  the  utmost  conse- 
quence to  the  health  of  the  body^  and  no  substitute  can  be  found 
for  it  as  a  restorer  of  vital  energy.  Sleeplessness  is,  however, 
often  a  source  of  great  trouble  to  elderly  people,  and  one  which  is 
not  easily  rt*lieved.  Narcotic  remedies  are  generally  mischievous ; 
thuir  first  effects  may  bo  pleasant,  but  the  habit  of  depending 
upon  them  rapidly  grows  until  they  become  indispensable.  When 
this  stage  has  been  reached,  the  sufferer  is  in  a  far  worse  plight 
than  iK'fort^  In  all  cases  the  endeavor  should  be  made  to  disi^over 
whether  the  sh*e]>lessness  Is)  due  to  any  removable  cause — such  as 
indigestion,  cold,  want  of  exercise,  and  the  like.  In  regard  to 
sleeping  in  the  daytime,  there  is  something  to  be  said  b<.»th  for 
and  iigainst  that  practice.  A  nap  of  '*  forty  winks"  in  the  after- 
noon enables  many  aged  people  to  get  through  the  rest  of  the  day 
in  comfort,  whereas  they  feel  tired  and  weak  when  deprived  of 
this  n^T'  ■  Mt.  If  they  rest  well  at  uiglit  there  can  }>e  no  ob- 
jection !  lernorm  nap;  but  if  sleeple-sKnes.-*  bo  complained  of, 
the  Utter  should  be  discontiuutxl  for  a  time.    Most  old  |>eople  find 

that  a  T     '■    "  -*'    •'      ''    *        !  legs  raised,  is  tMHtor 

than  ti.  IK  ton   nup.     Digestioiu 

i-proceetis  w  -tie  botiy  in  n^cumbent.  I 


ind 

I 


ting- 
bed? 


Tti  the  popular  SCIEJfrCE  MONTHLY.         ^^H 

Warmth  is  very  important  for  the  aged ;  exposure  to  chilla 
should  Ih?  scrupulously  avoided.    Bronchitis  is  the  Tnalady  mofl^ 
to  be  feared,  and  its  attacks  are  very  easily  provoked.     Many  ol| 
people  suffer  from  more  or  less  cou^h  during^  the  vrinter  months, 
and  this  symptom  may  recur  year  after  year,  and  be  almost  un- 
heeded.   At  last,  perhaps  a  few  minutes*  exposure  to  a  cold  wind 
increases  the  irritation  in  the  lungs,  the  cough  becomes  worse,  ai 
the  difficulty  of  breathing  increases  until  suffocation  terminal 
in  death.    To  obviate  such  risk  the  skin  should  be  carefully  pi 
tected  by  warm  flannel  clothes,  the  outdoor  thermometer  shouli 
^  noticed,  and  winter  garments  should  always  be  at  lumd.    1^ 
pold  weather  the  lungs  should  be  protected  by  breathing  throu^l 
the  nose  as  much  as  possible,  and  by  wearing  a  light  woolen  or 
silken  muffler  over  the  mouth.    The  temperature  of  the  sitting 
and  bed-rooms  is  another  point  which  requires  attention,    Soi 
old  people  pride  themselves  on  never  requiring  a  fire  in  their 
rooms.     It  is,  however^  a  risky  practice  to  exchange  a  tempera- 
ture of  06**  or  ?0°  for  one  fifteen  or  twenty  degrees  lower.    As  a 
general  rule,  for  persons  sixty-five  years  of  age  and  upward,  the 
temperature  of  the  bed-r<x)m  should  not  be  below  60°^  and  when 
there  are  any  symptoms  of  bronchitis  it  should  be  raised  from  five 
to  ten  degrees  higher. 

Careful  cleansing  of  the  skin  is  the  last  point  which  needs  to 
be  mentioned  iu  an  article  like  the  present.  Attention  to  cleanli- 
ness is  decidedly  conducive  to  longevity,  and  we  may  congratulate 
ourselves  on  the  general  improvement  iu  our  habits  in  this  respect 
Frequent  washin;^  with  warm  water  is  very  advantagetms  for  old 
people,  in  whom  the  skin  is  only  too  apt  to  become  hard  and  dry; 
and  the  benefit  will  be  increased  if  the  ablutions  be  succeeded  Ijy 
friction  with  coarse  flannol  or  lint*n  gloves,  or  with  a  flesh-brush. 
Every  part  of  the  skin  should  be  tJiiis  washed  and  rubbed  daily^ 
The  friction  removes  worn-out  particles  of  the  skin,  and  the  en 
cise  promotes  warmth  and  excites  perspiration.  Too  much  att* 
tion  can  hardly  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  skin ;  the  comfort 
the  aged  is  greatly  dependent  upon  the  proper  discharge  of 
functions. 

Such,  then,  are  the  principal  measures  by  which  life  may  bo 
prolonged  and  health  maintained  down  to  the  closing  scene.  It 
remains  to  be  seen  whether,  as  a  result  of  progress  of  knowledge 
and  civilization,  life  will  ever  bo  protracted  beyond  the  limit  as- 
signed to  it  in  a  preceding  paragraph.  There  is  no  doubt  that  t]M 
ixv€Tckqe  duration  of  human  life  is  capable  of  very  great  ext^nsiofl 
and  that  the  same  causes  which  serve  to  prolong  life  materially 
contribute  toward  the  happiness  of  mankind.  The  experience  of 
the  last  few  decades  abundantly  testifies  to  the  marked  iinj»rove» 

nt  which  has  taken  place  in  the  public  health.    Statistics  sh 


lily. 

1 


m 


1 


THE  ART   OF  PROLOXOING  LIFE, 


77S 


I 

I 
I 

I 


,  at  the  end  of  the  septennial  period,  1881-*87,  400,000  persons 
were  alive  in  England  and  Wales  whose  death  would  have  takc^n 
place  had  the  nmrtality  been  in  the  same  proportion  as  during 
the  previous  decade.  It  may  be  reasonably  expected  that  as  time 
goes  on  there  will  bean  increase  in  the  proportion  of  centenarians 
to  tlie  population  as  a  whole. 

The  question  whether  long  life  is,  after  all,  desirable  does  not 
atlmit  of  any  general  answer.  Much  depends  upon  the  previous 
history  of  the  individual,  an<l  his  bodily  and  mental  condition. 
The  last  stages  of  a  well-6]M*nt  life  may  be  the  happiest,  and  while 
sources  of  enjoyment  exist,  and  pain  is  absent,  the  shufRing-off  of 
tlio  mortal  coil,  though  calmly  expected,  need  not  be  wishe*!  for. 
The  picture  afforded  by  cheerful  and  mellow  old  age  is  a  lesson  to 
younger  generations.  Elderly  people  may,  if  they  choose,  become 
centers  of  improving  and  refining  influence.  On  the  other  hand» 
old  age  can  not  be  regarded  as  a  blessing  when  it  is  accompanied 
by  profound  decrepitude  and  disorder  of  mind  and  body.  Senile 
dementia,  or  second  childishness,  is,  of  all  conditions,  perhaps  the 
most  miserable,  though  not  so  painful  to  the  sufferer  as  to  those 
who  surround  him.  Its  advent  may  be  accelerated  by  ignorance 
and  neglect,  a!id  almost  assuredly  retarded  or  prevented  by  such 
simple  moasnros  as  liave  been  suggested.  No  one  who  has  had  o])* 
iKjrtuuitios  of  studyiiigold  people  can  shut  his  eyes  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  incapabilities  of  age  may  be  prevented  by  attention  to  a 
few  simple  rules,  the  observance  of  which  will  not  only  prolong  life 
and  make  it  happier  and  more  comfortable,  but  will  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  period  of  decrepitude.  Old  age  may  be  an  incurable 
disease,  admitting  of  but  one  termination,  but  the  manner  of  that 
end,  and  the  condition  which  precedes  it,  are,  though  not  alto 
gether,  certainly  to  a  very  great  extent,  within  our  own  power. — 
Fortnightly  Review. 

KoT«. — .^inc«  the  abore  wu  8«nt  to  presit,  the  cmlizod  world  hu  lost  ita  most  noted 
cvniCDiLTtao  in  the  pcntcm  nf  M.  rherreul,  the  frnmoas  Frenrb  chemif^t,  wbo  <Ued  on  tbo  Vtb 
of  April,  aged  one  bundrcH]  and  two  Tears  and  ceYcn  montbu.  Only  ■  few  daya  h«fore  bifl 
death  be  wunt  lu  bit  carrUge  to  toe  (lie  Ei/Tel  Tower,  In  which  he  look  a  Hrely  iuterval. 
Throughout  bU  long  life  he  bad  worked  liArd,  sparine  neither  mind  nor  body,  and  It  would 
tcctn  that  bb  faculties  woro  prCMired  with  but  sligbt  impalmient  up  to  the  time  of 
hi«  Oeaib. 


Ft  U  oWn-tni  hy  Mr.  Stnnloy,  in  one  of  his  recent  loiters  from  Central  AfHcn, 

[ibAt  Ntfjauibi  I^phU,  about  twu  liandred  and  fifty  milea  above  thcjanction  of  the 

IV  ■•  Rirers  marki*  the  division  between  tivo  different  kinds  of 

iii  nrtniTP.     Br1i>w.  the  cone  hula  nre  to  be  found;  nbovo  tbo 

ipld«  w«  liiiv<  ',  of  dctnrlti-d  iu|unre  huts  sarrounded  hj 

mI    mid   rimUrianv  lu   the   Mtrciik'th   of  tlie 


77+ 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOSTHLT. 


EDUCATION  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


By  F.  C.  n.  WENDEI^  A.M.,  Po.  U. 


n^HE  first  state  to 


X 


cient  Egypt. 


recognize  the  necessity  of  education 

The  i>erifxi  referred  to  here  is  from  4000  blC 


rhioA 


to  the  time  of  Christ ;  but  it  is  only  of  about  fifteen  hnndred  yi 
of  this  perio*! — 253i)-HX)0  B.  c. — that  we  know  the  educational 
ditions.    But  education  here  was  not  popular  education. 
ancient  Egyptians  had  no  care  of  the  populace;  they  educi 
only  their  officials.    The  government  consisted  of  the  departnn 
of  state,  treasury,  and  justice.    Each  of  these  departments  had 
own  »cho<^ls,  in  which  young  men  were  trained  for  the  work  of 
department;  }mt  it  is  only  of  the  treasury  schools  that  we  ki 
anything,  and  of  these  we  do  not  know  any  details.    Besides 
department  schools  of  the  general  government,  there  was  a  nui 
ber  of   department   schools   in   the  various   nomes   into  whiah 
Egypt  was  divided.*    These  schools  did  not  purpose  to  give 
pupils  a  liberal  education,  but  merely  to  train  up  competent 
ciaLs,  and  in  this  they  succee<le<l  admirably.    The  efficiency  of 
various  departments  is  traceable,  to  a  great  extent,  to  the  excellent 
training  their  officials  received  in  these  schools. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  all  boys,  rich  or  poor,  of  lofty  or 
humble  birth,  were  received  into  these  schools.  In  the  earliest 
times,  boys  bom  on  the  same  day  with  the  prince  royal  were 
cate<l  together  with  him  ;  but  in  later  times  this  custom 
stopped,  possibly  because  the  prince  royal  attended  th- 
partment  schools  as  those  of  humbler  parentage.  No  -l  ;  _  , 
of  castes  existed,  and  no  discrimination  was  made,  either  by 
teachers  or  the  government,  l^etween  scribes  (i.  e.,  students  or  o! 
cials)  of  lofty  birth  and  those  of  humbler  antecedents.  It  is  true 
that  in  ancient  Eg>'pt.  as  everywhere  else,  influence  went  a 
way  after  a  young  man  had  entered  the  actual  se^^^co  of 
government ;  but  it  is  equally  true  that  specially  efficient  offici 
of  lowly  birth  advanced  step  by  step  to  the  highest  offices  in 
gift  of  the  government.  All,  the  rich  as  well  as  the  poor, 
vanced  step  by  step  from  the  lower  offices  to  the  higher,  the  pi 
royal  being  compelled  to  go  through  the  samp  course  of  trail 
and  to  advance  through  the  same  offices  as  the  labf»rers 
though,  of  course,  his  progress  was  more  rapid,  and  in  the  en< 

1  political   wtiole: 
'^  idM  iuto  two  \\%\S\ 
•  ft.  c.  united  undi^r  one 
'  'vu  (iiUQtricn,  uimin,  *bii  ftl 
licis  wliU-h  w«!  «re 
!  V  a  ofrtmin  •uioiHwijr, 
itwui,  «od  tb«ir  hrmtlurj  i 


m£^ 


EDUCATION  m  AyCI£XT  EGYPT, 


77$ 


I 


attained  to  liighor  offices  tlian  his  humbler  companions,  there  be- 
ing certain  offiees  o])en  to  him  alone.  But,  with  this  single  exce[>- 
tion,  the  poor  man's  sou  could  by  elRcioucy  accomplish  the  vamo 
results  as  the  rich  man's  and  the  princo's  sou.  The  only  test  was 
efficiency,  and  this  test  was  applied  most  rigidly  and  in  a  thor- 
oughly denuHtnitic  manner,  giving  all  an  equal  chance. 

It  was,  furthermore,  left  entirely  to  the  option  of  a  young  man 
or  liis  parents  what  occupation  he  should  fit  hinjself  for.  If  tho 
father  was  a  treasury  official,  a  priest,  or  an  offittur,  it  did  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  son  should  also  be  a  treasury  official,  a 
priest  or  an  officer ;  nor  yet,  if  the  father  was  a  merchant,  me- 
chanic, or  farmer,  did  it  necessarily  follow  that  tho  Mjn  should 
also  be  a  merchant,  mechanic,  or  farmer.  In  some  families  we^ 
find  several  members  in  the  government  service ;  while  others,  hav- 
ing no  titles,  were  private  citizens  engaged  in  civic  pursuits.  As 
n  further  confirmation  of  this  fact,  wo  have  a  dida4nic  poem,  writ- 
^mhy  >  certain  Daauf,  in  which  he  advises  his  son  Pepy  to  be- 
HHHk  scribe — i.e.,  a  government  official.  In  this  excoe<]ingly 
interesting  poem  he  sketches  the  misery  of  all  that  are  not  in  tho 
service.  His  sketches  are  of  course  prejudiced,  as  he  seeks  to  in- 
Huence  his  son  to  enter  the  government  service ;  but,  nevertheless, 
tho  poem  plainly  shows  that  the  choice  of  occupation  was  left  to 
tho  young  man.  The  poem  closes  with  u  couplet  that  was  often 
quoted  in  later  writings: 

"  I».  thero  is  no  class  ttmt  is  not  f^or^m^d ; 
Obl;r  tbi)  ficribe;  he  1a  a  (fuvoraart  *' 

The  Egyptians  were  stem  idUiiarians^  and  thus  they  esteemed 
learning,  not  ft»r  its  own  sake,  but  merely  for  i\\^*  practu^al  advan- 
tages it  conferred  vi\K>n  its  happy  possessor.  They  were  not  iutel- 
loctualists  and  idealists,  like  the  ancient  Greeks,  nor  yet  were  they 
Makers  after  truth,  like  our  mrxleru  scholars.  They  were  practi- 
Hfemen,  and  sought  to  attain  learning  for  jiractical  ends.  They 
devoted  themselves  to  their  studies  in  order  to  fit  themselves  for 
the  government  service.  They  argued  much  in  the  line  of  Daauf's 
old  poem.  The  burflen  of  all  they  have  written  on  the  subject  is 
always  the  same:  The  8cril>e  alone  is  free ;  he  need  do  no  manual 
labor,  but  leads  a  pleasant  and  agreeable  life;  the  government 
provides  for  him.  And,  then,  to  think  of  all  the  honors  he  may 
attain  to!  The  dilitcent  scribe  is  sure  \o  rise,  and  may  even  gain 
princely  rank.  But  to  attain  this  he  must  be  diligent.  "  Work, 
work,  study,  study,  grind,  grind,"  is  also  a  continuous  burden  of 
thi^    ■         " 

1      };  »r  the  government  service  entered  the  school 

^  a  v<>ry  early  age.  The  course  of  instruction  was  very  simple. 
■*"'     "^     *  ''  *'      '       V  ^  to  initiate  the  young  s<rrilie  into 

1    • __.  iiig.    Aft4.'r  lie  hat!  miistered  tha 


Tj6 


TEE  POPULAR  SCIEI7CE  MOXTHLY. 


I 


first  difliculties,  he  was  given  older  texts  to  copy.  These  teH 
were  moral  treatises,  older  poems,  fairy  tales,  religious  and  mytfl 
cal  writings,  and  letters.  It  is  to  this  fact  that  we  owe  the  presa 
vation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  literary  remains  of  anciel 
Egypt,  When  one  of  these  school-boys  died,  the  copies  he  ba 
written,  that  could  be  of  no  earthly  use  to  any  one  else,  wol 
buried  with  him.  From  these  old  books  that  he  copied  ho  leamfl 
to  form  his  own  style ;  he  learned  the  grammar  and  syntax  of  h9 
beautiful  language ;  he  became  acquainted  with  its  vast  stock  of 
moral  precepts,  religious  and  mytliical  traditions,  and  with  the 
unnumbered  poems  and  tales  that  undoubtedly  abounded,  and  of 
which  the  merest  fragments  have  come  down  to  us.  Two  classes 
of  writings  were  prtjferred  for  this  purpose,  moral  precepts  and 
letters.  It  was  considered  absolutely  indispensable  to  inculcate 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  vast  numbers  of  moral  precepts.  Let 
writing  was  considered  a  high  and  diflScult  art,  and  the  pu 
needed  very  special  preparation  in  it.  Often  these  copies  took 
form  of  correspondence  between  master  and  pupil,  the  letters  be- 
ing sometimes  copied  from  older  ones,  sometimes  invented  for  the 
purpose  by  the  teacher.  The  pupil  wrote  three  pages  a  day,  and 
the  teacher  examined  his  copy  with  great  care,  often  writing  for 
him  the  correct  form  of  the  letters  on  the  margin,  and  sometimes 
expressing  his  approbation  by  writing  under  the  copy  the  word 
"  nCfer  " — gt>od.  The  boys  wrote  only  on  one  side  of  the  papy 
often  using  the  other  side  for  rough  notes,  for  first  draughts  of 
ters,  for  practicing  more  difficult  forms  of  writing ;  or  they  d 
all  sorts  of  pictures  on  it,  as  their  fancy  dictated. 

School  was  out  at  noon,  but  the  boy  was  not  then  free 
had  to  assist  in  the  department  work  all  the  afternoon,  thus  learn- 
ing }iis  duties  practically,  and  being  of  real  use  to  the  governm 
while  still  a  school-boy.    The  teachers  were  older  officials  of 
same  department,  under  whose  care  and  instruction  the  boys  wi 
placed,  and  the  same  teacher  conducte<i  the  eutii^e  educatitm  ol 
young  man,  teaching  him  the  first  rudiments  of  writing,  initia 
him  into  the  practical  work  of  the  department,  and,  oven  after 
young  man  had  become  an  official  himself,  remaining  his  co 
solor  and  friend. 

Discipline  was  very  strictly  maintained.    The  pupils,  whost 
to  have  been  ot'--  ^■'  ■:■?*.  .1-  ■- r    -»  ♦^.v  department,  were 
allowed  to  si.  nnt  stoo<l  in  enseal 


rord 

1 


puj. 


SiKJCially  n-fractoJ 

he  til 


EDUCATION  IN  ANCIENT  EGYPT, 


777 


V 


ment  is;  All  animals — horses,  lions,  dogs,  hawks — can  be  tain cd, 
and  a  certain  auitnal  from  Ethiopia  can  Ije  taught  to  speak  awjj 
sing;  why  can  not  a  young  scribe  Iw  tamed  in  like  manner  ?  But 
since  men  and  animals  are  not  exactly  one  and  the  same  thing, 
the  teachers  also  used  "  moral  suasion/'  as  we  would  8ay.  The 
pupil  is  constantly  pursued  witli  moral  precepts  and  good  advice. 
He  is  continually  admonished  to  be  diligent  and  obedient.  lest  he 
be  beaten,  for  "  a  boy's  ears  ai'e  situated  on  his  back." 

Another  principle  of  Egyptian  pedagogics  was  that  the  pupils 
should  be  but  scantily  fed.  Three  rolls  and  two  mugs  of  l>eer 
must  suflRce  for  a  <hiy,  and  these  the  boy's  mother  brings  hira 
every  day.  and  she  certainly  never  forgot  to  add  some  slight  gift 
for  the  teacher.  When  in  the  times  of  the  new  empire  (1530  to 
1000  B.  c.)  Egypt  became  a  military  nation,  she  needed  trained 
officers  to  lew!  her  troops.  These  officers  Mere  looked  upon  as 
officials,  as  scribes,  and  their  official  title  was  "army-scribes." 
They  were  educated  in  a  special  school  attached  to  one  of  the  de- 
partments, which  one  we  do  not  know,  nor  do  we  know  what  spe- 
cial course  of  traiiung  they  went  through. 

These  8ch«>ol8  were  maintained  by  the  government  for  its  own 
purposes ;  but  there  was  also  a  large  number  of  theological  schools 
connected  with  the  various  temples,  and  each  temple  traincMl  up 
its  priests  in  its  own  jHjculiar  doctrines.  These  temple  schools 
seem  to  have  held  in  ancient  Egypt  much  the  same  position  that 
the  various  theological  seminaries  hold  here.  Tliere  are  cases  on 
record  showing  that  young  men  first  graduated  from  one  of  the 
department  schools  Iwfore  entering  the  temple  school,  and  this  may 
have  been  the  regular  course. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  were  acquainted  with  the  sciences  of 
medicine,  astronomy,  and  mathematics,  and  were  good  practical 
engineere  and  miners.  Medicine  was,  of  course,  in  a  very  crude 
and  primitive  state,  though  the  "Papyrus  Ebers"  shows  some 
knowledge  of  anatomy  and  i)athologj'.  Astronomy  had  been  some- 
wliat  further  advance*!.  The  ancient  Egyptians  had  discovered 
the  zodifkc,  grouped  the  stars  in  constellations,  and  had  devised  a 
means,  although  crude,  of  determining  the  position  of  the  various 
stars  in  the  heavens;  but  they  seem  not  to  have  distinguished  the 
stars  from  the  planets.  Their  mathematical  knowledge  was  ex- 
tremely crude  and  ]>rimitive.  They  could  add  and  subtract,  but 
multiplication  and  division  were  very  cumbersome,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  they  could  multiply  only  by  2,  au»l  that  division  resolved 
itself  into  the  problem  of  fiurliug  by  what  number  tlie  divisor 
mu«t  lie  multiplied  in  or4ler  to  produce  the  dividend.  Of  frac- 
tiotu  t'  knew  those  whose  numerator  is  I,  except  the  fnie- 

tioff  •  ■■■■(-  .i.wi 

4Ur 


iiensuratiou  were  also  practice*].     In  their 
r  o|>erutions  on  the  right-angled  triangle. 


778  TEE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MOXTfflr 

Of  these  sciences,  modicin©  ftn*l   astronomy  wero  probably 

taught  iu  Iho  temple  schools— certainly  ''  'er,  for  :•. 

cians  were  priests.    Engineering  and  nuii    _       ;o,  iu  all  i 

ity,  taught  practically.    Where  or  how  mathematictt  wa»  t^iuglU 

we  do  not  know.     It  is,  however,  a  c\n "  '    '        «j 

possess  no  other  Egj7itiftn  text-books,  w. 

medicine  and  mathematics.    The  great  medical  ^  Fapymi!  Kbew** 

is  a  collection  of  diagnoses  and  pi*e8criptious  calculatotl  to  aaaist 

the  general  practititMier  as  well  as  to  instruct  the  student.    A 

mathematical  text-book  has  been  published  by  Eisenlohr. 

Such  is  as  complete  a  sketch  as  can  be  given  of  £■."'''■'•  --^'V 
cation.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  was  under  <:■ 
government,  that  it  was  thoroughly  denuMTatif,  and  xUal  Jus  fm 
damental  principle  was  utility  and  its  purpose  to  train  scril 
priests^  physicians,  and  officers  for  the  state  service,  not.  to  foi 
scholars.  It  is  sigrnticant  in  this  connection  that  no  pv 
made  of  the  education  of  girls.  In  the  times  of  the  new 
(1530  B.  c.  and  after)  we  meet  with  workingmen  who  are  ablo  to 
road   and  write,  and  no  dtjubt  the  merrliants,  tn«    '  -1 

farmers  that  composed  the  wealthy  middle  class  w<  i. 

It  may  be  supjKjsed  that  the  government  taught  it«  master  work- 
men to  read  and  write,  two  accomplishments  they  n*^f  ^  '  *  '  ^  >• 
erly  fnifill  their  functions;  but  where  and  how  tli< 
mechanics,  and  farmers,  if  they  were  educ-ated,  got  their  educa- 
tion, we  can  not  even  conjecture.  The  state  c<*rtaiuly  did 
educate  them,  since  it  could  in  its  estimate  derive  no  benefit  froj 
them,  and  the  idea  of  popular  education  never  oocurrod  to  the 
state. 


THE   BRONZE  AGE  IN  S\\T:DEN. 

Br  W.  n.  LA£BAB£E. 

BY  the  Bronze  age,  Dr.  Oscar  Montelius*  i 
'    i>eriod  in  the  eiirliest  civilization  of  tlie    .. 

when  they  miide  their  weapons,  tools,  olc,,  of  bronze    B<«id< 
that  comi>osition,  they  knew  only  of  one  ni*  ■  "^ 

bronze  includes  all  combinations  of  coptK-r  ■      . .... 
the  usual  comfHjsition  of  the  articles  of  this  age  was  ninety 
of  cop[M>r  to  ten  »if  tin. 

It  would  be  a  niistuke,  however,  to  refer  all  nntinn^tir?  of 
bronze  to  the  Bronze  age.    Vessels,  rings,  burl  i] 

the  like,  wore  still  made  of  T -^  ^.       ,» 

just,  as  they  are  even  in  our  •  t| 

*"Tho  nvillftiiton  of  Sire«lrn  in  nMth«n  Tl»e^"*  by  t 
mapM  nmJ  ?0S  (Ituxiralioiw  (Xftr  Tork  aiud  Z«oDJ<ya  •  XAOmiiUi.  .-. 
liaU  fur  lltU  arUillo  Are  ilcrlvcxL 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN   SWEDEN. 


779 


dUFerent  composition  from  that  which  prevailed  then.  "  To  this 
a^  l)eh»Tig  only  weapons  and  edge-tools  made  of  hronze,and  such 
vessels  ami  ornaments  as  are  usually  found  with  them." 

Different  opinions  have  been  put  forward  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  Bronze  age  began  in  the  North.  "Some  have  supposed 
that  it  was  due  to  the  immigration  of  a  Celtic  race,  others  U>  a 
Teutonic  immigration.  Prof.  Nilsson  has  endeavore<l  to  show 
that  the  North  is  indebted  to  Phueuiciau  colonists  for  the  eai'lieat 
knowledge  of  metals;  while  Herr  Wiberg,  in  Gefle,  reganit^d  the 
Bronze  age  as  having  begun  in  the  North  through  the  influence 
of  the  Etruscans,"  Prof.  Lindenschmit,  of  Mainz,  who  has  \new8 
of  his  own  n?specting  the  reality  of  a  Northern  Bronze  age,  re- 
gards most  of  the  bronze  works  in  question  as  Etruscan.  Dr. 
Montelius's  view  is  that  the  beginning  of  the  Bronze  age  in  Scan- 
dinavia was  not  connected  with  any  great  immigration  of  a  new 
race,  but  that  the  people  of  the  North  learned 
the  art  of  working  in  bronze  by  intercourse 
with  other  nations.  Tlie  "  Bronze  culture/'  he 
thinks,  grmhmlly  spread  itself  over  the  con- 
tinent of  EurojM)  iu  a  northerly  and  north- 
westerly direction,  until  at  last  it  reached  the 
coasts  of  the  Baltic.  The  end  of  the  Bronze 
age  proper  in  Scandinavia,  when  it  gave  way 
to  the  "  Iron  age,"  is  fixed  in  the  fifth  century 
before  the  Christian  era,  when  it  had  lasted 
about  a  thousand  years.  It  has  been  divided 
into  six  successive  periods.  Dr.  Montelius  does 
not  attempt  to  difitingui.sh  botwoon  and  de- 
scril^e  all  of  these,  but  simply  makes  two  gen- 
eral divisions — the  earlier  and  the  later  Bronze 

The  worka  of  the  earlier  age  are  decorat-ed 
fine  s]>)ral  ornaments  and  zigzag  lines, 
some  of  which  are  seen  in  the  axe  (Fig.  1),  and 
are  associated  with  the  remains  of  uubumed 
bodies  They  are  distinguished  by  artintic 
forms,  and  point  to  a  highly  developed  taste, 
in  which  they  gcnernlly  surpass  the  relics  of 
the  Bronze  age  found  in  other  European  coun- 
trioe.  The  works  of  the  later  age,  of  which  an 
illustration  is  given  in  the  knife  (Fig.  *Z),  are 

chf'^     '    ■'-    '  Viv  a  very  ditferent  taste  and  stvle  ^"'-  i-'w*'^'-  ^- •*■ 

of  ►n.    Instead  of  spirals  engraved 

or  ttttdy  of  the  implement,  we  find  tho  ends  of  the 

ar  ■"■  *■'    -  :.-.tl  Volutes.    Diinng  this  period  the 

dt ^  relniivc  antiquity  of  burned  and 


7^0 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOXTELr. 


uuburned  bodies  ia  determined  by  tlieir  relative  poeitiorui  in  bar- 
rows in  which  both  occur.    The  burned  bodies  are  always  abovf 

the  unburned  ones,  showing  later  dejjosition. 

The  large  majority  of  the  antiquities  l>elonging  to  the  8wt<di 
Bronze  age  were  of  native  |iro<luctioa.    Nearly  all  the  :tr*'   ' 
bronze  are  cost ;  and  traces  of  the  use  of  the  hammer  ib 
pear  till  near  the  close  of  the  period,    LocaI  styles  are  ol 
so  that  it  is  often  possible  to  distinguish  with  consideroitiv  t  •-r-' 


Fro.  1— BKOirn  Kxrn. 

tainty  in  what  part  of  the  North  the  article  was  ma^la  Interest? 
ing  evidences  of  the  homo  production  of  these  tilings  nr**  ''ft-n 
found  in  the  shai>e  of  the  molds, of  stone,  in  wliich  they  v, 

that  are  occasionally  found.    A  mold  of  this  kind,  for .c 

saws,  is  represented  in  Fig.  3,    The  presence  of  uxj! 

ings,  defective  s|>eciuieiih,Hj. 
molds,  affords  sure  ovidencv 
bronze-founding  work  was 


done 


m 


Kia  8.— SToss  Hmjy  torn  cujtcvu  Focr 
RuoiUB  Haw*. 


the  country.     But  '*hs  Wwt^  an? 
tin  mines  in  Scandinuviu,  and 
cop|>er    mines   were   proliahly   not 
worked  till   more  than  a  Ihoi 
years   after  the  end   of   Lho    Broi 
age,    we   m  ust    co  ncl  u  de    that    tht 
bronze  used  during  this  ^r 
iini>ort«d    from     foreign     « 
Probably  it  was  alr«vly  miy 
in  the  form  of  works  or  in 
cause  copper  anil  tin  in  a  f< 
very  seldom  occur  in  ' ' 
finds  of  this  age."    IniL—  .. 
liigh    perfection  which  Ute  lirl  of 

bn  

in 


cast  over  a  cLi 

bronzo  axes  with   v    '  "        ' '  i  ^ 

bronze  hardly  more 

the  clay  core  over  which  ihey  wore  ca«l  still  oxl 


THE  BRONX g  AQE  m  SWEDEN. 


781 


could  not  bave  been  used  as  battle-axes,  and  were  too  frail  Uy 
stand  the  sliakintc  *'f  l^eing  carried  ceremonially  in  processions. 
It  is  therefore  sugge6te<l  that  tliey  were  fixed  somewhere  as  stand* 
inj?  ornaments.  The  art  of  soldering  being  unknown,  joining  or 
repairing  was  done  by  pinning  the  pieces  togetlier  or  by  casting 
bronze  over  the  joint,  often  in  a  very  clumsy  way.  Inlaying  was 
practiced,  with  amber,  or  with  a  dark-brown  material  like  resin, 
which  must  have  produce<l  an  effective  contrast  with  the  yellow 
bronze.  The  art  of  gilding  was  not  known,  but  objects  were  some- 
times overlaid  with  thin  plates  of  gold. 

No  traces  remain  of  Bronze-ago  houses,  and  no  representa- 
tions of  them  occur  among  the  rock-carvings.  The  tools  were 
substantially  the  same  as  those  known  to  the  Stone  age,  but  were 
more  usually — not  always — made  of  bronze.  The  most  common 
tool  was  a  kind  of  axe  or  chisel,  known  as  a  *'celt."  The  celts 
were  originally  copies  of  the  stone  axes,  and  were  "socketed  "  and 
not  socketed.  The  socketeil  celts  had  a  handle  inserted  into  a 
socket,  and  were  bound  to  it  by  a  little  loop  that  was  provided  in 
the  casting.  The  non -socketed  celts  were 
fixed,  like  the  flint  axes,  into  one  end  of  a 
cloven  haft.  "Of  sewing  implements  there 
have  been  found  especially  noecUos,  awls, 
tweezers,  and  knives.  Tliey  are  almost  ul- 
wiiys  of  l»rr»nze;  but  a  few  tweezers  and  on(3 
awl  of  gold  have  Inien  found  in  Sweden  and 
Denmark."  The  awls  were  fired  in  a  haft, 
of  which  flpocimens  mmle  of  bronze,  bone, 
and  amber  are  preserved.  The  netnlles  were 
used  in  making  woolen  clothes,  and  the  other 
implements  for  sewing  leather  or  skins.  Nar- 
row strips  or  threads  of  skin  were  cut  out 
with  the  knife,  holes  were  bored  with  the  awl, 
and  the  leather'thread  was  rlrawn  through 
the  holes  with  the  tweezors.  **  These  imple- 
ments are  much  more  frequent  than  the  nee- 
dles, which  partially  indicates  that  clothes  of 
skin  were  fai*  more  generally  worn  than  those 
of  wool  during  this  period,"  Scissors  were  fw 
unknown. 

The  specimen  of  woolen  cloth  represented  in  Fig.  4  is  part  of  a 
piece,  five  h^A  long  and  two  fei.l  wide,  which  was  found  in  a  l>ar- 
row  at  Dommestorj).  in  Holland,  in  18Gf).  and  of  which  the  larger 
pieces  are  preserved  in  the  National  Museum.    It  is  now  brown, 
iH'^  '    ^  1<T  at   the   narrow  ends.     A  coffin  made 

lof  .1  A>'<1  trunk  of  oak,  found  in  the  '*Treen- 

Inutow  Bt   Havdrup,  in  Denmark,  in  1861,  contained  the 


4  —  rtici  or  wo7iari 

anTfT  oj*  Tiu  BsciMii  Acs. 


THE  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MOaVTHLY 


body  of  a  warrior  with  his  clothes  well  prvservtHl,  Thoy  coiudsled 
of  a  high  cap»  a  wide,  roundly  cut  mantle,  and  a  s^ort  of  tunic,  all 
of  wovon  wool,  and  two  small  pieces  i>f  wool  which  an.*  mippi:«r^i 
to  have  covered  the  legs.  At  the  feet  were  seen  eotne  «inall  re- 
mains of  leather,  which  pOK&iblj 
were  once  Hlioes.  The  ouUlde  of 
tbo  cap  was  for.  '  ro- 
jecting  pitM'c8  .1  (Jl 
ending  in  a  knot,  and  tlxo  io- 
side  of  tV  'It'witli  pi^ndont 
worsted  .  The  tunic  was 
kept  together  with  a  long  wool- 
en belt,  which  went  tv- "nd 

in  the  middle,  was  1  .  in 

front,  and  had  two  long  end» 
hanging  down  and  decorated 
with  fringe's.  There  wer©  abo 
found  in  the  gravi;^  a  w^cond 
woolen  capiaud  n  woolen  ahavl 
decorated  with  taaaels. 

A   complete  worn  -        '  ••«» 
(Fig.  5)  was  fouriil  n  ner 

Danish  barrow,  Borum-£8liGi, 
nwir  Arliiis,  in  J  ''  '  "  '-TV, 
Tlic  hody  liii<l  I"  .  .       in 

a  large  mantle,  woven  with  a 
mixture  of  w<x>l  and  cow-hair. 
The  very  long  hair  had  proba- 
bly l»eon  fastened  up  by  a  hora 
ruinb,  which  was  found  in  the 
grave.  Upon  the  h^^ad  waa  ft 
welbknott^Ml  w<>i  i.d 

reuiairw  of  a  mx-d.  .  ft 

were  founiL    Thedr-  -t- 

ed  of  jackt't  and  la 

long  robe»  lx>th  «  '  iS, 

woven   in   prvciftwly   tbo 
way  aa  \hv  clotlii     ^ 
graves  aln-ady  li 
jacket  wa«  st'vr* 
der  tliearmp  r  - 
and  was  open  in  front.    The  coarse  seam  on  tli- 
it  usihI  to  be  covered  by  tlie  mantle.    The  robe  wji 
two  woolen  bands,  one  of  coarser  and  ih 
The  latter  band,  a  belt,  waa  of  WiM>I  ur  : 
wo*x»n  in  three  rows,  of  which  iho  middh»  oue  aHx-oiui  iw  Imve  botfn 


Fro.  6— Wnsux'^  Dnvia  mnM  DuitrHCauAi. 


.*l.,., 


at 

■'1 
■K 
nd 


THE  BRONZE  A\ 


SWEDEN. 


of  different  color  frc»m  those  on  the  sides.    It  ended  in  thick  oma- 

■  mental  tassels.  A  fibula^  which  may  have  fastened  the  jacket  or 
the  mantle  in  front,  a  spiral  finger-ring,  two  bracelets,  a  torque,  and 
three  round  decorated  plates  with  points  projecting  in  the  middle, 

» ornaments  of  the  belt,  wuro  found  in  the  coffin,  and  a  dagger,  the 
occurrence  of  which  with  a  woman's  body  gives  the  archaeologists 
■toiething  to  speculate  upon.  These  graves  were  of  the  early 
HSonze  age,  and  are  therefore  nearly  three  Ihausand  years  old. 
Both  this  body  and  the  one  in  the  Treenhoi  barrow  were  inclosed 
in  coffins  mmle  of  the  cloven  and  liollowed  trunk  of  an  oak,  and 
were  wrapi>ed  in  untanned  hides. 

PThe  ornaments  of  this  age  were  far  more  Iwautiful  and  varied 
than  those  of  the  Stone  age,  Tliey  were  made  chiefly  of  gold  aiul 
bronze.  Amber  was  more  rare  than  in  the  Stone  age;  and  ailver 
ornaments  and  glass  do  not  seem  to  have  yet  been  known.  They 
include<l  ornaments  for  the  neck  and  breast,  belt  ornaments, 
bracelets,  finger-rings,  bronze  buttons,  combs,  pendants,  and  pins. 
The  weapons  consisted  of  daggers,  axes,  sjK'ar.s,  bows  and  arrows, 
probably  clubs  and  slings,  swords,  helmets,  and  shiehls.  The  last 
were  usually  of  wood  or  leather,  but  some  of  them  are  very  olab- 
ite  works  of  bronze.  Representations  of  hflmets  apj)ear  in  the 
-carvings,  but  an  actual  specimen — a  chin-piece,  beautifully 
decorated  and  overlaid  with  gold— of  only  one  has  been  found. 

I  The  BWords.of  which,  with  daggers  of  bronze,  largo  numl^rs  have 
been  found  in  Sweden,  were  raado  for  thrusting  and  not  for  cut- 
ting, were  short-hiltad,  and  had  two-edged  and  very  pointed 
blades ;  their  sheaths  are  sometimes  unearthed  in  a  more  or  less 
complete  sUvte  of  preservation.  One  is  made  of  wofni  overlaid  with 
well-tanned  leather,  and  lined  with  fine  skin;  others  are  all  wood- 
en, without  leather, 
I  but  sometimes  deco- 
rated with  carved 
ornaments.  Not  all 
of  their  wea]M)ns 
and  tools  were  of 
bronze.  Flints  still 
continued  to  bt 
used  for  the  cheaper 
sorts,  and  for  those 
most  liable  to  be  lost ;  and  bronze  seems  to  have  been  the  mark  of 
a  choicer  tool,  a  more  favorite  weapon,  and  perhaps  of  more  wealth 
in  the  owner. 

Suggestions  of  tigricultural  and  pastoral  occupations  api>ear  in 
the  rock-carvingiv    One  of  these  sculptures. at  Tenegby,  in  Bolnis-, 
Ian,  represents  two  animals  harnessed  to  a  plow  and  driven  by 
workman  who  is  walking  behind-    Another,  on  one  of  the  t©- 


Bvoitn  S1CIU.S. 


7«4 


SCIENCS 


markable  carvod  stones  of  a  grave  at  Kivik,  shows  a  tivo-wj 
^chariot,  with  two  horses,  and  a  driver  standinc        •    ^.    Biu 
(ridlea  of  nearly  the  same  kind  aw  tltost*  v  hav«3  bb«^a 


iiifiiiii[ifii[(ri 


u^ 


^ 


\VuuUlikH*« 


lilt     1    -ICUTK  (  AftVI>IO    IS    lAKttiClm    \%    B4)Uril.i!<. 

found ;  uad  the  bones  of  domestic  auiniuli*  and  hides — buth 
and  untftuned — of  oxen  and  cows>  iin*  tH>ninion. 

Shapely  bronze  sickles  (Fig.  G)  and  hand-mills  attest  to  atyt- 


Fi«  ifu— :*wTn»«  i.r  4  iUvMnr  *t  lM«ME"TrTir  r.  ^  ■'-rn  II  1^^  ,* 


huiiatic  oiiltivation  of  grairu     ••Til) 
I'ily  prGBuppo«e0  tixetl  dv 


TES  BRONZE  AOE  TX  SWEDE^T. 


'SS 


I 
I 


is  further  made  probaT)!©  "by  tbe  fact  that  the  barrows  of  the 
period  so  often  lie  thick  togethLT." 

Wliile  vrriting  waa  xinknowB  during  the  Bronze  age,  a  sort  of 
picture-writing  existed  which  is  preserved  in  the  rock -carvings 
found  quite  often  in  different  parta  of  the  country.  There  caaJ 
hardly  he  a  question  of  the  age  of  those  works,  for  the  repreflGntar<l 
tions  of  swords  and  other  known  objects  correspond  closely  with 
the  objects  themselves  that  remain ;  and  the  absence  of  Runic  or 
other  inscriptions  in  connection  with  them  forbids  the  presump- 
tion of  their  belonging  to  a  later  age  than  that  of  bronze.  The 
pictures  do  not  indicate  much  artistic  power  in  the  carvers,  but 
they  furnish  useful  clews  to  the  kind  of  life  the  people  led  and  the 
trend  of  their  thoughts.  Thus,  besides  illustrating  the  use  ofej 
horses  and  oxen,  they  tell  us  of  the  appearance  and  size  of  th^" 
boata  (Fig.  7),  of  which  no  actual  specimens  that  can  be  certainly 
assigned  to  the  Bronze  age  have  yet  been  fouu<l.  These  vesselsJ 
Beem  to  have  been  usually,  but  not  always,  alike  at  the  two  ends- 1 
''We  often  see  the  high  and  narrow  st^m  terminating  in  an  ani- 
l's head;  sometimes  the  stem  also  is  similarly  decorated, 
no  indisputable  traces  of  masts  and  sails  have  been  found 
the  rock-carvings,  the  boats  of  the  Bronze  age  would  seem  to 
have  been  exclusively  designed  for  rowing.  The  same  is  also  the 
case  .  .  .  with  the  remarkable  boat  found  in  the  bog  at  Nydam, 
in  Denmark,  which  belongs  to  an  early  part  of  the  Iron  age.  W© 
often  find  sea-fights  described  on  the  rock-carvings.  We  have 
also  proofs  of  peaceful  intercourse  by  sea  with  other  peoples  in  the 
many  things  imported  from  foreign  lands  which  occur  in  the  finds 
from  the  Bronze  age.  Chief  among  imported  goods  we  must 
reckon  all  the  bronze  used  in  Sweden  at  tliis  time  regarded  as  raw 
material.  Probably  also  most  of  the  gold  used  there  during  the 
Bronze  age  was  brought  from  other  countries.  Besides  these,  we 
ought  also  to  set  down  as  im|>orts  certain  bronze  works  which  are 
undoubtedly  of  foreign  origin,  because  they  are  very  rare  in 
Scandinavia  but  common  in  other  countries.*' 

The  dead  were  buried  unbumed  in  the  earlier  and  burned  in  the 
later  part  of  the  Bronze  age,  Tlie  imburued  bodies  were  usually 
laid  in  cists  con^posed  of  flat  stones  placed  edgewise^  and  covered 
with  similar  stones.  Coffins  made  of  oak  trunks  split  and  hollowed 
out  are  not  uncommon.  The  stone  cists,  which  contain  several 
skeletons,  and  are  often  very  large,  appear  to  be  the  oldest ;  others 
ar'  -,  and  c-ontain  a  single  extended  skeleton.    Sometime^ 

the  do  not  lie  immediately  in  the  small  stone  cists,  but  in* 

anoartheuwaro  vossol,  which  may  be  closely  surroundeii  by  the 

'lay  be  without  a  cist.    Somof  "  t. 

■  ig^  are  made  up  entirely  of  < 
bii  '  >ariud  in  the  ground  and  only  covered  by  a  dat 


THE  POi 


%NTELY. 


stone,  as  in  Fig.  8.*  The  burial-places  "  thus  form  a  gradual  transi- 
tion from  the  groat  grave  chambers,  and  the  stone  cists  with  their 
many  skeletons,  of  the  Stone  age  on  the  one  side,  to  the  insignifi- 
cant grave  with  burned  bones  at  the  end  of  the  Bronze  age  on  the 
other."  The  graves  were  usually  covered  with  a  barrow,  and  this 
often  containe*!  several  stones.  The  barrows  are  generally  situ- 
ated upon  some  height  which  commands  an  unimpeded  view  over 
the  sea  or  some  large  lake.  Weapons,  ornaments,  and  vessels  of 
earthenware  or  wood  are  often  found  by  the  remains  of  the  dead. 
The  author  believes,  from  the  evidence  of  the  finds  lately  made 
in  that  land,  that  the  condition  of  Greece  during  its  Bronze  age  was 
in  many  ways  like  that  of  the  North  during  the  same  stage  of  it£ 
civilization  ;  and  that  probtibly  Homer's  description  of  the  heroic 
age  of  Greece  woidd  in  more  than  one  respect  apply  to  the  south 
of  Scandinavia  three  thousand  years  ago — "  at  least  if  we  do  not 
allow  our  eyes  to  be  dazzled  by  the  poetic  shimmer  which  hangs 
around  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war,"  But  the  Bronze  age  both 
began  and  ended  in  Greece  earlier  than  in  the  North.  There  are 
also  other  countries  in  which  the  Bronze  age  ended  later  than  in 
Scandinavia.  Of  these  was  Mexico,  when  the  Spaniards  entered 
upon  the  conquest  of  it.  And  yet  ii;  many  respects,  the  author 
remarks,  the  civilization  of  the  Aztecs  was  "  as  high  as  that  of 
which  Europe  could  boast  in  the  middle  ages."  He  expresses  no 
inference  from  this  remark,  but  presumably  expects  us  to  draw 
one  that  the  Scandinavians  of  the  Bronze  age  were  possibly  not  so 
barbarous  as  we  assume  that  they  were. 


ANTHROPOLOGY  AT  WASHINGTON. 

Bt  Faor.  J.  HOWAHD  GORB. 

THE  early  royagers  to  America,  coming  from  the  civilized 
countries  of  Europe,  were  perhaps  more  surprised  at  the 
native  inliabitants  whom  they  found  than  at  the  broad  rivers, 
boundless  forests,  or  vast  plains.  The  Indians,  with  their  curious 
customs  and  various  costumes,  produced  dissimilar  impressions 
upon  their  different  beholders.  But  all  found  that  the  most  in- 
teresting portions  of  the  reports  which  they  sent  back  to  their 
homes  were  the  descriptions  of  the  strange  people  whom,  they  had 
seen ;  the  report  being  in  some  cases  accompanied  with  specimens 

•  Tn  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  lh!«  barrow  wm  %.  •tone  ci»t  nrtLrly  scTcm  foct  loop  {«\ 
eontaining  tn  unbumcd  body  and  a  bronze  pin.  Higher  up  wen?  found  three  «m*n  •toot 
dstB  containing  burueJ  bono*  aud  sntiquitiea  of  bronxe.  Close  by  the  UiUo  cist  ml  lb«  wp 
of  Um  barrow  stood  a  vessel  Bllcd  wUli  burned  bonea,  and  near  the  oiat,  marked  ♦,  Iv  • 
heftp  of  burned  bones,  covered  only  by  a  fiat  itooe. 


AyrffBOPOLOOY  AT  jrASirmGToy. 


7^7 


^    mi 

ii 


of  their  handiwork,  and  in  a  few  cases  by  living  captives.  The 
stimulated  curiosity  reganliug  America,  und  the  feeling  that  thoro 
could  be  nothing  too  unusual  to  come  from  this  almost  fabulous 
land,  prompted  men  to  weave  a  large  amount  of  fiction  into  their 
etatf'mentfl  concerning  the  people  of  the  New  World,  and  by  skill- 
ful ftltorntions  to  make  the  work  of  these  savages  appear  more 
startling  or  ingenioua  Hence,  many  early  books  describing  the 
aborigines  of  America  are  of  no  value,  and  the  illustrations  of  in- 
dustrial arts  are  unreliable.  The  meeting  with  new  customs  did 
not  cease  with  the  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  first  tribe  who 
greeted  the  foreigners,  nor  was  all  of  interest  known  at  the  time 
when  an  independent  government  w?is  established  for  the  infant 
colonies.  Almost  each  day's  journey  westwanl  hronght  the  ex- 
plorer, if  not  into  the  center  of  a  new  tribe,  at  least  into  a  new 
community,  whose  customs  differed  from  those  of  the  people  who 
had  surrounded  hini  the  day  before.  Should  the  wanderer  l>e  per^ 
mitted  to  retiirn  to  the  seat  of  his  government,  his  tales  of  Strang^ 
scenes  and  adventures  would  be  listened  to  with  as  much  interest 

the  Spanish  or  English  reader  had  given  to  the  written  stories^ 
century  previous.    Thus,  during  the  most  advantageous  period 
for  careful  observation  of  the  unaffected  customs  of  the  Indians, 
the  visitors  wore  hunters  or  traders  who  used  their  opportunitie«j 
in  collecting  miraculous  stories  for  the  oars  of  those  who  awaited) 
their  return,  and  the  number  of  such  stories  reqiiired  of  each  new 
one,  as  the  price  of  its  acceptance,  that  it  be  more  exciting  than 
its  predecessors. 

When  an  intelligent  foresight  suggested  the  systematic  ex- 
ploration of  new  territories,  the  first  step  was  taken  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  institutions  which  are  now  the  pride  of  America. 
Though  it  was  the  desire  to  know  more  of  the  mineral  and  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  undiscovere<l  portions  of  our  country 
that  started  the  first  expeditions  westward,  still  the  intelligent 
men  who  were  in  charge  brought  back  much  of  interest  and  value 
to  the  ethnologist.  These  erjieditions  increased  in  number  and 
uBofulnuBS,  and  their  reports  are  still  sources  of  interesting  infor- 
mation. The  objects  which  were  brought  back  t/>  serve  as  model4 
for  the  illustrations  soon  formed  a  nucleus  for  coUections  which" 
are  now  studied  by  anthropologists  of  all  countries. 

The  wisdom  of  invest  iguting  the  customs  of  the  Indians  of 
North  America,  and  of  preserving  specimens  of  their  work,  has 
m  *  so  apparent  that  we  have  in  the  United  States  three 

in^i -ii  di.iing  more  toward  collecting  information  about  its 

native  pwiple  than  is  or  has  been  done  by  any  other  country  of 
Apworld.    Theaoare,*'  '^tution  and  the  a]li^:*dj 

Httflpa^  Mn^mn.  the  (  ,  and  the  Armv  Medi*l 


r»  scisxcs  m 


was 


TheM 


The  Smithsonian  Ixstitctios  akd  thk  Katiokal.  MusEr 
—The  will  of  Smithson  in  founding  this  institution  rr-"  ^  '  ^ 
one  proviso  regardiug  Ms  organization^  that  it  was  t 
increase  and  diffusion  of  knovrledga'*  The  mu^*:  u;  i  :• 
purely  incidental :  spieicinienfl  were  sent,  ztccompaii y  i : 
that  were  addressed  to  the  institution;  they  wow^  jr 
with  the  colk^^tion  of  binls  brought  hy  Baird 
Railroad  expedition  formed  the  beginning  of  a  _.  .^.,. 
objects,  growing  rapidly  in  number  at  the  return  of  each  expodi- 
tion,  were  taken  care  of  in  the  Su/  '  '  '  "  "'jg,  until  th« 
large  gifts  rwceived  from  many  fiirtr;_     ^  and  Trivrtt*) 

exhibitors  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  1876  made  it  '. 
to  erect  a  separate  building,  which  is  now  known  as  the  2>  aiiLfmu 
Museum. 

Prof.  Goo<1g,  who  was  wisely  placed  in  charge  of  the  c- 
secured  at  once  the  asBintance  of  volunteer  curate  "^  ♦      " 
the  museum  staff,  and  with  their  co-operation  el.^ 
fected  a  scheme  which  may  be  called,  in  its  fruitiuu,  au  A 
logical  Kindergarten.    Prof.  Qoode  considers  as  the  <•'■►'• 
Man,  and  aims  to  illustrate  as  far  as  possible  the  do 
everything  that  contributes  to  his  welfare,  comfort,  i.: 

ment,  that  is  hurtful  or  benchcial  to  him,  or  that  affects  h 

or  (esthetic  nature.  No  monstrosity  finds  a  place,  nor  does  any 
object  of  sentimental  association  receive  aw' 

The  first  successful  attempt  to  embrace  i  ie  Kienoc*  cif 

anthropology  under  one  systematic  classification  waA  made  by 
Prof.  0.  T.  Mason.  Its  adoption  as  the  1  '  '  *'  "  'thaoniaD 
exhibit  at  the  Centennial  gave  to  it  the  ii  rvog.    It 

is,  with  such  modifications  as  its  practical  application  have  si^- 
gested,  now  followed  in  the  National  Museum,  where  Prof  ^' 
has  charge  of  the  department  of  nnthropolcjgy,  nn*l  ht*^ 
the  Anthropological  Society  of  Washington  its  pi 

The  science  of  anthropology  is  now  divided  i-  .., ,_v.> 
tional  Museum  and  the  Army  Medical  Museum^  in  ot-' 
buildings,  OS  follows:  AU  speci- 

side  of  the  science,  collected  by  i i ,  :..  .   ^  „.     i 

In  the  Army  Medical  Museum.  This  includes  anatomy,  pLya- 
ology,  embryology,  anthropometry,  and  1      '     '  = 

On  the  other  hand,  all  specimens   w  imaca. 

arts,  sociology,  customs,  beliefs,  etc.,  of  man,  j. 
army,  are  deposited  in  the  National  Museum,     ii. 
two  institutions  work  in  hannony,  and  do  not  dvi , 
other's  work. 

The    division  of  onthro;--^  •"-   ■"   ♦^■•^  ^^^^r..».n^   \r., 
orgaiuzed  into  departments 
KIND,  in  which  are  included,  in  their  i>* 


ANTHROPOLOGY  AT   WASHlNGTOK, 


789 


plants;  foods  and  textiles;  fisheries  (showing  methods  of  taking 
and  utilizing  marine  animals) ;  naval  architecture  (starting  with 
the  bark  boat,  the  skin  boat,  the  raft,  aud  the  dug-out,  and  trac- 
ing the  evolution  of  naval  architecture  to  the  ocean  steamer) ; 
graphic  arts;  history  and  numismatics;  and  land  transportation 
(Ixiginning  with  the  simplest  device  for  locomotion  and  trans- 
portation, and  ending  with  the  railroad) ; — Ethnoi-ogy,  in  which 
is  included  the  fullest  collection  of  American  pottery  in  the 
worlii ; — and  Prehistoric  Archeology,  in  a  magnificent  collec- 
tion, occupying  the  entire  npi)er  story  of  the  Smithsonian  bnilri- 
ing.  The  American  portion  was  classified  by  the  lat*?  Dr.  Charles 
Rao.  The  European  collection,  founded  by  Mr.  Thomas  Wilson, 
is  arranged  accor<ling  to  the  chart  of  De  Mortillet. 

As  avennes  of  publication  the  Museum  has  the  "  Reports," 
"Miscellaneous  Collections,"  and  "*  Contributions"  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  its  own  "  ProceodingB,"  "  Bulletin,"  and 
"  Transactions." 

For  obtaining  collections,  it  relies  upon  gifts  and  dejwsits, 
which  are  often  very  lil>eral ;  the  material  collected  by  ofhcers  of 
the  army  and  navy,  Hyrlrographic  Bureau,  Coast  Survey,  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  consular  service,  etc.,  which 
given  to  it  by  law;  gifts  turned  over  by  public  expositioua 
Id  fairs  at  their  close;  and  international  exchanges.  The  ma- 
terial thus  accruing  is  received  as  fast  as  the  staff  of  the  Museum 
att-end  to  it. 

The  Bureau  op  Ethnology. — The  bureau,  as  at  present  con- 
stituted, was  organized  in  1879,  when  an  appropriation  of  twenty- 
five  thousand  dollars  ^as  made  by  Congress  for  "  the  prosecution 
of  ethnologic  resoarchee  among  the  North  American  Indians," 
During  each  of  the  succeeding  years  an  eqiial  or  larger  appropn«j 
atiou  has  been  made,  the  amount  np  to  the  present  time  aggregat-' 
ing  tlxroe  hundred  thousand  dollars.  This  amount  has  been  ex- 
pended for  field  and  office  work,  Tlio  force  oflicially  connected 
with  the  bureau,  and  constituting  its  staff  of  workers,  consists  of 
specialists  trained  in  the  several  lines  of  research,  each  working 
independently  in  his  own  field,  but  each  giving  assistance,  and 
receiving  assistance  from  every  other,  as  tbe  lines  of  investiga- 
tion touch  and  overlap  each  other.  The  whole  is  under  tbe  direc* 
tion  of  Major  J.  W.  Powell.  Results  of  great  value  are  derived 
by  stimulating  and  guiding  research  on  tbe  part  of  collaborators 
in  different  parts  of  the  country  who  are  not  officially  connected 
with  the  bureau. 

Of  the  researches  at  present  conducted  by  the  burean,  the 
ni  7  tbose  in  linguistics.    Owing  to  the 

bit-.-..  ...  system  and  the  consolidation  of  the 

^^^  i   triliQs,  to  tlie  ailoption  by  the  Indiana  of 


790 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE 


civilized  manners  and  pursuits,  and  to  the  extinction  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  coiLiitry  of  t'  '  juiige  witi;  *'  '  '  ^  Viko 
tbem,  the  Indian  lan^J..  fiust  di*..-  iurc 
of  the  earth.  Accordingly,  a  Urge  share  of  the  time  und  leibor  of 
the  bureau  force  has  been,  and  will  continue  to  be,  devoted  to  the 
record  and  preservation  of  alwriginal  languii^^es.  Each  year  one  or 
more  trained  linguistic  scholars  are  dispatchwl  to  remote  parts  «.• 
the  country,  charged,  as  their  prime  duty,  with  the  task  of  collec 
iug  as  much  as  possible  of  the  speech  of  obsciire  tribes.  To  faci] 
tate  their  work,  and  to  aid  and  encourage  Hngir  lents  i 
all  portions  of  the  country,  a  .spticial  work  has  L. .  i  , ,  ,  ured  by 
the  director,  entitled  ""  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Indian  Lan- 
gnages." 

Comparatively  little  time  can  be  devoted  at  preitent  to  the 
analysis  and  study  of  the  languages  collect«d«  The  prtts«iug  n<ii»d 
of  the  moment  is  their  preservation  for  the  use  n  1  *  '  f  fu- 
ture scholars,  Nevertlieless,  the  study  is  by  no  m*  aeg- 
lectedy  as  will  be  apimreut  from  the  fact  that  monographs  are  now 
being  prepared  upon  the  Dakota  languagRs,  by  J.  Owen  Dorscy ; 
upon  the  Klamath  language,  by  A.  S.  Gatschett ;  upon  the  Tuscan 
rora  language,  by  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt;  and  upon  Cherokee,  by  James 
Mooney, 

Much  has  been  accomplished  in  the  direction  of  a  compariaou 
of  vocabularies  and  the  classification  of  the  tribes  by  1.  A 

book  embodying  the  final  results  of  this  study,  by  Jtfii^  .   .     ,^oU, 
which  has  been  many  years  in  progress,  will  soon  appeor.    The 
number  of  distinct  linguistic  families  ■ 
north  of  Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  diacov* 

sixty,  while  the  languages  included  in  these  probably  numbered 
not  less  than  three  hundred.  A  colored  i  'been  coir*  '  \ 
and  is  now  ready  for  publication,  setting  :  o  areas  <> 

by  the  linguistic  families. 

Another  important  work,  now  far  advanced  toward  comr^  *  ■  " 
is  a '' Dictionary  of  Tribal  Names/' in  charge  of  Mr.  II.  \' 
shaw.     In  this  will  be  assembled,  under  each  < 

families,  all  the  tribes  composing  it.     Short,  sui. .. 

and  descriptive  accounts  will  appear  under  the  head  of  e*cl 

and  tribe,  while  cross-references  will  refer  !<•  ■ 

each  tribe  the  vast  body  of  synonyms  which  ) 

ature  since  the  earliest  published  acoonnts.    It  ig  calculated  that 

the  above  material  will  fill  h      '  r    *      ^  '  ' 

Mounds. — The  important  ^ 
east  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  is  u  - 
whoBe  investigations  cover  a  pono<i 
three  volumes  which  wilJ  contain  h. 
for  the  presOi    A  very  large  number  of  mnu. 


i 


AWTmtOPOLOQT  AT  WASffJyOTOX 


79t 


I 


I 


lmT6  been  surveyed,  photographed,  and  explored,  vriih  a  view  to 
aaoertaiD  their  nature,  purposes,  and  contents,  and  a  considerable 
body  of  facts  pertaining  thereto  has  been  ga.there<L 

RuiNa — Aboriginal  remains  of  this  class  are  chiefly  confined 
to  the  Territories  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Their  examination 
is  in  charge  of  Victor  Mindidoff,  who  is  now  preparing  an  exten- 
sively illustrated  work  upon  them.  Each  visit  to  these  regions 
results  in  the  discovery  of  hitherto  unknown  groups  of  these  in- 
teresting ruina  A  large  number  have  been  photographed  and 
surveyed  so  carefully  that  models  of  many  of  them  have  been 
made  to  a  scale,  and  are  now  on  exhibition  in  the  National  Mu- 
seum, Careful  examination  of  the  methods  of  architecture  of  the 
ruins  connects  them  closely  witli  the  existing  pueblos,  among  the 
present  inhabitants  of  which  indeed  have  been  found  exact  tradi- 
tions of  the  former  occupancy  of  these  ruins  by  their  ancestors, 
while  the  rinses  that  letl  to  their  abandoument  are  often  known. 

Sign-Language  and  Pictography. — The  collection  and  study 
of  the  material  for  a  monograph  on  these  sxibjects  is  in  charge  of 
Colonel  Oarrick  Mallery.  Nowhere,  jjorhaps — at  least  in  modem 
times — has  the  sign-language  been  so  extensively  use<l  as  in 
America,  The  collection  of  the  gestures  employed  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  and  their  (roni]»ari3on  with  those  used  in 
other  parts  of  the  world,  have  involved  great  labor,  but  are  now 
nearly  completed.  The  study  of  pictographs  is  a  natural  correla- 
tive to  that  of  gesture-language,  the  latter  being  an  earlier  form 
of  the  preceding.  Various  portions  of  the  United  States  have! 
been  visited,  and  a  large  number  of  pictographs  have  been  photo- 
graphed or  sketched.  These  occur  in  the  form  of  petroglyphs  or 
rock-carvings,  of  paintings  on  the  hides  of  animals,  and  etchings' 
on  birch-bark.  Colonel  MalleiVs  final  report  upon  the  above  sub- 
ject may  be  looked  for  at  no  d  istant  day. 

Mythology. — The  number  of  myths  current  among  any  one 
Indian  tribe  is  surprising;  and,  as  they  differ  to  a  greater  or  leas 
degree  even  among  tribes  of  the  same  locality  and  are  quite  dis- 
tinct in  different  regions,  their  total  number  in  the  country  at 
large  is  enormous.  As  ideas  of  a  religious  or  superstitious  char- 
acter are  known  to  be  very  enduring,  it  has  been  thought  by 
some  that  myths  may  prove  an  important  adjunct  in  the  work  of 
classifying  tribes.  They  are  also  important  as  constitnting  the 
philosophy  of  savagery  and1>ai'bariBra,  and  by  their  study  we  ar- 
rive more  closely  than  in  any  other  way  at  primitive  ideas  of  the 
nature  of  things,  of  the  forces  of  nature,  and  of  primitive  methods 
1  of  rMWoning.  No  op[>ortunity  has  been  lost  by  the  bureau  assist- 
ant* to  collect  Indian  myths  in  their  purity,  and  a  vast  body  of 
Ihem  are  now  awaiting  study. 
I      PHOTOOBAFffT.^The  director  of  the  boreau  bos  been  fully 


?*■ 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE 


alive  to  tho  importance  of  recording  the  pliydcAl  App6ot«tiC6; 

features,  and  methods  of  dress  of  the  Indian  in  hxA  primitive 

dition,  and  to  this  end  full  use  has  been  mado  of  the  catnora.   The 

collection  of  photographs  of  Indians  from  all  parti^ 

taken  either  in  their  homes  or  upon  the  occasion  o;  . 

ical  visits  to  Washington,  is  now  very  large,  and  consti  ■ 

of  ethnologic  material,  the  value  of  which  it  would  be  Uiilicult 

overestimate. 

Akt8  a^'d  Customs.— Although  the  rapid  eettlement  of  tlu 
country,  and  the  introduction  of  habits  ami  implemeata  of  civili 
2ation,  have  effected  great  change  in  the  arts  and  cuittomff  of  tike 
Indians,  yet  among  many  tribes  the  old  ways  of  life  bare  been 
no  means  abandoned^  and  primitive  habits  and  modes  of  thoo^it 
still  flourish.    Investigators  sent  out  by  the  bareatt  are  requirad 
to  note  the  detaila  of  the  every-day  life  of  the  Indians^  and  to  de- 
scribe such  of  their  primitive  arts  as  still  siirvive  as  well  as  tboee 
that  are  borrowed  from  civilization  and  modified  in  acoordazu^ 
with  tho  Indian  ideas.    Especial  attention  hua  been  p>uid  to 
mechanical  operations  and  appliances,  particularly  to  the 
of  pottery  and  textile  fabrics,  to  the  ideas  and  methods  of 
nal  practice,  etc.    Here,  again,  photography  has  done  good 
in  retaining,  uninfluenced  by  a  writer^s  subt^equent  ima^^: 
the  exact  method  of  using  the  different  implements  and  matismla. 
Very  large  collections  of  pottery,  clothiug, 
various  sorts  have  been  made  and  are  deposi' 
Museum. 

Of  the  publications  of  the  bureau  tli 
of  an  account  of  tho  current  yenr's  opi. 
together  with  papers  upon  a  variety  of  topic*  by  the 
aistants  and  by  collaborators.    These  reports  are  u«ua]i.> 
illustrated,  and  are  intended  to  include  subjects  of  a  pofmlar  cha^ 
acter,  or  those  which  from  their  nature  are  lik'  ••rest  % 

large  class  of  readers.    Up  to  the  present  time  i.^.    ...   ■ •' 

the  reports  have  appeared,  and  the  matter  for  VoL  V  is  re 

Tho  contributions  to  North  American  ethnol- 
volumes  appearing  at  irregular  intervals,  and  art  ...  :  :.    ._^i 
of  monograjihs  upon  special  subjects,  to  which  many  uf  the  popei* 
in  the  annual  rep  preliminary.    Tli 

important  series  ]  il  by  tlie  bureau, .. 

studies  of  the  scholars  by  whom  they  wore  written.     Uf  Umm, 

throe  volumes  have  appeared,  and  two  are  r  -  '  -  "      *'     - A 

lird  class  of  publications  embraces  the  >»- 

!nded  to  be  the  vehicle  of  publioation  of 
^Various  subjects,  the  epoedy  r-—  -'••  -"'^  ^^  '«  i,..  ^,  ,,.  ,,,^ 
far  five  such  bulletins  have  h 

During  tho  progrvtis  of  iuve»tigatio£us  which  «re  ul' 


H 


aft" 
aUy 


AXTirnOPOLOffY  AT  WASHmOTOir. 


793 


e  published  in  the  form  of  monographs,  it  is  the  custom  to  issue, 
Rs  widely  as  •  j,  circulars  intended  to  call  attention 

to  special  8u  1  >^  ^  -tigated,  and  to  iuvit-e  correspondence 

and  to  elicit  information  from  specialiats  and  investigators  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Occasionally  the  importance  of  the  suhject 
has  warranted  the  issuauco  of  such  documents  in  the  form  de- 
signed for  the  iinishe<i  work,  witb  the  view  of  setting  forth  the 
facts  gathered  and  the  progress  made  in  the  study.  The  latter 
puhlications,  however,  are  looked  upon  only  in  the  nature  of 

roof -sheets,  being  intended  for  the  temporary  nse  of  coUabora- 
iors,  and  are  to  be  recalled  and  destroyed  when  the  final  repf>rts 
are  ^mblished. 

The  Army  Medical  MrsECM. — The  anthropological  investi- 
gations which  are  fostered  by  this  institution  are  on  the  biological 
side.  The  large  collections  of  skeletons,  and  especially  of  crania, 
make  it  possible  to  secure  valuable  data  in  anthropometry.  Drs, 
Billings  and  Matthews  have  been  alive  to  the  richness  of  the  ma- 
terial at  their  disposal,  and  their  studies  in  skull  measurements 
and  composite  photography  of  crania  will  be  among  the  most 

aluablo  contributions  of  the  United  States  Government  to  an- 
thropology. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  with  the  large  number  of  anthropolo- 
sts,  together  with  such  other  students  as  the  public  and  private 
institutions  at  Washington  contain,  a  prosperous  Anthropological 
Society  should  be  in  operation.  This  society,  organized  in  1679, 
now  ha«  an  active  membershii)  of  sLxteen  hundred.  Of  the  two 
hundred  and  more  lepers  that  have  been  presented,  more  than 
half  were  by  persona  who  were  in  the  institutions  already  de- 

cribed.    Four  volumes  of  "  Transactions  "  have  been  published, 
d  the  society  is  now  issuing  a  quarterly  of  ninety-six  pages. 
The  following  are  the  titles  of  the  principal  papers  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology : 


ANirUAI-  REPORTS. 

Vol.  I.  Washington,  1881 : 

1.  •*<Jn  Uio  Evolutton  of  Lanffuago/'  hj  J.  W.  Powell. 

3.  "Sketch  of  the  Mythology  of  tho   North  American  Indians,"  by  J.  W. 
PoweD. 

8.  **Oontribntioa  to  the  Study  of  tho  Hortnary  Caatoms  of  the  Korth  Ameri- 
can  lD«)ians,"  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Yftrrow. 

I      4.  "StudiM  in  Central  American  Picture TTHtioff,"  by  E.  S.  TToMoo. 
I      6.  **C6aaions  of  Land  by  [ndliin  Trihca  to  tho  United  States,"  by  <J.  0.  Royee, 

0.  "Slgn-Langiiaire  anions  North  Aiii&rioan  Indiana  compared  with  tbati 
other  Ptiuplea  and  De&f-Mutvs,'^  hy  Garrick  Mallvry. 

VoUn.  1888: 

1.  "ZTinl  Fedehca,"  by  F.  0,  Cnahing. 
fi.  "Mythi  of  ili«  Iroqaoia,"  by  E.  A.  8mith. 


^94  thspopularsciSncSmonthEt.  M 

8.  *' AnimAl  CarvingB  from  MonndA  of  th«  )lCiaiSMl|ypl  Vaairj,*'  bj  H.  W.  Vim- 

4.  "X&v^Jo  SUvorfimithfi,''  bj  Dr.  W.  Matthevrs.  M 

0.  "  Art  in  Shell  of  tho  Ancient  Amoricaua,**  by  W.  n.  tlobneflw  9 
Vol.  ni,  1888:  1 

1.  "  Notes  on  Certain  Mnya  find  Mciioon  Mflnnfwripts'*  by  Cyma  TlioBuyL 

2.  "Masks,  Labrets,  and  Certain  Aboriginnl  CoHtomfl»"  bv  W  If.  ThXL  _ 
8.  "Omaha  Sociology."  by  J.  O.  Donwy.  m 
4.  "Xavjijo  Weavow,"  by  Dr.  W.  Matthew*.  1 
6,  "  Probifltoric  Textile  FabricB  of  the  United  States  dertrcd  from  It.;  r  -    J 

00  Pottery,"  by  W.  Q.  OolmMi  ^ 

Vol.  IV,  1886:  1 

1.  **  Pioto^aphi  of  the  North  American  Indians :  a  Preliminary  P^xr/*  by 
Garriok  Mallery.  _ 

2.  "  Pottery  of  the  Ancient  Pneblod,"  by  W.  H.  Holmes.  ■ 
8.  "Ancient  Pottery  of  tho  Miesiftslppi  ValleT,"  by  W.  U.  Holme*. 

4.  "Origin  and  Development  of  Form  and  Ornament  in  Ceramic  Art,**  by  W, 
H.  Holmesi. 

fi.  "A  Study  of  Pneblo  Pottery  ai  illnatrating  ZuAl  Cii]tar«-Growtb,^  by  F. 
H.  Cashing.  ■ 

Vol,  V,  1887:  " 

1,  *»  Burial  Mounds  of  the  Northern  Section  of  the  United  BUIm,"  bj  Cyrm 
Thomas.  j 

2.  "The  Cherokee  Nation  of  Indiana,"  by  O.  0.  Royoe.  ■ 
8.  "Tha  Mountain  Chant;  u  Navajo  Ceremony,"  by  Dr.  W.  Vattb^va.  I 
4.  "Tho  Seminole  Indians  of  FlorhU,"  by  Clay  Maccanley.  ^ 
6.  "The  Religious  Life  of  the  Zufli  Child/*  by  Mrs.  T.  R  Btercoaot.  I 

CONTKIBUTION8  TO   NORTH   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOOT.  % 

Vol  I,  Washington,  Ift77 :  ^ 

1.  "Tribes  of  Ibe  Extreme  Northwest."  by  W.  H-  Dull. 

2.  "Tribes  of  Western  Waablnpton  Territory  and  Northwestern  Orcgoa,^  by 
Georire  Gibbs.  ■ 

Vol.  II.     Not  published.  I 

Vol.  HI,  1877:  I 

"  Tribes  of  California,"  by  Stephen  Powers,  with  on  Appendix  on  t;iagnut4H 
by  J.  W.  Powell  J 

Vol  IV,  pp.  xi-29I,  Washington,  1881.  I 

'*Hon»H«s  and  Huui»e-Life  of  the  American  AborlglDO^'*  by  Lewit  KorBSiL.  1 
Vol  V,  1883: 

1.  "Ohserratinns  on  Cup-shaped  and  other  Lapiiiarian  Scolptsr*  la  tlM  0|^ 
World  and  In  America,"  by  0.  Kaa.  1 

2.  "On  Prehisturio  Trephining  and  Cranial  Am    '  v  Kohert  VlM^hv. 
8.  "A  Study  of  tho  Manuscripl  Troano,"  by  C;.  ^aa. 

BITLUCTIN8,  1 

1.  "Ancient  luhahitftnta  of  OhlHqal,  Istbmttt  of  iltarian,"  by  W,  It.  Bcia«> 
P^  27,  22  cuu.     ^  -  -  m 

2.  "Work  in  ;.  tkm  of  (1m  BimM  ui  CXlMBtoff^r  br  CnM 
Thoman    Pp.  13.     Waahington,  1887.  1 


DIGESTIOX  AND  RELATED  FUNCTIONS, 


795 


Pp.T-87.   Vaih- 


*' Perforated  Stonos  from  California,"  bj  H.  W.  HcDflhaw.    Pp.  84,  Id  oats. 

ingtoD,  1337. 

"  Bibliogrraphj  of  the  Eskimo  Longna^'*  by  J.  0.  Pilling.    Pp.  7-115. 
WoBlnnglon,  1887. 
^^     0.  *'  Bibliography  of  the  Slooaa  Langoogo,"  by  J.  0.  Pilling. 
^hngloD.  1R87. 

^H      ft.  "  Indian  Teitile  Fabrics  of  Ancient  Pem,"  by  W.  11.  Hohnea. 
^1      7.  "  Problems  of  the  Ohio  Moimda,"  by  Cyrua  Thoiiiaa. 
^^       8.  **  Bibliop-aphy  of  the  Iroqaijiuu  Langaogef^'  b?  J.  C.  Pilling. 

r'^e  thiw  bv  J.  0.  PilliuK  &r«  (ivparat«  anO  extundeO  parts  ot  a  work  vrhloh 
'illing  lint  published  a*  proof-«heeU  of  ft  **  Bibliography  of  the  Longnagea  of 


DIGESTION  AND  RELATED  FUNCTIONS.* 

Bt  WESLEY  MILLS,  H.  D.. 
moruton  or  rnmcLooT  oi  hcoill  uvrrEKarrr. 


"T  is  a  matter  well  recognized  by  tliose  of  much  experience  in 
breeding  and  keeping  animala  with  restricted  freedom  and 
ider  other  conditions  differing  widely  from  the  natural  ones — 
&>  those  under  which  the  animals  exist  in  a  wild  state — that  the 
lature  of  the  food  must  vary  from  that  which  the  untamed  ances- 
tors of  our  domestic  animals  used.  Food  may  often  vn\!t  advan- 
tage be  cooked  for  the  tame  and  confined  animal.  The  digestive 
and  the  assimilative  powers  have  varie<i  with  other  change-s  in 
the  organism  brought  about  by  the  new  surroundings.  So  much 
is  this  the  case,  that  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  common  experi- 

Ience  and  to  more  exact  experiments  to  ascertain  the  best  methods 
bf  feeding  animals  for  fattening,  for  work,  or  for  breeding.  In- 
ferences drawn  from  the  feeding  habits  of  wild  animals  allied  to 
the  tame  to  be  valuable  must  always,  before  being  applied  to  the 
latter,  be  subjected  to  correction  by  the  results  of  experience. 

To  a  still  greater  degree  does  this  apply  to  man  himself.  The 
greater  his  advances  in  civilization,  the  more  he  departs  from 
primitive  habits  in  other  respects,  the  more  must  he  depart  in  his 
feeding*  With  the  progressive  development  of  man's  cerebrum, 
the  keener  struggle  for  place  and  power,  the  more  his  nervous  en- 
ergies are  diverted  from  tlie  lower  functions  of  digestion  and  as- 
similation of  food;  hence  the  greater  nef'd  that  food  shall  be  more 
carefully  selected  and  more  thoroughly  and  scientifically  pre- 
pared. Not  only  so,  but,  with  our  increasing  refinement,  the  jirog- 
of  digestion  to  successful  issues  demands  that  the  senses  of 
be  ministered  to  in  order  that  there  be  no  iuterferencea  in 
khe  contra]  nervou*  system,  and  every  encouragement  given  to 

rrom  adraoot  fbartf  of  a  ccxt-book  oa  **  Anlnul  Pbyilologj  **  in  prvu  of  D.  Appl^ 
toa  A€k^ 


79*5 


TRS  POPULAR  SCrSXCX  JfOSTffZr. 


the  latter  to  furnish  tbe  nec^esanr  n(?rvons  impolses  to  1 
ive  organs  and  the  tissues  '  '  i}ia  /»rCTnt8t  'is 

not  enough  that  food  be  'i  .,  ^iiuary  jaeuN-  .  i4 

al8o  he  huilt  up  into  the  tissues,  a  process  depending,  as  ure  ebaQ 
endeavor  to  show  later,  on  the  nervous  eystem. 

The  '*  gastronomic,  art  "  has,  therufore,  become  of  gT<Mit  impor- 
tance. It  is  as  yet  more  of  an  art  than  a  science ;  the  ciK>k  bae  out* 
stripped  the  physiologist,  if  not  tbe  chemist  abo,  in  this  diroctiotu 

We  can  not  explain  fully  why  food  prDp«r*<l  hy  rArl«mi  meth- 
ods and  served  in  courses  of  a  certain  ostabt  -  -  so  suited 
to  refijxed  man.  A  part  is  known,  hut  a  grt^^  .x.  ,,i  i  ^  iuains  to  be 
discovered.  We  may,  however,  notice  a  few  pointfi  of  importaito» 
in  regard  to  the  preparation  of  food. 

It  is  now  well  established  by  experience  that  animaU  kept  in 
confinement  must  have,  in  order  to  escape  disease  and  attain  tha 
best  residts  on  the  whole,  a  diet  which  not       '    '    *  '       .,f 

thecorresponding  wild  forms  generally,  but  ■  ujr 

be,  with  altered  proportions  or  added  constituents,  in  conj^nenoe 
of  the  difference  in  the  environment.  To  illustrate :  pooltry  can 
not  be  kept  healthy  confined  in  ashed  without  sand,  graved, oM 
mortar,  or  some  similar  preparation ;  indt^ed,  for  the  best  rarahi 
they  must  have  green  food  also,  as  lettuce,  cabbage,  ehopptd 
green  clover,  grass,  etc.  They  do  not  ref^uire  as  mnch  food  aa  if 
they  had  the  exercise  afforded  by  running  hither  ai;  r  over 

a  large  field.  We  have  chosen  this  examjde  becaosu  .i  ;..  ^-^L  com- 
monly recognized  that  our  domesticated  birds  have  bMn  so  modi- 
fied that  special  Htudy  must  be  made  of  t^  in  all 

casee  if  they  are  not  to  degenerate.    The  fa^     

cattle,  horses,  and  dogs  are  perhaps  better  knowtL 

But  all  these  instances  are  simple  as  compart  wiui  maiL 
The  lower  maniranls  can  live  and  Htmrish  with  comparatxvely 
little  change  of  diet ;  not  so  man.  He  demands  food  not  oolj  di» 
similar  in  its  actual  grosser  nature,  but  differen''-  :  ^  pared.  In 
a  word,  for  the  efferent  nervous  impulses,  on  v  .  di^^esiive 

prtx^esses  depend,  to  be  properly  supplied,  it  has  became  Decenary 
that  a  variety  of  afferent  impulses  (through  eyp  •-»•*  ""^•*  *ialat«) 
reach  the  nervous  centers,  attuning  them  to  bar  :  thej 

shall  act,  yet  not  interfere  -with  one  another. 

Cooking  greatly  alters  the  chemical  conn 
cal  condition,  and,  in  consequence,  the  flav*  f 
the  nutritive  value  of  fooda    To  illustral- 
dition  would  present  mechanical  ditficnlti*  ^ 

permeating  it  less  completely ;  an  obstacle,  however,  of  i 
magnitude  in  '.'  of  most  vegetable  food«.     V 

tain  chtmiicaJ  .  i  Is  are  replaced  by  other  v 

be  wholly  removed.    As  a  rule,  boiling  is  not  a  good  form  ■ 


oHfiii    tin*  nii«i'Tir«nJ» 


DWESTION  AND  EELATSD  FUJ^CTIOXS, 


797 


Hpivring  meat,  booanse  it  withdraws  not  only  salts  of  importance, 
Hl)ut  proteids  and  tlie  extractives — nitrogenous  and  other.  Beef- 
Hteu  is  valuable  chiody  because  of  these  extractives,  though  it  also 
Hcontaios  a  little  gelatin,  albiuuin,  and  fats.  Salt  meat  furnishes 
Bless  nutriment,  a  large  part  having  been  removed  by  the  brine; 
Buotwithstandiiig,  all  jwrsuuB  at  times,  and  some  frequently,  find 
Hfiach  food  highly  beneficial,  theeHect  being  doubtless  not  confined 
^to  the  aliment*vry  tract. 

Meat,  according  to  the  heat  employed,  may  be  so  cooked  as  to 
Krotain  the  greater  part  of  its  juices  within  it  or  the  reverse. 
"With  a  high  temperature  (06°  to  70"  C.)  the  outside  in  roasting 
may  be  so  quickly  hardened  as  to  retain  the  juices, 

In  feeding  dogs  it  is  both  physiological  and  ocononiical  to  give 
the  animal  the  broth  as  well  as  the  meat  itself.  The  poor  man 
may  get  excellent  food  cheaply  by  using  not  alone  the  meat  of  the 
shank  of  beef,  but  the  soup  (extractives)  derived  from  iL  There 
ifl  much  waste  not  only  by  the  consumption  of  more  food  than  is 
necessary,  but  by  the  purchase  of  kinds  in  which  that  important 
Kclass,  the  proteids,  comes  at  too  high  a  price. 

B  It  is  remarkable  in  the  highest  degree  that  man's  appetite,  or 
the  instinctive  clioice  of  food,  has  proved  wiser  than  our  science. 
It  would  be  impossible  even  yet  to  match,  by  calculations  based 
ou  any  data  we  can  obtain,  a  diet  for  eiich  man  ctjual  upon  the 
Bwhole  to  what  his  instincts  prompt.  With  the  lower  mammals 
™we  can  prescribe  with  greater  success.  At  the  same  time  chemi- 
cal and  physiological  science  can  lay  down  general  principles 
» based  on  actual  experience,  which  may  serve  to  correct  some  arti- 
ficialities acquired  by  perseverance  in  habits  that  were  not  based 
on  the  true  instincts  of  a  sound  body  and  a  healthy  mental  and 

Eioral  nature;  for  the  influence  of  the  latter  can  not  be  safely 
n^ored  even  in  such  discussions  as  the  present.  These  remarks, 
owever,  are  meant  to  be  suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive. 
Wo  may  with  advantage  inquire  into  the  nature  of  hunger  and 
lirst.  These,  as  we  know,  are  safe  guides  usually  in  eating  and 
drinking. 

After  a  long  walk  on  a  warm  day  one  feels  thirsty;  the  mouth 

usually  dry;  at  all  events,  moistening  the  mouth, especially  the 

it  (pharynx),  will  of  itself  partially  relieve  thirst.     But  if 

hin  quiet  for  a  little  time  the  thirst  grows  less,  even  if  no 

fluid  be  taken*    The  dryness  has  been  relieved  by  the  natxiral  se- 

iretiona.    If,  however,  fluid  be  introduced  into  the  bloo*l  either 

:eotly  or  through  the  alimentary  canal,  the  thirst  is  also  relieved 

ly.    The  fact  that  we  know  when  to  stop  drinking  water 

Tows  of  it«'i  ■'    '         '  ist  be  local  sensations  that  guide  ua^ 

for  it  is  not  [  va  that  the  whole  of  the  fluid  taken 

can  at  once  hare  entered  the  blood. 


798 


TRE  POPULAR  SCFSirCB  MONTHLY. 


Again,  in  the  case  of  hanger,  the  introdaction  of  ixinatiiiUnic 
matters,  as  earth  or  sawdxist,  will  somewhat  relieve  the  nr^joBt 
sensationa  in  extreme  cases,  as  will  also  the  use  of  t'lKncm  bj 
smokers,  or  much  mental  occupation,  though  this  is  r.  j»^ 

trative  of  the  lessening  of  the  consciousness  of  t!i  ^ 

pulses  by  diverting  the  att^^ution  from  them.    Bi 
thirst,  may  be  mitigated  by  injections  into  the  int*?s-  lj» 

bloixh     It  is,  theryfoi"e,  clear  that,  while  in  the  case  of  h  mii.-  i  ^ud 
thirst  there  is  a  local  expreasion  of  a  need,  a  peculiar  wniuiiioii. 
more  pronounced  in  certain  parts  (the  fauces  in  the  chj^m  of  thi^^H 
the  stomach  in  that  of  hunger),  yet  these  may  be  appoamxl  fnV 
within  through  the  medium  of  the  blood,  as  well  as  from  withoct 
by  the  introduction  of  food  or  water,  a  -    "  ■   -ly  be. 

Up  t<^)  the  preHent  we  have  assameo  :  atiges  wrcniglt 

in  the  food  in  the  alimentary  tract  were  identical  with  tboae  pra- 
duced  by  the  digestive  ferments  as  obtained  by  extracts  of  tlie 
organs  naturally  furnishiug  them.  But  for  many  reasouB  it  mods 
probable  that  arti£cial  digestion  can  not  be  reganiod  as  {larulld 
with  the  natural  processes  except  in  a  very  general  wr.--  ^*'*^?t 
we  take  into  account  the  absence  of  muscular  niovei'  .;> 

lated  according  to  no  rigid  princifiles,  but  var;  atmias^ 

able  circumstances  in  all  probability,  the  abKeiic .^^iluetue 

of  the  nervous  system  determining  the  variations  ia  the  qtiantHj 
and  composition  uf  the  outflow  of  the  secretions :  the  cbangw  ia 
the  rate  of  so-called  abf^orption,  which  doubtless  infloezusefl 
the  act  of  the  secretion  of  the  juices— by  these  and  a  host  of 
considerations  we  are  led  to  hesitate  before  we  commit  om 
t<>o  unroeorvodly  to  the  belief  that  the  processes  of  natnral 
tion  can  be  exactly  imitated  in  the  laboratory. 

What  is  it  which  enables  one  man  to  '' 
may  be  almost  a  poison  to  another  ?    Hov 

dispose  readily  of  a  food  at  one  time  that  at  it  >• 

digestible  ?    To  reply  that,  in  the  one  case.  t>i»-  » >  _  i  u*  i»it 

poured  out  and  in  the  other  not,  is  to  go  ljt!l<    '•  trfticiv 

for  one  asks  the  reason  of  thiit,  if  it  lie  a  f hi  ^  &. 

When  we  look  further  into  the  peculiaritie*  oi  ■• 

recognize  the  influence  of  race  as  such,  and  in  t ;  i>> 

dividual  that  obtmsive  though  ill-nn  '  (iict — L.  f 

Jtabit,  operative  here  as  elsewhere.    Aix .   : ..  :  -  can  Vi.*  '  j; 

that  the  habits  of  a  people,  as  to  food  eaten  and  ti  J- 

iarities  established,^  become  organized,  fixed,  and  trxu^siuittui  U> 
posterity. 

It  is  probably  in  this  way  that,  in  the  coarse  of  the  evohitkn 
of  the  various  groLi        "'      '      '    ^^      ^  .     _    __       _  .^jj 

in  their  choice  of  i  if 

know  tht-m  thoroughly  us  they  are;  fortoitf 


DIGSSTION  AITD  RELATED  FUNCTIOl^S, 


799 


digestion  of  manmials  can  be  summed  up  in  tbo  simple  way  now 
prevalent  seems  to  us  too  broad  an  assumption.    The  tield  is  very 
n    wide,  and  as  yet  but  little  explored. 

H      Human  Physioloov.— The  study  of  Alexis  St  Martin  has 
^  furnished  probably  the  best  example  of  genuine  human  physi- 
ology  to  be  found,  and  has  yielded  a  harvest  rich  in  results. 

We  suggest  to  the  student  that  self-observation,  without  In- 
terfering with  the  natural  processes,  may  lead  to  valuable  knowl- 
edge ;  for,  though  it  may  lack  some  of  the  precision  of  laboratory 
experiments,  it  will  prove  in  many  respects  more  instructive,  sug- 
gestive, and  impressive,  and  have  a  bearing  on  medical  practice 
that  will  make  it  telling.  Not  that  we  would  be  understood  now 
or  at  any  time  as  depreciating  laboratory  experiments,  but  we  wish 
^  to  point  out  from  time  to  time  how  much  may  bo  learned  in  ways 
H  that  are  simple,  inexpensive^  and  consume  but  little  time. 

The  law  of  rhtjihm  is  illustrated,  both  in  health  and  disease,  in 
striking  ways  in  the  digestive  tract.  An  individual  long  accus- 
tomed to  eat  at  a  certain  hour  of  the  day  will  experience  at  that 
■  time  not  only  hunger,  but  other  sensations,  probably  referable  to 
secretion  of  a  certain  quantity  of  the  digestive  juices  and  to  the 
movements  that  usually  accompany  the  presence  of  food  in  the 
alimentary  tract.  Some  pei-sons  find  their  digestion  disordered 
,     by  a  change  in  the  hours  of  meals. 

■  It  is  well  known  that  defecation  at  periods  fixod,  even  within 
,  a  few  minute's,  has  become  an  established  habit  with  hosts  of 
people ;  and  the  same  is  to  a  degree  true  of  dogs,  etc.,  kept  in 
confinement,  tauglit  clwmly  habits,  and  encouraged  therein  by 

I  regular  attention  to  their  needs. 
Now  and  then  a  case  of  what  is  very  similar  to  regurgitation 
of  food  in  ruminanlit  irt  to  be  found  among  human  beings.    This 
is  traceable  to  habit,  which  is  bound  up  with  the  law  of  rhythm 
or  periodic  increased  and  diminished  activity. 
H       Indeed,  every  one  sufliciently  observant  may  notice  iu  himself 
Vinstances  of  the  application  of  this  law  in  the  economy  of  his  own 
digestive  organs. 

This  tendency  is  important  in  preserving  energy  for  higher 
ends,  for  such  ia  the  result  of  the  operation  of  this  law  every- 
where. 

The  law  of  corrdatimi,  or  mutual  dependence,  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  series  of  organs  composing  the  idimentary  tract. 

^  Ution  of  the  stomach  has  its  counterpart  in  the  rest 

L  of  t.  _  I ;  thus,  when  St.  Martin  had  a  disordered  stomach,  the 

H«pithelium  of  his  tongue  showed  corresponding  changes. 
^^^■■^  1  ^      "     ^     '    '   '>no  part  may  do 

^M      It  is  coniidently  asserted  of  late  that,  in  the  case  of  persons 


8oo 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTS^TCB  2fOXTR£T. 


it  in  theBIP 


long  unable  to  take  food  by  tbe  mouth,  nutritive  substances  girea 
by  enemata  find  their  way  up  to  the  duodenum  by  antiperistoMs. 
Here,  then,  ia  an  example  of  an  acquired  adaptive 
under  the  Btrees  of  circumstanceB. 

It  can  not  be  too  much  impressed  on  the  mind  that 
plicatecl  body  of  the  mammal  the  work  of  any  one  organ  is  con- 
stantly  varying  with  the  changes  elsewhere.  It  is  this  mutual 
dependence  and  adaptation — an  old  doctrine,  too  much  left  out  of 
sight  in  modem  physiology — which  makes  the  attempt  to  com- 
plitely  unravel  vital  processes  well-nigh  hopeless,  though  eafl 
accumulating  true  observation  gives  a  better  insight  into  tlsP 
kaleidosc*opic  mechanism. 

We  have  not  attempted  to  make  any  statements  as  to  the 
quantity  of  the  various  secretions  discharged.  This  is  large, 
doubtless,  but  much  is  probably  reabsorbed,  either  altered  or 
unaltered,  and  used  over  again.  In  the  case  of  fisiulfz  the  condi- 
tions are  so  unnatural  that  any  conclusions  as  to  the  normal  qoao- 
tity  from  the  data  they  afford  must  be  highly  unsatisfactory. 
Moreover,  the  quantity  must  be  very  variable,  according  to  the 
law  we  are  now  considering.  It  is  well  known  that  dry  food  pro- 
vokes a  more  abundant  discharge  of  saliva,  and  this  is  donbtlees 
but  one  example  of  many  other  relations  between  the  charactff 
of  the  food  and  the  quantity  of  secretion  provided. 

Evolution. — We  have  from  time  to  time  either  distinctly 
pointed  out  or  hinted  at  the  evolutionary  implications  of  the  facts 
of  this  department  of  physiology.  The  structure  of  the  digestiTO 
organs,  plainly  indicating  a  rising  scale  of  complexity  with  greater 
and  greater  dilTerentiation  of  function,  is,  beyond  que^^tioa,  a^ 
evidence  of  evolution.  ■ 

The  law  of  natural  selection  and  the  law  of  adaptation,  giving 
rise  to  new  forms,  have  both  operated,  we  may  believe,  from  what 
can  be  observed  going  on  around  us  and  in  ourselves.  The  oc- 
currence of  transitional  forms,  as  in  the  epithelium  of  the  digest- 
ive tract  of  the  frog,  is  also  in  harmony  with  the  conception  of  a 
progressive  evolution  of  structure  and  function.  But  the  limits 
of  space  will  not  permit  of  the  enumeration  of  details. 

Summary.— A  very  brief  risttme  of  the  subject  of  digestion 
will  probably  suffice.  fl 

Food  is  either  organic  or  inorganic,  and  comprises  proteiM 
fats,  carbohydrates,  salts,  and  water ;  and  each  of  these  must  enfl 
into  the  diet  of  all  known  animals.  Thpy  must  also  be  in  a  fofl 
that  is  digestible.  Digestion  is  the  reduction  of  food  to  a  fo^ 
such  that  it  may  be  further  dealt  with  by  the  alimentary  trfl 
prior  to  being  introduced  into  the  blood  (absorption),  ThiaJ 
effected  in  different  parts  of  the  tract,  the  various  constitueut^ 
food  being  differently  modified,  according  to  tU€i  secretions  tbM 


TffE  CHEMIST  AS  A    CONSTRUCTOR. 


601 


» 


providedp  etc.  The  digestive  juices  cxsntain  essentially  fermenta 
which  (ict  only  under  dofiuito  conditions  of  chemical  reaction, 
temperature,  t^tc. 

The  changes  wrought  in  the  food  are  the  following :  Starches 
are  converted  into  sugars,  proteids  into  pc'ptones,  and  fats  into 
fatty  acids,  soaps,  and  emulsion;  which  alterations  are  effected 
by  ptyalin  and  amylopsin,  pepsin  and  trypsin,  and  bile  and  pan- 
creatic steapsin^  respectively. 

Outside  the  raucous  membrane  containing  the  glands  are  mus- 
cular coats,  serving  to  bring  about  the  movements  of  the  ft>od 
along  the  digestive  tract  and  to  expel  the  feeces,  the  circular  fibera 
being  the  more  important.  These  movements  and  the  processes 
of  secretion  and  so-called  absorption  are  under  the  control  of  the 
nervous  system. 

The  preparation  of  the  digestive  secretions  involves  a  seriefl  of 
changoij  in  the  epithelial  cells  concerned,  which  can  bo  distinctly 
traced,  and  takes  place  in  response  to  nervous  stimulation. 

These  we  regard  as  inseparably  bound  up  with  the  healthy  life 
of  the  coll.    To  be  natural,  it  must  secrete. 

The  blood-vessels  of  the  stomach  and  intestine  and  the  villi  of 

the  latter  receive  the  digested  food  for  further  elaboration  (absorp- 

^a  tion).    The  undigested  remnant  of  food  and  the  excretions  of  the 

B intestine  make  up  the  faeces^  the  latter  being  expelled  by  a  series 

Hof  co-ordinatod  muscular  movements  essentially  reflex  in  origin* 


THE  CHEMIST  AS  A  CONSTRUCTOR 

By   W.  BERWOAEDT. 


ONE  of  the  moet  attractive  branches  of  modern  chemistry 
comprises  the  artiHcial  preparation  of  compounds  existing 
preformed  in  nature,  or,  in  other  words,  the  imitation  of  the 
works  of  creative  power.  Synthesis,  as  this  section  of  chemical 
[investigation  is  called,  although  it  has  already  attained  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  success,  is  of  but  recent  origin  compared  with 
analysis,  or  those  researches  by  which  we  become  acquainted  with 
the  composition  of  the  products  of  nature,  and  of  what  we  derive 
from  them  by  industrial  processes.  It  is  an  indispensable  con- 
|dition,  before  learning  how  to  compound  a  body,  to  know  what 
its  conatitiipntfi,  what  th^^ir  properties  are,  and  by  what  agents 
jthey  are  most  liable  to  be  brought  into  combination  with  each 
ler.  Therefore,  synthetical  processes  could  only  be  founded 
:  :'':^  of  analytical  investigations.  It  is  chiefly  to  the 
ledge  of  the  properties  and  affinities  of  tbo  seventy 
g>.''  tji  that  we  owe  the  innumerable  discoveries  which 


8o2 


T^E  POPTTLAR  SCTEyUE  MOXTRLT. 


havo  raised  chemistry  to  its  present  important  position,  together 
with  the  insight  into  the  manifold  changes  and  metamorphofiee 
which  terrestrial  matter  has  undergone  in  past  times,  and  which 
it  still  undergoes,  and  into  the  processes  active  in  vegetable  and 
ftniTnfl.1  organisms. 

The  events  preceding  the  discovery  of  the  composition  of  wat^r 
afford  a  striking  instance  of  huw  many  difficulties  had  to  l>e  over- 
come from  the  very  first  observations  on  the  chemica.1  nature  of 
this  body — ubiquitous  on  the  surface  of  the  earth — to  the  ascer- 
tainment of  its  composition,  and  to  our  ability  voluntarily  to  pre- 
pare it.  In  the  middle  ages  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle  was  pre- 
dominant, that  all  matter  consisted  of  four  elements — air,  fire, 
earth,  and  water — difference  in  properties  being  ascribed  only  to 
the  varyiag  proportions  in  which  these  elements  were  present. 
Not  much  more  was  known  of  its  physical  and  chemical  characters, 
but  that  it  may  be  brought  into  a  solid  state  by  cold  and  volatil- 
ized by  heat,  and  that  it  offers  a  good  solvent  for  many  substances. 
Paracelsus,  a  prominent  physician  and  chemist  of  the  sixteentli 
century,  found  that,  on  treating  iron  with  sulphuric  acid,  a  gas  is 
given  off.  Boyle,  in  167*4,  discovered  this  gas  to  be  inflammable; 
thirty  years  later,  its  detonating  properties  in  contact  with  aii 
became  known  ;  but  not  until  Cavendish,  in  176G,  devoted  himself 
to  the  exact  .study  of  this  gas  was  there  any  conjecture  established 
on  the  relations  existing  between  it  and  water.  In  1787  Cavendish 
made  the  discovery  that,  by  combustion  of  this  gas  in  air,  water  \a 
generated  ;  but,  prejudiced  by  the  chemical  theories  then  prevail- 
ing, he  failed  to  explain  the  process  in  the  right  way.  We  are 
indebted  to  Lavoisier  for  a  correct  definition  of  the  changes  taking 
place  in  the  combustion  of  hydrogen,  which  name  he  gave  to  the 
gas  in  question,  signifying  a  body  from  which  water  may  be  gen- 
erated by  uniting  it  with  oxygen.  Thus  Lavoisier,  supported  by 
the  discovery  of  oxygen  by  Priestley  and  Scheele  in  1774>  became 
the  originator  of  chemical  synthesis.  It  is  a  trifling  experiment 
nowadays  to  demonstrate  the  formation  of  water  by  placing  an 
inverted  glass  over  a  jet  of  burning  dry  hydrogen,  when  a  dew  of 
water  will  cover  the  sides  of  the  vessel  and  gradually  gather  into 
drops. 

A  rapid  advance  in  synthetical  knowledge  took  place  during 
the  third  and  fourth  decades  of  this  century,  the  artificial  prepa- 
ration of  a  long  series  of  organic  compounds  becoming  known; 
and  it  is  a  surprising  fact,  although  the  chemistry  of  the  carbon 
compounds,  or  organic  chemistry,  was  in  an  infantile  state  at  that 
time,  while  most  mineral  bodies  were  pretty  well  known  as  to 
their  composition  and  character,  that  the  manuf.i  ,-■  of  the 

former  with  all  their  physical  and  chemical  proj  .^as  suc- 

cessfully performed,  while  the   imitation  of  minetals  in   their 


I 

I 
I 
I 

I 


THE  CHEMIST  AS  A   COI^STRUCTOR. 


803 


I 


» 


^Hnli&r  structure  and  appearance  frequently  met  with  nnsor- 
pusBftble  difiicnlties.  Even  our  moat  modern  expedients  do  not 
enable  us  to  imitate  moro  than  a  few  well  characterizod  and  crys- 
tallized minerals  regarding  shape,  luster,  and  other  physical  prop- 
erties. We  can  build  up  the  carbonates  of  calcium,  iron,  and  man- 
gnneee  from  their  elements,  but  we  lack  the  means  to  give  them 
the  rhombohodral  form  in  which  they  are  naturally  found.  It 
was  only  in  the  course  of  the  last  year  that  Kroutschuff  made 
known  the  Urst  method  of  crystallizing  silica  in  the  hexagonal 
form  of  quartz ;  and  that  Fremy  and  Meunier  succeeded  in  gain- 
ing real  rubies  and  spinels  by  a  melting  process.  It  also  required 
long  years  of  incessant  experimenting  to  find  out  a  way  of  manu- 
facturing the  splendid  blue  coloring  matter,  ultramarine,  as  ai^ 
approximative  imitation  of  lapis  lazuli.  We  should  be  at  a  losa, 
if  requested  to  prepare  crystallized  manganic  binoxide,  or  cal- 
cium triphosphate,  or  most  other  crystallized  compounds  spread, 
throughout  the  rocky  schists  of  the  wvrth. 

Asking  for  the  reason  of  this  insufficiency  of  our  chemical  fac- 
ulties^ we  find  it  to  be  the  impossibility  of  ]»roviding,  through  a 
sufficient  length  of  time,  those  couditiona  of  hrat,  pressure,  and 
other  circumstances  which  prevailed  and  were  of  influence  when 
such  compounds  were  separating  from  molten  masses  of  mineral 
matter,  or  from  saturated  solutions,  the  composition  of  which  will 
always  remain  concealed  from  us.  Organic  substances,  on  the 
contrary,  of  the  most  various  kinds,  are  continually  fonued  and 
decomposed  in  the  bodies  of  plants  nnd  animals,  very  readily  com- 
bining and  separating  under  conditions  which  exist  everywhere, 
or  which  may  easily  be  induced.  The  extraordinary  mutability 
of  the  compounds  of  carbon  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  is  a  feat- 
ure particular  to  this  element,  not  equaled  by  those  of  any  other. 
Their  liability  to  chemical  changes  enables  us  voluntarily  to  build 
up  and  to  reconstruct  carbon  compounds  occurring  in  organismaj 
as  well  as  those  derived  from  them. 

Alcohol,  one  of  the  best-known  product*  of  chemical  industry, 
may  serve  as  evidence  to  what  degree  of  perfection  the  com])08i- 
tion  and  decomposition  of  chemical  compounds  has  been  brought. 
As  the  chief  constituent  of  intoxicating  beverages,  alcohol,  to- 
gether with  carbonic  acid,  originates  by  fermentation  from  sugar; 
but  this  ifi  not  tlio  only  ]K>ssiblo  way  to  produce  it.  The  bright- 
ness of  electric  lights,  by  which  public  places^  roads,  stores,  etc.,  of 
our  cities  now  are  illuminated  at  night,  is  emitted  by  an  electriou 
current  passing  between  two  carbon  points.  Whon  such  a  passage* 
nf  electricity  takes  place  in  a  glass  balloon  fllle<l  with  hydrogen, 
Me  current  caupes  this  gas  to  unite  with  carbon,  fonningj 

Wmy  .i  gaaeoos  compound,  which  in  contact  with  more  hydro-^ 

IgUD  readily  takes  it  upi  forming  a  second  gaseous  compound — 


$04 


TffB  POPffLAR  SCrsyCE  HOl^TITLT. 


ethyleno— which  is  the  chiof  light-givinjf  constituent  of  lUami- 
natiiig  gas.    Ethylene,  wli'      '  ■      '  '        '    '    ric 

acid,  forms  a  liquid  combiti  ^^ 

tassium  hydrate  is  converted  into  alcohoL  Having  thiui  built  up 
from  its  elements  a  substance  formerly  known  only  as  a  pmdaet 
of  fermentation,  we  may  proceed  at  once  to  decompoew*  it  n^in 
into  its  elements.    We  can  easily  regain  the  cftrb<:in  \rl.  :i- 

tains,  by  heating  alcohol  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  ^^^^x^^  .^.a* 
verts  it  into  ethylene;  and  this  gas, when  mixed  with  chloiino  ga« 
and  liglited,  bunia  away,  leaving  carbon,  which  as  a  denae  bbick 
smoke  fills  the  vesseL 

An  event  very  encouraging  and  helpful  to  synthetical  invests* 
gations  was  the  artificial  preparation  of  urea,  a  product  of  seciv- 
tiou  in  animal  bodies,  resulting  from  the  decay  of  muscle,  and  oae 
of  the  most  important  substances  in  animal  exchange  of  matter. 
When  Woehler,  in  1828,  found  out  that,  by  a  chemical  process,  ii 
can  be  composed  with  all  its  physical  and  chemical  prop«rtk«,  thi» 
event  gave  a  tromondous  shock  to  the  founrlutions  of  the  doctrine 

formerly  lH>lieved,that»a  "vital  power  "governr'  *v    ' '  -  -  fif 

the  organs  of  living  animals,  independently  of  ]  4| 

of  chemic4il  forces.  The  discovery  of  artificial  urea  waa  foliowiMl 
by  others  in  an  uninterrupted  series,  which,  besides  th*^  r.^- ..*i.-aj 
interest  they  were  entitled  to  claim,  threw  a  new  and  at 

upon  many  processes  in  organic  life.  In  glancing  at  vomv  of 
them,  wo  confine  ourselves  to  coses  of  more  general  inten'st. 

A  conspicuous  instance  of  the  degree  to  which  syntheticil 
chemistry  has  enabled  us  to  imitate  nature  in  son  •••  pro- 

cesses going  on  in  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animal^j  :      j:*antid 

by  the  changes  which  salicin  undergoes.  It  is  to  this  white  aad 
Crystalline  compound — belonging  to  t!i*'    '       *     '  '     '      ,. 

sides — that  the  K^vos  of  willow  and  p.  ,  t 

taste.  Several  species  of  Spirira,  while  young, also  contain  salicin, 
which,  during  growth,  is  converted  into  a  volatile  oil  of  redtiijdt 
color — salicylic  aldehyde — an  oil  which,  remarkably  enough,  ia  alffj 
produced  from  salicin  in  the  body  of  the  larvae  of  Chrysomth 
f)opuli\  a  beetle  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  ]>oplar-troe«,  Tv  *-■"■'-•«, 
as  well  as  in  other  plants  containing  this  oil,  it  ia  pai  *- 

formed  into  salicylic  acid,  which  in  its  tuni  in  (  i- 

beTis  and  Betxda  Unia  combines  with  methyl  ^     ' 

known  as  "wintorgreen-oiL"    Now  by  synthosis  wo 

cially  reproduce  all  these  chanr 

ent  way  from  that  which  Natur  i 

into  salicylic  aldehyde;  we  can  tranafonn  *■ 

and  wo  can  produce wintorgpee-         '     r^.u.tu..  » 

methyl.    We  can  oven  manag*  j  i*^*    'i!i  .h 

tergreen-oU  frooi  coal-tar,  a  sub^tanoe  « 


TBS  CHEMIST  AS  A    CONSTRUCTOR. 


80s 


I 


I 


jadgo  by  the  way  of  its  production,  is  not  likely  to  contain  any 
ingredients  found  in  living  plants.  Tho  preparation  of  salicylia. 
acid  from  the  products  of  coal-tar  was  discovered  by  Kolbe  aboutr 
twenty  years  ago,  inducing  a  more  thorough  study  of  the  proper- 
ties of  this  acid,  from  which  it  was  found  to  be  one  of  the  mostL 
vEduable  remtHlieH  fur  rheumatic  complaints  and  for  gout.  Thus' 
one  discovery  often  becomes  the  source  of  a  whole  serie-s  of  new 
ones,  and  may  prove  a  blessing  to  mankind  in  the  most  uiiexpectedL 
and  various  ways.  ' 

Few  people  know  what  xanthin  is,  Tho  name,  indeed,  rep- 
resents a  body  of  neither  commercial  nor  industrial  significance. 
Scarcely  anybody  else  but  chemists  and  physicians  knows  that  it  is 
a  substance  which,  in  a  small  amount,  is  found  in  niuscles,  in  the 
liver,  brain,  and  certain  other  organs  of  the  animal  body.  But  little, 
therefore,  does  he  who  enjoys  a  cup  of  cocoa,  coffee,  or  tea,  fancy 
that  the  beneiicent,  animating  effect  of  these  beverages  is  due  to 
the  methyl  compounds  of  xanthin,  contained  as  theobromine  in 
cocoa-beans  and  as  caffeine,  in  coffee-beans  and  in  the  leaves  of  UOk 
and  several  other  plants.  Both  theobromine  and  caffeine  ctui 
readily  be  yjrej^ared  from  xanthin,  the  products  having  exactly  the 
same  physiological  effect  as  the  natural  compounds.  | 

The  line  of  products  of  organic  life  which  have  lieen  built  up 
artificially  from  thoir  constitueuts  includes  representatives  of 
many  groups  of  compounds,  although  they  are  not  equally  numer- 
ous in  all  of  them.  A  largo  number  of  vegetable  acids  may  bd 
synthetically  prepared.  The  volatile  oils  of  bitter  almonds  and! 
mustard,  as  well  as  the  coloring  matters  indigo  and  alizarin,  be- 
sides being  prepared  from  plants,  are  obtained  from  other  sources 
by  chemical  processes  ;  but,  since  their  original  production  de- 
pends on  fermentative  actions,  to  which  the  material  is  subject- 
e<l,  they  can  not  justly  be  classed  among  natural  products.  In 
some  groups  of  natural  organic  compounds  our  efforts  to  obtain 
thorn  by  synthesis  have  hitherto  almost  utterly  failed.  Our 
knowledge  of  alkaloids,  many  of  which,  by  their  great  physio- 
logical effects,  are  of  prominent  therapeutic  importance,  has  ad- 
vanced 80  far  as  to  permit  us  to  convert  some  of  them  info  others — 
for  instance,  to  transform  morphine  into  codeine ;  but,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Conine,  which  Ladenburg  claims  to  have  synthetically 
^tntne<l,  and  ronhydrine.  prepared  by  Hoffmann,  both  of  which 
Jft  contained  in  hemlock  {Conium  maculatum),  no  success  of  con- 
st'; tored.  Nevertheless,  as  tho  knowledge  ofi 
tb-  '  has  been  cleared  up  to  a  very  considera- 
bl-  -iot  that,  by  continued  researches,  ways  for 
th'  "H>e  found  out. 

wore  made  by  accident;    corn- 
toe  were  found  by  researches  under- 


SoS 


Tffjff  TOPtTLAn  scrsircE  MorrmLT. 


token  for  other  purjxjses ;  tlie  knowledge  of  the  making  of  china 

and  of  tbo  eiipiiratiou  of  phosphorus  resulted  from  experuni 
intended  for  producing  gcdd.    But  the  principal  6ucces9««i  of  mc 
em  science  in  general,  and  of  chemistry  in  particiilar,  were  i»b- 
tained  in  a  Bpeculative,  inductive  way,  the  »<  '  '         osid- 

erod  as  actually  scientific.     With  positive  hi;  ^rrtfr, 

from  the  movements  of  the  stars,  and  from  the  attr 
which  they  thereby  manifest,  can  ascertain  the  pr 
other  Btar  which  haa  never  been  observed    bofoi 
proi>he8y  a  solar  eclipse  to  the  accuracy  of  a  minuto,  and  ^ 
years  before  predict  the  return  of  a  comet.    In  a  similar  t--  -  • 
chemical  knowlodge  often  enables  iis  to  foretell  the  fon 
certain  compouiid.s  hitherto  unknown,  and  to  define  ' 

they  may  be  expected  to  have.    It  was  in  this  way  iL- , 

position  and  chemical  structure  or  arrangement  of  atoms  in 
molt^cule  of  conine  and  conhydrine  ha-  "  "     "    > 

preparation  was  likewise  effected,  the  o^  ,;  y 

logical  inferences.  This  scientific  way  of  proceeding  provod  suc- 
oossful  in  numerous  cases,  and  led  to  some  surprising  rteulta  in 
the  course  of  the  last  y*uir. 

Not  many  years  ago  what  was  known  regarding  the  source 
from  which  common  plants  draw  their  food  consisted  in  the  rec- 
ognized fact  that  carbonic  acid  and  water,  both  abundftnt  in  nir 
and  fertile  soil,  are  taken  up  by  the  roots,  converted  \ 
an  unknown  process,  the  sugar  afterward  being  trai 
cellulose,  the  matter  chiefly  constituting  the  body  of  t  i 

into  starch.     It  was  also  known  that  oxygen  was  set  (i  ■ 
course  of  these  cliaugos.    In  1870  Baeyer  promulgate*:!  .. 
explaining  how  assimilation  of  the  mentioneil  substanc.  -  '■  ijiit 
be  effected.    He  demonstrated  the  y 

being  produced  from  carbonic  acid  ;  ,  .   / 

sible,  if — as  is  the  case — oxygen  is  liberated.  AH  plants  in  day- 
light exhale  oxygen  and  al^  '  '  ■  * '  ^  '  '  '  '  i^ 
gaseous  compound,  is,  as  al^  .  «> 
condense  to  solid  compounds  by  accumulating  a  greater  num 
of  atoms  into  one  molecule.  Baoyer  expreese;-  '  ■  *  '  *"  ' 
sugar,  the  oompt^sition  of  which  agrees  with  that  ;ti 
multiplied  by  six,  is  the  product  of  such  a  condv 

Tlio  (irst  signs  that  sugar  might  result  from  .^...  ..  ..  '   -'"i---!v. 

tion»  when  conducted  in  the  proper  way,  were  ob««rvwl  1 

row,  but  since  he  claimed  to  have  prepart»d  a 

pound  from  formaldehyde,  all  the  exptirimeuta  u:^ u 

*  Tbe  olidrnlca)  ohange*  fn  qa«tloa  ue  rwproianted  hj  dw  a|«Alia(ii  t 

Oirbonlc  uid  and  w*t«r  =  fomuUiJtbjrdc  tad  cxjps 

CO,     +     HtO  =       ni,o     +     0. 


THE  CHEMIST  AS  A   CONSTRUCTOR. 


S07 


I 


like  purpose  liftd  proved  futile,  It  was  Loew  who  in  1888  sue* 
ceeiled  in  preparing  a  more  concentrated  solution  of  formaldehyde 
ihfui  could  be  imwle  before.  He  found  that  the  vapor  of  wood- 
spirit  in  contact  with  heated  oxide  of  copper  furnishes  formalde- 
hyde in  abundant  quantities.  Moreover,  he  found  that  condensa^j 
tion  of  this  aldohyde  to  sugar  is  easily  achieved  by  digesting 
solution  of  it  with  slaked  lime.  The  product,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  formose,  has  exactly  the  composition  of  grape-sugar; 
it  has  a  sweet  tosto,  and  acts  on  Felding*s  solution  as  sugar  does; 
the  resemblance  extends  to  several  further  properties ;  but  still 
there  are  some  slight  points  of  difference,  which  have  caused  a 
few  chemists  to  raise  objections  as  to  its  classification  among 
sngiirs.  The  question  of  the  formation  of  sugar  from  aldehydes 
would  perhaps  have  remained  undecided  for  the  present,  had 
not  recent  oxporiments,  made  by  Fischer  and  Tafel,  confirmed  the 
statements  before  mentioned  by  giving  evidence  of  the  formation 
of  sugar  by  condensation  from  other  aldehydes.  Their  state- 
ments were  supported  by  Grimaux,  who,  by  subjecting  glycerin 
to  the  oxiilizing  influence  of  finely  diA'ided  platinum,  obtained  a 
substance  resembling  grape-sugar  in  all  its  properties,  which  in 
contact  with  yeast  even  undergoes  fermentation,  producing  alco- 
hol and  carbonic  acid,  and  hereby  manifesting  the  character  of  a 
true  sugar. 

These  results  not  only  enable  us  to  prepare  by  a  chemical  pro- 
cess this  substance,  formerly  only  known  to  be  produced  by  living 
plants,  but  they  also  afford  important  facts  and  proofs  which  jus- 
tify us  in  expecting  the  synthetical  formation  of  other  compounds 
playing  a  part  in  the  vegetation  of  plants,  thereby  acquiring  an 
insight  into  those  complicated  phenomena  of  organic  life  which 
fir'  *'i  has  in  vain  tried  to  explain.    By  perfecting  our 

of  natural  pr<x:esse8  we  become  more  and  more 


Cui 


enabled  to  utilize  them  for  the  advancement  and  the  welfare  of 
mankind — an  attainment  which  constitutes  the  chief  aim  and  pur- 
pose of  a.'itural  science  in  generaL 


Ttnt  espenmc»nt9  of  K.  H,  8.  Rallej  and  K.  L.  Xicholfl,  upon  the  delicacy  of  tl)« 
•eniw  of  t&sti.*,  indicate  that  tlie  imprcMion  derived  from  bitter  rabBtancefl  far  ex- 
ecedd  that  arinlDtf  fVotn  an^  other  cIsm.  The  order  as  to  the  subetances  eiperi- 
laenlvd  u[»oti  i«  bitten,  ocida,  soliiie  aabi^tflncca,  and  sweotj.  The  potency  of  qu!- 
tiiso  U  Very  remorluible.  >Iea  who  ta.sted  could  detect  oo  the  average  one  part  of 
Htn  8D0,00<'),  and  women  one  part  in  406^000  porta  of  wnter;  and  to  sngar  it  stood 
in  potoacy  na  vcr/  nenrly  2,000 :  1.  The  range  of  individual  »enpilivcneBa  ia  rery 
extenaive.  With  alt  the  Hubtttmices  trieil.  oxocpt  shU,  tbo  taete  of  the  women  waa 
mora  delicate  tinm  Cbat  of  the  men.  Bat  while  aome  of  the  persons  experimented 
with  could  detect  with  certainty  one  part  of  qninine  in  5,120,000  of  water,  olhera 
fiilled  to  notice  one  part  in  100,000.  The  sense  of  taste  doea  not  appear  to  be 
blunted  (or  any  aubalanoo  by  long^oontinued  liahitaal  nee  of  iL 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  Afl 


INDUSTRIAL  FAMILY  NAMEa 

Bt  Pnov.  B.  B.  HcANALLY. 

THE  industrial  history  of  tlie  English-6p(mkin£c  peoplw  luM 
been  faithfully  written  by  abl-   "       "  -x. 

rial  accumulates  by  the  growth  of  > 

dustry,  little  can  be  added  to  records  already  made.    Tlie  - 
of  what   may,  for  the  lack  of  a  better  name,  be  '    *'    ' 
trial  philology,  hae  not,  however,  kept  pace  with  i  _     f 

industrial  occupations.     Much  haa  been  well  done  in  this  linft,  for 
long  ago  students  of  language  perceived  that  in  the  proper 
of  men  and  places  lingered  unwritten  histories,  but  all  yet 
plished  scarcely  makes  an  impression  on  the  hugo  heap  of  mi 
rial,  since  most  proper  names  once  had  a  sigmficance  which. 
many  cases,  has  long  ago  been  forgotten. 

Even  a  casual  oxamiuation  of  the  family  names  of  men  di 
closes  the  fact  that  many  of  the  most  common  must  have 
nat^d  in  the  adoption,  by  an  individual,  of  the  name  of  hia  oceo^ 
pation  as  a  surname,  to  diatinguish  him  from  ' 
same  given  name.    Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  in  his  * 
has  a  learned  and  critical  essay  on  his  own  name,  and  sur 
its  U50  by  his  family  in  the  manner    '      ^     '    '" 
be  no  doubt  that  this  is  a  typical  ill 

period  when  tiio  English  language  was  assuming  its  present  foi 
many  trade-names  became  those  of  individuals,  anl   ' 
when  men  more  than  commonly  distinguislietl  th>  n 

calling,  were  assumed  as  distinctive  surnames  by  their  i, 

and  were  thus  continued  when  the  propriety  of  tb*-  i 

no  longer  existed.    In  this  way  multitudt***  of  tnwlrt-!- 
petuated,  some  in  their  original  form,  somo  sf'  m 

scarcely  recognizable,  and  others,  no  doubt,  whici. ..     ■>;- 

nations  of  trade,  so  changed  as  to  boar  not  a  trac«  of  thifir  oriirtm 
Concerning  the  last  named  speculation  is  profitlt^s,  n  -  ^ 

of  the  second  class  may  be  passed  with  little  noticj.    ^  ..e 

enough  material  is  found  in  family  names  which  phuuly  prociaim 
their  own  • 

The  fo.'  .ling ocoupfttions have alwar^, of  rprp?*rrrr.b«»pn^ 

thronged,  and  from  them  come,  in  more  or  h 
of  our  family  names.    The  B*/   ■    -  ^ 

own  story,  so  also  do  Flesh  and 
north  of  England  the  purveyor  of   fr««h 

known  an  the  "  flesh er."    F-'   l^'  »   •  -  

intriKlnced  as  the  litiral  d. 

and  Bouchelle  would  be  uiiidouUliwi  wci 


rXDUSmiAL  FAMILY  KAHiES. 


809 


our  ancestors  had  ranch  intercourse  with  the  Normans,  and,  in  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  French  was  daily  spoken  by  the 
Letter  clasa  in  the  British  lales.  Our  Bakers  may  be  readily  traced 
"back  to  their  floury-handod  anceetors,  but  the  Baxters  must  be 
followed  for  generations  before  we  find  that  they  were  of  the  same 
family,  Inun^  the  descendants  of  the  Bagsters,  who  were  the  off- 
spring of  the  Bageaters,  who  acknowledged  that  they  wero  the 
children  of  tlie  Bakesters,  who  were  feminine  bakers.  Of  the 
Lroad-makiug  tril>e  were  also  the  Breaders  and  the  Whitbreads, 
the  latter  perhaps  once  priding  themselves  on  the  color  of  their 
stock  in  trade,  while  nearly  related  to  them  were  the  Mills,  the 
Millers,  and  the  Healers.    The  large  and  respectable  family  of  the 

ilungors  came  from  the  French  bakers  who  carried  on  their 

lo  in  England  during  the  ages  when  family  names  were  grow- 
ing, while  Mr.  Lowe  suggests  that  the  BoUingers  and  the  Bulli- 
nors  are  of  the  same  origin. 

Few  i>oint3  in  Great  Britain  are  more  than  a  hundred  miles 
from  the  sea^  and  in  all  ages  fish,  has  formed  one  of  the  staple 
articles  of  British  diet.  Catching  the  fish  was  therefore  an  im- 
portant industry,  and  Fifih,  Fisher,  and  Fishi:*rnian  doubt  lews  had 
their  origin  in  the  occupation  of  the  men  who  first  assumed  these- 
names,  of  which  fact  there  is  abundant  record.  It  is  quite 
aiblo  also,  as  Max  Mfiller  suggests,  that  men  may  have  made 

:ialty  of  tivking  or  of  selling  a  particular  kind  of  fish,  and  thus 

imon  from  Robert  le  Salmoner,  Heriug  from  John  le  Heringer, 
and  Trouter  from  Roger  lo  Trowter,  may  have  arisen  without 
violence  to  the  laws  of  philology.  Bardsley,  in  his  book  on  Eng- 
lish names,  derives  Posaoner  from  le  Poissouier,  another  relic  of 
the  French  occupation  of  England.  The  selling  of  fruit  was,  in 
the  thrpo  centuries  after  the  Norman  conquest,  a  special  occupa- 
tion, and  mention  of  John  le  Fruiterer  occurs  in  the  Golden  Roll, 
the  conclusion  being  drawn  by  philologists  that  Fruter,  Frooter, 
and  several  similar  1  ^^lue  had  their  origin.    Cheese  Avas  fur- 

uiehed  by  Roger  le  <  ai  in  the  twelfth  century,  whence  our 

Cbcesomans  and  Chesmans,  while  condiments  of  various  kinds 
came  from  a  special  store  where  nothing  else  was  kept  and  the 
owner  known  as  le  Spicier,  no  doubt  the  ancestor  of  Kome  of  our 
Spicers,     Fowls  were  sold  by  the  poulterer,  from  which  word,  it 

believed,  Polter  is  derived;  while  Grocer,  as  a  family  name. 
Is  no  explanation  beyond  the  statement  that  in  mediaeval  Eng- 
land his  assortment  of  goods,  while  not  so  extensive,  was  quite 
varie<l  as  at  present. 

The  preparation  of  food  for  immediate  consumption  gave  rise 
to  :  -    .-    ,.  ^aiues.    The  Cooks  we  slill  have'J 

_ 'T  being  the  more  common  spell*^ 

liAg  of  the  word  iu  the  tliirtoouth  century.    From  these,  by  uatarai 


8io 


THS  POPULAR  SCIEIfCi 


sacoession,  come  the  Cookson*,  the  Cokesoiss,  the  Cokaons^  ao^b 

one  scholar  suggests,  the  C  '  id  the  Cockiion*— the  lost  tiro> 
however,  appearing  to  be  i  *•*!.    As  drink  wa«  to  oiir  fore* 

fathers  quite  as  indispensable  as  meat>  it  i^&o  gavo  rise  to  fftmilj 
names,  being  manufactured  by  Brewera,  MaltCFten,  and  Viutiu>n 
or  Wintners,  remaiuing  as  Winters,  and  dispensed  by  Tapsters 
and  Drawers.  Nor  should  it  bo  forgotten  that  receptacles  for  th« 
liquors  were  from  the  hands  of  the  Barilers,  Hoopers,  Coopers^ 
and  Cowpers ;  nor  that  the  contents  of  the.  casks  were  carefully 
ascertained  by  the  Gangers  and  Measurers.    Bowlers  v- 

lings,  with  Cuppers,  made  the  drinking- vessels  in  nae  ji:. ^  ui» 

common  people.  Horns  and  Homers  those  of  a  better  clftffg—  all  «4 
whom,  with  verbal  ch;i  main  to  attest  tbo  former  poptdarw 

ity  uf  their  respective  < 

Workers  in  wood  have  left  their  record  among  onr  proper 
names  to  such  an  extent  as  to  justify  "  L-lusion,  even  if  h 

were  not  to  be  reached  from  other  bv  information,  that 

this  branch  of  industry  was  important  during  the  ages  wlifizi  men 
were  assura^ing  family  names.  Caring  for  the  raw  matr'--'  '  —  '^ 
growing  state  gave  us  the  Forrests  and  the  FArrefit^^rs,  t :  s 

Wooders,  Woodson  s,  and  Wood  mans.    Cu"  m  timber  tulo 

proper  U-ngths  wa^  the  business  of  the  Sf^^  ^  '  -  -'^-^  of  the 

Hewers,  while  dressing  the  lumber  origi  .    Th« 

Carvers  did  the  ornamental  work,  so,  it  e 

Cutters  and  Cuttings,  though  about  thcso  : „  r* 

ence  of  opinion,  some  assigning  them  to  the  leather  trada  and  Gtb> 
ers  to  the  stonv-outtiug. 

Akin  to  the  lumber  business  is  the  Honser,  who,  according 
one  authority,  is  of  the  same  family  as  the  Bilden  and  BlI 
mans,  which  names,  it  is  supposeil,  ori: " 
men  who  undtTtuok  the  general  conti 
Nearly  related  also  are  the  Thatchers,  the  i 
ers,  and  the  Thackerays,  who,  always  in  inr 
quently  in  town^  covered  the  house  after  it  ^ 
houses  in  Groat  Britnin  were  more  gunrrally  cci 
or  brick  than  of  wood,  and  artisans  in  t!-  -^  ■  *^ 
been  numerous,  as  is  evidenced  by  St 
and  Stoneman,  the  Masons,  the  Carvers,  . 
tionod,  the  Cutters  also.    The  Tylers  made  .^i, .  , .  .  .  _ 
the  tiles  used  for  roofing,  while  the  Painters,  Paynters. 
ters  made  both  extericr       '  ' 

The  Tylers  jnst  ni* 
geats  another  branch  of  indnsiry,  from  which  numeruaa  l 
names  hav      t  *^  -  *  '      -  "■        r»'  f 

dayman- 
Pott,  Potta,  Potter,  Pottman.  Crock,  Cr 


iiOOflC 

T  hacker- 

and  fns 

tt«L    But 

1  of  stoat 


nn>USTRIAL  FAMTLr  TTAMBS, 


811 


Plater,  Diaher,  and,  ftccor<Hng  to  Tftylor»  Turner  also,  though  somi 
assign  this  name  to  the  worker  in  wood.  The  burden  of  proof, 
however,  seems  to  make  the  original  turner  an  artist  in  jugs,  the 
propriety  of  the  name  in  this  cafie  being  manifest. 

From  wood,  stone,  and  clay  tho  transition  to  the  rootals  is  eas] 
and  natural,  and  of  the  skill  of  our  Saxon  forefatliers  in  this  di- 
rection there  are  abundant  records  iu  the  family  names  still  re- 
maining in  common  use.  Iron,  Ironer,  and  Ironman  are  common ; 
Copper,  Coper,  Copperer,  and  Coperman  equally  so ;  while  Leader, 
Lederman,  anil  Lederer  come  down  almost  unchanged  from  Roger 
le  Lederman.  mentioned  in  a  parliamentary  writ  of  the  thirt»^;enth 
century.  Brasser  and  Bi-assy  still  exist,  along  with  Tiner  and 
Tyner,  to  testify  to  the  variety  of  metals  used,  while  Silver  is  as 
rare  as  Golden,  though  both  exist  in  our  directories,  and  doubtless 
tell  of  the  occupations  of  their  originals. 

When  metal-working  is  considered,  the  family  names  indici 
tlvG  of  occupation  are  equally  siguiticant.  Smith  needs  only  A" 
mention  as  a  sort  of  generic  term  ;  Coppersmith  is  often  seen,  to- 
gether with  Goldsmith.  Tho  manufacture  of  special  articles  of 
metal  gave  rise  to  several  family  names — suchasSpooner,  Knifer, 
and  Nypher — Ralph  le  Spooner  and  John  le  Knyfero  appearing  in 
tho  records  of  that  period,  Tho  cutler  then  as  now  dealt  in  small 
articles  of  hardware,  and  the  Cutlers  remain  to  bear  witness  to 
the  popularity  of  tlio  business ;  whilo  Armoxir  speaks  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  craft  in  another  direction. 

Leaving  metal-working  for  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics, 
Prof.  Mfillor  has  some  very  interesting  notes  on  the  manufacture 
of  flax  as  connected  with  the  growth  of  the  English  language. 
From  these  it  is  evident  that  several  family  names  originated  with 
the  linen  trade.  There  are  Flax  and  Flaxman,  Linn,  Lynn,  and 
Lynnman,  who  doubtless  provided  the  material,  lin  being  a  Saxon 
name  for  Flax ;  and,  with  some  probability,  it  has  been  suggested 
that  White,  Whitaner,  Whitner,  Bleach,  Blake,  Blaknr,  and  Blako-j 
man  had  thoir  origin  in  the  process  of  bleaching  the  goodfl^ 
Leather,  too,  furnished  names  as  well  as  occupation  to  those 
who  dealt  in  it  or  busied  themselves  in  various  branches  of  its 
manufacture.  The  re«*ords  of  the  twelfth  century  have  preserved 
for  us  the  names  of  Ralph  le  Hyder,  Roger  le  Skinnere,  John  lo 
Ourier,  Thomas  le  Tannere,  whose  philological  descendants  still 
appear  on  the  pages  of  our  directories  in  varied  spellings,  whilo 
tlv    -^  '  are  almost  as  numerous  as  the  Glovers.    Sowterj 

8ui-  ^r  are  modifications  of  8outer,once  acommon  nami 

for  a  ahoomnker,  while  Clouter,  Cloter,  and  Cloutmau,  together 
wi'"    r-  ■  '  "        '■  •  •  '  "  '  •  '  rtre  forms  of  a  difFiitreni 

W'  '  Pattens,  Pattons.  Patten- 

mans,  Fattfrmans,  and  perhaps  Pattersons,  took  their  names  from 


scfsm 


the  patten,  a  sort  of  clog  much  worn  during  the  i  ■  h, 

atsd  fourteenth  centuries.    Taylor  finds  Bark  . 
old  writs  of  that  period,  and  suggests  that  tht 
first  owners  of  these  names  was  to  provide  the  laaufc-nt  with  ibt 
material  for  converting  the  hides  into  leather.    Thi«  "i^*"  --^r  may 
not  be  the  case,  but  it  is  reasonably  certain,  accord  -.  -^  best 

authorities,  that  our  Butlers  were  once  the  Boteleri?,  b<#i;l^  in  thM 
day  being  frequently  made  of  leather,  and  the  mime  being  applied 
first  to  him  who  made  the  bottles  and,  after  a  time,  to  bim  who 
looked  after  them  and  their  contents. 

Rope-making  is  not  distantly  related  to  the  leather  tradov  aad 
of  the  manufacture  of  ropes  relics  are  still  seen  in  Bopor,  Cordtfr^ 
Stringer,  and  Twyner. 

One  of  the  most  curious  pages  of  philological  history  is  that 
written  by  Bardsley  in  recounting  the  proper  names  which  grew 
out  of  the  wool  trade.  For  ages  wool  was  the  staple  of  EngTand, 
and  thousands  of  busy  operatives  were  employed  in  tha  various 
processes  necessary  before  the  woo!  could  be  trausferrLnl  from  lh« 
back  of  the  sheep  to  the  back  of  the  man;  before  the  raw  ».t-..Ttt^ 
could  be  converted  into  the  finished  manufacture.    At  «•  ;% 

proper  names  indicative  of  the  calling  of  th<^t^ 
sprang  up,  so  that,  were  we  ignorant  of  the  fa*.      ...      iio  :^ux'.ui 
dealt  in  wool  and  mad©  cloth,  we  might  draw  perfectly  correct 
and  1*    ■  '         ■  conclusions  as  to  the  busdntv^  '      '  and  vari- 

OU8  til  I  ;itH,  from  the  family  names  sii  :.    To  fol- 

low Bardsley  in  this  quaint  pilgrimage  through  the  woolen-f 
ries  of  Old  England :  the  ?hcep  were  cared  for  by  the  Shepli.:'.  ur 
Shoepherd,  a  name  which  with  variations  of  8j»oIlin*;  ^*^  f.^rry^r.,.]y 
common.    Shearing  was  the  first  of>eration  re(j 
cacy  or  skill,  and  Bhearer,  Shearman,  Shurtiv  ■•  .imi» 

bespeak  thf  ir  own  ancestry.    The  wool  w;i  hAf?% 

made  by  the  Backers  or  Canvassers,  and  wn:    •    i  i 
chant,  an   individual    often   known  as  StaijiAi,    \\      .,    .,,.,.. 
Woolman,  or  Woolsey,  or  in  French  as  Lanier  or  Lanyor.    H* 
consigned  it  to  the  rare  of  persons  who  tmr  pbwxr 

to  place  on  the  backs  of  pack-horses  or  in  %■ _      ..:  thna 

known  as  the  Packers,  the  Carters,  or  the  CarrLora.    The  wool 

was  then  handed  over  to  the  f      '  '   ^'      '  "  -« 

and  Kempsters,  as  they  were   •  . 

their  hands  to  those  of  the  Spinners,  who  naod  . 

by  the  Spindlere  and  Slayers,  ufterwnrd  goir  - 

Weevers,  Webbs,  Webbers,  or  feminine  h 

was  next  "teased"  to  bring  out  the  na]),  a  pi 

Teasers,  Tosers,  Tousers,  Teazelers,  or  Taylors,  ..  ^  « 

ished  and  ready  for  the  Dyer,  Lit  tar,  or  Liati^r^  ur  >■ 

Taintor  or  Taintor*    Woad,  the  comoaoa  d;  m 


IITDUSTRIAL  FAMILY  JTAMES. 


813 


I 
I 


I 
I 


by  tho  Woader  or  Woadinan,  while  there  is  some  indication  of 
another  niateriul  in  the  names  Miul(h»r,  Maddercr,  and  Madder- 
man  occurring  in  the  Hundred  Rolls.  Tho  Fullers,  FuUertons, 
Fullersons,  and  Fullmans  undertook  the  process  of  whitening  the 
cloth,  if  it  was  to  bo  white,  in  which  they  were  assisted  by  the 
Walkers,  who  trod  it  with  their  feet,  accompanied  by  the  B(3ators, 
Beatermans,  Bates,  Batts,  and  Battmans,  who  used  sticks  instead 
of  heels  and  toes. 

The  designation  of  the  process  is  seen  to  give  a  name  to  all  en- 
gaged in  a  special  work,  just  as  at  present,  and  further  to  be  adopted 
as  a  family  name  by  some  who  perhaps  attained  notable  excellouco 
over  their  follows,  or  were  led  by  chance  or  caprice  to  adopt  tho 
title  of  their  calling  as  their  own  surname.  The  list  might  be 
indefinitely  extended.  Tuck  and  Tucker,  Sticher,  Seamer,  Sower, 
Braider,  Wash  and  Washer,  Lavender  and  Launder,  terms  for- 
merly designating  the  cleansing  of  linen,  are  illustrations  to  the 
point,  and  many  others  can  easily  be  gathered  by  any  one  having 
the  time  and  patience  for  such  research. 

Particular  articles  of  apparel,  either  in  the  course  of  manufact- 
ure, or  completed  and  in  use,  have  left  their  imprint  in  several 
family  names.  The  hat  gave  us  the  Hatts  and  Hattars;  also^ 
according  Uy  Taylor,  the  Blocks,  Blockots,  Blockers,  and  Block- 
mans,  tho  lost  four  taking  their  names  from  the  wooden  instra- 
ment  on  which  the  hats  were  shaped.  Caps  gave  us  tho  Cappers 
and  tho  Capers ;  smocks,  a  loose,  shirt-liko  outer  garment  worn 
by  peasants  and  workingmen,  the  Smockers  and  Smookers ;  the 
pik^h,  a  fur  cloak,  the  Pilchers,  Pulchers,  and  Pitchers.  The 
manufacture  of  belts  gave  a  zmme  to  the  Girdles,  Oirdlers,  and 
Qirdleys,  while  the  wearing  of  laces  originated  Laoer,  Lacy, 
Pointer,  and  Poynter.  The  us©  of  furs  originated  the  Polters  and 
the  Furriers.  The  cowl,  as  an  appendage  to  a  great-coat,  was  much 
in  use  when  family  names  were  growing,  hence  Cowler,  Cowley, 
Oowlet  and  the  like ;  while  another  name  for  the  same  article  origi- 
nated the  Hoods  and  the  Hoodmans.  Fastening  the  clothing  with 
buttons  originated  the  Buttons  and  Buttouers ;  with  buckles,  the 
Buckles  and  Bucklars ;  while  tho  use  of  pins,  at  first  of  great  size, 
gave  names  to  Pinners,  Pinnets,  and  Pinneys ;  and  the  manufact- 
ture  of  a  small  bag  for  the  safe  keeping  of  money  was  the  origi- 
nal employment  of  our  Pursers,  Bursars,  and  Pouchors.  A  call 
for  precious  stones  was  answered  by  the  Jewells,  Agates,  Rubys, 
an-l  '  '-^  Crystalls,  and  the  necessity  for  light  in  the  houaeo, 
an<:  was  met  by  the  Candlers,  Lampors,  Lighters,  Links,! 

Linkers,  and  Torchers. 

*'  -'■  n  of  the  last  classes  suggests  the  nature  of  the  sorvicaj 
Ui>  led  to  our  belated  ancestors  in  the  unlightcd,  mudd/J 

aud  otherwise  dangerous  streets  of  medisoval  London,  and  this 


THE  POPULAR  8CIENGS  MOITTHLT. 

calls  to  mind  tlie  fact  that  in  personal  Berviw*  have  orii^ni^d  i 
numbor  of  family  uatnoa.  The  old  Saxoa  had  his  face  scraped 
by  a  barber,  wheuce  our  swarm  of  Barbers,  Barbar«,  BarU>T% 
Harbours,  and  Burbers ;  while  in  thoee  days  the  hair  of  tUe  Udio 
was  artistically  "  tired,"  whence  the  Tyeraj  Tyrers»  aud  TyenniOkf 
of  the  present  day.  When  sick,  or  "  ill/'  as  his  descendanU  nam 
say,  ho  sent  for  the  leech,  and  this  wurthy  has  left  a  nameniai 
progeny  among  the  Leeches,  Leat^he^,  and  Lejichers.  Hia  Ivttan, 
were  written  by  scriveners,  who  still  remain  among  ns  as 
ners ;  and,  when  he  needed  relaxation,  he  was  outortained  by  P] 
erSy  Dancers,  Whistlers,  and  Singers. 


THE  HOME  OF  THE  FERNS, 

Bt  T,  JOHNSTON  EVANS. 

IN"  the  New  World,  as  well  as  in  1" 
ing  spot,  far  away  in  the  wild  v^ 
recesses  of  deep-furrowed  mountain  gorges,  which  might  well 
merit  the  designation  by  which  thi*^  '     '    '      '   "  r 

a  very  long  period  the  ferns  of  K-  e 

received  considerable  attention  at  the  hands  of  botanitfta ;  nor  must 
it  be  forgotten  that,  centuries  before  the^^'^  *"  " -xi  set  \\\i  fi#ot 
upon  the  great  continent  of  the  West,  se  ■  cios  of  thin«6 

beautiful  plants  were  much  sought  after  by  the  aborigizM«.    The 

most 

(Uiied 

a 

d 


Y   .1. 


common  polypody  (Polypodium  xntlgare),  y^hich.  \»  ct:-' 
frequently  met  with  ferns  in  the  Etistem  Stnt*«.  was  ; 
by  the  various  Indian  tribes  for  its  ]i 

Kalm  also  relates  that  the  red  man  seeui ..  ■ 

the  beautiful  maiden-hair  {Adiantum  capillujf  I  •  <!• 

lible  cure  for  cough  and  difficulty  of  -:, 

however,  in  the  eyes  of  botanists,  as  are  I  ^^ 

beautiful  plants  in  the  Northern  and  Southern  States,  them  il 
beyond  tbo  Atlantic  one  sj>ot.  above  all  <    ' 
has  lavished  her  most  glorious  gifts.  ^ 
well  be  termed  "  the  home  of  the  ferns.' 

Justly  celebrated  for  the  wondrous 
scenery  of  wat*»rfall8  and  lakes  and  to\v(  r 
in  their  autumnal  glory  with  the  ripe  bt  rr 

favored  locality  is  also  esp^^^--^^^ ■  ■ 

growth  of  the  rarest  and  m 
pean  ferns. 

Accompanied  by  a  few  scientific  fn-^'^^^ 
practical  geologist  and  a  skillful  field  1 
visit  to  this  fascinating  region.    It  was  tow^u-d  iU^  <iU*^ 


the  ari 


.  may 

-mcd 
•nwo 

5 


ftrnj-jT^o- 


trl, 


ber,  tbe  beet  period  of  the  year  to  see  Killamey  in  all  ite  mauy- 
hued  glory.  The  morning  after  our  arrival  at  the  Lake  Hotel 
looked,  indeed,  most  tmpropitious  for  our  proposed  pedBstrian 
excursion  around  the  upper  and  lower  lakes,  A  dense  mist  en- 
veloped everything  in  its  vapory  folds,  preventing  objects,  even 
within  a  few  feet  of  us,  from  being  distinctly  visible.  Our  aneroids 
were,  however,  rising  rapidly,  and  wo  were  assured  by  the  weather- 
wise  folk  that  before  midday  the  fog  would  be  "  lifted  "  by  a  light 
breeze,  which  would  be  sure  to  spring  up.  After  having  break- 
fasted, we  set  out  on  our  not  partictilarly  inviting  tramp,  selecting 
the  route  in  the  direction  of  the  lower  lake.  Along  that  exqui- 
sitely beautiful  and  well-known  path  which,  canopied  by  trees  of 
various  foliage,  winds  close  by  the  marge  of  this  charming  sheet 
of  water,  we  took  our  course,  precGde<I  by  the  inevitably  loquacious 
^ide.  As  we  pursued  our  beclouded  way,  the  rush  of  the  foam- 
cataracts  dashing  madly  from  the  hills>  which  rose  to  the 
;ht  (^if  some  three  thousand  feet  above  us,  came  upou  our  ears 
from  time  to  time,  and  splashed  us  with  their  spray,  but  yet  were 
completely  invisible.  Even  the  water  which  rippled  on  the  pebbly 
beach  at  our  feet  was  as  much  hidden  from  our  view  by  that  all- 
enveloping  mist  as  though  Egyptian  darkness  surrounded  us.  As 
may  be  imagined,  our  walk  was  not  a  very  enjoyable  one,  but  wo 
were  soon  destined  to  bo  amply  recompensed  for  our  pains.  Two 
hours  had  elapsed  from  the  time  of  our  setting  out,  and  noon 
found  us  sitting  on  the  parapet  of  that  romantic  bridge  which 
spans  the  outlet  between  the  upper  and  lower  lake.  While  we 
deliberating  whether  to  return  or  continue  our  walk,  it  sud- 
ly  became  o\'ident  that  the  surface  of  both  lakt:«  was  agitated 
by  a  strong  gust  of  wind,  which,  as  we  afterward  learned,  came 
down  through  the  celebrated  Gap  of  Dunloe.  The  previously 
motionless  mist  began  immediately  to  wreath  itself  in  upright 
columns,  to  which  the  breeze  gave  a  kind  of  rotatory  motion  as 
they  were  suddenly  lifted  up  from  the  surface  of  tlie  water.  Then 
followed,  with  startling  rapidity,  one  of  the  most  wondrous  natu- 
ral transformation  scenes  it  is  possible  to  conceive.  In  less  than 
six  minutes,  not  merely  were  the  two  lakes  spread  out  before  us, 
from  shore  to  shore,  in  all  their  beauty,  but  the  thick  masses  of 
Ipor  had  rolled  up  the  sides  of  those  gigantic  hills  which  over- 
them^  and  the  brilliant  sun  was  shining  merrily  out  of  the 
bluest  of  skies.  I  had  previously  witnessed  similar  cloud-phe- 
nomenon amid  the  peaks  of  the  higher  Himalayas,  but  nothing 
which  for  startling  effect  and  scenic  beauty  could  bear  compari- 
son with  this 

It  was  the  first  acquaintance  which  every  one  present,  myself 
excepted,  had  made  with  Killumey,  and  it  was  scarcely  to  be 
wondered  at  that  from  evtry  Up  burst  an  ejaculation  of  glad  sur- 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOKTHLV. 


prise.    In  the  splornlid  aurronndings  whicli,  ju?  if  Ijj  tb©  vrw 
a  magician's  wand,  had  been  so  suddenly  imfoldod  f 
the  mere  worshiper  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  hud 
demand  his  warm»-'st  devotion  ;  but  to  the  s*' 

more  especially  holy  ground.    My  friend  thu  ^ ^  -  .   !( 

those  great  Kerry  bills — the  Magillicuddy  Reeks,  the  Toomit 
Mountain,  and  magnificent  '^'  "    '       t  .        _  ^^^ 

tiona  in  Europe ;  while  the  b-  :  .  •  ^< 

which  lay  scattered  above  and  around  him  in  the  shape  of  ft 
and  club-moaaes  and  purjile  broom. 

Tlie  following  day  we  specially  dedicated  to  tho  collecting  »i 
those  rare  and  delicate  ferns  which  abound  in  mossy  nookii  and  ij 
spots  kept  constantly  moist  by  the  spray  of  some  foaming 
as  it  leaped  from  ledge  to  ledge  in  its  impetuouB  courBc  One 
the  ferns,  specimens  of  which  we  were  most 
was  the  Trichomanes,  or  bristle  ferru  This  t^- ..  -  p.,.  . 
plant,  though  plentiful  in  Madeira,  is  absolutely  unkoowu  in  mn] 
European  country  except  Ireland,  and  oven  there  is  •     '  ^f 

l>e  found  in  certain  districts  of  the  extreme  west.  It  ,:  .-  d^"* 
scribed  us  having  fronds  three  or  four  times  piunatifid,  Beipnonts 
alternate,  linear,  entire  or  two-cloft,  obtuse ;  involucres  solitary  in 
the  axils  of  the  upper  segments.  The  bristle  fern  delights  in  shad^ 
and  moisture,  and  our  first  find  was  in  a  rocky  cleft  in  the  immedi 

aUi  neighborhood  of  the  Tork  wat-erfall.    Sub-  ^' '''  "-.  tlu 

dim  recesses  of  a  cave,  the  mouth  of  which  oj*  -^t 

lake  and  could  only  be  approached  by  a  boat,  we  discovered  »uT- 
eral  splendid  specimens,  one  of  which,  with  ^  ••* — •' 
some  three  feet  long,  contained  no  fewer  than  i 
Nothing  that  I  have  ever  seen  in  my  varied  expizTu'ijcov^f  (vn 
equaled  the  delicacy  and  pellncidness  of  these  fnmdw,  nortui 
the  darkness  and  the  mist.    The  veins  were  so  prominent,  and  thi 
grtjen  portion  so  like  a  membranous  wing  around  the  '<  -  '        "  :it  il 
resembled  more  a  l>eautiful  s*«-weed  than  a  fern.    In 
cave  we  also  discovered  some  of  our  finest  specimens  of  the  Adi 
onZum,  or  niaideri-hair  fern.    T)'- 
hair,  to  distinguish  it  from  some  • 

iar  name.    The  bright  evergreen  tint,  the  elegant  form,  and  lx\ 
waving  attitudes  of  this  fern  render  it  very  attra  '  -  ' 

growing  against  the  sides  of  the  8oa-wap]i«"l  r"- 
place  in  any  abundance,  no  fom  exceeds 
been  found  in  Scotland,  and  in  but  few  .i.-^^i-   ~  .  . 
England  ;  in  the  ravinea  and  mountain  gorcrea  thr- 
west  of  Ireland,  howevor,  the  collector  i' 
unrewanlod  for  his  diligent  search,    Twl 
(■also  discovered  in  this  "  home  of  the  ferns  " — that  • 
of  the  ]x)]ypody  denominated  Htbemicum,  and  the  bviiuUlLU 


^1v 


TEE  EOME  OF  THE  FERNS. 


817 


I 


I 


fern,  P,  phegopieris.  The  latter  plant  is  also  called  the  sun  fern ; 
it  haa  a  decided  preference  for  mountainous  districts,  where  it 
often  grows  at  a  groat  elovatioo,  though  it  may  freqiiently  he 
found  clinging  to  rocks  in  the  recesses  of  dark  woods,  or,  as  in  the 
present  instance,  festooning  the  mouths  of  natural  caverns.  Sev- 
eral little  variations  occur  in  the  foi-m  of  the  common  Euroi>ean 
polypo<ly,  the  lobes  being  more  or  less  cleft,  or  acute,  or  serrated. 
One  of  the  most  important  is  that  termed  Camhriciim,  the  Welsh 
polypody,  in  which  the  lobes  become  broader  and  are  again  irregu- 
larly lobod  and  toothed.  This  is  always  barren.  Tlie  variety 
HihemicuTn,  or  Irish  polypody,  has  a  broader,  twice  or  thrice 
pinnated  frond,  and  is  fertile.  It  is  an  exceedingly  handsome 
form  of  the  fern.  The  French  call  this  fern  U  polypode ;  the 
Germans,  der  Tlpfelfarren,  It  is  the  hoovivaren  of  the  Dutch, 
the  pohpotUo  of  the  Spaniard  and  Italian,  and  is  known  in  Russia 
by  the  name  of  osokor. 

Having  thoroughly  explored  the  treasures  of  the  cave,  and 
pOfisesaed  ourselves  of  specimens  of  some  twenty  <liflferent  species 
of  ferns  which  had  made  their  home  within  its  damp  and  sunless 
interior,  we  once  more  set  out  for  pastures  new.  Almost  imme- 
diately beneath  the  Gap  of  Dunloe  a  beautifid  object  met  our 
sight.  In  the  midst  of  a  group  of  immense  gray  bowlders,  which 
lay  in  wild  confusion  at  the  opening  of  a  romantic  gorge,  grew  in 
luxurious  abundance  quite  a  large  bed  of  the  superb  holly  fern 
{Polystichumlonchitis),  How  fresh  and  beautiful  those  evergreen 
fronds  looked  in  one  of  the  wildest  spots  to  be  found  in  all  Killar- 
ney  may  well  be  imagined  ;  higher  up  the  "  Gap  "  we  subsequently 
discovered  other  and  smaller  beds,  but,  remembering  how  difficult 
of  cultivation  the  holly  fern  is,  we  refrained  from  taking  more 
than  two  or  three  speciraene.  The  higher  we  ascended  the  mount- 
ain the  more  stunted  became  this  remarkable  species,  until  at 
length  it  grew  only  to  the  height  of  some  six  inches,  still  retain- 
ing its  marked  characteristics.  The  stalk  of  the  frond  of  this 
fern  is  exceedingly  short,  and  the  dark,  glossy  green  leafy  part  is 
firm  and  rigid,  and  sufficiently  prickly  to  remind  us  of  the  holly. 
The  young  fronds  appear  early  in  spring,  among  the  yet  verdant 
fronds  of  the  proWous  year.  They  are  pinnate,  with  short,  crowded, 
overlapping^  twisted  pinnaa,  which  are  somewhat  crescent-shaped  ; 
the  upper  side  having  at  the  base  an  ear-shaped  projection,  while 
the  lower  side  has  the  appearance  of  having  had  a  piece  cut  out. 
The  veins  are  twice  or  thrice  branched,  reaching  nearly  to  the 
margin  without  uniting  with  others.  Tlio  indusium  is  a  mem- 
brane-like scale,  and  the  clustjsrs  of  fructification  form  a  continu- 
ous line  on  each  side  of  the  midrib,  and  even  with  it.  They  are 
frequently  very  numerous  on  the  upper  pinnce, 

Our  small  party  unanimously  agreed  that  the  fern  which 

TOL.  XXXT, — 1% 


8l8 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLT. 


formed  tho  most  prominent  feiaturo  throughout  tho  Killamey  di^ 
trict  was  the  Osmurula  regalia,  or  dowering  fom.  This  statdy 
Bpecies  is  not  unfrequently  called  the  king  fern,  and  ctfrtainlj  h 
well  deserves  its  regal  uame,  which,  however,  app(*A£B  to  have 
been  bestowed  upon  it  through  other  circumBtances  than  its 
crested  form.  Its  name,  Osmunda,  is  of  Saxon  origiu,  and  ;>«?«- 
haps  was  given  in  honor  of  some  chief  who  in  olden  tiuio  ban*  th* 
name  of  Osmund,  that  beiug  one  of  tho  titles  of  T'  CelUo 

Thunderer,    This  attractive  plant  is  so  different  in  r  irained 

from  other  species  that  the  botanist  only  would  hk-  -  i  .  it  to  be 
a  fern,  unless  the  veining  of  its  leafy  frond  v  -^11 

generally  rises  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  .gisiiAl 

situations  not  unfrequently  attains  the  height  of  tAtx  f©«i.  The 
young  fronds  of  the  OsmunLht  are  usually  about  ten  or  tvrtdv©  in 
number.  Their  largo  le^af-sprays  are  thin  and  crisp,  and  of  % 
bright  sea-green  color,  usually  assuming  a  deeper  green  fts  the 
plant  grows  older.  The  stalk,  which  is  at  first  reddish  brown, 
afterward  becomes  green,  and  contrasts  well  with  tho  rich  msl- 
brown  spikes  of  fructification.  Nothing  could  be  more  boantifnl, 
more  in  accordance  with  the  surroundings,  than  the  manner  in 
which  a  considerable  portion  of  the  two  lakes  were  literally 
fringed  by  the  Oamuvda,  the  long  fronds  of  w!  i^racc^ 

fuUy  over  and  dipped  their  masses  of  seed  in  i..  -  wnter, 

while  beneath  the  canopy  thus  afforded  them  tbo  sauoy  coota 
flitted  to  and  fro  and  gazed  fearlessly  upon  the  pa«s!r   ■         uger. 
Though  some  of  the  ferns  I  have  mentioned  may  i  .iiorior 

claims  in  the  eyes  of  botanists  and  collectors  of  rare  spi^ciee,  il 
must  bo  acknowledged  that  there  is  not  one  more  universally  popQ< 
lar  than  the  graceful  Athyritim  filix  f<£minaj  or  lady  fern*  Indeed, 
not  a  few  botanists  have  pronounced  it  to  be  the  lovisliest  of  all 
British  ferns,  possessing  as  well  the  great  charm  of  commounosL 
Walter  Scott,  alluding  to  this  plant  in  "  Waverley/  mt^ntioiu  iu 
love  for  the  moist,  shady  woodlands : 

"  Where  the  oopsawood  is  the  grceiMSti 
Where  the  fonnuih)  gliatons  theooMt; 
Wlirre  tho  morning  dew  lies  loogert, 
There  Uiu  lady  fera  gfow*  drongwt^ 


Undoubtedly,  among  tl  '     '  '  *  rs  n  »-r;u:-\' 

able  portion  of  those  grrtii'  >}iiiil.ivv-M  <*y\ 

the  upper  and  lower  lakes  of  Killnrney,  tho  Udy  fern  attaina] 

perfection  not  observable  ("'  ■ '    "    "^    "  -'^    *'     ..  -  .  -  i 

ered  a  somewhat  Hcarco  vi: 
Cumberland,  and  also  a  very  peculiar 

need  < 


ORIGIN  OF  SOME  GENERAL   ERRORS, 


819 


I 


dity  IS  stich  that  a  celebrated  botanist  has  said  of  it  that  '*  if  a 
single  plant  were  uninterrupted  in  its  possible  increase  for  twenty 
years,  within  that  time  it  would  cover  an  extent  equal  to  the 
entire  surface  of  the  globe." 

Our  botanizing  excursion,  so  successful,  so  full  of  interest,  and 
fio  nauch  enjoyed,  having  concludixl,  we  bade  a*.iieu  to  matchless 
Killarney,  and  will  not  soon  have  effaced  from  our  memories  "  the 
home  of  the  ferns." 


■^•^ 


I 

! 

I 


I 


ORIGIN  OP  SOME  GENERAL  ERRORS.* 

Bt  Uxrh  S.  EXNKK. 

WHILE  we  endeavor  to  distinguish  between  instinct  and  rea- 
son, we  are  accustomed  to  speak  of  such  skill  and  conform- 
ity of  actions  to  a  given  end  as  are  exhibited  by  birds  in  building 
their  nests,  or  by  societies  of  insects,  as  more  resembling  what  we 
call  reason.  We  may  mark  the  difference,  however,  by  observing 
that  instinct  develops  its  qualities  only  within  a  limited  sphere 
and  in  view  of  a  limited  end.  Birds  can  weave  filaments  into 
nests,  attach  them  to  branches,  and  adapt  the  forms  of  tlieir  work 
to  those  of  the  tree  and  its  limbs ;  but  their  talents  in  weaving 
are  of  no  use  in  helping  them  release  themselves  when  caught  in 
a  snare,  and  they  will  then  struggle  as  wildly  and  vainly  as  an 
animal  that  never  built  a  nest.  A  hen  will  lay  an  egg  every  day 
in  the  same  place  till  the  quota  is  completed,  and  will  then  sit 
npon  them ;  but  many  hens  will  sit  all  the  same,  and  for  the  full 
time,  if  the  eggs  are  taken  away  as  they  are  laid.  These  ex- 
amples illustrate  how  instinctive  processes  are  produced  simply 
as  determined  combinatinns — or  work  only  in  view  of  a  special 
end.  The  actions  provoked  by  them  will  remain  the  same,  even 
■when  they  have  become  purposeless.  On  the  other  handi  the  a«- 
Bociations  of  the  proces8es  can  not  be  broken,  and  the  skill  which 
the  bird  directs  to  building  her  nest  is  not  capable  of  being  em- 
ployed for  any  other  end. 

The  more  developed  the  instinct,  the  more  stable  are  the  com- 
l)inationB  of  phenomena  and  nervous  conditions  under  which  it 
•works ;  the  weaker  the  combinations,  the  more  nearly  the  animara 
mode  of  action  approaches  what  we  call  reason.  We  should  judge 
of  the  intelligf'nco  of  an  animal,  not  by  single  acts  surprising  to 
human  understanding,  but  according  to  the  diversity  of  the  situa- 
tions in  which  that  animal  can  usu  its  faculties.  The  weakness  of 
reason  in  the  animal  always  has  the  same  character,  and  lies  in  the 
mpoj^gibility  or  difficulty  of  breaking  certain  associations  and  the 
ncapacity  to  prt»duce  out  of  two  combinations,  by  transferring  a 

*f)pamacoomuDfmtiuntotb«Sixty-GrptCvDgrc0«o(  Otfrman  NuiunUtti uid PbTa&dmiL 


9zo 


TES  POPULAR  SCIEITCE 


number  from  one  to  tlio  other,  a  third. 

skill  in  Uu-eadijig  i 

structiouii,  but  uo  ■    ^ 

When  the  associations  by  which  instinct( 

outside  of  or  against  their  onlinary  end, 

working  as  imperfect,  and  may  say  that  th 

We  also  have  instincts  that  are  charai 
nees  of  their  end.  Among  them  are  the  n 
wiuk  when  they  are  threatened  with  inju 
when  a  beneficial  operation  is  performed  u 
winking  is  an  obstacle,  the  action  going  oa 
useless  or  injurious. 

I  believe  it  can  be  shown  that  this  type 
also  found  in  man,  and  that  the  origin  o 
may  be  found  iu  the  application  to  parti 
tional,  of  what  is  l'  '>'  right.    This  pa 

by  some  errors  of  ^is.     When  a  pc^ 

oitod  by  an  external  presstire,  we  fancy  V9 
uoos  in  the  ordinary  field  of  vision  of  that 
the  experience  of  previous  observations  0 
flections,  we  should  localize  as  things  behf 
tions  which  we  see  in  mirrors.  In  this  and 
acquainteil  with  the  mechanism  of  the  phi 
tingnish  between  what  is  only  the  sensoria 
we  owe  to  memory.  The  separation  vanish) 
of  psychic  life.  If  we  dT*aw  a  line  on  a  shi 
the  end  of  it  with  another  shet>t,  an  observi 
imagine  it  to  be  much  longer  than  it  is,  be 
based  upon  the  fact  that  when  one  object  lii 
ally  covers  a  considerable  portion  of  it.  "^ 
siderable  number  of  illusions  of  this  kin< 
takes  advant^e  of  one  form  of  them  whi 
one  Ride,  ho  turns  the  eyes  of  the  an 
lation  and  gains  an  opportunity  to 
toction,  although  every  one  of  his  s 
to  lose  sight  of  bis  hands.  Ho  is  awaro 
lar  adjustments  of  the  head  and  eyebro 
suggest  to  the  looker-on  that  he  will 
something  more  interesting  than  anyw! 
of  vision.  At  the  same  time  the  a 
they  looked  in  that  direction,  and  may  n 
having  looked  there. 

We  thus  deal  on  this  domain«  remote 
the  senses,  with  f II M  '    '  'U» 

we  have  wK*n  in  th 
course  according  to  the  usual  process ; 


ORJOIN  OF  SOME  QEXER.iL   ERRORS. 


U\ 


I 

I 
I 

I 


BcionsnesB  the  ordinary  train  of  associations  is  formed,  and  the 
judgment  corresponds  with  what  is  correct  in  most  cases.  Thero 
is,  therefore,  no  precise  limit  between  instinctive  actions  and  con- 
scious thought ;  for  every  one  can  observe  in  his  own  mind  that 
thought  rosts  considerably  on  phenomena  of  association.  An  ele- 
vated intelligence  is,  however,  distinguished  from  an  inferior  one 
"by  its  richness  in  aesociations.  The  faculty  of  transposing  the 
elements  of  one  complexus  of  observations  into  another,  the  possi- 
bility of  making  a  new  combination,  and  the  wealth  of  associa- 
tions, are  prime  factors  in  determining  the  degree  of  intelligence, 
A  large  proportion  of  the  mistakes  to  which  we  are  liable  origi- 
nate in  this  kind  of  instinctive  succession  of  associations  usually 
correct  and  effective,  in  which  associations  important  to  the  par- 
ticular case  are  wanting.  In  other  words,  they  arise  from  the  aa- 
Bociation  of  the  habitual  with  the  omission  of  the  speciaL 

The  thought  can  be  illustrated  by  the  citation  of  a  few  wide- 
Bpread  logical  errors.  Where  lotteries  are  drawn,  the  lists  of  the 
drawings  are  earnestly  scrutinized  by  unsuccessful  investors,  who, 
if  asked  why  they  do  so,  will  reply  that,  as  all  the  numbers  must 
eventually  be  drawn  an  equal  number  of  times,  those  which  have 
not  been  drawn  for  a  long  time  stand  the  best  chance  of  coming 
out  soon.  People  often  say,  when  it  is  raining  hard,  that  it  will 
be  made  up  for  by  fine  weather  afterward.  A  kind  of  belief  ex- 
ists in  a  compensating  providence  that  will  bring  grief  aftfr  a 
long  run  of  happiness ;  and  it  is  illustrated  in  the  legend  of  the 
ring  of  Polycrates,  The  mental  processes  loa<ling  up  to  error  in 
these  instances  start  from  the  premise  that  all  the  numbers  have 
the  same  chance  of  winning;  with  which  is  associated  the  anthro- 
pomorphic idea  of  distributive  justice,  taking,  in  the  legend  of 
Polycrates,  the  form  of  di\'ine  jealousy ;  our  recollections  witness- 
ing to  a  tendency  to  change ;  and  past  experience,  teaching  that, 
among  a  given  number  of  objects,  the  probability  of  a  particular 
one  being  found  soon  increases  in  prr>p<-irtion  as  the  others  are  sort- 
ed out  and  put  away ;  or,  as  in  the  filing  past  of  a  regiment,  our 
expectation  of  finding  our  friend  in  the  next  rank  grows  as  com- 
panies pass  in  which  he  does  not  appear.  All  this  is  true  in  gen- 
eral. The  factor  the  omission  of  which  in  the  particular  c-ase  leads 
to  error  is  that  in  the  lottery  all  the  numbers  are  put  back  into 
the  urn  before  each  drawing,  and  consequently  what  has  been 
done  has  no  influence  on  the  probabilities  of  the  present  case. 

So,  when  a  certain  person  is  spoken  of  as  having  "luck"  at 
play;  while  he  may  have  had  unusual  success — that  is,  a  high 
number  of  favorable  chances  among  all  the  possible  ones — for  a 
day  or  several  days  in  succesBion,  any  association  of  his  "  luck  ** 
with  his  personal  qualities  is  mistaken.  We  usually  reason  cor- 
rectly that  men  succeed  in  their  lives  and  enterprises  whose  per- 


fCISyCi:  JdUSTHLl\ 


sonnl  qualities  contribute  to  tlieir  Bucce«s;  Lut  in  this  coiite  tbrjM 
is  no  possible  connection  between  tbe  dispoiution  of  thC"  canl^  tksr 
tbe  qualities  of  the  player.    These  associations  are  gt^nvrull y  l^uovi 
upon  supposed  experiences,  in  wbich^  besides  Uie  imp<.'^  f 

securing  exact  observations,  wo  commit  the  mistake  of  l 
ing  coincidences  with  causal  relations.    We  need  not  bt  1 

at  them.  They  are  incident  to  the  relations  of  men  vrith  oae  ao- 
othor,  and  are  confirmed  by  false  observations  and  tradition,  and 
they  are  what  give  its  special  character  to  each  epoch. 

These  typical  errors  ar»:^  '  '  m  of  comiaiH 

life;  preserving  their  char.  _   ^  ^L^^befct  splMlH 

of  our  activity,  art  an<l  science;  and  iu  those  domains  wo  cftn  gj 
the  fundamental  difference  between  these  two  modes  of  tV  ^  '  !T 
action.    While  in  science,  the  object  of  which  is  the  tri.  y 

error  involves  mischievous  consequences,  iu  art,  which  looks  to 
the  beautiful,  illusion  has  full  play,  and  in  many  instances  oxen 
forms  the  basis  of  the  best  conceptions.  Thus,  in  architecture,  a 
balcony  supported  on  sleudur  bars  of  iron  does  not  offer  a  pleaaiuil 
appearance  to  us,  while  w<^  are  ready  to  admire  the  same  structure 
if  it  rests  upon  shapely  brackets  of  stone  projecting  to  an  equal 
distance  from  the  wall.    The  ;i;  rtiou  between  tba 

structure  and  the  support  in  tl  an  artistic  faalL 

It  does  not  lie,  however,  in  th,e  calculations  of  the  architect,  which 
may  l>e  perfect,  but  in  the  "  ins^ '  "  *    Igment  o'    '         *4ik«r. 

The  prejudice  is  so  general  thai  tlen  dre,--  r  sup- 

ports of  iron  with  false  brackets  of  plaster  that  will  oonvey  «  mom 
agreeable  impression. 

Tlie  psychological  origin  of  this  prejudice  is  found  in  our 
familiarity,  from  espenence,  and  from  having  seen  it  afi€»d  i^^| 
buildings,  with  the  solidity  of  stone,  while  wo  aro  not  »o  well  a^^ 
quainted  with  the  equivalent  strength  of  less  masidvo  iron.    In 
most  cases  the  impression  of  solidity  agrees  *-  eazue  of 

beauty,  while  the  apparent  disproportion  of  ir',:.  .,  ^  ris  np-aks 
upon  it  The  balcony  continues  to  look  unwieldy  even  after  we 
have  lH!Come  assured  that  the  iron  bars  are  au  Our 

sense  of  beauty,  therefore,  rests  ujwn  an  illusi<-  ,    -sean 

of  which  it  can  not  adapt  itself  to  the  particular  case ;  but  it  in  as 
illusion  that  every  artist  ought  to  regard.  Such  illuaioxu  an> 
common  iu  all  art. 

The  proposition, "  Style  is  the  concordance  of  an  an  i  k 

with  the  history  of  its  devi:^ ■  ■  *  "'■*^-     ■'  *^:  -    —     -  ■  --,  ^.f 

its  production,"  which  is  ^  work 

on  "Style,"  defines  the  psyohol 

tion.    For  a  work  can  have  st^..  ^ 

the  mass  of  associations,  mostly  nin  A 

forms  on  the  subject  of  its  compositiou.    Xhi«  is  why  ^  lati/Jtia 


ORIGIN  OF  SOME  GENERAL  ERRORS. 


I 

k 


I 


enp  should  have  a  difforent  s]ui]>e  from  one  of  nietnl  ;  why  a 
cup  of  hammered  metal  should  be  distinct  from  a  molded  one ; 
and  why  veesels  of  other  materials  should  have  their  specific 
forms. 

I  have  intimated  that  many  of  onr  most  common  associations 
arise  from  impressions  that  have  acted  upon  us  from  our  youth. 
The  nature  of  these  impressions  is  conditioned  on  the  experiences 
of  the  generations  that  have  precede<l  us.  In  other  words,  these 
traditions  play  an  important  part  in  our  Aesthetic  impressions. 
The  Greeks  employed  in  their  marble  temples  motives  that  dated 
from  a  distant  epoch  when  huilding  was  done  with  wood,  A 
diversion  from  theso  rules  would  have  produced  an  unpleasant 
impression  on  the  Greeks,  and  would  havo  he«n  contrary  to  the 
"  style,"  Our  caso  is  not  diflPerent.  All  of  our  ornamental  motives 
are  derived  from  time-Jionore<i  traditions;  and  our  aesthetic  sat- 
isfaction in  them  continues  unharmed  by  the  reflection  that  in 
many  cases  they  are  no  longer  adapted  to  present  conditions. 

We  meet  errors  of  a  similar  class  on  scientific  ground.  Take, 
for  example,  the  paradox  of  Zouo  the  Eleatic,  concerning  Achilles 
and  the  tortoise.  The  swift  Achilles,  it  supposes,  can  never  over- 
take the  tortoise,  because  a  distance  intervenes  between  them, 
and  he  will  have  to  run  for  a  certain  time  before  the  distance 
is  reduced  by  lialf,  another  length  of  time  to  reduce  it  to  a 
quarter,  to  an  eighth,  and  so  on  to  infinity.  More  time  is  re-i 
quired  to  reduce  the  rest  of  the  distance  by  half,  and  the  numbed 
of  these  possible  parcels  is  infinite;  hence  Achilles  will  never 
catch  up  with  the  tortoise.  Now,  since  wo  know  that  he  will 
oveilake  it,  wherein  is  the  sophism  ?  It  is  not  in  any  real  con- 
tradiction between  the  laws  of  our  thought  and  ex]x?ricnce  ;  but  a 
typical  error  is  involved,  in  which  thought,  moving  in  a  way  that 
generally  leads  to  the  truth,  is  at  fault  in  the  8i>eciAl  case.  It  is 
true,  in  ordinary  cases,  that  when  we  continue  adding  indefinitely 
new  intervals  to  any  interval  of  time,  the  sum  of  all  will  be  infi- 
nite. Thus  fact,  generally  valid,  in  the  particular  case  loads  our 
judgment  to  a  false  conclusion.  The  special  feature  in  the  prob- 
lem is  that  if  parcels  of  time,  infinite  in  number,  diminish  accord- 
ing to  certain  laws,  their  sum  will  not  be  infinite,  but  may  be  veryJ 
small.  We  do  not  havo  to  be  accomplished  in  mathematics  t<> 
comprehend  the  sophism  and  find  its  solution.  Every  one  knows 
that  we  can  div^de  a  length  of  one  metro  into  a  half  motre  plus  a^ 
quarter,  plus  an  eighth,  etc.,  of  a  metre,  and  thus  obtain  an  infinity 
number  of  factors,  the  sum  of  which,  however,  shall  always  be 
within  a  metre.  The  general  error  involved  in  the  discussions  of 
this  sophism  is  also  a  typical  one,  for  it  originates  in  the  predomi- 
nance in  otir  consciousness  of  the  general  law,  with  the  non- 
asBociation  of  the  particular  case.    The  phenomenon  is  therefore 


8*4  ^^^  POPULAR   SCIENCE  MOXTHLT. 

analogous  to  those  which  we  Iiavo  observed  in  ftnimaJg,  to  > 
of  tho  seuses,  and  to  other  illusions  of  the  reasoning  facalty 

From  the  hen  that  sits  on  its  empty  nest  to  the  problem  of 

Zeno  the  Eleatic,  there  runs  through  animals  and  ni^ '  ntinu- 

0U8  series  of  errors,  all  of  which  have  a  common  i  u  the 

working  of  the  nervous  system  conformably  to  the  majority  of 

cases  without  regarding  any  certain  sjK^cial  and  exr ♦- -  -t  case^ 

The  typi(!al  character  of  these  errors  is  related  to  t  i .  i^enic 

development,  and  casts  a  degree  of  light  on  the  unioMiug  of 
thought, — Trandated  for  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  from  the 
Revae  ScienHJique, 


THE  PLEASURE  OF  MOTION. 

Bt  K,  p.  BOQEIAOU. 

MOTION  gives  both  phyaical  and  moral  pleasure.    PhysdcftDy, 
it  enables  us  to  remove  ourselves  for  the  momept  fmrn 
pain.    Morally,  it  furnishes  a  satiufaction  for  our  self-h/  h 

is  remarked  e«i^ecially  in  play  and  in  our  struggles  ag,-..wi.  .„d 
forces  of  nature. 

Before  being  a  source  of  positive  pleasure,  our  phygicftl  actir- 
ity  is  stimulatotl  by  pain«  Those  movements,  called  6pout«n4MmSy 
which  are  the  first  signs  of  vitality  in  the  child  or  amnud,  arte  ex- 
plaLaed  by  supposing  them  to  be  the  reflex  of  some  indefinite  diii- 
comfort.  Our  organism  is  not  a  machine,  as  some  say,  in  any  of 
its  parts,  but  is  living  and  animated  throughout.  Even  the  organs 
that  perform  without  the  intervention  of  the  will,  and  th-  f 

which  seems  to  bo  mechanical  because  it  is  not  aooomptii.  .j 

a  recognizable  sensation,  may  have  the  rhythm  of  their  move- 
ments determined  by  some  local  sensibility. 

When  I  feel  any  suffering,  I  have  only  to  execute  gomo  moti 
to  feel  it  less.    Motion  is  the  best  of  au  .^-e 

a  stroke  all  the  little  uneasinesses  that  ..  ..^  n 

mal  working  of  our  organs^  and  which  u    •  when  we  ore 

occupied  only  with  feeling  ourselves  live     \\  !nake  an 

energetic  effort,  we  are  nearly  insensible  to  pain  ■ ^  la  it  bwlaL. 

When  I  am  at  rest,  a  blow  on  the  shoulder  will  hurt  me.    In  the 

ardor  of  sport,  in  the  excit<^ment  of  a  vi.  '  ■  •>rcise,  th' 

est  shock  will  hardly  bo  felt.    Every  \  >    ,  n»o  een2s> 

also  know,  provokes  convulsive  movements,  sudden  and  vikI 

muscular  contractions.    These  movements  are  not  ir     '    -  *'"«H 

determined  by  the  sensation;  they  are  pr<^>f]np^  v* 

though  they  will  not  remove  the  cause  of 

mitigate  its  effect.    The  howling  of  the  v -" 

ing  of  the  worm  that  is  cut  in  two,  ar^  n 

suffering. 


I 


THE  PLEASURE   Oj 


f*5 


^ 


ft 


Hac 
■th 


If  ^MtflPfDip  P<^ui  recurs  frequently,  the  animal  soon  remarks 
that  some  among  these  vague  movements  will  contribute  more 
directly  than  others  to  assiiage  it,  and  will  give  the  preference  to 
them.  The  habit  of  resisting  a  particular  sufForing  by  a  sjwcial 
movement,  becoming  hereditary,  forma  a  veritable  instinct.  In 
conformity  with  the  general  laws  of  evolution,  there  is  established 
a  selection  between  injurious  and  useful  reflex  actions,  and  the 
iatter  will  gradually  predominate. 

Even  when  we  are  not  suflfering  from  any  accidental  uneasi- 
ness provocative  of  special  muscular  reaction,  we  are  impelled  to 
move  by  the  simple  need  of  motion.  Every  auimal  has  to  expend 
daily  a  more  or  less  considerable  sum  of  energy  to  procure  food 
for  it>self.  The  oyster,  fixed  on  its  rock,  imbibes,  without  effort 
and  almost  passively,  the  vegetable  matter  wliich  the  waves  bring 
to  it.  A  snail,  drawing  itself  slowly  along  on  its  belly,  easily 
reaches  the  leaves  which  are  in  its  way.  The  ox  marches,  step  by 
step,  in  tlie  field  for  hours,  feeding  upon  the  grass-leaves  with 
which  its  lips  come  in  contact.  A  wolf  has  to  make  journeys 
of  leagues  every  day  in  search  of  its  prey.  The  swallow  has  to 
Iceep  in  incessant  motion  to  procure  enough  insects  to  satisfy 
its  appetite.  To  the  necessity  for  eating  is  added  that  of  escap- 
ing enemies,  and  this  exacts  an  increase  of  activity  from  the 
animal.  Thus,  each  one,  according  to  its  kind,  is  obliged  to  be 
in  motion  more  or  less  every  day,  and  is  organized  for  it.  If, 
through  accidental  circumstances,  its  activity  ceases  to  be  useful, 
it  is  nevertheless  obligatory  upon  it,  for  its  physical  constitution, 
having  become  adapted  by  heredity  to  the  normal  life  of  the  spe- 
cies, can  not  abruptly  bend  itself  to  other  conditions  of  existence. 
Its  organism  continues  to  furnish  it  the  same  quantity  of  energy, 
which  it  has  to  expeud  in  some  way.  Hence  the  movements 
of  the  captive  animals — of  the  lion  which  pac^s  its  cage,  and  of 
the  canary-bird  that  leaps  from  bar  to  bar.  Hence  the  physi- 
cal exercises  with  which  i)ersou8  whose  occupation  condemns 
them  to  a  too  sedentary  life  relax  themselves.  This  necessity 
for  motion  is  especially  great  in  youth,  because  the  yoimg 
auimal  must  train  itself  in  all  the  movements  it  will  have  to  i>or- 
form  at  a  later  age,  and  must  also  exercise  its  muscles  and  joints 
to  develop  them.  Thus  every  animal  has  a  tendency  daily  to  ex- 
pend a  certain  quantity  of  force,  which  is  dett-rmined,  not  by  the 
ciilental  wants  of  the  individual,  but  by  the  general  wants  of 
the  species. 

How  is  this  expenditure  regulated  ?  By  what  criterion  do  wo 
know  when  we  need  exercise  ?  A  matter  so  indispensable  to  the 
good  working  of  our  organization  can  not  be  tlie  product  of  reflex 
iM^on.  It  is  evident  that  animals  can  not  take  exercise  by  rule, 
aftei  the  manner  of  a  gentleman  who  imposes  upon  himself  the 


THE  POPULAR  SCIBNCB 


obligation  of  taking  "  a  constitutional  "  evev  n  msa 

can  do  this  only  exceptionally.  Our  inteJws':^^-^  j--. i^i.^.^  os  to 
satisfy  these  physiological  exigencies  in  a  more  ratirmal  maimer; 
but  it  does  not  give  us  notice  of  them.    Wliat  became  of 

the  most  reasonable  being  in  the  world  if  he  \iv, :  :.  ..  ,'end  uj 
Ills  reason  to  tell  him  what  ho  needed  ?  A  real  nec<?ssity  exisl^ 
us  to  be  warnefi  by  special  sensations. 

We  sometimes  dispose  of  this  explanation  cheaply  by 
as  if  wo  had  direct  knowledge  of  our  strength.  Nuthiog  could  \m 
more  simple  were  this  the  case.  Strength  accumulaiM  in  as  whUe 
we  are  inactive^  ending  by  giving  us  a  painful  8«a»e  of  nenrooi 
tension,  which  prompts  us  to  expend  our  excessive  energy  in  cer- 
tain exercises.  We  go  through  these  first  asareli  '■■  *^ —  -r 
reserve  force  having  been  exhausted,  we  feel  our  sti 
and  the  need  of  repose  comes  upon  ua.  There  would  be  no 
siderable  objection  to  speaking  in  this  way  if  our  purpone 
simply  to  indicate  a  correspondence  between  our  muacular 
tions  and  the  dynamical  state  of  our  muscles.  But  wo  must  take 
care  not  to  believe  that  there  is  the  shatiow  of  an  ext^laimtit 
in  it. 

What  is  it  that  takes  place  in  "    ^     ' 
when  we  say  that  energy  is  accui  \i 

are  undergoing  restoration,  are  getting  into  a  condition  to  fomi 
new  chemical  combinations.    But  I  have  no  kn<'    '    '      ^  h 

foi'ce  they  can  exjiend  at  a  given  moment ;  it  t .  a 

purely  virtual  condition.  1  do  not  feel  it  any  more  than  I  feel 
expansive  force  of  the  powder  contained  in  •  -  ••'■  ■-  ''isk,  or 
heat  that  may  be  disengaged  from  a  parti*  '  rharcnal. 

We  have  not,  there fore^  any  degree  of  con 
posable  energy.    The  anticipatory  sensation  >^ ....  .t  .  -.  <^ 

we  are  about  to  make  a  movement,  and  which  wi»  t  k  coo- 

Bciousness  of  the  force  we  are  going  to  ex]  \k  proooo- 

ceivod  imagination  of  the  sensation  of  effort  tccompany 

the  contraction.  Even  at  the  instant  when  the  contraction  u 
effected  our  Bonsation  of  effort  only  indicates  t"  '  "ul  of 

the  a<.'tual  tension  of  our  muscles.     It  answers  s-  <*  rtol 

expenditure  of  our  energy,  that  it  would  be  exactly  the  aame  if  we 


should  stretch  them  in  that  way  wit! 
We  sliall  therefort)  have  to  givo  up  th 
tions  and  regard  matters  more  clowdy. 

When  we  have  continued  still  for  n 
great  de^tire  to  move.    Like  all  our  u| 
move  is  recognized,  even  bi-fore  any 
nisauce  of  it,  by  the  effect  whJ-i^  •'  '  ' 
In  unconscious  hunger  or  thi 
would  be  agrooable  to  drink  or  ta^  Uul  Uw 


work 

lona- 


1.-.,,.,  ♦ 


f.^.A  a. 


THE  PLEASURE  OF  MOTIOIT. 


817 


or  a  pot  of  beer  would  be  very  nice.    So  the  young  man  who  lias 
l>een  coiifiued  too  loug  dreams  of  ciintHung  and  horHebauk-ridingjj 
before  thinking  tliat  those  exercises  will  do  him  good,  he  pleabOS^ 
himself  with  representing  them  to  himself.    Tliis  desire,  as  it  de- 
fines itself,  becomes  more  intense  ;  and,  if  it  is  opposed,  intolerabla 
At  the  same  time  physiological   phenomena  become    ajjparent, 
augmenting  the  uneasiness,    A  process  of  nutrition  and  reintegra- 
tion is  carried  on  in  the  muscle  during  rest.    The  products  of 
combustion,  or  the  molecules  that  form  stable  compounds,  are 
eliminated  and  replacad  by  fresh  combustible  matter,  or  unstable 
compounds.    The  muscle  is  then  in  what  Rosenthal  calls  the  sausi- 
tiTO  condition.    The  most  minute  spark  will  bring  on  an  explo- 
sion; the  slightest  impression  will  provoke  violent  reflexes.    In 
such  a  state  we  feel  nervous,  as  it  is  called ;  or  can  not  keep  still. 
The  expression  is  exact.     Our  sensitive  condition  requires  the 
spontaneous  movements  which  the  mere  idea  of  motion  provokea^j 
A  typical  example  i>f  such  suffering  from  forced  rest  is  aifurdedj 
by  the  pupil  waiting  for  school  to  be  dismissecL    He  feels  as  ifj 
his  back  was  breaking  and  his  legs  were  growing  stiff.     When 
will  the  bell  ring  ?    He  wishes  with  a  frantic  inclination  that  he 
could  jump  from  his  seat,  shout,  and  run.    He  wriggles  and  dragftj 
his  feet  on  the  floor,    A  hard  look  from  thetetioher  fastens  liim  ta 
his  place,  and  he  quiets  himself ;  but  what  a  punishment  it  is  to 
endure  it ! 

Motion  also  procures  a  positive  physical  pleasure  for  us. 
When  we  give  ourselves  up  to  an  exercise,  or  go  at  anything 
with  great  energy,  all  the  functions  are  accelerated,  the  heart 
beats  more  rapidly,  breathing  becomes  more  frequent  and  deeper, 
and  we  experience  a  general  feeling  of  comfort.  We  live  more, 
and  are  happy  in  living.  Rapid  and  boisterous  movements  pro- 
duce also  a  kind  of  intoxication  and  giddiness  tliat  have  a  peculiar 
charm.* 

"  Let  us  imagine,"  says  M.  Guyau,  "what  are  the  feelings  of  a 
bird  as  it  opens  its  wings  and  glides  through  the  air  like  an  arrow ; 
let  us  recollect  what  we  ourselves  have  experienced  in  being  car- 
ried by  a  horse  at  a  gallop,  or  upon  a  boat  dipping  into  the  hol- 
lows of  the  waves,  or  in  the  whirl  of  a  waltz ;  all  these  motions 
evoke  in  us  the  undefined  idea  of  the  infinite,  of  unbounded  long- 
ing, of  superabundant  and  careless  life,  a  vague  rejection  of  in- 
dividuality, a  craving  to  go  without  restraint,  to  be  lost  in  immen- 
sity; and  such  vague  ideas  enter  as  an  essential  elenient  in  the 
Impreesion  which  a  great  number  of  movements  cause  us."  The 
observation  is  correct;  but  I  believe  that  this  kind  of  pantheistic 
int'    '■'       '   u  is  at  bottom  only  a  cerebral  congestion,    A  horeejJ 

'       *  ,  ■  -  ....^'.ni  lofftimUWrn  for  round  duicos  U  chteflv  cipUm«d  bj  Uib  uitoxiontloa  of  1 
ll  l«  fthovn  in  ebUUnm  m  a  Tcrjr  earij  %<^  1 


THE 


plunging  Into  a  rapid  gallops  and  seeing  ft  lurfo  void  space  open- 
ing out  in  front  of  him,  will  never  fri-^        '"^     — *-  -  *■"  "  *'  -lo 
liiinself  up.**    The  mere  rapidity  of  his  i 
he  loses  sight  of  danger;  and  when  rax  obatHcke 
against  him,  if  he  does  not  jump  over  it, lie  breaks  Lti^..- 
it.    So,  all  rapid  movement®  deprive  us  of  complete  po««e«sloa  of 


-^  I  I     f«mi»iiir< 


It 


•V. 


iJ  ffuclt 


a    iv.' 


ourselvce ;  we  go  on,  we  follow  our  impulse 
one;  so  much  the  better.  Go  on!  up*  <iti 
behavior  but  sheer  intoxication  ? 

To  the  physical  pleasure  of  motion  ; 
emotional  pleasure.  In  like  manner  as  it  i 
physical  sulfering.  muscular  activity  may  serve  as  a  remady  for 
disappointments,  for  moral  pains.  We  weep  and  Btru^gle  when 
we  have  a  gieat  grief^  as  well  as  when  we  are  suflferiisi?  frfynx  a 
physical  wound.    The  most  afflicted  man  forgets  his  trv  i  le 

be  is  performing  a  vigorous  exercise.  Byron  bad  hio  *.  .:::- 
gloves  brought  to  him^  and  went  through  bis  accustomed  pra  t  . 
with  a  servant,  while  his  mother  was  being  buried  ;  but  the  •err* 
ant  felt  that  his  touch  was  stronger  than  usual,  and  all  at  once 
he  threw  down  his  gloves  and  fled  to  bis  room,  Wbo  has  not  felt 
the  necessity  of  what  is  called  throwing  off  his  grief  ?     ^  -'?« 

remain  quiet  our  mind  is,  as  it  were,  bent  back  upon  it^'     ,  -iQ 

the  pains  that  can  affect  us  are  augmented,  as  it  were,  by  the  T«rj 
attentioa  which  we  give  them.     In  action  we  forget  ourselvf*^ 
directing  our  thought  to  the  attainment  of  the  purpn^p  n 
which  we  are  fixed. 

Physical  exercises  also  giv' 
chief  among  which  is  the  sat  i  I 

execute  any  movement^  or  devote  myself  to  an  exercise,  I  try  u> 


1 


ncquit 

'  a 

^'? 
il 

y 


get  as  much  as  possible  out  of  it.  I  want  pnr^*'"^""- 
myself  better  than  any  one  else,  and  have  a  feel 
I  have  succeeded.  This  leads  to  a  real  increase  of  a 
luxury  of  physical  activity'.  Ol)serve  youth  who  Mi* 
themselves  in  any  sport  together ;  is  not  emulation  tl 
principle  of  their  activity,  which  enables  1 ! 

have  of  available  energy*  ?    Tell  a  child  to  : .  _  .-^jj 

he  will  stop  in  a  short  time,  out  of  breath.    Give  him  rivals,  and 

the  fear  of  being  left  "^    ■  '    '       '* 

provide  him  with  lui-ij 

go  till  his  strength  is  exhaustecl.    It  is  a  r- 

couriers,  gymnasts,  canoeists,  etc.,  that  ont- 

self  alone  in  exercises  of  speed;  there  sL- 

excite  one  another  by  competition.    Somo  p«rr 

show  that  the  t^-  :   --     ■'-':    :  '--  :-  .i:.:T'*:^r^'-»"fl 

ing  without  i. 

•^•ccupied  with  the  result  of  our  actirivy.    We  may  u 


d 
rule  with  oU 

'J 

d 


THE  PLEASURE  OF  MOTION, 


829 


I 
I 


^^ticular  in  the  choice  of  the  end  we  shall  seek ;  we  may  not 
care  whether  that  end  is  worth  the  trouble  we  are  taking ;  but,  for 
all  that,  we  may  nt»t  be  willing  to  have  our  faculties  at  work  for 
nothing-    Wt«  fix  upon  some  end  that  we  shall  reach.    If  I  take  a 
walk,  I  say  that  1  am  going  here,  or  there,  or  will  walk  &o  many 
miles.    If  I  play  a  game  of  skill,  I  want  to  win,  to  make  so  many 
points,  to  accomplish  something;  1  am  not,  then,  seeking  merely 
the  pleasure  of  acting,  biit  I  try  to  reach  a  result  agreeable  ia, 
itself.    Games  of  chance  have  no  attraction  if  cue  is  not  interested' 
in  the  play.    Sometimes,  this  interest  is  conferred  by  the  hope  of 
a  material  or  pecuniary  profit ;  most  fre^iuently  in  the  pursuit  of 
the  honor  of  having  won.    But,  is  working  for  glorj'  di8int<?r- 
estedness  ?    Pascal's  analysis  was  more  complete.    The  hunter 
loves  to  hunt,  not  only  for  the  pleasure  of  walking  in  the  fields  in 
pursuit  of  a  hare,  not  only  for  the  pleasure  of  bringing  his  game 
home,  but  chiefly  for  the  proud  joy  of  exhibiting  it.    It  may  b^i 
said  that  this  is  all  vanity ;  that  the  object  is  not  worth  the  pains 
it  has  cost.    But  that  matters  not  to  the  argument.    I  do  not  say 
that  play  is  an  affair  of  well-defined  interest ;  but  that  we  are  ex«j 
cited  in  it  by  considerations  of  interest.    At  the  moment  when  I  ■ 
am  striving  to  arrive  at  that  end,  I  do  not  measure  its  importance, 
I  do  not  think  of  the  reasons  that  first  started  me ;  there  is  the 
goal  I  have  proposed  to  myself,  and  I  run  for  it.    If  the  thought 
occnrred  to  me  for  an  instant  that  this  was  all  futile,  only  a  pre- 
text, my  ardor  wouLl  be  cooled  down  at  once.    It  is  also  easily 
seen  that,  when  we  engage  in  any  exercise  or  game,  we  by  a  men- 
tal effort  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  end  sought.    If  we 
play  billianis  with  a  strong  adversary,  we  call  it  a  match,  and  hire 
a  hall ;  and  the  players  please  themselves  by  imagining  that  they 
are  staking  their  reputation  on  each  carom-shot    A  game  of  chesftj 
becomes  very  dramatic,  and  the  player's  hand  trembles  when  h«* 
make-s  a  decisive  movement.    Wlien  we  start  on  a  canoeing  ex- 
cnrslon,  it  1"  ■  ?*  to  imagine  for  the  moment  that  we  are  going., 

to  travel  ini  ni  regions.    Walking  in  the  forest,  we  say  that 

we  ore  exploring  the  country,  and  are  going  to  make  discoveries. 
In  this  way  we  try  to  satisfy  the  spirit  of  adventure  that  the 
tisages  of  our  too  well  regulated  society  have  not  wholly  stifled. 
It  is,  therefore,  an  essential  quality  of  play  that,  to  take  pleasure 
in  it,  we  must  mount  the  imagination,  and  fancy  that  what  we  are 
doing  on  a  small  scale  is  done  on  a  grand  one ;  must  substitute 
mentally,  for  the  futile  activity  iu  which  we  desire  to  be  absorbed^ 
some  mode  of  superior  and  more  fascinating  activity.  Tell  me 
that  I  am  willfully  fooling  myself,  if  you  please.  Tell  me  even 
that  I  have  a  secret  consciousness  that  it  is  an  illusion,  and  that  I 
am  more  than  half  a  dupe  of  the  pretext  that  I  have  given  my- 
BoU.    It  \B  nevertheless  true  that  the  pleasure  of  action  for  the 


gjo 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  JiOH^TirLY. 


sake  of  action  is  not  enongh,  and  that  I  take  interest  in  th6  game 
only  80  far  as  iny  self-love  is  seriously  interested  in  it*     It  is  still 
necessary  for  me  to  hare  a  difficulty  to  overcome,  a  rival  to  tot* 
paes,  au  advance  to  make.    In  dismounting  from  a  horse,  in  tal^ 
ing  off  our  skates,  in  putting  awuy  our  oars,  we  congratulata  our^ 
selves  tUat  we  have  become  stronger,  and  w©  feel  an  impmou 
necessity  for  telling  of  our  prowess.    We  should  tak^  \\^^  plwfc*- 
nre  in  a  game  of  skill  if  we  could  not  convince  ours- "" 
each  essay,  and  convince  some  one  else,  that  we  ha^i  In.* 
adroit  in  it.    Every  exercise  in  which  one  is  decidedly  a  past  mafter 
inspires  a  vague  distaste. 

"We  are  able  also  to  determine,  in  every  physical  exercnBe^ft 
particular  kind  of  pride.    Very  simple  or  childish,  if  you  pl^Muei, 
but  all  the  deeper  and  more  instinctive — that  which  one  feels  in 
conquering  the  forces  of  nature.    We  delight  to  refuse  wltat  th««y 
solicit  us  to  do,  and  to  accomplish  what  they  seem   to   forbt^L 
Houce  the  pleasure  felt  in  climbing  a  hill,  putting  down  an  ob- 
stacle, leaping  a  ditch,  and  walking  against  wind  and  rftin.    In 
canoe-sailing  we  would  rather  stand  close  to  :'  ^   '^*an  l» 

carried  with  it,  and  prefer  running  over  the  wa  ^  bcifoans 

them.    Of  all  these  forces  we  straggle  most  earnestly  again&t  and 
most  delight  to  overcome  that  of  gravitation.    It  V*    '  ^     *he 

earth  by  fetters  which  we  are  anxious  to  unlooso,  ai:  i*. 

abilities  upon  us  and  exposes  us  to  dangers  that  we  are  glad  to 
escape.    Motions  of  speedy  transport,  are  pleasant,  bf-r-        *  ^    •  n^- 
lieve  us  for  the  moment  from  the  burden  of  the  feti  iw 

Hence  the  agreeableness  of  riding,  driving,  cyrling,  sp;  rd 

jumping,  vaulting,  and  riding  in  an  express  train.    '1..;..  .^  a 
charm  in  dreaming  that  we  are  leaping  immen^o  dijttonces  and 
prolonging  the  bound  by  the  force  of  the  ^-  '.e 

struggle  against  height,  falling  is  defeat;  eqii:  .        ...  ..  its 

fensive;  motion  of  simple  translation  is  the  beginninjf  nf  onftwi. 
<•' *  ';  and  movement  upward  i'-  '       "'     ^dal^d  far 

ill-    .  ^     ■■  IT  Science  Monthly  from  the  L- 


*tu%  Niagara-studies  of  Prof.  Jnltnii  Pohlmano  have  It-d  hloi  tJi 

SlUr  tbo  fii]l!t  havu  rt'coJeJ  one  mUe — or  iu  tw<.>  tfaoasaDtl  vvAn^i: 

bat  one  fait,  tlio  AmcrioaD  fall  haviiig  disappeared,  onil  iu  mUhiIh  iriQ  be 

■cntcd  h;  low  bill-tups  oq  a  peninsula  pnijecttng  froTfi  Uj«  AtMfkttD  shor*; 

the  fall  win  Ik>  DCArly  two  bouilred  feet  hUh.    AfWr  a  rvtvmAim  of  LfarM 

iij.-  ..'■.;;" 

b. 

•v«ry  liiUv  (ii*y  t  ;  nn-i  loi. 

t*>  llifi  «*mth»rD  iL  Li  J  Islam],  iJi  ,    -  .  . 

acnt  on\f  a  loDg  *«rin  of  npridft.    T2m  MKstxiii 

clowlj- than  Ihit  C "  -    '  "   *    -      '"     '•' 

diUim,  foniilni^  a  : 


t«l 


'<  Grukl  lobttd. 
oaflcr  dindal4i  i 
•7  liAVe  noodf 


(iJl 

for 

JT 


THE  mSTORT  OF  TBE  FORS. 


831 


^H  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  FORK.  1 

V  Br  J.  VON  FALKE.  ] 

THE  Duchess  of  Beaufort,  dining  once  at  Madam©  de  Guise's 
with  King  Henri  IV  of  France,  extended  one  hand  to  receive 
his  Majosty's  salutation  while  she  dipped  the  fingers  of  the  other 
hand  into  a  dish  to  pick  out  what  was  to  her  taste.  This  incident 
happened  in  the  year  1598.  It  demonstrates  that  less  than  three 
hundred  years  ago  the  fingers  were  still  used  to  perform  the  office 
assigned  to  forks,  in  the  hight^st  and  most  refined  circU«  of 
iety.  At  about  this  time,  in  fact,  was  the  turning-point  when 
forks  began  to  be  used  at  table  as  they  are  now.  When  we  reflect 
nice  were  the  ideas  of  that  refined  age  on  all  matters  of  outer 
ncy  and  behavior,  and  how  strict  was  the  etiquette  of  the 
courts,  "We  may  well  wonder  that  the  fork  was  so  late  in  coming 
into  use  as  a  table- furnishing.  The  ladies  of  the  middle  ages  and  ' 
the  Renaissance  were  not  less  proud  of  a  delicate,  well-kept  hand 
than  those  of  our  own  days,  and  yet  they  picked  the  meat  from 
the  platter  with  their  slender  white  fingers,  and  in  them  l>ore  it 
to  their  mouths.  The  fact  is  all  the  more  remarkable,  because  the 
form  of  the  fork  was  familiar  enough,  and  its  application  to  other 
uses  was  not  uncommon.  It  was  even  used  in  cooking  in  the  epic 
period  of  the  middle  ages,  as  a  spitting  instrument,  though  rarely 
as  an  aid  in  cutting.  It  appears  with  some  regularity  in  the  in* 
vontories  or  treasure-lists  of  kings  and  noble  houses  after  the  four- 
teenth century,  but  only  in  isolated  or  very  few  specimens  as  com- 
pared with  the  large  numbers  of  knives  and  spoons.  In  Clement 
of  Hungary's  list  in  the  fourteenth  century  thirty  spoons  are  men- 
tionedy  but  only  one  fork,  and  that  of  gold.  The  proportion  is 
nearly  the  same  in  the  Duke  of  Anjou's  inventory  of  1300.  King 
Charles  V  of  France  in  13B0  listed  along  with  many  other  object*^ 
two  silver  forks  with  crystal  handles;  and  this  monarch  is  said  to 
ve  had  in  all  twelve  forks  in  a  million  francs'  worth  of  silver- 
The  Duchess  of  Touraine  in  13S9  had  only  two  forks  to 
e  dozen  spoons.  The  instrument  was  then  called  by  the  samei 
name  it  bears  to-day  in  French— /otircft^/te — and  this  was  the  di- 
minutive of  fourche,  pitchfork,  with  which  all  the  farmers  at 
least  were  <•  "    -rd.     Forks  are  not  oftcner  mentioned,  nor  for 

a  different  i  ,  in  the  fiftemlh  century;  but  Duchess  Char- 

lotte of  Savoy  had,  in  1483,  two  spoons  and  a  fork,  of  silver, "  to 
M|comfits  with." 

^Thefte  example?  show  that  forks  were  known  as  rare  and  costly 
ar!  1  used  for  the  purposes  they  now  are.   Among 

Ih'  res  on  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts  are  rcpresen- 

tot  ,t  none  in  which  a  fork  is  shown  lying  on  the 


8j. 


TEE  POPULAR  SCTEyCS  MOXTffZr. 


table  or  held  in  the  hands  of  any  of  the  goesta— except  that.  In  a 
single  picture  m  a  manuscript  of  Herrad  of  Landsberg  (siiice  d^ 
etroyed  by  fire),  an  inatrunient  resembling  a  fork,  but  more  like  a 
double-edged  knife  split  in  the  direction  of  ita  length,  wo*  lying 
on  the  table. 

The  fork  is  likewise  not  mentioned  in  any  of  the  noznerous  de* 
scriptions  of  feasts  by  the  chroniclers  of  the  middle  ag«»;  not  in 
Alienor  de  Poitiers's  account  of  the  ceremonies  and  table  usages  of 
the  Biirgundian  coui't ;  uor  in  the  account  of  the  setting  of  the 
table  given  in  the  "  M(:?nagicr  de  Paris  " ;  nor  in  that  of  the  great 
feast  given  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  to  the  English  ambassadors 
in  IW'i,  But  it  does  appear  from  those  stories  that  Uie  gue^ta  took 
the  moat  and  other  viands  which  the  carver  pn^pftrfnl  for  UionSf 
and  carried  it  to  their  mouths  in  their  fingers  In  some  distin- 
guished houses  they  took  the  pieces  out  of  the  common  dish«  or 
cut  them  themsolvos  to  eat  them  by  the  aid  of  their  fingers.  The 
guests  did  not  even  receive  separate  knives,  and  it  was  the  custom 
in  England  in  the  sixteenth  century  for  each  to  bring  his  own  knife 
and  sharpen  it  upon  a  common  steel  th;  "  ^  *  11, 

The  absence  of  forks  explains  the  .  a  mu 

paid  to  washing  the  hands  before  and  after  metfils.  Servants  won 
all  the  time  going  around  with  l)asi us  and  pitchers,  an r'  -  ■  ■,-] 
slung  over  their  shoulders, and  poiuniigwutor  on  the  hi.'  \o 

guests,  and  the  napkins  were  frequently  changed.    Soni'  a 

water  was  perfumed  ;  and  every  pains  was  taken  to  r*.ijjt--i  >  »iifi 
soiling  of  the  hngers  that  inevitably  took  place,  and  make  it  as 
little  unx>leasant  as  possible. 

It  seems  clear  enough,  in  the  light  of  this  negative  *>vM..n 
that  the  few  forks  included  in  the  silver- ware  of  the  n> 
were  not  used  as  forks  are  U8e<l  to-day.     Since  kit-: 
served  as  spits  and   for  holding  roasts,  it  is  probabh' 
high-bom  lords  and  ladies  of  those  time^^who  only  appear  to  haw 
p<  these  in  ' 

til  ul  at  the  i 

denoe  that  they  were  employed  to  hold  sxih^  f 
agreeable  or  inconvenient  to  handle,  as  t* 
leave  an  unpleasant  smell ;  or  sticky 
fruits,  the  juice  of  which  would  stain  the  Angers. 

Only  one  incident  is  related  of  the  use  of  th»'*  ^'■'•^ 
teenth-century  fashiom    This  was  by  a  noble  ] 
who  had  married  a  Doge  of  Venice,  acl 

eat  after  her  own  custom,  cutting  her  u 

veying  it  to  her  mouth  with  a  two-pronged  fork.   T 

gurded  in  "^^  -icoordlng  to  ^ 

cessive  lu.\  i  extreme  eff'- 

that  the  fashion  of  eating  with  forks  • 


i^. 


■•s 


isttng 

r   f*Ti' 

..  -ild 
r  soft 

a 
to 


TES  HISTORY  OF  TEE  FORE. 


855 


court  of  Byzantium  and  thence  extended  to  the  West^  Some  hun- 
dreds of  years  had  still  to  pass  before  it  could  be  domiciliate<i  in 
Europe,  for  this  Byzantine  doge's  wife  lived  in  the  eleventh  cent- 
ury, while  the  fashion  of  eating  with  forks  did  not  become  gen- 
eral till  the  seventeenth  century. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  waiters  to  deposit  the  meats  with  large, 
broad  carving-knives  upon  the  j)late,  from  which  the  guest  took 
it  and  broke  it  up  with  his  fingers,  and  with  them  conveyed  it  to 
his  mouth.  The  nails  were  also  sometimes  called  into  requisition, 
if  we  may  credit  the  verses  which  read —  m 

*'  Ongle,  ricbe  et  pr^cieux ;  I 

Onglc  qui  trftucho,  qnand  ta  veux  ;  I 

Ongle  qui  en  lien  de  forcettes  1 

A  1&  belle  scrl  do  piucettea."  1 

[Noll,  rich  and  precious;  I 

Kailf  that  outs  when  yon  will ;  J 

l^ail,  which,  in  ]dace  of  forks,  ! 
For  tbo  fair  dame  plajs  at  tongs.] 

Meat,  when  not  cut  with  the  carving-kuife,  was  taken  up  in 
the  fingers.  It  was  the  rule  with  respect  to  other  viuiida  for  which 
the  hand  had  to  be  put  into  the  disli,  to  take  them  always  from 
the  same  side,  so  that  each  guest  might  have  his  particular  spot 
to  pick  from.  A  polite  man  should  pick  meat  neatly  with  threO' 
fingers,  and  should  take  care  in  conveying  it  to  his  mouth  not  to 
touch  his  nose  with  it  ("iW  louche  pas  ton  uez  ci  wain  nue^dont  la 
mande  est  tenue**).  Erasmus^  of  R(>tt<*rtlHni,  who  w»ks  versed  ia 
good  manners,  said  in  15.39  :  "  Take  what  is  offered  you  in  three 
fingers,  or  present  your  plate  to  receive  it^  There  are  people  who 
can  hardly  wait  till  they  have  sat  down  before  putting  their  hand 
into  the  dish  ;  one  must  receive  on  his  plate  whatever  he  can  not. 
take  out  with  his  fingers."  Monsignor  della  Casa,  Bishop  of  Bene-' 
vento,  wrote  in  1644  a  kind  of  manual  of  etiquette  entitled  "Ga- 
latea/' which  was  published  in  a  French  translation  by  Jean  de 
Toumay  in  1598.  Among  other  things  it  directs:  "One  ought  not 
to  wash  his  hands  before  everybody,  but  in  his  room,  not  in  soci- 
ety. Nevertheless,  when  one  is  sitting  at  table,  he  should  wash 
his  hands  in  the  presence  of  the  others,  even  if  it  is  not  necessary, 
80  that  those  with  whom  he  puts  his  hand  into  the  dish  may  know 
that  it  is  clean.  A  well-bred  man,"  continues  this  author,  "  will 
avoid  greasing  his  fingers,  lest  he  soil  the  table-cloth,  which  would 
be  disagreeable  to  tliose  who  witnessed  it.  It  is  also  not  proper  to 
wipe  the  fingers  with  the  bread  which  one  is  about  to  eat."  The 
practice  of  some  persons,  of  eating  only  with  gloved. hands,  does 
not  Beem  st  r  ■     ;  v  "" '  ^  •     ;■  ^ '      ,.  facts. 

As  haa  a  .  change  from  fingers  to  forks 

be^an  to  be  made  at  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  begin*] 

^H  tau  xixr. — 6t  1 


THE  POPULAR  aCISKCE  MONTHLY. 


ning  of  tlie  Beventeenth  conluriu*.    An  • 

be  found  ia  the  silver-list  of  GabrioUc  ^,  ^.  . . 

eluded  twenty  forks.    Thoro  was  a  Bociety  of  fi:  i  with 

the  court  of  Kmg  Henri  111  of  France,  who  v  ■  -d 

for  their  ultra-relinod  notions  concerning  manii'j i,  .'.vl 

were  called  Miijnonft.  The  king  himself,  who  in  rented  a  new  kind 
of  starch  for  his  collars,  was  in  syr         '       ■     '     '  T'  .a 

of  this  circle  were  ridiculed  in  a  -  ,        _  .:« 

*'  Island  of  the  Hermaphrodites,"  which  was  publiah&d  iu  ibo 
earlier  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Tlio  custom  of  catiug 
with  forks  was  held  up  to  scorn  in  this  publication  ;  str#-*?  was 
laid  upon  the  accidents  that  it  was  presumed  would  \  'o 

those  who  had  not  become  adepts  in  the  use  of  the  lo^ii  ^ n.  :it ; 
und  it  was  thought  funny  that,  when  it  came  to  washing  the  luiuds 
after  eating,  they  should  be  found  not  to  hare  been  soili.-<1. 

The  custom  seems  to  have  extended  by  way  of  \lak\y  to  Ger- 
many. France,  and  England.  Coryate,an  English  travolor.  relates 
in  his  "  Crudities,"  published  in  1611,  that  1    ■         ■        '  -t 

to  follow  the  Italian  fashion  of  cutting  me^i  _    ^    -:.9 

forkj  not  only  while  he  was  in  Italy,  but  also  in  GGrmany,  and 
even  after  he  had  returned  to  England.    "  The  Itall   '  '     '^o 

many  foreigners  residing  iu  Itjily,"  he  says,  "use  a  lit  a 

they  cut  meat  at  their  meals.  While  they  out  with  the  kmf«^ 
which  they  hold  in  one  hand,  they  hold  the  nu'  *  "  "'      '-h 

with  the  fork,  which  they  hold  in  the  other  b;-  ^y 

who  should  uuthoughte<ily  t<jutih  the  dish  from  which  thi?y  were 
all  eating,  with  his  iingers,  would  give  ofTeuse^  and  bo  ac4;uBed  of 
violating  good  manners." 

The  fork  did  not  rapidly  come  into  general  use,  even  in  the 
higher  ranks.  An  English  writer,  Heylin,  mentioned  it  in  t6A3 
as  something  that  had  been  taken  up  by  the  eleganta.  It  is  m>- 
mnrked  in  a  **  Nouvean  traitd  de  la  civililtf,  qui  t'  n 

France  panni  les  honnestes  gens  "  ("  N(!w  Tn^atise  on  i 
practiced  in  France  among  Well-bred  People");  "When  one 
from  the  dish,  he  should  wait  till  hi-;  '       ' 

should  also  select  once  for  all  >vhiit  i 

to  put  the  hand  into  the  dish  twice,  and  still  more  ao  to  m< 
tiround  seejcing  for  piece  after  piece,"    L"'i-    ^'Mf    /^  -  - 
fork,  but  his  queen,  Anno  of  Austria,  who  . 
at  the  Spanish  court,  never  could  accustom  herwii  to  v 
ways  used  her  fingers,  although  she  was  very  pr^  "-^  '■*' ' 
hands.    A  verse  is  cited  from  the  "  Musv  hi.v 
v1  ■!  that  depart  un^s  from  the  old  ' 

8li^  .    -  ..a!  at  the  French  court;  an*l  ■'>  ' 

the  same  period,  contract  tho  old  way  ys 

Onv  of  the  mo«t  «ctivo  agonU  in  intn>iluuiu^  tku  Ik^u^ 


SKSTcn  or  carolus  LiirNjEUS. 


83s 


society  was  the  Duke  of  Montansier,  who  was  a  constant  visitor 
at  the  Hotel  Rambouillet,  tlio  scut  of  the  most  i-ofined  manners  of 
the  day,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the  marquise  of  that  name, 
Julie  d'Augennes.  This  house  was  of  Italian  origin,  and  proba- 
bly received  the  fork  along  with  its  other  Italian  heritages.  The 
duke,  ikS  tlie  first  chamberlain  of  King  Louis  XIV,  had  excellent 
opportunities,  which  he  improved,  to  introduce  the  fork  among 
the  aristocracy  and  make  its  use  common, 

The  history  of  the  fork  after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cent- 
ury chiefly  concerns  the  extension  of  its  use  and  its  spread  from 
the  aristocracy  to  humble  circles  of  society.  Ita  form  has  also 
been  gradually  improved,  and  changed  from  that  of  the  straight, 
two-pronged  instrument  of  the  olden  time,  of  little  use  excej)t  as 
a  spit,  to  the  gracefully  and  conveniently  curved,  broad,  many- 
pronged  English  fork  of  the  present  day,  spoon-like  in  shajw,  and 
precisrly  adapk-cl  to  its  purpose. — Tmnslated  for  the  Popular  Scu 
etice  Munthhj  fri/m  Ueber  Land  inul  Aleer, 


SKETCH  OF  CAROLUS  LINN.-EUS  (CARL  VON  LINNfi), 

TTTHATEVER  maybe  the  future  progresfl  of  the  sciences  ._ 
VV  bota-ny  and  zoology.  Prof.  Flower  has  said,  in  the  British 
Association,  "  the  numerous  writings  of  Linnaeus,  and  esj>ecially 
the  publication  of  the  '  Systema  Naturw,'  can  never  cease  to  be 
looked  upon  as  marking  an  era  in  their  development."  In  th< 
"Systema  Natura?,"  the  speaker  added,  the  accumulated  knowl* 
edge  of  all  the  workers  at  zoology,  botany,  and  mineralogy,  since 
the  world  began,  was  collected  by  patient  industry,  and  weld* 
into  a  complete  and  harmonious  whole  by  penetrating  genius. 

Caroi^ub  Linn^us,  afterward  called  Carl  von  Linnd,  was  boi 
at  Rafihult,  in  the  parish  of  Stenbrohult,  in  the  province  of  Smv 
land,  Sweden,  May  1.3, 1707,  and  died  at  Upsala,  January  10,  1778. 
He  was  the  eldest  child  of  Nils  or  Nicolas  Linnrous,  commissiom 
and  afterward  pastor  of  the  parish,  and  Christina,  the  daughter  oi 
the  previous  incumbent.  The  father  was  versed  in  natural  his- 
tory;  a  woll-stooked  flower-garden  was  attached  to. the  house; 
and  the  child,  hearing  his  father  talking  about  the  virtues  of  cer- 
tain of  the  plants,  at  four  years  of  age  became  interested  in  them, 
and  fi>rmed  tlie  habit  of  anking  about  the  names  and  ijii;!'  f 

all  that  he  saw.    The  father,  as  a  condition  of  further  aa  '-:^ 

his  questions,  insisted  that  he  should  remember  all  that  he  had 
been  t^ld  before.  The  chihl  thus  received  a  valuable  mnemonic 
discipline  that  served  him  thrmigh  life,  and  was  familiar  from  the 
with  the  Latin  and  the  vernacular  names  of  plants.    His 


85^ 


TBE  POPULAR  SCiBl 


mother  used  to  relate  that  ho  could  always  be  soothed,  when  CTJ^ 

ing,  by  giving  him  a  flower.    W}i«n  »evfiij  years  ol'   *  il 

Tuider  the  private  tuition  of  Telaiider.  a  toucher  of  • 
nary  stamp,  and  three  years  later  wa«  sent  to  W©xl6  to  ^  •* 

father  wishing  to  prepare  him  for  holy  orders.    The    *  'j 

game  at  both  places.     He  made  no  progress  in  the  r-  » 

of  the  course,  except  in  mathematics  and  physics,  but  used  ev«ry 
opjjortunity  to  look  after  flowers  and  turn  over  books  of  boUny. 
With  Gabriel  Hok  he  did  a  little  better,  for  that  teacher  allowed 
him  some  liberty  to  gratify  his  tastes;  but  the  )  fTT^B 

nssium  were  again  troubled  by  his  perversity,    i  iih.  r 

and  the  teachers  held  a  consul tation«  and  it  v:. 
although  his  moral  record  was  \v 
promise  as  a  scholar,  and  must  lea: 
about  to  bej  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker,  when  the  fatbor,  having 
some  bodily  malady  for  which  he  had  to  visit  Dr.  Rothman,  spuke 
incidentally  of  the  trouble  Carolus  was  giving  him.  The  doctor 
thought  the  boy  might  succeed  in  medicine  and  natural  history, 
and  offered  to  take  him  to  board, and  help  him  in  hi'  •■■  '--q.  He 
gave  him  private  lessons  in  physiology,  and  intrc  .  n\  to 

Tournefort's  botanical  system,  by  the  aid  of  which  Liut  i- 

tinued  to  study  the  local  plants.  At  the  end  of  a  year,  i.^w.m.  ^ 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Lund,  recommended  as  his  pri\'aie 
pupil  by  Hok,  who,  taking  great  liberties  with  the  f.  *- 

stitutod  his  own  good  opinion  for  the  curious  letter  wi;:.    h 

the  principal  of  the  gymnasium  had  armed  the  candidate  This 
letter  was  to  the  effect  that  pupils  '       ■     ''^s  compm    '  t? 

troos  in  a  nursery:  there  would  h<  h  be  sou:  .i 

grow  up  wild  in  spite  of  all  the  care  that  might  be  spent  upon 
them,  but  which  might  stiD  do  well  if  t  '     *    *  *        "^t?r«A 

soil.    "  It  is  with  such  a  hope  that  I  sen  inslH 

tution,  whore,  perhaps,  another  atmosphere  may  favor  hi-  i  J 

ment."  At  Lund,  Linnteus  found  employment  aaacoj-ju-^i  i-.Jl 
Dr.  Kilian  Stobseus,  Professor  of  Medicine  And  physician  to  tlfl 
king^  who  had  a  museum  of  minerals,  sli<  dried  plautfl 

The  professor  was  not  at  first  aware  of  the  k. ;ri?<uroro  whiM 

he  had  in  his  house;  but  Linnseus,  havidfir  formed  a  friendidiB 

with  a  fellow-student  who  had  ace-  1 

rowed  books  from  it  and  sat  up  till  i.  „  „        int 

Mother  Stobasus  obsen^ed  the  light  in  his  rooto^andf  being  wo^ 

ried  about  dan  m  firy,  w         '  '  "  "     '  \ 

LinnsBus  at  hiy.  ; ;  but  tli- 

nations  resulted  in  a  widening  of  the  young  man*6 

for  pursuing  his  favorite  studies,    O    'r  'Vman's  advin ,  i.uituviw 

determined  to  go  to  Upsala,  wheni  antag^a  Nwme*)  to  h^ 

better  than  at  Lund.    The  three  hundred  franca  ihat  bo  ttiL- 


> 


SKETCH  OF  CAROLUS  LmiTjSUS, 


837 


I 
I 


» 


ft 


to  take  with  bizn  were  soon  exhausted »  and  he  was  reduced  to 
poverty,  having,  it  is  said,  to  wear  other  students'  cast-off  shoes, 
or  mend  his  own  with  paper,  when  Olaf  Celsius,  Professor  of 
Theology,  observed  his  attention  to  botany,  looked  at  his  collec- 
tions, and  concluded  that  he  would  make  a  good  assistant  on  the 
"  Hiorobotanicon,"  a  treatise  on  the  plants  of  the  Bible,  which  ho 
was  preparing.  He  took  Linnseus  to  board,  gave  him  the  free  use 
of  his  library,  found  biin  some  private  pupils,  and  recommended 
him  to  Olaf  Rudbeck,  Professor  of  Botany.  Linnieus  had  in  the 
mean  time  had  his  attention  directed  to  tlie  sexuality  of  plants,  by 
reading  a  letter  from  Burckhart  to  Leibnitz,  a  review  of  an  address 
by  Vaillant,  and  a  work  by  Wallin,  all  bearing  on  the  subject. 
He  himself  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  sexes  of  plants,  and  it  was  this 
that  Celsius  made  the  occasion  for  the  introduction.  Rudbeck's 
advanced  age  did  not  permit  him  to  attend  personally  to  all  his 
lectures,  and  ho  made  Linna?us  his  deputy.  The  hand  of  the 
struggling  student,  who  now  at  last,  in  bis  twenty-fourth  year, 
SAW  his  career  taking  an  upward  direction,  was  soon  visible  also 
in  the  remodeling  and  restocking  of  the  academic  gardens — he 
having  become  director  in  a  place  where  his  application  to  be  em- 
ploye*! as  a  subordinate  hofl  boon  refused  a  year  before. 

His  equivocal  position  at  the  university  having  become  unpleas- 
ant by  reason  of  the  jealousy  it  excited  among  the  profeHsura, 
Linnaeus  accepted  a  proposition  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Upsala  to  make  a  scientific  exploration  of  Lapland.  He  accom- 
plished this  task  in  the  summer  of  1733,  depending  mostly  on  his 
own  resources,  and,  in  thn  face  of  great  dilBcultios  and  with  no 
little  danger,  accomplishing  a  journey  of  forty-six  hundred  Eng- 
lish statutf?  miles,  and  brought  home  from  it  valuable  fruit  in 
knowled*<t^  and  specimens.  In  1734,  after  having  been  defeated 
by  the  hostility  of  one  of  the  professors  in  an  attempt  to  resume 
his  lectures  at  Upsala,  he  performed,  attended  by  seven  pupils,  a 
similar  exploration  of  Dalecarlia.  While  on  this  journey,  he  lect^j 
tired  at  Fuhlun,  to  large  audiences,  and  determined,  at  the  sug^ 
tion  of  Chaplain  (afterward  Bishop)  Browalius,  to  attend  a  for- 
eign university  for  the  degree  of  M,  D.  This  would  give  him  a 
position  in  society  and  science. 

Arriving  at  Hamburg,  he  exposed  the  spurious  character  of 
a  seven-heailed  hydra  in  a  museum  there  which  was  composed  of 
weasels'  heads  artfully  sewn  together,  and  so  offended  the  propri- 
etor of  the  establishment  that  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  city  at 
once.  At  Hurdewi  jck  he  passed  his  examination,  defended  a  the- 
sis on  the  cause  of  intermittent  fevers^  and  received  his  degree 
fr"i     ''  r«ity.    At  Ley  den  he  called  upon  Gronovius,  who, 

u[  -.wn  the  "Systema  Natura?,"  was  so  delighted  with  it 

that  h»  undertook  to  publish  it  at  his  own 


4 


expense. 


great 


Bj8 


THE  POP\ 


physician  Boerhasvo,  after  some  delay,  gave  him  a  cordial  reoep- 

titm,  and  recommondixl   hitn  to  P  .    .       .      i    -  ,\^ 

whom  he  stayed  a  year.    Here  he  ai  .  o 

wealthy  banker  Cliffort,  who  had  a  great  gardt^n  an  ^nnxj 

at  Hartekamp,  and  stayed  with  him  threo  yonr    ^  nmm. 


working  in  tlie  library  and  pardon  and  at  hi«  Htti 


KXikB, 


and  sparing  no  pains,  through  the  "  Hortus  Cliffortmnua/'  and  hi* 
description  o£  the  banana,  Mxi^a  Cliffortiana,  to  make  the  fame 
of  his  patron  lasting. 

In  1736  Linneeus  visited  England,  lioaring  a  ^  i*. 

tion  from  Boerhaave.    He  was  received  by  the  bi  i ': 

a  reserve  which  Boon  thawed  and  gave  place  to  warm 
tion.    Returning  to  Holland >  he  completed  th*  ,.» 

"Genera  Plaritarum/* finished  arranging  and  do-  « 

collection  of  plants,  spent  a  year  with  Van  Royen  at  Loyth^n,  re- 
arranging the  garden,  and  in  1738  stiirted  for  Swc-i!  ■  ,,f 
Belgium,  Paris  (where  he  formed  a  lasting  friend^!  r- 
aard  de  Jussieu),  and  Rouen.  Hence  he  sailejl  direct  lor  Hwedea, 
intending  toestablish  himself  in  the  pnicticeof  medicin*"* ' '  ^'  'fc- 
holm.  Patients  wore  slow  in  coming  to  him,  and  in  hi  r- 
agement  he  said  that  "  if  he  ha<l  not  been  in  love  he  cerLauUj 
would  have  left  his  native  country."  His  fame,  however,  whtrh 
had  become  conspicuous  abroad,  had  at  last  reached  SweMlen,  and 
he  gradually  obtained  a  practice,  was  appointt^d  naval  f  ;,, 
Professor  in  the  School  of  Mines,  etc,,  and  was  able  to  ui  ..  :^,  .:.i» 
daughter  of  Dr.  Moncus,  who  had  wait*^d  for  him  for  »ev4»rjtl  yoam 
He  enjoyed  the  support  of  influential  friend^  " 
Charles  de  Geor  and  Count  Tessiu — and  by  - 
1741,  in  reaching  the  summit  of  bis  ambition — a  pr- 
the  University  of  Upsala,  which  he  occupied  for 
years.  His  fame  grew  rapidly,  "  He  wa.^  long  n  c<. 
all  important  researches  in  natural  history  were  !■ 

merous  disciples  attended  his  lectures  and  ])n" *■ 

verball5%  while  his  own  works,  scattered  air 

and  his  refoims  popular.     His  correspond*_'uct)  '-■ 

his  letters,  many  of  which  have  been  prGsi>rved,  i  .,. 

acter  in  the  most  favorable  light.    On  his  recomn 

Swedish  Government  intrusted  sev 

scientific  missions.    Among  the  mo- 

elers  were  Ternstroom,  who  traversed  the  Basrt  Indies  ai 

Poulo  Condor,  in  the  China  Rtvi,  in  ^'    ■     ■'   '      '    - 

of  our  mountain  laurel,  Kninnrr  ■ 

America  from  1747  to  17ftl;    I 

Egypt,  and  Palestine,  and  died  jn 

explored  Cliina  from  1750  to  17.Vi; 

Spain  m  3761  and  South  America^  whoro  hr 


■■T\ 
[1 

ip  in 

"a 


SKETCH  OF  CAROLUS  Lm^jEUS. 


839 


I 


The  numerous  works  of  Linnaeus  appeared  now  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, and  honors  and  invitations  came  to  him.  He  declined  a 
liberal  offer  from  the  King  of  Spain  to  settle  in  that  country ; 
purchased  the  estates  of  Sof  ja  aaid  Hammarby,  at  the  latter  of 
which  he  bnilt  a  museum  of  stone;  was  made  a  Knight  of  the 
Polar  Star,  and  in  17G1  received  a  patent  of  nobility,  antedated  to 
1757,  in  deference  to  which  he  Gallicized  his  Latin  name,  inserted 
a  von  in  it,  and  became  Carl  von  Linn<1.  The  last  reward  waa# 
however,  not  for  his  scientific  achievement,  but  was  granted  in 
recognition  of  his  having  devised  a  way  to  imjjrove  the  quality 
of  the  pearls  of  the  fresh-wattir  mussuls  of  Sweden.  When  sixty 
years  of  age,  Linnfeus's  memory  began  to  fail ;  in  177-t  he  suffered 
an  apoplectic  attack ;  two  years  later  he  lost,  by  another  strok*:*,  the 
use  of  his  right  side;  and  he  died  of  a  hydropsy  in  1778.  While 
all  the  academies  of  Europe  made  him  their  associate,  and  princea 
gave  him  the  most  striking  marks  of  tL-  '  'deration,  still  "  Ju 

the  simplicity  of  his  life  he  was  little  U'  -  to  the  honors  of 

the  world.  Living  with  his  pupils,  whom  ho  treated  as  if  they 
were  his  children,  some  singular  plant,  or  some  animal  varying  a 
little  from  the  ordinary  form,  would  give  him  more  joy  than  any- 
thing else.  He  was  never  troubled  by  the  attacks  of  his  antago- 
nists; and  altliough  he  had  some  distinguished  ones — Hallor,  Buf- 
fon,  and  Adanson — and  they  frequently  treated  him  unjustly,  he 
was  never  at  the  (mins  of  re}>lying  to  them.  .  .  .  His  society  was 
charming,  and  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him  conceived  a  ten- 
der attachment  to  him.  His  only  weakness  seems  to  have  been 
a  too  great  fondness  for  jjraise.  Strongly  attached  to  religioiy 
he  never  spoke  of  the  Deity  but  with  respect,  and  embraced  witM 
marked  pleasure  the  numerous  occasions  which  natural  history 
offere*!  him  to  declare  the  wisdom  of  Providence." 

The  publications  of  Linna:'us  are  descrilH»<I  under  more  than 
one  hundred  and  eighty  titles.  The  earliest  in  date  was  the 
"Hortua  Uplandicus."  or  list  of  cultivated  plants  of  Upsala.  in 
which  he  first  outlined  his  plan  for  classifying  plants  according 
to  their  organs  of  reproduction — stamens  and  pistils — which  ap- 
peared in  1731 ;  and  the  last  was  his  "  Plant®  Surinamenses  "  1775. 
The  period  of  his  literary  activity  thus  lasted  forty-four  years. 
His  great  merits  were  the  introduction  of  a  systcsm  of  botaniral 
(dossification  which,  though  wholly  artificial  and  unnatural, 
served  as  an  efficient  tool  till  a  philosophical  system,  ba.<^*d  on 
affinities,  could  be  worked  out,  and  the  extension  and  genera]  ap- 
pliii^tion  of  an  exact  sj'stom  of  nomenclature.  He  sought  to  coA'er 
the  whole  domain  of  nature,  and  therefore  wrote  on  minerals, 
an':  ;'  iTid  plantSv  In  mineralogy  he  paid  particular  attention 
U,  us  of  rrystals,  and  based  his  cJassitication  on  them.     In 

ao6io^  he  looked  to  the  organs  of  mastication  and  digestion. 


940 


C\i 


to  tHe  feeding,  to  the  wings  in  binl«,  and  to  the  preseri 

sence  of  elytra?  in  insects.    Butbia  u'  "■■    **   *■  -    "    '" 

ou  his  woi'k  in  botany,  and  to  this  ii. 

He  was  nut  thu  ori^natur  either  of  the  sexual  sytoem  ot 

fication  or  of  the  binary  nomenclature;  for  the  forw»* 

have  seen,  whs  suggested  by  other  students  who^e  ofiMiv>  i 

and  whose  ideas  he  put  in  practice ;  and  thct  latter  wa  - 

as  has  been  shown  in  a  sketch  in  a  previous  numbt . 

"  Monthly/'  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  him,  by  Picmf  B^ 

Ion.    But  Lin  I  1q  it  gei  '         -^    -     *        u  ftrJimcfc 

The  formal  iu  ■  ai  of  hi^    ,  v\-asiiiadi 

in  the  "  Systema  NatiirEe/'  which  Gronovius  published  at  Ijeydtm 

in  1736,  in  three  sheets,  according  to  one  authority,  or  in  eight 

folio  sheets,  accurdiiig  to  another.     It  was  enlarged  in  sucocBaiTp 

subsequent  editions,  of  which  the  twelfth  appeared  dorini. 

author's  lifetime.    It  was  followi>d  in  P  ■  *^  *  *^'    '  ^ — ^'^• 

Botttuicu,"  of  twenty -six  pages,  which  i  f 

the  author's  theory  as  worked  out  after  aeveu  ywuv  uf  •  I 

the  examination  of  eight  thousand  plants.    Tins  Wf^rV 

afterward  developed  into  two^the  "  Bibliothecik  B- 

sterdam,   1756;   and  the  "Classes  Plantanim"  or      -  » 

Plantarum/'  Leyden,  1738;  while  a  more  detailed  ca;-. 

the  system  of  nomenclature  was  given  in  the  **  Critica  Bi>tAni4 

Leyden,  1737,     These  three  works  were  the  *f-    ' 

great  reform  in  botany ;  but  the  doctrine  of  L 

subjects,  co-ordinated  in  its  parts  and  illustrated  by  examples,  was 

reproduced  as  a  whole  in  17fil  in  the  "  P!   '         '        I'otanic*,*' 

Stockholm — a  work  which  served  as  t})e  f<'  r  mcM  of 

the  minor  treatises  till  Linna^us's  artificial  system  of  ciassifit: 

was  supplemented  by  the  natural  system.    Tliu  "Gen'-r- 

tarum  "  1737,  gave  full  descriptions  of  the  genera, "  acc' 

the  number,  shape,  position,  and  proportion  of  m!1  tho  pi»ri<»  uf 

fructillcation,"  and  is  pronounced  by  3Ir.  B.  Daydim  Jack»on,  in 

the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica."  "a  volume  which  must  lio  coo* 

sidered  tho  starting-point  of  m-  "In 

"Species  Plantarum,"  1753, "til    ._: .  :      „ .  4  cool 

bntion  to  scientific  literature,"  the  trivial  names  vrpnL«sing  naaiB 
cbvioTis  cL  ate  species  are  fully  set  forth* 

The  no.  'duced  by  Linuxi&as  has  endared.  an^ 

the  names  he  gave  to  species  are  still  living;  so  that"  in  vs 
ever  part  of  the  world  one  may  be,  if  ih'  r  -  ^  ntanists  *  : — 
sional  gardeners,  there  it  is  enough  togi  :aniPftn  ^ 

plant  to  have  its  identity  undrrntoiMi  at  ouce/'    H 
classification  has  given  way  to  the  nr"^*  --^  ■'■'•"  I 

system  by  aiUnitios  based  upon  oozn|»i:  1 

qnalitiea  of  the  plant.    There  is  reason  to  h' 


SKSTVff  OF  caholus  LTyyjsas. 


S41 


k 


this,  and  n»ganlod  his  system  as  simply  a  stepping-stone  to  some- 
thing better.  He  ia  quoted  as  having  said  that  whfXiver  should 
found  a  natural  system  on  a  solid  basis  would  be  his  great 
Apollo.  An  account  in  the  "  Philosophia  Botanica  "  of  a  series  of 
naturally  allied  families  is  prefaced  by  the  words  that  **  a  natural 
method  is  thfl  first  and  last  thing  to  be  desired  in  botany ;  Nature 
does  not  make  leaps.  All  plants  show  affinity  on  cither  side,  liko 
the  territory  in  a  geographical  map.*'  He  aud  Bernard  de  Jus- 
aieu  corresponded  on  the  subject,  and  the  latter  urged  him  to  in- 
stitute a  natural  system.  Such  a  system,  however,  could  not  be 
built  at  once,  or  by  one  man,  and  Linnaeus  had  to  content  him* 
self  with  furnishing  the  staging  by  the  aid  of  which  others  could 
more  slowly  build  up  the  permanent  structure. 

Linnopus  is  described  as  having  been  a  little  above  the  medium 
height,  rather  slight,  but  well  shaped ;  with  broad  head  and 
frank  and  open  physiognomy ;  lively  and  piercing  eyes,  with  a 
peculiJirly  refined  expressiou.  Ho  wtm  quick-tempenMl,  but  soon 
recoveretl  from  his  passion.  "  He  lived  simply,  acted  promptly, 
aud  noted  down  his  observations  at  the  moment.  .  .  ,  He  found 
biology;'  sjiys  Mr.  Jackson,  "  a  chaos  ;  he  left  it  a  cosmos.  Whnn 
he  appeared  upon  the  scene,  new  plants  and  animals  were  in  the 
course  of  daily  discovery,  in  increasing  numbers,  due  to  the  in- 
crease of  tnuling  fatrilities ;  he  devised  scboraos  of  arrangement  by 
which  those  acquisitions  might  be  sorted  provisionally,  until  their 
natural  affinities  should  have  become  clearer.  He  made  many  mis- 
takes; but  the  honor  due  to  him  for  haviug  first  enunciated  the 
true  principles  for  defining  genera  and  species,  and  his  uniform 
use  of  trivial  names,  will  last  so  long  as  biology  itself  endures." 

Another  biographer  gives  as  the  peculiar  features  in  which  he 
surpassed.  *'  the  distinct  study  ho  mmle  of  each  species,  the  regu- 
larity and  detail  of  the  characteristics  he  gave  of  genera,  the  care* 
which  he  took  to  put  in  the  background  variable  circumstances 
like  size  and  color,  the  energetic  precision  of  his  language^  andj 
the  convenience  of  his  nomenclature,"  * 

A  scheme  was  started  for  erecting  a  monument  to  Linnaeus  in 
connection  with  the  centenary  of  his  death.  As  is  usual  in  such 
affairs,  the  subscriptions  were  slower  in  coming  in  than  was  con- 
templated by  the  promoters  of  the  enterprise,  and  the  completion 
of  the  monument  was  delayefl.  The  statue,  by  Prof.  Kjelberg, 
was  unveiled  on  the  13th  of  May,  1885.  It  stands  in  the  Hnmle- 
garden  in  Stockholm,  and  represents  the  "  flower-king,"  as  he  is 
called  in  Sweden,  at  the  age  of  sixty  years,  in  a  meditating  atti- 
tude^  holding  the  "  Systema  Natnrffi"  and  a  bunch  of  flowers  in 
ft^^kr  I    It  is  surrounded  by  h"  .1  female  figoreft] 

^^^Kii      _      Uiny,  zoology,  medicine,  a    ^         '-ralogy,  i 


^^^^^^^^TE^POPULA^ClSx^^^ 

EDITOR'S  TABlJ 

mr  DOVATs  or  sasscx. 

wbererer. 

K    FEW  nujnili8  sgo  oae  of  our  con- 
/»    tribuUirs  hml  oucnaiun  to  ootioe 

acieoce  ia  2 

bat  iioperfi 

the   ottAi^ks   iuftr]«   opuo    ihu   &civDtific 

feet  contn] 

tcndcnirio*  of  th»  ap»«  !»_»  writ^ir*  who 

with  whict 

^^m            til 

nr 

and  predict 

^H          il 

»e  i  .                           _         _   .       .           .       :      .         -■,.«-  r 

the  wiiRt^et 

^H          III 

of  tho  general  scientitic  tnovcmeat.     In 

of  the  chon 

^^^H 

these  eoJnnin«,  too,  we  bare  oimclvoe 

of  the  dec 

foaud  it  neovaaar/t  from  time  to  timo, 

the  80-rallti 

to  tnuintain  the  poidlioa  tbat,  if  all  u 

real  Bcittoc^ 

not  wdl  in  ttti*  Horlil  to-daj,  it  19  nut 

and  too  0 

because  wc                  ^  •!  with  too  ruoch 

prejudice  1 

ftt'ienc<!i,  bnt  ;               .  ^  havo  a&  jet  tou 

we  come  tg 

little.    Science  hu  rcdnoed  to  tolerable 

mons  pnrai 

order  oertiiin   departmonta  of  thought 

whole,  poo 

and   knowledge;    but  tbcro  are  whole 

plined  inte 

acctions  of  life  that  ua  ycl  it  has  barely 

ac-tcrs.     W 

toaohod.     t*o  loug  aa  ibm  is  tho  case, 

applied  to  1 

the  social  body  tnutit  suSVr.     Until  the 

lives,  we  fi 

trae  lawn  of  liifo  ore  discuvercd,  and  6et 

plied  at   a 

in  sacb  a  light  aa  to  comiuaud  obedi- 

cal  bygicnt 

ences  there  lau^t  be  cnore  or  lees  of  con- 

thronphont 

fuwon,  diintrftsji,  and  w  Mrt*  of  effort,  ll  U 

among  the 

orldc^nt,  c))crof(»ro,  that  the  dnty  which 

liow  rarely 

Uc»  nt  the  door  of  every  oDe  capable  of 

recopnitioa 

grasping  the  situation  is  to  do  all  in  his 

a  tbini;  as  t 

power  to  help  acicnre  to  have  iU  perfect 

whUhlMha 

work — \U  work  of  social  rborgonication 

cal  hygiene 

and  reirenerulion. 

a  mind  diso 

Manv  p^^p-f'T)*,   wo  are  persuaded. 

slmost  dea 

fail  to  '                '  that  Hcicnce  baa  any 

tho  format! 

a^plicn:                 1 -nf  theinvcstigatiooof 

or  mind  b^ 

physiofil  laws.    They  think  of  it  as  some- 

tho scupv  0 

thing  tbnt  bun  to  tJo  with  astronomy  and 

Maudsley,  1 

geolocy.  *iib  physiology  and  chtfmrstry. 

on"  Body  1 

witli  su-am-i-niriiu's  uud  ttlegniplis  and 

tr..-      .    -t 

tulepbonev.     They  do  Dot  think  of  It  aa 

ti d 

n  mot.ho<l  of  reseiircli  valid  in  •very  Uo- 

ive  (ceuifl 

purtment  of  life,  and  coextensive  with 

semshbBH 

the  whulo  reach  of  hnman  knowU«d|^ 

a  decided  ■ 

Tho  time  has  come,  bowcrer,  wbeti  the 

mural  lusan 

elaims  of  Bclcnco  to  be  tlie  supreme  mis- 

tn  -       -    - 

qoentJy  ofl 

to. 

lit  of  Bcienco  ia  «  spirit  ot  at^wt\\ 

what  liiciJ 

^^^^^^^^ 

EDITOR'S    TABLE. 


8« 


» 


» 


l«r  fome.  Much  maf  bo  done  bj 
eftcb  intJivitlual  to  promote  and  strength- 
eu  bU  own  mental  soiindnefis  by  exer- 
cising contrut  (jver  Kin  cnannl  tbonj^htfl. 
"  Wopw  anybody,"  sayu  Dr.  Maadaley. 
•♦to  observe  carefully  what  goos  on 
In  his  mind  dnring  wnkiog.  be  would 
perooive  that  it  was  the  theatre  of  us 
many  fuDtasuc,  groteflqae,  inooborent 
Uiuaghts  an  in  dreoma.  .  .  .  Obviously 
it  will  depend  much  on  the  occupation 
that  4^Ach  one  girea  hia  mind,  anJ  on 
the  habit)  of  attention  and  thonght  that 
he  has  trained  it  to,  how  largo  a  part 
those  incohoreat  vagnrics  uf  thought 
■hatl  p)ny  in  Ids  wiiking  mind,  and  in 
ooino  degree  in  his  dreunm  also.  .  .  . 
Now,  if  It  be  thus  pussible  by  guud  and 
rvgnUr  exercise  of  Uio  higher  faculties 
of  mind  to  gain  Borae  mastery  4iver 
thonght  in  (IrenmA,  how  much  more  ia 
it  within  our  power,  and  ehown  to  bo 
our  duty,  to  ubtniu  und  exercise  domin- 
ion over  the  rain  and  evil  tliou^hts,  in- 
dinatiODs,  and  imaginings  of  the  day, 
and  so  hinder  iheip  luxuriant  growth!" 

Id  the  ordinary  conduct  of  life  much 
that  is  harmful  would  diiiappear  if  life 
wcrt^  oncu  regarded  as  something  that 
should  au'l  must  he  brought  under  sci- 
entlfio  rules.  Feeling  opinions,  ac- 
tioas  may  all  be  brought  to  a  sciontitio 
test — that  is,  to  the  test  of  outward  real- 
ity— or,  in  other  words,  of  conformity 
to  our  necessary  environment.  With 
•ome  people  it  is  enough  to  say  that 
thej  f6tl  ao  and  so :  their  feelings  are 
HMomed  to  he  unalterable,  and  to  carry 
their  own  juotiHr-utiun  with  them.  Such 
n  temper  is  not  far  removed  from  the 
hystorirul,  and,  if  it  should  assnme  that 
nuhappy  oharartt;r  8otn(»  day,  the  result 
should  not  be  cimHidered  surprising. 
Tlie  hquian  being  who  persistently 
looks  ini^ard  ralbiT  than  outward  for 
guidancQ,  and  make4  more  of  his  or  her 
than     of    the 


itji' 

'In  ' 


IS  m  an  un- 
u,  Aguia, 
:\*y  persona 
to  bo  able 


to  think  and  believe,  as  they  say,  what- 
ever they  please.  Their  opinions  they 
regard  as  their  property,  which  iio  one 
must  venture  to  tre(»pafts  on.  But  the 
trae  test  of  opinions^  it  is  needleas  to 
»ay,  lies  not  in  oonforroity  to  personal 
inclination,  but  in  their  agreement  with 
s<jme  estublisheil  order  of  things.  It  is 
folly  to  tjilk  of  believing  whatever  we 
please ;  if  we  are  rational  people  at 
all,  we  belieTe  m  ^9  mu$t.  Reason 
constrnins  oa,  and  we  have  really  no 
choice.  In  regard  to  actions  there  is  per- 
haps amore  general  feeling  of  responsi- 
bility ;  and  yet  even  here  how  much  we 
are  inchned  to  trnst  to  ha|>-hazard  1 
How  little  we  keep  before  u^  a  rational' 
scheme  of  life,  or  steady,  uniform  prlu- 
ciploa  of  action  !  The  very  man  who 
would  sink  in  his  own  uittiniation  if  he 
played  a  card  unscicniificatly  in  a  gamtt. 
of  whist,  will  play  many  a  card  mort^ 
unscientifioolly  in  the  mach  greater 
game  of  life.  Whyt  Because,  wbde 
he  bellovoe  in  a  science  of  whist,  he 
doee  not  believe  in  a  science  of  life.  Ho 
studies  the  laws  of  whist,  hut  docs  not 
study  the  lawA  of  life.  Yet  ecieoc4| 
is  preporod  to  Btep  in  and  ulied  a  clear?! 
light  upon  evory  department  of  hu- 
man duty.  All  that  science  needs  as 
a  basis  Is  a  fixed  order  of  things.  Sncb 
a  fixed  order  is  diKOOverable  in  human 
nature  and  its  environment.  Here  ar»^ 
fact8,  and  every  fjict  yields  its  own  les- 
son. The  time,  we  have  no  doubt,  will 
come  when  men  will  see  that  life  is  a 
network  of  oauso  and  efTcct,  and  that 
trouble  does  not  spring  out  of  Iha 
gr^iund,  nor  promotion  come  at  haj^ 
hazard  from  the  ea**t  or  tlio  west,  but 
that  whatever  "  happen^"  as  the  ex», 
pression  liv,  has  its  own  adequate  ant^ 
cedent.  But  why  should  we  not  hastoa 
the  coming  of  that  time  by  proclaiming 
— thofifl  of  ns  who  believe  in  it — tho 
efficacy  of  science  for  the  direction  of 
inOividual  and  rodid  lifu? 

That  s'jience  lays  claim  to  tlio  region 
of  politicd  t»  evident  from  what  has 
been  said,  bat  tliat  It  is  oonBidouoasIx 


844 


TRE  POPULAS  SCIENCE  MOJTTffLT. 


ftbsost  from  th&t  rc^oo  ii  erident  from 
— the  newspapers.  So  long  b8  we  an- 
dentand  hj  politics  merelj  a  Rrambla 
for  offi«u,  so  lon^  will  there  be  a  vcrj 
ftUfrbt  and  inflireot  reliition  between  po- 
UiloalftotioDandihofEODend  welfiire;  but 
it  rests  «'ith  an  iutelligeat  couimunily 
io  brJDg  its  politi€«  ap  Co  «  higher  plane 
of  n  constant  striving  nftor  social  and 
ecuuomic  hnrmunica  and  tho  realization 
of  juetioe  in  all   i  '  duns.     We 

oro  onlj  ablo  on  I o  to  gl&nco 

«t  one  or  two  points  ot  oar  subject ;  we 
think,  howevi^Tf  that  the  leason  we 
would  iniprvos  ia  snfficientlj  obviona. 
Boience  is  not  inerelx  a  thing  of  ma- 
chinery and  fipparatds;  it  ia  not  con- 
fined to  the  meusareosent  of  material 
forces  or  the  explanation  of  phyBic-ol 
pbeaomeao.  It  is  a  method  for  the 
observation  and  co-ordination  of  facts 
ftnd  the  forecasting  of  rconlts;  and 
wherever  UeXm  are  to  ba  found  tbere 
Soienoa  u  prepared  to  entablish  hor 
kingdom.  The  unwise  flout  hor  preten- 
nonfl,  preferring  the  worship  of  Chance 
and  Caprice;  but  ihe  wIm  will  range 
tliemeelvea  on  her  side  and  strive  to  set 
op  her  peaceful  reign,  the  bcncfite  of 
which  they  know  will  extend  to  all,  and 
incrcaoe  from  age  to  age. 


TBE  TOBONTO  JtKKTlXO  OF  THE  AMSBl- 
CAJi  ASSOCIATIOy. 

Fob  the  third  time  in  its  history  tlie 
Amerioan  Association  this  year  peace* 
folly  inraded  Oonodo,  with  hearty  repe- 
tition of  former  hnapitalitics  nt  the  hands 
of  Nortliem  friends — indeed,  hospilali- 
ttes  were  so  abounding  as  to  encroach 
a  little  opoo  the  serions  work  of  tb« 
meeting.  Receptions,  oftioixU  and  social, 
followed  one  another  in  quick  saooee- 
eioo,  and  excurKJoiis  were  organized  to 
Niagara  Kalis,  Mnskoka,  and  the  6ud- 
burjr  ini/K's.  The  local  coiuiulttee  U  to 
te  congrntulated  on  tU  appointiuoot  of 
Ptof.  Charles  Ciirfimaul  as  choirmao ; 
b«  U  Director  of  the  Torcmto  Ohoerrv 
tory,  and  tho  weather  daring  the  work 


waa  tberelara  <l«ll(btlh1.  OHiadA  It 
proving  very  sttTvetSre  of  laia  jrava  ■ 

a  mccCinj>pLaoe  for  Amrriem 
organic  ■«  klitades  ara  a 

ant«ti  i-  (in  raoaUoo  laaalbat 

and  ita  new  tmilroada  have  davalo^ad 
tmmooae  traota  of  tb«  bl^t^Mat  oehi^ 
tific,  eooaomic,  and  «c«nia  i»l«r«iL 
It  promotes  iDtematianol  aaitj  tbd 
AmerioLos  and  CuuRdlona  at  woc^  io 
the  same  fields  of  rowarob  ahoold  gMlur 
in  the  same  mUytog  caaura,  aod,  at  a 
oonseqocnce,  form  the  {H«in1«IiI|m  «( 
men  baring  aims  in  commora.  In  rrna 
ing  the  border  au  Amarican  fiods  hu»- 
self  amid  diflereoceSt  social  and  pntid* 
cal,  sufficiently  marked  to  make  bla  visit 
irt  %   iMTC«tb«lfla% 

n^>  >  be  cm  pafiaada 

himself  to  regard  Oouadions  aa  a  foivifB 
people. 

Prof  T.  0.  Uandanhall  Snparf&ia^ 
ent  of  tho  Uiuted  HUtea  Ooaai  iMi  Oa*- 
detio  8urrey,  was  the  prMcidiskf  olftoar  al 
the  Toronto!  ^ndtacS 

won  him  g^i  has^a. 

The  addrassea  ut  the  vioe-fireaidaDU  of 
the  Association  to  tlicir  varioua  aaatioaa 
were  exuclUot — with  qm  axoa(i«iCA. 
which  do«s  not  raD  for  own  spsaifc 
mention.  Prof.  Oeorge  L.  OoiydjJa,  of 
llarvmnl,  chairman  irf  tSe  Biuki^cal 
Section,  deUvf^red  an  atldreM  ou  (iroto* 
plasm,  treating  bis  ibeme  dilafly  frov 
the  fltimditoint  of  rc|fvtal>le  biotalacy 
and  pltynioKigy — the  liidd  of  ocienoc  ta 
which  he  is  tbo  '. -usriosa  aa- 

thcrity.     Gcneni'  MaUorj.  of 

the  Bureau  ^Vaoliin^ttOI^ 

ohairuian  or  -nicl^^  8i»- 

tioQ,  made  Israelite  and  Indian  the  *ab- 
j«ct  of  his  addn-soL  I!»  slMW^d  thcv 
parallelism  in  planes  of  coUore.  io 
ods  of 
and  riMi 

address  wdl  <  <i  m  "  Tbti  i' 

lar  8cieDoe  ''  -^  •«''  •-^rTs 

Prot  H,  a 
of  ^'    '  - 


EDITOR'S   TABLE. 


«♦$ 


IbiDg  the  «rp6ri(D«nte  of  Prot 
IftrU,  uf  Carlsruho,  and  other  iDvesti- 
gaton,  ho  deolareil  it  certain  tbat  all 
radiant  energy  is  transmitted  as  eleotro- 
Dfignotio  wares  m  lanuniieroaa  eiher. 
In  the  Chemical  Bootion,  Prof.  Vf,  L. 
Dndleff  of  Vanderbllt  UDirersity,  Nash* 
rtlJ?,  olioae  ainalgama  as  bi3  sahject. 
Uia  irGfttment  vrtm  clear  and  saggefttive, 
bat  of  nooeasity  technical.  Mr.  R.  9. 
Woodward,  mathctrioticiim  to  the  United 
States  Oeologioal  tiurvoj,  Washington, 
presided  over  tbe  section  of  Mathemstr 
lot  and  Astronomy.  His  address  on 
Dialhomatical  theorios  of  tbo  earth  was 
ft  taoecssfiil  endeavor  to  make  clear  to 
besrart,  sricntitio  and  anscienlifiu,  tbo 
hidtory  of  a  theme  usually  wrapped  ap 
in  tbo  rigid  muwmy-oloths  of  matbo- 
matioal  formula. 

AiDOng  the  more  noteworthy  oon- 
triboHODs  to  the  varioos  eeotions  wo 
nay  mention,  in  Section  A,  the  paper 
oTProf.  J.  K.  Eastman,  of  the  Washing- 
ton Observatory,  on  stellar  distanoes. 
Bo  argned  that  no  relation  exists  be- 
tween thn  utsgnittidos,  distances,  and 
proper  motions  of  stars.  Prof.  Charles 
OtfpmMl  made  a  plea  for  nnmbering 
tbo  honr*  of  the  day  from  on©  to  twen- 
ty-four, abolUhing  tbe  neceasity  for 
writing  a.  u.  and  p.  wl  The  plan  lias 
been  adopted  by  tbe  Canadian  Pacitio 
Bftilway  on  its  Wtsstom  and  Pacific 
dirieions.  In  accordance  with  Prof. 
Csrpmnors  saggestion,  the  Association 
niemoriulized  the  Goverameut;*  uf  tbe 
Cuitcd  States  and  Canada,  of  the  rari- 
ooB  States  of  tho  tinion,  and  provinces 
of  tho  Dominion.  Uoch  interest  was 
developed  in  the  exhibition  of  the  Ha«t- 
ingt  achromatio  objective,  one  of  tbe 
notabla  gifts  of  mftihernarical  and  me- 
chanical sorence  to  astronomy,  tt  pro- 
;tnot«!s  aecnrooy  of  definition  tweoty- 
I  three  per  cent,  and  oUininates  spherical 
•bt^rrailun.  In  Section  B,  Prof.  Thomas 
tirayi  of  tho  Knao  PolvterhniQ  Insti- 
tal«,T«rr<  ntal 

diunwlt  •  'rioal 

moAMfonuot.    I^r.  Uoorga  F.  Barker, 


of  tbe  tTnlrersity  of  PennsylvatiUi  re- 
dewed  recent  Improvomcnta  In  oloctri- 
cal  storage  batteries.  He  showed 'the 
immense  advance  in  efficiency  gainod 
in  tbe  newest  batteries  based  on  the 
Plant6  model.  In  Section  0,  Mr. 
Charles  E.  Monroe,  of  Newport,  B.  L, 
gave  tlie  results  of  invcstigattoD  into 
the  exploaiTones!)  of  coUuloids.  He  had 
fonnd  tbe  opa^ino  variety  insonsitivo  to 
a  shock  of  deumation  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, while  translaceot  celluloida 
were  readily  exploded  hy  this  means. 
Mr.  O.  Channte,  of  Chicago,  who  hii 
made  tbe  tnibjoctaaperialty,  gavu  an  ao- 
count  of  the  best  methods  for  preserving 
timber.  After  diacusaing  the  qae«tion  of 
weighta  and  meaanrea,  Beotion  G  pasted  a 
resolution  urging  ooUegea  of  pharaiaoy 
and  medicine  to  adopt  the  metric  system. 
Before  Section  £,  tbe  6ociety*of  Ameri- 
can Geologists  held  a  seasion,  at  which 
Prof.  James  D.  Dana,  of  Tale,  took  oo- 
oasion,  in  the  light  of  new  geological 
discoverieo,  to  rovise  certain  of  hla 
former  teaohings  respecting  areas  of 
continental  progress.  Among  hts  su^ 
gostions  in  nomcnolatoro  was  tbat  On- 
tarian  be  substituted  for  Silurian  la 
local  geological  phraseology.  In  Soctioa 
E,  Rov,  U.  0.  Uovey,  of  Bridgeport, 
Conn.,  described  the  newly  explored 
pits  of  remarkable  depth  in  tbo  Mam- 
moth Cave  of  Kentucky;  tbe  whole 
series  of  pits  being  connected  by  a  mag- 
nificent boll  several  hundred  feet  in 
length.  Mr.  R.  T.  Hill,  of  tbe  8Ut« 
Geological  Survey  of  Texas,  road  sev- 
eral excellent  papers  on  the  gcincml 
features  of  Texan  geology,  on  tbe  Eagle 
Flats  of  tbo  mooniainous  region  of 
Texas,  the  ancient  volcanoes  and  Staked 
Pluos  of  tho  State.  In  Section  F  • 
good  many  papers  of  value  were  read 
— all,  bowerer,  technical  in  character. 
Prof.  0.  V.  Riley,  entomologist  to  the 
United  States  Department  uf  Agrioolt- 
are  at  Washingtrtn.  contributed  a  paper 
on  the  best  methods  of  subduing  irytiri- 
ons  innectB  by  intentional  importation 
oi  their  natural  enemies.    Mooh  interest 


84^ 


w%a  dcvelopetl  In  Toronto  in  ontomoloigj 
tUrou^'b  Uio  lar^ti  utl«odaQco  of  vDto- 
molMgisU  from  all  eocliona  of  th<f  ooan- 
try.  An  Eiitomolo^enJ  CItih  wjw  formeJ, 
•ad  WfLshitic^ton  it)  to  be  iU  tirst  niect- 
ing-i'Iace,  but  nu  dato  fur  metitiiig  wws 
oamed  at  Toronto,  ^r.  T.  J.  Burrill, 
of  Cbsmpaignf  T1U,  r«ad  an  intore&tmg 
paper  on  the  fermentation  of  onaiUge. 
Section  H  wod  more  tlion  usually  strong 
Ibis  year — tbe  loadiofj;  officora  of  Iha 
Bureau  of  Ethnology  boing  present  in 
force,  Tbo  antiquity  of  tn.an  was  difl- 
oaB8«d  from  u[.>[ioi»ed  points  of  view  by 
Mr.  W  J  McGee,  of  Washington,  and 
Dr.  0.  0.  Abbott,  of  Trenton,  N.  J. 
Mr.  W.  II.  Hiilmea,  of  Waabington,  con- 
tributed an  inl^realing  paper  on  the 
evolution  of  oruauiunt,  as  illustratod 
in  tbti  ceramic  and  textile  art  of  the 
North  Amerit-an  IndianB.  Mr.  W.  J. 
Hoffman,  also  of  Waeblogton,  deAcnt>ed 
tbe  secret  societies  of  tbe  Ojibwau, 
which  enjoy  us  elaborate  a  ritual  of 
initiation,  and  as  sbarfily  defined  grada- 
tions of  rank,  as  any  modern  order  among 
thepale-faoes.  Rev.  Dr.  Bryoe,  of  Win- 
nipeg, Manitoba,  depicted  the  Winni- 
peg moond  region,  the  moat  nortbnriy 
district  where  mounds  have  been  dUiuu'- 
ered  on  the  North  AmcHcfln  continent 
In  Section  I,  Mra.  N.  8.  Kedae  road 
a  acnsitdo,  thorough-going  paper  on 
acientiric  cooVery,  Prof.  A.  G.  War- 
ner's paper  on  Inxnrr  waa  an  able  and 
discHriminating  discussion  of  tlie  dilR- 
oult  question.  How  much  of  income 
may  b©  .justly  expende<l  on  luxiirieaf 
Prof.  B.  E.  Fernow,  tl>o  chief  of  the 
Foreatry  Division,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
made  a  strong  plea  for  the  -. 
goromuiontu)  control  to  for 
tion,  water- courses,  and  the  iiko,  iU^ 
ground  wn»  that  in  these  mntiors  indi- 
vidual inlerfsta  are  often  opposed  to 
Uw  general  good,  and  ttml  the  itatc 
alone  can  rupreaent  national  inUjreata 
witji  c^omprubenairenesv  ' 
At  Prof,  Fernow's  dajor. 
atlon  patted  &  reefoJatkiii  f<«ottutK4tdtog 


io  Oongrefli  an  Mirly  aimI  mrm 

siderstion  of  «  eonod  f*.'-—'-'-  -i 

While  tbe  preaa  and 
promoted  the  enoccw  oi  (Uu  meeting 
hearty  and  inteUig«BI  uoHSpentSoB  la 
Us  wurk,  by  cordial  aiMl  mnltlpttad  hu^ 
pitalitiea,  tbeqaMftlon  MmraOy  Meorv 
What  did  the  AaaodaUon  do  for  Tofonfio 
in  presenting  acionce  in  mcit  viis  ai  to 
interest  and  instnu*!  popnUr  aodlaBoaal 
The  Oral  public  lecture  wa»  drlivrrvd  by 
Mr.  C.  K.  (iilbert.  A«-t*tnnt  Director 
dnited  States  Gi->  aa  tb« 

geology  of  Niftgii:.. aa  bodi 

api^ropriate  and  tkncly,  conalog  aa  it  dU 
on  tli«  eve  of  an  exoartton  to  tJte  {pval 
cataract.  Dr.  H.  Carrlngtock  Bolleoi 
gave  tho  wron^  lactnref  an  adcnlnliU 
illustrated  account  of  a  roodit  viflU  to 
Mount  Biuoi.  lutvrrst,  buvercr,  wv 
of  ooorse  centered  tn  the  address  of  tk$ 
retiring  president.  Major  J.  W.  Powell, 
chief  of  tlie  United  States  Oealogteal 
Suney.  In  hia  nnavoidablo  afaMOAa^ 
the  addrets  i-i.   Ica  lopAa 

waa  the  ev<iit  ,  (Vom  daa«a 

to  aymphony.  We  regret  to  aoy  tbal  It 
disappointed  the  va»t  nndi«nco  wbUk 
bad  uHS^iimiiled  to  hear  it.  Major  Powatf 
baa  madeunportn  ''tnskm 

and  reaearoh  hij* '  •  )ca«t  • 

theme  which  could  have  bean  fiUitni* 
nated  by  his  ^Mtciol  l^nowled^,  we  fed 
certain  tliat  ho  coutd  not  only  bava 
interntted  bnt  charmed  th*  tl»0Qan4a 
whom  bis  fame  drrw  tofretbar  Is  ^t^^ 
roato. 
nomli^ 
measnro  Ui  < 
nity  for  the   , 


haviDg   popular  Interact,  and 


V..-  -.(    Uic 

br 

Tbo  next  rooci 
is  (o  he  hcl'l  ■"  ' 
commtmco 


denta: 


^«tti 


4>dawC 

10 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 


^47 


irWpo,  Mbm.  ;  B,  Cleveland  Abbe, 
ilngUin ;  C  R.  B.  Warder,  Waali- 
;  Df  James  E.  [>cnton,  Uoboken, 
J.;  E,  JuUnC.  Branner.  LttUo  Rock, 
[Ark. ;  F,  C.  t>.  Minot^  iioatoa,  Mow. ; 
II,  Kmnk  H&kor,  Wa^liinKton;  1,  Rlch- 
[ftrdfl  DodgO)  WabUiugUio. 


LITERARY  NOTIcfeS. 

iLO?opiiT  or  NECiMfirTT;  OR,  Law  in 

VD  A9  IS  Uattkh.    By  Ohaiilcs  Boat. 

inl  edition.     Longmans,  Urtfn  &   Co, 

1  rol,     12ma     Pp.  407.     Price,  11.75. 

Tni  r««den  of  <9eorgc  Bliot^a  "  Life."  u 

latMl  In  her  IflUon  and  journAlA,  irUl  re- 

.11  hor  inttimu-'y  with  the  IJray  fAtoUy.     la 

Chupl^r  (I  of  Hint,  work   Mr.  Cross  PpMkv 

qT  hor  uK)mintioco  with  uid  •dmintioa  for 

Ohartfli  Bmy,  tDcmtlaiui    tlt£   book  irboae 

tie  U  given  Above  (which  wu  first  piib- 

iihcd  in   ItHl),  and  adiln  that  berns-wdA- 

tioa  wilh   the   luihor  and  bin  famlljr  **iio 

onbt  hastened  the  change  in  her  ftttitnde 

VoivftM  the  dogiiuu  of    Uio   old    rvlifjjun." 

^ilh  Mr.  and  Urft.  Bray,  atid  the  latWr'a  (fiti- 

r,  there    cxiEttcd    oa    the  part    of    UitiB 

vADfl   '*&  Ixiiiutifut   htiit  con^isti'nt   Triond. 

hip,  running  like  a  Utrt!)i>]  through  the  woof 

of  .  .  .  thirlT^ipht  yenrs." 

It  would  be  an  excellent  thing  if  the 
lag  public  coulil  he  induced  more  often 
mm  back  to  t-ho  work^  of  tboae  who 
have  cvrcfully  tbou{;ht  out  the  problenui  of 
exiitencc,  rather  than  to  demand  now  oi- 
pnuiona  which  ant  apt  to  1ms  more  crude 
Ud  0up«r(ictal.  Did  :hey  but  know  it,  they 
vouJd  not  st'ldom  find  a  greater  degree  of 
OTclty  in  the  old  than  in  the  rvecut.  And 
repuldiratioD  of  houkj)  which  hare  oom- 
leil  attciili^n,  b'lt  which,  though  exoel- 
t,  are  in  danger  of  helnp  fvirgotten  in  the 
Ititude  of  novelliec,  Is  a  highly  conmicnd- 
le  enter  priAc. 
Aiovng  9ucb  works  of  a  past  generation 
"  The  Philosophy  of  Neccwity,"  by  Charles 
It  alms  to  justify  the  docLrino  of  the 
ty  of  nature  a*  ooofltrued  hy  the 
and  utilitarians,  of  whom  the 
•ad  Fi--  ■  the  tyi»c.   Tlic  author 

titr  '  iiti  the  aide  of  mond 

it:  unoe.     The  tH-at  pan 

'  ^flfi'Jn  thenj  is  a  very 
tTo  and  Tsluablo  ttii^nAirnn  of  the  origin, 


i 


objccfB,  and  advantages  of  eril,  pain  being 
considered  "  as  the  neee»aary  and  most  ef- 
fectual guardian  of  that  «}-vlem  of  organixa* 
tioo  upon  which  happtuess  dcpendo."  Mr. 
Bray  is  no  pessimist.  On  the  contrary,  ho 
believes  fully  in  the  bcnefidal  quality  of 
pain,  that  evil  is  only  a  means  to  good,  or 
good  in  the  making.  The  linutationa  of 
human  knowledge  prevent  us  from  seeing 
this  dearly,  hut  an  hypothesis  lo  that  effock 
fumithes  the  only  mtioual  explanation  of 
the  existence  of  suffering  in  the  world.  The 
moral  iiQirerse  is  goverae>l  by  law,  and  its 
laws  "  are  as  stable  as  those  of  tbo  physical 
world  "  ;  and,  while  **  the  cauiica  of  many 
evfls  must  still  remain  unexplained,"  enough 
is  known  to  warrant  the  faiUi  that  "  further 
knowledge  will  make  manifest  ihc  benevo- 
lent tendency  of  all  creation,  and  bring 
home  to  every  heart  the  all-<'h*>vriog  convict 
lion  that '  whatever  is,  is  right.* " 

Tot  Oardch^s  Stort  ;  on,  PiXAStmo  Asm 
Trials)  or  an  Auatkla  Gardzmko.  By 
Gkoroc  II.  Ei.lwa!«(1i:r.  New  Vnrk  :  U, 
Applctou  k  Co.     Pp.  315.     Prices  |1.^. 

TuK  oQihor  of  Ihl8  work  ia  an  "ama^ 
teur'*  in  the  scn«e  that  he  ha«  a  genuine 
love  for  the  gardener's  occupation;  lits 
knowledge  of  the  suhjict  and  fanitliarity 
with  pbntB  and  their  relatione  with  soil, 
situation,  wcaUicr,  olimale,  and  purpose,  are 
professional  Uis  essay  is  practical  in  the 
sense  that  one  may  leniTi  from  it  well  how- 
to  manage  a  garden  with  the  greatest  lue- 
oeoa.  what  plants  to  put  in  it,  where  to  pat 
them,  how  to  arrange  them,  and  how  bo 
treat  thorn.  1(  is  to  an  equal  extent 
RSthetical.  for  it  \s  pcnneaccd  with  tbo 
sense  of  the  beautiful  and  of  whatever  is 
pleasing  to  a  rclincd  ta^fic,  ami  draws  freely 
for  illuftralion  on  the  world'd  atonis  of 
poetry.  Hence,  whatever  be  the  purpose  of 
the  reader  who  takes  it  up,  be  will  find 
something  respondent  in  it  The  particular 
design  of  thr  voliunc  U  to  direct  alt<*ntioa 
to  iho  importance  of  hardy  flowcr-ganlening 
as  a  means  of  outward  adorument  and  a 
source  of  recreation ;  to  preaont  a  ciraplo 
outline  of  (he  art  rather  than  a  formal  trea* 
tise  or  tr&t  Uuk  of  plants — *'  to  stiroulake  a 
lovo  for  amateur  gardening  that  may  be  corw 
riod  out  by  all  who  are  willing  to  bestow 
upon  it  chat  nocd  of  aiientlcm  it  lo  bona- 


848 


MOfrTRLY. 


tl/iill^  rtpavB,"  Ilanng  dwelt  npoa  the 
plAua  fgr  the  gftrdcn  md  rcrolTcd  in  woticj- 
paiioa  dunng  tbe  »t<jniia  of  Ua.rcU«  tb«  %^ 
Ihor  giTCft  "  Ajq  Outline  of  tbe  Garden,'*  or  « 
di&cus8ioa  of  Uh  geiufiiU  arruigejoen^  ibe 
Bcl«cti»u  of  plants,  ani!  ttm  pronsion  of 
stoclu  Among  tho  rtr*i  ob}<!cl«  to  b«  l^iokisS 
after  are  •'  the  spring  wild  flowers,"  which 
bftve  been  too  mticb  negleclvJ  Lcreloforc, 
but  are  beitultfut,  easily  got,  &nd  («  great 
oianj  of  tbvm)  vuily  cultivuted.  Froiu  the 
ftClentioD  given  to  tXw.  dall'oilil,  wo  judge  it 
to  bo  A  dcdtJcd  favorite  with  tbe  auUior. 
In  Auocojjiro  chapters  are  discusMd  **  Tba 
Rock  Garden,"  the  "Summer  Flowers," 
»  Two  Garden  Faroritca  "  ^the  lily  and  the 
rose),  *'  iQScct  VUIiort.*'  "  Hardy  Shnib* 
and  Climber-,"  fiowera  "  In  and  Out  of  the 
Garden,"  "  The  Hardy  Fernery,"  **  lUdaum- 
mer  Flowers  and  Uidsuuimer  Voices,*^ 
"  Flowers  and  Fruits  of  Autumn,"  and  the 
**LAst  Uonk's-bood  Rpirc,"  the  raricgated 
oolors  and  ihe  poetry  of  the  dosing  season, 
levari/  all  tbe  plants  referred  to  ara  aQoh 
u  may  bo  socceBafullj  grown  in  tbe  lower 
lake  region,  and  hare  for  the  most  part 
como  under  noUee  in  the  author's  garden. 

Hi^roRT  OP  HioBER  GoccATioir  uv  Sotrra 
(Jarolisa,  wrrn  a  >^KETca  or  tbr  Fash 
B^TiooL  >frrtTEM.  ByOuDEN  MuiiwrTsn. 
Pp.  247. — Education  is  Ocoaou.  By 
Cbaslks  EsaEironm  Jones.  Pp.  IM. — 
History  or  Edccation  i.h  Florida.  By 
Georok  Gary  HrBH.  Pp.  54. — IIiaSKA 
EotJCATioH  i:<  WiscavBi.f.  By  Wuxiam 
F.  Alle«  and  Datid  K.  HrxNcn.  Pp. 
68.  Waahington :  GoTermoeut  Printing- 
Office. 

Tdesi  monographs  oonstitiite  numbers 
4,  B,  0,  and  7  of  the  wHes  of  "  Coatribu- 
dona  to  American  Educotinnal  Hlctory," 
which  the  Uuitod  States  nureau  of  Educa- 
tion is  |nihltfihiog,  under  tbe  ediUkrial  vuper- 
riaiou  of  Prof.  Hcrborl  B.  Adams,  in.  Its 
"Circulars  of  Information."  In  tha  first 
paper  of  the  group.  South  Carolina  Is 
shown  to  have  been  active  at  a  very  oarly 
period  in  promoting  the  mental  development 
of  Its  youth.  S4?hoAls  were  founded  and 
ttainlalncd  by  the  5Uate  govenunent  and  by 
prirate  and  ehwitable  aid  ;  and  youth  wero 
sent  to  Knglond  to  sohocil,  who  on  thdr  r»> 
torn  gare  new  Impetus  to  tlio  mofemaaC 
Tb»  t«pJlo<M  of  tbe  irrowtb  of  ootlq^  gnre 
oeoudon  for  tha  detalopmeia  of  %  good  •y»' 


t<m  ot  academSco*  sad  tnioing 
braagfat  wittain  the  nmeli  of  alL    TW 
college  was  fDandsd  la  17A& 
every  religious  dcnomlan*    -     '      t  siztagA 
in  the  State  la  repru>cnt>  'W^aaJ 

attendaocH  at  mual  of  tite  inTTtfntinM  m 
gnulually  inoraulng.  la  lb«  xaah^  tfatf 
"  foUow  tbe  arerage  ooU^v  oaacwi,  bit, 
owinr  to  wont  of  Amda,  tWy 
t-  -ua.**    Tbe  s<iijiitMi<  and 

1.1  utioo  is  Sooth  CaroUaa 

which  bad  aa  its  prealdMct  for  fioiulin 
ymrs  Thomas  Cogpei^-a  ni»b  prodi 
of  Huiley  and  tb«  etolatloaistj  (a  tW 
scieoUtivi>-rcUgioas  dbcasaSoa — «x»d  Fnads 
Ueber  as  a  pmCesaor  for  t««st(y  yaan. 
Both  of  then  cmLocat  awn  vert 
political  sdenoe,  and  nader  tbiir 
the  college  galnol  a  high  rrpmatloa  ■•  • 
center  for  the  study  of  that  and 
branohoa.  The  iiutmctifia  <i(  Uh 
population  wa«  well  atiisded  to  darii^  ife 
earliur  part  of  tbe  btstocj,  aad  aaUl,  tl 
1HS4,  an  act  was  pasacd  forhlddbqg  tfcsn  I* 
be  taughL  An  entire  dtnage  ban  ooat 
over  the  educational  a*p«ct  stnec  Iha  aaiv 
of  which  due  noljoe  is  takca  la  the  ktowcj. 
Hr.  Jones  begins  hla  skrtcti  of 
in  Geor^  **  wltk  aodces  sif  ibe 

'  iU  epoob;  tb«i 
01  .oudncsaf 

after  t  aa«7  War ;  aad 

with  u  ibe  clanaataiy 

afforded  in  the  rtiral  schools,  aa  aoeai^  ml 
the  "  poor-school  syatcm,"  ha  els«,  dciitiiy 
ment,  and  decay ;  and  a  history  oX  the  b*> 
ghmings  »f  the  geaerU  syiaan  of  acbeab 
for  whitea,  the  appttcation  of  *Ueb  vat  b- 
terrapted  by  tbe  wat.  Ilw  (kraad  of  lAtf 
history  b  tcatnood  after  tbe  war,  aad  lbs 
pTMsai  ooadltioo  of  Khe  schoele  waA 
is  described.  Tsofanologkal 
been  made  prominent,  with  naoha  ibat  ais 
declared  rcry  BotlTfortory,  at  Kiawy  04- 
tegu;   thn   ii  iianiscBt   aA  Hayi 

Uniref«ty  U      „    .        :^ 
omphaab  is  laid  on  thr 
atfotdorl    ■^*     «..!--.-     > 
BrowTi  ' 

pupIU,  w  wi.i.nu  miij^r  in 
pcxjplu.     Ur.  B«b*e  oaaa 
tbfl  blgbKr  adani)' 
Hto  forth  la  sdMIU 
nvnt  of  tbe  sdtotd  */•! 


r  doia  nnflirasel 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 


Iftfff  empbuizM  tbe  rapid  adranco 

In  all  tKlimtlonnl  ii»lU.'n  during  the 

\St  dccjidc.     Since   ItfdO,  "  etcb  vcar  h^ 

imnkl?d  a  BMrady  ndroncef  and  t!u'  aggre- 

iit<  rc«uli«  win  tiear  favorable  coropaHMS 

ritb  the  odueatlunnl  mutinies  of  auy  other 

lie     The  superintendent  has  been  able  to 

>rt  a  graUffing  progrcM  in  nearly  every 

irtioiilar :  In  the  growtb  of  the  schools  In 

pQbllo  favor;  in  the  indvai^ed   tiiiuil>er  of 

■cbooU  and  school  ohildrcn ;   in  tuiproved 

HiSnga  and  enlarged  funds ;  in  a  more 

il«nSg«nt  and    hcit«r  instructe*!   body  of 

•ttchBTs;  In  b  lenpihent'd  Hchoul  year;  and 

a  ratio  of  attindanco  which,  if  cttrrcctly 

»I>orttfd,  pmliably  can  not  bo  e(irfKV«od  in 

ly  of  thr  oMi.*r  Htatca.**     Uc£i8r«.  Allen  and 

Spencer's  "ITlghcT  Edijc«li<fn  (n  Wlscunaln" 

the  first  of  a  series  of  nionograplis  on  the 

of  North  irestcrn  Scatva  in  the  angle 

tween  the  Ohio  and  thiv  MiM!»sippi  Rlvors. 

gives  only  a  general  outline  of  tbe  career 

kf  each   of  Um   collegia,  nmatiy   compiled 

rrora  the  sketches  in  their  aluinnt  reoords 

id  similar  ptiblicnLitMiS.     The  lai^^  sharo 

cpoce  ia  gtr«n  to  the  State   riiiversity. 

ic  five  private  collcgca  are  de-scribed  as  to 

i«  leading  festurvs  and  character  of  each 

id  tbe  scope  and  tendency  of  ihdr  work  ; 

id  brief  notiMss  of  three  others  ara  given. 

le  execution  of  all  these  historie-s  might  be 

ipnivtid  (ipou.     Mr.  Mfriwethur's  on  South 

irvlina  ahovrs  thu  most  paimitakiiig,  t^it  It 

considerably  short  of  what  such  a  work 

^bttobe, 

imtnciAL  DaoxHio  Amaltsui.  By  Au 
rsXD  II.  Allkm.  Beeond  edition,  rv- 
Tiawi  and  enlarged.  Vol.  Ill,  Part  I. 
Acid  DmirjiTiviLsor  PnitMnut*,  .Viiohattc 
Acids,  Taxnisb,  Dtch,  a.vd  Coi-oui.ko 
kTTCits.  Fhiluddpbla :  P.  Illnlciaton, 
A  Co.     Pp.  481.     Prive,  %A.M. 

\Ai.XKr%  wDl  wvlcome  the  third  Instatl- 

amt  of  this  comprehensive  and   carefully 

prepared  work,  which  details  Ihu  propertiM, 

melbudA  of  proilniaio    analytictil    csaminO' 

Ion.  and  a^naying  of   the   various  orjc^oic 

il  ribsiunccs  employed  in   the  arts, 

'tur»*«,  and  me<Ucin»».     The  material 

incrrascd  during  revision  thai  li  will 

itpf  al   least  double  the  space  of  the 

i^nal  tvro-vabimo  edition.    The  part  now 

lied  miubMs  of  a   chapter  on  aromatic 

1<K  wHI'  'Vi\  dtfflcHptJvv  of  tbe 


tannine,  and  a  cbapfr  on  dye*  and  cdoring 
nmttorii.  Tlie  material  rylaliuK  to  the  latter 
subject  ta  nlmoft  all  new.  coloring  matters 
having  been  represented  in  the  hr^l  edition 
only  by  sections  on  picric  acid  and  baffle 
anilin  derivatives,  lu  the  pn-seni  ^Ition 
tlicN)  subs'tances  arc  treated  under  the  fol- 
lowing ten  divisions  ;  uiiro  and  nitroso  color* 
log  matters,  aurin  and  Its  allies,  pbthalelD^ 
azo  coloring  maltcra,  rosanilio  and  its  alUoa, 
safrauincs  and  tndopbenols,  coloring  reaU 
i^T%  from  anthracene,  sulphureted  and  un- 
classified coal-tar  dycs«  and  coloring  mattcre 
of  natural  origin.  There  remain  to  bo 
treated  in  the  second  port  of  Vol.  Ill,  wblob 
will  complete  the  work,  organic'  baM»,  cyan- 
ogen couipouuilsi,  albuminoids,  etc, 

Sru.LA.K  EvoLtrnos  Asn  ir?  Rclatioss  to 

Gi:0LO4;|CiJ.    TlUX         ItV    JAMEa     (*roLL. 

New  York:  D.  Appleion  K.  t^.    V\u  118. 
Price.  %\. 

Mr.  <''noll  in  thi4  bonk  preAimts  what  bo 
calls  the  "  Impact  Theory  "  of  stellar  cvolu* 
tlun — a  theory  whicli,  as  aprdie*!  to  our  sun, 
KUppo^es  that  It  wan  funned  frtmi  a  hot 
gik;«eouH  nebula,  produced  by  the  colliding  of 
two  dark  stollar  niasses.  The  stars,  twing 
suns  like  our  own,  In  all  UkcUhood  bad  a 
similar  origin,  lie  bcUeTrs  that  this  theory, 
wlilcfa  was  proposed  as  a  liyimthesis  soino 
twenty  years  ap^,  hae  Itcen  sin'n{^tJifned  by 
llu>  n§tn)nomteal  and  physical  facts  that  have 
accmaulatf^  since  thai  time.  The  hypothesis 
docs  not  cxelnde  Iho  nebular  tbiwry,  but 
rather  inclndcs  it,  and  inlnr^es  it  by  sup* 
poking  what  was  in  the  world  previous  to  tho 
nebulip.  It  aasmnes  that  prerlous  tu  their 
formation  tlwre  were  stellar  mamw  tn  mo- 
tion; that  the  motion  wii«  in  straight  Unea, 
and,  as  to  each  ma.«s,  without  reference  to 
tho  existence  of  any  other ;  tliat  two  or  more 
of  thur^e  mniif<eft  wouhl  cnnually  cnUId^;  and 
th«t  the  collision  wouM  result  in  the  break* 
ing  of  them  up,  with  tho  production  of  hc«t» 
and  the  r«hoandin|;  of  thr  tragropntji  ni>on 
one  another  wouhl  end  with  thi-  rcfohillrmof 
the  whole  into  a  nebuln  of  inronnnvsbly  liigh 
temperature,  whence  the  tinlvcr*?  hn«i  bi'i«n 
erolvcd.  as  supposed  by  Ijiplace*a  hypolbcais. 
nere  Is  an  unllraiied  source  for  tbe  energy 
possessed  by  ilie  snn  and  solar  STStem,  to 
which  the  only  conc<nvablt*  alternative  tt 
graritation.    The  Utier  fa  held  to  be  inaiS&- 


^^o 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MOTmLT. 


quat«  to  ocooanC  for  tbc  ftmouul  and  lo(«li«f- 
ly  of  tlic  energy.  There  ju«  dtcd  as  «ap- 
portiDg  tlic  iiiipacl  llicory,  or  as  iUiUtrating 
ii,  the  lucteuriu^,  f?hioh  ma;  be  rceidtuj  pur- 
U Otis  of  douie  uf  the  origia&l  «oUd  b«jilki»; 
conicu,  fur  wtiich  a  similar  origin  maj  be 
&upp<>«cd,  the  motiona  of  the  fitare,  which 
arc  of  greater  velocity  than  cnn  result  from 
^mvitation ;  the  fadlitj  with  which  ihc 
theory  will  ttxpiitia  nearly  every  feature  of 
the  nebuhc;  and  binary  «tars,  Biuldcn  oiit- 
bursu  of  elac^  aud  star  clusters.  Ad  vpx- 
uient  in  InbHjd  un  the  insufficicocy  of  the 
gm^iAliuu  llieory  to  aceouut  fur  the  heauog 
of  the  prioiury  Dchula,  while  the  *^  impact 
theory  "  furxjif«Ueii  at  u»oc  a  sulHdcut  origin 
fur  it;  aiid  aiiuiher,  which  ie  Htylcd  "a  cru- 
cial test,'*  oa  tho  rvtiui^itious  of  geological 
time  as  dependent  on  tlic  auliquily  uf  the 
fan's  heat.  Ii  w  mathuuuiicuily  dcmon- 
i»lT«ble  Ibatt  if  gtaviiatiou  be  the  only  source 
from  whioh  (he  £un  dcrircd  il«  heat,  life  un 
the  globe  can  not  date  further  baek  than 
twenty  million  ytAns;  and  attempts  have 
been  made  to  measure  the  geological  ages  by 
ihid  rule.  Mr.  Cmll  atpies,  from  the  eri- 
dentx^  aflorded  by  llie  amount  of  denudaUoo 
Uiat  lias  occurred,  and  its  ealculaicd  rate, 
and  by  btolugU-nl  d«vt'lopiai'Ui,  that  tl^  pro- 
CL'ssca  which  hnvc  tnkcn  plaoo  eon  not  be 
eubJGccefl  lo  sueh  Ilmliatioua.  Further  light 
'\A  caKt  uiNjn  Ibe  theory  by  citations  from  the 
riews,  or  oonsideratlon  offiuesliont  suggested 
by  th«n,  of  Prof.  X.  Wbchell,  «r.  Cliarlea 
Morris,  Sir  WiUiam  R.  Grove,  Sir  Bcnjamla 
Brodie,  Dr.  T.  Stcirjr  Hunt,  llr.  \nUiam 
Crookca.  Prof.  F.  W.  Clarke,  and  Dr.  G. 
Jotmatooc  Stoney,  on  the  preucbular  condi- 
tioa  of  matter. 

or  :  irg 

AlTi-i.    ..  '  4.  .'.  *u- 

LACK.    Li  ,  iotnillaii 

&Co.     1  1 

Tnis  vork  treats  of  the  origin  of  cpecJca 
on  the  aamo  general  Hncti  as  were  adopted 
by  Darwin,  but  in  the  light  of  tbi*  di-cu«> 
aions,  nbjectjons,  theories,  and  new  diseor. 
eriea  that  have  been  brought  fortli  in  thi* 
nearly  thirty  years  which  hari*  , 
Darwin   pmmuUnttt^d    hti«    p^- 


win  **di<t  his  work  so  veU  tiusl 
modifiaacions  *  U  now  nairenany 
the  order  of  Kalure  In  thd  orguAe  wljli 
'ig  gttncniioB  of  ir*ltilim  ■■ 
M  the  notvUy  iif  Uds  kAa,  m 
thdL  ih'ju-  fathers  cotteMcn^  U  a 
heresy  to  bo  candemTi<nf  rather  tbas 
ly  dibcuascd."    T'  n  wm  ai 

ihti    Uie<iry   appl;  tli 

means  by  wliicfa  the  ctisiig*  of 
been  brought  about  The  obircsots 
uininuse  the  ogcsey  of  uotoral  Kttectioe^  lad 
t4)  eubonUitate  U  lo  U»s  oX  «»riaii««i,  el  ok 
and  di0a»e»  of  intelligence  aad  bordl^,  Xe. 
Wallace  maintains  tho  arcnshdalac  Inv*^ 
lauoc  of  uaiurnl  icIccUon  otir  aU  mAk 
agencies  in  the  y.  -t 

Be  beguu»  wiUi  ti  bi 

existcno:,  whieh  be  cuaoiJen  mm  of  A* 
most  Uuportant  and  universal,  amI  ysi  IseA 
uiulei-iiUMHl,  fcirecs  of  Xstursu  Neal,  vta^ 
bility  is  ehvwn  to  bo  coDstaot,  ualiwl^i^- 
ccssant,  and  frequent.  It  wm»  a  wuakMSP  h 
Ur.  tiorwin^a  ar^^mient  thai  b*  lis  as  J  h  m 
largely  on  tlie  cf  Ulence  pf  Jor— tkmiej  uL 
mab  and  plants.  Mr.  Wallace  ipooa  to  Kslait, 
and  fiods  rartatioD  jnit  m  nMKh  Um  n^ 
with  HI  •  wiklfiai 

fu*t  *<  .9  dtsUont  end 

vuua  that  the  prvpaDdcnac»  rf 
i^ttDenfctys^alnsltlic  ri|^?m(ls> 
tiou  or  crtmhluailon  of  TMrkuleaa  ooMBrtlg 
just  wht^n  reipunU,  U  blown  ait*^  b}  sft««> 
Ing  tliat  all  forms  of  vaxiatloa  ore  all  lbs 
time  oocurriog.  Tbe  SfTgnndDt  Is  I'^mhmsil 
as  to  the  RUlkmi  of  orv<M«,  oolor.  Mdaloy. 
heredity,  and  tbe  gcogn|ibkal  ^a^MSmkm 
of  or^aBUma.  Tbcob)eatiaiibuBd«|MBtk 
failure  to  Hod  svi'V  «  raielMcv  wt 

former  eihilence  '  H«tn)t«r  of  tkr 

coBnecttng  link*,  <>f  efA%- 

tlon  snppoecs  mur.  -iepei,^ 

t&iwcKd  by  showing  that  ih«  gvoU^od 

record   nf  rurrrtfT   forttm   1>«.  aiuS    sluaii   «tt 

be,  vt  I  nie 

to  atdu.».'  ^*M  -aA 

good  neatmos  are  ^ 

bfl  so.     Tb-     ' 
forth  In  hi*  ' 
u,d  of  Pr..' 


T^iAml  sfpuAst  tiie  principle  JcscOf.    liui  DftN  |  that  aiiy  otf  Ite  Uwa  or 


LJTERART  NOTICES. 


S51 


ftppcal  OftD  net  n1bernis«  thno  In  ttrlct  buIk 
riinatioD  to  li.  In  tpplIeAUon  to  roan,  Mr. 
■llmoe  fiodfl  lulitnil  goloclloo  ftiuple  to  tbe 
derdopment  of  Us  pfiyaical  ftructuro.  but 
Cklllng  to  account  for  bis  moral  &uj  inlet- 
lectual  foouhica. 


Tm  ENrtr.wti  SrAWtow  n  N'onm  AvntiCA, 
nrsci-iLi.T  Hi  rre  Relations  to  Aoki- 
CL'LTiikS.     Prepared  undor  the  DirectioD 

)  I  ,  of  Dr.  0.  Hart  Mkbriman,  Ornithologist, 
b^L  by  Walt¥r  It.  Barrows,  A«<4istant  Or< 
^B  nithalo'^iRt.  Wcmhington:  Gorernmcnt 
H      ?riaiitig-Omee.    Pp.  405. 

^^      Thu  monograph  la  published  an  **Bul- 

WMn  N'o.  1  '*  of  the  "  Divliioo  of   Economic 

^F'OrnithnlogT   and  Katnmfllogy"  of  the  D«- 

p«ftro«nt  of  AKriotiltiiro,  and  la  dpslgned  to 

4>ommutiicat4*  the  eridtMK'c  fmm  first  hondi 

mpeclinK  the    character  of    the    Eiigh'sh 

,Spano«,  and  ita  dcalrabUity  or  othcrwiM  aa 

dorntxvn  of  our  own  coimtry,     Vfv  hare 

<rflf(itt(<d  tha  hawk  and  tlio  owl  and  the 

iw  with  fipina  and  bouotiM   and   potnon. 

lera*  boys  have  tain  in  watt  to  shoot  the 

»hiitf    and    cat-bints    that  cainn   to  their 

i»rf74n»efl.      The  ladiM  of  tho  driliitcd 

rorld  katc  thouianda  of  agcnta  In  all  ooiiq- 

lo*,  the  rnlt(>i1  State's  induiled,   hunting 

jirda  to  obtain  the  wbvnjirithni  tbi'jr  mny 

deoorattf  thrtr  haia.     One  of  our   choicest 

amuaemcata  b  to  bunt  for  tho  loerc  aaki"  of 

illlng;  and  an  ainatour  K[tor(8maa  boaatvd 

Lh«  otJier  day  la  a  new»papiTr  of  harhig 

llillcd  ■  thousand  bird?  in  a  week,  which, 

00  UM  for  them,  ho  garc   to   the 

on  who»e  land   he  pouobed.     The 

impabie  on  Beeinp  a  atrange  bird  t«  to 

111  It.     At  last,  after  tbe  btrda  hnd  be«n 

Etenninnttid  tn  our  largo  dlii*-0  and  made 

\tv  In  ttv*  (tiuotry  at  lar^,  aparrova  were 

ttro'lucerl  %$■  a  partial  bnt  certainly  in- 

deqnatc    and    uniiatis factory    renxvly    for 

mischit'f  thai  Itad  tmen  done  by  ruahly 

iturbifig  the  balance  of  nature.     As  aoon 

they  iKcaroe  nnmcroas  thoj  were  accused 

(ng  tiwful  birtU  away.     There  areun- 

hW   ti'Ki  luiiuy   of  them,  and  they 

^t ;    they  are    quarreUome 

ami    they  are    Ineffidcixt 

rcrs  fti  cottipiind  with  the  8|m?- 

allowcd  to  by  nearly  eitorml- 

nas^    Vhirthor  CFT  not  tbcy  aaei*!  man  In 

lag  other  birda  awny  Is  a  quoetloQ  of 

Thn  prvMnt  report  coutaUui  amwera 


from  thirty-three  hundred  penons  In  the 
country  at  large  recpecting  the  eharactar 
and  bftbiL't  of  ihc  ax^^^*^-  The  aftiwera, 
mostly  dated  In  1B86.  repreaeot  all  Borla 
of  ricwe,  and  are  t»ften  contradictory.  Thcro 
is  no  mconi  of  eFtirnnting  thf*  relative 
Talue  of  the  ii^timf^uie^.  Tlio  witnesses 
againtit  tho  sparrow  prcpondi^mtv  in  num- 
bcr3;  but  atn«ing  those  in  it*  fctror  many 
are  known  to  be  accurate  and  intelligent 
obserrcra,  Mr.  Nicholas  Pike,  who  intro- 
duced them,  an  Bcwmpllshed  itatoralUt, 
ia  sure  that  they  ei terminate* I  the  mcasnr- 
in^r-worm  from  tho  treea  of  Brooklyn ;  and 
hia  testimony  will  Ijc  corroboraud  by  all 
persons  whose  recallcctlons  run  l»ck  far 
enough  10  ootupare  the  aumtner  appi-*ranco 
of  thnt  city,  with  iu  tr(*od  tiarti  aa  If  a  firo 
had  swept  througli  them,  berore  tlio  wpar- 
rown  came,  wUb  the  luxuriant  foliage  they 
obtained  after  the  binl*  had  worked  a  year 
or  two  upon  thr^m.  There  arc  many  Other 
tealimuniod  to  the  destruction  of  Inscda  by 
sparrows ;  but  other  birds  are  better  at  the 
business.  Many  equally  intelligent  and 
trustworthy  wiineisca,  while  admitting  th^ir 
quarre1»omeno'<«>.  deny  that  the  sparrOwfl 
drive  othpr  birds  away.  Some  of  the  Statoa 
have  rvr,TntIy  passed  taws  to  prevent  the  fur- 
thor  dofitruetion  of  aong  and  plumage  blrda. 
ViTiere  these  lawa  are  enforced,  tho  de§ir< 
able  birds  are  ooming  back,  and  the  spar- 
rows are  not  keeping  them  away.  Man, 
not  sparrows,  is  the  enomy  they  hare  dio 
moat  rcaaon  to  dread. 


The  Jocrn&l  op  MonraoLOor.  Edited  by 
C.  O.  WntTWA?*,  with  the  Co-oporation  of 
Eowaro  PmLPS  Allis,  Jr.  Vol.  IX,  Ko. 
8,  April,  18S9.  Boston:  Ginu  4  Ua 
Pp.  2&0,  with  many  PlalcB. 

Tur  "  Journal  "  hoa  fited  a  high  mark, 
both  in  the  quality  of  it«  artiotes  and  tn  fch« 
style  of  setting  them  fortlif  and  adheraa  to 
tt.  The  present  nambcr  contains  a  sitidy 
of  the  "  Ulents  and  Embryo  of  the  Rabbit 
and  of  Man,"  by  Charles  Sedgwick  MJnot ; 
"The  Anatomy  and  Derclopmcot  of  the 
Lateral  Line  System  In  Amla  Calva,"  by 
Mr.  Allis;  "The  Or^anitatjon  of  Atonu  and 
Molccalca."  by  Prof.  A.  E.  Dolbenr;  '•Some 
New  Facta  at>out  the  Uinjdtnea,"  by  Mr. 
Wliitman:  and  "Segmental  Sense-Orgnns 
of  Arthropods  "  by  William  PxtUm. 


851 


TEE  POPVLAR 


XXoAt  Moeta    9x.fr  aw   utxan;   ob,  ini 
Idu  or   Goo  IK  TBI   Olh  T«ht«iot, 
By  A.  O.  BcTLSK.     ChJctgo :  R.  tt.  Don- 
noUcy  &  Sona.     Pp.  4a4. 
Lf  tliis  book  ft  Btudy  id  madu  of  Ibe  ch«r- 
ftrtcr  o(  Oie  material  surroundinga  io  which 
the  authorsof  ilie  Old  Tostmueiit  were  placed, 
nnij   the  nuture  of  the    iinprL^dsions   upon 
Iheui  wUifli  tUit  Church  rcganU  o<i   re*i.'U- 
lloM  frrjin  D-'Uy,  and  which  ihcy  dLwrlbe 
ati  th«  voice  of  God  epeflklng  to  them,  or  «« 
ap|ti'araiiCL*s  in  n  vision  or  a  drrain.     It  in- 
roWeu  alao  on  inquiry  Uilo  ihclr  psjchdlngi. 
oil  condition.     In  the   chapWta   on   '*Tb« 
Bible  a»  it  it»"  and  "The  Publiculion  of 
tht  Peuutcuch,"  the  author's   ooncluaions 
reapectiug  the  origin  and  dates  of  the  hwtka 
agroo  in  Oie  nmin  wlUi  thow-  of  the  school 
of  iTiticism  rvpre^entt-d  by   Kuenen.     The 
inquiry  is  ooniinutHl  in  chnptew   on    "  The 
Idea  of  God   Ui  Creation/*   "  What  Moce" 
Mtt  anil  heard."  and  "  The  Spirit  of  Itifipiro- 
lion."     It  U  held  that  M«»w  saw  the  (wes- 
cncc  of  God  In   tho  Uphtning  or  the  Bru, 
and  heanl  bia  voice  in  the  clouda ;  and  the 
agvncy  of  God  in  ihe  work  of  creation  was 
the  divine  spiritual  fire  which  tlic  anthor  of 
Geneftia  *nw  flnshint'  In  the  cloud*.     Those 
who  rtfjoiit  this  wnsii-uotion  may  biIII  And 
tbo  interprfltatlon  of  his  yxprvMion*  in  tlu* 
motion  which  God  by  hia  wi>iti,  or  by  wme 
power  in  hJmMlf,  in  the  firut  itiflUncc  com- 
mtinicntcd  to  ninticr     Thit3  sutrp-^u  to  tlio 
author  the  inquiry  whether  the  writer  of  tlic 
first  chapter  i-f  fJeneais  and  the  twtjntii'lh 
cliftpter  of  ExfHlitA  did  not  know  that  liglii 
wa«  only  a  mode  "f  "...ti.-ni 


Ax  IifTOOprmoN  to  TctB  T. 

tlOWAl    Hl«TO«T    nr   TH«    ' 

Pv   ■ 


'TP- 

rjts- 


toriaju  muI  potldml  MAdattUL  BaC  rfi« 
F^^amaa  b«^D  (luUlUuQg  hto  Ualnrinl 
8lwUc«,  the  thi-ory  of  an  Eo^tWu  k/taX  am- 
atiluUtm,  cootoI  is  ori^u  with  thai  i»l  ite 
race,  hjw  b^cooM:  familiar;  mai,  «a  IW  » 
rwuuuiiun  ba»  b«ai  ciWmWiI  "■  >f  "  '-^ 
stiiuUfn*   hoi   bwn    CtiUnd  Ui  a 

cl  r  Aryan  riiii..«ui*. 

N' 

OOurr  III 

of  oar  ' 

bAOome  oontnum  w  -^^iC*  ^ 

it  llie  origin  of  i*-  \Mmima 

fwittirtia  of  our  sy-!' II-  "'  ,'..*woo«t    .if 

tbo  autbor  of  ihlu  «<'ii*.  -L^j^ArkM,  ia  dainriV 

log  the  Xew  Bogiaiid  iowi>.aft**lliNgi  ">*  * 

dilBcull  to  aee,  -ithout  Um  CovmUv*  *•» 

the  Emeliahnaa  oouU  have  uJompliMl  «?« 

ihcFr. 

tr^d  oi 

t(,  ■■  ,  :■     '  .  I''  ■•  ■ 

n.,.    .-.  ^   ■  -  >««••• 

indcpf'ti ;  ■^r.   uo^.■:■^  r-  '^L'wm\ii§mma  ^ 

Uic  rau'j'i-    l'->iiM-    ■■■:  '■  ■■'   ■'  -Oil 

hae  as^iuucd  In  tho  Unitrd  l^MMUm  it 

back  to  its  bcginuitHt,  and  ilw 

Ibcy  havu  uudoti^oou  ant  fullu««d.     th«r 

origin  lit-*  far  bock  In  llie  llk^ry  of  Ua 

race.     In  Ibiu  lijtl»l  are  dearrilwl  tha  avcto- 

tion  of  tht  1  1.  ***  •**••  "■ 

oouniy.  with  l**".  »Wr  «- 

riaiuuN  atid  tb^  uMnUiiitinna.     Tk«  1^ 

u  Uitcniled  aUnply  a«  a  gnwrml  Ifttrotete 

(u  lUc  study  o!  the  aubJwC  a«d  !••»«• 

for  ^pecUl  trwMcwBU  in  iU*«MA  " 

But  it  polnta  oui "  a  lid»  fiWid  !■  "M* 

UborrrB  may  find  |woftUhU  lOii^T 

oud  which  it  would  be  w«U  lo  hatu  cuMtf 

caittrnt^HL 


tlie  nmggla  f«r  %bm  «•» 
tit;  a  U 


-■    V.rMiC  ;f.M*i    Siftifl' 

<  i&baidad  a»  as  aA^| 
,  rim,  vWoli  win  M 
ttjodc  pan  Bml  at  a  b^bcr  tllVibr*  ••«  «»i 
be  ivrnpl«»«l    U  h  ih«»  h^<  " 
in  onUf  w  moai  ihc  wajrta  ol 
aa  bam  afr- - —'  -  ^'''*1"^  m-tt^^  tn  al 
ttuui  U  ou' ' 

i!iO  enoQflh  tlevMc 

rM  in   ll'^l-":     *'l 

,  \U>  artw  fila  !■ 

formally  cou«iUcr«i  by  litSr  i  iwiieau  <or  i»pUi««.  aa4  » 


of  tbo  Johns  liopkbia  Uaircrally.     Pp. 

Tma  work  forma  an  oitta  Tolumc  of  tha 

"John*  HopWna  Unirwrslly  Stiidle*  In  Hii- 

torical  and  FoUtlcal  Solouec,**     la  It  a  atib- 

'  _-h  It  baa  baan  a 

d*-rcIopCDMitef 


UTERARY  NOTICES. 


«53 


Ilnblgb  uid  nonnolMhools.  Wliile  too  gT«&t 
Bimfilictty  iu  (rL>fltni6)il  hfis  btfeo  aroidcd, 
e*r«  hitH  bf-en  ifuktn  to  prcMrre  the  logical 
»0"|ucnco  i*f  lb<ni2ht  and  to  prcTcnl  the  dl»- 
cuialoii^  from  bootoming  uniiooc.<«i&rily  ftb* 
•(mj«  ADrl  Jiiti^iU,  Examples  have  boon 
»yl*cU»d  with  rpet'ial  reference  to  ririety  in 

[coinbititiOon  BTiH  methods  of  rcdncUon. 

In  hk  Oradwttft  Court*  0/  .Vo/um/  Sei- 
(MAcmillAf))  Mr.  Ht^jatnim.  Litrtey  en- 

[dfatorn  lo  place  thu  ftinilntnt'nuO  fncts  of 

►fibyvtCT  and  ohtini*try  npon  a  purclr  expori- 
nratal  hosfd.    Tho  priodpul  subjects  usu- 

ilttlj  eaihrae«d  hY  a  «ohool  course  In  tbcM 
bnncfaM  an*  nrmnK'-d  In  a  progresalTO  man- 

fncT,  "  to  that  the  pupil  maf  be  able  to  pro- 
ceed ^Tftfiiully  from  that  which  1«  IroowBf 

lalrriple,  and  cmsy,  to  that  whioh  is  unkooirn, 

fC^iinpIex.  and  dlfflcuU;  from  thut  whtoh  la 
near  and  within  a  yonng  leftmorV  percqition, 
to  what  (b  mon  recondite."   It  la  aleo  a  part 

I  of  th«  plan  to  pre  no  inatnictlon  but  that 
which  U  convcTeJ  Lfarougb  cipcriments  and 
tba  fanmcdiato  oonicqnences  of  the  pbcnorn- 
cnt  obMrrcd,  ta  ^e^Mced  by  a  chain  of  sim- 
ple reasoning.  The  present  rolaiae  (Part  I) 
of  onu  liundred  and  fiftr^ne  pages  compriMM 
the  first  yi^ar'*  conr??  for  eiotnontary  fohools 
ftiid  the  junior  clAdftes  uf  technical  aoboots 
and  colleges. 

The  Urst  ftfp&H  of  Mr.  J^hn  C  Smock 

t(Cliarloa  V&o  Benthayscn  &  8ou«,  Albany), On 

Minat  ami  Iron-  Ort  IH»iriei»  in  the 

0/  Stw  Tork^  U  bafted  in  p&rt  on  the 

iwers  by  managers  of  mlnca  to  letters  of 

ttn*iulry  nddreMcd  to  tiiein,  and  partly  on  a 

poratmAl    unrrey    of    the    mining    district 

[>'c«rly  all  the  niia««  wero  riqied,  and  notea 

it  Ibelr  geognipiileal  situation  and  geologi- 

Hlal   r«lation»  were  obtained.     The  ancwcrs 

to  lettcni  of  inquiry  fnmUhcd  valn&bledata, 

•epcelally  in  the  relations  of  the  mines  to 

[the  iron-mining  and  Iron-roaaufacturing  In* 

liiitrie»  of  the  oonntrr.     Short  notloet  of 

the  older  minc!  aiui  of  Rome  of  the  abazi- 

fdonetl  tuiue   Incalitlea   liAve   been   incorpo> 

Lleii  in  the  re^iort,     Thtt  pnjter  iu  puttlisbed 

Bulletin  "  No.  7  of  the  New  Yoric  State 

'Mufteuro  of  N.atural  Hiatory. 

Th«  Rqjnri,  by  Dr,  Qinrtf*  Af.  /).iw»«, 
on  (M  Rephration  in  tJu  ViJtnn  Di*iriU^ 
^oriAmtttrm  Terriinry,  nrvi  itdjiWcnt  A'tTth- 
rm  I^)rHoH  0/  Britiih  Columhia,  givos  the 
r«dlt«  of  Ml  otpfdltton  tnailc  in  ISB7,  in 


I  the  vaBt  and  hitherto  almost  nnknovn  re- 
I  gloo  in  the  extreme  Northwest  of  Britivh 
America.  The  tract  in  question  \n  Ixmu'Kd 
on  the  south  by  the  elitieth  parallel,  forming 
ibe  oorttutni  line  of  British  Colnmbia,  on  ttie 
wo4t  by  .Ua«li:a,  on  the  oast  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
lixtb  ujeridlnn»  and  on  the  north  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  It  deriTea  its  name  from  iU 
lying  within  lhcdrainap:ebaainof  the  Yukon 
River.  It  haa  an  area  of  about  onehundrfnl 
and  Qin)'<ty-two  thouiand  e^qnare  mile*,  or 
nearly  equal  lo  that  of  France,  greater  than 
that  of  the  Uniled  Kin^om  by  ACTirnty-ono 
thousand  aquare  miles,  ten  times  that  uf 
Nova  Scotia,  and  nearly  thi'ec  times  tliat  of 
the  New  England  Rtatcs.  Tho  report  14  ac 
companid  by  a  map  of  the  dlfttriet  and 
northern  Brlii»b  ColumhiSf  In  three  sheets. 

Ofonotny  and  Cottutmoinia  fJ,  B.  t*lp- 
pincott  Company)  presents  thi>or^«s  on  the 
origin  of  ocean  ourreuts  and  llie  growth  of 
worlds  and  cause  of  gravitation,  by  J.  StarJcff 
Grimai^  who  is  al»o  the  autlior  of  tbenries 
in  mental  physiology  that  have  iRH'n  fnvora* 
bly  mentioned  by  such  atithoritle^  as  Dr. 
McCoah,  tbe  Rev.  Joseph  Crok,  nnd  the  lat« 
Dr.  G  M.  Beard,  and  of  a  now  view  of  the 
nebular  (lystom.  In  Geonomj/  he  nets  forth 
that  the  continents  originated  lo  the  tinii- 
ing  of  the  ocean  l)a*infi  beneath  weiglits  of 
Aedimeut,  accompanied  by  coinp«n«ator^  up- 
hoavals^  and  were  shaped  by  six  pairs  of 
ellipiioal  oceanic  currents,  tbe  ssdlmentwj 
dcpoait*  of  wliieh  canBMl  the  elnkin^.  lo 
C'ocmonormd  the  ooudeneatlon  of  etijer  Is 
prcAcoted  ns  the  catise  of  the  growth  of 
worlds  and  of  gravitation. 

Mr.  M  //.  JfihtiAton'M  liiMtoru  of  a  S?4«t 
presents  a  dark  asptict  of  affairs  in  Arabo- 
urago  Africa.  Tho  author^  who  has  ac- 
quired fame  as  an  explorer,  and  particularly 
OS  tho  leader  of  an  expedition  for  ascending 
Mount  Rlliuiaujaro,  has  atlcmiited  la  It  lo 
giro  a  reiaU:*tic  alietc-h  uf  life  in  tlic  wcBtern 
Soudan.  The  etorr  Is  tho  outcome  uf  tome 
of  his  own  experiences,  and  is  especially 
based  ou  what  h«  has  s^en  and  bean)  when 
traveling  in  North  Africa,  in  the  Niger 
Delt«,  and  on  tbe  Cross  Rivrr,  It  doos  not 
describe  anjr  particular  ocrit.^  of  cvcnta  aa 
tboy  actually  occurred,  but  oombiuea  iso* 
laied  ineidonia  such  a«  are  not  uUcnown  la 
the  country  into  a  connected,  couecutivo 


8h 


TEE  popuLAn  scrsiras'  moxtblt. 


ftlor/--^>r,  to  use  the  words  of  the  oulhor,fae 
hu  pieced  togelUer  tbo  accounts  given  him 
by  negro  ftlaTes  m  Ihu  Barluiry  sUU!^  and 
in  weiilcm  eqaatorUl  AfrlLL  6oiue  uf  tUc 
incidtuU  have  been  aoiuiiUy  wituuMed  \>y 
hiiu  during  some  odc  of  his  journeys.  Tbe 
per«oa9  oud  place«  oamtni  are  of  real  cxifU 
enoe,  u  ftre  also  ihc  languaftte  qiioU'd,  Tho 
fltorj  ifl  Ulustraled  by  forty-Acvcu  full-page 
picturcii,  from  origino]  drawings  by  the  au- 
thor— truu  deliueatioiu  of  African  life  and 
8oen«ry,  ino^t  of  which  have  betiu  done  hi 
Africa  from  actuality.  Ko  concovtor  of  fic- 
tion could  invent  a  more  tragic  titory  than 
tliis  one  of  a  real  life  which  ta  still  happen^ 
ing  every  day. 

Tlio  vi|{lith  i-xsiie  of  th«  Antttutl  /mlrt  to 
/VriWic;/*  (W.  E.  (jriawold,  Bangor,  Maine) 
is  brought  down  u*  July,  IHbO.  [i  oontuiua 
the  llAte  of  iiiloe  u(  articlefr  and  amhurs,  hi 
the  uuiatiuu  peculiar  to  Mr.  GrifiwoM^a  in- 
dexes, for  twcnty-flre  American  and  foreign 
periodical*. 

Undt^r  iho  UUc  of  The  7Vo  Ortat  Re- 
trtaiM  of  HUtory,  Glnn  it  Co.  publigb  in  a 
single  Tolumc,  where  they  eau  be  read  com- 
parativv'Ij,  Orotc'a  tLVOunt  of  tbu  lUtrent 
of  llic  Ten  ThouBond  Greeks,  taken  fiooj  his 
bUtory  of  Greece  entire,  except  for  a  fc^w 
verbal  change ;  and  on  abridgment  of  Count 
S6gur*a  narrative  of  N'apolooa'e  retreat  from 
Buaaia.  Tht  book  is  de^gn^d  for  school 
use,  and  U  fumiohod  with  mops,  an  iniro- 
doction  to  each  section,  and  explanatory 
note*  by  "  D.  fl.  M." 

The  PiffnUar  UiMory  of  CaUfomia^  by 
Lneia  AVtrwrn,  la  pubII»bc<I  by  the  Bancroft 
Company,  Pan  Fraoeitioo,  In  a  revised  and 
enlarged  aecond  edition.  Tho  flrsl  edition, 
publiabed  in  1878,  woa  wall  rvceirpd.  The 
**  cnlargementa  "  bring  the  «tnry  down  te*  the 
preaent  time.  The  history  of  ihtu  HtJite  prc- 
■eaU  •  coQ^denblc  varictj  of  Incident.  It 
IncludM  periods  of  didcorery  and  of  colonl* 
latlon  by  the  BponJarda;  of  tho  pmnilnenov 
of  the  niiasiooR ;  of  the  Mexican  War  and  tb« 
oonqueat  of  the  country  by  the  United  State* ; 
of  tbe  dfctcovery  of  gold  and  ll»e  gold-huiu- 
Ing  exdiement;  of  flUbuiit^^rias  and  vigi- 
lance oommltleea;  oad  of  aurriculttirnl  and 
borfiotiltnpo)  d*v4>Vtffm«nt.  In  whleh.  rather 
than  in  iromv  didtiUMi  lo 

flndUi.  i'W.>»Uh. 

Threir  ioaguogo^iadlaa  of  different  char* 


aoter,  cnch  baring  Ita  pee^Hmr  voloe,  oea  poVl 
LiihtHl  by  Tilan  L  t3a  Tba  /Votf^^  l^m  i 
ComjHmium  of  Mr.  WVfium  C  OMvorli 
r  Tuxi  of  leaching  wliich  ki 

tried    by   ihc    OQtiMir 
I  :iti<ltta 

uOiplc  tibott^ 
doe  ahould  tin  baaed  ttpoa  ihr  irtf7  v< 
oome  Latin  author,  Th«ao  word* 
him  a  Ifring  model,  in  whkii  b«  maoc  %aA  aU 
hia  tnaterial — order,  worda,  ■'^"■■*^,  maX  am 
BtrucUon« — and  In  whidi  he  anMotNtrvc  afl 
the  points  wht-rvln  the  stmetvra  w)«  ham 
that  of  hU  own  tni)gii<>.  He  ta  cKp«ctod  ta 
famillariK  hlmielf  &r*t  wiifa  the  Lolia  |«i- 
aoge  and  the  deuBa  and  pocvUariik*  «i  fit 
const"  ihvn  ta  cxtcvlv  hi*eaM^ 

oiae,  )•  Otc  mwda  aid  aammnm 

tiooB,  but  wiUi  many  danigm  of  (my  arf 
in  altered  oomblnadona  ;  aail  la  nitt  m 
Hui  original  only  for  oorrvettMi  oail  wW 
fication. 

Next  in  the  group  ia  the  I\^m  ofaMi 
tka  Mimoint  dn  D^te  A  Saimt  fllM<a,  ta 
proparing  which  Ur.  A.  y.  Vam  IkuO  hm 
hwm  actuated  by  the  briUf  that  ttie  amdy 
of  a  fondgn  Uaguagc  ought  to  Mm^  ftotaita 
ui  contact  wUb  tli*  nu."  f  fnraip 

nailuna.     T'>«  ft-w  of  ..  are  «^ 

ceaaible  to  •  'imta 

deci  Table  or>  ;  Salat>9Boai, 

"iaoneof  Uic  landmarks  of  Frvtoc^ 
tUDf.  "Tlic  eeli-ctlon  of  »gch  a  Unk  m  lUa 
for  daas  tue  prwuppoaee  a  crruin  dcpea 
of  maturity  on  the  port  of  tl»«  andcsL 
T)ir  Mltuir  tiaa  lokoa  no  olbor  UberUM  etth 
tlu*  text  Ihn:!  '        aa  l2i«  oocaaktt  99- 

qnim},"  nn-  i-*4iooaor  iiuliaa 

N(jic« — all    in   Frcucb — orv   IcrelalMd,  ai^ 
pLiiniiig   difllrult   «xprt««iaQa  atl4 
vBriou!»  points  morv  rJeor. 

The   tldrd  of  Gioa  k   Cb.*« 
publicotioiu  la  dw  twnahtfcw  of  thi 


KJy 


JuitiiA     At\.' 


inl>i  111.''     i>  <  i  >■     iit'ii«i        I II     Liic     I  "1,1  T    111     \  4lV 

work,  are  critical,  and  arc  baaod  no  ewfilly 
r«TiM>d  rdlilfiUL  "EUac**  rtlatea  to  the 
(uiorch  for  the  trua  cro«a  br  Iho  ftapM 
Helen*  '  i«a  »wrai»w- 

nh:.    ;•.-,■ 

io^ad  (UdboonM  tarf  Undr: ; 


LTTERART  KOTTCES. 


«5$ 


1 

» 


MacDoniild,  mlMdnur^  hi  naTaonab  Har- 
bor, Now  UetiridM,  pretonts  a  itodf  of  PoW< 
Dc^iiui  langoagefl  and  niTtholog;.  Though 
aucb  studies  miiM  be  for  the  ptvMnt  cliit^y 
tcntailro,  it  U  hanllj  poaaible  to  9i>cak  too 
'liighl;  of  tboir  value  oa  aids  in  the  inTesii* 
ilCition  of  ibu  orij^QS  and  migmtions  of  the 
liumau  nicea.  The  author  of  thi«  uludy 
makca  a  eritlcal  and  comparative  analysis  of 
Ift  number  of  Oceanic  dlalectAf  and  deduoe* 
rAonehuioOf  from  certain  Identliici  among 
that  tbey  all  sprang  from  ono  tnflec< 
mother- ton  f^u«,  and  tliia  was  a  branch 
of  lfa«  ttwmitic  family. 


PrDLICATIONS   HKCKIVED. 

[UraM,  Uar/  HbcUoD.  QcucrAl  llittory  lA  tha 
ZDfb  SobuoL     Uutlon  :  U.  C.  Ufaih  ic  V«.     i*\u  fl. 

Anan«r.ilnhn  0.,  Pb  l>.    AnnaAl  ll«f>ort  oftlM 

0«olo^iJ  ^urrpr   of  .^rtun^i".  f  t  tss*i,      Vol    11. 
Tb«    -<  •    ArIt«tiBU, 

•t».  I  '10  iJeoluay 

Oflb' 

•1  DlttHbttttOB  of 
lull.  J  M     Letrt*- 

.Iwlrioal  CurreDU, 
l>4S. 

burn**,  -I  n.,  N«w)>.>rt,  R  I.  A  M'thoti  of 
taMtiliin  I'ollnrc  Pr<>[MnU)r7  UUtnrjr.  Ilnttaa  ; 
D.il  IfoaUidiOo.     I*p  1.V 

Govit\  \L  U.  T1i#  RftirBchlt  oT  >*orth  America. 
WubiBfloQ;     Oof«ram«iit    Pntitlsj;-0(B<3e.      Pp, 


UtiTtf 

Hew  Yuik. 


J.  W.  ri«U  dtatiu. 


>niun  J.     Rcj>ort  of  the  Commit 


ACTlcoUiir*-,  fi'T  iv.-* 


IqIUiUb.      IIi> 

\t\Tt    ■'■        •*'  ■ 


i>^Tit    Stxlloa. 
'■r%.     Pp  7. 

T  HtA- 

■  <<       I.       •!       it.4llt>^. 

<ik>!)B  un  fiicieolnff 
iiry  a.  Wlnff.    Pp. 


'fh*  TAurlftoa.     B<Hton;   («ian  *  Cn.     Pp.    IPT. 

ro«t«r,  Mlchn«l,  ud  Oibors.  Tlie  *' Juunift)  »r 
rkrtlotoffy"  Vol.  X,  S».  fr.  (JRlf WO)  Own- 
ibrUjt*  (Katflan4>  ^IwUflo  InMramtat  CocapHUjr. 

OloD  A  Co.,  Botlo*.  H«w  AhaQ  f  (Mch  nui/^r;  t 
[Pp.  60, 

Oontd,04or«o  M~  )C  D.  The  Mod*ni  Frftnlt- 
vnaMa.    Obloca:   Op«a  OMrt  Publtalilor  O>oi- 

pmf,  Pp.«a. 

OfMt  Word*    Ihim    OrMi  Amariaua.      X«w 

[Tori :  O.  p.  PutnMB'n  »*»na.     Pp.  Sn7,    T?»  cent* 

HML  RAh-f*  T.     Pat#mrtrtlft|nf  "t  tlw*  OfStao^nn* 

fornix  '  '   "-i**.     l*»rt    L     AqjUo.      'V\un* 

I-  Till.  T-r.-mlw  V*rf«  of  AiUf. 


Pr«*. 


ofC 


<      P)t.  Itfri.    «l.«i). 

A  Damonstmti.in 
•  i*iA  lK>m  ObtCTVA- 


X«l 


It'-.  •Axvor.    Crn^watTa  Eleoa. 

lb*  *  0^    Pp.  Itt.    O  ««aia. 


M.  D. 


FHoltTDrUedl. 
Pi«.lrl 

Tbo  S«UM|  rtra 

•  'in.    Kaiit'a 
^      Vul.  II. 

.  <•,  eU;    Lon  - 


MrOlII  rnTrvrflty.  IContf«4l. 
Clna,    AbDQaJ  tAlui-ilar,  t.»tf-'W). 

MoUunr.  WUtliun  SI, 
orttovoa.    rp.  ii. 

M  ■    -     T        "        *  -  ; 

rrlti.  . 
Tin-  I  : 
d(»o   umi    .^(>w    i  (im '    JinciiiniAii 

Minor.  Fnofla,  St.  Lonla.  Ttic  L*w  orFodctal 
SuSmira.    Ppw  < 

Mmm,  B^manl.  Tli«  Pad«t*l  Ooverutneot  of 
f)wl(x>>HiinA  OskUnd,  C«l. :  I'urtlttr  Ptvm  l*titill>b- 
Inj;  I.  fliupanj.     9 «w   Vort: :   44  Duod  atrovt     Pp. 

&IQU«r,  P.  Mu.  Katara]  6«Jtcloa.  Loodonud 
New  tork :    Luiiguiaaii,  Un«n  A  Coi     Pp.  Ml 

New  Eoirlftfld  MeUorobt^Ml  boelrtr.  Ballctltt. 
July,  1S»9      l>,  8 

Oit.  ImucV  PHvite  \^hot%ioTy.  Kmioii.  Pt. 
ContrtbiiU'^n  to  the  Pttirnltilu.'jr  tiiil  PuiMlog'jr  of 
tbe  Ncrvuiu  System.     Pp.  ilKiut  40. 

Pwk,  John  Lord.  The  KI'MT'lom  of  tbs  Td- 
•tdnah,  or  tb«  Ewplra  uf  lh»  Wl»e.  N«ff  York: 
Emplra  Uook  Boruo.    Pp.  4^.    Ii.ftu. 

PentuylTuiIa,  CDlrvnkir  of.  lUtHihonk  nfln- 
AmoAttoD  cooctnnlQg  tbo  &r<tioal  (rf  UlMlogy.  Pp. 
laa.  wlCb  PUtvA. 

Phyffc  W,  H.  P.  »«Tmi  Thtnuand  Wonla  oft»tt 
mlBi'n^uounco'l.  Kew  Yurt^ :  O.  P  Pu(na.iu'B  tions. 
V\i.  4ii\.    I1.2A. 

Po-T,  U.  V  and  R  W.  ItHroOui-Uon  to  Poor'a 
Muiaftl  ul  tUe  lUlinndi  at  Lbv  L'olud  SuUa.  ISaV. 
Pp.  SS. 

RkhanU.  John.  MaBua)  of  Maehfne  OnttB^ 
tluh  fur  Ki<irlBMrK,  DfiOffbtwDvo.  and  Mccbaaleii 
Phlbtlolpbla  :  J.  a  I.lppUruLt  l.>itii|Maf.    Pp.  tM. 

Blpb>T.  CbAaitc«y  B.    Blocn* 
XewTork:  nUfcarACo.    Pf 

&Juiip«)D,  J.  Htilrutj.  Rroti 
Bo«(oD  :  N«w  IdMU  Publl5liiui;  < 
l'>cenu. 

Sbufaldl,  Dr.  R.  W.     Oh»<>rTiittf.n«  iiy-'n  th''  0». 
tooloifjr  of  TitlitnKfiM   nii< 
lDirt4»n,    Pp   m— ilti^oi.' 
Utnllj     ^r.Vtrij^      Pirt    1        , 
An-ti'  '1.    W.»l«r-ri)r.U      \\-   :t 

tf>a;  :■     ■ iHbllBhlftjf  C<iinp«nr*     I1>- W.    10 

ceDtk. 

8tfl(oltt,  W  Tho  M'»(t0m  OtMo  TiMtractor. 
Kcw  York  aod  London :  G.  P.  PutDun's  ttooo.    1> 

\n.  $i.w. 

9Xjarrt  School  KxpciHmeitt  Slatinn  BuHntla,  Jafv, 
X^Sat.  Bnotort*  In  Milk  aod  lU  Prodcieta.  B/  U.  W. 
Conn,     Pp    \% 

In  Ui 
»o»l.  ■ 
l>on)-" 

tirmnniU.  Hraiitlntti.  M    1>.    A  M«iiil*lrif  Ch«aA- 

iMrrfor  tb->  ^^e  of  Mwllml  Sniil.nf*.  Pblladol- 
plua:  P.  Ul»»Li»i..n.  -""  ••  '■■      V'   'M      n 

Tllhuiui.   H.  K  .«   In   IToot. 

PhtlulcljitiU:  i.W  -  >.     Pp.  100. 

•1  m. 

Tru*.  Prvdorlrk  W.  CoatriliotloM  to  thn  y«to- 
nU  Hist..!-\  .,r  tlir  r,  tiv..  ui«.  A  IliSTlew  of  tb* 
V»n.  .  ''.in:     OovtrflB»<Bt 

PH.-.-.  'Idtija. 

V, -.1.     BoUaa:    TK    C 

Q»tb  4  Co.  lOM  a<mth  LcaftatB.)  Pp.  Il  » 
cuats. 

Wnrd.  T«itor  r.  Th«  Borioloc<(«I  PoilUoo  a( 
Pmt^tion  iTxl  Pre*  Tndo.  WaiCliicua:  JaddJb 
Dwtwvtlcr.    Pp.  10. 

Y»J«  CJDlr«ir*lt)r.    Report  of  (bo  ObMmtorr  ** 

isae-*w.   Pp.15. 


■^V.t^h    of. 


iJHwav. 


'lonr. 
I'p.  £1. 


rMrtlnn.l.  X.  T. 


The  Soft  PaIbU 

'    '    ■JtO-PhjUTH- 

-   ryoo  IQ  uo 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 

Tbn  FaDctlQB  of  «  LDlienllj. — Prou- 

d«nt  D.  S.  Jordan  bus  A  wArnlug  to  ott«  of 
his  recenl  paper*  igiuiut  ftltacbln|;  too  much 
»igaificaiioc  to  numburii  iu  Q»Uuiating  the 
OAertiliitfA^  of  A  imivenut;f.  The  kind  of 
irurk  Itifti  atuJtiuta  tiru  ilniug  h  the  really 
ImporUut  coiisi<Ioratiou.  Odd  Atadoot  in 
cjuatcmions.  ur  In  tiei'inouic  pUiJolDgj,  or 
truiucd  to  carry  a  mAcjxURc  mv^ii^nfion  to 
ftti  cuiJ,  U.  woi-tlt  more  than  a 
nomctry,  or  tttiiiiiMing  overt:! 
Whitney's  Grntnnmr,  or  learuiug  to  anaiyzc 
flowers  or  Idcutifj  the  mufidcs  of  a  cat 
Great  numbers  mAy  nu-fin  crowded  chiM- 
rooms,  overworked  pi-ofe&eons  aud  drudg- 
ery, toEtead  of  ioT&ptigntiun,  and  the  muvriv 
flity  a  huge  oiaL-liine  for  lower  educoiioa 
rather  than  a  center  for  the  diaoovery  and 
dia^etuiuation  of  truth.  "  'Pit:'  htghi'-^t  func- 
tion of  the  rval  unircrBUy  ia  that  of  iaatruc- 
tlon  hy  tnrc«tigation." 

Death  vf  the  Bcf.  M.  J.  BfrMe f.— The 

Rev.  M.  J.  Ccrkcky,  the  diitingui^cjl  Eug- 
Uah  butanibl,  died  July  SOtb,  at  Sibbvrlofl, 
near  Uarket  nnrhorongh,  {n  bla  eighCy>MT. 
onth  year.  While  hU  knowledge  was  rciy 
gwenil,  he  viaa  most  eminent  En  eryptiw 
gamic  botany,  and  [tartivuUrly  in  the  prov- 
inro  of  the  fnngt,  in  whicli  he  waa  a  leading 
authority,  lie  was  bom  oear  Oundlo  In 
1803,  ITaTiiiB  been  ji^raduated  from  Chri«t'e 
College,  Cambridge,  he  took  ordcra  as  a 
clergyman,  and  occupied  curociea  in  rarioua 
ptneea,  adding  Co  his  income  at  time*  by 
uik'tiig  pupilA,  and  pumuEn^  during  IiJa  whole 
lifo  Ibo  wientlfic  rtscarcliei  that  have  glren 
him  fame.  Hia  Rarlic.«t  work  was  among 
the  molhi.aca,  but  he  ooon  tnmed  hia  atleo- 
tinn  to  Mlany,  potrticularly  lo  the  eitudy  and 
I  '  M  th*'  cryjilognms.     Jlmong  his 

'  rcbe;;  were  tliosc  into  the  nature 
of  yeast  nnd  tlie  vine  mildew,  tho  latter  rv*- 
Bnltlng  in  the  dh^corery  of  tlm  sulphur  rcm- 
cily.     ilia  deseriptionf)  of  the  British  fungi 
In  Dr.  HiM^ker'a  "  British  Flora."  poblUhed 
In  ISSPt,  conBtitut<Hl  for  more  than  twimty* 
five  yean  the  only  tcxt-hook  on  Die  4ubj< 
|inMMaiog  any  degree  of  ei>niiilii<mcu. 
(wrtionfi  nf  IJndlry'a"  V 
rrlalin;.'  to  fun^i  *n»  al-: 
Icy'a  work,  iuid  tuaoh  oX  ih^  aiaiu-j  rvUutig 


li^e  of  crTjiUk^ttBi* 

.A  Borr  Inportaad  wmA  m^ 
pf«h«ijiite  woHt  «a«  U«  ^  lasfwIwUai  to 
Onrptogauiic  Botany/*  |Hibtlah«l  to  tM7 
tie  waa  ftModated  «rtth  LiniUry  ffMS  m 
early  period  in  the  ptvpcmtloD  of  aitkfea 
for  iho  '*  Journal  **  of  ibe  Koyol  Bortiott. 
und  Sociny  reUiAog  lo  ibv  iaiMiin  ^ 
ptnttttleal  plonla  on  jptualug.  cnp*  aad  ifti 
a]i|>Ur'  '    phyiiulwiEy  te  fi*- 

po9rf  !<!  w«a  m  raha«l  «•• 

Ivtwry  adiUir 
from  He* 
meat  (n  1611  lo  williio  a  tew  y^ma  tM 
death;  and  in  it  he  pobIEsh«d 
anltles  on  vc^toldo  fiaiholviF^,  wtik^  W« 
nrrt  been  oollectrd.     Ili^  rt9e«jrbc»  da  fla 
potato  disease  mode  clear  that  It  vnt  cbmb4 
by  a  fungus.     Trarelcn  bocanoi 
to  mihniU  to  him  for  namffiatioii  llw 
them,  and  until  wHUn  % 
<]r«iih  he  conthiard  lo 

'.lUta  cd  this  doaa  fraia  all 
'I.     lie  i*  TT^ilitid  by  lb< 
"  Alheneura  "  with  hnvfag  beca  wmaa^  the 
first  to  pcoogniac  (be  oeonritv  nf  •tut^tt^g 
the  whole  IUc4ilstory  of  ihi-  '  m 

pronooncinK  a  definite  opfaiiou 
place  In  a  natural  Hchtsn*  of 
and  lo  ndvooate  and  pnacUoo  lbs  odlMit  oC 
thrm  for  thit  obMrratloik  o(  th* 
of  tli«ir  fonoL 

The   Tfnawitaaf)    Tttt  HMMiy*— i» 

OOnllng    to  Mr      Vr   ..,1,1    Itiun*.*    mm^Imiii^k^  Dig 

eo<it>try  aer<.  &  fiioMBB 

and  the  AbMLiuKB  i^'iuj^i-  pii'*K.iiL9  a  cmi^ 

uoiu  mountain  m*s«  »eTc£Cy'Av«  miba  te 

width,   with  an    avara^    aUraiion   iinwi 

poMLHl  bv  anv  OTM  of  vquni  utent  \m  ^ 

•Tu.     li  b  csawptli»> 

tht?  moi:4tiit«*l«la 

mhwwft, 


rain  upon  the  cool  ubW^lind  ai^ 
tng  monntaina.    Tlw<   j-liri>«Lf  in    n.ar.i  ^^ 
«peet^  la  quite  u'  ^m 

•^  ■"■•"'  *' ''  atiKtui.L  •>■  w,,...,.    .„.,   — fart 
' .  and  the  n»ttn  aaoiial  ian|Bi^ 
'^vx  tmaalTy 

i  «tK>«a  uf  nitttec  iM  vpon  ti 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY, 


857 


I 


later,  while  Ht  still  grentvr  hIiI- 
in  Bbcltcr«l  pUw^,  it  rt^mains  tlmwiiyli. 
out  tUe  year.  By  it-<  ' 
Ui«  (Hirk  is  diiiAlgQoU  ;  . 
for  POmiring,  quiring,  und  diaLributing  oa 
eujoptlooai  water  sup{ily,  uneict-'llcd  bj  nny 
ftrva  ii»r  the  beatlwKtcraof  tbu  groat  rlvcz«. 
Tbc  ocnitiocQtal  ilivIiU*,  MporAtlng  ib«  wfttera 
of  th«  Ailiiitic  from  tboM  of  the  Pacific, 
s  tho  ptAlcaii  tram  »oiitbca.it  to  north* 
On  t)Oib  aides  of  tliis  diviile  ik*  sev- 
WttI  boilica  of  water,  which  forni  ao  marked 
■  fcftturo  in  tbe  sccncrr  of  the  pUt«RU  that 
the  region  liu  bcvn  (Icsijaifito^l  thu  bike  coun. 
tryof  iKv  park.  Vellowstoue  Lnko  prvseotii 
*  •tipQrfipinl  area  of  189  Wjoare  mile'*,  ami  a 
■bor^lioo  of  nmrlj  100  milei.  Tbo  (il»- 
eharg9  *t  li>0  outlet  was  found  in  Septcm. 
ber.  1884,  to  be  1,020  cubic  feet  per  second, 
or  aboat  3fi,i>(H>,000  imperial  galloDS  per 
I>r.  William  Ilallock  estimates,  from 
rcmcnta,  thftt  the  amount  of  water 
nmnitii;  into  tbo  park  and  leaving  it  bj  the 
five  main  drainage  ohitnneli  would  be  c<|uir. 
alcai  to  a  stream  fire  fo«C  deep,  one  hundred 
atut  uintH;  fvet  wldf.  nith  a  current  of  three 
mlled  per  hour,  nod  tlittt  orcr  an  area  of  fonr 
thouiand  square  milca  tbc  minimom  d{:»- 
ehar)^  waa  equal  to  one  cubic  foot  per  sec- 
ond per  iqnare  mile.  For  tbe  preeervaUoa 
and  refrulation  of  litia  wat«r-supply,  tbe  for- 
get, which  ooven  the  mountains,  valleys,  and 
tablc^laods,  and  CTerywhere  bordrra  u{M>n 
tbe  Uk»«horea,  b  of  invttiiaablo  value.  Of 
the  present  park  area  about  eighty-four  per 
cent  ia  for«st-clad,  OMMtly  with  couiferoua 
treea. 


Tb«  dader  of  Blaait  Tttoma.— Retnt. 

tlie  "  School  of  Uiriua  Quarterly,"  an 
n  to  tbe  ^it  gloder  of  Mount  Ta- 
Mr.  Bally  WilUa  dcscrlbea  tlie  glacier, 
wh^n  the  party  came  Ujvon  it  from  tbe  bed 
of  CArNtn  Ktver,  as  rising,  liko  a  wall  of  ice, 
from  thirty  to  fifty  feet,  acro^a  the  pniH, 
while  the  river  tumblal  in  little  ai»ca<lea 
from  a  low  cave  In  iho  center.  Tlio  upper 
mxtlmx  of  tlie  wall,  all  it«  sharp  end^i  having 
bcpcn  mcltcii  off,  waa  eorercd  with  a  layer  of 
rodt  ami  earth.  "  I  think,"  nays  the  author. 
**  ilMre  can  be  no  better  illnstratinn  of  the 
of  a  1*1     '  '  '  point  where  the 

at  it"  :  1  the  downward 

pctogreai,  than  iMi  nurii,  tthninkcn  c\tnm- 


ity,  prised  on  ■«  it  i?  bv  a  va?t  accuniulo-^ 
tion  of  Ice  in  the  liaain  botwfcii  Tao'-Miti  unc 
Civtteent  Mountain.  It  piishoft  ' 
niinal  moraine  before  it.  It  lit- 
obstruction  eave  the  narrownef?  of  tiie  coTion; 
but  here  In  the  bbadow  of  ibo  cliff*  tbe  air- 
ourronta  from  the  weft  bid  it  halt."  II10 
Creflc«nt  Mountain  glndal  srstem  \i  fed  by 
slopes  which  deaoeod  ten  tbooiand  feet  in 
fiTe  milea  from  the  Uherty  Cap,  Tacoraa's 
tiortbem  aununit.  "  Much  too  «tcep  fur 
snow  to  lie  on,  except  on  the  highest  ehonl- 
dcni  where  it  packs  to  a  depth  of  several 
hundred  feet^  the  nppcr  thinl  of  thil  tre- 
mendous hel}^ht  t!)  bare  black  rock,  on  which 
tbe  avalanche^  sliattcr  into  clouda  of  edity- 
tog  Hmokc.  The  lower  four  milc-i  are  cov- 
ered with  a  flheet  of  fla^hin^;  Ice,  which  puah* 
CB  downward  over  the  uneven  tturfaov,  Iwr* 
carrying  huge  glearaim;  ptnnncleq  a)oft,  there 
flowing  in  graceful  curves  like  a  river*8  cur- 
rent.  Ita  weatem  portion  coincs  oDw^rd  to 
the  cUffa  of  Creaccnt  Mountain,  nearly  three 
thou«and  feet  higli,  and  tumint;  from  then 
iweepfl  down  Into  tbe  gorge  of  (*arbofi  River ; 
the  eastern  part  extend*  n  long  tuiig^io  into 
a  meadow  brilliant  with  flowers,  whcnc 
White  Ulver  p1un|*efi  into  Itv  unexplort 
caftan.  This  meadow  ta  bat  one  end  of  a 
green  valley  that  neetles  strangidy  in  this 
region  of  perpetual  fnwt  and  sterile  rockj, 
bounded  on  three  sideJi  by  loe  and  bqow,  and 
on  tbe  fourth  by  forbidding  predpioea." 

Orl^rlB  of  New  Fortfit  GroirtlUr— 01 
radons  on  the  "  now  gmwih  "  of  tnw«  that 
appeara  after  fore«t  fires  hare  bi^rn  do- 
scribed  by  Prof.  W.  J.  Deal,  of  the  Ulohlgan 
Forestry  CommiMion.  The  Btuba  of  most 
deciduous  trees  sprout  after  a  fire,  and  are 
capable  of  prcscrring  their  ritality  for  a  very 
long  time.  Slender  onks,  reeenibling  young 
spronts,  may  be  found  in  the  forests  attached 
to  clumped  roots  of  '*  grubs  **  of  various 
sixet,  tiiBt  will  show  that  tlie  prefcnt  ^minih 
is  tbo  first,  flccond,  third,  or  fourth  »pr<nit 
that  has  apparently  come  in  succooslon  fron 
tbo  same  foundation.  Of  three  little  oaks 
which  were  found  elill  baring  the  remains  of 
the  seedling  sconu  attached  br  the  stain*  of 
the  cotyledons,  one  was  five  years  old,  Otb- 
era.  some  four  Inches  biuh  atid  less  than  an 
eighth  of  an  Inch  in  diameter,  were  chown 
by  tbe  retnains  of  the  biid*rings  to  tM/  from 


d;8 


TEE  POPULAR  801 


four  to  l«n  jcath  old.  **  It  U  not  difficrilt  to 
find  wklle  oaks  ttn'ler  plgbteon  iocbed  Itigfa 
tliflt  Me  twenty  or  tnore  yeaw  old,  Aud  then 
tliia  ma?  be  tbc  second,  ibird,  or  foartb 
!)]iit>ut  (li&t  hftA  follofred  in  eucoesaloa,  bo 
tbftt  it  is  ttt/t  inipr»t),iblc  Uiftt  Id  som«  of  ibe 
Cft9os  0coa  tbo  parrrit.  itxrt  or  grab  mu  from 
flixtj  to  one  buiulrcd  jeiiTs  old ;  aad  tli« 
wboU*  now  not  an  inrJi  'm  di&meU>r  anywhere 
above  the  ground.  Then  whut  shall  wo  bxj 
of  Ibe  age  of  »omc  [;rubi  Uint  weigh  from 
tltlrt;  to  fifty  poundAradit*'  noeauid  hem- 
locks will  not  gruw  fmtn  stampa,  but  the 
•ceds  htve  •  ritMity  corresponding  lo  that 
of  tbe  dccldiioufl  "griilw  "  In  the  coot*  ihey 
may  be  preserved  vitb  hanily  Inipairod  la- 
t^grity  for  Ave  or  flit  y(*Ar3 ;  uid  oooM  of 
Pijnu  Banhtitma  hare  been  seen,  vnopened 
and  apparently  perfect,  that  wcro  ten  or 
UteCD  yean  old.  '*  I  feel  oonfidenL,"  Prof. 
Bent  Myn,  **  that,  in  lui  hour  or  two  Hpenl  in 
a  ocrtaiu  farorftble  place,  I  could  fully  Mtiyfr 
any  latclli^icnt  pcmon,  uulen  ho  bo  untuu* 
ally  stubborn,  that  it  la  an  eaoy  matter  to 
proru  tltftt  ncvr  fore«t«  tpring  from  aeod«  or 
the  stinapa  of  the  old,  ami  that,  when  tha 
ifOomS  ^owtb  ia  in  eome  respects  unlike 
the  first,  the  change  is  aooouated  for  in  ■ 
ratioual  manner." 

The  Oystrr-Gardrn  of  irtarhon.— The 
great  oyster-ganlcTi  at  Arcaehon,  France,  It 
a  baain  on  the  Bay  of  IJtjumy,  connected  with 
ib'e  Atlantic  only  by  a  rery  narrow  opening, 
and  IA  Rixty^tght  milefl  In  circuu)fcnmc«>aud 
protectod  from  winds  by  the  pini«-clad  hctgfata 
that  Burromid  it  The  waters  areaalt  enoagh 
and  yet  not  too  strong,  the  bottom  U  of 
the  grarelly  eand  favumbte  to  o> iter- breed- 
ing, and  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  are 
Btich  that  the  hnflio  Iff  completely  ooTered  «t 
high  tide  and  tbe  beda  are  largely  aaanwied 
at  lov  water.  The  oyster  hatt  alwayii  b««o 
an  Inhabitant  of  this  spot.  Tliu  aloek  bad 
become  nearly  rOiaiwtcd  ftrtiy  yoarv  ago, 
but  lias  been  recriited  by  lodlridual  cotcr> 
prlM  under  (ho  cncoaragemcjit  of  the  Gor- 
entment.  There  are  nuir  12,^00  arrM  of 
oyster-bcda  In  tUo  basin,  ^vt^ntl  Ihouaand 
mtm  and  wonim  are  employed  to  attcml 
thL'm,  ami  flic  arerage  annual  aalc  nf  nptrM 
by  tt  I   fiiTu  In  over  :' 

A»  li  \  are  not  »f*M  und*  * 

old,  and  tboae  only  for  rvlayln^,  H  b  oaii»- 


putod  that  tJitve  ore    nan^y  MO^flOOJ 
oyettira  of  varioiu   ag*«  itfiofk   ihctm 
Tbo  bedi  harftig  iwm  artJfirtaJly 
whole  proooM  of  OTitni  Tiuartii^  ma  fm 
nesecd  there.  ThayarelddomlBpufaiti 
park  emti     '  :  im 

tween  lh<  •  ti  ikcaMtloMef 

the  beds,  ore  «at40-«ttF»  for  tlie  p«anfval 
boato.     The   bed?  ore    made  uf 
gravel,  u|>oii  r  oi 

and  rmiaud  ab"'  i  nf  tke 

lorn,  but  nrjt  to  ench  an  extettt  a*  lo 
them  at  ottier  than  \r'w  ti.l/.j  \  *.* 
"  B«Uehe»*'or  nefi" 

fishre.    Seta  uf  earthvnwnn-  Imn  nr><  SI 

for  the  reception  of  the  j 

*'  9[Hit,"  coated  with  morfear,  m  that 

fixinif   itjwif    to   iiivta    may    Ih* 

eaaily.     S  •«  iflM 

be  coTCK  Ax  liiMJi  wi 

young  OTM^rs.     They  dorelop  fspldhr,  ami 

in  alXMit  a  uiunih  tAke  Um  Ci^rm  of  rml 

iaturc  oy9ter^.     Then  tlwy  norO  more 

and  are  thinned  by  scntplni;,  to  b« 

wUltrr  apart  on  other  tUu,  or  lo  lie 

f  err\-d  to  their  final  beds,  or  to ' 

traya. 

A  Harajo  Tanaer«— Dr.  SbttfMl  hta  ««»_ 
ceedod  In  witncMlng  the  conrplrto  praaa 

tanning  a  hucktlrin  bv  \  Vm  j(r»  l-i.lisn. 
hud  difTieulty  in  ItuJi' 

his  work  where  it  c '•••  .t.   )••  .f^naaA 

before  hi?  cyoi,  booaoae  of  a  ntpendOtm 
thai  the  hide  rooit  bo  lamorii  <b  tha  tfA 
where  tlte  animal  hi  aloSai  or  the  bviKler  vfl 
loao  his  «Tc-f  ight  Itrfon*  the  next  iiiw.  1W 
present  h'.!iit«T,  liowevTrr,  perfaape  triad 
av.  uing  Mnv  of 

pni  *  brfsv* 

the  atTimal,  The  skio  waa  taleoa 
great  dexterity  In  inani|mlatMA,  mad  kiJk 
a  hole  dug  In  the  gnmod  airf  fitted  *iih 
epriug-waL«t  ttll  the  !■••*♦  '■■"■■"'•  *•  -^s 
then   taken   ooi,   wa  aj 

kuifa,  and  dipped  tn  c '<an  wmrr      in*  i<.m 
for  aharinj;  off  the  hair  werv  ntrtalnnd  . 


th<-  "       ' 

of  r. 
bad  b««ii 
of  a  low 
were  t«k<'t.  .. 
litud  In  a   ''L-i 
moral  of  fpliala*  vl 


?  tbe 

Amt, 

ihv  lu^U  ta  thr 

•  rrVi.  iriff  rS-r  Vrif 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 


• 


I 


•n  tioiir.  Wbdn  the  wal«r,  not  bo 
bui  (bit  Uiu  baud  oould  Lw  lield  com  furl- 
•lilT  iu  ttf  bad  bi<<xjue  of  a  muddy  cHilor,  the 
Caunw  louk  out  tlio  broina  and  rubbed  tbcm 
Itt  ibe  pftliiM  of  bia  b&itdfi  tUl  ibej  were  di^ 
mlvcd  faita  %  putj  ntftM.  Tlie  akin  wu 
buog  upon  •  tree  and  wrung  and  twisted 
loto  ft  hard  oull.  mod  kepi  in  iliat  poflitioa 
for  tiaarly  as  hour.  It  bad  then  apparuntlj 
shrunk  to  two  thirds  of  its  auc,  aud  bad  lu 
be  pullod  into  abape  again.  Tbia  done,  it 
w«a  tprcad  oat,  hair  aide  up,  and  thoroughlj 
nbbad  with  the  brain  soLution.  The  cflfeot 
of  lhl«  WBj  to  gire  it  coftncas  and  pllADCj. 
The  Akin,  folded  into  a  k'md  of  ball,  waa 
wrapped  in  a  bufTalo-robc,  and  exposed  for 
ft  few  mluotea  to  tlie  aon,  for  the  pnri>oao,  oa 
the  Indian  nalil,  of  letting  "*  the  brains  gu 
well  Into  him,"  It  waa  tbon  unwrapped 
and  epread  otit  to  drj.  On  the  next  morning 
h  had  ahrunken  again  to  ono  third  of  it* 
original  dae,  waa  bard,  appeared  almost 
brittle,  and  waa  half- transparent.  It  waa 
then  aoakcd  in  cold  or  tepid  water,  woiihed 
and  rinsed,  wrung  and  "  twisted  and  retwiat- 
•d  ufKtn  itaeU  "  ;  again  atrciobod  and  manipu- 
lated into  sba^ic,  pulled  thla  way  and  pulled 
that,  worked  at  the  edges  to  get  thorn  limp 
and  pUont,  and  at  the  ears  and  the  akin  of 
J(ho  legs.  "  But  during  all  this  time  on  inter, 
change  WHS  coming  over  it:  the  heat  of 
August  sun  ffoa  rapidlj  dr7lng  it,  it  was 
fast  outoiug  to  be  of  a  Tclret-like  softness 
throughout^  and,  attaining  its  original  aice, 
it  was  ohongiog  to  a  unifonn  pale  daj- 
color.  Tb<-  hair  aido  waa  smooth,  while  the 
inairlo  was  rougliisb.  Indeed,  In  a  few  mo- 
JBWUU  more  it  was  buck^-kin."  Then,  with 
Ibe  aid  of  ft  wooden  awl,  the  tanner  stretched 
th«  ikin  of  tbe  nvck  trnnj*vor«elv  with  great 
fbtcci  out  Us  mark  on  either  side  near  the 
car,  and  the  fabric  was  finished  and  spread 
out  for  its  final  drying. 

ArrhlCeclsre. — Dlscussinp  the  qnestioQ, 
Wlui  sivl^  of  archlttwlure  abould  we  followf 
Mr.  William  i^mpson  observes  that  wo  should 
follow  no  BtTle  to  onpf  it,  or  as  tbo  ultimate 
object  to  be  reocb&d,  but  may  use  any  style 
frith  the  intention  of  dpretoping  new  forms 
from  Ic  A  new  style,  if  we  want  one — and 
•Tcry  people  and  ever^  ofre  should  have  Its 
not  b«  evolved  out  of  the  intier 
of  any  man  or  toy  number  of 


»  tbat,i 

H     and  pi 


men,  but  is  possible  only  by  prootica)  work- 
iug.  Ii  emu  only  be  pruduouil  br  a  oourvc  of 
development  requiring  lime,  during  which 
the  rc^iuircments  of  the  pcrloj  and  thi>  build- 
ing materials  slmuld  be  the  d":  i  - 
tors.  Thb*  will  pnnJuce  Ihi'  ^e 
forms  by  a  natural  prrnvsa.  Then  foilowa 
the  nwthetlo  or  decorative  fmwtJon,  in  which 
the  artist  should  be  a  designer  and  not  a 
oopier.  Some  style,  bowcvvr,  should  be  taken 
from  which  to  start  All  previous  styles 
have  been  developments  from  prcNMifiliug 
ones.  Such  hus  t>een  tlie  condition  in  tbe 
past,  and  by  accepting  this  we  would  not  be 
ignoring  the  experience  of  who!  has  takon 
place.  The  pmicss  uf  adaptAtiim  should  be 
begun  by  weeding  util  nil  itbajim.  Let  all 
forms  nhicli  an^  not  suited  to  the  praispt 
wauts  and  ooudlLiun-H  be  rcJoLicd.  The  aama 
should  be  done  with  ull  conBinictivc  forms 
that  aro  not  natural,  or  which  would  be  bad 
buildhiig  If  produced  with  the  mat^al  em- 
ployed. No  stnu-turul  form  should  be  added 
to  a  building  which  ia  not  required,  and  with 
no  other  object  than  ibut  of  *'  architooturat 
effect."  Thi.4  has  Ixwn  a  prolific  eause  nf 
shams.  Such  things  as  plfinadoS| 
tovrors,  and  all  sortii  of  useleas 
hare  come  into  ciisience  under  this  supposed 
nect«&ity  All  decoration  which  is  fonodod 
on,  or  tliu  repreiiontfttion  of,  previous  con- 
structive fofins,  should  be  rigidly  avoided; 
and  originaliiy  in  design  should  be  nadcr- 
stood  OS  the  aim  of  oU  decorators, 

A  Prohlen  In  nnmsn  rbaracter.^A 
▼ety  pnradoxicftl  chamcter  is  dewribed  in 
the  BUloblogrsphy  of  Soloro  Malmon,  "vaga- 
bond Talnuidioi,**  and  one  of  tbe  most 
learned  men  and  (<hnrpc<«t  cosnists  of  tlia 
Ilebrew  race.  He  appears  there,  according 
(0  tbe  summary  of  a  reviewer  uf  thu  work, 
as  a  "  skeptical  rabbi,  a  great  Ta1mndi«t 
who  despised  the  Tnlmnd,  an  omnivorous 
reader  of  all  such  science  as  in  the  last  cent* 
ury  a  PolUb  Jew  could  get  bold  of.  a  genu* 
ine  iillor  In  lUernture,  who,  althwgh  lie 
could  dash  off  a  considerable  sptdl  of  work 
In  a  shori  Um<«,  bad  no  work  in  him,  had  no 
method  in  him,  and  always  preferred  *lip. 
shod  effort  to  steaily  IuiIunItt;  a  man  wltom 
want  and  miwry  had  rtMluced  Into  spasmodic 
fits  of  interopeniiice,  which  mthcr  grew 
upon  him  toward  the  end."    With  all  this 


I 
I 


866 


TEE  POPULAR  scTsycs  sfoyTfrzT.  • 


he  spent  k  hnlf-jr«r  of  hit  Tif«  u  n  reigtilur 
pr&fcbdicmiil  btfgg»r  —  wlopUog  ^:px^htTX^^J 
%\\  ibe  bahit«  and  feelings  of  a  beggar. 
"  >*<iuu  Itie  iMij  lie  waci  a  man  of  rcniarkikblo 
s«quirKni«iit«,  bdng  a  leam^J  TalrtuuliM, 
for  i\w^  liuK'ft  at  leaat  a  ' 
Diathrmaticifln,  and  liavftiji;  In  ; 
lua!iU;a*d  Latiu,  (icniuiu,  French,  utiU  Kug- 
litfli,  U'^tdeA  the  VKhouH  KiLslcm  dialeota 
of  which  his  Uebrvw  knowledge  wafi  the 
foundation.  He  had  eridenrly  n  vtry  ^>at 
Mrn  for  pbrsica  afi  well  as  for  nuithcmullce, 
and  a  woaJcrful  c»pactty  for  the  ac(|uintiun 
of  binguagY»  wiOiont  the  uli^'htcst  comintmi- 
oattcm  with  tfao«e  who  could  ipvak  them,  90 
thai  be  knew  a  language  fairly  ircll  <d  which 
bo  couJd  not  pi-uperlj  proroance  a  shij^le 
Bcntcnoe."  Uc  su  criiiciotHl  Kant'A  greatest 
work  ti£  to  cxdtc  the  adniiraiion  of  the  au- 
thor. In  chantcter  '*ho  wiu  cindtd,  gratis 
fut,  generous,  aud  full  of  kindly  feeling 
Hut  he  wan  conceited,  inrrcTmt^  paMdonate. 
intolerant  of  tho  influence  of  otbcrt,  Mul 
ncTcr  rcaUj  at  «>&««  among  the  da^  for 
which  bU  knowledge  fitt«d  him.  His  study 
of  the  Talmud  .  .  .  thoroughly  unfitted  bfin 
for  ftwliug  tht<  Icaat  rcip4*ct  for  the  etemenl 
of  anthority  in  reUgion."  The  qucslioni  arc 
niKpcfiUMl  whether  ilairaon's  ragfthond  lastea 
Btlmiilnted  hia  IntcllecHial  roptlfAsno^s,  or 
hU  intellectual  reAlleasncsa  stimulated  hla 
vagabond  faitt^;  whether  he  would  have 
been  ntf  keen  if  he  hod  been  a  boauv^tayer 
and  iteady  worker,  or  whether  It  wae  hi* 
la(*te  for  wandfrinj^  and  his  unselUed  baliiu 
that  really  made  his  inti'lligenco  bo  bri|L:ht, 
Sfuob  mhrht  be  eair]  on  IkhIi  cide«  of  tbeae 
Qoestionfl;  but  thp  probflbility  Ia.  that  Mai* 
n>0U  would  have  been  stronger  and  autre 
oaofiil,  though,  peH»»p%  1«**»  divenified  and 
brflliant.  If  ho  had  led  a  n^tar  UfOL 

An   ABl1*t.lchtnlnff   Cace.— BeaJdca  the 

orthodox  or  "  gathcr.up-and  carry-away  "  ay»- 
ti*in  of  protf'Ptl'^n  itr^in«t  tl?hf7iinp  there 
In  onothar  aT^t<  ':   Uai- 

wcll — tho  "  hii  prln- 

ciplft.     "In  n  Itank'  .  n  n,'    •  i  - 

Prof.  L»idR«t,  '*Tnil  nr  .    -;,|.       K'.ri 

If  It  were  slniok,  nothing  could  cet  at  tou. 
In  a  btrd<cage(  or  in  armor,  you  are  modci^ 
attjtr  «iife.  ...  A  vafRctenlly  strong  &nd 
ch*ely  mnhM  c»^e  or  nfitlrtg  all  %nvt  a 
booav  vUl  andoubUNlly  make  all  tnalJe  \Mit* 


youniuMnot-  .'•   •^'»<.>.  Un 

ling  while  out  I  '  of  ft  aboek. 

An  eartb-conii 
A  wire  nettint- 

^'iiection   at 

;    snjipK  <•' 
over  the  roof.  .  1 

of  defooM.     1 

nixed  as  correct;  bur  IJ  bi«  **  tbur* 

of  iJiem,  any  Duinbt.r  .  .  „.  :uwn  4*f  iImbi. 
like  barbvd  vln<^-«ot  oecesaarfly  at  il 
prominent — akmi;  rldis^  *'•  ' 
single  poitti  ha«  not  a  v 
Ingoapadty ;  n-  '  " 
a  tbunder^loti  1 
f«cUTe  aa  thr. 
erer.  fot  grwi 
painful  to  the  anhilvri. 
oome  to  you,  do  not  go  to 
all  your  rid^va  and  ptonaclaa  ao  only  iha 
highcot"- «nd  jou  wlQ  \m  iwt  aafar  ihaa 
yon  built  yourwlf  a  faccoryM^knotfy  to 
port  your  conductor  tipoti.* 

A  GUit  Eirtliw«r«*— Ao 

which*  In  some  ctaniplrs.  Trnr^ti**  th* 

of  fix  feet,  \*  d<i><-i 

Spcneer,  In  the  *'  Tr  r 

Sodrty  of  Victoria,**  a«  cxining  hi 

land,  Australia.     It  b  tbi*  JKytwroAUa 

trtUi*^  on«  of  a  groop  pe«ulbu  to  Aiaii 

of  which  fire  «p«ci«a  arv  knvwu. 

found  at  all  It  la  coto*vbat  ab«a4aaii» 

Uvea  principaUy  on  the  vloplaf 

creeks.     At  timra  it  Is  found  )*r*««tli 

logff,  and  may  be  tnmod  mtt  of  th^  gromd ' 

the  plow.     The  worm  Itself  d6ra  ent 

to  learc  a  ''easting'*  at  ibe  moMh  «f 

burrow,  but  often  Uv«a  b  or 

by  the  boles  of  the  landmreb,  whkfc  tk<nns 

a   "casting."     Hen**^    r*-.nir«. 

menti  tiave  been  m  fj 

baring  1  '        '  ai 

worm   n  a  I 

vci '  ^1 

hy  ■  n| 

4 


mi- 
p«..: 
will,  ao  • 

knlo,  the  "'   ^ 

Iwnl  ie  vatdi«     It 


s^tVy\m  lea 


POPULAR  MISCELLANY. 


861 


ioroftwiMMq— pK  that  of  crcowte,  which 
U  rciy  strong  snd  unplewant  hi  the  dead 
■nSmal.  The  bodj,  in  der-ayiog,  pMAes  iato 
a  fluid,  irhUdi  lh»  OAtivet  of  the  dUuid  saj 
I4  good  for  rbeuiDAtiam.  Fovlii  rofuae  to 
UHioh  It,  Urlng  or  dead.  When  Itetd  in  the 
hand  the  wortOt  in  mntrscting  itn  IkkIt, 
throwft  out  jctft  of  a  milkv  fluid ;  and  ibis 
fiiiid  »ocru«  to  bo  the  auhitanoe  which  U  usca 
for  coaiitig  lu  burrows  to  ouiko  thdr  walU 
and  sltppcrjr.  The  worm  mor(4  in  ltd 
>w  b^  Bwuliing  up  one  or  the  othor  end 
and  pulling  or  pu.-thing  iL4c1f  along  from 
Uataida  of  lite  burmw  it  dom  not  at* 
Along.  The  burrows  of  the 
laaurc  from  three  quarters  of 
•B  inch  to  an  inob  In  diameter.  In  diauaod 
bttiTowa  are  ofton  found  ORSta  of  iho  worm*, 
and,  mure  rmrel,r«  cocoons  containing  n  sin- 
gle ombrjo.  Tho  oocoon  is  thin,  and  made 
of  a  leathery,  tough  material,  wiUi  a  rery 
dinttnct  atalk'like  pnHi«'4ji  tit  i^uch  end,  It 
cooiaiuv  a  milky  Quid  like  tliat  found  isx  tho 
body  cavity  of  tho  worm. 

FhttlBC  li  Ikr  Grvtk  Maadfi.— Mr.  J. 
TbcoilotL*  B<!ut  has  bocn  struck,  in  bis  Wsits 
among  thp  l^Unda  of  Greece^  by  the  obser- 
vatioo  of  many  BurrtTals  of  audcnt  ways 
In  the  cujtoma  of  the  people,  and  this  Tery 
noticeably  in  the  fishing.  In  fishing  for 
**  sbMU-lbb,*'  the  fi.-tbennc:n  uso  a  long  tri- 
dent, with  more  prongs  than  Kepiunu's 
had,  but  oiherwiHC  like  it,  ami  ahieh  they 
call  by  the  old  name  kcmio^.  The  fb^herraen 
of  H^dra  make  bulwark:^  of  netted  oslera, 
like  tboite  which  Ulysses  made  foe  his  two- 
deelted  raft  when  ho  left  Calypso's  charmed 
island.  Tho  scaros  is  purvucd  in  the  way 
that  Oppian  liings  of  in  his  poem  on  fishing. 
Taking  u-hama^'  uf  tbe  alTeotiaiuite  charnO' 
icr  of  the  scaros  and  of  the  male's  galt&nt 
devotion  to  the  female,  the  fiahcrmnn  fast- 
ens B  f^nnalc  fi^h  to  hifl  line.  If  the  "  bait  *' 
b  dead,  he  imitates  life  hy  iMrbtjing  It  up 
and  down.  Tbo  nmle  sciiri  rush  up  in 
sUimIs  to  rc»oue  Ibt'tr  female  fellow,  and  are 
oanglit  by  a  oomp«nion*fijber  with  a  net. 
For  tunny,  oots  are  used  liarini;  large  opcn- 
btjpi  and  famidhcl  with  a  thick  string,  A 
is   chosen  with   a  oonveuiem  promoa* 

f,  from  a  pof*t  on  which  the  net«  are  fast- 
tlw  Atihcraicn  row  out  to  a  rock 
Uere  ih«y  leave  a  man,  and  re- 


turn to  shore  by  a  roundabout  route,  carry* 
ing  a  string  with  thorn  by  whieh  they 
pall  in  the  net  as  aoon  as  the  man  on 
rock  announces  the  arrival  of  the  fish.  Tho 
same  method  is  deacribi'd  by  AriDtoile  in  hla 
book  on  animals.  If  the  market  is  over- 
stocked with  tunny,  the  fish  are  driven  h 
a  creek  by  throwing  fetones  at  them  and 
entrance  id  fastened  up  with  brambtcft.  Thc^ 
fishermen  in  Meloe  IwUctc  In  on  ogre 
called  Vanij>,  a  being  with  goal's  feet  and  a 
human  body — a  «atyr,  In  short — who  dwells 
at  the  eod  of  a  prumuntory  they  have  to 
pass  in  going  out  of  their  liarhor.  They 
always  ca£t  s  bit  of  bread  into  the  water  ns 
they  go  by,  that  Vanis  may  cat  it  and  &eud 
them  fisb  in  rvlura. 

Stidl»«  at  VoBdt^s  Psyrbolo^ral  Lab- 
•ntory. — Wundl't*  peychologlcal  Ulwratory 
at  Leipsic  oocupicft  four  mums  in  the  uni- 
versUy  building.     The  number  of  studf 
has  gradually  ittcreased,  and  in  1867  wi 
ninctocn.    The  men  work  in  groups,  nne  aot- 
ing  as  subject  ra  the  experiment',  and  anr 
other  mnking  oltscrratiflnB.   Wuudt  ttuggesi 
subjects  for  research    at  the  b<<^nning 
the  semester,  but  he  lets  the  students  chooi 
the  dhPtctioB  In  wfaiofa  they  prefer  to  work, 
and  cncoongiea  them  to  find  IndcpendcDtly 
prublems  and  tbc  methods  of  soWiug  them. 
The  PX[rertraetit^  are  clatMtified  by  Dr.  J.  Uck. 
Cattull  under  four  heads:    1.  The  AuftlyHiS 
and    Meofluri'tuent    u(    fx*ni<aLian.     2.    The 
Dui«tion  of  Jlentnl  Procec^es.    3,  The  Tlnte 
Sense  ;  and  4.  Attention,  Uomorr,  and  the 
Association  of  Ideas.     Cndtir  like  first  head 
arc  included  experiments  in  thy  loa«i  diff^^^ 
enccH  lu  weight,  intensity,  and  tone  f>f  »ot 
illuminalion,  ond  color  that  can  bo  pereriri 
— the  whole  iK'iiig  embraced  under  tho  ti 
pM^rtiophftnc*       In  the   subjects  under  the 
second    head,    conelhuting    pflyehometrr — 
"  the  firtfl   obtained  when  we   learn   how 
long  it  takes  to  perceive,  to  will,  to  n-mem- 
ber,  etc.,  are  in  ihemsdres  of  the  same  lu* 
terest  to  the  psych  ologif^t,  as  the  dlstnnct-a 
of  tho  stars  to   the  astronomer  or  atomic 
weights  to  the  chemist  ** ;  they  help  in  tho 
analy»Ld  of  complex  mental  phenomena,  and 
la  studyinfT  tbc  nature  of  attention,  volitia 
etc.    Psycho nti-trirni  cipiTlm'-nt  hnt  hrougl 
pcrhap?  i  »ve  to 

tlie  ooiii)  a1  and 


86z 


TEE  POPriAH  SCTEXCE  UOyTBlT. 


inmitul  pltenomena;  and  "tbure  U  veirecly 
iiDjr  'Joubi  but  tliAi  our  dctcrailnationB  rocfl»- 
ure  at  once  tbe  rvlv  of  diuoi^ti  ta  tbe  liraln 
ftiul  of  change  in  oon^oiuuetis.*'  Tben»  it 
ji3«o  1  genenil  LDt«r»t  In  the  tttul^.  "TimB, 
like  size,  Is  relalirc.  The  tin 
Tolriug  tbu  Um«-iela!ion5 '(f  j.r 
oar  pover  of  C5tiniu  >-4 

to  ft  lyiQ^tlurable  ci.<  rt 

due  to  iucrtia  ia  the  Beoee-organ.  tstiinull 
nitwt  b«  H.'pftrat4Nl  lir  a  ontun  interr&l  of 
time  In  order  that  they  niAj  be  rt^cogntzed  u 
di*Unct.  Tbe  expf  rimcnts  under  UiU  bead 
relAtfl  to  the  measureoitrnt  of  ibe«o  ibU^rTala. 
Tbe  experimOQt4  in  attention,  aomorr,  and 
the  aasodaiioti  ol  ideas  arc  r&ried,  and 
cover  8ouie  nmiterv  included  under  the 
other  bctuls.  The  highest  degrw  of  oont- 
plexitj  and  the  towefit  degree  of  Inieiigit; 
and  intcttrst  which  oar  con«donftnesft  can 
gnup ;  the  numl)cr  of  things — liiieSt  letters, 
etc.;  the  relative  viidbilttr  of  colors  and 
legibility  of  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  tho  to- 
tcrrols  between  maxima  of  fntonaity  and 
acnoation,  or  rhythm  of  f<m*Atlon ;  the  time 
It  takes  for  an  idra  to  KUpgcst  another ;  ami 
many  nmilor  studies — arc  related  to  li. 

lBchrUC«  As)lBni)i  and  (beir  Work.— 

Dr.  T,  D.  Cr(>then»  n<rnark$,  h»  a  ourioiu 
fact,  that  inebriety  was  reeognizvd  o^  a  dls- 
cue  long  before  insanity  was  thought  to  b« 
oUier  than  Bplriinal  madne^^a  and  a  poAAM- 
tiou  of  tbe  devil.  Tlie  hr(>l  ln«*bnH.t«  fu*;* 
Ittm  was  opL-ned  at  Biughamton,  N.  Y.,  under 
Dr.  J.  E.  Turner,  after  eight  ycam  of  effort. 
It  was  eoudiietod  with  much  »uaMb»  fur  a 
time,  but  went  duwn  iu  tlic  hand*  of  tnistect. 
The  Waohlngtonlan  Home  of  Itoston,  o]xrncd 
in  18C7,  ia  now  treating  atK>ut  four  hundred 
cuca  erery  year.  The  Kin^  County  Home, 
Of  Brooklyn,  was  opened  Iu  1807,  and  la 
QKmdod  with  p&ticnia.  Tho  Chicago  Waih- 
ingloo  nonie.  upcncd  In  1167,  and  iliO 
FmnltUn  Hoiue.PhiUdeliihia.npimed  in  1H72, 
nr-'  'il  opci-Ktion.     Tliu  first  two 

In.i!  *s^  on  the  thf»<»rT"f  di«»n«e. 

Tl.. 

Su(B<7icnt   to  nurture  the  pati'mta,  an' 
rider  a  ehurt  reiddence  at  the  hospital  , 

than  long  treatment  Uor«  than  fifty  Uo*- 
pltala  for  iael>riate9  havo  boen  turtuj  in 
Amariea,  over  tlilrty  of  «»hlub  aiv  la  tutf 


fnlapcnatian,  Tboolmirvlknv 
into  Insaao  aaybiTni, 
twenty  asylum*  Ut  inebrvMs  uv  v^^  b 
Bngicul  and  Scotland.  OUnm  «fai  in 
Hatboonic,  Now  ZoaUad,  U«rtiMQ7*  ad 
n  cmv  ftt*  pinjumi  la 
.nJFrvDoe.  ThutmlMaC 
the  rcaulta  of  the  a^ylom  rrnatKfni  hat  iMtt 
ectiroaled  from  the  an»w«rs  to  leilen  tt  ^ 
quiry  addfcaaed  to  fricad*  of  patlesta  «ib 
■ral  ymre  after  fianlflAL  Of  oor  tlMOMirt 
pBlitsits  ti  Btngfauntoa,  •lfty<*tght  aad  % 
half  p«r  cent  contlnuM  tampcrate  after  ^tm 
yearc :  of  two  tbotuanil  aft  th*  BoMaa  \C%A> 
ingtonbn  BonM,  thirty-four  per  oeot  altir 
from  ten  to  dghteen  yian  ;  of  aia  Imdrcd 
at  the  Klngft  0>unty  Eloue,  tliiity-fcMr  fitt 
oenl  after  ten  yean.  7b«  bmm  cw«M 
■titboritica  in  the  United  9l«i««  m 
that  fully  one  ihlid  of  oil  cmm  thai  t 
nader  treatment  arc  prmwrnt^y  escrf. 


f«n^H 


Tke  fiaawfr*  af  Iba  SrWirV  «•« 

— Tlie  Iieap5  of  >>ottUl>r»  9XMft  tbr 
reinoti  in  the  Selkirk  Uouulalaa  of 
Coluinhla,  aays  the  Ebv.  W.  R  Gruoi,  **  form 
a  refu^  for  a  variety  of  ttAatxnak*lb« 
hoary  marmot,  BMaaoring  abont  thona  lait 
long,  txsing  tlie  eocoanoaai  aiut  t^f^n  bhIiI 
from  a  oiimiiiiuariat  pr*i  Tbil 

creature  gtvod  a  load,  'i....!  -  ..-iie:  m 
weird  doua  it  aoond  in  tbc*«  •oQnulM  Ikfll 
it  roluma  to  oiw*a  aan  aa  an  laaapaialJIi 
memory  of  tbt  8«IIM(  valfti^  iW  vi^ 
rellel  U  a  utmnge  boaal  t  it  too  Yhrm 
the  bowldor-hoapf,  and  il  baa  iha  aaaM 
det^ul  faiiey  for  rollecilog  flovfr* 
day,  when  «o  ««r»  aaeandiag  aglftn' 
nilnc,  my  ooadn  aaid  to  m^ 
bven  her*  bvfora.'  I  aald, 
but  was  ultrriy  pucaM  by  AmU^K  a 
of  flowr-  .i.-.i- »  ..i.i.  .«.  ;-  -.  . 
nAAtly  t> 
laid  n-..    .    .  .  I  . 

•ini.iv  1.   .(.,.,.  -.  .,.■  ..f 

mab.     What  '.'irci  la 

I'tnine  Honer-  imliialaajj 

intaha,  Imb, 
biiuw  an 


A  uud  <iih»r 


ibr^w    rr-^ilon-*.  n-nil-^rfiiff 


ol 

alub..  ».- 
blvd  iai 


J^OT£S. 


86j 


tfioUier  occttilon  »citae  boast  gnAwod  a  liole 
llirvugh  tbo  tsui  while  wo  wcro  ulovp,  ftuU 
■to  th«  breftd  which  I  wu  ming  for  ■  pUlow. 
A  Kkln  I  buug  up  to  dry  on  tlio  lent-rope 
vxniftbed,  uhI  ibw  M.>mm(>cring  of  Utile  (c6l 
up  tuiil  tiown  the  uuUido  o(  ihv  tvol  cum- 
ixwsiic«<1  ev«f7  night  the  moment  we  retired 
totttC 

A  Contr}  ttf  Salt.— £rer7tbiag  in  the 
CDuali7  of  lli<^  rW»>r  Chai,  iii  Ccatrml  Asia,  Is 
dcsiu'lbctl  by  Gabriel  Ttouvolut  lu  covered  wiib 
•alL  U  is  ttecii  iu  tbo  ival)*i  of  tbu  huiut^e  mnd 
cd  the  hunkii  <■(  the  riruni,  and  the  water  od« 
dHiiksiftTcrrMlt.  Tr«v«Uugialtp6ter.makcra 
go  iu  eummor  from  place  to  plooo  wherever 
they  can  find  luuteriali  to  work  upon.  Thoir 
tnodo  of  operation  Ifi  a  rough -ond-Kftdy  ono. 
U'doji  In  Uic  earth  wrr?  a«  Tata  and  U»I1or«, 
oud  b^low  ibcM  ore  placed  OTons.  Abun- 
dance of  bruBbw(K>d  StippUea  uiat^Hal  for  tbo 
firei.  Tho  worltcru  collect  from  the  niirfaoe 
of  the  rorth  Limps  of  a  compost  of  Bolt  and 
aniinal  manure.  Thin  U  oMlicd  for  twvnty- 
four  botirv  in  frntcr,  then  filtervd.  and  tb*:u 
trailed  for  twentj<four  houra^  clcnmusl^  and 
placed  in  the  sun,  »o  tliat  tho  water  may 
erapfjtate.  An  onlinnry  workman  Cftfi  mako 
fifty  pounds  In  a  day,  and  ihis  bo  bcIU 
rate  of  a  penny  a  pound.  The  work- 
appear  quite  contented  with  tlicir  Kit, 
ftDd  the  industry  ia  preserved  Iu  their  foiui- 
Ilea  for  gcoCTationa. 


NOTES. 

ScrxKAt  "effigy  tnoundB"  in  tho  Rock 
Itivcr  VoIlcT,  III.,  Iiavc  Iwcn  dc^crilvod  by 
T.  n.  Ltwij.  The  "  Rockford  Turtle "  la 
161^  feet  long  and  from  three  to  five  and  a 
half  foot  high,  and  Htaod^  in  the  tmdst  of  the 
btu>t  part  of  Rorkftird.  It  ti  associated 
with   B   I'     '  ■^oTcn   round   mounda- 

and  twu  '  1^.     An  animal  luouud 

in  Jo  Dttv,. i?  21rt  feel  loop,  with 

BQ  RTerogo  beigbt  of  fire  ami  a  half  feet, 
has  itB  fv.rt  f4..t  ri.>«tl(u;  on  an  erobankmeut, 
and  d    wiib    twenty-throe   other 

n>"i;  '  ombankinentft.    A  bird  effigy 

on  t  ,1     i.ie  of  Kock  Kivcr  aomo  five 

milL!-  'I  '  K.KkfonI,  and  on  animal  110^ 
feet  -:  L  )i>-..>fMtrt,  are  described.  Few  of 
the  1I'>M  1^  vi't;;y  mounda  ore  In  good  preser* 
valtuD. 

A  VAftixi}  difference  ia  observed  bv  Dr. 

OeorgG  StDaw- r  .i„.  /:.„.k„.;...i  a,*,„€y 

iif  Canada,  a*-  Indi- 

ana of  the  ou.-  tribca 


of  Botithem  BrillEh  Colombia.  Whilo  it  Is 
Inrf^ely  ono  of  habit  and  mode  of  life.  It  li 
also  almost  everywhere  coincident  with  radi- 
cal differenoea  in  language.  Tbe  nvtuml^ 
ttf'ndcncy  to  diversity  as  between  otMiflt-itl> 
boliitln^  fiahermcn  oud  loamln;;  huutvn)  if 
intensUJcd  and  perpetuated  liy  the  barrier^ 
of  the  CooBt  Range.  The  diversity  brcaki 
down  to  acme  eitent  only  on  certain  rrjutvt 
of  trmdc  between  the  coo^t  and  the  interior. 

Thx  distinction  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
has  been  conft'm'd  upon  Prof.  V.  V.  Riley 
by  the  i>'rt!nch  GovemmeuL  The  Utni^tcr 
af  Agriculture,  writing  to  Prof.  Riley  on  tbo 
aubject,  Paiil  that  in  AMardlu*:  tbe  hnoor  tho 
Government  bud  ff'iughl  to  rt>ward  the  im- 
portont  servii-eiJ  wlucb  he  had  rendete*!  to 
agriculture  gencrttlty  of  till  countrit-rt,  and 
particularly  to  Fnuiee,  by  bia  luboro  and 
di»coveriea. 

A  CiSK  of  poisnTiing  liv  tJiiicfcetel  was  ro* 
eently  eRtabIi*hcd  at  n  connn-rV  iii'i<n*sl  itk 
London.  The  dect-fmed,  who  hnd  eaten  4' 
part  of  the  fi^h  adjaevnt  to  tbe  hood,  woA^ 
attacked  with  gai^tiitia  and  pneuinoaia,  bo* 
CATTie  dellrioiifl,  and  dit-'d  ;  while  hU  wifo^j 
who  ate  Qoothcr  part  of  the  fish,  aulTi-red  no 
intK>nveniciicc.  The  gills  of  ihL'  nmckLTcl 
nppeiiring  to  have  undcrgune  ft^niientatiuay 
the  victim 'a  iHucm  wod  ascribed  to  biR  hnr. 
ing  eaten  defoniiKued  fifh.  Ca^es  of  thia 
kind,  which  ujhsjI  to  bo  regarded  Ai*  uitac. 
countable,  are  now  eonaldcrcd  due  to  the 
pre»cuce  of  ptomaloea  developed  by  decoia* 
position. 

A  rKCTLUB  tendeney  in  idiota  to  Impcr* 
foctiona  and  dlaeosc  in  tlie  teeth  lioa  been 
noticed  by  several  phyMJcians;  and  it  hat 
been  studied  by  Hndnme  Sollier  in  a  hun* 
dred  oaaea  of  idiots  tnken  at  rmndom.  TlM 
multiplicity  am)  variety  of  the  dental  Icdlous 
were  rcnkarkable;  aud  the  couclu^iim  has 
been  drawn  that  idiocy,  with  or  wiltioui  i-pi. 
lepvy,  prodispoaca  to  anT9t«  of  dcvclvpmenl 
and  to  anomalies  of  dentition.  Tbe  eff< 
rarely  appears  in  the  first  teeth,  boweveri 
but  almost  wboUy  in  the  ^econd. 

Hr.  CARttrrRKOji,  pT«*fOdmtof  theLimurofti 
Sodety,  ha»  found  that  i^vt-n  nri»itm1  nn^' 
Authentio  portniita  of  Lin' 
ciicc.  The  moft  widely  1^ 
nnc  from  the  origiiiaU  by  1 
lin;  and  these  give  the  tu 
tH>ntatiuDa  uf  tbe  fealuief  <  <  ^  _ 
rsJist. 

Ah  in«f-n*. „,».,,*   photograph-''  -*' 
tu^  i-<  pn  .    the  plai> 

at  Uie  wiu:  ri  race-courj-i  a 

is  seen  in  very  eK-we  rmcvs,  wbt-n  ilie  itidj 
con  not  decide  aniirately,  and  in  whnT  ^t4\ 
called   "dead   heats,"    when   t^^ 
horses  appear  to  rcacb  the  win^  t 

exactly  the  Bairf*—       '''^'^  pholt'L<u,Mi  "tU 
show  one  of  tli'  ho  au  inch  or  so 

ahead,  and  deci .  i-ur 


9^4 


TffE  POPTTLAR  SCJ^TXCS  UOTHTTLT. 


WoiiKS  httirc  been  e«ct<d  In  LnndAn  by 

M-  ^'   "■  ■•    vf. ,..,..,  4...  - ; n,  ^pon 

nr  hat  hmft 

h,  ,    s  tobc 

n[.'  I   p^ijItc   tbc  matter  into 

it-  .w*  luiJ  *ccurc  a  iiredpi- 

tuuua  i:x  tbi  (oiui  of  »litJ|f«, 

X  LArorcihil'itifinof  |irchlstoricobjwt«, 
r<  '  and  privftte  colloclloru 

li;  ^riven  in  connection  with 

the  iiL-il  V'-'njji<=^  'il  Germflu  Authrojtologi- 
cal  SucicClca^  wliiob  U  to  tueut  this  jri-ar  in 
VieouA. 

Tbi  oldest  mui  in  Oreat  Britain  is  Uugh 
ML^tyeiNl,  iTodfr.  of  Roag-sliire,  Seolland,  «hu 
wtti  l«»ni  in   iVSR,  ond  is  omaijqueutly  io 

ftia   .^■„.    l>.,.,J-.v!      :,n,l     .,,•■,   ,.th      v.  i.r_         ijy    t<t 

pi  f  «ake- 

I'i'  LMtiie* 

hoiitti  hU  tidily  lifiid  ui  >  !-. 

B«  M«M  jrfirriik'o  ftn<l  n. 
0-  ' 

ili    ■-■..•.  .ii,  ..111.     i  ■.  I-..  .in      MiLiii   ■      ■■.a^-u. 

vroavcr,  and  he  bag  bocn  a  <^rptnjivr  and 
JAluor.  There  are  thi-ti*  uibcr  cuulcuunjuis 
Id  tbc  eamo  piui^b. 

Mtt.  GoscnKxln"  '"••-' 
Iwoen  thp  uw  of  t' 
and  a  decline  in  ili- 
Uble,     The  friouds   yj"  the 
tbnt  it  !«  conrtiut'iit,  in  adii| 

tli4>it  I*  J11J.V  upon  the  iiv  ■  ' 
oppooeoUi  hold  ll)iii  it    i 
duivl^riouii  iii^cdientj 
bead  and  thntal.  and  mk 
drliik;  that  it  tihmc^    t'. 
lu.'^U'  and  krni.'oura^t'd  pr>i< 
niid  that  it  Icudh  lo  tb< 
tnonev — all  iu  addition  to  iii 
may  bu  in  imokiag  at  alL 

TnF  Kinn  Balu,  ur  "  Oiine>e  Widow,"  the 
neat  mountain    of  HonKS),    riRi'S   tlitrtccn 
ibouiiund  Pfv  ■    '       '     '  foci  fnitn  a  Ujh  tin- 
duliitiiig  coin  '.  tWfntT-livc  mil*"* 

frooi  the  WC-;  ....... .  ...  a.o  ixliiud,  and  i«  rv- 

gardcd  with  u  kind  ul'  Tvlii;i<»is  nwc  l>v  tho 
natfvitH,  lti>  Ridpctt  ttl»niind  with  piichcr- 
pUuts  and  Sipaiihea  generally.  It  bap  b<%n 
partially  a»oi'nd*-<1  hv  ili»  iraTpVM  r<nhb, 
Low,  and  Si-  .' 
rmehed,  act- 
In--  ->■'    ■ 

1'''  ,    . 

uniiuuwD  varieties  o/  birda. 


tttfr«red  from  doafm^M  ami  aa  offtf*ah« 


itnn  be- 
dinner 

A  iiir  at 

TO 

.IS 

'FuiBUW,  H  cfai'Hp  iL-i  coti'i  ^rod 
am,  and    tiiakm  \v*%  tlcniand 
-  -■  -r*.       \U 
■\  with 
liC   tlie 
!';-irc  to 
n£   tho 
'inking  ; 

i    EllMC'b 

iiiirm  tbcre 


rftarxe  ^^- '  -'■      '  ■ 
a  boy. 
betu  mi  - 
taste  in  cuOF< 
of  Uir-  h'Mid 

nfi««  ««•  that  td  ft 

£jab^^ 

■  «tmcoL 

flnirToyft  of  y 

^ 

Iv 

!■■■ 

<a  lb  Uk  MB- 

hjuX  bora  ca». 
UKtIlkvlklV, 

'n«l. 


llji-    n.nmu^   i:-   uurtui-i   rmi    i' 

!  rxuany,  •bm 

UK  rad  In4. 
li .  -.)  cmad  M  <o 

b«  doiecievi  only  Liy  tbc  laaat  drtlf  U*  talft. 


OBrrTABY  K0TE8. 

Dtt.  0.  Jt  >'ii«,  fomcHy  p» 

feflKr  at  (In  .J  amfV  ncrAOrM 

nrrlia,  baa  Ulcly  Oicti,  tn  U*   altty^ktk 

year. 

pRor.  Er:  3" 

pon  phair  of  '  ;> 

J 

J*.  5r 

br{£ao  the  1  ^ 

CfniTiIrr  !n   ■''  %• 


!^ 


OUULfiltUtJuliA  Ui 


,1,  d  r'.-<« 


ft  third,  uf  a  laaii 


INDEX 


VAOB 

Aekemum,  Albert  A.    Arctic  loe  aad  its  Navigation. 677 

Agnofitic,  The  Position  of  tb«.    R.  Matb«WB.    Cor 369 

AgDOsticiauQ.    Henry  Waco 64 

AgDOsddsm:  A  Rejoinder.    T.  0.  Unxlor. •• 4.4.»  168 

AgDosticiBm  and  Christiamtj.    T.  H.  Ilaxlej.^.....,.,^* .•»«.».•«..•  44lt^ 

AgDofitici&m,  Ohristiauity  and.     H.  Woce ,.,, ....» 891 

Afcnoaticiffm.  OowardJy.    A  Word  with  Prof.  Ouiley,    W.  H.  Hallock 235? 

Agricultural  Haxima.    Pop.  Mieo 43T 

AJmy,  A«  H.     Growth  of  the  Beet-Sugar  Industry *•«•->*•>>••• 8A 

"  The  Prodnction  of  Boot-Sugar 109 

Ani«rio«n  Association.    Tho  Toronto  Meeting  of  thti.    Editor's  Table 8f4 

Animal  Altruism.     A.  P.  llndson.    Oor ,«.. 

Animal  Life  in  the  Gulf  Stream.    R.  S.  Tarr 

Anthropology  at  Washington.     J.  U.  Gore 786 

Antisoptica,  lofluonce  of^  on  Food?.    Pop.  Hiso. 143 

Apparatna,  Home-made.    J.  F.  Woodhoh , .,.•., fil9 

Arohitectare.    Pop.  Miso ..•..• 869 

Arrtio  Ice  and  its  Narigation.    A.  A.  Ackerman ^»^*..... ...  677 

A«pbalt  and  Petroleum  in  Venezuela,    Pop.  Miso •■•..•• ••  143 

Astronomy,  Fabuloos.    J.  C.  Honieati 194 

Atmoapherio  Tides.    Pop,  Miso. ...  714 


Bailey,  JoebaaF.    Is  Chrifltian  Boionce  a  "Craze "7 316 

Barnard,  President,  The  Work  of.    Editor's  Table 411 

Bflttak-Land,  Flirtation  in.     Pop.  Miac 714 

Boei-Sugar  Imlngtry.  Growth  of  the.     A.  U.  Almy , 

lieet-Sugar.  The  Production  of.     A.  H.  Aliny 199' 

Berkeley,  the  Rev.  U,  J.»  Death  ot    Pop.  Misc. . .  856 

Bernhardt,  W.    The  Chemist  as  a  Conslrnctor 801 

Blackfeetf  The  8un-Danoo  of  the.    Pop.  Misc 669 

BIood-VengesQoe  and  Pardon  in  Albania.    J.  Okie 031 

Books  noticed : 

Abbott,  Oharle*  C.     Days  onl  of  Doors 706 

Allen,  .Mfred  H.     Commoroial  Organic  Analysis,  Vol.  Ill,  Part  I. 849 

American  Society  for  Psyobioal  Research.    Proceedtnga  Xo.  4. 710 

Aageratein,  £.,  and  O.  £oUer.    Home  Gymnaetica  for  the  Well  and  the 

Siok. 707 

Archer,  T.  A.     The  Cmsade  of  Richaril  1 665 

Argentine  Republic.    Observations  of  llio  National  Arconlino  Observa- 
tory   ,  ....  709 


866 


lyDSx. 


Books  noticed : 

ArkaDSAA.    AdqqaI  Keport  of  tbe  Geologioal  8Tirr«7  fof  1988. 

AusU'ti,  PetcT  T.    Chetniool  Loctur«  Koteo , , , 

Barker,  T.  Barwick  LI.     Wi' -  -nue. , , . . 

Barrows,  Wulter  B.    Tbe  K;  rtow  in  Kortb  America 


Trti 
?6l 


I 


Bdrtlutt^  Jobu  R.,  and  otbers.    I'lans  for  fornULlo^  ad  Atoodani  bap- 
ply  of  Wat«r  to  the  City  of  New  Yori  jQg 

Baaiin,  Edaon  S.    College  Botany ....«,•  tOI 

Benutittf  Alfred  W.,  and  G«or;ge  ^arr&y.     -d  iianijU(^uK   oi  Crjpto* 

gamic  Botany fiCS 

Bert,  Pan!.     Primer  of  Scientific:  Knowlcd^fi; ,..-...,  Mi 

Blnetf  AlfVed.    Tbe  Payoblo  Life  of  Mtcro-OrifaniftmB  1IB 

Boooe,  Ricbard  G.    Education  io  tbe  Uuited  States.. .  yi\ 

Bowditch,  H.  P.     IlintA  for  Teochera  of  Phyuology. . .  *20 

BoylstoQ,  Peter.    John  Char&xes -^4 

Bray,  Charles.    The  Philosophy  of  Keooasi^. .   -^  iT 

Browniuip,  Osoar.     Aspects  of  EdQCntion . .    i.j 

Brace,  Philip  A.    Tbe  Plan'  ro  a*"  a  Freemai'  . . .  af7¥ 

Bryce,  Jainea.    Tbe  Americ  i    >  nwcalth ...  ,...41S 

Bnck,  J.  D.    A  Study  of  Han,  and  the  VTay  to  iicoltii M 

BuUor,  Sir  Walter  L.    A  Otas^ified  List  of  Ur.  S.  VilUaxa  fiUw^iODl* 

leotioQ  of  New  Zealand  Birdu , ,»  111 

Bunoe,  Oliver  Bell.    The  Story  of  Happinoland«<  ...  41ft 

Burroughs,  John.     Indoor  Studies . .  701 

Burt,  Stvphon  Smith.    Explorotiun  of  tbe  Chett  in  £i«aJU>  and  iJiMani..  .TTM) 

Bntler,  A.  O.     What  Moseti  saw  and  beard. 

Carpenter.  WUliam  B.    Nature  and  Man :  EM«yi  6d«Dtifle  and  PhUo- 

aophical 

Canin^ton,  Henry  B.     The  Patriotio  Reado: 
Coma,  Paul     Fundtttnental  Problems 

Cose,  Thcxmas.     Pbysieol  KeuUsm 

Collar,  William  0.     Practical  Latin  Oomi»o«ition 

Conklin,  Benjamin  T.     English  Grammar  and  CoQipo«l»l*^'r' 

Cramps  Standard  American  Atlas  of  the  World 

OroU,  James.     Stellar  Evolution  and  its  Rtli." 
Darling,  Charles  W,    Historical  Notes  cawa 
Davis,  Eben  H.    Tbe  Beginner's  Read- 
DawsoD,  George  M.      Keport  on  an   i    ^ 

triot,  etc 

Dexter,  Seymour.    A  Ttm^m  on  0<H)p«ratiT«  dsriagi  Md  IjMai 

oialions , ..,,.••• 

Donnell,  E.  J.    Outlines  of  a  New  Soienoc 

Doty,  Alvab  II.     A  Manual  uf  lu&tractiou  in  the  PHtif*ipl««  of  PmnipC 

Aid  to  the  Injured 

Dunham,  0.  M.    The  American  Workman., 
Dyer,  T.  F.  Thiselton,    The  Folk-Lore  of  Plants. 

EUwangor,  George  U.    The  Garden'^  Story 

Fiske,  John.    Tbe  Oriticol  Period  of  Am«ricaa  L  .8 

Fl^:  '  "Med  E.     I?i  I  ' <  i^lopAdia  or  Lauculji/n iiK 

G(i  le.     Xslii  > »   ....  .*4 

Garu«u^  James  U.    Elene,  JuUiiii,  AUi^IsUd,  aii4  Byrbtiiot 


Ic. 


to  the  Yokoa  Db- 


U 
TOT 
TW 

til 
41t 

tm 

AM 

SM 
M 


Ktrr 


INDEX.        ^^^^^^p        g67 

)ks  ootlfied :  paqh 

OlbMD,  B.  J.  Qarroy.    Eleroentiiry  Biology 418 

OUmaiii  Nichohu  P.    Protit-Sboriiig  between  Emplojer  and  Employ^. . .  416 
GooOe,  George  Brown,    The  Fiaheries  ond  Fishery  Indwstrtes  of  Ui« 

United  Stattit) , 000 

GoaM,  EUlmuDd.    A  History  of  Eightuenth  Century  UteruLure...^.*.*.,  BOij 

Gritat)?,  J.  Staoley.     Geooomy  and  CosmoDomia 80S 

Gridwold,  W.  M.     Eighth  Annual  Index  to  PeriodicoU. ...... w.. .«...  864 

Groamnan,  Louis*    Somo  Chapters  on  Jodaism  and  the  Bcienoe  of  R^ 

ligion....    417 

DftrTBrtl  Collet  Obsorvatory.     Annals  No.  V-VO,  Vol.  XVIU.    Part 

I,  Vol.  XX * 709 

tlajmrd,  Rowland  G.    Oompleto  Works. ....... .twi*. «....**.. »   ...  416 

Howard,  George  E.    An  Introdaotion  to  the  Local  Oonstitatlooal  His- 
tory of  Uie  United  StAtos w  .  66S 

Ivos,  Frederic  E.     A  New  Principle  in  lleliocliromy S81 

Jucobi)  Mary  Pntniim.     PhysioJugiool  Not««  on  Primary  Ednostton  and 

the  Study  of  Umgoaga fi65 

JuknMtoQ,  11.  H.     H'mtory  of  a  Slave .*.«.» 858 

Jourual  of  Morphology,  The.     Vol.  IT,  No.  B..............^..^......  651 

Klein,  n«>nDaiin  J.    A  Star  Atlas 184 

LelTmann,  Henry.    Examination  of  Water  for  Sanitary  and  TooUnlcal 

Purposes 709 

Letchwortb,  WiUiiuu  P.    The  Insane  in  Foreign  Coontrics. . . . , « •  SOO 

Loewy,  Beiijuinin.     Omdunlwl  OourRe  of  Nfttnral  Sdenoe ,,.•,•*  858 

IfocDouulil,  I>.     Oceania  :  Linguldtio  and  Anthropologica] 854 

McLean,  John.    The  Indians 417 

Mohafly,  Jobo  P.,  and  John  H.  Bernard.    Kant's  Eritik  of  the  Pore 

Reason  explained  and  defended * 704 

Mune,  Henry  Sumner.    International  Lav.... «• • •  129 

Malone,  J.  B.    The  Self:  What  is  it? ...*-,»..-.  Ml 

Mantegazza,  Pnoto.    Teata ,, 18S  (| 

Massacbu}i^>tU  Society  for  promoting  Good  Oitixenship.    Works  on  Ctyfl 

Government 430 

Mayo,  A.  D.    InduHtrial  Education  in  the  South.. .  190 

Merriam,  Florence  A.    Birds  through  on  Opera-Glssn TOS 

Merriaro,  George  8.     The  Story  of  William  and  Lucy  Smith.  ...,.,,,••  M7 
Mills,  Charlett  Do  B.     The  Troo  of  Mythology,  its  Growili  and  Fruitage.  663 

Mixter,  William  G.     An  Elementary  Text- Book  of  Chemistry  277 

Modern  Science  Essayiet,  The 708 

Montgomery,  D,  H.    The  Leading  Facta  of  French  History. .    ,      _       . .  666 

Mo99,  OHcar  B.     Beauty,  HeiUtb,  and  Strength  for  every  Woman. 180 

National  Ednestion  Association.      Proceedings  of  the  Department  of 

Saperintendence tfO 

New  Jersey,  Geological  Survey  of.    Final  Report  of  the  State  Geologist 

Vol.1 880 

New  York.    Forty-first  Report  on  the  State  Masonra  of  Natural  TTititory.  183 
Thirty-fifth  Aunoal  Report  of  the  S5tate  Superintendent  ol 

Pablic  Instraction,  1889...*. 707 

Twenty- second  Annual   Report  of  tba  State  Board  of 
Charidee,  19S8 705 


868 


TKDEX. 


\'A 

in 
■  It 


Books  Doticeil : 

Nowell,  JttJio  n. 

NormAD,  Tjicia.     i 

O'Brine,  DiiTid.     A  Ukboratorv  Guide  in  Chemical  Aiui^fia. . 

O'  K«ll,  Mux.    Junatliftn  aud  bis  CoutiuoaU 

Oftw&ld,  Felii  L.    Days  and  KlichU  In  tho  Tropics. . . , 
Packard,  A.  8.    The  CaTC  Fauna  of  North  ArooricA. . 

Parker,  Franola  W.     How  to  Study  Goography 

PerriDf  B.     Homer**  Odj»sej AM 

Plott,  James.     BtisineM. - ,,  tB 

Proyer,  W.    The  Mind  of  the  Child.    Port  II,  The  Derdopmcnl  of  xht 

Intullcot iU 

Rane,  G.  C.    Pajebologj'  as  a  Natural  Science  applied  to  tbe  SolotSoe  of 

Occult  Psvchic  PhenometiA , 

Bogem,  Jamufi  £.  Thorold.     Thu  Ecunoralc  iDtcrprctAtioD  of  ^itharj. . . . 
Romanes,  Qeorge  John.    Uentel  Erolution  la  Man :  Origin  of  Untaai 

Fiwulty m 

Sawyer,  Leioeater  A.    Intiudaclion  lo  Sawjtir*»  BiUi*  . . ,  T^IV 

8eniM*nig,  David  }L    Nnmberv  Coivertalifod .  «*J 

Smithf  Chorloa  Loo.    A  HiRtory  of  KdnAAtlon  In  North  Cnrolhia.  i  ti 

Smith,  O.  J.     Is  all  Well  with  n«  ? A0« 

Smithsonian  Inntitafion.      Annual   Report  of  tlie  Boaul  of  B^ySOU 

for  1886 

Smithaonian  Institution.    Six  Species  of  North  Amerioaa  Hsliee 

Smock,  John  C.    On  tho  Iron  ITlnea  and  Iron-Ore  Di«triota  In  thr  Stat* 

of  New  York. 

Sn  jdcr,  WiUiara  L.    The  Geography  of  Marriagv . 

Society  for  Political  Education.    Electoral  Reform— iUi  Lii^uur  <^ 

io  Politico 

Stephona,  C.  A.    Liring  Matter .<>........ 

Stetefoldt,  Carl  A.    Tho  UxiriatioQ  of  Sih..r^nr.»  wJtli  nTfM*BTi.),H« 

Solutions 

Stock,  St.  George.    DednoUfft  Lngfo.. 

Strausa,  Charles  T.    Spelin 

Taylor,  J.  E.    The  Playtime  Natoralisl 

Tlionip*on,  Daniel  Greetileaf.    Social  Progre«a:  an  EiMy. 

ThoinaoD,  ftip  Williani.    Popolar  Lecture*  and  AddmMs.    VoL  f,  Oott- 

stitution  of  Matter , , 

Todd,  W.  G.,  Editor,    Tho  Tc«cber>  Ontlook. 

Tuttle^  Hudson.     Studies  in  the  Outlying  Ptelib  of  PHToUe  Sdtucu 

Two  Griwt  RAtr4vat0  of  HiaU»ry.  Tlie .  • 

United  ^  -  -ao  of  EducAtion.    Contrtbniiocui  to  Amerioaa  Edoc«- 

tin II  V.     Nu«,  4,  5,  6,  and  7, ,...,,. 

United  Sutea  Geological  Survey.     Bulli'tinfi  Niia.  4/»  to  47 419 

'*  '»  Sircxith  Annual  Repnrt,  188A-"';''-        *ifi 

United  SUtea  War  DejMirtioent    Report  of  tho  Ohlol  Slsnal-Or 

1887,     Part  IT i 

UnitftdStM4'«WttrDepartn)enl.  Report  of  tin  * 

V'<  \.N.    Pages  rhr>t<d«  d<«  ll4aMir«*  du  I>«it  d«  v^  -4 

^1  vdRiwwsi.     DorwtolMB.,.., '' 

Wataou,  John.    Th«  rhlloao(>hy  of  Kinl*. . 


548 

083 
510 

laa 

41B 

l34 

srr 

1S9 

*1S 

T 
ui4 


Ma 


nSoolcs  noticed :  vAoa 

,         Wt^U*.  Uenjamin  W.    Sohiiler'n  Jangfraa  von  Orloftiu. 5W 

W'eiitworth,  O.  A^  and  others.    Algebraic  Analyau. 56S 

White,  Horatio  Stevens.    Lessing:  Aasgetraltc  Prosa  and  Briefer. 134 

Wright,  G.  Frcdericlc.    The  Ice  Age  in  North  AmeH<^&  and  H^  Bearing 

upon  the  Antiquity  of  Man ,,  M7 

'         Wrigbt,  Julia  McNair.     Sesfiide  and  Wa^ aide.  No.  3 420 

WjFindD,  Uiil  C.    The  Training  of  KorMa 420 

Botanical  Garden*.    Fr.  Hoffmann I(i5 

Branoer,  John  0.    The  OonTict-Islond  of  Brazil — Fernando  dc  Noronhu. ...     S3 

Bn»id  of  Water-Llly  Seeds.    Pop.  Misc ..►»*., IftT 

Bronze  Age  in  Sweden,  The.     W.  II.  Lorrahee ■■•.•p«*««^««««a«.*««  Tfm 

Brooks,  W.  K.     Tlie  Artificial  Propapation  of  Sea-Fishea •  * . . « 4  .»«•««   •••.  tBlfl 

nnmo'»  Stutnc  at  Rome.     Editor*8  Table S5M 

Buddha.  Ttie  Hrooze,  of  Nara.    Pop.  Miso &TS 

Burt,  Stephen  8.    Some  of  the  Liuiitationa  of  Mediome 39ft 

Batter,  Italian.    Pop.  Miao 674 

[Cameroonn,  Life  at  the.    R.  Mailer 748 

[CbaTACter,  Huiuan,  A  Problem  in.    Pop.  Xliso* ».«4.ft.*«»ki 869  ' 

[Charity,  Judicious-     Pop.  Miso 4£9 

[••Charity,  ^ionlific."    A.  G.  Warner. . .  4$8 

iGhamloal  Bibliogrraphies.    Pop.  Miso 189 

Khemlat,  The,  at*  a  Conatmctor.     W.  Bernhardt BOl 

pDhina,  Farui-Ufe  in.    A.  M.  Fielde B38 

ICl>inook  Language  or  Jargon,  The.    E.  H.  NiooU.  ...,••.»  ^ 267 

Christian  Soienoo,  Is,  a  "Craze"?    J.  F.  Bailey SIS 

I**  Christian  Sdonoe,^'  ^'Koreahan  Science,"  cto.    R.  O.  Spear,  F.  A.  Fornald, 

I        0.  W.Leigh.    Cor. 269 

h^iristiaD  Science,"  The  dtdmn  ot    Edltor*8  Table 270 

^Budafl,  Rudolf,  Sketch  of 117 

fCodch  of  Civilization,  The.    Editor's  Table 7W) 

[CoDTicUUlond  of  brazil,  The — Fernando  de  Noronba.    J.  0.  Branner 88 

[Corwta  and  Waisi-BelU.  The  Philosophy  of.    Pop.  Uisc 188 

[Count,  Do  Cattle  I    S.  M.  B,  Staplin.    C<^r 409 

[criticism,  An  Uncandid.    Editor'a  Table ....*..  186 

K*  Darwinism,"  Mr.  Wallace  on.    Editor's  Table .  698 

[pevil-Tlieory,  Dr.  Abbott's  Dofenso  of  the.     Editor's  Table , 273 

llHaboIiam  and  Hysteria.     A,  I>.  White 1.  146 

[Digestion  and  Related  Fanctions.    W.  Mills 706 

Direction,  Sense  of,  In  Ants.    E.  F.  Lyford,    Oar 128 

U>i9corery  by  Obserrattoo.    Pop.  Misc ••..•.•••••• 141 

fVogj  A  Cbnroh-going.    Pop.  Misc. .  427 

[Earthworm,  A  Giant    Pop.  Misc. ^-'O 

Kiuit  Indies,  Dutch,  A  Comer  of  the.    G.  Longen G85 

Economio  Changes,  Recent.    D.  A.  Wells ..« « «  684 

te<!ncfttioD  in  Ancit^nt  Egypt    F.  (X  H-  Weodel 774  - 

Kggs  In  Chemistry  and  Commerce.    P.  L.  Simmondf t8* 

taectrioal  Wayfifc    8.  Sheldon, * 509 


$70 


IKDEX, 


rn  of.     Pop.  JJlW 


l., 


.^.  Kxner. 
Pop.  Uiso. . 


Eftkuuciis,  Art  and  Fun  ol  the. 

Ktohing  on  6Um.    Pop.  MUo 

EvADH,  T.  Joboeton.    Tfa«  Hom«  of  tho  F«rnt 

Kvohition  u  teD^ht  in  a  Theological  SeminvT'.    fUtOo  Opl««i 

Exner,  8,    Origin  of  aome  General  Errors , 

ExjiressioD  in  Infants,     Pop.  Misc , 

£]re.9i^Ut,  Mod*!rn  Deterioration  of.     Pop.  Mi*c 


Falke,  J.  von.    Tito  HiHtorj  of  the  Fork 

Famines  and  Irrigation  in  lodia.    Pop.  IDm. 

Fernold,  Frederik  A,     ''  Christian  Soicoc«f '^  "  Koraditt  SdMnor,**  '^^ 

Ferns,  Tlie  Home  of  the.     T.  J.  Er&na 

Fiolde^  Adeh)  31.    Farm-Life  in  China -...-. 

Fire-proof  Houses  in  Buwnos  Ayreo.     Pop.  Misc. *..*.. 

Fire-proof,  What  ibf    Pop.  Miao 

Firea,  Incendiary,  Monthly  DiAlribntioa  of.    Pop.  lOifi.. 

Fiiihing  in  the  Greek  IManda.     Pop.  Miac, 

Flowere.  EconomicaJ  ^Be»  of.    Pop.  IGbc, 

Forest  Growths,  Origin  of  New.    Pop.  Miitc.. ...........  r...  • 

Forestry  in  Spain.     Pop.  Misc. 

ForeMry  in  the  Oafw  t'nlnny.     Pop.  Miao. 

Fork,  Tbe  History  of  tho.    J.  von  Falke. . 

FuoerAls,  AJpine.    Pop.  Misc.... *. 

Fungi    T.  II.  McBride 

Geology,  Some  Modam  Aspects  of.     G.  H.  Willi:; 
OUcier,  The,  of  Mount  TuoouuL    Pop.  Miic.. . . 
Glaoiora  on  tbe  Pacific  Coast.    G.  F.  Wrijrbt.. . 

Ghuiiers,  Tho  Cnnarlian  Lakes  and  the.     Pop.  Mbc 

Glaoiers.  Th^  Selkirk  Moontains  and  thctr.     Pop.  Misr. .  . 
6bu>-Btowing  by  Majchinery.    Pop.  Miaa. 

GU«»*Mak1ng.    C.  B.  Henderson 

ODAW«ra,  The,  of  tho  Selkirk  Mountains.    Pop.  Mi»c. 

Gobi,  Tho  Desert  ot,  and  tbe  Himal«graa.     F.  £.  Yoiuigtjiiiit>&Da . 

Goldie,  Jotm.     Pop.  Miso. ■ 

Gore.  .1.  ilownrd.     Antliropology  at  WaahlogtOQ. . . . 
Gorilla,  A  Tame.     Pop.  Mibc 

llammocks,  TaoatAO*    Pop.  MK-. 

"  Heaps  of  Joy,"  The,  of  vSaint-Pilon.    Pop,  Miao - 

Hdbderaon,  0.  Hanford.    The  History  of  a  Picture  triniJoA 
"  Tbe  Spirit  of  Maonal  Trulnlug. . 

Hofnoann,  Friedricb.     Botanical  Gardens 

Household  Prodocta,  Museuiu!*  of.    R,  Vlrchow 

Tlonzcaii,  J.  0.    Fabalons  A»troQODny 

nndsou,  A.  8.    Animal  AltmUm.     Oor. 

Hnxlvy,  Thomaa  Henry.    AgnoKticiam  :  a  R«joindtr 


TflT. 


:S7, 


au 

TU 
iM 
814 

m 

TIT 

an 

Ml 
Bt4 
823 

fin 

Til 

an 
•w 

<^i 
xw 
sn 
asi 
ns 

m 

4« 
M 

n 

;u 
:^ 

■i^ 

>T 
r» 

i< 
r4 
:c4 
.IT 
\H 

ft 


IXDEX. 


871 


faz]«7  «nd  pMt«ur  on  the  PreFention  of  TTydrophobia , 6etj 

Huxley,  Prof.  An  Explanation  to.     W.  C.  Mcftot* 3^ 

IljUrophobia,  Haxle/  and  Pastear  oa  the  Prcrentlon  ot  063 

Iilentification  by  Thumb-Marfca.    Pop,  Mine.  .  42S 

India-Rnbbcr,  American.    Pop.  Miao. 140 

Inebriate  AayluniB  and  ttieir  Work.    Pop.  Miao « . .  803 

Insane,  Criminal  licsponsibility  of  tbe.     Pop.  Misc.,.* , 4S5 

Insensibility,  The  AUvautagee  of.     Pop.  Mi^it- 6V0 

InteUeotnal  Inte^ity.    Editor's  Table. .  .  124 


J*paD«0»  Uagio  Mirrora. 
Johnstown  DUaster,  The. 


G.  O.  Rogera.    Cor. 
Editor's  Table..  .. 


Kinship  in  Polyneaio.     0.  N.  Staroke ,«.»., 802 

Kiicben-Gurdou,  The  Gtrra.    Pop.  lilac 713 

Laboratory,  Dangera  of  the.    Pop.  Miao .  42fl 

Lftkea,  Diatribution  of,  on  the  Globe.    Pop.  Miao .  427 

Lakes,  The  Canadian,  and  the  Glaciers.     Pop.  Miito.   •«.  422 

Larrabee,  Willittiu  U.    The  Bronxe  Age  in  Sirwlen 778 

**  The  Stone  Age  in  Heathen  Sweden  rii>4 

"  The  Surface  Tension  of  Liqolda 6Ul 

Lon^ton,  G.    A  Corner  of  the  Dutch  Eoat  Indies..,.,.,,,,, •r«««.*«..vr..  ^^ 

Lavoisier,  AntoiDo  Laurent,  Sketch  of. « 54J9 

Loud-Poisoning.     Pop.  Miao ,  ♦ 424 

Le  Bon,  Gustave.    Tlie  Jufiuenee  of  Race  in  History 

Leigh,  0.  W,     "Cliriatian  Science,"  **Koroehun  Science,*' etc.    Cor..    .... 

Le  Soeor,  W.  D.    Mr,  MaUock  on  Optimiem 

Lewla,  Henry  CarriUi  Sketch  of . 

Liberty,  CivH,  What  ia?    W.G.Sumner... 

Life,  The  Art  of  prolonging.    R.  Rooae. .... 

life,  The  Interdependence  of.    Pop.  Miao...  ...,.,....•.... 

Liitbtning,  An  Ami-,  Ooge.    Pop.  Miao .-,.•••. 8( 

Liunwus,  Carolua,  Sketch  of. SftA' 

Liqnida,  The  Surface  Teosion  of.     W.  B.  Larrabee.. . .  .  691 

Lorering,  Joseph,  Sketch  of. 090 

Lyford,  Edwin  F.    Senao  of  Direction  in  Anta,    Cor. »«•••••»•«•••.  128 


Mo  Anally,  D.  R.    Indnstrial  Family  Names ^ . . , 

McBridet,  T.  H.    Fungi:  L  Toadstoola  and  Ma9hroomt.4.fci«4..  1^7 

**  "       n.  Mloroacoplo  Forma , 850 

UcGoe,  W.  0.    An  Explanation  to  Prof«  Huxle}'. ........  w...« 8-10 

Mnllock,  W.  H,     "Cowardly  Acmosticism."    A  Won!  with  Prof.  Huxley.. 

Manual  Training,  Mcntnl  Growth  from.    Editor'a  Table , 5t 

Manual  Training,  The  Spirit  of.    0.  H.  Henderson 

Mara,  The  Strange  Markings  on.    G.  P.  Serrias , 41 

Mathews  Robert    Tbe  Position  of  the  Agnostic^    Oor..«. 269 

Me'liclnea,  Old  aod  Vew  Fashioned  Ideas  in.    Pop.  Miac.    13it^, 

Medicine,  Some  of  the  Limttationa  of.    S.  S.  Burt 3J 


[ 

^Zj^^^^^^^^^rWDE^^^^^^^^^ 

H 

1 

MmuI  Poweri  of  Orimiiuk.    Pop.]IlKL ^^H 

&7» 

H 

M«xicao  Port«nL    Pop.  lOse. 

Tia 

1 

M"    "     ''afmAkenlii.    A.  B.  Tweedy ......,,..,....,. 

>                  0  Tfaorne.    A  9tod;  from  tiSa 

1 

UiiU,  Uettlej.    liigaKtion  lod  BoUted  PoiMTtWicii 

;^ 

M  n'!,  Mnsolc  ftod.    F.  E.  White. 

eTl 

Th«  Value  of  WUaeBe  «o  Um.    T.  IL  Hnlej 

H 

<  riea^oreot    P.  Sooiieoa 

^H 

^M 

r.  A,    Awnkeniug  Tliooglit.    Ooc..  ••«•...«•..««••.••»•••. 

^^^M 

■ 

dsiuicr,  Bobert.    life  at  the  Cameroa&i. ••«......>..•,«,«, 

.-  - . .  71^^ 

1 

Kamee.  Indoatrial  Family.    D.  B.  3tcAnflIlx 

:^18  1 

^H 

KftTSJo  TaoncT,  A.    Pop,  Mi»c 

hU  h 

H 

Nicon,  Edward  Uonand.    Tho  Qiioook  Language  or  Jargon. . . 

Sl 

H 

MloFIooda,  Proposed  Storago  ol    Popi.  lOao. 

■  •        "^1 

H 

Ifirtea 143,  887,  4»l,  6T«, 

718,  anl 

1 

OMtnairNotM 14«.  288,  «»,  G76,  TSO.  W4  | 

H 

Ogdcn»  BoHo.    EvohitloD  aa  tan;             T'-..  .T,,,^.  -,]  Semiaary. 

"H 

H 

Okie,  J.    Blood-Vengeance  and  ]  .   i   :- 

■■2t 

H 

Optimisnif  Mr,  MiUJock  on.    W.  I>.  L«  baew.. . 

■    1 

H 

OrchUU.     Pop.  M be 

UJ 

H 

Oawald,  Felix  L.    The  Waates  of  Mt>drm  CirilUatton 

514.  iSl 

1 

Otter  at  Home.  The,    Poo.  lilac 

Ojster  Gardoo,  Tbo,  of  Arcacbon.    Pop.  Iftsc - 

1 

Page,  John,    flava^  Life  In  Booth  Amorioa 

4« 

HI 

Pnrkis  A  P;                   w  of.     Pop.  Miac 

34 

H 

Partridge,  i                nist  Storj  of  the.    Pop.  Uiw 

:il 

HI 

Pasteur,  HuxJej  and^  on  Uio  Preventiom  of  Ilydrophobia. 

...  Ml 

H 

PenaioDB  for  All.     M.  M.  Trnmbull 

..  m 

H 

Phrenoloffy,  The  Old  and  the  New.    M.  A.  Starr. . . . 

...  TM 

H 

Pliilpott,  lleury  J.     Orlffiti  of  Uio  Right*  of  Ptoperlv 

•Ta 

H 

Plctiirt*- Window,  The  History  of  a.    0.  H.  Henderwi^ 

11 

H 

PilKrim,  Churlw  W.     A  Stady  of  Suicide 

..  M 

H 

Planta,  The  Dofenalre  Armor  of.     fl.  do  Varign> 

.    ntt 

H 

Piny  Towam  ?  Do  Bqnirrcla.    Pop.  Mhw 

n 

HI 

'»  Playing  'PosBum."    H.  L.  Roberta.    Oor. . . .  . 

'iSf 

H 

Polaon,  Arrow.    Pop.  Miao 

^n 

HI 

Prc3tTrin^»  TimlK!r  from  Moistnre.     Pop.  Mlae 

H 

H 

Pn'pftfcntion,  The  Artificial,  of  Soa-Flahe*.     W,  K.  Brook* 

v» 

H 

T4 

H 

Protection,  The  Etliical  View  of.    H.  Smith 

;4 

H 

PsyobolfjffioiU  laboratory,  Wundt*a,  Stodioa  at    Pop.  Mtaft,. . . 

\ 

H 

Publioatiooa  roccired. 13«,  S»,  4»i,  yo*, 

i  »^^  M 

1 

Race,  Tho  Tafliioooo  of,  in  nialory,     u.  Lo  boii 

m 

Hy 

RaUwa.v  MnlddjuPitnjeiita.     B.  Reece 

It 

Rattlt-                   n,  Whisky  no  AntfdoU  for.    Pup.  MWa.... 

■  i 

Reera,                       lUilway  MaladjuaUncot* 

'T 

[ 

itoberla,  U.  L.    "  PUyJng 'Poeinm."    Oor 

^ 

INDEX. 


fi,e^ft^  O.  O.    Jftpaneae  Magic  Mirrors,    Cr>r .,....,....». 13^ 

Boom,  RobsoD.    The  Art  of  prolooglDg  lifo. .  759 

Sill;  A  Country  of.     Pop.  Mi»c SW 

SaoIUry  Soienoo  and  Cbildron^B  netiltb.    IPop.  Mibt,  .                                      ,  140 

Soboolflf  Kvtiuing  Coutinuatiou.    Pop.  Mlbo. .  2^7 

Bchoola,  Practical  Mid  Moral  Instraction  in.    Pop.  Misc 7U 

Sciooce,  BeK'inninga  in,  at  Mugby  School     J.  E.  Taylor 60 

Pcionoe-Toaching  in  Schools.     Pop.  Miao. .  668 

Science,  The  Domain  of.     Editor'ii  Tkblo 843 

Bdllf  UlandH,  The.     Pop.  Miso. *.,•.,„,.,.., 188 

Untterflica.     Carl  Vogt 818 

f. Poisoning  by  Snake*.    A.  J.  'WiUinmB.    Oor.  .                                  128 

Bervifts,  Oarrett  P.    T!io  Strange  Markings  on  Mart* 41 

Shftldon,  Samuel.     Electrical  Waves , .        ,  fiofl 

8Sgn-Talk  in  Now  GnincA.     Pop.  Misc .  578 

fllmmonds,  P.  L.    Eggs  in  ChuuUatry  and  Oommeroe. ...  ftd 

81o<«p,  Getting  to.    Pop.  Miac 424 

Smith,  Kcnitington.     Tho  Ethical  View  of  ProleoUun 836 

Snakes,  Siiperstirtons  nbont,     Pnp.  Miw 436 

fiotomoQ  Islands,  Lifo  in  tlie.    0.  M.  Woodford   .  476 

SouriaoQ,  P.    Tlio  Pleaauro  of  Motion , .  824 

South  America,  Savage  Life  in.    J.  Pag« 543 

8pe«r,  R.  O.     **  Christian  Scienco,**  "  Koreahw  fidonoe,"  elo.     Cur 2*58 

Spider,  Water,  The  Neat  of  the.    Pop.  Mine 4S0 

Springs,  Onlifornift'a  Thermal.     Pop.  Miso »».,,,»,,,,.,,,,,.  712 

ttUplin,  Soaan  M.  B.    Do  Cattle  count  t    Oor. 409 

ike,  0.  N.    Kinship  in  Polyne«i8 Sl>2 

M.  Alien-    The  Old  and  the  New  Phrenology ,* Tun 

Stono  Age,  The,  in  Uealhen  Sweden.    W.  11.  Larrutjee....... r.M4 

Study  from  Life,  A.    O.  T.  Miller 577 

Suicide,  A  Study  of    0.  W.  Pilgrim ...» , 808 

Sumner,  William  Graham.    What  la  Civtl  Liberty  I 

Sketch  of '. 

Tut,  Kalph  S.    Animal  Life  in  the  Galf  Stream 

Taylor,  J.  E.     Beginnings  In  Science  at  Mugby  Sohonl. . .    .  ..•.,^, 

Tenk-Treo,  The.    Pop.  Misc ,,^ 141 

Telescopic  Objectives,  Poliahing.    Pop.  Misc., , 574 

Thought,  Awjikening.     A  Mother.     Cor. 4't9 

Thought,  The  Stimulation  of.    Editor*B  Table 410 

Toadstools  and  Mushrooma,    T.  H.  MoBride *, 187 

Tornadoes.     Pop.  Misc , 285 

Tranfiporttttion,  Methods  of.    Pop.  Misc. ••.••.4»».*« ,..*  711 

Treea,  Annual  Rings  of.    Pop.  Misc. , , , 480 

TrombuU.  M.  M.     Pensions  for  All 721 

TurtJei,  n»biU  of.    Pop.  Misc. 143 

Tv9ody,  Alice  B.    Mi^ichlef-makera  io  Milk.  .  -iw 


O^MMlty,  The  Fimction  of  a.    Pop.  Mlso 


H.'vC 


«74 


INDEX, 


TftrifttloD,  The  Valne  of  Haman.    Pop.  Mlac 

Vari^7,  Henry  tl«.    The  Dufotiuve  Armor  of  Plftnts. . .  - 
Virchuw,  Kodolf.    Mntfoama  of  iloiueljold  Product*. 

Vogt,  Oarl    St'a-Bulierflie« 

Volcanic  Action^  A  Theory  of.    Pop.  Misc. . . . 

Waoe,  llenry.     AjfnostidMW 

'^  Oiristianit^  and  Agncwttidfm 

Vwrfnre  of  Science,  New  Chopicre  in  tbe.     A,  D.  Wt)i(«. 

"'       rr,  A.  G.     "SoieutlfloObaritj" 

Jig  Men  and  Children  hj  Machinery.    Pop.  IUm.  .. 

Att^U'K,  Tht\  of  Moicrn  Ci^iliiation.    F.  I*.  Oswald* 

Weather  Indicfltora,  Hells  aa,     Pop.  Mi(*c, 

"Weil- Waters,  The  Animal  World  of.    0.  Zacbariaa 

WellB,  Darid  Atuos.     Kecont  Economio  Ciinn^ea 

Wendel,  F.  0.  U.     Edacatiim  in  Ancient  Epypt. . , .  - 

White,  Andrew  D.     DiaUoIiwn  and  Flysteria .•.,. 

Whit<!,  Francea  Emily.     Muscle  and  Mind 

WiJIiaius,  A.  J.    Self-PtUBfuiing  hy  Snakes.    Cor 

WiUianis,  George  11.    $omo  ModeiD  A»(»ectfl  of  Qeologj. 

Wines,  Roman.    Fop.  Miso «*.». 

Woo^lford,  0.  M.    Life  in  tbe  fiotonton  Isloodfl. 
Woodbull.  John  F.    Iloroe-infldo  Aiiparatoa. . . 

Wreck,  An  Estray.     Pop.  Mine. .  - 

Wright,  G,  Frtdidok-    Glacier*  on  iJiO  Podfle  CobjI,  . , . 


TollowatoDe  Park  Country,  The.    Pop.  Misc. 

Yoonghoaband,  F.  E.    The  Desert  of  Gobi  uad  tbo  niiuaUyi 

Zaoharids,  Otto.    The  Animal  World  of  Wt-U-Waten 


rii 

..      «17 
....  su 

...  027 
1»  14ft 
..  i»i 
..   717 

. ..   148 

..   8^1 

n64 

774 

1,  ]4« 

fl77 

ii» 

'40 

'^U 

...   47tt 

..  M» 

..  in 

...  16a 

^^ 

u 

...  261 


KTO  or  VOL.   XXXV, 


GL»CK 

SEP  1 4 1967 
NYPL